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> PhilosophyAndLogic
> MathematicsAndStatistics
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> Natural Sciences
> PhysicS
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> EarthSciences
> BiologY
> 	BotanY
> 	ZoologY
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> SOCIAL SCIENCES 
> PSYCHOLOGY 
> LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES 
> ANTHROPOLOGY 
> ARCHAEOLOGY 
> SOCIOLOGY 
> POLITICAL SCIENCE 
> GEOGRAPHY 
> ECONOMICS 
> HISTORY 
> HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 
> ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA 
> 
> APPLIED ARTS AND SCIENCES 
> HEALTH SCIENCES 
> THE LAW 
> PUBLIC AFFAIRS 
> EDUCATION 
> ENGINEERING 
> ARCHITECTURE 
>       URBAN PLANNING 
> TRANSPORTATION 
>       AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY 
> COMPUTERS 
> BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY 
> AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE 
> COMMUNICATION 
> LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE 
> FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES 
> 
> CULTURE 
> CLASSICS 
> CRITICAL THEORY 
> LITERATURE 
> VISUAL ARTS AND DESIGN 
>       PAINTING 
>       SCULPTURE 
> PERFORMING ARTS 
>       THEATER AND DRAMA 
>       DANCE 
>       MUSIC 
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> WikiPedia is a wide-open encyclopedia project.  Who knows where it will go?
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> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
> 
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PhilosophyAndLogic|979602227
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> 
> AristotlE
> PlatO
> EpicuruS
> ReneDescartes
> ImmanuelKant
> AynRand
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< LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES 
< ANTHROPOLOGY 
< ARCHAEOLOGY 
< SOCIOLOGY 
< POLITICAL SCIENCE 
< GEOGRAPHY 
< ECONOMICS 
< HISTORY 
< HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 
< ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA 
< 
< APPLIED ARTS AND SCIENCES 
< HEALTH SCIENCES 
< THE LAW 
< PUBLIC AFFAIRS 
< EDUCATION 
< ENGINEERING 
< ARCHITECTURE 
<       URBAN PLANNING 
< TRANSPORTATION 
<       AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY 
< COMPUTERS 
< BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY 
< AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE 
< COMMUNICATION 
< LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE 
< FAMILY AND CONSUMER SCIENCES 
< 
< CULTURE 
< CLASSICS 
< CRITICAL THEORY 
< LITERATURE 
< VISUAL ARTS AND DESIGN 
<       PAINTING 
<       SCULPTURE 
< PERFORMING ARTS 
<       THEATER AND DRAMA 
<       DANCE 
<       MUSIC 
<       FILM 
< RELIGION 
< RECREATION 
<       SPORTS 
<       GAMES 
<       HOBBIES 
<       TOURISM 
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> to work!
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>      Albania 
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>      Anguilla 
>      Antarctica 
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AfghanistaN|979671880
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> 
> Afghanistan
> 
>                                                    Introduction
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Background: Afghanistan was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
> supplied and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, but the fundamentalist Islamic
> Taliban movement has been able to seize most of the country. In addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffers from enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure,
> and widespread live mines. 
> 
>                                                    Geography
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 65 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Asia 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 652,000 sq km 
> land: 652,000 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 5,529 km 
> border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers 
> 
> Terrain: mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m 
> highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m 
> 
> Natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 12% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 46% 
> forests and woodland: 3% 
> other: 39% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 30,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials);
> desertification 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban 
> signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked 
> 
>                                                      People
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Population: 25,838,797 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 42.37% (male 5,598,403; female 5,371,054) 
> 15-64 years: 54.86% (male 7,362,961; female 6,839,914) 
> 65 years and over: 2.77% (male 378,741; female 337,724) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.54% (2000 est.) 
> note: this rate reflects the continued return of refugees from Iran 
> 
> Birth rate: 41.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 18.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 11.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.12 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 149.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 45.88 years 
> male: 46.62 years 
> female: 45.1 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 5.87 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Afghan(s) 
> adjective: Afghan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) 
> 
> Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% 
> 
> Languages: Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much
> bilingualism 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 31.5% 
> male: 47.2% 
> female: 15% (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                                    Government
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
> conventional short form: Afghanistan 
> local long form: Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan 
> local short form: Afghanestan 
> former: Republic of Afghanistan 
> 
> Data code: AF 
> 
> Government type: no functioning central government, administered by factions 
> 
> Capital: Kabul 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat,
> Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol 
> note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst 
> 
> Independence: 19 August 1919 (from UK control over Afghan foreign affairs) 
> 
> National holiday: Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August 
> 
> Constitution: none 
> 
> Legal system: a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) 
> 
> Suffrage: NA; previously males 15-50 years of age 
> 
> Executive branch: on 27 September 1996, the ruling members of the Afghan Government were displaced by members of the Islamic Taliban movement; the Islamic State
> of Afghanistan has no functioning government at this time, and the country remains divided among fighting factions 
> note: the Taliban have declared themselves the legitimate government of Afghanistan; however, the UN still recognizes the government of Burhanuddin RABBANI; the
> Organization of the Islamic Conference has left the Afghan seat vacant until the question of legitimacy can be resolved through negotiations among the warring factions; the
> country is essentially divided along ethnic lines; the Taliban controls the capital of Kabul and approximately two-thirds of the country including the predominately ethnic
> Pashtun areas in southern Afghanistan; opposing factions have their stronghold in the ethnically diverse north 
> 
> Legislative branch: non-functioning as of June 1993 
> 
> Judicial branch: non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) [Mohammed Asif MOHSENI]; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement)
> [Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI]; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party) [Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction]; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party) [Yunis KHALIS
> faction]; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Mohammad Akbar AKBARI]; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of
> Afghanistan) [Abdul Rasul SAYYAF]; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front) [Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI]; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami
> (National Islamic Front) [Sayed Ahamad GAILANI]; Taliban (Religious Students Movement) [Mohammad OMAR]; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan
> comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement) [Abdul Rashid DOSTAM]; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) [Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad
> Shah MASOOD]; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Abdul Karim KHALILI] 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
> NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
> represent traditional Pashtun leadership; Writers Union of Free Afghanistan or WUFA [A. Rasul AMIN] 
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC,
> IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> note: embassy operations suspended 21 August 1997 
> chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
> chancery: 2341 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 234-3770 
> FAX: [1] (202) 328-3516 
> consulate(s) general: New York 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like
> structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two
> crossed scimitars 
> note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag 
> 
>                                                     Economy
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Economy - overview: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations
> have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February
> 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 1999, 1.2
> million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor
> and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation
> remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. The
> economic situation did not improve in 1998-99, as internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are
> likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 1999, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $800 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 53% 
> industry: 28.5% 
> services: 18.5% (1990) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
> 
> Labor force: 8 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 68%, industry 16%, services 16% (1980 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 8% (1995 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $NA 
> expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA 
> 
> Industries: small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper 
> 
> Electricity - production: 430 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 41.86% 
> hydro: 58.14% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 510 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: opium poppies, wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton 
> 
> Exports: $80 million (does not include opium) (1996 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems 
> 
> Exports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic 
> 
> Imports: $150 million (1996 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and petroleum products; most consumer goods 
> 
> Imports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany 
> 
> Debt - external: $5.5 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN
> programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons 
> 
> Currency: 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls 
> 
> Exchange rates: afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019
> (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar
> until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 
> 
> Fiscal year: 21 March - 20 March 
> 
>                                                  Communications
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 31,200 (1983); note - there were 21,000 main lines in use in Kabul in 1998 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: very limited telephone and telegraph service; in 1997, telecommunications links were established between Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul
> through satellite and microwave systems 
> international: satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); commercial satellite telephone center in
> Ghazni 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7 (6 are inactive; the active station is in Kabul), FM 1, shortwave 1 (broadcasts in Pushtu, Dari, Urdu, and English) (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 167,000 (1999) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: at least 10 (one government run central television station in Kabul and regional stations in nine of the 30 provinces; the regional stations
> operate on a reduced schedule; also, in 1997, there was a station in Mazar-e Sharif reaching four northern Afghanistan provinces) (1998) 
> 
> Televisions: 100,000 (1999) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
>                                                   Transportation
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 24.6 km 
> broad gauge: 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1.524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on
> south bank of Amu Darya 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 21,000 km 
> paved: 2,793 km 
> unpaved: 18,207 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 1,200 km; chiefly Amu Darya, which handles vessels up to about 500 DWT 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products - Uzbekistan to Bagram and Turkmenistan to Shindand; natural gas 180 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kheyrabad, Shir Khan 
> 
> Airports: 46 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 14 
> over 3,047 m: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 32 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                                     Military
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Military branches: NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border
> Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 22 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 6,401,980 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 3,432,236 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 244,958 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
> 
>                                                 Transnational Issues
> 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Disputes - international: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN 
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
> increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
> from drug trade 
------
AfghanistaN|979671951
1d0
< 
7d5
< [Top of Page] 
17d14
< [Top of Page] 
73d69
< [Top of Page] 
127d122
< [Top of Page] 
200d194
< [Top of Page] 
285,286c279
< 
< [Top of Page] 
---
>  
312d304
< [Top of Page] 
374,375c366
< 
< [Top of Page] 
---
>  
381c372
< from drug trade 
---
> from drug trade 
------
AaA|979672078
3c3
< Albania 
---
> AlbaniA 
5c5
< Algeria 
---
> AlgeriA
7c7
< American Samoa 
---
> AmericanSamoa 
9c9
< Andorra 
---
> AndorrA
11c11
< Angola 
---
> AngolA 
13c13
< Anguilla 
---
> AnguillA 
15c15
< Antarctica 
---
> AntarcticA 
17c17
< Antigua and Barbuda 
---
> AntiguaAndBarbuda 
19c19
< Arctic Ocean 
---
> ArcticOcean 
21c21
< Argentina 
---
> ArgentinA
23c23
< Armenia 
---
> ArmeniA 
27c27
< Ashmore and Cartier Islands 
---
> AshmoreAndCartierIslands 
29c29
< Atlantic Ocean 
---
> AtlanticOcean 
31c31
< Australia 
---
> AustraliA
33c33
< Austria 
---
> AustriA 
35c35
< Azerbaijan 
---
> AzerbaijaN
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979672155
1a2
> 
3a5,51
> CcC
> 
> DdD
> 
> EeE
> 
> FfF
> 
> GgG
> 
> HhH
> 
> IiI
> 
> JjJ
> 
> KkK
> 
> LlL
> 
> MmM
> 
> NnN
> 
> OoO
> 
> PpP
> 
> QqQ
> 
> RrR
> 
> SsS
> 
> TtT
> 
> UuU
> 
> VvV
> 
> WwW
> 
> XxX
> 
> YyY
> 
> ZzZ
------
SportS|979675238
1,4c1,4
< ArcherY
< ArmWrestling
< AustralianRulesFootball
< AutoRacing
---
> * ArcherY
> * ArmWrestling
> * AustralianRulesFootball
> * AutoRacing
6,15c6,16
< BadmintoN
< BaseBall
< BasketBall
< BassFishing
< BiathloN
< BiCycling
< BilliardS
< BodyBuilding
< BowlinG
< BoxinG
---
> * BadmintoN
> * BaseBall
> * BasketBall
> * BassFishing
> * BiathloN
> * BiCycling
> * BilliardS
> * BodyBuilding
> * BowlinG
> * BoxinG
> * Bushwalking
17,19c18,20
< CheerLeading
< CrickeT
< CroqueT
---
> * CheerLeading
> * CrickeT
> * CroqueT
21,22c22,25
< FieldHockey
< FootBall
---
> * FieldHockey
> * FootBall
> 
> * Orienteering
------
WikiPedia|979675429
4a5,12
> ----
> 
> A question: Where should we discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia. On this page?
> 
> ----
> 
> A comment: For an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
> 
------
WikiPedia|979675480
11c11,16
< A comment: For an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
---
> A comment: For an internet encyclopedia, that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow doesn't seem right for the logo.
> 
> ----
> 
> A request: For an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
> 
------
PopularMusic|979675549
0a1,6
> * PaulaAbdul
> * AllSaints
> * ToriAmos
> * FionaApple
> * TinaArena
> * SherrieAustin
2,7c8,15
< PaulaAbdul
< AllSaints
< ToriAmos
< FionaApple
< TinaArena
< SherrieAustin
---
> * BackstreetBoys
> * AnaBelen
> * BjorK
> * TracyBonham
> * ToniBraxton
> * DanielleBrisbois
> * GarthBrooks
> * MeredithBrooks
9,28c17,28
< BackstreetBoys
< AnaBelen
< BjorK
< TracyBonham
< ToniBraxton
< DanielleBrisbois
< GarthBrooks
< MeredithBrooks
< 
< MariahCarey
< BelindaCarlisle
< RobynCarlsson
< MaryChapinCarpenter
< JohnnyCash
< CheR
< EricClapton
< KurtCobain
< AndreaCorr
< SherylCrow
< NirvanA
---
> * MariahCarey
> * BelindaCarlisle
> * RobynCarlsson
> * MaryChapinCarpenter
> * JohnnyCash
> * CheR
> * EricClapton
> * KurtCobain
> * AndreaCorr
> * CreedenceClearwaterRevival
> * SherylCrow
> * NirvanA
------
HomePage|979675638
6c6,7
< PhilosophyAndLogic
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld
> **  UnitedStates
10,12c11
< CountriesOfTheWorld
< 
< UnitedStates
---
> PhilosophyAndLogic
16a16,17
> 
> TechnologY
------
HomePage|979675668
7c7
< **  UnitedStates
---
> * UnitedStates
------
UuU|979675713
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * UnitedKingdom
> * UnitedStates
> * Uruguay
------
HomePage|979675735
7d6
< * UnitedStates
------
TechnologY|979675769
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Computing
> * Machinery
> * Transport
------
TechnologY|979675791
1,3c1,3
< * Computing
< * Machinery
< * Transport
---
> * ComputinG
> * MachinerY
> * TransporT
------
ComputinG|979675862
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Algorithms
> * ComputerHardware
> * ComputerSoftware
> * SoftwareDevelopmentProcess
------
ComputerSoftware|979675896
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ProgrammingLanguages
> SoftwarePackages
------
ComputerSoftware|979675908
1,2c1,2
< ProgrammingLanguages
< SoftwarePackages
---
> * ProgrammingLanguages
> * SoftwarePackages
------
TransporT|979675952
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AirTransport
> RailTransport
> RoadTransport
> SeaTransport
> 
------
TransporT|979675971
1,4c1,4
< AirTransport
< RailTransport
< RoadTransport
< SeaTransport
---
> * AirTransport
> * RailTransport
> * RoadTransport
> * SeaTransport
------
NamingConventions|979679586
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Recommend doing things like AfghanistanCountry rather than the eminently ugly AfghanistaN.''
------
RecentChanges|979679677
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.
> 
------
ScottMoonen|979679771
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Editor of AndStuffWiki [http://andstuff.org/] and author of the WikkiTikkiTavi wiki engine [http://andstuff.org/tavi].
> 
> See also AndStuff:ScottMoonen and MeatBall:ScottMoonen.
> 
> ----
> 
> Nifty site you have here!  It may be hard to get momentum going, but I like the general idea.  I've bookmarked it for some time later when I have more free time. :-)
------
ScottMoonen|979679823
7a8,9
> 
> PS: I'd recommend you change the American flag logo.  Exremely ethno-centric ''et. al.''  I think a globe logo would be much more fitting, if you want to keep with that metaphor.  Or perhaps a book.
------
NamingConventions|979679919
1a2,3
> 
> ''In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.  -- ScottMoonen''
------
HomePage|979689918
4c4
< 
---
> Here is the old NupediaWiki.
------
NupediaWiki|979689926
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Welcome to Nupedia's wiki!'''  This might become the "WikiPedia" since some Nupedia members have reservations about associating a wiki with the Nupedia name.
> 
> You might have some questions; explore the links to find answers:
> * WhatIsaWiki?
> * WhatsaWikiFor?
> * WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
> * WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?
> * CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?
> And of course,
> * HowCanIExploreNupediasWiki?
> And
> * What are your NewTopics?
> 
> If you have other questions, just ask on the NupediaWikiFaq.
> 
> This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
------
WhatIsaWiki|979689952
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
> 
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
------
WhatsaWikiFor|979689979
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for.  But the format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
------
WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki|979690006
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are lots of good reasons why NuPedia might want to have a wiki:
> 
> 1. Write articles.  We can develop encyclopedia articles, perhaps.  Some people probably will do better in an unstructured environment than the very structured NupediaEditorialProcess.  We might then incorporate wiki articles into the main encyclopedia (via the normal editorial channels, of course).
> 
> 2. Fun.  It's a social forum for Nupedians.  It's fun, or we hope it will be!
> 
> 3. Speed.  We can, perhaps, develop content fast.  There's no one who has to approve a topic, no deadlines, etc.  You come and add a bit here and there as you wish!
> 
> 4. Increase feedback and interaction.  Feedback is potentially easier than on the NuPedia main site, and interaction on wikis can be very interesting.  Some people might be more attracted to this sort of interaction than the sort that occurs on the main part of the website.
> 
> None of this is to say that the Nupedia wiki will ''replace'' the main encyclopedia; of course it won't.  But it will be an interesting ancillary endeavor!
> 
> --LarrySanger
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979690033
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one!  Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
> 
> Possibly what you really want to know is WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|979690059
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.
> 
> "Fine," you say, "but how can I possibly...
> 
> * MakeaNewPage?"
> * LinkToAnExistingPage?"
> * StartaNewParagraph?"
> * PutWordsInItalicsAndBold?"
> * LinkToExternalPages?"
> * PartakeInDiscussion?"
> * SummarizeDiscussion?"
> * BeBoldInUpdatingPages?"
> 
> More tips are to be found at http://c2.com/cgi/wiki .
------
LarrySanger|979690096
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and instigator of Nupedia's wiki.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
> 
> Yes, I agree, He is He, nobody would argue! :-P
> 
> He is he, but this is twee, we'd all agree.
> 
> Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe so!
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm not envious because I live here, in RusSia!
> 
> ----
> 
> Requesting a SiberianHusky...that's all! RoseParks
------
NuPedia|979690123
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReviewed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
PhiloSophy|979690143
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> From the Greek word "philosophia," meaning "love of wisdom." 
------
RusSia|979690179
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Russia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
> 
> ----
> 
> Quoth a Russian:
> 
> The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
------
ThomasReid|979690208
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense.  He believed that CommonSense--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated DirectRealism, or CommonSenseRealism, and inveighed strongly against TheTheoryOfIdeas advocated by JohnLocke, ReneDescartes, and (in varying forms) nearly all EarlyModernPhilosophers who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the ScottishSchoolofCommonSense by ImmanuelKant and JohnStuartMill.  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of GeorgeEMoore, particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of WilliamAlston and AlvinPlantinga.
> 
> ----
> 
> Meta-observation: the above took me less than ten minutes to write and required no research on my part.  I could continue on and write twenty articles like this in a day with no trouble.  I think this is an excellent way to generate draft articles for Nupedia.
------
CommonSense|979690258
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In PhiloSophy, 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
> 
> Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: ThomasReid and GeorgeEMoore.
> 
> The great Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
> 
> * Principles of common sense are believed universally (with the apparent exceptions of some philosophers and the insane).
> * It is appropriate to ridicule the denial of common sense.
> * The denial of principles of common sense leads to contradictions.
> 
> Of course, each of these is stated and explained by Reid much more carefully that is done here.
> 
> The British philosopher G. E. Moore, who did important work in EpistemOlogy, EthIcs, and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense."  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body," "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings," and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim Moore ascribes to Whitehead).
> 
> Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute SkepticIsm.
> 
> Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called epistemological particularism (the appelation comes from Roderick Chisholm), which orientation is contrasted with epistemological methodism. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic mehodists. Methodist methodology tends to toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 
> 
> An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed. For instance, it seems impossible to do logic, metaphysics and epistemology without beginning with some assumptions of common sense. However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation. Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
> 
> The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
------
MetaPhilosophy|979690283
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.----Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
------
HoldComeWhatMay|979690325
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A phrase popularized by that ancient HarVard philosophy professor, WillardVQuine.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
------
WilliamAlston|979690393
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Syracuse University philosophy professor, arguably the greatest epistemologist of the twentieth century, whose views on FoundationalIsm and InternalismVsExternalism, among many other topics, have been very influential.  Alston has also done important work in PhilosophyOfReligion, HistoryOfPhilosophy, and other fields.
------
SiberianHusky|979690434
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which pulls one's sled or possibly you...
------
RoseParks|979690459
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Am I fooling anyone?
> ----------------------
> Well at least you could *spell* it right, if you mean the woman.----
> I am not Rosa Parks...RoseParks is my e-mail name. I am a Nupedia member. I
> 
> 1) Authored the Prounciation Guides- AME and BRE
>   
> 2) Copy edited a number of articles 
>  
> 3) Researched and drafted our Accessibility statement
>   
> 4) Am a moderator for Nupedia-L  
> 
> and so much more. Surely you know who I am....
------
RoseParks|979690471
4c4
< I am not Rosa Parks...RoseParks is my e-mail name. I am a Nupedia member. I
---
> I am not RosaParks...RoseParks is my e-mail name. I am a Nupedia member. I
------
SubLime|979690543
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which is below a lime.----To use as an adjective, do we say subliminal?  And a verb would be sublimate?----Or subliminalize? Or subliminimalize? Or sublimaximize? 
------
MakeaNewPage|979690573
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Very easy.  Simply go to any existing wiki page, such as the NewTopics page, click "Edit text of this page," and type in the name of the new page in the text box.  Then save your edit, and you'll see your page name followed by "?".  Click on the question mark to edit the new page.
> 
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis.  For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside the word, like PhiloSophy.
------
NewTopics|979690597
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
> 
> Here are a few more new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in: 
> 
> NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall --
> TheBible? -- TheKoran? -- TheTorah? -- PlatosRepublic? -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff --
> ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP
------
EncycloPedia|979690627
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In this particular case, ''NuPedia''!
------
DisRuption|979690653
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  We don't expect it to happen on NuPedia.  I guess we'll see!
------
MuSic|979690695
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which soothes the savage beast... 
------
FootBall|979690711
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which one buys a large screen television for... 
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|979690743
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The traditional or folk MuSic of the Irish people as well as of the Irish diaspora, that is, descendants of Irish emigrants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
> 
> While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (fiddle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
> 
> The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); fiddle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
> 
> Irish dance music is typically quite lively and is used indeed for dancing as well as for listening.  This music can be sorted into a wide variety of dance tune types, such as reels, jigs of various kinds, hornpipes, set dances, polkas, slides, highlands (also called "flings" and "schottisches"), barndances, waltzes, and mazurkas.  There are also types of tunes not used for dancing, including marches, harp compositions such as those by blind harper Turlough O'Carolan (1670-1738), and slow airs.  Slow airs are often the instrumental rendition of the melodies, or "airs," of songs, usually sean nós songs (see below).  Most of these types of tunes were borrowed in various centuries past from other traditions.  The differences between them are too subtle to allow easy, brief explanation.
> 
> The Irish song tradition is diverse and rich.  It enjoys a prominent place among the interrelated song traditions of Scotland, England, and North America.  Irish songs, with plaintive or sprightly melodies to suit their themes, cover many subjects: love and betrayal, everyday country life and occupations, and historical or newsworthy events.  The sean nós (Irish for "old style") tradition is the relatively unknown, but beautiful Gaelic language tradition still thriving in the Irish-speaking western counties of Ireland.  Sean nós songs are usually sung with very loose time signatures, although not quite in "free time," that is, with no identifiable time signature at all.  Most sean nós songs do indeed have an identifiable rhythm but are interrupted as a singer takes a breath, usually in an unhurried fashion.  Consequently, slow airs, played in imitation of sean nós songs, are played with very loose time signatures as well.  There are more or less distinct regional styles of sean nós song, just as there are more or less distinct regional styles of Irish dance music.  One style of dance music is the DonegalFiddleTradition.
------
CelticMusic|979690765
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines Irish traditional music with various other traditional musics, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
------
DonegalFiddleTradition|979690795
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the fiddle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of fiddle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
> 
> There is a so-called Donegal style of fiddling, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.  To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more straight-ahead (unswung) in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reels and jigs); short (one-note-per-bowstroke), aggressive bowing; relatively sparse ornamentation; the use of bowed triplets more than rolls (an ornament like a turn) as ornaments; and the use of double stops and droning (playing on more than one string at once).  None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all.  But in general, aggressive and lively fiddling is very often heard in Donegal, which many listeners find exciting.  Donegal styles have been influenced to a great extent by southern Irish styles as well as Scottish and Shetland Island styles and repertoire, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Highland bagpipes (the so-called Scottish warpipes).  Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played.  Highlands, a 4/4 type of tune based on Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county.  Other tune types common in the county, but relatively uncommon elsewhere, include barndances, also called "germans," and mazurkas.
> 
> There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
------
MouthOff|979690835
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page is provided to avoid DisRuption. If you '''have''' to ventilate, complain, express annoyance etc., do it '''here'''!
> ----
> Just please do it ''without'' being personally offensive.----
> The voice of a  Nupedia moderator and a good one.
------
NupediaWikiFaq|979690891
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, LinkToExternalPages, LinkToAnExistingPage, 
> and CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
> 
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
> 
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?.
------
PaGe|979690923
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This PaGe is a test of whether if you delete all the text, this will return to PaGe?
> 
> 
> No it won't. Try it!!!
------
WikiWatcher|979690944
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An intelligent person who surfs the "WikiPedia" and finds valuable information. 
------
WikiPedians|979690955
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
WikiPedians|979690974
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wikipedia is an encyclopedia-like project built using wiki software.  [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is not built using wiki software (it is carefully peer-reviewed), and therefore it is not a wikipedia.  The principals of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia], however, are interested in exploring the wiki idea as a ''supplement'' to Nupedia, not as part of Nupedia's editorial process.----
> Query: And who would the '''principals''' of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] be?----I think this calls for a "WikiWatcher" to conduct an assessment.----
> Are we then, WikiPedians ? I'll have to think about that one...
------
WikiPedians|979691049
1,3c1
< A wikipedia is an encyclopedia-like project built using wiki software.  [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is not built using wiki software (it is carefully peer-reviewed), and therefore it is not a wikipedia.  The principals of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia], however, are interested in exploring the wiki idea as a ''supplement'' to Nupedia, not as part of Nupedia's editorial process.----
< Query: And who would the '''principals''' of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] be?----I think this calls for a "WikiWatcher" to conduct an assessment.----
< Are we then, WikiPedians ? I'll have to think about that one...
---
> Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher...
------
WikiPedia|979691110
16a17,22
> ----
> 
> A wikipedia is an encyclopedia-like project built using wiki software.  [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is not built using wiki software (it is carefully peer-reviewed), and therefore it is not a wikipedia.  The principals of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia], however, are interested in exploring the wiki idea as a ''supplement'' to Nupedia, not as part of Nupedia's editorial process.----
> Query: And who would the '''principals''' of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] be?----I think this calls for a "WikiWatcher" to conduct an assessment.----
> Are we then, WikiPedians ? I'll have to think about that one...
> 
------
MathematicalGrouP|979691158
1c1,93
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MathematicalGrouP
> 
> The concept of a GrouP is one of the foundations of ModernAlgebra.
> 
> 
> The definition of a GrouP is brief.
> 
>  
> A GrouP is a non-empty set, say G and a binary operation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
> 
> 
> 1)	G has closure, that is, if a and b belong to G, then a*b belongs to G.
> 
> 
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and b belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*
> 
> 
>         (b*c).
> 3)	G contains an identity element, say i, that is, if a belongs to G then i*a =a.
> 
> 
> 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an
> 
> 
>         element b in G such that a*b=i.
> 
> ----
>  
> A GrouP that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let I be the set of
> 
>  
> integers={…-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4…} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
> 
> 
> Proof:
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then a+b is an integer: Closure.
> 
> 
> 2)	If a, b, and b are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
> 
> 
> 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.
> 
> 
>        (I,+) has an identity element.
> 
> 
> 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.
> 
> 
>         Every element of (I,+) has an inverse.
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> Question: Given the set of integers, I, as above, and the operation multiplication,
> denoted by "x" is (I,x) a GrouP?
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then axb is an integer. Closure.
> 
> 
> 2)	If a and b are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
> 
> 
> 3)	1 is an integer and for any integer a, ax1=a.
> 
> 
>        (I,x) has an identity element.
> 
> 
> 4)	'''BUT''', if a is an integer, there is not necessarily an integer b =1/a such that
> 
>         (a)x(1/a)=1.
> 
> 
> Then, every element of (I,x) does not have an inverse.
> 
> 
> For example, given the integer 4, there is no integer b such that 4xb=1.
> 
> 
> Therefore, (I,x) is '''not''' a GrouP.
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Z, that is the set of number a/b such that
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, 
> 
> and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
------
LikeThis|979691216
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is not LikeThis.----
> And like this is not LikeThis.
------
LinkToAnExistingPage|979691255
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Simply type the name of the page where you want the link to be.  For example, if I type "NuPedia" I create a link to the NuPedia page.
> 
> You don't have to use any special markup.
------
StartaNewParagraph|979691293
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is kind of a funny page, and it comes with instructions, as follows: first click on the "Edit text of this page" below.  Read the text.  Then hit the "back" button and re-read the text.  Then this page will make sense.
> 
> Start a new paragraph by skipping down two lines.  If you skip down one line,
> like this,
> you won't start a new paragraph.  But if you skip down two lines,
> 
> like this,
> 
> then you'll start a new paragraph.
> 
> ''So is there any way to produce the more traditional sort of paragraph that uses indentation?''  [Followed by attempts which didn't work.]
> 
> No, there isn't a way to add "traditional" indented paragraphs.  This is partially a limitation of HTML and web browsers, which do not have any simple way to create such paragraphs.  (Many sites create the indentation effect using special invisible graphics as spacers.  Other sites use special HTML tricks which are not available on the wiki.)
> 
> The common wiki convention is to use leading spaces at the beginning of a line to mark preformatted fixed-width text.  This is useful for things like ASCII diagrams or simple tables.  Unfortunately this means that if you try to manually indent paragraphs, the first line will be shown as preformatted fixed-width text like:
> 
>     This is an attempt to "manually indent" a paragraph.
> This is the second line of the attempted paragraph, but it will be treated as a new paragraph.  Click on the edit link to see the entered text.
------
PutWordsInItalicsAndBold|979691313
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To put text in ''italics,'' surround it by two consecutive single quote marks (').
> 
> To put text in '''bold,''' surround it by three consecutive single quote marks.
> 
> If you're still confused, click "edit text of this page" below and look at how I put the above text in ''italics'' and '''bold'''.
------
LinkToExternalPages|979691332
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Simply type in the URL.  For example, http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml
> 
> Don't bother trying to use <a href= etc.  That markup will be displayed, not parsed.
> 
> To avoid seeing the URL--if you just want to see a link--then type the link in this format:
> 
>   [URL nameofpage]
> 
> This results in a link that looks like this: [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia.com]
> 
> Click on the "edit page" link below to see how the latter example was coded.  It's not hard!
------
PartakeInDiscussion|979691358
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If you want to comment on something on a page, but you don't want simply to change the page (which, of course, you can do!), then put a line, indicated with four hyphens in a row, like this: ----
> and add your remarks below the line, at the bottom of the page.  This, anyway, is a nice convention to follow.  In principle, there's nothing stopping you from adding your remarks anywhere.----
> Click the "Edit this Page" below to see how this was done...the four hyphens will be revealed.
------
SummarizeDiscussion|979691375
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After a discussion on a page has died down for several weeks, you (if you can be smart and respectful at the same time) might replace the discussion with a summary of arguments, as though you were (!) writing an encyclopedia article stating the arguments from an unbiased point of view. If anyone believes his argument has been misrepresented, he can always go back and look at the "Recent Changes" and see the old version.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|979691400
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, precisify that language, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
> ----
> Would I be too '''bold''', if I said ''precisify'' is not a word?
> ----
> "Precisify" is philosopher-talk for "make precise"...
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979691435
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Yes.
> 
> ----
> 
> How?  For example, I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the MuSic page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the MuSic page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the MuSic page was unbuilt).
> 
> ----
> 
> Sounds like you want to know how to MakeaNewPage!
> 
> Once you add any text to the MuSic page, you can then edit it using the "Edit text of this page" link.  In fact, I did this for you.  No thanks necessary.  Now go to the MuSic page and you can add text.
> 
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
NupediaWiki|979691476
11c11
< * HowCanIExploreNupediasWiki?
---
> * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|979691491
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are five main ways to explore our wiki:
> 
> * Follow the links.
> * Use the search form (at the bottom of every page).
> * Click on "Recent Changes" (at the top and bottom of every page).
> * Go to NewTopics.
> * On the top of a page, click on the name of the article.  (This searches for all wiki pages that link to the page.  Can be useful and interesting, especially in a larger wiki.)
------
HisTory|979691574
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which happened.
------
RidiCulous|979691635
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A misspelling, based on a mispronunciation, of "really clueless."----Or is it "really queueless" as in the model Registry of Motor Vehicles office?
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|979691699
7c7
< * On the top of a page, click on the name of the article.  (This searches for all wiki pages that link to the page.  Can be useful and interesting, especially in a larger wiki.)
---
> * On the top of a page, click on the name of the article.  (This searches for all wiki pages that link to the page.  Can be useful and interesting, especially in a larger wiki.)
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979692157
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6d3
< 
8d4
< 
13a10,11
> ----
> But to add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979692216
11c11
< But to add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).
---
> But to add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979692311
1c1
< Yes.
---
> Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.
3c3
< How?  For example, I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the MuSic page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the MuSic page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the MuSic page was unbuilt).
---
> Question: I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the MuSic page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the MuSic page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the MuSic page was unbuilt).
9,11c9
< More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
< ----
< But to add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.
---
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|979692373
9c9,11
< The Irish song tradition is diverse and rich.  It enjoys a prominent place among the interrelated song traditions of Scotland, England, and North America.  Irish songs, with plaintive or sprightly melodies to suit their themes, cover many subjects: love and betrayal, everyday country life and occupations, and historical or newsworthy events.  The sean nós (Irish for "old style") tradition is the relatively unknown, but beautiful Gaelic language tradition still thriving in the Irish-speaking western counties of Ireland.  Sean nós songs are usually sung with very loose time signatures, although not quite in "free time," that is, with no identifiable time signature at all.  Most sean nós songs do indeed have an identifiable rhythm but are interrupted as a singer takes a breath, usually in an unhurried fashion.  Consequently, slow airs, played in imitation of sean nós songs, are played with very loose time signatures as well.  There are more or less distinct regional styles of sean nós song, just as there are more or less distinct regional styles of Irish dance music.  One style of dance music is the DonegalFiddleTradition.
---
> The Irish song tradition is diverse and rich.  It enjoys a prominent place among the interrelated song traditions of Scotland, England, and North America.  Irish songs, with plaintive or sprightly melodies to suit their themes, cover many subjects: love and betrayal, everyday country life and occupations, and historical or newsworthy events.  The sean nós (Irish for "old style") tradition is the relatively unknown, but beautiful Gaelic language tradition still thriving in the Irish-speaking western counties of Ireland.  Sean nós songs are usually sung with very loose time signatures, although not quite in "free time," that is, with no identifiable time signature at all.  Most sean nós songs do indeed have an identifiable rhythm but are interrupted as a singer takes a breath, usually in an unhurried fashion.  Consequently, slow airs, played in imitation of sean nós songs, are played with very loose time signatures as well.  There are more or less distinct regional styles of sean nós song, just as there are more or less distinct regional styles of Irish dance music.  One style of dance music is the DonegalFiddleTradition.
> 
> NOTICE, DON'T REMOVE: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|979692396
11c11
< NOTICE, DON'T REMOVE: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].
---
> NOTICE, DON'T REMOVE: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|979692425
11c11
< NOTICE, DON'T REMOVE: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
------
CelticMusic|979692448
1c1,3
< The term "Celtic music" usually combines Irish traditional music with various other traditional musics, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines Irish traditional music with various other traditional musics, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
> 
> Notice, don't remove: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
CelticMusic|979692460
3c3
< Notice, don't remove: An earlier version of the above article was posted on [Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
DonegalFiddleTradition|979692511
5c5,7
< There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
---
> There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
> 
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/the+Donegal+fiddle+tradition/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
CelticMusic|979692545
3c3
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979692580
4,5c4,5
< ----
< Sounds like you want to know how to MakeaNewPage!
---
> 
> Answer: Sounds like you want to know how to MakeaNewPage!
------
DisRuption|979692616
1c1
< Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  We don't expect it to happen on NuPedia.  I guess we'll see!
---
> Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  We don't expect it to happen on WikiPedia.  I guess we'll see!
------
EncycloPedia|979692733
1c1
< In this particular case, ''NuPedia''!
---
> [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://www.encarta.com Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
------
EncycloPedia|979692763
1c1
< [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://www.encarta.com Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
---
> [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
------
HomePage|979692991
1,2c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, without peer review process, etc.  Some people think that this may be a hopeless endeavor, that the result will necessarily suck.  We aren't so sure.  So, let's get
< to work!
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  Add a page, come back tomorrow, look what others have added, and then add some more.  We think this might be fun.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
4c3
< Here is the old NupediaWiki.
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
6c5,15
< CountriesOfTheWorld
---
> You might have some questions; explore the links to find answers:
> * WhatIsaWiki?
> * WhatsaWikiFor?
> * WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
> * WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?
> * CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?
> And of course,
> * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
> And
> * What are your NewTopics?
8c17
< MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the NupediaWikiFaq.
10,16c19
< PhilosophyAndLogic
< 
< PopularMusic
< 
< SportS
< 
< TechnologY
---
> This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979693060
0a1,2
> Write a bit of information about your favorite countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
> 
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979693129
1c1
< PythagoreanTheorem
---
> PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979693180
1a2,3
> 
> Add your topic above and display your mathematical acumen.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979693205
3c3
< Add your topic above and display your mathematical acumen.
---
> Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979693220
3c3
< Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.
---
> Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
------
UnitedStates|979693319
1,98c1
< AlabamA
< 
< AlaskA
< 
< ArizonA
< 
< ArkansaS
< 
< CaliforniA
< 
< ColoradO
< 
< ConnecticuT
< 
< DelawarE
< 
< FloridA
< 
< HawaiI
< 
< IdahO
< 
< IllinoiS
< 
< IndianA
< 
< IowA
< 
< KansaS
< 
< KentuckY
< 
< LouisianA
< 
< MainE
< 
< MarylanD
< 
< MassachusettS
< 
< MichigaN
< 
< MinnesotA
< 
< MississippI
< 
< MissourI
< 
< MontanA
< 
< NebraskA
< 
< NevadA
< 
< NewHampshire
< 
< NewJersey
< 
< NewMexico
< 
< NewYork
< 
< NorthCarolina
< 
< NorthDakota
< 
< OhiO
< 
< OklahomA
< 
< OregoN
< 
< PennsylvaniA
< 
< RhodeIsland
< 
< SouthCarolina
< 
< SouthDakota
< 
< TennesseE
< 
< TexaS
< 
< UtaH
< 
< VermonT
< 
< VirginiA
< 
< WashingtoN
< 
< WestVirginia
< 
< WisconsiN
< 
< WyominG
< 
---
> TheStates
------
TheStates|979693327
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AlabamA
> 
> AlaskA
> 
> ArizonA
> 
> ArkansaS
> 
> CaliforniA
> 
> ColoradO
> 
> ConnecticuT
> 
> DelawarE
> 
> FloridA
> 
> HawaiI
> 
> IdahO
> 
> IllinoiS
> 
> IndianA
> 
> IowA
> 
> KansaS
> 
> KentuckY
> 
> LouisianA
> 
> MainE
> 
> MarylanD
> 
> MassachusettS
> 
> MichigaN
> 
> MinnesotA
> 
> MississippI
> 
> MissourI
> 
> MontanA
> 
> NebraskA
> 
> NevadA
> 
> NewHampshire
> 
> NewJersey
> 
> NewMexico
> 
> NewYork
> 
> NorthCarolina
> 
> NorthDakota
> 
> OhiO
> 
> OklahomA
> 
> OregoN
> 
> PennsylvaniA
> 
> RhodeIsland
> 
> SouthCarolina
> 
> SouthDakota
> 
> TennesseE
> 
> TexaS
> 
> UtaH
> 
> VermonT
> 
> VirginiA
> 
> WashingtoN
> 
> WestVirginia
> 
> WisconsiN
> 
> WyominG
------
PhiloSophy|979693424
1c1
< From the Greek word "philosophia," meaning "love of wisdom." 
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid 
------
PhiloSophy|979693561
1c1,3
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid 
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid
> 
> Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.
------
PhiloSophy|979693584
3c3
< Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.
---
> Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
------
PopularMusic|979693627
0a1,2
> Do you know the basic facts about these performers?  Write them down!
> 
------
SportS|979693664
0a1,2
> Jump in and tell us what you know about these sports.
> 
------
SportS|979693720
27c27,29
< * Orienteering
---
> * OrienteerinG
> 
> * RunninG
------
SportS|979693766
25c25,26
< * FootBall
---
> * AmericanFootball
> * EuropeanFootball
------
HomePage|979693881
17c17
< If you have other questions, just ask on the NupediaWikiFaq.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
19c19
< This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
---
> This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
------
WikiPediaFaq|979693944
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, LinkToExternalPages, LinkToAnExistingPage.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
> 
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
> 
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
------
WikiPediaFaq|979693975
5,10d4
< '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
< 
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
< 
< ----
< 
25c19,25
< A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
---
> A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
------
WikiPediaFaq|979694003
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6d3
< 
8d4
< 
10d5
< 
12d6
< 
14d7
< 
16d8
< 
18d9
< 
20d10
< 
22d11
< 
------
WikiPediaFaq|979694041
3a4
> 
6a8
> 
9a12
> 
------
HomePage|979694610
11c11
< * CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?
---
> * WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
------
WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia|979694938
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by LarrySanger, who got the idea of supplementing NuPedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project.  So there is a historical connection between the projects.  Both NuPedia and WikiPedia are originated (though not solely controlled) by BoMis, a WebPortal company.  So there is a management connection.
> 
> There is no ''editorial'' connection between the projects, however.  The participants in NuPedia do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of WikiPedia--and vice-versa!
> 
> We hope the projects will be complementary.
------
BoMis|979695043
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We're not sure what a [http://www.bomis.com/ Bomis] is, but it seems to have a distasteful desire to "steal your pants."  It also features many slogans.
------
RecentChanges|979695889
1,2c1
< Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.
< 
---
> Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.
------
RecentChanges|979695900
1c1
< Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.
---
> '''Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.'''
------
WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki|979695982
1,13c1
< There are lots of good reasons why NuPedia might want to have a wiki:
< 
< 1. Write articles.  We can develop encyclopedia articles, perhaps.  Some people probably will do better in an unstructured environment than the very structured NupediaEditorialProcess.  We might then incorporate wiki articles into the main encyclopedia (via the normal editorial channels, of course).
< 
< 2. Fun.  It's a social forum for Nupedians.  It's fun, or we hope it will be!
< 
< 3. Speed.  We can, perhaps, develop content fast.  There's no one who has to approve a topic, no deadlines, etc.  You come and add a bit here and there as you wish!
< 
< 4. Increase feedback and interaction.  Feedback is potentially easier than on the NuPedia main site, and interaction on wikis can be very interesting.  Some people might be more attracted to this sort of interaction than the sort that occurs on the main part of the website.
< 
< None of this is to say that the Nupedia wiki will ''replace'' the main encyclopedia; of course it won't.  But it will be an interesting ancillary endeavor!
< 
< --LarrySanger
---
> Strictly speaking, NuPedia doesn't have a wiki.  It is loosely associated with WikiPedia, though.
------
HomePage|979695998
8d7
< * WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
------
HomePage|979696038
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  Add a page, come back tomorrow, look what others have added, and then add some more.  We think this might be fun.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
------
HomePage|979696075
16,18c16
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
< 
< This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
------
HomePage|979696228
5c5
< You might have some questions; explore the links to find answers:
---
> You're wondering
16c16
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
------
HomePage|979696430
3c3
< CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
------
WikiPedia|979696735
1c1
< WikiPedia is a wide-open encyclopedia project.  Who knows where it will go?
---
> WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using wiki software.  Who knows where it will go?
3c3
< We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
---
> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Doesn't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
7c7
< A question: Where should we discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia. On this page?
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.
11,22c11
< A comment: For an internet encyclopedia, that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow doesn't seem right for the logo.
< 
< ----
< 
< A request: For an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
< 
< ----
< 
< A wikipedia is an encyclopedia-like project built using wiki software.  [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is not built using wiki software (it is carefully peer-reviewed), and therefore it is not a wikipedia.  The principals of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia], however, are interested in exploring the wiki idea as a ''supplement'' to Nupedia, not as part of Nupedia's editorial process.----
< Query: And who would the '''principals''' of [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] be?----I think this calls for a "WikiWatcher" to conduct an assessment.----
< Are we then, WikiPedians ? I'll have to think about that one...
< 
---
> A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
23a13
> I second this request.
------
WikiPediaProcess|979696760
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Comment on the Wiki'''''Pedia process here.  
------
WikiPediaProcess|979696767
1c1
< Comment on the Wiki'''''Pedia process here.  
---
> Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  
------
WikiPediaProcess|979696805
1c1
< Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  
---
> Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.
------
WikiPediaProcess|979696819
1c1
< Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.
---
> Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to ask a question, ask it here.
------
WikiPedia|979696839
5,6d4
< ----
< 
------
LarrySanger|979696874
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and instigator of Nupedia's wiki.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of wikipedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
15c15
< Requesting a SiberianHusky...that's all! RoseParks
---
> Requesting a SiberianHusky...that's all! RoseParks
------
LarrySanger|979696888
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of wikipedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of Wiki''''Pedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
------
LarrySanger|979696897
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of Wiki''''Pedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
------
LarrySanger|979697013
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Soon to move to LasVegas for a few months to save some money (living with family), and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
3c3
< Yes, I agree, He is He, nobody would argue! :-P
---
> Yes, I agree, he is he, nobody would argue with me! :-P
7,8c7
< Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe so!
< 
---
> Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe!
10d8
< 
12d9
< 
14d10
< 
15a12,13
> ----
> Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.
------
AlaskA|979697119
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (over 250,000 last time I checked).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
> 
> On the other hand, it's cold, like RusSia.
------
LarrySanger|979697186
13c13
< Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.
---
> Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|979697287
1a2,3
> 
> It wouldn't be a bad idea to find this out: WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
9c11
< More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
---
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
NupediaWiki|979697377
1,17c1
< '''Welcome to Nupedia's wiki!'''  This might become the "WikiPedia" since some Nupedia members have reservations about associating a wiki with the Nupedia name.
< 
< You might have some questions; explore the links to find answers:
< * WhatIsaWiki?
< * WhatsaWikiFor?
< * WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
< * WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?
< * CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?
< And of course,
< * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
< And
< * What are your NewTopics?
< 
< If you have other questions, just ask on the NupediaWikiFaq.
< 
< This wiki is an experiment.  But, for those who might be confused about this point, it is '''not Nupedia'''.  Nupedia is a serious encyclopedia project found at http://www.nupedia.com .  This wiki is a proposed "fun" supplement to Nupedia!
---
> Nupedia doesn't actually have a wiki.  WikiPedia is where NuPedians go to have their wiki needs satisfied.
------
NupediaWikiFaq|979697447
1,20c1
< Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, LinkToExternalPages, LinkToAnExistingPage, 
< and CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki.
< 
< ----
< 
< '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
< 
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
< 
< ----
< 
< '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
< 
< A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
< 
< ----
< 
< '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
< 
< A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?.
---
> Nupedia doesn't actually have a wiki. WikiPedia is where NuPedians go to have their wiki needs satisfied.  Probably what you're looking for is the WikiPediaFaq.
------
ThomasReid|979697479
2d1
< 
4,5c3
< 
< Meta-observation: the above took me less than ten minutes to write and required no research on my part.  I could continue on and write twenty articles like this in a day with no trouble.  I think this is an excellent way to generate draft articles for Nupedia.
---
> Meta-observation: the above took me less than ten minutes to write and required no research on my part.  I could continue on and write twenty articles like this in a day with no trouble.  Go thou and do likewise.
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979697517
1,3c1
< Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one!  Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
< 
< Possibly what you really want to know is WhyDoesNupediaHaveaWiki?
---
> Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one!  Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
------
SunirShah|979714585
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I am the Editor of MeatballWiki.
> 
> * mailto:sunir@sunir.org
> * http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?SunirShah
> * http://sunir.org
------
SunirShah|979714599
1c1
< I am the Editor of MeatballWiki.
---
> I am the Editor of [http://usedmod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl MeatballWiki].
------
SunirShah|979714611
1c1
< I am the Editor of [http://usedmod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl MeatballWiki].
---
> I am the Editor of [http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl MeatballWiki].
5c5
< * http://sunir.org
---
> * http://sunir.org
------
ScottMoonen|979714661
9a10,11
> 
> ''Or a quill and inkwell. -- SunirShah''
------
NuPedia|979714759
1c1
< Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReviewed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
---
> Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReview""ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
ScottMoonen|979724207
11c11,13
< ''Or a quill and inkwell. -- SunirShah''
---
> ''Or a quill and inkwell. -- SunirShah''
> 
> ''It's a very temporary thing, the nearest thing Jimbo had to hand.  Definitely won't be the WikiPedia logo--not that I agree with you that the U.S. flag is "ethnocentric" (which seems very strange to say to me, given that the U.S. is, after all, the biggest ethnic melting pot in the world).'' -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaProcess|979741302
1c1,3
< Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to ask a question, ask it here.
---
> Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to ask a question, ask it here.
> 
> ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
------
WikiPediaProcess|979765108
3a4,8
> 
> ----
> 
> A comment: For an internet encyclopedia, that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow
> doesn't seem right for the logo. 
------
WikiPediaProcess|979765127
7c7
< A comment: For an internet encyclopedia, that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow
---
> A comment: For an internet encyclopedia that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow
------
RhodeIsland|979768090
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The best little state in the USA!
------
RhodeIsland|979768261
1c1
< The best little state in the USA!
---
> The best little state in the USA! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of Rhode Island Reds!
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979768360
1c1
< Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one!  Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
---
> StandardPoodle
------
StandardPoodle|979768389
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dog by which all others are measured.
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979768559
1c1,2
< StandardPoodle
---
> Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their
> permission! 
------
NewTopics|979768655
7c7
< ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP
---
> ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle
------
ScottMoonen|979769926
13c13,15
< ''It's a very temporary thing, the nearest thing Jimbo had to hand.  Definitely won't be the WikiPedia logo--not that I agree with you that the U.S. flag is "ethnocentric" (which seems very strange to say to me, given that the U.S. is, after all, the biggest ethnic melting pot in the world).'' -- LarrySanger
---
> ''It's a very temporary thing, the nearest thing Jimbo had to hand.  Definitely won't be the WikiPedia logo--not that I agree with you that the U.S. flag is "ethnocentric" (which seems very strange to say to me, given that the U.S. is, after all, the biggest ethnic melting pot in the world).'' -- LarrySanger
> 
> A truly ethnically aware person would be anathema to an ethnic melting pot. The more cultures involved, the stronger your organization because there is more information available to bring to the table. Any country that has a policy or culture of assimilating immigrants will have a difficult time adapting to the future, especially given free trade, globalization and the Internet. -- SunirShah
------
ScottMoonen|979773071
15a16,17
> 
> I suppose it would be better to be like Yugoslavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their gastarbeitern?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnical melting pot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays Irish fiddle music though he's not Irish
------
ScottMoonen|979773214
17c17
< I suppose it would be better to be like Yugoslavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their gastarbeitern?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnical melting pot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays Irish fiddle music though he's not Irish
---
> I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeitern?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle music though he's not Irish
------
ScottMoonen|979773345
17c17
< I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeitern?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle music though he's not Irish
---
> I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeiteren?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle music though he's not Irish
------
ScottMoonen|979773702
9,17c9
< PS: I'd recommend you change the American flag logo.  Exremely ethno-centric ''et. al.''  I think a globe logo would be much more fitting, if you want to keep with that metaphor.  Or perhaps a book.
< 
< ''Or a quill and inkwell. -- SunirShah''
< 
< ''It's a very temporary thing, the nearest thing Jimbo had to hand.  Definitely won't be the WikiPedia logo--not that I agree with you that the U.S. flag is "ethnocentric" (which seems very strange to say to me, given that the U.S. is, after all, the biggest ethnic melting pot in the world).'' -- LarrySanger
< 
< A truly ethnically aware person would be anathema to an ethnic melting pot. The more cultures involved, the stronger your organization because there is more information available to bring to the table. Any country that has a policy or culture of assimilating immigrants will have a difficult time adapting to the future, especially given free trade, globalization and the Internet. -- SunirShah
< 
< I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeiteren?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle music though he's not Irish
---
> There used to be a discussion of the OldWikiPediaLogo on this page.
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979773872
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In its first day of existences, because the nearest thing to hand for JimmyWales that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
> 
> ScottMoonen sensibly suggested:
> 
> I'd recommend you change the American flag logo.  Exremely ethno-centric ''et. al.''  I think a globe logo would be much more fitting, if you want to keep with that metaphor.  Or perhaps a book.
> 
> Then others responded...
> 
> Or a quill and inkwell. -- SunirShah
> 
> It's a very temporary thing, the nearest thing Jimbo had to hand.  Definitely won't be the WikiPedia logo--not that I agree with you that the U.S. flag is "ethnocentric" (which seems very strange to say to me, given that the U.S. is, after all, the biggest ethnic melting pot in the world). -- LarrySanger
> 
> A truly ethnically aware person would be anathema to an ethnic melting pot. The more cultures involved, the stronger your organization because there is more information available to bring to the table. Any country that has a policy or culture of assimilating immigrants will have a difficult time adapting to the future, especially given free trade, globalization and the Internet. -- SunirShah
> 
> I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeiteren?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle even though he's not Irish
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979773915
1c1
< In its first day of existences, because the nearest thing to hand for JimmyWales that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
---
> In its first day of existences, because the nearest thing to hand for JimmyWales that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, indeed WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979773944
1c1
< In its first day of existences, because the nearest thing to hand for JimmyWales that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, indeed WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
---
> In its first day of existence, because the nearest thing to hand (for JimmyWales) that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, indeed WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
------
MakeaNewPage|979775212
1,3c1
< Very easy.  Simply go to any existing wiki page, such as the NewTopics page, click "Edit text of this page," and type in the name of the new page in the text box.  Then save your edit, and you'll see your page name followed by "?".  Click on the question mark to edit the new page.
< 
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis.  For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside the word, like PhiloSophy.
---
> Short Articles
------
MakeaNewPage|979775444
1c1,3
< Short Articles
---
> ShortArticles
> 
> The shortest article I know is "a".
------
MuSic|979777976
1c1,15
< That which soothes the savage beast... 
---
> That which soothes the savage beast... 
> 
> is not what soothes an intelligent being ;-)
> 
> Music can soothe but also get the adrenaline in your blood ...
> 
> and Vivaldi's Credo (RV591 and Gloria (Rv589) are superb ...
> 
> so a little nonsical ? contribution to what end ???
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
MuSic|979778095
7c7
< and Vivaldi's Credo (RV591 and Gloria (Rv589) are superb ...
---
> and Vivaldi's Credo (RV591) and Gloria (Rv589) are superb and what to think of the Beatus Vir and Lauda Jerusalem ...
9c9
< so a little nonsical ? contribution to what end ???
---
> so a little nonsens-ical ? contribution to what end ???
------
StartaNewParagraph|979778188
1c1,2
< This is kind of a funny page, and it comes with instructions, as follows: first click on the "Edit text of this page" below.  Read the text.  Then hit the "back" button and re-read the text.  Then this page will make sense.
---
> This is kind of a funny page, and it comes with instructions, as follows: first click on the "Edit text of this page" below.  Read the text.  Then hit the "back" button and re-read the text.  
> Then this page will make sense.
18c19
< This is the second line of the attempted paragraph, but it will be treated as a new paragraph.  Click on the edit link to see the entered text.
---
> This is the second line of the attempted paragraph, but it will be treated as a new paragraph.  Click on the edit link to see the entered text.
------
MuSic|979779983
10a11
> ----
12c13
< 
---
> By the way, feel free to replace the above with something that accurately and interestingly describes music.
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast|979784017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On Quine's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
------
HoldComeWhatMay|979784141
1c1
< A phrase popularized by that ancient HarVard philosophy professor, WillardVQuine.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
---
> A phrase popularized by the late HarVard philosophy professor, WillardVQuine.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
------
PhilosophyAndLogic|979787590
12a13,14
> Friedrich Nietzsche
> 
13a16,17
> 
> 
------
TheKoran|979791584
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of God for Muslims.  It is the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet over a period of 22 years.
------
TheKoran|979792308
1c1
< The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of God for Muslims.  It is the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet over a period of 22 years.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of God for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
------
NewTopics|979792493
5,7c5
< NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall --
< TheBible? -- TheKoran? -- TheTorah? -- PlatosRepublic? -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff --
< ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle
---
> NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle
------
HomePage|979792602
3c3
< CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
------
ReLigion|979792747
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah
> 
> You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
------
ReLigion|979792774
1c1
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing
------
PythagoreanTheorem|979797168
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The PythagoreanTheorem is attributed to the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras who lived in the 6th century B.C. The theorem states a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says:
> 
> 
> The sum of the squares of the length the sides of a right triangle is equal to the square 
> of the length of the hypotenuse.
> 
> 
> Visually, the theorem can be illustrated as follows:
> 
> 
> Given a right triangle, with sides a and b and hypotenuse c, (Figure 1)
> 
> 
>                                                      / l
> 
> 
>                                                    /   l
> 
> 
>                                       c         /      l 
> 
>     
>                                               /        l 
> 
>    
>                                            /           l         b
> 
>           
>                                         /              l
> 
> 
>                                      /________________ l
> 
> 
>                                               a
> 
> 
>                                       Figure 1
> 
> 
> the hypotenuse is the side opposite the right (90 degree) angle in a right triangle.
> 
> 
> Then c^2 = a^2 + b^2, or c + sqrt(a^2 + b^2).
> 
> 
> Certain sets of 3 integers are useful to remember as being Pythagorean triples, that is,
> they are possible lengths of the sides of a right triangle. For example:
> 
> 
>                      a                     b                       c
> 
> 
>                      3                     4                       5
> 
> 
>                      9                    12                      15
> 
> 
> 
> The PythagoreanTheorem is an important tool in the study of TrigonometricFunctions. 
> 
------
PythagoreanTheorem|979797629
20c20
<                                       c         /      l 
---
>                                       '''c'''         /      l 
26c26
<                                            /           l         b
---
>                                            /           l  '''b'''
35c35
<                                               a
---
>                                            '''a'''
44c44
< Then c^2 = a^2 + b^2, or c + sqrt(a^2 + b^2).
---
> Then, '''c'''^'''2''' = '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''', or '''c''' = sqrt('''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''').
------
PythagoreanTheorem|979797836
51c51
<                      a                     b                       c
---
>                      '''a'''                     '''b'''                       '''c'''
------
RoseParks|979798057
14c14
< and so much more. Surely you know who I am....
---
> and so much more. Surely you know who I am....
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979798270
1c1
< PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP
---
> PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
3c3
< Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
---
> Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
------
ComputinG|979799777
1c1
< * Algorithms
---
> * AlgorithmS
------
MouthOff|979801106
4c4,5
< The voice of a  Nupedia moderator and a good one.
---
> The voice of a  Nupedia moderator and a good one.----
> Thank you.  :-))
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979802068
15c15,25
< I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeiteren?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle even though he's not Irish
---
> I suppose it would be better to be like YugoSlavia, then?  Or to treat foreign workers the way some Germans treat their GastArbeiteren?  Perhaps you do not understand the concept of an ethnic MeltingPot; have you been to the UnitedStates?  Have you met the sons and granddaughters of immigrants here, and how they both preserve their ethnic heritage while freely intermingling with those who have a quite distinct ethnic heritage?  For generations, Americans have been saying that one of the things that makes the country great is precisely '''that''' we have mixed together so many different cultures.  I think some of us in the United States understand rather better what you're trying to say than you do yourself. -- LarrySanger, who plays IrishFiddle even though he's not Irish
> 
> I grew up in Deep River, Ontario, Canada. Deep River has the largest number of PhD's per capita in Canada, so it's diverse (as its population comes from far and wide); but the surrounding Renfrew County is frighteningly homogeneous. Now I live in Ottawa, Ontario and I work in the high tech sector. I would guess that the high tech sector is over one quarter recently landed immigrants.
> 
> I think the phrase that sums up my best experiences so far: "We don't melt, we mingle." Melting and mixing has that unfortunate connotation of becoming homogeneous, like two metals melting and mixing together to form an alloy--a homogeneous (in every sense of the word) mixture/solution. Homogeneity is ''bad'' (or so I posit.) And don't forget the melting pot is the metaphor used by immigration theorists who believed in assimilation policies.
> 
> I haven't travelled extensively in the States. But I don't think it's all that different from Canada. Canada has until quite recently not done very well to accept foreigners into its society. Even now, it has problems. One needs only to wander into Renfrew County to see what I mean. I find my current high tech environment to be better at adapting; partly out of necessity, partly out of education. 
> 
> Taking an extreme example like Yugoslavia is a fallacy for two reasons. One: extreme boundary cases aren't interesting compared to the average case in social phenomena; two: it isn't a paradigm case. Yugoslavia has been "mixed" as such for hundreds of years. The conflict there is centuries old, involving particular details not part of the general case. In that case, a religious conflict that is really a resource (geographic) conflict of ''two'' nations combatting. Not the same as a single nation building from diverse individuals. -- SunirShah
> 
> P.S. I like the new logo.
------
ReLigion|979804219
1c1
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD
3c3
< You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
---
> You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
------
NewTopics|979804250
5c5
< NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle
---
> NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD
------
GoD|979804454
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is a large number of different conceptions of the divine, and this is even reflected in the NamesGivenToTheDivine.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|979804804
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses to "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, include the following:
> 
> Generic names for the divine being(s): God (capitalized), god (uncapitalized), goddess, gods, deity, deities
> 
> Names for specific conceptions of god: Yahweh, Jesus Christ, the Holy Trinity, the Godhead, Allah, Krishna
> 
> Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.
> 
> The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)
------
GoD|979805332
1c1,7
< There is a large number of different conceptions of the divine, and this is even reflected in the NamesGivenToTheDivine.
---
> Feel free to edit this page, as the topic is dear to many people and I might not have gotten it right.
> 
> There is a large number of different conceptions of the divine, and this is even reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.
> 
> The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or conceptions, about God: MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (which latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
> 
> There is an ancient tradition that began with AbraHam (or AdAm, for believers) according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|979805870
1c1
< There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses to "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, include the following:
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of meaning of religious language ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
3c3
< Generic names for the divine being(s): God (capitalized), god (uncapitalized), goddess, gods, deity, deities
---
> Generic names for the divine being(s): GoD (capitalized), god (uncapitalized), GodDess, GodS, DeIty, deities
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: Yahweh, Jesus Christ, the Holy Trinity, the Godhead, Allah, Krishna
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa.
7c7
< Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.
---
> [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.]
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|979805997
1c1
< There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of meaning of religious language ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
3c3
< Generic names for the divine being(s): GoD (capitalized), god (uncapitalized), GodDess, GodS, DeIty, deities
---
> Generic names for the divine being(s): GoD (GodCapitalized), god (i.e., GodUncapitalized), GodDess, GodS, DeIty, deities
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa
9c9
< The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)
---
> The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)
------
NewTopics|979806086
5c5
< NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD
---
> NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
------
WikiPedia|979806279
11c11
< I second this request.
---
> I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
------
GoD|979806482
7c7
< There is an ancient tradition that began with AbraHam (or AdAm, for believers) according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).
---
> There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
------
TheKoran|979806532
1c1
< The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of God for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
------
GoD|979806557
5c5
< The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or conceptions, about God: MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (which latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
---
> The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or conceptions, about God: MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (the latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
7c7
< There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
---
> There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
------
GoD|979806640
7c7
< There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld, OmniPotent (all-powerful), OmniScient (all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolent (all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
---
> There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
------
WikiPediaProcess|979806756
3,8c3
< ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
< 
< ----
< 
< A comment: For an internet encyclopedia that will have contributors from around the world, a USA flag somehow
< doesn't seem right for the logo. 
---
> ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
------
HomePage|979807660
3c3
< CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- TechnologY
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY
------
ReLigion|979807683
1c1
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD -- ConceptionsOfTheDivine
------
ReLigion|979807703
1c1
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD -- ConceptionsOfTheDivine
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
------
TheBible|979825126
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> I Definition of Terms
>   (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew vs Greek, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
> 
> II Description
>    (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book)
> 
> III History
>     (modern reconstruction of composition of Hebrew Bible; of Christian Bible; don't try to explicate development of biblical criticism that underlies this here but cross-reference to article(s) to be written; try fairly to represent main stands of liberal vs conservative thought; outline history of transmission and translation after close of canons)
> 
> IV Interpretation
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979825252
2a3,6
> 
> -----
> 
> Agreed - Wiki's are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some basic formatting  -- Ravi Desai
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979825348
1a2
> TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979825372
1,2c1,2
< PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
< TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
---
>     PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
>     TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979825490
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> At least according to Richard Feynman, the most remarkable formula in the world is:
> 
> e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
> 
> where e is the base of the natural logarithms, i is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers) and pi is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle with its diameter.
> 
> -- Ravi Desai.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979825506
5c5
< where e is the base of the natural logarithms, i is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers) and pi is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle with its diameter.
---
> where e is the base of the natural logarithms, i is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers), and pi is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle with its diameter.
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979826308
6c6
< Agreed - Wiki's are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some basic formatting  -- Ravi Desai
---
> Agreed - Wiki's are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some <b>basic formatting</b>  -- Ravi Desai
------
PopularMusic|979826504
30a31,34
> 
> * JarsOfClay
> * MichaelWSmith
> 
------
JarsOfClay|979827044
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> They have three main albums released to date:
> 
> Jars of Clay (self titled)
>     Liquid
>     Sinking
>     Love Song for a Savior
>     Like a Child
>     Art In Me
>     He
>     Boy on a String
>     Flood
>     Worlds Apart
>     Blind
>     Four Seven
> 
> Much Afraid
>     Overjoyed
>     Fade to Grey
>     Tea and Sympathy
>     Crazy Times
>     Frail
>     Five Candles (You were there)
>     Weighed Down
>     Portrait of an Apology
>     Truce
>     Much Afraid
>     Hymn
> 
> If I Left the Zoo
>     Goodbye, Goodnight
>     Unforgetful You
>     Collide
>     No One Loves Me Like You
>     Famous Last Words
>     Sad Clown
>     Hand
>     I'm Alright
>     Grace
>     Can't Erase It
>     River Constantine
> 
> Official Web Site: http://www.jarsofclay.com/
> 
> Genre: Christian Pop/Rock
> 
> Notes: They are often known as the "fab four" of Christian music.
------
NnN|979832170
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori) is a temperate country located in the
> South West Pacific. It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
> smaller islands. The South Island is the largest land mass, and is
> divided along its length by the Southern Alps, the highest peak of
> which is Mount Cook, at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than
> three kilometres in the South Island. The North Island is less
> mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism. The tallest
> North Island Mountain, Ruapehu (2 797m) is an active cone volcano. The
> total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat
> smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger
> than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along
> its main, North-North East axis.
> 
> The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or
> rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally 
> located capital, is 5.9C in mid winter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
> 
> New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a
> 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is
> selected. This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001)
> Helen
> Clarke of the centre-left Labour party. Currently six parties are
> represented in the New Zealand parliament. New Zealand's head of state
> is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The
> Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys.
> 
> New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land
> masses. Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500
> and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first
> European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman, who arrived
> from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook, whose extensive surveys
> starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the
> 1790s on. Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
> of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and
> third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant
> feature of New Zealand's public life.
> 
> New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country. It's primary export
> industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry. There
> are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
> 
> 
> Further Reading:
>  Statistics New Zealand, "The New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1998", GP Publications, Wellington, 1998
> 
>  Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
> 
------
NnN|979832259
0a1,2
> NewZealand
> 
------
NnN|979832287
3,49d2
< New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori) is a temperate country located in the
< South West Pacific. It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
< smaller islands. The South Island is the largest land mass, and is
< divided along its length by the Southern Alps, the highest peak of
< which is Mount Cook, at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than
< three kilometres in the South Island. The North Island is less
< mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism. The tallest
< North Island Mountain, Ruapehu (2 797m) is an active cone volcano. The
< total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat
< smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger
< than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along
< its main, North-North East axis.
< 
< The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or
< rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally 
< located capital, is 5.9C in mid winter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
< 
< New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a
< 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is
< selected. This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001)
< Helen
< Clarke of the centre-left Labour party. Currently six parties are
< represented in the New Zealand parliament. New Zealand's head of state
< is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The
< Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys.
< 
< New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land
< masses. Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500
< and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first
< European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman, who arrived
< from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook, whose extensive surveys
< starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the
< 1790s on. Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
< of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and
< third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant
< feature of New Zealand's public life.
< 
< New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country. It's primary export
< industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry. There
< are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
< 
< 
< Further Reading:
<  Statistics New Zealand, "The New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1998", GP Publications, Wellington, 1998
< 
<  Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
< 
------
NamingConventions|979832322
1c1
< ''Recommend doing things like AfghanistanCountry rather than the eminently ugly AfghanistaN.''
---
> Recommend naming one-word pages like AfghanistanCountry rather than the eminently ugly AfghanistaN.
3c3,7
< ''In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.  -- ScottMoonen''
---
> In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.
> 
> For example, say I want to link to a page from my site.  I have an [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki InterWiki] prefix set up for WikiPedia on my own wiki.  Without going through the rigamarole of actually looking up something on WikiPedia, I have no ''a priori'' way of knowing whether to link to <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlAska</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaSka</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlasKa</nowiki></tt>, or <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaskA</nowiki></tt>.  Lather, rinse, and repeat for longer names like AfghanistaN.  If I knew there was an AlaskaState naming convention, then I wouldn't have to give it a second thought.
> 
> The arbitrary naming convention used so far is very inconvenient and doesn't contribute at all to [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking].  At very minimum, you might investigate other wiki engines that support arbitrary link patterns like <nowiki>[Alaska]</nowiki> and <nowiki>[Ward Cunningham]</nowiki>.  -- ScottMoonen
------
NamingConventions|979832401
3c3
< In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.
---
> In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.  You might name the "letter" pages things like IndexA, which might link to IndexAaAl and IndexAmAz (once you get big enough :-).
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979832469
1,2c1,2
<     PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
<     TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
---
> :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
> :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
------
WikiPediaFaq|979832517
2a3,5
> 
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page. This is not true of either print or on-line encycolpediae. With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability. I can't do any of those things with WikiPedia. Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?
> 
17c20
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
---
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
------
WikiPediaFaq|979832534
4c4
< '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page. This is not true of either print or on-line encycolpediae. With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability. I can't do any of those things with WikiPedia. Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?
---
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page. This is not true of either print or on-line encycolpediae. With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability. I can't do any of those things with WikiPedia. Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
------
NewZealand|979832564
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori [MaoriLanguage]) is a temperate country located in the
> South West Pacific [SouthWestPacific]. It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
> smaller islands. The South Island [TheSouthIslandOfNewZealand]
>  is the largest land mass, and is
> divided along its length by the Southern Alps [NewZealandSouthernAlps], the highest peak of
> which is Mount Cook [AorangiMountainNewZealand]
> , at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than
> three kilometres in the South Island. The North Island [TheNorthIslandOfNewZealand]
>  is less
> mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism [VolcanismDefinition]. The tallest
> North Island Mountain, Ruapehu [RuapehuMountainNewZealand]
>  (2 797m) is an active cone volcano. The
> total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat
> smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger
> than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along
> its main, North-North East axis.
> 
> The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or
> rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally 
> located capital, is 5.9C in mid winter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
> 
> New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a
> 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is
> selected. This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001)
> Helen
> Clarke [PrimeMinisterHelenClarke] of the centre-left Labour party [NewZealandLabourParty]. Currently six parties are
> represented in the New Zealand parliament. New Zealand's head of state
> is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The
> Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys.
> 
> New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land
> masses. Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500
> and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first
> European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman [AbelJanzoonTasmanExplorer], who arrived
> from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook [JamesCookExplorer], whose extensive surveys
> starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the
> 1790s on. Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
> of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and
> third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant
> feature of New Zealand's public life.
> 
> New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country. It's primary export
> industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry. There
> are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
> 
> 
> Further Reading:
> Statistics New Zealand, "The New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1998", GP Publications, Wellington, 1998
> 
> Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
------
ReLigion|979841296
3c3
< You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
---
> You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "%Religion%" here.
------
ReLigion|979841310
3c3
< You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "%Religion%" here.
---
> You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
------
TheBible|979843213
0a1
> I DefinitionofBibleTerms
2,3c3
< I Definition of Terms
<   (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew vs Greek, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
---
> (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew vs Greek, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
5,6c5
< II Description
<    (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book)
---
> ----
8c7,13
< III History
---
> II DescriptionOfTheBible
> 
> (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book)
> 
> ----
> 
> III BibleHistory
11c16,18
< IV Interpretation
---
> ----
> 
> IV BiblicalInterpretation
------
TheBible|979843234
14c14,15
<     (modern reconstruction of composition of Hebrew Bible; of Christian Bible; don't try to explicate development of biblical criticism that underlies this here but cross-reference to article(s) to be written; try fairly to represent main stands of liberal vs conservative thought; outline history of transmission and translation after close of canons)
---
> 
> (modern reconstruction of composition of Hebrew Bible; of Christian Bible; don't try to explicate development of biblical criticism that underlies this here but cross-reference to article(s) to be written; try fairly to represent main stands of liberal vs conservative thought; outline history of transmission and translation after close of canons)
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979843388
7a8,11
> 
> Is there a name for the formula?
> 
> What does it mean--what does it show--why is it remarkable?  (Not sure what I'm asking here, but you probably do.)
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979843397
8a9,10
> ----
> 
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979843414
7,8c7
< -- Ravi Desai.
< 
---
> -- RaviDesai.
10d8
< 
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|979843461
3d2
< 
5,6c4
< 
< Agreed - Wiki's are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some <b>basic formatting</b>  -- Ravi Desai
---
> Agreed - wikis are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some '''basic formatting'''  -- RaviDesai
------
NewZealand|979843712
0a1,2
> New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori [MaoriLanguage]) is a temperate country located in the South West Pacific [SouthWestPacific].  It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
> smaller islands.  The South Island [TheSouthIslandOfNewZealand] is the largest land mass, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps [NewZealandSouthernAlps], the highest peak of which is Mount Cook [AorangiMountainNewZealand], at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than three kilometres in the South Island.  The North Island [TheNorthIslandOfNewZealand] is less mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism [VolcanismDefinition].  The tallest North Island Mountain, Ruapehu [RuapehuMountainNewZealand] (2 797m) is an active cone volcano.  The total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along its main, North-North East axis.
2,45c4,11
< New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori [MaoriLanguage]) is a temperate country located in the
< South West Pacific [SouthWestPacific]. It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
< smaller islands. The South Island [TheSouthIslandOfNewZealand]
<  is the largest land mass, and is
< divided along its length by the Southern Alps [NewZealandSouthernAlps], the highest peak of
< which is Mount Cook [AorangiMountainNewZealand]
< , at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than
< three kilometres in the South Island. The North Island [TheNorthIslandOfNewZealand]
<  is less
< mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism [VolcanismDefinition]. The tallest
< North Island Mountain, Ruapehu [RuapehuMountainNewZealand]
<  (2 797m) is an active cone volcano. The
< total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat
< smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger
< than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along
< its main, North-North East axis.
< 
< The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or
< rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally 
< located capital, is 5.9C in mid winter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
< 
< New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a
< 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is
< selected. This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001)
< Helen
< Clarke [PrimeMinisterHelenClarke] of the centre-left Labour party [NewZealandLabourParty]. Currently six parties are
< represented in the New Zealand parliament. New Zealand's head of state
< is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The
< Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys.
< 
< New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land
< masses. Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500
< and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first
< European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman [AbelJanzoonTasmanExplorer], who arrived
< from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook [JamesCookExplorer], whose extensive surveys
< starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the
< 1790s on. Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
< of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and
< third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant
< feature of New Zealand's public life.
< 
< New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country. It's primary export
< industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry. There
< are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
---
> The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally located capital, is 5.9C in midwinter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
> 
> New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is selected.  This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001) Helen Clarke [PrimeMinisterHelenClarke] of the centre-left Labour party [NewZealandLabourParty].  Currently six parties are represented in the New Zealand parliament.  New Zealand's head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys (not to be confused with the fictional HardyBoys).
> 
> New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land masses.  Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500 and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman [AbelJanzoonTasmanExplorer], who arrived from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook [JamesCookExplorer], whose extensive surveys starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the 1790s on.  Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
> of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant feature of New Zealand's public life.
> 
> New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country.  It's primary export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry.  There are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
48a15
> 
------
WikiPediaFaq|979844333
4c4
< '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page. This is not true of either print or on-line encycolpediae. With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability. I can't do any of those things with WikiPedia. Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
---
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with WikiPedia.  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
5a6,9
> A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
> 
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedias, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on what the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
> ----
------
WikiPediaFaq|979844356
8c8
< Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedias, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on what the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
---
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on what the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
------
WikiPediaFaq|979844380
8c8
< Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on what the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
---
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
------
NamingConventions|979844582
7a8,9
> ----
> There is, however, a search form at the bottom of every page.  Isn't it both more convenient and more liberating in the end to let people do whatever they want, and just search for a string of characters whenever you think there might be related page already in existence, to which you might link?
------
ComputerSoftware|979845690
2a3
> ** CollaborativeSoftware
------
ComputerSoftware|979845733
3a4,5
> *** WikiCollaborativeSoftware
> 
------
ComputerSoftware|979845770
4c4
< *** WikiCollaborativeSoftware
---
> *** WikiWiki
------
WikiWiki|979846003
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''WikiWiki''' - a collaborative software application, enabling web documents to be authored collectively using a simple markup scheme and without the content being reviewed prior to its acceptance. Often called ''Wiki'' for short.
> 
> A WikiWikiWeb is a collaborative hypertext document produced by a community of users by means of a WikiWiki tool.
> 
> The original WikiWikiWeb was established by WardCunningham, who invented and named the Wiki concept, and produced the first implementation of a WikiWiki server.
> 
> Ward's Wiki remains one of the most popular Wiki sites:
> 
> 	http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979846288
25c25,27
< P.S. I like the new logo.
---
> P.S. I like the new logo.
> 
> ''Me too, it's great!''
------
InvestigatorAsPholosopher|979846542
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sherlock Holmes is represented as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally acute observer.  What hidden advantages did he possess over his peers?
------
PhiloSophy|979846587
1c1
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
3c3
< Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
---
> Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979846859
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sherlock Holmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979847175
1a2,3
> 
> Consider:  Holmes observed the world around him in a manner which took into account the most minor details.  Those around him seldom detected the same "clues" and when they did, the evidence in front of their eyes was empty to them.  Conan Doyle may or may not have consciously given Holmes an unfair leg up over his compatriots - but regardless of intent, that advantage existed.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979847485
3a4,5
> 
> It is unlikely that persons who have not undertaken one form or another of professional investigation will detect how the "Holmes" world view differed from others.  It is equally unlikely that it would reveal itself to professional investigators (be they involved in science, law enforcement or private investigation) who have not also made a targeted study of the science of logic and its associated processes.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979849958
5a6,27
> 
> Logic is commonly seen as a study involving datasets, relationships between them, belonging and not-belonging.  This view will serve as well as any other to illustrate the synergy which exists between the three most basic elements of successful investigative technique:
> 
> A)  Perception
> 
> B)  Knowledge Base
> 
> C)  Logic
> 
> One must needs be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor.  And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing.
> 
> The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them.  That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data.  The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances.  Take this example:  A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 am and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM.  What are we to make of this?  In a vacuum of information, nothing.  Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart.  Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive.  But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time.  Time explained.  But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered.
> 
> Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed?  It was no more nor less than this:  His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era.  He knew how paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin smelled.  Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem.  'Nuff said?  The further, and less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation.  Multiple datasets with regard to a single clue generally did not exist.
> 
> The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers."  These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright febble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison).  In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'.
> 
> Here's how:
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979850232
21c21
< The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers."  These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright febble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison).  In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'.
---
> The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers."  These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright feeble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison).  In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979851750
24a25,29
> First, the prospective investigator should be encouraged to continually expand his or her knowledge base.  There should be no off-limits learning.  If one is to investigate in the field of medications, reactions and drug development, then the first and most important datasets to acquire would obviously deal with such things as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, and the like.  Other areas of investigative specialty would likewise benefit most greatly from studies of their related datasets.
> 
> Second, in one fashion or another, the prospect should be educated in the logical concept of "belonging."  Taken grossly, this concept could relate to things as obvious as a cooking stove in a living room or, conversely, a kitchen with no stove.  Things which ought to belong to a scenario and which are present in the expected condition, receive the lowest importance in investigative observation, and things which are present when they do not belong or absent when they do belong receive first attention.  First, of course, one observes the scene and makes no evaluation.  Then one evaluates observed elements relative to each other.  Lastly, one evaluates observed elements relative to datasets which are not implicit in the scene, but are rather contained in the investigator's head or his reference sources.
> 
> Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process.  Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential.  In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme.  Why does our guy move so slowly?  A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 30" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound.
------
NamingConventions|979853527
9c9,16
< There is, however, a search form at the bottom of every page.  Isn't it both more convenient and more liberating in the end to let people do whatever they want, and just search for a string of characters whenever you think there might be related page already in existence, to which you might link?
---
> There is, however, a search form at the bottom of every page.  Isn't it both more convenient and more liberating in the end to let people do whatever they want, and just search for a string of characters whenever you think there might be related page already in existence, to which you might link?
> 
> :I respectfully disagree:
> *AfghanistanCountry matches every search AfghanistaN matches.
> *AfghanistanCountry additionally matches every search for "country".
> *[http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking] is vital.  When I'm typing an article on the SovietUnion and want to link someplace I don't want to waste the time to go off and search whether it's AfGhanistan, AfgHanistan, AfghAnistan, . . ., AfghanistaN.  I want to know right off the bat what it is.
> 
> :I submit that there is nothing in the way of convenience or liberation that AfghanistaN can do for you and which AfghanistanCountry can't.  And it seems to me there are serious usability deficiencies in AfghanistaN.  Consider especially those persons who haven't experienced a wiki before.  OTOH, as I suggested above, you might research wikis that allow you to create one-word links that arent UgLy. -- ScottMoonen
------
InvestigatorAsPholosopher|979862394
1c1,3
< Sherlock Holmes is represented as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally acute observer.  What hidden advantages did he possess over his peers?
---
> Sherlock Holmes is represented as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally acute observer.  What hidden advantages did he possess over his peers? ----
> 
> A. Cocaine addiction?
------
InvestigatorAsPholosopher|979863265
1,3c1
< Sherlock Holmes is represented as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally acute observer.  What hidden advantages did he possess over his peers? ----
< 
< A. Cocaine addiction?
---
> See InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979863269
15c15
< One must needs be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor.  And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing.
---
> One must needs be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor.  And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing.  Factually, this may be one of the most rarely developed investigative skills.  Although preconception impedes observation, too many investigators of all kinds approach a scene with definite ideas as to what they are looking for, what they expect to see, and what they expect it to mean.  Even having viewed a scene initially without preconception, many are incapable of rehabilitating former observations to neutral value once they have assigned a given meaning or interpretation to them.  Thus, when new or unexpected knowledge is available to inform old observations, these individuals are handicapped.  They cannot look and make new, unbiased observations, nor remove the coloration previously applied to former observations so as to view them in light of newly available knowledge.
17c17
< The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them.  That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data.  The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances.  Take this example:  A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 am and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM.  What are we to make of this?  In a vacuum of information, nothing.  Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart.  Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive.  But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time.  Time explained.  But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered.
---
> The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them.  That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data.  The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances.  Take this example:  A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 AM and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM.  What are we to make of this?  In a vacuum of information, nothing.  Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart.  Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive.  But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time.  Time explained.  But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered.
19c19
< Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed?  It was no more nor less than this:  His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era.  He knew how paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin smelled.  Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem.  'Nuff said?  The further, and less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation.  Multiple datasets with regard to a single clue generally did not exist.
---
> Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed?  It was no more nor less than this:  His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era.  He knew the smell of paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin.  Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem.  'Nuff said?  A further, though less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation.  Multiple datasets in reference to a single clue generally did not exist.
29c29
< Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process.  Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential.  In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme.  Why does our guy move so slowly?  A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 30" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound.
---
> Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process.  Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential.  In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme.  Why does our guy move so slowly?  A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 24" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound.
31a32
> A synergy exists between personal ability (as in native capacity for data-processing volume and speed, sensory acuity, etc.), perception, knowledge and logic.  Increases in the appliciation of each factor can multiply the results available from the application of each other factor.  
32a34,40
> How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber?  The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint.  He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter.  Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen.  The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed.  E.G.:  Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder?  Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing?  Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints?  Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint?  How was the tubing secured?  How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood?  The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc.  The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation.
> 
> If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused.  If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective.
> 
> What does all this have to do with philosophy?
> 
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibitiy exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear.
------
AlbaniA|979865753
1c1,385
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Albania
> 
>                                         Introduction
> 
> 
> Background: In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
> has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide
> investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
> 
>                                          Geography
> 
> 
> 
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 41 00 N, 20 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Europe 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 28,748 sq km 
> land: 27,398 sq km 
> water: 1,350 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 720 km 
> border countries: Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and Montenegro 287 km (114 km
> with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) 
> 
> Coastline: 362 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m 
> highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel, hydropower 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 21% 
> permanent crops: 5% 
> permanent pastures: 15% 
> forests and woodland: 38% 
> other: 21% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 3,410 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) 
> 
>                                            People
>  
> 
> Population: 3,490,435 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 545,329; female 507,589) 
> 15-64 years: 63% (male 1,056,583; female 1,141,664) 
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 104,086; female 135,184) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 19.47 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -10.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 71.57 years 
> male: 68.75 years 
> female: 74.59 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Albanian(s) 
> adjective: Albanian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) 
> note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek
> organization) 
> 
> Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% 
> note: all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing
> private religious practice 
> 
> Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 9 and over can read and write 
> total population: 93% (1997 est.) 
> male: NA% 
> female: NA% 
> 
>                                         Government
> 
> 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Republic of Albania 
> conventional short form: Albania 
> local long form: Republika e Shqiperise 
> local short form: Shqiperia 
> former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania 
> 
> Data code: AL 
> 
> Government type: emerging democracy 
> 
> Capital: Tirana 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth) and 1 municipality* (bashki); Berat, Bulqize, Delvine, Devoll
> (Bilisht), Diber (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje,
> Kucove, Kukes, Kurbin, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesi e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen),
> Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane (Tirana), Tirane* (Tirana), Tropoje
> (Bajram Curri), Vlore 
> note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name
> following in parentheses) 
> 
> Independence: 28 November 1912 (from Ottoman Empire) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 28 November (1912) 
> 
> Constitution: a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum on 28 November 1998; note - the opposition Democratic Party
> boycotted the vote 
> 
> Legal system: has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Ilir META (since 29 October 1999) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the president 
> elections: president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held NA 2002);
> prime minister appointed by the president 
> election results: Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3,
> abstained 2, invalid 7 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote
> and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) 
> elections: last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%,
> PLL 3.09%, PDK 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1,
> PUK 1, independents 3 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the
> Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Albanian United Right or DBSH (includes PBK, Albanian Republican Party or
> PRS, AND PDD) [Abaz ERMENJI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan
> CEKA]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Liberal Union Party
> [Teodor LACO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Ekrem SPAHIA]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Abaz ERMENJI];
> Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Right National Front [Hysni SELFO]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender
> GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; note - Teodar LACO of the Liberal Union Party was
> leader of the Social Democratic Union of Albania or PBSD 
> 
> International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA,
> IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN,
> UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Petrit BUSHATI 
> chancery: 2100 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 223-4942 
> FAX: [1] (202) 628-7342 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph LIMPRECHT 
> embassy: Rruga Elbasanit 103, Tirana 
> mailing address: American Embassy, Tirana, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9510 
> telephone: [355] (42) 47285 through 47289 
> FAX: [355] (42) 32222 
> 
> Flag description: red with a black two-headed eagle in the center 
> 
>                                           Economy
> 
> 
> 
> Economy - overview: An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more
> open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous
> centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the
> election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse
> of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population -
> triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The
> new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.
> The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy.
> These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992,
> substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 7% in 1999.
> International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,650 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 54% 
> industry: 25% 
> services: 21% (1998) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 19.6% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.692 million (including 352,000 emigrant workers and 261,000 domestically unemployed) (1994 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49.5%, industry and services 50.5% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14% (October 1997) officially, but may be as high as 28% 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $393 million 
> expenditures: $676 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) 
> 
> Industries: food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 5.15 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 2.91% 
> hydro: 97.09% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 5.29 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products 
> 
> Exports: $242 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco 
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 63%, Greece 12%, Germany 6%, Netherlands, Belgium, US (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $925 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Italy 43%, Greece 29%, Turkey 4%, Germany 4%, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
> (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $820 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: EU pledged $100 million to share with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999) 
> 
> Currency: 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars 
> 
> Exchange rates: leke (L) per US$1 - 135.31 (December 1999), 137.69 (1999), 150.63 (1998), 148.93 (1997), 104.50 (1996), 92.70
> (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
>                                        Communications
> 
>  
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist
> government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences 
> international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 810,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999) 
> 
> Televisions: 405,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
>  
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 670 km 
> standard gauge: 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1996) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 18,000 km 
> paved: 5,400 km 
> unpaved: 12,600 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Lake Ohrid, and Lake Prespa (1990) 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 145 km; petroleum products 55 km; natural gas 64 km (1991) 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 10,907 GRT/16,101 DWT 
> ships by type: cargo 6 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 10 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 7 
> over 3,047 m: 1 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 
> under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                           Military
> 
>  
> 
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 856,820 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 701,194 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 35,508 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY99) 
> 
>                                       Transnational Issues
> 
> 
> 
> Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but
> has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks
> independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education,
> access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government 
> 
> Illicit drugs: increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route
> and - to a far lesser extent - cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production;
> ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
------
HomePage|979865799
4c4
< 
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> -- StateS
------
HomePage|979865831
4c4
< -- StateS
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> -- UnitedStates
------
HomePage|979865850
4a5
> 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|979865899
40c40
< The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibitiy exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear.
---
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear.
------
AlgeriA|979866581
1c1,397
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Algeria
> 
>                                         Introduction
> 
> 
> 
> Background: After a century of rule by France, Algeria became independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the
> fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,
> and postpone the subsequent elections. The FIS response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state
> apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. FIS's armed
> wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, dissolved itself in January 2000 and many armed insurgents surrendered under an amnesty
> program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, some residual fighting continues. Other concerns include
> large-scale unemployment and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy. 
> 
>                                          Geography
> 
>  
> 
> Location: Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 28 00 N, 3 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Africa 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 2,381,740 sq km 
> land: 2,381,740 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 6,343 km 
> border countries: Libya 982 km, Mali 1,376 km, Mauritania 463 km, Morocco 1,559 km, Niger 956 km, Tunisia 965 km, Western
> Sahara 42 km 
> 
> Coastline: 998 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive fishing zone: 32-52 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high
> plateau; sirocco is a hot, dust/sand-laden wind especially common in summer 
> 
> Terrain: mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Chott Melrhir -40 m 
> highest point: Tahat 3,003 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 3% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 13% 
> forests and woodland: 2% 
> other: 82% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 5,550 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mud slides 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw
> sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters;
> Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable
> water 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of
> the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban 
> 
> Geography - note: second-largest country in Africa (after Sudan) 
> 
>                                            People
> 
> 
> 
> Population: 31,193,917 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 35% (male 5,591,044; female 5,389,046) 
> 15-64 years: 61% (male 9,582,864; female 9,381,088) 
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 577,875; female 672,000) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.74% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 23.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 69.65 years 
> male: 68.34 years 
> female: 71.02 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.8 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Algerian(s) 
> adjective: Algerian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 99%, European less than 1% 
> 
> Religions: Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1% 
> 
> Languages: Arabic (official), French, Berber dialects 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 61.6% 
> male: 73.9% 
> female: 49% (1995 est.) 
> 
>                                         Government
> 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria 
> conventional short form: Algeria 
> local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah 
> local short form: Al Jaza'ir 
> 
> Data code: AG 
> 
> Government type: republic 
> 
> Capital: Algiers 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 48 provinces (wilayas, singular - wilaya); Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna,
> Bechar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf,
> Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Mascara, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el
> Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel Abbes, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanghasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi
> Ouzou, Tlemcen 
> 
> Independence: 5 July 1962 (from France) 
> 
> National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 1 November (1954) 
> 
> Constitution: 19 November 1976, effective 22 November 1976; revised 3 November 1988, 23 February 1989, and 28 November 1996;
> note - referendum approving the revisions of 28 November 1996 was signed into law 7 December 1996 
> 
> Legal system: socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council
> composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA (since 28 April 1999) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed BENBITOUR (since 2 December 1999) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister 
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 April 1999 (next to be held NA April 2004);
> prime minister appointed by the president 
> election results: Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA elected president; percent of vote - Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA 70%; note - six of the
> seven candidates withdrew sighting persistent electoral fraud 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the National People's Assembly or Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani (380
> seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Council of Nations (144 seats; one-third of the members
> appointed by the president, two-thirds elected by indirect vote; members serve six-year terms; created as a result of the
> constitutional revision of November 1996) 
> elections: National People's Assembly - last held 5 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); elections for two-thirds of the Council of
> Nations - last held 25 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2003) 
> election results: National People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - RND 40.8%, MSP 18.2%, FLN 16.8%, Nahda Movement
> 8.9%, FFS 5%, RCD 5%, PT 1.1%, Republican Progressive Party 0.8%, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 0.3%, Liberal Social
> Party 0.3%, independents 2.8%; seats by party - RND 156, MSP 69, FLN 62, Nahda Movement 34, FFS 20, RCD 19, PT 4, Republican
> Progressive Party 3, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 1, Liberal Social Party 1, independents 11; Council of Nations - percent of
> vote by party - NA%; seats by party - RND 80, FLN 10, FFS 4, MSP 2 (remaining 48 seats appointed by the president, party
> breakdown NA) 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Algerian Democratic Front or FAD [Sid-Ahmed GHOZALI]; Algerian National Front or ANF
> [Moussa TOUATI]; Algerian Renewal Party or PRA [Noureddine BOUKROUH, chairman]; Democratic National Rally or RND
> [Ahmed OUYAHIA, chairman]; Islamic Salvation Front or FIS (outlawed April 1992) [Ali BELHADJ, Dr. Abassi MADANI,
> Rabeh KEBIR (self-exile in Germany)]; Liberal Social Party [Ahmed KHELIL]; Movement for Democracy in Algeria or MDA
> [Ahmed Ben BELLA]; Movement for Loyalty and Justice [Ahmed Taleb IBRAHIMI, president; Movement of a Peaceful Society or
> MSP [Mahfoud NAHNAH, chairman]; Nahda Movement or Al Nahda [Abdallah DJABALLAH, president]; National Liberation
> Front or FLN [Boualem BENHAMOUDA, secretary general]; National Party for Solidarity and Development or PNSD [Rabah
> BENCHERIF]; National Republican Alliance or ANR [Redha MALEK]; Rally for Culture and Democracy or RCD [Said SAADI,
> secretary general]; Republican Progressive Party [Khadir DRISS]; Social Democratic Movement or MDS [Hachemi CHERIF];
> Socialist Forces Front or FFS [Hocine Ait AHMED, secretary general (self-exile in Switzerland)]; Union for Democracy and
> Freedoms [Mouley BOUKHALAFA]; Workers Party or PT [Louisa HANOUN] 
> note: the government established a multiparty system in September 1989 and, as of 31 December 1990, over 50 legal parties existed; a
> new party law was enacted in March 1997 
> 
> International organization participation: ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24,
> G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC,
> IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD,
> UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Idriss JAZAIRY 
> chancery: 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800 
> FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Cameron R. HUME 
> embassy: 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, Algiers 
> mailing address: B. P. Box 549, Alger-Gare, 16000 Algiers 
> telephone: [213] (2) 69-11-86, 69-12-55, 69-18-54, 69-38-75 
> FAX: [213] (2) 69-39-79 
> 
> Flag description: two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent; the
> crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam (the state religion) 
> 
>                                           Economy
> 
> 
> Economy - overview: The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues,
> 25% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second
> largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the
> Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers
> concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994 and the following year signed onto a three-year extended
> fund facility which ended 30 April 1998. Some progress on economic reform, Paris Club debt reschedulings in 1995 and 1996, and oil
> and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil
> and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment
> outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $147.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3.9% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,700 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 12% 
> industry: 51% 
> services: 37% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 23% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 2.8% 
> highest 10%: 26.8% (1995) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.2% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 9.1 million (2000 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 29.5%, agriculture 22%, construction and public works 16.2%, industry 13.6%, commerce
> and services 13.5%, transportation and communication 5.2% (1989) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 30% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $15.5 billion 
> expenditures: $15.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) 
> 
> Industries: petroleum, natural gas, light industries, mining, electrical, petrochemical, food processing 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 21.38 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 99.77% 
> hydro: 0.23% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 19.882 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 313 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 312 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle 
> 
> Exports: $13.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products 97% 
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 21.2%, US 15.0%, France 12.9%, Spain 10.3%, Brazil 5.9%, Netherlands 5.5% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $9.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and beverages, consumer goods 
> 
> Imports - partners: France 29.5%, Italy 9.8%, US 7.2%, Spain 6.8%, Germany 6.2%, Canada 4.1% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $30 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $897.5 million (1994) 
> 
> Currency: 1 Algerian dinar (DA) = 100 centimes 
> 
> Exchange rates: Algerian dinars (DA) per US$1 - 69.046 (January 2000), 66.574 (1999), 58.739 (1998), 57.707 (1997), 54.749
> (1996), 47.663 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
>                                        Communications
> 
> ] 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 1.176 million (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 33,500 (1999) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good service in north but sparse in south; domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations (20 additional domestic earth
> stations are planned) 
> international: 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and
> Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1
> Arabsat 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 25, FM 1, shortwave 8 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 7.1 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 18 (not including low-power stations) (1999) 
> 
> Televisions: 3.1 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) 
> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
>  
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 4,820 km (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
> standard gauge: 3,664 km 1.435-m gauge (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
> narrow gauge: 1,156 km 1.055-m gauge (1996) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 104,000 km 
> paved: 71,656 km (including 640 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 32,344 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 6,612 km; petroleum products 298 km; natural gas 2,948 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Algiers, Annaba, Arzew, Bejaia, Beni Saf, Dellys, Djendjene, Ghazaouet, Jijel, Mostaganem, Oran, Skikda, Tenes
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 78 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 940,196 GRT/1,094,104 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 9, cargo 27, chemical tanker 7, liquified gas 11, petroleum tanker 5, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 5,
> specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 137 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 51 
> over 3,047 m: 8 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 25 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 5 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 86 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 23 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 41 
> under 914 m: 19 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                           Military
> 
> 
> Military branches: National Popular Army, Navy, Air Force, Territorial Air Defense, National Gendarmerie 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 8,523,257 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 5,220,318 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 373,547 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $1.3 billion (FY94) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY94) 
> 
>                                       Transnational Issues
> 
>  
> 
> Disputes - international: part of southeastern region claimed by Libya 
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AlgeriA|979866614
308d307
< ] 
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ReLigion|979866638
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< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTeChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
------
AmericanSamoa|979866771
1c1,322
< Describe the new page here.
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> American Samoa
> 
>                                         Introduction
> 
>  
> 
> Background: Settled as early as 1000 B. C., Samoa was "discovered" by European explorers in the 18th century. International
> rivalries in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899 treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan
> archipelago. The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the
> following year. 
> 
>                                          Geography
> 
> 
> Location: Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 14 20 S, 170 00 W 
> 
> Map references: Oceania 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 199 sq km 
> land: 199 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> note: includes Rose Island and Swains Island 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km 
> 
> Coastline: 116 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical marine, moderated by southeast trade winds; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; rainy season from November to
> April, dry season from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose Island, Swains Island) 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
> highest point: Lata 966 m 
> 
> Natural resources: pumice, pumicite 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 5% 
> permanent crops: 10% 
> permanent pastures: 0% 
> forests and woodland: 70% 
> other: 15% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: typhoons common from December to March 
> 
> Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial
> funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines 
> 
> Geography - note: Pago Pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from
> rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean 
> 
>                                            People
> 
> 
> 
> Population: 65,446 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 39% (male 13,071; female 12,304) 
> 15-64 years: 56% (male 18,358; female 18,597) 
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,631; female 1,485) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.53% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 25.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 4.26 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 3.74 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 10.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 75.12 years 
> male: 70.66 years 
> female: 79.84 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.6 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: American Samoan(s) 
> adjective: American Samoan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Samoan (Polynesian) 89%, Caucasian 2%, Tongan 4%, other 5% 
> 
> Religions: Christian Congregationalist 50%, Roman Catholic 20%, Protestant and other 30% 
> 
> Languages: Samoan (closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages), English 
> note: most people are bilingual 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 97% 
> male: 98% 
> female: 97% (1980 est.) 
> 
>                                         Government
> 
> 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Territory of American Samoa 
> conventional short form: American Samoa 
> abbreviation: AS 
> 
> Data code: AQ 
> 
> Dependency status: unincorporated and unorganized territory of the US; administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, US
> Department of the Interior 
> 
> Government type: NA 
> 
> Capital: Pago Pago 
> 
> Administrative divisions: none (territory of the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US
> Government, but there are three districts and two islands* at the second order; Eastern, Manu'a, Rose Island*, Swains Island*,
> Western 
> 
> Independence: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> National holiday: Territorial Flag Day, 17 April (1900) 
> 
> Constitution: ratified 1966, in effect 1967 
> 
> Legal system: NA 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President William Jefferson CLINTON of the US (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since
> 20 January 1993) 
> head of government: Governor Tauese P. SUNIA (since 3 January 1997) and Lieutenant Governor Togiola TULAFONO (since 3
> January 1997) 
> cabinet: NA 
> elections: US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for four-year terms; governor and lieutenant governor elected
> on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: Tauese P. SUNIA elected governor; percent of vote - Tauese P. SUNIA (Democrat) 51%, Peter REID (independent)
> 49% 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Fono or Legislative Assembly consists of the House of Representatives (21 seats - 20 of which are
> elected by popular vote and 1 is an appointed, nonvoting delegate from Swains Island; members serve two-year terms) and the Senate
> (18 seats; members are elected from local chiefs and serve four-year terms) 
> elections: House of Representatives - last held NA November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000); Senate - last held 3
> November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; Senate - percent of vote by party -
> NA; seats by party - NA 
> note: American Samoa elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held 7
> November 2000); results - Eni R. F. H. FALEOMAVAEGA (Democrat) reelected as delegate for a sixth term 
> 
> Judicial branch: High Court (chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the US Secretary of the Interior) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party [leader NA]; Republican Party [leader NA] 
> 
> International organization participation: ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> Flag description: blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the outer side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and
> white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a staff and a war club 
> 
>                                           Economy
> 
> 
> 
> Economy - overview: This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned.
> Economic activity is strongly linked to the US, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing
> and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the US
> Government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and
> broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a
> developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $150 million (1995 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,600 (1995 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: NA% 
> industry: NA% 
> services: NA% 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
> 
> Labor force: 13,949 (1996) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 12% (1991) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) 
> expenditures: $127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97) 
> 
> Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 125 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 100% 
> hydro: 0% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 116 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock 
> 
> Exports: $313 million (1996) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: canned tuna 93% 
> 
> Exports - partners: US 99.6% 
> 
> Imports: $471 million (1996) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% 
> 
> Imports - partners: US 62%, Japan 9%, NZ 7%, Australia 11%, Fiji 4%, other 7% 
> 
> Debt - external: $NA 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA; note - important financial support from the US 
> 
> Currency: 1 US dollar (US$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: US currency is used 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September 
> 
>                                        Communications
>  
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 10,000 (1994) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,200 (1994) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good telex, telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 Comsat earth station 
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 57,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 14,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
> 
> 
> Railways: 0 km 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 350 km 
> paved: 150 km 
> unpaved: 200 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Aunu'u (new construction), Auasi, Faleosao, Ofu, Pago Pago, Ta'u 
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 4 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 2 
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                           Military
> 
>  
> 
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US 
> 
>                                       Transnational Issues
> 
>  
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
------
ZzZ|979866945
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> NewZealand
------
ZzZ|979866970
1c1
< NewZealand
---
> Zaire
------
ZzZ|979866980
1c1
< Zaire
---
> ZairE
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979867446
1a2,5
> ----
> I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much.
> 
> ----
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979867480
3c3
< I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much.
---
> I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
------
NamingConventions|979867760
16a17,21
> ----
> 
> I (JimboWales) am the one who started the bad naming convention.  I simply plead total ignorance.  I realized when I started that it was a problem, but I didn't know what to do, so I just kept plugging away.
> 
> I think that ScottMoonen''''s suggestion has great merit.  Unless someone beats me to it, I will work on making that change over the next few days.
------
JimboWales|979867837
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The best place to learn about who am I is at my website
> [http://www.jimmywales.com www.jimmywales.com].
> 
> You can also see some still stuff about me at the 
> [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?JimboWales Bomis Wiki].
------
LarrySanger|979868698
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimmyWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
13c13
< Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
---
> Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
------
OldWikiPediaLogo|979868732
1c1
< In its first day of existence, because the nearest thing to hand (for JimmyWales) that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, indeed WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
---
> In its first day of existence, because the nearest thing to hand (for JimboWales) that was suitable for a logo was an American flag, indeed WikiPedia had the American flag, OldGlory, for a logo.
------
TaoTehChing|979868772
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Tao Teh Ching is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow named Lao Tzu, who was a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of that time.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed.
> 
> Several modern versions of Taoism (Daoism) are replete with polytheism, ancestor worship, ceremony of various kinds, and alchemic efforts to achieve longevity.
> 
> What is written by Lao Tzu contains none of the above.
> 
> Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (Tao for short) is concise, if poetical, purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
> 
> The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  I refrain here from quoting the Tao directly, as every English Language interpretation, of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say, that Lao Tzu demonstrates an understanding of such principles as these:
> 
> Force begets force.  One whose needs are simple will find them fulfilled.  Wealth does not enrich the spirit.  Self-interest and self-importance are vain and self-destructive.  Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned.  The harder one tries, the more resistance he will create for himself.  The more one acts in harmony with the universe, the more he will achieve, with less effort.  The truly wise make little of their own wisdom -for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know.  It is wise to repay kindness with kindness and to repay evil with kindness.  We are our brothers' keepers.  Skill averts waste.  When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values.  Stupidity leads to force.  The wise are responsible for the foolish.  The honest are responsible for the dishonest.  The teacher is responsible for his student.  Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame.  The "feminine" qualities of flexibility and suppleness are superior to "masculine" strength and rigidity.  Everything in its own time and place.
> 
> Behind all this, Lao Tzu speaks of the ineffable Tao, or the "Way," which is described as the indivisible and indescribable unifying principle of the universe, from which all flows.  It is without time, form or substance, and exterior/senior to these traits.  The simpler one becomes, the greater hope he has of co-existing with the Tao, which is the only way one can truly understand it.  
> 
> In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fuit" above the "flower."
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979869145
11c11,17
< What does it mean--what does it show--why is it remarkable?  (Not sure what I'm asking here, but you probably do.)
---
> What does it mean--what does it show--why is it remarkable?  (Not sure what I'm asking here, but you probably do.)
> 
> ----
> 
> Richard Feynman is a Nobel prize winner in Physics (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
> 
> Stas
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979869452
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a Nobel prize winner in Physics (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a Nobel prize winner in Physics[?] (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979869481
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a Nobel prize winner in Physics[?] (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrizeWinner in Physics (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979869558
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrizeWinner in Physics (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrizeWinner in PhysICs (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
------
TaoTehChing|979870188
9c9
< The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  I refrain here from quoting the Tao directly, as every English Language interpretation, of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say, that Lao Tzu demonstrates an understanding of such principles as these:
---
> The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  I refrain here from quoting the Tao directly, as every English Language interpretation, of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say that Lao Tzu demonstrates an understanding of such principles as these:
------
WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia|979871500
1c1
< [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by LarrySanger, who got the idea of supplementing NuPedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project.  So there is a historical connection between the projects.  Both NuPedia and WikiPedia are originated (though not solely controlled) by BoMis, a WebPortal company.  So there is a management connection.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by LarrySanger, who got the idea of supplementing NuPedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project.  So there is a historical connection between the projects.  Both NuPedia and WikiPedia are originated by BoMis, a WebPortal company.  So there is a management connection.
5c5
< We hope the projects will be complementary.
---
> We hope the projects will be complementary.
------
HomePage|979871572
10c10
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?
---
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link below.
------
HomePage|979871600
10c10
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link below.
---
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link!''
------
HomePage|979871624
10c10
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link!''
---
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
------
MakeaNewPage|979871694
1c1
< ShortArticles
---
> Very easy.  Simply go to any existing wiki page, such as the NewTopics page, click "Edit text of this page," and type in the name of the new page in the text box. Then save your edit, and you'll see your page name followed by "?". Click on the question mark to edit the new page.
3c3
< The shortest article I know is "a".
---
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside the word, like PhiloSophy.
------
SelfExplanatory|979871711
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A concept is said to be SelfExplanatory if it is written in a such way that explains the concept itself, i.e. no explanation is required except looking at what is meant to be SelfExplanatory.
> 
> You might want to go one click deeper to understand what SelfExplanatory means.
------
MakeaNewPage|979871736
3c3
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside the word, like PhiloSophy.
---
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
------
PartakeInDiscussion|979871792
3c3
< Click the "Edit this Page" below to see how this was done...the four hyphens will be revealed.
---
> Click "Edit text of this page" below to see how this was done...the four hyphens will be revealed.
------
SelfExplanatory|979871825
3c3
< You might want to go one click deeper to understand what SelfExplanatory means.
---
> If the above definition does not seem clear enough click the word SelfExplanatory to go one level deeper to understand what SelfExplanatory means.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|979871839
1,5c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, precisify that language, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
< ----
< Would I be too '''bold''', if I said ''precisify'' is not a word?
< ----
< "Precisify" is philosopher-talk for "make precise"...
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
------
WikiPedia|979871894
6d5
< 
8,11c7
< 
< A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
< 
< I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
---
> Some old text removed to WikiPediaProcess.
------
WikiPediaProcess|979871913
1a2,5
> ----
> ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
> ----
> A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
3c7
< ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
---
> I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
------
WikiPedia|979871954
7c7
< Some old text removed to WikiPediaProcess.
---
> ''Some old text elided, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
------
PaGe|979872163
4c4,7
< No it won't. Try it!!!
---
> No it won't. Try it!!!
> 
> 
> This example is pretty much SelfExplanatory.
------
StasK|979872677
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> StasK stands for Stas Kolenikov. I find both WikiPedia and NuPedia to be most exciting and interesting projects that only could appear in the 'Net age.
> 
> ([http://www.komkon.org/~tacik More to that])
------
StartaNewParagraph|979872885
19a20,24
> 
> ----------------
> 
> This is a SelfExplanatory PaGe! It is really great that an EncycloPedia can be so InterActive.
> 
------
RusSia|979873094
7a8,11
> 
> ----
> 
> Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
------
MathematicalGrouP|979875513
19c19
< 3)	G contains an identity element, say i, that is, if a belongs to G then i*a =a.
---
> 3)	G contains an identity element, say i, that is, if a belongs to G then i*a = a and a*i = a.
32c32
< integers={…-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4…} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
---
> integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
93c93
< and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
---
> and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979876328
17c17,46
< Stas
---
> Stas----
> 
> This MostRemarkableRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
> 
> 
> Euler’s Theorem states that:
> 
> 
> e^(ib) = cos(b) + i * sin(b) where b is a real number.
> 
> 
> So, if b = pi, then  e^(i*pi) = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi).
> 
> 
> Then, since cos(pi) = 1 and sin(pi) = 0,
> 
> 
>                                    e(i*pi) = - 1, and e(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
> 
> The proof of Euler’s Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a Taylor’s Series 
> 
> Expansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivre’s Formula, 
> 
> and the Taylor’s Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
> 
> Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequnce of the
> 
> formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
>        
> 
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979876390
19c19
< This MostRemarkableRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
---
> TheMostRemarkableRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979876506
19c19
< TheMostRemarkableRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
---
> TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979876622
25c25
< e^(ib) = cos(b) + i * sin(b) where b is a real number.
---
>                                  e^(ib) = cos(b) + i * sin(b) where b is a real number.
34c34
<                                    e(i*pi) = - 1, and e(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
---
>                                    e^(i*pi) = - 1, and e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|979876737
36c36
< The proof of Euler’s Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a Taylor’s Series 
---
> The proof of Euler’s Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a Taylor’s Series Expansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivre’s Formula, and the Taylor’s Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
38,44c38
< Expansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivre’s Formula, 
< 
< and the Taylor’s Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
< 
< Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequnce of the
< 
< formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
---
> Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequnce of the formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
------
GoD|979880261
3c3
< There is a large number of different conceptions of the divine, and this is even reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.
---
> There are a large number of different concepts of the divine, and this fact is reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.
5c5
< The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or conceptions, about God: MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (the latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
---
> The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or concepts about God(s): MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (the latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
7c7
< There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (on most views? I need help here) OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic conception is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
---
> There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of both JudaIsm and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
------
RusSia|979882309
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
8d5
< 
10,11c7
< 
< Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
---
> Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979886801
6a7,58
> CountriesA
> 
> CountriesB
> 
> CountriesC
> 
> CountriesD
> 
> CountriesE
> 
> CountriesF
> 
> CountriesG
> 
> CountriesH
> 
> CountriesI
> 
> CountriesJ
> 
> CountriesK
> 
> CountriesL
> 
> CountriesM
> 
> CountriesN
> 
> CountriesO
> 
> CountriesP
> 
> CountriesQ
> 
> CountriesR
> 
> CountriesS
> 
> CountriesT
> 
> CountriesU
> 
> CountriesV
> 
> CountriesW
> 
> CountriesX
> 
> CountriesY
> 
> CountriesZ
> 
------
CountriesA|979886858
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AfghanistaN
>      
> AlbaniA 
>      
> AlgeriA
>      
> AmericanSamoa 
>      
> AndorrA
>      
> AngolA 
>      
> AnguillA 
>      
> AntarcticA 
>      
> AntiguaAndBarbuda 
>      
> ArcticOcean 
>      
> ArgentinA
>      
> ArmeniA 
>      
> ArubA
> 
> AshmoreAndCartierIslands 
>      
> AtlanticOcean 
>      
> AustraliA
>      
> AustriA 
>      
> AzerbaijaN
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979886905
59,84d58
< AaA
< 
< BbB
< 
< CcC
< 
< DdD
< 
< EeE
< 
< FfF
< 
< GgG
< 
< HhH
< 
< IiI
< 
< JjJ
< 
< KkK
< 
< LlL
< 
< MmM
< 
86,107d59
< 
< OoO
< 
< PpP
< 
< QqQ
< 
< RrR
< 
< SsS
< 
< TtT
< 
< UuU
< 
< VvV
< 
< WwW
< 
< XxX
< 
< YyY
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979886991
6a7,11
> I am attempting to follow the brilliant suggestions on the NamingConventions page.  So I am reorganizing this area.  But
> please feel free to add stuff.
> 
> ----
> 
------
CountriesN|979887025
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> NewZealand
------
CountriesZ|979887060
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ZairE
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979887078
64,66d63
< NnN
< 
< ZzZ
------
WikiPedia|979887258
3c3
< We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Doesn't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
---
> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for answers to more questions, Doesn't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
7c7
< ''Some old text elided, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
---
> ''Some old text elided, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
------
WikiPedia|979887330
3c3
< We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for answers to more questions, Doesn't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
---
> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for more information, see HowDoesOneEditaPage.  The articles don't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|979889680
3c3
< I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
---
> I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  (Or adapt them and render them into brilliant prose.--LS)  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
------
MichigaN|979913643
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capitol: Lansing
> Largest City: Detroit
> Michigan Resident Population (2000 Census): 9,938,444
> 
> Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Macinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsman and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
MichigaN|979913664
1,3c1,3
< Capitol: Lansing
< Largest City: Detroit
< Michigan Resident Population (2000 Census): 9,938,444
---
>     Capitol: Lansing
>     Largest City: Detroit
>     Michigan Resident Population (2000 Census): 9,938,444
------
MichigaN|979929872
5c5
< Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Macinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsman and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Macinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
MichigaN|979930003
1c1
<     Capitol: Lansing
---
>     Capital: Lansing
5c5
< Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Macinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|979930095
2c2
< :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
---
> :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TopOlogy
------
TopOlogy|979930110
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What is topology, and why do people study it?
------
DonegalFiddleTradition|979930235
1c1
< A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the fiddle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of fiddle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
---
> A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the FidDle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of FidDle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
5c5
< There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
---
> There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of FidDle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
7c7
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/the+Donegal+fiddle+tradition/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/the+Donegal+fiddle+tradition/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
FidDle|979930752
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/geige.gif [http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/violinunterricht.html Image from "Violinunterricht" page]
> 
> The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style
> 
------
FidDle|979931027
1c1
< http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/geige.gif [http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/violinunterricht.html Image from "Violinunterricht" page]
---
> http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/geige.gif 
3c3
< The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style
---
> [http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/violinunterricht.html Image borrowed from "Violinunterricht" page]
4a5,7
> [definition here]
> 
> '''The instrument itself.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
------
DoubleStops|979931229
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in TheDonegalFiddleTradition.
------
DoubleStops|979931238
1c1
< Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in TheDonegalFiddleTradition.
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the DonegalFiddleTradition.
------
DoubleStops|979931343
1c1
< Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the DonegalFiddleTradition.
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in the north of Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
------
DoubleStops|979931374
1c1
< Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in the north of Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in northwest Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
------
FidDle|979932418
5c5
< [definition here]
---
> A MusicalInstrument with four strings, typically held under the chin, and played with a BoW; the smallest and highest-pitched of a family of four instruments including VioLin, VioLa, CelLo, and BasS.  For more information about the physical instrument itself, see VioLin.
7c7,25
< '''The instrument itself.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
---
> '''FiddleandViolin.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
> 
> '''FiddleStyles.'''  To a greater extent than classical VioLin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or FolkMusic traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to: IrishFiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the DonegalFiddleTradition), ScottishFiddling, EnglishFiddling, AmericanFiddling (including OldTimeFiddling, NewEnglandStyleFiddling, CajunFiddling, TexasStyleFiddling, ContestFiddling, BlueGrassFiddling, and other related traditions), CanadianFiddling (including CapeBretonFiddling, QuebecoisFiddling, and others), NorwegianFiddling (including HardangerFiddling), SwedishFiddling, FinnishFiddling, and FrenchFiddling (including a rich BretonFiddling tradition).
> 
> Suggested topics to be added later by me or anyone else:
> 
> '''HistoryOfFiddlePlaying.'''
> 
> '''FiddleMusic and FiddleTunes.'''
> 
> '''FiddleTunebooks.'''
> 
> '''FiddlePlayers.'''
> 
> '''FiddleRecordings.'''
> 
> '''HowToLearnTheFiddle.'''
> 
> '''WhereToPlayTheFiddle.'''
------
DonegalFiddleTradition|979932570
1c1
< A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the FidDle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of FidDle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
---
> A kind of IrishTraditionalMusic.  A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the FidDle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of FidDle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|979932605
3c3
< While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (fiddle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
---
> While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (FidDle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
5c5
< The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); fiddle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
---
> The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); FidDle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
11c11
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
------
FiddleandViolin|979932682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
------
FiddleStyles|979932709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To a greater extent than classical VioLin playing, FidDle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or FolkMusic traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to: IrishFiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the DonegalFiddleTradition), ScottishFiddling, EnglishFiddling, AmericanFiddling (including OldTimeFiddling, NewEnglandStyleFiddling, CajunFiddling, TexasStyleFiddling, ContestFiddling, BlueGrassFiddling, and other related traditions), CanadianFiddling (including CapeBretonFiddling, QuebecoisFiddling, and others), NorwegianFiddling (including HardangerFiddling), SwedishFiddling, FinnishFiddling, and FrenchFiddling (including a rich BretonFiddling tradition).
------
FiddleandViolin|979932726
1c1
< The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
---
> The FidDle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
------
NamingConventions|979933444
10c10
< 
---
> ----
18d17
< 
21c20,28
< I think that ScottMoonen''''s suggestion has great merit.  Unless someone beats me to it, I will work on making that change over the next few days.
---
> I think that ScottMoonen''''s suggestion has great merit.  Unless someone beats me to it, I will work on making that change over the next few days.
> ----
> I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''some'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia, which sounds very awkward.
> 
> The argument that this convention makes it easier to search is obviated by the fact that, after all, people will organize countries, countries in Asia, Muslim countries, etc., all on their own pages (in the near or distant future anyway), and more importantly, that a full text search is possible.
> 
> Also, I would prefer not to include categories in ''most'' (not all, I suppose) topic names because that tends to restrict the discussion of the category.  For example, if I were to write "FiddleMusic" instead of "FidDle," then the tendency would be to discuss, well, fiddle music instead of all things fiddle.  I could write "FiddleMusicalInstrument," but then the tendency would be to discuss the fiddle ''qua'' musical instrument, and there are many other aspects of the fiddle apart from those directly related to the fact that it's a musical instrument.  Generally, I'm opposed to imposing pre-set category schemes: things do not wear their categories on their sleeves (as though they had only one supercategory) and we should not name articles as though they did.
> 
> Finally, I think it makes sense simply to capitalize the internal letter of one-word topics which begins the strongest syllable (or next-strongest syllable, if the strongest syllable is the first).  Thus: FidDle; AlAska; RusSia; DoneGal (yes, in fact that's the strongest syllable, the way the Irish use the name).  In cases where there is both one word and one syllable, I'd propose capitalizing the last letter: BasS; JazZ; SoaP. -- LarrySanger
------
NamingConventions|979933715
22c22
< I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''some'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia, which sounds very awkward.
---
> I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''many'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia, which sounds very awkward.
24c24
< The argument that this convention makes it easier to search is obviated by the fact that, after all, people will organize countries, countries in Asia, Muslim countries, etc., all on their own pages (in the near or distant future anyway), and more importantly, that a full text search is possible.
---
> The argument that this convention makes it easier to search is obviated by the fact that, after all, people will organize all countries, all countries in Asia, all Muslim countries, etc., each on their own pages (in the near or distant future anyway), and more importantly, that a full text search is possible.  Why impose a category scheme in the ''naming convention''?
26c26
< Also, I would prefer not to include categories in ''most'' (not all, I suppose) topic names because that tends to restrict the discussion of the category.  For example, if I were to write "FiddleMusic" instead of "FidDle," then the tendency would be to discuss, well, fiddle music instead of all things fiddle.  I could write "FiddleMusicalInstrument," but then the tendency would be to discuss the fiddle ''qua'' musical instrument, and there are many other aspects of the fiddle apart from those directly related to the fact that it's a musical instrument.  Generally, I'm opposed to imposing pre-set category schemes: things do not wear their categories on their sleeves (as though they had only one supercategory) and we should not name articles as though they did.
---
> So I would prefer not to include categories in ''most'' (not all, I suppose) topic names because that tends to restrict the discussion of the category.  For example, if I were to write "FiddleMusic" instead of "FidDle," then the tendency would be to discuss, well, fiddle music instead of all things fiddle.  I could write "FiddleMusicalInstrument," but then the tendency would be to discuss the fiddle ''qua'' musical instrument, and there are many other aspects of the fiddle apart from those directly related to the fact that it's a musical instrument.  Generally, I'm opposed to imposing pre-set category schemes: things do not wear their categories on their sleeves (as though they had only one supercategory) and we should not name articles as though they did.
28c28,30
< Finally, I think it makes sense simply to capitalize the internal letter of one-word topics which begins the strongest syllable (or next-strongest syllable, if the strongest syllable is the first).  Thus: FidDle; AlAska; RusSia; DoneGal (yes, in fact that's the strongest syllable, the way the Irish use the name).  In cases where there is both one word and one syllable, I'd propose capitalizing the last letter: BasS; JazZ; SoaP. -- LarrySanger
---
> Finally, I think it makes sense simply to capitalize the internal letter of one-word topics which begins the strongest syllable (or next-strongest syllable, if the strongest syllable is the first).  Thus: FidDle; AlAska; RusSia; DoneGal (yes, in fact that's the strongest syllable, the way the Irish use the name).  In cases where there is both one word and one syllable, I'd propose capitalizing the last letter: BasS; JazZ; SoaP.  This is the convention I've been following, anyway.  And, of course, for multi-word topics, capitalize all the words (except, perhaps the conjunctions and articles?) and mash 'em together.
> 
> That's my take, but go and do whatever you like! -- LarrySanger
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|979933859
1c1,3
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
> 
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
------
HomePage|979933916
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|979933950
3c3,5
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
---
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
> 
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to HowDoesOneEditaPage.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|979934634
5c5
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to HowDoesOneEditaPage.
---
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: HowDoesOneEditaPage?
------
TaoTehChing|979935464
7c7
< Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (Tao for short) is concise, if poetical, purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
---
> Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (Tao for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
15c15
< In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fuit" above the "flower."
---
> In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower."
------
NamingConventions|979935642
30c30,34
< That's my take, but go and do whatever you like! -- LarrySanger
---
> That's my take, but go and do whatever you like! -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Well, LarrySanger has good points, too.  I think we can all agree that alphabetical page names like 'AaA' are bad.  I want to organize all the CountriesOfTheWorld, but someone else will want to organize all the SportS or whatever.
> 
> I have changed my index pages, but so far I have not made any alteration to the country names.
------
NamingConventions|979935735
34c34,36
< I have changed my index pages, but so far I have not made any alteration to the country names.
---
> I have changed my index pages, but so far I have not made any alteration to the country names.
> 
> One problem with LarrySanger''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know whiat is the strongest syllable.
------
LarrySanger|979936532
2c2
< 
---
> ----
------
WikiPediaProcess|979936695
7c7,9
< I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
---
> I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
> ----
> It is possible to link to images simply by typing in the URL of the image.  This was done, for example, on the FidDle page.  But the image exists somewhere outside of WikiPedia.  Is this wrong?  Is a "link back" to the image source adequate compensation, or not?  What do you think?
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979939691
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Following is a link to an interesting article regarding the likelihood of historic biblical support for the traditional Christian notion of "Hell."  
> 
> In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern tests.
> 
> This article serves to illustrate that even versions of the Bible which some believers cleave to as "infallible" were openly characterized by their original authors as human interpretations of human writings, and therefore not 100% reliable.
> 
> An interesting read...
> 
> http://www.tentmaker.org/books/asw/Chapter14.html
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979939759
3c3
< In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern tests.
---
> In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern texts.
------
WikiPediaProcess|979940356
9c9,11
< It is possible to link to images simply by typing in the URL of the image.  This was done, for example, on the FidDle page.  But the image exists somewhere outside of WikiPedia.  Is this wrong?  Is a "link back" to the image source adequate compensation, or not?  What do you think?
---
> It is possible to link to images simply by typing in the URL of the image.  This was done, for example, on the FidDle page.  But the image exists somewhere outside of WikiPedia.  Is this wrong?  Is a "link back" to the image source adequate compensation, or not?  What do you think?
> ----
> Interesting question.  I linked an article (a pretty long one) in BiblicalInterpretation, without which my couple of paragraphs would be basically meaningless.  Obviously, if the original author has placed it on the web, he intends for it to be widely viewed and circulated - but what if he changes domains or drops off the web altogether?  Then what of my link?  The substance of my paragraphs will be as naught with the loss of that material.  If I had my druthers, I'd include the whole article in the body of my notes, with a link-back.  However, I am leery of violating standards of fair use under copyright law, and so I don't.  Who has a definitive answer on this?
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979940746
1,9c1
< Following is a link to an interesting article regarding the likelihood of historic biblical support for the traditional Christian notion of "Hell."  
< 
< In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern texts.
< 
< This article serves to illustrate that even versions of the Bible which some believers cleave to as "infallible" were openly characterized by their original authors as human interpretations of human writings, and therefore not 100% reliable.
< 
< An interesting read...
< 
< http://www.tentmaker.org/books/asw/Chapter14.html
---
> Does the traditional Christian notion of HelL have historical Biblical support?
------
HelL|979940758
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Following is a link to an interesting article regarding the likelihood of historic biblical support for the traditional Christian notion of "Hell."  
> 
> In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern texts.
> 
> This article serves to illustrate that even versions of the Bible which some believers cleave to as "infallible" were openly characterized by their original authors as human interpretations of human writings, and therefore not 100% reliable.
> 
> An interesting read...
> 
> http://www.tentmaker.org/books/asw/Chapter14.html
------
NamingConventions|979940861
36c36
< One problem with LarrySanger''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know whiat is the strongest syllable.
---
> One problem with LarrySanger'''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know whiat is the strongest syllable.
------
NamingConventions|979940945
22c22
< I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''many'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia, which sounds very awkward.
---
> I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''many'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say, "AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia," which sounds very awkward.
------
CelticMusic|979941340
3c3
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent.
------
CelticMusic|979941381
1c1
< The term "Celtic music" usually combines Irish traditional music with various other traditional musics, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979945086
1c1
< Does the traditional Christian notion of HelL have historical Biblical support?
---
> Does the traditional Christian notion of HelL have historical Biblical support?  (Go to HelL if you want to comment.)
------
WikiPediaProcess|979945263
11c11,13
< Interesting question.  I linked an article (a pretty long one) in BiblicalInterpretation, without which my couple of paragraphs would be basically meaningless.  Obviously, if the original author has placed it on the web, he intends for it to be widely viewed and circulated - but what if he changes domains or drops off the web altogether?  Then what of my link?  The substance of my paragraphs will be as naught with the loss of that material.  If I had my druthers, I'd include the whole article in the body of my notes, with a link-back.  However, I am leery of violating standards of fair use under copyright law, and so I don't.  Who has a definitive answer on this?
---
> Interesting question.  I linked an article (a pretty long one) in HelL, without which my couple of paragraphs would be basically meaningless.  Obviously, if the original author has placed it on the web, he intends for it to be widely viewed and circulated - but what if he changes domains or drops off the web altogether?  Then what of my link?  The substance of my paragraphs will be as naught with the loss of that material.  If I had my druthers, I'd include the whole article in the body of my notes, with a link-back.  However, I am leery of violating standards of fair use under copyright law, and so I don't.  Who has a definitive answer on this?
> ----
> I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
------
WikiPediaProcess|979945626
13c13,15
< I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
---
> I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
> ----
> Let's post links to PublicDomainResources (for both images and text)!
------
PublicDomainResources|979945760
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This will be a list not only of public domain resources, but also "free" (GNU licensed) and open content resources.  Feel free to rename this page and the link(s) to it, if you like...I'm being lazy.
> 
> [http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/ Images of American Political History]
> 
> [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com]
> 
> [http://www.opencontent.org OpenContent.org]
------
PublicDomainResources|979945814
2a3,4
> '''Let's go get stuff from these pages and post it (with appropriate source citation, if necessary) on the Wikipedia!'''
> 
7c9
< [http://www.opencontent.org OpenContent.org]
---
> [http://www.opencontent.org OpenContent.org]
------
HelL|979946756
0a1,2
> An issue of BiblicalInterpretation about the traditional Christian notion of Hell:
> 
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979947697
1c1,6
< Does the traditional Christian notion of HelL have historical Biblical support?  (Go to HelL if you want to comment.)
---
> I. On Biblical interpretation in general
> 
> ----
> II. Particular questions of Biblical interpretation:
> 
> Does the traditional Christian notion of HelL have historical Biblical support?  (Go to HelL if you want to comment.)
------
CommonSense|979949096
21c21,35
< The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
---
> The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
> ----
> Common sense as a concept has been so subject to popular abuse that its usefulness as a real philosphic tool may have been vitiated.
> 
> After all, it was "common sense" in fairly recent history that the world was flat, and the center of the universe.  Much that is "common sense" is decidedly common due to its uncritical  adoption by unthinking masses who prefer to be fed their certainties by authority with a spoon, but thought which is common, or even universal, is not necessarily sense - and may depend for its popularity on the fact that it is never closely examined.
> 
> I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  Take, for axample, the broadly accepted "scientific fact" that brain chemistry is a determinor of mood, emotion, and ultimately, sanity.  It "stands to reason" does it not, that if depressed people show low serum levels of serotonin and and vibrant people demonstrate high levels, that increasing serotonin will elevate mood, no?  We must not brook any argument on this point.  Sir Karl Popper gives us a clue, however, as to how we may determine the reliability of the root assumption here.  Under his criteria of falsifiability, we can disprove the entire theory if we can show that one instance of it is false.
> 
> Let us turn, then, to recent empirical work with persons diagnosed with clinical depression.  In a double-blind study, four groups of depressed persons are followed over time.  One group is untreated.  One group is given SSRI's  (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) to increase their serum levels of serotonin.  Another group is prescribed exercise, and another is given both exercise and drugs.  Recurrence of depression is highest in the group taking drugs.  It is very nearly as high in the group taking drugs and exercise.  It is significantly lower in the group receiving no treatment and lowest by an order of magnitude in the group prescribed exercise alone.
> 
> Common sense tells us what to think of these experimental results.  So does Popper.
> 
> "Scientific Authority," however will not waver from the initial premise.  Biochemistry of the brain determines mood.  Function follows form.  We just have to keep poking about until we find the right chemicals and all question of the veracity of biochemical brain theory will be erased.
> 
> It's only common sense.
------
CommonSense|979949780
27c27,29
< I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  Take, for axample, the broadly accepted "scientific fact" that brain chemistry is a determinor of mood, emotion, and ultimately, sanity.  It "stands to reason" does it not, that if depressed people show low serum levels of serotonin and and vibrant people demonstrate high levels, that increasing serotonin will elevate mood, no?  We must not brook any argument on this point.  Sir Karl Popper gives us a clue, however, as to how we may determine the reliability of the root assumption here.  Under his criteria of falsifiability, we can disprove the entire theory if we can show that one instance of it is false.
---
> I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  This is a "science" which insists, with subborn certainty, that the coincidental presence of certain facts together establishes, ipso facto, a cause and effect relationship.  Further, they can tell you in the complete absence of any foundation, which is cause, and which is effect.
> 
> Take, for axample, the broadly accepted "scientific fact" that brain chemistry is a determinor of mood, emotion, and ultimately, sanity.  It "stands to reason" does it not, that if depressed people show low serum levels of serotonin and and vibrant people demonstrate high levels, that increasing serotonin will elevate mood, no?  We must not brook any argument on this point.  Sir KarlPopper gives us a clue, however, as to how we may determine the reliability of the root assumption here.  Under his criteria of falsifiability, we can disprove the entire theory if we can show that one instance of it is false.
------
CommonSense|979949826
27c27
< I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  This is a "science" which insists, with subborn certainty, that the coincidental presence of certain facts together establishes, ipso facto, a cause and effect relationship.  Further, they can tell you in the complete absence of any foundation, which is cause, and which is effect.
---
> I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  This is a "science" which insists, with stubborn certainty, that the coincidental presence of certain facts together establishes, ipso facto, a cause and effect relationship.  Further, they can tell you in the complete absence of any foundation, which is cause, and which is effect.
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast|979953781
1c1,7
< On Quine's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
---
> On Quine's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
> ----
> One may certainly hold more stubbornly at least to those notions which serve to give context, comprehensibility, and utility to other notions.
> 
> Care should be taken, however, not to exclude new information which is not inherently self-contradictory.  To the degree that new data conflicts with a large body of mutually consistent observations (note:  observations - not beliefs) one may more safely devalue it, but that a new idea was not suggested by one's interpretation of earlier data is not the same as to say that one may safely discard it because it comes as a complete surprise.  Rather, "surprise" information, instead of being automatically viewed with skepticism, may be be held in a bullpen while it is compared with other cross-verifying observations, and, if not inherently inconsistent with old data, accepted conditionally for purposes of comparison with new input in order to see what it does or does not explain.
> 
> People call this "having an open mind."
------
NamingConventions|979954452
36a37,38
> ----
> We could, should we so desire, make only two very simple rules.  First, multiple words get capitals at the beginning of each word.  Single words (and we could choose, here - and spread the word to attain consistency) get caps on the first and third, or first and last letter.  Hence, GoD is accurate in either scheme by default, and hell would either become HelL or HeLl.  Likewise, AfGhanistan or AfghanistaN.  We would not do both, but one or the other.  At least such a rule would be simple and easy to apply in all cases.  (but then how would we link to "id?" heh)
------
DirectRealism|979956666
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JLAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an intance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
DirectRealism|979956731
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JLAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an intance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an intance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
PhiloSophy|979958210
1c1
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism
------
WhatsaWikiFor|979958337
1c1
< In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for.  But the format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
---
> In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for.  The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
------
DirectRealism|979967611
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an intance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
HomePage|979975344
3,4c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY
< -- UnitedStates
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- WeekEnd
------
NewTopics|979975364
5c5
< NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
---
> NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd
------
WeekEnd|979976486
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the UnitedStates and other countries, the weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for LeiSure and ReCreation.
> 
> The notion of a weekly rest is ancient; Judeo-Christian religions celebrate the SabBath, of course.
> ----
> Doing just a bit of web searching, I could found rather little information about the history of the cultural notion of a weekend.  I did find one article, [http://www.humanscapeindia.org/hs1299/hs12997t.htm "The Tyranny of Time: The clock as god"], which contained the following lines: "People do dream of enjoying their work by doing it at a rhythm which suits them and varying their rhythm for different occupations.  This notion of personal rhythm was what the Industrial Revolution attacked and tried to destroy.  How that happened can be seen in the forgotten history of the weekend.  The English word has been adopted by almost every language, but it represents a poisoned gift from the English to humanity."  This suggests that the weekend is a result of the Industrial Revolution and perhaps the need to give factory workers a rest.  It also suggests that the English gave not only the ''word'' "weekend" to the rest of the world but also the ''concept.''  Both suggestions seem exceedingly implausible, particularly given that religions had been observing the Sabbath for millennia.
> 
> Another article, [http://www.tagnet.org/sthsda/ARTICLE09.htm When, How, and Why Was the Sabbath Changed from Saturday to Sunday?], may be of interest in this connection.
> ----
> I would like the interested Wikipedian to write the authors of the above articles, or to do more research and writing themselves, to see to it that a complete treatment of this very interesting topic be given on Wikipedia!
------
WeekEnd|979976974
9c9,20
< I would like the interested Wikipedian to write the authors of the above articles, or to do more research and writing themselves, to see to it that a complete treatment of this very interesting topic be given on Wikipedia!
---
> I would like the interested Wikipedian to write the authors of the above articles, or to do more research and writing themselves, to see to it that a complete treatment of this very interesting topic be given on Wikipedia!  (And, of course, the completed article could easily be given the NuPedia treatment after that.)
> 
> I have a number of questions on this topic which I would enjoy having answered:
> 
> * What is the history of the weekend, or a weekly or periodic rest, in China and the rest of the Far East?
> * At what time did East and West begin enjoying their weekend days on the ''same'' days?
> * What are the cultural differences between ways weekends are spent?
> * In the West, culturally speaking, the Sabbath forms the fundamental reason for a day of rest.  What reason, if any, is there for a day or days of rest in other cultures, e.g., in China and sub-Saharan Africa?
> * Are there cultures that do ''not'' have a day of rest?
> * What are the results of psychological or other scientific studies on the effects of regular rests or lacks thereof?
> 
> I have many questions, but few answers...
------
WeekEnd|979977005
11c11
< I have a number of questions on this topic which I would enjoy having answered:
---
> I have a number of questions on this topic that I would enjoy having answered:
------
HomePage|979977996
3c3,5
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- WeekEnd
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates
> 
> The WeekEnd is here.  Ever wonder what a WeekEnd is?
------
CountriesP|979982623
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [Poland]
------
CountriesP|979982676
1c1
< [Poland]
---
> PolanD
------
PolanD|979982710
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Poland is a country in central Europe that lies between GermanY and RussiA.
------
PublicDomainResources|979982799
9a10,12
> 
> [http://www.gutenberg.net]
> 
------
PublicDomainResources|979982850
11c11
< [http://www.gutenberg.net]
---
> [http://www.promo.net/pg]
------
PublicDomainResources|979983292
4a5,6
> [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg]
> 
11,12c13
< [http://www.promo.net/pg]
< 
---
> [http://www.andamooka.org Andamooka.org]
------
WeekEnd|979983484
18a19,20
> * Have there been any cultures in which there was not a day of rest every ''seven'' days, but some other number, such as five or ten?
> * Are there any good arguments that the institution of five-days-on, two-days-off should be changed?  (Are any good arguments on that even ''possible''?  What would a good argument about such matters be like?)
20c22
< I have many questions, but few answers...
---
> I have many questions, but few answers...
------
BiblicalInterpretation|979983583
1c1
< I. On Biblical interpretation in general
---
> I. On interpretation in general of TheBible (i.e., the methods, standards, goals, etc., Biblical interpretation)
------
TheBible|979983610
4d3
< 
6d4
< 
10d7
< 
12d8
< 
16d11
< 
18,19c13
< 
< IV BiblicalInterpretation
---
> IV BiblicalInterpretation
------
PhiloSophy|979984231
2a3,6
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
> 
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlAto -- ArisTotle -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
> 
3a8,9
> 
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about all of these topics!
------
CommonSense|979984591
22a23,24
> '''Discussion:'''
> 
------
WhatIsaWiki|979984743
1c1,3
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
> 
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
------
PaGe|979986351
1,7c1
< This PaGe is a test of whether if you delete all the text, this will return to PaGe?
< 
< 
< No it won't. Try it!!!
< 
< 
< This example is pretty much SelfExplanatory.
---
> 
------
AustraliA|979992628
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of NewZealand, and somewhat south-east of MalaysiA and SingaporE.
> 
> Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, AustralianCaptialTerritory, NorthernTerritoryAustralia, and six states, WesternAustralia, SouthAustralia, QueenslandAustralia, NewSouthWalesAustralia, and VictoriaAustralia.
> 
> Australia's captial is CanberraAustralia, situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), MelbourneAustralia, and SydneyAustralia, who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
> 
> ----
> 
> Hmm... seeing that there isn't anything here yet, I think that I'll blather on a bit and see if that will motivate someone else to correct me...
------
WhatIsaWiki|979998693
5c5,6
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.  Of course, that would be assuming the link actually <U>worked</U>, which of course, it doesn't.  :^)
> 
------
WhatIsaWiki|979998710
5c5
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.  Of course, that would be assuming the link actually <U>worked</U>, which of course, it doesn't.  :^)
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.  Of course, that would be assuming the link actually worked, which of course, it doesn't.  :^)
------
WhatIsaWiki|979998749
5c5
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.  Of course, that would be assuming the link actually worked, which of course, it doesn't.  :^)
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980000502
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Canon of Scripture
------
WikiPediaFaq|980001025
24a25,33
> ----
> '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me. What's the deal?'''
> 
> A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks! If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
> ----
> '''Q. Is someone keeping regular backups of this site? What if I write a great article and some clod shows up and nukes it? I'd like some assurance that my efforts aren't going to waste.'''
> 
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead! Here, there's
> nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page). Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980001455
1a2,16
> Early Christians and Jews were not interested in laying down a Canon, or set list of inspired books. While all Jews accepted the Torah, there was division about what other books might or might not be inspired by God. 
> 
> The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the Old Testament into Greek provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew speaking world. However, even here, there was discussion about what books were inspired. Some editions of the LXX include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st psalm, while others do not include them.
> 
> After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the Jewish community set down their Canon of Scripture, including only those books written in Hebrew and written up to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. (Later scholarship indicates that this division was not perfectly done, that is, some of the books accepted by the Jews were actually written after the deadline.)
> 
> The Christians, on the other hand, tended to use the Greek Bible, and had more books in circulation, though no formal statement was made by the universal Church on the subject. In the Old Testament, the "doubtful" books that were eventually included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach, as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. The doubtful books in the New Testament were Hebrews, James, 2-3 John, 1-2 Peter, and Revelation, mostly because of the unsure authorship of these books.
> 
> When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books.
> 
> Over the years, the feeling in favor of this group of "doubtful" books grew, until at the Council of Florence (1451), this list was defined as canonical. The Council of Florence, however, was not binding on the whole Church.
> 
> At the time of the Reformation, Martin Luther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his Old Testament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued for the elimiation of certain New Testament books, notably the Letter of James.
> 
> The Catholic Church finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980001476
1a2
> 
16c17
< The Catholic Church finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
---
> The Catholic Church finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|980002367
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything(2) from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.
------
AppliedEthics|980002872
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something the Marketing Dept. will never fully understand.
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980003283
5c5
< The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the Old Testament into Greek provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew speaking world. However, even here, there was discussion about what books were inspired. Some editions of the LXX include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st psalm, while others do not include them.
---
> The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the OldTestament into Greek provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew speaking world. However, even here, there was discussion about what books were inspired. Some editions of the LXX include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st psalm, while others do not include them.
9c9
< The Christians, on the other hand, tended to use the Greek Bible, and had more books in circulation, though no formal statement was made by the universal Church on the subject. In the Old Testament, the "doubtful" books that were eventually included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach, as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. The doubtful books in the New Testament were Hebrews, James, 2-3 John, 1-2 Peter, and Revelation, mostly because of the unsure authorship of these books.
---
> The Christians, on the other hand, tended to use the Greek Bible, and had more books in circulation, though no formal statement was made by the universal Church on the subject. In the OldTestament, the "doubtful" books that were eventually included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach, as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. The doubtful books in the NewTestament were Hebrews, James, 2-3 John, 1-2 Peter, and Revelation, mostly because of the unsure authorship of these books.
11c11
< When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books.
---
> When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, producing the VulgateBible, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books.
15c15
< At the time of the Reformation, Martin Luther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his Old Testament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued for the elimiation of certain New Testament books, notably the Letter of James.
---
> At the time of the Reformation, MartinLuther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his OldTestament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued for the elimiation of certain NewTestament books, notably the Letter of James.
17c17
< The Catholic Church finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
---
> The CatholicChurch finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The OldTestament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
------
OldTestament|980003402
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Books of the Christian Scriptures referring to the time before Christ. Loosely speaking, the Christian Old Testament corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, but see DefinitionsOfBiblicalTerms. 
------
OldTestament|980003429
1c1
< Books of the Christian Scriptures referring to the time before Christ. Loosely speaking, the Christian Old Testament corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, but see DefinitionsOfBiblicalTerms. 
---
> Books of the Christian Scriptures referring to the time before Christ. Loosely speaking, the Christian Old Testament corresponds to the Jewish Scriptures, but see DefinitionofBibleTerms. 
------
NewTestament|980003525
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Christian Scriptures "per se", those written after the birth of Christ. It is generally believed that all the books were written before the death of the last apostle.
------
TheKoran|980003841
1a2,5
> 
> Much of the content in the Qur'an makes reference back to parts of the Christian Bible.  Well-known Biblical characters such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus are mentioned.  Detractors of the Qur'an and Muhammad have claimed that Muhammad was merely taking older religious documents and stories and embellishing them.  Muslims maintain that this could not be the case, on scientific grounds. Modern science has identified many factual errors and internal inconsistencies in the Bible.  However, the Qur'an has none, according to Muslims; and what's more, in cases where Biblical stories reappear in very similar form Qur'an, the stories are always changed in such a way that the scientific inaccuracies and inconsistencies are gone.  This is considered proof of the Qur'an's divine origin.
> 
> The Qur'an today is believed to be identical to the version from the time of Muhammad.  Muhammad only delivered the Qur'an in spoken form during his lifetime; the word "Qur'an" in fact means "the recitation."  The faithful were require to memorize them perfectly, down to the last syllable, and recite them frequently, to make sure they had the text perfectly.  Shortly after his death, his disciples began recording all the Suras down in written form.  Thus, two different mechanisms were in place -- oral and written -- to help ensure that no corruption of the text took place over time.  There is almost no dispute amongst modern Qur'anic scholars that the text today is as it was when it was first written down.
------
TheKoran|980004301
1c1
< The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Muhammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet MuHammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
------
MuHammad|980004681
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As MusLims say, "There is no GoD but AlLah and MuHammad is His prophet."
> 
> Muhammad is the author of the TheKoran.  He was a poor and illiterate man, when the ArchangelGabriel came down to deliver the divine Word to Muhammad.  He recited the Qur'an to Muhammad, and made him memorize it perfectly; its contents are a copy of parts of the BookOfHeaven.  This book the basis of the Muslim religion.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980004847
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A wiki is a collection of inter-linked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
------
WhatIsaWiki|980004859
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of inter-linked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
------
WhatIsaWiki|980004929
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
---
> So it's a collaborative website, (colin likes to eat melted poo) constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980004955
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, (colin likes to eat melted poo) constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
------
IsLam|980005127
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IsLam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The NationOfIslam is a movement in the UnitedStatesOfAmerica for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being LouisFarrakhan, and its members are Muslims, and therefore members of Islam; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
> 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980005483
15c15
< 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and b belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*
---
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*
------
WhatIsaWiki|980005534
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page; just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
------
MathematicalGrouP|980005788
41c41
< 2)	If a, b, and b are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
---
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
65c65
< 2)	If a and b are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
---
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
------
NewHampshire|980011002
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the original 13 colonies.
> 
> State capitol is Concord, which has also been known over time by the names Rumford and Penacook.
> 
> On the national people-radar of the United States, New Hampshire is best known as the state with the first primary in the presidential election, the spot with the worst recorded weather at an inhabited location (Mt. Washington weather observatory), our colorful fall foliage, and our splashy headline killer, Pamela Smart.
> 
> Regionally, New Hampshire is known for skiing, no sales or income tax (which may well change due to school funding lawsuits), the lakes region and the NH International Speedway (formerly the Loudon Racetrack) which is still the home of the Loudon Classic, the longest running motorcycle race in the United States. 
> 
> New Hampshire is host to the Scottish Highland Games, at Loon Mt. in Lincoln (usually the weekend after Labor day). New Hampshire has also registered an official Tartan with the proper authorities in Scotland; this tartan is worn in kilt form by the State Police while they serve their duties in Lincoln during the Games. Because of the high number of attendents to the Games the State Police are quite visible, both for traffic control and to generally to handle the significant increase in population. 
> 
> Little known facts: New Hampshire boasts the only piece of Interstate Highway that is two-lane (i.e. a single northbound lane and a single southbound lane) with a cobblestone median. This was done to preserve the Old Man on the Mountain, a rock formation visible from I93 in Franconia. 
> 
> Speaking of which, the New Hampshire state quarter shows the self same Old Man on the Mountain, which makes it the only US coin with a head on both faces. 
> 
> Manchester, the largest city in the state, has a main street (Elm Street) which is a dead-end at both ends. 
> 
> 
------
WhatIsaWiki|980012148
6a7,8
> Damn I'm cool!
> 
------
WhatIsaWiki|980012960
7d6
< Damn I'm cool!
------
WhatIsaWiki|980014518
5,7c5
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
< 
< 
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
------
CountriesN|980014615
1a2
> Norway
------
MuSic|980015120
1c1
< That which soothes the savage beast... 
---
> The following music-related topics have been created:
3c3
< is not what soothes an intelligent being ;-)
---
> PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- DonegalFiddleTradition
5c5
< Music can soothe but also get the adrenaline in your blood ...
---
> FiddleandViolin -- FidDle -- FiddleStyles -- DoubleStops
7c7
< and Vivaldi's Credo (RV591) and Gloria (Rv589) are superb and what to think of the Beatus Vir and Lauda Jerusalem ...
---
> We don't yet have articles about:
9,13c9
< so a little nonsens-ical ? contribution to what end ???
< 
< ----
< 
< By the way, feel free to replace the above with something that accurately and interestingly describes music.
---
> BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
14a11
> JohannSBach -- WolfgangMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- PiotrTchaikovsky
15a13
> DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
16a15
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
MuSic|980015158
1c1
< The following music-related topics have been created:
---
> We're ''desperate'' for good music articles (it seems).  The following music-related topics have been created:
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|980015247
1c1
< Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.
---
> Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page from Nupedia is: "'''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent."
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|980015266
1c1
< Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page from Nupedia is: "'''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent."
---
> Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to WikiPedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "'''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent."
------
CountriesG|980017011
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Add your countries and some information about them here.
> 
> GerMany
------
AlgorithmS|980018971
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word ALGORITHM is a corruption of the word ALGORISM which came from the name of ABU JA'FAR MOHAMMED IBN MUSA AL-KHWARIZMI (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book "Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala" (Rules of Restoration and Reduction) which introduced algebra to people in the West. The word ALGEBRA itself originates from AL-JABR from the book title. The word ALGORISM orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the XVIII-th century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
------
WhatIsaWiki|980020228
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which anyone can visit and edit.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
5c5
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
------
IvoryRing|980021148
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I've used IvoryRing online for a while now, and I get asked where it comes from once in a while. 
> 
> Way back when, I used to play a number of computer adventure games (specifically the likes of Moria and Omega), and one common feature of these games is the way they would generate treasure. There would be a long list of item types (ring, crown, throne, cup, chest, box, dagger, etc) and modifiers (green, old, frail, heroic, merciful, wicker, brass, etc)... and from my view it seemed that they would just randomly merge the two.
> 
> Add to that a need for a constant supply of new screennames on AOL (no, I won't go into detail on why) and I came up with a series of names "PineThrone", "BrassDagger", etc... one that I found kind of nice, since it had a somewhat mysterious sound to it was IvoryRing... hence... 
------
LoGic|980021429
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Logic, or the study of the principles of proper resoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
> Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been tought by someone else, the
> earliest records we have of the codification of studying reasoning can be attributed to 
> Aristotle.
> 
> Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument, and defines formulae 
> by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what 
> makes a good argument, and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
> often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better 
> arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The Jesuits emphasized this so 
> highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session 
> with their peers.
> 
> The ultimate goal of Logic is clarity.  By making correct reasoning into a science, 
> Logic seeks to put an end to the indecisiveness of argument and statement.
------
CountriesP|980021619
1a2,3
> PortugaL
> ParaguaY
------
WhatIsaWiki|980026361
5a6,8
> 
> 
> Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people. Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980027211
5,8c5
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
< 
< 
< Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people. Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980027266
5c5,7
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
---
> The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
> 
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
------
WikiPediaFaq|980027311
33a34,37
> ----
> '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
> 
> A. Good question.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980027438
32,33c32,33
< A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead! Here, there's
< nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page). Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).
---
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's
> nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.
37c37
< A. Good question.
---
> A. Good question.
------
CountriesO|980027489
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> OmaN
------
WeekEnd|980027648
22c22
< I have many questions, but few answers...
---
> I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
------
LoGic|980027940
1,4c1,3
< Logic, or the study of the principles of proper resoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
< Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been tought by someone else, the
< earliest records we have of the codification of studying reasoning can be attributed to 
< Aristotle.
---
> Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
> Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the
> earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.
6c5
< Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument, and defines formulae 
---
> Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae 
8c7
< makes a good argument, and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
---
> makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
14,15c13
< The ultimate goal of Logic is clarity.  By making correct reasoning into a science, 
< Logic seeks to put an end to the indecisiveness of argument and statement.
---
> The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
------
CountriesG|980029663
3c3,5
< GerMany
---
> <ul>
> <li>GerMany</li>
> </ul>
------
CountriesG|980029670
3,5c3
< <ul>
< <li>GerMany</li>
< </ul>
---
> GerMany
------
CountriesG|980029883
3c3
< GerMany
---
> * GerMany
------
CountriesG|980029892
3c3,4
< * GerMany
---
> GerMany
> Greek
------
CountriesG|980029901
3,4c3,4
< GerMany
< Greek
---
> * GerMany
> * Greek
------
CountriesG|980029917
4c4
< * Greek
---
> * GreeK
------
GerMany|980029959
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Germany is a country in the middle of EuropE and it takes part in the EuroCurrency. Feel free to add more stuff you'd like to add.
------
EuroCurrency|980030149
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelgiE, AustriA, Finnland, Portugal, IreLand, LuxemBurg.
------
CelticMusic|980030184
1c1
< The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest France; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern Spain. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest FrancE; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern SpaiN. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
------
NewTopics|980030230
5c5
< NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd
---
> EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd
------
OpenContent|980030424
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> OpenContent is a description for any kind of content (ie articles, pictures, audio, video, whatever) that is published under a non-restrictive license that explicitly allows the copying of the information. (Examples are the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, which is used by NuPedia.) But OpenContent also describes content that can be modified by anyone. (Of course not without prior review by other participating parties - but there is no closed group like a commercial encyclopedia publisher which is responsible for all the editing.)
------
GNUFreeDocumentationLicense|980030481
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The GNU FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for OpenContent. The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].
------
ComputerSoftware|980031102
5c5,6
< 
---
> ** EncryptionSoftware
> *** PrettyGoodPrivacy
------
CountriesG|980031445
4c4
< * GreeK
---
> * GreecE
------
PrettyGoodPrivacy|980031557
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> PGP (PrettyGoodPrivacy) is an application developed by PhilZimmermann that provides an easy to use interface for high security encryption of emails and other sensitive content. The newer PGP packages contain plug-ins for most modern email applications like MicrosoftOutlook, OutlookExpress and NetscapeMessenger. PGP uses AsymmetricEncryption with a PublicKey and a PrivateKey which are used to sign and encrypt a message. The PublicKey is publicly available on some of the many KeyServer around the world and it can be used to encrypt a message to the owner of the PublicKey or to verify a signature of the keyowner. The recipient of the encrypted message can then decrypt this message using his PrivateKey. To verify whether an email was not altered during transmission and whether it was really sent by the specified sender you can use PGP to electronically sign your mail. PGP then creats a HashCode of the message, which is then encrypted using the PrivateKey of the signer. The recipient of the mail uses the PublicKey of the signer to decrypt the HashCode which is then compared to the HashCode the recipient computes using the mail content. Only if both hashes are the same the mail was not altered. Currently there exists an open source and free replacement for PGP called GnuPG.
------
PhilZimmermann|980031651
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Phil Zimmermann is the creator of PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the FBI and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
------
PhilZimmermann|980031671
1c1
< Phil Zimmermann is the creator of PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the FBI and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
---
> Phil Zimmermann is the creator of PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the FBI (the FederalBureauOfInvestigation) and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
------
SabBath|980039691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" God rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
------
GerMany|980040849
1c1,7
< Germany is a country in the middle of EuropE and it takes part in the EuroCurrency. Feel free to add more stuff you'd like to add.
---
> Germany is a country in the middle of EuropE and it takes part in the EuroCurrency.
> 
> Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1936-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka East Germany). West Germany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, England, and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. East Germany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. It was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
> 
> In 1989 East Germany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that East Germany was annexed by West Germany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Later it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by Helmut Kohl, then the prime minister of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in East Germany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = Don't let yourselves be West Germanized. But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
------
EuroCurrency|980040959
1c1
< The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelgiE, AustriA, Finnland, Portugal, IreLand, LuxemBurg.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemBurg.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042114
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages.
> 
> ScriptingLanguages
> 
> * PerL
> * PythoN
> * RubY
> 
> CompiledLanguages
> 
> * Ada
> * C
> * C++
> * FortraN
> * PascaL
> * VisualBasic
> 
> HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to byte code
> 
> * Java
> * Lisp
> * Scheme
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042178
11,13c11,13
< * Ada
< * C
< * C++
---
> * AdA
> * CLanguage
> * C++Langage
20,22c20,22
< * Java
< * Lisp
< * Scheme
---
> * JavA
> * LisP
> * SchemE
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042216
12,13c12,13
< * CLanguage
< * C++Langage
---
> * C-languagE
> * C++languagE
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042247
12,13c12,13
< * C-languagE
< * C++languagE
---
> * C-LanguagE
> * C++LanguagE
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042405
1c1
< ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages.
---
> ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages. - JavaJini
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980042491
16a17
> * CoBoL
------
JavaJini|980042599
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ComputerLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things.
> 
------
JavaJini|980042638
1c1
< A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ComputerLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things.
---
> A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ProgrammingLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things.
------
JavaJini|980042679
1c1
< A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ProgrammingLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things.
---
> A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ProgrammingLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things. He can be reached at kellie-miller@yahoo.com
------
ComputinG|980042863
4a5
> * AccessibleComputing
------
MusicalTheory|980042908
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The MathOfTheMusicalScale.
------
AccessibleComputing|980043141
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This subject covers
> * AssistiveTechnology
> * AccessibleSoftware
> * AccessibleWeb
> * LegalIssuesInAccessibleComputing
------
MusicalTheory|980043242
1c1
< The MathOfTheMusicalScale.
---
> The MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale.
------
ComputinG|980043274
4a5
> * ComputerArchitexture
------
MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale|980044208
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> There's a decent article in issue 4 of the Napalm e-zine
> on Just Intonation and the western scale in general:
> 
> http://napalm.firest0rm.org/issue4.txt
------
MuSic|980044259
6a7,8
> MusicalTheory
> 
13c15
< DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
---
> DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint
15c17
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980044735
23a24,30
> 
> PathologicalLanguages
> 
> * InterCal
> * BeFunge
> * VarAq
> * UnLamda
------
CoBoL|980046455
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name CoBoL (normally COBOL) is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980046563
17a18
> * AssemblerLanguage
30c31
< * UnLamda
---
> * UnLamda
------
ChristianIty|980047009
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world.
> 
> Christians believe the bible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate the Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of the Bible to be the word of GoD.
> 
> Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity (but see below).  Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, and Anglican (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
> 
> Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the Pope has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
> 
> Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of John Calvin and Martin Luther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
> 
> Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints, for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
> 
> Many people belonging to the above-listed faiths have strong feelings about the "actual" nature of the other Christian faiths, sometimes even claiming that the other faiths do not actually count as Christian.  Thus, when researching branches of Christianity, it is often wise to first define clearly what the working definition of "Christianity" will be, and then get information from each branch regarding their qualificationes based on that definition.
> 
> -J
------
WhatIsaWiki|980048567
7c7,9
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
---
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
> 
> Hola!  Me llamo Eugenio
------
WhatIsaWiki|980049381
9a10,11
> 
> What? Need more information?
------
WhatIsaWiki|980049865
7,11c7
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
< 
< Hola!  Me llamo Eugenio
< 
< What? Need more information?
---
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
------
GoD|980050046
7c7
< There is an ancient tradition that began with the first ProPhet of both JudaIsm and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
---
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first ProPhet of both JudaIsm and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
------
SabBath|980050063
1c1,5
< "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" God rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
---
> "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" God rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
> 
> Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eight" day, see Acts <chapter, verse?>), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
> 
> A few Christian sects currently honor the Sabbath on Saturday, but most use Sunday.
------
GoD|980050118
7c7
< There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first ProPhet of both JudaIsm and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead with AdAm, for believers), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion (and sects within each religion).
---
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead, for believers, that began with AdAm), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
------
TechnologY|980050158
0a1
> * Iron
------
HomePage|980050202
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates
------
ReCreation|980050301
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We spend so much time engaged in recreation, why, we all ought to know all about it.
> 
> The WeekEnd is typically a time for recreation, perhaps (in Western and Muslim cultures) because the SabBath falls on the WeekEnd and the SabBath is "the day of rest."
> 
> Recreation is different from LeiSure.
------
ReCreation|980050417
1c1
< We spend so much time engaged in recreation, why, we all ought to know all about it.
---
> We spend so much time engaged in recreation--so, why, we all ought to know all about it.
5c5,7
< Recreation is different from LeiSure.
---
> Recreation is different from LeiSure.
> 
> MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do SportS, of course.
------
ReCreation|980050428
7c7
< MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do SportS, of course.
---
> MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So does SportS, of course.
------
MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale|980050538
1d0
< 
5c4,6
< http://napalm.firest0rm.org/issue4.txt
---
> http://napalm.firest0rm.org/issue4.txt
> ----
> Aw, c'mon: I don't want to read a whole article without first getting an idea of what "math of the Western musical scale" even ''means.''  C'mon, a paragraph about it, please?
------
JohnnyCash|980056725
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Johnny walked the line, rock island line, on an orange blossom special, fell into a burning ring a' fire, had a boy named sue, on a sunday morning sidewalk, got busted for picking flowers in alabama? georgia?, bennie and the jets.. ain'choo worried 'bout gettin' your medication down in florida? i don't care if i do, die, do, die, do.. '56 '57 '58 '59 '61 '62 automobile, folsom prism blues, now slingin rubensesque metallica, waits, revival waddever songs of sin and redemption
------
JohnnyCash|980056764
1c1
< Johnny walked the line, rock island line, on an orange blossom special, fell into a burning ring a' fire, had a boy named sue, on a sunday morning sidewalk, got busted for picking flowers in alabama? georgia?, bennie and the jets.. ain'choo worried 'bout gettin' your medication down in florida? i don't care if i do, die, do, die, do.. '56 '57 '58 '59 '61 '62 automobile, folsom prism blues, now slingin rubensesque metallica, waits, revival waddever songs of sin and redemption
---
> Johnny walked the line, rock island line, on an orange blossom special, fell into a burning ring a' fire, had a boy named sue, on a sunday morning sidewalk, got busted for picking flowers in alabama? georgia?, bennie and the jets.. ain'choo worried 'bout gettin' your nourishment down in florida? i don't care if i do, die, do, die, do.. '56 '57 '58 '59 '61 '62 automobile, folsom prism blues, now slingin rubensesque metallica, waits, revival waddever songs of sin and redemption
------
PythagoreanTheorem|980057516
32c32
<                                      /________________ l
---
>                                      /_____________l
------
PythagoreanTheorem|980057548
32c32
<                                      /_____________l
---
>                                      /__________l
------
PythagoreanTheorem|980057573
32c32
<                                      /__________l
---
>                                      /______________ l
------
WhatIsaWiki|980058967
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
7c7
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
---
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
------
MuSic|980059095
16a17,18
> Jazz 
> 
------
HomePage|980059270
18c18
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the nothing......
------
AdA|980060749
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Programming language, named after Ada Lovelace, the first programmer.  Really only used anymore in US Department of Defense stuff.  Oh yeah, and Ada95, the most popular Ada compiler actually translates your code to C, then compiles the C.  I love that.
------
WestVirginia|980061035
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Mountain State.  Broke off of Virginia during the US Civil War.  Famous for coal mines in general, and the mine wars in particular.
> 
> State colors:  Blue and Gold
> 
> State bird: Cardinal
> 
> State flower: Rhododendron (Alternately, the Satellite Dish)
> 
> Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.
------
WestVirginia|980061116
1c1
< The Mountain State.  Broke off of Virginia during the US Civil War.  Famous for coal mines in general, and the mine wars in particular.
---
> The Mountain State.  Broke off of Virginia during the US Civil War.  Famous for coal mines in general, and the mine wars in particular.  The capitol is Charleston, in the SW area of the state.
------
HomePage|980062158
18c18
< If you have other questions, just ask on the nothing......
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the the WikiPediaFaq.
------
HomePage|980062170
18c18
< If you have other questions, just ask on the the WikiPediaFaq.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
------
JohnnyCash|980062226
0a1,2
> The following may or may not have to do with the famous American country singer, Johnny Cash:
> 
------
JohnnyCash|980062288
1c1
< The following may or may not have to do with the famous American country singer, Johnny Cash:
---
> The following seems to be a prose poem about the famous American country singer, Johnny Cash:
------
WikiPedia|980062299
7c7
< ''Some old text elided, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
---
> ''Some old text deleted, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
------
MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale|980063937
5,6c5,9
< ----
< Aw, c'mon: I don't want to read a whole article without first getting an idea of what "math of the Western musical scale" even ''means.''  C'mon, a paragraph about it, please?
---
> 
> It describes what makes a chord sound in tune to our ear, the
> logarithmic nature of our perception of sound, and how we
> went from just intonation to the less precise compromise of the
> modern scale.  Pending their permission, I'll post the entire article text here.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980064686
2a3,5
> '''Q. When did the WikiPedia start?'''
> 
> ----
------
ChristianIty|980064956
1d0
< 
4c3
< Christians believe the bible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate the Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of the Bible to be the word of GoD.
---
> Christians believe TheBible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate TheBible is and how literally it should be taken).  TheBible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of GoD.
16c15
< -J
---
> -J
------
WhatIsaWiki|980066848
7a8,9
> 
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
------
WhatIsaWiki|980067736
9c9,11
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
---
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
> 
> Blah...
------
WikiPediaFaq|980068263
4a5
> A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation LarrySanger had with BenKovitz on the evening of January 2.
6d6
< 
29c29
< '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me. What's the deal?'''
---
> '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?'''
35,36c35
< A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's
< nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.
---
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.
40c39
< A. Good question.
---
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on Ward Cunningham's original wiki.)
------
CountriesP|980068301
3a4
> Pitcairn Islands
------
CountriesP|980068324
4c4
< Pitcairn Islands
---
> Pitcairn Islands?
------
CountriesP|980068359
4c4
< Pitcairn Islands?
---
> Pitcairn IslandS
------
WhatIsaWiki|980068432
8c8
< 
---
> ----
11c11,13
< Blah...
---
> Blah...
> ----
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
------
WhatIsaWiki|980068473
13c13,15
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
---
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
> 
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ....
------
CountriesP|980068551
4c4
< Pitcairn IslandS
---
> PitcairnIsland
------
IslandS|980068625
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 4 Islands located west of Chile and East of French Polynesia. Close to the shipping lane between New Zealand and Panama.
------
NuPedia|980068679
1a2,6
> 
> 
> Yea, but, what's stopping someone putting CRAP in it? Who is the expert and how are you gunna get a good expert for nuthing?
> 
> eh?
------
CountriesP|980068685
4c4
< PitcairnIsland
---
> PitcairnIslandS
------
CountriesP|980068750
4c4
< PitcairnIslandS
---
> PitcairN IslandS
------
NuPedia|980068767
6c6,8
< eh?
---
> eh?
> 
> Face it, Encyclopaedias are full of old news anyhow. What we need is a collectively inspired Arthur C Clark.
------
CountriesP|980068780
4c4
< PitcairN IslandS
---
> PitcairnIslandS
------
WikiPediaProcess|980068786
2a3,4
> I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.
> ----
15c17
< Let's post links to PublicDomainResources (for both images and text)!
---
> Let's post links to PublicDomainResources (for both images and text)!
------
WeekEnd|980068953
22c22,24
< I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
---
> I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
> 
> Anyone know how to get to the secret level in Donkey Kong 64 ?
------
CountriesP|980068963
4c4
< PitcairnIslandS
---
> PitcairnIslands
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980069116
17a18,19
> 
> With all due respect, what about the parts of the Bible that were destroyed because they were written by WOMEN? The Bible everyone is reading is broken, even as a history...
------
PatentNonsense|980069653
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Patent nonsense, particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
> 
> * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity.
> * Stuff that, while apparently meaningful after a fashion, is so completely and irremediably confused that no intelligent person can be expected to try to make heads or tails of it.
> 
> The following, while often regrettable, is not patent nonsense, and therefore according to a proposed rule on the WikiPediaProcess page, should not for ''that'' reason be deleted (but some suggestions for improvement are included):
> * Really badly-written stuff.  (So correct it.)
> * Partisan screed.  (Make it hedged or add qualifications in order to make it less biased.)
> * Religious excogitations.  (Make it factual.  Yes, there are ways of doing this; e.g., add phrases like "Followers of X hold that...")
> * Mere opinion, masquerading as fact.  (Remove it to an appropriately-named page, or reword in order to make it fact-stating.)
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.)
------
CountriesP|980069747
4a5
> Panama
------
PatentNonsense|980069775
11c11
< * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.)
---
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
------
CountriesP|980069785
5c5,6
< Panama
---
> PanamA
> 
------
CountriesP|980069837
4c4
< PitcairnIslands
---
> PitcairnIsland
6a7,9
> 
> ----
> Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.
------
CountriesP|980069881
6,7d5
< 
< 
9c7
< Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.
---
> Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.  Go look it up!
------
PatentNonsense|980069906
11c11,13
< * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
---
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
> 
> SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
------
IslandS|980069977
1c1,3
< 4 Islands located west of Chile and East of French Polynesia. Close to the shipping lane between New Zealand and Panama.
---
> 4 Islands located west of Chile and East of French Polynesia. Close to the shipping lane between New Zealand and Panama.
> 
> One Island of the coast of Australia called Fraser Island.
------
CountriesP|980070078
7c7,10
< Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.  Go look it up!
---
> Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.  Go look it up!
> ----
> And the point is? Who cares how many there are?
> ----
------
PitcairnIsland|980070146
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tiny island in the SouthPacific, one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the H.M.S. Bounty; the original PitcairnErs were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as English, are spoken there.  A protectorate of the U.K.
------
CountriesP|980070167
5,10c5
< PanamA
< ----
< Excuse me, but there is only one Pitcairn Island.  Go look it up!
< ----
< And the point is? Who cares how many there are?
< ----
---
> PanamA
------
WikiPediaProcess|980070184
17a18,19
> ----
> What's to stop the BadGuyS(TM) from deleting accurate stuff and replacing it with PatentNonsense? 
------
CountriesP|980070256
5c5,7
< PanamA
---
> PanamA
> PakistaN
> Papua New GineA
------
WikiPediaProcess|980070275
19c19
< What's to stop the BadGuyS(TM) from deleting accurate stuff and replacing it with PatentNonsense? 
---
> What's to stop the BadGuyS(TM) from deleting accurate stuff and replacing it with PatentNonsense?  This is possible, but we have ways of avoiding DisRuption.  See WikiPediaFaq for more information.
------
WikiPediaProcess|980070519
19a20,21
> ____
> So, Larry, you DO want chaos on a website? Do you think it will become self organising, or will it get hit by multiple failure syndrome?
------
PatentNonsense|980070681
12c12
< 
---
> ----
13a14,15
> 
> Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
------
PatentNonsense|980070751
15c15,17
< Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
---
> Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
> 
> K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
------
WikiPediaProcess|980070835
20,21c20,23
< ____
< So, Larry, you DO want chaos on a website? Do you think it will become self organising, or will it get hit by multiple failure syndrome?
---
> ----
> So, Larry, you DO want chaos on a website?  Do you think it will become self organising, or will it get hit by multiple failure syndrome?
> 
> LarrySanger answers: I think it will be self-organizing.  See Ward Cunningham's original wiki.  But in the case of WikiPedia, I dunno!  Guess we'll see!  (I suggest you remove this question and answer to WikiPediaFaq.)
------
PatentNonsense|980070895
17a18,19
> 
> Go figure!
------
WikiPediaProcess|980071028
23c23
< LarrySanger answers: I think it will be self-organizing.  See Ward Cunningham's original wiki.  But in the case of WikiPedia, I dunno!  Guess we'll see!  (I suggest you remove this question and answer to WikiPediaFaq.)
---
> LarrySanger answers: I think it will be self-organizing.  See [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].  But in the case of WikiPedia, I dunno!  Guess we'll see!  (I suggest you remove this question and answer to WikiPediaFaq.)
------
WikiPediaFaq|980071125
39c39
< A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on Ward Cunningham's original wiki.)
---
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
------
WikiPediaFaq|980071488
35c35
< A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.
---
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
------
WikiPediaProcess|980071533
3c3
< I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.
---
> I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.  It's possible that this makes me a [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiReductionists "wiki reductionist."] -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaProcess|980071876
1c1
< Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to ask a question, ask it here.
---
> Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to raise a policy issue, raise it here.
------
WeekEnd|980072357
22,24c22
< I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
< 
< Anyone know how to get to the secret level in Donkey Kong 64 ?
---
> I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
------
TheBible|980073050
3c3
< (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew vs Greek, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
---
> (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew/Aramaic vs Greek/Latin, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
13c13,15
< IV BiblicalInterpretation
---
> IV BiblicalInterpretation
> 
> (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism
------
TheBible|980073181
15c15
< (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism
---
> (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations)
------
EuroCurrency|980078126
1c1,3
< The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemBurg.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemBurg. The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999). The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
> 
> (I hope you understand anything of the above, I am still working to improve my English.. ;))
------
PrettyGoodPrivacy|980078841
1c1
< PGP (PrettyGoodPrivacy) is an application developed by PhilZimmermann that provides an easy to use interface for high security encryption of emails and other sensitive content. The newer PGP packages contain plug-ins for most modern email applications like MicrosoftOutlook, OutlookExpress and NetscapeMessenger. PGP uses AsymmetricEncryption with a PublicKey and a PrivateKey which are used to sign and encrypt a message. The PublicKey is publicly available on some of the many KeyServer around the world and it can be used to encrypt a message to the owner of the PublicKey or to verify a signature of the keyowner. The recipient of the encrypted message can then decrypt this message using his PrivateKey. To verify whether an email was not altered during transmission and whether it was really sent by the specified sender you can use PGP to electronically sign your mail. PGP then creats a HashCode of the message, which is then encrypted using the PrivateKey of the signer. The recipient of the mail uses the PublicKey of the signer to decrypt the HashCode which is then compared to the HashCode the recipient computes using the mail content. Only if both hashes are the same the mail was not altered. Currently there exists an open source and free replacement for PGP called GnuPG.
---
> PGP (PrettyGoodPrivacy) is an application developed by PhilZimmermann that provides an easy to use interface for high security encryption of emails and other sensitive content. The newer PGP packages contain plug-ins for most modern email applications like MicrosoftOutlook, OutlookExpress and NetscapeMessenger. PGP uses AsymmetricEncryption and the RSA algorithm with a PublicKey and a PrivateKey which are used to sign and encrypt a message. The PublicKey is publicly available on some of the many KeyServer around the world and it can be used to encrypt a message to the owner of the PublicKey or to verify a signature of the keyowner. The recipient of the encrypted message can then decrypt this message using his PrivateKey. To verify whether an email was not altered during transmission and whether it was really sent by the specified sender you can use PGP to electronically sign your mail. PGP then creats a HashCode of the message, which is then encrypted using the PrivateKey of the signer. The recipient of the mail uses the PublicKey of the signer to decrypt the HashCode which is then compared to the HashCode the recipient computes using the mail content. Only if both hashes are the same the mail was not altered. Currently there exists an open source and free replacement for PGP called GnuPG.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980079319
15c15,20
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ....
---
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> 
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> 
------
CountriesN|980082832
1a2
> NetherLands
2a4
> 
------
RosaParks|980098353
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cool ole biddy (ment in a most respectful way, of course), who served as lightning rod for change merely because of her selft confidence in her right to sit where she pleased on the bus.
------
CountriesN|980098413
3,4c3
< Norway
< 
---
> NorwaY
------
CountriesS|980107589
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sweden
------
CountriesS|980107618
1c1
< Sweden
---
> [Sweden]
------
CountriesS|980107689
1c1
< [Sweden]
---
> SwedeN
------
SwedeN|980107934
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CountrY in NortherN EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. Capital is StockholM.
> 
> Other important cities:
> GöteborG
> MalmÖ
> UppsalA
> LinköpinG
> LunD
> VisbY
> 
------
SwedeN|980108149
4,5c4,5
< GöteborG
< MalmÖ
---
> Göteborg (GothenburG)
> Malmö (MalmoE)
7c7
< LinköpinG
---
> Linköping (LinkoepinG)
------
SwedeN|980108191
1c1
< CountrY in NortherN EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. Capital is StockholM.
---
> CountrY in NortherN EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. CapitaL is StockholM.
4,9c4,9
< Göteborg (GothenburG)
< Malmö (MalmoE)
< UppsalA
< Linköping (LinkoepinG)
< LunD
< VisbY
---
> Göteborg (GothenburG),
> Malmö (MalmoE),
> UppsalA,
> Linköping (LinkoepinG),
> LunD, and
> VisbY on GotLand.
------
GotLand|980108255
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Island in the BalticSea. Belonging to SwedeN.
> 
> Biggest city is VisbY that is known for its wall around the city from the time of the HansA.
------
BalticSea|980108558
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sea with BrackisH water between ScandinaviA and BalticA. Connected to the north sea through Öresund (TheStraitOfOeresund) and Stora Bält.
> 
> 
> 
> Contains the big islands GotlanD, Öland (OEland) belonging to SwedeN, BornholM (beloning to DenmarK), Åland (AOland) (belonging to FinlanD), Ösel (OEsel) and Dagö (DagoE) belonging to EstoniA.
------
SwedeN|980108611
1c1
< CountrY in NortherN EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. CapitaL is StockholM.
---
> CountrY in Northern EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. CapitaL is StockholM.
------
LinusTolke|980108911
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Contributor of things to Wikipedia.
> 
> Swedish citizen.
> 
------
CountriesU|980109114
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> UnitedStates
------
EuropE|980109295
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Contintent stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediteraineanOcean in the south to the north pole.
> 
> Contains all the following countries:
> SwedeN,
> DenmarK,
> FinlanD,
> EstoniA,
> some more
------
SwedisH|980109348
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken in SwedeN and FinlanD.
> 
> Defined by the SwedishAcademy.
------
FinlanD|980109450
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CountrY in northern EuropE.
> 
> Capital HelsinkI.
> 
> At some point in time it was controlled by the king of SwedeN.
------
BalticSea|980109534
1c1,2
< Sea with BrackisH water between ScandinaviA and BalticA. Connected to the north sea through Öresund (TheStraitOfOeresund) and Stora Bält.
---
> Sea with BrackisWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
> Connected to the north sea through Öresund (TheStraitOfOeresund) and Stora Bält.
------
BalticSea|980109556
1c1
< Sea with BrackisWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
---
> Sea with BrackishWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
------
TheKoran|980110947
3c3
< Much of the content in the Qur'an makes reference back to parts of the Christian Bible.  Well-known Biblical characters such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus are mentioned.  Detractors of the Qur'an and Muhammad have claimed that Muhammad was merely taking older religious documents and stories and embellishing them.  Muslims maintain that this could not be the case, on scientific grounds. Modern science has identified many factual errors and internal inconsistencies in the Bible.  However, the Qur'an has none, according to Muslims; and what's more, in cases where Biblical stories reappear in very similar form Qur'an, the stories are always changed in such a way that the scientific inaccuracies and inconsistencies are gone.  This is considered proof of the Qur'an's divine origin.
---
> Much of the content in the Qur'an makes reference back to parts of the Christian Bible.  Well-known Biblical characters such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus are mentioned.  Detractors of the Qur'an and Muhammad have claimed that Muhammad was merely taking older religious documents and stories and embellishing them.  Muslims maintain that this could not be the case, on scientific grounds. Modern science has identified many factual errors and internal inconsistencies in the Bible.  However, the Qur'an has none, according to Muslims; and what's more, in cases where Biblical stories reappear in very similar form in the Qur'an, the stories are always changed in such a way that the scientific inaccuracies and inconsistencies are gone.  This is considered proof of the Qur'an's divine origin.
------
RosaParks|980111217
1c1
< Cool ole biddy (ment in a most respectful way, of course), who served as lightning rod for change merely because of her selft confidence in her right to sit where she pleased on the bus.
---
> Cool ole biddy (meant in a most respectful way, of course), who served as lightning rod for social change merely because of her self-confidence and her insistence on her right to sit where she pleased on the bus.
------
DenmarK|980113488
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AKA KingdomOfDenmark, q.v.
------
KingdomOfDenmark|980113597
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country in NothernEurope.  Inhabitants are called Danes.  Language spoken is Danish.  Capitol Copenhagen.  Other important citiers are Århus, Odense, and Rønne.
------
KlausSeistrup|980113661
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Klaus Alexander Seistrup.
------
KlausSeistrup|980113736
1c1
< Klaus Alexander Seistrup.
---
> Klaus Alexander Seistrup, contributor to WikiPedia.  Citizen of the KingdomOfDenmark.
------
KingdomOfDenmark|980114135
1c1,5
< Country in NothernEurope.  Inhabitants are called Danes.  Language spoken is Danish.  Capitol Copenhagen.  Other important citiers are Århus, Odense, and Rønne.
---
> Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula north of Germany. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: København).
> 
> Inhabitants are called Danes (adj. Danish).
> 
> Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
------
DanCe|980114234
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> While dance has traditionally been a form of ReCreation, many forms of dance have been formalized and refined into specific genres.  These genres include:
> 
> BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance
> 
> 
------
CountriesD|980114303
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> DenmarkK
------
CountriesD|980114320
1c1
< DenmarkK
---
> DenmarK
------
CountriesK|980114356
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> KingdomOfDenmark
------
MuSic|980114652
6a7,8
> TheRecorder
> 
------
MuSic|980114701
7,8d6
< TheRecorder
< 
17a16,17
> 
> TheRecorder
------
SandBox|980114736
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A place for children of all ages to play in.
> 
> ----
> 
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?
------
SandBox|980114800
5c5
< Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?
---
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
------
KlausSeistrup|980114975
1a2,3
> 
> See also Why:KlausSeistrup.
------
TheRecorder|980115418
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Recorder (German: Blockflöte; French: Flûte à Bec; Italian Flauto Dolce). A fipple flute, i.e. one with a mouthpiece enabling the breath to be directed at the edge without having to form an embouchure with the lips.  Known in the 18th century simply as Flute = Flauto - the transverse form was separately referred to as Traverso.  It was for the recorder that J.S. Bach wrote the 4th Brandenburg concerto in G major (though Thurston Dart controversially suggested that it was intended for flageolets at a higher pitch, and in a recording under Neville Marriner using Dart's editions it was played an octave higher than usual on sopranino recorders.
> 
> The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
------
BallroomDance|980115626
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ballroom dance originated in the western world, and is now enjoyed both socially and competitively in many parts of the world.
> 
> Contemporary ballroom dance technique has been extensively 
> studied and formalized.  MedalsExams are a commonly accepted standard of measurement of a dancer's technique according to conventional standards, and are classed Bronze, Silver, Gold and Gold Bar.
> 
> The three divisions of contemporary ballroom dance are called:
> 
> ----
> 
> International Standard (also called International Ballroom)
> 
> The dances which make up International Standard ballroom dance are:
> * Waltz
> * Viennese Waltz
> * Tango
> * Foxtrot
> * Quickstep
> 
> ----
> 
> International Latin
> 
> The dances which make up International Latin ballroom dance are:
> * Rumba
> * Samba
> * Cha-Cha
> * Paso Doble
> * Jive
> 
> ----
> 
> American style Ballroom
> 
> The dances which are included in American style ballroom include
> (more than just) the following.  Note that American versions of dances which are also danced in the International style usually have differences in technique.  Also note that popular club dances such as LindyHop, WestCoastSwing and EastCoastSwing will often be danced differently in clubs than in ballroom studios.
> * Foxtrot
> * Cha-Cha
> * Waltz
> * Viennese Waltz
> * TripleSwing (also known as EastCoastSwing)
> * WestCoastSwing
> * LindyHop
> * Tango
> * Mambo
> * Rumba
> * Samba
> * Two Step
> * New York Hustle
------
HomePage|980115704
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe
------
ScienCe|980115802
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> BiologicalScience
> * AnatOmy
> * PhysiolOgy
> * OrnitholOgy
> 
> PhysicalScience
> * PhysIcs
> * AstronOmy
> 
> ChemisTry
> 
------
BiologicalScience|980115861
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of life and the processes thereof.
> 
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980117724
4a5
> The CIAWorldFactBook seems to have very long entries. Wouldn't it be better to split them up like this instead: AfGhanistan --LinusTolke
------
AfGhanistan|980117937
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Illustration on an alternative example on how to organize a country. --LinusTolke
> ----
> 
> AfghanistanHistory
> 
> AfghanistanGeography
> 
> AfghanistanPeople
> 
> AfghanistanGovernement
> 
> AfghanistanEconomy
> 
> AfghanistanCommunications
> 
> AfghanistanTransportations
> 
> AfghanistanMilitary
> 
> AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
> 
------
AfghanistanHistory|980117985
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
> supplied and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, but the fundamentalist Islamic
> Taliban movement has been able to seize most of the country. In addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffers from enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure,
> and widespread live mines. 
------
AfghanistanGeography|980118032
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 65 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Asia 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 652,000 sq km 
> land: 652,000 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 5,529 km 
> border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers 
> 
> Terrain: mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m 
> highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m 
> 
> Natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 12% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 46% 
> forests and woodland: 3% 
> other: 39% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 30,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials);
> desertification 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban 
> signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
------
AfghanistanPeople|980118067
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 25,838,797 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 42.37% (male 5,598,403; female 5,371,054) 
> 15-64 years: 54.86% (male 7,362,961; female 6,839,914) 
> 65 years and over: 2.77% (male 378,741; female 337,724) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.54% (2000 est.) 
> note: this rate reflects the continued return of refugees from Iran 
> 
> Birth rate: 41.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 18.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 11.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.12 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 149.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 45.88 years 
> male: 46.62 years 
> female: 45.1 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 5.87 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Afghan(s) 
> adjective: Afghan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) 
> 
> Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% 
> 
> Languages: Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much
> bilingualism 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 31.5% 
> male: 47.2% 
> female: 15% (1999 est.)
------
AfghanistanGovernement|980118098
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
> conventional short form: Afghanistan 
> local long form: Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan 
> local short form: Afghanestan 
> former: Republic of Afghanistan 
> 
> Data code: AF 
> 
> Government type: no functioning central government, administered by factions 
> 
> Capital: Kabul 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat,
> Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol 
> note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst 
> 
> Independence: 19 August 1919 (from UK control over Afghan foreign affairs) 
> 
> National holiday: Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August 
> 
> Constitution: none 
> 
> Legal system: a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) 
> 
> Suffrage: NA; previously males 15-50 years of age 
> 
> Executive branch: on 27 September 1996, the ruling members of the Afghan Government were displaced by members of the Islamic Taliban movement; the Islamic State
> of Afghanistan has no functioning government at this time, and the country remains divided among fighting factions 
> note: the Taliban have declared themselves the legitimate government of Afghanistan; however, the UN still recognizes the government of Burhanuddin RABBANI; the
> Organization of the Islamic Conference has left the Afghan seat vacant until the question of legitimacy can be resolved through negotiations among the warring factions; the
> country is essentially divided along ethnic lines; the Taliban controls the capital of Kabul and approximately two-thirds of the country including the predominately ethnic
> Pashtun areas in southern Afghanistan; opposing factions have their stronghold in the ethnically diverse north 
> 
> Legislative branch: non-functioning as of June 1993 
> 
> Judicial branch: non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) [Mohammed Asif MOHSENI]; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement)
> [Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI]; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party) [Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction]; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party) [Yunis KHALIS
> faction]; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Mohammad Akbar AKBARI]; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of
> Afghanistan) [Abdul Rasul SAYYAF]; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front) [Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI]; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami
> (National Islamic Front) [Sayed Ahamad GAILANI]; Taliban (Religious Students Movement) [Mohammad OMAR]; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan
> comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement) [Abdul Rashid DOSTAM]; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) [Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad
> Shah MASOOD]; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Abdul Karim KHALILI] 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
> NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
> represent traditional Pashtun leadership; Writers Union of Free Afghanistan or WUFA [A. Rasul AMIN] 
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC,
> IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> note: embassy operations suspended 21 August 1997 
> chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
> chancery: 2341 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 234-3770 
> FAX: [1] (202) 328-3516 
> consulate(s) general: New York 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like
> structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two
> crossed scimitars 
> note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag 
> 
------
AfghanistanEconomy|980118132
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations
> have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February
> 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 1999, 1.2
> million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor
> and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation
> remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. The
> economic situation did not improve in 1998-99, as internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are
> likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 1999, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $800 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 53% 
> industry: 28.5% 
> services: 18.5% (1990) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
> 
> Labor force: 8 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 68%, industry 16%, services 16% (1980 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 8% (1995 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $NA 
> expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA 
> 
> Industries: small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper 
> 
> Electricity - production: 430 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 41.86% 
> hydro: 58.14% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 510 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: opium poppies, wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton 
> 
> Exports: $80 million (does not include opium) (1996 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems 
> 
> Exports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic 
> 
> Imports: $150 million (1996 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and petroleum products; most consumer goods 
> 
> Imports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany 
> 
> Debt - external: $5.5 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN
> programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons 
> 
> Currency: 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls 
> 
> Exchange rates: afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019
> (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar
> until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 
> 
> Fiscal year: 21 March - 20 March 
------
AfghanistanCommunications|980118149
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 31,200 (1983); note - there were 21,000 main lines in use in Kabul in 1998 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: very limited telephone and telegraph service; in 1997, telecommunications links were established between Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul
> through satellite and microwave systems 
> international: satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); commercial satellite telephone center in
> Ghazni 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7 (6 are inactive; the active station is in Kabul), FM 1, shortwave 1 (broadcasts in Pushtu, Dari, Urdu, and English) (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 167,000 (1999) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: at least 10 (one government run central television station in Kabul and regional stations in nine of the 30 provinces; the regional stations
> operate on a reduced schedule; also, in 1997, there was a station in Mazar-e Sharif reaching four northern Afghanistan provinces) (1998) 
> 
> Televisions: 100,000 (1999) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
------
AfghanistanTransportations|980118165
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
> total: 24.6 km 
> broad gauge: 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1.524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on
> south bank of Amu Darya 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 21,000 km 
> paved: 2,793 km 
> unpaved: 18,207 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 1,200 km; chiefly Amu Darya, which handles vessels up to about 500 DWT 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products - Uzbekistan to Bagram and Turkmenistan to Shindand; natural gas 180 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kheyrabad, Shir Khan 
> 
> Airports: 46 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 14 
> over 3,047 m: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 32 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.) 
------
AfghanistanMilitary|980118184
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border
> Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 22 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 6,401,980 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 3,432,236 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 244,958 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
> 
------
PhiloSophy|980118198
3c3
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
---
> AlTruism -- LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
9c9
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about all of these topics!
---
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about all of these topics!
------
AfghanistanTransnationalIssues|980118198
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN 
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
> increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
> from drug trade 
------
AfGhanistan|980118253
1c1
< Illustration on an alternative example on how to organize a country. --LinusTolke
---
> Illustration on an alternative example on how to organize a country. Compare to the "all in one node"-solution in AfghanistaN --LinusTolke
------
BalticSea|980118648
6c6
< Contains the big islands GotlanD, Öland (OEland) belonging to SwedeN, BornholM (beloning to DenmarK), Åland (AOland) (belonging to FinlanD), Ösel (OEsel) and Dagö (DagoE) belonging to EstoniA.
---
> Contains the big islands GotLand, Öland (OEland) belonging to SwedeN, BornholM (beloning to DenmarK), Åland (AOland) (belonging to FinlanD), Ösel (OEsel) and Dagö (DagoE) belonging to EstoniA.
------
AlTruism|980118691
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in Atlas Shrugged.  
> If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
------
PatentNonsense|980118719
13c13
< SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
---
> Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
15c15
< Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
---
> A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
17c17
< K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
---
> Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
19c19
< Go figure!
---
> A. Go figure!
------
KlausSeistrup|980118969
3c3
< See also Why:KlausSeistrup.
---
> See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
------
KlausSeistrup|980119011
1c1
< Klaus Alexander Seistrup, contributor to WikiPedia.  Citizen of the KingdomOfDenmark.
---
> Klaus Alexander Seistrup, contributor to WikiPedia.  Citizen of the KingdomOfDenmark.  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
3c3,4
< See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
---
> 
> See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
------
AlTruism|980119041
0a1,2
> The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain.
> 
2c4
< If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
---
> If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
------
KlausSeistrup|980119048
1c1,2
< Klaus Alexander Seistrup, contributor to WikiPedia.  Citizen of the KingdomOfDenmark.  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
---
> Klaus Alexander Seistrup, contributor to WikiPedia.  Citizen of the KingdomOfDenmark. 
>  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
4c5
< See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
---
> See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
------
KlausSeistrup|980119075
2c2,4
<  What is this for?  This is a pointless change.  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark?  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
---
>  What is this for?  This is a pointless change. 
>  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark? 
>  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
------
KlausSeistrup|980119105
2c2
<  What is this for?  This is a pointless change. 
---
>  What is this for?  This is a pointless page. 
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980119119
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of AlTruism.
------
PhiloSophy|980119463
1c1,2
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism
---
> '''Some existing articles:'''
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
3c4,5
< AlTruism -- LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
---
> '''PhilosophicalSubdisciplines:'''
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
4a7
> '''PhIlosophers:'''
5a9,11
> 
> '''PhilosophicalTheories:'''
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm  [etc. continue the list please]
------
PhiloSophy|980119507
11c11
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm  [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism  [etc. continue the list please]
------
PhiloSophy|980119544
7c7
< '''PhIlosophers:'''
---
> '''PhiloSophers:'''
------
KlausSeistrup|980119728
1a2,4
> 
> See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
> ----
5,7c8,9
< 
< 
< See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
---
> ----
> This is a personal page for prolific WikiPedia writer KlausSeistrup.  It is not pointless, for it tells us his middle name and that he is a citizen of Denmark.  Now I can address him in Danish if I wanted to (and could).  Re: Danish royalty, you learn something new every day; aren't wikis great? -- LarrySanger
------
NamingConventions|980119909
38a39,40
> ----
> Wouldn't it be a good idea to add a tool on each page helping us to find names with incorrect or missing links. My suggestion is to modify the preview page to include a list of all words or combination of words present in the text that have entries (independant of capitalization) in wikipedia. In that way it would be simple to pin-point errors in capitalization and the need for rules diminishes.  --LinusTolke
------
HomePage|980119913
5c5
< The WeekEnd is here.  Ever wonder what a WeekEnd is?
---
> We have a new WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  (I created and used it to announce WikipediaL.)
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980119976
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''January 21, 2001'''
> 
> Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
> 
> -- LarrySanger
------
PartakeInDiscussion|980120023
3c3,4
< Click "Edit text of this page" below to see how this was done...the four hyphens will be revealed.
---
> Click "Edit text of this page" below to see how this was done...the four hyphens will be revealed.----
> By the way, you can participate on WikipediaL if you want to discuss something that, for whatever reason, you don't want to discuss on Wikipedia itself.
------
KlausSeistrup|980120029
7a8,9
> 
> ''Denmark has/is a constitutional monarchy and, yes, we do have a queen (QueenMargretheII) who has ruled the country since 1972 when her father, KingFrederikIX, died. I'm sorry that you find this page pointless, but pages are abundant on this wiki, so go and read another one and forget about this page -- perhaps someone else will find it useful. --KlausSeistrup''
------
NewTopics|980120065
5c5
< EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd
---
> EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd -- WikiPediaAnnouncements -- WikipediaL
------
WikipediaL|980120230
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is the sign-up page address (where you can also find the archive):
> 
> http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l
------
WikipediaL|980120299
1c1
< Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is the sign-up page address (where you can also find the archive):
---
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page address (where you can also find a Wikipedia-L archive):
3c3,5
< http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l Wikipedia-L]
> 
> I have just one request.  If someone asks a question, answers a question, or otherwise says something of lasting interest, will you please put it on the wiki?  Thanks
------
WikiPedians|980120382
1c1,3
< Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher...
---
> The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense).
> 
> Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher.
------
DefinitionofBibleTerms|980120765
1c1
< The Canon of Scripture
---
> TheCanonofScripture for the discussion of Bible history that originally graced this page.
3d2
< Early Christians and Jews were not interested in laying down a Canon, or set list of inspired books. While all Jews accepted the Torah, there was division about what other books might or might not be inspired by God. 
5,19d3
< The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the OldTestament into Greek provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew speaking world. However, even here, there was discussion about what books were inspired. Some editions of the LXX include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st psalm, while others do not include them.
< 
< After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the Jewish community set down their Canon of Scripture, including only those books written in Hebrew and written up to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. (Later scholarship indicates that this division was not perfectly done, that is, some of the books accepted by the Jews were actually written after the deadline.)
< 
< The Christians, on the other hand, tended to use the Greek Bible, and had more books in circulation, though no formal statement was made by the universal Church on the subject. In the OldTestament, the "doubtful" books that were eventually included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach, as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. The doubtful books in the NewTestament were Hebrews, James, 2-3 John, 1-2 Peter, and Revelation, mostly because of the unsure authorship of these books.
< 
< When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, producing the VulgateBible, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books.
< 
< Over the years, the feeling in favor of this group of "doubtful" books grew, until at the Council of Florence (1451), this list was defined as canonical. The Council of Florence, however, was not binding on the whole Church.
< 
< At the time of the Reformation, MartinLuther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his OldTestament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued for the elimiation of certain NewTestament books, notably the Letter of James.
< 
< The CatholicChurch finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The OldTestament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
< 
< With all due respect, what about the parts of the Bible that were destroyed because they were written by WOMEN? The Bible everyone is reading is broken, even as a history...
------
TheCanonofScripture|980120775
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Canon of Scripture 
> 
> Early Christians and Jews were not interested in laying down a Canon, or set list of inspired books. While all Jews accepted the Torah, there was division about what other books might or might not be inspired by God. 
> 
> The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the OldTestament into Greek provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew speaking world. However, even here, there was discussion about what books were inspired. Some editions of the LXX include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st psalm, while others do not include them.
> 
> After the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, the Jewish community set down their Canon of Scripture, including only those books written in Hebrew and written up to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. (Later scholarship indicates that this division was not perfectly done, that is, some of the books accepted by the Jews were actually written after the deadline.)
> 
> The Christians, on the other hand, tended to use the Greek Bible, and had more books in circulation, though no formal statement was made by the universal Church on the subject. In the OldTestament, the "doubtful" books that were eventually included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach, as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. The doubtful books in the NewTestament were Hebrews, James, 2-3 John, 1-2 Peter, and Revelation, mostly because of the unsure authorship of these books.
> 
> When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, producing the VulgateBible, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books.
> 
> Over the years, the feeling in favor of this group of "doubtful" books grew, until at the Council of Florence (1451), this list was defined as canonical. The Council of Florence, however, was not binding on the whole Church.
> 
> At the time of the Reformation, MartinLuther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his OldTestament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued for the elimiation of certain NewTestament books, notably the Letter of James.
> 
> The CatholicChurch finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The OldTestament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.
> 
> With all due respect, what about the parts of the Bible that were destroyed because they were written by WOMEN? The Bible everyone is reading is broken, even as a history...
------
WikiPediaFaq|980120820
39a40,41
> ----
> '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreements on the contents of WikiPedia?'''
------
BibleHistory|980120820
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See TheCanonOfScripture for one discussion of Bible history.
------
BibleHistory|980120843
1c1
< See TheCanonOfScripture for one discussion of Bible history.
---
> See TheCanonofScripture for one discussion of Bible history.
------
PhysicalScience|980121205
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The art of reverse-engineering the universe.
> 
------
PatentNonsense|980121219
1c1
< Patent nonsense, particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
---
> Patent nonsense (to be carefully distinguished from BrilliantProse), particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
------
BrilliantProse|980121233
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Somebody thinks the following WikiPedia pages are "brilliant prose" or at least pretty damn good:
> 
> TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- 
> 
> And the following are looking very promising:
> 
> BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- 
------
WikiPediaProcess|980121396
23a24,25
> ----
> I would guess that the policy is that the contents is licensed by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. Since I think that this information is important I will boldly add that to the HomePage. --LinusTolke
------
HomePage|980121461
18a19,20
> ----
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
BrilliantProse|980121569
1c1
< Somebody thinks the following WikiPedia pages are "brilliant prose" or at least pretty damn good:
---
> ''Somebody'' thinks the following WikiPedia pages are "brilliant prose" or at least pretty damn good:
3c3
< TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- 
---
> TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- PythagoreanTheorem -- SabBath -- TaoTehChing -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TheRecorder
7c7
< BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- 
---
> BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
------
WikiPedians|980121595
1c1
< The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense).
---
> The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on WikiPedia.
3c3
< Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher.
---
> Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher.
------
BrilliantProse|980121663
7c7,9
< BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
---
> BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
> 
> Well, whatever this is, it sure isn't PatentNonsense!
------
BrilliantProse|980121723
9c9
< Well, whatever this is, it sure isn't PatentNonsense!
---
> Well, whatever these articles are, they sure aren't PatentNonsense!
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|980121774
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything(2) from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|980121821
3c3
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
---
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
------
WikiPediaProcess|980121985
25a26,27
> ----
> You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaFaq|980122056
41c41,43
< '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreements on the contents of WikiPedia?'''
---
> '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreements on the contents of WikiPedia?'''
> 
> A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
WikipediaL|980122695
1c1
< Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page address (where you can also find a Wikipedia-L archive):
---
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page (where you can also find a Wikipedia-L archive):
5c5
< I have just one request.  If someone asks a question, answers a question, or otherwise says something of lasting interest, will you please put it on the wiki?  Thanks
---
> I have just one request.  If someone asks a question, answers a question, or otherwise says something of lasting interest, will you please put it on the wiki?  TIA.
------
AssistiveTechnology|980128320
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980138270
1c1
< MathematicalGrouP
---
> MathematicalGroup
3,6c3
< The concept of a GrouP is one of the foundations of ModernAlgebra.
< 
< 
< The definition of a GrouP is brief.
---
> The concept of a Group is one of the foundations of ModernAlgebra. Its definition is brief.
9c6
< A GrouP is a non-empty set, say G and a binary operation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
---
> A Group is a non-empty set, say G and a binary operation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
15c12
< 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*
---
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
18d14
<         (b*c).
22,25c18
< 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an
< 
< 
<         element b in G such that a*b=i.
---
> 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=i.
29,32c22
< A GrouP that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let I be the set of
< 
<  
< integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
---
> A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let I be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
59c49
< denoted by "x" is (I,x) a GrouP?
---
> denoted by "x" is (I,x) a Group?
85c75
< Therefore, (I,x) is '''not''' a GrouP.
---
> Therefore, (I,x) is '''not''' a Group.
91,93c81
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, 
< 
< and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
---
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
------
TheCanonofScripture|980144909
19c19
< With all due respect, what about the parts of the Bible that were destroyed because they were written by WOMEN? The Bible everyone is reading is broken, even as a history...
---
> With all due respect, what about the parts of the Bible that were destroyed because they were written by WOMEN? The Bible everyone is reading is broken, even as a history...
------
TopOlogy|980147333
1c1,9
< What is topology, and why do people study it?
---
> Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a space X is defined a set T of subsets of X satisfying:
> 
> 1) T is closed under abitrary unions
> 2) T is closed under finite intersections
> 3) X, {} are in T
> 
> The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.
> 
> 
------
HomePage|980147488
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
20c20
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
ComputinG|980147948
1c1
< * AlgorithmS
---
> * Algorithms
6a7
> * HumanComputerInteraction
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980148080
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Herein will be the Geek Speak Contributions from the Spring 2001 Human Computer Interaction class at Lewis & Clark College
------
ComputinG|980148135
7c7
< * HumanComputerInteraction
---
> * HumanComputerInteraction (Geek Speak)
------
HiStory|980148207
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Should only include histories of eras and countries that are now defunct.
> 
> HistoryOfMesopotamia
> HistoryOfEgypt
> HistoryOfIndia
> HistoryOfChina
> HistoryOfMesoamerica
> HistoryOfAndes
> HistoryOfGreece
> HistoryOfRome
> HistoryOfByzantium
> HistoryOfIslam
> HistoryOfEurope
> 
> 
------
HiStory|980148240
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
5a8
> 
6a10
> 
7a12
> 
8a14
> 
9a16
> 
10a18
> 
12,13d19
< HistoryOfIslam
< HistoryOfEurope
14a21
> HistoryOfIslam
15a23
> HistoryOfEurope
------
MathematicalGrouP|980148529
19a20,21
> The importance of groups lies in the fact that any set of permutations naturally becomes a group when you include all compositions and inverses.  In fact, any group can be represented in this way; this is called CayleysTheorem.
> 
------
EncycloPedia|980148686
0a1,6
> An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter of shelf space.
> 
> When the computers become more and more common Encyclopedias is by their structure of words and cross references extremely well suited for moving the contents from the book format to the computer format. Firstly because it is a lot easier to carry around and find what you are looking for and secondly because it is possible to include sounds and films as illustrations.
> ----
> These Encyclopedias are available to look at using the Internet:
> 
------
SwedisH|980148697
1a2
> One of the GermanicLanguages.
------
GermanicLanguages|980148931
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the branches of the IndoEuropean language family, spoken by the GermanicPeoples who were settled north and easy along the borders of the RomanEmpire.
> 
> West Germanic languages:
> 
> LowGerman
> HighGerman
> DutchLanguage
> SwissLanguage
> EnglishLanguage
> 
> North Germanic languages:
> 
> DanishLanguage
> SwedishLanguage (see SwedisH)
> NorwegianLanguage
> 
> East Germanic languages:
> 
> GothicLanguage (extinct)
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
GermanicLanguages|980148970
3c3
< West Germanic languages:
---
> West Germanic languages: LowGerman -- HighGerman -- DutchLanguage -- SwissLanguage -- EnglishLanguage
5,9c5
< LowGerman
< HighGerman
< DutchLanguage
< SwissLanguage
< EnglishLanguage
---
> North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage/SwedisH -- NorwegianLanguage
11,19c7
< North Germanic languages:
< 
< DanishLanguage
< SwedishLanguage (see SwedisH)
< NorwegianLanguage
< 
< East Germanic languages:
< 
< GothicLanguage (extinct)
---
> East Germanic languages: GothicLanguage (extinct)
------
GermanicLanguages|980148999
5c5
< North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage/SwedisH -- NorwegianLanguage
---
> North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage / SwedisH -- NorwegianLanguage
------
CountrY|980149022
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980149181
64a65,66
> ----
> The world is divided into six contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, AustraliA, OceaniA and AmericA.
------
IndoEuropean|980149665
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  Discussion about actual Proto-Indo-European civilization has been set back by its association with Hitler's Aryan doctrine, but they probably lived some place about the CaspianSea around 2000 B.C.  Huge dictionaries have been compiled of inferred PIE words.
> 
> The various subgroups of Indo-European had diverged and spread by about 1500 B.C., and include
> 
> CelticLanguages
> 
> GermanicLanguages
> 
> ItalicLanguages
> 
> IllyrianLanguages
> 
> GreekLanguage
> 
> SlavicLanguages
> 
> AnatolianLanguages
> 
> IndoIranianLanguages, e.g. SanskritLanguage
------
HomePage|980149734
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
---
> HumanComputerInteraction! -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
------
IndoEuropean|980149765
9c9
< ItalicLanguages
---
> ItalicLanguages - including LatinLanguage and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980149868
1c1
< Herein will be the Geek Speak Contributions from the Spring 2001 Human Computer Interaction class at Lewis & Clark College
---
> Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>As We May Think /<b> article.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980149883
1c1
< Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>As We May Think /<b> article.
---
> Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>As We May Think </b> article.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980150078
1a2,5
> 
> Your task, <i>(If you choose to accept it)</i> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
> 
> What do you think about putting copies of the Geek Speak presentations here for the world to see (and maybe add to or delete 8^)
------
BronzeAge|980153433
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Around 2000-1600 BC new groups started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.  These are associated with bronze (copper+tin) implements, chariot archers, warrior nobilities, and generally speaking IndoEuropean languages.  They probably fanned out from a homeland around the CaspianSea.  Around the end of the period this process intensified, and most of the older civilizations were overrun.
> 
> In the west, the first Greeks - the Achaeans - entered the country and founded the MycenaeanCivilization.  This was partially derivative from the older MinoanCivilization on Crete, but soon came to dominate it.  Further west, various groups - mostly notably the CelticPeoples - spread over Europe, almost entirely displacing the original cultures.
> 
> In the east, various Iranian groups appeared.  These include the nomadic Scythians, the Kassites who conquered Babylonia, the Mitanni who pushed the Hurrians into northern Mesopotamia, and the IndoAryans who destroyed the civilization of Harappa.  At around the same time the semitic Hyskos overran Egypt, though they were ejected soon after.  In these last few cases the IndoEuropean nobility were minorities ruling over a predominantly foreign people.
> 
> Around this time, too, the first civilization in China - the ShangDynasty - appears.  This probably was influenced by yet another group of IE migrants, the Tocharians, but not enough work has been done to confirm this hypothesis.
> 
> Around 1200 BC most of the bronze age kingdoms collapsed and urban centers all across the eastern meditteranean were sacked by raiders, all within a few decades.  The following few centuries were dark ages for Greece and the Near East.  By the time civilization had recovered, iron tools had become common, and a new era had begun.
------
IndoEuropean|980153581
1c1
< It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  Discussion about actual Proto-Indo-European civilization has been set back by its association with Hitler's Aryan doctrine, but they probably lived some place about the CaspianSea around 2000 B.C.  Huge dictionaries have been compiled of inferred PIE words.
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared during the BronzeAge, around 2000-1600 BC.  Huge amounts of information about PIE lexicon and grammar have been inferred.  Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of NaziGermany.
3c3
< The various subgroups of Indo-European had diverged and spread by about 1500 B.C., and include
---
> The various subgroups of Indo-European include:
19c19
< IndoIranianLanguages, e.g. SanskritLanguage
---
> IndoIranianLanguages, e.g. SanskritLanguage
------
HiStory|980153736
2a3,18
> PalaeolithicPeriod
> 
> NeolithicPeriod
> 
> CopperAge
> 
> BronzeAge
> 
> IronAge
> 
> ClassicalAge
> 
> MiddleAges
> 
> ModernPeriod
> 
23c39
< HistoryOfEurope
---
> HistoryOfEurope
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980153885
66c66
< The world is divided into six contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, AustraliA, OceaniA and AmericA.
---
> The world is divided into seven contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, NorthAmericA, SouthAmericA, and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
------
BronzeAge|980154140
5c5
< In the east, various Iranian groups appeared.  These include the nomadic Scythians, the Kassites who conquered Babylonia, the Mitanni who pushed the Hurrians into northern Mesopotamia, and the IndoAryans who destroyed the civilization of Harappa.  At around the same time the semitic Hyskos overran Egypt, though they were ejected soon after.  In these last few cases the IndoEuropean nobility were minorities ruling over a predominantly foreign people.
---
> Various Iranian groups appeared across the MiddleEast, including the nomadic Scythians, the Kassites who conquered Babylonia, the Mitanni who pushed the Hurrians into northern Mesopotamia, and the IndoAryans who destroyed the civilization of Harappa.  The HittiteKingdom was established in Anatolia (modern Tukey), and the semitic Hyskos adopted the new technology and overran Egypt, though they were ejected soon after.  
9c9
< Around 1200 BC most of the bronze age kingdoms collapsed and urban centers all across the eastern meditteranean were sacked by raiders, all within a few decades.  The following few centuries were dark ages for Greece and the Near East.  By the time civilization had recovered, iron tools had become common, and a new era had begun.
---
> Around 1200 BC most of the bronze age kingdoms collapsed and urban centers all across the eastern meditteranean were sacked by raiders, all within a few decades.  The following few centuries were dark ages for Greece and the Near East.  By the time civilization had recovered, iron tools had become common, and a new era had begun.
------
IndoEuropean|980154295
9c9
< ItalicLanguages - including LatinLanguage and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages
---
> ItalicLanguages, including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages
11c11
< IllyrianLanguages
---
> IllyrianLanguages (now restricted to AlbanianLanguage)
17c17
< AnatolianLanguages
---
> AnatolianLanguages (extinct)
------
KingdomOfDenmark|980168814
1c1
< Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula north of Germany. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: København).
---
> Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula and a number of islands north of Germany. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: København).
------
AfghanistanGovernement|980168945
67c67
< note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag 
---
> note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag or a white flag with the shahada, see http://fotw.digibel.be/flags/af.html
------
EuropE|980169041
1c1
< Contintent stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediteraineanOcean in the south to the north pole.
---
> Contintent stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the north pole.
8c8
< some more
---
> some more
------
WhatIsaWiki|980179432
20c20,21
< 
---
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
------
WhatIsaWiki|980179449
21c21,23
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
---
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
> 
>     ---- Drachs
------
SabBath|980180628
3c3
< Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eight" day, see Acts <chapter, verse?>), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
---
> Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
5c5
< A few Christian sects currently honor the Sabbath on Saturday, but most use Sunday.
---
> A few Christian sects, notably the Seventh-Day Adventists, currently honor the Sabbath on Saturday, but most use Sunday.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|980184817
38c38
< Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequnce of the formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
---
> Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequence of the formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
------
IndoEuropean|980191138
1c1
< It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared during the BronzeAge, around 2000-1600 BC.  Huge amounts of information about PIE lexicon and grammar have been inferred.  Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of NaziGermany.
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared during the BronzeAge, around 2000-1600 BC.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of NaziGermany.
------
GerMany|980191433
3c3
< Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1936-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka East Germany). West Germany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, England, and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. East Germany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. It was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
---
> Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1936-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, England, and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
5c5
< In 1989 East Germany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that East Germany was annexed by West Germany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Later it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by Helmut Kohl, then the prime minister of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in East Germany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = Don't let yourselves be West Germanized. But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
---
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the prime minister of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
7c7
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
---
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
------
ItalY|980196564
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italia (Italy) is a country in the 
> south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> MediterraneanSea.
> 
> It takes part in the EuroCurrency.
> 
> The capital is Roma (Rome); the real capital is Milano (Milan).
> 
------
GiovanniPensa|980196637
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lives is ItalY. 
------
GiovanniPensa|980196732
1c1
< Lives is ItalY. 
---
> Lives is Italy.
------
ItalY|980196836
1c1
< Italia (Italy) is a country in the 
---
> Italia (Italy) is a repubblic in the 
7c7
< The capital is Roma (Rome); the real capital is Milano (Milan).
---
> The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
------
ItalY|980197044
1c1
< Italia (Italy) is a repubblic in the 
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
------
AssistiveTechnology|980197937
1c1,3
< Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. 
---
> Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user.---- 
> 
> The classic example of an AssistiveTechnology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
------
TopOlogy|980198273
3a4,5
> 
> 
4a7,8
> 
> 
5a10,11
> 
> 
------
MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale|980198751
9c9,136
< modern scale.  Pending their permission, I'll post the entire article text here.
---
> modern scale.  With ajax's permission, 
> I've posted the text of the entire article here.
> 
> Everything You Never Wanted To Know About Just Intonation
>                          or
>            Western Scales Ate My Brain
> 
> First, some introduction: according to napalm.firest0rm.org:80, "Napalm
> is an e-zine devoted to computer security, with a healthy dose of music,
> news, and ethics." Well, maybe we oughtta live up to that, so here's some
> music theory in your ear. (Or your eye, unless you're text-to-speeching
> this.)
> 
> Generally speaking, a scale is a progression of notes that takes you from
> one octave to the next.  (Although it can actually be much larger than
> just one octave, generally we don't do that.)  Notes have pitches, which
> can be measured in oscillations per second, or hertz.  The human ear can
> perceive from about 20Hz at the low end to around 20,000Hz at the high
> end.  Now, it turns out that the human ear differentiates pitch
> logarithmically, and that doubling any given pitch raises it an
> octave.  Thus the human ear has a range of a little under ten octaves.
> 
> Now it also turns out that when the ear hears any two notes in
> combination, the interval, whether major or minor, is perceived to be in
> tune when the ratio between the two notes approaches a ratio of two low
> integers.  The degenerate case would be a 1:1 ratio, which would be two
> notes in unison; a 2:1 ratio, as above, is an octave.  Roughly, the
> intervals for the twelve-tone scale used in western music are:
> 
>  1:1	unison 
>  21:20	half step / minor second
>  9:8	whole step / major second
>  6:5	minor third
>  5:4	major third
>  4:3	perfect fourth
>  7:5	tritone / augmented fourth / diminished fifth
>  3:2	perfect fifth
>  8:5	minor sixth
>  5:3	major sixth
>  9:5	dominant seventh / flat seventh
>  17:9	major seventh / natural seventh
>  2:1	octave
> 
> The note that a scale centers around is called the tonic.  A scale in
> which the ratio of any note to the tonic is an integer ratio is called a
> scale of just intonation.  These scales have a very natural-sounding
> quality to them.
> 
> The problem is, they're murder to implement in any stopped or fretted
> instrument.  The difficulty is subtle, but it means big headaches.  It's
> hard to explain, though, so I'll give an example.
> 
> For purposes of tuning we need a reference pitch, something all the
> instruments can agree on.  Usually a 440hz sine wave is used as the
> reference pitch, as an A natural.  Now, according to our table above, we
> can calculate the pitch of any other note by setting up a simple ratio
> relationship.  For example, if I wanted to calculate the pitch of a
> perfect fifth from an A440, I would write:
> 
>     (X / 440) = (3 / 2)
> 
> and solve for X.  Simple algebra, right?  In the above, X comes to 660.
> Let's calculate two more:
> 
>     (X / 440) = (9 / 8); major second = 495
>     (X / 440) = (5 / 4); major third = 550
> 
> Now, assume that what you know about scale theory is right and that the
> second of a second (of a tonic) is the same note (and pitch) as the major
> third of the tonic.  If that were true, then in:
> 
>     (X / 495) = (9 / 8)
> 
> X should equal 550.  This is the subtle bit, so make sure you understand
> it.  The above equation takes the second of 440 (495) and finds the note a
> second up from it (9 / 8).  I'll let you all punch that into xcalc and see
> what happens.
> 
> Didn't work, did it?  You got 556.875, right?
> This is the problem.  Any given scale of just intonation must be tuned to
> a tonic, which is fine if you only want to play in one key.  However, you
> have to retune the instrument every time you modulate keys.  As many
> classical composers (and pop ballad writers) will tell you, this has a way
> of limiting your expressive power.
> 
> So what's a keyboard manufacturer to do?  Tha answer is simple: make one
> note in tune, and space all the other notes equally (logarithmically
> equally, anyway).  This is what happens on most fretted instruments and
> keyboard instruments.  Now, instead of calculating pitch with integer
> ratios, we just plug an interval into the following equation:
> 
>     P = 440 * 2 ^ (n / 12)
> 
> where n is the number of half steps sharp you want to go (and hey, guess
> what, negative numbers work as expected; (n == -3) finds the pitch of the
> major sixth below A440).  This is called a scale of even (or equal)
> temperament, since the distance to any other note is independent of (and
> consistent across) key centers.
> 
> Now, waitasec, doesn't this put everything out of tune?  Well, yes it
> does, but not by very much.  Observe:
> 
>  Note    Just Pitch      E.T. Pitch (approx.)    Error (%) 
>  A       440             440                     0.0
>  Bb      462             466.16                  +0.9
>  B       495             493.88                  -0.2
>  C       528             523.25                  -0.8
>  C#      550             554.37                  +0.7
>  D       586.6-          587.33                  +0.1
>  D#      616             622.25                  +1.0
>  E       660             659.26                  -0.1
>  F       704             698.46                  -0.7
>  F#      733.3-          739.99                  +0.9
>  G       792             783.99                  -1.0
>  Ab      831.1-          830.61                  -0.1
> 
> As you can see, we're never more than 1% out of pitch, which most people
> can't hear.  However, you *are* out of tune inherently, so when your
> instrument then goes further out of tune you sound *really* bad.  The
> advantage, though, is that you get stopped instruments, which makes
> composition and playing much easier.
> 
> (Of course, you'll notice I cheated, and listed a just intonation scale
> that happens to be close to the 12-step equal temperament scale.  Sue
> me.  There are also Indian raga scales and other non-standard scales that
> are "just intonation" scales, but I wanted to present something
> understandable.)
> 
------
TopOlogy|980200013
13c13,14
< The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.
---
> The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.----
> The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful. 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980200588
83c83,85
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?
---
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?----
> 
> Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdealS and FieldS.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980200944
1c1
< MathematicalGroup
---
> MathematicalGrouP
------
MathematicalGrouP|980203840
4d3
< 
6c5
< A Group is a non-empty set, say G and a binary operation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
---
> A Group is a NonEmpty SeT, say G and a BinaryOperation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
9c8
< 1)	G has closure, that is, if a and b belong to G, then a*b belongs to G.
---
> 1)	G has CloSure, that is, if a and b belong to G, then a*b belongs to G.
------
HomePage|980206509
3c3,5
< HumanComputerInteraction! -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
---
> Encyclopedia Topics:  HumanComputerInteraction! -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
> 
> Techie Topics:  ProposedModerationSystem
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|980206598
2c2
< :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TopOlogy
---
> :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TopOlogy -- AlgeBra -- AnalySis -- GeoMetry
------
ProposedModerationSystem|980206762
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.<br><br>
> 
> http://redrival.com/btifaq/design.gif
> 
> _Primary review body_
> 
> The Primary review body has two purposes,
> 
> The first is to reject articles. It will be allowed to reject an article if the article,
> 
> * Contains Illegal content 
> * Is clearly commercial (i.e Spam)
> * Is technically invalid (i.e broken digital signature)
> * Is unreadable/nonesensical
> * Clearly an attempt to abuse the system (e.g binary bomb or the like)
> 
> The Primary review body's secondary task is to clasify an articles content, examples of possible classification include,
> 
> * Article contains a main-stream view.
> * Article contains areas which are factually debated.
> * Article may be factually biased.
> * Article contains a non-mainstream view
> 
> The classification will be stored with the article.
> 
> In the long term the Primary review body may need to be split into two part, one dealing with rejection and the other with classification.
> 
> The review body will work democratically, each article will be presented to the body and they will vote on it. The review body should be able to grow in size, to permit this new members should be allowed to join the body by a majority vote of the body. It should also be permittable to dismiss members of the body by a vote. 
> 
> In a vote to dismiss a member, only those who were members prior to that members entry should be allowed to vote, this will prevent possible abuse of the system if a subversive group tried to gain a majority in the review body.
> 
> 
> _Proxy group_
> A proxy group could reject/accept articles on whatever criteria they wished, any activities that happen between the author and the proxy group are out of the scope of this document.
> 
> -------
> 
> _Search Engines_
> 
> These would allow searching of the article database. A possible search engine could allow users to vote if the users thought the article factually incorrect, this data could be stored and a tally of such votes against an article displayed along side the article.
> 
> -------
> 
> _Indexes_
> 
> This would be the main way for normal users to access the articles. Anyone should be allowed to create an Index. An Index would basically be a collection of article-IDs pre-selected by the people running that Index. This would allow a form a moderation without causing censorship.
> 
> A possible style of indexing could be in dmoz style where the Index is controlled by one person (the "primary controller"). This person would from a top-directory level create subsections. The primary controller could either manage these subsections themselves, or appoint controllers for these specific subsections. The controllers of these subsections will have all the ability of the primary controller except that their powers will only apply to their subsection.
> 
> The controllers would be responsible for adding links to articles to their 
> section of the index and also for creating subsections and appointing subsection controllers.
> 
> A controller would have the ability to alter everything in their section of the index, including anything in subsections of their section.
> 
> This will allow a tree like structure of trust with the ultimate 
> authority with the person who started the index.
> 
> There could exist many of these indexes each favouring different 
> types of articles and different styles of viewpoint. For instance an 
> index could be setup which only dealt with non-controversial areas.
> 
> ------
> 
> _Nupedia integration_
> 
> If Nupedia wished to integrate with this system it would be relatively easy. Nupedia could become a "proxy group" with Nupedia accepting articles as they currently do and then passing them into the system. Nupedia would also run their own index which would be primarily based on articles signed(as proxy) by Nupedia.
> 
> Nupedia in this way could become a factually reliable front for the encyclopedia which provides a strong moderation style. Nupedia could also have people searching through the articles to find articles which would pass Nupedia's style of filtering, Nupedia could contact the authors of these articles and request the author resubmit the article via the Nupedia proxy group. Most authors would be likely to accept such an offer as Nupedia reputation as a reliable factual source would make it more likely that the article will be accepted by other indexes.
> 
> I think this would provide the best combination of the GNU Encyclopedia/Nupedia as it would emphasis the strengths of both without comprimising either.
> 
> ------
> 
> Comments appreciated, preferably via the bug-gnupedia mailing list, but I can also be contacted directly at ImranG@btinternet.com.
------
ProposedModerationSystem|980206804
1c1
< Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.<br><br>
---
> Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.
33a34
> 
------
ProposedModerationSystem|980207538
1c1
< Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.
---
> Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.<br><br>
75c75,88
< Comments appreciated, preferably via the bug-gnupedia mailing list, but I can also be contacted directly at ImranG@btinternet.com.
---
> Comments appreciated, preferably via the bug-gnupedia mailing list, but I can also be contacted directly at ImranG@btinternet.com.  Or list below:
> 
> ------
> 
> I added Imran's article above.  I'm uncertain about the classification approach ("mainstream" seems hard to define, to me).  I would advocate simply advertising a list of preferred classification tags, and let the author decide for herself where they'd like to be classified (if at all).  Look at www.indymedia.org for an example of a system where they must balance the need to be open to all, yet filter out blather.  Their approach is, rather than vote on each item, to use a traditional editor, but keep the process open (anyone can look behind the scenes to see what was not accepted.)
> 
> Also, as a *great* example of how indexes can be constructed dynamically and collaboratively, look at the front page
> of THIS site.  :-)  The Nupedia folks laid out their idea of how to hierarchically index the material here, but anyone
> coming to this page can generate their own unique index.  E.g., I could say I want my encyclopedia to have this set
> of topics be my index:
> 
> AlaskA -- AlTruism -- PhysicalScience -- TransporT
> 
> --Bryce
------
TechnologY|980207890
4a5
> * SpacecraftPropulsion
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980208165
1c1,132
< Describe the new page here.
---
> SPACECRAFT PROPULSION
> 
> There are many different types of ways to accelerate craft in space.
> Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies.
> 
> ''' Solid '''
> 
> The first rockets made by the Chinese used gunpowder, and
> until this century all rockets used some form of solid or
> powdered propellant. Solid rockets are considered to be safe and
> reliable; these kinds of rockets have been used for so long that
> engineers have a very good understanding of them.
> 
> One of the many drawbacks to solid rocket systems is that once
> they've been ignited, they can't be turned off. That is why they
> aren't commonly used in satellites; satellites need rockets that
> can be fired multiple times (or <em>pulsed</em>.)
> 
> ''' Hybrid '''
> 
> A hybrid propulsion system is composed of solid fuel and liquid or gas
> oxidizer, typically.  These systems are superior to solid propulsion
> systems because of safety, throttling, restartability, stability,
> and environmental cleanliness.  Hybrid systems are more complex than
> solids, though, and more expensive.  
> 
> ''' Monoprop '''
> 
> Most combustable chemicals you are familiar with (gasoline,
> alcohol, wood, natural gas) requires oxygen to ignite and burn,
> but there are some unique chemicals that burn by themselves - no
> oxygen required! The most commonly used monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em>.
> 
> Rocket scientists long ago realized the usefulness of these
> chemicals for satellite propulsion. Because only one chemical is
> used, the system is very simple, and thus very cheap.
> Unfortunately, monopropellants are not nearly as efficient as the
> other propulsion technologies. Engineers choose monopropellant
> systems when the satellite's propulsion needs are not very great.
> If the propulsion system is going to be heavily used, such as on
> a geosynchronous satellite or an interplanetary spacecraft, other
> technologies are used.
> 
> 
> ''' Biprop '''
> 
> Systems that use both a propellant and an oxidizer are called
> bipropellant systems. Bipropellant systems are more efficient
> than monopropellant systems, but they tend to be more complicated
> because of the extra hardware components needed to make sure the
> right amount of propellant gets mixed with the right amount of
> oxidizer (this is known as the <em>mixture ratio</em>.) 
> 
> ''' Dual mode propulsion '''
> 
> Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of biprop with
> the reliability and simplicity of monoprop systems.  Dual mode systems
> are either hydrazine/N2O4, or MMH/peroxide (the former is much more
> common).  Typically, this system works as follows:  During the initial
> high-impulse orbit-raising manuevers, the system operates in a
> bipropellant fashion, providing high thrust at high efficiency; when it
> arrives on orbit, it closes off either the fuel or oxidier, and conducts
> the remainder of its mission in a simple, predictable monopropellant
> fashion.  
> 
> ''' Resistojet '''
> 
> A resistojet can be thought of as a "space heater attached to a water
> hose".  Of course, it's much more sophisticated than that!  But it is a
> good analogy, because it emphasizes the two characteristic parts of the
> system:  A source of heat produced by electricity through some sort of a
> resistor, and a source of (typically non-reactive) fluid.
> 
> Resistojets have been flown in space, and do well in situations where
> energy is much more plentiful than mass, and where propulsion efficiency
> needs to be reasonably high but low-thrust is acceptable.
> 
> ''' Arcjet '''
> 
> Arcjets are a form of electric propulsion, whereby an electrical
> discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine
> or ammonia).  This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that
> one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the
> expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost.  Also,
> the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very
> low compared with chemical engines.
> 
> ''' Hall Effect Thrusters (HETs) '''
> 
> Also known simply as <em>plasma thrusters</em>, HETs use the
> Hall Effect to accelerate ions to produce thrust. A varient
> called stationary plasma thruster (SPT) has been used by the
> Russians for stationkeeping for many years and will be used on
> Western satellites soon. 
> 
> One problem with HETs is that their plume diverges quickly and
> thus can impinge on other spacecraft parts leading to thermal and
> contamination problems.
> 
> ''' Ion Thruster '''
> 
> Of all the electric thrusters, ion engines have been the most
> seriously considered commercially and academically. Ion engines
> use accelerated beams of ions for propulsion. 
> 
> Ion engines are best used for missions requiring very high
> delta-V's, interplanetary missions, for example. This is because
> the more performance required of the propulsion system, the
> faster a high efficiency system like ion engines will pay off.
> 
> NASA has developed an ion engine called NSTAR for use in their
> interplanetary missions. Hughes has developed the XIPS Xenon Ion
> Propulsion System for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous
> satellites.
> 
> ''' Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thrusters '''
> 
> Thrusters that use the Lorentz force are called
> magnetoplasmadynamic (or MPD) thrusters. MPD thruster technology
> has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been
> low.
> 
> MPD thrusters can be run in a steady state fashion or in a
> pulsed mode.
> 
> ''' Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) '''
> 
> Pulsed plasma thrusters use an arc of electric current through a
> solid propellant (almost always teflon), to produce a quick and highly
> efficient and dependable burst of impulse.  PPT's are great for attitude
> control, and for main propulsion on particularly small spacecraft (those
> in the hundred-kilogram or less category).  
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980208240
132c132,135
< in the hundred-kilogram or less category).  
---
> in the hundred-kilogram or less category).  
> 
> ------
> -- Added above article.  Bryce Harrington
------
HomePage|980208984
5c5
< Techie Topics:  ProposedModerationSystem
---
> Techie Topics:  ProposedModerationSystem -- TechFaq 
------
TechFaq|980209221
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> By Dan Geiser <dgeiser13@hotmail.com>
> 
> One thing that I've always find helpful when becoming involved with any 
> project or subject are guidelines that new participants can use to get up 
> and running without causing too much of a stink.  Has anyone even broached 
> the idea of starting a FAQ in which to record information about the general 
> consensus of project participants?
> 
> Relating back to my previous posting about deciding what, exactly, one wants 
> to create before naming it...it seems to me that up until now some of these 
> things can be defined.  For bookeeping purposes I can call the unnamed 
> project GNE as in GNE's Not an Encyclopedia.  This does not have to be the 
> name of the project!
> 
> What is GNE?
> 
> 1. Potential Attributes of GNE:
> 
> Only one I can think of...free information.  To me that's the biggest one.  
> There are probably (definitely) others but everything can start at this 
> point.
> 
> Now one could say, "Well, what is the scope of this information?"  Is this 
> general information, specific information or a combination of the two?  It 
> can be whatever we make it.  If one stands behind the concept that almost 
> any word or phrase which has meaning could be in GNE then within the context 
> of a specific word or phrase one could have different levels of detail and 
> abstraction.
> 
> For example, at abstraction level 1 (the most abstract) an entry for "Dog" 
> might be quite simple, perhaps a few sentences or a paragraph.  Some other 
> terms in GNE like "animal" might relate to dog at abstraction level 1 but 
> other terms like "mammal" might require an additional level of detail.  One 
> could have as many level of details as deemed necessary by the article 
> writers within that topic.
> 
> 
> Another thing which needs to come in play as some sort of moderation system. 
>   I don't know if this should be a pure voting system, some sort of karma 
> system (like Slashdot), peer review, an apprentice system (like Advagato), 
> etc.  I DO NOT know what the right solution is.
> 
> But, ultimately I picture a framework where anybody (and I do mean anybody!) 
> can submit an article on any topic.  With their article they can submit a 
> list of one or more keywords which apply to this article.
> 
> The new article is entered into the database as is.  Not a single person has 
> to look at it.  From there the moderation/review process either agrees with 
> the topic as presented and confirm it's validity by voting/confirming it.  
> They can also suggest or keywords to be added or remove and can also comment 
> upon the abstration level of the article.
> 
> It really doesn't get much simpler than that. :-)
> 
> -------
> -- Added Dan Geiser's proposal for a FAQ.  I agree with what Dan says.
> Maybe we could use THIS page, or another like it, for listing consensus
> on various topics?  
> 
------
ItalY|980210218
1,8c1,8
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
< south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< MediterraneanSea.
< 
< It takes part in the EuroCurrency.
< 
< The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
< 
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
> south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> MediterraneanSea.
> 
> It is one of the countries that uses the EuroCurrencyUnit.
> 
> The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
> 
------
HomePage|980210671
3c3
< Encyclopedia Topics:  HumanComputerInteraction! -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction
5c5
< Techie Topics:  ProposedModerationSystem -- TechFaq 
---
> ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- TechFaq 
------
ProposedGNUModerationSystem|980210717
1c1,88
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's a proposed moderation design for the GNU Encyclopedia, by Imran Ghory.<br><br>
> 
> http://redrival.com/btifaq/design.gif
> 
> _Primary review body_
> 
> The Primary review body has two purposes,
> 
> The first is to reject articles. It will be allowed to reject an article if the article,
> 
> * Contains Illegal content 
> * Is clearly commercial (i.e Spam)
> * Is technically invalid (i.e broken digital signature)
> * Is unreadable/nonesensical
> * Clearly an attempt to abuse the system (e.g binary bomb or the like)
> 
> The Primary review body's secondary task is to clasify an articles content, examples of possible classification include,
> 
> * Article contains a main-stream view.
> * Article contains areas which are factually debated.
> * Article may be factually biased.
> * Article contains a non-mainstream view
> 
> The classification will be stored with the article.
> 
> In the long term the Primary review body may need to be split into two part, one dealing with rejection and the other with classification.
> 
> The review body will work democratically, each article will be presented to the body and they will vote on it. The review body should be able to grow in size, to permit this new members should be allowed to join the body by a majority vote of the body. It should also be permittable to dismiss members of the body by a vote. 
> 
> In a vote to dismiss a member, only those who were members prior to that members entry should be allowed to vote, this will prevent possible abuse of the system if a subversive group tried to gain a majority in the review body.
> 
> 
> _Proxy group_
> 
> A proxy group could reject/accept articles on whatever criteria they wished, any activities that happen between the author and the proxy group are out of the scope of this document.
> 
> -------
> 
> _Search Engines_
> 
> These would allow searching of the article database. A possible search engine could allow users to vote if the users thought the article factually incorrect, this data could be stored and a tally of such votes against an article displayed along side the article.
> 
> -------
> 
> _Indexes_
> 
> This would be the main way for normal users to access the articles. Anyone should be allowed to create an Index. An Index would basically be a collection of article-IDs pre-selected by the people running that Index. This would allow a form a moderation without causing censorship.
> 
> A possible style of indexing could be in dmoz style where the Index is controlled by one person (the "primary controller"). This person would from a top-directory level create subsections. The primary controller could either manage these subsections themselves, or appoint controllers for these specific subsections. The controllers of these subsections will have all the ability of the primary controller except that their powers will only apply to their subsection.
> 
> The controllers would be responsible for adding links to articles to their 
> section of the index and also for creating subsections and appointing subsection controllers.
> 
> A controller would have the ability to alter everything in their section of the index, including anything in subsections of their section.
> 
> This will allow a tree like structure of trust with the ultimate 
> authority with the person who started the index.
> 
> There could exist many of these indexes each favouring different 
> types of articles and different styles of viewpoint. For instance an 
> index could be setup which only dealt with non-controversial areas.
> 
> ------
> 
> _Nupedia integration_
> 
> If Nupedia wished to integrate with this system it would be relatively easy. Nupedia could become a "proxy group" with Nupedia accepting articles as they currently do and then passing them into the system. Nupedia would also run their own index which would be primarily based on articles signed(as proxy) by Nupedia.
> 
> Nupedia in this way could become a factually reliable front for the encyclopedia which provides a strong moderation style. Nupedia could also have people searching through the articles to find articles which would pass Nupedia's style of filtering, Nupedia could contact the authors of these articles and request the author resubmit the article via the Nupedia proxy group. Most authors would be likely to accept such an offer as Nupedia reputation as a reliable factual source would make it more likely that the article will be accepted by other indexes.
> 
> I think this would provide the best combination of the GNU Encyclopedia/Nupedia as it would emphasis the strengths of both without comprimising either.
> 
> ------
> 
> Comments appreciated, preferably via the bug-gnupedia mailing list, but I can also be contacted directly at ImranG@btinternet.com.  Or list below:
> 
> ------
> 
> I added Imran's article above.  I'm uncertain about the classification approach ("mainstream" seems hard to define, to me).  I would advocate simply advertising a list of preferred classification tags, and let the author decide for herself where they'd like to be classified (if at all).  Look at www.indymedia.org for an example of a system where they must balance the need to be open to all, yet filter out blather.  Their approach is, rather than vote on each item, to use a traditional editor, but keep the process open (anyone can look behind the scenes to see what was not accepted.)
> 
> Also, as a *great* example of how indexes can be constructed dynamically and collaboratively, look at the front page
> of THIS site.  :-)  The Nupedia folks laid out their idea of how to hierarchically index the material here, but anyone
> coming to this page can generate their own unique index.  E.g., I could say I want my encyclopedia to have this set
> of topics be my index:
> 
> AlaskA -- AlTruism -- PhysicalScience -- TransporT
> 
> --Bryce
------
TechFaq|980210811
1,59c1
< By Dan Geiser <dgeiser13@hotmail.com>
< 
< One thing that I've always find helpful when becoming involved with any 
< project or subject are guidelines that new participants can use to get up 
< and running without causing too much of a stink.  Has anyone even broached 
< the idea of starting a FAQ in which to record information about the general 
< consensus of project participants?
< 
< Relating back to my previous posting about deciding what, exactly, one wants 
< to create before naming it...it seems to me that up until now some of these 
< things can be defined.  For bookeeping purposes I can call the unnamed 
< project GNE as in GNE's Not an Encyclopedia.  This does not have to be the 
< name of the project!
< 
< What is GNE?
< 
< 1. Potential Attributes of GNE:
< 
< Only one I can think of...free information.  To me that's the biggest one.  
< There are probably (definitely) others but everything can start at this 
< point.
< 
< Now one could say, "Well, what is the scope of this information?"  Is this 
< general information, specific information or a combination of the two?  It 
< can be whatever we make it.  If one stands behind the concept that almost 
< any word or phrase which has meaning could be in GNE then within the context 
< of a specific word or phrase one could have different levels of detail and 
< abstraction.
< 
< For example, at abstraction level 1 (the most abstract) an entry for "Dog" 
< might be quite simple, perhaps a few sentences or a paragraph.  Some other 
< terms in GNE like "animal" might relate to dog at abstraction level 1 but 
< other terms like "mammal" might require an additional level of detail.  One 
< could have as many level of details as deemed necessary by the article 
< writers within that topic.
< 
< 
< Another thing which needs to come in play as some sort of moderation system. 
<   I don't know if this should be a pure voting system, some sort of karma 
< system (like Slashdot), peer review, an apprentice system (like Advagato), 
< etc.  I DO NOT know what the right solution is.
< 
< But, ultimately I picture a framework where anybody (and I do mean anybody!) 
< can submit an article on any topic.  With their article they can submit a 
< list of one or more keywords which apply to this article.
< 
< The new article is entered into the database as is.  Not a single person has 
< to look at it.  From there the moderation/review process either agrees with 
< the topic as presented and confirm it's validity by voting/confirming it.  
< They can also suggest or keywords to be added or remove and can also comment 
< upon the abstration level of the article.
< 
< It really doesn't get much simpler than that. :-)
< 
< -------
< -- Added Dan Geiser's proposal for a FAQ.  I agree with what Dan says.
< Maybe we could use THIS page, or another like it, for listing consensus
< on various topics?  
< 
---
> See GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq.
------
GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq|980210874
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> By Dan Geiser <dgeiser13@hotmail.com>
> 
> One thing that I've always find helpful when becoming involved with any 
> project or subject are guidelines that new participants can use to get up 
> and running without causing too much of a stink.  Has anyone even broached 
> the idea of starting a FAQ in which to record information about the general 
> consensus of project participants?
> 
> Relating back to my previous posting about deciding what, exactly, one wants 
> to create before naming it...it seems to me that up until now some of these 
> things can be defined.  For bookeeping purposes I can call the unnamed 
> project GNE as in GNE's Not an Encyclopedia.  This does not have to be the 
> name of the project!
> 
> What is GNE?
> 
> 1. Potential Attributes of GNE:
> 
> Only one I can think of...free information.  To me that's the biggest one.  
> There are probably (definitely) others but everything can start at this 
> point.
> 
> Now one could say, "Well, what is the scope of this information?"  Is this 
> general information, specific information or a combination of the two?  It 
> can be whatever we make it.  If one stands behind the concept that almost 
> any word or phrase which has meaning could be in GNE then within the context 
> of a specific word or phrase one could have different levels of detail and 
> abstraction.
> 
> For example, at abstraction level 1 (the most abstract) an entry for "Dog" 
> might be quite simple, perhaps a few sentences or a paragraph.  Some other 
> terms in GNE like "animal" might relate to dog at abstraction level 1 but 
> other terms like "mammal" might require an additional level of detail.  One 
> could have as many level of details as deemed necessary by the article 
> writers within that topic.
> 
> 
> Another thing which needs to come in play as some sort of moderation system. 
>   I don't know if this should be a pure voting system, some sort of karma 
> system (like Slashdot), peer review, an apprentice system (like Advagato), 
> etc.  I DO NOT know what the right solution is.
> 
> But, ultimately I picture a framework where anybody (and I do mean anybody!) 
> can submit an article on any topic.  With their article they can submit a 
> list of one or more keywords which apply to this article.
> 
> The new article is entered into the database as is.  Not a single person has 
> to look at it.  From there the moderation/review process either agrees with 
> the topic as presented and confirm it's validity by voting/confirming it.  
> They can also suggest or keywords to be added or remove and can also comment 
> upon the abstration level of the article.
> 
> It really doesn't get much simpler than that. :-)
> 
> -------
> -- Added Dan Geiser's proposal for a FAQ.  I agree with what Dan says.
> Maybe we could use THIS page, or another like it, for listing consensus
> on various topics?  
> ----
> For questions about WikiPedia, please see the WikiPediaFaq.  For discussion of the WikiPedia process, see WikiPediaProcess.
------
TechFaq|980210964
1c1,3
< See GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq.
---
> For questions about WikiPedia, please see the WikiPediaFaq. For discussion of the WikiPedia process, see WikiPediaProcess.
> ----
> See also GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq (which was originally created on this page apparently by someone who doesn't realize that Wikipedia is not, actually, the GNU encyclopedia, as much as we want to be closely associated with it!).
------
ItalY|980211051
5c5
< It is one of the countries that uses the EuroCurrencyUnit.
---
> It is one of the countries that uses the EuRo.
------
ItalY|980211091
5c5
< It is one of the countries that uses the EuRo.
---
> It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
------
HomePage|980211146
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- GNUStuff
------
HomePage|980211174
3,5c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- GNUStuff
< 
< ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- TechFaq 
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- GNUStufF
------
GNUStufF|980211295
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, GNU people!  Feel free to develop ideas about the new GNU encyclopedia here!  What relation should the GNU encyclopedia have to NuPedia?  To WikiPedia (if any)?  By the way, feel free to post GNU encyclopedia articles on WikiPedia.
> 
> ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq
------
HomePage|980211334
5c5
< We have a new WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  (I created and used it to announce WikipediaL.)
---
> We have a new WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
------
HomePage|980211417
16c16
< * What are your NewTopics?
---
> * What are your NewTopics?  Where's the BrilliantProse?  How can we avoid PatentNonsense?
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980211457
0a1,2
> Got an announcement?  So, make it!
> 
5c7
< -- LarrySanger
---
> -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980211513
4a5,8
> GNU people are using WikiPedia to discuss their stuff, which is very cool.  Go to GNUStufF to partake.
> 
> '''January 21, 2001'''
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980211523
3c3
< '''January 21, 2001'''
---
> '''January 22, 2001'''
------
HomePage|980211565
7c7
< You're wondering
---
> You're confused and you're wondering
------
GNUStufF|980211618
3c3
< ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq
---
> ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense
------
GNUStufF|980211647
3a4,5
> ----
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. 
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980211925
5a6,7
> 
> Very nice, LinusTolke!  Very Nice! --JimboWales
------
HomePage|980211946
3c3,5
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- GNUStufF
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction
> 
> '''GNUStufF'''
------
SouthAustralia|980212868
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> South Australia is classed as the state in south central Australia along the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 984,377 square kilometres (380,070 square miles). The capital of South Australia is Adelaide and its known as the City of Churches. South Australia became a British colony in 1836 and joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The state's population is 1,4000,622 and most of those reside in the fertile coastal areas and in the valley of the Murray River which is the only navigable river and drains about one seventh of Australia then enters the sea in South Australia. The first recorded sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when a Dutch ship examined the coastline. 
> 
> The terrain consists largely of dry wasteland, with several low mountain ranges in which the most important mountains are the Mt
> Lofty-Flinders Ranges system which extends north about 800 kilometers from Cape Jervis to the northern end of Lake Torrens and salt lakes. Its principal industries and export are wheat, wine and wool. More than half the nations wines are produced here. 
> 
> South Australia has boundaries with other states on the west, east, north and the south is flanked by the Southern Ocean. South
> Australia's temperate range is 29C in January and 15C July.
> 
> South Australia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of South Australia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the Adelaide School of Arts.
> 
> 
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980213525
29,32c29,32
< Most combustable chemicals you are familiar with (gasoline,
< alcohol, wood, natural gas) requires oxygen to ignite and burn,
< but there are some unique chemicals that burn by themselves - no
< oxygen required! The most commonly used monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em>.
---
> Most familiar combustible chemicals (gasoline, alcohol, wood, natural gas) 
> require oxygen to ignite and burn, but there are some unique chemical compounds that
> burn by themselves - no oxygen required! The most commonly used 
> monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em> (N2H4).
34c34
< Rocket scientists long ago realized the usefulness of these
---
> Rocket scientists long ago realized the usefulness of monopropellant
96c96
< One problem with HETs is that their plume diverges quickly and
---
> One problem with HETs is that their plumes diverge quickly and
107c107
< delta-V's, interplanetary missions, for example. This is because
---
> delta-V's (the overall change in velocity, taken as a single value), interplanetary missions, for example. This is because
112,113c112,113
< interplanetary missions. Hughes has developed the XIPS Xenon Ion
< Propulsion System for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous
---
> interplanetary missions. Hughes has developed the XIPS (Xenon Ion
> Propulsion System) for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous
118,120c118
< Thrusters that use the Lorentz force are called
< magnetoplasmadynamic (or MPD) thrusters. MPD thruster technology
< has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been
---
> Thrusters that use the Lorentz force (a force exerted on charge particles by magnetic and electrical fields in combination) are called magnetoplasmadynamic (or MPD) thrusters. MPD thruster technology has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980213895
31,32c31
< burn by themselves - no oxygen required! The most commonly used 
< monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em> (N2H4).
---
> burn by themselves - no oxygen required! This is because the combined chemicals, when energized, "reduce," or change in ionic state by reacting with each other, as opposed to an outside oxidant.  The most commonly used monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em> (N2H4), a chemical which is characterized as "strongly reducing".
------
TopOlogy|980215537
13,14c13,17
< The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.----
< The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful. 
---
> The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.
> ----
> The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful.
> ----
> In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which are a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimentsional space.
------
PythagoreanTheorem|980219791
32c32
<                                      /______________ l
---
>                                      /________________ l
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980221280
1c1,122
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A TrigonometricFunction is a function of an angle defined by a ratio of two sides of a right triangle that contains that angle.
> 
> Although this definition implies that the TrigonometricFunctions are defined only for angles of less than 90 degrees, they are defined on all angles whose measure is a real number.
> 
> There are six basic TrigonometricFunctions.
> 
>       *    Sine
>       *    Cosine
>       *    Tangent
>       *    Secant
>       *    Cosecant
>       *    Cotangent
> 
> There are then six definitions, one for each function. To illustrate these definitions, see the right triangle below (Figure1).
> 
> 
>                                                Angle B
> 
>               
>                                                    /l
> 
>                                                 /   l
> 
>                                              /      l          a
>                          c
>                                           /         l
> 
>                                        /            l
> 
>                          Angle A     /______________l  
> 
>                                            
>                                                              Angle C
> 
>                                          b
> 
>                                 Figure 1
> 
> Using the angle A to define these functions, special names are used for the sides of 
> this triangle in the definitions.
> *     The ''hypotenuse'' is the side opposite the right angle, in this case c.
> *     The ''opposite side'' is the opposite the angle on which the function is defined, in this case a.
> *     The ''adjacent side'' is the side that is a leg of the angle, but not the hypotenuse, in this case b.
> 
> Then,
> 
> 1). The ''sine'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "sin."
> 
> In general the sin (theta) = length of the opposite side/length of the hypotenuse.
> 
> In our example the sin (A) = a/c.
> 
> 2). The ''cosine'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "cos."
> 
> In general, the cos (theta) = length of the adjacent side/length of the hypotenuse.
> 
> In our example, the cos (A) = b/c.
> 
> 3). The ''tangent'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side, abbreviated "tan."
> 
> In general, the tan (theta) = length of the opposite side/ length of the adjacent side.
> 
> In our example, the tan (A) = a/b.
> 
> The remaining three functions are best defined using the above three functions.
> 
> 4). The ''cosecant'' (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the sin (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to thelength of the adjacent side, abbreviated "csc."
> 
> Then csc (A) = c/a.
> 
> 5). The ''secant'' (A) is the inverse of the ratio of cos (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "sec."
> 
> Then the sec (A) = c/b.
> 
> 6). The ''cotangent'' of (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the tan (A), the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "cot."
> 
> Then the cot (A)  = b/a.
> 
> The familiar mnemonic to remember these definitions is CAHSOHTOA. It reminds
> one that "CAH," the cos= adjacent/hypotenuse, "SOA," the sin = opposite/hypotenuse, and "TOA," the tan = opposite/adjacent. 
> 
> A simple example will show how easy it is to calculate these functions for a common angle.
> 
> Suppose we have a right triangle where the two other angles are equal, and therefore = 45 degrees. Then the length of side b and the length of side c are equal.  Now, one can determine the sin, cos and tan of an angle of 45 degrees. Let a = 1, then b = 1.
> Using the PythagoreanTheorem, c = sqrt (a^2 + b^2). Then c  = sqrt (2). This is illustrated in Figure 2.
> 
> 
> 
>                                                Angle B
> 
>               
>                                                    /l
> 
>                                                 /   l
> 
>                                              /      l          a = 1
>                       c = sqrt(2)
>                                           /         l
> 
>                                        /            l
> 
>                          Angle A     /______________l  
> 
>                                            
>                                                              Angle C
> 
>                                          b = 1
> 
>                                 Figure 2
> 
> Then sin (45degrees) = 1/sqrt (2) = sqrt (2)/2,
> 
> the cos (45degrees) = 1/sqrt (2) = sqrt (2)/2
> 
> and, the tan (45degrees) = sqrt (2)/sqrt (2)  = 1.
> 
> Using the definitions, the csc (45degrees) = sqrt (2). The sec (45degrees) = sqrt (2), and the cot (45degrees) = 1.
> 
> '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoranThoerem, and
> theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
> The next step is to determine the value of these six functions for angles greater than or equal to 90 degrees. Other closely related topics are the graphs of these functions, the 
> TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in CalculuS, the continuity and differentiability of these functions. 
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980221369
119,120c119
< '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoranThoerem, and
< theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
---
> '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and for an angle of 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoranThoerem, and theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
------
ScienCe|980222937
1d0
< 
10,11c9
< 
< ChemisTry
---
> * ChemisTry
------
HomePage|980225147
19c19
< 
---
> * * and WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis? (please don't take this the wrong way, psycho@racc2000.com)
------
ScienCe|980225193
4c4,11
< * OrnitholOgy
---
> * TaxonOmy
> * OntolOgy
> 
> * KingdomMonera
> * KingdomProtista
> * KingdomPlantae
> * KingdomFungi
> * KingdomAnimalia
------
WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis|980225268
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just a curiosity of mine.  I do hope that none were offended by this.  I left my e-mail address if you wish to flame me. -Raleigh
------
SoftwarePackages|980225639
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New sub-category for operating systems
------
KingdomProtista|980226268
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Eukaryotes are considerably more complicated than prokaryotes (KingdomMonera).
> 
> Each cell has at least one nucleus, a structure where the DNA is stored bound by a double membrane.  Generally there is more than one ChromoSome, and there are usually multiple copies of the same genes.  Nuclei divide through a process called NuclearMitosis, where microtubules pull apart the divided chromosomes and ensure each daughter has a full set.
> 
> Many eukaryotes also undergo a process of SexualReproduction.  This involves two phases: SynGamy, where two haploid (single gene set) cells fuse to form a diploid, and NuclearMeiosis, a process similar to mitosis where the chromosomes are divided to form haploids.  The role of haploid and diploid stages in the life cycle varies considerably.
> 
> There are a wide variety of intracellular organelles.  These include membrane bound structures, notably EndoplasmicReticulum and various-purposed vacuoles.  Nearly all eukaryotes have MitoChondria to burn food, and quite a few have ChloroPlasts for photosynthesis; these appear to actually be reduced endosymbiont bacteria.
> 
> Multicellular organization has arisen among the eukaryotes a number of times.  Of such forms, the KingdomAnimalia, KingdomPlantae, and KingdomFungi are typically listed separately as top-level taxa.  Other groups are left in the junk-basket category of KingdomProtista.  These include the following:
> 
> * TaxonEuglenozoa (euglenids, kinetoplastids)
> * TaxonAlveolata (ciliates, dinoflagellates, apicomplexan sporozoa)
> * TaxonChromista (stramenopiles: water molds, golden and brown algae, diatoms)
> * FlagellateTaxa
> * AmoeboidTaxa
> * AlgalTaxa
> * SlimeMolds
------
AmoeboidTaxa|980227249
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Amoeboids include a wide variety of completely unrelated free-living and parasitic groups.  Amoebae move and feed via cellular projections called pseudopods, which are divided into rhizopods (unsupported) and actinopods (supported by rigid microtubules).
> 
> Lobose amoebae are forms with broad, blunt rhizopods.  They may either have a single pseudopod at the front or many branching outwards.  They move by flowing into the pseudopod and feed by physically engulfing other objects, trapping them in vacuoles.  Forms include:
> 
> * GenusPelomyxa, the giant amoeba (up to 1 mm!)
> * TaxonRamicristates, including most of the familiar amoebae
> * TaxonEntamoebae, various parasitic amoebae
> 
> Filose amoebae include forms with fine, branching rhizopods.  TaxonGranuloreticulosa has members with rhizopods that form a network, and include the well-known shelled Foraminifera.
> 
> The actinopod amoebae are divided into the Radiolaria, marine mostly shelled forms, and Heliozoa, which are mostly-fresh water and naked.  Pseudopods take the form of rigid spikes that collect food and aid in buoyancy.  Some heliozoans move by rolling along the substrate.  Radiolarian forms include:
> 
> * TaxonPhaeodarea
> * TaxonPolycystinea
> * TaxonAcantharea
> 
> and heliozoan forms include:
> 
> * TaxonActinophryida
> * TaxonCentrohelida
> 
> Also worth mentioning is the TaxonXenophyophorea, which includes various giant marine forms.
> 
------
AmoeboidTaxa|980227283
22c22
< Also worth mentioning is the TaxonXenophyophorea, which includes various giant marine forms.
---
> Also worth mentioning is the TaxonXenophyophorea, which includes various giant marine forms.  All of these are classified under the KingdomProtista.
------
ScienCe|980227598
5c5
< * OntolOgy
---
> * OntOgeny
------
WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis|980227999
1c1,3
< Just a curiosity of mine.  I do hope that none were offended by this.  I left my e-mail address if you wish to flame me. -Raleigh
---
> Just a curiosity of mine.  I do hope that none were offended by this.  I left my e-mail address if you wish to flame me. -Raleigh
> ----
> See WikiPediaFaq.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980228100
29c29
< '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?'''
---
> '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?  WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis?'''
31c31
< A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks! If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
---
> A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks!  If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
43c43
< A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis|980228147
3c3
< See WikiPediaFaq.
---
> Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks. Read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section and be enlightened!
------
TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis|980228347
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker?  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
------
TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis|980228361
1c1
< Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker?  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
---
> Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker.  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
------
TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis|980228395
1c1
< Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker.  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
---
> Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker (or a stinking boozer).  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
------
TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis|980228438
1c1
< Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker (or a stinking boozer).  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?
---
> Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker (or a stinking boozer).  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?  Well, sure, but could anyone be taken seriously for doing so?  Could anyone ''win'' such a lawsuit?
------
HomePage|980228554
19d18
< * * and WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis? (please don't take this the wrong way, psycho@racc2000.com)
------
WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis|980228609
1c1
< Just a curiosity of mine.  I do hope that none were offended by this.  I left my e-mail address if you wish to flame me. -Raleigh
---
> Just a curiosity of mine.  I do hope that none were offended by this.  I left my e-mail address if you wish to flame me. -Raleigh (psycho@racc2000.com)
3c3
< Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks. Read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section and be enlightened!
---
> Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks. Read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section and be enlightened!
------
ReLigion|980229941
1c1
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine  -- HareKrishna
------
WhatIsaWiki|980229976
23a24,25
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
------
HareKrishna|980230015
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hare Krishna devotees believe that  Krishna is a literal name of the Supreme. It is said to mean  "all- attractive." All beauty is said to derive from the Supreme. The Supreme is also known as "Rama," meaning "highest eternal pleasure." 
> 
> Chanting "Hare Krishna" is supposed to be a way of seeking Krishna directly, partly through the very sounds and vibrations of the words, which serve to mediate divine energy from Krishna directly to the devotee. 
> 
> Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.
> This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped in side the individual. 
> 
> Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances according to learning, advancement or development in a given life, or the reverse.
> 
> Sufficient enlightenment has the potential to free the individual from the cycle of life and death altogether. 
> 
> The original messenger of the Krishna message to humanity is said to have been , a great warrior named Arjuna who lived about five thousand years ago.  Krishna appeared to him in the form of his chariot driver and revealed himself, along with special knowledge and insights, before a great battle, the prospect of which had overwhelmed Arjuna's courage.
> 
> Initiated devotees of the Hare Krishna movement vow to follow certain life rules, including abstaining from gambling, intoxicants, meat and illicit sex.  Sex in marriage for procreation is considered right and proper: 
> 
> The ideas of Krishna consciousness were brought to the West from India in 1965 by the movement's prime teacher, referred to by them as His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada who was 69 at the time.  His given name was Srila Prabhupada.  He had writted books on the subject and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Afric, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
------
RinGs|980230443
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Ring is a commutative groupunder an operation +,
> along with an associative operation * with unit element 1,
> such that multiplication distributes over addition.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980232888
7,25c7
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.''
< ----
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
< 
< Blah...
< ----
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
< 
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
< ----
< Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
< 
< Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
< ----
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
< 
<     ---- Drachs
< ----
< Investigation of the Wiki concept...
---
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.  Other discussion removed to SandBox.''
------
SandBox|980232962
1a2,7
> ----
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
> ----
> ''Some other discussion removed from WhatIsaWiki follows.''
> ----
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
2a9
> Blah...
3a11
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
5c13,23
< Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
---
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> 
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
> 
>     -- Drachs
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
------
RinGs|980233153
1c1
< A Ring is a commutative groupunder an operation +,
---
> A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +,
3a4,5
> ----
> Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles?  Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger
------
RinGs|980233381
1,3c1,12
< A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +,
< along with an associative operation * with unit element 1,
< such that multiplication distributes over addition.
---
> A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
> 
> 1.  a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
> 1.  a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
> 
> Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.  It has the advantage of adding a lot more structure to 
> 
> A justification for the definition of a ring is that collections of commutative group homomorphisms closed under composition form rings (much the same way bijections form groups).  The commutative group is referred to as a module under the ring; the module is called faithful if the actions of ring elements are each different.
> 
> A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  The most interesting of these are FielDs, where every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
> 
> Some important rings include the integers, modular arithmetics, and polynomials.
5c14,16
< Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles?  Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger
---
> Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles?  Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger
> 
> I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :) -JG
------
RinGs|980233738
16a17,18
> 
> Except for the terms you use to define 'ring'; those are more primitive than 'ring', I hope! -- LarrySanger
------
JoshuaGrosse|980233846
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> RinGs-leader.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980234703
1c1
< Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, LinkToExternalPages, LinkToAnExistingPage.
---
> Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, WhatIsaWiki, WhatsaWikiFor, WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki, WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia, or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
------
HiStory|980235347
3,39c3,22
< PalaeolithicPeriod
< 
< NeolithicPeriod
< 
< CopperAge
< 
< BronzeAge
< 
< IronAge
< 
< ClassicalAge
< 
< MiddleAges
< 
< ModernPeriod
< 
< HistoryOfMesopotamia
< 
< HistoryOfEgypt
< 
< HistoryOfIndia
< 
< HistoryOfChina
< 
< HistoryOfMesoamerica
< 
< HistoryOfAndes
< 
< HistoryOfGreece
< 
< HistoryOfRome
< 
< HistoryOfByzantium
< 
< HistoryOfIslam
< 
< HistoryOfEurope
---
> * PalaeolithicPeriod
> * NeolithicPeriod
> * CopperAge
> * BronzeAge
> * IronAge
> * ClassicalAge
> * MiddleAges
> * ModernPeriod
> 
> * HistoryOfMesopotamia
> * HistoryOfEgypt
> * HistoryOfIndia
> * HistoryOfChina
> * HistoryOfMesoamerica
> * HistoryOfAndes
> * HistoryOfGreece
> * HistoryOfRome
> * HistoryOfByzantium
> * HistoryOfIslam
> * HistoryOfEurope
------
MathematicalGrouP|980235543
81,82c81,82
< '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Z, that is the set of number a/b such that
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Z,x) a GrouP?----
---
> '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Q, that is the set of number a/b such that
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?----
------
AbstractAlgebra|980237445
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of one or more sets of elements, together with one or more operations on these sets.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
> 
> * MathematicalGrouPs
> * RinGs and ModulEs
> * FielDs and VectorSpaces
> * AssociativeAlgebrae
> 
> The motivation for most of these definitions can be found in treating the symmetries of various objects.  For instance, a collection of one-to-one functions on a set S can naturally be extended to form a group G; such a structure is called an S-RepresentatioN of G.  The group is said to ''act'' upon the set, represented in terms of a BinaryOp GXS->S (action on left) or SXG->S (action on right).  Most of the other structures can be discussed similarly.
> 
> A map between two algebrae that preserves structure is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
------
RinGs|980237571
3,4c3,4
< 1.  a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
< 1.  a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
---
> * a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
> * a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
8c8
< A justification for the definition of a ring is that collections of commutative group homomorphisms closed under composition form rings (much the same way bijections form groups).  The commutative group is referred to as a module under the ring; the module is called faithful if the actions of ring elements are each different.
---
> Every ring can be represented in terms of actions on MathematicalGroups.  The two structures together form what are known as ModulEs.
18c18
< Except for the terms you use to define 'ring'; those are more primitive than 'ring', I hope! -- LarrySanger
---
> Except for the terms you use to define 'ring'; those are more primitive than 'ring', I hope! -- LarrySanger
------
AbstractAlgebra|980237619
3c3
< * MathematicalGrouPs
---
> * MathematicalGrouP
------
AbstractAlgebra|980237815
8,10c8
< The motivation for most of these definitions can be found in treating the symmetries of various objects.  For instance, a collection of one-to-one functions on a set S can naturally be extended to form a group G; such a structure is called an S-RepresentatioN of G.  The group is said to ''act'' upon the set, represented in terms of a BinaryOp GXS->S (action on left) or SXG->S (action on right).  Most of the other structures can be discussed similarly.
< 
< A map between two algebrae that preserves structure is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A map between two algebrae that preserves the operations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980238851
7d6
< 
10d8
< 
12a11
> 3)	G contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to G then e*a = a and a*e = a.
14c13
< 3)	G contains an identity element, say i, that is, if a belongs to G then i*a = a and a*i = a.
---
> 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=e=b*a.
15a15
> Sets of BiJections form groups under composition, providing they are closed under this operation and inverses.  A HomoMorphism from a group to a such a set is called a representation thereof, and it is called faithful if different group elements correspond to different BiJections.  CayleysTheorem states that every group has such a representation, so the study of groups can be considered as the study of permutations.
17c17
< 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=i.
---
> A subset of G closed under * forms a SubGroup in an obvious way.  Every group contains at least two subgroups, itself and the trivial group containing only the identity.  Every other element is contained in a minimal subgroup isomorphic either to the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic, treated as groups under addition.
19c19
< The importance of groups lies in the fact that any set of permutations naturally becomes a group when you include all compositions and inverses.  In fact, any group can be represented in this way; this is called CayleysTheorem.
---
> The KerneL of a group HomoMorphism consists of those elements that get mapped to an identity.  As it turns out, the possible KerneLs of a group are precisely the NormalSubGroups - those subgroups H such that g*H=H*g for all g in G - and this fixes the homomorphic image of the group up to isomorphism.
23c23
< A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let I be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (I,+) is a GrouP.
---
> A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980238943
38c38
<        (I,+) has an identity element.
---
>        (Z,+) has an identity element.
44c44
<         Every element of (I,+) has an inverse.
---
>         Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
49,50c49,50
< Question: Given the set of integers, I, as above, and the operation multiplication,
< denoted by "x" is (I,x) a Group?
---
> Question: Given the set of integers, Z, as above, and the operation multiplication,
> denoted by "x" is (Z,x) a Group?
62c62
<        (I,x) has an identity element.
---
>        (Z,x) has an identity element.
70c70
< Then, every element of (I,x) does not have an inverse.
---
> Then, every element of (Z,x) does not have an inverse.
76c76
< Therefore, (I,x) is '''not''' a Group.
---
> Therefore, (Z,x) is '''not''' a Group.  It is a weaker type of object sometimes called a SemiGroup.
------
RinGs|980239708
8c8
< Every ring can be represented in terms of actions on MathematicalGroups.  The two structures together form what are known as ModulEs.
---
> Sets of commutative group HomoMorphisms form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulEs.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
10c10
< A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  The most interesting of these are FielDs, where every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
---
> A subring (not necessarily with identity) closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary ring'' elements is called an ideal.  These relate to the kernels of ring HomoMorphisms the same way NormalSubGroups relate to those of GroupHomomorphisms.
12c12,14
< Some important rings include the integers, modular arithmetics, and polynomials.
---
> A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  In such rings, multiplicative cancellation is possible.  Of particular interest are FielDs, IntegralDomain''''s where every non-zero element has a muliplicative inverse.
> 
> Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  ModularArithmetics of prime order are actually fields, but those of composite order aren't even integral domains.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|980239777
1,2c1,2
< :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions
< :TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TopOlogy -- AlgeBra -- AnalySis -- GeoMetry
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnalySis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CombinaTorics -- SetTheory
> :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld 
------
IntegerNumbers|980240057
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The integers consist of the numbers {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
> 
> The integers form a MathematicalGroup under addition.  The group of its self-homomorphisms turns out to be isomorphic to the integers themselves, so their composition can be used to define multiplication thereupon and turn the integers into a ring.
------
ModularArithmetic|980240446
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ModularArithmetics are the images of the IntegerNumbers under group/ring HomoMorphisms.  Such an operation is going to zero out some NormalSubgroup/Ideal, and these turn out to be precisely the sets of the form pZ for some integer p; the resulting group/ring is denoted Zp.
> 
> To put it another way, Zp consists of the remainders {0,1,...,p-1}, so that p=0.  For instance, Z3 has the following addition and multiplication tables:
> 
> +  0  1  2
> 0  0  1  2
> 1  1  2  0
> 2  2  0  1
> 
> *  0  1  2
> 0  0  0  0
> 1  0  1  2
> 2  0  2  1
> 
> When p is a composite number, the factors of p are going to turn out to be ZeroDivisors.  When p is prime, these don't exist, and so Zp is an IntegralDomain and in fact necessarily a field.
------
ModularArithmetic|980240489
5,8c5,8
< +  0  1  2
< 0  0  1  2
< 1  1  2  0
< 2  2  0  1
---
> | +  0  1  2
> | 0  0  1  2
> | 1  1  2  0
> | 2  2  0  1
10,13c10,13
< *  0  1  2
< 0  0  0  0
< 1  0  1  2
< 2  0  2  1
---
> | *  0  1  2
> | 0  0  0  0
> | 0  1  2
> | 0  0  2  1
------
ModularArithmetic|980240507
12c12
< | 0  1  2
---
> | 0  0  1  2  
------
ModularArithmetic|980240599
5,8c5,7
< | +  0  1  2
< | 0  0  1  2
< | 1  1  2  0
< | 2  2  0  1
---
> 0+0=0    1+0=1    2+0=2
> 0+1=1    1+1=2    2+1=0
> 0+2=2    1+2=0    2+2=1
10,13c9,11
< | *  0  1  2
< | 0  0  0  0
< | 0  0  1  2  
< | 0  0  2  1
---
> 0*0=0    1*0=0    2*0=0
> 0*1=0    1*1=1    2*1=2
> 0*2=0    1*2=2    2*2=1
------
RinGs|980240657
14c14
< Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  ModularArithmetics of prime order are actually fields, but those of composite order aren't even integral domains.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
---
> Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
------
RationalNumbers|980240693
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The RationalNumbers are the unique smallest field containing the IntegerNumbers.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980241022
1c1,3
< RinGs-leader.
---
> ''RinGs-leader.''
> 
> Ok, if you want me to have a HomePage...JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.
------
RinGs|980241423
20a21,22
> 
> Fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though.  Once there's pages enough to at least be able to properly define the RealNumbers, I'll go back and sort things out.  Sound 'K?
------
HiStory|980241466
1c1
< Should only include histories of eras and countries that are now defunct.
---
> Should only include histories of eras and countries that are now defunct.  [Why "now defunct"?  The U.S. isn't defunct; what about AmericanHistory? --LarrySanger]
------
IntegerNumbers|980245146
1c1
< The integers consist of the numbers {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
---
> The integers are the unique smallest TotalOrderedSet that has neither an upper nor a lower bound.  There are a countable number of them, and each has both a predecessor and successor.  As a set they are usually denoted Z, for ''Zahlen''.
3c3,11
< The integers form a MathematicalGroup under addition.  The group of its self-homomorphisms turns out to be isomorphic to the integers themselves, so their composition can be used to define multiplication thereupon and turn the integers into a ring.
---
> The integers can be made into an algebraic structure by defining addition and multiplication in a natural way:
> 
>       The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.  Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.  Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.
> 
>       The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.
> 
> Labelled as such, Z = {... < -2 < -1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...}.  This is the unique infinite cyclic group/ring, and more over the finite ones are precisely the homomorphic images of Z, i.e. the ModularArithmetic''''s Z/(p*Z) for some p in Z.
> 
> The integers are the archetypical example of an IntegralDomain.  The units are 1 and -1, and every nonzero nonunit can be expressed uniquely in terms of a product of primes.  There are an infinite number of PrimeNumbers in Z and their distribution is pretty irregular.  The unique smallest field containing a copy of Z is the RationalNumbers.
------
IntegerNumbers|980245189
5c5,7
<       The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.  Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.  Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.
---
>       The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.
>       Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.
>       Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.
7c9,11
<       The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.
---
>       The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, 
>       so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice 
>       of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.
------
IntegerNumbers|980245280
1c1
< The integers are the unique smallest TotalOrderedSet that has neither an upper nor a lower bound.  There are a countable number of them, and each has both a predecessor and successor.  As a set they are usually denoted Z, for ''Zahlen''.
---
> The integers are the unique smallest TotalOrderedSet that has neither an upper nor a lower bound.  There are a countable number of them, and each has both a predecessor and successor.  As a set they are usually denoted Z, for ''Zahlen'' (Ger. "number").
5,7c5
<       The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.
<       Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.
<       Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.
---
> ''The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.  Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.  Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.''
9,11c7
<       The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, 
<       so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice 
<       of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.
---
> ''The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.''
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980245467
1c1
< SPACECRAFT PROPULSION
---
> SPACECRAFT PROPULSION [xxx]
------
TotalOrderedSet|980245797
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A total-ordered set is a PoSet (T,<) where for any a,b in T, exactly one of the following hold:
> * a=b
> * a<b
> * a>b
> 
> The set of all OrdinalNumbers less than a given one form a total-ordered set.  In particular, the finite ordinals (NaturalNumbers) form the unique smallest total-ordered set with no upper bound.  The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor a lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.
> 
> If the ContinuumHypothesis is true, the any set of CardinalNumbers is total-ordered.  Otherwise things get quite a bit messier.
------
AbstractAlgebra|980245973
8c8,10
< A map between two algebrae that preserves the operations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A map between two algebrae that preserves the operations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
> 
> ''More will go here soon, including definitions of all these terms.  Promise.''
------
GerMany|980247134
3c3
< Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1936-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, England, and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
---
> Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1939-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
------
PittiPan|980257868
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://pitti.pan@gmx.de Mail]
------
PittiPan|980258045
1c1
< [http://pitti.pan@gmx.de Mail]
---
> If you have any question, don't hesistate to [mailto:pitti.pan@gmx.de Mail me]
------
GerMany|980258245
1c1
< Germany is a country in the middle of EuropE and it takes part in the EuroCurrency.
---
> Germany is a major IndustrializedCountry in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany).
3c3
< Germany fought in World War I from 1914-1918 and World War II from 1939-1945. After that war it was split into two parts, the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was at first occupied and later allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a fairly free country with a combination socialist/market economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc.
---
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
5c5,17
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the prime minister of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
---
> There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  inclusive  7.3 million foreigners.
> 
> Germany takes part in the NATO, the EuropeanUnion and the EuroCurrency.
> 
> Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
> 
> Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After G. was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army (TreatyOfVersailles). 1918 the German emperor WilliamTheSecond resigned and the Weimar Republic constitutes itself. 
> 
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag. 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them there murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered some millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
> 
> At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones—French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the Federal Chancellor of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
7a20,23
> 
> Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
> 
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA. 
------
EuropE|980262779
1c1,50
< Contintent stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the north pole.
---
> ContinenT stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the NorthPole. Europe is the western fifth of the EurAsian landmass.
> 
> Perhaps The name Europe is derived from EuropA.
> 
> Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting with
> the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up. 
> 
> E. comprises at the beginning of the year 2001 the following countries:
>     AlbaniA,
>     AndorrA,
>     AustriA,
>     BelaruS,
>     BelgiuM,
>     BosniaAndHerzegovina,
>     BulgariA,
>     CroatiA,
>     CzechRepublic,
>     DenmarK,
>     EstoniA,
>     FinlanD,
>     FrancE,
>     GermanY (Federal Republic of)
>     GreecE,
>     HungarY,
>     IcelanD,
>     IrelanD (Republic of),
>     ItalY,
>     LatviA,
>     LiechtensteiN,
>     LithuaniA,
>     LuxembourG,
>     Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of)
>     MoldovA,
>     MonacO,
>     NetherlandS,
>     NorwaY,
>     PolanD,
>     PortugaL,
>     RomaniA,
>     RussiA,
>     SlovakiA,
>     SloveniA,
>     SpaiN,
>     SwedeN,
>     SwitzerlanD,
>     TurkeY (Republic of)
>     UkrainE,
>     UnitedKingdom,
>     VaticaN,
>     YugoslaviA (Federal Republic of)
3,8d51
< Contains all the following countries:
< SwedeN,
< DenmarK,
< FinlanD,
< EstoniA,
< some more
------
GermanY|980262957
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Germany is a major IndustrializedCountry in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany).
> 
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
> 
> There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  inclusive  7.3 million foreigners.
> 
> Germany takes part in the NATO, the EuropeanUnion and the EuroCurrency.
> 
> Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
> 
> Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After G. was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army (TreatyOfVersailles). 1918 the German emperor WilliamTheSecond resigned and the Weimar Republic constitutes itself. 
> 
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag. 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them there murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered some millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
> 
> At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones—French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the Federal Chancellor of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
> 
> Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
> 
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA. 
------
GerMany|980262989
1,23c1
< Germany is a major IndustrializedCountry in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany).
< 
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
< 
< There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  inclusive  7.3 million foreigners.
< 
< Germany takes part in the NATO, the EuropeanUnion and the EuroCurrency.
< 
< Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
< 
< Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After G. was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army (TreatyOfVersailles). 1918 the German emperor WilliamTheSecond resigned and the Weimar Republic constitutes itself. 
< 
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag. 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them there murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered some millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
< 
< At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones—French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
< 
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the Federal Chancellor of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
< 
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
< 
< Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
< 
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA. 
---
> See GermanY.
------
CountriesG|980263083
3c3
< * GerMany
---
> * GermanY
------
EuropA|980263642
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to CretE. She bore him some childs, so MinoS and RhadamanthuS. 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980265271
84c84
< Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdealS and FieldS.
---
> Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdeaLs and FielDs.
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980265525
120c120
< The next step is to determine the value of these six functions for angles greater than or equal to 90 degrees. Other closely related topics are the graphs of these functions, the 
---
> The next step is to determine the value of these six functions for angles greater than or equal to 90 degrees. Finally, we must determine the value of the functions for angles that are less than or equal to 0, thus defining these functions over the real numbers. Other closely related topics are the graphs of these functions, the 
------
HareKrishna|980268501
5,6c5
< Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.
< This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped in side the individual. 
---
> Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.  This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped in side the individual. 
8c7
< Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances according to learning, advancement or development in a given life, or the reverse.
---
> Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.
12c11
< The original messenger of the Krishna message to humanity is said to have been , a great warrior named Arjuna who lived about five thousand years ago.  Krishna appeared to him in the form of his chariot driver and revealed himself, along with special knowledge and insights, before a great battle, the prospect of which had overwhelmed Arjuna's courage.
---
> The original bearer of the Krishna message to humanity is said to have been Krishna, himself.  He lived among men about five thousand years ago with a great warrior named Arjuna, in the form of his chariot driver. He revealed himself, along with special knowledge and insights before a great battle, the prospect of which had overwhelmed Arjuna's courage.
14c13
< Initiated devotees of the Hare Krishna movement vow to follow certain life rules, including abstaining from gambling, intoxicants, meat and illicit sex.  Sex in marriage for procreation is considered right and proper: 
---
> Initiated devotees of the Hare Krishna movement vow to follow certain life rules, including abstaining from gambling, intoxicants, meat (including fish, fowl and eggs) and illicit sex.  Sex in marriage for procreation is considered right and proper: 
16c15,17
< The ideas of Krishna consciousness were brought to the West from India in 1965 by the movement's prime teacher, referred to by them as His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada who was 69 at the time.  His given name was Srila Prabhupada.  He had writted books on the subject and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Afric, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
---
> The ideas of Krishna consciousness were brought to the West from India in 1965 by the movement's prime teacher, referred to by them as His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, who was 69 at the time.  His given name was Srila Prabhupada.  The apellation "His Divine Grace" is somewhat ironic in that Prabhupada laid no claim to holiness or divinity.  
> 
> Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
------
TopOlogy|980268598
17c17
< In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which are a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimentsional space.
---
> In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which are a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimensional space.
------
IntegerNumbers|980272019
3,7c3
< The integers can be made into an algebraic structure by defining addition and multiplication in a natural way:
< 
< ''The order AutoMorphisms of Z turn out to be order IsoMorphic to Z itself under the induced ordering.  Thus we can take their composition to define a group operation (addition) on Z, unique up to choice of zero.  Order AutoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x+z for some z in Z.''
< 
< ''The group EndoMorphisms of Z again turn out to be group IsoMorphic to Z itself under induced addition, so we can take their multiplication to define a ring multiplication thereupon.  This is unique up to choice of ordering; by convention 0 < 1.  Group EndoMorphisms take the form f(x)=x*z=z*x for some z in Z.''
---
> The integers turn out to be order IsoMorphic to the set of their own order AutoMorphisms, allowing us to take their compositions to form a group operation (addition), and in turn to the set of its own group EndoMorphisms, allowing us to take ''their'' compositions to define a ring multiplication.  Thus Z has a natural ring structure, unique up to choice of zero and whether 0<1 or 1<0 (former by convention).
11c7
< The integers are the archetypical example of an IntegralDomain.  The units are 1 and -1, and every nonzero nonunit can be expressed uniquely in terms of a product of primes.  There are an infinite number of PrimeNumbers in Z and their distribution is pretty irregular.  The unique smallest field containing a copy of Z is the RationalNumbers.
---
> The integers are the archetypical example of an IntegralDomain.  The units are 1 and -1, and every nonzero nonunit can be expressed uniquely in terms of a product of primes.  There are an infinite number of PrimeNumbers in Z and their distribution is pretty irregular.  The unique smallest field containing a copy of Z is the RationalNumbers.
------
AbstractAlgebra|980272118
6a7
> * LatticEs
------
LatticEs|980274539
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lattice is a PartialOrderedSet (X, <=) where any two elements x,y have both a GreatestLowerBound xvy and LeastUpperBound x^y.
> 
> The operations v,^ on a lattice form an algebraic structure satisfying the following properties:
> 
>     ava=a                   a^a=a                   (idempotency laws)
>     avb=bva                 a^b=b^a                 (commutativity laws)
>     av(bvc)=(avb)vc         a^(b^c)=(a^b)^c         (associativity laws)
>     av(a^b)=a               a^(bvc)=a               (absorption laws)
> 
> Moreover, any algebra satisfying the above properties is a lattice, where x<=y is defined to be true if and only if xvy=y (or equivalently, x^y=x).
> 
> A lattice which satisfies the following properties is referred to as a boolean algebra:
> 
>     There exists some element 0, such that av0=a for all a                 (bounded below)
>     There exists some element 1, such that a^1=a for all a                 (bounded above)
>     For all a,b,c, (avb)^c=(a^c)v(b^c) and (a^b)vc=(avc)^(bvc)             (distributive laws - these are equivalent)
>     For every a, there exists an element ~a such that av~a=1 and a^~a=0    (existence of complements)
> 
> Complements are unique within bounded distributive lattices.  Boolean algebrae are very similar to RinGs, except they have complements instead of inverses, and moreover the distributive laws work for each operation over the other.
> 
> The subobjects of any given object form a boolean algebra under <= taken to mean "is a subobject of".  In the case of sets, v and ^ become unions and intersections; in the case of groups they become semidirect products and intersections, and so forth.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980276961
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A partial order <= on a set X is a RelatioN satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
> 
>     a <= a                              (reflexive property)
>     If a <= b, b <= a, then a = b       (antisymmetric property)
>     If a <= b, b <= c, then a <= c      (transitive property)
> 
> PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSets, and include sets of ordinals.
> 
> We write a < b if a <= b and the two are not equal.  Given any two a,b in X, the OpenInterval (a,b) is defined to be the set of all x in X such that a < x < b.  Arbitrary unions of OpenIntervals define the order-TopOlogy of the poset.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
> 
> A map f:X->Y from one poset to another is called an order-HomoMorphism if f(x)<=f(y) when x<=y; if it is bijective, it is called an order-IsoMorphism.  Any order-based property a poset has will also be true in any poset isomorphic to it.  Every poset (X,<=) has a unique dual poset (X,>=).
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277007
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSets, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277034
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277075
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277089
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet'''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet'''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277097
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet'''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet'''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277122
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''''''s ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''''''s, and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''s'' ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''s'', and include sets of ordinals.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980277131
7c7
< PartialOrderedSet''s'' ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''s'', and include sets of ordinals.
---
> PartialOrderedSet''s'' ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''s'', and include sets of OrdinalNumbers.
------
ReLigion|980280215
1c1,8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine  -- HareKrishna
---
> Religion in general:
> GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
> 
> Branches of reigion:
> ChristianIty -- IsLam -- HareKrishna
> 
> Religious books:
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
------
GNUStufF|980280257
3c3,4
< ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense
---
> ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense -- GNEArchitecture
> 
5c6
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. 
---
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. 
------
GNUStufF|980280387
3c3
< ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense -- GNEArchitecture
---
> ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense -- GNEArchitecTure
------
GNEArchitecTure|980280496
1c1,173
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> My (Mike Warren's) current favourite name is GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia! (Can't
> remember who suggested it...)
> 
> In any case, my ideas for how this should all work:
> 
> 
> OVERVIEW
> 
> Since the goal of GNE is to keep submissions almost completely open
> (barring completely obvious spam), some method of classification is
> needed. Since almost everyone has suggested a different way of
> classifying articles, it makes the most sense to keep the
> classification information separate and allow for multiple
> classifiers.
> 
> 
> THE BACK END ARTICLE REPOSITORY
> 
> Hence, only information absolutely essential to the article should be
> kept in the actual article repository. I think keeping this in XML has
> some advantages: it is readily human readable; some simple semantic
> hints can be included by the author if she chooses (here I mean things
> like <date>Jurassic</date> or <name>Mike Warren</name>); changing the
> DTD/Schema can be quite easy in many cases (unlike changing the schema
> of a database). Unique IDs will need to be assigned to each article,
> so that the classifiers can reference them. Anything from the really
> simple (sequentially-assigned 128-bit integers) to the complicated
> (MD5 or similar hashes of the content) can be employed for this
> purpose.
> 
> Using this method to store the articles, it seems to make sense to
> just use an existing Web server like Apache to serve these articles,
> which can then be accessed easily:
> 
>     http://www.gne.org/article/unique-id-12345.xml
> 
> If a single directory becomes insufficient (as seems likely at some
> point), then the first bits of the unique IDs can be used to make
> sub-directories, and the URL re-writing ability of Apache (and
> presumably other Web servers) can be used to change the above URLs
> into the actual URL. This has the advantage that existing free
> software is employed to implement the back-end and mirroring the data
> is extremely easy (just tar it, or rsync, or FTP). It will also be
> necessary to include an index of all articles which exist on the
> server. This need be nothing more than a complete list of all the
> unique IDs of the articles, enabling easy access by the classifiers
> (see below).
> 
> Whichever method of assigning the IDs is used, many have expressed the
> need/desire to digitally sign the articles. Since the article itself
> needs to be signed, it makes little sense to include the signature in
> the actual XML of the article (since then it would need to be removed
> to check the signature, and raises questions like, ``exactly which
> bytes do I remove to take out the signature). The above scheme for
> serving the articles fits in well here: signatures can just go in
> well-known signature files:
> 
>     http://www.gne.org/article/unique-id-12345.xml.asc
> 
> for the above example. If such a file doesn't exist, the article is
> not signed.
> 
> 
> THE CLASSIFIERS
> 
> No actual user or client program should be accessing the repository
> directly, in all likelihood. A number of classification databases will
> exist, which will index all the articles in the repository according
> to their own criteria. One of the simplest ones (which the GNE project
> itself will likely supple) will be a simple author and title
> index. Every night (say) this classifier will request the article
> index from one of the back-end repositories. Looking through the list
> of unique IDs, it will note any IDs which are not already in its own
> database.  For these, it will request the XML file from the repository
> and parse it, extracting whatever information is relevant to this
> classification (in this example, just the author(s) and title). If
> this classifier is more complicated (perhaps its the Nupedia one),
> then these new articles will be sent to mailing lists for comments
> about which category it should go in (or if it should be excluded from
> the classification, by putting it in an ``ignore'' category).
> 
> The classifiers can do absolutely anything imaginable, from providing
> a kids-only view of the information, to a keyword search capability to
> more complex things. As classifications become irrelevant or unused,
> they can simply be deleted; nothing needs to change in the article
> repository.  If someone is dissatisfied with the current
> classification schemes, they can take some base software provided by
> GNE and modify it to suit their needs; classifiers based on voting of
> users, voting of ``experts'' or many other schemes can be created.
> 
> These classifier systems should probably store much of their
> information in a database like MySQL since they will be accessing it a
> lot.
> 
> 
> CONVERTERS/CLIENTS
> 
> No matter what classifier is used, the user needs to actually see the
> articles.  This needs conversion from the XML format into some other
> suitable format, like HTML or DVI. The GNE project will produce such
> converters, which will be employed by the classifiers when showing an
> article to an actual user. It might also be useful (in the future) to
> make clients which interact (using some known protocol) with the
> classifiers and then allow the user to choose from whatever formats
> the client software knows to convert to. I wouldn't suggest doing such
> a thing until well after the classifier software is stable, if ever.
> 
> 
> DIAGRAM
> 
> So, here's what will happen:
> <pre>
> 
>                                  +---------------------+
>                                  | Classifier Projects |
>                                  +---------------------+
>                                           . . .                                    +---------+
>   +------+                       +---------------------+                           | Backend |
>   | user | <--- Web browser ---> | Dewey Decimal Sys.  | <--- fetches article ---> +---------+
>   +------+                       +---------------------+                           |12345.xml|
>                                  | Library of Congress |                           |33213.xml|
>                                  +---------------------+                           |77662.xml|
>                                  | Children-only       +                           |  ...    |
>                                  +---------------------+                           +---------+
>                                           . . .                                               
>                                                                                               
>   Web browser/GNE client          Database-driven lookup                      Directory(s) of 
>                                        mechanism                              XML files, with
>                                                                               index & optional
>                                                                               signature
> </pre>
> 
> 
> SOFTWARE BY GNE
> 
> The software which GNE would need to write includes:
> 
> . A PARSER which will take almost-plain-text and convert it into XML
>   in the DTD/Schema decided upon for the back-end articles. This will
>   include author, revision and content. It will not include a digital
>   signature or any classification information whatsoever. The content
>   can contain optional semantic hint tags intended for use by the
>   classifiers.
> 
> . BASIC CLASSIFIER software, which will ease the task of writing some
>   classifier.  As a minimum, this should include options to send
>   articles to mailing lists and some basic hierarchical classification
>   mechanism (since many classifiers will likely be hierarchical).
> 
> . CONVERTERS to take XML content in our DTD/Schema and produce LaTeX,
>   HTML, DVI or other formats, for use by the classifiers when serving
>   content to users. This means no load on repository servers, and
>   flexibility for the classifiers, which might like to change the HTML
>   to conform to their design style.
> 
> 
> CONCLUSION
> 
> A simple, efficient and almost completely inclusive back-end article
> repository is indexed by a number of classifier projects, with which
> the user interacts to get at content they're interested in. These
> classifiers are limited only by the imagination, and don't affect what
> is stored in the article repository; no classifier group can
> ``censor'' the GNE project, since another classifier group could start
> up to correct and wrong (in their opinion) classifications. No
> articles are rejected from the back-end repository, which is easy to
> mirror, easy to maintain and presents no major load on the server
> beyond its duties as a Web page server. Classifier databases can run
> on any system, anywhere in the world and use any mirror of the
> repository.
> 
> 
------
GNEArchitecTure|980280974
1d0
< 
139,155c138,144
< . A PARSER which will take almost-plain-text and convert it into XML
<   in the DTD/Schema decided upon for the back-end articles. This will
<   include author, revision and content. It will not include a digital
<   signature or any classification information whatsoever. The content
<   can contain optional semantic hint tags intended for use by the
<   classifiers.
< 
< . BASIC CLASSIFIER software, which will ease the task of writing some
<   classifier.  As a minimum, this should include options to send
<   articles to mailing lists and some basic hierarchical classification
<   mechanism (since many classifiers will likely be hierarchical).
< 
< . CONVERTERS to take XML content in our DTD/Schema and produce LaTeX,
<   HTML, DVI or other formats, for use by the classifiers when serving
<   content to users. This means no load on repository servers, and
<   flexibility for the classifiers, which might like to change the HTML
<   to conform to their design style.
---
> <ul>
> <li>A PARSER which will take almost-plain-text and convert it into XML  in the DTD/Schema decided upon for the back-end articles. This will  include author, revision and content. It will not include a digital  signature or any classification information whatsoever. The content  can contain optional semantic hint tags intended for use by the  classifiers.
> 
> <li>BASIC CLASSIFIER software, which will ease the task of writing some  classifier.  As a minimum, this should include options to send  articles to mailing lists and some basic hierarchical classification  mechanism (since many classifiers will likely be hierarchical).
> 
> <li>CONVERTERS to take XML content in our DTD/Schema and produce LaTeX,  HTML, DVI or other formats, for use by the classifiers when serving  content to users. This means no load on repository servers, and  flexibility for the classifiers, which might like to change the HTML  to conform to their design style.
> </ul>
------
GNEArchitecTure|980281095
138,139c138
< <ul>
< <li>A PARSER which will take almost-plain-text and convert it into XML  in the DTD/Schema decided upon for the back-end articles. This will  include author, revision and content. It will not include a digital  signature or any classification information whatsoever. The content  can contain optional semantic hint tags intended for use by the  classifiers.
---
> * A PARSER which will take almost-plain-text and convert it into XML  in the DTD/Schema decided upon for the back-end articles. This will  include author, revision and content. It will not include a digital  signature or any classification information whatsoever. The content  can contain optional semantic hint tags intended for use by the  classifiers.
141c140
< <li>BASIC CLASSIFIER software, which will ease the task of writing some  classifier.  As a minimum, this should include options to send  articles to mailing lists and some basic hierarchical classification  mechanism (since many classifiers will likely be hierarchical).
---
> * BASIC CLASSIFIER software, which will ease the task of writing some  classifier.  As a minimum, this should include options to send  articles to mailing lists and some basic hierarchical classification  mechanism (since many classifiers will likely be hierarchical).
143,144c142
< <li>CONVERTERS to take XML content in our DTD/Schema and produce LaTeX,  HTML, DVI or other formats, for use by the classifiers when serving  content to users. This means no load on repository servers, and  flexibility for the classifiers, which might like to change the HTML  to conform to their design style.
< </ul>
---
> * CONVERTERS to take XML content in our DTD/Schema and produce LaTeX,  HTML, DVI or other formats, for use by the classifiers when serving  content to users. This means no load on repository servers, and  flexibility for the classifiers, which might like to change the HTML  to conform to their design style.
------
GNEArchitecTure|980281127
1c1
< My (Mike Warren's) current favourite name is GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia! (Can't
---
> My (MikeWarren) current favourite name is GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia! (Can't
------
WikiPedia|980281154
1c1
< WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using wiki software.  Who knows where it will go?
---
> WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians.  Who knows where it will go?
------
WikiPedians|980281239
3c3
< Necessary but not sufficient condition for being a WikiWatcher.
---
> Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
------
MikeWarren|980281298
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Calgary, Alberta resident and recent CPSC graduate from
> the UniversityOfCalgary, Mike Warren is 23 and works at
> a leak-detection company where he's been employed part
> time during his last two years of school.
> 
> He knows Python, Java, C, C++ and enough Lisp/Scheme to 
> customize XEmacs. Sometimes, he climbs, cycles or back-packs
> in the nearby mountains.
------
WikiPedia|980281305
1c1
< WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians.  Who knows where it will go?
---
> WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?
------
HomePage|980284890
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
------
ArtsandEntertainment|980285051
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FiLm
> TheaTer
> MuSic
> PainTing
> SculpTure
> OpeRa
> DanCe
> 
------
ArtsandEntertainment|980285111
1,7c1
< FiLm
< TheaTer
< MuSic
< PainTing
< SculpTure
< OpeRa
< DanCe
---
> FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic -- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
------
FiLm|980285214
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism
------
FilmCriticism|980285766
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <p>A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.</p>
> 
> <p>Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of FilmCiticim include:
> <ul><li>AndreBazin</li>
> <li>SiegfriedKracauer</li>
> <li>SergeiEisenstein</li>
> <li>ChristianMetz</li>
> <li>WilliamRothman</li>
> <li>KajaSilverman</li>
> <li>Jean-LouisBoudry</li>
> <li>AndrewSarris</li>
> <li>MaryAnnDoane</li></ul>
> 
> <p>Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.</p>
------
FilmCriticism|980285870
1c1
< <p>A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.</p>
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.
3,12c3,12
< <p>Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of FilmCiticim include:
< <ul><li>AndreBazin</li>
< <li>SiegfriedKracauer</li>
< <li>SergeiEisenstein</li>
< <li>ChristianMetz</li>
< <li>WilliamRothman</li>
< <li>KajaSilverman</li>
< <li>Jean-LouisBoudry</li>
< <li>AndrewSarris</li>
< <li>MaryAnnDoane</li></ul>
---
> Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticim include:
> *  AndreBazin
> *  SiegfriedKracauer
> *  SergeiEisenstein
> *  ChristianMetz
> *  WilliamRothman
> *  KajaSilverman
> *  Jean-LouisBoudry
> *  AndrewSarris
> *  MaryAnnDoane
14c14
< <p>Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.</p>
---
> Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
------
FilmHistory|980286346
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
> *  Eadweard Muybridge
> *  ThomasEdison
> *  WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson
> *  GeorgeEastman
> *  LumiereBrothers
> *  GeorgeMelies
> *  EdwinSPorter
------
WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson|980286462
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It has almost certainly been proved that W. K. L. Dickson was the actual inventor of the motion picture camera.  He was under the employ of ThomasEdison.  In fact, Edison saw very little value in the contraption, but thought that it might be served to endorse his phonograph.
------
ThomasEdison|980286630
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Initially, it was believed that Edison invented the motion picture camera, but it has since been proven that WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson actually invented it at the Edison laboratories.  However, his influence on the history of film stretches far beyond that of instigator.  He became a powerhouse of film production and must be given credit for establishing a standard that allowed film to emerge as a mass media and not just a vaudeville novelty.
------
FilmHistory|980286650
2c2
< *  Eadweard Muybridge
---
> *  EadweardMuybridge
------
PhiloSophy|980287801
15c15
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about all of these topics!
---
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980289077
1c1,3
< The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of AlTruism.
---
> The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of AlTruism.
> ----
> PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always <i>ought<i> to be motivated by SelfInterest.
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980289091
3c3
< PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always <i>ought<i> to be motivated by SelfInterest.
---
> PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always <em>ought<em> to be motivated by SelfInterest.
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980289107
3c3
< PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always <em>ought<em> to be motivated by SelfInterest.
---
> PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always _ought_ to be motivated by SelfInterest.
------
ThomasEdison|980289256
1c1,3
< Initially, it was believed that Edison invented the motion picture camera, but it has since been proven that WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson actually invented it at the Edison laboratories.  However, his influence on the history of film stretches far beyond that of instigator.  He became a powerhouse of film production and must be given credit for establishing a standard that allowed film to emerge as a mass media and not just a vaudeville novelty.
---
> Initially, it was believed that ThomasEdison invented the motion picture camera, but it has since been proven that WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson actually invented it at the Edison laboratories.  However, his influence on the history of film stretches far beyond that of instigator.  He became a powerhouse of film production and must be given credit for establishing a standard that allowed film to emerge as a mass media and not just a vaudeville novelty.
> ----
> I have read that, similarly, the credit traditionally given to ThomasEdison for the invention of the LightBulb is misplaced.  I am not competent to assess this claim.
------
GNEArchitecTure|980291628
48a49,53
> Versioning of the articles is also desired. This can be
> simply:
> 
>   http://www.gne.org/articles/unique-id.version.xml
> 
------
ReLigion|980292567
4,5c4,5
< Branches of reigion:
< ChristianIty -- IsLam -- HareKrishna
---
> Branches of religion:
> ChristianIty -- IsLam -- HareKrishna -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm 
------
ReLigion|980293600
2c2
< GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
---
> GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- PhilosophyOfReligion
4c4
< Branches of religion:
---
> Religion:
------
ReLigion|980293654
4c4
< Religion:
---
> Particular religions:
------
GNEArchitecTure|980300024
1,2c1
< My (MikeWarren) current favourite name is GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia! (Can't
< remember who suggested it...)
---
> My (MikeWarren) current favourite name is GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia! (Dan Geiser's suggestion.)
------
FilmCriticism|980300136
3c3
< Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticim include:
---
> Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticism include:
14c14
< Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
---
> Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
------
PhiloSophy|980300681
11c11
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism  [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- EthicalityVsMorality [etc. continue the list please]
------
GNUStufF|980300790
3c3,7
< ProposedGNUModerationSystem -- GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq -- GNUFreeDocumentationLicense -- GNEArchitecTure
---
> * ProposedGNUModerationSystem
> * GNUEncyclopediaTechFaq 
> * GNUFreeDocumentationLicense 
> * GNEArchitecTure
> * PreliminaryDTD
------
PreliminaryDTD|980301464
1c1,71
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Instead of describing an entire DTD in detail, we should
> add tags to this ``example'' XML layout until we thing
> everything is covered.
> 
> 
> <article>
> <authors>
>   <author>
>   <name>Mike Warren</name>
>   <email>foo@bar.com</name>
>   </author>
>   <author>
>   <name>Someone Else</name>
>   <email>baz@bar.com</name>
>   </author>
> </authors>
> 
> <date>January 19, 2001</date>
> 
> <content>
> 
> <abstract>This is an abstract.</abstract>
> 
> <title>A Title</title>
> 
> <subtitle>A Sub Title</subtitle>
> 
> This is some content. It goes on and on, and doesn't
> really care about what is says. Paragraphs split with
> a blank line.
> 
> Like this; I am a new paragraph. I'm pretty short, though.
> 
> <subtitle>Another Sub Section</subtitle>
> 
> I am some more content. My purpose is to demonstrate some
> of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone Else</name> might have a name, associated with a birthday (like, say, <date>April 13, 1977</date>). They might have been born
> in a place such as <place>Calgary, Alberta</place> which doesn't
> have to be a full, canonical place-name.
> 
> It might be interesting to specify <jargon>jargon</jargon>
> in the content. One might even have a footnote, defined inline <footnote>This footnote would actually be rendered in a manner
> considered good for the medium. For example, at the bottom of
> a printed page.</footnote>.
> 
> Although complicated, adding inline LaTeX would be a very
> nice future feature:
> <latex>
> \begin{table}
> \end{table}
> </latex>
> 
> References are a little harder, but defining those inline
> as well might be best, as for the GPL
> <reference>
> <author>Richard Stallman</author>
> <title>General Public License</title>
> <proceedings></proceedings>
> <book></book>
> <journal></journal>
> <periodical></periodical>
> <date></date>
> </reference>.
> 
> </content>
> 
> <edit date="January 20, 2001" author="Mike Warren <foo@bar.com>">
> A context diff on the <content> appears here...
> </edit>
> 
> </article>
------
PreliminaryDTD|980301635
6,16c6,16
< <article>
< <authors>
<   <author>
<   <name>Mike Warren</name>
<   <email>foo@bar.com</name>
<   </author>
<   <author>
<   <name>Someone Else</name>
<   <email>baz@bar.com</name>
<   </author>
< </authors>
---
>  <article>
>  <authors>
>    <author>
>    <name>Mike Warren</name>
>    <email>foo@bar.com</name>
>    </author>
>    <author>
>    <name>Someone Else</name>
>    <email>baz@bar.com</name>
>    </author>
>  </authors>        
18c18
< <date>January 19, 2001</date>
---
>  <date>January 19, 2001</date>
20c20
< <content>
---
>  <content>
22c22
< <abstract>This is an abstract.</abstract>
---
>  <abstract>This is an abstract.</abstract>
24c24
< <title>A Title</title>
---
>  <title>A Title</title>
26c26
< <subtitle>A Sub Title</subtitle>
---
>  <subtitle>A Sub Title</subtitle>
28,30c28,30
< This is some content. It goes on and on, and doesn't
< really care about what is says. Paragraphs split with
< a blank line.
---
>  This is some content. It goes on and on, and doesn't
>  really care about what is says. Paragraphs split with
>  a blank line. 
32c32
< Like this; I am a new paragraph. I'm pretty short, though.
---
>  Like this; I am a new paragraph. I'm pretty short, though.
34c34
< <subtitle>Another Sub Section</subtitle>
---
>  <subtitle>Another Sub Section</subtitle>
36,37c36,37
< I am some more content. My purpose is to demonstrate some
< of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone Else</name> might have a name, associated with a birthday (like, say, <date>April 13, 1977</date>). They might have been born
---
>  I am some more content. My purpose is to demonstrate some
>  of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone  Else</name> might have a name, associated with a birthday (like,  say, <date>April 13, 1977</date>). They might have been born
39a40,69
>  
>  It might be interesting to specify <jargon>jargon</jargon>
>  in the content. One might even have a footnote, defined inline    <footnote>This footnote would actually be rendered in a manner
>  considered good for the medium. For example, at the bottom of 
>  a printed page.</footnote>.
> 
>  Although complicated, adding inline LaTeX would be a very
>  nice future feature:
>  <latex>
>  \begin{table}
>  \end{table}
>  </latex>
> 
>  References are a little harder, but defining those inline
>  as well might be best, as for the GPL
>  <reference>
>  <author>Richard Stallman</author>
>  <title>General Public License</title>
>  <proceedings></proceedings>
>  <book></book>
>  <journal></journal>
>  <periodical></periodical>
>  <date></date>
>  </reference>. 
>  
>  </content>
> 
>  <edit date="January 20, 2001" author="Mike Warren      <foo@bar.com>">
>  A context diff on the <content> appears here...
>  </edit>
41,71c71
< It might be interesting to specify <jargon>jargon</jargon>
< in the content. One might even have a footnote, defined inline <footnote>This footnote would actually be rendered in a manner
< considered good for the medium. For example, at the bottom of
< a printed page.</footnote>.
< 
< Although complicated, adding inline LaTeX would be a very
< nice future feature:
< <latex>
< \begin{table}
< \end{table}
< </latex>
< 
< References are a little harder, but defining those inline
< as well might be best, as for the GPL
< <reference>
< <author>Richard Stallman</author>
< <title>General Public License</title>
< <proceedings></proceedings>
< <book></book>
< <journal></journal>
< <periodical></periodical>
< <date></date>
< </reference>.
< 
< </content>
< 
< <edit date="January 20, 2001" author="Mike Warren <foo@bar.com>">
< A context diff on the <content> appears here...
< </edit>
< 
< </article>
---
>  </article>
------
PreliminaryDTD|980301670
37,39c37,41
<  of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone  Else</name> might have a name, associated with a birthday (like,  say, <date>April 13, 1977</date>). They might have been born
< in a place such as <place>Calgary, Alberta</place> which doesn't
< have to be a full, canonical place-name.
---
>  of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone
>  Else</name> might have a name, associated with a birthday (like,
>  say, <date>April 13, 1977</date>). They might have been born
>  in a place such as <place>Calgary, Alberta</place> which 
>  doesn't have to be a full, canonical place-name.
------
PreliminaryDTD|980301702
44c44,45
<  in the content. One might even have a footnote, defined inline    <footnote>This footnote would actually be rendered in a manner
---
>  in the content. One might even have a footnote, defined inline
>  <footnote>This footnote would actually be rendered in a manner
------
PreliminaryDTD|980301821
70c70
<  <edit date="January 20, 2001" author="Mike Warren      <foo@bar.com>">
---
>  <edit date="January 20, 2001" author="Mike Warren foo@bar.com>">
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980302080
121c121
< TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in CalculuS, the continuity and differentiability of these functions. 
---
> TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in CalculuS, the LimiT, the ContinuiTy and DifferentiabiliTy of each these functions. 
------
EthicalityVsMorality|980302125
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethicality and Morality?  Are they not, after all, synonymous?  Doesn't one pretty much imply the other?  Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, no and no" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible.
> 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character."  The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."
> 
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct.  Character and custom, however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong.  Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a group over time.  People have character.  Societies have custom.  To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference.
> 
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick.  Let us say that good, or right, would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life and bad, or wrong, would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival.  This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory.  
> 
> (more to come, as time permits)
> 
> 
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980303026
119c119
< '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and for an angle of 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoranThoerem, and theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
---
> '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and for an angle of 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoreanThoerem, and theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980303054
119c119
< '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and for an angle of 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoreanThoerem, and theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
---
> '''Q.''' Can you determine the value of the six TrigonometricFunctions for an angle of 60 degrees and for an angle of 30 degrees using only the definitions, the PythagoreanTheorem, and theorems from EuclideanGeometry?----
------
PhiloSophy|980303202
11c11,14
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- EthicalityVsMorality [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism [etc. continue the list please]
> 
> '''PhilosophicalIssuesAndProblems:'''
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality
------
EthicalityVsMorality|980303351
10,11c10,11
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I have studied ethics quite a bit and I can't say that I have seen the word "ethicality" very often, though I found it in [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=ethicality a dictionary].  I would rename this page "EthicsVsMorals" (or better yet, "EthicsAndMorals") and then it will be a topic that more people are apt to recognize. -- LarrySanger
------
PreliminaryDTD|980305646
6a7
>  <id>the-unique-id-for-this-article (assigned)</id>
------
PreliminaryDTD|980305673
2c2
< add tags to this ``example'' XML layout until we thing
---
> add tags to this ``example'' XML layout until we think
------
HiStory|980308242
1c1
< Should only include histories of eras and countries that are now defunct.  [Why "now defunct"?  The U.S. isn't defunct; what about AmericanHistory? --LarrySanger]
---
> Should only include histories of eras, fields and countries that are now defunct...because otherwise, you should probably just put it on the appropriate country or field page.
------
EthicalityVsMorality|980309050
11c11,13
< I have studied ethics quite a bit and I can't say that I have seen the word "ethicality" very often, though I found it in [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=ethicality a dictionary].  I would rename this page "EthicsVsMorals" (or better yet, "EthicsAndMorals") and then it will be a topic that more people are apt to recognize. -- LarrySanger
---
> I have studied ethics quite a bit and I can't say that I have seen the word "ethicality" very often, though I found it in [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=ethicality a dictionary].  I would rename this page "EthicsVsMorals" (or better yet, "EthicsAndMorals") and then it will be a topic that more people are apt to recognize. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> As you wish...
------
PhiloSophy|980309171
14c14
< '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality
---
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals
------
PhiloSophy|980309276
14c14
< '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals
---
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality
------
PhiloSophy|980309356
14c14
< '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality
---
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality -- EthicsVsMorals
------
EthicsVsMorals|980309379
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethicality and Morality? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply
> the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, no and no" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
> 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom." 
> 
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different
> standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a group over time. People have
> character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
> 
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that good,
> or right, would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life and bad, or wrong, would apply to those
> things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
> 
> (more to come, as time permits)
------
PhiloSophy|980309525
14c14
< '''EthIcs:''' EthicalityVsMorality -- EthicsVsMorals
---
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals
------
EthicsVsMorals|980312005
1,2c1
< Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethicality and Morality? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply
< the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, no and no" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
---
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
6,12c5
< Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different
< standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a group over time. People have
< character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
< 
< It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that good,
< or right, would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life and bad, or wrong, would apply to those
< things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
---
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a group over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
14c7,19
< (more to come, as time permits)
---
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that good, or right, would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life and bad, or wrong, would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory.
> 
> While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obediance to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
> 
> While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by the Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable in that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa.
> 
> Consider:  It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies.  Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful.  One may argue on one hand that such practices are harmless in the context of an economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema.  On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, possibly of genetic (or viral?) origin literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism.  This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival.  By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad."  And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it.  But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science.
> 
> So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside.  A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him, what will positively or negatively impact it, support the former, and strive against the latter.  such a person, by any standard, would probably have to be classified as ethical.  Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful but, if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake, we could not but call him ethical.
> 
> Ralph Waldo Emerson almost grasped this fully over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance."  He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good.  Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
> 
> EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the reach of his vision.
------
AlTruism|980318795
1c1
< The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain.
---
> The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain.  When you say Widely dismissed, do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your critisism.
------
AlTruism|980318913
1c1,3
< The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain.  When you say Widely dismissed, do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your critisism.
---
> The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
> 
> When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your critisism.
------
KlausSeistrup|980319067
5,8c5
<  What is this for?  This is a pointless page. 
<  Is there really a Kingdom of Denmark? 
<  Is there a King and Queen?  I wasn't aware of such.
< 
---
>  
11c8
< This is a personal page for prolific WikiPedia writer KlausSeistrup.  It is not pointless, for it tells us his middle name and that he is a citizen of Denmark.  Now I can address him in Danish if I wanted to (and could).  Re: Danish royalty, you learn something new every day; aren't wikis great? -- LarrySanger
---
> This is a personal page for prolific WikiPedia writer KlausSeistrup.  It is not pointless, for it tells us his middle name and that he is a citizen of Denmark.  Now I can address him in Danish if I wanted to (and could).  Re: Danish royalty, you learn something new every day; aren't wikis great? -- LarrySanger
------
AlTruism|980319218
1,4d0
< The following view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
< 
< When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your critisism.
< 
6a3,12
> ----
> The foregoing view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
> ----
> When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your criticism.
> ----
> You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  It is hackneyed, common knowledge, among professional philosophers, to reject PsychologicalEgoism.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
> 
> By the way, you might not know that AynRand herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
> 
> Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
------
AlTruism|980319456
8c8
< You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  It is hackneyed, common knowledge, among professional philosophers, to reject PsychologicalEgoism.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
---
> You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
12c12
< Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
---
> Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
------
AlTruism|980323346
4a5,8
> 
> ''There's not a lot to explain; there is plain and simple empirical evidence of people doing altruistic acts.  People sometimes do generous things even if it makes them unhappy.  Of course you could say this is to get one's conscience to leave you alone, but since a conscience is darn close to an AltruismInstinct, that's pretty weak.''
> 
> ''People evolved to have empathy towards others and do altruistic things because that's good for everybody in general, though not always in specifics.  Whether altruism makes any sense, of course, is a different matter, though I wouldn't personally say it doesn't.''
7c11
< ----
---
> 
------
AbstractAlgebra|980324604
1c1
< An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of one or more sets of elements, together with one or more operations on these sets.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of a sets of elements together with one or more operations on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
9c9
< A map between two algebrae that preserves the operations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as the algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a subset thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  The subalgebrae of given algebrae usually form LatticEs under inclusion.
11c11
< ''More will go here soon, including definitions of all these terms.  Promise.''
---
> A map between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
MarylanD|980325582
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> HEREIS A SIMPLE REMEDY TO CURE HEADACHE AND TENSION
> wHENEVERYOUGET A HEADACHE OR TENSION JUST RUB SOME LINIMENT LIKE vICKS VAPARUB AND ON THE FOREHEAD AND BACK OF HEAD AND THEN TAKE A LADIES HAIR DRYER AND BLOW SOME HOT WARM AIR. iN AFEW SECONDS YOU WILL BE CURED OF YOUR HEADACHE AND TENSION.
> 
>  iF YOU LIKE THE IDEA AND FIND IT WORKS PLEASE SEND 10 $ TO
> mR.v.sUNDERAM,nO 4NEWbALAJI NAGAR,cOIMBATORE,iNDIA,641 046.
> 
> tHANK YOU, tHIS AMOUNT WILLBEUSED FOR CHARITY.
> 
> SUNDERAM
> 
> 24/1/2001
------
PreliminaryDTD|980325884
6c6
<  <article>
---
>  <article DTDversion="preliminaryDTD0.01">
------
MathematicalGrouP|980327168
1c1
< MathematicalGrouP
---
> '''MathematicalGrouP - definition'''
11c11
< 3)	G contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to G then e*a = a and a*e = a.
---
> 3)	G contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to G then e*a = a and a*e = a.  This turns out to be unique.
13c13
< 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=e=b*a.
---
> 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=e=b*a.  This turns out to be unique.
15c15
< Sets of BiJections form groups under composition, providing they are closed under this operation and inverses.  A HomoMorphism from a group to a such a set is called a representation thereof, and it is called faithful if different group elements correspond to different BiJections.  CayleysTheorem states that every group has such a representation, so the study of groups can be considered as the study of permutations.
---
> Usually the operation, whatever it ''really'' is, is denoted like multiplication; we write a*b for the ''product'' of a and b, 1 for the identity and a^-1 for the inverse of a.  Otherwise, the operation is denoted like addition; we write a+b for the sum of a and b, 0 for the identity and -a for the inverse of a.
17c17
< A subset of G closed under * forms a SubGroup in an obvious way.  Every group contains at least two subgroups, itself and the trivial group containing only the identity.  Every other element is contained in a minimal subgroup isomorphic either to the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic, treated as groups under addition.
---
> '''Subgroups, HomoMorphisms, etc'''
19c19
< The KerneL of a group HomoMorphism consists of those elements that get mapped to an identity.  As it turns out, the possible KerneLs of a group are precisely the NormalSubGroups - those subgroups H such that g*H=H*g for all g in G - and this fixes the homomorphic image of the group up to isomorphism.
---
> A subset H of a group (G,*) that itself forms a group under the restriction of * is called a subgroup.  Every group has at least two subgroups, G itself and the trivial group {e}.  Every other element is contained in a unique smallest subgroup, called a CyclicGroup, isomorphic to the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic.
21,78c21
< ----
<  
< A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
< 
< 
< Proof:
< 
< 
< 1)	If a and b are integers then a+b is an integer: Closure.
< 
< 
< 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
< 
< 
< 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.
< 
< 
<        (Z,+) has an identity element.
< 
< 
< 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.
< 
< 
<         Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
< 
< ----
< 
< 
< Question: Given the set of integers, Z, as above, and the operation multiplication,
< denoted by "x" is (Z,x) a Group?
< 
< 
< 1)	If a and b are integers then axb is an integer. Closure.
< 
< 
< 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
< 
< 
< 3)	1 is an integer and for any integer a, ax1=a.
< 
< 
<        (Z,x) has an identity element.
< 
< 
< 4)	'''BUT''', if a is an integer, there is not necessarily an integer b =1/a such that
< 
<         (a)x(1/a)=1.
< 
< 
< Then, every element of (Z,x) does not have an inverse.
< 
< 
< For example, given the integer 4, there is no integer b such that 4xb=1.
< 
< 
< Therefore, (Z,x) is '''not''' a Group.  It is a weaker type of object sometimes called a SemiGroup.
< 
< ----
---
> A group HomoMorphism is a map from one group to another that maps products to products, and thence identities to identities and inverses to inverses.  If it is also OneToOne, it is called an IsoMorphism.  The structure of a group is determined completely by its IsoMorphism class.
79a23
> The set of elements a HomoMorphism sends to e is called its KerNel, and is necessarily a subgroup H satisfying a*H=H*a for all a in G.  Such subgroups are called normal.  There is a homomorphism from G having any given normal subgroup as its kernel; the image of G is unique up to homorphism, and is called the FactorGroup G/H.
81,82c25
< '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Q, that is the set of number a/b such that
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?----
---
> The intersection of any two subgroups H,K is a group, and if they are disjoint, the DirectProduct H*K is a group.  This is isomorphic to the Cartesian product of H and K under componentwise multiplication, which is something that can e taken even when H and K are not being looked at as subgroups.
84c27
< Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdeaLs and FielDs.
---
> A group without any normal subgroups is called simple.  The 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980327187
27c27,97
< A group without any normal subgroups is called simple.  The 
---
> A group without any normal subgroups is called simple.  The simple commutative groups are precisely the ModularArithmetic''''s of prime order; any other finite commutative group is isomorphic to a direct product of these.
> 
> '''Representations'''
> 
> The set of all BiJections on some set X form a group under composition.  This is called the SymmetricGroup on X.  The symmetries of mathematical objects are usually subgroups of the SymmetricGroup.  In fact any group is isomorphic to a subgroup of the SymmetricGroup on ''some'' set X; such a map is called a representation of the group.
> 
> The action of the group G defines a product GxX->X (action on the left) or XxG->X (action on the right).  Note every group acts on itself in an obvious way.  If no subset of X is closed under the group action, then the representation is called irreducible; other representations are arbitrary unions of reducible ones.
> ----
>  
> A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
> 
> 
> Proof:
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then a+b is an integer: Closure.
> 
> 
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
> 
> 
> 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.
> 
> 
>        (Z,+) has an identity element.
> 
> 
> 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.
> 
> 
>         Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> Question: Given the set of integers, Z, as above, and the operation multiplication,
> denoted by "x" is (Z,x) a Group?
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then axb is an integer. Closure.
> 
> 
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
> 
> 
> 3)	1 is an integer and for any integer a, ax1=a.
> 
> 
>        (Z,x) has an identity element.
> 
> 
> 4)	'''BUT''', if a is an integer, there is not necessarily an integer b =1/a such that
> 
>         (a)x(1/a)=1.
> 
> 
> Then, every element of (Z,x) does not have an inverse.
> 
> 
> For example, given the integer 4, there is no integer b such that 4xb=1.
> 
> 
> Therefore, (Z,x) is '''not''' a Group.  It is a weaker type of object sometimes called a SemiGroup.
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Q, that is the set of number a/b such that
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?----
> 
> Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdeaLs and FielDs.
------
GNEArchitecTure|980338812
157c157
< up to correct and wrong (in their opinion) classifications. No
---
> up to correct the wrong (in their opinion) classifications. No
------
PreliminaryDTD|980339966
5,6c5,7
< 
<  <article DTDversion="preliminaryDTD0.01">
---
> <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-16"?>
> <!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "preliminaryDTD0.01">
>  <article>
------
PreliminaryDTD|980340196
5,6c5,6
< <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-16"?>
< <!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "preliminaryDTD0.01">
---
>  <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-16"?>
>  <!DOCTYPE article SYSTEM "preliminaryDTD0.01">
------
TopOlogy|980344085
18a19,25
> ----
> 
> Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modelled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
> 
> Its been a while since I've had topology, but I seem to remember there being a theorem indicating that there were only some specific number (6 is it?) of different topological shapes in 3-space.  Does anyone remember this?
> 
> I've been out of it for far too long...
------
MarylanD|980344169
2,12d1
< HEREIS A SIMPLE REMEDY TO CURE HEADACHE AND TENSION
< wHENEVERYOUGET A HEADACHE OR TENSION JUST RUB SOME LINIMENT LIKE vICKS VAPARUB AND ON THE FOREHEAD AND BACK OF HEAD AND THEN TAKE A LADIES HAIR DRYER AND BLOW SOME HOT WARM AIR. iN AFEW SECONDS YOU WILL BE CURED OF YOUR HEADACHE AND TENSION.
< 
<  iF YOU LIKE THE IDEA AND FIND IT WORKS PLEASE SEND 10 $ TO
< mR.v.sUNDERAM,nO 4NEWbALAJI NAGAR,cOIMBATORE,iNDIA,641 046.
< 
< tHANK YOU, tHIS AMOUNT WILLBEUSED FOR CHARITY.
< 
< SUNDERAM
< 
< 24/1/2001
------
AfghanistaN|980352721
1c1
< Afghanistan
---
> Afghanistan is a country in Southern AsiA, north and west of PakistaN, east of IraN
3,372c3,11
<                                                    Introduction
< 
< 
< 
< Background: Afghanistan was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
< supplied and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, but the fundamentalist Islamic
< Taliban movement has been able to seize most of the country. In addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffers from enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure,
< and widespread live mines. 
< 
<                                                    Geography
< 
< 
< 
< Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 65 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Asia 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 652,000 sq km 
< land: 652,000 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 5,529 km 
< border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km 
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
< 
< Climate: arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers 
< 
< Terrain: mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m 
< highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m 
< 
< Natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 12% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 46% 
< forests and woodland: 3% 
< other: 39% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 30,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding 
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials);
< desertification 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban 
< signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation 
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked 
< 
<                                                      People
< 
< 
< 
< Population: 25,838,797 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 42.37% (male 5,598,403; female 5,371,054) 
< 15-64 years: 54.86% (male 7,362,961; female 6,839,914) 
< 65 years and over: 2.77% (male 378,741; female 337,724) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.54% (2000 est.) 
< note: this rate reflects the continued return of refugees from Iran 
< 
< Birth rate: 41.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 18.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: 11.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 1.12 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 149.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 45.88 years 
< male: 46.62 years 
< female: 45.1 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 5.87 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Afghan(s) 
< adjective: Afghan 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) 
< 
< Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% 
< 
< Languages: Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much
< bilingualism 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 31.5% 
< male: 47.2% 
< female: 15% (1999 est.) 
< 
<                                                    Government
< 
< 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
< conventional short form: Afghanistan 
< local long form: Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan 
< local short form: Afghanestan 
< former: Republic of Afghanistan 
< 
< Data code: AF 
< 
< Government type: no functioning central government, administered by factions 
< 
< Capital: Kabul 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat,
< Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol 
< note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst 
< 
< Independence: 19 August 1919 (from UK control over Afghan foreign affairs) 
< 
< National holiday: Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August 
< 
< Constitution: none 
< 
< Legal system: a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) 
< 
< Suffrage: NA; previously males 15-50 years of age 
< 
< Executive branch: on 27 September 1996, the ruling members of the Afghan Government were displaced by members of the Islamic Taliban movement; the Islamic State
< of Afghanistan has no functioning government at this time, and the country remains divided among fighting factions 
< note: the Taliban have declared themselves the legitimate government of Afghanistan; however, the UN still recognizes the government of Burhanuddin RABBANI; the
< Organization of the Islamic Conference has left the Afghan seat vacant until the question of legitimacy can be resolved through negotiations among the warring factions; the
< country is essentially divided along ethnic lines; the Taliban controls the capital of Kabul and approximately two-thirds of the country including the predominately ethnic
< Pashtun areas in southern Afghanistan; opposing factions have their stronghold in the ethnically diverse north 
< 
< Legislative branch: non-functioning as of June 1993 
< 
< Judicial branch: non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) [Mohammed Asif MOHSENI]; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement)
< [Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI]; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party) [Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction]; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party) [Yunis KHALIS
< faction]; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Mohammad Akbar AKBARI]; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of
< Afghanistan) [Abdul Rasul SAYYAF]; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front) [Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI]; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami
< (National Islamic Front) [Sayed Ahamad GAILANI]; Taliban (Religious Students Movement) [Mohammad OMAR]; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan
< comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement) [Abdul Rashid DOSTAM]; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) [Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad
< Shah MASOOD]; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Abdul Karim KHALILI] 
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
< NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
< represent traditional Pashtun leadership; Writers Union of Free Afghanistan or WUFA [A. Rasul AMIN] 
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC,
< IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< note: embassy operations suspended 21 August 1997 
< chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
< chancery: 2341 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
< telephone: [1] (202) 234-3770 
< FAX: [1] (202) 328-3516 
< consulate(s) general: New York 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like
< structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two
< crossed scimitars 
< note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag 
< 
<                                                     Economy
< 
< 
< 
< Economy - overview: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations
< have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February
< 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 1999, 1.2
< million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor
< and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation
< remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. The
< economic situation did not improve in 1998-99, as internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are
< likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 1999, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $800 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 53% 
< industry: 28.5% 
< services: 18.5% (1990) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
< 
< Labor force: 8 million (1997 est.) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 68%, industry 16%, services 16% (1980 est.) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 8% (1995 est.) 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $NA 
< expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA 
< 
< Industries: small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper 
< 
< Electricity - production: 430 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 41.86% 
< hydro: 58.14% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 510 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: opium poppies, wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton 
< 
< Exports: $80 million (does not include opium) (1996 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems 
< 
< Exports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic 
< 
< Imports: $150 million (1996 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and petroleum products; most consumer goods 
< 
< Imports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany 
< 
< Debt - external: $5.5 billion (1996 est.) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN
< programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons 
< 
< Currency: 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls 
< 
< Exchange rates: afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019
< (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar
< until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 
< 
< Fiscal year: 21 March - 20 March 
< 
<                                                  Communications
< 
<  
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 31,200 (1983); note - there were 21,000 main lines in use in Kabul in 1998 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: very limited telephone and telegraph service; in 1997, telecommunications links were established between Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul
< through satellite and microwave systems 
< international: satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); commercial satellite telephone center in
< Ghazni 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7 (6 are inactive; the active station is in Kabul), FM 1, shortwave 1 (broadcasts in Pushtu, Dari, Urdu, and English) (1999) 
< 
< Radios: 167,000 (1999) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: at least 10 (one government run central television station in Kabul and regional stations in nine of the 30 provinces; the regional stations
< operate on a reduced schedule; also, in 1997, there was a station in Mazar-e Sharif reaching four northern Afghanistan provinces) (1998) 
< 
< Televisions: 100,000 (1999) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
< 
<                                                   Transportation
< 
< 
< 
< Railways: 
< total: 24.6 km 
< broad gauge: 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1.524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on
< south bank of Amu Darya 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 21,000 km 
< paved: 2,793 km 
< unpaved: 18,207 km (1998 est.) 
< 
< Waterways: 1,200 km; chiefly Amu Darya, which handles vessels up to about 500 DWT 
< 
< Pipelines: petroleum products - Uzbekistan to Bagram and Turkmenistan to Shindand; natural gas 180 km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Kheyrabad, Shir Khan 
< 
< Airports: 46 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 14 
< over 3,047 m: 3 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 32 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
< under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
<                                                     Military
< 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
< 
< Military branches: NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border
< Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups 
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 22 years of age 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 6,401,980 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 3,432,236 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
< males: 244,958 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
< 
<                                                 Transnational Issues
< 
<  
< 
< Disputes - international: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN 
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
< increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
< from drug trade 
---
>  AfghanistanHistory
>  AfghanistanGeography
>  AfghanistanPeople
>  AfghanistanGovernement
>  AfghanistanEconomy
>  AfghanistanCommunications
>  AfghanistanTransportations
>  AfghanistanMilitary
>  AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980352792
4,7d3
< 
< The CIAWorldFactBook seems to have very long entries. Wouldn't it be better to split them up like this instead: AfGhanistan --LinusTolke
< 
< Very nice, LinusTolke!  Very Nice! --JimboWales
------
AfGhanistan|980352842
1,21c1
< Illustration on an alternative example on how to organize a country. Compare to the "all in one node"-solution in AfghanistaN --LinusTolke
< ----
< 
< AfghanistanHistory
< 
< AfghanistanGeography
< 
< AfghanistanPeople
< 
< AfghanistanGovernement
< 
< AfghanistanEconomy
< 
< AfghanistanCommunications
< 
< AfghanistanTransportations
< 
< AfghanistanMilitary
< 
< AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
< 
---
> 
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|980353273
5d4
< 
8d6
< 
10,62c8,16
< 
< CountriesA
< 
< CountriesB
< 
< CountriesC
< 
< CountriesD
< 
< CountriesE
< 
< CountriesF
< 
< CountriesG
< 
< CountriesH
< 
< CountriesI
< 
< CountriesJ
< 
< CountriesK
< 
< CountriesL
< 
< CountriesM
< 
< CountriesN
< 
< CountriesO
< 
< CountriesP
< 
< CountriesQ
< 
< CountriesR
< 
< CountriesS
< 
< CountriesT
< 
< CountriesU
< 
< CountriesV
< 
< CountriesW
< 
< CountriesX
< 
< CountriesY
< 
< CountriesZ
< 
---
>  CountriesA  CountriesJ  CountriesS
>  CountriesB  CountriesK  CountriesT
>  CountriesC  CountriesL  CountriesU
>  CountriesD  CountriesM  CountriesV
>  CountriesE  CountriesN  CountriesW
>  CountriesF  CountriesO  CountriesX
>  CountriesG  CountriesP  CountriesY
>  CountriesH  CountriesQ  CountriesZ
>  CountriesI  CountriesR
------
CountriesC|980353289
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CanadA
------
CountriesH|980353311
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> HonduraS
------
CountriesJ|980353337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JapaN
------
CountriesB|980353366
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BahraiN
------
CountriesL|980353391
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LuxemburG
------
EuropE|980353460
31c31
<     LuxembourG,
---
>     LuxemburG,
------
CountriesM|980353483
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MarockO
------
CountriesE|980353500
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EstoniA
------
CountriesF|980353518
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FinlanD
------
CountriesQ|980353544
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> QataR
------
CountriesI|980353559
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ItalY
------
EuroCurrency|980353589
1c1
< The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemBurg. The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999). The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999). The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
------
MarylanD|980353703
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the east of the UnitedStates.
------
SportS|980355327
2a3,10
> I have tried to do a classification of sports in categories.
> ----
> Speed sports (where the goal is to be as quick as possible. No or very little contact with your opponents.):
> * BiCycling
> * RunninG
> * OrienteerinG
> 
> Precision sports (where the goal is to be as accurate as possible in throwing, tossing, rolling, ... No or very little contact with your opponents.):
4,6c12,14
< * ArmWrestling
< * AustralianRulesFootball
< * AutoRacing
---
> * BilliardS
> * BowlinG
> * CroqueT
7a16
> Ball sports (where you and your opponent(s) are working to get control of and place a ball):
11,16c20,30
< * BassFishing
< * BiathloN
< * BiCycling
< * BilliardS
< * BodyBuilding
< * BowlinG
---
> * AmericanFootBall
> * AustralianRulesFootball
> * CrickeT
> * FieldHockey
> * FootBall
> * IceHockey
> * TableTennis
> * Tennis
> 
> Fighting (where you and your opponents compete against each other using your strength and speed in contact.):
> * ArmWrestling
18c32,33
< * Bushwalking
---
> * WrestlinG
> * FencinG
20,22c35,38
< * CheerLeading
< * CrickeT
< * CroqueT
---
> Motor sports (where you use the power of an engine as an important part of the sport.):
> * AutoRacing
> * EndurO
> * Formula1
24,26c40,42
< * FieldHockey
< * AmericanFootball
< * EuropeanFootball
---
> Combination sports (where the winning is decided by putting together results from several of the other categories):
> * BiathloN
> * PentathloN
28c44,46
< * OrienteerinG
---
> Comparison sports (where the winning is decided by a judge):
> * BodyBuilding
> * CheerLeading
30c48,53
< * RunninG
---
> Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
> * BushWalking
> 
> Hunting sports (where the sport is to find, lure, catch some animal):
> * BassFishing
> * FoxHunt
------
FootBall|980355564
1c1,7
< That which one buys a large screen television for... 
---
> Two teams of eleven players each fight to get a spherical ball into the other teams goal.
> 
> The players are not allowed to touch the ball with their arms or shoulders.
> 
> Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal.
> ----
> That which one buys a large screen television for... 
------
EthicsVsMorals|980356174
9c9,11
< While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obediance to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
---
> While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  After all, social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary.  They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group.  Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them.  
> 
> One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obediance to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
15c17,21
< So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside.  A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him, what will positively or negatively impact it, support the former, and strive against the latter.  such a person, by any standard, would probably have to be classified as ethical.  Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful but, if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake, we could not but call him ethical.
---
> Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members.  These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes.  Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins.  Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue".  In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm.  There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow and objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts.
> 
> The founders (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of social groupings may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense.  "We must do this or perish."  He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes.  How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leaders' insights and understanding?  One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff.  So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are established.  Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in approval by authority.
> 
> So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside.  A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter.  Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical.  Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
19c25
< EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the reach of his vision.
---
> EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision.
------
FootBall|980356458
7a8,9
> ----
> Not to start a religious war or anything, but the definition above is for what we Americans call SocceR.  FootBall is what they play in the SuperBowl. :-) --JimboWales
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980358001
3a4,5
> ----
> Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
------
AlTruism|980358526
11,12c11,14
< 
< You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
---
> ----
> You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  
> ----
> Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
16a19,20
> ----
> Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
------
AlTruism|980358576
20c20
< Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
---
> Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
------
PsychologicalEgoism|980358643
5c5
< Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
---
> Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980360125
5a6,7
> 
> Geek Speak (articlkes to follow)
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980360133
7c7
< Geek Speak (articlkes to follow)
---
> Geek Speak (articles to follow)
------
FootBall|980362431
9c9,11
< Not to start a religious war or anything, but the definition above is for what we Americans call SocceR.  FootBall is what they play in the SuperBowl. :-) --JimboWales
---
> Not to start a religious war or anything, but the definition above is for what we Americans call SocceR.  FootBall is what they play in the SuperBowl. :-) --JimboWales
> ----
> I suggest AmericanFootball and EuropeanFootball as topics.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
EthicsVsMorals|980367948
11c11
< One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obediance to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
---
> One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
13c13
< While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by the Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable in that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa.
---
> While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by the Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa.
15c15
< Consider:  It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies.  Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful.  One may argue on one hand that such practices are harmless in the context of an economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema.  On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, possibly of genetic (or viral?) origin literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism.  This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival.  By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad."  And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it.  But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science.
---
> Consider:  It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies.  Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful.  One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema.  On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, possibly of genetic (or viral?) origin literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism.  This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival.  By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad."  And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it.  But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science.
17c17
< Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members.  These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes.  Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins.  Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue".  In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm.  There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow and objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts.
---
> Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members.  These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes.  Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins.  Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue".  In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm.  There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts.
19c19,21
< The founders (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of social groupings may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense.  "We must do this or perish."  He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes.  How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leaders' insights and understanding?  One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff.  So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are established.  Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in approval by authority.
---
> The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense.  "We must do this or perish."  He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes.  How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insights and understanding?  One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff.  So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are established.  Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in approval by authority.
> 
> Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities.  Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to survivability in and of themselves.  However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others.  As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival.  This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created.
25c27
< EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision.
---
> EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision.
------
TopOlogy|980368389
21c21
< Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modelled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
---
> Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modeled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
25a26,29
> 
> ----
> 
> Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itelf, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.  
------
TopOlogy|980368467
29c29
< Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itelf, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.  
---
> Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itself, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.  
------
FiLm|980368494
1a2,4
> 
> Initially, film constituted the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of more than 16 frames a second (see PersistenceofVision).  However, since the advent of many other media technologies, film may include a broad range of media--both linear and non-linear, dramatic and informational, motion and still (though progressive).
>  
------
PersistenceofVision|980368793
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that the mind retains an image for a split second.  This accounts for the fact that when a motion picture flashes a series of progressive images, instead of the mind seeing the flashing of a series of images, it sees the illusion of motion.
> 
> Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film runs at 24 frames a second and television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
------
PersistenceofVision|980370184
3a4,5
> ----
> Also the name of a short story by JohnVarley, and the title of one of his later [http://www.sfsite.com/isfdb-bin/plist.cgi?PRSSTNCVSN19XX anthologies].
------
CliffordAdams|980370555
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cliff is the author of the [UseMod:UseModWiki UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [MeatBall:CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.
> 
> Cliff has always loved encyclopedias, and is glad he could help a little with this effort.
------
CliffordAdams|980370609
1c1
< Cliff is the author of the [UseMod:UseModWiki UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [MeatBall:CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.
---
> Cliff is the author of the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.
------
FootBall|980371013
11c11,17
< I suggest AmericanFootball and EuropeanFootball as topics.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> I suggest AmericanFootball and EuropeanFootball as topics.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Do non-Americans refer to Soccer as Soccer as well as FootBall?
> 
> If so, we could change this page to simply be a pointer to AmericanFootball, SocceR, and AustralianFootball.
> I think AustralianFootball is the same thing as RugBy, but
> I'm not an expert!
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980371175
1c1
< Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>As We May Think </b> article.
---
> Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>AsWeMayThink </b> article.
7a8,12
> ----
> 
> Questions from JimboWales:
> Who is 'Bush'?  I assume you don't mean GeorgeWBush or his dad, GeorgeBush, because I doubt if either of them ever wrote anything about HumanComputerInteraction.  :-)  And what is a GeekSpeak presentation?
> (Please delete my questions after they've been answered!)
------
GeorgeWBush|980371261
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The current PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.
> 
> My thinking is that on this topic we should try to refrain from
> being political.  Some people like him, others don't.  The same
> thing is of course true for BillClinton.
> 
> Rants might be fun, but maybe we can be more encyclopedic here?
------
BillClinton|980371380
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1992-2000.
> 
> He was impeached by the HouseOfRepresentatives, but not convicted by the SenatE, for lying under oath to a GrandJury regarding matters related to his sexual affair with MonicaLewinsky.
> 
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980371466
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's an incomplete list, that I hope someone will make complete
> soon.  There must be an easy to copy-and-paste list someone on the web.
> 
> GeorgeWashington
> JohnAdams
> ThomasJefferson
> ----
> 
> RichardNixon
> GeraldFord
> JimmyCarter
> RonaldReagan
> GeorgeBush
> BillClinton
> GeorgeWBush
------
AlTruism|980371983
20a21,25
> ----
> How about this for a definition of altruism?
> 
> The view that one ought to be motivated solely or primarily by the interests of others rather than the interests of oneself.
> Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic.
------
AlTruism|980372105
22c22
< How about this for a definition of altruism?
---
> How about this for a definition of altruism?  I think it needs some revision, but perhaps it is a useful start.
25c25
< Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic.
---
> Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
------
EthicsVsMorals|980372444
27a28,31
> ----
> Another way to look at the distinction is to say that morals are accepted from an authority (cultural, religious, etc.), while ethics are accepted because they follow from personally-accepted principles.  For example, if one accepts the authority of a religion, and that religion forbids stealing, then stealing would be immoral.  An ethical view might be based on an idea of personal property that should not be taken without social consent (like a court order).  Stealing would directly contradict that view.  On the other hand, if one has different basic principles that didn't recognize an item as "property", a similar action might not be unethical.  (Helping a slave escape would be ethical if one believes people should not be owned as property.)
> 
> Professional and "ethical" codes of conduct are an interesting case--they are very similar to morality in that they are often accepted and adhered to in a moral sense.  For example, consider a doctor who follows a professional code of ethics, including a strong requirement to not violate the patient's privacy.  The doctor discovers that a patient has a genetic/inherited disease that is treatable, and that the patient has siblings who are likely to have the same disease.  The patient asks the doctor not to tell anyone (including the siblings) about the disease.  The interesting question is not so much what the doctor should do, but how the doctor should come to a decision.  Should the doctor follow the consensus of the professional community, even if it conflicts with personal ethics?  Would it matter if the rest of the community was united or divided over the question?
------
EthicsVsMorals|980374963
31a32,45
> ----
> I will, for now forego tackling the medical ethics question.  The issue of property, however is an interesting one.  It is the case that items, objects, or life forms do not possess innate qualities which make them "property" of this or that person or "not-property" of anyone.  How, then, would one apply an ethical standard to the issue of theft which is not grounded in a societal or moral code?  Mr. Adams makes the case that, "An ethical view might be based on an idea of personal property that should not be taken without social consent..." but why?  Ethics require not mere assumptions, but reason leading to conclusions.  In order to hold the ethical view that there is such a thing as personal property and that it ought not be taken, one must arrive there by reasononing.
> 
> What is it about a thing which makes it one's property?  In one form or another, one could say that it is the chain of creation.  There are two apparent chains of creation at work here, but in actuality, only one.  The illusory chain of creation is "I was created the owner of this."  The actual chain of creation is "I produced the effort or energy to created this, bring this about, or to bring it under my control.  And I did so without wasting the effort of another."  Having brought about a state of property, one may freely bestow it upon one's progeny, bringing about the illusory chain or creation.
> 
> The taking of things or property through force is only legitemized when he from whom it was taken agrees to the conquest, thereby obtaining a benefit of residing under the protection of new government, or of avoiding lethal or disabling force which would cancel his prior claim upon the property.
> 
> A person's own creative energy is in fact owned by him and to waste it works observable harm upon him and is is therefore classifiable as "bad."
> 
> A person directs his creative energy toward the accomplishment of work, and toward the making of agreements with his fellows as to what that work may be traded for.  Each successive trade in a chain continues the chain of the original creation and so, even though he bought the loaf of bread instead of baking it, he created the energy which resulted in the bread and traded it to the baker so that the baker's creative efforts were not wasted.
> 
> How do people as property figure in here?  As one did not in any case create another human being, (the special case of children could be argued but this is unnecessary for now as one generally does not assert property rights over his/her children), as human beings are not controllable without their consent, and as to force involuntary control over a human wastes his effort, this disqualifies human beings from being property.
> 
> Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights.
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980376851
1c1
< Here's an incomplete list, that I hope someone will make complete
---
> Here's an incomplete list in no particular order, that I hope someone will make complete
4,6c4,9
< GeorgeWashington
< JohnAdams
< ThomasJefferson
---
> * GeorgeWashington
> * JohnAdams
> * ThomasJefferson
> * JohnQuicyAdams
> * FranklinPierce
> * AbrahamLincoln
8,15c11,17
< 
< RichardNixon
< GeraldFord
< JimmyCarter
< RonaldReagan
< GeorgeBush
< BillClinton
< GeorgeWBush
---
> * RichardNixon
> * GeraldFord
> * JimmyCarter (1976-1980)
> * RonaldReagan (1980-1988)
> * GeorgeBush (1988-1992)
> * BillClinton (1992-2000)
> * GeorgeWBush (2000-
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980378466
9a10
> 
17a19,68
> 
> 
> * George Washington		  (1789-1797)
> * John Adams			  (1797-1801)
> * Thomas Jefferson		  (1801-1809)
> * James Madison		  (1809-1817)
> * James Monroe		  (1817-1825)
> * John Quincy Adams		  (1825-1829)
> * Andrew Jackson		  (1829-1837)
> * Martin Van Buren		  (1837-1841)
> * William Henry Harrison	  (1841)
> * John Tyler		  	  (1841-1845)
> * James Polk			  (1845-1849)
> * Zachary Taylor		  (1849-1850)
> * Millard Fillmore		(1850-1853)
> * Franklin		Pierce (1853-1857)
> * James		Buchanan (1857-1861)
> * Abraham		Lincoln (1861-1865)
> * Andrew		Johnson (1865-1869)
> * Ulysses		S. Grant (1869-1877)
> * Rutherford B. Hayes		(1877-1881)
> * James A.		Garfield (1881)
> * Chester A.		Arthur (1881-1885)
> * Grover       Cleveland (1885-1889)
> * Benjamin       Harrison (1889-1893)
> * Grover Cleveland (1893-1897)
> * William McKinley (1897-1901)
> * Theodore       Roosevelt (1901-1909)
> * William       H. Taft (1909-1913)
> * Woodrow       Wilson (1913-1921)
> * Warren       Harding (1921-1923)
> * Calvin       Coolidge (1923-1929)
> * Herbert       Hoover (1929-1933)
> * Franklin       D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)
> * Harry       S Truman (1945-1953)
> * Dwight       D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)
> * John       F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
> * Lyndon       B. Johnson (1963-1969)
> * Richard       M. Nixon (1969-1974)
> * Gerald      R. Ford (1974-1977)
> * Jimmy       Carter (1977-1981)
> * Ronald       W. Reagan (1981-1989)
> * George       Bush (1989-1993)
> * William       J. Clinton (1993-2001)
> 
> 
> 
> ------
> Sorry for the poor formatting; I got the list from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/.
> Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
------
BryceHarrington|980379277
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Homepage:  http://www.neptune.net/~bryce/
> 
> I work on the WorldForge project, too:  http://www.worldforge.org/
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980380104
1,2d0
< Here's an incomplete list in no particular order, that I hope someone will make complete
< soon.  There must be an easy to copy-and-paste list someone on the web.
4,43c2,24
< * GeorgeWashington
< * JohnAdams
< * ThomasJefferson
< * JohnQuicyAdams
< * FranklinPierce
< * AbrahamLincoln
< 
< ----
< * RichardNixon
< * GeraldFord
< * JimmyCarter (1976-1980)
< * RonaldReagan (1980-1988)
< * GeorgeBush (1988-1992)
< * BillClinton (1992-2000)
< * GeorgeWBush (2000-
< 
< 
< * George Washington		  (1789-1797)
< * John Adams			  (1797-1801)
< * Thomas Jefferson		  (1801-1809)
< * James Madison		  (1809-1817)
< * James Monroe		  (1817-1825)
< * John Quincy Adams		  (1825-1829)
< * Andrew Jackson		  (1829-1837)
< * Martin Van Buren		  (1837-1841)
< * William Henry Harrison	  (1841)
< * John Tyler		  	  (1841-1845)
< * James Polk			  (1845-1849)
< * Zachary Taylor		  (1849-1850)
< * Millard Fillmore		(1850-1853)
< * Franklin		Pierce (1853-1857)
< * James		Buchanan (1857-1861)
< * Abraham		Lincoln (1861-1865)
< * Andrew		Johnson (1865-1869)
< * Ulysses		S. Grant (1869-1877)
< * Rutherford B. Hayes		(1877-1881)
< * James A.		Garfield (1881)
< * Chester A.		Arthur (1881-1885)
< * Grover       Cleveland (1885-1889)
< * Benjamin       Harrison (1889-1893)
---
> * GeorgeWashington (1789-1797)
> * JohnAdams (1797-1801)
> * ThomasJefferson (1801-1809)
> * James Madison (1809-1817)
> * James Monroe (1817-1825)
> * JohnQuincyAdams (1825-1829)
> * Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
> * Martin Van Buren (1837-1841)
> * William Henry Harrison (1841)
> * John Tyler (1841-1845)
> * James Polk (1845-1849)
> * Zachary Taylor (1849-1850)
> * Millard Fillmore (1850-1853)
> * FranklinPierce (1853-1857)
> * James Buchanan (1857-1861)
> * AbrahamLincoln (1861-1865)
> * Andrew Johnson (1865-1869)
> * Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877)
> * Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881)
> * James A. Garfield (1881)
> * Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885)
> * Grover Cleveland (1885-1889)
> * Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893)
46,63c27,44
< * Theodore       Roosevelt (1901-1909)
< * William       H. Taft (1909-1913)
< * Woodrow       Wilson (1913-1921)
< * Warren       Harding (1921-1923)
< * Calvin       Coolidge (1923-1929)
< * Herbert       Hoover (1929-1933)
< * Franklin       D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)
< * Harry       S Truman (1945-1953)
< * Dwight       D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)
< * John       F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
< * Lyndon       B. Johnson (1963-1969)
< * Richard       M. Nixon (1969-1974)
< * Gerald      R. Ford (1974-1977)
< * Jimmy       Carter (1977-1981)
< * Ronald       W. Reagan (1981-1989)
< * George       Bush (1989-1993)
< * William       J. Clinton (1993-2001)
< 
---
> * Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)
> * William H. Taft (1909-1913)
> * Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)
> * Warren Harding (1921-1923)
> * Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929)
> * Herbert Hoover (1929-1933)
> * Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)
> * Harry S Truman (1945-1953)
> * Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)
> * John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
> * Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969)
> * RichardMNixon (1969-1974)
> * GeraldRFord (1974-1977)
> * JimmyCarter (1977-1981)
> * RonaldWReagan (1981-1989)
> * GeorgeBush (1989-1993)
> * BillClinton (1993-2001)
> * GeorgeWBush (2001-2005)
64a46,47
> Also of note,
> * JoshuaANorton the First Emperor of the United States of America (1849-1880)
68c51
< Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
---
> Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980380149
1d0
< 
47c46
< * JoshuaANorton the First Emperor of the United States of America (1849-1880)
---
> * Emperor JoshuaANorton I (1849-1880)
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980380233
8a9
> Answer to questions
10,12c11
< Questions from JimboWales:
< Who is 'Bush'?  I assume you don't mean GeorgeWBush or his dad, GeorgeBush, because I doubt if either of them ever wrote anything about HumanComputerInteraction.  :-)  And what is a GeekSpeak presentation?
< (Please delete my questions after they've been answered!)
---
> Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president.  Geekspeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at Lewis at Clark called Human Computer Interaction.
------
UnitedStates|980380291
1c1,2
< TheStates
---
> * TheStates
> * ThePresidents
------
UnitedStates|980380325
2c2
< * ThePresidents
---
> * PresidentOfTheUnitedStates
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980380625
1c1
< Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring Self Organizing Web pages inspired by Bush's <b>AsWeMayThink </b> article.
---
> Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring SelfOrganizingWeb pages inspired by Bush's AsWeMayThink  article.
5c5
< What do you think about putting copies of the Geek Speak presentations here for the world to see (and maybe add to or delete 8^)
---
> What do you think about putting copies of the GeekSpeak presentations here for the world to see (and maybe add to or delete 8^)
7c7
< Geek Speak (articles to follow)
---
> GeekSpeak (articles to follow)
11c11
< Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president.  Geekspeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at Lewis at Clark called Human Computer Interaction.
---
> Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president.  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at LewisAndClarkCollege called Human Computer Interaction.
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980382089
50a51,52
> ----
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
------
TheBible|980382964
7c7
< (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book)
---
> (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book.  BooksOfTheBible)
15c15
< (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations)
---
> (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations)
------
BooksOfTheBible|980383370
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> The books in the KingJamesBible (and most other Christian bibles) are as follows.  The Catholic Bible includes additional books which have been called TheApocrypha (but perhaps not by the Catholics themselves?).
> 
> TheOldTestament
> 
> * Genesis
> * Exodus
> * Leviticus
> * Numbers
> * Deuteronomy
> * Joshua
> * Judges
> * Ruth
> * 1 Samuel
> * 2 Samuel
> * 1 Kings
> * 2 Kings
> * 1 Chronicles
> * 2 Chronicles
> * Ezra
> * Nehemiah
> * Esther
> * Job
> * Psalms
> * Proverbs
> * Ecclesiastes
> * The Song of Solomon
> * Isaiah
> * Jeremiah
> * Lamentations
> * Ezekiel
> * Daniel
> * Hosea
> * Joel
> * Amos
> * Obadiah
> * Jonah
> * Micah
> * Nahum
> * Habakkuk
> * Zephaniah
> * Haggai
> * Zechariah
> * Malachi
> 
> TheNewTestament
> 
> * Matthew
> * Mark
> * Luke
> * John
> * The Acts of the Apostles
> * Romans
> * 1 Corinthians
> * 2 Corinthians
> * Galatians
> * Ephesians
> * Phillipians
> * Colossians
> * 1 Thessalonians
> * 2 Thessalonians
> * 1 Timothy
> * 2 Timothy
> * Titus
> * Philemon
> * Hebrews
> * James
> * 1 Peter
> * 2 Peter
> * 1 John
> * 2 John
> * 3 John
> * Jude
> * Revelations
> 
> 
------
EthicsVsMorals|980383537
33c33
< I will, for now forego tackling the medical ethics question.  The issue of property, however is an interesting one.  It is the case that items, objects, or life forms do not possess innate qualities which make them "property" of this or that person or "not-property" of anyone.  How, then, would one apply an ethical standard to the issue of theft which is not grounded in a societal or moral code?  Mr. Adams makes the case that, "An ethical view might be based on an idea of personal property that should not be taken without social consent..." but why?  Ethics require not mere assumptions, but reason leading to conclusions.  In order to hold the ethical view that there is such a thing as personal property and that it ought not be taken, one must arrive there by reasononing.
---
> I will, for now forego tackling the medical ethics question.  The issue of property, however is an interesting one.  Items, objects, or life forms do not possess innate qualities which make them "property" of this or that person or "not-property" of anyone.  How, then, would one apply an ethical standard to the issue of theft which is not grounded in a societal or moral code?  Mr. Adams makes the case that, "An ethical view might be based on an idea of personal property that should not be taken without social consent..." but why?  Ethics requires not mere assumptions, but reason leading to conclusions.  In order to hold the ethical view that there is such a thing as personal property and that it ought not be taken, one must arrive there by reasononing.
35c35
< What is it about a thing which makes it one's property?  In one form or another, one could say that it is the chain of creation.  There are two apparent chains of creation at work here, but in actuality, only one.  The illusory chain of creation is "I was created the owner of this."  The actual chain of creation is "I produced the effort or energy to created this, bring this about, or to bring it under my control.  And I did so without wasting the effort of another."  Having brought about a state of property, one may freely bestow it upon one's progeny, bringing about the illusory chain or creation.
---
> What is it about a thing which makes it one's property?  In one form or another, one could say that it is the chain of creation.  There are two apparent chains of creation at work here, but in actuality, only one.  The illusory chain of creation is "I was created the owner of this."  The actual chain of creation is "I produced the effort or energy to create this, bring this about, or to bring it under my control.  And I did so without wasting the effort of another."  Having brought about a state of property, one may freely bestow it upon one's progeny, bringing about the illusory chain of creation.
37c37
< The taking of things or property through force is only legitemized when he from whom it was taken agrees to the conquest, thereby obtaining a benefit of residing under the protection of new government, or of avoiding lethal or disabling force which would cancel his prior claim upon the property.
---
> The taking of things or property through force is only legitemized when he from whom it was taken agrees to the conquest, thereby obtaining a benefit of residing under the protection of new government, or of avoiding lethal or disabling force which would cancel his prior claim upon the property.  If a mugger takes your wallet against your protest, you have not consented or given up your claim, and so he steals it from you.  If you give your son $20.00 for gas and do not expect repayment, it is legitemately now his property.  If the U.S. conquers Texas and the residents thereof consent to U.S. government, a former taking by force is legitemized.
41c41
< A person directs his creative energy toward the accomplishment of work, and toward the making of agreements with his fellows as to what that work may be traded for.  Each successive trade in a chain continues the chain of the original creation and so, even though he bought the loaf of bread instead of baking it, he created the energy which resulted in the bread and traded it to the baker so that the baker's creative efforts were not wasted.
---
> A person directs his creative energy toward the accomplishment of work or creation of product, and toward the making of agreements with his fellows as to what that work or product may be traded for.  Each successive trade in a chain continues the chain of the original creation and so, even though he bought the loaf of bread instead of baking it, he created the energy which resulted in the bread and traded it to the baker so that the baker's creative efforts were not wasted.
45c45
< Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights.
---
> Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights.
------
AlbaniA|980383693
0a1,20
> 
> 
> AlbaniaHistory
> 
> AlbaniaGeography
> 
> AlbaniaPeople
> 
> AlbaniaGovernement
> 
> AlbaniaEconomy
> 
> AlbaniaCommunications
> 
> AlbaniaTransportations
> 
> AlbaniaMilitary
> 
> AlbaniaTransnationalIssues
> 
385c405
< ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
---
> ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
------
AlbaniaHistory|980383733
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
> has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide
> investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
------
AlbaniaHistory|980383745
1c1
<  In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
---
> In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
3c3
< investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
---
> investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
------
AlbaniaGeography|980383795
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 41 00 N, 20 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Europe 
> 
> Area: total: 28,748 sq km land: 27,398 sq km water: 1,350 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 720 km border countries: Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and
> Montenegro 287 km (114 km with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) 
> 
> Coastline: 362 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast 
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel, hydropower 
> 
> Land use: arable land: 21% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 15% forests and woodland: 38% other: 21% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 3,410 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection,
> Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) 
------
AlbaniA|980383832
2d1
< 
22,85d20
< 
<                                         Introduction
< 
< 
< Background: In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
< has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide
< investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
< 
<                                          Geography
< 
< 
< 
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 41 00 N, 20 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Europe 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 28,748 sq km 
< land: 27,398 sq km 
< water: 1,350 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 720 km 
< border countries: Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and Montenegro 287 km (114 km
< with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) 
< 
< Coastline: 362 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter 
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m 
< highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m 
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel, hydropower 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 21% 
< permanent crops: 5% 
< permanent pastures: 15% 
< forests and woodland: 38% 
< other: 21% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 3,410 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast 
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands 
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) 
------
AlbaniaPeople|980383873
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 3,490,435 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 545,329; female 507,589) 15-64 years: 63% (male 1,056,583; female 1,141,664) 65 years and
> over: 7% (male 104,086; female 135,184) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 19.47 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -10.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77
> male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.57 years male: 68.75 years female: 74.59 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: noun: Albanian(s) adjective: Albanian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) note: in 1989, other
> estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) 
> 
> Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% note: all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and
> religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing private religious practice 
> 
> Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek 
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 9 and over can read and write total population: 93% (1997 est.) male: NA% female: NA% 
------
AlbaniA|980383893
1d0
< 
8c7
< AlbaniaGovernement
---
> AlbaniaGovernment
------
HomePage|980383991
21a22,23
> ----
> WhichWikiShouldWeUse
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980384093
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
> 
> It strikes me that a very simple system would be to be able
> to link like this: <<< United States >>>.
> 
> Is there a wiki software that can support this?
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980385037
4c4
< to link like this: <<< United States >>>.
---
> to link like this: <<< Albania >>>.
6c6,21
< Is there a wiki software that can support this?
---
> Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
> 
> ----
> 
> I just had another thought.  Perhaps arbitrary linking using
> <<< >>> should be limited to single words only.  For example,
> a list of UnitedStates might be written like this:
> 
> <<< Alabama >>>
> <<< Alaska >>>
> NorthDakota
> 
> That is, if you use <<< >>>, the rule is that there has to be
> only one word inside there.
> 
> The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980385082
14a15
> 
15a17
> 
17a20
> <<< Wisconsin >>>
21c24,26
< The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.
---
> The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.  Is
> there a wiki that can do that?  Or, should I just add the capability to this one?  Or, is this whole idea really bad for some reason?
>   
------
UnitedStates|980387219
2a3
> * SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates
------
SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|980387293
1c1,226
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  
> 
> Senators of the 107th Congress
> A
> 	Akaka,
> 	 Daniel (D - HI)
> 	Allard,
> 	 Wayne (R - CO)
> 	Allen,
> 	 George (R - VA)
> B
> 	Baucus,
> 	 Max (D - MT)
> 	Bayh,
> 	 Evan (D - IN)
> 	Bennett,
> 	 Robert (R - UT)
> 	Biden Jr,
> 	 Joseph (D - DE)
> 	Bingaman,
> 	 Jeff (D - NM)
> 	Bond,
> 	 Christopher (R - MO)
> 	Boxer,
> 	 Barbara (D - CA)
> 	Breaux,
> 	 John (D - LA)
> 	Brownback,
> 	 Sam (R - KS)
> 	Bunning,
> 	 Jim (R - KY)
> 	Burns,
> 	 Conrad (R - MT)
> 	Byrd,
> 	 Robert (D - WV)
> C
> 	Campbell,
> 	 Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
> 	Cantwell,
> 	 Maria (D - WA)
> 	Carnahan,
> 	 Jean (D - MO)
> 	Carper,
> 	 Thomas (D - DE)
> 	Chafee,
> 	 Lincoln (R - RI)
> 	Cleland,
> 	 Max (D - GA)
> 	Clinton,
> 	 Hillary (D - NY)
> 	Cochran,
> 	 Thad (R - MS)
> 	Collins,
> 	 Susan (R - ME)
> 	Conrad,
> 	 Kent (D - ND)
> 	Corzine,
> 	 Jon (D - NJ)
> 	Craig,
> 	 Larry (R - ID)
> 	Crapo,
> 	 Mike (R - ID)
> D
> 	Daschle,
> 	 Thomas (D - SD)
> 	Dayton,
> 	 Mark (D - MN)
> 	DeWine,
> 	 Mike (R - OH)
> 	Dodd,
> 	 Christopher (D - CT)
> 	Domenici,
> 	 Pete (R - NM)
> 	Dorgan,
> 	 Byron (D - ND)
> 	Durbin,
> 	 Richard (D - IL)
> E
> 	Edwards,
> 	 John (D - NC)
> 	Ensign,
> 	 John (R - NV)
> 	Enzi,
> 	 Mike (R - WY)
> F
> 	Feingold,
> 	 Russell (D - WI)
> 	Feinstein,
> 	 Dianne (D - CA)
> 	Fitzgerald,
> 	 Peter (R - IL)
> 	Frist,
> 	 William (R - TN)
> G
> 	Graham,
> 	 Bob (D - FL)
> 	Gramm,
> 	 Phil (R - TX)
> 	Grassley,
> 	 Chuck (R - IA)
> 	Gregg,
> 	 Judd (R - NH)
> H
> 	Hagel,
> 	 Charles (R - NE)
> 	Harkin,
> 	 Tom (D - IA)
> 	Hatch,
> 	 Orrin (R - UT)
> 	Helms,
> 	 Jesse (R - NC)
> 	Hollings,
> 	 Ernest (D - SC)
> 	Hutchinson,
> 	 Tim (R - AR)
> 	Hutchison,
> 	 Kay Bailey (R - TX)
> I
> 	Inhofe,
> 	 James (R - OK)
> 	Inouye,
> 	 Daniel (D - HI)
> J
> 	Jeffords,
> 	 James (R - VT)
> 	Johnson,
> 	 Tim (D - SD)
> K
> 	Kennedy,
> 	 Edward (D - MA)
> 	Kerry,
> 	 John (D - MA)
> 	Kohl,
> 	 Herb (D - WI)
> 	Kyl,
> 	 Jon (R - AZ)
> L
> 	Landrieu,
> 	 Mary (D - LA)
> 	Leahy,
> 	 Patrick (D - VT)
> 	Levin,
> 	 Carl (D - MI)
> 	Lieberman,
> 	 Joseph (D - CT)
> 	Lincoln,
> 	 Blanche (D - AR)
> 	Lott,
> 	 Trent (R - MS)
> 	Lugar,
> 	 Richard (R - IN)
> M
> 	McCain,
> 	 John (R - AZ)
> 	McConnell,
> 	 Mitch (R - KY)
> 	Mikulski,
> 	 Barbara (D - MD)
> 	Miller,
> 	 Zell (D - GA)
> 	Murkowski,
> 	 Frank (R - AK)
> 	Murray,
> 	 Patty (D - WA)
> N
> 	Nelson,
> 	 Ben (D - NE)
> 	Nelson,
> 	 Bill (D - FL)
> 	Nickles,
> 	 Don (R - OK)
> R
> 	Reed,
> 	 Jack (D - RI)
> 	Reid,
> 	 Harry (D - NV)
> 	Roberts,
> 	 Pat (R - KS)
> 	Rockefeller IV,
> 	 John (D - WV)
> S
> 	Santorum,
> 	 Rick (R - PA)
> 	Sarbanes,
> 	 Paul (D - MD)
> 	Schumer,
> 	 Charles (D - NY)
> 	Sessions,
> 	 Jeff (R - AL)
> 	Shelby,
> 	 Richard (R - AL)
> 	Smith,
> 	 Bob (R - NH)
> 	Smith,
> 	 Gordon (R - OR)
> 	Snowe,
> 	 Olympia (R - ME)
> 	Specter,
> 	 Arlen (R - PA)
> 	Stabenow,
> 	 Debbie (D - MI)
> 	Stevens,
> 	 Ted (R - AK)
> T
> 	Thomas,
> 	 Craig (R - WY)
> 	Thompson,
> 	 Fred (R - TN)
> 	Thurmond,
> 	 Strom (R - SC)
> 	Torricelli,
> 	 Robert (D - NJ)
> V
> 	Voinovich,
> 	 George (R - OH)
> W
> 	Warner,
> 	 John (R - VA)
> 	Wellstone,
> 	 Paul (D - MN)
> 	Wyden,
> 	 Ron (D - OR)
> 
> * 50 Democrats
> * 50 Republicans
> *  0 Independent
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980387698
26c26,35
<   
---
> 
> ------
> 
> Hi Jimbo, I had made a suggestion a few days ago about perhaps switching to TWiki, as it is one of the more
> polished (and well-documented) Wiki's.  Twiki supports doing links as we've been doing here, as
> well as forced links with [[double brackets]].  It's got gobs of other features... Check out
> http://www.twiki.org.  It's got pretty good docs, too.  I highly recommend it.
> 
> -- Bryce
>   
------
GNUStufF|980390475
7a8
> * GNEProjectDesign
------
GNEProjectDesign|980390526
1c1,135
< Describe the new page here.
---
> More thoughts by MikeWarren about GNE. See also GNEArchitecTure.
> 
> 
> Introduction
> 
> As discussion rages over moderation and back-end design, I thought I'd write a more
> cohesive version of my thoughts. There should be one article repository (with
> potential for many mirrors of it) and many different classifications, hopefully by
> different groups of people. 
> 
> Editing
> 
> Authors may like to take advantage of editors. Volunteers who wish to edit work can
> organize themselves onto one or many editing mailing lists, much like Nupedia has
> done. Authors can submit their articles to the list and make changes which editors
> might suggest if they see fit. 
> 
> Once an author is satisfied with her work, she can then submit it to the article
> repository. 
> 
> Article Repository
> 
> There should exist a large group of moderators (hopefully everyone in the project) for
> the repository. When an article arrives, they will vote on whether it is spam or not.
> Unless there is unanimous consent that the article is completely useless, it will go into
> the repository. This can prevent abuse of the system (i.e. someone sending in random
> binary files) while still keeping the process completely open and allowing all authors to
> put their work into the pool. 
> 
> The only stipulation, obviously, is that the work be licensed under the GNU FDL. 
> 
> There seems to be consensus that XML will be used to mark up the articles;
> submissions arriving which are not in the correct DTD ( TEI seems to be the
> front-runner currently) will be subject to the brutal treatment of various conversion
> scripts. The resultant XML document will be assigned a unique ID and placed in the
> repository. There has also been talk of using a Web-based form submission service;
> this is also a good idea. 
> 
> The repository will be kept simple and will utilize the capabilities of modern Web
> servers by being a simple hierarchy of directories with the .xml files inside them. The
> directories will not be a classification of the content, but merely a way to get around
> limits on the number of files in a file-system. Each document will simply be called
> unique-id.[version].[language].xml. If it has been digitally signed, there will be a
> corresponding file unique-id.[version].[language].xml.asc 
> 
> Version numbers can be anything, really, but simply sequentially increasing them
> seems like the best course. Language can correspond to the LOCALE meanings. So,
> one might have a directory like: 
> 
>  http://www.gne.org/articles/a/123456.1.en.xml
>  http://www.gne.org/articles/a/123456.2.en.xml
>  http://www.gne.org/articles/a/123456.3.en.xml
>  http://www.gne.org/articles/a/123456.3.en.xml.asc
> 
> Which means that there are three versions of the article with ID 123456 and the last
> one (version 3) has been digitally signed. 
> 
> The repository server will keep a list of all the unique IDs of all the documents it
> contains. This will allow the classification systems to easily update themselves with
> new documents by requesting this list (i.e. http://www.gne.org/articles/index).
> For the above example, the index would just contain: 
> 
>  123456.1.en
>  123456.2.en
>  123456.3.en
> 
> Classifiers
> 
> Everybody seems to have their own favourite way of classifying articles, from voting to
> Dewey Decimal to Library of Congress. All have merit, and there are probably lots of
> users who would find each approach useful. 
> 
> It seems like a good idea, then, to allow for multiple classification systems. Users would
> interact with the repository through one particular classification. Hence, the
> classifications systems will be doing all the searching and indexing that users might
> want; storing the information they use in a database makes a lots of sense. 
> 
> How might this work? Taking the above example again, a fresh classifier which just
> lists articles by author and title downloads the index and notices that there are three
> versions of a single article. Since it doesn't know about this article yet (it looks in its
> database and finds nothing about the unique ID 123456) and only cares about the
> latest articles, it asks for the file http://www.gne.org/articles/123456.3.en.xml.
> The repository server re-writes the URL into
> http://www.gne.org/articles/a/123456.3.en.xml and sends the XML file back.
> The database updating program parses the file and extracts the author and title
> information, putting these into the database with the unique ID 123456. This
> particular classifier doesn't care about digital signatures, so it never requests the .asc
> file to see if there is one. 
> 
> Next, a user visits the Web site for this classifier, and visits the author list which shows
> a single entry: the author of the article with unique ID 123456. 
> 
> In a similar manner, other classifiers might do much more complicated things, like
> send the article to a mailing list of peer-reviewers (again, like Nupedia) or any
> number of schemes to classify the article in question. 
> 
> Software
> 
> So, what software does GNE need to write? If we use TEI as the representation format,
> the project can start receiving submissions immediately; a cursory reading of TEITools
> indicates that it can convert to HTML, TeX and RTF. All that needs creating is a
> method of getting the submission into TEI in the first place, which can be a Python (or
> whatever) script which accepts plain text and makes guesses at what things should be
> (i.e. bold face, references, etcetera). Then, editors can make sure this makes sense and
> the author can give the final okay. 
> 
> We can serve submissions live from the XML repository using Apache and TEITools.
> Classification projects can thus begin work immediately, and this will be the major
> programming work of the project (besides building better anything-to-TEI
> conversion scripts). Splitting interested parties into groups for this can begin
> immediately as well. 
> 
> Conclusion
> 
> I propose that four groups are formed immediately: 
> 
> Backend :: This group will set up and manage the back-end server. It should do
> nothing more than accept submissions in DTD-compliant XML, accept revised
> versions of the same document and accept signatures for existing documents. From
> this, it should make the above-mentioned index file and serve XML pages to the
> classifiers. This group should also set up the moderation system which rejects things
> which are unanimously decided to be spam. This group should also determine whether
> or not multimedia will be inline in the XML or served as separate files. 
> 
> Editing :: This group will provide editing services for authors. Any author can submit
> their article to the group for comments, although this will obviously not be a
> requirement. 
> 
> Classification :: This group will write the first generic classifier project, which will be
> targeted as being a template for other more specific classifier projects to use. 
> 
> Conversion :: This group will work on methods and programs for efficiently
> converting submitted articles into TEI. Emphasis should be on making it easy for
> (especially) academic groups to submit articles, so LaTeX might be a good first choice
> after plain text. 
------
GNEProjectDesign|980390552
4c4
< Introduction
---
> _Introduction_
135c135
< after plain text. 
---
> after plain text. 
------
GNEProjectDesign|980390727
4c4
< _Introduction_
---
> '''Introduction'''
11c11
< Editing
---
> '''Editing'''
21c21
< Article Repository
---
> '''Article Repository'''
67c67
< Classifiers
---
> '''Classifiers'''
97c97
< Software
---
> '''Software'''
113c113
< Conclusion
---
> '''Conclusion'''
117c117
< Backend :: This group will set up and manage the back-end server. It should do
---
> 'Backend' :: This group will set up and manage the back-end server. It should do
125c125
< Editing :: This group will provide editing services for authors. Any author can submit
---
> 'Editing' :: This group will provide editing services for authors. Any author can submit
129c129
< Classification :: This group will write the first generic classifier project, which will be
---
> 'Classification' :: This group will write the first generic classifier project, which will be
132c132
< Conversion :: This group will work on methods and programs for efficiently
---
> 'Conversion' :: This group will work on methods and programs for efficiently
------
GNUStufF|980390797
8a9
> * ProjectName
------
ProjectName|980390862
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We need a definitive name for this project. Currently:
> 
> * GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia (liked-by: DanGeiser, MikeWarren)
> * GNU/Alexandria
> * GNUpedia
> * GNUledge
------
ProjectName|980390895
3c3
< * GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia (liked-by: DanGeiser, MikeWarren)
---
> * GNE: GNE's Not an Encyclopedia (like: DanGeiser [originator], MikeWarren)
6c6
< * GNUledge
---
> * GNUledge
------
WestVirginia|980391209
9c9
< Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.
---
> Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.----In the words of John Denver - "Almost heaven"
------
WestVirginia|980391330
9c9
< Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.----In the words of John Denver - "Almost heaven"
---
> Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.----In the words of John Denver - "Almost heaven"----Green Bank, WV - Home of a world-renown radioastronomy center!
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980394277
35c35,44
<   
---
> 
> ----
> 
> TWiki is a good wiki.  (I prefer my own <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>, but I'm slightly biased. :-)  TWiki certainly has more documentation than <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>.  A third possibility is the <nowiki>MoinMoin</nowiki>: see http://moin.sourceforge.net/.
> 
> Adding [[word]] or <<<word>>> -style links to ''this'' wiki should not be very difficult.  The main disadvantage of such links is that they would not be automatic.  That is, if someone typed the plain word "Alabama", it would not become a link automatically.  (The user would have to type something like "[[Alabama]]".)  On the other hand, I'm not sure that every instance of simple words ''should'' be a link.  Requiring explicit links might make the page look cleaner.
> 
> If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> P.S.  The "Please notice" text on the edit page is missing a closing </b> tag.  This makes any previews show up completely in bold text.  [Please delete this note when the bug is fixed.]
------
TopOlogy|980395587
29c29
< Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itself, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.  
---
> Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itself, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.
30a31
> ''And strictly speaking the paper is not actually continuous, but is actually composed of many separated atoms, so isn't really a torus.  I think there is a certain point of "good enough" for making pictures/sculptures of mathematical objects, and that the Moebius strip in paper meets it.''
------
BooksOfTheBible|980395860
1d0
< 
4c3
< TheOldTestament
---
> The OldTestament
46c45
< TheNewTestament
---
> The NewTestament
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980396100
2a3,6
> '''January 24, 2001'''
> 
> WikiPedia has definitely taken a life of its own; new people are arriving every day and the project seems to be getting only more popular.  Long live WikiPedia!
> 
------
SelfOrganizingWeb|980396161
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> [URL http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/320s01.html#assignment]
------
SubGroup|980396440
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Given a group G under an operation *, we say that some subset H of G is a SubGroup if H is a group under the restriction of * thereto.  This occurs if and only if H is closed to products and inverses.
> 
> The subgroups of any given group form a lattice under inclusion.  There is a minimal subgroup, the trivial group {e}, and a maximal subgroup, the group itself.  The minimal subgroup containing some set S is denoted <S> and is said to be generated by S.  Groups generated by a single element are called cyclic and are isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic.
> 
> A group HomoMorphism f:G->K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Moreover, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  Of particular importance is the preimage of {e}, called the kernel of the homomorphism.  Any kernel H always satisfies the property g*H=H*g for all g in G.  Such subgroups are called normal.  There is a homomorphism f with any given normal subgroup H as its kernel, and moreover the homomorphic images under all such f are isomorphic to the QuotientGroup G/H.
------
HomoMorphism|980396633
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A homomorphism, from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a function that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
> 
> A homomorphism which is also OneToOne is called an IsoMorphism; two isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.  A homomorphism from a set to itself is called an EndoMorphism, and if it is also an isomorphism is called an AutoMorphism.
> 
------
GeekSpeak|980397441
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> ('arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology')
------
SubGroup|980397515
5c5,11
< A group HomoMorphism f:G->K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Moreover, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  Of particular importance is the preimage of {e}, called the kernel of the homomorphism.  Any kernel H always satisfies the property g*H=H*g for all g in G.  Such subgroups are called normal.  There is a homomorphism f with any given normal subgroup H as its kernel, and moreover the homomorphic images under all such f are isomorphic to the QuotientGroup G/H.
---
> Given a subgroup H and some g in G, we define the left-coset g*H={g*h:h in H} and the right-coset H*g={h*g:h in H}.  If g*H=H*g for every g in G, then H is said to be normal.  In that case we can define a multiplication on cosets by
> 
>    (g1*H)*(g2*H) := (g1*g2)*H
> 
> The resulting structure is called the quotient group G/H.  There is a natural homomorphism f:G -> G/H given by f(g)=g*H.  The image f(H) is trivial.
> 
> In general a group HomoMorphism f:G -> K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Also, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in K the kernel of the homomorphism.  As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f).
------
SubGroup|980397525
11c11
< In general a group HomoMorphism f:G -> K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Also, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in K the kernel of the homomorphism.  As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f).
---
> In general a group HomoMorphism f: G -> K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Also, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in K the kernel of the homomorphism.  As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f).
------
MathematicalGrouP|980397633
17,33c17
< '''Subgroups, HomoMorphisms, etc'''
< 
< A subset H of a group (G,*) that itself forms a group under the restriction of * is called a subgroup.  Every group has at least two subgroups, G itself and the trivial group {e}.  Every other element is contained in a unique smallest subgroup, called a CyclicGroup, isomorphic to the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic.
< 
< A group HomoMorphism is a map from one group to another that maps products to products, and thence identities to identities and inverses to inverses.  If it is also OneToOne, it is called an IsoMorphism.  The structure of a group is determined completely by its IsoMorphism class.
< 
< The set of elements a HomoMorphism sends to e is called its KerNel, and is necessarily a subgroup H satisfying a*H=H*a for all a in G.  Such subgroups are called normal.  There is a homomorphism from G having any given normal subgroup as its kernel; the image of G is unique up to homorphism, and is called the FactorGroup G/H.
< 
< The intersection of any two subgroups H,K is a group, and if they are disjoint, the DirectProduct H*K is a group.  This is isomorphic to the Cartesian product of H and K under componentwise multiplication, which is something that can e taken even when H and K are not being looked at as subgroups.
< 
< A group without any normal subgroups is called simple.  The simple commutative groups are precisely the ModularArithmetic''''s of prime order; any other finite commutative group is isomorphic to a direct product of these.
< 
< '''Representations'''
< 
< The set of all BiJections on some set X form a group under composition.  This is called the SymmetricGroup on X.  The symmetries of mathematical objects are usually subgroups of the SymmetricGroup.  In fact any group is isomorphic to a subgroup of the SymmetricGroup on ''some'' set X; such a map is called a representation of the group.
< 
< The action of the group G defines a product GxX->X (action on the left) or XxG->X (action on the right).  Note every group acts on itself in an obvious way.  If no subset of X is closed under the group action, then the representation is called irreducible; other representations are arbitrary unions of reducible ones.
---
> Some important concepts: SubGroup''''s, PermutationGroup''''s.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinGs and ModulEs.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980397650
17c17
< Some important concepts: SubGroup''''s, PermutationGroup''''s.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinGs and ModulEs.
---
> Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinGs and ModulEs.
------
HomoMorphism|980398274
4a5
> Given a homomorphism f:X->Y, we can define an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient (set of all equivalence classes) X/~ can be defined to have an object-structure in a natural way.  We then find that the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.
------
GeekSpeak|980398789
2c2,20
< ('arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology')
---
> ('arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology')
> 
> 1/18/01
> '''Interface'''- parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of hardware to another;give and take of information
> 
> '''Widget'''- objects that make up interfaces, i.e. mouse, menus, textbox, buttons; basic tools and objects.
> 
> '''Hypertext'''- gives the reader control instead of the author; allows user to jump around from source to source; linkages between texts.
> 
> '''CAD'''-  particular software design program, esp.archetectural
> 
> '''Gesture recognition'''- interpreting body movements into text, as a command (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc)
> 
> '''Nano technology'''- cellular, microscopic, level of technology
> 
> '''GOMS'''- 'G'oals, 'O'perators, 'M'ethods, and 'S'election rules; hard science approach
> 
> 
> 
------
GeekSpeak|980398915
2c2
< ('arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology')
---
> ('arcane' 'computer' 'acronym', 'terminology' 'or' 'technology')
------
GeekSpeak|980399061
2c2
< ('arcane' 'computer' 'acronym', 'terminology' 'or' 'technology')
---
> (''arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology'')
4c4
< 1/18/01
---
>                        
17c17
< '''GOMS'''- 'G'oals, 'O'perators, 'M'ethods, and 'S'election rules; hard science approach
---
> '''GOMS'''- ''G''oals, ''O''perators, ''M''ethods, and ''S''election rules; hard science approach
------
EquivalenceRelation|980399067
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An equivalence relation ~ on a set X is a RelatioN satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
> 
>     a~a                                 (reflexive property)
>     If a~b, then b~a                    (symmetric property)
>     If a~b, b~c, then a~c               (transitive property)
> 
> Given any x in X, we define the equivalence class of x to be the set [x] = {y in G : x~y}.  The set of all such equivalence classes is called the quotient X/~.  These form a partition of X, and conversely any partition of X is a quotient X/~ for some equivalence relation ~.
> 
> A trivial example of an equivalence relation is equality.  X = X/(=) for any set X.
> 
------
AsWeMayThink|980399281
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> 50 years after "As we may think": the Brown/MIT Vannevar Bush
>              symposium
>              Rosemary Simpson, Allen Renear, Elli Mylonas and Andries van Dam, Pages 47 -
>              67, Interactions Volume 3, No. 2 (Mar. 1996) 
------
EquivalenceRelation|980399382
7,9c7
< Given any x in X, we define the equivalence class of x to be the set [x] = {y in G : x~y}.  The set of all such equivalence classes is called the quotient X/~.  These form a partition of X, and conversely any partition of X is a quotient X/~ for some equivalence relation ~.
< 
< A trivial example of an equivalence relation is equality.  X = X/(=) for any set X.
---
> Given any x in X, we define the equivalence class of x to be the set [x] = {y in G : x~y}.  The equivalence classes form a partition of X, and conversely every partition of x corresponds to some unique equivalence relation ~.
10a9
> The set of all equivalence classes is denoted X/~, and called a quotient set.  In cases where X has some additional structure preserved under ~, the quotient naturally becomes an object of the same type; the map that sends x to [x] is then a HomoMorphism.
------
HomoMorphism|980399496
5c5
< Given a homomorphism f:X->Y, we can define an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient (set of all equivalence classes) X/~ can be defined to have an object-structure in a natural way.  We then find that the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.
---
> Any homomorphism f: X -> Y defines an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g. [x]*[y]=[x*y].  In that case the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.
------
HomoMorphism|980399558
3c3
< A homomorphism which is also OneToOne is called an IsoMorphism; two isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.  A homomorphism from a set to itself is called an EndoMorphism, and if it is also an isomorphism is called an AutoMorphism.
---
> A homomorphism which is also one-to-one is called an isomorphism; two isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.  A homomorphism from a set to itself is called an endomorphism, and if it is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism.
------
AsWeMayThink|980399764
2,5c2,6
< 50 years after "As we may think": the Brown/MIT Vannevar Bush
<              symposium
<              Rosemary Simpson, Allen Renear, Elli Mylonas and Andries van Dam, Pages 47 -
<              67, Interactions Volume 3, No. 2 (Mar. 1996) 
---
> 
> Bush Symposium Web Site: [URL http://www.cs.brown.edu/research/graphics/html/info/vannevar_bush.html]
> 
> Bush Symposium Information Farm: [URL http://www.eastgate.com/squirrel]
> 
------
AsWeMayThink|980400183
2a3,4
> Bush, Vannevar. (1945)'''"As We May Think"'''.  ''Atlantic Monthly''.
> 
------
GeekSpeak|980400529
17c17
< '''GOMS'''- ''G''oals, ''O''perators, ''M''ethods, and ''S''election rules; hard science approach
---
> '''GOMS'''- '''G'''oals, '''O'''perators, '''M'''ethods, and '''S'''election rules; hard science approach
18a19
> '''ENIAC'''- the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer
19a21
> '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et
------
EquivalenceRelation|980401477
9c9,12
< The set of all equivalence classes is denoted X/~, and called a quotient set.  In cases where X has some additional structure preserved under ~, the quotient naturally becomes an object of the same type; the map that sends x to [x] is then a HomoMorphism.
---
> The set of all equivalence classes is denoted X/~, and called a quotient set.  In cases where X has some additional structure preserved under ~, the quotient naturally becomes an object of the same type; the map that sends x to [x] is then a HomoMorphism.
> 
> Equality always defines an equivalence relation, and in fact it is minimal under implications.  X = X/=.
> 
------
MathematicalRelation|980402061
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and partial orders (see PartialOrderedSet).
> 
> A relation can also be thought of as a function R: (X x X) -> {0,1} where R(x,y)=1 if xRy and R(x,y)=0 if not.  This defines a BooleanAlgebra for the relations on X in a natural way.
------
EquivalenceRelation|980402084
1c1
< An equivalence relation ~ on a set X is a RelatioN satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
---
> An equivalence relation ~ on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
------
PartialOrderedSet|980402112
1c1
< A partial order <= on a set X is a RelatioN satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
---
> A partial order <= on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
------
AlTruism|980402552
20c20
< Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
---
> Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980402761
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A boolean algebra is a lattice (see LatticEs) which satisfies the following properties:
> 
>     There exists some element 0, such that av0=a for all a                 (bounded below)
>     There exists some element 1, such that a^1=a for all a                 (bounded above)
>     For all a,b,c, (avb)^c=(a^c)v(b^c)                                     (distributive law)
>     For all a, there exists an element ~a such that av~a=1 and a^~a=0      (existence of complements)
> 
> Complements are guaranteed to be unique within bounded distributive lattices.  Note the definition of Boolean algebrae is very similar to that of RinGs, except elements have complements instead of inverses.  Moreover the distributive law can be shown to hold both ways, i.e. (a^b)vc=(avc)^(bvc).
> 
> A particularly important boolean algebra is given by the lattice {0,1} with ordering =>, defined so that 0=>1.  This is because this represents ordinary logical truth values: 0 is "false", 1 is "true", avb is "a or b", a^b is "a and b", and a=>b is "a implies b".
> 
> As an immediate consequence of the above, the MathematicalRelation''s'' over a set form a boolean algebra under these operations.  So, then, do the subsets of any given set under inclusions, and in fact the subobjects of ''any'' given mathematical object typically form a boolean algebra under inclusions.
------
LatticEs|980402816
12,21c12
< A lattice which satisfies the following properties is referred to as a boolean algebra:
< 
<     There exists some element 0, such that av0=a for all a                 (bounded below)
<     There exists some element 1, such that a^1=a for all a                 (bounded above)
<     For all a,b,c, (avb)^c=(a^c)v(b^c) and (a^b)vc=(avc)^(bvc)             (distributive laws - these are equivalent)
<     For every a, there exists an element ~a such that av~a=1 and a^~a=0    (existence of complements)
< 
< Complements are unique within bounded distributive lattices.  Boolean algebrae are very similar to RinGs, except they have complements instead of inverses, and moreover the distributive laws work for each operation over the other.
< 
< The subobjects of any given object form a boolean algebra under <= taken to mean "is a subobject of".  In the case of sets, v and ^ become unions and intersections; in the case of groups they become semidirect products and intersections, and so forth.
---
> One ''very'' important kind of lattice is a BooleanAlgebra.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980403391
10,12c10
< A particularly important boolean algebra is given by the lattice {0,1} with ordering =>, defined so that 0=>1.  This is because this represents ordinary logical truth values: 0 is "false", 1 is "true", avb is "a or b", a^b is "a and b", and a=>b is "a implies b".
< 
< As an immediate consequence of the above, the MathematicalRelation''s'' over a set form a boolean algebra under these operations.  So, then, do the subsets of any given set under inclusions, and in fact the subobjects of ''any'' given mathematical object typically form a boolean algebra under inclusions.
---
> True-false statements form a boolean algebra, with implications => as the partial order.  Then avb represents "a or b",  a^b represents "a and b", and ~a represents "not a".  MathematicalRelation''s'' are a good example of such statements.
------
MathematicalRelation|980403443
3c3
< A relation can also be thought of as a function R: (X x X) -> {0,1} where R(x,y)=1 if xRy and R(x,y)=0 if not.  This defines a BooleanAlgebra for the relations on X in a natural way.
---
> Relations form a BooleanAlgebra with implications => as the partial order.
------
PatentNonsense|980405191
3,4c3,4
< * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity.
< * Stuff that, while apparently meaningful after a fashion, is so completely and irremediably confused that no intelligent person can be expected to try to make heads or tails of it.
---
> * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity. (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
> * Stuff that, while apparently meaningful after a fashion, is so completely and irremediably confused that no intelligent person can be expected to try to make heads or tails of it.  (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
------
UtaH|980406200
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Area: 219,900 square kilometers
> Population: Over 2,000,000
> Capital: Salt Lake City
> 
> Utah's bid for statehood was accepted in 1896 over forty years after its initial request.
> 
> One of Utah's most defining characteristics is the variety of its terrain.  From the Uinta Mountain range in the north (being the only east west running mountain range in North America) to the beautiful desert landscapes of Bryce Canyon and Zion National Parks.
> 
> Another notable fact about Utah is that the continental meeting of the railroads happened at Promontory Point, Utah.
------
ArtsandEntertainment|980406382
1c1
< FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic -- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
---
> FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic (PopularMusic)-- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
------
ArtsandEntertainment|980406415
1c1
< FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic (PopularMusic)-- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
---
> FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic -- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
------
MuSic|980406470
19c19
< Jazz 
---
> JazzMusic 
------
BooleanAlgebra|980407948
6,10c6
<     For all a, there exists an element ~a such that av~a=1 and a^~a=0      (existence of complements)
< 
< Complements are guaranteed to be unique within bounded distributive lattices.  Note the definition of Boolean algebrae is very similar to that of RinGs, except elements have complements instead of inverses.  Moreover the distributive law can be shown to hold both ways, i.e. (a^b)vc=(avc)^(bvc).
< 
< True-false statements form a boolean algebra, with implications => as the partial order.  Then avb represents "a or b",  a^b represents "a and b", and ~a represents "not a".  MathematicalRelation''s'' are a good example of such statements.
---
>     For all a, there exists an e
------
BooleanAlgebra|980407949
6c6,8
<     For all a, there exists an e
---
>     For all a, there exists an element ~a such that av~a=1 and a^~a=0      (existence of complements)
> 
> Complements are guaranteed to be unique within bounded distributive lattices.  Note the definition of Boolean algebrae is very similar to that of RinGs, except elements have complements instead of inverses.  Moreover the distributive law can be shown to hold both ways, i.e. (a^b)vc=(avc)^(bvc).
------
MathematicalRelation|980408043
1,3c1
< The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and partial orders (see PartialOrderedSet).
< 
< Relations form a BooleanAlgebra with implications => as the partial order.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and partial orders (see PartialOrderedSet).
------
EquivalenceRelation|980408127
11c11
< Equality always defines an equivalence relation, and in fact it is minimal under implications.  X = X/=.
---
> Equality always defines an equivalence relation, and in fact it is minimal.  X = X/=.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980408326
8a9,10
> 
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.
------
OregoN|980408515
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oregonians are proud of their state's wealth of beautiful forests and streams,
> and place great importance on proper use of their environment, yet struggle to
> balance this need with the desire to achieve progress.  The state has
> pioneered many of the nation's environmental firsts, such as one of the first
> bottle bills, but has also suffered under the decline of its lumber and steel
> industries.  
> 
> Oregon City, Oregon was the site of the first public library established west
> of the Rocky Mountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
> 
> '''ECONOMY'''
> 
> The Willamette Valley is very fertile, and coupled with Oregon's infamous rains,
> gives the state a wealth of agricultural products.  Apples and other fruits, cattle,
> dairy products, potatoes, and peppermint are all valuable products.  Vast pine
> forests have made Oregon the nation's major lumbering state since 1950.  In recent
> years, processing, publishing, and manufacturing have become much more dominant.
> And lately, high technology industries and services have grown considerably.
> Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries, and great care has been
> taken by the hydroelectric companies to preserve the habitats and migrational
> patterns of this fish.  Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen
> mountain forests, pristine lakes (including CraterLake), and scenic beaches draw 
> visitors year round.
> 
> '''GOVERNMENT'''
> 
> Oregon's Governer serves a four-year term.  The legislature consists of a thirty
> member senate and sixty member house.  Senators serve four year terms, and house
> representatives two.  At the national level, Oregon is represented by two senators
> and five representatives.  It has seven electorial votes.
> 
> '''FACTS'''
> Oregon (Facts and Figures)Area, 96,981 sq mi (251,181 sq km). Pop. (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Salem. Statehood, Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). Highest pt., Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m); lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, Beaver State. Motto, The Union. State bird, Western meadowlark. State flower, Oregon grape. State tree, Douglas fir. Abbr., Oreg.; OR.
------
AsWeMayThink|980409133
1,3c1
< Describe the new page here.
< 
< Bush, Vannevar. (1945)'''"As We May Think"'''.  ''Atlantic Monthly''.
---
> VannevarBush (1945)'''"As We May Think"'''.  ''Atlantic Monthly''.
------
GeekSpeak|980409241
1d0
< Describe the new page here.
------
LatticEs|980410166
1,3c1
< A lattice is a PartialOrderedSet (X, <=) where any two elements x,y have both a GreatestLowerBound xvy and LeastUpperBound x^y.
< 
< The operations v,^ on a lattice form an algebraic structure satisfying the following properties:
---
> A lattice is a set L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L,
10c8
< Moreover, any algebra satisfying the above properties is a lattice, where x<=y is defined to be true if and only if xvy=y (or equivalently, x^y=x).
---
> If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b.  Thus defined, (L,<=) is a PartialOrderedSet, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith.  TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice.
12d9
< One ''very'' important kind of lattice is a BooleanAlgebra.
------
OregoN|980410673
33c33,46
< Oregon (Facts and Figures)Area, 96,981 sq mi (251,181 sq km). Pop. (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. Capital, Salem. Statehood, Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). Highest pt., Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m); lowest pt., sea level. Nickname, Beaver State. Motto, The Union. State bird, Western meadowlark. State flower, Oregon grape. State tree, Douglas fir. Abbr., Oreg.; OR.
---
> 
>    Area: 96,981 sq mi (251,181 sq km). 
>    Population: (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. 
>    Capital: Salem. 
> *   Statehood: Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). 
> *   Highest point: Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m)
> *   Lowest pt.: sea level. 
> *   Nickname: Beaver State. 
> *   Motto: The Union. 
> *   State Bird: Western meadowlark. 
> *   State Flower: Oregon grape. 
> *   State Tree: Douglas fir. 
> *   Abbreviation: Oreg. Ore. OR
> 
------
GeekSpeak|980411240
4c4
< '''Interface'''- parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of hardware to another;give and take of information
---
> '''Interface'''- parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of information to another;give and take of information
10c10
< '''CAD'''-  particular software design program, esp.archetectural
---
> '''CAD'''-  Computer Assisted Design; particular software design program, esp.archetectural
16c16
< '''GOMS'''- '''G'''oals, '''O'''perators, '''M'''ethods, and '''S'''election rules; hard science approach
---
> '''GOMS'''- '''G'''oals, '''O'''perators, '''M'''ethods, and '''S'''election rules; hard science approach to HCI developed by Card, Moran & Newell in spelled out in their book "The Psychology of Human Computer Interaction, 1983.
18c18
< '''ENIAC'''- the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer
---
> '''ENIAC'''- the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer.  Arguably, the first all electronic digital computer started in 1943 and finished in 1946.  Some claim that Goliath really was the first, but ENIAC has the best press agent ;^)
20c20
< '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et
---
> '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!)
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980411428
11c11
< Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president.  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at LewisAndClarkCollege called Human Computer Interaction.
---
> Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president (who is really more of a shrub!).  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at LewisAndClarkCollege called Human Computer Interaction.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980411732
11c11
< Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president (who is really more of a shrub!).  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a class at LewisAndClarkCollege called Human Computer Interaction.
---
> Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president (who is really more of a shrub!).  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a [http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/320s01.html class at LewisAndClarkCollege] called Human Computer Interaction.
------
OregoN|980412849
8,9c8,42
< Oregon City, Oregon was the site of the first public library established west
< of the Rocky Mountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
---
> OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
> of the RockyMountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
> 
> '''HISTORY'''
> 
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of NativeAmerican tribes, including the BannockPeople, ChinookPeople, 
> KlamathPeople, and NezPercePeople.  JamesCook explored the coast in 1778 in search of the NorthwestPassage.
> LewisAndClark travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the LouisianaPurchase, at the
> direction of ThomasJefferson.  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in WashingtoN.
> 
> Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign
> sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes.  AstoriaOregon was established by 
> representatives of JohnJacobAstor's AmericanFurCompany in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
> 
> The OregonTrail infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the UnitedStates sought to wrest
> control of the area from GreatBritain.  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was
> set at the 49th parallel.
> 
> In the 1880s, railroads enabled marketing of the state's lumber and wheat, and the more rapid growth of its cities.
> 
> Industrial expansion began with ernest following the construction of the BonnevilleDam in 1943 on the ColumbiaRiver.
> The power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon have helped fuel the development of the west, and the periodic 
> fluctuations in the nation's building industry has severely impacted the state's economy on multiple occasions.
> 
> The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, 
> English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas,
> loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or
> outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay,
> pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
> 
> These controversies have served to keep the citizens of the state well engaged and aware of the consequences of their
> actions.  They have little fear of testing out new ideas, and often lead the nation in innovative policies and laws,
> yet at the same time pay great attention to the side effects and negatives these changes can have, and adjust as
> required.
> 
37,45c70,78
< *   Statehood: Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). 
< *   Highest point: Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m)
< *   Lowest pt.: sea level. 
< *   Nickname: Beaver State. 
< *   Motto: The Union. 
< *   State Bird: Western meadowlark. 
< *   State Flower: Oregon grape. 
< *   State Tree: Douglas fir. 
< *   Abbreviation: Oreg. Ore. OR
---
>    Statehood: Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). 
>    Highest point: Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m)
>    Lowest pt.: sea level. 
>    Nickname: Beaver State. 
>    Motto: The Union. 
>    State Bird: Western meadowlark. 
>    State Flower: Oregon grape. 
>    State Tree: Douglas fir. 
>    Abbreviation: Oreg. Ore. OR
------
ThomasJefferson|980414942
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Jefferson was primary author of the Declaration of Independence and
> the third president of the United States, as well as a vast number of other
> contributions and achievements.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|980415743
5c5,7
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was
> the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
> 
------
GeekSpeak|980416907
20c20
< '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!)
---
> '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG.
------
GeekSpeak|980417250
20c20
< '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG.
---
> '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. ALittleLuck did this one
------
ALittleLuck|980417263
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980417564
11c11,15
< Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president (who is really more of a shrub!).  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a [http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/320s01.html class at LewisAndClarkCollege] called Human Computer Interaction.
---
> Bush was a visionary computer guy who is no longer alive, not the president (who is really more of a shrub!).  GeekSpeak is a term for presentations describing computer related terms given in a [http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/320s01.html class at LewisAndClarkCollege] called Human Computer Interaction. 
> 
> ----
> Just like this picture (added by ALittleLuck )
> http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg
------
ALittleLuck|980417607
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Come-on, try to figure out who I am.
------
GeekSpeak|980417657
20c20
< '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. ALittleLuck did this one
---
> '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
------
HomePage|980417842
3,5c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
< 
< '''GNUStufF'''
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
10,12c8,9
< * WhatIsaWiki?
< * WhatsaWikiFor?
< * WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
---
> * WhatIsaWiki?  WhatsaWikiFor?  WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
> * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
15,17d11
< And of course,
< * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
< And
19a14
> 
23c18,20
< WhichWikiShouldWeUse
---
> * GNUStufF
> * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
> 
------
PatentNonsense|980420112
1c1
< Patent nonsense (to be carefully distinguished from BrilliantProse), particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
---
> Patent nonsense (to be carefully distinguished from BrilliantProse as well as PrivateNonsense), particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
------
PrivateNonsense|980420589
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Acts of nonsense between consenting adults in private,have been ruled a constitutionally protected right by the WikiSupremeCourt.
------
PaulaAbdul|980420758
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bio:
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
------
PhiloSophy|980421604
2c2
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism--Fun with ArthurSchopenhauer
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980421859
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads as well as Monads with a view. 
------
PhiloSophy|980422629
11c11
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
------
DeconstructionIsm|980422682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See PatentNonsense
------
TopOlogy|980439914
31c31,38
< ''And strictly speaking the paper is not actually continuous, but is actually composed of many separated atoms, so isn't really a torus.  I think there is a certain point of "good enough" for making pictures/sculptures of mathematical objects, and that the Moebius strip in paper meets it.''
---
> ''And strictly speaking the paper is not actually continuous, but is actually composed of many separated atoms, so isn't really a torus.  I think there is a certain point of "good enough" for making pictures/sculptures of mathematical objects, and that the Moebius strip in paper meets it.''
> 
> ----
> 
> OK - fair enough, but the generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
> 
> As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to keep our models more like the real world?
> 
------
TopOlogy|980439966
37c37
< As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to keep our models more like the real world?
---
> As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to make our models more like the real world?
------
SportS|980440121
50c50
< 
---
> * Snowboarding?
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980442104
44a45,58
> ----
> This issue contains a conflict in the different uses of the system. On one hand we can use a simple enough syntax to mark the links like the funny capitalisation of letters and on the other hand the writer of each entry will have to put extra thought into what is a link and what is not.
> 
> I think that since the ambition is to build an encyklopedia we should go for the latter. An important thing with an encyklopedia is the words and their spelling and the funny capitalisation destroys the charm of the language. In some extreme cases there might even be a difference in the meanings because of the capitalisation. (Example from the top of my head: March n. month, march v. to walk). I would also like the possibility to write names with their correct spelling including the spaces like George W. Bush and North Dakota.
> 
> Actually I would like to make it even more complicated for the writer. I would like the WikiPedia to provide a possibility to link to the correct version of a word if words have several meanings like this: York (linked to York/PA) is named after the English city (York linked to York/England). and have this appear as "York (clickable) is named after the English city York (clickable)".
> 
> Since this makes it harder on the person writing the texts we need tools to help him. I have identified two important set of tools:
> * First a tool that during preview goes through the text and signal all words that are present in the encyklopedia and thus are immediate candidates for linking. This is good as a help in identifing words or word combinations that are present elsewhere. The tool could also help him in choosing the correct version of the word.
> * The second tool that is a tool that when we add a new word, goes through the whole wiki and finds all places where this word or combination of words is used without a link. Kind of like the search function except that it does not include the words linked here (or linked to some other entry in the case where we have several entries with the same name).
> 
> A third more elaborate tools would be for those that want to spend time fixing all the errors that the persons not running the second tool would insert into the database and that would be a tool that finds (at random or in some order) entries with words or word combinations that are now defined but not linked to.
> 
> I realise that my technically ordering and systematising mind is what makes me wish this but I can't get out of it. --LinusTolke
------
SubGroup|980442334
11c11,13
< In general a group HomoMorphism f: G -> K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Also, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in K the kernel of the homomorphism.  As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f).
---
> In general a group HomoMorphism f: G -> K sends subgroups of G to subgroups of K.  Also, the preimage of any subgroup of K is a subgroup of G.  We call the preimage of the trivial group {e} in K the kernel of the homomorphism.  As it turns out, the kernel is always normal and the image of G is always isomorphic to G/ker(f).
> 
> The normal subgroups of any group G form a lattice under inclusion.  The minimal and maximal elements are {e} and G, the glb of two subgroup is their intersection and their lub is a ProductGroup.  If the subgroups are not normal then the lub needn't exist.
------
MathematicalRelation|980442461
1c1
< The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and partial orders (see PartialOrderedSet).
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
------
FootBall|980442571
17c17,25
< I'm not an expert!
---
> I'm not an expert!
> ----
> I was very much aware of this conflict when I wrote this entry. I just wanted to stir up something. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has probably spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
> 
> Do the following comparison:
> * American sites: http://www.football.com/ http://www.soccer.com/
> * British sites: http://www.football.co.uk/ http://www.soccer.co.uk/
> 
> -- LinusTolke
------
AsWeMayThink|980442723
2a3,4
> The article itself:  [URL http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/computer/bushf.htm]
> 
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|980442819
4,5c4,5
< * James Madison (1809-1817)
< * James Monroe (1817-1825)
---
> * JamesMadison (1809-1817)
> * JamesMonroe (1817-1825)
7,13c7,13
< * Andrew Jackson (1829-1837)
< * Martin Van Buren (1837-1841)
< * William Henry Harrison (1841)
< * John Tyler (1841-1845)
< * James Polk (1845-1849)
< * Zachary Taylor (1849-1850)
< * Millard Fillmore (1850-1853)
---
> * AndrewJackson (1829-1837)
> * MartinVanBuren (1837-1841)
> * WilliamHenryHarrison (1841)
> * JohnTyler (1841-1845)
> * JamesPolk (1845-1849)
> * ZacharyTaylor (1849-1850)
> * MillardFillmore (1850-1853)
15c15
< * James Buchanan (1857-1861)
---
> * JamesBuchanan (1857-1861)
17,36c17,36
< * Andrew Johnson (1865-1869)
< * Ulysses S. Grant (1869-1877)
< * Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-1881)
< * James A. Garfield (1881)
< * Chester A. Arthur (1881-1885)
< * Grover Cleveland (1885-1889)
< * Benjamin Harrison (1889-1893)
< * Grover Cleveland (1893-1897)
< * William McKinley (1897-1901)
< * Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)
< * William H. Taft (1909-1913)
< * Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)
< * Warren Harding (1921-1923)
< * Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929)
< * Herbert Hoover (1929-1933)
< * Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)
< * Harry S Truman (1945-1953)
< * Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961)
< * John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
< * Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1969)
---
> * AndrewJohnson (1865-1869)
> * UlyssesSGrant (1869-1877)
> * RutherfordBHayes (1877-1881)
> * JamesAGarfield (1881)
> * ChesterAArthur (1881-1885)
> * GroverCleveland (1885-1889)
> * BenjaminHarrison (1889-1893)
> * GroverCleveland (1893-1897)
> * WilliamMcKinley (1897-1901)
> * TheodoreRoosevelt (1901-1909)
> * WilliamHTaft (1909-1913)
> * WoodrowWilson (1913-1921)
> * WarrenHarding (1921-1923)
> * CalvinCoolidge (1923-1929)
> * HerbertHoover (1929-1933)
> * FranklinDRoosevelt (1933-1945)
> * HarrySTruman (1945-1953)
> * DwightDEisenhower (1953-1961)
> * JohnFKennedy (1961-1963)
> * LyndonBJohnson (1963-1969)
52c52
< An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
---
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980446837
2a3,6
> '''January 25, 2001'''
> 
> Since this wiki first started, January 10, 2001, we have made 270 pages!  Wow!
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980447266
17,19c17
< Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
< 
< -- LarrySanger
---
> Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
------
NuPedia|980447373
1,8c1
< Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReview""ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
< 
< 
< Yea, but, what's stopping someone putting CRAP in it? Who is the expert and how are you gunna get a good expert for nuthing?
< 
< eh?
< 
< Face it, Encyclopaedias are full of old news anyhow. What we need is a collectively inspired Arthur C Clark.
---
> Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReview""ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980447707
31a32,33
> 
> '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  Whats the purpose?'''
39a42,43
> ----
> '''Q. Whats the point of getting a user number?'''
------
PitcairnIsland|980447911
1c1
< A tiny island in the SouthPacific, one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the H.M.S. Bounty; the original PitcairnErs were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as English, are spoken there.  A protectorate of the U.K.
---
> A tiny island in the SouthPacific, one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the H.M.S. Bounty; the original PitcairnErs were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as English, are spoken there.  A protectorate of the U.K.--but politically unique.  Population (1991) around 60.
------
TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis|980448199
1c1
< Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an insensitive clod, overly fond of sheep, and a boozing stinker (or a stinking boozer).  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?  Well, sure, but could anyone be taken seriously for doing so?  Could anyone ''win'' such a lawsuit?
---
> Suppose I were to defame JimboWales, e.g., saying that he is an [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22insensitive+clod%22 insensitive clod], overly [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22fond+of+sheep%22 fond of sheep], and a boozing stinker (or a stinking boozer).  Could anyone bring a defamation lawsuit against the owner of Wikipedia's server (which, it so happens, is JimboWales), against the defamer of JimboWales, or against anyone else?  Well, sure, but could anyone be taken seriously for doing so?  Could anyone ''win'' such a lawsuit?
------
RhodeIsland|980450744
1c1
< The best little state in the USA! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of Rhode Island Reds!
---
> The best little state in the USA! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of Rhode Island Reds!----Smithfield, R.I. is home of Bryant College, a prestigious business school
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980454936
15a16,23
> 
> ----
> Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
> 
> [http://www.lclark.edu/~alr Alexa'sPageOfWonder]
> [http://www.lclark.edu/~theatre LewisAndClarkCollegeTheatre] Find out all about upcoming plays and events at Lewis & Clark!
> 
> ----
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980454972
20a21
> 
23c24
< ----
---
> ----
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980455019
20c20
< [http://www.lclark.edu/~alr Alexa'sPageOfWonder]
---
> [http://www.lclark.edu/~alr Alexa'sPageOfWonder] Okay, so it's not that exciting, but I put a lot into it. :)
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980455123
23a24,25
> [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.
> 
------
TheaTer|980455290
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Come now, everyone!  There must be people out there interested in theatre in its many wonderous forms!  To start you out, here's a link to the Lewis & Clark College Theater website:
> 
> [http://www.lclark.edu/~theatre Click me!]
> 
> ----
> Let's get that ball rolling!
------
TheaTer|980455404
1,6c1
< Come now, everyone!  There must be people out there interested in theatre in its many wonderous forms!  To start you out, here's a link to the Lewis & Clark College Theater website:
< 
< [http://www.lclark.edu/~theatre Click me!]
< 
< ----
< Let's get that ball rolling!
---
> 
------
HisTory|980456340
1c1,3
< That which happened.
---
> That which happened.
> ----
> That which happened and was recorded.  The record of that which happened.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980457607
3c3
< Your task, <i>(If you choose to accept it)</i> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
---
> Your </B>assignment</B> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
18c18
< Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
---
> <I>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
24c24
< [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.
---
> [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.</I>
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980457641
3c3
< Your </B>assignment</B> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
---
> Your <b>assignment</b> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
18c18
< <I>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
---
> <i>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
24c24
< [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.</I>
---
> [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.</i>
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980457674
18c18
< <i>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!
---
> <i>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!</i>
24c24
< [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.</i>
---
> [http://www.storypeople.com StoryPeople] A beautiful site with amazingly creative, very short stories by Brian Andreas.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980458668
3c3
< Your <b>assignment</b> is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
---
> Your '''assignment''' is to add some interesting stuff to this site in a rather anarchic way!!  Bonus points if you figure out how to add images, links to outside sites and pretty formatting.
18c18
< <i>Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!</i>
---
> ''Here are some interesting links contributed by members of the class.  Please add your own as you find them!''
------
ALittleLuck|980459435
1c1,3
< Come-on, try to figure out who I am.
---
> Come-on, try to figure out who I am.
> 
> I am guessing that you are a psy 320 student at L & C!
------
ALittleLuck|980459675
1c1
< Come-on, try to figure out who I am.
---
> Come-on, try to figure out who I am. <s>ALEXA!!</s>
------
ALittleLuck|980459692
1c1
< Come-on, try to figure out who I am. <s>ALEXA!!</s>
---
> Come-on, try to figure out who I am. <b>ALEXA!!</b>
------
ChristianIty|980461585
1c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and somthing to teach.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980462692
26a27,29
> 
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.  
> 
------
AustriA|980462993
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Austria¥pop© ca© 7©5m¤ is a small landlocked country in Central Europe© It is a federation of 9 states©
> 
> Capital: Vienna ¥pop© ca© 1©8m¤
> 
> Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein© Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic©
> 
> 
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980463739
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.  
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|980464159
9c9
< A)  Perception
---
> '''A)  Perception'''
11c11
< B)  Knowledge Base
---
> '''B)  Knowledge Base'''
13c13
< C)  Logic
---
> '''C)  Logic'''
23c23
< Here's how:
---
> '''Here's how:'''
38c38
< What does all this have to do with philosophy?
---
> '''What does all this have to do with philosophy?'''
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|980464293
1c1
< Sherlock Holmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?
---
> ''Sherlock Holmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980468330
29a30,31
> Hello, this is a test.
> 
------
TheRecorder|980468364
3c3,6
< The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
---
> The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
> 
> I played the Recorder when i was in 6th grade
> -Zed 
------
HomePage|980468487
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- SnowBOARDING--CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
------
CopperAge|980468513
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The used copper tools here
------
SnowBOARDING|980468537
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> [skihood.com]
------
SnowBOARDING|980468561
2c2
< [skihood.com]
---
> [skihood.com]
------
HistoryOfEurope|980468562
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1400's advent of the printing press
------
ALittleLuck|980468575
3a4,5
> 
> You are too!! Oh my God, so are we!!!!
------
ALittleLuck|980468610
1,5c1
< Come-on, try to figure out who I am. <b>ALEXA!!</b>
< 
< I am guessing that you are a psy 320 student at L & C!
< 
< You are too!! Oh my God, so are we!!!!
---
> STOP MESSING WITH ME
------
HistoryOfEurope|980468624
1c1,2
< 1400's advent of the printing press
---
> 1400's advent of the printing press
> Not the copperage
------
HistoryOfEurope|980468676
2c2
< Not the copperage
---
> Not the CopperAge 
------
GeekSpeak|980468688
21a22
> '''Novice''' - a computer user that actually knows nothing, but boasts that they can figure it out.
------
ALittleLuck|980468710
1c1
< STOP MESSING WITH ME
---
> (content edited)
------
HistoryOfEurope|980468712
2c2,4
< Not the CopperAge 
---
> Not the CopperAge
> 
> History of Germany
------
SnowBOARDING|980468748
2c2,3
< [skihood.com]
---
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!!
> 
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980468767
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif  <-Annoying This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
ThomasEdison|980468832
3c3,5
< I have read that, similarly, the credit traditionally given to ThomasEdison for the invention of the LightBulb is misplaced.  I am not competent to assess this claim.
---
> I have read that, similarly, the credit traditionally given to ThomasEdison for the invention of the LightBulb is misplaced.  I am not competent to assess this claim.
> 
> He did invent the filament for the light bulb...I know that.
------
SnowBOARDING|980468849
1,2c1
< Describe the new page here.
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!!
---
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  Here are some cool links if you need to get some basic info.  Where to go?:  [http://www.skihood.com]
------
SnowBOARDING|980468875
1c1
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  Here are some cool links if you need to get some basic info.  Where to go?:  [http://www.skihood.com]
---
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  Here are some cool links if you need to get some basic info.  Where to go?:  [http://www.skihood.com MtHoodMeadows]
------
HistoryOfEurope|980468915
4c4
< History of Germany
---
> HistoryGermany
------
SnowBOARDING|980468953
2c2
< 
---
> Where to get some dope gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
------
HistoryGermany|980468961
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> NationalSocialism
> Berlin
------
HistoryGermany|980468981
2c2,3
< Berlin
---
> 
> CityBerlin
------
CityBerlin|980469003
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Berlin is the capital of Germany.
------
SnowBOARDING|980469016
2c2,5
< Where to get some dope gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
---
> Where to get some dope gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
> 
> 
> this sucks
------
SnowBOARDING|980469054
4,5c4
< 
< this sucks
---
> the season hasnt been that good this year in the north west.  
------
SnowBOARDING|980469085
4c4
< the season hasnt been that good this year in the north west.  
---
> the season hasnt been that good this year in the north west.  
------
NationalSocialism|980469088
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> national socialism is called a close dictatorial period in german history from 1933 to 1945.
------
SnowBOARDING|980469145
4a5,6
> 
> Advice for everybody(free) don't listen to big ZED
------
HomePage|980469191
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- SnowBOARDING--CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
---
>  -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- SnowBOARDING--CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment- MathematicsAndStatistics
------
PoLitics|980469210
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Politics comes from the root word poly meaning many and tics meaning bloodsucking insects. 
------
TheaTer|980469224
1c1
< 
---
> Text
------
TheaTer|980469310
1c1,8
< Text
---
> 
> Showing revision 1
> Come now, everyone! There must be people out there interested in theatre in its many wonderous forms! To start you out, here's a link to the Lewis & Clark College Theater website: 
> 
> [Click me!] 
> 
> 
> Let's get that ball rolling! 
------
SnowBOARDING|980469365
2a3
> Just in case you need something soothing for the eardrums on the way up go to [http://wwww.pantera.com PANTERA]
6c7
< Advice for everybody(free) don't listen to big ZED
---
> Advice for everybody(free) don't listen to big ZED
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980471440
14c14
< Just like this picture (added by ALittleLuck )
---
> 
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif  <-Annoying This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
ALittleLuck|980471679
1c1,3
< (content edited)
---
> Do you know who I am yet?  
> 
> I'll be around.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980471785
15c15
< http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg EricNilsen and family.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980471816
15c15
< http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg EricNilsen and family.
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg ErikNilsen and family.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980471933
15c15
< http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg ErikNilsen and family.
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg Erik Nilsen and family.
------
ALittleLuck|980471993
2a3
> 
------
DanCe|980472771
1d0
< 
4c3
< BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance
---
> BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance - TableDance - SquareDance - LapDance - StVitusDance
------
DanCe|980473283
3c3
< BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance - TableDance - SquareDance - LapDance - StVitusDance
---
> BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance - TableDance - SquareDance - TapDance - LapDance - StVitusDance - 
------
HomePage|980474558
3c3
<  -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- SnowBOARDING--CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment- MathematicsAndStatistics
------
SportS|980474626
50c50,51
< * Snowboarding?
---
> * SnowBoarding
> 
------
SnowBoarding|980474736
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are some cool links if you need to get some basic info.  Where to go:  [http://www.skihood.com MtHoodMeadows]
> 
> Where to get some gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
> ----
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
> ----
> The season hasn't been that good this year in the northwest.
> ----
> Advice for everybody (free): don't listen to big ZED.
------
SnowBoarding|980474752
3c3
< Where to get some gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
---
> Where to get some gear: [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
------
SnowBOARDING|980474782
1,7c1
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  Here are some cool links if you need to get some basic info.  Where to go?:  [http://www.skihood.com MtHoodMeadows]
< Where to get some dope gear [http://www.forum-snowboards.com forumsnowboards]
< Just in case you need something soothing for the eardrums on the way up go to [http://wwww.pantera.com PANTERA]
< 
< the season hasnt been that good this year in the north west.  
< 
< Advice for everybody(free) don't listen to big ZED
---
> See SnowBoarding.
------
NewTopics|980474908
5c5
< EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd -- WikiPediaAnnouncements -- WikipediaL
---
> EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd -- WikiPediaAnnouncements -- WikipediaL -- DanCe
------
DanCe|980474930
3,5c3
< BallroomDance - JazzDance - ModernDance - FolkDance - BalletDance - TableDance - SquareDance - TapDance - LapDance - StVitusDance - 
< 
< 
---
> BallroomDance -- JazzDance -- ModernDance -- FolkDance -- BalletDance -- SquareDance -- TapDance
------
ALittleLuck|980475088
4a5,6
> ----
> The prof.
------
HomePage|980476123
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
------
TopOlogy|980480103
28a29,32
> I don't know what you mean by "different topological shapes in 3-space", but I can't imagine a meaning for which there would only be 6 of them.  Even if we restrict ourselves to nice objects such as compact surfaces (which seems to be what you have in mind) there are infinitely many pairs that are non-homeomorphic. There is a representation theorem that characterizes them in very simple terms, however.
> 
> ----
> 
37a42,45
> 
> ----
> 
> 3-D Euclidean space itself is as much a "theoretical object" as a Mobius strip, and the physical analogues we build of Mobius strips are certainly closer to actual Mobius strips than to tori. Tori are ''not'' three dimensional objects -- they are two dimensional objects -- compact connected 2-manifolds.   That is, a torus is not the topological equivalent of a donut, for it is hollow.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980486882
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most intersting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most interesting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
HistoryOfEurope|980489306
1,2c1
< 1400's advent of the printing press
< Not the CopperAge
---
> ''In brief:''
4c3,11
< HistoryGermany
---
> Europe emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the RomanEmpire (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the Byzantine and Islamic cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
> 
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalIsm, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
> 
> Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout.  The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  Napoleon also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving Germany and Italy to develop into nation-states by 1900.
> 
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of Europe.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of AmericA and the SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
> 
> See also: HistoryGermany
------
HistoryOfEurope|980489436
9c9
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of Europe.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of AmericA and the SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of Europe.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
------
HistoryGermany|980489550
0a1,2
> GerMany
> 
------
HistoryGermany|980490563
1c1
< GerMany
---
> GermanY
------
CopperAge|980491698
1c1,9
< The used copper tools here
---
> Around 4000-3500 BC the first cities appeared among the SumerianPeoples of Mesopotamia.  With these came a new societal structure.  Ties of kinship no longer sufficed to hold communities together, and were replaced by religion.  Each CityState had a patron god, to whom a massive central temple (ziggurat) was dedicated, and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').
> 
> The development of cities led to increased specialization and enabled people to take on bigger projects.  Kings were responsible for coordinating efforts like irrigation and warfare, which increased considerably in scale.  By around 2500 BC cities had begun to dominate each other, and by accomodating their subject's gods began to become slightly more secular in character, and eventually Mesopotamia was united under the empires of Akkad, Ur, and OldBabylonia.
> 
> Meanwhile parallel developments had occured in Africa and India.  Egypt was united to form the old kingdom around 3100 BC, the country that left us the pyramids, and after a brief interlude became the middle kingdom centered at Thebes.  And a relatively poorly known, but nevertheless highly advanced, urban civilization grew up at centers like Harappa in the IndusValley.
> 
> The urban societies of this era emerged along with many new advances, most notably writing.  However, in terms of tools things did not progress technologically to any great degree.  Copper smelting developed, but the metal is fairly expensive and brittle, and most implements remained tipped with stone, and farming remained restricted to the fertile river valleys where these civilizations had developed.
> 
> Things started changing around 2000 BC.  Civilization began to spread to the surrounding hills where agriculture necessarily depended upon rainwater, and new civilization centers began to develop around the older ones: the HittitePeoples arrived in Anatolia (Turkey), and cities developed among the CanaanitePeoples of Syria-Palestine.  This process intensified around 1700 BC, when new immigrants with bronze technology overtook the older civilization centers.
------
ComputerSoftware|980493813
6a7
> ** PootPoot
------
PootPoot|980493865
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Poot poot [http://www.pootpoot.com/poot/pootify?URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikipedia.com&options=none Pootpoot], poot.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980493908
6a7,8
> PootPoot.
> 
17c19
< Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
---
> Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
------
BronzeAge|980494347
1c1
< Around 2000-1600 BC new groups started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.  These are associated with bronze (copper+tin) implements, chariot archers, warrior nobilities, and generally speaking IndoEuropean languages.  They probably fanned out from a homeland around the CaspianSea.  Around the end of the period this process intensified, and most of the older civilizations were overrun.
---
> Around 2000-1800 BC various new groups started appearing all around the periphery of civilization, armed with powerful new technologies: bronze implements, horses, and the light two-wheeled chariot.  These weapons were used to good advantage, and by around 1600 BC all the older civilization centers had been overrun.
3c3
< In the west, the first Greeks - the Achaeans - entered the country and founded the MycenaeanCivilization.  This was partially derivative from the older MinoanCivilization on Crete, but soon came to dominate it.  Further west, various groups - mostly notably the CelticPeoples - spread over Europe, almost entirely displacing the original cultures.
---
> Of particular importance were the Iranian groups who spread off the plateau into neighboring regions.  The KassitePeoples conquered Babylonia and the IndoAryans more or less annihilated the declining foreign civilization they found in the IndusValley.  A related group, the Mitanni, set up a kingdom over much of Syria and Assyria.
5c5,7
< Various Iranian groups appeared across the MiddleEast, including the nomadic Scythians, the Kassites who conquered Babylonia, the Mitanni who pushed the Hurrians into northern Mesopotamia, and the IndoAryans who destroyed the civilization of Harappa.  The HittiteKingdom was established in Anatolia (modern Tukey), and the semitic Hyskos adopted the new technology and overran Egypt, though they were ejected soon after.  
---
> Egypt was temporarily occupied by the Semitic Hyskos, but these were ejected and the NewKingdomOfEgypt - its first empire - grew up in their wake.  The HittitePeoples also developed into an empire at this time.  All of these were continually at war for domination of the middle east.
> 
> Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, and so their use was restricted mainly to warrior nobilities.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies vaguely familiar to us from epics like the ''Iliad'' and ''Ramayana''.  They are often associated with IndoEuropean languages, which probably spread out from a homeland on the caspian sea along with bronze working.
7d8
< Around this time, too, the first civilization in China - the ShangDynasty - appears.  This probably was influenced by yet another group of IE migrants, the Tocharians, but not enough work has been done to confirm this hypothesis.
------
BronzeAge|980495332
3c3
< Of particular importance were the Iranian groups who spread off the plateau into neighboring regions.  The KassitePeoples conquered Babylonia and the IndoAryans more or less annihilated the declining foreign civilization they found in the IndusValley.  A related group, the Mitanni, set up a kingdom over much of Syria and Assyria.
---
> Egypt was temporarily occupied by the Semitic Hyskos, but these were ejected and the NewKingdomOfEgypt - its first empire - grew up in their wake.  Babylonia was conquered by the KassitePeoples, and the IndoAryans more or less annihilated the civilization they found in the IndusValley.  A related group, the Mitanni, set up a kingdom over much of Syria and Assyria.
5c5
< Egypt was temporarily occupied by the Semitic Hyskos, but these were ejected and the NewKingdomOfEgypt - its first empire - grew up in their wake.  The HittitePeoples also developed into an empire at this time.  All of these were continually at war for domination of the middle east.
---
> Some of these groups also spread to new areas, e.g. the CelticPeoples.  Greece was overrun by the AchaeanPeoples, who set up the first Greek-speaking kingdoms (notably Mycenae) and came to dominate the older MinoanPeoples.  The first civilization in China, the ShangDynasty, may have developed under the influence of the TocharianPeoples who spread eastward.
9,10c9
< 
< Around 1200 BC most of the bronze age kingdoms collapsed and urban centers all across the eastern meditteranean were sacked by raiders, all within a few decades.  The following few centuries were dark ages for Greece and the Near East.  By the time civilization had recovered, iron tools had become common, and a new era had begun.
---
> Around 1200 BC ''something'' happened that dramatically shifted power away from these kingdoms.  Within a few decades city centers all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked and the kingdoms swept away.  Only Egypt, power broken, and Assyria escaped destruction.  This issues in a dark age for the west, and by the time civilization had recovered, the iron age had begun.
------
CopperAge|980495432
9c9
< Things started changing around 2000 BC.  Civilization began to spread to the surrounding hills where agriculture necessarily depended upon rainwater, and new civilization centers began to develop around the older ones: the HittitePeoples arrived in Anatolia (Turkey), and cities developed among the CanaanitePeoples of Syria-Palestine.  This process intensified around 1700 BC, when new immigrants with bronze technology overtook the older civilization centers.
---
> Things started changing around 2000 BC.  Civilization began to spread to the surrounding hills where agriculture necessarily depended upon rainwater, and new civilization centers began to develop around the older ones: the HittitePeoples arrived in Anatolia (Turkey), cities developed among the CanaanitePeoples of Syria-Palestine and the MinoanPeoples of Crete.  This process intensified around 1600 BC, when new immigrants with bronze technology overtook the older civilization centers.
------
DisRuption|980496146
1a2,5
> 
> We might end up with people posting silly quotes, but that's to be expected...
> 
> "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
------
PartialOrder|980496212
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A partial order <= on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X, 
> 
>     a <= a                              (reflexive property)
>     If a <= b, b <= a, then a = b       (antisymmetric property)
>     If a <= b, b <= c, then a <= c      (transitive property)
> 
> A set with a partial order on it is called a partial ordered set, or poset.  A poset where any two elements have both a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound forms an algebraic structure called a LatticE.
> 
> Given any a,b in X, we define the OpenInterval (a,b) = {x in X : a < x < b}.  Arbitrary unions of OpenInterval''s'' define a topology on the poset, called the OrderTopology.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
------
PartialOrder|980496309
7c7
< A set with a partial order on it is called a partial ordered set, or poset.  A poset where any two elements have both a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound forms an algebraic structure called a LatticE.
---
> A set with a partial order on it is called a partial ordered set, or poset.  A poset where any two elements have both a greatest lower bound and a least upper bound forms an algebraic structure called a LatticE.  Every poset (X,<=) has a unique dual poset (X,>=).
9c9,11
< Given any a,b in X, we define the OpenInterval (a,b) = {x in X : a < x < b}.  Arbitrary unions of OpenInterval''s'' define a topology on the poset, called the OrderTopology.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
---
> Given any a,b in X, we define the OpenInterval (a,b) = {x in X : a < x < b}.  Arbitrary unions of OpenInterval''s'' define a topology on the poset, called the OrderTopology.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
> 
> Examples of partial orders include implications and inclusions ("is a subset of" and the more general "is a subobject of").
------
PartialOrder|980496347
9c9
< Given any a,b in X, we define the OpenInterval (a,b) = {x in X : a < x < b}.  Arbitrary unions of OpenInterval''s'' define a topology on the poset, called the OrderTopology.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
---
> Given any a,b in X, we define the OpenInterval (a,b) = {x in X : a < x < b}.  Arbitrary unions of OpenInterval''s'' define a TopOlogy on the poset, called the OrderTopology.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
------
PartialOrderedSet|980496412
1,11c1
< A partial order <= on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
< 
<     a <= a                              (reflexive property)
<     If a <= b, b <= a, then a = b       (antisymmetric property)
<     If a <= b, b <= c, then a <= c      (transitive property)
< 
< PartialOrderedSet''s'' ("posets") where every two elements have both a GreatestLowerBound and a LeastUpperBound are called LatticEs, and include things like sets, groups, or the like under the partial ordering of inclusion.  Posets which satisfy trichotomy (for all a,b, a<=b or b<=a) are called TotalOrderedSet''s'', and include sets of OrdinalNumbers.
< 
< We write a < b if a <= b and the two are not equal.  Given any two a,b in X, the OpenInterval (a,b) is defined to be the set of all x in X such that a < x < b.  Arbitrary unions of OpenIntervals define the order-TopOlogy of the poset.  Most familiar topologies are built up from objects of this sort, e.g. the RealNumbers.
< 
< A map f:X->Y from one poset to another is called an order-HomoMorphism if f(x)<=f(y) when x<=y; if it is bijective, it is called an order-IsoMorphism.  Any order-based property a poset has will also be true in any poset isomorphic to it.  Every poset (X,<=) has a unique dual poset (X,>=).
---
> deleted in favor of PartialOrder
------
LatticEs|980496461
8c8
< If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b.  Thus defined, (L,<=) is a PartialOrderedSet, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith.  TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice.
---
> If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b.  Thus defined, <= forms a PartialOrder on L, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith.  TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice.
------
AbstractAlgebra|980496546
7c7
< * LatticEs
---
> * LatticE
9,11c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a subset thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  The subalgebrae of given algebrae usually form LatticEs under inclusion.
< 
< A map between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a subset thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A map between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
LatticE|980496605
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lattice is a set L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L, 
> 
>     ava=a                   a^a=a                   (idempotency laws)
>     avb=bva                 a^b=b^a                 (commutativity laws)
>     av(bvc)=(avb)vc         a^(b^c)=(a^b)^c         (associativity laws)
>     av(a^b)=a               a^(bvc)=a               (absorption laws)
> 
> If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b. Thus defined, <= forms a PartialOrder on L, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith. TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice. 
------
LatticEs|980496639
1,9c1
< A lattice is a set L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L,
< 
<     ava=a                   a^a=a                   (idempotency laws)
<     avb=bva                 a^b=b^a                 (commutativity laws)
<     av(bvc)=(avb)vc         a^(b^c)=(a^b)^c         (associativity laws)
<     av(a^b)=a               a^(bvc)=a               (absorption laws)
< 
< If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b.  Thus defined, <= forms a PartialOrder on L, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith.  TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice.
< 
---
> deleted in favor of LatticE
------
AbstractAlgebra|980496755
3,7c3,7
< * MathematicalGrouP
< * RinGs and ModulEs
< * FielDs and VectorSpaces
< * AssociativeAlgebrae
< * LatticE
---
> * MathematicalGrouP''s''
> * RinG''s'' and ModulE''s''
> * FielD''s'' and VectorSpace''s''
> * AssociativeAlgebra''e''
> * LatticE''s''
9a10,14
> 
> ----
> Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles? Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger 
> 
> I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :)  But fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though. -JG
------
RinG|980496870
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
> 
>    a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
>    a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
> 
> Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.  It has the advantage of adding a lot more structure to 
> 
> Sets of commutative group HomoMorphism''s'' form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulE''s''.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
> 
> A subring (not necessarily with identity) closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary ring'' elements is called an ideal.  These relate to the kernels of ring HomoMorphism''s'' the same way NormalSubGroups relate to those of GroupHomomorphism''s''.
> 
> A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  In such rings, multiplicative cancellation is possible.  Of particular interest are FielD''s'', IntegralDomain''s'' where every non-zero element has a muliplicative inverse.
> 
> Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
------
RinGs|980496897
1,22c1
< A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
< 
< * a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
< * a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
< 
< Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.  It has the advantage of adding a lot more structure to 
< 
< Sets of commutative group HomoMorphisms form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulEs.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
< 
< A subring (not necessarily with identity) closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary ring'' elements is called an ideal.  These relate to the kernels of ring HomoMorphisms the same way NormalSubGroups relate to those of GroupHomomorphisms.
< 
< A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  In such rings, multiplicative cancellation is possible.  Of particular interest are FielDs, IntegralDomain''''s where every non-zero element has a muliplicative inverse.
< 
< Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
< ----
< Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles?  Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger
< 
< I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :) -JG
< 
< Except for the terms you use to define 'ring'; those are more primitive than 'ring', I hope! -- LarrySanger
< 
< Fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though.  Once there's pages enough to at least be able to properly define the RealNumbers, I'll go back and sort things out.  Sound 'K?
---
> deleted in favor of RinG
------
MathematicalGrouP|980496938
17c17
< Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinGs and ModulEs.
---
> Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinG''s'' and ModulE''s''.
81c81
< Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinGs, IdeaLs and FielDs.
---
> Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'', IdeaL''s'' and FielD''s''.
------
SubGroup|980497013
13c13
< The normal subgroups of any group G form a lattice under inclusion.  The minimal and maximal elements are {e} and G, the glb of two subgroup is their intersection and their lub is a ProductGroup.  If the subgroups are not normal then the lub needn't exist.
---
> The normal subgroups of any group G form a LatticE under inclusion.  The minimal and maximal elements are {e} and G, the glb of two subgroup is their intersection and their lub is a ProductGroup.  If the subgroups are not normal then the lub needn't exist.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980497082
1c1
< A boolean algebra is a lattice (see LatticEs) which satisfies the following properties:
---
> A boolean algebra is a LatticE which satisfies the following properties:
------
TotalOrderedSet|980497215
1,4c1
< A total-ordered set is a PoSet (T,<) where for any a,b in T, exactly one of the following hold:
< * a=b
< * a<b
< * a>b
---
> A total-ordered set is a LatticE (T,v,^) where for any a,b in T, either avb=a and a^b=b, or avb=b and a^b=a.  A PartialOrder <= on a set T defines a total order if and only for every a,b in T, exactly one of the following hold:
6c3,7
< The set of all OrdinalNumbers less than a given one form a total-ordered set.  In particular, the finite ordinals (NaturalNumbers) form the unique smallest total-ordered set with no upper bound.  The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor a lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.
---
>    a=b
>    a<b
>    a>b
> 
> The set of all OrdinalNumbers less than any given one form a total-ordered set.  In particular, the finite ordinals (NaturalNumbers) form the unique smallest total-ordered set with no upper bound.  The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor a lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980497422
10c10
< The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.
---
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets.  If it turns out to be closed under arbitrary unions of sets, as opposed to just finite ones, it is called a TopOlogy.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980497464
10c10
< The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets.  If it turns out to be closed under arbitrary unions of sets, as opposed to just finite ones, it is called a TopOlogy.
---
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets.
------
NamingConventions|980498198
40c40,42
< Wouldn't it be a good idea to add a tool on each page helping us to find names with incorrect or missing links. My suggestion is to modify the preview page to include a list of all words or combination of words present in the text that have entries (independant of capitalization) in wikipedia. In that way it would be simple to pin-point errors in capitalization and the need for rules diminishes.  --LinusTolke
---
> Wouldn't it be a good idea to add a tool on each page helping us to find names with incorrect or missing links. My suggestion is to modify the preview page to include a list of all words or combination of words present in the text that have entries (independant of capitalization) in wikipedia. In that way it would be simple to pin-point errors in capitalization and the need for rules diminishes.  --LinusTolke
> ----
> The first and last letter approach requires the least thinking to apply, for single word topics.  In any case, it seems kinda plain that we ought to try to standardize a bit here, since otherwise "accidental linking" is going to be a lot less accidental.  ;-)  -- Bryce
------
SovietUnion|980498262
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Soviet Union was a CommunisT country.
------
SovietUnion|980498347
1c1,3
< The Soviet Union was a CommunisT country.
---
> The Soviet Union was founded on the principles of CommunisM.  
> General concensus is it didn't work too well, so the union
> splintered into its various constituent RepubliC s.
------
BronzeAge|980498420
9c9,11
< Around 1200 BC ''something'' happened that dramatically shifted power away from these kingdoms.  Within a few decades city centers all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked and the kingdoms swept away.  Only Egypt, power broken, and Assyria escaped destruction.  This issues in a dark age for the west, and by the time civilization had recovered, the iron age had begun.
---
> Around 1200 BC ''something'' happened that dramatically shifted power away from these kingdoms.  Within a few decades city centers all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked and the kingdoms swept away.  Only Egypt, power broken, and Assyria escaped destruction.  This issues in a dark age for the west, and by the time civilization had recovered, the iron age had begun.
> ----
> See also: CopperAge, IronAge
------
HistoryOfEurope|980498443
5c5
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalIsm, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
---
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalsM, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
------
CopperAge|980498454
9a10,12
> 
> ----
> See also: NeolithicPeriod, BronzeAge
------
FeudalsM|980498478
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Political organization based on hierarchical fealty.
> 
------
PoLitics|980498564
1a2,12
> 
> * RepubliC
> 
> * CommunisM
> * FeudalisM
> * FederalisM
> * SocialisM
> * DemocracY
> * AnarchY
> * PlutocracY
> * OligarchY
------
CopperAge|980498585
5c5
< Meanwhile parallel developments had occured in Africa and India.  Egypt was united to form the old kingdom around 3100 BC, the country that left us the pyramids, and after a brief interlude became the middle kingdom centered at Thebes.  And a relatively poorly known, but nevertheless highly advanced, urban civilization grew up at centers like Harappa in the IndusValley.
---
> Meanwhile parallel developments had occured in Africa and India.  The OldKingdomOfEgypt was unified around 3100 BC, the country that left us the pyramids, and after a brief interlude became the MiddleKingdomOfEgypt centered at Thebes.  And a relatively poorly known, but nevertheless highly advanced, urban civilization grew up at centers like Harappa in the IndusValley.
12c12
< See also: NeolithicPeriod, BronzeAge
---
> See also: NeolithicPeriod, BronzeAge
------
PoLitics|980498915
3c3
< * RepubliC
---
> Topics to expound on...
6a7
> * Capitalism
8a10
> * SyndicalisM
12a15,19
> * Authoritarian
> * RepubliC
> * CityState
> * NationState
> * WorldState
------
SyndicalisM|980499037
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The syndicalism political theory places control of both industry and government to labor union federations.
> It often choses to use DirectAction, such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
> 
------
PoLitics|980499266
15c15
< * Authoritarian
---
> * AuthoritariaN
19c19
< * WorldState
---
> * WorldState
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|980499881
7a8,14
> 
> ----
> I'd like to see...
> * Alphabetical listing of all topics in the Wiki
> * Listing of all topics edited by a given individual (if possible)
> 
> -- Bryce
------
CommunisM|980500178
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> 
> * Marxism
> * Lenninism
> * Stalinism
> * Maoism
------
PoLitics|980500414
19a20,24
> 
> * TechnoDemocracy
> * TechnoAnarchy
> * TechnoCapitalism
> * TechnoOligarchy
------
IndoEuropean|980500421
1c1
< It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared during the BronzeAge, around 2000-1600 BC.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of NaziGermany.
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared around the beginning of the BronzeAge.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of German NationalSocialism.
5,19c5,27
< CelticLanguages
< 
< GermanicLanguages
< 
< ItalicLanguages, including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages
< 
< IllyrianLanguages (now restricted to AlbanianLanguage)
< 
< GreekLanguage
< 
< SlavicLanguages
< 
< AnatolianLanguages (extinct)
< 
< IndoIranianLanguages, e.g. SanskritLanguage
---
>    IndoIranianLanguages (e.g. SanskritLanguage, HindiLanguage, PersianLanguage)
>    ItalicLanguages (including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages)
>    GermanicLanguages (e.g. EnglishLanguage, GermanLanguage, DutchLanguage, SwedishLanguage)
>    CelticLanguages (e.g. IrishLanguage, WelshLanguage)
>    BalticLanguages (e.g. OldPrussian, LatvianLanguage, LithuanianLanguage)
>    SlavicLanguages (e.g. OldSlavonic, RussianLanguage, PolishLanguage, CzechLanguage, SerboCroatianLanguage)
>    IllyrianLanguages (AlbanianLanguage and extinct cousins)
>    AnatolianLanguages (extinct, most notable was the language of the HittitePeoples)
>    TocharianLanguages (extinct tongues of TocharianPeoples)
>    GreekLanguage
>    ArmenianLanguage
>    
> These are all InflectedLanguages unlike, say, ChineseLanguages.  Some work indicates they may belong to a hypothetical language superfamily called the NostraticLanguages.  For those interested in such things, the original sounds appear to be
> 
>    p   t   ky  k   kw                   Voiceless stops
>    b   d   gy  g   gw                   Voiced stops
>    bh  dh  ghy gh  ghw                  Voiced aspirated stops
> 
>    s   z   H1  H2  H3                   Spirants, laryngeals (quality unknown)
>    r   l   y   w   m   n                Semi-vowels, nasals
>    
>    a   e   i   o   u                    Short vowels
>    a^  e^  i^  o^? u^?                  Long vowels
------
SwedeN|980500464
1c1
< CountrY in Northern EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken i SwedisH. CapitaL is StockholM.
---
> CountrY in Northern EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken is SwedishLanguage. CapitaL is StockholM.
------
SwedisH|980500504
1,4c1
< Language spoken in SwedeN and FinlanD.
< One of the GermanicLanguages.
< 
< Defined by the SwedishAcademy.
---
> deleted in favor of SwedishLanguage, which does not have the race/language ambiguity
------
SwedishLanguage|980500521
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken in SwedeN and FinlanD. One of the GermanicLanguages.
> 
> Defined by the SwedishAcademy. 
------
GermanicLanguages|980500541
5c5
< North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage / SwedisH -- NorwegianLanguage
---
> North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage -- NorwegianLanguage
------
HistoryOfEurope|980500608
5c5
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalsM, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
---
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalisM, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
------
FeudalsM|980500649
1c1
< Political organization based on hierarchical fealty.
---
> deleted; typo on my part, should have been FeudalisM.  Darn, darn, darn.
------
FeudalisM|980500695
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A society based on a notion of hierchial fealty, in exchange for which one receives grants of land (BeneFices).
------
TechnoDemocracy|980500773
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Direct DemocracY requires that all citizens participate in the decision making process.
> Yet as a practical matter, until the latter half of the 20th century this has simply
> not been possible on a large scale, due to the logistical nightmare of gathering all
> of the people together for deliberation and voting.
> 
> TechnoDemocracy is a movement that seeks to leverage use of technology (including computers
> and the internet) to help eliminate the geographical limitation of direct democracy, in
> the belief that by doing so, it will allow DemocraticRepublic s to become more democratic
> and avoid the troubles of OligarchY.
> 
------
OligarchY|980501097
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When power is effectively vested in a segment of the governed society 
> (typically the richest segment), the result is a government of the few
> against the many.  Often, these oligarchies are organized into powerful
> families, where the children are raised and groomed simply to propagate
> and advance the power of the oligarchy, usually at the expense of the 
> governed.  Oligarchies often arise as a natural course of 
> maturing of a republic, and often devolve into AuthoritariaN governments, 
> as one family gains supremacy over all of the others.
> 
> -- BryceHarrington
------
HistoryOfEurope|980504322
2a3,26
> Europe has been human-occupied since the dawn of mankind.  NeanderthaL man settled Europe long before the emergence
> of modern man, HomoSapiens.  
> 
> The CelticPeople formed the first well-known, widespread civilization in Europe.  As they did not practice a 
> written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
> about them; these records and the results of archaeological digs form our primary understanding of this extremely
> influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competitor to the RomanEmpire, that had
> colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
> 
> While much of the early prehistory of Europe is shrouded in mystery, one of the first solid, very well-documented 
> cultures is that of the Greeks.  The GreekCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
> vastly differing types of government and cultures.  While it is likely that many other civilizations around the
> world experimented with the various governmental forms, because of the thorough analysis and documentation (and
> the careful preservation of this "classical" data by first the Romans and later the CatholicChurch), these researchings
> have come down to present day, influencing political thinking around the world.  The Greeks (and the Athenian's 
> especially) were well known for their erudite philosophical ponderings on a great many matters, and are often 
> accredited with the founding of Western Philosophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
> 
> AlexanderTheGreat, a Macedonian, conquered Greece, and much of the (Western) civilized world of the time,
> extending almost as far as India.  A brilliant strategitian, backed by some of the best minds produced
> by the GreekCivilization, Alexander's exploits laid the foundations of western military strategy.
> 
> The Roman Empire emerged from Italy, originally governed by kings, then by an oligarchical republic made up of senators.  These families fought and schemed against one another, using the vast and powerful Roman armies as tools of power.  After a series of military successes, Julius Ceasar declared himself ruler of the empire.  His assasination led to a civil war, the result of which was a succession of AuthoritariaN emperors.
> 
------
EuroCurrency|980511276
1c1,8
< The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries. The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999). The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries.
> 
>  The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. 
> 
> The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999).
> 
>  
> The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
------
EuroCurrency|980511297
3c3
<  The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. 
------
WikiPediaFaq|980511809
0a1,3
> '''Q. Which languages are -from the technical or from the social point of view- desirable. '''
> 
> ----
------
CountriesE|980512577
1c1,2
< EstoniA
---
> EstoniA
> EsperantujO
------
CountriesE|980512593
2c2,3
< EsperantujO
---
> 
> EsperantujO
------
EsperantujO|980513011
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Esperantujo isn't a country at all.
> 
> But when two people are speaking EsperantO (the international language) they are in Esperantujo. Although geographicaly they are in spain, russia, or canada.
> 
> Esperantujo may have two inhabitants or 500 and it is everywhere.
> Maybe even in your local town.
> 
> See also: http://www.esperanto.org
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|980513323
4a5,6
> -----
> but why  they do not simply use <em>html</em> --NormanWerner
------
NormanWerner|980513419
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> that's me.
> 
> you want to complain: norvan@web.de
> 
> you are a young sexy girl: norvan@web.de
> 
> you want to know who i am: norvan@web.de
------
GermanY|980513917
3c3,5
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
---
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. 
> 
> It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
9c11
< Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
---
> Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
13c15
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag. 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them there murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered some millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
---
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party(KPD) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
15c17
< At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones—French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
---
> At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
17c19
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.) Citizens from each side were not necessarily unanimously behind this move that was orchestrated by HelmutKohl, then the Federal Chancellor of the BRD. This was illustrated by a clever spray-paint slogan I saw on a wall in Jena (a university town in EastGermany) ca. 1992: "Lasst euch nicht BRD-igen!" = "Don't let yourselves be West Germanized!" But also "Don't let yourselves be buried!" by a play on homonyms. Overall, most were very excited about reunification until the reality of extra taxes, unemployment in the East, etc. set in in the mid 1990s.
---
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
19c21
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
---
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
------
SportS|980514072
54a55,58
> 
> brain-sports (where you have to think):
> * ChesS
> * GO
------
SportS|980514092
58c58
< * GO
---
> * GoO
------
ChesS|980514497
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a game which is some thousend years old.
> It is especially popular for it's complexity.
> 
> the world organization of chess players is the [http://www.fide.org FIDE] 
> 
> all you need is:
> * two players
> * chessboard with figures
> * optional watch
> 
> unfortunatly the rules are to complicated to describe here
> a lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
> but i don't know the english terms
------
ChesS|980514524
12,13c12,13
< a lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
< but i don't know the english terms
---
> . A lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
> but i don't know the english terms
------
AustriA|980517415
1c1
< Austria¥pop© ca© 7©5m¤ is a small landlocked country in Central Europe© It is a federation of 9 states©
---
> Austria (pop. ca. 7.5m) is a small landlocked country in Central Europe. It is a federation of 9 states.
3c3
< Capital: Vienna ¥pop© ca© 1©8m¤
---
> Capital: Vienna (pop. ca. 1.8m)
5c5,7
< Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein© Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic©
---
> Language Spoken: German (and a large number of dialects)
> 
> Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic.
------
FootBall|980517721
19c19
< I was very much aware of this conflict when I wrote this entry. I just wanted to stir up something. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has probably spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
---
> I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
21,23c21,31
< Do the following comparison:
< * American sites: http://www.football.com/ http://www.soccer.com/
< * British sites: http://www.football.co.uk/ http://www.soccer.co.uk/
---
> Do the following investigation yourself:
> * British site: http://www.football.co.uk/
> * French site: http://www.football.fr/
> * Italian site: http://www.football.it/
> * South africa: http://www.safa.org.za/misstat.html
> * Mexico: http://www.terceradivision.com.mx/
> * Argentina: http://www.afa.org.ar/home.htm
> * Brasil: http://www.brasilfutebol.com/select_language.sps
> * India: http://www.indianfootball.8m.com/
> 
> A quick Internet-investigation leads me to believe that UnitedStates, CanadA, AustraliA and NewZeeland use the word Soccer and the rest of the world uses the word FootBall.
------
FootBall|980517840
19c19
< I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
---
> I have never heard of a SportS called EuropeanFootball. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
------
FootBall|980517989
31c31
< A quick Internet-investigation leads me to believe that UnitedStates, CanadA, AustraliA and NewZeeland use the word Soccer and the rest of the world uses the word FootBall.
---
> A quick Internet-investigation leads me to believe that UnitedStates, CanadA, AustraliA and NewZealand use the word Soccer and the rest of the world uses the word FootBall.
------
PolanD|980518278
1a2,5
> 
> Population: ca. 40m.
> 
> Capital: Warsaw (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
------
PopularMusic|980518363
30a31
> * MetallicA
------
MetallicA|980518570
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the greatest Metal bands ever.
> 
> First Album: Kill 'Em All
> Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra.
> 
> Members:
> Lars Ulrich, drums
> Jason Newsted, bass
> Kirk Hammet, guitar
> James Hetfield, throat, guitar
------
MetallicA|980518622
3a4
> 
6a8
> 
7a10
> 
8a12
> 
9a14
> 
------
LarrySanger|980518723
13a14,15
> ----
> Why are all Siberian Husky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
------
LarrySanger|980518756
15c15
< Why are all Siberian Husky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
---
> Why are all SiberianHusky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
------
KurtCobain|980518788
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanA.
> He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
------
NirvanA|980518913
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A grunge band from Seattle (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
> 
> Members: KurtCobain, ChrisNovoselic, DaveGrohl
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|980519038
6c6,18
< but why  they do not simply use <em>html</em> --NormanWerner
---
> '''Wiki Formatting:'''
> 
> But why  they do not simply use <em>html</em>? --NormanWerner
> 
> :They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> :Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> :There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> :The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
> 
> :The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
------
PythagoreanTheorem|980519068
62a63,66
> ----
> 
> Poser:  (3,4,5) is a pythagorean triplet since 3^2 + 4^2 = 5^2.  Which positive integers are not part of a pythagorean triplet?
> 
------
CountriesP|980519512
1,7c1,7
< PolanD
< PortugaL
< ParaguaY
< PitcairnIsland
< PanamA
< PakistaN
< Papua New GineA
---
> * PolanD
> * PortugaL
> * ParaguaY
> * PitcairnIsland
> * PanamA
> * PakistaN
> * Papua New GineA
------
CountriesP|980519548
7c7
< * Papua New GineA
---
> * PapuaNewGuineA
------
FootBall|980519716
5c5
< Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal.
---
> Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal, which is called the PenaltyArea aka the "box").
------
DoubleStops|980519732
1c1,7
< Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.  This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.  American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.  In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in northwest Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.
> 
> This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.
> 
> American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.
> 
> In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in northwest Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
------
FootBall|980519747
5c5
< Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal, which is called the PenaltyArea aka the "box").
---
> Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal, which is called the PenaltyArea (aka the "box").
------
PolanD|980520160
5c5,12
< Capital: Warsaw (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
---
> Capital: Warsaw (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
> 
> 
> :From an Englishman's diary:
> * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
> * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
> * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
> * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
------
PoleS|980520308
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> General name for people living in PolanD.
------
CountriesR|980520412
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Russia
------
CountriesR|980520428
1c1
< * Russia
---
> * RussiA
------
GeorgeWBush|980521933
7c7
< Rants might be fun, but maybe we can be more encyclopedic here?
---
> Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
------
ReCreation|980522056
7a8,9
> 
> In EuropE BeeR is very important.
------
BeeR|980522293
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An alcoholic drink (typically 5-6% alcohol, about 3.5 to 4% in the US), which is consumed in large quantities by males and females of all ages (16 to 99+). Mostly drank at home, in pubs and at FootBall games.
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980522476
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most interesting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar desgine.   |S|c|a|r|e|
---
> http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most interesting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar design.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
LikeThis|980522693
2c2,4
< And like this is not LikeThis.
---
> And like this is not LikeThis.
> ----
> How about LikeThat
------
LikeThat|980522717
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Or try LikeThis.
------
ScienCe|980523109
17a18,22
> 
> ComputerScience
> * ArtificialIntelligence
> * DistributedComputing
> * ProgramMing
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|980523563
7a8
> * To see an alphabetical list of all entries type A* into the search box and press search.
11d11
< * Alphabetical listing of all topics in the Wiki
14c14
< -- Bryce
---
> -- Bryce
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|980523889
8c8
< * To see an alphabetical list of all entries type A* into the search box and press search.
---
> * To see an alphabetical list of all entries follow [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index this link].
------
KurtCobain|980523986
1,2c1,2
< Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanA.
< He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanA (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
> He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
------
DaveGrohl|980526368
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanA until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the FooFighters
------
NirvanA|980526467
3a4,9
> 
> 
> Best known albums:
> * Nevermind
> * MTV unplugged
> * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
------
HomePage|980528910
9d8
< * HowCanIExploreWikiPedia?
------
HareKrishna|980528955
17c17,20
< Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
---
> Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
> 
> 
> FORGET WHAT I WROTE! IM STONED!!
------
AustriA|980529113
9c9
< 
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. One of the greatest ist called "Clemens Schwaighofer".
------
AustriA|980529146
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. One of the greatest ist called "Clemens Schwaighofer".
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. One of the greatest is called "Clemens Schwaighofer".
------
AllSaints|980529392
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lock them up seperatly for about two months, then get all of them nude and bodyshaved and bring them to me. Then All Saints makes sense.
------
AustriA|980529429
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. One of the greatest is called "Clemens Schwaighofer".
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
------
ScienCe|980529674
16a17
> * Fucking
------
ScienCe|980529745
17c17
< * Fucking
---
> 
------
HareKrishna|980530350
17,20c17
< Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
< 
< 
< FORGET WHAT I WROTE! IM STONED!!
---
> Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
------
AllSaints|980530529
1c1
< Lock them up seperatly for about two months, then get all of them nude and bodyshaved and bring them to me. Then All Saints makes sense.
---
> (content edited)
------
NirvanA|980530595
9c9,11
< * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
---
> * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
> ----
> Also an English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
------
LikeThat|980531086
1c1
< Or try LikeThis.
---
> Like, that is not LikeThis.
------
LikeThis|980531099
4c4
< How about LikeThat
---
> How about LikeThat.
------
HomePage|980531337
9a10
> * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
------
EuropE|980531376
41a42
>     SanMarino,
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|980531464
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Why aren't these pages copyedited?
> 
> The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who know the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but no.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
> 
> You disgust me.  Now go out there and do that copyediting!
> 
> Uh, ;-).
------
TopOlogy|980531564
46a47,48
> ----
> Fair enough.  My point initially was that such theoretical shapes as Moebius strips and Klein bottles '''can''' be '''modeled''' after a fashion but not ''actually literally'' '''built''' in our three-dimensional space.  The fact that we can model a Moebius strip is instructive, and serves to get students thinking in new ways, but the 3-dimensionality of the materials used should not ultimately be ignored.  Yes, of course a torus is a two-dimensional object, deformed through a third dimension.  I referred to the surfaces of these objects, not their "guts."  As was pointed out earlier, the nature of matter, being charged particles with space between them, means we can't actually '''build''' any of these theoretical mathematical objects which consist of sets of points with no space between them.  Here is a new thought - do you suppose that faster-than-light travel will be invented by the same guy who figures out how to construct a real Klein bottle?  Or better still, figures out how to deform our three-dimensional space through an additional dimension?
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|980531689
7c7,11
< Uh, ;-).
---
> Uh, ;-).
> 
> ----
> 
> Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
------
FootBall|980531905
19c19
< I have never heard of a SportS called EuropeanFootball. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what americans call Soccer.
---
> I have never heard of a SportS called EuropeanFootball. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what Americans call Soccer.
33a34,35
> ----
> Americans, when for whatever reason we speak about soccer as "football," in order to avoid confusion with the sport we call "football," call soccer "European football."  Even [http://uk.sports.yahoo.com/foot/ital/t/inte/ Yahoo! UK] is determined to annoy you by calling it this.
------
PolanD|980532092
6,12c6,7
< 
< 
< :From an Englishman's diary:
< * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
< * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
< * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
< * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
---
> ----
> Text deleted, sent to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980532153
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
> ----
> From the PolanD page:
> 
> :From an Englishman's diary:
> * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
> * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
> * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
> * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
> ----
------
PatentNonsense|980532222
4a5
> This should be sent to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
11,19c12
< * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
< ----
< Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
< 
< A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
< 
< Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
< 
< A. Go figure!
---
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980532261
3c3
< From the PolanD page:
---
> From PolanD:
10a11,20
> From PatentNonsense:
> 
> Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
> 
> A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
> 
> Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
> 
> A. Go figure!
> ----
------
WikiPediaFaq|980532359
18a19,20
> 
> And make use of the BadJokesAndDeletedNonsense page.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980532523
20c20
< And make use of the BadJokesAndDeletedNonsense page.
---
> And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980532898
1,3d0
< '''Q. Which languages are -from the technical or from the social point of view- desirable. '''
< 
< ----
15a13,16
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or asocial point of view--desirable?'''
> 
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  So, for example, perhaps you could add "De" to the end of any page, with a link to it at the bottom of the page, for a German translation.  So at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation.  Just a thought.
> ----
20c21
< And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
---
> And make use of the BadJokesAndDeletedNonsense page.
38c39,41
< '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  Whats the purpose?'''
---
> '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  What's the purpose?'''
> 
> A. You got me.  I think it was Ward Cunningham's invention as part of his original wiki.  It's part of the software, for which we aren't responsible.  We might, of course, change this (obligating us to relabel zillions of links, but no matter).
48c51,53
< '''Q. Whats the point of getting a user number?'''
---
> '''Q. What's the point of getting a user number?'''
> 
> A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
50c55
< '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreements on the contents of WikiPedia?'''
---
> '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreement on the contents of WikiPedia?'''
52c57
< A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980532923
13c13
< '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or asocial point of view--desirable?'''
---
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
------
FootBall|980533216
35c35,37
< Americans, when for whatever reason we speak about soccer as "football," in order to avoid confusion with the sport we call "football," call soccer "European football."  Even [http://uk.sports.yahoo.com/foot/ital/t/inte/ Yahoo! UK] is determined to annoy you by calling it this.
---
> Americans, when for whatever reason we speak about soccer as "football," in order to avoid confusion with the sport we call "football," call soccer "European football."  Even [http://uk.sports.yahoo.com/foot/ital/t/inte/ Yahoo! UK] is determined to annoy you by calling it this.
> ----
> Yahoo! UK - just as any other decent sports site - calls it European FootBall in order to distinguish between FootBall played in Europe and FootBall played on other continents, eg. South America. I would like to remind my fellow Americans that FootBall, by definition is played using one's feet, and not by holding on to it with your hands and running around like a headless chicken.
------
PootPoot|980534325
1c1
< Poot poot [http://www.pootpoot.com/poot/pootify?URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikipedia.com&options=none Pootpoot], poot.
---
> Poot poot [http://www.pootpoot.com/poot/pootify?URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikipedia.com&options=none Pootpoot], poot.  Poot [http://www.80s.com/cgi-bin/valley.cgi?url=http://www.wikipedia.com/ Valley Poot]!
------
TopOlogy|980534476
39c39
< OK - fair enough, but the generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
---
> OK - fair enough, but generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
------
PolanD|980534832
1c1
< Poland is a country in central Europe that lies between GermanY and RussiA.
---
> Poland is a medium sized country in Central Europe. It's neighbours are: GermanY, RussiA, LithuaniA, BelaruS, UkrainE, SlovakiA, and the CzechRepublic.
3c3
< Population: ca. 40m.
---
> Population: ca. 40m PoleS.
6,7c6,7
< ----
< Text deleted, sent to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
---
> 
> 
------
PolanD|980535034
7c7
< 
---
> Language spoken: Polish
------
NamingConventions|980535332
42c42,44
< The first and last letter approach requires the least thinking to apply, for single word topics.  In any case, it seems kinda plain that we ought to try to standardize a bit here, since otherwise "accidental linking" is going to be a lot less accidental.  ;-)  -- Bryce
---
> The first and last letter approach requires the least thinking to apply, for single word topics.  In any case, it seems kinda plain that we ought to try to standardize a bit here, since otherwise "accidental linking" is going to be a lot less accidental.  ;-)  -- Bryce
> ----
> Thank you, Bryce.  I, too, would be fine with the "first and last" rule on single word topics, to go along with the "first letter of every word" rule on multiple word topics. All the rest, what say ye? -- AyeSpy
------
AyeSpy|980535707
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ayespy has over 3900 classroom and field hours in investigative and intelligence training - the equivalent of more than a master's degree in his field.  He has 21 years as a private 
> investigator for law firms.
> 
> He writes science fiction.
> 
> He has worked professionally in 30 different fields, from horse husbandry, auto mechanics and home construction to photography, marketing, personnel management and counseling.
> 
> He is a vocalist, guitarist, and song writer.
> 
> His last IQ test came in at 154. (as though anyone cares)
> 
> He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative 
> religion.
> 
> To see the actual list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
------
EastGermany|980535818
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After WW2, in 1949 at the potsdamconference the winning countries france, england, america and russia decided to divide germany in 2 parts. Each country got one part of the former germany, being an area it controls.
> While soon the three areas controlled by america, england and france did kind of reunite and formed the "federal republic of germany", the russian part was made a own country too, the "german democratic republic". It was also called eastern germany.
> Eastern germany was under heavy influence of Russia and became a communistic country very soon until the only link to democracy was the part in its name.
> Eastern germany soon started to seperate itself from western germany (which became more and more democratic and capitalistic, with help from england, france and most of all, america) by closing the open borders by fences, turrets dogs and most of all huge walls.
> A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like germany got divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of germany got divided. Since Berlin was inside the russian part of germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the three western countries soon got "westberlin".
> So when Eastern germany closed the border it also literally sorrounded westberlin by a huge wall, the "berlin wall".
> Anyway, there is to much historical stuff to talk about, kennedy visiting westberlin and saying "I am a Berliner !" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw), eastern and western germany used as outpost and ground for the "cold war" by eastern and western spys and much more.
> 1989 the berlin wall fell and with it the whole communistic system of eastern germany, both parts got re-united and became "Germany" again.
> But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
> 
------
AyeSpy|980536333
15c15,132
< To see the actual list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
---
> What on earth does AyeSpy do with himself all day?
> 
> AyeSpy
> Investigator
> 
> Job Duties:
> 
> Photos of plaintiff vehicle damages
> 
> Photos of defendant vehicle damages
> 
> Photos of client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities
> 
> Photos of scene, taken in a fashion so as to clarify liability or fact issues
> 
> Scale diagraming of accident scenes
> 	
> 	Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos, 
> 
> Obtaining of recorded witness statements, 
> 
> Sitting in on (to observe and regulate) recorded statements of clients by insurance reps
> 
> Obtaining and preservation of physical evidence
> 	
> Inspection and analysis of physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:
> 		failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
> 	
> 	Investigation to determine the manufacturers and distributors of products when not clearly stated on same
> 
> Obtaining of exemplar products for comparison and testing
> 	
> 	Inspection and analysis of premises (including plumbing, wiring, framing, glazing, roofing, masonry, stairs, floors, railings, drywall) in order to determine code compliance and to determine accident causation facts and liability.  
> 
> Premises illumination analysis
> 
> 	Investigation and analysis of job safety factors and plant operation to determine when ordinary negligence is exceeded or third party liability enters in.
> 
> Analysis of potential toxic exposure and causes for environmental illness
> 
> Analysis of compliance or lack thereof with safe animal restraint and handling practices
> 
> Investigation of company compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety laws
> 
> 	Inspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
> 
> Photos of physical evidence
> 
> Micro-photography of evidence
> 
> Photos of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
> 
> Accident reconstruction from physical evidence and witness accounts including:
> 	vehicle movement, speed from skid, speed from crush, speed from roll, vehicle attitude, occupant impact, elapsed time between events, avoidance factors, braking performance, visibility and vehicle illumination, use or non-use of restraint, etc.
> 
> Obtaining of outside reports from police, coroner, other jurisdictions, etc.
> 
> Videotape scenes, client activities, impairments, other evidence
> 
> Obtain police and television and other public-source videos
> 
> Video copying and editing
> 
> Find and hire consulting and testifying experts
> 
> Liaise with and supervise consulting and testifying experts
> 
> Unsnarl difficult property damage issues and P/D value disputes
> 
> Investigate to locate insurance and analyze insurance exposure under case facts
> 
> Evaluate questionable incoming cases as to worth and sufficiency.
> 
> Locate missing persons including defendants, witnesses and clients.
> 
> 	Identify and locate defendants and their agents for purposes of service and correctly naming in complaint
> 
> Secure, preserve and regulate access to accident vehicles as appropriate
> 
> 	Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
> 
> Attend and record salient facts of plaintiff and defendant traffic trials
> 
> Police, fire, coroner, prosecutor liaison to assist prosecution and conviction of defendants
> 
> 	Review of medical and coroner records to determine causation of injury or death.  Liaison with  coroner to get erroneous causation corrected on official report
> 
> Back-up prospective case interviewing
> 
> Prospective case interviewing in hospital or home setting
> 
> Rapid service of process on friendly witnesses
> 
> Surveillance
> 
> 	Public records research to determine history of accident site, and identities and zones of responsibility of potential defendants
> 
> 	Defendant asset and criminal and civil record searches - background investigation for credibility purposes
> 
> Legal research and statutory and case citation to assist attorney in case analysis
> 
> Writing of some pleadings in state and federal court.
> 
> Determination of relevant discovery issues as requested
> 
> Assisting clients in response to discovery if necessary
> 
> 	American Trial Lawyers Association research of current and past similar cases against same or similar defendant or product
> 
> Premises security plan and execution analysis
> 
> Area crime trend analysis
> 
> Travel as necessary to conduct any and all of above out of town and/or out of state.
> 
> 	Represent firm to other firms, public agencies, witnesses and to potential clients in the most capable and professional light possible
> 
> To see the actual list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
------
EastGermany|980536355
1,9c1,9
< After WW2, in 1949 at the potsdamconference the winning countries france, england, america and russia decided to divide germany in 2 parts. Each country got one part of the former germany, being an area it controls.
< While soon the three areas controlled by america, england and france did kind of reunite and formed the "federal republic of germany", the russian part was made a own country too, the "german democratic republic". It was also called eastern germany.
< Eastern germany was under heavy influence of Russia and became a communistic country very soon until the only link to democracy was the part in its name.
< Eastern germany soon started to seperate itself from western germany (which became more and more democratic and capitalistic, with help from england, france and most of all, america) by closing the open borders by fences, turrets dogs and most of all huge walls.
< A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like germany got divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of germany got divided. Since Berlin was inside the russian part of germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the three western countries soon got "westberlin".
< So when Eastern germany closed the border it also literally sorrounded westberlin by a huge wall, the "berlin wall".
< Anyway, there is to much historical stuff to talk about, kennedy visiting westberlin and saying "I am a Berliner !" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw), eastern and western germany used as outpost and ground for the "cold war" by eastern and western spys and much more.
< 1989 the berlin wall fell and with it the whole communistic system of eastern germany, both parts got re-united and became "Germany" again.
< But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
---
> After WW2, in 1949 at the potsdamconference the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, AmericA and RussiA decided to divide germany in 2 parts. Each country got to control a part former GermanY.
> While soon the three areas controlled by AmericA, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the "Federal Republic of GermanY", the Russian part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". It was also called EastGermany.
> EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a communist country very soon until the only link to democracy was the part in its name.
> EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from western germany (which became more and more democratic and capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, AmericA) by closing the open borders by fences, turrets, dogs and most of all huge walls.
> A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like GermanY got divided after the war, also BerliN, former capital of GermanY got divided. Since BerliN was inside the Russian part of GermanY, the areas of BerliN being held under the control of the three western countries soon was known as WestBerlin.
> So when EastGermany closed the border it also literally sorrounded WestBerlin by a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
> Anyway, there is to much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner !" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West GermanY used WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the ColdWar.
> 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole Communist system of EastGermany, both parts got re-united and became "GermanY" again.
> But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
------
AyeSpy|980536520
32c32
< 	Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos, 
---
> Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos, 
40,41c40
< Inspection and analysis of physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:
< 		failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
---
> Inspection and analysis of physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:  failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
43c42
< 	Investigation to determine the manufacturers and distributors of products when not clearly stated on same
---
> Investigation to determine the manufacturers and distributors of products when not clearly stated on same
47c46
< 	Inspection and analysis of premises (including plumbing, wiring, framing, glazing, roofing, masonry, stairs, floors, railings, drywall) in order to determine code compliance and to determine accident causation facts and liability.  
---
> Inspection and analysis of premises (including plumbing, wiring, framing, glazing, roofing, masonry, stairs, floors, railings, drywall) in order to determine code compliance and to determine accident causation facts and liability.  
51c50
< 	Investigation and analysis of job safety factors and plant operation to determine when ordinary negligence is exceeded or third party liability enters in.
---
> Investigation and analysis of job safety factors and plant operation to determine when ordinary negligence is exceeded or third party liability enters in.
59c58
< 	Inspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
---
> nspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
67,68c66
< Accident reconstruction from physical evidence and witness accounts including:
< 	vehicle movement, speed from skid, speed from crush, speed from roll, vehicle attitude, occupant impact, elapsed time between events, avoidance factors, braking performance, visibility and vehicle illumination, use or non-use of restraint, etc.
---
> Accident reconstruction from physical evidence and witness accounts including:  vehicle movement, speed from skid, speed from crush, speed from roll, vehicle attitude, occupant impact, elapsed time between events, avoidance factors, braking performance, visibility and vehicle illumination, use or non-use of restraint, etc.
90c88
< 	Identify and locate defendants and their agents for purposes of service and correctly naming in complaint
---
> Identify and locate defendants and their agents for purposes of service and correctly naming in complaint
94c92
< 	Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
---
> Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
96c94
< Attend and record salient facts of plaintiff and defendant traffic trials
---
> Attend and record salient facts of plaintiff and defendant traffic trials.  Prepare plaintiff for traffic trial.
100c98
< 	Review of medical and coroner records to determine causation of injury or death.  Liaison with  coroner to get erroneous causation corrected on official report
---
> Review of medical and coroner records to determine causation of injury or death.  Liaison with  coroner to get erroneous causation corrected on official report
110c108
< 	Public records research to determine history of accident site, and identities and zones of responsibility of potential defendants
---
> Public records research to determine history of accident site, and identities and zones of responsibility of potential defendants
112c110
< 	Defendant asset and criminal and civil record searches - background investigation for credibility purposes
---
> Defendant asset and criminal and civil record searches - background investigation for credibility purposes
122c120
< 	American Trial Lawyers Association research of current and past similar cases against same or similar defendant or product
---
> American Trial Lawyers Association research of current and past similar cases against same or similar defendant or product
130c128
< 	Represent firm to other firms, public agencies, witnesses and to potential clients in the most capable and professional light possible
---
> Represent firm to other firms, public agencies, witnesses and to potential clients in the most capable and professional light possible
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980536634
58a59,67
> 
> :Multi-word links with spaces would require some more effort than single-word links.  I would ''really'' like to implement a system which allows nearly arbitrary text in a link, even including characters like / or ! which may not be allowed in filenames.  On the other hand, I could quickly add something like TWiki's [[Some Phrase Here]] links, which would link to a page SomePageHere.
> 
> :I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
> I'm planning to add [[word]]-style links as an ''optional'' feature in UseModWiki very soon (hopefully by the end of January 2001 (CE :-).  I also think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
> 
> The whole conversion would probably take only a couple hours, much of which would be editing the list.  I'm willing to write the conversion scripts and even do the editing if the maintainers of WikiPedia approve.  --CliffordAdams
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980536847
67a68,69
> ----
> This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer. -- LarrySanger
------
NamingConventions|980536863
44a45,46
> ----
> On the other hand, it wouldn't be too hard to change the wiki to allow links like [[word]] for single-word topics.  See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for further discussion of this idea.  Otherwise, the last-letter capital is probably the best idea that fits within the wiki conventions. --CliffordAdams
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980537039
69c69
< This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer. -- LarrySanger
---
> This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
------
CantorSet|980537086
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cantor Set is a remarkable construction involving only the real numbers between zero and one.  The concept is simple, you take the interval (0,1) and remove the "middle third" of this interval.  Then you take what is left (0, 1/3) U  (2/3, 1) and remove the "middle thirds" from these two intervals.  Continue this process ad infinitum.  Pictorially, the process would look something like this:
> 
>    0                 1/3                  2/3                 1
>    ============================================================
>    ====================                    ====================
>    =======      =======                    =======      =======
>    ==   ==      ==   ==                    ==   ==      ==   ==
> 
> The question becomes, what is left when you are done?  If you add up the length of segments removed, it would calculate out to be:
> 
>     1/3 + 2/9 + 4/27 + 8/81 + ... + 2^n/3^(n+1) = (1/3) SUM [n=1,infinity] (2^n/3^n)
>                                                 = (1/3) (1 / (1- 2/3))
>                                                 = (1/3) (1 / (1/3))
>                                                 = (1/3) (3)
>                                                 = 1
> 
> Using this calculation, you may be surprised if there were anything left - after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval.  However a closer look at the process reveals that we must have something left, since removing the "middle-thirds" of an interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints).  So removing the line segment (1/3, 2/3) from the original (0,1) interval leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3.  A little reflection will convince you quickly that they will never be removed, in fact none of the enpoints of any of the intervals at any stage in the process will ever be removed.  So we know for certainty that the Cantor set is not empty.
> 
> In fact, it can be shown that there as many points left behind in this process as there were those that were removed.  To see this, consider the points in the (0,1) interval in terms of base-three notation.  In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.1 and 2/3 can be written as 0.2.  If we remove everything from 1/3 and 2/3 we are really removing everything between 0.1 and 0.2, or in other words, '''everything with a 1 in the first position after the point''' (except for .1 itself).  The next step examines the intervals (0, 0.1] and [0.2, 1) and removes their middle thirds.  In this case we are removing everything between 0.01 and 0.02 in the first interval and between 0.21 and 0.22 in the second interval.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980537262
21c21
< And make use of the BadJokesAndDeletedNonsense page.
---
> And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
57c57
< A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> A. The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980537316
2a3,6
> '''January 26, 2001'''
> 
> Exciting developments are happening on the NamingConventions and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
> 
------
WikiPediaProcess|980537488
3c3
< I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.  It's possible that this makes me a [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiReductionists "wiki reductionist."] -- LarrySanger
---
> I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it, and then put it on the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.  It's possible that this makes me a [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiReductionists "wiki reductionist."] -- LarrySanger
27c27
< You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- LarrySanger
---
> You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaFaq|980537599
15c15
< A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  So, for example, perhaps you could add "De" to the end of any page, with a link to it at the bottom of the page, for a German translation.  So at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation.  Just a thought.
---
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)
------
PaulaAbdul|980538590
1c1,3
< Bio:
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
------
AllSaints|980538607
1c1,11
< (content edited)
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
ToriAmos|980538633
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
FionaApple|980538647
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
TinaArena|980538656
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
SherrieAustin|980538665
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
BackstreetBoys|980538674
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
BjorK|980538682
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
TracyBonham|980538691
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Band Members:
> 
> Bio(s):
> 
> Musical Style:
> 
> Influence & Influences:
> 
> Discography:
> 
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980538809
44d43
< P.S.  The "Please notice" text on the edit page is missing a closing </b> tag.  This makes any previews show up completely in bold text.  [Please delete this note when the bug is fixed.]
69c68
< This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
---
> This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980538862
66a67,68
> 
> (I think this sounds great -- JimboWales)
------
BjorK|980538901
1,2d0
< Band Members:
< 
9a8
> 
------
RecentChanges|980539050
1c1
< '''Recent changes to this wiki, added automatically.'''
---
> Are you addicted to RecentChanges?  I know I am. :-) --JimboWales
------
EastGermany|980539436
1,9c1,24
< After WW2, in 1949 at the potsdamconference the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, AmericA and RussiA decided to divide germany in 2 parts. Each country got to control a part former GermanY.
< While soon the three areas controlled by AmericA, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the "Federal Republic of GermanY", the Russian part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". It was also called EastGermany.
< EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a communist country very soon until the only link to democracy was the part in its name.
< EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from western germany (which became more and more democratic and capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, AmericA) by closing the open borders by fences, turrets, dogs and most of all huge walls.
< A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like GermanY got divided after the war, also BerliN, former capital of GermanY got divided. Since BerliN was inside the Russian part of GermanY, the areas of BerliN being held under the control of the three western countries soon was known as WestBerlin.
< So when EastGermany closed the border it also literally sorrounded WestBerlin by a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
< Anyway, there is to much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner !" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West GermanY used WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the ColdWar.
< 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole Communist system of EastGermany, both parts got re-united and became "GermanY" again.
< But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
---
> '''History'''
> 
> After WW2, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
> decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
> 
> While soon the three areas controlled by the UnitedStates, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
> FederalRepublicOfGerman, the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
> It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
> country very soon until the only link to DemocracY was the part in its name.
> 
> EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from WestGermany (which became more and more democratic and 
> capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the UnitedStates) by closing the open borders by 
> fences, turrets, dogs and most of all huge walls.  A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like 
> GermanY got divided after the war, also BerlinGermany, former capital of Germany got divided. Since Berlin was 
> inside the Soviet part of Germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the three western countries 
> soon was known as WestBerlin.
> 
> So when EastGermany closed the border it also literally surrounded WestBerlin by a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
> Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West Germany used WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the ColdWar.
> 
> In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts got re-united and 
> became "GermanY" again.
> 
> But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
------
AlbaniaGovernment|980539439
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Albania conventional short form: Albania local long form: Republika e
> Shqiperise local short form: Shqiperia former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania 
> 
> Data code: AL 
> 
> Government type: emerging democracy 
> 
> Capital: Tirana 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth) and 1 municipality* (bashki); Berat, Bulqize, Delvine, Devoll
> (Bilisht), Diber (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje,
> Kucove, Kukes, Kurbin, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesi e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen),
> Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane (Tirana), Tirane* (Tirana), Tropoje
> (Bajram Curri), Vlore note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the
> administrative center name following in parentheses) 
> 
> Independence: 28 November 1912 (from Ottoman Empire) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 28 November (1912) 
> 
> Constitution: a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum on 28 November 1998; note - the opposition Democratic Party
> boycotted the vote 
> 
> Legal system: has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory 
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) head of government: Prime
> Minister Ilir META (since 29 October 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the
> president elections: president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held
> NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president election results: Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote
> by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3, abstained 2, invalid 7 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote
> and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) elections: last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) election results:
> percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%, PLL 3.09%, PDK
> 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1, PUK 1,
> independents 3 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the
> Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Albanian United Right or DBSH (includes PBK, Albanian Republican Party or
> PRS, AND PDD) [Abaz ERMENJI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan
> CEKA]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Liberal Union Party
> [Teodor LACO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Ekrem SPAHIA]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Abaz ERMENJI];
> Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Right National Front [Hysni SELFO]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender
> GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; note - Teodar LACO of the Liberal Union Party was
> leader of the Social Democratic Union of Albania or PBSD 
> 
> International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB,
> IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN,
> UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO? (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Petrit BUSHATI chancery: 2100 S Street NW, Washington, DC
> 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 223-4942 FAX: [1] (202) 628-7342 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph LIMPRECHT embassy: Rruga Elbasanit 103, Tirana
> mailing address: American Embassy, Tirana, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9510 telephone: [355] (42) 47285
> through 47289 FAX: [355] (42) 32222 
> 
> Flag description: red with a black two-headed eagle in the center 
------
AlbaniaEconomy|980539469
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more
> open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous
> centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the
> election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse
> of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population -
> triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The
> new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.
> The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy.
> These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992,
> substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 7% in 1999.
> International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,650 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 54% industry: 25% services: 21% (1998) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 19.6% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.692 million (including 352,000 emigrant workers and 261,000 domestically unemployed) (1994 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49.5%, industry and services 50.5% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14% (October 1997) officially, but may be as high as 28% 
> 
> Budget: revenues: $393 million expenditures: $676 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) 
> 
> Industries: food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 5.15 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.91% hydro: 97.09% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 5.29 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products 
> 
> Exports: $242 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco 
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 63%, Greece 12%, Germany 6%, Netherlands, Belgium, US (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $925 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Italy 43%, Greece 29%, Turkey 4%, Germany 4%, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $820 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: EU pledged $100 million to share with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999) 
> 
> Currency: 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars 
> 
> Exchange rates: leke (L) per US$1 - 135.31 (December 1999), 137.69 (1999), 150.63 (1998), 148.93 (1997), 104.50 (1996), 92.70
> (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
AlbaniA|980539538
19,244d18
< Albania
< 
<                                            People
<  
< 
< Population: 3,490,435 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 545,329; female 507,589) 
< 15-64 years: 63% (male 1,056,583; female 1,141,664) 
< 65 years and over: 7% (male 104,086; female 135,184) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 19.47 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -10.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female 
< total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 41.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 71.57 years 
< male: 68.75 years 
< female: 74.59 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Albanian(s) 
< adjective: Albanian 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) 
< note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek
< organization) 
< 
< Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% 
< note: all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing
< private religious practice 
< 
< Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 9 and over can read and write 
< total population: 93% (1997 est.) 
< male: NA% 
< female: NA% 
< 
<                                         Government
< 
< 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Republic of Albania 
< conventional short form: Albania 
< local long form: Republika e Shqiperise 
< local short form: Shqiperia 
< former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania 
< 
< Data code: AL 
< 
< Government type: emerging democracy 
< 
< Capital: Tirana 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth) and 1 municipality* (bashki); Berat, Bulqize, Delvine, Devoll
< (Bilisht), Diber (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje,
< Kucove, Kukes, Kurbin, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesi e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen),
< Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane (Tirana), Tirane* (Tirana), Tropoje
< (Bajram Curri), Vlore 
< note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name
< following in parentheses) 
< 
< Independence: 28 November 1912 (from Ottoman Empire) 
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 28 November (1912) 
< 
< Constitution: a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum on 28 November 1998; note - the opposition Democratic Party
< boycotted the vote 
< 
< Legal system: has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) 
< head of government: Prime Minister Ilir META (since 29 October 1999) 
< cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the president 
< elections: president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held NA 2002);
< prime minister appointed by the president 
< election results: Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3,
< abstained 2, invalid 7 
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote
< and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) 
< elections: last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) 
< election results: percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%,
< PLL 3.09%, PDK 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1,
< PUK 1, independents 3 
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the
< Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Albanian United Right or DBSH (includes PBK, Albanian Republican Party or
< PRS, AND PDD) [Abaz ERMENJI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan
< CEKA]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Liberal Union Party
< [Teodor LACO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Ekrem SPAHIA]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Abaz ERMENJI];
< Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Right National Front [Hysni SELFO]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender
< GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; note - Teodar LACO of the Liberal Union Party was
< leader of the Social Democratic Union of Albania or PBSD 
< 
< International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA,
< IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN,
< UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Petrit BUSHATI 
< chancery: 2100 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 
< telephone: [1] (202) 223-4942 
< FAX: [1] (202) 628-7342 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph LIMPRECHT 
< embassy: Rruga Elbasanit 103, Tirana 
< mailing address: American Embassy, Tirana, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9510 
< telephone: [355] (42) 47285 through 47289 
< FAX: [355] (42) 32222 
< 
< Flag description: red with a black two-headed eagle in the center 
< 
<                                           Economy
< 
< 
< 
< Economy - overview: An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more
< open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous
< centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the
< election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse
< of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population -
< triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The
< new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.
< The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy.
< These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992,
< substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 7% in 1999.
< International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 8% (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,650 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 54% 
< industry: 25% 
< services: 21% (1998) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: 19.6% (1996 est.) 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Labor force: 1.692 million (including 352,000 emigrant workers and 261,000 domestically unemployed) (1994 est.) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49.5%, industry and services 50.5% 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 14% (October 1997) officially, but may be as high as 28% 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $393 million 
< expenditures: $676 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) 
< 
< Industries: food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Electricity - production: 5.15 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 2.91% 
< hydro: 97.09% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 5.29 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products 
< 
< Exports: $242 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco 
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 63%, Greece 12%, Germany 6%, Netherlands, Belgium, US (1998) 
< 
< Imports: $925 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals 
< 
< Imports - partners: Italy 43%, Greece 29%, Turkey 4%, Germany 4%, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
< (1998) 
< 
< Debt - external: $820 million (1998) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: EU pledged $100 million to share with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999) 
< 
< Currency: 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars 
< 
< Exchange rates: leke (L) per US$1 - 135.31 (December 1999), 137.69 (1999), 150.63 (1998), 148.93 (1997), 104.50 (1996), 92.70
< (1995) 
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
AyeSpyList|980539581
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Did professionally:
> Landscaping, newspaper delivery, typist, transcritionist, personnel trainer, investigator, paralegal, maintenance engineer, plumber, drywall, childcare, electrician, carpenter, painter, glazer, carpet layer, tile, linoleum, wallpaper, automobile mechanic, excavation, PBX operator, hotel front desk, room attendant, vocalist, horse breeder, horse trainer, laborer, vending machine operator, upholstery, locksmith, counselor, human resources director, data analyst, public relations, opinion poll drafting and interpretation, marketing director, security officer, statistical analyst, loan broker, home designer, real estate development, pool maintenance, barback, A/C repair, runner, business consultant, IT recruiter, dispute mediator, photographer, videographer, author.
> 
> Did without pay:
> Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in “don’t fence me in”), tournament fencing (as in, “touche’”), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.a
------
HomePage|980539729
4a5,6
> BritannicaPublicDomain
> 
------
OregoN|980539904
10a11,13
> Other cities in Oregon include:  PortlandOregon, SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
> AstoriaOregon, BeavertonOregon, LakeOswegoOregon, and GladstoneOregon.
> 
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980539951
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As I understand it, ProjectGutenberg has published what they call the "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia".  What this actually is, is the classic 11th edition of the EncyclopediaBritannica.  However, because 'Britannica' is a trademark, even though the text is now public domain (because it is so old), they were unable to call it EncyclopediaBritannica.
> 
> Call it what you will, it is available, and we should consider putting the entire text here, in the Wikipedia.  This may be a lot of work (like my own pet project, which is cutting and pasting all of the public domain CIAWorldFactbook over in CountriesOfTheWorld -- please help me!), but it sure would be a fun thing to have in here.  People could start updating/replacing the articles with ProjectGutenbergEncyclopedia as the foundation.
> 
> Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together.
------
AyeSpyList|980539999
5c5,8
< Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in “don’t fence me in”), tournament fencing (as in, “touche’”), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.a
---
> Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in ?don?t fence me in?), tournament fencing (as in, ?touche??), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.a
> ----
> 
> You forgot: Wrote an encyclopedia.  :-) --JimboWales
------
MathOfTheWesternMusicalScale|980540291
94c94
< So what's a keyboard manufacturer to do?  Tha answer is simple: make one
---
> So what's a keyboard manufacturer to do?  The answer is simple: make one
136a137,139
> ---
> 
> [ one thing i neglected to mention in the original article was that many classical composers wrote compositions for just-intonated instruments (wind instruments in particular).  however, since these instruments couldn't re-tune to a new tonic, modulating the key of the piece created a tension; it sounded like you were still playing in the original key and wanted to return to it.  at least, that's what some people say, and they're usually quite insistent that playing the piece on a JI instrument is the only way to truly hear what the composer intended.  i personally don't believe that, but judge for yourself. { ajax } ]
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980540784
68a69,70
> 
> :Ok then, this will be my big project for the weekend.  Hopefully I'll have something ready in a few days.  (I'll test it first using a sample wiki with some pages copied from WikiPedia.) --CliffordAdams
70a73,78
> 
> :I was leaning toward a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which would also be closer to the regular URL format <nowiki>[URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.  Of course, this feature would be trivial to disable if desired.
> 
> :For spaces in links, I'm leaning toward translating them into _ (underline) characters in the title and URL.  I could then translate _ back to a space when displaying the link.  This would allow you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you could use a nice URL with an underline, rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
> 
> :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less AccidentalLinking, but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980540888
74c74
< :I was leaning toward a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which would also be closer to the regular URL format <nowiki>[URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.  Of course, this feature would be trivial to disable if desired.
---
> :I was leaning toward a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which would also be closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.  Of course, this feature would be trivial to disable if desired.
78c78
< :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less AccidentalLinking, but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
---
> :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less "accidental linking", but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
------
CantorSet|980541036
19c19,24
< In fact, it can be shown that there as many points left behind in this process as there were those that were removed.  To see this, consider the points in the (0,1) interval in terms of base-three notation.  In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.1 and 2/3 can be written as 0.2.  If we remove everything from 1/3 and 2/3 we are really removing everything between 0.1 and 0.2, or in other words, '''everything with a 1 in the first position after the point''' (except for .1 itself).  The next step examines the intervals (0, 0.1] and [0.2, 1) and removes their middle thirds.  In this case we are removing everything between 0.01 and 0.02 in the first interval and between 0.21 and 0.22 in the second interval.
---
> In fact, it can be shown that there as many points left behind in this process as there were those that were removed.  To see this, consider the points in the (0,1) interval in terms of base 3 (or ternial) notation.  In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.1 and 2/3 can be written as 0.2.  If we remove everything from 1/3 and 2/3 we are really removing everything between 0.1 and 0.2, or in other words, '''everything with a 1 in the first position after the point''' (except for .1 itself, but since .1 = 0.02222222..., we can represent it without using a one in any position).  The next step examines the intervals (0, 0.1] and [0.2, 1) and removes their middle thirds.  In this case we are removing everything between 0.01 and 0.02 in the first interval and between 0.21 and 0.22 in the second interval, or in other words, '''everything with a 1 in the second position after the point'''.
> 
> By the time you are done, the net result is that the only numbers removed from the interval are the numbers with ternary representations containing a '1' somewhere after the point.  So the numbers that remain are the ones that can be represented in ternary (base 3) notation with no '1' in any decimal (or ternial, if you prefer) place.  Stated another way the cantor set consists of all the numbers between 0 and 1 that can be represented using only 0's and 2's in ternary notation.  However, and here is the kicker, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the numbers left in the Cantor set, and the all the real numbers between 0 and 1.
> 
> To see this, represent the real numbers in binary (instead of ternary) notation.  Then each number can be represented by a string of 0's and 1's (e.g. 0.101 = 5/8).  Now consider each number in the cantor set.  You can map each one to a number in the interval (0,1) by representing it as a ternary number, changing all 2's to 1's and considering it a base 2 number.  Likewise, each number in the interval (0,1) maps to a number in the Cantor set by representing the number in binary notation, changing all 1's to 2's and considering it a base 3 number.  Thus there is a 1-1 correspondance between the CantorSet and the real numbers in the interval (0,1).
> 
------
CantorSet|980541284
17c17
< Using this calculation, you may be surprised if there were anything left - after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval.  However a closer look at the process reveals that we must have something left, since removing the "middle-thirds" of an interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints).  So removing the line segment (1/3, 2/3) from the original (0,1) interval leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3.  A little reflection will convince you quickly that they will never be removed, in fact none of the enpoints of any of the intervals at any stage in the process will ever be removed.  So we know for certainty that the Cantor set is not empty.
---
> Using this calculation, you may be surprised if there were anything left - after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval.  However a closer look at the process reveals that we must have something left, since removing the "middle-thirds" of an interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints).  So removing the line segment (1/3, 2/3) from the original (0,1) interval leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3.  A little reflection will convince you quickly that they will never be removed, in fact none of the endpoints of any of the intervals at any stage in the process will ever be removed.  So we know for certainty that the Cantor set is not empty.
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980541620
5c5,21
< Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together.
---
> Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together.
> 
> ----
> 
> Whoa, WhatACoincidence.  I just now was downloading vol#1 from it and seeing what it'd take to put it in.  :-)
> 
> The license says it's in the public domain and we can do whatever we please with it...  
> 
> I will volunteer to work on chopping out all of the articles from volume 1 and posting them in the appropriate
> places.  Other than really basic stuff, I'm not going to fiddle with the formatting nor update any inaccuracies
> contained in them, so anyone seeing things to change, correct, or update should lay into it.
> 
> The two MAJOR concerns I have in doing this is a) the information may be WAY out of date in some cases, maybe even
> to the point of uselessness, and b) the articles may be too long for the average wikitizen to get into - they may
> feel too intimidated by the length and tone of the article to add or correct as we'll need.  
> 
> But, I guess we'll never know unless we try, so here goes...  ;-)
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980541654
6c6
< 
---
> -- JimboWales
21a22
> -- BryceHarrington
------
CantorSet|980541751
11c11
<     1/3 + 2/9 + 4/27 + 8/81 + ... + 2^n/3^(n+1) = (1/3) SUM [n=1,infinity] (2^n/3^n)
---
>     1/3 + 2/9 + 4/27 + 8/81 + ... + 2^n/3^(n+1) = (1/3) SUM [n=0,infinity] (2^n/3^n)
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980542134
22c22,24
< -- BryceHarrington
---
> -- BryceHarrington
> ----
> I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB.  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved. -- LarrySanger
------
GladstoneOregon|980542146
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Introduction'''
> 
> Gladstone is a four square mile suburban community twelve miles south of Portland at the confluence of the Clackamas River into the Willamette. It has a population of about 11,000. To the south, across the Clackamas, is Oregon City; across the Willamette is West Linn; to the north lies the city of Milwaukie. In the higher areas one can easily see Mt. Hood in the distance to the northeast, and in some places Mt. Adams and Mt. St. Helens can also be seen. The Portland International Airport is only about 15 minutes north by way of the I-205 freeway.
> 
> While there are still a few building sites in some of the isolated corners, the city is essentially fully developed. There is a grade school, middle school, and high school, numerous churches, two supermarkets, and a number of other small stores scattered throughout.
> 
> The population of Gladstone is approximately 10152 and the approximate number of families is 3745 . The amount of land area in Gladstone is 6.34 sq. kilometers and the amount of surface water is 0.123 sq. kilometers. The distance from Gladstone to Washington DC is 2450 statute miles. The distance to the Oregon state capital is 38 statute miles.  Gladstone is positioned 45.38 degrees north of the equator and 122.59 degrees west of the prime meridian.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Clackamas Indians'''
> 
> There were several indian groups living in the area to become Gladstone. Lewis and Clark did not visit the
> Gladstone-Oregon City region but did have it described to them by the native people. Later explorers and traders
> brought diseases and epidemics that took a very heavy toll on the native population and the size of the tribes dwindled
> to near extinction.
> 
> When Oregon City was founded and people began moving to the area, they complained to their government about the lazy,
> drunk, and theiving indians. The government responded by forcibly rounding up the indians and forcing them to leave
> their lands for a reservation.
> With the natives removed from the scene, the Gladstone area was ripe for settling. Today the only visible remains of
> the native presence is a large tree called "The Pow Wow Tree." An indian burial ground near that area is now covered
> over by a street and a number of houses.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Early Homesteaders'''
> 
> Rhinearson and Cason each claimed 640 acre lots in the area to be known as Gladstone. The Rhinearson house can still be
> found on a golf course near the Willamette river, and his descendants were still involved with the city in the 1950's.
> 
> '''Failed Starts'''
> 
> Several small towns were established in this period, but only a few remained to become the cities of today. Floods and
> fires were the primary villains, and one can imagine the heart ache these disasters must have evoked.
> 
> Linn City was settled in the 1840's by Robert Moore who built four flour and lumber mills along the bank of the
> Willamette. Warehouses, homes, and mills were added until 1857 when a fire destroyed several of the buildings. Efforts
> at rebuilding the small town ceased when a flood came later that year and wiped out the rest of the buildings.
> 
> '''Founding of the City'''
> 
> Gladstone was founded in by a man named ?? Cross in the late 1800's. He laid out the town's first streets and had his home built in a prominant location. It is now a mortuary, but the building is still very well kept. There is also a small park named after him, ironically located at the same place one of the indian tribes made its camp.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Today'''
> 
> Gladstone is well known for its excellent school system, low crime rate, and close proximity to Oregon City and Portland.
> 
> The town can be divided into four catagories. The old section is laid out on a grid of streets bordered by the Clackamas on the south, McGloughlin Blvd. on the west, Webster on the east, and the foothills to the north. The river section of town is the strip of land between McGloughlin and the Willamette. On the east side of town is a large park
> at one time owned by the Seventh Day Adventists. The fourth section of town is the remaining hilly area north of the old section.
> 
> '''Old Gladstone'''
> 
> The old section is laid out on a grid of streets running north/south and east/west. North-south streets are named for colleges, while east-west streets are named after universities (Dartmouth, Exeter, Fairfield, Gloucester, and Harvard, for instance).
> 
> '''Along the River'''
> 
> The river area has a number of very nice homes. Earlier in Gladstone's history this was a very "ritzy" area, though the age of the houses makes this less true today. Several parks and a golf course also occupy the area.
> 
> '''The Seventh Day Adventist Camp'''
> 
> At some point in the past, this large area came under the ownership of the Seventh Day Adventist religious organization. The campsite would sit virtually empty for nearly 50 weeks. Then for two weeks Gladstone would be invaded by a horde of fanatics in tents, trailers, and moble homes.
> 
> A large chain fence and a dense hedge prevented access to the camp by Gladstonians except for the more brave and venturesome. But in 1990 it all changed when possession of the land changed hands. The camp was left open for anyone to explore freely. Now ownership of the camp is in question, but hopefully it will remain open to all.
> 
> '''The Hills'''
> 
> On the north side of town are rocky hills that were virtually uninhabitable until late in this century. In the 1960's and 1970's the area came under development and was laid out with streets and houses. One street running around the base of the easternmost hill is known throughout the state for its beautiful Christmas lights display every year. Several
> churches, the city's middle school, a few convenience stores, and a couple care centers are the only exceptions to the area's all-residential nature.
> 
> '''Geography'''
> 
> Being borderd by rivers on two sides, there are only two primary thoroughfares to and from the town. The I-205 freeway runs along the eastern edge of the city running south into Historic Oregon City. McGloughlin Blvd. also runs north-south, but through the western side of the city.
> 
> Inside the town the main streets are Portland Avenue, which runs from the high school through the middle of the Old Gladstone, to the river, Webster, which runs along the eastern edge of Old Gladstone from the freeway and the river north into the hills. Oatfield Road winds its way through the hills and drops down into Milwaukie.
> 
> -- Written by BryceHarrington
> 
------
CantorSet|980542215
21c21
< By the time you are done, the net result is that the only numbers removed from the interval are the numbers with ternary representations containing a '1' somewhere after the point.  So the numbers that remain are the ones that can be represented in ternary (base 3) notation with no '1' in any decimal (or ternial, if you prefer) place.  Stated another way the cantor set consists of all the numbers between 0 and 1 that can be represented using only 0's and 2's in ternary notation.  However, and here is the kicker, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the numbers left in the Cantor set, and the all the real numbers between 0 and 1.
---
> By the time you are done, the net result is that the only numbers removed from the interval are the numbers with ternary representations containing a '1' somewhere after the point.  So the numbers that remain are the ones that can be represented in ternary (base 3) notation with no '1' in any decimal (or ternial, if you prefer) place.  Stated another way the cantor set consists of all the numbers between 0 and 1 that can be represented using only 0's and 2's in ternary notation.  However, and here is the kicker, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the numbers left in the CantorSet, and the all the real numbers between 0 and 1.
23a24,31
> 
> ----
> 
> Some topographically interesting facts about the Cantor set.
>     * Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
>     * Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
>     * Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
> 
------
CantorSet|980542245
28,30c28,30
<     * Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
<     * Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
<     * Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
---
>     o Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
>     o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
>     o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
------
CantorSet|980542266
28,30c28,30
<     o Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
<     o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
<     o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
---
> o Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
> o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
> o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
------
CantorSet|980542288
27a28
> 
29,30d29
< o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
< o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
31a31
> o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
32a33
> o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
------
CantorSet|980542307
29c29
< o Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
---
> Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
31c31
< o Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
---
> Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
33c33
< o Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
---
> Again, pick any point in the CantorSet (which is itself a subset of the unit interval).  Any arbitrarily small neighborhood around that point contains an open set in the unit interval that is disjoint from the CantorSet.  Thus the CantorSet is NowhereDense.
------
CantorSet|980542333
29c29
< Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is closed.
---
> Since it is the complement of a union of disjoint open sets, it itself is a ClosedSet.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980542363
5c5
< Exciting developments are happening on the NamingConventions and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
---
> Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, NamingConventions, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
------
CantorSet|980542423
31c31,33
< Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point, and the set is a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
---
> Pick any point in the CantorSet.  In any arbitrarily small neighborhood, there is some other number that can be represented as a ternary number with only 0's and 2's.  Hence every point in the CantorSet is an accumulation point.
> 
> The last two statements combine to make the CantorSet a PerfectSet in the topological sense.
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|980542526
3c3
< The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who know the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but no.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
---
> The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who know the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but noooo.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
8d7
< 
10,11c9
< 
< Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
---
> Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|980542664
1c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
3c3
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse!  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
---
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeleted Nonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
------
OregoN|980542846
82c82,83
< 
---
> ----
> Very impressive.  Did you copy this from somewhere?  What's the source?  If it's public domain, direct us to the source, please, so we may swipe other public domain material from there as well...  -- LarrySanger
------
OregoN|980542885
83c83
< Very impressive.  Did you copy this from somewhere?  What's the source?  If it's public domain, direct us to the source, please, so we may swipe other public domain material from there as well...  -- LarrySanger
---
> Very impressive.  Did you copy this from somewhere?  What's the source?  If it's public domain, direct us to the source, please, so we may swipe other PublicDomainResources from that place as well...  -- LarrySanger
------
BrilliantProse|980543558
3c3
< TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- PythagoreanTheorem -- SabBath -- TaoTehChing -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TheRecorder
---
> TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- PythagoreanTheorem -- SabBath -- TaoTehChing -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TheRecorder -- GladstoneOregon
9a10,11
> ----
> Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- LarrySanger
------
LarrySanger|980543606
15a16,17
> ----
> I don't know! -- Larry
------
MiddleAges|980544212
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Science and religion were mixed up into the philosophy of AlchemY.
------
AlchemY|980544307
1c1,446
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Who were the alchemists of the Middle Ages and what did they believe in?'''
> 
> This question defies a simple answer, as the alchemists were different
> things at different times.  Also, different historians have postulated
> different interpretations of these ancient scientists.  By carefully
> examining these different perspectives in relation to their historical
> contexts it will be possible to identify the alchemists as they existed
> in the Middle Ages.
> 
> To gain a thorough understanding of the alchemists, this paper will
> first briefly look at the origins of alchemy in Egypt and Greece, then
> trace its development in the Middle East.  Once this background has been
> laid out, a systematic examination of the medieval development of the
> alchemical art will be commenced, emphasizing the role of individuals and
> identifying the changing characteristics that defined alchemy.  For sake
> of continuity, a brief look at alchemy's degeneration and death in the
> Renaissance will be taken.  But first, a general overview of the
> prevalent ideas about the alchemists should be addressed.
> 
> Asked the common man of the street what the alchemists were, and one
> will hear that they were pseudo-scientists who attempted to turn lead
> into gold, believed everything was composed of the four elements earth,
> air, fire, and water, and who believed in mystical-magical nonsense.
> This is about the limit of most people's understanding of the art, but
> for a single sentence definition it is not too incorrect.
> 
> For a deeper understanding of alchemy, one might turn to a chemistry
> textbook.  But according to a college textbook used at the University of
> Southern California, "By about 400 B.C. [the Greeks] had proposed that
> all matter was composed of four fundamental substances:  fire, earth,
> water, and air...  The next 2000 years of chemical history were
> dominated by a pseudo-science called alchemy.  Alchemists were often
> mystics and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap
> metals into gold."  (Zumdahl pg. 38)  So much for a deeper
> understanding.
> 
> Historians of a more occultists bent look at the alchemists as true
> magicians who actually accomplished the work of transforming lead into
> gold.  beyond this, occultists saw th e alchemists as religious mystics
> who tried to discover the secret to purifying man's soul through
> learning about the workings of nature.  (Edwards, p. 17; Gettings,
> p. 13)
> 
> Another view looks at the alchemists in a more philosophical way,
> alchemists were religious reformers who worked in secret and used
> chemical terms in a secret code that really referred to theological and
> philosophical beliefs to escape persecution from the church of their
> day.  (Hitchcock, pp. iii-x; Burckhard, pp 28-31)
> 
> Of course it should be possible to use bits and pieces of each of these
> theories to assemble a realistic idea of what the alchemists were, but
> before this is done a question arising from these theories must be
> addressed:  Where do these diverse theories come from?  The answer lies
> in the writings put forth by the alchemists themselves.  The best way to
> describe how confusion should arise is to give an example taken from an
> alchemical writer:
> 
>     Concerning the Nature and Properties of Mercury.
> 
>     ALL THINGS ARE concealed in all.  One of them all is the concealer
>     of the rest- their corporeal vessel, external, visible, and
>     movable.  All liquifactions are manifested in that vessel.  For
>     the vessel is a living and corporeal spirit, and so all coagulations
>     or congelations enclosed in it, when prevented from flowing and
>     surrounded, are not therewith content.  (Paracelsus, p. 415)
> 
> One can understand how confusion can arise.  This writer was said to
> have been fairly clear in his writings.  This passage was not really
> about mercury, but about the human body.  In any case, the alchemists
> intentionally wrote cryptically, it seams to have been a hallmark of
> their art.  Artiphius, a medieval alchemist, refers to this by writing,
> "Is it not recognized that [alchemy] is... passed on orally, and is full
> of secrets?...  Are you so simple as to believe that we would clearly
> and openly teach the greatest and most important of all secrets, with
> the result that you would take our words literally?" (Burckhardt, p28)
> This is only one of many examples in which alchemical writers refer to
> the cryptical phrasings of their works.  It is almost a tradition among
> the alchemists and can be traced back to the Greek founders of the Art.
> The "cipher" was passed on from teacher to student orally, and
> unfortunately the "code" to decipher these texts has been lost.  Modern
> historical interpretations invariably differ as to exactly what the
> alchemists were writing about.   (Burckhardt, pp.30-3)
> 
> 
> '''History and Development of Alchemy'''
> 
> Alchemy's origins are shrouded in the mists of time, but can be traced
> clear back to the ancient Egyptians.  Metallurgy and mysticism were
> inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the techniques of
> turning ugly ores into an almost holy metal seemed to be a priestly
> art.  In fact, alchemy in Egypt was the domain of the priest class.
> (Burckhardt, p.15)
> 
> Legend has it that the founder of alchemy was a man named Thoth or
> Hermes.  According to these Egyptian legends, Thoth wrote forty-two
> books on knowledge, covering law, medicine, alchemy, etc.  Over time,
> Thoth, if he even existed at all, came to be regarded as a god by the
> Egyptians.  Even later, as Egyptian knowledge passed to the Greeks,
> Thoth was called Hermes Trismegistus, or Hermes the thrice-greatest.
> (Lindsay, pp. 160-9)  The work of Hermes, often referred to in early
> alchemical texts is, sadly, completely lost to modern scholars.
> However, Hermes' "Emerald Table" has been transmitted through Arab
> sources.  It is generally understood that the twelve principles
> expounded in the manuscript formed the basis for alchemy, called the
> heremitical philosophy by the early alchemists.
> 
> The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of heremitical
> science:  "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is
> like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is
> below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing."  (Burckhardt, p. 196-7)
>  This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic
> philosophy.  IN other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected
> by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens
> through astrology, and the earth through the elements.  (Burckhardt,
> p. 34-42)
> 
> The Greeks appropriated the heremitical beliefs and added
> pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism.  Pythagorean philosophy is
> basically the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from
> the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles.
> Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be
> explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy
> was developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral
> part of alchemy.  The third component introduced to heremitical
> philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the
> pre-Christian and early post-Christian Roman Empire.  Gnosticism was the
> conviction that earthly matter is evil and by learning about the nature
> of matter will lead to salvation.  By the end of the Roman Empire these
> philosophies had been joined to the heremitical philosophies of the
> Egyptians.  (Lindsay)
> 
> At this point alchemy moved east to be taken up by the Arabs, but before
> moving on, Augustian views of science should be illustrated, as they had
> a profound impact on Western thought up until the retransmission of Arab
> philosophy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.  Saint Augustine was
> an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before
> the fall of the Roman Empire.  In essence, he felt that reason and faith
> could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil:
> "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense,
> a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure
> in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this
> empty curiosity is dignified by the names of learning and science."
> (Augustine, p. 245)  Augustinian ideas were decidedly
> anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelean experimental techniques were
> made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still Augustinian
> thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show
> alchemy as being un-Godly.
> 
> Much work was done on the development of alchemy by the Arabs but it
> shall only be summarized here for the sake of brevity.  Much more is
> known about Islamic alchemy because more was written down.  In
> Alexandria, where much of the alchemical work was done in the Roman
> Empire, the art was mainly oral and little was committed to paper for
> the sake of secrecy.  (Lindsay, p. 155)  It is possible that some
> writing was done in Alexandria and was subsequently lost or destroyed in
> fires and the turbulent periods that followed.
> 
> In any case, most of the earliest writings that have come down through
> the years are Islamic texts.  (Burckhardt p. 46)
> 
> The Arab world was a melting pot for alchemy.  Platonic and Aristotelean
> thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into heremitical
> science, continued to be assimilated.  One very important Aristotelean
> idea was that of the four elements: earth, air, water, and fire.
> According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere which it belonged to
> and would return to if left undisturbed.  (Lindsay, p. 16)  Alchemists
> adapted this a little:  The four elements were really qualitative
> aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are.
> "...true alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal
> or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word.  The four
> elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of
> which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies
> first reveals itself in differentiated form."  (Hitchcock, p. 66)
> Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence
> of god were also absorbed.
> 
> Of the many Arab heremitic philosophers, Jabir ibn-Hayyn of the eighth
> century was the most noteworthy.  To Aristotelean physics he added the
> four properties of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.
> (Burkhardt, p. 29)  Each element was characterized by these qualities:
> Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist,
> and air hot and moist.  In metals two of these qualities were interior
> and two were exterior.  For example, lead was cold and dry and got was
> hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir, theorized, by rearranging the qualities of
> one metal, a different metal would result.  (Burckhardt, p. 29)
> 
> By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced
> to the west.  The search for the stone, or grand elixir, had originated
> from China, most scholars believe, and was supposed to have the added
> effect of being able to make one immortal.  (Edwards, p. 38)  It is not
> known how much Chinese alchemy was added to the Islamic version of the
> Art, but that Chinese theories influenced Arabic scientists has been
> commonly accepted.  (Edwards pp. 33-59; Burckhardt, p. 10-22)
> 
> Likewise, Hindu learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again
> the extent and effects have not been researched to any worthwhile
> extent.  An eleventh century alchemist named Alberuni testified to the
> existence of Hindu alchemy saying that they "have a science similar to
> alchemy which is quite peculiar to them.  They call it Rasayana.  it
> means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs,
> compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants.  its
> principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and
> gave back youth to fading old age."  Islamic numerology was also taken
> by the Arabs, but assimilation of this into alchemy was left for the
> European alchemists of the Renaissance.  (Lindsay p. 87-8; Edwards,
> p. 28)
> 
> Arabic beliefs were intrinsically tied to Islamic alchemy, and when
> Europeans appropriated the philosophies of the Arabs, alchemy came along
> for the ride, so to speak.  Because these beliefs had originated from a
> Christian society they were not too difficult to adapt to Christian
> theology.  Gerbert of Arillac (d. 1003) was among the first to bring
> Islamic science to Europe from Spain.  Later men such as Adelard of Bath
> (d. 1144) brought additional learning.  But until the thirteenth century
> the moves were mainly assimilative.  (Hollister p. 124, 294)
> 
> There were some exceptions to this trend.  Saint Anselm (1033-1109) was
> an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine
> and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth
> the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged
> rationalism in a Christian context.  His views set the stage for the
> philosophical explosion to occur.  Saint Abelard followed in Anselm's
> work, laying the foundation Aristotelian thought before the first works
> of Aristotle reached the West.  His major influence on alchemy was his
> belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence
> outside of man's conscience.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
> philosophical contradictions.  (Hollister, p. 287-8)
> 
> Robert Grosseteste (1170-1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory
> that would later be used and refined by the alchemists.  he took
> Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
> experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
> Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
> thinking.  (Hollister pp. 294-5)
> 
> Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinus (1225-
> 1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and
> worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy
> and Christianity.  Aquinas also did a great deal of work
> in developing the scientific method.  He even went so far
> as to claim that universals could only be discovered 
> through reasoning:  this ran contrary to the commonly held
> Platonic belief that universals were found through divine 
> illumination alone.  Magnus and Aquinas were among the 
> first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and
> could be considered to be alchemists themselves, but for
> the fact that these two did little in the way of
> experimentation.  One major contribution of Aquinas was 
> the belief that since reason could not run in opposition 
> to God, reason must be compatible to theology.  (Hollister
> p. 290-4, 355)
> 
> The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger
> Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle
> did for chemistry and Galileo did for astronomy and
> physics.  Bacon (121401294) was an Oxford Franciscan who
> explored optics, languages, and alchemy.  The Franciscan
> ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the
> world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
> important than reasoning:  "Of the three ways in which men
> think that they acquire knowledge of things - authority,
> reasoning, and experience - only the last is effective and
> able to bring peace to the intellect."  (Bacon p. 367)
> "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
> other sciences.  It reveals truths which reasoning from 
> general principles would never have discovered."
> (Hollister p. 294-5)  Roger Bacon has also been attributed
> with originating the search for the philosopher's stone
> and the elixir of life:  "That medicine which will remove
> all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals
> will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of
> the corruptibility of the body that human life may be
> prolonged for many centuries."  The idea of immortality
> was replaced with the notion of long life; after all,
> man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for
> immortality in the world of God.  Immortality on Earth did
> not mesh with Christian theology.  (Edwards p. 37-8)
> 
> Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle
> ages, but he was the most significant.  His works were
> used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through
> nineteenth centuries.  Other alchemists of Bacon's time
> shared several traits.  First, and most obviously, nearly
> all were members of the clergy.  This was simply because
> few people outside the secular schools had the education
> to examine the Arabic-derived works.  Also, alchemy at
> this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method
> of exploring and developing theology.  Alchemy was
> interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it
> offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were
> just beginning to learn about rationalism.  (Edwards
> p. 24-7)
> 
> So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had 
> developed into a fairly structured system of belief.
> First and foremost, the alchemists were all true 
> Christians.  They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm 
> theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that
> processes that affect minerals and other substances could
> have an effect on the human body (i.e., if one could learn
> the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique
> to purify the human soul.)  These men believed the 
> philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of
> purifying base metals (and thereby transmuting them to
> gold) as well as purify the soul.  They believed in the
> four elements and the four qualities as described above,
> and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written
> ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to
> mislead the uninitiated.  Finally, the alchemists
> practiced their art: they actively experimented with
> chemicals and made observations and theories about how the
> universe operated.  Their entire philosophy was based 
> around their belief that man's soul was divided within
> himself after the fall of Adam.  By purifying the two
> parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.
> (Burckhardt p. 149)
> 
> But in the fourteenth century, all this was to 
> change.  William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died
> in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility
> between faith and reason.  According to his view, widely
> accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith
> alone, He could not be limited by human reason.  Of
> course, this view was not incorrect, but it virtually
> erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and 
> fifteenth centuries.  (Hollister p. 335)  Pope John XXII in 
> the early 1300's issued an edict against alchemy, which 
> effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of
> the Art (the inquisition didn't help, either.)  (Edwards, p.49)
> 
> Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel,
> who was not noteworthy except for the fact that he was one
> of the few alchemists writing in those times of war,
> plague, famine, and persecution.  Flamel lived from 1330
> to 1417 and was an alchemist in every sense of the word.
> He was not a religious scholar as were many of his 
> predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject
> revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone,
> which he is reputed to have found; he spends a great deal 
> of time describing the processes and reactions, but never
> actually gives the formula for carrying out the
> transmutations.   Most of his work was aimed at gathering
> alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, 
> especially as regarded the philosophers' stone.
> (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
> 
> Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists
> were much like Nicolas Flamel:  they concentrated on looking
> for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth (now
> believed to be separate things.)  This had only one 
> possible consequence; the cryptic allusions and symbolism
> lead to a wide interpretation of the art and, while many
> "true", that is, inducted, alchemists existed, many new
> alchemists who interpreted the purification of the soul to
> mean the transmutation of lead into gold and pursued this
> track.  These men came to be viewed as magicians and
> sorcerers by the common people, and were often persecuted
> for their practices.  (Edwards pp. 50-75; Norton
> pp lxiii-lxvii)
> 
> One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the
> sixteenth century was named Cornelius Agrippa.  This
> alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually
> thought himself capable of summoning spirits.  his
> influences were negligible, but like Flamel, he produced
> writings which were referred back to by alchemists of
> later years.  Again like Flamel, he did much to change
> alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic.
> He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier
> alchemists, including experimental science, numerology,
> etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea
> of alchemy as an occultist belief.  In spite of all this,
> Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came
> into conflict with the church.  (Edwardes p56-9; Wilson 
> p.23-9)
> 
> Alchemy continued in this way through the opening
> scenes of the Renaissance.  Alchemist/con-artists
> abounded, who would use popular beliefs and slight of hand
> to convince a noteworthy person such as a professor or a
> minor noble that the secret of transmutation was possessed
> by the alchemist.  Invariably the "alchemist" was summoned
> to the local lord's court for a presentation.  When none
> was forthcoming, nasty things happened to the imposter.
> (Wilson p.31-44)
> 
> Then, in the early sixteenth century a man named
> Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (1493-1541) remolded alchemy
> into a new form rejecting the accumulated occult
> paraphernalia that had accumulated over the years and
> calling for new observations and experiments.  Paracelsian
> dogma was the last "ism" to be latched onto alchemy before
> its death.  Paracelsus rejected Aristotelean traditions,
> but kept much of the Heremitical, neo-Platonic, and
> Pythagorean philosophies; however, Heremitical science had 
> so much Aristotelean theory that his rejection of it was
> meaningless for all intents and purposes.  Basically, what
> Paracelsus rejected was the magic theories of Agrippa and
> Flamel; Paracelsus did not think of himself as a magician 
> and deprecated those who did.  (Williams p.239-45)
> 
> Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and
> minerals in medicine.  He coined the words "alcohol" and
> "zinc" and used experimentation in learning about the
> human body.  His heremitical views were that sickness and
> health in the body relied on the harmony of man the
> microcosm and Nature the macrocosm.  He took and approach 
> different than those before him, using this analogy not in
> the soul-purification manner but in the manner that humans
> must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies,
> and in the manner that certain illnesses of the body had
> chemical remedies that could cure the sicknesses.  (Debus &
> Multhauf, p.6-12)  His views were summarized by himself:
> "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of
> gold and silver.  For me such is not the aim, but to
> consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
> (Edwardes, p.47)
> 
> While the Paracelsian interpretation led to the
> development of modern medicine, a different offshoot led
> to modern chemistry.  Robert Boyle (1627-1691) is well
> known for his studies of gases (i.e. Boyles law) But few
> realize the importance of this man to modern chemistry.
> In the early 1600's, alchemy was used synonymously for
> medicine and chemistry.  Alchemists had disposed of most 
> of the occultist beliefs that once plagued the Art, but
> still they clung to the heremitical beliefs that had been
> carried down through the millennia.  Boyle did away with
> this.  he assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
> every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, 
> Boyle would collect data on the place in which the 
> experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the
> position of the sun and moon, and the barometer reading,
> all just in case they proved to be relevant.  (Pilkington
> p.11)
> 
> With the birth of modern chemistry, alchemy was made
> impotent.  As scientists began to discover and rationalize
> the clockwork of the universe, alchemical theories were
> thrown to the waste bucket, unneeded and forgotten.  it is
> hard to believe that alchemy, after having such a rich and
> colorful two thousand years of history could be so easily 
> and so totally ostracized by scientists and common
> citizens.
> 
> -- Written by BryceHarrington
------
AlchemY|980544375
111,112c111,113
<  This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic
< philosophy.  IN other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected
---
> 
> This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic
> philosophy.  In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected
446c447
< -- Written by BryceHarrington
---
> -- Written by BryceHarrington
------
OregoN|980544563
83a84,85
> ----
> Thanks.  Nope, it's an original composition of mine I wrote yesterday.  The factual stuff I looked up on Britannica's site, and gathered background and facts from off the web.  -- BryceHarrington
------
OregoN|980544645
85a86,87
> ----
> So I guess you're saying the source is WikiPedia! -- LarrySanger
------
NewTopics|980545377
5c5,12
< EuroCurrency - GerMany - NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- WeekEnd -- WikiPediaAnnouncements -- WikipediaL -- DanCe
---
> GladstoneOregon -- Alchemy -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HIstoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD 
> 
> ---
> It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
> * Newly created within the past week, and...
> * Contains at least 1k worth of text (a dozen lines or so, not just a "stub" entry), and...
> * Has fewer than 12 total edits (else it's already popular, and not really "new")
> -- Bryce
------
NewTopics|980545407
7,8c7,9
< ---
< It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
---
> ----
> It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  
> It ought to list topics that fit the following criteria:
------
NewTopics|980545510
5c5
< GladstoneOregon -- Alchemy -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HIstoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- PlatosRepublic -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- MouthOff -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- StandardPoodle -- GoD 
---
> GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD 
7,9c7,8
< ----
< It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  
< It ought to list topics that fit the following criteria:
---
> ---
> It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
------
ChristianIty|980547425
15a16,36
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Commentary:'''
> 
> Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstaning a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
> 
> In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today.
> 
> Why would that be?
> 
> A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems.  Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness.  One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth.  Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence.  Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed.
> 
> Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point.  By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east.  
> Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers.
> 
> As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match.  The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment.  So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme.  Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death.  Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter.
> 
> The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the American political landscape.  It is the Religious Right, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
> 
> Go figure.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980549102
5c5
< Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, NamingConventions, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
---
> Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, WhichWikiShouldWeUse, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
------
NewTopics|980549185
6,7c6
< 
< ---
---
> ----
12a12,13
> ----
> Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
------
ChristianIty|980549291
16d15
< 
18,36c17
< 
< '''Commentary:'''
< 
< Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstaning a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
< 
< In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today.
< 
< Why would that be?
< 
< A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems.  Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness.  One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth.  Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence.  Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed.
< 
< Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point.  By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east.  
< Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers.
< 
< As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match.  The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment.  So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme.  Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death.  Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter.
< 
< The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the American political landscape.  It is the Religious Right, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
< 
< Go figure.
---
> Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  I think we should not advance our own idiosyncratic views about the subjects we write on on the pages we write on.  Save those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
------
ChristianityTalk|980549300
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Commentary:'''
> 
> Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstaning a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
> 
> In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today.
> 
> Why would that be?
> 
> A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems.  Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness.  One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth.  Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence.  Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed.
> 
> Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point.  By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east.  
> Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers.
> 
> As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match.  The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment.  So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme.  Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death.  Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter.
> 
> The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the American political landscape.  It is the Religious Right, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
> 
> Go figure.
------
AyeSpyList|980549344
2c2
< Landscaping, newspaper delivery, typist, transcritionist, personnel trainer, investigator, paralegal, maintenance engineer, plumber, drywall, childcare, electrician, carpenter, painter, glazer, carpet layer, tile, linoleum, wallpaper, automobile mechanic, excavation, PBX operator, hotel front desk, room attendant, vocalist, horse breeder, horse trainer, laborer, vending machine operator, upholstery, locksmith, counselor, human resources director, data analyst, public relations, opinion poll drafting and interpretation, marketing director, security officer, statistical analyst, loan broker, home designer, real estate development, pool maintenance, barback, A/C repair, runner, business consultant, IT recruiter, dispute mediator, photographer, videographer, author.
---
> Landscaping, newspaper delivery, typist, transcriptionist, personnel trainer, investigator, paralegal, maintenance engineer, plumber, drywall, childcare, electrician, carpenter, painter, glazer, carpet layer, tile, linoleum, wallpaper, automobile mechanic, excavation, PBX operator, hotel front desk, room attendant, vocalist, horse breeder, horse trainer, laborer, vending machine operator, upholstery, locksmith, counselor, human resources director, data analyst, public relations, opinion poll drafting and interpretation, marketing director, security officer, statistical analyst, loan broker, home designer, real estate development, pool maintenance, barback, A/C repair, runner, business consultant, IT recruiter, dispute mediator, photographer, videographer, author.
8c8,12
< You forgot: Wrote an encyclopedia.  :-) --JimboWales
---
> You forgot: Wrote an encyclopedia.  :-) --JimboWales
> 
> ----
> 
> Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (Tao Tech Ching - not the cursory version I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
------
ChristianIty|980549373
17c17
< Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  I think we should not advance our own idiosyncratic views about the subjects we write on on the pages we write on.  Save those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
---
> Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating idiosyncratic views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
------
ChristianityTalk|980549493
3c3
< Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstaning a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
---
> Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstanding a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
18c18,22
< Go figure.
---
> Go figure.
> 
> ----
> 
> The above is not to assign a value judgment one way or the other as to which type of system is "right" or even "best," but merely an observation from where I sit in the cheap seats...
------
ChristianIty|980549544
17a18,21
> 
> ----
> 
> Cool
------
CityBerlin|980549695
1c1
< Berlin is the capital of Germany.
---
> Berlin is the capital of Germany and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mio. inhabitants.
------
CityBerlin|980549721
1c1
< Berlin is the capital of Germany and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mio. inhabitants.
---
> Berlin is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mio. inhabitants.
------
WorldWarOne|980549837
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> World War I was the first war, that spanned nealry the whole world.
> It began 1914 and ended 1918. Nearly 20 mio. people died.
------
TopOlogy|980549931
40a41,42
> ''which exercise is that?  if this is the enclyopedia page on topology (the initial page, anyway, which should expand ultimately into many), the exercise is not primarily about modelling the physical world, but about doing mathematics''
> 
48a51,56
> 
> ----
> 
> When one is studying the topology of surfaces, there is no escaping the fact that surfaces are 2-dimensional.  A torus's surface is not 2-dimensional and a torus does not have ''guts'' as part of its identity, because a torus ''is'' a surface.  That we cannot build these objects in our physical 3-space because of physical limitations is irrelevant.  We cannot exhibit a straight line in our 3-space either, or a flat surface, or even a point for that matter.  These are all mathematical objects and this is an encyclopedia page about mathematics.  
> 
> However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobious strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here. 
------
TopOlogy|980552715
17c17
< In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which are a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimensional space.
---
> In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which represent a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimensional space.
56c56,64
< However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobious strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here. 
---
> However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobious strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
> 
> ----
> 
> My last remark on the subject:  I did not write my comment for mathematicians, but for non-mathematicians.  I purposely avoided the technical precision of a mathematical statement, so that people who don't get trigonometric and quadratic equations could still appreciate the sense of what was said. When I say the "surface" I speak of the surface of the doughnut as representative of a torus, and of the torus itself '''as''' a "surface" (which it is not, under the dictionary definition of surface, since there is nothing, as a planar object, for it to be the surface "of" - it is more similar to a "membrane.").  When I refer to "guts," I speak of the area "within" and bounded by the torus, on which the equation which represents the torus is silent but which, from our three-dimensional viewpoint, our imaginations insist is "empty space."  So - I compared the doughnut to the teacup, as a torus can assume these apparent shapes from the outside, notwithstanding that it has no "inside" or "guts."  One of the activities that I have fun with is representing specialized knowledge to non-specialized minds so that outsiders can get a taste of what data insiders are dealing with, without having to pursue a masters in the subject.  When I describe law, I avoid legalistic terms.  When I describe religious interpretation, the term "hermeneutics" does not creep into my speech.  Will the average Joe in the street be able to puzzle out the meaning of a statement even though he never took college-level studies?  Yes?  Then I am happy.
> 
> Make a paper hoop without the twist.  Draw a spiral line from one side of it to the other, continuously, taking advantage of the thickness of the edge of the paper.  Keep the spiral going until the line meets itself.  A single, unbroken line on both sides of the paper.  Must be a Moebius strip, eh?  Better still, do the same with a doughnut.
> 
> As A.F. Moebius (1790-1860)was a real guy, you might spell his name right.  (sorry - being petty) But please don't attack my statements when, in order to make them transparent to regular folks, I have to abandon precision and specialized nomenclature.
------
WorldWarOne|980553352
1,2c1
< World War I was the first war, that spanned nealry the whole world.
< It began 1914 and ended 1918. Nearly 20 mio. people died.
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half globe, hence "world" war. It began 1914 and ended 1918.  Nearly 20 million people died during the course of the war, including both military personnel and non-combatants.
------
ChristianityTalk|980553814
16c16
< The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the American political landscape.  It is the Religious Right, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
---
> The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the world political landscape.  It is the religious fundamentalists, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  For instance, they support prohibitory laws on moral grounds, harsh punishments for moral crimes, war to defend religious ideals and holy places, and sanction the institutional killing of human beings, in keeping with scripture.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
------
TopOlogy|980553958
64c64
< As A.F. Moebius (1790-1860)was a real guy, you might spell his name right.  (sorry - being petty) But please don't attack my statements when, in order to make them transparent to regular folks, I have to abandon precision and specialized nomenclature.
---
> As A.F. Moebius (1790-1860) was a real guy, you might spell his name right.  (sorry - being petty) But please don't attack my statements when, in order to make them transparent to regular folks, I have to abandon precision and specialized nomenclature.
------
TopOlogy|980554931
64a65,66
> 
> ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one.''
------
PoLitics|980554941
4a5
> * LibertarianisM
24c25
< * TechnoOligarchy
---
> * TechnoOligarchy
------
ScienCe|980555115
18,19d17
< 
< 
23a22,23
> 
> ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
------
EuropE|980555202
3c3
< Perhaps The name Europe is derived from EuropA.
---
> Perhaps the name Europe is derived from EuropA, but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the MyrmiDons).
6c6
< the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up. 
---
> the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
------
LibertarianisM|980555271
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Libertarianism is the political belief system.  That an individual is free to do anything they want, so long as they are do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want.  Government's role is to protect those rights.
> 
> You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, home page for the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates.
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980556166
24c24,36
< I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB.  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved. -- LarrySanger
---
> I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB.  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> It appears that only the first volume of this encyclopedia was entered into PG...  
> It occurs to me that if people are interested in the original, then they can always just
> go to the project gutenberg site, and then be certain they're getting the straight stuff.
> Or they can trust my cut-and-paste skill and look at revision 0...
> 
> I think our purpose in using that material is just as a starting point for our own 
> encyclopedia...  Thus I think it'd be better if I just plugged them right into the
> topics, without putting 'EB' on the topicname.  So we'd have just one copy of each
> article, plus any commentary placed on top of them by subsequent editing.  Does that
> sound okay?
> -- BryceHarrington
------
BryceHarrington|980556314
2d1
< 
3a3,4
> 
> ''Bryce, about your notes on HistoryOfEurope...I didn't want to put these there, since it is a summary page.  I removed the bit about Alex great conquering Greece, since that was his father, and about other civilizations probably experimenting with governments, since all evidence suggests they did not.  But all in all, I was thinking such developments really belong on a HistoryOfTheMeditteranean page, since ''that'' is where the center of the action is, not Europe.  Didn't want to impose, 'course...thoughts?''
------
HistoryOfEurope|980556333
6,7c6
< The CelticPeople formed the first well-known, widespread civilization in Europe.  As they did not practice a 
< written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
---
> The first well-known civilization in Europe was that of the MinoanPeoples and AchaeanPeoples in Greece.  Around the same time, the CelticPeoples spread over most of the interior as far as Spain and later Turkey.  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
12,19c11,12
< While much of the early prehistory of Europe is shrouded in mystery, one of the first solid, very well-documented 
< cultures is that of the Greeks.  The GreekCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
< vastly differing types of government and cultures.  While it is likely that many other civilizations around the
< world experimented with the various governmental forms, because of the thorough analysis and documentation (and
< the careful preservation of this "classical" data by first the Romans and later the CatholicChurch), these researchings
< have come down to present day, influencing political thinking around the world.  The Greeks (and the Athenian's 
< especially) were well known for their erudite philosophical ponderings on a great many matters, and are often 
< accredited with the founding of Western Philosophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
---
> At the end of the bronze age the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
> vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprescendented developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
21,25c14
< AlexanderTheGreat, a Macedonian, conquered Greece, and much of the (Western) civilized world of the time,
< extending almost as far as India.  A brilliant strategitian, backed by some of the best minds produced
< by the GreekCivilization, Alexander's exploits laid the foundations of western military strategy.
< 
< The Roman Empire emerged from Italy, originally governed by kings, then by an oligarchical republic made up of senators.  These families fought and schemed against one another, using the vast and powerful Roman armies as tools of power.  After a series of military successes, Julius Ceasar declared himself ruler of the empire.  His assasination led to a civil war, the result of which was a succession of AuthoritariaN emperors.
---
> The campaigns of AlexanderTheGreat brought Greek culture into contact with the older learnings of Persia, Egypt, and India, opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent RomanEmpire as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, Rome finally became an empire under JuliusCaesar and his AuthoritariaN successors.
------
RationalChoiceTheory|980556902
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
------
LibertarianisM|980556958
3a4,5
> 
> ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism.''
------
CityBerlin|980557318
1c1
< Berlin is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mio. inhabitants.
---
> BerliN is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3©5 mio© inhabitants©
------
CityBerlin|980557547
1a2,4
> 
> 
> during the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, diving the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
------
CityBerlin|980557580
4c4
< during the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, diving the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, divding the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
------
CityBerlin|980557821
4c4
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, divding the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
------
WojPob|980557965
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wojtek Pobratyn©
> 
> A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration© He's got a huge amount of time to spare© http://www©pobratyn©com
------
MetallicA|980558424
1c1
< One of the greatest Metal bands ever.
---
> One of the greatest Metal bands ever©
5c5
< Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra.
---
> Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra©
7a8
> * LarsUlrich, drums
9c10
< Lars Ulrich, drums
---
> * JasonNewsted, bass
11c12
< Jason Newsted, bass
---
> * KirkHammet, guitar
13,15c14
< Kirk Hammet, guitar
< 
< James Hetfield, throat, guitar
---
> * JamesHetfield, throat, guitar©
------
TopOlogy|980558694
66c66
< ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one.''
---
> ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one. (Of course "Mobious" is not an accepted spelling under either scheme.)''
------
CityBerlin|980558769
4c4
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin©
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.
------
AustriA|980558931
1c1
< Austria (pop. ca. 7.5m) is a small landlocked country in Central Europe. It is a federation of 9 states.
---
> Austria ¥pop© ca© 7©5m¤ is a small landlocked country in Central Europe© It is a federation of 9 states©
3c3
< Capital: Vienna (pop. ca. 1.8m)
---
> Capital: Vienna ¥pop© ca© 1©8m¤
5c5
< Language Spoken: German (and a large number of dialects)
---
> Language Spoken: GermaN ¥and a large number of dialects¤
7c7
< Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic.
---
> Neighbours: GermanY, SwitzerlanD, LichtensteiN, ItalY, SloveniA, HungarY, SlovakiA, CzechRepublic©
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide©
------
ItalY|980559092
1,3c1,3
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
< south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< MediterraneanSea.
---
> Italia ¥Italy¤ is a republic in the 
> south of EuropE© It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> MediterraneanSea©
5c5
< It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
---
> It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency©
7c7
< The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
---
> The capital is Roma ¥Rome¤; the economic capital is Milano ¥Milan¤ in the north©
8a9,10
> 
> Italy has won the Football WorldCup several times© Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY© The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Turino and FiorentinA©
------
ItalY|980559114
10c10
< Italy has won the Football WorldCup several times© Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY© The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Turino and FiorentinA©
---
> Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times© Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY© The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Turino and FiorentinA©
------
WojPob|980559307
3c3,5
< A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration© He's got a huge amount of time to spare© http://www©pobratyn©com
---
> A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration© He's got a huge amount of time to spare© http://www©pobratyn©com©
> 
> Yeah;-¤
------
ChristianIty|980559408
17c17
< Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating idiosyncratic views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
---
> Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating IdiosyncratiC views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
------
LibertarianisM|980559461
1c1
< Libertarianism is the political belief system.  That an individual is free to do anything they want, so long as they are do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want.  Government's role is to protect those rights.
---
> Libertarianism is a political belief system© An individual is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want©  The government's role is to protect those rights©
3c3
< You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, home page for the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates.
---
> You can learn more at http://www©lp©org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates©
5c5
< ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism.''
---
> ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism©''
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980559787
1c1
< As I understand it, ProjectGutenberg has published what they call the "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia".  What this actually is, is the classic 11th edition of the EncyclopediaBritannica.  However, because 'Britannica' is a trademark, even though the text is now public domain (because it is so old), they were unable to call it EncyclopediaBritannica.
---
> As I understand it, ProjectGutenberg has published what they call the "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia"©  What this actually is, is the classic 11th edition of the EncyclopediaBritannica©  However, because 'Britannica' is a trademark, even though the text is now public domain ¥because it is so old¤, they were unable to call it EncyclopediaBritannica©
3c3
< Call it what you will, it is available, and we should consider putting the entire text here, in the Wikipedia.  This may be a lot of work (like my own pet project, which is cutting and pasting all of the public domain CIAWorldFactbook over in CountriesOfTheWorld -- please help me!), but it sure would be a fun thing to have in here.  People could start updating/replacing the articles with ProjectGutenbergEncyclopedia as the foundation.
---
> Call it what you will, it is available, and we should consider putting the entire text here, in the Wikipedia©  This may be a lot of work ¥like my own pet project, which is cutting and pasting all of the public domain CIAWorldFactbook over in CountriesOfTheWorld -- please help me!¤, but it sure would be a fun thing to have in here©  People could start updating/replacing the articles with ProjectGutenbergEncyclopedia as the foundation©
5c5
< Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together.
---
> Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together©
9c9
< Whoa, WhatACoincidence.  I just now was downloading vol#1 from it and seeing what it'd take to put it in.  :-)
---
> Whoa, WhatACoincidence©  I just now was downloading vol#1 from it and seeing what it'd take to put it in©  :-¤
11c11
< The license says it's in the public domain and we can do whatever we please with it...  
---
> The license says it's in the public domain and we can do whatever we please with it©©©  
14,15c14,15
< places.  Other than really basic stuff, I'm not going to fiddle with the formatting nor update any inaccuracies
< contained in them, so anyone seeing things to change, correct, or update should lay into it.
---
> places©  Other than really basic stuff, I'm not going to fiddle with the formatting nor update any inaccuracies
> contained in them, so anyone seeing things to change, correct, or update should lay into it©
17,19c17,19
< The two MAJOR concerns I have in doing this is a) the information may be WAY out of date in some cases, maybe even
< to the point of uselessness, and b) the articles may be too long for the average wikitizen to get into - they may
< feel too intimidated by the length and tone of the article to add or correct as we'll need.  
---
> The two MAJOR concerns I have in doing this is a¤ the information may be WAY out of date in some cases, maybe even
> to the point of uselessness, and b¤ the articles may be too long for the average wikitizen to get into - they may
> feel too intimidated by the length and tone of the article to add or correct as we'll need©  
21c21
< But, I guess we'll never know unless we try, so here goes...  ;-)
---
> But, I guess we'll never know unless we try, so here goes©©©  ;-¤
24c24
< I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB.  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved. -- LarrySanger
---
> I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB©  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved© -- LarrySanger
26c26
< It appears that only the first volume of this encyclopedia was entered into PG...  
---
> It appears that only the first volume of this encyclopedia was entered into PG©©©  
28,29c28,29
< go to the project gutenberg site, and then be certain they're getting the straight stuff.
< Or they can trust my cut-and-paste skill and look at revision 0...
---
> go to the project gutenberg site, and then be certain they're getting the straight stuff©
> Or they can trust my cut-and-paste skill and look at revision 0©©©
32,34c32,34
< encyclopedia...  Thus I think it'd be better if I just plugged them right into the
< topics, without putting 'EB' on the topicname.  So we'd have just one copy of each
< article, plus any commentary placed on top of them by subsequent editing.  Does that
---
> encyclopedia©©©  Thus I think it'd be better if I just plugged them right into the
> topics, without putting 'EB' on the topicname©  So we'd have just one copy of each
> article, plus any commentary placed on top of them by subsequent editing©  Does that
36c36,39
< -- BryceHarrington
---
> -- BryceHarrington
> 
> ----
> Sounds alright -- WojPob
------
IdiosyncratiC|980559839
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Peculiar or particular to an individual.  Possibly eccentric.  This is not to say PatentNonsense.  
> 
> Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  My dad knew him.
> 
> EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits. 
------
IdiosyncratiC|980559950
3c3
< Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  My dad knew him.
---
> Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible.  My dad knew him.
------
WojPob|980560258
5a6,10
> 
> ----
> Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols...  All of the pages you've edited have these
> funny (c) symbols in them now, where there should be newlines.  There are other symbols being
> sprinkled throughout...  
------
NewTopics|980560347
5c5
< GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD 
---
> GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism
13c13
< Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
---
> Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
------
BokoNonism|980560595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bokononism is the religion practiced by many of the characters of "Cat's Cradle," one of Kurt Vonnegut's best novels. It is based on living by the untruths that make one happy.  Bokononistic sex is a union of two souls achieved by placing the soles of two people's feet together. 
------
BokoNonism|980560723
1a2,3
> 
> See also WamPeters, FoMa, and GranfaloonS.
------
FoMa|980560814
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Foma are untruths that make one happy.  Bokononists live by foma.
> 
> See BokoNonism.
------
HareKrishna|980561170
5c5
< Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.  This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped in side the individual. 
---
> Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.  This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped inside the individual. 
14a15,16
> (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
> 
17c19
< Prabhupada had writted books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
---
> Prabhupada had written books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
------
WojPob|980561270
8,10c8,12
< Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols...  All of the pages you've edited have these
< funny (c) symbols in them now, where there should be newlines.  There are other symbols being
< sprinkled throughout...  
---
> Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols©©©  All of the pages you've edited have these
> funny ¥c¤ symbols in them now, where there should be newlines©  There are other symbols being
> sprinkled throughout©©©  
> ----
> Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki©©©© it's my bloody German language keyboard© I'll try to sort it out©
------
WojPob|980561514
12c12
< Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki©©©© it's my bloody German language keyboard© I'll try to sort it out©
---
> Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki©©©© it's my bloody German language keyboard© I'll try to sort it out.
------
PolanD|980561657
7c7
< Language spoken: Polish
---
> Language spoken: Polish.
------
TopOlogy|980561681
56c56
< However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobious strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
---
> However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobius strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
66a67,74
> 
> ----
> 
> "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street (whose last IQ test came in around 100, not 154 (see AyeSpy)) would not get very much edification out of it. 
> 
> The discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Mobius strips (as well as lines, planes, and every other object studied in mathematics) should then be placed in a separate page that discusses mathematical ontology in relation to physical ontology, or something along those lines, since it comes up in discussion of more than one sub-discipline of mathematics, although not very much in the practice of mathematics proper. 
> 
> -- CalvinOstrum
------
CalvinOstrum|980561722
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> cbo@interlog.com
------
HolyTrinity|980561960
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Historically, as evidenced by the Nicene and Apostle's Creeds used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to the three aspects of G-d, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
> 
> The Father is the G-d who acts throughout the Old Testament and talks to Christ in the New Testament.
> 
> The Son is Jesus, whose sacrifice on the crucifix either ransomed souls from hell or opened the portal to heaven for whoever wants to go, depending on whom you ask.  He was both G-d and man, not considered to be some kind of phantasm or soulless possessed being, but was just like other humans except for also being G-d.
> 
> The Holy Spirit is the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of G-d that communicates directly with humans.
> 
> All three parts are widely held to be coeternal, of the same substance, and yet inexplicably different.  All are considered to be present at each stage in history; the Trinity just shows the appropriate character at a given point.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|980562640
5,6c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was
< the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
9c8
< [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.]
---
> [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.  Although, this could be dangerous.  There's an old SuPerstition that the world will end if ever all the names of G-d are written down.]
11c10
< The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)
---
> The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
------
ScienCe|980562795
23c23,28
< ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
---
> ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
> 
> I am happy calling Computer Science a science.  Perhaps I am too liberal, since I see even greater lacunae above:  where are the social sciences? Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science?  The fact is, in many ways the word "science" is more a word of ideology, the way it is often used.  A fairly top level page should somewhere explain this, and then perhaps deal instead not with science, or technology, or the humanities, but instead the concept of ''discipline''.   All of the above mentioned are at least that.  Then we can define breakdowns of disciplines, along at least three lines: science/humanities and theoretical/practical, empirical/conceptual and show the somewhat contentious and fuzzy classification of the disciplines. 
> 
> With this classification, computer science is a mixture dealing with the practical in many cases (software engineering), but in other cases the conceptual rather than the empirical (computability), and in still other cases with other parts of this division.  --CalvinOstrum
> 
------
BuddHa|980563178
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> At least in the Westernized version of Buddhism I have heard, Buddha is not a deity.  He is a man who achieved enlightenment in the Hindu sense in one lifetime instead of in many reincarnations in a state of self-awareness.  He achieved this by living many different lifestyles including that of a decaying waterfowl.  After enlightenment, he recognized his unity with the universal oneness, or atman.  He thus got to stop being reincarnated, just like many other people who had achieved enlightenment over many lifetimes.  Since the original Buddha, several other Buddhists have accomplished this feat and are thus called Buddha as well (i.e. the fat LaughingBuddha of China).  If anything, the name for the sole deity in the universe is "atman".
------
SiVa|980563832
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The primordial religion of India was polytheistic, as other early religions all over the world.  Many of the gods were animistic (associated with animals and objects), as in most early religions and in the semi-Catholic cult of saint-worshippers.  Hinduism developed from this as a semi-monotheistic religion believing in "atman," the universal oneness.  Siva, the god of destruction and creation and remover of boundaries, is, like all other gods, avatars, humans, rocks, and everything else, just a facet of atman.  Siva is no more a name for G-d than the Holy Spirit--Siva is a facet of atman just as the Spirit is a facet of the HolyTrinity.  BuddHa developed Buddhism from Hinduism in an analogous fashion to Christ developing Christianity from Judaism.
------
HareKrishna|980563939
7c7
< Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.
---
> Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.  (This guy reminds me of BuddHa.  Coincidence or plagiarism?)
------
BiJection|980564483
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bijection is a mapping or function between two sets that is surjective (onto) and injective (one-to-one).
------
HiStory|980565156
18,19c18
< * HistoryOfGreece
< * HistoryOfRome
---
> * HistoryOfMeditteranean
------
EuroCurrency|980565721
3c3
< The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxemburG. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. 
------
BuddhIsm|980565734
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ReLigion based on the teachings of the BuddHa.
> 
> ----
> See the [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Google directory for Buddhism] for ''many'' other online resources.
------
SportS|980565897
46a47
> * FigureSkating
50a52
> * SkiIng
58c60
< * GoO
---
> * GoO ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)
------
SportS|980565914
60c60
< * GoO ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)
---
> * GoO ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
------
BuddHa|980566030
1a2,3
> 
> ''BuddhIsm has a whole bunch of branches, and some of the less-philosophical-more-ritualistic ones have him as a deity.''
------
BuddHa|980566232
0a1,6
> Founder of BuddhIsm who lived approximately 563-483 BCE.  The Buddha was born a prince, but at age 29 became dissatisfied and began practicing austere meditative practices.  After six years, he abandoned the severe practices, and soon afterwards realized complete awakening/enlightenment.  The Buddha taught followers for 45 years until his death (considered to be the complete ending of the Buddha).
> 
> See [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A Sketch of the Buddha's Life] for an excellent overview of the Buddha's life and teachings.
> 
> ----
> '''Other views:'''
1a8,11
> 
> :Some versions of Buddhism emphasize the Hindu legends more than others.  The version you heard seems to be closer to the Hindu ideas of Buddhism.  Most other versions do not focus on atman or reincarnation.  Instead, the core of Buddhism is considered to be the teachings such as the NobleEightfoldPath and the FourNobleTruths.
> 
> :Also, while it is considered possible to achieve the same enlightenment as the historical Buddha, most Buddhists would not call those enlightened ones "Buddha"--that title is generally reserved only for the historical Buddha.
------
AlTruism|980567947
20c20
< Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in genral, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
---
> Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in general, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
------
BuddHa|980568398
1c1
< Founder of BuddhIsm who lived approximately 563-483 BCE.  The Buddha was born a prince, but at age 29 became dissatisfied and began practicing austere meditative practices.  After six years, he abandoned the severe practices, and soon afterwards realized complete awakening/enlightenment.  The Buddha taught followers for 45 years until his death (considered to be the complete ending of the Buddha).
---
> Founder of BuddhIsm who lived approximately 563-483 BCE.  The Buddha, born Gautama Siddhartha, was a prince by birth, but at age 29 became dissatisfied with what he observed as an unjustifiable disparity between the luxury of his life, and the abject poverty he had observed within the community in general, and began practicing austere meditative practices.  After six years, he abandoned the severe practices, and soon afterwards realized complete awakening/enlightenment.  That enlightnment is called a state of "Bodhi," and hence the name "Buddha," or "enlightened one."  The Buddha taught followers for 45 years until his death (considered to be the complete ending of the Buddha).
------
LibertarianisM|980568881
1c1
< Libertarianism is a political belief system© An individual is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want©  The government's role is to protect those rights©
---
> Libertarianism is a political belief system. An individual is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
3c3
< You can learn more at http://www©lp©org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates©
---
> You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates.
5c5
< ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism©''
---
> ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism.''
------
AyeSpyList|980569232
5c5
< Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in ?don?t fence me in?), tournament fencing (as in, ?touche??), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.a
---
> Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in ?don?t fence me in?), tournament fencing (as in, ?touche??), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.
------
AristotlE|980576487
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AristotlE was a GreeK PhilosopheR who live from 384 to 322 B.C.
> 
> AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopeRs in WesterN thought.
------
AristotlE|980576575
1c1
< AristotlE was a GreeK PhilosopheR who live from 384 to 322 B.C.
---
> AristotlE was a GreeK Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.
3c3
< AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopeRs in WesterN thought.
---
> AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopesSin WesterN thought.
------
AristotlE|980576844
3c3
< AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopesSin WesterN thought.
---
> AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopesS in WesterN thought.
------
PortlandOregon|980577144
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest city in the StatE of OregoN and the 26th largest city in the UnitedStates.
> 
> Portland has a population of 503,637 (est. 1999)
------
AdA|980577308
1a2,5
> 
> ----
> 
> Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
------
SuperBowl|980577323
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The championship game in the NationalFootballLeague.  The SuperBowl is considered the premier annual sporting event in the UnitedStates.
------
NirvanA|980577393
0a1,2
> NirvanaBand - The grunge band from Seattle.
> 
------
NirvanaBand|980577404
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A grunge band from Seattle (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
> 
> Members: KurtCobain, ChrisNovoselic, DaveGrohl
> 
> 
> Best known albums:
> * Nevermind
> * MTV unplugged
> * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
------
NirvanA|980577544
1,3c1
< NirvanaBand - The grunge band from Seattle.
< 
< A grunge band from Seattle (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
---
> The term NirvanA refers to more than one thing:
5c3
< Members: KurtCobain, ChrisNovoselic, DaveGrohl
---
> NirvanaBand - The grunge band from Seattle.
6a5
> NirvanaBuddhism - The state of perfect harmony that results from ego-extinction.
8,11d6
< Best known albums:
< * Nevermind
< * MTV unplugged
< * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980577555
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also an English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
------
NirvanaBand|980577597
1c1
< A grunge band from Seattle (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
---
> Nirvana was a GrungE band from SeattlE (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
8c8
< * MTV unplugged
---
> * MtV unplugged
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980577626
1c1
< Also an English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
---
> Nirvana is the English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
------
NirvanA|980577640
7,8c7
< ----
< Also an English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
---
> 
------
WikiPediaProcess|980578030
2a3,4
> The NirvanA page included two entries, one for the band NirvanA and one for the BuddhisT concept of NirvanA.  I created two new pages, one for each entry, and on the NirvanA page linked to both with a brief description of the contents of each page.  Because there are countless cases where we will have this problem (AlabamA is a state and a band, PaulSimon is a singer and a Senator from IllinoiS, et cetera ad infinitum) some solution will be necessary.  WikiPedians can check out my solution and comment.
> ----
------
WikiPediaProcess|980578341
4a5,6
> One fun way to WikiOff is to hit the RandomPage link, then search whatever page comes up for a topic that hasn't been edited yet.  Then you add something for that topic.
> ----
------
WikiOff|980578362
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To engage in the editing of a wiki site.
------
RandomPage|980578444
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The RandomPage link is an optional link that appears in the tool bar at the top of every page on the WikiPedia.  You can turn this option on by editing the PreferenceS page.
------
RusSia|980578536
1c1
< Russia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
---
> RusSia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
3c3
< Quoth a Russian:
---
> Quoth a RussiaN:
7c7
< Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
---
> Funny enough, but all RussiaN websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
------
RussiA|980578579
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> RusSia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
> ----
> Quoth a RussiaN:
> 
> The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
> ----
> Funny enough, but all RussiaN websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
------
RusSia|980578646
1,3c1
< RusSia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
< ----
< Quoth a RussiaN:
---
> See RussiA.
5,7c3
< The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
< ----
< Funny enough, but all RussiaN websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
---
> I moved the contents of this page (such as they were) to RussiA because that is the naming convention used in the CountriesOfTheWorld section of WikiPedia.
------
ZeuS|980578940
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
------
AlbaniaHistory|980579011
1,3c1
< In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic communist rule and established a multiparty democracy. The transition
< has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide
< investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring Kosovo. 
---
> In 1990 AlbaniA ended 44 years of xenophobic CommunisT rule and established a multiparty DemocracY. The transition has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring KosovO. 
------
RhodeIsland|980579216
1c1
< The best little state in the USA! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of Rhode Island Reds!----Smithfield, R.I. is home of Bryant College, a prestigious business school
---
> The best little state in the UnitedStates! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of RhodeIslandReds!----SmithfielD, R.I. is home of BryantCollege, a prestigious BusinessSchool
------
HomePage|980580098
5c5
< BritannicaPublicDomain
---
> It's the WeekEnd again.  The SuperBowl is happening on Sunday, not that those of you in EuropE care about that.
21a22
> * BritannicaPublicDomain
------
SabBath|980580143
1c1
< "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" God rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
---
> "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" GoD rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|980580172
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeUs, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeuS, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
------
WeekEnd|980580631
1c1
< In the UnitedStates and other countries, the weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for LeiSure and ReCreation.
---
> The weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for LeiSure and ReCreation.
22c22
< I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
---
> I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
------
PreludeInGMajor|980580673
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first part of JohannSebastianBach 's first CellO suite (BWV 1007), written in 1720.  The PreludeInGMajor is often performed on instruments other than the CellO, such as the PianO and the GuitaR.
------
HomePage|980580741
19a20
> Techie links:
22,23c23
< * BritannicaPublicDomain
< 
---
> * BritannicaPublicDomain
------
PreludeInGMajor|980580754
1c1
< The first part of JohannSebastianBach 's first CellO suite (BWV 1007), written in 1720.  The PreludeInGMajor is often performed on instruments other than the CellO, such as the PianO and the GuitaR.
---
> The first part of JohannSebastianBach 's first CellO suite (BWV 1007), written in 1720.  The PreludeInGMajor is often performed on instruments other than the CellO, such as the PianO and the GuitaR.  It is a damn good tune.
------
MuSic|980580863
13c13
< JohannSBach -- WolfgangMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- PiotrTchaikovsky
---
> JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- PiotrTchaikovsky
------
HomoSapiens|980580998
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In TaxonomY, the name used for the Human SpecieS.
------
HomoSapiens|980581013
1c1
< In TaxonomY, the name used for the Human SpecieS.
---
> In TaxonomY, the name used for the HumaN SpecieS.
------
StockholM|980581195
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The capital of largest city in SwedeN.  Stockholm has a population of around 700,000.  It is pronounced stok'hôlm .
> 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|980581241
1c1
< ''Sherlock Holmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
---
> ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
------
WikiPedia|980581304
5,7c5
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.
< ----
< ''Some old text deleted, placed on WikiPediaProcess.''
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.
------
SandBox|980581382
3,23c3
< Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
< ----
< ''Some other discussion removed from WhatIsaWiki follows.''
< ----
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
< 
< Blah...
< ----
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
< 
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
< ----
< Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
< 
< Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
< ----
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
< 
<     -- Drachs
< ----
< Investigation of the Wiki concept...
---
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
------
SherlockHolmes|980581390
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional characters created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was a amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
> 
> See also InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
------
SherlockHolmes|980581405
1c1
< A fictional characters created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was a amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
---
> A fictional characters created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
3c3
< See also InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
---
> See also InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
------
SherlockHolmes|980581421
1c1
< A fictional characters created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
---
> A fictional character created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980581428
7c7
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.  Other discussion removed to SandBox.''
---
> ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.  Other discussion removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.''
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980581501
19a20,39
> ----
> From WhatIsaWiki:
> 
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
> 
> Blah...
> ----
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
> 
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> 
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
> 
>     -- Drachs
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
------
HomePage|980581613
7,8d6
< We have a new WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
< 
16d13
< 
18c15
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> :We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
23c20,22
< * BritannicaPublicDomain
---
> * BritannicaPublicDomain
> ----
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
HomePage|980581626
15c15
< :We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
---
> We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
------
WolfgangMozart|980581639
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mozart was a classical composer who lived from 1756 until 1791.  He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|980581677
1,2d0
< Why aren't these pages copyedited?
< 
9c7
< Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
---
> Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
------
JohnnyCash|980581767
1c1
< The following seems to be a prose poem about the famous American country singer, Johnny Cash:
---
> The following seems to be a prose poem about the famous American country singer, JohnnyCash:
------
BoMis|980581851
1c1,3
< We're not sure what a [http://www.bomis.com/ Bomis] is, but it seems to have a distasteful desire to "steal your pants."  It also features many slogans.
---
> We're not sure what a [http://www.bomis.com/ Bomis] is, but it seems to have a distasteful desire to "steal your pants."  It also features many slogans.
> ----
> Bomis Inc. is an Internet company and the owner of the popular WebSite Bomis.Com.
------
CountriesK|980581923
1c1
< KingdomOfDenmark
---
> 
------
UtaH|980582079
3c3
< Capital: Salt Lake City
---
> Capital: SaltLakeCity
7c7
< One of Utah's most defining characteristics is the variety of its terrain.  From the Uinta Mountain range in the north (being the only east west running mountain range in North America) to the beautiful desert landscapes of Bryce Canyon and Zion National Parks.
---
> One of Utah's most defining characteristics is the variety of its terrain.  From the UintaMountain range in the north (being the only east west running mountain range in NorthAmerica) to the beautiful desert landscapes of BryceCanyon and ZionNationalParks.
9c9
< Another notable fact about Utah is that the continental meeting of the railroads happened at Promontory Point, Utah.
---
> Another notable fact about Utah is that the continental meeting of the railroads happened at PromontoryPoint, Utah.
------
ChristianityTalk|980582247
22a23,40
> 
> ----
> 
> I should say that I'm not a very widely read student of faith, and I'm certainly anything but religious, 
> but I must say the above is one of the more profound insights I've read in a long time...  It makes me wonder:
> 
> Western society tends to be much less forgiving of immoral actions than of anti-authority ones.
> In eastern society, is this reversed?  For instance, that Clinton had sex out of wedlock was a 
> scandal, but that protestors heckled Bush's inauguration is kinda considered par for the course
> and essentially ignored since "it's normal."  In eastern society, would the reactions have been
> reversed?  Would sexual picadillos be considered a mild curiousity, but a public denouncement of
> the authority be considered the scandal?
> 
> Second, I wonder if the contrasting ways are, in a sense, required for the society to function?
> I.e., humans must have both fluid freedom and firm structure, and those can be in either politics
> or religion, but the situation is not stable if both are fluid or both are firm?
> 
> -- BryceHarrington
------
NationalSocialism|980582540
1c1
< national socialism is called a close dictatorial period in german history from 1933 to 1945.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWar2, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.
------
NationalSocialism|980582575
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWar2, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.
------
IdiosyncratiC|980582631
3c3
< Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible.  My dad knew him.
---
> Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible.
5c5
< EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits. 
---
> We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently are as well.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980582698
40c40,43
< ----
---
> ----
> From IdiosyncratiC:
> 
> My dad knew him.
------
NewHampshire|980582929
1c1
< One of the original 13 colonies.
---
> A state in the UnitedStates, NewHampshire was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the AmericanRevolution.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980583027
1a2,5
> 
> [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
> encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
> of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
43c47
< My dad knew him.
---
> My dad knew him.
------
HomePage|980583155
13,15c13,15
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.
< ----
< We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikipediaProcess and WikipediaL.
> 
> We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.
22c22
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
HomePage|980583180
13c13
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikipediaProcess and WikipediaL.
---
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980583348
1a2,7
> 
> ----
> 
> This is confusing, since "nibbana" is not a Sanskrit word at all,
> but rather a Pali word.  Or, at least, it is the standard English transliteration of the Pali word transliterated as "nibbana", just as "nirvana" is the standard English transliteration of the Sanskrit word transliterated as "nirvana".   Do "nirvana" and "nibbana" actually denote the same thing?  In English, "nirvana" seems to have won out. But what about the words in other forms of Buddhist text in many other languages, in different alphabets yet again?  Do the standard transliterations of these terms in Chinese translations of earlier Pali and Sanskrit texts use the same transliteration for each, for example?  
> 
------
RockyMountains|980583563
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A mountain range in NorthAmerica, often called the RockieS.  The RockyMoutains stretch more than 3000 miles from MexicO, through the continental UnitedStates, into CanadA and AlaskA.  The highest peak is MtElbert, in ColoradO, which is 14,431 feet above SeaLevel.
> 
> Numerous rivers rise in the RockyMountains eventually draining into three of the worlds four OceanS: the AtlanticOcean, the PacificOcean, and the ArcticOcean.  These rivers include:
> * ArkansasRiver
> * AthabascaRiver
> * ColoradoRiver
> * ColumbiaRiver
> * FraserRiver
> * LiardRiver
> * MissouriRiver
> * PeaceRiver
> * PlatteRiver
> * RioGrandeRiver
> * SaskatchewanRiver
> * SnakeRiver
> * YellowstoneRiver
> * YukonRiver
------
RockyMountains|980584353
1c1
< A mountain range in NorthAmerica, often called the RockieS.  The RockyMoutains stretch more than 3000 miles from MexicO, through the continental UnitedStates, into CanadA and AlaskA.  The highest peak is MtElbert, in ColoradO, which is 14,431 feet above SeaLevel.
---
> A MountaiN range in NorthAmerica, often called the RockieS.  The RockyMountains stretch more than 3000 miles from MexicO, through the continental UnitedStates, into CanadA and AlaskA.  The highest peak is MtElbert, in ColoradO, which is 14,431 feet above SeaLevel.
17c17
< * YukonRiver
---
> * YukonRiver
------
RockyMountains|980584399
3c3
< Numerous rivers rise in the RockyMountains eventually draining into three of the worlds four OceanS: the AtlanticOcean, the PacificOcean, and the ArcticOcean.  These rivers include:
---
> The rivers that flow from the RockyMountains eventually drain into three of the worlds four OceanS: the AtlanticOcean, the PacificOcean, and the ArcticOcean.  These rivers include:
------
NationalSocialism|980584483
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
NationalSocialism|980584532
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party, and is often used interchangeable with FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
NationalSocialism|980584562
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party, and is often used interchangeable with FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
NationalSocialism|980584614
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NazI) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolphHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
NationalSocialism|980584719
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980584729
23a24,25
> 
> ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
------
ZeuS|980584939
1c1,3
< The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
---
> The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
> 
> ''Do we want to go through all the mythological characters here?  It would be cool filling them in if we do, but maybe it would be better to keep them concentrated on a couple pages like GreekMythology, GreekTheogony, IliaD, etc.''
------
CanadA|980585270
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very nice country in NorthAmerica, second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, CanadA is very diverse, and has recently had some problems with the francophone majority in QuebeC.
------
KingdomAnimalia|980585709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Includes HomoSapiens, and a whole lot of other stuff.  This really deserves to be expounded further.
------
HomoSapiens|980585778
1c1
< In TaxonomY, the name used for the HumaN SpecieS.
---
> In TaxonOmY, the name used for the HumaN SpecieS.  Latin for "thinking man."  People belong to the KingdomAnimalia, and it really is possible to classify them a lot more precisely, but for now this should be good enough.
------
PhiloSophy|980586864
8c8
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlAto -- ArisTotle -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
------
AustriA|980591383
1c1
< Austria ¥pop© ca© 7©5m¤ is a small landlocked country in Central Europe© It is a federation of 9 states©
---
> Austria pop. ca. 7.5m is a small landlocked country in Central Europe. It is a federation of 9 states.
3c3
< Capital: Vienna ¥pop© ca© 1©8m¤
---
> Capital: Vienna pop. ca. 1.8m
5c5
< Language Spoken: GermaN ¥and a large number of dialects¤
---
> Language Spoken: German and a large number of dialects
7c7
< Neighbours: GermanY, SwitzerlanD, LichtensteiN, ItalY, SloveniA, HungarY, SlovakiA, CzechRepublic©
---
> Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, CzechRepublic.
9c9,11
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide©
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
> 
> Currently rightwing fpoe, oevp coalition in the government. People who dislike this government still meet every Thursday at the "Ballhausplatz" in the inner city for the weekly demonstration.
------
EastGermany|980600119
3c3
< After WW2, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
---
> After WW2, in 1949 at the Potsdam Conference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
7,8c7,8
< FederalRepublicOfGerman, the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
< It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
---
> "Federal Republic Of Germany", the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
> It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisTic
14c14
< GermanY got divided after the war, also BerlinGermany, former capital of Germany got divided. Since Berlin was 
---
> GermanY got divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany got divided. Since Berlin was 
16c16
< soon was known as WestBerlin.
---
> soon got known as WestBerlin.
19c19
< Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West Germany used WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the ColdWar.
---
> Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war it self and all that.
------
ColdWar|980600522
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> the cold war describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars in korea, vietnam and afghanistan, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in a armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
> Also, the armys of the countries involved never had much participation in the cold war, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (USA), MI6 (Great Britain), BND (West Germany), STASI (East Germany) and the KGB(USSR).
> The cold war also inspired alot of movie-companys and writers, resulting in an enourmous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (james bond) some less.
------
GeorgeWBush|980601808
7a8,9
> 
> the first president of the united states who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
------
MariahCarey|980604187
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chick with big t*ts and a hell of a voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Still wonder why she uses her music to do such boring pop-music.
------
WikiPediaProcess|980604344
31a32,33
> ----
> Is there any link between WikiPedia/NuPedia and the announced GNUPedia project? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
------
WikiPediaProcess|980604450
33c33,35
< Is there any link between WikiPedia/NuPedia and the announced GNUPedia project? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
---
> Is there any link between WikiPedia/NuPedia and the announced GNUPedia project? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
> ----
> Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
------
GeorgeWBush|980609336
1c1,5
< The current PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.
---
> The current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.  Winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the US Supreme Court.
> 
> ----
> ----
> '''Discussion:'''
6a11,28
> ----
> '''Election controversy:'''  [Possibly to be moved elsewhere?]
> 
> The first president of the UnitedStates who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
> 
> :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY.
> 
> :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
> 
> :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
> 
> :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many people have claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
> 
> :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
> 
> ----
> '''Controversy over issues:'''
> 
9d30
< the first president of the united states who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980613357
1c1,3
< Nirvana is the English spelling of the Sanskrit nibbana, meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
---
> Nirvana is an English transliteration/spelling of a Sanskrit term meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
> 
> Many of the Pali language Buddhist scriptures use a word translated as "nibbana", which appears to describe the same word/concept.
5,6c7
< This is confusing, since "nibbana" is not a Sanskrit word at all,
< but rather a Pali word.  Or, at least, it is the standard English transliteration of the Pali word transliterated as "nibbana", just as "nirvana" is the standard English transliteration of the Sanskrit word transliterated as "nirvana".   Do "nirvana" and "nibbana" actually denote the same thing?  In English, "nirvana" seems to have won out. But what about the words in other forms of Buddhist text in many other languages, in different alphabets yet again?  Do the standard transliterations of these terms in Chinese translations of earlier Pali and Sanskrit texts use the same transliteration for each, for example?  
---
> Do "nirvana" and "nibbana" actually denote the same thing?  In English, "nirvana" seems to have won out. But what about the words in other forms of Buddhist text in many other languages, in different alphabets yet again?  Do the standard transliterations of these terms in Chinese translations of earlier Pali and Sanskrit texts use the same transliteration for each, for example?  
7a9
> :Serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer "nibbana", although "nirvana" is often listed as a (transliteration of the) Sanskrit version.  A more detailed definition is [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html#n here], with several uses of "nibbana" [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/nibbana.html here], and a talk on "nibbana" [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/thanissaro/nibbana.html here].  Finally, a Google search for [http://www.google.com/search?q=nirvana+nibbana+Pali+Sanskrit&num=100&hl=en&lr=&safe=off nirvana nibbana Pali Sanskrit] found over a hundred links which seem to equate the two terms.
------
PhysIcs|980620841
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physics is a very broad subject...
> 
> * PhotoElectricEffect (German)
------
PhotoElectricEffect|980621082
1c1,268
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Der Photoelektrische Effekt
> 
> erschienen am: 26. Januar 2001
> Autor:Norman Werner
> <H1><A NAME="SECTION00020000000000000000">
> Historisches</A>
> </H1>
> 1888 fand <SPAN  CLASS="textit">Hallwachs</SPAN> erstmals die Gesetzmäßigkeiten des
> photo-elektrischen Effektes, welcher zuvor schon von <SPAN  CLASS="textit">H. Hertz
> </SPAN>beobachtet worden war. Dabei standen die Ergebnisse des Experimentes
> in Widerspruch zur klassichen Mechanik und dem damaligen Verständnis
> von der Natur des Lichts. Erst 1905 wurden die Ergebnisse von
> <SPAN  CLASS="textit">A. Einstein</SPAN> im Rahmen der Lichtquantentheorie gedeutet. Das
> Experiment gilt als einer der deutlichsten Belege für die Quantelung
> der von Licht übertragenen Energie.
> 
> <P>
> 
> <H1><A NAME="SECTION00030000000000000000">
> Das Experiment</A>
> </H1>
> 
> <H2><A NAME="SECTION00031000000000000000">
> Das Wesentliche</A>
> </H2>
> Aus einem Metall, können unter optischer Anregungen Elektronen
> austreten. Dabei ist es möglich die maximale kinetische Energie der
> Elektronen nach dem Austritt zu bestimmen. Stellt man einen Zusammenhang zwischen dieser
> maximalen Energie und der Art des verwendeten Licht statt, so stellt
> man fest, daß die Intensität des Lichtes lediglich beeinflußt wieviele
> Elektronen auf eine gewisse kinetische Energie kommen. Währenddessen
> die Frage, ob überhaupt Elektronen austreten und eine bestimmte
> Energie erreichen lediglich von der Frequenz des verwendeten
> Lichtes abhängt. Dabei waren die Ergebnisse bei allen untersuchten
> Metallen im wesentlichen die selben. Im besonderen war auch der
> Anstieg 
> <!-- MATH
>  $tan(\alpha{})$
>  -->
> <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="58" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img1.gif"
>  ALT="$ tan(\alpha{})$"></SPAN> stets der gleiche. Allerdings lagen bei
> verschiedenen Metallen unterschiedliche Grenzfrequenzen <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img2.gif"
>  ALT="$ f_{gr}$"></SPAN> vor.
> 
> <P></P>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="fig:dia"></A><A NAME="35"></A>
> <TABLE>
> <CAPTION ALIGN="BOTTOM"><STRONG>Figure 1:</STRONG>
> </CAPTION>
> <TR><TD>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER">
> 
> </DIV> 
>   
> <!-- MATH
>  $\includegraphics {phoe.eps}$
>  -->
> <IMG
>  WIDTH="498" HEIGHT="187" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img3.gif"
>  ALT="\includegraphics {phoe.eps}"></TD></TR>
> </TABLE>
> </DIV><P></P>
> 
> <P>
> In Abbildung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> sind die beiden angesprochenen
> Abhängigleiten dargestellt. Der nächste Abschnitt der den
> Versuchsaufbau genauer beschreibt, kann ruhig übersprungen werden. Es
> geht weiter in Absatz <A HREF="photoe.htm#sec:auswert">4</A>.
> 
> <H2><A NAME="SECTION00032000000000000000">
> Versuchsaufbau</A>
> </H2>
> Um aus dem Metall Elektronen lösen zu könne waren zweierlei
> Vorbereitungen notwendig. Zum einen wurde mit negativ geladenen
> Elektroden gearbeitet und zum anderen wurden diese durch eine Heizung
> erwärmt. Beide Maßnahmen senken die Austrittsarbeit. Um die kinetische
> Maximalenergie der Elektronen zu messen, wurde mit der
> Gegenfeldmethode<A NAME="tex2html2"
>  HREF="#foot41"><SUP><IMG  ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="1" ALT="[*]" SRC="foot_motif.gif"></SUP></A>gearbeitet. Zur Bestrahlung wird monochromatisches Licht verwendet.
> Das solche Versuche nur in nahezu luftleeren Raum
> durchgeführt werden konnten, is ja wohl klar.
> 
> <H1><A NAME="SECTION00040000000000000000"></A>
> <A NAME="sec:auswert"></A>
> <BR>
> Analyse
> </H1>
> Damit ein Elektron die Metalloberfläche verlassen kann muss eine
> bestimmte Austrittsarbeit <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img4.gif"
>  ALT="$ U_A$"></SPAN> aufgebracht werden. Da die Loslösung
> von Elektronen nur unter Lichteinfall geschieht, liegt die Vermutung
> nahe, daß das Licht die notwendige Energie einbringt. Gemäß der
> Lichtquantenhypothese wird jedoch die gesamte Energie eines
> Lichtteilchens - dem sog. "`Photons"' -
> mit einem Mal auf das Elektron übertragen. Liegt diese Energie
> unterhalb der Austrittsarbeit, so können keine Elektronen losgelöst
> werden. Aufgrund unterschiedlicher Bindungsverhältnisse in
> unterschiedlichen Metallen überrascht die Stoffabhängigkeit der
> Austrittarbeit keineswegs, was dann auch die Existenz einer
> stoffspezifischen Grenzfrequenz <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img2.gif"
>  ALT="$ f_{gr}$"></SPAN> erklärt. 
> <BR><P></P>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER">
> 
>   <TABLE CELLPADDING=3 BORDER="1">
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Metall</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img4.gif"
>  ALT="$ U_A$"></SPAN> in [eV]</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">
> <!-- MATH
>  $\lambda{}_{gr}$
>  -->
> <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="29" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img5.gif"
>  ALT="$ \lambda{}_{gr} $"></SPAN> in [nm]</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Li</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2,46</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">504</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Na</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2,28</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">543</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">K</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2.25</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">551</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Rb</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2.13</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">582</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Cs</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">1.94</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">639</TD>
> </TR>
> <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Cu</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">4.48</TD>
> <TD ALIGN="LEFT">277</TD>
> </TR>
> </TABLE>
> 
> </DIV>
> <BR>
> Sollte das Photon mehr Energie haben, als an Austrittsarbeit nötig
> ist, so liegt der Verdacht nahe, daß das Elektron diese überschüssige
> Energie als kinetische Energie übernimmt. Es ist dies genau die
> Energie, die in der Darstellung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> dargestellt wird. 
> <P></P>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:enegieer"></A>
> <!-- MATH
>  \begin{equation}
> E_{photon}=U_{A}+E_{kin_{max}}
> \end{equation}
>  -->
> <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
> <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
> <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="191" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img6.gif"
>  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{photon}=U_{A}+E_{kin_{max}}$"></SPAN></TD>
> <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
> (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">1</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
> </TABLE></DIV>
> <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
> Da sich aus der Darstellung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> ein linearer Zusammenhang
> zwischen 
> <!-- MATH
>  $E_{kin_{max}}$
>  -->
> <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="63" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img7.gif"
>  ALT="$ E_{kin_{max}}$"></SPAN> und <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="16" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img8.gif"
>  ALT="$ f$"></SPAN> ergibt, so ist leicht einzusehen, daß
> gilt:
> <P></P>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:brosel"></A>
> <!-- MATH
>  \begin{equation}
> E_{kin_{max}}=\tan{(\alpha{})}\cdot{}f-U_{A}
> \text{ wobei $\alpha{}$\  der Anstiegswinkel ist.}
> \end{equation}
>  -->
> <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
> <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
> <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="217" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img9.gif"
>  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{kin_{max}}=\tan{(\alpha{})}\cdot{}f-U_{A}$">&nbsp; &nbsp; wobei <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="17" HEIGHT="17" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img10.gif"
>  ALT="$ \alpha{}$"></SPAN> der Anstiegswinkel ist.</SPAN></TD>
> <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
> (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">2</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
> </TABLE></DIV>
> <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
> Da der Anstiegswinkel bei allen Metallen gleich ist, Ist es glaubhaft,
> daß es sich dabei um eine Konstante handelt. Und dem ist auch 
> so. 
> <!-- MATH
>  $\tan{(\alpha{})}=h$
>  -->
> <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="96" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img11.gif"
>  ALT="$ \tan{(\alpha{})}=h$"></SPAN> und <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="16" HEIGHT="18" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img12.gif"
>  ALT="$ h$"></SPAN> ist allgemein bekannt als
> "`Plancksches Wirkungsquantum"'.
> Nach Einsetzen von <A HREF="photoe.htm#eq:brosel">2</A> in <A HREF="photoe.htm#eq:enegieer">1</A> erhält man
> <P></P>
> <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:ehf"></A>
> <!-- MATH
>  \begin{equation}
> E_{photon}=h\cdot{}f
> \end{equation}
>  -->
> <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
> <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
> <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
>  WIDTH="120" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
>  SRC="img13.gif"
>  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{photon}=h\cdot{}f$"></SPAN></TD>
> <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
> (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">3</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
> </TABLE></DIV>
> <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
> <H2><A NAME="SECTION00041000000000000000">.</A>
> 
> </H2>
> Was wir hier als selbstverständlich angenommen haben, nämlich, daß ein
> Photon seine gesamte Energie an ein Elektron abgibt, daß es überhaupt
> sowas wie eine Teilchennatur des Lichtes gibt, und daß die Energie
> eines solchen von seiner Frequenz  (einem Wellencharakteristikum)
> abhängt, war zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts eine wissenschaftliche Sensation.
> <BR><HR><H4>Footnotes</H4>
> <DL>
> <DT><A NAME="foot41">...
> Gegenfeldmethode</A><A NAME="foot41"
>  HREF="photoe.htm#tex2html2"><SUP><IMG  ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="1" ALT="[*]" SRC="foot_motif.gif"></SUP></A>
> <DD>vielleicht woanders in gnupedia
> 
> </DL>
> <BR><HR>
> <h4>Kontakt mit dem Autor</h4>
> Bei Verbesserungsvorschl&auml;gen, Ermutigungen und anderen Zeichen von Anteilnahme, kann ich unter <a href="mailto:norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de">norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de</a> erreicht werden. Sollte diese Addresse mittlerweile nicht mehr aktuell sein, so kann man mich postalisch unter:
> <br>
> Norman Werner<br>
> Rembrandtstr.3<br>
> 15370 Fredersdorf<br>
> &ETH;eutschland<br>
> erreichen
------
HomePage|980621718
3c3
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment
---
> MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment -- LanguagE
------
LanguagE|980622099
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languages of the world.  
> 
> * EnglishLanguage
> * EsperantoLanguage
> * FrenchLanguage
> * GaelicLanguage
> * GermaLanguage
> * RussianLanguage
> * SpanishLanguage
------
EsperantoLanguage|980622486
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Esperanto'''
> 
> <b>Esperanto</b> is a constructed language, created by Doctor Ludovic Lazarus (Ludwik Lejzer) Zamenhof in 1887 as a result of the ten years work. The first published book was <i>"D-ro Esperanto. Lingvo internacia. Anta&#365;parolo kaj plena lernolibro",</i> meaning <i>"Dr. Hopeful. International Language. Foreword And Complete Textbook".</i> Zamenhof's pseudonym <i>Esperanto</i> very soon became the name of the language itself.
> 
> Esperanto is intended to serve as a universal international language, the second language (after the parents' language) of every educated person. Most of its vocabulary is made up of Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and some other Indo-European roots. Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without exceptions), phonetic alphabet (meaning that all words are pronounced as in written and vice versa), and very logical structure (the same words' ending for the same parts of speech, e.g. <i>-o</i> for nouns, <i>-a</i> for adjectives, etc.) All these features make Esperanto to be more easy-to-learn than the most world's languages, even for non-Europeans.
> 
> It's difficult to tell how many speakers of Esperanto there are. Most sources refer to the number of two million speakers worldwide. However it may be quite rough estimation. Every year there're hundreds of new titles (both translated and original) being published in Esperanto along with the music and even films. Some editions may exceed a number of a hundred thousand copies. Also there're great number of Esperanto-newspapers, magazines, and radio-stations broadcasting in Esperanto. Most <i>esperantists</i> (members of Esperanto-community or Esperanto-diaspora) are eager to international and intercultural contacts, many of them travel to conventions to meet their old friends and make new ones, have correspondents in different parts of the world, and quite often are ready to provide to travelling esperantist a housing for some days.
> 
> Esperanto is the most successful of all the artificial languages to day. In 1999 <i>Universala Esperanto-Asocio</i> <i>(The Worldwide Esperanto-Association)</i> had members in 119 countries of the world, and the annual <i>Universala Kongreso</i> <i>(World Congress)</i> usually gathers from three to six thousand esperantists.
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * LudovicLazarusZamenhof
> 
> '''Links:'''
> * [http://www.esperanto.net www.esperanto.net] -- information about Esperanto in 41 languages
> * [http://www.geocities.com/Oleg326756 Free email-based course of Esperanto]
> ----
> 
> Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
> 
> Updated: <i>24th of January 2001</i>
> 
> ----
> 
------
NationalFootballLeague|980622674
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An AmericaN SportS league, usually called the NfL.
> 
> The NfL is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
------
WikiPediaProcess|980622940
32a33,34
> These questions should go in the WikiPediaFaq, but actually they've already been answered.  Second question removed to the WikiPediaFaq.
> 
34,35c36,38
< ----
< Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
---
> 
> See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia.
> ----
------
WikiPediaProcess|980622959
37,38c37
< See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia.
< ----
---
> See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia and GNUStufF.
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|980622978
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus (Ludwik Lejzer)'''
> 
> <b>Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof</b> (1859-1917) was the creator of the EsperantoLanguage – the most succesful of all the constructed international languages. He also was known as Dr. Esperanto – by this pseudonym he published in 1887 his work “Lingvo internacia”, which had the language's description and textbook.
> 
> Zamenhof was born the 15th of December 1859 in the Polish town BialystokPoland (then Poland was a part of RussianEmpire). The town's population was made-up of four major ethnic groups: Russians, Poles, Germans, and YiddishLanguage-speaking Jews. There were many quarrels between them, and that was making young Ludovic quite sad. He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in reciprocal misunderstanding, caused by the lack of one common language that would play role of the neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.
> 
> As a student of secondary school in Warsaw Zamenhof made attempts to create some kind of international language with a grammar that was very rich, but also very complex. When he studied EnglishLanguage (along with GermanLanguage, FrenchLanguage, LatinLanguage and GreekLanguage, he decided that the international language must have relatively simple grammar with a wide use of suffixes to make new forms of the words.
> 
> By the 1878 his project "Lingwe uniwersala" was almost finished. However Zamenhof was too young then to publish his work. Soon after graduation from the school he began to study medicine, first in MoscowRussia, and later in WarsawPoland. In 1885 Zamenhof graduated from the university and began his practice as oculist. While healing people he continued to work on his project of the international language.
> 
> For two years he tried to raise funds to publish a booklet with the language's description until he received the financial help from his future wife's father. In 1987 the book titled as "D-ro Esperanto. Lingvo internacia. Anta parolo kaj plena lernolibro" ("Dr. Hopeful. International Language. Foreword And Complete Textbook") was published. For Zamenhof this language wasn't a mere communication tool, but the mean of propagation. He wanted to preach the idea of peaceful co-existing of different people and cultures. Zamenhof even came up with the teaching "Homaranismo" in order to spread these ideas.
> 
> Zamenhof became informal leader of the new EsperantoMovement, though he never was striving to gain fame or power. Esperantists were calling him The Master, admiring him as a Teacher, but Zamenhof himself had a strong dislike for this title, and never took any official position inside the EsperantoMovement. He died in Warsaw the 14th of April 1917.
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * EsperantoLanguage
> 
> ----
> 
> Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
> 
> Updated: <i>25th of January 2001</i>
> 
> ----
------
WikiPediaFaq|980623023
57a58,61
> ----
> '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
> 
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|980623063
2a3,4
> http://www.geocities.com/Oleg326756/GNUPedia/zamenhof.jpg
> 
24c26
< ----
---
> ----
------
MariahCarey|980623094
1c1
< Chick with big t*ts and a hell of a voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Still wonder why she uses her music to do such boring pop-music.
---
> Woman with a beautiful voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Sings pop music.
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|980623111
26d25
< ----
------
GeorgeWBush|980623776
1c1,11
< The current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.  Winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the US Supreme Court.
---
> George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of Texas.
> 
> Bush was born July 6, 1946, and grew up in Midland and Houston, Texas.  He received a bachelor's degree from Yale University and a Master's of Business Administration from Harvard Business School.  He served as an F-102 pilot for the Texas Air National Guard before beginning his career in the oil and gas business in Midland in 1975, working in the energy industry until 1986.  After working on his father's successful 1988 presidential campaign, he assembled the group of partners that purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in 1989.
> 
> He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  We went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.
> 
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 18-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. 
> 
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
> 
> [edited from whitehouse.gov]
3d12
< ----
------
GeorgeWBush|980623830
2a3,4
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
> 
9,10d10
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
< 
13,39c13
< ----
< '''Discussion:'''
< 
< My thinking is that on this topic we should try to refrain from
< being political.  Some people like him, others don't.  The same
< thing is of course true for BillClinton.
< 
< ----
< '''Election controversy:'''  [Possibly to be moved elsewhere?]
< 
< The first president of the UnitedStates who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
< 
< :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY.
< 
< :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
< 
< :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
< 
< :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many people have claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
< 
< :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
< 
< ----
< '''Controversy over issues:'''
< 
< Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
< 
---
> See also BushTalk.
------
BushTalk|980623844
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Discussion:'''
> 
> My thinking is that on this topic we should try to refrain from
> being political.  Some people like him, others don't.  The same
> thing is of course true for BillClinton.
> 
> ----
> '''Election controversy:'''  [Possibly to be moved elsewhere?]
> 
> The first president of the UnitedStates who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
> 
> :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY.
> 
> :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
> 
> :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
> 
> :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many people have claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
> 
> :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
> 
> ----
> '''Controversy over issues:'''
> 
> Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
------
BushTalk|980623883
1,6c1
< '''Discussion:'''
< 
< My thinking is that on this topic we should try to refrain from
< being political.  Some people like him, others don't.  The same
< thing is of course true for BillClinton.
< 
---
> '''Discussion'''
8c3,4
< '''Election controversy:'''  [Possibly to be moved elsewhere?]
---
> ----
> '''Election controversy:'''
------
GeorgeWBush|980623926
3c3
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
---
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices, TommyThompson.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
------
GeorgeWBush|980623953
3c3
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices, TommyThompson.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
---
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
------
HistoryOfEurope|980624851
24c24,26
< See also: HistoryGermany
---
> See also:
>    HistoryGermany
>    ColdWar
------
IdiosyncratiC|980625117
5c5,11
< We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently are as well.
---
> ----
> 
> We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently do as well.
> 
> ----
> 
> ...as would be implicit in my remark that idiosyncracy may be fundamental or incidental to the SanitY of an idea...
------
LanguagE|980625460
7c7
< * GermaLanguage
---
> * GermanLanguage
9a10,21
> 
> Grouped by families:
> * IndoEuropean
> * UralicLanguages
> * AltaicLanguages
> * TurkicLanguages
> * SemiticLanguages
> * ChineseLanguages
> * AfroAsiaticLanguages
> * NigerCongoLanguages
> *  ...
> * ArtificalLanguages
------
IndoEuropean|980625523
5,15c5,15
<    IndoIranianLanguages (e.g. SanskritLanguage, HindiLanguage, PersianLanguage)
<    ItalicLanguages (including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages)
<    GermanicLanguages (e.g. EnglishLanguage, GermanLanguage, DutchLanguage, SwedishLanguage)
<    CelticLanguages (e.g. IrishLanguage, WelshLanguage)
<    BalticLanguages (e.g. OldPrussian, LatvianLanguage, LithuanianLanguage)
<    SlavicLanguages (e.g. OldSlavonic, RussianLanguage, PolishLanguage, CzechLanguage, SerboCroatianLanguage)
<    IllyrianLanguages (AlbanianLanguage and extinct cousins)
<    AnatolianLanguages (extinct, most notable was the language of the HittitePeoples)
<    TocharianLanguages (extinct tongues of TocharianPeoples)
<    GreekLanguage
<    ArmenianLanguage
---
> * IndoIranianLanguages (e.g. SanskritLanguage, HindiLanguage, PersianLanguage)
> * ItalicLanguages (including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages)
> * GermanicLanguages (e.g. EnglishLanguage, GermanLanguage, DutchLanguage, SwedishLanguage)
> * CelticLanguages (e.g. IrishLanguage, WelshLanguage)
> * BalticLanguages (e.g. OldPrussian, LatvianLanguage, LithuanianLanguage)
> * SlavicLanguages (e.g. OldSlavonic, RussianLanguage, PolishLanguage, CzechLanguage, SerboCroatianLanguage)
> * IllyrianLanguages (AlbanianLanguage and extinct cousins)
> * AnatolianLanguages (extinct, most notable was the language of the HittitePeoples)
> * TocharianLanguages (extinct tongues of TocharianPeoples)
> * GreekLanguage
> * ArmenianLanguage
------
LanguagE|980625729
15,17c15
< * TurkicLanguages
< * SemiticLanguages
< * ChineseLanguages
---
> * SinoTibetanLanguages
20c18
< *  ...
---
> * ...
------
IndoEuropean|980625803
5c5
< * IndoIranianLanguages (e.g. SanskritLanguage, HindiLanguage, PersianLanguage)
---
> * IndoIranianLanguages
7,10c7,10
< * GermanicLanguages (e.g. EnglishLanguage, GermanLanguage, DutchLanguage, SwedishLanguage)
< * CelticLanguages (e.g. IrishLanguage, WelshLanguage)
< * BalticLanguages (e.g. OldPrussian, LatvianLanguage, LithuanianLanguage)
< * SlavicLanguages (e.g. OldSlavonic, RussianLanguage, PolishLanguage, CzechLanguage, SerboCroatianLanguage)
---
> * GermanicLanguages
> * CelticLanguages
> * BalticLanguages
> * SlavicLanguages
------
IndoEuropean|980626042
24c24
<    r   l   y   w   m   n                Semi-vowels, nasals
---
>    r   l   y   w   m   n                Semi-vowels, nasals (all can be vocalic)
------
HareKrishna|980626125
15,16d14
< (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
< 
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980626250
49a50,53
> ----
> From HareKrishna:
> 
> (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
------
AyeSpy|980626592
6c6
< He has worked professionally in 30 different fields, from horse husbandry, auto mechanics and home construction to photography, marketing, personnel management and counseling.
---
> He has worked professionally in over 30 different fields, from horse husbandry, auto mechanics and home construction to photography, marketing, personnel management and counseling.
12,13c12
< He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative 
< religion.
---
> He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.
------
GermanicLanguages|980627062
1,10c1
< One of the branches of the IndoEuropean language family, spoken by the GermanicPeoples who were settled north and easy along the borders of the RomanEmpire.
< 
< West Germanic languages: LowGerman -- HighGerman -- DutchLanguage -- SwissLanguage -- EnglishLanguage
< 
< North Germanic languages: DanishLanguage -- SwedishLanguage -- NorwegianLanguage
< 
< East Germanic languages: GothicLanguage (extinct)
< 
< 
< 
---
> One of the branches of the IndoEuropean language family, spoken by the GermanicPeoples who were settled north and east along the borders of the RomanEmpire.
11a3,19
> West Germanic languages:
> * EnglishLanguage
> * FrisianLanguage
> * NetherlandicLanguage
> * AfrikaansLanguage
> * GermanLanguage
> * YiddishLanguage
> 
> East Germanic languages:
> Extinct, some records of GothicLanguage
> 
> North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages:
> * DanishLanguage
> * SwedishLanguage
> * IcelandicLanguage
> * FeroeseLanguage
> * NorwegianLanguage
------
RomanceLanguages|980627323
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the break-up of the RomanEmpire, the vulgar latin began to evolve differently in different areas.  The romance languages are the results of this process, and form a subfamily of the ItalicLanguages.
> 
> * SardinianLanguage
> * RomanianLanguage
> * ItalianLanguage
> * PortugueseLanguage
> * SpanishLanguage
> * CatalanLanguage
> * RhaetianLanguage
> * FrenchLanguage
> * OccitanLanguage
------
RomanceLanguages|980627403
11a12,13
> 
> And, of course, the classical LatinLanguage that was spoken conservatively as a ''lingua franca'' throughout the MiddleAges is still learned by some.
------
SlavicLanguages|980627734
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The languages of the SlavicPeoples, and the last of the major IndoEuropean groups to appear.
> 
> West Slavic Languages:
> * SorbianLanguage
> * PolishLanguage
> * PomeranianLanguage
> * CzechLanguage
> * SlovakLanguage
> 
> South Slavic Languages:
> * SloveneLanguage
> * SerboCroatianLanguage
> * MacedonianLanguage
> * BulgarianLanguage
> 
> East Slavic Languages:
> * BelorussianLanguage
> * UkrainianLanguage
> * RussianLanguage
------
GeorgeWBush|980627989
9c9
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 18-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. 
---
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. 
------
IndoIranianLanguages|980628362
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The eastern-most group of IndoEuropean languages, and some of which we have the oldest records of.  These originate around modern Afghanistan and early on split as some people went west and some went east.
> 
> IndoAryan Languages:
> * HindiLanguage
> * BengaliLanguage
> * ...
> 
> Iranian Languages:
> * PersianLanguage
> * PashtoLanguage
> * TajikLanguage
> * OsseticLanguage
> * KurdishLanguage
> * BalochiLanguage
> * ...
------
AustriA|980628877
1c1
< Austria pop. ca. 7.5m is a small landlocked country in Central Europe. It is a federation of 9 states.
---
> AustriA pop. ca. 7.5m is a small landlocked country in CentralEurope. It is a federation of 9 states.
3c3
< Capital: Vienna pop. ca. 1.8m
---
> Capital: ViennA pop. ca. 1.8m
5c5
< Language Spoken: German and a large number of dialects
---
> Language Spoken: GermaN and a large number of dialects
7c7
< Neighbours: Germany, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Italy, Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia, CzechRepublic.
---
> Neighbours: GermanY, SwitzerlanD, LichtensteiN, ItalY, SloveniA, HungarY, SlovakiA, CzechRepublic.
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
---
> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. (This point is widely contended outside of AustriA).
11c11
< Currently rightwing fpoe, oevp coalition in the government. People who dislike this government still meet every Thursday at the "Ballhausplatz" in the inner city for the weekly demonstration.
---
> Currently (2001) rightwing fpoe, oevp coalition in the government. People who dislike this government still meet every Thursday at the "BallhausplatZ" in the inner city for the weekly demonstration.
------
GeorgeWBush|980628955
7c7
< He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  We went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.
---
> He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.
------
GeorgeWBush|980630236
9c9
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. 
---
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father George Bush was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
13c13,14
< See also BushTalk.
---
> '''See also:'''
> * BushTalk
------
CityBerlin|980630415
1c1
< BerliN is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3©5 mio© inhabitants©
---
> BerliN is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
3,4c3,4
< 
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury BerliN was the capital of EastGermany© In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. 
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.
------
LanguagE|980630515
9a10,17
> * ItalianLanguage
> * GreekLanguage
> * JapaneseLanguage
> * ChineseLanguage
> * KoreanLanguage
> * BantuLanguage
> * ArabicLanguage
> * HebrewLanguage
------
LanguagE|980631581
1c1
< Languages of the world.  
---
> Some of the major languages of the world:
------
BryceHarrington|980632025
4c4,21
< ''Bryce, about your notes on HistoryOfEurope...I didn't want to put these there, since it is a summary page.  I removed the bit about Alex great conquering Greece, since that was his father, and about other civilizations probably experimenting with governments, since all evidence suggests they did not.  But all in all, I was thinking such developments really belong on a HistoryOfTheMeditteranean page, since ''that'' is where the center of the action is, not Europe.  Didn't want to impose, 'course...thoughts?''
---
> ----
> ''Bryce, about your notes on HistoryOfEurope...I didn't want to put these there, since it is a summary page.  I removed the bit about Alex great conquering Greece, since that was his father, and about other civilizations probably experimenting with governments, since all evidence suggests they did not.  But all in all, I was thinking such developments really belong on a HistoryOfTheMeditteranean page, since ''that'' is where the center of the action is, not Europe.  Didn't want to impose, 'course...thoughts?''  -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> ----
> I don't think Roman and Greek history should be isolated from European history, since they're obviously so
> intricately tied.  I'm not sure a HistoryOfTheMediterranean page would be exactly what we need, but 
> certainly something oriented to the ancient history of the western world would be good.  I believe the
> topics already listed under HiStory should cover that, though.  Good catch on Alexander's father conquering
> Greece - I should have caught that.  
> 
> Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point
> out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.  
> 
> Anyway, the current page looks much better.  The power of collaboration, ay?  ;-)
> 
> To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going 
> to get ''quite'' long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.
> -- BryceHarrington
------
AfroAsiaticLanguages|980632140
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are Hebrew and Arabic, which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of Judaism and IsLam.
> 
> The following language subfamilies are included:
> * SemiticLanguages
> * EgyptianLanguages
> * BerberLanguages
> * CushiticLanguages
> * ChadicLanguages
------
AfroAsiaticLanguages|980632155
1,3c1
< Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are Hebrew and Arabic, which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of Judaism and IsLam.
< 
< The following language subfamilies are included:
---
> Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are Hebrew and Arabic, which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of Judaism and IsLam.  The following language subfamilies are included:
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|980632310
1c1
< As I understand it, ProjectGutenberg has published what they call the "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia"©  What this actually is, is the classic 11th edition of the EncyclopediaBritannica©  However, because 'Britannica' is a trademark, even though the text is now public domain ¥because it is so old¤, they were unable to call it EncyclopediaBritannica©
---
> As I understand it, ProjectGutenberg has published what they call the "Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia".  What this actually is, is the classic 11th edition of the EncyclopediaBritannica.  However, because 'Britannica' is a trademark, even though the text is now public domain (because it is so old), they were unable to call it EncyclopediaBritannica.
3c3
< Call it what you will, it is available, and we should consider putting the entire text here, in the Wikipedia©  This may be a lot of work ¥like my own pet project, which is cutting and pasting all of the public domain CIAWorldFactbook over in CountriesOfTheWorld -- please help me!¤, but it sure would be a fun thing to have in here©  People could start updating/replacing the articles with ProjectGutenbergEncyclopedia as the foundation©
---
> Call it what you will, it is available, and we should consider putting the entire text here, in the Wikipedia.  This may be a lot of work (like my own pet project, which is cutting and pasting all of the public domain CIAWorldFactbook over in CountriesOfTheWorld -- please help me!), but it sure would be a fun thing to have in here.  People could start updating/replacing the articles with ProjectGutenbergEncyclopedia as the foundation.
5c5
< Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together©
---
> Also, I bet there are a lot of instances where the text of the article could be wikified by cramming words together.
9c9
< Whoa, WhatACoincidence©  I just now was downloading vol#1 from it and seeing what it'd take to put it in©  :-¤
---
> Whoa, WhatACoincidence.  I just now was downloading vol#1 from it and seeing what it'd take to put it in.  :-)
11c11
< The license says it's in the public domain and we can do whatever we please with it©©©  
---
> The license says it's in the public domain and we can do whatever we please with it...
14,15c14,15
< places©  Other than really basic stuff, I'm not going to fiddle with the formatting nor update any inaccuracies
< contained in them, so anyone seeing things to change, correct, or update should lay into it©
---
> places.  Other than really basic stuff, I'm not going to fiddle with the formatting nor update any inaccuracies
> contained in them, so anyone seeing things to change, correct, or update should lay into it.
19c19
< feel too intimidated by the length and tone of the article to add or correct as we'll need©  
---
> feel too intimidated by the length and tone of the article to add or correct as we'll need. 
21c21
< But, I guess we'll never know unless we try, so here goes©©©  ;-¤
---
> But, I guess we'll never know unless we try, so here goes...  ;-)
26c26
< It appears that only the first volume of this encyclopedia was entered into PG©©©  
---
> It appears that only the first volume of this encyclopedia was entered into PG...
28,29c28,29
< go to the project gutenberg site, and then be certain they're getting the straight stuff©
< Or they can trust my cut-and-paste skill and look at revision 0©©©
---
> go to the project gutenberg site, and then be certain they're getting the straight stuff.
> Or they can trust my cut-and-paste skill and look at revision 0...
32,34c32,34
< encyclopedia©©©  Thus I think it'd be better if I just plugged them right into the
< topics, without putting 'EB' on the topicname©  So we'd have just one copy of each
< article, plus any commentary placed on top of them by subsequent editing©  Does that
---
> encyclopedia...  Thus I think it'd be better if I just plugged them right into the
> topics, without putting 'EB' on the topicname.  So we'd have just one copy of each
> article, plus any commentary placed on top of them by subsequent editing.  Does that
39a40,46
> ----
> In looking it over, there's two rules we'll have to follow.  First, we cannot use the
> name "Britannica" because that is a trademark.  Second, Project Gutenberg requires that
> NO mention is made of Project Gutenberg if the text is altered from what they supply.
> We are free to copy and reuse the text, and edit it as we wish, but can't claim it is
> from Encyclopedia Britannica nor from Project Gutenberg.  Weird, eh?  Anyway...  Correct
> me if I've misinterpreted the various bits of small text. -- BryceHarrington
------
IndoEuropean|980632349
1c1
< It turns out that most of the major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared around the beginning of the BronzeAge.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of German NationalSocialism.
---
> It turns out that most of the western major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared around the beginning of the BronzeAge.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of German NationalSocialism.
------
SigningYourWriting|980632556
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some reasons why you might wish to sign your name to pages you work on, and set up a personal page:
> 
> * If it is a discussion page, then it is hard for readers to see who was saying what, unless names are included
> * If it is a good piece of writing, people may wish to know to give compliments or to check out other things you've worked on
> * If there is an error or question on what you've done, it helps people find and contact you about it.
> * And finally, on your personal page if you click on your name, it shows a list of links of all of "your" pages.  :-)
------
SinoTibetanLanguages|980632561
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A major language family of east Asia, in number of speakers worldwide second only to IndoEuropean.   These languages tend to be agglunative, monosyllabic and tonal.
> 
> * ChineseLanguage
> * TibetanLanguage
> * BurmeseLanguage
------
WojPob|980632663
1c1
< Wojtek Pobratyn©
---
> Wojtek Pobratyn.
3c3
< A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration© He's got a huge amount of time to spare© http://www©pobratyn©com©
---
> A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. http://www.pobratyn.com.
5c5
< Yeah;-¤
---
> Yeah;-)
8,10c8,10
< Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols©©©  All of the pages you've edited have these
< funny ¥c¤ symbols in them now, where there should be newlines©  There are other symbols being
< sprinkled throughout©©©  
---
> Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols...  All of the pages you've edited have these
> funny ¥c¤ symbols in them now, where there should be newlines.  There are other symbols being
> sprinkled throughout...
12c12,15
< Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki©©©© it's my bloody German language keyboard© I'll try to sort it out.
---
> Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki.... 
> it's my bloody German language keyboard.  I'll try to sort it out.
> ----
> Fixed up the broken periods.  -- BryceHarrington
------
PoLitics|980632865
21a22,23
> * NationalSocialism
> 
------
LanguagE|980633140
15d14
< * BantuLanguage
20c19
< * IndoEuropean
---
> * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, Slavic, Greek, etc.)
23,25c22,24
< * SinoTibetanLanguages
< * AfroAsiaticLanguages
< * NigerCongoLanguages
---
> * SinoTibetanLanguages (Chinese, etc.)
> * AfroAsiaticLanguages (Semitic, etc.)
> * NigerCongoLanguages (Bantu, etc.)
------
IndoEuropean|980633295
17c17
< These are all InflectedLanguages unlike, say, ChineseLanguages.  Some work indicates they may belong to a hypothetical language superfamily called the NostraticLanguages.  For those interested in such things, the original sounds appear to be
---
> These are all InflectedLanguages unlike, say, SinoTibetanLanguages.  Some work indicates they may belong to a hypothetical language superfamily called the NostraticLanguages.  For those interested in such things, the original sounds appear to be
------
WikiPediaProcess|980633444
37c37,40
< See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia and GNUStufF.
---
> See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia and GNUStufF.
> ----
> WikiPedia fulfils many of the principles (such as freedom from closed editorial controls) advocated by the GNUPedia project, however it is not directly derived from that project.  Note that GNUPedia has changed its name and focus; it is now known as "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia".  It is currently focused more on the development of new encyclopedia software than on actively gathering articles, however because of the common licensing approach taken by Nupedia and Wikipedia, articles posted here can be used in the GNE software when it eventually becomes available for public use, and/or can be submitted to Nupedia for formal peer review and inclusion in that project.  GNE is accepting article submissions, but is asking for some time to finish their software before displaying them publically.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
------
HomePage|980634396
3c3,5
< MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- ReLigion -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- PopularMusic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- TechnologY -- UnitedStates -- ScienCe -- HiStory -- HumanComputerInteraction -- ArtsandEntertainment -- LanguagE
---
> * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
> * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
------
PapuaNewGuineA|980635068
1c1,340
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Introduction 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Background: The eastern half of the island of New Guinea - second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north) and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World War I and continued to administer the combined areas until independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives. 
> 
> 
> Geography 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Location: Southeastern Asia, group of islands including the eastern half of the island of New Guinea between the Coral Sea and the South Pacific Ocean, east of Indonesia 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 147 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Oceania 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 462,840 sq km 
> land: 452,860 sq km 
> water: 9,980 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than California 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 820 km 
> border countries: Indonesia 820 km 
> 
> Coastline: 5,152 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines 
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation 
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical; northwest monsoon (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October); slight seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains with coastal lowlands and rolling foothills 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
> highest point: Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m 
> 
> Natural resources: gold, copper, silver, natural gas, timber, oil, fisheries 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 0.1% 
> permanent crops: 1% 
> permanent pastures: 0% 
> forests and woodland: 92.9% 
> other: 6% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: active volcanism; situated along the Pacific "Rim of Fire"; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis 
> 
> Environment - current issues: rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol 
> 
> Geography - note: shares island of New Guinea with Indonesia; one of world's largest swamps along southwest coast 
> 
> 
> People 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Population: 4,926,984 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 39% (male 972,289; female 940,049) 
> 15-64 years: 58% (male 1,470,158; female 1,365,523) 
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 84,942; female 94,023) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 32.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 8 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 59.89 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 63.1 years 
> male: 61.05 years 
> female: 65.26 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.38 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Papua New Guinean(s) 
> adjective: Papua New Guinean 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Melanesian, Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, Polynesian 
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 22%, Lutheran 16%, Presbyterian/Methodist/London Missionary Society 8%, Anglican 5%, Evangelical Alliance 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 1%, other Protestant 10%, indigenous beliefs 34% 
> 
> Languages: English spoken by 1%-2%, pidgin English widespread, Motu spoken in Papua region 
> note: 715 indigenous languages 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 72.2% 
> male: 81% 
> female: 62.7% (1995 est.) 
> 
> 
> Government 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Independent State of Papua New Guinea 
> conventional short form: Papua New Guinea 
> abbreviation: PNG 
> 
> Data code: PP 
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy 
> 
> Capital: Port Moresby 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 20 provinces; Bougainville, Central, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, East New Britain, East Sepik, Enga, Gulf, Madang, Manus, Milne Bay, Morobe, National Capital, New Ireland, Northern, Sandaun, Southern Highlands, Western, Western Highlands, West New Britain 
> 
> Independence: 16 September 1975 (from the Australian-administered UN trusteeship) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 16 September (1975) 
> 
> Constitution: 16 September 1975 
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Silas ATOPARE (since 13 November 1997) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Mekere MORAUTA (since NA August 1999); Deputy Prime Minister Mao ZEMING (since NA December 1999) 
> cabinet: National Executive Council appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the prime minister 
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the National Executive Council; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general for up to five years on the basis of majority support in National Parliament 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament - sometimes referred to as the House of Assembly (109 seats, 89 elected from open electorates and 20 from provincial electorates; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) 
> elections: last held 14-28 June 1997 (next to be held NA June 2002) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - PPP 15%, Pangu Pati 14%, NA 14%, PDM 8%, PNC 6%, PAP 5%, UP 3%, NP 1%, PUP 1%, independents 33%; seats by party - PPP 16, Pangu Pati 15, NA 15, PDM 9, PNC 7, PAP 5, UP 3, NP 1, PUP 1, independents 37; note - association with political parties is very fluid 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on the proposal of the National Executive Council after consultation with the minister responsible for justice, other judges are appointed by the Judicial and Legal Services Commission 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Black Action Party [Paul WANJIK]; Bougainville Unity Alliance or BUA [Samuel AKOITAI]; Christian Democratic Party [Dilu GOMA]; Hausman Party [Waim TOKAM]; League for National Advancement or LNA [leader NA]; Liberal Party [Rabbie SAMAI]; Melanesian Alliance or MA [Fr. John MOMIS]; Melanesian Labor Party [Paul MONDIA]; Milne Bay Party [Simon MUMURIK]; Movement for Greater Autonomy [Stephen POKAWIN]; National Alliance or NA [Michael SOMARE]; National Party or NP [Paul PORA]; Papua New Guinea First Party (includes People's National Congress or PNC [Simon KAUMI] and Christian Country Party [Avusi TANO]); Papua New Guinea United Party or Pangu Pati [Chris HAIVETA]; People's Action Party or PAP [Ted DIRO]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Iario LASARO]; People's National Alliance [leader NA]; People's Progress Party or PPP [Michael NALI]; People's Resources Awareness Party [leader NA]; People's Solidarity Party [Kala SWOKIM]; People's Unity Party or PUP [Alfred KAIABE]; United Party or UP [Rimbiuk PATO]; United Resource Party [Masket IANGALIO] 
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, APEC, AsDB, ASEAN (observer), C, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Nagora Y. BOGAN 
> chancery: 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 
> telephone: [1] (202) 745-3680 
> FAX: [1] (202) 745-3679 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arma Jane KARAER 
> embassy: Douglas Street, Port Moresby 
> mailing address: P. O. Box 1492, Port Moresby 
> telephone: [675] 321-1455 
> FAX: [675] 321-3423 
> 
> Flag description: divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five white five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered 
> 
> 
> Economy 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Economy - overview: Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by the rugged terrain and the high cost of developing infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for the bulk of the population. Mineral deposits, including oil, copper, and gold, account for 72% of export earnings. Budgetary support from Australia and development aid under World Bank auspices have helped sustain the economy. In 1995, Port Moresby reached agreement with the IMF and World Bank on a structural adjustment program, of which the first phase was successfully completed in 1996. In 1997, droughts caused by the El Nino weather pattern wreaked havoc on Papua New Guinea's coffee, cocoa, and coconut production, the mainstays of the agricultural-based economy and major sources of export earnings. The coffee crop was slashed by up to 50% in 1997. Despite problems with drought, the year 1998 saw a small recovery in GDP. Growth increased to 3.6% in 1999 and may be even higher in 2000, say 4.3%. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $11.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3.6% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,500 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 25% 
> industry: 35% 
> services: 40% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 1.7% 
> highest 10%: 40.5% (1996) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 16.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.941 million 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA% 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $1.6 billion 
> expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) 
> 
> Industries: copra crushing, palm oil processing, plywood production, wood chip production; mining of gold, silver, and copper; crude oil production; construction, tourism 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.74 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 69.54% 
> hydro: 30.46% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.618 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, tea, rubber, sweet potatoes, fruit, vegetables; poultry, pork 
> 
> Exports: $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: oil, gold, copper ore, logs, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, crayfish and prawns 
> 
> Exports - partners: Australia 20%, Japan 13%, Germany 7%, South Korea 5%, Philippines 4%, UK 3% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Australia 51%, Singapore 10%, Japan 8%, US 5%, New Zealand 5%, Malaysia 3% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $2.4 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $400 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> Currency: 1 kina (K) = 100 toea 
> 
> Exchange rates: kina (K) per US$1 - 2.7624 (November 1999), 2.520 (1999), 2.058 (1998), 1.434 (1997), 1.318 (1996), 1.276 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
> 
> Communications 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 44,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995) 
> 
> Telephone system: services are adequate and being improved; facilities provide radiotelephone and telegraph, coastal radio, aeronautical radio, and international radio communication services 
> domestic: mostly radiotelephone 
> international: submarine cables to Australia and Guam; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); international radio communication service 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 19, shortwave 28 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 410,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 42,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
> 
> 
> Transportation 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Railways: 0 km 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 19,600 km 
> paved: 686 km 
> unpaved: 18,914 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 10,940 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kieta, Lae, Madang, Port Moresby, Rabaul 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 21 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 36,417 GRT/52,432 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, combination ore/oil 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 3, roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 492 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 19 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 473 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 58 
> under 914 m: 402 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> 
> Military 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Military branches: Papua New Guinea Defense Force (includes Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, and Special Forces Unit) 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 1,274,818 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 706,159 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY98) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1% (FY98) 
> 
> 
>                                          Transnational Issues 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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PapuaNewGuineA|980635188
1,3c1
< Introduction 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Introduction 
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< 
< Geography 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Geography 
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< Map references: Oceania 
< 
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< People 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    People 
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< 
< Government 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Government 
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< Economy 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Economy 
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< Communications 
< 
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>                                    Communications 
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< Transportation 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Transportation 
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< Military 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
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>                                    Military 
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< [Top of Page] 
< 
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< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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HomePage|980637546
3,5c3,5
< * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
< * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
---
> * CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
> * HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
> * ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
------
HomePage|980637601
5c5
< * ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
---
> * ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
------
HomePage|980637666
5a6
> * See other CategorySchemes
------
CategorySchemes|980637889
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WikiPedia, arranged according NuPedia's supercategory scheme:
> 
> FoundationalDisciplines: PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
> 
> NaturalSciences: ScienCe
> 
> SocialSciences: HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates
> 
> AppliedArtsAndSciences: TechnologY -- HumanComputerInteraction 
> 
> CulTure: ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ReLigion
> 
> TriVia: QuoteS
> 
> WikiWiki: [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
------
CategorySchemes|980637967
1c1
< WikiPedia, arranged according NuPedia's supercategory scheme:
---
> WikiPedia, arranged according NuPedia'''''s category scheme:
3c3
< FoundationalDisciplines: PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> '''FoundationalDisciplines:''' PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
5c5
< NaturalSciences: ScienCe
---
> '''NaturalSciences:''' ScienCe
7c7
< SocialSciences: HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates
---
> '''SocialSciences:''' HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates
9c9
< AppliedArtsAndSciences: TechnologY -- HumanComputerInteraction 
---
> '''AppliedArtsAndSciences:''' TechnologY -- HumanComputerInteraction 
11c11
< CulTure: ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ReLigion
---
> '''CulTure:''' ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ReLigion
13c13
< TriVia: QuoteS
---
> '''OtheR:''' QuoteS
15c15
< WikiWiki: [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
---
> '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
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FoundationalDisciplines|980638230
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''foundational discipline'' would be a DisCipline such that fundamental issues resolved in it have direct and indirect bearing primarily on secondary methodological (see MethodOlogy) issues in other disciplines, but the solution of the "fundamental issues" themselves does not depend on the resolution of issues in those other disciplines.
> 
> Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in PhiloSophy, namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard PhiloSophy and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
------
CategorySchemes|980638718
0a1,2
> [page in progress, please don't edit just now]
> 
5c7,9
< '''NaturalSciences:''' ScienCe
---
> '''NaturalSciences:''' PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy
> 
> '''SocialSciences:''' PsychOlogy  HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- AnomalousPhenomena
7c11,23
< '''SocialSciences:''' HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates
---
> ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA (0)
> ANTHROPOLOGY (0)
> ARCHAEOLOGY (1)
> ECONOMICS (0)
> GEOGRAPHY (0)
> HISTORY (0)
>     MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN HISTORY (2)
> HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (0)
> LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES (0)
> POLITICAL SCIENCE (0)
>     INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (0)
> PSYCHOLOGY (2)
> SOCIOLOGY (0)
10a27,45
> AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE (0)
> ARCHITECTURE (0)
>     URBAN PLANNING (0)
> BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY (0)
> COMMUNICATION (0)
> COMPUTERS (25)
> EDUCATION (0)
>     EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (0)
> ENGINEERING (4)
>     ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (0)
> FAMILY & CONSUMER SCIENCES (0)
> HEALTH SCIENCES (2)
> LAW (0)
> LIBRARY & INFORMATION SCIENCE (0)
> OPHTHALMOLOGY (0)
> PUBLIC AFFAIRS (0)
> TRANSPORTATION (0)
>     AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY (0)
> 
12a48,68
> CLASSICS (35)
> CRITICAL THEORY (0)
> LITERATURE (0)
> PERFORMING ARTS (0)
>     DANCE (0)
>     FILM (0)
>     MUSIC (37)
>         LIVING COMPOSERS (0)
>     THEATER AND DRAMA (0)
> RECREATION (0)
>     SPORTS (0)
>     GAMES (0)
>     HOBBIES (0)
>     TOURISM (0)
> RELIGION (3)
> TEST CATEGORY (5)
> VISUAL ARTS (0)
>     PAINTING (0)
>     SCULPTURE (0)
> 
> 
15c71
< '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
---
> '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
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CategorySchemes|980638934
2a3,4
> Evidently, it's becoming a bit pressing just how we should "carve up the universe" that is described by WikiPedia.  On this page, anyone may place any arrangement, or a link to an arrangement, of WikiPedia pages into various categories, supercategories, subcategories, etc.  Then I'd suggest discussing the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
> 
67d68
< 
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BryceHarrington|980639380
14,15c14,20
< Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point
< out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.  
---
> ''I was thinking of Europe as a cultural centre, not as a continent, so that's why I left them off.  The other way is better, since it gives a home to topics like Celts and megaliths.  But I still think that the Romans and Greeks don't belong here.  Yes, Greece and Italy are located in Europe.  But the Greeks had much more to do with Persia than the interior, and the RomanEmpire was as much African and Asian is it was European.''
> 
> ''I really think the essential "region" these civs belong to is the Meditteranean.  At the very least, this would give the Carthaginians a home too.  Of course this has a lot of overlap with Europe, and they should refer a lot to each other; but anything said on Europe about Rome (and to a lesser extent Greece) is just going to be repeated in other regions.''
> 
> Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.
> 
> ''Ok.  Greece does deserve credit, though, for being completely unique in developing democratic governments, formal mathematics, empirical science (to the extent that they did), and so forth.  They also were unique in inventing vowels. :)''
19,20c24,26
< To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going 
< to get ''quite'' long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.
---
> ''Is very, very cool.  I've noticed you've been doing a lot of work building infrastructure, and that's really very praiseworthy.  Thanks for the help with this one.''
> 
> To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going to get ''quite'' long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.
21a28,29
> 
> ''How's this for a primary division?  AncientEurope (pre-Roman stuff), MedievalEurope, Rennaisance, and then a bunch of later stuff I'm less knowledgeable about.  Closely tied to these would be HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, and HistoryOfIslam.  A second split in terms of geographical regions - things like HolyRomanEmpire - probably wouldn't hurt, and then things can grow as the will.''
------
CategorySchemesTalk|980639412
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Talk about various WikiPedia CategoryScheme''''s here.
> ----
> As an example I've put WikiPedia pages into NuPedia'''''s category scheme on the CategoryScheme page.  A short history of this, then.  The Nupedia category scheme is really intended to be a way to organize ''review groups,'' not necessarily subject areas (i.e., it's intended to organize people, not content); but, as it turns out, it is also not a bad way to organize subject areas as well.
> 
> I devised the category scheme very roughly according to the way universities divide up academic departments.  I tried, above all, to be exhaustive; if there is some area of human knowledge that cannot be placed in this category scheme, I'd like to know.  The supercategories ("FoundationalDisciplines," "NaturalSciences," etc.) are all reasonably coherent concepts, and in most cases it's clear enough that a category definitely belongs in one supercategory rather than another.
> 
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategoryScheme page!
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CategorySchemesTalk|980639423
7c7
< On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategoryScheme page!
---
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page!
------
CategorySchemesTalk|980639444
1c1
< Talk about various WikiPedia CategoryScheme''''s here.
---
> Talk about various WikiPedia CategorySchemes here.
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HomoMorphism|980640131
5c5
< Any homomorphism f: X -> Y defines an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g. [x]*[y]=[x*y].  In that case the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.
---
> Any homomorphism f: X -> Y defines an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g. [x]*[y]=[x*y].  In that case the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.  Note in some cases (e.g. groups) a single equivalence class Y suffices to specify the structure of the quotient, so we write it X/Y.
------
CategorySchemes|980640175
7c7,8
< '''FoundationalDisciplines:''' PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> '''FoundationalDisciplines:'''
> :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
9c10,11
< '''NaturalSciences:''' PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy
---
> '''NaturalSciences:'''
> :(see SciencE) PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy 
11c13,17
< '''SocialSciences:''' PsychOlogy  HiStory -- LanguagE -- PoLitics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- AnomalousPhenomena
---
> '''SocialSciences:'''
> :AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- LinguisticsAndLanguages (see LanguagE) -- SociOlogy -- PoLitics -- EconOmics -- HiStory -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- GeoGraphy (see CountriesOfTheWorld and UnitedStates) -- AnomalousPhenomena
> 
> '''AppliedArtsAndSciences:'''
> :(see TechnologY) HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransportAtion -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
13,44d18
< ANOMALOUS PHENOMENA (0)
< ANTHROPOLOGY (0)
< ARCHAEOLOGY (1)
< ECONOMICS (0)
< GEOGRAPHY (0)
< HISTORY (0)
<     MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN HISTORY (2)
< HISTORY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (0)
< LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES (0)
< POLITICAL SCIENCE (0)
<     INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (0)
< PSYCHOLOGY (2)
< SOCIOLOGY (0)
< 
< '''AppliedArtsAndSciences:''' TechnologY -- HumanComputerInteraction 
< 
< AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE (0)
< ARCHITECTURE (0)
<     URBAN PLANNING (0)
< BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY (0)
< COMMUNICATION (0)
< COMPUTERS (25)
< EDUCATION (0)
<     EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY (0)
< ENGINEERING (4)
<     ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (0)
< FAMILY & CONSUMER SCIENCES (0)
< HEALTH SCIENCES (2)
< LAW (0)
< LIBRARY & INFORMATION SCIENCE (0)
< OPHTHALMOLOGY (0)
< PUBLIC AFFAIRS (0)
72c46
< '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here
---
> '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here]
------
IntegerNumbers|980640227
3c3
< The integers turn out to be order IsoMorphic to the set of their own order AutoMorphisms, allowing us to take their compositions to form a group operation (addition), and in turn to the set of its own group EndoMorphisms, allowing us to take ''their'' compositions to define a ring multiplication.  Thus Z has a natural ring structure, unique up to choice of zero and whether 0<1 or 1<0 (former by convention).
---
> The integers turn out to be order IsoMorphic to the set of their own order AutoMorphisms, allowing us to take their compositions to form a group operation (addition), and in turn to the set of its own group EndoMorphisms, allowing us to take ''their'' compositions to define a ring multiplication.  Thus Z has a natural RinG structure, unique up to choice of zero and whether 0<1 or 1<0 (former by convention).
5c5
< Labelled as such, Z = {... < -2 < -1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...}.  This is the unique infinite cyclic group/ring, and more over the finite ones are precisely the homomorphic images of Z, i.e. the ModularArithmetic''''s Z/(p*Z) for some p in Z.
---
> Labelled as such, Z = {... < -2 < -1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...}.  This is the unique infinite cyclic group/RinG, and more over the finite ones are precisely the homomorphic images of Z, i.e. the ModularArithmetic''''s Z/(p*Z) for some p in Z.
------
IntegerNumbers|980640241
5c5
< Labelled as such, Z = {... < -2 < -1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...}.  This is the unique infinite cyclic group/RinG, and more over the finite ones are precisely the homomorphic images of Z, i.e. the ModularArithmetic''''s Z/(p*Z) for some p in Z.
---
> Labelled as such, Z = {... < -2 < -1 < 0 < 1 < 2 < ...}.  This is the unique infinite cyclic group / RinG, and more over the finite ones are precisely the homomorphic images of Z, i.e. the ModularArithmetic''''s Z/(p*Z) for some p in Z.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980640398
10c10
< The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets.
---
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets, and in particular, an algebra of sets closed under countable unions is called a TopOlogy.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980640423
10c10
< The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets, and in particular, an algebra of sets closed under countable unions is called a TopOlogy.
---
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets, and in particular, an algebra of sets closed under arbitrary unions is called a TopOlogy.
------
CategorySchemes|980640519
17c17
< :(see TechnologY) HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransportAtion -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
---
> :(see TechnologY) HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
19,42c19,20
< TRANSPORTATION (0)
<     AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY (0)
< 
< '''CulTure:''' ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ReLigion
< 
< CLASSICS (35)
< CRITICAL THEORY (0)
< LITERATURE (0)
< PERFORMING ARTS (0)
<     DANCE (0)
<     FILM (0)
<     MUSIC (37)
<         LIVING COMPOSERS (0)
<     THEATER AND DRAMA (0)
< RECREATION (0)
<     SPORTS (0)
<     GAMES (0)
<     HOBBIES (0)
<     TOURISM (0)
< RELIGION (3)
< TEST CATEGORY (5)
< VISUAL ARTS (0)
<     PAINTING (0)
<     SCULPTURE (0)
---
> '''CulTure:'''
> :(see ArtsandEntertainment) ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- Literature -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
------
CategorySchemes|980640606
1,5c1,4
< [page in progress, please don't edit just now]
< 
< Evidently, it's becoming a bit pressing just how we should "carve up the universe" that is described by WikiPedia.  On this page, anyone may place any arrangement, or a link to an arrangement, of WikiPedia pages into various categories, supercategories, subcategories, etc.  Then I'd suggest discussing the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
< 
< WikiPedia, arranged according NuPedia'''''s category scheme:
---
> Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
> ----
> ----
> '' '''NuPedia'''''s category scheme:''' ''
------
CategorySchemes|980640627
4c4
< '' '''NuPedia'''''s category scheme:''' ''
---
> '''NuPedia'''''s category scheme:'''
------
CategorySchemes|980640672
4c4,6
< '''NuPedia'''''s category scheme:'''
---
> '''The NuPedia category scheme'''
> 
> This is one way to carve up the world, not the only way.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980640747
3c3,8
< Ok, if you want me to have a HomePage...JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.
---
> Ok, if you want me to have a HomePage...JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.----
> 
> Hello, Joshua....I am the wikipedian from whose MathematicalGroups page you have taken off, mathematically speaking. I'd like to know more about you...
> 
> 
> '''Q.''' Why do you call what I call a "mapping" a "map"?--RoseParks
------
CategorySchemes|980640767
12c12,13
< :(see SciencE) PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy 
---
> :(see ScienCe)
> :PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy 
------
JoshuaGrosse|980640823
5c5
< Hello, Joshua....I am the wikipedian from whose MathematicalGroups page you have taken off, mathematically speaking. I'd like to know more about you...
---
> Hello, Joshua....I am the wikipedian from whose MathematicalGrouP page you have taken off, mathematically speaking. I'd like to know more about you...
------
CategorySchemes|980640867
12d11
< :(see ScienCe)
13a13
> :''see also ScienCe''
19c19,20
< :(see TechnologY) HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
---
> :HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
> :''see also TechnologY''
22c23,24
< :(see ArtsandEntertainment) ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- Literature -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- Literature -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
> :''see also ArtsandEntertainment''
24c26,27
< '''OtheR:''' QuoteS
---
> '''OtheR:'''
> :QuoteS
26c29,30
< '''WikiWiki:''' [add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here]
---
> '''WikiWiki:'''
> :[add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here]
------
CategorySchemesTalk|980640905
7c7
< On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page!
---
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- LarrySanger
------
HisTory|980641105
1,3c1
< That which happened.
< ----
< That which happened and was recorded.  The record of that which happened.
---
> That which happened.  ''Or,'' That which happened and was recorded.  The record of that which happened.  Please see HiStory instead.
------
NaturalSciences|980641135
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''natural sciences'' study the physical, nonhuman aspects of the world.  As a group, the natural sciences are distinguished from the ''SocialSciences,'' on the one hand, as well as from ''CulTure'' (the arts and humanities) on the other.
------
EsperantoLanguage|980641243
5c5
< Esperanto is intended to serve as a universal international language, the second language (after the parents' language) of every educated person. Most of its vocabulary is made up of Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and some other Indo-European roots. Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without exceptions), phonetic alphabet (meaning that all words are pronounced as in written and vice versa), and very logical structure (the same words' ending for the same parts of speech, e.g. <i>-o</i> for nouns, <i>-a</i> for adjectives, etc.) All these features make Esperanto to be more easy-to-learn than the most world's languages, even for non-Europeans.
---
> Esperanto is intended to serve as a universal international language, the second language (after the parents' language) of every educated person. Most of its vocabulary is made up of Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and some other IndoEuropean roots. Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without exceptions), phonetic alphabet (meaning that all words are pronounced as in written and vice versa), and very logical structure (the same words' ending for the same parts of speech, e.g. <i>-o</i> for nouns, <i>-a</i> for adjectives, etc.) All these features make Esperanto to be more easy-to-learn than the most world's languages, even for non-Europeans.
------
SocialSciences|980641421
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''social sciences'' are the scientific study of the human aspects of the world.  For example, PsychOlogy studies the human MinD, SociOlogy studies human society, HiStory studies human history, and so on.  Distinguished from CulTure in that the social sciences make an effort to apply the scientific method or other rigorous standards of evidence to the study of humanity.
------
SnowBOARDING|980641594
1c1,7
< See SnowBoarding.
---
> #REDIRECT SnowBoarding
> 
> ----
> BTW, I'm planning on adding a page-deletion feature ''soon'.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
> See SnowBoarding.
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980645863
1c1,22
< The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads as well as Monads with a view. 
---
> The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads as well as Monads with a view. 
> 
> -----------------------
> 
>    Yet, in the 'best of all possible web pages' Monads can
> well afford not to have windows: They know anyway what
> is going on elsewhere, or atually, they have always 
> known it. (By means of that 'prestabilized harmony'
> Leibniz avoids the problem to explain how mind affects
> matter and vice versa.  "Car je  ne trouvois aucun moyen
> d'expliquer  comment le corps  fait passer quelque chose
> dans l'ame , ou vice versa, ny comment une substance 
> peut communiquer avec une autre substance creee."
> Systeme Nouveau de la Nature etc.(12).  Descartes' 
> followers had introduced the "Systeme des Causes 
> occasionelles" to solve the problem:  God creates
> movements according to our will to move, and 
> thoughts according to movements of exterior things.
> The idea of a God permanently busy to maintain 
> the harmony of the universe seemed much less
> attractive to Leibniz then the harmony established
> once for all. --- )
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980647610
8c8
< known it. (By means of that 'prestabilized harmony'
---
> known it. (By means of that 'PrestabilizedHarmony'
22c22,41
< once for all. --- )
---
> once for all. --- )
> 
>    Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a
> philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomate
> and lawyer.  Independently of Isaac Newton he
> 'invented' the infinitesimal calculus (and also
> the notation df/dx still used.)  His philosophical
> contribution to metaphysics is based on the 
> Monadology, which introduces MonaDs as 'substancial
> forms of being. They are a kind of spiritual atoms, 
> eternal, indecomposable, individual.  In the way 
> sketched  above the notion of a monad solves the problem 
> of the interaction of mind and matter that arises
> in Descartes' system, as well as the individuation
> that seems problematic in Spinoza's system, which
> represents individual creatures as mere accidental
> modifications of the one and only substance.
> The "theodicee" claims to justify the
> apparent imperfections of the world by its
> being optimal among all possible worlds.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980648015
53a54,57
> 
> ----
> 
> Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980648103
26a27,31
> 
> order arising out of chaos...
> 
> ====
> 
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980648149
30c30
< ====
---
> ----
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980648454
1c1
< The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads as well as Monads with a view. 
---
> The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads? as well as Monads with a view. 
41c41
< being optimal among all possible worlds.
---
> being optimal among all possible worlds.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980648471
7c7
< 1)	G has CloSure, that is, if a and b belong to G, then a*b belongs to G.
---
> 1)	(G,*) has CloSure, that is, if a and b belong to (G,*), then a*b belongs to (G,*).
9d8
< 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to G, (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
11c10,16
< 3)	G contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to G then e*a = a and a*e = a.  This turns out to be unique.
---
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
> 
> 
> 3)     (G,*) contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), then e*a = a and a*e = a.  This turns out to be unique.
> 
> 
> 4)	Every element in (G,*) has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), there is an element b in (G*) such that a*b=e=b*a.  This turns out to be unique.
13d17
< 4)	Every element in G has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to G, there is an element b in G such that a*b=e=b*a.  This turns out to be unique.
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980648484
1c1
< The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads? as well as Monads with a view. 
---
> The best of all possible web pages,we have WindowlessMonads as well as Monads with a view. 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980648569
10c10
< 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
---
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), then (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
------
AppliedArtsAndSciences|980649333
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Applied Arts and Sciences'' is a category pretty much invented out of whole cloth for NuPedia, corresponding very roughly to areas in which professional degrees of various sorts are obtainable.  There is a fairly coherent concept behind the category, however: the notion is that we ''use'' the natural and social sciences to shape our world.  Law and public affairs addresses what we learn from PhiloSophy, SociOlogy, and PoliticalScience; the HealthSciences study ways to apply our knowledge of the BiologicalScience''''s to improve human and animal health; AgriculturalScience applies knowledge of BotAny (and many other sciences, in fact) to improving the growing of crops; etc.
------
CulTure|980649464
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Culture,'' as a supercategory distinguished from the sciences (pure and applied) and foundational disciplines, is extremely difficult to characterize in such a way that includes all the categories that are often placed under this heading.  What, for example, do the visual arts, religion, and recreation have to do with each other?
------
RidiCulous|980649496
1c1
< A misspelling, based on a mispronunciation, of "really clueless."----Or is it "really queueless" as in the model Registry of Motor Vehicles office?
---
> A misspelling, based on a mispronunciation, of "really clueless."----Or is it "really queueless" as in the model Registry of Motor Vehicles office?----Perhaps the surgical excision of a homonculous?
------
CategorySchemes|980649539
26c26
< '''OtheR:'''
---
> '''Other:'''
30c30
< :[add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here]
---
> :[add WikiPedia and other wiki-related links here]
------
RidiCulous|980649661
1c1
< A misspelling, based on a mispronunciation, of "really clueless."----Or is it "really queueless" as in the model Registry of Motor Vehicles office?----Perhaps the surgical excision of a homonculous?
---
> A misspelling, based on a mispronunciation, of "really clueless."----Or is it "really queueless" as in the model Registry of Motor Vehicles office?
------
CategorySchemes|980649696
30a31,36
> ----
> BryceHarrington'''''s three-part category scheme, attributed to Jefferson:
> 
> * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
> * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
------
HomePage|980649891
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
3,6c3
< * CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
< * HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
< * ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
< * See other CategorySchemes
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction 
15a13
> * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia CategorySchemes?
25c23
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
HomePage|980649971
3c3
< CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction 
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
------
TaoTehChing|980650226
7c7
< Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (Tao for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
---
> Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short)) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
------
TaoTehChing|980650262
7c7
< Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short)) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
---
> Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
------
WikiPedia|980650265
5c5
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the WikiPediaFaq for answers to many questions.
------
FeudalsM|980652111
1,2c1
< deleted; typo on my part, should have been FeudalisM.  Darn, darn, darn.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT FeudalisM
------
CulTure|980652734
1c1,3
< ''Culture,'' as a supercategory distinguished from the sciences (pure and applied) and foundational disciplines, is extremely difficult to characterize in such a way that includes all the categories that are often placed under this heading.  What, for example, do the visual arts, religion, and recreation have to do with each other?
---
> ''Culture,'' as a supercategory distinguished from the sciences (pure and applied) and foundational disciplines, is extremely difficult to characterize in such a way that includes all the categories that are often placed under this heading.  What, for example, do the visual arts, religion, and recreation have to do with each other?
> ----
> We could say culture refers to those things that exist in some form in every society, but which differ in particular expression from society to society. - TimShell
------
AlgorithmS|980652909
1a2,3
> ----
> What you have if you can dance like AlGore.
------
TimShell|980653483
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner og BoMis.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
------
TimShell|980653547
1c1,3
< TimShell is a founding partner og BoMis.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner og BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
> 
> On Saturday, January 27, 2001, TimShell stayed at home and poached pears in MerloT.
------
TimShell|980653562
1c1
< TimShell is a founding partner og BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
------
MerloT|980653925
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular varieties of red wine.
------
MerloT|980653945
1c1
< A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular varieties of red wine.
---
> A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.
------
MerloT|980654247
1c1
< A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.
---
> A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in France and California, and on a lesser scale in Australia, Italy, and South Africa.
------
TaoTehChing|980657098
15c15,16
< In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower."
---
> In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower." -- AyeSpy
> 
------
MathematicalGrouP|980657785
24c24
< A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={?-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4?} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
---
> A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={...,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,...} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
------
NamingConventions|980658556
36c36
< One problem with LarrySanger'''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know whiat is the strongest syllable.
---
> One problem with LarrySanger'''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know what is the strongest syllable.
------
NamingConventions|980660865
46a47,52
> ----
> The discussion so far has left out a class of single words that I would like to bring attention to.  Those being the words that have something of a natural way of being broken up that reflects the structure, history, and/or root meaning of the word.  Like PhiloSophy, terms that end in -logy, -ory, etc.
> 
> I rather like the reminder of the roots of a term.  Sort of an antiNewSpeak type thing.  That having been said, seeing -ism capitalized all over the place has become a bit unnerving.  Further, many people don't want to bother learning the roots or be reminded of them.
> 
> However, I would like to offer this as an alternative (for some words) to the last-letter idea and read what others think of it.  Oh, and the [[word]] seems the best solution since it lets me play with roots and frees the wiki of an arbitrary constraint  --PhillipHankins
------
PhillipHankins|980661255
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm a graduate PhiloSophy student at Rutgers University.  However, I'm a bit more interested in CognitiveScience these days.
> 
> I can be reached at <3bu9nxi1qzgsmr001@sneakemail.com>.
------
GottfriedLeibniz|980661806
5c5
<    Yet, in the 'best of all possible web pages' Monads can
---
> Yet, in the 'best of all possible web pages' Monads can
24c24
<    Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a
---
> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a
------
ArtificalLanguages|980662635
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this catagory is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
> 
> ----
> Those Made for Humans to Speak:
> * EsperantoLanguage
> * LojbanLanguage
> ----
> ProgrammingLanguages
> ----
> Fictional Languages:
> :(those that have only been written about, not actually spoken)
> 
> * NewSpeak
------
NamingConventions|980662819
52a53,54
> 
> ''In most cases this can be codified fairly easily, and so applied without an etymological dictionary.  Usually the letter immediately preceding the first O would get capitalized: GeoMetry, DemoCracy, PhiloSophy, BioLogy.  Words that end in I stems would have the last I capitalized: MarxIsm, PolitIcs, ChristianIty, SkiIng.  Failing those, you could just look for some common stem words: Al-, -Lysis, -Archy, etc.''
------
ArtificalLanguages|980662963
5a6
> * LoglanLanguage
13a15,16
> * SindarinLanguage
> * KlingonLanguage
------
ArtificalLanguages|980662972
1c1
< Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this catagory is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
---
> Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
------
ScienCe|980663185
2,5c2,5
< * AnatOmy
< * PhysiolOgy
< * TaxonOmy
< * OntOgeny
---
> * AnaTomy
> * PhysioLogy
> * TaxoNomy
> * OntoGeny
15,16c15,16
< * AstronOmy
< * ChemisTry
---
> * AstroNomy
> * ChemiStry
------
TechnologY|980663261
1c1
< * Iron
---
> * MetalLurgy
5c5
< * SpacecraftPropulsion
---
> * SpacecraftPropulsion
------
LojbanLanguage|980663337
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> la lojban. po'u le logji bangu
> 
> An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic.
> 
> A lot more information can be found [http://lojban.org/ here].
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|980663408
1c1
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnalySis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CombinaTorics -- SetTheory
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CombinaTorics -- SetTheory
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|980663509
2c2,3
< :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld 
---
> :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
> :PhilosophyOfMath
------
TopOlogy|980663697
32a33,36
> As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
> 
> ----
> 
------
CulTure|980664215
3a4,5
> ----
> I would go off sounding like a dictionary to say:  'the pattern of knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends, in part, on the capacity to learn that enables members to transmit knowledge to succeeding generations' or 'the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterize a group' or 'to grow in a prepared medium.'  (That last one being both off-topic and an interesting restatement of the first.)  --PhillipHankins
------
ManiFold|980664343
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A continuous n-ManiFold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get a differentiable ManiFold.
> 
> One of the most important kinds of ManiFold is a LieGroup.  These can always be made differentiable.
> 
> The classification of all ManiFold''s'' is an open problem.  We know that every connected 1-D manifold is isomorphic either to R or the circle S.  Connected, compact 2-Manifolds can be divided into three infinite series:
> 
> * Orientable with characteristic 2-2n (spheres with n handles)
> * Non-orientable with characteristic 1-2n (projective planes with n handles)
> * Non-orientable with characteristic -2n (klein bottles with n handles)
> 
> Non-compact connected 2-manifolds are just these with one or more punctures (missing points).  A 2-manifold can be embedded in R^3 if it is orientable or if it has at least one puncture.  All can be embedded in R^4.
> 
------
ManiFold|980664437
1c1
< A continuous n-ManiFold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get a differentiable ManiFold.
---
> A continuous n-ManiFold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get an analytic manifold.  All differentiable manifolds can be made analytic.
------
LojbanLanguage|980664531
2,3c2
< 
< An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic.
---
> An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, based upon LoglanLanguage.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.
------
LanguagE|980664618
26a27,30
> 
> Theoretical work on languages:
> * ChomskysUniversalGrammar
> * SapirWhorfHypothesis
------
ArtificalLanguages|980664762
6,7c6
< * LoglanLanguage
< * LojbanLanguage
---
> * LojbanLanguage = Loglan
------
LojbanLanguage|980665066
2c2,3
< An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, based upon LoglanLanguage.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.
---
> 
> An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, formerly called Loglan.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.
------
ManiFold|980666699
11c11,23
< Non-compact connected 2-manifolds are just these with one or more punctures (missing points).  A 2-manifold can be embedded in R^3 if it is orientable or if it has at least one puncture.  All can be embedded in R^4.
---
> Non-compact connected 2-manifolds are just these with one or more punctures (missing points).  A 2-manifold can be embedded in R^3 if it is orientable or if it has at least one puncture.  All can be embedded in R^4.  If anyone want to make some models, attach the sides of these (and remove the corners to puncture)
> 
>        *              *                  B                B
>       v v            v ^              *>>>>>*          *>>>>>*
>      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
>    A v   v A      A v   ^ A         A v     v A      A v     v A
>      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
>       v v            v ^              *<<<<<*          *>>>>>*
>        *              *                  B                B
> 
>    Sphere      Projective plane     Klein bottle        Torus
>              (punct: MoebiusBand)                 (sphere w handle)
> 
------
IndoIranianLanguages|980667999
5a6,7
> * PunjabiLanguage
> * UrduLanguage
------
HistoryOfEurope|980669016
11c11
< At the end of the bronze age the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
---
> At the end of the BronzeAge the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
------
CategorySchemesTalk|980669346
3c3
< As an example I've put WikiPedia pages into NuPedia'''''s category scheme on the CategoryScheme page.  A short history of this, then.  The Nupedia category scheme is really intended to be a way to organize ''review groups,'' not necessarily subject areas (i.e., it's intended to organize people, not content); but, as it turns out, it is also not a bad way to organize subject areas as well.
---
> As an example I've put WikiPedia pages into NuPedia'''''s category scheme on the CategorySchemes page.  A short history of this, then.  The Nupedia category scheme is really intended to be a way to organize ''review groups,'' not necessarily subject areas (i.e., it's intended to organize people, not content); but, as it turns out, it is also not a bad way to organize subject areas as well.
7c7
< On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- LarrySanger
---
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- LarrySanger
------
PhiloSophy|980669462
2c2
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism--Fun with ArthurSchopenhauer
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
8c8
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980669556
2a3,6
> '''January 27, 2001'''
> 
> Some interesting activity has been happening on WikipediaL lately.  RequestedArticles page added.
> 
------
BrilliantProse|980669642
3c3
< TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- PythagoreanTheorem -- SabBath -- TaoTehChing -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TheRecorder -- GladstoneOregon
---
> TheCanonofScripture -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- PythagoreanTheorem -- SabBath -- TaoTehChing -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- TheRecorder -- GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY
11c11
< Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- LarrySanger
---
> Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- LarrySanger
------
AristotlE|980669821
3c3
< AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopesS in WesterN thought.
---
> AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopherS in WesterN thought.
------
RequestedArticles|980670079
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Have an article request?  Add it to the list!'''
> 
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad
> 
> If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.  Let's see if this works!
------
HomePage|980670149
6a7,8
> Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
> 
23c25
< The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> The contents of the WikiPedia is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
------
ReLigion|980671560
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- NamesGivenToTheDivine
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas
------
RequestedArticles|980671726
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad
---
> SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad -- InternalCombustionEngine
5c5
< If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.  Let's see if this works!
---
> If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.  Let's see if this works!
------
BryceHarrington|980672082
8c8
< I don't think Roman and Greek history should be isolated from European history, since they're obviously so
---
> '''I don't think Roman and Greek history should be isolated from European history, since they're obviously so
12c12
< Greece - I should have caught that.  
---
> Greece - I should have caught that.  ''' -- BryceHarrington
16c16
< ''I really think the essential "region" these civs belong to is the Meditteranean.  At the very least, this would give the Carthaginians a home too.  Of course this has a lot of overlap with Europe, and they should refer a lot to each other; but anything said on Europe about Rome (and to a lesser extent Greece) is just going to be repeated in other regions.''
---
> ''I really think the essential "region" these civs belong to is the Meditteranean.  At the very least, this would give the Carthaginians a home too.  Of course this has a lot of overlap with Europe, and they should refer a lot to each other; but anything said on Europe about Rome (and to a lesser extent Greece) is just going to be repeated in other regions.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
18c18
< Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.
---
> Hrm, well I'm just an American, but I did study a LOT of European history in school (bit of a passion of mine).  The Greeks and Romans had a _profound_ influence on European history, and while I do agree that they also had influence and interaction with other people on other continents as well, I still (strongly) think Greece and Rome deserve (even require) mention here.  Their impact goes far beyond mere influence; their civilization and culture is really the underpinnings of all that followed.  
20c20
< ''Ok.  Greece does deserve credit, though, for being completely unique in developing democratic governments, formal mathematics, empirical science (to the extent that they did), and so forth.  They also were unique in inventing vowels. :)''
---
> I could write a whole essay on this, but let me address just three specific areas; things that I think we can agree were critical aspects in the later history of Europe:  Religion, Governance, and Settlement.  I could also discuss things like science, theater, architecture, language, military, and sports, but hopefully you'll forgive me if I wave my hand at those as "obvious".  ;-)
21a22,38
> Christianity is of unquestionable influence on the history of Europe, but it's origins and early development is inextricably bound up not in Germanic or Celtic culture, but in Greek and Roman.  Jesus was martyred during
> the reign of the first emperor of Rome, smack in the middle of the most heavily studied period of "classical" Roman history.  The reason for his death was tied up largely in the political and economic behavior of the Romans; Israel was bound up in a struggle for freedom, that they eventually lost - the Jews were dispersed around the world (including Europe).  If not for the Roman Empire, one could wonder if Christianity could have emerged at all.  Many of the early Christians were killed in Roman gladatorial pits, giving the young religion many martyrs and many converts in Rome itself.  There is a vast network of catacombs beneath the city of Rome, where the early Christians buried there dead (and possibly even hid).  Of course, eventually Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and spread it even further, perhaps now with the help of the Roman sword?  But during this whole process, Christianity was absorbing culture and traditions from Rome, and theory from Greece.  Early forms of the Bible were written in Greek, and then later Latin.  Statues and imagery of older gods were reused (e.g., Mary from some of the pre-existing mother-goddess cults).  Roman holidays were recast into Christian holidays (Christmas, IIRC, had roots in the Mithras religion?)  Much cut-and-paste-and-tweak.
> 
> The Roman style of governance, with a dictatorial emperor, has had direct influence on many of Europe's most powerful leaders.  The Romans used the word "Ceasar" to indicate utmost authority.  From this we have gotten the words "Czar", "Tsar", "Kaiser", and even "King".  While dictatorship is certainly nothing unique to Europe, it is the Roman style of dictatorship that many of Europe's leaders ascribed to.  When Charlemagne built his empire, he placed "Roman" right in the middle of its name.  Napoleon and Hitler also both drew from Roman symbology to lend an air of ancient authority to their regimes.  "Heil Hitler" is an obvious allusion to and derivation from "Hail Ceasar".  The military organization and tactics similarly were taught to the "barbaric" tribes (we can imagine "military advisors" looking down on the anarchical locals, thinking "these guys will never learn...")  The skills and discipline taught by the Romans almost assuredly profoundly affected their ability to conquer Rome when it neared its end, and to take control over the lands it left behind.
> 
> The Roman Empire is also the primary force responsible for settlement of Europe, influencing even lands not under their direct control.  And through the Romans we find (important) underlying Greek origins.  At the height of their empire, the Romans directly controlled Gaul (later France), England, Spain, and all of Southern Europe.  Indirectly, they controlled or influenced most of the remainder of Europe.  Many European towns have Roman origins; some started as mere fortresses for the Roman garrisons.  When the Romans entered a land, they planned (and built) to stay.  Europe came to be crossed with a vast network of roads that were the best human-made land routes in Europe until the 20th century.  The archaeological evidence (even as far as Hadrian's wall in the far north of England) demonstrates that the Romans were not mere casual visitors clinging to the belly of Europe, but embraced it.  Yes, while their main involvement was to the East, the Romans were to Europe what the American Colonists were to North America - they carved civilization out of the forests.  The 'villa' style of agricultural settlement stood in mark contrast to the Celtic family oriented traditions, yet persisted well into the middle ages (and beyond, in the Hispanic culture).
> 
> Without the Roman Empire's influence, Europe would NOT be the place it is today and would have had a *far* different history than it did.  The pre-existing Celt/Germanic civilizations were drastically different from the Romans, and took the Greco-Roman style as a model for their own latter cultures.  Rome and Greece need to be looked at not as merely random civilizations that had their time and then died, to be replaced by unique new civilizations; rather, they had a *key* role in the formation of all that followed in Europe.  Leaving them out of the European History page would be akin to leaving England out of the history of the United States.  
> 
> ----
> '''Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.'''
> 
> ''Ok.  Greece does deserve credit, though, for being completely unique in developing democratic governments, formal mathematics, empirical science (to the extent that they did), and so forth.  They also were unique in inventing vowels. :)'' -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> Actually, I believe there were actually some native american tribes that had either semi-democratic or concensus-oriented styles of leadership.  I believe I ran into some references by Jefferson regarding this, which would have some rather exciting implications.  I agree that Greeks kicked butt with math and science, but archaeology has suggested that some of the new world civilizations had achieved some impressive discoveries themselves, independently.  I think Greece probably gets the bulk of the credit because a) their works were preserved and have come down to us through our own literary history.  Consider if we had only their pottery and ruins to judge them by, would we have any clue about their most impressive achievements?  -- BryceHarrington
> 
> ----
24c41,45
< ''Is very, very cool.  I've noticed you've been doing a lot of work building infrastructure, and that's really very praiseworthy.  Thanks for the help with this one.''
---
> ''Is very, very cool.  I've noticed you've been doing a lot of work building infrastructure, and that's really very praiseworthy.  Thanks for the help with this one.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> Thanks, I love what we're doing here, and think we're really making something that matters.  I gave a shot at reorganizing the homepage, 'cause the existing organization makes little sense to me (and ordering disorder is a dire habit of mine), but it looks like someone reverted the changes.  Ah well...
> 
> Btw, thank you muchly for commenting to me about the changes...  I like having had the change to give my opinion on it, even if ultimately we went a different way.
26c47,48
< To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going to get ''quite'' long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.
---
> ----
> '''To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going to get quite long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.'''
29c51,55
< ''How's this for a primary division?  AncientEurope (pre-Roman stuff), MedievalEurope, Rennaisance, and then a bunch of later stuff I'm less knowledgeable about.  Closely tied to these would be HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, and HistoryOfIslam.  A second split in terms of geographical regions - things like HolyRomanEmpire - probably wouldn't hurt, and then things can grow as the will.''
---
> ''How's this for a primary division?  AncientEurope (pre-Roman stuff), MedievalEurope, Rennaisance, and then a bunch of later stuff I'm less knowledgeable about.  Closely tied to these would be HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, and HistoryOfIslam.  A second split in terms of geographical regions - things like HolyRomanEmpire - probably wouldn't hurt, and then things can grow as the will.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> These all sound like good and viable topics.  Personally, I have too many negative experiences to trust a hierarchical structure...  Most real things rarely map well into a hierarchy.  As you say, the Roman Empire overlaps a lot more than just Europe.  Fortunately, Wiki allows organization broader than mere hierarchical, so we'll be okay.  
> 
> To add to your list...  We'll want a section for the DarkAges, FrenchRevolution and Napoleon, Colonialism, the SpanishEmpire, the BritishEmpire, the Crusades, and a whole heaping ton of CatholicChurchInEurope.  
------
BryceHarrington|980672343
3a4,5
> Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY, and it thrills me to be able to share these with you, and feel they represent my best work.  
> 
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CategorySchemesTalk|980673140
7a8,10
> 
> ----
> I'm sorry, but the current organizational scheme that's been used on the homepage just makes me cringe every time I look at it.  It seems as if there's no sense - that they're merely random points into the database.  I tried to provide a simple three-grouping system to help at least organize it a little, but it appears to have been reverted out.  There are few clues as to how to fit new topics into the organizational scheme...  How can you tell if some technical topic belongs in TechnologY rather than ScienCe?  ArtsAndEntertainment is an extremely broad subject area; CountriesOfTheWorld extremely specific...  -- BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington
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CategorySchemes|980673386
36c36,43
< * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
---
> * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
> 
> Not my scheme...  I found this while perusing the Library of Congress website:  http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/
> 
> ''Thomas Jefferson, whose personal library became the core of the Library of Congress, arranged his books into three types of knowledge, corresponding to Francis Bacon's three faculties of the mind: Memory (History), Reason (Philosophy),  and Imagination (Fine Arts).''
>              
> I'm not married to this particular scheme, but thought it'd be fun to use as an intermediary step as we grow.  
> (Btw, thanks for not just deleting this scheme suggestion; it took some time to research and implement it.) 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980673590
78a79,80
> ----
> I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
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RequestedArticles|980673823
3c3
< SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad -- InternalCombustionEngine
---
> SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
------
BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington|980673839
1c1
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> BryceHarrington in a special state of mind. ;-)
------
LetterA|980674182
1c1,118
< Describe the new page here.
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> A. This letter of ours corresponds to the first symbol in 
> the Phoenician alphabet and in almost all its descendants.  In 
> Phoenician, a, like the symbols for e and for o, did not 
> represent a vowel, but a breathing; the vowels originally were 
> not represented by any symbol.  When the alphabet was adopted by 
> the Greeks it was not very well fitted to represent the sounds 
> of their language.  The breathings which were not required in 
> Greek were accordingly employed to represent some of the vowel 
> sounds, other vowels, like i and u, being represented by 
> an adaptation of the symbols for the semi-vowels y and w. 
> The Phoenician name, which must have corresponded closely to 
> the Hebrew Aleph, was taken over by the Greeks in the form 
> Alpha (alpsa). The earliest authority for this, as for the 
> names of the other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama 
> (grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of 
> Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names 
> of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. 
> 
> The form of the letter has varied considerably.  In the 
> earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions 
> (the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest 
> Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th 
> or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus--@.  In 
> the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles 
> the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be 
> distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle 
> at which the cross line is set-- @, &c. From the Greeks of 
> the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them 
> has passed to the other nations of western Europe.  In the 
> earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found 
> in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a 
> golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see ALPHABET).  
> Fine letters are still identical in form with those of the 
> western Greeks.  Latin develops early various forms, which 
> are comparatively rare in Greek, as @, or unknown, as 
> @.  Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy 
> did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks 
> as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the 
> Etruscans.  In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions 
> is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form 
> @, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece 
> (Boeotia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically) . 
> 
> In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short 
> sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte 
> a; English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding 
> precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be 
> ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the 
> terminology of H. Sweet (Primer of Phonetics, p. 107).  
> Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically 
> unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the 
> Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which 
> in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as 
> the original e-sound (see ALPHABET: Greek). The vowel 
> sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has, 
> in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are 
> not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and 
> also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same 
> language.  Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about 
> twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in 
> English.  In general it may be said that the chief changes 
> which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from 
> (1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound 
> produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther 
> forward.  The rounding is often produced by combination with 
> rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c.), the 
> rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into 
> the formation of the vowel sound.  Rounding has also been 
> produced by a following l-sound, as in the English fall, 
> small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 
> 2nd ed., sec. sec.  906, 784).  The effect of fronting is seen in 
> the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original 
> name of the Medes, Madoi, with a in the first syllable 
> (which survives in Cyprian Greek as Madoi), is changed 
> into Medoi (Medoi), with an open e-sound instead 
> of the earlier a.  In the later history of Greek this 
> sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with 
> i (as in English seed). The first part of the process 
> has been almost repeated by literary English, a (ah) 
> passing into e (eh), though in present-day pronunciation 
> the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei 
> except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. sec.  783). 
> 
> In English a represents unaccented forms of several 
> words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and or various 
> prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New 
> English Dictionary (Oxford, 1888), vol. i. p. 4. (P. GI.) 
> 
> As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions 
> and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in 
> music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this 
> use is derived from its being the first of the litterae 
> nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority. 
> 
> In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal 
> affirmative proposition in the general form ``all x is y.'' 
> The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular 
> affirmative ``some x is y,'' the universal negative ``no x 
> is y,'' and the particular negative ``some x is not y.'' 
> The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels 
> of the two Latin verbs AffIrmo (or AIo), ``I assert,'' and 
> nEgO, ``I deny.'' The use of the symbols dates from the 13th 
> century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek 
> logicians.  A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). 
> 
> In Shipping, A1 is a symbol used to dennote quality of 
> construction and material.  In the various shipping registers 
> ships are classed and given a rating after an official 
> examination, and assigned a classification mark, which 
> appears in addition to other particulars in those registers 
> after the name of the ship.  See SHIPBUILDING. It is 
> popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
> 
> -- BryceHarrington
------
AaRiver|980674269
1c1,17
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> AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers.  
> The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to 
> the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger.-ach; Scand. a, aa, 
> pronounced o).  The following are the more important 
> streams of this name:--Two rivers in the west of Russia, both 
> falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated 
> between them; a river in the north of France, falling into 
> the sea below Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; 
> and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and 
> Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and 
> Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian 
> Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at 
> Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
------
AardvarK|980674362
1c1,31
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> AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
> the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see 
> EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them 
> is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from 
> South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
> of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt.  In form 
> these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout, 
> with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with 
> strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and 
> the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The 
> greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at 
> the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils 
> open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long 
> extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the 
> flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large 
> individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the 
> Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
> and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
> a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the 
> shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of 
> nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near 
> ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the 
> ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile 
> tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the 
> flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
> 
> 
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AaroN|980674490
1c1,96
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> AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish 
> priesthood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites 
> out of Egypt (see EXODUS; MOSES) . The greater part of 
> his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives, 
> which carry back existing conditions and beliefs to the 
> time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary 
> hierarchical institutions in the events of that period.  
> Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) 
> to meet Moses at the ``mount of God'' (Horeb, Ex.iv.27),he 
> plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's 
> court.  After the ``exodus'' from Egypt a striking account 
> is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to 
> him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount 
> (Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9-11), and together with Hur he was at the 
> side of Moses when the latter, by means of his wonder-working 
> rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16).  
> Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when 
> Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of 
> the Law (xxiv. 12-15), and when the people, in dismay at the 
> prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at 
> the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see 
> CALF, GOLDEN). This was regarded as an act of apostasy 
> which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration 
> of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut. 
> ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the 
> preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series 
> of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. 
> seq.).  Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been 
> originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 
> seq. compared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some 
> obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were 
> prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.).  In 
> what way they had not ``sanctified'' (an allusion in the 
> Hebrew to Kadesh ``holy'') Yahweh is quite uncertain, and 
> it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the 
> sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3; 
> cp.  Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have 
> died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor; the latter is 
> an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23, 
> xxxiii. 37; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently 
> not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the 
> traditional scene from the time of Josephus (Ant. iv. 4. 7). 
> 
> Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to 
> have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a 
> place for Aaron in certain incidents.  In the account of the 
> contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), 
> Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful 
> whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving 
> narratives.  It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice 
> mentioned in Deuteronomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The 
> post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of 
> Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position 
> by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of 
> the other tribes (Num. xvii.; for parallels see Gray comm. 
> ad loc., p. 217).  The latter story illustrates the growth 
> of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of 
> priestly ritual: the old account of Korah's revolt against the 
> authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a) 
> the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (b) 
> the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites 
> against the rest of the Levites, a development which can 
> scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). 
> 
> Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality 
> known after the grandson as the ``hill of Phinehas'' (Josh. 
> xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of 
> either.  The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) 
> is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the 
> priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of 
> Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have 
> belonged.  The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical 
> names and those of clans related to Moses is very noteworthy, 
> and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's 
> sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 
> 17) with Jether (cp. JETHRO) and Heber (cp. KENITES). In 
> view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of 
> interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the 
> historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy.  He may 
> well have been the traditional head of the priesthood, and 
> R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was 
> the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol.  Stud., 
> 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder 
> of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which 
> still remains quite obscure: and unless Aaron (Aharon) is 
> based upon Aron, ``ark'' (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. 
> N. Land), names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, 
> apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. 
> 
> For the literature and a general account of the Jewish 
> priesthood, see the articles LEVTTES and PRIEST. . (S. A. C.) 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
> 
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AbacuS|980674622
1c1,70
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> ABACUS (Gr. abax, a slab Fr. abaque, tailloir), in 
> architecture, the upper member of the capital of a column.  
> Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface 
> for the architrave or arch it has to carry.  In the Greek Doric 
> order the abacus is a plain square slab.  In the Roman and 
> Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding.  In the 
> Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the 
> capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a 
> carved ovolo moulding.  In later examples the abacus is square, 
> except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly 
> curved over the same.  In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic 
> capital, the abacus is square with a fillet On the top of an 
> ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes.  In the Greek 
> Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave 
> and its angles canted (except in one or two exceptional Greek 
> capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle); and the same 
> shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corinthian and 
> Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding 
> carved.  In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with 
> the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the 
> same was retained in France during the medieval period; but 
> in England,in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded 
> abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th centuries 
> was transformed into an octagonal one.  The diminutive of 
> Abacus, ABACISCUS, is applied in architecture to the chequers 
> or squares of a tessellated pavement . ``Abacus'' is also the 
> name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical 
> calculations; pebbles, hits of bone or coins being used as 
> counters.  Fig. 1 shows a Roman abacus taken from an ancient 
> monument.  It contains seven long and seven shorter rods 
> or bars, the former having four perforated beads running 
> on them and the latter one.  The bar marked 1 indicates 
> units, X tens, and so on up to millions.  The beads on the 
> shorter bars denote fives,--five units, five tens, &c. The 
> rod O and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces; 
> and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. 
> 
> The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles 
> the Roman abacus in its construction and use.  Computations 
> are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory running 
> on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board, 
> fitted up with beads strung on wires, which is employed in 
> teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in English schools. 
> 
> FIG. 2.--Chinese Swan-Pan.  The name of ``abacus'' is also 
> given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the ``logical 
> machine,'' analogous to the mathematical abacus.  It is 
> constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of 
> logical terms with their negatives, and, further, the way in which 
> these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes 
> or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the 
> solution of logical problems.  These instruments are all more 
> or less elaborate developments of the ``logical slate,'' on 
> which were written in vertical columns all the combinations 
> of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a 
> definite number of terms.  These were compared with any given 
> premises, and those which were incompatible were crossed 
> off.  In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a 
> single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a 
> key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed 
> at will, in accordance with any given series of premises.  
> The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S. 
> Jevons (Element.  Lessons in Logic, C. xxiii.), John Venn 
> (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 135), and Allan 
> Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp. 
> 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883). 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
------
AbalonE|980674736
1c1,14
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> ABALONE, the Spanish name used in California for various 
> species of the shell-fish of the Haliotidae family, with a 
> richly coloured shell yielding mother-of-pearl.  This sort 
> of Haliotis is also commonly called ``ear-shell,'' and in 
> Guernsey ``ormer'' (Fr. ormier, for oreille de mer). 
> The abalone shell is found especially at Santa Barbara and 
> other places on the southern Californian coast, and when 
> polished makes a beautiful ornament.  The mollusc itself is 
> often eaten, and dried for consumption in China and Japan. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
> -- BryceHarrington
------
AbbadideS|980674863
1c1,98
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> ABBADIDES, a Mahommedan dynasty which arose in Spain on the 
> downfall of the western caliphate.  It lasted from about 1023 
> till 1091, but during the short period of its existence was 
> singularly active and typical of its time.  The founder of 
> the house was Abd-ul-Qasim Mahommed, the cadi of Seville in 
> 1023.  He was the chief of an Arab family settled in the city 
> from the first days of the conquest.  The Beni-abbad were not 
> of ancient descent, though the poets, whom they paid largely, 
> made an illustrious pedigree for them when they had become 
> powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  Abd-ul-Qasim gained 
> the confidence of the townsmen by organizing a successful 
> resistance to the Berber soldiers of fortune who were grasping 
> at the fragments of the caliphate.  At first he professed to 
> rule only with the advice of a council formed of the nobles, 
> but when his power became established he dispensed with this 
> show of republican government, and then gave himself the 
> appearance of a legitimate title by protecting an impostor 
> who professed to be the caliph Hisham II. When Abd-ul-Qasim 
> died in 1042 he had created a state which, though weak in 
> itself, was strong as compared to the little powers about 
> it.  He had made his family the recognized leaders of the 
> Mahommedans of Arab and native Spanish descent against 
> the Berber element, whose chief was the king of Granada.  
> Abbad, surnamed El Motaddid, his son and successor, is 
> one of the most remarkable figures in Spanish Mahommedan 
> history.  He had a striking resemblance to the Italian princes 
> of the later middle ages and the early renaissance, of the 
> stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  El Motaddid was a poet and 
> a lover of letters, who was also a poisoner, a drinker of 
> wine, a sceptic and treacherous to the utmost degree.  Though 
> he waged war all through his reign he very rarely appeared in 
> the field, but directed the generals, whom he never trusted, 
> from his ``lair'' in the fortified palace, the Alcazar of 
> Seville.  He killed with his own hand one of his sons who had 
> rebelled against him.  On one occasion he trapped a number 
> of his enemies, the Berber chiefs of the Ronda, into visiting 
> him, and got rid of them by smothering them in the hot room 
> of a bath.  It was his taste to preserve the skulls of the 
> enemies he had killed--those of the meaner men to be used as 
> flower-pots, while those of the princes were kept in special 
> chests.  His reign until his death on the 28th of February 
> 1069 was mainly spent in extending his power at the expense 
> of his smaller neighbours, and in conflicts with his chief 
> rival the king of Granada.  These incessant wars weakened the 
> Mahommedans, to the great advantage of the rising power of 
> the Christian kings of Leon and Castile, but they gave the 
> kingdom of Seville a certain superiority over the other little 
> states.  After 1063 he was assailed by Fernando El Magno of 
> Castile and Leon, who marched to the gates of Seville, and 
> forced him to pay tribute.  His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim 
> Abenebet---who reigned by the title of El Motamid--was the 
> third and last of the Abbadides, He was a no less remarkable 
> person than his father and much more amiable.  Like him he was 
> a poet, and a favourer of poets.  El Motamid went, however, 
> considerably further in patronage of literature than his father, 
> for he chose as his favourite and prime minister the poet Ibn 
> Ammar.  In the end the vanity and featherheadedness of Ibn 
> Ammar drove his master to kill him.  El Motamid was even 
> more influenced by his favourite wife, Romaica, than by his 
> vizir.  He had met her paddling in the Guadalquivir, purchased 
> her from her master, and made her his wife.  The caprices 
> of Romaica, and the lavish extravagance of Motamid in his 
> efforts to please her, form the subject of many stories.  
> In politics he carried on the feuds of his family with the 
> Berbers, and in his efforts to extend his dominions could be 
> as faithless as his father.  His wars and his extravagance 
> exhausted his treasury, and he oppressed his subjects by 
> taxes.  In 1080 he brought down upon himself the vengeance of 
> Alphonso VI. of Castile by a typical piece of flighty oriental 
> barbarity.  He had endeavoured to pay part of his tribute to the 
> Christian king with false money.  The fraud was detected by a 
> Jew, who was one of the envoys of Alphonso.  El Motamid, in 
> a moment of folly and rage, crucified the Jew and imprisoned 
> the Christian members of the mission.  Alphonso retaliated 
> by a destructive raid.  When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, 
> El Motamid called in Yusef ibn Tashfin, the Almoravide (see 
> SPAIN, History, and ALMORAVIDES). During the six years 
> which preceded his deposition in 1091, El Motamid behaved 
> with valour on the field, but with much meanness and political 
> folly.  He endeavoured to curry favour with Yusef by betraying 
> the other Mahommedan princes to him, and intrigued to secure 
> the alliance of Alphonso against the Almoravide.  It was 
> probably during this period that he surrendered his beautiful 
> daughter Zaida to the Christian king, who made her his 
> concubine, and is said by some authorities to have married 
> her after she bore him a son, Sancho.  The vacillations and 
> submissions of El Motamid did not save him from the fate 
> which overtook his fellow-princes.  Their scepticism and 
> extortion had tired their subjects, and the mullahs gave Yusef 
> a ``fetva'' authorzing him to remove them in the interest of 
> religion.  In 1091 the Almoravides stormed Seville.  El 
> Motamid, who had fought bravely, was weak enough to order his 
> sons to surrender the fortresses they still held, in order 
> to save his own life.  He died in prison in Africa in 1095. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
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> ''I'm calling TheIliad, but it's awfully late here.''
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AbbesS|980674970
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> ABBESS (Lat. abbatissa, fem. form of abbas, abbot), 
> the female superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.  The 
> mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess 
> correspond generally with those of an abbot (q.v.). The 
> office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the 
> sisters from their own body.  The abbess is solemnly admitted 
> to her office by episcopal benediction, together with the 
> conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, 
> though liable to be deprived for misconduct.  The council of 
> Trent fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of 
> profession.  Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience 
> of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending 
> even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the 
> bishop.  As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the 
> spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.  
> She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate.  In 
> England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that 
> of Becanfield in 694, where they signed before the presbyters. 
> 
> By Celtic usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and 
> nuns.  This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France 
> and Spain, and even to Rome itself.  At a later period, A.D. 
> 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud, committed the government 
> of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. 
> 
> In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (Aebtissin) 
> has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the 
> heads of abbeys which since the Reformation have continued as 
> Stifte, i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home 
> and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, 
> called canonesses (Kanonissinen) or more usually Stiftsdamen. 
> This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and 
> is sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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> ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an 
> arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 
> m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
> Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 
> 18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is 
> built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the 
> river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The 
> streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old 
> structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark 
> archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St 
> Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The 
> original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays 
> and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent 
> specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic 
> towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an 
> hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among 
> the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois 
> Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.  
> There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
> square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
> and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal 
> college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition 
> to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, 
> sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on; 
> there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. 
> 
> Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
> appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time 
> belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards 
> governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county, 
> it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French 
> families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo, 
> from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of 
> England.  French and English were its masters by turns till 
> 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of 
> Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France, 
> and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in 
> the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
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> ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father), a 
> monastery, or conventual establishment, under the government 
> of an ABBOT or an ABBESS. A priory only differed from 
> an abbey in that the superior bore the name of prior instead 
> of abbot. This was the case in all the English conventual 
> cathedrals, e.g. Canterbury, Ely, Norwich, &c., where the 
> archbishop or bishop occupied the abbot's place, the superior 
> of the monastery being termed prior.  Other priories were 
> originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots 
> of which they continued subordinate; but in later times the 
> actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost. 
> 
> The earliest Christian monastic communities (see MONASTICISM) 
> with which we are acquainted consisted of groups of cells or 
> huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the abode 
> of some anchorite celebrated for superior holiness or singular 
> asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement.  
> The formation of such communities in the East does not date 
> from the introduction of Christianity.  The example had been 
> already set by the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt. 
> 
> In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics 
> were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, 
> at no great distance from some village, supporting themselves 
> by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the 
> surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the 
> poor.  Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, 
> drove them farther and farther away from the abodes of men 
> into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts.  The deserts 
> of Egypt swarmed with the ``cells'' or huts of these 
> anchorites.  Anthony, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid 
> during the persecution of Maximin, A.D. 312, was the most 
> celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and 
> his power as an exorcist.  His fame collected round him a 
> host of followers, emulous of his sanctity.  The deeper he 
> withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples 
> became.  They refused to be separated from him, and built 
> their ceils round that of their spiritual father.  Thus arose 
> the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living 
> each in his own little dwelling, united together under one 
> superior.  Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, 
> vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), ``without any conscious 
> design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode 
> of living in common, Coenobitism.'' By degrees order was 
> introduced in the groups of huts.  They were arranged in 
> lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a 
> street.  From this arrangement these lines of single cells 
> came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes." 
> 
> The real founder of coenobian koinos, common, and bios, 
> life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian 
> of the beginning of the 4th century.  The first community 
> established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper 
> Egypt.  Eight others were founded in his lifetime, numbering 3000 
> monks.  Within fifty years from his death his societies could 
> reckon 50,000 members.  These coenobia resembled vilIages, 
> peopled by a hard-working religious community, ail of one 
> sex.  The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest 
> character.  Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii. 
> 14), contained three monks.  They took their chief meal in a 
> common refectory at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually 
> fasted.  They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their 
> faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table 
> before them.  The monks spent all the time, not devoted to 
> religious services or study, in manual labour.  Palladius, 
> who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 
> 4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of 
> Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 
> carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners.  Each separate 
> community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject 
> to a chief oeconomus stationed at the head establishment.  
> All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and 
> by him shipped to Alexandria.  The money raised by the sale 
> was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the 
> communities, and what was over was devoted to charity.  Twice 
> in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at 
> the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite 
> (``the chief of the fold,'' from miandra, a fold), and at 
> the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the 
> year.  The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian 
> institution.  We learn many details concerning those in the 
> vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings.  The monks 
> lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet 
> on the mountain side.  They were subject to an abbot, and 
> observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their 
> common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour 
> was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors,) 
> Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms. 
> 
> Santa Laura, Mount Athos. 
> 
> The necessity for defence from hostile attacks, economy of 
> space and convenience of access from one part of the community 
> to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly 
> arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium.  Large 
> piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, 
> capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which 
> all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more 
> open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters.  The usual 
> Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent 
> of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Laura, the designation of a 
> monastery generally, being converted into a female saint). 
> 
> This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is 
> surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing 
> an area of between 3 and 4 acres.  The longer side extends to 
> a length of about 500 feet.  There is only one main entrance, 
> on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron 
> doors.  Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant 
> feature in the monasteries of the Levant.  There is a small 
> postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open 
> courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister 
> galleries of wood or stone.  The outer court, which is much the 
> larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the 
> kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory 
> (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied 
> guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is 
> surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells 
> (II).  In the centre of this court stands the catholicon 
> or conventual church, a square building with an apse of 
> the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed 
> narthex.  In front of the church stands a marble fountain 
> (F), covered by a dome supported on columns.  Opening from 
> the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in 
> the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform 
> building, about 100 feet each way, decorated within with 
> frescoes of saints.  At the upper end is a semicircular 
> recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace 
> 
>                                                   A. Gateway. 
>                                                   B. Chapels.
>                                                   C. Guest-house.
>                                                   D. Church.
>                                                   E. Cloister.
>                                                   F. Fountain.
>                                                   G. Refectory.
>                                                   H. Kitchen.
>                                                   I. Cells.
>                                                   K. Storehouses.
>                                                   L. Postern gate.
>                                                   M. Tower.
> FIG. 1.---Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir). 
> 
> at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or 
> abbot.  This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the 
> oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. 
> 
> Vatopede 
> 
> St Laura is exceeded in magnitude by the convent of Vatopede 
> also on Mount Athos.  This enormous establishment covers at 
> least 4 acres of ground, and contains so many separate buildings 
> within its massive walls that it resembles a fortified town.  It 
> lodges above 300 monks, and the establishment of the hegumenos is 
> described as resembling the court of a petty sovereign prince.  
> The immense refectory, of the same cruciform shape as that of 
> St Laura, will accommodate 500 guests at its 24 marble tables. 
> 
> The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, 
> shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and 
> two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. 
> 
> Benedictine. 
> 
> Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development 
> to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480).  His rule was 
> diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation 
> on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and 
> every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far 
> exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and 
> splendour.  Few great towns in Italy were without their 
> Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great 
> centres of population in England, France and Spain.  The number 
> of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is 
> amazing.  Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no 
> fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order 
> alone.  The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly 
> arranged ofter one plan, modified where necessary (as at 
> Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the 
> steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local 
> circumstances.  We have no existing examples of the earlier 
> monasteries of the Benedictine order.  They have all yielded 
> to the ravages of time and the violence of man.  But we 
> have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the 
> great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, 
> which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a 
> monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th 
> century.  This curious and interesting plan has been made 
> the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zurich, 1844) and by 
> Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp. 
> 86-117.  To the latter we are indebted for the substance of 
> the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced 
> from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved 
> 
>  FIG. 2.---Plan of Coptic Monastery. 
> A. Narthex. B. Church.
> C. Corridor, with cells on each side.
> D. Staircase.
> 
> in the archives of the convent.  The general apperance 
> of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with 
> streets running between them.  It is evidently planned in 
> compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, 
> if possible, the monastery should contain within itself 
> every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more 
> intimately connected with the religious and social life of its 
> inmates.  It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables 
> and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying 
> on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to 
> obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. 
> 
> The general distribution of the buildings may be thus 
> described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies 
> the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square.  The 
> buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into 
> groups.  The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the 
> religious life of the community.  In closest connexion with 
> the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the 
> monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for 
> eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social 
> intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary 
> conference.  These essential elements of monastic life 
> are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered 
> arcade, affording communication sheltered ftom the elements 
> between the various buildings.  The infirmary for sick monks, 
> with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the 
> east.  In the same group with the infirmary is the school for 
> the novices.  The outer school, with its headmaster's house 
> against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the 
> convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, 
> that he might have a constant eye over them.  The buildings 
> devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one 
> for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks 
> visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and 
> pilgrims.  The first and third are placed to the right and 
> left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium 
> for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the 
> church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor 
> on the south side next to the farm buildings.  The monks are 
> lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the 
> church.  The group of buildings connected with the material 
> wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west 
> of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic 
> buildings.  The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a 
> passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected 
> with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther 
> away.  The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to 
> workshops, stables and farm-buildings.  The buildings, with some 
> exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but 
> the church were probably erected of wood.  The whole includes 
> thirty-three separate blocks.  The church (D) is cruciform, 
> with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either 
> extremity.  That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular 
> colonnade, leaving an open ``paradise'' (E) between it and 
> the wall of the church.  The whole area is divided by screens 
> into various chapels.  The high altar (A) stands immediately 
> to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar 
> of St Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in 
> the western apse.  A cylindrical campanile stands detached 
> from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). 
> 
> The ``cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the 
> 
>  FIG. 3.--Ground-plan of St 
> 
>  
>   CHURCH.                          U. House for blood-letting.
>   A. High altar.                   V. School.
>   B. Altar of St Paul.             W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
>   C. Altar of St Peter.            X1X1. Guest-house for those
>   D. Nave.                                  of superior rank
>   E. Paradise.                     X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
>   FF. Towers.                      Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.
>   MONASTIC BUILDINGS 
>   G. Cloister.                     MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
>   H. Calefactory, with             Z. Factory.
>      dormitory over.               a. Threshing-floor
>   I. Necessary.                    b. Workshops.
>   J. Abbot's house.                c, c. Mills.
>   K. Refectory.                    d. Kiln.
>   L. Kitchen.                      e. Stables.
>   M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.      f Cow-sheds.
>   N. Cellar.                       g. Goat-sheds.
>   O. Parlour.               (over. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
>   P1. Scriptorium with library  k, k, k. Servants' and workmen's
>   P2. Sacristy and vestry.                     sleeping-chambers.
>   Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;   l. Gardener's house
>     2. refectory; 3. calefactory;  m,m. Hen and duck house.
>     4. dormitory; 5. master's room n. Poultry-keeper's house.
>     6. chambers.                   o. Garden.
>   R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in   q. Bakehouse for sacramental
>      the house of novices.
>   S. Doctor's house.               s, s, s. Kitchens.
>   T. Physic garden.                t, t, t. Baths.
>  
> 
> church has on its east side the ``pisalis'' or ``calefactory', 
> (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by 
> flues beneath the floor.  On this side in later monasteries 
> we invariably find the chapterhouse, the absence of 
> which in this plan is somewhat surprising.  It appears, 
> however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the 
> north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a 
> chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long 
> sides.  Above the calefactory is the ``dormitory'' opening 
> into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks 
> to attend the nocturnal services with readiness.  A passage 
> at the other end leads to the ``necessarium'' (I), a portion 
> of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme 
> care.  The southern side is occupied by the ``refectory'' 
> (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen 
> (L) is reached.  This is separated from the main buildings 
> of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with 
> a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and 
> the sleeping-rooms of the servants.  The upper story of the 
> refectory is the ``vestiarium,'' where the ordinary clothes of 
> the brethren were kept.  On the western side of the cloister 
> is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, 
> and the larder and store-room above.  Between this building 
> and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and 
> by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the 
> ``parlour'' for interviews with visitors from the external 
> world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the 
> ``scriptorium'' or writing-room (P1), with the library above. 
> 
> To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising 
> two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in 
> itself.  Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual 
> buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, &c., and a church or 
> chapel on one side, placed back to back.  A detached building 
> belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen.  One of these 
> diminutive convents is appropriated to the ``oblati'' or novices 
> (Q), the other to the sick monks as an ``imfirmary'' (R). 
> 
> The ``residence of the physicians'' (S) stands contiguous to the 
> infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of 
> the monastery.  Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, 
> and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill.  The ``house 
> for bloodletting and purging'' adjoins it on the west (U). 
> 
> The ``outer school,'' to the north of the convent area, contains 
> a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or 
> partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed 
> the dwellings of the scholars.  The head-master's house (W) 
> is opposite, built against the side wall of the church.  The 
> two ``hospitia'' or `' guest-houses'' for the entertainment 
> of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large 
> common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by 
> sleeping-apartments.  Each is provided with its own brewhouse 
> and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has 
> a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and 
> stables for their horses.  There is also an ``hospitium'' for 
> strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). 
> 
> Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent 
> area to the south, stands the `factory'' (Z), containing 
> workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), 
> cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, 
> fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the 
> rear.  On this side we also find the farmbuildings, the large 
> granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse 
> (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds 
> (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), 
> together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). 
> At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and 
> poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). 
> Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the 
> names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, 
> celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, &c., eighteen in 
> all.  In the same way the physic garden presents the names 
> of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of 
> the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, &c., planted there. 
> 
> Canterbury Cathedral. 
> 
> A curious bird's-eye view of Canterbury Cathedral and its 
> annexed conventual buildings, taken about 1165, is preserved 
> in the Great Psalter in the library of Trinity College, 
> Cambridge.  As elucidated by Professor Willis,1 it exhibits 
> the plan of a great Benedictine monastery in the 12th century, 
> and enables us to compare it with that of the 9th as seen at St 
> Gall.  We see in both the same general principles of arrangement, 
> which indeed belong to all Benedictine monasteries, enabling 
> us to determine with precision the disposition of the various 
> buildings, when little more than fragments of the walls 
> exist.  From some local reasons, however, the cloister and 
> monastic buildings are placed on the north, instead, as is far 
> more commonly the case, on the south of the church.  There is 
> also a separate chapter-house, which is wanting at St Gall. 
> 
> The buildings at Canterbury, as at St Gall, form separate 
> groups.  The church forms the nucleus.  In immediate contact 
> with this, on the north side, lie the cloister and the 
> group of buildings devoted to the monastic life.  Outside of 
> these, to the west and east, are the ``halls and chambers 
> devoted to the exercise of hospitality, with which every 
> monastery was provided, for the purpose of receiving as 
> guests persons who visited it, whether clergy or laity, 
> travellers, pilgrims or paupers.'' To the north a large 
> open court divides the monastic from the menial buildings, 
> intentionally placed as remote as possible from the conventual 
> buildings proper, the stables, granaries, barn, bakehouse, 
> brewhouse, laundries, &c., inhabited by the lay servants of the 
> establishment.  At the greatest possible distance from the 
> church, beyond the precinct of the convent, is the eleemosynary 
> department.  The almonry for the relief of the poor, 
> with a great hall annexed, forms the paupers' hospitium. 
> 
> The most important group of buildings is naturally that devoted 
> to monastic life.  This includes two Cloisters, the great 
> cloister surrounded by the buildings essentially connected with 
> the daily life of the monks,---the church to the south, the 
> refectory or frater-house here as always on the side opposite 
> to the church, and farthest removed from it, that no sound or 
> smell of eating might penetrate its sacred precincts, to the 
> east the dormitory, raised on a vaulted undercroft, and the 
> chapter-house adjacent, and the lodgings of the cellarer to the 
> west.  To this officer was committed the provision of the 
> monks' daily food, as well as that of the guests.  He was, 
> therefore, appropriately lodged in the immediate vicinity of 
> the refectory and kitchen, and close to the guest-hall.  A 
> passage under the dormitory leads eastwards to the smaller 
> or infirmary cloister, appropriated to the sick and infirm 
> monks.  Eastward of this cloister extend the hall and chapel of 
> the infirmary, resembling in form and arrangement the nave and 
> chancel of an aisled church.  Beneath the dormitory, looking 
> out into the green court or herbarium, lies the ``pisalis'' 
> or ``calefactory,'' the common room of the monks.  At its 
> north-east corner access was given from the dormitory to the 
> necessarium, a portentous edifice in the form of a Norman 
> hall, 145 ft. long by 25 broad, containing fifty-five seats.  It 
> was, in common with all such offices in ancient monasteries, 
> constructed with the most careful regard to cleanliness and 
> health, a stream of water running through it from end to 
> end.  A second smaller dormitory runs from east to west for 
> the accommodation of the conventual officers, who were bound 
> to sleep in the dormitory.  Close to the refectory, but outside 
> the cloisters, are the domestic offices connected with it: 
> to the north, the kitchen, 47 ft. square, surmounted by a 
> lofty pyramidal roof, and the kitchen court; to the west, the 
> butteries, pantries, &c. The infirmary had a small kitchen of its 
> own.  Opposite the refectory door in the cloister are two 
> lavatories, an invariable adjunct to a monastic dining-hall, 
> at which the monks washed before and after taking food. 
> 
> The buildings devoted to hospitality were divided into three 
> groups.  The prior's group ``entered at the south-east angle 
> of the green court, placed near the most sacred part of the 
> cathedral, as befitting the distinguished ecclesiastics or 
> nobility who were assigned to him.'' The cellarer's buildings 
> were near the west end of the nave, in which ordinary visitors 
> of the middle class were hospitably entertained.  The inferior 
> pilgrims and paupers were relegated to the north hall or almonry, 
> just within the gate, as far as possible from the other two. 
> 
> Westminster Abbey. 
> 
> Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine 
> abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they 
> can be traced, with those described above.  The cloister and 
> , monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church.  
> Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, 
> was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door.  On the 
> eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised 
> on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south 
> transept.  The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the 
> cloister.  The small cloister lles to the south-east of 
> the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have 
> the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the 
> refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers.  The 
> abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, 
> close to the inner gateway.  Considerable portions of this 
> remain, including the abbot's parlour. celebrated as ``the 
> Jerusalem Chamber,'' his hall, now used for the Westminster 
> King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. 
> 
> York. 
> 
> St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, 
> exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements.  The precincts 
> are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, 
> the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth 
> side.  The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the 
> north.  Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now 
> the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid 
> their devotions immediately on their arrival.  Near the 
> gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). 
> The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to 
> enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the 
> cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I), 
> the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other 
> principal apartments.  The infirmary has perished completely. 
> 
> Some Benedictine houses display exceptional arrangements, 
> dependent upon local circumstances, e.g. the dormitory of 
> Worcester runs from east to west, from the west walk of the 
> cloister, and that of Durham is built over the west, instead of 
> 
>                              FIG. 4
> 
>  St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins.
>  A. Church.                        O. Offices.
>  B. Chapter-house.                 P. Cellars.
>  C. Vestibule to ditto.            Q. Uncertain. 
>  E. Library or scriptorium.        R. Passage to abbot's house.
>  F. Calefactory.                   S. Passage to common house.
>  G. Necessary.                     T. Hospitium.
>  H. Parlour.                       U. Great gate.
>  I. Refectory.                     V. Porter's lodge.
>  K. Great kitchen and court.       W. Church of St Olaf.
>  L. Cellarer's office.             X. Tower.
>  M. Cellars.                       Y. Entrance from Bootham.
>  N. Passage to cloister.
>  
> 
> as usual, over the east walk; but, as a general rule, the arrangements 
> deduced from the examples described may be regarded as invariable. 
> 
> The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of 
> decay and revival.  With growth in popular esteem came increase 
> in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness.  The 
> first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was 
> relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline 
> was so complete in France that the monks are said to have 
> been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, 
> and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at 
> all.  The reformation of abuses generally took the form of 
> the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more 
> stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural 
> arrangements.  One of the earliest of these reformed orders 
> was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little 
> village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about 
> A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, 
> duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of 
> Beaume.  He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as 
> the founder of the order.  The fame of Cluny spread far and 
> wide.  Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the 
> old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation 
> to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in 
> large numbers, all owing allegiance to the ``archabbot,'' 
> established at Cluny.  By the end of the 12th century the 
> number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various 
> countries of western Europe amounted to 2000.  The monastic 
> establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive 
> and magnificent in France.  We may form some idea of its 
> enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, A.D. 
> 1245, Pope Innocent IV., accompanied by twelve cardinals, 
> 
>          FIG. 5--Abbey of Cluny, from 
> 
>  
>  A. Gateway.        F. Tomb of St Hugh.  M. Bakehouse.
>  B. Narthex.        G. Nave.             N. Abbey buildings.
>  C. Choir.          H. Cloister.         O. Garden.
>  D. High-altar.     K. Abbot's house.    P. Refectory.
>  E. Retro-altar.    L. Guest-house.
>  
> 
> a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the 
> Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three 
> of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders 
> and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and 
> six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their 
> attendants, were lodged withn the monastery without disarranging 
> the monks, 400 in number.  Nearly the whole of the abbey 
> buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away 
> at the close of the 18th century.  When the annexed ground-plan 
> was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the 
> monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. 
> 
> The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable 
> resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast 
> dimensions.  It was 656 ft. high.  The nave (G) had double 
> vaulted aisles on either side.  Like Lincoln, it had an 
> eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with 
> apsidal chapels to the east.  The western transept was 213 
> ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft.  The choir terminated in 
> a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also 
> semicircular.  The western entrance was approached by an 
> ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of 
> no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a 
> stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross.  To the 
> south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense 
> size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the 
> case.  On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory 
> (P), an immense building, 100 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, 
> accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of 
> tables.  It was adorned with the portraits of the chief 
> benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects.  The 
> end wall displayed the Last Judgment.  We are unhappily unable 
> to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The 
> abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the 
> entrance-gate.  The guest-house (L) was close by.  The bakehouse 
> (M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. 
> 
> English Cluniac 
> 
> The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of 
> Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077.  Of 
> this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist.  
> The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, 
> Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire.  Ground-plans of both are 
> given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show 
> several departures from the Benedictine arrangement.  In 
> each the prior's house is remarkably perfect.  All Cluniac 
> houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors 
> of that nation.  They did not secure their independence nor 
> become ``abbeys'' till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac 
> revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived.  
> The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral 
> ruin.  With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac 
> foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in 
> discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. 
> 
> Cistercian 
> 
> The next great monastic revival, the Cistercian, arising in 
> the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, 
> and a longer and more honourable existence.  Owing its real 
> origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines, in 
> the year 1098, to Stephen Harding (a native of Dorsetshire, 
> educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its 
> name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost 
> inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of Champagne and 
> Burgundy, the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order 
> are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety 
> of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, 
> subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the 
> first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of Clairvaux 
> (de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116.  The rigid self-abnegation, 
> which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation 
> of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and 
> other buildings erected by them.  The characteristic of the 
> Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied 
> plainness.  Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and 
> that was to be very low.  Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets 
> were prohibited.  The triforium was omitted.  The windows 
> were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to 
> decorate them with stained glass.  All needless ornament was 
> proscribed.  The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of 
> iron.  The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced 
> in all that met the eye.  The same spirit manifested itself 
> in the choice of the sites of their monasteries.  The more 
> dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, 
> the more did it please their rigid mood.  But they came 
> not merely as ascetics, but as improvers.  The Cistercian 
> monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered 
> valleys.  They always stand on the border of a stream; not 
> rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it.  These 
> valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different 
> aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their 
> retirement.  Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, 
> wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features.  The 
> ``bright valley,'' Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known 
> as the ``valley of Wormwood,'' infamous as a den of robbers. 
> ``It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that 
> at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on 
> beech leaves.''-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.) 
> 
> Clairvaux 
> 
> All Cistercian monasteries, unless the circumstances of the 
> locality forbade it, were arranged according to one plan.  The 
> general arrangement and distribution of the various
> buildings, which went to make up one of these vast 
> establishments, may be gathered from that of St Bernard's own 
> abbey of Clairvaux, which is here given.  It will be observed 
> that the abbey precincts are surrounded by a strong wall, 
> furnished at intervals with watch-towers and other defensive 
> works.  The wall is nearly encircled by a stream of water, 
> artificially diverted from the small rivulets which flow 
> through the precincts, furnishing the establishment with 
> an abundant supply in every part, for the litigation of 
> the gardens and orchards, the sanitary requirements of the 
> brotherhood and for the use of the offices and workshops. 
> 
> The precincts are divided across the centre by a wall, 
> running from N. to S., into an outer and inner ward,--the 
> former containing the menial, the latter the monastic 
> buildings.  The precincts are entered by a gateway (P), at 
> the extreme western extremity, giving admission to the lower 
> ward.  Here the barns, granaries, stables, shambles, workshops 
> and workmen,s lodgings were placed, without any regard to 
> symmetry, convenience being the only consideration.  Advancing 
> eastwards, we have before us the wall separating the 
> 
>     FIG. 6.--.Clairvaux, No. 1 (Cistercian), General 
> 
>  
>   A. Cloisters.         I. Wine-press and       O. Public presse.
>   B. Ovens, and corn          hay-chamber       P. Gateway.
>        oil-mills        K. Parlour              R. Remains of old monastery
>   C. St Bernard's cell. L. Workshops and.
>   D. Chief entrance.         workmen's lodgings S. Oratory.
>   E. Tanks for fish.                            V. Tile-works.
>   F. Guest-house.       M. Slaughter-house.     X. Tile-kiln.
>   G. Abbot's house.     N. Barns and stables.   V. Water-courses.
>   H. Stables.
>  
> 
> outer and inner ward, and the gatehouse (D) affording communication 
> between the two.  On passing through the gateway, the outer 
> court of the inner ward was entered, with the western facade 
> of the monastic church in front.  Immediately on the right 
> of entrance was the abbot's house (G), in close proximity to 
> the guest-house (F). On the other side of the court were the 
> stables, for the accommodation of the horses of the guests 
> and their attendants (H). The church occupied a central 
> position.  To the south was the great cloister (A), 
> surrounded by the chief monastic buildings, and farther to 
> the east the smaller cloister, opening out of which were 
> the infirmary, novices' lodgings and quarters for the aged 
> monks.  Still farther to the east, divided from the monastic 
> buildings by a wall, were the vegetable gardens and orchards, 
> and tank for fish.  The large fish-ponds, an indispensable 
> adjunct to any ecclesiastical foundation, on the formation 
> of which the monks lavished extreme care and pains, and 
> which often remain as almost the only visible traces of these 
> vast establishments, were placed outside the abbey walls. 
> 
> Plan No. 2 furninshes the ichnography of the distinctly 
> monastic buildings on a larger scale.  The usually unvarying 
> arrangement of the Cistercian houses allows us to accept 
> this as a type of the monasteries of this order.  The church 
> (A) is the chief feature.  It consists of a vast nave of 
> eleven bays, entered by a narthex, with a transept and short 
> apsidal choir. (It may be remarked that the eastern limb in 
> all unaltered Cistercian churches is remarkably short, and 
> usually square.) To the east of each limb of the transept 
> are two square chapels, divided according to Cistercian 
> rule by solid walls.  Nine radiating chapels, similarly 
> divided, surround the apse.  The stalls of the monks, 
> forming the ritual choir, occupy the four eastern bays of the 
> nave.  There was a second range of stalls in the extreme 
> western bays of the nave for the fratres conversi, or lay 
> brothers.  To the south of the church, so as to secure as 
> much sun as possible, the cloister was invariably placed, 
> except when local reasons forbade it.  Round the cloister 
> (B) were ranged the buildings connected with the monks' daily 
> life.  The chapter-house (C) always opened out of the east 
> walk of the cloister in a line with the south transept. 
> 
>       FIG. 7.--Clairvaux, No. 2 (Cistercian), Monastic 
> 
>  
>   A. Church.            L. Lodgings of novices.   S. Cellars and storehouses.
>   B. Cloister. 
>   C. Chapter-house.     M. Old guest-house.       T. Water-course.
>   D. Monks' parlour.    N. Old abbot's lodgings.  U. Saw-mill and oil mill
>   E. Calefactory. 
>   F. Kitchen and court. O. Cloister of            V. Currier's shop.
>   G. Refectory.            supernumerary monks.
>   H. Cemetery.                                    X. Sacristy.
>   I. Little cloister.   P. Abbot's hall.          Y. Little library.
>   K. Infirmary.         Q. Cell of St Bernard.    Z. Undercroft of dormitory.
>                         R. Stables.
>  
> 
> In Cistercian houses this was quadrangular, and was divided 
> by pillars and arches into two or three aisles.  Between 
> it and the transept we find the sacristy (X), and a small 
> book-room (Y) armariolum, where the brothers deposited the 
> volumes borrowed from the library.  On the other side of the 
> chapter-house, to the south, is a passage (D) communicating 
> with the courts and buildings beyond.  This was sometimes 
> known as the parlour, colloquii locus, the monks having the 
> privilege of conversation here.  Here also, when iscipline 
> became relaxed, traders, who had the liberty of admission, 
> were allowed to display their goods.  Beyond this we often 
> find the calefactorium or day-room--an apartment warmed 
> by flues beneath the pavement, where the brethren, half 
> frozen during the night offices, betook themselves after 
> the conclusion of lauds, to gain a little warmth, grease 
> their sandals and get themselves ready for the work of the 
> day.  In the plan before us this apartment (E) opens from the 
> south cloister walk, adjoining the refectory.  The place usually 
> assigned to it is occupied by the vaulted substructure of the 
> dormitory (Z). The dormitory, as a rule, was placed on the 
> east side of the cloister, running over the calethetory and 
> chapter-house, and joined the south transept, where a flight 
> of steps admitted the brethren into the church for nocturnal 
> services.  Opening out of the dormitory was always the 
> necessarium, planned with the greatest regard to health and 
> cleanliness, a water-course invariably running from end to 
> end.  The refectory opens out of the south cloister at G. 
> The position of the refectory is usually a marked point of 
> difference between Benedictine and Cistercian abbeys.  In the 
> former, as at Canterbury, the refectory ran east and west 
> parallel to the nave of the church, on the side of the cloister 
> farthest removed from it.  In the Cistercian monasturies, to 
> keep the noise and smell of dinner still farther away from 
> the sacred building, the refectory was built north and south, 
> at right angles to the axis of the church.  It was often 
> divided, sometimes into two, sometimes, as here, into three 
> aisles.  Outside the refectory door, in the cloister, 
> was the lavatory, where the monks washed their hands at 
> dinner-time.  The buildings belonging to the material life of 
> the monks lay near the refectory, as far as possible from the 
> church, to the S.W. With a distinct entrance from the outer 
> court was the kitchen court (F), with its buttery, scullery 
> and larder, and the important adjunct of a stream of running 
> water.  Farther to the west, projecting beyond the line of 
> the west front of the church, were vast vaulted apartments 
> (SS), serving as cellars and storehouses, above which was 
> the dormitory of the conversi. Detached from these, and 
> separated entirely from the monastic buildings, were various 
> workshops, which convenience repuired to be banished to 
> the outer precincts, a saw-mill and oil-mill (UU) turned 
> by water, and a currier's shop (V), where the sandals 
> and leathern girdles of the monks were made and repaired. 
> 
> Returning to the cloister, a vaulted passage admitted to the small 
> cloister (l), opening from the north side of which were eight 
> small cells, assigned to the scribes employed in copying works 
> for the library, which was placed in the upper story, accessible 
> by a turret staircase.  To the south of the small cloister 
> a long hall will be noticed.  This was a lecture-hall, or 
> rather a hall for the religious disputations customary among the 
> Cistercians.  From this cloister opened the infirmary (K), 
> with its hall, chapel, cells, blood-letting house and other 
> dependencies.  At the eastern verge of the vast group of buildings 
> we find the novices' lodgings (L), with a third cloister 
> near the novices' quarters and the original guest-house (M). 
> Detached from the great mass of the monastic edifices was the 
> original abbot's house (N), with its dining-hall (P). Closely 
> adjoining to this, so that the eye of the father of the whole 
> establishment should be constantly over those who stood the 
> most in need of his watchful care,--those who were training 
> for the monastic life, and those who had worn themselves 
> out in its duties,--was a fourth cloister (O), with annexed 
> buildings, devoted to the aged and infirm members of the 
> establishment.  The cemetery, the last resting-place of the 
> brethren, lay to the north side of the nave of the church (H). 
> 
> It will be seen from the above account that the arrangement of 
> a Cistercian monastery was in accordance with a clearly defined 
> system, and admirably adapted to its purpose.  The base court 
> nearest to the outer wall contained the buildings belonging to 
> the functions of the body as agriculturists and employers of 
> labour.  Advancing into the inner court, the buildings`devoted 
> to hospitality are found close to the entrance; while those 
> connected with the supply of the material wants of the brethren, 
> --the kitchen, cellars, &c.,--form a court of themselves 
> outside the cloister and quite detached from the church.  
> The church refectory, dormitory and other buildings belonging 
> to the professional life of the brethren surround the great 
> cloister.  The small cloister beyond, with its scribes' cells, 
> library, hall for disputations, &c., is the centre of the 
> literary life of the community.  The requirements of sickness 
> and old age are carefully provided for in the infirmary 
> cloister and that for the aged and infirm members of the 
> establishment.  The same group contains the quarters of the novices. 
> 
> This stereotyped arrangement is further shown by the 
> illustration of the mother establishment of Citeaux. 
> 
> Citeaux. 
> 
> A cross (A), planted on the high road, directs travellers to 
> the gate of the monastery. reached by an avenue of trees.  On 
> one side of the gate-house (B) is a long building (C), probably 
> the almonry, with a dormitory above for the lower class of 
> guests.  On the other side is a chapel (D). As soon as the 
> porter heard a stranger knock at the gate, he rose, saying, 
> Deo gratias, the opportunity for the exercise of hospitality 
> being regarded as a cause for thankfulness.  On opening the 
> door he welcomed the new arrival with a blessing --Benedicite. 
> He fell on his knees before him, and then went to inform the 
> abbot.  However important the abbot's occupations might 
> be, he at once hastened to receive him whom heaven had 
> sent.  He also threw himself at his guest's feet, and 
> conducted him to the chapel (D) purposely built close to the 
> gate.  After a short prayer, the abbot committed the guest 
> to the care of the brother hospitaller, whose duty it was 
> to provide for his wants and conduct the beast on which he 
> might be riding to the stable (F), built adjacent to the inner 
> gatehouse (E). This inner gate conducted into the base court 
> (T), round which were placed the barns, stables, cow-sheds, &c. 
> On the eastern side stood the dormitory of the lay brothers, 
> fratres conversi (G), detached from the cloister, with 
> cellars and storehouses below.  At H, also outside the monastic 
> buildings proper, was the abbot's house, and annexed to it the 
> guest-house.  For these buildings there was a separate door 
> of entrance into the church (S). The large cloister, with its 
> surrounding arcades, is seen at V. On the south end projects 
> the refectory (K), with its kitchen at I, accessible from 
> the base court.  The long gabled building on the east side of 
> the cloister contained on the ground floor the chapter-house 
> and calefactory, with the monks' dormitory above (M), 
> communicating with the south transept of the church.  At L 
> was the staircase to the dormitory.  The small cloister is at 
> W, where were the carols or cells of the scribes, with the 
> library (P) over, reached by a turret staircase.  At R we see 
> a portion of the infirmary.  The whole precinct is surrounded 
> by a strong buttressed wall (XXX), pierced with arches, 
> 
>             FIG. 8.---Bird's-eye view of 
> 
>  
>  A. Cross.            H. Abbot's house.            R. Infirmary.
>  B. Gate-house.       I. Kitchen.                  S. Door to the church
>  C. Almonry.          K. Refectory.                   for the lay brothers.
>  D. Chapel.           L. Staircase to dormitory.
>  E. Inner gate-house.                              T. Base court.
>  F. Stable.           M. Dormitory.                V. Great cloister.
>  G. Dormitory of lay  N. Church.                   W. Small cloister.
>         brethren.     P. Library.                  X. Boundary wall.
>  
> 
> through which streams of water are introduced.  It will 
> be noticed that the choir of the church is short, and has 
> a square end instead of the usual apse.  The tower, in 
> accordance with the Cistercian rule, is very low.  The windows 
> throughout accord with the studied simplicity of the order. 
> 
> Kirkstall Abbey. 
> 
> The English Cistercian houses, of which there are such extensive 
> and beautiful remains at Fountains, Rievaulx, Kirkstall, 
> Tintern, Netley, &c., were mainly arranged after the same 
> plan, with slight local variations.  As an example, we give 
> the groundplan of Kirkstall Abbey. which is one of the best 
> preserved.  The church here is of the Cistercian type, with 
> a short chancel of two squares, and transepts with three 
> eastward chapels to each, divided by solid walls (2 2 2). 
> The whole is of the most studied plainness.  The windows 
> are unornamented, and the nave has no triforium.  The 
> cloister to the south (4) occupies the whole length of the 
> nave.  On the east side stands the two-aisled chapter-house 
> (5), between which and the south transept is a small 
> sacristy (3), and on the other side two small apartments, 
> one of which was probably the parlour (6). Beyond this 
> stretches southward the calefactory or day-room of the monks 
> (14).  Above this whole range of building runs the monks' 
> dormitory, opening by stairs into the south transept of the 
> church.  At the other end were the necessaries.  On thc south 
> side of the cloister we have the remains of the old refectory 
> (11), running, as in Benedictine houses, from east to west, 
> and the new refectory (12), which, with the increase of the 
> inmates of the house, superseded it, stretching, as is usual 
> in Cistercian houses, from north to south.  Adjacent to this 
> apartment are the remains of the kitchen, pantry and buttery.  
> The arches of the lavatory are to be seen near the refectory 
> entrance.  The western side of the cloister is, as usual, 
> occupied by vaulted cellars, supporting on the upper story 
> the dormitory of the lay brothers (8). Extending from the 
> 
>       FIG. 9 Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire 
> 
>  
>  1. Church.                         10. Common room.
>  2. Chapels.                        11. Old refectory.
>  3. Sacristy.                       12. New refectory.
>  4. Cloister.                       13. Kitchen court.
>  5. Chapter-house.                  14. Calefactory or day-room.
>  6. Parlour.                        15. Kitchen and offices.
>  7. Punishment cell (?).            16-19. Uncertain; perhaps offices
>  8. Cellars, with dormitories for            connected with the infirmary.
>       conversi over.
>  9. Guest-house.                    20. Infirmary or abbot's house.
>  
> 
> south-east angle of the main group of buildings are the 
> walls and foundations of a secondary group of considerable 
> extent.  These have been identified either with the hospitium 
> or with the abbot's house, but they occupy the position in 
> which the infirmary is more usually found.  The hall was 
> a very spacious apartment, measuring 83 ft. in length by 
> 48 ft. 9 in. in breadth, and was divided by two rows of 
> columns.  The fish-ponds lay between the monastery and 
> the river to the south.  The abbey mill was situated 
> about 80 yards to the north-west.  The millpool may be 
> distinctly traced, together with the gowt or mill stream. 
> 
> Fountains Abbey. 
> 
> Fountains Abbey, first founded A.D. 1132, is one of the 
> largest and best preserved Cistercian houses in England.  
> But the earlier buildings received considerable additions 
> and alterations in the later period of the order, causing 
> deviations from the strict Cistercian type.  The church 
> stands a short distance to the north of the river Skell, the 
> buildings of the abbey stretching down to and even across the 
> stream.  We have the cloister (H) to the south, with the 
> three-aisled chapter-house (I) and calefactory (L) opening from 
> its eastern walk, and the refectory (S), with the kitchen (Q) 
> and buttery (T) attached, at right angles to its southern walk. 
> 
>      FIG. 10.--Ground-plan of Fountains Abbey, 
> 
>  
>  A. Nave of the church.     N. Cellar.              Z. Gate-house.
>  B. Transept.               O. Brewhouse.              ABBOT'S HOUSE.
>  C. Chapels.                P. Prisons.                 1. Passage
>  D. Tower.                  Q. Kitchen.                 2. Great hall.
>  E. Sacristy.               R. Offices.                 3. Refectory.
>  F. Choir.                  S. Refectory.               4. Refectory.
>  G. Chapel of nine alters.  T. Buttery.                 5. Storehouse.
>  H. Cloister.               U. Cellars and storehouses. 6. Chapel.
>  I. Chapter-house.          V. Necessary.               7. Kitchen.
>  K. Base court.             W. Infirmary (?).           8. Ashpit.
>  L. Calefactory.            X. Guest-houses.            9. Yard.
>  M. Water-course.           Y. Mill bridge.            10. Kitchen tank.
>  
> 
> Parallel with the western walk is an immense vaulted substructure 
> (U), incorrectly styled the cloisters, serving as cellars and 
> store-rooms, and supporting the dormitory of the conversi 
> above.  This building extended across the river.  At its S.W. 
> corner were the necessaries (V), also built, as usual, above 
> the swiftly flowing stream.  The monks' dormitory was in its 
> usual position above the chapter-house, to the south of the 
> transept.  As peculiarities of arrangement may be noticed 
> the position of the kitchen (Q), between the refectory and 
> calefactory, and of the infirmary (W) (unless there is some 
> error in its designation) above the river to the west, adjoining 
> the guest-houses (XX).  We may also call attention to the 
> greatly lengthened choir, commenced by Abbot John of York, 
> 1203-1211, and carried on by his successor, terminating, like 
> Durham Cathedral, in an eastern transept, the work of Abbot 
> John of Kent, 1220-1247, and to the tower (D), added not long 
> before the dissolution by Abbot Huby, 1494-1526, in a very 
> unusual position at the northern end of the north transept.  
> The abbot's house, the largest and most remarkable example of 
> this class of buildings in the kingdom, stands south to the 
> east of the church and cloister, from which it is divided by 
> the kitchen court (R), surrounded by the ordinary domestic 
> offices.  A considerable portion of this house was erected on 
> arches over the Skell.  The size and character of this house, 
> probably, at the time of its erection, the most spacious 
> house of a subject in the kingdom, not a castle, bespeaks 
> the wide departure of the Cistercian order from the stern 
> simplicity of the original foundation.  The hall (2) was one 
> of the most spacious and magnificent apartments in medieval 
> times, measuring 170 ft. by 70 ft.  Like the hall in the 
> castle at Winchester, and Westminster Hall, as originally 
> built, it was divided by 18 pillars and arches, with 3 
> aisles.  Among other apartments, for the designation of which 
> we must refer to the ground-plan, was a domestic oratory or 
> chapel, 46 1/2 ft. by 23 ft. and a kitchen (7), 50 ft. by 38 
> ft.  The whole arrangements and character of the building 
> bespeak the rich and powerful feudal lord, not the humble 
> father of a body of hard-working brethren, bound by vows to a 
> life of poverty and self-denying toil.  In the words of Dean 
> Milman, ``the superior, once a man bowed to the earth with 
> humility, care-worn, pale, emaciated, with a coarse habit 
> bound with a cord, with naked feet, had become an abbot 
> on his curvetting palfrey, in rich attire, with his silver 
> cross before him, travelling to take his place amid the 
> lordliest of the realm.'' --(Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 330.) 
> 
> Austin Canons. 
> 
> The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so 
> called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive 
> peculiarities.  This order had its first seat in England at 
> Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about 
> A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely.  As an order 
> of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks 
> and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish 
> priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length 
> to accommodate large congregations.  The choir is usually 
> long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christ Church 
> (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, 
> &c., is destitute of aisles altogether.  The nave in the northern 
> houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, 
> Brinkburn and Lanercost.  The arrangement of the monastic 
> buildings followed the ordinary type.  The prior's lodge was 
> almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. 
> 
> Bristol Cathedral. 
> 
> The annexed plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol, 
> now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement 
> of the buildings, which departs very little from the 
> ordinary Benedictine type.  The Austin canons' house at 
> Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size 
> and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of 
> which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for 
> possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. 
> 
> Premonstratensians. 
> 
> The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had 
> as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect 
> remaining are those of Easby.  Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent.  
> The head house of the order in England was Welbeck.  This order 
> was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. 
> 1119, by Norbert (born at Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 
> 1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest 
> of Coucy in the diocese of Laon.  The order spread widely.  
> Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and 
> Palestine.  It long maintained its rigid austerity, till in 
> the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its 
> members sank into indolence and luxury.  The Premonstratensians 
> were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were 
> first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber.  
> The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the 
> edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly 
> irregular.  The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the 
> church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions 
> round it.  But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not 
> rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made 
> to sprawl in a very awkward fashion.  The church follows 
> the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern 
> abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the 
> north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless.  Each 
> transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. 
> 
> The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or 
> choir.  The latter terminated in a three-sided apse.  This church 
> is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its 
> length.  Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is 
> 
>     FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol 
> 
>  
>  A. Church.            H. Kitchen.         S. Friars' lodging.
>  B. Great cloister.    I. Kitchen court.   T. King's hall.
>  C. Little cloister.   K. Cellars.         V. Guest-house.
>  D. Chapter-house.     L. Abbot's hall.    W. Abbey gateway.
>  E. Calefactory.       P. Abbot's gateway. X. Barns, stables, &c
>  F. Refectory.         R. Infirmary.       Y. Lavatory.
>  G. Parlour.
>  
> 
> not more than 25 ft. broad.  Stern Premonstratensian canons 
> wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; 
> therefore they built their church like a long room. 
> 
> Carthusians. 
> 
> The Carthusian order, on its establishment by St Bruno, 
> about A.D. 1084, developed a greatly modified form and 
> arrangement of a monastic institution.  The principle of this 
> order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, 
> demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan.  This 
> plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve 
> companions at the original institution at Chartreux, near 
> Grenoble, was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments 
> throughout Europe, even after the ascetic severity of the order 
> had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity 
> of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence 
> of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the 
> Certosas of Pavia and Florence.  According to the rule of 
> St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived 
> in the most absolute solitude and silence.  Each occupied a 
> small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden 
> surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or 
> cloister.  In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk 
> passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving 
> his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, 
> except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the 
> refectory.  The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian 
> monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, 
> from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited 
> in the plan of that of Clermont, from Viollet-le-Duc. 
> 
> Clermont. 
> 
> The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished 
> at intervals with watch towers (R) . The enclosure is divided 
> into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a 
> cloister, from from which the cottages of the monks (I) open, 
> is musch the larger.  The two courts are divided by the main 
> buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary 
> (A), divided from B, the monks' choir, by a screen with two 
> altars, the smaller cloister to the south (S) surrounded by 
> the chapter-house (E), the refectory (X)---these buildings 
> occupying their normal position--and the chapel of Pontgibaud 
> (K). The kitchen with its offices (V) lies behind the 
> relectory, accessible ftom the outer court without entering the 
> cloister.  To the north of the church, beyond the sacristy 
> (L), and the side chapels (M), we find the cell of the sub-prior 
> (a), with its garden.  The lodgings of the prior (G) occupy 
> the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the 
> west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent 
> (O). A small raised court with a fountain (C) is before 
> it.  This outer court also contains the guest-chambers (P), 
> the stables and lodgings of the lay brothers (N), the barns 
> and granaries (Q), the dovecot (H) and the bakehouse (T). 
> At Z is the prison.  In this outer court, in all the earlier 
> foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in 
> addition to the larger church of the monks.) The outer and 
> inner courts are connected by a long passage (F), wide enough 
> to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the 
> brethren with fuel.  The number of cells surrounding the great 
> 
>                                                 A. Church. 
>                                                 B. Monks' choir.
>                                                 C. Prior's garden.
>                                                 D. Great cloister.
>                                                 E. Chapter-house.
>                                                 F. Passage.
>                                                 G. Prior's lodgings.
>                                                 H. Dovecot.
>                                                 I. Cells.
>                                                 K. Chapel of Pontgibaud.
>                                                 L. Sacristy.
>                                                 M. Chapel.
>                                                 N. Stables.
>                                                 O. Gateway.
>                                                 P. Guest-chambers.
>                                                 Q. Barns and granaries.
>                                                 R. Watch-tower.
>                                                 S. Little cloister.
>                                                 T. Bakehouse.
>                                                 V. Kitchen.
>                                                 X. Refectory.
>                                                 Y. Cemetery.
>                                                 Z. Prison.
>                                                 a. Cell of subprior
>                                                 b. Garden of do.
>           FIG. 12.--Carthusian monastery of Clermont. 
> 
> cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan.  
> Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room 
> (C), warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room (D), 
> furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and 
> a closet (E). Between the cell and the cloister gallery (A) 
> is a passage or corridor (B), cutting off the inmate of the 
> cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his 
> meditations.  The superior had free access to this corridor, and 
> through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being 
> seen.  At I is the hatch or turn-table, in which the daily 
> allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that 
> purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards.  H is the 
> garden, cultivated by the occupant of the cell.  At K is the 
> wood-house.  F is a covered walk, with the necessary at the end. 
> 
> 
> The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation 
> in all the charter-houses of western Europe.  The Yorkshire 
> Charter-house of Mount Grace, founded by Thomas Holland, the 
> young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of 
> England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, 
> about A.D. 1397, is the most perfect and best preserved English 
> example.  It is characterized by all the simplicity of the 
> order.  The church is a modest building, long, narrow and 
> aisleless.  Within the wall of enclosure are two courts.  
> The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual 
> arrangement of church, refectory, &c., opening out of a 
> cloister.  The buildings are plain and solid.  The northern 
> court contains the cells, 14 in number.  It is surrotmded by a 
> double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. 
> apart.  Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; 
> low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the 
> ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the 
> side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the 
> back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the 
> monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse 
> of his garden to the ``eremus'' beyond.  By the side of the 
> door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily 
> pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an 
> angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look 
> out.  A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement 
> belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at Miraflores, near 
> Burgos, which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. 
> 
>                                                 A. Cloister gallery. 
>                                                 B. Corridor.
>                                                 C. Living-room.
>                                                 D. Sleeping-room.
>                                                 E. Closets.
>                                                 F. Covered walk.
>                                                 G. Necessary.
>                                                 H. Garden.
>                                                 I. Hatch.
>                                                 K. Wood-house.
>              FIG. 13--Carthusian cell, Clermont. 
> 
> There were only nine Carthusian houses in England.  The 
> earliest was that at Witham in Somersetshire, founded 
> by Henry II., by whom the order was first brought into 
> England.  The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of 
> Sheen or Richmond in Surrey, founded by Henry V. about A.D. 
> 1414.  The, dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated 
> to have been remarkably large.  The great court measured 
> 300 ft. by 250 ft.; the cloisters were a square of 500 ft.; 
> the hall was 110 ft. in length by 60 ft. in breadth.  The 
> most celebrated historically is the Charter house of London, 
> founded by Sir Walter Manny A.D. 1371, the name of which 
> is preserved by the famous public school established on the 
> site by Thomas Sutton A.D. 1611, now removed to Godalming. 
> 
> Mendicant Friars. 
> 
> An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without 
> some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching 
> Friars, including the Black Friars or Dominicans, the Grey 
> or Franciscans, the White or Carmelites, the Eremite or 
> Austin, Friars.  These orders arose at the beginning of the 
> 13th century, when the Benedictines, together with their 
> various reformed branches, had terminated their active 
> mission, and Christian Europe was ready for a new religious 
> revival.  Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, 
> and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated 
> districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their 
> buildings to the requirements of the site.  Regularity of 
> arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had 
> studied it.  Their churches, built for the reception of 
> large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form 
> a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder 
> orders in ground-plan and character.  They were usually long 
> parallelograms unbroken by transepts.  The nave very usually 
> consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls 
> of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the 
> congregation.  The constructional choir is often wanting, 
> the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with 
> a continuous range of windows.  The east end was usually 
> square, but the Friars Church at Winchelsea had a polygonal 
> apse.  We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of 
> great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave.  This arrangement 
> is frequent in Ireland, where the numerous small friaries 
> afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of 
> ground-plan.  The friars' churches were at first destitute of 
> towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers 
> were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir.  The 
> Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good 
> example.  The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally 
> peculiar and characteristic.  We miss entirely the regularity 
> of the buildings of the earlier orders.  At the Jacobins at 
> Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church 
> of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense 
> length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across 
> the area before the west front of the church.  At Toulouse the 
> nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, 
> with radiating chapel.  The refectory stretches northwards at 
> right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the 
> church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east. 
> 
> Norwich.  Gloucester. 
> 
> As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at 
> Norwich, and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at 
> Gloucester, may be mentioned.  The church of the Black 
> Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the 
> nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles.  In 
> this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at 
> Reading.  The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower 
> between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished.  Thc 
> cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the 
> north.  The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the 
> cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated 
> church.  The refectory is on the west side and on the south 
> the dormitory of the 13th century.  This is a remarkably good 
> example.  There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided 
> by partitions, the bases of which remain.  On the east side 
> was the prior's house, a building of later date.  At the Grey 
> or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in 
> having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of 
> windows.  There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir. 
> 
> Hulne. 
> 
> Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a 
> good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first 
> of the order in England, founded A.D. 1240.  The church 
> is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by 
> only 26 ft. wide.  The cloisters are to the south, with 
> the chapter-house, &c., to the east, with the dormitory 
> over.  The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the 
> cloister.  The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to 
> which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual 
> area.  The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites 
> in London is still standing.  It is of Decorated date, and 
> has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and 
> graceful arcade.  Some fragments of the south walk of the 
> cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of 
> Christ's Hospital (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still 
> standing.  Of the Black Friars all has perished but the 
> name.  Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of 
> the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of 
> the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris:---``The friars 
> who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences 
> as the palaces of kings.  These are they who, enlarging day 
> by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty 
> walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently 
> transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very 
> fundamental rules of their profession.'' Allowance must here be 
> made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity. 
> 
> Cells. 
> 
> Every large monastery had depending upon it one or more smaller 
> establishments known as cells. These cells were monastic 
> colonies, sent forth by the parent house, and planted on some 
> outlying estate.  As an example, we may refer to the small 
> religious house of St Mary Magdalene's, a cell of the great 
> Benedictine house of St Mary's, York, in the valley of the 
> Witham, to the south-east of the city of Lincoln.  This consists 
> of one long narrow range of building, of which the eastern part 
> formed the chapel and the western contained the apartments of 
> the handful of monks of which it was the home.  To the east 
> may be traced the site of the abbey mill, with its dam and 
> mill-lead.  These cells, when belonging to a Cluniac house, 
> were called Obedientiae. The plan given by Viollet-le-Duc 
> of the Priory of St Jean des Bons Hommes, a Cluniac cell, 
> situated between the town of Avallon and the village of 
> Savigny, shows that these diminutive establishments comprised 
> every essential feature of a monastery,---chapel, cloister, 
> chapter-room, refectory, dormitory, all grouped according to the 
> recognized arrangement.  These Cluniac obedientiae differed 
> from the ordinary Benedictine cells in being also places of 
> punishment, to which monks who had been guilty of any grave 
> infringement of the rules were relegated as to a kind of 
> penitentiary.  Here they were placed under the authority of a 
> prior, and were condemned to severe manual labour, fulfilling 
> the duties usually executed by the lay brothers, who acted as 
> farmservants.  The outlying farming establishments belonging to 
> the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. 
> They gave employment to a body of conversi and labourers 
> under the management of a monk, who bore the title of Brother 
> Hospitaller ---the granges, like their parent institutions, 
> affording shelter and hospitality to belated travellers. 
> 
> AUTHORITIES.--Dugdale, Monasticon; Lenoir, 
> Architecture monastique (1852--1856); Veollet-le-Duc, 
> Dictionnaire raisonnee de l'architecture francaise; 
> Springer, Klosterleben und Klosterkunst (1886); Kraus, 
> Geschichte der christlichen Kunst (1896). (E. V.) 
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> ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac 
> abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late 
> Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence 
> of the Lat. form to abbat, used abternatively till the end 
> of the 17th century; Ger. Abt; Fr. abbe), the head and 
> chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the 
> East hegumenos or archimandrite.  The title had its origin 
> in the monasteries of Syria, whence it spread through the 
> East, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as 
> the designation of the head of a monastery.  At first it was 
> employed as a respectful title for any monk, as we learn from St 
> Jerome, who denounced the custom on the ground that Christ had 
> said, ``Call no man father on earth'' (in Epist. ad Gal. 
> iv. 6, in Matt. xxiii. 9), but it was soon restricted to the 
> superior.  The name ``abbot,'' though general in the West, 
> was never universal.  Among the Dominicans, Carmelites, 
> Augustinians, &c., the superior was called Praepositus, 
> ``provost,'' and Prior; among the Franciscans, Custos, 
> ``guardian''; and by the monks of Camaldoi, Major. 
> 
> In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction 
> of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined.  
> Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over 
> several, each of which had its own abbot as well.  Cassian 
> speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under 
> him, a number exceeded in other cases.  By the rule of St 
> Benedict, which, until the reform of Cluny, was the norm 
> in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one 
> community.  The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to 
> frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of 
> the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising 
> jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely 
> recognized.  New styles were devised to express this new 
> relation; thus the abbot of Monte Cassino was called abbas 
> abbatum, while the chiefs of other orders had the tities 
> abbas generails, or magister or minister generalis. 
> 
> Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot 
> any exception.  All orders of clergy, therefore, even the 
> ``doorkeeper,', took precedence of him.  For the reception 
> of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the 
> abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest 
> church (Nocellae, 133, c. ii.).  This rule naturally proved 
> inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at 
> a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination 
> of abbots.  This innovation was not introduced without a 
> struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent 
> with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of 
> the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost 
> universally to have become deacons, if not presbyters.  The 
> change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of 
> abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th 
> century, and partially so up to the 11th.  Ecclesiastical 
> councils were, however, attended by abbots.  Thus at that 
> held at Constantinople, A.D. 448, for the condemnation of 
> Eutyches, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops, 
> and, c A.D. 690, Archbishop Theodore promulgated a 
> canon, inhibiting bishops from compelling abbots to attend 
> councils.  Examples are not uncommon in Spain and in England 
> in Saxon times.  Abbots were permitted by the second council 
> of Nicaea, A.D. 787, to ordain their monks to the inferior 
> orders.  This rule was adopted in the West, and the strong 
> prejudice against clerical monks having gradually broken down, 
> eventually monks, almost without exception, took holy orders. 
> 
> Abbots were originally subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and 
> continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th 
> century.  The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. 
> xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight.  
> The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot 
> from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, 
> at the council of Arles, A.D. 456; but the exorbitant claims 
> and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal 
> control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of 
> abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th 
> century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or 
> altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible 
> to the pope alone, received an impulse from Gregory the 
> Great.  These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had 
> grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually 
> creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop 
> of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his 
> diocese.  In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed 
> precedence of the archbishop of Cologne.  Abbots more and 
> more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the 
> prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and 
> others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and 
> sandals.  It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres 
> was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th 
> century, but the documents on which this claim is based are 
> not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453).  The 
> first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II. 
> in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of 
> the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury (see MITRE). The 
> mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, 
> Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmund's, St Augustine's Canterbury, 
> Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, 
> St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, 
> Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, 
> Winchcombe, St Mary's York.  Of these the precedence was 
> originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in 
> A.D. 1154 Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the 
> abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought 
> up.  Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of 
> Westminster.  To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained 
> that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, 
> and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon 
> entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral 
> staff should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating 
> that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. 
> 
> The adoption of episcopal insignia by abbots was followed 
> by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be 
> specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran 
> council, A.D. 1123.  In the East, abbots, if in priests' 
> orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have 
> seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, A.D. 787, 
> to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but 
> gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, 
> until we find them in A.D. 1489 permitted by Innocent 
> IV. to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate.  Of 
> course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting 
> their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit. 
> 
> When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose 
> the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right 
> of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks 
> themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the 
> election and the benediction of the new abbot.  In abbeys 
> exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, the confirmation and 
> benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house 
> being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to 
> Rome.  By the rule of St Benedict, the consent of the laity 
> was in some undefined way required; but this seems never 
> to have been practically enforced.  It was necessary that 
> an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate 
> birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable 
> candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another 
> convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, 
> one also who had learned how to command by having practised 
> obedience.  In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed 
> to name his own successor.  Cassian speaks of an abbot in 
> Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example 
> in the case of St Bruno.  Popes and sovereigns gradually 
> encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the 
> pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in 
> France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other 
> houses, chiefs of their order.  The election was for life, 
> unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of 
> his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the 
> pope or the bishop.  The ceremony of the formal admission of 
> a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by 
> the consuetudinary of Abingdon.  The newly elected abbot was 
> to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed 
> barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a 
> procession.  After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel 
> and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, 
> into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his 
> commissary, and placed in his stall.  The monks, then kneeling, 
> gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the 
> mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office.  He then put 
> on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and 
> the bishop or his commissary preached a suitable sermon. 
> 
> The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, 
> however, by the canons of the church, and, until the general 
> establishment of exemptions, by episcopal control.  As a 
> rule, however, implicit obedience was enforced; to act 
> without his orders was culpable; while it was a sacred duty 
> to execute his orders, however unreasonable, until they were 
> withdrawn.  Examples among the Egyptian monks of this blind 
> submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into 
> a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the 
> individual will as the highest excellence, are detailed by 
> Cassian and others,--- e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, 
> day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge 
> rock immensely exceeding his powers.  St Jerome, indeed, lays 
> down, as the principle of the compact between the abbot and his 
> monks, that they should obey their superiors in all things, 
> and perform whatever they commanded (Ep. 2, ad Eustoch. de 
> custod. virgin.). So despotic did the tyranny become in the 
> West, that in the time of Charlemagne it was necessary to 
> restrain abbots by legal enactments from mutilating their 
> monks and putting out their eyes; while the rule of St 
> Columban ordained 100 lashes as the punishment for very slight 
> offences.  An abbot also had the power of excommunicating 
> refractory nuns, which he might use if desired by their abbess. 
> 
> The abbot was treated with the utmost submission and reverence 
> by the brethren of his house.  When he appeared either in 
> church or chapter all present rose and bowed.  His letters 
> were received kneeling, like those of the pope and the 
> king.  If he gave a command, the monk receiving it was also to 
> kneel.  No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his 
> permission.  The highest place was naturally assigned to him, 
> both in church and at table.  In the East he was commanded to 
> eat with the other monks.  In the West the rule of St Benedict 
> appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain 
> guests and strangers.  This permission opening the door to 
> luxurious living, the council of Aix, A.D. 817, decreed that 
> the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with 
> the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a 
> guest.  These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual 
> to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature 
> abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the 
> inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots.  When the 
> abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited 
> upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting 
> them.  At St Alban's the abbot took the lord's seat, in the 
> centre of the high table, and was served on silver plate, and 
> sumptuously entertained noblemen, ambassadors and strangers of 
> quality.  When abbots dined in their own private hall, the rule 
> of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, 
> provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were 
> to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. 
> 
> The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be 
> the same as that of the monks.  But by the 10th century the 
> rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of 
> abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire.  They 
> sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and 
> assumed a secular dress.1 This was a necessary consequence of 
> their following the chase, which was quite usual, and indeed at 
> that time only natural.  With the increase of wealth and power, 
> abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and 
> become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by 
> celibacy.  Thus we hear of abbots going out to sport, with 
> their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and 
> huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, 
> c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in 
> harehunting.  In magnificence of equipage and retinue the 
> abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.  They rode 
> on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, 
> carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of 
> attendants.  The bells of the churches were rung as they 
> passed.  They associated on equal terms with laymen of the 
> highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and 
> pursuits.  This rank and power was, however, often used most 
> beneficially.  For instance, we read of Whiting, the last 
> abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII., 
> that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as 
> many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent 
> to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides 
> others of a meaner rank, whom he fitted for the universities.  
> His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the 
> nation.  He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at 
> one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a 
> week.  He had his country houses and fisheries, and when 
> he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to 
> upwards of 100 persons.  The abbots of Cluny and Vendome 
> were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church. 
> 
> In process of time the title abbot was improperly transferred 
> to clerics who had no connexion with the monastic system, 
> as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and 
> under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, 
> Abbas Curiae, or military chaplain of the emperor, Abbas 
> Castrensis. It even came to be adopted by purely secular 
> officials.  Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa 
> was called Abbas Populi. Du Cange, in his glossary, also gives 
> us Abbas Campanilis, Clocherii, Palatii, Scholaris, &c. 
> 
> Lay abbots (M. Lat. defensores, abbacomites, abbates laici, 
> abbates milites, abbates saeculares or irreligiosi, 
> abbatiarii, or sometimes simply abbates) were the outcome 
> of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century 
> onwards.  The practice of commendation, by which---to meet 
> a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were 
> handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, 
> early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of 
> rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam. 
> During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting 
> these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th 
> century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly 
> established.  Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam 
> by Hugh Capet.  The example of the kings was followed by the 
> feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession 
> permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation 
> whatever.  In England the abuse was rife in the 8th 
> century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of 
> Cloveshoe.  These lay abbacies were not merely a question of 
> overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands 
> of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the 
> foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of 
> 
> 
> 1 Walworth, the fourth abbot of St Alban's, c. 930, is 
> charged by Matthew Paris with adopting the attire of a sportsman. 
> 
> spiritual institutions.  The lay abbot took his recognized 
> rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of 
> his fief as in the case of any other.  The enfeoffment of 
> abbeys differed in form and degree.  Sometimes the monks were 
> directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a 
> substitute to perform the spirtual functions, known usually 
> as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (abbas legitimas, 
> monasticus, regularis). When the great reform of the 11th 
> century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay 
> abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by 
> certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century 
> and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of 
> dean.  The connexion of the lesser lay abbots with the 
> abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; 
> and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes 
> chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with 
> certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues.  The abuse was 
> not confined to the West.  John, patriarch of Antioch, at the 
> beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most 
> monasteries had been handed over to laymen, bencficiarii, 
> for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors. 
> 
> In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the 
> place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on 
> the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior. 
> 
> The title abbe (Ital. abbate), as commonly used in the 
> Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent 
> of the English ``Father,'' being loosely applied to all who 
> have received the tonsure.  This use of the title is said to 
> have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, 
> by the concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), 
> to appoint abbes commendataires to most of the abbeys in 
> France.  The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew 
> young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and 
> the class of abbes so formed ---abbes de cour they were 
> sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) abbes de sainte 
> esperance, abbes of St Hope---came to hold a recognized 
> position.  The connexion many of them had with the church 
> was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting 
> the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of 
> theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive 
> dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.  Being 
> men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the 
> class found admission to the houses of the French nobility 
> as tutors or advisers.  Nearly every great family had its 
> abbe.  The class did not survive the Revolution; but the 
> courtesy title of abbe, having long lost all connexion in 
> people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained 
> as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. 
> 
> In the German Evangelical church the title of abbot (Abt) is 
> sometimes bestowed, like abbe, as an honorary distinction, 
> and sometimes survives to designate the heads of monasteries 
> converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.  Of 
> these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in Hanover, 
> founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of 
> Hallermund, and reformed in 1593.  The abbot of Lokkum, who 
> still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the 
> clergy of Hanover, and is ex officio a member of the consistory 
> of the kingdom.  The governing body of the abbey consists of 
> abbot, prior and the ``convent'' of canons (Stiftsherren). 
> 
> See Joseph Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticae (1840); Du 
> Cange, Glossarium med. et inf.  Lat. (ed. 1883); J. Craigie 
> Robertson, Hist. of the Christian Church (1858-1873); Edmond 
> Martene, De antiquis ecclesiae ritibus (Venice, 1783); C. 
> F. R. de Montalembert, Les moines d'occident depuis S. Benoit 
> jusqu'a S. Bernard (1860--1877); Achille Luchaire, Manuel 
> des institutions francaises (Par. 1892). (E.V.; W.A.P.) 
> 
> 1 The Architectural History of the Conventual Buildings of 
> the Monastery of Christ Church in Canterbury. By the Rev. Robert 
> Willis.  Printed for the Kent Archaeological Society, 1869.
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
AlTruism|980675828
1c1
< Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in Atlas Shrugged.  
---
> Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
------
BryceHarrington|980675926
32a33,34
> ''Well, the thing is that I ''would'' keep England's history separate from that of the US.  That's not to say that I would omit it, but that I would place it separately in the main hierarchy and then cross-reference a lot.  Otherwise England's history is going to be told as the history of England, retold as that of Scotland, retold as that of France, and so forth.  Same deal with Rome.  There should be one RomanEmpire page, and the history of Europe should say something along the lines of "most of south Europe was included in the RomanEmpire, under which urban centers spread and the catholic church was introduced and blah blah blah.  And then Egypt, Syria, and so forth can do the same sort of thing.''
> 
39a42,47
> ''I think most tribal societies start ought more-or-less democratically (I've also heard of English historians commenting about the "democratic genius of the GermanicPeoples).  What makes the Greeks exceptional is they brought the idea into an urban context.  At the time, all urban societies were pretty much top down - civilizations of slaves, as the Greeks put it.''
> 
> ''In math, again, I think the main contribution of the Greeks - rational and axiomatic reasoning rather than empirical and approximate - is unique.  That's not to say other civs didn't perform some wonderful math; the Babylonians could solve quadratic problems, and both the Hindus and Mayans invented zero.  But it's not the same when you're doing it for practical reasons.''
> 
> ''The Greeks also, btw, invented history (though that one isn't unique), and that's more or less guaranteed that they wouldn't be known just from their ruins.  Compare to Persia, which actually based a lot of its inscriptions on what the Greeks said.  Unfortunately the American civilizations got cheated in this respect, since most of their writings were slash-and-burnt along with the people.''
> 
57a66,67
> 
> ''Should the DarkAges as part of the MiddleAges, or as a separate time period?  I personally am all for the former, because a thousand years is a darn long time which is hard to summarize, but the latter is more conventional.''
------
AbbreviationS|980675949
1c1,650
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ABBREVIATION (Lat. brevis, short), strictly a shortening; 
> more particularly, an ``abbreviation'' is a letter or group 
> of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to 
> represent them for the sake of brevity.  Abbreviations, both 
> of single words and of phrases, having a meaning more or 
> less fixed and recognized, are common in ancient writings 
> and inscriptions (see PALAEOGRAPHY and DIPLOMATIC), and 
> very many are in use at the present time.  A distinction is 
> to be observed between abbreviations and the contractions 
> that are frequently to be met with in old manuscripts, and 
> even in early printed books, whereby letters are dropped 
> out here and there, or particular collocations of letters 
> represented by somewhat arbitrary symbols.  The commonest 
> form of abbreviation is the substitution for a word of its 
> initial letter; but, with a view to prevent ambiguity, one 
> or more of the other letters are frequently added.  Letters 
> are often doubled to indicate a plural or a superlative. 
> 
> I. CLASSICAL ABBREVIATIONS.---The following list 
> contains a selection from the abbreviations that occur 
> in the writings and inscriptions of the Romans:-- 
> 
> 
>  
>                                   A.
>  A.         Absolvo, Aedilis, Aes, Ager, Ago, Aio, Amicus, Annus, Antiquo,
>               Auctor, Auditor, Augustus, Aulus, Aurum, Aut.
>  A.A.       Aes alienum, Ante audita, Apud agrum, Aurum argentum.
>  AA.        Augusti. AAA. Augusti tres.
>  A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.1
>  A.A.V.     Alter ambove.
>  A.C.       Acta causa, Alins civis.
>  A.D.       Ante diem; e.g. A.D.V. Ante diem quintum.
>  A.D.A.     Ad dandos agros.
>  AEO.       Aedes, Aedilis, Aedilitas.
>  AEM. and AIM.        Aemilius, Aemilia.
>  AER.       Aerarium. AER.P. Aere publico.
>  A.F.       Acture fide, Auli filius.
>  AG.        Ager, Ago, Agrippa.
>  A.G.       Ammo grato, Aulus Gellius.
>  A.L.AE. and A.L.E.  Arbitrium litis aestimandae.
>  A.M. and A.MILL.    Ad milliarium.
>  AN.        Aniensis, Annus, Ante.
>  ANN.       Annales, Anni, Annona.
>  ANT.       Ante, Antonius.
>  A.O.       Alii omnes, Amico optimo.
>  AP.        Atppius, Apud.
>  A.P.       Ad pedes, Aedilitia potestate.
>  A.P.F.     Auro (or argento) publico feriundo.
>  A.P.M.     Amico posuit monumentum, Annorum plus minus.
>  A.P.R.C.   Anno post Romam conditam.
>  ARG.       Argentum.
>  AR.V.V.D.D.Aram votam volens dedicavit, Arma votiva dono dedit.
>  AT         A tergo. Also A TE. and A TER.
>  A.T.M.D.O. Aio te mihi dare oportere.
>  AV.        Augur, Augustus, Aurelius.
>  A.V.       Annos vixit.
>  A.V.C.     Ab urbe condita.
>  AVG.       Augur, Augustus.
>  AVGG.      Augusti (generally of two). AVGGG. Augusti tres.
>  AVT.PR.R.  Auctoritas provinciae Romanorum.
>  
>                                   B.
>  B.         Balbius, Balbus, Beatus, Bene, Beneficiarius, Beneficium,
>             Bonus, Brutus, Bustum.
>  B.for V.      Berna Bivus, Bixit.
>  B.A.       Bixit anos, Bonis auguriis, Bonus amabilis.
>  BB.or B.B.    Bene bene, i.e. optime, Optimus.
>  B.D.       Bonae deae, Bonum datum.
>  B.DD.      Bonis deabus.
>  B.D.S.M. Bene de se merenti.
>  B.F.       Bona femina, Bona fides, Bona fortuna, Bonum factum.
>  B.F.       Bona femina, Bona filia.
>  B.H.       Bona hereditaria, Bonorum heres.
>  B.I.       Bonum judicium. B.I.I. Boni judicis judicium.
>  B.M.       Beatae memoriae, Bene merenti.
>  B.N.       Bona nostra, Bonum nomen.
>  BN.H.I.    Bona hic invenies.
>  B.P.       Bona paterna, Bonorum potestas, Bonum publicum.
>  B.Q.       Bene quiescat, Bona quaesita.
>  B.RP.N.    Boho reipublicae natus.
>  BRT.       Britannicus.
>  B.T.       Bonorum tutor, Brevi tempore.
>  B.V.       Bene vale, Bene vixit, Bonus vir.
>  B.V.V.     Balnea vina Venus.
>  BX.        Bixit, for vixit.
>  
>                                   C.
>  C.         Caesar, Cains, Caput, Causa, Censor, Civis, Conors, Colonia,
>                 Comitialis (dies), Condemno, Consul, Cum, Curo, Custos.
>  C.         Caia, Centuria, Cum, the prefix Con.
>  C.B.       Civis bonus, Commune bonum, Conjugi benemerenti, Cui bono.
>  C.C.       Calumniae causa, Causa cognita, Conjugi carissimae, Consilium
>                 cepit, Curiae consulto.
>  C.C.C.     Calumniae cavendae causa.
>  C.C.F.     Caesar (or Caius) curavit faciendum, Cains Caii filius.
>  CC.VV.     Clarissimi viri.
>  C.D.       Caesaris decreto, Cains Decius, Comitialibus diebus.
>  CES.       Censor, Censores. CESS. Censores.
>  C.F.       Causa fiduciae, Conjugi fecit, Curavit faciendum.
>  C.H.       Custos heredum, Custos hortorum.
>  C.I.       Caius Julius, Consul jussit, Curavit judex. .
>  CL.        Clarissimus, Claudius, Clodius, Colonia.
>  CL.V.      Clarissimus vir, Clypeum vovit.
>  C.M.       Caius Marius, Causa mortis.
>  CN.        Cnaeus.
>  COH.       Coheres, Conors.
>  COL.       Collega, Collegium, Colonia, Columna.
>  COLL.      Collega, Coloni, Coloniae.
>  COM.       Comes, Comitium, Comparatum.
>  CON.       Conjux, Consensus, Consiliarius, Consul, Consularis.
>  COR.       Cornelia (tribus), Cornelius, Corona, Corpus.
>  COS.       Consiliarius, Consul, Consulares. COSS. Consules.
>  C.P.       Carissimus or Clarissimus puer, Civis publicus, Curavit
>                 ponendum.
>  C.R.       Cains Rufus, Civis Romanus, Curavit reficiendum.
>  CS.        Caesar, Communis, Consul.
>  C.V.       Clarissimus or Consularis vir.
>  CVR.       Cura, Curator, Curavit, Curia.
>  
>                                   D.
>  D.         Dat, Dedit, &c., De, Decimus, Decius, Decretum, Decurio,
>                 Deus, Dicit, &c., Dies, Divus, Dominus, Domus, Donum.
>  D.C.       Decurio coloniae, Diebus comitialibus, Divus Caesar.
>  D.D.       Dea Dia, Decurionum decreto, Dedicavit, Deo dedit, Dono dedit.
>  D.D.D.     Datum decreto decurionum, Dono dedit dedicavit.
>  D.E.R.     De ea re.
>  DES.       Designatus.
>  D.I.       Dedit imperator, Diis immortalibus, Diis inferis.
>  D.l.M.     Deo invicto Mithrae, Diis inferis Manibus.
>  D.M.       Deo Magno, Dignus memoria, Diis Manibus, Dolo malo.
>  D.O.M.     Deo Optimo Maximo.
>  D.P.S.     Dedit proprio sumptu, Deo perpetuo sacrum, De pecunia
>                 sua.
>  
>                                   E.
>  E.         Ejus, Eques, Erexft, Ergo, Est, Et, Etiam, Ex.
>  EG.        Aeger, Egit, Egregius.
>  E.M.       Egregiae memoriae, Ejusmodi, Erexit monumentum.
>  EQ.M.      Equitum magister.
>  E.R.A.     Ea res agitur.
>  
>                                   F.
>  F.         Fabius, Facere, Fecit, &c., Familia, Fastus (dies), Felix,
>                 Femina, Fides, Filius, Flamen, Fortuna, Frater, Fuit, Functus.
>  F.C.       Faciendum curavit, Fidei commissume, Fiduciae causa.
>  F.D.       Fidem dedit, Flamen Dialis, Fraude donavit.
>  F.F.F.     Ferro flamma fame, Fortior fortuna fato.
>  FL.        Filius, Flamen, Flaminius, Flavius.
>  F.L.       Favete linguis, Fecit libens, Felix liber.
>  FR.        Forum, Fronte, Frumentarius.
>  F.R.       Forum Romanum.
>  
>                                   G.
>  G.         Gaius (=Caius), Gallia, Gaudium, Gellius, Gemma, Gens,
>                 Gesta, Gratia.
>  G.F.       Gemma fidelis (applied to a legion). So G.P.F. Gemma
>                 pia fidelis.
>  GL.        Gloria.
>  GN.        Genius, Gens, Genus, Gnaeus (=Cnaeus).
>  G.P.R.     Genro populi Romani.
>  
>  H.
>  H.         Habet, Heres, Hic, Homo, Honor, Hora.
>                 HER. Heres, Herennius. HER. and HERC. Hercules.
>  H.L.       Hac lege, Hoc loco, Honesto loco.
>  H.M.       Hoc monumentum, Honesta mulier, Hora mala.
>  H.S.E.     Hic sepultus est, Hic situs est.
>  H.V.       Haec urbs, Hic vivit, Honeste vixit, Honestus vir.
>  
>                                   I.
>  I.         Immortalis, Imperator, In, Infra, Inter, Invictus, Ipse, Isis,
>                 Judex, Julius, Junius, Jupiter, Justus.
>  IA.        Jam, Intra.
>  I.C.       Julius Caesar, Juris Consultum, Jus civile.
>  ID.        Idem, Idus, Interdum.
>  l.D.       Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatnm, Jus dicendum, Jussu Dei.
>  I.D.M.     Jovi deo magno.
>  I.F.       In foro, In fronte.
>  I.H.       Jacet hic, In honestatem, Justus homo.
>  IM.        Imago, Immortalis, Immunis, Impensa.
>  IMP.       Imperator, Imperium.
>  I.O.M.     Jovi optimo maximo.
>  I.P.       In publico, Intra provinciam, Justa persona.
>  I.S.V.P.   Impensa sua vivus posuit.
>  
>                                   K.
>  K.         Kaeso, Caia, Calumnia, Caput, Carus, Castra.
>  K., KAL. and KL.   Kalendae.
>  
>                                   L.
>  L.         Laelius, Legio, Lex, Libens, Liber, Libra, Locus, Lollius,
>                 Lucius, Ludus.
>  LB.        Libens, Liberi, Libertus.
>  L.D.D.D.   Locus datus decreto decurionum.
>  LEG.       Legatus, Legio.
>  LIB.       Liber, Liberalitas, Libertas, Libertus, Librarius.
>  LL.        Leges, Libentissime, Liberti.
>  L.M.       Libens merito, Locus monumenti.
>  L.S.       Laribus sacrum, Libens solvit, Locus sacer.
>  LVD.       Ludus.
>  LV.P.F.    Ludos publicos fecit.
>  
>                                   M.
>  M.         Magister, Magistratus, Magnus, Manes, Marcus, Marins,
>                 Marti, Mater, Memoria, Mensis, Miles, Monumentum, Mortuus,
>                 Mucius, Mulier.
>  M'.        Manius.
>  M.D.       Magno Deo, Manibus diis, Matri deum, Merenti dedit.
>  MES.       Mensis. MESS. Menses.
>  M.F.       Mala fides, Marci filius, Monumentum fecit.
>  M.I.       Matri Idaeae, Matii Isidi, Maximo Jovi.
>  MNT. and      MON. Moneta.
>  M.P.       Male positus, Monumentum posuit.
>  M.S.       Manibus sacrum, Memoriae sacrum, Manu scriptum.
>  MVN.       Municeps, or municipium; so also MN., MV. and MVNIC.
>  M.V.S.     Marti ultori sacrum, Merito votum solvit.
>  
>                                   N.
>  N.         Natio, Natus, Nefastus (dies), Nepos, Neptunus, Nero,
>                 Nomen, Non, Nonae, Noster, Novus, Numen, Numerius,
>                 Numerus, Nummus.
>  NEP.       Nepos, Neptunus.
>  N.F.C.     Nostrae fidei commissum.
>  N.L.       Non licet, Non liquet, Non longe.
>  N.M.V.     Nobilis memoriae vir.
>  NN.        Nostri. NN., NNO. and NNR. Nostrorum.
>  NOB.       Nobilis. NOB., NOBR. and NOV. Novembris.
>  N.P.       Nefastus primo (i.e. priore parto diei), Non potest.
>  
>                                   O.
>  O.         Ob, Officium, Omnis, Oportet, Optimus, Opus, Ossa.
>  OB.        Obiit, Obiter, Orbis.
>  O.C.S.     Ob cives servatos.
>  O.H.F.     Omnibus honoribus functus.
>  O.H.S.S.   Ossa hic sita sunt.
>  OR. Hora,  Ordo, Ornamentum.
>  O.T.B.Q.   Ossa tua bene quiescant.
>  
>                                   P.
>  P.         Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,
>                 Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,
>                 Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.
>  P.C.       Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia constituta,
>  Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate censoria.
>  P.F.       Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius.
>  P.M.       Piae memoriae, Pius minus, Pontifex maximus.
>  P.P.       Pater patratus, Pater patriae, Pecunia publica, Praepositus,
>  Primipilus, Propraetor.
>  PR.        Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.
>  P.R.       Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus.
>  P.R.C.     Post Romam conditam.
>  PR.PR.     Praefectus praetorii, Propraetor.
>  P.S.       Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae saluti.
>  P.V.       Pia victrix, praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.
>  
>                                   Q.
>  Q.         Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,
>                 Quintus, Quirites.
>  Q.D.R.     Qua de re.
>  Q.I.S.S.   Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.
>  QQ.        Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.
>  Q.R.       Quaestor reipublicae.
>  
>                                   R.
>  R.         Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,
>                 Rufus, Rursus.
>  R.C.       Romana civitas, Romanus civis.
>  RESP. and RP.       Respublica.
>  RET.P. and RP.      Retro pedes.
>  
>                                   S.
>  S.         Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,
>                 Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, Suus.
>  SAC.       Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.
>  S.C.       Senatus consultum.
>  S.D.       Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, Sententiam
>  S.D.M.       Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.
>  SER.       Servius, Servus.
>  S.E.T.L.   Sit ei terra levis.
>  SN.        Senatus, Sententia, Sine.
>  S.P.       Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.
>  S.P.Q.R.   Senatus populusque Romanus.
>  S.S.       Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scripture.
>  S.V.B.E.E.Q.V.          Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.
>  
>                                   T.
>  T.         Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, Tutor.
>  TB., TI. and TIB.   Tiberius.
>  TB., TR. and TRB.   Tribunus.
>  T.F.       Testamentum fecit, Titi filius, Titulum fecit, Titus Flavius.
>  TM.        Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.
>  T.P.       Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.
>  TVL.       Tullius, Tunus.
>  
>                                   V.
>  V.         Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, Vivus,
>                 Vixit, Volo, Votum.
>  VA.        Veterano assignatus, Vixit annos.
>  V.C.       Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.
>  V.E.       Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.
>  V.F.       Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.
>  V.P.       Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.
>  V.R.       Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.
>  
>  II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS.--Of the different kinds of
>  abbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following are
>  examples:--
>  A.M.       Ave Maria.
>  B.P.       Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. .
>  CC.        Carissimus (atso plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.
>  D.         Deus, Dominicus, Dux.
>  D.N.PP.    Dominus hoster Papa.
>  U.F.       Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).
>  I.C. or I.X.    Jesus Christus.
>  I.D.N.     In Dei nomine.
>  KK.        Karissimus (or-mi).
>  MM.        Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.
>  O.S.B.     Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.
>  PP.        Papa, Patres, Piissimus.
>  R.F.       Rex Francorum.
>  R.P.D.     Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.
>  S.C.M.     Sacra Caesarea Majestas.
>  S.M.E.     Sancta Mater Ecclesia.
>  S.M.M.     Sancta Mater Maria.
>  S.R.I.     Sanctum Romanum Imperium.
>  S.V.       Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.
>  V.         Venerabilis, Venerandus. .
>  V.R.P.     Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.
>  
>  III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE.--The import of these
>  will often be readily understood from the connexion in which
>  they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common
>  abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture,
>  months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and
>  mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like ``Mr,'' &c.
>  
>  The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, may
>  be conveniently classified under the following headings:-
>  
>  I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS.
>  A.A.       Associate of Arts.
>  A.B.       Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts.
>  A.D.C.     Aide-de-Camp.
>  A.M.       (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.
>  A.R.A.     Associate of the Royal Academy.
>  A.R.I.B.A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects.
>  A.R.S.A.   Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.
>  B.A.       Bachelor of Arts.
>  Bart.      Baronet.
>  B.C.L.     Bachelor of Civil Law.
>  B.D.       Bachelor of Divinty.
>  B.LL.      Bachelor of Laws.
>  B.Sc.      Bachelor of Science.
>  C.         Chairman.
>  C.A.       Chartered Accountant.
>  C.B.       Companion of the Bath.
>  C.E.       Civil Engineer.
>  C.I.E.     Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire.
>  C.M.       (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery.
>  C.M.G.     Companion of St Michael and St George.
>  C.S.I.     Companion of the Star of India.
>  D.C.L.     Doctor of Civil Law.
>  D.D.       Doctor of Divinity.
>  D.Lit. or Litt. D.   Doctor of Literature.
>  D.M.       Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).
>  D.Sc.      Doctor of Science.
>  D.S.O.     Distinguished Service Order.
>  Ebor.      (Eboracensis) of York.2
>  F.C.S.     Fellow of the Chemical Society.
>  F.D.       (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.
>  F.F.P.S.   Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow)
>  F.G.S.     Fellow of the Geological Society.
>  F.K.Q.C.P.I.             Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physicians
>  in Ireland.
>  F.L.S.     Fellow of the Linnaean Society.
>  F.M.       Field Marshal.
>  F.P.S.     Fellow of the Philological Society.
>  F.R.A.S.   Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.
>  F.R C.P.   Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
>  F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.
>  F.R.C.S.   Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
>  F.R.G.S.   Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
>  F.R.H.S.   Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society.
>  F.R.Hist.Soc.            Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.
>  F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects.
>  F.R.S.     Fellow of the Royal Society.
>  F.R.S.E.   Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
>  F.R.S.L.   Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
>  F.S.A.     Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
>  F.S.S.     Fellow of the Statistical Society.
>  F.Z.S.     Fellow of the Zoological Society.
>  G.C.B.     Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
>  G.C.H.     Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.
>  G.C.I.E.   Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian
>                 Empire.
>  G.C.M.G.   Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.
>  G.C.S.I.   Knight Grand Commander of the Star of india.
>  G.C.V.O.   Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.
>  H.H.       His or Her Highness.
>  H.I.H.     His or Her Imperial Highness.
>  H.I.M.     His or Her Imperial Majesty.
>  H.M.       His or Her Majesty.
>  H.R.H.     His or Her Royal Highness.
>  H.S.H.     His or Her Serene Highness.
>  J.         Judge.
>  J.C.D.     (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor),
>                 Doctor of Canon or Civil Law.
>  J.D.       (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.
>  J.P.       Justice of the Peace.
>  K.C.       King's Counsel.
>  K.C.B.     Knight Commander of the Bath.
>  K.C.I.E.   Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.
>  K.C.M.G.   Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.
>  K.C.S.I.   Knight Commander of the Star of India.
>  K.C.V.O.   Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.
>  K.G.       Knight of the Garter.
>  K.P.       Knight of St Patrick.
>  K.T.       Knight of the Thistle.
>  L.A.H.     Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.
>  L.C.C.     London County Council, or Councillor.
>  L.C.J.     Lord Chief Justice
>  L.J.       Lord Justice.
>  L.L.A.     Lady Literate in Arts.
>  LL.B.      (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.
>  LL.D.      (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
>  LL.M.      (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.
>  L.R.C.P.   Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.
>  L.R.C.S.   Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.
>  L.S.A.     Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.
>  M.A.       Master of Arts.
>  M.B.       (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Medicine
>  M.C.       Member of Congress.
>  M.D.       (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
>  M.Inst.C.E.             Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.
>  M.P.       Member of Parliament.
>  M.R.       Master of the Rolls.
>  M.R.C.P.   Member of the Royal College of Physicians.
>  M.R.C.S.   Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.
>  M.R.I.A.   Member of the Royal Irish Academy.
>  Mus.B.     Bachelor of Music.
>  Mus.D.     Doctor of Music.
>  M.V.O.     Member of the Victorian Order.
>  N.P.       Notary Public.
>  O.M.       Order of Merit.
>  P.C.       Privy Councillor.
>  Ph.D.      (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.
>  P.P.       Parish Priest.
>  P.R.A.     President of the Royal Academy.
>  R.         (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.
>  R. & I.    Rex et Imperator.
>  R.A.       Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.
>  R.A.M.     Royal Academy of Music.
>  R.E.       Royal Engineers.
>  Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.
>  R.M.       Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.
>  R.N.       Royal Navy.
>  S. or St.             Saint.
>  S.S.C.     Solicitor before the Supreme Courts of Scotland.
>  S.T.P.     (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of Sacred
>                  Theology.
>  V.C.       Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.
>  V.G.       Vicar-General.
>  V.S.       Veterinary Surgeon.
>  W.S.       Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney
>  
>  2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES.
>  ac.    acre.                  lb. or lb.  (libra), pound (weight).
>  bar.   barrel.                 m. or mi. mile, minute.
>  bus.   bushel.                 m. minim.
>  c.     cent.                  mo. month.
>  c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c.   na. nail.
>  cwt.   hundredweight.         oz. ounce.
>  d.     (denarius), penny. pk. peck.
>  deg.   degree.                po. pole.
>  dr.    drachm or dram.    pt. pint.
>  dwt.   pennyweight.            q. (quadrans), farthing.
>  f.     franc.                 qr. quarter.
>  fl.    florin.                qt. quart.
>  ft.    foot.                  ro. rood.
>  fur.   furlong.               Rs.4 rupees.
>  gal.   gallon.                 s. or / (solidus), shilling.
>  gr.    grain.                  s. or sec. second.
>  h. or hr. hour.           sc. or scr. scruple.
>  hhd.   hogshead.          sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c.
>  in.    inch.                  st. stone.
>  kilo.  kilometre.             yd. yard.
>  L.,3 L. ,2 or l. (libra), pound (money).
>  
>  3. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS.
>  
>  A.         Accepted.
>  A.C.       (Ante Christum), Before Christ.
>  acc., a/c. or acct.        Account.
>  A.D.       (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
>  A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,5 or
>                 Alles Erdreich Ist Oesterreich Unterthan.
>  Aet. or Aetat.            (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.
>  A.H.       (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedan
>                 era).
>  A.M.       (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world.
>  A.M.       (Ante meridiem), Forenoon.
>  Anon.      Anonymous.
>  A.U.C.     (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the building
>                 of the city (i.e. Rome).
>  A.V.       Authorized version of the Bible.
>  b.         born.
>  B.V.M.     The Blessed Virgin Mary.
>  B.C.       Before Christ.
>  c.         circa, about.
>  C.         or Cap. (Caput), Chapter.
>  C.         Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.
>  cent.6 (Centnim), A hundred, frequently L. 100.
>  Cf. or cp.       (Confer), Compare.
>  Ch. or Chap.     Chapter.
>  C.M.S.     Church Missionary Society.
>  Co.        Company, County.
>  C.O.D.     Cash on Delivery.
>  Cr.        Creditor.
>  curt.      Current, the present month.
>  d.         died.
>  D.G.       (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.
>  Do.        Ditto, the same.
>  D.O.M.     (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.
>  Dr.        Debtor.
>  D.V.       (Deo volente), God willing.
>  E.& O.E.   Errors and omissions excepted.
>  e.g.       (Exempti gratia), For example.
>  etc. or &c.     (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth.
>  Ex.        Example.
>  F. or Fahr.     Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
>  
>  fec. (Fecit),   He made (or did) it.
>  fl.        Flourished.
>  Fo. or Fol.     Folio.
>  f.o.b.     Free on board.
>  G.P.O.     General Post Office.
>  H.M.S.     His Majesty's Ship, or Service.
>  Ib. or Ibid.    (Ibidem), In the same place.
>  Id.        (Idem), The same.
>  ie. (Id est),   That is.
>  I.H.S.     A symbol for ``Jesus,', derived from the first three letters
>                 of the Greek (I E S); the correct origin was lost
>                 sight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted
>                 erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Salvator,
>                 the Latin ``h'' and Greek long ``e'' being confused.
>  I.M.D.G.   (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God.
>  Inf. (Infra),   Below.
>  Inst.      Instant, the present month.
>  I.O.U.     I owe you.
>  i.q.       (Idem quod), The same as.
>  k.t.l.      (gr kai ta loipa) Et caetera, and the rest.
>  L. or Lib. (Liber),      Book.
>  Lat.       Latitude.
>  l.c.       (Loco citato), In the place cited.
>  Lon. or Long.       Longitude.
>  L.S.       (Locus sigilli), The place of the seal.
>  Mem.       (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.
>  MS.        Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.
>  N.B.       (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.
>  N.B.       North Britain (i.e. Scotland).
>  N.D.       No date.
>  nem. con.       (Nemine contradicente), No one contradicting.
>  No.        (Numero), Number.
>  N.S.       New Style.
>  N.T.       New Testament.
>  ob.        (Obiit), Died.
>  Obs.       Obsolete.
>  O.H.M.S.   On His Majesty's Service.
>  O.S.       Old Style.
>  O.S.B.     Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines).
>  O.T.       Old Testament.
>  P.         Page. Pp. Pages.
>  @        (Per), For; e.g. @ lb., For one pound.
>  Pinx.      (Pinxit), He painted it.
>  P.M.       (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.
>  P.O.       Post Office, Postal Order.
>  P.O.O.     Post Office Order.
>  P.P.C.     (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.
>  P.R.       Prize-ring.
>  prox.      (Proximo [mense]), Next month.
>  P.S.       Postscript.
>  Pt.        Part.
>  p.t. or pro tem.   (Pro tempore), For the time.
>  P.T.O.     Please turn over.
>  Q., Qu., or Qy.    Query; Question.
>  q.d.       (Quasi dicat), As if he should say: as much as to say.
>  Q.E.D.     (Quod erot demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated.
>  Q.E.F.     (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.
>  q.s. or quant. suff.      (Quantum sufficit), As much as is
>                 sufficient.
>  q.v.       (Quod vide), Which see.
>  R. or @.      (Recipe), Take.
>  sqrt.  (=r. for radix), The sign of the square root.
>  R.I.P.     (Requiescat in pace!), May he rest in peace!
>  R.S.V.P.   (i Respondes s'il vous plait), please reply.
>  sc.        (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.
>  Sc. or Sculp.  (Sculpsit), He engraved it.
>  S.D.U.K.   Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.
>  seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq.   (Sequens, sequenitia), The following.
>  S.J.       Society of Jesus.
>  sp.        (Sine prole), Without offspring.
>  S.P.C.K.   Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge
>  S.P.G.     Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.
>  S.T.D.    }
>  S.T.B.    }Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.
>  S.T.L.    }
>  Sup.       (Supra), Above.
>  s.v.       (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).
>  T.C.D.     Trinity College, Dublin.
>  ult.       (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.
>  U.S.       United States.
>  U.S.A.     United States of America.
>  v.         (versus), Against.
>  v. or vid:      (Vide), See.
>  viz.       (Videlicet), Namely.
>  Xmas.      Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.
>  
> 
> See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); 
> Nicolai's Tractatus de Sigils Veterum; Mommsen's Corpus 
> Inscriptionum Latinarum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's 
> Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph.  Chassant's Paleographie 
> (1854), and Dictionnaire des Abreviations (3rd ed. 
> 1866); Campelli, Duzionario di Abbreviature (1899). 
> 
> 1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales. 
> 
> 2 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes 
> for his surname the name of his see; thus the prelates of 
> Canterbury, York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves 
> with their initials (Christian names only), followed by 
> Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. (sometimes London.), &c. 
> 
> 3 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same 
> way; e.g. `` deg. '' for ``degrees, minutes, seconds'' (circular 
> measure); @, @, @ for ``ounces, drachms, scruples.'' @ is 
> probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ``oz.'' 
> 
> 4 These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the 
> American dollar) are placed before the amounts. 
> 
> 5It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. 
> The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. 
> 
> 6``Per cent.'' is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100." 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
RequestedArticles|980676058
7c7
< ''I'm calling TheIliad, but it's awfully late here.''
---
> ''I'm calling TheIliad, but it's awfully late here.  Also note that HelenOfTroy was from Sparta.''
------
BryceHarrington|980676760
67a68,72
> 
> Yes, the DarkAges preceded the MiddleAges and in a European context are worth separating out.  
> The Medieval period started around 1000-1100 and is marked by the growth of cities and nations.  During the Dark Ages, people lived in a very tribal/village oriented way.  Scholars have traditionally discounted the DarkAges as "without development", yet looking at civilization before the collapse of the Roman Empire, and what emerged in the middle ages, it's clear that some very interesting things must have happened.  
> 
> Also note that the middle ages could be split into pre-1300 and post-1300 fairly easily.  1300 is about when the Plague really set in and hit home, and the mid- and late-1300's saw a number of massive wars and political changes. (Not that I'm advocating splitting it up at the category level, but on its page, we could follow that path for header divisions.)
------
CategorySchemesTalk|980677346
10c10,17
< I'm sorry, but the current organizational scheme that's been used on the homepage just makes me cringe every time I look at it.  It seems as if there's no sense - that they're merely random points into the database.  I tried to provide a simple three-grouping system to help at least organize it a little, but it appears to have been reverted out.  There are few clues as to how to fit new topics into the organizational scheme...  How can you tell if some technical topic belongs in TechnologY rather than ScienCe?  ArtsAndEntertainment is an extremely broad subject area; CountriesOfTheWorld extremely specific...  -- BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington
---
> I'm sorry, but the current organizational scheme that's been used on the homepage just makes me cringe every time I look at it.  It seems as if there's no sense - that they're merely random points into the database.  I tried to provide a simple three-grouping system to help at least organize it a little, but it appears to have been reverted out.  There are few clues as to how to fit new topics into the organizational scheme...  How can you tell if some technical topic belongs in TechnologY rather than ScienCe?  ArtsAndEntertainment is an extremely broad subject area; CountriesOfTheWorld extremely specific...  -- BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington
> 
> Science includes the principles behind things, but technology includes their uses.  A lot of topics will straddle the two, but for a top-level classification I don't think there's a problem.  I do agree, though, that there are way to many top-level nodes.  Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
> 
> Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
> Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
> Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
> Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
------
AtlasShrugged|980677523
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by AynRand, first published in 1957.
> 
> The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization falls apart.  This is a direct assault on the MarxisT LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
> 
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Since independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and since achievement is rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts, Rand advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
> 
> Rand also argues that, since independence and individual achievement drive the world, these things are virtues and should be central to a rational moral code.  She rejects the view that self-sacrifice is a virtue.  These ethical considerations are prominent in AtlasShrugged.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677554
3c3
< The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization falls apart.  This is a direct assault on the MarxisT LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
---
> The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the MarxisT LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677609
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Since independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and since achievement is rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts, Rand advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Since independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and since achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts, Rand advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677695
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Since independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and since achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts, Rand advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677720
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies will become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677745
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, societies will become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677768
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as they allow, encourage, and reward independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677808
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She therefore advocated libertarian capitalism.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated libertarian capitalism ast he political system consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AtlasShrugged|980677831
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated libertarian capitalism ast he political system consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated libertarian capitalism as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
AchillEus|980678924
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, the greatest warrior in the TrojanWar, and the central character of TheIliad.  Also, and actually more commonly, "Achilles".
> 
> Achilleus was the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly and all-around hero, and the sea nymph Thetis.  Zeus and Poseidon had vied for her hand until an oracle was revealed that she would bear a son greater than its father, whence they wisely decided to give her to someone else.  According to the usual legend Thetis had tried to make Achilleus invincible by dipping him in the river Styx, but forgot to wet the heel she was holding him by, so he could be killed by a blow to that heel.  Homer, however, deliberately makes no mention of this; Achilleus can ''not'' be a hero if he is not at risk.
> 
> There was an oracle stating that if Achilleus fought at Troy, he would die there.  His mother thus hid him at the court of Lycurgus in Scyros, disguised as a woman.  There he had an affair with Deidamia resulting in a child, Neoptolemus.  He was found out, however, by OdyssEus, who arrived disguised as a peddler with trinkets and weaponry.  Achilleus was marked out from the other women by admiring the wrong goods.  Alternatively, he was found out by a blast of the trumpet, whence instead of cowering he grabbed a spear to ward off the attackers.  From there he needed little convincing to go to Troy.
> 
> Achilleus is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the ''Iliad''.  This does not just refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude.  He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life.  Not his own - clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious - and not really of others.  The humanization of Achilleus by the events of the war is the main theme of TheIliad, and is best described on its page.
> 
> Shortly after the death of Hector, Achilleus defeated Memnon of Ethiopia and was very soon after killed by Paris - either by an arrow to the heel, or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting a Trojan princess.  Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilleus remains undefeated on the battlefield.  His bones are mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games are held.  His armor leads to the death of Ajax.
> 
> In TheOdyssey, there is a passage where OddysEus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.  One of these is AchillEus, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave then be dead.  This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.
> 
> The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from AchillEus through his son.  Since AlexanderTheGreat's mother was an Epiran princess, he could also claim this descent, and in many ways strived to be like his great ancestor.  He is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy.
------
RequestedArticles|980679034
3c3
< SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- HelenOfTroy -- AchillEus -- HecTor -- TheIliad -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
---
> SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
7d6
< ''I'm calling TheIliad, but it's awfully late here.  Also note that HelenOfTroy was from Sparta.''
------
AchillEus|980679149
7c7
< Achilleus is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the ''Iliad''.  This does not just refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude.  He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life.  Not his own - clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious - and not really of others.  The humanization of Achilleus by the events of the war is the main theme of TheIliad, and is best described on its page.
---
> Achilleus is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the ''Iliad''.  This does not just refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude.  He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life.  Not his own - clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious - and not really of others.  His anger is absolute.  The humanization of Achilleus by the events of the war is the main theme of TheIliad, and is best described on its page.
13c13
< The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from AchillEus through his son.  Since AlexanderTheGreat's mother was an Epiran princess, he could also claim this descent, and in many ways strived to be like his great ancestor.  He is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy.
---
> The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from AchillEus through his son.  Since AlexanderTheGreat's mother was an Epiran princess, he could also claim this descent, and in many ways strived to be like his great ancestor.  He is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy.
------
HecTor|980680431
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after AchillEus.
> 
> Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
> 
> Nonetheless, Hector's fate is never in doubt.  Achilleus, raging over the death of Patroclus, kills him and drags his body thrice round the city of Troy.  The final passage in the ''Iliad'' is his funeral, after which the doom of Troy is just a matter of time.  In the final sacking his father and brothers are killed, his son is hurled from the walls in fear that it would avenge him, and his wife carried off by Neoptolemus.
> 
------
HecTor|980680488
1c1
< In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after AchillEus.
---
> In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after AchillEus.  Eldest son of KingPriam and Hecuba, called "breaker of horses" though he never seems to do so.
------
HecTor|980680587
3c3
< Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
---
> Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  His words, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb for patriotic Greeks.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
------
AchillEus|980680621
9c9
< Shortly after the death of Hector, Achilleus defeated Memnon of Ethiopia and was very soon after killed by Paris - either by an arrow to the heel, or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting a Trojan princess.  Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilleus remains undefeated on the battlefield.  His bones are mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games are held.  His armor leads to the death of Ajax.
---
> Shortly after the death of HecTor, Achilleus defeated Memnon of Ethiopia and was very soon after killed by Paris - either by an arrow to the heel, or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting a Trojan princess.  Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilleus remains undefeated on the battlefield.  His bones are mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games are held.  His armor leads to the death of Ajax.
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980684608
9a10,11
> 
> :: The sources listed above are all from a site that explicitly deals only with Theravada Buddhism, which is a very particular branch of Buddhism that is based on the Pali Canon.  That is why they use the phrase "nibbana"; it is not because "serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer" that word.  The question of whether "nibbana" and "nirvana" really denote the same thing is best considered as a question regarding the differing ''conceptions'' Theravada and other branches (Mahayana and Vajrayana, to name the main ones) posses of the single ''concept'' nirvana.   
------
HecTor|980685935
3c3
< Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  His words, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb for patriotic Greeks.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
---
> Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  His words, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb to patriotic Greeks.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980687530
6a7
> ''Hi!  Unfortunately you picked someone on whom there's not to much to say.  What do you want to know?  I'm from Calgary, am currently at the UniversityOfWaterloo.  I've spent most of my life learning about things, but of course that doesn't mean I'm any good at writing about them.  Mathematics is an old interest, which springs out of the discovery of graphs on a summer vacation...I actually bothered to plot x^3+y^3=1 by hand just to see it...these are all very old memories.''
8a10,11
> 
> ''When you use a term all the time, you tend to pick the shortest version.  It never occured to me to use mapping, though now that I check that's the version most texts use.  They're either identical, or maybe a mapping has a definite codomain (as opposed to just anything that includes the range).  Feel free to change it.''
------
LanguagE|980687827
0a1,2
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called FormalLanguages and ProgrammingLanguages.  Most often, though, the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
> 
30c32
< * SapirWhorfHypothesis
---
> * SapirWhorfHypothesis
------
ArtificalLanguages|980687950
3,4c3
< ----
< Those Made for Humans to Speak:
---
> Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Lingua Francae'')
5a5,6
> 
> Languages intended to explore concepts
7,11d7
< ----
< ProgrammingLanguages
< ----
< Fictional Languages:
< :(those that have only been written about, not actually spoken)
12a9
> Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
------
LanguagE|980687981
28c28
< * ArtificalLanguages
---
> * ArtificialLanguages
------
ArtificialLanguages|980688018
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
> 
> Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Lingua Francae'')
> * EsperantoLanguage
> 
> Languages intended to explore concepts
> * LojbanLanguage (=Loglan)
> 
> Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
> * NewSpeak
> * SindarinLanguage
> * KlingonLanguage
------
ArtificalLanguages|980688057
1,12c1
< Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
< 
< Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Lingua Francae'')
< * EsperantoLanguage
< 
< Languages intended to explore concepts
< * LojbanLanguage = Loglan
< 
< Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
< * NewSpeak
< * SindarinLanguage
< * KlingonLanguage
---
> Man, you'd think someone would catch my typos!  Page moved to ArtificialLanguages. :(
------
LanguagE|980688207
21c21
< * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, Slavic, Greek, etc.)
---
> * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, Slavic, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
------
TheIliad|980688740
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Great Greek epic about the wrath of AchillEus.  Will say more later.
------
BronzeAge|980688792
7c7
< Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, and so their use was restricted mainly to warrior nobilities.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies vaguely familiar to us from epics like the ''Iliad'' and ''Ramayana''.  They are often associated with IndoEuropean languages, which probably spread out from a homeland on the caspian sea along with bronze working.
---
> Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, and so their use was restricted mainly to warrior nobilities.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies vaguely familiar to us from epics like TheIliad and the ''Ramayana''.  They are often associated with IndoEuropean languages, which probably spread out from a homeland on the caspian sea along with bronze working.
------
AchillEus|980689068
11c11
< In TheOdyssey, there is a passage where OddysEus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.  One of these is AchillEus, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave then be dead.  This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.
---
> In TheOdyssey, there is a passage where OdysEus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.  One of these is AchillEus, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave then be dead.  This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.
------
GreekMythology|980690412
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The legends and religion of the HellenicCivilization.  These stories were familiar to everyone, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
> 
> The Greek gods are given human form, but are first and foremost personifications of the forces of the universe.  As such they are more or less unchanging, and while they sometimes have a sense of justice, they are often petty or vengeful.  The god's favors are bought by sacrifices and piety, but this does not guarantee them, and they are prone to frequent changes of mind.  Their anger is harsh and their love can be just as dangerous.
> 
> The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology.  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
> 
> So far these pages are devoted to GreekMythology...
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor
------
GreekMythology|980690429
7a8
> 
------
WojPob|980690729
3c3,6
< A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. http://www.pobratyn.com.
---
> A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
> 
> http://www.pobratyn.com.
> 
5d7
< Yeah;-)
7,15d8
< ----
< Woj, please be certain to use plain ASCII symbols...  All of the pages you've edited have these
< funny ¥c¤ symbols in them now, where there should be newlines.  There are other symbols being
< sprinkled throughout...
< ----
< Christ, I've had this problem before on the BoMis wiki.... 
< it's my bloody German language keyboard.  I'll try to sort it out.
< ----
< Fixed up the broken periods.  -- BryceHarrington
------
KurtCobain|980691376
1c1
< Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanA (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanBand (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
------
KurtCobain|980691390
1c1
< Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanBand (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanaBand (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
------
DaveGrohl|980691431
1c1
< DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanA until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the FooFighters
---
> DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the FooFighters
------
ZeuS|980691508
1,3c1
< The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
< 
< ''Do we want to go through all the mythological characters here?  It would be cool filling them in if we do, but maybe it would be better to keep them concentrated on a couple pages like GreekMythology, GreekTheogony, IliaD, etc.''
---
> The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
------
ArtificialLanguages|980691701
3c3
< Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Lingua Francae'')
---
> Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Linguae Francae'')
------
TheCanonofScripture|980692028
18c18
< 
---
> ----
19a20,21
> 
> ''Out of curiosity, do we know there were any?  Culture in the ancient world didn't normally encourage such exploits, but there are notably exceptions, like Hypatia and Sappho.  Have we found any woman-written apocrypha?''
------
BuddhIsm|980695712
3a4,8
> 
> Other related local pages include:
> * NirvanaBuddhism
> 
> ----
------
ViennA|980696210
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ViennA (lat. VindobonA) is the capital of AustriA. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city in the country.
> 
> 
>  
------
EuropA|980696414
1c1
< In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to CretE. She bore him some childs, so MinoS and RhadamanthuS. 
---
> In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to CretE. She bore him some childs, KingMinos and RhabdaManthus. 
------
BuddhIsm|980697044
2a3,4
> According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million.
> 
9c11,13
< See the [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Google directory for Buddhism] for ''many'' other online resources.
---
> Notable online resources include:
> * [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Google directory for Buddhism]
> * [http://buddhism.about.com/religion/buddhism/ About.com entry for Buddhism]
------
SubRing|980697576
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Given a RinG (R,+,*), we say that a subset S of R is a subring thereof if it is a ring under the restriction of + and * thereto.  A subring is just a SubGroup of (R,+) closed under multiplication.
> 
> A subring with unity is a subring which includes, not just any unity, but the ''same'' unity as the parent ring.  Of course this is the only sort of subring we talk about if we define rings to have a unity by default.  Every ring has a unique smallest subring with unity, isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or some ModularArithmetic.
> 
> Subrings closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary'' ring elements are called ideals.  Clearly the only ideal which contains unity is the ring itself.  These play exactly the same role that normal SubGroups do for groups, being precisely the possible kernels of ring HomoMorphism''s''.
------
SubRing|980697590
5c5
< Subrings closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary'' ring elements are called ideals.  Clearly the only ideal which contains unity is the ring itself.  These play exactly the same role that normal SubGroups do for groups, being precisely the possible kernels of ring HomoMorphism''s''.
---
> Subrings closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary'' ring elements are called ideals.  Clearly the only ideal which contains unity is the ring itself.  These play exactly the same role that normal SubGroup''s'' do for groups, being precisely the possible kernels of ring HomoMorphism''s''.
------
RinG|980697696
6c6
< Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.  It has the advantage of adding a lot more structure to 
---
> Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.
8c8
< Sets of commutative group HomoMorphism''s'' form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulE''s''.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
---
> Some important concepts: SubRing''s'' (including ideals)
10c10
< A subring (not necessarily with identity) closed under multiplication by ''arbitrary ring'' elements is called an ideal.  These relate to the kernels of ring HomoMorphism''s'' the same way NormalSubGroups relate to those of GroupHomomorphism''s''.
---
> Sets of commutative group HomoMorphism''s'' form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulE''s''.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
14d13
< Every ring contains a unique smallest subring (with identity), isomorphic to either the IntegerNumbers or a ModularArithmetic.  Every field containing the IntegerNumbers contains a unique smallest field isomorphic to the RationalNumbers.
------
ModularArithmetic|980697739
1c1
< The ModularArithmetics are the images of the IntegerNumbers under group/ring HomoMorphisms.  Such an operation is going to zero out some NormalSubgroup/Ideal, and these turn out to be precisely the sets of the form pZ for some integer p; the resulting group/ring is denoted Zp.
---
> The ModularArithmetics are the images of the IntegerNumbers under group/ring HomoMorphism''s''.  Such an operation is going to zero out some NormalSubgroup/Ideal, and these turn out to be precisely the sets of the form pZ for some integer p; the resulting group/ring is denoted Zp.
5,7c5,7
< 0+0=0    1+0=1    2+0=2
< 0+1=1    1+1=2    2+1=0
< 0+2=2    1+2=0    2+2=1
---
>    0+0=0    1+0=1    2+0=2
>    0+1=1    1+1=2    2+1=0
>    0+2=2    1+2=0    2+2=1
9,11c9,11
< 0*0=0    1*0=0    2*0=0
< 0*1=0    1*1=1    2*1=2
< 0*2=0    1*2=2    2*2=1
---
>    0*0=0    1*0=0    2*0=0
>    0*1=0    1*1=1    2*1=2
>    0*2=0    1*2=2    2*2=1
13c13
< When p is a composite number, the factors of p are going to turn out to be ZeroDivisors.  When p is prime, these don't exist, and so Zp is an IntegralDomain and in fact necessarily a field.
---
> When p is a composite number, the factors of p are going to turn out to be ZeroDivisors.  When p is prime, these don't exist, and so Zp is an IntegralDomain and in fact necessarily a field.
------
HomoMorphism|980697794
3c3
< A homomorphism which is also one-to-one is called an isomorphism; two isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.  A homomorphism from a set to itself is called an endomorphism, and if it is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism.
---
> A homomorphism which is also a BiJection is called an isomorphism; two isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.  A homomorphism from a set to itself is called an endomorphism, and if it is also an isomorphism is called an automorphism.
------
NirvanaBuddhism|980697897
3c3
< Many of the Pali language Buddhist scriptures use a word translated as "nibbana", which appears to describe the same word/concept.
---
> Many of the Pali language Buddhist scriptures use a word translated as "nibbana", which appears to describe the same word/concept.  See [http://here-and-now.org/IMSOC/old/nibbana.html this article] for a (Therevada) Buddhist's commentary on "nibbana/nirvana".
9c9,17
< :Serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer "nibbana", although "nirvana" is often listed as a (transliteration of the) Sanskrit version.  A more detailed definition is [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/glossary.html#n here], with several uses of "nibbana" [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/nibbana.html here], and a talk on "nibbana" [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/thanissaro/nibbana.html here].  Finally, a Google search for [http://www.google.com/search?q=nirvana+nibbana+Pali+Sanskrit&num=100&hl=en&lr=&safe=off nirvana nibbana Pali Sanskrit] found over a hundred links which seem to equate the two terms.
---
> :From [http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/socsci/philosophy/world/buddhism.htm notes of a World Philosophy class]: "The Mahayana scriptures were written in Sanskrit not Pali (which is the language of the Theravada scriptures). This accounts for the differences in spellings: Nirvana instead of Nibbana, Sutra instead of Sutta, etc."  Many sources equate the two terms, as in this [http://www.google.com/search?q=nirvana+nibbana Google search].
> 
> :The use of "nirvana" in English may have occurred because of the greater popularity of Sanskrit over Pali in early Western accounts of "Eastern religions/philosophy".  (Sanskrit is also important in Hindu scriptures.)  Some of the most popular early books on Buddhism had a strong bias towards the Mahayana school.  (For instance, some books used the pejorative term "Hinayana" to refer to the Theravada school.)
> 
> ----
> ----
> '''Old text, to be deleted:'''
> 
> :Serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer "nibbana"... [remaining text deleted by author]
11a20,21
> 
> :My apologies.  Further study revealed that you are correct.
------
ReLigion|980697990
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon
10a11,16
> 
> ----
> 
> Other notable online sources for religious information include:
> * Google directory: [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/ Religion and Spirituality]
> * The [http://www.adherents.com/ adherents.com] collection of statistics on over 4000 religions.
------
KingdomAnimalia|980698919
1c1,30
< Includes HomoSapiens, and a whole lot of other stuff.  This really deserves to be expounded further.
---
> "Lower" groups:
> 
> * PhylumPorifera
> * PhylumCnidaria (=Ctenophora)
> * PhylumCtenophora
> * PhylumPlatyhelminthes (probably polyphyletic)
> 
> Trochozoa:
> 
> * PhylumRotifera
> * PhylumMollusca (e.g. AbalonE)
> * PhylumAnnelida
> 
> Ecdysozoa:
> 
> * PhylumNematoda, the roundworms
> * PhylumOnychophora
> * PhylumTardigrada
> * PhylumArthropoda
> 
> Lophophorata:
> 
> * PhylumBrachiopoda
> * PhylumEctoprocta (=Bryozoa)
> 
> Deuterostomia:
> 
> * PhylumEchinodermata
> * PhylumHemichordata
> * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens)
------
KingdomAnimalia|980698961
30c30
< * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens)
---
> * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens, AardvarK)
------
KingdomAnimalia|980699064
6c6
< * PhylumPlatyhelminthes (probably polyphyletic)
---
> * PhylumPlatyhelminthes - probably paraphyletic to higher groups
------
KingdomAnimalia|980700022
1c1
< "Lower" groups:
---
> Lower animals:
3a4,6
> 
> Lower metazoa:
> 
------
JoshuaGrosse|980701643
11c11,13
< ''When you use a term all the time, you tend to pick the shortest version.  It never occured to me to use mapping, though now that I check that's the version most texts use.  They're either identical, or maybe a mapping has a definite codomain (as opposed to just anything that includes the range).  Feel free to change it.''
---
> ''When you use a term all the time, you tend to pick the shortest version.  It never occured to me to use mapping, though now that I check that's the version most texts use.  They're either identical, or maybe a mapping has a definite codomain (as opposed to just anything that includes the range).  Feel free to change it.''----
> 
> '''Q.''' One of the things I am wondering is if you, like myself, have an interest in/ facility for Mathematics, as well as Linguistics and Languages? It appears to be a somewhat unusual combination. 
------
AtlasShrugged|980709235
5c5
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated libertarian capitalism as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated LibertarianCapitalism as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
------
PoLitics|980709289
22a23
> * LibertarianCapitalism
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980709582
76c76
< :For spaces in links, I'm leaning toward translating them into _ (underline) characters in the title and URL.  I could then translate _ back to a space when displaying the link.  This would allow you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you could use a nice URL with an underline, rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
---
> :For spaces in links, I'm leaning toward translating them into _ (underline) characters in the URL.  I could then translate _ back to a space when displaying the link.  This would allow you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you could use a nice URL with an underline, rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
80c80,84
< I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
---
> I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
> 
> :Briefly, spaces in UniformResourceLocator""s (URLs) are forbidden in the UniformResourceIdentifier (URI) specification.  (URLs are a subset of URIs.)  From RFC 2396: "The space character is excluded because significant spaces may disappear and insignificant spaces may be introduced when URI are transcribed or typeset or subjected to the treatment of word-processing programs.  Whitespace is also used to delimit URI in many contexts."
> 
> :For URLs, the valid ways to represent a space are the "+" character (within a "query component") and the "%20" escape sequence.  Both look relatively ugly compared to an underline: compare <nowiki>"Jimbo_Wales" with "Jimbo+Wales" or "Jimbo%20Wales"</nowiki>.  Internally my code also uses the _ character for filenames, as some utilities on some systems do not deal well with spaces in filenames.  However, aside from the URL issue, you should not notice the difference.  --CliffordAdams
------
CantorSet|980710316
24a25,26
> ''That's not a one-to-one mapping.  Representations of numbers in the CantorSet are unique, but binary representations aren't: 0.022222... != 0.20000... but 0.01111... = 0.10000...  Of course it's still a SurJection, so proves the objects are the same cardinality.  Any ideas on how an actual BiJection could be made, though?  I'm curious.''
> 
------
AlaskA|980710444
3c3
< On the other hand, it's cold, like RusSia.
---
> On the other hand, it's cold, like RussiA.
------
LarrySanger|980710472
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RusSia for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
9c9
< I'm not envious because I live here, in RusSia!
---
> I'm not envious because I live here, in RussiA!
17c17
< I don't know! -- Larry
---
> I don't know! -- Larry
------
EthicsVsMorals|980710520
27c27
< EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision.
---
> EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision. -- AyeSpy
45c45
< Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights.
---
> Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights. -- AyeSpy
------
AyeSpyList|980710638
12c12
< Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (Tao Tech Ching - not the cursory version I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
---
> Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (re the TaoTechChing - not the cursory commentary I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
------
AyeSpyList|980710735
5c5,7
< Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in ?don?t fence me in?), tournament fencing (as in, ?touche??), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.
---
> Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in "don't fence me in"), tournament fencing (as in, "touche'"), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.
> 
> AyeSpy
12c14
< Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (re the TaoTechChing - not the cursory commentary I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
---
> Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (re the TaoTehChing - not the cursory commentary I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
------
PhotoElectricEffect|980710998
1c1,3
< Der Photoelektrische Effekt
---
> oh my god - 
> believe me it's easier to visit
> http://www.buecherleihecke.de/gnupedia/photoe/
3,15c5
< erschienen am: 26. Januar 2001
< Autor:Norman Werner
< <H1><A NAME="SECTION00020000000000000000">
< Historisches</A>
< </H1>
< 1888 fand <SPAN  CLASS="textit">Hallwachs</SPAN> erstmals die Gesetzmäßigkeiten des
< photo-elektrischen Effektes, welcher zuvor schon von <SPAN  CLASS="textit">H. Hertz
< </SPAN>beobachtet worden war. Dabei standen die Ergebnisse des Experimentes
< in Widerspruch zur klassichen Mechanik und dem damaligen Verständnis
< von der Natur des Lichts. Erst 1905 wurden die Ergebnisse von
< <SPAN  CLASS="textit">A. Einstein</SPAN> im Rahmen der Lichtquantentheorie gedeutet. Das
< Experiment gilt als einer der deutlichsten Belege für die Quantelung
< der von Licht übertragenen Energie.
---
> i - deleted the stuff bryce took herein somehow 
17,268c7
< <P>
< 
< <H1><A NAME="SECTION00030000000000000000">
< Das Experiment</A>
< </H1>
< 
< <H2><A NAME="SECTION00031000000000000000">
< Das Wesentliche</A>
< </H2>
< Aus einem Metall, können unter optischer Anregungen Elektronen
< austreten. Dabei ist es möglich die maximale kinetische Energie der
< Elektronen nach dem Austritt zu bestimmen. Stellt man einen Zusammenhang zwischen dieser
< maximalen Energie und der Art des verwendeten Licht statt, so stellt
< man fest, daß die Intensität des Lichtes lediglich beeinflußt wieviele
< Elektronen auf eine gewisse kinetische Energie kommen. Währenddessen
< die Frage, ob überhaupt Elektronen austreten und eine bestimmte
< Energie erreichen lediglich von der Frequenz des verwendeten
< Lichtes abhängt. Dabei waren die Ergebnisse bei allen untersuchten
< Metallen im wesentlichen die selben. Im besonderen war auch der
< Anstieg 
< <!-- MATH
<  $tan(\alpha{})$
<  -->
< <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="58" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img1.gif"
<  ALT="$ tan(\alpha{})$"></SPAN> stets der gleiche. Allerdings lagen bei
< verschiedenen Metallen unterschiedliche Grenzfrequenzen <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img2.gif"
<  ALT="$ f_{gr}$"></SPAN> vor.
< 
< <P></P>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER"><A NAME="fig:dia"></A><A NAME="35"></A>
< <TABLE>
< <CAPTION ALIGN="BOTTOM"><STRONG>Figure 1:</STRONG>
< </CAPTION>
< <TR><TD>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER">
< 
< </DIV> 
<   
< <!-- MATH
<  $\includegraphics {phoe.eps}$
<  -->
< <IMG
<  WIDTH="498" HEIGHT="187" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img3.gif"
<  ALT="\includegraphics {phoe.eps}"></TD></TR>
< </TABLE>
< </DIV><P></P>
< 
< <P>
< In Abbildung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> sind die beiden angesprochenen
< Abhängigleiten dargestellt. Der nächste Abschnitt der den
< Versuchsaufbau genauer beschreibt, kann ruhig übersprungen werden. Es
< geht weiter in Absatz <A HREF="photoe.htm#sec:auswert">4</A>.
< 
< <H2><A NAME="SECTION00032000000000000000">
< Versuchsaufbau</A>
< </H2>
< Um aus dem Metall Elektronen lösen zu könne waren zweierlei
< Vorbereitungen notwendig. Zum einen wurde mit negativ geladenen
< Elektroden gearbeitet und zum anderen wurden diese durch eine Heizung
< erwärmt. Beide Maßnahmen senken die Austrittsarbeit. Um die kinetische
< Maximalenergie der Elektronen zu messen, wurde mit der
< Gegenfeldmethode<A NAME="tex2html2"
<  HREF="#foot41"><SUP><IMG  ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="1" ALT="[*]" SRC="foot_motif.gif"></SUP></A>gearbeitet. Zur Bestrahlung wird monochromatisches Licht verwendet.
< Das solche Versuche nur in nahezu luftleeren Raum
< durchgeführt werden konnten, is ja wohl klar.
< 
< <H1><A NAME="SECTION00040000000000000000"></A>
< <A NAME="sec:auswert"></A>
< <BR>
< Analyse
< </H1>
< Damit ein Elektron die Metalloberfläche verlassen kann muss eine
< bestimmte Austrittsarbeit <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img4.gif"
<  ALT="$ U_A$"></SPAN> aufgebracht werden. Da die Loslösung
< von Elektronen nur unter Lichteinfall geschieht, liegt die Vermutung
< nahe, daß das Licht die notwendige Energie einbringt. Gemäß der
< Lichtquantenhypothese wird jedoch die gesamte Energie eines
< Lichtteilchens - dem sog. "`Photons"' -
< mit einem Mal auf das Elektron übertragen. Liegt diese Energie
< unterhalb der Austrittsarbeit, so können keine Elektronen losgelöst
< werden. Aufgrund unterschiedlicher Bindungsverhältnisse in
< unterschiedlichen Metallen überrascht die Stoffabhängigkeit der
< Austrittarbeit keineswegs, was dann auch die Existenz einer
< stoffspezifischen Grenzfrequenz <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img2.gif"
<  ALT="$ f_{gr}$"></SPAN> erklärt. 
< <BR><P></P>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER">
< 
<   <TABLE CELLPADDING=3 BORDER="1">
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Metall</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="28" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img4.gif"
<  ALT="$ U_A$"></SPAN> in [eV]</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">
< <!-- MATH
<  $\lambda{}_{gr}$
<  -->
< <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="29" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img5.gif"
<  ALT="$ \lambda{}_{gr} $"></SPAN> in [nm]</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Li</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2,46</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">504</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Na</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2,28</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">543</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">K</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2.25</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">551</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Rb</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">2.13</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">582</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Cs</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">1.94</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">639</TD>
< </TR>
< <TR><TD ALIGN="LEFT">Cu</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">4.48</TD>
< <TD ALIGN="LEFT">277</TD>
< </TR>
< </TABLE>
< 
< </DIV>
< <BR>
< Sollte das Photon mehr Energie haben, als an Austrittsarbeit nötig
< ist, so liegt der Verdacht nahe, daß das Elektron diese überschüssige
< Energie als kinetische Energie übernimmt. Es ist dies genau die
< Energie, die in der Darstellung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> dargestellt wird. 
< <P></P>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:enegieer"></A>
< <!-- MATH
<  \begin{equation}
< E_{photon}=U_{A}+E_{kin_{max}}
< \end{equation}
<  -->
< <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
< <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
< <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="191" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img6.gif"
<  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{photon}=U_{A}+E_{kin_{max}}$"></SPAN></TD>
< <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
< (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">1</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
< </TABLE></DIV>
< <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
< Da sich aus der Darstellung <A HREF="photoe.htm#fig:dia">1</A> ein linearer Zusammenhang
< zwischen 
< <!-- MATH
<  $E_{kin_{max}}$
<  -->
< <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="63" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img7.gif"
<  ALT="$ E_{kin_{max}}$"></SPAN> und <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="16" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img8.gif"
<  ALT="$ f$"></SPAN> ergibt, so ist leicht einzusehen, daß
< gilt:
< <P></P>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:brosel"></A>
< <!-- MATH
<  \begin{equation}
< E_{kin_{max}}=\tan{(\alpha{})}\cdot{}f-U_{A}
< \text{ wobei $\alpha{}$\  der Anstiegswinkel ist.}
< \end{equation}
<  -->
< <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
< <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
< <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="217" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img9.gif"
<  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{kin_{max}}=\tan{(\alpha{})}\cdot{}f-U_{A}$">&nbsp; &nbsp; wobei <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="17" HEIGHT="17" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img10.gif"
<  ALT="$ \alpha{}$"></SPAN> der Anstiegswinkel ist.</SPAN></TD>
< <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
< (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">2</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
< </TABLE></DIV>
< <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
< Da der Anstiegswinkel bei allen Metallen gleich ist, Ist es glaubhaft,
< daß es sich dabei um eine Konstante handelt. Und dem ist auch 
< so. 
< <!-- MATH
<  $\tan{(\alpha{})}=h$
<  -->
< <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="96" HEIGHT="37" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img11.gif"
<  ALT="$ \tan{(\alpha{})}=h$"></SPAN> und <SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="16" HEIGHT="18" ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img12.gif"
<  ALT="$ h$"></SPAN> ist allgemein bekannt als
< "`Plancksches Wirkungsquantum"'.
< Nach Einsetzen von <A HREF="photoe.htm#eq:brosel">2</A> in <A HREF="photoe.htm#eq:enegieer">1</A> erhält man
< <P></P>
< <DIV ALIGN="CENTER" CLASS="mathdisplay"><A NAME="eq:ehf"></A>
< <!-- MATH
<  \begin{equation}
< E_{photon}=h\cdot{}f
< \end{equation}
<  -->
< <TABLE CLASS="equation" CELLPADDING="0" WIDTH="100%" ALIGN="CENTER">
< <TR VALIGN="MIDDLE">
< <TD NOWRAP ALIGN="CENTER"><SPAN CLASS="MATH"><IMG
<  WIDTH="120" HEIGHT="34" ALIGN="MIDDLE" BORDER="0"
<  SRC="img13.gif"
<  ALT="$\displaystyle E_{photon}=h\cdot{}f$"></SPAN></TD>
< <TD NOWRAP CLASS="eqno" WIDTH="10" ALIGN="RIGHT">
< (<SPAN CLASS="eqn-number">3</SPAN>)</TD></TR>
< </TABLE></DIV>
< <BR CLEAR="ALL"><P></P>
< <H2><A NAME="SECTION00041000000000000000">.</A>
< 
< </H2>
< Was wir hier als selbstverständlich angenommen haben, nämlich, daß ein
< Photon seine gesamte Energie an ein Elektron abgibt, daß es überhaupt
< sowas wie eine Teilchennatur des Lichtes gibt, und daß die Energie
< eines solchen von seiner Frequenz  (einem Wellencharakteristikum)
< abhängt, war zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts eine wissenschaftliche Sensation.
< <BR><HR><H4>Footnotes</H4>
< <DL>
< <DT><A NAME="foot41">...
< Gegenfeldmethode</A><A NAME="foot41"
<  HREF="photoe.htm#tex2html2"><SUP><IMG  ALIGN="BOTTOM" BORDER="1" ALT="[*]" SRC="foot_motif.gif"></SUP></A>
< <DD>vielleicht woanders in gnupedia
< 
< </DL>
< <BR><HR>
< <h4>Kontakt mit dem Autor</h4>
< Bei Verbesserungsvorschl&auml;gen, Ermutigungen und anderen Zeichen von Anteilnahme, kann ich unter <a href="mailto:norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de">norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de</a> erreicht werden. Sollte diese Addresse mittlerweile nicht mehr aktuell sein, so kann man mich postalisch unter:
< <br>
< Norman Werner<br>
< Rembrandtstr.3<br>
< 15370 Fredersdorf<br>
< &ETH;eutschland<br>
< erreichen
---
> -plain html-looks terrible
------
JoshuaGrosse|980712568
13a14,17
> 
> I definitely have an interest in both, and a facility for Mathematics.  As for language ability I'm not so sure.  I took French immersion early on and was good enough to think it fluently, but since then almost all of my vocabulary has been forgotten.  Since then I've taken a little German, and am taking Latin, and again have trouble keeping a full vocab.  At least when I got lost in Paris I could find my way.
> 
> Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)
------
ModulE|980714889
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A left R-module consists of some commutative group (M,+) together with a RinG of scalars (R,+,*), together with an operation RxM->M (scalar multiplication, usually just denoted *) such that
> 
>    For r,s in R, x in M, (rs)x = r(sx)
>    For r,s in R, x in M, (r+s)x = rx+sx
>    For r in R, x,y in M, r(x+y) = rx+ry
> 
> A right R-module is defined similarly, only the ring acts on the right.  The two are easily interchangeable.
> 
> The action of an element r in R is defined to be the map that sends each x to rx (or xr), and is necessarily an EndoMorphism of M.  The set of all EndoMorphism''s'' of M is denoted End(M) and forms a RinG under addition and composition, so the above actually defines a HomoMorphism from R into End(M).
> 
> This is called a representation of R over M, and is called faithful if and only if the map is one-to-one.  M can be expressed as an R-module if and only if R has some representation over it.  In particular, every commutative group is a module under the IntegerNumbers, and is either faithful under them or some ModularArithmetic.
> 
> A module under a field is called a VectorSpace.
------
EndoMorphism|980714942
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A HomoMorphism from a set to itself.  Termed an AutoMorphism if it is also an IsoMorphism.
------
ModulE|980715049
13c13
< A module under a field is called a VectorSpace.
---
> A module under a FielD is called a VectorSpace.
------
RinG|980715107
8,10c8
< Some important concepts: SubRing''s'' (including ideals)
< 
< Sets of commutative group HomoMorphism''s'' form rings under addition and composition, provided they are closed under all necessary operations.  An isomorphism from a ring to such a collection is called a representation of the ring, and groups under ring-actions are referred to as ModulE''s''.  Every ring has some sort of faithful representation.
---
> Some important concepts: SubRing''s'' and ideals, ModulE''s''
------
ModulE|980715150
1c1
< A left R-module consists of some commutative group (M,+) together with a RinG of scalars (R,+,*), together with an operation RxM->M (scalar multiplication, usually just denoted *) such that
---
> A left R-module consists of some commutative group (M,+) together with a RinG of scalars (R,+,*), together with an operation R x M->M (scalar multiplication, usually just denoted *) such that
------
ModulE|980715411
13c13
< A module under a FielD is called a VectorSpace.
---
> Another thing to note is that End(M), treated as a group, is also a module under R in a natural way.  When R is a FielD, this constitutes an AssociativeAlgebra.  Module under FielD''s'' are called VectorSpace''s''.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980715538
17c17,19
< Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)
---
> Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)
> 
> P.S. Why didn't you call MathematicalGrouP, just GrouP?
------
MathematicalGrouP|980715599
85c85
< Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'', IdeaL''s'' and FielD''s''.
---
> Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'' and FielD''s''.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980715982
19c19
< Usually the operation, whatever it ''really'' is, is denoted like multiplication; we write a*b for the ''product'' of a and b, 1 for the identity and a^-1 for the inverse of a.  Otherwise, the operation is denoted like addition; we write a+b for the sum of a and b, 0 for the identity and -a for the inverse of a.
---
> Usually the operation, whatever it ''really'' is, is denoted like multiplication; we write a*b for the ''product'' of a and b, 1 for the identity and a^-1 for the inverse of a.  Otherwise, the operation is denoted like addition; we write a+b for the ''sum'' of a and b, 0 for the identity and -a for the inverse of a.  We usually only use additive notation when the group is commutative, ie a+b=b+a for all elements.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980716798
19c19,28
< P.S. Why didn't you call MathematicalGrouP, just GrouP?
---
> P.S. Why didn't you call MathematicalGrouP, just GrouP?----
> 
> First things last...
> 
> '''A.''' I named it MathematicalGrouP because it was the first entry in Math and I wanted  
> readers to know what kind of group I was talking about.
> 
> I have degrees in both Math and Linguistics. In Math, I like Abstract Algebra best; in Linguistics, I like Syntax best. Like you, I started French early, in third grade, and continued through college. I have also studied German, Latin, Greek, and Japanese.
> Latin and Greek are great tools if you are interested in English or Romance etymology.
> Picking up on your interest in phonetics, we could surely use your help at Nupedia in the CopyeditAME-L and Pronounce-L lists, to help provide pronunciations for our articles. I hope I am not intruding with this last remark.
------
GrouP|980717833
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See MathematicalGrouP.
------
SubGroup|980717868
1c1
< Given a group G under an operation *, we say that some subset H of G is a SubGroup if H is a group under the restriction of * thereto.  This occurs if and only if H is closed to products and inverses.
---
> Given a GrouP G under an operation *, we say that some subset H of G is a SubGroup if H is a group under the restriction of * thereto.  This occurs if and only if H is closed to products and inverses.
------
HomoMorphism|980717894
5c5
< Any homomorphism f: X -> Y defines an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g. [x]*[y]=[x*y].  In that case the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.  Note in some cases (e.g. groups) a single equivalence class Y suffices to specify the structure of the quotient, so we write it X/Y.
---
> Any homomorphism f: X -> Y defines an EquivalenceRelation on X by a~b iff f(a)=f(b).  The quotient X/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g. [x]*[y]=[x*y].  In that case the image of X is necessarily isomorphic to X/~.  Note in some cases (e.g. GrouP''s'') a single equivalence class Y suffices to specify the structure of the quotient, so we write it X/Y.
------
RinG|980717964
1c1
< A Ring is a commutative group under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
---
> A Ring is a commutative GrouP under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
------
ModulE|980718029
1c1
< A left R-module consists of some commutative group (M,+) together with a RinG of scalars (R,+,*), together with an operation R x M->M (scalar multiplication, usually just denoted *) such that
---
> A left R-module consists of some commutative GrouP (M,+) together with a RinG of scalars (R,+,*), together with an operation R x M->M (scalar multiplication, usually just denoted *) such that
9c9
< The action of an element r in R is defined to be the map that sends each x to rx (or xr), and is necessarily an EndoMorphism of M.  The set of all EndoMorphism''s'' of M is denoted End(M) and forms a RinG under addition and composition, so the above actually defines a HomoMorphism from R into End(M).
---
> The action of an element r in R is defined to be the map that sends each x to rx (or xr), and is necessarily an EndoMorphism of M.  The set of all endomorphisms of M is denoted End(M) and forms a ring under addition and composition, so the above actually defines a HomoMorphism from R into End(M).
------
ManiFold|980718274
1c1
< A continuous n-ManiFold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get an analytic manifold.  All differentiable manifolds can be made analytic.
---
> A continuous n-manifold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get an analytic manifold.  All differentiable manifolds can be made analytic.
3c3
< One of the most important kinds of ManiFold is a LieGroup.  These can always be made differentiable.
---
> Associated with every point on an analytic manifold is a TangentSpace and its dual, the CotangentSpace.  The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.
5c5,7
< The classification of all ManiFold''s'' is an open problem.  We know that every connected 1-D manifold is isomorphic either to R or the circle S.  Connected, compact 2-Manifolds can be divided into three infinite series:
---
> One of the most important kinds of manifold is a LieGroup.  These can always be made differentiable.
> 
> The classification of all manifold is an open problem.  We know that every connected 1-D manifold is isomorphic either to R or the circle S.  Connected, compact 2-manifolds can be divided into three infinite series:
------
ManiFold|980718350
3c3
< Associated with every point on an analytic manifold is a TangentSpace and its dual, the CotangentSpace.  The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.
---
> Associated with every point on an analytic manifold is a TangentSpace and its dual, the CotangentSpace.  The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.  These spaces always have the same dimension as the manifold does.
------
ModulE|980718471
13c13
< Another thing to note is that End(M), treated as a group, is also a module under R in a natural way.  When R is a FielD, this constitutes an AssociativeAlgebra.  Module under FielD''s'' are called VectorSpace''s''.
---
> Another thing to note is that End(M), treated as a group, is also a module under R in a natural way.  When R is a FielD, this constitutes an AssociativeAlgebra.  Modules under fields are called VectorSpace''s''.
------
SandBox|980718895
3c3,5
< Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
---
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
> ----
> [[test]]
------
SandBox|980718917
5c5
< [[test]]
---
> [[Test]]
------
SandBox|980718939
5c5
< [[Test]]
---
> [[denmark]]
------
SandBox|980718956
5c5
< [[denmark]]
---
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|980720502
84a85,86
> 
> So this is a technical issue on the connection of the wiki to the tools allowing people to browse and modify the contents. I don't think this is at all important and I would think that it would be a pity if the contents of the WikiPedia would be governed by problems in the tools. --LinusTolke
------
MariahCarey|980720634
1a2,5
> 
> Most famous songs:
> * Vision of love
> * Emotions
------
SovietUnion|980721269
0a1,7
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called RussiA, as RussiA was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
> 
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries in the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
> 
> The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPeacePrize.
> 
> ----
------
SovietUnion|980721305
3c3
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries in the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
------
SovietUnion|980721398
3c3
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without anadoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureacratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
------
SovietUnion|980721419
3c3
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without anadoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureacratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureacratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
------
SovietUnion|980721434
3c3
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureacratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
------
AbstractAlgebra|980721488
6c6
< * AssociativeAlgebra''e''
---
> * AssociativeAlgebra''e'' and LieAlgebra''e''
14c14
< I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :)  But fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though. -JG
---
> I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :)  But fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though. -JG
------
SovietUnion|980721499
5c5
< The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPeacePrize.
---
> The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPeacePrize.
------
MathematicalGrouP|980721543
21c21
< Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinG''s'' and ModulE''s''.
---
> Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinG''s'', ModulE''s'' and LieGroup''s''.
------
TotalOrderedSet|980722057
9c9,13
< If the ContinuumHypothesis is true, the any set of CardinalNumbers is total-ordered.  Otherwise things get quite a bit messier.
---
> If the ContinuumHypothesis is true, then any set of CardinalNumbers is total-ordered...otherwise things get quite a bit messier.  The set of all OrdinalNumbers less than any given one definitely form a total-ordered set, though, and in particular the finite ordinals (NaturalNumbers) form the unique smallest total-ordered set with no upper bound.
> 
> The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The smallest connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
> 
> 
------
IntegerNumbers|980722099
3c3
< The integers turn out to be order IsoMorphic to the set of their own order AutoMorphisms, allowing us to take their compositions to form a group operation (addition), and in turn to the set of its own group EndoMorphisms, allowing us to take ''their'' compositions to define a ring multiplication.  Thus Z has a natural RinG structure, unique up to choice of zero and whether 0<1 or 1<0 (former by convention).
---
> The integers turn out to be order isomorphic to the set of their own order automorphisms, allowing us to take their compositions to form a group operation (addition), and in turn to the set of its own group EndoMorphism''s'', allowing us to take ''their'' compositions to define a ring multiplication.  Thus Z has a natural RinG structure, unique up to choice of zero and whether 0<1 or 1<0 (former by convention).
------
TotalOrderedSet|980722159
7,8d6
< The set of all OrdinalNumbers less than any given one form a total-ordered set.  In particular, the finite ordinals (NaturalNumbers) form the unique smallest total-ordered set with no upper bound.  The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor a lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.
< 
11,13c9
< The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The smallest connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
< 
< 
---
> The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The smallest connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
------
TotalOrderedSet|980722225
9c9
< The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The smallest connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
---
> The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
------
CountriesF|980722423
1a2,3
> 
> FrancE
------
FrancE|980722600
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution.  There anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capitol city, Paris, is home to the Eiffel tower, a really neat steel tower.
> 
> Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
------
FrancE|980722624
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution.  There anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capitol city, Paris, is home to the Eiffel tower, a really neat steel tower.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution.  There anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capitol city, Paris, is home to the Eiffel tower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980723069
28a29,30
> 
> Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).
------
KingdomAnimalia|980723925
19c19
< * PhylumNematoda, the roundworms
---
> * PhylumNematoda
------
ScienCe|980724268
5a6
> * PalaeontoLogy
16a18
> * GeoLogy
------
DavidHume|980724401
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David Hume (1711-1776)
> 
> Hume was born in Edinburgh and attended the university there.  At first he considered a career in law, but came to have, in his words, "an insurmountable aversion to everthing but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning."
> 
> Did some self-study in France, where he completed _A Treatise of Human Nature_ at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  The quote from Hume is that it "fell dead-born from the press."
> 
> After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in _An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding_.  It was not much of a success either.
> 
> Probably due to charges of atheism he was turned down for chairs of philosophy in Edinburgh and Glasgow.
> 
> However, between philosophical pursuits, Hume did achieve literary fame as an essayist and historian.  Attention of him grew when ImmanuelKant credited Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber."
> 
> ----
> ----
> '''Works'''
> ----
> _A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects._ (1739-40)
> 
> Book 1:  "Of the Understanding"  His treatment of everything from the origin of our ideas to how they are to be divided.  Important statements of SkepticIsm.
> 
> Book 2:  "Of the Passions"  Treatment of emotions.
> 
> Book 3:  "Of Morals"  Moral ideas, justice, obligations, benevolence.
> 
> He intended to complete the Treatise (if it met with success) with books devoted to Politics and Criticism.
> ----
> _An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding_ (1748)
> 
> Contains reworking of the main points of Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will, miracles, and the argument from design.
> ----
> _An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals_ (1751)
> 
> Another reworking of material from the Treatise for more popular appeal.
> ----
> _Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion_  (posthumous)
> 
> Discussions between fictional characters Cleanthes, Philo, and Demea.  They discuss proofs of the existance of god and other fun stuff.
> ----
> _Essays Moral and Political_ (first ed. 1741-2)
> 
> A lot of Essays, revised a few times during his life.  The history of which essays were added or removed when doen't seem that interesting.  "Of the Middle Station of Life," "That Politics may be Reduced to a Science," "Of the Origin of Government," "Of Civil Liberty," "Of Commerse," "Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations," and "On Suicide" (posthumous) to name a few in a modern collection.
> ----
> _The History of Great Britain_  (1754-62)
> 
> More a catagoy of books than a single work.
> 
> ----
> /*This write-up is by no means complete, and I'm sorry that it is a bit scattered, I figure a seed is better than nothing.  --Things to fix--  I don't know how to do underlines on this wiki.  More dates would be nice, a timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  Definitely a section on his ideas.*/--PhillipHankins 
------
RequestedArticles|980724694
3c3
< SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- DavidHume -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
---
> SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
------
KingdomAnimalia|980725240
1c1
< Lower animals:
---
> Parazoan and mesozoan animals:
3a4,6
> * PhylumRhombozoa
> * PhylumOrthonectida
> * PhylumPlacozoa
9a13,14
> * PhylumRotifera
> * PhylumAcanthocephala
13c18
< * PhylumRotifera
---
> * PhylumNemertea
14a20,23
> * PhylumSipuncula
> * PhylumEchiura
> * PhylumPogonophora
> * PhylumVestimentifera
18a28
> * PhylumCephalorhyncha (=priapulids, kinorhynchs, loriciferans)
19a30
> * PhylumNematomorpha
27a39
> * PhylumPhoronida
------
MetaPhilosophy|980725246
1c1,5
< The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.----Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
---
> The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
> ----
> Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
> ----
> PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collases back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
KingdomAnimalia|980725280
42a43
> * PhylumChaetognatha
------
SoCrates|980726159
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> SoCrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, is famous for a great many things.  Arguably, his most important contribution to Western thought is something that has come to be known as the ''SocraticMethod''--a method of asking questions of a person in order to lead the person into contradicting himself--which laid the foundation for all later rational Western thought.  Closely associated with Socrates' use of his method is his desire to discover the ''logos,'' or true nature or essence, of a thing (or concept).  For example, in the ''Euthyphro'' Socrates asks a religious man, who believes he knows what piety is, to clarify the concept.
> 
> Socrates taught PlaTo, who in turn taught ArisTotle, and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
> 
> Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in PlatosDialogues (most of which were written in SocraticDialogue form), but also XenoPhon and AristoPhanes.
> ----
> To be continued...feel free to continue this yourself.
------
SoCrates|980726173
1c1
< SoCrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, is famous for a great many things.  Arguably, his most important contribution to Western thought is something that has come to be known as the ''SocraticMethod''--a method of asking questions of a person in order to lead the person into contradicting himself--which laid the foundation for all later rational Western thought.  Closely associated with Socrates' use of his method is his desire to discover the ''logos,'' or true nature or essence, of a thing (or concept).  For example, in the ''Euthyphro'' Socrates asks a religious man, who believes he knows what piety is, to clarify the concept.
---
> Socrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, is famous for a great many things.  Arguably, his most important contribution to Western thought is something that has come to be known as the ''SocraticMethod''--a method of asking questions of a person in order to lead the person into contradicting himself--which laid the foundation for all later rational Western thought.  Closely associated with Socrates' use of his method is his desire to discover the ''logos,'' or true nature or essence, of a thing (or concept).  For example, in the ''Euthyphro'' Socrates asks a religious man, who believes he knows what piety is, to clarify the concept.
7c7
< To be continued...feel free to continue this yourself.
---
> To be continued...feel free to continue this yourself.
------
RequestedArticles|980726217
3c3
< SoCrates -- FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon
------
RequestedArticles|980726439
4a5,6
> SeT -- SetTheory -- MoDel -- ModelTheory (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
> 
------
NewTopics|980726819
5c5
< GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism
---
> GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG
------
DavidHume|980727180
1c1
< David Hume (1711-1776)
---
> David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing ScepticIsm--less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
5c5
< Did some self-study in France, where he completed _A Treatise of Human Nature_ at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  The quote from Hume is that it "fell dead-born from the press."
---
> Did some self-study in France, where he completed ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press."
7c7
< After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in _An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding_.  It was not much of a success either.
---
> After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.''  It was not much of a success either, but more so than the ''Treatise.''
17c17
< _A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects._ (1739-40)
---
> ''A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.'' (1739-40)
27c27
< _An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding_ (1748)
---
> ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
31c31
< _An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals_ (1751)
---
> ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'' (1751)
35c35
< _Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion_  (posthumous)
---
> ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion''  (posthumous)
39c39
< _Essays Moral and Political_ (first ed. 1741-2)
---
> ''Essays Moral and Political'' (first ed. 1741-2)
43c43
< _The History of Great Britain_  (1754-62)
---
> ''The History of Great Britain''  (1754-62)
45c45
< More a catagoy of books than a single work.
---
> More a category of books than a single work.
48c48
< /*This write-up is by no means complete, and I'm sorry that it is a bit scattered, I figure a seed is better than nothing.  --Things to fix--  I don't know how to do underlines on this wiki.  More dates would be nice, a timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  Definitely a section on his ideas.*/--PhillipHankins 
---
> /*This write-up is by no means complete, and I'm sorry that it is a bit scattered, I figure a seed is better than nothing.  --Things to fix--  I don't know how to do underlines on this wiki.  More dates would be nice, a timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  Definitely a section on his ideas.*/--PhillipHankins 
------
MappinG|980727511
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A MappinG is simply a “rule” that assigns to each member of a Set A, a unique element of a set B.
> 
> There are non-mathematical MappinGs. Consider the “rule,” WGT that assigns to every living human being in United States their weight in pounds.  Then the set A = {people living in the United States} and B = {x:  0<x<=1000}. For example:
> 
> 
> *                       Larry  -> 160 or WGT (Larry) = 160
> *                       Jimmy  -> 165 or WGT (Jimmy) = 165
> *                       Ruth   -> 125 or WGT (Ruth)  = 125
> *                       Cindy  -> 120 or WGT (Cindy) = 120
> *                         .
> *                         .
> There are mathematical MappinGs as well. Consider the “rule,” ABS that assigns to each integer, its absolute value. Let set C = I, and the set D = I, also. Then, for example:
> *                     -5         ->  5 or ABS (-5) = 5
> *                      5         ->  5 or ABS (5)  = 5
> *                     19         -> 19 or ABS (19) = 19
> *                   -145         -> 14 or ABS (-145) = 145
> *                        .
> *                        .
> 
> 
> There are 4 basic kinds of MappinGs.
> 
> 1) ''into'' MappinG: this is a MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that there exists a y in Y such that there is no x in X such that x is mapped to y. 
> 
> 
> 2) ''onto'' MappinG: this is MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is at least one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a MappinG is called a SurJection.
> 
> 
> 3) ''one-to-one'' MappinG : this is a MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is one and only one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a mapping is called an InJection.
>  
> 4) Further, a MappinG that is both "onto" and "one-to-one," or is both a SurJection and an InJection is called a BiJection.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * The mapping defined above as ABS, defined from the set I = Integers to the set I = integers is "into." Since the exists an integer –5 in I such that there is no integer i in I such that ABS (i) = -5, ABS defined from I -> I is "into."
> 
> * Consider the MappinG, ABS, defined from I = IntegerNumbers to I* = { IntegerNumbers >= 0}. Then ABS defined from I to I* is "onto," or a SurJection, since for every y in I*, that is, every positive integer, there is at least one x in  I such that ABS (x) = y.
> 
> * Consider the MappinG, ADD1, defined from I to I such that if x is in I then ADD1 (x) = x+1. Then ADD1 is "one-to-one" or an InJection, since for every Y in I there is one and only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y.
> 
> * Consider the MappinG, ADD1, as defined above. Then ADD1 is both "onto" and "one-to-one" or a BiJection, since it is already “onto” and we can show it is "one-to-one" as well. Thus, given a y in I, there is only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y, that is, x = y-1.
> 
> 
>          
>  
>                
> 
> 
------
SetTheory|980727542
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A set is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
> 
>    {red, green, blue}
>    {x : x is a primary color}
> 
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of some sets is the set of all elements contained in at least one, and the intersection is the set of all elements contained in them all.  These are denoted
> 
>    A1 u A2 u A3 ...
>    A1 n A2 n A3 ...
> 
> respectively.  If you don't mind jumping ahead a bit, the subsets of a given set form a BooleanAlgebra under these operations.  The set of all subsets of X is called its PowerSet and is denoted 2^X.
> 
------
BiJection|980727607
1c1
< A bijection is a mapping or function between two sets that is surjective (onto) and injective (one-to-one).
---
> A bijection is a MappinG or function between two sets that is surjective (onto) and injective (one-to-one).
------
HomoMorphism|980727698
1c1
< A homomorphism, from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a function that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
---
> A homomorphism, from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a MappinG that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
------
MathematicalRelation|980727724
1c1
< The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MathematicalFunction''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
------
MappinG|980727744
1c1
< A MappinG is simply a “rule” that assigns to each member of a Set A, a unique element of a set B.
---
> A MappinG is simply a "rule" that assigns to each member of a Set A, a unique element of a set B.
------
SetTheory|980728419
12a13,17
> '''Axioms for set theory'''
> 
> The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets, and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axiom schema, and in some senses are to restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
> 
> The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
------
SetTheory|980728898
17c17,26
< The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
---
> The axioms of ZF are as follows:
>    Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
>    No set can be recursively defined.  This is to prevent RusselsParadox.
>    There is an empty set {}.
>    If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
>    For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
>    There exists an infinite set.
>    Axiom of replacement - roughly that sets can be imaged under functions.
> 
> The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
------
MathematicalRelation|980729674
1c1
< The standard way of defining a relation R on a set X is as some subset of (X x X).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R between a set X and a set Y is as some subset of (X x Y).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
------
MappinG|980729821
3c3
< There are non-mathematical MappinGs. Consider the “rule,” WGT that assigns to every living human being in United States their weight in pounds.  Then the set A = {people living in the United States} and B = {x:  0<x<=1000}. For example:
---
> There are non-mathematical MappinG''s''. Consider the “rule,” WGT that assigns to every living human being in United States their weight in pounds.  Then the set A = {people living in the United States} and B = {x:  0<x<=1000}. For example:
12c12
< There are mathematical MappinGs as well. Consider the “rule,” ABS that assigns to each integer, its absolute value. Let set C = I, and the set D = I, also. Then, for example:
---
> There are mathematical MappinG''s'' as well. Consider the “rule,” ABS that assigns to each integer, its absolute value. Let set C = I, and the set D = I, also. Then, for example:
21c21
< There are 4 basic kinds of MappinGs.
---
> There are 4 basic kinds of MappinG''s''.
43,48c43
< 
<          
<  
<                
< 
< 
---
> In terms of formal SetTheory, a Mapping from X to Y is usually defined as a MathematicalRelation where each x in X is related to one, and only one, element of Y.  This element is the image of x.  However, there are lots of other equivalent definitions.
------
SeT|980729848
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A SeT is a collection of objects. For example, one can define the set '''S''' = {Sn: Sn is a sibling of Larry Sanger}.
> 
> We require that sets be well-defined. Given an object Sn, we must be able to determine if 
> Sn belongs to '''S'''. 
------
MathematicalRelation|980729871
1c1,3
< The standard way of defining a relation R between a set X and a set Y is as some subset of (X x Y).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R between a set X and a set Y is as some subset of (X x Y).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  This can also be looked at as a mapping from (X x Y) to 2={0,1}.
> 
> Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
------
SeT|980729969
1c1
< A SeT is a collection of objects. For example, one can define the set '''S''' = {Sn: Sn is a sibling of Larry Sanger}.
---
> A SeT is a collection of objects. For example, one can define the set '''S''' = {Sn: Sn is a sibling of the Larry M. Sanger, who is the Editor-in-Chief of Nupedia}.
------
AbstractAlgebra|980729993
1c1
< An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of a sets of elements together with one or more operations on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more operations on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
9,14c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a subset thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A map between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
< 
< ----
< Why not define some of the simpler terminology here and used in other mathematical articles? Would be interesting to wikify an entire mathematico-deductive system of definitions in this way. -- LarrySanger 
< 
< I would say groups, rings, etc are the simpler terminology, since everything else are special cases. :)  But fair enough.  I think I'm going to shoot for breadth first, then depth, though. -JG
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
LatticE|980730019
1c1
< A lattice is a set L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L, 
---
> A lattice is a SeT L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L, 
------
PartialOrder|980730035
1c1
< A partial order <= on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X, 
---
> A partial order <= on a SeT X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X, 
------
MathematicalRelation|980730067
1c1
< The standard way of defining a relation R between a set X and a set Y is as some subset of (X x Y).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  This can also be looked at as a mapping from (X x Y) to 2={0,1}.
---
> The standard way of defining a relation R between a SeT X and a SeT Y is as some SubSet of the CartesianProduct (X x Y).  We write aRb if and only if (a,b) is in R.  This can also be looked at as a mapping from (X x Y) to 2={0,1}.
------
BooleanAlgebra|980730109
10c10
< The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a subset of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets, and in particular, an algebra of sets closed under arbitrary unions is called a TopOlogy.
---
> The PowerSet of any given set S forms a boolean algebra under the partial ordering "is a SubSet of", where 0={} and 1=S.  Any subalgebra of this is called an algebra of sets, and in particular, an algebra of sets closed under arbitrary unions is called a TopOlogy.
------
EquivalenceRelation|980730181
1c1
< An equivalence relation ~ on a set X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
---
> An equivalence relation ~ on a SeT X is a MathematicalRelation satisfying the following conditions: for every a,b,c in X,
------
MappinG|980730213
1c1
< A MappinG is simply a "rule" that assigns to each member of a Set A, a unique element of a set B.
---
> A MappinG is simply a "rule" that assigns to each member of a SeT A, a unique element of a SeT B.
43c43
< In terms of formal SetTheory, a Mapping from X to Y is usually defined as a MathematicalRelation where each x in X is related to one, and only one, element of Y.  This element is the image of x.  However, there are lots of other equivalent definitions.
---
> In terms of formal SetTheory, a Mapping from X to Y is usually defined as a MathematicalRelation where each x in X is related to one, and only one, element of Y.  This element is the image of x.  However, there are lots of other equivalent definitions.
------
TopOlogy|980730259
1c1
< Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a space X is defined a set T of subsets of X satisfying:
---
> Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a SeT X is defined a SeT T of SubSet''s'' of X satisfying:
------
SetTheory|980730518
1c1
< Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A set is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
---
> Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A SeT is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
6c6
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of some sets is the set of all elements contained in at least one, and the intersection is the set of all elements contained in them all.  These are denoted
---
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
------
RequestedArticles|980730727
5c5
< SeT -- SetTheory -- MoDel -- ModelTheory (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> SeT -- MoDel -- ModelTheory (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
------
TotalOrderedSet|980731902
1c1
< A total-ordered set is a LatticE (T,v,^) where for any a,b in T, either avb=a and a^b=b, or avb=b and a^b=a.  A PartialOrder <= on a set T defines a total order if and only for every a,b in T, exactly one of the following hold:
---
> A total-ordered SeT is a LatticE (T,v,^) where for any a,b in T, either avb=a and a^b=b, or avb=b and a^b=a.  A PartialOrder <= on a set T defines a total order if and only for every a,b in T, exactly one of the following hold:
9c9
< The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
---
> The unique smallest total-ordered set with neither an upper nor lower bound is the IntegerNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded total-ordered set which also happens to be dense, that is have non-empty (a,b) for every a<b, is the RationalNumbers.  The unique smallest unbounded connected total-ordered set is the RealNumbers.
------
RationalNumbers|980731982
1c1
< The RationalNumbers are the unique smallest field containing the IntegerNumbers.
---
> The RationalNumbers are the unique smallest FielD containing the IntegerNumbers.
------
LarrySanger|980732454
17a18,19
> ----
> Clearly you haven't met the SiberianHusky''s'' I know...Tara and Sarah!!!
------
LiteraryArt|980735321
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
LiteraryArt|980735356
1a2
> dfgsdfgdfgdfgsdfgs dfg sdfg sdfg
------
ArchitecturE|980735487
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980735576
7,11c7
<       *    Sine
<       *    Cosine
<       *    Tangent
<       *    Secant
<       *    Cosecant
---
>       *    Sine     
17,32c13
<                                                Angle B
< 
<               
<                                                    /l
< 
<                                                 /   l
< 
<                                              /      l          a
<                          c
<                                           /         l
< 
<                                        /            l
< 
<                          Angle A     /______________l  
< 
<                                            
---
>                   
89,104c70
<                                                Angle B
< 
<               
<                                                    /l
< 
<                                                 /   l
< 
<                                              /      l          a = 1
<                       c = sqrt(2)
<                                           /         l
< 
<                                        /            l
< 
<                          Angle A     /______________l  
< 
<                                            
---
>                                    
------
SoCrates|980736209
2a3,4
> Socrates was what we today would euphamistically call a "street person".  He was not a land owner but instead wandered the streets talking to people, and getting food from kind citizens.  His attire was archaic-grunge, so to speak.  
> 
6,7c8,9
< ----
< To be continued...feel free to continue this yourself.
---
> 
> Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray, held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  (Sound familiar?  Yes, this story has been reenacted in part or in whole, time and time again; those who do not learn from history are most certainly bound to repeat it.)  Socrates died at the age of 70.
------
SetTheory|980737772
6c6
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
---
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: ('''really?  what about the empty set?''') itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
15c15
< The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets, and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axiom schema, and in some senses are to restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
---
> The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets '''they don't even handle the first set used as an example above, or the set used as an example in SeTs''' , and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axiom schema '''they aren't an axiom schema at all.  They contain one axiom schema, the axiom of replacement''', and in some senses are to restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
19c19,20
<    No set can be recursively defined.  This is to prevent RusselsParadox.
---
>    No set can be recursively defined.  This is to prevent RusselsParadox.  
> '''what axiom is this?  I have never heard of it. Russell's paradox is prevented by replacing the axiom of unrestricted comprehension with the axiom of replacement, below.'''
23,24c24,29
<    There exists an infinite set.
<    Axiom of replacement - roughly that sets can be imaged under functions.
---
>    There exists an infinite set. 
> '''what exactly is "infinite" in terms of sets?'''
>    Axiom of replacement - roughly that sets can be imaged under functions. 
> '''very rough.  what are "functions"?'''
> 
> '''The power set axiom and the axiom of regularity are missing'''
------
SeT|980737828
4a5,6
> 
> '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
------
MetaPhilosophy|980738710
5c5
< PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collases back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980738881
7c7,11
<       *    Sine     
---
>       *    Sine
>       *    Cosine
>       *    Tangent
>       *    Secant
>       *    Cosecant
13c17,32
<                   
---
>                                                Angle B
> 
>               
>                                                    /l
> 
>                                                 /   l
> 
>                                              /      l          a
>                          c
>                                           /         l
> 
>                                        /            l
> 
>                          Angle A     /______________l  
> 
>                                            
70c89,104
<                                    
---
>                                                Angle B
> 
>               
>                                                    /l
> 
>                                                 /   l
> 
>                                              /      l          a = 1
>                       c = sqrt(2)
>                                           /         l
> 
>                                        /            l
> 
>                          Angle A     /______________l  
> 
>                                            
87a122
> 
------
SetTheory|980739199
6c6
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has at least two subsets: ('''really?  what about the empty set?''') itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
---
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
18,29c18,27
<    Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
<    No set can be recursively defined.  This is to prevent RusselsParadox.  
< '''what axiom is this?  I have never heard of it. Russell's paradox is prevented by replacing the axiom of unrestricted comprehension with the axiom of replacement, below.'''
<    There is an empty set {}.
<    If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
<    For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
<    There exists an infinite set. 
< '''what exactly is "infinite" in terms of sets?'''
<    Axiom of replacement - roughly that sets can be imaged under functions. 
< '''very rough.  what are "functions"?'''
< 
< '''The power set axiom and the axiom of regularity are missing'''
---
>    Axiom of extension:        Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
>    Axiom of null set:         There is an empty set {}.
>    Axiom of unordered pairs:  If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
>    Axiom of unions:           For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
>    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.
>    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any MappinG, formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
>                               P(x,y) and P(x,z) implies y=z, there is a set containing precisely the images of 
>                               its elements.
>    Axiom of PowerSet''s'':    There exists a set P(X) containing precisely the subsets of any given set X.
>    Axiom of regularity:       Every non-empty set X contains some element Y such that X and Y are disjoint.
------
SetTheory|980739278
15c15
< The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets '''they don't even handle the first set used as an example above, or the set used as an example in SeTs''' , and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axiom schema '''they aren't an axiom schema at all.  They contain one axiom schema, the axiom of replacement''', and in some senses are to restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
---
> The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets so long as they are composed of other sets - from which most mathematical objects can be constructed anyways - and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axioms, and in some senses are too restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
------
SuperBowl|980741801
1a2
> <p>This year, the Baltimore Ravens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
------
SuperBowl|980741813
2c2
< <p>This year, the Baltimore Ravens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
---
> This year, the Baltimore Ravens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
------
SuperBowl|980741822
2c2
< This year, the Baltimore Ravens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
---
> This year, the BaltimoreRavens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
------
SuperBowl|980741833
2c2
< This year, the BaltimoreRavens defeated the New York Giants convincingly, 34-7.
---
> This year, the BaltimoreRavens defeated the NewYorkGiants convincingly, 34-7.
------
BaltimoreRavens|980741875
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A National Football League team based in Baltimore, Maryland USA.
------
NewYorkGiants|980741934
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A National Football League team based in New York City, New York, USA.
------
SuperBowl|980743032
2c2,3
< This year, the BaltimoreRavens defeated the NewYorkGiants convincingly, 34-7.
---
> 
> In Superbowl 35 (Jan 28, 2001) the BaltimoreRavens defeated the NewYorkGiants convincingly, 34-7.
------
NewYorkGiants|980743073
1c1,5
< A National Football League team based in New York City, New York, USA.
---
> A National Football League team based in New York City, New York, USA.
> 
> ----
> 
> Actually, based in New Jersey, no?
------
MerloT|980743728
1a2,3
> ----
> Merlot is also the name of an XML Editor...:-).
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|980744425
38c38
< Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequence of the formualtion of e^z, where z is a complex number.
---
> Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequence of the extension of the definition of the function '''e''' over the ComplexNumbers.
------
RequestedArticles|980744662
5c5
< SeT -- MoDel -- ModelTheory (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> SeT -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
------
HiStory|980747088
21a22
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
------
UnitedStates|980747121
3c3,5
< * SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates
---
> * SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates
> 
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
------
AtlasShrugged|980748914
7a8,13
> 
> ----
> 
> ****
> 
> AtlasShruggedCharacters
------
AtlasShrugged|980748933
11c11
< ****
---
> *
------
AtlasShrugged|980748952
11,13c11
< *
< 
< AtlasShruggedCharacters
---
> * AtlasShruggedCharacters
------
AtlasShruggedCharacters|980749371
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> DagnyTaggart
> EddieWillers
> EllisWyatt
> FranciscoDAnconia
> GwenIves
> HankRearden
> JamesTaggart
> LillianRearden
> NewsstandOwner
> OrrenBoyle
> OwenKellogg
> PaulLarkin
> PhilipRearden
> ReardensMother
> RichardHalley
> WesleyMouch
> 
> BartendeR
> BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
> BumNumber1
> BrakemaN
> ConductoR
> DagnysFather
> EngineeR
> FiremaN
> MrAyers
> MrsBeacham
> MrsNathanielTaggart
> NathanielTaggart
> PassengerNumber1
> PassengerNumber2
> PassengerNumber3
> PassengerNumber4
> PopHarper
> WaiteR
> WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShruggedCharacters|980749471
0a1,2
> BrakemaN
> 
1a4
> 
2a6
> 
3a8
> 
4a10
> 
5a12
> 
6a14
> 
7a16
> 
8a18
> 
9a20
> 
10a22
> 
11a24
> 
12a26
> 
13a28
> 
14a30
> 
15a32
> 
17a35
> * Very minor characters
18a37
> 
19a39
> 
21c41
< BrakemaN
---
> 
22a43
> 
23a45
> 
24a47
> 
25a49
> 
26a51
> 
27a53
> 
28a55
> 
29a57
> 
30a59
> 
31a61
> 
32a63
> 
33a65
> 
34a67
> 
36c69,70
< WorkerNumber1
---
> 
> WorkerNumber1
------
DagnyTaggart|980749718
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main character in AtlasShrugged.
> 
> Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
------
BrakemaN|980749908
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
> 
> DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
> 
> * Appearances
------
BrakemaN|980749934
5c5,7
< * Appearances
---
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
------
AtlasShrugged|980749995
11a12
> * AtlasShruggedCompanies
------
AtlasShruggedCompanies|980750160
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AyersMusicPublishingCompany
> 
> AssociatedSteel
> 
> Phoenix-Durango
> 
> ReardenCoal
> 
> ReardenLimestone
> 
> ReardenOre
> 
> ReardenSteel
> 
> TaggartTranscontinental
> 
> WyattOil
------
AyersMusicPublishingCompany|980750273
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The publishers of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
------
AyersMusicPublishingCompany|980750299
1c1
< The publishers of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
------
AtlasShrugged|980750359
12c12,13
< * AtlasShruggedCompanies
---
> * AtlasShruggedCompanies
> * AtlasShruggedPlaces
------
AtlasShruggedPlaces|980750830
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Places mentioned in Atlas Shrugged:
> 
> Argentina (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Arizona (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> California (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> Chicago (AtlasShrugged112)
> 
> Chile (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Cleveland (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Colorado (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Cheyenne, Wyoming (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> El Paso, Texas (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Fifth Avenue (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Hudson River (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Louisiana (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Mexico, People's State of (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Middle West (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Minnesota (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> New Mexico (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> New York (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged113, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Ohio (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Philadelphia (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> Redding (Connecticut?) (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> San Francisco (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> United States (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Washington (AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Wilmington (Delaware?) (AtlasShrugged121)
------
AtlasShrugged|980750880
13a14
> * AtlasShruggedThings
------
AtlasShruggedThings|980751157
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FriendsofGlobalProgress (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> HalleysFifthConcerto (AtlasShrugged112)
> 
> NationalAllianceofRailroads (AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> RioNorteLine (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> SanSebastianLine (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> SanSebastianMines (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> TaggartComet (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged113)
> 
> WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
------
AtlasShrugged111|980751434
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell JamesTaggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
> 
> * Setting
> Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
> 
> * Characters
> BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
> EddieWillers
> Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
> JamesTaggart
> OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
> PopHarper - First and only apearance.
> 
> * Mysteries
> The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
AtlasShrugged111|980751454
10a11
> 
11a13
> 
12a15
> 
13a17
> 
14a19
> 
------
AtlasShrugged111|980751482
5c5
< 
---
> ----
8c8
< 
---
> ----
21c21
< 
---
> ----
------
AtlasShrugged|980751527
13a14
> * AtlasShruggedStructure
------
AtlasShruggedStructure|980751815
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
> 
> ----
> Part 1 - Non-Contradiction
> 
> Chapter 1  - The Theme
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged111)
>  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>  - section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
>  - section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Chapter 2  - The Chain
> 
> Chapter 3  - The Top and the Bottom
> 
> Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
> 
> Chapter 5  - The Climax of the D'Anconias
> 
> Chapter 6  - The Non-Commercial
> 
> Chapter 7  - The Exploiters and the Exploited
> 
> Chapter 8  - The John Galt Line
> 
> Chapter 9  - The Sacred and the Profane
> 
> Chapter 10 - Wyatt's Torch
> ----
> Part 2 - Either-Or
> 
> Part 3 - A Is A
------
AtlasShruggedStructure|980751870
12a13
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged121)
14a16,17
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged131)
>  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
------
AtlasShrugged112|980751924
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged113|980751938
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged114|980751955
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged121|980751967
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged131|980751981
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged132|980751994
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> ----
> * Setting
> ----
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged112|980752185
3a4
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  Afte falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
5a7
> Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
7a10,27
> BrakemaN
> 
> Conductor - First and only appearance.
> 
> EngineeR - First and only appearance.
> 
> DagnyTaggart
> 
> OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
> 
> PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
> 
> PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
> 
> RichardHalley - Mentioned.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What was the brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
------
AtlasShrugged112|980752206
12c12
< Conductor - First and only appearance.
---
> ConductoR - First and only appearance.
------
AtlasShrugged113|980752263
3a4
> Dagny and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from Halley's Fifth Concerto.  The brakeman watches her tensely.
5a7
> Taggart Terminal
7a10,12
> DagnyTaggart
> 
> BrakemaN
------
AtlasShrugged114|980752393
3a4
> Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers sats he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
5a7
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
7a10,26
> DagnyTaggart
> 
> JamesTaggart
> 
> EddieWillers
> 
> OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
> 
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontiental: Mentioned.
> 
> HankRearden: Mentioned.
> 
> EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
> 
> OwenKellogg
> Mr. Ayers:  Of the Ayers Music Publishing Company
> 
------
AtlasShrugged114|980752447
18c18
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontiental: Mentioned.
---
> BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
25d24
< Mr. Ayers:  Of the Ayers Music Publishing Company
26a26
> MrAyers - First and only apperrance.
------
AtlasShrugged114|980752464
26c26
< MrAyers - First and only apperrance.
---
> MrAyers - First and only appearance.
------
AtlasShrugged121|980752507
3a4
> Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of Rearden Metal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, Paul Larkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
5a7
> Rearden Steel mills in Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
7c9
< * Characters
---
> * Characters
------
AtlasShrugged114|980752544
26c26,30
< MrAyers - First and only appearance.
---
> MrAyers - First and only appearance.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What is it that makes OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
> 
------
AtlasShrugged121|980752689
9a10,21
> GwenIves: Mentioned.
> HankRearden
> LillianRearden
> MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
> PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
> PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
> PaulLarkin
> PhilipRearden
> ReardensMother
> WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged131|980752873
3a4
> James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, and Wesley Mouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop Hank Rearden and the success of Rearden Metal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the National Alliance of Railroads to drive the Phoenix-Durango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that Taggart Transcontinental's San Sebastian Line has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
5a7
> The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, design to look like a cellar.
7c9,23
< * Characters
---
> * Characters
> JamesTaggart
> 
> OrrenBoyle
> 
> WesleyMouch
> 
> PaulLarkin
> 
> WaiteR: First and only appearance.
> 
> BartendeR: First and only appearance.
> ----
> * Pregnant Passages
> "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
------
AtlasShrugged132|980753119
3a4
> Recounts Dagny's childhood decision to run Taggart Transcontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the San Sebastian Line: Millionaire playboy Francisco D'Anconia invested money in developing the San Sebastian Mines, and James Taggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
5a7
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
7c9,35
< * Characters
---
> * Characters
> BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
> 
> DagnysFather
> 
> DagnyTaggart
> 
> EddieWillers
> 
> EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
> 
> FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
> 
> HankRearden
> 
> JamesTaggart
> 
> MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
> 
> NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
> 
> NewsstandOwner
> 
> OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
> ----
> * Symbolism
> The NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
DagnyTaggart|980753306
8a9,10
>    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
------
FriendsofGlobalProgress|980753396
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShurgged121.
------
FriendsofGlobalProgress|980753410
1c1
< A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShurgged121.
---
> A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged121.
------
RioNorteLine|980753629
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
> 
> It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged132.  It is alluded to in AtlasShrugged131.
------
AtlasShrugged114|980753755
4c4
< Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers sats he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers sats he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
------
NewYorkGiants|980754625
5c5
< Actually, based in New Jersey, no?
---
> Actually, based in New Jersey, no?  New Jersey, Yes!!
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980754765
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.
> 
> Because NorthAmerica at the time was occupied by the NativeAmericanPeople, much of the US history is preoccupied with the wresting of the land from these inhabitants.  This was done with a variety of means including broken treaties and forced resettlement, such as the Trail of Tears.  
> 
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive Civil War.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the Civil War a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
> 
> At the end of the 19th century, the United States engaged in an extremely one-sided war with Spain, and gained control of Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.  The US also acquired the Philippines, however only after a very bloody three year war, in which GenocidE was first used to describe the killings of 600,000 Filipinos by armed forces of the United States.
> 
> In the 20th century, as the amount of uncontested land in NorthAmerica was settled, the USA was forced to engage in more traditional mechanisms for continuing their political and economic growth.  Empires previously had used the policy of ColonialisM as the basis for establishing and protecting their foreign economic interests.  Since the US had been originally been a colony of England, obviously it would be considered hypocritical for the US to be known as a colonial empire, and so thus the US's "New World Order" was established and maintained through much more subtle events and mechanisms, many of which are not well known.  There have been a number of "Police Actions" or "Limited Engagements" in various third world countries, used to topple governments working at odds with US interests.  
> 
> Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of Poland by NaZi GermanY in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japan.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
> 
> During the second half of the 20th century, under the guise of defeating the TotalitarianisM of the CommunisT SovietUnion, the US engaged in a long and expensive ColdWar.  Coupling NaZi technologies with the AtomicBomb, the US and Soviets developed a vast arsenal of WeaponsOfMassDestruction, theoretically able to cause a nuclear detonation anywhere in the world.  The fear this ingrained into the US (and, probably) Soviet citizenry was extreme.  In the US, under SenatorJosephMcCarthy, a WitchHunt was undertaken to expose and publically denegrate anyone with beliefs that expoused anything resembling CommunisM, or who even merely associated with people believing in communism.  
> 
> At the end of the 20th century, the US finally succeeded in outlasting the SovietUnion, and was surprised by the sudden fall of communist countries around the world.  Yet the US remains committed to "full engagement" in the world.  At the start of the 21st century, the US is embracing the new globalization.
> 
> ----
> Source for much of the above is taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica website's article on the United States, 
> by William M. Brinton, 1996.  I left out a lot of the negative stuff.  Yeesh, US history is depressing...
> 
> 
------
NewYorkGiants|980755973
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
5a4,5
> ----
> Then explain to this dumb Alaskan why they are called the "New York Giants" instead of the "Jersey Giants"?
------
GeorgeWBush|980756417
14a15
> * 2001InaugurationProtests
------
SetTheory|980762075
6c6,7
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets T1,T2,T3,.... The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
---
> The notation is not self-explanatory.
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets Typo here for "all of the sets". The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
16a18,19
> The above is more than a little confusing. What does it mean to "handle sets"? What is a "model" in this context? How does the singleton operation prevent the existence of a set of all sets? 
> 
27a31
> What does "composed of" mean above? Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
------
GeorgeWBush|980763229
7c7
< He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.
---
> He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms. His tenure as Govenor also saw a sharp rise in the number of state sponsored ExeCutions.
------
InaugurationProtests|980765623
1c1,242
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Bush inauguration meets resistance'''
> 
> <img src="http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF" width="300" height="384"><br>
> 
> ''Protesters confront police in Washington, DC on Saturday, Jan. 20. ''
> 
> By Eamon Martin
> 
> '''Washington, DC, Jan. 20- '''As the pomp and circumstance 
> of President George W. Bush's inauguration attempted to forcibly 
> transcend the domestic instability left in the wake of what 
> may be the most contentious election in US history, approximately 
> 20,000 people gathered in the nation's capital to protest.
> 
> Bush, the first President in more than a century to lose the 
> national popular vote, took the oath of office as president 
> of the United States, pledging to "unite" the country which 
> the November elections showed to be deeply divided, along cultural, 
> geographic, and ethnic lines. For a large percentage of the 
> US public, the presidency is deeply mired in a crisis of legitimacy 
> by numerous allegations of vote fraud, voter disenfranchisement, 
> and the controversial Supreme Court decision that halted the 
> vote count on a legal technicality. For the many who came to 
> demonstrate from as many as forty US states, a Bush/Cheney White 
> House represents nothing less than a debasement of democracy, 
> a Republican coup d'etat with a suitably incompetent figurehead 
> for a puppet regime.
> 
> Despite a relentless, cold rain and unprecedented security 
> restrictions for demonstrators, widespread feelings of outrage 
> and contempt for the incoming administration were literally 
> overwhelming for many of those in attendance. The day saw numerous 
> marches, assemblies, street theater performances, and confrontations 
> between police and protesters that have since drawn concern 
> from media analysts, given the dramatic scope of the activities 
> and - in many cases - their subsequent, mysterious absence from 
> most news reports. Demonstrators were evident on every block 
> of the 1.6-mile inaugural parade route, and on some blocks on 
> the north side of Pennsylvania Avenue, they outnumbered other 
> paradegoers.
> 
> The day began early for protesters, who were in the streets 
> well before Bush supporters. At 8:30am, a few hundred met at 
> 12th and G streets NW, then marched to 14th Street and Pennsylvania 
> Avenue, to the beat of homemade drums.
> 
> A boisterous crowd of more than 1,000 assembled at Dupont 
> Circle just before 10 am, chastising Bush for "stealing" the 
> election. At 10:30, city crews arrived to cut an effigy of Bush 
> from a tree. Speaker Patricia Ireland, president of the National 
> Organization for Women, told the crowd: "Let them have the tree. 
> We have all of Dupont Circle and we have the whole country. 
> They just have the White House." 
> 
> Meanwhile, near the Supreme Court, Al Sharpton, Walter E. Fauntroy 
> and other civil rights activists were holding a "shadow" inauguration 
> and parade, attended by over 2,000 people. Laura Brightman of 
> Brooklyn, NY commented, "We were sold out," as others around 
> her chanted, "No justice, no peace." 
> 
> "And when we tried to get justice [from the Supreme Court] 
> we were sold again," said Brightman. "The election was stolen." 
> 
> 
> At the Supreme Court building, Rudy Arredondo of Takoma Park, 
> Md., put it this way: "Bush is a Supreme Court appointee. In 
> my eyes, and in my children's eyes, he will never be a legitimate 
> president."
> 
> '''Anarchists destroy inaugural checkpoint, hoist flag: media 
> blackout '''
> 
> <img src="http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%2088.GIF" width="300" height="203"><br>
> <font size="2">''&quot;Black bloc&quot; activists build a barricade 
> in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''</font>
> 
> Notably ignored by the mainstream press, radical activists 
> made anarchist history during George W. Bush's inaugural parade 
> when one of nine police checkpoints to the celebration was battered 
> down and overrun with thousands of protesters. Not long after, 
> protesters -- led by the masked, black-clad, anarchist collective 
> known as the "Black Bloc" -- seized the Naval Memorial on Pennsylvania 
> Ave. and raised anarchist flags up the monument's flagpole. 
> Overwhelmed by the security breach, DC police and Secret Service 
> appeared confused, powerless, and embarrassed as they tried 
> to contain, arrest, or disperse the demonstrators, only to fail 
> time and time again when Black Bloc members physically fought 
> back and successfully prevented almost any such police retaliation 
> from happening.
> 
> In the weeks leading up to Bush's inaugural moment, the "historically 
> unprecedented" security measures being undertaken by the Republican 
> Party in tandem with DC police and the US Secret Service received 
> extensive attention in the news media. For the first time ever, 
> anyone wishing to attend the inaugural parade was required to 
> pass through one of nine police checkpoints, have their bags 
> searched, and in some cases be frisked and have protest signs 
> confiscated. 
> 
> "He stole the vote," said Ethyl Tobch, 79, of New York City. 
> "The fact that the people's votes were absolutely stolen plus 
> the checkpoints are very frightening. It makes you feel like 
> you are in a real dictatorship." 
> <p>It was a single egg that landed on the presidential motorcade, 
> a brief, maybe blurry tele-view of colorful protest signs along 
> the parade route. By most news accounts, the protests were an 
> inaugural footnote, not worthy of much comment or attention. 
> However, for the thousands of people attending the inaugural 
> parade who had gathered near the US Naval Memorial, a dramatic, 
> captivating spectacle unfolded before them, for many the likes 
> of which had never before been seen. As the well-to-do sat perched, 
> waiting anxiously in the expensive bleacher seats and hotel 
> balconies overlooking the parade for the arrival of the Bush 
> motorcade, parade-goers suddenly found themselves in the midst 
> of a giant confrontation between police and protesters. 
> 
> It began when a march of nearly 600 Black Bloc demonstrators 
> began to make its way towards the parade route, leaving a small 
> trail of impromptu blockades -- mainly newspaper distributor 
> racks and automobiles -- behind them. Soon after, DC police 
> appeared and managed to corral against a building wall about 
> 80 of this group who called themselves the "Revolutionary Anti-Authoritarian 
> Bloc." Mass arrests seemed imminent with the police holding 
> loads of plastic, "zip-tie" handcuffs and City Transit Authority 
> busses parked nearby at the ready for "criminal" mass transit. 
> DC Executive Assistant Police Chief Terrance W. Gainer said 
> the police contingency plan for up to 5,000 arrests involved 
> the use of several buses and 180 officers specifically prepared 
> for that many cases. All told, about 7,000 officers had been 
> deployed from various law enforcement agencies, including US 
> Marshals and National Guard troops.
> 
> A standoff ensued between the police, spectators, and a groundswell 
> of protesters suddenly reinforced by the unexpected arrival 
> of a National Organization of Women (NOW) march and a Voter 
> Rights march, chanting "Let them go! Let them go!" Hopelessly 
> outnumbered, the police eventually complied, freeing the demonstrators 
> to continue their protests. 
> 
> With protesters now numbering in the 1,500-2,000 range, a massive 
> march proceeded to Pennsylvania Ave. Not much later, with the 
> reunited Black Bloc at the front, a group of inspired participants 
> grabbed a fairly large cart parked in front of a vacant construction 
> site.
> 
> "What is this?" someone asked.
> 
> "It's a battering ram!" another yelled in reply. 
> 
> Much to the astonishment of thousands of waiting parade-watchers, 
> the construction cart came careening down an overlooking hill, 
> crashing through a police checkpoint, only to be stopped from 
> going into the parade avenue by a Secret Service car which pulled 
> in front of it's path, damaging the federal vehicle in the process. 
> The floodgates had been battered open, allowing what from balcony 
> seats must have looked like a giant pool of black ink to seep 
> into the crowded festivities, followed by a colorful barrage 
> of signs proclaiming: "Supreme Coup," "Hail To The Thief," "Not 
> Our President" and hundreds more. For all of their elaborate 
> preparations, much to their surprise, police and military were 
> now confronted with an embarrassingly massive breach of national 
> security. 
> 
> Shocked Republicans and police watched as, soon after, four 
> Black Bloc members scaled the nearby Navy Memorial flagpole 
> to the roaring cheers of demonstrators. In little time, the 
> Nautical flags were pulled down and replaced by black and red 
> anarchist flags, as well as an upside down US flag -- the widely 
> recognized symbol of distress. 
> 
> Over the next few hours, riot police attempted at least three 
> times to rush and disperse those assembled by the monument, 
> only to be pushed, fought back, and defeated. Dozens of times, 
> without identifying themselves, several undercover police attempted 
> to "surprise arrest" demonstrators. Activists responded quickly, 
> however, and with little exception, prevented this from happening 
> by directly confronting the police, tackling them, fighting 
> them, and many times forcibly removing them from the area. 
> 
> Meanwhile, the parade had been delayed. When the Bush/Cheney 
> motorcade eventually did arrive, the cars abruptly sped by this 
> concentrated protest area, forcing the Secret Service chaperones 
> to break pace and run full steam to catch up. At this particular 
> moment, while food, debris, loud insults, and a sea of hundreds 
> of middle fingers were hurled toward the new president, apparently 
> several news networks broadcasting live simulcasts, simultaneously 
> thought it best to cut to commercial breaks or check in with 
> comments from fawning news pundits. 
> 
> Most demonstrators in the area soon dispersed afterward, the 
> object of their animosity having since passed by in the new 
> Cadillac, which featured puncture-proof tires and six-inch-thick 
> bulletproof glass.
> 
> Of the estimated 350,000 people who came downtown Saturday 
> to see the swearing-in ceremony or parade, DC police arrested 
> only five, and other law enforcement agencies arrested only 
> a handful of others. 
> 
> '''Demonstrations nationwide'''
> 
> Protests in opposition to what many are characterizing as 
> an appointed regime by the US Supreme Court were not limited 
> to Washington DC. Thousands of US citizens in over a dozen cities 
> such as San Francisco, Chicago, Seattle, Austin, Tallahassee, 
> New York, Montpelier, Santa Fe, Denver, Los Angeles, Portland 
> and others protested the inauguration. According to the Independent 
> Media Center, thousands of protesters took over part of downtown 
> San Fransisco, stopping cable cars. 3,500 demonstrated in Los 
> Angeles. Even Paris, France saw thousands of demonstrators against 
> the death penalty protest the swearing-in of the new US President. 
> 
> 
> All around the country, mock coronations of "King George II" 
> were staged. In Seattle, an actor dressed in a Revolutionary 
> War costume stole the crown from a shrub and offered it to the 
> people. The crowd of 3,000 placed the crown at the head of a 
> parade. 
> 
> Chicago protesters converged on the city's Federal Building. 
> Demonstrators protested at the state capitols in Denver, Colorado 
> and Montpelier, Vermont. In Albuquerque, New Mexico local TV 
> coverage gave more time to local protests than to the Bush ceremonies.
> 
> In Austin, Texas, 500 people gathered on the state capitol 
> steps. The election "was stolen and it was stolen in Florida. 
> I think there should be a revolution in this country on just 
> this issue," said Arthur Joe Sr. of Dallas. 
> 
> In Asheville, North Carolina, forty-five indignant people braved 
> freezing rain to sing, dance and wave signs, to the obvious 
> delight of passing motorists, who responded with honks and thumbs 
> up. The protest lasted from ten until two o'clock.
> 
> AGR staff contributed to this report.
> 
> Additional sources: Independent Media Center, Washington Post, 
> IPS, Philadelphia Inquirer 
> 
> 
> (c) Copyright 2000 Asheville Global Report.
> Reprinting for non-profit purposes is permitted: Please credit the source.
------
InaugurationProtests|980765739
3c3
< <img src="http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF" width="300" height="384"><br>
---
> http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF
73,75c73,74
< <img src="http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%2088.GIF" width="300" height="203"><br>
< <font size="2">''&quot;Black bloc&quot; activists build a barricade 
< in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''</font>
---
> http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%2088.GIF
> ''Black bloc activists build a barricade in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''</font>
------
InaugurationProtests|980765900
3c3
< http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF
---
> http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.gif
74c74
< ''Black bloc activists build a barricade in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''</font>
---
> ''Black bloc activists build a barricade in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''
------
InaugurationProtests|980765912
3c3
< http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.gif
---
> http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF
------
FrancE|980766445
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution.  There anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capitol city, Paris, is home to the Eiffel tower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
3c3
< Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
---
> Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
------
TechnologY|980767146
5a6
> * EcheloN
------
EcheloN|980767695
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Echelon is a name for one of the largest spy networks in history. 
> It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. 
> 
> 
> Originally devoted solely to monitoring the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its East Bloc allies, today Echelon searches for hints of terrorist plots, drug-dealer's plans and political and diplomatic intelligence. But critics claim the system is also being used for crass commercial theft and a brutal invasion of privacy on a staggering scale. 
> 
> 
> The Echelon system is simple in design. All members of the English-speaking alliance are part of the UKUSA intelligence alliance that has maintained ties since the Second World War.
> These states have positioned electronic-intercept stations and deep-space satellites to capture all satellite, microwave, cellular and fibre-optic communications traffic. The captured signals are then processed through a series of supercomputers, known as dictionaries, that are programmed to search each communication for targeted addresses, words, phrases or even individual voices. 
> 
> 
> Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from our embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The UnitedStates, with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern China. New Zealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
> 
> Experts stress that Echelon is simply a method of sorting captured signals and is just one of the many new arrows in the intelligence community's quiver, along with increasingly sophisticated bugging and interception techniques, satellite tracking, through-clothing scanning, automatic fingerprinting and recognition systems that can recognize genes, odours or retina patterns. 
> 
> The Americans dominate the UKUSA alliance, providing most of the computer expertise and frequently much of the personnel for global interception bases. The U.S. National Security Agency, headquartered in Fort Meade, Md., just outside Washington, has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than $3.6-billion (all dollar figures US unless otherwise specified). That's more than the FBI and the CIA combined. 
> 
> 
> By comparison, Canada's communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), a branch of the National Defence Department. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters, nicknamed "The Farm," is the Sir Leonard Tilley Building on Heron Road in Ottawa, and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in Leitrim, just south of Ottawa. 
> 
> 
> The governments of AustaliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists.
------
EcheloN|980767929
12c12
< Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from our embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The UnitedStates, with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern China. New Zealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
---
> Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The UnitedStates, with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern ChinA. NewZealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
------
ComputinG|980768569
1c1
< * Algorithms
---
> * AlgorithmS
------
AdA|980770998
5c5,8
< Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
---
> Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
> 
> ----
> Do you mean GNAT (GNU Ada Translater) when writing "Ada95"? This is no translater to C any longer but a frontend to the GNU Compiler Collection, as the C or the Java frontends are. By the way, it is _not_ used only by DOD staff and it is a highly capable language. In contrast to the popular misbelief it produces rather fast code (comparable to C).
------
SetTheory|980776999
32a33,34
> ''You people can't have it both ways.''
> 
------
BeeR|980778216
1a2,6
> 
> The effects of beer are many and varied. You may feel a little light-headed after consuming a pint or two, where after eight or nine pints, you may begin to a: fall asleep b: ThrowUp c: start a FiGht d: have CasualSex.
> The after effects of too much beer often include headache, a delicate tummy and an unending sense of ReGret.
> 
> Some well known brands include:
------
CityBerlin|980782272
3c3
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. 
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. 
4a5
> The Capital of West-GermanY was up to 1992 BonN. 
------
CityBerlin|980782666
5c5
< The Capital of West-GermanY was up to 1992 BonN. 
---
> The Capital of West-GermanY was up to 1999 BonN. 
------
ComputinG|980788746
5c5
< * ComputerArchitexture
---
> * ComputerArchitecture
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980788968
1c1
< SPACECRAFT PROPULSION [xxx]
---
> SPACECRAFT PROPULSION
------
AtlasShrugged114|980788970
4c4
< Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers sats he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
------
GeorgeWBush|980789053
7c7
< He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms. His tenure as Govenor also saw a sharp rise in the number of state sponsored ExeCutions.
---
> He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.  His tenure in office featured many achievements and, despite a reputation for bipartisan leadership, some controversy, even international controversy; for example, during Bush's tenure, TexaS saw a sharp rise in CapitalPunishment.
------
GeorgeWBush|980789077
1c1
< George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of Texas.
---
> George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of TexaS.
------
InaugurationProtests|980790333
0a1,7
> I believe, but will wait for discussion, that this article should
> be removed from the wikipedia.  My reason is this:
> 
> When you click 'submit', you are agreeing to release the text under the GNU FDL.  But this reprinting disclaimer doesn't give all the freedom that the FDL gives.  Therefore, while it is o.k. for the moment, since this wikipedia doesn't have any 
> ads on it, it is not o.k. in the long run, because this wikipedia database is intended to be made available for download under an FDL license. --JimboWales
> 
> 
------
InaugurationProtests|980790422
4,5c4,6
< When you click 'submit', you are agreeing to release the text under the GNU FDL.  But this reprinting disclaimer doesn't give all the freedom that the FDL gives.  Therefore, while it is o.k. for the moment, since this wikipedia doesn't have any 
< ads on it, it is not o.k. in the long run, because this wikipedia database is intended to be made available for download under an FDL license. --JimboWales
---
> When you click 'submit', you are agreeing to release the text under the GNU FDL.  But this reprinting disclaimer doesn't give all the freedom that the FDL gives.  (For example, you don't have the right to redistribute modified versions, and there is a discrimination against commercial usage -- both restrictions are forbidden under the open source definition.)  
> 
> Therefore, while it is o.k. for the moment, since this wikipedia doesn't have any ads on it, it is not o.k. in the long run, because this wikipedia database is intended to be made available for download under an FDL license. --JimboWales
------
CountriesI|980792059
1c1,2
< ItalY
---
> ItalY
> IcelanD
------
IcelanD|980792360
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A european republic, positioned in the north of the Atlantic Ocean.
> Religion is mostly christian, population around 280.000 and around 103.000 sq km of land.
------
CountriesI|980792388
1a2
> 
------
IcelanD|980792402
2c2,3
< Religion is mostly christian, population around 280.000 and around 103.000 sq km of land.
---
> 
> Religion is mostly christian, population around 280.000 and around 103.000 sq km of land.
------
RequestedArticles|980792497
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- LiteraryArt -- ArchitecturE -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon
------
RequestedArticles|980792525
3,5c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon
< 
< SeT -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
------
InaugurationProtests|980792764
7a8,10
> ''Agreed.  As well, it has a journalistic-bent to it, and so needs to be rewritten into more of an encyclopedic bent.  But I felt the information is important and of current interest.  And since the protests were not covered by traditional media, and thus likely won't show up in mainstream encyclopedias and histories, I wanted to be sure we had *something* relatively detailed on it.  -- BryceHarrington''
> 
> ----
------
AtlasShrugged|980793220
8a9,10
> [added by TimShell]
> 
------
SanSebastianLine|980793383
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of Taggart Transcontinentel that serves the San Sebastian Mines in Mexico.  The SanSebastianLine nationalized soon after completeion by the Mexican government.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>   AtlasShrugged114
>   AtlasShrugged131
>   AtlasShrugged132
------
AtlasShruggedThings|980793417
1c1
< FriendsofGlobalProgress (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> FriendsofGlobalProgress
11c11
< RioNorteLine (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged132)
---
> RioNorteLine
13c13
< SanSebastianLine (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
---
> SanSebastianLine
19c19
< WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
------
RioNorteLine|980793458
3c3,9
< It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged132.  It is alluded to in AtlasShrugged131.
---
> It is mentioned in:
>   AtlasShrugged111
>   AtlasShrugged114
>   AtlasShrugged132  
> 
> It is alluded to in:
>   AtlasShrugged131
------
SanSebastianLine|980793504
1c1
< A branch of Taggart Transcontinentel that serves the San Sebastian Mines in Mexico.  The SanSebastianLine nationalized soon after completeion by the Mexican government.
---
> A branch of Taggart Transcontinentel that serves the San Sebastian Mines in Mexico.  The SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
6c6
<   AtlasShrugged132
---
>   AtlasShrugged132
------
RioNorteLine|980793787
1c1
< A branch of TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
---
> A branch of AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental|980793811
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The railroad run by Dagny Taggart.
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980793816
17c17
< can be fired multiple times (or <em>pulsed</em>.)
---
> can be fired multiple times (or ''pulsed''.)
31c31
< burn by themselves - no oxygen required! This is because the combined chemicals, when energized, "reduce," or change in ionic state by reacting with each other, as opposed to an outside oxidant.  The most commonly used monopropellant is <em>hydrazine</em> (N2H4), a chemical which is characterized as "strongly reducing".
---
> burn by themselves - no oxygen required! This is because the combined chemicals, when energized, "reduce," or change in ionic state by reacting with each other, as opposed to an outside oxidant.  The most commonly used monopropellant is ''hydrazine'' (N2H4), a chemical which is characterized as "strongly reducing".
51c51
< oxidizer (this is known as the <em>mixture ratio</em>.) 
---
> oxidizer (this is known as the ''mixture ratio''.) 
89c89
< Also known simply as <em>plasma thrusters</em>, HETs use the
---
> Also known simply as ''plasma thrusters'', HETs use the
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|980793854
1c1
< SPACECRAFT PROPULSION
---
> '''SPACECRAFT PROPULSION'''
------
AtlasShrugged|980793924
13c13
< * AtlasShruggedCharacters
---
> * AtlasShrugged/Characters
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980793947
1c1,70
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BrakemaN
> 
> DagnyTaggart
> 
> EddieWillers
> 
> EllisWyatt
> 
> FranciscoDAnconia
> 
> GwenIves
> 
> HankRearden
> 
> JamesTaggart
> 
> LillianRearden
> 
> NewsstandOwner
> 
> OrrenBoyle
> 
> OwenKellogg
> 
> PaulLarkin
> 
> PhilipRearden
> 
> ReardensMother
> 
> RichardHalley
> 
> WesleyMouch
> 
> * Very minor characters
> BartendeR
> 
> BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
> 
> BumNumber1
> 
> ConductoR
> 
> DagnysFather
> 
> EngineeR
> 
> FiremaN
> 
> MrAyers
> 
> MrsBeacham
> 
> MrsNathanielTaggart
> 
> NathanielTaggart
> 
> PassengerNumber1
> 
> PassengerNumber2
> 
> PassengerNumber3
> 
> PassengerNumber4
> 
> PopHarper
> 
> WaiteR
> 
> WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged|980793988
14,17c14,17
< * AtlasShruggedCompanies
< * AtlasShruggedPlaces
< * AtlasShruggedStructure
< * AtlasShruggedThings
---
> * AtlasShrugged/Companies
> * AtlasShrugged/Places
> * AtlasShrugged/Structure
> * AtlasShrugged/Things
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980793999
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AyersMusicPublishingCompany
> 
> AssociatedSteel
> 
> Phoenix-Durango
> 
> ReardenCoal
> 
> ReardenLimestone
> 
> ReardenOre
> 
> ReardenSteel
> 
> TaggartTranscontinental
> 
> WyattOil
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980794032
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Places mentioned in Atlas Shrugged:
> 
> Argentina (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Arizona (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> California (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> Chicago (AtlasShrugged112)
> 
> Chile (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Cleveland (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Colorado (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Cheyenne, Wyoming (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> El Paso, Texas (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Fifth Avenue (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Hudson River (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> Louisiana (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Mexico, People's State of (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Middle West (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Minnesota (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> New Mexico (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> New York (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged113, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Ohio (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Philadelphia (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> Redding (Connecticut?) (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> San Francisco (AtlasShrugged111)
> 
> United States (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Washington (AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Wilmington (Delaware?) (AtlasShrugged121)
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794053
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
> 
> ----
> Part 1 - Non-Contradiction
> 
> Chapter 1  - The Theme
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged111)
>  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>  - section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
>  - section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
> 
> Chapter 2  - The Chain
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged121)
> 
> Chapter 3  - The Top and the Bottom
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged131)
>  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
> 
> Chapter 5  - The Climax of the D'Anconias
> 
> Chapter 6  - The Non-Commercial
> 
> Chapter 7  - The Exploiters and the Exploited
> 
> Chapter 8  - The John Galt Line
> 
> Chapter 9  - The Sacred and the Profane
> 
> Chapter 10 - Wyatt's Torch
> ----
> Part 2 - Either-Or
> 
> Part 3 - A Is A
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|980794078
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FriendsofGlobalProgress
> 
> HalleysFifthConcerto (AtlasShrugged112)
> 
> NationalAllianceofRailroads (AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131)
> 
> RioNorteLine
> 
> SanSebastianLine
> 
> SanSebastianMines (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
> 
> TaggartComet (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged113)
> 
> WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980794116
1c1
< BrakemaN
---
> AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|980794131
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
> 
> DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980794160
1c1
< AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN
---
> /BrakemaN
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980794179
3c3
< DagnyTaggart
---
> /DagnyTaggart
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980794206
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main character in AtlasShrugged.
> 
> Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged/112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged/113)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged/114)
>    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged/132)
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980794242
6,9c6,9
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged/112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged/113)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged/114)
<    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged/132)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
>    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (/132)
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980794259
9c9
<    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (/132)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980794294
1c1
< AyersMusicPublishingCompany
---
> /AyersMusicPublishingCompany
------
AtlasShrugged/AyersMusicPublishingCompany|980794305
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980794333
3c3
< AssociatedSteel
---
> /AssociatedSteel
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980794362
5c5
< Phoenix-Durango
---
> /PhoenixDurango
7c7
< ReardenCoal
---
> /ReardenCoal
9c9
< ReardenLimestone
---
> /ReardenLimestone
11c11
< ReardenOre
---
> /ReardenOre
13c13
< ReardenSteel
---
> /ReardenSteel
15c15
< TaggartTranscontinental
---
> /TaggartTranscontinental
17c17
< WyattOil
---
> /WyattOil
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|980794429
1c1
< FriendsofGlobalProgress
---
> /FriendsofGlobalProgress
11c11
< RioNorteLine
---
> /RioNorteLine
13c13
< SanSebastianLine
---
> /SanSebastianLine
------
AtlasShrugged/FriendsofGlobalProgress|980794441
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged121.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|980794472
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>   AtlasShrugged111
>   AtlasShrugged114
>   AtlasShrugged132  
> 
> It is alluded to in:
>   AtlasShrugged131
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|980794495
1c1
< A branch of AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
9c9
<   AtlasShrugged131
---
>   AtlasShrugged131
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|980794535
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinentel that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>   AtlasShrugged114
>   AtlasShrugged131
>   AtlasShrugged132
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|980794604
1c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinentel that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980794669
5c5
< EddieWillers
---
> /EddieWillers
7c7
< EllisWyatt
---
> /EllisWyatt
9c9
< FranciscoDAnconia
---
> /FranciscoDAnconia
11c11
< GwenIves
---
> /GwenIves
13c13
< HankRearden
---
> /HankRearden
15c15
< JamesTaggart
---
> /JamesTaggart
17c17
< LillianRearden
---
> /LillianRearden
19c19
< NewsstandOwner
---
> /NewsstandOwner
21c21
< OrrenBoyle
---
> /OrrenBoyle
23c23
< OwenKellogg
---
> /OwenKellogg
25c25
< PaulLarkin
---
> /PaulLarkin
27c27
< PhilipRearden
---
> /PhilipRearden
29c29
< ReardensMother
---
> /ReardensMother
31c31
< RichardHalley
---
> /RichardHalley
33c33
< WesleyMouch
---
> /WesleyMouch
36c36
< BartendeR
---
> /BartendeR
38c38
< BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
---
> /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
40c40
< BumNumber1
---
> /BumNumber1
42c42
< ConductoR
---
> /ConductoR
44c44
< DagnysFather
---
> /DagnysFather
46c46
< EngineeR
---
> /EngineeR
48c48
< FiremaN
---
> /FiremaN
50c50
< MrAyers
---
> /MrAyers
52c52
< MrsBeacham
---
> /MrsBeacham
54c54
< MrsNathanielTaggart
---
> /MrsNathanielTaggart
56c56
< NathanielTaggart
---
> /NathanielTaggart
58c58
< PassengerNumber1
---
> /PassengerNumber1
60c60
< PassengerNumber2
---
> /PassengerNumber2
62c62
< PassengerNumber3
---
> /PassengerNumber3
64c64
< PassengerNumber4
---
> /PassengerNumber4
66c66
< PopHarper
---
> /PopHarper
68c68
< WaiteR
---
> /WaiteR
70c70
< WorkerNumber1
---
> /WorkerNumber1
------
TimShell|980794706
3a4,5
> ----
> And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794740
7c7
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged111)
---
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/B1C1s1)
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794760
7c7
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/B1C1s1)
---
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/A111S)
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794781
7c7
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/A111S)
---
>  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/SectioN111)
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|980794822
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell JamesTaggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
> ----
> * Setting
> Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
> ----
> * Characters
> BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
> 
> EddieWillers
> 
> Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
> 
> JamesTaggart
> 
> OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
> 
> PopHarper - First and only apearance.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794838
7c7
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged/SectioN111)
---
>  - section 1 (/SectioN111)
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|980794877
4c4
< Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell JamesTaggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
---
> Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell James Taggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
10c10
< BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
---
> /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
12c12
< EddieWillers
---
> /EddieWillers
14c14
< Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
---
> /Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
16c16
< JamesTaggart
---
> /JamesTaggart
18c18
< OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
---
> /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
20c20
< PopHarper - First and only apearance.
---
> /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|980794886
14c14
< /Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
---
> /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
------
MerloT|980794947
1c1
< A variety of wine grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in France and California, and on a lesser scale in Australia, Italy, and South Africa.
---
> A variety of WinE grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in France and CaliforniA, and on a lesser scale in AustraliA, ItalY, and SouthAfrica.
3c3
< Merlot is also the name of an XML Editor...:-).
---
> MerloT is also the name of an XML Editor...:-).
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980794953
8,10c8,10
<  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<  - section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
<  - section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
---
>  - section 2 (/SectioN112)
>  - section 3 (/SectioN113)
>  - section 4 (/SectioN114)
13c13
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged121)
---
>  - section 1 (/SectioN121)
16,17c16,17
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged131)
<  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
---
>  - section 1 (/SectioN131)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN132)
------
MerloT|980794967
1c1
< A variety of WinE grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in France and CaliforniA, and on a lesser scale in AustraliA, ItalY, and SouthAfrica.
---
> A variety of WinE grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in FrancE and CaliforniA, and on a lesser scale in AustraliA, ItalY, and SouthAfrica.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980794984
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  Afte falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
> ----
> * Setting
> Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
> ----
> * Characters
> /BrakemaN
> 
> /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
> 
> /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
> 
> /DagnyTaggart
> 
> /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
> 
> /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
> 
> /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
> 
> /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What was the brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN113|980795025
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Dagny and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from Halley's Fifth Concerto.  The brakeman watches her tensely.
> ----
> * Setting
> Taggart Terminal
> ----
> * Characters
> /DagnyTaggart
> 
> /BrakemaN
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|980795060
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
> ----
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
> ----
> * Characters
> /DagnyTaggart
> 
> /JamesTaggart
> 
> /EddieWillers
> 
> /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
> 
> /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
> 
> /HankRearden: Mentioned.
> 
> /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
> 
> /OwenKellogg
> 
> /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What is it that makes OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|980795102
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of Rearden Metal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, Paul Larkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
> ----
> * Setting
> Rearden Steel mills in Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
> ----
> * Characters
> /GwenIves: Mentioned.
> 
> /HankRearden
> 
> /LillianRearden
> 
> /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
> 
> /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
> 
> /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
> 
> /PaulLarkin
> 
> /PhilipRearden
> 
> /ReardensMother
> 
> /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN131|980795132
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, and Wesley Mouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop Hank Rearden and the success of Rearden Metal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the National Alliance of Railroads to drive the Phoenix-Durango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that Taggart Transcontinental's San Sebastian Line has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
> ----
> * Setting
> The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, design to look like a cellar.
> ----
> * Characters
> /JamesTaggart
> 
> /OrrenBoyle
> 
> /WesleyMouch
> 
> /PaulLarkin
> 
> /WaiteR: First and only appearance.
> 
> /BartendeR: First and only appearance.
> ----
> * Pregnant Passages
> "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|980795160
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Recounts Dagny's childhood decision to run Taggart Transcontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the San Sebastian Line: Millionaire playboy Francisco D'Anconia invested money in developing the San Sebastian Mines, and James Taggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
> ----
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
> ----
> * Characters
> /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
> 
> /DagnysFather
> 
> /DagnyTaggart
> 
> /EddieWillers
> 
> /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
> 
> /FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
> 
> /HankRearden
> 
> /JamesTaggart
> 
> /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
> 
> /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
> 
> /NewsstandOwner
> 
> /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
> ----
> * Symbolism
> The NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|980795188
6,7c6,7
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|980795211
1c1
< An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
3c3
< DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
---
> /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980795243
6,9c6,9
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
<    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (/SectioN114)
>    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (/SectioN132)
------
AtlasShrugged/AyersMusicPublishingCompany|980795267
1c1
< Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of /RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of /HalleysFifthConcerto.
4c4
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (/SectioN114)
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|980795283
29c29
< What is it that makes OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
---
> What is it that makes /OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980795392
3c3
< Argentina (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Argentina (/SectioN132)
5c5
< Arizona (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> Arizona (/SectioN111)
7c7
< California (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> California (/SectioN121)
9c9
< Chicago (AtlasShrugged112)
---
> Chicago (/SectioN112)
11c11
< Chile (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Chile (/SectioN132)
13c13
< Cleveland (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
---
> Cleveland (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
15c15
< Colorado (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114)
---
> Colorado (/SectioN111, /SectioN114)
17c17
< Cheyenne, Wyoming (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> Cheyenne, Wyoming (/SectioN111)
19c19
< El Paso, Texas (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> El Paso, Texas (/SectioN111)
21c21
< Fifth Avenue (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> Fifth Avenue (/SectioN111)
23c23
< Hudson River (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> Hudson River (/SectioN111)
25c25
< Louisiana (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Louisiana (/SectioN132)
27c27
< Mexico, People's State of (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Mexico, People's State of (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
29c29
< Middle West (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Middle West (/SectioN132)
31c31
< Minnesota (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> Minnesota (/SectioN121)
33c33
< New Mexico (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> New Mexico (/SectioN111)
35c35
< New York (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged113, AtlasShrugged114)
---
> New York (/SectioN111, /SectioN113, /SectioN114)
37c37
< Ohio (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
---
> Ohio (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
39c39
< Philadelphia (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121)
---
> Philadelphia (/SectioN114, /SectioN121)
41c41
< Redding (Connecticut?) (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> Redding (Connecticut?) (/SectioN121)
43c43
< San Francisco (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> San Francisco (/SectioN111)
45c45
< United States (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> United States (/SectioN132)
47c47
< Washington (AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
---
> Washington (/SectioN121, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
49c49
< Wilmington (Delaware?) (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> Wilmington (Delaware?) (/SectioN121)
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980795413
3c3
< Argentina (/SectioN132)
---
> /Argentina (/SectioN132)
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980795476
5c5
< Arizona (/SectioN111)
---
> /Arizona (/SectioN111)
7c7
< California (/SectioN121)
---
> /California (/SectioN121)
9c9
< Chicago (/SectioN112)
---
> /Chicago (/SectioN112)
11c11
< Chile (/SectioN132)
---
> /Chile (/SectioN132)
13c13
< Cleveland (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
---
> /Cleveland (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
15c15
< Colorado (/SectioN111, /SectioN114)
---
> /Colorado (/SectioN111, /SectioN114)
17c17
< Cheyenne, Wyoming (/SectioN111)
---
> /CheyenneWyoming (/SectioN111)
19c19
< El Paso, Texas (/SectioN111)
---
> /ElPasoTexas (/SectioN111)
21c21
< Fifth Avenue (/SectioN111)
---
> /FifthAvenue (/SectioN111)
23c23
< Hudson River (/SectioN111)
---
> /HudsonRiver (/SectioN111)
25c25
< Louisiana (/SectioN132)
---
> /Louisiana (/SectioN132)
27c27
< Mexico, People's State of (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
---
> /MexicoPeoplesStateof (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
29c29
< Middle West (/SectioN132)
---
> /MiddleWest (/SectioN132)
31c31
< Minnesota (/SectioN121)
---
> /Minnesota (/SectioN121)
33c33
< New Mexico (/SectioN111)
---
> /NewMexico (/SectioN111)
35c35
< New York (/SectioN111, /SectioN113, /SectioN114)
---
> /NewYork (/SectioN111, /SectioN113, /SectioN114)
37c37
< Ohio (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
---
> /Ohio (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
39c39
< Philadelphia (/SectioN114, /SectioN121)
---
> /Philadelphia (/SectioN114, /SectioN121)
41c41
< Redding (Connecticut?) (/SectioN121)
---
> /Redding (Connecticut?) (/SectioN121)
43c43
< San Francisco (/SectioN111)
---
> /SanFrancisco (/SectioN111)
45c45
< United States (/SectioN132)
---
> /UnitedStates (/SectioN132)
47c47
< Washington (/SectioN121, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
---
> /Washington (/SectioN121, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
49c49
< Wilmington (Delaware?) (/SectioN121)
---
> /Wilmington (Delaware?) (/SectioN121)
------
EcheloN|980795730
2c2,3
< It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. 
---
> It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. There are estimates that EcheloN intercepts up to 3 billion communications everyday.
> Participating countries: UnitedStates, UK, CanadA, AustraliA, and NewZealand.
22c23
< The governments of AustaliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists.
---
> The governments of AustaliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
------
EcheloN|980795772
23c23
< The governments of AustaliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
---
> The governments of AustraliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
------
AbbevilleFrance|980796209
3c3
< m. from its mouth in the English Channel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
---
> m. from its mouth in the EnglishChannel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
19c19
< There is a statue of Admiral Courbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
---
> There is a statue of AdmiralCourbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
------
AdmiralCourbet|980796262
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is a statue of AdmiralCourbet (d. 1885) in the chief square of AbbevilleFrance.
------
CityBerlin|980796355
4,5c4
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.
< The Capital of West-GermanY was up to 1999 BonN. 
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. 
------
AardvarK|980796401
2c2
< the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see 
---
> the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to AfricA (see 
5,6c5,6
< South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
< of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt.  In form 
---
> SouthAfrica, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
> of north-eastern Africa, extending into EgypT.  In form 
------
TechnologY|980797165
2a3
> * Cryptography
6c7
< * EcheloN
---
> * EcheloN
------
TechnologY|980797183
3c3
< * Cryptography
---
> * CryptographY
------
TechnologY|980797238
3c3
< * CryptographY
---
> * CryptologY
------
CryptologY|980797363
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CryptologY is a science concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
> 
> 
> The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a cipher by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the cipher is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the cipher to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
------
CryptographY|980797446
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CryptographY (from the Greek kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the secret key, but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
> 
> ----
> See also:
> 
> :* CryptologY
> :* CryptanalysiS
> 
------
CryptographY|980797465
6,7c6,7
< :* CryptologY
< :* CryptanalysiS
---
> * CryptologY
> * CryptanalysiS
------
CryptanalysiS|980797543
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CryptanalysiS (from the Greek kryptós and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the science (and art) of recovering information from ciphers without knowledge of the key. CryptologY is often--and mistakenly--considered a synonym for CryptographY and occasionally for CryptanalysiS, as in the popular solution of CryptogramS or CipherS, but specialists in the field have for years adopted the convention that CryptologY is the more inclusive term encompassing both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
------
CryptologY|980797615
4c4
< The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a cipher by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the cipher is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the cipher to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
---
> The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a CipheR by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the CipheR is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the CipheR to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
------
CryptologY|980797714
4a5,6
> 
> The most frequently confused, and misused, terms in the lexicon of CryptologY are CodE and CipheR. Even experts occasionally employ these terms as though they were synonymous.
------
CodE|980797816
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
> 
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeleted|980797844
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What's brown and sticky?
> A stick.
> 
> (Sorry, but no bad jokes page is complete without it.)
> 
> -- ChessyPig
------
CipheR|980797995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A CipheR, just like a CodE, also replaces a piece of information (an element of the plaintext that may consist of a letter or word or string of symbols) with another object. The difference is that the replacement is made according to a rule defined by a secret key known only to the transmitter and legitimate receiver(s) in the expectation that an outsider, ignorant of the key, will not be able to invert the replacement to decrypt the cipher. In the past, the blurring of the distinction between codes and ciphers was relatively unimportant. In contemporary communications, however, information is frequently both encoded and encrypted so that it is important to understand the difference. A satellite communications link, for example, may encode information in ASCII characters if it is textual, or pulse-code modulate and digitize it in binary-coded decimal form if it is an analog signal such as speech. It then encrypts the resulting coded data into ciphers by using the DataEncryptionStandard (DES). Finally, the CipheR stream itself is encoded again, using error-correcting codes for transmission from the ground station to the orbiting satellite. These operations are undone, in reverse order, by the intended receiver to recover the original information.
------
DataEncryptionStandard|980798189
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Figure 7 is a functional schematic of the sequence of events that occurs in the DES encryption (or decryption) transformation. Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
> 
> 
------
CryptologY|980798259
6a7,13
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> See also:
> 
> * DataEncryptionStandard
------
ChessyPig|980798298
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> More info on ChessyPig can be found on [http://compsoc.dur.ac.uk/~tsp/cgi-bin/triki.cgi/ChessyPig TrikiWiki], if anyone's really interested (although the info on there is pretty cryptic in itself).
------
CryptanalysiS|980798315
1c1
< CryptanalysiS (from the Greek kryptós and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the science (and art) of recovering information from ciphers without knowledge of the key. CryptologY is often--and mistakenly--considered a synonym for CryptographY and occasionally for CryptanalysiS, as in the popular solution of CryptogramS or CipherS, but specialists in the field have for years adopted the convention that CryptologY is the more inclusive term encompassing both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
---
> CryptanalysiS (from the Greek kryptós and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the science (and art) of recovering information from ciphers without knowledge of the key. CryptologY is often--and mistakenly--considered a synonym for CryptographY and occasionally for CryptanalysiS, as in the popular solution of CryptograM's or CipheR's, but specialists in the field have for years adopted the convention that CryptologY is the more inclusive term encompassing both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
------
WikiWikiWeb|980798614
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A web version of a WikiWiki. Also a dreadful pun, given that the initials are WWW, and such WikiWiki''''''s can be found mainly on the more famous WWW, the WorldWideWeb.
------
WikiSupremeCourt|980799220
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A mythical entity, rather like the UsenetCabal (TINC) and other such PatentNonsense. They decree what can and cannot be put on this WikiWiki, and probably reserve the right to summarily consign anything they see fit to 'BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense', or even destroy it completely. Such an organisation would destroy the whole democratic, co-operative spirit of a WikiWiki. (It would also stop idiots trashing things and so forth, but normal editors can put this right with decent diff functionality.)
------
IcelanD|980799405
1c1
< A european republic, positioned in the north of the Atlantic Ocean.
---
> A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the AtlanticOcean.
3c3,9
< Religion is mostly christian, population around 280.000 and around 103.000 sq km of land.
---
> ReligioN is mostly christian.
> 
> 
> Population ca. 280.000. 
> 
> 
> Area: 103.000 sq km. 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980799711
5c5
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive Civil War.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the Civil War a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
---
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
7c7
< At the end of the 19th century, the United States engaged in an extremely one-sided war with Spain, and gained control of Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba.  The US also acquired the Philippines, however only after a very bloody three year war, in which GenocidE was first used to describe the killings of 600,000 Filipinos by armed forces of the United States.
---
> At the end of the 19th century, the United States engaged in an extremely one-sided war with Spain, and gained control of Guam, PuertoRico, and Cuba.  The US also acquired the Philippines, however only after a very bloody three year war, in which GenocidE was first used to describe the killings of 600,000 Filipinos by armed forces of the United States.
9c9
< In the 20th century, as the amount of uncontested land in NorthAmerica was settled, the USA was forced to engage in more traditional mechanisms for continuing their political and economic growth.  Empires previously had used the policy of ColonialisM as the basis for establishing and protecting their foreign economic interests.  Since the US had been originally been a colony of England, obviously it would be considered hypocritical for the US to be known as a colonial empire, and so thus the US's "New World Order" was established and maintained through much more subtle events and mechanisms, many of which are not well known.  There have been a number of "Police Actions" or "Limited Engagements" in various third world countries, used to topple governments working at odds with US interests.  
---
> In the 20th century, as the amount of uncontested land in NorthAmerica was settled, the USA was forced to engage in more traditional mechanisms for continuing their political and economic growth.  Empires previously had used the policy of ColonialisM as the basis for establishing and protecting their foreign economic interests.  Since the US had been originally been a colony of England, obviously it would be considered hypocritical for the US to be known as a colonial empire, and so thus the US's "NewWorldOrder" was established and maintained through much more subtle events and mechanisms, many of which are not well known.  There have been a number of "Police Actions" or "Limited Engagements" in various third world countries, used to topple governments working at odds with US interests.  
11c11
< Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of Poland by NaZi GermanY in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japan.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
---
> Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of PolanD by NaZi GermanY in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japanese.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
20a21
> ----
21a23
> I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in UnitedStates history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --JimboWales
------
LiteraryArt|980799820
2c2,4
< dfgsdfgdfgdfgsdfgs dfg sdfg sdfg
---
> dfgsdfgdfgdfgsdfgs dfg sdfg sdfg
> ----
> Uhhhhh...  Hmmmmm....
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980799843
0a1,3
> I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in UnitedStates history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --JimboWales
> ----
> 
21,23d23
< ----
< 
< I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in UnitedStates history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --JimboWales
------
CryptologY|980799958
13c13,15
< * DataEncryptionStandard
---
> * DataEncryptionStandard
> * EnigmA
> * UltrA
------
ChristianityTalk|980799987
18c18
< Go figure.
---
> Go figure.  -- AyeSpy
22c22
< The above is not to assign a value judgment one way or the other as to which type of system is "right" or even "best," but merely an observation from where I sit in the cheap seats...
---
> The above is not to assign a value judgment one way or the other as to which type of system is "right" or even "best," but merely an observation from where I sit in the cheap seats...-- AyeSpy
40c40
< -- BryceHarrington
---
> -- BryceHarrington
------
EnigmA|980800027
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EnigmA was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during World War II. The EnigmA CodE was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
------
LiteraryArt|980800172
4a5,7
> ----
> Well, if 'LiteraryArt' means something on the same level as some people take ExpressiveEnglish to mean (as in, half-a-pickled-cow-level), then I guess this page counts as a prime example. Otherwise, do we not have any English majors here?
> 
------
UltrA|980800257
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> UltrA was an Allied intelligence system that, in tapping the very highest-level communications among the German armed forces, as well as (after 1941) those of the Japanese armed forces, contributed to the Allied victory in World War II.
> 
> 
> In 1938 a Polish mechanic employed in a German factory producing secret signaling machines named EnigmA (which worked on the basis of a set of preset revolving drums) took notes of the components before being repatriated and, with the help of the British and French secret services, constructed a wooden mockup of the machine. A British cryptographer later smuggled a complete new EnigmA machine to EnglanD. There, British mathematicians and cryptographers conquered the problems of EnigmA variations and found means of cracking the CipheR's. Early in 1939 Britain's secret service set up the UltrA project at BletchleyPark, 50 miles (80 km) north of LondoN, for the purpose of intercepting the Germans' EnigmA signals and controlling the distribution of the resultant secret information. Strict rules were established to restrict the number of people who knew about the existence of the UltrA information and to ensure that no actions would alert the Axis powers that the Allies possessed knowledge of their plans.
> 
> 
> The incoming signals from the German war machine (more than 2,000 daily at the war's height) were of the highest level, even from AdolfHitler himself. Such information enabled the Allies to build up an accurate picture of enemy plans and orders of battle, forming the basis of war plans both strategic and tactical. UltrA intercepts of signals helped the Royal Air Force to win the Battle of Britain. Signals between AdolfHitler and General Günther von Kluge led to the destruction of a large part of the German forces in NormandY in 1944 after the Allied landing. In the Pacific the Germans had supplied their Japanese ally with an EnigmA machine as early as 1937; the modified Japanese version, called "Purple" by the Americans, was duplicated by the U.S. Signal Intelligence Service well before PearlHarbor. Resultant revelations of Japanese plans led to U.S. naval victories in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, crushing the offensive power of the Japanese fleet, and enabled American flyers to find and shoot down the plane carrying Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, the Japanese commander in the Pacific.
> 
> 
> For 29 years after the war the existence of UltrA remained an official British secret. The ban was not lifted until 1974, the year that a key participant in the UltrA project, Frederick William Winterbotham, published The UltrA Secret.
> 
> 
------
ExpressiveEnglish|980800268
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the best light, English used well, often in a kind of descriptive sense.
> 
> In the worst light, s|<r1p7 k1dd353... or at least some people have been known to call it that.
------
UnitedStates|980800573
0a1,2
> The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
> 
5c7
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
---
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
------
LeiSure|980800696
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are two main meanings to LeiSure:
> 
> LeisureSport: going to the gym, and so forth; the implication is that it's for fun rather than out of necessity.
> 
> LeisureLounging: The kind of 'reclining-in-the-sun' type leisure, which implies going to sleep or a near-sleep lounging state. This is the type that's so different from ReCreation, which implies actually doing something to stave off boredom during less active times.
------
TimShell|980800818
1c1
< TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.  He sometimes writes about himself in the third person.
5c5
< And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
---
> And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
------
CountriesU|980801216
1a2
> Ukraine
------
CountriesU|980801236
1,2c1,2
< UnitedStates
< Ukraine
---
> UnitedStates<p>
> Ukraine
------
CountriesU|980801253
1c1,2
< UnitedStates<p>
---
> UnitedStates
> 
------
KurtCobain|980801297
1,2c1,3
< Lead singer of the grunge band NirvanaBand (together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic).
< He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
---
> Kurt Donald Cobain (1967-1994).    
> 
> Lead singer of the grunge band Nirvana (NirvanaBand - together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic). He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
------
AyeSpy|980801477
21c21
< Photos of plaintiff vehicle damages
---
> Photos of plaintiff and defendant vehicle damages
23c23
< Photos of defendant vehicle damages
---
> Photos/videography of client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities
25c25
< Photos of client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities
---
> Photos or micro-photography of physical evidence and of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
27,29c27
< Photos of scene, taken in a fashion so as to clarify liability or fact issues
< 
< Scale diagraming of accident scenes
---
> Photography and scale diagraming of scenes, to clarify liability or fact issues
31c29
< Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos, 
---
> Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos
33c31
< Obtaining of recorded witness statements, 
---
> Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
35c33
< Sitting in on (to observe and regulate) recorded statements of clients by insurance reps
---
> Secure, preserve and regulate access to accident vehicles as appropriate 
37,39c35
< Obtaining and preservation of physical evidence
< 	
< Inspection and analysis of physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:  failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
---
> Obtain, Inspect, analyze, and preserve physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:  failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
51,53c47
< Analysis of potential toxic exposure and causes for environmental illness
< 
< Analysis of compliance or lack thereof with safe animal restraint and handling practices
---
> Locate and interview witnesses, record witness statements. 
55c49
< Investigation of company compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety laws
---
> Sitting in on (to observe and regulate) recorded statements of clients by insurance reps
57c51
< nspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
---
> Analysis of potential toxic exposure and causes for environmental illness
59c53
< Photos of physical evidence
---
> Analysis of compliance or lack thereof with safe animal restraint and handling practices
61c55
< Micro-photography of evidence
---
> Investigation of compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety laws
63c57
< Photos of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
---
> Inspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
69c63
< Videotape scenes, client activities, impairments, other evidence
---
> Videotape scenes, client activities, defendant activities, statements, other evidence
75,77c69
< Find and hire consulting and testifying experts
< 
< Liaise with and supervise consulting and testifying experts
---
> Find and hire consulting and testifying experts in all fields and liaison with same.
88,91d79
< 
< Secure, preserve and regulate access to accident vehicles as appropriate
< 
< Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
------
NirvanaBand|980801559
6,8c6,12
< Best known albums:
< * Nevermind
< * MtV unplugged
---
> Discography:
> * Bleach (1989)
> * Nevermind (1991)
> * Hormoaning(1992 - AustraliA and JapaN only)
> * Incesticide (1992)
> * In Utero (1993)
> * MtV Unplugged in New York (1994)
------
CountriesU|980801635
1c1
< UnitedStates
---
> * UnitedStates
3c3
< Ukraine
---
> * UkrainE
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|980801767
40c40
< The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear.
---
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. -- AyeSpy
------
CommonSense|980801873
39c39
< It's only common sense.
---
> It's only common sense.  -- AyeSpy
------
EnglishLanguage|980801958
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee').
> 
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
------
AlTruism|980801961
20c20
< Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in general, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others.
---
> Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in general, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others. -- AyeSpy
------
PhiloSophy|980802057
8c8
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- GeorgeEMoore
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore
------
EnglishLanguage|980802201
1c1
< A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee').
---
> A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
3c3
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
---
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast|980802263
7c7
< People call this "having an open mind."
---
> People call this "having an open mind." -- AyeSpy
------
HelL|980802347
9c9
< An interesting read...
---
> An interesting read... -- AyeSpy
------
MonoTheism|980802373
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The belief in one GoD. ChristianIty, JudaIsm and IsLam are three famous examples of monotheistic religions. Note that the one GoD may have several aspects, such as the concept of the HolyTrinity in ChristianIty. Monotheistic religions have a tendancy to have strict sets of moral codes or laws (as they have a DivineLawgiver to provide them and justify them), often have a bias to one gender (due to the supposed gender of the GoD in question), and appear to have become more prevelant later in civilisations, when order is a GoodThing and explanations for random natural disasters are beginning to come from other sources than angry GoD''''''s.
------
LanguagE|980802449
18a19
> * PolishLanguage
21c22
< * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, Slavic, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
---
> * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, SlaviC, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
------
LeiSure|980802509
3c3
< LeisureSport: going to the gym, and so forth; the implication is that it's for fun rather than out of necessity.
---
> LeisureSport: going to the gym, and so forth; the implication is that it's for fun rather than out of necessity. SportS, in other words, but not as competetive.
------
PolishLanguage|980802598
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The PolishLanguage (together with Czech-Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian, and other Lekhitic languages) belongs to the West SlaviC branch of SlaviC languages. It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish (spoken in the southeast), Mazovian, and Silesian. Mazovian shares some features with Kashubian, whose remaining speakers (fewer than 200,000) live west of Gdansk near the BalticSea. Elsewhere, Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages. In Silesia the inimitable regional patois contains a mixture of Polish and German elements. Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations, standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by PoleS from the Soviet Union, the older generation came to speak a language characteristic of the former eastern provinces. Small numbers of people also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.
> 
> 
------
SlaviC|980802773
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''see'' SlavicLanguages
------
SlavicLanguages|980803030
2a3,15
> 
> Also called Slavonic Languages, group of Indo-European languages spoken in most of eastern EuropE, much of the Balkans, parts of central EuropE, and the northern part of AsiA. The Slavic group of languages is most closely related to the languages of the Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian).
> 
> 
> Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three branches: (1) South Slavic, which is further split into Western and Eastern subgroups. The Western subgroup is composed of Slovene and Serbo-Croatian (present-day Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian), languages spoken in SloveniA, Bosnia and Herzegovina, YugoslaviA, and adjacent regions. The Eastern subgroup consists of Bulgarian in BulgariA and adjacent areas, and Macedonian in Macedonia and the adjacent part of GreecE. (2) West Slavic, which includes Czech in the CzechRepublic and Slovak in SlovakiA, Upper and Lower Sorbian in GermanY, and Lekhitic (Polish and related dialects). (3) East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian (Little Russian), and Belarusian (White Russian).
> 
> 
> The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that are not apparent when Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages are compared. There are, however, enough differences existing between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between SlavS of different nationalities difficult, but not impossible. Within the individual SlavicLanguages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as in Russian, or to a much greater degree, as in Slovene. Modern mass communication, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the SlavicLanguages.
> 
> 
> SlavicLanguages descend from a dialect of Proto-Slavic, their parent language, which developed from a language that was also the ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. It is believed that Proto-Balto-Slavic, this ancestral language, was spoken in the territories surrounding what is today known as Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European area had been separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC).
> 
> 
19c32
< * RussianLanguage
---
> * RussianLanguage
------
SlavicPeoples|980803276
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in EuropE, residing chiefly in eastern and southeastern EuropE but extending also across northern AsiA to the Pacific Ocean. SlavicLanguages belong to the IndoEuropean family. Customarily Slavs are subdivided into east Slavs (chiefly Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians), west Slavs (chiefly PoleS, Czechs, Slovaks, and Wends, or Sorbs), and south Slavs (chiefly Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Macedonians). Bulgarians, though of mixed origin like the Hungarians, speak a Slavic language and are often designated as south Slavs.
> 
> 
> In religion, the Slavs traditionally divided into two main groups: those associated with the Eastern Orthodox church (Russians, most Ukrainians, some Belarusians, Serbs, and Macedonians) and those associated with the Roman Catholic church (PoleS, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes, some Ukrainians, and most Belarusians). The division is further marked by the use of the Cyrillic alphabet by the former (but including all Ukrainians and Belarusians) and the Latin alphabet by the latter. There are also many minority religious groups, such as Muslims, Protestants, and Jews.
> 
> 
> Prehistorically, the original habitat of the Slavs was AsiA, from which they migrated in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC to populate parts of eastern EuropE. Subsequently, these European lands of the Slavs were crossed or settled by many peoples forced by economic conditions to migrate. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC, Celtic tribes settled along the upper Oder River, and Germanic tribes settled on the lower VistulA and lower Oder rivers, usually without displacing the Slavs there. Finally, the movement westward of the Germans in the 5th and 6th centuries AD started the great migration of the Slavs, who proceeded in the Germans' wake westward into the country between the Oder and the Elbe-Saale line, southward into Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and the Balkans, and northward along the upper Dnieper River. When the migratory movements had ended, there appeared among the Slavs the first rudiments of state organizations, each headed by a prince with a treasury and defense force, and the beginning of class differentiation.
> 
> 
> In the centuries that followed, there developed scarcely any unity among the various Slavic peoples. The cultural and political life of the west Slavs was integrated into the general European pattern. They were influenced largely by philosophical, political, and economic changes in the West, such as feudalism, Humanism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the French and Industrial revolutions. As their lands were invaded by Mongols and Turks, however, the Russians and Balkan Slavs remained for centuries without any close contact with the European community; they evolved a system of bureaucratic autocracy and militarism that tended to retard the development of urban middle classes and to prolong the conditions of serfdom. The state's supremacy over the individual tended to become more firmly rooted.
> 
> A faint kind of Slavic unity sometimes appeared. In the 19th century, Pan-Slavism developed as a movement among intellectuals, scholars, and poets, but it rarely influenced practical politics. The various Slavic nationalities conducted their policies in accordance with what they regarded as their national interests, and these policies were as often bitterly hostile toward other SlavicPeoples as they were friendly toward non-Slavs. Even political unions of the 20th century, such as that of YugoslaviA, were not always matched by feelings of ethnic or cultural accord; nor did the sharing of communism after World War II necessarily provide more than a high-level political and economic alliance.
> 
------
PolishLanguage|980803392
3a4,9
> ----
> See also:
> 
> * SlavicLanguages
> * SlavicPeoples
> * PolanD
------
PolanD|980803446
5c5
< Capital: Warsaw (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
---
> Capital: WarsaW (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
7c7
< Language spoken: Polish.
---
> Language spoken: Polish (''see'' PolishLanguage).
------
WarsaW|980803614
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Polish: ''Warszawa'').
> Capital of PolanD. The city, which is an autonomous administrative unit, is located in the east-central part of the country.
> 
> 
> WarsaW is notable among EuropE's capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the Swedish and Prussian occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the Russian army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the WarsaW Uprising failed, by Hitler's order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the Germans, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of WarsaW, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
> 
> 
> Since the second half of the 18th century, the emblem of WarsaW (originally a siren) has been a mermaid with sword and shield in hand, representing the creature who in legend led a prince to the site of Warsaw and ordered him to found the city. The city's motto is, appropriately, "Contemnit procellas" ("It defies the storms").
> 
> 
------
PolanD|980803937
1c1,3
< Poland is a medium sized country in Central Europe. It's neighbours are: GermanY, RussiA, LithuaniA, BelaruS, UkrainE, SlovakiA, and the CzechRepublic.
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is WarsaW (Warsawa).
> 
> Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. PolanD is bordered to the north by the BalticSea, to the northeast by RussiA and LithuaniA, and to the east by BelaruS and UkrainE. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate PolanD from SlovakiA and the CzechRepublic, while to the west the border with GermanY is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
3d4
< Population: ca. 40m PoleS.
5c6
< Capital: WarsaW (Warszawa), pop. ca. 2m.
---
> Population: ca. 40m PoleS.
------
PoleS|980804148
1a2,7
> 
> 
> Before World War II the Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. In the provinces of Silesia, Pomerania, and Masuria (then in GermanY) there was a significant minority of Germans. In the southeast, Ukrainian settlements predominated in the regions east of Chelm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sacz. In all the towns and cities there were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking Jews. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in LithuaniA, BelaruS, and western UkrainE, all of which had a mixed population, PoleS predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in Daugavpils (in LatviA), Minsk (in BelaruS), and Kiev (in UkrainE).
> 
> The war, however, killed vast numbers of people, precipitated massive migrations, and radically altered borders. As a consequence the population of PolanD became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world. Virtually all of PolanD's people claim Polish nationality, with Polish as their native tongue (''see'' PolishLanguage). Ukrainians, the largest minority group, are scattered in various northern districts. Lesser numbers of Belarusians and Lithuanians live in areas adjoining BelaruS and LithuaniA. The Jewish community, almost entirely Polonized, has been greatly reduced. In Silesia a significant segment of the population, of mixed Polish and German ancestry, tends to declare itself as Polish or German according to political circumstances.
> 
------
WarsaW|980804204
2c2
< Capital of PolanD. The city, which is an autonomous administrative unit, is located in the east-central part of the country.
---
> Capital of PolanD (pop. ca. 2 mil.). The city, which is an autonomous administrative unit, is located in the east-central part of the country.
------
PolanD|980805751
7a8,13
> 
> Form of Government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; Diet [460])
> 
> 
> Monetary Unit: Zloty(PLN)=100 groszy; 1 USD=4.0 PLN (01/2001)
> 
------
PoleS|980805862
7a8,14
> 
> ----
> See also:
> 
> * SlavicPeoples
> * SlavicLanguages
> * PolishLanguage
------
BalticSea|980806006
6a7,11
> 
> 
> Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, FinlanD.
> 
> 
------
BalticSea|980806024
9c9
< Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, FinlanD.
---
> Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, Estonia, FinlanD.
------
BalticSea|980806052
9c9
< Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, Estonia, FinlanD.
---
> Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, EstoniA, FinlanD.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|980806636
7a8
> * PhP
------
BeeR|980806969
1c1
< An alcoholic drink (typically 5-6% alcohol, about 3.5 to 4% in the US), which is consumed in large quantities by males and females of all ages (16 to 99+). Mostly drank at home, in pubs and at FootBall games.
---
> Any of a variety of alcoholic beverages produced by the fermentation of starchy material derived from grains or other plant sources.
3,4c3
< The effects of beer are many and varied. You may feel a little light-headed after consuming a pint or two, where after eight or nine pints, you may begin to a: fall asleep b: ThrowUp c: start a FiGht d: have CasualSex.
< The after effects of too much beer often include headache, a delicate tummy and an unending sense of ReGret.
---
> Known to the Egyptians, Babylonians, and probably to earlier civilizations, beer became the common beverage in northern climates not conducive to grape cultivation. Although BeeR and WinE are both fermented and undistilled, wine is made from basic materials rich in natural sugar, while beer is made from materials high in starch content. Starches must be converted to sugar before fermentation can occur.
6c5,11
< Some well known brands include:
---
> Most of the world's beers are made from malted barley and flavoured with hops. They may be produced by employing a bottom-fermenting yeast strain, which falls to the bottom of the container when fermentation is completed, or a top-fermenting strain, which releases carbon dioxide and rises to the surface, forming a head.
> 
> 
> Lager beers, preferred in the UnitedStates, are aged beers of German origin, taking their name from the German lagern ("to store"). Bottom-fermented, they are stored at a low temperature for several months, clearing, acquiring mellowness, and becoming charged with carbon dioxide. Most lagers are light in colour, with high carbonation, medium hop flavour, and alcohol content of 3-5 percent by volume. They include Pilsener, Dortmund, Munich, and California steam beer. Top-fermented beers, popular in Great Britain, include ale, stout, and a brew intermediate between the two, called porter. They have a sharper, more strongly hopped flavour than lagers and alcohol content ranging from 4 to 6.5 percent or more by volume.
> 
> 
> Beers made from raw materials other than barley include hundreds of local African drinks made from millet, sorghum, and other available starch crops; Russian kvass, made from fermented rye bread; Chinese samshu, Korean suk, and Japanese sake, all brewed from rice; and pulque, an indigenous Mexican beer made from the fermented sap of the agave plant. The Mexicans and the Japanese also brew and export several brands of Western-style beer.
------
MonoTheism|980807363
1c1
< The belief in one GoD. ChristianIty, JudaIsm and IsLam are three famous examples of monotheistic religions. Note that the one GoD may have several aspects, such as the concept of the HolyTrinity in ChristianIty. Monotheistic religions have a tendancy to have strict sets of moral codes or laws (as they have a DivineLawgiver to provide them and justify them), often have a bias to one gender (due to the supposed gender of the GoD in question), and appear to have become more prevelant later in civilisations, when order is a GoodThing and explanations for random natural disasters are beginning to come from other sources than angry GoD''''''s.
---
> The belief in one GoD. ChristianIty, JudaIsm and IsLam are three famous examples of monotheistic religions. Note that the one GoD may have several aspects, such as the concept of the HolyTrinity in ChristianIty. Monotheistic religions have a tendency to have strict sets of moral codes or laws (as they have a DivineLawgiver to provide them and justify them), often have a bias to one gender (due to the supposed gender of the GoD in question), and appear to have become more prevalent later in civilisations, when order is a GoodThing and explanations for random natural disasters are beginning to come from other sources than angry GoD''''''s.
------
EnglishLanguage|980807478
1c1
< A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
---
> The language spoken in the U.K., Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
3c3
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
---
> ''Earlier contents of this page removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|980807564
59d58
< 
61d59
< 
62a61,66
> ----
> From EnglishLanguage:
> 
> A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
> 
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980807595
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, etc.
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.
------
EnglishLanguage|980807599
3c3
< ''Earlier contents of this page removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
---
> ''Earlier contents of this page removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.''
------
BrakemaN|980807661
3c3
< DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
---
> DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  When she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
------
LiteraryArt|980807818
1,7c1
< Describe the new page here.
< dfgsdfgdfgdfgsdfgs dfg sdfg sdfg
< ----
< Uhhhhh...  Hmmmmm....
< ----
< Well, if 'LiteraryArt' means something on the same level as some people take ExpressiveEnglish to mean (as in, half-a-pickled-cow-level), then I guess this page counts as a prime example. Otherwise, do we not have any English majors here?
< 
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetRy -- DraMa -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein -- StrangerInAStrangeLand
------
WikiSupremeCourt|980808357
1c1,3
< A mythical entity, rather like the UsenetCabal (TINC) and other such PatentNonsense. They decree what can and cannot be put on this WikiWiki, and probably reserve the right to summarily consign anything they see fit to 'BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense', or even destroy it completely. Such an organisation would destroy the whole democratic, co-operative spirit of a WikiWiki. (It would also stop idiots trashing things and so forth, but normal editors can put this right with decent diff functionality.)
---
> A mythical entity, rather like the UsenetCabal (TINC) and other such PatentNonsense.  They decree what can and cannot be put on this WikiWiki, and probably reserve the right to summarily consign anything they see fit to 'BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense', or even destroy it completely.  Such an organisation would destroy the whole democratic, co-operative spirit of a WikiWiki.  (It would also stop idiots trashing things and so forth, but normal editors can put this right with decent diff functionality.)
> ----
> Anyone can put stuff onto BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense, and anyone can take it from that page.  There are no wiki "editors."  By the very nature of a wiki, there can't be a "WikiSupremeCourt"--just a lot of concerned citizens, most of whom want to see actual useful content on this particular wiki.  That's why they do make use of that page o' censorship.  If you don't like it, find another wiki! -- LarrySanger
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980809747
1a2,6
> 
> ''I think the article is being remarkably fair.  What you mention above are all great theoretical traits, but have been fairly inconsistent in application.  In particular I think you will find that when times are difficult, ideologies are neglected.  America's record in dealing with other nations is especially poor - one of genocide and imperialism.  Their involvement in WWII is praiseworthy, but like everyone else their tactics were Draconian.''
> 
> ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.'' --JoshuaGrosse
> 
------
EnglishLanguage|980810132
3c3,5
< ''Earlier contents of this page removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.''
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the MiddleAges, usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the NormanConquest which gave England a French nobility, the FrenchLanguage.  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to amalglamate foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, to the present.
> 
> ''Earlier contents of this page removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.''
------
WojPob|980810192
8d7
< 
------
WojPob|980810345
7c7
< 
---
> ''Brief question - I couldn't help but notice on the (very nice) stuff you put up about Polish and other Slavic tongues, that you say they separated out around 3000 BC (I checked on Britannica and it agrees with you, just in case).  However most of the source's I've seen have the various other IndoEuropean groups separate out a millenium later, e.g. Celtic, Greek.  Would you happen to know why these are so different?''
------
CountriesZ|980812393
1a2
> Zimbabwae
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980812426
5c5
< ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.'' --JoshuaGrosse
---
> ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary. --JoshuaGrosse''
9c9
< The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.
---
> The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
------
CountriesZ|980812453
2c2,3
< Zimbabwae
---
> 
> Zimbabwe
------
CountriesZ|980812476
2,3c2
< 
< Zimbabwe
---
> ZimbabwE
------
CountriesZ|980812485
1c1
< ZairE
---
> ZairE<br>
------
CountriesZ|980812496
1c1,2
< ZairE<br>
---
> ZairE
> 
------
UnitedStates|980812710
2a3,4
> ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
> 
------
SlaviC|980813528
1c1
< ''see'' SlavicLanguages
---
> ''see'' SlavicLanguages, SlavicPeoples
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980813560
19c19
< Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of PolanD by NaZi GermanY in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japanese.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
---
> Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of PolanD by the SovietUnion and NaziGermany in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japanese.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980813795
24a25,26
> In the meantime, the American people enjoy unprecedented economic prosperity and remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
> 
------
WikiSupremeCourt|980813817
3c3,5
< Anyone can put stuff onto BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense, and anyone can take it from that page.  There are no wiki "editors."  By the very nature of a wiki, there can't be a "WikiSupremeCourt"--just a lot of concerned citizens, most of whom want to see actual useful content on this particular wiki.  That's why they do make use of that page o' censorship.  If you don't like it, find another wiki! -- LarrySanger
---
> Anyone can put stuff onto BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense, and anyone can take it from that page.  There are no wiki "editors."  By the very nature of a wiki, there can't be a "WikiSupremeCourt"--just a lot of concerned citizens, most of whom want to see actual useful content on this particular wiki.  That's why they do make use of that page o' censorship.  If you don't like it, find another wiki! -- LarrySanger
> 
> In short, this organization is far from mythical.  In fact, I would estimate that over 99% of WikiPedians belong to it. -JG
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980813946
13c13
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
---
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to that statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980813967
13c13
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to that statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
---
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to the previous statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980814226
13c13
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to the previous statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  
---
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to the previous statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  Nonetheless, black people from the WestIndies and AfricA immigrate to the UnitedStates at a rate of over 100,000 per year, while very few black Americans leave for the WestIndies or Africa.
------
AfricanAmericanPeople|980814570
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term used to describe American's whose modern ancestors came from Sub-Saharan Africa.
> 
> The term has been adopted in the UnitedStates since the 1970s as the PoliticallyCorrect term for black Americans.  The term is logically suspect, however, in that it attempts to define a race both in terms of race and citizenship.  To illustrate the problem:
> 
> What race is WalterWilliams?  African-American.
> Is WalterWilliams the same race as DesmondTutu? Yes.
> Is DesmondTutu African-American?  No.
> 
------
AfricanAmericanPeople|980814587
5,7c5,7
< What race is WalterWilliams?  African-American.
< Is WalterWilliams the same race as DesmondTutu? Yes.
< Is DesmondTutu African-American?  No.
---
>  What race is WalterWilliams?  African-American.
>  Is WalterWilliams the same race as DesmondTutu? Yes.
>  Is DesmondTutu African-American?  No.
------
AfricanAmericanPeople|980814671
1c1
< A term used to describe American's whose modern ancestors came from Sub-Saharan Africa.
---
> A term used to describe American citizens whose modern ancestors came from Sub-Saharan Africa.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980814743
5c5,7
< ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary. --JoshuaGrosse''
---
> ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary.''
> 
> ''Meanwhile, instead of going ahead and adding good and deleting bad and deleting good and adding bad, and so forth, I suggest we have a separate discussion on what is an appropriate take here on HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion.  Leave this as is for now, and know that it is controversial.  --JoshuaGrosse''
------
WalterWilliams|980814964
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An American economist associated with GeorgeMasonUniversity.  Williams is known for his outspoken libertarian and sometimes conservative views.  He is a popular columnist and author of books aimed at a general audience.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980815181
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We don't want the HistoryOfUnitedStates to be a large pile of pro-American propaganda, like virtually all histories of that country are.  However, we also don't want it to be a large pile of ''anti''-American propaganda.  So I think we should carefully discuss each controversial point that comes up before writing about it.
> 
> '''The American civil war'''
> 
> Bryce stated that this was not so much about racial issues as economic issues, and Tim disagreed therewith.  Which of these points, exactly, are you disagreeing with?  If it's the racial one - wasn't the north willing to reverse it's stance on that particular issue?  Not being American, I don't really know...
------
DesmondTutu|980815218
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A SouthAfrican peace activist who rose to worldwide fame through his opposition to ApartheiD.  He was the first black Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, and the winner of the 1984 NobelPeacePrize.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980815277
5c5,9
< Bryce stated that this was not so much about racial issues as economic issues, and Tim disagreed therewith.  Which of these points, exactly, are you disagreeing with?  If it's the racial one - wasn't the north willing to reverse it's stance on that particular issue?  Not being American, I don't really know...
---
> Bryce stated that this was not so much about racial issues as economic issues, and Tim disagreed therewith.  Which of these points, exactly, are you disagreeing with?  If it's the racial one - wasn't the north willing to reverse it's stance on that particular issue?  Not being American, I don't really know...
> 
> '''WWII'''
> 
> I'm not sure why it's so important to mention the SovietUnion invading PolanD, since that had nothing to with the causes of the war.  Inasmuchas the allies never went to war with them.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980815415
1,10d0
< I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in UnitedStates history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --JimboWales
< 
< ''I think the article is being remarkably fair.  What you mention above are all great theoretical traits, but have been fairly inconsistent in application.  In particular I think you will find that when times are difficult, ideologies are neglected.  America's record in dealing with other nations is especially poor - one of genocide and imperialism.  Their involvement in WWII is praiseworthy, but like everyone else their tactics were Draconian.''
< 
< ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary.''
< 
< ''Meanwhile, instead of going ahead and adding good and deleting bad and deleting good and adding bad, and so forth, I suggest we have a separate discussion on what is an appropriate take here on HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion.  Leave this as is for now, and know that it is controversial.  --JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< ----
< 
32a23
> See HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk for discussion of the above article (or possibly an earlier version of the above article).
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980815448
6a7,8
> The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here.
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980815480
7c7
< The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here.
---
> The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here. - Tim
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980815498
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in UnitedStates history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --JimboWales
> 
> ''I think the article is being remarkably fair.  What you mention above are all great theoretical traits, but have been fairly inconsistent in application.  In particular I think you will find that when times are difficult, ideologies are neglected.  America's record in dealing with other nations is especially poor - one of genocide and imperialism.  Their involvement in WWII is praiseworthy, but like everyone else their tactics were Draconian.''
> 
> ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary.''
> 
> ''Meanwhile, instead of going ahead and adding good and deleting bad and deleting good and adding bad, and so forth, I suggest we have a separate discussion on what is an appropriate take here on HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion.  Leave this as is for now, and know that it is controversial.  --JoshuaGrosse''
> 
> ----
> 
> Joshua, here is my view: I think we shouldn't aim for objectivity; we should aim for lack of bias.  The way to achieve lack of bias is to ''explicitly acknowledge'' within the article itself points on which there is disagreement, and make sure that the body of the article does not betray any particular position on these disagreements.  Thus, lack of bias is not achieved by striking a middle position between the views that the U.S. had a glorious wonderful history and that it was dark and evil.  It is achieved by relating what objective facts everyone can agree on, and then making explicit what points people disagree about.
> 
> By the way, anyone is free to change this article at any time, you know.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980815555
23c23
< See HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk for discussion of the above article (or possibly an earlier version of the above article).
---
> See HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion and HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk for discussion of the above article (or possibly an earlier version of the above article).
------
DesmondTutu|980815581
1c1
< A SouthAfrican peace activist who rose to worldwide fame through his opposition to ApartheiD.  He was the first black Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, and the winner of the 1984 NobelPeacePrize.
---
> A SouthAfrican peace activist who rose to worldwide fame in the 1980s through his opposition to ApartheiD.  He was the first black Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, and the winner of the 1984 NobelPeacePrize.
------
UnitedStates|980815807
4a5,7
> - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
> 
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980815832
13c13,15
< By the way, anyone is free to change this article at any time, you know.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> By the way, anyone is free to change this article at any time, you know.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> 
> ''My bad, what I meant was a treatment which is accurate rather than opinionated, not completely detached.  Of course anyone can edit the article at any time, but rather than have it completely rewritten whenever some pro/anti zealot comes along, or have it completely filled with the reasons for every position, I figured the latter could be collected on a separate page.  Only now we have two of those....''
------
WojPob|980815847
1c1
< Wojtek Pobratyn.
---
> Wojtek (pronounced voytech - ''rhymes with hitech:-) Pobratyn.
7c7
< ''Brief question - I couldn't help but notice on the (very nice) stuff you put up about Polish and other Slavic tongues, that you say they separated out around 3000 BC (I checked on Britannica and it agrees with you, just in case).  However most of the source's I've seen have the various other IndoEuropean groups separate out a millenium later, e.g. Celtic, Greek.  Would you happen to know why these are so different?''
---
> ''Brief question - I couldn't help but notice on the (very nice) stuff you put up about Polish and other Slavic tongues, that you say they separated out around 3000 BC (I checked on Britannica and it agrees with you, just in case).  However most of the source's I've seen have the various other IndoEuropean groups separate out a millenium later, e.g. Celtic, Greek.  Would you happen to know why these are so different?''
------
WojPob|980815867
1c1
< Wojtek (pronounced voytech - ''rhymes with hitech:-) Pobratyn.
---
> Wojtek (pronounced voytech - ''rhymes with hitech:-)'' Pobratyn.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980816101
11a12,13
> ----
> The invasion might be worth mentioning as it was a direct consequence of the secret Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which Hitler kept until invading the SovietUnion in 1942 (OperationBarbarossa) - WojPob
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980816272
13c13
< The invasion might be worth mentioning as it was a direct consequence of the secret Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which Hitler kept until invading the SovietUnion in 1942 (OperationBarbarossa) - WojPob
---
> The invasion might be worth mentioning as it was a direct consequence of the secret Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which Hitler kept until invading the SovietUnion in 1942 (OperationBarbarossa) - WojPob (GermanY invaded on Sept. 1st and the SovietUnion on Sept. 17th 1939 - ''BTW'')
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980816870
12c12
< ----
---
> 
13a14,16
> 
> ...Please note I'm not saying it's not worth mentioning altogether.  For a discussion of WWII, one could scarce leave it out.  I just don't think that the details of how the war started are particularly relevant to the history of the US, except in so far as to give them a just ''casus belli''.
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980817009
16a17,18
> ----
> There is also some stuff left on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?UnitedStatesOfAmerica Ward's wiki] that probably wouldn't hurt to consider.
------
DanCe|980817183
3c3
< BallroomDance -- JazzDance -- ModernDance -- FolkDance -- BalletDance -- SquareDance -- TapDance
---
> BallroomDance -- SwingDance -- JazzDance -- ModernDance -- FolkDance -- BalletDance -- SquareDance -- TapDance
------
AdolfHitler|980817285
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AdolfHitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the state of Upper AustriA (''Oberoesterreich'') on the Austro/German border.
> 
> 
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the National Socialist (NazI) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
> assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
> 
> 
> Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was illegitimate and for a time bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber, but by 1876 he had established his claim to the surname Hitler. Adolf never used any other name,and d the name Schicklgruber was revived only by his political opponents in Germany and Austria in the 1930s.
> 
> 
> AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed Admiral Doenitz as the next Führer.
------
AdolfHitler|980817320
4c4
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the National Socialist (NazI) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
---
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the National Socialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
11c11
< AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed Admiral Doenitz as the next Führer.
---
> AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed Admiral Doenitz as the next Führer.
------
AdolfHitler|980817342
4c4
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the National Socialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
---
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the NationalSocialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
------
AdolfHitler|980817424
4,5c4
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader'') leader of the NationalSocialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). He was officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death,
< assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
---
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the NationalSocialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
------
AdolfHitler|980817611
7c7
< Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was illegitimate and for a time bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber, but by 1876 he had established his claim to the surname Hitler. Adolf never used any other name,and d the name Schicklgruber was revived only by his political opponents in Germany and Austria in the 1930s.
---
> Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was illegitimate and for a time bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber, but by 1876 he had established his claim to the surname Hitler. Adolf never used any other name, and the name Schicklgruber was revived only by his political opponents in GermanY and AustriA in the 1930s.
------
SeT|980817703
4c4
< Sn belongs to '''S'''. 
---
> Sn belongs to '''S'''.---- 
6c6,10
< '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
---
> '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
> ----
> 
> I am not ignoring this question, I simply don't have time at the moment. Please be patient.
> RoseParks
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|980817933
3c3
< :PhilosophyOfMath
---
> :PhilosophyOfMath -- FermatsLastTheorem
------
FermatsLastTheorem|980818079
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no natural numbers x, y, and z such that x^n + y^n = z^n, in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
> were baffled by the statement, for they were unable either to prove or to disprove it, although the statement had been proved for many specific values of n.
> 
> Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician AndrewWiles, with help from his former student, Richard Taylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal Annals of Mathematics.
> 
> 
> 
> 
>                                                                          Tools
> 
> 
> 
>                                                                           E-mail this article
> 
>                                                                           Print this article
>                                                                           
> 
>                                                                          More About This Topic
> 
> 
> 
>                                                                           Article
> 
> 
>                                                                           Index Entry
> 
> 
>                                                                           Internet Links
>                                                                           
> 
> 
> 
------
FermatsLastTheorem|980818096
9,31c9
<                                                                          Tools
< 
< 
< 
<                                                                           E-mail this article
< 
<                                                                           Print this article
<                                                                           
< 
<                                                                          More About This Topic
< 
< 
< 
<                                                                           Article
< 
< 
<                                                                           Index Entry
< 
< 
<                                                                           Internet Links
<                                                                           
< 
< 
---
>                                                                          
------
FermatsLastTheorem|980818140
1c1,6
< FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no natural numbers x, y, and z such that x^n + y^n = z^n, in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
---
> FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no natural numbers x, y, and z such that
> 
> : x^n + y^n = z^n
> 
> 
> in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
------
SwingDance|980818218
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While BallroomDance includes most of the swing dances popular
> today, the swing and ballroom dance cultures are distinct.
> Club-style swing dancers often find ballroom dancers inexpressive and too worried about technique.  Conversely, ballroom dancers may get frustrated when a swing dancer doesn't lead a step "correctly", or when they hold a figure several counts extra to match a break in the music.  These, of course, are BroadGeneralizations.
> 
> 
> Popular swing dances include:
> 
> LindyHop -- Charleston -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
> 
> CountrySwing is yet another division of swing with a largely distinct culture.
------
BalticSea|980818328
1c1
< Sea with BrackishWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
---
> Sea in Northern Europe with BrackishWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
------
CryptographY|980818544
8a9,13
> ----
> Further Reading:
> 
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography''
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Secrets and Lies''
------
CryptologY|980818807
15c15,16
< * UltrA
---
> * UltrA
> * OneTimePads
------
GeorgeMasonUniversity|980819055
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A university in the state of VirginiA with campuses in ArlingtonVA, FairfaxVA, and PrinceWilliamVA.
> 
> George Mason University traces its roots back to the 1950s when it was part of the University of Virginia system.  It became an independent university in 1972.  It's faculty boasts NobelPrize winning economist JamesMBuchanan.
> 
> The University's web site is at (http://www.gmu.edu/, http://www.gmu.edu/).
------
GeorgeMasonUniversity|980819075
5c5
< The University's web site is at (http://www.gmu.edu/, http://www.gmu.edu/).
---
> The University's web site is at http://www.gmu.edu/ .
------
JohannSebastianBach|980819397
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Johann Sebastian Bach was a classical composer who lived from 1685 thru 1750.  He is generally ranked among history's greatest composers. 
------
JohannSebastianBach|980819455
1c1,5
< Johann Sebastian Bach was a classical composer who lived from 1685 thru 1750.  He is generally ranked among history's greatest composers. 
---
> Johann Sebastian Bach was a classical composer who lived from 1685 thru 1750.  He is generally ranked among history's greatest composers.
> 
> */Biography
> */Compositions
> */Recordings
------
OneTimePads|980819528
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented early in the 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure algorithm available.
> 
> 
> It is also quite useless. The key has to be as long as the message. Mordern CryptographY encrypts large things (eg. Digital Movies, Internet Connections, Telephone Conversations, etc.) - dealing with OneTimePads of such a size is simply impracticable.
> 
> 
> OneTimePads have been used in specialised circumstances. KGB spies used pencil and paper OneTimePads to communicate. The NSA broke the system because the spies used the OneTimePads more than once[sic!].
------
OneTimePads|980819574
1c1
< OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented early in the 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure algorithm available.
---
> OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented in the early 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure algorithm available.
------
IndoEuropean|980819721
27c27
<    a^  e^  i^  o^? u^?                  Long vowels
---
>    â   ê   î   ô?  û?                   Long vowels
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980819760
15a16,18
> 
> -----
> Perhaps the sensible thing to do here would be to create an outline covering major historical periods and topics, creating links to each subcategory, and then allowing the subcategories to be filled in over time.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980819853
30c30,33
< Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).
---
> Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).
> ----
> 
> ''I'll check up on those dates about SlavicLanguages in a few Polish sources. This might take a while though.'' - WojPob
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980820230
0a1,21
> * Periods of United States history
> /ColonialAmerica
> /TheAmericanRevolution
> /EarlyHistory
> /TheAmericanCivilWar
> /TheIndustrialAge
> /TheGreatDepression
> /WorldWarTwo
> /TheColdWar
> /TheSuperpower
> 
> * Important topics in United States history
> /ConstitutionalDemocracy
> /WestwardExpansion
> /Slavery
> /IndustrialRevolution
> /Immigration
> /Imperialism
> /EconomicGrowth
> 
> -----
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980820250
2a3
> 
3a5
> 
4a7
> 
5a9
> 
6a11
> 
7a13
> 
8a15
> 
9a17
> 
13a22
> 
14a24
> 
15a26
> 
16a28
> 
17a30
> 
18a32
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980820295
18c18
< /TheSuperpower
---
> /TheLoneSuperpower
------
LindyHop|980820300
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lindy Hop developed in the Savoy ballroom in Harlem.  
> 
> The two major styles of Lindy danced today are SavoyStyleLindyHop
> and HollywoodStyleLindyHop.
> 
> The basic step is called the Lindy Circle.  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers making a complete circle 
> around each other.
> 
------
MetallicA|980820372
1c1
< One of the greatest Metal bands ever©
---
> One of the greatest Metal bands ever
5c5
< Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra©
---
> Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra
14c14
< * JamesHetfield, throat, guitar©
---
> * JamesHetfield, throat, guitar
------
CryptologY|980820384
16c16,17
< * OneTimePads
---
> * OneTimePads
> * PrettyGoodPrivacy
------
ComputerSoftware|980820436
5c5
< ** EncryptionSoftware
---
> ** CryptographY
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980821282
40c40
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  This was done more for the purpose of undermining the Confederate economy than any desire to eliminate class and racial distinctions in the US; indeed, following the CivilWar a number of harsh repressive laws were put into effect to control and limit these people.  (Note: probably fewer than 10% of historians would agree to the previous statement).  These laws have vanished, but some believe the sentiments and practices still exist in many areas of the US.  Nonetheless, black people from the WestIndies and AfricA immigrate to the UnitedStates at a rate of over 100,000 per year, while very few black Americans leave for the WestIndies or Africa.
---
> In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  Some harsh repressive laws were put into place to control and limit these people, which have been repealed, and though some such sentiments linger America remains a popular destination for immigrants.
52c52
< In the meantime, the American people enjoy unprecedented economic prosperity and remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
---
> In the meantime, the American country enjoys unprecedented economic prosperity and its people remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|980821847
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A street in downtown New York.  In /SectionN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980821865
18a19,20
> 
> ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.  So I think the page should still be kept as summary first, subtopics second.''
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|980821897
1c1
< A street in downtown New York.  In /SectionN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
---
> A street in downtown New York.  In /SectionN111 /SectioN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|980821919
1c1
< A street in downtown New York.  In /SectionN111 /SectioN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
---
> A street in downtown New York.  In /SectioN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|980822028
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980822091
20c20,22
< ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.  So I think the page should still be kept as summary first, subtopics second.''
---
> ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.''
> 
> ''A second point is that many of the categories listed are not specifically parts of American history.  Last I checked, there were many other participants in the second world war.  So the page should be changed to something like AmericaDuringTheSecondWorldWar, but that's kind of cumbersome.  So, in short, I think the page should be kept as summary first, and sub and related topics second.'' -- JG
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|980822094
1c1,6
< The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
---
> The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
> 
> It appears in:
> - /SectioN111
> - /SectioN113
> - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|980822111
4,6c4,6
< - /SectioN111
< - /SectioN113
< - /SectioN114
---
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN113
>  - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980822141
21c21
< /FifthAvenue (/SectioN111)
---
> /FifthAvenue
35c35
< /NewYork (/SectioN111, /SectioN113, /SectioN114)
---
> /NewYork
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980822260
20c20
< ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.''
---
> ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.  So, in short, I think the page should be kept as summary first, and sub and related topics second.''
22c22
< ''A second point is that many of the categories listed are not specifically parts of American history.  Last I checked, there were many other participants in the second world war.  So the page should be changed to something like AmericaDuringTheSecondWorldWar, but that's kind of cumbersome.  So, in short, I think the page should be kept as summary first, and sub and related topics second.'' -- JG
---
> ''As to my second comment, please neglect it - apparently I missed out on how the slashes work.  That's pretty cool.'' --JG
------
AtlasShrugged/HudsonRiver|980822274
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /DagnyTaggart's childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.
>  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980822304
23c23
< /HudsonRiver (/SectioN111)
---
> /HudsonRiver
------
AtlasShrugged/CheyenneWyoming|980822381
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The northern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/ElPasoTexas|980822462
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
FederalisM|980822478
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It was futile.
------
AtlasShrugged/ElPasoTexas|980822482
1c1
< The southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
> El Paso, texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/CheyenneWyoming|980822504
1c1
< The northern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
> Cheyenne, Wyoming is the northern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980822523
17c17
< /CheyenneWyoming (/SectioN111)
---
> /CheyenneWyoming
19c19
< /ElPasoTexas (/SectioN111)
---
> /ElPasoTexas
------
AtlasShrugged/SanFrancisco|980822573
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> San Francisco is the western terminus of the Taggart Transcontinental Railroad.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980822599
43c43
< /SanFrancisco (/SectioN111)
---
> /SanFrancisco
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|980822768
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinetal's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
> 
> Mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|980822792
1c1
< Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinetal's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
---
> Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinental's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
------
AtlasShrugged/Arizona|980822895
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arizona is a state where the /PhoneixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewMexico|980822936
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Mexico is a state where the /PhoneixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine. It is mentioned in /SectioN111. 
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980822975
5c5
< /Arizona (/SectioN111)
---
> /Arizona
15c15
< /Colorado (/SectioN111, /SectioN114)
---
> /Colorado
33c33
< /NewMexico (/SectioN111)
---
> /NewMexico
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoPeoplesStateof|980823237
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the /SanSebastianMines and of /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine.  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
> 
> Mexico is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN131
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980823268
27c27
< /MexicoPeoplesStateof (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
---
> /MexicoPeoplesStateof
------
AtlasShrugged/Chicago|980823377
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /DagnyTaggart passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980823398
9c9
< /Chicago (/SectioN112)
---
> /Chicago
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|980823545
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /DagnyTaggart got of her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
> 
> Cleveland is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|980823556
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart got of her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
---
> /DagnyTaggart got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980823590
13c13
< /Cleveland (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
---
> /Cleveland
------
AtlasShrugged/Ohio|980823736
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart decides to appoint /OwenKellogg the new head of /TaggartTranscontinental's Ohio Division.
> 
> Ohio is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN112
>  - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental|980823835
1c1
< The railroad run by Dagny Taggart.
---
> The railroad run by /DagnyTaggart.  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
------
AtlasShrugged|980823877
14a15
> * AtlasShrugged/Conflicts
16a18
> * AtlasShrugged/Symbolism
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980823905
37c37
< /Ohio (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
---
> /Ohio
------
AtlasShrugged/Philadelphia|980824034
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philadelphia is the home of /HankRearden and /ReardenSteel.
> 
> Philadelphia is mentioned in:
> 
>  - /SectioN114 - /DagnyTaggart says she is going to Philadelphia to meet /HankRearden.
>  - /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980824066
39c39
< /Philadelphia (/SectioN114, /SectioN121)
---
> /Philadelphia
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980824190
2,18c2,10
< /ColonialAmerica
< 
< /TheAmericanRevolution
< 
< /EarlyHistory
< 
< /TheAmericanCivilWar
< 
< /TheIndustrialAge
< 
< /TheGreatDepression
< 
< /WorldWarTwo
< 
< /TheColdWar
< 
< /TheLoneSuperpower
---
> :/ColonialAmerica
> :/TheAmericanRevolution
> :/EarlyHistory
> :/TheAmericanCivilWar
> :/TheIndustrialAge
> :/TheGreatDepression
> :/WorldWarTwo
> :/TheColdWar
> :/TheLoneSuperpower
21,33c13,19
< /ConstitutionalDemocracy
< 
< /WestwardExpansion
< 
< /Slavery
< 
< /IndustrialRevolution
< 
< /Immigration
< 
< /Imperialism
< 
< /EconomicGrowth
---
> :/ConstitutionalDemocracy
> :/WestwardExpansion
> :/Slavery
> :/IndustrialRevolution
> :/Immigration
> :/Imperialism
> :/EconomicGrowth
------
AtlasShrugged/California|980824202
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /HankRearden has business concerns on California.  In /SectioN121 /LillianRearden asks /HankRearden to promise he won't be in California on the night of December 10.
------
AtlasShrugged/Minnesota|980824342
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Minnesota was the location of /HankRearden's first job, working in the iron mines at age 14.  He continues to hold business concerns there.
> 
> Minnesota is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980824376
7c7
< /California (/SectioN121)
---
> /California
31c31
< /Minnesota (/SectioN121)
---
> /Minnesota
------
AtlasShrugged/Redding|980824458
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN121 /PhilipRearden mentions visiting Redding.  It is not clear which Redding this is, possible Redding, Connecticut.
------
AtlasShrugged/Wilmington|980824510
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN121 /PhilipRearden mentions visiting Wilmington.  Presumably this is Wilmington, Delaware.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980824536
41c41
< /Redding (Connecticut?) (/SectioN121)
---
> /Redding (Connecticut?)
49c49
< /Wilmington (Delaware?) (/SectioN121)
---
> /Wilmington (Delaware?)
------
AtlasShrugged/Washington|980824637
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout /AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.
> 
> Washington is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN121
>  - /SectioN131
>  - /SectioN132) 
------
AtlasShrugged/Washington|980824651
1c1
< Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout /AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.
---
> Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980824677
47c47
< /Washington (/SectioN121, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
---
> /Washington
49c49
< /Wilmington (Delaware?)
---
> /Wilmington (Delaware?)
------
AtlasShrugged/Washington|980824740
1c1
< Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.
---
> Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.  Many directives that effect the plot are issued from Washington, but little to none of the book's action occurs there.
6c6
<  - /SectioN132) 
---
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/UnitedStates|980825021
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States is the setting of AtlasShrugged.  While almost every other nation has become a socialist "People's State", the United States remains the last country with some semblance of a free economy.  This is rapidly changing, and the book follows the United States as it gradually beomes a "People's State" itself.
> 
> The United States is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980825047
45c45
< /UnitedStates (/SectioN132)
---
> /UnitedStates
------
AtlasShrugged/Argentina|980825092
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Argentina is the home of /FrancisoDAnconia and the ancestral home of his family.
> 
> Argentina is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/Chile|980825140
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /FranciscoDAnconia owns extensive mining properties in Chile.
> 
> Chile is mentioned in: 
> 
>  - /SectioN132
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/MiddleWest|980825278
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /NathanielTaggart is rumoured to have killed a state legislator from the Middle West.  Supposedly the legislator had sold short shares of Taggart's railroad, and was using his power in the state government to drive the railroad into bankruptcy.  This is mentioned in 
> /SectioN132.
------
AtlasShrugged/Louisiana|980825337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /EddieWillers finds a wood-burning locomotive in Louisiana which is used to run trains on the /SanSebastianLine.  This is mentioned in /SectioN132.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980825379
3c3
< /Argentina (/SectioN132)
---
> /Argentina
11c11
< /Chile (/SectioN132)
---
> /Chile
25c25
< /Louisiana (/SectioN132)
---
> /Louisiana
29c29
< /MiddleWest (/SectioN132)
---
> /MiddleWest
------
TimShell|980828102
2a3,4
> /20010127
> 
------
TimShell|980828116
3c3
< /20010127
---
> /a20010127
------
TimShell|980828126
3c3
< /a20010127
---
> /A20010127
------
TimShell|980828139
3c3
< /A20010127
---
> /A
------
TimShell|980828153
3c3
< /A
---
> /AccDee
------
TimShell|980828179
3c3
< /AccDee
---
> /TimeLine
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828218
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /January27
> On Saturday, January 27, 2001, TimShell stayed at home and poached pears in MerloT. 
> 
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828240
1c1
< /January27
---
> /01Jan27
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828261
1c1
< /01Jan27
---
> /Jan27,2001
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828292
1c1
< /Jan27,2001
---
> /Y01M01D27
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828307
1d0
< /Y01M01D27
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828340
1a2,3
> ----
> And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980828409
4a5,8
> 
> * January 28, 2001
> 
> TimShell ran on the beach at sunset, thus making himself tired.  He came home and watched the rest of borint SuperBowl35. 
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829060
6c6
< * January 28, 2001
---
> * Sunady, January 28, 2001
8c8,12
< TimShell ran on the beach at sunset, thus making himself tired.  He came home and watched the rest of borint SuperBowl35. 
---
> TimShell ran on the beach at sunset, thus making himself tired.  He came home and watched the rest of boring SuperBowl35.
> 
> * Monday, January 29, 2001
> 
> TimShell woke up at 8:00 and arrived at the office at 8:30.  He was tired all day and was not at his productive best, even though he stayed at work until nearly 6:00.  He bought food from Serbians and later from Mexicans.  He talked to JimmyWales about launching some new websites.  He played with wikipedia a lot.  His stocks were up 1.53%.
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829097
2,3d1
< ----
< And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
4a3,5
> And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching. (LarrySanger wrote this.)
> 
> ----
8a10,11
> 
> ----
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829162
15a16,19
> 
> /January
> 
> /January272001
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829181
17c17
< /January
---
> /2001January27
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829209
17c17
< /2001January27
---
> /Date010127
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829240
18,19c18,19
< 
< /January272001
---
> /Date010128
> /Date010129
------
TimShell/Date010127|980829258
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell stayed at home and poached pears in MerloT. 
> 
> -----------------
> 
> And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching. (LarrySanger wrote this.)
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829282
1d0
< On Saturday, January 27, 2001, TimShell stayed at home and poached pears in MerloT. 
3,5d1
< And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching. (LarrySanger wrote this.)
< 
< ----
------
TimShell/Date010128|980829290
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell ran on the beach at sunset, thus making himself tired.  He came home and watched the rest of boring SuperBowl35.
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829317
4,8d3
< 
< TimShell ran on the beach at sunset, thus making himself tired.  He came home and watched the rest of boring SuperBowl35.
< 
< ----
< 
13,15c8,10
< /Date010127
< /Date010128
< /Date010129
---
> - /Date010127
> - /Date010128
> - /Date010129
------
TimShell/Date010129|980829326
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> TimShell woke up at 8:00 and arrived at the office at 8:30.  He was tired all day and was not at his productive best, even though he stayed at work until nearly 6:00.  He bought food from Serbians and later from Mexicans.  He talked to JimmyWales about launching some new websites.  He played with wikipedia a lot.  His stocks were up 1.53%.
------
TimShell|980829351
5,7d4
< On Saturday, January 27, 2001, TimShell stayed at home and poached pears in MerloT.
< ----
< And of course it was very easy.  Innocent, unsuspecting pears floating in a dish make an easy target.  Someone should arrest TimShell for poaching.
------
TimShell/TimeLine|980829365
1,10c1,3
< 
< 
< * Sunady, January 28, 2001
< * Monday, January 29, 2001
< 
< TimShell woke up at 8:00 and arrived at the office at 8:30.  He was tired all day and was not at his productive best, even though he stayed at work until nearly 6:00.  He bought food from Serbians and later from Mexicans.  He talked to JimmyWales about launching some new websites.  He played with wikipedia a lot.  His stocks were up 1.53%.
< 
< - /Date010127
< - /Date010128
< - /Date010129
---
>  - /Date010127
>  - /Date010128
>  - /Date010129
------
JimmyWales|980829411
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT JimboWales
------
TimShell|980829509
3a4
> /Places
------
TimShell|980829526
3,4c3,4
< /TimeLine
< /Places
---
>   /TimeLine
>   /Places
------
TimShell/Places|980829604
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  /Chicago
>  /Naperville
>  /Omaha
>  /PacificBeach
>  /PalmSprings
>  /SanDiego
------
TimShell/Chicago|980829810
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chicago is where TimShell lived from 1988 thru 1991, and from 1995 thru 1998.
> 
> He first lived in a studio apartment off the Bryn Mawr el stop in Edgewater, abut 5700 north.  This aprtment cost $245 a month, and it was across the alley from the el tracks.  TimShell had many dreams involving oncoming trains.
> 
> Then he moved into a house near DePaul University.
> 
> Later he moved into the basement of a house on Barry, in Lakeview.
------
HomePage|980830051
5,6d4
< It's the WeekEnd again.  The SuperBowl is happening on Sunday, not that those of you in EuropE care about that.
< 
------
TimShell/Naperville|980830190
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell did most of his growing up in Naperville, Illinois.  At the time, Naperville was mostly a farm town with about 14000 people.  His grandparents lived across the street from a farm.  TimShell remembers seeing the farmers rowing across their fields in a rowboat, after a flood.
> 
> TimShell lived in 815 Wellner Rd.  He attended Highlands Elementary.  He does not remember the second or third grade but he has pictures to prove that he was there.  He collected baseball cards and played Little League.  He committed various heinous crimes against the community but managed to avoid getting a record.
------
TimShell/Omaha|980830233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell was bon in Omaha, Nebraska for reasons that remain unclear to this day.
------
TimShell/PacificBeach|980830295
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell lives in Pacific Beach.  He can see the ocean from his apartment.
------
TimShell/PalmSprings|980830344
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell has family in Palm Springs.  He goes there for holidays and visits.  It is a good starting off point for treks into the desert.
------
TimShell/SanDiego|980830447
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TimShell lives in San Diego.  He moved there in 1998 with his company.  It is a cool, dry place.  He keeps his windows open most of the year.
------
TimShell|980830468
1c1
< TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.  He sometimes writes about himself in the third person.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in /PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.  He sometimes writes about himself in the third person.
------
CommunisM|980830473
3,7c3,6
< 
< * Marxism
< * Lenninism
< * Stalinism
< * Maoism
---
> * MarxisM
> * LeninisM
> * StalinisM
> * MaoisM
------
TimShell/PacificBeach|980830489
1c1
< TimShell lives in Pacific Beach.  He can see the ocean from his apartment.
---
> This is the community in which TimShell lives.  He can see the ocean from his apartment.
------
TimShell/Omaha|980830517
1c1
< TimShell was bon in Omaha, Nebraska for reasons that remain unclear to this day.
---
> TimShell was born in Omaha, Nebraska for reasons that remain unclear to this day.
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|980830895
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with /DagnyTaggart.  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
> 
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|980830982
3c3,8
< Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
---
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
> 
> Eddie Willers appears in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged111|980831006
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT /SectioN111
> 
23c25
< The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
---
> The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
AtlasShrugged111|980831021
1c1
< #REDIRECT /SectioN111
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN111
------
AtlasShrugged112|980831059
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN112
> 
------
AtlasShrugged113|980831081
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN113
> 
------
AtlasShrugged114|980831093
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN114
> 
------
AtlasShrugged121|980831106
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN121
> 
------
AtlasShrugged131|980831120
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN131
> 
23c25
< "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
---
> "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
------
AtlasShrugged132|980831133
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN132
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|980831281
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ellis Wyatt is the head of /WyattOil.  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
> 
> Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged111|980831300
2,25d1
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell JamesTaggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
< ----
< * Setting
< Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
< ----
< * Characters
< BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
< 
< EddieWillers
< 
< Ellis Wyatt - Mentioned.
< 
< JamesTaggart
< 
< OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
< 
< PopHarper - First and only apearance.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
AtlasShrugged114|980831316
2,32d1
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
< ----
< * Setting
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
< ----
< * Characters
< DagnyTaggart
< 
< JamesTaggart
< 
< EddieWillers
< 
< OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
< 
< BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
< 
< HankRearden: Mentioned.
< 
< EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
< 
< OwenKellogg
< 
< MrAyers - First and only appearance.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< What is it that makes OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
< 
------
AtlasShrugged132|980831329
2,37d1
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Recounts Dagny's childhood decision to run Taggart Transcontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the San Sebastian Line: Millionaire playboy Francisco D'Anconia invested money in developing the San Sebastian Mines, and James Taggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
< ----
< * Setting
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
< ----
< * Characters
< BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
< 
< DagnysFather
< 
< DagnyTaggart
< 
< EddieWillers
< 
< EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
< 
< FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
< 
< HankRearden
< 
< JamesTaggart
< 
< MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
< 
< NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
< 
< NewsstandOwner
< 
< OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
< ----
< * Symbolism
< The NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|980831582
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A worthless millionaire Playboy, owber by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  But the real Francisco D'Anconia is revealed as the book progresses.
> 
> Francisco D'Anconia is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|980831599
1c1
< A worthless millionaire Playboy, owber by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  But the real Francisco D'Anconia is revealed as the book progresses.
---
> A worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  But the real Francisco D'Anconia is revealed as the book progresses.
------
AtlasShrugged/GwenIves|980831680
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gwen Ives is /HankRearden's secretary.
> 
> Gwen Ives is mentioned in:
>  - /Section121
------
AtlasShrugged/GwenIves|980831693
4c4
<  - /Section121
---
>  - /SectioN121
------
ThingsThatDoNotExistForAReason|980832901
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Purina Elf Chow
> * Professional dog-scrubbers.
> * Self-adhesive chewing gum.
> * His-and-Hers granite.
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|980833384
17a18
>  - section 3 (/SectioN133)
------
WojPob|980833565
7a8,9
> 
> ''Some searching finds that there are (as should be expected) a bunch of different chronologies for the separation of Indo-European languages.  First of all, the Europeans started migrating into Europe at least as early as 2500-2000 BC, which was earlier than I had thought (not an expert at all).  The dialects separate out much earlier than that, though the slavs supposedly aren't discernable as a distinct group until about 1400 BC.  This probably refers to their separation out from the baltic peoples.  I'll do some more reading and fix up anything I happened to say that was wrong. --JoshuaGrosse''
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|980833957
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3:
> 
> * Plot summary
> /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
> 
> The cafeteria is described as follows:  "The cafeteria lay underground.  It was a large room with walls of white tile that glittered in the reflections of electric lights and looked like silver brocade.  It had a high ceiling, sparkling counters of glass and chromium, a sense of space and light."
> 
> This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /Section131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
> 
> ----
> * Setting
> The employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /EddieWillers
>  /MysteryWorker
>  /DagnyTaggart: Mentioned.
>  /McNamara: Mentioned.
>  /RichardHalley: Mentioned.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|980834011
6,8c6,10
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980834070
1,33c1,18
< /BrakemaN
< 
< /DagnyTaggart
< 
< /EddieWillers
< 
< /EllisWyatt
< 
< /FranciscoDAnconia
< 
< /GwenIves
< 
< /HankRearden
< 
< /JamesTaggart
< 
< /LillianRearden
< 
< /NewsstandOwner
< 
< /OrrenBoyle
< 
< /OwenKellogg
< 
< /PaulLarkin
< 
< /PhilipRearden
< 
< /ReardensMother
< 
< /RichardHalley
< 
< /WesleyMouch
---
>  /BrakemaN
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EddieWillers
>  /EllisWyatt
>  /FranciscoDAnconia
>  /GwenIves
>  /HankRearden
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /LillianRearden
>  /MysteryWorker
>  /NewsstandOwner
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /OwenKellogg
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden
>  /ReardensMother
>  /RichardHalley
>  /WesleyMouch
36,70c21,38
< /BartendeR
< 
< /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
< 
< /BumNumber1
< 
< /ConductoR
< 
< /DagnysFather
< 
< /EngineeR
< 
< /FiremaN
< 
< /MrAyers
< 
< /MrsBeacham
< 
< /MrsNathanielTaggart
< 
< /NathanielTaggart
< 
< /PassengerNumber1
< 
< /PassengerNumber2
< 
< /PassengerNumber3
< 
< /PassengerNumber4
< 
< /PopHarper
< 
< /WaiteR
< 
< /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /BartendeR
>  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
>  /BumNumber1
>  /ConductoR
>  /DagnysFather
>  /EngineeR
>  /FiremaN
>  /MrAyers
>  /MrsBeacham
>  /MrsNathanielTaggart
>  /NathanielTaggart
>  /PassengerNumber1
>  /PassengerNumber2
>  /PassengerNumber3
>  /PassengerNumber4
>  /PopHarper
>  /WaiteR
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
ThingsThatDoNotExistForAReason|980834190
4c4,6
< * His-and-Hers granite.
---
> * His-and-Hers granite.
> 
> ''Taking a break from AtlasShrugged?''
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|980834199
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MysteryWorker us a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
> 
> MysteryWorker appears in:
>  /Section133
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|980834216
4c4
<  /Section133
---
>  /SectioN133
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|980834239
1c1
< MysteryWorker us a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
---
> /MysteryWorker us a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
3c3
< MysteryWorker appears in:
---
> /MysteryWorker appears in:
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|980834249
1c1
< /MysteryWorker us a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
---
> /MysteryWorker is a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|980834323
1c1
< /MysteryWorker is a menial worker in the Taggart Terminal who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
---
> /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980834393
6,9c6,10
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (/SectioN114)
<    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (/SectioN132)
---
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN113
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|980834418
5c5
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
---
> Dagny appears in the following sections:
------
AtlasShrugged/McNamara|980834540
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /ElNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
> 
> McNamara appears in:
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/McNamara|980834570
1c1
< A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /ElNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
---
> A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /RioNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
------
AtlasShrugged/McNamara|980834583
3c3
< McNamara appears in:
---
> /McNamara appears in:
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980834614
9a10
>  /McNamara
38c39
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|980834912
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /DagnyTaggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously after the evening of his greatest triumph.
> 
> RichardHalley appears in:
>  /Section112 - Mentioned prominently.
>  /Section114 - Mentioned.
>  /Section133 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|980834927
4,6c4,6
<  /Section112 - Mentioned prominently.
<  /Section114 - Mentioned.
<  /Section133 - Mentioned.
---
>  /SectioN112 - Mentioned prominently.
>  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|980834946
3c3
< RichardHalley appears in:
---
> Richard Halley appears in:
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980834970
4c4
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  Afte falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
---
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980835109
1,17c1,10
< /AyersMusicPublishingCompany
< 
< /AssociatedSteel
< 
< /PhoenixDurango
< 
< /ReardenCoal
< 
< /ReardenLimestone
< 
< /ReardenOre
< 
< /ReardenSteel
< 
< /TaggartTranscontinental
< 
< /WyattOil
---
>  /AyersMusicPublishingCompany
>  /AssociatedSteel
>  /PhoenixDurango
>  /ReardenCoal
>  /ReardenLimestone
>  /ReardenOre
>  /ReardenSteel
>  /TaggartTranscontinental
>  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks (/Section133)
>  /WyattOil
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|980835120
9c9
<  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks (/Section133)
---
>  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks (/SectioN133)
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980835213
3,49c3,27
< /Argentina
< 
< /Arizona
< 
< /California
< 
< /Chicago
< 
< /Chile
< 
< /Cleveland
< 
< /Colorado
< 
< /CheyenneWyoming
< 
< /ElPasoTexas
< 
< /FifthAvenue
< 
< /HudsonRiver
< 
< /Louisiana
< 
< /MexicoPeoplesStateof
< 
< /MiddleWest
< 
< /Minnesota
< 
< /NewMexico
< 
< /NewYork
< 
< /Ohio
< 
< /Philadelphia
< 
< /Redding (Connecticut?)
< 
< /SanFrancisco
< 
< /UnitedStates
< 
< /Washington
< 
< /Wilmington (Delaware?)
---
>  /Argentina
>  /Arizona
>  /California
>  /Chicago
>  /Chile
>  /Cleveland
>  /Colorado
>  /CheyenneWyoming
>  /ElPasoTexas
>  /FifthAvenue
>  /HudsonRiver
>  /Louisiana
>  /MexicoPeoplesStateof
>  /MiddleWest
>  /Minnesota
>  /NewMexico
>  /NewYork
>  /Ohio
>  /Philadelphia
>  /Redding (Connecticut?)
>  /SanFrancisco
>  /UnitedStates
>  /Washington
>  /Wilmington (Delaware?)
>  
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|980835260
2a3,4
> /McNamara's offices are located in Cleveland.
> 
5a8
>  - /SectioN133
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|980835373
4,6c4,7
<   AtlasShrugged111
<   AtlasShrugged114
<   AtlasShrugged132  
---
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
9c10
<   AtlasShrugged131
---
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|980835426
4,6c4,7
<   AtlasShrugged114
<   AtlasShrugged131
<   AtlasShrugged132
---
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980835432
22a23,43
> 
> ----
> Bryce (bit confused over difference between Talk and Discussion, but figuring there's a reason) here...  
> 
> I'll be the first to admit that the original writeup focused more on negative points than on positive points, largely because the more I study US history, the more shamed I feel...  I listed particular things that have bothered me.  Maybe because they tend to get glossed over or apologized for in the history books we typically learn from, or perhaps 'cause I wanted to get a reaction out of people.  In any case, I admit that leaving out the many positive traits of US history causes it to be very unbalanced.  For instance, I mentioned nothing of the rebellion, nor the fact that the US pioneered the democratic principles that many people today have benefitted from.  I did not mention the technological achievements that its freedom allowed to occur (even though I personally don't believe we are _all_ as free as we would like to think).  And yes, I'll admit the article as I wrote it was rambling, skipping over vitally important moments in US history to focus on items of my own personal interest.  But I wanted to get it started without having to write a novel, and knew others would fill it in, given time.
> 
> Anyway, with the apologism out of the way...  You can call it biased if you want, but please do not dismiss it as false unless you have researched it more thoroughly.  I quick-checked each of the assertions against the article in the Britannica.com site (knowing it was going to sound biased, I was going to delete anything that lacked backup from an official source).  Believe it or not, the article I found on the Britannica site was even more damning than mine!!  
> 
> Also, realize that there are a TON of assertions out there about how much worse the US is than we care to believe, which appear to be true, yet which make the stuff mentioned so far seem extremely tame.  I don't want to earn the 'anti-american' label so I'll censor myself right here.  ;-)  But I encourage anyone bothered by assertions like these to please do some research on your own, and make sure to consult books that don't simply romantacize US history.  We've been very naughty...
> 
> Okay, now a couple comments about procedural things said above...  First, while it would be nice to say that one should write only the truth (and I wholeheartedly agree), it is effectively impossible to know the truth absolutely.  If a police officer asks five people at a car accident what happened, he'll get five different answers.  Second, regarding bias, I also agree it would be nice to say that "this is without any bias", but I think we must admit that every writer will be biased.  Not to say that it is not worth attempting to be unbiased, just that you should always assume everything you read is biased, figure out how it is so, and correct for it.
> 
> That is one of the things I find magical about wiki - unlike a newspaper, which could have a particular bias, and leave its readers no opportunity to point out bias and correct, here with wiki, we have the power to collectively fix that.  If I'm a boob and spout off with error after error, you can click 'edit' and fix it.  
> 
> But let me say this:  I hope that when we are done, every assertion, no matter how praiseworthy or damning, is defended with facts and proven.  And I hope that the controversial and unsettling assertions made in the original post help us go beyond just a 'nursery school' retelling of US history.  History proves that we are not the pure, wholesome, and just people that we think we are.  We're human just like everyone else on this planet; GoD did not make us better than everyone else, nor did GeorgeWashington, and we've done many bad things out of greed, fear, racism, arrogance, and plain old ignorance, that we would today castigate other nations for.  Heck, who knows?  Maybe we're still doing it.  
> 
> I'm going to cover the historical fact points brought up in this thread, over on Discussion, for no particular reason.  ;-)
> 
> Again, apologies if the original article shook people up...  But sometimes honestly pointing out flaws can be the best way to fix them.
> 
> -- BryceHarrington
------
AtlasShrugged/FriendsofGlobalProgress|980835473
1c1
< A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged121.
---
> A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|980835546
1,19c1,10
< /FriendsofGlobalProgress
< 
< HalleysFifthConcerto (AtlasShrugged112)
< 
< NationalAllianceofRailroads (AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< /RioNorteLine
< 
< /SanSebastianLine
< 
< SanSebastianMines (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< TaggartComet (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged113)
< 
< WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
---
>  /FriendsofGlobalProgress
>  HalleysFifthConcerto (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
>  NationalAllianceofRailroads (/SectioN131)
>  NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (/SectioN131)
>  ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, /SectioN121, /SectioN131)
>  /RioNorteLine
>  /SanSebastianLine
>  SanSebastianMines (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
>  TaggartComet (/SectioN112, /SectioN113)
>  WyattOilFields (/SectioN111)
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|980835609
4c4
< /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
---
> /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|980835628
8c8
< This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /Section131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
---
> This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /SectioN131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
------
AtlasShrugged/HankRearden|980835900
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.
> 
> Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131 - Mentioned and alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/HankRearden|980835978
1c1
< One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.
---
> One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.  He lives in /Philadelphia with his wife /LillianRearden, his brother /PhilipRearden, and an elderly woman known only as /ReardensMother, all of whom he supports.
8c8
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|980836270
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister /DagnyTaggart to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
> 
> James Taggart appears in:
>  /Section111
>  /Section114
>  /Section131
>  /Section132
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|980836280
4,7c4,7
<  /Section111
<  /Section114
<  /Section131
<  /Section132
---
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/LillianRearden|980836346
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The wildly unsupportive wife of /HankRearden.
> 
> Lillian Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsBeacham|980836412
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of /ReardensMother who does charity work for the parish school.  She is mentioned briefly in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/AssociatedSteel|980836685
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Associated Steel is the company owned by /OrrenBoyle.  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.
> 
> /SectioN111
> /SectioN114
> /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/AssociatedSteel|980836694
3,5c3,5
< /SectioN111
< /SectioN114
< /SectioN131
---
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980837622
43a44,47
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't disagree with all of the assertions Bryce made.  Some of them I do, and overall, I think the initial summary was very biased and ignored many of the essential facts of US history.  Also, I do not concede that "we've" been very naughty or that "we've" done many bad things.  It is certainly true that the government of the United States has done many bad things - it has, in a word, acted like every other government that has ever existed.  But I did not consent to or willingly participate in these things, so I refuse to consider them in the first person.  A society, and the government that rules (I might say, oppresses) it, are two very different things.  This theoretical point has significance here - a history of the United States should not be merely a history of the actions of the government of the United States.  It should be a history of the society as well - a history of what people do when they are free of governmental interference: invent, create, produce, experiment with different belief systems, and pursue happiness according to their own lights.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980837700
47c47
< I don't disagree with all of the assertions Bryce made.  Some of them I do, and overall, I think the initial summary was very biased and ignored many of the essential facts of US history.  Also, I do not concede that "we've" been very naughty or that "we've" done many bad things.  It is certainly true that the government of the United States has done many bad things - it has, in a word, acted like every other government that has ever existed.  But I did not consent to or willingly participate in these things, so I refuse to consider them in the first person.  A society, and the government that rules (I might say, oppresses) it, are two very different things.  This theoretical point has significance here - a history of the United States should not be merely a history of the actions of the government of the United States.  It should be a history of the society as well - a history of what people do when they are free of governmental interference: invent, create, produce, experiment with different belief systems, and pursue happiness according to their own lights.
---
> I don't disagree with all of the assertions Bryce made.  Some of them I do, and overall, I think the initial summary was very biased and ignored many of the essential facts of US history.  Also, I do not concede that "we've" been very naughty or that "we've" done many bad things.  It is certainly true that the government of the United States has done many bad things - it has, in a word, acted like every other government that has ever existed.  But I did not consent to or willingly participate in these things, so I refuse to consider them in the first person.  A society, and the government that rules (I might say, oppresses) it, are two very different things.  This theoretical point has significance here - a history of the United States should not be merely a history of the actions of the government of the United States.  It should be a history of the society as well - a history of what people do when they are free of governmental interference: invent, create, produce, experiment with different belief systems, and pursue happiness according to their own lights. - TimShell
------
TimShell/Date010129|980838146
1,2c1
< 
< TimShell woke up at 8:00 and arrived at the office at 8:30.  He was tired all day and was not at his productive best, even though he stayed at work until nearly 6:00.  He bought food from Serbians and later from Mexicans.  He talked to JimmyWales about launching some new websites.  He played with wikipedia a lot.  His stocks were up 1.53%.
---
> TimShell woke up at 8:00 and arrived at the office at 8:30.  He was tired all day and was not at his productive best, even though he stayed at work until nearly 6:00.  He bought food from Serbians and later from Mexicans.  He talked to JimmyWales about launching some new websites.  He played with wikipedia a lot.  His stocks were up 1.53%.  He had a glass of PinotNoir in the evening.
------
SwingDance|980840783
8c8
< LindyHop -- Charleston -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
---
> LindyHop -- CharlesoN -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
10c10
< CountrySwing is yet another division of swing with a largely distinct culture.
---
> CountrySwing is yet another division of swing with a largely distinct culture.
------
SwingDance|980840797
8c8
< LindyHop -- CharlesoN -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
---
> LindyHop -- CharlestoN -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980841280
2a3,4
> ''I think it may be difficult to know what is considered 'controversial' before writing.  As well, I have doubts that a) someone would be good enough to admit that their assertions will be controversial, and b) that the people discussing them on this page would necessarily be of sufficient authority to de-controversialify such a topic.  Oh, and c) some things in US history are just plain controversial.  Instead, let me propose that if anyone feels anything mentioned on the main page lacks sufficient evidence, bring it here (and write counter-evidence if desired).  Others can edit the item into less controversial terms or add proof, and then move it back.  Doubt this'd be a perfect solution, but I doubt anyone believes wikipedia is going to be _able_ to be true and objective, when anyone in the world can write in it.  But that's why we have Nupedia.''
> 
8a11,14
> ''From Britannica's website:  "In the Nineteenth century, the South had seceded from the Union with the shots fired at Fort Sumter in April, 1861. Abraham Lincoln fought to preserve the Union and, in 1862, freed the slaves with his Emancipation Proclamation. The ensuing Civil War ended only in 1865 with General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomatox."  Emancipation *did* occur during the war.  My claim that it was an economic issue was drawn from the Britannica article on the Emancipation Proclamation stating, "The locking up of the world's source of cotton supply had been a general calamity, and the Confederate government and people had steadily expected that the English and French governments would intervene in the war. The conversion of the struggle into a crusade against slavery made European intervention impossible."  However, in reading some additional sources on the Library of Congress pages, and some other civil war entries, I have to admit that Tim's comments that the evidence supports many hypotheses.  I suppose generally what I'm trying to say was that a) slavery was not the _primary_ reason for the Civil War, as we might believe, and b) the reason slaves were freed had many motivations (political, militaristic, economic, and so forth) beyond just the evilness of slavery.''
> 
> ''Finally, let me point out a distinction between "equality in terms of freeness" and "equality in terms of class".  The former can be claimed but not the latter.  Even today there is a class distinction; I was living in south central LA before, during, and after the riots and, being white, was made well aware of this on many occasions, and the evidence I saw supported this.  One man who can just come to Los Angeles from Mississippi told me, "Believe it or not, it's a lot better here than where I come from.''
> 
12a19,22
> ''First, I said Germany invaded Poland, not the Soviet Union, although in fact they did as well.  Second, Germany and the Soviet Union had a pact between them:  "On September 1, secure behind the new German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact that had stunned the world in August, Hitler began an invasion of Poland. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. By the end of 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided Poland between themselves, and the Soviets had occupied Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania and had attacked Finland, which they finally defeated in March 1940... In June Hitler abandoned the Nonaggression Pact of 1939 and launched a massive surprise invasion of the Soviet Union. German armoured units drove deep into Soviet territory and at one point reached the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather slowed the offensive to a halt."  We may not have had pitched battles between Britain and USSR during the 1939-1940 period, but don't doubt they were our enemies.''
> 
> ''In fact, it is interesting to note -- and I'll just toss this out as a flippant and discardable assertion since it'd take too long to prove -- that the NAZI's believed (for a little while, anyhow) that the British and Americans could be expected to support Fascism, since Britain and America detested Communism almost as fervently as the NAZI's did.  Looking at America's history of slavery, KKK, extermination of Native Americans, and so forth, it's surprising to think that this was actually a pretty logical thing for the NAZI's to think.  I got this off of a History Channel WWII program; I'd like to hear more about it if, in fact, it is true.''
> 
18a29,38
> 
> One thing on the main history page:  "How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII??"
> 
> Technically, it was the Soviets who defeated the NAZI State.  The Soviets lost and retook a LOT of land, lost the most lives IIRC, and engaged the NAZI's much more continually (and violently, I think) than the US did.  (Curiously, the Soviets also hold the largest responsibility for defeating themselves, but that's a topic for another page.)
> 
> Also, I saw in a History Channel documentary that the NAZI "final solution" for the Jews was inspired, if not modelled on, our treatment of the Native Americans.  Are these things true?  If so, then it makes one wonder...
> 
> Another last point that I recently read when researching some of Noam Chomsky's(sp) writings...  It can be argued on a purely imperial level, that WWII was in essence an attempt by NAZI GermanY to build an empire at the expense of the existing colonial empires (France and Britain) which failed, and which instead had the net effect of shifting the imperial power to the United States.  Control over colonies, where labor can be purchased cheaply, and human rights ignored, has throughout history been an extremely important way for imperial nations to build their economic wealth.  Could it be possible that the US has been doing the same, in the time since WWII?  Or has our international history been more filled with support for burgeoning independence movements?
> 
> -- BryceHarrington
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980842294
47a48,56
> 
> ----
> Yes, I use "we" a lot when discussing US history, because in reading a lot of this stuff I feel a great sense of personal responsibility about it, and assume (usually wrongly, as I repeately learn) others care similarly.  Note though that I don't think it is acceptable to 'cop out' by blaming the government.  Of course the government will do bad things; that is what governments, historically, have done.  But here in the United States, the principle is that the government 'belongs' to us.  Thus, I feel that like any manager taking responsibility for the action of his employees, or a general taking responsibility for the action of his soldiers, so too ought US Citizens take responsibility for actions of their government.  Of course, this too is my own personal political screed, and I promise to try to avoid letting 'we's slip in anywhere except in that which is merely discussion (like this).  
> 
> Also, I wholeheartedly agree that the history should include not only what the government does but also what the people do.  I left out things like the civil rights movement, various rebellions and religious/moral/ethical movements just for lack of writing time.  All of that should certainly be added.  But also note that usually, when the government is repressing the minority, there is a possibility that society itself supports (perhaps even elected) the repression.
> 
> Anyway, like I said, I grant that I skipped over many essential facts.  Assume that I did this because I wanted to leave the enjoyable, ennobling writing parts to you.  ;-)
> 
> I think I'll withdraw from writing more on US history...  I have a lot I'd like to say, having studied it considerably, but it just upsets me that the more I learn, the more I see it is just repeating the patterns of older empires.  And what really frustrates me is that there seems to be little chance of avoiding making the same mistakes. -- BryceWishingForBetterHarrington
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|980843327
1d0
< '''Zamenhof, Ludovic Lazarus (Ludwik Lejzer)'''
3,24d1
< http://www.geocities.com/Oleg326756/GNUPedia/zamenhof.jpg
< 
< <b>Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof</b> (1859-1917) was the creator of the EsperantoLanguage – the most succesful of all the constructed international languages. He also was known as Dr. Esperanto – by this pseudonym he published in 1887 his work “Lingvo internacia”, which had the language's description and textbook.
< 
< Zamenhof was born the 15th of December 1859 in the Polish town BialystokPoland (then Poland was a part of RussianEmpire). The town's population was made-up of four major ethnic groups: Russians, Poles, Germans, and YiddishLanguage-speaking Jews. There were many quarrels between them, and that was making young Ludovic quite sad. He supposed that the main reason for the hate and prejudice lay in reciprocal misunderstanding, caused by the lack of one common language that would play role of the neutral communication tool between people of different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds.
< 
< As a student of secondary school in Warsaw Zamenhof made attempts to create some kind of international language with a grammar that was very rich, but also very complex. When he studied EnglishLanguage (along with GermanLanguage, FrenchLanguage, LatinLanguage and GreekLanguage, he decided that the international language must have relatively simple grammar with a wide use of suffixes to make new forms of the words.
< 
< By the 1878 his project "Lingwe uniwersala" was almost finished. However Zamenhof was too young then to publish his work. Soon after graduation from the school he began to study medicine, first in MoscowRussia, and later in WarsawPoland. In 1885 Zamenhof graduated from the university and began his practice as oculist. While healing people he continued to work on his project of the international language.
< 
< For two years he tried to raise funds to publish a booklet with the language's description until he received the financial help from his future wife's father. In 1987 the book titled as "D-ro Esperanto. Lingvo internacia. Anta parolo kaj plena lernolibro" ("Dr. Hopeful. International Language. Foreword And Complete Textbook") was published. For Zamenhof this language wasn't a mere communication tool, but the mean of propagation. He wanted to preach the idea of peaceful co-existing of different people and cultures. Zamenhof even came up with the teaching "Homaranismo" in order to spread these ideas.
< 
< Zamenhof became informal leader of the new EsperantoMovement, though he never was striving to gain fame or power. Esperantists were calling him The Master, admiring him as a Teacher, but Zamenhof himself had a strong dislike for this title, and never took any official position inside the EsperantoMovement. He died in Warsaw the 14th of April 1917.
< 
< '''See also:'''
< * EsperantoLanguage
< 
< ----
< 
< Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
< 
< Updated: <i>25th of January 2001</i>
25a3
> Removed at Request of Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
------
EsperantoLanguage|980843371
1,24c1
< '''Esperanto'''
< 
< <b>Esperanto</b> is a constructed language, created by Doctor Ludovic Lazarus (Ludwik Lejzer) Zamenhof in 1887 as a result of the ten years work. The first published book was <i>"D-ro Esperanto. Lingvo internacia. Anta&#365;parolo kaj plena lernolibro",</i> meaning <i>"Dr. Hopeful. International Language. Foreword And Complete Textbook".</i> Zamenhof's pseudonym <i>Esperanto</i> very soon became the name of the language itself.
< 
< Esperanto is intended to serve as a universal international language, the second language (after the parents' language) of every educated person. Most of its vocabulary is made up of Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and some other IndoEuropean roots. Esperanto has a regular grammar (sixteen rules without exceptions), phonetic alphabet (meaning that all words are pronounced as in written and vice versa), and very logical structure (the same words' ending for the same parts of speech, e.g. <i>-o</i> for nouns, <i>-a</i> for adjectives, etc.) All these features make Esperanto to be more easy-to-learn than the most world's languages, even for non-Europeans.
< 
< It's difficult to tell how many speakers of Esperanto there are. Most sources refer to the number of two million speakers worldwide. However it may be quite rough estimation. Every year there're hundreds of new titles (both translated and original) being published in Esperanto along with the music and even films. Some editions may exceed a number of a hundred thousand copies. Also there're great number of Esperanto-newspapers, magazines, and radio-stations broadcasting in Esperanto. Most <i>esperantists</i> (members of Esperanto-community or Esperanto-diaspora) are eager to international and intercultural contacts, many of them travel to conventions to meet their old friends and make new ones, have correspondents in different parts of the world, and quite often are ready to provide to travelling esperantist a housing for some days.
< 
< Esperanto is the most successful of all the artificial languages to day. In 1999 <i>Universala Esperanto-Asocio</i> <i>(The Worldwide Esperanto-Association)</i> had members in 119 countries of the world, and the annual <i>Universala Kongreso</i> <i>(World Congress)</i> usually gathers from three to six thousand esperantists.
< 
< '''See also:'''
< * LudovicLazarusZamenhof
< 
< '''Links:'''
< * [http://www.esperanto.net www.esperanto.net] -- information about Esperanto in 41 languages
< * [http://www.geocities.com/Oleg326756 Free email-based course of Esperanto]
< ----
< 
< Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
< 
< Updated: <i>24th of January 2001</i>
< 
< ----
< 
---
> Removed at Request of Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
------
AbdicatioN|980844407
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> ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, 
> from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as 
> not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office 
> renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time 
> for which it is held.  In Roman law, the term is especially 
> applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the 
> disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except 
> in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.  
> Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of 
> their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited 
> monarchy.  The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
> abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of 
> Parliament.  When James II., after throwing the great 
> seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not 
> formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed 
> in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had 
> abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed on, for in a 
> full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, 
> it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, ``that King 
> James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of 
> the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king 
> and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked 
> persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having 
> withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the 
> government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.'' The 
> Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and 
> deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of 
> antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 
> B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The 
> following is a list of the more important abdications of later 
> 
>  
>                                                       A.D.
>  Benedict IX., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
>  Stephen II. of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
>  Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . 1169
>  Ladislaus III. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
>  Celestine V., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294
>  John Baliol of Scotland  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
>  John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East  . . . . . . . 1355
>  Richard II. of England . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399
>  John XXIII., pope  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
>  Eric VII; of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . . . . 1439
>  Murad II., Ottoman Sultan  . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445
>  Charles V., emperor  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
>  Christina of Sweden  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
>  John Casimir of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
>  James II. of England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
>  Frederick Augustus of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704
>  Philip V. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724
>  Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
>  Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
>  Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain). 1759
>  Stanislaus II. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
>  Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia  . . . . . . June 4, 1802
>  Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 19, 1808
>  Joseph Bonaparte of Naples . . . . . . . . . June 6, 1808
>  Gustavus IV. of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 29, 1809
>  Louis Bonaparte of Holland . . . . . . . . . July 2, 1810
>  Napoleon I., French Emperor. . . . . . . . .April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815
>  Victor Emanuel of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 13, 1821
>  Charles X. of France . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 2, 1830
>  Pedro of Brazil 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .April 7, 1831
>  Miguel of Portgual . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1834
>  William I. of Holland  . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1840
>  Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . . .Feb. 24, 1848
>  Louis Charles of Bavaria . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 21, 1848
>  Ferdinand of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 2, 1848
>  Charles Albert of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 23, 1849
>  Leopold II. of Tuscany . . . . . . . . . . .July 21, 1859
>  Isabella II. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . June 25, 1870
>  Amadeus I. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 11, 1873
>  Alexander of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 7, 1886
>  Milan of Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 6, 1889
>  
> 
> 1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 
> 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
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AbdomeN|980844450
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> ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, 
> or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, 
> the region of the body containing most of the digestive 
> organs. (See for anatomical details the articles ALIMENTARY 
> CANAL, and ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.) 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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AbdominalSurgery|980844538
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> ABDOMINAL SURGERY.---The diseases affecting this region 
> are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 
> and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term 
> ``abdominal surgery'' covers generally the operations which 
> involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this 
> field of work has been greatly extended.  In this Encyclopaedia 
> the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the 
> most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of 
> that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.); but here the 
> general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed. 
> 
> Exploratory Laparotomy.---In many cases of serious intra-abdominal 
> disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly 
> what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his 
> finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines.  With 
> due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the 
> great advantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully 
> recognized.  It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American 
> physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of 
> what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so 
> also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the 
> abdomen without making an opening into it.  When an opening 
> is made in such circumstances---provided only it is done soon 
> enough--the successful treatment of the case often becomes a 
> simple matter.  An exploratory operation, therefore, should 
> be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left 
> as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless. 
> 
> It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced 
> hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having 
> advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, 
> his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other 
> hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he 
> had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having 
> shown that if only he had insisted on an exploratioui being 
> made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess 
> might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left 
> unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the 
> death.  A physician by himself is helpless in these cases. 
> 
> Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in 
> the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved 
> relationship which exists between the public and the surgical 
> profession.  In former days it was not infrequently said, ``If 
> a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate.'' Not only have 
> the public said this, but even physicians have been known to 
> suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, 
> the ``apotheosis of surgery,'' in connexion with the operative 
> treatment of a serious abdominal lesion.  But fortunately 
> the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest 
> man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is 
> necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable.  And this happy 
> discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his 
> decision.  It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician 
> who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact 
> that it is useless to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion 
> by diet or drugs.  Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure 
> or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into 
> hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical 
> wards, and after the effect of drugs had been tried with 
> expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called 
> in.  In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and 
> the idea was more widely spread that surgery, after all, was 
> a poor handmaid to medicine.  But now things are different.  
> Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to 
> the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if 
> operation is thought desirable it is performed without any 
> delay.  The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless 
> operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all 
> its bearings.  And so it has come about that the results of 
> operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving 
> day by day.  And doubtless they will continue to improve. 
> 
> A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, mortified 
> or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from 
> Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, 
> Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated 
> tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided 
> ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the 
> pieces are subsequently ``married'' the adjusted ends of 
> the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered 
> practicable.  In the course of time the button loosens itself 
> into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine 
> evacuation.  In many other cases the use of the button has 
> proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of 
> a permanent communication between the stomach and the small 
> intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of 
> the alimentary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant 
> growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that 
> some obstruction may be passed; betw:en smal' and large 
> intestine.  The operative procedure goes by the name of 
> short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get 
> beyond an obstruction.  In this way also a permanent working 
> communication can be set up between the gallbladder, or a 
> dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine---the 
> last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name 
> of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious 
> apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in 
> the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of 
> the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest 
> importance.  But there is this against the method---that 
> sometimes ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, 
> whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its 
> passage along the alimentary canal.  Some surgeons therefore 
> prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft 
> material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the 
> parts.  The last-named method is gradually increasing in 
> popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit, 
> it is the ideal method of treatment.  The cause of death 
> in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the 
> blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of 
> decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the 
> obstruction.  It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to 
> complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing 
> out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating 
> it, and then carefully suturing and returning it.  The surgeon 
> who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of 
> this stagnant fluid---or, at any rate, who first suggested the 
> proper method of treating it---was Lawson Tait of Birmingham, 
> who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on 
> the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of Epsom salts to wash 
> away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the 
> same time to empty itself of the gas, which, by distending the 
> intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation. 
> 
> Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery 
> may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the sitting 
> position as soon as practicable after the operation, and 
> the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the 
> lower bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting 
> pints of this ``normal saline'' fluid into the loose 
> tissue of the armpit.  Hot water thus administered or 
> injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its 
> volume, diluting its impurities and quenching the great 
> thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition. 
> 
> Gunshot wounds of the Abdomen.---If a revolver bullet passes 
> through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be 
> traversed by it in several places.  If the bullet be small and, 
> by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings 
> may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place 
> into the general peritoneal cavity.  If increasing collapse 
> suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, 
> the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration 
> made.  When it is uncettain lf the bowel has been traversed 
> or not, it is well to wait before opening the abdomen, due 
> preparation being made for performing that operation on the 
> first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having 
> occurred.  Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated 
> by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior 
> of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic 
> micro-organisms as possible.  It is by the malign influence of 
> such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an 
> abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed 
> weapon.  If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted 
> to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well, 
> but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of 
> battle.  When after an action wounded men come pouring into 
> the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst 
> preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out 
> of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary 
> case.  Experience in the South African war of 1899-1902 showed 
> that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave 
> the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere 
> ``expectancy,'' more than 50% recovered, whereas if operations 
> were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue.  
> In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants, 
> pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying 
> out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming, 
> gunshot wounds of the abdomen had best not be interfered with. 
> 
> Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the 
> abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may 
> have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded.  In 
> either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be set 
> up.  It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out 
> if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself 
> might carry inwards septic germs.  In case of doubt it is 
> better to enlarge the wound in order to determine its depth, 
> and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating.  If, 
> however, the bellycavity has been opened, the neighbouring 
> pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be, 
> sutured.  Should there have been an escape of the contents of 
> the bowel the ``toilet of the peritoneum'' would be duly made, 
> and a drainage-tube would be left in.  If the stab had injured 
> a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the 
> hiver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested 
> by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged 
> out.  Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory 
> abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed 
> to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost 
> untreated: at the present time a large number of them are saved. 
> 
> Intussusception.---This is a terribly fatal disease of 
> infants and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, 
> and is gripped by, the piece next below it.  Formerly it was 
> generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination 
> by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure--a 
> speculative method of treatment which sometimes ended in a 
> fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often---one might 
> almost say generally--failed to do what was expected of 
> it.  The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision 
> into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated 
> piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, and more than, 
> infection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the 
> bowel.  It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to 
> unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts 
> themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could 
> have been effective.  But the outlook in these distressing 
> cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is 
> extremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which 
> the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail.  
> Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance. 
> 
> Cancer of the Intestine.---With the introduction of aseptic 
> methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can 
> reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely.  
> With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the 
> diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest.  
> If the cancerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece 
> of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together, 
> and the continuity of the alimentary canal is permanently 
> re-established.  Thus in the case of cancer of the large 
> intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects 
> to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel, 
> but actually to cure the patient of his disease.  When the 
> lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous 
> obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape 
> for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the 
> colon in the left loin.  But in recent years this operation of 
> lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening 
> the colon in the left groin.  This operation of iniguinal 
> colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the 
> large intestine is first drawn out through the abdominal 
> wound and secured by stitches, and a few days afterwards, 
> when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, 
> it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no 
> longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial 
> anus.  If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of 
> obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes 
> with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, 
> may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so 
> that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of 
> soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*) 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
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WikiPediaFaq|980844582
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< A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
---
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
> ----
> '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a Wiki page?'''
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AbductioN|980844588
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> ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a 
> law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a 
> person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the 
> victim.  In the case of men or children, it has been usual 
> to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.).  The old English 
> laws against abduction, generally contemplating its object 
> as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been 
> repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which 
> makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take 
> away or detain against her will with intent to marry or 
> carnally know her, &c., any woman of any age who has any 
> interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress 
> presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to 
> any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause 
> such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other 
> person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take 
> away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, 
> out of the possession and against the will of her parents or 
> guardians.  By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention 
> against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is 
> felony.  The same act makes abduction without eyen any such 
> intent a misdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the 
> age of sixteen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and 
> against the will of her parents or guardians.  In such a case 
> the girl's consent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the 
> person charged reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or 
> over.  The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more 
> stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making 
> the procuration or attempted procuration of any virtuous 
> female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as 
> well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of 
> age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the 
> detaining of any female against her will on any premises, 
> with intent to have, or that another person may have, carnal 
> knowledge of her.  In Scotland, where there is no statutory 
> adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
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AbeceDarians|980844698
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> ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme 
> Anabaptists (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the Holy 
> Spirit as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
> learning and even the power of reading the written word. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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AbeL|980844760
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> ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain 
> by Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16).  The narrative 
> in Genesis which tells us that ``the Lord had respect unto 
> Abel and to his offering, but unto Cain and to his offering 
> he had not respect,'' is supplemented by the statement of the 
> New Testament, that ``by faith Abel offered unto God a more 
> excellent sacrifice than Cain'' (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain 
> slew Abel ``because his own works were evil and his brother's 
> righteous'' (1 John iii. 12). See further under CAIN.  The 
> name has been identified with the Assyrian ablu, ``son,'' but 
> this is far from certain.  It more probably means ``herdsman'' 
> (cf. the name Jabal), and a distinction is drawn between the 
> pastoral Abel and the agriculturist Cain.  If Cain is the eponym 
> of the Kenites it is quite possible that Abel was originally 
> a South Judaean demigod or hero; on this, see Winckler, 
> Gesch.  Israels, ii. p. 189; E. Meyer, Israelitein, p. 
> 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to have lived in North 
> Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De Haeresibus, lxxxvi.). 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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CharlestoN|980844855
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> Charleston is danced in 8-count figures, solo, with a partner
> or in groups (usually facing lines).
> 
> A common incarnation of the man's basic step is as follows:
> 
> (count) 1: Left foot straight back, committing most or all of the weight.
> 
> 2: Replacing weight to right foot.
> 
> 3: Kicking forward with the left foot, weight remaining on the right (placing the foot too early is a common mistake for beginners which causes them to get ahead of the music).
> 
> 4: Stepping forward onto the left foot and committing all the weight to the foot.
> 
> 5: Kicking forward with the right foot.
> 
> 6: Lifting the right foot.
> 
> 7: Kicking the right foot back or back and to the side.
> 
> 8: Stepping back onto the right foot, preparing for count 1.
> 
> Many variations on this footwork are commonly seen, particularly
> in the size of the steps and height of the kicks.  Charleston
> is danced by some in a very understated, minimalistic style, and by others very energetically.
> 
> Among the numerous variations in style, the 1st, 4th, 5th and 8th steps are the most consistent.  Counts 5, 6, 7 and 8 simply transfer the right foot from the front to the back, and thus provide lots of room for variation.  For instance:
> 
> 5: Kick forward
> 6: Pull right foot back
> 7: Kick forward again
> 8: Step back and place weight
> 
> The lady's part when dancing with a partner is the same as the man's, except that she moves the opposite foot (but in the same direction - NOT the natural opposite as in Waltz where she moves the opposite foot in the opposite direction).  IE., she begins by stepping back on her right foot.  When dancing tandem style with a partner and in other situations, however, the lady does exactly the same footwork as the man.
> 
> Charleston can be danced solo, its simple, flexible basic step making it easy to concentrate on style and musicality.  
> 
> When dancing solo or in groups, the hands are often swung forward and back, opposite the direction of the corresponding foot.  Often the fingers are held together pointing sideways away from tbe body, leaving the palms parallel to the floor.
> 
> A common formation for dancing in groups is to form two long lines of dancers facing each other.  Each dancer should have arms' width of space to himself laterally and the lines should be around 6 feet apart.  
> 
> The default is to dance a basic step.  One person will typically then call out a variation (such as turning 360 degrees in place on counts 5-8), which is then done by everyone beginning the next measure and again for the following 2 measures.  If the caller doesn't call another step immediately, the dancers return to the basic step.  Switching sides is sometimes called, upon which the dancers hop on the left foot across to the other side on counts 5-8, turning 180 degrees to the left.
> 
> When dancing in couples, the basic hold is for the lady to stand next to the man on the man's right side.  The man holds the lady's right hand with his left.  The man's right hand is placed on the lady's waist on her right side; thus he can lead her right side with his hand, in conjunction with his forearm across her lower back.  The lady's left hand is placed on the man's right shoulder.
> 
> To lead the basic step, then, the man uses his right hand to lead the lady's right side (and thus foot) back as he steps back on his left foot.  He then leads her right side forward as he kicks and steps forward on counts 3 and 4.  Likewise, the mirror-image lead continues for the second half of the step.
> 
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WcGing|980844907
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> Just a character from the [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?WcGing Bomis Wiki pages]
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PeterAbelard|980844916
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> ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142), scholastic philosopher, was born 
> at Pallet (Palais), not far from Nantes, in 1079.  He was the 
> eldest son of a noble Breton house.  The name Abaelardus 
> (also written Abailardus, Abaielardus, and in many other 
> ways) is said to be a corruption of Habelardus, substituted 
> by himself for a nickname Bajolardus given to him when a 
> student.  As a boy, he showed an extraordinary quickness of 
> apprehension, and, choosing a learned life instead of the 
> knightly career natural to a youth of his birth, early became 
> an adept in the art of dialectic, under which name philosophy, 
> meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted 
> through Latin channels, was the great subject of liberal 
> study in the episcopal schools.  Roscellinus, the famous 
> canon of Compiegne, is mentioned by himself as his teacher; 
> but whether he heard this champion of extreme Nominalism in 
> early youth, when he wandered about from school to school 
> for instruction and exercise, or some years later, after he 
> had already begun to teach for himself, remains uncertain.  
> His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still under 
> the age of twenty.  There, in the great cathedral school of 
> Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William 
> of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of 
> Realists, but, presently stepping forward, he overcame the 
> master in discussion, and thus began a long duel that issued 
> in the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till 
> then dominant in the early Middle Age. First, in the teeth 
> of opposition from the metropolitan teacher, while yet only 
> twenty-two, he proceeded to set up a school of hs own at 
> Melun, whence, for more direct competition, he removed to 
> Corbeil, nearer Paris.  The success of his teaching was 
> signal, though for a time he had to quit the field, the 
> strain proving too great for his physical strength.  On his 
> return, after 1108, he found William lecturing no longer at 
> Notre-Dame, but in a monastic retreat outside the city, and 
> there battle was again joined between them.  Forcing upon 
> the Realist a material change of doctrine, he was once more 
> victorious, and thenceforth he stood supreme.  His discomfited 
> rival still had power to keep him from lecturing in Paris, hut 
> soon failed in this last effort also.  From Melun, where he 
> had resumed teaching, Abelard passed to the capital, and set 
> up his school on the heights of St Genevieve, looking over 
> Notre-Dame.  From his success in dialectic, he next turned to 
> theology and attended the lectures of Anselm at Laon.  His triumph 
> over the theologian was complete; the pupil was able to give 
> lectures, without previous training or special study, which 
> were acknowledged superior to those of the master.  Abelard 
> was now at the height of hs fame.  He stepped into the chair at 
> Notre-Dame, being also nominated canon, about the year 1115. 
> 
> Few teachers ever held such sway as Abelard now did for a 
> time.  Distinguished in figure and manners, he was seen 
> surrounded by crowds--it is said thousands of students, 
> drawn from all countries by the fame of hs teaching, in which 
> acuteness of thought was relieved by simplicity and grace of 
> exposition.  Enriched by the offerings of his pupils, and 
> feasted with universal admiration, he came, as he says, 
> to think himself the only philosopher standing in the 
> world.  But a change in his fortunes was at hand.  In his 
> devotion to science, he had hitherto lived a very regular 
> life, varied only by the excitement of conflict: now, at 
> the height of his fame, other passions began to stir within 
> him.  There lived at that time, within the precincts of 
> Notre-Dame, under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, a 
> young girl named Heloise, of noble extraction, and born about 
> 1101.  Fair, but still more remarkable for her knowledge, 
> which extended beyond Latin, it is said, to Greek and Hebrew, 
> she awoke a feeling of love in the breast of Abelard; and 
> with intent to win her, he sought and gained a footing in 
> Fulbert's house as a regular inmate.  Becoming also tutor to 
> the maiden, he used the unlimited power which he thus obtained 
> over her for the purpose of seduction, though not without 
> cherishing a real affection which she returned in unparalleled 
> devotion.  Their relation interfering with his public work, and 
> being, moreover, ostentatiously sung by himself, soon became 
> known to all the world except the too-confiding Fulbert; and, 
> when at last it could not escape even his vision, they were 
> separated only to meet in secret.  Thereupon Heloise found 
> herself pregnant, and was carried off by her lover to Brittany, 
> where she gave birth to a son.  To appease her furious uncle, 
> Abelard now proposed a marriage, under the condition that it 
> should be kept secret, in order not to mar his prospects of 
> advancement in the church; but of marriage, whether public 
> or secret, Heloise would hear nothing.  She appealed to him 
> not to sacrifice for her the independence of his life, nor 
> did she finally yield to the arrangement without the darkest 
> forebodings, only too soon to be reallzed.  The secret of 
> the marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Heloise, true 
> to her singular purpose, boldly denied it, life was made so 
> unsupportable to her that she sought refuge in the convent of 
> Argenteuil.  Immediately Fulbert, believing that her husband, 
> who aided in the flight, designed to be rid of her, coinceived 
> a dire revenge.  He and some others broke into Abelard's 
> chamber by night, and perpetrated on him the most brutal 
> mutilation.  Thus cast down from his pinnacle of greatness 
> into an abyss of shame and misery, there was left to the 
> brilliant master only the life of a monk.  The priesthood 
> and ecclesiastical office were canonically closed to him.  
> Heloise, not yet twenty, consummated her work of self-sacrifice 
> at the call of his jealous love, and took the veil. 
> 
> It was in the abbey of St Denis that Abelard, now aged 
> forty, sought to bury himself with his woes out of sight.  
> Finding, however, in the cloister neither calm nor solitude, 
> and having gradually turned again to study, he yielded after 
> a year to urgent entreaties from without and within, and 
> went forth to reopen his school at the priory of Maisonceile 
> (1120).  His lectures, now framed in a devotional spirit, were 
> heard again by crowds of students, and all his old influence 
> seemed to have returned; but old enmities were revived 
> also, against which he was no longer able as before to make 
> head.  No sooner had he put in writing his theological 
> lectures (apparently the Introductio and Theolo giam 
> that has come down to us), than his adversaries fell foul of 
> his rationalistic interpretation of the Trinitarian dogma.  
> Charging him with the heresy of Sabellius in a provincial 
> synod held at Soissons in 1121, they procured by irregular 
> practices a condemnation of his teaching, whereby he was made 
> to throw his book into the flames and then was shut up in 
> the convent of St Medard at Soissons.  After the other, it 
> was the bitterest possible experience that could befall him, 
> nor, in the state of mental desolation into which it plunged 
> him, could he find any comfort from being soon again set free.  
> The life in his own monastery proved no more congenial than 
> formerly.  For this Abelard himself was partly responsible.  
> He took a sort of malicious pleasure in irritating the monks. 
> Quasijocando, he cited Bede to prove that Dionysius the 
> Areopagite had been bishop of Corinth, while they relied upon 
> the statement of the abbot Hilduin that he had been bishop of 
> Athens.  When this historical heresy led to the inevitable 
> persecution, Abelard wrote a letter to the abbot Adam in 
> which he preferred to the authority of Bede that of Eusebius' 
> Historia Ecelesiastica and St Jerome, according to whom 
> Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, was distinct from Dionysius 
> the Areopagite, bishop of Athens and founder of the abbey, 
> though, in deference to Bede, he suggested that the Areopagite 
> might also have beeit bishop of Corinth.  Life in the 
> monastery was intolerable for such a troublesome spirit, and 
> Abelard, who had once attempted to escape the persecution 
> he had called forth by flight to a monastery at Provins, 
> was finally allowed to withdraw.  In a desert place near 
> Nogent-sur-Seine, he built himself a cabin of stubble and 
> reeds, and turned hermit.  But there fortune came back to him 
> with a new surprise.  His retreat becoming known, students 
> flocked from Paris, and covered the wilderness around him 
> with their tents and huts.  When he began to teach again he 
> found consolation, and in gratitude he consecrated the new 
> oratory they built for him by the name of the Paraclete. 
> 
> Upon the return of new dangers, or at least of fears, Abelard 
> left the Paraclete to make trial of another refuge, accepting 
> an invitation to preside over the abbey of St Gildas-de-Rhuys, 
> on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany.  It proved a wretched 
> exchange.  The region was inhospitable, the domain a prey to 
> lawless exaction, the house itself savage and disorderly.  
> Yet for nearly ten years he continued to struggle with fate 
> before he fled from his charge, yielding in the end only under 
> peru of violent death.  The misery of those years was not, 
> however, unrelieved; for he had been able, on the breaking 
> up of Heloise's convent at Argenteuil, to establish her as 
> head of a new religious house at the deserted Paraclete, and 
> in the capacity of spiritual director he often was called to 
> revisit the spot thus made doubly dear to him.  All this time 
> Heloise had lived amid universal esteem for her knowledge and 
> character, uttering no word under the doom that had fallen upon 
> her youth; hut now, at last, the occasion came for expressing 
> all the pent-up emotions of her soul.  Living on for some time 
> apart (we do not know exactly where), after his flight from St 
> Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia 
> Calamitatum, and thus moved her to peu her first Letter, 
> which remains an unsurpassed utterance of human passion and 
> womanly devotion; the first being followed by the two other 
> Letters, in which she finally accepted the part of resignation 
> which, now as a brother to a sister, Abelard commended to 
> her.  He not long after was seen once more upon the field 
> of his early triumphs lecturing on Mount St Genevieve in 
> 1136 (when he was heard by John of Salisbury), but it was 
> only for a brief space: no new triumph, but a last great 
> trial, awaited him in the few years to come of his chequered 
> life.  As far back as the Paraclete days, he had counted 
> as chief among his foes Bernard of Clairvaux, in whom was 
> incarnated the principle of fervent and unhesitating faith, 
> from which rational inquiry like his was sheer revolt, and 
> now this uncompromising spirit was moving, at the instance of 
> others, to crush the growing evil in the person of the boldest 
> offender.  After preliminary negotiations, in which Bernard 
> was roused by Abelard's steadfastness to put forth all his 
> strength, a council met at Sens (1141), before which Abelard, 
> formally arraigned upon a number of heretical charges, was 
> prepared to plead his cause.  When, however, Bernard, not without 
> foregone terror in the prospect of meeting the redoubtable 
> dialectician, had opened the case, suddenlly Abelard appealed to 
> Rome.  The stroke availed him nothing; for Bernard, who had 
> power, notwithstanding, to get a condemnation passed at the 
> council, did not rest a moment till a second condemnation was 
> procured at Rome in the following year.  Meanwhile, on his way 
> thither to urge his plea in person, Abelard had broken down 
> at the abbey of Cluny, and there, an utterly fallen man, with 
> spirit of the humblest, and only not bereft of his intellectual 
> force, he lingered but a few months before the approach of 
> death.  Removed by friendly hands, for the relief of his 
> sufferings, to the priory of St Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saone, 
> he died on the 21st of April 1142.  First buried at St Marcel, 
> his remains soon after were carried off in secrecy to the 
> Paraclete, and given over to the loving care of Heloise, who 
> in time came herself to rest beside them (1164).  The bones 
> of the pair were shifted more than once afterwards, but they 
> were marvellously preserved even through the vicissitudes 
> of the French Revolution, and now they lie united in the 
> well-known tomb in the cemetery of Pere-la-Chaise at Paris. 
> 
> Great as was the influence exerted by Abelard on the minds of 
> his contemporaries and the course of medieval thought, he has 
> been little known in modern times but for his connexion with 
> Heloise.  Indeed, it was not till the 19th century, when Cousin 
> in 1836 issued the collection entitled Ouvrages inedits 
> d'Abelard, that his philosophical performance could be judged 
> at first hand; of his strictly philosophical works only one, 
> the ethical treatise Scito te ipsum, having been published 
> earlier, namely, in 1721.  Cousin's collection, besides giving 
> extracts from the theological work Sic et Non (an assemblage 
> of opposite opinions on doctrinal points, culled from the 
> Fathers as a basis for discussion, the main interest in which 
> lles in the fact that there is no attempt to reconcile the 
> different opinions), includes the Dialectica, commentaries 
> on logical works of Aristotle, Porphyry and Boothius, and a 
> fragment, De Generibus et Speciebus.  The last-named 
> work, and also the psychological treatise De Inteilectibus, 
> published apart by Cousin (in Fragmens Philosophiques, 
> vol. ii.), are now considered upon internal evidence not to 
> be hy Abelard himself, but only to have sprung out of his 
> school.  A genuine work, the Glossulae super Porphyrium, 
> from which Charles de Remusat, in his classical monograph 
> Abelard (1845), has given extracts, remains in manuscript. 
> 
> The general importance of Abelard lles in his having fixed 
> more decisively than any one before him the scholastic manner 
> of philosophizing, with its object of giving a formally 
> rational expression to the received ecclesiastical doctrine 
> . However his own particular interpretations may have been 
> condemned, they were conceived in essentially the same spirit 
> as the general scheme of thought afterwards elaborated in 
> the 13th century with approval from the heads of the church.  
> Through him was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy 
> of the philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became 
> firmly established in the half-century after his death, when 
> first the completed Organon, and gradually ail the other 
> works of the Greek thinker, came to be known in the schools: 
> before his time it was rather upon the authority of Plato 
> that the prevailing Realism sought to lean.  As regards his 
> so-called Conceptualism and his attitude to the question of 
> Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM.  Outside of his dialectic, 
> it was in ethics that Abelard showed greatest activity of 
> philosophical thought; laying very particular stress upon 
> the subjective intention as determining, if not the moral 
> character, at least the moral value, of human action.  His 
> thought in this direction, wherein he anticipated something 
> of modern speculation, is the more remarkable because his 
> scholastic successors accomplished least in the field of 
> morals, hardly venturing to bring the principles and rules of 
> conduct under pure philosophical discussion, even after the 
> great ethical inquiries of AAstotle became fully known to them. 
> 
> BIBLIOGRAPHY --Abelard's own works remain the best sources 
> for his life, especially his Historia Culamitatum, an 
> autobiography, and the correspondence with Heloise.  The 
> literature on Abelard is extensive, but consists principally 
> of monographs on different aspects of his philosophy.  
> Charles de Remusat's Abelard (2 vols., 1845) remains an 
> authority; it must be distinguished from his drama Abelard 
> (1877), which is an attempt to give a picture of medieval 
> life.  McCabe's life of Abelard is written closely from 
> the sources. eee also the valuable analysis by Nitsch 
> in the article ``Abalard'' There is a comprehensive 
> bibliograohy in U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources 
> hist. du moyen age, s. ``Abailard.'' (G. C. R.; J. T. S.*) 
> 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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AbensbergGermany|980844995
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> ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the 
> Abens, a tributary of the Danube, 18 m.  S.W. of Regensburg, 
> with which it is connected by rail.  Pop. 2202.  It has a small 
> spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of 
> rheumatism and gout.  The town is the Castra Abusina of the 
> Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.  Here, 
> on the 20th of April 1809, Napoleon gained a signal victory 
> over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and Genegal Hiller. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
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GeorgeHamiltonGordonAberdeen|980845160
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> ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL OF (1784-1860), 
> English statesman, was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord 
> Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William Baird of 
> Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, 3rd earl of 
> Aberdeen.  Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1784, 
> he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as 
> his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to 
> reside with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville.  At 
> the age of fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name 
> his own curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt 
> and Dundas for this office he spent much of his time at their 
> houses, thus meeting many of the leading politicians of the 
> day.  He was educated at Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, 
> where he graduated as a nobleman in 1804.  Before this time, 
> however, he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's 
> death in 1801, and had travelled over a large part of the 
> continent of Europe, meeting on his journeys Napoleon Bonaparte 
> and other persons of distinction.  He also spent some time in 
> Greece, and on his return to England founded the Athenian 
> Society, membership of which was confined to those who had 
> travelled in that country.  Moreover, he wrote an article in 
> the Edinburgh Review of July 1805 criticizing Sir William 
> Gill's Topography of Troy, and these circumstances led Lord 
> Byron to refer to him in Eniglish Bardo and Scotch Reviewers 
> as ``the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen.'' Having attained 
> his majority in 1805, he married on the 28th of July Catherine 
> Elizabeth Hamilton, daughter of John James, 1st marquess of 
> Abercorn.  In December 1806 he was elected a representative 
> peer for Scotland, and took his seat as a Tory in the House of 
> Lords, but for some years he took only a slight part in public 
> business.  However, by his birth, his abilities and his 
> connexions alike he was marked out for a high position, and 
> after the death of his wife in February 1812 he was appointed 
> ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at 
> Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz between Great 
> Britain and Austria in October 1813; and accompanying the 
> emperor Francis I. through the subsequent campaign against 
> France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig.  He was 
> one of the British representatives at the congress of 
> Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was 
> present during the negotiations which led to the treaty of 
> Paris in the following May. Returning home he was created 
> a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen 
> (1814), and made a member of the privy council.  On the 15th 
> of Juby 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John 
> Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus 
> became doubly connected with the family of the marquess of 
> Abercorn.  During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a 
> less prominent part in public affairs, although he succeeded 
> in passing the Entail (Scotland) Act of 1825.  He kept in 
> touch, however, with foreign politics, and having refused to 
> join the ministry of George Canning in 1827, became a member 
> of the cabinet of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the 
> duchy of Lancaster in January 1828.  In the following June he 
> was transferred to the office of secretary of state for foreign 
> affairs, and having acquitted himself with credit with regard 
> to the war between Russia and Turkey, and to affairs in Greece, 
> Portugal and France, he resigned with Wellington in November 
> 1830, and shared his leader's attitude towards the Reform 
> Bill of 1832.  As a Scotsman, Aberdeen was interested in the 
> ecclesiastical controversy which culminated in the disruption of 
> 1843.  In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle the vexed question 
> of patronage; but disliked by a majority in the general assembly 
> of the Scotch church, and unsupported by the government, it 
> failed to become law, and some opprobrium was cast upon its 
> author.  In 1843 he brought forward a similar measure ``to 
> remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers to 
> benefices.'' This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called, 
> passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties. 
> 
> During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834 
> and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for 
> the colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again 
> under Peel, on this occasion as foreign secretary; the 
> five years during which he held this position were the most 
> fruitful and successful of his public life.  He owed his 
> success to the confidence placed in him by Queen Victoria, 
> to his wide knowledge of European politics, to his intimate 
> friendship with Guizot, and not least to his own conciliatory 
> disposition.  Largely owing to his efforts, causes of quarrel 
> between Great Britain and France in Tahiti, over the marriage 
> of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other directions, were 
> removed.  More important still were his services in settling 
> the question of the boundary between the United States and 
> British North America at a time when a single injudicious 
> word would probably have provoked a war.  In 1845 he supported 
> Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to suspend the duty 
> on foreign corn, and left office with that minister in July 
> 1846.  After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized 
> leader of the Peelites, although since his resignation his 
> share in public business had been confined to a few speeches 
> on foreign affairs.  His dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles 
> Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in 
> 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord John 
> Russell, or from forming an administration himself in this 
> year.  In December 1852, however, be became first lord of 
> the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and 
> Peelites.  Although united on free trade and in general 
> on questions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained 
> Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to 
> Aberdeen, was certain to differ on questions of foreign 
> policy.  The strong and masterful character of these and 
> other colleagues made the task of the prime minister one 
> of unusual difficulty, a fact which was recognized by 
> contemporaries.  Charles Greville in his Memoirs says, 
> ``In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of 
> equal, or nearly equal, pretensions, none of them likely to 
> acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any 
> other, and every one of these five or six considering himself 
> abler and more important than their premier''; and Sir James 
> Graham wrote, ``It is a powerful team, but it will require good 
> driving.'' The first year of office passed off successfully, 
> and it was owing to the steady support of the prime minister 
> that Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the 
> cabinet.  This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute 
> between France and Turkey over the guardianship of the 
> holy places at Jerusalem, which, after the original cause 
> of quarrel had been forgotten, developed into the Crimean 
> war.  The tortuous negotiations which preceded the struggle 
> need not be discussed here, but in defence of Aberdeen 
> it may be said that he hoped and strove for peace to the 
> last.  Rightly or wrongly, however, he held that Russell was 
> indispensable to the cabinet, and that a resignation would 
> precipitate war.  His outlook, usually so clear, was blurred 
> by these considerations, and he lacked the strength to force 
> the suggestions which he made in the autumn of 1853 upon his 
> imperious colleagues.  Palmerston, supported by Russell and 
> well served by Lord Stratford de Redcllffe, British ambassador 
> at Constantinople, favoured a more aggressive policy, and 
> Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and unwilling to let 
> Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame.  When the war 
> began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but the stories 
> of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war deprived 
> the ministry of public favour.  Russell resigned; and on 
> the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, for the 
> appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct 
> of the War, was carried in the House of Commons by a large 
> majority.  Treating this as a vote of want of confidence 
> Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed 
> upon him the order of the Garter.  He smoothed the way for 
> Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon 
> remained at the foreign office he aided him with advice and 
> was consulted on matters of moment.  He died in London on the 
> 14th of December 1860, and was buried in the family vault at 
> Stanmore.  By his first wife he had one son and three 
> daughters, all of whom predeceased their father.  By his second 
> wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one 
> daughter.  His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th 
> earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, 
> K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; 
> and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various 
> high offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 
> 1893.  Among the public offices held by the earl were those of 
> lord-lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of 
> Antiquaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society. 
> 
> Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory 
> and a wide knowledge of literature and art.  His private life 
> was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the 
> loftiness of his character.  His manner was reserved, and 
> as a speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent.  In public 
> life he was remarkable for his generosity to his political 
> opponents, and for his sense of justice and honesty.  He 
> did not, however, possess the qualities which impress the 
> populace, and he lacked the strength which is one of the 
> essential gifts of a statesman.  His character is perhaps best 
> described by a writer who says ``his strength was not equal 
> to his goodness.'' His foreign policy was essentially one of 
> peace and non-intervention, and in pursuing it he was accused 
> of favouring the despotisms of Europe.  Aberdeen was a model 
> landlord.  By draining the land, by planting millions of trees 
> and by erecting numerous buildings, he greatly improved the 
> condition of his Aberdeenshire estates, and studied continually 
> the welfare of his dependants.  A bust of him by Matthew Noble 
> is in Westminster Abbey, and his portrait was painted by Sir 
> Thomas Lawrence.  He wrote An Inquiry into the Principles 
> of Beauty in Grecian Architecture (London, 1822), and the 
> Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen has been printed 
> privately under the direction of his son, Lord Stanmore. 
> 
> The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, 
> was drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother 
> John Campbell Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen, (b. 1847), a 
> prominent Liberal politician, who was lord-lieutenant of 
> Ireland in 1886, governor-general of Canada 1893--1898, 
> and again the lord-lieutenant of Ireland when Sir Henry 
> Campbell-Bannerman formed his ministry at the close of 1905. 
> 
> See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); C. 
> C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888); 
> Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), 
> and Life of Lord John Russell (London, 1889); A. W. 
> Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); 
> Sir T. Martin, Life of the Prince Consort (London, 
> 1875-1880); J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London, 1903). 
>                                                     (A. W. H. deg. )
> 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
> 
------
AberdeenScotland|980845299
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> ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, 
> capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of 
> Scotland.  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
> industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North 
> Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m.  N. 
> E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.  Though Old 
> Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
> banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and 
> history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no 
> longer be said to exist; and for parliamentary, municipal 
> and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one 
> community.  Aberdeen's popular name of the ``Granite City,' 
> is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town fs built 
> of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation 
> of the ``Silver City by the Sea,'' it should be seen after 
> a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless 
> houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine.  
> The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of 
> Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for 
> parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) 
> to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891.  
> The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical 
> parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with 
> lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild.  The 
> corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21 
> m.  W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplles, electric lighting and 
> tramways.  Since 1885 the city has returned two members to 
> Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North 
> of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious 
> joint railway station), and there is regular communication by 
> sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
> Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
> temperature of the city for the year is 45.8 deg.  F., for summer 
> 56 deg.  F., and for winter 37.3 deg.  F. The average yearly rainfall 
> is 30.57 inches.  The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. 
> 
> Streets and Buildings.--Roughly, the extended city runs 
> north and south.  From the new bridge of Don to the ``auld 
> brig'' of Dee there is tramway communication via King 
> Street, Union Street and Holburn Road--a distance of over five 
> miles.  Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares 
> in the British Isles.  From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. 
> for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal 
> shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite.  
> Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for 
> the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine 
> granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town 
> still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union 
> Street.  Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the 
> street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music 
> Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity 
> Hall of the incorporated trades (originating in various years 
> between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable funds for poor 
> members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits 
> by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
> dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint 
> inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of 
> the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace 
> Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the 
> Nutional Bank of Scotland.  In Castle Street, a continuation 
> eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and 
> County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices 
> in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 
> 1867-1878.  They are of four stories and contain the great 
> hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the 
> Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits 
> of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, 
> the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens.  
> In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of 
> black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert 
> Davidson, who feh in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 
> 1411.  From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to 
> a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and 
> surrounding country.  Adjoining the municipal buildings is 
> the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico 
> of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely 
> carved.  On the opposite side of the street is the fine 
> building of the Union Bank.  At the upper end of Castle Street 
> stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated 
> mansion, the most imposing ``barracks'' possessed anywhere 
> by this organization.  In front of it is the Market Cross, 
> a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in 
> diameter and 18 ft. high.  The original was designed in 1682 
> by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
> removed hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better 
> style.  On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are 
> panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James 
> I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
> high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal,unicorn 
> rampant.  On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military 
> barracks.  In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution, 
> founded in 1824, with a good library; the Post and Telegraph 
> offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and 
> general wares are sold.  The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin, 
> is a busy scene in the early morning.  The Art Gallery and 
> Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style 
> of red and brown granite, contains an excellent Collection of 
> pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contemporary 
> artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional 
> interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain.  The public 
> llbrary, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 
> volumes.  The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of 
> dramatic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety 
> entertainment.  The new buildings of Marischal College fronting 
> Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one 
> of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great 
> Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native 
> of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to 
> the design of a noble building with the originality of genius. 
> 
> Churches.---Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well 
> equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but 
> few of special interest.  The East and West churches of St 
> Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic 
> facade, 147 1/2 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous 
> building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the 
> ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Colllson 
> Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the 
> 12th-century church of St Nicholas.  The West Church was built in 
> 1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the 
> Gothic.  In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the 
> old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of 
> which, Laurence or ``Lowrie,'' was 4 ft. in diameter at the 
> mouth, 3 1/2 ft. high and very thick.  The church was rebuilt 
> and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening 
> aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36 
> bells, cast in Holland, being installed to commemorate the 
> Victorian jubilee of 1887.  The Roman Catholic Cathedral in 
> Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859.  The 
> see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire 
> by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over 
> the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric 
> to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of 
> St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was 
> begun.  Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone 
> (1484-1511), the building progressed slowly.  Gavin Dunbar, 
> who followed him in 1518, was enabled to complete the 
> structure by adding the two western spires and the southern 
> transept.  The church suffered severely at the Reformation, 
> but is still used as the parish church.  It now consists of the 
> nave and side aisles.  It is chiefly built of outlayer granite, 
> and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately 
> simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.  
> On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave are the heraldic 
> shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its 
> erection, and the great west window contains modern painted 
> glass of excellent colour and design.  The cemeteries are St 
> Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield 
> at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and 
> Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park. 
> 
> Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
> in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, 
> and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by 
> George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
> 1860.  Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine 
> and science at Marischal.  The number of students exceeds 800 
> yearly.  The buildings of both colleges are the glories of 
> Aberdeen.  King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two 
> sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been 
> added.  The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 
> 1500.  The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. 
> high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both 
> sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched 
> ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the 
> tower.  The choir of the chapel still contains the original 
> oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in 
> the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and 
> execution.  Their preservation was due to the enlightened 
> energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who 
> armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the 
> Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and 
> lead.  Marischal College is a stately modern building, having 
> been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years 
> later at a cost of L. 100,000.  The additions to the buildings 
> opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
> The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr 
> Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
> The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration 
> of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the 
> university.  The University Library comprises nearly 100,000 
> books.  A Botanic Garden was presented to the university in 
> 1899.  Aberdeen and Glasgow Universities combine to return 
> one member to Parliament.  The United Free Church Divinity 
> Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from 
> 1850.  The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in 
> 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new 
> building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street.  
> Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729 
> by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
> Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
> Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor 
> burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized 
> in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical 
> education, and has since been unusually successful.  Besides 
> a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are 
> many private higher-class schools.  Under the Endowments Act 
> 1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a 
> capital of L. 155,000.  At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five 
> miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College 
> for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. 
> 
> Charities.---The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established 
> in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and 
> largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's 
> jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan 
> Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, 
> in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital 
> for Sick Children; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; 
> the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb 
> Institution; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East 
> and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted 
> to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of 
> the charitable institutions.  There are, besides, industrial 
> schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a 
> Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth 
> House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's 
> Convalescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the 
> Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. 
> 
> Parks and Open Spaces.---Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift 
> of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an 
> excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park 
> (13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are 
> situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart 
> Park (11 acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 
> 1893.  The capacious links bordering the sea between the 
> mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air 
> recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,'' 
> or shooting tournament, is held annually.  Part is laid out 
> as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket 
> and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course, 
> and a bathing-station has been erected.  Union Terrace 
> Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city. 
> 
> Statues.---In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue 
> in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. 
> (1888).  In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns 
> and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert.  In 
> front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. 
> Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888).  At the east 
> end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, 
> erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city.  Near the 
> Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 
> 1836).  Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead 
> granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal 
> College to the memory of Sir James M`Grigor (1778-1851), the 
> military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical 
> Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College. 
> 
> Bridges.--The Dee is crossed by four bridges,--the old 
> bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, 
> and Victoria Bridge, opposite Market Street.  The first, till 
> 1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of 
> seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and 
> was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and 
> Dunbar.  It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718--1723, and in 
> 1842 was widened from 14 1/2 to 26 ft.  The bridge of Don has 
> five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in 
> 1827--1832.  A little to the west is the Auld Brig o' 
> Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep 
> black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., 
> and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. 
> 
> Harbour.--A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel 
> bar at its entrance. long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but 
> under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened.  The 
> north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly 
> by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North 
> Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few 
> feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at 
> neap.  A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, 
> was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour 
> of the queen's visit to the city in that year.  Adjoining 
> it is the Upper Dock.  By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee 
> near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of 
> L. 80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres 
> formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the 
> river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and 
> warehouses.  A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was 
> constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection 
> against south-easterly gales.  On Girdleness, the southern 
> point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833.  Near the 
> harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. 
> 
> Industry.---Owing to the variety and importance of its chief 
> industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 
> Scotland.  Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 
> Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed 
> paving ``setts,'' kerb and building stones, and monumental 
> and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported 
> from the district to all parts of the world.  This, though 
> once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the 
> deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from 
> beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing 
> in 1889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of 
> Grimsby.  Fish trains are despatched to London daily.  Most 
> of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst 
> them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779).  These 
> give employment to several thousands of operatives.  The 
> paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in 
> the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694.  
> Flax-spinning and jute and combmaking factories are also very 
> flourishing, and there are successful foundries and engineering 
> works.  There are large distilleries and breweries, and 
> chemical works employing many hands.  In the days of wooden 
> ships ship-building was a flourishing industry, the town being 
> noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records 
> in the ``tea races.'' The introduction of trawllng revived 
> this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city 
> from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron 
> vessels.  Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted 
> meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in 
> strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. 
> 
> History.--Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 
> 12th century.  William the Lion had a residence in the city, to 
> which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights 
> granted by David I. The city received other royal charters 
> later.  It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 
> 1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New 
> Aberdeen.  The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland.  
> They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to 
> the present day.  For many centuries the city was subject to 
> attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, 
> but the gates were all removed by 1770.  In 1497 a blockhouse 
> was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the 
> English.  During the struggles between the Royalists and 
> Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both 
> sides.  In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old 
> Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland 
> resided for a short time in the city before attacking 
> the Young Pretender.  The motto on the city arms is ``Bon 
> Accord,'' which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians 
> while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English. 
> 
> Population.---In 1396 the population was about 3000.  By 1801 it had 
> become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503. 
> 
> 
> 
> AUTHORITIES.--The charters of the burgh; extracts from 
> the council register down to 1625, and selections from the 
> letters. guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. 
> of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus 
> Aberdonensis, Spalding Club; Walter Thore, The History 
> of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and 
> Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals 
> of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Descripjion of the Chanonry, 
> Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 
> (1830); Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated 
> Architecture of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of old 
> Castellated Houses of Aberdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives 
> of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description 
> of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842); Joseph 
> Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); W. 
> Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 
> 1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen 
> (Aberdeen, 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, 
> Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); 
> P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., illustrating the History 
> of Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 1890); 
> Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New 
> Spalding Club, 1889, 1898..1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of 
> the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); 
> G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the 
> Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to 
> the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History 
> and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882).
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
------
AberdeenSouthDakota|980845705
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< Describe the new page here.
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> ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, South 
> Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m.  N.E. of Pierre.  Pop. (1890) 
> 3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905) 5841; 
> (1910) 10,753.  Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee 
> and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and St 
> Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways.  It is 
> the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the 
> state, a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks 
> and a number of wholesale houses.  The city is the seat of the 
> Northern Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, 
> and has a Carnegie Library; the principal buildings are the 
> court house and the government buildings.  Artesian wells 
> furnish good water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain 
> pitchers, brooms, chemicals and flour are manufactured.  The 
> municipality owns and operates the water-works.  Aberdeen 
> was settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1883. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
> 
------
HiStory|980845864
2a3,4
> ''These broad era statements seemed like a good idea when I first thought of them, but I'm strongly questioning that now.  This is in direct conjunction with me having made some foolish mistakes.''
> 
22c24
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
---
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
------
CopperAge|980846124
0a1,2
> ''Author's note - bronze wasn't introduced by our friends the charioteers, but appeared more or less everywhere around 2000 BC.  From this and other things I would like to do some refactoring before anyone worries about this page.''
> 
------
BronzeAge|980846208
0a1,2
> ''Author's note - this page was written with the idea that bronze was introduced by various chariot-peoples, who are separate from the migrants of 2000.  I don't know where I got this idea, but I would like a chance to refactor the page to make things more correct.''
> 
------
HiStory|980846309
3c3
< ''These broad era statements seemed like a good idea when I first thought of them, but I'm strongly questioning that now.  This is in direct conjunction with me having made some foolish mistakes.''
---
> ''These broad era statements seemed like a good idea when I first thought of them, but in hindsight I think they should be broken up, e.g. BronzeAgeOfMiddleEast or some such.  This would go hand-in-hand with factoring out some silly mistakes.  Any opinions before I go ahead? -- JoshuaGrosse''
------
IndoEuropean|980846696
1,3c1
< It turns out that most of the western major language families are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European. They are associated with various groups of migrants that appeared around the beginning of the BronzeAge.  Huge amounts of information about ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) lexicon and grammar have been inferred. Discussion about actual proto-IE culture has been stalled, though, by its association with the racist doctrines of German NationalSocialism.
< 
< The various subgroups of Indo-European include:
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  The various subgroups of Indo-European include:
15a14,15
> 
> The original homeland of the speakers of ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) is not known for certain, but probably lies somewhere around the black sea.  Most of the subgroups diverged and had spread out over much of Europe and the MiddleEast during the fourth and third millenia BC.  Discussion of PIE culture has been stalled by its association with the racist doctrines of NationalSocialism, but enormous amounts of work has been done on its structure and vocabulary.
------
MuSic|980847686
21a22,25
> 
> How about some genres?
> 
> ClassicaLMusic -- DanCe -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
------
MuSic|980847716
25c25
< ClassicaLMusic -- DanCe -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
---
> ClassicaLMusic -- DanCeMusic -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
------
MuSic|980847756
25c25
< ClassicaLMusic -- DanCeMusic -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
---
> ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
------
SetTheory|980858906
31c31,48
< What does "composed of" mean above? Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
---
> 
> *What does "composed of" mean above? 
> To rephrase the axiom, given a set X, there is a set Y whose elements are precisely those
> that are elements of some element of X.  This again will be a little confusing: in ZF, the only things that exist
> are sets, and the only things that sets contain are other sets. For example, if 
>    { {1,2}, {3,4}, {4,5,6} }
> is a set then
>    { 1,2,3,4,5,6 }
> is a set.
> 
> *Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
> For anyone who wants to understand, it is an idea to have a little familiarity with set theory in its `less formal' form,
> and the problems it has, so as to see why set theory is the way it is.  Part of the reason it is necessary is due to examples
> such as RussellsParadox :
>    Let R = { x | x is not a member of x }
>    Question: is R a member of R
>    Problem: If R is a member of R then R does not satisfy the criterion for membership -- contradiction.
>             If R is not a member of R then R does satisfy the criterion for membership -- another contradiction.
35a53,56
> 
> One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.
> 
> On the other hand, AxiomOfChoice also allows one to prove that the solid unit sphere can be broken up into 5 (infinitely complicated) pieces, shuffled around (with no scaling/shearing etc... just rotation and translation), and put back together to make two solid spheres, each identical to the original. (The Banach-Tarski Paradox)
------
TheBeatles|980868872
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr (Richard Starky) were all from Liverpool, England.
------
CalvinOstrum|980872675
1c1,10
< cbo@interlog.com
---
> cbo@interlog.com----
> 
> '''Q.''' You have asked about recursively denumerable sets on the SeT page. I am not sure if you are questioning:
> * 1). the existence of such a sets.
> * 2). whether such sets are well-defined
> *AND MORE IMPORTANT
> * 1). If you are tryimg to illicit more content, please feel free to add content to the page.
> * 2). If you are referring to the paradoxes resulting from looking at sets like X = {x: x is a set}, a more limited problem, Russell's Paradox is on the SetTheory page.
> 
> In conclusion, perhaps an example of such a set would help. RoseParks
------
SeT|980872993
9,10c9
< I am not ignoring this question, I simply don't have time at the moment. Please be patient.
< RoseParks
---
> Mr. Olstrum, please see your page for some questions about your question. RoseParks
------
SeT|980873109
9c9
< Mr. Olstrum, please see your page for some questions about your question. RoseParks
---
> Mr. Ostrum, please see your page for some questions about your question. RoseParks
------
WikiPediaProcess|980873539
39c39,41
< WikiPedia fulfils many of the principles (such as freedom from closed editorial controls) advocated by the GNUPedia project, however it is not directly derived from that project.  Note that GNUPedia has changed its name and focus; it is now known as "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia".  It is currently focused more on the development of new encyclopedia software than on actively gathering articles, however because of the common licensing approach taken by Nupedia and Wikipedia, articles posted here can be used in the GNE software when it eventually becomes available for public use, and/or can be submitted to Nupedia for formal peer review and inclusion in that project.  GNE is accepting article submissions, but is asking for some time to finish their software before displaying them publically.  -- BryceHarrington
---
> WikiPedia fulfils many of the principles (such as freedom from closed editorial controls) advocated by the GNUPedia project, however it is not directly derived from that project.  Note that GNUPedia has changed its name and focus; it is now known as "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia".  It is currently focused more on the development of new encyclopedia software than on actively gathering articles, however because of the common licensing approach taken by Nupedia and Wikipedia, articles posted here can be used in the GNE software when it eventually becomes available for public use, and/or can be submitted to Nupedia for formal peer review and inclusion in that project.  GNE is accepting article submissions, but is asking for some time to finish their software before displaying them publically.  -- BryceHarrington----
> '''Q'''. For the Math articles there is a crying need to have more symbols, like the Greek alphabet, Integral and Summation symbols, infinity, and more, as well as the capability to 
> show graphs, depict figures, and much more. Are there any tools to do this, other than linking to a another web page? RoseParks
------
JoshuaGrosse|980875027
32a33,42
> As a member of Nupedia, you would have to sign-up for the Copyedit-L, Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists and look at and get comfortable using our AME prounciation guide at:
> http://www.nupedia.com/pronguide.shtml
> or possibly the Copyeditbre-L, as well, and then look at and learn to use our BRE prounciation Guide
> at:
> http://www.nupedia.com/pronguidebre.html
> 
> We have a at least one article, already posted and some in the works that have no pronunciations for unfamiliar words and foreign words, simply because there is no one to supply them, using these guides. Such articles can be found in the main page of Nupedia, under New Articles, and in the Copyediting area which you will find a link to, after logging in, on you member page. Look for articles under open copyedit area. If you have any questions, feel free. As usual this is purely voluntary. RoseParks
> 
> ---- 
> 
------
JoshuaGrosse|980875656
28c28
< Picking up on your interest in phonetics, we could surely use your help at Nupedia in the CopyeditAME-L and Pronounce-L lists, to help provide pronunciations for our articles. I hope I am not intruding with this last remark.
---
> Picking up on your interest in phonetics, we could surely use your help at Nupedia in the Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists, to help provide pronunciations for our articles. I hope I am not intruding with this last remark.
32,33c32,34
< 
< As a member of Nupedia, you would have to sign-up for the Copyedit-L, Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists and look at and get comfortable using our AME prounciation guide at:
---
> At the moment we have Prounciation Guides for American English and British English.
> All articles to date are identified as written in one of these languages.
> As a member of Nupedia, you would have to sign-up for the Copyedit-L, Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists. These are available for sign-up from your member page under Mailing Lists. Also, you would have to look at and get comfortable using our AME prounciation guide at:
35,36c36
< or possibly the Copyeditbre-L, as well, and then look at and learn to use our BRE prounciation Guide
< at:
---
> You might be interested in the Copyeditbre-L list, as well. Here you need to look at and learn to use our BRE prounciation Guide at:
39c39,40
< We have a at least one article, already posted and some in the works that have no pronunciations for unfamiliar words and foreign words, simply because there is no one to supply them, using these guides. Such articles can be found in the main page of Nupedia, under New Articles, and in the Copyediting area which you will find a link to, after logging in, on you member page. Look for articles under open copyedit area. If you have any questions, feel free. As usual this is purely voluntary. RoseParks
---
> We have  at least one article, already posted and some in the works that have no pronunciations for unfamiliar words and foreign words, simply because there is no one to supply them, using these guides. Such articles can be found in the main page of Nupedia, under New Articles, and in the Copyediting area which you will find a link to, after logging in, on you member page. Look for articles in the Open Copyedit area. If you have any questions, feel free. As usual this is purely voluntary. RoseParks
> email: rose.parks@att.net
------
HiStory|980877660
4a5,6
> ''The usual way to divide history up is by nation or region and '''then''' by historical period.  If you really care about this, you should consult with a historian, I think. -- LarrySanger''
> 
20c22
< * HistoryOfMeditteranean
---
> * HistoryOfMediterranean
------
WikiPediaProcess|980878120
42a43
> '''A.'''  I can't answer the question definitively but I can say that you can easily link to images elsewhere.  So, perhaps as a temporary solution, you can always upload, elsewhere, an image, then link to it from WikiPedia.  The wiki programmers must know more, though...
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980879607
38a39,46
> 
> ----
> Chomsky seems to be applying Lenin's theory of imperialism.  The competing theory, that nations grow wealthy by increasing the productivity of thier labor, has the advantage over Lenin's of being supported by the evidence.
> 
> R.J. Rummel has done history's most exhaustive study on the issue of governmental mass murder.  He has calculated the total number of deaths by studying each reported instance of murder and adding them all up, for all of the most destructive regimes of the 20th century (the total for the century came in around 170 million).  For perspective, he has done similar research on pre-20th century political mass murder.  He was able to document an estimated 6000 deaths of Native Americans at the hands of the United States government.  If you wish to argue that there were more than this, please indicate when and where each incident occured and how many people were killed in each incident.  This is recent history in an area with a free press and a literate population - if these events occured, they would have been documented.  Where are the bodies?  If the evidence was destroyed, where is the powerful centralized organization that systematically disposed of the evidence over thousands of miles (a powerful centralized oganization would be necessary for a task of that scale).  Where are the directives from Washington (there is official documentation of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?  Where are the eye-witness accounts (there are eye-witness accounts of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?
> 
> A collaborative project like this one could be a valuable tool for this kind of research.  We can start of page for IndianMassacres and begin compiling an exhaustive list of incidents:
>  WoundedKneeMassacre - December 29, 1890 - 300 (est.) people killed.
------
IndianMassacres|980879660
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> December 29, 1890 - WoundedKneeMassacre - Wounded Knee, South Dakota - 300 (est.) people killed.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980879677
45,46c45
< A collaborative project like this one could be a valuable tool for this kind of research.  We can start of page for IndianMassacres and begin compiling an exhaustive list of incidents:
<  WoundedKneeMassacre - December 29, 1890 - 300 (est.) people killed.
---
> A collaborative project like this one could be a valuable tool for this kind of research.  We can start of page for IndianMassacres and begin compiling an exhaustive list of incidents.
------
IndianMassacres|980879931
1c1,5
< December 29, 1890 - WoundedKneeMassacre - Wounded Knee, South Dakota - 300 (est.) people killed.
---
> A list of specific incidents in which NativeAmerican people were killed by agents of the United States government.  By compiling a complete list of incidents we can determine the total number of people killed.
> 
> It is assumed that each instance would have some kind of documentation.  This assumption is justified because these events occured in modern history, in an area with a free press and a highly literate population.  We also know from other instances of genocide that evidence abounds, even with the official attempts to suppress it.  There are paper trails of official directives and eye-witness accounts of every genocide in modern history.
> 
>  December 29, 1890 - WoundedKneeMassacre - Wounded Knee, South Dakota - 300 (est.) people killed.
------
IndianMassacres|980879997
4a5,6
> Please add more incidents to this list.  If an incident is not already widely known, please include a source reference.
> 
------
CalvinOstrum|980880011
1c1,3
< cbo@interlog.com----
---
> cbo@interlog.com
> 
> ----
10a13,18
> 
> ----
> 
> Someone wrote "We require that sets be well-defined. Given an object Sn, we must be able to determine if Sn belongs to S."  My point is simply that for most people doing set theory (I don't know who ''We'' is), this is not true.  We do not require that, given an object, we are able to determine whether it is in a given set or not.   Most people doing set theory do not, for example, claim that recursively enumerable sets which are not recursive do not exist.  For example, the set of theorems of a given first order theory is very often only a semi-decidable set.  
> Philosophically, some people may object to the claim that such sets exist, but it is not the usual position.  -- CalvinOstrum
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980880069
45a46,47
> 
> - TimShell
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980880454
46a47,49
> (curiously, Rummel just sent me this graphic:)
> <img http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg>
> 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980880478
47,48c47,48
< (curiously, Rummel just sent me this graphic:)
< <img http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg>
---
> (curiously, Rummel just sent me this illustration:)
> img http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980880496
48c48
< img http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg
---
> http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980880511
47a48
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|980880831
1c1
< A worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  But the real Francisco D'Anconia is revealed as the book progresses.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco D'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  As the book progresses we learn there is much more to this story.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|980880848
3c3
< Francisco D'Anconia is mentioned in:
---
> Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in:
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|980881017
3c3
< /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
---
> /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|980881033
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously after the evening of his greatest triumph.
---
> /DagnyTaggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph.
6c6
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
---
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|980881170
10,20c10,15
< /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
< 
< /EddieWillers
< 
< /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
< 
< /JamesTaggart
< 
< /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
< 
< /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
---
>  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
>  /EddieWillers
>  /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980881204
10,24c10,17
< /BrakemaN
< 
< /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
< 
< /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
< 
< /DagnyTaggart
< 
< /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
< 
< /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
< 
< /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
< 
< /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
---
>  /BrakemaN
>  /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
>  /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
>  /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
>  /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
>  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980881238
4c4
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
---
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
------
AtlasShrugged112|980881270
2,29d1
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  Afte falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
< ----
< * Setting
< Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
< ----
< * Characters
< BrakemaN
< 
< ConductoR - First and only appearance.
< 
< EngineeR - First and only appearance.
< 
< DagnyTaggart
< 
< OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
< 
< PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
< 
< PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
< 
< RichardHalley - Mentioned.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< What was the brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN113|980881292
10,12c10,11
< /DagnyTaggart
< 
< /BrakemaN
---
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /BrakemaN
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|980881390
4c4
< Dagny meets with James Taggart and Eddie Willers.  She informs them that she has ordered Rearden Metal from Rearden Steel to be used to replace the tracks of the Rio Norte Line.  Later she calls Mr. Ayers to determine if Richard Halley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with Owen Kellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> Dagny meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
10,26c10,18
< /DagnyTaggart
< 
< /JamesTaggart
< 
< /EddieWillers
< 
< /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
< 
< /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
< 
< /HankRearden: Mentioned.
< 
< /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
< 
< /OwenKellogg
< 
< /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
---
>  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EddieWillers
>  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
>  /HankRearden: Mentioned.
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
>  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
>  /OwenKellogg
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|980881460
4c4
< Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of Rearden Metal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, Paul Larkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
7c7
< Rearden Steel mills in Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
---
> /ReardenSteel mills in /Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
10,28c10,19
< /GwenIves: Mentioned.
< 
< /HankRearden
< 
< /LillianRearden
< 
< /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
< 
< /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
< 
< /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
< 
< /PaulLarkin
< 
< /PhilipRearden
< 
< /ReardensMother
< 
< /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
---
>  /GwenIves: Mentioned.
>  /HankRearden
>  /LillianRearden
>  /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
>  /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
>  /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden
>  /ReardensMother
>  /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN131|980881588
4c4
< James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, and Wesley Mouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop Hank Rearden and the success of Rearden Metal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the National Alliance of Railroads to drive the Phoenix-Durango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that Taggart Transcontinental's San Sebastian Line has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
---
> /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop /HankRearden and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
7c7
< The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, design to look like a cellar.
---
> The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, designed to look like a cellar.
10,20c10,15
< /JamesTaggart
< 
< /OrrenBoyle
< 
< /WesleyMouch
< 
< /PaulLarkin
< 
< /WaiteR: First and only appearance.
< 
< /BartendeR: First and only appearance.
---
>  /BartendeR: First and only appearance.
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /WaiteR: First and only appearance.
>  /WesleyMouch
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|980881720
4c4
< Recounts Dagny's childhood decision to run Taggart Transcontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the San Sebastian Line: Millionaire playboy Francisco D'Anconia invested money in developing the San Sebastian Mines, and James Taggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts /DagnyTaggart's childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy /FranciscoDAnconia invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
10,32c10,21
< /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
< 
< /DagnysFather
< 
< /DagnyTaggart
< 
< /EddieWillers
< 
< /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
< 
< /FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
< 
< /HankRearden
< 
< /JamesTaggart
< 
< /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
< 
< /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
< 
< /NewsstandOwner
< 
< /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
---
>  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
>  /DagnysFather
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EddieWillers
>  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
>  /FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
>  /HankRearden
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
>  /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
>  /NewsstandOwner
>  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
35c24
< The NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
---
> The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|980881745
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the /SanSebastianMines and of /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine.  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
> 
> Mexico is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN131
>  - /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoPeoplesStateof|980881771
1,6c1
< Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the /SanSebastianMines and of /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine.  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
< 
< Mexico is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN131
<  - /SectioN132
---
> #REDIREDT AtlasShrugged/Mexico
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoPeoplesStateof|980881782
1c1
< #REDIREDT AtlasShrugged/Mexico
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Mexico
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|980881803
15c15
<  /MexicoPeoplesStateof
---
>  /Mexico
27c27
<  
---
>  
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|980881847
24c24
< The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the newsstand owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
---
> The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|980881900
4c4
< /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
---
> /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
------
CalvinOstrum|980883526
17c17,21
< Philosophically, some people may object to the claim that such sets exist, but it is not the usual position.  -- CalvinOstrum
---
> Philosophically, some people may object to the claim that such sets exist, but it is not the usual position.  -- CalvinOstrum----
> 
> Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With you permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks.
> I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully.
> RoseParks
------
CalvinOstrum|980883590
19c19
< Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With you permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks.
---
> Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks.
------
CalvinOstrum|980883742
19,20c19
< Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks.
< I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully.
---
> Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks. Or perhaps you would like to add to the page yourself? I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully.
------
SeT|980883796
9c9
< Mr. Ostrum, please see your page for some questions about your question. RoseParks
---
> 
------
IndianMassacres|980883807
7c7
<  December 29, 1890 - WoundedKneeMassacre - Wounded Knee, South Dakota - 300 (est.) people killed.
---
> December 29, 1890 - WoundedKneeMassacre - Wounded Knee, South Dakota - 300 (est.) people killed.
------
SeT|980883818
7c7
< ----
---
> 
------
IndianMassacres|980883975
7a8,16
> 
> ----
> 
> I am not an expert in this area.  But I remember, growing up in AlabamA, the story of the TrailOfTears, in which many NativeAmerican people were forced to leave AlabamA (and other places, perhaps), and walk to ArkansaS or something like that.
> Many of them died along the way.  Would that count?
> 
> (Notice that I am not only not an expert, this edit is more of
> a question than a comment, so perhaps someone could fill in
> the TrailOfTears page with some facts, and then this comment could be removed from this page.)
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980884584
0a1,15
> Note from JimboWales: I really like the way the following discussion is going.  What I'm interested to see is whether
> and to what extent we might be able to achieve some consensus
> on a basic 3-screen history of the UnitedStates.
> 
> Someone wrote that the Nazi FinalSolution was perhaps modelled
> on U.S policy towards NativeAmerican''''s.  I think this is
> ludicrous on many levels.  Even if it were true that some Nazi's
> viewed it as the same thing (something I don't really know about), that view is itself ludicrous.  We're talking about a
> serious estimate of 6,000 dead in a variety of unfortunate incidents, versus a serious estimate of how many millions dead as the result of a deliberate genocide?
> 
> Anyhow, it will be very interesting to see what we might
> hammer out as mutually acceptable to reasonable people who
> disagree.
> 
> ----
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980884744
13c13,22
< disagree.
---
> disagree.  So far, things don't look good.  :-)  BryceHarrington is citing NoamChomsky, who I regard as a lunatic.  And TimShell
> is posting highly inflammatory pictures of genocide.
> 
> Will it break down into a flame war?  Or does the ability of
> others to come in and "tone down" the discussion at will mean
> that flame wars can be avoided?
> 
> It sure is fun and addictive to watch to find out!
> 
> 
------
TheBeatles|980884816
1c1
< The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr (Richard Starky) were all from Liverpool, England.
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
------
PeterAbelard|980885158
1c1
< ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142), scholastic philosopher, was born 
---
> ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142), ScholasticPhilosopher, was born 
11c11
< meaning at that time chiefly the logic of Aristotle transmitted 
---
> meaning at that time chiefly the logic of AristotlE transmitted 
15c15
< but whether he heard this champion of extreme Nominalism in 
---
> but whether he heard this champion of extreme NominalisM in 
19c19
< His wanderings finally brought him to Paris, still under 
---
> His wanderings finally brought him to ParisFrance, still under 
21,22c21
< Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of William 
< of Champeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of 
---
> Notre-Dame, he sat for a while under the teaching of WilliamofChampeaux, the disciple of St Anselm and most advanced of 
25c24
< in the downfall of the philosophic theory of Realism, till 
---
> in the downfall of the philosophic theory of RealisM, till 
30c29
< Corbeil, nearer Paris.  The success of his teaching was 
---
> Corbeil, nearer ParisFrance.  The success of his teaching was 
168,169c167
< Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous Historia 
< Calamitatum, and thus moved her to peu her first Letter, 
---
> Gildas, Abelard wrote, among other things, his famous HistoriaCalamitatum, and thus moved her to peu her first Letter, 
235c233
< The general importance of Abelard lles in his having fixed 
---
> The general importance of Abelard lies in his having fixed 
243,244c241,242
< Through him was prepared in the Middle Age the ascendancy 
< of the philosophical authority of Aristotle, which became 
---
> Through him was prepared in the MiddleAge the ascendancy 
> of the philosophical authority of AristotlE, which became 
246c244
< first the completed Organon, and gradually ail the other 
---
> first the completed OrganoN, and gradually ail the other 
251c249
< Universals, see SCHOLASTICISM.  Outside of his dialectic, 
---
> Universals, see ScholasticisM.  Outside of his dialectic, 
261c259
< great ethical inquiries of AAstotle became fully known to them. 
---
> great ethical inquiries of AristotlE became fully known to them. 
264c262
< for his life, especially his Historia Culamitatum, an 
---
> for his life, especially his HistoriaCulamitatum, an 
------
AbductioN|980885372
35c35
< knowledge of her.  In Scotland, where there is no statutory 
---
> knowledge of her.  In ScotlanD, where there is no statutory 
------
RequestedArticles|980885448
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- TheBeatles -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
------
AbdominalSurgery|980885542
1,3c1,3
< ABDOMINAL SURGERY.---The diseases affecting this region 
< are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, 
< and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term 
---
> AbdominalSurgery.---The diseases affecting this region 
> are dealt with generally in the article DigestiveOrgans, 
> and under their own names (e.g. AppendicitiS). The term 
9c9
< that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.); but here the 
---
> that organ (see StomacH, KidneY, LiveR, &c.); but here the 
18c18
< recognized.  It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American 
---
> recognized.  It was Dr OliverWendellHolmes, the American 
------
AdolfHitler|980885596
10c10
< AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed Admiral Doenitz as the next Führer.
---
> AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed AdmiralDoenitz as the next Führer.
------
InaugurationProtests|980885965
9a10,11
> I have read alternative perspectives on the protests, which pointed out that they were primarily composed of people paid to protest by various special interest groups.  I suppose that point of view should be noted, as well.  -- JimboWales
> 
------
AtlasShrugged|980887463
13c13,15
< * AtlasShrugged/Characters
---
> *
> 
> * /Characters
------
HomePage|980887475
3c3
< CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
---
> BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
------
AtlasShrugged|980887509
13c13
< *
---
> */WhyThisSectionExists
16,21c16,21
< * AtlasShrugged/Companies
< * AtlasShrugged/Conflicts
< * AtlasShrugged/Places
< * AtlasShrugged/Structure
< * AtlasShrugged/Symbolism
< * AtlasShrugged/Things
---
> * /Companies
> * /Conflicts
> * /Places
> * /Structure
> * /Symbolism
> * /Things
------
BusinessAndEconomics|980887795
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * BusinessSchools
> * EconomicS
> * /EducatioN
> * ElectonicCommerce
> * /Ethics
> * FinanceAndInvestment
> * /History
> * IntellectualProperty
> * /Law
> * ManagementScience
> * MarketingAndAdvertising
> * /Media
> * TradE
------
AtlasShrugged/WhyThisSectionExists|980887896
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I am developing the AtlasShrugged section of Wikipedia as a test to push the envelope of what is possible with a wiki.  I hope to show that a wiki-based encyclopedia is not merely the same old encyclopedia with a different development and editing system, but a tool that allows types of content not easily integrated into conventional encyclopedias.
> 
> I chose AtlasShrugged for this project for a few reasons.  I am familiar with it so can do a passable job in summarizing it.  It is very large and complex, making it a good test of what is possible.  Often people who are into AtlasShrugged are _really_ into it, so there are likely people who will contribute and who will be interested in the section.  There is a movie coming out, so interest in AtlasShrugged might be expected to surge soon - it would be good for the project if we were able to sate that interest with a really cool AtlasShrugged section.
------
InaugurationProtests|980888319
2,8c2
< be removed from the wikipedia.  My reason is this:
< 
< When you click 'submit', you are agreeing to release the text under the GNU FDL.  But this reprinting disclaimer doesn't give all the freedom that the FDL gives.  (For example, you don't have the right to redistribute modified versions, and there is a discrimination against commercial usage -- both restrictions are forbidden under the open source definition.)  
< 
< Therefore, while it is o.k. for the moment, since this wikipedia doesn't have any ads on it, it is not o.k. in the long run, because this wikipedia database is intended to be made available for download under an FDL license. --JimboWales
< 
< ''Agreed.  As well, it has a journalistic-bent to it, and so needs to be rewritten into more of an encyclopedic bent.  But I felt the information is important and of current interest.  And since the protests were not covered by traditional media, and thus likely won't show up in mainstream encyclopedias and histories, I wanted to be sure we had *something* relatively detailed on it.  -- BryceHarrington''
---
> be removed from the wikipedia.
12,254c6
< ----
< 
< '''Bush inauguration meets resistance'''
< 
< http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%201.GIF
< 
< ''Protesters confront police in Washington, DC on Saturday, Jan. 20. ''
< 
< By Eamon Martin
< 
< '''Washington, DC, Jan. 20- '''As the pomp and circumstance 
< of President George W. Bush's inauguration attempted to forcibly 
< transcend the domestic instability left in the wake of what 
< may be the most contentious election in US history, approximately 
< 20,000 people gathered in the nation's capital to protest.
< 
< Bush, the first President in more than a century to lose the 
< national popular vote, took the oath of office as president 
< of the United States, pledging to "unite" the country which 
< the November elections showed to be deeply divided, along cultural, 
< geographic, and ethnic lines. For a large percentage of the 
< US public, the presidency is deeply mired in a crisis of legitimacy 
< by numerous allegations of vote fraud, voter disenfranchisement, 
< and the controversial Supreme Court decision that halted the 
< vote count on a legal technicality. For the many who came to 
< demonstrate from as many as forty US states, a Bush/Cheney White 
< House represents nothing less than a debasement of democracy, 
< a Republican coup d'etat with a suitably incompetent figurehead 
< for a puppet regime.
< 
< Despite a relentless, cold rain and unprecedented security 
< restrictions for demonstrators, widespread feelings of outrage 
< and contempt for the incoming administration were literally 
< overwhelming for many of those in attendance. The day saw numerous 
< marches, assemblies, street theater performances, and confrontations 
< between police and protesters that have since drawn concern 
< from media analysts, given the dramatic scope of the activities 
< and - in many cases - their subsequent, mysterious absence from 
< most news reports. Demonstrators were evident on every block 
< of the 1.6-mile inaugural parade route, and on some blocks on 
< the north side of Pennsylvania Avenue, they outnumbered other 
< paradegoers.
< 
< The day began early for protesters, who were in the streets 
< well before Bush supporters. At 8:30am, a few hundred met at 
< 12th and G streets NW, then marched to 14th Street and Pennsylvania 
< Avenue, to the beat of homemade drums.
< 
< A boisterous crowd of more than 1,000 assembled at Dupont 
< Circle just before 10 am, chastising Bush for "stealing" the 
< election. At 10:30, city crews arrived to cut an effigy of Bush 
< from a tree. Speaker Patricia Ireland, president of the National 
< Organization for Women, told the crowd: "Let them have the tree. 
< We have all of Dupont Circle and we have the whole country. 
< They just have the White House." 
< 
< Meanwhile, near the Supreme Court, Al Sharpton, Walter E. Fauntroy 
< and other civil rights activists were holding a "shadow" inauguration 
< and parade, attended by over 2,000 people. Laura Brightman of 
< Brooklyn, NY commented, "We were sold out," as others around 
< her chanted, "No justice, no peace." 
< 
< "And when we tried to get justice [from the Supreme Court] 
< we were sold again," said Brightman. "The election was stolen." 
< 
< 
< At the Supreme Court building, Rudy Arredondo of Takoma Park, 
< Md., put it this way: "Bush is a Supreme Court appointee. In 
< my eyes, and in my children's eyes, he will never be a legitimate 
< president."
< 
< '''Anarchists destroy inaugural checkpoint, hoist flag: media 
< blackout '''
< 
< http://www.agrnews.org/issues/106/J20%2088.GIF
< ''Black bloc activists build a barricade in the streets of Washingtoon, DC.''
< 
< Notably ignored by the mainstream press, radical activists 
< made anarchist history during George W. Bush's inaugural parade 
< when one of nine police checkpoints to the celebration was battered 
< down and overrun with thousands of protesters. Not long after, 
< protesters -- led by the masked, black-clad, anarchist collective 
< known as the "Black Bloc" -- seized the Naval Memorial on Pennsylvania 
< Ave. and raised anarchist flags up the monument's flagpole. 
< Overwhelmed by the security breach, DC police and Secret Service 
< appeared confused, powerless, and embarrassed as they tried 
< to contain, arrest, or disperse the demonstrators, only to fail 
< time and time again when Black Bloc members physically fought 
< back and successfully prevented almost any such police retaliation 
< from happening.
< 
< In the weeks leading up to Bush's inaugural moment, the "historically 
< unprecedented" security measures being undertaken by the Republican 
< Party in tandem with DC police and the US Secret Service received 
< extensive attention in the news media. For the first time ever, 
< anyone wishing to attend the inaugural parade was required to 
< pass through one of nine police checkpoints, have their bags 
< searched, and in some cases be frisked and have protest signs 
< confiscated. 
< 
< "He stole the vote," said Ethyl Tobch, 79, of New York City. 
< "The fact that the people's votes were absolutely stolen plus 
< the checkpoints are very frightening. It makes you feel like 
< you are in a real dictatorship." 
< <p>It was a single egg that landed on the presidential motorcade, 
< a brief, maybe blurry tele-view of colorful protest signs along 
< the parade route. By most news accounts, the protests were an 
< inaugural footnote, not worthy of much comment or attention. 
< However, for the thousands of people attending the inaugural 
< parade who had gathered near the US Naval Memorial, a dramatic, 
< captivating spectacle unfolded before them, for many the likes 
< of which had never before been seen. As the well-to-do sat perched, 
< waiting anxiously in the expensive bleacher seats and hotel 
< balconies overlooking the parade for the arrival of the Bush 
< motorcade, parade-goers suddenly found themselves in the midst 
< of a giant confrontation between police and protesters. 
< 
< It began when a march of nearly 600 Black Bloc demonstrators 
< began to make its way towards the parade route, leaving a small 
< trail of impromptu blockades -- mainly newspaper distributor 
< racks and automobiles -- behind them. Soon after, DC police 
< appeared and managed to corral against a building wall about 
< 80 of this group who called themselves the "Revolutionary Anti-Authoritarian 
< Bloc." Mass arrests seemed imminent with the police holding 
< loads of plastic, "zip-tie" handcuffs and City Transit Authority 
< busses parked nearby at the ready for "criminal" mass transit. 
< DC Executive Assistant Police Chief Terrance W. Gainer said 
< the police contingency plan for up to 5,000 arrests involved 
< the use of several buses and 180 officers specifically prepared 
< for that many cases. All told, about 7,000 officers had been 
< deployed from various law enforcement agencies, including US 
< Marshals and National Guard troops.
< 
< A standoff ensued between the police, spectators, and a groundswell 
< of protesters suddenly reinforced by the unexpected arrival 
< of a National Organization of Women (NOW) march and a Voter 
< Rights march, chanting "Let them go! Let them go!" Hopelessly 
< outnumbered, the police eventually complied, freeing the demonstrators 
< to continue their protests. 
< 
< With protesters now numbering in the 1,500-2,000 range, a massive 
< march proceeded to Pennsylvania Ave. Not much later, with the 
< reunited Black Bloc at the front, a group of inspired participants 
< grabbed a fairly large cart parked in front of a vacant construction 
< site.
< 
< "What is this?" someone asked.
< 
< "It's a battering ram!" another yelled in reply. 
< 
< Much to the astonishment of thousands of waiting parade-watchers, 
< the construction cart came careening down an overlooking hill, 
< crashing through a police checkpoint, only to be stopped from 
< going into the parade avenue by a Secret Service car which pulled 
< in front of it's path, damaging the federal vehicle in the process. 
< The floodgates had been battered open, allowing what from balcony 
< seats must have looked like a giant pool of black ink to seep 
< into the crowded festivities, followed by a colorful barrage 
< of signs proclaiming: "Supreme Coup," "Hail To The Thief," "Not 
< Our President" and hundreds more. For all of their elaborate 
< preparations, much to their surprise, police and military were 
< now confronted with an embarrassingly massive breach of national 
< security. 
< 
< Shocked Republicans and police watched as, soon after, four 
< Black Bloc members scaled the nearby Navy Memorial flagpole 
< to the roaring cheers of demonstrators. In little time, the 
< Nautical flags were pulled down and replaced by black and red 
< anarchist flags, as well as an upside down US flag -- the widely 
< recognized symbol of distress. 
< 
< Over the next few hours, riot police attempted at least three 
< times to rush and disperse those assembled by the monument, 
< only to be pushed, fought back, and defeated. Dozens of times, 
< without identifying themselves, several undercover police attempted 
< to "surprise arrest" demonstrators. Activists responded quickly, 
< however, and with little exception, prevented this from happening 
< by directly confronting the police, tackling them, fighting 
< them, and many times forcibly removing them from the area. 
< 
< Meanwhile, the parade had been delayed. When the Bush/Cheney 
< motorcade eventually did arrive, the cars abruptly sped by this 
< concentrated protest area, forcing the Secret Service chaperones 
< to break pace and run full steam to catch up. At this particular 
< moment, while food, debris, loud insults, and a sea of hundreds 
< of middle fingers were hurled toward the new president, apparently 
< several news networks broadcasting live simulcasts, simultaneously 
< thought it best to cut to commercial breaks or check in with 
< comments from fawning news pundits. 
< 
< Most demonstrators in the area soon dispersed afterward, the 
< object of their animosity having since passed by in the new 
< Cadillac, which featured puncture-proof tires and six-inch-thick 
< bulletproof glass.
< 
< Of the estimated 350,000 people who came downtown Saturday 
< to see the swearing-in ceremony or parade, DC police arrested 
< only five, and other law enforcement agencies arrested only 
< a handful of others. 
< 
< '''Demonstrations nationwide'''
< 
< Protests in opposition to what many are characterizing as 
< an appointed regime by the US Supreme Court were not limited 
< to Washington DC. Thousands of US citizens in over a dozen cities 
< such as San Francisco, Chicago, Seattle, Austin, Tallahassee, 
< New York, Montpelier, Santa Fe, Denver, Los Angeles, Portland 
< and others protested the inauguration. According to the Independent 
< Media Center, thousands of protesters took over part of downtown 
< San Fransisco, stopping cable cars. 3,500 demonstrated in Los 
< Angeles. Even Paris, France saw thousands of demonstrators against 
< the death penalty protest the swearing-in of the new US President. 
< 
< 
< All around the country, mock coronations of "King George II" 
< were staged. In Seattle, an actor dressed in a Revolutionary 
< War costume stole the crown from a shrub and offered it to the 
< people. The crowd of 3,000 placed the crown at the head of a 
< parade. 
< 
< Chicago protesters converged on the city's Federal Building. 
< Demonstrators protested at the state capitols in Denver, Colorado 
< and Montpelier, Vermont. In Albuquerque, New Mexico local TV 
< coverage gave more time to local protests than to the Bush ceremonies.
< 
< In Austin, Texas, 500 people gathered on the state capitol 
< steps. The election "was stolen and it was stolen in Florida. 
< I think there should be a revolution in this country on just 
< this issue," said Arthur Joe Sr. of Dallas. 
< 
< In Asheville, North Carolina, forty-five indignant people braved 
< freezing rain to sing, dance and wave signs, to the obvious 
< delight of passing motorists, who responded with honks and thumbs 
< up. The protest lasted from ten until two o'clock.
< 
< AGR staff contributed to this report.
< 
< Additional sources: Independent Media Center, Washington Post, 
< IPS, Philadelphia Inquirer 
< 
< 
< (c) Copyright 2000 Asheville Global Report.
< Reprinting for non-profit purposes is permitted: Please credit the source.
---
> (Article about protests deleted)
------
RequestedArticles|980888456
6a7
> LetterATopics
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|980888645
24c24
< Because NorthAmerica at the time was occupied by the NativeAmericanPeople, much of the US history is preoccupied with the wresting of the land from these inhabitants.  This was done with a variety of means including broken treaties and forced resettlement, such as the Trail of Tears.  
---
> America remains a popular destination for immigrants.
26c26
< In the middle of the 19th century, the nation was wracked with a massive CivilWar.  The war was fought for economic and political purposes, but one of the most profound and long lasting effects of this war was ending the governmental support of slavery and the freeing of the AfricanAmericanPeople from bondage.  Some harsh repressive laws were put into place to control and limit these people, which have been repealed, and though some such sentiments linger America remains a popular destination for immigrants.
---
> The American country enjoys unprecedented economic prosperity and its people remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
28c28,30
< At the end of the 19th century, the United States engaged in an extremely one-sided war with Spain, and gained control of Guam, PuertoRico, and Cuba.  The US also acquired the Philippines, however only after a very bloody three year war, in which GenocidE was first used to describe the killings of 600,000 Filipinos by armed forces of the United States.
---
> See also:
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk
30,44d31
< In the 20th century, as the amount of uncontested land in NorthAmerica was settled, the USA was forced to engage in more traditional mechanisms for continuing their political and economic growth.  Empires previously had used the policy of ColonialisM as the basis for establishing and protecting their foreign economic interests.  Since the US had been originally been a colony of England, obviously it would be considered hypocritical for the US to be known as a colonial empire, and so thus the US's "NewWorldOrder" was established and maintained through much more subtle events and mechanisms, many of which are not well known.  There have been a number of "Police Actions" or "Limited Engagements" in various third world countries, used to topple governments working at odds with US interests.  
< 
< Following the stock market crash in 1929 and years of virtually unlimited credit during the RoaringTwenties, the US was lost in a deep depression, that took most of a decade to emerge from.  Just as it emerged from this crisis, they were drawn into the Second World War, which had unofficially begun in Spain in 1934 and officially with the invasion of PolanD by the SovietUnion and NaziGermany in 1939.  The UnitedStates entered the war in 1941 with the bombing of PearlHarbor by the Japanese.  After four long years of war, GermanY and Japan were defeated, and (with its newly developed AtomicBomb) the UnitedStates emerged as the most powerful nation in the world.
< 
< During the second half of the 20th century, under the guise of defeating the TotalitarianisM of the CommunisT SovietUnion, the US engaged in a long and expensive ColdWar.  Coupling NaZi technologies with the AtomicBomb, the US and Soviets developed a vast arsenal of WeaponsOfMassDestruction, theoretically able to cause a nuclear detonation anywhere in the world.  The fear this ingrained into the US (and, probably) Soviet citizenry was extreme.  In the US, under SenatorJosephMcCarthy, a WitchHunt was undertaken to expose and publically denegrate anyone with beliefs that expoused anything resembling CommunisM, or who even merely associated with people believing in communism.  
< 
< At the end of the 20th century, the US finally succeeded in outlasting the SovietUnion, and was surprised by the sudden fall of communist countries around the world.  Yet the US remains committed to "full engagement" in the world.  At the start of the 21st century, the US is embracing the new globalization.
< 
< In the meantime, the American country enjoys unprecedented economic prosperity and its people remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
< 
< ----
< Source for much of the above is taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica website's article on the United States, 
< by William M. Brinton, 1996.  I left out a lot of the negative stuff.  Yeesh, US history is depressing...
< 
< See HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion and HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk for discussion of the above article (or possibly an earlier version of the above article).
------
LetterATopics|980888645
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are some topics that start with letter A.  These are some
> of the topics from a really old and lame desktop encyclopedia I own.  I'm just trying to plant some seeds.  None of the articles are that good (yet).
> 
> AaRiver
> AachenGermany
> AardvarK
> AardwolF
> Bible/Aaron
> AbacuS
> AbadanIran
> AbalonE
> AbbaS
> EdwinAustinAbbey
> AbbeY
> AbbeyTheatre
> JohnAbbott
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980888684
27,28d26
< ''I think it may be difficult to know what is considered 'controversial' before writing.  As well, I have doubts that a) someone would be good enough to admit that their assertions will be controversial, and b) that the people discussing them on this page would necessarily be of sufficient authority to de-controversialify such a topic.  Oh, and c) some things in US history are just plain controversial.  Instead, let me propose that if anyone feels anything mentioned on the main page lacks sufficient evidence, bring it here (and write counter-evidence if desired).  Others can edit the item into less controversial terms or add proof, and then move it back.  Doubt this'd be a perfect solution, but I doubt anyone believes wikipedia is going to be _able_ to be true and objective, when anyone in the world can write in it.  But that's why we have Nupedia.''
< 
35,37d32
< ''From Britannica's website:  "In the Nineteenth century, the South had seceded from the Union with the shots fired at Fort Sumter in April, 1861. Abraham Lincoln fought to preserve the Union and, in 1862, freed the slaves with his Emancipation Proclamation. The ensuing Civil War ended only in 1865 with General Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomatox."  Emancipation *did* occur during the war.  My claim that it was an economic issue was drawn from the Britannica article on the Emancipation Proclamation stating, "The locking up of the world's source of cotton supply had been a general calamity, and the Confederate government and people had steadily expected that the English and French governments would intervene in the war. The conversion of the struggle into a crusade against slavery made European intervention impossible."  However, in reading some additional sources on the Library of Congress pages, and some other civil war entries, I have to admit that Tim's comments that the evidence supports many hypotheses.  I suppose generally what I'm trying to say was that a) slavery was not the _primary_ reason for the Civil War, as we might believe, and b) the reason slaves were freed had many motivations (political, militaristic, economic, and so forth) beyond just the evilness of slavery.''
< 
< ''Finally, let me point out a distinction between "equality in terms of freeness" and "equality in terms of class".  The former can be claimed but not the latter.  Even today there is a class distinction; I was living in south central LA before, during, and after the riots and, being white, was made well aware of this on many occasions, and the evidence I saw supported this.  One man who can just come to Los Angeles from Mississippi told me, "Believe it or not, it's a lot better here than where I come from.''
43,46d37
< ''First, I said Germany invaded Poland, not the Soviet Union, although in fact they did as well.  Second, Germany and the Soviet Union had a pact between them:  "On September 1, secure behind the new German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact that had stunned the world in August, Hitler began an invasion of Poland. Great Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. By the end of 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided Poland between themselves, and the Soviets had occupied Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania and had attacked Finland, which they finally defeated in March 1940... In June Hitler abandoned the Nonaggression Pact of 1939 and launched a massive surprise invasion of the Soviet Union. German armoured units drove deep into Soviet territory and at one point reached the outskirts of Moscow before Soviet counterattacks and winter weather slowed the offensive to a halt."  We may not have had pitched battles between Britain and USSR during the 1939-1940 period, but don't doubt they were our enemies.''
< 
< ''In fact, it is interesting to note -- and I'll just toss this out as a flippant and discardable assertion since it'd take too long to prove -- that the NAZI's believed (for a little while, anyhow) that the British and Americans could be expected to support Fascism, since Britain and America detested Communism almost as fervently as the NAZI's did.  Looking at America's history of slavery, KKK, extermination of Native Americans, and so forth, it's surprising to think that this was actually a pretty logical thing for the NAZI's to think.  I got this off of a History Channel WWII program; I'd like to hear more about it if, in fact, it is true.''
< 
54,63d44
< One thing on the main history page:  "How about the UnitedStates role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII??"
< 
< Technically, it was the Soviets who defeated the NAZI State.  The Soviets lost and retook a LOT of land, lost the most lives IIRC, and engaged the NAZI's much more continually (and violently, I think) than the US did.  (Curiously, the Soviets also hold the largest responsibility for defeating themselves, but that's a topic for another page.)
< 
< Also, I saw in a History Channel documentary that the NAZI "final solution" for the Jews was inspired, if not modelled on, our treatment of the Native Americans.  Are these things true?  If so, then it makes one wonder...
< 
< Another last point that I recently read when researching some of Noam Chomsky's(sp) writings...  It can be argued on a purely imperial level, that WWII was in essence an attempt by NAZI GermanY to build an empire at the expense of the existing colonial empires (France and Britain) which failed, and which instead had the net effect of shifting the imperial power to the United States.  Control over colonies, where labor can be purchased cheaply, and human rights ignored, has throughout history been an extremely important way for imperial nations to build their economic wealth.  Could it be possible that the US has been doing the same, in the time since WWII?  Or has our international history been more filled with support for burgeoning independence movements?
< 
< -- BryceHarrington
< 
75a57,58
> 
> ''Okay, okay, I don't wish to be thought of as a lunatic, or be punching bag filler, so I'll depart.''
------
LetterATopics|980888706
0a1,3
> Shocking Fact: I just entered these topics randomly, only to
> find that some of them are already covered by the PG/EB stuff.
> 
16c19
< JohnAbbott
---
> JohnAbbott
------
LetterATopics|980888716
8c8
< AachenGermany
---
> AacheN
------
AardwolF|980888786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small animal from South AfricA.  Related to the HyenA.  Lives in the ground.  Nocturnal hunter.
------
LetterATopics/Aaron|980888974
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Is this a good naming convention for people from the Bible?
> 
> Anyhow, Bible/Aaron was the older brother of Bible/Moses.
> 
> Bible/Moses was a lousy public speaker, so God had Bible/Aaron do all the speechifying.
> 
> Aaron made a GoldenCalf, let people worship it, despite the TenCommandments.  God, annoyed by this, punished everyone, appropriately no doubt.
> 
> I'm sorry this is irreverent.  I'm not the right person to write
> about BiblicalPeople.
------
EconomicS|980889031
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It is a relatively new academic discipline: the first major book on EconomicS, AdamSmith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776.
> 
> 
> The is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoliticS, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
> 
> 
> One of the guiding ideas in EconomicS is scarcity. Virtually everything is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy humanity. It is not only the poor who feel deprived; even the relatively well-off seem to want more. It is the economists job to evaluate the choices that exist for the use of those resources.
------
AbadanIran|980889063
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A city in Iran, located on AbadanIsland.  Site of much oil stuff.
------
EdwinAustinAbbey|980889153
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Artist -- painter.  Born 1852, died 1911.  His most famous work, TheQuestOfTheHolyGrail, resides in the BostonPublicLibrary.
------
JohnAbbott|980889249
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Prime Minister of Canada from 1891-1893.  He died in 1893.
> 
> He studied at McGillUniversity.
------
EconomicS|980889306
7a8,17
> 
> 
> The major divisions of EconomicS include MicroeconomicS, which deals with the  behaviour of individual consumers, companies, traders, and farmers; and MacroeconomicS, which focuses on aggregates such as the level of income in an economy, the volume of total employment, and the flow of investment. Another branch,
> DevelopmentEconomics, investigates the history and changes of economic activity and organization over a period of time, as well as their relation to other activities and institutions. Within these three major divisions there are specialized areas of study
> that attempt to answer questions on a broad spectrum of human economic activity, including public finance, money supply and banking, international trade, labour, industrial organization, and AgriculturE. The areas of investigation in EconomicS overlap with other social sciences, particularly PoliticalScience, but EconomicS is primarily concerned with relations between buyer and seller.
> 
> ----
> * MicroeconomicS
> * MacroeconomicS
> * DevelopmentEconomics
------
BryceHarrington|980889348
4,72c4
< Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY, and it thrills me to be able to share these with you, and feel they represent my best work.  
< 
< ----
< ''Bryce, about your notes on HistoryOfEurope...I didn't want to put these there, since it is a summary page.  I removed the bit about Alex great conquering Greece, since that was his father, and about other civilizations probably experimenting with governments, since all evidence suggests they did not.  But all in all, I was thinking such developments really belong on a HistoryOfTheMeditteranean page, since ''that'' is where the center of the action is, not Europe.  Didn't want to impose, 'course...thoughts?''  -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< ----
< '''I don't think Roman and Greek history should be isolated from European history, since they're obviously so
< intricately tied.  I'm not sure a HistoryOfTheMediterranean page would be exactly what we need, but 
< certainly something oriented to the ancient history of the western world would be good.  I believe the
< topics already listed under HiStory should cover that, though.  Good catch on Alexander's father conquering
< Greece - I should have caught that.  ''' -- BryceHarrington
< 
< ''I was thinking of Europe as a cultural centre, not as a continent, so that's why I left them off.  The other way is better, since it gives a home to topics like Celts and megaliths.  But I still think that the Romans and Greeks don't belong here.  Yes, Greece and Italy are located in Europe.  But the Greeks had much more to do with Persia than the interior, and the RomanEmpire was as much African and Asian is it was European.''
< 
< ''I really think the essential "region" these civs belong to is the Meditteranean.  At the very least, this would give the Carthaginians a home too.  Of course this has a lot of overlap with Europe, and they should refer a lot to each other; but anything said on Europe about Rome (and to a lesser extent Greece) is just going to be repeated in other regions.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< Hrm, well I'm just an American, but I did study a LOT of European history in school (bit of a passion of mine).  The Greeks and Romans had a _profound_ influence on European history, and while I do agree that they also had influence and interaction with other people on other continents as well, I still (strongly) think Greece and Rome deserve (even require) mention here.  Their impact goes far beyond mere influence; their civilization and culture is really the underpinnings of all that followed.  
< 
< I could write a whole essay on this, but let me address just three specific areas; things that I think we can agree were critical aspects in the later history of Europe:  Religion, Governance, and Settlement.  I could also discuss things like science, theater, architecture, language, military, and sports, but hopefully you'll forgive me if I wave my hand at those as "obvious".  ;-)
< 
< Christianity is of unquestionable influence on the history of Europe, but it's origins and early development is inextricably bound up not in Germanic or Celtic culture, but in Greek and Roman.  Jesus was martyred during
< the reign of the first emperor of Rome, smack in the middle of the most heavily studied period of "classical" Roman history.  The reason for his death was tied up largely in the political and economic behavior of the Romans; Israel was bound up in a struggle for freedom, that they eventually lost - the Jews were dispersed around the world (including Europe).  If not for the Roman Empire, one could wonder if Christianity could have emerged at all.  Many of the early Christians were killed in Roman gladatorial pits, giving the young religion many martyrs and many converts in Rome itself.  There is a vast network of catacombs beneath the city of Rome, where the early Christians buried there dead (and possibly even hid).  Of course, eventually Constantine made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and spread it even further, perhaps now with the help of the Roman sword?  But during this whole process, Christianity was absorbing culture and traditions from Rome, and theory from Greece.  Early forms of the Bible were written in Greek, and then later Latin.  Statues and imagery of older gods were reused (e.g., Mary from some of the pre-existing mother-goddess cults).  Roman holidays were recast into Christian holidays (Christmas, IIRC, had roots in the Mithras religion?)  Much cut-and-paste-and-tweak.
< 
< The Roman style of governance, with a dictatorial emperor, has had direct influence on many of Europe's most powerful leaders.  The Romans used the word "Ceasar" to indicate utmost authority.  From this we have gotten the words "Czar", "Tsar", "Kaiser", and even "King".  While dictatorship is certainly nothing unique to Europe, it is the Roman style of dictatorship that many of Europe's leaders ascribed to.  When Charlemagne built his empire, he placed "Roman" right in the middle of its name.  Napoleon and Hitler also both drew from Roman symbology to lend an air of ancient authority to their regimes.  "Heil Hitler" is an obvious allusion to and derivation from "Hail Ceasar".  The military organization and tactics similarly were taught to the "barbaric" tribes (we can imagine "military advisors" looking down on the anarchical locals, thinking "these guys will never learn...")  The skills and discipline taught by the Romans almost assuredly profoundly affected their ability to conquer Rome when it neared its end, and to take control over the lands it left behind.
< 
< The Roman Empire is also the primary force responsible for settlement of Europe, influencing even lands not under their direct control.  And through the Romans we find (important) underlying Greek origins.  At the height of their empire, the Romans directly controlled Gaul (later France), England, Spain, and all of Southern Europe.  Indirectly, they controlled or influenced most of the remainder of Europe.  Many European towns have Roman origins; some started as mere fortresses for the Roman garrisons.  When the Romans entered a land, they planned (and built) to stay.  Europe came to be crossed with a vast network of roads that were the best human-made land routes in Europe until the 20th century.  The archaeological evidence (even as far as Hadrian's wall in the far north of England) demonstrates that the Romans were not mere casual visitors clinging to the belly of Europe, but embraced it.  Yes, while their main involvement was to the East, the Romans were to Europe what the American Colonists were to North America - they carved civilization out of the forests.  The 'villa' style of agricultural settlement stood in mark contrast to the Celtic family oriented traditions, yet persisted well into the middle ages (and beyond, in the Hispanic culture).
< 
< Without the Roman Empire's influence, Europe would NOT be the place it is today and would have had a *far* different history than it did.  The pre-existing Celt/Germanic civilizations were drastically different from the Romans, and took the Greco-Roman style as a model for their own latter cultures.  Rome and Greece need to be looked at not as merely random civilizations that had their time and then died, to be replaced by unique new civilizations; rather, they had a *key* role in the formation of all that followed in Europe.  Leaving them out of the European History page would be akin to leaving England out of the history of the United States.  
< 
< ''Well, the thing is that I ''would'' keep England's history separate from that of the US.  That's not to say that I would omit it, but that I would place it separately in the main hierarchy and then cross-reference a lot.  Otherwise England's history is going to be told as the history of England, retold as that of Scotland, retold as that of France, and so forth.  Same deal with Rome.  There should be one RomanEmpire page, and the history of Europe should say something along the lines of "most of south Europe was included in the RomanEmpire, under which urban centers spread and the catholic church was introduced and blah blah blah.  And then Egypt, Syria, and so forth can do the same sort of thing.''
< 
< ----
< '''Regarding other civilizations experimenting with other forms of government; well I guess I just wanted to point out some stuff Greece achieved, but without arrogantly claiming that no one else did too.'''
< 
< ''Ok.  Greece does deserve credit, though, for being completely unique in developing democratic governments, formal mathematics, empirical science (to the extent that they did), and so forth.  They also were unique in inventing vowels. :)'' -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< Actually, I believe there were actually some native american tribes that had either semi-democratic or concensus-oriented styles of leadership.  I believe I ran into some references by Jefferson regarding this, which would have some rather exciting implications.  I agree that Greeks kicked butt with math and science, but archaeology has suggested that some of the new world civilizations had achieved some impressive discoveries themselves, independently.  I think Greece probably gets the bulk of the credit because a) their works were preserved and have come down to us through our own literary history.  Consider if we had only their pottery and ruins to judge them by, would we have any clue about their most impressive achievements?  -- BryceHarrington
< 
< ''I think most tribal societies start ought more-or-less democratically (I've also heard of English historians commenting about the "democratic genius of the GermanicPeoples).  What makes the Greeks exceptional is they brought the idea into an urban context.  At the time, all urban societies were pretty much top down - civilizations of slaves, as the Greeks put it.''
< 
< ''In math, again, I think the main contribution of the Greeks - rational and axiomatic reasoning rather than empirical and approximate - is unique.  That's not to say other civs didn't perform some wonderful math; the Babylonians could solve quadratic problems, and both the Hindus and Mayans invented zero.  But it's not the same when you're doing it for practical reasons.''
< 
< ''The Greeks also, btw, invented history (though that one isn't unique), and that's more or less guaranteed that they wouldn't be known just from their ruins.  Compare to Persia, which actually based a lot of its inscriptions on what the Greeks said.  Unfortunately the American civilizations got cheated in this respect, since most of their writings were slash-and-burnt along with the people.''
< 
< ----
< Anyway, the current page looks much better.  The power of collaboration, ay?  ;-)
< 
< ''Is very, very cool.  I've noticed you've been doing a lot of work building infrastructure, and that's really very praiseworthy.  Thanks for the help with this one.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< Thanks, I love what we're doing here, and think we're really making something that matters.  I gave a shot at reorganizing the homepage, 'cause the existing organization makes little sense to me (and ordering disorder is a dire habit of mine), but it looks like someone reverted the changes.  Ah well...
< 
< Btw, thank you muchly for commenting to me about the changes...  I like having had the change to give my opinion on it, even if ultimately we went a different way.
< 
< ----
< '''To adequately summarize what is known about the History of Europe, I think we can agree that the page is going to get quite long.  Maybe we should divide it up into some subsections like other pages have been.'''
< -- BryceHarrington
< 
< ''How's this for a primary division?  AncientEurope (pre-Roman stuff), MedievalEurope, Rennaisance, and then a bunch of later stuff I'm less knowledgeable about.  Closely tied to these would be HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, and HistoryOfIslam.  A second split in terms of geographical regions - things like HolyRomanEmpire - probably wouldn't hurt, and then things can grow as the will.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< These all sound like good and viable topics.  Personally, I have too many negative experiences to trust a hierarchical structure...  Most real things rarely map well into a hierarchy.  As you say, the Roman Empire overlaps a lot more than just Europe.  Fortunately, Wiki allows organization broader than mere hierarchical, so we'll be okay.  
< 
< To add to your list...  We'll want a section for the DarkAges, FrenchRevolution and Napoleon, Colonialism, the SpanishEmpire, the BritishEmpire, the Crusades, and a whole heaping ton of CatholicChurchInEurope.  
< 
< ''Should the DarkAges as part of the MiddleAges, or as a separate time period?  I personally am all for the former, because a thousand years is a darn long time which is hard to summarize, but the latter is more conventional.''
< 
< Yes, the DarkAges preceded the MiddleAges and in a European context are worth separating out.  
< The Medieval period started around 1000-1100 and is marked by the growth of cities and nations.  During the Dark Ages, people lived in a very tribal/village oriented way.  Scholars have traditionally discounted the DarkAges as "without development", yet looking at civilization before the collapse of the Roman Empire, and what emerged in the middle ages, it's clear that some very interesting things must have happened.  
< 
< Also note that the middle ages could be split into pre-1300 and post-1300 fairly easily.  1300 is about when the Plague really set in and hit home, and the mid- and late-1300's saw a number of massive wars and political changes. (Not that I'm advocating splitting it up at the category level, but on its page, we could follow that path for header divisions.)
---
> Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY.  I am currently involved in copying in the 'A' articles in from the BritannicaPublicDomain text.  
------
EconomicS|980889402
4c4
< The is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoliticS, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
---
> The is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoLitics, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
17c17
< * DevelopmentEconomics
---
> * DevelopmentEconomics
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|980889546
1c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with /DagnyTaggart.  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with /DagnyTaggart.  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
------
LetterATopics/Aaron|980889589
1d0
< 
11c10,12
< about BiblicalPeople.
---
> about BiblicalPeople.
> 
> See AaroN
------
MicroeconomicS|980889884
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A study of the economic behaviour of individual consumers, firms, and industries and the distribution of total production and income among them. It considers individuals both as suppliers of labour and capital and as the ultimate consumers of the final product. On the other hand, it analyzes firms both as suppliers of products and as consumers of labour and capital. 
> 
> MicroeconomicS seeks to analyze the market or other type of mechanism that establishes relative prices among goods and services and allocates society's resources among their many alternative uses.
> 
> 
> ----
> See also: 
> 
> * MacroeconomicS
------
MicroeconomicS|980889988
5d4
< 
9a9
> * EconomicS
------
ThingsThatDoNotExistForAReason|980890052
4a5
> * The 'Sing Along With Geddy Lee' interactive CD.
------
MacroeconomicS|980890207
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behaviour of prices.
> 
> Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the GreatDepression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, and full employment.
> 
> ----
> See also: 
> 
> * MicroconomicS
> * EconomicS 
------
MacroeconomicS|980890235
8c8
< * MicroconomicS
---
> * MicroeconomicS
------
LetterATopics|980893102
11c11
< Bible/Aaron
---
> BiblE/Aaron
------
BiblE/Aaron|980893115
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See AaroN
------
BusinessSchools|980893939
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * /UnitedStates
> * /Europe
------
AtlasShrugged/WhyThisSectionExists|980894061
3c3,5
< I chose AtlasShrugged for this project for a few reasons.  I am familiar with it so can do a passable job in summarizing it.  It is very large and complex, making it a good test of what is possible.  Often people who are into AtlasShrugged are _really_ into it, so there are likely people who will contribute and who will be interested in the section.  There is a movie coming out, so interest in AtlasShrugged might be expected to surge soon - it would be good for the project if we were able to sate that interest with a really cool AtlasShrugged section.
---
> I chose AtlasShrugged for this project for a few reasons.  I am familiar with it so can do a passable job in summarizing it.  It is very large and complex, making it a good test of what is possible.  Often people who are into AtlasShrugged are _really_ into it, so there are likely people who will contribute and who will be interested in the section.  There is a movie coming out, so interest in AtlasShrugged might be expected to surge soon - it would be good for the project if we were able to sate that interest with a really cool AtlasShrugged section.
> ----
> Then we ought to have a similar LordOfTheRings section, too! -- LarrySanger
------
WojPob|980894290
9c9,13
< ''Some searching finds that there are (as should be expected) a bunch of different chronologies for the separation of Indo-European languages.  First of all, the Europeans started migrating into Europe at least as early as 2500-2000 BC, which was earlier than I had thought (not an expert at all).  The dialects separate out much earlier than that, though the slavs supposedly aren't discernable as a distinct group until about 1400 BC.  This probably refers to their separation out from the baltic peoples.  I'll do some more reading and fix up anything I happened to say that was wrong. --JoshuaGrosse''
---
> ''Some searching finds that there are (as should be expected) a bunch of different chronologies for the separation of Indo-European languages.  First of all, the Europeans started migrating into Europe at least as early as 2500-2000 BC, which was earlier than I had thought (not an expert at all).  The dialects separate out much earlier than that, though the slavs supposedly aren't discernable as a distinct group until about 1400 BC.  This probably refers to their separation out from the baltic peoples.  I'll do some more reading and fix up anything I happened to say that was wrong. --JoshuaGrosse''
> ----
> 
> Wow, Wojtek, that's some awesome AsciiArt on your homepage.
> I fear you now.  ;-) --JimboWales
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980894510
5,10d4
< Someone wrote that the Nazi FinalSolution was perhaps modelled
< on U.S policy towards NativeAmerican''''s.  I think this is
< ludicrous on many levels.  Even if it were true that some Nazi's
< viewed it as the same thing (something I don't really know about), that view is itself ludicrous.  We're talking about a
< serious estimate of 6,000 dead in a variety of unfortunate incidents, versus a serious estimate of how many millions dead as the result of a deliberate genocide?
< 
22,23d15
< 
< 
40a33,46
> 
> '''Attitude towards NativeAmericans'''
> 
> Someone wrote that the Nazi FinalSolution was perhaps modelled
> on U.S policy towards NativeAmerican''''s.  I think this is
> ludicrous on many levels.  Even if it were true that some Nazi's
> viewed it as the same thing (something I don't really know about), that view is itself ludicrous.  We're talking about a
> serious estimate of 6,000 dead in a variety of unfortunate incidents, versus a serious estimate of how many millions dead as the result of a deliberate genocide? -- JimboWales
> 
> For the record, there ''were'' deliberate attempts to annihilate the native americans.  I can give you two incidents in particular.  One, which happened hortly before the American revolution, was the deliberate spreading of smallpox among the Pontiac.  The second is the deliberate annihilation of the Six Nations, to quote Washington:
> 
> "The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex, as possible...that the country not be merely overrun but destroyed."
> 
> This took place as punishment for their alliance with the British.  But certainly it's not how they would have treated the Canadiens, and the Oneida and Tuscora were not spared for their neutrality.  In short, it might not have been the coordinated and causeless hatred of the nazis, but certainly it was far from a series of incidents that devastated the natives.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980894626
44c44
< "The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex, as possible...that the country not be merely overrun but destroyed."
---
> :"The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex, as possible...that the country not be merely overrun but destroyed."
46c46
< This took place as punishment for their alliance with the British.  But certainly it's not how they would have treated the Canadiens, and the Oneida and Tuscora were not spared for their neutrality.  In short, it might not have been the coordinated and causeless hatred of the nazis, but certainly it was far from a series of incidents that devastated the natives.
---
> This took place as punishment for their alliance with the British.  But certainly it's not how they would have treated the Canadiens, and the Oneida and Tuscora were not spared for their neutrality.  In short, it might not have been the coordinated and causeless hatred of the nazis, but certainly it was far from a series of incidents that devastated the natives.  Please don't consider this as a specifically anti-American sentiment, since as you can see above it was a continuation of the British attitude, and common to imperialist powers in general.
------
IndianMassacres|980894870
6a7,8
> 1765 - smallpox infected blankets sent deliberately 1to members of Pontiac's enemy alliance (Canada: A people's history)
> 1777 - deliberate devastation of Six Nations as British allies ("")
16c18
< the TrailOfTears page with some facts, and then this comment could be removed from this page.)
---
> the TrailOfTears page with some facts, and then this comment could be removed from this page.)
------
IndianMassacres|980894892
7a8
> 
8a10
> 
------
IndianMassacres|980894911
7,8d6
< 1765 - smallpox infected blankets sent deliberately 1to members of Pontiac's enemy alliance (Canada: A people's history)
< 
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980894951
23c23
< The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here. - Tim
---
> The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here. - TimShell
46a47,49
> 
> <i>I agree, the treatment of the NativeAmericans was ugly, but comparing it to the NaziHolocaust is really pushing it.  We are talking about a total of 6,000 dead (according to TimShell over on IndianMassacres, anyway) versus millions. --JimboWales</i>
> 
------
IndianMassacres|980894988
18c18,19
< the TrailOfTears page with some facts, and then this comment could be removed from this page.)
---
> the TrailOfTears page with some facts, and then this comment could be removed from this page.) --JimboWales
>  
------
RinGs|980895031
1c1
< deleted in favor of RinG
---
> #REDIRECT RinG
------
InaugurationProtests|980895061
6c6,8
< (Article about protests deleted)
---
> (Article about protests deleted)
> 
> Perhaps someone could just post a short summary of what happened?
------
BusinessSchools/UnitedStates|980895130
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some top schools include:
> 
> /HarvardUniversity
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980895283
48c48
< <i>I agree, the treatment of the NativeAmericans was ugly, but comparing it to the NaziHolocaust is really pushing it.  We are talking about a total of 6,000 dead (according to TimShell over on IndianMassacres, anyway) versus millions. --JimboWales</i>
---
> ''I agree, the treatment of the NativeAmericans was ugly, but comparing it to the NaziHolocaust is really pushing it.  We are talking about a total of 6,000 dead (according to TimShell over on IndianMassacres, anyway) versus millions. --JimboWales''
49a50
> Ok, I'm not trying to say that they're tragedies of equal magnitudes.  But remember North America was populated fairly sparsely at the time, except for the Aztecs and Mayans down in Mexico, whose blood goes on the hands of the conquistadors.  I'm merely saying that though the nazis were dealing with a ''lot'' more people, so many that they had to develop all sorts of horrifyingly ingenious methods of doing so, the underlying motivations seem comparable.
------
RobertHeinlein|980895306
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors in this genre.
> 
> Heinlein spent his childhood in Missouri in the early years of the 20th century. This
> was a time of great religious revival across America, especially socially marginalized
> areas...such as Missouri.  It was an environment of narrow-mindedness and parochialism,
> where the rules of the tribe were assumed to be laws for all humanity.  Heinlein
> managed to break free from the mores of his childhood, to slough off the values in
> which he had been raised, and to remake himself in the manner of his own choosing. This
> personal triumph became a recurring theme in his stories.
> 
> This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books 'Time Enough For Love',
> 'Number of the Beast', and 'To Sail Beyond the Sunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
> would humanity be in the absence of all customs? How would our humanity be expressed if
> we did not develop under the soul-squashing influence of culture? We would be
> individuals. We would have self-made souls.
> 
> Other recurring themes uniting Heinlein's works include individual dignity and the supreme value of personal liberty, the virtue of independence, science as a liberating factor, the perniciousness of bureaucrats, the hypocrisy of organized religion and the silliness of mysticism. 
------
BusinessSchools/UnitedStates|980895311
3a4,41
> 
> /StanfordUniversity
> 
> /ColumbiaUniversity
> 
> /MassachusettsInstituteOfTechnology
> 
> /UniversityOfPennsylvania
> 
> /NorthwesternUniversity
> 
> /UniversityOfChicago
> 
> /DartmouthCollege
> 
> /UniversityOfCaliforniaLosAngeles
> 
> /DukeUniversity
> 
> /UniversityOfCaliforniaBerkeley
> 
> /UniversityOfMichiganAnnArbor
> 
> /UniversityOfVirginia
> 
> /NewYorkUniversity
> 
> /CarnegieMellonUniversity
> 
> /UniversityOfNorthCarolinaChapelHill
> 
> /UniversityOfTexasAustin
> 
> /YaleUniversity
> 
> /CornellUniversity
> 
> /UniversityOfRochester
------
RobertHeinlein|980895328
1c1
< Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors in this genre.
---
> Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors of the ScienceFiction genre.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion|980895618
51a52,53
> There's a tendency to think of the holocaust as a singularly awful point in history.  The sad thing is, it's not.  It's just that the Nazis were better at what they were doing then most others who have tried, and have received a lot more publicity.  But most countries that have ever been powerful, have some sort of deliberate genocide on their hands.
> 
------
ScienceFiction|980896061
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of fiction that developed in the 20th century and deals principally with the impact of actual or imagined science upon society or individuals. The term is more generally used to refer to any literary fantasy that includes a scientific factor as an essential orienting component.
> 
> 
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the Modern Prometheus (1818) and Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
> Hyde'' (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''Dracula'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
> 
> ScienceFiction was made possible only by the rise of modern science itself, notably the revolutions in astronomy and physics. Aside from the age-old genre of fantasy literature, which does not qualify, there were notable precursors: imaginary voyages
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in JonathanSwift's ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and SciencefictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
> Hawthorne, and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social
> criticism by HgWells.
> 
> The development of ScienceFiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to ScienceFiction stories. Published in
> this and other pulp magazines with great and growing success, such stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. With the advent in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., of Astounding Science Fiction (founded in
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as AldousHuxley, C.S. Lewis, and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
> 
> A great boom in the popularity of ScienceFiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of ScienceFiction to the reading public. ScienceFiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the ScienceFiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science-fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
> 
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included A.E. Van Vogt, J.G. Ballard, Ray Bradbury, Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, Poul Anderson, Samuel R.
> Delany, Ursula K. LeGuin, Frederik Pohl, Octavia E. Butler, and Brian Aldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
> 
------
ScienceFiction|980896202
4,5c4,5
< Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the Modern Prometheus (1818) and Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
< Hyde'' (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''Dracula'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the Modern Prometheus (1818) and Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
> Hyde (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''Dracula'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
------
IsaacAsimov|980896515
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IsaacAsimov (Jan. 2, 1920, Petrovichi, Russia - April 6, 1992, New York) - an American author and biochemist, a highly successful and prolific writer of ScienceFiction and of science books for the layperson. He published about 500 volumes.
> 
> 
> IsaacAsimov was brought to the UnitedStates at the age of three. He grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., graduating from ColumbiaUniversity in 1939 and taking a Ph.D. there in 1948. He then joined the faculty of BostonUniversity, with which he remained associated
> thereafter.
> 
> 
> IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars,
> like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), Foundation's Edge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest Science-fiction short story ever written. 
> 
> 
> Among IsaacAsimov's books on various topics in science, written with lucidity and humour, are The Chemicals of Life (1954), Inside the Atom (1956), The World of Nitrogen (1958), Life and Energy (1962), The Human Brain (1964), The Neutrino (1966), Science, Numbers and I (1968), Our World in Space (1974), and Views of the Universe (1981). He also published two volumes of autobiography.
> 
------
RobertHeinlein|980896563
3c3
< Heinlein spent his childhood in Missouri in the early years of the 20th century. This
---
> Heinlein spent his childhood in MissourI in the early years of the 20th century. This
11,12c11,12
< This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books 'Time Enough For Love',
< 'Number of the Beast', and 'To Sail Beyond the Sunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
---
> This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books 'TimeEnoughForLove',
> 'TheNumberoftheBeast', and 'ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
17a18,73
> 
> * Novels
>  /RocketShipGalileo
>  /SpaceCadet 
>  /RedPlanet 
>  /FarmerInTheSky 
>  /BetweenPlanet
>  /TheRollingStones
>  /StarmanJones
>  /TheStarBeast
>  /TunnelintheSky
>  /TimefortheStars
>  /CitizenoftheGalaxy
>  /HaveSpaceSuitWillTravel 
>  /PodkayneofMars
>  /SixthColumn 
>  /ThePuppetMasters 
>  /DoubleStar 
>  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
>  /StarshipTroopers 
>  /StrangerinaStrangeLand 
>  /GloryRoad 
>  /FarnhamsFreehold 
>  /TheMoonisaHarshMistress 
>  /IWillFearNoEvil 
>  /TimeEnoughForLove 
>  /TheNumberoftheBeast 
>  /Friday 
>  /JobAComedyofJustice 
>  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
>  /ToSailBeyondtheSunset 
> 
> 
> * ShortStories
>  /LifeLine 
>  /TheRoadsMustRoll
>  /BlowupsHappen
>  /TheManWhoSoldTheMoon
>  /Delilah&TheSpaceRigger
>  /SpaceJockey
>  /Requiem
>  /TheLoneWatch
>  /GentlemenBeSeated
>  /TheBlackPitsofLuna
>  /ItsGreattoBeBack
>  /WeAlsoWalkDogs
>  /Searchlight
>  /OrdealinSpace
>  /TheGreenHillsofEarth
>  /LogicofEmpire
>  /TheMenaceFromEarth
>  /IfThisGoesOn
>  /Coventry
>  /Misfit
>  /Universe
>  /MethuselahsChildren
------
RobertHeinlein|980896690
52,53d51
<  /LifeLine 
<  /TheRoadsMustRoll
55c53
<  /TheManWhoSoldTheMoon
---
>  /Coventry
57,59d54
<  /SpaceJockey
<  /Requiem
<  /TheLoneWatch
61c56
<  /TheBlackPitsofLuna
---
>  /IfThisGoesOn
63,64c58,61
<  /WeAlsoWalkDogs
<  /Searchlight
---
>  /LifeLine 
>  /LogicofEmpire
>  /MethuselahsChildren
>  /Misfit
65a63,66
>  /Requiem
>  /Searchlight
>  /SpaceJockey
>  /TheBlackPitsofLuna
67c68,69
<  /LogicofEmpire
---
>  /TheLoneWatch
>  /TheManWhoSoldTheMoon
69,71c71
<  /IfThisGoesOn
<  /Coventry
<  /Misfit
---
>  /TheRoadsMustRoll
73c73
<  /MethuselahsChildren
---
>  /WeAlsoWalkDogs
------
RobertHeinlein|980896810
20,23d19
<  /RocketShipGalileo
<  /SpaceCadet 
<  /RedPlanet 
<  /FarmerInTheSky 
25,29d20
<  /TheRollingStones
<  /StarmanJones
<  /TheStarBeast
<  /TunnelintheSky
<  /TimefortheStars
30a22,26
>  /DoubleStar 
>  /FarmerInTheSky 
>  /FarnhamsFreehold 
>  /Friday 
>  /GloryRoad 
31a28,29
>  /IWillFearNoEvil 
>  /JobAComedyofJustice 
32a31,32
>  /RedPlanet 
>  /RocketShipGalileo
34,36c34,35
<  /ThePuppetMasters 
<  /DoubleStar 
<  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
---
>  /SpaceCadet 
>  /StarmanJones
39,40c38,39
<  /GloryRoad 
<  /FarnhamsFreehold 
---
>  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
>  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
42,43d40
<  /IWillFearNoEvil 
<  /TimeEnoughForLove 
45,47c42,47
<  /Friday 
<  /JobAComedyofJustice 
<  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
---
>  /ThePuppetMasters 
>  /TheRollingStones
>  /TheStarBeast
>  /TunnelintheSky
>  /TimeEnoughForLove 
>  /TimefortheStars
49d48
< 
------
RobertHeinlein|980896845
11,12c11,12
< This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books 'TimeEnoughForLove',
< 'TheNumberoftheBeast', and 'ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
---
> This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '/TimeEnoughForLove',
> '/TheNumberoftheBeast', and '/ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
------
EricHoffer|980896924
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Eric Hoffer was a American social /PhilosopheR. He was born in 1902 and died in 1983, after writing nine books and winning the Presidential Medal of Freedom. His first book, TheTrueBeliever, published in 1951, was widely recognized as a classic. This book, which he considered his best, established his reputation, and he remained a successful writer for most of his remaining years. 
> 
> At age seven, and for unknown reasons, Hoffer went blind. His eyesight inexplicably returned when he was fifteen. Fearing he would again go blind, he seized upon the opportunity to read as much as he could for as long as he could. His eyesight remained, but Hoffer never abandoned his habit of voracious reading. He was completely self-educated. 
> 
> His work was not only original, it was completely out of step with dominant academic trends. In particular, it was completey non-Freudian, at a time when almost all American psychology was confined to the Freudian paradigm. In avoiding the academic mainstream, Hoffer managed to avoid the straightjacket of established thought. 
> 
> Hoffer was among the first to recognize the central importance of self-esteem to psychological well-being. While most recent writers focus on the benefits of a positive self-esteem, Hoffer focused on the consequences of a lack of self-esteem. He finds in self-hatred, self-doubt, and insecurity the roots of fanatacism and self-righteousness. He finds that a passionate obsession with the outside world or with the private lives of other people is merely a craven attempt to compensate for a lack of meaning in one's own life. 
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|980897012
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I have run out of time to help with this today, so I'll
> just leave a pointer to [http://www.mbaweb.net/Resources/Euro_Schools.htm this page],
> which lists a number of top schools.  Someone should enter these names in directly here, so we can start to write about each school.
------
ArthurKoestler|980897052
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arthur Koestler was a twentieth century novelist, political activist, and a social philosopher. 
> 
> Much of Koestler's work was completely out of step with mainstream views. He did not merely arrive at different answers to common questions. Anyone can do that. Instead, Koestler answered, or tried to answer, important questions that others were not even asking. This is often a sign of true creative genius. 
> 
> The result of this originality is a uneven set of ideas and conclusions. Some of his ideas can be appreciated as brilliant, as his work on creativity. Some ideas challenge us to readjust our thinking in order to grasp their importance. And other ideas are just nonsense. But taken as a whole, they are well worth serious consideration. 
> 
> * Books by Arthur Koestler
>  /TheActofCreation
>  /TheSleepwalkers
>  /TheGhostintheMachine
>  /TheGodThatFailed
>  /DarknessatNoon
> 
------
EricHoffer|980897062
1c1
< Eric Hoffer was a American social /PhilosopheR. He was born in 1902 and died in 1983, after writing nine books and winning the Presidential Medal of Freedom. His first book, TheTrueBeliever, published in 1951, was widely recognized as a classic. This book, which he considered his best, established his reputation, and he remained a successful writer for most of his remaining years. 
---
> Eric Hoffer was a American social /PhilosopheR. He was born in 1902 and died in 1983, after writing nine books and winning the PresidentialMedalOfFreedom. His first book, TheTrueBeliever, published in 1951, was widely recognized as a classic. This book, which he considered his best, established his reputation, and he remained a successful writer for most of his remaining years. 
------
ErnstMayr|980897290
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary BiologistS. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian GeneticS and Darwinian EvolutioN, and to the development of the BiologicalSpeciesCconcept. His theory of ParapatricSpeciation has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of PunctuatedEquillibrium. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved.
> 
> * Books by Ernst Mayr include:
>  /TheGrowthOfBiologicalThought
>  /EvolutionAndTheDiversityofLife
>  /OneLongArgument
>  /PopulationsSpeciesAndEvolution
>  /TowardANewPhilosophyOfBiology
>  /PrinciplesOfSystematicZoology 
>  /SystematicsAndTheOriginOfSpecies 
>  /ThisIsBiology
------
PresidentialMedalOfFreedom|980897356
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Highest civilian award in the United States.  Established by HarryTruman in 1945.  Awarded to several people annually.
> 
> Winners include such diverse personalities as EricHoffer and JesseJackson.
------
HLMenckeN|980897364
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> H.L. (Henry Louis) Mencken was a twentieth century journalist and social critic, a cynic and a freethinker. He was an outspoken defender of freedom of conscience and civil rights, an opponent of persecution and injustice, and of the puritanism and self-righteousness that masks the oppressive impulse. As a nationally syndicated columnists and author of numerous books he played an important role in ending America's preoccupation with fundamentalist Christianity, and opened the way for a secularist revival. 
------
AynRand|980897417
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Born Alice Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, February 2, 1905.
>  Emigrated to the United States in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
>  Moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry. 
>  Married Frank O'Connor, 1929. 
>  Released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, 1934. 
>  Wrote two unsuccessful novels, 'We the Living' (1936), 'Anthem' (1938). 
>  Wrote the best selling novel, 'The Fountainhead' (1943). 
>  In 1951 met psychology student Nathaniel Branden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
>  Wrote philosophical novel 'Atlas Shrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
>  Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement. 
>  Developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works throughout the 1960s and 1970s. 
>  Broke with Branden, 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
>  Died March 6, 1982
------
AynRand|980897496
7,10c7,10
<  Wrote the best selling novel, 'The Fountainhead' (1943). 
<  In 1951 met psychology student Nathaniel Branden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
<  Wrote philosophical novel 'Atlas Shrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
<  Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement. 
---
>  Wrote the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
>  In 1951 met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
>  Wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
>  Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
------
ObjectivisM|980897634
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Objectivism (capitalized) is the name chosen by AynRand for her philosophy.  Some of the main Objectivist tenets are:
> 
> I. Objective reality 
> 
> Reailty is what it is, independent of our beliefs or desires. No two facts of reality can contradict each other- this is an important test of truth. Everything that exists has a specific identity and a specific nature that determines how it acts. Nature is to be explained in terms of nature, without reference to the supernatural. Everything that occurs has a material cause, and everything that exists has a material basis. 
> 
> II. Reason 
> 
> The mind apprehends reality through a process of reasoning. Reasoning is the art of building from perceptions to concepts and propositions. In this way, beliefs are built up from the evidence. Reasoning, or logic, follows certain, non-arbitrary rules which must be adhered to if we wish to reach valid conclusions. These rules include non-contradictory identification and grouping by essentials. By applying the rules of logic consistently, we can hope to achieve objectively valid knowledge about reality. 
> 
> III. Morality 
> 
> If we wish to survive we must act in certain ways. Moral behavior is that which tends to promote our survival. Immoral behavior is that which tends to promote our destruction. Where survival is not at issue, moral behavior will tend to promote security and happiness, immoral behavior insecurity and unhappiness. There are different levels of value. The higher values are those which make the lesser values possible. At the higher levels of value there is a community of interests among all rational, civilized human beings. The question of self versus others is irrelevant, in that one's self-interest and the interests of others are in fundamental harmony. The rational pursuit of one's interests promotes the interests of others, while the good of others promotes one's own good. As a practical matter, the good of all is best served when individuals pursue their own legitimate interests as they each see fit. 
> 
> IV. Politics 
> 
> If self versus others is an irrelevant issue, so too is the question of the individual versus society. The individual good and the social good are in harmony. A society is healthy to the extent that individuals are free to pursue their goals. This freedom is the fundamental social value. It requires that human relationships of all forms be voluntary. Mutual consent is the defining characteristic of a free society. People are unfree to the extent that they are forced to do what they would not choose for themselves. As all governmental action is based on using force to this end, it is necessary to limit the scope of government action as much as possible, leaving the scope of individual freedom as broad as possible. Politically, people can exercise their rights however they please, so long as they do not encroach upon the rights of others. Socially, people can choose to what extent they will abide by cultural norms. Economically, people are free to produce and exchange as they see fit, in the spirit of capitalism. 
------
RJRummeL|980897870
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rudolph Rummel is professor emeritus of political science at the UniversityofHawaii. He has spent his career studying wars, conflicts, and governmental mass murder, for which he has coined the term DemocidE. 
> 
> Among Rummel's more startling findings is that the death toll from government mass murder is far greater than the death toll from war. After studying some 8,193 reports of government killing, Rummel estimates that there have been 169,198,000 victims of democide in the last century, as against some 38,000,000 killed in war. Four times as many people have been murdered in cold blood by people working for governments than have died in battle. 
> 
> Rummel's research has revealed strong correlations between peace, freedom, and democracy. According to his estimates, there have been 353 wars since 1816. There have been no wars between democracies. In Rummel's words, "We have a solution for war. It is to expand the sphere of liberty." 
> 
> There is also a correlation between political power and democide. Political mass murder - far more deadly than war - grows increasingly common as political power becomes unconstrained. On the other end of the scale, where power is diffuse, checked, and balanced, political violence is a rarity. According to Rummel, "The more power a regime has, the more likely people will be killed. This is a major reason for promoting freedom." 
> 
> After dedicating his life to studying the century's worst horrors, Rummel concludes that "Concentrated political power is the most dangerous thing on earth." 
> 
> In January, 2001, Rummel published a new book SavingLivesEnrichingLife on his website at http://www2.hawaii.edu/~rummel/.  This book aims at popularizing the findings of his academic research.
------
SetTheory|980897905
54c54
< One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.
---
> One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.  Since all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities, you get unconstructible sets either way.
------
JulianSimon|980897962
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the UniversityofMaryland and a Senior Fellow at the CatoInstitute. 
> 
> He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration. 
> 
> His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive, fact-heavy assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
> 
> This challenge rests on the evidence. The data to date do not support the arguments of the doomsayers. On the contrary, the trends tend in a direction opposite of what they predict. 
> 
> The theory Simon developed to account for this is a textbook example of truly creative thinking. He cut across the grain of accepted wisdom to produce a strikingly original interpretation of the facts. In this and in other works he exhibits many of t hose characteristics normally associated with genius (not the least of which is a tendency to incite bitter hostility amongst intellectual mediocrities). 
------
JulianSimon|980898038
9a10,12
> 
> Many of the writings of Julian Simon are available online at:
> http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
------
RJRummeL|980898156
11c11
< In January, 2001, Rummel published a new book SavingLivesEnrichingLife on his website at http://www2.hawaii.edu/~rummel/.  This book aims at popularizing the findings of his academic research.
---
> In January, 2001, Rummel published a new book SavingLivesEnrichingLife on [http://www2.hawaii.edu/~rummel/ his website].  This book aims at popularizing the findings of his academic research.
------
PhilosophyOfReligion|980898194
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Major Christian Philosophers:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume
------
ScienceFiction|980898268
4,5c4,5
< Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the Modern Prometheus (1818) and Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
< Hyde (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''Dracula'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and RobertLouisStevenson'''''s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
> Hyde (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
18,19c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included A.E. Van Vogt, J.G. Ballard, Ray Bradbury, Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, Poul Anderson, Samuel R.
< Delany, Ursula K. LeGuin, Frederik Pohl, Octavia E. Butler, and Brian Aldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
BryceHarrington|980898294
4c4,10
< Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY.  I am currently involved in copying in the 'A' articles in from the BritannicaPublicDomain text.  
---
> Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY.  I am currently involved in copying in the 'A' articles in from the BritannicaPublicDomain text.
> 
> ''I couldn't help but notice your sliding Aaron of biblical fame into a BiblE/Aaron, and was wondering if you have any comments on how historical, biblical, and mythical figures should be handled.  I wrote a quick AchillEus page, and would feel a lot better about his compatriots if they weren't taking up raw WikiNames (notably Helen and Paris).  But on the other hand, it makes wiki-linking a lot worse, doesn't it?''
> 
> ''While I'm annoying you, I was wondering if you had any ideas on how subdivisions of histories should be kept.  As noted, I'm considering moving the stuff on BronzeAge into things like BronzeAgeOfMiddleEast or some such, while I correct them.  But should it be a top-level thing, or kept under BronzeAge, or kept under MiddleEast?''
> 
> ''Thanks, JoshuaGrosse''
------
PresidentialMedalOfFreedom|980898554
3a4,61
> 
> Some recent winners:
> 
> EdgarWayburn
> 
> HelmutKohl
> 
> MaxKampelman
> 
> OliverWhiteHill
> 
> GeraldFord
> 
> IsolinaFerre
> 
> EvelynDubrow
> 
> RosalynnCarter
> 
> JimmyCarter
> 
> EdgarMBronfmanJr
> 
> LloydMBentsen
> 
> ElmoRZumwaltJr
> 
> AlbertShanker
> 
> DavidRockefeller
> 
> ElliotLRichardson
> 
> MarioGObledo
> 
> MargaretMurie
> 
> WilmaMankiller
> 
> SolMLinowitz
> 
> Fred Korematsu
> 
> FrancesHesselbein
> 
> ZacharyFisher
> 
> DanteBFascell
> 
> JamesFarmer
> 
> RobertColes
> 
> BrookeAstor
> 
> ArnoldAronson
> 
> I am getting this list from [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0002285.html here], and hopefully other people can join in with the typing.  :-)
------
HiStory|980898567
1,16c1
< Should only include histories of eras, fields and countries that are now defunct...because otherwise, you should probably just put it on the appropriate country or field page.
< 
< ''These broad era statements seemed like a good idea when I first thought of them, but in hindsight I think they should be broken up, e.g. BronzeAgeOfMiddleEast or some such.  This would go hand-in-hand with factoring out some silly mistakes.  Any opinions before I go ahead? -- JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< ''The usual way to divide history up is by nation or region and '''then''' by historical period.  If you really care about this, you should consult with a historian, I think. -- LarrySanger''
< 
< * PalaeolithicPeriod
< * NeolithicPeriod
< * CopperAge
< * BronzeAge
< * IronAge
< * ClassicalAge
< * MiddleAges
< * ModernPeriod
< 
< * HistoryOfMesopotamia
---
> * HistoryOfMiddleEast
------
HiStory|980898913
1c1
< * HistoryOfMiddleEast
---
> * HistoryOfLevant - stuff from BronzeAge and CopperAge will get refactored here and corrected.
------
ReLigion|980898976
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
------
ChristianIty|980899473
21c21,24
< Cool
---
> 
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: Catholicism -- Presbyterianism -- Episcopalianism -- Baptist
> 
> Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|980899551
3c3,36
< which lists a number of top schools.  Someone should enter these names in directly here, so we can start to write about each school.
---
> which lists a number of top schools.  Someone should enter these names in directly here, so we can start to write about each school.
> ----
> 
> * AthensUniversityOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
> 
> * BudapestUniversityOfEconomicSciences
> 
> * CopenhagenBusinessSchool
> 
> * ErasmusUniversityRotterdam
> 
> * HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomcisAndBusinessAdministration
> 
> * KingstonUniversityLondon
> 
> * LondonSchoolOfEconomics
> 
> * NorwegianSchoolOfManagement
> 
> * SheffieldHallamUniversity
> 
> * StGallenUniversity
> 
> * StockholmSchoolOfEconomics
> 
> * TilburgUniversity
> 
> * UniversityCollegeOfSwansea
> 
> * UniversityOfIceland
> 
> * WarsawSchoolOfEconomics
> 
> * ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
------
ChristianIty|980899566
22c22
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: Catholicism -- Presbyterianism -- Episcopalianism -- Baptist
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: CatholicisM -- PresbyterianisM -- EpiscopalianisM -- BaptisT
24c24
< Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
---
> Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|980899640
6c6
< * AthensUniversityOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
---
> /AthensUniversityOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
8c8
< * BudapestUniversityOfEconomicSciences
---
> /BudapestUniversityOfEconomicSciences
10c10
< * CopenhagenBusinessSchool
---
> /CopenhagenBusinessSchool
12c12
< * ErasmusUniversityRotterdam
---
> /ErasmusUniversityRotterdam
14c14
< * HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomcisAndBusinessAdministration
---
> /HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomcisAndBusinessAdministration
16c16
< * KingstonUniversityLondon
---
> /KingstonUniversityLondon
18c18
< * LondonSchoolOfEconomics
---
> /LondonSchoolOfEconomics
20c20
< * NorwegianSchoolOfManagement
---
> /NorwegianSchoolOfManagement
22c22
< * SheffieldHallamUniversity
---
> /SheffieldHallamUniversity
24c24
< * StGallenUniversity
---
> /StGallenUniversity
26c26
< * StockholmSchoolOfEconomics
---
> /StockholmSchoolOfEconomics
28c28
< * TilburgUniversity
---
> /TilburgUniversity
30c30
< * UniversityCollegeOfSwansea
---
> /UniversityCollegeOfSwansea
32c32
< * UniversityOfIceland
---
> /UniversityOfIceland
34c34
< * WarsawSchoolOfEconomics
---
> /WarsawSchoolOfEconomics
36c36
< * ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
---
> /ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|980899692
33a34,35
> /ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
> 
36c38
< /ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
---
> 
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|980899957
14c14
< /HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomcisAndBusinessAdministration
---
> /HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
------
BusinessSchools|980900002
2c2,3
< * /Europe
---
> * /Europe
> * /Asia
------
ChristianIty|980900146
5c5
< Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity (but see below).  Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, and Anglican (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
---
> Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
9c9
< Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of John Calvin and Martin Luther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
---
> Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of JohnCalvin and MartinLuther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980900942
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first cities started developing in southern Mesopotamia during the 4th millenium BC.  With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society.  Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ''ziggurat'', and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').  Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare.
> 
> Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around 3000 BC, writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the SumerianPeoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent CityState''s'', such as Ur and Uruk, which by around 2500 BC had begun to coalesce into larger political units.  By accomodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
> 
> Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in Egypt, which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the OldKingdom, and amongst the peoples of the IndusValley in north-western India.  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980901199
5c5,7
< Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in Egypt, which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the OldKingdom, and amongst the peoples of the IndusValley in north-western India.  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
---
> This process came to its natural conclusion with the development of the first empires around 2350 BC.  A people called the Akkadians invaded the valley under Sargon I and established their supremacy over the Sumerians.  They were followed by the empires of Ur (2200-2000) and OldBabylonia (1800-1600).
> 
> Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in Egypt, which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the OldKingdom, and amongst the peoples of the IndusValley in north-western India.  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
------
CryptanalysiS|980901312
1a2,18
> 
> 
> There are three generic types of CryptanalysiS characterised by what the cryptanalyst knows: (1) ciphertext only; (2) known ciphertext/plaintext pairs; and (3) chosen plaintext or chosen
> ciphertext. 
> 
> 
> Often the cryptanalyst either will know some of the plaintext or will be able to guess at, and exploit, a likely element of the
> text, such as a letter beginning with "Dear Sir" or a computer session starting with "LOG IN." The last category represents the most favourable situation for the cryptanalyst in which he can
> cause either the transmitter to encrypt a plaintext of his choice or the receiver to decrypt a ciphertext that he chose. Of course, for single-key CryptographY there is no distinction between
> chosen plaintext and chosen ciphertext, but in two-key CryptographY it is possible for one of the encryption or decryption functions to be secure against chosen input while the other is vulnerable.
> 
> 
> Because of its reliance on "hard" mathematical problems as a basis for cryptoalgorithms and because one of the keys is publicly exposed, two-key CryptographY has led to a new type of
> CryptanalysiS that is virtually indistinguishable from research in any other area of computational mathematics. Unlike the ciphertext attacks or ciphertext/plaintext pairs attacks in single-key cryptosystems, this sort of cryptanalysis is aimed at breaking the cryptosystem by analysis that can be carried out based only on a knowledge of the system itself. Obviously there is no counterpart to this kind of cryptanalytic attack in single-key systems. One of the most attractive schemes for exchanging session keys in a hybrid cryptosystem depended on the ease with which a number (primitive root) could be raised to a power (in a finite field), as opposed to the difficulty of calculating the discrete logarithm. A special-purpose chip to implement this algorithm was produced by a U.S. company, and several others designed secure electronic mail and computer-networking schemes based on the algorithm. In 1983 Donald Coppersmith found a computationally feasible way to take discrete logarithms in precisely those finite fields that
> had been of greatest cryptographic interest and thereby gave to the cryptanalyst a tool with which to break those cryptosystems. Similarly, the RSA cryptoalgorithm is no securer than the
> modulus is difficult to factor, so that a breakthrough in factoring would also be a cryptanalytic breakthrough. In 1980 one could factor a difficult 50-digit number at an expense of
> 1,000,000,000,000 elementary computer operations (add, subtract, shift, and so forth). By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 1,000,000,000,000 operations. If a mathematical advance made it feasible to factor 150 or more digit numbers in the same number of operations, this would make it possible for the cryptanalyst to break several commercial RSA schemes. In other words, the security of two-key cryptography depends on well-defined mathematical questions in a way that single-key CryptographY generally did not and conversely equates CryptanalysiS to mathematical research in an atypical way.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980903117
0a1,2
> '''The bronze age'''
> 
7a10,17
> 
> This started to change around the end of the third millenium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the Assyrians in north Mesopotamia, the Canaanites in Syria-Palestine, to the Minoans in Crete, and to the Hittites in eastern Anatolia.  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and Achaeans, started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.  These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with IndoEuropean languages.
> 
> By 1700-1500 this process had intensified and most of the older centres were overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the IndusValley was annihilated by the IndoAryans.  Their kin, the Mitanni, subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of Mycenae, and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic Hyskos used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the NewKingdom to develop in their wake.
> 
> Around 1200 BC most of these powers collapsed, or were at least rendered temporarily impotent.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed, although a few neo-Hittite city states survived in north Syria.  Over the next century Egypt shrunk to its territorial core and its central authority dissolved.
> 
> 
------
HistoryOfLevant|980903211
15c15
< Around 1200 BC most of these powers collapsed, or were at least rendered temporarily impotent.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed, although a few neo-Hittite city states survived in north Syria.  Over the next century Egypt shrunk to its territorial core and its central authority dissolved.
---
> In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed, although a few neo-Hittite city states survived in north Syria.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.
------
CopperAge|980903323
1,14c1
< ''Author's note - bronze wasn't introduced by our friends the charioteers, but appeared more or less everywhere around 2000 BC.  From this and other things I would like to do some refactoring before anyone worries about this page.''
< 
< Around 4000-3500 BC the first cities appeared among the SumerianPeoples of Mesopotamia.  With these came a new societal structure.  Ties of kinship no longer sufficed to hold communities together, and were replaced by religion.  Each CityState had a patron god, to whom a massive central temple (ziggurat) was dedicated, and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').
< 
< The development of cities led to increased specialization and enabled people to take on bigger projects.  Kings were responsible for coordinating efforts like irrigation and warfare, which increased considerably in scale.  By around 2500 BC cities had begun to dominate each other, and by accomodating their subject's gods began to become slightly more secular in character, and eventually Mesopotamia was united under the empires of Akkad, Ur, and OldBabylonia.
< 
< Meanwhile parallel developments had occured in Africa and India.  The OldKingdomOfEgypt was unified around 3100 BC, the country that left us the pyramids, and after a brief interlude became the MiddleKingdomOfEgypt centered at Thebes.  And a relatively poorly known, but nevertheless highly advanced, urban civilization grew up at centers like Harappa in the IndusValley.
< 
< The urban societies of this era emerged along with many new advances, most notably writing.  However, in terms of tools things did not progress technologically to any great degree.  Copper smelting developed, but the metal is fairly expensive and brittle, and most implements remained tipped with stone, and farming remained restricted to the fertile river valleys where these civilizations had developed.
< 
< Things started changing around 2000 BC.  Civilization began to spread to the surrounding hills where agriculture necessarily depended upon rainwater, and new civilization centers began to develop around the older ones: the HittitePeoples arrived in Anatolia (Turkey), cities developed among the CanaanitePeoples of Syria-Palestine and the MinoanPeoples of Crete.  This process intensified around 1600 BC, when new immigrants with bronze technology overtook the older civilization centers.
< 
< ----
< See also: NeolithicPeriod, BronzeAge
---
> Deleted by author due to mistakes.  See HistoryOfLevant instead.  Maybe later this page can link to various subtopics, though.
------
BronzeAge|980903357
1,13c1
< ''Author's note - this page was written with the idea that bronze was introduced by various chariot-peoples, who are separate from the migrants of 2000.  I don't know where I got this idea, but I would like a chance to refactor the page to make things more correct.''
< 
< Around 2000-1800 BC various new groups started appearing all around the periphery of civilization, armed with powerful new technologies: bronze implements, horses, and the light two-wheeled chariot.  These weapons were used to good advantage, and by around 1600 BC all the older civilization centers had been overrun.
< 
< Egypt was temporarily occupied by the Semitic Hyskos, but these were ejected and the NewKingdomOfEgypt - its first empire - grew up in their wake.  Babylonia was conquered by the KassitePeoples, and the IndoAryans more or less annihilated the civilization they found in the IndusValley.  A related group, the Mitanni, set up a kingdom over much of Syria and Assyria.
< 
< Some of these groups also spread to new areas, e.g. the CelticPeoples.  Greece was overrun by the AchaeanPeoples, who set up the first Greek-speaking kingdoms (notably Mycenae) and came to dominate the older MinoanPeoples.  The first civilization in China, the ShangDynasty, may have developed under the influence of the TocharianPeoples who spread eastward.
< 
< Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, and so their use was restricted mainly to warrior nobilities.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies vaguely familiar to us from epics like TheIliad and the ''Ramayana''.  They are often associated with IndoEuropean languages, which probably spread out from a homeland on the caspian sea along with bronze working.
< 
< Around 1200 BC ''something'' happened that dramatically shifted power away from these kingdoms.  Within a few decades city centers all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked and the kingdoms swept away.  Only Egypt, power broken, and Assyria escaped destruction.  This issues in a dark age for the west, and by the time civilization had recovered, the iron age had begun.
< ----
< See also: CopperAge, IronAge
---
> Deleted by author due to mistakes. See HistoryOfLevant instead. Maybe later this page can link to various subtopics, though. 
------
HiStory|980903378
1c1
< * HistoryOfLevant - stuff from BronzeAge and CopperAge will get refactored here and corrected.
---
> * HistoryOfLevant
------
BryceHarrington|980903399
10a11,13
> 
> Wasn't me that did that...  I merely pasted the EB/PG stuff into the AaroN page, and the put a link to it from BiblE/Aaron, that someone else set up.  I think 'namespaces' are an important mechanism for reducing collisions, however they also have a tendancy to lead to complicated hierarchies and duplication of entries.  These days, I tend to just store things flatly, and then build multiple hierarchical indexes to allow accessing the information in a variety of ways, but with the way linking works right now, this will result in a lot of collisions.  Regarding where to put the middle east bronze age stuff, maybe it needs to be broken up more topically?
> 
------
ChristianIty|980903537
5c5
< Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
---
> Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
------
CalvinOstrum|980904135
3,20d2
< ----
< 
< '''Q.''' You have asked about recursively denumerable sets on the SeT page. I am not sure if you are questioning:
< * 1). the existence of such a sets.
< * 2). whether such sets are well-defined
< *AND MORE IMPORTANT
< * 1). If you are tryimg to illicit more content, please feel free to add content to the page.
< * 2). If you are referring to the paradoxes resulting from looking at sets like X = {x: x is a set}, a more limited problem, Russell's Paradox is on the SetTheory page.
< 
< In conclusion, perhaps an example of such a set would help. RoseParks
< 
< ----
< 
< Someone wrote "We require that sets be well-defined. Given an object Sn, we must be able to determine if Sn belongs to S."  My point is simply that for most people doing set theory (I don't know who ''We'' is), this is not true.  We do not require that, given an object, we are able to determine whether it is in a given set or not.   Most people doing set theory do not, for example, claim that recursively enumerable sets which are not recursive do not exist.  For example, the set of theorems of a given first order theory is very often only a semi-decidable set.  
< Philosophically, some people may object to the claim that such sets exist, but it is not the usual position.  -- CalvinOstrum----
< 
< Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks. Or perhaps you would like to add to the page yourself? I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully.
< RoseParks
------
RoseParks|980904376
14a15,28
> 
> --
> 
> You wrote:
> 
> : Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks. Or perhaps you would like to add to the page yourself? I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully. RoseParks
> 
> In reply:
> 
> : To add my remarks would make no sense, since they are just correcting something that shouldn't be there in the first place (whether it is wrong or just obscure I can't be sure of). And I don't feel like writing an entry for sets myself -- actually I am probably not competent to do so.  Although I've already seen it to be false in quite a few cases, I am assuming that people should only be writing entries for areas they actually really know something about.  
> 
> : Hopefully my useful contribution to public pedagogy ultimately will be (inter alia) an interactive formalized development of some branches of mathematics in a proof system such as HOL but I have to learn a lot more before I can do that.  
> 
> : Please send any replies to actual email, this seems to be a strange way to carry on a personal dialog.  If on a subject, the subject can be edited in place, implicitly generating a mailing list of any people interested in it.  Otherwise, I see no reason to have my name showing up repeatedly in "RecentChanges". -- Calvin Ostrum
------
HistoryOfLevant|980906315
11c11
< This started to change around the end of the third millenium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the Assyrians in north Mesopotamia, the Canaanites in Syria-Palestine, to the Minoans in Crete, and to the Hittites in eastern Anatolia.  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and Achaeans, started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.  These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with IndoEuropean languages.
---
> This started to change around the end of the third millenium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the Assyrians in north Mesopotamia, the Canaanites in Syria-Palestine, to the Minoans in Crete, and to the Hittites in eastern Anatolia.  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and Achaeans, started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.
13c13
< By 1700-1500 this process had intensified and most of the older centres were overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the IndusValley was annihilated by the IndoAryans.  Their kin, the Mitanni, subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of Mycenae, and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic Hyskos used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the NewKingdom to develop in their wake.
---
> These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with IndoEuropean languages.  Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, so their use was mainly confined to a small nobility.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies familiar to us from epics like TheIliad and the ''Ramayana''.
15c15
< In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed, although a few neo-Hittite city states survived in north Syria.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.
---
> By around 1700-1500 most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the IndusValley was annihilated by the IndoAryans.  Their kin, the Mitanni, subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of Mycenae, and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic Hyskos used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the NewKingdom to develop in their wake.
16a17
> In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.
17a19,23
> '''The iron age'''
> 
> The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and city-states behind.  A few Hittite centres remained in northern Syria, along with some Canaanite (Phoenician) ports that escaped destruction and now developed into great commercial powers.  Southern Palestine initially fell to the Philistines, but by 1000 had been conquered by the Hebrews.  And most of the interior, as well as Babylonia, was overrun by Aramaeans.
> 
> In this dark period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the alphabet, developed by the Canaanites around 1500 BC.  Also around this time, the Hebrew religion developed into the first major monotheism, JudaIsm, which is still practiced today.
------
HomePage|980906629
0a1
> <body bgcolor=blue>
------
HistoryOfLevant|980906634
17c17
< In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.
---
> In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.  Only Assyria escaped significant damage.
23c23,24
< In this dark period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the alphabet, developed by the Canaanites around 1500 BC.  Also around this time, the Hebrew religion developed into the first major monotheism, JudaIsm, which is still practiced today.
---
> In this dark period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the alphabet, developed by the Canaanites around 1500 BC.  Also around this time, the Hebrew religion developed into the first major monotheism, JudaIsm, which is still practiced today.
> 
------
HomePage|980906642
1d0
< <body bgcolor=blue>
------
BryceHarrington|980906699
4,13c4
< Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY.  I am currently involved in copying in the 'A' articles in from the BritannicaPublicDomain text.
< 
< ''I couldn't help but notice your sliding Aaron of biblical fame into a BiblE/Aaron, and was wondering if you have any comments on how historical, biblical, and mythical figures should be handled.  I wrote a quick AchillEus page, and would feel a lot better about his compatriots if they weren't taking up raw WikiNames (notably Helen and Paris).  But on the other hand, it makes wiki-linking a lot worse, doesn't it?''
< 
< ''While I'm annoying you, I was wondering if you had any ideas on how subdivisions of histories should be kept.  As noted, I'm considering moving the stuff on BronzeAge into things like BronzeAgeOfMiddleEast or some such, while I correct them.  But should it be a top-level thing, or kept under BronzeAge, or kept under MiddleEast?''
< 
< ''Thanks, JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< Wasn't me that did that...  I merely pasted the EB/PG stuff into the AaroN page, and the put a link to it from BiblE/Aaron, that someone else set up.  I think 'namespaces' are an important mechanism for reducing collisions, however they also have a tendancy to lead to complicated hierarchies and duplication of entries.  These days, I tend to just store things flatly, and then build multiple hierarchical indexes to allow accessing the information in a variety of ways, but with the way linking works right now, this will result in a lot of collisions.  Regarding where to put the middle east bronze age stuff, maybe it needs to be broken up more topically?
< 
---
> Lately, I guess I tend to focus on nurturing and organizing the PoLitics section of the site, however my real love is HiStory.  I wrote the pages on OregoN, GladstoneOregon, and AlchemY.  I am currently involved in copying in the 'A' articles in from the BritannicaPublicDomain text.
------
JoshuaGrosse|980906747
41,44d40
< 
< ---- 
< 
< ''I'll check up on those dates about SlavicLanguages in a few Polish sources. This might take a while though.'' - WojPob
------
HistoryOfLevant|980906981
24a25,31
> Blah blah Assyria, Chaldaea, Media, Persia, blah.
> 
> '''The classical empires'''
> 
> Blah blah Alexander, Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
> 
> For subsequent history see HistoryOfIslam.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|980907419
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with /DagnyTaggart when she comes by.  On one occassion (SectioN132), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
> 
> In his first appearance, /NewstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwners discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|980907433
1c1
< The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with /DagnyTaggart when she comes by.  On one occassion (SectioN132), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
---
> The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with /DagnyTaggart when she comes by.  On one occassion (/SectioN132), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|980907446
3c3
< In his first appearance, /NewstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwners discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
---
> In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwners discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|980907483
3c3
< In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwners discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
---
> In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|980907516
3c3
< In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery.
---
> In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.
------
GrouP|980907589
1c1
< See MathematicalGrouP.
---
> #REDIRECT MathematicalGrouP.
------
AtlasShrugged/OrrenBoyle|980907608
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of /JamesTaggart.  He is a member of the group of characters known as the /Looters.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980907628
9a10
>  /Looters
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|980907951
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
> 
> The Looters include
>  /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|980907976
4c4
<  /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
---
> /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|980907988
3,4c3
< The Looters include
< /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
---
> The Looters include /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|980908032
3c3,10
< The Looters include /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch,  /PaulLarkin, /FloydFerris, /LillianRearden, /PhilipRearden.
---
> The Looters include:
>  /FloydFerris
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /LillianRearden
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden.
>  /WesleyMouch
------
AtlasShrugged/OrrenBoyle|980908182
1c1,7
< Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of /JamesTaggart.  He is a member of the group of characters known as the /Looters.
---
> Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of /JamesTaggart.  He is one of the /Looters.  He is an investor in the /SanSebastianMines.
> 
> Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/BartendeR|980908313
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A character mentioned in /SectioN131.  /BartendeR works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by /JamesTaggart and the /Looters.
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental|980908822
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
> 
> The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
> 
> In /Section132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
> 
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
>  /Section114
>  /Section132
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental|980908843
5c5
< In /Section132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
---
> In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
8,9c8,9
<  /Section114
<  /Section132
---
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/BumNumber1|980909060
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The character who opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?"  He chats momentarily with /EddieWillers, helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease.
> 
> /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
------
IndoIranianLanguages|980909092
1c1
< The eastern-most group of IndoEuropean languages, and some of which we have the oldest records of.  These originate around modern Afghanistan and early on split as some people went west and some went east.
---
> The eastern-most group of the living IndoEuropean languages, and some of which we have the oldest records of.  These originate around modern Afghanistan and early on split as some people went west and some went east.
3a4
> * SanskritLanguage (extinct)
------
AtlasShrugged/WorkerNumber1|980909170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at /HankRearden in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement Rearden recieves.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|980909227
24c24
<  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
---
>  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental|980909241
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
> 
> The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
> 
> In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
> 
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental|980909264
1c1
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
---
> #REDIRECT BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
3,9d2
< The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
< 
< In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
< 
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental|980909309
1c1
< #REDIRECT BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
------
AtlasShrugged/ConductoR|980909583
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /ConductoR works on the /TaggartComet.  In /SectioN112 he explains to /DagnyTaggart that he is waiting for a broken light to change.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
AtlasShrugged/PopHarper|980909790
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pop Harper is chief clerk at the offices of TaggartTranscontinental.  He complains that it is impossible to get new typewriters, and that the world will soon be without this simple device.  His attitude is that there is nothing to be done and things will just happen as they happen.  This attitude explains why, after a lifetime of labor, he is still merely a clerk.
> 
> Pop harper appears in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980910385
4c4
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.
---
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence,she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|980910407
4c4
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence,she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
DavidHume|980910890
48c48
< /*This write-up is by no means complete, and I'm sorry that it is a bit scattered, I figure a seed is better than nothing.  --Things to fix--  I don't know how to do underlines on this wiki.  More dates would be nice, a timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  Definitely a section on his ideas.*/--PhillipHankins 
---
> /*--Suggested things to do--  More dates would be nice, maybe timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  More explication of his ideas.  Links to off-wikipedia resources.*/
------
ArtificialLanguages|980910976
1c1
< Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
---
> Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing that makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
------
RoseParks|980912273
16d15
< --
18d16
< You wrote:
20d17
< : Thank you Mr. Ostrum. With your permission, I will edit the SeT page and add your remarks. Or perhaps you would like to add to the page yourself? I am a teacher of Math at the University level, but no expert on Set Theory. I was simply adding a definition, apparently none too carefully. RoseParks
22,28d18
< In reply:
< 
< : To add my remarks would make no sense, since they are just correcting something that shouldn't be there in the first place (whether it is wrong or just obscure I can't be sure of). And I don't feel like writing an entry for sets myself -- actually I am probably not competent to do so.  Although I've already seen it to be false in quite a few cases, I am assuming that people should only be writing entries for areas they actually really know something about.  
< 
< : Hopefully my useful contribution to public pedagogy ultimately will be (inter alia) an interactive formalized development of some branches of mathematics in a proof system such as HOL but I have to learn a lot more before I can do that.  
< 
< : Please send any replies to actual email, this seems to be a strange way to carry on a personal dialog.  If on a subject, the subject can be edited in place, implicitly generating a mailing list of any people interested in it.  Otherwise, I see no reason to have my name showing up repeatedly in "RecentChanges". -- Calvin Ostrum
------
WikiPediaFaq|980914187
63c63
< '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a Wiki page?'''
---
> '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WiKi page?'''
------
RoseParks|980914484
15,17c15,16
< 
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I am not surely, or even Shirley, so I have no clue who you really are :-(
------
WolfgangMozart|980914603
1c1,9
< Mozart was a classical composer who lived from 1756 until 1791.  He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
> 
> He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
> 
> Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote cadenzas to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
> 
> Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
> 
> As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life.  Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work.  Gradually, his health became very poor.  He lived just a little over half of Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791.
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980915808
56a57,62
> 
> ----
> 
> Tim has excellent points.  I second them.  The bit about not focusing exclusively on the government is gold.  I also think that you needn't feel responsible for the actions done many years before your birth by a government which you now have <<1/280,000,000th of a say in.  Simplifications need to be proven helpful before they are adopted.  I hold up your guilt as an example of the harm they can do.  If you feel bad that some things happened in history (and are still happening), I would think anger at the perpetrators and sympathy for the victims more appropriate responses.  These can motivate one to help make things better without being such a burden.  Don't you show, by your recognition of the wrong, some distance from it?  Sorry, I just don't think you deserve the burden of guilt, so I rambled on trying to fix your psychie or something.  I appologize.
> 
> That having been said, this is a wiki.  The obvious answer, and likely among the best, has been given:  write a middle way account and people can link off to pessimistic (or optimistic) interpretations & elaborations as they see fit.  Writing the middle way shouldn't be that hard.  Let anyone add what they want, and if someone objects to something, off to another page it goes.  --PhillipHankins
------
PhilosophyOfReligion|980919331
1a2,3
> ----
> Er, Spinoza was a Christian philosopher?  He was a pantheistic Jew!  I don't know if Weber was religious at all (he theorized about religion); and Hume of course is famous for being an atheist, though in fact he might have been an agnostic or even a closet believer.  (The ''Dialogues'' aren't very clear about this.)
------
ConsequentialIsm|980919676
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The notion that what ultimately matters in evaluating actions or policies of action is the consequences that result. 
> 
> Consequentialism is sometimes conflated with UtilitarianIsm, which is a mistake, as UtilitarianIsm is but one kind of consequentialism. Kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the subject who is supposed to enjoy the consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" Egoism can be understood as individualist consequentialism according to which the consequences for the agent herself is taken to matter most. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, can be understood as collectivist consequentialism according to which the consequences for some large group (humanity perhaps, or the sum of sentient beings) is of the greatest moment. These views, while both consequentialist, can be in stark contrast. Individualist consequentialism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are deleterious to general welfare. Collectivist consequentialism may license actions that are good for the collectivity but deadly for individuals. Some environmentalists seem to take the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant patient of consequences. The entire universe might be the subject, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
> 
> 
> Another way to divide consequentialism is by the kind of consequences that are taken to matter most. The most popular form of consequentialism is hedonic consequentialism, according to which a good consequence is one that produces net pleasure, and the best consequence is one that produces more net pleasure than any of the alternatives. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which full, flourishing happiness (which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure) is the aim. However, one might fix on some non-psychological good as the preferred consequence of actions. For instance, certain ideologues seem to be consequentialists with regard to material equality or political liberty, regarding gains in these things as desirable in themselves, regardless of other consequences. One might also adopt a beauty consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. Similarly, one might find nothing of greater gravity than the production of knowledge. One can also assemble packages of goods, all to be promoted equally. Since in this case there is no overarching consequence to aim for, conflicts between goods are to be adjudicated not by some ultimate consequentialist principle, but by the fine contextual discernment and intuition of the agent.
> 
> Consequentialism is often contrasted with deontologism. However, this may be mistaken. Many forms of consequentialism at bottom are deontological, demanding that we simply have a duty to produce a certain kind of consequence, whether or not that kind of consequence personally moves us. And even paradigmatic deontological theories, such as Kant's, at times seem consequentialistic. For instance, one might argue that for Kant, the more expression of rational nature, or the good will, the better. A more fundamental distinction is between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest and motivation (actually or counterfactually) and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their interests and drives.
------
DirectRealism|980920483
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy. 
------
DirectRealism|980920535
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy. 
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy. - WillWilkinson
------
WillWilkinson|980920664
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the University of Maryland, and a program director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
------
ConsequentialIsm|980920947
3c3
< Consequentialism is sometimes conflated with UtilitarianIsm, which is a mistake, as UtilitarianIsm is but one kind of consequentialism. Kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the subject who is supposed to enjoy the consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" Egoism can be understood as individualist consequentialism according to which the consequences for the agent herself is taken to matter most. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, can be understood as collectivist consequentialism according to which the consequences for some large group (humanity perhaps, or the sum of sentient beings) is of the greatest moment. These views, while both consequentialist, can be in stark contrast. Individualist consequentialism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are deleterious to general welfare. Collectivist consequentialism may license actions that are good for the collectivity but deadly for individuals. Some environmentalists seem to take the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant patient of consequences. The entire universe might be the subject, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
---
> Consequentialism is sometimes conflated with UtilitarianIsm, which is a mistake, as UtilitarianIsm is but one kind of consequentialism. Kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the subject who is supposed to enjoy the consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" EgoIsm can be understood as individualist consequentialism according to which the consequences for the agent herself is taken to matter most. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, can be understood as collectivist consequentialism according to which the consequences for some large group (humanity perhaps, or the sum of sentient beings) is of the greatest moment. These views, while both consequentialist, can be in stark contrast. Individualist consequentialism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are deleterious to general welfare. Collectivist consequentialism may license actions that are good for the collectivity but deadly for individuals. Some environmentalists seem to take the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant patient of consequences. The entire universe might be the subject, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
8c8
< Consequentialism is often contrasted with deontologism. However, this may be mistaken. Many forms of consequentialism at bottom are deontological, demanding that we simply have a duty to produce a certain kind of consequence, whether or not that kind of consequence personally moves us. And even paradigmatic deontological theories, such as Kant's, at times seem consequentialistic. For instance, one might argue that for Kant, the more expression of rational nature, or the good will, the better. A more fundamental distinction is between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest and motivation (actually or counterfactually) and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their interests and drives.
---
> Consequentialism is often contrasted with deontologism. However, this may be mistaken. Many forms of consequentialism at bottom are deontological, demanding that we simply have a duty to produce a certain kind of consequence, whether or not that kind of consequence personally moves us. And even paradigmatic deontological theories, such as Kant's, at times seem consequentialistic. For instance, one might argue that for Kant, the more expression of rational nature, or the good will, the better. It is difficult to find a theory that posits an intrinsic good (such as the good will in Kant)in which it is not better to have more of the intrinsic good. A more fundamental distinction is between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest and motivation (actually or counterfactually) and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their interests and drives. - WillWilkinson
------
SetTheory|980921157
55a56,60
> COMMENT: This is not at all true - cardinality can be defined
> without using AC. The statement about "all constructible sets"
> having distinct cardinalities makes no obvious sense. What
> is meant here by a "constructible set"?
> 
------
SetTheory|980922683
60a61,64
> ''The usual way of defining cardinals is by taking a representative ordinal of each size, which you can't do without the axiom of choice.  The only other way I've ever seen done is by taking equivalence classes of sets, but these don't end up being ZF sets - i.e. you have to use objects outside the system being considered.''
> 
> ''A set X has been constructed if there is a 'way' of determining whether any given element is in it.  I'm being deliberately vague, but I think you can see the idea.  ZF+AC asserts the real numbers have a basis as a vector space over the rationals, but you are never going to be able to demonstrate an example of some such set.  ZF-AC asserts that there is a set which can't be put into one-to-one correspondence with any ordinal, and if I am not mistaken you can't find me one of those either (though I'm not entirely sure, since you're not allowed to use AC to set up the correspondence).''
> 
------
JoshuaGrosse|980923414
1,3c1,2
< ''RinGs-leader.''
< 
< Ok, if you want me to have a HomePage...JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.----
---
> JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, HiStory, LanguagE, and GreekMythology.
> ----
9,12d7
< '''Q.''' Why do you call what I call a "mapping" a "map"?--RoseParks
< 
< ''When you use a term all the time, you tend to pick the shortest version.  It never occured to me to use mapping, though now that I check that's the version most texts use.  They're either identical, or maybe a mapping has a definite codomain (as opposed to just anything that includes the range).  Feel free to change it.''----
< 
15,17c10
< I definitely have an interest in both, and a facility for Mathematics.  As for language ability I'm not so sure.  I took French immersion early on and was good enough to think it fluently, but since then almost all of my vocabulary has been forgotten.  Since then I've taken a little German, and am taking Latin, and again have trouble keeping a full vocab.  At least when I got lost in Paris I could find my way.
< 
< Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)
---
> ''I definitely have an interest in both, and a facility for Mathematics.  As for language ability I'm not so sure.  I took French immersion early on and was good enough to think it fluently, but since then almost all of my vocabulary has been forgotten.  Since then I've taken a little German, and am taking Latin, and again have trouble keeping a full vocab.  At least when I got lost in Paris I could find my way.''
19,24c12
< P.S. Why didn't you call MathematicalGrouP, just GrouP?----
< 
< First things last...
< 
< '''A.''' I named it MathematicalGrouP because it was the first entry in Math and I wanted  
< readers to know what kind of group I was talking about.
---
> ''Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)''
30,31c18,19
< Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).
< ----
---
> ''Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).''
> 
------
HumanComputerInteraction|980924520
28c28
< http://www.lclark.edu/~zkramer/newdeal/pics/wow!.gif   This is one of the most interesting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar design.   |S|c|a|r|e|
---
> Please don't place flashing pictures in the encyclopedia. We humans evolved  where motion could signal a predator, so when a human's eye sees something jump, the human's brain cannot give its complete attention to anything else on the page. Flashing pictures interfere with reading and learning. [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed]
30c30
< Hello, this is a test.
---
> ----
31a32
> This is one of the most interesting things that i have ever seen on the web.  In fact when i go home today i think i will attempt to host a page of similar design.   |S|c|a|r|e|
------
HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk|980926460
25,45d24
< Bryce (bit confused over difference between Talk and Discussion, but figuring there's a reason) here...  
< 
< I'll be the first to admit that the original writeup focused more on negative points than on positive points, largely because the more I study US history, the more shamed I feel...  I listed particular things that have bothered me.  Maybe because they tend to get glossed over or apologized for in the history books we typically learn from, or perhaps 'cause I wanted to get a reaction out of people.  In any case, I admit that leaving out the many positive traits of US history causes it to be very unbalanced.  For instance, I mentioned nothing of the rebellion, nor the fact that the US pioneered the democratic principles that many people today have benefitted from.  I did not mention the technological achievements that its freedom allowed to occur (even though I personally don't believe we are _all_ as free as we would like to think).  And yes, I'll admit the article as I wrote it was rambling, skipping over vitally important moments in US history to focus on items of my own personal interest.  But I wanted to get it started without having to write a novel, and knew others would fill it in, given time.
< 
< Anyway, with the apologism out of the way...  You can call it biased if you want, but please do not dismiss it as false unless you have researched it more thoroughly.  I quick-checked each of the assertions against the article in the Britannica.com site (knowing it was going to sound biased, I was going to delete anything that lacked backup from an official source).  Believe it or not, the article I found on the Britannica site was even more damning than mine!!  
< 
< Also, realize that there are a TON of assertions out there about how much worse the US is than we care to believe, which appear to be true, yet which make the stuff mentioned so far seem extremely tame.  I don't want to earn the 'anti-american' label so I'll censor myself right here.  ;-)  But I encourage anyone bothered by assertions like these to please do some research on your own, and make sure to consult books that don't simply romantacize US history.  We've been very naughty...
< 
< Okay, now a couple comments about procedural things said above...  First, while it would be nice to say that one should write only the truth (and I wholeheartedly agree), it is effectively impossible to know the truth absolutely.  If a police officer asks five people at a car accident what happened, he'll get five different answers.  Second, regarding bias, I also agree it would be nice to say that "this is without any bias", but I think we must admit that every writer will be biased.  Not to say that it is not worth attempting to be unbiased, just that you should always assume everything you read is biased, figure out how it is so, and correct for it.
< 
< That is one of the things I find magical about wiki - unlike a newspaper, which could have a particular bias, and leave its readers no opportunity to point out bias and correct, here with wiki, we have the power to collectively fix that.  If I'm a boob and spout off with error after error, you can click 'edit' and fix it.  
< 
< But let me say this:  I hope that when we are done, every assertion, no matter how praiseworthy or damning, is defended with facts and proven.  And I hope that the controversial and unsettling assertions made in the original post help us go beyond just a 'nursery school' retelling of US history.  History proves that we are not the pure, wholesome, and just people that we think we are.  We're human just like everyone else on this planet; GoD did not make us better than everyone else, nor did GeorgeWashington, and we've done many bad things out of greed, fear, racism, arrogance, and plain old ignorance, that we would today castigate other nations for.  Heck, who knows?  Maybe we're still doing it.  
< 
< I'm going to cover the historical fact points brought up in this thread, over on Discussion, for no particular reason.  ;-)
< 
< Again, apologies if the original article shook people up...  But sometimes honestly pointing out flaws can be the best way to fix them.
< 
< -- BryceHarrington
< 
< ----
48,56d26
< 
< ----
< Yes, I use "we" a lot when discussing US history, because in reading a lot of this stuff I feel a great sense of personal responsibility about it, and assume (usually wrongly, as I repeately learn) others care similarly.  Note though that I don't think it is acceptable to 'cop out' by blaming the government.  Of course the government will do bad things; that is what governments, historically, have done.  But here in the United States, the principle is that the government 'belongs' to us.  Thus, I feel that like any manager taking responsibility for the action of his employees, or a general taking responsibility for the action of his soldiers, so too ought US Citizens take responsibility for actions of their government.  Of course, this too is my own personal political screed, and I promise to try to avoid letting 'we's slip in anywhere except in that which is merely discussion (like this).  
< 
< Also, I wholeheartedly agree that the history should include not only what the government does but also what the people do.  I left out things like the civil rights movement, various rebellions and religious/moral/ethical movements just for lack of writing time.  All of that should certainly be added.  But also note that usually, when the government is repressing the minority, there is a possibility that society itself supports (perhaps even elected) the repression.
< 
< Anyway, like I said, I grant that I skipped over many essential facts.  Assume that I did this because I wanted to leave the enjoyable, ennobling writing parts to you.  ;-)
< 
< I think I'll withdraw from writing more on US history...  I have a lot I'd like to say, having studied it considerably, but it just upsets me that the more I learn, the more I see it is just repeating the patterns of older empires.  And what really frustrates me is that there seems to be little chance of avoiding making the same mistakes. -- BryceWishingForBetterHarrington
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|980926836
4a5,183
> 
> According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
> 
> ----
> Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
> 
> Frank O'Connor
> 
> Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
> passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
> Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
> 
> As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
> blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
> to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
> he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
> Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
> roles for him into every one of her books.
> 
> At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
> books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
> first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
> and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
> features and stature.
> 
> With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
> difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
> was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
> aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
> into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
> self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
> aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
> character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
> missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
> 
> John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
> had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
> that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
> male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
> the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
> plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
> his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
> variation on Frank's name.
> 
> Ayn Rand's Father
> 
> The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
> as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
> compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
> some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
> man from her own life: her father.
> 
> Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
> his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
> Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
> than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
> enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
> the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
> Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
> Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
> impossible situation."
> 
> Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
> until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
> aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
> life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
> taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
> pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
> father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
> reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
> a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
> tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
> 
> An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
> alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
> Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
> selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
> - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
> day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
> destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
> belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
> Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
> that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
> aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
> 
> The Jewish Grandees
> 
> Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
> and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
> exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
> wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
> the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
> Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
> practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
> job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
> test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
> suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
> the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
> Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
> the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
> father the Devil".
> 
> To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
> Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
> aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
> distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
> descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
> Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
> practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
> found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
> still needed a business and a name.
> 
> Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
> 
> The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
> that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
> when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
> to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
> American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
> American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
> Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
> a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
> businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
> family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
> nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
> centurion in "King of Kings".
> 
> The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
> wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
> readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
> Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
> Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
> secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
> Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
> "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
> "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
> sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
> 
> A Grandee's Hannukah
> 
> Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
> flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
> aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
> the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
> sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
> had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
> when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
> "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
> melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
> 
> "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian D'Anconia sat on the floor,
> playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
> of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
> carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
> wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
> who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
> be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
> behind enemy lines.
> 
> In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
> their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
> objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
> would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
> instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
> servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
> rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
> hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
> 
> From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
> there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
> anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
> idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
> to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
> in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
> have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
> role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
> Dagny is the clueless one.
> 
> ----
------
HistoryOfLevant|980926951
25c25,27
< Blah blah Assyria, Chaldaea, Media, Persia, blah.
---
> During the 9th century the Assyrians began to reassert themselves against the incursions of the Aramaeans, and over the next few centuries developed into a powerful and well-organized empire.  Their armies were among the first to employ cavalry, which took the place of chariots, and had a reputation for both prowess and brutality.  At their height, the Assyrians dominated all of Syria-Palestine, Egypt, and Babylonia.  However, the empire began to collapse toward the end of the 7th century, and was obliterated by an alliance between a resurgent Babylonia and the Iranian Medes.
> 
> Blah blah Chaldaea, Media, Persia, blah.
31c33
< For subsequent history see HistoryOfIslam.
---
> For subsequent history see HistoryOfIslam.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980928357
27c27
< Blah blah Chaldaea, Media, Persia, blah.
---
> The subsequent balance of power was short-lived, though.  In 550 BC the Persians revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed to it the realms of Lydia in Anatolia, Babylonia, and Egypt, as well as consolidating their control over the Iranian plateau nearly as far as India.  This vast kingdom was divided up into various satrapies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand.  Around this time Zoroastrianism became the predominant religion in Persia.
------
TheaTer|980934851
0a1,5
> The earliest days of theater has not been definitively identified.  Some theories hold that theatrical and dramatic representations came from the revelry of the ancient Greek celebration of Bacchus.  In any case, little doubt exists about the fact that the modern theater was born in ancient Greece.  Important figures in ancient Greek theater include:
> *  AristophaneS
> *  SophocleS
> *  EuripideS
> *  AeschyluS
2,3c7
< Showing revision 1
< Come now, everyone! There must be people out there interested in theatre in its many wonderous forms! To start you out, here's a link to the Lewis & Clark College Theater website: 
---
> ...and AristotlE, primarily for his timeless theories on the dramatic arts.
5c9
< [Click me!] 
---
> In the middle ages in Europe, the theater was reduced to didactic, metaphorical illustrations that featured the "Everyman."
6a11
> The Renaissance brought the geniuses of WilliamShakespeare.
8c13
< Let's get that ball rolling! 
---
> The Baroque theater produced MolierE.
------
FilmHistory|980935090
8a9,10
> 
> Arguably, the most important figure in the history of film aesthetics would be DWGriffith.
------
FilmHistory|980935121
10c10
< Arguably, the most important figure in the history of film aesthetics would be DWGriffith.
---
> Arguably, the most important figure in the history of film aesthetics would be DwGriffith.
------
DwGriffith|980935788
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar.  Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for cannonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as MiseEnScene and editing (FilmEditing.)
> 
> Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film BirthofaNation (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the KluKluxKlan in the United States.
> 
> Griffith remains both a praised and distained character in the history of the cinema.
> 
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1908 and 1912 (the years he directed for the Mutual Film Company), Griffith produced an astounding 500 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he launched his own company and set to work to produce BirthofaNation.
------
BirthofaNation|980936040
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A controverial film directed by DwGriffith.  It was released in 1915 and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language.
> 
> The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the KluKluxKlan successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
------
MiseEnScene|980936141
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where the long takes and often a movie camera is preferred over constantly chopping up a scene through editing.
------
FilmEditing|980936355
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After DwGriffith's BirthofaNation and Intolerance, the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the KuleshovExperiment.)
------
KuleshovExperiment|980936498
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kuleshov was an early Russian filmmaker.  He believed that juxtaposing two unrelated images could convey a separate meaning.  His example was a shot of a man and then a shot of a bowl of food conveyed the idea of hunger even though the shot of the man and the shot of the bowl was done at different times and places.
------
PhilosophyOfReligion|980936633
1c1
< Major Christian Philosophers:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume
---
> Major Christian Philosophers:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
3c3
< Er, Spinoza was a Christian philosopher?  He was a pantheistic Jew!  I don't know if Weber was religious at all (he theorized about religion); and Hume of course is famous for being an atheist, though in fact he might have been an agnostic or even a closet believer.  (The ''Dialogues'' aren't very clear about this.)
---
> Er, Spinoza was a Christian philosopher?  He was a pantheistic Jew!  I don't know if Weber was religious at all (he theorized about religion); and Hume of course is famous for being an atheist, though in fact he might have been an agnostic or even a closet believer.  (The ''Dialogues'' aren't very clear about this.)
------
BoethiuS|980936694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Boethius was a very early Christian philosopher and his most recognized work was the ConsolationOfPhilosophy.
------
ConsolationOfPhilosophy|980936840
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This thin work depicts Socratic dialogues between an imprisoned Boethius (imprisoned because he was a Christian) and the woman Philosphy to help him come to terms with his suffering.  It tackles significant Christian questions about the foreknowledge of God as potential determinism as well as the purpose or place of suffering.
------
SetTheory|980943979
62a63,73
> COMMENT: The axiom
> of choice is not needed to define cardinals in ZF - the
> equivalence classes can be taken to be sets, by defining the
> cardinal of x as the set of all sets of minimal rank
> equivalent to x. We are also perfectly free to simply
> introduce a special function symbol for cardinals, governed
> by the axiom card(x)=card(y) <-> x and y are equivalent.
> (Suppes does it this way.) Associating the axiom of choice
> with there mere possibility of talking about cardinals is
> quite unjustified.
> 
63a75,79
> 
> COMMENT: This is not only vague, but it is not a recognizable
> informal version of anything formally defined in set theory. In
> particular, it is completely obscure what you mean by saying
> that two constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
------
SetTheory|980944120
79c79
< that two constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
---
> that all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
------
EastGermany|980948686
14c14
< GermanY got divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany got divided. Since Berlin was 
---
> GermanY was divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany was divided. Since Berlin was 
16c16
< soon got known as WestBerlin.
---
> soon became known as WestBerlin.
18,19c18,19
< So when EastGermany closed the border it also literally surrounded WestBerlin by a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
< Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war it self and all that.
---
> So when EastGermany closed the western borders, it also literally enclosed WestBerlin within a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
> Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in Germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war itself and all that.
21c21
< In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts got re-united and 
---
> In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts re-united and 
24c24
< But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western germany.
---
> But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
EastGermany|980949435
24c24
< But still there are lot of differences about the once eastern and the once western part of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
---
> But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
TrigonometricFunctions|980949465
79c79
< The familiar mnemonic to remember these definitions is CAHSOHTOA. It reminds
---
> One familiar mnemonic to remember these definitions is CAHSOHTOA. It reminds
80a81,82
> 
> Another mnemonic is commonly used in the UK is OHMS. This is memorable because it might mean "On Her Majesty's Service", which is stamped on the front of Tax demands, or "Opposite over Adjacent Means Sine".
------
MiddleAges|980951777
1,2c1
< 
< Science and religion were mixed up into the philosophy of AlchemY.
---
> Period in European History (see also HistoryofEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
------
MiddleAges|980952178
1c1
< Period in European History (see also HistoryofEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
---
> Period in European History (see also<a href="wiki.cgi?HistoryOfEurope"> HistoryofEurope</a>) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
------
MiddleAges|980952251
1c1
< Period in European History (see also<a href="wiki.cgi?HistoryOfEurope"> HistoryofEurope</a>) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
---
> Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
------
MiddleAges|980952296
1c1
< Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
---
> Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
------
MiddleAges|980952461
1c1
< Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the FrankEmpire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
---
> Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the Frankish Empire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980953225
31c31
< Blah blah Alexander, Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
---
> Blah blah AlexanderTheGreat, Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
------
AlexanderTheGreat|980954611
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alexander (the Great) was born Alexander III., son of Philip, King of Macedonia, in 356 BC. Macedonia was a country to the north of classical Greece, regarded as semi-barbarian (and therefore foreign) by most Greeks, but the Mecedonians felt as Greeks, as a matter of honor.
> 
> Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with AristotlE, who was his private teacher.
> 
> In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in Greece, he set of on his famous conquest of Persia in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered Egypt. Returning to Persia proper, occupying Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to India. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his Greek countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in India, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
> 
> He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over Greece, Persia, Egypt, and all the way to India.
> 
> Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in Iran for burnng Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
------
AlexanderTheGreat|980954736
5c5
< In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in Greece, he set of on his famous conquest of Persia in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered Egypt. Returning to Persia proper, occupying Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to India. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his Greek countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in India, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
---
> In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in Greece, he set of on his famous conquest of Persia in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered Egypt. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to India. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his Greek countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in India, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
9c9
< Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in Iran for burnng Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
---
> Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in Iran for burning Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
------
GreeK|980954964
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Of, or relating to GreecE, its people or its culture.
> 
> Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
------
RequestedArticles|980958188
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
------
UsenetCabal|980959984
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A supposedly mythical organisation which apparently moderated all groups and generally controlled the whole of Usenet newsgroup traffic; any direct mention of them is generally followed by the abbreviation TINC - There Is No Cabal. The word Cabal has something to do with some French courtiers (can someone who actually knows please fill the details in here?). After this theory was publicised (and largely refuted), many 'Cabals' sprung up throughout Usenet, like the LspaceCabal (TINC) of AltFanPratchett (which is an actual organisation, but any mention of it still has the negative acronym appended).
------
CryptanalysiS|980962902
1c1
< CryptanalysiS (from the Greek kryptós and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the science (and art) of recovering information from ciphers without knowledge of the key. CryptologY is often--and mistakenly--considered a synonym for CryptographY and occasionally for CryptanalysiS, as in the popular solution of CryptograM's or CipheR's, but specialists in the field have for years adopted the convention that CryptologY is the more inclusive term encompassing both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
---
> CryptanalysiS (from the GreeK kryptós and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the science (and art) of recovering information from ciphers without knowledge of the key. CryptologY is often--and mistakenly--considered a synonym for CryptographY and occasionally for CryptanalysiS, as in the popular solution of CryptograM's or CipheR's, but specialists in the field have for years adopted the convention that CryptologY is the more inclusive term encompassing both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
------
CryptographY|980962933
1c1
< CryptographY (from the Greek kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the secret key, but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
---
> CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the secret key, but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
------
GreeK|980963016
3c3,6
< Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
---
> Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
> ----
> 
> ''See also'':  GreekLanguage
------
WojPob|980963078
3c3
< A MSc student at the Vienna School of Economics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
---
> A MSc student at the ViennaSchoolOfEconomics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
13c13
< I fear you now.  ;-) --JimboWales
---
> I fear you now.  ;-) --JimboWales
------
BusinessSchools/Asia|980963429
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /HongKongUniversitySchoolOfBusiness
> 
> /JiangxiUniversityOfFinanceAndEconomics
> 
> /NanyangTechnologicalUniversity
> 
> /PekingUniversitySchoolOfEconomics
> 
> /UniversityOfTsukuba
> 
------
EastGermany|980963528
3c3
< After WW2, in 1949 at the Potsdam Conference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
---
> After WW2, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
8c8
< It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisTic
---
> It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
24c24
< But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of Germany (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
---
> But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
WhatIsaWiki|980963606
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked <b>web</b> pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
------
AlexanderTheGreat|980963991
7c7
< He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over Greece, Persia, Egypt, and all the way to India.
---
> He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over GreecE, PersiA, EgypT, and all the way to IndiA.
9c9
< Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in Iran for burning Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
---
> Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in IraN for burning Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
------
AlexanderTheGreat|980964066
5c5
< In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in Greece, he set of on his famous conquest of Persia in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered Egypt. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to India. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his Greek countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in India, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
---
> In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in GreecE, he set of on his famous conquest of PersiA in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered EgypT. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to IndiA. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his GreeK countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in IndiA, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
------
UsenetCabal|980964275
1c1
< A supposedly mythical organisation which apparently moderated all groups and generally controlled the whole of Usenet newsgroup traffic; any direct mention of them is generally followed by the abbreviation TINC - There Is No Cabal. The word Cabal has something to do with some French courtiers (can someone who actually knows please fill the details in here?). After this theory was publicised (and largely refuted), many 'Cabals' sprung up throughout Usenet, like the LspaceCabal (TINC) of AltFanPratchett (which is an actual organisation, but any mention of it still has the negative acronym appended).
---
> A supposedly mythical organisation which apparently moderated all groups and generally controlled the whole of Usenet newsgroup traffic; any direct mention of them is generally followed by the abbreviation TINC - There Is No CabaL. The word CabaL has something to do with some French courtiers (can someone who actually knows please fill the details in here?). After this theory was publicised (and largely refuted), many 'Cabals' sprung up throughout Usenet, like the LspaceCabal (TINC) of AltFanPratchett (which is an actual organisation, but any mention of it still has the negative acronym appended).
------
CabaL|980964387
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A CabaL is a private organization or party engaged in secret intrigues. In EnglanD the word was used during the 17th century to describe the mystical interpretation of the HebreW scripture (the Cabala, or Kabbala), as well as to describe any secret or extralegal council of the king, especially the foreign committee of the Privy Council. 
> 
> 
> The term took on its present invidious meaning from a group of five ministers chosen in 1667 by King Charles II (Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley Cooper [later earl of Shaftesbury], and Lauderdale), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled cabal. This cabal, never very unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by 1672; Shaftesbury even became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. 
------
UsenetCabal|980964486
1c1,6
< A supposedly mythical organisation which apparently moderated all groups and generally controlled the whole of Usenet newsgroup traffic; any direct mention of them is generally followed by the abbreviation TINC - There Is No CabaL. The word CabaL has something to do with some French courtiers (can someone who actually knows please fill the details in here?). After this theory was publicised (and largely refuted), many 'Cabals' sprung up throughout Usenet, like the LspaceCabal (TINC) of AltFanPratchett (which is an actual organisation, but any mention of it still has the negative acronym appended).
---
> A supposedly mythical organisation which apparently moderated all groups and generally controlled the whole of Usenet newsgroup traffic; any direct mention of them is generally followed by the abbreviation TINC - There Is No CabaL. After this theory was publicised (and largely refuted), many 'Cabals' sprung up throughout Usenet, like the LspaceCabal (TINC) of AltFanPratchett (which is an actual organisation, but any mention of it still has the negative acronym appended).
> ----
> 
> ''The word CabaL has something to do with some French courtiers (can someone who actually knows please fill the details in here?).''
> 
> Job done;-) - WojPob
------
AbensbergGermany|980964673
1c1
< ABENSBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the 
---
> ABENSBERG, a town of GermanY, in the kingdom of BavariA, on the 
------
WojPob|980964838
3c3
< A MSc student at the ViennaSchoolOfEconomics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
---
> A MSc student at the ViennaUniversityOfEconomics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
------
HistoryOfEurope|980965505
3c3
< Europe has been human-occupied since the dawn of mankind.  NeanderthaL man settled Europe long before the emergence
---
> Europe has been human-occupied since the dawn of mankind.  NeanderthaL man settled EuropE long before the emergence
6c6
< The first well-known civilization in Europe was that of the MinoanPeoples and AchaeanPeoples in Greece.  Around the same time, the CelticPeoples spread over most of the interior as far as Spain and later Turkey.  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
---
> The first well-known civilization in EuropE was that of the MinoanPeoples and AchaeanPeoples in GreecE.  Around the same time, the CelticPeoples spread over most of the interior as far as Spain and later Turkey.  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
9c9
< colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
---
> colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of EuropE.
11,12c11
< At the end of the BronzeAge the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having
< vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprescendented developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
---
> At the end of the BronzeAge the older GreeK kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprescendented developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
14c13
< The campaigns of AlexanderTheGreat brought Greek culture into contact with the older learnings of Persia, Egypt, and India, opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent RomanEmpire as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, Rome finally became an empire under JuliusCaesar and his AuthoritariaN successors.
---
> The campaigns of AlexanderTheGreat brought GreeK culture into contact with the older learnings of PersiA, EgypT, and IndiA, opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent RomanEmpire as it expanded outward from ItalY, taking advantage of its enemies inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, RomE finally became an empire under JuliusCaesar and his AuthoritariaN successors.
16c15
< Europe emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the RomanEmpire (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the Byzantine and Islamic cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
---
> EuropE emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the RomanEmpire (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the Byzantine and Islamic cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
20c19
< Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout.  The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  Napoleon also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving Germany and Italy to develop into nation-states by 1900.
---
> Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  NapoleoN also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving GermanY and ItalY to develop into nation-states by 1900.
22c21
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of Europe.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of EuropE.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
------
CabaL|980965589
4c4
< The term took on its present invidious meaning from a group of five ministers chosen in 1667 by King Charles II (Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley Cooper [later earl of Shaftesbury], and Lauderdale), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled cabal. This cabal, never very unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by 1672; Shaftesbury even became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. 
---
> The term took on its present invidious meaning from a group of five ministers chosen in 1667 by King Charles II (Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley Cooper [later earl of Shaftesbury], and Lauderdale), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled CabaL. This CabaL, never very unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by 1672; Shaftesbury even became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. 
------
RequestedArticles|980965722
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers (we also need to add whatever ordinary language approximations of logico-mathematical concepts that we can find; we'd like nonmathematicians/nonlogicians to be able to understand these articles)
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
------
DirectRealism|980965989
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions ( JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy. - WillWilkinson
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
PhillipHankins|980967233
3a4,6
> ----
> 
> Note to PhillipHankins to JimboWales: You removed your name from an entry that you wrote, and said it was silly of you to have it there, but I thought it was fine to have it there.  One way that it is useful is for other people to find you and then other topics that you've written about.  Anyhow, you can delete this comment, I just wanted to say this. :-)
------
PhillipHankins|980967244
6c6
< Note to PhillipHankins to JimboWales: You removed your name from an entry that you wrote, and said it was silly of you to have it there, but I thought it was fine to have it there.  One way that it is useful is for other people to find you and then other topics that you've written about.  Anyhow, you can delete this comment, I just wanted to say this. :-)
---
> Note to PhillipHankins from JimboWales: You removed your name from an entry that you wrote, and said it was silly of you to have it there, but I thought it was fine to have it there.  One way that it is useful is for other people to find you and then other topics that you've written about.  Anyhow, you can delete this comment, I just wanted to say this. :-)
------
DavidHume|980967326
5c5
< Did some self-study in France, where he completed ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press."
---
> Did some self-study in France, where he completed ''ATreatiseofHumanNature'' at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press."
------
ATreatiseofHumanNature|980967372
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ATreatiseofHumanNature was completed by DavidHume at the age of 26. When published in EnglanD (1739-40) it received next to no attention. Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press." 
------
CryptanalysiS|980967473
15c15
< CryptanalysiS that is virtually indistinguishable from research in any other area of computational mathematics. Unlike the ciphertext attacks or ciphertext/plaintext pairs attacks in single-key cryptosystems, this sort of cryptanalysis is aimed at breaking the cryptosystem by analysis that can be carried out based only on a knowledge of the system itself. Obviously there is no counterpart to this kind of cryptanalytic attack in single-key systems. One of the most attractive schemes for exchanging session keys in a hybrid cryptosystem depended on the ease with which a number (primitive root) could be raised to a power (in a finite field), as opposed to the difficulty of calculating the discrete logarithm. A special-purpose chip to implement this algorithm was produced by a U.S. company, and several others designed secure electronic mail and computer-networking schemes based on the algorithm. In 1983 Donald Coppersmith found a computationally feasible way to take discrete logarithms in precisely those finite fields that
---
> CryptanalysiS that is virtually indistinguishable from research in any other area of computational mathematics. Unlike the ciphertext attacks or ciphertext/plaintext pairs attacks in single-key cryptosystems, this sort of cryptanalysis is aimed at breaking the cryptosystem by analysis that can be carried out based only on a knowledge of the system itself. Obviously there is no counterpart to this kind of cryptanalytic attack in single-key systems. One of the most attractive schemes for exchanging session keys in a hybrid cryptosystem depended on the ease with which a number (primitive root) could be raised to a power (in a finite field), as opposed to the difficulty of calculating the discrete logarithm. A special-purpose chip to implement this algorithm was produced by a U.S. company, and several others designed secure electronic mail and computer-networking schemes based on the algorithm. In 1983 DonaldCoppersmith found a computationally feasible way to take discrete logarithms in precisely those finite fields that
------
CryptanalysiS|980967549
18c18
< 1,000,000,000,000 elementary computer operations (add, subtract, shift, and so forth). By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 1,000,000,000,000 operations. If a mathematical advance made it feasible to factor 150 or more digit numbers in the same number of operations, this would make it possible for the cryptanalyst to break several commercial RSA schemes. In other words, the security of two-key cryptography depends on well-defined mathematical questions in a way that single-key CryptographY generally did not and conversely equates CryptanalysiS to mathematical research in an atypical way.
---
> 1,000,000,000,000 elementary computer operations (add, subtract, shift, and so forth). By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 1,000,000,000,000 operations. If a mathematical advance made it feasible to factor 150 or more digit numbers in the same number of operations, this would make it possible for the CryptanalysT to break several commercial RSA schemes. In other words, the security of two-key cryptography depends on well-defined mathematical questions in a way that single-key CryptographY generally did not and conversely equates CryptanalysiS to mathematical research in an atypical way.
------
OntOlogy|980967623
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most recognizably metaphysical branch of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
> 
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of "ThinG," ''thing'' being used in its broadest possible sense, that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
> 
> What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explained in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  As it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
> 
> The ontological problems ''par excellence'' include:
> * What is ExistencE?
> * Is ExistencE is a property?
> * The ProblemOfUniversals
> * Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
> There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these; but many of the problems begin with these problems.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980967663
2a3,7
> '''January 31, 2001'''
> 
> I am adding a page called NobelPrize, where we can list all the winners by category, and eventually fill in with short biographies.
> 
> 
------
NobelPrize|980967770
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>I suppose we need a writeup of what the prize actually is.</i>
> 
> Nobel Prizes are awarded in the following disciplines:
> 
> /PhysicS
> 
> /ChemistrY
> 
> /PhysiologyOrMedicine
> 
> /LiteraturE
> 
> /PeacE
> 
> /EconomicSciences
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|980967950
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A full list can be found [
> http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/index.html here].
> 
> 2000 - ZhoresIAlferov, HerbertKroemer, JackSKilby
> 
> 1999 - GerardusTHooft, MartinusJGVeltman
> 
> 1998 - RobertBLaughlin, HorstLStormer, DanielCTsui
> 
> 1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
------
OntOlogy|980967962
1c1
< The most recognizably metaphysical branch of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
---
> The core of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of "ThinG," ''thing'' being used in its broadest possible sense, that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
5c5
< What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explained in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  As it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
---
> What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
12c12
< There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these; but many of the problems begin with these problems.
---
> There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these.
------
OntOlogy|980968133
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968225
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968356
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968400
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968413
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968434
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968443
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968458
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT'''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT's.
------
UsenetCabal|980968462
1a2,8
> 
> :There ''Is'' No Cabal, but there ''was'' an effective cabal in the early days of Usenet.  This group was often known as the "backbone cabal", which consisted of a number of large "backbone" sites that distributed most of the Usenet traffic.  Some of these sites paid thousands of dollars per month for the communication links servicing Usenet, often hidden in large telecommunications budgets.  (Since the late 1990s, the growth of cheap high-speed Internet connections has made a backbone organization largely unnecessary.)
> 
> :Probably the last effective action of this cabal was the non-acceptance of the newsgroup "rec.sex" (around 1990?).  The newsgroup was proposed and passed by the usual voting system.  Several major backbone administrators refused to accept that newsgroup in the otherwise-"clean" rec.* hierarchy.  The alt.sex group (and later sub-hierarchy) quickly became very popular and soon the "alt.*" hierarchy became common on many sites.  (Several sites would be reluctant to subscribe to just "alt.sex", so they would get the whole hierarchy instead.)
> 
> :Of course, some people say the cabal is just hiding...
> 
6c13
< Job done;-) - WojPob
---
> Job done;-) - WojPob
------
OntOlogy|980968470
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT's.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968499
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968508
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
OntOlogy|980968542
5c5
< What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
---
> AristotlE's What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
------
OntOlogy|980968551
5c5
< AristotlE's What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
---
> AristotlE'''''s What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
------
OntOlogy|980968575
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
5c5
< AristotlE'''''s What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
---
> What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
------
OntOlogy|980968585
3c3
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980968879
63c63,67
< '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WiKi page?'''
---
> '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WikiWiki page?'''
> 
> A. Sure, the powers-that-be simply have to make it happen.
> ----
> ''''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  But this should have created "AristotlE's" as one single link, shouldn't it have?
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980968927
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Complete list [http://www.nobel.se/economics/laureates/index.html here].
> 
> 2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
> 
> 1999 -- RobertAMundell
> 
> 1998 -- AmartyaSen
> 
> 1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
> 
> 1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
> 
> 1995 -- RobertELucasJr
> 
> 1994 -- ReinhardSelten, JohnFNashJr, JohnCHarsanyi
> 
> 1993 -- RobertWFogel, DouglasCNorth
> 
> 1992 -- GarySBecker
> 
> 1991 -- RonaldHCoase
> 
> 1990 -- HarryMMarkowitz, MertonHMiller, WilliamFSharpe
> 
> 1989 -- Trygve Haavelmo
> 
> 1988 -- MauriceAllais
> 
> 1987 -- RobertMSolow
> 
> 1986 -- JamesMBuchananJr
> 
> 1985 -- FrancoModigliani
> 
> 1984 -- RichardStone
> 
> 1983 -- GerardDebreu
> 
> 1982 -- GeorgeJStigler
> 
> 1981 -- JamesTobin
> 
> 1980 -- 
> 
> 1979 -- 
> 
> 1978 -- 
> 
> 1977 -- 
> 
> 1976 -- 
> 
> 1975 -- 
> 
> 1974 -- 
> 
> 1973 -- 
> 
> 1972 -- 
> 
> 1971 -- 
> 
> 1970 -- 
> 
> 1969 -- 
> 
------
ConsequentialIsm|980969011
8a9,22
> 
> ----
> 
> Your account of consequentialism seems a little unusual.  For starters, I don't think egoism is normally considered to be a kind of consquentialism.  For example, in ''Consequentialism and its critics'', the editor Samuel Scheffler starts off by saying that
> 
> : Consequentialism in its purest and simplest form is a moral doctrine which says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the best overall outcome, ''as judged from an impersonal standpoint which gives equal weight to the interests of everyone.'' Somewhat more precisely, we may think of a consequentialist theory of this kind as coming in two parts.  First, it gives some principle for ranking overall states of affairs ''from an impersonal standpoint'' and then it says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the highest ranked state of affairs that the agent is in a position to produce. (emphasis added).
> 
> There may be a few people who talk differently, but this certainly appears to be the standard conception of consequentialism (the less "pure" forms alluded to presumably being indirect forms of consequentialism, or views where the welfare of some individuals (but still individuals ''impersonally considered'') are considered to be more important (as in, for example, the kind of consequentialism David Brink presents in "The Separateness of Persons, Distributive Norms, and Moral Theory").
> 
> I think the same problem arises in your blurring of the distinction between consequentialist theories and deontological, or, more generally and simply, non-consequentialist theories.   It ''has'' in fact been argued, by David Cummiskey in ''Kantian consquentialism'', that although Kant was firmly against consequentialism, Kantian moral theory, "properly understood, generates an extremely compelling consequentialist normative theory".  However, I believe this is a very unusual position to take, and even if it makes sense, there is still a sensible class of positions to put up against consequentialist positions.
> 
> This class of positions is characterized by the idea that there are ''agent-relative'' or '' agent-centered'' reasons for action, whereas for consquentialism, as defined above, reasons for action are ultimately ''agent-neutral''.   Then egoism and deontology are seen as characteristically non-consequentialist.
> 
> These days it has become standard to distinguish between agent-centered ''restrictions'' and agent-centered ''prerogatives''.   I am tempted to agree, with Scheffler, that ultimately, agent-centered restrictions are difficult to defend. As you suggest against Kant, why should I not kill one innocent person if, by doing so, I can save the lives of many more innoncent persons in exactly the same objective circumstances?  On the other hand, agent-centered prerogatives seem much easier to defend, on the familiar grounds that consequentialist theories are morally too demanding.  Given the protean nature of indirect consequentialism, however, the field is very murky. --CalvinOstrum
------
WikiPediaFaq|980969037
67c67
< ''''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  But this should have created "AristotlE's" as one single link, shouldn't it have?
---
> ''''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?
------
WikiPediaFaq|980969052
67c67
< ''''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?
---
> '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
------
RequestedArticles|980969144
6a7,8
> I have created NobelPrize as a new topic.
> 
------
RequestedArticles|980969234
7c7
< I have created NobelPrize as a new topic.
---
> I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --JimboWales
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|980969617
1,2c1,2
< A full list can be found [
< http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/index.html here].
---
> A full list can be found 
> [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/index.html here].
10c10
< 1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
---
> 1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
------
ConsequentialIsm|980969643
22a23,24
> ----
> I think it's common enough to regard EgoIsm as a variety of consequentialism.  Just as data points, see [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/conseque.htm this article] and [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/users/vaughan/text/lex/defs/consequentialism.html this one].  This is how I've been taught the notion and how I taught it (as a T.A.) to Ohio State undergrads.  But, granted, it does sound a little bit strange.  I would add some sort of note, at the very least, that not everyone would consider EthicalEgoism a variety of consequentialism. -- LarrySanger
------
RequestedArticles|980969972
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- OntOlogy -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|980970239
6a7
> We're up to 617 pages.  Very many of these have substantial and what appears to be reliable information.  I predict 1,000 by February 15.  WikiPedia is growing steadily in breadth and depth.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980970570
67c67,71
< '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
---
> '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
> 
> A.  The single-quote forms of bold and italic formatting do not always do what you'd expect when they are nested.  If you are doing special forms of formatting, you may want to use the <nowiki><i> and <b></nowiki> tags like <tt><nowiki><i>this will be italic</i></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki><b>this will be bold</b></nowiki></tt>.  These tag-based forms are much easier to use than trying to remember whether to use 4, 5, or 6 single-quotes.  You can also use the tag-based forms over multiple lines of text, although this should be used sparingly.
> 
> :Could you reproduce the problem in the SandBox page?  I'll take a closer look to see if there was a bug or simply an unexpected rendering in this case.  --CliffordAdams
------
SandBox|980970804
4a5
> Problem from OntOlogy page:
5a7,9
> The core of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
> 
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
WikiPediaFaq|980970884
71a72,73
> 
> :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.'' -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaFaq|980970921
73c73
< :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.'' -- LarrySanger
---
> :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.'' -- LarrySanger
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980974325
3c3
< 2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
---
> Syntax question:  Do we want lists such as these to look like this:
5,11c5,9
< 1999 -- RobertAMundell
< 
< 1998 -- AmartyaSen
< 
< 1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
< 
< 1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
---
>  2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
>  1999 -- RobertAMundell
>  1998 -- AmartyaSen
>  1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
>  1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980974395
10a11,12
> Or like this:
> 
17a20,21
> 
>  In the first case, the list is tauter, but lines do not wrap, so if a comment it added alongside a name it will just run off the side of the page.
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980974427
3c3
< Syntax question:  Do we want lists such as these to look like this:
---
> Form question:  Do we want lists such as these to look like this:
------
EsperantoLanguage|980976179
1c1
< Removed at Request of Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
---
> 
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|980976197
2,3d1
< 
< Removed at Request of Author: <i>Oleg326756@yahoo.com -- Oleg Izyumenko</i>
------
ConsequentialIsm|980978245
24c24,28
< I think it's common enough to regard EgoIsm as a variety of consequentialism.  Just as data points, see [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/conseque.htm this article] and [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/users/vaughan/text/lex/defs/consequentialism.html this one].  This is how I've been taught the notion and how I taught it (as a T.A.) to Ohio State undergrads.  But, granted, it does sound a little bit strange.  I would add some sort of note, at the very least, that not everyone would consider EthicalEgoism a variety of consequentialism. -- LarrySanger
---
> I think it's common enough to regard EgoIsm as a variety of consequentialism.  Just as data points, see [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/conseque.htm this article] and [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/users/vaughan/text/lex/defs/consequentialism.html this one].  This is how I've been taught the notion and how I taught it (as a T.A.) to Ohio State undergrads.  But, granted, it does sound a little bit strange.  I would add some sort of note, at the very least, that not everyone would consider EthicalEgoism a variety of consequentialism. -- LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> 
> Hmm, those two citations are of very poor quality.  In looking at standard collections of recent higher-quality essays from the research literature, such as those contained in the aforementioned ''Consequentialism and its critics'', or Philip Pettit's 1993 edited volume of 26 papers, it seems to me that all of them either implicitly or explicitly assume that consequentialism ultimately countenances only agent-neutral reasons.  I think the issue of agent-neutral versus agent-relative reasons is the crucial issue here, in any case.  I think WillWilkinson is right about this, and I think the community of moral philosophers essentially agree.   Consequently, I would submit that the term "consequentialism" ''should'' only be used to refer to theories which say that ultimately only agent-neutral reasons are of import.  Consequentialism should be the view that only consequences matter.  Consequences, ''period'', not consequences for me when I act, or you when you act.  -- CalvinOstrum
------
MakeaNewPage|980980001
3c3,5
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
---
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
> 
> But why? It looks stupid and it is harder to read.
------
MakeaNewPage|980980021
5c5
< But why? It looks stupid and it is harder to read.
---
> Sonic: But why? It looks stupid and it is harder to read.
------
NewTopics|980980683
5c5
< GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG
---
> GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
------
ErnestHemingway|980980986
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hi! I have a great article about Ernest Hemingway, but unfortunately, it is too long for this page (it has about 68k in HTML). If you want to, you can have a look at it at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html and send me your comments afterwards. sonic_arcormail_de (replace first _ by @ and the other one by . to mail me)
------
ErnestHemingway|980981026
1c1
< Hi! I have a great article about Ernest Hemingway, but unfortunately, it is too long for this page (it has about 68k in HTML). If you want to, you can have a look at it at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html and send me your comments afterwards. sonic_arcormail_de (replace first _ by @ and the other one by . to mail me)
---
> Hi! I have a great article about Ernest Hemingway, but unfortunately, it is too long for this page (it has about 68k in HTML). If you want to, you can have a look at it at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html and help me make it shorter. sonic_arcormail_de (replace first _ by @ and the other one by . to mail me)
------
RoseParks|980983668
16a17,18
> ----
> Perhaps, JimmyWales, can help you there. :-).
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|980985622
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.  Fnord.
------
ErnestHemingway|980985774
1a2,11
> 
> ----
> 
> Long articles should be divided into sections, and sections should be on different pages, possibly like this:
> 
>  /FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster
>  /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
> 
> If you break the article down into sections and place those on different pages, there will be no problem with having it be too long for this page.
> 
------
GreeK|980986438
6c6
< ''See also'':  GreekLanguage
---
> ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicGreece, GreekMythology
------
CryptanalysiS|980987088
9c9
< text, such as a letter beginning with "Dear Sir" or a computer session starting with "LOG IN." The last category represents the most favourable situation for the cryptanalyst in which he can
---
> text, such as a letter beginning with "Dear Sir" or a computer session starting with "LOG IN." The last category represents the most favourable situation for the CryptanalysT in which he can
18a19,24
> ----
> Famous attacks:
> 
> * EnigmA
> 
> * DeCss
------
MakeaNewPage|980987343
4c4
< 
---
> ----
5a6,7
> ----
> If you mean the convention of capitalizing one of the letters inside or at the end of a word, it's part of how the software works.  Last I heard, we're trying to rewrite the software so we can indicate links [[like this]] instead of LikeThis.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980987370
31c31,35
< Blah blah AlexanderTheGreat, Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
---
> From 492-449 BC the Persians made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer Greece.  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the Middle East, consisting of numerous small city-states.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
> 
> By the fourth century Persia had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of XenoPhon illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organized along Greek lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in 338 the rising power of Macedonia overcame Greece, and under AlexanderTheGreat turned its attention to conquering Persia.  In little more than a decade the empire was conquered.
> 
> Blah blah Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|980987531
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.  Fnord.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
------
HistoryOfLevant|980987854
31c31
< From 492-449 BC the Persians made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer Greece.  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the Middle East, consisting of numerous small city-states.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
---
> From 492-449 BC the Persians made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer Greece.  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the Middle East, consisting of numerous small city-states fielding citizen militiae.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
33c33
< By the fourth century Persia had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of XenoPhon illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organized along Greek lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in 338 the rising power of Macedonia overcame Greece, and under AlexanderTheGreat turned its attention to conquering Persia.  In little more than a decade the empire was conquered.
---
> By the fourth century Persia had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of XenoPhon illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organized along Greek lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in 338 BC the rising power of Macedonia overcame Greece, and under AlexanderTheGreat turned its attention eastward.  Persia was conquered in little more than a decade.
35c35,37
< Blah blah Seleucus, Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
---
> Alexander did not live long enough to conciliate his realm, and in the half-century following his death (323) it was carved up by his feuding generals.  The Antigonids established themselves in Macedonia, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and various small principalities appeared in northern Anatolia.  The greater share of the east went to the descendents of SeleucusNicator.  This period saw great innovations in mathematics, science, architecture, and the like, and Greeks founded cities throughout the east, which grew to be the world's first major metropolises.  Their culture did not, however, reach very far into the countryside.
> 
> Blah blah Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
------
NobelPrize/ChemistrY|980988216
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2000- AlanJHeeger, AlanGMacDiarmid, HidekiShirakawa 
------
NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|980988284
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2000 - ArvidCarlsson, PaulGreengard, EricKandel 
------
NobelPrize/LiteraturE|980988312
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2000 - GaoXingjian 
------
ConsequentialIsm|980988314
28a29,30
> ----
> I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there are ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean the broader concept than the way your sources use it, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
------
NobelPrize/PeacE|980988353
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2000 - KimDaeJung 
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980988394
21c21
<  In the first case, the list is tauter, but lines do not wrap, so if a comment it added alongside a name it will just run off the side of the page.
---
> In the first case, the list is tauter, but lines do not wrap, so if a comment it added alongside a name it will just run off the side of the page.
68a69,86
> ----
> Other choices for lists include:
> 
> *2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
> *1999 -- RobertAMundell
> *1998 -- AmartyaSen  (Here is some sample long text that goes on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and so forth and longer until it will wrap around on almost anyone's browser.)
> *1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
> *1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
> 
> or even:
> 
> :2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
> :1999 -- RobertAMundell
> :1998 -- AmartyaSen  (Here is some sample long text that goes on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and so forth and longer until it will wrap around on almost anyone's browser.)
> :1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
> :1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
> 
> ...Both of which will wrap nicely.
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|980988601
86a87,88
> ---- 
> I'd say we should go for any of the wraping versions. if a text does not wrap it is too much a hassle for the reader. -- WojPob
------
SovietUnion|980989540
5c5
< The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPeacePrize.
---
> The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPrize.
------
EsperantoLanguage|980989805
0a1
> Until someone who knows about the topic decides to replace what was taken down, this'll keep the page from being empty.
1a3,16
> World's most-spoken ArtificialLanguage.  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An InflectedLanguage, with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off RomanceLanguages, spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
> 
>    ''esperi''             To hope
>    ''esperas''            Am, are, is hoping
>    ''esperis''            Was, were hoping
>    ''esperos''            Will be hoping
> 
>    ''esperanto(n)''       Hoper - nominative (accusative) noun
>    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun
>    ''esperanta(n)''       Hoper's - nominative (accusative) adjective
>    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hopers' - nominative (accusative) adjective
> 
>    ''esperantino''        Hoper, female
>    ''esperantujo''        Land of hopers
------
ConsequentialIsm|980990775
30c30
< I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there are ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean the broader concept than the way your sources use it, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
---
> I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there is ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean a broader concept than that meant by your sources, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  (While perhaps also acknowledging some popular distaste for one of the uses of the term.)  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
------
ConsequentialIsm|980991547
30c30,34
< I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there is ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean a broader concept than that meant by your sources, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  (While perhaps also acknowledging some popular distaste for one of the uses of the term.)  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
---
> I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there is ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean a broader concept than that meant by your sources, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  (While perhaps also acknowledging some popular distaste for one of the uses of the term.)  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> 
> Suit yourself. I don't expect much in an "encylopedia" run by Objectivists!   -- CalvinOstrum
------
ConsequentialIsm|980995836
3c3
< Consequentialism is sometimes conflated with UtilitarianIsm, which is a mistake, as UtilitarianIsm is but one kind of consequentialism. Kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the subject who is supposed to enjoy the consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" EgoIsm can be understood as individualist consequentialism according to which the consequences for the agent herself is taken to matter most. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, can be understood as collectivist consequentialism according to which the consequences for some large group (humanity perhaps, or the sum of sentient beings) is of the greatest moment. These views, while both consequentialist, can be in stark contrast. Individualist consequentialism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are deleterious to general welfare. Collectivist consequentialism may license actions that are good for the collectivity but deadly for individuals. Some environmentalists seem to take the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant patient of consequences. The entire universe might be the subject, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
---
> Consequentialism is sometimes conflated with UtilitarianIsm, which is a mistake, as UtilitarianIsm is but one kind of consequentialism. Kinds of consequentialism--in a broad sense of 'consequentialism' that not all philosophers would countenance--can be distinguished by the subject who is supposed to enjoy the consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" EgoIsm can be understood as individualist consequentialism according to which the consequences for the agent herself is taken to matter most. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, can be understood as collectivist consequentialism according to which the consequences for some large group (humanity perhaps, or the sum of sentient beings) is of the greatest moment. These views, while both consequentialist, can be in stark contrast. Individualist consequentialism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are deleterious to general welfare. Collectivist consequentialism may license actions that are good for the collectivity but deadly for individuals. Some environmentalists seem to take the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant patient of consequences. The entire universe might be the subject, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.
34c34,36
< Suit yourself. I don't expect much in an "encylopedia" run by Objectivists!   -- CalvinOstrum
---
> Suit yourself. I don't expect much in an "encylopedia" run by Objectivists!   -- CalvinOstrum
> ----
> Just for the record, I don't regard myself as an Objectivist, and I will do my best not to let it be overrun by them.  :-)  Not that I have any serious beefs with Objectivists.  This wiki will become whatever its participants make it.  --LarrySanger
------
ConsequentialIsm|980998058
28a29
> 
29a31
> 
34a37
> 
36c39,44
< Just for the record, I don't regard myself as an Objectivist, and I will do my best not to let it be overrun by them.  :-)  Not that I have any serious beefs with Objectivists.  This wiki will become whatever its participants make it.  --LarrySanger
---
> 
> Just for the record, I don't regard myself as an Objectivist, and I will do my best not to let it be overrun by them.  :-)  Not that I have any serious beefs with Objectivists.  This wiki will become whatever its participants make it.  --LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> 
> You are at least a Fellow Traveller, as WillWilkinson seems also to be.  -- CalvinOstrum
------
ConsequentialIsm|981000319
44a45,48
> 
> ----
> 
> Maybe--but officially, I hold no views.  ;-) -- LarrySanger
------
AtlasShrugged/OwenKellogg|981001455
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the soory state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
> 
>  Owen Kellogg appears in:
>  /SectioN112 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/OwenKellogg|981001468
1c1
< Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the soory state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the soory state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
------
AtlasShrugged/OwenKellogg|981001486
1c1
< Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the soory state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
------
AtlasShrugged/OwenKellogg|981001512
1c1
< Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
------
AtlasShrugged/PaulLarkin|981001876
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn /HankRearden of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down.  /JamesTaggart knows he is friends with /HankRearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
> 
>  Paul Larkin appears in:
>   /SectioN121
>   /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/PhilipRearden|981002163
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of /HankRearden.  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhilipRearden|981002197
1c1,4
< Philip Rearden is the younger brother of /HankRearden.  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of /HankRearden.  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
> 
>  Philip Rearden appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardensMother|981002328
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /HankRearden's mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with Rearden at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
> 
>  Rearden's mother appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/WesleyMouch|981002443
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A member of the /Looters and /HankRearden's man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
> 
>  Wesley Mouch appears in:
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981002599
8a9
>  /JohnGalt
------
AtlasShrugged/JohnGalt|981002744
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
> 
> There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer will ask, "Who is John Galt."
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|981003055
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for their very existence.
> 
> The leader of the Strikers is /JohnGalt.
> 
> Other /Strikers include:
>  /FranciscoDAnconia
>  /RagnarDanneskjold
>  /RichardHalley
> 
> Characters who join the /Strikers in th course of the book include:
>  /HankRearden
>  /DagnyTaggart
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|981003120
1c1
< The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for their very existence.
---
> The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence.
10c10
< Characters who join the /Strikers in th course of the book include:
---
> Characters who join the /Strikers in the course of the book include:
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981003271
86a87,94
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't want to be a wet blanket, but I don't think a wiki is appropriate for a project like this. If your emphasis is on fast growth of the page database, you totally break all the existing structural systems of the wiki. For instance, RecentChanges is no longer functional. Secondly, wikis exist in a very [http://www.longnow.org long now]. You have time to consider what you add. A repository of information should be like this, I think. Encyclopaedia were invented by the Romans to summarize what the Greeks had taken centuries to come up with. Indeed, the Romans didn't derive much new; just bad summaries. Meanwhile, the Greeks were still chugging along deriving new things. 
> 
> It's more interesting to layer in more information, not just collect it, and then interpret the information. Wikis help you to '''collate''' the information into a reasonable order, and '''connect''' the information to '''derive''' new insights. These are valuable contributions--mere collection can be achieved through Google. But it takes time to resolve information. So, you have to move slower.
> 
> Quality is better than quantity. In my opinion, anyway. -- SunirShah
------
AtlasShrugged|981003434
2a3,4
> Readers should be warned that Atlas Shurgged is a mystery novel, and that this section and its numerous subsections contain a vast amount of information that will spoil the mystery.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnysFather|981005787
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to /JamesTaggart.  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
> 
> Dagny's father is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981005792
94a95,104
> 
> ----
> 
> Too late!  We've already started!  :-)
> 
> I personally am very sympathetic with what you say here; I think quality is very important.  But if you look around, you'll see that quite a few pages here are of surprisingly good quality.  This suprises even me and I'm the one who pushed Jimbo to set up this wiki, and I am promoting it on NuPedia.  Perhaps you should have a look at NuPedia and see if that's more along the lines of what you would like to see; I suspect so.
> 
> One could plausibly argue against the substance of what you have to say above, though: the best way toward quality is, indeed, to open things wide and let many people participate and improve what's here.  Personally, I don't know if that's a very good argument; it's an empirical question, whether this sort of thing can work in the long run.  But I wouldn't be surprised if it didn't.
> 
> Actually, we're just having fun, or I am.  WikiPedia is sort of a break from the more serious business of NuPedia for me.  But it might end up being a very valuable resource in itself.  Frankly, it doesn't much matter if it doesn't turn out to be a very valuable resource!  Regardless, we will have taught each other quite a lot.  I mean, I've already learned a fair bit just reading other people's articles! -- LarrySanger
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981005843
102c102
< One could plausibly argue against the substance of what you have to say above, though: the best way toward quality is, indeed, to open things wide and let many people participate and improve what's here.  Personally, I don't know if that's a very good argument; it's an empirical question, whether this sort of thing can work in the long run.  But I wouldn't be surprised if it didn't.
---
> One could plausibly argue against the substance of what you have to say above, though: the best way toward quality is, indeed, to open things wide and let many people participate and improve what's here.  Personally, I don't know if that's a very good argument; it's an empirical question, whether this sort of thing can work in the long run.  But I wouldn't be surprised if it did.
------
AtlasShrugged/EngineeR|981005911
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When /DagnyTaggart wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
AtlasShrugged/EngineeR|981005929
1c1
< EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When /DagnyTaggart wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
---
> /EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When /DagnyTaggart wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
AtlasShrugged/FiremaN|981006144
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /FiremaN appears briefly in /SectioN112.  While /DagnyTaggart is trying to find out why the /TaggartComet has stalled, /FiremaN shows his amusement at how things like this happen.
------
AtlasShrugged/MrAyers|981006405
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /MrAyers is the head of the /AyersMusicPublishingCompany.  In /Section114 /DagnyTaggart calls him to inquire if /RichardHalley has written a fifth concerto.
>  
------
AtlasShrugged/MrAyers|981006421
1c1
< /MrAyers is the head of the /AyersMusicPublishingCompany.  In /Section114 /DagnyTaggart calls him to inquire if /RichardHalley has written a fifth concerto.
---
> /MrAyers is the head of the /AyersMusicPublishingCompany.  In /SectioN114 /DagnyTaggart calls him to inquire if /RichardHalley has written a fifth concerto.
------
AtlasShrugged|981006462
22a23
> * /Technology
------
AtlasShrugged|981007098
10a11,16
> Setting: 
> 
> Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, or television.
> 
> Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the /UnitedStates.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged|981007121
11c11
< Setting: 
---
> <b>Setting:</b>
------
AtlasShrugged/Technology|981007230
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Real-world technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
>  Airplanes
>  Automobile
>  Diesel engines
>  Phonograph records
>  Radio
>  Telephone
> 
> </b>Fictional technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
>  /ReardenMetal
------
AtlasShrugged/Technology|981007239
9c9
< </b>Fictional technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
---
> <b>Fictional technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
------
AtlasShrugged/Technology|981007251
1c1
< <b>Real-world technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
---
> <b>Real-world technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
9c9
< <b>Fictional technology in /AtlasShrugged:</b>
---
> <b>Fictional technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsNathanielTaggart|981007507
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.
------
AtlasShrugged/NathanielTaggart|981007926
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A character meant to symbolize the so-called RobberBarons of America's industrial age.
> 
> Nat Taggart was the founder of /TaggartTranscontinental.  He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit.  He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country.  Many stories are told about him: that he once killed a state legislator who tried to use his office to destroy the railroad; that he once put his wife up as collateral for a loan.  He never earned money by force or fraud, and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful.  He was one of the most hated men of his time.
> 
> Nathaniel Taggart is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber1|981007986
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /Section112, the man who tells /DagnyTaggart how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber1|981008006
1c1
< In /Section112, the man who tells /DagnyTaggart how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
---
> In /SectioN112, the man who tells /DagnyTaggart how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber2|981008221
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A passenger on the /TaggartComet in /SectioN112.  He is talking with /ConductoR, /FiremaN, and /EngineeR when /DagnyTaggart approaches to find out why the train has stopped.  When she acts as if this sort of problem is unusual and shouldn't happen, he tells her she doesn't understand railroads.
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|981008305
4a5,6
> Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber3|981008461
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden ha sproudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber4|981008544
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule Rearden in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber3|981008559
1c1
< An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden ha sproudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
---
> An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
------
AtlasShrugged/WaiteR|981008606
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Serves drinks to the /Looters in /SectioN131.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981008648
20a21
>  /Strikers
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|981008720
10a11,12
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EllisWyatt
12c14,15
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  /McNamara
>  /OwenKellogg
------
AtlasShrugged/JohnGalt|981008749
3c3
< There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer will ask, "Who is John Galt."
---
> There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981008787
23c23
< 
---
> ----
------
EsperantoLanguage|981008932
3c3
< World's most-spoken ArtificialLanguage.  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An InflectedLanguage, with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off RomanceLanguages, spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
---
> Most-spoken of the ArtificialLanguages.  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An InflectedLanguage, with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off RomanceLanguages, spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
16c16,18
<    ''esperantujo''        Land of hopers
---
>    ''esperantujo''        Land of hopers
> 
> There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981009089
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango regulated out of business.
> 
> The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenCoal|981009149
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A business founded by /HankRearden prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenLimestone|981009165
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A business founded by /HankRearden prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenOre|981009193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first business founded by /HankRearden.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|981009338
20a21
>  /Pennsylvania
------
AtlasShrugged/Pennsylvania|981009484
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Home of /ReardenSteel.  A newspaper ridiculed Rearden for starting a steel company, claiming "The historical cycle of steelmaking in Pennsylvania is running down."
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenSteel|981009684
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A company founded by /HankRearden.  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As /DagnyTaggart struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
> 
> Rearden Stell is mention in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
------
AtlasShrugged/UnitedLocomotiveWorks|981009907
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to /TaggartTranscontinental.  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
> 
> The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|981009927
9c9
<  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks (/SectioN133)
---
>  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOil|981010271
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The oil company run by /EllisWyatt.  Ellis Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
> 
> Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, Ellis Wyatt started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted /JamesTaggart to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
------
HalleysFifthConcerto|981010517
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /BrakemaN says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
> 
> Later, Dagny calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
> 
> Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981010544
2c2
<  HalleysFifthConcerto (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
---
>  /HalleysFifthConcerto (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto|981010552
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /BrakemaN says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
> 
> Later, Dagny calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
> 
> Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN114
------
HalleysFifthConcerto|981010574
1,7c1
< When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /BrakemaN says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
< 
< Later, Dagny calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
< 
< Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN114
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981010591
3,5c3,5
<  NationalAllianceofRailroads (/SectioN131)
<  NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (/SectioN131)
<  ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, /SectioN121, /SectioN131)
---
>  /NationalAllianceofRailroads (/SectioN131)
>  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (/SectioN131)
>  /ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, /SectioN121, /SectioN131)
8,10c8,10
<  SanSebastianMines (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
<  TaggartComet (/SectioN112, /SectioN113)
<  WyattOilFields (/SectioN111)
---
>  /SanSebastianMines (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
>  /TaggartComet (/SectioN112, /SectioN113)
>  /WyattOilFields (/SectioN111)
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalAllianceofRailroads|981010768
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An industry group that uses political pull to get its way.  /OrrenBoyle has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support legislation that will help ruin a competitor of /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> The National Alliance of Railroads if mentioned in:
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries|981010851
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. /JamesTaggart has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt /ReardenSteel and help /AssociatedSteel.
>  
> The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in: 
> 
>  /SectioN131
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalAllianceofRailroads|981010864
3,4c3,4
< The National Alliance of Railroads if mentioned in:
<  /SectioN131
---
> The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN131
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981011244
104c104,109
< Actually, we're just having fun, or I am.  WikiPedia is sort of a break from the more serious business of NuPedia for me.  But it might end up being a very valuable resource in itself.  Frankly, it doesn't much matter if it doesn't turn out to be a very valuable resource!  Regardless, we will have taught each other quite a lot.  I mean, I've already learned a fair bit just reading other people's articles! -- LarrySanger
---
> Actually, we're just having fun, or I am.  WikiPedia is sort of a break from the more serious business of NuPedia for me.  But it might end up being a very valuable resource in itself.  Frankly, it doesn't much matter if it doesn't turn out to be a very valuable resource!  Regardless, we will have taught each other quite a lot.  I mean, I've already learned a fair bit just reading other people's articles! -- LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> Personally, I think wiki is a perfect tool for collection information, if only because of the ease of editing text.  That way information can go in quickly, and get validated or added to as necessary, without a lot of overhead.
> 
> I would say that SunirShah is wrong about this breaking the structure of wiki.  Rather, I think what it does is break the ''culture'' of wiki, and thus the old structure can't serve properly in their old roles.  But there's nothing to stop WikiPedia from developing its own style, with things like RecentChanges filling different niches.  And in fact, as much as I like wiki, I would say that's a good thing.  -- JoshuaGrosse
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981011317
109c109,111
< I would say that SunirShah is wrong about this breaking the structure of wiki.  Rather, I think what it does is break the ''culture'' of wiki, and thus the old structure can't serve properly in their old roles.  But there's nothing to stop WikiPedia from developing its own style, with things like RecentChanges filling different niches.  And in fact, as much as I like wiki, I would say that's a good thing.  -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> I would say that SunirShah is wrong about this breaking the structure of wiki.  Rather, I think what it does is break the ''culture'' of wiki, and thus the old structure can't serve properly in their old roles.  But there's nothing to stop WikiPedia from developing its own style, with things like RecentChanges filling different niches.  And in fact, as much as I like wiki, I would say that's a good thing.
> 
> Admittedly, though, Sunir has a lot more experience with wiki than I do. -- JoshuaGross
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981011334
111c111
< Admittedly, though, Sunir has a lot more experience with wiki than I do. -- JoshuaGross
---
> Admittedly, though, Sunir has a lot more experience with wiki than I do. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|981011469
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A metal alloy invented by /HankRearden.  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as bluish-green.
> 
> Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, /DagnyTaggart places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
> 
> The first thing made from Rearden Metal is a /Bracelet.
> 
> Rearden Metal appears in:
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981011512
2,5c2,5
<  /HalleysFifthConcerto (/SectioN112, /SectioN114)
<  /NationalAllianceofRailroads (/SectioN131)
<  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (/SectioN131)
<  /ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, /SectioN121, /SectioN131)
---
>  /HalleysFifthConcerto
>  /NationalAllianceofRailroads
>  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries
>  /ReardenMetal
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981011530
0a1
>  /Bracelet
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|981011636
1c1
< A metal alloy invented by /HankRearden.  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as bluish-green.
---
> A metal alloy invented by /HankRearden.  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as greenish-blue.
10c10
<  /SectioN131
---
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/Bracelet|981011850
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by /HankRearden's long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
> 
> Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, /DagnyTaggart offers to buy it from her.
------
AtlasShrugged/Bracelet|981011892
3c3,6
< Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, /DagnyTaggart offers to buy it from her.
---
> Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, /DagnyTaggart offers to buy it from her.
> 
> The bracelet appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981012177
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  /JamesTaggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the /SanSebastianLine, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
> 
> The San Sebastian Mines appear in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981012208
1c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  /JamesTaggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the /SanSebastianLine, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartComet|981012330
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Taggart Comet is /TaggartTranscontinental's flagship train.  It runs from /NewYork to /SanFrancisco and has never been late.
> 
> The Taggart Comet appears in:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN113
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOilFields|981012454
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Wyatt Oil Fields are in Colorado.  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by /EllisWyatt.  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of Colorado.
> 
> The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in:
>  /SectioN111
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981012478
9,11c9,11
<  /SanSebastianMines (/SectioN111, /SectioN131, /SectioN132)
<  /TaggartComet (/SectioN112, /SectioN113)
<  /WyattOilFields (/SectioN111)
---
>  /SanSebastianMines
>  /TaggartComet
>  /WyattOilFields
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981013358
105a106,107
> I think NuPedia is really good. I can see what you mean about this being a play area, though, but I think you might also benefit from a few other things that you can propogate back to NuPedia, like maybe MeatBall:BackLink""ing, MeatBall:AccidentalLink""ing, MeatBall:SoftSecurity, etc. That would be really cool. -- SunirShah
> 
111a114,119
> 
> I think that the rhythm will settle down in a few months. Right now, the excitement has outstripped the technology, as you have noticed from the UgLy links that are being made. Free-form linking may not be a bad idea here, but more thinking about naming conventions may be better.
> 
> I've been thinking lately about the differences between the technology of the wiki, the culture of a wiki, and the medium of a wiki. I'm fairly certain the culture of a wiki is necessary to keep it stable. Hence, MeatBall:SoftSecurity. But I'm interested in other successful models. Right now, I'm certain what's happening here is not good. It will hurt you in a year.
> 
> One thing to keep in mind. There are two audiences to write for on a wiki: the one today and the one five years from now. -- SunirShah
------
TimShell/TimeLine|981014437
3a4
>  - /Date010131
------
TimShell/Date010131|981014774
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On Wednesday, January 31, 2001, TimShell got his hair cut.  He also lifted weights for 15 minutes at /FitnessWest.  As is generally the case, he could not sleep after lifting weights (he is no longer baffled by this apparent paradox).  And so he stayed up late into the night doing all manner of wiki-related things.  Additionally on this day, TimShell broiled two turkey breast filets; he anticipated having turkey for breakfast and lunch the following day.  TimShell's stock were down 1.8% on the vigorous selloff the followed the Fed's bullish lowering of interest rates by 50 basis points.  TimShell is considering buying into this weakness, and has his eyes on Intel and Cisco, and the S&P 500 Index (SPY).
------
AnchorageAlaska|981014825
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, comprising approximately half of the state's population.  Anchorage is situated in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
> 
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
> 
> Average summer temperatures are, approximately, 60-75 degrees Fahrenheit; average winter temperatures are about 0-20 degrees.  The weather on any given day and for entire seasons can be extremely unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures; others, just a foot or two of snow and constant and annoying (to residents) thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This forces Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days; then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  For months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return in the dark.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
> 
> Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.
> 
> Following the massive 1964 GoodFridayEarthquake, there was set a limit on height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers.
> 
> There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
------
AnchorageAlaska|981016624
1c1
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, comprising approximately half of the state's population.  Anchorage is situated in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is situated in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
3c3
< Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
---
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
5c5
< Average summer temperatures are, approximately, 60-75 degrees Fahrenheit; average winter temperatures are about 0-20 degrees.  The weather on any given day and for entire seasons can be extremely unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures; others, just a foot or two of snow and constant and annoying (to residents) thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This forces Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days; then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  For months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return in the dark.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
---
> Average summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days; then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return in the dark.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
7c7
< Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.
---
> Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in Alaska, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.
9c9
< Following the massive 1964 GoodFridayEarthquake, there was set a limit on height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers.
---
> Following the massive 1964 GoodFridayEarthquake, there was set a limit on height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high, but the city nonetheless has an attractive skyline, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers.  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
11c11,15
< There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
---
> There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
> 
> There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent earthquakes; erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs, a downtown skyline, etc.
> 
> For more information, see the website of the [Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau http://www.anchorage.net/] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
------
AlaskA|981016660
1c1
< Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (over 250,000 last time I checked).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
---
> Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
------
AnchorageAlaska|981017416
1c1
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is situated in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
3c3
< Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
---
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
5c5
< Average summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days; then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return in the dark.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
7c7
< Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in Alaska, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.
---
> Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in Alaska generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of AlaskA.)
9c9
< Following the massive 1964 GoodFridayEarthquake, there was set a limit on height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high, but the city nonetheless has an attractive skyline, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers.  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
---
> There was a massive, incredibly destructive EarthQuake in 1964 called the GoodFridayEarthquake, and the earthquake danger has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  But the city has an attractive skyline nonetheless, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city).  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
11c11
< There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
---
> There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of the flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
13c13
< There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent earthquakes; erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs, a downtown skyline, etc.
---
> There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("ChinookWinds"); erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others, that have coated the city with ash); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs (and two sizable actual suburbs, EagleRiver and ChugiaK), a downtown skyline, etc.
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981017506
119c119,121
< One thing to keep in mind. There are two audiences to write for on a wiki: the one today and the one five years from now. -- SunirShah
---
> One thing to keep in mind. There are two audiences to write for on a wiki: the one today and the one five years from now. -- SunirShah
> ----
> I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981017561
121c121
< I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-)  Who and what will be hurt in a year?  Suppose no one is interested in WikiPedia in one year.  So what?  Who cares? -- LarrySanger
------
RequestedArticles|981017757
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- AnchorageAlaska -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
------
NewTopics|981017813
5c5
< GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
---
> AnchorageAlaska -- GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
------
UnitedStates|981017933
1,7d0
< The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
< 
< ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
< 
< - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
< 
< 
12a6
> * USStandardOfLiving
------
USStandardOfLiving|981017941
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
> 
> ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
> 
> - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
------
UnitedStates|981017965
6c6
< * USStandardOfLiving
---
> * /StandardOfLiving
------
USStandardOfLiving|981017997
1,5c1
< The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
< 
< ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
< 
< - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
---
> See UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981018012
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
> 
> ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
> 
> - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981020745
121c121,126
< I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-)  Who and what will be hurt in a year?  Suppose no one is interested in WikiPedia in one year.  So what?  Who cares? -- LarrySanger
---
> I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-)  Who and what will be hurt in a year?  Suppose no one is interested in WikiPedia in one year.  So what?  Who cares? -- LarrySanger
> 
> Seconded!  In fact, I think it is almost necessary that this early growth should be unsustainable.  The first thing that should happen to an encyclopedia is a filling in of all the easy, broad topics, and obviously that can't continue indefinitely.  Nor should it.  Once a competent review of physics appears, it makes ''sense'' that writing in that field should die off, even though it was really fun to those who participated in it.
> 
> After that wikipedia might settle in to a long, slow expansion, where new topics are mostly things like biographies and book reviews.  At that point people might lose interest.  But by then they'd already have surveyed out most of the simple topics, hopefully enjoying themselves and creating some text of value.  I don't think its any great tragedy the community doesn't last beyond the stated goals of wikipedia. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
------
SetTheory|981032143
73a74,78
> COMMENT: The cardinals (constructed using AC) are linearly ordered (in fact well ordered for obvious reasons).  
> Under the above sort of definition, one loses the ability to say `either |X| <= |Y| or else |X| >= |Y|' 
> where <= and >= denote the usual cardinal inequalities.  This doesn't help its cause as an `intuitive' measure
> of `infinity size'.
> 
------
SetTheory|981034552
78a79,82
> COMMENT: One does not "lose the ability to say" this. What is
> true is that it cannot be proved without AC that any two cardinals are comparable. This is not to say that the cardinals
> cannot be defined without AC. 
> 
------
RequestedArticles|981049017
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
------
LudovicLazarusZamenhof|981051699
1c1
< 
---
> Inventor of EsperantoLanguage.
------
EnroN|981054351
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Enron is an energy and communications company based in HoustoN, TexaS.  Enron is involved in the transportation of natural gas through pipelines to markets throughout the United States; the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity to markets in the northwestern United States; the marketing of natural gas, electricity and other commodities and related risk management and finance services worldwide; the development, construction and operation of power plants, pipelines and other energy related assets worldwide; and the development of an intelligent network platform to provide bandwidth management services and deliver high bandwidth applications. The Company also offers broadband intermediation and content services development.
> 
> According to FortuneMagazine Enron is the 62nd largest company in the world.  Enron was named "America's Most Innovative Company" by Fortune for five consecutive years, from 1996-2000.  It was #24 on Fortune's "100 Best Companies to Work for in America" list of 2000.
> 
> Enron's CEO is KenLay.  Its COO is Jeffrey Skilling.
> 
> Enron headquarters are located at Enron Building, 1400 Smith Street, Houston, TX 77002.
------
EnroN|981054381
5c5
< Enron's CEO is KenLay.  Its COO is Jeffrey Skilling.
---
> Enron's CEO is KenLay.  Its COO is JeffreySkilling.
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055299
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> State Street Corporation is a bank holding company and is one of the world's leading specialists in serving institutional investors. State Street provides a full range of products and services for portfolios of investment assets. State Street focuses its services on institutional investors and investment management. Its customers include mutual funds and other collective investment funds, corporate and public pension funds, corporations, unions and not-for-profit organizations.
> 
> State Street employs over 17,000 people worldwide, more than one third of whom work in IT.  State Street's GlobalLink intranet by financial institutions all over the world to transfer funds and track capital flows.
> 
> State Street Corporation has been in business since 1792 and is one of the oldest companies in the United States.
> 
>  Resources:
>  (http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from WiredMagazine)
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055333
7a8
>  <http://www.statestreet.com/, State Street home page>
------
SetTheory|981055342
73a74,77
> RESPONSE: What makes you think these equivalence classes actually exist within the framework of ZF?  I think the following proves they don't.  Take the equivalence class C containing {{}} and apply the axiom of unions to get a set U.  Then for any set X, {X} is in C and so X is a member of U.  In other words, U is ''a set of all sets'' which is well-known to be impossible within ZF.
> 
> That's not to say the cardinals don't exist, just that they can't be constructed in ZF, unless you use an alternate technique.  The standard alternate technique is to choose some representative from each equivalence class, typically the ordinals.  But I don't think its easy to do this if the ordinals don't hit every set, which they can't if trichotomy of cardinals doesn't hold. --JG
> 
88a93,94
> 
> RESPONSE: I should have been a little more specific.  I meant distinct cardinality in the narrow sense, where it is being defined in terms of ordinals.  My point was that, though every infinte set you will ever build can be put into 1-to-1 correspondence with the natural numbers or something built by power-setting them, there must be other sets if the generalized continuum hypothesis is false, and ZF-AC asserts that it is.  However, I'm not entirely sure that the 1-to-1 correspondences can be constructed without AC, so this might be a mistake on my part.  I would ''love'' any info on that.
------
SetTheory|981055407
7c7
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets Typo here for "all of the sets". The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
---
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in all of the sets. The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055416
8,9c8,10
<  <http://www.statestreet.com/, State Street home page>
<  (http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from WiredMagazine)
---
> 
>  [http://www.statestreet.com/, State Street home page]
>  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from WiredMagazine]
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055429
10c10
<  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from WiredMagazine]
---
>  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from Wired Magazine]
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055446
9,10c9,10
<  [http://www.statestreet.com/, State Street home page]
<  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html, An article from Wired Magazine]
---
>  [http://www.statestreet.com/ State Street home page]
>  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html An article from Wired Magazine]
------
StateStreetCorporation|981055480
3c3
< State Street employs over 17,000 people worldwide, more than one third of whom work in IT.  State Street's GlobalLink intranet by financial institutions all over the world to transfer funds and track capital flows.
---
> State Street employs over 17,000 people worldwide, more than one third of whom work in IT.  State Street's GlobalLink intranet is used by financial institutions all over the world to transfer funds and track capital flows.
------
PhiloSophy|981056509
14c14
< '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals
---
> '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981056581
5c5,11
< - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
---
> - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
> 
> ----
> 
> I assume you are referring to (your) claim about the standard of living in the United States.  Do you really think you can just look up a "fact" like that in an almanac?  Get real! 
> 
> On the other hand, you can certainly look up the fact that Canada has been ranked number one on the United Nations Human Development Index for about six years running.  However, does ''that'' mean that ''Canada'' has the highest standard of living in the world?  No, of course not, although anyone without ideological blinkers on would be hard pressed to rank any countries higher, providing that climate was ignored. 
------
TheProblemOfOtherMinds|981056586
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The problem of other minds is the problem of determining how we know that there are minds associated with the bodies we see walking around among us.
> ----
> ''I wrote the above to demonstrate the WikiWiki concept to someone.''
------
AnchorageAlaska|981056777
5c5
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "/TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
15c15
< For more information, see the website of the [Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau http://www.anchorage.net/] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
---
> For more information, see the website of the [Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau http://www.anchorage.net/] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
------
AnchorageAlaska|981056824
5c5
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "/TheBush" than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see AlaskA/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981057207
9c9
< I assume you are referring to (your) claim about the standard of living in the United States.  Do you really think you can just look up a "fact" like that in an almanac?  Get real! 
---
> I assume you are referring to the claim about the standard of living in the United States.  I would politely take issue with the notion that one can simply look up a "fact" like that in an almanac.
11c11,13
< On the other hand, you can certainly look up the fact that Canada has been ranked number one on the United Nations Human Development Index for about six years running.  However, does ''that'' mean that ''Canada'' has the highest standard of living in the world?  No, of course not, although anyone without ideological blinkers on would be hard pressed to rank any countries higher, providing that climate was ignored. 
---
> As a counterpoint, it is worth pointing out that Canada has been ranked number one on the United Nations Human Development Index for about six years running.  I would not claim that this means that ''Canada'' has the highest standard of living in the world, however.
> ----
> ''LarrySanger edited the above two paragraphs, doing his part to try to keep this wiki civil.  :-)''
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981059300
2a3,6
> '''February 1, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981059357
6a7,8
> I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. -- LarrySanger
> 
------
SetTheory|981060271
25c25,28
<    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.
---
>    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.  
> 
> ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?''
> 
74a78,79
> 
> ''Except for the fact that you have ignored the phrase "of minimal rank".  Not all singleton sets {X} are sets '''of minimal rank''' equivalent to {{}}.  (Let's see how horribly messy we can make this page...)''
------
CityBerlin|981061508
4c4
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. 
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. The bavarian Capital in this time was Munich, which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT"
------
CityBerlin|981062622
4c4,8
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. The bavarian Capital in this time was Munich, which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT"
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. 
> ---
> ''The bavarian Capital in this time was Munich, which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT"''
> 
> Munich has ALWAYS been the capital of Bavaria. --WojPob
------
CityBerlin|981062645
5c5,7
< ---
---
> 
> 
> ----
------
HistoryOfEurope|981063754
25a26
> 
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981064654
13c13,16
< ''LarrySanger edited the above two paragraphs, doing his part to try to keep this wiki civil.  :-)''
---
> ''LarrySanger edited the above two paragraphs, doing his part to try to keep this wiki civil.  :-)''
> ----
> Yes, I believe one can look up per capita income in an almanac.
>  - Tim
------
HistoryOfEurope|981064764
19c19
< Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  NapoleoN also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving GermanY and ItalY to develop into nation-states by 1900.
---
> Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  NapoleonBonaparte also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving GermanY and ItalY to develop into nation-states by 1900.
------
SetTheory|981065622
80a81,82
> Oops, you're right.  I figured I'd probably do something wrong.  But in any case, can you guarantee that such equivalence classes exist within ZF?  I remember something about it being difficult, even if the above is wrong.  (Btw, this page will need some extensive reworking anyways).
> 
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981065870
15,16c15,17
< Yes, I believe one can look up per capita income in an almanac.
<  - Tim
---
> Yes, I believe one can look up per capita income in an almanac. - Tim
> 
> Standard of living is per capita income?  I think that's even further from a fact...at least, you would be hard-pressed to defend it.  If I was paid well, but had to work 20 hours a day in a poorly ventilated cardboard tube and eat rice-cakes, would I have a high standard of living?
------
LiliaPodkopayeva|981065911
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lilia Podkopayeva is an Olympic gymnast.  She was born on August 15, 1978 in Donetsk, UkrainE.  She won two gold medals at the 1996 OlympicS in Atlanta.  She was also the 1995 World Champion and the 1996 European Champion.
> 
>  keywords: sports, gymanst, gymnastics, Olympics, people, Ukraine
------
GreeK|981066895
6c6
< ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicGreece, GreekMythology
---
> ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, GreecE, GreekMythology
------
BalL|981067176
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ball is a round object that is used in sports and games.  Balls are usually spherical but can be other shapes, such as ovoid.  In most games using balls, the play of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, kicked, or thrown by players.
> 
> Balls were used in ancient history by the early Egyptians and the ancient Greeks and Romans.
> 
> In modern times balls have been used in machinery.  The ball bearing is a device used to reduce the friction of miving parts in a wide variety of machines.  Ball bearings use hardened steel balls.
> 
> Popular games involving balls include:
>  BasebalL
>  FootbalL, or SocceR
>  AmericanFootball
>  DodgebalL
>  TenniS
>  GolF
>  BasketbalL
------
BalL|981067193
5,6d4
< In modern times balls have been used in machinery.  The ball bearing is a device used to reduce the friction of miving parts in a wide variety of machines.  Ball bearings use hardened steel balls.
< 
14c12,14
<  BasketbalL
---
>  BasketbalL
> 
> In modern times balls have been used in machinery.  The ball bearing is a device used to reduce the friction of miving parts in a wide variety of machines.  Ball bearings use hardened steel balls.
------
BalL|981068022
14c14
< In modern times balls have been used in machinery.  The ball bearing is a device used to reduce the friction of miving parts in a wide variety of machines.  Ball bearings use hardened steel balls.
---
> In modern times balls have been used in machinery.  The ball bearing is a device used to reduce the friction of moving parts in a wide variety of machines.  Ball bearings use hardened steel balls.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981068357
17c17,19
< Standard of living is per capita income?  I think that's even further from a fact...at least, you would be hard-pressed to defend it.  If I was paid well, but had to work 20 hours a day in a poorly ventilated cardboard tube and eat rice-cakes, would I have a high standard of living?
---
> Standard of living is per capita income?  I think that's even further from a fact...at least, you would be hard-pressed to defend it.  If I was paid well, but had to work 20 hours a day in a poorly ventilated cardboard tube and eat rice-cakes, would I have a high standard of living?
> ----
> ''LarrySanger has a sneakin' suspicion that this dispute has been a SemanticDispute from the beginning.''
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981068795
19c19,21
< ''LarrySanger has a sneakin' suspicion that this dispute has been a SemanticDispute from the beginning.''
---
> ''LarrySanger has a sneakin' suspicion that this dispute has been a SemanticDispute from the beginning.''
> 
> Well, when I say "far from a fact", I don't mean false...just not true. :)
------
SemanticDispute|981069538
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
> 
> It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all, but very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the "genuineness" of a dispute (see GenuineDisputes).
> 
> It is also sometimes held that, when a semantic dispute arises, the focus of the debate should switch from the original thesis to the meaning of the terms of which there are different definitions (understandings, concepts, etc.).
> 
> As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the UnitedStates has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose "Joshua" maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least coextensive with) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.
------
SemanticDispute|981069586
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioNs of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepTs) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
SemanticDispute|981069598
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioNs of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepTs) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepTs) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
DefinitioN|981069632
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An account of the meaning of a word.
> 
> ''(To be greatly expanded.)''
------
SemanticDispute|981069656
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepTs) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
SemanticDispute|981069666
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT'''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
SemanticDispute|981069677
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT'''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
SemanticDispute|981069697
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT''s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
------
SoCrates|981069754
9c9,15
< Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray, held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  (Sound familiar?  Yes, this story has been reenacted in part or in whole, time and time again; those who do not learn from history are most certainly bound to repeat it.)  Socrates died at the age of 70.
---
> Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray, held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  (Sound familiar?  Yes, this story has been reenacted in part or in whole, time and time again; those who do not learn from history are most certainly bound to repeat it.)  Socrates died at the age of 70.
> 
> ''Note: Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.''
> 
> ''In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.''
> 
> ''All in all: the jury chose wrong, and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it is wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he, nor the jury, was really at fault.  The above text should probably reflect this.''
------
WikiPediaFaq|981069791
73c73
< :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.'' -- LarrySanger
---
> :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.  Also, another example can be found in the first paragraph of SemanticDispute.  One can't use two sets of four single quote marks in the same paragraph, it seems.'' -- LarrySanger
------
SemanticDispute|981069913
7c7
< As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the UnitedStates has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose "Joshua" maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least coextensive with) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.
---
> As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the UnitedStates has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose "Joshua" maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.
------
SemanticDispute|981070276
3c3
< It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all, but very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the "genuineness" of a dispute (see GenuineDisputes).
---
> It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all, but very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the claim that a dispute is "genuine" (see GenuineDisputes).
7c7
< As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the UnitedStates has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose "Joshua" maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.
---
> As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the UnitedStates has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose Joshua maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.  In this case, Tim and Joshua have (suffer, are engaging in) a semantic dispute.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981070383
21a22,23
> ----
> ''LarrySanger would like to point out that, according to TheLawOfNoncontradiction, if something ain't true, it's false.
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981070508
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981070557
23c23
< ''LarrySanger would like to point out that, according to TheLawOfNoncontradiction, if something ain't true, it's false.
---
> ''LarrySanger would like to point out that, according to TheLawOfNoncontradiction, if it ain't true, it's false.''
------
LasVegas|981071227
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest city in NevadA.  Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert.  It is called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling and prostitution (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  In the last ten years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children.  Consequently, the city has enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.
------
LarrySanger|981071276
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.  Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
------
SemanticDispute|981071598
1c1
< A dispute is ''semantic'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement agree on all material facts, but (2) disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of key terms (they have different understandings of the meaning, the words are associated with different ConcepT s) used to formulate contrary theses (i.e., two theses that cannot both be true).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all.
---
> A DisAgreement is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
3c3
< It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all, but very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the claim that a dispute is "genuine" (see GenuineDisputes).
---
> It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all.  But very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the claim that a dispute is "genuine" (see GenuineDisputes).
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981072544
22c22
< ----
---
> 
23a24,25
> 
> But that isn't true.  The sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we decide on some value of x.  Indeed, the whole point of a SemanticDispute is that it's claiming such a sentence has a truth value before everyone has agreed on what value x should take.  After, of course, TheLawOfNoncontradiction holds, but not before.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981072723
25c25,27
< But that isn't true.  The sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we decide on some value of x.  Indeed, the whole point of a SemanticDispute is that it's claiming such a sentence has a truth value before everyone has agreed on what value x should take.  After, of course, TheLawOfNoncontradiction holds, but not before.
---
> But that isn't true.  The sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we decide on some value of x.  Indeed, the whole point of a SemanticDispute is that it's claiming such a sentence has a truth value before everyone has agreed on what value x should take.  After, of course, TheLawOfNoncontradiction holds, but not before.
> 
> Btw, I would love for some day in the future, it being standard for people to say "But this is just a SemanticDispute!  Can't you see you're just being playing Tim and Joshua?"  To be able to introduce myself as TheProverbialJoshua would be beyond neat.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981073433
25,27c25
< But that isn't true.  The sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we decide on some value of x.  Indeed, the whole point of a SemanticDispute is that it's claiming such a sentence has a truth value before everyone has agreed on what value x should take.  After, of course, TheLawOfNoncontradiction holds, but not before.
< 
< Btw, I would love for some day in the future, it being standard for people to say "But this is just a SemanticDispute!  Can't you see you're just being playing Tim and Joshua?"  To be able to introduce myself as TheProverbialJoshua would be beyond neat.
---
> That's not the law of non-contradiction, that's TertiumNonDatur.  And it doesn't always hold.  For instance, the sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we assign a value to x.  That's the very essence of semantics.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981074298
25c25,27
< That's not the law of non-contradiction, that's TertiumNonDatur.  And it doesn't always hold.  For instance, the sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we assign a value to x.  That's the very essence of semantics.
---
> That's not the law of non-contradiction, that's TertiumNonDatur.  And it doesn't always hold.  For instance, the sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we assign a value to x.  That's the very essence of semantics.
> 
> When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- LarrySanger
------
NewTopics|981074421
5c5
< AnchorageAlaska -- GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GerMany -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
---
> AnchorageAlaska -- GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GermanY -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981074475
27c27
< When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- LarrySanger
---
> When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the trivial point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence. -- LarrySanger
------
EuroCurrency|981074544
3c3
< The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
------
EuroCurrency|981074565
3c3
< The currently participating countries are: GerMany, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: GermanY, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
------
BalL|981074728
7c7
<  FootbalL, or SocceR
---
>  FootBall, or SocceR
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981074914
1c1,3
< Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.
---
> Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  Actually, the latter formulation is known as ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way.  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.
> 
> The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers; there are many who deny ThePrincipleOfBivalence, however.
------
WarsaW|981075002
5c5
< WarsaW is notable among EuropE's capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the Swedish and Prussian occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the Russian army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the WarsaW Uprising failed, by Hitler's order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the Germans, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of WarsaW, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
---
> WarsaW is notable among EuropE's capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the Swedish and Prussian occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the Russian army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the WarsaW Uprising failed, by AdolfHitler's order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the Germans, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of WarsaW, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
------
ThePrincipleOfBivalence|981075037
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  In other words: for any proposition P, it is not the case both that [P] is true and that [not-P] is true.
> 
> This is closely related though distinct from TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
------
PoleS|981075062
4c4
< Before World War II the Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. In the provinces of Silesia, Pomerania, and Masuria (then in GermanY) there was a significant minority of Germans. In the southeast, Ukrainian settlements predominated in the regions east of Chelm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sacz. In all the towns and cities there were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking Jews. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in LithuaniA, BelaruS, and western UkrainE, all of which had a mixed population, PoleS predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in Daugavpils (in LatviA), Minsk (in BelaruS), and Kiev (in UkrainE).
---
> Before World War II the Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. In the provinces of Silesia, Pomerania, and Masuria (then in GermanY) there was a significant minority of Germans. In the southeast, Ukrainian settlements predominated in the regions east of Chelm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sacz. In all the towns and cities there were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking Jews. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in LithuaniA, BelaruS, and western UkrainE, all of which had a mixed population, PoleS predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in Daugavpils (in LatviA), MinsK (in BelaruS), and KieV (in UkrainE).
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981075128
3c3
< The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers; there are many who deny ThePrincipleOfBivalence, however.
---
> The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers; there are many who deny ThePrincipleOfBivalence, however.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
------
ThePrincipleOfBivalence|981075322
1c1
< A proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  In other words: for any proposition P, it is not the case both that [P] is true and that [not-P] is true.
---
> For any proposition P, either [P] is true or [P] is false; there are no propositions that are neither true nor false.
3c3
< This is closely related though distinct from TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
---
> This is closely related though distinct from TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and TheLawOfNoncontradiction.
------
TheLawOfExcludedMiddle|981075408
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For any proposition, either it or its contradictory obtains; for any proposition P, either P or not-P.
> 
> If we're being careful, we'll distinguish this from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981075493
1c1
< Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  Actually, the latter formulation is known as ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way.  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.
---
> Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way, in terms of truth.  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.
3c3
< The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers; there are many who deny ThePrincipleOfBivalence, however.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
---
> The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
------
FiLm|981075586
1c1
< FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism
---
> FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism -- AcademyAwards
------
TertiumNonDatur|981075624
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Tertium non datur'' is Latin, used by Germans among others, for ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981075884
27c27
< When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the trivial point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence. -- LarrySanger
---
> When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  Fair play, if you mean to say that Tim's claim isn't, in fact, a proposition. -- There, I've supplied brief entries explaining these terms to the uninitiated. -- LarrySanger
------
ThePrincipleOfBivalence|981075963
3c3
< This is closely related though distinct from TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and TheLawOfNoncontradiction.
---
> This is closely related to though distinct from TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  See also TheLawOfNoncontradiction.
------
LoGic|981076125
3c3
< earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.
---
> earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
13c13
< The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
---
> The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
------
ItalY|981076386
1,3c1,3
< Italia ¥Italy¤ is a republic in the 
< south of EuropE© It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< MediterraneanSea©
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
> south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> MediterraneanSea.
5c5
< It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency©
---
> It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
7c7
< The capital is Roma ¥Rome¤; the economic capital is Milano ¥Milan¤ in the north©
---
> The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
10c10
< Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times© Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY© The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Turino and FiorentinA©
---
> Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY. The latter include AC Milan, AS Roma, Juventus Torino and FiorentinA.
------
GiovanniPensa|981076580
1c1
< Lives is Italy.
---
> Lives is ITaly.
------
GiovanniPensa|981076593
1c1
< Lives is ITaly.
---
> Lives is Italy.
------
ValidIty|981077166
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') iff it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion ''must'' be true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
> 
> Validity is not to be confused with SoundNess; a sound argument is not only valid, its premises are true as well.  Not all valid arguments are "valid" in the LooseAndPopularSense of this word, meaning "good": not all valid arguments (valid, as this term is used in logic) are good, or successful.  Here is an example of a valid but very bad argument:
> 
> 1. If Jimbo is wrong, then I'm a monkey's uncle.
> 2. Jimbo is wrong.
> 3. Therefore, I am a monkey's uncle.
> 
> This follows one of the most common valid ArgumentForm''''s, ModusPonens: if it's the case that P implies Q, and P is the case, then we can infer that Q.  Whenever P implies Q and P is the case, then Q ''must'' be the case.  So, if it ''really were true'' that Jimbo's wrongness implied my having simian relations (which of course it's not), ''and'' it were true that Jimbo is wrong (plausible), then it would ''have to be'' the case that I am a monkey's uncle.
------
ValidIty|981077252
1c1
< In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') iff it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion ''must'' be true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
---
> In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises make the conclusion ''have to be'' true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
------
SoundNess|981077284
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''sound'' argument is not only valid (see ValidIty), its premises are true as well.
------
ValidIty|981077301
5,7c5,7
< 1. If Jimbo is wrong, then I'm a monkey's uncle.
< 2. Jimbo is wrong.
< 3. Therefore, I am a monkey's uncle.
---
> :1. If Jimbo is wrong, then I'm a monkey's uncle.
> :2. Jimbo is wrong.
> :3. Therefore, I am a monkey's uncle.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981077523
27c27,45
< When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  Fair play, if you mean to say that Tim's claim isn't, in fact, a proposition. -- There, I've supplied brief entries explaining these terms to the uninitiated. -- LarrySanger
---
> When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  Fair play, if you mean to say that Tim's claim isn't, in fact, a proposition. -- There, I've supplied brief entries explaining these terms to the uninitiated. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Income is the most commonly used measure of standard of living.  An alternative measure is purchasing power, closely related to income but adjusted for taxaxtion.
> 
> Consumption per capita by nation, 1985, as a percentage of US total:
> 
>  United States: 100
>  West Germany: 70
>  France: 70
>  Italy: 65
>  Japan: 65
>  United Kingdom: 65
>  Austria: 60
>  Finland: 60
>  Soviet Union: 30
> 
> Figures are rounded off.  Data first pubslihed by A. Bergson, "The USSR Before the Fall: How Poor and Why," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5:4 (Fall 1991), p. 29-44, 31.  Reprinted in JulianSimon's 'The State of Humanity'.
> 
> 
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981077645
29c29
< Income is the most commonly used measure of standard of living.  An alternative measure is purchasing power, closely related to income but adjusted for taxaxtion.
---
> Income is the most commonly used measure of standard of living.  An alternative measure is comsumption, closely related to income but adjusted for taxaxtion.
43c43
< Figures are rounded off.  Data first pubslihed by A. Bergson, "The USSR Before the Fall: How Poor and Why," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5:4 (Fall 1991), p. 29-44, 31.  Reprinted in JulianSimon's 'The State of Humanity'.
---
> Figures are rounded off but accurate.  Data first published by A. Bergson, "The USSR Before the Fall: How Poor and Why," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5:4 (Fall 1991), p. 29-44, 31.  Reprinted in JulianSimon's 'The State of Humanity'.
------
PhiloSophy|981077655
3a4,6
> '''IntroductoryMaterial:'''
> WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod
> 
------
WhyPhilosophize|981078333
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I assume you’re signed up for this class because you want to learn about philosophy.  Whether or not that’s the case, the purpose of this class is to introduce you to philosophy.  And the purpose of this first chapter is to give you an idea of what philosophy is, and why anyone should want to study it.  I am going to assume that you have thought a little, but not a <<i>i</i>><i>lot</i></<i>i</i>>, about <<i>i</i>><i>some</i></<i>i</i>> philosophical topics.
> 
> I could, but will not, simply start by giving a definition of "philosophy."  It will be better instead to start by getting clear on what <<i>i</i>><i>motivates</i></<i>i</i>> someone to start doing this activity called "philosophizing" -- what motivates people to start thinking very deeply about life and the universe.  Only when you understand why people take up philosophy will you be able properly to understand what philosophy is.  So let me begin by explaining why people take up philosophy.
> 
> We find ourselves believing things that we don’t understand.  This is perhaps strange to say but it’s true.  There are all kinds of very basic beliefs we have, about God, ourselves, the natural world, human society, and human productions.  But all too often, we don’t understand <i>what</i> it is we believe, and we don’t understand <i>why</i> we believe it.  We have, as I will say, questions about <i>meaning</i> of our beliefs and questions about the <i>justification</i> or <i>rationality</i> of our beliefs.  And we don’t <i>like</i> not understanding.  Let me give you some examples.
> 
> If you are like most Americans then you grow up believing in some sort of God.  Most (but not all) of you would probably assent to the proposition, "God exists."  But how many of you know <i>exactly</i> what it is you mean by the word "God"?  Probably you’ve thought <i>some</i> about it: "Well," you tell yourself, "God is the creator of the universe, and he’s supposed to be all-powerful and all-knowing; and he’s supposed to be some sort of spiritual and personal being."  Suppose you believe all that.  So now are you <i>really</i> persuaded that you <i>know</i> what God is?  Aren’t there a lot of questions you’d have to have answered before you could say you know just exactly what God is?  For example, wouldn’t you have to know what it means for a <i>spiritual</i> being to create anything?  We have experience of bodies building houses and ships, but minds, as far as we know, create nothing but thoughts and decisions -- other mental things -- not <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i> like mountains, streams, and animals!  And wouldn’t you have to know what it <i>means</i> to say that God is all-powerful, or all-knowing?  Does that mean that God can create a rock he can’t lift?  Surely these aren’t simple questions.
> 
> Now these sorts of questions are only questions about what the proposition, "God exists," <i>means</i>.  But very many people don’t understand <i>why</i> they believe this.  They have been taught it; they assume it, and act as though it were true.  Some of you, those of you who <i>do</i> believe that God exists, of course <i>have</i> thought about why you believe this, and perhaps you have reasons, or explanations, such as the following.  I have a simple faith and that is enough; I firmly believe the Bible, my parents, and my clergyman when they all together affirm that God exists; I believe I have had an experience of, and felt the influence of, God in my life; I believe the universe could not have existed, especially not without the great variety of life we see around us, if God had not created and designed it; or perhaps you believe it for a combination of these reasons, or for other reasons.
> 
> But at least in certain moments, when we are being perfectly honest with ourselves, we realize, or most of us do, that we are not <i>quite</i> sure whether this belief in God is <i>perfectly</i> justified.  No doubt there are some sorts of people who are relatively unquestioning -- simple people, probably the salt of the earth and good folk -- and <i>those</i> people manage never, or hardly ever, to question their belief in the existence of God.  But if you’re in this class I think I can assume that you are not that sort of person.  At the very least, I think I can assume that you are interested in getting <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on why belief in God is, or perhaps is not, justified or rational.  You want to see the arguments on both sides.
> 
> When you start asking, "What is God?" and "Is belief in the existence of God rational?" and you’re uncomfortable because you’re not persuaded you know the answers, then you are motivated to do philosophy.  In particular, you are motivated to study one area of philosophy called "philosophy of religion," which we will spend some time studying this quarter.
> 
> Now let me give another example of discomforting puzzlement that might lead you to philosophy.  This time the puzzles are in ethics, the study of right and wrong.  Again, there are puzzles about both meaning <i>and</i> justification.  Do you know what you <i>mean</i> when you say that cheating is wrong?  Don’t simply say, "It’s something that’s bad -- that you shouldn’t do."  Obviously then you’ll have to answer, "What do you mean by ‘bad’ and by ‘should’?"  We use these sorts of words all the time, these and other evaluative words like "good," "bad," "pretty," "ugly," "useful," and "useless."
> 
> Here the questions of meaning and justification are inextricably bound together.  I can’t say <i>why</i> I think cheating is wrong until I know <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say it’s wrong; and very likely, once I have said what it means, I’ll know why I think it.  The same goes with many other moral questions, about killing and letting die, about personal responsibility, about sex, about choice of career, about a million other things we live with every day.  To know <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say they are right, or wrong, is to know <i>why</i> they are right, or wrong.
> 
> And of course nearly everyone finds themselves with beliefs about good and bad, right and wrong, the proper purpose or goal of a human life, and so on.  But hardly anyone really understands these beliefs or knows <i>why</i> they have them, or whether they are really rational to have them.
> 
> You <i>can</i>, and some people do, go through life without answering moral questions.  But I would go so far as to suggest that <i>because</i> some people have not thought certain moral questions through, they end up behaving immorally.  And then they use an easy sort of skepticism, or relativism, according to which each person invents his own morality, to justify whatever behavior he wants to get away with.  That is a profoundly anti-philosophical attitude.
> 
> And even if, as it probably the case with many of you, you believe yourself to be a generally good person but you also think that there is no objectively correct morality, you’re still stuck with a lot of puzzles.  For example, do you really think that if someone were to accuse you of being not just a bad person, but a <i>really</i> bad person -- an <i>evil</i> person -- that your accuser would simply be expressing his opinion, and that it is just true for him and not for you?  Isn’t there <i>some</i> sense in which he is incorrect, period?  Or consider the belief system of a typical Nazi-era German fascist, the sort of person who thought it was acceptable to kill millions of Jews just for being Jews: do you really think that those people <i>simply</i> had a different moral point of view from your own?  Isn’t there <i>some</i> sense in which those people were incorrect, period?
> 
> Questions about God and ethics are only the tip of the philosophical iceberg.  If you find yourself dissatisfied with your fundamental ignorance about God and ethics, believe me, there are <i>many</i> other things about this universe that you are also fundamentally ignorant about.  Philosophers are in the business of investigating <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of those things.  Even things that, perhaps, you had not thought to ask yourself about.
> 
> If you study philosophy very much you will soon discover <i>just</i> <i>how</i> <i>many</i> of your basic concepts you don’t understand.  For instance, do you know what it means to say that one thing <i>causes</i> another?  Do you know what rationality is?  Do you have a firm grasp on what space and time are?  Are you quite sure you know what you mean by the word "beauty"?  And so on, and on, and on.  The number of these most <i>basic</i> questions is breathtakingly huge.
> 
> And those are just the questions about meaning.  Then you have to consider all the questions about justification you might not have thought about.  Do you know why you think the sun will rise tomorrow?  Do you think you’re perfectly justified in believing this?  Perhaps, but try spelling out the reason.  You probably, if you’re like most people, think you have free will -- you’re not determined or fated to do what you do, you have the ability to choose freely.  But are you absolutely sure that this is correct?  We live, by all appearances, in a world governed by strict laws, that scientists describe.  Could your decisions be governed by the same sort of strict laws?  If you think not, then <i>why</i> not?  You probably think that the government should be doing some things and it shouldn’t be doing other things.  But why?  As a philosopher you will not simply list the things you think government should do; you will say <i>why</i> you thinks the government should do those things.  You will explain the purpose of <i>any</i> government, of having any official authority at all.
> 
> If you think carefully about this, you will find that your life is deeply informed by <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of basic assumptions you make.  If you made radically different assumptions, you just wouldn’t be able to go on thinking and living as you have been.  That’s one reason why some people are scared, or angered, by philosophical questions.  These questions are <i>powerful</i>, precisely in the following sense: if you change your mind about one of these really fundamental questions, then you might have to change how you think about the world, and even how you live.  You might have change religions or become entirely unreligious; you might have to act entirely different in order to conform with new ideas of morality you have; you might have to think much more carefully, and rationally, in order to live up to new standards of justified belief you accept; and those are just <i>some</i> of the more dramatic changes.  Other, more subtle effects are too numerous to mention.
> 
> After all that you should understand pretty well, I think, the basic impulses that lead someone to start philosophizing.  So let me list the main points I’ve made so far.
> 
> (1) We find ourselves with some basic, important beliefs, for example about God and morality.
> 
> (2) There are two sources of puzzlement, or discomforting ignorance, that leads people to philosophize about these beliefs: first, not knowing the <i>meaning</i> of the beliefs; and second, not knowing whether the beliefs are really <i>justified</i> or <i>rational</i>.
> 
> (3) No doubt people exist who lack almost all such puzzlement, but even <i>their</i> lives are deeply shaped and informed by their beliefs.
> 
> (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they don’t <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
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WhyPhilosophize|981078400
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< I assume you’re signed up for this class because you want to learn about philosophy.  Whether or not that’s the case, the purpose of this class is to introduce you to philosophy.  And the purpose of this first chapter is to give you an idea of what philosophy is, and why anyone should want to study it.  I am going to assume that you have thought a little, but not a <<i>i</i>><i>lot</i></<i>i</i>>, about <<i>i</i>><i>some</i></<i>i</i>> philosophical topics.
---
> I assume you’re signed up for this class because you want to learn about philosophy.  Whether or not that’s the case, the purpose of this class is to introduce you to philosophy.  And the purpose of this first chapter is to give you an idea of what philosophy is, and why anyone should want to study it.  I am going to assume that you have thought a little, but not a <i>lot</i>, about <i>some</i> philosophical topics.
3c3
< I could, but will not, simply start by giving a definition of "philosophy."  It will be better instead to start by getting clear on what <<i>i</i>><i>motivates</i></<i>i</i>> someone to start doing this activity called "philosophizing" -- what motivates people to start thinking very deeply about life and the universe.  Only when you understand why people take up philosophy will you be able properly to understand what philosophy is.  So let me begin by explaining why people take up philosophy.
---
> I could, but will not, simply start by giving a definition of "philosophy."  It will be better instead to start by getting clear on what <i>motivates</i> someone to start doing this activity called "philosophizing" -- what motivates people to start thinking very deeply about life and the universe.  Only when you understand why people take up philosophy will you be able properly to understand what philosophy is.  So let me begin by explaining why people take up philosophy.
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< (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they don’t <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
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> (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they don’t <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
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NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|981078410
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> I really like the wrapping version with dots.  The only reason I didn't use it in the first place is simple ignorance.  I didn't know it was possible! We can refactor this page soon. --JimboWales
> 
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< I'd say we should go for any of the wraping versions. if a text does not wrap it is too much a hassle for the reader. -- WojPob
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> I'd say we should go for any of the wraping versions. if a text does not wrap it is too much a hassle for the reader. -- WojPob
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PhilosophicalMethod|981078513
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< Describe the new page here.
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> So I say that puzzlement about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs leads people into philosophy.  But into only philosophy?  After all, doesn’t the same sort of puzzlement lead people into <i>other</i> subjects as well?  Being puzzled about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs about physical goings-on might lead me to study physics; or about God might get me into religious studies; or about fellow human beings, into psychology, sociology, or anthropology.  So I can’t say that philosophy is just "the study of the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs."  Because other subjects study that too, not just philosophy.
> 
> But after the examples I’ve given, and just considering your own personal experience with philosophy before this class, you may well feel there is <i>something</i> that distinguishes philosophical questions from purely religious, purely mathematical, and purely scientific questions.  There’s something that sets philosophy apart from these other disciplines, that really makes it special.
> 
> If you think this, you’re right.  There is something that makes philosophical questions special: namely, the methods that are used to answer them.  Let me give a definition of "method":
> 
> A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.
> 
> And so a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.  Now right from the start I want to make it very clear that there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.  It’s only after come to grips with those generalizations that we can really understand what makes philosophical questions unique.  And then we might also be able to understand what makes them particularly fascinating, in a way that questions about science and mathematics often are not.  Which is, of course, not to say that science and math may not be interesting in <i>other</i> ways.  I’m saying that there’s something <i>peculiar</i> about the philosophical questions, that inspires a <i>peculiar</i> philosophical curiosity or interest.
> 
> So now I’ll explain some of those general features about all different sorts of philosophical methods.  The first is something we’ve already seen: simple <i>doubts</i> about accepted beliefs.  Philosophy, it has been said, begins in wonder.  We get the initial impulse to philosophize, as I said, from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.  But philosophy absolutely does <i>not</i> end there.  In fact, that wonder by itself hardly constitutes doing philosophy at all.
> 
> The second step is <i>extremely</i> important: we <i>formulate</i> our doubts in questions to be answered, or problems to be solved.  The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to make genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution.
> 
> So it is not enough simply to wonder, for example, "Do I really have free will?"  If you state that problem, the problem of freedom and determinism, in such a simple way, you’ll be apt simply to answer, "Well sure I do," and leave it at that.  And then you aren’t doing philosophy.  So what more do you need, in order to formulate the <i>problem</i> well?  You need to state <i>as</i> <i>clearly</i> <i>as</i> <i>you</i> <i>possibly</i> <i>can</i> exactly what the source of your discomfort is.  So in the case of freedom and determinism, you might say something like the following:
> 
> "Suppose that the universe operates according to deterministic causal laws, that is, that for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened.  So all events are determined.  Suppose also that this general principle applies to our choices.  Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we <i>had</i> to make those choices and no others.  So all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary.  But suppose next that we have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than we did choose.  In short, we think we have free will.  But how is it possible, or <i>is</i> it possible, that our choices might be causally determined <i>and</i> free at the same time?"
> 
> Now that’s the basic problem of freedom and determinism.  It’s an example of the <i>initial</i> statement of a philosophical problem.  It’s enough to let us all see that there really does seem to be a <i>genuine</i> <i>problem</i> that we would like to have solved.  A lot of philosophers and ordinary people are apt, after explaining their puzzlement in this initial way, to dive right in and start trying to solve the problem.  They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
> 
> There is an admirable tendency among a relatively <i>small</i> number of philosophers not to be so quick, but to spend <i>more</i> time trying to get <i>extremely</i> clear on what the problem is all about.  An excellent example of such a philosopher is the Englishman G. E. Moore, who lived and worked in the first half of this century.  When addressing a question such as, "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore almost never simply said, "Yes" or "No" and defended his answer.  In fact, in an article entitled "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore begins this way: "I am not at all clear as to the meaning of this question.  Mr. Kneale says that existence is not a predicate.  But what does he mean by the words ‘Existence is not a predicate’?"   I think Moore’s sort of tendency, to get <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on what philosophical problems amount to, is something all philosophers would do well to emulate.
> 
> So to take our example of freedom vs. determinism: how could our statement of the problem be clarified?  Well, one thing that I said was that "for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened."  But what exactly is the sense of the word "necessary" at work here?  Or in another place, I said "we have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than how we did."  But what is the strength of this "could have"?  The idea appears to be that it is in some sense <i>possible</i> for us to choose otherwise; but in <i>what</i> sense of "possible" is it possible?
> 
> These are not easy questions.  It takes practice to know how to ask and how to deal with them.  But right now I think you can probably agree with me that an enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only <i>benefit</i> from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem mean.  So that’s the second step in any philosophical method: formulation of the philosophical problem to be solved.
> 
> The third step is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a definition, which constitutes an attempt to solve the problem.  Very often, a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly, in just a sentence or two; all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument.
> 
> So now let’s change the example.  I’ll give you an example of a philosophical theory.  This theory is meant to answer the question, "What actions are right?" or perhaps "What principle may we use to tell whether actions are right?"  John Stuart Mill, another English philosopher, offered this answer: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals <i>utility</i>, or the <i>greatest</i> <i>happiness</i> <i>principle</i>, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."   So according to Mill, the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they’re right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they’re wrong.
> 
> Regardless of whether you agree with that, you can see at least that it answers the question; in that it does answer the question, "What actions are right?" it is the sort of <i>perhaps</i>-enlightening answer that we’d like from philosophers.
> 
> One might loosely interpret Mill’s "greatest happiness principle" as a definition of "right action."  In other words, you might regard it as saying what we really mean, or perhaps what we ought to mean, when we say that something is right.  It is often useful to regard philosophers as offering definitions in this way.  I should add though that this way of thinking about what philosophers do is very controversial.  In fact, some philosophers, especially recently (meaning, in the twentieth century), have concluded that it is <i>impossible</i> to formulate good definitions of philosophical terms.  So instead of "definitions" they speak of "theories," or "accounts," or "analyses."  So one might say, with less controversy, that Mill has a theory or an account of right action.  But I personally will tend to talk of "definitions" of different words or concepts.
> 
> Whatever the word, the fact is that philosophers have been and continue to be in the business of making big generalizations about things like right action: saying what <i>all</i> right actions have in common, or saying what characterizes <i>only</i> right actions.  But not all solutions to philosophical problems consist of such definitions or generalizations.  Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of <i>explanation</i>.  Not a <i>causal</i> explanation, but an explanation, for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently.  Call this a <i>philosophical</i> explanation.
> 
> Take the freedom and determinism problem again.  Here what is needed is not, specifically, a definition of "free will" or of "determined action."  No doubt those definitions would really help in offering a solution to the problem.  But the solution itself would consist of <i>one</i> of the three following.  First, an explanation <i>how</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that we might have free will and yet also be determined to choose what we do, in other words an explanation of how freedom and causality are compatible.  Or, second, an explanation of how it is that free choices are an <i>exception</i> to deterministic, scientific laws.  Or, third, an explanation of why it <i>appears</i> that we have free choices, even though we really don’t.  Any of these three sorts of explanations, if you did them right, would be essential parts of a solution to the problem of freedom and determinism.  So there you have a problem, and its solution is not simply a definition of some basic philosophical concept.  As I said, not all philosophical solutions are definitions.
> 
> Here’s another example showing the same thing.  There’s a very difficult problem in philosophy called "the problem of induction."  Induction is a kind of reasoning -- it’s a way we get from reasons to conclusions.  So induction works like this -- to work with an example, we’ll take the sun rising -- we have experience of the sun rising every day.  There’s never been a day in human memory when the sun did <i>not</i> rise.  Therefore, we say, it will rise tomorrow.  Now this is a little argument, a piece of reasoning, and basically we’re arguing like this: if something has been observed over and over to be a certain way, then the next time it is observed, it will be that way again.  This is called <i>inductive</i> <i>reasoning</i>.
> 
> The problem of induction is basically this: <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>the</i> <i>next</i> <i>time</i> <i>you</i> <i>see</i> <i>the</i> <i>thing</i> <i>it</i> <i>won’t</i> <i>be</i> <i>different</i>?  For example, how do you know the sun <i>won’t</i> rise tomorrow?  The obvious first answer here is: the sun has <i>always</i> risen.  But that just begs the next question: how do you know that tomorrow won’t be the first exception?  Bertrand Russell, yet another English philosopher, tells the story of a chicken who is fed every day for its life.  Every day the farmer steps out to the henhouse and scatters chicken feed to the chicken.  So the chicken would be very reasonable to believe that <i>tomorrow</i> the farmer will come and feed the chicken.  But tomorrow, instead, the farmer goes out to the henhouse and wrings the chicken’s neck for dinner.  As Russell concludes, "More refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the chicken." 
> 
> So the basic problem of induction is <i>how</i> we can know that the future will resemble the past.  Notice that this requires perhaps a very complicated sort of explanation.  A mere definition won’t do the job.  Once again, even if a definition, say, of "induction," would be very important in the explanation, the definition would not be all we needed to solve the problem.
> 
> Anyway, that’s the third step in any method of philosophizing: a solution to the problem must be offered; and depending on the problem, the solution can be either a definition or a philosophical explanation.
> 
> We’re not done yet.  Alas, we’re <i>far</i> from being done.  Philosophy consists of much more than simply having doubts, formulating problems, and coming up with solutions.  Remember, after all, what gives rise to the philosophical impulse; remember what motivates us to philosophize.  We have doubts about what our beliefs mean, and whether they’re really rational.  Those same doubts are very likely going to visit us again if we simply stop with the first, or easiest, solution that offers itself to us.  For example, suppose you really liked Mill’s greatest happiness principle.  And you say to yourself, "That’s just dandy -- ‘actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness.’  I hadn’t thought about it, but that’s what right actions <i>are</i>.  Boy I feel a lot better now.  Now I know what right action is!"
> 
> If that’s how you think, you’re really making a mistake, and you’re not doing philosophy.  The reason is that you have to <i>justify</i> your answer -- you have to say <i>why</i> you think this is what right action is.  And your justification, or reasons, had better be good.  Because if they aren’t, you aren’t any better off than when you started having philosophical doubts in the first place.  Those doubts may, and probably should, be visited upon you again!
> 
> [Halfway done]
> 
> So here then is the <i>fourth</i> step of any philosophical method worth its salt: arguments must be offered for the definitions or explanations proposed.  What is an argument?  Here’s a definition:
> 
> An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
> 
> So think of arguments as bundles of reasons -- often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons -- followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
> 
> Philosophers are, or at least they should be, really good at giving arguments.  They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make.  Now what’s the point of all that?  Here’s the point: it’s only a good <i>argument</i>, a clear, organized, and <i>sound</i> statement of <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>something</i>, that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy.  Only good arguments will satisfy our doubts.  If you are willing to be satisfied with an answer without any good arguments, without any good supporting reasons, then (for whatever this is worth), you do not have a philosophical temperament.  You may have the questioning nature and the doubts that lead people to do philosophy, but you do not have the argument-wielding nature that really characterizes the heart of philosophy.
> 
> Let me give you an example of an argument.  Say you have some doubts about religious matters, and you ask the question: "Does God really exist?"  Your answer is, we will say, "Yes."  Now how might you argue for your answer?  Here is a very common, popular argument, called <i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>design</i>.  It goes like this.
> 
> The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial -- from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways.  All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented.  Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer.  Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans (generally speaking), this designer must be very benevolent.  And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful.  So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call <i>God</i>.  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> That’s called "the argument from design."  We will study it again when we study philosophy of religion.  But you can see, I think, that it offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that we call "God."  Now this sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other.  To deserve our consideration, the argument doesn’t have to be <i>perfect</i>.  It might have some problems.  In fact it might be a <i>really</i> <i>bad</i> argument.  But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it.  That gives us something to analyze and talk about.  And that’s what philosophers do quite a bit: they talk about each others’ arguments.
> 
> So we still aren’t done.  There is an important element of philosophical method, the fifth, that we need to explain.  This is the element of <i>criticism</i>.  And this is where other people come in.  We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, devastate those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions.  This exchange and resulting revision of views is called <i>dialectic</i>.  Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.
> 
> Now you can do this sort of harsh criticism on your own.  You don’t <i>absolutely</i> need other people to tell you what might be wrong with your views, especially if you are a very self-critical sort of person.  But others can help greatly, especially if you share many important assumptions with the person offering the criticisms.
> 
> Perhaps this sounds rather obvious to anyone who has gone around the block once arguing about God, morality, free will, and stuff like that.  But this is perhaps the most disconcerting part of philosophy for people just starting to study the subject.  It’s quite different from other subjects that study general aspects of the universe, like natural science and mathematics; in those other disciplines, the experts all agree about the fundamentals.  But in philosophy, which concerns the <i>most</i> fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all <i>disagree</i>.  And in disagreeing they are following this fifth step of philosophical method, to offer and deal with criticisms of proposed solutions.  Or as I said, to engage in dialectic.
> 
> The entire history of philosophy is a long -- <i>millenia</i>-long -- philosophical dialectic.  There is practically no philosophical question which has not been asked; practically every possible solution has been proposed.  And yet philosophers go on arguing with each other.  And it certainly looks like they aren’t going to stop, either.
> 
> This is what makes philosophy so disconcerting for beginners, who aren’t used to the alleged experts disagreeing about everything.  If there is no general agreement, then what’s the point in studying the subject?  If there is no truth to be had, why go to the trouble of coming up with solutions and arguments?
> 
> This is a very common concern and it needs to be directly addressed at the outset.  Suppose you have this concern -- we’ll put it like this, in the form of an argument:
> 
> (1) For almost every problem in philosophy, philosophers throughout history have offered conflicting solutions.
> 
> (2) Moreover, there has been no progress toward general agreement.
> 
> (3) Moreover, there does not appear to be any progress toward general agreement at present.
> 
> (4) Therefore, there is no truth to be found in philosophy; and hence there is no point in studying philosophy.
> 
> First of all, notice that during those thousands of years of philosophical conversations, all of those philosophers did not give up <i>simply</i> on grounds that they disagreed with each other.  In fact, historically, disagreement has been a great motivating impetus to philosophical work.  The fact that Descartes said something different from Locke is often looked on by philosophers not as discouraging but as something to be excited about: both men had such great minds, so if one of them was mistaken it must have been a deep, important, interesting mistake.
> 
> Second, and more importantly, notice that the conclusion of this argument just doesn’t follow from the premises.  In other words, the premises might all be perfectly true, but the conclusion doesn’t necessarily then <i>have</i> to be true.  An example from another academic discipline might help here.  Suppose Tom, Dick, and Harry are all arguing about the origin of Mars’ moon Deimos.  Tom thinks it is a captured asteroid; Dick thinks it formed out of the primordial cloud of dust that formed Mars; and Harry think it broke off from Mars when Mars was struck by a gigantic asteroid.  Now I personally have no idea of the respective plausibility of each of these views.  But one thing I can say is that the mere fact that Tom, Dick, and Harry disagree does <i>not</i> mean there’s no truth to be found about the subject.  If we went back in time to the right moment in planetary history, we could <i>see</i> that Deimos was formed in one way and not the others.  There’s a fact about the matter even if Tom, Dick, and Harry don’t know it yet.
> 
> I want to suggest that the problems of philosophy are like that.  I mean that philosophical problems are, on the one hand, very difficult issues to resolve, and it’s very easy to disagree about them; but, on the other hand, the mere fact that there is disagreement doesn’t, all by itself, mean that there is no philosophical truth to be found.
> 
> But admittedly, philosophical problems are extremely difficult to sort out in a clear-headed way.  Unfortunately, we can’t simply make observations and design experiments to test philosophical definitions and explanations.  Observations and experiments are used by scientists to arrive at a consensus; similarly, rigorous proofs based on axioms and definitions are used by mathematicians to arrive at consensus there.  But, except in the philosophical subdiscipline of <i>logic</i>, philosophers do not have any such consensus-building techniques.  All we have are words -- words that express those same, not-very-well-understood concepts that we are confused about.
> 
> So there are at least two basic reactions to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement.  First, you might simply give up before you start.  Or, second, you might try to increase the degree of clarity and rigor with which you think about philosophical questions.  I think I <i>have</i> observed some very important advances in philosophy, and they are almost always due to applying ever-increasing amounts of clarity and rigor to the subject -- they involve exploring every unexplored avenue, thinking about every unconsidered possibility, understanding all the assumptions that lie behind a view, taking apart arguments in very careful detail, and so on.  I think that many philosophers, throughout history, have shown at least that certain solutions that <i>other</i> philosophers have proposed were wrong.  And it took clear thinking to do that.  That much at least is a kind of philosophical progress.
> 
> However it is that you ultimately react to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement, at least do yourself this favor.  For the space of this quarter, assume that there <i>is</i> some philosophical truth to be found.  Keep your mind open to that possibility.  If you shut yourself off from that possibility you will not be able to keep an interest in philosophy, and you won’t be able to get half out of it what you might.  For the space of this quarter, don’t regard an inquiring philosophical nature as naive.  If it helps, remember this: some of the finest, most brilliant minds in the world have <i>not</i> thought that trust in the existence of philosophical truth was naive.
> 
> Now we’ve gotten a little off track.  I have talked for the past half hour explaining five very general features of all philosophical methods.  Or you might think of these five steps I’ve given as steps in one general philosophical method.  Here then are those steps again:
> 
> Step 1.  Doubt.  Notice doubts that you have about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief you have.
> 
> Step 2.  Formulate problem.  Formulate those doubts in a philosophical problem, or question.  Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.
> 
> Step 3.  Offer solution.  Offer a solution to the problem: either a definition, or a philosophical explanation.
> 
> Step 4.  Argument.  Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution.
> 
> Step 5.  Dialectic.  Present your solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
> 
> Now this little five-step method is, as you might expect, highly simplified and idealized.  No one does, or should, follow these steps in exactly this order.  A lot of times for philosophers it’s not doubt about their own beliefs that gets them thinking; a lot of times it’s doubt about what <i>other</i> people say that does it.  And some philosophers really put the cart before the horse: they examine a solution and arguments for it, and only after doing that, they go back and ask what problem it was they were trying to solve.  And surely there are a lot of people who plunge right into philosophical debates, and by the seat of their dialectical pants figure out what the problem is, what solutions have been offered, and what the arguments on all sides have been.
> 
> All that having been said, in many cases it probably is best to proceed as systematically as possible, and not go to the next step until the prior step is completed.  That may be most <i>efficient</i> way, at least.  It might not be the most fun.  But here the words of the great French philosopher Descartes come to mind: "Like a man who walks alone and in the shadows, I resolved to go so slowly and use so much circumspection in all things that, if I never advanced but slightly, I would at least avoid falling." 
> 
> Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
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> WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
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> Consider first how to distinguish philosophy from science -- from disciplines like physics and chemistry.  Well, it’s <i>not</i> part of philosophy to do experiments.  Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of philosophical problems.  Now someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science.  He might say, "But philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of physicists, who do experiments about space and time and quantum mechanics.  And they are often referring to experimental work done in psychology when they discuss philosophy of psychology."
> 
> There’s no doubting that philosophers sometimes <i>interpret</i> and <i>refer</i> <i>to</i> experimental work of various kinds -- especially in the philosophies of the different sciences.  For example, in philosophy of physics, or philosophy of psychology.  But that’s not surprising of course: the purpose of those branches of philosophy, branches like philosophy of physics, is to help interpret the philosophical aspects of experimental work.  But at any rate it’s not the <i>philosophers</i>, in their capacities <i>as</i> philosophers, who do the experiments.
> 
> There is a basic historical reason why philosophy is not experimental.  Originally, "philosophy" meant simply "the love of wisdom."  The "philo-" part comes from the Greek word <i>philein</i>, meaning to love, and the "-sophy" part comes from <i>sophia</i>, or wisdom.  Originally the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> abstract intellectual endeavor.  Even up until early modern times, the people we now call "scientists" were referred to as "natural philosophers," i.e., philosophers who study nature.  Over the years, the scope of philosophy has gotten smaller and smaller, as different sciences have spun off and become independent disciplines in their own right.  Some relatively early "spin-offs" were physics and chemistry; more recently, just within the past 100 years, psychology has spun off.
> 
> So of course one might wonder how thinkers knew or sensed that a new discipline was to be treated as independent from philosophy.  The answer is that the discipline began to be prosecuted using rigorous methods of observation and experimentation.  Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one’s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books that scientists write.  But be careful thinking about this.  I <i>emphatically</i> do not mean that philosophy is totally non-observational, or non-empirical.  Certainly philosophy makes use of, in a really essential way, observations about the world.  But they are, we might say, very <i>general</i> observations -- observations like "It seems to me I make free choices" and "It seems to me that killing another person, if ever necessary, requires a really good excuse."  Observations like this take a great deal of investigation to make; they require careful attention.  But most (not all) philosophical topics require no more <i>specialized</i> knowledge than the average educated person has; except perhaps <i>specialized</i> knowledge about philosophy itself.
> 
> So philosophy is not experimental and its observations are only very general, broad observations.  And that is what makes it different from natural sciences like physics, and social sciences like psychology.  So mind you, some people confuse philosophy and psychology, but they are different.  Philosophy does study the mind (and it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too), just as psychology does.  But the study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is consciousness?  What is the mind itself?"
> 
> All right, then what distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, which also is not experimental?  Some parts of religious studies -- parts of theology, anyway -- clearly <i>are</i> philosophical.  Parts of theology, which ask about what God is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "philosophy of religion."  And that’s not a problem.  Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of Greek philosophy, to that extent.  And that’s not a problem either.  It doesn’t muddy the concepts either of philosophy or of classics.  But what about that other part of religious studies, the <i>empirical</i> part, which often focuses on comparative study of different world religions?  Well, that part of religious studies can be distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy.  Namely, it involves specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices, and philosophy does not.
> 
> So perhaps now you can see how philosophy differs from various of the sciences, psychology, and religious studies.  But how does philosophy differ from mathematics?  <i>It</i> certainly is not experimental.
> 
> Mathematics differs from philosophy for other reasons.  For one thing, it uses some very specific, rigorous methods of proof that philosophy may try to emulate sometimes, but rarely, if ever, succeeds in duplicating.  As a result, mathematicians hardly ever disagree about results.  But philosophers disagree about their methods and their methods are not always nearly as rigorous as the methods mathematicians use.  And dialectic, while surely a part of progress in mathematics, does not play the <i>same</i> <i>sort</i> of prominent role that it plays in philosophy.
> 
> A more straightforward way to distinguish philosophy from mathematics is this.  Math, beyond a certain basic level, requires some <i>extremely</i> specialized knowledge, which can be obtained only by dint of extremely hard labor and concentration.  It is not the sort of discipline that can be pursued with the knowledge that the average educated person has.  Philosophy, to be pursued right, sometimes does require hard labor and concentration, but at least a philosopher can explain his question, with not <i>too</i> much difficulty, to an intelligent nonphilosopher in under ten minutes.
> 
> So I’m suggesting that philosophy is a discipline that draws on knowledge that the average educated person has, and does not make use of experimentation and careful observation; though it may interpret philosophical aspects of experiment and observation.  OK, so this tells you what philosophy is <i>not</i>.  The question now is what philosophy <i>is</i>.
> 
> But I have already suggested an answer to that question.  Namely, it is a discipline that examines the meaning and justification of certain of our most basic, fundamental beliefs, according to a certain general method which I explained at length.  If there’s anything that is unclear about this, it is, I think, what we might mean by these words: "basic, fundamental beliefs."  Is there any way I might make that clearer?
> 
> Well, try this out for size.  A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the universe which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things.  Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>existence</i> <i>itself</i> is.  What could be more universal than that -- than existence itself?  It also studies value -- the goodness of things -- in general.  And surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere.  I don’t mean just moral goodness, though that’s very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable; the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good.  (Well, if there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.")
> 
> Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  And those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward -- which perhaps in the end it will found to be -- but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.  Philosophy just doesn’t work that way.
> 
> With all of what I’ve said so far as background, I’ll offer a definition.  I should make one more remark first, though: as philosophers disagree about everything, one of their points of disagreement is about what philosophy is.  So don’t go around thinking that the following is the generally agreed-upon definition of philosophy, because it isn’t.  What it is, is a well thought out definition which, I am confident, most philosophers would acknowledge as at least a good and plausible attempt.  Anyway, here goes.
> 
> <i>Philosophy</i> is the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things; a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
> 
> I’m not going to tell you that this is a perfect definition, because I’m sure it isn’t.  But I think it should give you a pretty good idea of what "philosophy" means.
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> <i>Logic</i>: the study of the standards of correct argumentation and definition.
> 
> <i>Metaphysics</i>: the study of the most basic categories of things, such as existence, objects, properties, and so forth.
> 
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Religion</i>: the study of the meaning of the concept of God and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God.
> 
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Mind</i>: the study of the nature of the mind, and its relation to the body and the rest of the world.
> 
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Language</i>: the study of the concepts of meaning and truth.
> 
> <i>Epistemology</i>: the study of knowledge, its nature, possibility, and justification.
> 
> <i>Value</i> <i>Theory</i>: the study of the meaning of "good" and the relation between fact and value.
> 
> <i>Ethics</i>: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of right action can be applied to special moral problems.
> 
> <i>Political</i> <i>Philosophy</i>: the study of basic topics concerning government, including the purpose of the state, political justice, freedom, the nature of law, and the justification of punishment.
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> Material in this section should be aimed at introducing philosophy to nonphilosophers.
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> See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
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> Today we’re going to study a subdiscipline of philosophy called <i>logic</i>.  This is basically the study of argument -- by which we mean, not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.  So recall from last time the definition of "argument":
> 
> An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
> 
> It’s extremely important in this class that you understand what arguments are, and that you distinguish them from other things.  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  You can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
> 
> Now, there are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, or not primarily, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose I offer an explanation for why there are tides: I talk about the gravitational effect of the moon and the sun on the oceans, and so on.  Now, <i>that</i> isn’t an argument.  It is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, I’m explaining why there are tides.  I’m not trying to convince you <i>that</i> there are tides.  We have already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
> 
> On the other hand, suppose I argue for the following claim: "God exists."  In other words, "God exists" is the conclusion of an argument I make.  In that case I am <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If I tried to explain why there is a God, I would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what I’m doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then I’m not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, I’m trying to <i>convince</i> you, or a skeptic anyway, that God exists.
> 
> So I think you can see the difference between an argument and an explanation.  On the one hand, the function or purpose of an argument is to convince people who might be doubting the conclusion.  On the other hand, the function or purpose of an explanation is to give the cause of some phenomenon which we observe, or are willing to assume actually occurs.  To put it even more briefly, the purpose of an argument is to <i>persuade</i>, while the purpose of an explanation is to <i>explain</i>.
> 
> Just as a hammer is the tool of the carpenter’s trade, an <i>argument</i> is the tool of the philosopher’s trade.  And, as I said last time, it shouldn’t be too hard to see why philosophers work so much with arguments: philosophers carry to heroic lengths the human tendency to doubt sometimes the deepest, most fundamental of our beliefs.  Because they want to overcome all of these doubts, they offer and examine arguments for various claims: the arguments are supposed to be what will rid us of the doubts.  If we accept what we know is an excellent argument for a conclusion, and we’ve refuted all the plausible arguments <i>against</i> that conclusion, then we’re very well-positioned to say that we <i>know</i> that the conclusion is true.  Arguments, then, have the potential to give us  <i>knowledge</i> and to rid us of doubts; that’s why arguments are so important.
> 
> But just as there are good and bad hammers, there are good and bad arguments.  In fact, I imagine that there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than there are bad hammers.  Let me give you an example of a bad argument.  Suppose I wanted to argue for the claim that <i>all</i> <i>killing</i> <i>is</i> <i>wrong</i>.  And suppose I was giving this argument to a bunch of people who supported the death penalty: they think that <i>some</i> killing is fine, as punishment of the worst murderers, say.  So I argue as follows:
> 
> If one should never do X, all X is wrong.  (X can be any action.)
> 
> One should absolutely never kill.
> 
> Therefore, all killing is wrong.
> 
> Would the supporters of the death penalty be impressed by this argument?  Of course they wouldn’t.  They would say, "You’re begging the question.  In your argument, you say that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i> you’d have to prove that all killing is wrong -- which is what you’re trying to argue for.  We disagree with your conclusion: we think that <i>some</i> killing is <i>not</i> wrong.  And so of <i>course</i> we are going to disagree with your premise, that one should absolutely never kill.  No indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it’s our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of justice."
> 
> So you can see that my argument just isn’t going to work against those people.  In it, I presuppose the conclusion: in other words, one of the premises <i>assumes</i> that the conclusion is true.  This is an error in arguing.  The <i>kind</i> of error has a name: <i>begging</i> <i>the</i> <i>question</i>.  If my argument begs the question then in my argument I assume the very thing that I’m trying to argue <i>for</i>.  Of course an argument that begs the question won’t, or shouldn’t, convince anyone: if I assume what I’m arguing for, anyone who assumes differently will be unimpressed.
> 
> Begging the question is one of the ways that arguments can go wrong.  There are many, many other ways; and those most common ways that arguments can go wrong are called <i>fallacies</i>.  So begging the question is one kind of fallacy.  You should make sure that you are not committing any fallacies yourself, when you argue.
> 
> Let me give you another example of a fallacy.  Suppose I argue like this:
> 
> Ted is a good tennis player.
> 
> Therefore, Ted is good -- a morally good person.
> 
> Here the problem is that the word "good" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, we say that Ted is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  But in the conclusion we say that Ted is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  And so of course the premise might be true, while the conclusion would still be false: Ted might be the best tennis player in the world, but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>fallacy</i> <i>of</i> <i>ambiguity</i>.
> 
> Now you’re just going to have to trust me that there are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloging fallacies -- all the different kinds of ways that arguments can go wrong.  Today we’re going to be less ambitious: we’re going to outline, in broad generalities, how arguments can <i>go</i> <i>right</i>.  In other words, I’m going to introduce you to the study of <i>good</i> arguments, non-fallacious arguments -- which is to say that I’m going to introduce you to <i>logic</i>.
> 
> Here is a definition of "logic":
> 
> <i>Logic</i> is the study of good arguments and definitions; in particular, it is the study of (1) forms of arguments and their parts, (2) the qualities (of arguments) of validity, cogency, and soundness, (3) how to construct, identify, interpret, and evaluate various kinds of arguments, and (4) how to construct and evaluate definitions.
> 
> Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of definitions, as well.  And the way I’ll present it, logic will include discussion of <i>both</i> arguments <i>and</i> definitions.
> 
> I want to introduce you to some of the most fundamental logical concepts, for two reasons.  The first is that logic is one of the basic branches of philosophy, and so if I’m going to introduce you to all, or almost all, of the basic branches of philosophy, I’d better introduce you to logic.  The second reason is practical: namely, logic will help you understand better the rest of philosophy.  So it also has practical value.
> 
> There is a good reason why logic will help you understand the rest of philosophy.  I said last time that it is doubt about the meaning and justification of certain fundamental beliefs that motivates us to do philosophy.  Well, very often to extricate us from these doubts what are needed are <i>definitions</i> that explain the meaning of our basic concepts, and <i>arguments</i> to justify, or give reasons for, various beliefs that we’re not quite sure about.  Logic states the standards of good definitions and good arguments: it gives us the tools to see whether various proposed definitions, or arguments, are any good or not.  It helps us to avoid fallacies.
> 
> So let’s go back to the definition of "logic" I gave, and examine its various parts, leaving aside part (4), about definitions, for now.
> 
> Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you’ll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that’s not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It’s just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
------
DeductionAndInduction|981079013
1c1,131
< Describe the new page here.
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> First, logic is the study of <b>the</b> <b>forms</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b> <b>and</b> <b>of</b> <b>the</b> <b>parts</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b>.  What exactly do I mean by the phrase <i>form</i> <i>of</i> <i>argument</i>?  The basic notion can be introduced with an example.  Here’s an example of an argument:
> 
> <b>A</b>	All humans are mortal.  Socrates is human.  <i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
> 
> We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>B</b>	All humans are mortal.
> 
> 	Socrates is human.
> 
> 	<i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
> 
> Now, to demonstrate the important notion of the <i>form</i> of an argument, I will substitute letters for similar items throughout <b>B</b>, like this:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>C</b>	All S is P.
> 
> 	<i>a</i> is S.
> 
> 	<i>Therefore</i>, <i>a</i> is P.
> 
> All I have done in <b>C</b> is to put "S" for "human" and "humans," "P" for "mortal," and "<i>a</i>" for "Socrates"; and there we have the <i>form</i> of the original argument in <b>A</b>.  So argument form <b>C</b> is the form of argument <b>A</b>.  And each individual sentence of <b>C</b> is the <i>sentence</i> <i>form</i> of its respective sentence in <b>A</b>.  So if you want a definition of "form," you can use this (though it’s not exactly a rigorous definition): The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>variables</i>.  Just like variables can stand for various numbers in math, variables can stand for various words, or sentences, in logic.  All right, now argument forms like <b>C</b> are very important in the study of logic.  And the <i>parts</i> of argument forms -- by which I mean such sentence forms as the first line -- "All S is P," are equally important.  In a logic class you would learn how to determine what the forms of various sentences and arguments are; we do not have time for that, but I think you can at least understand the basic concept of logical form.  That’s all I want you to understand right now: what logical form is.
> 
> There is a very good reason why attention to argument and sentence forms is important.  The reason is this: <i>Form</i> <i>is</i> <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> <i>an</i> <i>argument</i> <i>valid</i> <i>or</i> <i>cogent</i>.  That’s very important and it bears repeating: form is important because it determines whether an argument is valid or not, or cogent or not.  So next let’s look at part (2) of our definition of "logic," which concerns validity and cogency.
> 
> Part (2) says this: logic is the study of <b>the</b> <b>qualities</b> <b>of</b> <b>validity</b>, <b>cogency</b>, <b>and</b> <b>soundness</b>, <b>and</b> <b>strength</b>.  Roughly, if an argument is valid or cogent, then the conclusion really does follow from the premises; in other words, <i>if</i> the premises are true, <i>then</i>, it follows that, the conclusion is true; in yet other words, the premises (if true) actually give one good reason for believing the conclusion.
> 
> Now, there are two different ways that the conclusion can follow from the premises: the argument can be <i>valid</i> or it can be <i>cogent</i>.  Those are the two ways.  These are different, and mutually exclusive properties; an argument cannot be both valid and cogent.  But if an argument <i>is</i> one or the other, then the conclusion does follow from the premises.
> 
> Here then is what "valid" means.  I will define and discuss "cogent" later.
> 
> An argument is <i>valid</i> if, and only if, when the premises are all true, then the conclusion <i>must</i> be true.
> 
> And validity is the property of being valid.  Now, validity is a conditional notion.  Look at the definition of "valid": it does not say that the premises have to be true.  It doesn’t say that the conclusion has to be true.  But it <i>does</i> say that <i>if</i> the premises are true, <i>then</i> the conclusion has to be true.  As far as validity is concerned the premises might be completely and obviously false!  So let me show you an argument that is valid, but which has totally false premises:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>D</b>	All dogs have eight legs.
> 
> 	The President is a dog.
> 
> 	<i>Therefore</i>, the President has eight legs.
> 
> This is, strange to say, a perfectly valid argument.  Remember, in logic, "valid" doesn’t mean anything more than what we define to mean.  So the fact that an argument is valid, in logic, does <i>not</i> necessarily mean that it is a <i>good</i> argument.  In fact, it might be a really <i>bad</i> argument, just like argument <b>D</b>.  But argument <b>D</b> is, at least, <i>valid</i>.  What does that mean, in this case?  Something like this: suppose it were <i>true</i> that all dogs had eight legs; and suppose, just suppose, that the President really were a dog; well, in that absurd imaginary world, the President would have to have eight legs.  The conclusion <i>has</i> to be true, if the premises are true.  So the argument is valid, even though it has false premises.  Not to mention a false conclusion.
> 
> But just a bit ago I said that <i>form</i> is what makes an argument valid.  But I also said that a valid argument is one where, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true -- or here’s a way to put it more briefly: the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.  Now put these two propositions together: 
> 
> Form makes an argument valid.
> 
> If an argument is valid, then the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
> 
> Putting these two claims together, you can see that
> 
> Form makes an argument such that the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
> 
> Another way of putting this thought is by saying that you can see whether the premises make the conclusion necessary <i>just</i> <i>by</i> <i>looking</i> <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>form</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>argument</i>.  That’s why form is so important.  Look, for example, at form <b>C</b>.  In fact, <i>any</i> argument that follows the form <b>C</b> is valid: you can see that just by reading <b>C</b>.  Now look at <b>D</b> -- it fits that form and is valid.  Or to take another example, look at this argument:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>E</b>	All dogs are canines.
> 
> 	Fido is a dog.
> 
> 	<i>Therefore</i>, Fido is a canine.
> 
> And since <b>E</b> follows form <b>C</b>, it’s a valid argument.  Its conclusion <i>must</i> be true if its premises are true.
> 
> All right, that is enough, I hope, to introduce you to the notion of <i>validity</i>.  Validity is a really basic, essential notion in logic, since it is a basic requirement for an argument to be good.  But validity by itself isn’t enough to make an argument good.
> 
> What more is needed?  True premises.  So suppose we have a valid argument with true premises.  Then, we will say, we have a <i>sound</i> argument.  Here’s a definition:
> 
> An argument is <i>sound</i> if, and only if, (1) the argument is valid and (2) all of its premises are true.
> 
> So suppose we have a sound argument.  An excellent example is <b>B</b>.  In this case we have an argument where, first, if the premises are all true, then the conclusion must be true; <i>and</i>, second, it so happens that the premises <i>are</i> all true.  What follows?  That the conclusion must be true.  That’s the dandy thing about soundness: if you know an argument is sound, then you <i>know</i> that the conclusion of the argument is true.  By definition, all sound arguments have true conclusions.  So soundness is a very good quality for an argument to have.
> 
> Now, the premises of an argument can give you reason to believe its conclusion, without making the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.  Suppose you have an argument in which the premises make the conclusion <i>probably</i> true.  That might still be a good argument.  Such an argument we call <i>cogent</i>.  So here’s a definition of "cogent":
> 
> An argument is <i>cogent</i> if, and only if, supposing the premises are all true, then the conclusion is <i>probably</i> (but not <i>necessarily</i>) true.
> 
> And cogency is the property of being cogent.  Now, exactly what "probably" means is a matter of considerable debate in philosophy.  And we simply do not have time to examine that debate right now.  Still, you can understand what I mean reasonably well.  Here, for example, is a cogent argument:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>F</b>	There is a barrel jammed full of ordinary marbles, of different 	colors.
> 
> 	Without looking, I pulled out 100 marbles from various holes in 	the lid; 95 of the marbles I pulled out were red.
> 
> 	Therefore, the next marble I pull out, without looking, from 	another hole in the lid, will be red.
> 
> This is, I claim, a cogent argument.  That means that <i>if</i> the two premises are true, then <i>probably</i> the conclusion is true; for all I know it doesn’t <i>have</i> to be true.  And notice this: maybe I’m lying and there is no barrel, or maybe all of the marbles were blue.  But that wouldn’t matter to my claim that the argument is <i>cogent</i>.  If the argument is cogent, then <i>supposing</i> the premises to be true, the conclusion is probably true.  Like validity, cogency is a <i>conditional</i> property.
> 
> And also like validity, the cogency of an argument can be assessed by examining the form of the argument.  Consider, for example, the form of argument <b>F</b> -- we might say it basically follows something like this pattern:
> 
> 
> 
> <b>G</b>	95% of observed F’s were G.
> 
> 	<i>Therefore</i>, probably, the next F observed will also be G.
> 
> I’m saying that practically any argument that follows form <b>G</b> will be cogent.  Now, there are some complications that I am ignoring here; for example, suppose we’re working with a deck containing 100 cards, and we know in advance that five of them are special cards called "jesters."  All the other cards cards are called "royalty."  Then, suppose it’s true that 95% of drawn cards were royalty; well in that case, the five cards that are left are jesters!  So in that case the premise would lead you conclude that the next observed card will <i>not</i> be royalty -- <i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>opposite</i> of what argument <b>G</b> would say.  If we were studying inductive logic (as you would in Philosophy 150), then we would go into this in more detail.  We would talk about background assumptions, about a random sample, having a large enough sample size, and so forth.  But for now let’s stick with the simpler story.  For simplicity we can say that any argument that follows form <b>G</b> is cogent.  Just bear in mind that <b>G</b> is a simplification.
> 
> Now just as you added true premises to a valid argument to get soundness, you can add true premises to a cogent argument to get a <i>strong</i> argument.  So we can define strength, for arguments, as follows:
> 
> An argument is <i>strong</i> if, and only if, the argument is cogent and all of its premises are true.
> 
> Similar things to what I said about soundness can be said about strength.  If you know an argument is strong, then you know that, if the premises are true, then its conclusion is probably true; and since you <i>do</i> know that its premises are true, then you know that its conclusion <i>is</i> probably true.
> 
> Basically, what we mean <i>by</i> "good argument" is simply "sound or strong argument."  If you have offered a sound or strong argument in defense of your view -- a philosophical conclusion -- then you have stated a <i>true</i> view, or at least a <i>probably</i> true view.  And the premises of your argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>justify</i> your belief in the conclusion.  So that’s why good argument are so important: in philosophy, a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If you’re armed with a good argument you have helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and remove doubts about it.
> 
> Now we’re ready to understand a very important distinction in philosophy.  Namely, the difference between <i>deduction</i>, or <i>deductive</i> <i>logic</i>, and <i>induction</i>, or <i>inductive</i> <i>logic</i>.  Here are some definitions:
> 
> <i>Deductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, valid.
> 
> <i>Induction</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, cogent.
> 
> The reason I have these in terms of what the arguments "aspire" to be is that an argument can be properly the subject of deductive logic even though it’s <i>not</i> valid or cogent; it can be studied by logic even though it fails to be what it aspires to be.  Anyway, then, deduction is concerned with validity; induction is concerned with cogency.  So in deductive logic you’ll study forms of arguments such that the conclusion <i>must</i> be true if the premises are true; and in inductive logic you’ll study forms of arguments such that the conclusion is <i>probably</i> true if the premises are true.  That’s the difference between deduction and induction, and deductive logic and inductive logic.
> 
> Now remember that we started this excursion into validity and so forth by way of explaining the definition of "logic" I gave.  So let’s get back to that.  Logic is the study of <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> something a good argument; but it is also the study of <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether or not an argument is any good.  Studying logic is a little like studying medicine.  In medical school one studies <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> a person healthy, as well as <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether a person is healthy.  In logic and medicine (and many other fields generally), one learns the <i>standards</i> something (such as good arguments and healthy people) must meet, as well as <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether those standards are met in particular cases (of arguments and people, for example).
> 
> So now here’s the third part of the definition of "logic": logic is the study of <b>how</b> <b>to</b> <b>construct</b>, <b>identify</b>, <b>interpret</b>, <b>and</b> <b>evaluate</b> <b>various</b> <b>kinds</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b>.  Let me just take up each one of these words, "construct," "identify," "interpret," and "evaluate" in turn.
> 
> To begin with the <i>construction</i> of arguments.  We do all, or at least should, construct arguments for our beliefs.  We back up what we say, with reasons.  We marshall evidence, state our grounds for belief, and give justifications.  Someone who <i>never</i> does these things would be, I think, just irrational and unthinking, but I doubt there is any person here who is so irrational and unthinking that he, or she, <i>never</i> does these things.  However that may be, logic is, in part, the study of how to <i>construct</i> one’s own arguments well, so that they display the aforementioned virtues of validity or cogency, and soundness or strength.  So logic will help you do what you do already -- only better.
> 
> Logic is also the study of how to <i>identify</i> arguments, about a <i>huge</i> variety of different subject matters.  This is very important for being able to <i>use</i> logic in everyday life; the first step in assessing the arguments of others is to <i>identify</i> when and where others have made arguments.  After all, not all nonfiction writing you come across does contain arguments.  So to evaluate a passage from a logical point of view, first you’ve got to learn how to distinguish argumentative prose -- writing containing arguments -- from mere rhetoric, explanations, the giving of examples, and other kinds of nonargumentative prose.  
> 
> Logic is, finally, the study of how to <i>interpret</i> and <i>evaluate</i> actual, real-life arguments -- arguments of various kinds.  In other words, to study logic is, in part, to study how to restate arguments you find in their real-life contexts (once you <i>have</i> found them) in a very clear manner, and then to judge whether those arguments are valid or cogent, first of all, and if so, whether they are also sound or strong.
> 
> Learning the construction, identification, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments are all important parts of learning logic, and well worth practicing, but in this course we won’t have time to do that.  We will, as is the case with a lot of philosophy, have learn those things by <i>doing</i>.  But there is, after all, a <i>great</i> deal that one can learn about logic by doing it.
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ArgumentForms|981079073
1c1,119
< Describe the new page here.
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> I said that whether an argument is valid or not depends on the <i>form</i> of the argument.  Now, for that reason, in logic, what one studies a <i>lot</i> is different valid argument forms.  So let me give you some examples of valid argument forms.
> 
> The first is called by a Latin name: <i>modus</i> <i>ponens</i>.  That makes the argument form sound a lot more daunting than it really is.  Modus ponens is really simple -- perhaps the simplest sort of argument:
> 
> <i>Modus</i> <i>Ponens</i>
> 
> If P, then Q.
> 
> P.
> 
> Therefore, Q.
> 
> Here’s an example of an argument that fits the form <i>modus</i> <i>ponens</i>:
> 
> 
> 
> If love conquers all, then love conquers Attila the Hun.
> 
> Love conquers all.
> 
> Therefore, love conquers Attila the Hun.
> 
> Or here’s another example:
> 
> 
> 
> If democracy is the best system of government, then everyone should vote.
> 
> Democracy is the best system of government.
> 
> Therefore, everyone should vote.
> 
> So basically the idea is to make an "if-then" claim -- these are called <i>conditional</i> claims -- and then affirm the "if" part, or the <i>antecedent</i>, and then conclude with the "then" part, or the <i>consequent</i>.
> 
> Suppose that we tried instead to affirm the "then" part of the conditional, the consequent, first, and conclude with the "if" part, the antecedent.  Believe it or not, this argument has a name:
> 
> <i>Affirming</i> <i>the</i> <i>consequent</i>.
> 
> If P, then Q.
> 
> Q.
> 
> Therefore, P.
> 
> It’s called "affirming the consequent" because in arguing this way one does indeed affirm the consequent in the second premise ("Q" is the consequent of the conditional claim, "If P, then Q").  This is a fallacy.  If you argue this way you will be making a mistake.  You should be able to see that with an example.  You know that oxygen is required for fire.  So suppose we argue like this:
> 
> 
> 
> If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.  (Since oxygen is required for fire.)
> 
> There is oxygen here.
> 
> Therefore, there is fire here.
> 
> You can see that that way of arguing doesn’t work.  But now consider a slightly different argument:
> 
> 
> 
> If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.
> 
> There is no oxygen here.
> 
> Therefore, there is no fire here.
> 
> Now, that argument <i>does</i> work.  It is perfectly valid: indeed, if there is no oxygen here, then we <i>can</i> conclude validly that there’s no fire here.  This argument has a different form, which is complementary to modus ponens; it too has a Latin name:
> 
> <i>Modus</i> <i>Tollens</i>
> 
> If P, then Q.
> 
> Not Q.
> 
> Therefore, not P.
> 
> We’ve already given one example of modus tollens; here’s another example: 
> 
> 
> 
> If Lizzy was the murderer, then she owns an axe.
> 
> Lizzy does not own an axe.
> 
> Therefore, Lizzy was not the murderer.
> 
> Let’s just suppose that the premises are both true.  All right, if Lizzy was the murderer, then she really must have owned an axe.  And it’s a fact that Lizzy does not own an axe.  What follows?  That she wasn’t the murderer.
> 
> Suppose you want to say: well, the first premise is false!  If Lizzy was the murderer, then she wouldn’t necessarily have to have owned an axe; maybe she borrowed someone’s.  Now, that might be a legitimate criticism of the argument, but notice that it doesn’t mean the argument is <i>invalid</i>.  An argument can be valid even though it has a false premise!  Remember, we are distinguishing an argument’s <i>validity</i> from its <i>soundness</i>.  To be sound, an argument has to be both valid <i>and</i> <i>have</i> <i>true</i> <i>premises</i>.  Our Lizzy argument is unsound, because it has a false premise; but it is perfectly valid, because, even though they’re not, <i>if</i> both premises were true, then the conclusion <i>would</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> true.  You see, a lot of beginning logic students get confused about validity, and don’t see how an argument with false premises can be valid.  But they are confusing validity with soundness.  An argument with false premises can be <i>valid</i>, but it cannot be <i>sound</i>.
> 
> All right, let’s get back to argument forms.  Here’s another argument form:
> 
> <i>Disjunctive</i> <i>syllogism</i>
> 
> Either P or Q.
> 
> Not P.
> 
> Therefore, Q.
> 
> The reason this is called "disjunctive syllogism" is that, first, it is a syllogism -- a three-step argument, and second, it contains a disjunction, which means simply an "or" statement.  "Either P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement’s <i>disjuncts</i>.
> 
> 
> 
> Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
> 
> I will not choose soup.
> 
> Therefore, I will choose salad.
> 
> And here’s another example:
> 
> 
> 
> Either the Browns win or the Bengals win.
> 
> The Browns don’t win.
> 
> Therefore, the Bengals win.
> 
> Basically we’re told that it has to be one or the other that’s true; then we’re told that it’s not the one; so we infer that it has to be the other that’s true.
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981079147
44a45,56
> ----
> 
> I propose the following for this page.  As I understand it, this page is a subpage under 'UnitedStates', and so it should be about the standard of living of the UnitedStates.
> 
> The standard of living of the UnitedStates is among the highest in the world.  By measures of material wealth such as PerCapitaIncome or PerCapitaConsumption, the UnitedStates ranks higher than all but a handful of small city-state countries.  Of course, StandardOfLiving should be measured by more than just those factors: other factors include legal structure (freedom of speech, freedom of the press), crime (which is higher in the UnitedStates than in many other high-income countries), etc.  
> 
> Concerns may also be raised as to whether <i>averages</i> are the best way to coompare the standard of living, as opposed to Pareto indexes of some sort.  Some oil rich countries like Iraq may have a high <i>average</i> level of income, even though ordinary people aren't doing any of the consuming!  Measures which take into account, in some fashion, inequality, should
> probably be considered.
> 
> I think this is a thoughtful way to write about the issues, rather than to simply argue about them. It is possible to achieve balance.  --JimboWales
> 
> 
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|981079151
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
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> Now we’re going to switch gears rather abruptly and look at the two closely related topics of <i>meaning</i> and <i>definitions</i>.  I especially want us to consider definitions in their philosophical context, because philosophers are constantly asking for definitions, or accounts, or analyses -- at this point it matters little what to call them -- of various philosophical concepts such as existence, causality, meaning, knowledge, goodness, justice, beauty, art, and so on.  In fact, you might regard it as the <i>essential</i> task of philosophy, to clarify the most pervasive concepts descriptive of the universe and human life.
> 
> Now, just as arguments can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  So we will spend some time thinking about what makes a good definition good, and what makes a bad definition bad.  But before that we should discuss a little the topic of meaning, a topic we will return to later this quarter.  A definition is, after all, supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so naturally there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until we understand a few things about meaning.
> 
> Let’s begin by drawing a distinction, between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a distinction you might already be familiar with -- between a word’s <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.  But for clarity let’s stick with "extension" and "intension."
> 
> The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger’s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let’s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger’s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn’t include his thumbs, we’ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."
> 
> You can think of a word’s, or a phrase’s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word’s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it’s not too difficult of a concept.  Here’s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."
> 
> I’m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word’s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn’t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
> 
> All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we’re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we’re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
> 
> Now I come to a different topic about meaning: namely, two different ways in which the meanings of words can be <i>unclear</i>.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being <i>ambiguous</i>, or in the sense of being <i>vague</i> (or, it so happens, in <i>both</i> senses).
> 
> So let’s begin with ambiguity.  One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  We’ve just encountered some great examples of an ambigious words, the word "meaning" itself can mean "extension" or "intension."  The word "unclear" can mean "ambiguous" or "vague."  But let’s get a more ordinary example of an ambiguous word.  Try this for size.  "Bank": as a noun, this can mean either a financial institution where you put your money, or the edge of a river where you might go fishing; and it can mean other things still when used as a verb.  Now, the different meanings that a word can have are its <i>senses</i>.  So "financial institution" is one of the <i>senses</i> of the word "bank," and "edge of the river" is another <i>sense</i>.  So you can see that if a word is ambiguous, then it has more than one sense.  Sometimes there are some rather fine distinctions that can be drawn between different senses of the same word.  For example, take the word "good"; this can mean "useful," as in "That’s a good hammer," or "exemplary," as in "She is a good student," or "moral," as in "They are good people."  No doubt "good" has other senses as well.
> 
> Now, in philosophy, it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, I might ask, "What does ‘good’ mean?" but I can’t even begin to answer until I have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of "good" I mean.  So discussions of philosophical concepts, especially in the past eighty years or so, have often begun by talking about the different senses in which a word may be used.
> 
> So much, then, for ambiguity.  That’s one way in which meanings can be unclear.  There is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  Here the stock example is "bald."  Some men are definitely bald, and there’s no debating the matter; for example, Patrick Stewart (Captain Picard of <i>Star</i> <i>Trek</i>: <i>The</i> <i>Next</i> <i>Generation</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, President Clinton.  And then there are a bunch of men, you know, the sort of men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we don’t know whether to say they’re bald or not.  There just isn’t any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.  Another good example of a vague concept is the concept of a <i>heap</i> -- two or three grains of sand is not a heap, but a thousand is.  So how many grains of sand does it take to make a heap?  There isn’t any clear line.
> 
> Now, when you look at a man with thinning hair, or a small pile of sand, and you don’t know whether to call the man "bald," or the sand a "heap," then you have found a <i>borderline</i> <i>case</i>.  So we can make a general principle, which in fact might work as a definition of the word "vague."  Here it is: to say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.  Consider those animals in Alaska that are the result of breeding Huskies and wolves: are they dogs, or aren’t they?  It’s not clear: so we can say that they are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of dogs.  This isn’t to say they <i>are</i> dogs, and it’s not to say that they <i>aren’t</i> dogs.  It’s to say that our concept of doghood isn’t clear enough to let us rule conclusively in this case.
> 
> It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of "right" in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right, and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that aren’t clearly right and aren’t clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear, on just those cases that are borderline cases.   Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow.  Well, having mentioned that issue, I’m just going to sidestep it.  You should just be aware that some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
> 
> Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn’t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
> 
> Now let’s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we’re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don’t we just define "definition" that way? --
> 
> The <i>definition</i> of a concept, or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a description of its intention -- that is, the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
> 
> Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don’t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
> 
> Now if you go and look at some introductory logic textbooks, you might see a list of <i>kinds</i> of definitions, such as "lexical" definitions, "stipulative" definitions, "ostensive" definitions, and so on.  But we have little reason to consider all of those different categories of definitions; we are primarily interested in one sort, what might be called a <i>intensional</i> (again, spelled with an "s") definitions.
> 
> So now about intensional definitions specifically.  Now I just gave you a definition of "definition."  Well, really that was a definition of "intensional definition."  That is the sense of the word "definition" that we defined; so you already know what an intensional definition is because I just told you.  What I want to do is to give you some idea about how you might go about formulating an intensional definition.  And since this is a class about philosophy we will use an example from philosophy -- in particular our example is from the field of metaphysics.
> 
> Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon’s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth’s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you’re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
> 
> Well, we can begin by taking a clue from the ancient Greeks, who treated concepts to be defined as <i>species</i>, or a specific category, of a <i>genus</i>, or a general category.  So we begin by asking: what is the <i>genus</i> of causality, the general category into which it falls?  In other words, what <i>sort</i> of thing is causality?  That might sound like an impossibly abstract and difficult question, that nobody can answer -- what sort of thing is causality?  Who knows?
> 
> Well, here’s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
> 
> So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  But we are not even close to being done in giving a definition of "causality," because obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are lots of different kinds of relations out there -- similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on -- and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
> 
> Now suppose we did come up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
> 
> This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don’t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it’s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don’t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
> 
> So if we’re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I’ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I’m sure it isn’t.  But it’s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
> 
> <i>Causality</i> is a relation that holds between events, where the first event (called the <i>cause</i>) precedes the second (called the <i>effect</i>), and where events <i>like</i> the first are <i>consistently</i> <i>followed</i> by events like the second.
> 
> So when we say there’s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it’s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
> 
> This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we’re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
> 
> All right, we now have one last topic to discuss, and that is the way that definitions can go wrong.  Just as arguments can go wrong in various ways (remember, we called those <i>fallacies</i>), definitions too can go wrong in various ways.  So I am simply going to list five ways that definitions in philosophy can be inadequate.  Bear in mind I am saying this is how definitions can go wrong <i>in</i> <i>philosophy</i>.  For <i>other</i> purposes the following definitions may be fine.
> 
> First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn’t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don’t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ‘excellence’ mean?"  Surely, if you’ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you’ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you’re confused about one then you’re confused about the other; so it won’t do to define one simply by stating the other!
> 
> The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I’m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here’s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won’t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we’re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what’s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
> 
> There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we’re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
> 
> Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren’t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
> 
> The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don’t describe some members of the word’s extension.  Here’s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
> 
> Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren’t <i>causal</i> relations.
> 
> Now here’s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don’t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
> 
> That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I’m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you’re giving the definition.
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> An introduction to metaphysics can be found in SomeMetaphysicalQuestions.
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> Today I am going to introduce one of the most fundamental and most difficult areas of philosophy, namely <i>metaphysics</i>.  It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even <i>are</i>, in metaphysics.  So I’m going to start with a fairly simple example that I’ll use to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
> 
> Imagine now that you’re in a nice bright room, and in the middle of this room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy red apple.  Now I’m going to ask a bunch of questions about this apple -- all of them examples of <i>metaphysical</i> questions.  This will, hopefully, help us understand better what metaphysics is.  Now don’t be worried if you don’t follow all of the questions that I ask.  I’m throwing a bunch of them at you at once in order to give you some general impression of what metaphysical questions are like.
> 
> The apple is an excellent example of a physical object: you can pick it up, throw it around, eat it, and so on.  It occupies space and time and has a variety of properties.  So now suppose we ask: What does it mean to say that the apple is a physical object?  In other words, <i>what</i> <i>are</i> physical objects?  This might seem like the sort of question to which one <i>can’t</i> give an answer.  I mean, what could you possibly use to explain what physical objects are?  But philosophers actually do try to give some general sorts of accounts of what they are.  They ask: Are physical objects just bundles of their properties?  Or are they substances which <i>have</i> those properties?  That’s called the problem of substance.
> 
> OK, here’s another sort of question.  I said that the apple has <i>properties</i>, like being red, being big, being juicy -- those are each properties of the apple.  But what does it mean to say that redness is a <i>property</i>?  How are properties different from objects?  Notice, we say that things like apples have properties like redness.  But apples and redness are totally different sorts of items, of things, of entities.  You can pick up and touch apples, but you can’t pick up and touch redness -- well, except in the sense that you can pick up and touch red <i>things</i> -- like apples!  So what’s the difference between objects, like apples, and properties, like redness?  How can we best think about what properties <i>are</i>?  This is something we’ll talk about, called <i>the</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>universals</i>.
> 
> And here’s another question about what physical objects are: When <i>in</i> <i>general</i> can we say that physical objects <i>come</i> <i>into</i> <i>being</i> and when they <i>cease</i> <i>to</i> <i>exist</i>?  Now surely the apple can <i>change</i> in lots of ways without ceasing to exist.  It could get brown and rotten but it would still be that apple.  But if I ate it -- well then the apple wouldn’t just have changed.  It would no longer exist.  So there are some questions to be answered about the notions of identity, or being the same thing over time, and change.
> 
> Now this apple is supposed to exist in space (it’s on the table in this room) and in time (it wasn’t on the table a week ago and it won’t be on the table a week from now).  But what does this talk of "space" and "time" mean?  Can we say, for example, that space is like an invisible three-dimensional grid in which the apple is located?  Well, suppose the apple, and every other physical object in the universe were to entirely removed from existence: then would space, that "invisible grid" still exist?  Some people say not -- they say that without physical objects, space would not exist, because space is the framework in which we understand how physical objects are related to each other.  So, no objects, no space.
> 
> Then there are other very different sorts of problems in metaphysics.  The apple is one sort of thing; now if I’m in the room, and I say I have a mind, I’m surely going to say that my mind is a different sort of thing from the apple.  I might say that my mind is immaterial, but the apple is a material object.  Here’s another difference: it sounds a little strange to say that my mind is located in any <i>particular</i> <i>place</i>; maybe we could say it’s somewhere in the room; but the apple is obviously located in a particular place, namely on the middle of the table.  And so on.  It <i>seems</i> clear that minds are fundamentally different from physical bodies.  But if so, how can something mental, like a decision to eat, cause a physical event to occur, like biting down on the apple?  How are the mind and body causally interconnected if they are two totally different sorts of things?  This is called the <i>mind</i>-<i>body</i> <i>problem</i>, something we’ll be studying in a few weeks when we study something called "the philosophy of mind."  The philosophy of mind used to be, and sometimes still is, considered part of metaphysics.
> 
> OK, I’m done giving you examples of metaphysical problems.  And I’ve just given you a <i>few</i> examples.  There are many, many more problems where those came from; for example, the problem of free will and determinism has often been considered part of metaphysics.
> 
> Now, I want to say something before I try to give a definition of the word "metaphysics."  Of all philosophical subjects, metaphysics is bound to look most <i>pointless</i>.  I am sure that some of you, when you heard the questions I just asked, were asking yourselves, "What on earth is the point of even <i>wondering</i> about stuff like this?"  So let me just remind you about what the task of philosophy is.  The task of philosophy is to <i>really</i> <i>get</i> <i>to</i> <i>understand</i> the meaning and justification of our most <i>basic</i> beliefs.  And metaphysics asks questions about <i>the</i> <i>most</i> basic of our beliefs.  Metaphysics is often thought to be the <i>most</i> <i>fundamental</i> part of philosophy.  If my saying that doesn’t help you get over the suspicion that this is all just hifalutin nonsense, just wait.  I am hoping that you will gain some <i>personal</i> <i>experience</i> of how questions in metaphysics underlie, and deeply inform, many other more obviously important questions in philosophy.  So insofar as how you answer metaphysical questions makes a big difference for how you answer other obviously important questions in philosophy, metaphysical questions are themselves important.
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> An introduction to metaphysics can be found in SomeMetaphysicalQuestions.  See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
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> Poor people in America are middle-class by the standards of much of the developed world and upper-middle class, even wealthy, by the standards of the ThirdWorld.
> 
> The poor in America own many luxuries.
> 
> 62.5% of America's poor own at least one automobile per household, while 13.6% own two or more automobiles per household.  There are 344 automobiles per 1000 poor Americans, roughly the same ratio for the total population of the UnitedKingdom.  A poor American is nearly 50% more likely to own a car than the average Japanese.
> 
> Over 95% of America's poor households own one or more televisions.  49% have air conditioning.  30.7% have microwave ovens.  56% have washing machines. 99.1% have refrigerators.  81.3% have telephones. (Data from 1987)
> 
> America's poor enjoy indoor plumbing.  98.2% of America's poor households have flush toilets.  In this respect America's poor compare favorably to the averagre household in other developed nations: 94% in the UK, 93% in West Germany, 89% in Italy, 88% in Spain, 83% in France, and 46% in Japan. (Data from 1980)
> 
> America's poor are well fed.  In almost all cultures people's first choice of food is meat, while other foods are eaten when meat is not available.  Meat consumption is therefore a good measure of how well people are eating.  America's poor eat more meat than the average person in other devleped countries.  As a percentage of consumption by poor Americans, West Germany totaled 75, France 70, Italy 62, UK 57, Japan 39. (Data from 1977)
> 
>  - Information for this article was taken from Robert Rector's 'How "Poor" are America's Poor?', published in 'The State of Humanity,' JulianSimon (editor).
------
MetaphysicsAndOntology|981079409
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> So now let’s talk a bit about the field of metaphysics in general, before we consider some particular metaphysical problems.  And let’s begin with the origin of the word "metaphysics."  Now, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  The way that the books of Aristotle were organized in an early edition, there was another set of books that were placed right after the physics.  These books seemed to concern a really basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which up to that time did not have any particular name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the books that come after the physics."  So that’s where we get the word "metaphysics."  Metaphysics is supposed to be the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So etymologically, what "metaphysics" means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
> 
> But this just begs the following question: What were those books by Aristotle about?  The books were divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  We aren’t going to go into this division of metaphysics in much depth because I don’t think it is very helpful.  But just to explain, very briefly, what these three terms at least <i>mean</i>.  (1) "Ontology" is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  If you don’t know what that means, you’re not alone; more about it in just a bit.  (2) "Theology" means, here, the study of God or the gods (remember, we’re talking about ancient Greeks here) and of questions about the divine.  (3) "Universal science" is supposed to be the study of so-called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the Law of Non-Contradiction: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
> 
> Metaphysics has changed a lot since then, over the many centuries of its existence.  Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical were added to metaphysics.  Other problems that were for centuries considered metaphysical problems are now pretty much relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy.  For example, there are a lot of problems that used to be considered part of metaphysics, but are now more commonly considered parts of the philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, and philosophy of science.  So needless to say, it would take us a <i>long</i> time even to <i>state</i> all the problems that have, at <i>one</i> time or another, been considered part of metaphysics.
> 
> But you might be asking this: Can we give some rough-and-ready account of what made all of these different problems "metaphysical" problems?  I think so.  We could give the following very rough, inexact definition of "metaphysics": Metaphysics is the study of any of the most fundamental philosophical beliefs, on which many other philosophical beliefs rest.  
> 
> And you could ask this too.  Suppose we consider only the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems.  The core problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  Is there something that distinguishes <i>those</i> problems?
> 
> I would think that most of such problems are part of Aristotle’s first branch of metaphysics, or <i>ontology</i>, and ontology, remember, is supposed to be the study of existence, or as Aristotle says, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  So I’m saying the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems are, at least mostly, problems about "being <i>qua</i> being."  But this must be frustrating to hear because you don’t know what "being <i>qua</i> being" means!  I’ll give a go at explaining what it means, and that way you can learn what "ontology" means.
> 
> First I need to explain what the word "being" means here.  I would suggest the following as a rough gloss:
> 
> A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
> 
> Now, you remember from last time that many words are ambiguous -- which means they have various different senses.  "Be" is a word, like many other words, that has different senses.  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, there are different <i>kinds</i> of beings.  Because, as I said, a <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
> 
> The different kinds of being are called <i>categories</i> of being.  Let’s go through a few of these categories of beings.  That should give you an idea of what we’re talking about when we use the words "being" and "category" of being.  Just bear in mind that different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  Anyway, in no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> categories of being.
> 
> First category.  Physical objects.  Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to <i>be</i> in the simple sense that they <i>exist</i> all around us.  So a house is a being, a person’s body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  You might also call them bodies, or concrete things, or maybe "substances" -- but the word "substance" has some special philosophical meanings as we'll see.  For a neutral term I’ll usually use either "object" or "body."
> 
> Second category.  Minds.  Minds -- those the parts of us that think and perceive -- are beings.  Each of us, we say, has a mind, a mind that exists or has being.  So each of our minds is a being.  Now I don’t mean to imply that minds are necessarily a <i>different</i> <i>category</i> of beings from physical objects.  But many people have thought so and you probably think so yourselves.  More about that in a few weeks.
> 
> Third category.  Classes.  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  In the class of human beings is all of the human beings; or, to use terminology from last time, the extension of the term "human being."  In the class of planets would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc. -- all the planets that there might be in the universe.  I’m saying that classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of engines <i>is</i>, or has being.
> 
> Fourth category.  Properties.  The redness of our red apple on the table is a <i>property</i>.  You could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Everyone in this room, I think, has the property of having hair.  So very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  Of course that won’t do as a <i>definition</i> of the word "property" because, like "attribute," "quality" is a near-synonym of "property."  And remember, it’s not particularly helpful to give philosophical definitions using near synonyms.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we’re talking about.  I’m just going to blur over any distinctions that have been drawn between the terms "property," "attribute," and "quality"; for purposes of introducing this material the distinctions don’t matter.  Anyway, whenever you talk about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, you’re talking about the object’s properties.  My claim then is that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
> 
> Fifth category.  Relations.  The apple is in a relation to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table -- namely, the relation of "sitting-on."  So we can say that that relation has being.  Or how about this: the World Trade Center is taller than University Hall.  "Being taller than" is a relation between the two buildings.  And we can say that <i>that</i> relation has being as well.  It exists.
> 
> Relations are like properties in that both of them are supposed to be <i>abstract</i>.  Now let me explain what that means.  Something is abstract if it does not exist in any particular place, but instances, or members, of it <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  For example, lots of different things have the property of redness: lots of things are red.  And we find the relation "sitting on" all over the place: lots of things sit on other things.  So the property, redness, and the relation, sitting-on, do not exist in any one <i>particular</i> place.  So if we want to say that properties and relations <i>are</i>, or have being, clearly we want to say they have a different sort of being from the sort of being that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have.  So that’s where this word "abstract" comes in.  We apply the word "abstract" to properties and relations to mark the fact that if they exist, they don’t exist in space or time, but that instances of them <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  Redness itself is not supposed to exist anywhere, but our apple is red, and lots of roses are red; and that’s why we say that redness <i>itself</i>, as opposed to instances of redness, is abstract.
> 
> On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>concrete</i>.  This means basically that they aren’t abstract: they are particular individuals, located at a place and a time.  So if you want a definition, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
> 
> I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
> 
> Let’s get back to the question of what "ontology" means.  I said it was, in the words of Aristotle, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  Well, the word "qua" means "with regard to the aspect of."  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being -- so it’s the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  Ontology is concerned with the different senses of "being," or in yet other words, with the different fundamental categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.  So from this we can derive some examples of ontological questions.  First: what does it mean to say a physical object exists?  Second: what sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?  Third: what sorts of beings are an object’s properties or relations?  And fourth: when does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?  
> 
> In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981079412
0a1,2
> * America's Poor
> 
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981079448
11c11
< America's poor enjoy indoor plumbing.  98.2% of America's poor households have flush toilets.  In this respect America's poor compare favorably to the averagre household in other developed nations: 94% in the UK, 93% in West Germany, 89% in Italy, 88% in Spain, 83% in France, and 46% in Japan. (Data from 1980)
---
> America's poor enjoy indoor plumbing.  98.2% of America's poor households have flush toilets.  In this respect America's poor compare favorably to the average household in other developed nations: 94% in the UK, 93% in West Germany, 89% in Italy, 88% in Spain, 83% in France, and 46% in Japan. (Data from 1980)
------
PhiloSophy|981079494
3a4,5
> LarrySanger has donated the context of LarrysText to WikiPedia.  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
> 
------
LarrysText|981079595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All these pages I've uploaded this evening are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
------
LarrysText|981079610
1c1
< All these pages I've uploaded this evening are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
---
> All these pages I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
------
PhiloSophy|981079628
4c4
< LarrySanger has donated the context of LarrysText to WikiPedia.  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
---
> LarrySanger has donated the content of LarrysText to WikiPedia.  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981079654
15c15
<  - Information for this article was taken from Robert Rector's 'How "Poor" are America's Poor?', published in 'The State of Humanity,' JulianSimon (editor).
---
>  * Information for this article was taken from Robert Rector's 'How "Poor" are America's Poor?', published in 'The State of Humanity,' JulianSimon (editor).
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981079661
15c15
<  * Information for this article was taken from Robert Rector's 'How "Poor" are America's Poor?', published in 'The State of Humanity,' JulianSimon (editor).
---
> * Information for this article was taken from Robert Rector's 'How "Poor" are America's Poor?', published in 'The State of Humanity,' JulianSimon (editor).
------
ExistencE|981079716
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|981079725
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> So now let’s talk a bit about the field of metaphysics in general, before we consider some particular metaphysical problems.  And let’s begin with the origin of the word "metaphysics."  Now, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  The way that the books of Aristotle were organized in an early edition, there was another set of books that were placed right after the physics.  These books seemed to concern a really basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which up to that time did not have any particular name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the books that come after the physics."  So that’s where we get the word "metaphysics."  Metaphysics is supposed to be the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So etymologically, what "metaphysics" means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
> 
> But this just begs the following question: What were those books by Aristotle about?  The books were divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  We aren’t going to go into this division of metaphysics in much depth because I don’t think it is very helpful.  But just to explain, very briefly, what these three terms at least <i>mean</i>.  (1) "Ontology" is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  If you don’t know what that means, you’re not alone; more about it in just a bit.  (2) "Theology" means, here, the study of God or the gods (remember, we’re talking about ancient Greeks here) and of questions about the divine.  (3) "Universal science" is supposed to be the study of so-called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the Law of Non-Contradiction: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
> 
> Metaphysics has changed a lot since then, over the many centuries of its existence.  Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical were added to metaphysics.  Other problems that were for centuries considered metaphysical problems are now pretty much relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy.  For example, there are a lot of problems that used to be considered part of metaphysics, but are now more commonly considered parts of the philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, and philosophy of science.  So needless to say, it would take us a <i>long</i> time even to <i>state</i> all the problems that have, at <i>one</i> time or another, been considered part of metaphysics.
> 
> But you might be asking this: Can we give some rough-and-ready account of what made all of these different problems "metaphysical" problems?  I think so.  We could give the following very rough, inexact definition of "metaphysics": Metaphysics is the study of any of the most fundamental philosophical beliefs, on which many other philosophical beliefs rest.  
> 
> And you could ask this too.  Suppose we consider only the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems.  The core problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  Is there something that distinguishes <i>those</i> problems?
> 
> I would think that most of such problems are part of Aristotle’s first branch of metaphysics, or <i>ontology</i>, and ontology, remember, is supposed to be the study of existence, or as Aristotle says, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  So I’m saying the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems are, at least mostly, problems about "being <i>qua</i> being."  But this must be frustrating to hear because you don’t know what "being <i>qua</i> being" means!  I’ll give a go at explaining what it means, and that way you can learn what "ontology" means.
> 
> First I need to explain what the word "being" means here.  I would suggest the following as a rough gloss:
> 
> A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
> 
> Now, you remember from last time that many words are ambiguous -- which means they have various different senses.  "Be" is a word, like many other words, that has different senses.  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, there are different <i>kinds</i> of beings.  Because, as I said, a <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
> 
> The different kinds of being are called <i>categories</i> of being.  Let’s go through a few of these categories of beings.  That should give you an idea of what we’re talking about when we use the words "being" and "category" of being.  Just bear in mind that different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  Anyway, in no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> categories of being.
> 
> First category.  Physical objects.  Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to <i>be</i> in the simple sense that they <i>exist</i> all around us.  So a house is a being, a person’s body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  You might also call them bodies, or concrete things, or maybe "substances" -- but the word "substance" has some special philosophical meanings as we'll see.  For a neutral term I’ll usually use either "object" or "body."
> 
> Second category.  Minds.  Minds -- those the parts of us that think and perceive -- are beings.  Each of us, we say, has a mind, a mind that exists or has being.  So each of our minds is a being.  Now I don’t mean to imply that minds are necessarily a <i>different</i> <i>category</i> of beings from physical objects.  But many people have thought so and you probably think so yourselves.  More about that in a few weeks.
> 
> Third category.  Classes.  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  In the class of human beings is all of the human beings; or, to use terminology from last time, the extension of the term "human being."  In the class of planets would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc. -- all the planets that there might be in the universe.  I’m saying that classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of engines <i>is</i>, or has being.
> 
> Fourth category.  Properties.  The redness of our red apple on the table is a <i>property</i>.  You could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Everyone in this room, I think, has the property of having hair.  So very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  Of course that won’t do as a <i>definition</i> of the word "property" because, like "attribute," "quality" is a near-synonym of "property."  And remember, it’s not particularly helpful to give philosophical definitions using near synonyms.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we’re talking about.  I’m just going to blur over any distinctions that have been drawn between the terms "property," "attribute," and "quality"; for purposes of introducing this material the distinctions don’t matter.  Anyway, whenever you talk about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, you’re talking about the object’s properties.  My claim then is that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
> 
> Fifth category.  Relations.  The apple is in a relation to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table -- namely, the relation of "sitting-on."  So we can say that that relation has being.  Or how about this: the World Trade Center is taller than University Hall.  "Being taller than" is a relation between the two buildings.  And we can say that <i>that</i> relation has being as well.  It exists.
> 
> Relations are like properties in that both of them are supposed to be <i>abstract</i>.  Now let me explain what that means.  Something is abstract if it does not exist in any particular place, but instances, or members, of it <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  For example, lots of different things have the property of redness: lots of things are red.  And we find the relation "sitting on" all over the place: lots of things sit on other things.  So the property, redness, and the relation, sitting-on, do not exist in any one <i>particular</i> place.  So if we want to say that properties and relations <i>are</i>, or have being, clearly we want to say they have a different sort of being from the sort of being that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have.  So that’s where this word "abstract" comes in.  We apply the word "abstract" to properties and relations to mark the fact that if they exist, they don’t exist in space or time, but that instances of them <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  Redness itself is not supposed to exist anywhere, but our apple is red, and lots of roses are red; and that’s why we say that redness <i>itself</i>, as opposed to instances of redness, is abstract.
> 
> On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>concrete</i>.  This means basically that they aren’t abstract: they are particular individuals, located at a place and a time.  So if you want a definition, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
> 
> I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
> 
> Let’s get back to the question of what "ontology" means.  I said it was, in the words of Aristotle, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  Well, the word "qua" means "with regard to the aspect of."  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being -- so it’s the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  Ontology is concerned with the different senses of "being," or in yet other words, with the different fundamental categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.  So from this we can derive some examples of ontological questions.  First: what does it mean to say a physical object exists?  Second: what sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?  Third: what sorts of beings are an object’s properties or relations?  And fourth: when does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?  
> 
> In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
------
OntOlogy|981079817
11c11
< * Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
---
> * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
------
ProblemOfSubstance|981079858
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Let’s move onto the next issue, <i>the</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>substance</i>.  Now we face another, perhaps more fundamental problem: What <i>are</i> objects anyway?  Is it possible to say anything enlightening about the meaning of talk of objects, of things, of bodies, of substances (I’m going to use these terms interchangeably)?  You might not think anything interesting could be said about this question, but we did manage to say something enlightening about the meaning of existence.  So let’s give it a try.
> 
> Let’s go back to our example of the apple.  I propose to ask: What is <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>itself</i>?  First of all, you might wonder now what it is that we’re supposed to be confused about.  You know what apples and tables and trees, and other bodies, are; you eat and bump into them all the time.  So maybe the notion of an object is <i>primitive</i>: it can’t be explained any further.  <i>Primitive</i>, that’s a term that is useful to introduce when we’re doing metaphysics.  A word is primitive if it is meaningful but not capable of being defined.  But at least we should try to see if the notion of a body can be explained in terms of <i>something</i> <i>else</i>.
> 
> So you might say: what about fundamental particles, maybe quarks?  Don’t they explain the notion of a body, since fundamental particles make up bodies?  Well, that’s not what I mean.  Fundamental particles are, after all, <i>other</i> <i>bodies</i>.  So the question is, is there any other <i>category</i> <i>of</i> <i>being</i> that can be used to explain what physical objects are?
> 
> And so here you might say: I have <i>no</i> <i>idea</i> what other category of being could be used to explain the notion of a body.  But sure you do.  What about properties and relations?  Bodies have properties and relations, and it seems that we can describe bodies only by mentioning their properties and relations.  The <i>only</i> way we can talk about the apple, it seems, is by describing its properties, or how it is related to other things.  For example, we can say the fact that it is an apple is a property of the object on the table; its redness is a property; its size and composition are properties; its being on the table is a relation; its being in the room, and being bigger than other apples, are also relations.  So it appears that the only way we have of talking about the apple is to mention its properties and relations.  And similarly with all other bodies.
> 
> So let’s go back to the question: "What <i>are</i> objects anyway?"  Now we can say what general sort of answer we’re looking for: we want to know how objects, or bodies, or whatever you want to call them, are related to their properties and relations.  Let’s leave aside relations now for simplicity.  So I’m just going to ask this: What is the relationship between objects and their properties?  This is supposed to tell us better exactly what objects <i>are</i>.
> 
> And this question, "What is the relationship between objects and their properties?" can be explained further.  As follows: "Are objects just <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> a collection of properties, or are objects not the same as, but <i>different</i> <i>from</i> their properties?"  This appears to be a fairly strict dichotomy: either objects <i>are</i> the same as collections of properties, or they are <i>not</i> the same.  And so there are two theories of the nature of objects.  The <i>bundle</i> <i>theory</i>, on the one hand, holds that objects are nothing more than collections of properties.  The <i>substance</i> <i>theory</i>, on the other hand, holds that objects are something over and above their properties, namely substances.  So let me explain each of these two theories a little bit better.  Then after I explain each one briefly, we’ll look at some arguments for and against each theory.
> 
> According to the substance theory, a physical object is something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> the properties that inhere in it.  That’s philosopher’s talk -- to speak of properties as "inhering" in a thing.  It just means that the thing has those properties.  Anyway, according to the substance theory, in at least <i>some</i> sense the substance can exist <i>without</i> its properties.  Even if it’s physically impossible that a substance would lack any properties at all, we can speak of the substance itself <i>as</i> <i>distinguished</i> <i>from</i> its properties.  Now the substance considered all by itself, considered without any reference to its properties, is what has been called a "bare particular."  It’s "bare" because it is considered without any properties, and it’s "particular" because it’s not abstract.  More about "bare particulars" in a minute.  So there you have a very basic introduction to what the substance theory says.  It says there’s a basic difference between substances, or bare particulars, and the properties that inhere in those substances.
> 
> Now for an equally basic introduction to the bundle theory.  According to the bundle theory a physical object is a bundle, or collection, of properties.  Hence, you cannot even <i>conceive</i> of a propertyless object: the object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> its properties, and so if you take away its properties you take away the object itself.  Think of the apple: but don’t think of its color; don’t think of its shape; don’t think of the fact that it’s a kind of fruit; don’t think of the cells that its made of; don’t think of its taste; and so on.  Think of the apple, but <i>don’t</i> think of any of its properties.  Is that <i>possible</i>?  The bundle theorist says: No!  Not possible!  So the apple is no more than a collection of properties.  There isn’t any more to the apple than that.  In particular there is no "substance" that these properties "inhere in."
> 
> So which theory of objects is correct, the substance theory or the bundle theory?  Well, let’s look at some arguments on both sides.  First, for the substance theory.  Let’s begin with something we might call the <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>grammar</i>.  This has as its conclusion that the substance theory is correct.  The argument goes something like this.  When we say, for example, "Snow is white," there is a subject, <i>snow</i>, and we are saying of <i>it</i> that it is white.  It makes no grammatical sense to speak of "whiteness" disembodied, without snow (or <i>some</i> subject) that <i>is</i> white.  The only way to make a meaningful claim about anything is to speak of a subject, and we predicate various properties <i>of</i> this subject.  When we talk about physical objects, at least, this subject of predication is called the <i>substance</i>.  So in order to make meaningful claims about physical objects, we have to refer to substances; but we make meaningful claims about objects all the time; therefore, substances exist.
> 
> Now, I suspect that this argument from grammar is no good.  The bundle theorist definitely would reject it.  Let me explain why.  The argument says: <i>just</i> <i>because</i> there is a <i>grammatical</i> subject in a sentence, we are referring to what might be called a <i>metaphysical</i> subject, a substance.  But how does that follow?  It doesn’t seem to follow.  Well, OK, the argument from grammar gets at least the following right: in order to make meaningful statements about bodies, we have to talk about subjects.  But why couldn’t a subject in a meaningful statement refer to a bundle of properties?  For example, consider the statement, "Snow is white."  Why couldn’t we be saying that a field of snow is just a bundle of properties like being made up of ice crystals, being cold, being a few feet deep, etc.  And then we say of something about this bundle of properties, that it <i>includes</i> the property of being white.  That seems like a reasonable way of understanding this claim that snow is white.  And we don’t have to talk about any substances.  So that’s a way to show that we can make meaningful statements about bodies <i>without</i> referring to substances.
> 
> Here’s a second argument for the substance theory.  It would go like this.  Whenever we conceive of one of an object’s properties, like the redness of the apple, we <i>have</i> to conceive of the object that <i>has</i> that property.  You can’t conceive of redness, or any other property, <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i>.  The point is that whenever you think of a property, you have to think of it as a property <i>of</i> something.  And well, what it’s a property <i>of</i> is just a substance.  There is no conceivable thing such as redness all by itself, or being four inches wide all by itself -- that’s nonsense.  It’s always a <i>substance</i> that is red, or that is four inches wide.  Therefore, substances exist.
> 
> This might be a slightly better argument, but it also doesn’t seem to be valid.  The main claim in the argument is that, since -- here’s the big premise -- we can’t think of properties all by themselves; therefore -- here’s the conclusion -- they must be properties <i>of</i> <i>substances</i>.  But does that conclusion follow from the premise?  I don’t think so.  Why couldn’t we say: they just have to be associated with a bundle of other properties, which bundle we call an object, or a body?  Do you see the point?  An individual property, we might concede, can’t exist by itself.  But that doesn’t mean that substances have to exist: maybe these bodies that exist are just bundles of properties, and an individual property can’t exist <i>separately</i> <i>from</i> <i>such</i> <i>a</i> <i>bundle</i>.
> 
> Philosophers are pretty sophisticated in their own way and they can think up all sorts of ways to defend their views.  So the substance theorist might have some ways of backing up these arguments.  But we don’t have time to get into it too deeply, so let’s move on and consider some arguments <i>against</i> the substance theory.
> 
> First, there’s the problem of knowing what the relation is between a substance and its properties.  For example, what’s the relation between the apple, considered as a substance, and its redness?  The substance theorist may say: well, a property <i>inheres</i> in a substance.  That’s the word he uses: "inheres."  A property’s inherence in a substance is kind of like being part of the substance.  But it’s definitely different from just being a part.  When I say, for example, that the apple is red, I’m saying that redness inheres in the apple.  But then what is inherence?  How much sense does that make?  It seems all I can say is that it’s what I mean when I say the apple is red!  But that’s not very helpful.  So what exactly is the relation between the substance, an apple, and its property, the redness?  That’s the first problem.
> 
> Well, here the substance theorist may just say that the name of the relation is "inherence," and that inherence is a primitive concept.  It can’t be explained any further, but it doesn’t need to be explained any further.  It’s like this: we know what it means to say that the apple has the property of redness, or the property of being juicy.  It doesn’t matter that we can’t explain what this talk of a substance "having" properties, or a property "inhering in" a substance, amounts to in any <i>other</i> terms.  We have to start somewhere -- we can’t define everything, or if we try we’ll run out of words!
> 
> So suppose the substance theorist manages to wriggle out of that problem.  But here’s a second problem, which is probably more serious.  We might say that the very notion of a thing with no properties, a "bare particular," as I said, is absurd.  We just cannot conceive of a thing without any properties.  As soon as we get the fuzziest notion of a thing in mind, we are thinking of <i>some</i> property or other!  The problem isn’t just that it’s physically impossible that we might stumble across a bare particular, or a propertyless thing on our way to class.  The point is that the very <i>notion</i> of a propertyless thing is impossible: we just have no such notion.
> 
> That at least is what the bundle theory’s advocate might say.  And we are now getting into arguments <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  In fact we can say that the second argument <i>against</i> the substance theory is just our main argument <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  I’m just going to make one argument for the bundle theory, and it’s at least a lot like this second argument I gave against the substance theory.
> 
> So the argument for the bundle theory goes like this.  The basic idea is that <i>however</i> <i>we</i> <i>might</i> <i>choose</i> <i>to</i> <i>conceive</i> <i>of</i>, <i>or</i> <i>describe</i> <i>a</i> <i>thing</i>, it will be a conception, or a description, of a <i>property</i> of a thing.  In other words, <i>there</i> <i>is</i> <i>nothing</i> <i>that</i> <i>can</i> <i>be</i> <i>described</i>, or even conceived, about a thing, which is not a property of the thing.  (Or a relation of the thing, but remember we’re ignoring relations for simplicity’s sake.)  We cannot have the slightest idea of any aspect of the thing which is <i>not</i> a property of it.
> 
> So what does that imply?  It implies that we cannot have any conception whatsoever of a "bare particular."  As the English philosopher John Locke said, a substance by itself, apart from its properties, is something "I-know-not-what."  The only way that we can conceive of an object is by conceiving of its properties.
> 
> Therefore to conceive of an object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> to conceive of a bundle of properties.  The only conception we <i>can</i> have of an object is as a bundle of properties.  The bundle theory wins out, on this view, simply because it’s the only game in town: the only way we can conceive of things is <i>as</i> bundles of properties.  We couldn’t imagine a bare particular, a propertyless substance, even if we tried.  So the bundle theory is correct and the substance theory is wrong.
> 
> I and I think most philosophers these days think this argument, or one a lot it, is a very powerful argument.  How could the substance theorist reply?  How could we hold onto the substance theory if we have no conception of substance <i>as</i> <i>distinct</i> <i>from</i> properties and relations?
> 
> Well, as far as I can tell, the best that we can do is that we can say we have a very basic sort of idea of substance.  Namely, substance is the subject in which properties inhere.  There’s a basic idea we can have.  So the substance theorist might say this: all right, fine, we conceive of substances by conceiving of their properties, but I the substance theorist continue to say that the thing we are conceiving <i>of</i> is the <i>thing</i> <i>that</i> <i>has</i> <i>those</i> <i>properties</i>.  And that thing is different from the properties.  So we can have a notion of a substance as "the subject in which properties inhere."  The substance theorist would maintain that we should just content ourselves that we are surrounded by lots of examples of subjects in which properties inhere.  All the bodies around us are subjects in which properties inhere.  I’m sure the bundle theorist would not at all be satisfied with that, but let’s just leave it at that.
> 
> Finally, let’s consider what arguments might be raised against the bundle theory.  There are several, but I’m going to bring up just one.  It’s about what it means to talk about a <i>bundle</i> <i>of</i> <i>properties</i>.  You have to admit that when you first hear it, it sounds kind of mysterious.  The apple is supposed to be a <i>bundle</i> of properties, redness, being four inches wide, juicyness, and so on.  But if there isn’t a substance that underlies all these properties, then what exactly is the relation supposed to be between the properties of a thing?  The apple is both red and juicy, right?  According to the bundle theorist, there is no <i>substance</i> that is the apple.  There’s just a "bundle" of properties like being red and being juicy.  So how does it happen that all of the properties of the apple on the table happen to be found together?  The bundle theorist says they are "bundled" together, that they are a <i>collection</i>.  But how are they tied together?  What collects them together?  Why should it be that redness and juicyness just happen to be found together on top of the table?
> 
> The substance theory can explain this but the bundle theory doesn’t seem to be able to.  The substance theory says: redness and juicyness are two properties that are found together on top of the table, because <i>it’s</i> <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>that’s</i> <i>red</i> <i>and</i> <i>juicy</i>.  And the apple is a substance in which those two properties inhere.  If we like the bundle theory, it seems we have to throw up our hands and say, "I <i>don’t</i> <i>know</i> why bunches of properties are found associated together."
> 
> Well, to be honest with you I’m sure <i>actual</i> bundle theorists would have something clever to say in reply.  But we’ll have to cut them off in the interests of time.
> 
> If you have found all of this stuff about the problem of substance baffling, let me see if I can make it a little bit clearer by giving a <i>completely</i> <i>different</i> sort of example.  A concluding example, I’m not going to spend too much time on this.  Have you ever wondered what your mind, or your soul, is?  You can identify individual thoughts, individual feelings, in your mind.  But do you know what the mind is, that has these thoughts and feelings?  You can imagine all sorts of mental goings on, but can you imagine <i>the</i> <i>mind</i> <i>itself</i>?  I don’t think so.  The only way we have of understanding, by introspection, what our minds are is by considering various particular thoughts, feelings, decisions, and so forth <i>in</i> our minds.
> 
> So then suppose someone comes up and says: well, you really don’t have a mind, or a soul -- at least, you don’t have any mind or soul that is distinct from your thoughts.  So all there are is a series of thoughts and feelings that are associated with your body.  There’s no mind that’s something over and above your thoughts and feelings.  This would be the view of someone who held a bundle theory about the mind.  The Scottish philosopher David Hume held a theory of mind like this.
> 
> Now I think some of you might want to protest strongly and say, "I most certainly do have a mind, or soul, which is distinct from my thoughts and feelings -- why, that mind is just exactly what I call my <i>self</i>.  Hume seems to want to deny that I have a self!  That’s absurd, and even a little offensive!"  Now if you have this reaction, then you have a substance theory of mind.  You think that there is something -- you may not know what but <i>something</i>  -- which <i>has</i> the thoughts and feelings, and the thoughts and feelings are <i>in</i> your mind, in about the same way that properties inhere in a substance.
> 
> Philosophers have talked, as you might have guessed, about both <i>physical</i> substances, or bodies, and <i>mental</i> substance, or minds.  And as I think you can see, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.  I’m going to have to leave the discussion there, as difficult as it is.
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ProblemOfUniversals|981079917
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> Universals are either properties, relations, or types.  Last time I didn’t talk about types, but I should mention them now.  Now recall that last time I listed five different categories of being.  Of course, there are others.  <i>Types</i> are another category of being.  A human is a type of thing; a cloud is a type of thing; and so on.  An instance of a type is called a <i>token</i> of that thing; so I am a token of a human being; the letter "A" that I just uttered is a token of the first letter of our alphabet; the apple on the table is a token of the type, apple.
> 
> Remember now that one of the categories of being that I did list was <i>classes</i>.  Of course we can talk about the <i>class</i> of human beings, just as we can talk about the <i>type</i>, human being, or humanity.  But you might ask: how do <i>classes</i> differ from <i>types</i>?  Are these really two different categories of being?  Well I’m not sure; perhaps there isn’t any substantial difference.  But there is a difference in how we <i>talk</i> about types versus how we talk about classes.  Here’s the difference.  I say that I am a <i>token</i>, or an <i>instance</i>, of the type, <i>human</i> <i>being</i>.  But notice that I say instead that I am a <i>member</i> of the class of human beings.  We would not say that I am a "member" of the type, human beings.  I’m a token, or an instance, of the type.  So the difference is: types have tokens, or instances; classes, on the other hand, have members.  And if you think about it, to say that something is a <i>member</i> of something is different from saying that it’s an <i>instance</i> of something; that’s an intuitive way to put it, isn’t it?  That a member is different from an instance?  Anyway, whether or not types are definitely different from classes or they aren’t, I am going to treat them differently.  And I am going to consider types universals, along with properties and relations.  So universals include types, properties, and relations, as I said, but not classes.  However, I should add that all <i>four</i> items are generally considered <i>abstract</i> in the sense that I defined last time.
> 
> So let me give some examples of universals: there are types, like doghood; properties, like redness; and relations, like betweenness; those are all universals.  Not <i>this</i> <i>particular</i> dog, <i>this</i> <i>particular</i> red thing, or <i>this</i> <i>particular</i> object that is between other objects; those are all particulars, and <i>instances</i> of universals.  Doghood, redness, and betweenness are common to many different things.  So a universal is something that can have instances; but it doesn’t make sense to talk about an <i>instance</i> of a particular.
> 
> You can also think of universals as the <i>referents</i> of general terms.  In other words, they are what we refer to, when we use general words like "doghood," "redness," and "betweenness."  By contrast, we refer to particulars by using proper names, like "Fido," or definite descriptions that pick out just one thing, like "that apple on the table."  So I hope I have said enough to explain the difference between universals and particulars.
> 
> Now last time we asked, "What are objects?" and we gave two theories of objects.  We asked about the basic nature of objects, and we called that the problem of substance.  This time we are going to ask about the basic nature of <i>universals</i>.
> 
> So here is the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>universals</i>.  I’m going to try to explain what this problem is.  The problem of universals may be most briefly stated as a question: "What <i>are</i> universals?"  What are they in general?  Or, if you want it expanded a little bit: "What <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>beings</i> are types, properties, and relations?"  This is, in a way, similar to our question from last time: "What sort of beings are objects?"  And remember that as far as metaphysics goes, we have no other way to describe objects than by their relations to their properties and relations.  When we tried to determine what was meant by this question "What are objects?" ultimately we interpreted that question as asking, "What are objects in relation to their properties and relations?"  OK, in the same way, when I ask what universals are, I am asking: "What are universals in relation to particular objects?"  So you might be able to see that the problem of universals is complementary to the problem of substance.  The problem of substance has you trying to explain what substances are in relation to universals; the problem of universals has you trying to explain what universals are in relation to objects.  So when we ask, "What are universals?" a clearer way of putting the question is this: "What is the relation of universals to particular objects?"
> 
> You might be wondering: Why is this a problem?  Well, I don’t expect you to see why it’s a problem just yet.  First let me list three facts about universals.  They will help you to see what the problem is.  These are similar to, but <i>not</i> the same as, the three points made on p. 354 of the reading.  These are facts that, no matter <i>what</i> our theory of universals is, if universals really are said to <i>exist</i>, then our theory about universals have at least to be consistent with, and even to explain, these facts.  In other words, you can take these three facts as background assumptions; and that means that if we come up with a theory which contradicts these background assumptions, we toss the theory out.  It’s no good.  Definitely we have to have <i>some</i> background assumptions, or else we wouldn’t have any tools to evaluate <i>any</i> theory of universals.
> 
> So here are the three facts.  Actually, I’ve already hinted at some of these, including the first.  The first fact is: Universals, if they exist, can be <i>multiply</i> <i>instantiated</i>.  What that means is that, if we’re talking about a universal, we’re talking about something that can have instances; if a universal has an instance, then we say it is instantiated.  For example: the type <i>horse</i> is instantiated by all the horses in the world; <i>flying</i> <i>horse</i> is a type of thing, though, that is not instantiated, which means there are no instances of it.  But the point is, it at least <i>makes</i> <i>sense</i> to speak of instances of horses, <i>and</i> of flying horses, whether or not there are any instances.  So universals, whatever else we think about them, have to be the sorts of beings that can be multiply instantiated.  This means a theory of universals has to <i>make</i> <i>sense</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> <i>that</i> universals can be multiply instantiated.  So for example if we come up with a theory of universals where the things that are supposed to be universals <i>aren’t</i> multiply instantiated, then the theory can be thrown out.
> 
> Here’s the second fact about universals: If universals exist, then we can form concepts of them, and when we do, we form a concept of something abstract.  In other words, when we think of, to change our example, dryness, we are thinking of something abstract.  Granted, when we conceive of dryness, we might imagine a particular dry thing, like the Sahara Desert.  But even though we imagine it, we understand that the Sahara Desert <i>isn’t</i> <i>dryness</i> <i>itself</i>.  It’s just an instance of dryness.  Whenever we have an example of a universal in mind, we know very well that the example isn’t the same thing as the universal itself; the Sahara isn’t dryness itself.  That doesn’t make any sense.  The point then is that to conceive of universals is to conceive of abstract things.  So what does this mean for theories of universals?  It means that if, according to some theory we’re looking at, universals <i>aren’t</i> abstract, then the theory should be thrown out.  Or if, according to a theory, it’s hard to see how we can even conceive of universals, then the theory should be thrown out.  Or suppose we come to the conclusion that, just as a matter of fact, we <i>can’t</i> conceive of abstract things; suppose we conclude that we can conceive only of particulars.  Then we should conclude that universals don’t exist.  So once again: If universals exist, we can form concepts of them, and when we do form concepts of universals, we are conceiving of something abstract, not particular.
> 
> Here’s the third fact.  If universals exist, then general terms, like "redness," "betweenness," and "doghood," refer to universals.  If there are abstract properties, relations, and types, then they are the sorts of beings that general terms refer to.  This makes perfect sense, once you understand it.  The word "redness" for example doesn’t refer just to the red apple here.  If abstract properties exist, then the word "redness" refers to an abstract property, not just one instance, because after all there are other instances of redness besides this apple.  Similarly, the word "dog," a type of object, doesn’t refer just to my mom’s dog Buffy; it refers to the <i>type</i>, dog, which can be instantiated in any number of our canine friends.  So general terms are supposed to refer to universals.  And if, according to a theory of universals, general terms <i>don’t</i> refer to universals, then that theory should hold that universals don’t exist.  That’s the proposal: according to this third alleged fact about universals, any theory which holds that universals really do exist had better have a way for general terms to refer to universals.  Really, what would universals be good for if we didn’t have them around for our general terms to refer to?  That might sound flippant but actually there’s some truth to it.
> 
> So there you have three basic facts that I am claiming are supposed to hold true of universals, if universals exist.  There might be other facts, other constraints we might want to put on theories of universals, but we’ll ignore them for now.
> 
> With these facts in mind, let’s see how we might update a statement of the problem of universals.  I said the problem in its simplest formulation was just the question, "What are universals?"  Now I’ll give you another way to put the problem.  Maybe putting it this way will make it more obvious how it’s supposed to be a <i>problem</i>.  Here’s the question: "What are these curious beings which can be multiply instantiated, which we conceive of when we conceive of abstract attributes of things, and to which general terms refer?"  Now remember also that I said the problem was explaining what the relation of universals to objects was.  So we can put the problem like this: "Can we give any sort of <i>general</i> <i>account</i> of what universals are, in their relation to objects, such that these three facts about universals come out to be true?"
> 
> If you still don’t understand what the problem is, you’ll get a much better idea of what it is after you have looked at some theories of universals.  So let’s now look at some theories of universals.  We are going to begin with the theory which was advanced by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato.
> 
> Plato’s theory of universals is also called "Platonism," or "Platonic realism about universals," or just "realism" for short.  But don’t confuse it with other doctrines called "realism" in philosophy.  The word "realism" is extremely ambiguous -- has a gazillion different senses in philosophy and also outside of philosophy.  I’m going to prefer the term "Platonism."  Anyway, according to Platonism, universals exist in a realm that is separate from space and time; universals have a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence.  We never see or otherwise come into sensory contact with such Platonic universals.  They definitely do not exist at any distance, in either space or time, from your bodies.  Obviously they don’t exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist.  Nonetheless these universals <i>do</i>, according to Plato, <i>exist</i>.  
> 
> Let’s call these sorts of universals, after Plato, <i>forms</i>.  They are also called <i>ideas</i>, but Plato’s universals certainly aren’t ideas in the mind; don’t be confused by that terminology; let’s just stick with calling Plato’s universals "forms."  Also, for simplicity we will use this word "form" <i>only</i> to mean Plato’s sort of universals.  That means that if you end up rejecting Plato’s theory of universals then you could say: The forms, Platonic forms, do not exist.  Or perhaps you should say instead: Talk of "forms" is nonsense.
> 
> Now let’s see how Platonism is supposed to solve the problem of universals.  Here’s the question to ask: What relation do the forms have to physical objects?  They aren’t <i>spatially</i> or <i>temporally</i> related to objects, right? -- No, the forms are not spatio-temporal items.  So what sort of relation do the forms have to physical objects?  Different views are possible here and Plato himself is hard to pin down.  We might say, first, that the forms are <i>archetypes</i>, meaning original models, of which particular objects and properties are copies.  So <i>this</i> apple is a copy of the <i>form</i> of applehood.  <i>This</i> particular redness here is a copy of the <i>form</i> of redness.  And so forth.  Particulars are then supposed to be copies of the forms.  (Whatever "copy" is supposed to mean here; we’ll discuss <i>that</i> in a little bit.)  Anyway, that’s one way that the forms might be related to particular instances of objects and properties and so on.  Another way they might be related, for Plato, is that particulars are said to <i>participate</i> in the forms, and the forms are said to <i>inhere</i> in the particulars.  This talk of "participation" and "inherence" is admittedly kind of mysterious.  What does it mean to say this apple participates in applehood?  What does it mean to say applehood inheres in this apple?  We don’t get very enlightening answers from Plato.  But we’ll talk a little bit more about that in a second.
> 
> Let’s consider how Platonism deals those three facts about universals that we listed.  First, are Platonic forms capable of being multiply instantiated?  Sure.  Plato did think that there were some forms that weren’t instantiated at all, but that doesn’t by itself mean that the forms <i>couldn’t</i> be instantiated.  On the one account, forms can have lots of copies -- or on the other account, they can inhere in lots of things.  On either account, the forms are capable of being instantiated by many different things.  But as we were just saying, it’s just not clear what either account of instantiation amounts to.  For example, what does it mean to say that this particular apple is a <i>copy</i> of the form of applehood?  Does it mean the apple <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>shape</i> <i>as</i> the form?  Probably not; the form, after all, isn’t supposed to have a shape because it’s not spatial, remember?  And what does it mean to say that apple <i>participates</i> in applehood?  Is it like membership in a club or something?  It’s not clear.  Well, let’s not try to get into it very deeply.  I just want you to know that this is a basic problem for Plato’s theory: exactly how are we supposed to spell out Plato’s views on how particulars instantiate the forms?
> 
> How does Platonism do with regard to the second fact about universals?  The idea here is: if we can conceive of universals, then we have to be able to conceive of the forms.  When I think of redness in general, then according to Plato, I am thinking of the <i>form</i> of redness.  Well, OK, maybe that’s possible somehow; but this raises another problem: how on earth did we get the concept of something, a form, that exists neither in space nor in time?  The forms are supposed to exist in a special realm of the universe, apart from space and time.  How could I have any concept of them, then?  I didn’t get the concept via sense-perception.  You can’t <i>see</i> the forms.  I can see the apple, and its redness, but those things merely <i>participate</i> in the forms, or they’re just <i>copies</i> of the forms; and to conceive of <i>this</i> apple and <i>this</i> redness is not to conceive of applehood or redness-in-general.  We do not have any <i>empirical</i> evidence that forms even exist; in fact it’s hard to think of what such evidence <i>could</i> <i>be</i>.  So Plato ends up saying that our souls are <i>born</i> with the concepts of the forms, and we just have to be <i>reminded</i> of those concepts from back before we were born, back when our souls were in close contact with the forms in the Platonic heaven.  This theory is, however, very hard to take seriously.
> 
> Well, so far Platonism wouldn’t appear to be doing very well in accounting for these facts about universals.  So let’s see if it can do any better in explaining the third fact.  Would it make sense to say that forms are what general terms refer to?  Sure, I think so.  Platonism probably does best on this count.  Forms are just the perfect sort of items for our general terms to refer to.  When we speak of "applehood" or "redness" we are talking about something like Platonic forms: that sounds plausible, anyway.  In fact, some people have said that Platonism gets all its plausibility from the fact that when we talk about redness, for example, we <i>seem</i> to be referring to something that is apart from space and time, but which has lots of specific instances.
> 
> Still, problem like what participation is, and how we can have any concept of the forms, would appear to be very difficult.  I don’t want to give you the impression that Platonism is rejected by everyone now, because in fact it <i>does</i> still have its defenders.  But we would do well to consider some theories that aren’t quite so strange.
> 
> So next let’s consider Aristotle’s theory of universals.  Aristotle was Plato’s student.  And just as a historical tidbit let me add that Socrates was the teacher of Plato: so there is a very famous line of succession that included the three greatest ancient Greek philosophers.  It went: Socrates taught Plato, and Plato taught Aristotle, and the three of them together are responsible for the birth of Western philosophy as we know it.  The whole line of succession occurred between 500 BC and 300 BC. 
> 
> Anyway, to Aristotle’s theory of universals.  Aristotle disagreed with Plato by saying that universals <i>do</i> exist in space and time.  They exist all around us.  So then what is a universal, according to Aristotle?  Well, I’ll say something in reply to that question, but I won’t promise that you will find it enlightening.  Aristotle thought universals are simply types, properties, or relations that are common to a number of different instances.  Moreover, universals exist only where they are instantiated; they exist only in things (he said they exist <i>in</i> <i>re</i>, which means simply "in things"), never apart from things.  Beyond this Aristotle said that a universal is something <i>identical</i> <i>in</i> <i>each</i> <i>of</i> <i>its</i> <i>instances</i>.  So all red things are similar in that there is the <i>same</i> <i>universal</i> <i>redness</i> in each red thing.  There is no Platonic form of redness, standing apart from all red things; instead, in each red thing there is the same universal, redness.
> 
> Now let’s look at how Aristotle’s theory deals with those three facts about universals that we listed.
> 
> First of all, the universal is multiply instantiated, so it appears.  It is, after all, <i>one</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>universal</i>, <i>applehood</i> which appears in each apple.  But here I think you can see a problem: honestly, how can we make sense of <i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> thing being <i>in</i> all of these different objects?  Because that’s what the theory says; to say that different deserts, the Sahara, the Atacama, and the Gobi are all dry places, is just to say that the exact same being, the universal dryness, occurs at each place.  Universals must be awfully strange entities if <i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> universal can exist in many places and times at once.  Or so one might think.  But maybe that’s not so troubling; it seems troubling if you expect universals to be like physical objects, but remember, we’re talking about a totally different category of being.  Maybe it’s not so strange, then, to say that the exact same universal, dryness, occurs all over the earth at once; after all, there’s nothing strange about saying that different deserts can be dry at the same time.
> 
> OK, how does Aristotle’s theory deal with fact number two?  Are Aristotelian universals what we conceive of when we conceive of universals?  Perhaps.  Now let me explain something about how we form concepts, according to Aristotle.  Think of a little girl just forming the concept of human beings.  How does she do it?  Well, when we form the concept of a universal on Aristotle’s theory, we <i>abstract</i> from a lot of the instances we come across.  We as it were mentally extract from each thing the quality that they all have in common.  So how does the little girl get the concept of a human being?  She learns to ignore the details, tall and short, black and white, long hair and short hair, male and female, etc.; and she pays attention to the thing <i>that</i> <i>they</i> <i>all</i> <i>have</i> <i>in</i> <i>common</i>, namely, humanity.  On Aristotle’s view, the universal <i>humanity</i> is <i>the</i> <i>same</i> in all humans (i.e., all humans have <i>that</i> <i>exact</i> <i>same</i> <i>property</i> in common); and this allows us to form a concept of humanity that applies to all humans.
> 
> OK, the third fact: Are Aristotelian universals the sorts of things we <i>refer</i> <i>to</i> when we use general terms, like "redness" and "humanity"?  Again, perhaps.  The idea is that when we refer to humanity, we refer to <i>the</i> <i>type</i>, <i>human</i> <i>being</i>, that appears identically in each human.  We don’t refer <i>simply</i> to <i>all</i> <i>the</i> <i>humans</i>, but instead the type, human being, which is the same in each human.
> 
> Aristotelianism (that’s a fancy long word for "Aristotle’s theory"), on the whole, sounds pretty plausible, I think.  Except that there may be something peculiar in this talk of the exact same universal being in each thing.  So how might one think if one opposed both the views of both Plato and Aristotle on universals?
> 
> Well, the people who oppose both Plato’s theory and Aristotle’s theory tend to be rather hard-headed, intellectually speaking.  They don’t like all this spooky talk of "forms," which exist in some never-never land apart from space and time.  They don’t even like this talk of qualities that can exist in many different things at once, as Aristotle has it.  These people would prefer if we just talked about particular things, thank you very much, because that’s all there are -- particular things.
> 
> This view has a name: <i>nominalism</i>.  So nominalism is the view that universals <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i>.  No abstract properties, relations, or types exist!  That’s what they say.  Since nominalists deny that universals exist, they don’t have to worry about explaining those facts about universals that I listed.  But that doesn’t mean that nominalists still have nothing to explain.  Because, clearly, they have lots of explaining to do.  Their position is really very strange!  I mean, consider this little argument: We <i>do</i> say, correctly, that this apple, lots of roses, and many sportscars are all "red"; so there is a property they have in common, namely redness; therefore there is a property; properties are universals, so universals exist.
> 
> How do nominalists reply to that sort of argument?  Whatever they say, they sure as heck do <i>not</i> want to admit that anything universal exists; everything that exists, they say, is located in space and time.  So we’ll just have to see if the nominalists have anything to say in reply to that argument.  Now, the word "nominalism" comes from from <i>nominalis</i>, which means, in Latin, "pertaining to names."  The first nominalists said that only general <i>terms</i> or names exist -- no general <i>qualities</i> exist for those terms to refer to.  Just the names.  So we can say the <i>name</i> "redness" exists, but there is no <i>universal</i>, redness, to which it refers.  What <i>does</i> the term "redness" refer to, then?  Perhaps any <i>particular</i> red thing, and perhaps <i>the</i> <i>collection</i> <i>of</i> <i>all</i> <i>the</i> <i>red</i> <i>things</i>.  This is called <i>extreme</i> <i>nominalism</i>: the view that universals do not exist, and that general terms (such as "humanity" and "redness") stand for either particular objects or collections of particular objects (such as "all humans" and "all red things").
> 
> Now if you’re a very worldly sort of person, who wants to say that whatever exists, can only exist in space and time surrounding us here and now, then nominalism might appeal to you.
> 
> But nominalism definitely has some problems; I’ll explain two of them.  So here’s the first problem.  If a universal is <i>just</i> <i>a</i> <i>name</i>, then all that the three humans, John, Mary, and Sally have in common, is that they are <i>called</i> "humans."  There is no property, <i>humanity</i>, that they have in common.  That seems very hard to accept!  After all, we need only ask: <i>why</i> are they all called humans?  We don’t just <i>say</i> that John, Mary, and Sally are all humans for no reason at all: we say so for <i>some</i> reason, don’t we?  But it is because each of them is an instance of the <i>type</i>, humanity, so you might say.  Or maybe you would want to say: each of them is called "human" because each is a rational animal.  But at any rate, they each appear to have some properties in common that <i>make</i> them all human!  For example: they all have highly-developed minds; they walk on two legs; they talk; and so on.  It certainly does look like <i>there</i> <i>are</i> <i>some</i> <i>properties</i> <i>that</i> <i>John</i>, <i>Mary</i>, <i>and</i> <i>Sally</i> <i>have</i> <i>in</i> <i>common</i> -- which are what we call universals.  And their having these properties in common is explains why they are all called "humans."
> 
> The point is that any nominalist worth his salt is going to have to come up with <i>some</i> way of answering the following: why is it that things that are described by the same general term <i>appear</i> to have many properties <i>in</i> <i>common</i>, even though in fact (as the nominalist says), they <i>don’t</i> have any properties in common?  I’m not saying that extreme nominalists haven’t tried to solve this problem, because indeed that have tried.  I’m just saying it’s a very hard problem for them to solve.
> 
> Let’s move on to a second problem for extreme nominalism.  According to extreme nominalism, general terms refer only to particular objects or collections of them, right?  That’s what I said anyway.  But surely when we talk about, for example, the redness of the apple, we don’t mean <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>itself</i>, but instead a <i>property</i> of the apple, namely <i>its</i> <i>redness</i>.  Suppose extreme nominalism denies that <i>that</i> exists.  Then it seems to be denying that this apple has the particular shade of red that it <i>obviously</i> has!  That just seems insane.  It seems as clear as anything can be, that this apple has a certain color, which we call red; after all, we can <i>see</i> the color!  Or to take another example: if I say that B is between A and C, but I deny that between-ness exists, then I seem to be saying that B’s-being-between-A-and-C doesn’t exist; because that would be an instance of between-ness.  So it would seem we should reject extreme nominalism because it denies that <i>instances</i> of properties and relations can exist, when it is as obvious as anything that at least <i>instances</i> of properties and relations exist!  Even if we can’t see or otherwise experience <i>abstract</i>, or <i>general</i> properties, surely at least we can experience instances of them; and it’s pretty hard to deny the existence of something that appears to be staring you in the face!
> 
> So now let’s look at two less extreme examples of nominalism.  We won’t spend too much time on these two theories.  Now these two theories both deny that universals exist, which is why they are versions of nominalism.  But instead of saying that general terms refer to particulars, or collections of particulars, they say that general terms refer to <i>something</i> <i>else</i> -- namely, images, or concepts.  So let’s begin with imagism.  <i>Imagism</i> is the view that universals are mental images, pictures in the mind; or that general terms refer to such images.  So the general term "humanity" means an image of a human being in my mind.  "Redness" means a mental picture I have of a patch of red.  Now, notice that there is a distinction between mental images and concepts.  I can have an image of a thing in mind, but that doesn’t mean that I am conceiving of the type of thing it is: I can be imagining what a person looks like without thinking specifically of the concept of what a person is.  The image is different from the concept.  Images generally are different from concepts.  So then here’s the second version of nominalism, called <i>conceptualism</i>: this is the view that universals are <i>concepts</i>, or that general terms refer to concepts.  So triangularity <i>itself</i> is a <i>concept</i> -- of a closed, three-sided figure.  The universal, humanity, is the <i>concept</i> of a rational animal.  To be human, then, is to be an instance of that concept that you have in your mind.
> 
> I think you may see that these are initially plausible views -- especially conceptualism.  But there are various problems that can be raised for both imagism and conceptualism, and there is one objection which I think we can use to reject both views immediately.  Namely: images and concepts are <i>of</i> <i>something</i>.  So if I have an image of a triangle, or a concept of triangularity, it is an image or concept of <i>that</i>.  So we cannot <i>identify</i> images or concepts with what they represent.  What we want to know is the type, or the property, or the relation, <i>that</i> they represent.  So if I have an image of a triangle in my head, or if I conceive of triangularity, and I ask <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>universal</i>, <i>triangularity</i>, then I want to know what sort of thing this image is an image <i>of</i>, or what the concept is a concept <i>of</i>.  That image or concept in my mind can’t be triangularity, because the image or concept is supposed to <i>represent</i> triangularity.  So to sum up, we might have images, or concepts, <i>of</i> universals, but clearly the universals are <i>different</i> <i>from</i> any images or concepts we might have <i>of</i> them.
> 
> Nominalism, at least the way I have presented it to you, would appear to be generally a very dubious theory, after we consider the objections to it.  Now I’m going to ease our way into the final theory, which is called <i>the</i> <i>resemblance</i> <i>theory</i>, and which in my opinion at least has the best chance of being true.  I’m going to introduce some terminology and motivate the theory, before I present it.
> 
> Remember our second reason for rejecting extreme nominalism: we said that surely at least <i>instances</i> <i>of</i> properties and relations exist!  So this redness, this particular redness of this particular apple, or this instance of humanity, Mary, exists.  Why not then admit <i>that</i> much, that <i>the</i> <i>instances</i> exist: <i>this</i> instance of redness, <i>this</i> instance of between-ness, <i>this</i> instance of humanity.  Specific instances of types, properties, and relations are called <i>tropes</i>.  So tropes are <i>particulars</i>, because they aren’t multiply instantiated.  There just one instance of each trope.  Now although they are particulars, it’s hard to say that they are <i>concrete</i>.  Take Mary’s humanity: of course <i>Mary</i> is a concrete thing, located in a particular place in space and time, but Mary’s <i>humanity</i>?  It sounds strange to say that that is <i>located</i> at all; rather, it’s the type of thing she is, and it’s just strange to say that the type of thing she is is located somewhere.  Or take maybe a better example: London is north of Paris; so London’s-being-north-of-Paris is a trope.  Right?  It’s a particular instance of "being-north-of."  But <i>where</i> is that particular relation?  Is it at London?  At Paris?  Somewhere in the English Channel?  That’s just a strange question.  London’s-being-north-of-Paris doesn’t seem to be a <i>concrete</i> thing at all.  So even though it is a particular, it is, we might say, an <i>abstract</i> <i>particular</i>.  The redness of this apple is a particular, but it’s not concrete in the way that the apple is; so we say either that this redness is a <i>trope</i>, or more descriptively, that it is an abstract particular.  "Trope" and "abstract particular" are two different names for the same category of being.
> 
> So then the suggestion now is to say: tropes exist; but universals do <i>not</i> exist, if conceived of as something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> tropes.  So the redness of the apple, the ball, and the flower each exist; but there is not something <i>in</i> <i>addition</i> to each of those things, some ghostly <i>redness</i> <i>in</i> <i>general</i>, which is somehow the same in each object.  Now in saying that tropes exist, we’re not quite done explaining the resemblance theory, but that’s an important part of it.  If the resemblance theory <i>is</i> a solution to the problem of universals, then we should still expect some answer to questions like this: What <i>is</i> redness <i>itself</i>?  Surely we aren’t saying that redness itself is any <i>specific</i> <i>instance</i> of redness.  Well then, what is it?
> 
> Try out this answer: "If I am not allowed to say that redness is any specific instance of redness, then I can still say that redness is the collection of all the particular instances of redness.  So the universal, <i>redness</i>, would be a collection, of all the particular rednesses in the world.  And, by the same token, humanity would be the collection of all the instances of humanity in the world."  Well, this answer might fly, but we still have a problem.  It is the same problem that was visited upon extreme nominalism: Sure, we can go ahead and say that the collection of all the redness tropes is what we mean by "redness in general"; but <i>why</i> do we call apple, the ball, and the flower all "red"?  We can say that each particular redness is a trope, and that those tropes exist; but why are they all tropes <i>of</i> <i>redness</i> as opposed to any other property?
> 
> Well, here’s a way to answer that question: we say that these three tropes, the redness of the apple, of the ball, and of the flower, <i>resemble</i> each other.  Moreover, we can simply <i>look</i> at the three side-by-side and <i>see</i> the individual colors, and <i>see</i> that the individual colors resemble each other.  Similarly in the case of John, Mary, and Sally: the reason we call <i>all</i> of them "humans" is that their individual properties <i>resemble</i> each other.  So in general here’s our theory: types, properties, and relations are <i>particular</i> <i>attributes</i>, or <i>tropes</i>, or <i>abstract</i> <i>particulars</i>, of objects; tropes are capable of resembling each other, and when a large number of tropes do resemble each other, we each formulate concepts and names which we use to apply to <i>all</i> of the tropes on account of the resemblance each of us sees.  But nothing genuinely <i>universal</i> exists; there are only (1) particulars including objects and their tropes, and (2) particular collections of tropes, and (3) particular resemblances between particular tropes, or between groups of tropes.  These three existence claims together make up the <i>resemblance</i> <i>theory</i>, which could also be called the <i>trope</i> <i>theory</i>.
> 
> Notice how the resemblance theory is different from <i>Aristotle’s</i> theory.  Aristotle said that a universal is <i>the</i> <i>same</i> in each object; but on the resemblance theory, each trope is quite distinct from each other trope.
> 
> The reading goes on to discuss this theory, but we are going to have to leave the discussion there.  A lot of philosophers these days <i>do</i> find something like the resemblance theory as presented here attractive.  But trust me, a lot more can be said on all sides.  In fact, it is not uncommon to find whole graduate-level courses <i>just</i> on the problem of universals.  But onto the next problem.
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> 
> One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
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> Next we’re going to talk about something we’ll call <i>the</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>change</i>.  Let’s begin with a definition of the word "change."  First, notice that when an object changes, it always changes <i>in</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>way</i>.  A baby grows up, and so changes in the respects of size and maturity; a snake sheds its skin, and so changes in the respect of the skin it has.  So here’s a definition of "change":
> 
> An object O changes with respect to property P iff ("iff" means "if, and only if") O has P at one time and at a later time O does not have P.
> 
> That’s what it means for a thing to change: it has a property at one time and later it does not have that property.  If a banana becomes brown we say: at one time the banana is yellow; several days later the banana is not yellow, but instead brown.  I figure this is all fairly straightforward.  No big mysteries here.  No problems yet.
> 
> But what about the sort of change after which a thing is <i>destroyed</i>?  When a person dies, we don’t say that the person’s life has <i>changed</i>.  We don’t go around saying, "Harry just isn’t the same sort of guy after he died."  We say that Harry’s life has <i>ended</i>.  Or when a building is demolished, we don’t say that the building <i>changes</i>; we say that it is <i>destroyed</i>.  So what sort of events, on the one hand, result in a mere change, and what sort of events, on the other hand, result in a thing’s destruction, in the end of its existence?  Now <i>that’s</i> the problem we’re going to take up; we can call it the problem of change and identity.
> 
> I am going to elaborate by telling an old story.  One day in ancient times a ship was christened "the Ship of Theseus," or "the Theseus" for short, and it was launched into the Aegean Sea.  As the years wore on the Theseus started getting creaky and weak and otherwise less-than-perfect.  So as boards started getting particularly creaky, they were removed and put into a warehouse, and replaced with new boards.  Then masts started tottering, and so soon they were warehoused and replaced with new masts.  And in this way, after fifty years, there is a ship moored in the harbor, but this ship now has all new boards, masts, everything.  So is the ship in the harbor now -- call it S2 -- <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>ship</i> as the ship that was in the harbor fifty years ago -- call that original ship S1?  In other words, is the ship we’re looking at now really the Ship of Theseus?
> 
> There’s one answer which is a little too easy and quick.  You might say: "No, of course not.  The Theseus has changed a lot.  So it’s not the same ship.  At the end of your life you’re not going to be the same person you were when you were a teenager.  You’re going to change a lot in the meantime."  Now if this is how you want to answer, then let me tell you that you’re not answering the question that I wanted you to answer.  I’m talking about a sense of the word "same" in which an old woman <i>is</i> the same person at the end of her life as she is at the beginning of her life.  Definitely, the word "same" has such a sense.  After all, we implicitly depend on it when we say, for example, "She has changed a lot."  In order for someone to change a lot, there has to be <i>one</i> <i>person</i> who underwent the changes.
> 
> Look at it this way.  Go back to our definition of "change."  I said an object changes with respect to a property if the object has that property at one time and at a later time the object does not have the property.  What changes is <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> <i>that</i> <i>an</i> <i>object</i> <i>has</i> <i>a</i> <i>property</i>.  The only way that that fact <i>can</i> change is if the object remains in existence.  So you can think of a continuing object as the <i>ground</i> of change, or the arena where change occurs, as it were.  So to get back to the Theseus, the question is: Has the Theseus merely changed <i>a</i> <i>lot</i>, or is the Theseus gone and a new ship now in its place?
> 
> Maybe you’ll say, "Sure; it’s just a refurbished Theseus, greatly changed to be sure, but still the Theseus."  If you think that, then consider an addition to our story.  Suppose someone buys all the planks and masts and whatnot that is stored in the warehouse, and out of all of those materials, and no other materials, he builds a ship according to the same plans that were used to build the ship christened the Theseus.  And this ship, call it S3, is launched and sits on the other side of the harbor where we find S2.  Might we not say that S3 is the same as S1 -- that this recently-constructed ship is the same ship as the ship originally called "the Theseus"?  After all, S3 was built out of the <i>same</i> <i>materials</i>, and according to the <i>same</i> <i>plans</i>, as S1.
> 
> But then we have a problem.  We can’t say that <i>both</i> S2 <i>and</i> S3 are the same ship as S1, the original Theseus.  Because if they were both the same as S1, then they would have to be the same as each other.  Right?  That’s a rule about identity: if x=y, and x=z, then y=z.  And S2 and S3 are clearly different ships: they are sitting on opposite sides of the harbor now!  So we have three choices: either, first, S2 is the same ship as S1; or, second, S3 is the same ship as S1; or, third, <i>neither</i> is the same ship as S1, and S1 has ceased to exist.  How do we decide what is correct in this case?
> 
> It’s hard to tell.  Well, let’s get some more theory on the table.  Whenever we make an identity claim -- I mean a claim which states that two things are the same -- we almost always use <i>two</i> <i>different</i> <i>descriptions</i>.  Not always -- sometimes we say "x=x," like "I am myself," but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative.  The interesting identity claims are claims where we use two different descriptions for one and the same thing.  For example, take these two descriptions: "the Morning Star" and "the Evening Star."  Sometimes you can look in the sky just before dawn and see a very bright point of light in the sky -- that has been called "the Morning Star."  And then also you can look in the sky just after sunset and see a very similar bright point of light -- that has been called the "the Evening Star."  In fact, the Morning Star is identical to the Evening Star -- both are the planet Venus!  So they are "two" things only in description; in fact they are one and the same thing under two different descriptions.
> 
> Now it’s a similar case with S1, S2, and S3: those are three different abbreviations, which stand for descriptions.  "S1" means the ship which sat in the harbor 50 years ago, newly christened "the Theseus."  "S2" means the ship which sits in the harbor now with the new planks.  "S3" means the ship which sits in the harbor, recently constructed out of the old planks.  So when we ask a question like "Is S2 the same as S1?" we can be understood to mean this: "Is the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks, <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>ship</i> as the ship which sat in the harbor 50 years ago, newly christened ‘the Theseus’?"  Do those two descriptions pick out or refer to the same thing, or don’t they?
> 
> Philosophers aren’t interested in the Ship of Theseus problem because it’s an interesting little puzzle.  In fact, it’s just an <i>example</i> of a more basic problem.  The more basic problem is this: How do we decide that X is the same as Y, where "X" describes something at one time, and "Y" describes something at a later time?  If you like we can call this the problem of identity over time, or alternatively, the problem of change.
> 
> Well, the German philosopher Leibniz came up with a law, called Leibniz’s Law, and maybe it can help us answer the question.  Leibniz’s Law can be stated as follows:
> 
> X is the same as Y iff X and Y have all the same properties and relations; thus, whatever is true of X is also true of Y, and vice-versa.
> 
> So let’s apply Leibniz’s Law to the Ship of Theseus problem.  S2 is the same as S1 if, and only if, S2 and S1 have all the same properties and relations.  Well, <i>does</i> the ship now in the harbor have all the same properties and relations as the ship that was in the harbor 50 years ago?  Here you might be tempted to say, "Clearly not!  They have <i>lots</i> of different properties.  So they can’t be the same ship."  Does that sound convincing?  Well, suppose we consider the property: "contains mast #1."  Mast #1 is one of the masts that the original Ship of Theseus had.  So S1 definitely had this property.  But S2 is not equipped with mast #1, but instead has, we’ll say, mast #2 in its place.  So S2 must be different from S1.  That’s the argument.
> 
> I think this argument is fallacious.  Why?  Because if this argument worked, then, for anything at all, <i>any</i> property that has changed from the last time we looked at a thing would mean that the thing doesn’t exist anymore, and there’s a new thing in its place!  Every little change in every little property would mean the whole thing is destroyed!  I mean, suppose we look at ST1 just a couple of years after it was built.  Say just one mast has been replaced then.  Will we say that the ship is a different ship <i>just</i> <i>because</i> <i>one</i> <i>mast</i> <i>was</i> <i>replaced</i>?  Surely not.  But the ship that’s floating on the ocean for a couple of years <i>does</i> have different properties, it appears, from the original Theseus.  So it looks like Leibniz’s Law would have us say that it’s a different ship.  Now you might see all this and conclude, "Well, Leibniz’s Law must not be a law at all, but a false claim!  X and Y do not need to have all the same properties to be the same thing."  So should we reject Leibniz’s Law?
> 
> I don’t think so.  We <i>can</i> save Leibniz’s Law, like this.  We can say: properties are to be described as occurring at particular times, or as we will say, they are <i>indexed</i> <i>to</i> <i>times</i>.  A property that is described as at a particular time is, we’ll say, "temporally-indexed."  So let me give you an example.  We can say that S1 has mast #1 <i>in</i> <i>600</i> <i>BC</i>.  If we say what time the ship has the mast, then we have indexed the property of having the mast to that time.  We say the ship <i>has</i> the mast then: but then we use the word "has" tenselessly.  That means we don’t say that it <i>at</i> <i>present</i> has the mast; rather, we say it "has" (put the word "has" in quotes) the mast at 600 BC.  We aren’t claiming that the ship has the mast at any <i>other</i> time; just at <i>that</i> time.  But if it were a later time, say 550 BC, <i>that</i> <i>very</i> <i>same</i> <i>ship</i> could "have" -- remember, we’re talking about a tenseless "have" -- it could, at that later time, "have" mast #1 <i>in</i> <i>600</i> <i>BC</i>.  In other words, that very same object has, at <i>all</i> times, all the <i>temporally</i> <i>indexed</i> <i>properties</i> it ever has throughout its entire lifetime.  That’s how, in 550 BC, the same ship could have the property "<i>has</i>" <i>mast</i> #<i>1</i> <i>in</i> <i>600</i> <i>BC</i>.  So suppose we say that all properties and relations are indexed to particular times, and all objects have, at all times, all the indexed properties, and relations, they ever have.  Well, this gives us a way to save Leibniz’s Law from the objection we gave.
> 
> We could say that S1 has the property "has mast #1 in 600 BC."  Then we <i>could</i> say, if we thought that S2 were the same as S1, that S2 also has the property "has" mast #1 in 600 BC.  Do you see?  If S2 is the same as S1, then  S2 can have these two properties at the same time: the first, "<i>has</i>" <i>mast</i> #<i>1</i> <i>in</i> <i>600</i> <i>BC</i>, and the second, <i>does</i> <i>not</i> "<i>have</i>" <i>mast</i> #<i>1</i> <i>in</i> <i>550</i> <i>BC</i>.  And we could also say that S1, the original Theseus, has the same two properties.  The original Theseus has the property "<i>has</i>" <i>mast</i> #<i>1</i> <i>in</i> <i>600</i> <i>BC</i>, and also has the property <i>does</i> <i>not</i> "<i>have</i>" <i>mast</i> #<i>1</i> <i>in</i> <i>550</i> <i>BC</i>.  Let me see if I can put this in plain English: S1 <i>now</i> has the property that it <i>will</i> have mast #2; and S2 <i>now</i> has the property that it <i>did</i> have mast #1.  Then we can say that S1 and S2 have all the same <i>temporally</i> <i>indexed</i> <i>properties</i>.  Then according to Leibniz’s Law, they would be the same ship.
> 
> And it goes without saying that, through the same sorts of contortions, S1 and <i>S3</i> <i>might</i> have the same temporally indexed properties.  And then according to Leibniz’s Law, <i>they</i> <i>instead</i> would be the same ship.
> 
> So can Leibniz’s Law help us decide whether it’s S2 or S3 that is the same as the original Theseus?  I hate to tell you but the answer is "No."  Leibniz’s Law says that some ships are the same just in case they have all the same properties and relations -- or, rather, the same <i>temporally</i> <i>indexed</i> properties and relations.  And how are we going to decide that they have all the same temporally indexed properties and relations?  Leibniz’s Law is no help when it comes to that decision.
> 
> Well, here is my suggestion.  Which is not original to me -- it has become a common thing to say about the Ship of Theseus.  Whether we want to call S1 the same as S2, or the same as S3, or different from both, depends on <i>what</i> <i>purposes</i> we have in calling something the "same" or not.  For example, if the owner of S2 wants to say that S2 is properly called "the Theseus," because that will increase its value, that’s a legitimate purpose.  Or if S2 is sold into different hands, then it might make practical sense to regard it as a new ship; then maybe we could let the owner of S3 call that ship "the Theseus."  Or perhaps owner of S2 made all the changes on the old Theseus and wants credit for the result; it would make sense for him to rename the ship and consider it a new ship.  So I think there just isn’t any fact of the matter about whether S2 or S3 is the same ship as S1; I think that’s a matter that’s up to us, to our convenience, and what purposes we have for considering things the same or different.
> 
> I should say, after this discussion of the problem of change, that in many cases, there’s little <i>practical</i> question about when something goes out of existence.  For most human beings, when the human heart has stopped beating and the brain has stopped functioning, you’re dead and you’re not going to be revived.  When you’ve eaten the apple, it’s gone.  When your old car is crushed into a cube at a junkyard, your car doesn’t exist anymore.
> 
> Now I want make a few very brief remarks about the so-called problem of <i>personal</i> <i>identity</i>.  Basically, the problem is the problem of change as applied to <i>people</i>.  Usually, there’s no trouble saying that, for example, a little girl in 1920 is the same as an old woman in 1998.  The same person is just described two different ways, first as a little girl and second as an old woman.  In fact, we are confident enough of our ability to reidentify people over time that we are given Social Security numbers that are supposed to last us from when we get them until we die many years later.  So it’s not likely to seem <i>mysterious</i> just exactly why we call the old woman in 1998 the same person as that little girl in 1920.
> 
> So to see any <i>problem</i> about personal identity, we have to think up some rather contrived science fiction cases.  Aune  gives a typical sort of example of such a case -- in fact, his example is less contrived than most, which usually seem to involve brain or mind transplants.  Anyway, Aune’s case goes something like this.  Some guy is out flying and crashes his plane.  The doctors think he’s a very important person; so, armed with this newfangled bionics technology, they reconstruct him.  All that remains of the original pilot is the top of his head.  The reconstruction is a success; the top of the pilot’s head continues to function, with a totally new body.  The question then is: Is this newly-constructed human being <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>human</i> <i>being</i> as the original pilot?  Most people, I suppose, don’t really know what to say, when they first hear such a case.
> 
> I am not going to discuss this case: I just wanted to explain it, so you can think about it, and then make one remark, the following remark.  Namely, that, since we have hardly ever encountered any cases that are even <i>remotely</i> as difficult to deal with as this, it’s not surprising that we aren’t quite sure what to say about such cases.  It seems to me that those weird science fiction cases are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of the notion of <i>being</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>human</i> <i>being</i>.  You remember from our discussion of vagueness what a borderline case is?  It’s a case in which our ordinary concept just isn’t clear enough to let us decide whether the concept does or doesn’t apply.  So in the case of the reconstructed pilot, my view is that our notion of "being the same human being" just isn’t clear enough to let us rule definitively that the reconstructed human being <i>is</i>, or <i>isn’t</i>, the same as the original pilot.
> 
> The same, I might add, can be said of the Ship of Theseus.  Our concept of "being the same ship" just isn’t clear enough to let us rule definitively that S2 is the same as S1; so if we find it convenient we might just arbitrary say that they are the same ship.  But we shouldn’t kid ourselves that we are simply applying our ordinary concept, because our ordinary concept of the sameness of ships over time doesn’t say anything about that case.
> 
> Well, that’s all I wanted to say about identity and change -- two sample relations.  There are a lot of topics in metaphysics we haven’t considered at all.  But we have at least understood some basic facts about our red apple.  We can say: when we say the red apple exists, we means that it is located in space and time, in the world that we are part of.  The apple itself, we might say, is a substance, and its redness is a property.  The redness of the apple is a trope, which resembles the redness of playground balls and flowers.  And though the apple can get soft and rotten while remaining the same apple, once it’s eaten, it is destroyed.
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PhiloSophy|981080122
10c10
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
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> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
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PhilosophyOfReligion|981080160
1c1
< Major Christian Philosophers:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
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> Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
3c3,19
< Er, Spinoza was a Christian philosopher?  He was a pantheistic Jew!  I don't know if Weber was religious at all (he theorized about religion); and Hume of course is famous for being an atheist, though in fact he might have been an agnostic or even a closet believer.  (The ''Dialogues'' aren't very clear about this.)
---
> "Philosophy of religion" means "the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental religious claims, particularly about the nature and existence of God."  Philosophy of religion is classically regarded as part of metaphysics, since according to most conceptions of God, if God exists he’s in an important category of being different from the rest of the universe.  Right?  God isn’t a body and he isn’t any ordinary sort mind.  Moreover, remember that metaphysics concerns basic beliefs which underlie many other philosophical beliefs -- and well, religious claims, as we all know, often underlie views about what we can know, how we can get knowledge, and how we should live.  So all that is why philosophy of religion has been, traditionally, regarded as a branch of metaphysics.  But more recently the philosophy of religion has been instead regarded as a subject unto itself.
> 
> Before we get into the subject itself I want to make something clear.  I am <i>not</i> trying to attack your religious beliefs; I think you do have a right to believe, and not to believe, whatever you want.  As I conceive of it, the purpose of the <i>philosophical</i> study of the philosophy of religion is not either to support or to undermine religion, but rather to examine the meaning and justification of belief in God to the best of our ability.  Now some people are very threatened by <i>any</i> sort of clarification of their religious views, whether about the meaning of those views, or about whether those views can be supported by good reasons.  If you are such a person, I implore you to change your attitude, if for no other reason than that some extremely religious people study the very questions we’re going to ask.  For example, all the questions we’re going to ask are studied in depth at prominent Catholic universities, where sections about the philosophy of religion are included in introductory philosophy courses, which courses are taught by priests and other firm believers.
> 
> So to the subject itself.  There are a lot of philosophical questions that can be asked about religious beliefs.  But my view is that there are just two <i>really</i> important questions in this field.  They are: (1) What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  (2) Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist?  Still, there are <i>other</i> questions studied in the philosophy of religion.  For example: What, if anything, would be good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred?  Or: Is it possible for belief in God’s existence to be <i>rational</i> even though one merely has <i>faith</i> that God exists?  Or: What might it mean for God to be "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" as in Christian theology?  But I think the two questions I listed are most <i>fundamental</i>.  In saying they are most fundamental, I mean that the other questions in the field either contribute to answering one or the other or both of these questions, or else they are relatively unimportant.  I mean, <i>surely</i> the most important questions we have to ask about religion are what God <i>is</i>, and whether we have any reason to believe God does or does not <i>exist</i>.
> 
> So let’s examine the two questions in a bit more depth.  To begin with the first: What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  Now, what would count as an answer to this question?  A definition, no doubt; maybe other sorts of answers would be acceptable, but what we would naturally expect is a definition.  Now remember something from our discussion of definitions.  <i>Before</i> we give a definition of a term we want to know what <i>sense</i> of the term we want to define.  I might ask, "What is the definition of ‘bank’?" but until I said that I meant financial institutions rather than edges of rivers you’d be confused about what concept it was that I wanted defined.
> 
> Now, aren’t there different senses of the word "God"?  Surely there are.  The word is used in different ways by different people.  So before we try to answer the question, "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we have to get clear on which conception of "God" we are trying to define!  Some people believe that there is <i>more</i> <i>than</i> <i>one</i> God.  They are called <i>polytheists</i>.  For example, the ancient Greeks were polytheists, officially anyway, polytheists.  We aren’t going to concern ourselves with the merits of polytheism.  Some people believe there is only <i>one</i> God.  That belief is called <i>monotheism</i>.  But there is a <i>huge</i> number of different kinds of monotheism.  Some people have the rather strange view that there is one God but God is simply <i>everything</i> <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>; in other words the whole universe is God.  This view is called <i>pantheism</i>.  Some people believe that only one God exists, but that God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene at all, not even to answer prayers: they are called <i>deists</i>.  The old French Enlightenment <i>philosophes</i>, like Voltaire, were deists.  OK, so where do ordinary Christians fit into this?  They are <i>theists</i> proper.  <i>Theism</i> is the view that exactly one God exists, which is an eternally existent spirit, which exists apart from space and time, and which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful; and usually this being is also thought to be all-knowing and all-loving.
> 
> So let us suppose that we decide we are interested in finding out what the word "God" might refer to, <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>sense</i> <i>in</i> <i>which</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>used</i> <i>by</i> <i>theists</i>.  In other words, we decide we are not interested in any polytheistic sorts of gods, or a pantheistic sort of god, or a deistic sort of god.  What we want to get some grasp on is what the God of Abraham and Jesus is.  And suppose we decide on the definition of "God" that informs the stated definition of theism.  So we say that "God" means "an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  But then there are a lot of questions to be answered <i>about</i> <i>this</i> <i>definition</i>.  For example, what does it mean for a <i>spirit</i> to create anything?  What does "all-powerful" mean?  There is no shortage of questions that philosophers -- both believers and nonbelievers, mind you -- have about the very idea, the very concept, of the God in whose existence theists believe.  We will discuss such questions in a little bit.
> 
> But first let me introduce the second question that I said was so fundamental in the philosophy of religion: Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God does not exist?  Now, what would count as an answer to <i>this</i> question?  Well, of course, the words "Yes, we do" or "No, we don’t"; but then these words should be followed by supporting arguments, and the conclusions of the arguments would be either "God exists" or "God does not exist."  We will discuss several arguments that God exists, and one major argument that God does <i>not</i> exist.
> 
> I’ve already introduced the names of different kinds of belief that God exists.  We can give a general description of someone who does not believe that God exists -- we can say they are <i>nonbelievers</i>.  Nonbelievers come in two varieties.  Those who believe that God does not exist are <i>atheists</i>, and their view is called <i>atheism</i>, whereas those who believe neither that God exists <i>nor</i> that God does not exist are called <i>agnostics</i>, and their position is <i>agnosticism</i>.  Some people who don’t think very much about the philosophy of religion tend to think that all nonbelievers are atheists, thus entirely ignoring a very importantly different position that some people take on the question of whether or not God exists, namely agnosticism.  In its original sense, agnosticism is the view that we, humans, <i>cannot</i> <i>know</i> whether or not God exists.  But there are some other views, which are not as extreme as that, which I am lumping in with agnosticism in that original sense.  For example, if I say that <i>I</i> <i>personally</i> do not know, at present, whether or not God exists, then I am an "agnostic" in a looser sense of that word.  I would even lump in with the agnostics those people who simply have no views about God, haven’t thought very much about it, and don’t care.  I doubt there are very many such people these days, but those people too may be called "agnostics" in a loose sense of that term.
> 
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
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UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981080211
1c1,3
< * America's Poor
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> <b>America's Poor</b>
> 
> * Global comparisons
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GoD|981080245
3c3
< There are a large number of different concepts of the divine, and this fact is reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.
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> There are a large number of different concepts of the divine, and this fact is reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.  WhatIsGod, anyway?
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WhatIsGod|981080288
1c1,67
< Describe the new page here.
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> So what is God?  I am that some of you might have the reaction: "I don’t know -- no one knows.  And that’s as it should be.  God is totally beyond the comprehension of mere finite beings such as ourselves, and we should not go about pretending that we <i>can</i> know what God is."  If this is your view, I’m not going to tell you that you are wrong, but I <i>am</i> going to point out a little paradox about your position.  Namely, if you think that the nature of God is <i>totally</i> unknown, but you nevertheless say you believe that God exists, then you cannot even say what it is that you are believing in.  Honestly, how much sense does this make, if I say, "I believe that God exists, but I have absolutely no idea of what God is"?  If you don’t see the paradox, let me draw a comparison.  Suppose I say to you, "I believe that flibits exist, but I have absolutely no idea of what flibits are."  How would you react to that?  You’d probably say that I was babbling.  If I have <i>absolutely</i> no idea of what flibits are, then I’m talking <i>nonsense</i> if I say that I believe that flibits exist.
> 
> If I say that I believe that something exists, I have to <i>some</i> conception -- not necessarily a perfect conception, but <i>some</i> conception -- of what that thing is.  So I will make a bold assertion, which I think is absolutely incontrovertible: If you claim to believe that God exists, then unless you are talking nonsense, you must have <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> <i>minimal</i> conception of what God is.
> 
> Now when I put it like that -- <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> <i>minimal</i> conception -- then maybe you’ll concede that you have at least <i>that</i> much of an idea of what God is.  After all, if you have anything like a traditional Christian belief, then in fact you <i>do</i> have some conception of what God is: God is an eternally existent spiritual being who created the world, and so forth.  In fact, if you are indeed a traditional Christian, you may want to add to this, and say, "There is the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, so that there are three aspects to God, and while we may not know the precise meaning of this doctrine, nonetheless we can know that it is true."  Well, however all that is, we don’t want to complicate the discussion with particular doctrines of particular versions of theism; what we want to look into is what the God of any traditional Jewish, Christian, or Islamic faith is; if you prefer, we want to know what sort of being God the Father is.
> 
> Now we have already seen, after discussing the problem of substance and the problem of universals, that these "What is" questions often oversimplify or cover up more specific sorts of questions.  And it’s no different when we ask, "What is God?"  So how can this question be cashed out?  What is it exactly that we are asking when we ask this?  If all we wanted were a definition of "God," well, we’ve got that; so what more do we need?
> 
> What we need is to <i>understand</i> the definition.  It’s one thing to give the traditional sort of definition of "God," but it’s quite another really to understand what it is supposed to be describing.  Now let’s read the definition, as I formulated it, again: "God is an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and which is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  There are a lot of aspects of the definition that need at least <i>some</i> explanation.  There are, as I see it, two different kinds of questions we might raise about aspects of the definition.  First, what do various important terms in the definition really mean?  Second, how could we possibly get the very <i>concepts</i> of certain properties, described by those terms, properties which are not properties of <i>anything</i> in our ordinary everyday experience?   So what I will do next is present a few of these questions.  I’m not going to be exhaustive at all in this list of problems, these are just samples.  I will begin with two relatively minor problems and then present one much more important, overarching problem.
> 
> First, we say that God is <i>eternally</i> existent.  Now some people would take this to mean that God is <i>timeless</i> -- categories of past, present, and future just don’t apply when we’re talking about God.  But other people would say that "eternal existence" means, instead, that God exists <i>at</i> <i>all</i> <i>times</i>.  In other words.  If God is eternally existent, he <i>has</i> <i>already</i> existed for an <i>infinite</i> amount of time, and he <i>will</i> continue to exist for an infinite amount of time  -- his existence never began and will never end.
> 
> So let’s take a look at this <i>latter</i> concept of eternity.  It is, I suppose, rather common to observe that we finite human beings cannot really conceive of the infinite.  If that were the case, then we could not understand what God’s eternity was; an eternity is an infinite amount of time.  But others say we have <i>some</i> notion of an infinity -- at least a <i>potential</i> infinity.  The idea here is that we <i>do</i>, after all, have the notion of a series that begins and has not ended.  A series of times that has begun and not ended is <i>potentially</i> infinite.  But does this give us a full-bodied notion of an <i>actual</i> infinity, which is what God is supposed to be?
> 
> Well just suppose we say, "No -- in fact, we can’t understand what an actual infinity is.  Therefore we can’t understand what eternity is."  In that case, part of what God is, is to <i>be</i> eternal, then we cannot understand what God is -- or at least, we cannot understand <i>that</i> <i>aspect</i> of what God is.  Now, we want to have some notion of what God is that is adequate or robust enough for us to be able to say we understand what we <i>mean</i> when we say that God exists.  Right?  We aren’t just <i>babbling</i>, when we say that God exists: and the mere fact, if it is a fact, that we don’t understand eternal existence, may not, by itself, be enough to show that we don’t know what we’re talking about when we say that God exists.  Maybe we could still make sense of the claim, "God exists," <i>without</i> any clear notion of eternal existence.  Or maybe we could make do by understanding God’s eternity by way of our closely related concept, of a potential infinity.
> 
> Here is a second problem.  We say that God is "all-powerful," or to say the same thing, <i>omnipotent</i>.  Some philosophers have brought up some puzzles which are supposed to cast some doubt on whether the notion of omnipotence is really very clear.  The <i>basic</i> notion can be understood well enough it seems: something is omnipotent, or all-powerful, if the being can do anything you think of.  Well, OK, here’s something I seem to be able to think of: a square circle.  I may not be able to <i>imagine</i> a square circle, and I know very well that such a notion is self-contradictory.  But I know what a square circle would be: a shape that is both square and circular.  But if God can do <i>anything</i>, then he could create an actual square circle, couldn’t he?  Or how about this rather hackneyed problem: Is God’s omnipotence such that he could create a stone that he could not lift?  Well, he’s omnipotent, so he could create anything; but if he created this stone, then he couldn’t lift it.  It doesn’t solve the problem to say that, <i>just</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>matter</i> <i>of</i> <i>fact</i>, God <i>doesn’t</i> make square circles, or stones he can’t lift.  Because the question isn’t whether or not God <i>does</i> such things, but whether he <i>could</i> do such things.  The claim that God is omnipotent is, after all, a claim about what is <i>possible</i>, about what God has the <i>ability</i> to do, not about what is <i>actual</i>.
> 
> I suspect we would be right to think that this puzzle about omnipotence really isn’t very serious.  What theologians and philosophers often say is that God can do whatever is <i>logically</i> <i>possible</i>.  God can’t create contradictions, they say, but that’s no <i>real</i> limitation of God’s power; to talk about an <i>actually</i> <i>existent</i> <i>contradiction</i> is just nonsense, they claim.  I personally think that’s a fair assessment.  I mean, if we say that, indeed, God cannot create a stone he cannot lift, or that God cannot create an actually existent square circle, is that really any serious limitation of God’s power?  I doubt it.  So we could say that God can do anything that does not imply a contradiction.
> 
> Well, not all questions about the nature of God are as apparently frivolous as this.  Indeed, by comparison, the next problem is rather serious, large, and complex.  I can sum up this problem in the following question: How are we to understand what <i>sort</i> of thing God is?  Well, consider these three things we say about God: first, God is a <i>spirit</i>; second, God is the <i>creator</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>; and third, God exists <i>apart</i> <i>from</i> <i>space</i> <i>and</i> <i>time</i>.  All three of those things are said of the <i>same</i> <i>being</i>.  And the fact that all three are said of the same being gives rise to some very difficult puzzles about the sort of thing that God is supposed to be.
> 
> For a moment let’s just take the first claim, that God is a spirit, by itself.  "God is a spirit."  Now, what does this term "spirit" mean?  Please note: if we regard our definition of "God" as a genus-and-difference definition, then the <i>genus</i> of God is "spirit."  Right?  God is a particular kind of spirit.  The rest of the definition of "God" is supposed to tell us <i>what</i> <i>kind</i> of spirit God is.  So, if we don’t understand what <i>spirits</i> are supposed to be, then in a very strong sense we have no grasp on what <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i> <i>God</i> <i>is</i>.  So we had <i>better</i> understand what it means to say that God is a spiritual being, or else we clearly won’t have an adequate handle on what sort of thing God is supposed to be.
> 
> Suppose then we say that the word "spirit" means simply <i>mind</i>.  We know what minds are, because we are all intimately acquainted with our own minds.  I then have a concept of what God is: God is a mind, like my own mind, only much more powerful.  Now if we say this -- that God is a mind -- then clearly we have some explaining to do.  Let us now bring up the second and the third claims about God that I listed:  God is the <i>creator</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>; and God exists <i>apart</i> <i>from</i> <i>space</i> <i>and</i> <i>time</i>.   So now what we are saying is that it is a <i>mind</i> that created the world, and this <i>mind</i> exists apart from space and time.  But how can we understand what a mind is supposed to be that <i>creates</i> <i>physical</i> <i>bodies</i> <i>out</i> <i>of</i> <i>nothing</i>, and which exists <i>timelessly</i>?  Let me elaborate the problems here.
> 
> Do we understand what it means for a <i>mind</i> to create anything physical?  Look here, we do have a notion of what minds can do, based on observation of our own minds.  Our own minds can think thoughts, perceive the world, experience feelings, make decisions.  The decisions we make result in the actions <i>of</i> <i>our</i> <i>bodies</i>.  The only way in which we are familiar with minds impacting the world is via the bodies that are associated with those minds; in other words, it’s only when we decide something, or have a strong feeling that causes us to act out of excitement or anger, that our minds cause our bodies to act.
> 
> But now compare that with what is being claimed about God.  God is supposed to be a spirit, which at present we are understanding to be a <i>mind</i>, a divine mind; this divine mind is supposed to have <i>created</i> <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i>, the physical objects that make up the universe, <i>out</i> <i>of</i> <i>nothing</i>.  We certainly do not have any experience of minds creating physical objects out of nothing.  And from a first-person perspective, we have not a clue as to what that would even be <i>like</i>.
> 
> Now, I suppose what we do, in order to understand the notion of a mind creating something out of nothing, is to use our imaginations in a certain way.  We imagine someone thinking very hard, with nothing in front of him; and then the next moment there <i>is</i> something, like a tree, in front of him; and, whatever this would mean, we imagine that his thoughts have <i>caused</i> the tree to appear in front of him.  And remember, since God is suppose to be <i>just</i> a mind, without a body, that we shouldn’t imagine a <i>human</i> <i>being</i> sitting there and looking like he’s concentrating hard just before this tree pops into existence.  That wouldn’t be an accurate representation of the situation.  We would have to imagine a <i>mind</i>, somewhat like our own mind, <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i> causing the tree to pop into existence.  Now, we may be able to <i>imagine</i> this, in a way; but the question is whether we really are imagining <i>a</i> <i>mind</i> <i>creating</i> <i>a</i> <i>tree</i> <i>out</i> <i>of</i> <i>nothing</i>.  Because, when we get to the part about a particular decision that <i>causes</i> <i>the</i> <i>tree</i> <i>to</i> <i>appear</i> <i>out</i> <i>of</i> <i>thin</i> <i>air</i>, we draw a blank.  We have <i>absolutely</i> <i>no</i> <i>experience</i> of anything like that sort of decision.  So I would doubt that, in fact, what we really are doing is <i>imagining</i> the creation of the tree with a mere decision.
> 
> So that is one problem about the notion that God is a mind -- namely, it is hard <i>really</i> to understand the very notion that a <i>mind</i> can create physical objects out of nothing.  We might <i>imagine</i> that we understand this, but I don’t think we really do understand it.
> 
> But now here is another problem about the notion that God is a mind.  Now we said that God exists eternally, and that "eternal" has two different interpretations, meaning either existing <i>timelessly</i> or existing <i>at</i> <i>all</i> <i>times</i>.  Well, suppose, as many people do, that God’s mind is supposed to exist <i>timelessly</i>.  In other words, when we think about what this divine mind is supposed to be, we can’t apply categories like "past," "present," and "future" to it.  God’s mind does not pass from earlier thought to later thought; he doesn’t make plans and then, later, act on those plans.  To say those things would be to imply that God’s mind does not exist timelessly.
> 
> But see here, this makes the very notion of the divine mind <i>exceedingly</i> strange.  Think now of how you understand what your own mind is: it is, as far as you can ascertain, a series of experiences, thoughts, judgments, feelings, decisions, and so forth, coming one after another.  We are saying that God’s mind, or rather the mind that is identical to God, <i>has</i> <i>no</i> <i>such</i> <i>series</i> of thoughts, decisions, and so forth.  Because the divine mind is timeless: the categories of before and after just don’t apply here.  So it is hard to say that the divine mind even <i>has</i> such things as thoughts and judgments, because a thought, in any sense of this word that we are familiar with, is, presumably, something that has a beginning and an end.  God’s mind is sitting in the same state for all of eternity.  A very complex, grand, incomprehensible state.  It is hard to call this state, or any part of it, a thought or a decision or anything like that.
> 
> It’s worse than that, though.  Because ordinary traditional Christianity, for example, holds that we can pray to God and God answers prayers; that God speaks to prophets and perhaps even to us individually, sometimes; and so forth.  But in order for God to do these things, God must, at least in <i>some</i> sense, exist in time.
> 
> Let’s step back now and consider what is being claimed about God.  God is a mind, but this mind differs <i>radically</i> from the human mind, because, first, it has the ability to create physical objects out of nothing, just with a thought; and, second, it does not have any series of thoughts at all, but remains in the same mental state, apart from time, or as it were throughout eternity.  And yet, straining our powers of interpretation, God is supposed <i>also</i> to perform individual acts, such as doing miracles and answering prayers, at <i>particular</i> <i>times</i>.  Those, at least, are the claims we’re examining at present.  They stem from the basic notion that the sort of thing that the divine spirit is, is a <i>timeless</i>, <i>creative</i> <i>mind</i>.
> 
> But honestly, then, can we really call this being, that differs so radically from the human mind, a <i>mind</i> at all?  If God is in a single state throughout eternity, and with a pure spiritual act can create a tree, then surely it would be, as Hume says, an <i>abuse</i> <i>of</i> <i>terms</i> to call God a mind.  Minds have successive thoughts -- thoughts that succeed one another -- God is no such thing.  God is supposed, at least by many people, to be unitary, and simple, and unchanging.  And so we would be most accurate not to call the divine spirit a <i>mind</i> but instead to stick with the word "spirit."
> 
> Well, I’ll bet you know what I’m going to say next.  Remember, what we’re trying to figure out now is what <i>sort</i> of thing God is.  We say that he’s a spirit; and we have concluded, for the time being, that God’s spirit is not a mind.  What, then, <i>is</i> a spirit, if it isn’t a mind?  Do we have a concept of this non-mental spirit, and if we do, then how did we come by this concept?
> 
> Now there are some people who will throw up their hands at this point and say, "Too many questions!  This is pointless!  No, God is not knowable.  God is a mystery.  We do not understand what God is.  Maybe people who have visions and go into mystical ecstacies and so forth can, somehow, understand what God is, by coming into some close contact with God.  But ordinary people using our finite, ordinary, worldly concepts just cannot fathom what is divine and otherworldly."  People who say they believe that God exists, but who also believe that we cannot have any concept of what God is, except by a very unusual sort of experience, are known as <i>mystics</i> and their view is called <i>mysticism</i>.  The unusual sort of experience which they say gives them some insight on the nature of God is called a <i>mystical</i> experience.
> 
> How are we to react to mysticism?  Well, I can tell you anyway how <i>I</i> react.  The trouble with mysticism, as far as I can make out, is something I’ve already hinted at.  Namely, if the mystic thinks we can have <i>no</i> <i>concept</i> <i>of</i> <i>God</i> <i>whatsoever</i>, then it is <i>contradictory</i> for the mystic to claim to believe that God exists.  If I have a belief that something exists, then I have to have a <i>concept</i> of the thing that exists.  If I believe that Elvis still exists among us, then I have to have some acquaintance with who Elvis is supposed to be.  If I hold that unicorns exist, I have to have a concept of a magical horse with a horn.  And so forth.  But if I have <i>absolutely</i> <i>no</i> <i>concept</i> <i>whatsoever</i> of God, then it is <i>literal</i> <i>nonsense</i> for me to say that I believe that God exists.  Beliefs, in order to <i>be</i> beliefs, must have contents.  It is nonsense to say that I believe in something of which I have no notion whatsoever.
> 
> It seems to me that the only way I could, as an extreme mystic, honestly maintain that I believe in God, is if I have a mystical experience and come to experience directly what God is.  Then I may not be able to describe what God is to other people, but, having had an experience of what God is, my concept of God has some content.  Then, when I say that I believe that God exists, I can be understood to mean: "That indescribable divine being which I experienced exists."  I am just not going to take the time to examine the plausibility of this view.  Really, this attitude is beyond the purview of philosophy: if the nature of God cannot be described or conceived of by ordinary concepts, then evidently there is nothing for any philosopher, who like myself is equipped <i>only</i> with ordinary concepts, to examine.  I suppose I might try to try to raise some objections to the very idea that someone <i>has</i> any mystical experiences; but I am not going to try to do that.  That would take us far afield.
> 
> But why not accept a less extreme mysticism, a moderate mysticism if you will, according to which <i>a</i> <i>few</i> <i>things</i> can be understood about God.  That, for example, God created the universe; that God is spiritual; and so on.  In other words, we can understand the gist of the definition of "God" that I gave before; but we cannot understand the details.  The idea then is that we have some vague, fuzzy notion of what God is, but we cannot elaborate, when pressed, on many essential parts of this notion, such as what a "spirit" is that is not a mind, and so forth.  I will leave it up to you as to whether you ought to think that any such vague notion is good enough, so that indeed you <i>can</i> honestly think that you have a notion of God.  I won’t tell you what to think about that.
> 
> But some of you <i>may</i> hear all this and say, "By George, this is excellent reason to reject mysticism.  If a mystical view of God really does mean that I don’t know what I’m believing in, and thus that I really can’t honestly be said to have a belief at all, then I am going to compare God more directly to humans.  I will say that God is <i>not</i> "timeless," but that he <i>does</i> have successive thoughts, feelings, decisions, and so forth.  That is, after all, more consistent with many elements of a traditional faith."
> 
> This point of view on the nature of God may be described by a term often constrasted with "mysticism," namely <i>anthropomorphism</i>.  The term "anthropomorphism" comes from two Greek words, <i>anthropos</i> meaning man, and <i>morphos</i> meaning shape or form; so "anthropomorphism" describes any belief according to which something non-human, such as God, animals, and plants, is thought of as being like human beings.  Usually this term is taken as a term of abuse -- an insult.  It doesn’t <i>have</i> to be taken that way, but I think it usually is.  So if you call someone an "anthropomorphite" you are accusing him of being a little stupid or silly in a way, because he thinks that something that is totally non-human is like human beings.  For example, when children attribute feelings to thunderstorms -- "The thunder is mad at us," they say, not understanding that, unlike humans, the weather doesn’t have feelings.  Hardly anyone believes that God has a human body, but of course many people historically <i>have</i> believed that their gods had bodies and that those gods could roam the earth.  We could use the phrase "physical anthropomorphism about God" to mean the belief that God has a body.  But then we might also use "spiritual anthropomorphism about God," meaning that God has a mind something like a human’s.
> 
> The idea then is that we get our concept of God’s qualities -- his ability to create, his knowledge, his feelings for us, and so forth -- by <i>analogy</i> with experience of our own minds.  Of course, even the anthropomorphite isn’t going to say that God’s mind is <i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> as a very smart human mind, of course.  There are some extremely important differences.  But God’s mind is enough like our minds that we can make good sense of the claim that the sort of thing that God is, is indeed a mind.  Now we’ve already looked at some of the problems for this view, and I don’t plan to go over any others.  If you think those problems, and other similar problems we might raise, can be overcome, that’s fine.  I’ve just given that view a name, spiritual anthropomorphism, in order to contrast it with mysticism.
> 
> But what if I conclude, after trying to make sense of what God is, that the word "God" is really nonsense?  What if after consideration I decide that I really <i>can’t</i> understand what people are talking about when they use this word?  There are a good many philosophers this century who have come to this conclusion -- philosophers like the Englishman A. J. Ayer, and other so-called positivists.  I mean, suppose that I do my very best, trying to understand what this definition of "God" is supposed to mean.  And I end up saying to myself: "The extreme mystical conception of God is not a conception of anything at all; the moderate mystical conception of God is too flimsy, because it just gives up explaining what the definition’s terms mean at a certain point; and the anthropomorphic conception of God is totally implausible simply because it is not a conception of a <i>mind</i> at all.  Therefore, as far as I can tell, no good sense <i>can</i> be made of this word, ‘God’."  For convenience, let’s call this the <i>no</i> <i>concept</i> view of "God" talk; it’s the view that we, or I anyway, have no genuine concept of what "God" is supposed to mean.  Now if I come to that position, am I an atheist, an agnostic, or what?
> 
> Maybe this view could best be considered a kind of agnosticism, for the following reason: it rejects both the belief that God exists <i>and</i> the belief that God does not exist.  But this is a totally different sort of view from an ordinary agnostic.  An ordinary agnostic does believe she has some at least rough-and-ready conception of God; she simply doesn’t know whether or not such a being exists.  Either she hasn’t decided; or she thinks the evidence is equally weighted on both sides and she thinks it’s most responsible to suspend judgment; or, in the most extreme case, she thinks she <i>cannot</i> know whether or not such a being exists.  Those are the usual sorts of agnosticism.
> 
> But if I take the no concept view, and say that talk of God is really just nonsense, it’s not as though I have trouble making up my mind whether or not God exists; it’s not even as though I believe that the existence of God cannot be known.  Rather, I would not think the question, "Does God exist?" made any sense at all.  For the question, "Does God exist?" to makes sense, the word "God" would have to be given some good meaning.  So if my opinion is that the word "God" in fact <i>cannot</i> be given good meaning, or at least that I don’t understand its meaning, then I would give you blank stare if you asked me whether God exists.  As far as I’m concerned, the question of whether God exists is ultimately no more comprehensible than the question of whether flibits exist.  So I would neither affirm, nor deny, <i>nor</i> suspend judgment on the question of the existence of God.  It would be better to say that I would want to unask the question.  All this is why I think that the no concept view is best regarded as a distinct, fourth view in addition to theism, agnosticism, and atheism.
> 
> Let me be fair to the theists among us now.  I am quite sure that defenders of traditional religions including Christianity would, after our discussion so far, want to say that the no concept view is unduly critical, fastidious, or exacting.  Such people will, I suppose, either believe that moderate mysticism is correct, and provides a sufficiently clear notion of God for human purposes; or that spiritual anthropomorphism is correct, and that it really does give us a way to conceive of the divine mind.
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> Next we will examine the question: "Do we have any good reason to believe that God exists, or does not exist?"  I said before that answers to this question are in the affirmative or the negative, and are or should be supported by arguments, either with the conclusion that God <i>does</i> exist, or with the conclusion that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  But there is a certain position on this question which does not involve arguments for or against the existence of God, and I want to talk a little bit about it.  I mean the view that one should simply have faith, or perhaps that faith is itself, somehow, good reason to believe in God.
> 
> The view that one should simply have faith that God exists is called <i>fideism</i>.  You may be surprised to hear that fideism is indeed studied by philosophers of religion.  But what is there to <i>study</i> about faith?  We just have it -- we have faith by the grace of God, as fideists would say -- or we don’t.  So what’s to study?  Well, two things.  First, what <i>is</i> faith?  And second, is faith <i>rational</i>?
> 
> Now a little about the first question, what is faith?  Some people are wont to say, "I take the existence of God on faith," or "Faith is my reason for believing."  I think these statements are, strictly speaking, incorrect.  Now let me explain they seem to imply that religious faith is something <i>different</i> from the belief that God exists.  But faith isn’t <i>different</i> from believing that God exists: it just <i>is</i> the belief that God exists.  Still, if I say I have <i>faith</i> that God exists, I am talking about a particular <i>kind</i> of belief in God, am I not?  It is, after all, possible to believe that God exists without having <i>faith</i> that God exists.  Right?  Suppose I say I have a battery of arguments that <i>prove</i> that God exists, and I support my belief rationally with those arguments; and I absolutely deny that I have <i>faith</i> that God exists.  I think that makes sense.  So what makes faith that God exists different from other kinds of belief that God exists?  What is faith really?
> 
> In order to answer that question I think there’s another interesting question to ask.  Is it something about the <i>belief</i> <i>itself</i> that makes faith different, or is it something about the <i>relation</i> of that belief to other things one believes?  Is it, for example, the <i>strength</i> of the belief in God that makes faith different, or is it how that belief is related to other things one believes, that makes the belief not just any belief, but <i>faith</i>?  If you think a little about it, I think you can see that it <i>isn’t</i> anything about the belief considered by itself that makes the belief faith.  It is, rather, the fact that the belief is accepted <i>without</i> <i>any</i> <i>reasons</i>.  In other words, what makes a kind of religious belief not just belief, but <i>faith</i>, is the fact that the belief is not supported by arguments, or reasons, or evidence.  Or most generally: there are no <i>other</i> beliefs that one has, which one thinks makes one’s belief that God exists <i>more</i> <i>probably</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> So here then is the claim: If I have <i>faith</i> that God exists, then I believe that God exists, but I do not claim to have any other beliefs which make it more probably true that God exists.  Faith is belief without reasons.  Hence, fideism may be stated as the view that one ought to believe that God exists, but one should to base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any reasons at all.  At least <i>initially</i>.  There are some kinds of moderate fideism which say that one should have faith to begin with, and only then, when one’s faith is strong enough, go out in search of reasons to believe.
> 
> Now to the second question I wanted to ask about faith, namely, can faith be rational?  I think this depends on what you mean by the word "rational."  If, in order a belief to be rational, I <i>must</i> have reasons for the belief, then faith is, by definition, not rational.  And in that sense, fideism specifically recommends that one <i>not</i> be rational.  The question, then, is whether this is a very good notion about rationality.
> 
> Let me give you an example of a belief which is rational but for which you have no reasons.  Suppose you are suffering from an insistent and painful headache, and you tell me, "Geez I’ve got a splitting headache."  I say, "What are your reasons for believing that?"  You tell me, "Well, I just <i>feel</i> it."  So I demand to know what reasons you have for thinking that you feel the headache.  And so naturally you reply, "<i>Reasons</i> for thinking I <i>feel</i> the headache?  That’s ridiculous!  I have no reasons.  I just feel the pain!"  Then suppose I accuse you of being irrational.  I say, "You are believing something without reasons.  That’s irrational."  Do you think I would be correct?
> 
> Surely not.  Surely you can believe, without reasons, that you feel a headache, and be entirely rational in this belief.  In fact I would say you’d be nuts if you <i>didn’t</i> have the belief -- if, somehow, you felt a powerful headache and yet were somehow able to convince yourself that you weren’t feeling a headache.  That would, I think, be irrational.  So here’s my point: It is <i>possible</i>, in at least <i>some</i> cases (surely not in <i>all</i> cases), to be rational in a holding belief even though one has no reasons for the belief.  I think that <i>very</i> <i>many</i> beliefs require reasons in order to be rational.  But there are <i>some</i> beliefs which do <i>not</i> require reasons in order to be rational.
> 
> So is religious faith rational?  That depends on whether, indeed, reasons to believe in God <i>are</i> required for <i>that</i> belief to be rational.  Now, some recent philosophers, most prominently the American William Alston, have argued that belief in God <i>is</i> a "basic belief" -- in other words, faith can be rational even though it is not supported by reasons.  How can Alston say that?  Well, he says that some people have certain religious experiences, in which they can, as it were, perceive that God exists, or they can feel God’s presence.  And just like belief that you feel the pain, you don’t need reasons to believe that you are experiencing God’s existence when you feel his presence.  So Alston is, I think, fairly called a moderate mystic, in the sense I defined earlier.  Here’s the idea.  Suppose you think you can come into some sort of immediate contact with God -- you think you feel God’s presence.  Then the idea is that you don’t have to have <i>reasons</i> to believe that you feel God’s presence.  The belief, that you do indeed feel God’s presence, is nevertheless rational.  You have what might be called "rational faith."  That, at least roughly put, is Alston’s sort of view.
> 
> Now needless to say, if you don’t believe you have such experiences, or if you think that these experiences are just a kind of vivid imagination, then you won’t be at all impressed by Alston’s view.  And then you will maintain that, if belief in God is to be rational, it <i>must</i> be supported by reasons.  In other words, if you disagree with Alston, you will maintain that the belief in God is in that large class of beliefs which <i>do</i> require reasons in order to be rational.  That doesn’t mean that you will necessarily be an agnostic or an atheist.  You could still be a theist.  You’d simply maintain that you <i>do</i> have evidence supporting your theism, you <i>do</i> have reasons to believe that God exists.
> 
> So what if you think about all this long and hard, and you come to a conclusion.  You say to yourself, "Alston is wrong; we can’t <i>simply</i> say, without any reasons, we can feel the presence of God in nature and in our lives, and then expect to be <i>rational</i> in our belief in God.  Belief in God has to be backed up by arguments in order to be rational.  Faith, blind faith, is irrational; and so fideism recommends irrationality.  I’ll accept all that.  But see here, I don’t care about rationality.  Or rather, I want to be rational when it comes to my career, my family, and so forth; but when it comes to religious life, rationality is <i>not</i> <i>a</i> <i>virtue</i>.  So, even if faith is irrational, that doesn’t matter.  In fact, it might be a virtue to believe in God irrationally!  My very irrationality would show my devotion to God!"
> 
> There are people, including probably some people in this class, who think this way.  I won’t discuss this attitude, except to make one remark.  Namely, that it is not at all clear to me that it is possible to compartmentalize your life, so that you say that irrationality is all right in religious matters, but not in more ordinary matters.  I simply fear that if you permit yourself to be irrational in religious matters, you will also, under excitement or duress, permit yourself to be irrational in non-religious matters.
> 
> So suppose you then take an even <i>more</i> extreme view, and say, "Who cares?  I never thought rationality was important at all."  That is a view that I won’t dignify: I don’t think that <i>anyone</i> holds that view <i>really</i>.  <i>Everyone</i> cares about the rationality of <i>some</i> of their beliefs, I don’t care who you are or how strongly you deny it.  If you do deny it, I will tell you that you aren’t thinking hard enough about who you are and what your actual attitudes are, or how you live your everyday life.  So don’t go around saying that you don’t care about irrationality <i>at</i> <i>all</i>, because you most certainly do.  What I think <i>is</i> possible, though, as I said, is that you think that irrationality in <i>some</i> areas of your life, for example when it comes to religion and love and weekend activities, is OK.  And I am simply raising the question as to whether you will be able, <i>successfully</i>, to compartmentalize your attitudes this way.  Maybe you can.  Some people <i>seem</i> to be able to, anyway.
> 
> This is all just food for thought for you; as always you have the right to think whatever you like.  All right, that’s all I’m going to say about the rationality of faith.  Next what I am going to talk about are some positive reasons to believe that God exists -- in other words, <i>arguments</i> which have as their conclusion the claim, "God exists."
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GoD|981080452
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> 
> A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered.
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WikiPediaFaq|981080473
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> 
> Bold and italic tags work, along with the <nowiki><tt></nowiki> and <nowiki><pre></nowiki> tags.  Most other tags don't work in the wiki--many of them are unnecessary (like paragraph or list tags) or difficult to allow safely.  (Many tags can be misused with Javascript.)  Some tags will be added in future versions.  (I've already added em, strong, and code tags.) 
> 
> The problem in the page you quoted is that the five single-quotes after AristotlE were matched by the five single-quotes after SeT (at the end of the paragraph).  The single-quote formatting was never really meant to be used for separating page names from trailing letters.  (It was a recently-discovered quirk of wiki formatting.)
> 
> This wiki has a special feature for separating wiki page links (or any other kind of link) from trailing letters.  You can type <tt><nowiki>SeT""s</nowiki></tt> to get SeT""s, <tt><nowiki>LoGic""s</nowiki></tt> for LoGic""s, etc.  Just add two double-quote characters immediately after the link and it will be removed in the output.  (The two-double-quote convention was chosen since it is easy to type, but is unlikely to be used accidentally.)  Note that the two double-quotes are only special if they immediately follow a link--simply typing "" in ordinary text will display two double-quotes.
> 
> I hope that the need for these conventions will disappear soon, as I'm working on new ways to form wiki links.  (See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for details.)  --CliffordAdams
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ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981080521
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> There are two kind of arguments for the existence of God: ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod, and TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod.  We shan't speculate on whether the latter belong to the former.
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ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981080534
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< Describe the new page here.
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> Today we are going to go over arguments for, and against, the existence of God.  And so what we are going to be studying next is what has been called <i>natural</i> <i>religion</i> or <i>natural</i> <i>theology</i>.  "Natural religion" means "religion based on reason and ordinary experience."  This is distinguished from <i>revealed</i> <i>religion</i>, which is religion based on scripture and religious experiences of various kinds.  The philosophy of religion does not include much study of revealed religion.
> 
> I want to begin by looking first at two <i>bad</i> arguments for the existence of God.  I won’t take too long on them.  But I want at least to explain them and say why I, and many other philosophers, think these two arguments are so obviously bad.
> 
> The first is called the <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>consensus</i>, or <i>from</i> <i>common</i> <i>consent</i>.  It goes like this.  Throughout the world, in all lands, people believe in some God.  And not just now, but in the past, a belief in some God was a very common part of daily life.  So the person who denies that God exists is opposing the common consent of all of humanity, that God exists.  Who are we to oppose such an enormous consensus?  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> I think you can see why I say this is a bad argument.  First of all, it’s not even the case that <i>everyone</i> in <i>all</i> times has believed that God exists.  There have been dissenters, atheists, everywhere.  Secondly, look at all the different <i>versions</i> of God that people believe in: the gods of the ancient Greeks are very different from the Hindu gods, which are very very different indeed from the spirits that some Africans traditionally worship, which are of course very different still from the Judeo-Christian God.  At the very best the most one could say is that <i>some</i> <i>higher</i> <i>power</i> <i>of</i> <i>some</i> <i>sort</i> has been <i>commonly</i>, although not universally, thought to exist.
> 
> But neither of the two foregoing reasons are the best reason to think that this argument from consensus is a bad argument.  The best reason to think it’s a bad argument is that, so to speak, 50 million Frenchmen <i>can</i> be wrong.  The mere fact that there is widespread, but not universal consensus about something does not, by itself, prove anything.  One might just as plausibly say that, since in medieval Europe most people though the Earth was flat, therefore, probably, the Earth was flat.  That just doesn’t follow!
> 
> Now surely the fact that some manner of religious belief is so widespread is a very <i>interesting</i> fact, well <i>worth</i> <i>study</i>.  I would not want to deny that.  But the idea that one can infer that God exists, especially the God of Abraham and Jesus, is, I think, kind of silly.  I think we can do much better than this.  If you think you need an argument in order to be a rational theist, there are several far better arguments to be found.
> 
> Let’s look next at another bad argument.  Now this one isn’t so obviously bad.  In fact, I think that some of you probably find it plausible, and you may resent me, somewhat at least, for saying it’s an obviously bad argument.  But I fully intend to explain to you why I think this argument is indeed no good.
> 
> The second, then, is the <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>morality</i>.  Here goes.  It is God, God alone, who decides what is right and wrong.  God’s commands are the only and ultimate standard of morality.  So, if one supposes that God does not exist, then one is doomed to a life without moral standards.  One will have no reasons to think that lying, stealing, or even murder are wrong.  That means that, as a nonbeliever, one contributes to the corruption of oneself, others, and the entire culture.  According to the famous catchphrase, "If God is dead, then everything is permitted."  In other words, if we no longer believe that God exists, then we will think we are morally permitted to do anything; and that will corrupt us.  To avoid such moral corruption, and to have stable standards of morality, we must believe that God exists.  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> Now there is one important premise that this argument rests on -- namely, that God’s commands are the only possible standard of morality.  This implies a theory of ethics, which is called <i>theological</i> <i>ethics</i>, or alternatively, the <i>divine</i> <i>command</i> <i>theory</i>.  According to theological ethics, something is right just in case God commands it; something is wrong just in case God forbids it; and something is morally permissible just in case God neither commands nor forbids it.
> 
> I am going to present one common objection to theological ethics.  I’m stealing this objection from Socrates, who first came up with it.  Namely this: do we want to say that an action is right because God commands it, or do we want to say, instead, than God commands an action because it is right?  Look, if we say that actions are right <i>because</i> <i>God</i> <i>commands</i> <i>them</i>, then we can’t explain why God commands what he does.  On the other hand, if we say that God commands right actions <i>because</i> <i>they</i> <i>are</i> <i>right</i>, then we’re saying that what makes actions right isn’t just the fact that God commands them.  Rather, God <i>sees</i> that an action is right, and commands us to do it <i>because</i> it is right.  If we accept theological ethics as our only ethical theory, then there’s no moral explanation for why God commands what he does.  If God had commanded us to murder each other, then that would be right -- by definition.
> 
> You might object to that, and say that of course God <i>wouldn’t</i> command us to murder each other.  That’s just ridiculous, you’ll say.  But <i>why</i> is it ridiculous?  If you say, "Because God commanded us to love each other, not murder each other," you’re arguing in a circle.  You’re saying that God commanded us not to murder -- why? -- because God commanded us not to murder.  Or else, if you’re not arguing in a circle like this, then you’re saying <i>there</i> <i>just</i> <i>is</i> no reason why God commands what he does.
> 
> My proposal is that there is something about human nature, about human happiness, and about the universe we live in that makes murder wrong; God recognizes these facts and, having recognized them, commands us not to murder each other.  Now if you disagree, and if you accept theological ethics, then look at what you’re saying: you’re saying, "There is <i>nothing</i> about human nature, <i>nothing</i> about human happiness, <i>nothing</i> about the universe that explains, or accounts for, why murder is wrong.  Or rather, the <i>only</i> thing that explains why murder is wrong is that God forbids it; and there’s no reason for him to forbid it, nothing about us or our world."  I am hoping you can see that that is a very implausible view.
> 
> So what if we do say that God has reasons for commanding and forbidding what he does?  Then we say: God’s reasons, the facts about our humanity and our universe that lead him to legislate what he does, are what make actions right and wrong.  For example, suppose he forbids us to murder because murder is totally contrary to human happiness.  Then we may say: the reason that murder is wrong is that it is totally contrary to human happiness.  Do you see?  Then <i>God’s</i> reasons for saying loving each other is right will be just the same as <i>our</i> reasons for thinking loving each other is right.
> 
> The point then is that morality is, strictly speaking, conceptually separable from what God commands.  In order to understand what is right and wrong, we need only understand what God’s reasons for commanding things would be, if God were to exist.  And that does not even require that God exists.
> 
> So in light of this, let us examine a claim brought out earlier: "If God is dead, then everything is permitted."  Do you see now at least <i>why</i> <i>I</i> say that this claim is mistaken?  If God were to have any reasons for what he forbids, those reasons are what make the forbidden things wrong.  So it is perfectly possible to understand that we might lead moral lives, and accept very strong moral standards, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> we deny that God exists.  We do not have to believe in God in order be rational in accepting moral principles.
> 
> In fact, later on this quarter we are going to spend a week and a half on issues in ethics, all strictly from a secular point of view.  <i>Ethicists</i>, at least, certainly do not think they are out of work if they deny that God exists.
> 
> So I think this argument from morality is fallacious.  Please notice, in saying this, I am not implying in any way, shape, or form, that God does <i>not</i> exist!  I am also not denying in the least that God’s commands are always right.  What I am denying, rather, is that it is God’s commands <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i> which make actions right; I think that those commands would have to have some reasons behind them.  And those reasons are what make the actions right.  So I am simply saying that the argument from morality is not a good argument that God does exist.  You can, as a theist, find <i>much</i> better reasons to support your belief in God.
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TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981080606
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> Next we will look at three venerable, traditional arguments for the existence of God.  Some people call these "proofs" of the existence of God.  You can call them "proofs" if you like, just don’t think that using that word, "proof," will magically transform them into knock-down drag-out excellent arguments.  You should examine them on their merits and see if they really <i>are</i> proofs properly so-called; look and see whether they <i>do</i> prove what they are supposed to prove.
> 
> And before I turn to those three arguments, I should add that there are <i>other</i> arguments that have been offered for the existence of God, which I am <i>not</i> mentioning.  Not because I think they’re no good, but because we don’t have time to explain and evaluate them properly.  In fact, we are going to have to go pretty quickly through those arguments that we do examine.  Anyway, though, you can find some of those arguments that I am not going to go over on pp. 436-55 of the Hospers selection.  And you can find more sympathetic presentations of those same arguments in any number of textbooks about philosophy and about the philosophy of religion in particular.
> 
> The three arguments I’m going to present are the <i>ontological</i> <i>argument</i>, the <i>cosmological</i> <i>argument</i>, and the <i>teleological</i> <i>argument</i>.
> 
> * TheOntologicalArgument
> * TheCosmologicalArgument
> * TheTeleologicalArgument
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TheOntologicalArgument|981080632
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< Describe the new page here.
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> And so without further ado, let’s turn to the ontological argument.  By the time we finish talking about it, I think you’ll be able to see why it’s called "the ontological argument."  Obviously, the argument has something to do with ontology, with the study of existence.  Anyway, the following version of the argument is due to the Medieval philosopher, St. Anselm.  Here goes:
> 
> There are various kinds of so-called <i>perfections</i>.  Size, intelligence, beauty, power, benevolence, and so forth -- all these qualities we naturally regard as perfections.  And we all understand that there are various degrees of these perfections.  What is more intelligent is more perfect as regards intelligence; what is more beautiful is more perfect as regards beauty; and so forth.  Now, we have a concept of God, as that which has all perfections to the greatest degree conceivable.  Indeed, our notion of God is of something than which nothing greater, nothing more perfect, can be conceived.  If we ever conceive of some greater degree of perfection, than we previously conceived of, then we must regard God as having that greater degree.  So when we conceive of God, we conceive of something which is the greatest conceivable being.
> 
> But now just for the sake of argument, I want you to suppose two things.  Pay attention and keep these in mind.  The first supposition: we have a concept of the greatest conceivable being, God.  The second supposition: this concept of God exists <i>only</i> <i>in</i> <i>our</i> <i>minds</i>.  St. Anselm says that these two suppositions contradict each other.  How does he show that?  As follows.  Our supposition is that we have a notion of the greatest conceivable being, and that this most perfect conceivable being does not, in fact, exist in the world.  But in that case our concept of God is a concept of a being that is only imaginary; so it is not a concept of the greatest <i>conceivable</i> being -- why?  Because a being that <i>actually</i> <i>exists</i> is a greater being, more perfect, than a being that merely exists in our <i>minds</i>, of course.  Existence is a perfection, just like power, beauty, and so forth.  So if we conceive of the greatest conceivable being, we must conceive of a being <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>.  A being that didn’t exist wouldn’t be the <i>greatest</i> conceivable being.  So the second supposition, that the concept of God exists <i>only</i> <i>in</i> <i>our</i> <i>minds</i>, contradicts the first supposition, that we have a concept of God.  Hence, if we have a concept of God, then God necessarily exists.  And we do have a concept of God.  Therefore, God necessarily exists.
> 
> Now, there are a lot of things that we could be, and have been, said about this argument.  I’m just going to focus in on a few.  The basic trouble seems to be that we have, it appears, simply <i>conceived</i> <i>God</i> <i>into</i> <i>existence</i>.  Surely it’s very strange to think that all we have to do is to conceive of God as existing, and it follows from that alone that we have good reason to believe that God exists.  But let’s not jump the gun here; I’m going to present three traditional objections and then present another one of my own.
> 
> One traditional criticism of the argument is that existence is not a perfection, because existence is not a <i>property</i>.  If existence were a property of items, including God, then it might be a perfection.  But since it’s not a property, it cannot be a perfection; only properties of things can be perfections of things.  Now, we have previously encountered this notion, that existence is not a property, in our discussion of metaphysics.  I rather doubt that this view is correct.  There are better objections to be made, then, that do not depend on dubious presuppositions like this.
> 
> So a second traditional criticism is to say that, even if existence is a property, it is nonetheless <i>still</i> not a perfection.  Either something exists or it doesn’t; there aren’t any <i>degrees</i> of existence.  Something can’t be <i>more</i> <i>or</i> <i>less</i> existent.  So that’s a reason to think that existence isn’t a perfection.  But to this St. Anselm might reply that, even granted that there aren’t degrees of existence, surely existence <i>is</i> more perfect than nonexistence; and in any case, something that exists is <i>greater</i> than something that doesn’t.  That is certainly plausible.  So let us look for more objections.
> 
> So here’s a third, famous objection to the ontological argument, raised by Anselm’s contemporary, Gaunilo.  Gaunilo invited us to think of the greatest, or most perfect, conceivable island; I don’t know what would make the island perfect, but say it’s sunny, green, great beaches, skiing in the hills, who knows.  No such island exists, right?  But in that case we aren’t thinking of the <i>greatest</i> conceivable island, because the <i>greatest</i> conceivable island would <i>exist</i>, as well as having all those other desirable properties.  Since we can conceive of this greatest or most perfect conceivable island, then it must exist.
> 
> Of course, this is a silly argument.  But, Gaunilo says, this argument no worse than Anselm’s.  In the same way, you could, if you wanted to, "prove" the existence of the most perfect hamburger, the most perfect dumpster, or the most perfect toilet.  That’s absurd!  But Anselm’s argument isn’t any worse than these.  So Anselm’s argument isn’t any good either.
> 
> I’m going to offer a fourth objection, an objection of my own.  For the sake of simplicity, I’m going to restate the argument.  It would take me too long, and it would be too hard to follow, for me to explain <i>why</i> I think my restatement is equivalent to St. Anselm’s original argument.  So you’re just going to have to trust me that it is the same as Anselm’s original.  So here goes:
> 
> 
> 
> 1. Suppose, just for the sake of argument, that the greatest conceivable being (call it B1) exists only in the mind.
> 
> 2. But we can conceive of a being (call it B2) that is <i>greater</i> than any being that exists only in the mind.
> 
> 3. So, we can conceive of a being (namely, B2) that is greater than B1 (since we are supposing that B1 exists only in the mind).
> 
> 4. But then we can conceive of a being that is greater <i>than</i> <i>the</i> <i>greatest</i> <i>conceivable</i> <i>being</i> (B1) which is a contradiction.
> 
> 5. Therefore, our supposition in (1) is wrong; the greatest conceivable being <i>really</i> exists, and not only in the mind.
> 
> That’s the argument.  Here’s my criticism: I think that (4) does not follow from (3).  I fully admit premise (3).  Yes, since we are supposing that B1 exists only in the mind, we can conceive of a being (namely, B2) that is greater than B1.  In other words, we can imagine that that being, God, which, as we suppose in premise (1), exists only in the mind, did not <i>only</i> exist in the mind, but also in reality.  Sure, we can imagine that.  But <i>that</i> <i>doesn’t</i> <i>mean</i> that we can conceive of a being that is greater than the greatest conceivable being!  Why would St. Anselm think that that follows?
> 
> Well, according to (3), we can conceive of a being that is greater than B1; and B1, remember, is <i>the</i> <i>greatest</i> <i>conceivable</i> <i>being</i>.  So naturally you’d think that (3) entails (4), that we can conceive of a being that is greater than <i>the</i> <i>greatest</i> <i>conceivable</i> <i>being</i>.  But B1 isn’t <i>the</i> <i>greatest</i> <i>conceivable</i> <i>being</i>, itself; B1 is a <i>concept</i> of the greatest conceivable being.  It’s an <i>idea</i> <i>we</i> <i>have</i> of the greatest conceivable being.
> 
> Why do I say that?  Look at premise (1) again.  It says: "Suppose, just for the sake of argument, that the greatest conceivable being (call it B1) exists only in the mind."  (Anselm’s phrase is: "Exists in the understanding alone.")  Now what is this thing, B1, which we say exists only in the mind?  <i>What</i> <i>is</i> it?  Is it <i>the</i> <i>greatest</i> <i>conceivable</i> <i>being</i>, itself, or is it, more <i>precisely</i> stated, <i>a</i> <i>concept</i> of the greatest conceivable being?  Clearly, it’s only the <i>concept</i> that can exist in the mind.  We would never admit that the greatest conceivable being <i>itself</i> might somehow exist only in our minds.  That wouldn’t make any sense!  In other words, when we say that the greatest conceivable being exists "in the mind," or "in the understanding alone," we just mean that we have a concept of the greatest conceivable being.  And then we use the words "greatest conceivable being" as short for "<i>concept</i> <i>of</i> the greatest conceivable being."  Make sense?
> 
> So here’s my criticism summed up.  St. Anselm’s argument, as I presented it, claims, in premise (3), that we can conceive of a being that is greater than B1.  But B1 is just a <i>concept</i>; even if it is the concept of the greatest conceivable being, it’s nonetheless still a concept.  And so of course we can conceive of lots of things greater than that <i>concept</i>.  But premise (4) doesn’t follow from <i>any</i> of the foregoing -- it just doesn’t follow that I can conceive of something greater than the greatest conceivable being.  All that follows is that I can conceive of something greater than <i>my</i> <i>concept</i> of the greatest conceivable being.  Which is no big surprise!
> 
> There are other versions of the ontological argument besides St. Anselm’s.  So maybe one of those other versions would do better.
------
TheCosmologicalArgument|981080703
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
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> But let’s leave the discussion there and look at a second argument for the existence of God, namely, the <i>cosmological</i> <i>argument</i>, also known as the <i>first</i> <i>cause</i> argument for the existence of God.  Thomas Aquinas, the most famous philosopher of the Middle Ages, had a simple version of this argument.
> 
> The cosmological argument infers the existence of God from claims about <i>the</i> <i>entire</i> <i>universe</i>.  The basic idea is that God must exist since the entire universe needs a cause; the very existence of the universe requires some explanation, and an act of God, namely creation, is that explanation.  So let me present the argument.
> 
> Consider some event in the universe -- let’s say, the fall of the Berlin Wall.  It had to have a cause, no doubt a very complex cause, but some cause.  Such as protests in East Berlin; they helped cause the fall of the Wall.  But then of course those protests in East Berlin had to have some cause.  And <i>those</i> causes had some causes, and so forth.  There is one enormous chain of events in the universe, with the earlier events causing the later events.  So now we have to ask ourselves: Did this chain of causes have a <i>beginning</i>?  Yes or no?
> 
> Let’s not try to resolve that question now.  But rather than just <i>assume</i> that the universe had a beginning, let’s just <i>ask</i>: <i>Did</i> this chain of causes making up the universe have a beginning?  Now, our conclusion is going to be the same whether we say "Yes" or "No."
> 
> So suppose on the one hand that there <i>was</i> a first event, which started the entire chain of causes and effects which make up all the events in the universe.  Astronomers today commonly think that there was such an event, called the "Big Bang."  The universe began with an enormous explosion of matter and energy from a superdense point.  But then of course <i>the</i> <i>Big</i> <i>Bang</i> was another event in the universe.  If we say it is "the first event" we still want <i>some</i> explanation for the event.  Why did it happen?  It had to have <i>some</i> first cause.  We call this first cause, the thing that caused that first event, <i>God</i>.  God created the universe; so God exists.
> 
> Now let’s suppose on the other hand that there was no first event; the universe has already existed an infinite amount of time, and will continue to exist an infinite amount of time.  Nevertheless we might ask: Why is there something rather than nothing?  (This is Leibniz’s famous question.)  Why is there this particular whole infinite chain of causes and effects, rather than some <i>other</i> chain, or no chain at all?  There has to be <i>something</i> that explains this.  What?  Evidently whatever explains it has to be something that is necessary in itself, which carries the explanation for its <i>own</i> existence in itself, as it were.  So we can say that a necessary being, that caused the universe, exists.  This being we call God; hence God exists.
> 
> So we come to the same conclusion, that God exists, whether or not we suppose there was a first event in the universe.  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> Well, is this argument any good?  A lot of believers have thought so.  But, not surprisingly, it has been subjected to some very hard objections.  Again, we are just going to review a <i>few</i> of the objections that philosophers have raised.  Even if you think that none of these objections succeed, they do at least have the effect of  <i>clarifying</i> exactly how the argument is supposed to go.
> 
> First objection.  Remember that in the argument as I presented it, either the universe had a first event, or has existed from eternity.  So suppose that the universe had a first event.  According to the cosmological argument, this first event had to have some cause -- which means, <i>some</i> <i>event</i> <i>which</i> <i>caused</i> <i>the</i> <i>first</i> <i>event</i>.  Now can we even make any sense of that?  The proposal is: there was a first event; but this first event had to be caused by <i>another</i> <i>event</i>.  But don’t causes have to precede their effects?  Surely.  But then what we are calling the "first event" is not actually the first event, because there is another event, which preceded it and caused it to occur -- and that is a contradiction.
> 
> Well, you might say, that objection is no good, because by the words "first event" we mean <i>first</i> <i>event</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i> <i>universe</i>.  We can say that the <i>cause</i> of the first event in the physical universe, namely, God’s act of creation, is not <i>itself</i> in the physical universe.  It was a <i>spiritual</i> act, which resulted in the first <i>physical</i> event.
> 
> Second objection.  But then we ask: <i>why</i> think that there had be a cause, spiritual or otherwise, of the first event?  Why can’t there be an uncaused event?  What people are likely to say is that the very notion of an uncaused event is absurd; and so they enshrine their view about causality in something that has been called <i>the</i> <i>Principle</i> <i>of</i> <i>Causality</i>.  The Principle of Causality is simply that every event has a cause; there is a cause of everything that happens.  Now, we could talk about this principle for a long time; but for our purposes, suffice it to say that a lot of philosophers do not see why this so-called Principle of Causality has to be true at all.  Isn’t it at least <i>possible</i> that an event, especially an event like the Big Bang, might not have a cause at all, but that it <i>simply</i> <i>exists</i>?  If you think that it’s <i>impossible</i> that the Big Bang didn’t have a cause, the question for you is: where is the contradiction in saying that there was no cause?  In other words, why do you think the Principle of Causality is always true?  Perhaps you might come up with an argument for it.  Or perhaps you will just stubbornly maintain that it can and indeed must be held <i>without</i> any argument.  We could talk about that a lot more, but let’s leave that discussion there.
> 
> Now this second objection applies only to the case where the universe had a first event.  What about the case where the universe has existed from eternity?  That brings us to the:
> 
> Third objection.  If you say, on the other hand, that universe has existed from eternity, I might say: in that case it makes no sense to speak of the <i>cause</i> of the universe.  Why?  Because causes precede their effects.  If you say the universe has existed <i>forever</i>, consider then -- is there a time <i>before</i> forever?  Of course not, that doesn’t make any sense.  So it equally makes no sense to speak of the cause of an eternal universe; that cause would have to exist <i>before</i> something that had no beginning!  There is no such thing as a <i>cause</i> of an eternal universe.  All right, even if we concede that point, we can still insist: there has to be some manner of <i>explanation</i> or <i>reason</i> for why the universe even exists, and why it is as it is, and not radically different from how it is in fact.  Here again we might bring up another principle to dignify our curiosity.  This time it is the Principle of Sufficient Reason.  Basically this says that there is a sufficient reason or explanation for everything.  This principle was formulated by the German philosopher Leibniz.  He wrote: "There can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition, without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise, although we cannot know these reasons in most cases."  Everything has a reason for its existence, and for why it is as it is, and not otherwise.
> 
> The cosmological argument simply applies the Principle of Sufficient Reason to the very fact of the universe.  So it allows us to ask: Why does <i>something</i> exist, rather than <i>nothing</i>?  And the principle allows us to demand an answer.  And the answer, the theist says, is: God created the universe.  That is a sufficient reason for the existence and nature of the universe.  But notice, if we want to get around the objection I started this third objection with, we can’t say that this reason isn’t a <i>causal</i> explanation.  God’s creation of the universe <i>explains</i> why the universe is here; but the act of creation did not precede the existence of the universe.  After all, remember that God is supposed to be, on many accounts, timeless: so it would make sense to say that a spiritual act of creation is timeless as well.
> 
> At this point you might be scratching your head in puzzlement.  What exactly are we <i>talking</i> about in talking about a timeless, spiritual act of creation, which explains the universe, but which is not a <i>causal</i> act?  Is there anything in our experience at all <i>like</i> this sort of "timeless explanation"?  Well what about laws of nature?  Force equals mass times acceleration, and so forth.  Laws of nature are timeless; or, alternatively, they apply at all times, not just at particular times.  And of course we can use laws of nature to explain things.  So natural laws are one kind of timeless explanation we are familiar with.  We can say: physical objects move the way they do because the laws that one studies in physics apply to those objects.  Similarly biology studies the laws that explain the growth and behavior of living beings.  Ultimately, a perfect, complete science would explain a <i>lot</i> about the universe.
> 
> But a complete science couldn’t explain why <i>particular</i> bodies have been arranged in the <i>particular</i> way they have been; it couldn’t explain why there was something rather than nothing; and it couldn’t explain those laws of nature themselves.  So we need God to explain those things.
> 
> Now, again, just as we raised objections to the Principle of Causality, we might just as well raise objections to the Principles of Sufficient Explanation.  Why think <i>it</i> is correct?  Why not simply think, for example, that the arrangement of matter in the universe <i>simply</i> <i>is</i> <i>as</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i>?  Maybe it is, as philosophers say, a "brute fact."  Similarly with the laws of nature governing that matter: once you get to the broadest laws, that apply to the greatest number of things in the universe; once you have come up with some grand unified theory of everything; then there is no further question to be raised, as to <i>why</i> the laws of nature are as they are.  Natural laws simply <i>are</i>, and there is no why.  Well, that’s what some people say anyway.  I will leave it to you to think about all this.
> 
> Fourth objection.  If we accept the cosmological argument, as we have seen, then we have to accept either the Principle of Causality, or the Principle of Sufficient Reason.  All right, but then why not apply such principles to <i>God</i>?  Consistency would seem to require us to do so.  In other words, why not think that <i>God’s</i> <i>existence</i> requires some cause, or at least some sufficient reason?  Even a little child can understand this point.  A little girl asks: "Why does everything exist?"  Her mother replies: "God created it all."  And then the little girl asks: "But what created God?"  In other words, to say that God created the universe <i>doesn’t</i> <i>put</i> <i>an</i> <i>end</i> <i>to</i> <i>the</i> <i>little</i> <i>girl’s</i> <i>curiosity</i>. Her mommy might say, "God creates himself."
> 
> But now mommy’s being a little disingenuous.  If she means that God <i>causes</i> <i>his</i> <i>own</i> <i>existence</i>, then she is saying something absurd: since a cause must precede its effect, and the effect in this case would be God’s coming-into-existence, God would have to exist before he came into existence; which is a contradiction.  The point is that, if God either exists at all times, or timelessly, then in either case God never <i>comes</i> <i>into</i> <i>being</i>.  So God isn’t the sort of thing that can be caused to come into existence.  Because God never does "come into existence."
> 
> But maybe we could say that, in some sense, God is a <i>sufficient</i> <i>reason</i> for his own existence.  Be careful now -- I’m not saying that God <i>causes</i> himself.  I’m saying that God’s existence is a sufficient explanation of his own existence.  But here, really, we might wonder: what exactly is the claim here?  That something can <i>explain</i> <i>its</i> <i>own</i> <i>existence</i>, but not causally?  This is straining our powers of understanding -- at least it strains <i>my</i> powers of understanding.  Maybe there is a way to make sense of what it means to say that something could explain its own existence.  But I can’t tell you what it is.
> 
> So finally suppose, instead of saying that God explains himself, we say that God is the sort of thing that needs no cause or explanation or reason.  God exists, as some philosophers like to say, <i>necessarily</i>.  In other words, God is the sort of thing that <i>must</i> exist; it is a contradiction to suppose that God does <i>not</i> exist.  If God exists <i>necessarily</i>, then there is no need to apply the Principle of Causality or the Principle of Sufficient Reason to him; since God <i>must</i> exist, he isn’t the sort of thing that can be caused, or that requires any explanation.  So the claim is: God’s existence requires no cause or explanation.
> 
> Here’s how one might reply to that.  There are two ways to reply.  First, I might maintain that there are no exceptions to the principles.  After all, I’m not sure why it is that the <i>fact</i>, if it is a fact, that God <i>necessarily</i> exists is supposed to make it any less pressing for us to explain God’s existence.  Indeed, now we get to ask <i>another</i> question, namely, why is it that God doesn’t merely exist, but that he <i>necessarily</i> exists?  Do you see the point?  If God <i>must</i> exist, then why don’t we have to explain why he <i>must</i> exist?
> 
> Second, I might say: why not think that <i>the</i> <i>universe</i> exists necessarily?  Why not think that the sum total of everything that exists, <i>must</i> exist, and <i>must</i> be as it is and not otherwise?  In that case, then the universe’s existence requires no cause or explanation, and we don’t have to talk about God at all.  Since the cosmos has to exist, we don’t have to go around looking for explanations of its existence, or the natural laws that govern it.
> 
> I think you can see that, all together, these different replies to the cosmological argument make it difficult for the argument’s defender to hold onto it.  I’m not saying that that can’t be done, because some religious philosophers have indeed used this argument and come up with elaborate replies to the objections I’ve raised.
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TheTeleologicalArgument|981080720
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
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> It is called "teleological" from <i>telos</i>, the Greek word meaning "purpose or end."  As we will see, the argument refers to the purposes or ends which we see all around us in the world.  It is also called "the argument from design."  And it goes like this.
> 
> Look around the world, and observe how everything fits together in one enormous, beautiful system.  The planets orbit the sun, the earth rotates on its axis, and the moon orbits the earth, creating regular seasons, days, and ocean tides.  The continents each contain complex, rich ecosystems which are themselves marvels of organization and interdependency.  And as we look at individual organisms our amazement increases: every being seems designed to carry out the functions that are natural to it.  Hawks are equipped with excellent eyesight in order to catch small prey; camels are equipped with water-retaining humps for long treks through the desert; and humans are equipped with minds that allow them to think of ways to protect their relatively weak, hairless, slow bodies.  When we think about the universe in this way, we are struck with how every part of it seems to be <i>well</i>-<i>designed</i>, as though there were an architect or engineer behind it.  So much in the world seems to have a <i>purpose</i> behind it.  And how can things have <i>purposes</i>, without an intelligence giving them those purposes?  Indeed, the universe is like one giant machine.  And so, just as machines have designers, the universe must have had a designer with certain purposes for its creation.
> 
> This designer must have been a mind, in order to have those purposes; but this mind would have to be infinitely intelligent, because it designed absolutely everything in the universe.  And since this mind created the universe, it would also have to be infinitely powerful.  Finally, this mind has adapted nature so that, if we live well, we can be happy; so this mind must be benevolent.  That means then that there is a mind, infinitely intelligent, powerful, and benevolent, that designed and created the universe.  And that is just what we mean by "God."  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> Unlike the cosmological argument, the teleological argument allows us to infer various things about the <i>nature</i> of God.  The cosmological argument only allows us to conclude that a "first cause" exists; but it’s not clear that that "first cause" has to be a personal God, a God of a sort which we would want to praise and worship.  The teleological argument, on the other hand, is supposed to tell us that God is intelligent and loving.  That is one reason why a lot of Christians use design arguments to support their belief; scientifically-minded believers, especially, see evidence of design, by a caring God, all around them.  So the teleological argument is supposed to give us reason to believe in the sort of God that is worth worshipping.
> 
> But let’s turn to the inevitable criticisms of the argument.  The first criticism should not take long to state, just because it should be familiar to almost all of you.  Namely, that there was this guy named Darwin, who came up with the theory of evolution, which explains the <i>appearance</i> of design in the universe, but the theory of evolution doesn’t require a designer.  In other words, in showing how the biological world might have, or has, evolved from lower life forms, Darwin (and of course almost all biologists after him) showed why there <i>appears</i> to be design in the world; and at the same time he showed that there is no need to suppose that there was an actual <i>designer</i> to explain this appearance of design.
> 
> In short, the reason that Darwin and the theory of evolution is as hated as they are, by some religious people, is that they undermine support for the teleological argument.  The appearance of design, say the evolutionary theorists, does not require a designer.  But notice, the teleological argument is only <i>one</i> argument of God.  So, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> the theory of evolution undercuts support for the teleological argument, that <i>doesn’t</i> mean that there is no way to rationally justify belief in God.  There are <i>plenty</i> of other arguments.  Much less is the theory of evolution in any way, shape, or form an argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  At worst, from the theist’s point of view, the theory of evolution makes just <i>one</i> argument for the existence of God less plausible.
> 
> And the theory of evolution is, I might add, <i>totally</i> <i>compatible</i> with the view that God designed and created the universe.  He would simply have chosen to create the natural world gradually.  Some Christians even say that God guides the process of evolution.
> 
> But critics of the teleological argument, anyway, say that the theory of evolution does show that the conclusion does not follow from the premises; the argument has been shown invalid.  In other words, the premises of the teleological argument may be true, while the conclusion is false.  The proposal is: there is indeed a huge lot of appearance of design; but the claim that no God exists is entirely compatible with that appearance, because the appearance of design can be explained adequately by the theory of evolution.
> 
> Here is a second criticism of the teleological argument.  David Hume is famous for coming up with a series of powerful criticisms.  But I’m going to focus in on what I believe is Hume’s most devastating criticism.
> 
> I told you that the design argument is supposed, by its defenders, to prove the existence of the sort of God that is worth worshipping, right?  Well, Hume called that into question.  Be forewarned, the following is rather irreverent; but that’s because Hume himself was a very irreverent person.
> 
> Suppose we admit that, indeed, there had to be some intelligent design behind the existence of the universe.  But notice <i>how</i> we came to this conclusion: it was by <i>drawing</i> <i>an</i> <i>analogy</i>, a comparison, between machines like auto engines and the universe and its parts.  The universe and its parts are like auto engines in that both look like they have been <i>designed</i>.  So we concluded that the mind of God must be somewhat like the human mind; simply much greater and more powerful.
> 
> But why do we say that there is just <i>one</i> God?  If we are arguing by analogy, why don’t we say that there is a committee of Gods that has designed the universe?  Maybe Zeus designed space and the sky and the weather; Poseidon designed the oceans and lakes; Demeter designed the earth; and so on.  What reason do we have, as far as the teleological argument goes, to think that there is just one God?  No doubt some scientifically unsophisticated peoples have thought that there are many gods precisely <i>because</i> <i>of</i> something like the design argument.  Sensibly, different gods are then assigned to different aspects of the universe; the division of labor makes sense.  Creating a universe is a big job!
> 
> And why say that God is <i>perfect</i>?  If the universe is like a machine, then maybe our God is really kind of a second-rate deity, who copied the plans of some more brilliant deity -- in just the way that an engineer might borrow the designs of some fellow engineer.
> 
> For that matter, why couldn’t God be a child, and our world is just his first attempt at worldmaking, an attempt of which he is now embarrassed?  The teleological argument tells us nothing to confirm or deny such a possibility.  Or perhaps when God created the universe he was a very old deity, and was about to die, and then after creating the universe he died.  The designers of machines die all the time.  If <i>all</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>know</i> <i>about</i> <i>God</i> is that God designed the universe, and so is like the designers of machines, then we have no way of knowing that God is <i>immortal</i>.
> 
> I think you get the idea.  Suppose that we admit that God is like the designer of machines; that doesn’t allow us to conclude that the <i>Christian</i> God exists.  And I honestly do not know how the defender of the teleological argument can get around that objection.
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ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981080762
1c1,6
< There are two kind of arguments for the existence of God: ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod, and TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod.  We shan't speculate on whether the latter belong to the former.
---
> There are two kind of arguments for the existence of God: 
> 
> * ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod
> * TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod.
> 
> We shan't speculate on whether the latter belong to the former.
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ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981080775
1c1
< There are two kind of arguments for the existence of God: 
---
> There are two kinds of argument for the existence of God: 
------
GoD|981080858
9c9
< A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered.
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> A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed.
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TheProblemOfEvil|981080868
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> I am going to finish up with the so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i>, which has, as its conclusion, "God does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.  I want to remind you that, just because I am presenting this argument, that does not mean that I think it is a good argument, or that I agree with its conclusion.  I just want you to understand what the argument is, and then you can go and think whatever you like about it.
> 
> Now, we have talked about the rationality of <i>theism</i> -- about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well talk about the rationality of <i>atheism</i>.  If you are an atheist, you would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  It would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Christians see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
> 
> But some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian God does not exist.  You <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say: you <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  How?  You show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That’s how the argument from evil goes.  Very briefly, the argument from evil proceeds like this: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.  I am sure you have thought of this problem before.  Now let’s see if we can state it more rigorously, and what objections might be made against it.
> 
> Here is the argument, in a more detailed form:
> 
> 1. If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving.
> 
> 2. If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it.
> 
> 3. If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient.
> 
> 4. If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent.
> 
> 5. If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving.
> 
> 6. Hence (by premises 2-5), if evil exists in the world, then either God is not omniscient, or God is not omnipotent, or God is not all-loving.
> 
> 7. But evil does exist in the world.
> 
> 8. Thus (by premise 6 and 7) either God is not omniscient, or not omnipotent, or not all-loving.
> 
> 9. Therefore (by premises 1 and 8), God does not exist.  (That is, the God of Judeo-Christian religion, which is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving, does not exist.)
> 
> Now let’s go back over the premises and see which ones we might criticize.  Remember that if you want to criticize an argument, then either you attack the premises, or you show that the premises do not entail the conclusion.  Now, the way I have formulated the argument from evil, the premises <i>do</i> entail the conclusion: this is a deductively valid argument.  That means that <i>if</i> the premises are all true, <i>then</i> the conclusion must be true.  But that’s not too impressive.  If I had wanted to, I <i>could</i> have formulated the ontological argument and the cosmological arguments as deductively valid arguments; I would then, if I wanted to criticize those arguments, simply attack the premises.  So if you are certain that the conclusion of a valid argument is wrong, one of the premises must be wrong.  You just have to say which one, and say <i>why</i> that one is wrong.
> 
> So that’s what we’re going to do here.  We’ll go over the different premises and see whether they can stand up to scrutiny.  Premise (1) just states some basic facts about the Judeo-Christian conception of God: "If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving."  Ordinary Christians certainly do not want to reject premise (1).  Other people might end up rejecting this premise, because they want to believe in a <i>different</i> sort of God.
> 
> How about premise (2)?  "If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it."  Why think this?  Well, evil has to have <i>some</i> explanation.  Why would a good God allow evil to exist in the world?  Maybe he doesn’t know about it; or maybe he <i>can’t</i> get rid of it; or maybe he doesn’t <i>want</i> to eliminate it.  But is there any <i>other</i> explanation?  Perhaps, but I don’t think so.  Just ask yourself this: suppose God <i>knew</i> about evil, he <i>could</i> eliminate all of it, and he <i>wanted</i> to eliminate all of it; could evil even <i>possibly</i> exist then?  Surely not.  If God <i>knew</i> about all the evil, and he <i>could</i> get rid of it, and he <i>desired</i> to get rid of it, then God <i>would</i> get rid of it.  But then we simply say: suppose that evil <i>does</i> exist.  In that case, either God doesn’t know about it, he can’t get rid of it, or he doesn’t want to get rid of it.  One of those options is open to us (or perhaps a combination of them).  That’s what premise (2) says.  So I don’t think we can criticize premise (2).
> 
> Now look at premise (3).  "If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient."  That seems perfectly true.  If there’s <i>anything</i> that God doesn’t know, then God isn’t omniscient; what it means to be omniscient is to know everything that there is to know.
> 
> Similar things can be said about premise (4).  "If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent."  That also seems incontrovertibly true.  If there is anything that God can’t do, anything that doesn’t involve a contradiction anyway, then God isn’t omnipotent.  What it means to be omnipotent is to be able to do everything.  If God were omnipotent then he could certainly eliminate evil.  So I think both premises (3) and (4) have to be accepted.
> 
> But now what about premise (5)?  "If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving."  This one is more doubtful.  In fact I am sure that a lot of you will want to raise objections to it.  Isn’t it at least <i>possible</i> that God is all-loving, but he still doesn’t want to eliminate evil?  Maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  Well, we’ll elaborate on this objection in a bit.  Just keep in mind that we are going to come back to it; so premise (5) is the first premise we’ve found which is really dubious.
> 
> Next consider premise (6).  "Hence (by premises 2-5), if evil exists in the world, then either God is not omniscient, or God is not omnipotent, or God is not all-loving."  This follows deductively from premises (2)-(5); the only way to reject premise (6) is to reject (2), (3), (4), or (5); and so if we end up deny premise (5), that will be enough to allow us to say that (6) is false.
> 
> What about premise (7)?  "But evil does exist in the world."  Some people deny this.  But how?  How could anyone possibly deny that evil exists in the world?
> 
> Some people say that evil is <i>merely</i> an <i>appearance</i>; it is <i>only</i> an illusion.  Nothing is <i>really</i> evil.  I suppose the idea is that if you get yourself into the right frame of mind, probably a rather fuzzy frame of mind, then evil seems powerless and inconsequential.  What really matters is goodness, happiness, love, or something like that; so evil doesn’t matter, and in a sense it doesn’t really exist.
> 
> I have to admit that I have a hard time taking that view seriously.  First of all, even if evil "doesn’t matter," that certainly doesn’t mean it doesn’t <i>exist</i>.  Because plainly it <i>does</i> exist.  Hitler exterminated six million Jews; that wasn’t evil?  People suffer from debilitating diseases all around the world; that’s not an evil we all potentially face?  People are regularly killed by tornados, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural disasters.  Those events aren’t really evil?  Their obvious hatefulness is illusory?  That seems ridiculous.  Unless you have some sophisticated way to explain <i>why</i> evil is merely illusory, this view can be safely rejected.  I seriously doubt you can solve the problem of evil by simply <i>denying</i> that evil exists.
> 
> Premise (8) reads: "Thus (by premises 6 and 7) either God is not omniscient, or not omnipotent, or not all-loving."  This is a further inference from earlier premises, so the only way that we can reject <i>it</i> is by rejecting those earlier premises.
> 
> So after going over each premise of the argument from evil, we have found just <i>one</i> premise, namely (5), that gives us substantial hope of escaping the conclusion.  As I said, maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>theodicy</i>.  A theodicy is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  And mind you, in order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.  I think that when I put it this way, this is a topic you may have thought a fair amount about; maybe some of you already have views about it.
> 
> I should insert here that some people think that all they have to prove is that a loving God <i>can</i> <i>have</i> <i>some</i> <i>purpose</i> in permitting evil to exist.  These people <i>deny</i> that they have to <i>state</i> God’s purposes.  What would be the point of that?  God’s purposes are not our purposes; the nature of God is mysterious.  So if you are a mystic this view should be attractive to you.  All you have to do is to argue that a loving God <i>might</i> have some reason for allowing the existence of evil; you don’t have to state what the reason is.  I think this is an extremely popular view among Christians.  For two reasons, no doubt: first, it is extremely pious not to try to guess at God’s thoughts; and second, it gives us a justification for not making an actual attempt to explain evil, which promises to be a very difficult task indeed.
> 
> But let’s review a few actual attempts to explain evil.  The first is to point to the existence of free will.  God gave us free will; and so we are able to bring evil upon ourselves.  We are to blame for the evils which we inflict and suffer.  This is an unfortunate consequence of our status as free beings; but it is far better that we are free, and hence that we suffer evil, than it would be if we were merely unfree pawns in a perfect game that God played by himself.
> 
> This is very persuasive to many people.  But there is a very serious problem with it: very much of the evil that we suffer is not due, in any direct way, to any choices that human beings make.  When the Black Death rode in the late Middle Ages, and wiped out millions upon millions of Europeans, that certainly was not due to any act of any human being.  Or take any natural disaster at all: human beings do not cause, and cannot prevent, devastating earthquakes.  So we should distinguish between <i>moral</i> evil and <i>natural</i> evil, a distinction I’ve been blurring up until now.  Moral evil is any bad thing that humans are responsible for; natural evil is any bad thing, such as an earthquake or flood, that humans are not responsible for.  Human beings are to blame for moral evil; but they are not to blame for natural evil.
> 
> "Ah," you may say, "but we are.  Adam and Eve freely committed the Original Sin, of eating of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and we have been paying for that great sin ever since."  Now, I don’t want to get into any specific issues of Biblical exegesis and Church doctrine.  But suffice it to say that it would be harsh, to say the least, that <i>absolutely</i> <i>every</i> <i>member</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>human</i> <i>race</i> who came after Adam and Eve should have to pay, throughout their lives, with all manner of suffering, for that Original Sin of Adam and Eve.  I hope you’ll forgive me if I say that does not sound like something that a loving God would do.  There may be a way to explain how a loving God can permit evil; but I doubt that the best way to explain it is to say that we all <i>deserve</i> all the evil we get, because Adam and Eve committed the Original Sin.
> 
> So here’s another answer, a more plausible answer, I think.  A universe in which we are tested and improved by having to face evils, is far better than a universe in which we might complacently live in blissful ignorance of evil.  The souls who will inhabit heaven will be far better and stronger if they live in a world beset with all sorts of evils.  Evil improves us.  And so God has allowed Satan to come to the power that he now has.  Satan tempts us and if we resist, we are better for it.  Satan also tests our will and resolve with all sorts of natural evils, earthquakes, floods, and whatnot; and if we pass the test we are better for it.
> 
> Now if I wanted to, I could bring a lot of objections to this.  Surely the absolute <i>horrors</i> that humanity has faced, especially in the twentieth century, are unnecessary to improve our moral mettle.  I could, if I wanted to, insist on such objections at length.  But I think we have come to the point where you can see the outlines of the major issues involved in the problem.  So I will leave it to you to hash out the details and to answer any further objections, that might come to you, yourselves.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981080963
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> It’s possible to do a great deal of philosophy without talking about human beings at all.  We can talk about the existence of physical objects, space and time, the problem of substance, the problem of universals, change and identity, what numbers are, and a great many other topics without having to discuss what human beings are.  And we could, without talking about human beings, explore an area which is important, but which I haven’t even mentioned until now, namely the philosophy of biology.  The philosophy of biology looks for a definition of "life," in the sense of being alive, and tries to come to grips with some of the fundamental properties of living beings, such as proper functioning.  Now, I think it’s very useful to regard human beings as, first and foremost, <i>living</i> beings with a certain number of natural systems which have their proper functioning.  We have a respiratory system, for example the proper functioning of which allows our bodies to get the oxygen we need in order to survive.  Similarly with our circulatory system, or digestive system, and so forth.
> 
> Well, the nervous system, including our brain and nerves is, of course, a natural system just like our respiratory system, with a proper function (or rather, a whole very complex set of proper functions).  Our nervous system is incredibly complex and highly developed.  In fact it is so highly developed that many people think that the mind is something quite over and above the mere human brain and nervous system.  But <i>is</i> the mind really something quite over and above the brain and nervous system?  Well, in this chapter, we’re going to discuss that question.
> 
> As I said, it is possible to do a lot of philosophy without talking about human beings.  But probably <i>most</i> of philosophy <i>does</i> in some way depend on questions about human nature and the human situation.  And the human mind is of course fundamental to human nature.  So, a great deal of the rest of philosophy ultimately rests on questions about the human mind.  Thus, if we do want to talk about the rest of philosophy, practically the first topic that we have to take up, is the nature of the human mind.
> 
> So this is going to be a chapter about some of the most important topics in the philosophy of mind.  Before I explain those specific topics, I am going to try to explain in general what the philosophy of mind is, and introduce some terminology.  Let me begin with a definition of the field:
> 
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, and consciousness.
> 
> So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  We’ve already talked about that a little, when we discussed the problem of substance as applied to minds.  So let’s talk about the other parts of this definition.
> 
> It also concerns something I am calling "mental events."  That’s one bit of terminology I will introduce.  We need some sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say I’m walking across the Oval and I <i>see</i> University Hall.  That instance of seeing University Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in my mind.  So let’s call that instance of seeing a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i>.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in my mind.  If I think to myself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if I feel happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
> 
> Now look at the next phrase in the definition I gave: "mental functions."  I might as well have said "cognitive processes" instead.  So what are "mental functions" or "cognitive processes"?  I will use those two phrases, "mental functions" and "cognitive processes," interchangeably.  I mean simply such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion.  In other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving University Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception, my ability to perceive things.  An instance of seeing is different of course from the ability that makes it possible.  So whenever I engage in one of those cognitive processes like perception, belief, emotion, and so on, a mental event occurs.
> 
> There is, moreover, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, mental events, namely, <i>consciousness</i>.  "Consciousness" is the last term in the definition of "philosophy of mind" I gave.  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
> 
> Now, in this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; namely, we are conscious of what’s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance where you are alive, and your brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of <i>consciousness</i>.
> 
> Now just a bit more about consciousness.  There has been some debate about the following question: <i>Must</i> one be conscious, in the philosophical sense, whenever a mental event occurs?  For example, is it possible to have a <i>pain</i> which I do not feel?  Some people think not; they think that, in order for something to <i>be</i> a pain, I have to feel it, or be aware of it.  Similarly, if anything is a thought, then I have to be aware of what I’m thinking of; if there is no consciousness, no awareness, of anything at all, then I’m not thinking.  That’s what some philosophers debate about, anyway: Do mental events <i>necessarily</i> involve consciousness?
> 
> Well, what if we answer "No"?  Then of course what we’d be saying is that there are some mental events which do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren’t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious</i>.  And when I put it like that I’m sure you will be able to recognize what I’m talking about.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that’s going on in our minds.  But that is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
> 
> Let’s return now to the definition of the philosophy of mind I gave.  I said it is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind and of mental functions.  So some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
> 
> The first question is: What is the mind?  As I said, I’ve already given you a short introduction to this question when I explained how the problem of substance can be applied to the mind.  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  But when we ask that really we’re doing nothing but asking what the relation is between the mind and mental events.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
> 
> But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is.  For example, is the mind something different from physical bodies?  Suppose you think that the mind is a substance of some sort -- a mental substance.  You might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, this mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will you maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that you can’t explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?  All right, that’s one question.
> 
> But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between mental events and physical events -- you know, events that occur in the body, including the brain.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "the mind-body problem."
> 
> I am sure this is confusing, because there are a lot of questions being asked here!  Well so far I’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
> 
> Now what about questions about the different cognitive processes?  Of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  You know, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting the mind-body problem.  But let’s ignore that for now.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.  Take perception as an example.  Philosophers ask what is going on when we perceive something -- when we see, hear, taste, touch, and so on.  But philosophers aren’t interested in the particular mechanisms that allow us to see -- for example, they aren’t interested in the shape of the eye, or how the optical nerve carries information to the brain.  They are interested in even more basic sort of stuff.  They ask: Do we perceive physical objects <i>directly</i> with our senses, or do we form mental images of some sort, which we use to <i>represent</i> physical objects and their properties?  Don’t worry if you don’t understand that question; we’re going to be discussing it at length next time, when we talk about the philosophy of perception.  Really, the philosophy of perception is all about how our minds come in contact with the world outside our minds.
> 
> Then as I’m sure you can imagine, there are a lot of questions that can be asked about <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.  Needless to say, we don’t even have time to formulate the questions, let alone consider answers to them.  But there is one other cognitive process that I want to mention now, because we <i>are</i> going to be spending a day on it, namely, the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If I decide to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to me; I could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if my will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though I didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to my deciding to walk across the room.  So was I free or wasn’t I?  That’s the question we’ll take up next week, when we discuss the problem of free will and determinism.
> 
> Finally, there are questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we’re conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.  So they say.  But again, that’s only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981081008
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< But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between mental events and physical events -- you know, events that occur in the body, including the brain.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "the mind-body problem."
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> But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between mental events and physical events -- you know, events that occur in the body, including the brain.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
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TheMindBodyProblem|981081075
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> Let me introduce the mind-body problem with an example.  Suppose I decide to walk across the room, whereupon I do in fact walk across the room.  In the jargon I’ve just introduced, my decision is a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i>; and my walking across the room is a <i>physical</i> <i>event</i>.  Now on anybody’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved here; namely, something happens in my brain, which tells my legs to start walking.  And this brain event is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
> 
> So maybe a better description of the situation is this: my decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When I decide to take my trip across the room, a group of neurons fire in my brain.  I am not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as my decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.  Now, I don’t know if you can understand that proposal; to a lot of people it sounds really strange to say that a mental process is no more than a special kind of physical process.  The mind, they say, is more spiritual, ethereal, and so it just isn’t the <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i>  that can be physical.  And they have other reasons as well for rejecting this reduction of the mental to the physical.
> 
> So in fact what <i>some</i> philosophers have believed -- but hardly anyone anymore -- is that the reduction goes the other way.  We should explain what bodies are in terms of mental goings-on; so the physical can be reduced to the mental.  When I walked across the room, really that was happening <i>only</i> in my mind, or in our minds all at the same time.  There is, on this view, nothing more to my walking across the room than our having the thought, or the perception, that that happens.  This view would also solve the problem of how the mental can affect the physical.  Since physical events are themselves nothing more than a special kind of mental event, then of course there isn’t any trouble about how a decision, which is obviously a mental event, can result in my body moving, which is also a mental event, although less obviously so.
> 
> Explaining a piece of terminology will be helpful here.  I’ve been talking about <i>reducing</i> the mental to the physical, and <i>reducing</i> the physical to the mental; so what exactly does "reduction" mean?  This is itself a very difficult, complicated question, but we’re going to have to ignore the difficulties.  The <i>basic</i> notion is this: If I <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever I talk about X, I can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead</i>.  So if I reduce the mental to the physical, then whenever I talk of pains, thoughts, and decisions, I can be understood as talking about physical events in my brain.  But then you might ask: does that mean that I think that pains, thoughts, and decisions don’t <i>exist</i>?  Well, not necessarily; and usually not.
> 
> Let me give you an example of a reduction in a field we’ve already studied.  Take the bundle theory.  The bundle theory says that objects may be reduced to collections of properties; so whenever we talk about objects, we can be understood to be talking about bundles of properties.  Now let me ask you: do you think that the bundle theory says that <i>objects</i> <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i> ?  Well, maybe not objects as we had thought of them; but the theory <i>is</i> trying to give an account of what objects <i>are</i>; namely, they are bundles of properties!  So the bundle theory saying that objects don’t <i>exist</i> -- just that they are the same as bundles of properties.  Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  The bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, it’s properties and bundles that exist, not objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
> 
> All right, I have given you three different views about the relationship between the mental and the physical.  Now I am going to give names to those views:
> 
> <i>Dualism</i> is the view that mental events and physical events are totally different kinds of events.
> 
> <i>Physicalism</i>, or <i>materialism</i>, is the view that mental events are nothing more than a special kind of physical event.
> 
> <i>Phenomenalism</i>, or <i>subjective</i> <i>idealism</i>, is the view that physical events are nothing more than a special kind of mental event.
> 
> The mind-body problem, to put it as generically and broadly as possible, is this question: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>the</i> <i>mental</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i>?  Now, just for the sake of simplicity, I’m going to state the problem in terms of mental and physical <i>events</i>.  I could put it just as well in terms of <i>processes</i>, or of <i>consciousness</i>.  So the problem restated is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>mental</i> <i>events</i> <i>and</i> <i>physical</i> <i>events</i>?  
> 
> There are, then, three basic choices: mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (which is dualism); mental events are to be reduced to physical events (which is physicalism); and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (which is phenomenalism).  To put it in terms of what exists "ultimately," we could say that according to dualism, <i>both</i> mental <i>and</i> physical events exist ultimately; according to physicalism, only <i>physical</i> events exist ultimately; and according to phenomenalism, only <i>mental</i> events exist ultimately.  Physicalism and phenomenalism are both varieties of <i>monism</i>; monism is the view that only one sort of stuff in the universe exists ultimately (as opposed to dualism which holds that there are two kinds of stuff).  So there are two kinds of monism, namely, physicalism and phenomenalism.  But there is, actually, another kind of monism.  Namely, <i>neutral</i> <i>monism</i>.  Neutral monism is the view that mental and physical events are both to be reduced to aspects of some neutral stuff, which stuff considered by itself is neither physical nor mental.  Neutral monism was introduced by the 17th century Dutch philosopher, Spinoza; and a version of it was recently revived by a very prominent American philosopher, Donald Davidson.
> 
> If you are thinking that this is far too many possible positions to consider, just wait -- it gets worse -- because within each category there are further refinements to be made.  So we’re going to have to spend the rest of the day trying to come to grips with the refinements and the basic objections that can be made to these different theories.  But we are going to focus almost all of our energies on just two theories, namely, <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>, and <i>type</i> <i>physicalism</i>.
> 
> 
> 
> A. Dualism.
> 
> I suspect many of you might be thinking to yourselves: "This is ridiculous.  Look, there is the mind, and there is the body, and they are two totally different things.  There might be some puzzles about how they interact but obviously they <i>do</i> interact.  So what’s all the fuss?  All those other theories you listed are just <i>silly</i>."  Now if you think this way, my job is to get you to see that that puzzle about how the mind and body interact is more serious than you might have thought.  But first let’s get the theory more clearly stated.
> 
> The view we’re talking about consists of all of the following claims: mental and physical events both exist, but neither type of event can be reduced to the other type, and mental events are both causes and effects of physical events.   This is called <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>.  It is also called <i>Cartesian</i> <i>dualism</i>, because it is the kind of dualism that the great 17th-century French philosopher Descartes advocated.  This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism -- probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  So in addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When I touch a hot stove, and burn my skin, I feel a pain.  Touching the stove and burning my skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when I feel the pain, I say, "Ouch!" -- and my saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  You put the belief in that interaction together with dualism and you’ve got a very commonsense sort of theory of mind.  In fact our reading calls this "the commonsense theory of mind," and I agree with that characterization.
> 
> Let’s look at some arguments for dualism.  How would we go about arguing for this theory?  I mean, aside from pointing out that it’s extremely commonsensical.  That’s got to count for something; perhaps it counts for a lot indeed.  But if we can help it the mere fact that it’s a matter of common sense shouldn’t be our <i>only</i> reason for accepting a theory.  So how would we go about arguing for dualism?  We point out the differences between the mental and the physical.  So let’s do that.  Let’s go over the differences between mental events and physical events.
> 
> First, mental events are not publicly observable.  When I touch the hot stove, you may see me whip back my hand and say "Ouch!" but you are not feeling my pain.  Unless you’re Mr. Spock, or God, you can’t as it were get inside my mind and take a look at what’s going on in there.  And of course it’s not just because my mind is hidden beneath my skull.  If you knew just where to look in my brain, you wouldn’t be able to see thoughts and feelings jiggling around in there.  That’s just not how it works.  So unlike physical events, like fireworks displays, mental events are private, not publicly observable.
> 
> Second, mental events are often said not to be spatially located.  Where is my pain supposed to be?  Maybe you could say in my fingertips, because they hurt.  But is that where the <i>feeling</i> is?  Does it really make sense to say that the <i>feeling</i> is in my aching fingertips?  That sounds a little funny, anyway.  A better example would be an emotion like happiness.  When I say I’m happy, can I locate my happiness in my head, or does it exist all my body, or something?  Doesn’t that sound odd?  It would seem better to say that my happiness isn’t the sort of thing that <i>can</i> be located in a particular place.
> 
> Third, more generally, mental events do not seem to have various physical properties which physical events have.  For one thing, mental events do not involve anything having mass, or physical motion.  We can’t weigh a thought.  We can’t say that a feeling has a velocity of 10 miles an hour.  To say such things is to talk nonsense.  Now you might say: that’s only because mental events are <i>events</i>.  You can’t say that physical events have mass or velocity either.  Point well enough taken; that’s true, no event, per se, has mass or velocity.  But physical events do <i>involve</i> objects which have mass and velocity.  Mental events do not have any components which have mass and velocity.  For example, when I think, "I like ice cream," I have a concept of ice cream; and my concept of ice cream has no mass and velocity.  Nothing involved in my appreciation for ice cream would appear to have any such physical properties.  This is a point to which we will have to return.  But on the face of it, this seems pretty obvious.
> 
> Fourth, mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, which physical events obviously do not.  I mean, for example, what a burned finger feels like, what sky blue looks like, what nice music sounds like, and so on.  I’m going to expand on this fourth point at some length.  Recently, philosophers have been calling the subjective aspects of mental events <i>qualia</i>, and they also call them <i>raw</i> <i>feels</i>.  There is something <i>that</i> <i>it’s</i> <i>like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on; there are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events.  And the claim is that qualia seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.  Just think of what that would involve.  You’d be saying: <i>feeling</i> <i>the</i> <i>top</i> <i>of</i> <i>my</i> <i>hand</i> <i>right</i> <i>now</i>, this "raw feel" I’m experiencing right now, is <i>itself</i> nothing more than a physical event.
> 
> In fact, there is an article by an American, Thomas Nagel, that came out in the late 70’s called "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"  In this article Nagel argued roughly as follows.  You are familiar with the fact that bats use a certain kind of sonar, right?  They emit high-pitched shrieks which allow them to fly around in dark caves; they can tell how far away the walls are based on how their shrieks echo around in the cave.  Bat sonar allows bats to perceive distance, shape, size, and so on, in a way similar to, but obviously different from the way vision works for us.  Now Nagel invited us to ask, "So what <i>is</i> it like to be a bat, flying around in the dark using bat sonar?"  Surely bats do have experiences; we just don’t know what they are.  Suppose we were to take apart a bat brain and figure out how the neural apparatus for bat sonar works.  No doubt biologists have actually done so, dissected bat brains and so forth.  But in understanding how the bat brain works, do those biologists learn <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>like</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> <i>a</i> <i>bat</i>?  Well of course not.  They’re mucking around in the grey matter of bats.  In order to know what it’s like to be a bat, and to have bat sonar, why, you’d have to be a bat.  So argued Nagel.
> 
> So what’s the point of all this?  The point is that if indeed there are "bat qualia," then there are peculiar mental events of a sort that only bats have, and we cannot learn what they are like even if we have a detailed understanding of physical events going on in the bat brain.  Or to put it even more simply: there is a strange "bat sonar experience" we’ll never have.  We won’t have it even if we learn what physical events in bat brains are associated with bat sonar.  So that’s excellent evidence that mental events cannot be reduced to physical events; mental events must be regarded as quite a different sort of thing from physical events.  Really, you can make the same point without even bringing up weird cases like bat sonar.  Just think of your own unique feelings.  Do you think that a psychologist could, simply by digging around in your brain and doing tests on your grey matter, ever learn what that feeling was like?
> 
> So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might <i>reduce</i> the mental to the physical.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being.  So there you have one basic, powerful argument for dualism.
> 
> But there is another argument that I’m sure weighs heavily in some of your minds.  Namely, that you have an immortal souls that can survive your bodily death.  Traditional Christianity, like many other religions, teaches that you have a soul which is as different from your body as water is from rock.  Your body will die and then your soul will go to heaven, or hell, or who knows where.  If you believe this then you practically <i>must</i> believe in dualism.  The only way that you can avoid believing in dualism is if you accept phenomenalism, which holds that everything is, ultimately, mental.  But in any event you absolutely cannot hold that the soul is reducible to anything physical.  If events in your soul <i>were</i> reducible to events in your brain, then when your brain stopped functioning, your soul would cease to exist.
> 
> It’s not clear to me that this ought to be looked upon as an <i>argument</i> <i>for</i>  dualism, simply because those who challenge dualism from a physicalist position will not at all be impressed by it.  I mean, suppose you are trying to support dualism against a physicalist, who thinks that everything is, at bottom, physical.  Will it be at all impressive to say, "If I have an immortal soul, then mental events cannot be reduced to physical events"?  Not at all; the physicalist is precisely the sort of person who denies that you have an immortal soul, and who demands proof that in fact you <i>do</i> have an immortal soul.  You may not particularly care that you can’t convince the physicalist; but the point is that you should not do something that looks so much like begging the question.  Because if you argue: "I have an immortal soul; therefore dualism is true," then it sure does look like you’re begging the question.  You should prove that dualism is true, and thus that you have an immaterial, non-physical soul, <i>before</i> you try to prove that your soul is immortal!
> 
> So as far as arguing for dualistic interactionism goes, let’s just stick with the differences between the mental and the physical that I stated before.  Now, those are evidence for the <i>dualism</i> part.  What about the interactionism part, that is, the claim that mental and physical events causally interact?  Here we can just cite observational evidence.  We observe that physical events cause all sorts of mental events, and vice-versa.  Indeed, it’s hard to know how one might argue <i>against</i> the fact that there is such interaction, since it appears to go on all the time.  Anyway then, that’s all I’m going to say in favor of dualistic interactionism.
> 
> This theory has come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially this century.  The basic problem is: If dualism is true, then it is hard to see how mental and physical events can possibly interact causally.  How can something totally immaterial affect something totally material?  That’s the basic problem.  But let me break this basic problem into three parts.
> 
> First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place.  Burning my fingers causes pain, right?  Well, apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the nerves of my body that lead to my brain, to something happening in a particular part of my brain; <i>and</i> <i>then</i>, I feel pain.  But the pain is not supposed to be spatially located.  So what I want to know is, where does the interaction take place?  If you say, "It takes place in the brain," then I will say, "But I thought pains weren’t located anywhere."  And you, as a dualist, might stick to your guns and say, "That’s right, pains <i>aren’t</i> located anywhere; but the brain event that immediately leads to the pain <i>is</i> located in the brain."  But then we have a very strange causal relation on our hands.  The cause is located in a particular place but the effect is not located anywhere.  Well, you might say, that might be puzzling but it’s not a devastating criticism.
> 
> So look at a second problem about the interaction.  Namely, <i>how</i> does the interaction take place?  Maybe you think, "Well, that’s a matter for science -- scientists will eventually discover the connection between mental and physical events."  But philosophers have something to say about the matter, because the <i>very</i> <i>idea</i> of a <i>mechanism</i>, which explains the connection between the mental and the physical, would be very strange, at best.  Why do I say it would be strange?  Compare it to a mechanism that we <i>do</i> understand.  Take a very simple causal relation, such as when the cue ball strikes the eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket.  Here we can say that the cue ball has a certain amount of force as its mass accelerates across the pool table, and then that force is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket.  Now compare that to the situation in the brain, where we want to say a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus cause my body to move across the room.  The decision, "I will cross the room now," is a mental event; and as such it does not have physical properties such as force.  If it has no force, then how on earth could it cause any neuron to fire?  Is it magic?  Honestly, how could something without any physical properties have any physical <i>effects</i> at all?
> 
> Here you might reply, as some philosophers have indeed replied, as follows.  You might say: "Well sure, there is a mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events can occur; but the fact that there is a mystery doesn’t mean that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> no interaction.  Because plainly there is an interaction and plainly the interaction is between two totally different sorts of events."  Now I expect that some of you may want to say this.  But the problem with it is that it does not seem to answer the full power of the objection.
> 
> So let me explain the objection more precisely.  Let’s take as our example my decision to walk across the room.  We say: my decision, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in my brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in my walking across the room.  The problem is that if we have something totally nonphysical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing.  That means that some physical energy seems to have appeared out of thin air.  Do you see?  Even if we say that my decision has some sort of mental energy, and that the decision causes the firing, we still haven’t explained where the <i>physical</i> energy, for the firing, came from.  It just seems to have popped into existence from nowhere.
> 
> As our reading says, there is a physical principle, called the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy."  According to this principle, "In all physical processes, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant."  Or in a form you may have heard before: in any change anything undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed.  This is a basic principle you probably learned about in high school physics.  So the point is that nerve firings, which are allegedly caused by a totally nonphysical decision, would appear to violate the Principle of the Conservation of Energy.
> 
> Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
> 
> I said before that there are different kinds of dualism.  I am really not going to have time to discuss the other kinds.  But the other kinds do, anyway, accept that mental events and physical events both exist, and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
> 
> Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
> 
> As I said, we just don’t have time to discuss these or any other kinds of dualism.
> 
> 
> 
> B. Physicalism.
> 
> Let’s look next at a very different theory of mind, in the theory that the mental can be reduced to the physical.  This view is usually called <i>physicalism</i>.  It is also called <i>materialism</i> or <i>identity</i> <i>materialism</i>.  The term "physicalism" is less misleading because it does not have any misleading connotations; if we called the view "materialism," you might think that we were talking about something that had to do with the desire for wealth, possessions, and so forth, but obviously we’re not talking about that.  We’re talking about a theory about the mind.  "Physicalism" is better also because it implies that the mental can be reduced to whatever is <i>physical</i>, meaning, whatever is described ultimately by physics; and as we all know, physics describes a lot more than just matter, it also describes energy.  So the view is that we can reduce mental events to events that are made up entirely of matter and energy.  And remember what we mean by "reduce" here: "If I <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever I talk about X, I can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead</i>."  So here’s the claim: Whenever we talk about mental events, we can be <i>properly</i> understood to be talking about <i>events</i> <i>that</i> <i>are</i> <i>made</i> <i>up</i> <i>entirely</i> <i>of</i> <i>matter</i> <i>and</i> <i>energy</i>.
> 
> I suppose that this sounds very strange.  I know it sounded very strange the first time I heard it.  So let me give you an example, and I’ll try to make this as plausible as I can.  In fact there is a hackneyed example that is used when philosophers talk about this stuff.  For some reason philosophers these days always use <i>pain</i> as an example of a mental event; why not pleasure, I say?    There is supposed to be a certain kind of nerve fiber that leads from your limbs to your brain, called <i>C</i>-<i>fibers</i>, and whenever you’re in pain, the story goes, your C-fibers are firing; and whenever your C-fibers are firing, then you’re in pain.  I suppose we might test this claim empirically, with experiments, right?  Suppose I sit you down in my lab, and I insert some probe into your spine, right next to your C-fibers; then I find some clever way to cause you pain.  You say, "Ouch!" and tell me that you are in pain.  I say, "Good!" and sure enough I see that your C-fibers are firing.
> 
> My apologies if I’m getting the facts all wrong.  But the point is in some such way, we are supposed to be able to study which neural states, and brain states, are <i>associated</i> with which mental states.  Now surely that would be very interesting if we were to find that, in order to be in pain, we would have to have firing C-fibers -- wouldn’t it?  For that matter, a neuroscientist might notice that when you engage in deep thought, the frontal lobe of your brain is extremely active.  When we engage in reasoning and complex conceptualization, the neurons in a certain part of the brain are firing; that seems to indicate that there is some sort of close association between hard thought and frontal lobe activity.
> 
> So the suggestion now is that the event of feeling pain is just the same as C-fibers firing.  That is why Halverson calls the theory "identity materialism"; types of mental events, like pain, are <i>identical</i> to types of physical events, like C-fiber firing.  So, pain is <i>reducible</i> <i>to</i> C-fiber firing.  This particular theory is also called "the type-type identity theory," since mental event types are matched up with physical event types.  And mind you, again, not just matched up or associated with -- but actually <i>the</i> <i>very</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i>.  The pain I experience when I bash my thumb with a hammer is really nothing more than those C-fibers going off.
> 
> Now, some of you might hear this and think that I am <i>denying</i> that pain, or anything mental, <i>really</i> exists.  In other words, since I’m saying now that mental events are really only physical events, you think that I’m saying there <i>aren’t</i> any mental events.  But that is <i>not</i> my claim.  Mental events do exist; they are simply identical to physical events of a certain kind.
> 
> It so happens that there <i>is</i> a theory about the mind, called <i>eliminativism</i>, which says that the mind, mental events, and all the rest of that <i>simply</i> <i>do</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  The best-known proponent of this theory is an American, Paul Churchland.  He says that this talk of mental events, thinking and such, is all just a fiction, just folks tales, which is going to be replaced with more scientific talk, when the science of the brain and the nervous system is sufficiently developed.  When that time comes, the eliminativists say, we won’t use this out-dated talk of feelings, thoughts, pains, etc.  We’ll talk about C-fibers firing, and frontal lobes being activated, and so forth.  All that talk of love, hate, decisions, beliefs, and so forth, will look antiquated and silly in the same way that talk of ghosts, demons, and witches now looks antiquated and silly.  I’m not even going to tell you why some philosophers buy into this theory -- it’s pretty unpopular, as you might have guessed -- I’m just telling you that it exists, so I can contrast physicalism with it.  Physicalism <i>does</i> hold that mental events <i>exist</i>.
> 
> Nonetheless, you still might think that physicalism is a very strange theory, that is totally contrary to common sense.  So you might object, as follows.  This will be the only objection to physicalism I’ll state, but it’s rather complex.  Just remember now all those differences that we listed between mental and physical events.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there is seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  How on earth could anyone say that mental events are <i>just</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> physical events?  There are all these obvious differences, so you <i>can’t</i> reduce the mental to the physical!  So physicalism has to be wrong.
> 
> Here is how the physicalist would reply.  Let’s go over each of those alleged differences between mind and matter.  The first one is: mental events are not publicly observable.  The physicalist would say: well, OK, so mental events cannot be <i>seen</i> by other people; but neither can the sorts of physical events we’re talking about.  A C-fiber firing is not only buried inside your nervous system; it is also not detectable except with special instruments.  So we could very well say that C-fiber firing is not publicly observable.
> 
> If you’re a dualist, you’re probably not going to be happy with this reply.  You’ll probably say that the physicalist is missing the point.  The point is really that mental events aren’t <i>observable</i> <i>by</i> <i>other</i> <i>people</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>.  Other people can’t jump into my mind and as it were mentally look over my shoulder while I’m feeling pain and having deep thoughts.  Maybe Mr. Spock can do that but you and I can’t.  So, you, or a dualist, might say, what follows from that?  What follows is that feeling pain can’t be the same as C-fibers firing; other people can probe my nervous system and observe my C-fibers firing but they definitely <i>aren’t</i> observing my pain, no matter how carefully they observe my C-fibers or any other part of my nervous system.  It doesn’t  matter; my mental states can’t be <i>observed</i> by other people at all!  That’s how I think the dualist would reply.
> 
> How do you suppose the physicalist counter that?  Let me play the role of the physicalist.  So I would reply by saying that, really, if "publicly observable" just means "observable by other people," then your mental states <i>are</i> publicly observable.  Mental events <i>can</i> be observed by other people.  So what exactly would I be doing, then, if I <i>did</i> observe your pain?  Would I have to feel your pain myself?  In other words, in order for me to observe your pain, would <i>I</i> have to have the same aches and hurts that <i>you</i> have?  Surely not.  Why would you think that?  In order for me to observe your pain, it seems to me I simply have to observe <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> <i>that</i> <i>you</i> <i>are</i> <i>in</i> <i>pain</i>.  And if, as a physicalist, I hold that pain is the same as C-fibers firing, then all I have to do is observe your C-fibers firing, and <i>voila</i> -- I am observing the fact that you are in pain.  The dualist isn’t going to be at all happy with this reply; but let’s leave that debate and move on to those other supposed differences between mind and body.
> 
> The second difference is that mental events are not spatially located.  So here’s how the dualist will object to physicalism on that point: mental events are not spatially located, but physical events <i>are</i> spatially located.  So mental events are obviously different from physical events.
> 
> Here’s how I, the physicalist, can reply to that point.  I can concede that, for example, when I make a decision, I do not <i>see</i> or otherwise <i>perceive</i> my decision as being located anywhere.  I am just immediately aware of my decision, once I’ve made it.  But does that mean that the event of my decision in fact <i>isn’t</i> located anywhere?  I mean, simply because I’m not <i>aware</i> of its location, does it follow <i>from</i> that, that my decision doesn’t <i>have</i> a location at all?  I don’t see how that follows.  Why can’t we just say: a decision is a certain type of event in the brain.  When this event occurs, I’m aware of making a decision.  But I am not aware of where the decision itself is taking place, namely in my brain.  That doesn’t mean that the decision isn’t taking place in my brain.  Why think that?
> 
> OK, let’s look at the third alleged difference between the mental and the physical.  The third difference is: mental events do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity.  The physicalist would say that neural events have electro-chemical properties; but the dualist would reply that the very idea of a mental event being a physical event in the brain and nervous system is absurd, <i>precisely</i> <i>because</i> that would mean that mental events have electro-chemical properties, and other physical properties as well.
> 
> I’ll bet some of you can predict how our physicalist will reply.  As the physicalist, I will say: "Why is that absurd?  Let me try to figure out why you think it’s absurd that mental events might have physical properties.  Maybe you think that since you’re not <i>aware</i> of any electro-chemical properties of your mental events, it somehow follows that your mental events <i>don’t</i> have any such properties.  But once again, that inference just doesn’t follow.  It assumes that, if all your pains, decisions, and thoughts had some electro-chemical properties, then you’d be aware of those properties.  But why think that?  Do you have to be aware of <i>all</i> of the properties that your mental events have?  Do you have to be aware of <i>everything</i> that is true of the processes of your mind?  Of course not.  There is a lot of unconscious stuff going on in your mind, a lot of stuff you’re not aware of.  So then, why <i>not</i> think that your decisions, your pains, and other mental events have electro-chemical properties?  The only thing that would make that suggestion absurd is if you thought you had to be aware of everything going on in your mind.  But you don’t have to be aware of everything going in your mind.
> 
> Finally, let’s look at the fourth supposed difference between the mental and the physical.  It is probably the hardest to deal with: there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to mental events.  In other words, there is a first-person, felt, immediate, personal, subjective aspect to mental events.  Physical events do not have this subjective aspect; physical events are not qualia.  When dualism claims this, it is basically throwing down the gauntlet to physicalism.  "Look," the dualist says, "there just <i>is</i> this subjective aspect to my pain; it makes sense to ask, ‘What does your pain feel like?’  But it doesn’t make sense to ask, ‘What does your C-fiber firing feel like?’  C-fiber firing does not have this subjective aspect.  So you can’t reduce pain to C-fiber firing."
> 
> How could a physicalist reply to this?  Well, I think it’s not as difficult a problem as some might like to make it out to be.  If I’m a physicalist, then my claim is that C-fiber firing, or maybe some other brain event, <i>just</i> <i>is</i> awareness of pain.  And so it follows, of course, that C-fiber firing, or the brain event, <i>does</i> have a subjective aspect; and that it <i>does</i> make sense to ask, "What does your C-fiber firing feel like?"
> 
> But once again, the dualist is likely to say, "OK, say we open you up and look at your C-fibers firing away.  Are we going to see this subjective aspect, the pain <i>qualia</i> that we talked about?"  Well, the answer to <i>that</i> is clearly no.  But is that a problem?  After all, we <i>experience</i> pain only if it’s <i>our</i> C-fibers that are firing.  If you open my spine up and use scientific instruments to look at my wildly firing C-fibers, then of course <i>you</i> won’t be experiencing pain.  In order for <i>you</i> to experience pain, <i>your</i> C-fibers would have to be firing.  So here’s the point then: the dualist wants to object that a physical event cannot have a subjective aspect; the physicalist protests and says there’s no good reason <i>not</i> to think that physical events can have subjective aspects.  Why <i>couldn’t</i> they?  We can <i>detect</i> a physical event in someone else without <i>ourselves</i> being in a subjective state.  But so what?  Why should I expect to be in pain when I see someone <i>else’s</i> C-fibers fire?  It’s only the firing of <i>my</i> <i>own</i> C-fibers that constitutes <i>my</i> <i>own</i> pain.  So, President Clinton to the contrary notwithstanding, he cannot feel my pain!
> 
> So on all four counts, the physicalist has a way to explain how these <i>supposed</i> differences between the mental and the physical <i>aren’t</i> really differences at all.  This undermines crucial support for dualism and greatly increases the plausibility of physicalism.  It is not so absurd, or at least not so <i>obviously</i> absurd, to say that types of mental events are the same as, and reducible to, some types of physical events.  We just have to put these issues in the right light.  And physicalism has one very clear advantage over dualistic interactionism, namely, that there is no mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events takes place.  Right?  Simply because mental events are, at bottom, themselves types of physical events.
> 
> Next time we will conclude our discussion of the mind-body problem, and move on to the theory of perception.
> 
> 
> 
> C. Other theories of mind.
> 
> We concluded last time on an upbeat note for physicalism.  I had given you some ways that the physicalist could reply to the dualist’s objections; in so doing, I tried to make it plain how some people can hold what, on first glance at least, looks like an absurd claim, that mental events are simply a type of physical event -- brain or neural events.  Now I should note that this is just one kind of physicalism; we may call it <i>neural</i> <i>type</i> <i>physicalism</i>, because it says that mental event types are <i>types</i> <i>of</i> <i>nervous</i> <i>system</i> <i>events</i>.  It is more commonly called "the type-type identity theory."
> 
> I’m going to present an objection to neural type physicalism.  But first I’m going to present another kind of physicalism; I’m going to discuss it very quickly, because mainly I want to use it to make quite clear how neural type physicalism is only one kind of physicalism.  In the middle of this century, it was very fashionable to try to reduce mental events to <i>behavior</i>.  This view is called <i>analytical</i> <i>behaviorism</i>, because the idea is that we can ultimately analyze, or reduce, talk of mental events and processes in terms of things that humans say, express, and do.  In other words, analytical behaviorism says that what a mental event <i>is</i>, is a propensity, a tendency, to display a certain set of behaviors -- words, facial expressions, bodily postures, and actions.  If you want to see whether someone believes that God exists, you look at what he says, how he reacts when you say "God exists," whether he goes to church, and so on.  And his belief is constituted by those behaviors; in other words, there isn’t any more to his belief that God exists than those behaviors.  Or to take another example, the good old example of pain.  Analytical behaviorism would say that pain is nothing more than the tendency to wince, to grimace, to pull back quickly from the source of something causing bodily damage, to say "ouch" and "that hurts," and similar behaviors.  That’s all there is to pain!
> 
> Well, I’m not going to discuss the merits of analytical behaviorism.  Hardly anyone believes it anymore.  Good riddance, I say.  But this theory is an example of another kind of physicalism.  Why?  Because it <i>does</i> say that mental events are reducible to physical events; behaviors are physical events, and behaviorism says that mental events are reducible to behaviors.  So how does behaviorism different from the sort of physicalism I was talking about last time, neural type physicalism?  Well, it’s a different <i>type</i> of physical event that mental events are being reduced to.  On the one hand, neural type physicalism says that mental events can be reduced to types of neural or brain events.  On the other hand, analytical behaviorism says that mental events can be reduced to types of behavioral events.  So basically here’s a question we might ask: If types of mental event can be reduced to types of physical event, then <i>which</i> types of physical event?  Neural type physicalism gives one answer; analytical behaviorism gives a different answer.
> 
> This leads me, finally, to that objection to neural type physicalism that I said I was going to give.  The objection is this: we have construed the types <i>too</i> <i>narrowly</i>.  Maybe there are types of physical events that mental events might be reducible to, that are nothing like neural states.  I’d better give you an example if you’re to see what I’m talking about.  Suppose after some years, superscientists were to build a robot that was given sensory receptors, could talk intelligently on a wide variety of subjects, could carry out a variety of difficult tasks, and even had what appeared to be emotional reactions to its surroundings -- and so forth.  In short, somehow, scientists had created what appeared to be a conscious, intelligent machine.  Now, there is considerable debate over whether such a machine is possible -- whether it is possible to, as it were, <i>build</i> <i>a</i> <i>mind</i> <i>from</i> <i>scratch</i>.  But just assume, for the sake of argument, that such a machine <i>is</i> possible, and that it <i>does</i> have thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and so on.  So then mental events are occurring in this machine.
> 
> Now let’s say our superscientists did not use anything much like the human nervous system to build this robot.  They used some sort of special circuitry -- very high-tech microchips and whatnot.  In that case, it is not any type of <i>neural</i> <i>or</i> <i>brain</i> <i>event</i> to which we would reduce the robot’s mental events.  It would be a -- what should we call it? -- a circuitry event!  And then in that case mental events could be reducible <i>not</i> <i>just</i> to neural events, but also to <i>circuitry</i> events.  So here then is the objection to neural type physicalism: the types we’re reducing mental events to is too narrow.  To include the mental events of high-tech conscious robots, we should describe the physical events in some way that would include <i>both</i> neural events <i>and</i> circuitry events.  Not <i>just</i> neural events.
> 
> Or suppose that there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe.  So there might be some alien species that does not have anything quite like our brain or nervous system.  Say this species is intelligent, and conscious, and has a mind, but its mental events are identical to a different type of physical event; instead of neurons, they have schmeurons, say.  Well then, if we want to be physicalists, then we should allow that mental events can be reduced to neural events, <i>or</i> circuitry events, or to schmeural events!  As you can see, the list might go on.
> 
> In any case, I think that this neatly refutes neural type physicalism.  Neural type physicalists are biased in favor of the physical types that the human species has.  So philosophers of mind, trying to be clever, have named this bias <i>species</i> <i>chauvinism</i>.  That means that neural type physicalists are irrationally disposed in favor of their own species, when it comes to describing the physical types that mental events reduce to, or are identical to.
> 
> Suppose after all this, I still think that dualism is wrong, and I admit that neural type physicalism is wrong; but I still think that <i>some</i> kind of physicalism is still basically right.  I think that everything basically has to reduce to the physical; only the physical exists ultimately.  So then what are my options?  Is there a way for me to hold onto physicalism, so I can get around the species chauvinism accusation?  Well, there are basically two ways.  The first way is find an <i>even</i> <i>broader</i> type of event, which describes <i>all</i> the different specific physical event types that different species, or robots, might have.  This is called functionalism.  The second way is to deny that we are reducing mental event <i>types</i>, and talk instead of reducing mental event <i>tokens</i>.  This I will call token physicalism.  I’m not going to talk about either theory in much depth, because I’ll tell the truth -- by now we have gotten quite far away from any issues that were talked about throughout most of the history of philosophy.  All of these issues about the different kinds of physicalism have arisen in the last fifty or sixty years or so.
> 
> So first I will briefly explain functionalism.  Functionalism asks: what do neural events, <i>and</i> circuitry events, <i>and</i> schmeural events <i>all</i> have in common?  The answer: it can’t be any <i>particular</i> <i>type</i> of physical hardware that they have in common.  It’s not neurons, microchips, or schmeurons.  So what do they have in common?  What they have in common is that they are all structurally similar, or <i>functionally</i> similar.  What do I mean by that?  Well, to similar sorts of inputs, each of these physical types gives a similar sort of output.  Let me give a simple example.  The human, the robot, and the alien are all going to feel pain when you damage their bodies; and they are all going to have roughly similar reactions, such as announcing that they’re in pain, avoiding the source of the damage, and perhaps striking back or getting angry.
> 
> So here is a simple definition of "functionalism":
> 
> <i>Functionalism</i> is the view that mental events are the same as functional states; and a <i>functional</i> <i>state</i> is a state a physical system is in, when it has a set of sensory and other inputs, together with a set of potential behavioral outputs.
> 
> So say I’m thinking about bananas.  That mental event is, according to functionalism, a functional state; and that just means a state described by various inputs and outputs.  For example, an input would be that someone has said the word "bananas" to me and off I go thinking about bananas; and then a potential output would be to go get a banana and eat it.  So my mental event, thinking about bananas, is just a functional state, and the functional state is specified by the inputs of the event and the outputs of the event.
> 
> Well of course there is a lot we could say about functionalism.  For one thing, if all we have at our disposal, to describe mental events, is their inputs and outputs, then have we really described the mental event <i>itself</i> adequately?  It would be a little like saying that an oak tree could be adequately described like this: "Oak trees result from acorns (that’s the oak tree input) and they are cut up to make tables (that’s the oak tree output)."  Yeah, but (you might ask) what is an <i>oak</i> <i>tree</i> <i>itself</i>?  You might ask a similar thing of functionalists.  "OK, so mental events have certain inputs and outputs; I can accept that; but what is a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i> <i>itself</i>?"  Unfortunately, we don’t have time to go into it.  But for what it is worth, functionalism is probably the most popular theory of mind today.  So obviously a lot more can be said about it.
> 
> I said there is a second way to get around the species chauvinism objection.  This can be called <i>token</i> <i>physicalism</i>.  More commonly called "the token-token identity theory."  Whatever you want to call it, I’ll define as follows:
> 
> <i>Token</i> <i>physicalism</i> is the view that tokens of mental events may be reduced to tokens of physical events.
> 
> The idea here is that we are giving up trying to give <i>general</i> <i>accounts</i> of mental event types.  So for example we won’t try to reduce the whole category of pleasure, or the whole category of pain, to any single mental event type.  We’ll focus in on individual, single, pleasures and pains.  And we say, of those mental event <i>tokens</i>, that each one is identical to, and reducible to, some physical event token.  In our case, we might say that an individual pain is the same as an individual instance of my C-fibers firing.  But we might say something quite different about the pain of an alien from Alpha Centauri.  The point in either case, though, is that it’s <i>tokens</i> of mental events that are reduced to <i>tokens</i> of physical events.
> 
> I’m just going to give one little objection to this theory.  Namely, what does the following phrase mean? -- "Token of a mental event."  Token physicalism can’t tell us.  I mean, suppose a scientist had reduced a slew of mental event tokens to physical event tokens.  So I’d say, "Great work!  But just what do all of those mental event tokens have in common, that makes us say that they are tokens of <i>mental</i> events, as opposed to any other kind of event?"  What distinguishes the mental event tokens from tokens of other kinds of events?  That’s the question: What distinguishes mental event tokens?  Dualism, remember, says that the mental is an ultimate, fundamental category of being; it can’t be explained in terms of anything nonmental.  So dualism doesn’t have to answer this question.  And neural type physicalism at least promises to answer the question; it says that we will discover just exactly what all the different mental events have in common, which makes them all mental events; and it’s going to be some special type of event in the brain.
> 
> But token physicalism can’t answer this question; it can’t tell us what mental event tokens have in common; and why not?  Because if <i>any</i> theory tells us what mental event tokens have in common, then the theory is describing mental event <i>types</i>.  Just think: that is <i>precisely</i> what mental event tokens have in common: they are all tokens of mental event <i>types</i>.  What do human pain and alien pain in common?  They are both tokens of the type, pain.  So, if we describe what all mental event tokens have in common, then we have for that very reason described a mental event type!  And then the token physicalist would have to talk about mental event types; and that means we’ve basically given up token physicalism.  Well, that’s the only thing I’m going to say about token physicalism.  My usual disclaimers apply.
> 
> In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
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PhilosophyOfPerception|981081130
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> The next major area we’ll consider is the theory of perception.  Perception is, of course, one of our most important mental processes.  But you might ask why it is I’m focusing on just that process, as opposed to other extremely important mental processes, such as forming concepts, or believing?
> 
> The reason is that sense perception is essentially the way that our minds are connected to the world.  If we couldn’t perceive anything, then we wouldn’t know anything except what’s going on in our own minds.  Perception is, as it were, our window onto the world.  So it is important for us to know some basic facts about this "window onto the world."  Hopefully, it allows us access to the world as it really is.
> 
> First I want you to draw a distinction between two kinds of perception.  We can perceive what’s going on in our bodies; for example, we can sense where our limbs are, whether we’re sitting or standing; we can also sense whether we are hungry, or tired, and so forth.  Call that <i>internal</i> perception, or if you want an impressive long word, it’s <i>proprioception</i>.  We can also perceive the world outside our bodies; using the senses of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste, we discover the colors, sounds, textures, and so forth, of the world.  Call that <i>sense</i>-perception, or if you want the word corresponding to "proprioception," it is <i>exteroception</i>.  So internal perception is the feeling of what’s going on in our own bodies, while sense-perception is the perception, using the senses, of the objects and qualities of the world at large.
> 
> As it is studied by philosophers, the theory of perception is really mainly concerned with <i>sense</i>-perception.  And so when philosophers use this word "perception" really what they are <i>usually</i> talking about is sense-perception.  And for the rest of this chapter that’s what I will mean.
> 
> One of the most obvious things that can be said about perception is something that you could infer from what we said last time about the mind in general.  Namely, that perception is a cognitive <i>process</i> or function, and that instances of the use of perception are mental <i>events</i>.  Mental events, because perception is something that <i>occurs</i>, and it occurs in the <i>mind</i>.  Say I look out my window at home as I did a few days ago and that I see that it is raining.  Seeing itself is a process; and when I looked out the window and saw that it was raining, a mental event, a <i>perceptual</i> mental event, occurred.  Or we might say a <i>visual</i> mental event occurred, since the event was one of vision, of my sense of sight.
> 
> But philosophers typically refer to perceptual mental events as <i>acts</i>.  So they talk about "acts of perception."  This implies that perception is something not merely that occurs or happens, but that it is something that we <i>do</i>, sometimes actively.  We do, after all, open our eyes and actively examine things, listen for particular sounds, and so forth.  So we can actively choose to perceive things.  But a good deal of the time I suppose we do not <i>choose</i> to direct our senses in one direction or another.  For example, I am sure that I just happened to notice that it was raining a few days ago; I didn’t, as it were, actively <i>choose</i> to look out the window.  Seems to me that a lot of the time our senses are distracted here and there, so in that regard, perception is passive and not active.  Nonetheless philosophers will often refer to perceptual events as <i>acts</i>, and so I will refer to them as "acts" as well, although just keep in mind that when I call them "acts," I do not mean to imply that we are <i>always</i> active when we perceive.  Because obviously sometimes we are passive when we perceive.
> 
> Now so far, as is usual in philosophy, we have begun by saying some obvious things about perception.  But gradually these obvious philosophical discussions grade away into some less obvious points.  So don’t worry, we won’t always be saying such obvious things; they are necessary to put the whole discussion in context though.
> 
> Anyway, according to the philosophers who use the word "act" to refer to perceptual events, acts always have <i>objects</i>.  Think of it like this: when we <i>act</i>, or <i>do</i> something, there is always something else <i>on</i> <i>which</i> we act, or something <i>to</i> <i>which</i> <i>we</i> <i>do</i> <i>it</i>.  In short, talk of acts requires talk of objects.  So if a perceptual event is an act, it has an object, something that the act is directed upon.  And of course that’s certainly the case with at least <i>some</i> kinds of perception.  For example when I see the rain falling outside, the object of my visual act is the rain falling.  And of course more generally, whenever we see, or hear, or touch, it at the very least <i>appears</i> that there is <i>something</i> <i>that</i> we see, or hear, or touch.  The things that we perceive, that perception is <i>of</i>, are the <i>objects</i> of perception.
> 
> Now what I want to do is to introduce a problem.  This problem will generate all the rest of the discussion that we will cover in our discussion of the theory of perception, so it’s a very important problem.  It can be stated as the following question: What are the <i>immediate</i> objects of perception?  In order to understand this question, you’d have to know what "immediate" means.  And to introduce that term I’ll use a very ordinary example.
> 
> You can see the President on television.  Suppose you’re watching the evening news and you see the President giving a press conference.  But notice something here -- you aren’t seeing the President <i>immediately</i>, or <i>directly</i>.  You’re looking at a television screen; and <i>on</i> that television screen is a moving, colored shape that greatly resembles the President.  But of course that moving, colored shape is not the President <i>himself</i>.  It’s just just a picture that <i>represents</i> the President.  Now let me ask: Does all that mean that you aren’t seeing the President <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Not in any sense?  Of course not.  You are seeing the President indirectly, <i>via</i> the television.  So we could put it like this: you see the President <i>by</i> <i>means</i> <i>of</i> seeing a picture of him on TV.  You don’t see him <i>immediately</i>, or <i>directly</i>; you see him only by means of seeing a <i>representation</i> of him.  Really, when you see the President on television, your visual act has two objects; the more direct or immediate object is a moving picture on the television screen; the indirect or mediate object is the President himself.
> 
> So this should give you an idea of what I’m talking about when I use the words "immediate object of perception."  The immediate object of perception is anything we see first, and by seeing this we are able to see <i>other</i> things <i>with</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>act</i> <i>of</i> <i>perception</i>.  So the picture of the President is a more immediate object of perception, and in seeing this we are able to see the President -- all in the <i>same</i> act of perception.  So one and the same act of visual perception can have two objects; and the first object represents the second one.
> 
> All right, now we’re to the point where I can introduce an extremely influential and widespread view in the theory of perception.  Here goes.  Many philosophers have said that the <i>most</i> <i>immediate</i> objects of perception are <i>mental</i> objects -- objects in the mind.  So within the mind there are two different items: on the one hand, there is a perceptual act; and on the other hand, there is a mental <i>object</i>, which represents things outside of the mind.  So for example, when I see the President on TV, then according to this widespread opinion of philosophers, the <i>very</i> <i>first</i> <i>thing</i> that I perceive is <i>an</i> <i>image</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>President</i> <i>in</i> <i>my</i> <i>mind</i>, and this image represents the moving picture on the television screen, and that moving picture on the television screen in turn represents the President himself.
> 
> In the history of philosophy the immediate mental objects of perception have had lots of different names, but <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i> and <i>ideas</i> have been the most widespread; our text also uses the term <i>percept</i>.  So that mental image I am supposed to have of the President is called a <i>sense</i>-<i>datum</i> (plural, sense-data) or a visual <i>idea</i> of the President, or a <i>percept</i> of the President.  We as it were <i>mentally</i> gaze upon those Presidential sense-data -- not with our eyes, of course, because our eyes are in the physical world, and sense-data are in the mind.  Those Presidential sense-data are caused by the image of the President on the TV screen.  And the sense-data represent the President to us.  So generally there are supposed to be mental, internal objects of perception, which represent physical, external objects.  "Internal" here just means "inside the mind" (though of course you can guess that that phrase is open to different interpretations); and "external" means, correspondingly, "outside the mind" or "in the physical world."
> 
> I suppose this might seem strange -- I mean, the very suggestion that there even <i>exist</i> sense-data, internal objects of perception, might sound strange.  Why think that such things even <i>exist</i>?  Why think that we perceive internal objects at all?  Why <i>not</i> think that we just immediately, or directly, perceive external objects?
> 
> Well, philosophers have an argument, or rather several arguments, for this view.  So let’s look at some of these arguments.  They go under one general title, <i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>illusion</i>.  The conclusion of the argument from illusion is: "The immediate objects of perception are sense-data."  So what reasons can be given to support this conclusion?
> 
> Consider several examples of what we might call "perceptual illusions."  Take a perfectly straight stick, and submerge it in a pond: then the stick will <i>appear</i> to be bent.  The bend in the stick isn’t real -- it’s illusory.  Or you’re driving across the countryside and you see some hills in the distance, which appear bluish.  Then as you approach nearer to the hills you see that they are actually green.  The bluish color the hills originally appeared to have wasn’t real; it was illusory.
> 
> Suppose you want to say that the <i>immediate</i> or <i>direct</i> objects of your perception are the stick itself, and the hills themselves.  Then consider what it seems you’re saying: it appears that you’re saying that that <i>the</i> <i>stick</i> was first straight, and <i>then</i> it was bent.  After all, you say it’s <i>the</i> <i>stick</i> that is the direct object of your perception.  And <i>something</i> sure did look straight, and then bent.  So if the direct object of your perception was the stick, why then it must have been the <i>stick</i> that was first straight, and then bent.  But that’s ridiculous!  It’s contradictory.  So we could say, instead, that when you were looking at the stick, you had a series of stick sense-data; and the sense-data were at first straight, and then bent.  The stick itself, all the while, was perfectly straight.  In the same way, you want to say that, when you were looking at the hills, <i>something</i> looked bluish, and then it looked green; but it wasn’t the <i>hills</i> that actually <i>were</i> bluish and then green; so we could say that you <i>immediately</i> perceived hill <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>, and the sense-data were bluish, and then green.  The hills, all the while, were the same color (green, presumably).
> 
> Next consider some similar sorts of cases.  Suppose I press an eyeball with one finger while I hold up another finger in front of my nose.  Suddenly the finger in front of my nose appears becomes double.  Well, not <i>actually</i> double; it’s just that the finger <i>appears</i> double, or that there are two images of the finger before there was just one.  Now there are two of <i>something</i> there, right?  But not of a finger.  I’m not seeing two fingers!  So we could say that there are two <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>, and each of those sense-data represents the same finger.
> 
> Or take a coin out of your pocket and hold it up, and turn it over.  If you look at it straight on the coin looks perfectly circular; but as you turn it over it appears to have an oval shape.  Now as you turn the coin over, just consider: you <i>are</i> seeing two different shapes, namely a circle and an oval.  But the <i>coin</i> has just one shape, right?  A circle, so we naturally think.  So if you are seeing two different shapes, those must be the shapes of <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>, and not the coin; and the sense-data <i>represent</i> the coin.
> 
> Next consider a very different sort of case.  Suppose Mary goes bonkers and starts hallucinating pink elephants.  She’s out strolling on the Oval, and unfortunately suffers a nervous breakdown (probably due to her philosophy class).  By God it sure looks to her like there is a herd of pink elephants bellowing and charging right at her.  Now let’s suppose these hallucinated elephants are extremely vivid.  They are just as vivid to Mary as real elephants would be to you and I.  Then here’s the point: Mary would say that she is <i>seeing</i> pink elephants; now, we would deny that, and say she’s just <i>hallucinating</i>; but her <i>experience</i>, or how things appear to her, is <i>just</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> as how things would appear to <i>us</i> if we were to see a herd of pink elephants bearing down on us.  For convenience we could refer to the <i>experience</i>, in either case, as the perceiving of sense-data.  And then we could say that Mary’s sense-data just don’t represent anything.  In fact, we could say that when someone hallucinates, she is just perceiving certain sense-data, and those sense-data don’t represent anything.
> 
> I have given examples only from visual perception, from the sense of sight, but I could easily find similar examples of "illusions," if you want to call them that, regarding the other senses.  I doubt it’s necessary to give more examples though; I think you probably get the idea.  In all of these cases we can see that it is very convenient, on first glance anyway, to suppose that we <i>immediately</i> perceive sense-data.  Therefore, the immediate objects of perception are sense-data.  This includes <i>all</i> sense-perception -- sense-data occur not just when illusions occur, but <i>whenever</i> we perceive the external world.
> 
> Now, there are <i>different</i> theories about perception which talk about sense-data (or ideas, or percepts, or they may use some other term).  Different theories of perception employ the general sense-datum concept.  But one theory in particular most immediately suggests itself, after one considers the argument from illusion, is called <i>the</i> <i>representational</i> <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>perception</i>, or simply <i>representationalism</i>.  Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Representationalism</i> is the doctrine that in any act of perception, the immediate (direct) object of perception is a sense-datum, and this sense-datum represents an external object, which is the mediate (indirect) object of perception.
> 
> This theory was most prominently advocated by two famous 17th century philosophers, the Frenchman Rene Descartes, and the Englishman John Locke.  The term they used was not "sense-datum" but instead "idea."  We need not concern ourselves with the differences in meaning that these terms might have.  Just keep in mind that when we use "idea" in the theory of perception, we mean just a sense-datum.  "Idea" as used in the theory of perception is a technical term, meaning roughly the same thing as "sense-datum."  But I’m going to go on talking about sense-data.
> 
> Now I want you to notice something about representationalism: it says that sense-data <i>represent</i> external objects -- physical objects, properties, and events.  But this immediately raises a question: <i>How</i> <i>well</i> do sense-data represent external objects, properties, and events?  At least sometimes they do not represent them at all well.  When, for example, the stick sense-datum is bent, it does not perfectly represent the stick, which is straight.  And similarly with the other illusions -- to the point of poor Mary whose pink elephant sense-data do not represent anything at all.
> 
> Now suppose that someone were to claim that sense-data are always right; they always give us accurate information about what the world is like.  Well, such a doctrine would be really naïve.  I mean, we have already seen lots of good examples that show it is wrong.  Clearly, if there are sense-data at all, they definitely do not always accurately represent the world as it is.  That’s <i>at</i> <i>least</i> the case with perceptual illusions.
> 
> Both Descartes and Locke recognized this.  And in addition to various perceptual illusions, they said that there was <i>another</i> category of sense-data which did not adequately represent external world.  Both Descartes and Locke drew a distinction between two kinds of properties.  Well, in this context, they’re called "qualities," but that’s just another name for "properties"; for the sake of being traditional we will call them "qualities" as well, but we might as well have called them "properties."  Anyway, they drew a distinction between <i>primary</i> and <i>secondary</i> qualities.  And they said that sense-data of <i>primary</i> qualities can accurately represent external qualities in things; but sense-data of <i>secondary</i> qualities <i>cannot</i> accurately represent external qualities in things.
> 
> So it will be fairly important for me to explain the distinction between primary and secondary qualities.  Really, it’s a fairly commonsense sort of distinction.  <i>Some</i> of the qualities things appear to have, the <i>primary</i> qualities, <i>really</i> <i>are</i> in the things; <i>other</i> of the qualities things appear to have, the <i>secondary</i> qualities, are <i>only</i> in our minds, that is, they’re only aspects of how we perceive the world.  For example, there’s a real difference between the actual temperature of a kettle of water, and how warm the water feels when I put my hand in it.  The water might be only lukewarm; but if my hand is extremely cold, when I put it in the water, the water is going to feel hot.  So for the sake of accuracy we should distinguish between the <i>actual</i> <i>temperature</i> of the water, which is a matter of how fast the water molecules are vibrating, and the <i>perceived</i> <i>warmth</i> of the water, which is not a quality of the water, but instead of <i>how</i> <i>we</i> <i>perceive</i> the water.  So then we could say: actual temperature is a <i>primary</i> <i>quality</i> of the water, but perceived warmth is a <i>secondary</i> <i>quality</i> of the water.
> 
> Here’s another example.  We can say that a physical body’s mass, or its shape, is a primary quality; but the <i>perceived</i> <i>weight</i>, or how heavy a body feels, is a secondary quality.  The perceived weight of a thing depends on who is lifting it, how tired they are, and so on.  But the <i>mass</i> of a body doesn’t depend on who’s lifting it.  Or take tastes and smells -- they are often given as good examples of secondary qualities.  When you bite into a lemon, and say it’s sour, do you mean that the <i>lemon</i> <i>itself</i> is sour, or only that in your perception of the lemon, there is this element of sourness?  Sure, you can say that the lemon is <i>acidic</i>, and <i>that</i> is a primary quality.  The lemon’s acidity doesn’t depend on who or what is tasting it.  But whether the lemon is <i>sour</i>, or how sour it tastes, can indeed depend on who is tasting it.  So acidity is a primary quality, but sourness is a secondary quality.  That’s the distinction then between primary and secondary qualities -- OK?
> 
> Now back to the point.  We can have ideas or sense-data of both primary and secondary qualities.  But, say Descartes and Locke, and a lot of people who came after them, sense-data of primary qualities can actually represent primary qualities; but sense-data of secondary qualities do not represent secondary qualities, because really there aren’t any secondary qualities there in the thing at all.  In fact, if you prefer, we might just say that "secondary quality" refers to exactly the same thing as "sense-datum of a secondary quality."  Examples again will help you see this.  We can have an idea of the actual pH of a lemon, its degree of acidity; and that idea can perfectly well represent the lemon’s acidity.  But when we get a sense-datum of sourness, it’s not like there is something properly called "sourness" <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>lemon</i>.  Acidity is all that’s in the lemon; the sourness is just how we <i>perceive</i> the lemon, on account of its acidity.  In the same way, we can have an accurate idea of the mass of a box; but when we lift the box and call it "heavy," that heaviness is just in the sense-datum we have of the box.  There isn’t anything properly called "heaviness" in the box <i>itself</i>; heaviness just how the box feels to us.  Mass is what the box itself has; heaviness is how we feel the box to be.
> 
> So some of our sense-data, namely the sense-data of secondary qualities, do not represent anything in the external world, even if they are <i>caused</i> by external qualities (by primary qualities).  Thus it is natural to adopt a theory that our text calls <i>critical</i> <i>realism</i>, which may be defined as follows:
> 
> <i>Critical</i> <i>realism</i> is the theory that <i>some</i> of our sense-data (e.g., those of primary qualities) can and do accurately represent external objects, properties, and events; while <i>other</i> of our sense-data (e.g., those of secondary qualities and perceptual illusions) do not accurately represent any external objects, properties, and events.
> 
> This is, I think, a very reasonable theory.  It has been held by some very reasonable philosophers.  But it does, by its talk of sense-data and representation, depend on or presuppose the truth of representationalism.  I mean that, if critical realism is correct, then representationalism would have to be a correct theory of perception.
> 
> Remember the question I asked: <i>How</i> <i>well</i> do sense-data represent external objects, properties, and events?  Critical realism says: well enough.  Some of our sense-data don’t represent any external qualities, but through our sense-data of primary qualities, we can still know what the external world is like.
> 
> But now suppose a rather extreme skeptic comes up to us and asks: "But <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> that your sense-data represent primary qualities?  Prove it."  And if we start to answer, the skeptic will interrupt.  So let’s listen now to the skeptic’s argument, which is due to that influential Scotsman, David Hume: "Don’t waste your breath trying to prove it.  You <i>can’t</i> prove that your sense-data represent primary qualities in the external world; such a proof would be impossible.  Look at what you have already concluded.  You have concluded that whenever we perceive, we <i>immediately</i> perceive sense-data.  That means that the <i>only</i> way we can perceive any external world is <i>through</i> sense-data.  Notice, we don’t have <i>any</i> <i>other</i> <i>way</i> to get information about the external world.  Perception is all we have; perception is, after all, the external-world-information-gathering-faculty.  That’s what perception is.  So perception is the only way we can learn about the external world.
> 
> "Now you think that you can prove that your sense-data represent the external world.  But how <i>could</i> you prove that?  You would need to have some <i>evidence</i> that your sense-data represent the world.  But have you ever perceived the connection between your sense-data and the world?  Obviously not!  You say that the <i>only</i> way we can perceive any external world is <i>through</i> sense-data.  So we obviously could not use sense-data to prove that sense-data represent the world well, poorly, or at all.
> 
> "And it’s even worse than that.  Now, you think that you must always <i>immediately</i> perceive sense-data whenever you perceive anything.  But that means that you cannot perceive the external world directly, nor can you perceive the connection between sense-data and the world.  So how on earth could you even prove that the external world <i>exists</i>?  How do you know that there is a world there on the other side of the sense-data?  If perception is like a window onto the world, then how do you know that there is a world on the other side of the window?  You can’t prove it; all you have are sense-data.  So we might as well give up all claims to having knowledge of any external world at all!"
> 
> This sort of skeptical challenge is very hard to meet.  And I do not propose to meet it or discuss it here, because we are talking about theories of perception; and skepticism is not a theory of perception.  We will talk more about it at the appropriate time.
> 
> But what I do want to talk about is a surprisingly common <i>reaction</i> to the foregoing skepticism.  Common historically among philosophers, not among ordinary people.  One reaction to this skepticism has been, namely, simply to <i>deny</i> that an external world exists!  They say that everything that exists is mental.  As Dave Berry says, I am not making this up!  It’s completely true!  There is a long and surprisingly respectable tradition of philosophers who hear the skeptic’s challenge -- "There’s no reason to think an external world exists" -- and then reply, "Well, no, I guess there <i>isn’t</i> any reason to think that an external world exists.  All there is, is sense-data.  Physical objects are bundles of sense-data.  When I hold up my hand, and I see it, I’m not seeing something external to my mind; I’m seeing a series, a whole bundle, of hand sense-data, and <i>there</i> <i>is</i> <i>no</i> <i>hand</i> apart from those hand sense-data!  That’s what my hand <i>is</i> -- a bundle of sense-data!"  So these philosophers manage get around skepticism; but not by replying to the skeptic and proving the existence of an external world, but instead by saying that there <i>is</i> no external world.
> 
> But we have encountered this wacky theory before -- just last time, in fact.  It is called "phenomenalism," which we defined, as you may recall, as follows: "the view that physical events are nothing more than a special kind of mental event."  But it doesn’t have to be stated in terms of just events.  More generally, it can be defined as follows:
> 
> <i>Phenomenalism</i> is the view that physical objects, properties, events, etc. (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events, etc.; hence, ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, etc., exist.
> 
> So in particular, we may reduce talk of physical bodies to talk of <i>bundles</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>.  This naturally goes with the bundle theory of objects.  And the philosopher who is most famous for advocating <i>both</i> the bundle theory of objects, <i>and</i> phenomenalism, is the 18th century Irish philosopher, George Berkeley.  Berkeley’s version is more commonly called "subjective idealism"; "phenomenalism" is a more recently coined term.
> 
> I don’t propose to discuss Berkeley or phenomenalism at any length.  I simply want you to note just how far away from common sense this doctrine of representationalism has led us.  And I will raise just one objection to phenomenalism.  It is a "reductio ad absurdum," which means an argument where we assume a claim for the sake of argument, arrive at an absurd result, and then conclude the thing we originally assumed had to have been wrong, since it gave us this absurd result.
> 
> So here’s the objection.  Suppose, just for sake of argument, that the phenomenalist is correct.  So for me, the physical world is all just a construction out of my sense-data.  Now suppose we are walking around University Hall, talking about philosophy.  On the face of it, there’s my body, and my mind associated with it, and there’s your body, with your body associated with it.  But now notice, we are assuming that phenomenalism is true.  But that means that when I see <i>your</i> <i>body</i>, I’m not seeing an irreducibly physical body; I am seeing a bundle of sense-data in my own mind.  And let’s even suppose I hear you saying all sorts of intelligent things, which I want to take as evidence of the existence of your mind, of what you are thinking; but all those intelligent things you say are, after all, <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i> <i>in</i> <i>my</i> <i>own</i> <i>mind</i>.  So I have no reason to think that either your body, or your mind exist!  The phenomenalist has no reason to believe that any other minds, besides his own, exist!
> 
> And why should the phenomenalist be surprised when we say that?  After all, phenomenalism denies that an external world exists.  Just remember what "external world" means according to the phenomenalist: it means the world <i>outside</i> <i>his</i> <i>own</i> <i>mind</i>.  But that means that all other bodies <i>and</i> <i>other</i> <i>minds</i> are part of the external world.  And so the phenomenalist is forced to an absurd conclusion.  The argument in brief is:
> 
> 1. If phenomenalism is true, then nothing that is thought to be in the external world exists.
> 
> 2. But other minds besides my own are thought to be in the external world (since the external world is anything outside my own mind).
> 
> 3. Therefore, other minds do not exist.
> 
> The phenomenalist ends up having to believe <i>solipsism</i>, which is the (absurd) view that one’s own mind is the only thing that exists -- that one is entirely alone in a universe that is completely in one’s own mind.  But solipsism is absurd.  If phenomenalism would force us to accept solipsism, then we had better reject phenomenalism.
> 
> This argument may not be completely fair to the phenomenalist; but I’m not going to spend the time examining those issues any further.  I’m just going to assume that phenomenalism has gone seriously wrong.
> 
> And indeed, I am going to give another <i>reductio</i> <i>ad</i> <i>absurdum</i> argument, one that is given by a different Scottish philosopher, who lived at the same time as Hume, namely Thomas Reid.  Reid argued strenuously against the notion that ideas, or sense-data, are the immediate objects of perception at all -- he rejected representationalism.
> 
> One of Reid’s arguments was very simple, and went like this: If representationalism is correct, then we are forced to either skepticism or phenomenalism.  But skepticism and phenomenalism are both absurd; there surely <i>is</i> an external world, and we surely <i>do</i> have knowledge of it.  So we must reject the theory that would force to either skepticism or phenomenalism.  That is, we must reject representationalism.
> 
> Well, what would it mean to reject representationalism?  It would mean that we do not perceive sense-data at all.  When I look at my hand, I do not immediately perceive a bundle or series of hand sense-data, which represent my actual hand.  No, I immediately perceive <i>my</i> <i>hand</i>.  I do not perceive any hand sense-data at all.  So the view up for consideration now is that we immediately, directly perceive the external world.  This view is called <i>direct</i> <i>realism</i>, which Reid championed brilliantly, and which can be defined as follows:
> 
> <i>Direct</i> <i>realism</i> is the view that the immediate (direct) objects of perception are external objects, qualities, and events.
> 
> Now, don’t confuse direct realism with the more naïve view I talked about earlier, that the world is exactly the way we perceive it to be.  Obviously, sometimes we <i>misperceive</i> the world.  The direct realist doesn’t deny that there are perceptual illusions.  The claim is, rather, simply that when we <i>do</i> perceive something, <i>what</i> we directly perceive, the immediate <i>object</i> of perception, is in the external world, not in the mind.
> 
> Nonetheless, the argument from illusion <i>can</i> be taken as an argument against direct realism; because, after all, the whole point of the argument from illusion was to show the need to posit sense-data as the immediate objects of perception.  So the last thing we have to do is to show how direct realism might reply to the argument from illusion.  So that’s what we’ll do.
> 
> And basically the strategy we’ll take is to show how all those different cases of misperception, failed perception, and perceptual relativity -- all those hard cases we gave -- do not really make it necessary to suppose that there are sense-data.  We can do a good job of explaining those cases <i>without</i> having to talk about sense-data.
> 
> Take first the case of the stick that looks bent in the water.  Direct realism doesn’t say that the stick actually is bent; it says, rather, that the stick, which is straight, <i>can</i>, in some unusual circumstances, <i>look</i> bent.  And to say that it looks bent is just to say that the light, which is reflected from the stick, arrives at our eyes in a crooked pattern.  So the stick can have more than one <i>appearance</i>.  But the appearance of a stick isn’t a <i>sense</i>-<i>datum</i> <i>in</i> <i>my</i> <i>mind</i>.  It’s a pattern of light, the sort of things that physicists can study, that arrives at my eye.  What’s mysterious about that?  A similar sort of thing can be said about the bluish color of the hills in the distance.  Hills, and everything else, can <i>appear</i> with all sorts of different colors; but the color is simply the wavelength of light as it reaches my eye.  If the light from the green hills has to traverse many miles, then it may be bluish when it arrives at my eyes.  There’s no need to suppose I am seeing bluish sense-data: nope, what I’m seeing is bluish <i>light</i>, which comes from the hills.  The hills would reflect <i>green</i> light to my eyes if I were closer to them.
> 
> Now the case of pressing on my eyeball, and getting a double image.  Well, it’s undeniable that, when I cross my eyes and seem to see two fingers, there are two of <i>something</i>.  But of what?  Why say there are two <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>?  Why not, instead, say that I have two <i>eyes</i>, and each eye gives me a different view upon the world.  Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they’re not.  And as a result, each eye sees things in a different way.  That doesn’t mean that I see two visual sense-data in my mind; but it does mean that there are two slightly different <i>acts</i> <i>of</i> <i>vision</i> going on.  One for each eye!  What’s mysterious about that?  Nothing, as far as I can tell.  And similar things can be said about the coin that appears both circular and oval-shaped: so the same coin can reflect different patterns of light to my eye.  Does that mean that I perceive two different sense-data?  No, all it means is that I perceive the same coin in two different ways.
> 
> Now as for Mary’s vivid hallucination of the pink elephants.  It was so vivid that the elephants were just as real as real elephants.  We said this was evidence for thinking that she is perceiving sense-data; she sure as heck isn’t perceiving elephants, and yet she seems to be hallucinating <i>something</i>.  So maybe it’s elephant sense-data that she is hallucinating.  Well, that seems like a pretty tough case to deal with.  I mean, it’s true: it definitely does seem that there is an object, in <i>some</i> sense, of Mary’s hallucination; but this object is only in her mind.  Isn’t that what we’d call sense-data?
> 
> The direct realist <i>might</i> reply to that case as follows: Mary wasn’t <i>perceiving</i> anything at all; she was <i>hallucinating</i>.  That’s a different, though related, mental process.  So maybe Mary has visual images of some sort when she is hallucinating; that <i>wouldn’t</i> mean that she has such images when she engages in actual sense-perception.
> 
> Now, I don’t think this is a particularly strong reply.  I mean, if there are visual images when we hallucinate, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual images when we see.  It’s the same way with dreams: if there are visual and auditory images of some sort in our minds, when we dream, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual and auditory images, or sense-data, when we are awake and perceiving things.  So I think we should look for a better reply.
> 
> Some people end up denying that there are any such things as mental images at all, but this is rather hard to maintain, since we seem to be able to imagine all sorts of things: for example, here’s something that will give you an image: imagine a square, then imagine the top of the square popping off and disappearing, and the two sides of the square collapsing together at a point, to make a triangle.  Even if it should happen that perception does not involve images, <i>other</i> mental processes, like imagination, certainly <i>seem</i> to.
> 
> The topic of mental images is very complicated and controversial, but I will tell you my own view about it, which is again similar to Reid’s, just to bring this discussion to some closure.  My own view is that in fact, in <i>some</i> sense, we <i>do</i> <i>indeed</i> have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, and dream, and hallucinate, and use our imaginations.  But when we actually perceive things, in no sense whatsoever can our sensory images, or sensations, if you will (that’s Reid’s word), be considered the <i>objects</i> of perception, or attention, at all.  The only objects of perception are external objects.  Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it’s wrong to say we <i>perceive</i> sensations.
------
AtlasShruggedThings|981081193
1,19c1
< FriendsofGlobalProgress
< 
< HalleysFifthConcerto (AtlasShrugged112)
< 
< NationalAllianceofRailroads (AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries (AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< ReardenMetal (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131)
< 
< RioNorteLine
< 
< SanSebastianLine
< 
< SanSebastianMines (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< TaggartComet (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged113)
< 
< WyattOilFields (AtlasShrugged111)
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Things
------
TheProblemOfEvil|981081232
36a37,38
> '''Note:''' Statement 4 is not quite as obvious as it is being made out to be, and in fact the reason has been pointed out: "that doesn't involve a contradiction."  It is often maintained that we live in the best of all possible worlds, so that any change would be a local improvement to global detriment.  I'm not endorsing this view, of course, but I think it means that we should be a little more cautious on that point.
> 
61c63
< Now if I wanted to, I could bring a lot of objections to this.  Surely the absolute <i>horrors</i> that humanity has faced, especially in the twentieth century, are unnecessary to improve our moral mettle.  I could, if I wanted to, insist on such objections at length.  But I think we have come to the point where you can see the outlines of the major issues involved in the problem.  So I will leave it to you to hash out the details and to answer any further objections, that might come to you, yourselves.
---
> Now if I wanted to, I could bring a lot of objections to this.  Surely the absolute <i>horrors</i> that humanity has faced, especially in the twentieth century, are unnecessary to improve our moral mettle.  I could, if I wanted to, insist on such objections at length.  But I think we have come to the point where you can see the outlines of the major issues involved in the problem.  So I will leave it to you to hash out the details and to answer any further objections, that might come to you, yourselves.
------
PhiloSophy|981081248
19c19
< '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
FreeWillAndDeterminism|981081289
1c1,139
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I want to begin our discussion of free will and determinism by putting the problem in context.  I am treating this problem, of free will and determinism, as though it were part of the philosophy of mind; and my reason for so doing is that our focus is on the will, or our ability to choose, and that ability is a mental process just as perception is a mental process.
> 
> For the sake of clarity, let me define a few terms for you, as usual, using an example.  Whenever you are confused about some very basic philosophical concept, you will always benefit by considering some clear example.  So suppose it is a Sunday morning and you are deciding what to do with the rest of the day.  You reflect that you’d really like to see a new movie; but on the other hand it is a pretty nice day out, so maybe it would be better to drive to a lake and have a dinner picnic.  So after weighing positives and negatives you decide to go on the picnic, because the movie can be seen anytime soon, but you much more rarely have the time or the nice weather to go on a picnic.  And so you pack up the dinner and head out to the lake and have a great time.
> 
> Now, let’s use this rather mundane example to illustrate what we mean by common terminology.  <i>The</i> <i>will</i> is our ability to decide and choose among different options; it is a cognitive process.  Another name for the same process is <i>volition</i>.  As far as I can tell, "will" and "volition" have the same meaning.  So we can say that you <i>use</i> your will or volition in deciding and choosing to go on the picnic.  But "using" your will just means going through that mental process, however we might eventually describe it.
> 
> The word <i>choice</i> usually means the end result of a decision process.  So to use our example, when after thinking about your options, you chose to go on the picnic.  That act of choice was an important, perhaps the essential, part of your using your will or volition in that case.  If you didn’t make a choice, then you weren’t using your will.  But on the other hand, I don’t think that using your will <i>just</i> involves making that final choice.  The process you go through <i>leading</i> <i>up</i> to the choice is also properly considered the use of the will or volition.  That process is called <i>deciding</i> or <i>deliberating</i>.  So before you chose to go to the lake for the picnic, you were deciding, or deliberating.  And deciding involves some manner of <i>weighing</i> <i>options</i>, even there are only two options to weigh -- as the song says, "Should I stay or should I go?"  It is nonsense to speak of deciding between <i>less</i> <i>than</i> <i>two</i> options.
> 
> So much for the purely terminological points about the will.  Now a little bit about the word "freedom."  This word is highly ambiguous -- we can use it to mean political freedom, or freedom of the will, or simply the lack of something.  As in the phrase, "sugar-free."  And there are other senses, too, of course.  But we are only interested in the sense in which <i>the</i> <i>will</i> is said to be free.  Now if, as I said, the will is our ability to decide and choose among different options, then to say that the will is <i>free</i> is to say that our ability to decide and choose among different options is free.  To speak of free will is to speak of that ability being free.
> 
> So our focus is on only that aspect of the will -- its freedom.  And in particular we have two questions to ask: First, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the freedom of the will?  If we had to define "free will," what would we say?  And second: Does freedom of the will exist?  It does if we can freely decide and choose among different options; so can we?
> 
> But before we answer these two questions, I want to address a different question: Why is free will such an important topic?  The answer is that it is freedom of the will that makes us morally responsible for what we do.  If we had no free will, we could not be morally praised for anything, or blamed for anything.  And correspondingly: if we can indeed be morally praised or blamed, then we do have free will.  Unless we can decide and choose freely, then we do not really have the right to laud anyone for anything good they do, or condemn for anything evil they do: they weren’t responsible for it.  It would be like praising the sun for warming up the day, or censuring a tornado for destroying houses.  Those things don’t have free will, so what would the point be of praising or blaming them?
> 
> There is a related principle that philosophers use about a good deal.  I mean the principle that "ought" implies "can."  In other words, if I <i>ought</i> to do something, that implies that I <i>can</i> do it.  After all, if I <i>cannot</i> do it at all, then surely I am not obligated to do it.  What sense would there be in saying that I ought to do something that I <i>can’t</i> <i>do</i>?  If, for example, I see a child drowning in a rushing river and I can’t swim, then can I be blamed if I don’t jump in and try to save the child?  I <i>can’t</i> do it.  So surely it’s not the case that I <i>should</i> do it.  Now let’s see how free will works in here: if I don’t have free will, then whatever I end up doing, I <i>must</i> do; I just don’t have any choice in the matter.  So then it’s never the case that I <i>should</i> do anything other than what I happen to do.  Doesn’t matter what it is; if Jack murders an old woman, it’s not as though he <i>should</i> <i>not</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>that</i>.  Because he had no choice; if he <i>could</i> held off from killing her, then perhaps he <i>should</i> have.  But his will was unfree.  So he had to murder her, and we can’t say that he ought not to have done so.  Ought implies <i>can</i>.  A moral obligation requires an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do; and an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do requires that you are free to do it.  If you’re not free do otherwise, then you lack the ability to do what you’d be obligated to do; which means that you <i>aren’t</i> obligated to do it.
> 
> So I hope this is enough for you to understand why the issue of whether or not we have free will is very important indeed.  If we lack free will we might as well just give up the whole business of praise and blame that goes along with morality.  Now perhaps some of you -- not many I suspect, but some of you -- are perfectly happy to get rid of this business of moral appraisal.  But are you really quite sure this is the view you want to hold?  I mean, should we never praise you for your accomplishments and good deeds, because you just had no free choice in the matter?  Should we never blame and reproach and revile criminals when they steal, rape, and murder, because they had no choice but to commit their crimes?  If you reflect a little like that I’m sure that the <i>vast</i> majority of you will come to the view that moral evaluation has a very useful function in everyday life.  We should not just do away with it.  But the only way we can take moral evaluation seriously is if we believe we have free will.  So do we have free will?
> 
> Now do you see how I just immediately slipped into asking <i>whether</i> we have free will, without asking <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>would</i> <i>mean</i> to say that the will is free?  That’s the way that most people proceed.  I think this is a great mistake.  I think we really do have to know what free will would be, before we could know whether we have it.  But it will be instructive for us to ignore what we know we should do first, and instead just forge right on ahead, and see whether we can say we have free will, without knowing what free will is.
> 
> 
> 
> A. Determinism.
> 
> So let’s begin with the view that says we have no free will.  An excellent way to present this view is by stating an argument for it, and this is a perfectly valid argument.  This is very similar to the argument presented on p. 100 of the packet.  After I state the argument I’ll go over each premise carefully.  So here goes:
> 
> 1. Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined.
> 
> 2. Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event).
> 
> 3. Thus every act of choosing is causally determined.
> 
> 4. If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free.
> 
> 5. Therefore, no act of choosing is free.  That is, free will does not exist.
> 
> Let me define the term <i>determinism</i> as the view that the above argument is correct.  In other words, here’s the definition:
> 
> <i>Determinism</i> is the doctrine that free will does not exist, because every event, including every act of choosing, is causally determined.
> 
> As nasty as the conclusion might appear, this argument seems extremely solid; each premise is, by itself, very hard to deny.  So let’s go premise-by-premise now.
> 
> Premise (1): "Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined."  You may recall "the Principle of Causality" from our discussion of the cosmological argument; that principle we stated as "Every event has a cause."  Well, if you liked the principle then, consistency requires you to accept it now.  But there is a difference between saying that every event has a cause and that every event is <i>causally</i> <i>determined</i>.  This last statement is stronger.  So what reason is there to believe that stronger claim, that every event is causally determined?
> 
> It’s difficult to give a <i>positive</i> <i>argument</i> for this premise.  The best I think I can do is to point to some examples where we assume it, or presuppose it.  We definitely presuppose it in science -- or most of science anyway.  For example, suppose you want to explain why an eight ball rolled into a pocket.  Definitely we require <i>some</i> explanation.  So suppose we say <i>it</i> <i>was</i> <i>hit</i> <i>by</i> <i>the</i> <i>cue</i> <i>ball</i>.  But that only explains why the eight ball is <i>moving</i>.  There are still <i>aspects</i> of the eight ball’s movement that are unexplained: for example, its direction.  That is explained by the vector and spin of the cue ball when it hits the eight ball.  And so on -- we demand explanations for every aspect of the eight ball’s movement.  That’s the basic premise of scientific inquiry: that there is a causal explanation to be found for every aspect of a thing’s change.
> 
> If you believe in free will, you may want to say that there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality.  We’ll consider such a move in a moment.  But first let’s look at the other premises.
> 
> Premise (2) says: "Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event)."  I don’t think anyone would want to object to that.  If to act is to <i>do</i> something, and events <i>occur</i>, you have to see is that all <i>doings</i> are <i>occurances</i>.  Which is just another way of saying that acts are a kind of event.  Anyway, surely we can’t reject premise (2).
> 
> What about premise (3) then?  "Thus every act of choosing is causally determined."  But this just follows deductively, and validly I might add, from premises (1) and (2).  If (1) and (2) are true, then (3) <i>must</i> be true.  If every event is causally determined, and every act of choosing is an event, then it <i>must</i> be true that every act of choosing is causally determined.   So the only way to reject (3) is to reject (1) or (2).
> 
> Now look at premise (4): "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  This is one of the two premises, along with number (1), which has been attacked by people who don’t want to accept the conclusion.  But before criticizing it, let’s see if we can’t give some basic account of why it’s at least plausible.  We could put it like this: if I was determined by outside forces, by influences totally apart from me and my deliberations, to make my choice, then in sense it seems my choice was not really <i>mine</i> at all.  It was not free because my whole process of deciding and choosing was just like another cog in a machine that produced my action.  I did not play an active role in making the choice, precisely because every aspect of my choice was determined and previously decided by factors that were outside of me and totally beyond my control.  Everything that led up to my ultimate choice was controlled by forces by me; so how on earth is it in the slightest possible that my choice was free?
> 
> So if we accept premise (4), after having accepted premise (3), the conclusion, that no act of choosing is free, follows deductively.  There’s no avoiding that conclusion if you accept (3) and (4).  I want to make a comment now about something our reading says.  It says, on p. 100 of the packet (or p. 203 of the Solomon selection) that if our choices are not <i>free</i>, then we do not make a choice.  As Solomon says, "If our make-up is such that we could not choose any other, then all of our talk about ‘choice’ and ‘decision’ -- and therefore ‘responsibility’ too -- amounts to just so much nonsense."  This is a common sort of thing for philosophers to say, but strictly speaking it’s wrong.  I mean, does Solomon really mean to be saying that we never go through a process of <i>deciding</i>?  Or that we never make any <i>choices</i>?  That would be ridiculous!  No determinist worth his salt would say anything <i>that</i> absurd.  I mean, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> our process of deciding and our choices are totally causally determined, <i>that</i> doesn’t imply that there is no deciding or choosing going <i>on</i>.  The claim is not that choice doesn’t <i>exist</i>; it’s silly to deny that it <i>exists</i>.  No, the claim is rather that choice is not <i>free</i>.  So our decisions and choices <i>exist</i>, but they aren’t <i>free</i>  -- we are the slaves of forces beyond our control.  That, at least, is what the determinist says.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> B. Libertarianism.
> 
> Now if you do not like the determinist’s argument, and you believe we do have free will, then you have two options.  You can reject either premise (1) or premise (4).  Let’s begin with premise (1), which is that every event is causally determined.  So on the view that we’re going to examine now, <i>some</i> events, at least, are <i>not</i> causally determined; in particular, events of <i>willing</i> are not determined; our decision processes and choices are not, not <i>always</i>, determined.  At least <i>sometimes</i> when we choose to do something, the choice is <i>free</i>.  The claim needn’t be that our choices are <i>always</i> free; only that <i>sometimes</i> they are free.  Think of it like this -- what if I flip out and you have to put me in a padded cell, and I very deliberately decide to, I don’t know, pound my head on the walls.  Then I doubt you would want to say that I have <i>freely</i> decided to pound my head on the walls.  I’m in the grip of insanity.  So my decisions aren’t free, and I can’t be blamed if I want to hurt myself or others.  After all, that is why we have an insanity defense.  So the point is that if you believe that free will exists, you don’t have to say that <i>every</i> choice that <i>everyone</i> makes is free.  You only have to maintain that <i>some</i> choices that we make are free.  Having said that, let’s introduce a definition:
> 
> <i>Libertarianism</i> is the view that free will exists, because some acts of choosing, are not causally determined.
> 
> The word "libertarianism" is ambiguous.  It means, in the philosophy of mind, the doctrine that we have free will; but in political philosophy, it indicates strong support of individual liberties and a minimal amount of government in all spheres.  These are two totally independent doctrines, and we obviously aren’t going to talk about the political doctrine right now.
> 
> Libertarianism in the sense we’re talking about it now includes <i>two</i> doctrines, the first that free will exists, and the second that some events (namely, some choices we make) are not causally determined.  This second doctrine is called <i>indeterminism</i>.  Indeterminism is simply the claim that <i>not</i> every event is causally determined.
> 
> In this century, with the advent of quantum mechanics, the branch of physics dealing with subatomic particles, it has become rather common and popular to reject determinism.  Now, in order to make out this criticism of determinism I’m going to have to give you <i>another</i> formulation of what determinism says.  So here’s the alternative formulation:
> 
> <i>Determinism</i> is (alternative definition) the doctrine that, given a <i>complete</i> description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present, together with a <i>complete</i> description of the set of laws that guide those particles, a perfect being could predict with certainty every event that has happened and that will happen in the universe.
> 
> In other words, if you know where everything is, and exactly how it operates, then, if you could do all the necessary calculations, you’d be able to predict <i>everything</i> that happens.  <i>Everything</i> would be predictable.  And after the fact, everything would have its causal explanation.  So you can see the relation between this definition and the earlier one given.  Suppose I state the set of causes that is sufficient to explain why a given event has occurred, and not some other event.  Well, that would be a complete description of the location and momentum of all the bodies that contributed to the event in question, together with a statement of the relevant causal laws.  So I think we can take the two definitions of "determinism" to be pretty much equivalent; if one is true, then the other is true.  They stand and fall together.
> 
> Now I’m going to give a criticism of the second definition of "determinism," which we can take as equally criticizing the first.  One of the basic results of quantum mechanics is the following.  There are certain subatomic particles about which we cannot say what their location and momentum is <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>time</i>.  If you say that the particle is at one specific location, then you can’t say what it’s momentum is; and if you specify its momentum, then you can’t say what its location is.  Well, that means that a "description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present" cannot even be given!  Such a description would be impossible, given what we know from quantum mechanics.  So there are some predictions that we couldn’t make, no matter how powerful our computers were.  It just couldn’t be done.  Therefore, determinism, in the second sense defined above, is false.
> 
> Now if we got very deeply into the issues involved here, it would take us a very long time indeed, and we’d have to know a lot of physics.  So if you are totally baffled by this argument against determinism, let me refer you to p. 101 of the packet, and give you a really simple summary.  Quantum mechanics, a very difficult and technical part of physics, says that there are some very small particles that we can’t make predictions about.  So we can’t say that causal determinism holds for those particles.  That’s the gist of what I’m trying to get you to understand.
> 
> The trouble with this argument is that it doesn’t show that anything <i>other</i> than those subatomic particles is not determined.  I mean, let’s suppose it’s <i>true</i> that certain subatomic particles are "random," or undetermined.  That doesn’t mean that <i>anything</i> <i>else</i> is undetermined.  All this talk of how things work on the <i>subatomic</i> level doesn’t address how things work on the macro level, the level that we all live and operate on.  And in particular, it’s hard to see what the randomness of some subatomic particles might have to do with the process of volition.
> 
> About the <i>most</i> help that quantum mechanics might give to libertarianism is this: there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality, if we are to believe the physicists.  So we might say: maybe free will is another exception to this allegedly general rule, that all events are causally determined.  If it <i>were</i> an exception, it wouldn’t be the <i>only</i> exception.  So that’s something at least.  It makes the libertarian objection to determinism at least a <i>little</i> more plausible.  So much for the libertarian’s objection to determinism.
> 
> What can be said specifically against libertarianism itself?  Let’s suppose that, in fact, our choices are not determined at all.  Now, what’s the claim there?  Apparently, it’s that, when we choose, the event of choosing doesn’t have a cause.  A choice is a causeless event.  Or at least, the causes that it <i>does</i> have don’t <i>determine</i> the choice.  There is still some aspect of the choice that is uncaused.  Or perhaps you’d want to say that <i>I</i> am the cause of my choice; but then, to say that my choice is free, what I’d mean, as a libertarian, is that <i>nothing</i> <i>causes</i> <i>me</i> to choose what I do.  So then there’s an element of <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.  So the libertarian view, that some acts of choosing are not determined, can be spelled out in various ways.  Either a choice has no causes at all; or there are some aspects of the choice that are not caused; or though <i>I</i> entirely cause my choice, nonetheless there is something about <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.
> 
> Those are all different ways of understanding what it means to say that a choice is not determined.  But something they have in common is that there is a <i>randomness</i> involved in my choice.  After all, if your choice is in some sense <i>uncaused</i>, then to that extent what can it be but <i>random</i>?  It’s as though God rolls a die and whoops, there you go do something that has no causal explanation.  So when you were choosing to go on the picnic instead of to the movies, what made that choice <i>free</i> was this <i>random</i> element.  Total unpredictability: that’s what made your choice free.
> 
> But doesn’t that sound strange?  See here, free will is supposed to be what accounts for why we are morally responsible for what we do.  But now, if we’re libertarians, we’re saying that it’s this <i>random</i> <i>element</i> of a choice that makes the choice free -- and which makes us morally responsible for the choice!  But isn’t that strange?  Why should we be morally responsible for something that is totally random?  That doesn’t make any sense!
> 
> So let me explain the criticism of libertarianism here.  Libertarianism says that a choice is free <i>because</i> it is not determined.  And this means, as I said, that the choice is, to some extent, <i>random</i>.  But if the choice is random, why should we be held <i>responsible</i> for making the choice?  Freedom is supposed to be what makes us morally responsible; but why on earth would anyone say that it is causelessness, randomness, which makes us morally responsible?
> 
> I think that the problem here is in the libertarian notion of what free will is.  Free will doesn’t mean <i>random</i> or <i>causeless</i> will.  Well then what <i>is</i> free will?  Remember that we started out by saying that we <i>should</i> have <i>begun</i> by examining what free will is.  I think I have made my point now.  Perhaps if we had done started out by asking what free will is, then we wouldn’t have gotten into this confusion.  So let’s ask what free will is.
> 
> At the same time we ask this question, we are going to be examining premise number (4), which is: "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  Maybe a choice can be determined <i>and</i> free at the same time.  Don’t just assume that that’s a contradiction, before you have figured out what "free will" means.  Maybe when we learn what free will is, we will see that premise (4) is wrong.  Maybe once we have fixed on the right notion of free will, we won’t think that free will is incompatible with the will’s being determined.
> 
> 
> 
> C. Compatibilism and the definition of "free will."
> 
> In fact, we may as well now define a <i>third</i> position about free will and determinism, which combines elements of determinism and libertarianism:
> 
> <i>Compatibilism</i> is the view that free will exists, and that acts of choosing are causally determined.
> 
> This view is called "compatibilism" because it implies that the existence of free will is <i>compatible</i>, or consistent, with causal determinism.  So compatibilists reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument; just because an act of choosing is causally determined, that doesn’t mean it’s not free.  It could still be free, even though it’s determined.  We simply have to have the correct conception of "free will."
> 
> So to support compatibilism, we will have to do as I said, and figure out once and for all what "free" does mean.  Let’s begin with a common formulation due to G. E. Moore.  Moore, the English philosopher writing near the beginning of this century, said that to say one chooses <i>freely</i> is to say that one <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>otherwise</i>.  So if you freely choose to go on the picnic, you <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>gone</i> <i>to</i> <i>the</i> <i>movies</i> <i>instead</i>, or done something else entirely.  If you freely chose to sign up for this course, that means you could have signed up for a different course, or for no course at all.
> 
> Now I don’t think this conception of freedom is very helpful, because it’s not clear enough.  We could interpret "could have done otherwise" too many different ways.  We can always ask: "could have" in what sense?  In one way, even if I’m determined, I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen otherwise; the very fact that I had other options itself means those other options were there before me, and I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen them for all anybody knew.  In another way, if I’m determined, I <i>couldn’t</i> have chosen otherwise, because a choice that is totally determined would be a choice that I <i>must</i> make.  So maybe it’s true that, whenever we choose freely, we could have chosen otherwise; but this can’t work as a definition, because it’s just not clear.
> 
> So let’s look at another definition: to choose freely is to choose without compulsion.  This makes some sense; no one compelled you to go on a picnic; no one compelled you to take this course.  So you chose freely.  A definition like this is give on p. 102 of the packet.  But now consider this problem: if I go insane, and you want to say I no longer have free will, it’s not like there’s any <i>person</i> who is compelling me to choose to things.  At best you might say it’s my <i>insanity</i> which compels me to make my choices.  And in the same way, we want to say that little children can’t be held responsible for everything they do; their wills are not fully free, not yet.  But again, it’s not any <i>person</i> who is compelling them to do what they do.  It’s just that a toddler can’t go through a process of decision and choice that we’d want to call "free."  If we have free will, we <i>grow</i> <i>into</i> it; so freedom has to be something that we can develop.
> 
> Still, there’s <i>something</i> right about the proposal that a free choice is one that isn’t compelled; in other words, the process of volition can’t be <i>constrained</i> in certain ways, if it’s going to be free.  A free will is one that isn’t be constrained in <i>various</i> ways: by force from other people; by insanity; by drugs; or even, in the case of a little child, by immaturity.  But you can’t just say that a free choice is one that is not compelled or constrained, <i>period</i>.  Because that leave open the question: <i>What</i> <i>sorts</i> of things can compel or constrain the will?  Only <i>some</i> of those things make the will unfree.  So here’s the big question: What sorts of things, by constraining our ability to use our will, make the will unfree?
> 
> So here is <i>my</i> proposal -- I’ll just tell you what it is:
> 
> One’s choice is <i>free</i> iff it is the result of a decision process (whether a snap decision or a long deliberation procedure) which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment (as by insanity).
> 
> To understand this definition we need only see how it applies in various cases of free and unfree choices.  When you chose to go to the lake, the reason that was a free choice, I’m saying, is that it was the result of your own decision process, and that process was sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  On the other hand, when they lock me up in the asylum, and I have lost my free will, it’s just because my decision process, my faculty of volition, is sufficiently impaired to make you all say that I lack free will.  Or suppose that someone slips a dangerous drug into your morning coffee, and you decide that it would be a dandy idea to go out on High Street and play in traffic.  Well in that case, you didn’t freely choose to play in traffic, just because your ability to deliberate about what you are doing is impaired by the drug.
> 
> One problem with this definition is that this word "sufficient" is vague.  <i>How</i> <i>much</i> impairment, and <i>of</i> <i>what</i> <i>sorts</i>, would be enough to make my choice unfree?  If I’ve had a couple of beers, is that enough?  Probably not.  What if I am forced to drink a six-pack in a half an hour -- would that be enough?  Probably.  But there are going to be borderline cases, where we don’t know whether we should say I have free will or not, according to this definition.  Still I think that’s OK, because the concept of free will is itself one that has borderline cases.  In some cases, we <i>can’t</i> say for sure whether or not someone choses freely or not.  Think of someone who pleads insanity in a criminal trial.  We say that if he knew the nature of his actions then he was insane; but in some cases it’s just not perfectly clear whether a person knows the nature of his actions.  We can’t say whether his decision processes were sufficiently impaired by his insanity.
> 
> But my claim is that this definition does at least get this right, that the freedom of the will depends on whether our ability to deliberate is sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  And if the word "sufficiently" is vague, which it is, then I will also claim that our concept of free will is vague in just the same way.
> 
> This definition of free will has an enormous advantage over the others that I gave.  The advantage is that I can give a good argument for it.  So let me give you this argument.  Remember now that we are morally responsible for what we do <i>because</i> we have free will; unless we do in fact have free will, we can’t be praised or condemned for what we do.  So it’s free will, if we have it, that makes us morally responsible beings.
> 
> Well in that case, we had better get a definition of "free will" that accounts for the fact that we’re responsible.  Just keep this in mind: if we’re free, then we’re responsible.  So whatever freedom is, it has to be something that makes us responsible for what we do.  The thing that makes us free has to be something that makes us praiseable and blameable, as it were.
> 
> In that light, look again at our definition of "free choice" given above: a free choice is the result of a decision process which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment.  So let me ask you: on <i>this</i> account of freedom, is freedom something that makes us responsible for what we do?  Is having a mature, unimpaired decision process what makes us responsible for what we do?  I think so.  If I am a rational adult, I can be praised and blamed for what I do; and the reason that I can is precisely <i>that</i> I am a rational adult.  So, I think we can infer that free will is a will unimpaired by sufficient immaturity and impairment such as drug-induced states, or brainwashing, or insanity.
> 
> And if this is what free will is, then we can safely reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument.  If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it could still be free; if I am a rational adult, with faculties unimpaired, then I’m free, regardless of whether there is a complete causal explanation for my choices.
> 
> Now just for the fun it look back at the definition of "free will" that the determinist and libertarian seem to agree on.  They seem to agree that the will is free when it is <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i>.  But honestly, is it the fact that it’s <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i> that explains why rational adults are responsible for what they do?  Of course not.  It’s the fact that they have a fully-functioning faculty of deliberation, which they <i>could</i> use, if they wanted to.  We are not free and responsible beings because our will is uncaused; we are free and responsible beings because our will is operational and fully-functioning.  So free will is compatible with determinism.  I will be so bold as to say that this is my own position, but that isn’t to say, of course, that you may not quite reasonably hold some contrary position.
> 
> There is a position opposed to compatibilism, namely <i>incompatibilism</i>.  I will conclude this chapter with a very brief discussion of this view.  Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Incompatibilism</i> is the view that the existence of free will is incompatible with the claim that all events are causally determined.
> 
> Anyone who accepts premise (4) of the determinist’s argument is an incompatibilist.  So determinists are incompatibilists, and they deny the existence of free will.  And libertarians are incompatibilists as well; but they deny that all events are causally determined.  What these incompatibilists have in common is the assumption that if a choice is free, then at least some aspect of it is uncaused.  And we just got done debunking that assumption.  I doubt there are any good arguments for it.  So I hope you’ll forgive me if I end up on a somewhat dogmatic note, and say that incompatibilism seems to me pretty obviously false.
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PhilosophyOfLanguage|981081483
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> Today our topic is the philosophy of language, sometimes called <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i>.  This field in particular is difficult to give a clear definition of; but here is a definition anyway:
> 
> The <i>philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>language</i> is the study of philosophical questions about language, especially about meaning and truth (of words, phrases, and sentences) in general.
> 
> I say "in general" at the end of the definition because the philosophy of language doesn’t ask what <i>particular</i> words mean, or whether <i>particular</i> sentences are true.  (Except of course for words and sentences about the language.)  Rather, it asks what meaning and truth <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are.  What are the meanings of the words "meaning" and "truth"?  How are we to understand these concepts?
> 
> Maybe, on first glance, the philosophy of language doesn’t look so interesting.  To talk about the meaning of words sounds like we’re talking about dry boring stuff -- grammar and dictionaries.  But remember, grammar books and dictionaries only <i>codify</i> how we use language.  Codification might indeed be boring.  But language <i>itself</i> is extremely important and of daily interest to us all.  After all, you come to class to listen to me use language for hours on end!  Or of far more interest than that would be the language you use with your girlfriend or boyfriend, or spouse; that’s bound to be of extreme interest to you.
> 
> And of course that’s far from the end of it.  Language, meaning, and truth are important not just because they are used daily with important effects; language has shaped your development, from your earliest childhood and continuing to the present.  You have a whole integrated set of concepts which you have associated with certain words -- words like "object," "love," "good," "God," "masculine," "feminine," "art," "government," and so on.  Some philosophers have even thought that it is impossible to <i>have</i> <i>thoughts</i> without having learned a language.  By learning the <i>meanings</i> of these words, you have shaped an entire view of the universe and your place in it.  I am not saying that your philosophy is <i>only</i> <i>or</i> <i>just</i> your understanding of what important words mean; of course there’s much more to it than that.  What I’m saying is that in arriving at your present philosophical outlook, questions about meaning have played a central, extremely important role.  Accordingly it’s not by accident that in these chapters I typically begin by clarifying terminology, drawing distinctions between different senses of words, and so forth.  My point then is that the philosophy of language is important because language is important, and language is important because it is so useful in our relationships and in our development and education.
> 
> I’m going to assume that you’re convinced that the philosophy of language is, or at least might very well be, important.  Next I want to explain the relationship of the philosophy of language to what we have studied so far.  And then I’ll give some specific examples of questions in the philosophy of language.
> 
> I want you to imagine that we have, up to this point, been building a system of philosophy.  So imagine that we have been trying to describe some of the most basic aspects of everything that there is to describe.  So we began with metaphysics, studying the most basic structure of the universe; to this we added considerations about God, and about the most basic functions of the human mind, and how the mind is connected to the body and the world at large.  So suppose then that we have formulated some fairly sophisticated theory of mind, perception, will, and other cognitive processes; what we are ready to do next is to describe the most basic concepts behind our use of language.  After this, we will have populated our universe with existent physical objects, properties, changes, perhaps God, minds, mental processes like perception and volition, and language-use, meanings, and truth.  What we will be set up to do, then, is to talk about more sophisticated facts and processes characterizing human nature -- what knowledge is, goodness and obligation, then political organization, and finally art.
> 
> So let’s get down to the philosophy of language itself.  I said I would introduce some of the questions the philosophy of language asks.  It is probably an oversimplification, but probably the simplest and clearest way to put it is as follows. The philosophy of language asks a series of variations on <i>two</i> questions: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>meaning</i>?  And: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>truth</i>?  There are no doubt <i>other</i> questions in the field which <i>aren’t</i> variations on these two questions; such as, "What is a language?" and questions about the syntax of a language, which are not in any direct way connected up with meaning or truth.
> 
> But I think there is a good reason why questions about meaning and truth -- <i>those</i> two qualities -- are central to the philosophy of language.  To talk about meaning is to talk about how we, using words, sentences, and so forth, <i>attempt</i> to describe the world; to talk about truth is talk about how those attempts to describe the world might <i>succeed</i>.  I’m saying that <i>meaning</i> is all about how we try to paint a picture of the world using words; and <i>truth</i> is all about how the pictures we paint can accurate, or inaccurately represent the world.
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PhilosophyOfLanguage|981081546
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> See also TheMeaningOfMeaning; ProperNames; and TheoriesOfTruth.
> 
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< But I think there is a good reason why questions about meaning and truth -- <i>those</i> two qualities -- are central to the philosophy of language.  To talk about meaning is to talk about how we, using words, sentences, and so forth, <i>attempt</i> to describe the world; to talk about truth is talk about how those attempts to describe the world might <i>succeed</i>.  I’m saying that <i>meaning</i> is all about how we try to paint a picture of the world using words; and <i>truth</i> is all about how the pictures we paint can accurate, or inaccurately represent the world.
---
> But I think there is a good reason why questions about meaning and truth -- <i>those</i> two qualities -- are central to the philosophy of language.  To talk about meaning is to talk about how we, using words, sentences, and so forth, <i>attempt</i> to describe the world; to talk about truth is talk about how those attempts to describe the world might <i>succeed</i>.  I’m saying that <i>meaning</i> is all about how we try to paint a picture of the world using words; and <i>truth</i> is all about how the pictures we paint can accurate, or inaccurately represent the world.
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TheMeaningOfMeaning|981081557
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> So let’s talk about the meaning of "meaning."  And so we are going to explore, for a little bit, what is called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i>.  We are going to focus on <i>linguistic</i> <i>meaning</i> -- the meaning that words, sentences, and other items of language have, as well as the meaning that we human beings can have in using those items of language.  Because "meaning" is, like most English words, highly ambiguous -- has lots of different senses.  But when we ask what the meaning of "meaning" is, in the theory of meaning, we’re asking about <i>language</i> or linguistic meaning.
> 
> The awful thing -- what makes the theory of meaning so difficult -- is that there are lots of different kinds <i>linguistic</i> meaning.  So it’s better to speak of the meanings, plural, of "meaning": the <i>meanings</i> of "meaning."  Let me start explaining this, with an example.
> 
> Suppose I’m at a party and I’m talking to a guy for a bit.  His name is Jerry.  It’s a noisy party but I think I hear Jerry say that his name is "Barry," and that he’s a bachelor.  So now I incorrectly think this guy’s name is Barry, and not Jerry.  So then I move on and start talking to a single female friend.  She points in the general direction of Jerry, and asks, "Who is that, and is he single?"  I don’t notice that she’s actually pointing to <i>some</i> <i>other</i> guy, not Jerry.  And the name of the guy that she <i>is</i> pointing to is, in fact, "Barry."  But I think she’s pointing to Jerry, and I think that Jerry’s name is "Barry," and so I tell her, "Oh, Barry is a bachelor."  Now let’s discuss about the <i>meaning</i> of "Barry is a bachelor."
> 
> First, draw a distinction between what <i>I</i> mean, and <i>what</i> <i>my</i> <i>words</i> mean.  What do I mean when I say, "Barry is a bachelor"?  By contrast, what do <i>my</i> <i>words</i>, "Barry is a bachelor," mean in this situation?  There are two different things that <i>have</i> meaning, or that <i>bear</i> meaning: namely, speakers, and words.  So the distinction has been drawn, by the prominent contemporary American philosopher Saul Kripke, between <i>speaker’s</i> meaning and <i>semantic</i> meaning.  The speaker’s meaning is, roughly stated, what the speaker means by saying something; the semantic meaning is, roughly stated, what the words uttered by the speaker mean.  Sometimes we want to say that the speaker’s meaning and the semantic meaning are different -- simply because we don’t always say what we mean.  Sometimes we use words that do not actually express what we want to express; so our <i>words</i> mean one thing, and what <i>we</i> <i>mean</i> <i>by</i> <i>them</i> is another thing.
> 
> To use the Barry/Jerry example: when I say "Barry is a bachelor," what <i>I</i> mean, what I intend to say is, roughly paraphrased, that the man I met is a bachelor.  But what <i>my</i> <i>words</i> mean is that the man my female friend is pointing to, a man whose name really is "Barry," is a bachelor.  The speaker’s meaning here is about one person, while the semantic meaning is about a different person.  Usually they match up, but sometimes they don’t.
> 
> Here’s another example where speaker’s meaning and semantic meaning don’t match up.  Suppose I’m out stargazing, just after sunset.  So the stars are just starting to come out.  So I mention something about "the brightest star in the sky" to a friend.  Now it so happens that at that moment, the brightest star in the sky is the star called "Vega."  So my words, "the brightest star in the sky," refer to the star Vega.  But what <i>I</i> mean is actually a brighter celestial object, namely the planet Venus.  I just don’t realize at that time that that object is a planet, not a star.  So what I mean by "the brightest star in the sky" is Venus, whereas what my words mean is Vega.  The speaker’s meaning differs from the semantic meaning in that case.
> 
> So that’s one complication that a theory of meaning has to deal with: different kinds of meaning-<i>bearers</i>.  When we ask, "What is the meaning of ‘meaning’?" then you can now come back and ask, cleverly, "Do you mean the meaning of ‘speaker’s meaning’ or the meaning of ‘semantic meaning’?"
> 
> Now let me introduce another complication, about semantic meaning-bearers -- you know, words, phrases, sentences, and so forth.  Well, actually, I just pointed to that complication: we can speak of <i>individual</i> <i>words</i>, all by themselves, such as the word "bachelor," having meaning; we can speak of various kinds of <i>phrases</i>, such as "the brightest star in the sky," and "is larger than"; we can speak of the meaning of whole <i>sentences</i>, such as "Barry is a bachelor."  The meaning of a whole sentence is clearly a different critter from the meaning of an individual word.
> 
> And then among words and phrases we can distinguish different parts of speech, such as noun phrases and adjective phrases, and of course those are going to have different kinds of meaning.  And clearly <i>proper</i> <i>names</i>, which are names that stand for individuals, like "Jerry" and "Barry," and "Paris," and "Venus," are going to have yet another kind of meaning.  Now, there’s no way that I could discuss with you all the different kinds of meaning involved here; so I’m going to focus in on the meaning of just one kind of language item -- proper names.  And remember, we <i>could</i> talk about either the <i>speaker’s</i> meaning when proper names are used, or else about the <i>semantic</i> meaning of proper names themselves.  We’re going to ignore the speaker’s meaning and focus in on semantic meaning.
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ProperNames|981081604
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> So that means we have a relatively limited topic: What is the semantic meaning of proper names?  What do names themselves mean?  My name is "Larry" and presumably that word, "Larry," has meaning; so what is it?  You’d think that would be a fairly clear and straightforward question.  You’d think the question is not at all mysterious, since, for example, the name "Larry" means <i>me</i>!  So I am the meaning of the name.  That makes sense, right?  Well, it may not be so simple.  We’re still not done considering complications.
> 
> I just got done alluding to a view about the meaning of proper names, which we can formulate as the following theory:
> 
> The <i>referential</i> theory of proper names is the view that the meaning of a proper name is the individual to which it refers (denotes, picks out).
> 
> Another name for the theory is the "Fido"-Fido theory -- because the name "Fido" refers to, or denotes, or picks out, well, that little dog Fido.  So the name "Fido" means the dog Fido.  But now wait a minute.  Lots of dogs have been named "Fido."  Lots of people have been named "Larry."  The referential theory talks about proper names as though there’s only <i>one</i> <i>thing</i> that any proper name, such as "Fido," can mean.  Right?  It says: "the meaning of a proper name is <i>the</i> <i>individual</i>," that one item, "to which it refers."  But then isn’t that wrong, to say that a proper name like "Fido" can mean any <i>one</i> dog in particular?
> 
> Not really, because when we use proper names, we usually understand by the total context <i>which</i> individual we’re using the proper name to pick out.  So when I said that the name "Larry" means me, you all understood, of course, that when I used the name "Larry" it meant one of the gazillions of guys named "Larry."  But just to be clear, let’s update the statement of the referential theory, so it includes this stuff about context.  We’ll put it like this:
> 
> The <i>referential</i> theory of proper names is the view that the meaning of a given use of a proper name is the individual to which, in the context of the use, it refers (denotes, picks out).
> 
> So this is better.  It might be the case that the name "Fido" picks out lots of different dogs; but <i>a</i> <i>given</i> <i>use</i> of the name refers to just <i>one</i> of the animals named "Fido."
> 
> I suppose this looks like a very reasonable theory.  But consider now the following objection, which is due to the extremely influential German philosopher and logician, Gottlob Frege, who worked around the turn of the century.  He wrote a famous article called "On Sense and Reference," in which he said that proper names have two different kinds of meaning: not only their <i>reference</i>, but also their <i>sense</i>.  So Frege said that there was more to the meaning of proper names than what they referred to.  You also have to consider their sense, he said.
> 
> Consider examples like the following.  Suppose you know that the name "Cicero" refers to a famous ancient Roman statesman.  Well if you didn’t know that then you do now.  Suppose I tell you next that the name "Tully" refers to an ancient philosopher who was also an orator.  I’m sure most of you didn’t know that.  But now consider.  If I were to tell you, "Cicero is Cicero," you’d say, "Yeah, so?"  You haven’t learned anything then.  But if I tell you, "Cicero is Tully," then you <i>have</i> learned something -- and that’s a matter of fact, indeed Cicero is Tully; the man’s full name was Marcus Tullius Cicero.  Well, the argument goes, the only way it can be <i>informative</i> to say that Cicero is Tully is if the two names, "Cicero" and "Tully," differ somehow in their meanings.  They have, as Frege said, different <i>senses</i>.
> 
> Let me give you another example.  Both of the examples are totally hackneyed but if you’re going to get a traditional introduction to the theory of meaning then you’ve got to be exposed to them!  There is bright point of light which appears in the morning sky, just before sunrise, called "the Morning Star"; and similarly, just after sunset sometimes you can see a bright point of light in the sky, and this has been called "the Evening Star."  And so the proper name, "the Morning Star," refers to a particular celestial object that appears the morning; and the proper name, "the Evening Star," refers to a particular celestial object that appears in the evening.  And well, you’ve probably guessed it -- in fact the Morning Star <i>is</i> the Evening Star, and they are both the planet Venus and not a star at all.
> 
> So you’ve been informed and enlightened; you’ve been told that the two different names actually refer to the same thing, and you (probably) didn’t know that before.  If the two names had <i>exactly</i> the same meaning, though, how could it be informative or enlightening to be told that the two names refer to the same thing?  They couldn’t.  So "the Evening Star" must differ somehow in its meaning from "the Morning Star."  Since they <i>refer</i> to the same thing, namely Venus, it must be <i>something</i> <i>else</i> about their meaning that differs.  And this other thing we call <i>sense</i>.  So the <i>sense</i> of "the Morning Star" differs from the <i>sense</i> of the "Evening Star."  Frege then said that a proper name <i>denotes</i> its reference and <i>expresses</i> its sense.  
> 
> So then what sort of thing is a sense?  It’s basically like a description of a thing the word refers to; you can regard the following as a definition of "sense":
> 
> The <i>sense</i> of a proper name is a set of properties that can be expressed as a description that picks out the reference of the name.
> 
> To take an example: the sense of "the Morning Star" would be a set of properties that can be expressed as a description; and that description would pick out the planet Venus from among all the other stars and planets in the sky.  So the description might be: "the brightest natural object in the sky, aside from the sun and the moon, which appears occasionally before sunrise."  Something like that description would express the sense of "the Morning Star."  And then how would the description of the sense of "the Evening Star" go?  Maybe like this: "the brightest natural object in the sky, aside from the sun and the moon, which appears occasionally after sunset."
> 
> Now remember, we started out our discussion of proper names with the referential theory, the "Fido"-Fido Theory, which says that the meaning of a proper name is simply the thing to which it refers.  But now if we say, with Frege and some others, that proper names have a <i>sense</i> as well as a reference, then we have to change our theory.  So here’s the new theory:
> 
> The <i>descriptivist</i> theory of proper names is the view that the meaning of a given use of a proper name is constituted by (1) the individual to which, in the context of the use, it refers (denotes, picks out), and (2) a set of properties that can be expressed as a description that picks out the reference of the name.  (1) is the <i>reference</i> and (2) is the <i>sense</i>.
> 
> So according to the descriptivist theory of meaning, there’s a description of the sense of proper names, and that description would, like a definition, <i>pick</i> <i>out</i> the reference of the proper name.  In fact, if you will remember that distinction we drew between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> of a general term; reference and sense is the same sort of distinction, only applied to proper names, rather than general terms.  The extension of a general term like "dog" is just all the dogs that are out there; the extension is what the word can be used to refer to.  The intension of a general term is basically a description of what all dogs have in common; it’s what the definition expresses.  So you can think of the <i>sense</i> of a proper name something like an <i>identifying</i> <i>description</i> of an individual -- as it were, a definition of a name.  So the sense of <i>my</i> name, "Larry," would list some salient facts about me, that picked me out, that distinguished me from other people.  And then to return to what the descriptivist theory of meaning says: it says that in order to say what the name "Larry" means, not only would you have to say that it means <i>me</i>; you’d also have to specify the sense of the name, that is, you’d have to give that identifying description of me.
> 
> Now, there have been a lot of philosophers who have <i>denied</i> that there is anything like a <i>sense</i> of proper names.  Instead, they advocate the so-called <i>causal</i> theory, which I’ll define in a little bit.  But first I want to say what the causal theorists <i>deny</i>.  The causal theorists say: in order to give the meaning of a proper name, you <i>don’t</i> have to express the sense; you <i>don’t</i> have to give an identifying description of the individual that bears the name.  They think that, in order to say what a name means, we can just stick with the referential theory; and then all you have to do is account for what causes proper names to refer to the individuals to which they refer.  Why, they ask, does any given proper name refer to the individual that it does?  So the causal theorists, the people who think that proper names don’t have senses, still feel they have to ask: How do proper names come to refer to the individuals that they do refer to?
> 
> So how would a causal theorist answer that question?  Well, something like this.  In naming a newborn baby, traditionally we have taken the baby to a priest or pastor who baptizes and names the baby, say "Jane Doe."  So the pastor says, "This child’s name is ‘Jane Doe’."  And henceforth everyone calls the little girl "Jane."  With that initial act, the act of <i>christening</i> as it’s called, the pastor gives the girl her name.  This seems all fairly straightforward.  So we were asking: How do proper names come to refer to the individuals that they do refer to?  In the case of our Jane, how does the name "Jane Doe" come to refer to Jane?  The answer is obvious: Jane was <i>christened</i> "Jane."
> 
> However, not everyone who knows Jane was at Jane’s christening.  So how is it that when <i>they</i> use the name "Jane Doe," they are referring to Jane?  Well, that’s obvious as well: there is a causal chain that passes from the original observers of Jane’s christening to everyone who uses her name.  For example, maybe Jane’s friend Jill wasn’t at the christening, but Jill learns Jane’s name from Jane’s mother, who <i>was</i> at the christening.
> 
> The causal theory says, then, that all proper names get their meaning -- their reference is fixed, made <i>rigid</i> as Kripke says -- by an initial act of christening.  Whether you’re naming a person, a ship, a town, a planet, or whatever: there’s that original act of naming, and then the thing named has its name <i>rigidly</i>, so that the name is called a <i>rigid</i> <i>designator</i> of what it refers to.  That’s a technical term: <i>rigid</i> <i>designator</i>.  Here’s a definition:
> 
> A name is a <i>rigid</i> <i>designator</i> iff it denotes its reference in all possible worlds. 
> 
> So the name "Jane Doe" is a rigid designator; which means that it denotes Jane in all possible worlds.  And what <i>that</i> means is that, throughout all kinds of possible changes that Jane might undergo, all the different ways that she is or might have been, the name will refer to <i>her</i>.
> 
> So then it’s not the <i>sense</i> of the name "Jane," not any <i>particular</i> <i>set</i> <i>of</i> <i>properties</i> of Jane, that we use to refer to Jane.  Because those properties might change -- they might have been totally different.  But Jane would still be Jane.  In fact, we can refer to Jane without knowing anything about her -- except the fact that she’s called <i>Jane</i>.  So it’s possible to refer to Jane without knowing anything like a <i>sense</i> of the name "Jane."  And the reason, Kripke said, that that’s possible, is that there was that original baptismal act, when Jane was given her name; and in order for us to succeed in referring to her, there <i>just</i> has to be a causal chain leading from our present use of the name and that original baptism.
> 
> So if you want the causal theory of names stated briefly, here it is:
> 
> The <i>causal</i> <i>theory</i> of proper names is the view that the meaning of a given use of a proper name is constituted by the individual to which, in the context of the use, it refers (denotes, picks out); and the name’s reference is originally fixed by a baptismal act, whereupon the name becomes a rigid designator of the reference; and later uses of the name succeed in referring to the reference by being linked by a causal chain to that original baptismal act.
> 
> Well, I don’t have time to say anything else about the theory of meaning.  I’ve just given you a <i>sample</i> of one problem within the theory of meaning -- the problem of the meaning of proper names.  This is to say nothing, or very little anyway, about the meaning of, for example, <i>whole</i> <i>sentences</i>.  
> 
> But let’s talk a little about the meaning of whole sentences, because our next topic is truth, and it’s whole sentences that we’re going to want to say are <i>true</i> or not.  That makes sense, right?  Individual words and phrases aren’t true or false; only whole sentences are true and false.
> 
> And not just any old sentences are candidates for truth; they have to be <i>meaningful</i> as well.  You can take the following as a principle: "A sentence can be true or false <i>only</i> <i>if</i> it is meaningful."  In other words, if a sentence is just nonsense, then it can’t be either true <i>or</i> false.  So that’s one very important connection between meaning and truth: being meaningful is a prerequisite of truth or of falsehood.
> 
> You might object, "Well, wait a minute.  Here’s a nonsense sentence: ‘The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe.’  Why couldn’t we just say that that is <i>false</i>?"  Well, here’s why that nonsense sentence can’t be false: if it’s false then its opposite has to be true.  Here’s another principle you can take home with you: "If P is false, then not-P is true."  So just apply that principle to the nonsense sentence I gave you.  We want to say "The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe" -- that’s our P -- is <i>false</i>.  Well then, not-P must be true.  So then it must be true that the slithy toves did <i>not</i> gyre and gimble in the wabe.  Yes indeed, I strenuously insist, the slithy toves <i>did</i> <i>not</i> gyre and gimble!  Nope!  And if they did gyre or gimble it certainly wasn’t in the wabe!  Well, that’s just nonsense as you can see.  So, in order to be true <i>or</i> false, as I said, a sentence has to be meaningful.  And as I said, that’s a very important connection between the topics of meaning and truth.
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> See also TheMeaningOfMeaning; ProperNames; MeaningfulNess; and TheoriesOfTruth.
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MeaningfulNess|981081665
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> Before we get into epistemology, which is the topic for the next two days, I want to say something about the topic of meaningfulness.  Last time someone very sensibly asked me to clarify what it means to say that a sentence is meaningful.  We discussed the notion that it might the same as understandability; the idea was that, if a sentence is meaningful then we can understand it, and if we can understand it, then it’s meaningful.  But I raised the problem that of course there are some sentences which many of us can’t understand, but nonetheless they’re perfectly meaningful.  Still, you might say: if a sentence can be understood by <i>someone</i>, then <i>that’s</i> enough to make the sentence meaningful.
> 
> Now, I’m still not satisfied by this account of meaningfulness, if for no other reason than that it doesn’t say <i>why</i> sentences are meaningful.  Look at it this way: if the world’s greatest genius can understand some incredibly complex, jargon-filled sentence, there’s something about <i>the</i> <i>sentence</i> that makes it meaningful, right?  It’s not <i>just</i> the fact that the genius can understand it; there has to be some <i>reason</i> why the genius can understand it.  Well, there has to be a meaning there for the genius to understand!  And that just raises the question: When does a sentence have a meaning and when doesn’t it?
> 
> I’m not going to go into this in much depth, but I just wanted to say that it clearly has something to do with the fact that <i>the</i> <i>words</i> <i>in</i> the sentence have a meaning.  Roughly put: If a sentence is meaningful, then each word in the sentence has some meaning.  That principle seems to me at least generally true, if not <i>always</i> true.  Take the sentence, "Barry is a bachelor."  It’s meaningful; and each word in that sentence, "Barry," "is," "a," and "bachelor," has a meaning in the English language.  That doesn’t mean that it has a <i>reference</i>, right?  Because as I said, different kinds of words have different kinds of meaning.  But after we have worked out our theory of meaning, then we can say when a word of a certain sort has a meaning, and what sort of thing its meaning might be.  So even the words "is" and "a" have <i>some</i> sort of meaning that we would have determined.
> 
> By contrast, take the converse of the principle stated above: If each word in a sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  Do you think that’s right?  Well, consider the following string of word: "Had computer sky flatly in cat over."  Each word in that "sentence," if you want to call it a sentence, is meaningful.  But it certainly is not meaningful.  So maybe you could amend the principle, like this: If each word in a <i>grammatical</i> sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  But even this principle is incorrect.  Here’s a counterexample: "The evil kitten used green songs to grate cheese."  That’s perfectly grammatical, but I don’t think we want to dignify that sentence as <i>meaningful</i>.
> 
> So the question then is: <i>what</i>, in addition to having meaningful words in a grammatical order, does a sentence have to have, in order to be meaningful?  I’m not going to try to improve the principle; but it seems pretty obvious to me that you could improve it in various ways.
> 
> I would be irresponsible if I did not mention, before I leave this topic, a very important theory of meaningfulness, called <i>verificationism</i>.  Here’s a definition:
> 
> A sentence is <i>meaningful</i> iff it is at least in principle <i>verifiable</i>, i.e., there are some conditions under which it could be shown to be true <i>or</i> false.
> 
> If "Barry is a bachelor" is meaningful, on this theory, then there are some conditions that could be fulfilled, under which you would have shown that Barry is indeed a bachelor.  But if there are no such conditions then the sentence, "Barry is a bachelor," would be meaningless; of course there are such conditions, so <i>that</i> sentence <i>is</i> meaningful.  On the other hand, "The evil kitten used green songs to grate cheese" is meaningless, because there aren’t any conditions under which this sentence could be shown to be true.  How could you show that sentence to be true?  When would I know that I was looking at an evil kitten?  When would I know that the kitten was using a song?  What is a green song?  How could a kitten use a song to grate cheese?  Well, the point is that you <i>couldn’t</i> show this sentence to be true; there isn’t any way to do it because we don’t even know what observations we could make, that would confirm it in the slightest.
> 
> Very briefly I want to raise one problem for verificationism.  It’s the same problem that I raised for the view that meaningfulness is understandability.  Namely, this view doesn’t seem to explain <i>why</i> a sentence is meaningful.  It might be <i>perfectly</i> <i>true</i> that, if a sentence is meaningful, then it can be verified (or falsified).  But it seems like the <i>reason</i> that it can be verified, or falsified, is the <i>fact</i> that it’s meaningful.  I mean, again, this view faces this problem: what is it <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>sentence</i> that makes it verifiable, or falsifiable?  <i>That</i> is what will make the sentence meaningful.
> 
> And in my opinion anyway, it’s probably going to turn out to be a function of a grammatical combination of meaningful words, plus some other conditions (like, the right words being joined together).  I suspect that that is what would make a sentence understandable, <i>and</i> verifiable or falsifiable, <i>and</i> meaningful.  But that’s all I’m going to say about meaningfulness.  On to epistemology.
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> See also TheMeaningOfMeaning; ProperNames; MeaningfulNess; NaiveRelativismAboutTruth; and TheoriesOfTruth.
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NaiveRelativismAboutTruth|981081725
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> So what <i>is</i> truth?  Here’s a true claim: "2+2=4."  Here’s another: "Some dogs bark frequently."  Here’s another: "Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain on earth."  Here’s another: "Killing people for kicks is morally wrong."  <i>All</i> of those sentences are meaningful and, moreover, true.  So what do they have in common?  What makes them all <i>true</i> claims, as opposed to <i>false</i> claims?  That’s the problem we’re going to try to solve next.
> 
> Now I imagine that quite a few of you think that there is no such thing as <i>truth</i>, <i>period</i>.  Whenever I say that a claim is true, what I really mean is that the claim is true <i>for</i> <i>me</i>.  It may or may not be true <i>for</i> <i>you</i>.  So when I say that <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that ice is frozen water, what I really mean is that <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> <i>for</i> <i>me</i> that ice is frozen water.  It’s not true, <i>period</i>, that ice is frozen water.  So we may define a kind of relativism, as follows:
> 
> <i>Relativism</i> <i>about</i> <i>truth</i> is the view that whether a claim is true or false depends in some way upon each individual person; so "P is true" is always short for "P is true <i>for</i> <i>S</i> (a person)."
> 
> I’m going to try to convince you that this view is not just incorrect, it’s really obviously incorrect.  And believe it or not, hardly any actual philosophers are relativists about truth; hardly any of them share this opinion that there is no such thing as truth, period.  Almost all philosophers today think that there is truth, period.  I imagine this is surprising to some of you -- you’d think that the relativism that pervades our society starts with philosophy professors and trickle down from there.  But that’s just not the case.  Most philosophy professors <i>aren’t</i> relativists about truth.  So next I’ll give you some objections to relativism about truth.
> 
> First objection.  There are some rather obvious counterexamples to the view that the truth of a claim depends on an individual.  Take, for example, the claim that ice is frozen water, or the claim that Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world, or that 2+2=4, or that the world is more spherical than flat.  Do you really want to maintain that <i>whether</i> those claims are true depends, in any way, on an individual?  That just seems extremely implausible.  I mean, <i>why</i> <i>on</i> <i>earth</i> would you believe that our attitudes makes <i>any</i> <i>difference</i> <i>whatsoever</i> to whether such claims are true?  I mean, suppose a child thinks that ice isn’t frozen water, but is a special kind of rock that is different from water.  Would that make it <i>true</i> <i>for</i> <i>the</i> <i>child</i> that ice is a special kind of rock?  I have a hard time seeing why anyone would want to say that.  OK, so that’s one reason not to accept relativism about truth.
> 
> Second objection.  Relativism doesn’t give any positive account of what truth <i>is</i>.  It just says that whatever truth is, it depends on individuals.  So what is it that depends on individuals?  Truth.  Right: so what is truth?  The point then is that <i>even</i> <i>if</i> truth is relative, you’ve still got to say <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that is supposed to be relative.  Saying that truth is relative doesn’t tell us what truth is.  Now, this is an objection to relativism only if you take relativism to be a theory about what truth is.  So far, this objection just raises a question.
> 
> In my experience with undergraduates and others who espouse relativism, there does seem to be a theory of what truth is that goes along with relativism.  The theory is basically the following:
> 
> P is <i>true</i> <i>for</i> <i>S</i> iff S believes that P.
> 
> So "Ice is frozen water" is true for me if, and only if, I believe that ice is frozen water.  Basically then, truth is <i>belief</i>.  So remember my definition of "relativism about truth"; it was "the view that whether a claim is true or false depends in some way upon each individual person."  We might ask: <i>how</i> <i>does</i> the truth of a claim depend on each individual person?  The above definition of "truth" explains it: the truth of a claim depends on whether an individual <i>believes</i> it.  If I believe the claim, it’s true for me; if I disbelieve it, then it’s false for me; if I haven’t made up my mind, then the claim is neither true nor false for me.
> 
> That leads us to the second objection: namely, that it is extremely implausible that the concepts of belief and of truth are the same.  I can point out all sorts of differences that make it very clear that the concepts of belief and truth are different.  For one thing, if belief and truth are the same, then why do we have two different words for the same thing?  Why don’t we just always talk about belief, or always about truth?  And why do we often talk as though they’re different -- as though there are such things as <i>false</i> <i>beliefs</i>, and <i>truths</i> <i>that</i> <i>haven’t</i> <i>been</i> <i>discovered</i> <i>yet</i>?  If belief and truth are the same, then everything I believe is true <i>for</i> <i>me</i>; do we really want to say that?
> 
> That seems like it would be far too easy for me to achieve truth; all I have to do is believe something, and <i>voila</i>, I have the truth!  No need to do experiments or give arguments to prove that a claim is true; just believe it and that <i>makes</i> the claim true!  Honestly, what’s the point of arguing about things if belief and truth are the same?  An argument is supposed to show that its conclusion is true.  But if truth is just the same as belief, then why do I need to go to the trouble of giving an argument?  My believing a claim is enough to <i>make</i> it true.  I don’t have to <i>argue</i> that God exists, because if I believe that God exists, then it’s just automatically <i>true</i> (for me) that God exists.
> 
> Third objection.  To explain the third objection, I am going to have to advance two principles, which I and most other philosophers think are obviously correct.  So here are two principles:
> 
> (1) If it is true that P, then P.
> 
> (2) It is never the case both that P and not-P.
> 
> To illustrate: if it is true that snow is white, then snow is white.  And it is never the case both that some snow is white and that some (the same) snow is not white.  The second principle is called the Law of Noncontradiction.  It basically says that there aren’t contradictions in the universe.  It can’t be the case that 2+2=4 and that 2+2_4.  Direct contradictions can’t both be true.
> 
> The third objection states, then, that relativism about truth violates these two principles.  Let’s say that Billy Bob, who hasn’t ever been away from his corner of California, believes that Mt. Shasta is the tallest mountain in the world.  Then by the relativist definition of "truth," it’s true for Billy Bob that Mt. Shasta is the tallest mountain in the world.  Right?  Because all he has to do is believe it, and then it’s true for him.  Well then, according to the first principle, it follows that Mt. Shasta is the tallest mountain in the world.  But then of course I disagree with Billy Bob, because I believe that Mt. Shasta is not the tallest mountain in the world.  So then it’s true for me that Mt. Shasta is not the tallest; and it follows by the first principle that Mt. Shasta is not the tallest mountain in the world.  Therefore, Mt. Shasta is the tallest mountain in the world <i>and</i> it is not; which is impossible, according to our second principle.  It is never the case both that P (Mt. Shasta is tallest) and that not-P (Mt. Shasta is not tallest).
> 
> In general, the problem is that people disagree about all sorts of different things.  But then the relativist would be saying that totally contradictory propositions can be true for different people at the same time.  But according to the first principle, that means that the world itself is in totally contradictory states at once, which is absurd.  People may disagree, but the <i>world</i> is only one way or the other.  You can disagree about it all you like; the world doesn’t care.  So if you disagree with me, and you claim that P, and I claim that not-P, and P is a precisely-worded sentence, then only of us can be right.
> 
> Well, that’s all I’m going to say against relativism about truth.  I am going to talk now as though truth is <i>not</i> relative to individuals; whether a claim is true or not, we’ll say from here on out, depends not on you or me but on the <i>how</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i> <i>is</i>.  It’s only the world that makes sentences true -- not our beliefs about the world.
> 
> Now at this point I think some of you might be wondering: well, if truth isn’t relative to individuals, and truth is different from belief, then how can we really know whether or not a claim is true?  If truth is independent of us, and depends only on the world, then how can we know what is true?  I’m not going to answer that question now, because it’s off-topic.  You might be asking: <i>How</i> <i>can</i> <i>we</i> <i>know</i> what is true?  But the question we have set for ourselves is, instead: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> truth itself?
> 
> Do you see the difference?  On the one hand, you can ask how we can know whether a claim is true; on the other hand, you can ask what it means to say that the claim <i>is</i> true.  Consider these two propositions:
> 
> (1) I know that the sentence, "Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world," is true.
> 
> (2) The sentence, "Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world," is true.
> 
> Those are two different propositions.  The first one is a claim about <i>me</i>, about what <i>I</i> <i>know</i>.  The second is a claim about a <i>sentence</i> (that the sentence is true).  So what we’re concerned with now is <i>truth</i>, not <i>knowledge</i>.  Truth is different from knowledge, just as it is different from belief.  You can see that just by considering the fact that a claim can be true even though I don’t know it, and even though I don’t believe it; whether I believe or know it, or not, it can still be true.
> 
> Before we get into some positive theories of truth, I want to quickly introduce one bit of terminology.  <i>Propositions</i> are what sentences are supposed to express.  So the sentence "Snow is white" is supposed to express the proposition that snow is white.  And the proposition that snow is white is supposed to be different from the sentence, "Snow is white."  Which makes some sense, if you think about it: we have different ways of saying that snow is white, right?  Not just the <i>sentence</i>, "Snow is white."  For example, I could say, in German, "Schnee ist weiss," or in French, "La neige est blanche."  Both of those sentences express the same proposition as "Snow is white."
> 
> Why am I introducing this term "proposition"?  Well, some philosophers insist that only <i>propositions</i> can be, properly speaking, true or false; sentences are not true or false, properly speaking.  It’s the thing that a sentence <i>says</i>, the <i>proposition</i> that the sentence is making, that is either true or false -- that’s the idea.  Anyway, I’m going to put theories of truth in terms of propositions, as you’ll see.
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TheoriesOfTruth|981081766
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> What is truth?  We’ll look at a number of answers to this question that philosophers have given.
> 
> The first is called the <i>correspondence</i> <i>theory</i>, and we can define it as follows:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P ("P" stands for a proposition) iff P corresponds with the facts.
> 
> So "truth" means "correspondence with the facts."  That’s a traditional formulation of the theory.  So let me try to explain what it says.  For example, it’s true that some dogs bark if the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the facts.  Which facts?  Actually, just one: the fact that some dogs bark.  So suppose that it <i>is</i> a fact that some dogs bark (that’s not hard to suppose).  Then we can improve our example.  We could say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the fact that some dogs bark.  Or we could say: it’s true that God exists if, and only if, the proposition, "God exists," corresponds with the fact that God exists.
> 
> The most commonly cited problem for the correspondence theory is this question: what is correspondence?  <i>When</i> does a proposition correspond with the facts?  Well, you can think of correspondence as a sort of matching-up relation -- if a proposition can be matched up with a fact, then it corresponds to that fact.  But that’s <i>still</i> puzzling, isn’t it?  I mean, when does a proposition "match up" with a fact?  To say that "correspondence" means "matching up" doesn’t really shed a whole lot of light on the subject.
> 
> Well, one thing we might observe in any case is that, in order for a proposition to be true, according to the correspondence theory, there must <i>be</i> some fact to which it corresponds.  So a fact has to <i>exist</i> in order to be matched up a proposition.  And remember, we’ve already decided <i>which</i> fact that a proposition has to correspond with: the proposition that P has to correspond with the fact that P, if the proposition that P is true.
> 
> So here is a suggestion that can help get us around the objection about correspondence.  We can say that it is true that P if, and only if, there exists a fact that P.  If we put it like that, then we don’t have to talk about correspondence at all.  We just say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, there exists a fact, that some dogs bark.  And we could put it even simpler than that:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff it is a fact that P.
> 
> So consider that the <i>revised</i> <i>version</i> of the correspondence theory: P is true when it is a fact that P.  It’s true that dogs bark if it’s a fact that some dogs bark.  It’s true that God exists if it’s a fact that God exists.  It’s true that snow is white if it’s a fact that snow is white.  And so on.  We can regard that as explaining what it means for a proposition to correspond with a fact: basically, if <i>there</i> <i>is</i> a fact that P, then that fact corresponds with the proposition that P.
> 
> But this reformulation of the theory faces now a different problem.  Namely what are facts, and what does it mean to say that facts <i>exist</i>, or that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> some alleged fact?  Look at the problem like this.  Our reformulation basically says that "true proposition" means "factual proposition."  So then we have to ask ourselves: "Have we really <i>explained</i> anything about truth, about true propositions, if we merely said that they are factual?  Because then aren’t we just letting this <i>other</i> word, ‘fact’, do all the work of the word we’re confused about, ‘true’?  And then wouldn’t we have to give some account of what facts are?"
> 
> There are at least two different ways to reply to this objection.  The first way to reply is to actually offer a theory of what facts are.  This is something that philosophers, this century, have actually tried to do.  They say things like this: some facts are basically combinations of objects together with their properties or relations; so the fact that Fido barks is the combination of an object, Fido, with one of Fido’s properties, that he barks.  But of course that is only one kind of fact; there would be other kinds of facts, about <i>all</i> dogs; or about the relation between dogs and cats; and so on.  But the idea is that it is possible, anyway, to specify and categorize all those different kinds of facts.  And then you’ve got an answer to the question, "What are facts?"  You say: it’s one of these sorts of things (pointing to your theory of facts).  And when it is asked, "What does it mean for a fact to exist?" you can answer: well, it’s for each part of a fact to exist.  So if Fido exists, and Fido’s barking exists, then the fact that Fido bark exists.  And that’s what makes it true to say that Fido barks.
> 
> I personally think that’s a very appealing way to answer the objection.  But there is another way, which has been perhaps even more popular.  And this is to offer an <i>even</i> <i>further</i> stripped-down theory.  First, observe that if I say that it’s a fact that P, I might as well have just said, "P."  If I say, for example, that it’s a fact that some dogs bark, then why don’t I just say, "Some dogs bark"?  Why do I have to declare that it’s a fact?  If I’m saying it, then I’m implying that it’s a fact, am I not?  Sure.  Well notice that, in the previous theory of truth, these words occur: "it is a fact that P."  So then why don’t we just say "P" in place of "it is a fact that P"?  I mean, suppose I’m right, and when I say "It’s a fact that P," I really mean nothing more than when I say "P."  Then why not just substitute "P" in for "it is a fact that P" in our previous, revised correspondence theory?  Then we don’t talk about facts at all.  So here’s the new, even further stripped-down theory:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P.
> 
> That’s it.  And some people say that that’s basically all there is to say about truth.  This bare-bones theory is called "the redundancy theory of truth," and it is due to F. P. Ramsey, an English philosopher who lived about the same time as Moore and Russell.  It’s called "the redundancy theory" because it basically implies that saying that something is true is always redundant.  This is very similar to the "performative theory of truth" mentioned in our reading on p. 116.  The idea is that, instead of saying, "It is true that some dogs bark," you could, without loss of meaning, say simply, "Some dogs bark."  In principle we could always eliminate talk of truth, in favor of simply forthrightly asserting whatever it is that we say is true.
> 
> Now there’s one simple objection to the theory that might occur to you.  You might say: "Well, if I claim, ‘Pigs fly,’ then the redundancy theory says that <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that pigs fly!  If I claim that philosophy is simple, then <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that philosophy is simple!"  This is a bad objection.  It’s bad because it has the redundancy theory wrong.  The redundancy theory doesn’t say: "It’s true that P iff I claim that P."  It says: "It’s true that P iff P."  So, if pigs fly, if pigs do indeed fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  Nothing wrong with saying that: that’s correct.  If pigs did fly, then it would be true that pigs fly.  But that’s quite different from saying that, if <i>I</i> <i>claim</i> that pigs fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  So the redundancy theory doesn’t say that whatever anyone says is true.  What it does say is that, if I say something, then I’m committed to saying that what I said <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> And this makes some sense.  Suppose, on the one hand, I say, "God exists!  There is a supreme being!"  Then suppose on the other hand that I say, "It’s <i>true</i> that God exists!  It’s <i>true</i> that there is a supreme being!"  Have I added anything to my original claim when I say that it’s <i>true</i>?  I mean, have I added anything other than <i>emphasis</i> and a declaration that I really do believe what I’m saying?  The redundancy theory thinks not; saying that something is true is only adding emphasis.
> 
> But some people disagree.  They think that there is something that the redundancy theory is missing.  They think there’s got to be <i>some</i> reason why we came up with this word "true."  The redundancy theory says basically that it’s only a term of emphasis.  But is that really all it is?  Isn’t the idea, rather, that one specifically wishes to point to the fact that a proposition bears some relation to reality -- correpondence, describing the facts, something like that.  Well, we’re not going to resolve that dispute now.  The dispute quickly becomes very technical and draws a lot on results and problems in logic.
> 
> So instead let’s take a quick look at another theory of truth, that differs quite a bit both from the correspondence theory and the redundancy theory.  This is called the <i>coherence</i> <i>theory</i>.  The coherence theory offers another definition of "truth."   It says that truth depends on coherence, as follows:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is part of a coherent system of propositions.
> 
> Roughly, P is true if it coheres with a system of propositions that it’s part of.  Typically a "system of propositions" is understood as a group of propositions that some one person believes.  So if you like, you can think of "system of propositions" as meaning a belief system.  Then the idea is that if your belief system is coherent, then your beliefs are true.  And if you come across a belief that <i>doesn’t</i> cohere with the others, then you can toss it out as incoherent and thus false.
> 
> I am not going to try to give an example of a coherent system or a belief that is true because it is part of the system.  The reason I’m not isn’t that I think the coherence theoryis obviously wrong, but because the coherence theory is better regarded, in my opinion, as a theory about <i>justified</i> <i>belief</i>, that is, <i>when</i> <i>beliefs</i> <i>are</i> <i>justified</i> <i>or</i> <i>rational</i>, which is something we are going to study when we study epistemology.  The coherence theory is better regarded as a theory about when beliefs are <i>justified</i> than as a theory about when beliefs are <i>true</i>.  That’s my claim, anyway -- I’m telling you this only so you can understand why we’re not examining the theory in any depth right now.  But when we look at the coherence theory of <i>justification</i>, I will give examples and criticisms that apply to coherence theories generally -- whether of truth or of justification.
> 
> I’ll conclude our discussion of theories of truth by presenting a theory which was introduced and made by American philosophers, Charles Pierce (pronounced "purse") and William James, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Their theory is called <i>pragmatism</i>, or the <i>pragmatic</i> <i>theory</i> of truth.  Pragmatism has been regarded as an American theory of truth, although I would suggest that the correspondence theory probably more closely reflects the commonsense realism that most Americans share.  Anyway, "pragmatism" is one of those neat words that philosophers like so much that they want to appropriate it for themselves, without regard to how it has been used before.  As a result, the term "pragmatism" means a lot of different things to a lot of different people; there are lots of versions of pragmatism.  So let me talk anyway about one very important, influential version, that is due to Peirce, and which has received some renewed interest from some philosophers today, like Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam.
> 
> Here is Peirce’s version, roughly stated:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is agreed upon in the consensus achieved at the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> Peirce invites us to imagine what science will be like a few hundred, or perhaps a few thousand years from now.  He predicted that human inquiry and truth-seeking would, or at the very least could, at some point come to an end, a limit; there would, he thought, be basically no questions left to be answered, and the state of human knowledge could not be improved upon.  At that point there would be, he thought, some very general consensus, firmly agreed-upon, by all inquirers.  And if some proposition <i>now</i> being considered <i>would</i> be something that everyone would agree on, in that ideal limit of inquiry, then that proposition is true.  And that’s what it <i>means</i> to say that a proposition is true: that it is part of the consensus that would exist in the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> I think you might be able to see some reason for accepting pragmatism.  Much of the motivation behind it comes from the thought that the truth is <i>knowable</i>.  I mean, suppose you thought that: if something is true, then it can be <i>known</i> to be true.  Then what, really, is knowability?  Well, something would be knowable if it <i>could</i> be known -- if not now, then by someone, somewhere down the road.  So something is knowable if we could, after long hard careful inquiry, discover it.  In yet other words, something is knowable if we <i>would</i> know it in the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> Now, suppose you thought that all truth is knowable in <i>this</i> sense.  In that case, everything that <i>could</i> be known, <i>would</i> be known in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In the perfect science all truths would be known.  There wouldn’t be any truths left over.  So then why not say that there is no more <i>to</i> truth than that what that perfect science would tell us?  That would simplify matters.  There would be no need to look for any sort of correspondence between propositions and the world, or between propositions and a coherent system of propositions.  Truth, since it is knowable, is whatever the perfect science would tell us in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In that way pragmatism is very optimistic.
> 
> I’ll raise, rather briefly, two basic objections that can be made to pragmatism.  First, you can say: maybe there are some truths that <i>aren’t</i> knowable.  Why think that every proposition must be knowable?  Why <i>not</i> say there are some true propositions that we can’t ever know, not even in some ideal limit of inquiry?  Let me give you an example.  There are probably complex processes going on inside of black holes; but black holes are so gravitationally powerful that not even <i>light</i> can escape from them.  So we could not possibly get knowledge of some specific events going on, right now, inside some black hole.  Nonetheless there would seem to be some <i>facts</i> there; scientists might even know enough to be able to describe what <i>might</i> be going on; the point, though, is that they can’t confirm <i>that</i> it is going on, even if they can describe, in generalities, what might be going on.  So the first problem for pragmatism is that it certainly appears that there are some truths that would not appear in the perfected science in the ideal limit of inquiry -- because they cannot be known at all.  You can probably think of more examples yourself; maybe truths about what went on in the minds of people long dead, or facts about very distant events.  Perhaps there are facts about subatomic particles which we cannot, in principle, ever know.
> 
> Here’s a second objection.  Basically, what pragmatism describes an <i>indicator</i> or a <i>sign</i> of truth.  It really cannot be regarded as a theory of the <i>meaning</i> of the word "true."  Do you see the difference?  There’s a difference between <i>stating</i> <i>an</i> <i>indicator</i> and <i>giving</i> <i>the</i> <i>meaning</i>.  For example, when the streetlights turn at the end of a day, that’s an indicator, a sign, that evening is coming on.  It would be an obvious mistake to say that the word "evening" just means "the time that the streetlights turn on."  In the same way, while it might be an <i>indicator</i> of truth, that a proposition is part of that perfect science at the ideal limit of inquiry, that just isn’t what "truth" <i>means</i>.
> 
> This present objection isn’t so much an argument against pragmatism, so much as it is a request -- that we make sure that we aren’t confusing an <i>indicator</i> of truth with the <i>meaning</i> of the concept truth.  There is a difference between the two and it seems to me that pragmatism confuses them.  Anyway, I think a more powerful objection is lurking about here.  But we don’t have time to go into it in any further detail.
> 
> I think that after this very brief discussion of theories of truth, the revised correspondence theory looks most plausible; but we just haven’t discussed them in enough depth for me to be able to say that with any certainty.  But as usual you have been introduced to the terrain: among different theories of truth there are the correspondence theory, the redundancy theory, the coherence theory, and pragmatism.  With such a variety to choose from at the very least you should be convinced that you don’t have to rest content with any sort of relativism that says that truth is just the same as belief.  You can do a heck of a lot better than that.
------
AtlasShrugged113|981081782
1,14c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN113
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Dagny and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from Halley's Fifth Concerto.  The brakeman watches her tensely.
< ----
< * Setting
< Taggart Terminal
< ----
< * Characters
< DagnyTaggart
< 
< BrakemaN
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN113
------
AtlasShrugged121|981081796
1,23c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN121
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of Rearden Metal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, Paul Larkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
< ----
< * Setting
< Rearden Steel mills in Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
< ----
< * Characters
< GwenIves: Mentioned.
< HankRearden
< LillianRearden
< MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
< PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
< PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
< PaulLarkin
< PhilipRearden
< ReardensMother
< WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged131|981081812
1,25c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN131
< 
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, and Wesley Mouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop Hank Rearden and the success of Rearden Metal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the National Alliance of Railroads to drive the Phoenix-Durango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that Taggart Transcontinental's San Sebastian Line has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
< ----
< * Setting
< The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, design to look like a cellar.
< ----
< * Characters
< JamesTaggart
< 
< OrrenBoyle
< 
< WesleyMouch
< 
< PaulLarkin
< 
< WaiteR: First and only appearance.
< 
< BartendeR: First and only appearance.
< ----
< * Pregnant Passages
< "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN131
------
AtlasShruggedCharacters|981081840
1,70c1
< BrakemaN
< 
< DagnyTaggart
< 
< EddieWillers
< 
< EllisWyatt
< 
< FranciscoDAnconia
< 
< GwenIves
< 
< HankRearden
< 
< JamesTaggart
< 
< LillianRearden
< 
< NewsstandOwner
< 
< OrrenBoyle
< 
< OwenKellogg
< 
< PaulLarkin
< 
< PhilipRearden
< 
< ReardensMother
< 
< RichardHalley
< 
< WesleyMouch
< 
< * Very minor characters
< BartendeR
< 
< BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
< 
< BumNumber1
< 
< ConductoR
< 
< DagnysFather
< 
< EngineeR
< 
< FiremaN
< 
< MrAyers
< 
< MrsBeacham
< 
< MrsNathanielTaggart
< 
< NathanielTaggart
< 
< PassengerNumber1
< 
< PassengerNumber2
< 
< PassengerNumber3
< 
< PassengerNumber4
< 
< PopHarper
< 
< WaiteR
< 
< WorkerNumber1
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Characters
------
AtlasShruggedCompanies|981081866
1,17c1
< AyersMusicPublishingCompany
< 
< AssociatedSteel
< 
< Phoenix-Durango
< 
< ReardenCoal
< 
< ReardenLimestone
< 
< ReardenOre
< 
< ReardenSteel
< 
< TaggartTranscontinental
< 
< WyattOil
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Companies
------
EpistemOlogy|981081868
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Last time we talked about various theories of truth.  You’ll remember that we started by rejecting the view that truth is just the same as belief.  It is bound to seem pretty obvious that <i>some</i> of the things that you believe are false, unless you remain an unreformed relativist, of a sort that <i>I</i> and <i>most</i> philosophers think is rather naïve.  Some of the things you now believe, and have believed, and will believe, are true, and some are false.  No one bats 1.000 when it comes to having the truth.
> 
> And there are some matters in life where it’s very difficult to know <i>whether</i> one’s belief <i>really</i> is true.  Philosophy is surely the best example.  You have, probably, lots of philosophical beliefs.  But if you’ve been paying attention at all so far, at the very least one thing has at some point struck you -- namely, that it’s very difficult indeed to <i>know</i>, without a doubt, that your philosophical beliefs are correct.  For any theory on any topic you might advance, you’ll be faced with a bunch of objections; and if you think you can reply to all the objections, you will be presupposing a lot of <i>other</i> philosophical views, each of which has some objections to <i>it</i>; and so on.
> 
> So you might very well wonder: <i>What</i> <i>do</i> <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
> 
> Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used logic, you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason</i> <i>to</i> <i>think</i> <i>the</i> <i>belief</i> <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let’s define a general term:
> 
> A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature iff it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
> 
> Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don’t want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don’t want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that’s possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn’t our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
> 
> Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I’m sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
> 
> Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Epistemology</i> includes the study of (1) what the epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality, each are (e.g., what justified belief is); (2) the origin or sources of such features (and thus the sources of knowledge); (3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge; (4) whether it is <i>possible</i> to have knowledge.
> 
> So, first, epistemologists spend a great deal of time concerning themselves with various epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality.  And they write long articles and books trying to say just when beliefs are justified, or rational.
> 
> A second, related concern is <i>where</i> such epistemic features ultimately come from.  If I say, for example, that my belief that Paris is the capital of France is justified, I can ask: Where did the justification for my belief come from?  Probably at some point some reliable source told me that Paris is the capital of France; and that was enough to make me <i>justified</i> in adopting the belief.  OK, then <i>one</i>, but <i>only</i> one, source of justification would be <i>testimony</i>, which is just a fancy word for what other people tell me.  Another source of justification would be sense-perception.  So epistemology asks: What are the ultimate sources of justification, rationality, or other epistemic features of belief?  And that allows to answer a further question: What are the ultimate sources of <i>knowledge</i>?
> 
> Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn’t what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it’s to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
> 
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it’s very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don’t deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
------
AtlasShruggedStructure|981081898
1,35c1
< Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
< 
< ----
< Part 1 - Non-Contradiction
< 
< Chapter 1  - The Theme
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged111)
<  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<  - section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
<  - section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
< 
< Chapter 2  - The Chain
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged121)
< 
< Chapter 3  - The Top and the Bottom
<  - section 1 (AtlasShrugged131)
<  - section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
< 
< Chapter 5  - The Climax of the D'Anconias
< 
< Chapter 6  - The Non-Commercial
< 
< Chapter 7  - The Exploiters and the Exploited
< 
< Chapter 8  - The John Galt Line
< 
< Chapter 9  - The Sacred and the Profane
< 
< Chapter 10 - Wyatt's Torch
< ----
< Part 2 - Either-Or
< 
< Part 3 - A Is A
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Structure
------
EpistemOlogy|981081924
0a1,2
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; 
> 
------
TheoryOfJustification|981081943
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Epistemologists talk about <i>various</i> different epistemic features of belief.  Or at least, they use different words to describe a group of closely-related features of belief.  These include "justification," "warrant," "rationality," "probability," and others.  I’m not going to try to explain the differences in meaning between these terms; the differences aren’t as important as the similarities.  Anyway, of these four terms, the term that has been most widely used and discussed, the word that has been bandied about the most, in the past twenty years or so anyway, has been <i>justification</i>.  And as you might have guessed, there is something called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>justification</i>, the main question of which is: "What is justification?" or "When is a belief justified, and when not?"
> 
> So let’s focus on justification.  And let me begin by saying a few very general things about justification.  We can say that more than just <i>beliefs</i> are justified; <i>actions</i>, <i>emotions</i>, <i>laws</i>, <i>theories</i>, and so forth, a whole <i>panoply</i> of things can be justified or not.  But in epistemology it’s mainly <i>beliefs</i> that are said to be justified or not.  So the topic is not best stated as "justification," period, but as <i>justified</i> <i>belief</i>.  And the question is: "When is a belief justified, and when not?"  Or if you want to put it in terms of meaning, you could ask: "What does the term, ‘justified belief’, mean?
> 
> There’s something more that I can say to give you a better fix on what I’m talking about.  A justified belief is one that we are <i>within</i> <i>our</i> <i>rights</i> in holding.  What sort of rights?  Not political rights, of course; not even moral rights; maybe something like "intellectual" rights.  The idea is that we want to be responsible believers.  We don’t want to just go off and believe <i>anything</i>, with total irresponsibility.  In some sense, it’s <i>bad</i> just to believe whatever pops into mind.  So you have some sort of responsibility, an intellectual responsibility, an intellectual obligation to yourself, to believe what is true and to <i>avoid</i> believing what’s false.  If you’re being intellectually responsible, then you’re within your intellectual rights in believing something; and then you’re <i>justified</i> in your belief.
> 
> So it’s often said that justification is a <i>normative</i> notion.  That means that it has to do with norms, rights, responsibilities, obligations, and so forth; or more generally, we could say (here’s a rough definition):
> 
> A concept is <i>normative</i> iff it is a concept regarding or depending on the norms, or obligations and permissions (very broadly construed), involved in human conduct.
> 
> The concept of justification is definitely normative in this sense, because it is a concept regarding the norms of <i>belief</i>.
> 
> So you know two things, at least, about justification so far: first, justification is an epistemic feature of beliefs, meaning that it <i>aims</i> <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>truth</i>, as it were; and second, the concept of justification is a <i>normative</i> concept, because it is a concept about norms of belief.
> 
> Here’s a third general feature of justified belief: If a belief is justified, there is something <i>which</i> <i>justifies</i> <i>it</i>.  So let’s call whatever it is that justifies a belief the <i>justifier</i> of the belief.  So the claim is: If a belief is justified, then it has at least one justifier.  Now, notice first that I haven’t said anything about <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i> a justifier can be.  More about that in a bit.  But an example of a justifier would be some evidence that I accept; if I accept some evidence, then that evidence might be a justifier of my belief.  For example, if I am aware of the bloody footprints, blood in O. J.’s Bronco, DNA confirmation, and so forth, all of that can be evidence for my belief that O. J. Simpson is a murderer.  In that case, the <i>justifiers</i> are all that blood evidence, or rather my <i>acceptance</i> of that evidence; the <i>belief</i> that is justified is my belief that O. J. is a murderer.
> 
> But not all justifiers would have to be what can properly be called "evidence"; there might be some totally different kind of justifiers out there.  But to be justified, a belief has to have a justifier.
> 
> So far, I’ve just been reciting some general features of justification that pretty much everyone agrees on.  But now we’re approaching the point where people disagree.  Because what people disagree about is <i>what</i> <i>the</i> <i>justifiers</i> <i>are</i>.  In other words, the following question is the main bone of contention: What sorts of things are justifiers?  There are, to simplify, three answers -- three different views about what sorts of things can be justifiers:
> 
> (1) Beliefs only.
> 
> (2) Beliefs together with other conscious mental states.
> 
> (3) Beliefs, conscious mental states, and other facts about us and our environment (which we may not have access to).
> 
> I’m not going to give you examples of each of these three kinds of justifiers; I’ll save the examples for the theories of justification that I’m about to explain to you.  Right now all I want you to see is that there are those three different views about what sorts of things that justifiers can be.
> 
> But at least <i>sometimes</i>, the justifier of a belief is <i>another</i> <i>belief</i>.  When, for example, I believe that O. J. is a murderer, I base that belief on <i>other</i> <i>beliefs</i> -- namely, about the blood evidence and other evidence.  Strictly speaking, my belief isn’t based on <i>the</i> <i>evidence</i> <i>itself</i> -- after all, what if I didn’t believe it?  What if I thought that all of that evidence were just a hoax?  For that matter, what if the evidence <i>existed</i>, but I didn’t know about it?  Then of course, my belief that O. J. is a murderer wouldn’t be based on that evidence, just because I didn’t know it was there at all; or, if I thought the evidence were a hoax, then surely my belief couldn’t be based on that evidence.  So here is my point: when my belief is based on evidence, <i>actually</i> what my belief is based on is <i>another</i> <i>belief</i>, <i>namely</i>, <i>a</i> <i>belief</i> <i>or</i> <i>beliefs</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>evidence</i>.
> 
> For convenience and brevity, let me use letters, P’s and Q’s, to stand for beliefs.  So the idea we’re considering now is that a belief, Q, can be justified by another belief, P.  So P justifies Q.  Now I want you to consider a possibility -- see what you think of this.  Suppose that P -- the justifier -- is <i>itself</i>, not justified at all.  Suppose it’s just totally arbitrary.  I picked the belief out of a hat; I got it from a fortune cookie.  Then would it be possible for P to justify Q?  Surely not.
> 
> Let me give you an example.  Suppose I believe that there is intelligent life on Mars, and I base this belief on a further belief, that there is a feature on the surface of Mars that looks like a face, and that this face could <i>only</i> have been made by intelligent life.  So the justifying belief is: That face-like feature on Mars could only have been made by intelligent life.  And the justified belief is: There is intelligent life on Mars.  But suppose further (something that really is the case) that the justifying belief is itself <i>totally</i> unjustified.  I am in no way in my intellectual rights if I suppose that this face-like feature on Mars could have only been made by intelligent life; that view of mine is totally irresponsible, intellectually speaking.  Would my belief that there is intelligent life on Mars be justified then?  It has a <i>justifier</i>, doesn’t it?  Yes.  But the justifier is itself not justified.  So definitely belief in life on Mars is unjustified; if it’s going to be justified, it has to be justified by some belief which is <i>itself</i> justified.  If the justifying belief isn’t itself justified, then it can’t do any justify anything else, no matter how much I might want it to.
> 
> So I think we can accept a general rule:
> 
> If a belief, Q, is justified by another belief, P, then P must itself be justified.
> 
> If P isn’t justified, then it sure can’t justify Q.  The only way that P could justify Q is if P is itself first justified.
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LibertarianisM|981081945
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> 
> tt A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
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LibertarianisM|981081954
7c7
< tt A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
---
> A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
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TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology|981081989
1c1,99
< Describe the new page here.
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> All of the foregoing has prepared us to come to grips with a very important argument in epistemology, called the <i>regress</i> <i>argument</i> or the <i>infinite</i> <i>regress</i> <i>argument</i>.  It goes like this:
> 
> (1) Suppose that the belief that Q is justified by the belief that P; so P justifies Q.
> 
> (2) But if P justifies Q, then P is justified.
> 
> (3) So P is justified.
> 
> (4) But if P is justified, then it must be justified some <i>other</i> belief; and <i>that</i> belief must be justified by some <i>other</i> belief; and so on.  There is a <i>chain</i> of justifying beliefs.  And then there are three possibilities: (a) the chain goes on forever; (b) the chain loops around on itself, forming a circle; or (c) the chain begins with a belief that is justified, but which is not justified <i>by</i> <i>another</i> <i>belief</i>.
> 
> (5) Possibility (a) (called <i>regressism</i>) is obviously incorrect.
> 
> (6) Possibility (b) (called <i>coherentism</i>) is incorrect (for various reasons, explained below).
> 
> (7) Possibility (c) (called <i>foundationalism</i>) is the only possibility left and must be correct.
> 
> (8) Therefore, there must be some beliefs that are justified, but which are not justified by other beliefs: these are called <i>basic</i> <i>beliefs</i>.  All other beliefs are justified by basic beliefs.
> 
> So the regress argument, as I’ve presented it here (and as it is usually presented) is an argument for a theory of justification called <i>foundationalism</i>.  But I don’t want to talk about foundationalism yet.  Let’s go back over this argument carefully, first.
> 
> Now, we’ve already explained steps (1) through (3).  It advances that principle we talked about before, that if a belief is justified by another belief, then the justifying belief itself must be justified.  Now let’s look at premise (4).  This is the really important step of the argument: "If P is justified, then it must be justified some <i>other</i> belief; and <i>that</i> belief must be justified by some <i>other</i> belief; and so on.  There is a <i>chain</i> of justifying beliefs.  And then there are three possibilities: (a) the chain goes on forever; (b) the chain loops around on itself, forming a circle; or (c) the chain begins with a belief that is justified, but which is not justified <i>by</i> <i>another</i> <i>belief</i>."
> 
> Let me try to put this premise in entirely different words.  Pick a belief of yours -- any old belief; call it the belief that Q.  Suppose you say that Q is justified.  OK, then there’s something that justifies it.  Suppose you want to say it is justified by another belief, P.  But in that case, you’d have to know what justifies <i>P</i>.  And what justifies <i>that</i>.  And so on.  You can’t have an infinite regress of justifying beliefs -- you don’t have an infinite number of beliefs supporting any given belief of yours!  So there’s another choice; you could say that the belief <i>justifies</i> <i>itself</i> somehow; either directly, so that Q justifies Q; or indirectly, so that Q justifies R, S, and so forth, down to Z say, and Z then justifies Q.  The whole set of beliefs then forms a circular chain of justification.  That’s at least a <i>possibility</i>.  And there is one other possibility, namely, that Q is justified <i>not</i> by another belief, but by <i>something</i> <i>else</i>, something that isn’t a belief.  We’ll have to see what that something else might be later.  Anyway, all this is in explanation of what premise (4) says.
> 
> Now to premises (5) and (6).  These two premises eliminate options (a) and (b), respectively, leaving us with option (c).  To begin with premise (5), which eliminates option (a).  Premise (5) says: "Possibility (a) (called <i>regressism</i>)" -- which is the possibility that the chain goes on forever -- "is obviously incorrect."  In other words, it is obviously wrong to say that a chain of justification goes on forever.  I could but will not elaborate; virtually no philosophers take it seriously.  I think you should be able to see generally why this is so obviously wrong, though.  I mean, for one thing, we don’t have an infinite number of beliefs.
> 
> Now for premise (6), which eliminates option (b).  Premise (6) says: "Possibility (b) (called <i>coherentism</i>)" -- which is the possibility that the chain loops around on itself, forming a circle -- "is incorrect."  Now, coherentism is taken much more seriously than regressism.  So I’m going to discuss coherentism at greater length.
> 
> Remember that the word "coherentism" can mean either a theory of truth or of justification.  Here is a definition of <i>the</i> <i>coherence</i> <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>justification</i>, or <i>coherentism</i> for short:
> 
> A belief is <i>justified</i> iff it is part of a coherent system of mutually supporting beliefs (i.e., beliefs that support each other).
> 
> A common analogy used to illustrate coherentism is an arched doorway.  Each of your beliefs is like a brick in an arched doorway; all the bricks support each other, and if you chip away at one brick, the arch becomes much weaker or even comes crashing down.  But when the bricks are all intact and support each other, the doorway stands up; in the same way, when your beliefs all support each other, they are all justified, except of course for those of your beliefs that <i>don’t</i> cohere with your other beliefs.
> 
> Now look again possibility (b) from premise (4): that the chain of justification loops around on itself, forming a circle.  That is essentially what happens in a coherent system of mutually supporting beliefs.  So let me try to give you an example of <i>part</i> of a coherent system of beliefs.  I believe that we are at Ohio State; I believe that University Hall is on the Ohio State campus; I believe that I have seen many papers, booklets, and other materials indicating that I am a philosophy instructor at Ohio State; I believe I am seeing you all right now in front of me, and that you are students; moreover, I believe you are Philosophy 101 students, and that I am your teacher; and so on.  There is a whole bunch of information I have about you, about myself, about this place, about what we’re doing, and so forth.  These beliefs are all mutually supporting.  What does that mean?  For example, the belief that I am teaching you Philosophy 101 supports the belief that I have seen many materials indicating that I am a philosophy instructor; and vice-versa, the belief that I am a philosophy instructor supports the belief that I am teaching you Philosophy 101.
> 
> And of course this is only one small portion of what I believe.  I believe things not just about Ohio State, my role as a teacher, and so forth.  I also have many, many beliefs about my own personal history, about the political system of the United States, about the natural world, about any number of academic subjects, and of course about philosophy itself.  And it’s not like these beliefs are in some nice little boxes, separated from each other.  It’s not like I have a set of beliefs about economics, and those beliefs do not support, and are not supported by, my beliefs about our political system, and our legal system.  No, my beliefs about virtually <i>everything</i> are interwoven into a truly massive web of belief.  It’s incredible that all those beliefs could somehow be stuffed into my brain; but of course they are.
> 
> Now let’s ask the coherentist a question: What justifies an individual belief in my web of belief?  Here is the coherentist’s answer: Virtually all the other beliefs in the web of belief.  All your beliefs are interconnected; if your belief system is coherent, then each of your beliefs makes each other belief, to some extent, more plausible, more rational to believe; that’s what it means to say the system is <i>coherent</i>.  If you wanted to, you could trace justification relations from my belief that Timbuktu is in Africa, to my belief that relativism about truth is false -- and you could trace the justification relations back again.  And what <i>that</i> means is that, ultimately, every belief in my web of belief supports itself.  Not <i>directly</i>.  Our beliefs don’t support themselves <i>directly</i> -- we don’t say, "P justifies P," for example.  But every belief in my web of belief supports itself <i>indirectly</i>.  So P justifies Q, and Q justifies R, and R returns to justify P.
> 
> Quite a few philosophers, especially in the past forty or fifty years, have found the coherence theory of justification very plausible.  But there have been a lot of powerful objections to coherentism.  I want to review three of the objections.
> 
> The first objection is that coherentism seems to imply that circular justification is just fine.  There’s nothing wrong with saying that P supports P, ultimately.  But that seems wrong.  Think of it like this.  If you say, for example, that P justifies Q, and Q justifies R, and R justifies P, then it seems like you’re saying that you could <i>argue</i>: P, therefore Q; Q, therefore R; R, therefore P.  If all that is true, then we could argue: P, therefore P.  Well, that’s obviously a fallacious sort of argument; it’s called "begging the question" or "arguing in a circle."  But coherentism seems to imply that such an argument is just fine -- that there’s nothing wrong with it.  But <i>there</i> <i>is</i> something wrong with it; therefore, coherentism must be rejected.
> 
> That is one objection to coherentism.  The way that coherentists typically reply to it is by saying that if the circle is big enough, then circularity isn’t a problem.  If you’ve got a thousand different beliefs in a circle, then the fact that #1 supports #1 <i>via</i> <i>the</i> <i>other</i> <i>999</i>, well, that’s not really a problem.  My reply (which others make) is that I just don’t see why the size of the circle should make any difference.  A circular argument is a circular argument.  It doesn’t matter if there is one intermediate belief or a thousand.  It’s still a fallacy!
> 
> Well, whatever you think of that, here is a second objection.  According to coherentism, a belief is justified if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs.  But isn’t it possible for there to be a coherent system of beliefs that is totally divorced from reality?  Let me explain.  P can cohere with Q and R, of course, without P, or Q, or R, being <i>true</i>.  The coherence of a few beliefs does not imply that any of the beliefs in question are true.
> 
> Think of the conspiracy theorists -- you know, people who think that there is an enormous interlocking directorate of semi-secret organizations, corporations, government agencies, foundations, universities, and powerful individuals who have together conspired to take over the world and make it into a totalitarian one-world system.  Now I tend to think that people who advocate this theory are probably wrong and at least a little bit paranoid.  But if you listen to them, they definitely have a coherent body of beliefs.  One part of their system of beliefs, for example their beliefs about semi-secret organizations, is quite consistent with, and strongly supports, their beliefs about other parts of their system of beliefs, for example their beliefs about corporations.  So I think we might grant that the conspiracy theory is <i>coherent</i>.  But does that mean that belief in the conspiracy theory is <i>justified</i>?  Does <i>mere</i> coherence make a body of beliefs justified?
> 
> Well, no, <i>I</i> don’t think so anyway: it has to be grounded in, based on, derived from <i>experience</i>.  If your coherent system of beliefs ignores experience it’s bound to be wrong and unjustified.  So here’s the point: It’s perfectly possible to have a coherent body of beliefs that is <i>not</i> grounded in experience, and hence <i>not</i> <i>justified</i>.
> 
> This leads to the third objection.   My third objection is this: There are <i>some</i> beliefs, <i>namely</i> beliefs that arise immediately from experience, which appear to be justified, but <i>not</i> <i>all</i> of their justification comes from other beliefs.  In other words, some beliefs we have from seeing and hearing and other kinds of experience; and those experience-based beliefs are very well justified; but clearly, <i>not</i> all of <i>their</i> justification comes from <i>other</i> beliefs.
> 
> Let me give you an example.  Say you are looking through a keyhole into a room; you have absolutely no idea what’s in the room.  Unfortunately, the lights are off in the room so you can’t see anything.  But then, suddenly, the lights turn on for a second; and you can very clearly see a white canopy bed in the room.  You don’t notice anything else.  So then you form a belief.  You believe: There is a white canopy bed in the room.  Now I think we’d all want to say that this belief is justified.  There’s no reason to think there’s anything wrong with that belief.  It <i>might</i> turn out to be false; but if you looked through a keyhole into a room and the lights were turned on for a second, and it definitely <i>seemed</i> that you were seeing a white canopy bed, then by golly you are very well justified in your belief that there is a white canopy bed in the room.
> 
> But you don’t know anything about the room, what kind of room it is, whether it has windows, and so on.  So you don’t have any beliefs that would be enough to justify your new belief, that there’s a white canopy bed in the room.  But that new belief <i>is</i> justified.  So justifies it?  Obviously, it’s a piece of <i>sense</i>-<i>experience</i>.  Namely, you saw the bed!  Here’s the justifier: you saw the bed through the keyhole.  Here’s the belief it justifies: There is a white canopy bed in the room.  So there’s a belief that is justified, but not justified by another belief.
> 
> Now remember what coherentism says: it says that if a belief is justified, then what justifies it is <i>a</i> <i>bunch</i> <i>of</i> <i>other</i> <i>beliefs</i>, in a belief system.  But <i>only</i> other beliefs.  I think you should be able to see that that is rather implausible now: it certainly looks as though there are <i>some</i> beliefs which are <i>not</i> justified by any other beliefs.  Rather, they are justified directly by experience.  If that’s true, then coherentism must be wrong.  Coherentism says that there are no beliefs that are justified by anything other than beliefs.
> 
> So let’s go back to the regress argument.  It says we have options (a), (b), and (c).  We have eliminated options (a) and (b).  Only (c) is left.  As you will recall, option (c) reads as follows: "the chain" -- the chain of justification -- "begins with a belief that is justified, but which is not justified <i>by</i> <i>another</i> <i>belief</i>."  This, we said, is called <i>foundationalism</i>.  So here is what the foundationalist theory of justification says:
> 
> A belief is <i>justified</i> iff (1) it is a basic/foundational belief (i.e., it is justified by a nonbelief), or (2) it is justified by a basic belief or beliefs, or (3) it is justified by a chain of beliefs that is ultimately justified by a basic belief or beliefs.
> 
> To understand what foundationalism says, we might as well use another analogy.  And the analogy explains why it’s called "foundationalism."  You remember that enormous belief system I have, that we were just talking about -- about myself, about the natural world, about our socio-political system, about philosophy, and so forth?  Compare that belief system to a building.  Ordinary individual beliefs occupy the upper stories of the building; basic, or foundational beliefs are down in the basement, in the foundation of the building, holding everything else up.   In a similar way, individual beliefs, say about economics or ethics, rest on more basic beliefs, say about the nature of human beings; and those rest on still more basic beliefs, say about the mind; and in the end the entire system rests on a set of beliefs, basic beliefs, which are not justified by other beliefs, but instead by something else.
> 
> So what is essential to foundationalism?  It’s the view that there are basic beliefs, foundational beliefs.  And what exactly are basic beliefs?  Here is a definition:
> 
> A belief is <i>basic</i> iff it is justified, but it is not justified by other beliefs.
> 
> So if a belief isn’t justified by other beliefs, then what <i>could</i> it be justified by?  I already introduced one source of justification: sense-perception.  It seems to me I see a white canopy bed through the keyhole, and that’s not a belief, it’s an event of perception.  Or, if you believe representational theory of perception, then you could say that it is a sense-datum!  And that’s what a lot of foundationalists <i>have</i> said, classically: that sense-data justify our basic beliefs.  At the foundation of knowledge, they say, is a whole body of sense-data, or what you and I call "experience."  And all beliefs are ultimately justified by sense-data.
> 
> Well, we’ve already looked at the representational theory of perception and I, at least, found it doubtful.  And in any case you don’t have to believe in sense-data in order to be a foundationalist.  Really all you have to believe is that it’s something that isn’t a belief that justifies a basic belief.  Doesn’t have to be a sense-datum.  It could be, as I say, an event of perception.
> 
> Now, you might object: What if your supposed event of perception wasn’t an event of perception, but instead a hallucination?  A <i>hallucination</i> couldn’t justify anything.  Well, that’s a problem we are going to have to face later.  Believe it or not it’s a very deep and difficult problem: the whole problem of skepticism.
> 
> Now how about some arguments in <i>favor</i> of foundationalism?  Well, there is, first of all, the regress argument.  But all the regress argument says is: well, it looks like regressism and coherentism are out; so we’re stuck with foundationalism, apparently.  So are there any <i>positive</i> arguments for foundationalism?  Some argument for foundationalism that wouldn’t involve simply saying that the other theories are wrong so this is what we’re left with?
> 
> What we want then is a positive argument that there <i>are</i> basic beliefs.  And remember what that means: beliefs which are justified, but not justified by other beliefs.  Well, we have given an argument for foundationalism, then, haven’t we?  I mean the third argument against coherentism.  It stated that there is <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>one</i> belief that is justified, but which can be justified only by reference to sense experience, and not to other beliefs.  Sense experience is, after all, a different mental process from believing -- even if we do typically believe almost everything we perceive.
> 
> I’m sure you can think of other examples.  Here’s an example of how memories can be justifiers.  I’ll bet you can remember some fairly minor childhood event in your life, which no one has any records for at all, and no one but you can remember.  Say you fell of your bike and scraped your knee.  Say you remember this vividly.  So you believe you did fall off your bike and scrape your knee when you were a child; you have a belief that that occurred.  Now, granted, you <i>might</i> be misremembering.  But surely you’re justified at least a <i>little</i> bit in believing that that childhood event occurred.  And what justifies you in believing it?  The fact that you remember it.
> 
> You might object: well no, it’s my <i>belief</i> that I remember it that justifies my belief that the event occurred.  In other words, make a distinction.  On the one hand there’s your memory of the event; on the other hand, there is your <i>belief</i> that you remember the event.  And you might tell me: what justifies my belief that the childhood event happened is that I <i>think</i> I remember the event.  Not that I <i>do</i> remember the event.
> 
> Well, suppose that that is true.  So we’ll suppose that your belief that Q, the belief that you fell off your bike as a child, is justified by another belief, namely the belief that you <i>remember</i> falling off your bike as a child.  But then I’ll just raise a question about the latter belief: what makes you justified in believing that you remember falling off your bike as a child?  I mean, if you really are justified in believing you remember that?  Well, what else could it be, besides your having a mental state that <i>was</i> <i>a</i> <i>memory</i>.  And the remembering is itself not a belief; even if it results in a belief, there’s a difference between remembering and believing.  So in <i>any</i> case, what <i>ultimately</i> justifies you in believing that you fell off your bike as a child is that you <i>remember</i> falling off your bike as a child.  So it is a nonbelief, a memory, that ultimately justifies you in holding that belief.
> 
> Now again, you might have a skeptical reaction: you might wonder, "What if I was misremembering?  Then I’m not justified in my belief."  Well, that might be the case.  That’s the sort of problem we’re going to have to deal with when we talk about skepticism next week.  But in any case, it does seem that if you’re <i>not</i> misremembering, if your memory is reliable, then it <i>can</i> justify your beliefs in past events.
> 
> It’s at this point that I should raise a bunch of objections to foundationalism I suppose.  One objection, as I have already hinted, is skepticism.  But there have been a lot of <i>other</i> objections to foundationalism; almost all of them, however, presuppose that the ultimate justifiers are <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i>, rather than events of perceiving, remembering, and so forth, themselves.  In other words, it has been very fashionable to bash foundationalism, in the past thirty or forty years.  But these criticisms have been of <i>representationalist</i> versions of foundationalism.  They also presuppose that foundationalism says that the foundations are absolutely certain and not open to any question.  But nothing I’ve said should lead you to believe that you have to be a representationalist, in order to be a foundationalist.  Nor should anything I’ve said lead you to believe that foundational beliefs have to be absolutely certain and unrevisable.  For all I’ve said, those foundational beliefs might be merely <i>probable</i>.  And I think that’s definitely the case: there are lots of basic beliefs that are not <i>absolutely</i> certain.  But they still do lend weight, at least <i>some</i> weight, to other of our beliefs.  That’s all foundationalists have to claim.
> 
> So actually, in order to criticize foundationalism, in the bare-bones version that I’ve presented it here, we’d have to get pretty technical.  And we don’t have the time to get so technical.  So let’s just take skepticism as our main objection to foundationalism; and that, as I said, is something we’ll deal with next time.
> 
> I said that there are three different possible kinds of justifiers, right?  They were: beliefs; non-belief mental states; and <i>other</i> sorts of things.  The <i>other</i> sorts of things I haven’t discussed.  We don’t have time to go into this in much depth, but I just want you to be aware of something.  There are <i>some</i> kinds of foundationalists, called <i>externalists</i>, who say that basic beliefs are justified by processes or states in the world that aren’t even conscious mental states.  In fact, we may not even be <i>aware</i> of some of the things that make us justified in our beliefs!  Or so say the externalists.  Externalism is opposed to <i>internalism</i>.  So let me define these two terms:
> 
> <i>Externalism</i> is the view that we need not have access to the justifiers of our beliefs.
> 
> <i>Internalism</i> is the view that we do always have access to the justifiers of our beliefs.
> 
> The debate between externalists and internalists has been raging in recent years -- the last few decades.  On the one hand you have the externalists saying, for example, that I can be justified in believing that Stockholm is the capital of Sweden even if I have totally forgotten any reason I originally had for believing this; I’m not aware of the justifiers of this belief, but it can still be justified.  On the other hand you have the internalists who counter that if you’re going to be justified in any belief, you’ve definitely got to be at least <i>able</i> <i>to</i> <i>become</i> <i>aware</i> of what justifies your belief.  If you don’t have access to your justifiers, say the internalists, then you aren’t really justified.
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EpistemOlogy|981082029
1c1
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; 
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge
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LibertarianisM|981082037
7c7
< A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
---
> <tt>A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
------
APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge|981082043
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We’ve just finished discussing, in a very introductory way, the <i>first</i> part of my definition of "epistemology."  So we just finished discussing "what the epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality, each are (e.g., what justified belief is)."  Next we are going to discuss, much more briefly, "the origin or sources of such [epistemic] features (and thus the sources of knowledge)."  So to phrase it as a question, we are next going to ask: What are the ultimate origins or sources of <i>justified</i> <i>belief</i>?  Now look, we’ve just got done discussing justification, and in our discussion of it we found that justified beliefs have justifiers.  So we could rephrase the question like this: What are the ultimate <i>justifiers</i> of belief?
> 
> Well, that’s what we were talking about just a few minutes ago, isn’t it?  Sense-perception, for example, is one of the ultimate justifiers of belief; memory is another.  And now just ask yourself something.  Is there <i>any</i> mental process -- remember our list of mental processes -- that does not contribute <i>any</i> justification to <i>any</i> belief?  Just for fun let’s consult that list of cognitive processes that I gave you when we talked about the philosophy of mind.  Here it is again: "perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion."  Are there any of those which do not, in any way, contribute to your justification, your intellectual right to believe something or not believe?
> 
> Perhaps.  Maybe belief, volition, and emotion have little to do with knowledge.  What could I <i>learn</i>, or <i>be</i> <i>justified</i> in believing, on account of my simply accepting something, or using my will, or merely <i>feeling</i> some way?  Perhaps there are some things: use your imagination.
> 
> But whether or not volition and emotion can justify beliefs at all, what about the other processes?  Some of them can <i>obviously</i> justify our beliefs; such as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, reasoning.  Those processes can all definitely contribute to the justification of beliefs.  Even introspection?  How so?  Well, introspection is just awareness of your own mental states.  So say you belief you are in great pain.  What justifies you in the belief?  That you introspect, or consider your own mental states; and when you do that you discover that you’ve got a pain.  You can do that, right  -- <i>discover</i> that you’re in pain?  Well, the process you’re engaged in, in making the discovery, is introspection.  "Gosh, I’ve been working all day long at this computer and I’ve just realized I’ve got an enormous pain in my neck" -- for example!
> 
> The process of <i>reasoning</i> is extremely important for human knowledge.  It is by reasoning -- which means, using arguments of various sorts -- that we build up knowledge from basic beliefs.  If we couldn’t reason, then we couldn’t get beyond the level of raw perception, unvarnished memory, and so for; we would be like children.  And indeed until children learn the ability to reason, they may hold lots of beliefs about religion and politics and so forth, but they have just learned those beliefs from their parents and elders.  Those childhood beliefs are not justified, though, because they are <i>merely</i> accepted on authority, not on any reasoning.
> 
> Now I want you to consider another kind of belief, in particular beliefs that <i>have</i> to be true.  You can call them beliefs in <i>necessary</i> <i>truths</i>, because they must be true.  Such as the following: 2+2=4; yellow is a color; a single point of light cannot be both red and blue at the same time; all bachelors are men; a part of a thing is never greater than the whole.  There are many examples.  The question now is: Given that we believe those claims, and given that those beliefs are <i>justified</i>, then what are the justifiers for those claims?
> 
> Some people think that they are justified totally independently of any sense-perception or other kind of experience; so their justifiers do <i>not</i> include perception or introspection (those are <i>the</i> two kinds of "experience," I guess).  In other words, those beliefs are justified <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> -- "prior" to experience, if you will.  Here is a definition of that term:
> 
> A belief is justified <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> iff its ultimate justifiers do not include sense-perception or introspection.
> 
> For example, what justifies you in believing that 2+2=4?  I mean, surely you <i>are</i> justified in that belief; the question is <i>what</i> justifies the belief.  If you accept that there is <i>priori</i> justification, you’d say: it’s <i>not</i> by sense-perception or introspection.  So it’s not as though you see two things, and then two more things, and then count out four.  That’s not how you’re justified in believing that 2+2=4.  So how <i>are</i> we justified in the belief?
> 
> The advocates of the <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> are not always perfectly clear.  But they often speak of something like "intuition," or "rational insight," or a faculty of "pure reason."  Exactly what such "intuition" amounts to is a little mysterious, I guess.  But plainly there are supposed to be lots of examples of its use: it is by intuition that we understand, and are justified in believing, that 2+2=4.  It’s by intuition that we understand and are justified in believing that the whole is greater than its parts.  And so forth.  But <i>not</i> by experience.
> 
> So another definition of <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> would be:
> 
> A belief is justified <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> iff its ultimate justifiers are only from the use of intuition (rational insight, pure reason).
> 
> <i>A</i> <i>priori</i> justification is contrasted by <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i> justification.  What is justified <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i> is justified "after" (think "posterior" to) experience.  So we can define <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i> justification as follows:
> 
> A belief is justified <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i> iff its ultimate justifiers include sense-perception or introspection.
> 
> So just any ordinary belief about your surroundings, about things you see, hear, feel, and so forth, is going to be <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i>.  Moreover, any introspective belief about your mental states is also going to be <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i>.  Then beyond that, any belief that is <i>ultimately</i> grounded in such experience, in perception or introspection, is <i>also</i> going to be justified <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i>.  So you might have some complex theory about gamma rays and galaxies and the origin of the universe; even though it’s the result of lots of complex scientific reasoning, since that reasoning <i>starts</i> with observations that you make with scientific instruments, it’s still <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i>.  Its ultimate justifiers include sense-perception.
> 
> The big question that epistemologists ask about this topic is: <i>Are</i> there any <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> justified beliefs?  In the history of philosophy, some people have thought so; they tended to be called <i>rationalists</i>.  There is more to rationalism than that, but the view that was really basic to rationalism is the belief in the <i>a</i> <i>priori</i>.  Contrasted with rationalism was <i>empiricism</i>, the essential part of which is the rejection of the <i>a</i> <i>priori</i>, and the view that the justification of all beliefs ultimately depends on experience -- that there is only <i>a</i> <i>posteriori</i> justified beliefs, not <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> justified beliefs.
> 
> I suspect that you won’t be surprised if I tell you that most philosophers these days are empiricists, and that they deny the existence of <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> justified beliefs.  They think everything must ultimately be justified based on experience; experience is all we have, in the long run.
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LibertarianisM|981082046
7c7
< <tt>A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
---
> <pre>A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
------
LibertarianisM|981082054
7c7
< <pre>A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
---
> A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
------
EpistemOlogy|981082088
1c1
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge
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KnowLedge|981082105
1c1,85
< Describe the new page here.
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> Most of you probably think you know some things.  You know your name -- let’s start with simple things.  You know that you are a student; you know that you are over ten years old; you know that the city we’re in is called "Columbus"; and so forth.  You know all kinds of things lik7e that.  
> 
> The first thing we’re going to do is to ask what knowledge <i>in</i> <i>general</i> is.  When do you <i>know</i> something and when do you <i>merely</i> believe it?  So we are going to be studying the third part of the definition of "epistemology" that I gave you last time.  Let me repeat the third part; it reads: epistemology is the study of "(3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge."
> 
> Now, the theory of knowledge would be a mildly amusing intellectual game if it involved no more than defining what you mean when you know what your name is, or that you are over ten years old.  If that were the total extent of the importance of the theory of knowledge, then of course it wouldn’t be very important.  But the theory of knowledge also investigates something much more crucial and interesting; namely, what it means to say that we know crucial and important things, and not merely trivial things like our own names.  How can we distinguish when we know, say, that we have a cure for human cancer, versus when we merely believe it with some evidence, but <i>don’t</i> know it?
> 
> Here, see if you agree with this or not: sometimes it really makes a difference whether we know something, as opposed to just believing it with a little evidence.  A correct assessment of whether we know something can sometimes spell the difference between life and death.  Suppose you are enjoying yourself, driving fast along a windy mountain road.  You come to a gas station and the gas station attendant tells you: "I just heard from someone that there was a big accident just around the big curve on State Route 99."  That’s all you find out.  So you hop back in your car and drive down the windy mountainous road, State Route 99.  And you keep driving fast.  You might tell yourself: "I don’t <i>know</i> that there the wreck is just around the curve."  So you keep driving fast.  But then a thought occurs to you: "I don’t know that it’s <i>not</i> around the next corner, either!"  So when you approach the next corner, you slow way down.  And it’s a good thing too -- because there’s the wreck and you would have crashed right into it.  So it saved your life, in this fictional scenario anyway, that you correctly assessed that you <i>didn’t</i> know that the wreck <i>wasn’t</i> around the next corner.  That’s one example of how a correct assessment of your knowledge state can save your life.  I’m sure you can think of many other examples of how knowledge can turn out to be very important.
> 
> Now, I’m not saying that what you’re about to learn is going to save your life, because it probably won’t.  All I’m saying is that the subject of the investigation, knowledge, really is very important.  And so that lends at least some importance to the study of what knowledge is.
> 
> So let’s get down to business, and ask: What is knowledge?  How can I define the word or the concept, "knowledge"?
> 
> Let’s begin by saying what we’re <i>not</i> talking about, when we ask this question.  First of all we aren’t just talking about <i>belief</i>.  I guess there is a very, very loose way we have of talking sometimes, when I can say, "What <i>she</i> knows is different from what <i>I</i> know; we disagree."  When I say stuff like that, all I mean is that we believe different things.  I don’t mean, in any strong, literal sense, that both of us know that contradictory claims are true.  So when we’re talking about knowledge, we aren’t talking about mere belief.  It’s something more than that.
> 
> We also aren’t talking about <i>know</i>-<i>how</i>.  If I know how to swim, I display my know-how by swimming.  On the other hand, if I know that water is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, I do not display my knowledge by <i>doing</i> anything in particular.  Not even by talking.  Even if I couldn’t talk, I would still know that water is H2O.  On the other hand, if I can’t <i>swim</i>, then I don’t know <i>how</i> to swim.  So knowing how to do something is different from knowing that a proposition is true.  Knowing <i>how</i> is different from knowing <i>that</i>, or as we will say, <i>propositional</i> knowledge.  Knowledge that some proposition is true is propositional knowledge.  That should make sense, I think.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know how to use a circular saw," I mean one thing.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know that the value of pi can be infinitely expanded," I mean something different.  Roughly speaking, the first claim is about action; the second is only about something in our mind.  An even better way to think about it might be that knowledge is a highly specialized mental process.
> 
> So we aren’t talking about mere belief, and we aren’t talking about know-how.  But third, we also aren’t talking about <i>the</i> <i>accumulated</i> <i>information</i> <i>that</i> <i>human</i> <i>beings</i> <i>have</i> <i>amassed</i>.  If you like you could call this "encyclopedic knowledge."  Something is knowledge in <i>this</i> sense if it is generally accepted and the sort of thing that you would find in an encyclopedia.  Sometimes people -- scientists and historians are two good examples -- will say, "It is known that <i>p</i>," and they state some specific fact that is generally accepted by scientists or historians.  But of course a fairly large part of what we "know," in this encyclopedic sense, is just wrong.  We discover that what we thought was a fact, and what we taught schoolchildren to be fact, really isn’t factual at all -- it’s an error.  And so we might say that human knowledge, in this sense, has evolved and changed over the years.
> 
> We <i>aren’t</i> talking about knowledge in <i>this</i> sense.  In other words, by the word "knowledge," we <i>don’t</i>  mean simply whatever is generally regarded as true these days by most experts.  We aren’t talking about that, because the sort of knowledge we’re talking about isn’t something that changes.  If you know it, then you can’t change your mind and then know something totally contradictory.  If you change your mind and believe the opposite of what you believed before, then you can either have knowledge now, or before your changed your mind -- not at both times.  And of course that’s the beauty and the value of knowledge, in the sense that we’re talking about: once you have it, as long as you don’t change your mind, then you’ve got it for good.
> 
> So here are three things that the word "knowledge" <i>doesn’t</i> mean, in the sense we’re interested in: first, mere belief; second, know-how; and third, encyclopedic, changeable human knowledge.  I could list other senses of the word "knowledge" that we don’t mean, but I doubt that’s necessary.  As I said, the name for what we <i>are</i> studying is knowledge <i>that</i>, or <i>propositional</i> <i>knowledge</i>.
> 
> In fact, I can begin our discussion of what knowledge in this sense is, just by starting the definition; we’ll decide what to add to it later:
> 
> S (meaning a person) <i>knows</i> that P (meaning a proposition) iff S ...
> 
> Now we have to fill in the blank.  What does S have to do in order to know that P?
> 
> Well, first, S has to <i>accept</i> or to <i>believe</i> that P.  In order to know that a proposition is true, you’ve at the very least got to believe it.  Or more to the point, if you <i>don’t</i> believe it, if you disbelieve a claim, then of course you can’t really know it.  What sense would it make to say: "I don’t believe that my watch is broken, but I know that my watch is broken."  That’s so strange that it hardly makes any sense.  If you know something, then you at least believe it.
> 
> But as I already said, mere belief by itself isn’t enough.  So what more is needed?
> 
> Truth.  Truth is the second requirement for knowledge.  So not must you believe a proposition, in order to know it; it must also be true.  Again, try this claim out for size -- see if you think this makes sense.  "It’s false that my watch is broken, but I know it is broken."  Or how about this: "I know that high tide occurs at 2 pm today; but it’s false that it does."  That’s just absurd!  I doubt I need to dwell any longer on that point.  So now let’s look at our definition of knowledge so far.  Here it is:
> 
> S <i>knows</i> that P iff S believes that P, and P is true.
> 
> For example: I know that the sun does not rise for a month at the North Pole in the middle of winter; I believe that claim and that claim is true.  All right?
> 
> But let me give you another example where this definition would apply.  I decide to go to the horse races.  I’m just out for a good time.  So I’m up in the stands, and my eye happens to fall on a list of the names of the racehorses competing today.  The first name I see is "Lucky Charm" and I think to myself, "Lucky Charm is going to win.  Lucky Charm is definitely going to win."  And somehow I manage to convince myself that Lucky Charm will indeed come in first place.  So I watch the race and what do you know, but Lucky Charm <i>does</i> win.  Now let P be: "Lucky Charm will win."  So I believed that P, and P was true.  But did I <i>know</i> that P?  Did I <i>know</i> that Lucky Charm would win?  Of course not!  It was totally arbitrary how I decided to believe that that particular horse, out of all the other horses, would win.
> 
> On the other hand, <i>maybe</i> if I studied all the right statistics, and I knew that Lucky Charm was having a good day and the competition was really off, then I might know that Lucky Charm would win.  But the point is that not only do I have to <i>believe</i> a claim in order to have knowledge; my belief also has to be <i>justified</i>.  I have to have <i>good</i> <i>reason</i> to believe it.  I have to have <i>evidence</i>.  My belief has to be <i>rational</i>.  So let’s update our definition of "knowledge": 
> 
> S <i>knows</i> that P iff S believes that P, P is true, and S is justified in believing that P.
> 
> Or for short: <i>Knowledge</i> <i>is</i> <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i>.  Remember that formula.  This is widely called the "JTB" definition of knowledge, for the rather obvious reason that "JTB" stands for "justified, true belief."  We originally got it, or a version of it, from good old Plato, who may or may not have gotten it from Socrates.  So this definition of knowledge has been around for a long, long time.
> 
> Justification is part of the concept of knowledge, by this definition.  So you might notice that this definition is different from the one suggested by John Hospers in our reading.  Hospers says that the third requirement is that one must have <i>evidence</i> for one’s belief, in order for it to be knowledge.  I could summarize his definition by saying that knowledge is true belief with evidence.  And well, we could put it that way; that would be acceptible.  But there may be a difference between saying that a belief is <i>justified</i>, and saying that one has <i>evidence</i> for it.  How would we decide if justification and evidence are the same?  Well, we’d have to ask: Do all justified beliefs have evidence for them?  I don’t think so, but I won’t go into it.  And we’d also have to ask: Are all beliefs that are supported by evidence justified?  Again, I don’t think so, but I won’t go into that either.
> 
> In any case, though, justification and evidence are both <i>epistemic</i>  <i>features</i> of belief -- if you can remember that term, "epistemic features," from last time.  Justification and evidence are, in other words, both qualities that indicate that the belief is true.  We could try out other epistemic features in the definition of knowledge, if we wanted to.  Instead of "justified true belief" or "true belief with evidence," we could say that knowledge is "rational true belief" or "warranted true belief."  For our purposes, the differences between these different options don’t matter.  The whole point is that, to be knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it can’t be arbitrary or random or irrational.  So let’s just stick with "justified true belief," the old JTB definition.
> 
> Now there are three different sorts of questions that arise about the JTB definition, that I am going to address anyway.  The three questions are as follows.  First, <i>what</i> <i>degree</i> of justification is required for knowledge?  Second is a question that would take too long to formulate; let’s just say that it’s widely known as the Gettier problem.  Third, is knowledge possible?  With the third question we’ll be moving finally into the topic of skepticism.
> 
> So let’s start with the first question: What degree of justification is required for knowledge?  You might say: "Huh?  What do you mean ‘degree of justification’?"  Well, justification comes in degrees, from weak justification to strong justification.  The better your justifiers, or your evidence, the better justified your belief is.  To make this clear, let me give you an example of a belief that has <i>weak</i> justification, and then an example of a belief that has <i>strong</i> justification.
> 
> In the <i>Dispatch</i> in the back of Metro section everyday you can find a five-day weather forecast.  The forecast for the day the newspaper is published on is pretty good.  It’s occasionally wrong, but it’s usually right and therefore very useful.  And so if the forecast says that today, it’s going to rain all day long, and I look out my window and I see that it’s raining, then I am justified, rather strongly justified, in believing that it will be raining for most of the rest of the day, at least.  So that’s a fairly strongly justified belief.  You can imagine even stronger beliefs, like my belief that my name is Larry Sanger.  It’s hard to imagine a belief that has stronger justification than that.  The beliefs that have the strongest possible justification are beliefs that we call <i>certain</i>.  A belief is <i>certain</i> if no belief is more strongly justified than it is.
> 
> By contrast, suppose that the forecast for five days from now is: sunny and warm.  But the five-day forecasts are not nearly as reliable as the same-day forecasts.  They aren’t completely useless, but they are often wrong.  So if I were to believe that in five days, it will be sunny and warm, just because I see that five-day forecast in the newspaper, that belief would not be strongly justified.  Not <i>nearly</i> as strongly justified as my belief in what the forecast says for today.
> 
> So now again, here’s the problem: <i>How</i> <i>strong</i> does the justification of a true belief have to be, in order for that true belief to be <i>knowledge</i>?
> 
> I’m not going to try to answer this question at much length, but I do want to say a few things about it.  First of all, it clearly can’t be <i>too</i> <i>weak</i>.  Take for example my belief that in five days, it will be sunny and warm.  Then suppose that five days from now, it really <i>will</i> be sunny and warm, just as was forecasted.  Then I have a true belief about the future; and surely the forecast does give me some very weak justification for the belief.  But do we really want to say that I <i>know</i> that it will be sunny and warm?  I don’t think so.  I mean, it was just too much of a shot in the dark.  I just got lucky.  The five-day forecast just <i>happened</i> to be right.
> 
> On the other hand, the justification doesn’t have to be <i>certain</i>.  For example, indeed, suppose it’s three o’clock in the afternoon, and I’m walking along and I meet you.  I’ve got my umbrella, because in the morning I saw the morning forecast: rain all day long.  So I believed it was going to rain.  You, on the other hand, don’t have an umbrella and you’re getting wet.  So I gloat, "I knew it was going to rain."  Now would it be right for you to reply like this? -- "Naw, you didn’t know that.  All you did was read the morning forecast.  So it wasn’t <i>certain</i> that it would rain."  I don’t think that would be right.  Did I really have to be <i>certain</i> that the forecast was right, in order to <i>know</i> the forecast was right?  I don’t think so.  Maybe this is a borderline case of knowledge though.  Maybe it isn’t strongly <i>enough</i> justified: I mean, maybe we <i>never</i> have knowledge about weather forecasts.  But if you want my personal opinion, it’s that we do, sometimes, have <i>knowledge</i> of weather forecasts.  I definitely <i>don’t</i> think that we have to be <i>certain</i> of a thing in order to know it.
> 
> But there is a strong sense of the word "knowledge," perhaps as used in mathematics, where you have to be either certain, or very close to certain, before you can be said to <i>know</i> something.  The standards of knowledge there might require stronger justification than in other areas of life.  Why might that be?  Why would mathematicians require a higher degree of justification in order to have mathematical knowledge?  Well, perhaps because it’s possible to <i>prove</i> things in mathematics, in a way that one can’t prove things about the weather or about economics or sociology.  Since a higher degree of justification is <i>possible</i>, that higher degree of justification is made a requirement for knowledge.
> 
> So my idea is that the strength of the justification you need in order to have knowledge depends on the object of knowledge -- the thing you are trying to know.  At any rate we should update our definition of knowledge to reflect the insight we’ve gained:
> 
> S <i>knows</i> that P iff S believes that P, P is true, and S is sufficiently justified in believing that P.
> 
> And for simplicity we’re just going to leave the term "sufficiently" vague and unspecified.  There is more discussion of this point in our reading.
> 
> OK, onto the second question, which I said is not so much a question as it is a rather complex problem, called the Gettier problem.  The Gettier problem is basically the problem that we can give certain kinds of <i>counterexamples</i> to the JTB definition.  A counterexample is a case where the definition applies, but the word defined doesn’t; or a case where the word defined applies, but the definition doesn’t.  Gettier counterexamples are examples where the definition, <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i> applies; but one nevertheless still doesn’t have knowledge, so the word "knowledge" doesn’t apply in that case.  So let me give one such counterexample.  Another such case can be found in our reading.  This sort of counterexample is due to an obscure philosopher named Edmund Gettier.
> 
> Say there’s a man you know named Jones, and you find out that Jones is going to be offered a job (the boss tells you this).  So you’re walking around somewhere and you see Jones, who for some reason is emptying out his pockets and counting out his change.  He says that he has ten coins in his pocket.  So now you have two justified beliefs: that Jones is going to get the job, and that Jones has ten coins.  And so you infer from these two beliefs: The person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  And that’s a justified belief too, right?  Because you’re perfectly justified in believing that Jones is getting the job and that he has ten coins.  So the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  Fine.
> 
> But now suppose that <i>you</i> applied for the job; and contrary to what you were told, it turns out <i>you</i> are going to get the job, not Jones.  The boss only <i>told</i> you that Jones was going  to get the job, so that he could surprise you.  So it turns out, even though you originally had a justified belief that Jones was going to get the job, he didn’t get it.  And that happens sometimes: sometimes things that we’re well within our rights to believe turn out, surprisingly, to be false.  But now just on a lark you decide to empty out your pockets and lo and behold, you count out ten coins.  So!  It turns out that the person who is going to get the job <i>does</i> have ten coins.
> 
> Now think back, to before you knew you were going to get the job.  You thought Jones was going to get it.  And you believed this justifiedly, even though it turned out to be wrong.  And you were also justified in believing that Jones has 10 coins.  What follows?  The person who is going to get the job has ten coins; and so you believed <i>this</i> justifiedly too.  But it turns out that this was <i>true</i>.  So you had a <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i>  that the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  But clearly you didn’t <i>know</i> that then.  You thought it was <i>Jones</i> who was going to get the job and you based your claim on that false, but justified assumption.  Nonetheless, what you inferred from that assumption was <i>true</i>!  So you had a justified true belief; but you didn’t have knowledge.  Well, Gettier and a lot of other philosophers said, that means that knowledge must be something more than justified, true belief.
> 
> Gettier’s article was published in 1963.  Right after that, for a good decade or more, there was an enormous number of articles trying to supply the missing fourth condition of knowledge.  The big project was to try to figure out the "X" in the equation, knowledge = belief + truth + justification + X.  But whenever someone came up with a new definition, by coming up with something to put in for X, someone else would come up with a new counterexample to shoot down that definition.  We don’t really have time to go over the different definitions that people have proposed.  Some of them are actually quite complicated.
> 
> The Gettier problem is, at any rate, the standard objection to the JTB definition of knowledge; and it’s instructive to try to figure out how you might try to get around the problem.  So I’ll just have to leave it as an exercise for you.
> 
> The third question about our definition of knowledge is: Is knowledge possible?  Now if you take a look at that definition, you’ll notice something: If I know something, then I am sufficiently justified in believing it.  So we have a way to rephrase the question, "Is knowledge possible?"  Instead, we can ask: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  The skeptic is the person who says "No."  So let’s look next at skepticism.
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LibertarianisM|981082128
7c7
< A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.
---
> A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.  The libertarian believes the state should not violate individual rights in any for, and so opposes the right and left equally.
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EpistemOlogy|981082193
1c1
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
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CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus|981082211
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
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> OK, we’ve gone through all four parts of the definition of "epistemology" I’ve given you.  I want to spend a few minutes on a topic that is closely related, and which sheds light on a lot of things we’ve talked about.
> 
> Here’s another problem, that goes back to ancient times, to one of the first skeptics, named Sextus Empiricus.  Sextus’ problem is called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>criterion</i>.  You will soon see why I’m raising this problem now.  It goes like this.  Suppose I want to say that a proposition, P, is true.  But in order to claim that P is true, I have to have a <i>criterion</i> of truth.  What is a criterion of truth?  Well, it’s something that will let us determine whether a given claim is true or false.  An example of a criterion of truth would be: If I very clearly and distinctly understand that P, then P is true.  (That was actually a criterion that Descartes gave, but I’m only telling it to you to give you an example.)
> 
> So suppose I’ve said that P, and I’ve offered some criterion, call the criterion C, that tells me that P is true.  So what more does Sextus want?  He says: but look, your criterion, C, is <i>another</i> <i>claim</i>.  And so it, too, can be judged true or false only by a criterion.  And look, if I apply the criterion to itself, I’m arguing in a circle; I’m begging the question.  That is, if I say that C is true because it meets the criterion C, then I have presupposed just what I was trying to prove.  And what good is that?  That’s begging the question, which is off-limits.  So, Sextus said, you’d have to use some <i>other</i> criterion -- criterion D, say.  But then D is yet <i>another</i> claim, and you need some <i>other</i> criterion to judge <i>it</i>.  Like criterion E.  Well, you can see where <i>this</i> is going.  It’s another regress and it looks like it can’t stop.
> 
> Well, let’s go back to the original claim, that P, and the original criterion that we used to judge it, namely C.  Maybe we could say: a bunch of propositions are all known to be true; since criterion C just summarizes why they’re all true.  They are all very clearly and distinctly understood, say; so criterion C says, "<i>Whatever</i> is very clearly and distinctly understood is true."  Then we have argued for criterion C without using another criterion -- we’ve just used a lot of individual claims.
> 
> I think you might very rightly find this confusing.  If criterion C does summarize why a lot of individual claims are true, how does that show that we still don’t need a criterion to know that C is true?  In fact here’s a good idea of what that particular criterion might be: "If a criterion summarizes why a lot of propositions are true, then the criterion is true."  That’s a criterion of truth that applies to criteria of truth!
> 
> It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
> 
> Now this view is, I think, philosophical <i>poison</i>.  It’s really insidious.  If you think you <i>must</i> have a criterion, or some sort of standard that you use to judge claims true, in order to be justified in saying something is true, then you’re going to end up facing skepticism.  I want to give you what I, and quite a few other philosophers regard as the antidote to this poison.  The antidote is due to two philosophers we’ve encountered before: Thomas Reid, and G. E. Moore.  And this is called the method of <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.
> 
> Reid pointed out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming something <i>else</i>.  So since we know <i>in</i> <i>advance</i> that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
> 
> Now bear in mind, by "common sense" I don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  I mean much, much more basic claims than that.  I mean claims like: "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet," and so on.  Or: "The world has a ground and a sky."  Or: "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors."  Or: "2+2=4."  Or: "I am conscious and alive right now."  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.  They are, you might say, the <i>principles</i> of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make <i>some</i> assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
> 
> This is a very, very powerful thought, because it has the potential to undercut a lot of philosophical silliness and nonsense.  There have been some people who have said, for example, that time does not <i>really</i> exist; it is ultimately only a complex illusion.  I’m not making that up, some philosophers have actually said that, that time is an illusion.  Now, what does common sense have to say about that?  Basically, that we can reject that theory out of hand.  We scarcely need to <i>argue</i> against it: because any sophisticated philosophical premises that you would use, in order to establish that time does not exist, are not nearly as obviously true, and as legitimately assumable, as the very claim in question, namely, that time does indeed exist.  In other words, if we have to make a choice between, on the one hand, some rather dubious, sophisticated assumptions, that you’d have to make in order show that time doesn’t exist; and, on the other hand, a principle of common sense, that time exists; if we have to make that choice, then there’s no contest.  We go with common sense and reject sophisticated silliness every time.  That’s how Reid and Moore both approached a lot of problems.
> 
> Now Moore is famous for applying common sense to skepticism.  I won’t go into his argument in any detail, but I’ll bet you can guess how it goes.  Very roughly, he said: "I know that this is a hand; and I know that this is another; therefore I know that two things exist in the external world; therefore I know that there is an external world."  That’s the gist of his argument.  How does that answer the skeptic, though, you might ask?  Couldn’t Moore be <i>dreaming</i> that he was seeing his hand?  Couldn’t he be seeing mere hand <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i> and no actual hand at all?  No, said Moore: those possibilities may be ruled out because it’s as obvious as anything can be that I know that this is a hand.  That’s a principle of common sense.  It can’t be rejected, certainly not based on any sort of sophisticated philosophical assumptions.  So definitely, Moore thought, he <i>is</i> permitted to assume, without argument, that he knows that he has two hands; and he is permitted to use such ordinary, everyday assumptions to reject sophisticated philosophical theories, such as skepticism about the external world.
> 
> I don’t know about you, but I find the method of common sense refreshing.  I would be remiss if I did not mention, however, that some philosophers regard it as naïve.  But believe me, there have been some extremely intelligent, well-respected philosophers who have given some very sophisticated defenses of the method of common sense.
> 
> Now, I said that the method of common sense is the "antidote" to the problem of the criterion.  How so?  Well, like this: if the method of common sense is correct, then in philosophy, as in every day life, we may take the principles of common sense for granted, without argument.  And we <i>do</i> not need criteria, not <i>always</i>, in order to judge whether a proposition is true or not.  And for that matter, we can also take some criteria of truth for granted, according to common sense.  Because definitely, some criteria of truth <i>are</i> principles of common sense.  I mean that they are <i>really</i> <i>obviously</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> Here’s an example: If it seems to me that I am seeing myself in the mirror, and I have no serious reason to doubt this, then it’s <i>true</i> that I’m seeing myself in the mirror.  I claim that that’s a principle of common sense: it is one of the sorts of things that we all take for granted, and never seriously in doubt; and if we do doubt it, the doubt is bound to seem just absurd.  I could give lots of other examples, but I don’t think that will be necessary.
> 
> Anyway, then, if the method of common sense is right, we can start our philosophical investigations with common sense, making particular claims about what is true, and also making generalizations, or stating criteria, about when claims are true.  Because both the truth-claims and the criteria-claims can both be principles of common sense.  Moreover, it’s a principle of common sense that our basic faculties are reliable.  Armed with those assumptions, that way, we can immediately reply to various kinds of skepticism, without wasting time thinking about skeptical doubts about dreaming and such.  And that way, too, we can get around Sextus’ problem of the criterion: there is no infinite regress or circle of criteria, because the buck stops with the principles of common sense.
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ScepticIsm|981082250
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
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> In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We’re going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
> 
> First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don’t</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge.  There’s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don’t, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don’t have it yet.  (Or they didn’t back in ancient Greece anyway!)
> 
> It’s quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn’t</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we’ll be investigating in a little bit.
> 
> Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can’t possibly, or at least don’t, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won’t venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I’m not going to get into that.
> 
> Now if I say deny that we do or can have knowledge of a particular area, then my view is <i>local</i> skepticism.  And I say that I am a skeptic <i>about</i> the area that I have doubts about.  Of course there are different kinds of local skepticism, depending on the area.  Areas like: the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.  Take for example the external world.  If I say that no one can know anything about the external world, the world that exists apart from my own mind, then I am a local skeptic, and I espouse <i>skepticism</i> <i>about</i> the external world.  Or even more briefly, external world skepticism.
> 
> So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we’ll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that’s a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I’ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
> 
> Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we’ll say the skeptic claims:
> 
> We <i>can</i> <i>never</i> <i>be</i> justified in believing something <i>about</i> <i>area</i> <i>X</i>, or at least not enough to give us knowledge about that area.
> 
> You’re probably wondering what "areas" I’m talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
> 
> Now remember some things we talked about last time, about justification.  At one point we were talking about foundationalism, and I gave an argument for foundationalism.  If foundationalism is true, then there have to be some basic beliefs; and basic beliefs, remember, are beliefs that are justified, but not justified by other <i>beliefs</i>.  So what could justify basic beliefs?  I said: mental events, like an instance of perception, or an instance of memory.
> 
> Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I’m looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
> 
> This is an important point to understand so I’ll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That’s all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
> 
> This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what’s being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we’ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn’t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can’t think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
> 
> But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it’s there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn’t say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
> 
> You’ll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
> 
> Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can’t is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we’re approaching it from a different angle.
> 
> You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I’ve already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume’s argument basically says that we can’t know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
> 
> Now I’m going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume’s.  Namely, Descartes’ famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn’t that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I’m dreaming; I don’t have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I’m dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven’t I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn’t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn’t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I’m awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I’m awake -- but in fact, I’m <i>asleep</i>?
> 
> Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren’t</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I’m asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn’t</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don’t really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That’s Descartes’ dreaming doubt.
> 
> Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn’t know he’s awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn’t really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn’t</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can’t rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
> 
> If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I’m not dreaming": that’s what you want to say.  Here is Descartes’ reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you’re just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you’re awake!  And so you’re begging the question against the skeptic!
> 
> Or maybe you’ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here’s how I can show that it’s reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I’ve had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it’s generally reliable.
> 
> Well, I’m sure you can guess how Descartes’ skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I’m not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you’re not dreaming!  And that’s impossible!  So you can’t know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
> 
> And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren’t you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it’s not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren’t you begging the question again?  Don’t you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshipe?
> 
> Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you’re arguing in a circle, you’re begging the question.  So what’s the upshot?  That you <i>can’t</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn’t allowed.
> 
> Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume’s and Descartes’, although it is related to both.  Hume said you can’t prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can’t even prove that you’re not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can’t prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
> 
> This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you’re assuming that those memories are reliable: and that’s what you’re trying to prove, so you can’t assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn’t</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
> 
> Now let’s see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
> 
> First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume’s, Descartes’, and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can’t</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can’t prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can’t prove that we’re not dreaming.  We can’t prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don’t <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren’t justified in believing it?  Take Descartes’ dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you’re convinced that you can’t prove that you’re not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you’re even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can’t prove, to Descartes’ skeptic, that I’m not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I’m dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
> 
> Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don’t really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don’t <i>know</i> I’m standing up right now.
> 
> So this forces us to ask ourselves: Do we have to have <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i>, lacking any doubt whatsoever, in order to have knowledge?  That would be the absolutely strongest grade of justification possible.  And then we would be saying that knowledge is not just <i>sufficiently</i> <i>justified</i> true belief, but <i>certainly</i> true belief.
> 
> Now I personally don’t think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we’re wrong; but if we’re right then we have knowledge.  So I’m not particularly worried if I can’t prove that I’m not dreaming.  I think it’s extremely unlikely that I’m dreaming, and I think I’m perfectly well justified in thinking I’m awake.  And I don’t have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I’m awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I’m awake.
> 
> You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn’t allow the possibility that I’m asleep when by every indication I’m awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn’t make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
> 
> Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won’t get into their reasons why.
> 
> Here’s a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn’t it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can’t know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn’t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That’s not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
> 
> A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic’s argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
> 
> Do you recognize the form of Reid’s argument?  It’s a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can’t trust our ability our reason and so can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion.  In either case we don’t have to worry about skepticism!
> 
> Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
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CommonSense|981082296
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> See also CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
> 
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EthIcs|981082338
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< Describe the new page here.
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> Today we’re going to start our study of <i>ethics</i>, which is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into four different subjects, including <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>conduct</i>, and <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
> 
> But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>ethical</i> <i>sentence</i>.  Another word for it might be <i>normative</i> <i>statement</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally</i> <i>evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
> 
> So now let’s look at those four different areas of ethics I mentioned.
> 
> <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  If you’ll remember when we talked about philosophy of language, we focused in on the meaning of proper names.  Well, meta-ethics focuses in on the meaning of ethical sentences.  What sort of meaning do they have?  More about that topic in just a bit; meta-ethics is the first topic we’re going to take up today.
> 
> The second topic, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, asks: "What sorts of things, and situations, are good?"  Notice, the goodness we’re talking about here is primarily the goodness, or desirability, or the value, of <i>things</i> -- not of people or actions.  The goodness of people and their actions is studied under the <i>next</i> heading, the heading of the theory of conduct.
> 
> I’m sure you can see the difference I mean here.  Obviously, there <i>is</i> a difference between calling a banana split "good" and calling a human being "good."  The theory of value is more concerned about the sense in which objects like banana splits, or situations like a well-paying job, or mental states like pleasure, are good.  That’s not to say, however, that ultimately, the sense in which we call a human being "good" can’t ultimately be reduced to the sense in which objects and mental states and situations can be good.  I mean, maybe that’s the case -- maybe ultimately we <i>will</i> be able to define what it means to be a good person in terms of that person’s tendency to create good things and situations for himself and other people.  In other words, maybe what we mean by calling someone "a good person" is, very roughly speaking, "a person who creates a lot of good for the world."  We’ll examine such possibilities next time, when we talk about the theory of conduct.
> 
> But now just a little bit by way of introducing the theory of conduct is.  This is the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil.  If you would like a single question that might best encapsulate what the theory of conduct asks, I think the question would be this: How should I act, and why?  So the theory of conduct involves debates over what the ultimate standards of right and wrong are -- standards of morality, or moral rules, if you will.  One familiar moral rule is the so-called "Golden Rule": "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."  So next time we are going to look at some theories of conduct and see whether they actually can give us adequate standards of right action.
> 
> There is a fourth area is called <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>, and this is an area that we will not have time to discuss, although it’s very interesting.  Basically, it’s just as its name suggests: it is the application of ethical theories to particular ethical problems.  Actually, most of the ethical problems you’ll study if you study applied ethics are about ethical questions public policy implications.  Such as: Is getting an abortion ever moral?  Is euthanasia ever moral?  What are the ethical underpinnings of affirmative action policies?  And so forth.
> 
> But not <i>all</i> questions studied in applied ethics have immediate public policy implications.  For example, one such question is: What is lying and is lying always wrong?  If not, when is lying permissible?
> 
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
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MetaEthics|981082388
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< Describe the new page here.
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> A. Naturalism.
> 
> Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
> The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
> 
> <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
> 
> First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
> 
> To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
> 
> So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
> 
> That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
> 
> And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
> 
> OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
> 
> But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
> 
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> B. Non-naturalism.
> 
> And if naturalism really does seem implausible to you, then you may like the second theory, which we can call <i>non</i>-<i>naturalism</i>.  This can be defined as follows:
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
> 
> To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
> 
> Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
> 
> Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
> 
> So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
> 
> OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
> 
> The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
> 
> But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
> 
> Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
> 
> But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
> 
> If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
> 
> One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
> 
> Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
> 
> We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
> 
> So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
> 
> Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
> 
> Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
> 
> Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
> 
> So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
> 
> That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
> 
> (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
> 
> (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
> 
> What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
> 
> Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
> 
> Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
> 
> So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
> 
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
> 
> 
> 
> C. Non-cognitivism.
> 
> We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
> 
> So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
> 
> Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
> 
> Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
> 
> I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
> 
> The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
> 
> Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
> 
> I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
> 
> Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
> 
> It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
> 
> Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
> 
> So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
> 
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.  But we don’t have time to go into it any further.  We have bigger fish to fry.  
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LibertarianisM|981082402
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< Libertarianism is a political belief system. An individual is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe on the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
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> Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  Libertarians emphasize that human relationships can be either voluntary or involuntary, and that they <i>should</i> be voluntary.  In effect this is a claim that human relationships should not be characterized by violence or deception.
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PhiloSophy|981082443
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< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- EthicalTheory -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
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> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
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TheoryOfValue|981082462
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< Describe the new page here.
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> Next we are going to talk about one of the most interesting, and important, areas in all of philosophy.  In fact, arguably, this is the <i>most</i> important area of philosophy: the theory of value.  As I said, the question here is: What sorts of things are good?  Or: What does "good" mean?  Or: If we had to give the most general, catch-all description of good things, then what would that description be?
> 
> First, two important preliminaries.  Remember that I said there’s an important difference between the words "morally good" as applied to <i>persons</i> and <i>actions</i>, as when we say that Mary’s a morally good person and her honesty is good, and "good" in other senses, as when we say that a banana split is good.  A banana split is good, but it’s not <i>morally</i> good.  Well, in fact, "good" has a <i>lot</i> of senses; my dictionary lists <i>twenty</i> different senses of the word.  The word "good" is <i>highly</i> ambiguous.  In what follows, obviously we’re only going to be talking about one, or a limited number, of these senses.
> 
> The sense of "good" we’re talking about is about the same in meaning as another word, namely, "valuable."  So we’re talking about what is good in the sense of what is <i>valuable</i>.  And when we ask, "What things are good?" we can be understood to mean, "What things are valuable?"  But even this is just a little misleading, because we aren’t talking about just <i>monetary</i> value.  Your health and your happiness are <i>valuable</i> in a broad sense of that word, even though you might be able to place a monetary value on your health or your happiness.  Health and happiness are <i>worthwhile</i> or <i>desirable</i> -- those are two more words that mean very roughly what I’m talking about by "good" and "valuable" here.  So what is really worthwhile?  What is really desirable?  That’s the big fish we have to fry now.
> 
> The second preliminary is where things start getting interesting, in my opinion.  I want you to draw a distinction.  (Boy, we’re always drawing distinctions, aren’t we?  Well, that’s what philosophers do).  The distinction is between <i>instrumental</i> and <i>intrinsic</i> goodness.  This is a little hard for some people to understand, but I think most of you will be able to get it.  Something is <i>instrumentally</i> good if it’s <i>good</i> <i>for</i> something else; it is good as a <i>means</i> to getting or having something else that’s good.  On the other hand, something is <i>intrinsically</i> good if it is good all by itself, valuable in and of itself, worthwhile for its own sake.  An intrinsically good thing, even if it doesn’t help you get anything else that’s good, is still worth having for itself.
> 
> Let me give you some plausible examples of both instrumentally and intrinsically good things.  First, some instrumental goods: a hammer, or a radio.  A hammer is good only because it is literally an <i>instrument</i> that can be used to pound nails: that’s what a hammer is good <i>for</i>.  If there weren’t any nails around, or anything else that you could use a hammer to do, then a hammer would be worthless.  It wouldn’t be good for anything; so it wouldn’t be instrumentally good.  A radio is another example of something instrumentally good.  The only thing that makes a radio valuable is that you can turn it on and listen to music or talk or news.  The radio by itself is worthless; the reason it’s a good thing, the reason it’s valuable, is that it lets you listen to stuff.  So hammers and radios, and just about all the stuff we surround ourselves with at home, are all instrumentally good.
> 
> Now here are some plausible examples of <i>intrinsically</i> good things: the pleasure we get from listening to a great piece of music, or understanding philosophy.  The kind of music I like is Irish fiddle music.  I can listen to that stuff all day long.  Now that music isn’t good <i>for</i> anything in particular (except maybe for dancing, or learning how to play it).  But I just enjoy listening to it and getting great pleasure from it.  The pleasure I get is good in itself, valuable all by itself; it’s very worthwhile, and would be worthwhile even if it didn’t help me in any other way than give me pleasure.
> 
> Or take now understanding.  I believe, and I believe many people in academics would agree with me, that understanding is good in itself.  Even if it isn’t good <i>for</i> anything else -- even if the understanding can’t be applied in any obvious way, it is better to be enlightened than to be ignorant.  In fact, understanding is so important in itself that a lot of people will go to a lot of trouble thinking and arguing and researching, some or much of it unpleasant, just so that they can arrive at a better understanding of a topic or a question.  Of course, if you disagree with me and you think that understanding is never good in itself, but only good for what you can do with the understanding, then you won’t like too many "pure" subjects; you’ll tend to like the "applied" subjects, anyway.  You won’t like mathematics, philosophy, or theoretical physics very much.  But the people who do like such subjects will often swear that understanding is something that is worthwhile in itself.
> 
> But it’s not like it’s always an either-or proposition.  Some things are both good in themselves, <i>and</i> good for getting other things that are good.  They are both intrinsically and instrumentally good.  Like understanding.  Some physicists will swear that physics is just really neat all by itself, understanding the principles of physics is worth having just for its own sake; but they will also be quick to point out that it was an understanding of the principles of physics that put men on the moon.  Now as for putting men on the moon -- I don’t know if you’d want to call that an intrinsically good thing.  Surely it’s good <i>for</i> a lot of other things, such as perhaps the self-esteem of Americans.  But maybe it was also good in itself -- the very fact that human beings stood on the surface of the moon was something good in itself.
> 
> Anyway, we don’t have to decide that question, because we’re doing philosophy and we’re talking in generalities.  So to go back to the beginning of the discussion: we’re talking about the theory of value, and the theory of value asks, "What sorts of things are good, or valuable?"  And now that we are armed with a distinction, between intrinsic and instrumental goods, we can make the question more precise.  Because ultimately we want to know what things are <i>intrinsically</i> valuable.  That’s what the theory of value is particularly concerned with: What things are good in themselves?
> 
> Well, I want get us started on the way to an answer, like this.  Pick <i>anything</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i> that you think might be good.  Let’s take the example of the radio.  A radio is good.  Some things are good for getting a radio -- such as money, and radio factories.  Those are both instrumentally good as ways to get radios.  On the other hand, a radio is itself merely instrumentally good.  I doubt that it is good in itself; it’s only good for what you can hear on the radio.  The news is an example of something that is a good that the radio is a means to getting.  But listening to the news is also probably only instrumentally good.  Maybe it’s good in itself, intrinsically good, to <i>some</i> extent; but really, there <i>are</i> reasons why we listen to the news.  We use the news to help plan out our lives.  If for example we think that there is going to be a recession soon, then we may not want to make any big investments.  Listening to the news can be a means to getting information that allows us to take political action.  For example, we might hear on the news that there is going to be a rally for some cause that we support.  Then going to the rally -- that is definitely instrumentally good, in that it is supposed to be good <i>for</i> something.  Namely, the political rally is supposed to be good for achieving some sort of political change that you favor.
> 
> And so on.  You get the idea: what we do in life is try to get, and keep, a bunch of different good things.  We all know very well that we have to pursue some instrumentally good things in order to get the intrinsically good things.  For example, most people pursue money as merely an intrinsically good thing, so that they can afford what they call "the finer things in life," and <i>those</i> things, like concerts, vacations, and of course a happy family, are supposed to be good <i>in</i> <i>themselves</i>, or intrinsically good.  But it’s ultimately, in any case, the things we believe to be intrinsically good that we want.  So up at the top of the heap, the pinnacle of the hierarchy of goods that we aim at, there are the intrinsic goods.  And the question before us now is: What are they?  Which things are intrinsically good?
> 
> 
> 
> A. Values subjectivism.
> 
> In this connection I’m only briefly going to discuss relativism, or subjectivism, about intrinsic goods.  Let’s call this <i>values</i> <i>subjectivism</i>.  Here is what values subjectivism says:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> for a person iff that person desires the thing for itself, or is part of a group of people who desire that thing for itself.
> 
> So you want to know what all intrinsically good things have in common?  Why, it’s the fact that I want it for itself, not as a means to anything else.  That’s what intrinsically good things have in common: I want them.  Or it’s the fact that <i>my</i> <i>group</i> wants a thing for itself that makes it intrinsically good.  So if you want to answer the question, "What things are intrinsically good?" you need only answer a further question, "Well, what do I, or what does my group, want not merely as a means to something else, but for itself?"
> 
> I’ll bet you know what I’m going to say about this theory.  Couldn’t you be <i>wrong</i> about what is good for you?  Let me give you an example.  Say Adolph, an SS officer during World War II, runs a Nazi concentration camp.  Say he takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  In fact, he wants this pleasure not as a means to anything else; Adolph regards this sick pleasure as something that is good in itself.  Now, does that mean that the pleasure he gets from torturing Jews is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>?  Do you really want to say that?  I mean, don’t you rather want to say that Adolph is a vicious criminal, and that the sick pleasure he takes in torturing Jews is not at all valuable or good in any sense?  That, in fact, that pleasure is so bad that it is a very great <i>evil</i>?
> 
> I suppose if you wanted to stick to your guns on this, you’d say, "It’s evil <i>for</i> <i>us</i> to get pleasure from torturing someone.  But it’s good <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>."  If this is your view, then consider carefully what you’re saying.  You really are saying that it is <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adoph</i> that he gets pleasure from torturing Jews.  That <i>really</i> <i>is</i> <i>a</i> <i>valuable</i> <i>thing</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>.  It is worthwhile in itself, for Adolph.  If you ask me, that’s just <i>insane</i>!  I’m not going to dignify that view at all with an argument.  Against my usual practice, I am just going to say that this seems to me to be a very <i>obvious</i> counterexample to values subjectivism, and let it go at that.
> 
> Now, I don’t mean to deny that there may be some considerable variation from person to person, or from culture to culture, about what is intrinsically valuable or good.  I’m not denying <i>that</i>.  Many people find great value in many <i>different</i> sorts of experiences.  And we want to have a theory of value that <i>accounts</i> <i>for</i> <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> that each one of a huge variety of different sorts of experiences are all intrinsically good: and so we can ask, "What do all those various experiences have in common, that makes them <i>all</i> intrinsically good?"  Notice that we can do this, and thus recognize what is good in many different cultures.  Meanwhile we can utter reject and <i>despise</i> any view that says that something like getting pleasure in torturing Jews is good in <i>any</i> sense.  Not even good for Adolph; indeed it is not valuable in any way for Adolph.  He may take pleasure from it; but it is not valuable, or worthwhile, in any way.  His pleasure is utterly lacks value and is worthless -- indeed, far worse than simply worthless.
> 
> I know that values subjectivism is very popular in some other departments, like the English department, and the department of Fine Arts.  But isn’t it interesting that, when you get to the <i>philosophy</i> department, most of the philosophers, people who specialize in thinking about this stuff, will tell you the theory is clearly wrong?  I just think that’s interesting.  I won’t comment any further on <i>that</i> though.
> 
> Next time we are going to finish up talking about the theory of value by considering two leading contenders, <i>hedonism</i> and <i>eudaimonism</i>.  Then it’s on to the theory of conduct.
> 
> Last time we wound up putting values subjectivism through the wringer.  I said I’d give only one objection to that theory, but I lied.  I’m going to give another objection, which will set us up for the rest of our discussion of the theory of value.
> 
> Remember what values subjectivism says.  To put it roughly, it says that whether or not something is good for me depends on whether or not I desire it.  So if I desire it, if I want it, then it’s good.  Now, I think that values subjectivism is pretty obviously false.  I mean, what if I want some cake that happens to contain a lethal amount of arsenic?  Then I want the cake but definitely it’s not a good thing.  But anyway, I am sure that some of you will continue to hold onto this view regardless of what <i>I</i> say; irrational beliefs die hard.
> 
> So I want to ask a question of those of you who think that values subjectivism is true -- those of you who think that if you want something, that makes the thing good for you.  Surely, you do want to pursue good things in life.  So here’s the question: If you don’t know what you should pursue in life, if you don’t have any definite desires, then how can you decide <i>rationally</i> what to pursue?  To put it differently: If you don’t know what’s good, then how can you decide what is?
> 
> Notice that values subjectivism can’t answer this question.  All it says is: if I want it, or if my group wants it, then it’s good for me.  But suppose that at present, neither I or my group desire something, nor are we averse to it.  We don’t take a stand on whether the thing is desireable.  Well then, as a values subjectivist, how can you decide whether the thing should be desired?  If you had a <i>positive</i> <i>account</i> of which sorts of things are intrinsically good, then you might be able to answer this question.  But if you have no such positive account of goodness, if <i>all</i> <i>you</i> <i>say</i> is that the good things are the things you want, then you have no way of deciding whether something you do not yet want is, well, <i>worth</i> <i>wanting</i>.  Something becomes good only after you start wanting it.  So how do you decide whether to want something?  That’s a problem you face constantly if you’re a values subjectivist.
> 
> 
> 
> B. Hedonism.
> 
> But for that matter, it’s a problem for <i>everyone</i> who does not yet have a clearly worked-out account of intrinsic goodness.  Think of it like this.  "Intrinsically good" means, very roughly, "worth wanting for its own sake."  But aren’t there some things that you might be unsure about whether they’re worth wanting for their own sake?  How do you decide?
> 
> For example: children.  I think most parents would agree that their children are desirable for their own sake -- not because as a means to anything else, not even as a means to parental happiness.  Honestly, is the <i>only</i> <i>reason</i> that children are a valuable thing, for example, the fact that they make adults happier?  Is that the <i>only</i> thing that makes children valuable, or worthwhile, or good things?  <i>Surely</i> not.  They are not valuable <i>merely</i> as a means to the parent’s ends.
> 
> But distinguish the children themselves from <i>having</i> children.  Couples have to make the decision as to whether they want to bring children into the world.  Then the question for you, as potential parents, is: Would the addition of <i>more</i> people to the world, being raised by you, be a good thing?  <i>That</i> is a question that a lot of people find very difficult to answer.  I think a complete theory of value should help you to answer it.
> 
> Here’s another example of something you might wonder is worth wanting for its own sake: money, or what money buys.  I guess there are a few people in college, especially business majors, who would say they that money is an intrinsically good thing, and worth wanting for its own sake.  They live for money.  But of course nearly everyone has entertained the thought that money isn’t valuable <i>for</i> <i>itself</i>.  Some people act as though it were; but even most of those people, in their sober moments, will acknowledge that money is good only instrumentally, only as a means, to getting what it can buy.
> 
> Well, look at all the different things that money can buy: houses, cars, clothes, jewelry, vacations, social status, and so forth.  The world today is filled with people who behave as though these things are good in themselves; a big house and a nice new BMW are worth having for their own sake.
> 
> I don’t know even if it’s true, though, that people want these things for their own sake.  Because it seems to a lot of "upwardly-mobile" people want nice houses and cars because such things do, or will, give them pleasure.  Is the reason you want a big house that it is intrinsically good -- worth having for its own sake -- or is it because the big house will give you various sorts of pleasures?  I think it’s probably the pleasure you’re after.  A cynic might say, "No, it’s just social status that these ‘upwardly-mobile’ people want."  But surely thinking that you’re part of the "in" crowd gives you pleasure -- and that’s why you want to be part of the "in" crowd (that is, if you do want that).  Social status -- which for younger people consists of being "hip," or for older people consists of being "respectable" and "distinguished" -- social status is a source of pleasure to some people.
> 
> So some philosophers have gone through this train of thought, or one roughly like it, and come to the conclusion that pleasure is, ultimately, the only intrinsically good thing.  That view is called <i>hedonism</i>.  Hedonists have the following view about what is intrinsically good:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure.
> 
> But let’s not forget old Adolph who takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  We wanted to say that <i>that</i> pleasure was not good in <i>any</i> sense.  So what’s this then?  Have we discovered that some pleasures are <i>not</i> good?  Well, surely some pleasures <i>are</i> totally corrupt.  Suppose that I get great pleasure by being a respected member of the mafia.  Is the pleasure I take from being a respected member of the mafia something desirable at all, let alone desirable for its own sake?  Surely not!  There are all sorts of pleasures which are base and corrupt.  John Stuart Mill, a famous 19th-century English philosopher, drew a distinction between <i>base</i> and <i>higher</i> pleasures.  I’m sure you can see the difference.  After all, you have experience of the difference in your own lives, all the time!  You all know very well that some pleasures are bad, and you’ll regret indulging them; other pleasures are much more worthwhile and wholesome.  Surely we do not want to say that base pleasures are intrinsically good!  They aren’t good at all.  (Although, note, that in our reading Hospers has a hedonist who is rather stubborn about this point.)
> 
> Anyway, one thing we might observe is that Adolph’s torturing pleasure, and the pleasure I get from being an accepted member of the mafia, are both pleasures that result in pain for other people.  The pleasure Adolph takes in torturing others leads him to cause them pain; and the pleasure I take in being part of the mafia leads me to bump off inconvenient people, causing great pain to them, their family and friends.  So we could revise our definition of hedonism like this:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure that does not lead to pain for oneself or for other people.
> 
> According to <i>this</i> account of intrinsic goodness, Adolph’s torturing pleasure and my mafia pleasure are definitely not good.  But even this is probably not quite right; this definition may <i>exclude</i> some pleasures that <i>are</i> intrinsically good.  For example, what if I take great pleasure in running forty miles a week?  But this gives me sore muscles sometimes.  Then the pleasure I take in running is a type of pleasure that <i>does</i> lead to pain for myself; so according to the above definition, that pleasure is not intrinsically good.  Still, I might want to say that the pain of sore muscles is worth it.  So this definition of hedonism would have to be <i>further</i> refined, if we wanted to allow the pleasure of running long distances to be intrinsically good.
> 
> Well, I’m not going to bother refining the definition any further -- I’ll leave that as an exercise for you to do, if you’re interested.  There’s a more important point to be made now.  Basically what we’re trying to do here is to say <i>which</i> pleasures are "higher" pleasures, or simply <i>good</i> pleasures.  Some pleasures are good, some aren’t so good, some are corrupt, and some are just downright <i>evil</i>.  So we might just ask this question: what is it that makes a given pleasure <i>good</i>?  That’s an interesting question, I think.  It <i>could</i> be whether the pleasure itself has pleasurable vs. painful <i>consequences</i>.  And if that’s the case, then we could hold onto hedonism.  We’d just say: there is <i>some</i> refinement of the hedonist’s account of "intrinsically good" which would match up with our ordinary notions of which pleasures are good and which are bad.  Then the hedonist’s point is, to put it roughly: the only intrinsically good things in the world are <i>good</i> <i>pleasures</i>.  Everything else is either instrumentally good -- that is, it is a means to getting good pleasures -- or else it is bad.
> 
> So consider that now: the only intrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures.  But then aren’t we giving a circular account of "good" -- if we saying that the good things are good pleasures, then we’re using the word "good" to define itself.  If you think that, then you aren’t understanding the suggestion I just made.  So let me be clearer about what I was just suggesting.  It’s <i>not</i> <i>simply</i> to say that "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  It is to say, rather: we can identify <i>which</i> pleasures are good by formulating a principle.  We aren’t going to try to formulate it in class -- I’m just saying that perhaps it <i>could</i> be formulated.  And this principle would tell us which pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  In other words, we try to find out which pleasures will result in the most <i>other</i> pleasures.  Then we call <i>those</i> pleasures "intrinsically good," and <i>only</i> <i>then</i> do we say: "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  That allows us to get around the circularity problem.
> 
> Now to make the transition to the next theory of value, I want us to think about something I just said a little more carefully.  I said that there might be some principle, that we might come up with, a principle that would tell us <i>which</i> pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  Which are the pleasures such that, if we indulge them, we will end up with the most <i>other</i> pleasures in the end?  Now notice that in order to explain which pleasures are good, here, I have to use some such words as "in the end."  In other words: in my entire life.  Because that’s what we’re talking about.  The proposal is that whether something is a good pleasure or not depends on its effects on the rest of my life.  We shouldn’t just look at individual pleasures as they occur at particular times, and, considering them in isolation from everything else going on in our lives, pronounce them "intrinsically good," just because they are pleasant.  No, whether a pleasure is worth having depends on its being, as it were, part of a whole <i>series</i> of pleasures that makes up a very pleasant life.  Now, do you see where I’m going with this?  Why don’t we say that it’s not <i>pleasure</i> per se which is intrinsically good, but instead <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>?
> 
> 
> 
> C. Eudaimonism and other theories of value.
> 
> Let’s be clear about the difference between pleasure and happiness.  Pleasure is a mental state or process, and events of pleasure are relatively brief.  When I listen to a great piece of music or eat a delicious meal, I experience a whole series of pleasures, sound and taste sensations -- a series of pleasure-events, as it were.
> 
> And as we all know very well, it is possible to have lots of such individual pleasure events and to be a thoroughly unhappy individual.  Why?  Because happiness is something that occurs over a long time.  You can have a good hour, or even a good day, in the sense that you’re in a good mood and have all sorts of pleasant feelings over that amount of time.  But you could, in spite of that, have an unhappy life.  It’s sad to say, but it’s true.  We might not like to think about it, but it is definitely true.
> 
> Anyway, the suggestion now is that it’s not <i>pleasures</i>, individual events, which are intrinsically good.  Those individual events are themselves only <i>instrumentally</i> good; they are good or worthwhile only as a means to something else.  And what they are worthwhile as a means to, is <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.  A healthy, tasty meal is a good thing.  But it’s not good <i>in</i> <i>itself</i>  -- it’s only good as a means.  To what?  To a happy life.  The suggestion is that <i>no</i> pleasure is intrinsically good, good in itself; any individual pleasure is good <i>only</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>part</i> of a happy life.  The only intrinsically good thing in this case would be <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.
> 
> Now finally I think we have arrived at a view that a lot of you probably hold.  It’s not money, or power, or fame, or individual pleasures that are intrinsically good; those things are good only as means to what we are all ultimately after, namely, happiness.
> 
> And what is happiness?  We’re not going to get into that.  Let’s just say that happiness is the state that your life is in, when you tend to experience a lot of pleasures of various sorts, and relatively few pains, discomforts, and so forth.  And so you could think of a happy life as one that is full of lots of pleasures.  And notice, we aren’t necessarily talking about a dissolute, corrupt, immoral "life of pleasure" here.  Because those people who are dissolute, corrupt, and immoral, and who seek out pleasure from crime, casual sex, drugs, petty power games, and so forth, very often end up very unhappy people indeed.  Just look at the lives of lots of drug dealers, or Hollywood stars, for examples of <i>that</i>.  No, the happy life is one in which one has an excellent chance of having pleasure from the beginning of the life to the end.  And that is going to include not "lower" pleasures like eating, drinking, and sex, it is going to include many "higher" pleasures like understanding, the appreciation of art, deep friendship and love, and so forth.  The experience of <i>all</i> of those pleasures together is what goes to make up a happy life.
> 
> Notice that I am at present skipping over any detailed consideration of <i>pluralism</i>, which is that there are a number of <i>different</i> intrinsically good things.  E.g., you might want to say that understanding and friendship are both intrinsically good, and good as means to pleasure, or happiness, or anything else.  They are good <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i>.  If you think that there are <i>a</i> <i>number</i> <i>of</i> <i>different</i> intrinsic goods or values, then you are a values <i>pluralist</i>.  We are only looking at kinds of values <i>monism</i>, that is, the view that there is only <i>one</i> kind of thing that is intrinsically good.  So far, we have considered the views that <i>pleasure</i> and that <i>happiness</i> are the only things that are intrinsically good.
> 
> Now let’s look at a closely related view -- the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle’s view.  On this ancient Greek view, it was not <i>happiness</i>, which is a mental state over time, which is intrinsically good -- it is, instead, something <i>like</i> happiness, but <i>eudaimonia</i>, for which there is no word in English, except perhaps the word "flourishing" or "well-being."  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is more than simply happiness; it is a happy life that is <i>well</i>-<i>lived</i>.  Happiness is a <i>subjective</i> state.  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is an <i>objective</i> state; literally, it means something like "having a good spirit."
> 
> To explain the difference between happiness and <i>eudaimonia</i>, let’s look at an example where someone is happy, but not <i>eudaimon</i>, as the Greeks would say.  (<i>Eudaimon</i> is the adjective; <i>eudaimonia</i> is the noun.)  Say there is a man, call him Tom, who is in the prime of life.  He has a happy family, he is well-liked by his colleagues, he is making a lot of money, and generally is very happy himself.  Now suppose there is a parallel universe, just exactly like this one, except in the parallel universe, instead of Tom there is Bill.  And Bill is exactly like Tom, just as happy, except for a few basic differences.  In fact, Bill’s family only appears to him to be happy; they’re actually repressed and not very happy at all.  His colleagues <i>pretend</i> to like him, but they say mean things about him behind his back.  And though his job seems very stable, he is about to be divorced and fired.  And then just add to the misery of the situation, let’s say Bill is going to die right after that.
> 
> Now at the moment, Bill is just as happy as Tom.  They both have had happy lives.  In fact, in terms of their <i>mental</i> <i>states</i>, they are both <i>equally</i> happy.  But now let’s evaluate their lives: surely we’d want to say that Tom’s life is <i>better</i> than Bill’s.  In fact, unbeknownst to the hapless Bill, he’s about lose his wife, his job, and his life.  And for a long time poor Bill has been living a lie.  He doesn’t know it, but he has.  On the other hand, Tom’s happiness is totally solid, built on honesty, strong relationships, and so forth.  From an objective point of view, from a view informed by all the facts, we’d greatly prefer Tom’s life over Bill’s.
> 
> Aristotle and the Greeks would say that Tom is both <i>eudaimon</i> and happy.  But they deny that Bill is <i>eudaimon</i>, however happy he might be.  And they would insist that the important thing in any case is <i>eudaimonia</i>.  So let’s give a name to this ancient Greek view -- <i>eudaimonism</i>.  It says:
> 
> The only intrinsically good thing is a person’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, i.e., a state of happiness, measured in an entire life, that is grounded upon solid, relatively unchangeable facts and not deception and mere luck.
> 
> I’m sorry I can’t make this definition any tighter or clearer.  The point is that there is a kind of solid happiness that <i>preferable</i> to a flimsy happiness; and that only that solid happiness, only <i>eudaimonia</i>, is really worthwhile.
> 
> I’d also suggest that this is why some thoughtful people go to such lengths to be honest with themselves and with their loved ones.  They do not want to find out, somewhere down the road, that they have been made happy by lies and deception, even if it’s self-deception.  Deep down those people know that it is <i>eudaimonia</i>, a life well-lived, and not merely happiness, that is the important thing.
> 
> Now, I’ve explained that someone <i>might</i> say that individual pleasures are only instrumentally valuable, as parts of or means to <i>eudaimonia</i>, or flourishing, or a life well-lived -- however you want to describe that.  But then mightn’t you want to go one step further, and say that <i>an</i> <i>individual</i> <i>person’s</i> flourishing is valuable only as a means to the flourishing of society as a whole?  In other words, here is the suggestion: a single person’s life is, ultimately, not important or worthwhile in itself, but only as a means to the success of society as a whole?
> 
> I am quite sure that a lot of people will find this suggestion odious.  <i>They</i> certainly find their <i>own</i> lives intrinsically good -- worth having for their own sake -- and not <i>merely</i> as means to the success of society, meaning all the other people in some given group.  But if you have studied much socialist political theory, you will find them saying just this: an individual’s life is not important, or valuable, in itself; it is valuable only as a means of, and as a part of, the flourishing of society as a whole.  I’m sure you can see that, indeed, this is <i>one</i> (only one) of the main bones of contention between statists of all stripes and classical liberals, meaning the people who want the state to keep its hands off of people as much as possible.
> 
> So the question at issue now is: Is an individual’s life intrinsically good, or is it merely instrumentally good?  Is an individual’s life, well-lived, something that is desirable for its own sake, or is it desirable, ultimately, only as a means to having a happy society?
> 
> This is one way, but not the traditional way, to state the dispute between <i>egoism</i> and <i>utilitarianism</i>.  But usually, egoism and utilitarianism are regarded as theories of conduct, and right now we’re doing the theory of value.  So let’s instead use the terms "values individualism" and "values collectivism" to mark the dispute.  Here are some definitions:
> 
> <i>Values</i> <i>individualism</i> is the view that only individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are intrinsically valuable; and so they are valuable not merely as a means to the flourishing of society.
> 
> <i>Values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is the view that individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are only instrumentally valuable, i.e., good only as a means to the flourishing of society; the flourishing of society (whatever this might be) is the only intrinsically good thing.
> 
> I personally think the dispute between values individualism and values collectivism is just fascinating.  But we don’t have the time to get into it properly.  If we wanted to get into this dispute properly, we’d have to take another class or two, at least.
> 
> But just for the sake of completeness, let me mention one more view, which is held by some environmentalists.  It shouldn’t come as any surprise to you that <i>some</i> people want to take matters one step <i>further</i>.  It’s not merely the flourishing of society that is the only intrinsically good thing.  It’s the flourishing of <i>all</i> <i>sentient</i> <i>life</i>.  Or perhaps <i>all</i> <i>life</i>, <i>period</i>.  If you want a name for that view:
> 
> <i>Radical</i> <i>values</i> <i>environmentalism</i> is the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a flourishing ecosystem; individuals and societies are merely instrumentally valuable, good only as means to having a flourishing ecosystem.
> 
> Once again, I am just going to <i>mention</i> this view.  We don’t have time to get into a proper evaluation of it.
> 
> Notice now the succession of things that we have considered as <i>the</i> kind of thing which is intrinsically good: we’ve gone from particular events of pleasure, to an individual’s happiness, to an individual’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, to the flourishing of a society, to the flourishing of an entire ecosystem.  So I think that you can see that there is a rather difficult problem about the <i>scope</i> of the theory of value.  Where do you stop, in this succession of items, in your account of what is valuable for its own sake?  If you say that an individual pleasure is valuable for its own sake, then why don’t you say that an individual’s entire happiness is valuable for its own sake?  And so forth.
> 
> Well, let me remind you of one thing: if you are a <i>values</i> <i>pluralist</i>, then you will maintain that <i>many</i> different kinds of things can be intrinsically good.  As a values pluralist, you might say: <i>every</i> <i>item</i> in this succession of items is intrinsically good.  The goodness of a particular experience, of an individual’s whole life, of society, and of an ecosystem, are <i>all</i> worth having for their own sake, and not <i>merely</i> as a means to something else.  So as a values pluralist you would say: I <i>don’t</i> <i>have</i> to decide which of these things is intrinsically good, because they are <i>all</i> intrinsically good.
> 
> I’m sure many of you would like to be values pluralists now.  That would be a nice position to be able to hold, but I’m not sure it will stand up to careful scrutiny.  Why?  Well, notice that sometimes, there is a <i>conflict</i> between different levels of goods.  Let me explain.  Sometimes we have a <i>choice</i>, for example, to sacrifice our own pleasure, or happiness, or even our own lives, for the sake of many other people.  This <i>appears</i> to be what happens when soldiers go off to a bloody and desperate war, for example, or whenever anyone gives up any large amount of time to some very difficult, painfully difficult, charitable cause.  In cases like that, you’re weighing two things: your own individual happiness, and the more general happiness of a lot of other people.  And if you conclude that you should sacrifice your own happiness, in one of these ways, what does that amount to?
> 
> Honestly, it looks to me as though you’re assuming that your own happiness is not as important as that of many other people.  If you’re a soldier, voluntarily marching off to a bloody war, you have weighed the two things, and have concluded that you are willing to make your life a <i>means</i> to the happiness of other people.  And if in the end, you are willing to make your life a means to the happiness of other people, then aren’t you saying that your life is <i>merely</i> instrumentally good?  That it is <i>only</i> good as a means to the happiness of others?
> 
> Well, I don’t think you have to say <i>that</i>.  It seems to me that you could say that your own life <i>is</i> worthwhile in and of itself, <i>and</i> that it is worthwhile as a means to the happiness of others.  Remember, the same thing can be both instrumentally <i>and</i> intrinsically good: I gave <i>understanding</i>, or knowledge, as one possible example.  I’m saying now that a human life might be another.  So that’s a way you might hold onto values pluralism.  Two different things, your life and the good of society, can <i>both</i> be intrinsically good, <i>even</i> <i>though</i>  you might sacrifice the first for the second.  There’s no contradiction in saying that.
> 
> This leaves an issue unresolved, though: the issue of the <i>relative</i> importance of intrinsic values.  The issue of <i>more</i> <i>versus</i> <i>less</i> valuable, of figuring out which of different things is more or less important.  That is, if you are looking at a number of different things that you say are <i>all</i> intrinsically valuable, you still have to ask: Which of these things is <i>most</i> valuable?  If I had to rank these things in order of importance, how would the ranking go?  So you could be a values pluralist and still be an individualist, or a collectivist, or a radical environmentalist.  You would just have to say: the most important thing, the most valuable thing, is <i>my</i> <i>own</i> flourishing; or, instead, the flourishing of society; or, perhaps, the flourishing of the environment.  As a values pluralist, you would admit that other things are intrinsically valuable.  It’s just that they aren’t <i>as</i> valuable as that most-valuable thing.
> 
> I hope, after all this, you can see why I say that the theory of value has an excellent claim on being the most important area of philosophy.  So much else in life rests on the theory of value that we accept.  Crucial life decisions you make, and the habits you develop, and your deepest political convictions all ultimately rest on the theory of value you adopt.
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TheoryOfConduct|981082551
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> Since we have spent so long on the theory of value, we are left with less time than I would like to spend on the theory of conduct.  Many ethicists behave as though the theory of conduct is more important, but I disagree with them about that.  Anyway, we’ll do what we can.  We can at least learn the outlines of some of the major views.
> 
> Thus far, we’ve been looking at what things are valuable.  So suppose we have fixed upon some theory of value; <i>given</i> that we have decided that certain things are intrinsically good, or more valuable than other things that are intrinsically good, given all that, the next big question is what it implies about how we should live our lives.
> 
> As I described it last time, the theory of conduct is "the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil."  But we may, I think, simplify matters considerably.  It’s not like we have to take up each of these concepts in turn, the concepts of "right," "wrong," "obligation," "permission," "virtue," "vice," and so forth.  I think that if we focus in on just <i>one</i> of these concepts, we will be able to define the others in terms of it.  For example, say we define "right action."  Then we can define "wrong action" as "action that is not right."  In fact, we could spend a good lot of time trying to explain what the relations are between these terms.  For example, we might ask: If an action is right, then am I obligated to do it?  Or how about this: If I <i>ought</i> to do something, then would I be practicing a virtue if I did it?
> 
> We obviously don’t have time to consider all <i>those</i> questions.  You are just going to have to take my word for it that, once we come up with a good theory of <i>one</i> of these concepts, that will allow us to make sense of the <i>other</i> of these concepts.
> 
> Typically, the one concept that ethicists focus on is "ought."  So the task of the theory of conduct, as they typically see it, is the task of giving an account, or a definition, of "ought."  Or in other words, the task is to fill in the blank in the following:
> 
> One <i>ought</i> to take action A iff ...
> 
> I <i>ought</i> to help a stranger on the roadside if, and only if -- well, what?  Let’s start with a popular, seemingly very sensible rule, the Golden Rule.  You know that Golden Rule: Treat others in a way that you would like to be treated yourself.  So we could restate the Golden Rule like this:
> 
> One <i>ought</i> to treat others in a certain way iff you would like to be treated that way yourself.
> 
> So, sure.  Help the stranger on the roadside -- and why?  Because that’s how you would like to be treated yourself, if you found yourself stranded.  That makes some sense.  But unfortunately, as you have no doubt come to expect, the first or most common view of things is not always the best.  As useful as the Golden Rule may be, it’s not perfect.
> 
> First of all, the Golden Rule only applies to actions that we take with respect to other people.  It only advises us on how to treat others.  What it <i>doesn’t</i> tell us is how behave when we’re at home, alone, and not interacting with others at all.  It doesn’t tell us that we should do our homework on time, or that we should get to bed at an early hour, or anything like that.  And surely a theory of conduct has to apply to individual conduct, and not just social conduct.  Certainly, when we formulate a theory of what we ought to do, we want that theory to tell us how to lead our personal lives, not just how to treat others.
> 
> Here you might have an objection.  You might say: wait a second, what I do with my own life, on my own time, when it isn’t hurting anyone else, is my own business.  So it’s not a matter for ethics.  If you think that way, then here’s my answer to you: You’re wrong, and not just a little bit wrong, but <i>really</i> wrong!  Consider the implications of what you’re saying: you’re saying that if some action doesn’t affect other people, then morality has absolutely nothing to say about your action.  So then consider some actions that morality would have nothing to say about.  It would have nothing to say about smoking (as long as you didn’t breath your smoke in other peoples’ air); it would have nothing to do with heavy drinking (as long as you didn’t let your drinking affect your job performance and so forth); morality would have nothing to say about whether you ought to do your homework, about whether you should get a good education, whether you should try to keep yourself healthy, and so forth.  But surely morality does have a lot to say about those matters, about matters concerning how you should conduct your own personal life.
> 
> Now notice that I’m <i>not</i> saying you’re not <i>free</i> to do whatever you like.  In this country, that’s pretty obvious.  You’re <i>politically</i> free to do all sorts of corrupt things, in this country, at present.  And to be honest, I personally wouldn’t advocate denying you those freedoms.  But the question here is whether <i>morality</i> might have anything to do with leading your personal life in a virtuous or a corrupt way, so long as it does not directly affect other people.  It seems to me pretty obvious that it does.  In fact, I would submit to you that this is one of the most <i>important</i> things that a theory of conduct can do for us -- it can provide us with wisdom about how we should live <i>all</i> aspects of our lives, personal and social.
> 
> Anyway, since the Golden Rule doesn’t address how we should live our personal lives, it isn’t a complete theory of conduct.  But there are other problems with it as well.  A second problem is that, after all, other people may not want to be treated the way that <i>you’d</i> like to be treated.  For example, I might be a masochist -- I get a great deal of pleasure from certain kinds of pain.  So do unto others as I’d have them do unto me, right?  Tie them up and hurt them, I guess!  That’s how I, the masochist, want to be treated!  Well, that example might be a little flippant, and unfair to defenders of the Golden Rule, but there are plenty of other examples where that came from.
> 
> 
> 
> A. Varieties of consequentialism.
> 
> Let’s give the Golden Rule a rest and see what other theories of conduct are out there.  Probably the most common general type of theory is <i>consequentialism</i>.  Consequentialism is best looked on as a <i>whole</i> <i>category</i> of theories, not as a particular theory itself.  It says:
> 
> One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the amount of good.
> 
> So consequentialism sees a really close connection between theories of goodness and theories of conduct.  Once you decide what is good, the consequentialist knows what to do: make the most of that good thing.  That’s essentially what we ought to do, according to the consequentialist: we ought to see to it that there is as much good as possible.
> 
> But as we saw before, obviously, there are different theories about what things are good.  Accordingly, there are different kinds of consequentialism.  Let me compare two leading versions, <i>egoism</i> and <i>utilitarianism</i>:
> 
> <i>Egoism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one’s own pleasure, happiness, or <i>eudaimonia</i>.
> 
> <i>Utilitarianism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of the pleasure, happiness, or <i>eudaimonia</i> of as many people as possible (including oneself).
> 
> With some thought, you should be able to see that egoism basically presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>individualism</i> is true; utilitarianism, on the other hand, presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is true.  That means, in other words, that egoist says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good for a person, is that person’s own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  <i>And</i> that each of us ought to do whatever we must in order to pursue our own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  On the other hand, the utilitarian says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good, is the well-being of society in general.  And hence that we all ought to do whatever we must to ensure the well-being of society in general.
> 
> One important thing to notice is that sometimes, when we help ourselves, we help others.  So sometimes egoism and utilitarianism will sometimes recommend the same actions.  For example, if you go to medical school and become a doctor who saves many lives, while making yourself rich, you both help yourself and help others.  That is, of course, the best sort of scenario.  It would be wonderful if life were always like that -- if, by helping yourself, you always helped others, and by helping others, you always helped yourself.  Some people would say that that’s indeed the case -- but most people do not.
> 
> But there are some utilitarians who are rather extreme, in that they say that the good of society <i>far</i> outweighs your own individual good.  I suppose Jesus would be an example of someone with this view.  Jesus said that we ought to be ready to sell all our worldly possessions to help the poor.  Even if you think that’s too extreme, you might still say to Dr. So-and-so: Dr. So-and-so, you should live in a very modest house, and use no more than, say, $30,000 per year to live on, and you should give all of the rest of your money to charity.  And the reason you should do this is that a flourishing society is much more important than a flourishing individual.  Your own flourishing is thus totally subservient to the good of society.  It has been argued recently by Shelly Kagan that you are indeed morally obligated to do just this sort of thing -- to make your life totally subservient to the service of others.  The moral requirements of utilitarianism on individuals, they say, are very serious indeed.
> 
> The egoist, of course, disagrees that we have any such obligations.  According to egoism, what matters most, for each individual, is that individual’s <i>own</i> flourishing.  Perhaps the good of society is <i>also</i> important.  But for any given individual, you or me, a flourishing society is <i>not</i> more important, <i>not</i> more intrinsically desirable, than it is for each of us to flourish.  It’s easier and less potentially paradoxical to put this in first-person terms, so let me put it that way.  For <i>me</i>, what is most worthwhile is my <i>own</i> flourishing; and this is <i>more</i> important than the flourishing of society.  As an egoist I might observe that I am not personally responsible for the survival or the quality of life that other people have; so if I am rich when the rest of society is poor, there is not any sort of moral problem there.  Why?  Because my <i>eudaimonia</i> is <i>not</i> to be sacrificed to that of society at large.  My <i>eudaimonia</i> is most important to me; and I expect other people to feel the same way about themselves.  And so it’s not like I <i>ought</i> each year to give all but $30,000 of my salary to charity.  Indeed, what I <i>ought</i> to do is whatever will make my own life flourish; if this includes giving <i>some</i> money to some charities, then so be it.  That entirely depends on whether some amount of charitability is required for my own flourishing.  Maybe it does -- maybe it doesn’t.  Something like this was the view of the very controversial Russian-American novelist and philosopher, Ayn Rand.  It is also the implicit view of many of the ancient Greeks, especially Aristotle.
> 
> You might be asking yourself: Isn’t there some middle ground between the two extremes of egoism and utilitarianism, or between extreme selfishness and extreme self-sacrifice?  Why do we have to say that individual lives <i>must</i> be sacrificed to the good of society -- or, on the other hand, that the good of society may be totally ignored in favor of one’s own good?  Surely some sort of hybrid theory is possible.  This point is not often made in introductory discussions of these issues, but it’s important, so I think it’s a point that should be made.
> 
> So here’s how we might formulate a hybrid theory:
> 
> <i>Hybrid</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one’s <i>eudaimonia</i> unless there is another action, that is not much more costly to oneself but nonetheless maximizes the <i>eudaimonia</i> of other people.
> 
> The problem with hybrid consequentialism, as I have formulated it here, is that it is so darned <i>unclear</i>.  I mean, say you have the choice between buying a new car, which maximizes the likelihood of your <i>eudaimonia</i>, and buying a slightly used car, and using the money you saved to contribute to the United Way.  That (one hopes) would help maximize the <i>eudaimonia</i> of other people.  How would hybrid consequentialism help you make that decision?  Would a used car be "much more costly" to you?
> 
> Obviously, this is a matter that requires some thought.  And you might very well observe that this is just the sort of struggle that some people in modern American society <i>do</i> go through.  <i>They</i> don’t have any clear idea about how strongly their actions should be influenced by their own interests versus the interests of society at large.  When it comes to purely financial matters, some religions recommend that you tithe 15%.  But obviously, that’s only <i>one</i> <i>relatively</i> <i>small</i> <i>part</i> of the problem of balancing your own interests against those of society -- or just of your family, for that matter.  We could re-formulate the hybrid theory in all sorts of ways.
> 
> But the big question in any case is: <i>How</i> <i>do</i> <i>we</i> <i>decide</i> <i>which</i> <i>of</i> <i>these</i> <i>theories</i> <i>is</i> <i>correct</i>?  Of course, some (maybe most) people have made up their minds already.  Some very traditional, strict Christians recommend that you be like Jesus, and that you take utilitarianism to an extreme: that you ought, and indeed are morally obligated to, center your entire life around the service to others.  On the other hand, there followers of Ayn Rand, and others as well, who regard such behavior as offensively self-sacrificial, and who regard their main obligations as being to <i>themselves</i> and their immediate families -- what <i>they</i> think they ought to do is to develop their good habits, their talents, and their fortunes as much as possible.  And of course, the vast majority of people in this country, these days, fall somewhere between the two extremes.
> 
> 
> 
> B. How to decide on a theory of conduct.
> 
> So suppose that you don’t know <i>what</i> to think about the issue -- or suppose that you have an opinion on this question, but you admit that you have not rationally justified your opinion.  Then how could you rationally justify any choice at all?  What sort of arguments could you offer in favor of utilitarianism, or egoism, or some version of the hybrid theory?  That’s a very hard question.
> 
> I’ll tell you about one strategy that some moral theorist have come up with.  It’s called the <i>method</i> <i>of</i> <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  The name is fancy, but a bare-bones version of the method itself can be explained in a fairly simple way.  It goes like this.  List off a bunch of different moral dilemmas and particular moral decisions to be made.  Decide what you think about each of them.  In situation #1, you decide to do A, in situation #2, you decide to do B, and so forth.  Then when you’ve looked at enough situations (I guess it would have to be a lot, but I don’t know how many), you look at different candidate theories of conduct: egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  (And remember, those are only kinds of <i>consequentialism</i>.  We still have to consider <i>other</i> theories of conduct, which we will do next time; the method of equilibrium is supposed to work in considering those other theories as well.)  So as you look at these different candidate theories of conduct, the question you have to ask yourself is: <i>Which</i> of these theories best fits the way <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>decided</i> <i>those</i> <i>moral</i> <i>dilemmas</i> <i>and</i> <i>questions</i>?
> 
> Suppose you pick the hybrid theory.  It seems to fit best with your decisions about all those different moral cases; you don’t think you should be totally selfless or totally selfish.  But suppose you think the hybrid theory as I’ve stated it doesn’t fit your decisions <i>perfectly</i> or <i>clearly</i>.  So you tweak the theory here and there.  You add qualifications, explanations, and so forth, until the theory clearly fits your opinions about the cases.  Then you say: that’s the correct theory.  Why?  Because it fits my opinions about lots of different moral cases.  When you get to that point, you are in a state of <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  Keep in mind that this is a bit of a simplification, but that’s the <i>basic</i> idea behind the method of reflective equilibrium.
> 
> So that’s one way to decide which of these different moral theories is correct: you pose a bunch of moral cases to decide on, then you decide on them, then you pick a theory of conduct that fits your decisions best, and then you adjust your theory of conduct until the fit is perfect.  When the fit is perfect, you are in "reflective equilibrium."
> 
> But here’s a problem with that method.  What if you don’t <i>know</i> what to decide about particular cases?  What if you can’t make up your mind?  What if the whole reason you want a theory of conduct is so that you <i>can</i> make up your mind?  You tell yourself, "Gee, if only I accepted a theory of conduct.  Then I’d be convinced I knew what the right thing to do was!  But I don’t know what to do, since I don’t have a theory."  I doubt many people actually think this way; but I am <i>certain</i> that quite a few <i>thoughtful</i> people do think this way.  And they’re really stuck, in a practical way.  They’ve got a serious practical problem.  I mean, if you don’t know what to think about particular moral dilemmas, and you don’t have any convictions about any moral principles that would help you get <i>out</i> of those dilemmas, then where do you start?  If you have no opinions about particular cases <i>or</i> about generalizations, how could you make any progress toward firm conviction?
> 
> If you ask me, this is one basic philosophical dilemma of the modern age.  A lot of people lose their traditional religion and do not do any philosophy to make up for the total values vacuum that creates.  And the result, I think, is that a lot of people run around as moral relativists.  It seems like no one <i>could</i> have objectively correct answers to questions about the theory of conduct.  Why does it seem that way, to some people?  For the reasons I was just explaining: some people have no definite opinions about particular moral cases <i>or</i> about moral generalizations.  As a result, they think that anything goes, my opinion’s just as good as yours, and so forth.  Indeed, some people are explicitly <i>taught</i> in school that moral questions are (somehow) purely a matter of arbitrary personal decision.  
> 
> Well, I will try not to leave you in the lurch here.  But all I can do is give you some fairly vague indication of how you might go about deciding what to believe, in the theory of conduct.  This could be regarded as a more sophisticated brand of the method of reflective equilibrium.
> 
> Here’s how the method would go.  I don’t care who you are, you have <i>some</i> moral convictions.  There isn’t <i>anybody</i> out there who has <i>no</i> moral convictions.  So begin with those moral convictions of which you feel most certain; and actually list them out.  They can be convictions about particular cases, invented or real, <i>or</i> they can be generalizations.  Surely you already believe, very firmly, a number of generalizations about what you ought and ought not to do.  For example, I would be in utter shock if you did not hold, very firmly, that you ought not to kill other people for kicks, or for any frivolous reasons.  I’m sure all of you believe that.  You, or most of you, probably also believe that stealing, cheating, and lying are wrong (or at least that they require very good reasons).
> 
> So the idea is to begin with a number of particular cases that you <i>do</i> have strong convictions, and a number of generalizations that you think are about right.  And then look at them all together, and see what sort of <i>broader</i> generalizations can be drawn from them, if any.  You might conclude, for example, that you should never do anything that ultimately contributes to the undermining of the basic trust that strangers in society can have of each other.  That is an example of a relatively high-level principle.  And the hope is that, when you have accumulated enough high-level principles like this, you will eventually come to a point where you can say, definitively, that egoism, or utilitarianism, or hybrid consequentialism, or some other theory yet, is the <i>broadest</i> correct theory of conduct.
> 
> I’m not pretending that this method is perfect.  For one thing, what if it just turns out that Joseph Stalin and I happen to disagree about what high-level principles about conduct are correct?  How could we, in a reasoned way, resolve the disagreement?  Perhaps we couldn’t.  But as far as I know, this is about the best that we can do.
> 
> What we’re going to do next is to consider one high-level principle that almost all of us, if not all of us, would accept: namely, that we have certain inalienable <i>rights</i>, and that certain things would be totally <i>unjust</i> for us to do.  Then we are going to evaluate the different kinds of consequentialism to see whether they can take account of these high-level principles about rights and justice.  And we will look at another kind of theory of conduct, <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct, and see how they do on that score.  This will take us into one of the core issues in both ethics and political philosophy: What are rights and what is the justification for thinking that we have them?  And then: What is the role of government in ensuring that we keep these rights?
> 
> 
> 
> C. The problem of justice.
> 
> Today we’re going to talk about a topic that is discussed both in ethics and in political philosophy: justice.  In particular, we’re going to talk about the <i>moral</i> <i>foundations</i> of justice.  In other words, we’re going to ask: How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  I mean, obviously we <i>do</i> have rights, and obviously we <i>do</i> deserve to be treated justly.  The philosophical question isn’t <i>whether</i>, it’s <i>why</i>.  If you will, <i>why</i> do we have rights?  <i>Why</i> do we deserve to be treated justly?
> 
> That’s the topic we’re aiming at.  Before we get there, we have to go back to what we were talking about before, namely consequentialism.
> 
> We have looked at different varieties of consequentialism, and we wound up asking: How can we choose between these different theories?  On what grounds would we argue that one is correct?  Then we looked at the method of reflective equilibrium, and another variant on that same method, as ways to arrive at a theory of conduct.  Now here is one thing that we concluded: a theory of conduct should "square with," should rule the same as, the way you strongly feel about particular cases.  If some theory of conduct says that you ought to take action A, when your strong, pre-theoretic opinion is that you definitely should <i>not</i> take action A, then that’s a good reason to throw the theory out.  Let’s put it this way.  If some theory of conduct you’re looking at says that you should do something that you feel quite sure you <i>shouldn’t</i> do, then that’s a reason to throw out that theory, and look for a new theory.
> 
> Another thing we said is that we all have some very strong convictions about certain <i>generalizations</i> about morality.  Maybe they aren’t the broadest possible generalizations, but they are nonetheless generalizations: they apply to many different cases, not just one case.  For example, here is a principle that I think almost everyone here would say is correct: we should not punish people for crimes when we know those people to be innocent.  It is <i>always</i> wrong to punish people for things we know they haven’t done.  Why?  Well, that would be <i>unjust</i>, and a blatant violation of their <i>rights</i>.  Definitely we all think that it is right to practice justice -- that as a society we ought to see to it that justice is done and that rights are protected.
> 
> That’s the sort of "very strong conviction about a generalization" that I am talking about.  And the point is: a theory of conduct has to be <i>consistent</i> with those generalizations.  If a theory of conduct would say that we ought to punish someone who is innocent, well then, we can throw out that theory of conduct; why?  Because we very well <i>know</i> that it is wrong to punish the innocent.  You can think of this as an extension of the method of common sense I introduced when we discussed epistemology.  It’s certainly a principle, a generalization, of common sense that we should not punish the innocent.  And just as we said then, talking about the method of common sense, if some sophisticated piece of philosophy comes along and says something that is clearly a principle of common sense, then we can just throw out that sophisticated piece of philosophy.
> 
> All right, that’s all by way of setting the stage for a major problem for consequentialism -- for <i>all</i> <i>different</i> <i>kinds</i> of consequentialism, meaning egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  Namely, the problem of justice.  In short, the problem of justice is the problem that consequentialist theories of conduct seem to recommend that we do unjust things.  Consequentialism seems to say that we <i>ought</i> to do some things that are just clearly unjust, and that clearly violate the rights of the innocent.  If that’s the case, then consequentialism must be wrong.
> 
> OK, so let me explain two cases where it seems like consequentialism would recommend that we behave unjustly.  Let’s begin with a case that one of the professors here at Ohio State gives.  Suppose the young daughter of a prominent family in a small town is abducted in broad daylight, raped, and murdered.  The murderer is totally unknown; the police are absolutely baffled and have no leads at all.  Everyone is upset and distraught.  And even worse, people are losing respect for the law; the crime rate is going up, with the imminent threats of more rapes and murders by local gang members, because everyone thinks that the town police are letting people get away with murder.  So the chief of police decides that something has to be done about this.  He arranges for a tramp off the midnight freight train into town to be caught, planted with evidence, and charged.  That’s what they do; the jury is rigged, and the tramp is declared the murderer.  So the tramp is carted off to death row.  Meanwhile, things get back to normal in the town.  Respect for the law is restored.
> 
> I think we can all agree that this is a terrible miscarriage of justice.  That tramp should not have been tried and convicted of the crime; he did nothing to <i>deserve</i> that, and if he did nothing to deserve it, it was obviously unjust.  But he was; and look at what it accomplished.  It prevented the commission of more rapes and murders, and brought a sense of safety to the entire town.  Meanwhile, <i>only</i> one man’s life was ruined.  If he had not been unjustly convicted, and no one found any other scapegoat, probably <i>more</i> people would have died.  So on the whole, more good was done, it appears, by making the tramp a scapegoat.
> 
> Well, if more good was done -- more people were made happy, more lives were saved -- then the sheriff did what he should have done, according to consequentialism anyway.  The amount of goodness, both for the sheriff personally and for all of society, was maximized; so the sheriff did what he ought to have done.  Are you convinced?
> 
> Well surely that’s not right!  It was <i>wrong</i> for the sheriff to have set up that man.  He <i>ought</i> <i>not</i> to have done that.  So it looks like consequentialism recommends something that is <i>wrong</i>.
> 
> Here’s a second example, somewhat along the same lines.  Suppose you’re helping out at the local hospital and there has been a major disaster nearby -- an airplane crashed, say.  Organ donations are desperately needed for four people, or they’ll all surely die.  Without the transplants, all four are going to die.  But organ donations have been extremely scarce.  Doctors need a heart, a lung, a kidney, and a liver.  So they see you, young healthy Ohio State student, with a healthy heart, lung, kidney, and liver.  They get to thinking to themselves: "We can kill the student, remove the organs, and save <i>four</i> <i>people</i>.  Those four people from the plane crash were just <i>unlucky</i> to be on that plane.  It wasn’t any fault of their own.  So either four people can die and the Ohio State student lives; or the Ohio State student lives, and the four people all die.  Well, that’s a no-brainer.  Kill the student!"  So they kill you furtively (saying that you had an accident), remove your organs, save four people, and indeed, the amount of goodness in the world is maximized.  Not for <i>you</i>, of course, but for <i>world</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>whole</i>.  Instead of four people dying, only one person died.  If killing you maximizes the amount of good in the world, then by gosh the doctors should kill you!
> 
> But of course the doctors <i>shouldn’t</i> kill you.  That is <i>clearly</i> wrong.  Even if we can’t say exactly <i>why</i> it was wrong -- beyond saying that it was unjust, and that your right to life had been violated -- nonetheless, however we explain it, it definitely seems wrong.  But the consequentialist observes that the amount of good in the world was maximized; so the doctors did what they ought to have done.
> 
> So there you have it.  There are cases where it <i>appears</i> that the amount of goodness in the world would be maximized by an action, but that action is clearly morally wrong.  And yet consequentialism says we should take that action.  So what follows?  That we should reject consequentialism.
> 
> This seems to be a really difficult problem.  The consequentialist might try to get out of the problem, though.  There are basically two ways of doing it.  The first is to say that the actions in both of these cases -- making the tramp a scapegoat, and killing you to harvest your organs -- is not wrong at all, but perfectly <i>right</i>.  Call this "biting the bullet."  If you bite the bullet, and say that clearly unjust actions are right, then you’re basically throwing justice out the window.  You’re saying that justice is <i>less</i> important than maximizing the amount of happiness in the world.  If a happiness-maximizing action is unjust, so much the worse for justice.
> 
> Well, I think that just can’t be the correct way to think about this.  Why on earth do we care so much about justice anyway?  At the very least you should explore that question before you just kick justice out into the cold.
> 
> So the consequentialist has another way to face the problem of justice.  The second option is see if there is some way to explain, <i>using</i> the theoretical resources of consequentialism, why it is that we <i>ought</i> to do the just thing.  The consequentialist thinks that we ought to maximize goodness.  Perhaps there is some way to show that doing the <i>just</i> thing, always respecting others’ rights, maximizes goodness.  In the long run, if everyone always does what is just, that maximizes the amount of happiness in the world.
> 
> Now, do you think that’s true?  Wouldn’t that be an incredibly convenient, very nice thing if it <i>were</i> true?  I mean, it would be <i>great</i> if, by everyone doing what is just, and respecting others’ rights at all times, we <i>did</i> as a matter of fact create a world that had the greatest amount of happiness.  But honestly, can you say that you <i>know</i> that would be the result?  I mean, isn’t it <i>totally</i> <i>possible</i> that, but always being just, and always respecting peoples’ rights, you were prevented from doing some things that would, in the end, make the people who were left in the world happier?  It seems to me it would actually be <i>lucky</i>, and somewhat <i>surprising</i>, if, by always doing what is just, we wound up with the world that is just as good as it possibly can be.
> 
> There are <i>always</i> going to be opportunities to make lots of people happy at the expense of a few hapless souls.  And if that’s the case, it looks like the consequentialist is <i>committed</i> to depriving those hapless souls of their rights, for the sake of the common good.
> 
> Now, there is another version of consequentialism, called <i>rule</i> consequentialism, which we will talk about later.  Perhaps that other version can overcome the problem of justice.  But I don’t see how the version we’ve considered so far, which is called <i>act</i> consequentialism, can overcome the problem.  It looks like the consequentialist is stuck with having to violate peoples’ rights.  And then it looks like <i>we</i> will have to reject consequentialism, unless <i>we</i> want to say that it’s OK to violate peoples’ rights.
> 
> 
> 
> D. Deontological theories of conduct.
> 
> So let’s look next at some theories of conduct which <i>can</i> and <i>do</i> advocate respect for rights.  I mean <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct.  Here is a definition:
> 
> A theory is a <i>deontological</i> theory of conduct iff it says that what we ought to do is governed by rules stating what our duties are, <i>regardless</i> of the consequences of our actions are.
> 
> So, for example, the reason that we should not lie is that there is rule, very vaguely stated as, "Do not lie."  And this rule gives us a duty not to lie; and even if telling the truth has awful consequences, that’s just too bad.  Sometimes telling the truth, and doing your duty, hurts.  That’s life.  So says the deontologist.
> 
> Now, as a deontologist, you don’t have be entirely naïve.  You don’t have to say, for example, that you should <i>never</i> lie, ever.  Maybe your rule would be more complicated than that.  I mean, if the stormtroopers are knocking on your door, and you’re harboring some enemy of a totalitarian government, are you going to rat on the refugees?  No; definitely not.  So you might change the rule that you follow to something like this: "Do not lie, except to those who would use the truth to do great evils."  And surely there are exceptions to <i>this</i> rule, too.  So you’d have to go to work, I suppose, coming up with a set of rules, or laws, that govern behavior.  And your rules would probably be fairly complicated.  That’s not surprising though; just think about how you live your life, and what you learn.  You can think of wisdom in the art of living as a sort of tacit understanding of all the little complications that need to be added to the rules of right living.
> 
> Now, unfortunately, we aren’t going to be able to go into deontological theories of conduct in any detail.  If we did, we would try to come to grips with Kant’s moral theory; Kant is a very famous, very influential German philosopher of the late 18th century, and his theory of the best examples of the deontological theory out there.  He had one catch-all rule, the Categorical Imperative, from which we were supposed to be able to derive all the other rules that we’d need to have in order to know what we ought to do.  You can find more about this in the reading from Hospers.  We can’t get into that.
> 
> What I want to focus on is what the deontological theory can say about rights and justice.  The basic idea should be pretty clear.  Since what we <i>ought</i> to do depends on following certain <i>rules</i>, that state our <i>duties</i>, then there is bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not convict and sentence people we know to be innocent.  That is what makes it wrong to make the tramp a scapegoat.  And that rule also is, in part, what the deontologist would say gives us a right to due process.  And the fact that <i>that</i> <i>right</i> is violated is what makes the sheriff’s act <i>unjust</i>.
> 
> There is also bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not kill people except in self-defense and in the legitimate administration of justice.  That is what makes it wrong for the doctors to kill you.  That rule is also what gives you the right to life.  And it’s because you have that right, that it is <i>unjust</i> for the doctors to kill you.
> 
> I think you probably get the general idea, but let me try to state it clearly.  There are certain rules that state how we ought to treat each other.  <i>Some</i> of those rules give us <i>rights</i>.  And the <i>violation</i> of those rights is what we call <i>injustice</i>.  Accordingly, the condition of <i>justice</i> is the condition in which one’s rights are <i>not</i> violated.  So as you can see, it looks pretty straightforward just how the deontological theory tries to justify our claims to having rights, and that justice must prevail.
> 
> I don’t know about you, but I think there’s something kind of fishy going on here.  The deontologist just seems to have made the whole task of defending rights way too easy.  Well, you want a right?  We’ll give you a right -- just make up a rule!  You might reply, "We can’t just make up <i>any</i> old rules, and say that we have just <i>any</i> old rights."  And I agree, we can’t.  So, out of the gazillions of rules that are conceivable, how do we decide <i>which</i> rules are the ones that we ought to follow?
> 
> Let’s get an example on the table, and I think you’ll be able to see the problem more easily.  Suppose we want to say, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  The deontologist says that that’s the rule that gives us a right to life.  And the rule looks pretty much correct, I think.  But <i>why</i> is it correct?  What if someone disagreed with us: how could we convince him, or her, that it is correct?  See here, we’re doing philosophy and in philosophy, we require <i>arguments</i> for our views.  So if, in formulating the deontological theory of conduct, we wind stating a rule, then by god, we’d better be prepared to give an argument that we should all follow that rule.  It’s very fine and well to lay down the law.  You can do that without giving arguments, if you’re a parent giving rules to your children.  But you can’t do that if you’re a philosopher trying to convince other philosophers of something.  It might <i>sound</i> impressive to declare something a "rule" or a "moral law," but just putting the name "rule" on it doesn’t make it automatically correct.
> 
> It turns out that this is actually an uncomfortable problem for deontologists.  It’s one thing they don’t like to be pressed on too hard.  So let’s look briefly at a few of the sorts of arguments that deontologists give to support these rules of conduct.
> 
> One way is Kant’s way, as I was saying before.  He thought that we could derive individual rule from one overarching rule, the Categorical Imperative.  The Categorical Imperative reads: "So act that you could wish the maxim of your action to become a universal law of human conduct."  I’m not going to discuss this and I don’t expect you understand it, unless you’ve done the reading.  For our purposes, suffice it to say that the Categorical Imperative just doesn’t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn’t perform as advertized.  For more on that, please see the reading.
> 
> A second way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that we know they are true by some sort of moral intuition, or moral sense.  You should remember this from our discussion of meta-ethics; we said then that there are some people who think that goodness is a non-natural property, which we can detect through this faculty of moral intuition.  We’re just presented with a situation, like the scapegoat situation, and we can just <i>understand</i> that some things are good and others are bad; and we just <i>know</i>, by this faculty of intuition, that certain actions are right and others are wrong.
> 
> Before criticizing this second way, let’s look at a third way, which is very similar to it.  So this third way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that they are part of a larger system of <i>natural</i> <i>law</i>.  Halverson in our readings for today presents this sort of view.  The basic idea is this.  There is a huge system of rules, or laws, which we might discover, that regulate how we should treat each other; and these rules we call a sysem of "natural law."  Among the rules would be the aforementioned rule, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  Another rule would be: "Do not deprive others of their property except through due process of law."  So you put all such rules together, and you have a system of obligations and permissions which gives us our rights, and which states what justice is.
> 
> Now, there’s an obvious criticism to be made both of the moral intuition defense of rules of conduct, and of the natural law defense.  And the criticism is actually just to ask the same question over again, that we started with.  Namely, how do you know that these rules are <i>correct</i>?  You can <i>say</i> that you have some "moral intuition" that they’re correct.  That’s not an <i>argument</i>, though.  And similarly, you can <i>say</i> that some rule is part of an enormous body of natural law.  But again, that’s not an argument either!  Honestly, how do you <i>know</i> that a given rule is part of natural law?  That’s the whole problem, an enormous problem, and it looks like moral intuitionism, and the natural law theory, by themselves, just want to sidestep the problem.
> 
> And this problem for the natural law theory isn’t just a theoretical problem -- it’s also serious <i>practical</i> problem.  Let me explain.  I want to call your attention to something in our reading from Halverson, on p. 161 of the packet.  Halverson used to be an Ohio State professor, believe it or not.  I quote: "Many laws that are in force in most of the civilized nations of the world can be justified only by an appeal to natural law.  Consider, for example, the practice of homosexuality.  It cannot be reasonably argued that homosexual acts between consenting adults are in any way harmful to the community.  It therefore is not necessary for the community to protect itself by prohibiting such acts.  Yet such acts are commonly prohibited by law.  [Remember, this is an older textbook.]  On what grounds?  On the grounds that such acts are wrong, immoral, contrary to the consciences of most men perceive as being good and right [notice the reference to something like the moral sense theory here] -- contrary, that is, to natural law."
> 
> So there you have it.  Homosexuality is wrong, and immoral.  On what grounds?  That it’s to natural law.  Well are you convinced?  Is that enough of an argument for you?  Well of course not.  This is just ridiculous.  To say that something is "contrary to natural law" appears to be no more than to say, "It’s against my current beliefs, even if they happen to be little more than mere prejudices."
> 
> I hope it’s beginning to be clear to you why I say it’s a <i>practical</i> problem, that natural law theorists do not say <i>why</i> moral rules are part of natural law.  It’s a practical problem because natural law theorists can, if they want to, just <i>declare</i> that some practices that they don’t approve of, like homosexuality, are against "natural law."  And then they can and have passed <i>actual</i> laws restricting such activity, which laws they try to justify by saying it’s against this bogus "natural law."
> 
> So to summarize.  The deontological theory of conduct tries to give a justification for rights.  How?  By saying that our rights are given by certain moral rules, like "Don’t murder," and "Don’t steal."  But then we have to ask: How do we know that we ought to follow those rules?  Or more simply: How do we know that those rules are correct?  The moral intuitionist says that we intuit that they are correct; the natural law theorist says that the rules are part of natural law.  But neither of these claims really answers the question at all.  Or to put it differently, I could, for all they’ve said, claim that the following rule is correct: "Murder and steal when it’s convenient to do so."  And I’ve got a right to murder and steal.  Why do I say that?  I simply intuit it.  Or I claim: "That’s a matter of natural law.  It’s part of natural law that I should murder and steal when it’s convenient for me to do so!"
> 
> But what about Kant’s theory, which we never got around to stating in any depth?  Now <i>all</i> that I said about it was: "The Categorical Imperative just doesn’t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn’t perform as advertized."  If you’re at all interested in defending a deontological theory of conduct, you certainly shouldn’t take my word for it.  You should actually study what Kant has to say; you’d do that if you took a class in ethical theory.  Again, we don’t have time for it.
> 
> What we do have time for, though, is a more general argument against <i>all</i> deontological theories of conduct.  This general argument is from a consequentialist point of view.  Let me summarize this argument in advance, as follows.  One simply cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  Deontology -- deontological theories of conduct -- says that whether we ought to take an action does <i>not</i> depend on the consequences of the action; it depends only on whether the action follows a correct moral rule.  That’s all that matters, not the consequences.  But if, in order to justify the <i>rule</i>, we have to have reference to the consequences of following the rule, then deontology is wrong.  Because ultimately then, whether we ought to take an action <i>does</i> depend on the consequences of the action -- or at least, it depends on consequences of following the rule of your action.  All right, I don’t expect you to get this argument on the first pass, so let’s go over it more carefully.
> 
> The most important premise here is the first one.  Here it is again: One cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  In other words, my claim is that you <i>have</i> to talk about the consequences of following rules in order to justify the rules.  That doesn’t mean that the consequences are the <i>only</i> things that justify the rules; but it <i>does</i> mean that you can’t <i>ignore</i> the consequences of following rules, if you want to justify them.  Now, why do I say that?
> 
> Well, just take any rule of conduct at all, that you think is correct.  Such as: "Do not murder."  According to the deontologist, we could justify such a rule <i>without</i> talking about the consequences of murdering people.  But if you think about it, that’s an amazing claim.  How on earth could they establish that we ought not to murder, without talking about the consequences of murder?  I mean, just look at what murder does accomplish: it ends human life; it brings terrible grief and other hardship to the family and friends of the murder victim; and it contributes the breakdown of trust that would otherwise exist among well-meaning, honest strangers in our society.  Now, the deontologist appears to claim that we could <i>somehow</i> show, or account for, the wrongness of murder <i>without</i> talking about all those terrible things that murder accomplishes.  That’s surely just <i>impossible</i>.  I mean, suppose that murder did <i>not</i> cause grief, hardship, or any sort of breakdown in trust between people.  And <i>all</i> it did was end a human life -- not unlike squashing an ant, I guess.  I don’t know if you can imagine killing a human being as being like that.  But if you can imagine that, then ask yourself: would murder be regarded with as much horror as it is now?  Clearly not.  Clearly the <i>reason</i> that murder is regarded as the great evil that it is, is at least <i>in</i> <i>part</i> due to the fact that murder can wreak such devastation on human society.  When we talk about an action’s causing devastation in human society, we’re talking about the <i>consequences</i> of the action.
> 
> So the point is, in order to state what the <i>actual</i> justifications that our <i>actual</i> moral rules have, we have to look at the consequences of following, and not following, the rules.  Suppose you wants to reply to this, as follows.  "Well OK.  So consequences are necessary to consider when we justify moral rules.  It’s just that they are only <i>one</i> consideration among others.  There are other reasons why we have the duties we do, other reasons besides the bad consequences of <i>not</i> doing our duty."
> 
> Now, if you want to say that, then it seems to me you’re talking about a version of deontological ethics that is so watered-down that it really can’t be called a version of deontological ethics at all.  Really what it is, is another <i>hybrid</i> theory, but in this case, instead of combining egoism and utilitarianism, to get some middle-ground version of consequentialism, you’re combining consequentialism and deontological ethics.  And with this new hybrid theory, you’re saying: What makes a moral rule correct isn’t <i>just</i> the consequences of following the rule -- there’s more to it than that -- but the justification for the rule <i>does</i> include some reference to consequences.
> 
> Now, if this is what you think, then I’ve got a challenge for you.  <i>What</i> <i>else</i> <i>is</i> <i>there</i> to consider whenever you want to justify a rule of conduct, <i>besides</i> the consequences that following, or adopting, the rule ultimately has?  <i>Is</i> there anything else we could use to justify a rule?  <i>Besides</i> consequences, ultimately?
> 
> I’m not going to pretend that there’s nothing else.  One thing that ethicists have pointed out is that good <i>motives</i> do, sometimes, make actions right or wrong.  If I do the right thing for the wrong reason, I’ve done <i>something</i> wrong.  Without getting into <i>that</i> at any length, let me just say what the obvious question is going to be: What, after all, <i>makes</i> a good motive good?  If I have a nice intention, to treat you fairly, then what makes that intention nice?  I suppose that you will have to talk about the <i>typical</i> <i>consequences</i> of my nice intention.
> 
> Let me remind you where we are.  We are just winding up our criticism of deontological theories of conduct.   The criticism I <i>just</i> gave is this: that the deontologist has to talk about the <i>consequences</i> of following rules, in order to justify the claim that we ought to follow the rules.  And it’s not at all clear what <i>else</i>, ultimately, could be used to justify a rule <i>besides</i> its consequences.  Now this leads directly into the next, and final, theory of conduct, which is called <i>rule</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.
> 
> 
> 
> E. Rule consequentialism.
> 
> As I mentioned before -- I don’t expect you to recall this, but it’s good if you do -- distinguish <i>rule</i> consequentialism from <i>act</i> consequentialism.  What’s the difference?  Let me present definitions of both terms and then you’ll be able to see it more easily:
> 
> <i>Act</i> consequentialism is the view that whether we <i>ought</i> to take individual acts depends on the (good or bad) consequences of those acts.
> 
> <i>Rule</i> consequentialism is the view that (1) whether we <i>ought</i> to take individual acts depends on whether the acts follows a correct set of moral rules; and (2) whether a given rule is correct or not depends on the (good or bad) consequences of everyone adopting the rule.
> 
> So <i>act</i> consequentialism says we should judge <i>individual</i> <i>acts</i> as right or wrong, based on their consequences.  <i>Rule</i> consequentialism, by contrast, says that we should <i>adopt</i> <i>rules</i> based on the consequences of adopting the rules; and then we <i>use</i> the rules we’ve adopted to determine whether we should take given actions or not.  More briefly: act consequentialism says to judge <i>acts</i> based on their consequences; rule consequentialism says to judge <i>rules</i> based on their consequences.
> 
> So rule consequentialism is an interesting sort of hybrid between act consequentialism and deontological theories.  Like act consequentialism, it says that actions are <i>ultimately</i> to be judged based on consequences; and like deontological theories, it says that individual acts are to be judged based on whether they follow rules that state our moral duties.  So you might say that it combines some good features of both types of moral theory we’ve looked at so far.
> 
> Now remember our topic for today is <i>justice</i>, and we are looking at these moral theories in order to see whether they can give us a way to solve the problem of justice.  How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  So let’s see how the rule consequentialist might try to deal with the problem of justice.  How can the rule consequentialist justify the claim that we have a right to life, for example?
> 
> Well, recall a rule we stated before: Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice.  The rule consequentialist could say that we should adopt that rule, and the fact that rule is <i>correct</i> is what gives us a right to life.  Because really, that’s what it means to say that I <i>have</i> a right to life: namely, that if someone kills me, except in self-defense or after due process of law, then this rule against such killing has been violated, and my killer has done something gravely morally wrong.  It’s the fact that that rule is in place that gives me a right to life; and part of justice is, of course, to respect that right that I have.
> 
> Now so far, I haven’t said anything that the deontologist hasn’t already said.  And remember our question for the deontologist: <i>why</i> should adopt rules like this?  Of course, that same has to be asked now; if we don’t answer that question, then we haven’t solved the problem of justice.
> 
> Rule consequentialism says that <i>whether</i> a rule like the one that we just stated is correct or not depends on the good or bad consequences of adopting the rule.  So then we consider: on the whole, would it be better, would there be more goodness in the world, if we adopted this rule against needless killing?  Sure!  If everyone recognized this rule, if everyone agreed that it was wrong to kill needlessly, then the world would be a much nicer place indeed, than it would be if no one or only some people adopted the rule.  So that’s how we justify the rules that give us rights, and that establish justice: we say that adopting those rules is greatly beneficial to us all.
> 
> Well then, why not adopt the following rule <i>too</i>? -- "Make scapegoats out of tramps when convenient and when it can be covered up well enough."  Adopting <i>that</i> rule very definitely would violate the rights of tramps.  We don’t want to do that.  But if everyone did adopt that rule, wouldn’t that make life for everyone (well, everyone except the tramps) better?  If adopting that rule <i>would</i> make life for everyone better, then rule consequentialism would say: <i>adopt</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i>!  And then we’d have the rule consequentialist saying that it’s OK, it’s even morally <i>obligatory</i>, to violate the rights of tramps!  We even have a rule saying that we ought to do so!
> 
> Now I think that the rule consequentialist can defend himself here.  I am partial to rule consequentialism myself, so I will step in and defend the theory against this criticism.  Here’s how I propose to do it.  Clearly, I have to have some argument that adopting the rule that says to make scapegoats out of tramps would make life actually <i>worse</i> for everyone.  I’d have to have some way to argue that adopting that rule would have lots of dangerous consequences.
> 
> If you ask me, that doesn’t seem like too tall of an order.  It just requires a little common-sense understanding of human nature, and what is likely to happen if people actually do adopt that rule.  Life, basically, becomes <i>cheap</i> to all the non-tramps.  If we ordinary folks go around thinking that the official word is that unloading our problems onto tramps is OK, that’s going to make us behave bad toward <i>other</i> people, <i>besides</i> tramps.  After all, if <i>tramps</i> are dispensible, then why not the mentally ill?  Why not people of very low intelligence?  And if we start treating <i>those</i> people as dispensible, then why not people that we have deep political disagreements with?  Or deep religious disagreements?  Why not people who are simply critical of us?  You see where I’m going with this.  If a rule <i>like</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i> that says it’s OK to make scapegoats out of tramps <i>is</i> adopted, then given what we know about human nature, that has all sorts of consequences for <i>other</i> rules that people will, in fact, decide to adopt.  If <i>one</i> rule that we adopt makes life cheap, then why should we expect people to stop there?
> 
> I think you can look at totalitarian Communist regimes, such as those of Lenin and Stalin, as excellent examples of the consequences of this.  They adopt one rule, that it is all right to revoke the rights of capitalists and dissenters; and consequently, <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of rights, of <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of people, were regularly and <i>institutionally</i> infringed in Soviet Russia.
> 
> This is <i>why</i> some people very <i>strenuously</i> insist that our rights, or at least some rights, are absolute and government must not be allowed to infringe them at all.  Let me try to pick a non-partisan example -- actually that’s kind of hard, but what about the right to free speech on the Internet?  Remember when Congress passed, and the President signed, a law that actually tried to restrict our ability to <i>cuss</i> online.  To hell with that, I say!  I’ll cuss online all I want; government should try to restrict that!  But look, the reason that people feel strongly about this isn’t that they think it’s really important that they be able to cuss online.  It’s not <i>that</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i> which makes opposition to such measures important.  What makes it important is that, to put it bluntly, give them an inch and they’ll take a mile.  And I don’t just mean the government.  I mean people in general.  If people, such as the American people, <i>come</i> <i>to</i> <i>accept</i> that the government <i>ought</i> to restrict free speech in one place, then they’ve in fact adopted a certain rule of conduct (for government, in this case).  And the point is that that can have, and historically has had, all sorts of bad consequences for <i>what</i> <i>else</i> will seem permissible to the people for the government to do.
> 
> But here I’m just picking on the government.  The exact same point can be validly made about other areas of life.  Indeed, it can be made about rules of moral conduct that apply to individuals at home, not interacting with other people at all.  For example, suppose you adopt a rule: Do your homework before you watch television.  (You might have seen a comic strip about this in the <i>Dispatch</i> the other day.)  But then you consider another rule: Do your homework before you watch television, <i>unless</i> "Friends" is on.  You reason to yourself, as a good egoist: "My happiness would be maximized if I followed this rule.  Not only would my homework get done, but I’d get to see my favorite TV show, and doing that wouldn’t keep me from getting my homework.  I mean after all, it’s only a half-hour program."  But if you reason to yourself this way, you’re failing to take something important into consideration.  Namely, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>effect</i> <i>of</i> <i>your</i> <i>changing</i> <i>your</i> <i>rule</i>, and allow the exception, <i>in</i> <i>fact</i>, going to be?  In fact, what happens with all but the most disciplined people is that they end up allowing more and more exceptions, until they have basically gotten rid of their rule entirely.
> 
> And in my opinion, if you’ll allow me to ascend my soapbox, that’s exactly the direction that society has gone in.  We do, perhaps, evaluate our moral rules according to their consequences; but what we <i>fail</i> to take account of is the consequences of making our moral rules <i>lax</i>, in particular, the consequences for <i>the</i> <i>other</i> <i>rules</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>adopt</i>.  This is how a breakdown in morals, in an individual, and a breakdown in respect for rights and justice, in a society, occurs.  You try to justify an exception to a perfectly useful, reasonable rule; and the exception itself seems perfectly useful and reasonable; but allowing for the exception has the <i>result</i> of undermining your ability to resist making <i>further</i> exceptions.  And at the bottom of this slippery slope is the muck of immorality and injustice.
> 
> So let’s get back to the point.  I presented rule consequentialism and then I asked: How can rule consequentialism justify those rules which give us our rights?  How does it solve the problem of justice?  The immediate reply is to say: individual rules are justified by to the fact that they maximize the amount of goodness in the world.  But then there’s the challenge: Why can’t we adopt rules that say that we ought to do unjust things, like making scapegoats out of tramps?  Why doesn’t that maximize goodness?  Now what I just got done giving you, from atop my soapbox, is an <i>explanation</i> for why making scapegoats out of tramps doesn’t maximize goodness.  Why not?  Again, it’s because when we make exceptions to our the general rules that state our rights, given our experience with human nature, we know that we’ve started down a slippery slope, and the ultimate results are that respect for rights in general is undermined.  And a low respect for rights in general has <i>way</i> worse consequences than disallowing our sheriffs to make scapegoats out of tramps.
> 
> It’s something like this whole story I’ve been spinning out that has, in my opinion, the best chance of explaining and justifying why we think we have inviolable rights, and why justice ought to be upheld.  I think I’d have explain it a lot more, and answer some more objections, before we could say that it was a really comprehensive, compelling solution to the problem of justice.  But at least you have the outlines of a solution.
> 
> Well, that’s it for our discussion of ethics <i>per</i> <i>se</i>.  As we’ve seen, ethics overlaps quite a bit, at least when talking about rights and justice, with political philosophy.  The next item on our plate is political philosophy itself.  I want to make a transition to that topic, however, and tie what we’ve been talking about, as regards rights and justice, into a discussion of the necessity of government.
> 
> Suppose we had a lot more time than we have had to talk about ethics.  And we sat around and hashed things out in great detail, and talked about a lot of other theories of justice.  Then suppose you decide, after all that careful work, that as it turns out, rule consequentialism -- perhaps a rule version of hybrid consequentialism -- is the correct theory of conduct.  So now you’re convinced you know what, in general, you <i>ought</i> to do; and you think you’ve given a philosophical justification for your theory of what you ought to do.
> 
> But isn’t it possible that even after all of that, someone might still <i>not</i> <i>care</i>?  Isn’t it quite possible that someone -- if not you, then someone else -- might say, in private, "Sure I know what I <i>ought</i> to do.  But I don’t <i>care</i> what I <i>should</i> do.  Morality is for chumps.  I’ll violate your rights any day if it’s to my advantage and I can get away with it.  I’m perfectly happy being totally unjust."  Now you <i>know</i> that there are people in the world just like that.  You have probably met some, or at least, you certainly know that they exist.  You can’t reason those people into being good eggs; they’re bad eggs, they’ll take advantage of you and there isn’t a whole lot that you can do about it except to protect yourself.
> 
> The long and short of it is that this is why government is necessary.  You <i>could</i> as it were take the law into your own hands, and see to it personally that others do not violate your rights; but if everyone did that, we would have a state of <i>anarchy</i>.  It’s <i>better</i>, for various reasons, that you leave the administration of justice and punishment up to a legitimate government.  The institution of government is necessary, I think, and I think most of you will agree with me about that.
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PoliticalPhilosophy|981082641
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> See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; 
> 
> In order to introduce what political philosophy is, I want to <i>start</i> by giving you a definition of the word "government":
> 
> A <i>government</i> is an institution, consisting of a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area.
> 
> This is a fairly standard sort of definition of the term "government."  You might find it a little bit surprising though.  When you think of government, you may think of large white buildings, well-groomed people in business suits, and eloquent but vapid speechmaking.  What does all that have to do with the <i>initiation</i> <i>of</i> <i>force</i>?  I’ll tell you -- it has <i>everything</i> to do with the initiation of force.  The whole point of having a government around at all, as we will see, is to make the power of individuals to act aggressively toward other individuals legitimate for government alone.  The power to initiate force is allegedly, and indeed it <i>can</i> be, <i>safer</i> in the hands of a relatively powerful government, that can control its unruly citizens, than it would be in the hands of each individual person.  All the other programs that you see governments enacting are ultimately based on their widely accepted, or legitimate, ability to compel individuals to do things like pay taxes, to appear in court when subpoenaed, to vacate an area when ordered, and so forth.
> 
> Consider this.  Why <i>don’t</i> we call a gang, that makes a certain neighborhood its turf, the <i>government</i> of that neighborhood?  Don’t just say, "Well, it’s obvious that the gang isn’t the <i>government</i>."  I’m asking you to explain <i>why</i> it’s not the government.  I know it’s <i>obvious</i> that the gang isn’t the government; the question is <i>why</i> it’s not.  Here’s <i>my</i> answer: the gang <i>doesn’t</i> have a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within the neighborhood.  It’s the <i>police</i>, and the broader government that the police represent, that have the monopoly on the <i>legitimate</i> use of force.  As long as the police have things relatively under control, the gang isn’t top dog; it’s the city, state, and federal government of that neighborhood.
> 
> Now to see this a little more clearly, change the example.  Fast forward fifty years in the future.  For some reason, maybe due to war, the police will absolutely <i>not</i> go into that neighborhood at all.  Neither will government tax collectors, or dog catchers, or any other agent of the city, state, or federal government.  Nope, within that neighborhood, the gang members have grown up, their numbers have multiplied, and they have set up walls all around the neighborhood; they control who comes in and who goes out; the leader of the gang is the ultimate judge of all the fights that break out in the neighborhood streets; they decide who gets guns and who doesn’t; and so forth.
> 
> <i>Now</i> would you say that the gang members are members of a government?  For all intents and purposes, they are.  And according to the definition I gave you, they are.  Maybe not a <i>good</i> government, but a government.  The gangsters and their stuff -- weapons, cars, houses, drugs, and so forth -- are "a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area," namely their neighborhood.  That group has become the government of the neighborhood.
> 
> Now you might want to object and say, "Look, that’s not a <i>government</i>.  That’s just a gang of <i>hoodlums</i>."  But if you say this, I think you’re forgetting your history.  <i>Most</i> governments in the world began with gangs of hoodlums!  It’s just that eventually, they became <i>respectable</i>.  The United States is one of the few nations in the world that <i>didn’t</i> begin that way; of course, I suppose that Washington and Jefferson might have looked like hoodlums to the English.  And of course, there are even now what we call "rogue nations," that are run, as most of us think, by what amounts to a gang of hoodlums.  The fact that they are a gang of hoodlums <i>doesn’t</i> mean that they’re not the government!  Because unfortunately, plainly, they <i>are</i> the government in those localities!  And they will be until someone with more sense and morality steps up and takes power away from them.  That’s the way of the world.  Government is a really nasty business.  Or at least it can be.
> 
> So, if that’s what government is, we’ve got another sort of question to answer: When is a government <i>legitimate</i>?  When is it a <i>good</i> government?  How can we distinguish the upright and decent governments from the governments of mere "rogue nations"?
> 
> Those are a few of the central questions of political philosophy.  This is another very complex area, difficult to define, but I’ll attempt a definition now anyway:
> 
> <i>Political</i> <i>philosophy</i> is the study of the fundamental questions about government: what it is, why it is needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.
> 
> As you can see, just from reading this definition, this area of philosophy is positively <i>enormous</i>.  It is probably the area of philosophy that you knew most about already, on account of its being taught to some extent in civics classes.  Next we are going to have to focus in on only one of the many questions that make up political philosophy.  The question we will focus on is the one that is discussed in our reading: why is government needed at all, and what, if anything, makes any particular government legitimate.
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TheJustificationOfTheState|981082657
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> So far we have defined "government" and used that to introduce a definition of "political philosophy" -- since political philosophy concerns, primarily (but not only), philosophical issues about government.  It just so happens, as we saw, that political philosophy contains a <i>lot</i> of different issues, and there is no way even so much as to <i>summarize</i> those issues without moving so fast that the chapter would be just useless and very difficult to follow.  So we could, but will not, spend a few paragraphs each on the justification of the state, the purpose or function of government, the proper form of government, what the law is, and other basic issues in political philosophy.  Instead, we are going to focus on the first issue, which is one of the most important, if not the most important issue.  Namely: What is the justification of the state?  Or to put it differently: From what source does the <i>legitimate</i> authority of any particular government arise?
> 
> Notice I am using the words "state" and "government" interchangeably here.  There is a loose sense of the word "state" in which all the citizens of a particular territory are part of the state -- in the sense in which we are all part of the United States.  In that sense, "state" means something like "country."  But as the term is usually used in philosophy, "state" has a more restricted meaning; it means, basically, the government.
> 
> Now let’s get clear about what the question at issue is.  I very imprecisely put it as: "What is the justification of the state?"  But as you should know by now, the first way of asking a philosophical question that comes to mind is bound to be woefully imprecise.  If we ask the question and then forge right on ahead to giving an answer, we will end up just wasting a lot of time.  So let’s see what we mean when we ask, "What is the justification of the state?"
> 
> The first thing to observe is that the state, or government, is not some totally monolithic "leviathan" (to use Thomas Hobbes’s term), a single entity with a single mind and a single will -- even though words like "the state" and "the government" invite us to think of it that way.  No, the state is made up of people (such as the president), some items at their disposal or so-called public property (such as government buildings and weapons), and particular habits or traditions (such as those things that are called "laws").  For any given government, there are not always the <i>same</i> people, public property, and laws; that is of course especially true for any relatively long-lived government, such as the United States government.
> 
> Next, recall that what we’re talking about is the <i>justification</i> of the state.  That word, "justification," has turned out to be rather important in our investigations into philosophy.  <i>One</i> kind of justification we encountered was <i>epistemic</i> justification -- that’s the sort of justification that some of our beliefs have.  But obviously, when we talk about the justification of the state, we’re talking about justification in a <i>different</i> sense -- in a <i>moral</i> sense of the word.  If a state is "justified" in this <i>moral</i> sense of the word, then it is, as we say, <i>legitimate</i>.  It is a legitimate government; and it has a moral right to rule.
> 
> But now, we said that the state is made up of people, public property, and a set of traditions such as laws; so what exactly are we talking about when we ask about the <i>moral</i> <i>justification</i> of the state?  Are we asking for the moral justification of the existence of particular politicians, or particular government buildings, or particular laws?  No -- not any one of these things in particular.  So you might say: What we’re asking for is the moral justification of the existence of <i>all</i> <i>of</i> <i>these</i> <i>things</i> <i>together</i>.
> 
> But it’s not everything, taken together, that makes up one <i>particular</i> government that philosophers are interested in showing to be morally justified.  The question isn’t about any one particular government; it’s about an <i>aspect</i> of <i>any</i> government.  Which aspect?  The monopoly on the legitimate initiation of force.  Remember that that’s what we said was <i>essential</i> to the state: the legitimate or at least widely accepted ability to initiate force within a given area.  So if you want me to single out some items for moral justification, from among the items in government that I listed -- people, property, and practices -- it would be: the people in government engaging in any practice that involves threatening or using force.  So then here's the question: "How are the people in government morally justified in engaging in any practice that involves threatening or using force?"
> 
> In the United States at present, there are a lot more than just police officers, judges, and soldiers who can legitimately initiate force.  There are also zoning commissions, the EPA, the FAA, and all sorts of other regulatory bodies.  But the United States is only one example, of course, and you have to remember: the question is, "How are the people in <i>any</i> government morally justified, <i>if</i> <i>and</i> <i>whenever</i> they are morally justified, in engaging in any practice that involves threatening or using force?"
> 
> It’s really important that you understand <i>why</i> we’re asking <i>this</i> question.  In order to understand it, you have to understand, and be persuaded, of the rather strange claim that government is essentially legitimized force.  Once you’ve grasped that point, then when we ask, "What is the justification of the state?" you are just one step away from understanding that that question means, briefly put, "What is the moral justification of government people, government agents, using force?"  What justifies them in using force?  If they couldn’t use force, there would <i>be</i> no government; and that’s precisely <i>why</i> we’re asking what justifies them in using force.  It’s not like I’m trying to be <i>subversive</i> -- I’m just trying to be philosophical.  Anyway, that’s the <i>basic</i> question we’re asking now.
> 
> Next I want us to distinguish <i>two</i> <i>senses</i> of this question.  Like this:
> 
> (1) What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?
> 
> (2) What is the justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>to</i> <i>achieve</i> <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>purpose</i>, <i>P</i>?
> 
> The difference between <i>these</i> two questions is reflected in the difference between two <i>other</i> questions.  First, what is the justification of the very existence of the state?  And second, what is the justification of a particular kind of state action?  On the one hand, if we can’t give any justification for the existence of the state at all, if we can’t justify government agents ever using any force at all, then we’re stuck with <i>theoretical</i> <i>anarchism</i>.  (More on that later.)  On the other hand, if we can’t justify a particular kind of state action, if we can’t justify government agents using force to achieve that action’s purpose, then we might still believe that government ought to exist.  We would simply be saying that that is one <i>less</i> function that the government ought to be performing.  Or to put the contrast even more starkly: it’s one thing to say we should get rid of the government entirely; it’s quite a different thing to say, simply, that we should get rid of the Social Security system, or certain defense programs.
> 
> By the way, if you wonder what the Social Security system has to do with force, just ask yourself something.  Suppose an employer did not expect to face heavy fines and possible jail time, if he did <i>not</i> take out money for Social Security tax.  Do you think he would then, <i>voluntarily</i>, pay the tax?  Very possibly <i>not</i>.  It’s the threat of force that keeps people paying taxes, and it’s taxes that keep the government running at all.  So: no tax enforcement, no government.  It’s easy to forget this, but it’s true.
> 
> Anyway, the question I want to focus on is (1), not (2).  I want to ask why the state should exist at all -- why the power of government agents to initiate force should be thought to  to be morally <i>legitimate</i>.
> 
> Now, if you’ll remember, we already asked this question once.  We said that government is necessary in order to keep other people from violating our rights.  Some people are hell-bent on taking our stuff and even our lives and purely as a protective measure we are willing to establish governments that protect us.  That’s at least a "prima facie" reason for the existence of the state.  "Prima facie" means "on first glance."  So on first glance, the reason that governments are needed to exist <i>at</i> <i>all</i> is to protect our rights, and to preserve justice.
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AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory|981082691
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> But now I want you to consider carefully what, exactly, is being claimed here.  The claim is that the reason the state exists is in order to protect our rights.  But if the essence of the state is the <i>initation</i> <i>of</i> <i>force</i>, that means that it is the initiation of force that protects our rights.  And that of course makes sense: in order to prevent criminals and foreign invaders from harming us, police officers and soldiers are authorized to initiate force <i>against</i> criminals and foreign enemies.
> 
> Remember, though, that the state has a <i>monopoly</i> on the initiation of force; we can protect ourselves from criminals in self-defense, but we cannot go out and punish them ourselves.  That is left up to governments.  Here's another example.  We can give money to charity voluntarily; but we cannot go out and <i>force</i> other people to give money to poor people.  Only the state is permitted to do that, not individual citizens.
> 
> What this means, then, is we have to give up some of the freedom that we would otherwise have, in order to have a government.  At the <i>very</i> least, what we cannot do is initiate force against other people, no matter how annoying or immoral we may think they are.  That is a liberty, a freedom, that we <i>don’t</i> have.  And why don’t we have it?  Because we have given that liberty up to government.  If that liberty, the liberty to initiate force, were retained by many ordinary people, that would undermine the government.  The state exists, and works, only if it has that monopoly on the initiation of force; if it does <i>not</i>, then there are, in fact, any number of as it were competing governments running around within the same geographical area.  In other words, we’d have <i>anarchy</i> in that case.
> 
> I hope this makes it clearer to say that, in order to get protection of your rights from the state, you must give up your liberty to some extent.  And indeed, the more that you want government to do, the more liberty, to do what you like, you have to give up.
> 
> Now there are some people who think, first, that government <i>always</i> winds up <i>violating</i> the very rights it is supposed to be protecting; and, second, liberty to do what you want to do is for various reasons <i>extremely</i> <i>important</i>.  These two claims are different from each other, but the people who hold one view very often hold the other.  As regards the first, they think no government does a good job of protecting rights; they say power corrupts, and so governments are always corrupted eventually, no matter how noble their beginnings are.  As regards the second, which is perhaps more important for these people, liberty to do what you want to do is definitely one of the goods in life.  Some people have written as though they thought liberty was <i>intrinsically</i> good -- desirable for <i>its</i> <i>own</i> <i>sake</i>.  But I think you’ll agree with me when I say it seems very odd to say that liberty is something that is desirable for its own sake.  Aren’t there reasons <i>for</i> <i>which</i> we want liberty?  For example, many people think that in order to pursue our own happiness, we must have a great deal of liberty; meaning that we must not be restrained by other people or by government from doing what we choose.  If that’s right, then liberty would be an <i>instrumentally</i> good thing -- not <i>intrinsically</i> good.
> 
> Anyway, however that is, having views like this, there are some people who think there is <i>no</i> moral justification for government.  Of course, they say a lot <i>more</i> than the two things I listed, in defending this view; but we don’t have time to go into their arguments in any depth.  But let’s at least name and define the position:
> 
> <i>Anarchism</i> is the view that there is no moral justification for the state, i.e., there is no moral justification for government agents initiating force, and any monopoly that a government may have on the power to initiate force is <i>morally</i> <i>illegitimate</i>.
> 
> Now, if we’re going to answer our question, "What is the justification of the state?" then we had better have some reason to reject anarchism, because anarchism says there is <i>no</i> justification for the state.
> 
> But notice what anarchism <i>doesn’t</i> say.  The way I’ve defined it, anarchism does <i>not</i> say that a society with no government would <i>certainly</i> be better than a society with some particular kind of government, such as a constitutional, mixed-economy republic like the United States.  It just says that there is no <i>moral</i> <i>justification</i> for any state; <i>that’s</i> all it says.  But you have to admit -- it sounds kind of strange to say that the government could greatly improve the lives of its constituents, and yet have no moral justification.  I mean, if it <i>does</i> improve the lives of the people under its authority, isn’t <i>that</i> at least the beginnings of a justification?  The fact that the government does help everyone out, in various ways -- isn’t <i>that</i> what gives government a right to exist?  We’ll see about that later.
> 
> Notice another thing that anarchism doesn’t say.  As I’ve defined it, it doesn’t say that we ought to go out and overthrow governments.  It might be entirely morally wrong to revolt, <i>even</i> <i>though</i> there’s no moral justification for the state.  As experience has shown repeatedly, it almost always ends up doing far more harm than good, to try to overthrow the government violently.  Sometimes, as in the case of the American Revolution, it does some good; but of course, you’ll notice that in that case a government was established in the place of the rejected English colonial government.  It’s not like those American revolutionaries were fighting to establish a situation in which there was no government <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  Indeed, all revolts of any major size have been revolts aiming to <i>change</i> the government -- not to do away with all government entirely.  <i>That</i> would just be silly and destructive, I think.  I doubt I’m going very far out on a limb in saying that, either!
> 
> In saying that a state should do these things, we say that the state should have a monopoly on the legitimate use of force in an area.  <i>That</i> means that our <i>liberty</i> to do various things is infringed; the state must exercise authority over us, in order to protect our rights.  But liberty is a good thing, something desirable for various reasons.  So we should desire to give it up to a state only for <i>excellent</i> reasons.  Indeed, this raises the question: What, if anything, justifies any particular government’s removal of (some of) our liberties?  Because, remember, the people in the government are human beings like the rest of us; and thus <i>they</i> <i>too</i> are also apt to harm our rights, just as might happen if there were no state at all.  So it becomes pressing to explain <i>when</i> a state is legitimate, or <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> a particular state legitimate.
> 
> Now what anarchism (or, as it is also called,<i>theoretical</i> anarchism) does say, is that there is no way to give a moral justification for the state.  Government agents are <i>never</i> morally justified when they create a monopoly on the initiation of force within a given area.  <i>That’s</i> what anarchism says.
> 
> So it’s pretty clear how we can refute anarchism, right?  What we have to do is to <i>come</i> <i>up</i> <i>with</i> a moral justification for the state.  If you look at it like that, you can regard anarchism as a <i>challenge</i>: because it is what you are stuck with if you <i>fail</i> to adequately explain why the existence of government is morally justified.  So let’s get to work trying to explain that.
> 
> I’m going to discuss one first attempt to justify the state only very briefly.  We’ve already mentioned it: it’s called the <i>natural</i> <i>law</i> theory.  Now (as our text says), just by itself, the natural law theory does not offer any justification of the state.  Because all it says is that there is some set of natural laws, which specify rules of conduct that prescribe our natural duties and natural rights.  We can <i>say</i> all we like that there is some body of law that is natural or appropriate for humankind.  But it requires <i>separate</i> argument, <i>another</i> argument, to show that natural law requires that we establish a government; or to show that natural law can be enforced only if there is a government.  I mean, after all, what if something rather unusual should happen -- what if it turned out that the natural law <i>forbade</i> us from establishing any government?  What if government agents were <i>never</i> morally justified, by natural law, in initiating force against people?  If you think that’s just a ridiculous notion, then I just wonder how you’re going to argue for it.  One thing here at least is clear, and that is that some separate argument <i>is</i> required.  The mere assertion that there <i>is</i> a body of natural law doesn’t even come <i>close</i> to giving a moral justification of the state.
> 
> Now there <i>has</i> been a <i>version</i> of the natural law theory, which <i>did</i> include a justification for the state.  It’s something you’ve probably heard about -- the so-called "divine right of kings."  According to the doctrine of the divine right of kings, monarchs were justified in holding their power by a sort license from God.  Their rule was regarded as a reflection of natural law, which was, in the end, <i>God’s</i> law, God’s intentions for the political organization of human beings.
> 
> If you ever talk about "God-given rights," you are, probably unwittingly, continuing this ancient tradition of regarding natural law as God’s law about how we should be organized politically.  If you think it’s <i>God</i> that gives you the rights to life, liberty, and property, then to that extent at least, you are buying into this notion that God writes the rules in heaven, and our duty is to follow them.
> 
> But remember, if you can, what we said about theological ethics back when we were discussing the philosophy of religion.  The same point we made then applies again now.  We should ask: <i>Why</i> does God want us to establish governments that protect our God-given rights to life, liberty, and property?  I might, I suppose, sound impressive to some of you to say that God <i>does</i> want us to establish governments.  I won’t quarrel with that; if God exists, he probably does want us to establish governments!  And if God exists, then his wishes probably <i>are</i> as good as law!  The question in <i>any</i> case is why God <i>would</i> want us to establish governments.  Surely there’s something about human nature, and about the situation we find ourselves in, that would explain why God commands us to establish governments.  If there is any reason at all, it is <i>that</i> reason that <i>we</i> can use to justify the existence of the state.  And in a way then -- not to be impious -- we can as it were bypass God.  We can bypass God <i>in</i> <i>giving</i> <i>our</i> <i>explanation</i> of why the state ought to exist.  Because we can say, simply: "Our reason for thinking that the state should exist is just the same as God’s reason, which is X."  Then we just have to fill in the X!
> 
> But of course, that’s the whole problem to begin with.  We aren’t any further along in discovering the justification of the state than when we started.  So let’s consider some <i>positive</i> <i>theories</i> about why the state is justified.
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< See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; 
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> See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; SocialContractTheories; 
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SocialContractTheories|981082751
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> Let’s begin with the social contract theory -- or rather social contract <i>theories</i>, because there are several variations on the same theme.  This is going to take a while to explain, so let me introduce a definition of "social contract theory" to give you an idea of what I’m going to introduce:
> 
> A <i>social</i> <i>contract</i> <i>theory</i> of the state is any theory which says that the existence of the state is morally justified by some sort of <i>agreement</i>, often called a "social contract," that is said hold among the residents of a particular geographical area over which the state has authority.
> 
> Sometimes this theory is called <i>contractarianism</i>.  In order to explain what the social contract theory (or contractarianism) says, I’m going to have to explain what this "agreement" among residents of an area is supposed to amount to -- that is, I’m going to have to explain to you what a social contract is supposed to be.  But before I do that, it will be useful to explain first why this contract is supposed to be necessary at all.
> 
> The 17th-century English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, is famous for presenting a sort of useful fiction in political philosophy, called <i>the</i> <i>state</i> <i>of</i> <i>nature</i>.  The state of nature is, basically, the condition we all would be in if government did not exist.  The way it’s <i>sometimes</i> presented, it’s the condition <i>before</i> the rule of law comes into being.  Some have thought, I suppose, that there <i>was</i> a time before any government, any official monopoly on the initiation of the use of force, came into being.  I think that what we know about the social behavior of indigenous peoples in undeveloped countries shows that that might be wrong in point of historical fact.  It is very rare, indeed, that a group of people <i>lacks</i> anything like a government at all, even if the "government" consists only of tribal elders.  That’s why I say the state of nature is a "useful fiction."
> 
> Hobbes -- and others -- invites us to consider what the state of nature would be like.  There are, of course, different views about the matter, but Hobbes’ view is perhaps the most famous.  He thought that the state of nature, the condition of having no government, would in effect be the war of all against all.  We would all be fighting amongst ourselves for scarce resources, grabbing whatever we can.  "The life of man," Hobbes said, would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."  Sounds pretty miserable.
> 
> To make things worse, people in the state of nature, according to Hobbes, could not even correctly appeal to any sort of <i>higher</i> justice.  There would be no justice at all, Hobbes thought -- because without law, and an institution to <i>enforce</i> law, there would be no such thing as justice.  A mother could murder her child and that would be perfectly just.  Why?  Because there would be no law forbidding such a thing.  So Hobbes thought that, in order to <i>have</i> justice, there be a law.  If there is no <i>actual</i> law against murder, then murder is not unjust.
> 
> Now, you may disagree with Hobbes about <i>how</i> bad a state of nature might be; but in any case I think we can agree that it wouldn’t be a walk in the park.  Basically, what we’re talking about here is <i>anarchy</i>.  I think it’s not too clear <i>what</i> life would be like in such a state; but I do think it’s pretty clear it wouldn’t be very nice.  Now to be sure, there are some people -- only <i>some</i> of the people who call themselves "anarchists" -- who think that the state of nature would definitely be better than any situation where there is a government.  But the vast majority of people, including most of you I would be willing to predict, would say that the state of nature would be very nasty and brutish indeed, just as Hobbes said.
> 
> Think of it like this: What if you couldn’t call the police when you’re being burglarized or threatened by someone?  What if criminals had only <i>you</i> to fear when they came to take your stuff?  Then they might simply band together into gangs, a few of them against one of you, and you’d be at their mercy.  Yep, that’s how <i>I</i> think it would be: the weak constantly at the mercy of roving bands of thugs.
> 
> "Now wait just a second," you might say.  "If the thugs join forces in order to take my stuff, then what’s to say <i>I</i> wouldn’t join forces with other peaceful, right-respecting people, to <i>stop</i> them from taking my stuff?  We would all agree to protect each other; if one of us is attacked, then the others will defend.  All for one and one for all."  Well, you might do that.  You might form a sort of defensive league.  But what if a gang sees this happening and gets more recruits, and consequently totally outnumbers and overpowers your defensive league?
> 
> "Well then," you might reply, "in that case, I’d try to get more people for the defensive league.  We would all agree to defend each other, or at least to buy guns and supplies for people who will protect us.  Perhaps my league would band together with other peaceful, rights-respecting leagues.  In the end, surely there are more peaceful, rights-respecting people on earth than there are criminally-minded types.  So we’ll able to defend ourselves from them."
> 
> Now that’s kind of interesting, because it’s not clear that we’re talking the state of nature anymore.  If you do indeed successfully recruit <i>enough</i> people for your defensive league, and otherwise band together like-minded people who agree to protect each other from criminals, then your defensive league has become a <i>government</i>.  Maybe not the sort complex, enormous government the United States now has, with a budget of over $1 trillion a year, but a government nonetheless.
> 
> This line of thinking is at the heart of the social contract theory.  The dangers of the state of nature are great; and so we all agree to give up <i>some</i> of our liberty in exchange for the promise of protection by others.  That agreement is what makes the government’s monopoly on the initiation of force <i>morally</i> <i>legitimate</i>.  In other words, it’s <i>our</i> <i>agreement</i> that gives government agents the right to reserve certain kinds of power for themselves; they are, ultimately, not just <i>government</i> agents, but <i>our</i> agents.  They govern by the consent of the governed.  You’ve heard that before -- well, social contract theory is where that catchphrase comes from.
> 
> So what exactly does this "agreement" amount to, anyway?  Do social contract theorists actually say that we <i>have</i>, <i>in</i> <i>fact</i>, agreed to give up some of our liberties so that the government can exist?  If I <i>did</i> <i>in</i> <i>fact</i> agree to this at some point, as an adult citizen of the United States, then where is my signature, or my oath?  I am not aware of ever having made an oath of citizenship.  I guess I recited the Pledge of Allegiance many times as a child; but I’m not sure that counts.
> 
> What Hobbes said isn’t that there is an <i>actual</i> agreement that any of us actually have made.  It’s a <i>hypothetical</i> agreement.  Now what does that mean -- "hypothetical" agreement?  As I understand it, a hypothetical agreement to establish a state is an agreement that I <i>would</i> make, if I <i>were</i> living in a state of nature, and someone made an offer to set up a government in that situation.  To say that I <i>would</i> agree to the establishment of a government in the state of nature is not to say that I <i>have</i> agreed, at any time, to the establishment of the <i>actual</i> government that <i>actually</i> exists.  As far as Hobbes is concerned, in the end, that’s irrelevant.  What gives the state the right to exist is the fact that I <i>would</i> agree to establish it, and to give up the liberty I would have, in the state of nature, to initiate force.  And of course the reason I’d agree to this is that it would be greatly to my advantage.  I’d much rather sleep peacefully, thinking that criminals are not <i>easily</i> going to be able to harm me and take my stuff.  So, sure -- I’d agree to the establishment of a government.  Well if so, then I am party to a <i>hypothetical</i> agreement, which is called a "social contract."  I do agree to give up the liberty to initiate force, and in exchange for that I expect to receive protection from the government; and I <i>do</i> have this hypothetical agreement because I <i>would</i> agree to an offer to establish a government, if I found myself in the state of nature.  That’s basically what Hobbes said.
> 
> John Locke, another Englishman who wrote about fifty years after Hobbes, disagreed with Hobbes about the social contract.  For one thing, he didn’t think the state of nature would be as bad as Hobbes envisioned.  That’s a point we needn’t dwell on though.  Locke also didn’t think that the social contract was a <i>hypothetical</i> agreement; he thought it was an <i>actual</i> agreement.  We <i>actually</i> have agreed to follow the laws of a government if we were born and raised, and come into adulthood in the country over which the government has authority.  This is all the more the case if we take any action, such as voting or paying taxes, that requires us to acknowledge that the government is in place.  So for Locke, it’s an <i>actual</i> social contract that we have; not an ordinary contract of the sort that one signs, of course, but a binding agreement nonetheless.  And it is that actual binding agreement, which we show we have when we vote for example, that gives the government its right the monopoly of the initiation of force.
> 
> In fact, Socrates, the first major philosopher in Western philosophy, believed in this <i>very</i> <i>principle</i> so strongly that he was willing to <i>die</i> for it.  He thought that he had an agreement with the city of Athens to follow its laws; so if the city of Athens sentenced him to death, he thought he had a strict moral obligation to carry out his sentence and die; he thought it was absolutely forbidden that he escape, even though everyone expected him to.  And the reason he thought so is that he thought he had that explicit agreement with the city of Athens.  And you thought philosophy didn’t have any practical applications!
> 
> So there is a very brief introduction to the social contract theory.  There are other versions too, like those of Rousseau and, within the last thirty years, the American John Rawls.    But it’s not like the social contract theory doesn’t have its problems and challenges.  I’m only going to mention two.
> 
> First, there’s the problem of the people who <i>don’t</i> want to make the agreement, or who <i>wouldn’t</i> even in the state of nature -- the problem of dissenters, if you will.  Say we’re in the state of nature and someone comes knocking on my door and says, "We’ve got this great deal going, all you have to do is sign on the dotted line, promise not to attack anyone, and we will protect you from thieves and other criminals."  Well, what if I close the door, saying that I’m not interested?  Is Hobbes really saying that <i>everyone</i> would, in the state of nature, sign on to the establishment of a government?  I mean, <i>would</i> they?  If Hobbes <i>is</i> saying that, he’s really quite naïve!  Lots of people just don’t know what’s <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>them</i>.
> 
> So suppose that I <i>wouldn’t</i> agree to the establishment of a government, in the state of nature.  "I will take care of myself, thank you very much, and you and your government can go jump off a cliff" -- that’s what I’d say when the offer is made.  Then here’s the problem: Do I have any obligation <i>not</i> to initiate force, according to the social contract theorist?  Apparently not.  Because the only thing that obligates me to give up my liberty to initiate force is that agreement.  If I don’t make it, or I wouldn’t make it, then it looks like I’m still perfectly free to aggressively assert my will over other people, if I so desire.  I have no agreement, so I would not recognize any government as being legitimate.  And as far as I’m concerned, any government that tries to control me is, in fact, illegitimate.  I never agreed, and never would agree, to give up any of my liberties to it.
> 
> Now, how can social contract theorist reply to this?  It’s a common objection, and it’s rather difficult to answer.  One thing that makes it particularly difficult is that the social contract theorist has to appeal to something <i>else</i>, in order to explain why dissenters <i>are</i> morally obligated to give up their freedom to initiate force.  Surely, if I start a cult and move out to Montana and say I owe no allegiance to the United States, just about everyone here, I think, would say that I <i>do</i> <i>indeed</i> owe allegiance to the United States.  No matter what I say.  Even if deny that I owe any allegiance -- even if I explicitly deny having any sort of social contract with the United States at all.  So, if you do want to say that I owe allegiance to the United States, then it’s not a contract, real or imaginary, that’s binding on me; it must be something else.  The social contract theory, by itself, doesn’t <i>say</i> what else.
> 
> Here’s a second problem for the social contract theory.  What if we start a dandy little government, but then it gets out of hand.  It grows larger and ever more powerful, and more and more authoritarian, until it is arresting and executing people merely for openly disagreeing with government policies, and becomes an all-out totalitarian state.  This has, of course, happened all too many times throughout the course of human history; and it almost certainly will happen again, if not United States, then in some other country that we now regard as relatively civilized and moral.
> 
> So, naturally, even if we do have, at present, an actual or hypothetical agreement with our country, there may come a time when we will want to <i>dissolve</i> the agreement.  So one problem, which is a <i>practical</i> problem, is <i>when</i> we should dissolve the agreement with a government; <i>when</i> we may legitimately declare that we are <i>not</i> morally bound to do what the government says.  If the United States government were to become a totally vicious totalitarian dictatorship -- not something that can be expected to happen anytime soon, but it could eventually -- then at what point would you be morally justified in defying the government?
> 
> That’s one problem but it’s not the objection to social contractarianism.  After all, philosophers like Locke are very well aware that in some situations we may want to break ties with a government; in fact, Locke’s theory on that subject was followed by American revolutionaries in breaking ties with the English government.  The problem for social contractarianism, however, comes in attempting to state the <i>justification</i> of breaking ties with a government.  Surely, we would be justified in defying <i>some</i> governments that might arise.  That seems clearly true.  The question now is <i>why</i> we would be so justified -- what would justify us.
> 
> All that the social contract theory says is that, <i>if</i> we are party to a social contract, then we’re morally bound to give up our liberty to initiate force, and the government that is given that same liberty is legitimate.  That’s all the social contract theory says; so by itself, it doesn’t give us any clear grounds on which to <i>dissolve</i> a social contract.
> 
> And for that matter, why don’t we ask what sort of grounds justified you in agreeing to the social contract in the <i>first</i> place?  Why was that agreement something that, morally, you ought to participate in?  Surely you <i>should</i> participate in a social contract under some circumstances -- if you think it’s very likely that the government will be to everyone’s benefit, for example.  If that’s the reason, we’re getting close to a totally different justification of the state: <i>consequentialist</i> justifications.  So let’s look at that next.
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PoliticalPhilosophy|981082787
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> See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; SocialContractTheories; ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState; ThePurposeOfGovernment
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ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState|981082803
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> Suppose I argue as follows.  "The social contract theory is just <i>incomplete</i>.  It doesn’t answer some very crucial questions about the justification of the state.  Now, I think I have the answers to those questions.  For example, one question is: Why is an irrational, or criminal, dissenter nonetheless obligated to follow the laws of a good government?  Answer: because it’s to the <i>benefit</i> of everyone, including the dissenter, that everyone else follows the laws of a good government.  In other words, it’s the <i>good</i> <i>consequences</i> of giving up the liberty to initiate force to a government that makes giving up that liberty the right thing to do.
> 
> "Or consider that second question: What justifies us in breaking the social contract?  Clearly, if we’re trying to escape the rule of a vicious, immoral, totalitarian government, it is our own self-interest, and indeed the interest of everyone in society (with the <i>possible</i> exception of government thugs) that makes revolution morally permissible, and in some cases morally <i>obligatory</i>.  So even if we do have a social contract with the state, the morality of that contract itself can be defended only on consequentialist grounds: only on grounds that the contract is beneficial.  When the continuation of that contract becomes clearly harmful to us, we have the right and even the duty to break it.  And it’s the fact that a contract with a vicious government <i>is</i> harmful that gives us the right and duty to break the contract."
> 
> I think that, after the chapter about ethics, you can see where this is going.  Basically, it is the application of consequentialism to the problem of the justification of government.  What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Ultimately, the justification is the simple fact that that has good consequences -- or at least <i>can</i> have good consequences.  No one would deny that there are corrupt, bad governments.  But giving <i>good</i> governments a monopoly on the initiation of force <i>is</i> morally justified, and not, ultimately, by a social contract, but instead by the clear beneficial consequences of such obediance.  So consider a definition:
> 
> A <i>consequentialist</i> theory of (the justification of) the state is any theory which says that the existence of some states is morally justified by the comparatively <i>beneficial</i> <i>consequences</i> of giving those states a monopoly on the initiation of force.
> 
> The consequentialist can talk about the state of nature just like the social contract theory; it’s just that the consequentialist responds to the horror story about the state of nature differently from the social contract theorist.  The social contract theorist says, for example: "In the state of nature, we would agree to give up some of our liberties to a government, and that is why the existence of government is (or can be) legitimate."  The consequentialist, by contrast, says: "In the state of nature, we would suffer all sorts of inconveniences and harms, and it would be a hard life all around; it would be far better, more beneficial to us individually <i>and</i> collectively, to have at least <i>some</i> manner of government."  So the consequentialist just bypasses this talk of social contracts; or else it gives a moral justification of social contracts, just as it gives a moral justification of government itself, on consequentialist grounds.  That is, solely based on considerations about the good and bad consequences of entering into a social contract, or establishing a government.
> 
> Now, remember that there are <i>different</i> <i>varieties</i> of consequentialism; the three varieties I mentioned are egoism, utilitarianism, and hybrid consequentialism.  Very plausible moral justifications can be given for the existence of the state <i>regardless</i> of which kind of consequentialism it is that you choose.  Even egoism: I can, as an egoist, very well acknowledge that it is to <i>my</i> <i>own</i> <i>individual</i> <i>benefit</i> to give up merely the liberty to initiate force, and perhaps some tax money, in exchange for protection of his rights from a government that has a monopoly on the initiation of force.  And then of course what’s good for the goose is good for the gander: it’s even easier to argue on <i>utilitarian</i> grounds that government is a necessary institution.  (That version could be called "social utilitarianism," which is Halverson’s term.)
> 
> Now there are some people who are <i>thoroughly</i> dissatisfied with this justification of the state.  As Halverson says, this just seems like a mere "practical" or "pragmatic" justification of the existence of the state, rather than a "theoretical" justification.  Consequences -- those are mere "practical" considerations.  I don’t know if you can understand that, but <i>I</i> can’t.  Honestly, what is the difference between a <i>practical</i> and a <i>theoretical</i> justification?  I don’t know.  I understand a related sort of distinction, when it comes to some problems in mathematics and science.  On the one hand, there is theory, the equations, and so forth; and on the other hand, there are particular problems from everyday life that the theory is used solve, and those are practical problems.  That’s a distinction that makes some sense to me.  But what is this distinction between practical and theoretical <i>justifications</i>?  When is a justification "practical," and when is it "theoretical"?
> 
> Or, suppose you think that the distinction between practical and theoretical justifications is clear enough, and you don’t need to explain it.  Then I have a couple of other questions for you.  First, why isn’t a consequentialist justification of the state theoretical?  Consequentialism is a <i>theory</i>, isn’t it?  So then why <i>wouldn’t</i> justification that is based on consequentialism be a <i>theoretical</i> justification?  Second, even if the consequentialist justification of the state is practical, is a <i>practical</i> justification <i>any</i> <i>less</i> <i>successful</i> for being practical?  Isn’t a successful practical justification <i>way</i> better than a shaky theoretical justification?  I mean, isn’t there a case to be made that, everything else being equal, we should <i>prefer</i> the practical to the theoretical?  I think there is.  But of course, to make that case, we would have to have a clearer distinction between practical and theoretical justifications; and I’m not sure that it can be made any clearer.
> 
> Consider next a second objection to the consequentialist justification of the state.  Recall what the good old anarchist says: power corrupts, and any government is bound ultimately to abuse its power.  So even on consequentialist grounds, we should not say that governments have a right to exist; the anarchist maintains that they have no right to exist at all, and they exist only because they have successfully seized power from individuals.
> 
> Here is a way for the consequentialist to reply.  Of course, some states are thoroughly corrupt and indeed they have no right to exist; they do abuse their power, infringing those essential rights that it’s supposed to be protecting, and so forth.  And it <i>might</i> even be true that all governments, over time, are made more and more corrupt by the power they hold; and that it is only revolution that can make a government good again.  That <i>might</i> be true, although I kind of doubt it.  But even if it <i>is</i> true, there can be periods of decades or even centuries during which a people can thrive under a <i>good</i> government.  The fact, if it is a fact, that that good government is going to become corrupt eventually does <i>not</i> mean that the people who thrive under the government <i>today</i> owe no allegiance to it.  Indeed, it makes sense to say that they <i>do</i> owe allegiance to that government, so long as the government is not <i>thoroughly</i> corrupt -- so long as it is not so corrupt that people would be warranted in overthrowing it.
> 
> So the anarchist argues that because some governments are bad, and because all governments <i>tend</i> to become bad, therefore <i>no</i> government is justified.  But that just doesn’t follow.  I can maintain, perfectly consistently, that some governments are bad, and all governments <i>tend</i> to become bad, but also that some governments are good and perfectly justified in their existence.
> 
> What I have <i>yet</i> to do is actually to give you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  All I’ve done so far is <i>asserted</i>, made the bald assertion without argument, that establishing at least <i>some</i> governments would, on the whole, create more good than bad for those under its authority.  But to be honest, I’m not, or not yet, prepared to give you an argument for that assertion.  Because in order to argue for it, I’d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  And that’s the next question we’re going to consider, although we’ll consider it only very briefly.
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ThePurposeOfGovernment|981082834
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< Describe the new page here.
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> Now remember that I started the chapter by distinguishing <i>two</i> senses in which we can understand the question, "What is the justification of the state?"  The first was: "What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?"  The second was: "What is the justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>to</i> <i>achieve</i> <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>purpose</i>, <i>P</i>?"  Now, we just got done discussing the first question.  We briefly considered anarchism and the natural law theory, and then looked at social contract theories in a little more depth.  Then, tentatively as usual, I came down in favor of a consequentialist justification for having a state at all.  But then I said that I had <i>not</i> given you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  And the reason I said that was that, in order to give a consequentialist argument for establishing a government, I’d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  Because if I’m going to try to give a moral justification of the existence of government, then I had better begin by making things easy for myself -- starting, in other words, with the task of trying to justify a <i>really</i> <i>good</i> state.  And what is a good state?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it doesn’t do anything else.  And as I said, that just makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do -- what their proper functions are, and are not.
> 
> You might say, "I thought we already figured that out.  The purpose of the state is to protect rights and to preserve justice."  Well fine: but question is, <i>which</i> rights?  <i>What</i> <i>sort</i> of justice?  There are, after all, many different conceptions of what rights we have, and what justice consists of.
> 
> Indeed, it’s on <i>those</i> questions that you’ll find the differences between conservatives, welfare state liberals, libertarians, socialists, and fascists.  There are a handful of anarchists among the libertarians and the socialists (certain kinds of communists are anarchists, believe it or not).  But everyone else agrees that the existence of <i>some</i> kind of government is morally justified.  And then what they disagree about is what government should do.  Nearly everyone is willing to nod their heads when it is said that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and preserve justice.  It’s just that all these different camps have a different conceptions of which rights we do have, and what justice consists of.
> 
> One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: libertarianism, which wants the state to do only a few things, and socialism, which wants the state to do a lot of things.
> 
> Libertarianism, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  There are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it doesn’t hurt anyone else.  Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarianism, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government’s main imperative should be: Hands off!
> 
> Socialism, nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "communism"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
> 
> Obviously, we do not have the time to weigh the merits of libertarianism and socialism, or any other theories about the function of government.  I just want you to understand that <i>once</i> we have given some justification for the existence of the state at all, we are faced with the question of what governments are morally justified in doing, which is another way of saying what their purposes or functions should be.  As you can see, this turns to be one of the most important questions, not only of philosophy, but of any inquiry.
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AnarchY|981082841
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A political system in which there is no government.
> 
> The term anarchy is used to describe two essentially opposite political views, one which supports social order, the other which opposes it.
> 
> The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
> 
> The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
------
HistoryOfLevant|981082882
37c37
< Blah blah Parthians, Sassanids, blah.
---
> The seleucids adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and the Greeks who had migrated to the east.  During the second century BC the Greek culture lost ground there, and the empire began to break apart.  The province of Bactria revolted, and Parthia was conquered by the semi-nomadic Parni.  By 141 BC the Parthians had established themselves as an empire, after the Seleucid model, and had conquered all of Iran and Mesopotamia.  The Seleucid kingdom continued to decline and its remaining provinces were annexed by the RomanRepublic in 64 BC.
38a39
> Blah blah Sassanids blah.
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PoLitics|981082893
8c8
< * Capitalism
---
> * CapitalisM
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JimboWales|981083262
5a6,12
> ----
> 
> <note from=PhillipHankins>  Thanks for the good tidings.  I actually gave a little thought to the benifit of people being able to find me easy.  But then I remembered that people can check the other revisions and find who has been working on a page that way.  And I didn't what to presume any ownership since larry had done some stuff... kinda unwiki, if you will.
> 
> It would be neat if people who wanted to help organize a page signed the bottom so as to spur communication betwixt themselves.  But again, I imagine the revision list is almost as good.  Your point about people finding other stuff I've worked on is the best reason and I hadn't thought of that.  Maybe I'll check around to see what others think of such topics.
> </note>
> ----
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ThePurposeOfGovernment|981083401
13c13,15
< Obviously, we do not have the time to weigh the merits of libertarianism and socialism, or any other theories about the function of government.  I just want you to understand that <i>once</i> we have given some justification for the existence of the state at all, we are faced with the question of what governments are morally justified in doing, which is another way of saying what their purposes or functions should be.  As you can see, this turns to be one of the most important questions, not only of philosophy, but of any inquiry.
---
> Obviously, we do not have the time to weigh the merits of libertarianism and socialism, or any other theories about the function of government.  I just want you to understand that <i>once</i> we have given some justification for the existence of the state at all, we are faced with the question of what governments are morally justified in doing, which is another way of saying what their purposes or functions should be.  As you can see, this turns to be one of the most important questions, not only of philosophy, but of any inquiry.
> 
> '''Quibble:''' Socialism doesn't refer to a level of government control, merely to a level of economic equality.  It would be difficult to say all fascist governments are socialist.  And on the other hand, anarchism is sometimes libertarian socialism.
------
LarrysText|981083491
1c1,11
< All these pages I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
---
> All these pages I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
> ----
> OK, here's the deal:
> * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  So, help me do that.  ''Don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
> * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  You should de-opinionate these, if you can.  (This, like much other but not all improvement, will have to be done by philosophers who know the issues.)
> * I have saved the text in section-sized chunks, but I think it could have been saved in much smaller chunks.  If you want to do that, that would be Very Cool.
> * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  If you want to help totally wikify this text, you would remove all that stuff.  Please?
> * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles should be changed, or the entirety of a certain page should be split up and put on other pages.  I leave that to you.
> * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to WikiPedia.  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and it took me all of an hour to upload them to the wiki!  So I won't mind, really!
> 
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981083837
7c7,9
< I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. -- LarrySanger
---
> I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. 
> 
> I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now WikiPedia has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- LarrySanger
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TheProblemOfEvil|981083901
35,37c35
< Similar things can be said about premise (4).  "If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent."  That also seems incontrovertibly true.  If there is anything that God can’t do, anything that doesn’t involve a contradiction anyway, then God isn’t omnipotent.  What it means to be omnipotent is to be able to do everything.  If God were omnipotent then he could certainly eliminate evil.  So I think both premises (3) and (4) have to be accepted.
< 
< '''Note:''' Statement 4 is not quite as obvious as it is being made out to be, and in fact the reason has been pointed out: "that doesn't involve a contradiction."  It is often maintained that we live in the best of all possible worlds, so that any change would be a local improvement to global detriment.  I'm not endorsing this view, of course, but I think it means that we should be a little more cautious on that point.
---
> Similar things can be said about premise (4).  "If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent."  That also seems incontrovertibly true.  If there is anything that God can’t do, anything that doesn’t involve a contradiction anyway, then God isn’t omnipotent.  It is sometimes held that to eliminate evil ''would'' result in a contradiction - that is, we live in the best of all possible worlds.  However, without a lot more justification this can be ignored for the time being.  If God were omnipotent then he could certainly eliminate evil.  So I think both premises (3) and (4) have to be accepted.
51c49
< So after going over each premise of the argument from evil, we have found just <i>one</i> premise, namely (5), that gives us substantial hope of escaping the conclusion.  As I said, maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>theodicy</i>.  A theodicy is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  And mind you, in order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.  I think that when I put it this way, this is a topic you may have thought a fair amount about; maybe some of you already have views about it.
---
> So after going over each premise of the argument from evil, we have found just <i>one</i> premise, namely (5), and ''perhaps'' also statement 4, that gives us substantial hope of escaping the conclusion.  As I said, maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>theodicy</i>.  A theodicy is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  And mind you, in order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.  I think that when I put it this way, this is a topic you may have thought a fair amount about; maybe some of you already have views about it.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|981083971
15c15
< '''Quibble:''' Socialism doesn't refer to a level of government control, merely to a level of economic equality.  It would be difficult to say all fascist governments are socialist.  And on the other hand, anarchism is sometimes libertarian socialism.
---
> '''Quibble:''' Socialism doesn't refer to a level of government control, merely to a level of economic equality.  It would be difficult to say all fascist governments are socialist.  And on the other hand, anarchism is sometimes libertarian socialism.  I would fix this but I don't know the actual term...maybe despotism suffices, but it has a lot of connotations associated therewith.
------
CapitalisM|981084054
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Often capitalism is part of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society.
> 
> A capitalist economy has many features, including businesses operating on the profit motive, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
> 
> No economy in history has been purely capitalist in the sense of having a complete absence of political intervention.  In fact, the idea that an economy could be free of political intervention apparently did not occur to anyone until the late 18th century.  This makes capitalism one of the more radical ideas in human history.
> 
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayrk, and MiltonFriedman.
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CapitalisM|981084112
7c7
< Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayrk, and MiltonFriedman.
---
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman.
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PhilosophyOfLanguage|981084149
2c2
< 
---
> ----
19a20,22
> 
> --LarrysText
> ----
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LarrysText|981084350
11c11,13
< I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
---
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
> ----
> Could the portions of text be marked with a link to here until they are wiki'ed?  I stumbled into the PhilosophyOfLanguage lecture, with its references to 'earlier' lectures and all...  The msec of confusion was fun and all, but labeling might help.  --PhillipHankins
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LarrysText|981084425
5a6
> * Please render my prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
13a15,16
> ----
> Yes, I'll do this if someone doesn't beat me to the punch. -- LarrySanger
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PhilosophyOfLanguage|981084472
2a3,4
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>
> 
20,22d21
< 
< --LarrysText
< ----
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PhilosophicalMethod|981084530
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
115c117
< Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
---
> Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
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TheoryOfConduct|981084559
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
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TheoryOfValue|981084608
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
147c149
< I hope, after all this, you can see why I say that the theory of value has an excellent claim on being the most important area of philosophy.  So much else in life rests on the theory of value that we accept.  Crucial life decisions you make, and the habits you develop, and your deepest political convictions all ultimately rest on the theory of value you adopt.
---
> I hope, after all this, you can see why I say that the theory of value has an excellent claim on being the most important area of philosophy.  So much else in life rests on the theory of value that we accept.  Crucial life decisions you make, and the habits you develop, and your deepest political convictions all ultimately rest on the theory of value you adopt.
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ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState|981084637
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
23c25
< What I have <i>yet</i> to do is actually to give you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  All I’ve done so far is <i>asserted</i>, made the bald assertion without argument, that establishing at least <i>some</i> governments would, on the whole, create more good than bad for those under its authority.  But to be honest, I’m not, or not yet, prepared to give you an argument for that assertion.  Because in order to argue for it, I’d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  And that’s the next question we’re going to consider, although we’ll consider it only very briefly.
---
> What I have <i>yet</i> to do is actually to give you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  All I’ve done so far is <i>asserted</i>, made the bald assertion without argument, that establishing at least <i>some</i> governments would, on the whole, create more good than bad for those under its authority.  But to be honest, I’m not, or not yet, prepared to give you an argument for that assertion.  Because in order to argue for it, I’d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  And that’s the next question we’re going to consider, although we’ll consider it only very briefly.
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DefinitionOfPhilosophy|981084747
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
31c33
< I’m not going to tell you that this is a perfect definition, because I’m sure it isn’t.  But I think it should give you a pretty good idea of what "philosophy" means.
---
> I’m not going to tell you that this is a perfect definition, because I’m sure it isn’t.  But I think it should give you a pretty good idea of what "philosophy" means.
------
DefinitionOfLogic|981084843
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
51c53
< Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you’ll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that’s not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It’s just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
---
> Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you’ll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that’s not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It’s just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
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LarrysText|981084985
16c16,20
< Yes, I'll do this if someone doesn't beat me to the punch. -- LarrySanger
---
> Yes, I'll do this if someone doesn't beat me to the punch. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Since you agreed, I've taken started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  --PhillipHankins
> 
> 
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LarrysText|981085001
18c18
< Since you agreed, I've taken started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  --PhillipHankins
---
> Since you agreed, I've started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  --PhillipHankins
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LarrysText|981085239
18c18
< Since you agreed, I've started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  --PhillipHankins
---
> Since you agreed, I've started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  Maybe there should be "remove this notice" or something... then again, surely wiki editors know that sort of thing.  --PhillipHankins
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DeductionAndInduction|981085343
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
131c133
< Learning the construction, identification, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments are all important parts of learning logic, and well worth practicing, but in this course we won’t have time to do that.  We will, as is the case with a lot of philosophy, have learn those things by <i>doing</i>.  But there is, after all, a <i>great</i> deal that one can learn about logic by doing it.
---
> Learning the construction, identification, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments are all important parts of learning logic, and well worth practicing, but in this course we won’t have time to do that.  We will, as is the case with a lot of philosophy, have learn those things by <i>doing</i>.  But there is, after all, a <i>great</i> deal that one can learn about logic by doing it.
------
ArgumentForms|981085381
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
119c121
< Basically we’re told that it has to be one or the other that’s true; then we’re told that it’s not the one; so we infer that it has to be the other that’s true.
---
> Basically we’re told that it has to be one or the other that’s true; then we’re told that it’s not the one; so we infer that it has to be the other that’s true.
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|981085418
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
75c77
< That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I’m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you’re giving the definition.
---
> That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I’m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you’re giving the definition.
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IdentityAndChange|981085467
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
53c55
< Well, that’s all I wanted to say about identity and change -- two sample relations.  There are a lot of topics in metaphysics we haven’t considered at all.  But we have at least understood some basic facts about our red apple.  We can say: when we say the red apple exists, we means that it is located in space and time, in the world that we are part of.  The apple itself, we might say, is a substance, and its redness is a property.  The redness of the apple is a trope, which resembles the redness of playground balls and flowers.  And though the apple can get soft and rotten while remaining the same apple, once it’s eaten, it is destroyed.
---
> Well, that’s all I wanted to say about identity and change -- two sample relations.  There are a lot of topics in metaphysics we haven’t considered at all.  But we have at least understood some basic facts about our red apple.  We can say: when we say the red apple exists, we means that it is located in space and time, in the world that we are part of.  The apple itself, we might say, is a substance, and its redness is a property.  The redness of the apple is a trope, which resembles the redness of playground balls and flowers.  And though the apple can get soft and rotten while remaining the same apple, once it’s eaten, it is destroyed.
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MetaphysicsAndOntology|981085546
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< In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
---
> In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
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ProblemOfSubstance|981085568
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< Philosophers have talked, as you might have guessed, about both <i>physical</i> substances, or bodies, and <i>mental</i> substance, or minds.  And as I think you can see, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.  I’m going to have to leave the discussion there, as difficult as it is.
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> Philosophers have talked, as you might have guessed, about both <i>physical</i> substances, or bodies, and <i>mental</i> substance, or minds.  And as I think you can see, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.  I’m going to have to leave the discussion there, as difficult as it is.
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WhatIsGod|981085649
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< Let me be fair to the theists among us now.  I am quite sure that defenders of traditional religions including Christianity would, after our discussion so far, want to say that the no concept view is unduly critical, fastidious, or exacting.  Such people will, I suppose, either believe that moderate mysticism is correct, and provides a sufficiently clear notion of God for human purposes; or that spiritual anthropomorphism is correct, and that it really does give us a way to conceive of the divine mind.
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> Let me be fair to the theists among us now.  I am quite sure that defenders of traditional religions including Christianity would, after our discussion so far, want to say that the no concept view is unduly critical, fastidious, or exacting.  Such people will, I suppose, either believe that moderate mysticism is correct, and provides a sufficiently clear notion of God for human purposes; or that spiritual anthropomorphism is correct, and that it really does give us a way to conceive of the divine mind.
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FaithAndRationality|981085669
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< This is all just food for thought for you; as always you have the right to think whatever you like.  All right, that’s all I’m going to say about the rationality of faith.  Next what I am going to talk about are some positive reasons to believe that God exists -- in other words, <i>arguments</i> which have as their conclusion the claim, "God exists."
---
> This is all just food for thought for you; as always you have the right to think whatever you like.  All right, that’s all I’m going to say about the rationality of faith.  Next what I am going to talk about are some positive reasons to believe that God exists -- in other words, <i>arguments</i> which have as their conclusion the claim, "God exists."
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TheCosmologicalArgument|981085690
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< I think you can see that, all together, these different replies to the cosmological argument make it difficult for the argument’s defender to hold onto it.  I’m not saying that that can’t be done, because some religious philosophers have indeed used this argument and come up with elaborate replies to the objections I’ve raised.
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> I think you can see that, all together, these different replies to the cosmological argument make it difficult for the argument’s defender to hold onto it.  I’m not saying that that can’t be done, because some religious philosophers have indeed used this argument and come up with elaborate replies to the objections I’ve raised.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981085710
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< Finally, there are questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we’re conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.  So they say.  But again, that’s only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.
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> Finally, there are questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we’re conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.  So they say.  But again, that’s only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.
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TheoryOfJustification|981085729
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< If P isn’t justified, then it sure can’t justify Q.  The only way that P could justify Q is if P is itself first justified.
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> If P isn’t justified, then it sure can’t justify Q.  The only way that P could justify Q is if P is itself first justified.
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TheMindBodyProblem|981085750
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< In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
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> In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
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AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory|981085776
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< But of course, that’s the whole problem to begin with.  We aren’t any further along in discovering the justification of the state than when we started.  So let’s consider some <i>positive</i> <i>theories</i> about why the state is justified.
---
> But of course, that’s the whole problem to begin with.  We aren’t any further along in discovering the justification of the state than when we started.  So let’s consider some <i>positive</i> <i>theories</i> about why the state is justified.
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PhilosophyOfPerception|981085794
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< The topic of mental images is very complicated and controversial, but I will tell you my own view about it, which is again similar to Reid’s, just to bring this discussion to some closure.  My own view is that in fact, in <i>some</i> sense, we <i>do</i> <i>indeed</i> have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, and dream, and hallucinate, and use our imaginations.  But when we actually perceive things, in no sense whatsoever can our sensory images, or sensations, if you will (that’s Reid’s word), be considered the <i>objects</i> of perception, or attention, at all.  The only objects of perception are external objects.  Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it’s wrong to say we <i>perceive</i> sensations.
---
> The topic of mental images is very complicated and controversial, but I will tell you my own view about it, which is again similar to Reid’s, just to bring this discussion to some closure.  My own view is that in fact, in <i>some</i> sense, we <i>do</i> <i>indeed</i> have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, and dream, and hallucinate, and use our imaginations.  But when we actually perceive things, in no sense whatsoever can our sensory images, or sensations, if you will (that’s Reid’s word), be considered the <i>objects</i> of perception, or attention, at all.  The only objects of perception are external objects.  Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it’s wrong to say we <i>perceive</i> sensations.
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FreeWillAndDeterminism|981085819
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< Anyone who accepts premise (4) of the determinist’s argument is an incompatibilist.  So determinists are incompatibilists, and they deny the existence of free will.  And libertarians are incompatibilists as well; but they deny that all events are causally determined.  What these incompatibilists have in common is the assumption that if a choice is free, then at least some aspect of it is uncaused.  And we just got done debunking that assumption.  I doubt there are any good arguments for it.  So I hope you’ll forgive me if I end up on a somewhat dogmatic note, and say that incompatibilism seems to me pretty obviously false.
---
> Anyone who accepts premise (4) of the determinist’s argument is an incompatibilist.  So determinists are incompatibilists, and they deny the existence of free will.  And libertarians are incompatibilists as well; but they deny that all events are causally determined.  What these incompatibilists have in common is the assumption that if a choice is free, then at least some aspect of it is uncaused.  And we just got done debunking that assumption.  I doubt there are any good arguments for it.  So I hope you’ll forgive me if I end up on a somewhat dogmatic note, and say that incompatibilism seems to me pretty obviously false.
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TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology|981085905
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< The debate between externalists and internalists has been raging in recent years -- the last few decades.  On the one hand you have the externalists saying, for example, that I can be justified in believing that Stockholm is the capital of Sweden even if I have totally forgotten any reason I originally had for believing this; I’m not aware of the justifiers of this belief, but it can still be justified.  On the other hand you have the internalists who counter that if you’re going to be justified in any belief, you’ve definitely got to be at least <i>able</i> <i>to</i> <i>become</i> <i>aware</i> of what justifies your belief.  If you don’t have access to your justifiers, say the internalists, then you aren’t really justified.
---
> The debate between externalists and internalists has been raging in recent years -- the last few decades.  On the one hand you have the externalists saying, for example, that I can be justified in believing that Stockholm is the capital of Sweden even if I have totally forgotten any reason I originally had for believing this; I’m not aware of the justifiers of this belief, but it can still be justified.  On the other hand you have the internalists who counter that if you’re going to be justified in any belief, you’ve definitely got to be at least <i>able</i> <i>to</i> <i>become</i> <i>aware</i> of what justifies your belief.  If you don’t have access to your justifiers, say the internalists, then you aren’t really justified.
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APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge|981085943
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< I suspect that you won’t be surprised if I tell you that most philosophers these days are empiricists, and that they deny the existence of <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> justified beliefs.  They think everything must ultimately be justified based on experience; experience is all we have, in the long run.
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> I suspect that you won’t be surprised if I tell you that most philosophers these days are empiricists, and that they deny the existence of <i>a</i> <i>priori</i> justified beliefs.  They think everything must ultimately be justified based on experience; experience is all we have, in the long run.
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KnowLedge|981085961
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< The third question about our definition of knowledge is: Is knowledge possible?  Now if you take a look at that definition, you’ll notice something: If I know something, then I am sufficiently justified in believing it.  So we have a way to rephrase the question, "Is knowledge possible?"  Instead, we can ask: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  The skeptic is the person who says "No."  So let’s look next at skepticism.
---
> The third question about our definition of knowledge is: Is knowledge possible?  Now if you take a look at that definition, you’ll notice something: If I know something, then I am sufficiently justified in believing it.  So we have a way to rephrase the question, "Is knowledge possible?"  Instead, we can ask: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  The skeptic is the person who says "No."  So let’s look next at skepticism.
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SocialContractTheories|981085991
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< And for that matter, why don’t we ask what sort of grounds justified you in agreeing to the social contract in the <i>first</i> place?  Why was that agreement something that, morally, you ought to participate in?  Surely you <i>should</i> participate in a social contract under some circumstances -- if you think it’s very likely that the government will be to everyone’s benefit, for example.  If that’s the reason, we’re getting close to a totally different justification of the state: <i>consequentialist</i> justifications.  So let’s look at that next.
---
> And for that matter, why don’t we ask what sort of grounds justified you in agreeing to the social contract in the <i>first</i> place?  Why was that agreement something that, morally, you ought to participate in?  Surely you <i>should</i> participate in a social contract under some circumstances -- if you think it’s very likely that the government will be to everyone’s benefit, for example.  If that’s the reason, we’re getting close to a totally different justification of the state: <i>consequentialist</i> justifications.  So let’s look at that next.
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TheMeaningOfMeaning|981086026
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< And then among words and phrases we can distinguish different parts of speech, such as noun phrases and adjective phrases, and of course those are going to have different kinds of meaning.  And clearly <i>proper</i> <i>names</i>, which are names that stand for individuals, like "Jerry" and "Barry," and "Paris," and "Venus," are going to have yet another kind of meaning.  Now, there’s no way that I could discuss with you all the different kinds of meaning involved here; so I’m going to focus in on the meaning of just one kind of language item -- proper names.  And remember, we <i>could</i> talk about either the <i>speaker’s</i> meaning when proper names are used, or else about the <i>semantic</i> meaning of proper names themselves.  We’re going to ignore the speaker’s meaning and focus in on semantic meaning.
---
> And then among words and phrases we can distinguish different parts of speech, such as noun phrases and adjective phrases, and of course those are going to have different kinds of meaning.  And clearly <i>proper</i> <i>names</i>, which are names that stand for individuals, like "Jerry" and "Barry," and "Paris," and "Venus," are going to have yet another kind of meaning.  Now, there’s no way that I could discuss with you all the different kinds of meaning involved here; so I’m going to focus in on the meaning of just one kind of language item -- proper names.  And remember, we <i>could</i> talk about either the <i>speaker’s</i> meaning when proper names are used, or else about the <i>semantic</i> meaning of proper names themselves.  We’re going to ignore the speaker’s meaning and focus in on semantic meaning.
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ProperNames|981086046
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< You might object, "Well, wait a minute.  Here’s a nonsense sentence: ‘The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe.’  Why couldn’t we just say that that is <i>false</i>?"  Well, here’s why that nonsense sentence can’t be false: if it’s false then its opposite has to be true.  Here’s another principle you can take home with you: "If P is false, then not-P is true."  So just apply that principle to the nonsense sentence I gave you.  We want to say "The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe" -- that’s our P -- is <i>false</i>.  Well then, not-P must be true.  So then it must be true that the slithy toves did <i>not</i> gyre and gimble in the wabe.  Yes indeed, I strenuously insist, the slithy toves <i>did</i> <i>not</i> gyre and gimble!  Nope!  And if they did gyre or gimble it certainly wasn’t in the wabe!  Well, that’s just nonsense as you can see.  So, in order to be true <i>or</i> false, as I said, a sentence has to be meaningful.  And as I said, that’s a very important connection between the topics of meaning and truth.
---
> You might object, "Well, wait a minute.  Here’s a nonsense sentence: ‘The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe.’  Why couldn’t we just say that that is <i>false</i>?"  Well, here’s why that nonsense sentence can’t be false: if it’s false then its opposite has to be true.  Here’s another principle you can take home with you: "If P is false, then not-P is true."  So just apply that principle to the nonsense sentence I gave you.  We want to say "The slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe" -- that’s our P -- is <i>false</i>.  Well then, not-P must be true.  So then it must be true that the slithy toves did <i>not</i> gyre and gimble in the wabe.  Yes indeed, I strenuously insist, the slithy toves <i>did</i> <i>not</i> gyre and gimble!  Nope!  And if they did gyre or gimble it certainly wasn’t in the wabe!  Well, that’s just nonsense as you can see.  So, in order to be true <i>or</i> false, as I said, a sentence has to be meaningful.  And as I said, that’s a very important connection between the topics of meaning and truth.
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EpistemOlogy|981086071
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< Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it’s very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don’t deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
---
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it’s very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don’t deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
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MeaningfulNess|981086099
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< And in my opinion anyway, it’s probably going to turn out to be a function of a grammatical combination of meaningful words, plus some other conditions (like, the right words being joined together).  I suspect that that is what would make a sentence understandable, <i>and</i> verifiable or falsifiable, <i>and</i> meaningful.  But that’s all I’m going to say about meaningfulness.  On to epistemology.
---
> And in my opinion anyway, it’s probably going to turn out to be a function of a grammatical combination of meaningful words, plus some other conditions (like, the right words being joined together).  I suspect that that is what would make a sentence understandable, <i>and</i> verifiable or falsifiable, <i>and</i> meaningful.  But that’s all I’m going to say about meaningfulness.  On to epistemology.
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NaiveRelativismAboutTruth|981086120
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< Why am I introducing this term "proposition"?  Well, some philosophers insist that only <i>propositions</i> can be, properly speaking, true or false; sentences are not true or false, properly speaking.  It’s the thing that a sentence <i>says</i>, the <i>proposition</i> that the sentence is making, that is either true or false -- that’s the idea.  Anyway, I’m going to put theories of truth in terms of propositions, as you’ll see.
---
> Why am I introducing this term "proposition"?  Well, some philosophers insist that only <i>propositions</i> can be, properly speaking, true or false; sentences are not true or false, properly speaking.  It’s the thing that a sentence <i>says</i>, the <i>proposition</i> that the sentence is making, that is either true or false -- that’s the idea.  Anyway, I’m going to put theories of truth in terms of propositions, as you’ll see.
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ProblemOfUniversals|981086150
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< The reading goes on to discuss this theory, but we are going to have to leave the discussion there.  A lot of philosophers these days <i>do</i> find something like the resemblance theory as presented here attractive.  But trust me, a lot more can be said on all sides.  In fact, it is not uncommon to find whole graduate-level courses <i>just</i> on the problem of universals.  But onto the next problem.
---
> The reading goes on to discuss this theory, but we are going to have to leave the discussion there.  A lot of philosophers these days <i>do</i> find something like the resemblance theory as presented here attractive.  But trust me, a lot more can be said on all sides.  In fact, it is not uncommon to find whole graduate-level courses <i>just</i> on the problem of universals.  But onto the next problem.
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TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|981086181
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< In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
---
> In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
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TheoriesOfTruth|981086204
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< I think that after this very brief discussion of theories of truth, the revised correspondence theory looks most plausible; but we just haven’t discussed them in enough depth for me to be able to say that with any certainty.  But as usual you have been introduced to the terrain: among different theories of truth there are the correspondence theory, the redundancy theory, the coherence theory, and pragmatism.  With such a variety to choose from at the very least you should be convinced that you don’t have to rest content with any sort of relativism that says that truth is just the same as belief.  You can do a heck of a lot better than that.
---
> I think that after this very brief discussion of theories of truth, the revised correspondence theory looks most plausible; but we just haven’t discussed them in enough depth for me to be able to say that with any certainty.  But as usual you have been introduced to the terrain: among different theories of truth there are the correspondence theory, the redundancy theory, the coherence theory, and pragmatism.  With such a variety to choose from at the very least you should be convinced that you don’t have to rest content with any sort of relativism that says that truth is just the same as belief.  You can do a heck of a lot better than that.
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TheOntologicalArgument|981086250
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< There are other versions of the ontological argument besides St. Anselm’s.  So maybe one of those other versions would do better.
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> There are other versions of the ontological argument besides St. Anselm’s.  So maybe one of those other versions would do better.
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ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981086307
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> 
33c35
< So I think this argument from morality is fallacious.  Please notice, in saying this, I am not implying in any way, shape, or form, that God does <i>not</i> exist!  I am also not denying in the least that God’s commands are always right.  What I am denying, rather, is that it is God’s commands <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i> which make actions right; I think that those commands would have to have some reasons behind them.  And those reasons are what make the actions right.  So I am simply saying that the argument from morality is not a good argument that God does exist.  You can, as a theist, find <i>much</i> better reasons to support your belief in God.
---
> So I think this argument from morality is fallacious.  Please notice, in saying this, I am not implying in any way, shape, or form, that God does <i>not</i> exist!  I am also not denying in the least that God’s commands are always right.  What I am denying, rather, is that it is God’s commands <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i> which make actions right; I think that those commands would have to have some reasons behind them.  And those reasons are what make the actions right.  So I am simply saying that the argument from morality is not a good argument that God does exist.  You can, as a theist, find <i>much</i> better reasons to support your belief in God.
------
TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod|981086344
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
9c11
< * TheTeleologicalArgument
---
> * TheTeleologicalArgument
------
TheTeleologicalArgument|981086367
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
29c31
< I think you get the idea.  Suppose that we admit that God is like the designer of machines; that doesn’t allow us to conclude that the <i>Christian</i> God exists.  And I honestly do not know how the defender of the teleological argument can get around that objection.
---
> I think you get the idea.  Suppose that we admit that God is like the designer of machines; that doesn’t allow us to conclude that the <i>Christian</i> God exists.  And I honestly do not know how the defender of the teleological argument can get around that objection.
------
CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus|981086392
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
29c31
< Anyway, then, if the method of common sense is right, we can start our philosophical investigations with common sense, making particular claims about what is true, and also making generalizations, or stating criteria, about when claims are true.  Because both the truth-claims and the criteria-claims can both be principles of common sense.  Moreover, it’s a principle of common sense that our basic faculties are reliable.  Armed with those assumptions, that way, we can immediately reply to various kinds of skepticism, without wasting time thinking about skeptical doubts about dreaming and such.  And that way, too, we can get around Sextus’ problem of the criterion: there is no infinite regress or circle of criteria, because the buck stops with the principles of common sense.
---
> Anyway, then, if the method of common sense is right, we can start our philosophical investigations with common sense, making particular claims about what is true, and also making generalizations, or stating criteria, about when claims are true.  Because both the truth-claims and the criteria-claims can both be principles of common sense.  Moreover, it’s a principle of common sense that our basic faculties are reliable.  Armed with those assumptions, that way, we can immediately reply to various kinds of skepticism, without wasting time thinking about skeptical doubts about dreaming and such.  And that way, too, we can get around Sextus’ problem of the criterion: there is no infinite regress or circle of criteria, because the buck stops with the principles of common sense.
------
TheJustificationOfTheState|981086412
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
31c33
< Now, if you’ll remember, we already asked this question once.  We said that government is necessary in order to keep other people from violating our rights.  Some people are hell-bent on taking our stuff and even our lives and purely as a protective measure we are willing to establish governments that protect us.  That’s at least a "prima facie" reason for the existence of the state.  "Prima facie" means "on first glance."  So on first glance, the reason that governments are needed to exist <i>at</i> <i>all</i> is to protect our rights, and to preserve justice.
---
> Now, if you’ll remember, we already asked this question once.  We said that government is necessary in order to keep other people from violating our rights.  Some people are hell-bent on taking our stuff and even our lives and purely as a protective measure we are willing to establish governments that protect us.  That’s at least a "prima facie" reason for the existence of the state.  "Prima facie" means "on first glance."  So on first glance, the reason that governments are needed to exist <i>at</i> <i>all</i> is to protect our rights, and to preserve justice.
------
ScepticIsm|981086436
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
75c77
< Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
---
> Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
------
EthIcs|981086460
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
19c21
< And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
---
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
------
MetaEthics|981086529
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
139c141
< Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.  But we don’t have time to go into it any further.  We have bigger fish to fry.  
---
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.  But we don’t have time to go into it any further.  We have bigger fish to fry.  
------
DefinitioN|981086786
3c3,11
< ''(To be greatly expanded.)''
---
> ''(To be greatly expanded.)''
> 
> def-i-ni-tion:  (de-f&-'ni-sh&n)  noun,  [etymology: middle english diffinicioun, from middle french definition, from latin definition-, definitio, from definire]
> 1 : an act of determining
> 2 a : a statement expressing the essential nature of something b : a statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol <dictionary definitions> c : a product of defining
> 3 : the action or process of defining
> 4 a : the action or the power of describing, explaining, or making definite and clear <the definition of a telescope> <her comic genius is beyond definition> b (1) : clarity of visual presentation : distinctness of outline or detail <improve the definition of an image> (2) : clarity especially of musical sound in reproduction c : sharp demarcation of outlines or limits <a jacket with distinct waist definition>
> 
> 
------
TheProblemOfEvil|981086871
0a1,2
> <the following is a portion (partly edited) of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
------
HistoryOfLevant|981087083
39c39,44
< Blah blah Sassanids blah.
---
> The Parthian nobility reacted against growing Roman influences around the turn of the millenium.  Throughout the next century there was a strong expansion of national culture and a dissolution in central authority.  In 114 AD Trajan temporarily occupied Mesopotamia, and with the end of Hadrian's 40-year peace the two powers were at almost constant hostilities.  Mesopotamia was occupied again, but the Parthians recovered and pillaged the Roman provinces.  Shortly thereafter, though, the province of Persia rose up in revolt, and defeated the last Parthian emperor in 224. 
> 
> The new dynasty, the Sasanids, restored central authority.  In this period Zoroastrianism developed into an organized religion with close ties to the new state.  Various sects of Christianity also spread throughout Iran, and Manichaeism developed from the two religions; these were initially tolerated but later persecuted as the Romans followed the opposite route.  Conflicts with Rome, and later the ByzantineEmpire, continued intermittently.
> 
> The Byzantines reached their lowest point under Phocas, with the Sasanids occupying the whole of the eastern Meditteranean.  In 610, though, Heraclius took the thrown and began a succesful counter-attack, expelling the Persians and invading Media and Assyria.  Unable to stop his advance, Khosrows II was assassinated and the Sasanid empire fell into anarchy.  Weakened by their quarrels, neither empire was prepared to deal with the onslaught of the Arabs, newly unified under the banners of IsLam and anxious to expand their faith.  By 650 they had conquered all of Persia, Syria, and Egypt.
> 
------
LarrysText|981087624
14,18c14
< Could the portions of text be marked with a link to here until they are wiki'ed?  I stumbled into the PhilosophyOfLanguage lecture, with its references to 'earlier' lectures and all...  The msec of confusion was fun and all, but labeling might help.  --PhillipHankins
< ----
< Yes, I'll do this if someone doesn't beat me to the punch. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Since you agreed, I've started.  Or did I start before... whatever :)  I'm adding a standard "<The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>" to the top.  Maybe there should be "remove this notice" or something... then again, surely wiki editors know that sort of thing.  --PhillipHankins
---
> I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read suffeciently less like lectures.  And haveing them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed  (that gives me an idea: PagesToBeReviewed).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
------
LarrysText|981088133
14c14
< I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read suffeciently less like lectures.  And haveing them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed  (that gives me an idea: PagesToBeReviewed).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
---
> I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read suffeciently less like lectures.  And haveing them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed  (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
------
LarrysText|981088631
1c1
< All these pages I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
---
> All [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|981088707
20a21,28
>  - section 1 (/SectioN141)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN142)
>  - section 3 (/SectioN143)
>  - section 4 (/SectioN144)
>  - section 5 (/SectioN145)
>  - section 6 (/SectioN146)
>  - section 7 (/SectioN147)
>  - section 8 (/SectioN148)
------
ReviewRequests|981088744
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Have an article that you wouldn't mind some help with?  Like to have an article fact-checked?  Know that your speeling sucks grammar and?
> 
> Add it to the list.  (A description of what needs doing might be cool too.)
> 
> ----
> 
> Larry was kind enough to add a lot of information from some of his PhiloSophy lectures.  They were added "as is", thus could use some wikification.  See LarrysText.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|981088834
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks four hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  As she sits, she sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
> ----
> * Foreshadow
> 
> Dagny sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|981089018
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks four hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  As she sits, she sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks four hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
5c5,18
< Dagny sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
---
> Dagny sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
> ----
> 
> The folowing characters appear in /SectioN141:
> 
>  /ChiefEngineer
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EddieWillers
>  /FranciscoDAnconia
>  /GilbertVail
>  /McNamara - Mentioned.
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /PresidentofULW
>  /RichardHalley 
------
HomePage|981089055
6a7,8
> Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on ReviewRequests.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981089086
27a28
>  /ChiefEngineer?
31a33
>  /GilbertVail?
33a36
>  /MrsGilbertVail?
40a44
>  /PresidentofULW?
42c46
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981089108
28c28
<  /ChiefEngineer?
---
>  /ChiefEngineer
33c33
<  /GilbertVail?
---
>  /GilbertVail
36c36
<  /MrsGilbertVail?
---
>  /MrsGilbertVail
44c44
<  /PresidentofULW?
---
>  /PresidentofULW
------
AtlasShrugged/ChiefEngineer|981089181
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones /EddieWillers to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
------
AtlasShrugged/GilbertVail|981089394
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A man allegedly cuckolded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  His wife asserts, and Francisco does not deny, that she and Francisco had an affair over New Years at his villa in the /Andes.  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a creascendo in the tabloids, Francisco arrives in town to "witness the farce."
> 
> Gilbert Vail is mentioned in: 
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsGilbertVail|981089530
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mrs. Gilbert Vail claims she had a love affair with /FranciscoDAnconia in his villa in the Andes.  Afterwards, she shot her husband so she could leave him and be with Francisco.  /GilbertVail survived and sued for divorce, at which point his wife promised to reveal the sordid details of his private life to the press.
> 
> Mrs. Vail is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/PresidentofULW|981089654
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The unnamed president of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks is an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding.  When /DagnyTaggart tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours.
> 
> He is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981089703
10a11
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|981089722
9a10
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981089757
4c4,5
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN141
6c7,8
< According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
---
> ---
> * According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|981090156
2a3,4
> In  /SectioN141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer.  At age 24 his opera /Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it.  For years he wrote in obscurity.  After 19 years, /Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was recieved to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard.  It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval.  The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared.
> 
6a9
>  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|981090242
2a3,5
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, Dagny's apartment.
> ----
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|981090286
17a18
>  /NewJersey
------
AtlasShrugged/NewJersey|981090319
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Jersey is the home of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks.
> 
> New Jersey is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|981090352
6c6,7
<  - /SectioN114
---
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|981090370
2a3
>  /Andes
------
AtlasShrugged/Andes|981090399
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FranciscoDAnconia has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
------
AtlasShrugged/Andes|981090410
1c1
< FranciscoDAnconia has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
---
> /FranciscoDAnconia has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|981090461
5a6
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
8,10c9
< 
< It is alluded to in:
<  /SectioN131
---
>  /Section141
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|981090473
9c9
<  /Section141
---
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981090509
10a11
>  /TheVultureIsMolting
------
AtlasShrugged/TheVultureIsMolting|981090643
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "a penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity."  The book is mentioned in /SectioN141 as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depress /DagnyTaggart with its baseness.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981090683
3a4
>  /HalleysFourthConcerto
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFourthConcerto|981090798
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The last thing /RichardHallery wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  /DagnyTaggart listened to this song in /Section141.
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFourthConcerto|981090810
1c1
< The last thing /RichardHallery wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  /DagnyTaggart listened to this song in /Section141.
---
> The last thing /RichardHalley wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  /DagnyTaggart listened to this song in /SectioN141.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981090833
6a7
>  /Phaethon
------
AtlasShrugged/Phaethon|981091035
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An opera composed by /RichardHalley when he was a young man.  It is based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky.  Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon suceeds.
> 
> When this opera was first performed, it was booed and ridiculed.  Nineteen years later, after years of struggle and hardship, it was performed again to a wildly entusiastic audience.  The day after this performance, Halley disappeared.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981091084
13a14
>  /WayneFalklandHotel
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|981091135
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A luxurious hotel in /NewYork.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.
> 
> The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981091159
1a2
>  /CubClub
------
AtlasShrugged/CubClub|981091268
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A night club in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981091291
5a6
>  /MoesDelicatessan
------
AtlasShrugged/MoesDelicatessan|981091313
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A delicatessan in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/CubClub|981091336
1c1
< A night club in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> A night club in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged|981091361
30a31
> * /Food
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|981091437
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The food of Atlast Shrugged.
> 
> Liverwurst: In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|981091450
1c1
< The food of Atlast Shrugged.
---
> The food of Atlas Shrugged.
------
ReviewRequests|981091471
8a9,10
> It would be nice if someone could come up with a good way of shortening HistoryOfLevant for me, when they're done with the above.
> 
------
ReviewRequests|981091524
8,10d7
< 
< It would be nice if someone could come up with a good way of shortening HistoryOfLevant for me, when they're done with the above.
< 
------
LarrysText|981092392
1a2,158
> :1   Introduction to Philosophy
> ::WhyPhilosophize --
> 
> I. The motivation to philosophize.	1
> 
> II. Philosophical method.	5
> 
> III. A definition of "philosophy."	18
> 
> IV. The purpose and plan of this course.	22
> 
> 2   Some Rudiments of Logic	24
> 
> I. What is logic?	24
> 
> II. The fundamental concepts of deduction and induction.	28
> 
> III. Valid and cogent argument forms and fallacies.	35
> 
> IV. Meaning and definitions.	38
> 
> 3   Metaphysics	49
> 
> I. Some metaphysical questions.	49
> 
> II. Metaphysics and ontology.	51
> 
> III. The existence of physical objects.	56
> 
> IV. The problem of substance.	60
> 
> V. The problem of universals.	68
> 
> VI. The problem of change.	82
> 
> 4   Philosophy of Religion	91
> 
> I. Introduction.	91
> 
> II. What is God?	95
> 
> III. Faith and rationality.	106
> 
> IV. Two bad arguments for the existence of God.	110
> 
> V. Three traditional arguments for the existence of God	113
> 
> A. The ontological argument.	114
> 
> B. The cosmological argument.	118
> 
> C. The teleological argument.	124
> 
> VI. The argument from evil.	127
> 
> VII. Conclusion.	133
> 
> 5   Philosophy of Mind	135
> 
> I. Introduction.	135
> 
> II. The mind-body problem.	141
> 
> A. Dualism.	144
> 
> B. Physicalism.	151
> 
> C. Other theories of mind.	157
> 
> III. Theory of perception.	163
> 
> IV. The will and its freedom.	178
> 
> A. Determinism.	181
> 
> B. Libertarianism.	184
> 
> C. Compatibilism and the definition of "free will."	188
> 
> 6   Philosophy of Language	193
> 
> I. Introduction.	193
> 
> II. The meaning of "meaning."	195
> 
> III. Proper names.	197
> 
> IV. Meaningfulness.	204
> 
> V. Against relativism about truth.	206
> 
> VI. Theories of truth.	211
> 
> 7   Epistemology	219
> 
> I. Introduction	219
> 
> II. Justification in general.	222
> 
> III. The regress argument and theories of justification.	225
> 
> IV. The sources of justification.	235
> 
> V. Knowledge.	239
> 
> VI. Skepticism.	248
> 
> VII. Common sense.	257
> 
> 8   Ethics	262
> 
> I. Introduction.	262
> 
> II. Meta-Ethics	264
> 
> A. Naturalism	264
> 
> B. Non-naturalism.	269
> 
> C. Non-cognitivism.	275
> 
> III. The theory of value.	279
> 
> A. Values subjectivism.	282
> 
> B. Hedonism.	285
> 
> C. Eudaimonism and other theories of value.	289
> 
> IV. The theory of conduct.	296
> 
> A. Varieties of consequentialism.	298
> 
> B. How to decide on a theory of conduct.	302
> 
> C. The problem of justice.	305
> 
> D. Deontological theories of conduct.	310
> 
> E. Rule consequentialism.	317
> 
> 9   Political Philosophy	323
> 
> I. Introduction.	323
> 
> II. The justification of the state.	325
> 
> III. Anarchism and the natural law theory.	329
> 
> IV. Social contract theories.	334
> 
> V. Consequentialist justifications of the state.	340
> 
> VI. The purpose of government.	344
> 
> 
> 
15,16c172,173
< 
< 
---
> ----
> Thanks very much, Phillip! -- Larry
------
LarrysText|981092429
3,5c3
< ::WhyPhilosophize --
< 
< I. The motivation to philosophize.	1
---
> ::WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
------
LarrysText|981093022
4,156c4,19
< 
< II. Philosophical method.	5
< 
< III. A definition of "philosophy."	18
< 
< IV. The purpose and plan of this course.	22
< 
< 2   Some Rudiments of Logic	24
< 
< I. What is logic?	24
< 
< II. The fundamental concepts of deduction and induction.	28
< 
< III. Valid and cogent argument forms and fallacies.	35
< 
< IV. Meaning and definitions.	38
< 
< 3   Metaphysics	49
< 
< I. Some metaphysical questions.	49
< 
< II. Metaphysics and ontology.	51
< 
< III. The existence of physical objects.	56
< 
< IV. The problem of substance.	60
< 
< V. The problem of universals.	68
< 
< VI. The problem of change.	82
< 
< 4   Philosophy of Religion	91
< 
< I. Introduction.	91
< 
< II. What is God?	95
< 
< III. Faith and rationality.	106
< 
< IV. Two bad arguments for the existence of God.	110
< 
< V. Three traditional arguments for the existence of God	113
< 
< A. The ontological argument.	114
< 
< B. The cosmological argument.	118
< 
< C. The teleological argument.	124
< 
< VI. The argument from evil.	127
< 
< VII. Conclusion.	133
< 
< 5   Philosophy of Mind	135
< 
< I. Introduction.	135
< 
< II. The mind-body problem.	141
< 
< A. Dualism.	144
< 
< B. Physicalism.	151
< 
< C. Other theories of mind.	157
< 
< III. Theory of perception.	163
< 
< IV. The will and its freedom.	178
< 
< A. Determinism.	181
< 
< B. Libertarianism.	184
< 
< C. Compatibilism and the definition of "free will."	188
< 
< 6   Philosophy of Language	193
< 
< I. Introduction.	193
< 
< II. The meaning of "meaning."	195
< 
< III. Proper names.	197
< 
< IV. Meaningfulness.	204
< 
< V. Against relativism about truth.	206
< 
< VI. Theories of truth.	211
< 
< 7   Epistemology	219
< 
< I. Introduction	219
< 
< II. Justification in general.	222
< 
< III. The regress argument and theories of justification.	225
< 
< IV. The sources of justification.	235
< 
< V. Knowledge.	239
< 
< VI. Skepticism.	248
< 
< VII. Common sense.	257
< 
< 8   Ethics	262
< 
< I. Introduction.	262
< 
< II. Meta-Ethics	264
< 
< A. Naturalism	264
< 
< B. Non-naturalism.	269
< 
< C. Non-cognitivism.	275
< 
< III. The theory of value.	279
< 
< A. Values subjectivism.	282
< 
< B. Hedonism.	285
< 
< C. Eudaimonism and other theories of value.	289
< 
< IV. The theory of conduct.	296
< 
< A. Varieties of consequentialism.	298
< 
< B. How to decide on a theory of conduct.	302
< 
< C. The problem of justice.	305
< 
< D. Deontological theories of conduct.	310
< 
< E. Rule consequentialism.	317
< 
< 9   Political Philosophy	323
< 
< I. Introduction.	323
< 
< II. The justification of the state.	325
< 
< III. Anarchism and the natural law theory.	329
< 
< IV. Social contract theories.	334
< 
< V. Consequentialist justifications of the state.	340
< 
< VI. The purpose of government.	344
< 
< 
< 
---
> :2   Some Rudiments of Logic
> ::DefinitionOfLogic -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
> :3   Metaphysics
> ::SomeMetaphysicalQuestions -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
> :4   Philosophy of Religion
> ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil 
> :5   Philosophy of Mind
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- TheMindBodyProblem -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
> :6   Philosophy of Language
> ::PhilosophyOfLanguage -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
> :7   Epistemology
> ::EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
> :8   Ethics
> ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
> :9   Political Philosophy
> ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
------
LanguagE|981093901
31a32
> * PhilosophyOfLanguage
------
SetTheory|981104051
82a83,85
> RESPONSE: It's trivial to prove the existence of cardinals
> as equivalence classes in the indicated way in ZF.
> 
101a105,107
> 
> COMMENT: I don't understand what you have in mind in saying that
> "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is compatible with ZFC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
------
MakeaNewPage|981116920
7c7,9
< If you mean the convention of capitalizing one of the letters inside or at the end of a word, it's part of how the software works.  Last I heard, we're trying to rewrite the software so we can indicate links [[like this]] instead of LikeThis.
---
> If you mean the convention of capitalizing one of the letters inside or at the end of a word, it's part of how the software works.  Last I heard, we're trying to rewrite the software so we can indicate links [[like this]] instead of LikeThis.
> ----
> Sonic: Alternatively, you could keep the old style and display it differently, i.e. if the last letter is uppercase, display it as lowercase and make it a link. If a character in the middle of the word/phrase is uppercase, let it stay uppercase and insert a whitespace in front of it, plus make it a link
------
ErnestHemingway|981117971
1c1
< Hi! I have a great article about Ernest Hemingway, but unfortunately, it is too long for this page (it has about 68k in HTML). If you want to, you can have a look at it at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html and help me make it shorter. sonic_arcormail_de (replace first _ by @ and the other one by . to mail me)
---
> 1.Introduction
3c3
< ----
---
> Death and violence were the two great constants in Hemingway's troubled and ever-changing life. In his infancy, he joined his father on hunting trips and was given his first shotgun at the age of ten. Fifty-one years later, he used one to commit suicide. In the meantime, he had hurt many and many had hurt him. He was a bit like Döblin's Franz Biberkopf, a tough, strong man with strong principles. Life thought that would be too bold to last, and started to hurt him. In fact, much of the beating he had to take and most of the losses he had to cope eith seemed neither his nor anybody else's fault. It seemed that life itself was against him sometimes. Hemingway "believed that life was a tragedy and knew it could only have one end"(Critiques (6.), p. 49), yet he was blessed by it with talent and fame. Maybe that made it harder for him to admit his failures and to correct them. This research paper tries, aside from analyzing the two novels as representatives of his work, to find out the reason for his ongoing decline and to point out mistakes and wrong decisions he made. It also tries to trace alternatives to Hemingway's actual development to reach a conclusion that sums up the effects of violence and death in its various forms upon Ernest Hemingway's life and work.
5c5,54
< Long articles should be divided into sections, and sections should be on different pages, possibly like this:
---
> For easier reading, this text is split in several section. You can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
> 
> Main Part:Books and Beyond
> 
> /FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster
> 
> /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
> 
> /FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
> 
> /TheTimeinBetween
> 
> /SpaininFlames
> 
> /ForWhomtheBellTolls
> 
> Robert Jordan and Frederic Henry: Two Facets of Hemingway
> 
> /FredericHenry
>   Background
>   Character
>   Development
>   Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway?s life
> 
> /RobertJordan
>   Background
>   Character
>   Development
>   Pablo
> Hemingway Up Close and Personal
> 
> /YoungandInnocent
> 
> /ThingsTurnSour
> 
> /TheEndlessDarkNothingness
> 
> /SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar
> 
> /TheDownwardSpiral
> 
> Conclusion
> 
> /ViolenceandRedemption
> 
> /WhyItWentWrong
> 
> Appendix
> 
> /BibliographY
7,8d55
<  /FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster
<  /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
10d56
< If you break the article down into sections and place those on different pages, there will be no problem with having it be too long for this page.
------
ErnestHemingway|981118074
3c3
< Death and violence were the two great constants in Hemingway's troubled and ever-changing life. In his infancy, he joined his father on hunting trips and was given his first shotgun at the age of ten. Fifty-one years later, he used one to commit suicide. In the meantime, he had hurt many and many had hurt him. He was a bit like Döblin's Franz Biberkopf, a tough, strong man with strong principles. Life thought that would be too bold to last, and started to hurt him. In fact, much of the beating he had to take and most of the losses he had to cope eith seemed neither his nor anybody else's fault. It seemed that life itself was against him sometimes. Hemingway "believed that life was a tragedy and knew it could only have one end"(Critiques (6.), p. 49), yet he was blessed by it with talent and fame. Maybe that made it harder for him to admit his failures and to correct them. This research paper tries, aside from analyzing the two novels as representatives of his work, to find out the reason for his ongoing decline and to point out mistakes and wrong decisions he made. It also tries to trace alternatives to Hemingway's actual development to reach a conclusion that sums up the effects of violence and death in its various forms upon Ernest Hemingway's life and work.
---
> Death and violence were the two great constants in Hemingway's troubled and ever-changing life. In his infancy, he joined his father on hunting trips and was given his first shotgun at the age of ten. Fifty-one years later, he used one to commit suicide. In the meantime, he had hurt many and many had hurt him. He was a bit like D&ouml;blin's Franz Biberkopf, a tough, strong man with strong principles. Life thought that would be too bold to last, and started to hurt him. In fact, much of the beating he had to take and most of the losses he had to cope eith seemed neither his nor anybody else's fault. It seemed that life itself was against him sometimes. Hemingway "believed that life was a tragedy and knew it could only have one end"(Critiques (6.), p. 49), yet he was blessed by it with talent and fame. Maybe that made it harder for him to admit his failures and to correct them. This research paper tries, aside from analyzing the two novels as representatives of his work, to find out the reason for his ongoing decline and to point out mistakes and wrong decisions he made. It also tries to trace alternatives to Hemingway's actual development to reach a conclusion that sums up the effects of violence and death in its various forms upon Ernest Hemingway's life and work.
5c5
< For easier reading, this text is split in several section. You can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
---
> If you want to know where the quotes are coming from, please refer to the bibliography section. For easier reading, this text is split in several sections, you can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
------
ErnestHemingway/FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster|981118343
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> B)Main Part
> 
> I. Books and Beyond
> 
> 1.Famous at Twenty-Five: Thirty a Master
> 
> One cannot really discuss any Hemingway issue without knowledge of the Hemingway style that rocked the literary scene when it first arrived. Below the seemingly simple surface, which had been a revolution of its own right in a time when writing in Victorian sense with neo-Gothic decorations was still governing the literary world, lie allegorical structures of unknown complexity. This style was no natural gift. On the one hand, it was the reward for his immense efforts and the hurts he had to cope with and on the other hand it was, and still is, the epitome of the modern movement, since "No man is an <I>Iland</I>"(For Whom (5.), preface), p.articularly not in 'twenties' Paris, where every author lent the young Hemingway a helping hand and thus contributed to his style.
> 
> After their wedding, the Hemingways decided to live abroad for a while, and, following the advice of Sherwood Anderson, they picked Paris, where Ernest could develop his literary skills better than anywhere else on the planet. At that point of time, the first professional and profound influence had already coined him. Ernest had used to be a reporter for the Kansas City Star, and the Kansas City Star Style Book, which was a guideline the newspaper had established, had lain the foundations for his later art. "Brevity, a reconciliation of vigour with smoothness, the positive approach"(Burgess (9.), p. 19) were its main directives and the young Ernest was willing to adopt them as his personal standard.
> 
> Sherwood Anderson wrote him a letter of recommendation to Gertrude Stein. She became his mentor and opened him the door to the Parisian Modern Movement. His other mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of Imagism. In retrospective, Hemingway once said about them: "Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right."(to John Peale Bishop; Cowley (4.), p. xiii). He even considered giving Mr. Pound the Nobel Prize gold medal. At the same time, he became a close friend of James Joyce whose "Ulysses" with its stream-of-consciousness techniques had a tremendous impact on the literary scene. These authors and many others met at Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare &amp; Co., 18 Rue de l'Odéon, Paris.
> 
> But the last impulse he required came in an unsuspected and painful way. His manuscripts, among them "A Farewell to Arms" were stolen at Gare de Lyon when his wife wanted to bring them along to Lausanne to meet him. This loss was a big gain after all, because by re-writing the novel he had also time to reconsider, thus improving it. The second version was a great deal less flowery, stripped of all decoration, reduced to the bare essentials, matter-of-factly, concentrated and compressed.
> 
> During this peaceful life among friends, he was able to develop his literary skills, in times of war, inspired by death, he would use them.
> 
> next: /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
------
ErnestHemingway/FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar|981118486
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2.From Boy to Man: Hemingway's First World War
> 
> Once Mr. Hemingway wrote fellow author F. Scott Fitzgerald "We are all bitched from the start and you especially have to be hurt like hell before you can write seriously. But when you get a damned hurt use it- don't cheat with it. Be as faithful to it as a scientist"(Lynn (13.), p. 10) representing his personal motto. Hemingway's first hurts were so grave that it took him nearly ten years to write them down in a novel.
> 
> When he arrived in Europe, he was just another young hotshot out for adventure.En route to the Italian front, he had a stopover in Paris. The city was under constant bombardment from German siege guns, but instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Ernest advised the taxi driver to bring him to the place where the shells were hitting the ground and he wouldn't stop looking for enemy fire until one shell was tearing apart the facade of a church at the Place de la Madelaine nearby. In retrospective, he said about himself: "I was an awful dope when I went to the last war. I can remember just thinking that we were the home team and the Austrians were the visiting team"(Barron's Book Notes (8.), p. 2).
> 
> But gruesome reality caught up with him very fast, on his first day of duty an ammunition factory exploded in the countryside near Milan, he had to pick up bodies and pieces of bodies, mostly of women working there. This first and extremely cruel encounter with human death had left him shaken, the soldiers he met later weren't all too helpful in lightening this negative impression. Eric Dorman-Smith, for example, quoted Shakespeare's Henry IV Part Two: "By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death . . . and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next"(Burgess (9.), p. 24). A 50-year-old soldier, to whom he said "You're troppo vecchio for this war, pop." replied "I can die as well as any man."(Burgess (9.), p. 24).
> 
> Still, he wanted to come even closer to where the action was, and was wounded at midnight on the eighth of July while bicycling to a forward command post to deliver chocolate. The exact details remain mysterious, only two things are for sure: A trench mortar shell hit him leaving fragments in both legs, and he received the Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) from the Italian government. Whether or not he saved another soldier's life by carrying him on his back remains unclear.
> 
> Convalescing in the Ospedale Croce Rossa Americana, Via Alessandro Manzoni in Milan he met Sister Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, a nurse from Washington, DC. and one of eighteen nurses looking after just four patients. He fell for her, but they never were really together. Soon after his departure, she was in love with somebody else.
> 
> Hemingway's metaphysical movement in this early period was a shift from juvenile life in Oak Park to the horrors of a full scale war. He intruded deeper and deeper into the realm of violence until he stood face to face with death. After this encounter, he returned to -now mature- life and replaced hatred with love.
> 
> next: FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar|981118551
15c15
< next: FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
---
> next: /FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
------
ErnestHemingway/FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms|981118584
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 3.From Reality to Fiction: A Farewell to Arms
> 
> "A Farewell to Arms" came as late as all the other World War One books (Frederic Manning "Her Privates We", Erich Maria Remarque "All Quiet on the Western Front", Richard Aldington "Death of a Hero", Robert Grave "Goodbye to All That", etc.). In the meantime many things had changed in Ernest Hemingway's life, he was not in love with Sister von Kurowsky any longer and had even divorced Hadley by the time his novel was published. He became father of a boy named Patrick and who was, like Henry's son in the novel, delivered by Cesarean section. The intense labor pains of his second wife Pauline were the inspiration for Catherine's labor in the novel. Interestingly enough, Ernest and Pauline were criss-crossing the USA by that time, maybe Ernest tried to escape his past like Frederic Henry did. Last, but not at all least, his father committed suicide, he shot himself in the head with an old Civil War pistol.
> 
> A lot of the novel's characters are based upon real life persons, like Helen Ferguson, who reminds the reader of Kitty Cannell, who "warned Hadley, whom she considered to be a put-upon and long-suffering angel, that her husband was unreliable"(Burgess (9.), p. 40) a number of times as Ferguson did on pages 98 through 99 and 219 through 222, and the priest, who represents Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. A mystery in its own right is the character Rinaldi who already appeared in "In Our Time".
> 
> One of the main themes the novel deals with is the unity of life and death, which is illustrated with a number of striking pictures like the soldiers carrying ammunition boxes, who "marched as though they were gone six months with child"(A Farewell (1.), p. 4), Frederic's flight in a wagon full of guns and Catherine's death in childbirth. The book itself is not a war novel, but, as Anthony Burgess put it, "a complex statement about the nature of human commitment, p.resented against a background of war vividly caught."(Burgess (9.), p. 55). James F. Light's article "The Religion of Death in A Farewell to Arms ", reprinted in "Critiques of Four Major Novels", reaches the same conclusion. Death and the cruelty of war are ever-present, but dwelling below the surface, and rarely erupting into the line of sight of the protagonist.
> 
> As a criticism of war Frederic Henry thinks and talks about Napoleon time and time again. By confronting the obsolete and romanticized way of making war with the actual situation, Hemingway intended to show the contrast between the official patriotic propaganda and the harsh reality. With Henry's famous monologue "I was always embarrassed by the words sacred, glorious, and sacrifice [...]"(A Farewell (1.), p. 165), he is able to develop a wordy philosophy. Sacrifice equaled slaughter, the glory and honor they all came for was replaced by a butchery of unknown extent. This is exactly the disillusionment of the Lost Generation, and it led Frederic to stop thinking. It is displayed with a number of other images, too, for example, when he is offered a sword in an armorer's shop, but replies he went back to the front and thus had no need for it, or when Catherine describes her lover's death ("He didn't have a sabre cut. They blew him all to bits"(A Farewell (1.), p. 19)).
> 
> next: /TheTimeinBetween
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/TheTimeinBetween|981118632
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 4.The Time in Between
> 
> Having published "A Farewell to Arms", the years of struggle were coming to an end. Ernest M. Hemingway now was an author of worldwide reputation, he was happy with Pauline and financially independent. But his luck in business, art and marriage was overshadowed by some serious attacks on his health (anthrax infection, cut eyeball, glass-gash in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids; after "A Farewell to Arms": kidney trouble from fishing in Spain, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, laceration of arms and legs and face from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, later: car accident in Wyoming his arm was complicatedly broken).
> 
> Following the advice of John Dos Passos, he moved to Key West where he established his first American home. From the old stone house, a wedding present by Pauline's uncle, he would go fishing in the Tortugas waters, frequent Sloppy Joe's, Havana's famous bar, and travel to Spain every once in a while, gathering material for "Death in the Afternoon" and "Winner Take Nothing". A safari led him to Mombassa in fall 1932, Nairobi and Machakos in the Mua Hills. "The Green Hills of Africa", "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" were the literary results, many animal's lives were the cost.
> 
> His way of life provoked criticism by the Left. Max Eastman and many others demanded greater commitment to the affairs of the people. A young left-winger begged him to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and to write about truth and justice. For a while, it seemed as if he would do so. His article "Who Murdered the Vets?" for "New Masses", a leftist newspaper, and his book "To Have and Have Not" showed "social awareness", at least up to a certain degree. A little later, he would take political sides more explicitly.
> 
> next: /SpaininFlames
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/SpaininFlames|981118698
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 5.Spain in Flames
> 
> ?was the title of a Loyalist propaganda film he wrote a comment for. Supporting the -mostly Communist- Loyalists further, he and John Dos Passos went to Spain, founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called "The Spanish Earth". In addition to that, Hemingway became war correspondent for NANA, the North American Newspaper Alliance, thus he saw much of the fighting and could collect experiences for a new novel. While he was in Spain, his second marriage went to pieces. A liaison with Martha Gellhorn was revealed when a Rebel shell hit the hot-water boiler of the correspondents' hotel "Florida".
> 
> After "The Spanish Earth" was boxed and shipped, he left with the promise to propagandize for the Loyalists' cause. He spoke out in Shakespeare & Co. and addressed the Writers' Congress in New York on the fourth of June 1937. In his speech he stressed he was anti-fascist, not pro-Communist(Writer As Artist (7.), p. 224)
>    There is only one form of government [...] that cannot produce good writers,   and that system is fascism. For fascism is a lie told by bullies. A writer   who will not lie cannot live and work fascism.
> 
> Due to his reputation, "The Spanish Earth" was even shown in the White House and his article "Fascism is a Lie" was published in "New Masses". Furthermore, he established an ambulance fund and financed it by collecting money at Hollywood parties.
> 
> He returned to see Franco control two thirds of Spain, the Loyalists still fought on. "The Fifth Column" was finished just before the taking of Teruel in January 1938. He wrote it, according to the preface, under constant bombardment in the Hotel Florida, it appears as though he had again needed the thrilling aura of death to inspire him.
> 
> After short stays in Paris due to liver troubles and in Key West, he came back to Spain to see Loyalists retreating on all fronts, then returned to America to organize the experiences he gathered into a novel, the narrations of the different characters clearly originate here.
> 
> next: /ForWhomtheBellTolls
> 
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ErnestHemingway/SpaininFlames|981118729
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<    There is only one form of government [...] that cannot produce good writers,   and that system is fascism. For fascism is a lie told by bullies. A writer   who will not lie cannot live and work fascism.
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>    There is only one form of government [...] that cannot produce good writers,
>    and that system is fascism. For fascism is a lie told by bullies. A writer
>    who will not lie cannot live and work fascism.
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ErnestHemingway/ForWhomtheBellTolls|981118811
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> 6.For Whom the Bell Tolls
> 
> Some experiences from the time of World War One have been worked into "For Whom the Bell Tolls". According to Anthony Burgess, the farewell at the station on page 434 is the equivalent of Hemingway's departure to the Italian front. An interesting aspect is that Jordan went to school instead, maybe the war represents for Hemingway, as well as for his character Jordan, a part of his education. The last thoughts of Jordan could refer to Ernest's wounding in Fossalta where it seemed to him "more natural to die than to go on living"(Burgess (9.), p. 22). The gray-haired soldier who already appeared (From Boy to Man) might have been the prototype of Anselmo, while Golz's look is that of real life Polish General "Walter", commander of the XIVth International Brigade.
> 
> To his other fiction, there are parallels, too. Maria's appearance and her behavior are almost identical to Catherine Barkley's. When Robert first embraces her, she erupts in tears, later she stated she didn't care much about herself but wished to do everything for him, and that she was his wife. Like Catherine, she is very preoccupied with death, and even excels her here. It seems as though Hemingway tried to summon the spirit of "A Farewell to Arms" once again, but Maria never was a character as complex as Catherine. In fact, she rarely said or did anything, and at the beginning of the last quarter of the novel Robert even remarked "I know thee very little from talking"(For Whom (5.), p. 365). She appears to be an imitation of Ms. Barkley, but only the facade is identical, in Maria's case, there is nothing behind, except for the story about her parents, but anyone could have told that. Pilar will be discussed in greater detail below (Pablo).
> 
> The story is told by a third-person selective-omniscient narrator and contains far more inner monologue and remembrances of the various characters than "A Farewell to Arms". This, on the one hand, is a necessity, since the book deals with just four days, and on the other hand supports the author's intention to illustrate the diversity and complexity of Spain. By using medieval English he emphasizes the antiquity and formality of the Spanish language and tries to lift the novel onto the level of Shakespearean dramas. In the last part of the novel, the plot is split into two parallel actions, the preparations for the attack and the course of Andrés. This is no unusual technique of storytelling, but with Hemingway, who sharply focused on his protagonist in "A Farewell to Arms", it's a signal. Some say it's a signal of him giving in to the demands of Hollywood directors who wanted books that can be easily used as scripts, but I consider it a signal of him disassociating himself from the protagonist, maybe because of superstition (it brings bad luck to write about one's own end), but more likely because of his inner struggle that will be explained later (Pablo ). At the time the novel was published, it seemed as though he separated the narrator from the protagonist to become what he had always wanted to be: A big, omniscient and ubiquitous daddy who tells all the stories and who's got everything under control. The reader often gets the impression that the characters are the narrator's children, especially when he evaluates them ("Anselmo was a very good man"(For Whom (5.), p. 212), "This was the greatest gift that he [Robert] had, the talent that fitted him for war"(For Whom (5.), p. 421),etc.).
> 
> The main theme of the novel is, as already pointed out in its preface, intense comradeship in the prospect of death, the giving up of the own self for the sake of the cause, for the sake of the people. Robert Jordan, Anselmo and the others are ready do it "as all good men should", the often repeated gesture of embracing or patting on one another's shoulder reinforces the impression of close companionship. One of the best examples is Joaquín. After having been told about the execution of his family, the others are embracing him and comfort him by saying they were his family now. Besides this love for the comrades, there is the love for the Spanish soil, which is represented by the pine-needled forest floor. This love lasts till the very last breath, as the last picture proves. Robert Jordan awaited his death feeling "his heart beating against the pine needle floor of the forest"(For Whom (5.), p. 504).
> 
> A less obvious, but, for the author personally, more important theme is suicide. Alarmingly enough, Hemingway already tried to justify it. Maria and Karkov are always equipped to do it, and Kashkin made Robert do it. The characters, including Robert, would prefer being dead to being captured, and that is Hemingway's first step onto a downward spiral.
> 
> Hemingway frequently used images to produce the dense atmosphere of violence and death his books are renowned for, the main image of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is the machine image. The fear of modern armament destroys, as it already did in "A Farewell to Arms", the conceptions of the ancient art of war: combat, sportsmanlike competition and the aspect of hunting. Heroism becomes butchery, the most powerful picture employed here is the shooting of Maria's parents against the wall of a slaughterhouse. Glory exists in the official dispatches only, the theme "disillusionment" of "A Farewell to Arms" is adapted.
> 
> Especially the fascist planes are dreaded, when they approach, all hope is lost, the efforts of the partizans seem to vanish, their commitment and their abilities become meaningless. "They move like mechanized doom"(For Whom (5.), p. 93), and they wreak havoc with El Sordo and his band, the ideological slogans Joaquín employs "as though they were talismans"(For Whom (5.), p. 328) have no effect, he resorts to praying, but not even that can save him. Every time the planes appear they indicate a certain and pointless death. The same holds true for the automatic weapons ("Never in my life have I seen such a thing, with the troops running from the train and the máquina speaking into them and the men falling"(For Whom (5.), p. 31)) and the artillery, especially the trench mortars that already wounded Lt. Henry ("he knew that they would die as soon as a mortar came up"(For Whom (5.), p. 330)). No longer would the best soldier win, but the one with the biggest gun. The soldiers using those weapons are simple brutes, they lack "all conception of dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349) as Fernando remarked, Anselmo insisted "We must teach them. We must take away their planes, their automatic weapons, their tanks, their artillery and teach them dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349).
> 
> Apart from this physical threats, much of the violence is executed on a metaphysical level. The arguments between Robert and Pablo, especially the one where Robert tried to provoke Pablo far enough to have a reason to shoot him, is a great metaphysical battle that reminds one of Edward Albee's "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?", where the two main characters cause each other to crack up just by provoking. Pilar also is a very good example for metaphysical violence. She is one of the most brutal characters in the whole novel, and hurts almost everybody, but never actually uses physical force.
> 
> next: /FredericHenry
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ErnestHemingway/FredericHenry|981118926
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> Author Milan Kundera once wrote his characters were not of woman born, but of an idea, of a decision he faced and didn't exploit the possibilities, circumvented a border instead of crossing it. Beyond the border, in fact, beyond the border of his own "I", started the realm in which his characters exist. They were familiar to him, but he could never reach them. I think the same holds true for Hemingway and his characters. Frederic Henry and Robert Jordan are perfect examples of "bordercrossers". Lt. Henry didn't want the medal of honor because he knew he didn't deserve it and deserted when realizing the true nature of war, Lt. Hemingway didn't take such drastic steps though he too had realized how pointless the war was. Robert Jordan took an active part in the Spanish Civil War and was willing to die for the country he loved, Ernest Hemingway was a non-combatant all the time.
> 
> a. Frederic Henry
> 
> 1.Background
> 
> Mr. Hemingway doesn't provide his readers with much information about the family background and the past of Frederic Henry, one simply gets to know that he had quarrels with his relatives and therefore doesn't maintain contact any more. Three family members are briefly mentioned, his mother, sister and grandfather. When asked about his father he states he had none, just a step-father. Maybe Hemingway was still battered by his own father's suicide and therefore removed all information on Frederic's father. Henry came to Italy to study architecture in Rome and, speaking Italian, joined the army for no real reason ("I was a fool"(A Farewell (1.), p. 227)), except for his eagerness for adventure ("In the old days I would have [...] picked a fight"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217)). The sight drafts he receives from his grandfather are the only link to his home, he doesn't pay much attention to his grandfather's letters, the only one mentioned in the whole book is handled in two short lines among many others.
> 2.Character
> 
> Henry tries to keep from thinking throughout the entire book, maybe he, too, fears getting "gloomy"(For Whom (5.), p. 18), he did not want to get emotionally involved in anything, neither in a love affair nor in the war. He was, in a way, convinced of the need for victory, but stated "It [the war] had nothing to do with me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 34). Talking about military maneuvers, he always referred to the Italian army as "them", thus stressing he doesn't see himself as part of the army as an ideological and patriotic institution. He doesn't report much about violence and death, if it happened, he mentioned it briefly, superficially, always refusing to have any feelings about it, always trying to get away from it. Even when he shot one of the Sergeants, he described it as if he was hunting ("I shot three times and dropped one"(A Farewell (1.), p. 182)), trying not to realize he shot a sentient being.
> 
> His attitude towards religion is a bit strange, though. On the one hand, he often said something around the lines "I had no religion"(A Farewell (1.), p. 289), but on the other hand he prayed not only for Catherine's life but also for his own ("Oh, God, I said, get me out of here."(A Farewell (1.), p. 51)). As a matter of fact, Hemingway was a convert under fire and the line "It is in defeat we become Christian"(A Farewell (1.), p. 160) clearly refers to that. The later statements about having no religion can be explained best by Henry's own words "He [the priest] had always known what I did not know and what, when I learned it, was always able to forget."(A Farewell (1.), p. 13).
> 
> Of course, this does not only refer to his religiosity, but also to his opinions about the war. To improve the process of forgetting that enables him to ignore all the violence, he drinks a great lot of alcohol throughout the whole novel ("I'm very brave when I've had a drink"(A Farewell (1.), p. 126)).
> 3.Development
> 
> The wall of emotional numbness Frederic Henry had set up before the novel started, crumbled when he first met Catherine, he felt he couldn't ignore all the sorrow and pain any longer, and began to separate from the rude society at the mess. This progress started when he proposed Catherine "Let's drop the war"(A Farewell (1.), p. 24) and was completed with the discovery "Then I realized it was over for me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 219), he "had made a separate peace"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217). His discovery had a multitude of reasons. First of all, as an ambulance driver, he had seen quite an amount of bloodshed when he carried off the wounded and dead. He could feel the inhumanity even more intense after his own wounding, when the man in the stretcher above him had a hemorrhage and the blood of the dying soldier slowly dripped on his shirt and nobody did anything about it. Prior to his wounding, he discussed with the ambulance drivers he was commanding. Since they agreed with their colleagues later in the novel, who "don't believe in the war anyway"(A Farewell (1.), p. 194), his sacrifice is rendered in vain, he almost died for nothing. It is worth noting that those eight ambulance drivers are the only soldiers to be described in the novel, therefore they act as representatives of the lower levels of the army hierarchy. Thus both Frederic Henry and the reader get the impression that the war is just wanted by the leaders, who don't care about human life (""How are all the wounded evacuated?" "They are not. [...]" "What will I take in the cars?" "Hospital equipment.""(A Farewell (1.), p. 168)) and the ambitious, like Ettore ("He's the boy they're running the war for"(A Farewell (1.), p. 109)). Furthermore, Frederic's talks with the priest in chapters 11 and 26 made him reach a certain state of awareness that left him more vulnerable to the cruelty surrounding him. He seemed to be most affected by the fate of Rinaldi. His prophecy "This war is killing me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 150) makes him commit "self-destruction day by day"(A Farewell (1.), p. 155). Together with all the other influences, his ongoing decline and its inevitable end reaffirmed Henry's decision to leave it all behind and made him condemn the war instead of supporting it by being an officer.
> 4.Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway's life
> 
> More than most of his other figures, Catherine Barkley is not a character by herself, but much more a vehicle for all kinds of experiences Hemingway made in his life so far. First of all, as she enters the novel, she clearly is the counterpart of the already mentioned Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, later, when Helen Ferguson is with her and especially when Ferguson complained about Henry, Catherine can be viewed upon as an image of Hadley Richardson. In the end, the labor pains and the Cesarean section are a clear reference to Pauline Pfeiffer.
> 
> But it is not all that easy. Catherine often says about herself that "There isn't any me any more"(A Farewell (1.), p. 96). Only when she is "self-conscious"(A Farewell (1.), p. 125), she is one of those women. When she is with Frederic, she adopts his ideas and vice versa. They form a unit that serves as an item of reflection for Hemingway's theories about life and death, which are always developed in the discussion of the lovers. She knows the poems he quotes and the books he is talking about, they have got so much in common that it's hard to tell them apart. The following dialogue may illustrate this(A Farewell (1.), pp. 125 through 126):
>   "They [the brave] die of course."
>   "But only once."
>   "I don't know. Who said that?"
>   "The coward dies a thousand deaths, the brave but one?"
>   "Of course. Who said it?"
>   "I don't know."
>   "He was probably a coward," she said. "He knew a great deal about cowards but
>   nothing about the brave. The brave dies perhaps two thousand deaths if he's
>   intelligent. He simply doesn't mention them."
>   "I don't know. It's hard to see inside the head of the brave."
>   "Yes. That's how they keep that way."
> 
> Without any former explanation, they always know what the other one is talking about. They develop, without disagreeing or arguing, a philosophy that represents Hemingway's code of courage, called "grace under pressure".
> 
> next: /RobertJordan
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ErnestHemingway/RobertJordan|981119062
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> b. Robert Jordan
> 
> 1.Background
> 
> Robert Jordan seems a little older than Frederic Henry, he already is an instructor and came to Spain first in 1925, so he is about 30, Henry is still studying. The links to his grandfather who fought in the American Civil War as did Ernest Hall and Anson Hemingway, the author's own grandfathers, are deeper, but they are just memories, as his grandfather is already dead. He asks him for help and advice and thinks he was "the hell of a good soldier"(For Whom (5.), p. 360) who, being a leader of irregular cavalry, must have been in similar situations. He admires him for having endured four years of Civil War.
> 
> At the time of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" the author's mental wounds had healed enough to allow him to reflect upon his father's suicide. Of course, this reflection is executed by Robert Jordan, but the parallels simply can't be denied. Jordan's father shot himself with an old Civil War pistol, as did Clarence Edmonds Hemingway and Jordan's father did it to "avoid being tortured"(For Whom (5.), p. 70), a reference to Hemingway's father's incurable illnesses. Jordan understands it, but doesn't approve it. He refers to his father as "the other one"(For Whom (5.), p. 361) and considers him a "coward"(For Whom (5.), p. 361). Although he knows his father had become what he was because he was trapped between the famous grandfather whose deeds he could never surpass and his dominating wife, Robert still feels ashamed. He himself is not married, at least not by law or church, and has no brothers or sisters.
> 
> 2.Character
> 
> As Karkov put it, Robert Jordan is "a young American of slight political development but a great way with the Spaniards and a fine partizan record."(For Whom (5.), p. 454). He is no Communist or Marxist but "an anti-fascist"(For Whom (5.), p. 69), just like Hemingway. For the duration of the war, however, he is "under Communist discipline [...], because, in the conduct of the war, they were the only party whose program and whose discipline he could respect."(For Whom (5.), p. 175). He is embarrassed by phrases like "enemies of the people"(For Whom (5.), p. 176) and other communist clichés, dialectics and a "purely materialistic conception of society"(For Whom (5.), p. 324).
> 
> He has the intention to write a book about Spain and the Spanish Civil War, Karkov, much admired and respected by Jordan, aids him because he thinks Jordan writes "absolutely truly"(For Whom (5.), p. 265), like Hemingway did, or at least claimed to do. He considers writing a way to get rid of all the experiences worrying him now. Interestingly enough, he thinks the book will be "Much better than the other"(For Whom (5.), p. 178), most likely referring to "A Farewell to Arms". In spite of having written the book in a third person selective omniscient perspective, Hemingway wants to be identified with Robert Jordan.
> 
> Robert Jordan is not as straight as Frederic Henry. Not only does he show a more differential way of thinking, but also he is inclined to talk to himself, especially in the second half of the novel(For Whom (5.), p. 323)
> 
>   But you like the people of Navarra better than those of any other part of 
>   Spain. Yes. And you kill them. Yes. [...] Don't you know it's wrong to kill?
>   Yes. But you do it? Yes.
> 
> He even insults himself sometimes reminding the reader of the argument between Anselmo and Pablo at the start of the novel.(For Whom (5.), p. 13)
> 
>   "Art thou a brute? Yes. Art thou a beast? Yes, many times. Hast thou a brain?
>    Nay. None."
> 
> Naturally, his attitude towards violence is different from Henry's. He believes it is justified to kill people for the cause, though he does not enjoy it. He is convinced that a victory is the only acceptable solution to this conflict. Their different attitudes result from their different motivations: Henry is just on some kind of adventure holiday while Jordan defends the country he "would rather have been born in"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)
> 
> Because of the gravity of the situation and the importance of his work, he can't permit himself emotions and feelings, he considers them as being luxuries, so he tries to restrain them, but is not always successful in the beginning, it takes him quite a while to extinguish them. (322-323)
> 
> 3.Development
> 
> One of the central aspects of the novel is Robert Jordan's education. In the beginning, Robert Jordan's world is a very simple one, he has got a task and he has got to accomplish it, no matter how high the cost. He knows "it was wrong in the first place and such things accentuate disaster as a snowball rolls up wet snow"(For Whom (5.), p. 413), but "he did not give any importance to what happened to himself"(For Whom (5.), p. 4). When he gets to know the people of Pablo, he fears his orders could harm or even kill them. The responsibility for the ones he likes is hard to bear, and when he fell for Maria, he "would abandon a hero's or a martyr's end gladly"(For Whom (5.), p. 177). At first, he considers this development a corruption of his fighting spirit, but later asks himself: " [...] was it corruption or was it merely that you lost the naïveté that you started with?"(For Whom (5.), p. 255). Especially Pilar became his mentor ("All right, Inglés . Learn. That's the thing. Learn."(For Whom (5.), p. 272)), a trait she could have derived from Hemingway's mentor Gertrude Stein. He learns to value his own life and to enjoy it, even though it's overshadowed by his forthcoming death and when it's over, he hates to leave it all behind.
> 
> Much of his education consisted of looking behind the scenes of the party propaganda. When he heard about the execution of the fascists in Pilar's home village, he is startled. To discover that the Loyalists can be brutal, too, is just the first part of the disclosure slowly emerging on his mind. The other part is the discovery that the dreaded fascist soldiers he is fighting and killing are simple peasants like the Republicans. On page 176, Robert thinks that all Spaniards are equal, just their leaders betray and abuse them, but every time he realizes this, he manages to suppress it, like Frederic Henry, because it would otherwise damage his resolution.
> 
> Apart from the obvious effects of violence on his development, the prospect of an early death influences him greatly. The knowledge that he has got to live his entire life in just four days acts as a catalyst for his development and made it possible in the first place.
> 
> 4.Pablo
> 
> Robert may seem to be the perfect continuation of Frederic Henry, but "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is more than a mere "A Farewell to Arms Part Two". Undoubtedly, the protagonist is the same, but there are those little differences that are already explained above, and apart from them, the major change is the introduction of two more main characters: Pablo and Pilar.
> 
> With Hemingway, it's always useful to try and associate the fictional characters with the ones of his real life. Since the protagonist's identity is well known, it's sound to associate Jordan's beloved Maria with Hemingway's beloved Martha to whom the novel is dedicated. The phonetic similarities in their forenames support this association. Pilar could correspond to Pauline Pfeiffer, since "Pilar" was Pauline's secret codename when Ernest was still married with Hadley. Pablo is, in an informal way, the husband of Pilar and they knew each other for quite a while, like Pauline and Ernest did. They behave like a long-married couple, so maybe Pablo is the personification of an Ernest who hadn't made a clear break with Pauline. Maybe he identifies with Pablo, a useless drunkard most of the time, but when things are getting serious, he shows grace under pressure and acts according to the "No man is an Illand" theme right from the start ("my duty is to those who are with me"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)). Robert Jordan does not value this theme right from the beginning, but seems, with his firm beliefs and his whole life still ahead of him, to be the best possible development Frederic could have had, while Pablo, with the alcoholic sentimentality of a man who knows his best years have already passed, represents the worst possibility. The reality, i.e. the author himself, struggles somewhere in between. On the one hand, he tries to stay away from Pablo, whose enthusiasm and resolution vanished a long time ago, who doesn't care much about politics and who definitely is unwilling to die for the cause, no matter how important it might seem. But on the other hand, he can't be like Robert Jordan, whose single-minded illusions about the strength of their enemies, about the possibility of a victory, about sacrifice, and about the justness of the cause appear very naïve.
> 
> Pablo is what Ernest fears to become and Jordan is what he once was, so the conflict between them could represent Hemingway's struggle with his former self, which is displayed best by Frederic Henry. As observer of this conflict acts Pilar who likes Robert, because he is formed out of the author's early characteristics. She is concerned about the first signs of assimilation Robert already shows, she warns Maria: "You are going to have a drunkard like I have"(For Whom (5.), p. 70).
> 
> What Hemingway tries is to get the best out of both characters, maybe to develop a guideline for his own life. They adopt each other's virtues and are able to drop some of their flaws. Robert gets, mostly via Pilar, some of Pablo's experience and is able to obtain a certain degree of wisdom, while Pablo is forced out of his "stagnation that is repugnant"(For Whom (5.), p. 33) and gets some reaffirmation of his spirit and resolution.
> 
> In spite of that, the differences are still huge and although Robert considers Pablo a smart man he strictly disapproves his brutality and low cunning. Pablo improved a little at the very end of the novel, but Robert still is by far the most virtuous character. If seen under this aspect, the novel's end appears more tragic than it did before, because it is also the end of Hemingway's inner struggle with his Lost Generation ego, that gives in to the drunken cynicism of Pablo, in whom Hemingway implies, deliberately or not, visions of his own future and facts of his present. It is not only the fictional character Robert who dies, but also the part of Hemingway's mind that he represented. He stopped fighting his latent depressions, his alcoholism and his brutality and was slowly overwhelmed by them.
> 
> next: /YoungandInnocent
> 
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ErnestHemingway/YoungandInnocent|981119110
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> III. Hemingway up Close and Personal
> 
> Hemingway's suicide was not that surprising after all. During all his life he was obsessed with death and, in a way, also with violence. Nevertheless, when his father committed suicide, he strongly condemned this deed as a violation both of what Harvey Breit called Hemingway's "categorical imperative"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6) courage and his Catholic faith. Why, and when, did the change in mind take place? What were the reasons for his ever-growing inclination to killing and especially to killing himself?
> 
> 1.Young and Innocent
> 
> Oak Park produced a tall, handsome man, strong, smart and ambitious. He had already learned the art of hunting and therefore was no stranger to killing. He also enjoyed a good fight, boxing was one of his passions. His father's prestige as a physician helped him a lot in the small town, he learned about music and art and grew up in a protected, clean and safe neighborhood.
> 
> World War I showed him a different side of life, which did not, however, leave him entirely depressed and broken. His illusions were shattered, but the experiences gathered were invaluable, and, what's more, everything turned out to be all right in the end, the good ones won, his wounds healed completely and Agnes was a mere "Schwärmerei"(Burgess (9.); page 24). He even got decorated, returned as a hero and earned much fame and admiration back home. His luck was completed when he married Hadley Richardson who bore his first son.
> 
> Being a Artist in the "City of Light", as Paris still is called by some, he may have had a hard time from the financial point of view, but all in all the 'twenties were days of friendship, the financial and artistic struggle kept Hemingway fit.
> 
> next: /ThingsTurnSour
> 
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ErnestHemingway/ThingsTurnSour|981119155
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> 2.Things Turn Sour
> 
> He divorced Hadley and married Pauline. Because of his Catholic faith, some conscientious conflicts arose, but were finally overcome. In the 100 days Hadley ordered him to stay away from Pauline, "Men Without Women" was created. Afterwards, he married for the second time, his conscience seemed to be cleaned maybe due to his writing, but the next hurt was already under way. His father committed suicide because he couldn't bear the burden of his incurable illnesses any longer. The cowardice in this action must have been a great shame for somebody who is as convinced of the "grace under pressure" doctrine as Ernest. Maybe the sensational suicide of Harry Crosby affected him, too, the founder of the Black Sun Press was a friend of his in Paris.
> 
> His books sold very well and were approved by critics, but with Hemingway's success came his bad behavior. He told Scott Fitzgerald how to write his own novels, and Allen Tate that there was a fixed number of orgasms a man had. He also claimed Ford Madox Ford would be sexually impotent, maybe a hint to his own sexual neurosis. In return, he, too, was criticized and hurt. The journal "Bookman" attacked him as a dirty writer, McAlmon, the publisher of his first, non-commercial book said, according to Scott Fitzgerald, Hemingway would be "a fag and a wife-beater"(Burgess (9.), p. 57) and that Pauline was lesbian. Even Gertrude Stein criticized him. In her book "The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas", she claimed Hemingway had derived his style from her own and from Sherwood Anderson's, this shameful origin would be "yellow"(Burgess (9.), p. 64). Most insulting got Max Eastman, who asked Ernest to "come out from behind that false hair on the chest"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6), and who wrote an essay entitled "Bull in the Afternoon" as a satire on "Death in the Afternoon", a book Hemingway definitely would not joke about.
> 
> It is worth noting that this attacks on his pride and talent were accompanied by the already mentioned injuries (The Time in Between) which kept him almost constantly in bad shape.
> 
> next: /TheEndlessDarkNothingness
> 
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ErnestHemingway/TheEndlessDarkNothingness|981119263
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> 3.The Endless Dark Nothingness
> 
> As we already know, Hemingway was very preoccupied with death, in his youth it was the death of small animals, later of big game or enemies in combat. Death was always present and always threatening, but was, as in the Tibetan yin yang symbol, inseparably linked to life, which Hemingway, like Jim Morrison, considered most intense in the prospect of death. He lived in the borderland, trying to get ever closer to the edge. On the other, on the yin side, waited what the Castilians call the "nada" or the endless dark nothingness.
> 
> Hemingway stood on the yang side: "Life is too short for anything but the one thing that can outface death- human dignity"(Burgess (9.), p. 61). Fernando is the representative of this opinion in "For Whom the Bell Tolls", dignity also appears in the form of gaiety as Robert Jordan mentioned in the first chapter ("It was like having immortality"(For Whom (5.), p. 18)), yet he fears and worships the nada greatly, as the stream-of-consciousness passage of Robert's sexual intercourse with Maria proves(For Whom (5.), p. 171).
> 
>   For him it was a dark passage which led to nowhere, then to nowhere, then again to nowhere, once again to nowhere, always and forever to nowhere, heavy on the elbows in the earth to nowhere, dark, never any end to nowhere, hung on all the time always to unknowing nowhere, this time and again for always to nowhere, now not to be borne once again always and to nowhere, now beyond all bearing up, up, up and into nowhere, suddenly, scaldingly, holdingly all nowhere gone and time absolutely still and they were both there, time having stopped and he felt the earth move out and away from under them.
> 
> The prayer in "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place"(Short Stories (3.), p. 481), hinted at in "A Farewell to Arms" on page 13, where the still "numb" Frederic prefers nada, is very similar to this passage.
> Some lived in it and never felt it but he knew it all was nada y pues nada y nada y pues nada. Our nada who art in nada, nada be thy name thy kingdom nada thy will be nada in nada as it is in nada. Give us this nada our daily nada and nada us our nada as we nada our nadas and nada us not into nada but deliver us from nada; pues nada. Hail nothing full of nothing, nothing is with thee.
> 
> For Hemingway the human existence was a struggle between light and darkness, between life and death, and the epitome of this struggle were bullfights, Spain's national sport. He became an aficionado after having seen the Pamplona fiesta 1925 which was fictionalized in "The Sun Also Rises". But the book dealing exclusively with this topic was "Death in the Afternoon" where he discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting, the ritualized, almost religious procedures of the blood-soaked spectacle.
> 
> Sadly enough, the country which stood for everything that mattered to Hemingway, his cosmic principles life and death, the struggle between them, and its manifestation in the form of bullfights, was destroyed by the Fascists. In spite of his efforts to support the Loyalists, Franco took over in the spring of 1939, like Mussolini, whom Hemingway called "the biggest bluff in Europe"(Burgess (9.),p. 33), did in Italy 1922.
> 
> After having lost "his" country, he lost his Key West home as a consequence of his divorce in 1940. And at this point of time, the heaviest loss of all had already commenced. The generation he was a part of ceased to exist in the 'forties. Many were dying (Thomas Wolfe 9.15.1938, Ford Madox Ford 6.26.1939, F. Scott Fitzgerald 12.21.1940 (heart attack due to an alcoholic life as described in "The Sun Also Rises"), James Joyce 1.13.1941, Sherwood Anderson 3.8.1941, Virginia Woolf 3.28.1941 (suicide), Getrude Stein 7.27.1946) and some were leaning to the Fascists, like Ezra Pound. He became an Illand, the nothingness engulfed him.
> 
> next: /SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar|981119358
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 4.Sure Shots: The Second World War
> 
> The United States entered World War II on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
> 
> As the FBI took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
> 
> By firing his machine pistol at the portrait of Mary Welsh's husband after having placed it atop of the toilet bowl in his room in the Ritz, he proved he wouldn't any longer flinch from killing a man who stood face to face with him. He became a killer like Pablo in the end.
> 
> next /TheDownwardSpiral
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/TheDownwardSpiral|981119408
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 5.The Downward Spiral
> 
> After the war, he started and abandoned a novel about the earth, the sea and the air, and went to Italy where he gathered material for "Across the River and Into the Trees", a homage to Venice. He derived the title from the last words of General Stonewall Jackson, maybe he expected his own end soon. His now divorced third wife appeared as the third wife of the protagonist, Adriana Ivancich as his lover Renata, which means "Reborn" in Latin. Hemingway was longing for his lost youth. The novel was widely disapproved, the majority of reviewers accused him of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude and sentimentality, the last of which is most certainly true and fitted into the pattern that was beginning to emerge: Hemingway grew old.
> 
> He started and, depressed by its mediocrity, abandoned a long sea novel to be published posthumously as "Islands in the Stream". One section of it was published as "The Old Man and the Sea", its enormous impact satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 and the Nobel Prize in 1954 and restored his international reputation as an author.
> 
> Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again. On a safari he was the victim of two successive plane crashes, the injuries he got away with were grave and numerous, he sprained his right shoulder, arm and left leg, had a grave overall concussion, temporarily lost his vision in the left eye, his hearing in the left ear, had a paralysis of the sphincter, crushed his vertebra, suffered from a ruptured liver, spleen and kidney and was marked by first degree burns on his face, arms and leg. As if this would not be enough, he was badly injured one month later in a bushfire accident which left him with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. This physical hurts caused him to crack up, his strength was gone entirely and so was his will to live. He couldn't even travel to Stockholm personally.
> 
> A glimpse of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into "A Moveable Feast" . Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down, his blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from an aorta inflammation, and maybe the depressions accompanying alcoholism had already started. He also lost his Finca Vigía in San Francisco de Paula and was forced to "exile" to Ketchum, Idaho after the situation in Cuba had started to escalate.
> 
> The very last years, 1960 and 1961, were marked by severe paranoia, he feared FBI agents could be after him if Cuba turned to the Russians, that the "Feds"(Burgess (9.), p. 110) would be checking his bank account and that they wanted to arrest him for gross immorality and carrying alcohol, he got upset about perfectly normal photographs in his "Dangerous Summer" article etc. He received treatment for his mental disorders, there were suicide attempts in Spring 1961. He received treatment again, but it could not prevent his suicide on the second of July, 1961. He put the gun to his head and fired.
> 
> next: /ViolenceandRedemption
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/ViolenceandRedemption|981119470
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> C)Conclusion
> 1.Violence and Redemption
> 
> In his novels, Ernest Hemingway used violence extensively, but yet subtly. Never is there a description of death for its own sake, it always contributes to a larger theme, in "A Farewell to Arms" it is mainly human commitment, and in "For whom the Bell Tolls" mainly comradeship. It contributes in an unusual way: Death and violence always act as the opposite, as the imminent threat and as the jet black background that makes the theme stand out sharply, and that's why it is difficult to analyze it. No matter what exactly happens in those two books, violence and death are always involved, but just act as a sort of sublime intensification of the protagonist's feelings and experiences.
> 
> Death appears to be the inevitable end, but this does not make the characters sad or melancholic. Just like a man who is told by a doctor that he has some lethal illness and only four days left until his death, Robert Jordan is willing "to live as full a life in seventy hours as in seventy years"(For Whom (5.), p. 179). In "For Whom the Bell Tolls" everything is compressed and more intense because the prospect of death enables him to relish his life until the very last breath.
> 
> Thus redemption from death does not mean eternal live, but it means to live in the moment, to assume that each day could be the last. That is what the stream-of-consciousness passage during Robert's and Maria's second sexual intercourse(For Whom (5.), p. 406) is all about, the counterpart to the first one which dealt with the nada.
> 
> This, that they were not to have, they were having. They were having now and before and always and now and now and now. Oh, now, now, now, the only now, and above all now, and there is no other now but thou now and now is thy prophet. Now and forever now. Come now, now, for there is no now but now. Yes, now. Now, please now, only now [...]
> 
> His love, to Maria as well as to the comrades, forms "an alliance against death"(For Whom (5.), p. 282). Catherine's commitment to Frederic, the priests commitment to god, Robert's gaiety in the first chapter, they all can outface death. Hemingway's characters can be destroyed by violence and death, but never defeated
> 
> next: /WhyItWentWrong
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/ViolenceandRedemption|981119488
1a2
> 
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ErnestHemingway/WhyItWentWrong|981119534
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2.Why It Went Wrong
> 
> Unfortunately, Hemingway wasn't able to use this attitude in his real life. Maybe the pressure simply was to high. The general public did never know the real Ernest Hemingway, who was a human with a human's problems. They only had an abstract ideal they knew from his books, even his close friend James Joyce mixed him up with his characters. Cited verbatim:
> He's a good writer, Hemingway. He writes as he is. He's a big, powerful peasant, as strong as a buffalo. A sportsman. And ready to live the life he writes about. He would never have it if his body had not allowed him to live it. But giants of his sort are truly modest; there is much more behind Hemingway's form than people know. (Burgess (9.), p. 39)
> 
> According to Ford Madox Ford truth was not facts but vision, that is the principle Hemingway's characters are based on and that is what caused Hemingway's failure. He was forced to try and achieve the same straightness and stoicism his characters had. The difference was just that he was a real person, and they were, like Kundera's characters, born of an idea and existed just in fiction.
> 
> Like Robert Jordan's father, he was trapped. On the one hand, he could never surpass his character's deeds and on the other hand, the general public demanded him to do so. He tried and created one myth after the other. He claimed he had an affair with Mata Hari ("but one night I fucked her very well, although I found her to be very heavy throughout the hips and to have more desire for what was done to her than what she was giving to the man"(Burgess (9.), p. 105)), that he joined the Arditi after his wounding, etc. And most people were perfectly willing to believe it, the tale about the Arditi, Italian shock troops, even appeared in Malcolm Cowley's preface to the 1944(Cowley (4.), p. xii) edition of "The Viking Portable Library". He was captured in the structure of his lies, the discrepancy between him and the image he had set up grew larger every day. To be a liar and worthless in comparison to that shining idol must have reinforced his alcohol-related depressions and made him more liable to the hurts he received.
> 
> After all, there is a certain ambivalence of death and violence. It had done some good, it taught him priceless philosophies, but at the same time, it hurt him so much, that they were useless to him. The only thing he could do was to fictionalize them.
> 
> next: /BibliographY
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/BibliographY|981119690
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> D)Appendix
> 
> a. Bibliography
> 
> Primary Sources
> 
> 1. Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms. London: Arrow Books, 1994
> 
> 2. Hemingway, Ernest (ed. by Carlos Baker), Selected Letters 1917-1961. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981
> 
> 3. Hemingway, Ernest, The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway The First Forty-Nine Stories and the Play The Fifth Column. New York City: Random House, Inc., 1938
> 
> 4. Hemingway, Ernest, (ed. and intro. by Malcolm Cowley), The Viking Portable Library Hemingway. New York City: The Viking Press, 1944
> 
> 5. Hemingway, Ernest, For Whom the Bell Tolls. London: Arrow Books, 1994
> 
> Secondary Sources
> 
> 6. Baker, Carlos (editor), Ernest Hemingway Critiques of Four Major Novels. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962
> 7. Baker, Carlos, Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972
> 
> 8. Berridge, H.R., Barron's Book Notes Ernest Hemingway A Farewell to Arms. Stuttgart: Klett, 1990
> 
> 9. Burgess, Anthony, Hemingway and his world. Norwich: Thames and Hudson, 1978
> 
> 10. Döblin, Alfred, Berlin Alexanderplatz. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, 1996
> 
> 11. Esslin, Martin (translated from English by Marianne Falk), Das Theater des Absurden. Hamburg, Rowohlt, 1972
> 
> 12. Kundera, Milan (translated from Czech by Michael Henry Heim), The Unbearable Lightness of Being. London: Faber and Faber, 1991
> 
> 13. Lynn, Kenneth S., Hemingway. New York City: Simon and Schuster, 1987
> 
> 14. The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1993
> 
> 15. ?Hemingway's Prize-Winning Works Reflected Preoccupation With Life and Death? The New York Times, CX (July 3, 1961)
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/BibliographY|981119712
19a20
> 
------
LiteraTure|981119879
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ErnestHemingway
------
ErnestHemingway|981119931
0a1,4
> Grace Under Pressure
> 
> Death and Violence in Ernest Hemingway's Life and Work
> 
------
ErnestHemingway|981119975
4a5,6
> If you want to know where the quotes are coming from, please refer to the bibliography section. For easier reading, this text is split in several sections, you can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
> 
8,9d9
< 
< If you want to know where the quotes are coming from, please refer to the bibliography section. For easier reading, this text is split in several sections, you can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
------
SetTheory|981121865
107c107
< "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is compatible with ZFC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
---
> "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is not implied by ZF-AC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
------
SetTheory|981123198
85a86,87
> RESPONSE II: Ok, would you mind providing a reference is to how?  Not that I don't believe you, but it would be nice to have the details...
> 
107a110,111
> 
> RESPONSE: The generalized continuum hypothesis isn't, but its negation is.  Simple contrapostitive of GCH -> AC.  The 1-to-1 correspondences are just those, namely, the things we have to set up to prove that a given set has the same cardinality as another given set.  In ZF+AC, GCH is undecidable, so everything constructed must satisfy GCH (else it would be false) and so be of the same cardinality as some power set of N, ie have some 1-to-1 correspondence between them.  But potentially this 1-to-1 correspondence need not be constructable either, and exist because of AC - this last point I am not sure about.
------
SetTheory|981125579
112a113,119
> COMMENT: Yes, if by ZF-AC you mean ZF plus the negation of
> AC, it is inconsistent with GCH. Your statement that everything
> constructed in ZF+AC must satisfy GCH has no obvious meaning.
> Your implication (if I understand you correctly) that if GCH
> holds every set must be "of the same cardinality of some power
> set of N" is unclear. What do you mean by "a power set of N"?
> 
------
SetTheory|981128266
87a88,95
> See e.g. the chapter on set theory in Mendelson, Introduction
> to Mathematical Logic, for a definition of the cumulative hierarchy of sets: R(0)=the empty set, R(alpha+1)=the power
> set of R(alpha), R(lambda)=union of R(alpha) for alpha<lambda,
> for limit lambda. The axiom of regularity is equivalent to
> the statement that for every set x there is an alpha such that
> x is in R(alpha).The cardinal of x can be defined as the set of sets in R(alpha) that are equivalent to x, where alpha is the smallest beta such that R(beta) contains a set equivalent to x.
> 
> 
------
TaoTehChing|981128753
2a3,7
> COMMENT: Not according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What
> is your source for the statement that the existence of
> Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching
> is not the work of one man is generally accepted.
> 
------
LiteraTure|981130624
1c1,2
< ErnestHemingway
---
> * ErnestHemingway
> * IsaacAsimov
------
HaikuPoem|981131284
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Haiku is one of the most important form of traditional Japanese poetry. Haiku is a very short poetic form, consisting of three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables each, and must have a special word - the kigo - that indicates in which season the haiku is set. 
> 
> The poet must be concise because of the brevity, while concentrating deep spiritual understanding into the poem. The haiku poet usually takes up the changes of nature which have impressed him in order to express the intangible world of the spirit. 
> 
> Haiku is not written only by professionals. Anyone can easily learn to use the form.
------
IsaacAsimov|981132265
13a14,15
> ----
> * /TheFoundationSeries
------
IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|981132787
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Over the span of forty two years IsaacAsimov created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven novels, which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
> 
> /PreludeToFoundation
> 
> /ForwardTheFoundation
> 
> /Foundation
> 
> /FoundationAndEmpire
> 
> /SecondFoundation
> 
> /FoundationsEdge
> 
> /FoundationAndEarth 
------
IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation|981133003
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is a prequel to the Foundation Trilogy. For the first time Asimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on Trantor during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of Psychohistory is at risk. 
------
IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation|981133317
1c1
< It is a prequel to the Foundation Trilogy. For the first time Asimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on Trantor during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of Psychohistory is at risk. 
---
> It is a prequel to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time IsaacAsimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of Psychohistory is at risk. 
------
FoundationTrilogy|981133640
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first three novels of IsaacAsimov's Foundation Series. The were published as short stories in the 1940's, to be later released as separate novels:
> 
> * Foundation
> * Foundation and Empire
> * Second Foundation
> 
> These are the only books, which have been awarded the HugoPrize for the best ScienceFiction Series ever.
> 
> ''See'' IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981134054
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The sixth novel in the IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries.
> 
> The Mayor of Trantor fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location. 
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981134086
1c1
< The sixth novel in the IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries.
---
> The sixth novel in the /TheFoundationSeries.
------
IsaacAsimov|981135017
8,9c8
< IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars,
< like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), Foundation's Edge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest Science-fiction short story ever written. 
---
> IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars, like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
15c14
< * /TheFoundationSeries
---
> * /TheFoundationSeries
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981135078
3c3
< The Mayor of Trantor fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location. 
---
> The Mayor of Terminus fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location. 
------
FermatsLastTheorem|981137313
6c6
< in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
---
> in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreDeFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
------
PierreDeFermat|981137428
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> PierreDeFermat was a French mathematician. He is often called the founder of the modern theory of numbers. Together with ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century. Independently of ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat discovered the fundamental principle of analytic geometry. His methods for finding tangents to curves and their maximum and minimum points led him to be regarded as the inventor of the differential calculus. Through his correspondence with BlaisePascal he was a co-founder of the theory of probability.
> 
> ''See'' FermatsLastTheorem
------
PierreDeFermat|981137488
1c1
< PierreDeFermat was a French mathematician. He is often called the founder of the modern theory of numbers. Together with ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century. Independently of ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat discovered the fundamental principle of analytic geometry. His methods for finding tangents to curves and their maximum and minimum points led him to be regarded as the inventor of the differential calculus. Through his correspondence with BlaisePascal he was a co-founder of the theory of probability.
---
> PierreDeFermat is often called the founder of the modern theory of numbers. Together with ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century. Independently of ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat discovered the fundamental principle of analytic geometry. His methods for finding tangents to curves and their maximum and minimum points led him to be regarded as the inventor of the differential calculus. Through his correspondence with BlaisePascal he was a co-founder of the theory of probability.
------
JRRTolkieN|981139220
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JRRTolkieN (1892-1973).
> [J.R.R. stands for: John Ronald Reuel]
> 
> English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy TheLordOfTheRings (1954-55). The work consists of The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
------
LiteraTure|981139259
2c2,3
< * IsaacAsimov
---
> * IsaacAsimov
> * JRRTolkieN 
------
RequestedArticles|981139288
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- JRRTolkieN -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
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TaoTehChing|981140963
7a8,9
> ''I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and '''then''' you could discuss the problem).  Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger''
> 
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CategorySchemes|981141206
23c23
< :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- Literature -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- LiteraryArt -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
------
LiteraryArt|981141247
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetRy -- DraMa -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein -- StrangerInAStrangeLand
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein -- StrangerInAStrangeLand
------
PoetrY|981141261
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> HaikuPoem
------
WhyPhilosophize|981141417
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
------
PhilosophicalSubdisciplines|981141439
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
17c19
< <i>Political</i> <i>Philosophy</i>: the study of basic topics concerning government, including the purpose of the state, political justice, freedom, the nature of law, and the justification of punishment.
---
> <i>Political</i> <i>Philosophy</i>: the study of basic topics concerning government, including the purpose of the state, political justice, freedom, the nature of law, and the justification of punishment.
------
SomeMetaphysicalQuestions|981141463
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
17c19
< Now, I want to say something before I try to give a definition of the word "metaphysics."  Of all philosophical subjects, metaphysics is bound to look most <i>pointless</i>.  I am sure that some of you, when you heard the questions I just asked, were asking yourselves, "What on earth is the point of even <i>wondering</i> about stuff like this?"  So let me just remind you about what the task of philosophy is.  The task of philosophy is to <i>really</i> <i>get</i> <i>to</i> <i>understand</i> the meaning and justification of our most <i>basic</i> beliefs.  And metaphysics asks questions about <i>the</i> <i>most</i> basic of our beliefs.  Metaphysics is often thought to be the <i>most</i> <i>fundamental</i> part of philosophy.  If my saying that doesn’t help you get over the suspicion that this is all just hifalutin nonsense, just wait.  I am hoping that you will gain some <i>personal</i> <i>experience</i> of how questions in metaphysics underlie, and deeply inform, many other more obviously important questions in philosophy.  So insofar as how you answer metaphysical questions makes a big difference for how you answer other obviously important questions in philosophy, metaphysical questions are themselves important.
---
> Now, I want to say something before I try to give a definition of the word "metaphysics."  Of all philosophical subjects, metaphysics is bound to look most <i>pointless</i>.  I am sure that some of you, when you heard the questions I just asked, were asking yourselves, "What on earth is the point of even <i>wondering</i> about stuff like this?"  So let me just remind you about what the task of philosophy is.  The task of philosophy is to <i>really</i> <i>get</i> <i>to</i> <i>understand</i> the meaning and justification of our most <i>basic</i> beliefs.  And metaphysics asks questions about <i>the</i> <i>most</i> basic of our beliefs.  Metaphysics is often thought to be the <i>most</i> <i>fundamental</i> part of philosophy.  If my saying that doesn’t help you get over the suspicion that this is all just hifalutin nonsense, just wait.  I am hoping that you will gain some <i>personal</i> <i>experience</i> of how questions in metaphysics underlie, and deeply inform, many other more obviously important questions in philosophy.  So insofar as how you answer metaphysical questions makes a big difference for how you answer other obviously important questions in philosophy, metaphysical questions are themselves important.
------
PhilosophyOfReligion|981141499
2a3,4
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
19c21
< In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
---
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
------
PoliticalPhilosophy|981142158
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
23c25
< As you can see, just from reading this definition, this area of philosophy is positively <i>enormous</i>.  It is probably the area of philosophy that you knew most about already, on account of its being taught to some extent in civics classes.  Next we are going to have to focus in on only one of the many questions that make up political philosophy.  The question we will focus on is the one that is discussed in our reading: why is government needed at all, and what, if anything, makes any particular government legitimate.
---
> As you can see, just from reading this definition, this area of philosophy is positively <i>enormous</i>.  It is probably the area of philosophy that you knew most about already, on account of its being taught to some extent in civics classes.  Next we are going to have to focus in on only one of the many questions that make up political philosophy.  The question we will focus on is the one that is discussed in our reading: why is government needed at all, and what, if anything, makes any particular government legitimate.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|981142187
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981145189
126a127
> Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
------
CategorySchemes|981145620
43a44,50
> ----
> Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
> 
> :Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
> :Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
> :Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
> :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
------
CategorySchemes|981145653
45c45
< Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
---
> ''(The following is taken from CategorySchemesTalk.  I didn't notice who posted it.)''  Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
------
ErnestHemingway/TheEndlessDarkNothingness|981145815
7c7
<   For him it was a dark passage which led to nowhere, then to nowhere, then again to nowhere, once again to nowhere, always and forever to nowhere, heavy on the elbows in the earth to nowhere, dark, never any end to nowhere, hung on all the time always to unknowing nowhere, this time and again for always to nowhere, now not to be borne once again always and to nowhere, now beyond all bearing up, up, up and into nowhere, suddenly, scaldingly, holdingly all nowhere gone and time absolutely still and they were both there, time having stopped and he felt the earth move out and away from under them.
---
> :For him it was a dark passage which led to nowhere, then to nowhere, then again to nowhere, once again to nowhere, always and forever to nowhere, heavy on the elbows in the earth to nowhere, dark, never any end to nowhere, hung on all the time always to unknowing nowhere, this time and again for always to nowhere, now not to be borne once again always and to nowhere, now beyond all bearing up, up, up and into nowhere, suddenly, scaldingly, holdingly all nowhere gone and time absolutely still and they were both there, time having stopped and he felt the earth move out and away from under them.
------
ErnestHemingway|981146185
59a60
> ----
61c62
< 
---
> This is very impressive work and quite an enormous contribution to WikiPedia.  First, Andreas, you do realize, I hope, that by posting it on WikiPedia, you have released this work according to the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense?  Second, is there anything in particular that you would like people to do to this work to render it more encyclopedia-like?  (For some similar instructions-to-the-public, see LarrysText.) -- LarrySanger
------
LibertarianisM|981146307
7c7
< A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.  The libertarian believes the state should not violate individual rights in any for, and so opposes the right and left equally.
---
> A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.  The libertarian believes the state should not violate individual rights in any form, and so opposes the right and left equally.
------
LiteraryArt|981153451
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein -- StrangerInAStrangeLand
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein
------
LiteraTure|981153466
3c3,4
< * JRRTolkieN 
---
> * JRRTolkieN 
> * AynRand
------
EconomicS|981158728
4c4
< The is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoLitics, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
---
> There is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoLitics, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
------
LinkToExternalPages|981159225
11c11,15
< Click on the "edit page" link below to see how the latter example was coded.  It's not hard!
---
> Click on the "edit page" link below to see how the latter example was coded.  It's not hard!
> 
> ----
> 
> If I add words like external link and web link and outside link and linking to the Internet to this page, then searches on these words will return a link to this, the page that has information on how to do that.
------
SetTheory|981159418
127a128,129
> Response: I mean the things that GCH usually asserts are the only cardinals...I'm sorry for the bad terminology but I couldn't think of any better way to put it.
> 
------
PoetrY|981167052
1c1,2
< HaikuPoem
---
> * HaikuPoem
> * LimericK
------
WolVes|981172960
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See WolF
------
WolF|981173104
1c1,118
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WolF:
> 
> The wolf is the quintessential wild animal. Considered brave, even fearless, by admirers; held up as a model of family efficiency and loyalty; feared by those who misunderstand his needs; loved by ecologists; and hated by cattlemen and sheepmen, this wild canid is imbedded deeply in man's cultural and natural history through fairy tales, folklore, and an ill-advised battle against natural predators. People are willing to believe that this creature is related to northern breeds of dogs, but not to their beloved Poodles, Beagles, or Labrador Retrievers. 
> 
> Scientific research conducted over the past century has determined that dogs developed from several subspecies of wolves scattered throughout the world. Thousands of years ago, wolves probably became camp followers, taking advantage of the scraps around the fires and caves of prehistoric man. Perhaps man brought wolf cubs into the family to raise, and eventually began to take advantage of the wolf's ability to hunt and to guard the campsite. Down the millennia, through preference for wolves of certain physical and behavioral characteristics and through genetic mutation, Canis lupus changed shape, size, and color to become the wolf subspecies now known as Canis lupus familiaris. 
> 
> Although most wolves have basically grey coats, hence the common name, the coats usually have a lot of base yellow interspersed between the salt-and-pepper frey and black hair. Wolves anywhere can have coats that grade from almost pure white to yellows, reds, even jet black, although all of the arctic wolves are usually all white. 
> 
> Most of the adult wolves weigh in the vicinity of 75 to 125 pounds (34 to 56 kilograms). Males are usually larger than females by as much as twenty-five percent. There are authenticated records of male wolves weighing as much as 175 pounds (79 kilograms). 
> 
> As large as wolves are, they usually appear to be much larger because of their long hair. In the winter coat, the hair on their back and sides averages 2 to 2.5 inches (5 to 6.3 centimeters) in length. Starting at the base of the neck, the wolf has a teardrop-shaped mane of hair that elongates into just a crest down the spine toward the tail. Over the shoulder, the mane is about 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) wide. The hairs in the mane are 4 to 5 inches (10 to 12.7 centimeters) long and are attached to erectorpilli muscles, which allow the hairs to stand on end, making the wolf appear even larger. 
> 
> Extensive studies of the North American wolf species show between 50 to 70 inches (1.3 to 1.8 metres) in total nose-tip-to-tail-tip length. Of that length, one quarter is tail length. 
> 
> Wolves Stand between 27 to 31 inches (68 to 78 centimeters) high at the shoulder. Compared to dogs of the same size, wolves' chests are much narrower. Their legs are also longer in proportion to their body weight than are most dogs. Because of its narrower chest, the wolf's left and right foot tracks closer together than the dogs. 
> 
> Humans are plantigrade, walking upon our entire flat foot, sole to heel. All members of the canine family, and the feline family too, are digitigrade, walking upon just their toe tips. Unless a wolf is lying down, the heel of each foot does not come in contact with the ground. The front feet of a wolf are exceptionally large. This is of great advantage to the wolf when it runs upon snow, as it allows greater weight distribution and more support to prevent the animal from sinking in as deeply when the snow is soft. 
> 
> The wolf is very comfortable in the water, and does not hesitate to wade through icy streams or swim across short stretches of lake. In summer, wolves often bathe in streams to keep cool, and they will readily follow prey into water. They have been known to wash mud from their coats in rivers and streams. They depend on their thick coats in winter, so it is not surprising that they spend part of their leisure time in grooming behavior. It is also likely that the grooming of other pack members helps reinforce the social bonds that tie the pack together. Two wolves will lick each others' coats, nibbling gently with their teeth to remove foreign matter. Reciprocal grooming is especially common during courtship. Injured wolves are intensely groomed by other pack members, providing both physical and mental comfort. 
> 
> Wolves mature physically at a later age than dogs; females have their first estrus (heat) at two years of age or older, and they cycle only once each year, usually in late winter. Males mature at age three or later.
> 
> Wolves in the wild live in family packs, mostly consisting of three to a dozen members, usually related. Each pack has an alpha or top male and an equivalent female, and each top wolf keeps order among the pack members of its gender. Generally, only the top male and female mate, but occasionally the alpha male stands aside and allows the beta (second place) male to breed the alpha female. 
> 
> Only one litter is born to the pack each year, and all the adult wolves assist in raising the cubs. One wolf remains at the den site with the cubs while the others go off to hunt. When the successful hunters return to the den, they regurgitate partially-digested food for the cubs. As the cubs grow and leave the den, the adults take turns cub-sitting, playing with the youngsters and keeping them out of harm's way. 
> 
> Wolves love to play, shouldering one another, bumping bodies together, flopping tails over each other's backs, and leaping up placing forepaws around other' necks. Play especially in pups, develops strength and hunting skills, and aids in establishing pack communication and hierarchy. The intention to play is often signaled by the gesture well known to dog owners of dropping the front quarters into a crouch position, with smiling face and wagging tail. Adult wolves stage mock fights, play chase, and leap on each other. The ambushing of unwary pack members is a favorite game. 
> 
> Unity in the pack is maintained by complex use of facial expressions and body language that establish relationships between individual wolves that benefit the pack. Alpha wolves may place their head or paw on the shoulders of subordinates or grasp the inferior's muzzle in his jaws in play, just a reminder that he is boss. Or he may stare at boisterous subordinates in a C. lupus version of "Knock it off!" 
> 
> Position of the ears, tail, and lips are important in wolf communication. A relaxed but alert wolf or a dominant-aggressive wolf carries his ears up; a submissive or fearful wolf pins them back against the skull. An aggressive wolf carries his tail straight behind, a submissive one tucks his tail between his legs. A wolf ready to fight curls his lips back fully, bares his teeth, stares intently, and raises his hackles. He may growl or not. 
> 
> Submissive wolves avoid eye contact with dominant members of the pack and may turn away from their betters. Many inferior wolves grovel to their superiors, mimicking the cub behavior of soliciting food by licking at the muzzle of the dominant animal. Sometimes, they lie on the ground and expose their bellies to the alpha wolf, and they may urinate to further state their acknowledgement that the alpha is truly the top wolf. Some of you may have noticed this same behavior in your dog. 
> 
> With the cubs, however, all bets are off. All adults accept the attentions, including the sharp teeth, of the cubs. The youngsters are allowed to practice adult behaviors with forbearance, although a particularly painful nip might be followed by a big paw pinning a hapless cub to the ground. Mother may grab a cub by the scruff of the neck and shake him for wandering off, or she may cuff several cubs that refuse to stop roughhousing, but these are manifestations of tough love, designed to keep the cubs safe and teach them manners. 
> 
> The purpose of this social order is to increase hunting prowess and ensure the survival of the pack and therefore the species. Wolves cooperate when they hunt. In some cases, a couple of wolves will watch over the potential prey animal while the rest of the pack relaxes and plays. Then, when the hunt resumes, some wolves may leave the pack and circle ahead of the moose or elk, ready to ambush it. Sometimes wolves encircle a prey animal floundering in deep snow and simply wait for it to tire and collapse. 
> 
> There is a tendency to judge their behavior as cruel or as gentle and loving, but wolves are simply animals that are equipped to survive in a harsh environment. Ascribing human emotions or characteristics to their behavior is inappropriate. To search for vestiges of that behavior in their descendants and attempt to comprehend it can enhance understanding of wolves and of the dogs that share man's home and hearth. 
> 
> Today wolves are endangered species wherever they live, except perhaps in Alaska and the Canadian Arctic and subarctic, where they appear to flourish in the midst of the herds of hundreds of thousands of caribou. Attempts are being made to reintroduce wolves to their former territory to serve as natural predators for deer, elk, and other hoofed animals with burgeoning populations. 
> 
> The Wolf has developed the capacity to survive in the most inhospitable of climates. The wolves in the high arctic endure several winter months of perpetual darkness. Even in Febuary when sun returns to the north, temperatures of -40°C and bitter winds are common. Other wolves are at home in the desert and the dampness of a humid Gulf Coast swamp. 
> 
> Three canids -- dogs, wolves, and coyotes -- seem to crossbreed rather freely. Unfortunately, it has become somewhat popular for these crossbreds and their offspring to be kept as pets. 
> 
> Since the wolf - Canis lupus - is an endangered species, it is illegal to capture a wild wolf for any purpose. However, some folks established colonies of wolves before this status was granted, and they have used these animals to produce wolf hybrids. Most hybrids are crossbred on large breeds of dogs, especially German Shepherd, Chow, Akita, and Alaskan Malamute, and they often combine the worst characteristics of the wolf and the dog breed. 
> 
> The wolf is basically a shy animal, instilled with a fierce need to fit into a pack hierarchy and depending on nuances in body language and facial expression and on hunting skill to survive. A stare is considered a direct challenge and can bring an attack if the animal cannot flee. Wolf jaws are much stronger than those of a dog and are often used to exert dominance. 
> 
> According to Barry Lopez in Of Wolves and Men, the jaws of a wolf have a "crushing pressure of perhaps 1,500 (lbs/square inch) compared to 740 (lbs/square inch) for a German Shepard." The dentition of the wolf consists of twenty-two teeth: twelve incisors, four canines, sixteen pre molars, and ten carnassials and molars. The canines of the wolf are easily 1-inch (2.54 centimeters) long, strong, sharp, and slightly curved. These are the teeth used for grasping prey. The wolf does not chew its food, using its carnassials to scissor off a piece of meat that can then be swallowed in a manageable chunk. 
> 
> The breeds of dog frequently used to produce the hybrid tend to be dominant, fairly independent, and even aloof. They are difficult to train for inexperienced owners and can be aggressive to other dogs and dangerous to cats and other small mammals. This combination of wolf temperament and breed characters can be dangerous in inexperienced hands. 
> 
> Although the lure to own an exotic pet is strong, families who would like a wolf-like animal that is good with children should opt for a well-tempered German Shepherd, a Keeshond, or a Samoyed. More experienced dog owners might consider a Siberian Husky, Alaskan Malamute, Chow, or Akita. Only those folks who have previously trained a tough northern breed of dog should even consider a hybrid. 
> 
> A wolf hybrid should never be left alone with small children, for children stare, scream, and move quickly. Stares are challenges, and the baby will lose every time. Screams, cries, and quick movements are prey characteristics, and the hybrid may consider the child fair game.
> 
> A hybrid must always know who is top dog, and this alpha status must be earned and maintained with firmness, not punishment. 
> 
> Obedience training is a must. 
> 
> There's no way to predict whether a hybrid will display wolf behavior or dog behavior or something in between. Therefore, hybrid owners should read as much about wolves as possible so they can recognize and deal with the various manifestations of body language, facial expressions and dominant or submissive behaviors they may encounter. A hybrid should always be spayed or neutered to prevent breeding. 
> 
> The responsibility of placing hybrid pups in appropriate homes is far greater than the responsibility of placing any other pup. 
> 
> A hybrid is not a guard dog. Since there are far more subordinate wolves than alpha wolves, and since most wolves don't bark much, a hybrid with wolf behavior is likely to flee rather than guard.
> 
> Female hybrids are less likely to get along with female dogs or hybrids, and male hybrids are unlikely to get along with male dogs or hybrids. 
> 
> The caveats regarding wolf-dog hybrids carries over to coydogs, the coyote-dog hybrids that are becoming more common as coyotes spread throughout the country. Since coyotes are solitary animals not attuned to pack living, the problems encountered with these hybrids may be even greater than those of wolf-dogs. 
> 
> There's no doubt that a hybrid wolf or coyote can be a fine companion for those who understand their wild core. But the thrill of living with such a magnificent creature must be tempered by the knowledge that the animal will forever be unpredictable, that mistakes in training may never be forgiven, and that alpha status must always be reinforced. The average pet-owning family is much better off with "just" a dog. 
> 
> Ask anyone about wolf vocalizations and the howl invariably springs to mind. Even though wolves bark, woof, whine, whimper, yelp, growl, snarl and moan a lot more often than they howl, it is howling that defines the wolf, and fascinates us. So why do wolves howl? 
> 
> The center of a wolf's universe is its pack, and howling is the glue that keeps the pack together. Some have speculated that howling strengthens the social bonds between packmates; the pack that howls together, stays together. That may be so, but chorus howls can also end with nasty quarrels between packmates. Some members, usually the lowest-ranking, may actually be "punished" for joining in the chorus. Whether howling together actually strengthens social bonds, or just reaffirms them, is unknown. 
> 
> We do know, however, that howling keeps packmates together, physically. Because wolves range over vast areas to find food, they are often separated from one another. Of all their calls, howling is the only one that works over great distances. Its low pitch and long duration are well suited for transmission in forest and across tundra, and unique features of each individual's howl allow wolves to identify each other. Howling is a long distance contact and reunion call; separate a wolf from its pack, and very soon it will begin howling, and howling, and howling... 
> 
> When a wolf howls, not only can its packmates hear it, but so can any other wolf within range. These other wolves may be members of hostile adjacent packs that are competitors for territory and prey. Howl too close to these strangers, and they may seek you out, chase you, even kill you. In northern Minnesota, where wolves are protected from humans, the primary cause of death for adult wolves is being killed by wolves from other packs. So howling has its costs (running into the opposition) as well as its benefits (getting back with the pack). Consequently, wolves are careful about where and when they howl, and to whom they howl. 
> 
> For example, a wolf that is separated from its pack may return to an abandoned summer rendezvous site and howl for hours, even in response to a stranger nearby. It was accustomed to howling at that site and probably feels relatively confident and secure there. But that same wolf, away from the old home site, will be much more reserved, and if a stranger howls nearby, it may silently and quickly retreat. Younger wolves, however, act differently. 
> 
> Pups, especially those under four months of age, love to howl and will usually reply to any howling they hear, even that of total strangers. This is understandable, since pups haven't yet learned how to identify their older packmates. 
> 
> Indiscriminate howling is usually not a dangerous proposition for young pups, since they tend to be stuck at a rendezvous site that is relatively far from the neighbors, who likely have pups of their own to raise. More importantly, replying to an adult that howls often leads to a meal, since packmates returning with food frequently howl as they near the home site. But as summer gives way to fall, the benefits of indiscriminate howling decrease. 
> 
> Once pups start to travel with the pack, they begin to enter less secure surroundings. Their neighbors are also traveling more. Distant howls may belong to strangers, so the risks of howling increase. Besides, by now they have had ample time to learn the voices of their own packmates and are able to discriminate friend from foe. By six months of age, pups have become as selective as adult wolves about where, when and to whom they howl. 
> 
> There is one member of the pack who will tend to howl more boldly: the alpha male. The alpha male is the dominant male of the pack, and father of the pups. He is most likely to howl to, and even approach, a stranger -- often with confrontation on his mind. One sign of this aggressiveness can be heard in his voice; his howls become lower-pitched and coarser in tone as he approaches a stranger. Lowering the pitch of a vocalization is a nearly universal sign of increasing aggressiveness in mammals, and in wolves it can sound quite impressive. 
> 
> This behavior points to the second main purpose of howling: helping to maintain spacing between rival packs. When one pack howls, others nearby may reply. Very quickly, all the wolves know each other's location. By advertising their presence, packs can keep their neighbors at bay and avoid accidentally running into them. 
> 
> But the use of howling in spacing is fraught with difficulties. If one pack howls, all its neighbors (within range, of course) now know its location. What if they choose to keep quiet, sneak up, and attack the howlers? Deliberate attacks by one pack on another have been seen, so there are costs to advertising your location. These risks have to be balanced with benefits. An example of this trade-off is sometimes seen during winter, when packs are traveling nomadically within (or even outside) their territories. A pack sitting on a fresh prey kill is very likely to stake its claim and howl, particularly if a stranger howls nearby. As time passes and the kill is consumed, the wolves become less invested in the site and are less likely to reply. Eventually, they may respond to a stranger's howling by silently moving away. 
> 
> When two packs do meet, their relative size usually decides the outcome. Thus small packs are often quite reluctant to howl and draw attention to themselves, whereas large packs howl readily. But packs can fib to one another about their size. 
> 
> When animals compete, they often engage in behaviors designed to exaggerate their size. Wolves stand tall, raise their hackles, ears and tails, and produce low, menacing howls, all to convince their opponent that a retreat from this "big, bad wolf" is the best option. Thus most confrontations involve a lot of bluff and very little bloodshed. Similarly, packs that are able to exaggerate their numbers are more likely to keep their neighbors at bay. The structure of a pack or chorus howl is well suited to this kind of deception. 
> 
> Rather than using howls with a single pure tone, wolves howling in a chorus use wavering or modulated howls. The rapid changes in pitch make it difficult to follow one individual's howls if several others are howling simultaneously. In addition, as the sound travels through the environment, trees, ridges, rock cliffs and valleys reflect and scatter it. As a result, competing packs hear a very complex mix of both direct sound and echoes. If the howls are modulated rapidly enough, two wolves may sound like four or more. Indeed, during the Civil War, General Ulysses S. Grant reported hearing what he took to be a pack of "not more than 20 wolves" while traveling. A short time later he reached the pair of wolves that had been making all the noise! This phenomenon, called the Beau Geste Effect, may introduce enough uncertainty to make size estimates not only unreliable, but potentially lethal, if a pack underestimates the size of its rival and approaches. 
> 
> So wolves howl to find their companions and keep their neighbors at bay. Popular imagination has long held that they also howl at the moon, but there is no evidence that this is so. Wolves may be more active on moonlit nights, when they can see better, or we may hear them more often on such nights, because we feel more comfortable tramping about in the light of a full moon, but a wolf howling at the moon would be wasting its breath. 
> 
> Scent plays a very important role in the life of the wolf, by smell alone wolves can locate prey, other pack members or enemies. It can tell them if other wolves were in the territory, if they were male or female, and how recently they visited. The wolf has several specialized glands, one around the anus and another on its back about 3 inches (7.6 centimetres) in the front of the base of its tail. The scent from these glands is as individualistic as are our fingerprints and is used by that particular wolf as its personal calling card. These Glands are used to mark boundaries and also to mark trails. These "Scent Stations" are often 100 yards (91 metres) apart. 
> 
> The sense of smell in the wolf is highly developed, as would be expected in an animal possessing numerous scent glands. The distance at which any scent can be detected is governed by atmospheric conditions but, even under the most favorable conditions, 1.75 miles denotes a particularly keen sense of smell. The wolves usually travel until they encounter the scent of some prey species ahead of them. They then move directly toward their prey in an effort to capture it. 
> 
> Next to smell, the sense of hearing is the most acute of the wolf sense. Wolves can hear as far as six miles away in the forest and ten miles in the open. Wolves can hear well up to a frequency of 25 khz. Some researchers believe that the actual maximum frequency detected by wolves is actually much higher, perhaps up to 80 khz (the upper auditory limits for humans is 20 khz), also according to some naturalists wolves' hearing is greater than that of the dog. 
> 
> Wolves also have keen eye sight and are quick to detect the slightest movement of anything in front of them. Being major predators, their eyes are on the front of their heads, and they have probably a little less than 180-degree vision, unlike their prey species, which can see over 300 degrees of a circle. 
> 
> Investigation of taste is made difficult by the fact that the influence of smell often plays a major role in the way a food "tastes." It is known that canines possess taste receptors for the four taste categories: salty, bitter, sweet, and acidic. Felines on the other hand, do not respond to sweetness. The sweetness receptivity would be adaptive use to wolves, as sweet berries and other fruits do play a minor role in their diet. 
> 
> In the wild wolves can live up to 13 years or more, in a protected wolf park or a controlled area of land, a wolf can live to be up to 16 years old. But most wolves usually live to be to around 8 years of age. The record wolf lifespan is about 20 years of age. life in the wild is difficult for the wolf, with human population taking up more and more wolf habitat and with those who would kill the wolf, a long lifespan is unlikely. In a controlled enviroment they can live longer because they are safe from the outside dangers of traps, snares, enemies and poisons. 
> 
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|981173854
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *Plot summary
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down his /DagnyTaggart for what he did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
> ----
> * Setting
> The apartment of /JamesTaggart
> ----
> * Characters
> /BettyPope
> /BoardofDirectors
> /JamesTaggart
> /JockBenson
> /JulesMott
> /LizBlane
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|981173871
8,13c8,13
< /BettyPope
< /BoardofDirectors
< /JamesTaggart
< /JockBenson
< /JulesMott
< /LizBlane
---
>  /BettyPope
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /JockBenson
>  /JulesMott
>  /LizBlane
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors|981173899
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
> 
> The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
> 
> In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
> 
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|981173930
10c10
<  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental: Mentioned.
---
>  /BoardOfDirectors: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|981173949
10c10
<  /BoardOfDirectors: Mentioned.
---
>  /BoardofDirectors: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|981173978
10c10
<  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental
---
>  /BoardofDirectors
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981174004
26c26
<  /BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
---
>  /BoardofDirectors
46c46
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981174074
0a1
>  /BettyPope
33a35,37
>  /JockBenson
>  /JulesMott
>  /LizBlane
46c50
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|981174242
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with /JamesTaggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
> 
> Betty Pope appears in:
>  /SectioN142
------
AtlasShrugged/JockBenson|981174309
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of /BettyPope.  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her /JamesTaggart didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
------
AtlasShrugged/JulesMott|981174410
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /TaggartTranscontinental's man in /MexicoCity.  He is the fall guy after the Mexican government nationalizes the /SanSebastianLine.
> 
> Jules Mott appears in:
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN143: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/LizBlane|981174498
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of /BettyPope.  According to Betty Pope, Liz Blane is amusing because she's a bitch.
> 
> Liz Blane is mentioned in /SectioN142.
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental|981174546
1d0
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
3,9d1
< The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
< 
< In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
< 
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental|981174587
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIREDT AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental|981174601
1c1
< #REDIREDT AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|981174633
16a17
>  /MexicoCity
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|981174651
6a7
>  - /SectioN142
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoCity|981174757
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /JulesMott is /TaggartTranscontinental's representative in Mexico City.
> 
> Mexico City is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN143
> 
> #
> #a
> #b
> #c
> #
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoCity|981174771
6,11d5
< 
< #
< #a
< #b
< #c
< #
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|981174900
1c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /ScetioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
7a8,9
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN143
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|981174918
1c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /ScetioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981174946
6c6,7
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN142
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|981175014
3c3,5
< Liverwurst: In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> <b>Liverwurst</b>: In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
> 
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take /BettyPope to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|981175033
1c1
< The food of Atlas Shrugged.
---
> The food of Atlas Shrugged.  Yes, the food of Atlas Shrugged.
5c5
< <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take /BettyPope to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
---
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take /BettyPope to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN143|981175579
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> /JamesTaggart addresses the /BoardofDirectors after the /SanSebastianLine is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from Mexico, and assures everyone that with his /Washington connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from /Mexico.  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting of /TaggartTranscontinental's /BoardofDirectors.
> 
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  /ClarenceEddington
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /JulesMott
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental|981175788
1a2,3
> 
> Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|981175825
7a8
>  - /SectioN143
------
AtlasShrugged/Washington|981175862
6a7
>  - /SectioN143
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|981176293
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FrancisoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to get make appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
> 
> * Setting
> James Taggart's office.
> 
> * Characters
>  /FranciscoDAnconia - Mentioned.
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /JamesTaggartsSecretary
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|981176309
2c2
< /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FrancisoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to get make appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
---
> /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FranciscoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to get make appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981176370
34a35
>  /JamesTaggartsSecretary
50c51
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  /WorkerNumber1
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggartsSecretary|981176480
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN144, /JamesTaggart's unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why /FranciscoDAnconia will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981176541
5a6
>  /SectioN144
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|981176565
8c8
< 
---
>  /SectioN144
------
AtlasShrugged/OrrenBoyle|981176577
7a8
>  /SectioN144
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|981176647
4c4
< Dagny is riding the Taggart Comet back to New York after inspecting the Rio Norte Line.  She hears a brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> /DagnyTaggart is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /BrakemaN whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN113|981176706
4c4
< Dagny and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from Halley's Fifth Concerto.  The brakeman watches her tensely.
---
> /DagnyTaggart and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /BrakemaN watches her tensely.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|981176736
4c4
< Dagny meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> /DagnyTaggart meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|981176771
4c4
< Hank Rearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|981176794
4c4
< /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triump, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|981176821
4c4
< /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is pured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|981177013
24c24
< The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
---
> The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|981177094
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks four hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|981177188
9c9
<  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
---
>  /SectioN141 - Mentioned prominently.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|981177218
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down his /DagnyTaggart for what he did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what he did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|981177231
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what he did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|981177243
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981177298
29a30
>  /ClarenceEddington
------
AtlasShrugged/ClarenceEddington|981177358
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An economic consultant who /JamesTaggart blames for the decision to build the /SanSebastianLine.
> 
> He is mentioned in /SectioN144.
------
AtlasShrugged/ClarenceEddington|981177374
3c3
< He is mentioned in /SectioN144.
---
> He is mentioned in /SectioN143.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|981177423
2c2
< /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FranciscoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to get make appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
---
> /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FranciscoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to make an appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
------
WolF|981178098
4a5,6
> *NOTE from TimShell - This is a good wolf article but the opening paragraph is really unobjective.  "quintessential wild animal", "ill-advised battle against natural predators", and "People are willing to believe that this creature is related to northern breeds of dogs, but not to their beloved Poodles" are all phrases that will be widely contested.
> 
------
KingdomAnimalia|981181232
46c46
< * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens, AardvarK)
---
> * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens, AardvarK, WolF)
------
KingdomAnimalia|981183793
0a1,2
> ''I'd like to start filling in some of these categories, so that new animals can be filed into a tree rather than a flat list.  However, I'm not entirely sure I like the naming system I originally came up with.  Does anyone have an opinion on whether subcategories should be things like PhylumPorifera, PoriFera or SpongE?''
> 
------
WikiPediaFaq|981188971
81a82,83
> ----
> '''Q. Is there a wiki spell check of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
------
ProjectName|981189235
6a7
> * Anoichtopedia
------
WikiPediaFaq|981189245
83c83
< '''Q. Is there a wiki spell check of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
---
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
------
KingdomAnimalia|981193476
2a3,8
> Characteristics that set cells off from other eukaryotes:
> * Oogamous, with anteriorly uniflagellate sperm
> * Multicellular diploid individuals with an initial blastula stage (ie zygote divides to form a hollow sphere)
> * Cells separated by septate junctions, presence of collagen in extracellular matrix
> ...and that's about it.  In the "higher" animals (Metazoa) the individuals are differentiated into a variety of cell types, usually grouped to form distinct organs, and typically include muscles and nerves.  The individual is radially or bilaterally symmetrical and has a definite adult morphology (unlike a plant, which just sort of grows).
> 
------
KingdomAnimalia|981193499
3c3
< Characteristics that set cells off from other eukaryotes:
---
> Characteristics that set animals off from other eukaryotes:
------
HomePage|981194466
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, Be Bold In Updating Pages!
3c3
< BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
---
> Business And Economics -- Countries Of The World -- Mathematics And Statistics -- History -- Language -- Religion -- United States -- Politics -- Music -- Sports -- Philosophy -- Science -- Technology --Arts and Entertainment -- Dance -- Literary Art -- Recreation -- Architecture -- Quotes -- Human Computer Interaction -- Category Schemes
5c5
< Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
---
> Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of Requested Articles.
7c7
< Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on ReviewRequests.
---
> Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on Review Requests.
10,16c10,16
< * WhatIsaWiki?  WhatsaWikiFor?  WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
< * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
< * WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
< * What are your NewTopics?  Where's the BrilliantProse?  How can we avoid PatentNonsense?
< * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia CategorySchemes?
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
---
> * What Is a Wiki?  What's a Wiki For?  Why On Earth Would I Want To Contribute To a Wiki?
> * How Does One Edit a Page?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
> * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So Why Arent These Pages Copyedited?
> * Whats The Relationship Between Wikipedia And Nupedia?
> * What are your New Topics?  Where's the Brilliant Prose?  How can we avoid Patent Nonsense?
> * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia Category Schemes?
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPedia Faq.  See also WikiPedia Process and WikipediaL.
18c18
< We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.
---
> We have a Wiki Pedia Announcements page.  Read it; add to it.
21,23c21,23
< * GNUStufF
< * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
< * BritannicaPublicDomain
---
> * GNU StufF
> * Which Wiki Should We Use
> * Britannica Public Domain
------
HomePage|981195104
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, Be Bold In Updating Pages!
---
> This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
3c3
< Business And Economics -- Countries Of The World -- Mathematics And Statistics -- History -- Language -- Religion -- United States -- Politics -- Music -- Sports -- Philosophy -- Science -- Technology --Arts and Entertainment -- Dance -- Literary Art -- Recreation -- Architecture -- Quotes -- Human Computer Interaction -- Category Schemes
---
> BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
5c5
< Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of Requested Articles.
---
> Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
7c7
< Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on Review Requests.
---
> Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on ReviewRequests.
10,16c10,16
< * What Is a Wiki?  What's a Wiki For?  Why On Earth Would I Want To Contribute To a Wiki?
< * How Does One Edit a Page?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
< * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So Why Arent These Pages Copyedited?
< * Whats The Relationship Between Wikipedia And Nupedia?
< * What are your New Topics?  Where's the Brilliant Prose?  How can we avoid Patent Nonsense?
< * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia Category Schemes?
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPedia Faq.  See also WikiPedia Process and WikipediaL.
---
> * WhatIsaWiki?  WhatsaWikiFor?  WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
> * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
> * WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
> * What are your NewTopics?  Where's the BrilliantProse?  How can we avoid PatentNonsense?
> * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia CategorySchemes?
> If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
18c18
< We have a Wiki Pedia Announcements page.  Read it; add to it.
---
> We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.
21,23c21,23
< * GNU StufF
< * Which Wiki Should We Use
< * Britannica Public Domain
---
> * GNUStufF
> * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
> * BritannicaPublicDomain
------
KingdomAnimalia|981196864
1c1
< ''I'd like to start filling in some of these categories, so that new animals can be filed into a tree rather than a flat list.  However, I'm not entirely sure I like the naming system I originally came up with.  Does anyone have an opinion on whether subcategories should be things like PhylumPorifera, PoriFera or SpongE?''
---
> ''I'd like to start filling in some of the phyla, so that new animals can be filed into a tree rather than a flat list.  However, I'm not entirely sure I like the naming system I originally came up with.  Does anyone have an opinion on whether subcategories should be things like PhylumPorifera, PoriFera or SpongE?''
3,7c3,11
< Characteristics that set animals off from other eukaryotes:
< * Oogamous, with anteriorly uniflagellate sperm
< * Multicellular diploid individuals with an initial blastula stage (ie zygote divides to form a hollow sphere)
< * Cells separated by septate junctions, presence of collagen in extracellular matrix
< ...and that's about it.  In the "higher" animals (Metazoa) the individuals are differentiated into a variety of cell types, usually grouped to form distinct organs, and typically include muscles and nerves.  The individual is radially or bilaterally symmetrical and has a definite adult morphology (unlike a plant, which just sort of grows).
---
> '''Characteristics of Animals'''
> 
> Animals are all multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes.  The adults are all diploids and oogamous, ie there is a large non-motile female gamete and a tiny male gamete, which has a characteristic posterior flagellum.  The one finds the other and they fuse to form a zygote, which divides to form a hollow sphere of cells.  
> 
> Other groups have reached this level of organization, eg the green alga ''Volvox.''  But animals have been able to develop much further, thanks to the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being rigidly bound by cell walls, they are linked by much more elastic septate junctions, composing an extracellular matrix including the unique structural protein collagen.  This forms a framework in which cells can be moved about, allowing for much more complicated differentiation.
> 
> The result of this flexibility is an incredible diversity of animal forms.  Except for a few phyla, most notably the sponges, all animals are metazoans: the body is composed of three separate layers (the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) with distinct tissues, including muscles and nerves, and is often separated out to form organs.  Most metazoans have a clear adult form, as compared with other multicellular organisms that usually just grow.
> 
> '''Phyla of animals'''
------
KingdomAnimalia|981196920
5c5
< Animals are all multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes.  The adults are all diploids and oogamous, ie there is a large non-motile female gamete and a tiny male gamete, which has a characteristic posterior flagellum.  The one finds the other and they fuse to form a zygote, which divides to form a hollow sphere of cells.  
---
> Animals are all multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes.  The adults are all diploids and oogamous, ie there is a large non-motile female gamete and a tiny male gamete, which has a characteristic posterior flagellum.  The one finds the other and they fuse to form a zygote, which divides to form a hollow sphere of cells called a ''blastula.''
------
KingdomAnimalia|981197736
22c22
< * PhylumCnidaria (=Ctenophora)
---
> * PhylumCnidaria (=Coelentrata)
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981213049
17a18,21
> ----
> Tim, I know you mean well and are trying to provide some decent data on standard of living.  But a good deal of this was clearly selected to lead to a particular impression which it doesn't directly support.  For instance, fewer people have cars in the UK.  However, the UK is a lot smaller than the US, and could quite conceivably have a better system of public transport, so that cars aren't nearly so useful, even as luxuries.  And on the other side of the coin, I suspect that there are many omitted statistics that would go the other way - for instance, how do America's poor compare in education?
> 
> I glanced at some of Simon's work and the man clearly has a bias.  That's not to say that anything the man says is wrong, or shouldn't be discussed, but it certainly should be handled with caution to make it somewhat more neutral.
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981214723
21c21
< I glanced at some of Simon's work and the man clearly has a bias.  That's not to say that anything the man says is wrong, or shouldn't be discussed, but it certainly should be handled with caution to make it somewhat more neutral.
---
> I glanced at some of Simon's work and the man clearly has a bias.  That's not to say that anything the man says is wrong, or shouldn't be discussed, but it certainly should be handled with caution to make it somewhat more neutral.  A brief search reveals that there are ''many'' criticisms of his obviously popular works available for comparison purposes.
------
LibertarianisM|981215770
7a8,9
> 
> ''Libertarians certainly believe that the state shouldn't violate individual rights, but that doesn't mean they don't fall on a political spectrum.  Things aren't nearly as simple as state vs non-state; there's the mob, the aristocracy, and the private sector to be considered, and different kinds of libertarian have different opinions about them.''
------
LibertarianisM|981215829
9c9
< ''Libertarians certainly believe that the state shouldn't violate individual rights, but that doesn't mean they don't fall on a political spectrum.  Things aren't nearly as simple as state vs non-state; there's the mob, the aristocracy, and the private sector to be considered, and different kinds of libertarian have different opinions about them.''
---
> ''Libertarians certainly believe that the state shouldn't violate individual rights, but that doesn't mean they don't fall on a political spectrum.  Things aren't nearly as simple as state vs non-state; there's the mob, the aristocracy, and the private sector to be considered, and different kinds of libertarian have different opinions about them.  The LP of the US falls clearly into the right wing category.''
------
JulianSimon|981216589
6a7,11
> Many of the writings of Julian Simon are available online at:
> http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
> ----
> ''The following statements are of opinion, not fact, and should really be dropped.  Simon's works are controversial and so should not be proclaimed factual.  His works may be creative, and even genius, but so were those of Marx, and most people disagree with those - or show bitter hostilities to them, if you prefer to use the term.''
> 
11,12d15
< Many of the writings of Julian Simon are available online at:
< http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
------
MeaningfulNess|981218610
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, WikiFication is encouraged>
------
TheMindBodyProblem|981220080
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText that has been wikified; further wikification is encouraged> 
3c3
< Let me introduce the mind-body problem with an example.  Suppose I decide to walk across the room, whereupon I do in fact walk across the room.  In the jargon I’ve just introduced, my decision is a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i>; and my walking across the room is a <i>physical</i> <i>event</i>.  Now on anybody’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved here; namely, something happens in my brain, which tells my legs to start walking.  And this brain event is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
---
> The mind-body problem can be introduced with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a <i>MentalEvent</i>; and my walking across the room is a <i>physical</i> <i>event</i>.  Now on anybody’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved here; namely, something happens in my brain, which tells my legs to start walking.  And this brain event is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981220159
15c15
< It also concerns something I am calling "mental events."  That’s one bit of terminology I will introduce.  We need some sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say I’m walking across the Oval and I <i>see</i> University Hall.  That instance of seeing University Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in my mind.  So let’s call that instance of seeing a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i>.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in my mind.  If I think to myself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if I feel happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
---
> It also concerns something I am calling "MentalEvent''''s."
------
MentalEvent|981220331
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Mental event'' is a sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say Mary is walking through a park and she <i>sees</i> City Hall.  That instance of seeing City Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in Mary's mind.  That instance of seeing is a mental event.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in someone's mind.  If Mary thinks to herself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if she feels happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981220439
11c11
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, mental events, mental functions, and consciousness.
---
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvents, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
13,17c13
< So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  We’ve already talked about that a little, when we discussed the problem of substance as applied to minds.  So let’s talk about the other parts of this definition.
< 
< It also concerns something I am calling "MentalEvent''''s."
< 
< Now look at the next phrase in the definition I gave: "mental functions."  I might as well have said "cognitive processes" instead.  So what are "mental functions" or "cognitive processes"?  I will use those two phrases, "mental functions" and "cognitive processes," interchangeably.  I mean simply such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion.  In other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving University Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception, my ability to perceive things.  An instance of seeing is different of course from the ability that makes it possible.  So whenever I engage in one of those cognitive processes like perception, belief, emotion, and so on, a mental event occurs.
---
> So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  We’ve already talked about that a little, when we discussed the problem of substance as applied to minds.
------
MentalFunctions|981220634
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Mental functions" and "cognitive processes" can be used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving City Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception--one's ability to perceive things.  In other words, in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible.
> 
> Whenever one engage in one a cognitive processes, a MentalEvent occurs.
------
MentalFunctions|981220656
1c1
< "Mental functions" and "cognitive processes" can be used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving City Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception--one's ability to perceive things.  In other words, in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible.
---
> ''Mental functions'' and ''cognitive processes'' can be used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving City Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception--one's ability to perceive things.  In other words, in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible.
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981220672
11c11
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvents, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
---
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvent''''s, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981220775
13,23c13
< So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  We’ve already talked about that a little, when we discussed the problem of substance as applied to minds.
< 
< There is, moreover, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, mental events, namely, <i>consciousness</i>.  "Consciousness" is the last term in the definition of "philosophy of mind" I gave.  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
< 
< Now, in this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; namely, we are conscious of what’s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance where you are alive, and your brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of <i>consciousness</i>.
< 
< Now just a bit more about consciousness.  There has been some debate about the following question: <i>Must</i> one be conscious, in the philosophical sense, whenever a mental event occurs?  For example, is it possible to have a <i>pain</i> which I do not feel?  Some people think not; they think that, in order for something to <i>be</i> a pain, I have to feel it, or be aware of it.  Similarly, if anything is a thought, then I have to be aware of what I’m thinking of; if there is no consciousness, no awareness, of anything at all, then I’m not thinking.  That’s what some philosophers debate about, anyway: Do mental events <i>necessarily</i> involve consciousness?
< 
< Well, what if we answer "No"?  Then of course what we’d be saying is that there are some mental events which do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren’t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious</i>.  And when I put it like that I’m sure you will be able to recognize what I’m talking about.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that’s going on in our minds.  But that is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
< 
< Let’s return now to the definition of the philosophy of mind I gave.  I said it is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind and of mental functions.  So some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
---
> So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
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HumanComputerInteraction|981220833
29a30,31
> Adam I have to agree with you 100%. There is nothing more annoying than FlashingBanners while trying to read a page. [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?WcGing WcGing]
> 
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ConsciousNess|981221161
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is, on the view of very many philosophers, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
> 
> In this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; we are conscious of what’s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance in which one is alive, and one's brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of consciousness.
> 
> There has been some debate about the following question: <i>Must</i> one be conscious, in the philosophical sense, whenever a mental event occurs?  For example, is it possible to have a <i>pain</i> that one does not feel?  Some people think not; they think that, in order for something to <i>be</i> a pain, one has to feel it or be aware of it.  Similarly, if anything is a thought, then one has to be aware of that of which one is thinking (indeed, that seems nearly a tautology); if there is no consciousness, no awareness, of anything at all, then one is not thinking.  Philosophers ask: Do MentalEvents <i>necessarily</i> involve consciousness?
> 
> Suppose we answer "No."  Then of course what we’d be saying is that there are some MentalEvent""s that do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren’t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious.</i>  Put like that, it's easy to recognize why the thesis is compelling.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that’s going on in our minds.  That is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
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ConsciousNess|981221232
1c1
< There is, on the view of very many philosophers, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
---
> There is, on the view of very many philosophers, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvent""s, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981221467
19c19
< But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between mental events and physical events -- you know, events that occur in the body, including the brain.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
---
> But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
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PhilosophyOfMind|981221494
19c19
< But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
---
> But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
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PhysicalEvent|981221583
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> ''Physical events'' are events that occur in the physical world, including the brain and other parts of the human body.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  These are to be distinguished from MentalEvents.
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TheMindBodyProblem|981222193
3c3,7
< The mind-body problem can be introduced with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a <i>MentalEvent</i>; and my walking across the room is a <i>physical</i> <i>event</i>.  Now on anybody’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved here; namely, something happens in my brain, which tells my legs to start walking.  And this brain event is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
---
> ''The mind-body problem'' is the problem of determining the relationship between the human body and its mind.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
> 
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvent""s</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroN""s?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  
> 
> The mind-body problem can be introduced more fully with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a MentalEvent and his walking across the room is a PhysicalEvent.  On anyone’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved, namely, something happens in John's brain, which tells John's legs to start walking.  This BrainEvent is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
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BrainEvent|981222327
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anything that happens in the brain is a ''brain event.''  While clearly a kind of PhysicalEvent, some philosophers, when they discuss TheMindBodyProblem, argue that ''some'' (certainly not all) brain events are also MentalEvents.
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TheMindBodyProblem|981222607
7c7
< The mind-body problem can be introduced more fully with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a MentalEvent and his walking across the room is a PhysicalEvent.  On anyone’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved, namely, something happens in John's brain, which tells John's legs to start walking.  This BrainEvent is <i>closely</i> connected with my decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, I decided to walk across the room.  Now we might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea seems, or might seem, absurd.
---
> The mind-body problem can be introduced more fully with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a MentalEvent and his walking across the room is a PhysicalEvent.  On anyone’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved, namely, something happens in John's brain, which tells John's legs to start walking.  This BrainEvent is <i>closely</i> connected with John's decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, John decides to walk across the room.  We might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea might seem absurd.
9c9
< So maybe a better description of the situation is this: my decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When I decide to take my trip across the room, a group of neurons fire in my brain.  I am not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as my decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.  Now, I don’t know if you can understand that proposal; to a lot of people it sounds really strange to say that a mental process is no more than a special kind of physical process.  The mind, they say, is more spiritual, ethereal, and so it just isn’t the <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i>  that can be physical.  And they have other reasons as well for rejecting this reduction of the mental to the physical.
---
> On one view (see PhilosophicalView) to be introduced, a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroN""s fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.  Now, I don’t know if you can understand that proposal; to a lot of people it sounds really strange to say that a mental process is no more than a special kind of physical process.  The mind, they say, is more spiritual, ethereal, and so it just isn’t the <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i>  that can be physical.  And they have other reasons as well for rejecting this reduction of the mental to the physical.
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PhilosophicalView|981222709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philosophers are fond of describing the stands they take on particular philosophical disputes as ''views.''  They also call them ''theories.''  These are all instances of PhilosophicalJargon.
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PhilosophicalView|981222742
1c1
< Philosophers are fond of describing the stands they take on particular philosophical disputes as ''views.''  They also call them ''theories.''  These are all instances of PhilosophicalJargon.
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> Philosophers are fond of describing the stands they take on particular philosophical disputes as ''views.''  They also call them ''theories.''  These phrases are instances of PhilosophicalJargon.
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FootBall|981222831
37c37,39
< Yahoo! UK - just as any other decent sports site - calls it European FootBall in order to distinguish between FootBall played in Europe and FootBall played on other continents, eg. South America. I would like to remind my fellow Americans that FootBall, by definition is played using one's feet, and not by holding on to it with your hands and running around like a headless chicken.
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> Yahoo! UK - just as any other decent sports site - calls it European FootBall in order to distinguish between FootBall played in Europe and FootBall played on other continents, eg. South America. I would like to remind my fellow Americans that FootBall, by definition is played using one's feet, and not by holding on to it with your hands and running around like a headless chicken.
> ----
> And then enters the [http://www.bomis.com/rings/xfl XFL] or [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?XfL XfL]
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TheMindBodyProblem|981223024
9c9
< On one view (see PhilosophicalView) to be introduced, a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroN""s fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.  Now, I don’t know if you can understand that proposal; to a lot of people it sounds really strange to say that a mental process is no more than a special kind of physical process.  The mind, they say, is more spiritual, ethereal, and so it just isn’t the <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i>  that can be physical.  And they have other reasons as well for rejecting this reduction of the mental to the physical.
---
> On one view (see PhilosophicalView) to be introduced, a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroN""s fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.
11c11
< So in fact what <i>some</i> philosophers have believed -- but hardly anyone anymore -- is that the reduction goes the other way.  We should explain what bodies are in terms of mental goings-on; so the physical can be reduced to the mental.  When I walked across the room, really that was happening <i>only</i> in my mind, or in our minds all at the same time.  There is, on this view, nothing more to my walking across the room than our having the thought, or the perception, that that happens.  This view would also solve the problem of how the mental can affect the physical.  Since physical events are themselves nothing more than a special kind of mental event, then of course there isn’t any trouble about how a decision, which is obviously a mental event, can result in my body moving, which is also a mental event, although less obviously so.
---
> To many people it sounds really strange to say that a mental process is no more than a special kind of physical process.  The mind, they say, is more spiritual, ethereal, and so it simply is not the <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>thing</i>  that can be physical.  And they have other reasons as well for rejecting this reduction of the mental to the physical.
13c13
< Explaining a piece of terminology will be helpful here.  I’ve been talking about <i>reducing</i> the mental to the physical, and <i>reducing</i> the physical to the mental; so what exactly does "reduction" mean?  This is itself a very difficult, complicated question, but we’re going to have to ignore the difficulties.  The <i>basic</i> notion is this: If I <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever I talk about X, I can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead</i>.  So if I reduce the mental to the physical, then whenever I talk of pains, thoughts, and decisions, I can be understood as talking about physical events in my brain.  But then you might ask: does that mean that I think that pains, thoughts, and decisions don’t <i>exist</i>?  Well, not necessarily; and usually not.
---
> So in fact what <i>some</i> philosophers have believed instead--but hardly anyone anymore--is that the ReducTion goes the other way.  We should explain what bodies are in terms of mental goings-on; so the physical can be reduced to the mental.  When John walked across the room, really that was happening <i>only</i> in John's mind and perhaps also in each of our minds individually at the same time.  There is, on this view, nothing more to John's walking across the room than our having the thought, or the perception, that that happens.  This view would also solve the problem of how the mental can affect the physical.  Since physical events are themselves nothing more than a special kind of mental event, then of course there is no trouble about how a decision, which is obviously a mental event, can result in our bodies moving, which is also a mental event, although less obviously so.
15c15
< Let me give you an example of a reduction in a field we’ve already studied.  Take the bundle theory.  The bundle theory says that objects may be reduced to collections of properties; so whenever we talk about objects, we can be understood to be talking about bundles of properties.  Now let me ask you: do you think that the bundle theory says that <i>objects</i> <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i> ?  Well, maybe not objects as we had thought of them; but the theory <i>is</i> trying to give an account of what objects <i>are</i>; namely, they are bundles of properties!  So the bundle theory saying that objects don’t <i>exist</i> -- just that they are the same as bundles of properties.  Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  The bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, it’s properties and bundles that exist, not objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
---
> CONTINUE WIKIFICATION FROM HERE
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ReducTion|981223456
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Reduction'' is a difficult piece of philosophical terminology.  The <i>basic</i> notion is this: If we <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever we talk about X, we can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead.</i>
> 
> So, for example, if we reduce the mental to the physical, then whenever we talk of pains, thoughts, and decisions, we can be understood as talking about physical events in the brain.  Does that mean that we must then think that pains, thoughts, and decisions don’t <i>exist</i>?  Not necessarily and usually not.
> 
> Here is an example of a reduction from MetaPhysics.  The BundleTheory says that objects can be reduced to collections of properties; so whenever we talk about objects, we can be understood to be talking about bundles of properties.  Does this mean that the bundle theory says that <i>objects</i> <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i> ?  Perhaps not objects as we had thought of them, but the theory <i>is</i> trying to give an account of what objects <i>are</i>; namely, they are bundles of properties.  So the bundle theory is not denying that objects <i>exist</i>--just that objects are the same as bundles of properties.  The only reason one would have for maintaining, then that the bundle theory holds that objects do not exist is if you think that, according to our ordinary concepts, something simply ''cannot'' both be a bundle of properties ''and'' an object.  
> 
> Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981223602
17c17
< But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is.  For example, is the mind something different from physical bodies?  Suppose you think that the mind is a substance of some sort -- a mental substance.  You might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, this mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will you maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that you can’t explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?  All right, that’s one question.
---
> But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
19c19
< But what if we don’t think that the mind is some mysterious substance, and that there are only mental <i>events</i>, and that the mind is no more than a series of mental events?  Well, we can still ask the last question, about the relation between mind and body, a different way.  And this other way of putting it is probably better.  We can put it in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when I feel a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in my brain, such as the firing of some special group of neurons?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  I’ll explain the problem more completely later on; the problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
---
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvent""s</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroN""s?  The problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981223681
13c13
< So the philosophy of mind is concerned with the nature of the mind.  Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
---
> Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
17c17
< But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
---
> But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is; we might raise TheMindBodyProblem.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
19c19
< Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvent""s</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroN""s?  The problem is called "TheMindBodyProblem."
---
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvent""s</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroN""s?
------
TheMindBodyProblem|981223952
9c9
< On one view (see PhilosophicalView) to be introduced, a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroN""s fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.
---
> On one view (see PhilosophicalView), a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroN""s fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.
15c15
< CONTINUE WIKIFICATION FROM HERE
---
> The three above-described views about the relationship between the mental and the physical have names:
17c17
< All right, I have given you three different views about the relationship between the mental and the physical.  Now I am going to give names to those views:
---
> <i>DualIsm</i> is the view that mental events and physical events are totally different kinds of events.
19c19
< <i>Dualism</i> is the view that mental events and physical events are totally different kinds of events.
---
> <i>PhysicalIsm</i>, or <i>materialism</i>, is the view that mental events are nothing more than a special kind of physical event.
21c21
< <i>Physicalism</i>, or <i>materialism</i>, is the view that mental events are nothing more than a special kind of physical event.
---
> <i>PhenomenalIsm</i>, or <i>subjective</i> <i>idealism</i>, is the view that physical events are nothing more than a special kind of mental event.
23c23
< <i>Phenomenalism</i>, or <i>subjective</i> <i>idealism</i>, is the view that physical events are nothing more than a special kind of mental event.
---
> The mind-body problem, to put it as generically and broadly as possible, is this question: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>the</i> <i>mental</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i>?  For the sake of simplicity, we can state the problem in terms of mental and physical <i>events.</i>  I could put it just as well in terms of <i>processes</i>, or of <i>consciousness.</i>  So the problem restated is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>mental</i> <i>events</i> <i>and</i> <i>physical</i> <i>events</i>?  
25,27c25
< The mind-body problem, to put it as generically and broadly as possible, is this question: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>the</i> <i>mental</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i>?  Now, just for the sake of simplicity, I’m going to state the problem in terms of mental and physical <i>events</i>.  I could put it just as well in terms of <i>processes</i>, or of <i>consciousness</i>.  So the problem restated is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>mental</i> <i>events</i> <i>and</i> <i>physical</i> <i>events</i>?  
< 
< There are, then, three basic choices: mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (which is dualism); mental events are to be reduced to physical events (which is physicalism); and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (which is phenomenalism).  To put it in terms of what exists "ultimately," we could say that according to dualism, <i>both</i> mental <i>and</i> physical events exist ultimately; according to physicalism, only <i>physical</i> events exist ultimately; and according to phenomenalism, only <i>mental</i> events exist ultimately.  Physicalism and phenomenalism are both varieties of <i>monism</i>; monism is the view that only one sort of stuff in the universe exists ultimately (as opposed to dualism which holds that there are two kinds of stuff).  So there are two kinds of monism, namely, physicalism and phenomenalism.  But there is, actually, another kind of monism.  Namely, <i>neutral</i> <i>monism</i>.  Neutral monism is the view that mental and physical events are both to be reduced to aspects of some neutral stuff, which stuff considered by itself is neither physical nor mental.  Neutral monism was introduced by the 17th century Dutch philosopher, Spinoza; and a version of it was recently revived by a very prominent American philosopher, Donald Davidson.
---
> There are, then, three basic choices: mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (which is DualIsm); mental events are to be reduced to physical events (which is PhysicalIsm); and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (which is PhenomenalIsm).  To put it in terms of what exists "ultimately," we could say that according to dualism, <i>both</i> mental <i>and</i> physical events exist ultimately; according to physicalism, only <i>physical</i> events exist ultimately; and according to phenomenalism, only <i>mental</i> events exist ultimately.  Physicalism and phenomenalism are both varieties of <i>MonIsm.</i>
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MonIsm|981224033
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Monism'' is the PhilosophicalView that only one sort of stuff in the universe exists ultimately (as opposed to DualIsm, which holds that there are two kinds of stuff).  So there are two kinds of monism, namely, PhysicalIsm and PhenomenalIsm.  But there is, actually, another kind of monism: <i>NeutralMonism.</i>
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NeutralMonism|981224117
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Neutral monism'' is the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are both to be reduced (see ReducTion) to aspects of some neutral stuff, which stuff considered by itself is neither physical nor mental.  Neutral monism was introduced by the great 17th-century Jewish-Dutch philosopher, BaruchSpinoza, and a version of it was recently revived by a very prominent American philosopher, DonaldDavidson.
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IdentityAndChange|981224181
10a11,13
>  I would argue there is no end to existence. Only change of form. 
>  From life to ashes, from building to rubble. WcGing
> 
------
TheMindBodyProblem|981224218
25c25
< There are, then, three basic choices: mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (which is DualIsm); mental events are to be reduced to physical events (which is PhysicalIsm); and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (which is PhenomenalIsm).  To put it in terms of what exists "ultimately," we could say that according to dualism, <i>both</i> mental <i>and</i> physical events exist ultimately; according to physicalism, only <i>physical</i> events exist ultimately; and according to phenomenalism, only <i>mental</i> events exist ultimately.  Physicalism and phenomenalism are both varieties of <i>MonIsm.</i>
---
> There are, then, three basic choices: mental and physical events are totally different, and cannot be reduced to each other (which is DualIsm); mental events are to be reduced to physical events (which is PhysicalIsm); and physical events are to be reduced to mental events (which is PhenomenalIsm).  To put it in terms of what exists "ultimately," we could say that according to dualism, <i>both</i> mental <i>and</i> physical events exist ultimately; according to physicalism, only <i>physical</i> events exist ultimately; and according to phenomenalism, only <i>mental</i> events exist ultimately.  Physicalism and phenomenalism are both varieties of <i>MonIsm</i>; of monism there is one further variety, namely NeutralMonism.
32,79d31
< 
< I suspect many of you might be thinking to yourselves: "This is ridiculous.  Look, there is the mind, and there is the body, and they are two totally different things.  There might be some puzzles about how they interact but obviously they <i>do</i> interact.  So what’s all the fuss?  All those other theories you listed are just <i>silly</i>."  Now if you think this way, my job is to get you to see that that puzzle about how the mind and body interact is more serious than you might have thought.  But first let’s get the theory more clearly stated.
< 
< The view we’re talking about consists of all of the following claims: mental and physical events both exist, but neither type of event can be reduced to the other type, and mental events are both causes and effects of physical events.   This is called <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>.  It is also called <i>Cartesian</i> <i>dualism</i>, because it is the kind of dualism that the great 17th-century French philosopher Descartes advocated.  This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism -- probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  So in addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When I touch a hot stove, and burn my skin, I feel a pain.  Touching the stove and burning my skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when I feel the pain, I say, "Ouch!" -- and my saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  You put the belief in that interaction together with dualism and you’ve got a very commonsense sort of theory of mind.  In fact our reading calls this "the commonsense theory of mind," and I agree with that characterization.
< 
< Let’s look at some arguments for dualism.  How would we go about arguing for this theory?  I mean, aside from pointing out that it’s extremely commonsensical.  That’s got to count for something; perhaps it counts for a lot indeed.  But if we can help it the mere fact that it’s a matter of common sense shouldn’t be our <i>only</i> reason for accepting a theory.  So how would we go about arguing for dualism?  We point out the differences between the mental and the physical.  So let’s do that.  Let’s go over the differences between mental events and physical events.
< 
< First, mental events are not publicly observable.  When I touch the hot stove, you may see me whip back my hand and say "Ouch!" but you are not feeling my pain.  Unless you’re Mr. Spock, or God, you can’t as it were get inside my mind and take a look at what’s going on in there.  And of course it’s not just because my mind is hidden beneath my skull.  If you knew just where to look in my brain, you wouldn’t be able to see thoughts and feelings jiggling around in there.  That’s just not how it works.  So unlike physical events, like fireworks displays, mental events are private, not publicly observable.
< 
< Second, mental events are often said not to be spatially located.  Where is my pain supposed to be?  Maybe you could say in my fingertips, because they hurt.  But is that where the <i>feeling</i> is?  Does it really make sense to say that the <i>feeling</i> is in my aching fingertips?  That sounds a little funny, anyway.  A better example would be an emotion like happiness.  When I say I’m happy, can I locate my happiness in my head, or does it exist all my body, or something?  Doesn’t that sound odd?  It would seem better to say that my happiness isn’t the sort of thing that <i>can</i> be located in a particular place.
< 
< Third, more generally, mental events do not seem to have various physical properties which physical events have.  For one thing, mental events do not involve anything having mass, or physical motion.  We can’t weigh a thought.  We can’t say that a feeling has a velocity of 10 miles an hour.  To say such things is to talk nonsense.  Now you might say: that’s only because mental events are <i>events</i>.  You can’t say that physical events have mass or velocity either.  Point well enough taken; that’s true, no event, per se, has mass or velocity.  But physical events do <i>involve</i> objects which have mass and velocity.  Mental events do not have any components which have mass and velocity.  For example, when I think, "I like ice cream," I have a concept of ice cream; and my concept of ice cream has no mass and velocity.  Nothing involved in my appreciation for ice cream would appear to have any such physical properties.  This is a point to which we will have to return.  But on the face of it, this seems pretty obvious.
< 
< Fourth, mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, which physical events obviously do not.  I mean, for example, what a burned finger feels like, what sky blue looks like, what nice music sounds like, and so on.  I’m going to expand on this fourth point at some length.  Recently, philosophers have been calling the subjective aspects of mental events <i>qualia</i>, and they also call them <i>raw</i> <i>feels</i>.  There is something <i>that</i> <i>it’s</i> <i>like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on; there are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events.  And the claim is that qualia seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.  Just think of what that would involve.  You’d be saying: <i>feeling</i> <i>the</i> <i>top</i> <i>of</i> <i>my</i> <i>hand</i> <i>right</i> <i>now</i>, this "raw feel" I’m experiencing right now, is <i>itself</i> nothing more than a physical event.
< 
< In fact, there is an article by an American, Thomas Nagel, that came out in the late 70’s called "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"  In this article Nagel argued roughly as follows.  You are familiar with the fact that bats use a certain kind of sonar, right?  They emit high-pitched shrieks which allow them to fly around in dark caves; they can tell how far away the walls are based on how their shrieks echo around in the cave.  Bat sonar allows bats to perceive distance, shape, size, and so on, in a way similar to, but obviously different from the way vision works for us.  Now Nagel invited us to ask, "So what <i>is</i> it like to be a bat, flying around in the dark using bat sonar?"  Surely bats do have experiences; we just don’t know what they are.  Suppose we were to take apart a bat brain and figure out how the neural apparatus for bat sonar works.  No doubt biologists have actually done so, dissected bat brains and so forth.  But in understanding how the bat brain works, do those biologists learn <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>like</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> <i>a</i> <i>bat</i>?  Well of course not.  They’re mucking around in the grey matter of bats.  In order to know what it’s like to be a bat, and to have bat sonar, why, you’d have to be a bat.  So argued Nagel.
< 
< So what’s the point of all this?  The point is that if indeed there are "bat qualia," then there are peculiar mental events of a sort that only bats have, and we cannot learn what they are like even if we have a detailed understanding of physical events going on in the bat brain.  Or to put it even more simply: there is a strange "bat sonar experience" we’ll never have.  We won’t have it even if we learn what physical events in bat brains are associated with bat sonar.  So that’s excellent evidence that mental events cannot be reduced to physical events; mental events must be regarded as quite a different sort of thing from physical events.  Really, you can make the same point without even bringing up weird cases like bat sonar.  Just think of your own unique feelings.  Do you think that a psychologist could, simply by digging around in your brain and doing tests on your grey matter, ever learn what that feeling was like?
< 
< So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might <i>reduce</i> the mental to the physical.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being.  So there you have one basic, powerful argument for dualism.
< 
< But there is another argument that I’m sure weighs heavily in some of your minds.  Namely, that you have an immortal souls that can survive your bodily death.  Traditional Christianity, like many other religions, teaches that you have a soul which is as different from your body as water is from rock.  Your body will die and then your soul will go to heaven, or hell, or who knows where.  If you believe this then you practically <i>must</i> believe in dualism.  The only way that you can avoid believing in dualism is if you accept phenomenalism, which holds that everything is, ultimately, mental.  But in any event you absolutely cannot hold that the soul is reducible to anything physical.  If events in your soul <i>were</i> reducible to events in your brain, then when your brain stopped functioning, your soul would cease to exist.
< 
< It’s not clear to me that this ought to be looked upon as an <i>argument</i> <i>for</i>  dualism, simply because those who challenge dualism from a physicalist position will not at all be impressed by it.  I mean, suppose you are trying to support dualism against a physicalist, who thinks that everything is, at bottom, physical.  Will it be at all impressive to say, "If I have an immortal soul, then mental events cannot be reduced to physical events"?  Not at all; the physicalist is precisely the sort of person who denies that you have an immortal soul, and who demands proof that in fact you <i>do</i> have an immortal soul.  You may not particularly care that you can’t convince the physicalist; but the point is that you should not do something that looks so much like begging the question.  Because if you argue: "I have an immortal soul; therefore dualism is true," then it sure does look like you’re begging the question.  You should prove that dualism is true, and thus that you have an immaterial, non-physical soul, <i>before</i> you try to prove that your soul is immortal!
< 
< So as far as arguing for dualistic interactionism goes, let’s just stick with the differences between the mental and the physical that I stated before.  Now, those are evidence for the <i>dualism</i> part.  What about the interactionism part, that is, the claim that mental and physical events causally interact?  Here we can just cite observational evidence.  We observe that physical events cause all sorts of mental events, and vice-versa.  Indeed, it’s hard to know how one might argue <i>against</i> the fact that there is such interaction, since it appears to go on all the time.  Anyway then, that’s all I’m going to say in favor of dualistic interactionism.
< 
< This theory has come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially this century.  The basic problem is: If dualism is true, then it is hard to see how mental and physical events can possibly interact causally.  How can something totally immaterial affect something totally material?  That’s the basic problem.  But let me break this basic problem into three parts.
< 
< First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place.  Burning my fingers causes pain, right?  Well, apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the nerves of my body that lead to my brain, to something happening in a particular part of my brain; <i>and</i> <i>then</i>, I feel pain.  But the pain is not supposed to be spatially located.  So what I want to know is, where does the interaction take place?  If you say, "It takes place in the brain," then I will say, "But I thought pains weren’t located anywhere."  And you, as a dualist, might stick to your guns and say, "That’s right, pains <i>aren’t</i> located anywhere; but the brain event that immediately leads to the pain <i>is</i> located in the brain."  But then we have a very strange causal relation on our hands.  The cause is located in a particular place but the effect is not located anywhere.  Well, you might say, that might be puzzling but it’s not a devastating criticism.
< 
< So look at a second problem about the interaction.  Namely, <i>how</i> does the interaction take place?  Maybe you think, "Well, that’s a matter for science -- scientists will eventually discover the connection between mental and physical events."  But philosophers have something to say about the matter, because the <i>very</i> <i>idea</i> of a <i>mechanism</i>, which explains the connection between the mental and the physical, would be very strange, at best.  Why do I say it would be strange?  Compare it to a mechanism that we <i>do</i> understand.  Take a very simple causal relation, such as when the cue ball strikes the eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket.  Here we can say that the cue ball has a certain amount of force as its mass accelerates across the pool table, and then that force is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket.  Now compare that to the situation in the brain, where we want to say a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus cause my body to move across the room.  The decision, "I will cross the room now," is a mental event; and as such it does not have physical properties such as force.  If it has no force, then how on earth could it cause any neuron to fire?  Is it magic?  Honestly, how could something without any physical properties have any physical <i>effects</i> at all?
< 
< Here you might reply, as some philosophers have indeed replied, as follows.  You might say: "Well sure, there is a mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events can occur; but the fact that there is a mystery doesn’t mean that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> no interaction.  Because plainly there is an interaction and plainly the interaction is between two totally different sorts of events."  Now I expect that some of you may want to say this.  But the problem with it is that it does not seem to answer the full power of the objection.
< 
< So let me explain the objection more precisely.  Let’s take as our example my decision to walk across the room.  We say: my decision, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in my brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in my walking across the room.  The problem is that if we have something totally nonphysical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing.  That means that some physical energy seems to have appeared out of thin air.  Do you see?  Even if we say that my decision has some sort of mental energy, and that the decision causes the firing, we still haven’t explained where the <i>physical</i> energy, for the firing, came from.  It just seems to have popped into existence from nowhere.
< 
< As our reading says, there is a physical principle, called the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy."  According to this principle, "In all physical processes, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant."  Or in a form you may have heard before: in any change anything undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed.  This is a basic principle you probably learned about in high school physics.  So the point is that nerve firings, which are allegedly caused by a totally nonphysical decision, would appear to violate the Principle of the Conservation of Energy.
< 
< Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
< 
< I said before that there are different kinds of dualism.  I am really not going to have time to discuss the other kinds.  But the other kinds do, anyway, accept that mental events and physical events both exist, and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
< 
< Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
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< As I said, we just don’t have time to discuss these or any other kinds of dualism.
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DualIsm|981224297
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
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> I suspect many of you might be thinking to yourselves: "This is ridiculous.  Look, there is the mind, and there is the body, and they are two totally different things.  There might be some puzzles about how they interact but obviously they <i>do</i> interact.  So what’s all the fuss?  All those other theories you listed are just <i>silly</i>."  Now if you think this way, my job is to get you to see that that puzzle about how the mind and body interact is more serious than you might have thought.  But first let’s get the theory more clearly stated.
> 
> The view we’re talking about consists of all of the following claims: mental and physical events both exist, but neither type of event can be reduced to the other type, and mental events are both causes and effects of physical events.   This is called <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>.  It is also called <i>Cartesian</i> <i>dualism</i>, because it is the kind of dualism that the great 17th-century French philosopher Descartes advocated.  This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism -- probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  So in addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When I touch a hot stove, and burn my skin, I feel a pain.  Touching the stove and burning my skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when I feel the pain, I say, "Ouch!" -- and my saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  You put the belief in that interaction together with dualism and you’ve got a very commonsense sort of theory of mind.  In fact our reading calls this "the commonsense theory of mind," and I agree with that characterization.
> 
> Let’s look at some arguments for dualism.  How would we go about arguing for this theory?  I mean, aside from pointing out that it’s extremely commonsensical.  That’s got to count for something; perhaps it counts for a lot indeed.  But if we can help it the mere fact that it’s a matter of common sense shouldn’t be our <i>only</i> reason for accepting a theory.  So how would we go about arguing for dualism?  We point out the differences between the mental and the physical.  So let’s do that.  Let’s go over the differences between mental events and physical events.
> 
> First, mental events are not publicly observable.  When I touch the hot stove, you may see me whip back my hand and say "Ouch!" but you are not feeling my pain.  Unless you’re Mr. Spock, or God, you can’t as it were get inside my mind and take a look at what’s going on in there.  And of course it’s not just because my mind is hidden beneath my skull.  If you knew just where to look in my brain, you wouldn’t be able to see thoughts and feelings jiggling around in there.  That’s just not how it works.  So unlike physical events, like fireworks displays, mental events are private, not publicly observable.
> 
> Second, mental events are often said not to be spatially located.  Where is my pain supposed to be?  Maybe you could say in my fingertips, because they hurt.  But is that where the <i>feeling</i> is?  Does it really make sense to say that the <i>feeling</i> is in my aching fingertips?  That sounds a little funny, anyway.  A better example would be an emotion like happiness.  When I say I’m happy, can I locate my happiness in my head, or does it exist all my body, or something?  Doesn’t that sound odd?  It would seem better to say that my happiness isn’t the sort of thing that <i>can</i> be located in a particular place.
> 
> Third, more generally, mental events do not seem to have various physical properties which physical events have.  For one thing, mental events do not involve anything having mass, or physical motion.  We can’t weigh a thought.  We can’t say that a feeling has a velocity of 10 miles an hour.  To say such things is to talk nonsense.  Now you might say: that’s only because mental events are <i>events</i>.  You can’t say that physical events have mass or velocity either.  Point well enough taken; that’s true, no event, per se, has mass or velocity.  But physical events do <i>involve</i> objects which have mass and velocity.  Mental events do not have any components which have mass and velocity.  For example, when I think, "I like ice cream," I have a concept of ice cream; and my concept of ice cream has no mass and velocity.  Nothing involved in my appreciation for ice cream would appear to have any such physical properties.  This is a point to which we will have to return.  But on the face of it, this seems pretty obvious.
> 
> Fourth, mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, which physical events obviously do not.  I mean, for example, what a burned finger feels like, what sky blue looks like, what nice music sounds like, and so on.  I’m going to expand on this fourth point at some length.  Recently, philosophers have been calling the subjective aspects of mental events <i>qualia</i>, and they also call them <i>raw</i> <i>feels</i>.  There is something <i>that</i> <i>it’s</i> <i>like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on; there are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events.  And the claim is that qualia seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.  Just think of what that would involve.  You’d be saying: <i>feeling</i> <i>the</i> <i>top</i> <i>of</i> <i>my</i> <i>hand</i> <i>right</i> <i>now</i>, this "raw feel" I’m experiencing right now, is <i>itself</i> nothing more than a physical event.
> 
> In fact, there is an article by an American, Thomas Nagel, that came out in the late 70’s called "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"  In this article Nagel argued roughly as follows.  You are familiar with the fact that bats use a certain kind of sonar, right?  They emit high-pitched shrieks which allow them to fly around in dark caves; they can tell how far away the walls are based on how their shrieks echo around in the cave.  Bat sonar allows bats to perceive distance, shape, size, and so on, in a way similar to, but obviously different from the way vision works for us.  Now Nagel invited us to ask, "So what <i>is</i> it like to be a bat, flying around in the dark using bat sonar?"  Surely bats do have experiences; we just don’t know what they are.  Suppose we were to take apart a bat brain and figure out how the neural apparatus for bat sonar works.  No doubt biologists have actually done so, dissected bat brains and so forth.  But in understanding how the bat brain works, do those biologists learn <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>like</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> <i>a</i> <i>bat</i>?  Well of course not.  They’re mucking around in the grey matter of bats.  In order to know what it’s like to be a bat, and to have bat sonar, why, you’d have to be a bat.  So argued Nagel.
> 
> So what’s the point of all this?  The point is that if indeed there are "bat qualia," then there are peculiar mental events of a sort that only bats have, and we cannot learn what they are like even if we have a detailed understanding of physical events going on in the bat brain.  Or to put it even more simply: there is a strange "bat sonar experience" we’ll never have.  We won’t have it even if we learn what physical events in bat brains are associated with bat sonar.  So that’s excellent evidence that mental events cannot be reduced to physical events; mental events must be regarded as quite a different sort of thing from physical events.  Really, you can make the same point without even bringing up weird cases like bat sonar.  Just think of your own unique feelings.  Do you think that a psychologist could, simply by digging around in your brain and doing tests on your grey matter, ever learn what that feeling was like?
> 
> So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might <i>reduce</i> the mental to the physical.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being.  So there you have one basic, powerful argument for dualism.
> 
> But there is another argument that I’m sure weighs heavily in some of your minds.  Namely, that you have an immortal souls that can survive your bodily death.  Traditional Christianity, like many other religions, teaches that you have a soul which is as different from your body as water is from rock.  Your body will die and then your soul will go to heaven, or hell, or who knows where.  If you believe this then you practically <i>must</i> believe in dualism.  The only way that you can avoid believing in dualism is if you accept phenomenalism, which holds that everything is, ultimately, mental.  But in any event you absolutely cannot hold that the soul is reducible to anything physical.  If events in your soul <i>were</i> reducible to events in your brain, then when your brain stopped functioning, your soul would cease to exist.
> 
> It’s not clear to me that this ought to be looked upon as an <i>argument</i> <i>for</i>  dualism, simply because those who challenge dualism from a physicalist position will not at all be impressed by it.  I mean, suppose you are trying to support dualism against a physicalist, who thinks that everything is, at bottom, physical.  Will it be at all impressive to say, "If I have an immortal soul, then mental events cannot be reduced to physical events"?  Not at all; the physicalist is precisely the sort of person who denies that you have an immortal soul, and who demands proof that in fact you <i>do</i> have an immortal soul.  You may not particularly care that you can’t convince the physicalist; but the point is that you should not do something that looks so much like begging the question.  Because if you argue: "I have an immortal soul; therefore dualism is true," then it sure does look like you’re begging the question.  You should prove that dualism is true, and thus that you have an immaterial, non-physical soul, <i>before</i> you try to prove that your soul is immortal!
> 
> So as far as arguing for dualistic interactionism goes, let’s just stick with the differences between the mental and the physical that I stated before.  Now, those are evidence for the <i>dualism</i> part.  What about the interactionism part, that is, the claim that mental and physical events causally interact?  Here we can just cite observational evidence.  We observe that physical events cause all sorts of mental events, and vice-versa.  Indeed, it’s hard to know how one might argue <i>against</i> the fact that there is such interaction, since it appears to go on all the time.  Anyway then, that’s all I’m going to say in favor of dualistic interactionism.
> 
> This theory has come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially this century.  The basic problem is: If dualism is true, then it is hard to see how mental and physical events can possibly interact causally.  How can something totally immaterial affect something totally material?  That’s the basic problem.  But let me break this basic problem into three parts.
> 
> First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place.  Burning my fingers causes pain, right?  Well, apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the nerves of my body that lead to my brain, to something happening in a particular part of my brain; <i>and</i> <i>then</i>, I feel pain.  But the pain is not supposed to be spatially located.  So what I want to know is, where does the interaction take place?  If you say, "It takes place in the brain," then I will say, "But I thought pains weren’t located anywhere."  And you, as a dualist, might stick to your guns and say, "That’s right, pains <i>aren’t</i> located anywhere; but the brain event that immediately leads to the pain <i>is</i> located in the brain."  But then we have a very strange causal relation on our hands.  The cause is located in a particular place but the effect is not located anywhere.  Well, you might say, that might be puzzling but it’s not a devastating criticism.
> 
> So look at a second problem about the interaction.  Namely, <i>how</i> does the interaction take place?  Maybe you think, "Well, that’s a matter for science -- scientists will eventually discover the connection between mental and physical events."  But philosophers have something to say about the matter, because the <i>very</i> <i>idea</i> of a <i>mechanism</i>, which explains the connection between the mental and the physical, would be very strange, at best.  Why do I say it would be strange?  Compare it to a mechanism that we <i>do</i> understand.  Take a very simple causal relation, such as when the cue ball strikes the eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket.  Here we can say that the cue ball has a certain amount of force as its mass accelerates across the pool table, and then that force is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket.  Now compare that to the situation in the brain, where we want to say a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus cause my body to move across the room.  The decision, "I will cross the room now," is a mental event; and as such it does not have physical properties such as force.  If it has no force, then how on earth could it cause any neuron to fire?  Is it magic?  Honestly, how could something without any physical properties have any physical <i>effects</i> at all?
> 
> Here you might reply, as some philosophers have indeed replied, as follows.  You might say: "Well sure, there is a mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events can occur; but the fact that there is a mystery doesn’t mean that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> no interaction.  Because plainly there is an interaction and plainly the interaction is between two totally different sorts of events."  Now I expect that some of you may want to say this.  But the problem with it is that it does not seem to answer the full power of the objection.
> 
> So let me explain the objection more precisely.  Let’s take as our example my decision to walk across the room.  We say: my decision, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in my brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in my walking across the room.  The problem is that if we have something totally nonphysical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing.  That means that some physical energy seems to have appeared out of thin air.  Do you see?  Even if we say that my decision has some sort of mental energy, and that the decision causes the firing, we still haven’t explained where the <i>physical</i> energy, for the firing, came from.  It just seems to have popped into existence from nowhere.
> 
> As our reading says, there is a physical principle, called the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy."  According to this principle, "In all physical processes, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant."  Or in a form you may have heard before: in any change anything undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed.  This is a basic principle you probably learned about in high school physics.  So the point is that nerve firings, which are allegedly caused by a totally nonphysical decision, would appear to violate the Principle of the Conservation of Energy.
> 
> Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
> 
> I said before that there are different kinds of dualism.  I am really not going to have time to discuss the other kinds.  But the other kinds do, anyway, accept that mental events and physical events both exist, and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
> 
> Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
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TheMindBodyProblem|981224361
29,73c29
< 
< 
< A. Dualism.
< 
< B. Physicalism.
< 
< Let’s look next at a very different theory of mind, in the theory that the mental can be reduced to the physical.  This view is usually called <i>physicalism</i>.  It is also called <i>materialism</i> or <i>identity</i> <i>materialism</i>.  The term "physicalism" is less misleading because it does not have any misleading connotations; if we called the view "materialism," you might think that we were talking about something that had to do with the desire for wealth, possessions, and so forth, but obviously we’re not talking about that.  We’re talking about a theory about the mind.  "Physicalism" is better also because it implies that the mental can be reduced to whatever is <i>physical</i>, meaning, whatever is described ultimately by physics; and as we all know, physics describes a lot more than just matter, it also describes energy.  So the view is that we can reduce mental events to events that are made up entirely of matter and energy.  And remember what we mean by "reduce" here: "If I <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever I talk about X, I can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead</i>."  So here’s the claim: Whenever we talk about mental events, we can be <i>properly</i> understood to be talking about <i>events</i> <i>that</i> <i>are</i> <i>made</i> <i>up</i> <i>entirely</i> <i>of</i> <i>matter</i> <i>and</i> <i>energy</i>.
< 
< I suppose that this sounds very strange.  I know it sounded very strange the first time I heard it.  So let me give you an example, and I’ll try to make this as plausible as I can.  In fact there is a hackneyed example that is used when philosophers talk about this stuff.  For some reason philosophers these days always use <i>pain</i> as an example of a mental event; why not pleasure, I say?    There is supposed to be a certain kind of nerve fiber that leads from your limbs to your brain, called <i>C</i>-<i>fibers</i>, and whenever you’re in pain, the story goes, your C-fibers are firing; and whenever your C-fibers are firing, then you’re in pain.  I suppose we might test this claim empirically, with experiments, right?  Suppose I sit you down in my lab, and I insert some probe into your spine, right next to your C-fibers; then I find some clever way to cause you pain.  You say, "Ouch!" and tell me that you are in pain.  I say, "Good!" and sure enough I see that your C-fibers are firing.
< 
< My apologies if I’m getting the facts all wrong.  But the point is in some such way, we are supposed to be able to study which neural states, and brain states, are <i>associated</i> with which mental states.  Now surely that would be very interesting if we were to find that, in order to be in pain, we would have to have firing C-fibers -- wouldn’t it?  For that matter, a neuroscientist might notice that when you engage in deep thought, the frontal lobe of your brain is extremely active.  When we engage in reasoning and complex conceptualization, the neurons in a certain part of the brain are firing; that seems to indicate that there is some sort of close association between hard thought and frontal lobe activity.
< 
< So the suggestion now is that the event of feeling pain is just the same as C-fibers firing.  That is why Halverson calls the theory "identity materialism"; types of mental events, like pain, are <i>identical</i> to types of physical events, like C-fiber firing.  So, pain is <i>reducible</i> <i>to</i> C-fiber firing.  This particular theory is also called "the type-type identity theory," since mental event types are matched up with physical event types.  And mind you, again, not just matched up or associated with -- but actually <i>the</i> <i>very</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i>.  The pain I experience when I bash my thumb with a hammer is really nothing more than those C-fibers going off.
< 
< Now, some of you might hear this and think that I am <i>denying</i> that pain, or anything mental, <i>really</i> exists.  In other words, since I’m saying now that mental events are really only physical events, you think that I’m saying there <i>aren’t</i> any mental events.  But that is <i>not</i> my claim.  Mental events do exist; they are simply identical to physical events of a certain kind.
< 
< It so happens that there <i>is</i> a theory about the mind, called <i>eliminativism</i>, which says that the mind, mental events, and all the rest of that <i>simply</i> <i>do</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  The best-known proponent of this theory is an American, Paul Churchland.  He says that this talk of mental events, thinking and such, is all just a fiction, just folks tales, which is going to be replaced with more scientific talk, when the science of the brain and the nervous system is sufficiently developed.  When that time comes, the eliminativists say, we won’t use this out-dated talk of feelings, thoughts, pains, etc.  We’ll talk about C-fibers firing, and frontal lobes being activated, and so forth.  All that talk of love, hate, decisions, beliefs, and so forth, will look antiquated and silly in the same way that talk of ghosts, demons, and witches now looks antiquated and silly.  I’m not even going to tell you why some philosophers buy into this theory -- it’s pretty unpopular, as you might have guessed -- I’m just telling you that it exists, so I can contrast physicalism with it.  Physicalism <i>does</i> hold that mental events <i>exist</i>.
< 
< Nonetheless, you still might think that physicalism is a very strange theory, that is totally contrary to common sense.  So you might object, as follows.  This will be the only objection to physicalism I’ll state, but it’s rather complex.  Just remember now all those differences that we listed between mental and physical events.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there is seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  How on earth could anyone say that mental events are <i>just</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> physical events?  There are all these obvious differences, so you <i>can’t</i> reduce the mental to the physical!  So physicalism has to be wrong.
< 
< Here is how the physicalist would reply.  Let’s go over each of those alleged differences between mind and matter.  The first one is: mental events are not publicly observable.  The physicalist would say: well, OK, so mental events cannot be <i>seen</i> by other people; but neither can the sorts of physical events we’re talking about.  A C-fiber firing is not only buried inside your nervous system; it is also not detectable except with special instruments.  So we could very well say that C-fiber firing is not publicly observable.
< 
< If you’re a dualist, you’re probably not going to be happy with this reply.  You’ll probably say that the physicalist is missing the point.  The point is really that mental events aren’t <i>observable</i> <i>by</i> <i>other</i> <i>people</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>.  Other people can’t jump into my mind and as it were mentally look over my shoulder while I’m feeling pain and having deep thoughts.  Maybe Mr. Spock can do that but you and I can’t.  So, you, or a dualist, might say, what follows from that?  What follows is that feeling pain can’t be the same as C-fibers firing; other people can probe my nervous system and observe my C-fibers firing but they definitely <i>aren’t</i> observing my pain, no matter how carefully they observe my C-fibers or any other part of my nervous system.  It doesn’t  matter; my mental states can’t be <i>observed</i> by other people at all!  That’s how I think the dualist would reply.
< 
< How do you suppose the physicalist counter that?  Let me play the role of the physicalist.  So I would reply by saying that, really, if "publicly observable" just means "observable by other people," then your mental states <i>are</i> publicly observable.  Mental events <i>can</i> be observed by other people.  So what exactly would I be doing, then, if I <i>did</i> observe your pain?  Would I have to feel your pain myself?  In other words, in order for me to observe your pain, would <i>I</i> have to have the same aches and hurts that <i>you</i> have?  Surely not.  Why would you think that?  In order for me to observe your pain, it seems to me I simply have to observe <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> <i>that</i> <i>you</i> <i>are</i> <i>in</i> <i>pain</i>.  And if, as a physicalist, I hold that pain is the same as C-fibers firing, then all I have to do is observe your C-fibers firing, and <i>voila</i> -- I am observing the fact that you are in pain.  The dualist isn’t going to be at all happy with this reply; but let’s leave that debate and move on to those other supposed differences between mind and body.
< 
< The second difference is that mental events are not spatially located.  So here’s how the dualist will object to physicalism on that point: mental events are not spatially located, but physical events <i>are</i> spatially located.  So mental events are obviously different from physical events.
< 
< Here’s how I, the physicalist, can reply to that point.  I can concede that, for example, when I make a decision, I do not <i>see</i> or otherwise <i>perceive</i> my decision as being located anywhere.  I am just immediately aware of my decision, once I’ve made it.  But does that mean that the event of my decision in fact <i>isn’t</i> located anywhere?  I mean, simply because I’m not <i>aware</i> of its location, does it follow <i>from</i> that, that my decision doesn’t <i>have</i> a location at all?  I don’t see how that follows.  Why can’t we just say: a decision is a certain type of event in the brain.  When this event occurs, I’m aware of making a decision.  But I am not aware of where the decision itself is taking place, namely in my brain.  That doesn’t mean that the decision isn’t taking place in my brain.  Why think that?
< 
< OK, let’s look at the third alleged difference between the mental and the physical.  The third difference is: mental events do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity.  The physicalist would say that neural events have electro-chemical properties; but the dualist would reply that the very idea of a mental event being a physical event in the brain and nervous system is absurd, <i>precisely</i> <i>because</i> that would mean that mental events have electro-chemical properties, and other physical properties as well.
< 
< I’ll bet some of you can predict how our physicalist will reply.  As the physicalist, I will say: "Why is that absurd?  Let me try to figure out why you think it’s absurd that mental events might have physical properties.  Maybe you think that since you’re not <i>aware</i> of any electro-chemical properties of your mental events, it somehow follows that your mental events <i>don’t</i> have any such properties.  But once again, that inference just doesn’t follow.  It assumes that, if all your pains, decisions, and thoughts had some electro-chemical properties, then you’d be aware of those properties.  But why think that?  Do you have to be aware of <i>all</i> of the properties that your mental events have?  Do you have to be aware of <i>everything</i> that is true of the processes of your mind?  Of course not.  There is a lot of unconscious stuff going on in your mind, a lot of stuff you’re not aware of.  So then, why <i>not</i> think that your decisions, your pains, and other mental events have electro-chemical properties?  The only thing that would make that suggestion absurd is if you thought you had to be aware of everything going on in your mind.  But you don’t have to be aware of everything going in your mind.
< 
< Finally, let’s look at the fourth supposed difference between the mental and the physical.  It is probably the hardest to deal with: there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to mental events.  In other words, there is a first-person, felt, immediate, personal, subjective aspect to mental events.  Physical events do not have this subjective aspect; physical events are not qualia.  When dualism claims this, it is basically throwing down the gauntlet to physicalism.  "Look," the dualist says, "there just <i>is</i> this subjective aspect to my pain; it makes sense to ask, ‘What does your pain feel like?’  But it doesn’t make sense to ask, ‘What does your C-fiber firing feel like?’  C-fiber firing does not have this subjective aspect.  So you can’t reduce pain to C-fiber firing."
< 
< How could a physicalist reply to this?  Well, I think it’s not as difficult a problem as some might like to make it out to be.  If I’m a physicalist, then my claim is that C-fiber firing, or maybe some other brain event, <i>just</i> <i>is</i> awareness of pain.  And so it follows, of course, that C-fiber firing, or the brain event, <i>does</i> have a subjective aspect; and that it <i>does</i> make sense to ask, "What does your C-fiber firing feel like?"
< 
< But once again, the dualist is likely to say, "OK, say we open you up and look at your C-fibers firing away.  Are we going to see this subjective aspect, the pain <i>qualia</i> that we talked about?"  Well, the answer to <i>that</i> is clearly no.  But is that a problem?  After all, we <i>experience</i> pain only if it’s <i>our</i> C-fibers that are firing.  If you open my spine up and use scientific instruments to look at my wildly firing C-fibers, then of course <i>you</i> won’t be experiencing pain.  In order for <i>you</i> to experience pain, <i>your</i> C-fibers would have to be firing.  So here’s the point then: the dualist wants to object that a physical event cannot have a subjective aspect; the physicalist protests and says there’s no good reason <i>not</i> to think that physical events can have subjective aspects.  Why <i>couldn’t</i> they?  We can <i>detect</i> a physical event in someone else without <i>ourselves</i> being in a subjective state.  But so what?  Why should I expect to be in pain when I see someone <i>else’s</i> C-fibers fire?  It’s only the firing of <i>my</i> <i>own</i> C-fibers that constitutes <i>my</i> <i>own</i> pain.  So, President Clinton to the contrary notwithstanding, he cannot feel my pain!
< 
< So on all four counts, the physicalist has a way to explain how these <i>supposed</i> differences between the mental and the physical <i>aren’t</i> really differences at all.  This undermines crucial support for dualism and greatly increases the plausibility of physicalism.  It is not so absurd, or at least not so <i>obviously</i> absurd, to say that types of mental events are the same as, and reducible to, some types of physical events.  We just have to put these issues in the right light.  And physicalism has one very clear advantage over dualistic interactionism, namely, that there is no mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events takes place.  Right?  Simply because mental events are, at bottom, themselves types of physical events.
< 
< Next time we will conclude our discussion of the mind-body problem, and move on to the theory of perception.
< 
< 
---
> See also DualIsm and PhysicalIsm.
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PhysicalIsm|981224414
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that the mental can be reduced (see ReducTion) to the physical is usually called <i>physicalism</i>.  It is also called <i>materialism</i> or <i>identity</i> <i>materialism</i>.  The term "physicalism" is less misleading because it does not have any misleading connotations; if we called the view "materialism," you might think that we were talking about something that had to do with the desire for wealth, possessions, and so forth, but obviously we’re not talking about that.  We’re talking about a theory about the mind.  "Physicalism" is better also because it implies that the mental can be reduced to whatever is <i>physical</i>, meaning, whatever is described ultimately by physics; and as we all know, physics describes a lot more than just matter, it also describes energy.  So the view is that we can reduce mental events to events that are made up entirely of matter and energy.  And remember what we mean by "reduce" here: "If I <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever I talk about X, I can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead</i>."  So here’s the claim: Whenever we talk about mental events, we can be <i>properly</i> understood to be talking about <i>events</i> <i>that</i> <i>are</i> <i>made</i> <i>up</i> <i>entirely</i> <i>of</i> <i>matter</i> <i>and</i> <i>energy</i>.
> 
> I suppose that this sounds very strange.  I know it sounded very strange the first time I heard it.  So let me give you an example, and I’ll try to make this as plausible as I can.  In fact there is a hackneyed example that is used when philosophers talk about this stuff.  For some reason philosophers these days always use <i>pain</i> as an example of a mental event; why not pleasure, I say?    There is supposed to be a certain kind of nerve fiber that leads from your limbs to your brain, called <i>C</i>-<i>fibers</i>, and whenever you’re in pain, the story goes, your C-fibers are firing; and whenever your C-fibers are firing, then you’re in pain.  I suppose we might test this claim empirically, with experiments, right?  Suppose I sit you down in my lab, and I insert some probe into your spine, right next to your C-fibers; then I find some clever way to cause you pain.  You say, "Ouch!" and tell me that you are in pain.  I say, "Good!" and sure enough I see that your C-fibers are firing.
> 
> My apologies if I’m getting the facts all wrong.  But the point is in some such way, we are supposed to be able to study which neural states, and brain states, are <i>associated</i> with which mental states.  Now surely that would be very interesting if we were to find that, in order to be in pain, we would have to have firing C-fibers -- wouldn’t it?  For that matter, a neuroscientist might notice that when you engage in deep thought, the frontal lobe of your brain is extremely active.  When we engage in reasoning and complex conceptualization, the neurons in a certain part of the brain are firing; that seems to indicate that there is some sort of close association between hard thought and frontal lobe activity.
> 
> So the suggestion now is that the event of feeling pain is just the same as C-fibers firing.  That is why Halverson calls the theory "identity materialism"; types of mental events, like pain, are <i>identical</i> to types of physical events, like C-fiber firing.  So, pain is <i>reducible</i> <i>to</i> C-fiber firing.  This particular theory is also called "the type-type identity theory," since mental event types are matched up with physical event types.  And mind you, again, not just matched up or associated with -- but actually <i>the</i> <i>very</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i>.  The pain I experience when I bash my thumb with a hammer is really nothing more than those C-fibers going off.
> 
> Now, some of you might hear this and think that I am <i>denying</i> that pain, or anything mental, <i>really</i> exists.  In other words, since I’m saying now that mental events are really only physical events, you think that I’m saying there <i>aren’t</i> any mental events.  But that is <i>not</i> my claim.  Mental events do exist; they are simply identical to physical events of a certain kind.
> 
> It so happens that there <i>is</i> a theory about the mind, called <i>eliminativism</i>, which says that the mind, mental events, and all the rest of that <i>simply</i> <i>do</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  The best-known proponent of this theory is an American, Paul Churchland.  He says that this talk of mental events, thinking and such, is all just a fiction, just folks tales, which is going to be replaced with more scientific talk, when the science of the brain and the nervous system is sufficiently developed.  When that time comes, the eliminativists say, we won’t use this out-dated talk of feelings, thoughts, pains, etc.  We’ll talk about C-fibers firing, and frontal lobes being activated, and so forth.  All that talk of love, hate, decisions, beliefs, and so forth, will look antiquated and silly in the same way that talk of ghosts, demons, and witches now looks antiquated and silly.  I’m not even going to tell you why some philosophers buy into this theory -- it’s pretty unpopular, as you might have guessed -- I’m just telling you that it exists, so I can contrast physicalism with it.  Physicalism <i>does</i> hold that mental events <i>exist</i>.
> 
> Nonetheless, you still might think that physicalism is a very strange theory, that is totally contrary to common sense.  So you might object, as follows.  This will be the only objection to physicalism I’ll state, but it’s rather complex.  Just remember now all those differences that we listed between mental and physical events.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there is seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  How on earth could anyone say that mental events are <i>just</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> physical events?  There are all these obvious differences, so you <i>can’t</i> reduce the mental to the physical!  So physicalism has to be wrong.
> 
> Here is how the physicalist would reply.  Let’s go over each of those alleged differences between mind and matter.  The first one is: mental events are not publicly observable.  The physicalist would say: well, OK, so mental events cannot be <i>seen</i> by other people; but neither can the sorts of physical events we’re talking about.  A C-fiber firing is not only buried inside your nervous system; it is also not detectable except with special instruments.  So we could very well say that C-fiber firing is not publicly observable.
> 
> If you’re a dualist, you’re probably not going to be happy with this reply.  You’ll probably say that the physicalist is missing the point.  The point is really that mental events aren’t <i>observable</i> <i>by</i> <i>other</i> <i>people</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>.  Other people can’t jump into my mind and as it were mentally look over my shoulder while I’m feeling pain and having deep thoughts.  Maybe Mr. Spock can do that but you and I can’t.  So, you, or a dualist, might say, what follows from that?  What follows is that feeling pain can’t be the same as C-fibers firing; other people can probe my nervous system and observe my C-fibers firing but they definitely <i>aren’t</i> observing my pain, no matter how carefully they observe my C-fibers or any other part of my nervous system.  It doesn’t  matter; my mental states can’t be <i>observed</i> by other people at all!  That’s how I think the dualist would reply.
> 
> How do you suppose the physicalist counter that?  Let me play the role of the physicalist.  So I would reply by saying that, really, if "publicly observable" just means "observable by other people," then your mental states <i>are</i> publicly observable.  Mental events <i>can</i> be observed by other people.  So what exactly would I be doing, then, if I <i>did</i> observe your pain?  Would I have to feel your pain myself?  In other words, in order for me to observe your pain, would <i>I</i> have to have the same aches and hurts that <i>you</i> have?  Surely not.  Why would you think that?  In order for me to observe your pain, it seems to me I simply have to observe <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> <i>that</i> <i>you</i> <i>are</i> <i>in</i> <i>pain</i>.  And if, as a physicalist, I hold that pain is the same as C-fibers firing, then all I have to do is observe your C-fibers firing, and <i>voila</i> -- I am observing the fact that you are in pain.  The dualist isn’t going to be at all happy with this reply; but let’s leave that debate and move on to those other supposed differences between mind and body.
> 
> The second difference is that mental events are not spatially located.  So here’s how the dualist will object to physicalism on that point: mental events are not spatially located, but physical events <i>are</i> spatially located.  So mental events are obviously different from physical events.
> 
> Here’s how I, the physicalist, can reply to that point.  I can concede that, for example, when I make a decision, I do not <i>see</i> or otherwise <i>perceive</i> my decision as being located anywhere.  I am just immediately aware of my decision, once I’ve made it.  But does that mean that the event of my decision in fact <i>isn’t</i> located anywhere?  I mean, simply because I’m not <i>aware</i> of its location, does it follow <i>from</i> that, that my decision doesn’t <i>have</i> a location at all?  I don’t see how that follows.  Why can’t we just say: a decision is a certain type of event in the brain.  When this event occurs, I’m aware of making a decision.  But I am not aware of where the decision itself is taking place, namely in my brain.  That doesn’t mean that the decision isn’t taking place in my brain.  Why think that?
> 
> OK, let’s look at the third alleged difference between the mental and the physical.  The third difference is: mental events do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity.  The physicalist would say that neural events have electro-chemical properties; but the dualist would reply that the very idea of a mental event being a physical event in the brain and nervous system is absurd, <i>precisely</i> <i>because</i> that would mean that mental events have electro-chemical properties, and other physical properties as well.
> 
> I’ll bet some of you can predict how our physicalist will reply.  As the physicalist, I will say: "Why is that absurd?  Let me try to figure out why you think it’s absurd that mental events might have physical properties.  Maybe you think that since you’re not <i>aware</i> of any electro-chemical properties of your mental events, it somehow follows that your mental events <i>don’t</i> have any such properties.  But once again, that inference just doesn’t follow.  It assumes that, if all your pains, decisions, and thoughts had some electro-chemical properties, then you’d be aware of those properties.  But why think that?  Do you have to be aware of <i>all</i> of the properties that your mental events have?  Do you have to be aware of <i>everything</i> that is true of the processes of your mind?  Of course not.  There is a lot of unconscious stuff going on in your mind, a lot of stuff you’re not aware of.  So then, why <i>not</i> think that your decisions, your pains, and other mental events have electro-chemical properties?  The only thing that would make that suggestion absurd is if you thought you had to be aware of everything going on in your mind.  But you don’t have to be aware of everything going in your mind.
> 
> Finally, let’s look at the fourth supposed difference between the mental and the physical.  It is probably the hardest to deal with: there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to mental events.  In other words, there is a first-person, felt, immediate, personal, subjective aspect to mental events.  Physical events do not have this subjective aspect; physical events are not qualia.  When dualism claims this, it is basically throwing down the gauntlet to physicalism.  "Look," the dualist says, "there just <i>is</i> this subjective aspect to my pain; it makes sense to ask, ‘What does your pain feel like?’  But it doesn’t make sense to ask, ‘What does your C-fiber firing feel like?’  C-fiber firing does not have this subjective aspect.  So you can’t reduce pain to C-fiber firing."
> 
> How could a physicalist reply to this?  Well, I think it’s not as difficult a problem as some might like to make it out to be.  If I’m a physicalist, then my claim is that C-fiber firing, or maybe some other brain event, <i>just</i> <i>is</i> awareness of pain.  And so it follows, of course, that C-fiber firing, or the brain event, <i>does</i> have a subjective aspect; and that it <i>does</i> make sense to ask, "What does your C-fiber firing feel like?"
> 
> But once again, the dualist is likely to say, "OK, say we open you up and look at your C-fibers firing away.  Are we going to see this subjective aspect, the pain <i>qualia</i> that we talked about?"  Well, the answer to <i>that</i> is clearly no.  But is that a problem?  After all, we <i>experience</i> pain only if it’s <i>our</i> C-fibers that are firing.  If you open my spine up and use scientific instruments to look at my wildly firing C-fibers, then of course <i>you</i> won’t be experiencing pain.  In order for <i>you</i> to experience pain, <i>your</i> C-fibers would have to be firing.  So here’s the point then: the dualist wants to object that a physical event cannot have a subjective aspect; the physicalist protests and says there’s no good reason <i>not</i> to think that physical events can have subjective aspects.  Why <i>couldn’t</i> they?  We can <i>detect</i> a physical event in someone else without <i>ourselves</i> being in a subjective state.  But so what?  Why should I expect to be in pain when I see someone <i>else’s</i> C-fibers fire?  It’s only the firing of <i>my</i> <i>own</i> C-fibers that constitutes <i>my</i> <i>own</i> pain.  So, President Clinton to the contrary notwithstanding, he cannot feel my pain!
> 
> So on all four counts, the physicalist has a way to explain how these <i>supposed</i> differences between the mental and the physical <i>aren’t</i> really differences at all.  This undermines crucial support for dualism and greatly increases the plausibility of physicalism.  It is not so absurd, or at least not so <i>obviously</i> absurd, to say that types of mental events are the same as, and reducible to, some types of physical events.  We just have to put these issues in the right light.  And physicalism has one very clear advantage over dualistic interactionism, namely, that there is no mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events takes place.  Right?  Simply because mental events are, at bottom, themselves types of physical events.
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TheMindBodyProblem|981224546
30,69d29
< 
< C. Other theories of mind.
< 
< We concluded last time on an upbeat note for physicalism.  I had given you some ways that the physicalist could reply to the dualist’s objections; in so doing, I tried to make it plain how some people can hold what, on first glance at least, looks like an absurd claim, that mental events are simply a type of physical event -- brain or neural events.  Now I should note that this is just one kind of physicalism; we may call it <i>neural</i> <i>type</i> <i>physicalism</i>, because it says that mental event types are <i>types</i> <i>of</i> <i>nervous</i> <i>system</i> <i>events</i>.  It is more commonly called "the type-type identity theory."
< 
< I’m going to present an objection to neural type physicalism.  But first I’m going to present another kind of physicalism; I’m going to discuss it very quickly, because mainly I want to use it to make quite clear how neural type physicalism is only one kind of physicalism.  In the middle of this century, it was very fashionable to try to reduce mental events to <i>behavior</i>.  This view is called <i>analytical</i> <i>behaviorism</i>, because the idea is that we can ultimately analyze, or reduce, talk of mental events and processes in terms of things that humans say, express, and do.  In other words, analytical behaviorism says that what a mental event <i>is</i>, is a propensity, a tendency, to display a certain set of behaviors -- words, facial expressions, bodily postures, and actions.  If you want to see whether someone believes that God exists, you look at what he says, how he reacts when you say "God exists," whether he goes to church, and so on.  And his belief is constituted by those behaviors; in other words, there isn’t any more to his belief that God exists than those behaviors.  Or to take another example, the good old example of pain.  Analytical behaviorism would say that pain is nothing more than the tendency to wince, to grimace, to pull back quickly from the source of something causing bodily damage, to say "ouch" and "that hurts," and similar behaviors.  That’s all there is to pain!
< 
< Well, I’m not going to discuss the merits of analytical behaviorism.  Hardly anyone believes it anymore.  Good riddance, I say.  But this theory is an example of another kind of physicalism.  Why?  Because it <i>does</i> say that mental events are reducible to physical events; behaviors are physical events, and behaviorism says that mental events are reducible to behaviors.  So how does behaviorism different from the sort of physicalism I was talking about last time, neural type physicalism?  Well, it’s a different <i>type</i> of physical event that mental events are being reduced to.  On the one hand, neural type physicalism says that mental events can be reduced to types of neural or brain events.  On the other hand, analytical behaviorism says that mental events can be reduced to types of behavioral events.  So basically here’s a question we might ask: If types of mental event can be reduced to types of physical event, then <i>which</i> types of physical event?  Neural type physicalism gives one answer; analytical behaviorism gives a different answer.
< 
< This leads me, finally, to that objection to neural type physicalism that I said I was going to give.  The objection is this: we have construed the types <i>too</i> <i>narrowly</i>.  Maybe there are types of physical events that mental events might be reducible to, that are nothing like neural states.  I’d better give you an example if you’re to see what I’m talking about.  Suppose after some years, superscientists were to build a robot that was given sensory receptors, could talk intelligently on a wide variety of subjects, could carry out a variety of difficult tasks, and even had what appeared to be emotional reactions to its surroundings -- and so forth.  In short, somehow, scientists had created what appeared to be a conscious, intelligent machine.  Now, there is considerable debate over whether such a machine is possible -- whether it is possible to, as it were, <i>build</i> <i>a</i> <i>mind</i> <i>from</i> <i>scratch</i>.  But just assume, for the sake of argument, that such a machine <i>is</i> possible, and that it <i>does</i> have thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and so on.  So then mental events are occurring in this machine.
< 
< Now let’s say our superscientists did not use anything much like the human nervous system to build this robot.  They used some sort of special circuitry -- very high-tech microchips and whatnot.  In that case, it is not any type of <i>neural</i> <i>or</i> <i>brain</i> <i>event</i> to which we would reduce the robot’s mental events.  It would be a -- what should we call it? -- a circuitry event!  And then in that case mental events could be reducible <i>not</i> <i>just</i> to neural events, but also to <i>circuitry</i> events.  So here then is the objection to neural type physicalism: the types we’re reducing mental events to is too narrow.  To include the mental events of high-tech conscious robots, we should describe the physical events in some way that would include <i>both</i> neural events <i>and</i> circuitry events.  Not <i>just</i> neural events.
< 
< Or suppose that there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe.  So there might be some alien species that does not have anything quite like our brain or nervous system.  Say this species is intelligent, and conscious, and has a mind, but its mental events are identical to a different type of physical event; instead of neurons, they have schmeurons, say.  Well then, if we want to be physicalists, then we should allow that mental events can be reduced to neural events, <i>or</i> circuitry events, or to schmeural events!  As you can see, the list might go on.
< 
< In any case, I think that this neatly refutes neural type physicalism.  Neural type physicalists are biased in favor of the physical types that the human species has.  So philosophers of mind, trying to be clever, have named this bias <i>species</i> <i>chauvinism</i>.  That means that neural type physicalists are irrationally disposed in favor of their own species, when it comes to describing the physical types that mental events reduce to, or are identical to.
< 
< Suppose after all this, I still think that dualism is wrong, and I admit that neural type physicalism is wrong; but I still think that <i>some</i> kind of physicalism is still basically right.  I think that everything basically has to reduce to the physical; only the physical exists ultimately.  So then what are my options?  Is there a way for me to hold onto physicalism, so I can get around the species chauvinism accusation?  Well, there are basically two ways.  The first way is find an <i>even</i> <i>broader</i> type of event, which describes <i>all</i> the different specific physical event types that different species, or robots, might have.  This is called functionalism.  The second way is to deny that we are reducing mental event <i>types</i>, and talk instead of reducing mental event <i>tokens</i>.  This I will call token physicalism.  I’m not going to talk about either theory in much depth, because I’ll tell the truth -- by now we have gotten quite far away from any issues that were talked about throughout most of the history of philosophy.  All of these issues about the different kinds of physicalism have arisen in the last fifty or sixty years or so.
< 
< So first I will briefly explain functionalism.  Functionalism asks: what do neural events, <i>and</i> circuitry events, <i>and</i> schmeural events <i>all</i> have in common?  The answer: it can’t be any <i>particular</i> <i>type</i> of physical hardware that they have in common.  It’s not neurons, microchips, or schmeurons.  So what do they have in common?  What they have in common is that they are all structurally similar, or <i>functionally</i> similar.  What do I mean by that?  Well, to similar sorts of inputs, each of these physical types gives a similar sort of output.  Let me give a simple example.  The human, the robot, and the alien are all going to feel pain when you damage their bodies; and they are all going to have roughly similar reactions, such as announcing that they’re in pain, avoiding the source of the damage, and perhaps striking back or getting angry.
< 
< So here is a simple definition of "functionalism":
< 
< <i>Functionalism</i> is the view that mental events are the same as functional states; and a <i>functional</i> <i>state</i> is a state a physical system is in, when it has a set of sensory and other inputs, together with a set of potential behavioral outputs.
< 
< So say I’m thinking about bananas.  That mental event is, according to functionalism, a functional state; and that just means a state described by various inputs and outputs.  For example, an input would be that someone has said the word "bananas" to me and off I go thinking about bananas; and then a potential output would be to go get a banana and eat it.  So my mental event, thinking about bananas, is just a functional state, and the functional state is specified by the inputs of the event and the outputs of the event.
< 
< Well of course there is a lot we could say about functionalism.  For one thing, if all we have at our disposal, to describe mental events, is their inputs and outputs, then have we really described the mental event <i>itself</i> adequately?  It would be a little like saying that an oak tree could be adequately described like this: "Oak trees result from acorns (that’s the oak tree input) and they are cut up to make tables (that’s the oak tree output)."  Yeah, but (you might ask) what is an <i>oak</i> <i>tree</i> <i>itself</i>?  You might ask a similar thing of functionalists.  "OK, so mental events have certain inputs and outputs; I can accept that; but what is a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i> <i>itself</i>?"  Unfortunately, we don’t have time to go into it.  But for what it is worth, functionalism is probably the most popular theory of mind today.  So obviously a lot more can be said about it.
< 
< I said there is a second way to get around the species chauvinism objection.  This can be called <i>token</i> <i>physicalism</i>.  More commonly called "the token-token identity theory."  Whatever you want to call it, I’ll define as follows:
< 
< <i>Token</i> <i>physicalism</i> is the view that tokens of mental events may be reduced to tokens of physical events.
< 
< The idea here is that we are giving up trying to give <i>general</i> <i>accounts</i> of mental event types.  So for example we won’t try to reduce the whole category of pleasure, or the whole category of pain, to any single mental event type.  We’ll focus in on individual, single, pleasures and pains.  And we say, of those mental event <i>tokens</i>, that each one is identical to, and reducible to, some physical event token.  In our case, we might say that an individual pain is the same as an individual instance of my C-fibers firing.  But we might say something quite different about the pain of an alien from Alpha Centauri.  The point in either case, though, is that it’s <i>tokens</i> of mental events that are reduced to <i>tokens</i> of physical events.
< 
< I’m just going to give one little objection to this theory.  Namely, what does the following phrase mean? -- "Token of a mental event."  Token physicalism can’t tell us.  I mean, suppose a scientist had reduced a slew of mental event tokens to physical event tokens.  So I’d say, "Great work!  But just what do all of those mental event tokens have in common, that makes us say that they are tokens of <i>mental</i> events, as opposed to any other kind of event?"  What distinguishes the mental event tokens from tokens of other kinds of events?  That’s the question: What distinguishes mental event tokens?  Dualism, remember, says that the mental is an ultimate, fundamental category of being; it can’t be explained in terms of anything nonmental.  So dualism doesn’t have to answer this question.  And neural type physicalism at least promises to answer the question; it says that we will discover just exactly what all the different mental events have in common, which makes them all mental events; and it’s going to be some special type of event in the brain.
< 
< But token physicalism can’t answer this question; it can’t tell us what mental event tokens have in common; and why not?  Because if <i>any</i> theory tells us what mental event tokens have in common, then the theory is describing mental event <i>types</i>.  Just think: that is <i>precisely</i> what mental event tokens have in common: they are all tokens of mental event <i>types</i>.  What do human pain and alien pain in common?  They are both tokens of the type, pain.  So, if we describe what all mental event tokens have in common, then we have for that very reason described a mental event type!  And then the token physicalist would have to talk about mental event types; and that means we’ve basically given up token physicalism.  Well, that’s the only thing I’m going to say about token physicalism.  My usual disclaimers apply.
< 
< In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
------
PhysicalIsm|981224599
35c35,73
< So on all four counts, the physicalist has a way to explain how these <i>supposed</i> differences between the mental and the physical <i>aren’t</i> really differences at all.  This undermines crucial support for dualism and greatly increases the plausibility of physicalism.  It is not so absurd, or at least not so <i>obviously</i> absurd, to say that types of mental events are the same as, and reducible to, some types of physical events.  We just have to put these issues in the right light.  And physicalism has one very clear advantage over dualistic interactionism, namely, that there is no mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events takes place.  Right?  Simply because mental events are, at bottom, themselves types of physical events.
---
> So on all four counts, the physicalist has a way to explain how these <i>supposed</i> differences between the mental and the physical <i>aren’t</i> really differences at all.  This undermines crucial support for dualism and greatly increases the plausibility of physicalism.  It is not so absurd, or at least not so <i>obviously</i> absurd, to say that types of mental events are the same as, and reducible to, some types of physical events.  We just have to put these issues in the right light.  And physicalism has one very clear advantage over dualistic interactionism, namely, that there is no mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events takes place.  Right?  Simply because mental events are, at bottom, themselves types of physical events.
> 
> I have given you some ways that the physicalist could reply to the dualist’s objections; in so doing, I tried to make it plain how some people can hold what, on first glance at least, looks like an absurd claim, that mental events are simply a type of physical event -- brain or neural events.  Now I should note that this is just one kind of physicalism; we may call it <i>neural</i> <i>type</i> <i>physicalism</i>, because it says that mental event types are <i>types</i> <i>of</i> <i>nervous</i> <i>system</i> <i>events</i>.  It is more commonly called "the type-type identity theory."
> 
> I’m going to present an objection to neural type physicalism.  But first I’m going to present another kind of physicalism; I’m going to discuss it very quickly, because mainly I want to use it to make quite clear how neural type physicalism is only one kind of physicalism.  In the middle of this century, it was very fashionable to try to reduce mental events to <i>behavior</i>.  This view is called <i>analytical</i> <i>behaviorism</i>, because the idea is that we can ultimately analyze, or reduce, talk of mental events and processes in terms of things that humans say, express, and do.  In other words, analytical behaviorism says that what a mental event <i>is</i>, is a propensity, a tendency, to display a certain set of behaviors -- words, facial expressions, bodily postures, and actions.  If you want to see whether someone believes that God exists, you look at what he says, how he reacts when you say "God exists," whether he goes to church, and so on.  And his belief is constituted by those behaviors; in other words, there isn’t any more to his belief that God exists than those behaviors.  Or to take another example, the good old example of pain.  Analytical behaviorism would say that pain is nothing more than the tendency to wince, to grimace, to pull back quickly from the source of something causing bodily damage, to say "ouch" and "that hurts," and similar behaviors.  That’s all there is to pain!
> 
> Well, I’m not going to discuss the merits of analytical behaviorism.  Hardly anyone believes it anymore.  Good riddance, I say.  But this theory is an example of another kind of physicalism.  Why?  Because it <i>does</i> say that mental events are reducible to physical events; behaviors are physical events, and behaviorism says that mental events are reducible to behaviors.  So how does behaviorism different from the sort of physicalism I was talking about last time, neural type physicalism?  Well, it’s a different <i>type</i> of physical event that mental events are being reduced to.  On the one hand, neural type physicalism says that mental events can be reduced to types of neural or brain events.  On the other hand, analytical behaviorism says that mental events can be reduced to types of behavioral events.  So basically here’s a question we might ask: If types of mental event can be reduced to types of physical event, then <i>which</i> types of physical event?  Neural type physicalism gives one answer; analytical behaviorism gives a different answer.
> 
> This leads me, finally, to that objection to neural type physicalism that I said I was going to give.  The objection is this: we have construed the types <i>too</i> <i>narrowly</i>.  Maybe there are types of physical events that mental events might be reducible to, that are nothing like neural states.  I’d better give you an example if you’re to see what I’m talking about.  Suppose after some years, superscientists were to build a robot that was given sensory receptors, could talk intelligently on a wide variety of subjects, could carry out a variety of difficult tasks, and even had what appeared to be emotional reactions to its surroundings -- and so forth.  In short, somehow, scientists had created what appeared to be a conscious, intelligent machine.  Now, there is considerable debate over whether such a machine is possible -- whether it is possible to, as it were, <i>build</i> <i>a</i> <i>mind</i> <i>from</i> <i>scratch</i>.  But just assume, for the sake of argument, that such a machine <i>is</i> possible, and that it <i>does</i> have thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and so on.  So then mental events are occurring in this machine.
> 
> Now let’s say our superscientists did not use anything much like the human nervous system to build this robot.  They used some sort of special circuitry -- very high-tech microchips and whatnot.  In that case, it is not any type of <i>neural</i> <i>or</i> <i>brain</i> <i>event</i> to which we would reduce the robot’s mental events.  It would be a -- what should we call it? -- a circuitry event!  And then in that case mental events could be reducible <i>not</i> <i>just</i> to neural events, but also to <i>circuitry</i> events.  So here then is the objection to neural type physicalism: the types we’re reducing mental events to is too narrow.  To include the mental events of high-tech conscious robots, we should describe the physical events in some way that would include <i>both</i> neural events <i>and</i> circuitry events.  Not <i>just</i> neural events.
> 
> Or suppose that there is intelligent life elsewhere in the universe.  So there might be some alien species that does not have anything quite like our brain or nervous system.  Say this species is intelligent, and conscious, and has a mind, but its mental events are identical to a different type of physical event; instead of neurons, they have schmeurons, say.  Well then, if we want to be physicalists, then we should allow that mental events can be reduced to neural events, <i>or</i> circuitry events, or to schmeural events!  As you can see, the list might go on.
> 
> In any case, I think that this neatly refutes neural type physicalism.  Neural type physicalists are biased in favor of the physical types that the human species has.  So philosophers of mind, trying to be clever, have named this bias <i>species</i> <i>chauvinism</i>.  That means that neural type physicalists are irrationally disposed in favor of their own species, when it comes to describing the physical types that mental events reduce to, or are identical to.
> 
> Suppose after all this, I still think that dualism is wrong, and I admit that neural type physicalism is wrong; but I still think that <i>some</i> kind of physicalism is still basically right.  I think that everything basically has to reduce to the physical; only the physical exists ultimately.  So then what are my options?  Is there a way for me to hold onto physicalism, so I can get around the species chauvinism accusation?  Well, there are basically two ways.  The first way is find an <i>even</i> <i>broader</i> type of event, which describes <i>all</i> the different specific physical event types that different species, or robots, might have.  This is called functionalism.  The second way is to deny that we are reducing mental event <i>types</i>, and talk instead of reducing mental event <i>tokens</i>.  This I will call token physicalism.  I’m not going to talk about either theory in much depth, because I’ll tell the truth -- by now we have gotten quite far away from any issues that were talked about throughout most of the history of philosophy.  All of these issues about the different kinds of physicalism have arisen in the last fifty or sixty years or so.
> 
> So first I will briefly explain functionalism.  Functionalism asks: what do neural events, <i>and</i> circuitry events, <i>and</i> schmeural events <i>all</i> have in common?  The answer: it can’t be any <i>particular</i> <i>type</i> of physical hardware that they have in common.  It’s not neurons, microchips, or schmeurons.  So what do they have in common?  What they have in common is that they are all structurally similar, or <i>functionally</i> similar.  What do I mean by that?  Well, to similar sorts of inputs, each of these physical types gives a similar sort of output.  Let me give a simple example.  The human, the robot, and the alien are all going to feel pain when you damage their bodies; and they are all going to have roughly similar reactions, such as announcing that they’re in pain, avoiding the source of the damage, and perhaps striking back or getting angry.
> 
> So here is a simple definition of "functionalism":
> 
> <i>Functionalism</i> is the view that mental events are the same as functional states; and a <i>functional</i> <i>state</i> is a state a physical system is in, when it has a set of sensory and other inputs, together with a set of potential behavioral outputs.
> 
> So say I’m thinking about bananas.  That mental event is, according to functionalism, a functional state; and that just means a state described by various inputs and outputs.  For example, an input would be that someone has said the word "bananas" to me and off I go thinking about bananas; and then a potential output would be to go get a banana and eat it.  So my mental event, thinking about bananas, is just a functional state, and the functional state is specified by the inputs of the event and the outputs of the event.
> 
> Well of course there is a lot we could say about functionalism.  For one thing, if all we have at our disposal, to describe mental events, is their inputs and outputs, then have we really described the mental event <i>itself</i> adequately?  It would be a little like saying that an oak tree could be adequately described like this: "Oak trees result from acorns (that’s the oak tree input) and they are cut up to make tables (that’s the oak tree output)."  Yeah, but (you might ask) what is an <i>oak</i> <i>tree</i> <i>itself</i>?  You might ask a similar thing of functionalists.  "OK, so mental events have certain inputs and outputs; I can accept that; but what is a <i>mental</i> <i>event</i> <i>itself</i>?"  Unfortunately, we don’t have time to go into it.  But for what it is worth, functionalism is probably the most popular theory of mind today.  So obviously a lot more can be said about it.
> 
> I said there is a second way to get around the species chauvinism objection.  This can be called <i>token</i> <i>physicalism</i>.  More commonly called "the token-token identity theory."  Whatever you want to call it, I’ll define as follows:
> 
> <i>Token</i> <i>physicalism</i> is the view that tokens of mental events may be reduced to tokens of physical events.
> 
> The idea here is that we are giving up trying to give <i>general</i> <i>accounts</i> of mental event types.  So for example we won’t try to reduce the whole category of pleasure, or the whole category of pain, to any single mental event type.  We’ll focus in on individual, single, pleasures and pains.  And we say, of those mental event <i>tokens</i>, that each one is identical to, and reducible to, some physical event token.  In our case, we might say that an individual pain is the same as an individual instance of my C-fibers firing.  But we might say something quite different about the pain of an alien from Alpha Centauri.  The point in either case, though, is that it’s <i>tokens</i> of mental events that are reduced to <i>tokens</i> of physical events.
> 
> I’m just going to give one little objection to this theory.  Namely, what does the following phrase mean? -- "Token of a mental event."  Token physicalism can’t tell us.  I mean, suppose a scientist had reduced a slew of mental event tokens to physical event tokens.  So I’d say, "Great work!  But just what do all of those mental event tokens have in common, that makes us say that they are tokens of <i>mental</i> events, as opposed to any other kind of event?"  What distinguishes the mental event tokens from tokens of other kinds of events?  That’s the question: What distinguishes mental event tokens?  Dualism, remember, says that the mental is an ultimate, fundamental category of being; it can’t be explained in terms of anything nonmental.  So dualism doesn’t have to answer this question.  And neural type physicalism at least promises to answer the question; it says that we will discover just exactly what all the different mental events have in common, which makes them all mental events; and it’s going to be some special type of event in the brain.
> 
> But token physicalism can’t answer this question; it can’t tell us what mental event tokens have in common; and why not?  Because if <i>any</i> theory tells us what mental event tokens have in common, then the theory is describing mental event <i>types</i>.  Just think: that is <i>precisely</i> what mental event tokens have in common: they are all tokens of mental event <i>types</i>.  What do human pain and alien pain in common?  They are both tokens of the type, pain.  So, if we describe what all mental event tokens have in common, then we have for that very reason described a mental event type!  And then the token physicalist would have to talk about mental event types; and that means we’ve basically given up token physicalism.  Well, that’s the only thing I’m going to say about token physicalism.  My usual disclaimers apply.
> 
> In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
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DualIsm|981224657
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText; further wikification is encouraged> 
> 
43c45
< Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
---
> Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
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PhysicalIsm|981224676
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText; further wikification is encouraged> 
> 
73c75
< In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
---
> In the interests of mercy, let me say that I’m not trying to make you believe that we can’t know which theory of mind is correct -- I don’t want you to leave class being skeptics about philosophical questions about the mind.  Generally, in the interests of objectivity and general intellectual responsibility, I feel it is my duty to tell you about most of the leading philosophical theories of the different subjects we’re studying, and some arguments for and against them.  So, the mere fact that I’m not telling you that one theory is The Truth doesn’t mean that I have no views about what The Truth is.  In fact, I do think that one particular theory of mind is better than the others -- I’m just not telling what it is!  And the mere fact that I’m presenting objections to all of the theories I’ve stated doesn’t mean that I think we can’t know which one is correct, or that they are all false; all I’m trying to do is to introduce you to the issues.  Philosophical issues are more complicated than you might have thought when you came into this class.  So if you want to have really well-informed views on these issues, it’s just the same as having really well-informed views on issues in chemistry, or in political science, or in computer programming.  It’s going to take research and long hard thinking.
------
LibertarianisM|981224813
9a10,11
> 
>  - I think a definition of 'right-wing' is necessary if you are going to make that claim.
------
LarrysText|981225442
11c11
< ::PhilosophyOfMind -- TheMindBodyProblem -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
---
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- PhysicalIsm PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
34a35,45
> ----
> Update, Feb. 3, from LarrySanger: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
> * Prised out large portions of the text that belong in their own headings; see DualIsm and PhysicalIsm 
> * Prised out smaller portions of text that explicate jargon; see MentalEvent, MentalFunctions, ConsciousNess, ReducTion, MonIsm, NeutralMonism
> * Invented a few new entries along the way; see PhysicalEvent, NeuroN (planned--go ahead, do it yourself), BrainEvent, PhilosophicalView
> * Changed some of the "I" talk to "magisterial-we" talk
> * Deleted parts of the text that make it easier to read/listen to (this was padding)
> * Deleted parts of the text that made transitions from one part to another (this isn't going to be one continuous text when we're done with it)
> * Did a little copyediting, tightening up, and even added a thought or two
> * Etc.?
> Go thou and do likewise--please!
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LarrysText|981225528
38a39
> * ''Importantly,'' I added links to the new entries created by prised-out text in the appropriate places in the table of contents above.  This is useful for someone who wants to follow the original text.
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BillClinton|981226851
5c5,7
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
---
> Known also for granting the most controversial PresidentialPardon in US history.
> 
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
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IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|981227035
1c1
< Over the span of forty two years IsaacAsimov created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven novels, which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
---
> Over the span of forty two years IsaacAsimov created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven volumes (about 800,000 words), which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
3c3
< /PreludeToFoundation
---
> /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
5c5
< /ForwardTheFoundation
---
> /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
7c7
< /Foundation
---
> /Foundation (1951)
9c9
< /FoundationAndEmpire
---
> /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
11c11
< /SecondFoundation
---
> /SecondFoundation (1953)
13c13
< /FoundationsEdge
---
> /FoundationsEdge (1982)
15c15
< /FoundationAndEarth 
---
> /FoundationAndEarth (1983)
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IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|981227088
15a16,18
> 
> ----
> ''see'' also FoundationTrilogy
------
IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|981227171
18c18
< ''see'' also FoundationTrilogy
---
> ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
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FoundationTrilogy|981227323
3,5c3,5
< * Foundation
< * Foundation and Empire
< * Second Foundation
---
> * Foundation (1951)
> * Foundation and Empire (1952)
> * Second Foundation (1953)
7a8,10
> 
> IsaacAsimov returned to the series in 1982 and wrote four new volumes before he passed away ten years later.
> 
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IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation|981227476
1c1
< It is a prequel to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time IsaacAsimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of Psychohistory is at risk. 
---
> Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time IsaacAsimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation|981227543
1c1
< Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time IsaacAsimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
---
> Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time IsaacAsimov chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on /TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
IsaacAsimov/TrantoR|981227785
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The planet TranntoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
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IsaacAsimov/TrantoR|981227798
1c1
< The planet TranntoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
---
> The planet TrantoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
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LibertarianisM|981227926
11a12,13
> 
> ''Fair enough.  Left-wing means belief in more equality and right-wing in less - not meant disparagingly, since to much equality is a bad thing too (HarrisonBergeron).  In any case, this puts people who believe in fair process to the right of people who believe in fair outcome.  And, as it happens, this is what a free market is; thus economically at least, the LP is on the right.  This may not be the best definition of left-right, but it sums up what most people mean by the terms.''
------
IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|981228011
15a16,18
> ----
> * /TrantoR
> 
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981228687
21c21
< I glanced at some of Simon's work and the man clearly has a bias.  That's not to say that anything the man says is wrong, or shouldn't be discussed, but it certainly should be handled with caution to make it somewhat more neutral.  A brief search reveals that there are ''many'' criticisms of his obviously popular works available for comparison purposes.
---
> I glanced at some of Simon's work and the man clearly has a bias.  That's not to say that anything the man says is wrong, or shouldn't be discussed, but it certainly should be handled with caution to make it somewhat more neutral.  A brief search reveals that there are ''many'' criticisms of his obviously popular works available for comparison purposes.  I think what might be a good idea is to put AmericasPoor as a subpage of JulianSimon, and there sum up his arguments and those of his opponents.
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981228746
1c1
< Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way, in terms of truth.  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.
---
> Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way, in terms of truth (it might then might be confused with ThePrincipleOfBivalence).  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.  In Aristotle's formulation: "One cannot say of something that it is and that it is not in the same respect and at the same time."
3c3
< The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
---
> The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
------
CityBerlin|981228860
4,10c4
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN. 
< 
< 
< ----
< ''The bavarian Capital in this time was Munich, which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT"''
< 
< Munich has ALWAYS been the capital of Bavaria. --WojPob
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
------
GermanY|981228902
25c25
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA. 
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is MunicH (German ''M&uuml;nich,'' which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT."
------
GermanY|981228948
25c25
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is MunicH (German ''M&uuml;nich,'' which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT."
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is MunicH (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT."
------
ReviewRequests|981229017
4d3
< 
6,7c5,7
< 
< Larry was kind enough to add a lot of information from some of his PhiloSophy lectures.  They were added "as is", thus could use some wikification.  See LarrysText.
---
> Larry was kind enough to add a lot of information from some of his PhiloSophy lectures.  They were added "as is", thus could use some wikification.  See LarrysText for discussion of how it should be wikified.
> ----
> In the mere opinion of LarrySanger, the following pages need (as of Feb. 3) serious editing and/or refactoring and/or creation of *Talk or *Discussion pages: AlTruism; GottfriedLeibniz; CommonSense; AppliedEthics; DeconstructionIsm; SoCrates; EthicsVsMorals; BillClinton; LibertarianisM; UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving; FootBall; ConsequentialIsm.
------
WikiPediaProcess|981229094
2a3,4
> Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy.
> ----
43c45
< '''A.'''  I can't answer the question definitively but I can say that you can easily link to images elsewhere.  So, perhaps as a temporary solution, you can always upload, elsewhere, an image, then link to it from WikiPedia.  The wiki programmers must know more, though...
---
> '''A.'''  I can't answer the question definitively but I can say that you can easily link to images elsewhere.  So, perhaps as a temporary solution, you can always upload, elsewhere, an image, then link to it from WikiPedia.  The wiki programmers must know more, though...
------
LibertarianisM|981229296
13a14,16
> 
> ----
> This is a good definition, but the part about equality is misleading.  If the left wants economic equality, there must be political inequality, as the state treats different people differently (different tax rates, for example).  Furthermore, one group, the political elite, must have the power to impose their views on others, while dissenters are deprived of the political power to prevent this.  Thus the distribution of political power is unequal in a left-wing regime.  So the left does not stand for equality, it stand for one type of equality at the expense of others.  The right, as it is being used here, is not concerned with equality _or_ inequality, or any other outcome, but with fair processes.  So to define the issue in terms of more equality vs. less equality is misleading.  But we have a good start for a new page on the right-left spectrum, if someone want to step up and do that. - TimShell
------
RefactoringPolicy|981229327
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''How much and how often should refactoring be done?'''
> 
> View 1.  As often as one sees something incorrect, obviously biased/partisan.  It is better to change a page immediately, when one sees something perceived to be a problem, rather than to discuss changes that need to be made.  Adherents of this view: LarrySanger
> 
> View 2.  Only after a discussion has played out.  It is better to let the original author of a page to make changes to it.  Adherents of this view: 
> 
> '''Should discussion occur on the page itself or instead on a *Talk or *Discussion page?'''
> 
> View 1.  On the page itself.  Adherents of this view:
> 
> View 2.  On a *Talk or *Discussion page, always (or almost always).  Adherents of this view: LarrySanger
> 
> '''What is the purpose of refactoring?'''
> 
> View 1. 
> 
> View 2.
> 
> View 3.
------
ReviewRequests|981229444
7c7
< In the mere opinion of LarrySanger, the following pages need (as of Feb. 3) serious editing and/or refactoring and/or creation of *Talk or *Discussion pages: AlTruism; GottfriedLeibniz; CommonSense; AppliedEthics; DeconstructionIsm; SoCrates; EthicsVsMorals; BillClinton; LibertarianisM; UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving; FootBall; ConsequentialIsm.
---
> In the mere opinion of LarrySanger, the following pages need (as of Feb. 3) serious editing and/or refactoring and/or creation of *Talk or *Discussion pages: AlTruism; GottfriedLeibniz; CommonSense; AppliedEthics; DeconstructionIsm; SoCrates; EthicsVsMorals; BillClinton; LibertarianisM; UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving; FootBall; ConsequentialIsm.  ''Please see RefactoringPolicy.''
------
NeuroN|981229558
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The basic cells of the nervous systems of animals, whose job is to transmit and process signals.  Neurons occur both in nerves and the brain.  The former are mostly for bringing sensory information in and controlling bodily functions; sometimes nerves are hooked up to elicit a response on their own, called a ''reflex'', but more often reactions are decided in the brain.
> 
> An individual neuron has a sort-of-amoeboid cell body, from which extends a long (potentially several metres) projection called the axon, and numerous shorter protoplasmic branches called dendrites.  Hormones called neurotransmitters are received on the dendrites and affect the voltage of the cell, normally around -50 mV thanks to the ion pump.  When it reaches a certain threshold level, there is a dramatic change in the ion pump that causes a electric pulse to travel along the axon.  When it reaches the terminals there, it stimulates them to release other neurotransmitters, which are either applied to another neuron or to some kind of muscle.
------
WikiPediaProcess|981230322
45a46,47
> 
> '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
------
LibertarianisM|981230469
16a17,20
> 
> The moderate right deals with fair processes.  The extreme right (fascism) doesn't deal with any sort of equality at all, and the moderate left deals with fair outcome, which I would say is objectively more equality than that of the moderate right, since people end up being practically equal rather than theoretically equal.  So I stand by that definition.  I think it's a little misleading only in that it seems to imply you can never be too far left, because people have been conditioned to think that any kind of equality is good equality, which isn't true.
> 
> By the way, you are wrong to claim that left-wing economics necessarily implies an unequal distribution of political power.  What about a socialist direct democracy?  Such things are fully possible - Athens leaned that way - and yet it can hardly be said that power is being wielded by an elite, since all decisions are made by the whole citizenry.  And, as I've said, there are such things as ''libertarian socialists'', though I don't know the details of how their state would work. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
NamingConventions|981231497
54c54,62
< ''In most cases this can be codified fairly easily, and so applied without an etymological dictionary.  Usually the letter immediately preceding the first O would get capitalized: GeoMetry, DemoCracy, PhiloSophy, BioLogy.  Words that end in I stems would have the last I capitalized: MarxIsm, PolitIcs, ChristianIty, SkiIng.  Failing those, you could just look for some common stem words: Al-, -Lysis, -Archy, etc.''
---
> ''In most cases this can be codified fairly easily, and so applied without an etymological dictionary.  Usually the letter immediately preceding the first O would get capitalized: GeoMetry, DemoCracy, PhiloSophy, BioLogy.  Words that end in I stems would have the last I capitalized: MarxIsm, PolitIcs, ChristianIty, SkiIng.  Failing those, you could just look for some common stem words: Al-, -Lysis, -Archy, etc.''
> ----
> Various animal articles are coming in, so I'd like to fill in some of the hierarchy thet fit into.  Does anyone have any idea about how groups should be named?  Some possibilities:
> 
> * PhylumPorifera (one difficulty is that not all groups have clear ranks)
> * PoriFera
> * SpongE
> 
> Note also that high-level taxa could get named differently from low-level taxa: KingdomAnimalia, WolF.  Does anyone have any thoughts on how they'd like groups named?
------
FootBall|981232511
37a38,41
> 
> <i>Whoever wrote this deserves a round of applause, it made
> me laugh out load</i>--JimboWales
> 
------
FootBall|981232529
39,40c39,40
< <i>Whoever wrote this deserves a round of applause, it made
< me laugh out load</i>--JimboWales
---
> <em>Whoever wrote this deserves a round of applause, it made
> me laugh out load</em>--JimboWales
------
RefactoringPolicy|981232855
6a7,8
> View 3.  The middle road -- respect for a dialogue _qua_ dialogue should be respected, but at the same time a minor tweak early on can avoid a flame war.  To refactor or not will often depend on the context, and so either rule 1 (change immediately) or rule 2 (wait for the discussion to end) are too extreme.  Adherents of this view: JimboWales
> 
12a15,16
> View 3.  The decision to keep the discussion where it is, or move it to a *Discussion page, is contextual.  Factors involved in the decision include such things as: how long is the discussion likely to continue, is resolution likely, is the discussion particularly flame-likely, etc. -- JimboWales
> 
19c23
< View 3.
---
> View 3.  I propose that there is a long-run and short-run purpose.  The long-run purpose is to turn a discussion into a resource.  The short-run purpose is to channel a discussion in a useful direction, i.e. to help aim it at the future time when it can be a resource. --JimboWales
------
BillClinton|981232978
6a7,8
> During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the GrandJury.
> 
------
CliffordAdams|981233034
3a4,5
> 
> CliffordAdams is a hero to me for helping us with this project, and for his excellent software.  --JimboWales
------
JulianSimon|981233236
11a12,13
> ''I agree.  If this were a collection of polemics, it would be appropriate to let this stand as-is.  But it is not appropriate for an encyclopedia.  An encyclopedia should attempt to stick to something like _consensus opinion_, which may be different from _truth_.  The job of an encyclopedia is to present ideas, not to advocate for them.'' --JimboWales
> 
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981233293
19c19
< Tim, I know you mean well and are trying to provide some decent data on standard of living.  But a good deal of this was clearly selected to lead to a particular impression which it doesn't directly support.  For instance, fewer people have cars in the UK.  However, the UK is a lot smaller than the US, and could quite conceivably have a better system of public transport, so that cars aren't nearly so useful, even as luxuries.  And on the other side of the coin, I suspect that there are many omitted statistics that would go the other way - for instance, how do America's poor compare in education?
---
> TimShell, I know you mean well and are trying to provide some decent data on standard of living.  But a good deal of this was clearly selected to lead to a particular impression which it doesn't directly support.  For instance, fewer people have cars in the UK.  However, the UK is a lot smaller than the US, and could quite conceivably have a better system of public transport, so that cars aren't nearly so useful, even as luxuries.  And on the other side of the coin, I suspect that there are many omitted statistics that would go the other way - for instance, how do America's poor compare in education?
------
RefactoringPolicy|981233605
23a24,29
> 
> ----
> ----
> '''Discussion:'''
> 
> Occasionally a useful middle-ground is to separate the commonly-accepted summary from the discussion.  A good way to do this is to place the summary at top, then use two horizontal lines and a word like '''Discussion:''' before the discussion.  If the discussion grows large or unweildy, it can later be separated into other page(s).  --CliffordAdams
------
RefactoringPolicy|981235385
29a30,32
> ----
>  * Policy policy
> If Wikipedia achieves its potential there will be thousands of people writing and editing articles.  There is no system in place that would allow all of this activity to be monitored by some central authority to insure compliance with various policies.  With this in mind, we should not try now to lay down policies as if the project is easily controlled.  We should assume that policies will emerge from use and experience.  We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be.
------
RefactoringPolicy|981235884
31c31
<  * Policy policy
---
> <b> * Policy policy</b>
------
RefactoringPolicy|981235929
32c32
< If Wikipedia achieves its potential there will be thousands of people writing and editing articles.  There is no system in place that would allow all of this activity to be monitored by some central authority to insure compliance with various policies.  With this in mind, we should not try now to lay down policies as if the project is easily controlled.  We should assume that policies will emerge from use and experience.  We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be.
---
> If Wikipedia achieves its potential there will be thousands of people writing and editing articles.  There is no system in place that would allow all of this activity to be monitored by some central authority to insure compliance with various editorial policies.  With this in mind, we should not try now to lay down policies as if the project is easily controlled.  We should assume that policies will emerge from use and experience.  We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be. - TimShell
------
RefactoringPolicy|981236827
32a33,34
> 
> I don't think this is necessarily so.  Even if policies can't be enforced, making some guidelines and some reason for the guidelines clear to any visitor will undoubtedly influence their writing style.  And, more importantly, people will probably model their contributions to a fair extent after what is already here.  So in this formative period we have a good opportunity to set the course, even though the ship may turn later. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
LibertarianisM|981237083
3c3,4
< You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates.
---
> You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. ''- it also occurs 
> that this should probably be removed.  A party's home page is probably the worst place to find out any objective information about its views.  If this link belongs anywhere, it belongs on a list of American parties.''
20c21
< By the way, you are wrong to claim that left-wing economics necessarily implies an unequal distribution of political power.  What about a socialist direct democracy?  Such things are fully possible - Athens leaned that way - and yet it can hardly be said that power is being wielded by an elite, since all decisions are made by the whole citizenry.  And, as I've said, there are such things as ''libertarian socialists'', though I don't know the details of how their state would work. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> By the way, you are wrong to claim that left-wing economics necessarily implies an unequal distribution of political power.  What about a socialist direct democracy?  Such things are fully possible - Athens leaned that way - and yet it can hardly be said that power is being wielded by an elite, since all decisions are made by the whole citizenry.  And, as I've said, there are such things as ''libertarian socialists'', though I don't know the details of how their state would work. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
LibertarianisM|981237102
3c3
< You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. ''- it also occurs 
---
> You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. - ''it also occurs 
------
LibertarianisM|981237202
3,4c3,4
< You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. - ''it also occurs 
< that this should probably be removed.  A party's home page is probably the worst place to find out any objective information about its views.  If this link belongs anywhere, it belongs on a list of American parties.''
---
> You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. - 
> ''It also occurs to me that this should probably be removed.  A party's home page is probably the worst place to find out any objective information about its views.  If this link belongs anywhere, it belongs on a list of American parties.''
------
LarrySanger|981238747
19a20,28
> ----
> I'm going to treat this page like email, since it probably doesn't belong in the pedia itself.  I found your lecture on TheProblemOfEvil quite enjoyable, and an argument occurred to
> me which I thought I might bounce off of you.
> 
> I suppose I might call it evil relativism.  That is to say, evil is simply any event which lowers one's enjoyment (in the most general sense) - the lower half of our happiness scale.  If we eliminated everything we consider evil - natural as well as man-made, *we* would certainly notice the difference.  But say the temperature still was allowed to vary from 50 degrees F in the winter to 85 degrees F in the summer, and that one being caught outside in winter without a coat was the most unpleasant thing that ever might happen to us.  We would probably never complain (indeed, many of us would relish that rare feeling of goosebumps), but would not our grandchildren consider this the most extreme possible evil?
> 
> If one accepts this argument, that evil is perceived relatively and is part of any effable universe, would this not nullify argument 4?
> 
> -J
------
BillClinton|981239380
9a10,11
> ----
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for beind an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
------
BillClinton|981239409
11c11
< RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for beind an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
---
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
------
SnowBoarding|981241413
5,6d4
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
< ----
8,9c6
< ----
< Advice for everybody (free): don't listen to big ZED.
---
> 
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981241445
66c66,70
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
---
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
> ----
> From SnowBoarding:
> 
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
------
JimboWales|981241676
12a13,15
> 
> Just a question: could you tell me where the WikiPedia server is? 
> My timezone is GMT+1 -- the times on the RecentChanges page are about GMT-8, so I'd go for somewhere on the US West Coast. -- WojPob
------
AsciiArt|981241974
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your QWERTY-keyboard.
> 
> [http://www.pobratyn.com Example of AsciiArt]
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsNathanielTaggart|981243818
1c1
< The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.
---
> The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132 and in /SectioN152.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is /DagnyTaggart's namesake.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981243856
1c1
< The main character in AtlasShrugged.
---
> The main character in AtlasShrugged (also the name of /MrsNathanielTaggart).
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981244083
21a22,37
> ----
> The European stereotype on US Standard living is the following:
> 
> 1. No public healthcare ( ever seen ER w/George Clooney).
> 
> 
> 2. Primitive Social Policy - large number of homeless people (that's probably Hollywood's fault).
> 
> 
> 3. Everyone drives their car to the next Mall - no public transport.
> 
> 
> 4. EVERYONE has a gun and is willing to shoot you at sight.
> 
> 
> PLEASE NOTE: the above is not my view and is NOT intended to offend anybody. I was just trying to give you an impression of what a standard European thinks when asked about the the US Standard of Living. Expressions like the above ''America's poor are well fed'' just make things worse -- it is clearly a biased opinion (Please define poor??? Define "well fed" ??? -- It is humans you're talking about not pigs, see AdolfHitler for more). Please remember this is an open project and it is every one of us that has the chance to change people's views -- please take care when doing so. -- WojPob
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981244668
37c37
< PLEASE NOTE: the above is not my view and is NOT intended to offend anybody. I was just trying to give you an impression of what a standard European thinks when asked about the the US Standard of Living. Expressions like the above ''America's poor are well fed'' just make things worse -- it is clearly a biased opinion (Please define poor??? Define "well fed" ??? -- It is humans you're talking about not pigs, see AdolfHitler for more). Please remember this is an open project and it is every one of us that has the chance to change people's views -- please take care when doing so. -- WojPob
---
> PLEASE NOTE: the above is not my view and is NOT intended to offend anybody. I was just trying to give you an impression of what a standard European thinks when asked about the the US Standard of Living. Expressions like the above ''America's poor are well fed'' just make things worse -- it is clearly a biased opinion (Please define poor??? Define "well fed" ??? Ever seen a homeless person witha microwave and an A/C??? -- It is humans you're talking about not pigs, see AdolfHitler for more). Please remember this is an open project and it is every one of us that has the chance to change people's views -- please take care when doing so. -- WojPob
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981244848
37c37
< PLEASE NOTE: the above is not my view and is NOT intended to offend anybody. I was just trying to give you an impression of what a standard European thinks when asked about the the US Standard of Living. Expressions like the above ''America's poor are well fed'' just make things worse -- it is clearly a biased opinion (Please define poor??? Define "well fed" ??? Ever seen a homeless person witha microwave and an A/C??? -- It is humans you're talking about not pigs, see AdolfHitler for more). Please remember this is an open project and it is every one of us that has the chance to change people's views -- please take care when doing so. -- WojPob
---
> PLEASE NOTE: the above is not my view and is NOT intended to offend anybody. I was just trying to give you an impression of what a standard European thinks when asked about the the US Standard of Living. Expressions like the above ''America's poor are well fed'' just make things worse -- it is clearly a biased opinion (Please define poor??? Define "well fed" ??? Ever seen a homeless person with a microwave and an A/C??? -- It is humans you're talking about not pigs, see AdolfHitler for more). Please remember this is an open project and it is every one of us that has the chance to change people's views -- please take care when doing so. -- WojPob
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981246969
21a22,24
> 
> *Since the contents of this page has nothing to do with JulianSimon it would not be desirable to move it to a JulianSimon subpage.
> 
27d29
< 
30d31
< 
33d33
< 
36d35
< 
37a37,38
> 
> * It would be very difficult to present a complete picture, but we can hopefully move towards that goal.  If you feel the picture is not complete, feel free to add more data to this section.
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981246990
23c23
< *Since the contents of this page has nothing to do with JulianSimon it would not be desirable to move it to a JulianSimon subpage.
---
> *Since the contents of this page have nothing to do with JulianSimon it would not be desirable to move it to a JulianSimon subpage.
------
RioNorteLine|981247492
1,9c1
< A branch of AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
< 
< It is mentioned in:
<   AtlasShrugged111
<   AtlasShrugged114
<   AtlasShrugged132  
< 
< It is alluded to in:
<   AtlasShrugged131
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine
------
SanSebastianLine|981247552
1c1
< A branch of Taggart Transcontinentel that serves the San Sebastian Mines in Mexico.  The SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine
3,6d2
< It is mentioned in:
<   AtlasShrugged114
<   AtlasShrugged131
<   AtlasShrugged132
------
FriendsofGlobalProgress|981247599
1c1
< A social organization that PhilipRearden is associated with.  It is mentioned in AtlasShrugged121.
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/FriendsofGlobalProgress
------
BrakemaN|981247652
1,7c1
< An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
< 
< DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  When she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
---
> Someone who stops a train in an emergency.
------
AyersMusicPublishingCompany|981247695
1,4c1
< Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of HalleysFifthConcerto.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/AyersMusicPublishingCompany
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981247733
38c38,40
< * It would be very difficult to present a complete picture, but we can hopefully move towards that goal.  If you feel the picture is not complete, feel free to add more data to this section.
---
> * It would be very difficult to present a complete picture, but we can hopefully move towards that goal.  If you feel the picture is not complete, feel free to add more data to this section.
> 
> '''A:''' My point is that stats will not do the job. The whole industrialised world has got a problem. -- WojPob
------
AtlasShruggedPlaces|981247746
1,49c1
< Places mentioned in Atlas Shrugged:
< 
< Argentina (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Arizona (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< California (AtlasShrugged121)
< 
< Chicago (AtlasShrugged112)
< 
< Chile (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Cleveland (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
< 
< Colorado (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged114)
< 
< Cheyenne, Wyoming (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< El Paso, Texas (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< Fifth Avenue (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< Hudson River (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< Louisiana (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Mexico, People's State of (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Middle West (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Minnesota (AtlasShrugged121)
< 
< New Mexico (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< New York (AtlasShrugged111, AtlasShrugged113, AtlasShrugged114)
< 
< Ohio (AtlasShrugged112, AtlasShrugged114)
< 
< Philadelphia (AtlasShrugged114, AtlasShrugged121)
< 
< Redding (Connecticut?) (AtlasShrugged121)
< 
< San Francisco (AtlasShrugged111)
< 
< United States (AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Washington (AtlasShrugged121, AtlasShrugged131, AtlasShrugged132)
< 
< Wilmington (Delaware?) (AtlasShrugged121)
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Places
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981248062
24a25,26
> The contents of the page are more or less derived from what statistics Simon decided to publish, and were selected to support his conclusion.  Since the statistics don't actually have much reflection on anyone's living conditions (see my and Woj's comments below) I think it has more to do with him than with anything else.
> 
------
WojPob|981248299
6,9d5
< 
< ''Brief question - I couldn't help but notice on the (very nice) stuff you put up about Polish and other Slavic tongues, that you say they separated out around 3000 BC (I checked on Britannica and it agrees with you, just in case).  However most of the source's I've seen have the various other IndoEuropean groups separate out a millenium later, e.g. Celtic, Greek.  Would you happen to know why these are so different?''
< 
< ''Some searching finds that there are (as should be expected) a bunch of different chronologies for the separation of Indo-European languages.  First of all, the Europeans started migrating into Europe at least as early as 2500-2000 BC, which was earlier than I had thought (not an expert at all).  The dialects separate out much earlier than that, though the slavs supposedly aren't discernable as a distinct group until about 1400 BC.  This probably refers to their separation out from the baltic peoples.  I'll do some more reading and fix up anything I happened to say that was wrong. --JoshuaGrosse''
------
UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving|981248550
1,48d0
< The nation with the highest living standard in human history.
< 
< ''Whoa, that's pretty darn far from a fact.  The UN has been picking Canada, although its reasons are probably political, and as far as the poor are concerned it's probably some socialist country like Sweden.  I don't actually know.  I just know that you can't go around making such statements as if they aren't opinions.''
< 
< - I looked that up recently and report from memory, but the details should be available in any almanac.   - Tim
< 
< ----
< 
< I assume you are referring to the claim about the standard of living in the United States.  I would politely take issue with the notion that one can simply look up a "fact" like that in an almanac.
< 
< As a counterpoint, it is worth pointing out that Canada has been ranked number one on the United Nations Human Development Index for about six years running.  I would not claim that this means that ''Canada'' has the highest standard of living in the world, however.
< ----
< ''LarrySanger edited the above two paragraphs, doing his part to try to keep this wiki civil.  :-)''
< ----
< Yes, I believe one can look up per capita income in an almanac. - Tim
< 
< Standard of living is per capita income?  I think that's even further from a fact...at least, you would be hard-pressed to defend it.  If I was paid well, but had to work 20 hours a day in a poorly ventilated cardboard tube and eat rice-cakes, would I have a high standard of living?
< ----
< ''LarrySanger has a sneakin' suspicion that this dispute has been a SemanticDispute from the beginning.''
< 
< Well, when I say "far from a fact", I don't mean false...just not true. :)
< 
< ''LarrySanger would like to point out that, according to TheLawOfNoncontradiction, if it ain't true, it's false.''
< 
< That's not the law of non-contradiction, that's TertiumNonDatur.  And it doesn't always hold.  For instance, the sentence x+3=4 is neither true nor false until we assign a value to x.  That's the very essence of semantics.
< 
< When you say "that" in "That's not the law of non-contradiction," what are you referring to?  See TheLawOfNoncontradiction for text relevant to your second claim; obviously, ''propositions'' are required for the law to apply, not propositional functions. -- Oh, I see, you're making the point that TheLawOfNoncontradiction is different from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.  Fair play, if you mean to say that Tim's claim isn't, in fact, a proposition. -- There, I've supplied brief entries explaining these terms to the uninitiated. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Income is the most commonly used measure of standard of living.  An alternative measure is comsumption, closely related to income but adjusted for taxaxtion.
< 
< Consumption per capita by nation, 1985, as a percentage of US total:
< 
<  United States: 100
<  West Germany: 70
<  France: 70
<  Italy: 65
<  Japan: 65
<  United Kingdom: 65
<  Austria: 60
<  Finland: 60
<  Soviet Union: 30
< 
< Figures are rounded off but accurate.  Data first published by A. Bergson, "The USSR Before the Fall: How Poor and Why," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5:4 (Fall 1991), p. 29-44, 31.  Reprinted in JulianSimon's 'The State of Humanity'.
< 
< ----
< 
< I propose the following for this page.  As I understand it, this page is a subpage under 'UnitedStates', and so it should be about the standard of living of the UnitedStates.
< 
53,55d4
< 
< I think this is a thoughtful way to write about the issues, rather than to simply argue about them. It is possible to achieve balance.  --JimboWales
< 
------
LibertarianisM|981249379
1,21c1
< Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be is free to do anything he/she wants, so long as he/she do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  Libertarians emphasize that human relationships can be either voluntary or involuntary, and that they <i>should</i> be voluntary.  In effect this is a claim that human relationships should not be characterized by violence or deception.
< 
< You can learn more at http://www.lp.org, the home page of the LibertarianParty of the UnitedStates. - 
< ''It also occurs to me that this should probably be removed.  A party's home page is probably the worst place to find out any objective information about its views.  If this link belongs anywhere, it belongs on a list of American parties.''
< 
< ''Also note that libertarianism is not strictly a right wing ideology; formal anarchism is apparently referred to as Libertarian Socialism.''
< 
< A libertarian is even likely to reject the legitimacy of the right/left dichotomy.  The conflict between right and left is seen to be, in essence, a dispute over the particular form in which the state will violate individual rights.  The libertarian believes the state should not violate individual rights in any form, and so opposes the right and left equally.
< 
< ''Libertarians certainly believe that the state shouldn't violate individual rights, but that doesn't mean they don't fall on a political spectrum.  Things aren't nearly as simple as state vs non-state; there's the mob, the aristocracy, and the private sector to be considered, and different kinds of libertarian have different opinions about them.  The LP of the US falls clearly into the right wing category.''
< 
<  - I think a definition of 'right-wing' is necessary if you are going to make that claim.
< 
< ''Fair enough.  Left-wing means belief in more equality and right-wing in less - not meant disparagingly, since to much equality is a bad thing too (HarrisonBergeron).  In any case, this puts people who believe in fair process to the right of people who believe in fair outcome.  And, as it happens, this is what a free market is; thus economically at least, the LP is on the right.  This may not be the best definition of left-right, but it sums up what most people mean by the terms.''
< 
< ----
< This is a good definition, but the part about equality is misleading.  If the left wants economic equality, there must be political inequality, as the state treats different people differently (different tax rates, for example).  Furthermore, one group, the political elite, must have the power to impose their views on others, while dissenters are deprived of the political power to prevent this.  Thus the distribution of political power is unequal in a left-wing regime.  So the left does not stand for equality, it stand for one type of equality at the expense of others.  The right, as it is being used here, is not concerned with equality _or_ inequality, or any other outcome, but with fair processes.  So to define the issue in terms of more equality vs. less equality is misleading.  But we have a good start for a new page on the right-left spectrum, if someone want to step up and do that. - TimShell
< 
< The moderate right deals with fair processes.  The extreme right (fascism) doesn't deal with any sort of equality at all, and the moderate left deals with fair outcome, which I would say is objectively more equality than that of the moderate right, since people end up being practically equal rather than theoretically equal.  So I stand by that definition.  I think it's a little misleading only in that it seems to imply you can never be too far left, because people have been conditioned to think that any kind of equality is good equality, which isn't true.
< 
< By the way, you are wrong to claim that left-wing economics necessarily implies an unequal distribution of political power.  What about a socialist direct democracy?  Such things are fully possible - Athens leaned that way - and yet it can hardly be said that power is being wielded by an elite, since all decisions are made by the whole citizenry.  And, as I've said, there are such things as ''libertarian socialists'', though I don't know the details of how their state would work. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  There are various different strains of libertarianism, depending on what exactly they consider an individual's rights to be, that vary from the far right to the far left across the PoliticalSpectrum.
------
AnarchY|981249544
5c5
< The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
---
> The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
7c7
< The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
---
> The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
------
AustriA|981250231
11a12,14
> 
> ---- 
> The leader of the fpoe, the party being in the current coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. 
------
AustriA|981250647
14a15,17
> ---- 
> 
> Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment.
------
AustriA|981250936
15d14
< ---- 
17c16,17
< Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment.
---
> 
> Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment -- WojPob
------
AustriA|981251131
14c14
< The leader of the fpoe, the party being in the current coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. 
---
> The leader of the fpoe, the party being in the current coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. Please  do something. 
------
AustriA|981251310
14c14
< The leader of the fpoe, the party being in the current coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. Please  do something. 
---
> The leader of the fpoe, the party, which is a member of the coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. Please  do something. 
------
HomelessnesS|981255267
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Homelessness describes a condition in which a person does not have a permanent place of residence.
> 
> In the UnitedStates in the 1980s, homelessness became an important political topic and is widely assumed to have risen dramatically at this time.  However, it is very difficult to prove this assumption, because data for previous years is almost completely non-existent.  It is not certain to what extent this new focus on homelessness represents an increase in the extent of the problem, or an increase in public awareness of a condition that had always existed without comment.
> 
> Attempts to measure homelessness are often saddled with difficulties of ascertainment, definition, and methodology.  There is no obvious direct way to count people who are defined as being 'not in a home'.  Indirect methods, such as counting people who sleep in shelters or who eat at soup kitchens, provide estimates that can vary widely in degree of accuracy.  Additionally, the definition of homelessness can be broadened to include, for example, a man who sleeps on a friend's couch until he finds a place of his own.  Methodological questions such as, should a person who is homeless just one night in the year be included in the annual total, can also cloud the issue.
> 
> There are numerous possible causes of homelessness.  Some people claim the problem is due to inadequate social services such as public housing.  Some studies suggest rent control and other housing regulations create homelessness by reducing the supply of housing.  Social changes, such as the movement to recognize the rights of those considered mentally ill, could lead to increased homelessness, as such people can no longer be arbitrarily rounded up and dumped into mental hospitals.  Such a change occured in the United States in the early 1980s, where it is now estimated that one-third of homeless persons have some form of mental illness.  Substance abuse may be a cause as well - an estimated other third of America's homeless have substance abuse problems.
> 
> Traditionally single men have constituted the overwhelming majority of the homeless.  In the 1980s there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain parts of the United States (notably New York City).  Most homeless families consist of an unmarried mother and children.
> 
------
JulianSimon|981258199
9,17d8
< ----
< ''The following statements are of opinion, not fact, and should really be dropped.  Simon's works are controversial and so should not be proclaimed factual.  His works may be creative, and even genius, but so were those of Marx, and most people disagree with those - or show bitter hostilities to them, if you prefer to use the term.''
< 
< ''I agree.  If this were a collection of polemics, it would be appropriate to let this stand as-is.  But it is not appropriate for an encyclopedia.  An encyclopedia should attempt to stick to something like _consensus opinion_, which may be different from _truth_.  The job of an encyclopedia is to present ideas, not to advocate for them.'' --JimboWales
< 
< This challenge rests on the evidence. The data to date do not support the arguments of the doomsayers. On the contrary, the trends tend in a direction opposite of what they predict. 
< 
< The theory Simon developed to account for this is a textbook example of truly creative thinking. He cut across the grain of accepted wisdom to produce a strikingly original interpretation of the facts. In this and in other works he exhibits many of t hose characteristics normally associated with genius (not the least of which is a tendency to incite bitter hostility amongst intellectual mediocrities). 
< 
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|981259339
3a4,10
> 
> ----
> However, see [ftp://www.phil.mq.edu.au/pub/grestall/lnclem.pdf] for a paper (in PDF format) on "paraconsistent" logics and non-contradiction:
> 
> :Abstract: There is widespread agreement that the law of non-contradiction is an important logical principle. There is less agreement on exactly what the law amounts to. This unclarity is brought to light by the emergence of paraconsistent logics in which contradictions are tolerated (in the sense that not everything need follow from a contradiction, and that there are "worlds" in which contradictions are true) but in which the statement [not (A and not-A)] (it is not the case that A and not-A) is still provable.  This paper attempts to clarify the connection between different readings of the law of non-contradiction, the duality between the law of non-contradiction and the law of the excluded middle, and connections with logical consequence in general.
> 
> ...and [http://andstuff.org/NonContradiction] for more discussion of this "law".
------
LarrySanger|981271662
28c28,30
< -J
---
> -J
> ----
> It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- LarrySanger
------
BrakemaN|981271734
1c1,7
< Someone who stops a train in an emergency.
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
> 
> DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  When she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
------
BrakemaN|981272022
1c1
< An unnamed brakeman working on the TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
---
> Someone who stops a train in an emergency.
3,7c3
< DagnyTaggart hears BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  When she asks him what piece it's from, he says HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
---
> (Perhaps you wanted to see AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN.)
------
RefactoringPolicy|981273473
7c7,10
< View 3.  The middle road -- respect for a dialogue _qua_ dialogue should be respected, but at the same time a minor tweak early on can avoid a flame war.  To refactor or not will often depend on the context, and so either rule 1 (change immediately) or rule 2 (wait for the discussion to end) are too extreme.  Adherents of this view: JimboWales
---
> View 3.  The middle road -- respect for a dialogue ''qua'' dialogue should be respected, but at the same time a minor tweak early on can avoid a flame war.  To refactor or not will often depend on the context, and so either rule 1 (change immediately) or rule 2 (wait for the discussion to end) are too extreme.  Adherents of this view: JimboWales
> ----
> I understand your point, Jimbo, but mainly what I'm concerned about is that people will start treating WikiPedia as yet another discussion forum, rather than an encyclopedia.  As I see it--and you can feel free to disagree and act however you please, this being a wiki after all--all that emotional energy that goes into hashing through partisan and other issues could much more easily be channelled toward improving articles.  The purpose of the wiki, as I see it, is--well, it's whatever people make it--but what I'd like it to be is the creation of good encyclopedia articles.  Discussing things is ''usually'' aimed at changing people's minds.  But what's the point of doing that on the wiki (except some ancillary social reason)?  To improve articles, presumably.  But what's stopping us from just going right in and improving them?  Why engage in the discussion?  You'd have to have a good reason, I think.  So just go in and make the changes, I say.  The article author can always go in and look at your changes and decide to change it back, or, if he's reasonable, just make sure that the views on the table are fairly presented. -- LarrySanger
> ----
15a19,21
> ----
> There's an excellent reason for ''WikiPedia'' in particular to encourage the practice of moving discussions to separate pages: the pages are supposed to be encyclopedia articles, not discussions.  What contextual factors would outweigh this?  Sure, there might be some.  Can I have an example, though? -- LarrySanger
> ----
19c25
< View 1. 
---
> View 1.  There is one main purpose to refactoring and editing pages in general, and that is to create good encyclopedia articles.  Adherents: LarrySanger
23c29
< View 3.  I propose that there is a long-run and short-run purpose.  The long-run purpose is to turn a discussion into a resource.  The short-run purpose is to channel a discussion in a useful direction, i.e. to help aim it at the future time when it can be a resource. --JimboWales
---
> View 3.  I propose that there is a long-run and short-run purpose.  The long-run purpose is to turn a discussion into a resource.  The short-run purpose is to channel a discussion in a useful direction, i.e. to help aim it at the future time when it can be a resource.  Adherents: JimboWales
31,34c37
< <b> * Policy policy</b>
< If Wikipedia achieves its potential there will be thousands of people writing and editing articles.  There is no system in place that would allow all of this activity to be monitored by some central authority to insure compliance with various editorial policies.  With this in mind, we should not try now to lay down policies as if the project is easily controlled.  We should assume that policies will emerge from use and experience.  We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be. - TimShell
< 
< I don't think this is necessarily so.  Even if policies can't be enforced, making some guidelines and some reason for the guidelines clear to any visitor will undoubtedly influence their writing style.  And, more importantly, people will probably model their contributions to a fair extent after what is already here.  So in this formative period we have a good opportunity to set the course, even though the ship may turn later. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> My main reason for opposing this habit, and advocating that people move discussion to discussion pages, is that WikiPedia articles are supposed to be encyclopedia articles (right?), and encyclopedia articles don't have discussion right there on the page itself.  The effect of having the discussion right there on the page itself makes it seem as though the discussion is just as important (an end in itself, as it were) as the article, which it most ''certainly'' is not, in my opinion. -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaProcess|981273493
3c3
< Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy.
---
> Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy and PolicyPolicy.
------
PolicyPolicy|981273504
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b> * Policy policy</b>
> If Wikipedia achieves its potential there will be thousands of people writing and editing articles.  There is no system in place that would allow all of this activity to be monitored by some central authority to insure compliance with various editorial policies.  With this in mind, we should not try now to lay down policies as if the project is easily controlled.  We should assume that policies will emerge from use and experience.  We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be. - TimShell
> 
> I don't think this is necessarily so.  Even if policies can't be enforced, making some guidelines and some reason for the guidelines clear to any visitor will undoubtedly influence their writing style.  And, more importantly, people will probably model their contributions to a fair extent after what is already here.  So in this formative period we have a good opportunity to set the course, even though the ship may turn later. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> Good question.  But I'd agree with Joshua.  Though I think you're right in many cases, Tim--experience is the best guide.  Surely the case of NuPedia shows that the best policy is discovered through a combination of "a priori" policy-setting in the beginning, to be modified later in light of experience. -- LarrySanger
------
RefactoringPolicy|981273535
37c37,39
< My main reason for opposing this habit, and advocating that people move discussion to discussion pages, is that WikiPedia articles are supposed to be encyclopedia articles (right?), and encyclopedia articles don't have discussion right there on the page itself.  The effect of having the discussion right there on the page itself makes it seem as though the discussion is just as important (an end in itself, as it were) as the article, which it most ''certainly'' is not, in my opinion. -- LarrySanger
---
> My main reason for opposing this habit, and advocating that people move discussion to discussion pages, is that WikiPedia articles are supposed to be encyclopedia articles (right?), and encyclopedia articles don't have discussion right there on the page itself.  The effect of having the discussion right there on the page itself makes it seem as though the discussion is just as important (an end in itself, as it were) as the article, which it most ''certainly'' is not, in my opinion. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> ''See also PolicyPolicy.''
------
PhysicalEvent|981273795
1c1
< ''Physical events'' are events that occur in the physical world, including the brain and other parts of the human body.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  These are to be distinguished from MentalEvents.
---
> ''Physical events'' are events that occur in the physical world, including the brain and other parts of the human body.  Something that happens in the brain is a physical event.  These are to be distinguished from MentalEvent""s.
------
BrainEvent|981273823
1c1
< Anything that happens in the brain is a ''brain event.''  While clearly a kind of PhysicalEvent, some philosophers, when they discuss TheMindBodyProblem, argue that ''some'' (certainly not all) brain events are also MentalEvents.
---
> Anything that happens in the brain is a ''brain event.''  While clearly a kind of PhysicalEvent, some philosophers, when they discuss TheMindBodyProblem, argue that ''some'' (certainly not all) brain events are also MentalEvent""s.
------
AtlasShrugged|981274482
13c13
< Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, or television.
---
> Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, or television.
------
AtlasShrugged|981274738
30a31
> * /TopicsOfNote
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981274867
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Crime
> 
> * Lying
> The sympathetic characters of /AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
> # In
------
TaoTehChing|981274892
3,9d2
< COMMENT: Not according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What
< is your source for the statement that the existence of
< Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching
< is not the work of one man is generally accepted.
< 
< ''I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and '''then''' you could discuss the problem).  Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger''
< 
22a16,22
> ----
> COMMENT: The historical existance of Lao Tzu in unconfirmed according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What is your source for the statement that the existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching is not the work of one man is generally accepted. 
> ----
> 
> I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and then you could discuss the problem). Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger 
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981275211
2a3,4
> Common street crime is conspicuously absent in /AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
> 
5c7,10
< # In
---
> 
> # In /SectioN112 /BrakemaN tells /DagnyTaggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
> # In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
> # In /SectioN151 we learn /DagnyTaggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that /FranciscoDAnconia had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
------
JulianSimon|981275688
3c3
< He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration. 
---
> He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by LibertarianS.
5c5
< His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive, fact-heavy assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
---
> His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN145|981275893
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, /JamesTaggart storms into /DagnyTaggart's office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over Dagny.  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting of the /NationalAllianceofRailroads and the office of /DagnyTaggart.
> 
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors 
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /DanConway
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /OrrenBoyle
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors|981275926
9c9,10
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN145
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981275951
11a12
>  /SectioN145
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981275982
3a4
>  /DanConway
------
AtlasShrugged/DanConway|981276315
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the /AntiDogEatDogRule is used to drive his business out of /Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
> 
> Don Conway appears in:
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981276434
1c1
< The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango regulated out of business.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by /DanConway that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
7c7
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981276465
7a8,9
>  /SectioN145
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|981276497
5c5,6
<  - /SectioN114
---
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN145
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalAllianceofRailroads|981276664
1c1
< An industry group that uses political pull to get its way.  /OrrenBoyle has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support legislation that will help ruin a competitor of /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good.  /OrrenBoyle has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the /AntiDogEatDogRule that uses a string of pretenses to drive the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
4a5
>  /SectioN145
------
AtlasShrugged/AntiDogEatDogRule|981276903
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for /JamesTaggart, with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
------
TaoTehChing|981278081
1c1
< The Tao Teh Ching is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow named Lao Tzu, who was a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of that time.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed.
---
> The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his given name was Li Erh.  Recent archeological discovery of Chines scrolls from 100-150 BC reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus undermining support for modern theories that the work was contributed to and changed by several authors over the centuries.
------
TaoTehChing|981278134
1c1
< The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his given name was Li Erh.  Recent archeological discovery of Chines scrolls from 100-150 BC reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus undermining support for modern theories that the work was contributed to and changed by several authors over the centuries.
---
> The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his given name was Li Erh.  Recent archeological discovery of Chinese scrolls from 100-150 BC reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus undermining support for modern theories that the work was contributed to and changed by several authors over the centuries.
------
AtlasShrugged|981278238
5c5
< The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the MarxisT LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
---
> The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981279343
0a1,3
> * Atlas
> According to /AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of us being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981279369
2c2
< According to /AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of us being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
---
> As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of us being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981279398
2c2
< As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of us being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
---
> As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
------
AtlasShrugged|981279489
13c13
< Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, or television.
---
> Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
------
AtlasShrugged/Philadelphia|981279579
5,6c5,6
<  - /SectioN114 - /DagnyTaggart says she is going to Philadelphia to meet /HankRearden.
<  - /SectioN121
---
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/Arizona|981279623
1c1
< Arizona is a state where the /PhoneixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
> Arizona is a state where the /PhoenixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
------
KingdomAnimalia|981280775
1c1
< ''I'd like to start filling in some of the phyla, so that new animals can be filed into a tree rather than a flat list.  However, I'm not entirely sure I like the naming system I originally came up with.  Does anyone have an opinion on whether subcategories should be things like PhylumPorifera, PoriFera or SpongE?''
---
> '''Introduction'''
3c3
< '''Characteristics of Animals'''
---
> '''Development and evolution'''
5c5
< Animals are all multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes.  The adults are all diploids and oogamous, ie there is a large non-motile female gamete and a tiny male gamete, which has a characteristic posterior flagellum.  The one finds the other and they fuse to form a zygote, which divides to form a hollow sphere of cells called a ''blastula.''
---
> Adult animals are typically diploids, producing small motile sperm and large non-motile eggs.  In all forms the fertilized zygote intially divides to form a hollow sphere called a ''blastula''.  This then undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  Blastulae are probably representative of the sort of colonies animals evolved from; similar forms occur among other flagellates, e.g. ''Volvox''.  However none of these other groups really ever progressed further, and large multicellular forms tend to develop by progressive growth instead.
7c7
< Other groups have reached this level of organization, eg the green alga ''Volvox.''  But animals have been able to develop much further, thanks to the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being rigidly bound by cell walls, they are linked by much more elastic septate junctions, composing an extracellular matrix including the unique structural protein collagen.  This forms a framework in which cells can be moved about, allowing for much more complicated differentiation.
---
> What makes animals different?  The answer lies in the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being simply stuck together or held in place by thick walls, animal cells are linked by septate junctions, composed mainly of elastic proteins - collagen is characteristic - that make up the extracellular matrix.  Sometimes this is calcified to form shells, bones, or spicules, but otherwise it's fairly flexible and can serve as a framework, upon which cells can move about and be reorganized.
9c9,13
< The result of this flexibility is an incredible diversity of animal forms.  Except for a few phyla, most notably the sponges, all animals are metazoans: the body is composed of three separate layers (the endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) with distinct tissues, including muscles and nerves, and is often separated out to form organs.  Most metazoans have a clear adult form, as compared with other multicellular organisms that usually just grow.
---
> The animals other than the sponges, and a few problematic phyla, form a clear subgroup called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates and cells migrate or pinch into the interior.  The resulting form is called a ''gastrula'' and has a clear digestive tract, with three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
> 
> The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the Precambrian.  These are called Vendians and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
> 
> '''Systematics and ecology'''
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981304276
127c127,129
< Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
---
> Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
> ----
> Any of the ideas of Jeff Duntemann's Virtual Encyclopedia been concisdered here? I haven't consumed the whole wikipedia yet, so I don't know if maybe even Jeff's 1995 original proposition was the progenitor of this whole structure, kind of a global napsterwiki. http://dev-developer.earthweb.com/visualdev/9909_vol10/57duntemann.html -- JerryMuelver
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981304492
129c129
< Any of the ideas of Jeff Duntemann's Virtual Encyclopedia been concisdered here? I haven't consumed the whole wikipedia yet, so I don't know if maybe even Jeff's 1995 original proposition was the progenitor of this whole structure, kind of a global napsterwiki. http://dev-developer.earthweb.com/visualdev/9909_vol10/57duntemann.html -- JerryMuelver
---
> Any of the ideas of Jeff Duntemann's Virtual Encyclopedia been considered here? I haven't consumed the whole wikipedia yet, so I don't know if maybe even Jeff's 1995 original proposition was the progenitor of this whole structure, kind of a global napsterwiki. http://dev-developer.earthweb.com/visualdev/9909_vol10/57duntemann.html -- JerryMuelver
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|981307385
129a130,131
> ----
> Interesting article--but from skimming it rather quickly, it looks like more of a proposal for [http://www.dmoz.org dmoz.org] rather than for WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaProcess|981307720
3c3
< Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy and PolicyPolicy.
---
> Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy and PolicyPolicy and RulesToConsider.
------
RulesToConsider|981308293
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Since this is a wiki, there are no editors.  We must rely on developing our own good habits and occasionally taking a bit of time to correct the results of someone else's bad habits.  But it might help to specifically enunciate particularly rules that ''some'' of us wish we'd make an effort to follow.  So here's a page containing such rules.  Two suggested features of this page are: add your name to a list of the rule's "supporters" to get an idea of how strongly WikiPedian""s support a rule, and "[nameofrule]Debate" pages where we can talk about the merits of the proposed rule.  (The latter will help keep this page nice and clean for those people who are mainly interested in the rules themselves.)
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Explain jargon:''' It would be great if you would hyperlink all jargon (area-specific terminology that someone who might happen not to have had a college course in your subject might not understand) and explain it, and then explain all the jargon you use to explain ''that,'' until you've reached terms that ordinary educated people can understand.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
> 
> ''See ExplainJargonDebate''
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Avoid bias:''' Since this is an encyclopedia, after a fashion, it would be best if you represented your mere opinions either (1) not at all, (2) on *Debate, *Talk, or *Discussion pages linked from the bottom of the page that you're tempted to grace, or (3) represented in a fact-stating fashion, i.e., which attributes a particular opinion to a particular person or group, rather than asserting the opinion as fact.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
> 
> ''See AvoidBiasDebate''
------
WikiPediaProcess|981308552
3c3,7
< Let's talk about RefactoringPolicy and PolicyPolicy and RulesToConsider.
---
> '''Policy issues that have their own pages'''
> * PolicyPolicy
> * RefactoringPolicy
> * NamingConventions
> * RulesToConsider
4a9,11
> ----
> '''Unclassified, random, but interesting WikiPediaProcess discussion:
> 
8,11d14
< ----
< I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it, and then put it on the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.  It's possible that this makes me a [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiReductionists "wiki reductionist."] -- LarrySanger
< ----
< ''See discussion on NamingConventions.''
------
JerryMuelver|981308586
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm an interloper, a newly-converted wiki fan, exploring the applications and formats of collaborative thinking. Current projects: 
> *http://northernvibes.com -- Community project experiment for Northern Wisconsin
> *http://unumondo.com -- Esperanto
> * and soon http://allmyfaqs.com -- An experimental notion to distill the best of the answers to newbie questions in all fields.
> 
------
RulesToConsider|981308639
17c17,25
< ''See AvoidBiasDebate''
---
> ''See AvoidBiasDebate''
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Delete patent nonsense:''' I propose that we delete PatentNonsense when we run across it, and then put it on the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.  The problem with this is that people disagree about what is PatentNonsense.  So be careful, anyway.  It's possible that this makes me a [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiReductionists "wiki reductionist."]
> 
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
> 
> ''See DeletePatentNonsenseDebate''
------
NamingConventions|981308859
47a48,51
> A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
> 
> I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
> ----
62c66
< Note also that high-level taxa could get named differently from low-level taxa: KingdomAnimalia, WolF.  Does anyone have any thoughts on how they'd like groups named?
---
> Note also that high-level taxa could get named differently from low-level taxa: KingdomAnimalia, WolF.  Does anyone have any thoughts on how they'd like groups named?
------
RulesToConsider|981308909
7c7
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
15c15
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
23c23
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
25c25
< ''See DeletePatentNonsenseDebate''
---
> ''See DeletePatentNonsenseDebate''
------
WikiPediaProcess|981308992
6a7
> * LinkingToExternalImages
10c11
< '''Unclassified, random, but interesting WikiPediaProcess discussion:
---
> '''Unclassified, random, but interesting WikiPediaProcess discussion:'''
16,25d16
< A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
< 
< I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
< ----
< It is possible to link to images simply by typing in the URL of the image.  This was done, for example, on the FidDle page.  But the image exists somewhere outside of WikiPedia.  Is this wrong?  Is a "link back" to the image source adequate compensation, or not?  What do you think?
< ----
< Interesting question.  I linked an article (a pretty long one) in HelL, without which my couple of paragraphs would be basically meaningless.  Obviously, if the original author has placed it on the web, he intends for it to be widely viewed and circulated - but what if he changes domains or drops off the web altogether?  Then what of my link?  The substance of my paragraphs will be as naught with the loss of that material.  If I had my druthers, I'd include the whole article in the body of my notes, with a link-back.  However, I am leery of violating standards of fair use under copyright law, and so I don't.  Who has a definitive answer on this?
< ----
< I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
< ----
27,32d17
< ----
< What's to stop the BadGuyS(TM) from deleting accurate stuff and replacing it with PatentNonsense?  This is possible, but we have ways of avoiding DisRuption.  See WikiPediaFaq for more information.
< ----
< So, Larry, you DO want chaos on a website?  Do you think it will become self organising, or will it get hit by multiple failure syndrome?
< 
< LarrySanger answers: I think it will be self-organizing.  See [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].  But in the case of WikiPedia, I dunno!  Guess we'll see!  (I suggest you remove this question and answer to WikiPediaFaq.)
------
LinkingToExternalImages|981309006
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is possible to link to images simply by typing in the URL of the image.  This was done, for example, on the FidDle page.  But the image exists somewhere outside of WikiPedia.  Is this wrong?  Is a "link back" to the image source adequate compensation, or not?  What do you think?
> ----
> Interesting question.  I linked an article (a pretty long one) in HelL, without which my couple of paragraphs would be basically meaningless.  Obviously, if the original author has placed it on the web, he intends for it to be widely viewed and circulated - but what if he changes domains or drops off the web altogether?  Then what of my link?  The substance of my paragraphs will be as naught with the loss of that material.  If I had my druthers, I'd include the whole article in the body of my notes, with a link-back.  However, I am leery of violating standards of fair use under copyright law, and so I don't.  Who has a definitive answer on this?
> ----
> I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
------
GNUStufF|981309128
9a10,11
> ----
> Is there any link between WikiPedia/NuPedia and the announced GNUPedia project? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
10a13,15
> WikiPedia fulfils many of the principles (such as freedom from closed editorial controls) advocated by the GNUPedia project, however it is not directly derived from that project.  Note that GNUPedia has changed its name and focus; it is now known as "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia".  It is currently focused more on the development of new encyclopedia software than on actively gathering articles, however because of the common licensing approach taken by Nupedia and Wikipedia, articles posted here can be used in the GNE software when it eventually becomes available for public use, and/or can be submitted to Nupedia for formal peer review and inclusion in that project.  GNE is accepting article submissions, but is asking for some time to finish their software before displaying them publically.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
> See also WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia.
------
WikiPediaProcess|981309222
20,23d19
< ----
< You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< These questions should go in the WikiPediaFaq, but actually they've already been answered.  Second question removed to the WikiPediaFaq.
25,27c21
< Is there any link between WikiPedia/NuPedia and the announced GNUPedia project? -- Torsten Wöllert (tor.sten@internet.lu)
< 
< See WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia and GNUStufF.
---
> You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- LarrySanger
29,31c23
< WikiPedia fulfils many of the principles (such as freedom from closed editorial controls) advocated by the GNUPedia project, however it is not directly derived from that project.  Note that GNUPedia has changed its name and focus; it is now known as "GNE is Not an Encyclopedia".  It is currently focused more on the development of new encyclopedia software than on actively gathering articles, however because of the common licensing approach taken by Nupedia and Wikipedia, articles posted here can be used in the GNE software when it eventually becomes available for public use, and/or can be submitted to Nupedia for formal peer review and inclusion in that project.  GNE is accepting article submissions, but is asking for some time to finish their software before displaying them publically.  -- BryceHarrington----
< '''Q'''. For the Math articles there is a crying need to have more symbols, like the Greek alphabet, Integral and Summation symbols, infinity, and more, as well as the capability to 
< show graphs, depict figures, and much more. Are there any tools to do this, other than linking to a another web page? RoseParks
---
> '''Q'''. For the Math articles there is a crying need to have more symbols, like the Greek alphabet, Integral and Summation symbols, infinity, and more, as well as the capability to show graphs, depict figures, and much more. Are there any tools to do this, other than linking to a another web page? RoseParks
35c27
< '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
---
> '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
------
RulesToConsider|981309339
2a3,4
> See also NamingConventions and RefactoringPolicy.
> 
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981310464
3,9c3
< It’s possible to do a great deal of philosophy without talking about human beings at all.  We can talk about the existence of physical objects, space and time, the problem of substance, the problem of universals, change and identity, what numbers are, and a great many other topics without having to discuss what human beings are.  And we could, without talking about human beings, explore an area which is important, but which I haven’t even mentioned until now, namely the philosophy of biology.  The philosophy of biology looks for a definition of "life," in the sense of being alive, and tries to come to grips with some of the fundamental properties of living beings, such as proper functioning.  Now, I think it’s very useful to regard human beings as, first and foremost, <i>living</i> beings with a certain number of natural systems which have their proper functioning.  We have a respiratory system, for example the proper functioning of which allows our bodies to get the oxygen we need in order to survive.  Similarly with our circulatory system, or digestive system, and so forth.
< 
< Well, the nervous system, including our brain and nerves is, of course, a natural system just like our respiratory system, with a proper function (or rather, a whole very complex set of proper functions).  Our nervous system is incredibly complex and highly developed.  In fact it is so highly developed that many people think that the mind is something quite over and above the mere human brain and nervous system.  But <i>is</i> the mind really something quite over and above the brain and nervous system?  Well, in this chapter, we’re going to discuss that question.
< 
< As I said, it is possible to do a lot of philosophy without talking about human beings.  But probably <i>most</i> of philosophy <i>does</i> in some way depend on questions about human nature and the human situation.  And the human mind is of course fundamental to human nature.  So, a great deal of the rest of philosophy ultimately rests on questions about the human mind.  Thus, if we do want to talk about the rest of philosophy, practically the first topic that we have to take up, is the nature of the human mind.
< 
< So this is going to be a chapter about some of the most important topics in the philosophy of mind.  Before I explain those specific topics, I am going to try to explain in general what the philosophy of mind is, and introduce some terminology.  Let me begin with a definition of the field:
---
> It is possible to do a lot of philosophy without talking about human beings.  But probably <i>most</i> of philosophy <i>does</i> in some way depend on questions about human nature and the human situation, and the human mind is of course fundamental to human nature.  So, a great deal of the rest of philosophy ultimately rests on questions about the human mind.
13c7
< Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  I think you can understand that each of these involve some very hard questions.  I want to talk fairly briefly about each of these questions.
---
> Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  Each of these involve some very hard questions.
15c9
< The first question is: What is the mind?  As I said, I’ve already given you a short introduction to this question when I explained how the problem of substance can be applied to the mind.  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  But when we ask that really we’re doing nothing but asking what the relation is between the mind and mental events.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
---
> The first question is: What is the mind?  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  When we ask that, we are simply asking what the relation is between the mind and MentalEvents.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
21c15,19
< I am sure this is confusing, because there are a lot of questions being asked here!  Well so far I’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
---
> So far we’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
> 
> We can also ask questions about the different specific CognitiveProcesses, and of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  In that case, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting TheMindBodyProblem.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.
> 
> Take perception as an example.  Philosophers ask what is going on when we perceive something--when we see, hear, taste, touch, and so on.  But philosophers are not interested in the particular mechanisms that allow us to see--for example, they do not study the shape of the eye or how the optical nerve carries information to the brain.  They are interested in even more basic questions.  They ask: Do we perceive physical objects <i>directly</i> with our senses, or do we form mental images of some sort, which we use to <i>represent</i> physical objects and their properties?  These are questions raised by the PhilosophyOfPerception.  The philosophy of perception is all about how our minds come in contact with the world outside our minds.
23c21
< Now what about questions about the different cognitive processes?  Of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  You know, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting the mind-body problem.  But let’s ignore that for now.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.  Take perception as an example.  Philosophers ask what is going on when we perceive something -- when we see, hear, taste, touch, and so on.  But philosophers aren’t interested in the particular mechanisms that allow us to see -- for example, they aren’t interested in the shape of the eye, or how the optical nerve carries information to the brain.  They are interested in even more basic sort of stuff.  They ask: Do we perceive physical objects <i>directly</i> with our senses, or do we form mental images of some sort, which we use to <i>represent</i> physical objects and their properties?  Don’t worry if you don’t understand that question; we’re going to be discussing it at length next time, when we talk about the philosophy of perception.  Really, the philosophy of perception is all about how our minds come in contact with the world outside our minds.
---
> Another example the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If Mary decides to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to her; she could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if our will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though Mary didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to her deciding to walk across the room.  So was she free or wasn’t she?  That is a question addressed under the general heading "FreeWillAndDeterminism."
25c23
< Then as I’m sure you can imagine, there are a lot of questions that can be asked about <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.  Needless to say, we don’t even have time to formulate the questions, let alone consider answers to them.  But there is one other cognitive process that I want to mention now, because we <i>are</i> going to be spending a day on it, namely, the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If I decide to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to me; I could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if my will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though I didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to my deciding to walk across the room.  So was I free or wasn’t I?  That’s the question we’ll take up next week, when we discuss the problem of free will and determinism.
---
> Finally, consider some questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we are conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.
27c25
< Finally, there are questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we’re conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.  So they say.  But again, that’s only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.
---
> But that is only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.  Indeed there are a lot of questions that can be asked about all the <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.
------
PhilosophyOfMind|981310524
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikified, but please contribute more, improve, etc.  This isn't a sophisticated discussion of the philosophy of mind, it's just a simple introduction.  It can certainly be improved.> 
25c25
< But that is only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.  Indeed there are a lot of questions that can be asked about all the <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.
---
> But that is only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.  Indeed there are a lot of questions that can be asked about all the <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.
------
AlgorithmS|981311908
3a4,6
> ----
> It is well known that robots can only dance with an algorithm, so I guess that's right.
> 
------
WikiPediaProcess|981315325
6a7
> * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
27c28
< '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
---
> '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
------
BillClinton|981322734
11c11,14
< RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
---
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
> 
> 
> BillClintionDiscussion
------
BillClinton|981323080
12,14c12,13
< 
< 
< BillClintionDiscussion
---
> ----
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the "http://www.americorps.org/":AmeriCorps.  These people do good stuff, imho. --PhillipHankins
------
ItalY|981323148
10c10
< Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY. The latter include AC Milan, AS Roma, Juventus Torino and FiorentinA.
---
> Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY. The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Torino and FiorentinA.
------
BillClinton|981323156
13c13
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the "http://www.americorps.org/":AmeriCorps.  These people do good stuff, imho. --PhillipHankins
---
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho. --PhillipHankins
------
BillClinton|981323939
13c13
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho. --PhillipHankins
---
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the govoner of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
------
LarrySanger|981325199
30c30,32
< It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- LarrySanger
---
> It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Hey, Larry, where did you do your phil grad?  --curiousPhillipHankins
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981336697
0a1
>  /AntiDogEatDogRule
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|981337379
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> /DagnyTaggart visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it introduces the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting in an unspecified location, presumably in /NewYork.
> 
> * Characters:
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /DanConway
>  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
>  /JamesTaggart: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981337404
13c13
< 
---
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|981337428
6c6,7
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  - /SectioN132
>  - /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|981337443
8a9
>  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981337464
8a9
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|981337477
6a7
>  - /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/Arizona|981337539
1c1,6
< Arizona is a state where the /PhoenixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
> Arizona is the home of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  
> 
> Arizona is mentioned in:
> 
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/NewMexico|981337615
1c1,5
< New Mexico is a state where the /PhoneixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine. It is mentioned in /SectioN111. 
---
> New Mexico is a state where the /PhoenixDurango has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the /RioNorteLine.  After the passage of the /AntiDogEatDogRule the /PhoenixDurango is forces to abandon operations in New Mexico, as well as in /Colorado.
> 
> New Mexico is mentioned in
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalAllianceofRailroads|981337653
5c5,6
<  /SectioN145
---
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|981337665
9c9,10
<  /SectioN141
---
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN146
------
AtlasShrugged|981337703
24a25
> * /Concepts
------
AtlasShrugged/Concepts|981337737
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Important concepts in /AtlasShrugged:
> 
>  /SanctionOfTheVictim
------
AtlasShrugged/Concepts|981337748
1c1
< Important concepts in /AtlasShrugged:
---
> Important concepts in AtlasShrugged:
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|981338892
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Sanction of the Victim is defined as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil, to accept the role of sacrifical victim for the 'sin' of creating values."
> 
> The entire story of AtlasShrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked?  When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carry the world, he is revoking his sanction.
> 
> The concept is apparently original in the thinking of AynRand and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from /GaltsSpeech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
> 
> Throughout AtlasShrugged, characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is /JohnGalt, who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
> 
> We first glimpse the concept in /SectioN121 when /HankRearden feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
> 
> In /SectioN146 the principle is stated explicitly by /DanConway: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|981338946
7c7
< Throughout AtlasShrugged, characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is /JohnGalt, who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
---
> Throughout AtlasShrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is /JohnGalt, who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|981339095
2c2
< /DagnyTaggart visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it introduces the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
---
> /DagnyTaggart visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
------
MathematicalGrouP|981339098
17a18,19
> For the proof of the '''uniqueness of the identity element''' and the '''uniqueness of the inverse of an element''' in a GrouP, see ElementaryGroupTheory.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|981339168
4c4
< /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|981339215
4c4
< /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|981339872
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FirstTheorems  
> 
> Given a Group (G,*) defined as:
> 
> 
> G in a NonEmpty SeT and “*” is a BinaryOperation, such that:
> *1).  (G,) has closure. That is, if a and b belong to (G,*), then a*b belongs to (G,*)
> *2).  The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), then (a*b)*c)=(a*(b*c).      
> *3).  (G,*) contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), then e*a=a*e=a.
> *4).  Every element in (G,*) has an inverse, that is, of a belongs to (G,*), there is an element b in (G,*) such that a*b=b*a=e.
> 
> First Theorem: 
> 
> The identity element of a GrouP (G,*) is unique.
> 
> *Proof:
> *	Suppose there were two elements, e and e’ (G,*), such that for all a in (G,*)
>         a*e=e*a=e and a*e’=e’*a=a.
> *	Then e*e’=e’ by the definition of identity element (3).
> *	And e*e’=e, also by the definition of the identity element (3).
> *	Then e=e’.
> *	The identity element in a GrouP (G,*) is unique.
> 
> Second Theorem:
> 
> Given a group (G,*), and an element x in (G,*), there is only one element y such that y*x=x*y=e. ( The inverse of each element in (G,*) is unique.)
> 
> *Proof 
> *	Suppose there are two elements, y and y’ in (G,*) such that for x, an element of    (G,*), y*x=x*y=e and y’*x=x*y’=e.
> *	Then y’=y’*e, by definition of identity element (3).
> *	Then y’=y’*(x*y), since x*y=e.
> *	Then y’=(y’*x)*y, by the associativity property of (G,*) (2).
> *	Then y’=e*y, since y’*x=e
> *	Then y’=y, since e is the identity element (3).
> *	Therefore, the inverse of an element x in a GrouP, (G,*) is unique.
> 
> Notice the method of proof, which is the same for both theorems and quite common in
> MathematicS. It is called, the Indirect Method of Proof.
> *	First, one assumes that the proposition one is trying to prove if false.
> *	Then, one tries to get a contradiction.
> *	If this is successful, then the assumption that the proposition is false, is, itself, false. Hence, the proposition is true.
> 
> 
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|981340134
12c12
< First Theorem: 
---
> ''First Theorem'': 
16c16
< *Proof:
---
> *'''Proof''':
24c24
< Second Theorem:
---
> ''Second Theorem'':
28c28
< *Proof 
---
> *'''Proof''' 
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|981340219
38c38
< MathematicS. It is called, the Indirect Method of Proof.
---
> MathematicS. It is called, the ''Indirect Method of Proof''.
------
BillClinton|981340399
13c13
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the govoner of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
---
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
------
JimboWales|981340493
15c15,18
< My timezone is GMT+1 -- the times on the RecentChanges page are about GMT-8, so I'd go for somewhere on the US West Coast. -- WojPob
---
> My timezone is GMT+1 -- the times on the RecentChanges page are about GMT-8, so I'd go for somewhere on the US West Coast. -- WojPob
> ----
> 
> SanDiego, CaliforniA is the location of Bomis.  LarrySanger lives (for now) in LasVegas, NevadA.  
------
JulianSimon|981340677
2a3,5
> JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /wager, betting
> on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
> 
------
JulianSimon|981340776
3c3
< JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /wager, betting
---
> JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /Wager, betting
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981341355
9c9
< The sympathetic characters of /AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
---
> The sympathetic characters of AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
13a14,19
> 
> * Social classes
> 
> Rand is sometimes called an elitist.  This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness.  She did not favor the rich over the poor, or the high-born over the low-born.  She favored the men of virtue over those who lacked virtue.  Throughout AtlasShrugged, virtue is equated with creative ability.
> 
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and /BettyPope are from wealthy families.
------
JulianSimon/Wager|981341574
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JulianSimon and PaulEhrlich entered in a famous wager in 1980,
> betting on a mutually agreed upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.
> 
> Simon and Erlich agreed to bet on the price of several commodity metals.  Erlich chose 5 metals: copper, chrome, nickel, tin, and tungsten.
> 
> JulianSimon won handily.
> 
> (More details should be filled in here.
> [http://www.overpopulation.com/simon_bet.html this page] has a lot of detail, and presumably somewhere we could find a pro-Ehrlich page to find out if there are any additional counter-arguments.
------
PaulEhrlich|981341669
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous JulianSimon/Wager with JulianSimon.
------
PaulEhrlich|981341693
1c1
< Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous JulianSimon/Wager with JulianSimon.
---
> Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
------
LarrySanger|981341768
32a33,34
> ----
> Ohio State--wrote my dissertation on epistemic circularity, George Pappas was my advisor with Marshall Swain a committee member.
------
PaulEhrlich|981341789
1a2,3
> 
> Apparently, there was another PaulEhrlich who won the 1908 NobelPrize.  Related?
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981345140
13a14
>  /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN147|981345164
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> /EllisWyatt appears suddenly and unexpectedly in DagnyTaggart's office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  Dagny surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
> 
> Wyatt states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the /SanctionOfTheVictim.  Thus Ellis Wyatt is a sharp contrast to /DanConway in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the /AntiDogEatDogRule represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
> 
> * Setting
> /DagnyTaggart's office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EllisWyatt
>  /HankRearden - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|981345191
7a8
>  - /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|981345206
8c8
<  - /SectioN147
---
>  - /SectioN147 - First appearance.
------
AtlasShrugged/HankRearden|981345222
8a9
>  /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981345257
9a10
>  /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|981345280
7a8
>  - /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|981345301
10a11
>  /SectioN147
------
SiberianHusky|981359029
1a2,3
> ----
> A breed of sled dog developed in northeastern SiberiA; they resemble the larger AlaskanMalamute'''s''', Descended from the WolF.
------
SetTheory|981365160
129a130,137
> COMMENT: I will assume then that by saying that a cardinal
> satisfies GCH you mean that it is not a counterexample to
> GCH, i.e. it is not a cardinal k or 2^k such that 2^k is greater than the successor of k. However, that "everything constructed in
> ZF+AC must satisfy GCH" has no obvious interpretation on which
> it is correct. For example, is the power set of the set of
> natural numbers "constructed in ZF+AC"? If so, what does it
> mean that it satisfies GCH?
> 
------
SportS|981367162
33a34
> * MartialArts
------
MartialArts|981367284
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Martial Arts are a group of sports where you compete to your opponent by fighting him with several techniques. This techniques vary from sport to sport. Very famous martial arts are KaratE, KickBoxing and TaeKwonDo.
------
KickBoxing|981367744
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kickboxing is a MartialArt which was developed out of Muai Thai or Thai Boxing.
> 
> It is allowed to hit with fists and feet, and to hit above the hip. In some forms it is also allowed to hit on the ties, or some more painful spots. Hitting with elbows and knees is forbidden, which is a difference to Thai Boxing.
------
KickBoxing|981367783
1c1
< Kickboxing is a MartialArt which was developed out of Muai Thai or Thai Boxing.
---
> Kickboxing is a MartialArts which was developed out of Muai Thai or Thai Boxing.
------
TaoTehChing|981370318
2a3,17
> COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical
> statement. To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote:
> 
>   Even the 'biography of Lao Tzu' which may be found
>   in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien (second   century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record     describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of     Chou, and further states that he is said to have
>   personally instructed Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius).
>   It is in this last statement that one inconsistency may be        found, for other chronicles state the date of the death of Lao    Tzu to precede that of the birth of Kung Fu Tzu by nearly half    a century.
> 
> Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses
> doubt about the authenticity of the available information.
> Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion
> that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one
> man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views
> as accepted fact.
> 
------
MartialArts|981377292
1c1,21
< Martial Arts are a group of sports where you compete to your opponent by fighting him with several techniques. This techniques vary from sport to sport. Very famous martial arts are KaratE, KickBoxing and TaeKwonDo.
---
> Martial Arts are a group of sports where you compete to your opponent by fighting him with several techniques. This techniques vary from sport to sport. Very famous martial arts are KaratE, KickBoxing and TaeKwonDo.
> Martial Arts can de different in terms of their heritage, their age, the region they were developed, and if they are accompanied with a system of beliefs.
> 
> Martial Arts from Asia:
> 
> Aikido
> KaratE
> MuayThai
> TaeKwonDo
> JudO
> JujutsU
> 
> Martial Arts developed in Europe:
> 
> KickboxinG
> SavatE
> 
> Martial Arts developed in South America:
> 
> CapoeirA
> BrazilianJujutsu
------
MartialArts|981377314
15c15
< KickboxinG
---
> KickBoxing
------
TaoTehChing|981379788
7c7,9
<   in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien (second   century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record     describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of     Chou, and further states that he is said to have
---
>   in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien (second
>    century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record     describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of 
>     Chou, and further states that he is said to have
9c11,14
<   It is in this last statement that one inconsistency may be        found, for other chronicles state the date of the death of Lao    Tzu to precede that of the birth of Kung Fu Tzu by nearly half    a century.
---
> 
>   It is in this last statement that one inconsistency may be     
>    found, for other chronicles state the date of the death of Lao    Tzu to precede that of the birth of Kung Fu Tzu by nearly half
>     a century.
------
TaoTehChing|981379898
8,14c8,12
<    century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record     describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of 
<     Chou, and further states that he is said to have
<   personally instructed Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius).
< 
<   It is in this last statement that one inconsistency may be     
<    found, for other chronicles state the date of the death of Lao    Tzu to precede that of the birth of Kung Fu Tzu by nearly half
<     a century.
---
>   century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record 
>   describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of 
>   Chou, and further states that he is said to have 
>   personally instructed Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius). (Which is
>   inconsistent with other supposed information about Lao Tzu.)
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|981380400
38c38
< MathematicS. It is called, the ''Indirect Method of Proof''.
---
> MathematicS. It is called, among other things, the ''Indirect Method of Proof'' and ''Proof by Contradiction''.
------
MathematicalGrouP|981380524
18c18
< For the proof of the '''uniqueness of the identity element''' and the '''uniqueness of the inverse of an element''' in a GrouP, see ElementaryGroupTheory.
---
> The proof of the '''uniqueness of the identity element''' and the '''uniqueness of the inverse of an element''' in a GrouP, falls under ElementaryGroupTheory.
------
TopOlogy|981380616
78a79,84
> 
> ----
> 
> Better yet the discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Moebius (Mobius, whatever) strips (and everything else) could be edited out altogether.  It adds very little substantive value to the understanding of any branch of mathematics, certainly not topology as I understand it.
> 
> Just my 2 cents.
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|981388810
39c39
< *	First, one assumes that the proposition one is trying to prove if false.
---
> *	First, one assumes that the proposition one is trying to prove is false.
------
HareKrishna|981390487
7,9c7
< Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.  (This guy reminds me of BuddHa.  Coincidence or plagiarism?)
< 
< Sufficient enlightenment has the potential to free the individual from the cycle of life and death altogether. 
---
> Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.  Sufficient enlightenment has the potential to free the individual from the cycle of life and death altogether. 
17a16,19
> 
> ----
> 
> Comments moved to HareKrishnaTalk
------
HareKrishnaTalk|981390768
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (This guy [Prabhupada] reminds me of BuddHa.  Coincidence or plagiarism?)
> ----
> That BuddhIsm, HinduIsm, HareKrishna, JainIsm and other religions developed in that geographic area would sound similar is more inevitability than coincidence, as the fabric of that culture and the nature of its religions are tightly intertwined.  The personage of Rama as GodHead is distinctly Hindu.  AyeSpy
------
PolicyPolicy|981394617
6c6,9
< Good question.  But I'd agree with Joshua.  Though I think you're right in many cases, Tim--experience is the best guide.  Surely the case of NuPedia shows that the best policy is discovered through a combination of "a priori" policy-setting in the beginning, to be modified later in light of experience. -- LarrySanger
---
> Good question.  But I'd agree with Joshua.  Though I think you're right in many cases, Tim--experience is the best guide.  Surely the case of NuPedia shows that the best policy is discovered through a combination of "a priori" policy-setting in the beginning, to be modified later in light of experience. -- LarrySanger
> 
> I disagree with Tim's statement that "We should not try to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be."  We should not, of course, expect at the outset that we will get it all right, and so we should be prepared to change course in the future.  The interesting thing about the wiki software is that social norms are ultimately the only policy.  Saying, today, that
> we will have "loose" social norms, versus "tight" social norms, is ''itself'' a policy, set today, with a particular vision of the future in mind.  We should attempt to anticipate what the lessons of experience will be, and of course we should be prepared to change course as we learn new things.  --JimboWales
------
BillClinton|981395242
11a12,19
> 
> The UnitedStatesPresident has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
> 
> Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
> 
> Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example GeraldFord's
> pardon of RichardNixon.  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
> 
------
BusinessAndIndustry|981395897
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a category index page.  For now, I am entering random
> things that I have found which might eventually go under this
> category.
> 
> BusinessSchools
------
TheLaw|981395954
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This may become a category index page.  For now, I will just
> enter some things that I have found.
> 
> UnitedStatesConstitution
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|981396010
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /ArticleOne
> /ArticleTwo
> 
> 
> /AmendmentOne
> /AmendmentTwo
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|981396058
1,2c1,2
< /ArticleOne
< /ArticleTwo
---
> */ArticleOne
> */ArticleTwo
5,6c5,6
< /AmendmentOne
< /AmendmentTwo
---
> */AmendmentOne
> */AmendmentTwo
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|981396241
0a1
> */Preamble
2a4,8
> */ArticleThree
> */ArticleFour
> */ArticleFive
> */ArticleSix
> */ArticleSeven
6a13,37
> */AmendmentThree
> */AmendmentFour
> */AmendmentFive
> */AmendmentSix
> */AmendmentSeven
> */AmendmentEight
> */AmendmentNine
> */AmendmentTen
> */AmendmentEleven
> */AmendmentTwelve
> */AmendmentThirteen
> */AmendmentFourteen
> */AmendmentFifteen
> */AmendmentSixteen
> */AmendmentSeventeen
> */AmendmentEighteen
> */AmendmentNineteen
> */AmendmentTwenty
> */AmendmentTwentyone
> */AmendmentTwentytwo
> */AmendmentTwentythree
> */AmendmentTwentyfour
> */AmendmentTwentyfive
> */AmendmentTwentysix
> */AmendmentTwentyseven
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/Preamble|981396284
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/Preamble|981396363
1c1
< We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
---
> We the people of the UnitedStates, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleOne|981396531
1c1,177
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a SenatE and HouseofRepresentatives. 
> 
> Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several
> states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state
> legislature. 
> 
> No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of
> the UnitedStates, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according
> to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
> service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be
> made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years,
> in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each
> state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled
> to chuse three, MassachusettS eight, RhodeIsland and ProvidencePlantations one, ConnecticuT five, New York six, New Jersey
> four, PennsylvaniA eight, DelawarE one, Maryland six, VirginiA ten, NorthCarolina five, SouthCarolina five, and Georgia three. 
> 
> When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill
> such vacancies. 
> 
> The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
> 
> Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof
> , for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
> 
> Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
> classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the
> expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second
> year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof
> may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
> 
> No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
> States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> The VicePresidentoftheUnited States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
> 
> The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he
> shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
> 
> The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
> When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the
> concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
> 
> Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
> office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to
> indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
> 
> Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by
> the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
> Senators. 
> 
> The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
> shall by law appoint a different day. 
> 
> Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each
> shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
> attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
> 
> Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of
> two thirds, expel a member. 
> 
> Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
> judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
> those present, be entered on the journal. 
> 
> Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
> other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
> 
> Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
> of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from
> arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
> speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
> 
> No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority
> of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no
> person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
> 
> Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
> amendments as on other Bills. 
> 
> Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
> President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which
> it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
> reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other
> House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all
> such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the
> bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days
> (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless
> the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
> 
> Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on
> a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be
> approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives,
> according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
> 
> Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
> common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the
> United States; 
> 
> To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
> 
> To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; 
> 
> To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 
> 
> To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
> 
> To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 
> 
> To establish post offices and post roads; 
> 
> To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
> their respective writings and discoveries; 
> 
> To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
> 
> To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 
> 
> To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 
> 
> To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 
> 
> To provide and maintain a navy; 
> 
> To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 
> 
> To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 
> 
> To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
> service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
> militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
> 
> To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
> particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like
> authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts,
> magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And 
> 
> To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
> vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
> 
> Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
> prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such
> importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
> 
> The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety
> may require it. 
> 
> No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 
> 
> No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be
> taken. 
> 
> No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 
> 
> No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall
> vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 
> 
> No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and
> account of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 
> 
> No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall,
> without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king,
> prince, or foreign state. 
> 
> Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
> bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or
> law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely
> necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
> shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the
> Congress. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into
> any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such
> imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
------
BusinessSchool|981396558
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See BusinessSchools
------
HomePage|981398307
4a5,6
> I am reminded of "The Foundation" trilogy by Isaac Asimov.
> 
------
HomePage|981398433
5,6d4
< I am reminded of "The Foundation" trilogy by Isaac Asimov.
< 
------
LiteraTure|981398614
4a5
> * RobertHeinlein 
------
LiteraryArt|981398661
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction -- RobertHeinlein
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
------
TaoTehChing|981399314
1c1
< The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his given name was Li Erh.  Recent archeological discovery of Chinese scrolls from 100-150 BC reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus undermining support for modern theories that the work was contributed to and changed by several authors over the centuries.
---
> The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing orginally named Lao Tzu, generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote a supposed "biography" of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his birth name was Li Erh.  
3,4c3,28
< COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical
< statement. To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote:
---
> Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually bamboo tiles called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
> 
> As early as the 1930's, a way to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a Taoist solution, if you will) may have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard, Dr. Kiang Kang-hu offers, "Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity… The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Lao-Tzu and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BC… for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time". credit for some verses might be conditionally given tolater Taoists "without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Lao-Tzu".
> 
> Several modern versions of religious Taoism (Daoism) are replete with polytheism, ancestor worship, ceremony of various kinds, and alchemic efforts to achieve longevity.
> 
> What is attributed to Lao Tzu contains none of the above.
> 
> Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical; and exceedingly practical.
> 
> The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  Your author refrains from quoting the Tao directly, as each English Language interpretation (including even interpretation of the three-character title), of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say that Lao Tzu demonstrated an understanding of such principles as these:
> 
> Force begets force.  One whose needs are simple will find them fulfilled.  Wealth does not enrich the spirit.  Self-interest and self-importance are vain and self-destructive.  Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned.  The harder one tries, the more resistance he will create for himself.  The more one acts in harmony with the universe, the more he will achieve, with less effort.  The truly wise make little of their own wisdom - for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know.  It is wise to repay kindness with kindness and to repay evil with kindness.  We are our brothers' keepers.  Skill averts waste.  When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values.  Stupidity leads to force.  The wise are responsible for the foolish.  The honest are responsible for the dishonest.  The teacher is responsible for his student.  Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame.  The "feminine" qualities of flexibility and suppleness are superior to "masculine" strength and rigidity.  Everything in its own time and place.
> 
> Behind all this, Lao Tzu speaks of the ineffable Tao, or the "Way," which is described as the indivisible and indescribable unifying principle of the universe, from which all flows.  It is without time, form or substance, and exterior/senior to these traits.  The simpler one becomes, the greater hope he has of co-existing with the Tao, which is the only way one can truly understand it.  
> 
> In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower." -- AyeSpy
> ----
> COMMENT: The historical existance of Lao Tzu in unconfirmed according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What is your source for the statement that the existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching is not the work of one man is generally accepted. 
> ----
> 
> I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and then you could discuss the problem). Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> (moved here from the body of the text -- AyeSpy) COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical
> statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote:
21,35d44
< Several modern versions of Taoism (Daoism) are replete with polytheism, ancestor worship, ceremony of various kinds, and alchemic efforts to achieve longevity.
< 
< What is written by Lao Tzu contains none of the above.
< 
< Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical, and exceedingly practical.
< 
< The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  I refrain here from quoting the Tao directly, as every English Language interpretation, of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say that Lao Tzu demonstrates an understanding of such principles as these:
< 
< Force begets force.  One whose needs are simple will find them fulfilled.  Wealth does not enrich the spirit.  Self-interest and self-importance are vain and self-destructive.  Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned.  The harder one tries, the more resistance he will create for himself.  The more one acts in harmony with the universe, the more he will achieve, with less effort.  The truly wise make little of their own wisdom -for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know.  It is wise to repay kindness with kindness and to repay evil with kindness.  We are our brothers' keepers.  Skill averts waste.  When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values.  Stupidity leads to force.  The wise are responsible for the foolish.  The honest are responsible for the dishonest.  The teacher is responsible for his student.  Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame.  The "feminine" qualities of flexibility and suppleness are superior to "masculine" strength and rigidity.  Everything in its own time and place.
< 
< Behind all this, Lao Tzu speaks of the ineffable Tao, or the "Way," which is described as the indivisible and indescribable unifying principle of the universe, from which all flows.  It is without time, form or substance, and exterior/senior to these traits.  The simpler one becomes, the greater hope he has of co-existing with the Tao, which is the only way one can truly understand it.  
< 
< In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower." -- AyeSpy
< ----
< COMMENT: The historical existance of Lao Tzu in unconfirmed according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What is your source for the statement that the existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching is not the work of one man is generally accepted. 
38c47,48
< I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and then you could discuss the problem). Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger 
---
> I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed.  I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching.  It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it.
> 
------
LarrySanger|981399587
1c1,5
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.  Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.
> 
> Inflicted LarrysText first on Ohio State students, and now on WikiPedia.
> 
> Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
34c38
< Ohio State--wrote my dissertation on epistemic circularity, George Pappas was my advisor with Marshall Swain a committee member.
---
> Ohio State--wrote my dissertation on epistemic circularity, George Pappas was my advisor with Marshall Swain a committee member.
------
LarrysText|981400063
1c1,5
< All [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] I've uploaded this evening (Feb. 1) are sections of a set of lectures I wrote out one quarter (and read to my poor students).  This will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this (if you're into it, that is!).
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures LarrySanger wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
> 
> See all [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] to search for all current pages that mention 'LarrysText'.
> 
> Table of contents (please keep this updated as you wikify!):
32c36
< I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read suffeciently less like lectures.  And haveing them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed  (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
---
> I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read sufficiently less like lectures.  And having them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
46c50
< Go thou and do likewise--please!
---
> Go thou and do likewise--please!
------
MonIsm|981400397
1c1,5
< ''Monism'' is the PhilosophicalView that only one sort of stuff in the universe exists ultimately (as opposed to DualIsm, which holds that there are two kinds of stuff).  So there are two kinds of monism, namely, PhysicalIsm and PhenomenalIsm.  But there is, actually, another kind of monism: <i>NeutralMonism.</i>
---
> ''Monism'' is the PhilosophicalView that only one sort of stuff in the universe exists ultimately (see ReducTion).  Monism is to be distinguished from DualIsm, which holds that ultimately there are two kinds of stuff.
> 
> So there are two kinds of monism, namely, PhysicalIsm and PhenomenalIsm; the former holds that the mental can be reduced to the physical, and the latter holds the converse.
> 
> There is, in fact, another kind of monism, <i>NeutralMonism,</i> which holds that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to some sort of "neutral stuff."
------
TaoTehChing|981403039
3c3
< Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually bamboo tiles called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
---
> Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
------
TaoTehChing|981404872
3c3
< Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
---
> Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BC) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
5c5
< As early as the 1930's, a way to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a Taoist solution, if you will) may have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard, Dr. Kiang Kang-hu offers, "Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity… The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Lao-Tzu and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BC… for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time". credit for some verses might be conditionally given tolater Taoists "without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Lao-Tzu".
---
> As early as the 1930's, a way to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a Taoist solution, if you will) may have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard, Dr. Kiang Kang-hu offers, "Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity… The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Lao-Tzu and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BC… for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time".  Credit for some verses might be conditionally given to later Taoists "without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Lao-Tzu".
------
DaoDeJing|981404908
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See TaoTehChing.
------
LiteraTure|981406485
5a6
> * StanislawLem
------
StanislawLem|981406737
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel SolariS (1961) was filmed by Andrei Tarkovsky in 1971. StanislawLem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
> 
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now Lviv, UkrainE) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in CracoW, but his studies were interrupted by World War II. During the war and NazI occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
> 
------
RulesToConsider|981408181
15c15
< '''Avoid bias:''' Since this is an encyclopedia, after a fashion, it would be best if you represented your mere opinions either (1) not at all, (2) on *Debate, *Talk, or *Discussion pages linked from the bottom of the page that you're tempted to grace, or (3) represented in a fact-stating fashion, i.e., which attributes a particular opinion to a particular person or group, rather than asserting the opinion as fact.
---
> '''Avoid bias:''' Since this is an encyclopedia, after a fashion, it would be best if you represented your controversial views either (1) not at all, (2) on *Debate, *Talk, or *Discussion pages linked from the bottom of the page that you're tempted to grace, or (3) represented in a fact-stating fashion, i.e., which attributes a particular opinion to a particular person or group, rather than asserting the opinion as fact.  (3) is strongly preferred.
------
IsaacAsimov|981409200
14a15
> * ThreeLawsOfRobotics
------
ThreeLawsOfRobotics|981409517
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A set of three laws set up by IsaacAsimov, which Robots, appearing in his novels, have to obey.
> 
> : 1. A robot may not harm a human being, or allow a human being to be harmed
> : 2. A robot must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law.
> : 3. A robot must protect his own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict the First or Second Law.
> 
> ''Source: IsaacAsimov, Foundation's Edge''
------
ThreeLawsOfRobotics|981409606
1c1
< A set of three laws set up by IsaacAsimov, which Robots, appearing in his novels, have to obey.
---
> A set of three laws set up by IsaacAsimov, which Robots, appearing in his novels, have to obey:
4c4
< : 2. A robot must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the first law.
---
> : 2. A robot must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981418184
2a3,7
> ''' Febraury 6, 2001'''
> 
> inspired by wikipedia i started an similar project for my local esperanto-group. It uses real html.
> if you are interested in or if you have any suggestions -> just give me a hint! norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
> 
------
PaulEhrlich|981418319
1c1
< Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
---
> Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.----
3c3,6
< Apparently, there was another PaulEhrlich who won the 1908 NobelPrize.  Related?
---
> Apparently, there was another PaulEhrlich who won the 1908 NobelPrize.  Related?----
> The Nobel Laureate Dr. Paul Erlich received the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
> His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at The Nobel Prize e-site:
> *   http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
------
CityBerlin|981418526
3,4c3,4
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. 
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. Up to 1999, the Capital of West-GermanY was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. While the western part insite of beeing geographically divided from wetern germany remaind belonging to it. 
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. This move from the east-germany government was due to economically and political reasons. After the breakdown of communism in europe the town was united is soon became capital of germany.
------
CityBerlin|981418637
4c4,7
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. This move from the east-germany government was due to economically and political reasons. After the breakdown of communism in europe the town was united is soon became capital of germany.
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. 
> This move from the east-germany government was due to economically and political reasons. After the breakdown of communism in europe the town was united  and
> soon became capital of germany. And it was Kennedy who said with some funny accent 
> "ich bin ein berliner".
------
PaulEhrlich|981418681
5,6c5,7
< His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at The Nobel Prize e-site:
< *   http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html
---
> His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at :
> *   [http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html/
> Nobel Museum Site]
------
CityBerlin|981418708
3c3
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. While the western part insite of beeing geographically divided from wetern germany remaind belonging to it. 
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. While the western part inspite of beeing geographically divided from western germany remained belonging to western germany. 
------
CityBerlin|981419747
3c3,4
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany. While the western part inspite of beeing geographically divided from western germany remained belonging to western germany. 
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany, while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from WestGermany, continued to belong to WestGermany.
> 
5,7c6,10
< This move from the east-germany government was due to economically and political reasons. After the breakdown of communism in europe the town was united  and
< soon became capital of germany. And it was Kennedy who said with some funny accent 
< "ich bin ein berliner".
---
> This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.
> 
> After the breakdown of CommunIsm in Europe the city, like the country, was united and soon became capital of all of Germany once again.
> 
> Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of beer (a Berliner beer).  He should have said "Ich bin Berliner."  (Now, can anyone say what Kennedy's <i>point</i> was?)
------
CityBerlin|981419906
5,6c5
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin. 
< This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.
---
> In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the Capital of WestGermany was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
10c9
< Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of beer (a Berliner beer).  He should have said "Ich bin Berliner."  (Now, can anyone say what Kennedy's <i>point</i> was?)
---
> Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of beer (a Berliner beer).  He should have said "Ich bin Berliner."  (Now, can anyone say what Kennedy's <i>point</i> was?)
------
CityBerlin|981419919
1c1
< BerliN is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
---
> Berlin is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
------
CityBerlin|981419964
3,5c3
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany, while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from WestGermany, continued to belong to WestGermany.
< 
< In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the Capital of WestGermany was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
---
> During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany, while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from WestGermany, continued to belong to WestGermany.  In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the Capital of WestGermany was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
------
PaulEhrlich|981420627
1c1
< Famous author of ThePopulationBomb and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.----
---
> There have been two famous Dr. Paul Ehrlichs:
3,5c3,7
< Apparently, there was another PaulEhrlich who won the 1908 NobelPrize.  Related?----
< The Nobel Laureate Dr. Paul Erlich received the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.
< His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at :
---
> Paul R. Ehrlich is author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
> 
> ----
> 
> A German, Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), won the 1908 NobelPrize in Physiology and Medicine.  He was noted for his work in hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy.  His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at:
7c9
< Nobel Museum Site]
---
> Nobel Museum Site]
------
PaulEhrlich|981420724
1c1
< There have been two famous Dr. Paul Ehrlichs:
---
> There have been two famous Dr. Paul Ehrlichs
3c3,5
< Paul R. Ehrlich is author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
---
> ----
> 
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
7c9
< A German, Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), won the 1908 NobelPrize in Physiology and Medicine.  He was noted for his work in hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy.  His life was depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis. His biography is available at:
---
> A German, Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), won the 1908 NobelPrize in Physiology and Medicine.  He is noted for his work in hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy.  His life is depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis.  His biography is available at:
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981421143
3c3
< ''' Febraury 6, 2001'''
---
> ''' February 6, 2001'''
5,6c5,15
< inspired by wikipedia i started an similar project for my local esperanto-group. It uses real html.
< if you are interested in or if you have any suggestions -> just give me a hint! norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
---
> Inspired by WikiPedia, I started an similar project for my local Esperanto group.  It uses real html.
> 
> If you are interested in or if you have any suggestions, just give me a hint! -- norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
> 
> ''Please post the address of your wiki, please!''
> 
> ''' February 5, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of AynRand""'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
> 
> We've added some RulesToConsider for you to consider, sign, modify, and add to.  But those of you who don't like rules can go about your business.  Ain't wiki great?  :-)
------
FaithAndRationality|981421754
11c11
< So here then is the claim: If I have <i>faith</i> that God exists, then I believe that God exists, but I do not claim to have any other beliefs which make it more probably true that God exists.  Faith is belief without reasons.  Hence, fideism may be stated as the view that one ought to believe that God exists, but one should to base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any reasons at all.  At least <i>initially</i>.  There are some kinds of moderate fideism which say that one should have faith to begin with, and only then, when one’s faith is strong enough, go out in search of reasons to believe.
---
> So here then is the claim: If I have <i>faith</i> that God exists, then I believe that God exists, but I do not claim to have any other beliefs which make it more probably true that God exists.  Faith is belief without reasons.  Hence, fideism may be stated as the view that one ought to believe that God exists, but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any reasons at all.  At least <i>initially</i>.  There are some kinds of moderate fideism which say that one should have faith to begin with, and only then, when one’s faith is strong enough, go out in search of reasons to believe.
------
PhiloSophy|981422162
19c19
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' '''SanIty''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
PhiloSophy|981423246
19c19
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' '''SanIty''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
SanIty|981423768
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient.
> 
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, '''proper functioning''', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading us to the conclusion that if one is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
> 
> Who shall determine, however, what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas?  To what degree must errancy intrude into the picture before one is determined no longer sane, but InSane?  
> 
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may observe the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, take the next deductive step, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.
> 
> More than mere accuracy has been introduced to the picture, however, as conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  
> 
> 
> (to be completed as time permits) -- AyeSpy
------
PhilosophyOfPsychology|981424009
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IssuesofPhilosophyOfPsychology
------
PhilosophyOfPsychology|981424119
1c1
< IssuesofPhilosophyOfPsychology
---
> Issues of '''PhilosophyOfPsychology:'''  SanitY
------
PhilosophyOfPsychology|981424140
1c1
< Issues of '''PhilosophyOfPsychology:'''  SanitY
---
> Issues of '''PhilosophyOfPsychology:'''  SanIty
------
PhiloSophy|981427425
13c13
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon --  AlbertCamus -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BlaisePascal -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore
------
GreekMythology|981428099
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA
------
HerA|981428168
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zeus' better half...
------
PaulEhrlich|981430146
5c5
< An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books on the dangers of population growth.  StanfordUniversity professor.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
---
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far been proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
11c11
< Nobel Museum Site]
---
> Nobel Museum Site]
------
PaulEhrlich|981430177
5c5
< An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far been proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
---
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
------
HerA|981431072
1c1
< Zeus' better half...
---
> In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  ''[Hardly Zeus' better half...]''
------
LibertarianisM|981432040
1c1,3
< Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  There are various different strains of libertarianism, depending on what exactly they consider an individual's rights to be, that vary from the far right to the far left across the PoliticalSpectrum.
---
> Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  
> 
> In the narrow sense of the term, ''libertarian'' includes only such people on the right of the economic spectrum, who define rights in terms of things like freedom to keep property and equality of process.  The private sector is left to control itself - compare AnarchoCapitalism and contrast AnarchoSyndicalism.
------
PhiloSophy|981434134
13c13
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon --  AlbertCamus -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes --NicholasMalebranche -- GottfriedLeibniz -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- BlaisePascal -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman
------
HoldComeWhatMay|981434163
1c1
< A phrase popularized by the late HarVard philosophy professor, WillardVQuine.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
---
> A phrase popularized by the late HarVard philosophy professor, WVOQuinE.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast|981434210
1c1
< On Quine's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
---
> On WVOQuinE's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
3,7c3
< One may certainly hold more stubbornly at least to those notions which serve to give context, comprehensibility, and utility to other notions.
< 
< Care should be taken, however, not to exclude new information which is not inherently self-contradictory.  To the degree that new data conflicts with a large body of mutually consistent observations (note:  observations - not beliefs) one may more safely devalue it, but that a new idea was not suggested by one's interpretation of earlier data is not the same as to say that one may safely discard it because it comes as a complete surprise.  Rather, "surprise" information, instead of being automatically viewed with skepticism, may be be held in a bullpen while it is compared with other cross-verifying observations, and, if not inherently inconsistent with old data, accepted conditionally for purposes of comparison with new input in order to see what it does or does not explain.
< 
< People call this "having an open mind." -- AyeSpy
---
> HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk
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HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk|981434220
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One may certainly hold more stubbornly at least to those notions which serve to give context, comprehensibility, and utility to other notions.
> 
> Care should be taken, however, not to exclude new information which is not inherently self-contradictory.  To the degree that new data conflicts with a large body of mutually consistent observations (note:  observations - not beliefs) one may more safely devalue it, but that a new idea was not suggested by one's interpretation of earlier data is not the same as to say that one may safely discard it because it comes as a complete surprise.  Rather, "surprise" information, instead of being automatically viewed with skepticism, may be be held in a bullpen while it is compared with other cross-verifying observations, and, if not inherently inconsistent with old data, accepted conditionally for purposes of comparison with new input in order to see what it does or does not explain.
> 
> People call this "having an open mind." -- AyeSpy
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HerA|981434323
1c1,2
< In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  ''[Hardly Zeus' better half...]''
---
> In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  ''[Hardly Zeus' better half...]''----
> ''[Clearly a man's point of view...]''
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SanIty|981434791
11d10
< 
12a12,15
> ----
> This article is actually better regarded as being about insanity, a topic about which many reams have been written.  Examples of encyclopedia articles about this topic for your reference: [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,118185+1+109830,00.html?query=insanity mental disorder] -- [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,43445+1+42488,00.html?query=insanity insanity (topic in the law)] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761573719 mental health] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761553774 insanity (topic in the law)]
> 
> ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?
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SanIty|981434873
15c15
< ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?
---
> ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity?
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HerA|981437879
1,2c1,4
< In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  ''[Hardly Zeus' better half...]''----
< ''[Clearly a man's point of view...]''
---
> In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  Called Juno by the Romans.----
> ''[Hardly Zeus' better half...]'' - ''[Clearly a man's point of view...]''
> 
> Maybe.  Zeus was far from a model husband (though what god was?) but even so Hera never struck me as particularly nice.  "My three favorite cities are Sparta, Mycenae, and Tyrins...destroy one whenever you want, so long as I see Troy burn to the ground."  That'll learn someone for not calling her pretty.  Not that the other gods are much better...but this much can be said for Zeus: sometimes he's smart enough to keep his mouth shut. :)
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ReviewRequests|981444150
7c7
< In the mere opinion of LarrySanger, the following pages need (as of Feb. 3) serious editing and/or refactoring and/or creation of *Talk or *Discussion pages: AlTruism; GottfriedLeibniz; CommonSense; AppliedEthics; DeconstructionIsm; SoCrates; EthicsVsMorals; BillClinton; LibertarianisM; UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving; FootBall; ConsequentialIsm.  ''Please see RefactoringPolicy.''
---
> In the mere opinion of LarrySanger, the following pages need (as of Feb. 3) serious editing and/or refactoring and/or creation of *Talk or *Discussion pages: AlTruism; GottfriedLeibniz; CommonSense; AppliedEthics; DeconstructionIsm; SoCrates; EthicsVsMorals; BillClinton; LibertarianisM; FootBall; ConsequentialIsm.  ''Please see RefactoringPolicy.''
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DualIsm|981444894
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText; further wikification is encouraged> 
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText; wikification has begun on it but further wikification is encouraged> 
3c3
< I suspect many of you might be thinking to yourselves: "This is ridiculous.  Look, there is the mind, and there is the body, and they are two totally different things.  There might be some puzzles about how they interact but obviously they <i>do</i> interact.  So what’s all the fuss?  All those other theories you listed are just <i>silly</i>."  Now if you think this way, my job is to get you to see that that puzzle about how the mind and body interact is more serious than you might have thought.  But first let’s get the theory more clearly stated.
---
> ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.  The most common variety of dualism is DualisticInteractionism.
5c5
< The view we’re talking about consists of all of the following claims: mental and physical events both exist, but neither type of event can be reduced to the other type, and mental events are both causes and effects of physical events.   This is called <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>.  It is also called <i>Cartesian</i> <i>dualism</i>, because it is the kind of dualism that the great 17th-century French philosopher Descartes advocated.  This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism -- probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  So in addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When I touch a hot stove, and burn my skin, I feel a pain.  Touching the stove and burning my skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when I feel the pain, I say, "Ouch!" -- and my saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  You put the belief in that interaction together with dualism and you’ve got a very commonsense sort of theory of mind.  In fact our reading calls this "the commonsense theory of mind," and I agree with that characterization.
---
> This is the CommonSense view of the mind--or so it would seem.  But there is a puzzle about how the mind and body interact, and this puzzle is perhaps more serious than the commonsense dualistic view of mind might be prepared to admit.
------
DualisticInteractionism|981445143
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following a snippet of LarrysText, wikified; further development requested>
> 
> <i>Dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i> is the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s both exist, but neither type of event can be reduced (see ReducTion) to the other type, and mental events are both causes and effects of physical events.   It is also called <i>Cartesian</i> <i>dualism</i>, because it is the kind of dualism that the great 17th-century French philosopher Descartes advocated.
> 
> This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism--probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  In addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, which this theory shares with all other kinds of DualIsm, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When Johnny touches a hot stove and burns his skin, he feels a pain.  Touching the stove and burning his skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when he feels the pain, he says, "Ouch!"--and his saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  If we put the belief in that interaction together with DualIsm, we have got a very CommonSense theory of mind.
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DualIsm|981445382
3c3
< ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.  The most common variety of dualism is DualisticInteractionism.
---
> ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.  The most common variety of dualism is DualisticInteractionism.  The latter is the CommonSense view of the mind--or so it would seem.  But there is a puzzle about how the mind and body interact causally, and this puzzle is more serious than might appear at first.  See DualisticInteractionism for details.
5,43c5
< This is the CommonSense view of the mind--or so it would seem.  But there is a puzzle about how the mind and body interact, and this puzzle is perhaps more serious than the commonsense dualistic view of mind might be prepared to admit.
< 
< Let’s look at some arguments for dualism.  How would we go about arguing for this theory?  I mean, aside from pointing out that it’s extremely commonsensical.  That’s got to count for something; perhaps it counts for a lot indeed.  But if we can help it the mere fact that it’s a matter of common sense shouldn’t be our <i>only</i> reason for accepting a theory.  So how would we go about arguing for dualism?  We point out the differences between the mental and the physical.  So let’s do that.  Let’s go over the differences between mental events and physical events.
< 
< First, mental events are not publicly observable.  When I touch the hot stove, you may see me whip back my hand and say "Ouch!" but you are not feeling my pain.  Unless you’re Mr. Spock, or God, you can’t as it were get inside my mind and take a look at what’s going on in there.  And of course it’s not just because my mind is hidden beneath my skull.  If you knew just where to look in my brain, you wouldn’t be able to see thoughts and feelings jiggling around in there.  That’s just not how it works.  So unlike physical events, like fireworks displays, mental events are private, not publicly observable.
< 
< Second, mental events are often said not to be spatially located.  Where is my pain supposed to be?  Maybe you could say in my fingertips, because they hurt.  But is that where the <i>feeling</i> is?  Does it really make sense to say that the <i>feeling</i> is in my aching fingertips?  That sounds a little funny, anyway.  A better example would be an emotion like happiness.  When I say I’m happy, can I locate my happiness in my head, or does it exist all my body, or something?  Doesn’t that sound odd?  It would seem better to say that my happiness isn’t the sort of thing that <i>can</i> be located in a particular place.
< 
< Third, more generally, mental events do not seem to have various physical properties which physical events have.  For one thing, mental events do not involve anything having mass, or physical motion.  We can’t weigh a thought.  We can’t say that a feeling has a velocity of 10 miles an hour.  To say such things is to talk nonsense.  Now you might say: that’s only because mental events are <i>events</i>.  You can’t say that physical events have mass or velocity either.  Point well enough taken; that’s true, no event, per se, has mass or velocity.  But physical events do <i>involve</i> objects which have mass and velocity.  Mental events do not have any components which have mass and velocity.  For example, when I think, "I like ice cream," I have a concept of ice cream; and my concept of ice cream has no mass and velocity.  Nothing involved in my appreciation for ice cream would appear to have any such physical properties.  This is a point to which we will have to return.  But on the face of it, this seems pretty obvious.
< 
< Fourth, mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, which physical events obviously do not.  I mean, for example, what a burned finger feels like, what sky blue looks like, what nice music sounds like, and so on.  I’m going to expand on this fourth point at some length.  Recently, philosophers have been calling the subjective aspects of mental events <i>qualia</i>, and they also call them <i>raw</i> <i>feels</i>.  There is something <i>that</i> <i>it’s</i> <i>like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on; there are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events.  And the claim is that qualia seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.  Just think of what that would involve.  You’d be saying: <i>feeling</i> <i>the</i> <i>top</i> <i>of</i> <i>my</i> <i>hand</i> <i>right</i> <i>now</i>, this "raw feel" I’m experiencing right now, is <i>itself</i> nothing more than a physical event.
< 
< In fact, there is an article by an American, Thomas Nagel, that came out in the late 70’s called "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"  In this article Nagel argued roughly as follows.  You are familiar with the fact that bats use a certain kind of sonar, right?  They emit high-pitched shrieks which allow them to fly around in dark caves; they can tell how far away the walls are based on how their shrieks echo around in the cave.  Bat sonar allows bats to perceive distance, shape, size, and so on, in a way similar to, but obviously different from the way vision works for us.  Now Nagel invited us to ask, "So what <i>is</i> it like to be a bat, flying around in the dark using bat sonar?"  Surely bats do have experiences; we just don’t know what they are.  Suppose we were to take apart a bat brain and figure out how the neural apparatus for bat sonar works.  No doubt biologists have actually done so, dissected bat brains and so forth.  But in understanding how the bat brain works, do those biologists learn <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>like</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> <i>a</i> <i>bat</i>?  Well of course not.  They’re mucking around in the grey matter of bats.  In order to know what it’s like to be a bat, and to have bat sonar, why, you’d have to be a bat.  So argued Nagel.
< 
< So what’s the point of all this?  The point is that if indeed there are "bat qualia," then there are peculiar mental events of a sort that only bats have, and we cannot learn what they are like even if we have a detailed understanding of physical events going on in the bat brain.  Or to put it even more simply: there is a strange "bat sonar experience" we’ll never have.  We won’t have it even if we learn what physical events in bat brains are associated with bat sonar.  So that’s excellent evidence that mental events cannot be reduced to physical events; mental events must be regarded as quite a different sort of thing from physical events.  Really, you can make the same point without even bringing up weird cases like bat sonar.  Just think of your own unique feelings.  Do you think that a psychologist could, simply by digging around in your brain and doing tests on your grey matter, ever learn what that feeling was like?
< 
< So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might <i>reduce</i> the mental to the physical.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being.  So there you have one basic, powerful argument for dualism.
< 
< But there is another argument that I’m sure weighs heavily in some of your minds.  Namely, that you have an immortal souls that can survive your bodily death.  Traditional Christianity, like many other religions, teaches that you have a soul which is as different from your body as water is from rock.  Your body will die and then your soul will go to heaven, or hell, or who knows where.  If you believe this then you practically <i>must</i> believe in dualism.  The only way that you can avoid believing in dualism is if you accept phenomenalism, which holds that everything is, ultimately, mental.  But in any event you absolutely cannot hold that the soul is reducible to anything physical.  If events in your soul <i>were</i> reducible to events in your brain, then when your brain stopped functioning, your soul would cease to exist.
< 
< It’s not clear to me that this ought to be looked upon as an <i>argument</i> <i>for</i>  dualism, simply because those who challenge dualism from a physicalist position will not at all be impressed by it.  I mean, suppose you are trying to support dualism against a physicalist, who thinks that everything is, at bottom, physical.  Will it be at all impressive to say, "If I have an immortal soul, then mental events cannot be reduced to physical events"?  Not at all; the physicalist is precisely the sort of person who denies that you have an immortal soul, and who demands proof that in fact you <i>do</i> have an immortal soul.  You may not particularly care that you can’t convince the physicalist; but the point is that you should not do something that looks so much like begging the question.  Because if you argue: "I have an immortal soul; therefore dualism is true," then it sure does look like you’re begging the question.  You should prove that dualism is true, and thus that you have an immaterial, non-physical soul, <i>before</i> you try to prove that your soul is immortal!
< 
< So as far as arguing for dualistic interactionism goes, let’s just stick with the differences between the mental and the physical that I stated before.  Now, those are evidence for the <i>dualism</i> part.  What about the interactionism part, that is, the claim that mental and physical events causally interact?  Here we can just cite observational evidence.  We observe that physical events cause all sorts of mental events, and vice-versa.  Indeed, it’s hard to know how one might argue <i>against</i> the fact that there is such interaction, since it appears to go on all the time.  Anyway then, that’s all I’m going to say in favor of dualistic interactionism.
< 
< This theory has come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially this century.  The basic problem is: If dualism is true, then it is hard to see how mental and physical events can possibly interact causally.  How can something totally immaterial affect something totally material?  That’s the basic problem.  But let me break this basic problem into three parts.
< 
< First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place.  Burning my fingers causes pain, right?  Well, apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the nerves of my body that lead to my brain, to something happening in a particular part of my brain; <i>and</i> <i>then</i>, I feel pain.  But the pain is not supposed to be spatially located.  So what I want to know is, where does the interaction take place?  If you say, "It takes place in the brain," then I will say, "But I thought pains weren’t located anywhere."  And you, as a dualist, might stick to your guns and say, "That’s right, pains <i>aren’t</i> located anywhere; but the brain event that immediately leads to the pain <i>is</i> located in the brain."  But then we have a very strange causal relation on our hands.  The cause is located in a particular place but the effect is not located anywhere.  Well, you might say, that might be puzzling but it’s not a devastating criticism.
< 
< So look at a second problem about the interaction.  Namely, <i>how</i> does the interaction take place?  Maybe you think, "Well, that’s a matter for science -- scientists will eventually discover the connection between mental and physical events."  But philosophers have something to say about the matter, because the <i>very</i> <i>idea</i> of a <i>mechanism</i>, which explains the connection between the mental and the physical, would be very strange, at best.  Why do I say it would be strange?  Compare it to a mechanism that we <i>do</i> understand.  Take a very simple causal relation, such as when the cue ball strikes the eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket.  Here we can say that the cue ball has a certain amount of force as its mass accelerates across the pool table, and then that force is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket.  Now compare that to the situation in the brain, where we want to say a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus cause my body to move across the room.  The decision, "I will cross the room now," is a mental event; and as such it does not have physical properties such as force.  If it has no force, then how on earth could it cause any neuron to fire?  Is it magic?  Honestly, how could something without any physical properties have any physical <i>effects</i> at all?
< 
< Here you might reply, as some philosophers have indeed replied, as follows.  You might say: "Well sure, there is a mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events can occur; but the fact that there is a mystery doesn’t mean that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> no interaction.  Because plainly there is an interaction and plainly the interaction is between two totally different sorts of events."  Now I expect that some of you may want to say this.  But the problem with it is that it does not seem to answer the full power of the objection.
< 
< So let me explain the objection more precisely.  Let’s take as our example my decision to walk across the room.  We say: my decision, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in my brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in my walking across the room.  The problem is that if we have something totally nonphysical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing.  That means that some physical energy seems to have appeared out of thin air.  Do you see?  Even if we say that my decision has some sort of mental energy, and that the decision causes the firing, we still haven’t explained where the <i>physical</i> energy, for the firing, came from.  It just seems to have popped into existence from nowhere.
< 
< As our reading says, there is a physical principle, called the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy."  According to this principle, "In all physical processes, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant."  Or in a form you may have heard before: in any change anything undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed.  This is a basic principle you probably learned about in high school physics.  So the point is that nerve firings, which are allegedly caused by a totally nonphysical decision, would appear to violate the Principle of the Conservation of Energy.
< 
< Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
< 
< I said before that there are different kinds of dualism.  I am really not going to have time to discuss the other kinds.  But the other kinds do, anyway, accept that mental events and physical events both exist, and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
---
> The other kinds of dualism also accept that mental events and physical events both exist and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
------
DualisticInteractionism|981445435
5c5,41
< This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism--probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  In addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, which this theory shares with all other kinds of DualIsm, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When Johnny touches a hot stove and burns his skin, he feels a pain.  Touching the stove and burning his skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when he feels the pain, he says, "Ouch!"--and his saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  If we put the belief in that interaction together with DualIsm, we have got a very CommonSense theory of mind.
---
> This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism--probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  In addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, which this theory shares with all other kinds of DualIsm, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When Johnny touches a hot stove and burns his skin, he feels a pain.  Touching the stove and burning his skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when he feels the pain, he says, "Ouch!"--and his saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  If we put the belief in that interaction together with DualIsm, we have got a very CommonSense theory of mind.
> 
> Let’s look at some arguments for dualistic interactionism (which, henceforth, we will refer to as "dualism" for short).  How would we go about arguing for this theory?  I mean, aside from pointing out that it’s extremely commonsensical.  That’s got to count for something; perhaps it counts for a lot indeed.  But if we can help it the mere fact that it’s a matter of common sense shouldn’t be our <i>only</i> reason for accepting a theory.  So how would we go about arguing for dualism?  We point out the differences between the mental and the physical.  So let’s do that.  Let’s go over the differences between mental events and physical events.
> 
> First, mental events are not publicly observable.  When I touch the hot stove, you may see me whip back my hand and say "Ouch!" but you are not feeling my pain.  Unless you’re Mr. Spock, or God, you can’t as it were get inside my mind and take a look at what’s going on in there.  And of course it’s not just because my mind is hidden beneath my skull.  If you knew just where to look in my brain, you wouldn’t be able to see thoughts and feelings jiggling around in there.  That’s just not how it works.  So unlike physical events, like fireworks displays, mental events are private, not publicly observable.
> 
> Second, mental events are often said not to be spatially located.  Where is my pain supposed to be?  Maybe you could say in my fingertips, because they hurt.  But is that where the <i>feeling</i> is?  Does it really make sense to say that the <i>feeling</i> is in my aching fingertips?  That sounds a little funny, anyway.  A better example would be an emotion like happiness.  When I say I’m happy, can I locate my happiness in my head, or does it exist all my body, or something?  Doesn’t that sound odd?  It would seem better to say that my happiness isn’t the sort of thing that <i>can</i> be located in a particular place.
> 
> Third, more generally, mental events do not seem to have various physical properties which physical events have.  For one thing, mental events do not involve anything having mass, or physical motion.  We can’t weigh a thought.  We can’t say that a feeling has a velocity of 10 miles an hour.  To say such things is to talk nonsense.  Now you might say: that’s only because mental events are <i>events</i>.  You can’t say that physical events have mass or velocity either.  Point well enough taken; that’s true, no event, per se, has mass or velocity.  But physical events do <i>involve</i> objects which have mass and velocity.  Mental events do not have any components which have mass and velocity.  For example, when I think, "I like ice cream," I have a concept of ice cream; and my concept of ice cream has no mass and velocity.  Nothing involved in my appreciation for ice cream would appear to have any such physical properties.  This is a point to which we will have to return.  But on the face of it, this seems pretty obvious.
> 
> Fourth, mental events have a certain <i>subjective</i> quality to them, which physical events obviously do not.  I mean, for example, what a burned finger feels like, what sky blue looks like, what nice music sounds like, and so on.  I’m going to expand on this fourth point at some length.  Recently, philosophers have been calling the subjective aspects of mental events <i>qualia</i>, and they also call them <i>raw</i> <i>feels</i>.  There is something <i>that</i> <i>it’s</i> <i>like</i> to feel pain, to see a familiar shade of blue, and so on; there are <i>qualia</i> involved in these mental events.  And the claim is that qualia seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.  Just think of what that would involve.  You’d be saying: <i>feeling</i> <i>the</i> <i>top</i> <i>of</i> <i>my</i> <i>hand</i> <i>right</i> <i>now</i>, this "raw feel" I’m experiencing right now, is <i>itself</i> nothing more than a physical event.
> 
> In fact, there is an article by an American, Thomas Nagel, that came out in the late 70’s called "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"  In this article Nagel argued roughly as follows.  You are familiar with the fact that bats use a certain kind of sonar, right?  They emit high-pitched shrieks which allow them to fly around in dark caves; they can tell how far away the walls are based on how their shrieks echo around in the cave.  Bat sonar allows bats to perceive distance, shape, size, and so on, in a way similar to, but obviously different from the way vision works for us.  Now Nagel invited us to ask, "So what <i>is</i> it like to be a bat, flying around in the dark using bat sonar?"  Surely bats do have experiences; we just don’t know what they are.  Suppose we were to take apart a bat brain and figure out how the neural apparatus for bat sonar works.  No doubt biologists have actually done so, dissected bat brains and so forth.  But in understanding how the bat brain works, do those biologists learn <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>like</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> <i>a</i> <i>bat</i>?  Well of course not.  They’re mucking around in the grey matter of bats.  In order to know what it’s like to be a bat, and to have bat sonar, why, you’d have to be a bat.  So argued Nagel.
> 
> So what’s the point of all this?  The point is that if indeed there are "bat qualia," then there are peculiar mental events of a sort that only bats have, and we cannot learn what they are like even if we have a detailed understanding of physical events going on in the bat brain.  Or to put it even more simply: there is a strange "bat sonar experience" we’ll never have.  We won’t have it even if we learn what physical events in bat brains are associated with bat sonar.  So that’s excellent evidence that mental events cannot be reduced to physical events; mental events must be regarded as quite a different sort of thing from physical events.  Really, you can make the same point without even bringing up weird cases like bat sonar.  Just think of your own unique feelings.  Do you think that a psychologist could, simply by digging around in your brain and doing tests on your grey matter, ever learn what that feeling was like?
> 
> So there are at least four major differences between the mental and the physical, which make it difficult, to say the least, to understand how one might <i>reduce</i> the mental to the physical.  Mental events are not publicly observable; they are not spatially located; they do not involve physical properties such as mass and velocity; and there seems to be an irreducibly subjective aspect to them.  That seems to give us considerable reason to think that the mind and the body are two totally different categories of being.  So there you have one basic, powerful argument for dualism.
> 
> But there is another argument that I’m sure weighs heavily in some of your minds.  Namely, that you have an immortal souls that can survive your bodily death.  Traditional Christianity, like many other religions, teaches that you have a soul which is as different from your body as water is from rock.  Your body will die and then your soul will go to heaven, or hell, or who knows where.  If you believe this then you practically <i>must</i> believe in dualism.  The only way that you can avoid believing in dualism is if you accept phenomenalism, which holds that everything is, ultimately, mental.  But in any event you absolutely cannot hold that the soul is reducible to anything physical.  If events in your soul <i>were</i> reducible to events in your brain, then when your brain stopped functioning, your soul would cease to exist.
> 
> It’s not clear to me that this ought to be looked upon as an <i>argument</i> <i>for</i>  dualism, simply because those who challenge dualism from a physicalist position will not at all be impressed by it.  I mean, suppose you are trying to support dualism against a physicalist, who thinks that everything is, at bottom, physical.  Will it be at all impressive to say, "If I have an immortal soul, then mental events cannot be reduced to physical events"?  Not at all; the physicalist is precisely the sort of person who denies that you have an immortal soul, and who demands proof that in fact you <i>do</i> have an immortal soul.  You may not particularly care that you can’t convince the physicalist; but the point is that you should not do something that looks so much like begging the question.  Because if you argue: "I have an immortal soul; therefore dualism is true," then it sure does look like you’re begging the question.  You should prove that dualism is true, and thus that you have an immaterial, non-physical soul, <i>before</i> you try to prove that your soul is immortal!
> 
> So as far as arguing for dualistic interactionism goes, let’s just stick with the differences between the mental and the physical that I stated before.  Now, those are evidence for the <i>dualism</i> part.  What about the interactionism part, that is, the claim that mental and physical events causally interact?  Here we can just cite observational evidence.  We observe that physical events cause all sorts of mental events, and vice-versa.  Indeed, it’s hard to know how one might argue <i>against</i> the fact that there is such interaction, since it appears to go on all the time.  Anyway then, that’s all I’m going to say in favor of dualistic interactionism.
> 
> This theory has come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially this century.  The basic problem is: If dualism is true, then it is hard to see how mental and physical events can possibly interact causally.  How can something totally immaterial affect something totally material?  That’s the basic problem.  But let me break this basic problem into three parts.
> 
> First, it is not clear <i>where</i> the interaction would take place.  Burning my fingers causes pain, right?  Well, apparently there is some chain of events, leading from the burning of skin, to the stimulation of nerve endings, to something happening in the nerves of my body that lead to my brain, to something happening in a particular part of my brain; <i>and</i> <i>then</i>, I feel pain.  But the pain is not supposed to be spatially located.  So what I want to know is, where does the interaction take place?  If you say, "It takes place in the brain," then I will say, "But I thought pains weren’t located anywhere."  And you, as a dualist, might stick to your guns and say, "That’s right, pains <i>aren’t</i> located anywhere; but the brain event that immediately leads to the pain <i>is</i> located in the brain."  But then we have a very strange causal relation on our hands.  The cause is located in a particular place but the effect is not located anywhere.  Well, you might say, that might be puzzling but it’s not a devastating criticism.
> 
> So look at a second problem about the interaction.  Namely, <i>how</i> does the interaction take place?  Maybe you think, "Well, that’s a matter for science -- scientists will eventually discover the connection between mental and physical events."  But philosophers have something to say about the matter, because the <i>very</i> <i>idea</i> of a <i>mechanism</i>, which explains the connection between the mental and the physical, would be very strange, at best.  Why do I say it would be strange?  Compare it to a mechanism that we <i>do</i> understand.  Take a very simple causal relation, such as when the cue ball strikes the eight ball and causes it to go into the pocket.  Here we can say that the cue ball has a certain amount of force as its mass accelerates across the pool table, and then that force is transferred to the eight ball, which then heads toward the pocket.  Now compare that to the situation in the brain, where we want to say a decision causes some neurons to fire and thus cause my body to move across the room.  The decision, "I will cross the room now," is a mental event; and as such it does not have physical properties such as force.  If it has no force, then how on earth could it cause any neuron to fire?  Is it magic?  Honestly, how could something without any physical properties have any physical <i>effects</i> at all?
> 
> Here you might reply, as some philosophers have indeed replied, as follows.  You might say: "Well sure, there is a mystery about how the interaction between mental and physical events can occur; but the fact that there is a mystery doesn’t mean that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> no interaction.  Because plainly there is an interaction and plainly the interaction is between two totally different sorts of events."  Now I expect that some of you may want to say this.  But the problem with it is that it does not seem to answer the full power of the objection.
> 
> So let me explain the objection more precisely.  Let’s take as our example my decision to walk across the room.  We say: my decision, a mental event, immediately causes a group of neurons in my brain to fire, a physical event, which ultimately results in my walking across the room.  The problem is that if we have something totally nonphysical <i>causing</i> a bunch of neurons to fire, then there is no <i>physical</i> event which causes the firing.  That means that some physical energy seems to have appeared out of thin air.  Do you see?  Even if we say that my decision has some sort of mental energy, and that the decision causes the firing, we still haven’t explained where the <i>physical</i> energy, for the firing, came from.  It just seems to have popped into existence from nowhere.
> 
> As our reading says, there is a physical principle, called the "Principle of the Conservation of Energy."  According to this principle, "In all physical processes, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant."  Or in a form you may have heard before: in any change anything undergoes, energy is neither created nor destroyed.  This is a basic principle you probably learned about in high school physics.  So the point is that nerve firings, which are allegedly caused by a totally nonphysical decision, would appear to violate the Principle of the Conservation of Energy.
> 
> Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
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DualIsm|981445581
3c3
< ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.  The most common variety of dualism is DualisticInteractionism.  The latter is the CommonSense view of the mind--or so it would seem.  But there is a puzzle about how the mind and body interact causally, and this puzzle is more serious than might appear at first.  See DualisticInteractionism for details.
---
> ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.
5c5,9
< The other kinds of dualism also accept that mental events and physical events both exist and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.  For example, according to a theory called <i>parallelism</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said by God; so that when a mental event such as my decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that my body heads across the room.  But there isn’t any cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.
---
> The most common variety of dualism is DualisticInteractionism.  This seems to be the CommonSense view of the mind.  But there is a puzzle about how the mind and body interact causally, and this puzzle is more serious than might appear at first.  See DualisticInteractionism for details.
> 
> The other kinds of dualism also accept that mental events and physical events both exist and that they are totally different kinds of events; but unlike interactionism, they deny that mental and physical events causally interact.
> 
> According to a theory called <i>ParallelIsm</i>, mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said, by God; so that when a mental event such as Sally's decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that Sally's body heads across the room.  But there is no cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.  This is view closely associated with GottfriedLeibniz.
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ParallelIsm|981445624
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>ParallelIsm</i> is the view that mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said, by God; so that when a mental event such as Sally's decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that Sally's body heads across the room.  But there is no cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.  This is view closely associated with GottfriedLeibniz, but no longer taken very seriously by very many people.
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DualIsm|981445733
11c11
< Then there is another kind of dualism, called <i>epiphenomenalism</i>, according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if I eat a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by my eating the candy bar; but if I decide to get another candy bar, my decision does not cause my body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word "epiphenomenon" means, roughly, "by-product."  That’s why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
---
> A third kind of dualism, called <i>EpiphenomenalIsm</i>, has it that physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''epiphenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
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EpiphenomenalIsm|981445777
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Epiphenomenalism</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''epiphenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
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ParallelIsm|981445809
1c1
< <i>ParallelIsm</i> is the view that mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said, by God; so that when a mental event such as Sally's decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that Sally's body heads across the room.  But there is no cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.  This is view closely associated with GottfriedLeibniz, but no longer taken very seriously by very many people.
---
> <i>ParallelIsm</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which mental events and physical events are perfectly coordinated, it is said, by God; so that when a mental event such as Sally's decision to walk across the room occurs, then it just so happens that Sally's body heads across the room.  But there is no cause-effect relation between mind and body; mental and physical events are just perfectly coordinated, in advance, by God.  This is view closely associated with GottfriedLeibniz, but no longer taken very seriously by very many people.
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DualisticInteractionism|981445918
5c5
< This is <i>one</i> kind of dualism--probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  In addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, which this theory shares with all other kinds of DualIsm, dualistic interactionism includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When Johnny touches a hot stove and burns his skin, he feels a pain.  Touching the stove and burning his skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when he feels the pain, he says, "Ouch!"--and his saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  If we put the belief in that interaction together with DualIsm, we have got a very CommonSense theory of mind.
---
> This is <i>one</i> kind of DualIsm--probably the most popular and well-known, but still only one kind.  Two other kinds include ParallelIsm and EpiphenomenalIsm.  In addition to the claim that the mental cannot be reduced to the physical and vice-versa, a claim common to all kinds of DualIsm, dualistic interactionism also includes the claim that there is a  <i>causal</i> <i>interaction</i> between mental events and physical events.  When Johnny touches a hot stove and burns his skin, he feels a pain.  Touching the stove and burning his skin are physical events; feeling pain is a mental event.   And when he feels the pain, he says, "Ouch!"--and his saying a word is a physical event.  This sort of interaction between the mental and the physical is commonplace, and that it actually happens seems as obvious as anything can be.  If we put the belief in that interaction together with DualIsm, we have got a very CommonSense theory of mind.
41c41
< Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
---
> Now, dualistic interactionists have tried to answer these objections, and other such objections, but most philosophers these days are impressed by their answers.  It has come to the point where, in fact, there aren’t very many interactionists around, and there haven’t been many for decades.  When I say this, I don’t mean to imply that dualistic interactionism is false.  All I mean to imply is that many philosophers today think it is false, and perhaps also that, if you want to hold onto interactionism yourself, you should try to come up with some effective replies to these objections.
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TheMindBodyProblem|981446029
27c27
< If you are thinking that this is far too many possible positions to consider, just wait -- it gets worse -- because within each category there are further refinements to be made.  So we’re going to have to spend the rest of the day trying to come to grips with the refinements and the basic objections that can be made to these different theories.  But we are going to focus almost all of our energies on just two theories, namely, <i>dualistic</i> <i>interactionism</i>, and <i>type</i> <i>physicalism</i>.
---
> This is already a lot of positions to consider, but it gets worse: within each category there are further refinements to be made.
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LarrysText|981446104
15c15
< ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- PhysicalIsm PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
---
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
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DualIsm|981446217
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText; wikification has begun on it but further wikification is encouraged> 
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikified; further development is encouraged> 
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DualIsm|981446249
3c3
< ''DualIsm'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.
---
> ''Dualism'' can be characterized in various ways; on one account, it is simply the view that MentalEvent""s and PhysicalEvent""s are totally different kinds of events.
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PhilosophyOfMind|981446695
3,4d2
< It is possible to do a lot of philosophy without talking about human beings.  But probably <i>most</i> of philosophy <i>does</i> in some way depend on questions about human nature and the human situation, and the human mind is of course fundamental to human nature.  So, a great deal of the rest of philosophy ultimately rests on questions about the human mind.
< 
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PhiloSophy|981473842
13c13
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman
---
> ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
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GreekMythology|981473970
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy --
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HelenOfTroy|981474017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> Whose face launched a thousand ships...
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GreekMythology|981474729
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy --
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA --
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AthenA|981474771
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> Greek goddess of wisdom, the practical arts, and warfare.
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ApollO|981475156
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> Greek god, twin of ArtemiS. Both are children of ZeuS and LetO
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GreekMythology|981475193
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA --
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> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO
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SanIty|981478124
15c15,19
< ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity?
---
> ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity
> ----
> Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other belweathers of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
> 
> Besides - I was unaware WikiPedia was to remain mainstream, or to repeat what other publications have already said over and over?
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AustriA|981478286
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide. (This point is widely contended outside of AustriA).
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> Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
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AustriA|981478299
9c9
< Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.
---
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
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IdiosyncratiC|981479722
3c3
< Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the sanity of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits.  EinsteiN did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible.
---
> Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the SanIty of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits.  He did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school, though he is widely recognized as a mathematical genius.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible. Some of this data, I obtained from my father, a physicist who knew EinsteiN. -- AyeSpy
11c11
< ...as would be implicit in my remark that idiosyncracy may be fundamental or incidental to the SanitY of an idea...
---
> ...as would be implicit in my remark that idiosyncracy may be fundamental or incidental to the SanIty of an idea... -- AyeSpy
------
AyeSpy|981480710
1,2c1,3
< Ayespy has over 3900 classroom and field hours in investigative and intelligence training - the equivalent of more than a master's degree in his field.  He has 21 years as a private 
< investigator for law firms.
---
> AyeSpy has no college degree, and has not attended an accredited InstituteOfHigherLearning.  He declares that his ramblings should not be regarded as authoritative or mainstream, but rather the IdiosyncratiC, (though hopefully well-considered) views of one looking from the outside in.
> 
> AyeSpy has over 3900 classroom and field hours in investigative and intelligence training - including classes in ethics, human behavior and psychology, methods of managing interpersonal interaction; the equivalent of more than a master's degree in his field.  He has 21 years as a private investigator for law firms.
12c13
< He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.
---
> He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.  He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness.
16,23c17
< AyeSpy
< Investigator
< 
< Job Duties:
< 
< Photos of plaintiff and defendant vehicle damages
< 
< Photos/videography of client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities
---
> AyeSpy as Investigator - Job Duties:
25c19
< Photos or micro-photography of physical evidence and of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
---
> Photos/videography/diagraming of accident scenes, plaintiff and defendant vehicles, client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities.
27c21
< Photography and scale diagraming of scenes, to clarify liability or fact issues
---
> Photos/videography of Photos or micro-photography of physical evidence and of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
117c111
< To see the actual list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
---
> To see the list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
------
NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|981482398
1c1,3
< 2000 - ArvidCarlsson, PaulGreengard, EricKandel 
---
> *2000 - ArvidCarlsson, PaulGreengard, EricKandel 
> 
> *1908 - PaulEhrlich
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleTwo|981482490
1c1,176
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and
> House of Representatives. 
> 
> Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states,
> and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 
> 
> No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
> United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to
> their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service
> for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within
> three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such
> manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall
> have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse
> three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four,
> Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
> 
> When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
> vacancies. 
> 
> The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
> 
> Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof
> 
> , for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
> 
> Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
> classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the
> expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year;
> and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make
> temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
> 
> No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States
> and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
> 
> The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall
> exercise the office of President of the United States. 
> 
> The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
> When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the
> concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
> 
> Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
> office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment,
> trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
> 
> Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by
> the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
> Senators. 
> 
> The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall
> by law appoint a different day. 
> 
> Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
> constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
> attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
> 
> Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two
> thirds, expel a member. 
> 
> Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
> judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
> those present, be entered on the journal. 
> 
> Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
> other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
> 
> Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of
> the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
> during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or
> debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
> 
> No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of
> the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no
> person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
> 
> Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
> amendments as on other Bills. 
> 
> Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
> President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it
> shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
> reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House,
> by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the
> votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be
> entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays
> excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress
> by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
> 
> Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
> question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be
> approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according
> to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
> 
> Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
> common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United
> States; 
> 
> To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
> 
> To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; 
> 
> To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 
> 
> To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
> 
> To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 
> 
> To establish post offices and post roads; 
> 
> To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
> respective writings and discoveries; 
> 
> To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
> 
> To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 
> 
> To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 
> 
> To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 
> 
> To provide and maintain a navy; 
> 
> To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 
> 
> To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 
> 
> To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
> service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
> militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
> 
> To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
> particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like
> authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts,
> magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And 
> 
> To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by
> this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
> 
> Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
> prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such
> importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
> 
> The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
> require it. 
> 
> No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 
> 
> No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
> 
> No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 
> 
> No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall
> vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 
> 
> No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account
> of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 
> 
> No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without
> the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign
> state. 
> 
> Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills
> of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
> impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely
> necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
> shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
> agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent
> danger as will not admit of delay. 
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|981482989
3d2
< I really like the wrapping version with dots.  The only reason I didn't use it in the first place is simple ignorance.  I didn't know it was possible! We can refactor this page soon. --JimboWales
5,90c4,35
< Form question:  Do we want lists such as these to look like this:
< 
<  2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
<  1999 -- RobertAMundell
<  1998 -- AmartyaSen
<  1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
<  1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
< 
< Or like this:
< 
< 1995 -- RobertELucasJr
< 
< 1994 -- ReinhardSelten, JohnFNashJr, JohnCHarsanyi
< 
< 1993 -- RobertWFogel, DouglasCNorth
< 
< 1992 -- GarySBecker
< 
< In the first case, the list is tauter, but lines do not wrap, so if a comment it added alongside a name it will just run off the side of the page.
< 
< 1991 -- RonaldHCoase
< 
< 1990 -- HarryMMarkowitz, MertonHMiller, WilliamFSharpe
< 
< 1989 -- Trygve Haavelmo
< 
< 1988 -- MauriceAllais
< 
< 1987 -- RobertMSolow
< 
< 1986 -- JamesMBuchananJr
< 
< 1985 -- FrancoModigliani
< 
< 1984 -- RichardStone
< 
< 1983 -- GerardDebreu
< 
< 1982 -- GeorgeJStigler
< 
< 1981 -- JamesTobin
< 
< 1980 -- 
< 
< 1979 -- 
< 
< 1978 -- 
< 
< 1977 -- 
< 
< 1976 -- 
< 
< 1975 -- 
< 
< 1974 -- 
< 
< 1973 -- 
< 
< 1972 -- 
< 
< 1971 -- 
< 
< 1970 -- 
< 
< 1969 -- 
< 
< ----
< Other choices for lists include:
< 
< *2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
< *1999 -- RobertAMundell
< *1998 -- AmartyaSen  (Here is some sample long text that goes on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and so forth and longer until it will wrap around on almost anyone's browser.)
< *1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
< *1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
< 
< or even:
< 
< :2000 -- JamesJHeckman, DanielLMcFadden
< :1999 -- RobertAMundell
< :1998 -- AmartyaSen  (Here is some sample long text that goes on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and on and so forth and longer until it will wrap around on almost anyone's browser.)
< :1997 -- RobertCMerton, MyronSScholes
< :1996 -- JamesAMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
< 
< ...Both of which will wrap nicely.
< ---- 
< I'd say we should go for any of the wraping versions. if a text does not wrap it is too much a hassle for the reader. -- WojPob
---
> *2000 -- JamesHeckman, DanielMcFadden
> *1999 -- RobertMundell
> *1998 -- AmartyaSen
> *1997 -- RobertMerton, MyronScholes
> *1996 -- JamesMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
> *1995 -- RobertLucasJr
> *1994 -- ReinhardSelten, JohnNashJr, JohnHarsanyi
> *1993 -- RobertFogel, DouglasNorth
> *1992 -- GaryBecker
> *1991 -- RonaldCoase
> *1990 -- HarryMarkowitz, MertonMiller, WilliamSharpe
> *1989 -- TrygveHaavelmo
> *1988 -- MauriceAllais
> *1987 -- RobertSolow
> *1986 -- JamesBuchananJr
> *1985 -- FrancoModigliani
> *1984 -- RichardStone
> *1983 -- GerardDebreu
> *1982 -- GeorgeStigler
> *1981 -- JamesTobin
> *1980 -- LawrenceKlein
> *1979 -- TheodoreSchultz, ArthurLewis
> *1978 -- HerbertSimon
> *1977 -- BertilOhlin, JamesMeade
> *1976 -- MiltonFriedman
> *1975 -- LeonidKantorovich, TjallingKoopmans
> *1974 -- GunnarMyrdal, FriedrichHayek
> *1973 -- WassilyLeontief
> *1972 -- JohnHicks, KennethArrow
> *1971 -- SimonKuznets
> *1970 -- PaulSamuelson
> *1969 -- RagnarFrisch, JanTinbergen
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|981483017
4,10c4,7
< 2000 - ZhoresIAlferov, HerbertKroemer, JackSKilby
< 
< 1999 - GerardusTHooft, MartinusJGVeltman
< 
< 1998 - RobertBLaughlin, HorstLStormer, DanielCTsui
< 
< 1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
---
> *2000 - ZhoresIAlferov, HerbertKroemer, JackSKilby
> *1999 - GerardusTHooft, MartinusJGVeltman
> *1998 - RobertBLaughlin, HorstLStormer, DanielCTsui
> *1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentOne|981483627
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom
> of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
> 
> ----
> 
> /AmendmentOneTalk
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwo|981483684
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be
> infringed. 
> ----
> 
> /AmendmentTwoTalk
------
AustriA|981483973
9d8
< <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981484008
70c70,73
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
---
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
> ----
> From AustriA:
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
------
PerCapitaIncome|981484775
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The "per capita income" for an area may be defined as the total personal income in an area, divided by the number of people in that area.
> 
> A ranking of the top 10 countries, according to the 1999 CIA World Factbook
> 
> # LuxembourG $32,700
> # UnitedStates $31,500
> # BermudA $30,000
> # SwitzerlanD $26,400
> # SingaporE $26,300
> # HongKong $25,100
> # MonacO $25,000
> # NorwaY $24,700
> # CaymanIslands $24,500
> # BelgiuM $23,400
------
SanIty|981485017
17c17
< Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other belweathers of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
---
> Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other hallmarks of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
------
SanIty|981486016
19a20,21
> ----
> Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981486119
73c73,75
< <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
---
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
> 
> ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
------
PerCapitaIncome|981486174
14c14,18
< # BelgiuM $23,400
---
> # BelgiuM $23,400
> 
> ----
> 
> See also PerCapitaIncomeTalk.
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|981486212
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ah, but what is the ranking of ''median'' incomes, which is probably more meaningful to the ordinary person than ''mean'' incomes? -- LarrySanger
------
SanIty|981486287
13,21c13
< This article is actually better regarded as being about insanity, a topic about which many reams have been written.  Examples of encyclopedia articles about this topic for your reference: [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,118185+1+109830,00.html?query=insanity mental disorder] -- [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,43445+1+42488,00.html?query=insanity insanity (topic in the law)] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761573719 mental health] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761553774 insanity (topic in the law)]
< 
< ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity
< ----
< Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other hallmarks of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
< 
< Besides - I was unaware WikiPedia was to remain mainstream, or to repeat what other publications have already said over and over?
< ----
< Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
---
> See also SanityTalk.
------
SanityTalk|981486309
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This article is actually better regarded as being about insanity, a topic about which many reams have been written.  Examples of encyclopedia articles about this topic for your reference: [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,118185+1+109830,00.html?query=insanity mental disorder] -- [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,43445+1+42488,00.html?query=insanity insanity (topic in the law)] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761573719 mental health] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761553774 insanity (topic in the law)]
> 
> ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other hallmarks of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
> 
> Besides - I was unaware WikiPedia was to remain mainstream, or to repeat what other publications have already said over and over?
> ----
> Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981487902
30c30
< 1. No public healthcare ( ever seen ER w/George Clooney).
---
> 1. No public healthcare ( ever seen ER w/ GeorgeClooney).
------
UnitedStates/AmericasPoor|981488264
2a3,19
> ----
> I was going to attempt to refactor this page, but gosh, it
> seems too difficult still.  Perhaps we can reach some consensus
> about what should appear here?
> 
> TimShell would like to make the point that America is so wealthy, that even people we consider poor would be considered middle class by the standards of much of the world.  That's certainly a valid point.
> 
> There are also valid other questions here, too.  What about the availability and quality of health care available to poor people in America as compared to countries with socialized medicine?
> What about crime, which tends to affect the poorest segments of society most?
> 
> 
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
AustriA|981488979
9,16c9,11
< 
< Currently (2001) rightwing fpoe, oevp coalition in the government. People who dislike this government still meet every Thursday at the "BallhausplatZ" in the inner city for the weekly demonstration.
< 
< ---- 
< The leader of the fpoe, the party, which is a member of the coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. Please  do something. 
< 
< 
< Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment -- WojPob
---
> Currently (2001) there is a right-wing coalition in the government made up of the FPOE and the OEVP.
> ----
> See also AustriaAdvocacy
------
AustriaAdvocacy|981488988
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> People who dislike the FPOE/OEVP government still meet every Thursday at the "BallhausplatZ" in the inner city for the weekly demonstration.
> 
> The leader of the fpoe, the party, which is a member of the coalition of the Austrian Government, has quite often expressed his xenophophic views. Mr. Joerg Haider has held a series of meetings with the veterans of the SS-Corps [the prime suspects of the holocaust - the final solution of to eliminate Jews in EuropE]. The student community in AustriA has got a very big problem with the nationalist government, which tries to suppress our freedom of speech [mailto:wojtas@iname.com - Support us here]. The protests will continue. Please  do something. 
> 
> Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment -- WojPob
------
MetaEthics|981489124
3,53c3,5
< A. Naturalism.
< 
< Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
< 
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
< 
< The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
< 
< Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
< 
< (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
< 
< (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
< 
< (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
< 
< Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
< 
< I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
< 
< The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
< 
< <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
< 
< First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
< 
< To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
< 
< So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
< 
< That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
< 
< And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
< 
< OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
< 
< But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
< 
< Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< B. Non-naturalism.
< 
< And if naturalism really does seem implausible to you, then you may like the second theory, which we can call <i>non</i>-<i>naturalism</i>.  This can be defined as follows:
---
> See:
> * EthicalNaturalism.
> * EthicalNonNaturalism.
------
EthicalNaturalism|981489138
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
> The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
> 
> <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
> 
> First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
> 
> To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
> 
> So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
> 
> That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
> 
> And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
> 
> OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
> 
> But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
> 
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
------
EthicalNaturalism|981489158
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
> 
------
MetaEthics|981489197
1,2d0
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
4,93c2,3
< * EthicalNaturalism.
< * EthicalNonNaturalism.
< 
< <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
< 
< To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
< 
< Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
< 
< Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
< 
< So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
< 
< OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
< 
< The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
< 
< But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
< 
< Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
< 
< But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
< 
< If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
< 
< One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
< 
< Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
< 
< We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
< 
< So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
< 
< Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
< 
< Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
< 
< Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
< 
< So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
< 
< That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
< 
< (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
< 
< (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
< 
< What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
< 
< Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
< 
< Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
< 
< So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
< 
< So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
< 
< 
< 
< C. Non-cognitivism.
< 
< We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
< 
< <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
< 
< So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
< 
< Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
< 
< Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
< 
< I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
< 
< The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
< 
< Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
< 
< I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
< 
< Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
< 
< It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
< 
< Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
< 
< So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
< 
< Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.  But we don’t have time to go into it any further.  We have bigger fish to fry.  
---
> * EthicalNaturalism
> * EthicalNonNaturalism
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EthicalNonNaturalism|981489218
1c1,87
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
> 
> To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
> 
> Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
> 
> Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
> 
> So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
> 
> OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
> 
> The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
> 
> But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
> 
> Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
> 
> But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
> 
> If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
> 
> One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
> 
> Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
> 
> We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
> 
> So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
> 
> Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
> 
> Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
> 
> Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
> 
> So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
> 
> That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
> 
> (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
> 
> (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
> 
> What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
> 
> Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
> 
> Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
> 
> So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
> 
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
> 
> 
> 
> C. Non-cognitivism.
> 
> We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
> 
> So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
> 
> Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
> 
> Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
> 
> I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
> 
> The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
> 
> Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
> 
> I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
> 
> Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
> 
> It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
> 
> Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
> 
> So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
> 
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
------
EthicalNonNaturalism|981489293
55,87c55
< So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
< 
< 
< 
< C. Non-cognitivism.
< 
< We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
< 
< <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
< 
< So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
< 
< Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
< 
< Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
< 
< I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
< 
< The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
< 
< Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
< 
< I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
< 
< Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
< 
< It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
< 
< Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
< 
< So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
< 
< Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
---
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
------
MetaEthics|981489332
2,3c2,4
< * EthicalNaturalism
< * EthicalNonNaturalism
---
> * /Naturalism
> * /NonNaturalism
> * /NonCognitivism
------
MetaEthics/NonCognitivism|981489344
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
> 
> So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
> 
> Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
> 
> Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
> 
> I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
> 
> The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
> 
> Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
> 
> I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
> 
> Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
> 
> It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
> 
> Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
> 
> So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
> 
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
------
EthicalNaturalism|981489378
1,41c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
< 
< Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
< 
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
< 
< The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
< 
< Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
< 
< (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
< 
< (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
< 
< (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
< 
< Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
< 
< I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
< 
< The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
< 
< <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
< 
< First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
< 
< To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
< 
< So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
< 
< That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
< 
< And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
< 
< OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
< 
< But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
< 
< Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
---
> 
------
MetaEthics/Naturalism|981489390
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
> 
> Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
> The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
> 
> <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
> 
> First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
> 
> To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
> 
> So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
> 
> That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
> 
> And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
> 
> OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
> 
> But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
> 
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
------
EthicalNonNaturalism|981489422
1,55c1
< <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
< 
< To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
< 
< Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
< 
< Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
< 
< So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
< 
< OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
< 
< The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
< 
< But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
< 
< Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
< 
< But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
< 
< If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
< 
< One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
< 
< Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
< 
< We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
< 
< So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
< 
< Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
< 
< Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
< 
< Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
< 
< So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
< 
< That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
< 
< (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
< 
< (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
< 
< What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
< 
< Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
< 
< Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
< 
< So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
< 
< So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
---
> 
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MetaEthics/NonNaturalism|981489438
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
> 
> To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
> 
> Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
> 
> Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
> 
> So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
> 
> OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
> 
> The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
> 
> But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
> 
> Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
> 
> But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
> 
> If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
> 
> One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
> 
> Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
> 
> We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
> 
> So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
> 
> Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
> 
> Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
> 
> Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
> 
> So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
> 
> That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
> 
> (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
> 
> (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
> 
> What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
> 
> Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
> 
> Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
> 
> So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
> 
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
------
MetaEthics/NonCognitivism|981489512
0a1,2
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
> 
27c29
< Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
---
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
------
LarrysText|981489559
21c21
< ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
---
> ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
------
AaA|981490060
1,35c1
< AfghanistaN
<      
< AlbaniA 
<      
< AlgeriA
<      
< AmericanSamoa 
<      
< AndorrA
<      
< AngolA 
<      
< AnguillA 
<      
< AntarcticA 
<      
< AntiguaAndBarbuda 
<      
< ArcticOcean 
<      
< ArgentinA
<      
< ArmeniA 
<      
< ArubA
< 
< AshmoreAndCartierIslands 
<      
< AtlanticOcean 
<      
< AustraliA
<      
< AustriA 
<      
< AzerbaijaN
---
> The use of this page is now discouraged.
------
RecentChanges|981490219
1a2,3
> 
> Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
------
SportS|981490515
27c27
< * Tennis
---
> * TenniS
------
TenniS|981490550
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> FemaleTennisProfessionals
> MaleTennisProfessionals
------
FemaleTennisProfessionals|981490883
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the best female tennis professionals.  This is the
> top 20 from the WTA, as of January 29, 2001.  It could perhaps be updated to the most recent ranking in the future, or else converted into a broader list of famous tennis pros.
> 
> #MartinaHingis
> #LindsayDavenport
> #VenusWilliams
> #MonicaSeles
> #SerenaWilliams
> #ConchitaMartinez
> #JenniferCapriati
> #MaryPierce
> #AnnaKournikova
> #AmandaCoetzer
> #NathalieTauziat
> #ElenaDementieva
> #ArantxaSanchez
> #ChandaRubin
> #SandrineTestud
> #KimClijsters
> #AnkeHuber
> #AmyFrazier
> #AmelieMauresmo
------
MaleTennisProfessionals|981491269
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the best male tennis professionals. This is the top 20 from the ATP, as of February 5, 2001. It could perhaps be updated to the most recent ranking in the future, or else converted into a broader list of famous tennis pros.     
> 
> #AndreAgassi
> #ArnaudClement
> #SebastianGrosjean
> #PatrickRafter
> #EvgueniKafelnikov
> #GregRusedski
> #RogerFederer
> #LleytonHewitt
> #MagnusNorman
> #MarceloRios
> #MichalTabara
> #MartinTodd
> #CarlosMoya
> #FernandoVicente
> #BohdanUlihrach
> #TimHenman
> #TommyHaas
> #RainerSchuettler
> #JuanIgnacioChela
------
MaleTennisProfessionals|981491321
6a7
> #DominikHrbaty
21c22
< #JuanIgnacioChela
---
> #JuanIgnacioChela
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981491555
75a76,77
> 
> ''Ever been to AustriA?? Then you'll know what I mean;-)''
------
AndreAgassi|981492601
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Andre Agassi is a famous professional tennis player.  He was born April 29, 1970, and by the year 2000 he had won over $19 million in prize money and achieved a number 1 ranking on the ATP tour.
> 
> Agassi married actress BrookeShields in 1997, and divorced in 1999.
> 
> What were Agassi's earliest major tennis victories?  Did he play tennis as a child?  Where was he born?  Where did he grow up?
> Where did he go to school?
> 
> If you know the answers to these questions, then you can edit this page and add them now!  Just hit 'edit this page' below.
------
TenniS|981492918
0a1
> If you are a tennis fan, you can help the Wikipedia free encyclopedia by writing a short biography for your favorite tennis professional.
2,3c3,4
< FemaleTennisProfessionals
< MaleTennisProfessionals
---
>  FemaleTennisProfessionals
>  MaleTennisProfessionals
------
AcademyAwards|981493431
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Academy Awards are the most prominent film award in the UnitedStates.  The Awards are granted by the AcademyofMotionPictureArtsandSciences, a professional honorary organization with over 6000 members currently.
> 
> Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including /BestPicture, /BestDirectory,/ BestActor, and /BestActress. 
> 
> A list of awards (incomplete, please add more!):
> 
> */BestPicture
> */BestActor (in a leading role) */BestActress (in a leading role)
> */BestSupportingActor           */BestSupportingActress
> */BestDirector
------
AcademyAwards/BestPicture|981493691
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners...
> 
> *2001
> *2000 AmericanBeauty
> *1999 ShakespeareInLove
> *1998 TitaniC
> *1997 TheEnglishPatient
> *1996 BravehearT
> *1995 ForrestGump
> *1994 SchindlersList
> *1993 UnforgiveN
> *1992 SilenceOfTheLambs
> *1991 DancesWithWolves
> *1990 DrivingMissDaisy
> 
> 
> etc.
------
SanityTalk|981494344
9c9,11
< Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
---
> Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Of course it is.  I believe once you see the finished article you will not find it biased, though it may throw a fresh light on some things.  As always, I will stand ready to make adjustments if folks want.  Anything I write is going to be from my point of view.  Unlike anything I write for Nupedia, I am apt to rely of my storehouse of retained information and conclusions synthesized from it, and not research, re-research, buttress and pepper the text with references from others' scholarly works.  All valid views are not necessarily mainstream.  All mainstream views are not necessarily valid.  I will, however, always attempt to rest what I write solidly upon either published research, replicable empirical observation, or both.  You let me know if I mis-remember or mis-represent anything, and I'll fix it.  
------
TitaniC|981494394
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Quite possibly the worst film to ever receive an award of any kind.
> 
> I know, I know, that's a very bad writeup.  I'm just having fun
> and trying to get some attention.  We can erase this when we get a good writeup.  :-)  --JimboWales
> 
> --
------
SanityTalk|981494834
0a1,3
> You people are driving me crazy!  *wink*  Just kidding.  I couldn't resist.  Keep talking... --JimboWales
> ----
> 
------
RulesToConsider|981495604
1c1
< Since this is a wiki, there are no editors.  We must rely on developing our own good habits and occasionally taking a bit of time to correct the results of someone else's bad habits.  But it might help to specifically enunciate particularly rules that ''some'' of us wish we'd make an effort to follow.  So here's a page containing such rules.  Two suggested features of this page are: add your name to a list of the rule's "supporters" to get an idea of how strongly WikiPedian""s support a rule, and "[nameofrule]Debate" pages where we can talk about the merits of the proposed rule.  (The latter will help keep this page nice and clean for those people who are mainly interested in the rules themselves.)
---
> Since this is a wiki, there are no editors.  We must rely on developing our own good habits and occasionally taking a bit of time to correct the results of someone else's bad habits.  But it might help to specifically enunciate particularly rules that ''some'' of us wish we'd make an effort to follow.  So here's a page containing such rules.  Two suggested features of this page are: add your name to a list of the rule's "supporters" to get an idea of how strongly WikiPedians support a rule, and "[nameofrule]Debate" pages where we can talk about the merits of the proposed rule.  (The latter will help keep this page nice and clean for those people who are mainly interested in the rules themselves.)
------
RulesToConsider|981495746
6a7,14
> '''Ignore all rules:''' If rules make your nervous and depressed, and not desirous of participating in the wiki, then ignore them entirely and go about your business.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
> 
> ''See IgnoreAllRulesDebate''
> 
> ----
> 
------
IgnoreAllRulesDebate|981495819
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think that those people who hate rules should ignore them, and let other people, who do care about rules, try, ''just try,'' to enforce 'em. -- LarrySanger
------
AustriA|981496007
5c5
< Language Spoken: GermaN and a large number of dialects
---
> Language Spoken: GermaN and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
11c11
< See also AustriaAdvocacy
---
> See also AustriaAdvocacy
------
RulesToConsider|981496073
9c9
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob
------
AustriaLanguage|981496108
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I know nothing about Austrian dialects.  Could someone please write a little about this?  I'm very curious.  I lived in Bayern for sechs Monaten and was exposed a bit to Bayerisch (sp?).  What Austrian dialects are there, and are they all or mostly comprehensible dialects of German? -- LarrySanger  (delete this info-request when you answer it please...)
------
AyeSpy|981496468
111a112,113
> ----
> Bruce, I think you underestimate the value of SeriousScholarship.
------
SeriousScholarship|981496533
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See SeriousScholarshipTalk.
------
SeriousScholarshipTalk|981496877
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thesis: serious scholarship produces something of value which those who have not engaged in it in some cases cannot properly appreciate.  Their failure to appreciate it is what makes so many CrankS.
> 
> Why should we ''care'' about idiosyncratic views of someone from the outside looking in?  Usually, no matter how intelligent and wide-ranging one's experience, if one has not done ''serious study'' of the subject, one is bound to sound like a crank, and you will simply annoy and turn away serious students of the subject and those who value serious scholarship.  And by "serious scholarship" that I do ''not'' mean university study--university study is only one, certainly not infallible, way to engage in serious study.
> 
> What, then, does serious study of a subject require?  It requires, first, acknowledging that you don't know very much about the subject.  Second, it requires reading many books and (for academic and most professional disciplines) journal articles, until one is familiar with the leading theories, concepts, jargon, people, and historical trends that are recognized by experts in the field.
> 
> Serious study of a subject does ''not''--emphatically ''not''--require that one buy into any particular current theories.
------
SeriousScholarshipTalk|981496893
7c7,9
< Serious study of a subject does ''not''--emphatically ''not''--require that one buy into any particular current theories.
---
> Serious study of a subject does ''not''--emphatically ''not''--require that one buy into any particular current theories.
> 
> -- LarrySanger
------
AyeSpy|981496938
113c113
< Bruce, I think you underestimate the value of SeriousScholarship.
---
> Bruce, I think you underestimate the value of SeriousScholarship. -- LarrySanger
------
CrankS|981497067
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''crank'' is someone who pretends, whether knowing it is pretense or not (usually not), to have knowledge of some subject and writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about it.  A source of amusement and/or annoyance to actual ExpertS.
------
AustriaLanguage|981497069
1c1,12
< I know nothing about Austrian dialects.  Could someone please write a little about this?  I'm very curious.  I lived in Bayern for sechs Monaten and was exposed a bit to Bayerisch (sp?).  What Austrian dialects are there, and are they all or mostly comprehensible dialects of German? -- LarrySanger  (delete this info-request when you answer it please...)
---
> AustriA has nearly an infinite number of dialects. The main ones are:
> 
> 1. Wienerisch - spoken in ViennA. Most Austrians detest it because they think that the Viennese people are annoying. It is the most comprehensible one for the German speakers.
> 
> 2. Tirolerisch - spoken in the state of Tirol. Very hard to understand.
> 
> 3. Vorarlbergerisch - spoken in the state of Vorarlberg. IMPOSSIBLE to understand - sounds like the Schwitzerdeutsch that is spoken by the Swiss.
> 
> Each of the three dialects has many variations. Other ones (Kärnterisch, Burgenländerisch, etc.) are easier to understand and harder to distinguish. Please note that the whole of AustriA has less inhabitants than NYC. Most Austrians can easily switch from "normal" German to their home dialect (especially noticeable when students living in ViennA are phoning home to their parents), but a few do have problems in writing proper German.
> 
> ----
> ''The author of this article is a foreign student living in AustriA.''
------
AustriaLanguage|981497143
12c12
< ''The author of this article is a foreign student living in AustriA.''
---
> ''The author of this article (WojPob) is a foreign student living in AustriA.''
------
ExpertS|981497236
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is not at all easy to say what an ''expert'' is.  This is actually studied in EpistemOlogy under the general heading ''ExpertKnowledge''.  On one account, put very roughly, an expert is a person who is (or, perhaps, is widely recognized to be) a reliable (see ReliabilIsm) source of KnowledgeByTestimony for other people.
------
HelenOfTroy|981497288
1c1,11
< Whose face launched a thousand ships...
---
> In GreekMythology, the most beatiful woman to ever walk the world, whose face launched a thousand ships and started the TrojanWar.  On account of the last she is known as Helen of Troy, even though she was actually from Sparta.
> 
> As the story goes, Zeus cohabited with Leda in the form of a swan on the same night as her husband, king Tyndareus.  To the former she gave birth to Helen and Pollux, and to the latter, Clytemnestra and Pollux.  In some versions she laid eggs from which the children hatched.
> 
> Helen's unsurpassed beauty attracted a lot of attention, and she had suitors from all over Greece.  In fact, these are essentially the same as the Greek champions at Troy - with the notable exceptions of AgaMemnon and AchillEus - for fearing they would come to blows Tyndareus required each to take an oath to protect her marriage.  With that done, she was married to Menelaus, and on the deaths of her brothers (the DioScuri) they succeeded to the Spartan throne.
> 
> In TheIliad, Helen is described as god-like, and this refers not just to her looks but also to her disregard for other people.  So it came to pass that when Paris arrived at Sparta and was received kindly by Menelaus as a guest, she fell in love with him - he had been promised her hand by Aphrodite - and willingly escaped to him with Troy, abandoning her husband and nine-year-old daughter Hermione.
> 
> Menelaus was furious, and begged his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, to raise an army.  Her suitors were reminded of their oaths, and other champions too were invited to join the expedition.  Thus began the TrojanWar, celebrated in legend, that lasts ten years and leads to the distruction of Troy.  Homer presents Helen as intensely remorseful, finally aware of the consequences of her actions and the suffering she has wrought but too late to avert it.
> 
> Afterwards Helen returns with Menelaus to Sparta.  Despite all the damage she has caused and the curse on the house of Atreus, the two seem to live happily ever after.  According to most versions, their only child was Hermione, who marries Agamemnon's son Orestes.  
------
IgnoreAllRulesDebate|981497487
1c1,3
< I think that those people who hate rules should ignore them, and let other people, who do care about rules, try, ''just try,'' to enforce 'em. -- LarrySanger
---
> I think that those people who hate rules should ignore them, and let other people, who do care about rules, try, ''just try,'' to enforce 'em. -- LarrySanger
> 
> I say this'll work fine so long as people exhibit common courtesy and don't decide wikipedia is a medium for proselytism. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
SanIty|981498034
7c7
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may observe the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, take the next deductive step, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.
---
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may observe the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive step, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.
9c9,23
< More than mere accuracy has been introduced to the picture, however, as conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  
---
> More than mere accuracy has been introduced to the picture, however, as conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  In WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
> 
> One can hardly miss the input of culture or of culture(s) if one attempts to determine what the modern western medical community uses as a measure of sanity.  In medical circles, the most general definition is by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  This definition will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as we will see directly.
> 
> The "bible" of mental diagnosis is psychiatry's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning “schizophrenia,” DSM-II states, “Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it.” DSM-III says “there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept ‘mental disorder’.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about.” DSM-IV states that the term “mental disorder” continues to appear in the volume “because we have not found an appropriate substitute.”  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
> 
>      In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, “We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet.” This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
> 
> And this may not be altogether in error.  If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
> 
> In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in any number of juristictions in an effort to punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
> 
> Various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been sent up as trial balloons by defendants, with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
> 
> Thus far, medical and legal efforts to define sanity have been addressed.  The last category your author will look at will be sanity as defined in a political context.
13c27
< See also SanityTalk.
---
> See also SanityTalk.
------
SanIty|981498508
3c3
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, '''proper functioning''', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading us to the conclusion that if one is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
---
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading one to the conclusion that if one's mind is properly functioning, that is, he is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
5c5
< Who shall determine, however, what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas?  To what degree must errancy intrude into the picture before one is determined no longer sane, but InSane?  
---
> How shall it be determined, however, what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas?  To what degree must errancy intrude into the picture before one is determined no longer sane, but InSane?  
7c7,9
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may observe the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive step, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.
---
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.  
> 
> The most prominent aspect of accurate mental function which has been used as an indicator of sanity over the centuries appears to have been mental function as it relates to two areas: interpersonal relations, and bodily safety of self and others.
------
HelenOfTroy|981498707
3c3
< As the story goes, Zeus cohabited with Leda in the form of a swan on the same night as her husband, king Tyndareus.  To the former she gave birth to Helen and Pollux, and to the latter, Clytemnestra and Pollux.  In some versions she laid eggs from which the children hatched.
---
> As the story goes, ZeuS cohabited with Leda in the form of a swan on the same night as her husband, king Tyndareus.  To the former she gave birth to Helen and Pollux, and to the latter, Clytemnestra and Pollux.  In some versions she laid eggs from which the children hatched.
11c11
< Afterwards Helen returns with Menelaus to Sparta.  Despite all the damage she has caused and the curse on the house of Atreus, the two seem to live happily ever after.  According to most versions, their only child was Hermione, who marries Agamemnon's son Orestes.  
---
> Afterwards Helen returns with Menelaus to Sparta.  Despite all the damage she has caused and the curse on the house of Atreus, the two seem to live happily ever after.  According to most versions, their only child was Hermione, who marries Agamemnon's son Orestes.  
------
SeriousScholarshipTalk|981499052
9c9,13
< -- LarrySanger
---
> -- LarrySanger
> 
> Of course SeriousScholarship is important.  But equally important is to avoid AcademicElitism.
> 
> --JimboWales
------
AcademicElitism|981499265
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One danger for academics is academic elitism, which is (roughly) the view that only someone who has engaged in SeriousScholarship has anything worthwhile to say on any given topic, while all others are CrankS.  It is possible to value SeriousScholarship without being an academic elitist, of course.
> 
> In fields that have no non-academic counterpart, AcademicElitism is common because it actually is the case that there aren't very many people with anything worthwhile to say on the topic, other than the academics.  But in more practical fields (math, computer science, business), it is more common to find that innovations appear much more readily from outside the hallowed walls of academia, and therefore harder to delude oneself into thinking non-academics are all or mostly CrankS.
------
ExpertS|981499337
1c1,3
< It is not at all easy to say what an ''expert'' is.  This is actually studied in EpistemOlogy under the general heading ''ExpertKnowledge''.  On one account, put very roughly, an expert is a person who is (or, perhaps, is widely recognized to be) a reliable (see ReliabilIsm) source of KnowledgeByTestimony for other people.
---
> It is not at all easy to say what an ''expert'' is.  This is actually studied in EpistemOlogy under the general heading ''ExpertKnowledge''.  On one account, put very roughly, an expert is a person who is (or, perhaps, is widely recognized to be) a reliable (see ReliabilIsm) source of KnowledgeByTestimony for other people.
> 
> Can be contrasted with CrankS, who think they know what they are talking about, but don't.  And with AcademicElitism, a syndrome of those who think that ONLY they know what they are talking about, and no one else does.
------
CrankS|981499492
1c1
< A ''crank'' is someone who pretends, whether knowing it is pretense or not (usually not), to have knowledge of some subject and writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about it.  A source of amusement and/or annoyance to actual ExpertS.
---
> A ''crank'' is someone who pretends, whether knowing it is pretense or not (usually not), to have knowledge of some subject and writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about it--but who does not have it.  A source of amusement and/or annoyance to actual ExpertS.
------
CrankS|981499538
1c1
< A ''crank'' is someone who pretends, whether knowing it is pretense or not (usually not), to have knowledge of some subject and writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about it--but who does not have it.  A source of amusement and/or annoyance to actual ExpertS.
---
> A ''crank'' is someone who pretends, whether knowing it is pretense or not (usually not), to have knowledge of some subject and writes or speaks in an authoritative fashion about it--but who does not have knowledge of the subject.  A source of amusement and/or annoyance to actual ExpertS.
------
SeriousScholarshipTalk|981499727
3c3
< Why should we ''care'' about idiosyncratic views of someone from the outside looking in?  Usually, no matter how intelligent and wide-ranging one's experience, if one has not done ''serious study'' of the subject, one is bound to sound like a crank, and you will simply annoy and turn away serious students of the subject and those who value serious scholarship.  And by "serious scholarship" that I do ''not'' mean university study--university study is only one, certainly not infallible, way to engage in serious study.
---
> Why should we ''care'' about idiosyncratic views of someone from the outside looking in?  Usually, no matter how intelligent and wide-ranging one's experience, if one has not done ''serious study'' of the subject, one is bound to sound like a crank, and one will simply annoy and turn away serious students of the subject and those who value serious scholarship.  And by "serious scholarship" that I do ''not'' mean university study--university study is only one, certainly not infallible, way to engage in serious study.
13c13,15
< --JimboWales
---
> --JimboWales
> 
> I agree with that.  LS
------
IgnoreAllRulesDebate|981500476
3a4,12
> 
> ----
> It is interesting to think about the dynamics of social interaction within a wiki.  Everyone's impact on the medium is, in a sense, exactly equal to their participation in the medium.
> 
> As an example, let's take a view which is just obviously wrong to all of us (although someone else might not agree), let's say the view that the earth is really flat.  If flat-earthers descend on the site in hoards, then they will eventually win <I>unless</I> pre-flat-earth regulars band together to continually refactor the pages.  It isn't necessarily about numbers, but also about how dedicated the numbers are.
> 
> On Usenet, the same people argue endlessly for years on end.  I know of some newsgroups that I used to be addicted to, where I know that if I went back today, some of the same people would be there arguing the same things they were arguing 10 years ago.
> 
> The interesting thing about Wikipedia, though, is that another group might end up with the real upper hand -- those who seek to refactor pages in an effort to end controversy.  A statement, for example, of the Scientology issue, that is satisfactory to both sides, would probably be a great achievement, recognized by all as such.  It would probably be left alone.  :-) --JimboWales
------
TitaniC|981500542
0a1,7
> 
> Titanic is a ship that sank: TitanicShip
> 
> ----
> 
> And Titanic is a movie (that also sank): TitanicMovie
> 
5,6d11
< 
< --
------
RulesToConsider|981500734
9c9,11
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales
> 
> ''I now pleasantly ponder the paradox encountered by those who seek to rigorously follow this rule.'' --JimboWales
------
RecentChanges|981501096
3c3,5
< Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
---
> Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
> 
> Ok, I'll try that.  This page is broken: when all the pages were moved from /wiki.cgi?* to /wiki/*, it wasn't properly updated, so now clicking on an author's name doesn't work.  Who is the appropriate person to fix this?
------
EsperantoLanguage|981501643
18c18
< There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.
---
> There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  If you speak Esperanto, you might be interested in the Esperanto wiki JerryMuelver hosts at http://unumondo.com.
------
AardvarK|981503342
29c29
< This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  
---
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  Not entirely true, since aardvarks eat termites, not ants.
------
AyeSpy|981504802
113a114,123
> ----
> ''Au Contraire, mon ami''.  I esteem it highly.  Why do you think I added the warning to readers that I have no degree and no college education?  I don'y want anyone to place undue reliance on my musings.  I only wish I'd had the opportunity to pursue it in my youth.  I am frustrated when I lack time and resources to pursue any given line of enquiry to its absolute conclusion, either academically or in life.  I have been repeatedly encouraged by professionals to pursue a professional degree, even at this late stage in my life.  Economic realities have prevented it, however.  My family would starve.  One of my great points of pride as a parent has been paving the way for my kids, the eldest of whom enrolls in her post-grad program in the fall, the youngest of whom is already positioned to out-earn me in the field of IT.  
> 
> On the other hand, it has been my experience that SeriousScholars, highly valuing (and justly so) the effort with which they exhausted themselves to come by knowledge hard-won, tend to jealously guard the status which the successful completion of their studies confers.  As such, they tend to be reluctant to acknowledge that the observations of those "uneducated" persons around them, sans-degree, might have validity - exceeding even, at times, the validity of those by the expert. 
> 
> I have thought up, composed, and written pleadings which, filed with the court and considered ''in camera'' without oral argument, defeated the motions or counter-motions of experienced lawyers.  I have averted courtroom defeats by catching factual or legal errors in pleadings before they were filed.  I have brought to the attention of engineers errors in their observations, assumptions or calculations which invalidated their conclusions.  I have brought medical technical data to the attention of medical examiners, with the result that they corrected an erroneous finding on cause of death.  I have found results in patient medical testing, and material in medical texts, which proved malpractice.  Did you know that a "right bundle branch block" finding on an ECG is a differential for diagnosing pulmonary embolism (instead of, say, gastritis) and that failure to immediately start a prophylactic course of of anticoagulants could kill the patient?  I know of at least two emergency docs who either overlooked or forgot that fact, in spite of 7 years of SeriousScholarship.
> 
> I deal on a daily basis with experts of all kinds, their contributions to legal cases, and am regularly confronted with the fact that their pursuit of SeriousScholaship gives them an ability which I will never possess to a) analyze, interpret and form accurate conclusions from technical data and b) testify to same in court.  Hell, I can't even testify to my own investigative results, because I work for the firm.  So, I hire, brief, and manage experts of every stripe.  I could not live without them.  But some of those experts whom the firm winds up using on a regular basis have developed a habit of having me vet their reports before finalizing them.  They value that little extra insurance against being caught with their pants down.  In 21 years of very active trial practice, this 11-lawyer firm is undefeated at trial.  That record is unmatched in this state.  (They'll get us sooner or later, I'm sure.  But not yet.)
> 
> So, from the viewpoint of a total generalist, I tend to correlate data from diverse fields, test various hypotheses, and come up with what I, in my vanity and arrogance, sometimes think of as insights that others might find interesting.  This is not to say that the professionals in these fields are not better informed that I.  Within the confines of their field, they doubtless are.  I hope that my occasional irreverance for convention does not leave readers with the feeling that I do not respect SeriousScholarship.  Nothing could be farther from the truth.
------
AyeSpy|981504911
115c115
< ''Au Contraire, mon ami''.  I esteem it highly.  Why do you think I added the warning to readers that I have no degree and no college education?  I don'y want anyone to place undue reliance on my musings.  I only wish I'd had the opportunity to pursue it in my youth.  I am frustrated when I lack time and resources to pursue any given line of enquiry to its absolute conclusion, either academically or in life.  I have been repeatedly encouraged by professionals to pursue a professional degree, even at this late stage in my life.  Economic realities have prevented it, however.  My family would starve.  One of my great points of pride as a parent has been paving the way for my kids, the eldest of whom enrolls in her post-grad program in the fall, the youngest of whom is already positioned to out-earn me in the field of IT.  
---
> ''Au Contraire, mon ami''.  I esteem it highly.  Why do you think I added the warning to readers that I have no degree and no college education?  I don't want anyone to place undue reliance on my musings.  I only wish I'd had the opportunity to pursue it in my youth.  I am frustrated when I lack time and resources to pursue any given line of enquiry to its absolute conclusion, either academically or in life.  I have been repeatedly encouraged by professionals to pursue a professional degree, even at this late stage in my life.  Economic realities have prevented it, however.  My family would starve.  One of my great points of pride as a parent has been paving the way for my kids, the eldest of whom enrolls in her post-grad program in the fall, the youngest of whom is already positioned to out-earn me in the field of IT.  
------
AyeSpy|981504948
123a124,125
> ----
> I stand corrected! -- LarrySanger
------
SanIty|981505080
17c17
<      In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, “We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet.” This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
---
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, “We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet.” This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
------
SanIty|981505878
15c15
< The "bible" of mental diagnosis is psychiatry's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning “schizophrenia,” DSM-II states, “Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it.” DSM-III says “there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept ‘mental disorder’.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about.” DSM-IV states that the term “mental disorder” continues to appear in the volume “because we have not found an appropriate substitute.”  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
---
> The "bible" of mental diagnosis is psychiatry's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
17c17
< In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, “We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet.” This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
---
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
------
AyeSpy|981506188
121c121
< I deal on a daily basis with experts of all kinds, their contributions to legal cases, and am regularly confronted with the fact that their pursuit of SeriousScholaship gives them an ability which I will never possess to a) analyze, interpret and form accurate conclusions from technical data and b) testify to same in court.  Hell, I can't even testify to my own investigative results, because I work for the firm.  So, I hire, brief, and manage experts of every stripe.  I could not live without them.  But some of those experts whom the firm winds up using on a regular basis have developed a habit of having me vet their reports before finalizing them.  They value that little extra insurance against being caught with their pants down.  In 21 years of very active trial practice, this 11-lawyer firm is undefeated at trial.  That record is unmatched in this state.  (They'll get us sooner or later, I'm sure.  But not yet.)
---
> I deal on a daily basis with experts of all kinds, their contributions to legal cases, and am regularly confronted with the fact that their pursuit of SeriousScholarship gives them an ability which I will never possess to a) analyze, interpret and form accurate conclusions from technical data and b) testify to same in court.  Hell, I can't even testify to my own investigative results, because I work for the firm.  So, I hire, brief, and manage experts of every stripe.  I could not live without them.  But some of those experts whom the firm winds up using on a regular basis have developed a habit of having me vet their reports before finalizing them.  They value that little extra insurance against being caught with their pants down.  In 21 years of very active trial practice, this 11-lawyer firm is undefeated at trial.  That record is unmatched in this state.  (They'll get us sooner or later, I'm sure.  But not yet.)
125c125
< I stand corrected! -- LarrySanger
---
> I stand corrected! -- LarrySanger
------
RulesToConsider|981506918
9c9
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales, AyeSpy
19c19
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver AyeSpy (fervently)
27c27
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver AyeSpy
37a38,41
> ----
> '''Give the author a chance:'''  I propose that we add comments at the bottom of a page instead of within the text, when we disagree with an author but to delete or re-write portions of his material would substnatially alter its meaning.  Then the author may make changes in his own style, and/or discussion of the material can be moved to a _____Talk page.  When one encounters obvious vandalism of another's work, he should feel free to Delete PatentNonsense.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include AyeSpy
------
RulesToConsider|981507041
41a42,43
> 
> ''See GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate''
------
DeletePatentNonsenseDebate|981507102
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I agree that one should delete patent nonsense.  One should also give the author a chance to fix his material.
------
AyeSpy|981507177
11,12d10
< His last IQ test came in at 154. (as though anyone cares)
< 
------
AyeSpy|981507396
121c121
< So, from the viewpoint of a total generalist, I tend to correlate data from diverse fields, test various hypotheses, and come up with what I, in my vanity and arrogance, sometimes think of as insights that others might find interesting.  This is not to say that the professionals in these fields are not better informed that I.  Within the confines of their field, they doubtless are.  I hope that my occasional irreverance for convention does not leave readers with the feeling that I do not respect SeriousScholarship.  Nothing could be farther from the truth.
---
> So, from the viewpoint of a total generalist, I tend to correlate data from diverse fields, test various hypotheses, and come up with what I, in my vanity and arrogance, sometimes think of as insights that others might find interesting.  This is not to say that the professionals in these fields are not better informed than I.  Within the confines of their field, they doubtless are.  I hope that my occasional irreverance for convention does not leave readers with the feeling that I do not respect SeriousScholarship.  Nothing could be farther from the truth.
------
IgnoreAllRulesDebate|981508520
12c12
< The interesting thing about Wikipedia, though, is that another group might end up with the real upper hand -- those who seek to refactor pages in an effort to end controversy.  A statement, for example, of the Scientology issue, that is satisfactory to both sides, would probably be a great achievement, recognized by all as such.  It would probably be left alone.  :-) --JimboWales
---
> The interesting thing about Wikipedia, though, is that another group might end up with the real upper hand -- those who seek to refactor pages in an effort to end controversy.  A statement, for example, of the ScientologY issue, that is satisfactory to both sides, would probably be a great achievement, recognized by all as such.  It would probably be left alone.  :-) --JimboWales
------
TaoTehChing|981508859
47c47
< I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed.  I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching.  It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it.
---
> I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed.  I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching.  It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it. -- AyeSpy
------
TaoTehChing|981508884
3c3
< Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BC) reveal that the Tao Te Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
---
> Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BC) reveal that the Tao Teh Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
------
RecentChanges|981509277
5c5
< Ok, I'll try that.  This page is broken: when all the pages were moved from /wiki.cgi?* to /wiki/*, it wasn't properly updated, so now clicking on an author's name doesn't work.  Who is the appropriate person to fix this?
---
> See WikiPediaFaq for frequently-asked questions.
------
AstroNomy|981509457
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between stars, that always keep the same relative positions, and planets, that move between stars.
> Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> 
> Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law of Gravity, the "laws" of Kepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
> 
> (to be continued)
> 
> 
> 
>  
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|981509546
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Report any bugs or unexpected behavior here:
> ----
> 
> The RecentChanges page is broken: when all the pages were moved from /wiki.cgi?* to /wiki/*, it wasn't properly updated, so now clicking on an author's name doesn't work.  Who is the appropriate person to fix this?  
> 
> :The person who broke it, of course. :-)
> 
> :I didn't break the code, but I think I see the problem.  The script name is (mainly) used in two routines: ScriptLink and ScriptLinkTitle (used for author links so that you'll get the nifty pop-up with the ID and hostname).  It looks like only the first of these was modified for the new /-style links.  The fix should be simple--just modify ScriptLinkTitle the same way.  --CliffordAdams
------
CountriesC|981509919
1c1,2
< CanadA
---
> CanadA
> ChileCountry
------
CountriesC|981509955
2c2,3
< ChileCountry
---
> 
> ChileCountry
------
AstroNomy|981510008
3,4c3,4
< Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
------
AstroNomy|981510078
3,4c3,4
< Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiteR and the SunSpots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
------
AstroNomy|981510209
1c1
< AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
---
> AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
3,4c3,4
< Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiteR and the SunSpots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the GeocentricModel, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
6c6
< Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law of Gravity, the "laws" of Kepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
---
> Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawofGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
------
HistoryOfEurope|981510845
8c8
< influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competitor to the RomanEmpire, that had
---
> influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the RomanEmpire, that had
11c11
< At the end of the BronzeAge the older GreeK kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprescendented developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
---
> At the end of the BronzeAge the older GreeK kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprecendent developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
21c21
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone world wars, which ended the pre-eminent position of EuropE.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone WorldWars, which ended the pre-eminent position of EuropE.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
------
AstroNomy|981510915
1c1
< AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
---
> AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
3,4c3,4
< Greeks philosophers thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the GeocentricModel, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> GreeK PhilosopherS thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
6c6
< Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawofGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
---
> Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law of Gravity, the "laws" of Kepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|981512284
1c1
< A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged, sometimes refered to in the book as /JamesTaggart and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
------
CountriesC|981513272
3c3
< ChileCountry
---
> ChiLe
------
SeriousScholarshipTalk|981513436
15c15,22
< I agree with that.  LS
---
> I agree with that.  LS ----
> 
> And what about a discipline like Pure Mathematics? To begin with people with a serious interest in Mathematics DO NOT READ Mathematics books.
> 
> And then there is Language study - Again this is hardly a question of READING books.
> 
> I don't find this description of scholarship very comprehensive...I believe that each discipline has its own requirements for scholarship and expertise. RoseParks
> 
------
HomePage|981514004
3c3
< BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
---
> BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes --  LinguisticS
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|981514108
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> 
> /DagnyTaggart meets with /HankRearden at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  Dagny acknowledges that Rearden now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, Rearden needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
> 
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  Dagny needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  Dagny could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for Dagny - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate he /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
> 
> * Setting
> /HankRearden's office at /ReardenSteel.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /DanConway
>  /EllisWyatt
>  /JamesTaggart
>  /HankRearden
>  /Looters - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981514563
14a15
>  /SectioN148
------
AtlasShrugged/DanConway|981514584
5c5,6
<  /SectioN146
---
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|981514604
8a9
>  - /SectioN148
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|981514620
9a10
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|981514660
8a9
>  - /SectioN148
------
AtlasShrugged/AntiDogEatDogRule|981514739
1a2,6
> 
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is dicussed in:
>   /SectioN145
>   /SectioN146
>   /SectioN148
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|981514771
10a11
>  /SectioN148
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|981514785
11a12
>  /SectioN148
------
LinguisticS|981514842
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LinguisticS is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." LinguisticS views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
> 
> DescriptiveLinguistics is divided into a number of fields.
> * PhonologY and PhonemeS
> * MorphologY and MorphemeS
> * SyntaX
> 
> LinguisticS is also studied with other disciplines, thus:
> * HistoricalLinguistics
> * ComparativeLinguistics
> * SocioLinguistics
> * PsychoLinguistics
> * ChildsAquisitionOfLanguage
> *...
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|981514854
5c5
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  Dagny needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  Dagny could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for Dagny - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate he /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
---
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  Dagny needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  Dagny could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for Dagny - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
------
WikiPediaFaq|981516486
83c83,85
< '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
---
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''----
> 
> '''Q.''' It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get invalid wiki.api. Why?
------
WikiPediaFaq|981516635
85c85
< '''Q.''' It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get invalid wiki.api. Why?
---
> '''Q.''' It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get '''Invalid Page wiki.cgi'''. Why?
------
WikiPediaFaq|981518562
83c83,86
< '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''----
---
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
> 
> '''A.'''  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.)
> ----
85a89,90
> 
> ''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
------
CapitalisM|981518630
1c1
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Often capitalism is part of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently capitalism has often occured of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society.
------
WikiPediaFaq|981518632
90c90
< ''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
---
> '''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
------
LanguagE|981519053
31a32
> * LinguisticS
------
CategorySchemes|981519118
16c16
< :AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- LinguisticsAndLanguages (see LanguagE) -- SociOlogy -- PoLitics -- EconOmics -- HiStory -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- GeoGraphy (see CountriesOfTheWorld and UnitedStates) -- AnomalousPhenomena
---
> :AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- LinguisticS & LanguagE""s -- SociOlogy -- PoLitics -- EconOmics -- HiStory -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- GeoGraphy (see CountriesOfTheWorld and UnitedStates) -- AnomalousPhenomena
50c50
< :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
---
> :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
------
HomePage|981519326
3c3
< BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes --  LinguisticS
---
> BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- --  LinguisticS & LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
------
GeekSpeak|981521579
20c20
< '''WYSIWYG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
---
> '''WySiWyG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
------
WySiWyG|981521638
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''WYSIWYG'''
> 
> '''acronyms (in order of increasing obscurity):'''
> WYSIWYG - What You See Is What You Get (basic)
> WYSIAYG - What You See Is All You Get (used by hackers and computer programers)
> WYSIAWYG - What You See Is Almost What You Get (most text editing programs)
> WYSIMOLWYG - What You See Is More Or Less What You Get (another way of stating WYSIAWYG)
> 
> '''meaning:'''
> · a description of an user interface that allows the user to view the end result while the document or graphic character is being created
> · allows the user to concentrate entirely in how the content should appear, although having the trade-off of not have the results being easily fine-tuned\
> · also used to describe specifically a web-page creation program in which the user creates the webpage visually, while the program writes the HTML (hypertext markup language) for it
> · most programs, even Microsoft Office, are not WYSIWYG since printing and page formatting are still hidden from view
> · users expect WYSIWYG
> 
> 
> '''historical notes:'''
> · was originally a cataphrase on an old TV program called Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In, (1968-1973)
> · first applied to computers in the 1980's
> · EMACS was one of the first WYSIWYG editors, replacing the program TeX which uses mark-up commands for formating
> 
> 
> '''TMI:'''
> 
> http://www.atpm.com/4.12/page7.shtml
> http://www.ideography.co.uk/library/seybold/WYSIWYG.html
> 
> 
------
WySiWyG|981521696
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
5a8
> 
6a10
> 
8a13
> 
9a15
> 
11c17,19
< · allows the user to concentrate entirely in how the content should appear, although having the trade-off of not have the results being easily fine-tuned\
---
> 
> · allows the user to concentrate entirely in how the content should appear, although having the trade-off of not have the results being easily fine-tuned
> 
12a21
> 
13a23
> 
16a27
> 
17a29
> 
18a31
> 
19a33
> 
25a40
> 
------
GeekSpeak|981528046
3,9d2
<                        
< '''Interface'''- parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of information to another;give and take of information
< 
< '''Widget'''- objects that make up interfaces, i.e. mouse, menus, textbox, buttons; basic tools and objects.
< 
< '''Hypertext'''- gives the reader control instead of the author; allows user to jump around from source to source; linkages between texts.
< 
12c5
< '''Gesture recognition'''- interpreting body movements into text, as a command (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc)
---
> '''ENIAC'''- the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer.  Arguably, the first all electronic digital computer started in 1943 and finished in 1946.  Some claim that Goliath really was the first, but ENIAC has the best press agent ;^)
14c7
< '''Nano technology'''- cellular, microscopic, level of technology
---
> '''Gesture recognition'''- interpreting body movements into text, as a command (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc)
18c11,13
< '''ENIAC'''- the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer.  Arguably, the first all electronic digital computer started in 1943 and finished in 1946.  Some claim that Goliath really was the first, but ENIAC has the best press agent ;^)
---
> '''Hypertext'''- gives the reader control instead of the author; allows user to jump around from source to source; linkages between texts.
>                        
> '''Interface'''- parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of information to another;give and take of information
20c15
< '''WySiWyG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
---
> '''Nano technology'''- cellular, microscopic, level of technology
22a18,21
> 
> '''Widget'''- objects that make up interfaces, i.e. mouse, menus, textbox, buttons; basic tools and objects.
> 
> '''WySiWyG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
------
CountriesC|981533082
1c1
< CanadA
---
> * CanadA
3c3,5
< ChiLe
---
> * ChiLe
> 
> * ChinA
------
CountriesC|981533103
3c3
< * ChiLe
---
> * ChilE
5c5
< * ChinA
---
> * ChinA
------
CountriesC|981533149
5a6,8
> 
> * Columbia
> 
------
CountriesC|981533156
7,8c7
< * Columbia
< 
---
> * ColumbiA
------
HelenOfTroy|981537229
7c7
< In TheIliad, Helen is described as god-like, and this refers not just to her looks but also to her disregard for other people.  So it came to pass that when Paris arrived at Sparta and was received kindly by Menelaus as a guest, she fell in love with him - he had been promised her hand by Aphrodite - and willingly escaped to him with Troy, abandoning her husband and nine-year-old daughter Hermione.
---
> In TheIliad, Helen is described as god-like, and this refers not just to her looks but also to her disregard for other people.  So it came to pass that when Paris arrived at Sparta and was received kindly by Menelaus as a guest, she fell in love with him - he had been promised her hand by Aphrodite - and willingly escaped with him to Troy, abandoning her husband and nine-year-old daughter Hermione.
------
GeekSpeak|981557444
8a9,14
> '''FaceMail''' - a method of communication involving a face-to-face discussion. Becoming extinct.
> 
> '''FiFo'''- First in, first out. This is a way of processing queues.
> 
> '''GiGo'''-Garbage in gargage out. An explanation when one defends a mistake, saying "The computer made an error."
> 
14a21,22
> '''LiFo'''- Last in first out. This is one way of processing stacks.
> 
18a27,30
> '''TreeWare''' - paper version of something. As in, Bill Gates is reading the TreeWare version of the New York Times.
> 
> '''WetWare''' - a human being.
> 
21c33
< '''WySiWyG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
---
> '''WySiWyG'''- '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAWYG. It was presented on Monday, Jan.22.
------
GeekSpeak|981557546
13c13
< '''GiGo'''-Garbage in gargage out. An explanation when one defends a mistake, saying "The computer made an error."
---
> '''GiGo'''- Garbage in gargage out. A reply to the explanation "The computer made an error."
------
EngineerIng|981558634
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "ElectricalEngineering"
------
ElectricalEngineering|981558680
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "TestThreePhasePumps"
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981560160
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Electricians may not often encounter three phase induction motors used in domestic watering systems. 
> 
> Procedures to follow to field test these motors and their controls are listed:
> 
> Topics including "TestingThreePhaseSupply", "TestingMotorCoilResistance", and "TestingEarthFaultResistance" are covered, as well as "TestingDirectOnLineStarters".
> 
> "DescribingCentrifugalPumpInstallations"  and "DescribingSubmersiblePumpInstallations" are covered along with "RecommendationsForTroubleFreePumpInstallation".
> 
> This page written by "WhyRossum".
> 
> This page last requested by "TerrySmith".
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981560293
11c11
< This page last requested by "TerrySmith".
---
> This page last requested by "TerrySmith".
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981560427
9d8
< This page written by "WhyRossum".
------
TestingThreePhaseSupply|981561832
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A three phase electrical supply consists of three active conductors and an earth.
> 
> A three phase induction motor cannot function correctly if its electrical supply is not within certain parameters.
> 
> Typical parameters are 415 volts between phases, 240 volts from any phase to earth, voltage within 12% of 415/240 volts, and each phase within 5% of each other.
> 
> In a typical three phase induction motor circuit, an appropriate place to test is at the line side of the direct-on-line motor starter.
> 
> 
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981568061
1,76c1,54
< We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
< 
< [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
< encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
< of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
< ----
< From PolanD:
< 
< :From an Englishman's diary:
< * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
< * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
< * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
< * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
< ----
< From PatentNonsense:
< 
< Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
< 
< A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
< 
< Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
< 
< A. Go figure!
< 
< ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
< ----
< 
< order arising out of chaos...
< 
< ----
< 
< From WhatIsaWiki:
< 
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
< 
< Blah...
< ----
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
< 
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
< ----
< Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
< 
< Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
< ----
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
< 
<     -- Drachs
< ----
< Investigation of the Wiki concept...
< ----
< From IdiosyncratiC:
< 
< My dad knew him.
< ----
< From HareKrishna:
< 
< (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
< ----
< Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
< ----
< From EnglishLanguage:
< 
< A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
< 
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
< ----
< From SnowBoarding:
< 
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
< ----
< From AustriA:
< <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
< 
< ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
< 
---
> We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
> [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
> encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
> of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
> ----
> From PolanD:
> :From an Englishman's diary:
> * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
> * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
> * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
> * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
> ----
> From PatentNonsense:
> Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
> A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
> Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
> A. Go figure!
> ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
> ----
> order arising out of chaos...
> ----
> From WhatIsaWiki:
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
> Blah...
> ----
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
>     -- Drachs
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
> ----
> From IdiosyncratiC:
> My dad knew him.
> ----
> From HareKrishna:
> (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
> ----
> Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
> ----
> From EnglishLanguage:
> A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
> ----says who? Can't languages evolve? I don't see you spelling like Shakespeare...
> From SnowBoarding:
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
> ----
> From AustriA:
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
> ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
------
AstroNomy|981568765
1,13c1,7
< AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between stars, that always keep the same relative positions, and planets, that move between stars.
< GreeK PhilosopherS thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by Tycho Brahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the telescope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of Jupiter and the Sunspots, but he is most famous by his problems with the Church (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
< 
< Newton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law of Gravity, the "laws" of Kepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
< 
< (to be continued)
< 
< 
< 
<  
< 
---
> AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between stars, that always keep the same relative positions, and planets, that move between stars.
> GreeK PhilosopherS thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
> (to be continued)
>  
------
TeleScope|981569104
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Instrument composed of at least two LenS es or two MirroR s that increases the observed angular size of objects, as well as their BrightNess.
> Used mainly on AstroNomy since GalileoGalilei.
> The current generation of telescopes beeing constructed have a PrimaryMirror of between 6 and 8 meters of diameter (for GroundBasedTelescopes).
------
ErnestHemingway|981571217
1c1
< Grace Under Pressure
---
> Ernest Miller Hemingway (American author)
3c3,12
< Death and Violence in Ernest Hemingway's Life and Work
---
> born July 21, 1899, Oak Park (Illinois); died July 2, 1961, Ketchum (Idaho)
> 
> Awards:
> Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in the First World War
> 
> Pullitzer Price 1953
> 
> Nobel Price for Literature 1954
> 
> The following text was originally a research paper for school describing Hemingway's Life and work, as exemplified by the novels "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and "A Farewell to Arms". If you are looking for information on Hemingway only, you might want to skip the sections on Frederic Henry and Robert Jordan, for a quick read, you can start at /YoungandInnocent
5a15,19
>  
> 
> Grace Under Pressure
> 
> Death and Violence in Ernest Hemingway's Life and Work
62c76,81
< This is very impressive work and quite an enormous contribution to WikiPedia.  First, Andreas, you do realize, I hope, that by posting it on WikiPedia, you have released this work according to the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense?  Second, is there anything in particular that you would like people to do to this work to render it more encyclopedia-like?  (For some similar instructions-to-the-public, see LarrysText.) -- LarrySanger
---
> This is very impressive work and quite an enormous contribution to WikiPedia.  First, Andreas, you do realize, I hope, that by posting it on WikiPedia, you have released this work according to the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense?  
> Second, is there anything in particular that you would like people to do to this work to render it more encyclopedia-like?  (For some similar instructions-to-the-public, see LarrysText.) -- LarrySanger
> 
> ----
> 
> Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- Sonic
------
SanIty|981571341
1c1
< "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient.
---
> "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you are authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
13c13
< One can hardly miss the input of culture or of culture(s) if one attempts to determine what the modern western medical community uses as a measure of sanity.  In medical circles, the most general definition is by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  This definition will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as we will see directly.
---
> One can hardly miss the input of culture or of culture(s) if one attempts to determine what the modern western medical community uses as a measure of sanity.  In medical/psychiatric context, the most general definition is by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause becomes a medical problem rather than a psychological or psychiatric one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and classification.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as the reader will see directly.
19c19
< And this may not be altogether in error.  If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
---
> And defining sane behavior must always be done, at least in part, in the context of the subject's culture.  If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
21c21
< In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in any number of juristictions in an effort to punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
---
> In recent times, more recognition has been given to the concept of sanity as a subjective manifestation, evidenced by mental quietude, peace of mind, and resiliancy - an ability to survive the vicissitudes of life without such mental discomfort that one's ability to function is impaired.
23c23
< Various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been sent up as trial balloons by defendants, with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
---
> In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in any number of juristictions internationally in an effort to punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
25c25
< Thus far, medical and legal efforts to define sanity have been addressed.  The last category your author will look at will be sanity as defined in a political context.
---
> Various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been sent up as trial balloons by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
27c27,35
< (to be completed as time permits) -- AyeSpy
---
> Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state.  The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive.  The argument supporting such definitions of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this:  "The state functions for the good of the people.  Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies.  Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state.  Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement."  As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that the deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid.  Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression.  Thus sanity by political definition may be restored.
> 
> Political definitions of sanity have not been confined to openly authoritarian governments.  In otherwise putatively democratice countries which have a history of democratic elections and peaceful transfer of power, state-sanctioned and state-funded mental treatement has been imposed upon political dissidents and upon members of racial and ethnic minorities whose activities and efforts to achieve equal treatment and equal rights to those enjoyed by favored elements of these societies have been felt to be a threat to civil order or state security.
> 
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them.   As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear.  These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds.  Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them.  The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane.
> 
> A common thread runs through all of the foregoing.  Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by ''proper functioning'' is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society.  To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane.  One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority.  Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.
> 
> There is lively debate as to whether sanity is achievable, maintainable and restorable with or without physical interventions in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and than mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind in independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
------
WikiPediaBugs|981571586
8a9,11
> 
> :I broke it.  Now I will go fix it.  The purpose of the change is that many search spiders refuse to index past the '?', and I am hoping that changing the urls to look like /wiki/* will help them
> index us. --JimboWales
------
WikiPediaBugs|981571601
10,11c10
< :I broke it.  Now I will go fix it.  The purpose of the change is that many search spiders refuse to index past the '?', and I am hoping that changing the urls to look like /wiki/* will help them
< index us. --JimboWales
---
> :I broke it.  Now I will go fix it.  The purpose of the change is that many search spiders refuse to index past the '?', and I am hoping that changing the urls to look like /wiki/* will help them index us. --JimboWales
------
RecentChanges|981572343
0a1,2
> Did you know you can make any term a WikiName by placing it within square brackets - no need to UgLiFy otherwise non-intercapped words. -- JoeKoberg
> 
5c7,8
< See WikiPediaFaq for frequently-asked questions.
---
> 
> See WikiPediaFaq for frequently-asked questions.
------
JoeKoberg|981572390
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Joe Koberg, KB5RMQ
> http://www.OpenSoftwareServices.com
> [this] is a test
> joe@rootnode.com
------
RecentChanges|981572467
1d0
< Did you know you can make any term a WikiName by placing it within square brackets - no need to UgLiFy otherwise non-intercapped words. -- JoeKoberg
------
HiStory|981572935
1,11c1,11
< * HistoryOfLevant
< * HistoryOfEgypt
< * HistoryOfIndia
< * HistoryOfChina
< * HistoryOfMesoamerica
< * HistoryOfAndes
< * HistoryOfMediterranean
< * HistoryOfByzantium
< * HistoryOfIslam
< * HistoryOfEurope
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
---
> * HistoryOfLevant
> * HistoryOfEgypt
> * HistoryOfIndia
> * HistoryOfChina
> * HistoryOfMesoamerica
> 
> * HistoryOfMediterranean
> * HistoryOfByzantium
> * HistoryOfIslam
> * HistoryOfEurope
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573186
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by ErnstZermelo, and was quite contraversial at the time.  It states the following:
> 
>      Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can '''choose''' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
> 
> Hmmm - seems obvious doesn't it?  I mean if you've got a bunch of boxes lying around each with at least one item in each of them, the axiom simply states that you can choose one item out of each box.  Where's the controversy?
> 
> Well, the controversy was over what it meant to '''choose''' something from these sets.  As an example, let us look at some sample sets.
> 
>      1. Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
>           Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
>           (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
>      2. Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
>           Then f can be the function that '''chooses''' the smallest element in each set.
>      3. Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
>           Then f can be the function that '''chooses''' the midpoint of each interval.
>      4. Let X be the collection of '''all''' subsets of the reals.
>           Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
> 
> And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can '''choose''' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existance.
> 
> There are no contradictions if you choose not to accept the AxiomOfChoice, however, most mathematicians (who aren't set theorists or logicians) accept either it, or a weakened variant of it, because it makes their jobs '''easier'''.  There are many variants of the AxiomOfChoice (for example the AxiomOfCountableChoice, which permits a sequence of choices).
> 
> One of the reasons that some mathematicians don't particularly like the AxiomOfChoice is the fact that it implies the existance of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition which amounts to saying that it is possible to "carve-up" the closed unit sphere into finitely many pieces, and using only rotation and translation, reform the pieces into 2 spheres each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the "proof" given in the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition is an existance proof only, it does not tell you how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells you that it can be done.
> 
> One of the most interesting aspects of the AxiomOfChoice is the sheer number of places that it pops up.  It has quite far reaching impact, and shows up in many different branches of mathematics (often implicitly, as opposed to explicitly).  There are also a remarkable number of concepts that are equivalent to the Axiom of Choice, among them the WellOrderingPrinciple and ZornsLemma.
> 
> Jerry Bona once said: "The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the Well Ordering Principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's Lemma?".  In truth, all three of these are mathematically equivalent, but the statement was amusing because it underscored the fact that most mathematicians find the AxiomOfChoice to be intuitive, the WellOrderingPrinciple to be counterintuitive, and ZornsLemma to be too complex to form any intuitive feeling about.
> 
> There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [Paul Howard http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/]
> 
> --RaviDesai
------
WolfgangMozart|981573207
1,8c1,4
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
< 
< He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
< 
< Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote cadenzas to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
< 
< Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
< 
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
> He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
> Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
> Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573280
29c29
< There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [Paul Howard http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/]
---
> There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ PaulHoward]
31c31
< --RaviDesai
---
> --RaviDesai
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573340
3c3
<      Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can '''choose''' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
---
> Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can '''choose''' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573403
3c3
< Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can '''choose''' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
---
> Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can ''choose'' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
7c7
< Well, the controversy was over what it meant to '''choose''' something from these sets.  As an example, let us look at some sample sets.
---
> Well, the controversy was over what it meant to ''choose'' something from these sets.  As an example, let us look at some sample sets.
13c13
<           Then f can be the function that '''chooses''' the smallest element in each set.
---
>           Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
15,16c15,16
<           Then f can be the function that '''chooses''' the midpoint of each interval.
<      4. Let X be the collection of '''all''' subsets of the reals.
---
>           Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
>      4. Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
21c21
< There are no contradictions if you choose not to accept the AxiomOfChoice, however, most mathematicians (who aren't set theorists or logicians) accept either it, or a weakened variant of it, because it makes their jobs '''easier'''.  There are many variants of the AxiomOfChoice (for example the AxiomOfCountableChoice, which permits a sequence of choices).
---
> There are no contradictions if you choose not to accept the AxiomOfChoice, however, most mathematicians (who aren't set theorists or logicians) accept either it, or a weakened variant of it, because it makes their jobs ''easier''.  There are many variants of the AxiomOfChoice (for example the AxiomOfCountableChoice, which permits a sequence of choices).
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573423
19c19
< And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can '''choose''' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existance.
---
> And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can ''choose'' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existance.
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573474
29c29
< There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ PaulHoward]
---
> There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU]
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573908
9,17c9,17
<      1. Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
<           Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
<           (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
<      2. Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
<           Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
<      3. Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
<           Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
<      4. Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
<           Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
---
> # Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
> : Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
> : (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
> # Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
> : Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
> # Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
> : Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
> # Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
> : Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
------
AxiomOfChoice|981573975
9,17c9,17
< # Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
< : Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
< : (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
< # Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
< : Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
< # Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
< : Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
< # Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
< : Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
---
> :1. Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
> :: Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
> :: (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
> :2. Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
> :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
> :3. Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
> :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
> :4. Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
> :: Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
------
WikiPediaBugs|981573985
10a11,15
> ----
> 
> O.k., it is still broken.  The way it is broken now is that I'm using a mod_rewrite passthrough to make the URLs look the way I want them (which is semi-important), but this causes the script to think that cobrand.bomis.com (the name of the machine where wikipedia lives) is the ip doing all the editing.
> 
> Therefore, I should not use mod_rewrite passthrough to do what I want.  So I have to think about the right way to do it.
------
WikiPediaBugs|981574000
15c15,16
< Therefore, I should not use mod_rewrite passthrough to do what I want.  So I have to think about the right way to do it.
---
> Therefore, I should not use mod_rewrite passthrough to do what I want.  So I have to think about the right way to do it.
> --JimboWales
------
JoeKoberg|981574125
4c4,9
< joe@rootnode.com
---
> joe@rootnode.com
> ----
> 
> Hi, Joe.  I've been studying for my technician class exam.  Actually, I could easily pass that one today, so I thought I'd go ahead and study for the general.  But I still have to learn morse. :-(
> 
> Anyhow, I've been thinking that there's probably quite a bit of already-free material available about ham radio.
------
JoeKoberg|981574137
9c9
< Anyhow, I've been thinking that there's probably quite a bit of already-free material available about ham radio.
---
> Anyhow, I've been thinking that there's probably quite a bit of already-free material available about ham radio. --JimboWales
------
BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition|981574597
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is the famous "doubling the ball" paradox, whereby using the AxiomOfChoice it is possible to take the unit sphere, cut it up into finitely many pieces and using only rotation and translation, and reform the pieces into two balls that are identical to the original.
> 
> At least this is the way it is commonly understood.  In fact, however, I believe the paradox is even stronger than that.  It states:
> 
> Any two bounded subsets (of 3-space) with non-empty interior, are equi-decomposable by translations and rotations. This can be illustrated by saying that a marble can be cut up into finitely many pieces and reassembled into a planet. Note that in the decomposition, the pieces are not measurable, and so they will not have "reasonable" boundries.
> 
> This is yet another example of a DecompositionParadox, one of the first of which was discovered by Hausdorff who noticed that it is possible to "chop up" the unit interval into countably many pieces which (by translation only) can be reassembled into the interval of length 2.
> 
> What these paradoxes point out is that the notions of measure and volume are often more complicated than we intuitively expect.
------
BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition|981574772
9a10,11
> 
> --RaviDesai
------
BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition|981575439
5c5
< Any two bounded subsets (of 3-space) with non-empty interior, are equi-decomposable by translations and rotations. This can be illustrated by saying that a marble can be cut up into finitely many pieces and reassembled into a planet. Note that in the decomposition, the pieces are not measurable, and so they will not have "reasonable" boundries.
---
> :Any two bounded subsets (of 3-space) with non-empty interior, are equi-decomposable by translations and rotations. This can be illustrated by saying that a marble can be cut up into finitely many pieces and reassembled into a planet. Note that in the decomposition, the pieces are not measurable, and so they will not have "reasonable" boundries.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleThree|981576498
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Section 1. The judicial power of the UnitedStates, shall be vested in one SupremeCourt, and in such inferior courts as the Congress
> may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good
> behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their
> continuance in office. 
> 
> Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States,
> and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
> consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to
> controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different
> states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens
> thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
> 
> In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court
> shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
> to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 
> 
> The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes
> shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by
> law have directed. 
> 
> Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving
> them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on
> confession in open court. 
> 
> The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or
> forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleFour|981576560
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.
> And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the
> effect thereof. 
> 
> Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 
> 
> A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on
> demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of
> the crime. 
> 
> No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
> regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or
> labor may be due. 
> 
> Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the
> jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of
> the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 
> 
> The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
> belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States,
> or of any particular state. 
> 
> Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of
> them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against
> domestic violence. 
------
ErnestHemingway/ThingsTurnSour|981578471
7c7
< It is worth noting that this attacks on his pride and talent were accompanied by the already mentioned injuries (The Time in Between) which kept him almost constantly in bad shape.
---
> It is worth noting that this attacks on his pride and talent were accompanied by the already mentioned injuries (/TheTimeinBetween) which kept him almost constantly in bad shape.
------
SanIty|981579165
35c35
< There is lively debate as to whether sanity is achievable, maintainable and restorable with or without physical interventions in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and than mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind in independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
---
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and than mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
------
AxiomOfChoice|981579446
1c1
< The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by ErnstZermelo, and was quite contraversial at the time.  It states the following:
---
> The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by ErnstZermelo, and was quite controversial at the time.  It states the following:
19c19
< And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can ''choose'' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existance.
---
> And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can ''choose'' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existence.
23c23
< One of the reasons that some mathematicians don't particularly like the AxiomOfChoice is the fact that it implies the existance of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition which amounts to saying that it is possible to "carve-up" the closed unit sphere into finitely many pieces, and using only rotation and translation, reform the pieces into 2 spheres each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the "proof" given in the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition is an existance proof only, it does not tell you how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells you that it can be done.
---
> One of the reasons that some mathematicians don't particularly like the AxiomOfChoice is the fact that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition which amounts to saying that it is possible to "carve-up" the closed unit sphere into finitely many pieces, and using only rotation and translation, reform the pieces into 2 spheres each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the "proof" given in the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition is an existence proof only, it does not tell you how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells you that it can be done.
------
DwGriffith|981579636
1c1
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar.  Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for cannonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as MiseEnScene and editing (FilmEditing.)
---
> David Wark Griffith (American director)
3c3,19
< Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film BirthofaNation (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the KluKluxKlan in the United States.
---
> born: January 22, 1875, Crestwood, Kentucky
> 
> died: July 23, 1948, Hollywood, California
> 
> Important works:
> 
> The Birth of a Nation (1915)
> 
> Intolerance (1916)
> 
> Broken Blossoms (1919)
> 
> America (1924)
> 
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as MiseEnScene and editing (FilmEditing.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no Point-of-View Shots.
> 
> Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film /BirthofaNation (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the KluKluxKlan in the United States.
7c23,24
< Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1908 and 1912 (the years he directed for the Mutual Film Company), Griffith produced an astounding 500 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he launched his own company and set to work to produce BirthofaNation.
---
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 500 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft, then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks.
> 
------
AyeSpy|981579654
117c117
< I have thought up, composed, and written pleadings which, filed with the court and considered ''in camera'' without oral argument, defeated the motions or counter-motions of experienced lawyers.  I have averted courtroom defeats by catching factual or legal errors in pleadings before they were filed.  I have brought to the attention of engineers errors in their observations, assumptions or calculations which invalidated their conclusions.  I have brought medical technical data to the attention of medical examiners, with the result that they corrected an erroneous finding on cause of death.  I have found results in patient medical testing, and material in medical texts, which proved malpractice.  Did you know that a "right bundle branch block" finding on an ECG is a differential for diagnosing pulmonary embolism (instead of, say, gastritis) and that failure to immediately start a prophylactic course of of anticoagulants could kill the patient?  I know of at least two emergency docs who either overlooked or forgot that fact, in spite of 7 years of SeriousScholarship.
---
> I have thought up, composed, and written pleadings which, filed with the court and considered ''in camera'' without oral argument, defeated the motions or counter-motions of experienced lawyers.  I have averted courtroom defeats by catching factual or legal errors in pleadings before they were filed.  I have brought to the attention of engineers errors in their observations, assumptions or calculations which invalidated their conclusions.  I have brought medical technical data to the attention of medical examiners, with the result that they corrected an erroneous finding on cause of death.  I have found results in patient medical testing, and material in medical texts, which proved malpractice.  Did you know that a "right bundle branch block" finding on an ECG is a differential for diagnosing pulmonary embolism (instead of, say, gastritis) and that failure to immediately start a prophylactic course of of anticoagulants could kill the patient?  I know of at least two emergency docs who either overlooked or forgot that fact, in spite of 10 years of SeriousScholarship.
------
FilmCriticism|981579759
12a13
> *  BelaBalazs
------
FilmHistory|981580005
10c10,17
< Arguably, the most important figure in the history of film aesthetics would be DwGriffith.
---
> ----
> 
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of Hollywood (1912-1925)
> 
> *  DwGriffith
> *  MaryPickford
> *  CharlieChaplin
> *  DouglasFairbanks
------
MaryPickford|981580733
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> birth name: Gladys Smith
> 
> born: Toronto, Canada
> 
> Mary Pickford was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was CharlieChaplin.
> 
> prior to 1909: studied theatre actress in New York
> 
> 1909: discovered by DwGriffith at Biograph, worked for $5 a week
> 
> 1910: I.M.P., $175 a week
> 
> 1911: Majestic Film Corp.
> 
> 1912: back to Biograph
> 
> 1913: Belasco as theatre actress
> 
> 1913: Famous Players, $20,000 a year
> 
> 1915: worked for various companies, $1000 to $2000 a week
> 
> 1916: founded The Mary Pickford Corporation as a part of Paramount, she gets about $10,000 a week. She became the first actress who was the producer of her own films
> 
> 1918: First National. She gets $675,000 for three films plus 50% of all profits, plus a signing bonus of $50,000 and complete control over her films, ranging from script to the final cut.
> 
> 1919: Founded United Artists together with CharlieChaplin , DwGriffith and her husband DouglasFairbanks
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
CharlieChaplin|981581026
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most famous actor in early Hollywood cinema. He was the first actor who did a one million dollar deal.
> 
> 1914: Keystone, worked for $150 a week
> 
> 1914-15: Essanay, $1250 a week, plus $10,000 signing bonus
> 
> 1916-17: Mutual, $10,000 a week, plus $150,000 signing bonus
> 
> 1917: First National, million dollar deal 
------
CharlieChaplin|981581085
9c9,11
< 1917: First National, million dollar deal 
---
> 1917: First National, million dollar deal
> 
> 1919: Founded United Artists with MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DwGriffith 
------
MaryPickford|981581122
5c5
< Mary Pickford was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was CharlieChaplin.
---
> Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was CharlieChaplin.
------
DwGriffith|981581329
23c23
< Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 500 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft, then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks.
---
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks.
------
BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition|981582025
5c5
< :Any two bounded subsets (of 3-space) with non-empty interior, are equi-decomposable by translations and rotations. This can be illustrated by saying that a marble can be cut up into finitely many pieces and reassembled into a planet. Note that in the decomposition, the pieces are not measurable, and so they will not have "reasonable" boundries.
---
> :Any two bounded subsets (of 3-space) with non-empty interior, are equi-decomposable by translations and rotations. This can be illustrated by saying that a marble can be cut up into finitely many pieces and reassembled into a planet. Note that in the decomposition, the pieces are not measurable, and so they will not have "reasonable" boundaries.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|981582770
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrizeWinner in PhysICs (quantum electrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
19c19
< TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of Euler’s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
---
> TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of EuleR s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
22c22
< Euler’s Theorem states that:
---
> EuleR s Theorem states that:
36c36
< The proof of Euler’s Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a Taylor’s Series Expansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivre’s Formula, and the Taylor’s Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
---
> The proof of Euler's Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a TaylorsSeriesExpansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivresFormula, and the Taylor's Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
------
EuleR|981582854
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See LeonhardEuler
------
LeonhardEuler|981583306
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swiss Mathematician (1707-1783)
> 
> Euler made large bounds in modern analytic geometry and trigonometry. He made decisive and formative contributions to
> GeoMetry, CalcuLus and NumberTheory. In number theory he did much work in correspondence with Goldbach. He integrated
> Leibniz's DifferentialCalculus and IsaacNewton's method of fluxions into mathematical analysis. In number theory he stated the
> PrimeNumberTheorem and the LawOfBiquadraticReciprocity. 
> 
> Copied and wikified from
> 
> http://www.math.wayne.edu/~zhihui/Euler.html
> 
> See there for more details.
------
AstroNomy|981583874
1,7c1,11
< AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the Natural Sciences.
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between stars, that always keep the same relative positions, and planets, that move between stars.
< GreeK PhilosopherS thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets the Sun and the Moon. The one most remembered through the Middle Ages was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do). Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
< IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
< (to be continued)
<  
---
> AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between StaR""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneT""s, that move between stars.
> GreeK PhilosopheR""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. 
> 
> Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
> 
>  Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpot""s, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> 
> IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
> 
------
AstroNomy|981583983
8c8
<  Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpot""s, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpot""s, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
------
PlaneT|981584407
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own
> and orbits a StaR. Until recently, only nine were known (all of
> them in the SolarSystem). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
> are known.
> 
> The planets of the Solar System (in increasing distance from the SuN) are
> 
> MercurY
> 
> VenuS
> 
> MarS
> 
> EartH
> 
> JupiteR
> 
> SaturN
> 
> UranuS
> 
> NeptunE
> 
> PlutO
> 
> 
------
AstroNomer|981584486
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Astronomy Grad Student that is losing his time writing wikipedia
> articles instead of working in his Dissertation
------
WolfgangMozart|981584568
1,5c1,5
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
< He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
< Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
< Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
< As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life.  Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work.  Gradually, his health became very poor.  He lived just a little over half of Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791.
---
> WolfgangAmadeusMozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
> He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
> Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
> Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
> As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life.  Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work.  Gradually, his health became very poor.  He lived just a little over half of Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791.
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981584616
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WolfgangAmadeusMozart?, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
> composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A.
> Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is
> considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern
> audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written
> tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and
> fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said
> to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling
> piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or
> pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's
> style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote
> CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only
> sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of
> its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
> "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times,
> he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
> Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791. 
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981584641
1c1
< WolfgangAmadeusMozart?, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
------
WolfgangMozart|981584803
1,5c1,4
< WolfgangAmadeusMozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six.  His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences.  His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music.
< He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death.  Happily for W.A., he was successful.  "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings.  The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece.  Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte.
< Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition.  Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466.  Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them.  He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance!
< Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style.
< As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life.  Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work.  Gradually, his health became very poor.  He lived just a little over half of Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791.
---
> See WolfgangAmadeusMozart
> 
> (His original name was Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart, but he chose to
> translate his middle name to italian, Italy beeing very influetial musically at that time.)
------
MuSic|981584866
13c13
< JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- PiotrTchaikovsky
---
> JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
------
CapitalisM|981585152
7c7,9
< Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman.
---
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM. In his work, Smith
> first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman.
> 
------
CountriesC|981585237
7c7
< * ColumbiA
---
> * ColombiA
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981585844
3a4,11
> 
> 
> 
> After writing the original FundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the
> story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable
> monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). 
> In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a
> future history of humanity.
------
WikiWatcher|981585996
1c1,4
< An intelligent person who surfs the "WikiPedia" and finds valuable information. 
---
> An intelligent person who surfs the "WikiPedia" and finds valuable information. 
> 
> (for the time beeing, the previous definition would be best applied to MiracleDoer)...
> 
------
TimShell|981586744
4a5,8
> ----
> Tim - in your capitalism article, "Recently capitalism has often occured of a wider, LibertariaN? social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society."
> 
> Could you take a look at this and revise to reflect what you were thinking, if you don't mind?  I would copyedit it for clarity's sake, but I cannot for the life of me quite figure out what you intended... -- AyeSpy 
------
WikiWatcher|981586854
3d2
< (for the time beeing, the previous definition would be best applied to MiracleDoer)...
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|981586966
1,55c1,58
< We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
< [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
< encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
< of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
< ----
< From PolanD:
< :From an Englishman's diary:
< * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
< * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
< * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
< * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
< ----
< From PatentNonsense:
< Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
< A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
< Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
< A. Go figure!
< ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
< ----
< order arising out of chaos...
< ----
< From WhatIsaWiki:
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
< Blah...
< ----
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
< ----
< Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
< Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
< ----
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
<     -- Drachs
< ----
< Investigation of the Wiki concept...
< ----
< From IdiosyncratiC:
< My dad knew him.
< ----
< From HareKrishna:
< (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
< ----
< Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
< ----
< From EnglishLanguage:
< A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
< ----says who? Can't languages evolve? I don't see you spelling like Shakespeare...
< From SnowBoarding:
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
< ----
< From AustriA:
< <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
< ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
< ''Ever been to AustriA?? Then you'll know what I mean;-)''
---
> We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
> [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
> encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
> of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
> ----
> From PolanD:
> :From an Englishman's diary:
> * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
> * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
> * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
> * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
> ----
> From PatentNonsense:
> Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
> A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
> Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
> A. Go figure!
> ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
> ----
> order arising out of chaos...
> ----
> From WhatIsaWiki:
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
> Blah...
> ----
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
>     -- Drachs
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
> ----
> From IdiosyncratiC:
> My dad knew him.
> ----
> From HareKrishna:
> (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
> ----
> Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
> ----
> From EnglishLanguage:
> A quick guide for those living in the UnitedStates - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
> ----says who? Can't languages evolve? I don't see you spelling like Shakespeare...
> From SnowBoarding:
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
> ----
> From AustriA:
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
> ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
> ''Ever been to AustriA?? Then you'll know what I mean;-)''
> ----
> From WikiWatcher:
> (for the time beeing, the previous definition would be best applied to MiracleDoer)...
------
MuSic|981587140
1c1
< We're ''desperate'' for good music articles (it seems).  The following music-related topics have been created:
---
> The following music-related topics have been created:
9c9
< We don't yet have articles about:
---
> Here are some more ideas:
------
SanityTalk|981587371
14c14,24
< Of course it is.  I believe once you see the finished article you will not find it biased, though it may throw a fresh light on some things.  As always, I will stand ready to make adjustments if folks want.  Anything I write is going to be from my point of view.  Unlike anything I write for Nupedia, I am apt to rely of my storehouse of retained information and conclusions synthesized from it, and not research, re-research, buttress and pepper the text with references from others' scholarly works.  All valid views are not necessarily mainstream.  All mainstream views are not necessarily valid.  I will, however, always attempt to rest what I write solidly upon either published research, replicable empirical observation, or both.  You let me know if I mis-remember or mis-represent anything, and I'll fix it.  
---
> Of course it is.  I believe once you see the finished article you will not find it biased, though it may throw a fresh light on some things.  As always, I will stand ready to make adjustments if folks want.  Anything I write is going to be from my point of view.  Unlike anything I write for Nupedia, I am apt to rely of my storehouse of retained information and conclusions synthesized from it, and not research, re-research, buttress and pepper the text with references from others' scholarly works.  All valid views are not necessarily mainstream.  All mainstream views are not necessarily valid.  I will, however, always attempt to rest what I write solidly upon either published research, replicable empirical observation, or both.  You let me know if I mis-remember or mis-represent anything, and I'll fix it.
> ----
> I'll have a look.
> 
> Not everything I write is from my point of view, Bruce.  Do you find that paradoxical?
> 
> Not all valid views are mainstream, that's about as obvious as anything can be, when you think about it.  Sure.  But the purpose of an encyclopedia article is to convey what the mainstream views are.
> 
> By the way, regardless of whether you sign the article and regard it as yours, in my opinion it belongs to the wiki, and I will make bold to change it whenever I wanna.  :-)  Without asking you.
> 
> -- LarrySanger
------
SanityTalk|981587395
20c20
< Not all valid views are mainstream, that's about as obvious as anything can be, when you think about it.  Sure.  But the purpose of an encyclopedia article is to convey what the mainstream views are.
---
> Not all valid views are mainstream, that's about as obvious as anything can be, when you think about it.  Sure.  But the purpose of an encyclopedia article is to convey what the mainstream views are--at least.
24c24
< -- LarrySanger
---
> -- LarrySanger
------
MetaEthics/Naturalism|981587728
5c5
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
---
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
41c41
< Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
---
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
------
LeonhardEuler|981588078
12c12,14
< See there for more details.
---
> See there for more details.
> ----
> Umm...did you get permission?  Is that page public domain?
------
SanityTalk|981588133
24a25,27
> ----
> Fair enough.  After all, I agree to the WikiPedia license when I dump it here.  I think I at least mentioned most mainstream views in passing.  I still don't like my last paragraph or so, so expect that to change.  I have a well-formed concept but the words elude me at the moment.  Blame it on a right-brain moment.  As to your or anyone's revisions of "my" article, If I cannot get it to retain the sense of what I meant, I can always remove my name from it.  For the nonce, I leave it appended so folks know upon whom to blame the drivel presented. ;^)
> -- AyeSpy
------
SanIty|981588303
35c35
< There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and than mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
---
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
------
LeonhardEuler|981588332
14c14,16
< Umm...did you get permission?  Is that page public domain?
---
> Umm...did you get permission?  Is that page public domain?
> ----
> It doesn't have a copyright claim, but i'm not sure what is assumed by default. I'll email the author, and if i don't get a satisfactory answer, i'll delete the entry (or somebody else will probably will).
------
SanIty|981588442
1c1
< "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you are authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
---
> "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
3c3
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading one to the conclusion that if one's mind is properly functioning, that is, he is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
---
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading one to the conclusion that if one's mind is properly functioning, that is, if he is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
------
LeonhardEuler|981588506
3,16d2
< Euler made large bounds in modern analytic geometry and trigonometry. He made decisive and formative contributions to
< GeoMetry, CalcuLus and NumberTheory. In number theory he did much work in correspondence with Goldbach. He integrated
< Leibniz's DifferentialCalculus and IsaacNewton's method of fluxions into mathematical analysis. In number theory he stated the
< PrimeNumberTheorem and the LawOfBiquadraticReciprocity. 
< 
< Copied and wikified from
< 
< http://www.math.wayne.edu/~zhihui/Euler.html
< 
< See there for more details.
< ----
< Umm...did you get permission?  Is that page public domain?
< ----
< It doesn't have a copyright claim, but i'm not sure what is assumed by default. I'll email the author, and if i don't get a satisfactory answer, i'll delete the entry (or somebody else will probably will).
------
TimShell|981588676
8c8
< Could you take a look at this and revise to reflect what you were thinking, if you don't mind?  I would copyedit it for clarity's sake, but I cannot for the life of me quite figure out what you intended... -- AyeSpy 
---
> Could you take a look at this and revise to reflect what you were thinking, if you don't mind?  I would copyedit it for clarity's sake, but I cannot for the life of me quite figure out what you intended... -- AyeSpy
9a10
> Actually, the "recently" was my bit.  It occured to me that capitalism is old and fairly mainstream in some countries, whereas libertarianism is new and controversial.  So the often seemed misleading.  Sorry if I broke it. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
IntelliGence|981589071
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IntelliGence:  1)  The power to reason.  2)  Self-awareness accompanied by a capacity for abstract reasoning.  3)  Intellectual prowess.  5)  Knowledge.  4)  Data, especially of a secure or secret nature, about the plans and activities of an adversary. 5) In the field of automation, the quality of being directed by a computing circuit or device. -- AyeSpy
> 
> (from Latin ''intellegere'' to gather within)
> 
> (Does anyone have more definitions?)
------
AstroNomer|981589146
0a1,5
> Scientist whose are of research is AstroNomy.
> 
> ----
> 
> Refering to authors of WikiPedia:
------
TimShell|981589189
10a11,12
> 
> OK - I edited it to say what I think you meant.  Tell me if I got it right. -- AyeSpy
------
AstroNomer|981589193
1c1
< Scientist whose are of research is AstroNomy.
---
> ScientIst whose area of ReSearch is AstroNomy.
------
CapitalisM|981589310
1c1
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently capitalism has often occured of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
------
TaoTehChing|981590071
26a27
> TaoTehChingTalk
------
TaoTehChingTalk|981590178
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TaoTehChingTalk
> 
> COMMENT: The historical existance of Lao Tzu in unconfirmed according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What is your source for the statement that the existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching is not the work of one man is generally accepted. 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> 
> I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and then you could discuss the problem). Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger 
> 
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> (moved here from the body of the text -- AyeSpy) COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote: 
> 
>   Even the 'biography of Lao Tzu' which may be found
>   in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien (second
>   century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record 
>   describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of 
>   Chou, and further states that he is said to have 
>   personally instructed Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius). (Which is
>   inconsistent with other supposed information about Lao Tzu.)
> 
> Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses doubt about the authenticity of the available information. Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views as accepted fact. 
> 
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> 
> I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed. I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching. It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it. -- AyeSpy 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
TaoTehChing|981590247
20,52d19
< ----
< COMMENT: The historical existance of Lao Tzu in unconfirmed according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. What is your source for the statement that the existence of Lao Tzu is historically confirmed? That the Tao Teh Ching is not the work of one man is generally accepted. 
< ----
< 
< I'd suggest you simply make the change that you believe is necessary; this will save time, and if the author doesn't like it, he can always change it back (and then you could discuss the problem). Just my suggestion. -- LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< TaoTehChingTalk
< (moved here from the body of the text -- AyeSpy) COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical
< statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote:
< 
<   Even the 'biography of Lao Tzu' which may be found
<   in the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien (second
<   century B.C.) is not without its inconsistencies. This record 
<   describes Lao Tzu as having been an archivist of the Court of 
<   Chou, and further states that he is said to have 
<   personally instructed Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius). (Which is
<   inconsistent with other supposed information about Lao Tzu.)
< 
< Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses
< doubt about the authenticity of the available information.
< Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion
< that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one
< man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views
< as accepted fact.
< 
< ----
< 
< I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed.  I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching.  It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it. -- AyeSpy
< 
< 
< 
< 
------
TaoTehChing|981590329
19a20,21
> ----
> See also TaoTehChingTalk
------
DeletePatentNonsenseDebate|981590453
1c1
< I agree that one should delete patent nonsense.  One should also give the author a chance to fix his material.
---
> I agree that one should delete patent nonsense.  One should also give the author a chance to fix his material. -- AyeSpy
------
SeriousScholars|981591238
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Those who pursue SeriousScholarship
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981592011
0a1,2
> (Would anyone object to moving this page to MozarT?  That's easier to type, and its not like he is going to be confused with some other MozarT).
> 
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981592137
2a3,4
> (I think it would be better to create MozarT, and add a link here)
> 
------
MozarT|981592162
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See WolfgangAmadeusMozart
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981592243
3c3
< (I think it would be better to create MozarT, and add a link here)
---
> (I think it would be better to create MozarT, and add a link here. The long name keeps consistency with other names used.)
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981592402
4a5,6
> (Incidentally, you can add this phrase "#REDIREDT WolfgangAmadeusMozart" to a page and it will automatically forward you.)
> 
------
TrigonometricFunctions|981594636
82c82
< Another mnemonic is commonly used in the UK is OHMS. This is memorable because it might mean "On Her Majesty's Service", which is stamped on the front of Tax demands, or "Opposite over Adjacent Means Sine".
---
> Another mnemonic is commonly used in the UK is OHMS. This is memorable because it might mean "On Her Majesty's Service", which is stamped on the front of Tax demands, or "Opposite over Hypotenuse Means Sine".
------
WikiPediaBugs|981595196
1,16c1
< Report any bugs or unexpected behavior here:
< ----
< 
< The RecentChanges page is broken: when all the pages were moved from /wiki.cgi?* to /wiki/*, it wasn't properly updated, so now clicking on an author's name doesn't work.  Who is the appropriate person to fix this?  
< 
< :The person who broke it, of course. :-)
< 
< :I didn't break the code, but I think I see the problem.  The script name is (mainly) used in two routines: ScriptLink and ScriptLinkTitle (used for author links so that you'll get the nifty pop-up with the ID and hostname).  It looks like only the first of these was modified for the new /-style links.  The fix should be simple--just modify ScriptLinkTitle the same way.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< :I broke it.  Now I will go fix it.  The purpose of the change is that many search spiders refuse to index past the '?', and I am hoping that changing the urls to look like /wiki/* will help them index us. --JimboWales
< ----
< 
< O.k., it is still broken.  The way it is broken now is that I'm using a mod_rewrite passthrough to make the URLs look the way I want them (which is semi-important), but this causes the script to think that cobrand.bomis.com (the name of the machine where wikipedia lives) is the ip doing all the editing.
< 
< Therefore, I should not use mod_rewrite passthrough to do what I want.  So I have to think about the right way to do it.
< --JimboWales
---
> Report any bugs or unexpected behavior here.
------
MozarT|981598671
1c1
< See WolfgangAmadeusMozart
---
> #REDIRECT WolfgangAmadeusMozart
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981599476
1,5d0
< (Would anyone object to moving this page to MozarT?  That's easier to type, and its not like he is going to be confused with some other MozarT).
< 
< (I think it would be better to create MozarT, and add a link here. The long name keeps consistency with other names used.)
< 
< (Incidentally, you can add this phrase "#REDIREDT WolfgangAmadeusMozart" to a page and it will automatically forward you.)
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|981599697
1d0
< 
18a18,19
> ----
> See also WolfgangAmadeusMozartTalk.
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozartTalk|981599708
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Would anyone object to moving this page to MozarT? That's easier to type, and its not like he is going to be confused with some other MozarT).
> 
> (I think it would be better to create MozarT, and add a link here. The long name keeps consistency with other names used.)
> 
> (Incidentally, you can add this phrase "#REDIREDT WolfgangAmadeusMozart" to a page and it will automatically forward you.) 
------
CapitalisM|981601252
8c8
< first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman.
---
> first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman. 
9a10,12
> ---- 
> 
> CaptitalisM is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article, written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob
------
CapitalisM|981601334
10a11
>  See CapitalismTalk
12c13
< CaptitalisM is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article, written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob
---
> CaptitalisM is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article, written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob
------
CapitalismTalk|981601368
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article,
> written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent
> economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very
> different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob 
------
CapitalisM|981601397
11d10
<  See CapitalismTalk
13c12
< CaptitalisM is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article, written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob
---
> 
------
CapitalisM|981601432
11,12c11
< 
< 
---
> See CapitalismTalk
------
CapitalismTalk|981601492
1c1
< CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics. This is a very biased, right-wing article,
---
> CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics.  Terms like ''capitalist economy'' are clearly used in the wrong context. his is a very biased, right-wing article,
4c4
< different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist). -- WojPob 
---
> different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist).  This looks very much like a cut/paste job from a dodgy source. -- WojPob 
------
CapitalismTalk|981601512
1c1
< CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics.  Terms like ''capitalist economy'' are clearly used in the wrong context. his is a very biased, right-wing article,
---
> CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics.  Terms like ''capitalist economy'' are clearly used in the wrong context. This is a very biased, right-wing article,
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981602175
7,11d6
< After writing the original FundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the
< story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable
< monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). 
< In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a
< future history of humanity.
------
IsaacAsimov|981602199
15c15,18
< * ThreeLawsOfRobotics
---
> * ThreeLawsOfRobotics
> 
> 
> * /Talk
------
IsaacAsimov/Talk|981602220
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After writing the original FundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a future history of humanity.
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|981602295
3c3
< The Mayor of Terminus fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location. 
---
> The Mayor of Terminus fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location . 
------
IsaacAsimov/Talk|981602328
1c1
< After writing the original FundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a future history of humanity.
---
> After writing the original FoundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a future history of humanity.
------
HomePage|981606982
3c3
< BusinessAndEconomics -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- HiStory -- --  LinguisticS & LanguagE -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates -- PoLitics -- MuSic -- SportS -- PhiloSophy -- ScienCe -- TechnologY --ArtsandEntertainment -- DanCe -- LiteraryArt -- ReCreation -- ArchitecturE -- QuoteS -- HumanComputerInteraction -- CategorySchemes
---
> PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- HumanComputerInteraction -- BusinessAnEconomics -- PoLitics -- ReLigion -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- HiStory -- LinguisticS --  LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- DanCe -- ArtsandEntertainment -- ReCreation -- SportS -- QuoteS
------
HomePage|981607002
3c3
< PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- HumanComputerInteraction -- BusinessAnEconomics -- PoLitics -- ReLigion -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- HiStory -- LinguisticS --  LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- DanCe -- ArtsandEntertainment -- ReCreation -- SportS -- QuoteS
---
> PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- HumanComputerInteraction -- BusinessAndEconomics -- PoLitics -- ReLigion -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- HiStory -- LinguisticS --  LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- DanCe -- ArtsandEntertainment -- ReCreation -- SportS -- QuoteS
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981608023
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The political spectrum is a classification scheme that is used to compare different political philosophies based on where they lie on the spectrum.  A spectrum is defined by its axis (or axes, as some spectrums have more than one).  Usually there is one issue that is deemed essential, and which is thought to subsume all others; placement on the spectrum is determined by one's position on that issue.
> 
> Because there are many possible political spectrums, one should not talk about _the_ political spectrum as if there were only one.  At the very least, one should first establish context by defining the axis upon which different positions will be measured.  Unfortunately, this is seldom done.
> 
> In a modern Islamic country, the political spectrum might be divided along the issue of the clergy's role in government.  Those who believe clerics should have the power to enforce Islamic law are on one end of the spectrum, those who support a secular society are on the other.
> 
> In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM versus SocialisM (called liberalism in the UnitedStates).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.
> 
> This right-left spectrum is so common that many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it.  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
> 
> Such an alternative, and an example of a two-axes spectrum, has been popularized by the [http://www.self-gov.org/ Advocates for Self-Government].  One axis measures your views on "personal self-government", which pertains to the government's role in the home, church, and between consenting adults in private, while the other axis measures "economic self-government", which pertains to the government's role in economic activities.  With two axes, there are four different extremes: Libertarian, which favors personal freedom and economic freedom; Left Liberal, which favors personal freedom but opposes economic freedom; Right Conservative, which favors economic freedom but opposes personal freedom; and Authoritarian, which opposes both personal freedom and economic freedom.  There is, of course, plenty of room in the center for people who hold moderate views along either axis.
> 
> Another alternative currently popular among certain environmentalists uses a single axis to measure the good of the earth against the good of big business, which is seen as being the force most likely to harm the earth.  On this axis, many mainstream politicians normally considered left-wing (such as BillClinton) are considered no different from those normally considered right-wing, because of their allegedly pro-business policies.
> 
> In 1998, political author VirginiaPostrel, in her book TheFutureAndItsEnemies, offered a new single axis spectrum that measures ones view of the future.  On one extreme are those who allegedly fear the future and wish to control it.  On the other hand are those who want the future to unfold naturally and without attempts to plan and control.
> 
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981608055
1c1
< The political spectrum is a classification scheme that is used to compare different political philosophies based on where they lie on the spectrum.  A spectrum is defined by its axis (or axes, as some spectrums have more than one).  Usually there is one issue that is deemed essential, and which is thought to subsume all others; placement on the spectrum is determined by one's position on that issue.
---
> A political spectrum is a classification scheme that is used to compare different political philosophies based on where they lie on the spectrum.  A spectrum is defined by its axis (or axes, as some spectrums have more than one).  Usually there is one issue that is deemed essential, and which is thought to subsume all others; placement on the spectrum is determined by one's position on that issue.
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981608887
7c7
< In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM versus SocialisM (called liberalism in the UnitedStates).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.
---
> In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM ("the right") versus SocialisM ("the left", called liberalism in the UnitedStates).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981609181
15a16,19
> ----
> Tim, this makes a good attempt to be fair but it overlooks a couple key points.  There are a variety of political spectra, but most people have a clear concept of the one to which "left" and "right" refer.  In fact, if you look at the one presented by the advocates for self-government, you will notice that the horizontal axis is the same left-right spectrum everyone else uses.  So while people may debate over the precise definition of that axis, its existence is not nearly so controversial.
> 
> The other thing is that the particular diagram to which you refer is fairly non-discriminatory.  Inasmuchas it can't distinguish between libertarianism and anarchism - one of which has policies much like capitalism, one of which has policies much like socialism - and again between fascism and marxism.  In short, they have identified different ideologies by pinching the diagram off into a diamond, which is probably more for the purposes of popularizing libertarianism (something the site obviously tries to do) then accuracy. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
CapitalismTalk|981609474
4a5,7
> ----
> 
> When Milton Friedman wrote 'Economic Freedom, Human Freedom, Political Freedom', and 'Capitalism and Freedom', and 'Why Government Is the Problem', and when Friedrich Hayek wrote 'The Constitution of Liberty', and 'Law, Legislation and Liberty : The Political Order of a Free People', I think they were both indicating their willingness to involve themselves in a political discussion.
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981610095
19a20,21
> ----
> Joshua - The two axes are 'personal self-government' and 'economic self-government'.  Which is the horizontal axis?
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981610315
22a23,24
> Also - I do not agree that there is similarity between socialism and anarchism.  As I would define them, socialism attempts to maintain social order with political institutions, and without cultural or economic institutions.  Anarchism seeks to maintain social order with economic and cultural institutions, and without political institutions.  As they are conventionally understood, socialism means more government, anarchism no government.  So even if you don't like my definition, common usage place these two at opposite extremes.
> 
------
IntelliGence|981612496
5c5,9
< (Does anyone have more definitions?)
---
> (Does anyone have more definitions?)--
> 
> The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge.
> 
> I like this definition because it encompasses the idea of "learning how to learn."
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981612568
22a23,24
> Economic self-government: the one that showed up as horizontal on the chart, of course. :)
> 
24a27,29
> Just as libertarian is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude libertarian socialists (~anarcho-syndicalists), it seems anarchism is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude anarcho-capitalists (~free market libertarians).  It's in this sense that I was using the term.  Obviously anarcho-syndicalism has strong ties to socialism and free market libertarianism has strong ties to capitalism, but the two systems aren't distinguished on the diamond.  A square or circle would be much better in terms of actually representing ideologies.
> 
> Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981612604
23c23
< Economic self-government: the one that showed up as horizontal on the chart, of course. :)
---
> ''Economic self-government: the one that showed up as horizontal on the chart, of course. :)''
27c27
< Just as libertarian is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude libertarian socialists (~anarcho-syndicalists), it seems anarchism is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude anarcho-capitalists (~free market libertarians).  It's in this sense that I was using the term.  Obviously anarcho-syndicalism has strong ties to socialism and free market libertarianism has strong ties to capitalism, but the two systems aren't distinguished on the diamond.  A square or circle would be much better in terms of actually representing ideologies.
---
> ''Just as libertarian is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude libertarian socialists (~anarcho-syndicalists), it seems anarchism is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude anarcho-capitalists (~free market libertarians).  It's in this sense that I was using the term.  Obviously anarcho-syndicalism has strong ties to socialism and free market libertarianism has strong ties to capitalism, but the two systems aren't distinguished on the diamond.  A square or circle would be much better in terms of actually representing ideologies.''
29c29
< Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> ''Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse''
------
RequestedArticles|981612792
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers
---
> FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers  --LinearAlgebra
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981614460
24a25,32
> ****
> But personal self-government is equally horizontal on the chart.  The axes lie parallel like two AA batteries in a walkman: The positive next to the others negative.
> 
> The diagram can be represented like this:
>    ++
>  +-  -+
>    --
> ****
29c37
< ''Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse''
---
> ''Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse''
------
PoliticalSpectrum|981616766
31a32,33
> 
> ''Oh...I see what they're doing.  In that case the corners of the graph are grossly mislabeled - a completely totalitarian government is authoritarian whether or not they allow a free market.  But all in all, it's the square is suggested, only tilted in a non-standard way.  Usually left-right is portrayed as an economic spectrum.  I'm very sorry for the confusion.  I still say the source is biased, though.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
------
CapitalismTalk|981617745
6d5
< 
7a7,8
> ----
> WojPob, I suggest you simply change the article so that it's more accurate by your lights.  I am very curious to see how you would change it. -- LarrySanger
------
TestingThreePhaseSupply|981623366
9c9
< 
---
> "SketchOfDirectOnLineMotorStarter"
------
SketchOfDirectOnLineMotorStarter|981623637
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
>        A  B  C        
>        O  O  O
>         /  /  /
>        /  /  /
>        O  O  O
>        
------
TestingThreePhaseSupply|981623938
7a8,19
>  
> Figure 1
>   
>        A  B  C        Earth
>        O  O  O
>         /  /  /
>        /  /  /
>        O  O  O
> 
> 
> 
> Tests should be made between A and B, A and C, B and C, A and Earth, B and Earth, and C and Earth.
9d20
< "SketchOfDirectOnLineMotorStarter"
------
IsaacAsimov/TrantoR|981631829
1c1
< The planet TrantoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
---
> The planet /TrantoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
------
LanguagE|981631941
19a20
> * AustriaLanguage
------
GermanLanguage|981633055
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken in GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of GermanicLanguages.
>  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
>  HighGerman
>   MiddleGerman
>   UpperGerman
>    AustroBavarian - see AustriaLanguage
>    SwissGerman
>    HighFranconian
>  LowGerman
------
LanguagE|981633188
4a5,6
> * ArabicLanguage
> * ChineseLanguage
10,12d11
< * RussianLanguage
< * SpanishLanguage
< * ItalianLanguage
13a13,14
> * HebrewLanguage
> * ItalianLanguage
15d15
< * ChineseLanguage
17,18d16
< * ArabicLanguage
< * HebrewLanguage
20c18,19
< * AustriaLanguage
---
> * RussianLanguage
> * SpanishLanguage
------
GermanLanguage|981633341
1,2c1
< Language spoken in GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of GermanicLanguages.
<  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
---
> Language spoken in GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of GermanicLanguages.  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
9c8
<  LowGerman
---
>  LowGerman
------
WhyRossum|981639109
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ross Mitton is an electrical technician specialising in watering systems in Western Australia. He was born and raised in the hills of Perth in a rather feral fashion.
> 
> In typical hillsfolk fashion, he was given the nickname of Possum.
> 
> In his late teens he was dragged into shoes and natty dress to become a barman. His employer insisted that he lose the nickname. A clever workmate combined the two names to Rossum.
> 
> "rossum@iinet.net.au"
------
WhyRossum|981639233
7c7
< "rossum@iinet.net.au"
---
> "mailto://rossum@iinet.net.au"
------
WhyRossum|981647521
3c3
< In typical hillsfolk fashion, he was given the nickname of Possum.
---
> In the typical hillsfolk way, he was given the nickname of Possum.
------
WhyRossum|981650361
7a8,9
> 
> ''The question is: WhyNotRossum?''
------
WhyNotRossum|981650370
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> And indeed, why not?
------
SummarizeDiscussion|981651442
1c1,3
< After a discussion on a page has died down for several weeks, you (if you can be smart and respectful at the same time) might replace the discussion with a summary of arguments, as though you were (!) writing an encyclopedia article stating the arguments from an unbiased point of view. If anyone believes his argument has been misrepresented, he can always go back and look at the "Recent Changes" and see the old version.
---
> After a discussion on a page has died down for several weeks, you (if you can be smart and respectful at the same time) might replace the discussion with a summary of arguments, as though you were (!) writing an encyclopedia article stating the arguments from an unbiased point of view. If anyone believes his argument has been misrepresented, he can always go back and look at the "Recent Changes" and see the old version.
> 
> Summarizing and otherwise cleaning up a discussion, and integrating results of it in with the article commented on, is called ''refactoring.''  See also RefactoringPolicy.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981652102
2a3,12
> ''' February 8, 2001'''
> 
> We're up to 900 pages as of this morning!
> 
> There are whispers that the newest version of the software that runs WikiPedia will soon arrive.  This means no longer will we have to indicate links LikeThis.
> 
> Bomis.com has put up a link to Wikipedia, Nupedia.com has taken theirs down (from the main page) but put up a new one in [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/member.phtml the member area] which supplements the one already on [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml the about page].
> 
> Now, some non-news: a lot of partisan wrangling has been going on, as opposed to actually writing encyclopedia articles...Larry, who has been dwelling far too much on rules and the WikiPediaProcess generally, now resolves to spend his wiki time just writing and improving articles...
> 
55a66,67
> 
> ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
------
WhyRossum|981656701
9a10,11
> ----
> Welcome, Rossum! -- LarrySanger
------
FootBall|981666066
7,13d6
< That which one buys a large screen television for... 
< ----
< Not to start a religious war or anything, but the definition above is for what we Americans call SocceR.  FootBall is what they play in the SuperBowl. :-) --JimboWales
< ----
< I suggest AmericanFootball and EuropeanFootball as topics.  :-) -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Do non-Americans refer to Soccer as Soccer as well as FootBall?
15,19c8
< If so, we could change this page to simply be a pointer to AmericanFootball, SocceR, and AustralianFootball.
< I think AustralianFootball is the same thing as RugBy, but
< I'm not an expert!
< ----
< I have never heard of a SportS called EuropeanFootball. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what Americans call Soccer.
---
> ''see'' /Talk
21,43d9
< Do the following investigation yourself:
< * British site: http://www.football.co.uk/
< * French site: http://www.football.fr/
< * Italian site: http://www.football.it/
< * South africa: http://www.safa.org.za/misstat.html
< * Mexico: http://www.terceradivision.com.mx/
< * Argentina: http://www.afa.org.ar/home.htm
< * Brasil: http://www.brasilfutebol.com/select_language.sps
< * India: http://www.indianfootball.8m.com/
< 
< A quick Internet-investigation leads me to believe that UnitedStates, CanadA, AustraliA and NewZealand use the word Soccer and the rest of the world uses the word FootBall.
< 
< -- LinusTolke
< ----
< Americans, when for whatever reason we speak about soccer as "football," in order to avoid confusion with the sport we call "football," call soccer "European football."  Even [http://uk.sports.yahoo.com/foot/ital/t/inte/ Yahoo! UK] is determined to annoy you by calling it this.
< ----
< Yahoo! UK - just as any other decent sports site - calls it European FootBall in order to distinguish between FootBall played in Europe and FootBall played on other continents, eg. South America. I would like to remind my fellow Americans that FootBall, by definition is played using one's feet, and not by holding on to it with your hands and running around like a headless chicken.
< 
< <em>Whoever wrote this deserves a round of applause, it made
< me laugh out load</em>--JimboWales
< 
< ----
< And then enters the [http://www.bomis.com/rings/xfl XFL] or [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?XfL XfL]
------
FootBall/Talk|981666114
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That which one buys a large screen television for... 
> ----
> Not to start a religious war or anything, but the definition above is for what we Americans call SocceR.  FootBall is what they play in the SuperBowl. :-) --JimboWales
> ----
> I suggest AmericanFootball and EuropeanFootball as topics.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Do non-Americans refer to Soccer as Soccer as well as FootBall?
> 
> If so, we could change this page to simply be a pointer to AmericanFootball, SocceR, and AustralianFootball.
> I think AustralianFootball is the same thing as RugBy, but
> I'm not an expert!
> ----
> I have never heard of a SportS called EuropeanFootball. I believe that Soccer is an North American term that has spread also to Australia. I think EuropE, South America and AfricA uses the term FootBall for what Americans call Soccer.
> 
> Do the following investigation yourself:
> * British site: http://www.football.co.uk/
> * French site: http://www.football.fr/
> * Italian site: http://www.football.it/
> * South africa: http://www.safa.org.za/misstat.html
> * Mexico: http://www.terceradivision.com.mx/
> * Argentina: http://www.afa.org.ar/home.htm
> * Brasil: http://www.brasilfutebol.com/select_language.sps
> * India: http://www.indianfootball.8m.com/
> 
> A quick Internet-investigation leads me to believe that UnitedStates, CanadA, AustraliA and NewZealand use the word Soccer and the rest of the world uses the word FootBall.
> 
> -- LinusTolke
> ----
> Americans, when for whatever reason we speak about soccer as "football," in order to avoid confusion with the sport we call "football," call soccer "European football."  Even [http://uk.sports.yahoo.com/foot/ital/t/inte/ Yahoo! UK] is determined to annoy you by calling it this.
> ----
> Yahoo! UK - just as any other decent sports site - calls it European FootBall in order to distinguish between FootBall played in Europe and FootBall played on other continents, eg. South America. I would like to remind my fellow Americans that FootBall, by definition is played using one's feet, and not by holding on to it with your hands and running around like a headless chicken.
> 
> <em>Whoever wrote this deserves a round of applause, it made
> me laugh out load</em>--JimboWales
> 
> ----
> And then enters the [http://www.bomis.com/rings/xfl XFL] or [http://www.bomis.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?XfL XfL]
------
FootBall|981666315
1c1
< Two teams of eleven players each fight to get a spherical ball into the other teams goal.
---
> Two teams of eleven players each fight to get a spherical ball into the other team's goal.
5a6,7
> 
> A match lasts 90 minutes (two halves - 45 minutes each) plus 2-5 minutes of injury time.
------
FootBall|981668731
0a1,10
> 
> Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the
> opponent's area.
> 
> The agreements end here.
> 
> ----
> If you are outside the United States, football means:
> 
> 
7a18
> 
9a21,29
> However, if you are in the United States, football is something different:
> 
> Two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to
> carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team,
> until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field.
> 
> (Please someone that knows more about this that me, complete/correct it)
> 
> ----
------
FootBall|981668775
1d0
< 
5c4
< The agreements end here.
---
> The agreement ends here.
------
FootBall|981668846
15a16
> In the United States, the previous definition correspond to SocceR.
------
SocceR|981669004
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name that the SporT called FootBall in the rest of the world
> has in the UnitedStates
------
HomePage|981669924
0a1,10
> 
> A concept that came to life with the WorldWideWeb, a HomePage is 
> the starting point, or root, of a group of pages belonging to the
> same perso, group, bussiness or any other organization. The HomePage usually includes basic information on the theme of the 
> whole site, and links to other related pages.
> 
> An example of this is the WikiPedia Homepage, that follows.
> 
> ----
> 
------
FootBall|981670923
7c7
< If you are outside the United States, football means:
---
> If you are outside the United States, FootBall means:
16c16
< In the United States, the previous definition correspond to SocceR.
---
> In the United States, the previous definition corresponds to SocceR.
21c21
< However, if you are in the United States, football is something different:
---
> However, if you are in the UnitedStates, FootBall is something different:
------
HomePage|981672019
1d0
< 
4,5c3,4
< same perso, group, bussiness or any other organization. The HomePage usually includes basic information on the theme of the 
< whole site, and links to other related pages.
---
> same person, group, bussiness or any other organization. The HomePage usually includes basic information on the theme of the 
> whole WebSite, and links to other related pages.
------
CapitalisM|981673247
3c3
< A capitalist economy has many features, including businesses operating on the profit motive, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
---
> A capitalist economy has many features, including both for-profit businesses and non-profit organizations, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
------
CapitalisM|981673457
8c8
< first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other prominent capitalist theorists include DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, and MiltonFriedman. 
---
> first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include Karl Marx, DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, JohnMaynardKeynes, PaulSamuelson, and MiltonFriedman. 
------
CapitalismTalk|981673807
8c8,13
< WojPob, I suggest you simply change the article so that it's more accurate by your lights.  I am very curious to see how you would change it. -- LarrySanger
---
> WojPob, I suggest you simply change the article so that it's more accurate by your lights.  I am very curious to see how you would change it. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> In an attempt to make the article appear to be less one-sided, I added some anti-capitalist theorists to the list of theorists.
> I think that the article is mostly good as it stands right now because it doesn't advocate for or against capitalism, but merely defines the term in a way that a broad spectrum of people can agree is accurate.  I say ''broad spectrum'' because I don't think that ''everyone'' will agree.
> 
> Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term?
------
WikiPediaBugs|981674065
1c1,10
< Report any bugs or unexpected behavior here.
---
> When people are not logged in as a particular person, their domain name shows up as being cobrand.bomis.com, rather than their real ip number.
> 
> This is a side-effect of my change to the
> www.wikipedia.com/wiki/* style of URL.  I made this change
> because it is more search-spider-friendly.  Technically, all that I did was add a line to the apache config for mod_rewrite, and then I change the script to print different links.
> 
> I think what I should do is add a function for slash-links instead question-links, and then some functions of the site
> could be ''not'' routed through mod_rewrite proxying.
> 
> If any of this makes sense, particularly to CliffordAdams, comments would be welcome.  (Even if I'm not making sense, comments are welcome!)
------
FootBall|981674435
26a27,28
> Here at Wikipedia, in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the Earth, we shall call this sport AmericanFootball
> 
------
AmericanFootball|981674606
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I sport in which two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field. 
> 
> American football is played at several levels in the United
> States.
> 
> Football is played by teams from colleges and universities.  This is popularly known as CollegeFootball.
> 
> Football is also played by teams of professional players.  The most prominent league is of course the NationalFootballLeague.
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
------
NationalFootballLeague|981674787
3c3,37
< The NfL is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
---
> The NfL is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
> 
> :ArizonaCardinals
> :AtlantaFalcons
> :BaltimoreRavens
> :BuffaloBills
> :CarolinaPanthers
> :ChicagoBears
> :CincinnatiBengals
>     Cleveland Browns
>     Dallas Cowboys
>     Denver Broncos
>     Detroit Lions
>     Green Bay Packers
>     Houston Oilers
>     Houston Texans
>     Indianapolis Colts
>     Jacksonville Jaguars
>     Kansas City Chiefs
>     Miami Dolphins
>     Minnesota Vikings
>     New England Patriots
>     New Orleans Saints
>     New York Giants
>     New York Jets
>     Oakland Raiders
>     Philadelphia Eagles
>     Pittsburgh Steelers
>     San Diego Chargers
>     San Francisco 49ers
>     Seattle Seahawks
>     St. Louis Rams
>     Tampa Bay Buccaneers
>     Tennessee Titans
>     Washington Redskins
------
NationalFootballLeague|981674907
12,37c12,36
<     Cleveland Browns
<     Dallas Cowboys
<     Denver Broncos
<     Detroit Lions
<     Green Bay Packers
<     Houston Oilers
<     Houston Texans
<     Indianapolis Colts
<     Jacksonville Jaguars
<     Kansas City Chiefs
<     Miami Dolphins
<     Minnesota Vikings
<     New England Patriots
<     New Orleans Saints
<     New York Giants
<     New York Jets
<     Oakland Raiders
<     Philadelphia Eagles
<     Pittsburgh Steelers
<     San Diego Chargers
<     San Francisco 49ers
<     Seattle Seahawks
<     St. Louis Rams
<     Tampa Bay Buccaneers
<     Tennessee Titans
<     Washington Redskins
---
> :ClevelandBrowns
> :DenverBroncos
> :DetroitLions
> :GreenBayPackers
> :HoustonOilers
> :HoustonTexans
> :IndianapolisColts
> :JacksonvilleJaguars
> :KansasCityChiefs
> :MiamiDolphins
> :MinnesotaVikings
> :NewEnglandPatriots
> :NewOrleansSaints
> :NewYorkGiants
> :NewYorkJets
> :OaklandRaiders
> :PhiladelphiaEagles
> :PittsburghSteelers
> :SanDiegoChargers
> :SanFrancisco49ers
> :SeattleSeahawks
> :StLouisRams
> :TampaBayBuccaneers
> :TennesseeTitans
> :WashingtonRedskins
------
NationalFootballLeague|981674958
4a5,6
> At the end of each season, the winners of playoff games meet in the SuperBowl.
> 
------
NationalFootballLeague|981675040
4a5,6
> The league has a new competitor in the form of a new league known as the XfL.  Only time will tell if the new competitor will survive, but other attempts have failed in the past.
> 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleFive|981675135
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
> application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either
> case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the
> several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the
> Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any
> manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be
> deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleSix|981675162
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
> States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 
> 
> This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall
> be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound
> thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
> 
> The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial
> officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
> religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 
------
JapaN|981675266
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We need a full writeup here (do you want to do it?), but in the meantime, here are links to some things of interest.
> 
> :JapaneseLanguage
> :JapanConstitution
------
FootBall/Talk|981675427
37a38,41
> ----
> I've got it!  I've got it!  The American non-soccer sport can be FootbalL while the European (etc.) sport that Americans call "soccer" can be called FootBall!
> 
> Oops, we're going to be switching to a way of indicating links not LikeThis.  Back to the drawing board.  Maybe we should just stick with the old link system just so we can implement this solution to the "football" problem. -- LarrySanger
------
JapanConstitution|981675451
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The current Japanese constitution was adopted at the end of WorldWarTwo.
> 
> Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website].  If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
> 
> PreFace
> ChapterOne
> ChapterTwo
> ChapterThree
> ChapterFour
> ChapterFive
> ChapterSix
> ChapterSeven
> ChapterEight
> ChapterNine
> ChapterTen
> ChapterEleven
------
JapanConstitution|981675477
5,16c5,16
< PreFace
< ChapterOne
< ChapterTwo
< ChapterThree
< ChapterFour
< ChapterFive
< ChapterSix
< ChapterSeven
< ChapterEight
< ChapterNine
< ChapterTen
< ChapterEleven
---
> :PreFace
> :ChapterOne
> :ChapterTwo
> :ChapterThree
> :ChapterFour
> :ChapterFive
> :ChapterSix
> :ChapterSeven
> :ChapterEight
> :ChapterNine
> :ChapterTen
> :ChapterEleven
------
PreFace|981675530
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for
> ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and
> resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign
> power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for
> which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are
> enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all
> constitutions, laws ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith. We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply
> conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting
> in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society
> striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the
> earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. We believe that no nation is
> responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all
> nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations. We, the Japanese people,
> pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources. 
------
JapanConstitution|981675561
5,16c5,16
< :PreFace
< :ChapterOne
< :ChapterTwo
< :ChapterThree
< :ChapterFour
< :ChapterFive
< :ChapterSix
< :ChapterSeven
< :ChapterEight
< :ChapterNine
< :ChapterTen
< :ChapterEleven
---
> :/PreFace
> :/ChapterOne
> :/ChapterTwo
> :/ChapterThree
> :/ChapterFour
> :/ChapterFive
> :/ChapterSix
> :/ChapterSeven
> :/ChapterEight
> :/ChapterNine
> :/ChapterTen
> :/ChapterEleven
------
JapanConstitution/PreFace|981675590
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for
> ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and
> resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign
> power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for
> which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are
> enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all
> constitutions, laws ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith. We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply
> conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting
> in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society
> striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the
> earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. We believe that no nation is
> responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all
> nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations. We, the Japanese people,
> pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources. 
------
PreFace|981675658
1,14c1
< We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for
< ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and
< resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign
< power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for
< which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are
< enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all
< constitutions, laws ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith. We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply
< conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting
< in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society
< striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the
< earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want. We believe that no nation is
< responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all
< nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations. We, the Japanese people,
< pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources. 
---
> The Preface of a book is a section at the front containing some introductory remarks.  Similar in purpose to the AfterWord.
------
JapanConstitution/PreFace|981675689
1c1
< We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for
---
> We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the NationalDiet, determined that we shall secure for
------
WikiPediaFaq|981675847
90c90,94
< '''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
---
> '''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.----
> 
> '''Q.''' I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.
> Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.
> Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.
------
AmericaN|981676289
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the UnitedStates and other countries, belonging or relative to the United States of America. In many of the rest of the countries of the continent, belonging or relative to AmericA,
> (NorthAmerica, CentralAmerica and SouthAmerica)
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|981676366
18c18
< The world is divided into seven contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, NorthAmericA, SouthAmericA, and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
---
> The world is divided into six contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, AmericA, and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
------
AmericA|981676463
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Continent located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.
> 
> It was connected to AsiA long ago...
------
WikiPediaFaq|981676979
94a95,96
> 
> '''A.''' This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
------
CapitalisM|981677082
2a3,4
> An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a FreeMarket, and the forces of the FreeMarket are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
> 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterOne|981677089
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Article 1:
> 
> The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and the unity of the people, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom
> resides sovereign power. 
> 
> Article 2:
> 
> The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial House Law passed by the Diet. 
> 
> Article 3:
> 
> The advice and approval of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be responsible therefor. 
> 
> Article 4:
> 
> The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not have powers
> related to government. 2) The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in matters of state as may be provided for by law. 
> 
> Article 5:
> 
> When, in accordance with the Imperial House Law, a Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in matters of state in
> the Emperor's name. In this case, paragraph one of the preceding Article will be applicable. 
> 
> Article 6:
> 
> The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet. 2) The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the
> Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet. 
> 
> Article 7:
> 
> The Emperor shall, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the
> people: (1) Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties. (2) Convocation of the Diet. (3)
> Dissolution of the House of Representatives. (4) Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet. (5) Attestation of the
> appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of
> Ambassadors and Ministers. (6) Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration
> of rights. (7) Awarding of honors. (8) Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by
> law. (9) Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers. (10) Performance of ceremonial functions. 
> 
> Article 8:
> 
> No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the authorization of the
> Diet. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterTwo|981677327
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER II: RENUNCIATION OF WAR 
> 
> Article 9:
> 
> Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right
> of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. 2) In order to accomplish the aim of the
> preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the
> state will not be recognized. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterOne|981677388
0a1
> CHAPTER I: THE EMPORER
43c44
< Diet. 
---
> Diet. 
------
JapanConstitution|981677704
3c3,5
< Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website].  If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
---
> Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website], or at
> [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/japanese-Constitution.html/
> the Japanese site]   If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterTwo|981677830
8c8
< state will not be recognized. 
---
> state will not be recognized. 
------
JapanConstitution|981677856
3,5c3,4
< Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website], or at
< [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/japanese-Constitution.html/
< the Japanese site]   If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
---
> Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website].
> If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
------
CapitalismTalk|981677950
13c13,15
< Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term?
---
> Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term?
> ----
> As private ownership and private economic decision-making are the bedrock of capitalism, and not expressly mentioned in the article, I plugged that in.  Hope no one minds.
------
JapanConstitution|981678085
3c3
< Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website].
---
> Until I finish cutting and pasting the entire constitution here, you may read it in English at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/english-Constitution.html this website] or in Japanese (Nihongo) at [http://home.ntt.com/japan/constitution/japanese-Constitution.html this website].
------
JapanConstitution|981678162
4c4,6
< If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) --JimboWales
---
> If you feel like helping me, by all means dig in. :-) 
> 
> --JimboWales
17a20,21
> 
> Are there any amendments?
------
CapitalismTalk|981679017
13c13
< Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term?
---
> Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term? --JimboWales
15a16,18
> ----
> 
> Not at all.  Indeed, in terms of a definition by essentials, this is probably much better than a definition based on 'intervention'.
------
XfL|981679647
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A new (in 2001) professional football league created by the company that runs the WorldWrestlingFederation.
> 
> The teams are:
> :BirminghamThunderbolts
> :ChicagoEnforcers
> :NYNJHitmen
> :OrlandoRage
> :SanFranciscoDemons
> :MemphisManiax
> :LasVegasOutlaws
> :LosAngelesXtreme
------
XfL|981679667
6c6
< :NYNJHitmen
---
> :NyNjHitmen
11c11
< :LosAngelesXtreme
---
> :LosAngelesXtreme
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationAndEarth|981679763
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Councilman Golan Trevize and Prof. Janov Pelorat of Terminus, a historian, set out on a journey to find humanity's ancestral planet - EartH.
------
HomePage|981680220
1,9d0
< A concept that came to life with the WorldWideWeb, a HomePage is 
< the starting point, or root, of a group of pages belonging to the
< same person, group, bussiness or any other organization. The HomePage usually includes basic information on the theme of the 
< whole WebSite, and links to other related pages.
< 
< An example of this is the WikiPedia Homepage, that follows.
< 
< ----
< 
34a26,27
> 
> If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
------
HomePageDefinition|981680339
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A concept that came to life with the WorldWideWeb, a "Home Page" is the starting point, or root, of a group of pages belonging to the same person, group, business or any other organization. The Home Page usually includes basic information on the theme of the whole WebSite, and links to other related pages. An example of this is the WikiPedia HomePage.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|981680558
11,12d10
< Now, some non-news: a lot of partisan wrangling has been going on, as opposed to actually writing encyclopedia articles...Larry, who has been dwelling far too much on rules and the WikiPediaProcess generally, now resolves to spend his wiki time just writing and improving articles...
< 
------
WolF|981680785
1c1
< WolF:
---
> Articled deleted -- terrible, terrible copyright violation!
3,117c3
< The wolf is the quintessential wild animal. Considered brave, even fearless, by admirers; held up as a model of family efficiency and loyalty; feared by those who misunderstand his needs; loved by ecologists; and hated by cattlemen and sheepmen, this wild canid is imbedded deeply in man's cultural and natural history through fairy tales, folklore, and an ill-advised battle against natural predators. People are willing to believe that this creature is related to northern breeds of dogs, but not to their beloved Poodles, Beagles, or Labrador Retrievers. 
< 
< *NOTE from TimShell - This is a good wolf article but the opening paragraph is really unobjective.  "quintessential wild animal", "ill-advised battle against natural predators", and "People are willing to believe that this creature is related to northern breeds of dogs, but not to their beloved Poodles" are all phrases that will be widely contested.
< 
< Scientific research conducted over the past century has determined that dogs developed from several subspecies of wolves scattered throughout the world. Thousands of years ago, wolves probably became camp followers, taking advantage of the scraps around the fires and caves of prehistoric man. Perhaps man brought wolf cubs into the family to raise, and eventually began to take advantage of the wolf's ability to hunt and to guard the campsite. Down the millennia, through preference for wolves of certain physical and behavioral characteristics and through genetic mutation, Canis lupus changed shape, size, and color to become the wolf subspecies now known as Canis lupus familiaris. 
< 
< Although most wolves have basically grey coats, hence the common name, the coats usually have a lot of base yellow interspersed between the salt-and-pepper frey and black hair. Wolves anywhere can have coats that grade from almost pure white to yellows, reds, even jet black, although all of the arctic wolves are usually all white. 
< 
< Most of the adult wolves weigh in the vicinity of 75 to 125 pounds (34 to 56 kilograms). Males are usually larger than females by as much as twenty-five percent. There are authenticated records of male wolves weighing as much as 175 pounds (79 kilograms). 
< 
< As large as wolves are, they usually appear to be much larger because of their long hair. In the winter coat, the hair on their back and sides averages 2 to 2.5 inches (5 to 6.3 centimeters) in length. Starting at the base of the neck, the wolf has a teardrop-shaped mane of hair that elongates into just a crest down the spine toward the tail. Over the shoulder, the mane is about 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) wide. The hairs in the mane are 4 to 5 inches (10 to 12.7 centimeters) long and are attached to erectorpilli muscles, which allow the hairs to stand on end, making the wolf appear even larger. 
< 
< Extensive studies of the North American wolf species show between 50 to 70 inches (1.3 to 1.8 metres) in total nose-tip-to-tail-tip length. Of that length, one quarter is tail length. 
< 
< Wolves Stand between 27 to 31 inches (68 to 78 centimeters) high at the shoulder. Compared to dogs of the same size, wolves' chests are much narrower. Their legs are also longer in proportion to their body weight than are most dogs. Because of its narrower chest, the wolf's left and right foot tracks closer together than the dogs. 
< 
< Humans are plantigrade, walking upon our entire flat foot, sole to heel. All members of the canine family, and the feline family too, are digitigrade, walking upon just their toe tips. Unless a wolf is lying down, the heel of each foot does not come in contact with the ground. The front feet of a wolf are exceptionally large. This is of great advantage to the wolf when it runs upon snow, as it allows greater weight distribution and more support to prevent the animal from sinking in as deeply when the snow is soft. 
< 
< The wolf is very comfortable in the water, and does not hesitate to wade through icy streams or swim across short stretches of lake. In summer, wolves often bathe in streams to keep cool, and they will readily follow prey into water. They have been known to wash mud from their coats in rivers and streams. They depend on their thick coats in winter, so it is not surprising that they spend part of their leisure time in grooming behavior. It is also likely that the grooming of other pack members helps reinforce the social bonds that tie the pack together. Two wolves will lick each others' coats, nibbling gently with their teeth to remove foreign matter. Reciprocal grooming is especially common during courtship. Injured wolves are intensely groomed by other pack members, providing both physical and mental comfort. 
< 
< Wolves mature physically at a later age than dogs; females have their first estrus (heat) at two years of age or older, and they cycle only once each year, usually in late winter. Males mature at age three or later.
< 
< Wolves in the wild live in family packs, mostly consisting of three to a dozen members, usually related. Each pack has an alpha or top male and an equivalent female, and each top wolf keeps order among the pack members of its gender. Generally, only the top male and female mate, but occasionally the alpha male stands aside and allows the beta (second place) male to breed the alpha female. 
< 
< Only one litter is born to the pack each year, and all the adult wolves assist in raising the cubs. One wolf remains at the den site with the cubs while the others go off to hunt. When the successful hunters return to the den, they regurgitate partially-digested food for the cubs. As the cubs grow and leave the den, the adults take turns cub-sitting, playing with the youngsters and keeping them out of harm's way. 
< 
< Wolves love to play, shouldering one another, bumping bodies together, flopping tails over each other's backs, and leaping up placing forepaws around other' necks. Play especially in pups, develops strength and hunting skills, and aids in establishing pack communication and hierarchy. The intention to play is often signaled by the gesture well known to dog owners of dropping the front quarters into a crouch position, with smiling face and wagging tail. Adult wolves stage mock fights, play chase, and leap on each other. The ambushing of unwary pack members is a favorite game. 
< 
< Unity in the pack is maintained by complex use of facial expressions and body language that establish relationships between individual wolves that benefit the pack. Alpha wolves may place their head or paw on the shoulders of subordinates or grasp the inferior's muzzle in his jaws in play, just a reminder that he is boss. Or he may stare at boisterous subordinates in a C. lupus version of "Knock it off!" 
< 
< Position of the ears, tail, and lips are important in wolf communication. A relaxed but alert wolf or a dominant-aggressive wolf carries his ears up; a submissive or fearful wolf pins them back against the skull. An aggressive wolf carries his tail straight behind, a submissive one tucks his tail between his legs. A wolf ready to fight curls his lips back fully, bares his teeth, stares intently, and raises his hackles. He may growl or not. 
< 
< Submissive wolves avoid eye contact with dominant members of the pack and may turn away from their betters. Many inferior wolves grovel to their superiors, mimicking the cub behavior of soliciting food by licking at the muzzle of the dominant animal. Sometimes, they lie on the ground and expose their bellies to the alpha wolf, and they may urinate to further state their acknowledgement that the alpha is truly the top wolf. Some of you may have noticed this same behavior in your dog. 
< 
< With the cubs, however, all bets are off. All adults accept the attentions, including the sharp teeth, of the cubs. The youngsters are allowed to practice adult behaviors with forbearance, although a particularly painful nip might be followed by a big paw pinning a hapless cub to the ground. Mother may grab a cub by the scruff of the neck and shake him for wandering off, or she may cuff several cubs that refuse to stop roughhousing, but these are manifestations of tough love, designed to keep the cubs safe and teach them manners. 
< 
< The purpose of this social order is to increase hunting prowess and ensure the survival of the pack and therefore the species. Wolves cooperate when they hunt. In some cases, a couple of wolves will watch over the potential prey animal while the rest of the pack relaxes and plays. Then, when the hunt resumes, some wolves may leave the pack and circle ahead of the moose or elk, ready to ambush it. Sometimes wolves encircle a prey animal floundering in deep snow and simply wait for it to tire and collapse. 
< 
< There is a tendency to judge their behavior as cruel or as gentle and loving, but wolves are simply animals that are equipped to survive in a harsh environment. Ascribing human emotions or characteristics to their behavior is inappropriate. To search for vestiges of that behavior in their descendants and attempt to comprehend it can enhance understanding of wolves and of the dogs that share man's home and hearth. 
< 
< Today wolves are endangered species wherever they live, except perhaps in Alaska and the Canadian Arctic and subarctic, where they appear to flourish in the midst of the herds of hundreds of thousands of caribou. Attempts are being made to reintroduce wolves to their former territory to serve as natural predators for deer, elk, and other hoofed animals with burgeoning populations. 
< 
< The Wolf has developed the capacity to survive in the most inhospitable of climates. The wolves in the high arctic endure several winter months of perpetual darkness. Even in Febuary when sun returns to the north, temperatures of -40°C and bitter winds are common. Other wolves are at home in the desert and the dampness of a humid Gulf Coast swamp. 
< 
< Three canids -- dogs, wolves, and coyotes -- seem to crossbreed rather freely. Unfortunately, it has become somewhat popular for these crossbreds and their offspring to be kept as pets. 
< 
< Since the wolf - Canis lupus - is an endangered species, it is illegal to capture a wild wolf for any purpose. However, some folks established colonies of wolves before this status was granted, and they have used these animals to produce wolf hybrids. Most hybrids are crossbred on large breeds of dogs, especially German Shepherd, Chow, Akita, and Alaskan Malamute, and they often combine the worst characteristics of the wolf and the dog breed. 
< 
< The wolf is basically a shy animal, instilled with a fierce need to fit into a pack hierarchy and depending on nuances in body language and facial expression and on hunting skill to survive. A stare is considered a direct challenge and can bring an attack if the animal cannot flee. Wolf jaws are much stronger than those of a dog and are often used to exert dominance. 
< 
< According to Barry Lopez in Of Wolves and Men, the jaws of a wolf have a "crushing pressure of perhaps 1,500 (lbs/square inch) compared to 740 (lbs/square inch) for a German Shepard." The dentition of the wolf consists of twenty-two teeth: twelve incisors, four canines, sixteen pre molars, and ten carnassials and molars. The canines of the wolf are easily 1-inch (2.54 centimeters) long, strong, sharp, and slightly curved. These are the teeth used for grasping prey. The wolf does not chew its food, using its carnassials to scissor off a piece of meat that can then be swallowed in a manageable chunk. 
< 
< The breeds of dog frequently used to produce the hybrid tend to be dominant, fairly independent, and even aloof. They are difficult to train for inexperienced owners and can be aggressive to other dogs and dangerous to cats and other small mammals. This combination of wolf temperament and breed characters can be dangerous in inexperienced hands. 
< 
< Although the lure to own an exotic pet is strong, families who would like a wolf-like animal that is good with children should opt for a well-tempered German Shepherd, a Keeshond, or a Samoyed. More experienced dog owners might consider a Siberian Husky, Alaskan Malamute, Chow, or Akita. Only those folks who have previously trained a tough northern breed of dog should even consider a hybrid. 
< 
< A wolf hybrid should never be left alone with small children, for children stare, scream, and move quickly. Stares are challenges, and the baby will lose every time. Screams, cries, and quick movements are prey characteristics, and the hybrid may consider the child fair game.
< 
< A hybrid must always know who is top dog, and this alpha status must be earned and maintained with firmness, not punishment. 
< 
< Obedience training is a must. 
< 
< There's no way to predict whether a hybrid will display wolf behavior or dog behavior or something in between. Therefore, hybrid owners should read as much about wolves as possible so they can recognize and deal with the various manifestations of body language, facial expressions and dominant or submissive behaviors they may encounter. A hybrid should always be spayed or neutered to prevent breeding. 
< 
< The responsibility of placing hybrid pups in appropriate homes is far greater than the responsibility of placing any other pup. 
< 
< A hybrid is not a guard dog. Since there are far more subordinate wolves than alpha wolves, and since most wolves don't bark much, a hybrid with wolf behavior is likely to flee rather than guard.
< 
< Female hybrids are less likely to get along with female dogs or hybrids, and male hybrids are unlikely to get along with male dogs or hybrids. 
< 
< The caveats regarding wolf-dog hybrids carries over to coydogs, the coyote-dog hybrids that are becoming more common as coyotes spread throughout the country. Since coyotes are solitary animals not attuned to pack living, the problems encountered with these hybrids may be even greater than those of wolf-dogs. 
< 
< There's no doubt that a hybrid wolf or coyote can be a fine companion for those who understand their wild core. But the thrill of living with such a magnificent creature must be tempered by the knowledge that the animal will forever be unpredictable, that mistakes in training may never be forgiven, and that alpha status must always be reinforced. The average pet-owning family is much better off with "just" a dog. 
< 
< Ask anyone about wolf vocalizations and the howl invariably springs to mind. Even though wolves bark, woof, whine, whimper, yelp, growl, snarl and moan a lot more often than they howl, it is howling that defines the wolf, and fascinates us. So why do wolves howl? 
< 
< The center of a wolf's universe is its pack, and howling is the glue that keeps the pack together. Some have speculated that howling strengthens the social bonds between packmates; the pack that howls together, stays together. That may be so, but chorus howls can also end with nasty quarrels between packmates. Some members, usually the lowest-ranking, may actually be "punished" for joining in the chorus. Whether howling together actually strengthens social bonds, or just reaffirms them, is unknown. 
< 
< We do know, however, that howling keeps packmates together, physically. Because wolves range over vast areas to find food, they are often separated from one another. Of all their calls, howling is the only one that works over great distances. Its low pitch and long duration are well suited for transmission in forest and across tundra, and unique features of each individual's howl allow wolves to identify each other. Howling is a long distance contact and reunion call; separate a wolf from its pack, and very soon it will begin howling, and howling, and howling... 
< 
< When a wolf howls, not only can its packmates hear it, but so can any other wolf within range. These other wolves may be members of hostile adjacent packs that are competitors for territory and prey. Howl too close to these strangers, and they may seek you out, chase you, even kill you. In northern Minnesota, where wolves are protected from humans, the primary cause of death for adult wolves is being killed by wolves from other packs. So howling has its costs (running into the opposition) as well as its benefits (getting back with the pack). Consequently, wolves are careful about where and when they howl, and to whom they howl. 
< 
< For example, a wolf that is separated from its pack may return to an abandoned summer rendezvous site and howl for hours, even in response to a stranger nearby. It was accustomed to howling at that site and probably feels relatively confident and secure there. But that same wolf, away from the old home site, will be much more reserved, and if a stranger howls nearby, it may silently and quickly retreat. Younger wolves, however, act differently. 
< 
< Pups, especially those under four months of age, love to howl and will usually reply to any howling they hear, even that of total strangers. This is understandable, since pups haven't yet learned how to identify their older packmates. 
< 
< Indiscriminate howling is usually not a dangerous proposition for young pups, since they tend to be stuck at a rendezvous site that is relatively far from the neighbors, who likely have pups of their own to raise. More importantly, replying to an adult that howls often leads to a meal, since packmates returning with food frequently howl as they near the home site. But as summer gives way to fall, the benefits of indiscriminate howling decrease. 
< 
< Once pups start to travel with the pack, they begin to enter less secure surroundings. Their neighbors are also traveling more. Distant howls may belong to strangers, so the risks of howling increase. Besides, by now they have had ample time to learn the voices of their own packmates and are able to discriminate friend from foe. By six months of age, pups have become as selective as adult wolves about where, when and to whom they howl. 
< 
< There is one member of the pack who will tend to howl more boldly: the alpha male. The alpha male is the dominant male of the pack, and father of the pups. He is most likely to howl to, and even approach, a stranger -- often with confrontation on his mind. One sign of this aggressiveness can be heard in his voice; his howls become lower-pitched and coarser in tone as he approaches a stranger. Lowering the pitch of a vocalization is a nearly universal sign of increasing aggressiveness in mammals, and in wolves it can sound quite impressive. 
< 
< This behavior points to the second main purpose of howling: helping to maintain spacing between rival packs. When one pack howls, others nearby may reply. Very quickly, all the wolves know each other's location. By advertising their presence, packs can keep their neighbors at bay and avoid accidentally running into them. 
< 
< But the use of howling in spacing is fraught with difficulties. If one pack howls, all its neighbors (within range, of course) now know its location. What if they choose to keep quiet, sneak up, and attack the howlers? Deliberate attacks by one pack on another have been seen, so there are costs to advertising your location. These risks have to be balanced with benefits. An example of this trade-off is sometimes seen during winter, when packs are traveling nomadically within (or even outside) their territories. A pack sitting on a fresh prey kill is very likely to stake its claim and howl, particularly if a stranger howls nearby. As time passes and the kill is consumed, the wolves become less invested in the site and are less likely to reply. Eventually, they may respond to a stranger's howling by silently moving away. 
< 
< When two packs do meet, their relative size usually decides the outcome. Thus small packs are often quite reluctant to howl and draw attention to themselves, whereas large packs howl readily. But packs can fib to one another about their size. 
< 
< When animals compete, they often engage in behaviors designed to exaggerate their size. Wolves stand tall, raise their hackles, ears and tails, and produce low, menacing howls, all to convince their opponent that a retreat from this "big, bad wolf" is the best option. Thus most confrontations involve a lot of bluff and very little bloodshed. Similarly, packs that are able to exaggerate their numbers are more likely to keep their neighbors at bay. The structure of a pack or chorus howl is well suited to this kind of deception. 
< 
< Rather than using howls with a single pure tone, wolves howling in a chorus use wavering or modulated howls. The rapid changes in pitch make it difficult to follow one individual's howls if several others are howling simultaneously. In addition, as the sound travels through the environment, trees, ridges, rock cliffs and valleys reflect and scatter it. As a result, competing packs hear a very complex mix of both direct sound and echoes. If the howls are modulated rapidly enough, two wolves may sound like four or more. Indeed, during the Civil War, General Ulysses S. Grant reported hearing what he took to be a pack of "not more than 20 wolves" while traveling. A short time later he reached the pair of wolves that had been making all the noise! This phenomenon, called the Beau Geste Effect, may introduce enough uncertainty to make size estimates not only unreliable, but potentially lethal, if a pack underestimates the size of its rival and approaches. 
< 
< So wolves howl to find their companions and keep their neighbors at bay. Popular imagination has long held that they also howl at the moon, but there is no evidence that this is so. Wolves may be more active on moonlit nights, when they can see better, or we may hear them more often on such nights, because we feel more comfortable tramping about in the light of a full moon, but a wolf howling at the moon would be wasting its breath. 
< 
< Scent plays a very important role in the life of the wolf, by smell alone wolves can locate prey, other pack members or enemies. It can tell them if other wolves were in the territory, if they were male or female, and how recently they visited. The wolf has several specialized glands, one around the anus and another on its back about 3 inches (7.6 centimetres) in the front of the base of its tail. The scent from these glands is as individualistic as are our fingerprints and is used by that particular wolf as its personal calling card. These Glands are used to mark boundaries and also to mark trails. These "Scent Stations" are often 100 yards (91 metres) apart. 
< 
< The sense of smell in the wolf is highly developed, as would be expected in an animal possessing numerous scent glands. The distance at which any scent can be detected is governed by atmospheric conditions but, even under the most favorable conditions, 1.75 miles denotes a particularly keen sense of smell. The wolves usually travel until they encounter the scent of some prey species ahead of them. They then move directly toward their prey in an effort to capture it. 
< 
< Next to smell, the sense of hearing is the most acute of the wolf sense. Wolves can hear as far as six miles away in the forest and ten miles in the open. Wolves can hear well up to a frequency of 25 khz. Some researchers believe that the actual maximum frequency detected by wolves is actually much higher, perhaps up to 80 khz (the upper auditory limits for humans is 20 khz), also according to some naturalists wolves' hearing is greater than that of the dog. 
< 
< Wolves also have keen eye sight and are quick to detect the slightest movement of anything in front of them. Being major predators, their eyes are on the front of their heads, and they have probably a little less than 180-degree vision, unlike their prey species, which can see over 300 degrees of a circle. 
< 
< Investigation of taste is made difficult by the fact that the influence of smell often plays a major role in the way a food "tastes." It is known that canines possess taste receptors for the four taste categories: salty, bitter, sweet, and acidic. Felines on the other hand, do not respond to sweetness. The sweetness receptivity would be adaptive use to wolves, as sweet berries and other fruits do play a minor role in their diet. 
< 
< In the wild wolves can live up to 13 years or more, in a protected wolf park or a controlled area of land, a wolf can live to be up to 16 years old. But most wolves usually live to be to around 8 years of age. The record wolf lifespan is about 20 years of age. life in the wild is difficult for the wolf, with human population taking up more and more wolf habitat and with those who would kill the wolf, a long lifespan is unlikely. In a controlled enviroment they can live longer because they are safe from the outside dangers of traps, snares, enemies and poisons. 
---
> The original article may be found [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/wolves/howl.html here].
118a5
> I discovered the violation on a hunch -- the article was too good!  It was easy to find it on the web -- I simply searched for an unlikely combination of words at Google, and found the exact same text on the Nova site.
119a7
> Quite separately, I'd like to say that any organization receiving government funding of any kind ought to be required to release their work into the public domain, but that's a different story.
120a9
> Maybe we should talk about this as a potential problem: CopyrightTalk.
------
CopyrightTalk|981680945
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> It is very important that everyone working on Wikipedia respect copyrights.  Since this is a wide-open project with no editorial oversight, this sort of thing will certainly happen again.
> 
> In our role as a provider of internet services, we have a fairly strong defense under the DigitalMilleniumCopyrightAct, and a fairly strong responsibility.  We can't be held financially liable for other people's actions, so long as we follow a reasonable take-down policy.
> 
> Nonetheless, I can tell you that my charitable instincts and love of knowledge will hit the wall if someone sues me.  :-(
> --JimboWales
> 
> 
------
CopyrightTalk|981681321
1d0
< 
8a8
> Notice that I have added some more words at the bottom of the page.  I think that the problem will mostly go away with this.
9a10
> There is no way to be 100% safe.  But, hey, risk is a part of life. --JimboWales
------
CopyrightTalk|981681353
8c8
< Notice that I have added some more words at the bottom of the page.  I think that the problem will mostly go away with this.
---
> Notice that I have added some more words at the bottom of the page when you go to submit.  I think that the problem will mostly go away with this.  People just need to understand that we don't want them to cut-and-paste from copyrighted sources!
------
AlchemY|981681845
15c15
< identifying the changing characteristics that defined alchemy.  For sake
---
> identifying the changing characteristics that defined alchemy.  For the sake
20c20
< Asked the common man of the street what the alchemists were, and one
---
> Ask the common man on the street what the alchemists were, and one
25c25
< for a single sentence definition it is not too incorrect.
---
> for a single sentence definition it is not altogether incorrect.
37c37
< Historians of a more occultists bent look at the alchemists as true
---
> Historians of a more occultist bent look at the alchemists as true
39,40c39,40
< gold.  beyond this, occultists saw th e alchemists as religious mystics
< who tried to discover the secret to purifying man's soul through
---
> gold.  beyond this, occultists see the alchemists as religious mystics
> who tried to discover the secret of purifying man's soul through
44c44
< Another view looks at the alchemists in a more philosophical way,
---
> Another view looks at the alchemists in a more philosophical way;
70c70
< intentionally wrote cryptically, it seams to have been a hallmark of
---
> intentionally wrote cryptically.  It seems to have been a hallmark of
77c77
< the cryptical phrasings of their works.  It is almost a tradition among
---
> the cryptic phrasings of their works.  It is almost a tradition among
101c101
< alchemical texts is, sadly, completely lost to modern scholars.
---
> alchemical texts is, sadly, completely lost to modern scholars.  It is possible that it perished with the library at Alexandria, along with so much written material of the time.
128,129c128,129
< conviction that earthly matter is evil and by learning about the nature
< of matter will lead to salvation.  By the end of the Roman Empire these
---
> conviction that earthly matter is evil and that learning about the nature
> of spiritual matter would lead to salvation.  By the end of the Roman Empire these
134c134
< moving on, Augustian views of science should be illustrated, as they had
---
> moving on, Augustinian views of science should be illustrated, as they had
146c146
< made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still Augustinian
---
> made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still, Augustinian
166,167c166,167
< According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere which it belonged to
< and would return to if left undisturbed.  (Lindsay, p. 16)  Alchemists
---
> According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged
> and to which it would return if left undisturbed.  (Lindsay, p. 16)  Alchemists
184,185c184,185
< and two were exterior.  For example, lead was cold and dry and got was
< hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir, theorized, by rearranging the qualities of
---
> and two were exterior.  For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was
> hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of
197c197
< the extent and effects have not been researched to any worthwhile
---
> the extent and effects of this fact have not been researched to any worthwhile
223,224c223,224
< philosophical explosion to occur.  Saint Abelard followed in Anselm's
< work, laying the foundation Aristotelian thought before the first works
---
> philosophical explosion to occur.  Saint Abelard followed Anselm's
> work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works
227c227
< outside of man's conscience.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
---
> outside of man's consciousness.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
255,256c255,256
< Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle
< did for chemistry and Galileo did for astronomy and
---
> Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's
> did for chemistry and Galileo's did for astronomy and
286c286
< few people outside the secular schools had the education
---
> few people outside the parochial schools had the education
306c306
< gold) as well as purify the soul.  They believed in the
---
> gold) as well as purifying the soul.  They believed in the
313c313
< universe operated.  Their entire philosophy was based 
---
> universe operated.  Their entire philosophy revolved
322c322
< between faith and reason.  According to his view, widely
---
> between faith and reason.  His view, widely
324,325c324,325
< alone, He could not be limited by human reason.  Of
< course, this view was not incorrect, but it virtually
---
> alone; He could not be limited by human reason.  Of
> course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually
340c340
< which he is reputed to have found; he spends a great deal 
---
> which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal 
353c353
< lead to a wide interpretation of the art and, while many
---
> lead to wide variations in interpretation of the art and, while many
355c355
< alchemists who interpreted the purification of the soul to
---
> alchemists interpreted the purification of the soul to
366,367c366,367
< influences were negligible, but like Flamel, he produced
< writings which were referred back to by alchemists of
---
> influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced
> writings which were referred to by alchemists of
378,381c378,381
< Alchemy continued in this way through the opening
< scenes of the Renaissance.  Alchemist/con-artists
< abounded, who would use popular beliefs and slight of hand
< to convince a noteworthy person such as a professor or a
---
> Alchemy continued in this way through the dawning
> of the Renaissance.  Alchemist/con-artists
> abounded, who would use popular beliefs and sleight of hand
> to convince a noteworthy person such as a professor or
393c393
< dogma was the last "ism" to be latched onto alchemy before
---
> dogma was the last "ism" to be grafted onto alchemy before
397c397
< so much Aristotelean theory that his rejection of it was
---
> so much Aristotelean theory that his rejection of Aristotle was
401c401
< and deprecated those who did.  (Williams p.239-45)
---
> and scorned those who did.  (Williams p.239-45)
408,410c408,410
< microcosm and Nature the macrocosm.  He took and approach 
< different than those before him, using this analogy not in
< the soul-purification manner but in the manner that humans
---
> microcosm and Nature the macrocosm.  He took an approach 
> different from those before him, using this analogy not in
> the manner of soul-purification  but in the manner that humans
412,414c412,414
< and in the manner that certain illnesses of the body had
< chemical remedies that could cure the sicknesses.  (Debus &
< Multhauf, p.6-12)  His views were summarized by himself:
---
> and that certain illnesses of the body had
> chemical remedies that could cure them.  (Debus &
> Multhauf, p.6-12)  He summarized his own views:
426c426
< medicine and chemistry.  Alchemists had disposed of most 
---
> medicine and chemistry.  By Boyle's time, alchemists had disposed of most 
430c430
< this.  he assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
---
> this.  He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
441,444c441,444
< thrown to the waste bucket, unneeded and forgotten.  it is
< hard to believe that alchemy, after having such a rich and
< colorful two thousand years of history could be so easily 
< and so totally ostracized by scientists and common
---
> thrown to the waste bucket, unneeded and forgotten.  It is
> sobering to observe that alchemy, after having such a rich and
> colorful two thousand years of history - during which it enjoyed the preeminent position among scientific studies - could be so easily 
> and totally ostracized by scientists and common
------
AmericA|981682552
1c1
< Continent located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.
---
> ''America'' has two primary meanings:
3c3,7
< It was connected to AsiA long ago...
---
> (1) TheAmericas: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See NorthAmerica, CentralAmerica (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of NorthAmerica), and SouthAmerica.
> 
> (2) The United States of America.  See UnitedStates.
> 
> In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleSeven|981682880
1c1,71
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
> 
> done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, 
> 
> GO WASHINGTON--Presidt. and deputy from Virginia 
> 
> [Signed also by the deputies of twelve States.] 
> 
> Delaware 
> :Geo: Read
> :Gunning Bedford jun
> :John Dickinson 
> :Richard Bassett 
> :Jaco: Broom 
> 
> Maryland 
> :James MCHenry
> :Dan of ST ThoS. Jenifer 
> :DanL Carroll.
> 
> Virginia 
> :John Blair--
> :James Madison Jr.
> 
> North Carolina 
> :WM Blount
> :RichD. Dobbs Spaight.
> :Hu Williamson 
> 
> South Carolina 
> :J. Rutledge
> :Charles 1ACotesworth Pinckney
> :Charles Pinckney
> :Pierce Butler.
> 
> Georgia 
> :William Few
> :Abr Baldwin
> 
> New Hampshire 
> :John Langdon
> :Nicholas Gilman
> 
> Massachusetts 
> :Nathaniel Gorham
> :Rufus King 
> 
> Connecticut
> :WM. SamL. Johnson
> :Roger Sherman
> 
> New York 
> :Alexander Hamilton 
> 
> New Jersey 
> :Wil: Livingston
> :David Brearley.
> :WM. Paterson. 
> :Jona: Dayton 
> 
> Pennsylvania 
> :B Franklin
> :Thomas Mifflin
> :RobT Morris
> :Geo. Clymer
> :ThoS. FitzSimons 
> :Jared Ingersoll 
> :James Wilson. 
> :Gouv Morris
> 
> Attest William Jackson Secretary 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleSeven|981682922
18,19c18,19
< :Dan of ST ThoS. Jenifer 
< :DanL Carroll.
---
> :Dan of ST Tho""S. Jenifer 
> :Dan""L Carroll.
27c27
< :RichD. Dobbs Spaight.
---
> :Rich""D. Dobbs Spaight.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleSeven|981682958
18c18
< :Dan of ST Tho""S. Jenifer 
---
> :Dan of ST <nowiki>ThoS</nowiki>. Jenifer 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/ArticleSeven|981683050
19c19
< :Dan""L Carroll.
---
> :<nowiki>DanL</nowiki> Carroll.
27c27
< :Rich""D. Dobbs Spaight.
---
> :<nowiki>RichD</nowiki>. Dobbs Spaight.
49c49
< :WM. SamL. Johnson
---
> :WM. <nowiki>SamL</nowiki>. Johnson
64c64
< :RobT Morris
---
> :<nowiki>RobT</nowiki> Morris
66c66
< :ThoS. FitzSimons 
---
> :<nowiki>ThoS</nowiki>. <nowiki>FitzSimons</nowiki> 
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentThree|981683154
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentFour|981683170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentFive|981683183
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSix|981683198
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSeven|981683209
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentEight|981683222
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentNine|981683238
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTen|981683273
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentEleven|981683342
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwelve|981683372
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.<3> --The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwelve|981683406
1c1
< The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.<3> --The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
---
> The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. --The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentThirteen|981683441
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentFourteen|981683555
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.
> 
> '''Section 3.'''
> 
> No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.
> 
> '''Section 4.'''
> 
> The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
> 
> '''Section 5.'''
> 
> The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentFifteen|981683586
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSixteen|981683607
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSeventeen|981683636
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.
> 
> When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: ''Provided,'' That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.
> 
> This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentEighteen|981683671
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
> 
> '''Section 3.'''
> 
> This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentNineteen|981683690
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.
> 
> Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwenty|981683757
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.
> 
> '''Section 3.'''
> 
> If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.
> 
> '''Section 4.'''
> 
> The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.
> 
> '''Section 5.'''
> 
> Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.
> 
> '''Section 6.'''
> 
> This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentyone|981683794
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.
> 
> '''Section 3.'''
> 
> This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentytwo|981683828
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentythree|981683885
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct:
> 
> :A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentyfour|981683907
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentyfive|981683950
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.
> 
> '''Section 3.'''
> 
> Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.
> 
> '''Section 4.'''
> 
> Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.
> 
> Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department<6> or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentyfive|981683963
17c17
< Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department<6> or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.
---
> Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty-one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentysix|981683988
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Section 1.'''
> 
> The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.
> 
> '''Section 2.'''
> 
> The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwentyseven|981684004
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.
------
CopyrightTalk|981684563
10a11,12
> ----
> Hmmmm - The only place I found that article exactly like that in its full length was on Ginger's site, in connection with her Wolf Cam.  The first two paragraphs also appear in the same form in The Dog Owner's Guide, though the rest of that article is quite different.  The author's name (Norma Bennett Woolf - can you believe that?) and copyright information appear at that site, including ways in which they will permit their material to be used.  I donno if Ginger got permission or not.  I did not find it on Nova (Jimbo's link) at all, tho there's alotta junk about wolves there.  Ginger - did you simply contribute the article from your own page and forget that part of it was copyrighted?  AyeSpy
------
WikipediaL|981684678
1c1
< Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page (where you can also find a Wikipedia-L archive):
---
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page (where you can also find [http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/wikipedia-l/ a Wikipedia-L archive]):
------
FilmHistory|981688243
17a18,19
> *  GloriaSwanson
> *  ThedaBara
------
SanIty|981694453
1c1
< "SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
---
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
3c3
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  One could reasonably argue, then, that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Let us examine this further.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  The mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, leading one to the conclusion that if one's mind is properly functioning, that is, if he is clear and accurate in his awareness and reasoning, he might be regarded as "sane."
---
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning.  One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual.
5c5
< How shall it be determined, however, what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas?  To what degree must errancy intrude into the picture before one is determined no longer sane, but InSane?  
---
> It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  
9c9
< The most prominent aspect of accurate mental function which has been used as an indicator of sanity over the centuries appears to have been mental function as it relates to two areas: interpersonal relations, and bodily safety of self and others.
---
> The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others.  More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.
11c11
< More than mere accuracy has been introduced to the picture, however, as conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  In WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
---
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of schizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
13c13,15
< One can hardly miss the input of culture or of culture(s) if one attempts to determine what the modern western medical community uses as a measure of sanity.  In medical/psychiatric context, the most general definition is by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause becomes a medical problem rather than a psychological or psychiatric one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and classification.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as the reader will see directly.
---
> The input of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
> 
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  It can be x-rayed por biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
31c33
< Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them.   As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear.  These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds.  Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them.  The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane.
---
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them.   As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear.  These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds.  Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them.  The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane.  The very concept of sanity, as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence.  This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique.  One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness.  One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down.  One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity.  These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief.  Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
33c35
< A common thread runs through all of the foregoing.  Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by ''proper functioning'' is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society.  To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane.  One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority.  Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.
---
> A common thread runs through the foregoing.  Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by ''proper functioning'' is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society.  To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane.  One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority.  Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.
------
SanIty|981695328
13c13
< The input of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
---
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
15c15
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  It can be x-rayed por biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
---
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
17c17
< The "bible" of mental diagnosis is psychiatry's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
---
> The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
19c19
< In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity and insanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
---
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
------
IndianapolisColts|981700252
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Based in Indianapolis, Indiana, the Colts are members of the AmericanFootballConference.  
> 
> The Colts colors are blue and white.  They play in the RcaDome.
> 
> Following a move from Miami, Florida, the Colts began play in 1946 in Baltimore, Maryland.  The BaltimoreColts were one of the most dominating teams in NfL history.  Having fallen on hard times, and wanting a new stadium, RobertIrsay moved the team to Indianapolis in 1984.
> 
> Since 1984, the Colts have had mixed success at best.  
> 
> Some famous BaltimoreColts include:  JohnnyUnitas, LennyMoore, RaymondBerry, BertJones, LydellMitchell, GinoMarchetti,  and ArtDonovan  
> Some famous Colts in the Indianapolis era include:  EricDickerson, MarshallFaulk, PeytonManning, MarvinHarrison, and EdgerrinJames
------
HomePage|981700829
23a24,25
> * CooLNesSZ
> 
27c29
< If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
------
HomePage|981703251
18c18
< We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.
---
> We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
24d23
< * CooLNesSZ
------
NamingConventions|981703431
66a67,72
> ----
> Don't it go to show that these wikinames just won't work in the long run?  It's fun - and easy - to add new pages, but what if I want to look up a subject? Will I find America under AmeRica or AmericA (both look equally silly, if you ask me)? And why should I have to memorize a gazilion CapitalizationRules in order to find what I want?
> 
> Nah, in my opinion we should be using a method that will allow us to create a link regardless of, but not excluding, the capitalization - much like they do on Everything2, where you create a link by enclosing it in square brackets [LikeThis].  And once this is established we should clean up this wiki for all the obscure and ugly capitalizations we can see today.
> 
> My advice is that we implement and enforce this before too long, otherwise it will be a tremendous task to correct the pages and to look up things on WikiPedia. --KlausSeistrup
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterThree|981705404
1c1,125
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER III: RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE PEOPLE
> 
> Article 10:
> 
> The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be determined by law. 
> 
> Article 11:
> 
> The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights. 
> 
> Article 12:
> 
> The freedoms and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare. 
> 
> Article 13:
> 
> All of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs. 
> 
> Article 14:
> 
> All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin. 2) Peers and peerage shall not be recognized. 3) No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction, nor shall any such award be valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or hereafter may receive it. 
> 
> Article 15:
> 
> The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them. 2) All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof. 3) Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials. 4) In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice he has made. 
> 
> Article 16:
> 
> Every person shall have the right of peaceful petition for the redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the enactment, repeal or amendment of laws, ordinances or regulations and for other matters; nor shall any person be in any way discriminated against for sponsoring such a petition. 
> 
> Article 17:
> 
> Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through illegal act of any public official. 
> 
> Article 18:
> 
> No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, is prohibited. 
> 
> Article 19:
> 
> Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated. 
> 
> Article 20:
> 
> Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority. 2) No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious acts, celebration, rite or practice. 3) The State and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity. 
> 
> Article 21:
> 
> Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed. 2) No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated. 
> 
> Article 22:
> 
> Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare. 2) Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country and to divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate. 
> 
> Article 23:
> 
> Academic freedom is guaranteed. 
> 
> Article 24:
> 
> Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. 2) With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes. 
> 
> Article 25:
> 
> All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living. 2) In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and of public health. 
> 
> Article 26:
> 
> All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided for by law. 2) All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary education as provided for by law. Such compulsory education shall be free. 
> 
> Article 27:
> 
> All people shall have the right and the obligation to work. 2) Standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law. 3) Children shall not be exploited. 
> 
> Article 28:
> 
> The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act collectively is guaranteed. 
> 
> Article 29:
> 
> The right to own or to hold property is inviolable. 2) Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with the public welfare. 3) Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation therefor. 
> 
> Article 30:
> 
> The people shall be liable to taxation as provided for by law. 
> 
> Article 31:
> 
> No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law. 
> 
> Article 32:
> 
> No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts. 
> 
> Article 33:
> 
> No person shall be apprehended except upon warrant issued by a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the offense being committed. 
> 
> Article 34:
> 
> No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once informed of the charges against him or without the immediate privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be immediately shown in open court in his presence and the presence of his counsel. 
> 
> Article 35:
> 
> The right of all persons to be secure in their homes, papers and effects against entries, searches and seizures shall not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause and particularly describing the place to be searched and things to be seized, or except as provided by Article 33. 2) Each search or seizure shall be made upon separate warrant issued by a competent judicial officer. 
> 
> Article 36:
> 
> The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel punishments are absolutely forbidden. 
> 
> Article 37:
> 
> In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal. 2) He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expense. 3) At all times the accused shall have the assistance of competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State. 
> 
> Article 38:
> 
> No person shall be compelled to testify against himself. 2) Confession made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted in evidence. 3) No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where the only proof against him is his own confession. 
> 
> Article 39:
> 
> No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he had been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy. 
> 
> Article 40:
> 
> Any person may, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or detained, sue the State for redress as provided for by law. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterFour|981705538
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER IV: THE DIET
> 
> Article 41:
> 
> The Diet shall be the highest organ of the state power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State. 
> 
> Article 42:
> 
> The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors. 
> 
> Article 43:
> 
> Both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people. 2) The number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law. 
> 
> Article 44:
> 
> The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income. 
> 
> Article 45:
> 
> The term of office of members of the House of Representatives shall be four years. However, the term shall be terminated before the full term is up in case the House of Representatives is dissolved. 
> 
> Article 46:
> 
> The term of office of members of the House of Councillors shall be six years, and election for half the members shall take place every three years.
> 
> Article 47:
> 
> Electoral districts, method of voting and other matters pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses shall be fixed by law. 
> 
> Article 48:
> 
> No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses simultaneously. 
> 
> Article 49:
> 
> Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual payment from the national treasury in accordance with law. 
> 
> Article 50:
> 
> Except in cases as provided for by law, members of both Houses shall be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is in session, and any members apprehended before the opening of the session shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of the House. 
> 
> Article 51:
> 
> Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the House for speeches, debates or votes cast inside the House. 
> 
> Article 52:
> 
> An ordinary session of the Diet shall be convoked once per year. 
> 
> Article 53:
> 
> The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet. When a quarter or more of the total members of either House makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such convocation. 
> 
> Article 54:
> 
> When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must be a general election of members of the House of Representatives within forty(40) days from the date of dissolution, and the Diet must be convoked within thirty(30) days from the date of the election. 2) When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House of Councillors is closed at the same time. However, the Cabinet may, in time of national emergency, convoke the House of Councillors in emergency session. 3) Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the proviso of the preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives within a period of ten(10) days after the opening of the next session of the Diet. 
> 
> Article 55:
> 
> Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of its members. However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present. 
> 
> Article 56:
> 
> Business cannot be transacted in either House unless one-third or more of total membership is present. 2) All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority of those present, except as elsewhere provided for in the Constitution, and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall decide the issue. 
> 
> Article 57:
> 
> Deliberation in each House shall be public. However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor. 2) Each House shall keep a record of proceedings. This record shall be published and given general circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret session as may be deemed to require secrecy. 3) Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present, votes of the members on any matter shall be recorded in the minutes. 
> 
> Article 58:
> 
> Each House shall select its own president and other officials. 2) Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings, proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members for disorderly conduct. However, in order to expel a member, a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a resolution thereon. 
> 
> Article 59:
> 
> A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as otherwise provided for by the Constitution. 2) A bill, which is passed by the House of Representatives, and upon which the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present. 3) The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law. 4) Failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within sixty(60) days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said bill by the House of Councillors. 
> 
> Article 60:
> 
> The budget must first be submitted to the House of Representatives. 2) Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or in the case of failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within thirty(30) days, the period of recess excluded, after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet. 
> 
> Article 61:
> 
> The second paragraph of the preceding Article applies also the the Diet approval required for the conclusion of treaties. 
> 
> Article 62:
> 
> Each House may conduct investigations in relation to government, and may demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records. 
> 
> Article 63:
> 
> The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or not. They must appear when their presence is required in order to give answers or explanations. 
> 
> Article 64:
> 
> The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among the members of both Houses for the purposes of trying those judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted. 2) Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided for by law. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterFive|981705599
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER V: THE CABINET
> 
> Article 65:
> 
> Executive power shall be vested in the Cabinet. 
> 
> Article 66:
> 
> The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister, who shall be its head, and other Ministers of State, as provided for by law. 2) The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State must be civilians. 3) The Cabinet shall, in the exercise of executive power, be collectively responsible to the Diet. 
> 
> Article 67:
> 
> The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet. This designation shall precede all other business. 2) If the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors disagree and if no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or the House of Councillors fails to make designation within ten(10) days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet. 
> 
> Article 68:
> 
> The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State. However, a majority of their number must be chosen from among the members of the Diet. 2) The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as he chooses. 
> 
> Article 69:
> 
> If the House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved within ten(10) days. 
> 
> Article 70:
> 
> When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall resign en masse. 
> 
> Article 71:
> 
> In the cases mentioned in the two preceding Articles, the Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new Prime Minister is appointed. 
> 
> Article 72:
> 
> The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills, reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the Diet and exercises control and supervision over various administrative branches. 
> 
> Article 73:
> 
> The Cabinet shall, in addition to other general administrative functions, perform the following functions: (1) Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state. (2) Manage foreign affairs. (3) Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances sudsequent approval of the Diet. (4) Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law. (5) Prepare the budget, and present it to the cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law. (7) Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights. 
> 
> Article 74:
> 
> All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent Minister of State and countersigned by the Prime Minister. 
> 
> Article 75:
> 
> The Ministers of State shall not, during their tenure of office, be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister. However, the right to take that action is not impaired hereby. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterSix|981705654
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER VI: JUDICIARY
> 
> Article 76:
> 
> The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as are established by law. 2) No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power. 3) All judges shall be independent in the exercise of their conscience and shall be bound only by this 
> Constitution and the laws. 
> 
> Article 77:
> 
> The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice, and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of the courts and the administration of judicial affairs. 2) Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making power of the Supreme Court. 3) The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules for inferior courts to such courts. 
> 
> Article 78:
> 
> Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform official duties. No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered by any executive organ or agency. 
> 
> Article 79:
> 
> The Supreme Court shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be determined by law; all such judges excepting the Chief Judge shall be appointed by the Cabinet. 2) The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten(10) years, and in the same manner thereafter. 
> 
> Article 80:
> 
> The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court. All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten(10) years with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law. 2) The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office. 
> 
> Article 81:
> 
> The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act. 
> 
> Article 82:
> 
> Trials shall be conducted and judgement declared publicly. 2) Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in CHAPTER III of this Constitution are in question shall always be conducted publicly. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterSeven|981705695
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER VII: FINANCE
> 
> Article 83:
> 
> The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as the Diet shall determine. 
> 
> Article 84:
> 
> No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe. 
> 
> Article 85:
> 
> No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself, except as authorized by the Diet. 
> 
> Article 86:
> 
> The Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year. 
> 
> Article 87:
> 
> In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for all payments from the reserve fund. 
> 
> Article 88:
> 
> All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the State. All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget. 
> 
> Article 89:
> 
> No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association, or for any charitable, educational or benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority. 
> 
> Article 90:
> 
> Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by the Diet, together with the statement of audit, during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered. 2) The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall be determined by law. 
> 
> Article 91:
> 
> At regular intervals and at least annually the Diet and the people on the state of national finances. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterEight|981705738
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER VIII: LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
> 
> Article 92:
> 
> Regulations concerning organization and operations of local public entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local autonomy. 
> 
> Article 93:
> 
> The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs, in accordance with law. 2) The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular vote within their several communities. 
> 
> Article 94:
> 
> Local public entities shall have the right to manage their property, affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law. 
> 
> Article 95:
> 
> A special law, applicable only to one local public entity, cannot be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterNine|981705777
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER IX: AMENDMENTS
> 
> Article 96:
> 
> Amendments to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify. 2) Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterTen|981705810
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER X: SUPREME LAW
> 
> Article 97:
> 
> The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate. 
> 
> Article 98:
> 
> This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof, shall have legal force or validity. 2) The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed. 
> 
> Article 99:
> 
> The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution. 
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterEleven|981705877
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CHAPTER XI: SUPPLEMENTARY PROVISIONS
> 
> Article 100:
> 
> This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the day of its promulgation. 2) The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution, the election of members of the House of Councillors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet and other preparatory procedures necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed in the preceding paragraph. 
> 
> Article 101:
> 
> If the House of Councillors is not constituted before the effective date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councillors shall be constituted. 
> 
> Article 102:
> 
> The term of office for half the members of the House of Councillors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall be three years. Members falling under this category shall be determined in accordance with law. 
> 
> Article 103:
> 
> The Ministers of State, members of the House of Representatives, and judges in office on the effective date of this Constitution, and all other public officials who occupy positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise specified by law. When, however, successors are elected or appointed under the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their positions as a matter of course. 
------
JapanConstitution|981706193
9,21c9,20
< :/ChapterOne
< :/ChapterTwo
< :/ChapterThree
< :/ChapterFour
< :/ChapterFive
< :/ChapterSix
< :/ChapterSeven
< :/ChapterEight
< :/ChapterNine
< :/ChapterTen
< :/ChapterEleven
< 
< Are there any amendments?
---
> :/ChapterOne - The Emperor
> :/ChapterTwo - Renunciation of War
> :/ChapterThree - Rights and Duties of the People
> :/ChapterFour - The Diet
> :/ChapterFive - The Cabinet
> :/ChapterSix - Judiciary
> :/ChapterSeven - Finance
> :/ChapterEight - Local Self-government
> :/ChapterNine - Amendments
> :/ChapterTen - Supreme Law
> :/ChapterEleven - Supplementary Provisions
> :A little bit of stuff at the end...sigs, etc
------
RaviDesai|981725689
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Contributer to both Nupedia and Wikipedia.  I love math and computer science - can you say Geek?  I live in the beautiful state of MichigaN, and wouldn't want to live anywhere else - ice, snow and all.  I'm a bit of bookworm - I read and write (surprise!) ScienceFiction and FantasY, as well as AutoBiographies of interesting individuals.
> 
> In real life I am a programmer - mostly in Java and C++, but I've seen it all (everything from Snobol to LISP to Pascal to Fortran).  I have a bachelor's degree in ComputerScience and a Masters degree in MathematicS that I got more or less because I thought it would be fun.  I got interested in SetTheory and NumberTheory there and have been blessed to work with some incredibly good people in that field.
> 
> I used to work in the Automotive industry, but now I work in the Telecom industry (in MichigaN?!!!?) and develop software that is used by ISPs to provision ATM switches, routers, and various other equipment and man is it a lot of fun!
> 
> I am also a ChristiaN, and belong to the FreeMethodist church - which is similar to the MethodisT church, but more EvangelicaL.  If that means nothing to you, don't worry, it means nothing to me either.  I tend to think along the lines of CSLewis in MereChristianity and see our likenesses more than our differences.
> 
> Finally, I am a family man (hey, I'm in the midwest, remember?) and have a beautiful wife of 12 years and 3 kids (all boys, all 7yrs and younger).  The most I can hope for is that I give them the same hunger for knowledge and love of God that was given to me in my youth.
> 
------
RaviDesai|981726074
1c1
< Contributer to both Nupedia and Wikipedia.  I love math and computer science - can you say Geek?  I live in the beautiful state of MichigaN, and wouldn't want to live anywhere else - ice, snow and all.  I'm a bit of bookworm - I read and write (surprise!) ScienceFiction and FantasY, as well as AutoBiographies of interesting individuals.
---
> Contributer to both Nupedia and Wikipedia.  I love math and computer science - can you say Geek?  I live in the beautiful state of MichigaN, and wouldn't want to live anywhere else - ice, snow and all.  I'm a bit of bookworm - I read and write (surprise!) ScienceFiction and FantasY, as well as AutoBiographies of interesting individuals.  I also love MythologY (Greek, Hindu, and Icelandic).
------
ProgramMing|981726682
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Programming is the act of instructing a machine to perform some work.  
> 
> <some history...>
> The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
> 
------
NamingConventions|981734084
72c72,84
< My advice is that we implement and enforce this before too long, otherwise it will be a tremendous task to correct the pages and to look up things on WikiPedia. --KlausSeistrup
---
> My advice is that we implement and enforce this before too long, otherwise it will be a tremendous task to correct the pages and to look up things on WikiPedia. --KlausSeistrup
> 
> :The code for "free" links like <tt><nowiki>[[Democracy]]</nowiki></tt> is currently being tested on a [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/um9test.pl?FreeLinks test wiki].  (Feel free to try it out on that site.)  This new linking feature should be available "soon".  I used double-brackets for links so that people can continue to use brackets in their ordinary editorial sense [like this] without creating links.
> 
> :Conversion to the new form of links should be semi-automatic--I'm planning on building a script that will list all links and a suggested new name (like "DemocracY=[[Democracy]]".  After editing this list for special cases the list will be used to automatically rename the pages and all links (within the wiki) to those pages.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> '''Links with spaces:'''
> 
> The new free-linking code ''can'' allow links with spaces and limited punctuation, like [[John F. Kennedy]].  While I think that the current wiki names (squishing words together with capitals) are often useful to writers, they can make pages difficult to read and explain to users new to wikis.
> 
> Should links with spaces be allowed or even encouraged on WikiPedia?  Should the existing pages be converted to this form?  (Should this page become [[Naming Conventions]] for instance?)
> 
> In the end, the preferred link style may become a site policy decision.  Before that happens I hope to have some discussion of the issues.  The biggest issue I see is whether the WikiPedia should try to follow the wiki-culture from other sites, or whether it should develop its own cultural norms (which may diverge from existing wikis).  --CliffordAdams
------
SanIty|981735562
15c15
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
---
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another.  Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
------
SanIty|981736868
11c11
< Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of schizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
---
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
------
SanIty|981737561
25c25
< In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in any number of juristictions internationally in an effort to punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
---
> In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in widely scattered juristictions internationally in an effort to establish standards which will punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
27c27
< Various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been sent up as trial balloons by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
---
> Defenses based on various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been offered by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
------
NamingConventions|981743236
84a85,92
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm personally for links with spaces. Maybe it's not very "wiki" 
> (I didn't know what a wiki was till I came here through nupedia),
> but it's certainly more "encyclopedic" --AstroNomer
> 
> ----
------
SanityTalk|981745817
27a28,81
> ----
> Hi Bruce,
> 
> I don't know how to improve this article, because I don't know enough about the topic of mental disorders in general.  I do have some comments nonetheless--so, contrary to my own stated policy, I'll indent my comments and let you fix the article, if you can and want to.  I am going to be blunt, because I think you will benefit from bluntness in this case.  Here we go:
> 
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
> 
> :Who has defined it this way?  You're using passive voice.  I don't believe you.  :-)  I don't think anyone has defined "sanity" this way, other than you; and I don't care how you define it, to be blunt, I care how psychologists and psychiatrists and people who have really studied this stuff.  And who are the "users" you're talking about?  This first paragraph doesn't bode well for the rest of the article.  It sounds like you're bullshiting to me, frankly.  Are you?
> 
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind.
> 
> :Etymologies are notoriously bad for giving a ''scientific analysis'' of a natural phenomenon.  While the etymology is interesting and should be left in the article, it shouldn't be made the basis of a thesis; it should merely be mentioned in passing.
> 
> Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning.  One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual.
> 
> :Frankly, although I personally strongly agree with all of this, it seems to me less than enlightening--platitudinous.  If you don't ''know'' much about a subject, I'd say your task amounts to either (1) heavy research, or (2) producing a melange of platitudes, bullshittery, and simple falsehoods.  Hmmm...
> 
> It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  
> 
> :There are many things that "clear and accurate awareness and reasoning" ''could'' mean, and I wonder which of them you do mean.  For example, those studying logic and critical reasoning believe they're studying the standards of good reasoning and clear thinking.  So, by your lights, does sanity amount to being logical, and insanity illogical?  Well, that might be part of it, but that's certainly not all of it.  I'd say it's a definition by inessentials, but then, what do I know?
> 
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.
> 
> :There are?  Really?  Who says, you?  Why should you care, if you just declare it without proving it or giving any evidence?  "Have been declared to be"?  Who declared them thus?  You?  And are they using your concept of intelligence?  Frankly, due to unanswered questions like this, I just don't know how to assess the above sentence except in a dismissive fashion.
> 
> One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.  
> 
> :You seem to have line of thought as follows: AyeSpy has a (rather vague) definition of sanity that amounts to "clear thinking and accurate reasoning"; ''some''one has declared that the only (or best?  who knows?) sort of clear thinking is "objectively" measured by intelligence tests (since intelligence is what intelligence tests measure, presumably, but you're not too clear on that, it seems); but, by AyeSpy's definition of sanity, this unknown theorist's view of what clear thinking is implies that "intelligence" isn't a good analysis "sanity."
> 
> :How many problems can you identify in the above reasoning?
> 
> The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others.  More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.
> 
> :Which have been used as indicators of sanity, ''by whom''?  And what does "personal mental composure" mean?
> 
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
> 
> :This is perhaps the first interesting thing you've said; but you might try citing a source or two, because it is far from original.
> 
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
> 
> :Why don't you quote a psychiatric source, and make an effort to ''explain'' what "the" definition is?  And oh, there's only one definition in currency?  I wouldn't have expected that, but then, what do I know?
> 
> :I've got to get a move on so I am not going to be able to comment in depth on the rest of this.
> 
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another.  Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
> 
> The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
> 
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
> 
> :The above has dropped into a journalistic sort of mode, and it's obvious that you're trying to set up an argument against the received view of insanity.  Let me cut to the chase, then.  Bruce, I couldn't care less what your views about insanity are.  If I read an article about sanity and insanity, I want to know, ''in detail'', what ''the received'' views are.  This can include minority views, but they are the minority views of (who else?) ''psychiatrists.''  If there isn't a psychiatrist who hasn't promulgated your view, that's probably because your view is not very plausible.  I can say this without knowing anything about your view.  I can even say it knowing what I do know so far about your view, ''and'' agreeing (I guess?) with your general drift.  But that '''doesn't matter'''!  It's ''far'' more important to learn first from the experts, and try to convey that very clearly, and then, ''only'' then, make an attempt at building on or controverting that.
> 
> :Anyway, I think you should rename your article BruceOnSanity.  That is an accurate title.  It isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity. -- LarrySanger
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|981747216
18c18
< The world is divided into six contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, AmericA, and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
---
> The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, NorthAmerica, SouthAmerica and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
------
LiteraryArt|981747329
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA (see also TheaTre) -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
------
LiteraryArt|981747353
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA (see also TheaTre) -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA (see also TheaTer) -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
------
LiteraryArt|981747432
1a2,3
> 
> See also LiteraryArtTalk
------
LiteraryArtTalk|981747537
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ScienceFiction as a separate LiteraryArt form?
> That doesn't sound right to me....
> If it's good, it fits in literature, if not, it doesn't even fit in art...
> 
------
LiteraryArtTalk|981747629
4a5,6
> Also, Literature separated from TheNovel? I'm not sure who made that list knows what is he/she talking about...I don't correct it
> because i don't feel competent enough.
------
WolF|981747970
5c5
< I discovered the violation on a hunch -- the article was too good!  It was easy to find it on the web -- I simply searched for an unlikely combination of words at Google, and found the exact same text on the Nova site.
---
> I discovered the violation on a hunch -- the article was too good!  It was easy to find it on the web -- I simply searched for an unlikely combination of words at Google, and found the exact same text on the Nova site. --JimboWales
9c9
< Maybe we should talk about this as a potential problem: CopyrightTalk.
---
> Maybe we should talk about this as a potential problem: CopyrightTalk.
------
WikiPediaFaq|981751337
65c65
< A. Sure, the powers-that-be simply have to make it happen.
---
> A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.
96c96
< '''A.''' This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
---
> '''A.''' This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
------
PowersthatBe|981751451
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Okay PowersthatBe, Make the HitCounter happen. (Please)
------
PowersthatBe|981752028
1a2,7
> 
> ----
> 
> What for? I'd hate to know that only me, LarrySanger, JimWales and AyeSpy are reading what i wrote....
> 
> ----
------
PowersthatBe|981752060
5c5
< What for? I'd hate to know that only me, LarrySanger, JimWales and AyeSpy are reading what i wrote....
---
> What for? I'd hate to know that only me, LarrySanger, JimboWales and AyeSpy are reading what i wrote....
7c7
< ----
---
> ----
------
CopyrightTalk|981752726
12a13,15
> ----
> Actually I put it together from a few different sites. I was unaware of any copyright problems I was causing. I had never been to the pbs site Jimbo found the article at. I will be more careful in the future you can be sure. It is not my intention to cause problems for anyone and I feel badly about this.
> WcGing
------
SanityTalk|981753043
81c81,91
< :Anyway, I think you should rename your article BruceOnSanity.  That is an accurate title.  It isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity. -- LarrySanger
---
> :Anyway, I think you should rename your article BruceOnSanity.  That is an accurate title.  It isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> I'll get back to you on this, Larry. I am inclined to rename the article something like "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity," as I am loathe to dig about for every single publication I used in support of my statements, so as to make it the definitive encyclopedia article on "Sanity."  Suffice it to say that my introductory definition, minus the part in quotes, is synthesized and paraphrased from three ordinary dictionaries.  The part in quotes is a tacit matter of defacto political practice, and I will move it to another part of the article.  The "platitudinous" paragraph is to mention the next logical step to the reader, rather than to take it unseen, no matter how obvious it might otherwise seem.
> 
> ''..."it's obvious that you're trying to set up an argument against the received view of insanity."'' You seem to be under the impression (broadly held, BTW) that psychiatry or medicine or some consensus authority actually defines sanity.  Here is the real kicker - there '''IS NO''' "received view" on the definition of "sanity" from doctors or psychiatrists.  One must read tons of books by them (done, thank you), each individual author defining it differently if he defines it at all (they prefer to go on at length about abnormalities, and the obvious fact that an absence of them is the preferred condition), and then try to find points of general agreement between them.  The "medical" definition I used is paraphrased from the only medical dictionary I could find which did not define it as merely "Soundness or health of mind. Normal mentality."  Question is, what the heck do you mean, "Normal?"  The word "normal" is not a (forgive me) normative word, unless its characteristics are either obvious by definition, or can be demonstrated (like the normal function of a liver, heart, gut, brain, what-have-you).  Well, I finally found "Normal" as being "without mental disorder."  What's a mental disorder?  See DSM-IV.  You read DSM-IV, and it says "we can't agree and don't really know what a mental disorder is, or if it should be called a disorder at all - but here is the long list of things we do agree ought not to be a part of human mentality." 
> 
> Note that I did not say in the article that there was only one medical definition.  I said there was a "most general" one - one than can be found in medical literature which does not conflict with other definitions found in medical literature.  The only thing they agree on is "normal."  Quoting Taber's, (F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 1974):  "normal - 3. In psychology, free from mental disorder, or of average development or intelligence."
> 
> Who defines sanity in terms of interpersonal relations and safety of self and others?  Heck - EVERYONE!  But I should prabably make clear that I'm talking about a "street" definition, not an authoritative one.  Examples:  Why should he be committed?  He's a danger to himself or others.  Is he sane enough to fly a commercial jet?  No - he takes unreasonable risks.  Is she sane?  No - she does not relate normally with others.  She talks to herself, babbles incoherently, flails her arms for no reason, whatever.  Is he sane enough to assist in his own defense?  No - he keeps calling his lawyer "Jesus" and accusing him of working for the CIA.
> 
> now I gotta run - but I will see if the article cannot be tuned up some.  I should probably introduce my thesis more clearly, "Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity, and here's why.  And, by the way, could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?"
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981753367
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient. 
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual. 
> 
> It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas. Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane. 
> 
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity. One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
> 
> The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others. More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well. 
> 
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria. In some contexts, societal norms loom large. For example, in WesternCivilization?, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting. Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia? - a serious mental disorder. In many regions of the ThirdWorld?, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience. One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man. 
> 
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder." The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
> 
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth?, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison. In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems. A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health. One may examine, for example, a liver. Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science. It can be x-rayed or biopsied. Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured. Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for. In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed. The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured. While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity. Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another. Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice. 
> 
> The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified. For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute." Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences. As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses. In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM. 
> 
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity. Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science. 
> 
> And defining sane behavior must always be done, at least in part, in the context of the subject's culture. If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
> 
> In recent times, more recognition has been given to the concept of sanity as a subjective manifestation, evidenced by mental quietude, peace of mind, and resiliancy - an ability to survive the vicissitudes of life without such mental discomfort that one's ability to function is impaired. 
> 
> In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity. Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong." This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in widely scattered juristictions internationally in an effort to establish standards which will punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law. 
> 
> Defenses based on various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been offered by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all. Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice. 
> 
> Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state. The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive. The argument supporting such definitions of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this: "The state functions for the good of the people. Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies. Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state. Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement." As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that the deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid. Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression. Thus sanity by political definition may be restored. 
> 
> Political definitions of sanity have not been confined to openly authoritarian governments. In otherwise putatively democratice countries which have a history of democratic elections and peaceful transfer of power, state-sanctioned and state-funded mental treatement has been imposed upon political dissidents and upon members of racial and ethnic minorities whose activities and efforts to achieve equal treatment and equal rights to those enjoyed by favored elements of these societies have been felt to be a threat to civil order or state security. 
> 
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of sanity, as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity. 
> 
> A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority. Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met. 
> 
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy 
> 
> ----
> See also SanityTalk. 
------
SanIty|981753468
1,39c1,2
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
< 
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning.  One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual.
< 
< It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  
< 
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.  
< 
< The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others.  More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.
< 
< Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
< 
< The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
< 
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another.  Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
< 
< The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
< 
< In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
< 
< And defining sane behavior must always be done, at least in part, in the context of the subject's culture.  If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
< 
< In recent times, more recognition has been given to the concept of sanity as a subjective manifestation, evidenced by mental quietude, peace of mind, and resiliancy - an ability to survive the vicissitudes of life without such mental discomfort that one's ability to function is impaired.
< 
< In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity.  Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong."  This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in widely scattered juristictions internationally in an effort to establish standards which will punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law.
< 
< Defenses based on various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been offered by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all.  Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice.
< 
< Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state.  The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive.  The argument supporting such definitions of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this:  "The state functions for the good of the people.  Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies.  Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state.  Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement."  As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that the deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid.  Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression.  Thus sanity by political definition may be restored.
< 
< Political definitions of sanity have not been confined to openly authoritarian governments.  In otherwise putatively democratice countries which have a history of democratic elections and peaceful transfer of power, state-sanctioned and state-funded mental treatement has been imposed upon political dissidents and upon members of racial and ethnic minorities whose activities and efforts to achieve equal treatment and equal rights to those enjoyed by favored elements of these societies have been felt to be a threat to civil order or state security.
< 
< Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them.   As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear.  These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds.  Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them.  The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane.  The very concept of sanity, as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence.  This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique.  One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness.  One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down.  One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity.  These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief.  Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
< 
< A common thread runs through the foregoing.  Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by ''proper functioning'' is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society.  To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane.  One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority.  Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.
< 
< There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction.  The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school.  The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain.  The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain,  and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body.  Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools.  How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy
< ----
< See also SanityTalk.
---
> SanIty:  the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, ----
> See also SanityTalk and TheProblemOfDefiningSanity
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981753603
0a1,2
> Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Your author hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and posese the question:  could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
> 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981754459
1c1
< Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Your author hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and posese the question:  could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
---
> Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Your author hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and poses the question:  could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
3,4c3,5
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient. 
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual. 
---
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
>  
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions.  Sanity is also defined as being mentally "normal."  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, your author posists that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual. 
8c9
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity. One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
---
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
10c11
< The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others. More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well. 
---
> The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used by ordinary people as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others. These criteria are frequently examined by courts in commitment proceedings, determination of fitness to stand trial, hearings on competency and other such undertakings.  More recently, especially in medically related fields, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.  One sees diagnoses based on subjective mood, and drugs advertised to improve outlook.   
12c13
< Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria. In some contexts, societal norms loom large. For example, in WesternCivilization?, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting. Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia? - a serious mental disorder. In many regions of the ThirdWorld?, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience. One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man. 
---
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been also employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria. In some contexts, societal norms loom large. For example, in WesternCivilization?, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting. Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia? - a serious mental disorder. In many regions of the ThirdWorld?, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience. One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man. 
14c15
< The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder." The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
---
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is that a person's mentality is "normal."  A search of the meaning of "normal" leads us to a definition by exclusion - that is, absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder. The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." Conversely, when one displayes an apparent symptom or limitation for which no physiological cause is indicated, doctors refer to the problem as "functional."  That is, it is not related to a physical problem, but rather a mental one.  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981756982
5c5
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions.  Sanity is also defined as being mentally "normal."  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, your author posists that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual. 
---
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions.  Sanity is also defined as being mentally "normal."  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, your author posits that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual. 
------
AstroNomy|981758787
10c10,14
< IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same forces that cause motion on earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis.
---
> IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
> found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
> into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
> the 20th century research.
11a16,31
> At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
> decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of SpectralLines
> were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
> Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
> observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
> to unique elements. It was proved that the ElementS found on the
> sun were also found on earth. 
> 
> During the 20th century SpectroMetry (the study of these lines)
> advanced.
>  
> Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
> With the help of the use of PhotoGraphy, fainter objects were 
> observed. Our sun was found to be part of a Galaxy made by more
> than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
> own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
AstroNomy|981759013
25a26,27
> 
> (to be continued)
31c33
< own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
---
> own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981759067
3c3
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
---
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, and other definitions, some of which have been developed from time to time in the interest of policital expediency (of which, more later).
31c31
< Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state. The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive. The argument supporting such definitions of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this: "The state functions for the good of the people. Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies. Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state. Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement." As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that the deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid. Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression. Thus sanity by political definition may be restored. 
---
> Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state. The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive. The working definition for sanity in such cases, usually implicit rather than explicit, would seem to be, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think."  The argument supporting such a definition of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this: "The state functions for the good of the people. Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies. Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state. Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement." As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that a deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid. Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression. Thus sanity by political definition may be restored. 
35c35
< Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of sanity, as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity. 
---
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of "sanity," as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
37c37
< A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case by the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields would not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function was in the substantial minority, and proper function was in the majority. Add to this the element that the proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met. 
---
> "Doctor, I'm depressed," is a complaint of relatively recent origin.  In pre-Freudian times, an individual may have been "sad," "morose," "maudlin," or "pessimistic," even afflicted with "dispair" to the point of suicide.  This would not have been viewed as a mental disorder, nor occasion for a diagnosis or treatment.  It would have been perceived that the person needed cheering up, or that he was responding appropriately to some event or condition of his life which cried out for remedy, or that he was constitutionally incapable of being cheerful - much after the manner that one might be short, or bald.  Modernly, the radio, television and popular periodicals carry messages from doctors and drug companies that being too sad may be a sign or clinical depression, and that one ought to seek treatment or drugs.  Hence, "Doctor, I'm depressed."  Whether the older or more modern view is more appropriate is the subject of ongoing debate between professionals in the field.
39c39,43
< There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biolgical damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy 
---
> A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case against the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of life and his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on self and others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields does not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function is incidental, minor or infrequent, and proper function is predominant. Add to this the element that proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.  This is still a very long definition, but it seems to satisfy the requirements of almost every context.
> 
> The words "unnecessary friction or harm" probably cannot be omitted, but they are the weakest point of the proposed definition.  What is seen as necessary by one may be seen as wholly unnecessary and undesirable by another.  The case of the political dissident is such an example.  He sees his friction with the society around him as entirely necessary, for it is his position that the society must be altered for the good of all.  That same society, in preserving its continued existence, views such a position as deviant and dangerous, and is likely to exert pressure to eliminate it.
> 
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biological damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. At this writing, this school of thought enjoys majority support in the West.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Traditional Eastern philosophical and religious thought tend more in this direction.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981759789
9c9,11
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
---
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but by and large, one sees testing for such criteria used more frequently in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. 
> 
> An instance of a broadly accepted test in English speaking areas of the world which is thought to address issues of mental and emotional health would be the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).  This test has no right or wrong answers, and the evaluee is advised of this fact.  He answers dozens of questions about how he feels and thinks regarding certain issues, and the way in which his answers relate to each other and pre-determined baseline critera determines whether the person adminstering of evaluating the test finds his attitudes more or less healthy in given areas.  Labels such as "normal" or "abnormal" with regard to test results are avoided.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, and how "accuracy" is defined, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
------
SanityTalk|981760036
91a92,93
> ----
> OK, Larry - I think I have addressed the majority (though not all) of your concerns.  I will revisit this after I have thought of other things for a while.  I wonder - does anyone else have concerns or comment?  The more I work on this article, the more I think I would like it to be a good and thoughtful one, though not an authoritative or definitive one.
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981760882
11c11
< An instance of a broadly accepted test in English speaking areas of the world which is thought to address issues of mental and emotional health would be the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).  This test has no right or wrong answers, and the evaluee is advised of this fact.  He answers dozens of questions about how he feels and thinks regarding certain issues, and the way in which his answers relate to each other and pre-determined baseline critera determines whether the person adminstering of evaluating the test finds his attitudes more or less healthy in given areas.  Labels such as "normal" or "abnormal" with regard to test results are avoided.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, and how "accuracy" is defined, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
---
> An instance of a broadly accepted test in English speaking areas of the world which is thought to address issues of mental and emotional health would be the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).  This test has no right or wrong answers, and the evaluee is advised of this fact.  He answers dozens of questions about how he feels and thinks regarding certain issues, and the way in which his answers relate to each other and pre-determined baseline critera determines whether the person adminstering or evaluating the test finds his attitudes more or less healthy in given areas.  If his environmental factors include the recent loss of a loved one and various of his answers reveal a depressed mood, the evaluator may declare this "appropriate."  Labels such as "normal" or "abnormal" with regard to test results are avoided.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, and how "accuracy" is defined, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981761272
17c17
< The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is that a person's mentality is "normal."  A search of the meaning of "normal" leads us to a definition by exclusion - that is, absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder. The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." Conversely, when one displayes an apparent symptom or limitation for which no physiological cause is indicated, doctors refer to the problem as "functional."  That is, it is not related to a physical problem, but rather a mental one.  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
---
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is that a person's mentality is "normal."  A search of the meaning of "normal" leads us to a definition by exclusion - that is, absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder. The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." Conversely, when one displays an apparent symptom or limitation for which no physiological cause is indicated, doctors refer to the problem as "functional."  That is, it is not related to a physical problem, but rather a mental one.  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981761818
37c37
< Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity on purely objective grounds. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of "sanity," as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
---
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity grounds observed by others rather than experienced by self. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of "sanity," as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
39c39
< "Doctor, I'm depressed," is a complaint of relatively recent origin.  In pre-Freudian times, an individual may have been "sad," "morose," "maudlin," or "pessimistic," even afflicted with "dispair" to the point of suicide.  This would not have been viewed as a mental disorder, nor occasion for a diagnosis or treatment.  It would have been perceived that the person needed cheering up, or that he was responding appropriately to some event or condition of his life which cried out for remedy, or that he was constitutionally incapable of being cheerful - much after the manner that one might be short, or bald.  Modernly, the radio, television and popular periodicals carry messages from doctors and drug companies that being too sad may be a sign or clinical depression, and that one ought to seek treatment or drugs.  Hence, "Doctor, I'm depressed."  Whether the older or more modern view is more appropriate is the subject of ongoing debate between professionals in the field.
---
> "Doctor, I'm depressed," is a complaint of relatively recent origin.  In pre-Freudian times, an individual may have been "sad," "morose," "maudlin," or "pessimistic," even afflicted with "despair" to the point of suicide.  This would not have been viewed as a mental disorder, nor occasion for a diagnosis or treatment.  It would have been perceived that the person needed cheering up, or that he was responding appropriately to some event or condition of his life which cried out for remedy, or that he was constitutionally incapable of being cheerful - much after the manner that one might be short, or bald.  Modernly, radio, television and popular periodicals carry messages from doctors and drug companies that being too sad may be a sign of clinical depression, and that one ought to seek treatment or drugs.  Hence, "Doctor, I'm depressed."  Whether the older or more modern view is more appropriate is the subject of ongoing debate between professionals in the field.
41c41
< A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case against the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of life and his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on self and others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields does not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function is incidental, minor or infrequent, and proper function is predominant. Add to this the element that proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.  This is still a very long definition, but it seems to satisfy the requirements of almost every context.
---
> A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case against the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of life and his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on self and others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields does not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function is incidental, minor or infrequent, and proper function is predominant. Add to this the element that proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, (as in that the person can experience and express emotions without being victimized by them) and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.  This is still a very long definition, but it seems to satisfy the requirements of almost every context.
------
AyeSpy|981762859
123a124,127
> 
> ----
> 
> May I ask why so interested in the subject of (in)sanity? -- AstroNomer
------
CopyrightTalk|981763496
15a16,22
> ----
> 
> No need to feel bad.  I'm all about the future, not the past.  :-)  Some of the paragraphs were exactly from the Nova site.
> 
> I encourage you, WcGing, to write a shorter article based on the knowledge you got from those articles...
> 
> We don't have to be particularly original, we just have to try to be correct, and most importantly of all, we can't give anyone an excuse to try to shut us down.  So we have to put everything in our own words.
------
MartinaHingis|981764648
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Martina Hingis is a professional tennis player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, FloridA, in the UnitedStates.
> 
> Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at Wimbledon -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
> Hingis is the number one ranked women's player in the world.
> 
> Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: Czech, Swiss-German, EnglisH, and some FrencH.
> 
------
MartinaHingis|981764821
3c3
< Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at Wimbledon -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
---
> Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at WimbledoN -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
6c6
< Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: Czech, Swiss-German, EnglisH, and some FrencH.
---
> Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: CzechLanguage, GermanLanguage (in particular SwissGerman), EnglishLanguage, and some FrenchLanguage.
------
DwGriffith|981767621
23,24c23
< Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks.
< 
---
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford and DouglasFairbanks.
------
FilmHistory|981767698
19a20
> +  ThomasHarperInce
------
FilmHistory|981767716
20c20
< +  ThomasHarperInce
---
> *  ThomasHarperInce
------
AyeSpy|981767748
127c127,166
< May I ask why so interested in the subject of (in)sanity? -- AstroNomer
---
> May I ask why so interested in the subject of (in)sanity? -- AstroNomer
> ----
> 
> Sure!  (you may regret having asked this one) as above, (AyeSpy)"...has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion. He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness."  This interest was born when I was 8 or before, when I made up my mind to become the best teacher ever.  That dream faded somewhere along the way, but the fascination with learning never did.
> 
> A corollary to this interest was an absorbing interest in optimum mental function, especially, later, as it might relate to (of all things) spiritual awareness.  How do you get a guy operating at his mental best, optimumly able to learn and grow?  My early readings shed little light on this, as I found psychiatric and psychological treatises (which I originally assumed would be authoritative on the subject) to be almost silent on the subject, being preoccupied with mental morbidity.  "We can tell you what's wrong, but we won't say what it would look like if it were right."  Over the years, I collected a long list of definitions of sanity, some here:
> 
> Constantly evaluating one’s own behavior, and one’s own intentions, and the behavior of others, and the intentions of others, towards survival for all.
> 
> Concordance between the perceived/recorded and the actual.
> 
> Mental function which tends away from the body and toward the intent of God.
> 
> Mental function in harmony with natural physical instinct.
> 
> Living in the “now.”
> 
> The mental state resulting from the removal or resolution of conflicts caused by the discord between intellect and instinct.
> 
> Pure rationality, including the rejection of superstition such as religion.
> 
> The state of mind originally bestowed by God, broken by man, and capable of restoration through penance and faith.
> 
> The acknowledgment that there can be no complete joinder between the subjective and objective universes.
> 
> Mental self-possession and self-control, such that external influences are incapable of irreparably upsetting the balance.
> 
> Harmony with the Universal Mind.
> 
> The full realization and voluntary acceptance of one’s actual circumstances, and the accurate estimation of one’s power or lack of power to change them.
> 
> The acceptance of the world as it is, rather than as one would wish it to be, by dealing in rational assumptions, arguments and conclusions based in observable fact.
> 
> Total self-knowledge and self-acceptance
> 
> Positive behavior resulting from nurturing example and ideal biochemical balance.
> 
> Th irony of State of Kansas (petitioner) v.  Leroy Hendricks (respondent).  Hendricks was considered “sane” before trial and sentencing as a violent sexual predator on the grounds that he both fully apprehended that sexual predation was wrong, and that he was fully capable of understanding the charges against him and assisting in his own defense.  When his sentence expired, the state moved to re-incarcerate him in a mental institution this time on the grounds he was insane because he "suffers from a mental abnormality or personality disorder which makes the person likely to engage in predatory acts of sexual violence."  No one could argue that the guy was really sane, probably, or that they would want him for a next-door-neighbor - but how's that for a quandary in defining sanity?  Heh heh.
> 
> Anyway, since there seemed a lot of talk about what abnormal was, but no consensus on what normal was, I made up my own definition.  Does that answer your question?  (Told you you'd be sorry you asked.)
------
LinguisticS|981768142
14a15,16
> 
> SouthEastAsianLanguages
------
SouthEastAsianLanguages|981768221
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> CambodianLanguage -- LaotianLanguage -- ThaiLanguage -- VietnameseLanguage
------
ThomasHarperInce|981768350
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Harper Ince (American director)
> 
> Invented many mechanisms of professional movie production, like the usage of a detailed "shooting script", which also contained information on when who was in the scene, and the "scene plot" which listed all interiors and exteriors, cost control plans and so on. He helped create a standardized and mechanized mode of production. He also was one of the first who had a seperate writer, director and cutter (instead of doing evering himself).
> 
> His movies were mainly early Westerns, which were successful because of their beautiful images and their rhythm.
> 
> 1910: director at I.M.P.
> 
> 1911: Bison Life Motion pictures (merged with Universal 1912)
> 
> 1912: "Studio Inceville" and the Bison 101 movies (as projects for Bison Life Motion Pictures)
> 
> 
------
ThomasHarperInce|981768367
13d12
< 
------
FilmHistory|981768424
20c20,21
< *  ThomasHarperInce
---
> *  ThomasHarperInce
> *  MackSenett
------
FilmHistory|981768580
21c21
< *  MackSenett
---
> *  MackSennett
------
MackSennett|981768816
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, Laurel and Hardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
------
MackSennett|981768852
1c1
< Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, Laurel and Hardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
---
> Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone in 1912 together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, Laurel and Hardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
------
FilmHistory|981768932
21c21,25
< *  MackSennett
---
> *  MackSennett
> 
> Other important stuff:
> 
> *  MPPC
------
FilmHistory|981768955
25c25
< *  MPPC
---
> *  MppC
------
MppC|981769053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture patents company, also known as the Edison Trust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, Eastman Kodak.
------
MppC|981769078
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture patents company, also known as the Edison Trust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, Eastman Kodak.
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the Edison Trust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, Eastman Kodak.
------
BeeR|981769213
9a10
> Belgians proud themselves on having the richest beer culture. There are over threehundred kinds of beer among which Stella Artois, Alken Maes, Jupiler and Duvel are some of the most well known. It is also said that the Belgian beers are the best beers in the world. This, however, is mostly said by the Belgians themselves.
11a13,14
> 
> 
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981769604
19c19
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth?, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison. In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems. A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health. One may examine, for example, a liver. Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science. It can be x-rayed or biopsied. Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured. Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for. In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed. The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured. While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity. Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another. Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice. 
---
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison. In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems. A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health. One may examine, for example, a liver. Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science. It can be x-rayed or biopsied. Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured. Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for. In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed. The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured. While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity. Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another. Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice. 
21c21
< The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM). It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified. For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute." Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences. As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses. In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM. 
---
> The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association. It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified. For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute." Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences. As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses. In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM. 
------
AyeSpy|981770371
11c11
< He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.  He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness.
---
> He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.  He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness.  He practices the annoying habit of refusing to use the specialized terminololgy of these fields in the belief that it obscures more than it illuminates.  "if it can't be said in ordinary talk, nobody's gonna understand it, anyway!"  He is probably anti-authoritarian. 
166c166
< Anyway, since there seemed a lot of talk about what abnormal was, but no consensus on what normal was, I made up my own definition.  Does that answer your question?  (Told you you'd be sorry you asked.)
---
> Anyway, since there seemed a lot of talk about what abnormal was, but no consensus on what normal was, I made up my own definition.  Does that answer your question?  (Told you you'd be sorry you asked.)
------
CambodianLanguage|981771840
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Cambodian is somewhat unusual among its neighboring countries' languages of ThaiLanguage, LaotianLanguage and VietnameseLanguage in that it's not a TonalLanguage.
> 
> Cambodian descends from Sanskrit and Pali, and has much in 
> common with Thai and Laotian.
> 
> Accents are sometimes quite marked; notable accents are found
> in speakers from Phhom Penh (the capital city) and Battambong.
> 
> (This analysis comes from my observation as a conversant speaker of Cambodian without any background in linguistics).
> 
> A notable characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is a tendency
> toward slang and laziness in pronunciation, much like American urban slang.  For instance, "Phnom Penh" will sometimes be shortened to "m'Penh".  Another characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is observed in words with an "r" subconsonant in the first syllable (that is, where r is the second consonant, as in the Enlish word "bread").  The r is not pronounced, the first consonant is pronounced harder than usual, and the syllable is spoken with a dipping tone much like the "hoi" tone in the VietnameseLanguage.  For example, I have heard the word "dre" (meaning "fish") pronounced "te"; the "d" becomes a "t", and the vowel (long A) begins low and rises in tone.
> 
> Cambodian written language is alphabetic like English (and unlike
> Chinese).  Its alphabet consists is written in two separate parts; consonants and vowels.  Only pronunciation is given here, because I can't find a good way to display the characters, but the pronunciation is listed in the traditional form.
> 
> 
> Consonants
> 
> gaw kaw  go ko  ngo
> jaw chaw jo cho nyo
> daw taw  do to  naw
> Daw taw  Do to  no
> yo  ro   lo vo  saw
> haw law  aw
> 
> 
> Vowels
> 
> aa/Ea Ay/EE A/E ew/ew eww/eww
> OO/UU O/U 
> bleh... more some other time.
------
CambodianLanguage|981771866
1d0
< 
21,26c20,25
< gaw kaw  go ko  ngo
< jaw chaw jo cho nyo
< daw taw  do to  naw
< Daw taw  Do to  no
< yo  ro   lo vo  saw
< haw law  aw
---
>  gaw kaw  go ko  ngo
>  jaw chaw jo cho nyo
>  daw taw  do to  naw
>  Daw taw  Do to  no
>  yo  ro   lo vo  saw
>  haw law  aw
31,33c30,32
< aa/Ea Ay/EE A/E ew/ew eww/eww
< OO/UU O/U 
< bleh... more some other time.
---
>  aa/Ea Ay/EE A/E ew/ew eww/eww
>  OO/UU O/U 
>  bleh... more some other time.
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981780027
1c1
< Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Your author hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and poses the question:  could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
---
> The subject of this article is Bruce Hamilton's views on the problem of defining sanity.  (Probably, in our opinion, it should be moved to BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity.)  To write a review of what is known, from medical, psychological, and philosophical points of view about this topic, please see SanIty.
3,5c3
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, and other definitions, some of which have been developed from time to time in the interest of policital expediency (of which, more later).
<  
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions.  Sanity is also defined as being mentally "normal."  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, your author posits that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual. 
---
> Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Bruce Hamilton, who orginated this article, is a layman who has read some psychology books and who thinks he has this stuff figured out.  Bruce hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and pose this question: could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
7c5
< It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas. Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane. 
---
> "SanIty" is defined in ordinary dictionaries in such vague terms as the following: the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, etc.  Some such definitions have probably been advanced in the interest of political expediency (on which, more later).  Of course, we realize that ordinary dictionary definitions of difficult concepts such as sanity are far from adequate.  In fact, we aren't quite sure why we're quoting a dictionary at this juncture.
9c7,15
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but by and large, one sees testing for such criteria used more frequently in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. 
---
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." This etymology, which by itself means rather little, nonetheless would seem to imply that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions--at least insofar as there ''are'' any medical definitions of the term.  We're not too sure about that.
> 
> Sanity is also defined, by someone we are not willing to identify at this juncture, as being mentally "normal."  But enough about ''that'' definition.  Maybe it'll come up later in this article, maybe not.  We're not sure why we're mentioning it at this point.
> 
> Some people (again, we don't know who; maybe your Aunt Ethel) equate sanity with mental health.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, Bruce Hamilton posits that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual.  We'll put off exploring more historically and medically important conceptions of sanity until we have indulged Bruce--why not?  After all, Bruce's opinions on these subjects, about which medically-trained psychiatrists spend their entire lives, are very important.
> 
> Of course, to make sense of this thesis, we will have to explore in greater detail exactly what "clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning" means.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  Whether we will actually do these things remains to be seen.
> 
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but by and large, one sees testing for such criteria used more frequently in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  And, of course, no reputable psychologist holds that IntelliGence is by itself a good indicator of sanity; which might make one wonder why we're even considering the notion that IntelliGence is an indicator of sanity, but no matter.
45c51
< There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biological damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. At this writing, this school of thought enjoys majority support in the West.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Traditional Eastern philosophical and religious thought tend more in this direction.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy 
---
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biological damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. At this writing, this school of thought enjoys majority support in the West.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Traditional Eastern philosophical and religious thought tend more in this direction.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy, with tongue-in-cheek comments inserted by LarrySanger
------
SanityTalk|981781677
93a94,103
> ----
> Bruce, I'm not usually this much of an asshole, though ''some'' people know very well that I'm capable of it.  :-)  Your attitude, that your opinions on the subject are as important as psychiatric opinions (and thus should be put under titles such as "SanIty" and "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity"), touches on a strange pet peeve of mine.  I'm all for developing our own ideas.  I love trying to figure things out for myself, and I have no trouble being irreverent and disrespectful to the mainstream, when warranted.  In fact, insofar as I understand it, for what it's worth (''very'' little, of course), I think I largely agree with you.  But that doesn't matter.  My pet peeve is the attitude you take here: you are failing to do justice to what the zillions of brilliant psychiatrists who have written zillions of books on these subjects have said.  Now, if the stated subject of your article were BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity, then I'd have ''absolutely no problem whatsoever'' with your article, because you're the world's greatest expert on ''that.''
> 
> It would be a little like my trying to write a long, definitive-sounding article on, let's see...kayaking.  Why, I've been kayaking.  I have helped haul kayaks around the Prince William Sound.  I've met (in person!) a guy who wrote a book about kayaking in the Prince William Sound.  Suppose I were to say, in the article, "There is a problem with the way that people kayak.  They have their rowing patterns (or whatever) all wrong.  This article will explain why it's wrong."  Then I proceed to explain the better rowing pattern.  Suppose I were to put that article under the heading KayakinG.  ''Then'' suppose the aforementioned author of the book on kayaking, a ''very'' experienced kayaker and I believe definitely an expert on kayaking, were to read my article.  What would he think?  If he cared at all, he'd think: "Who the &*@# is the bozo who wrote this &@#%*, and why was ''he'' elected to write the article on this subject?  Why should ''anybody'' give a flyin' &@#^ about his opinions?"
> 
> You have '''every''' right to your opinion, and '''every''' right to express it on Nupedia.  But, in ''my'' opinion (just my opinion--but I think many would agree with me), you do not have the right to treat your opinion as anywhere near to being on a par with those of actual experts, which you do by the mere act of voicing your opinion in an article under the heading "Sanity" or "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity."  I don't care if you've read books and thought about it and are smart.  Doesn't matter.  You should put your article on "BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity" or "AyeSpyOnSanity" (that's catchy).  Then no one can fault you with wanting to promulgate ''your'' totally unqualified views as being on a par, as far as Wikipedia is concerned, with totally qualified views.  Jaysus, Bruce, don't you know that virtually every smart psychologist who has written on this topic has been over the conceptual ground you've covered?
> 
> I'm a trained epistemologist, and I could write a decent Nupedia article on epistemic circularity.  I have thought ''a lot'' about that subject at a very advanced level--I dare say that on the very narrow question of how to define 'epistemic circularity', I'm probably one of the few experts in the world.  Despite that, I wouldn't include my own theory (developed in my dissertation) in an encyclopedia article on this subject.  Why not?  Because it was developed by a flippin' ''graduate student,'' in his ''dissertation,'' ferchrissakes; my theory would be news to everyone except my dissertation committee.  You don't put ''new research'' and ''idiosyncratic opinion'' into encyclopedia articles, because encyclopedia articles are--''for better or worse''--summations of "what is known" about the topic in question.  I guess it's a damn shame that I'm not going to grace the world by publishing my dissertation or parts of my dissertation and put my opinions on epistemic circularity into the realm of "what is known" on the topic.  Until I do, for purposes of writing an encyclopedia article, it doesn't matter if I'm right, it doesn't matter if my theory blows all the others out of the water, etc.  That's not what encyclopedia articles are for.
> 
> -- LarrySanger, stepping off his soapbox finally, now fully intending to do something productive rather than critical for Wikipedia
------
SanityTalk|981782175
103c103,105
< -- LarrySanger, stepping off his soapbox finally, now fully intending to do something productive rather than critical for Wikipedia
---
> -- LarrySanger, stepping off his soapbox finally, now fully intending to do something productive rather than critical for Wikipedia
> 
> P.S. To be clear: I do '''not''' think that only if you're an expert on topic T should you write on topic T.  That's not my point at all.  My point is that you should not advance your own opinions on topic T as though they were particularly important--unless, of course, they ''are'' important.  By the way, LarrysText needs to be wikified in this respect, i.e., we need to remove my opinion-stating.  To provoke students, I sometimes stated my own opinions on the topics on which I was lecturing.  But I ''definitely'' don't think that my opinions should occur in encyclopedia articles on those same topics, because I'm not anything like an important philosopher.
------
AyeSpy|981782934
134c134
< Constantly evaluating one’s own behavior, and one’s own intentions, and the behavior of others, and the intentions of others, towards survival for all.
---
> Constantly evaluating one?s own behavior, and one?s own intentions, and the behavior of others, and the intentions of others, towards survival for all.
142c142
< Living in the “now.”
---
> Living in the ?now.?
156c156
< The full realization and voluntary acceptance of one’s actual circumstances, and the accurate estimation of one’s power or lack of power to change them.
---
> The full realization and voluntary acceptance of one?s actual circumstances, and the accurate estimation of one?s power or lack of power to change them.
164c164
< Th irony of State of Kansas (petitioner) v.  Leroy Hendricks (respondent).  Hendricks was considered “sane” before trial and sentencing as a violent sexual predator on the grounds that he both fully apprehended that sexual predation was wrong, and that he was fully capable of understanding the charges against him and assisting in his own defense.  When his sentence expired, the state moved to re-incarcerate him in a mental institution this time on the grounds he was insane because he "suffers from a mental abnormality or personality disorder which makes the person likely to engage in predatory acts of sexual violence."  No one could argue that the guy was really sane, probably, or that they would want him for a next-door-neighbor - but how's that for a quandary in defining sanity?  Heh heh.
---
> Th irony of State of Kansas (petitioner) v.  Leroy Hendricks (respondent).  Hendricks was considered ?sane? before trial and sentencing as a violent sexual predator on the grounds that he both fully apprehended that sexual predation was wrong, and that he was fully capable of understanding the charges against him and assisting in his own defense.  When his sentence expired, the state moved to re-incarcerate him in a mental institution this time on the grounds he was insane because he "suffers from a mental abnormality or personality disorder which makes the person likely to engage in predatory acts of sexual violence."  No one could argue that the guy was really sane, probably, or that they would want him for a next-door-neighbor - but how's that for a quandary in defining sanity?  Heh heh.
166a167,170
> 
> ----
> 
> Yes, it does. (Specially the last paragraphs). Thanks. --AstroNomer
------
SanityTalk|981782993
95c95
< Bruce, I'm not usually this much of an asshole, though ''some'' people know very well that I'm capable of it.  :-)  Your attitude, that your opinions on the subject are as important as psychiatric opinions (and thus should be put under titles such as "SanIty" and "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity"), touches on a strange pet peeve of mine.  I'm all for developing our own ideas.  I love trying to figure things out for myself, and I have no trouble being irreverent and disrespectful to the mainstream, when warranted.  In fact, insofar as I understand it, for what it's worth (''very'' little, of course), I think I largely agree with you.  But that doesn't matter.  My pet peeve is the attitude you take here: you are failing to do justice to what the zillions of brilliant psychiatrists who have written zillions of books on these subjects have said.  Now, if the stated subject of your article were BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity, then I'd have ''absolutely no problem whatsoever'' with your article, because you're the world's greatest expert on ''that.''
---
> Bruce, I'm not usually this much of an asshole, though ''some'' people know very well that I'm capable of it.  :-)  Your attitude, that your opinions on the subject are as important as psychiatric opinions (and thus should be put under titles such as "SanIty" and "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity"), illustrates a strange pet peeve of mine.  I'm all for developing our own ideas.  I love trying to figure things out for myself, and I have no trouble being irreverent and disrespectful to the mainstream, when warranted.  In fact, insofar as I understand it, for what it's worth (''very'' little, of course), I think I largely agree with you.  But that doesn't matter.  My pet peeve is taking a disrespectful, dismissive attitude toward the efforts of many brilliant people who are, by nearly all accounts, experts on the subject you discuss.  CrankS are pathetic, among other reasons, because they have this attitude.  And you're taking this attitude: you are failing to do justice to what the zillions of brilliant psychiatrists who have written zillions of books on these subjects have said.  Now, if the stated subject of your article were BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity, then I'd have ''absolutely no problem whatsoever'' with your article, because you're the world's greatest expert on ''that.''
97c97
< It would be a little like my trying to write a long, definitive-sounding article on, let's see...kayaking.  Why, I've been kayaking.  I have helped haul kayaks around the Prince William Sound.  I've met (in person!) a guy who wrote a book about kayaking in the Prince William Sound.  Suppose I were to say, in the article, "There is a problem with the way that people kayak.  They have their rowing patterns (or whatever) all wrong.  This article will explain why it's wrong."  Then I proceed to explain the better rowing pattern.  Suppose I were to put that article under the heading KayakinG.  ''Then'' suppose the aforementioned author of the book on kayaking, a ''very'' experienced kayaker and I believe definitely an expert on kayaking, were to read my article.  What would he think?  If he cared at all, he'd think: "Who the &*@# is the bozo who wrote this &@#%*, and why was ''he'' elected to write the article on this subject?  Why should ''anybody'' give a flyin' &@#^ about his opinions?"
---
> Let me try a different way of explaining.  Your article is a little like my trying to write a long, definitive-sounding article on, let's see...kayaking.  Why, I've been kayaking.  I have helped haul kayaks around the Prince William Sound.  I've met (in person!) a guy who wrote a book about kayaking in the Prince William Sound.  Suppose I were to say, in the article, "There is a problem with the way that people kayak.  They have their rowing patterns (or whatever) all wrong.  This article will explain why it's wrong."  Then I proceed to explain the better rowing pattern.  Maybe I'd do so very convincingly.  Now suppose I were to put that article in an encyclopedia under the heading KayakinG.  ''Then'' suppose the aforementioned author of the book on kayaking, a ''very'' experienced kayaker and I believe definitely an expert on kayaking, were to read my article.  What would he think?  If he cared at all, he'd think: "Who the &*@# is the bozo who wrote this &@#%*, and why was ''he'' elected to write the article summarizing what is known about this subject?  Why should ''anybody'' give a flyin' &@#^ about his opinions?"
99c99
< You have '''every''' right to your opinion, and '''every''' right to express it on Nupedia.  But, in ''my'' opinion (just my opinion--but I think many would agree with me), you do not have the right to treat your opinion as anywhere near to being on a par with those of actual experts, which you do by the mere act of voicing your opinion in an article under the heading "Sanity" or "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity."  I don't care if you've read books and thought about it and are smart.  Doesn't matter.  You should put your article on "BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity" or "AyeSpyOnSanity" (that's catchy).  Then no one can fault you with wanting to promulgate ''your'' totally unqualified views as being on a par, as far as Wikipedia is concerned, with totally qualified views.  Jaysus, Bruce, don't you know that virtually every smart psychologist who has written on this topic has been over the conceptual ground you've covered?
---
> You have '''every''' right to your opinion, and '''every''' right to express it on Wikipedia.  But, in ''my'' opinion (just my opinion--but I think many would agree with me), you do not have the right to treat your opinion as anywhere near to being on a par with those of actual experts; you do this by the ''mere'' act of voicing your opinion in an article under the heading "Sanity" or "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity."  Keep your opinions to yourself, if you want to write on ''those'' topics.  I don't care if you've read books and thought about it and are smart.  Doesn't matter.  You should put your article on "BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity" or "AyeSpyOnSanity" (that's catchy).  Then no one can fault you with wanting to promulgate ''your'' totally unqualified views as being on a par, as far as Wikipedia is concerned, with totally qualified views.  Jaysus, Bruce, don't you know that virtually every smart psychologist who has written on this topic has been over the conceptual ground you've covered?
101c101
< I'm a trained epistemologist, and I could write a decent Nupedia article on epistemic circularity.  I have thought ''a lot'' about that subject at a very advanced level--I dare say that on the very narrow question of how to define 'epistemic circularity', I'm probably one of the few experts in the world.  Despite that, I wouldn't include my own theory (developed in my dissertation) in an encyclopedia article on this subject.  Why not?  Because it was developed by a flippin' ''graduate student,'' in his ''dissertation,'' ferchrissakes; my theory would be news to everyone except my dissertation committee.  You don't put ''new research'' and ''idiosyncratic opinion'' into encyclopedia articles, because encyclopedia articles are--''for better or worse''--summations of "what is known" about the topic in question.  I guess it's a damn shame that I'm not going to grace the world by publishing my dissertation or parts of my dissertation and put my opinions on epistemic circularity into the realm of "what is known" on the topic.  Until I do, for purposes of writing an encyclopedia article, it doesn't matter if I'm right, it doesn't matter if my theory blows all the others out of the water, etc.  That's not what encyclopedia articles are for.
---
> I'm a trained epistemologist, and I could write a decent Nupedia article on epistemic circularity.  I have thought ''a lot'' about that subject at a very advanced level--I dare say that on the very narrow question of how to define 'epistemic circularity', I'm probably one of the few experts in the world.  Despite that, I wouldn't include my own theory (developed in my dissertation) in an encyclopedia article on this subject.  Why not?  Because it was developed by a flippin' ''graduate student,'' in his ''dissertation,'' ferchrissakes; my theory would be news to everyone except my dissertation committee.  You don't put ''new research'' and ''idiosyncratic opinion'' into encyclopedia articles, because encyclopedia articles are--''for better or worse''--summations of "what is known" about the topic in question.  I guess it's a damn shame that I'm not going to grace the world by publishing my dissertation or parts of my dissertation and thereby putting my opinions on epistemic circularity into the realm of "what is known" on the topic.  Until I do, for purposes of writing an encyclopedia article, it doesn't matter if I'm right, it doesn't matter if my theory blows all the others out of the water, etc.  Encyclopedia article shouldn't even mention it, until many experts or the public at large or ''somebody'' recognizes the work as important.
105c105
< P.S. To be clear: I do '''not''' think that only if you're an expert on topic T should you write on topic T.  That's not my point at all.  My point is that you should not advance your own opinions on topic T as though they were particularly important--unless, of course, they ''are'' important.  By the way, LarrysText needs to be wikified in this respect, i.e., we need to remove my opinion-stating.  To provoke students, I sometimes stated my own opinions on the topics on which I was lecturing.  But I ''definitely'' don't think that my opinions should occur in encyclopedia articles on those same topics, because I'm not anything like an important philosopher.
---
> P.S. To be clear: I do '''not''' think that only if you're an expert on topic T should you write on topic T.  That's not my point at all.  My point is that one should not advance one's own opinions on topic T as though they were particularly important--unless, of course, they ''are'' important.  By the way, one way in which LarrysText needs to be wikified is relevant here, i.e., we need to remove my opinion-stating.  To provoke students, I sometimes stated my own opinions on the topics on which I was lecturing.  (At least I was very clear that I was stating ''my own'' opinions when I did so.)  But I ''definitely'' don't think that my opinions should occur in encyclopedia articles on those same topics, because I'm not anything like an important philosopher.
------
SanityTalk|981783101
95d94
< Bruce, I'm not usually this much of an asshole, though ''some'' people know very well that I'm capable of it.  :-)  Your attitude, that your opinions on the subject are as important as psychiatric opinions (and thus should be put under titles such as "SanIty" and "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity"), illustrates a strange pet peeve of mine.  I'm all for developing our own ideas.  I love trying to figure things out for myself, and I have no trouble being irreverent and disrespectful to the mainstream, when warranted.  In fact, insofar as I understand it, for what it's worth (''very'' little, of course), I think I largely agree with you.  But that doesn't matter.  My pet peeve is taking a disrespectful, dismissive attitude toward the efforts of many brilliant people who are, by nearly all accounts, experts on the subject you discuss.  CrankS are pathetic, among other reasons, because they have this attitude.  And you're taking this attitude: you are failing to do justice to what the zillions of brilliant psychiatrists who have written zillions of books on these subjects have said.  Now, if the stated subject of your article were BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity, then I'd have ''absolutely no problem whatsoever'' with your article, because you're the world's greatest expert on ''that.''
97,105d95
< Let me try a different way of explaining.  Your article is a little like my trying to write a long, definitive-sounding article on, let's see...kayaking.  Why, I've been kayaking.  I have helped haul kayaks around the Prince William Sound.  I've met (in person!) a guy who wrote a book about kayaking in the Prince William Sound.  Suppose I were to say, in the article, "There is a problem with the way that people kayak.  They have their rowing patterns (or whatever) all wrong.  This article will explain why it's wrong."  Then I proceed to explain the better rowing pattern.  Maybe I'd do so very convincingly.  Now suppose I were to put that article in an encyclopedia under the heading KayakinG.  ''Then'' suppose the aforementioned author of the book on kayaking, a ''very'' experienced kayaker and I believe definitely an expert on kayaking, were to read my article.  What would he think?  If he cared at all, he'd think: "Who the &*@# is the bozo who wrote this &@#%*, and why was ''he'' elected to write the article summarizing what is known about this subject?  Why should ''anybody'' give a flyin' &@#^ about his opinions?"
< 
< You have '''every''' right to your opinion, and '''every''' right to express it on Wikipedia.  But, in ''my'' opinion (just my opinion--but I think many would agree with me), you do not have the right to treat your opinion as anywhere near to being on a par with those of actual experts; you do this by the ''mere'' act of voicing your opinion in an article under the heading "Sanity" or "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity."  Keep your opinions to yourself, if you want to write on ''those'' topics.  I don't care if you've read books and thought about it and are smart.  Doesn't matter.  You should put your article on "BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity" or "AyeSpyOnSanity" (that's catchy).  Then no one can fault you with wanting to promulgate ''your'' totally unqualified views as being on a par, as far as Wikipedia is concerned, with totally qualified views.  Jaysus, Bruce, don't you know that virtually every smart psychologist who has written on this topic has been over the conceptual ground you've covered?
< 
< I'm a trained epistemologist, and I could write a decent Nupedia article on epistemic circularity.  I have thought ''a lot'' about that subject at a very advanced level--I dare say that on the very narrow question of how to define 'epistemic circularity', I'm probably one of the few experts in the world.  Despite that, I wouldn't include my own theory (developed in my dissertation) in an encyclopedia article on this subject.  Why not?  Because it was developed by a flippin' ''graduate student,'' in his ''dissertation,'' ferchrissakes; my theory would be news to everyone except my dissertation committee.  You don't put ''new research'' and ''idiosyncratic opinion'' into encyclopedia articles, because encyclopedia articles are--''for better or worse''--summations of "what is known" about the topic in question.  I guess it's a damn shame that I'm not going to grace the world by publishing my dissertation or parts of my dissertation and thereby putting my opinions on epistemic circularity into the realm of "what is known" on the topic.  Until I do, for purposes of writing an encyclopedia article, it doesn't matter if I'm right, it doesn't matter if my theory blows all the others out of the water, etc.  Encyclopedia article shouldn't even mention it, until many experts or the public at large or ''somebody'' recognizes the work as important.
< 
< -- LarrySanger, stepping off his soapbox finally, now fully intending to do something productive rather than critical for Wikipedia
< 
< P.S. To be clear: I do '''not''' think that only if you're an expert on topic T should you write on topic T.  That's not my point at all.  My point is that one should not advance one's own opinions on topic T as though they were particularly important--unless, of course, they ''are'' important.  By the way, one way in which LarrysText needs to be wikified is relevant here, i.e., we need to remove my opinion-stating.  To provoke students, I sometimes stated my own opinions on the topics on which I was lecturing.  (At least I was very clear that I was stating ''my own'' opinions when I did so.)  But I ''definitely'' don't think that my opinions should occur in encyclopedia articles on those same topics, because I'm not anything like an important philosopher.
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981783409
1c1
< The subject of this article is Bruce Hamilton's views on the problem of defining sanity.  (Probably, in our opinion, it should be moved to BruceHamiltonOnDefiningSanity.)  To write a review of what is known, from medical, psychological, and philosophical points of view about this topic, please see SanIty.
---
> Clinical Psychologist, Dr. Peter Cotton: "... most mainstream clinical psychology, I think you'd find, is dominated by the view that the absence of symptoms equals health. But if pressed to give a positive definition of health, most clinicians I think would have difficulty. Traditionally from Freud onwards psychotherapy and psychological systems have tended to view the world through the lens of psychopathology, so they've typically had fairly negative definitions." (followed by an hour of wrangling with three other scholars in an effort to define sanity - which event never comes to pass)
3,54c3
< Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Bruce Hamilton, who orginated this article, is a layman who has read some psychology books and who thinks he has this stuff figured out.  Bruce hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and pose this question: could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
< 
< "SanIty" is defined in ordinary dictionaries in such vague terms as the following: the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, etc.  Some such definitions have probably been advanced in the interest of political expediency (on which, more later).  Of course, we realize that ordinary dictionary definitions of difficult concepts such as sanity are far from adequate.  In fact, we aren't quite sure why we're quoting a dictionary at this juncture.
< 
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." This etymology, which by itself means rather little, nonetheless would seem to imply that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions--at least insofar as there ''are'' any medical definitions of the term.  We're not too sure about that.
< 
< Sanity is also defined, by someone we are not willing to identify at this juncture, as being mentally "normal."  But enough about ''that'' definition.  Maybe it'll come up later in this article, maybe not.  We're not sure why we're mentioning it at this point.
< 
< Some people (again, we don't know who; maybe your Aunt Ethel) equate sanity with mental health.  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, Bruce Hamilton posits that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual.  We'll put off exploring more historically and medically important conceptions of sanity until we have indulged Bruce--why not?  After all, Bruce's opinions on these subjects, about which medically-trained psychiatrists spend their entire lives, are very important.
< 
< Of course, to make sense of this thesis, we will have to explore in greater detail exactly what "clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning" means.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  Whether we will actually do these things remains to be seen.
< 
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but by and large, one sees testing for such criteria used more frequently in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  And, of course, no reputable psychologist holds that IntelliGence is by itself a good indicator of sanity; which might make one wonder why we're even considering the notion that IntelliGence is an indicator of sanity, but no matter.
< 
< An instance of a broadly accepted test in English speaking areas of the world which is thought to address issues of mental and emotional health would be the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).  This test has no right or wrong answers, and the evaluee is advised of this fact.  He answers dozens of questions about how he feels and thinks regarding certain issues, and the way in which his answers relate to each other and pre-determined baseline critera determines whether the person adminstering or evaluating the test finds his attitudes more or less healthy in given areas.  If his environmental factors include the recent loss of a loved one and various of his answers reveal a depressed mood, the evaluator may declare this "appropriate."  Labels such as "normal" or "abnormal" with regard to test results are avoided.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, and how "accuracy" is defined, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
< 
< The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used by ordinary people as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others. These criteria are frequently examined by courts in commitment proceedings, determination of fitness to stand trial, hearings on competency and other such undertakings.  More recently, especially in medically related fields, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.  One sees diagnoses based on subjective mood, and drugs advertised to improve outlook.   
< 
< Criteria other than accuracy of function have been also employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria. In some contexts, societal norms loom large. For example, in WesternCivilization?, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting. Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia? - a serious mental disorder. In many regions of the ThirdWorld?, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience. One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man. 
< 
< The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is that a person's mentality is "normal."  A search of the meaning of "normal" leads us to a definition by exclusion - that is, absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder. The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." Conversely, when one displays an apparent symptom or limitation for which no physiological cause is indicated, doctors refer to the problem as "functional."  That is, it is not related to a physical problem, but rather a mental one.  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
< 
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison. In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems. A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health. One may examine, for example, a liver. Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science. It can be x-rayed or biopsied. Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured. Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for. In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed. The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured. While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity. Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another. Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice. 
< 
< The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association. It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified. For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute." Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences. As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses. In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM. 
< 
< In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity. Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science. 
< 
< And defining sane behavior must always be done, at least in part, in the context of the subject's culture. If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
< 
< In recent times, more recognition has been given to the concept of sanity as a subjective manifestation, evidenced by mental quietude, peace of mind, and resiliancy - an ability to survive the vicissitudes of life without such mental discomfort that one's ability to function is impaired. 
< 
< In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity. Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong." This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in widely scattered juristictions internationally in an effort to establish standards which will punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law. 
< 
< Defenses based on various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been offered by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all. Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice. 
< 
< Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state. The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive. The working definition for sanity in such cases, usually implicit rather than explicit, would seem to be, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think."  The argument supporting such a definition of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this: "The state functions for the good of the people. Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies. Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state. Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement." As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that a deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid. Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression. Thus sanity by political definition may be restored. 
< 
< Political definitions of sanity have not been confined to openly authoritarian governments. In otherwise putatively democratice countries which have a history of democratic elections and peaceful transfer of power, state-sanctioned and state-funded mental treatement has been imposed upon political dissidents and upon members of racial and ethnic minorities whose activities and efforts to achieve equal treatment and equal rights to those enjoyed by favored elements of these societies have been felt to be a threat to civil order or state security. 
< 
< Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity grounds observed by others rather than experienced by self. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of "sanity," as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
< 
< "Doctor, I'm depressed," is a complaint of relatively recent origin.  In pre-Freudian times, an individual may have been "sad," "morose," "maudlin," or "pessimistic," even afflicted with "despair" to the point of suicide.  This would not have been viewed as a mental disorder, nor occasion for a diagnosis or treatment.  It would have been perceived that the person needed cheering up, or that he was responding appropriately to some event or condition of his life which cried out for remedy, or that he was constitutionally incapable of being cheerful - much after the manner that one might be short, or bald.  Modernly, radio, television and popular periodicals carry messages from doctors and drug companies that being too sad may be a sign of clinical depression, and that one ought to seek treatment or drugs.  Hence, "Doctor, I'm depressed."  Whether the older or more modern view is more appropriate is the subject of ongoing debate between professionals in the field.
< 
< A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case against the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of life and his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on self and others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields does not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function is incidental, minor or infrequent, and proper function is predominant. Add to this the element that proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, (as in that the person can experience and express emotions without being victimized by them) and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.  This is still a very long definition, but it seems to satisfy the requirements of almost every context.
< 
< The words "unnecessary friction or harm" probably cannot be omitted, but they are the weakest point of the proposed definition.  What is seen as necessary by one may be seen as wholly unnecessary and undesirable by another.  The case of the political dissident is such an example.  He sees his friction with the society around him as entirely necessary, for it is his position that the society must be altered for the good of all.  That same society, in preserving its continued existence, views such a position as deviant and dangerous, and is likely to exert pressure to eliminate it.
< 
< There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biological damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. At this writing, this school of thought enjoys majority support in the West.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Traditional Eastern philosophical and religious thought tend more in this direction.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy, with tongue-in-cheek comments inserted by LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< See also SanityTalk. 
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> Larry's point is made
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AyeSpy|981783596
1d0
< AyeSpy has no college degree, and has not attended an accredited InstituteOfHigherLearning.  He declares that his ramblings should not be regarded as authoritative or mainstream, but rather the IdiosyncratiC, (though hopefully well-considered) views of one looking from the outside in.
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< AyeSpy has over 3900 classroom and field hours in investigative and intelligence training - including classes in ethics, human behavior and psychology, methods of managing interpersonal interaction; the equivalent of more than a master's degree in his field.  He has 21 years as a private investigator for law firms.
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< He writes science fiction.
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< He has worked professionally in over 30 different fields, from horse husbandry, auto mechanics and home construction to photography, marketing, personnel management and counseling.
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< He is a vocalist, guitarist, and song writer.
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< He has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion.  He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness.  He practices the annoying habit of refusing to use the specialized terminololgy of these fields in the belief that it obscures more than it illuminates.  "if it can't be said in ordinary talk, nobody's gonna understand it, anyway!"  He is probably anti-authoritarian. 
< 
< What on earth does AyeSpy do with himself all day?
< 
< AyeSpy as Investigator - Job Duties:
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< Photos/videography/diagraming of accident scenes, plaintiff and defendant vehicles, client injuries, scars, disfigurement, disabilities.
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< Photos/videography of Photos or micro-photography of physical evidence and of purportedly defective products, food adulteration, etc.
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< Obtaining of photos or video taken by others and analysis of same.  Includes: Police, coroner, private security officers and/or investigators, adjusters, aerial photos
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< Inspect vehicles for evidence of impact force, accident causation reasons, crashworthiness, mechanisms of injury causation.  Supervise vehicle tear-down for these purposes.
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< Secure, preserve and regulate access to accident vehicles as appropriate 
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< Obtain, Inspect, analyze, and preserve physical evidence and purportedly defective products of all kinds in order to determine facts and liability.  For instance:  failed ladders, chairs, tires, mechanical car parts, stair elements, stoves, electrical parts, lights, ropes, cable and webbing, hinges, frames, stands, glass items, clothing, hand tools, power tools, fuel systems and tanks, bikes, motorcycles, medical appliances, springs, tensioners, latches, valves, etc.
< 	
< Investigation to determine the manufacturers and distributors of products when not clearly stated on same
< 
< Obtaining of exemplar products for comparison and testing
< 	
< Inspection and analysis of premises (including plumbing, wiring, framing, glazing, roofing, masonry, stairs, floors, railings, drywall) in order to determine code compliance and to determine accident causation facts and liability.  
< 
< Premises illumination analysis
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< Investigation and analysis of job safety factors and plant operation to determine when ordinary negligence is exceeded or third party liability enters in.
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< Locate and interview witnesses, record witness statements. 
< 
< Sitting in on (to observe and regulate) recorded statements of clients by insurance reps
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< Analysis of potential toxic exposure and causes for environmental illness
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< Analysis of compliance or lack thereof with safe animal restraint and handling practices
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< Investigation of compliance with Federal Motor Vehicle Safety laws
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< Inspection and analysis of roadways, traffic control elements, traffic control plans for safety, compliance with laws and codes, visibility, etc. to determine possible contribution to accident causation.
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< Accident reconstruction from physical evidence and witness accounts including:  vehicle movement, speed from skid, speed from crush, speed from roll, vehicle attitude, occupant impact, elapsed time between events, avoidance factors, braking performance, visibility and vehicle illumination, use or non-use of restraint, etc.
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< Obtaining of outside reports from police, coroner, other jurisdictions, etc.
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< Videotape scenes, client activities, defendant activities, statements, other evidence
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< Obtain police and television and other public-source videos
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< Video copying and editing
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< Find and hire consulting and testifying experts in all fields and liaison with same.
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< Unsnarl difficult property damage issues and P/D value disputes
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< Investigate to locate insurance and analyze insurance exposure under case facts
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< Evaluate questionable incoming cases as to worth and sufficiency.
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< Locate missing persons including defendants, witnesses and clients.
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< Identify and locate defendants and their agents for purposes of service and correctly naming in complaint
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< Attend and record salient facts of plaintiff and defendant traffic trials.  Prepare plaintiff for traffic trial.
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< Police, fire, coroner, prosecutor liaison to assist prosecution and conviction of defendants
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< Review of medical and coroner records to determine causation of injury or death.  Liaison with  coroner to get erroneous causation corrected on official report
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< Back-up prospective case interviewing
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< Prospective case interviewing in hospital or home setting
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< Rapid service of process on friendly witnesses
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< Surveillance
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< Public records research to determine history of accident site, and identities and zones of responsibility of potential defendants
< 
< Defendant asset and criminal and civil record searches - background investigation for credibility purposes
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< Legal research and statutory and case citation to assist attorney in case analysis
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< Writing of some pleadings in state and federal court.
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< Determination of relevant discovery issues as requested
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< Assisting clients in response to discovery if necessary
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< American Trial Lawyers Association research of current and past similar cases against same or similar defendant or product
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< Premises security plan and execution analysis
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< Area crime trend analysis
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< Travel as necessary to conduct any and all of above out of town and/or out of state.
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< Represent firm to other firms, public agencies, witnesses and to potential clients in the most capable and professional light possible
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< To see the list of fields in which AyeSpy has earned $$, look at the AyeSpyList.  Included under separate heading are activities pursued out of necessity or for pleasure, but without remuneration...
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< Bruce, I think you underestimate the value of SeriousScholarship. -- LarrySanger
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< ''Au Contraire, mon ami''.  I esteem it highly.  Why do you think I added the warning to readers that I have no degree and no college education?  I don't want anyone to place undue reliance on my musings.  I only wish I'd had the opportunity to pursue it in my youth.  I am frustrated when I lack time and resources to pursue any given line of enquiry to its absolute conclusion, either academically or in life.  I have been repeatedly encouraged by professionals to pursue a professional degree, even at this late stage in my life.  Economic realities have prevented it, however.  My family would starve.  One of my great points of pride as a parent has been paving the way for my kids, the eldest of whom enrolls in her post-grad program in the fall, the youngest of whom is already positioned to out-earn me in the field of IT.  
< 
< On the other hand, it has been my experience that SeriousScholars, highly valuing (and justly so) the effort with which they exhausted themselves to come by knowledge hard-won, tend to jealously guard the status which the successful completion of their studies confers.  As such, they tend to be reluctant to acknowledge that the observations of those "uneducated" persons around them, sans-degree, might have validity - exceeding even, at times, the validity of those by the expert. 
< 
< I have thought up, composed, and written pleadings which, filed with the court and considered ''in camera'' without oral argument, defeated the motions or counter-motions of experienced lawyers.  I have averted courtroom defeats by catching factual or legal errors in pleadings before they were filed.  I have brought to the attention of engineers errors in their observations, assumptions or calculations which invalidated their conclusions.  I have brought medical technical data to the attention of medical examiners, with the result that they corrected an erroneous finding on cause of death.  I have found results in patient medical testing, and material in medical texts, which proved malpractice.  Did you know that a "right bundle branch block" finding on an ECG is a differential for diagnosing pulmonary embolism (instead of, say, gastritis) and that failure to immediately start a prophylactic course of of anticoagulants could kill the patient?  I know of at least two emergency docs who either overlooked or forgot that fact, in spite of 10 years of SeriousScholarship.
< 
< I deal on a daily basis with experts of all kinds, their contributions to legal cases, and am regularly confronted with the fact that their pursuit of SeriousScholarship gives them an ability which I will never possess to a) analyze, interpret and form accurate conclusions from technical data and b) testify to same in court.  Hell, I can't even testify to my own investigative results, because I work for the firm.  So, I hire, brief, and manage experts of every stripe.  I could not live without them.  But some of those experts whom the firm winds up using on a regular basis have developed a habit of having me vet their reports before finalizing them.  They value that little extra insurance against being caught with their pants down.  In 21 years of very active trial practice, this 11-lawyer firm is undefeated at trial.  That record is unmatched in this state.  (They'll get us sooner or later, I'm sure.  But not yet.)
< 
< So, from the viewpoint of a total generalist, I tend to correlate data from diverse fields, test various hypotheses, and come up with what I, in my vanity and arrogance, sometimes think of as insights that others might find interesting.  This is not to say that the professionals in these fields are not better informed than I.  Within the confines of their field, they doubtless are.  I hope that my occasional irreverance for convention does not leave readers with the feeling that I do not respect SeriousScholarship.  Nothing could be farther from the truth.
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< I stand corrected! -- LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< 
< May I ask why so interested in the subject of (in)sanity? -- AstroNomer
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< 
< Sure!  (you may regret having asked this one) as above, (AyeSpy)"...has made a lifelong study of education technology as well as philosophy and comparative religion. He has an interest in quantum physics, and the concept referred to as Quantum Consciousness."  This interest was born when I was 8 or before, when I made up my mind to become the best teacher ever.  That dream faded somewhere along the way, but the fascination with learning never did.
< 
< A corollary to this interest was an absorbing interest in optimum mental function, especially, later, as it might relate to (of all things) spiritual awareness.  How do you get a guy operating at his mental best, optimumly able to learn and grow?  My early readings shed little light on this, as I found psychiatric and psychological treatises (which I originally assumed would be authoritative on the subject) to be almost silent on the subject, being preoccupied with mental morbidity.  "We can tell you what's wrong, but we won't say what it would look like if it were right."  Over the years, I collected a long list of definitions of sanity, some here:
< 
< Constantly evaluating one?s own behavior, and one?s own intentions, and the behavior of others, and the intentions of others, towards survival for all.
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< Concordance between the perceived/recorded and the actual.
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< Mental function which tends away from the body and toward the intent of God.
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< Mental function in harmony with natural physical instinct.
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< Living in the ?now.?
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< The mental state resulting from the removal or resolution of conflicts caused by the discord between intellect and instinct.
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< Pure rationality, including the rejection of superstition such as religion.
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< The state of mind originally bestowed by God, broken by man, and capable of restoration through penance and faith.
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< The acknowledgment that there can be no complete joinder between the subjective and objective universes.
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< Mental self-possession and self-control, such that external influences are incapable of irreparably upsetting the balance.
< 
< Harmony with the Universal Mind.
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< The full realization and voluntary acceptance of one?s actual circumstances, and the accurate estimation of one?s power or lack of power to change them.
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< The acceptance of the world as it is, rather than as one would wish it to be, by dealing in rational assumptions, arguments and conclusions based in observable fact.
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< Total self-knowledge and self-acceptance
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< Positive behavior resulting from nurturing example and ideal biochemical balance.
< 
< Th irony of State of Kansas (petitioner) v.  Leroy Hendricks (respondent).  Hendricks was considered ?sane? before trial and sentencing as a violent sexual predator on the grounds that he both fully apprehended that sexual predation was wrong, and that he was fully capable of understanding the charges against him and assisting in his own defense.  When his sentence expired, the state moved to re-incarcerate him in a mental institution this time on the grounds he was insane because he "suffers from a mental abnormality or personality disorder which makes the person likely to engage in predatory acts of sexual violence."  No one could argue that the guy was really sane, probably, or that they would want him for a next-door-neighbor - but how's that for a quandary in defining sanity?  Heh heh.
< 
< Anyway, since there seemed a lot of talk about what abnormal was, but no consensus on what normal was, I made up my own definition.  Does that answer your question?  (Told you you'd be sorry you asked.)
< 
< ----
< 
< Yes, it does. (Specially the last paragraphs). Thanks. --AstroNomer
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TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981784136
1,3c1
< Clinical Psychologist, Dr. Peter Cotton: "... most mainstream clinical psychology, I think you'd find, is dominated by the view that the absence of symptoms equals health. But if pressed to give a positive definition of health, most clinicians I think would have difficulty. Traditionally from Freud onwards psychotherapy and psychological systems have tended to view the world through the lens of psychopathology, so they've typically had fairly negative definitions." (followed by an hour of wrangling with three other scholars in an effort to define sanity - which event never comes to pass)
< 
< Larry's point is made
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> 
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TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981784322
1c1,3
< 
---
> Clinical Psychologist, Dr. Peter Cotton: "... most mainstream clinical psychology, I think you'd find, is dominated by the view that the absence of symptoms equals health. But if pressed to give a positive definition of health, most clinicians I think would have difficulty. Traditionally from Freud onwards psychotherapy and psychological systems have tended to view the world through the lens of psychopathology, so they've typically had fairly negative definitions." (followed by an hour of wrangling with three other scholars in an effort to define sanity - which event never comes to pass)
> 
> Larry's point is made.
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SanityTalk|981787321
95c95
< 
---
> Hey Bruce, you didn't have to take down your article.  You should post it under a different title (how about: AyeSpy/OnSanity); it's still of interest to some people, I'm sure.  It was far from useless or idiotic.  You know, my point ''wasn't'' that your article is wrong, badly-written, or of little value!  My point was only that it isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity.  The works of Sigmund Freud don't constitute an encyclopedia article about sanity, either.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
NamingConventions|981794623
76a77,79
> 
> Sounds great, Cliff.  Cheers, mate.  --KlausSeistrup
> 
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981805010
6a7,8
> Topics will follow the format of 
> 
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981805330
7c7
< Topics will follow the format of 
---
> Topics will follow the format of definition of the title, what can go wrong, the ideal situation, how to do the test, and what can be wrong if the test is not good.
------
TestingMotorCoilResistance|981821484
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A three-phase induction motor has internal coil windings.
> 
> These windings must remain the correct value for the motor size and coil configuration, and they must remain the same value as one another.
> 
> Typical values are six ohms between all phases.
> 
> In a typical three phase induction motor circuit, an appropriate place to test is at the load side of the direct-on-line motor starter.
> 
> Figure 1 
> 
>  
>        O  O  O
>         /  /  /
>        /  /  /
>        O  O  O
>        A  B  C
> 
> Tests should be made between A and B, A and C, and B and C.
> 
------
TestingEarthFaultResistance|981822356
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A three-phase induction motor has conductors which are insulated to withstand the full rated supply voltage.
> 
> This insulation may break down so that the insulation resistance falls below certain values.
> 
> The conductors must have an insulation resistance of greater than one hundred kilohms to function at all, and greater than one megohm ideally.
> 
> In a typical three phase induction motor circuit, an appropriate place to test is at the load side of the direct-on-line motor
> starter. 
> 
> Figure 1 
> 
>        O  O  O
>         /  /  /
>        /  /  /
>        O  O  O
>        A  B  C         Earth
> 
> If the motor system has satisfactory "MotorCoilResistance", the test should be made between A, B, or C and Earth.
------
SanityTalk|981826384
95c95,97
< Hey Bruce, you didn't have to take down your article.  You should post it under a different title (how about: AyeSpy/OnSanity); it's still of interest to some people, I'm sure.  It was far from useless or idiotic.  You know, my point ''wasn't'' that your article is wrong, badly-written, or of little value!  My point was only that it isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity.  The works of Sigmund Freud don't constitute an encyclopedia article about sanity, either.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> Hey Bruce, you didn't have to take down your article.  You should post it under a different title (how about: AyeSpy/OnSanity); it's still of interest to some people, I'm sure.  It was far from useless or idiotic.  You know, my point ''wasn't'' that your article is wrong, badly-written, or of little value!  My point was only that it isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity.  The works of Sigmund Freud don't constitute an encyclopedia article about sanity, either.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> ----
> No kidding.  In the entire body of his work, he nibbled around the edges, but never bothered to define it.  My hide may not be as thick as I imagined.  I am weighing whether the considerable distraction WikiPedia has been to me is worth it to me or anyone.  I seem to have lost my sense of humor on the issue.  Give me a bit to think it out...
------
MppC|981829237
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the Edison Trust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, Eastman Kodak.
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak.
------
ElectricalEngineering|981832495
0a1,6
> Electrical Engineering may be defined as the practical application of electrical technology.  Electrical engineers
> develop, construct and test all manner of devices, from common household appliances (microwave ovens, etc.) to high tech medical imaging devices (MRI, etc.)
> 
> We have some information about specific aspects of Electrical
> Engineering, as follows, but I'm not sure what it means.  --JimboWales
> 
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981832600
2a3,4
> ''Question from Jimbo: Perhaps we should have a more general article about different kinds of induction motors and their uses?  This information, while certainly interesting, is baffling to me, as a non-electrical engineer.  If I am being silly, please just delete this note and go on about your business.  :-)''
> 
------
SanityTalk|981833040
97c97,99
< No kidding.  In the entire body of his work, he nibbled around the edges, but never bothered to define it.  My hide may not be as thick as I imagined.  I am weighing whether the considerable distraction WikiPedia has been to me is worth it to me or anyone.  I seem to have lost my sense of humor on the issue.  Give me a bit to think it out...
---
> No kidding.  In the entire body of his work, he nibbled around the edges, but never bothered to define it.  My hide may not be as thick as I imagined.  I am weighing whether the considerable distraction WikiPedia has been to me is worth it to me or anyone.  I seem to have lost my sense of humor on the issue.  Give me a bit to think it out...
> ----
> I was too harsh, Bruce, needlessly so.  I'm sorry about that.  I'm not kidding that you irritated a big pet peeve of mine, which might explain the reaction.  My other PetPeeves include tailgaters, wife-beaters, people who don't take responsibility for their children, ''any'' manner of bias in news reporting, crankishness of all sorts, calling stuff "art" just in order to try to stretch the definition of "art," self-righteous and unrepentant dishonesty, people who insist that I ought to do X whenever I strongly disagree, bad attempts (meaning, ''most'') at achieving musical style "fusions," and probably a few other things--including biased encyclopedia articles (which is not unlike biased news reporting).  My reactions to these things is, in most cases, all out of proportion to the seriousness of the actual infraction.  So, you see.  I am sorry.  I will make an effort to restrain myself in the future. -- LarrySanger
------
AnnaKournikova|981833363
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA.
> 
> Kournikova's first GrandSlam title came in 1999 at the AustralianOpen in the Womens Doubles event with partner MartinaHingis.  Kournikova and Hingis have frequently played as doubles partners.
> 
> Kournikova is perhaps the best known player among people who are not fans of tennis, and she is perhaps more famous for her beauty than for her tennis skills.
------
AnnaKournikova|981833929
1c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
5c5
< Kournikova is perhaps the best known player among people who are not fans of tennis, and she is perhaps more famous for her beauty than for her tennis skills.
---
> Kournikova is perhaps the best known player among people who are not fans of tennis, and she is perhaps more famous for her beauty than for her tennis skills.  She was named one of PeopleMagazine's 50 most beautiful people in 1998, and she had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film MyMyselfAndIrene, starring JimCarrey.
------
MacroeconomicS|981842967
3c3
< Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the GreatDepression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, and full employment.
---
> Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the GreatDepression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a favourable balance of payments.
------
SanityTalk|981843275
99c99,103
< I was too harsh, Bruce, needlessly so.  I'm sorry about that.  I'm not kidding that you irritated a big pet peeve of mine, which might explain the reaction.  My other PetPeeves include tailgaters, wife-beaters, people who don't take responsibility for their children, ''any'' manner of bias in news reporting, crankishness of all sorts, calling stuff "art" just in order to try to stretch the definition of "art," self-righteous and unrepentant dishonesty, people who insist that I ought to do X whenever I strongly disagree, bad attempts (meaning, ''most'') at achieving musical style "fusions," and probably a few other things--including biased encyclopedia articles (which is not unlike biased news reporting).  My reactions to these things is, in most cases, all out of proportion to the seriousness of the actual infraction.  So, you see.  I am sorry.  I will make an effort to restrain myself in the future. -- LarrySanger
---
> I was too harsh, Bruce, needlessly so.  I'm sorry about that.  I'm not kidding that you irritated a big pet peeve of mine, which might explain the reaction.  My other PetPeeves include tailgaters, wife-beaters, people who don't take responsibility for their children, ''any'' manner of bias in news reporting, crankishness of all sorts, calling stuff "art" just in order to try to stretch the definition of "art," self-righteous and unrepentant dishonesty, people who insist that I ought to do X whenever I strongly disagree, bad attempts (meaning, ''most'') at achieving musical style "fusions," and probably a few other things--including biased encyclopedia articles (which is not unlike biased news reporting).  My reactions to these things is, in most cases, all out of proportion to the seriousness of the actual infraction.  So, you see.  I am sorry.  I will make an effort to restrain myself in the future. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> We all have our pet peeves.  With age, we hope to become temperate.  How old are you, Larry?  30?  33?  New PhD, right?  I may not have mentioned that I have been reading philosophy and psychology for just over 33 years.  My most concentrated bout of study in the field was 13 1/2 hours a day, six days a week, from April 1976 to April 1979.  I have not "dabbled" in this field.
> 
> On another note, I ask anyone here if they can help me turn up an encyclopedia article entitled "sanity" published by anyone, anywhere.  I will even take an old one, if anyone can find it.
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981843373
3a4,5
> ----
> If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even and old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same.
------
SanIty|981843485
2a3,4
> ----
> If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even and old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same. 
------
SanityTalk|981845323
103c103,107
< On another note, I ask anyone here if they can help me turn up an encyclopedia article entitled "sanity" published by anyone, anywhere.  I will even take an old one, if anyone can find it.
---
> On another note, I ask anyone here if they can help me turn up an encyclopedia article entitled "sanity" published by anyone, anywhere.  I will even take an old one, if anyone can find it.
> ----
> I suggest we just stop and delete this entire exchange.  I very much regret that I replied rudely and in such detail.
> 
> -- LarrySanger
------
AmericA|981846359
0a1,2
> The word is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
> 
7c9
< In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
---
> In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
------
AmericA|981846382
1c1
< The word is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
---
> The word AmericA is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
------
SanityTalk|981849080
1,107c1
< You people are driving me crazy!  *wink*  Just kidding.  I couldn't resist.  Keep talking... --JimboWales
< ----
< 
< This article is actually better regarded as being about insanity, a topic about which many reams have been written.  Examples of encyclopedia articles about this topic for your reference: [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,118185+1+109830,00.html?query=insanity mental disorder] -- [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/5/0,5716,43445+1+42488,00.html?query=insanity insanity (topic in the law)] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761573719 mental health] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?z=1&pg=2&ti=761553774 insanity (topic in the law)]
< 
< ""SanIty" is variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as you ought to believe and think, according to me," and any number of other definitions which users find expedient."  Is this even true, or are you only speculating: who defines the term this way?  Shouldn't you consider ''actual attempts'' to define the term?  Shouldn't you at least say something that reflects what psychologists know and believe about sanity and insanity. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Well - hey, Dr. Sanger:  I'm not even half done with the article yet.  In authoritarian societies, under the imprimateur of supposed scientific soundness and by psychologists and psychiatrists educated in the best universities, we have had the political definition of sanity - ie, that which authority authorizes you to perceive, think, believe.  Those who openly stray from it can be confined to mental institutions in order that their misbehaving minds might be tamed by shock "therapy,", lobotomy, and any number of other treatments. At least one public figure's wife right here in the good 'ol U.S. of A. fell victim to the same definition.  South Africa has a history of declaring uppity blacks insane and visiting experimental psychiatric treatments on them, some fatal. I also will be dealing with the issues of reality testing and social norming, other hallmarks of sanity, before I am done.  Please be patient.  All this to be described as time permits.  If you don't like the article when I am done, I am willing to adjust it so that it does not a) offend or b) reflect unsupported "idiosyncratic" views.
< 
< Besides - I was unaware WikiPedia was to remain mainstream, or to repeat what other publications have already said over and over?
< ----
< Bruce, you have the right on Wikipedia to write whatever you want.  I reserve the right to write and change whatever I want (such as state my own opinions as to what Wikipedia should be like) as well!  For one thing, Wikipedia should be unbiased.  An article about sanity, in ''my'' opinion, should not be about Bruce's views about sanity, or Larry's views, or any one person's views, because that's inherently biased.  It should be about what is generally known and believed about sanity, making plenty of room for a clear statement of the view of those mental health professionals who happen to believe as Bruce believes (or rather, vice-versa).  Isn't that reasonable? -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Of course it is.  I believe once you see the finished article you will not find it biased, though it may throw a fresh light on some things.  As always, I will stand ready to make adjustments if folks want.  Anything I write is going to be from my point of view.  Unlike anything I write for Nupedia, I am apt to rely of my storehouse of retained information and conclusions synthesized from it, and not research, re-research, buttress and pepper the text with references from others' scholarly works.  All valid views are not necessarily mainstream.  All mainstream views are not necessarily valid.  I will, however, always attempt to rest what I write solidly upon either published research, replicable empirical observation, or both.  You let me know if I mis-remember or mis-represent anything, and I'll fix it.
< ----
< I'll have a look.
< 
< Not everything I write is from my point of view, Bruce.  Do you find that paradoxical?
< 
< Not all valid views are mainstream, that's about as obvious as anything can be, when you think about it.  Sure.  But the purpose of an encyclopedia article is to convey what the mainstream views are--at least.
< 
< By the way, regardless of whether you sign the article and regard it as yours, in my opinion it belongs to the wiki, and I will make bold to change it whenever I wanna.  :-)  Without asking you.
< 
< -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Fair enough.  After all, I agree to the WikiPedia license when I dump it here.  I think I at least mentioned most mainstream views in passing.  I still don't like my last paragraph or so, so expect that to change.  I have a well-formed concept but the words elude me at the moment.  Blame it on a right-brain moment.  As to your or anyone's revisions of "my" article, If I cannot get it to retain the sense of what I meant, I can always remove my name from it.  For the nonce, I leave it appended so folks know upon whom to blame the drivel presented. ;^)
< -- AyeSpy
< ----
< Hi Bruce,
< 
< I don't know how to improve this article, because I don't know enough about the topic of mental disorders in general.  I do have some comments nonetheless--so, contrary to my own stated policy, I'll indent my comments and let you fix the article, if you can and want to.  I am going to be blunt, because I think you will benefit from bluntness in this case.  Here we go:
< 
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think" and other definitions which users find expedient.
< 
< :Who has defined it this way?  You're using passive voice.  I don't believe you.  :-)  I don't think anyone has defined "sanity" this way, other than you; and I don't care how you define it, to be blunt, I care how psychologists and psychiatrists and people who have really studied this stuff.  And who are the "users" you're talking about?  This first paragraph doesn't bode well for the rest of the article.  It sounds like you're bullshiting to me, frankly.  Are you?
< 
< The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy."  The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind.
< 
< :Etymologies are notoriously bad for giving a ''scientific analysis'' of a natural phenomenon.  While the etymology is interesting and should be left in the article, it shouldn't be made the basis of a thesis; it should merely be mentioned in passing.
< 
< Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, ''proper functioning'', especially of biological systems.  As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning.  One would expect to find these qualities, then, in a sane individual.
< 
< :Frankly, although I personally strongly agree with all of this, it seems to me less than enlightening--platitudinous.  If you don't ''know'' much about a subject, I'd say your task amounts to either (1) heavy research, or (2) producing a melange of platitudes, bullshittery, and simple falsehoods.  Hmmm...
< 
< It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas.  Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane.  
< 
< :There are many things that "clear and accurate awareness and reasoning" ''could'' mean, and I wonder which of them you do mean.  For example, those studying logic and critical reasoning believe they're studying the standards of good reasoning and clear thinking.  So, by your lights, does sanity amount to being logical, and insanity illogical?  Well, that might be part of it, but that's certainly not all of it.  I'd say it's a definition by inessentials, but then, what do I know?
< 
< There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but the largest portion of these have been declared to be more useful in determining IntelliGence than sanity.
< 
< :There are?  Really?  Who says, you?  Why should you care, if you just declare it without proving it or giving any evidence?  "Have been declared to be"?  Who declared them thus?  You?  And are they using your concept of intelligence?  Frankly, due to unanswered questions like this, I just don't know how to assess the above sentence except in a dismissive fashion.
< 
< One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity.  The ''kinds'' of tasks which one performs accurately, then, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not.  
< 
< :You seem to have line of thought as follows: AyeSpy has a (rather vague) definition of sanity that amounts to "clear thinking and accurate reasoning"; ''some''one has declared that the only (or best?  who knows?) sort of clear thinking is "objectively" measured by intelligence tests (since intelligence is what intelligence tests measure, presumably, but you're not too clear on that, it seems); but, by AyeSpy's definition of sanity, this unknown theorist's view of what clear thinking is implies that "intelligence" isn't a good analysis "sanity."
< 
< :How many problems can you identify in the above reasoning?
< 
< The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others.  More recently, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.
< 
< :Which have been used as indicators of sanity, ''by whom''?  And what does "personal mental composure" mean?
< 
< Criteria other than accuracy of function have been employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria.  In some contexts, societal norms loom large.  For example, in WesternCivilization, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting.  Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia - a serious mental disorder.  In many regions of the ThirdWorld, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience.  One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man.
< 
< :This is perhaps the first interesting thing you've said; but you might try citing a source or two, because it is far from original.
< 
< The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity.  In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is a definition by exclusion - that is, "absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder."  The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment.  Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity."  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below.
< 
< :Why don't you quote a psychiatric source, and make an effort to ''explain'' what "the" definition is?  And oh, there's only one definition in currency?  I wouldn't have expected that, but then, what do I know?
< 
< :I've got to get a move on so I am not going to be able to comment in depth on the rest of this.
< 
< The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison.  In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems.  A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health.  One may examine, for example, a liver.  Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science.  It can be x-rayed or biopsied.  Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured.  Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for.  In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed.  The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured.  While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity.  Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another.  Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice.
< 
< The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM).  It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified.  For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute."  Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences.  As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses.  In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM.
< 
< In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don’t have methods of ‘curing’ these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity.  Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science.
< 
< :The above has dropped into a journalistic sort of mode, and it's obvious that you're trying to set up an argument against the received view of insanity.  Let me cut to the chase, then.  Bruce, I couldn't care less what your views about insanity are.  If I read an article about sanity and insanity, I want to know, ''in detail'', what ''the received'' views are.  This can include minority views, but they are the minority views of (who else?) ''psychiatrists.''  If there isn't a psychiatrist who hasn't promulgated your view, that's probably because your view is not very plausible.  I can say this without knowing anything about your view.  I can even say it knowing what I do know so far about your view, ''and'' agreeing (I guess?) with your general drift.  But that '''doesn't matter'''!  It's ''far'' more important to learn first from the experts, and try to convey that very clearly, and then, ''only'' then, make an attempt at building on or controverting that.
< 
< :Anyway, I think you should rename your article BruceOnSanity.  That is an accurate title.  It isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< I'll get back to you on this, Larry. I am inclined to rename the article something like "TheProblemOfDefiningSanity," as I am loathe to dig about for every single publication I used in support of my statements, so as to make it the definitive encyclopedia article on "Sanity."  Suffice it to say that my introductory definition, minus the part in quotes, is synthesized and paraphrased from three ordinary dictionaries.  The part in quotes is a tacit matter of defacto political practice, and I will move it to another part of the article.  The "platitudinous" paragraph is to mention the next logical step to the reader, rather than to take it unseen, no matter how obvious it might otherwise seem.
< 
< ''..."it's obvious that you're trying to set up an argument against the received view of insanity."'' You seem to be under the impression (broadly held, BTW) that psychiatry or medicine or some consensus authority actually defines sanity.  Here is the real kicker - there '''IS NO''' "received view" on the definition of "sanity" from doctors or psychiatrists.  One must read tons of books by them (done, thank you), each individual author defining it differently if he defines it at all (they prefer to go on at length about abnormalities, and the obvious fact that an absence of them is the preferred condition), and then try to find points of general agreement between them.  The "medical" definition I used is paraphrased from the only medical dictionary I could find which did not define it as merely "Soundness or health of mind. Normal mentality."  Question is, what the heck do you mean, "Normal?"  The word "normal" is not a (forgive me) normative word, unless its characteristics are either obvious by definition, or can be demonstrated (like the normal function of a liver, heart, gut, brain, what-have-you).  Well, I finally found "Normal" as being "without mental disorder."  What's a mental disorder?  See DSM-IV.  You read DSM-IV, and it says "we can't agree and don't really know what a mental disorder is, or if it should be called a disorder at all - but here is the long list of things we do agree ought not to be a part of human mentality." 
< 
< Note that I did not say in the article that there was only one medical definition.  I said there was a "most general" one - one than can be found in medical literature which does not conflict with other definitions found in medical literature.  The only thing they agree on is "normal."  Quoting Taber's, (F. A. Davis, Philadelphia, 1974):  "normal - 3. In psychology, free from mental disorder, or of average development or intelligence."
< 
< Who defines sanity in terms of interpersonal relations and safety of self and others?  Heck - EVERYONE!  But I should prabably make clear that I'm talking about a "street" definition, not an authoritative one.  Examples:  Why should he be committed?  He's a danger to himself or others.  Is he sane enough to fly a commercial jet?  No - he takes unreasonable risks.  Is she sane?  No - she does not relate normally with others.  She talks to herself, babbles incoherently, flails her arms for no reason, whatever.  Is he sane enough to assist in his own defense?  No - he keeps calling his lawyer "Jesus" and accusing him of working for the CIA.
< 
< now I gotta run - but I will see if the article cannot be tuned up some.  I should probably introduce my thesis more clearly, "Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity, and here's why.  And, by the way, could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?"
< ----
< OK, Larry - I think I have addressed the majority (though not all) of your concerns.  I will revisit this after I have thought of other things for a while.  I wonder - does anyone else have concerns or comment?  The more I work on this article, the more I think I would like it to be a good and thoughtful one, though not an authoritative or definitive one.
< ----
< Hey Bruce, you didn't have to take down your article.  You should post it under a different title (how about: AyeSpy/OnSanity); it's still of interest to some people, I'm sure.  It was far from useless or idiotic.  You know, my point ''wasn't'' that your article is wrong, badly-written, or of little value!  My point was only that it isn't an encyclopedia article about sanity.  The works of Sigmund Freud don't constitute an encyclopedia article about sanity, either.  :-) -- LarrySanger
< ----
< No kidding.  In the entire body of his work, he nibbled around the edges, but never bothered to define it.  My hide may not be as thick as I imagined.  I am weighing whether the considerable distraction WikiPedia has been to me is worth it to me or anyone.  I seem to have lost my sense of humor on the issue.  Give me a bit to think it out...
< ----
< I was too harsh, Bruce, needlessly so.  I'm sorry about that.  I'm not kidding that you irritated a big pet peeve of mine, which might explain the reaction.  My other PetPeeves include tailgaters, wife-beaters, people who don't take responsibility for their children, ''any'' manner of bias in news reporting, crankishness of all sorts, calling stuff "art" just in order to try to stretch the definition of "art," self-righteous and unrepentant dishonesty, people who insist that I ought to do X whenever I strongly disagree, bad attempts (meaning, ''most'') at achieving musical style "fusions," and probably a few other things--including biased encyclopedia articles (which is not unlike biased news reporting).  My reactions to these things is, in most cases, all out of proportion to the seriousness of the actual infraction.  So, you see.  I am sorry.  I will make an effort to restrain myself in the future. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< We all have our pet peeves.  With age, we hope to become temperate.  How old are you, Larry?  30?  33?  New PhD, right?  I may not have mentioned that I have been reading philosophy and psychology for just over 33 years.  My most concentrated bout of study in the field was 13 1/2 hours a day, six days a week, from April 1976 to April 1979.  I have not "dabbled" in this field.
< 
< On another note, I ask anyone here if they can help me turn up an encyclopedia article entitled "sanity" published by anyone, anywhere.  I will even take an old one, if anyone can find it.
< ----
< I suggest we just stop and delete this entire exchange.  I very much regret that I replied rudely and in such detail.
< 
< -- LarrySanger
---
> I've deleted the exchange formerly on this page, which had become less than helpful to anyone writing an article on Sanity.  In the future I'll try to keep my remarks polite and helpful. -- LarrySanger
------
SanityTalk|981849108
1c1
< I've deleted the exchange formerly on this page, which had become less than helpful to anyone writing an article on Sanity.  In the future I'll try to keep my remarks polite and helpful. -- LarrySanger
---
> I've deleted the exchange formerly on this page, which had become less than helpful to anyone writing an article on SanIty.  In the future I'll try to keep my remarks polite and helpful. -- LarrySanger
------
IsaacAsimov|981856039
14a15,16
> * /RobotBooks
> * /GalacticEmpireBooks
18c20
< * /Talk
---
> * /Talk
------
IsaacAsimov/RobotBooks|981856142
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * /IRoboT
> * /TheRestOfTheRobots
> * /TheCompleteRobot
> * /TheCavesOfSteel
> * /TheNakedSun
> * /TheRobotsOfDawn
> * /RobotsAndEmpire
------
IsaacAsimov/GalacticEmpireBooks|981856216
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * /TheCurrentsOfSpace
> * /PebbleInTheSky
> 
------
IsaacAsimov|981856705
8c8
< IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars, like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
---
> IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' ThreeLawsOfRobotics) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars, like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
------
IsaacAsimov|981856847
8c8
< IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' ThreeLawsOfRobotics) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included The Stars, like Dust (1951), The Currents of Space (1952), The Caves of Steel (1954), The Naked Sun (1957), Earth Is Room Enough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and The Robots of Dawn (1983). His "Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
---
> IsaacAsimov began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' ThreeLawsOfRobotics) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
------
FootBall|981857218
16d15
< In the United States, the previous definition corresponds to SocceR.
18a18,20
> In many countries (mainly in SouthAmericA and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend.
> 
> In the United States, the previous definition corresponds to SocceR.
------
FootBall|981857268
18c18
< In many countries (mainly in SouthAmericA and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend.
---
> In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend.
------
AustriaAdvocacy|981859756
5c5,6
< Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment -- WojPob
---
> Our problem is that no one reacts when a NaZi party becomes a partner in a so called ''democratic'' Govenment -- WojPob
> The FPOE is no NaZi party. No, I don't like them. -- ReiniUrban
------
AustriaAdvocacy|981859768
6c6,7
< The FPOE is no NaZi party. No, I don't like them. -- ReiniUrban
---
> 
> The FPOE is no NaZi party. No, I don't like them. -- ReiniUrban
------
ReiniUrban|981859849
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> does a lot of computer related stuff, but is really into television and movies than anything else.
> See http://xarch.tu-graz.ac.at/home/rurban/
------
AnnaKournikova|981860575
1c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is the only child.
------
AnnaKournikova|981860889
1c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is the only child.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
------
MacroeconomicS|981861552
4a5,6
> One of the great challenges of recent economics has been struggles to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models.  RationalExpectations Theorists such as RobertLucas suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional KeynesiaN macroeconomic models were questionable in light of what they must implicitly assume about individual behavior.
> 
------
AnnaKournikova|981861629
1c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional tennis player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional TenniS player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
------
MartinaHingis|981861648
1c1
< Martina Hingis is a professional tennis player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, FloridA, in the UnitedStates.
---
> Martina Hingis is a professional TenniS player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, FloridA, in the UnitedStates.
------
AndorrA|981861882
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /History
> /Geography
> /People
> /Governement
> /Economy
> /Communications
> /Transportations
> /Military
> /TransnationalIssues
------
AndorrA|981861903
1,9c1,9
< /History
< /Geography
< /People
< /Governement
< /Economy
< /Communications
< /Transportations
< /Military
< /TransnationalIssues
---
> :/History
> :/Geography
> :/People
> :/Governement
> :/Economy
> :/Communications
> :/Transportations
> :/Military
> :/TransnationalIssues
------
AndorrA|981861970
0a1,6
> This text is from the public domain CIA World Factbook.
> 
> Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
> through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income
> taxes. 
> 
------
AndorrA/History|981862003
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
> through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income
> taxes. 
------
AndorrA/Geography|981862038
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southwestern Europe, between France and Spain 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 42 30 N, 1 30 E 
> 
> Map references: Europe 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 468 sq km 
> land: 468 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 120.3 km 
> border countries: France 56.6 km, Spain 63.7 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: temperate; snowy, cold winters and warm, dry summers 
> 
> Terrain: rugged mountains dissected by narrow valleys 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Riu Runer 840 m 
> highest point: Coma Pedrosa 2,946 m 
> 
> Natural resources: hydropower, mineral water, timber, iron ore, lead 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 4% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 45% 
> forests and woodland: 35% 
> other: 16% (1998 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: snowslides, avalanches 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion; air pollution; waste
> water treatment and solid waste disposal 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Hazardous Wastes 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked 
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|981872033
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeuS, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JeHovah, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeuS, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|981873855
30a31,32
>  - section 1 (/SectioN151)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN152)
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN151|981873904
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  /EddieWillers shows the news report to /DagnyTaggart, who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells Eddie to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  Eddie warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for Dagny.
> 
> * Setting
> Dagny's office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /EddieWillers
>  /FranciscoDAnconia - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981873971
15a16,17
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN151
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|981873977
17c17
<  /SectioN151
---
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|981873995
10a11
>  /SectioN151
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981874035
6a7
>  /SectioN151
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|981874074
8c8,9
<  - /SectioN143
---
>  - /SectioN143
>  - /SectioN151
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981874092
7a8
>  /SectioN151
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|981874118
4a5
>  /SectioN151
------
TestThreePhasePumps|981886791
4a5,10
> ''Reply from Rossum: 
> 1. Yes this article is a long way down the tree of specifics
> 2. Maybe it does not belong in a 'pedia, rather more in a technical manual
> 3. Because I know so much about this topic, writing is a breeze
> 4. Until Wiki crystalises I will continue to play, maybe we'll move the topic somewhere else later on. Thanks for your candid comments, Jimbo''
> 
------
LuxemburG|981888674
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital: Luxembourg-City
> Population: about 450 000
> Official Web-Site: <a href="http://www.luxembourg.lu">www.luxembourg.lu</a>.
------
LuxemburG|981888711
3c3
< Official Web-Site: <a href="http://www.luxembourg.lu">www.luxembourg.lu</a>.
---
> Official Web-Site: www.luxembourg.lu
------
GermanicLanguages|981889110
9a10
> * LuxembourgishLanguage
------
AnarchY|981894298
1c1
< A political system in which there is no government.
---
> Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order.
3c3
< The term anarchy is used to describe two essentially opposite political views, one which supports social order, the other which opposes it.
---
> Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begins with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure. Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism were synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves anarcho-capitalists and libertarians. This distortion is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries.
5,7c5
< The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
< 
< The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
---
> Both the view of Anarchism as a Nihilist position admitting only destruction and the capitalist position of anarchism as purely political are grave misunderstandings of Anarchism.
------
LuxemburG|981906214
1a2
> 
3c4,5
< Official Web-Site: www.luxembourg.lu
---
> 
> [http://www.luxembourg.lu Official Web-Site]
------
ArchitecturE|981909453
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Architecture is the root of all arts.
------
JudO|981909611
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Judo is to make somebody fall down.
------
DemocracY|981909946
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Democracy is a great TV-show.
------
AustriaAdvocacy|981910007
7a8,9
> 
> How would you describe a party whoose leader holds meeting with SS veterans??? -- WojPob
------
AustriaAdvocacy|981910028
9c9
< How would you describe a party whoose leader holds meeting with SS veterans??? -- WojPob
---
> How would you describe a party whose leader holds meeting with SS veterans??? -- WojPob
------
ScienceFiction|981910272
18c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
AnarchY|981913029
1c1
< Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order.
---
> A political system in which there is no government.
3c3
< Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begins with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure. Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism were synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves anarcho-capitalists and libertarians. This distortion is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries.
---
> The term anarchy is used to describe two essentially opposite political views, one which supports social order, the other which opposes it.
5c5,7
< Both the view of Anarchism as a Nihilist position admitting only destruction and the capitalist position of anarchism as purely political are grave misunderstandings of Anarchism.
---
> The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
> 
> The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
------
GermanicLanguages|981913431
10c10
< * LuxembourgishLanguage
---
> * LuxembourgianLanguage
------
EpiphenomenalIsm|981913908
1c1
< <i>Epiphenomenalism</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''epiphenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
---
> <i>Epiphenomenalism</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''EpiPhenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981914228
1,3c1
< Clinical Psychologist, Dr. Peter Cotton: "... most mainstream clinical psychology, I think you'd find, is dominated by the view that the absence of symptoms equals health. But if pressed to give a positive definition of health, most clinicians I think would have difficulty. Traditionally from Freud onwards psychotherapy and psychological systems have tended to view the world through the lens of psychopathology, so they've typically had fairly negative definitions." (followed by an hour of wrangling with three other scholars in an effort to define sanity - which event never comes to pass)
< 
< Larry's point is made.
---
> Clinical Psychologist, Dr. Peter Cotton: "... most mainstream clinical psychology, I think you'd find, is dominated by the view that the absence of symptoms equals health. But if pressed to give a positive definition of health, most clinicians I think would have difficulty. Traditionally from Freud onwards psychotherapy and psychological systems have tended to view the world through the lens of psychopathology, so they've typically had fairly negative definitions." (followed by an hour of on-air wrangling with three other scholars in an effort to define sanity - which event never comes to pass)
------
EpiPhenomenon|981914773
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Epiphenomemon has two distinct menaings.
> * 1) A secondary phenomenon that results from and accompanies another.
> * 2) ''Pathology''. An additional symptom or condition or symptom in the course of a disease, not necessarily connected with the disease. 
> 
> In the first sense, it is a side-effect or by-product, that is, there is a causal relationship between the secondary phenomenon and the first.
> 
> In the second sense, the medical meaning, there is no such relationship.
> A doctor might ask a patient whom he is treating for a disease ," Have you noticed any new epiphenomena?"
> 
> (Well, mine do!!!)
> 
> Source: ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language.'' 3rd ed.
> 
------
EpiphenomenalIsm|981914943
1c1,2
< <i>Epiphenomenalism</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''EpiPhenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)
---
> <i>Epiphenomenalism</i> is a kind of DualIsm according to which physical events have mental effects, but mental events have no physical effects.  In other words, the causal interaction goes only one way, from physical to mental.  So if Pierre eats a candy bar and experience pleasure, that pleasure is caused by his eating the candy bar; but if he decides to get another candy bar, his decision does not cause his body to get another candy bar.  So mental events are just <i>side</i>-<i>effects</i>, or <i>by</i>-<i>products</i>, of physical processes in my nervous system.  (The word ''EpiPhenomenon'' means, roughly, "by-product."  That is why the view is called "epiphenomenalism"; it is the view that the mental is just a by-product of the physical.)----
> EpiPhenomenon has more than one meaning, outside of philosophy. RoseParks
------
CoBoL|981915096
1c1,2
< The name CoBoL (normally COBOL) is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.
---
> The name CoBoL (normally COBOL) is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.----
> A programming language that was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.
------
JimboWales|981916174
18a19,20
> ----
> Thanks for the suggestion re: multilanguage access to [http://unumondo.com UnuMondo]. I have enhanced the splash page accordingly! -- JerryMuelver
------
ArchitecturE|981921285
1c1,2
< Architecture is the root of all arts.
---
> Architecture is the root of all arts.----
> And provided to the context to define the EdifaceComplex...
------
TimShell|981921743
12a13,15
> 
> ----
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society you invented. You describe two groups, and then you lump anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. Further, to claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. -- RichardKulisz
------
LinguisticS|981921840
16c16,18
< SouthEastAsianLanguages
---
> SouthEastAsianLanguages----
> 
> We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page.
------
TimShell|981921939
15c15
< Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society you invented. You describe two groups, and then you lump anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. Further, to claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society of the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
------
TimShell|981922017
15c15
< Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society of the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
---
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
------
TimShell|981922267
13,15d12
< 
< ----
< Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
------
LinguisticS|981922293
18c18
< We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page.
---
> We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
------
TimShell|981922325
12a13,14
> ----
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
------
TopOlogy|981924472
0a1,2
> TopologyForBeginners needs to be written.  :-)
> 
------
AnarchY|981929325
7c7,9
< The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
---
> The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
> 
> /AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|981929802
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz? 
> ----
> I didn't add the part about anarcho-syndicalism, someone else did.  Maybe it should be deleted.
> 
> The history of anarchism is something that can be addressed in a subsection.  Which group has "historical priority" is non-essential when describing what anarchy is.
> 
> The concept should be addressed logically, with a genus-differentia definition.  Anarchy is a social system (genus) that differs from all other social systems in that in advocates the absence of government (differentia).  Then we take the genus anarchy as we just defined it, and look at different types of anarchy.  I do not think genus-differentia definitions count as propaganda.
> 
> TimShell
------
TimShell|981929839
6,14c6
< Tim - in your capitalism article, "Recently capitalism has often occured of a wider, LibertariaN? social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention from most aspects of society."
< 
< Could you take a look at this and revise to reflect what you were thinking, if you don't mind?  I would copyedit it for clarity's sake, but I cannot for the life of me quite figure out what you intended... -- AyeSpy
< 
< Actually, the "recently" was my bit.  It occured to me that capitalism is old and fairly mainstream in some countries, whereas libertarianism is new and controversial.  So the often seemed misleading.  Sorry if I broke it. -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< OK - I edited it to say what I think you meant.  Tell me if I got it right. -- AyeSpy
< ----
< Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz
---
> Moved to /AnarchyTalk
------
TimShell|981929848
6c6
< Moved to /AnarchyTalk
---
> Moved to AnarchyTalk
------
TimShell|981929868
6c6
< Moved to AnarchyTalk
---
> Moved to Anarchy/AnarchyTalk
------
TimShell|981929879
6c6
< Moved to Anarchy/AnarchyTalk
---
> Moved to AnarchY/AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|981930215
9c9,11
< TimShell
---
> TimShell
> ----
> Richard, I'd be very curious to learn about the differences and, if any, the similarities between anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-capitalism.  I know very little about these theories.  I wish you would explain the facts about what the theories state, in as unbiased a fashion as possible, on AnarchY (or perhaps AnarchIsm).  Why not just make the necessary changes?  I'd be very curious to see the results! -- LarrySanger
------
GermanLanguage|981942441
3c3
<   MiddleGerman
---
>   MiddleGerman - including LuxembourgianLanguage
------
GermanicLanguages|981942488
10d9
< * LuxembourgianLanguage
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|981943129
11c11,13
< Richard, I'd be very curious to learn about the differences and, if any, the similarities between anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-capitalism.  I know very little about these theories.  I wish you would explain the facts about what the theories state, in as unbiased a fashion as possible, on AnarchY (or perhaps AnarchIsm).  Why not just make the necessary changes?  I'd be very curious to see the results! -- LarrySanger
---
> Richard, I'd be very curious to learn about the differences and, if any, the similarities between anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-capitalism.  I know very little about these theories.  I wish you would explain the facts about what the theories state, in as unbiased a fashion as possible, on AnarchY (or perhaps AnarchIsm).  Why not just make the necessary changes?  I'd be very curious to see the results! -- LarrySanger
> ----
> The miscategorization of anarcho-syndicalism was my fault.  Since it looks like it's the main form of anarchism, I figured it deserved mention, but wasn't sure which heading to put it under thanks to the mention of ''cultural'' institutions.  At the time I wasn't thinking of institutions as organizations for whatever reason.  Bleah...easy to catch, at least. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
LanguagE|981943402
27a28
> * AustroAsiaticLanguages
------
AustroAsiaticLanguages|981943593
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Very diverse group, including strangely enough both tonal and toneless languages.
> 
> * KhmerLanguage = CambodianLanguage
> * MonLanguage
> * VietnameseLanguage
------
CambodianLanguage|981943804
3,4c3
< Cambodian descends from Sanskrit and Pali, and has much in 
< common with Thai and Laotian.
---
> Cambodian is one of the main AustroAsiaticLanguages, and has had considerable influence from Sanskrit, Pali, Thai, and Laotian.  (Help...I just know these connections weren't genetic).
------
LanguagE|981943961
28a29
> * TaiLanguages
------
TaiLanguages|981944018
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * ThaiLanguage
> * LaotianLanguage
------
TheProblemOfDefiningSanity|981944642
3c3
< If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even and old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same.
---
> If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even an old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same.
------
SanityTalk|981944782
1c1,3
< I've deleted the exchange formerly on this page, which had become less than helpful to anyone writing an article on SanIty.  In the future I'll try to keep my remarks polite and helpful. -- LarrySanger
---
> I've deleted the exchange formerly on this page, which had become less than helpful to anyone writing an article on SanIty.  In the future I'll try to keep my remarks polite and helpful. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even an old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same.
------
SanIty|981944964
4c4
< If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even and old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same. 
---
> If anyone can help me find an encyclopedia article, even an old one, published anywhere, entitled "sanity," I would appreciate referral to same. 
------
AnarchY|981945386
5c5
< The first group, which includes AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism, believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
---
> The first group believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
7a8,11
> 
> Anarchist philosophies include AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalis.
> 
> Famous anarchists include PeterKropotkin and DavidFriedman.  In 1901, an anarchist named LeonCzolgosz shot and killed WilliamMcKinley, the 25th President of the United States.
------
AnarchY|981945405
9c9
< Anarchist philosophies include AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalis.
---
> Anarchist philosophies include AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism.
------
LinguisticS|981946429
18a19,20
> 
> Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
------
PythagoreanTheorem|981947135
66a67,76
> ----
>          
> Proof:  Draw right triangle with sides a,b,and c as above.  Turn an identical triangle 180 degrees and stick its c side to the original triangle's to form a rectangle of sides a and b.  Draw an identical rectangle perpendicular to the first with only a corner touching.  Draw squares of side a and b to connect the two rectangles into one large square of side (a+b).  From this diagram, the area of the large square is 
> '''(a+b)'''^'''2''' = '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' + 4(.5ab) by the formulas for the areas of squares and triangles.  
> 
> Now form a square from four of the triangles by placing the a side of one triangle in line with the b side of another, so that all four sides of the figure are (a+b).  Note that within the large square is a square of side c.  From this diagram, the area of the large square is '''(a+b)'''^'''2''' = 4(.5ab) + '''c'''^'''2'''.
> 
> Since '''(a+b)'''^'''2'''=itself, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' + 4(.5ab) = 4(.5ab) + '''c'''^'''2'''.
> 
> Therefore, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' = '''c'''^'''2'''.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981949480
51a52
>  /SebastianDAnconia
------
AtlasShrugged/SebastianDAnconia|981949642
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ancestor of /FranciscoDAnconia who fled Spain during the time of the Inquisition, settled in /Argentina, and founded /DAnconiaCopper.
------
AtlasShrugged/Companies|981949676
2a3
>  /DAnconiaCopper
------
AtlasShrugged/DAnconiaCopper|981949845
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Every man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in their lifetime, so by the time /FranciscoDAnconia heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981949882
1c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981950191
14a15,18
> * Religion
> 
> In /SectioN152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to Dagny, is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/HudsonRiver|981951174
1c1,2
< /DagnyTaggart's childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.
---
> /DagnyTaggart's childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.  The home is also said to be five miles from /Rockdale, though the actual Rockdale, NY is more like one hundred miles from the Hudson River.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981951744
1c1,3
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco D'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  As the book progresses we learn there is much more to this story.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  As the book progresses we learn there is much more to this story.
> 
> His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981951784
161c161
< "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian D'Anconia sat on the floor,
---
> "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|981953520
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> 
> In this long section, /DagnyTaggart goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront /FranciscoDAnconia.  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
> 
> Francisco had been a childhood friend of Dagny and /EddieWillers.  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of Dagny's and Eddie's year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to Dagny about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
> 
> When Dagny was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that Dagny showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw Dagny a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  Dagny loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as Francisco, but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years Dagny would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
> 
> That summer, when Francisco returned, he and Dagny discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
> 
> The romance continued for eight years, as Francisco rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and Dagny finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, Francisco invited her to his room at the Wayne Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
> 
> After that night, she did not hear anything about Francisco for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new Francisco, a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
> 
> When she arrives at the Wayne Falkland and confronts Francisco, she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that /EllisWyatt will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
> 
> 
> * Setting
> Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in Dagny's childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnysFather
>  /DagnysMother
>  /DagnyTaggart
>  /DukeofAlba
>  /EddieWillers
>  /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
>  /FranciscoDAnconia
>  /JimTaggart
>  /Looters - Mmentioned.
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
>  /SebastianDanconia
------
AtlasShrugged/DAnconiaCopper|981953555
1c1
< A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Every man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in their lifetime, so by the time /FranciscoDAnconia heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time /FranciscoDAnconia heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981953624
33a34
>  /DagnysMother
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|981953649
25d24
<  /DukeofAlba
35c34
<  /SebastianDanconia
---
>  /SebastianDAnconia
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|981953663
28c28
<  /JimTaggart
---
>  /JamesTaggart
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnysMother|981953951
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dagny's mother is mentioned in /SectioN152.  She worried about her daughter's apparent lack of interest in boys, and never understood Dagny's desire to work for the railroad.  Because of her lack of understanding, she was never able to give Dagny guidance or support, though she was kind and caring within her limits.
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|981954046
1c1
< A luxurious hotel in /NewYork.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.
---
> A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of /DagnyTaggart's debut ball when she was seventeen.
5a6
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981954302
1c1,3
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend of /DagnyTaggart.  As the book progresses we learn there is much more to this story.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of /DagnyTaggart.
> 
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was twenty he made enough to own the foundary.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|981954331
27a28
>  /FranciscosFather
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|981954357
36a37
>  /FranciscosFather
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscosFather|981954447
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FranciscoDAnconia's father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before Francisco.  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when Francisco was 23.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscosFather|981954460
1c1
< FranciscoDAnconia's father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before Francisco.  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when Francisco was 23.
---
> /FranciscoDAnconia's father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before Francisco.  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when Francisco was 23.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscosFather|981954483
1a2,3
> 
> He appears in /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981954820
1c1
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire Playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of /DagnyTaggart.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of /DagnyTaggart.
3c3,5
< Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was twenty he made enough to own the foundary.
---
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was twenty he made enough to own the foundary.  He begins working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but is quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He takes over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
> 
> When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, which is how he is known to the world.
11a14
>  /SectioN152 - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981955621
3c3
< Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was twenty he made enough to own the foundary.  He begins working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but is quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He takes over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
---
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He took over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|981955674
5c5
< When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, which is how he is known to the world.
---
> When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnysFather|981955728
4c4,5
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|981955752
11a12
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|981955765
9a10
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|981955786
10a11
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|981955810
30d29
<  /Looters - Mmentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsGilbertVail|981955869
2a3,4
> In /SectioN152 we learn that Francisco was in /ElPasoTexas, not in the /Andes, at the time when Mrs. Vail claims to have been with him.
> 
4a7
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/NathanielTaggart|981955897
6c6,7
<  /SectioN132
---
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/OrrenBoyle|981955916
8c8,9
<  /SectioN144
---
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|981955934
9a10
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/SebastianDAnconia|981955957
1c1,3
< The ancestor of /FranciscoDAnconia who fled Spain during the time of the Inquisition, settled in /Argentina, and founded /DAnconiaCopper.
---
> The ancestor of /FranciscoDAnconia who fled Spain during the time of the Inquisition, settled in /Argentina, and founded /DAnconiaCopper.
> 
> His story is told in  /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/DAnconiaCopper|981955987
1a2,4
> 
> D'Anconia Copper is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|981956006
10a11
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Places|981956102
2a3
>  /Algeria
5a7
>  /BuenosAries
15a18
>  /Madrid
19a23
>  /Montana
26a31
>  /Rockdale
27a33
>  /Spain
28a35
>  /Valparaiso
------
AtlasShrugged/Algeria|981956217
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN152, we learn /FranciscoDAnconia threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
------
AtlasShrugged/BuenosAries|981956260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of the d'Anconia estate and the residence of /FranciscosFather.
------
AtlasShrugged/Madrid|981956343
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN152 a young /FranciscoDAnconia mentions he spent a winter in Madrid with the Duke of Alba.
------
AtlasShrugged/Montana|981956394
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The location of /FranciscoDAnconia's first job with /DAnconiaCopper.  
> 
> It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/Rockdale|981956589
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  /DagnyTaggart had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
> 
> The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
------
AtlasShrugged/Spain|981956640
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spain is the ancestral home of the d'Anconias.  /SebastianDAnconia fled Spain to escape the Inquisition.
> 
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Valparaiso|981956720
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN152 the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of /FranciscoDAnconia's parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
------
AtlasShrugged/Andes|981956807
1a2,3
> 
> /SebastianDAnconia's first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes (/SectioN152).
------
AtlasShrugged/Argentina|981956870
1c1
< Argentina is the home of /FrancisoDAnconia and the ancestral home of his family.
---
> Argentina is the home of /FranciscoDAnconia and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
4c4,5
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  - /SectioN132
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|981956908
0a1,2
> Cleveland is the home of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
> 
8a11
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/ElPasoTexas|981956981
1c1,5
< El Paso, texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
> El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  /FranciscoDAnconia was in El Paso at the time /MrsGilbertVail claimed she was with him in the /Andes.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/HudsonRiver|981957001
3c3,5
<  It is mentioned in /SectioN111.
---
>  It is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|981957017
9a10
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|981957042
7c7,8
<  - /SectioN141
---
>  - /SectioN141
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto|981957064
7a8
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFourthConcerto|981957087
1a2,3
> 
> It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981957112
9a10
>  /PatrickHenryUniversity
------
AtlasShrugged/PatrickHenryUniversity|981957220
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, /FranciscoDANconia, and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
------
AtlasShrugged/PatrickHenryUniversity|981957234
1c1
< The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, /FranciscoDANconia, and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, /FranciscoDAnconia, and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981957260
13a14
>  /RockdaleStation
------
AtlasShrugged/RockdaleStation|981957319
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A station on the /TaggartTranscontinental line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of /DagnyTaggart's first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981957345
14a15
>  /SanSebastian
------
AtlasShrugged/RockdaleStation|981957365
1a2,3
> 
> It appears in /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastian|981957466
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A community built to house the workers of the /SanSebastianMines and their families.  As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two.  Only the church was built to last.
> 
> It is mentioned in /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|981957481
9c9,10
<  /SectioN143
---
>  /SectioN143
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|981957495
8a9
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartComet|981957510
5a6
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|981957530
17a18
>  /TaggartBuilding
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartBuilding|981957694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A skyscraper in /NewYork, the headquarters of /TaggartTranscontinental, and the location of the Taggart Terminal.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981958012
7a8,16
> * Historical figures and events
> 
> AtlasShrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
> 
> #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): /FranciscoDAnconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
> #<b>Inquisition</b> (/SectioN152): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
> #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): /FranciscoDAnconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
> #<b>Patrick Henry</b> (/SectioN152): The eponym of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981958154
16a17,22
> * Humor
> 
> #In /SectioN152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
> 
> #In /SectioN152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|981958181
6c6
< Common street crime is conspicuously absent in /AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
---
> Common street crime is conspicuously absent in AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
------
NewTopics|981959365
5c5
< AnchorageAlaska -- GladstoneOregon -- AlchemY -- EastGermany -- BritannicaPublicDomain -- AlbaniA -- AustriA -- HistoryOfEurope -- EuroCurrency -- GermanY -- NuPedia -- EncycloPedia -- CommonSense -- DisRuption -- WhatsaWikiFor -- PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps
------
CambodianLanguage|981960163
12a13,14
> ''This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?''
> 
------
CambodianLanguage|981960185
13c13
< ''This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?''
---
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?]''
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|981973899
31c31
< Then, since cos(pi) = 1 and sin(pi) = 0,
---
> Then, since cos(pi) = -1 and sin(pi) = 0,
------
WellOrderingPrinciple|981985382
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The well ordering principle states the following:
> :Every non-empty set S of positive integers contains a least element; that is, there is some a in S such that a <= b for all elements b in S.
> 
> This is equivalent to the AxiomOfChoice.
> 
------
BooksOfTheBible|981986836
5,43c5,43
< * Genesis
< * Exodus
< * Leviticus
< * Numbers
< * Deuteronomy
< * Joshua
< * Judges
< * Ruth
< * 1 Samuel
< * 2 Samuel
< * 1 Kings
< * 2 Kings
< * 1 Chronicles
< * 2 Chronicles
< * Ezra
< * Nehemiah
< * Esther
< * Job
< * Psalms
< * Proverbs
< * Ecclesiastes
< * The Song of Solomon
< * Isaiah
< * Jeremiah
< * Lamentations
< * Ezekiel
< * Daniel
< * Hosea
< * Joel
< * Amos
< * Obadiah
< * Jonah
< * Micah
< * Nahum
< * Habakkuk
< * Zephaniah
< * Haggai
< * Zechariah
< * Malachi
---
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleGenesis Genesis]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleExodus Exodus]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleLeviticus Leviticus]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleNumbers Numbers]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleDeuteronomy Deuteronomy]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJoshua Joshua]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJudges Judges]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleRuth Ruth]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleISamuel 1 Samuel]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIISamuel 2 Samuel]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIKings 1 Kings]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIKings 2 Kings]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIChronicles 1 Chronicles]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIChronicles 2 Chronicles]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleEzra Ezra]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleNehemiah Nehemiah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleEsther Esther]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJob Job]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBiblePsalms Psalms]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleProverbs Proverbs
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleEcclesiastes Ecclesiastes]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleTheSongofSolomon The Song of Solomon]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIsaiah Isaiah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJeremiah Jeremiah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleLamentations Lamentations]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleEzekiel Ezekiel]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleDaniel Daniel]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleHosea Hosea]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJoel Joel]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleAmos Amos]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleObadiah Obadiah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJonah Jonah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleMicah Micah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleNahum Nahum]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleHabakkuk Habakkuk]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleZephaniah Zephaniah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleHaggai Haggai]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleZechariah Zechariah]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleMalachi Malachi]
47,73c47,73
< * Matthew
< * Mark
< * Luke
< * John
< * The Acts of the Apostles
< * Romans
< * 1 Corinthians
< * 2 Corinthians
< * Galatians
< * Ephesians
< * Phillipians
< * Colossians
< * 1 Thessalonians
< * 2 Thessalonians
< * 1 Timothy
< * 2 Timothy
< * Titus
< * Philemon
< * Hebrews
< * James
< * 1 Peter
< * 2 Peter
< * 1 John
< * 2 John
< * 3 John
< * Jude
< * Revelations
---
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleMatthew Matthew]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleMark Mark]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleLuke Luke]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJohn John]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleTheActsoftheApostles The Acts of the Apostles]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleRomans Romans]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleICorinthians 1 Corinthians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIICorinthians 2 Corinthians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleGalatians Galatians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleEphesians Ephesians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBiblePhillipians Phillipians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleColossians Colossians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIThessalonians 1 Thessalonians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIThessalonians 2 Thessalonians]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleITimothy 1 Timothy]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIITimothy 2 Timothy]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleTitus Titus]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBiblePhilemon Philemon]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleHebrews Hebrews]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJames James]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIPeter 1 Peter]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIPeter 2 Peter]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIJohn 1 John]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIJohn 2 John]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleIIIJohn 3 John]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleJude Jude]
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleRevelations Revelations]
------
BooksOfTheBible|981988371
24c24
< * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleProverbs Proverbs
---
> * [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/ChristianBibleProverbs Proverbs]
------
LinguisticS|981988429
20c20,22
< Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
---
> Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
> 
> I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
------
RaviDesai|981988434
10a11
> Quick Test: ChristianBibleIKings
------
PythagoreanTheorem|981988632
76c76,78
< Therefore, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' = '''c'''^'''2'''.
---
> Therefore, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' = '''c'''^'''2'''.----
> 
> I think a visual of the triangles involved in this proof would be very helpful- even if they are really crude like mine.
------
ProgramMing|981989276
4c4
< The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
---
> The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer..
------
ProgramMing|981989296
4c4
< The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer..
---
> The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
------
BooksOfTheBible|981990207
75a76,84
> ----
> 
> I'm seeking some input here, I made each book linkable (the essense of a wiki, after-all....), but I wanted to do so in such a way that the following elements were preserved:
> 
> * The linked-to page should be somewhere on the wiki.
> * The links as they appear above should be readable.
> * The linked-to page names should unambiguously define the topic.  For instance, a page called RevelationS may contain content referring to the book in the Bible called Revelations, but it could also refer to a lot of other things as well.  The same is true for Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, and many other names.  A page named ChristianBibleEzra is pretty unambiguous, but it is also difficult to read.
> 
> So I settled on the above way of linking them up.  It could probably be used for many other lists as well.  The problem with it is that it is a little cumbersome.  What we really need is a <wiki-id-name displayed-wiki-link>
------
HumanComputerInteraction|981993195
13,15d12
< ----
< 
< http://www.lclark.edu/~nilsen/nilsenfam.jpg Erik Nilsen and family.
------
PythagoreanTheorem|981994107
78a79,83
> 
> ----
> 
> Actually, the sheer volume of distinct known proofs of this theorem is staggering.  See [http://www.cut-the-knot.com/pythagoras/index.html Pythagorean Theorem Proofs] for just a sampling.
> 
------
NewTopics|981994736
13a14,16
> ----
> What you really want is a "Recent Changes" page reformatted in a slightly different way.  All the information you specified is already present in Recent Changes, just perhaps not formatted in the way you like.  The point about fewer than 12 total edits may be a bit misguided though - formatting on the Wiki is not as intuitive as we might like to think, sometimes it takes 4-5 "edits" just to get it right for the first time.  You may want to say something like "4 or more edits by different people" or something like that.
> 
------
AyeSpyList|981994805
1,14c1
< Did professionally:
< Landscaping, newspaper delivery, typist, transcriptionist, personnel trainer, investigator, paralegal, maintenance engineer, plumber, drywall, childcare, electrician, carpenter, painter, glazer, carpet layer, tile, linoleum, wallpaper, automobile mechanic, excavation, PBX operator, hotel front desk, room attendant, vocalist, horse breeder, horse trainer, laborer, vending machine operator, upholstery, locksmith, counselor, human resources director, data analyst, public relations, opinion poll drafting and interpretation, marketing director, security officer, statistical analyst, loan broker, home designer, real estate development, pool maintenance, barback, A/C repair, runner, business consultant, IT recruiter, dispute mediator, photographer, videographer, author.
< 
< Did without pay:
< Songwriter, guitarist, hardwood flooring, roofing, masonry, ranching, vegetable farming, graphic art, small engine repair, electronics repair, computer programming, metal fabrication, farm fencing (as in "don't fence me in"), tournament fencing (as in, "touche'"), animal grooming, woodcutting, target shooting, archery, skiing, bowling, baseball, auto restoration, veterinary care, sculpture, jewelry making, leathercraft, shoe repair, poetry, car stereo installation, chef, sewing, antique restoration, acting, masseur, flood damage repair.
< 
< AyeSpy
< ----
< 
< You forgot: Wrote an encyclopedia.  :-) --JimboWales
< 
< ----
< 
< Well, heck.  Aint wrote one yet, though I am a published author elsewhere.  The one full-bore Nupedia article I did write (re the TaoTehChing - not the cursory commentary I dashed off here) was never submitted because the area editor told me my subject was reassigned.  Have done a fair piece of copyediting, tho...
---
> 
------
AlTruism|981994869
20,21d19
< Whether one might or might not be motivated by altruism may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture." The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole. So- if one is able to envision himself as dependent on the survival of the race in general, man as dependent on the success of other life forms, and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing things which appear on their face to be altrustic when in fact, one would be foregoing a smaller advantage in order to sieze a larger one.  If one is '''unable''' to grasp this and yet practices altruism, then arguably he/she is wishing to appear "noble" by doing self-abnegatory things for the supposed benefit of others. -- AyeSpy
< ----
------
RaviDesai|981995127
11d10
< Quick Test: ChristianBibleIKings
------
EthicsVsMorals|981995197
1,28d0
< Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
< 
< The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom." 
< 
< Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a group over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
< 
< It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that good, or right, would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life and bad, or wrong, would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory.
< 
< While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  After all, social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary.  They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group.  Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them.  
< 
< One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research.  Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration.  In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard.  Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character.
< 
< While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by the Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa.
< 
< Consider:  It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies.  Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful.  One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema.  On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, possibly of genetic (or viral?) origin literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism.  This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival.  By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad."  And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it.  But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science.
< 
< Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members.  These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes.  Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins.  Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue".  In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm.  There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts.
< 
< The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense.  "We must do this or perish."  He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes.  How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insights and understanding?  One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff.  So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are established.  Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in approval by authority.
< 
< Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities.  Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to survivability in and of themselves.  However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others.  As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival.  This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created.
< 
< So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside.  A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter.  Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical.  Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
< 
< Ralph Waldo Emerson almost grasped this fully over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance."  He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good.  Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
< 
< EthicalRelativism holds that good and bad exist only by reference to human social standards.  I believe it can be successfully argued that while moral behavior must needs be so referenced, ethical behavior can be determined on its own merit, relative only to its bare consequences as, like ripples from a pebble tossed into a pond, they travel out into the universe.  The only limitation which would exist, therefore, on the ability of a person to be ethical would be the breadth and depth of his vision. -- AyeSpy
< ----
32,45d3
< ----
< I will, for now forego tackling the medical ethics question.  The issue of property, however is an interesting one.  Items, objects, or life forms do not possess innate qualities which make them "property" of this or that person or "not-property" of anyone.  How, then, would one apply an ethical standard to the issue of theft which is not grounded in a societal or moral code?  Mr. Adams makes the case that, "An ethical view might be based on an idea of personal property that should not be taken without social consent..." but why?  Ethics requires not mere assumptions, but reason leading to conclusions.  In order to hold the ethical view that there is such a thing as personal property and that it ought not be taken, one must arrive there by reasononing.
< 
< What is it about a thing which makes it one's property?  In one form or another, one could say that it is the chain of creation.  There are two apparent chains of creation at work here, but in actuality, only one.  The illusory chain of creation is "I was created the owner of this."  The actual chain of creation is "I produced the effort or energy to create this, bring this about, or to bring it under my control.  And I did so without wasting the effort of another."  Having brought about a state of property, one may freely bestow it upon one's progeny, bringing about the illusory chain of creation.
< 
< The taking of things or property through force is only legitemized when he from whom it was taken agrees to the conquest, thereby obtaining a benefit of residing under the protection of new government, or of avoiding lethal or disabling force which would cancel his prior claim upon the property.  If a mugger takes your wallet against your protest, you have not consented or given up your claim, and so he steals it from you.  If you give your son $20.00 for gas and do not expect repayment, it is legitemately now his property.  If the U.S. conquers Texas and the residents thereof consent to U.S. government, a former taking by force is legitemized.
< 
< A person's own creative energy is in fact owned by him and to waste it works observable harm upon him and is is therefore classifiable as "bad."
< 
< A person directs his creative energy toward the accomplishment of work or creation of product, and toward the making of agreements with his fellows as to what that work or product may be traded for.  Each successive trade in a chain continues the chain of the original creation and so, even though he bought the loaf of bread instead of baking it, he created the energy which resulted in the bread and traded it to the baker so that the baker's creative efforts were not wasted.
< 
< How do people as property figure in here?  As one did not in any case create another human being, (the special case of children could be argued but this is unnecessary for now as one generally does not assert property rights over his/her children), as human beings are not controllable without their consent, and as to force involuntary control over a human wastes his effort, this disqualifies human beings from being property.
< 
< Slavery, then, would be an inherently corrupt assertion of property rights. -- AyeSpy
------
CommonSense|981995333
24,41d23
< ----
< '''Discussion:'''
< 
< Common sense as a concept has been so subject to popular abuse that its usefulness as a real philosphic tool may have been vitiated.
< 
< After all, it was "common sense" in fairly recent history that the world was flat, and the center of the universe.  Much that is "common sense" is decidedly common due to its uncritical  adoption by unthinking masses who prefer to be fed their certainties by authority with a spoon, but thought which is common, or even universal, is not necessarily sense - and may depend for its popularity on the fact that it is never closely examined.
< 
< I tear into the upside-down common sense assumptions of biology-based psychiatry with unrestrained glee, as they are perfect fodder for an exposition on how "common sense" is "common," but not "sense."  This is a "science" which insists, with stubborn certainty, that the coincidental presence of certain facts together establishes, ipso facto, a cause and effect relationship.  Further, they can tell you in the complete absence of any foundation, which is cause, and which is effect.
< 
< Take, for axample, the broadly accepted "scientific fact" that brain chemistry is a determinor of mood, emotion, and ultimately, sanity.  It "stands to reason" does it not, that if depressed people show low serum levels of serotonin and and vibrant people demonstrate high levels, that increasing serotonin will elevate mood, no?  We must not brook any argument on this point.  Sir KarlPopper gives us a clue, however, as to how we may determine the reliability of the root assumption here.  Under his criteria of falsifiability, we can disprove the entire theory if we can show that one instance of it is false.
< 
< Let us turn, then, to recent empirical work with persons diagnosed with clinical depression.  In a double-blind study, four groups of depressed persons are followed over time.  One group is untreated.  One group is given SSRI's  (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) to increase their serum levels of serotonin.  Another group is prescribed exercise, and another is given both exercise and drugs.  Recurrence of depression is highest in the group taking drugs.  It is very nearly as high in the group taking drugs and exercise.  It is significantly lower in the group receiving no treatment and lowest by an order of magnitude in the group prescribed exercise alone.
< 
< Common sense tells us what to think of these experimental results.  So does Popper.
< 
< "Scientific Authority," however will not waver from the initial premise.  Biochemistry of the brain determines mood.  Function follows form.  We just have to keep poking about until we find the right chemicals and all question of the veracity of biochemical brain theory will be erased.
< 
< It's only common sense.  -- AyeSpy
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|981995563
1,40c1
< ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer.  What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
< 
< Consider:  Holmes observed the world around him in a manner which took into account the most minor details.  Those around him seldom detected the same "clues" and when they did, the evidence in front of their eyes was empty to them.  Conan Doyle may or may not have consciously given Holmes an unfair leg up over his compatriots - but regardless of intent, that advantage existed.
< 
< It is unlikely that persons who have not undertaken one form or another of professional investigation will detect how the "Holmes" world view differed from others.  It is equally unlikely that it would reveal itself to professional investigators (be they involved in science, law enforcement or private investigation) who have not also made a targeted study of the science of logic and its associated processes.
< 
< Logic is commonly seen as a study involving datasets, relationships between them, belonging and not-belonging.  This view will serve as well as any other to illustrate the synergy which exists between the three most basic elements of successful investigative technique:
< 
< '''A)  Perception'''
< 
< '''B)  Knowledge Base'''
< 
< '''C)  Logic'''
< 
< One must needs be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor.  And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing.  Factually, this may be one of the most rarely developed investigative skills.  Although preconception impedes observation, too many investigators of all kinds approach a scene with definite ideas as to what they are looking for, what they expect to see, and what they expect it to mean.  Even having viewed a scene initially without preconception, many are incapable of rehabilitating former observations to neutral value once they have assigned a given meaning or interpretation to them.  Thus, when new or unexpected knowledge is available to inform old observations, these individuals are handicapped.  They cannot look and make new, unbiased observations, nor remove the coloration previously applied to former observations so as to view them in light of newly available knowledge.
< 
< The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them.  That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data.  The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances.  Take this example:  A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 AM and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM.  What are we to make of this?  In a vacuum of information, nothing.  Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart.  Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive.  But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time.  Time explained.  But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered.
< 
< Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed?  It was no more nor less than this:  His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era.  He knew the smell of paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin.  Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem.  'Nuff said?  A further, though less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation.  Multiple datasets in reference to a single clue generally did not exist.
< 
< The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers."  These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright feeble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison).  In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'.
< 
< '''Here's how:'''
< 
< First, the prospective investigator should be encouraged to continually expand his or her knowledge base.  There should be no off-limits learning.  If one is to investigate in the field of medications, reactions and drug development, then the first and most important datasets to acquire would obviously deal with such things as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, and the like.  Other areas of investigative specialty would likewise benefit most greatly from studies of their related datasets.
< 
< Second, in one fashion or another, the prospect should be educated in the logical concept of "belonging."  Taken grossly, this concept could relate to things as obvious as a cooking stove in a living room or, conversely, a kitchen with no stove.  Things which ought to belong to a scenario and which are present in the expected condition, receive the lowest importance in investigative observation, and things which are present when they do not belong or absent when they do belong receive first attention.  First, of course, one observes the scene and makes no evaluation.  Then one evaluates observed elements relative to each other.  Lastly, one evaluates observed elements relative to datasets which are not implicit in the scene, but are rather contained in the investigator's head or his reference sources.
< 
< Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process.  Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential.  In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme.  Why does our guy move so slowly?  A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 24" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound.
< 
< 
< A synergy exists between personal ability (as in native capacity for data-processing volume and speed, sensory acuity, etc.), perception, knowledge and logic.  Increases in the appliciation of each factor can multiply the results available from the application of each other factor.  
< 
< How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber?  The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint.  He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter.  Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen.  The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed.  E.G.:  Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder?  Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing?  Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints?  Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint?  How was the tubing secured?  How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood?  The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc.  The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation.
< 
< If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused.  If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective.
< 
< '''What does all this have to do with philosophy?'''
< 
< The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge.  In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible.  One sees, for instance, a chair.  According to Russell, this would be a misstatement.  The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible.  Therefore, one does not see it at all.  One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image.  Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer.  On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist.  Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation.  From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed.  In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. -- AyeSpy
---
> 
------
PhiloSophy|981995771
2c2
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- InvestigatorAsPhilosopher -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
---
> WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
19c19
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' EthicsVsMorals '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
HelL|981995998
1,10d0
< An issue of BiblicalInterpretation about the traditional Christian notion of Hell:
< 
< Following is a link to an interesting article regarding the likelihood of historic biblical support for the traditional Christian notion of "Hell."  
< 
< In the past, when I have recommended articles such as this to "bible believing" Christians in support of my assertion to them that is was my firm belief that Jesus Christ never heard of nor spoke of Hell, I have been roundly condemmed in the most scathing terms, and promised my own dose of eternal damnation for daring to assert that the original writings of the apostles and their followers might not be faithfully represented in modern texts.
< 
< This article serves to illustrate that even versions of the Bible which some believers cleave to as "infallible" were openly characterized by their original authors as human interpretations of human writings, and therefore not 100% reliable.
< 
< An interesting read... -- AyeSpy
< 
------
TaoTehChingTalk|981996165
1,2d0
< TaoTehChingTalk
< 
8,11c6
< 
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
< (moved here from the body of the text -- AyeSpy) COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote: 
---
> COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote: 
21,34c16
< Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses doubt about the authenticity of the available information. Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views as accepted fact. 
< 
< 
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
< 
< I would be happy to attribute the above comments, but their author has chosen to remain anonymous, while not refraining from materially altering the text I contributed. I will be happy to repsond to any comments, and alter the text to accomodate competing views. The above is not the final word on the Tao Teh Ching. It is merely a cursory introduction to the subject matter for those who are unfamiliar with it. -- AyeSpy 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---
> Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses doubt about the authenticity of the available information. Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views as accepted fact. 
------
TaoTehChing|981996295
1,20d0
< The Tao Teh Ching (DaoDeJing) is an ancient Chinese writing orginally named Lao Tzu, generally accepted to have been penned about 600 BC by a fellow called Lao Tzu ("Old Master'), who was reputed to be a record-keeper of the Emperor's Court of the Chou Dynasty.  The existence of Lao Tzu is historically supported by mentions of him in scrolls dating back to 400 BC, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded.  Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien wrote a supposed "biography" of him in about 100 BC, indicating that his birth name was Li Erh.  
< 
< Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the Tao Teh Ching.  Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BC.  The 1973 archeological discovery of complete Chinese "scrolls" (factually silk rolls called the Ma-wang-tui Texts after the village where they were found. Text A, which has more lacunae, is thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BC) reveal that the Tao Teh Ching as modernly reported is the same form as that which was written in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been changed or contributed to.
< 
< As early as the 1930's, a way to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a Taoist solution, if you will) may have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by Wai-tao and Dwight Goddard, Dr. Kiang Kang-hu offers, "Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity… The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Lao-Tzu and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BC… for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time".  Credit for some verses might be conditionally given to later Taoists "without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Lao-Tzu".
< 
< Several modern versions of religious Taoism (Daoism) are replete with polytheism, ancestor worship, ceremony of various kinds, and alchemic efforts to achieve longevity.
< 
< What is attributed to Lao Tzu contains none of the above.
< 
< Instead, the Tao Teh Ching (hereafter called the Tao, for short) is concise, if poetical; purely mystical; and exceedingly practical.
< 
< The Tao points out universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular.  Your author refrains from quoting the Tao directly, as each English Language interpretation (including even interpretation of the three-character title), of which there are dozens, differs slightly or profoundly from the next.  Suffice it to say that Lao Tzu demonstrated an understanding of such principles as these:
< 
< Force begets force.  One whose needs are simple will find them fulfilled.  Wealth does not enrich the spirit.  Self-interest and self-importance are vain and self-destructive.  Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned.  The harder one tries, the more resistance he will create for himself.  The more one acts in harmony with the universe, the more he will achieve, with less effort.  The truly wise make little of their own wisdom - for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know.  It is wise to repay kindness with kindness and to repay evil with kindness.  We are our brothers' keepers.  Skill averts waste.  When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values.  Stupidity leads to force.  The wise are responsible for the foolish.  The honest are responsible for the dishonest.  The teacher is responsible for his student.  Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame.  The "feminine" qualities of flexibility and suppleness are superior to "masculine" strength and rigidity.  Everything in its own time and place.
< 
< Behind all this, Lao Tzu speaks of the ineffable Tao, or the "Way," which is described as the indivisible and indescribable unifying principle of the universe, from which all flows.  It is without time, form or substance, and exterior/senior to these traits.  The simpler one becomes, the greater hope he has of co-existing with the Tao, which is the only way one can truly understand it.  
< 
< In stark contrast to his near-contemporary Confucius, who was steeped in the importance of propriety and form, Lao Tzu eschewed appearance and ceremony in favor of meaning and substance.  He valued the "fruit" above the "flower." -- AyeSpy
< ----
------
ReLigion|981996381
5c5
< ChristianIty -- IsLam -- HareKrishna -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm 
---
> ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm 
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- TaoTehChing -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
------
HareKrishna|981996461
1,18d0
< Hare Krishna devotees believe that  Krishna is a literal name of the Supreme. It is said to mean  "all- attractive." All beauty is said to derive from the Supreme. The Supreme is also known as "Rama," meaning "highest eternal pleasure." 
< 
< Chanting "Hare Krishna" is supposed to be a way of seeking Krishna directly, partly through the very sounds and vibrations of the words, which serve to mediate divine energy from Krishna directly to the devotee. 
< 
< Devotees refer to "Krishna consciousness."  This is supposed to be a natural, pure state of consciousness.  This consciousness is not so much developed, as liberated from where it is trapped inside the individual. 
< 
< Krishna devotees believe in an eternal, indestructible soul which is the individual.  This consciousness migrates from life to life, improving or declining in circumstances in each existence according to learning, advancement or development (or the reverse) in a previous life.  Sufficient enlightenment has the potential to free the individual from the cycle of life and death altogether. 
< 
< The original bearer of the Krishna message to humanity is said to have been Krishna, himself.  He lived among men about five thousand years ago with a great warrior named Arjuna, in the form of his chariot driver. He revealed himself, along with special knowledge and insights before a great battle, the prospect of which had overwhelmed Arjuna's courage.
< 
< Initiated devotees of the Hare Krishna movement vow to follow certain life rules, including abstaining from gambling, intoxicants, meat (including fish, fowl and eggs) and illicit sex.  Sex in marriage for procreation is considered right and proper: 
< 
< The ideas of Krishna consciousness were brought to the West from India in 1965 by the movement's prime teacher, referred to by them as His Divine Grace A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, who was 69 at the time.  His given name was Srila Prabhupada.  The apellation "His Divine Grace" is somewhat ironic in that Prabhupada laid no claim to holiness or divinity.  
< 
< Prabhupada had written books on the subject of Krishna concsiousness and had them translated from Sanskrit to English.  He began his mission in America by chanting Hare Krishna in a public park and teaching classes in a small store.   In the space of about 12 years, his message had attracted a substantial following, and it enjoys at least some popularity today in several countries in Africa, Asia, Australasia, South America, Europe and North America.
< 
< ----
< 
------
TaoTehChingTalk|981996652
6c6
< COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical statement. (unsure what is meant here - either that diverse authorship is in question, or that Li Erh existed -- AyeSpy) To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote: 
---
> COMMENT: There is no justification for any such categorical statement.  To take but the matter of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, I quote: 
16c16
< Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses doubt about the authenticity of the available information. Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views as accepted fact. 
---
> Indeed, the author of the 'Historical Records' himself expresses doubt about the authenticity of the available information. Thus, although you may of course personally hold the opinion that Lao Tzu existed and the Tao Te Ching is the work of one man, it is altogether inappropriate to present these views as accepted fact. 
------
TopOlogy|981996840
19,22d18
< In lay terms, what is constant about objects of a given topology is how many continuous surfaces, spaces and boundaries can be envisioned.  A sphere and a bowl have the same topology.  So do a doughnut and a teacup, (owing the the loop forming the handle of the cup) both of which represent a simple torus.  The study of topology introduced us to theoretical objects such as the Moebius strip and the Klein bottle which can be depicted, even modeled after a fashion, but not actually built in three-dimensional space.
< 
< ----
< 
39,44d34
< Modeled, yes, but built, no.  The Moebius strip is a theoretical object consisting of a two-dimensional planar surface limited by parallel lines which is twisted 180 degrees and joined to itself.  As there is no real, true planar existence in our three-dimensional world, we cannot build the Moebius strip.  The paper has thickness, however minor, and so is in reality a torus once joined to itself, the topological equivalent of a doughnut.
< 
< ''And strictly speaking the paper is not actually continuous, but is actually composed of many separated atoms, so isn't really a torus.  I think there is a certain point of "good enough" for making pictures/sculptures of mathematical objects, and that the Moebius strip in paper meets it.''
< 
< ----
< 
56,59d45
< Fair enough.  My point initially was that such theoretical shapes as Moebius strips and Klein bottles '''can''' be '''modeled''' after a fashion but not ''actually literally'' '''built''' in our three-dimensional space.  The fact that we can model a Moebius strip is instructive, and serves to get students thinking in new ways, but the 3-dimensionality of the materials used should not ultimately be ignored.  Yes, of course a torus is a two-dimensional object, deformed through a third dimension.  I referred to the surfaces of these objects, not their "guts."  As was pointed out earlier, the nature of matter, being charged particles with space between them, means we can't actually '''build''' any of these theoretical mathematical objects which consist of sets of points with no space between them.  Here is a new thought - do you suppose that faster-than-light travel will be invented by the same guy who figures out how to construct a real Klein bottle?  Or better still, figures out how to deform our three-dimensional space through an additional dimension?
< 
< ----
< 
63d48
< 
65,71d49
< 
< My last remark on the subject:  I did not write my comment for mathematicians, but for non-mathematicians.  I purposely avoided the technical precision of a mathematical statement, so that people who don't get trigonometric and quadratic equations could still appreciate the sense of what was said. When I say the "surface" I speak of the surface of the doughnut as representative of a torus, and of the torus itself '''as''' a "surface" (which it is not, under the dictionary definition of surface, since there is nothing, as a planar object, for it to be the surface "of" - it is more similar to a "membrane.").  When I refer to "guts," I speak of the area "within" and bounded by the torus, on which the equation which represents the torus is silent but which, from our three-dimensional viewpoint, our imaginations insist is "empty space."  So - I compared the doughnut to the teacup, as a torus can assume these apparent shapes from the outside, notwithstanding that it has no "inside" or "guts."  One of the activities that I have fun with is representing specialized knowledge to non-specialized minds so that outsiders can get a taste of what data insiders are dealing with, without having to pursue a masters in the subject.  When I describe law, I avoid legalistic terms.  When I describe religious interpretation, the term "hermeneutics" does not creep into my speech.  Will the average Joe in the street be able to puzzle out the meaning of a statement even though he never took college-level studies?  Yes?  Then I am happy.
< 
< Make a paper hoop without the twist.  Draw a spiral line from one side of it to the other, continuously, taking advantage of the thickness of the edge of the paper.  Keep the spiral going until the line meets itself.  A single, unbroken line on both sides of the paper.  Must be a Moebius strip, eh?  Better still, do the same with a doughnut.
< 
< As A.F. Moebius (1790-1860) was a real guy, you might spell his name right.  (sorry - being petty) But please don't attack my statements when, in order to make them transparent to regular folks, I have to abandon precision and specialized nomenclature.
< 
73d50
< 
75d51
< 
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TopOlogy|981997179
52c52
< "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street (whose last IQ test came in around 100, not 154 (see AyeSpy)) would not get very much edification out of it. 
---
> "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street would not get very much edification out of it. 
------
IntelliGence|981997324
1,6d0
< IntelliGence:  1)  The power to reason.  2)  Self-awareness accompanied by a capacity for abstract reasoning.  3)  Intellectual prowess.  5)  Knowledge.  4)  Data, especially of a secure or secret nature, about the plans and activities of an adversary. 5) In the field of automation, the quality of being directed by a computing circuit or device. -- AyeSpy
< 
< (from Latin ''intellegere'' to gather within)
< 
< (Does anyone have more definitions?)--
< 
------
IdiosyncratiC|981997427
3,8d2
< Idiosyncratic traits may be fundamental or purely incidental to the SanIty of an idea or its proponent.  EinsteiN had many idosyncratic traits.  He did poorly in the authoritarian brand of math practiced at his prep school, though he is widely recognized as a mathematical genius.  He did not drive and could not find his way around Washington, D. C.  He relied on a non-genius for that skill.  He commonly forgot his belt or suspenders with the consequence that his pants would not stay up, or forgot his pants altogether.  A not-indifferent violinist and very good pianist, it was not unheard of that he would play in shirt and underwear, totally absorbed in the music and oblivious to the world around him.  His letters show a brilliant gift for prose, and he declared that a grasp of language was indispensible. Some of this data, I obtained from my father, a physicist who knew EinsteiN. -- AyeSpy
< 
< ----
< 
< We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently do as well.
< 
11c5
< ...as would be implicit in my remark that idiosyncracy may be fundamental or incidental to the SanIty of an idea... -- AyeSpy
---
> We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently do as well.
------
ChristianityTalk|981997786
1,25d0
< '''Commentary:'''
< 
< Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines.  Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstanding a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.  
< 
< In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today.
< 
< Why would that be?
< 
< A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems.  Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness.  One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth.  Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence.  Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed.
< 
< Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point.  By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east.  
< Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers.
< 
< As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match.  The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment.  So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme.  Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death.  Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter.
< 
< The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the world political landscape.  It is the religious fundamentalists, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant.  For instance, they support prohibitory laws on moral grounds, harsh punishments for moral crimes, war to defend religious ideals and holy places, and sanction the institutional killing of human beings, in keeping with scripture.  The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights.
< 
< Go figure.  -- AyeSpy
< 
< ----
< 
< The above is not to assign a value judgment one way or the other as to which type of system is "right" or even "best," but merely an observation from where I sit in the cheap seats...-- AyeSpy
< 
< ----
< 
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HareKrishnaTalk|981997956
1,3c1
< (This guy [Prabhupada] reminds me of BuddHa.  Coincidence or plagiarism?)
< ----
< That BuddhIsm, HinduIsm, HareKrishna, JainIsm and other religions developed in that geographic area would sound similar is more inevitability than coincidence, as the fabric of that culture and the nature of its religions are tightly intertwined.  The personage of Rama as GodHead is distinctly Hindu.  AyeSpy
---
> (This guy [Prabhupada] reminds me of BuddHa.  Coincidence or plagiarism?)
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk|981998021
1,5c1
< One may certainly hold more stubbornly at least to those notions which serve to give context, comprehensibility, and utility to other notions.
< 
< Care should be taken, however, not to exclude new information which is not inherently self-contradictory.  To the degree that new data conflicts with a large body of mutually consistent observations (note:  observations - not beliefs) one may more safely devalue it, but that a new idea was not suggested by one's interpretation of earlier data is not the same as to say that one may safely discard it because it comes as a complete surprise.  Rather, "surprise" information, instead of being automatically viewed with skepticism, may be be held in a bullpen while it is compared with other cross-verifying observations, and, if not inherently inconsistent with old data, accepted conditionally for purposes of comparison with new input in order to see what it does or does not explain.
< 
< People call this "having an open mind." -- AyeSpy
---
> 
------
AyeSpy|982001489
0a1
> For those who give a royal flyin' flip...
1a3,13
> Pardon my dust.  I believe I have removed all offending material I contributed.  Contrary to obvious appearance, I have not gathered up my toys and gone home in a huff.  I have concluded that it was error on my part to have presumed to contribute serious articles here.
> 
> My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'receive view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity is which I have failed to consieder.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not, by formal academic certification an serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
> 
> I bridled at posting the article with a title indicating peculiarity to myself rather than a more general title, and I had to reflect on what bothered me about that.  I concluded that what irked me was I had written the piece in hopes folks might read it and reflect.  If it was introduced with my name rather than the subject matter, the effect would be (as I am a nobody) that it would be bypassed more than read.  As this would defeat my purpose in writing it, I preferred to take it down.
> 
> On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here so far suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I was contributing thoughts and posting them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  I suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is apparently intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a toung-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the status of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
> 
> Larry is probably right.  Without a degree in my field of study I should not try to get people to take me seriously.  He has indicated privately to me that it is fine him if I step back and make no further contributions.
> 
> I will still check in from time to time.
------
AyeSpy|982001836
5c5
< My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'receive view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity is which I have failed to consieder.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not, by formal academic certification an serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
---
> My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'received view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity is which I have failed to consieder.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not, by formal academic certification an serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
13c13
< I will still check in from time to time.
---
> I will still check in from time to time.
------
AyeSpy|982002248
5c5
< My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'received view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity is which I have failed to consieder.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not, by formal academic certification an serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
---
> My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'received view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity I have failed to consider.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not by formal academic certification a serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
7c7
< I bridled at posting the article with a title indicating peculiarity to myself rather than a more general title, and I had to reflect on what bothered me about that.  I concluded that what irked me was I had written the piece in hopes folks might read it and reflect.  If it was introduced with my name rather than the subject matter, the effect would be (as I am a nobody) that it would be bypassed more than read.  As this would defeat my purpose in writing it, I preferred to take it down.
---
> I bridled at posting the article with a title indicating peculiarity to myself rather than a more general title, and I had to reflect on what bothered me about that.  I concluded that what irked me was I had written the piece in hopes folks might read it and reflect.  If it was introduced with my name rather than the subject matter, the effect would be (as I am a nobody) that it would be bypassed more than read.  As this would defeat my purpose in writing it, I preferred to take it down.  There is no point in bulking up wikipedia with useless content for the sake of content.
9c9
< On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here so far suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I was contributing thoughts and posting them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  I suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is apparently intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a toung-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the status of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
---
> On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I contributed thoughts and posted them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  However, suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  This is my problem, and no one else's.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  And I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a tounge-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the stamp of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
13c13
< I will still check in from time to time.
---
> No hard feelings.  I will check in from time to time.
------
TopOlogy|982003773
1c1
< TopologyForBeginners needs to be written.  :-)
---
> TopologyForBeginners needs to be written.  :-)  Or is such a thing even possible?
------
PopularMusic|982004824
34d33
< * MichaelWSmith
35a35,36
> * MichaelWSmith
> * BritneySpears
------
HelL|982005043
1a2,5
> 
> ----
> 
> not quite sure that that belongs in the wikipedia...
------
BritneySpears|982005232
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of DisneY's MickeyMouseClub in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
> Castmates included JustinTimberlake and JoshuaChasez, who later became members of the pop band NSync, and ChristinaAguilera, also a pop singer.
> 
> Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the BillboardCharts in early 1999.  Her followup album, OopsIDidItAgain was a similarly huge success.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
BritneySpears|982005260
2c2
< Castmates included JustinTimberlake and JoshuaChasez, who later became members of the pop band NSync, and ChristinaAguilera, also a pop singer.
---
> Castmates included JustinTimberlake and JoshuaChasez, who later became members of the pop band NSynC, and ChristinaAguilera, also a pop singer.
------
FootBall|982005713
18c18,20
< In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend.
---
> In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of
> fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies.
> See HooliGans.
------
BabyOneMoreTime|982006096
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ...Baby One More Time
> 
> Debut album by BritneySpears, released January 12, 1999.
> 
> Songs include:
> 
> :...Baby, One More Time
> :(You Drive Me) Crazy
> :Sometimes
> :Soda Pop
> :Born To Make You Happy
> :From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart
> :I Will Be There
> :I Will Still Love You (with DonPhilip)
> :Thinkin' About You
> :Email My Heart
> :The Beat Goes On
------
FootBall|982006336
1,6d0
< Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the
< opponent's area.
< 
< The agreement ends here.
< 
< ----
------
MetallicA|982006954
5c5
< Latest Album: S&M - Live with the San Francisco Symphonic Orchestra
---
> * /Discography
------
MetallicA/Discography|982007221
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's albums (chronoligical order):
> 
> * /KillEmAll
> * /RideTheLightning
> * /MasterOfPuppets
> * /AndJusticeForAll
> * /MetallicaAlbum
> * /Load
> * /Reload
> * /GarageInc
> * /SAndM
------
MetallicA/KillEmAll|982007408
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's first album. Tracks:
> 
> :Hit the Lights
> :The Four Horsemen
> :Motorbreath
> :Jump In the Fire
> :(Anesthesia)Pulling Teeth
> :Whiplash
> :Phantom Lord
> :No Remorse
> :Seek And Destroy
> :Metal Militia
------
MetallicA/RideTheLightning|982007500
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's second album. Tracks:
> 
> :Fight Fire With Fire
> :Ride The Lightning
> :For Whom The Bell Tolls
> :Fade To Black
> :Trapped Under Ice
> :Escape
> :Creeping Death
> :The Call of Ktulu
------
BooksOfTheBible|982007665
0a1,10
> This seems like an ideal place to use '/' pagenames.
> 
> :/Genesis
> :/Exodus
> 
> and so forth.  The advantage, as you can see, is that when you enter a sub-page, you get a link back up to the main page. 
> You can edit this page to see how I did it.
> --JimboWales
> 
> 
------
MetallicA/MasterOfPuppets|982007687
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's third album. Tracks: 
> 
> :Battery
> :Master of Puppets
> :The Thing That Should Not Be
> :Welcome Home (Sanitarium)
> :Disposable Heroes
> :Leper Messiah
> :Orion
> :Damage, Inc.
------
ChristianBibleGenesis|982007861
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :/talk
> 
> :/1
> :/2
> :/3
> :/4
> :/5
> :/6
> :/7
> :/8
> :/9
> :/10
> 
> (There are 50 chapters total?)
> 
> 
> 
------
MetallicA/AndJusticeForAll|982007893
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's fourth album. Tracks: 
> 
> :Blackened
> :...And Justice For All
> :Eye of the Beholder
> :One
> :The Shortest Straw
> :Harvester Of Sorrow
> :The Frayed Ends Of Sanity
> :To Live Is To Die
> :Dyers Eve
------
ChristianBibleGenesis|982007909
1c1
< :/talk
---
> :/Talk
3,5c3,5
< :/1
< :/2
< :/3
---
> :/One
> :/Two
> :/Three
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/One|982007940
1c1,94
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
>   1In the beginning God created the heaven and the
>      earth.
>   2And the earth was without form, and void; and
>      darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the
>      Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
>   3And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
>   4And God saw the light, that it was good: and God
>      divided the light from the darkness.
>   5And God called the light Day, and the darkness he
>      called Night. And the evening and the morning were
>      the first day.
>   6And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst
>      of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the
>      waters.
>   7And God made the firmament, and divided the
>      waters which were under the firmament from the
>      waters which were above the firmament: and it was
>      so.
>   8And God called the firmament Heaven. And the
>      evening and the morning were the second day.
>   9And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be
>      gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land
>      appear: and it was so.
>   10And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering
>      together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw
>      that it was good.
>   11And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the
>      herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit
>      after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth:
>      and it was so.
>   12And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding
>      seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose
>      seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it
>      was good.
>   13And the evening and the morning were the third day.
>   14And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of
>      the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let
>      them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and
>      years:
>   15And let them be for lights in the firmament of the
>      heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was so.
>   16And God made two great lights; the greater light to
>      rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he
>      made the stars also.
>   17And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to
>      give light upon the earth,
>   18And to rule over the day and over the night, and to
>      divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that
>      it was good.
>   19And the evening and the morning were the fourth
>      day.
>   20And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly
>      the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may
>      fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.
>   21And God created great whales, and every living
>      creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth
>      abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl
>      after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
>   22And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and
>      multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl
>      multiply in the earth.
>   23And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.
>   24And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living
>      creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and
>      beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.
>   25And God made the beast of the earth after his kind,
>      and cattle after their kind, and every thing that
>      creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw
>      that it was good.
>   26And God said, Let us make man in our image, after
>      our likeness: and let them have dominion over the
>      fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over
>      the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every
>      creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
>   27So God created man in his own image, in the image of
>      God created he him; male and female created he
>      them.
>   28And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be
>      fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and
>      subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea,
>      and over the fowl of the air, and over every living
>      thing that moveth upon the earth.
>   29And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb
>      bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth,
>      and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree
>      yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.
>   30And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of
>      the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the
>      earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green
>      herb for meat: and it was so.
>   31And God saw every thing that he had made, and,
>      behold, it was very good. And the evening and the
>      morning were the sixth day.
------
BooksOfTheBible|982007983
1,9d0
< This seems like an ideal place to use '/' pagenames.
< 
< :/Genesis
< :/Exodus
< 
< and so forth.  The advantage, as you can see, is that when you enter a sub-page, you get a link back up to the main page. 
< You can edit this page to see how I did it.
< --JimboWales
< 
------
MetallicA/MetallicaAlbum|982008053
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's fifth album. It was their first mainstream, commercial success. Tracks:
> 
> :Enter Sandman
> :Sad But true
> :Holier Than Thou
> :The Unforgiven
> :Wherever I May Roam
> :Don't Tread On Me
> :Through The Never
> :Nothing Else Matters
> :Of Wolf And Man
> :The God That Failed
> :My Friend Of Misery
> :The Struggle Within
------
FootBall|982008266
1d0
< If you are outside the United States, FootBall means:
2a2,5
> Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term FootBall, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world.  Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area.  The agreement ends there.
> 
> 
> If you are outside the United States, FootBall means:
------
MetallicA/Load|982008273
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's sixth album. Tracks:
> 
> :Ain't My Bitch
> :2x4
> :The House That Jack Built
> :Until It Sleeps
> :King Nothing
> :Hero Of The Day
> :Bleeding Me
> :Cure
> :Poor Twisted Me
> :Wasting My Hate
> :Mama Said
> :Thorn Within
> :Ronnie
> :The Outlaw Torn
------
MetallicA|982008308
14a15,16
> 
> If you are interested in discussing Metallica, try /Talk!
------
MetallicA/Reload|982008387
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's seventh album. Tracks:
> 
> :Fuel
> :The Memory Remains
> :Devil's Dance
> :The Unforgiven II
> :Better Than You
> :Slither
> :Carpe Diem Baby
> :Bad Seed
> :Where The Wild Things Are
> :Prince Charming
> :Low Man's Lyric
> :Attitude
> :Fixxxer
> 
------
MetallicA/Talk|982008430
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I, JimboWales, confess to listening to almost no other music than MetallicA.
> 
> I think it is really interesting to see the shift in MetallicA's image since the whole NapsteRVsMetallica controversy erupted.  MetallicA was always known as a band of the people -- a band that grew in popularity by touring a lot and connecting directly with the fans, with very little record company or MTV corporate support of any kind.
> 
> Now, they are viewed as some kind of corporate shills.
------
MetallicA/GarageInc|982008642
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's eighth album, which inludes cover versions of their other songs and the material from two of their earlier EP's, which were released in the 80's.
> 
> Disc one. Tracks:
> 
> :Free Speech for the Dumb
> :It's Electric
> :Sabbra Cadabra
> :Turn the Page 
> :Die Die My Darling
> :Loverman
> :Mercyful Fate
> :Astronomy
> :Whiskey in the Jar
> :Tuesday's Gone
> :The More I See
> 
> Disc two. Tracks:
> 
> :Helpless
> :The Small Hours
> :The Wait
> :Crash Course in Brain Surgery
> :Last Caress/Green Hell
> :Am I Evil?
> :Blitzkrieg
> :Breadfan
> :The Prince
> :Stone Cold Crazy
> :So What
> :Killing Time
> :Overkill
> :Damage Case
> :Stone Dead Forever
> :Too Late Too Late
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982008648
2a3,8
> '''February 12, 2001'''
> 
> I think we are over 1000 pages now.  If we create 1000 pages a month, we will be able to hit 100,000 pages in only 8 years.  However, I think that as we grow, we will attract more people to work on the pages, and we'll end up growing faster and faster.
> 
> So far, the search engines have not found us. --JimboWales
> 
------
CoBoL|982008733
2c2
< A programming language that was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.
---
> A ProgrammingLanguage that was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.
------
ProgrammingLanguage|982008857
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Programming Language is a language used to program a computer.
> 
> Here is an incomplete (but surely ever-growing) list:
> 
> PascaL
> BasiC
> FortraN
> CPlusPlus
> CLanguage
> SchemE
> LisP
> PerL
> JavA
> SnoboL
> 
> (Someone who is more knowledgeable about the history of computer languages, or the taxonomy of computer languages, could surely make a better and more organized list than mine.)
------
MetallicA/SAndM|982008884
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MetallicA's ninth album. Live with the SanFrancisco Symphonic Orchestra. Tracks:
> 
> :Ecstacy Of Gold
> :The Call of Ktulu 
> :Master of Puppets
> :Of Wolf And Man
> :The Thing That Should Not Be
> :Fuel
> :The Memory Remains
> :No Leaf Clover
> :Hero Of The Day
> :Devil Dance 
> :Bleeding Me
> :Nothing Else Matters
> :Until It Sleeps
> :For Whom The Bell Tolls
> :Minus Human 
> :Wherever I May Roam
> :The Outlaw Torn
> :Sad But True
> :One 
> :Enter Sandman
> :Battery 
> 
------
MetallicA|982008934
1,3c1
< One of the greatest Metal bands ever
< 
< First Album: Kill 'Em All
---
> One of the greatest Metal bands ever.
16c14
< If you are interested in discussing Metallica, try /Talk!
---
> If you are interested in discussing Metallica, try /Talk!
------
ReLigion|982008938
5c5
< ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm 
---
> ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm -- ScientologY 
------
MetallicA/Discography|982008974
1c1
< MetallicA's albums (chronoligical order):
---
> MetallicA's albums (chronological order):
------
ScientologY|982008974
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Controversial religion based on the teachings of LRonHubbard, primarily in his book DianeticS.
------
EartH|982009346
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You are here.
------
EartH|982009361
1c1
< You are here.
---
> You are here. :-)
------
MetallicA/Talk|982009404
5a6,7
> ----
> WojPob's theory is: something went wrong after they collectively cut their hair (which started to look a bit MulleT-like). Then they released /Load, which in the view of a lot of fans was a "weird" album. Then, less than a year later came /Reload, which was released much too quickly and obviously needed some more studio work. They still have the talent - maybe they're just too old now???
------
AndorrA/People|982009444
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 66,824 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 15% (male 5,382; female 4,883) 
> 15-64 years: 72% (male 25,463; female 22,837) 
> 65 years and over: 13% (male 4,160; female 4,099) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.22% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 10.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 6.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 4.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 83.46 years 
> male: 80.56 years 
> female: 86.56 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Andorran(s) 
> adjective: Andorran 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Spanish 43%, Andorran 33%, Portuguese 11%, French 7%, other 6% (1998) 
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic (predominant) 
> 
> Languages: Catalan (official), French, Castilian 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: NA 
> total population: 100% 
> male: NA% 
> female: NA% 
------
AndorrA|982009590
10c10
< :/Governement
---
> :/Government
------
MetallicA/Discography|982009680
11a12,13
> 
> The band also contibuted a track (Disappear) to the MissionImpossibleTwo Soundtrack.
------
AndorrA/Government|982010019
1c1,71
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Principality of Andorra 
> conventional short form: Andorra 
> local long form: Principat d'Andorra 
> local short form: Andorra 
> 
> Data code: AN 
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains as its heads of state a coprincipality; the two princes
> are the president of FrancE and bishop of Seo de Urgel, SpaiN, who are represented locally by coprinces' representatives 
> 
> Capital: Andorra la Vella 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 7 parishes (parroquies, singular - parroquia); Andorra la Vella, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana,
> Escaldes-Engordany, Ordino, Sant Julia de Loria 
> 
> Independence: 1278 (was formed under the joint suzerainty of France and Spain) 
> 
> National holiday: Mare de Deu de Meritxell, 8 September (1278) 
> 
> Constitution: Andorra's first written constitution was drafted in 1991; approved by referendum 14 March 1993; came into force 4
> May 1993 
> 
> Legal system: based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ
> jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: French Coprince JacquesChirac (since 17 May 1995), represented by Mr. Frederic de SAINT-SERNIN (since NA);
> Spanish Coprince Episcopal Monseigneur Joan MARTI Alanis (since 31 January 1971), represented by Mr. Nemesi MARQUES
> OSTE (since NA) 
> head of government: Executive Council President Marc FORNE Molne (since 21 December 1994) 
> cabinet: Executive Council or Govern designated by the Executive Council president 
> elections: Executive Council president elected by the General Council and formally appointed by the coprinces for a four-year term;
> election last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) 
> election results: Marc FORNE Molne elected executive council president; percent of General Council vote - 64% 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral General Council of the Valleys or Consell General de las Valls (28 seats; members are elected by
> direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes; members serve four-year
> terms) 
> elections: last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA February 2001) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - UL 57%, AND 21%, IDN 7%, ND 7%, other 8%; seats by party - UL 16, AND 6, ND 2,
> IDN 2, UPO 2 
> 
> Judicial branch: Tribunal of Judges or Tribunal de Batlles; Tribunal of the Courts or Tribunal de Corts; Supreme Court of Justice of
> Andorra or Tribunal Superior de Justicia d'Andorra; Supreme Council of Justice or Consell Superior de la Justicia; Fiscal Ministry or
> Ministeri Fiscal; Constitutional Tribunal or Tribunal Constitucional 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Liberal Party of Andorra (Partit Liberal d'Andorra) or PLA [Marc FORNE]; Liberal Union or UL
> [Francesc CERQUEDA]; National Democratic Group or AND [Ladislau BARO SOLA]; National Democratic Initiative or IDN
> [Vincenc MATEU ZAMORA]; New Democracy or ND [Jaume BARTOMEU CASSANY]; Unio Parroquial d'Ordino or UPO [Simo
> DURO COMA] 
> note: there are two other small parties 
> 
> International organization participation: CCC, CE, ECE, ICRM, IFRCS, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OSCE, UN, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO,
> WToO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Juli MINOVES-TRIQUELL (also Permanent Representative to the UN) 
> chancery: 2 United Nations Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, NY 10017 
> telephone: [1] (212) 750-8064 
> FAX: [1] (212) 750-6630 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Andorra; the US Ambassador to Spain is accredited
> to Andorra; US interests in Andorra are represented by the Consulate General's office in Barcelona (Spain); mailing address: Paseo
> Reina Elisenda, 23, 08034 BarcelonaSpain; telephone: (3493) 280-2227; FAX: (3493) 205-7705 
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow
> band; the coat of arms features a quartered shield; similar to the flags of ChaD and RomaniA, which do not have a national coat of
> arms in the center, and the flag of MoldovA, which does bear a national emblem 
------
ProgrammingLanguage|982010318
0a1,2
> ''See ProgrammingLanguages''
> 
------
AndorrA/Economy|982010350
1c1,81
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An
> estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's
> comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spain have been opened up, providing
> broader availability of goods and lower tariffs. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the
> economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock
> activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs
> Union and is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural
> products. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $18,000 (1996 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: NA% 
> industry: NA% 
> services: NA% 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.62% (1998) 
> 
> Labor force: 30,787 salaried employees (1998) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1%, industry 21%, services 72%, other 6% (1998) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 0% 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $385 million 
> expenditures: $342 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) 
> 
> Industries: tourism (particularly skiing), cattle raising, timber, tobacco, banking 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 116 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: NA% 
> hydro: NA% 
> nuclear: NA% 
> other: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: NA kWh (1998 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: NA kWh 
> 
> Electricity - imports: NA kWh; note - imports electricity from Spain and France 
> 
> Agriculture - products: small quantities of tobacco, rye, wheat, barley, oats, vegetables; sheep 
> 
> Exports: $58 million (f.o.b., 1998) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: tobacco products, furniture 
> 
> Exports - partners: France 34%, Spain 58% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $1.077 billion (c.i.f., 1998) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods, food, electricity 
> 
> Imports - partners: Spain 48%, France 35%, US 2.3% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $NA 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: none 
> 
> Currency: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes; 1 peseta (Pta) = 100 centimos; the French and Spanish currencies are used 
> 
> Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995
> (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995); Spanish pesetas (Ptas) per US$1 - 143.39 (January 1999), 149.40 (1998), 146.41
> (1997), 126.66 (1996), 124.69 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
ProgrammingLanguage|982010425
3c3
< A Programming Language is a language used to program a computer.
---
> This pages should just go away, now that I see that there is a ProgrammingLanugages page.
5,18c5
< Here is an incomplete (but surely ever-growing) list:
< 
< PascaL
< BasiC
< FortraN
< CPlusPlus
< CLanguage
< SchemE
< LisP
< PerL
< JavA
< SnoboL
< 
< (Someone who is more knowledgeable about the history of computer languages, or the taxonomy of computer languages, could surely make a better and more organized list than mine.)
---
> How do we do that page forwarding thing using #forward or whatever?
------
ReviewRequests|982013427
7a8,9
> ----
> Am I right to think that this page is not particularly helpful?  Perhaps we should remove it.  It's like a "hall of shame."  Heck, ''all'' articles can be improved...
------
WikipediaL|982013500
1c1
< Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page (where you can also find [http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/wikipedia-l/ a Wikipedia-L archive]):
---
> Wikipedia-L is WikiPedia's mailing list.
3c3
< [http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l Wikipedia-L]
---
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page:
5c5,6
< I have just one request.  If someone asks a question, answers a question, or otherwise says something of lasting interest, will you please put it on the wiki?  TIA.
---
> :[http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l Wikipedia-L]
> :You can also find [http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/wikipedia-l/ a Wikipedia-L archive].
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|982014062
3c3
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeleted Nonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
---
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live WikiPedia!
------
MakeaNewPage|982014182
3,9c3
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
< ----
< Sonic: But why? It looks stupid and it is harder to read.
< ----
< If you mean the convention of capitalizing one of the letters inside or at the end of a word, it's part of how the software works.  Last I heard, we're trying to rewrite the software so we can indicate links [[like this]] instead of LikeThis.
< ----
< Sonic: Alternatively, you could keep the old style and display it differently, i.e. if the last letter is uppercase, display it as lowercase and make it a link. If a character in the middle of the word/phrase is uppercase, let it stay uppercase and insert a whitespace in front of it, plus make it a link
---
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
------
MakeaNewPage|982014219
3c3,5
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
---
> To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
> 
> We will soon be allowing ordinary-looking links; we're changing the software.
------
PartakeInDiscussion|982014407
3a4
> Perhaps an even better idea is to create a *Talk page (such as ElephantTalk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on encyclopedia articles.----
------
ElephanT|982014443
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A large greyish animal with large ears and a trunk, found in Africa and India.
> ----
> See ElephantTalk.
------
ElephantTalk|982014479
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Discussion about the ElephanT article would go here.
> 
> Curiously, discussion of a KingCrimson song would also go here.
------
KingCrimson|982014518
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Classic but strange rock and roll band.  Members have included AdrianBelew and RobertFripp.
------
KingCrimson|982014531
1c1,3
< Classic but strange rock and roll band.  Members have included AdrianBelew and RobertFripp.
---
> Classic but strange rock and roll band.  Members have included AdrianBelew and RobertFripp.
> 
> See ElephantTalk.
------
PopularMusic|982014576
30,31d29
< * NirvanA
< * MetallicA
34a33,38
> * KingCrimson
> 
> * MetallicA
> 
> * NirvanA
> 
36c40
< * BritneySpears
---
> * BritneySpears
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|982014736
14a15,16
> ----
> ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul--especially after CliffordAdams finishes updating the software that runs WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger''
------
SubSet|982019832
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Definition''':Given a SeT S, a SeT T is a SubSet of S if, for all x belonging to T, x belongs to S.
> 
> T is a SubSet of S <-> T is contained in S
> 
> 
> Example: Given the SeT of Complex Numbers: C = {a+bi: a, b belong to R, the real numbers}, then R = {x: x is a real number} is a SubSet of C.
> 
> This is true because any x in R can be represented as x+0i.
------
SubSet|982020466
1c1
< '''Definition''':Given a SeT S, a SeT T is a SubSet of S if, for all x belonging to T, x belongs to S.
---
> ''Definition'': Given a SeT <b>S</b>, a SeT <b>T</b> is a SubSet of <b>S</b> if, for all x belonging to <b>T</b>, x belongs to <b>S</b>.
3c3
< T is a SubSet of S <-> T is contained in S
---
> <b>T</b> is a SubSet of <b>S</b> <-> <b>T</b> is contained in <b>S</b>
6c6
< Example: Given the SeT of Complex Numbers: C = {a+bi: a, b belong to R, the real numbers}, then R = {x: x is a real number} is a SubSet of C.
---
> Example: Given the SeT of Complex Numbers: '''C''' = {a+bi: a, b belong to '''R''', the real numbers}, then '''R''' = {x: x is a real number} is a SubSet of '''C'''.
8c8
< This is true because any x in R can be represented as x+0i.
---
> This is true because any x in '''R''' can be represented as x+0i.
------
PartakeInDiscussion|982022347
4,5c4,9
< Perhaps an even better idea is to create a *Talk page (such as ElephantTalk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on encyclopedia articles.----
< By the way, you can participate on WikipediaL if you want to discuss something that, for whatever reason, you don't want to discuss on Wikipedia itself.
---
> Perhaps an even better idea is to create a *Talk page (such as ElephantTalk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on encyclopedia articles.
> ----
> I am thinking that a /Talk page is better than ElephantTalk.
> 
> ----
> By the way, you can participate on WikipediaL if you want to discuss something that, for whatever reason, you don't want to discuss on Wikipedia itself.
------
ScientologY|982022348
1c1,9
< Controversial religion based on the teachings of LRonHubbard, primarily in his book DianeticS.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of LRonHubbard, following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
> 
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and bad acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called variously the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
> 
> The central practice of ScientologY, and DianeticS before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a state of "clear," that state being one of freedom from the influences of the reactive mind.  The practice is one  wherein a counselor called an "auditor" addresses a series of questions to a "preclear'" or one who is not yet "clear," observes and records his responses, and acknowledges them.  The aim is to enable the preclear to recover awareness and volitional control of the material previously stored in his reactive mind.  The earliest forms of Dianetic processing, still practiced today, involved a scenario reminiscent of Freudian psychoanalysis, with the preclear reclining on a couch in a reflective state called "Dianetic reverie" while the auditor observed from a chair nearby and took notes, predicating his questions and responses on utterances by the preclear and a number of clearly defined physiological indica.  Some later forms of auditing employ a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer ("E-Meter").  This is a device which measures changes in the electrical resistance of the preclear's skin by passing approximately 1/2 volt through a pair of zinc-plated tubes much like empty soup cans, atached to the meter by wires and held by the preclear during auditing.  These low-potential changes in electrical resistance, known as galvanic response, are similar to those measured by polygraphs and related machines, and are thought to be more reliable and sensitive to the preclear's state of mind than the physiological indica of early DianeticS.
> 
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their ownThis may be a reflection of the fact that LRonHubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
> 
> As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been a steady lessening of friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  Their remain European governments whose official censure of Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
------
PartakeInDiscussion/Talk|982022383
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Notice the name of this page is PartakeInDiscussion/Talk.
> I created it by typing /Talk on the PartakeInDiscussion page.
> 
> This seems useful to me.
------
ScientologY|982022459
9c9
< As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been a steady lessening of friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  Their remain European governments whose official censure of Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
---
> As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been a steady lessening of friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  There remain European governments whose official censure of Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
------
WikiPediaFaq|982022582
92,94c92
< '''Q.''' I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.
< Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.
< Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.
---
> '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
96a95,98
> 
> '''A2.''' You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
> 
> '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described in A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
------
WikiPediaFaq|982022622
85c85
< '''A.'''  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.)
---
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.)
90c90
< '''A.''' The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.----
---
> A. The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.----
94c94
< '''A.''' This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
---
> A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
96c96
< '''A2.''' You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
---
> A2. You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
------
WikiPediaFaq|982022699
87,88c87
< 
< '''Q.''' It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get '''Invalid Page wiki.cgi'''. Why?
---
> '''Q. It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get <nowiki>Invalid Page wiki.cgi</nowiki>. Why?'''
91c90
< 
---
> ----
98c97
< '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described in A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
---
> '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
------
WikiPediaFaq|982022724
89c89
< A. The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.----
---
> A. The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
------
JudO|982022829
1c1
< Judo is to make somebody fall down.
---
> Judo is a JapaN'ese martial art.
------
JudO|982023009
1c1,3
< Judo is a JapaN'ese martial art.
---
> Judo is a martial art which originated in JapaN.  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by JigoroKano in 1882.
> 
> Judo became an OlympiC sport in 1964. 
------
MackSennett|982023087
1c1
< Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone in 1912 together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, Laurel and Hardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
---
> Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone in 1912 together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, LaurelandHardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
------
AcademyAwards|982023696
8,9c8,14
< */BestActor (in a leading role) */BestActress (in a leading role)
< */BestSupportingActor           */BestSupportingActress
---
> 
> */BestActor (in a leading role) 
> */BestActress (in a leading role)
> 
> */BestSupportingActor           
> */BestSupportingActress
> 
------
FiLm|982023773
1c1
< FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism -- AcademyAwards
---
> FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism -- AcademyAwards 
4a5,6
> ActorS
> ActresseS
------
ActorS|982023796
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> :HarrisonFord
> :KeanuReeves
------
ActresseS|982023889
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> :MegRyan
> :ShannonElizabeth
> :JodieFoster
> :JulianneMoore
> :DrewBarrymore
------
ActorS|982023951
1d0
< 
2a2
> :AnthonyHopkins
3a4
> 
------
ActresseS|982024091
1,2c1
< 
< :MegRyan
---
> :DrewBarrymore
6c5,7
< :DrewBarrymore
---
> :JuliaRoberts
> :MegRyan
> :MichelleYeoh
------
DrewBarrymore|982024135
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> /Biography
> /Filmography
------
ScientologY|982024422
7c7
< Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their ownThis may be a reflection of the fact that LRonHubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
---
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that LRonHubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
------
ThomasJefferson|982024677
1,2c1,2
< Thomas Jefferson was primary author of the Declaration of Independence and
< the third president of the United States, as well as a vast number of other
---
> Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was primary author of the Declaration of Independence and
> the third president of the United States (1801-1809), as well as a vast number of other
------
DianeticS|982026772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sub-study of ScientologY, primarily concerned with the an individual's mental and physical status, especially with regard to psychosomatic ills, in contrast to ScientologY overall, which is more concerned with the individual's spiritual well-being.
------
RecentChanges|982027003
1,5c1
< 
< Are you addicted to RecentChanges?  I know I am. :-) --JimboWales
< 
< Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
< 
---
> Are you addicted to RecentChanges?  I know I am.  :-)  Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
------
DianeticS|982027705
1c1
< A sub-study of ScientologY, primarily concerned with the an individual's mental and physical status, especially with regard to psychosomatic ills, in contrast to ScientologY overall, which is more concerned with the individual's spiritual well-being.
---
> A sub-study of ScientologY, primarily concerned with an individual's mental, emotional and physical status, especially with regard to psychosomatic ills, in contrast to ScientologY overall, which is more concerned with the individual's spiritual well-being.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982032902
9a10,18
> 
> The problem isn't in the format of the definition but in its substance.
> 
> Anarchism is not limited to politics or rejection of government. As a system, it is the absence of all hierarchy everywhere. The limitation of 'hierarchy' to political hierarchies is completely artificial and not supported by anarchists. In fact, it is easily disprovable since 'politics' is merely distribution of power and the existence of power structures in other areas of society is self-evident. Politics is inseparable from the rest of society.
> 
> Anarchism is a ''methodology'' not an ideology. Anarchism is a way of acting, a means to an end, and not the end itself. Insofar as 'anarchy' exists at all, it must be derived from anarchism. Most anarchists do not have a specific vision in mind so if one wants an honest description of what anarchists work towards then one must look at what they're actually doing. To figure out the destination anarchists wish to reach, look where they're going and not the distination which some tiny minority of people who may or may not be anarchists claim they're trying to reach. Anarchism is a movement defined by people at the bottom, not a hallucinatory vision dreamed up by "leaders" at the top. If you think this is "diffuse" then that's just too bad.
> 
> And by anarchists I mean anarcho-syndicalists whose belief in anarchism is genuine as evidenced by their having fought and died in revolutionary wars in order to bring about anarchy (whereas anarcho-capitalists have not). Saying that the history of anarchism is irrelevant is as naive as saying that the history of Marxism is irrelevant. Do you propose that a good definition of Marxism can be given by capitalists or Stalinists? To believe that an ideology can be fairly described by its enemies or propagandists who merely seek to exploit it is hopelessly naive. -- RichardKulisz
> 
11a21,25
> 
> I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "fuzzy".
> 
> Anarchism is a rejection of all hierarchy and authority. "Anarcho"-capitalism is a special case rejection of governmental authority in favour of capitalist authority. "Anarcho"-capitalists refuse to acknowledge that capitalist authority exists, that it is arbitrary, unjust and should be dismantled. It isn't possible to honestly describe "anarcho"-capitalist arguments and viewpoints without pointing out how baseless and oversimplistic they are. For example, a common argument among capitalists (and "anarcho"-capitalists are just capitalists who pretend to care about liberty) is to represent the free market as an auction where labour power is sold to buyers. Of course, it isn't because such an auction leaves the impression that the labour market is a ''seller's'' market when in fact it is a buyer's market. The best way to describe anarcho-capitalism is probably as a religion -- just state what they believe and nothing more. And if '''I''' described Christianity, I would describe it as a group fantasy dynamic to counter feelings of powerlessness, self-hatred and wishes for self-annihilation all caused by traumatic child abuse. This wouldn't go over very well with most people. -- RichardKulisz
> 
13c27
< The miscategorization of anarcho-syndicalism was my fault.  Since it looks like it's the main form of anarchism, I figured it deserved mention, but wasn't sure which heading to put it under thanks to the mention of ''cultural'' institutions.  At the time I wasn't thinking of institutions as organizations for whatever reason.  Bleah...easy to catch, at least. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> The miscategorization of anarcho-syndicalism was my fault.  Since it looks like it's the main form of anarchism, I figured it deserved mention, but wasn't sure which heading to put it under thanks to the mention of ''cultural'' institutions.  At the time I wasn't thinking of institutions as organizations for whatever reason.  Bleah...easy to catch, at least. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
CambodianLanguage|982032921
13c13,15
< ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?]''
---
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?]
>  -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
> completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents I've heard.''
------
CambodianLanguage|982032956
13,14c13
< ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?]
<  -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
---
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?] -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
------
CambodianLanguage|982033753
14c14
< completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents I've heard.''
---
> completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.''
------
CambodianLanguage|982033776
13,14c13,14
< ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here?] -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
< completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.''
---
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here? -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
> completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.]''
------
CambodianLanguage|982033835
13,14c13
< ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about".  Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here? -- No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and
< completely omitted in the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.]''
---
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about". Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here? No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and completely omitted in the manifestations of the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.]''
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982034355
22c22
< I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "fuzzy".
---
> I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it.
27a28,29
> 
> Of the two categories, you chose the least offensive one. The second category of 'people who oppose all social order' (implied by "which supports social order" instead of "'''the'' social order") obviously refers to bombers only. The problem is that both categories are extremely offensive and propagandistic distortions. -- RichardKulisz
------
AyeSpy|982034660
9c9
< On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I contributed thoughts and posted them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  However, suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  This is my problem, and no one else's.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  And I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a tounge-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the stamp of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
---
> On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I contributed thoughts and posted them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  However, I suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  This is my problem, and no one else's.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  And I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a tounge-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the stamp of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
------
KingdomAnimalia|982036294
2a3,4
> Blah, blah, blah.
> 
5c7,9
< Adult animals are typically diploids, producing small motile sperm and large non-motile eggs.  In all forms the fertilized zygote intially divides to form a hollow sphere called a ''blastula''.  This then undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  Blastulae are probably representative of the sort of colonies animals evolved from; similar forms occur among other flagellates, e.g. ''Volvox''.  However none of these other groups really ever progressed further, and large multicellular forms tend to develop by progressive growth instead.
---
> Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged off the same stock of monoflagellate protozoa that gave rise to the green plants, fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  Motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
> 
> Adult animals are typically diploids, producing small motile sperm and large non-motile eggs.  In all forms the fertilized zygote intiallvy divides to form a hollow sphere called a ''blastula''.  This then undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  Blastulae are probably representative of the sort of colonies animals evolved from; similar forms occur among other flagellates, e.g. ''Volvox''.  However none of these other groups really ever progressed further, and large multicellular forms tend to develop by progressive growth instead.
11c15
< The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the Precambrian.  These are called Vendians and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the Cambrian.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
---
> The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the PrecambrianEra.  These are called VendianFauna and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the CambrianPeriod.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
14a19,20
> Blah, blah, blah.  Arthropods and annelids turn out not to be related, as suggested by the very different developments of the two groups.  Instead arthropods seem to be related to the roundworms (NemaToda), linked by a chitinous cuticle which is molted.  What this does to proposals of their polyphyly I don't know.
> 
19,22c25,28
< * PhylumPorifera
< * PhylumRhombozoa
< * PhylumOrthonectida
< * PhylumPlacozoa
---
> * Phylum PoriFera
> * Phylum RhomboZoa
> * Phylum OrthoNectida
> * Phylum PlacoZoa
26,30c32,36
< * PhylumCnidaria (=Coelentrata)
< * PhylumCtenophora
< * PhylumPlatyhelminthes - probably paraphyletic to higher groups
< * PhylumRotifera
< * PhylumAcanthocephala
---
> * Phylum CnidaRia (=coelentrata)
> * Phylum CtenoPhora
> * Phylum PlatyHelminthes - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
> * Phylum RotiFera
> * Phylum AcanthoCephala
34,40c40,46
< * PhylumNemertea
< * PhylumMollusca (e.g. AbalonE)
< * PhylumSipuncula
< * PhylumEchiura
< * PhylumPogonophora
< * PhylumVestimentifera
< * PhylumAnnelida
---
> * Phylum NemerteA
> * Phylum MolluSca
> * Phylum SipunCula
> * Phylum EchiUra
> * Phylum PogonoPhora
> * Phylum VestiMentiFera
> * Phylum AnneLida
44,49c50,55
< * PhylumCephalorhyncha (=priapulids, kinorhynchs, loriciferans)
< * PhylumNematoda
< * PhylumNematomorpha
< * PhylumOnychophora
< * PhylumTardigrada
< * PhylumArthropoda
---
> * Phylum CephaloRhyncha (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
> * Phylum NemaToda
> * Phylum NematoMorpha
> * Phylum OnychoPhora
> * Phylum TardiGrada
> * Phylum ArthroPoda (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
53,55c59,61
< * PhylumBrachiopoda
< * PhylumEctoprocta (=Bryozoa)
< * PhylumPhoronida
---
> * Phylum BrachioPoda
> * Phylum EctoProcta (=bryozoa)
> * Phylum PhoroNida
59,62c65,68
< * PhylumChaetognatha
< * PhylumEchinodermata
< * PhylumHemichordata
< * PhylumChordata (e.g. HomoSapiens, AardvarK, WolF)
---
> * Phylum ChaetoGnatha
> * Phylum EchinoDermata
> * Phylum HemiChordata
> * Phylum ChordaTa (e.g. vertebrates)
------
ActorS|982036462
4c4,6
< 
---
> 
> 
> How do you make a little box?
------
ChordaTa|982038682
1c1,44
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Subphylum Urochordata'''
> 
> '''Subphylum Cephalochordata'''
> 
> '''Subphylum Craniata'''
> 
> The classification of vertebrates is awful.  Most of the standard groups - Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Sarcopterygii, Amphibia, Reptilia - are woefully paraphyletic and have either been abandoned or extended.  The results, though, have not settled in and so we are left with a mess.  Here's a tree to work from.
> 
>  Myxini (hagfish)
>  Vertebrata
>    Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
>    Various extinct forms
>    Gnathostoma
>      Placodermi - extinct
>      Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
>      Acanthodii - extinct
>      Osteichthyes
>        Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
>        Sarcopterygii
>          Various extinct forms
>          Coelocanthamorpha
>          Dipnoi (lungfish)
>          Tetrapoda
>            Various extinct forms
>            Lissamphibia
>            Amniota
>              Synapsida
>                Various extinct forms
>                Mammalia
>              Anapsida
>                Various extinct forms
>                Chelonia (turtles)
>              Diapsida
>                Various extinct forms
>                Lepidosauromorpha
>                  Various extinct forms
>                  Squamata (lizards, snakes)
>                  Sphenodontida (tuataras)
>                Archosauromorpha
>                  Various extinct forms
>                  Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
>                  Dinosauria
>                    Various extinct forms
>                    Aves (birds)
------
ChordaTa|982039266
7c7
< The classification of vertebrates is awful.  Most of the standard groups - Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Sarcopterygii, Amphibia, Reptilia - are woefully paraphyletic and have either been abandoned or extended.  The results, though, have not settled in and so we are left with a mess.  Here's a tree to work from.
---
> Vertebrate classification is awful.  Most of the standard groups are paraphyletic, and so have either been extended (B) or abandoned.  What's left is a mess that hasn't really settled into place yet.  The following is a minimal tree including most traditionally class-level groups:
12c12
<    Various extinct forms
---
>    ''Various extinct forms''
14c14
<      Placodermi - extinct
---
>      Placodermi ''- extinct''
16,17c16,17
<      Acanthodii - extinct
<      Osteichthyes
---
>      Acanthodii ''- extinct''
>      Osteichthyes B
19,20c19,20
<        Sarcopterygii
<          Various extinct forms
---
>        Sarcopterygii B
>          ''Various extinct forms''
24c24
<            Various extinct forms
---
>            '''Various extinct forms''
28c28
<                Various extinct forms
---
>                '''Various extinct forms'''
31c31
<                Various extinct forms
---
>                '''Various extinct forms'''
34c34
<                Various extinct forms
---
>                '''Various extinct forms'''
36c36
<                  Various extinct forms
---
>                  '''Various extinct forms'''
40c40
<                  Various extinct forms
---
>                  '''Various extinct forms'''
42,44c42
<                  Dinosauria
<                    Various extinct forms
<                    Aves (birds)
---
>                  Aves (birds)
------
ChordaTa|982039315
24c24
<            '''Various extinct forms''
---
>            ''Various extinct forms''
28c28
<                '''Various extinct forms'''
---
>                ''Various extinct forms''
31c31
<                '''Various extinct forms'''
---
>                ''Various extinct forms''
34c34
<                '''Various extinct forms'''
---
>                ''Various extinct forms''
36c36
<                  '''Various extinct forms'''
---
>                  ''Various extinct forms''
40c40
<                  '''Various extinct forms'''
---
>                  ''Various extinct forms''
------
ChordaTa|982039893
1c1
< '''Subphylum Urochordata'''
---
> '''Classification'''
3c3
< '''Subphylum Cephalochordata'''
---
> The traditional classification of vertebrates is a mess, with a wide variety of paraphyletic groups that have either been abandoned or extended (here marked B).  Unfortunately, no particularly standard system has settled in to replace it; the problem is there have been too many adaptive radiations.  For now, here is a minimal tree of living forms including most traditionally class-sized groups:
5,28c5,20
< '''Subphylum Craniata'''
< 
< Vertebrate classification is awful.  Most of the standard groups are paraphyletic, and so have either been extended (B) or abandoned.  What's left is a mess that hasn't really settled into place yet.  The following is a minimal tree including most traditionally class-level groups:
< 
<  Myxini (hagfish)
<  Vertebrata
<    Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
<    ''Various extinct forms''
<    Gnathostoma
<      Placodermi ''- extinct''
<      Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
<      Acanthodii ''- extinct''
<      Osteichthyes B
<        Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
<        Sarcopterygii B
<          ''Various extinct forms''
<          Coelocanthamorpha
<          Dipnoi (lungfish)
<          Tetrapoda
<            ''Various extinct forms''
<            Lissamphibia
<            Amniota
<              Synapsida
<                ''Various extinct forms''
---
>  Urochordata
>  Cephalochordata
>  Craniata
>    Myxini (hagfish)
>    Vertebrata
>      Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
>      Gnathostoma
>        Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
>        Osteichthyes B
>          Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
>          Sarcopterygii B
>            Coelocanthamorpha
>            Dipnoi (lungfish)
>            Tetrapoda 
>              Lissamphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders)
>              Amniota
30,31d21
<              Anapsida
<                ''Various extinct forms''
33,42c23,28
<              Diapsida
<                ''Various extinct forms''
<                Lepidosauromorpha
<                  ''Various extinct forms''
<                  Squamata (lizards, snakes)
<                  Sphenodontida (tuataras)
<                Archosauromorpha
<                  ''Various extinct forms''
<                  Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
<                  Aves (birds)
---
>                Squamata (lizards, snakes)
>                Sphenodontida (tuataras)
>                Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
>                Aves (birds)
> 
> Information on characteristics of each group and a more detailed classification thereof should probably go under its headline - eg details of skeletal system and listing of jawless fishes under Vertebrata.
------
ChordaTa|982040254
21c21
<                Mammalia
---
>                MammaLia
28c28
< Information on characteristics of each group and a more detailed classification thereof should probably go under its headline - eg details of skeletal system and listing of jawless fishes under Vertebrata.
---
> Information on characteristics of each group and a more detailed classification thereof should probably go under its headline - eg details of skeletal system and listing of jawless fishes under Vertebrata.
------
MammaLia|982041512
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Monotremata'''
> 
> '''Marsupialia'''
> 
> '''Multituberculata - extinct'''
> 
> '''Eutheria'''
> 
> * Xenarthra (anteaters, sloths, armadillos; formerly called Edentata)
> * Pholidota (pangolins)
> 
> * Chiroptera (bats)
> * Dermoptera (flying lemurs)
> * Primates (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
> * Scandentia (tree shrews)
> 
> * Macroscelidea (elephant shrews)
> * Rodentia (mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, etc)
> * Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits, pikas)
> 
> * Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, etc)
> 
> * Creodonta - extinct
> * Carnivora (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
> 
> * Condylarthra - extinct
> * Artiodactlya (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
> * Cetacea (whales, dolphins, porpoises)
> * Tubulidentata (AardvarK)
> * Perissodactyla (horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses)
> * Hyracoidea (hyraxes, dassies)
> * Proboscidea (elephants, etc)
> * Embrythopoda - extinct
> * Demostylia - extinct
> * Sirenia (manatees, dugong, sea cows)
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982041609
22c22
< I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it.
---
> I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it. The failure to list Emma Goldman, Mikhail Bukanin and Noam Chomsky as famous anachists and the inclusion of an absolute nobody like Leon Czolgosz (whose own mother said was ''too stupid to be an anarchist'') tells me that Tim isn't familiar enough with anarchism to impose his views of it on anyone else. And since every political ideology has resulted in the murder of at least one leader of an opposing ideology, Czolgosz shooting means nothing. The murders of anarchist leaders at the hands of capitalists more than compensate. Focusing on an aberration is a common propaganda technique.
29c29
< Of the two categories, you chose the least offensive one. The second category of 'people who oppose all social order' (implied by "which supports social order" instead of "'''the'' social order") obviously refers to bombers only. The problem is that both categories are extremely offensive and propagandistic distortions. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Of the two categories, you chose the least offensive one. The second category of 'people who oppose all social order' (implied by "which supports social order" instead of "'''the'' social order") obviously refers to bombers only. The problem is that both categories are extremely offensive and propagandistic distortions. -- RichardKulisz
------
AnarchY|982044652
1d0
< A political system in which there is no government.
3,13c2,4
< The term anarchy is used to describe two essentially opposite political views, one which supports social order, the other which opposes it.
< 
< The first group believes that social order can be preserved by relying on cultural and economic institutions alone, without political insitutions.
< 
< The second group believes the social order per se should not be preserved, and opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them.
< 
< Anarchist philosophies include AnarchoCapitalism and AnarchoSyndicalism.
< 
< Famous anarchists include PeterKropotkin and DavidFriedman.  In 1901, an anarchist named LeonCzolgosz shot and killed WilliamMcKinley, the 25th President of the United States.
< 
< /AnarchyTalk
---
> I am about to attempt to find a happy middle ground here.
> Give me a little while to write... (30 minutes or so, if 
> anyone is watching).
------
AnarchY|982045387
0a1
> Anarchy is a term used in two different ways, to describe two very different political views.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
2,4c3,13
< I am about to attempt to find a happy middle ground here.
< Give me a little while to write... (30 minutes or so, if 
< anyone is watching).
---
> Traditionally, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to a movement 
> dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
> 
> Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.  We have a comprehensive discussion of TraditionalAnarchism.
> 
> More recently, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to supporters of AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
> 
> The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  We have a comprehensive discussion of AnarchoCapitalism.
> 
> 
> 
------
AnarchY|982045631
2c2
< 
---
> ----
7c7
< 
---
> ----
10a11,13
> ----
> 
> Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper, or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
11a15
> AnarchoCapitalists contend that anarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and that many anarchists are economically illiterate.
13c17
< 
---
> This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
------
AnarchY|982045647
17c17,19
< This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
---
> This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
> 
> /Talk
------
AnarchY|982045700
19c19
< /Talk
---
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchoCapitalism|982045747
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is where TimShell or some other person knowledgeable about the ideas of DavidFriedman and others like him should write about their ideas.
> 
> 
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982045929
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is the place for an encyclopedic, not polemic, discussion of what Traditional Anarchism is all about.
> 
> ----
> Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order
> without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time,
> Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
> 
> Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begins with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure.
> Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism were synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics
> have taken to calling themselves anarcho-capitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the
> Anglo-American countries. 
> 
> Both the view of Anarchism as a Nihilist position admitting only destruction and the capitalist position of anarchism as purely
> political are regarded as grave misunderstandings of Anarchism
> by advocates.
------
AnarchoCapitalism|982045954
2a3
> The discussion should be encyclopedic, I hope, and not polemic.
------
AnarchY|982046012
19c19
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: AnarchyTalk
---
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
RichardKulisz|982046067
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very welcome newcomer to the Wikipedia, who I hope will write quite a bit about the history of anarchism.  :-) --JimboWales
------
TechnologY|982046268
7a8
> * SingularitY
------
TechnologY|982046299
8c8
< * SingularitY
---
> * TheSingularity
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982046534
29a30,31
> ----
> It seems to me Jimbo has shown a way around this dispute, although Richard and Tim may disagree.  At least Jimbo has illustrated the general direction that we should move in when we have these sorts of disputes.  The aim is to describe the theories in such a way as cannot be objected to by their proponents or their opponents--by attributing the very descriptions of the theories to their proponents and then explaining what the differences and conflicts between competing theories are (rather than ignoring the fact that there is a conflict, or engaging the conflicts on the page itself).  It seems to me this is something that anyone here can do with a little practice.  Might be good for you, too.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
TheSingularity|982046861
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If, as seems true, technological progress has been following an exponential curve for a very long time, then there will come a point at which technological progress accelerates essentially to infinity.  This is known as TheSingularity.
> 
> There are many different specific definitions of the term, but all seem to have a common theme, perhaps summed up best by VernorVinge in his famous essay ''Singularity'', published in 1993:
> 
> ''"Within thirty years, we will have the technological means to create superhuman intelligence.  Shortly thereafter, the human era will be ended."''
> 
> The basic idea of TheSingularity can be thought of as a natural extrapolation of MooresLaw.  If the computing power per dollar cost continues to double every 18 to 24 months, then it is only a matter of time (some estimates range from 2020-2050) until we have inexpensive computer hardware ($1000, say) that is as powerful as the human brain.  When that happens, it seems inevitable that realistic intelligence that equals ours can be created.
> 
> But due to such factors as "the AI advantage" (i.e., downloadable consciousness, replicable consciousness), it seems likely that such AIs would quickly be able to create even more intelligent machines.  If we can create a single $1000 Einstein, you might say, we can easily create a billion Einsteins.  Working together, they can surely generate enough technological progress to build machines so smart that they boggle the human mind.
> 
> It's a really interesting idea, no?
> 
> I would like to see a list here of prominent theorists/speculators on the subject, including:
> :VernorVinge
> :BillJoy
> :HansMoravec
> 
> As well as a discussion of some of the key concepts:
> :AiAdvantage
> 
> /Talk
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982046977
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Comment by JimboWales: I think that this is likely to happen within my own natural lifespan.  I'm 34 now, and so in 2031,
> I will be 54.  If I take care of myself, I should be able to live to 74-104, even given today's technology.
> 
> It strikes me as a virtual certainty that we will have massively cheap machine intelligence by then.  And that's going to be, for better or worse, the most amazing thing that has ever happened on EartH.
------
AnarchY|982046993
1c1,3
< Anarchy is a term used in two different ways, to describe two very different political views.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
---
> ''Anarchy'' is often used pejoratively simply to mean chaos, violence, and complete lack of political order.  This is one ordinary use of the word, but it does not describe a suitable subject for an encyclopedia article.  ''Anarchy'' has an interesting use, according to which anarchy is a political ideal.
> 
> But when it is used to describe a political ideal, ''anarchy'' is a term used in two different ways in describing two very different political views.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
------
AnarchY|982047052
1c1
< ''Anarchy'' is often used pejoratively simply to mean chaos, violence, and complete lack of political order.  This is one ordinary use of the word, but it does not describe a suitable subject for an encyclopedia article.  ''Anarchy'' has an interesting use, according to which anarchy is a political ideal.
---
> ''Anarchy'' is often used pejoratively simply to mean chaos, violence, and complete lack of political and/or social order.  This is one ordinary use of the word, but it does not describe a suitable subject for an encyclopedia article.  ''Anarchy'' has an interesting use, according to which anarchy is a political ideal.
------
AnarchY|982047115
17c17
< AnarchoCapitalists contend that anarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and that many anarchists are economically illiterate.
---
> Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and that many anarchists are economically illiterate.
------
MammaMia|982047316
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An exclamation, meaning "Oh my gosh!" or something of that sort.
> 
> This may be an ItalianLanguage expression, or perhaps only English-speaking people's fantasy of an ItalianLanguage expression, I do not know.
> 
> Not to be confused with MammaLia, the order of Mammals in our Science area.  ;-)
------
AnarchY|982047494
17c17
< Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and that many anarchists are economically illiterate.
---
> Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and may also claim that many anarchists of the traditional sort are economically illiterate.
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982047833
1d0
< 
5c4,10
< It strikes me as a virtual certainty that we will have massively cheap machine intelligence by then.  And that's going to be, for better or worse, the most amazing thing that has ever happened on EartH.
---
> It strikes me as a virtual certainty that we will have massively cheap machine intelligence by then.  And that's going to be, for better or worse, the most amazing thing that has ever happened on EartH.
> ----
> While we're firing off personal opinions.  It's an open question exactly how powerful a computer one would need to support consciousness (heck, that possibility is still somewhat open).  A friend of mine, though, suggested this possibility: you need basically as many connections as an ape brain has.  In our ''vacuum datarum'' I would go with this, since it's obvious and fits with consciousness arising evolutionarily when it did.
> 
> In that case, we have a long ways to go, since most of our computers are about as powerful as worms.  Good at different things, of course, but I don't see them helping too much.  So don't wait up...well, I guess you should if you can, but that's a different matter. :)
> 
> Btw, never extrapolate trends too far!  Technology can't surpass physical limits, which strongly seem to exist.  So its growth should be logistic rather than exponential, and we're far enough away from the limits we know of that it makes sense we can't yet tell the two apart. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982049092
10a11,18
> ----
> Oh, I agree with what you say.  This is just a fun idea more than anything else.
> 
> There is a fairly respectable argument that the processing power of the human brain is something on the order of 100 million million to 1 billion million instructions per second.  IBM is currently planning to have completed by 2005, a computer which will handle 1 billion million instructions per second.  Of course, such an expensive ($100 million) computer will not be used for something as silly as approximating human intelligence -- it will be used to work on problems in protein folding, as I understand it.  But, let's suppose that 20 years from now, a computer that powerful is cheaply available.
> 
> Given the history of computers so far, and given the technological advances that seem to be "in the pipeline", it doesn't seem totally outrageous to suggest 2021 as a date for that.
> 
> But, tack on an extra 30 years to be safe.  So, will we have it by 2051?  --JimboWales
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982050088
18c18,22
< But, tack on an extra 30 years to be safe.  So, will we have it by 2051?  --JimboWales
---
> But, tack on an extra 30 years to be safe.  So, will we have it by 2051?  --JimboWales
> 
> Oh, when I say processing power I'm not referring to speed.  A fast calculator is still a calculator.  I'm referring to the number of internal connections the system has.  Our brains have a lot of neurons connected in very complex ways, so consciousness can emerge relatively easily.  Present computers have relatively few gates hooked up to each other simplistically, so there's no such room.  And they're not getting that much better yet.
> 
> Half a century is a long time, of course, so this is all speculation.  But fun ideas can be grounded in reality, and if you learn something thinking about them it's all to the good. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982052547
31c31,33
< It seems to me Jimbo has shown a way around this dispute, although Richard and Tim may disagree.  At least Jimbo has illustrated the general direction that we should move in when we have these sorts of disputes.  The aim is to describe the theories in such a way as cannot be objected to by their proponents or their opponents--by attributing the very descriptions of the theories to their proponents and then explaining what the differences and conflicts between competing theories are (rather than ignoring the fact that there is a conflict, or engaging the conflicts on the page itself).  It seems to me this is something that anyone here can do with a little practice.  Might be good for you, too.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> It seems to me Jimbo has shown a way around this dispute, although Richard and Tim may disagree.  At least Jimbo has illustrated the general direction that we should move in when we have these sorts of disputes.  The aim is to describe the theories in such a way as cannot be objected to by their proponents or their opponents--by attributing the very descriptions of the theories to their proponents and then explaining what the differences and conflicts between competing theories are (rather than ignoring the fact that there is a conflict, or engaging the conflicts on the page itself).  It seems to me this is something that anyone here can do with a little practice.  Might be good for you, too.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> 
> There's just a couple problems in recognizing AnarchoCapitalism as a form of Anarchism. 1) Anti-capitalist anarchists were there first so including capitalists only serves to confuse matters. 2) AnarchoCapitalism is limited geographically to the very right wing countries. 3) Capitalism '''is''' authoritarian since private property is an inherently authoritarian concept (to deny that the owner gets to dictate to everyone else or that this is a form of authority is blatant destruction of the English language), so AnarchoCapitalism is a contradiction in terms. 4) It's not clear that AnarchoCapitalism is a serious political ideology instead of mere political maneuvering. So I find equal time given to AnarchoCapitalism to be a bit irritating. -- RichardKulisz
------
EthicsVsMorals|982053454
3a4,6
> 
> ----
> A formal way of distinguishing them is to define ethics as 'those rules which it is rational for a group to possess so as to govern its external relations with other entities' and define morals as 'those rules which it is rational for a group to possess so as to govern its internal relations between members'. These definitions are consistent with the usage of professional ethics (of a profession with regards to clients, patients, et cetera) versus human morality (how one human should behave with respect to another). And keeping these examples in mind, it simply isn't correct that ethics does not derive from an authority (eg, a doctor's association) or that morality does not come from personally accepted principle. It also shows that professional ethics have nothing to do with the consensus or division in the group involved.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982054556
22c22
< I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it. The failure to list Emma Goldman, Mikhail Bukanin and Noam Chomsky as famous anachists and the inclusion of an absolute nobody like Leon Czolgosz (whose own mother said was ''too stupid to be an anarchist'') tells me that Tim isn't familiar enough with anarchism to impose his views of it on anyone else. And since every political ideology has resulted in the murder of at least one leader of an opposing ideology, Czolgosz shooting means nothing. The murders of anarchist leaders at the hands of capitalists more than compensate. Focusing on an aberration is a common propaganda technique.
---
> I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it. The failure to list Emma Goldman, Mikhail Bakunin and Noam Chomsky as famous anachists and the inclusion of an absolute nobody like Leon Czolgosz (whose own mother said was ''too stupid to be an anarchist'') tells me that Tim isn't familiar enough with anarchism to impose his views of it on anyone else. And since every political ideology has resulted in the murder of at least one leader of an opposing ideology, Czolgosz shooting McKinley means nothing. The murders of anarchist leaders at the hands of capitalists more than compensate. Focusing on an aberration is a common propaganda technique.
33c33
< There's just a couple problems in recognizing AnarchoCapitalism as a form of Anarchism. 1) Anti-capitalist anarchists were there first so including capitalists only serves to confuse matters. 2) AnarchoCapitalism is limited geographically to the very right wing countries. 3) Capitalism '''is''' authoritarian since private property is an inherently authoritarian concept (to deny that the owner gets to dictate to everyone else or that this is a form of authority is blatant destruction of the English language), so AnarchoCapitalism is a contradiction in terms. 4) It's not clear that AnarchoCapitalism is a serious political ideology instead of mere political maneuvering. So I find equal time given to AnarchoCapitalism to be a bit irritating. -- RichardKulisz
---
> There's just a couple problems in recognizing AnarchoCapitalism as a form of Anarchism. 1) Anti-capitalist anarchists were there first so including capitalists only serves to confuse matters. 2) AnarchoCapitalism is limited geographically to the very right wing countries. 3) Capitalism '''is''' authoritarian since private property is an inherently authoritarian concept (to deny that the owner gets to dictate to everyone else or that this is a form of authority is blatant destruction of the English language), so AnarchoCapitalism is a contradiction in terms. 4) It's not clear that AnarchoCapitalism is a serious political ideology instead of mere political maneuvering. So I find equal time given to AnarchoCapitalism to be a bit irritating. -- RichardKulisz
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982060492
33a34,35
> 
> Since you're making your case briefly, weakly, and vaguely, I'll answer briefly, weakly, and vaguely.  (1) Matters are already long since "confused" (and it's not ''that'' confusing); you can't change that.  (2) Er, so what?  This is weak.  (3) Suffice it to say this requires more argument.  (4) This is silly and very implausible, given that there are many serious people who identify themselves as anarcho-capitalists.  I understand your irritation, but I also think you're going to have to live with it.  If you really care so much about how political views are represented on Wikipedia, why not elaborate anarcho-syndicalism fairly?  Or is it just more fun to debate?  I suppose it is, for many people. -- LarrySanger
------
AnarchY|982060606
15c15
< Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper, or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
---
> Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper (or not a kind of anarchism at all), or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
21c21
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
---
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982061314
35c35
< Since you're making your case briefly, weakly, and vaguely, I'll answer briefly, weakly, and vaguely.  (1) Matters are already long since "confused" (and it's not ''that'' confusing); you can't change that.  (2) Er, so what?  This is weak.  (3) Suffice it to say this requires more argument.  (4) This is silly and very implausible, given that there are many serious people who identify themselves as anarcho-capitalists.  I understand your irritation, but I also think you're going to have to live with it.  If you really care so much about how political views are represented on Wikipedia, why not elaborate anarcho-syndicalism fairly?  Or is it just more fun to debate?  I suppose it is, for many people. -- LarrySanger
---
> I'll answer briefly, weakly, and vaguely.  (1) Matters are already long since "confused" (and it's not ''that'' confusing); you can't change that.  (2) Er, so what?  (3) Suffice it to say this requires more argument.  (4) This seems very implausible, given that there are many serious people who identify themselves as anarcho-capitalists.  I understand your irritation, but I also think you're going to have to live with it.  If you really care so much about how political views are represented on Wikipedia, wouldn't your energies be better spent elaborating anarcho-syndicalism fairly--which would include anarcho-syndicalism's response to anarcho-capitalism? -- LarrySanger
------
ElectricalEngineering|982062435
7a8,9
> 
> "SecuritySystemsforHome"
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982062444
35a36,37
> 
> In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982062546
37c37
< In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].
---
> In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
------
MppC|982069995
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak.
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions that cancelled some important patents, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
------
IndependentS|982070233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they lay the foundations of the studio system and of American film industry as such. 
------
HollywooD|982070403
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here. 
------
FilmHistory|982070453
12c12
< Some people you should know during the beginnings of Hollywood (1912-1925)
---
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of HollywooD (1912-1925)
25c25,26
< *  MppC
---
> *  MppC
> *  IndependentS
------
BooksOfTheBible|982070546
1d0
< 
85a85,86
> 
> Oh - silly me - I just discovered how the slash-name notation actually works.  This page should probably be changed to read "slash genesis" instead of the funky URL thing we've going now...
------
MppC|982070553
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions that cancelled some important patents, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the ShermanAntitrustAct, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
------
FilmHistory|982070752
26c26,27
< *  IndependentS
---
> *  IndependentS
> *  FoxFilmCorporation
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Two|982070920
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
> :2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
> :3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
> :4 These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, 
> :5 And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground. 
> :6 But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground. 
> :7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. 
> :8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. 
> :9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. 
> :10 And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. 
> :11 The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; 
> :12 And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone. 
> :13 And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. 
> :14 And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates. 
> :15 And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. 
> :16 And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: 
> :17 But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. 
> :18 And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him. 
> :19 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. 
> :20 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him. 
> :21 And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; 
> :22 And the rib, which the LORD God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man. 
> :23 And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man. 
> :24 Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. 
> :25 And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed. 
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Two|982070965
1,3c1,3
< :1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
< :2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
< :3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
---
> :# Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
> :# And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
> :# And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Two|982070979
1,3c1,3
< :# Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
< :# And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
< :# And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
---
> :1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
> :2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
> :3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
------
SandBox|982071069
9a10,14
> 
> ----
> # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah....
> # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah....
> # last line 
------
SandBox|982071113
12,13c12,13
< # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah....
< # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah....
---
> # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah....
> # this is a test of a really long line to see what happens when it wraps around in this strange number mode, blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah blah....
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Two|982071207
1,25c1,25
< :1 Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
< :2 And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
< :3 And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
< :4 These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, 
< :5 And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground. 
< :6 But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground. 
< :7 And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. 
< :8 And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. 
< :9 And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. 
< :10 And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. 
< :11 The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; 
< :12 And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone. 
< :13 And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. 
< :14 And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates. 
< :15 And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. 
< :16 And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: 
< :17 But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. 
< :18 And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him. 
< :19 And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. 
< :20 And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him. 
< :21 And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; 
< :22 And the rib, which the LORD God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man. 
< :23 And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man. 
< :24 Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. 
< :25 And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed. 
---
> # Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 
> # And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 
> # And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. 
> # These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the LORD God made the earth and the heavens, 
> # And every plant of the field before it was in the earth, and every herb of the field before it grew: for the LORD God had not caused it to rain upon the earth, and there was not a man to till the ground. 
> # But there went up a mist from the earth, and watered the whole face of the ground. 
> # And the LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. 
> # And the LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the man whom he had formed. 
> # And out of the ground made the LORD God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. 
> # And a river went out of Eden to water the garden; and from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. 
> # The name of the first is Pison: that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold; 
> # And the gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx stone. 
> # And the name of the second river is Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia. 
> # And the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth toward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates. 
> # And the LORD God took the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. 
> # And the LORD God commanded the man, saying, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat: 
> # But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. 
> # And the LORD God said, It is not good that the man should be alone; I will make him an help meet for him. 
> # And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. 
> # And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him. 
> # And the LORD God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; 
> # And the rib, which the LORD God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her unto the man. 
> # And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man. 
> # Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. 
> # And they were both naked, the man and his wife, and were not ashamed. 
------
FoxFilmCorporation|982071257
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1913, William Fox founded two companies, Greater New York Film Rental, a distribution firm, which was part of the IndependentS, and Fox (or Box, depending on the source) Office Attractions Company, a production company. 1915, he merged them to Fox Film Corporation (see VerticalIntegration), 1917 the company moved to HollywooD. During the FirstWorldWar, Fox was the leading production company in the US. William Fox lost control over the company after the 1929 stock market crash
------
MppC|982071368
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the ShermanAntitrustAct, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the one in 1915, which cancelled all MPPC patents and the ShermanAntitrustAct in 1917, which ended the oligopoly, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
------
FilmHistory|982071405
27c27,28
< *  FoxFilmCorporation
---
> *  FoxFilmCorporation
> *  ParamounT
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/One|982071788
1,94c1,31
< 
<   1In the beginning God created the heaven and the
<      earth.
<   2And the earth was without form, and void; and
<      darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the
<      Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
<   3And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
<   4And God saw the light, that it was good: and God
<      divided the light from the darkness.
<   5And God called the light Day, and the darkness he
<      called Night. And the evening and the morning were
<      the first day.
<   6And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst
<      of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the
<      waters.
<   7And God made the firmament, and divided the
<      waters which were under the firmament from the
<      waters which were above the firmament: and it was
<      so.
<   8And God called the firmament Heaven. And the
<      evening and the morning were the second day.
<   9And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be
<      gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land
<      appear: and it was so.
<   10And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering
<      together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw
<      that it was good.
<   11And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the
<      herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit
<      after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth:
<      and it was so.
<   12And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding
<      seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose
<      seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it
<      was good.
<   13And the evening and the morning were the third day.
<   14And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of
<      the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let
<      them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and
<      years:
<   15And let them be for lights in the firmament of the
<      heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was so.
<   16And God made two great lights; the greater light to
<      rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he
<      made the stars also.
<   17And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to
<      give light upon the earth,
<   18And to rule over the day and over the night, and to
<      divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that
<      it was good.
<   19And the evening and the morning were the fourth
<      day.
<   20And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly
<      the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may
<      fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.
<   21And God created great whales, and every living
<      creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth
<      abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl
<      after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
<   22And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and
<      multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl
<      multiply in the earth.
<   23And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.
<   24And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living
<      creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and
<      beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.
<   25And God made the beast of the earth after his kind,
<      and cattle after their kind, and every thing that
<      creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw
<      that it was good.
<   26And God said, Let us make man in our image, after
<      our likeness: and let them have dominion over the
<      fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over
<      the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every
<      creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
<   27So God created man in his own image, in the image of
<      God created he him; male and female created he
<      them.
<   28And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be
<      fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and
<      subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea,
<      and over the fowl of the air, and over every living
<      thing that moveth upon the earth.
<   29And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb
<      bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth,
<      and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree
<      yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.
<   30And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of
<      the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the
<      earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green
<      herb for meat: and it was so.
<   31And God saw every thing that he had made, and,
<      behold, it was very good. And the evening and the
<      morning were the sixth day.
---
> # In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
> # And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.
> # And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.
> # And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.
> # And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.
> # And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.
> # And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.
> # And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day.
> # And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.
> # And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.
> # And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.
> # And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
> # And the evening and the morning were the third day.
> # And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:
> # And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was so.
> # And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.
> # And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,
> # And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good.
> # And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.
> # And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.
> # And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
> # And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.
> # And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.
> # And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.
> # And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.
> # And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.
> # So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.
> # And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.
> # And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.
> # And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meat: and it was so.
> # And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day.
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982072569
63a64,66
> 
> ----
> /Talk
------
ParamounT|982073508
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paramount was founded by WWHodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with AdolphZukor's FamousPlayers, JesseLasky's FeaturePlay and with BoswortH, the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see VerticalIntegration). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular FamousPlayers movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, AdolphZukor bought Paramount and merged it with FamousPlayers. The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks). AdolphZukor fired WWHodkinson, who founded FirstNational to challenge Paramount's power. FirstNational controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, FirstNational and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DWGriffith, who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, UnitedArtists, which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the SecondOligopoly until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
------
ParamounT|982073599
1c1,3
< Paramount was founded by WWHodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with AdolphZukor's FamousPlayers, JesseLasky's FeaturePlay and with BoswortH, the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see VerticalIntegration). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular FamousPlayers movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, AdolphZukor bought Paramount and merged it with FamousPlayers. The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks). AdolphZukor fired WWHodkinson, who founded FirstNational to challenge Paramount's power. FirstNational controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, FirstNational and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DWGriffith, who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, UnitedArtists, which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the SecondOligopoly until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
---
> Paramount was founded by WWHodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with AdolphZukor's FamousPlayers, JesseLasky's FeaturePlay and with BoswortH, the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see VerticalIntegration). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular FamousPlayers movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, AdolphZukor bought Paramount and merged it with FamousPlayers. 
> 
> The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks). AdolphZukor also fired WWHodkinson, who founded FirstNational to challenge Paramount's power. FirstNational controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, FirstNational and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DwGriffith, who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, UnitedArtists, which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the SecondOligopoly until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
------
MppC|982073833
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the one in 1915, which cancelled all MPPC patents and the ShermanAntitrustAct in 1917, which ended the oligopoly, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the one in 1912, which cancelled the patent on raw film, the one in 1915, which cancelled all MPPC patents and the ShermanAntitrustAct in 1917, which ended the oligopoly, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
------
IndependentS|982073886
1c1
< The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they lay the foundations of the studio system and of American film industry as such. 
---
> The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They built their own cameras to evade the trust's patents and moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they lay the foundations of the studio system and of American film industry as such. 
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982074754
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Interesting article, Larry.  I too believe that God is much more interested in our '''character''' than our '''comfort'''.  However, I do find your concept of Natural Evil a bit puzzling.  A tornado may be disasterous and horrible, but calling it ''evil'' seems a bit strange to me.  And where do you draw the line?  Does a tornado have to take a life to be evil, or can it simply destroy some property?  What if it never touches down - is it still evil?  I dunno, I just don't think I buy into this.
> 
> Terrible things happen to good people, and these events you call evil.  But often these people can overcome these events and eventually become a much better person than they ever would have if the event had never happened.  I've seen it happen dozens of times.  So was the event really evil, can a thing that is evil result in something that is good?  Can it do so if God does not really exist?
> 
> The small little community I live in just recently was devistated when three high-school aged girls were killed when the mini-van they were riding swerved off the road and rolled over.  There was no alcohol involved, it appears they hit a pothole and lost control of the vehicle.  All three girls were very active in their respective churches, we know that they were all Christians.  I do not wish to diminish in the least the amount of grief that their families and indeed our entire community went through.  But I will say this, that our community pulled together around these families, and absolutely outpoured our love onto them.  Hundreds of families got involved in bringing whatever comfort we could to the grieving families, and as a result of their testimonies many kids who were making bad choices for themselves have decided to start making better ones.  I'm sorry, but I simply cannot see the pothole as evil.
> 
> The premises of the argument seem to have the bent that if God truly existed we would live in a environment where nothing ever went wrong.  No one would ever get hurt regardless of the circumstances, and everyone would have enough to eat and drink.  Why that does sound a lot like the Garden of Eden, doesn't it?  It also sounds a lot like we would have very little freedom there - all of our choices would be between things that were already pre-ordained to be good for us.  God never promised us smooth sailing, it simply isn't how the world works anymore.  He did, however, promise us comfort in our times of sorrow and I can tell you from personal experience that he does deliver.
> 
> --RaviDesai.
------
ActorS|982077275
0a1,8
> :JullietteBinoche
> :HumpreyBogart
> :JimCarey
> :SeanConnery
> :MichaelDouglas
> :BlytheDanner
> :HenryFonda
> :JaneFonda
1a10,14
> :JodieFoster
> :RichardGere
> :TomHanks
> :AudreyHepburn
> :KatherineHepburn
2a16,26
> :VivienLeigh
> :JackLemmon
> :SophiaLoren
> :PeterLorre
> :WalterMathau
> :PaulNewman
> :JackNicholson
> :GwenethPaltrow
> :SidneyPoitier
> :DennisQuaid
> :RobertRedford
3a28,33
> :JuliaRoberts
> :MegRyan
> :ElizabethTaylor
> :SpencerTracy
> :NatalieWood
> :JoanneWoodward
------
ActorS|982077731
2a3
> :EllenBurstein
4a6,7
> :BillCosby
> :JudithDench (Dame)
11a15,16
> :WhoopieGoldberg
> :CubaGoodingJr''.''
14a20
> :DustinHoffman
20a27
> :ShirleyMcLaine
25a33
> :RandyQuaid
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982082230
9a10,11
> ----
> Ravi - One of Webster's definitions of the noun "evil" is something that brings sorrow, distress or calamity.  That leaves plenty of room for Larry's natural evils.  If you read the next to last paragraph of his essay/lecture, you see the outline of your own argument above.  You will also see that his conclusion is that the argument claiming that the existence of evil disproves God, fails.  A conclusion which you obviously share.  In very dry and "clinical" terms, he has actually made the same argument to which you bring a wonderfully huma perspective, above.  I think you'll agree his article is not in itself defective, and deserves a careful reading to the end.
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982084202
11a12,19
> 
> ----
> AyeSpy, I did read his article carefully, I don't disagree with the result all.  It is quite clear to me that we share quite similar views.  What I disagreed with is calling a natural phenomenon "evil".  However, by your Webster's definition, perhaps I need to recant that.  But for me, evil was not the result, but the intent.  In other words, you could do evil by intent, even if the result was "good".  The reverse also true.  Since a tornado cannot show intent, I have a difficult time labelling it evil.
> 
> At the beginning of my post I indicated that I agreed with Larry that God is more interested in our Character than in our Comfort.  I said I agreed with him because, while he did not use those exact words, that is essentially what the result of his argument is.  That which does not kill us outright makes us stronger, and gives us more moral character.  In general, this is quite true, as the example I gave indicated as well.
> 
> However, I don't think we need to view everything bad that happens to us as something evil that God passed our way in order to grow our moral character.
> 
------
MammaMia|982084275
1c1
< An exclamation, meaning "Oh my gosh!" or something of that sort.
---
> An exclamation, literally "my momma," signifying surprise, awe, exasperation, anger, or fear.
------
RaviDesai|982085168
10a11,12
> ----
> Hey, Ravi, I noticed you were pulling in some of the genesis chapters.  Are you planning on doing this to the whole bible?  After all, it's ''really'' big, and it might be better to just refer people to an on-line translation.  Btw, which translation are you using? -- JoshuaGrosse
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982086500
12d11
< 
18a18,31
> ----
> Just so.  One needs to take care to distiguish the moral concept of evil, which implies intent, from the generic evil as a noun, which is basically "something bad."  When you look at evil in the dictionary as an adjective, all the value judgement stuff is included.
> 
> There are gobs and gobs of different conceptions of even the one Christian God, from person to person and sect to sect.  Some will tell you that an anthropomorhic God, possessed of human-style motivations while being omniscient and omnipotent, has the time, attention and resources and what's more the will, to attend to each and every one of His children on earth, map out a specific plan for them, and then watch and judge each individually moment-to-moment as to whether that individual accepts and follows God's plan for his life, or rejects it and strays.  Theoretically, those disposed to go along with the program get to heaven.  In such a scenario, literally everything which happens to one is directly and literally part of God's plan, and how one responds to the various tests presented help determine his worth as a potential heaven-dweller.  For the sake of economy, God could test hundreds or thousands at a time by smiting them with a tornado or a tsunami.
> 
> Larry's comments would fall right in line with that conception of God, or a very similar one.
> 
> At the opposite end of the spectrum, there is a Christian theory that God is not matter but spirit, and when he created man in his own image, that was a siritual image and man is therefore a soul like unto God.  This same God, omniscient and omnipotent, set up a universe full of traps once his children rebelled against him (ate of the fruit of the tree of knowlege of good and evil) and cast them out into it, knowing all the while that only those with a pure soul and loving heart would be able to escape it.  Those who valued matter over spirit would be lost forever.  His "plan" for salvation was general, not specific to this or that individual.  When Man in his conceit strayed too far, He tried wiping them out and starting over with Noah, but material man was still too in love with the world.  So, He sent His son (reduntant as all all men are his literal children, born of his will) to remind everyone, "Hey - love one another, and follow the path I set out, or you ain't never gettin' home.  There's only one road back to the Father, and you're not on it."  Then He went about His divine business, whatever that may be, checking in now and again to see how the kids are doing.
> 
> (These are not theories I made up, but I've had both of them preached to me)
> 
> Under the second theory, God is "more concerned about our character than our comfort," and has set out signposts to be followed.  Those who follow the road get to come home and dwell in the house of the Lord forever.  This would be a God who would neither cause nor prevent tornadoes or eathquakes, but whose children would have an infinite variety of opportunities to learn from their lives and either move closer to Him or farther away.  In either case he would love them all, and mourn the lost.  Larry's argument still works under this scenario, but the literalness with which this or that person is "tested" would no longer apply.
> 
> However you believe is up to you, but you can look at Larry's article on its bare merits and then suggest or make changes which retain the arguments but perhaps open the way for a wider range of interpretation of the same Omniscient, Omnipotent, and All-loving God.  No?
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982086770
37c37,39
< In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
---
> I'll answer briefly. (2) is a response to your observation on (1); matters are not confused everywhere and it behooves us not to confuse them further. (3) Property is control over how others use an object and right-libertarians argue for absolute property rights with total control over how others use an object. If people do not recognize this as authoritarian then the point requires more argument than belongs in an encyclopedia entry. (4) You're right, that was a mistake. I was speaking from personal experience only. (5) I am well-rebuked. :) -- RichardKulisz
> 
> In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
------
RaviDesai|982087209
12a13,14
> ----
> I, too, was wondering which version this was.  Personally, I think it's cool.  Wouldn't it be wild if we could read the entire bible, koran, whatever in an encyclopedia?  Finally the brevity with which encylopedias address subject matter would no longer be dictated by space considerations.  I once postulated a educational model for a search engine of reference sources, which would be cross-referenced in "trees" both alphabetically and by subject.  You could look up "sloth" under "S" or arrive at it by going to Science/Biology/Taxonomy/Animalia/Mammalia and whatever.  Same with Harper's Ferry.  Look it up under the alphabet to go to History/American/Civil War/John Brown or Civil War/Battles, etc.  WikiPedia has a potential to do something very much like this.  As we are not limited by physical space, we don't have to say "you can't put that here.  It's too big."
------
IndependentS|982087965
1c1
< The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They built their own cameras to evade the trust's patents and moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they lay the foundations of the studio system and of American film industry as such. 
---
> The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They built their own cameras to evade the trust's patents and moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they laid the foundations of the studio system and of the American film industry as such. 
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982088341
39c39,41
< In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
---
> In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
> 
> Why don't we treat the matter the same way - reserve libertarianism for the right, and anarchism for the left?  AnarchY would have a note at the bottom saying "sometimes used in a broader sense to include AnarchoCapitalism, which blah blah" but would otherwise treat traditional forms, and libertarianism would have a note sating "formerly used in a broader sense to include AnarchoSyndicalism, which blah blah" but would otherwise treat what have become standard forms.  It seems to me this is the simplest way to disentangle the two philosophies. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Talk|982089054
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think this page should probably be renamed.  After all, it's part of the Jewish canon as well.
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Talk|982091229
1c1,6
< I think this page should probably be renamed.  After all, it's part of the Jewish canon as well.
---
> I think this page should probably be renamed.  After all, it's part of the Jewish canon as well.
> 
> ----
> 
> Actually, I was inclined to make it more specific, since it's
> the King James Version of Genesis in the Christian bible.
------
HollywooD|982092907
0a1
> Hollywood, CaliforniA was founded in 1857 by the Wilcox family.
------
FirstNational|982094166
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The First National Exhibitors' Circuit was founded 1917 by the merger of 26 of the nation's biggest First Run cinema chains, controlling more than 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them were First Run cinemas. The foundation, an initiative by Thomas L. Tally, was a reaction to the overwhelming influence of ParamounT, which dominated the market. First National was set up to combine the finacial power of the involved firms, to buy stars, to finance their movies and to gain the right to distribute them later. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with MaryPickford and CharlieChaplin, the first million dollar deals in the history of film.
> First National's finacial power and it's control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to ParamounT, so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten milion dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of UnitedArtists, and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First Nationals member firms after the other. 
------
HollywooD|982095099
2c2
< The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here. 
---
> <p>The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here.  Film production companies began to flock to HollywooD because of the good weather and longer days.  In the early days of film, there were no electric lights and so the only source of enough light to adequately expose the film was sun light.  Up until that point, New York had been the capital of film production.</p>
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982095130
31a32,34
> ----
> Hi, Ravi!  Thanks for the thoughtful comments!  You wrote:
> :However, I do find your concept of Natural Evil a bit puzzling.  A tornado may be disasterous and horrible, but calling it ''evil'' seems a bit strange to me.  And where do you draw the line?  Does a tornado have to take a life to be evil, or can it simply destroy some property?
32a36,59
> This isn't ''my'' concept; it's the way that natural misfortunes are referred to when philosophers and theologians discuss The Problem of Evil.  Nothing hangs on our using that word, either.  The so-called Problem of Evil is just as bad if you refer to "natural evils" (notice, this can take a plural) as "disasters," "misfortunes," or whatever.  If you like, we can call it the Problem of Really Bad Things.
> 
> :But often these people can overcome these events and eventually become a much better person than they ever would have if the event had never happened.  I've seen it happen dozens of times.  So was the event really evil, can a thing that is evil result in something that is good?  Can it do so if God does not really exist?
> 
> This is one of the options you have in replying to the argument: you are free to deny that natural evil (misfortune, disaster) really is a bad thing.  Maybe it's all a ''good'' thing and therefore perfectly consistent with God's being all-loving.  Regardless of that, I don't see how God's existence would be required to have something good result from pain and suffering.
> 
> AyeSpy wrote:
> 
> :If you read the next to last paragraph of his essay/lecture, you see the outline of your own argument above. You will also see that his conclusion is that the argument claiming that the existence of evil disproves God, fails. 
> 
> Did I really say that?  I shouldn't have, if so.
> 
> Ravi replied:
> 
> :At the beginning of my post I indicated that I agreed with Larry that God is more interested in our Character than in our Comfort. I said I agreed with him because, while he did not use those exact words, that is essentially what the result of his argument is. 
> 
> Again, did I really say that (so that you can agree with me)?  I thought I was just explaining one point of view, not necessarily expressing my own.
> 
> Then AyeSpy:
> :However you believe is up to you, but you can look at Larry's article on its bare merits and then suggest or make changes which retain the arguments but perhaps open the way for a wider range of interpretation of the same Omniscient, Omnipotent, and All-loving God. No? 
> 
> By all means, Ravi, if you wish to expand any particular point that I've made in the article, go for it.  While you do it, however, please be sure to attribute your views to the person or people who hold them, rather than asserting straightforwardly that the views are correct.  We want to retain a semblance of lack of bias here.  :-)
> 
> -- LarrySanger
------
HollywooD|982095370
2c2,3
< <p>The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here.  Film production companies began to flock to HollywooD because of the good weather and longer days.  In the early days of film, there were no electric lights and so the only source of enough light to adequately expose the film was sun light.  Up until that point, New York had been the capital of film production.</p>
---
> 
> The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here.  Film production companies began to flock to HollywooD because of the good weather and longer days.  In the early days of film, there were no electric lights and so the only source of enough light to adequately expose the film was sun light.  Up until that point, New York had been the capital of film production.
------
ActorS|982095439
16a17
> :CaryGrant
39a41
> :JohnWayne
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Talk|982095488
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6a5,6
> ----
> Well, only if we propose to have the full texts of several different Bibles.  But then we'd still need a nondenominational page to discuss the book of Genesis.  Hmmm....not an easy problem to solve right away...
------
WilliamShakespeare|982096387
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WilliamShakespeare was a playwright and actor in England.  He predominantly wrote between 1485 and 1510.  For how well respected he is today, remarkably little is actually known of his life.  This fact accounts for the many theories on who, other than the actor William Shakespeare, wrote the works.  However, Shakespeare's reputation--as a poet and dramaturgist--has ebbed and flowed over the past five centuries.
> 
> <p>His dramatic work has been categorized in the following divisions:
> :ShakespeareanTragedies
> :ShakespeareanComedies
> :ShakespeareanHistories
> :ShakespeareanRomances
> 
> <p>His other literary works include:
> :ShakespeareanSonnets
> :ShakespeareanLongPoetry
------
TheaTer|982096598
13a14,19
> 
> 20th Century American Theater:
> : EugeneOneil
> : ArthurMiller
> : DavidMamet
> 
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982096677
3c3
< I am going to finish up with the so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i>, which has, as its conclusion, "God does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.  I want to remind you that, just because I am presenting this argument, that does not mean that I think it is a good argument, or that I agree with its conclusion.  I just want you to understand what the argument is, and then you can go and think whatever you like about it.
---
> The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has, as its conclusion, "God does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.
5c5
< Now, we have talked about the rationality of <i>theism</i> -- about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well talk about the rationality of <i>atheism</i>.  If you are an atheist, you would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  It would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Christians see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
---
> Much ink has been spilled over the questions regarding rationality of <i>theism</i> (see FaithAndRationality)--about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well talk about the <a>TheRationalityOfAtheism</i>.
66c66
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
LarrysText|982096777
13c13
< ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil 
---
> ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism
------
TheRationalityOfAtheism|982096787
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, further expansion of this section is greatly encouraged> 
> 
> If one is an atheist who desires to hold onto one's atheism ''rationally,'' one would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  Many theists maintain that it would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would--many theists maintain--only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Theists see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
------
TheRationalityOfAtheism|982096821
3c3,5
< If one is an atheist who desires to hold onto one's atheism ''rationally,'' one would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  Many theists maintain that it would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would--many theists maintain--only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Theists see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
---
> If one is an atheist who desires to hold onto one's atheism ''rationally,'' one would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  Many theists maintain that it would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would--many theists maintain--only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Theists see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
> 
> See also TheProblemOfEvil and FaithAndRationality.
------
TheRationalityOfAtheism|982096861
3c3
< If one is an atheist who desires to hold onto one's atheism ''rationally,'' one would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  Many theists maintain that it would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would--many theists maintain--only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Theists see this and sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
---
> If one is an atheist who desires to hold onto one's atheism ''rationally,'' one would appear to need some arguments <i>that</i> <i>God</i> <i>does</i> <i>not</i> <i>exist</i>.  Many theists maintain that it would not do simply to refute arguments that God exists.  That would--many theists maintain--only show that there was no good reason to believe that God exists.  It would <i>not</i> show that there was good reason specifically to believe that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist.  Theists sometimes say: you can’t prove that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist, because you can’t prove a negative; so atheism requires just as much faith as theism does; so at least you should be <i>agnostic</i>.
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982097102
5c5
< Much ink has been spilled over the questions regarding rationality of <i>theism</i> (see FaithAndRationality)--about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well talk about the <a>TheRationalityOfAtheism</i>.
---
> Much ink has been spilled over the questions regarding rationality of <i>theism</i> (see FaithAndRationality)--about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well question the <a>TheRationalityOfAtheism</i>.
7c7
< But some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian God does not exist.  You <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say: you <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  How?  You show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That’s how the argument from evil goes.  Very briefly, the argument from evil proceeds like this: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.  I am sure you have thought of this problem before.  Now let’s see if we can state it more rigorously, and what objections might be made against it.
---
> In response to these questions, some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian God does not exist.  One <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say, i.e., one <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  One show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That is how the argument from evil proceeds: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.
11,27c11,19
< 1. If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving.
< 
< 2. If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it.
< 
< 3. If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient.
< 
< 4. If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent.
< 
< 5. If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving.
< 
< 6. Hence (by premises 2-5), if evil exists in the world, then either God is not omniscient, or God is not omnipotent, or God is not all-loving.
< 
< 7. But evil does exist in the world.
< 
< 8. Thus (by premise 6 and 7) either God is not omniscient, or not omnipotent, or not all-loving.
< 
< 9. Therefore (by premises 1 and 8), God does not exist.  (That is, the God of Judeo-Christian religion, which is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving, does not exist.)
---
> #If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving.
> #If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it.
> #If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient.
> #If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent.
> #If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving.
> #Hence (by premises 2-5), if evil exists in the world, then either God is not omniscient, or God is not omnipotent, or God is not all-loving.
> #But evil does exist in the world.
> #Thus (by premise 6 and 7) either God is not omniscient, or not omnipotent, or not all-loving.
> #Therefore (by premises 1 and 8), God does not exist.  (That is, the God of Judeo-Christian religion, which is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving, does not exist.)
------
TheRationalityOfAtheism|982097360
5c5,7
< See also TheProblemOfEvil and FaithAndRationality.
---
> Atheists tend to counter with OccamsRazor.  If there truly is no reason at all to suppose something exists, then chances are it doesn't.
> 
> See also TheProblemOfEvil and FaithAndRationality.
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982098062
3c3
< The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has, as its conclusion, "God does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.
---
> The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has, as its conclusion, "GoD does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.
7c7
< In response to these questions, some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian God does not exist.  One <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say, i.e., one <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  One show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That is how the argument from evil proceeds: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.
---
> In response to these questions, some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian-Muslim GoD does not exist.  One <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say, i.e., one <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  One show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That is how the argument from evil proceeds: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.
19c19
< #Therefore (by premises 1 and 8), God does not exist.  (That is, the God of Judeo-Christian religion, which is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving, does not exist.)
---
> #Therefore (by premises 1 and 8), God does not exist.  (That is, the God of Judeo-Christian-Muslim religions, which is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving, does not exist.)
21c21
< Now let’s go back over the premises and see which ones we might criticize.  Remember that if you want to criticize an argument, then either you attack the premises, or you show that the premises do not entail the conclusion.  Now, the way I have formulated the argument from evil, the premises <i>do</i> entail the conclusion: this is a deductively valid argument.  That means that <i>if</i> the premises are all true, <i>then</i> the conclusion must be true.  But that’s not too impressive.  If I had wanted to, I <i>could</i> have formulated the ontological argument and the cosmological arguments as deductively valid arguments; I would then, if I wanted to criticize those arguments, simply attack the premises.  So if you are certain that the conclusion of a valid argument is wrong, one of the premises must be wrong.  You just have to say which one, and say <i>why</i> that one is wrong.
---
> Consider now the premises in turn.
23c23
< So that’s what we’re going to do here.  We’ll go over the different premises and see whether they can stand up to scrutiny.  Premise (1) just states some basic facts about the Judeo-Christian conception of God: "If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving."  Ordinary Christians certainly do not want to reject premise (1).  Other people might end up rejecting this premise, because they want to believe in a <i>different</i> sort of God.
---
> Premise (1) simply states some basic facts about the conception of God under consideration: "If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving."  Ordinary Christians, for example, certainly do not want to reject premise (1).  Other people might end up rejecting this premise, because they want to believe in a <i>different</i> sort of GoD.
25c25
< How about premise (2)?  "If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it."  Why think this?  Well, evil has to have <i>some</i> explanation.  Why would a good God allow evil to exist in the world?  Maybe he doesn’t know about it; or maybe he <i>can’t</i> get rid of it; or maybe he doesn’t <i>want</i> to eliminate it.  But is there any <i>other</i> explanation?  Perhaps, but I don’t think so.  Just ask yourself this: suppose God <i>knew</i> about evil, he <i>could</i> eliminate all of it, and he <i>wanted</i> to eliminate all of it; could evil even <i>possibly</i> exist then?  Surely not.  If God <i>knew</i> about all the evil, and he <i>could</i> get rid of it, and he <i>desired</i> to get rid of it, then God <i>would</i> get rid of it.  But then we simply say: suppose that evil <i>does</i> exist.  In that case, either God doesn’t know about it, he can’t get rid of it, or he doesn’t want to get rid of it.  One of those options is open to us (or perhaps a combination of them).  That’s what premise (2) says.  So I don’t think we can criticize premise (2).
---
> Consider premise (2): "If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it."  Why think this?  Simply put, for a traditional theist, evil has to have <i>some</i> explanation.  Why would a good God allow evil to exist in the world?  Maybe he does not know about it; or maybe he <i>can’t</i> get rid of it; or maybe he does not <i>want</i> to eliminate it.  But is there any <i>other</i> explanation?  Perhaps; perhaps not.  Suppose God <i>knew</i> about evil, he <i>could</i> eliminate all of it, and he <i>wanted</i> to eliminate all of it; could evil even <i>possibly</i> exist then?  Surely not.  If God <i>knew</i> about all the evil, and he <i>could</i> get rid of it, and he <i>desired</i> to get rid of it, then God <i>would</i> get rid of it.  But then we simply say: suppose that evil <i>does</i> exist.  In that case, either God does not know about it, he cannot get rid of it, or he does not want to get rid of it.  One of those options is open to us (or perhaps a combination of them).  That is what premise (2) says.
27c27
< Now look at premise (3).  "If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient."  That seems perfectly true.  If there’s <i>anything</i> that God doesn’t know, then God isn’t omniscient; what it means to be omniscient is to know everything that there is to know.
---
> Now examine premise (3).  "If God does not know about evil, then God is not omniscient."  That seems perfectly true.  If there is <i>anything</i> that God does not know, then God is not omniscient; what it means to be omniscient is to know everything that there is to know.
29c29
< Similar things can be said about premise (4).  "If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent."  That also seems incontrovertibly true.  If there is anything that God can’t do, anything that doesn’t involve a contradiction anyway, then God isn’t omnipotent.  It is sometimes held that to eliminate evil ''would'' result in a contradiction - that is, we live in the best of all possible worlds.  However, without a lot more justification this can be ignored for the time being.  If God were omnipotent then he could certainly eliminate evil.  So I think both premises (3) and (4) have to be accepted.
---
> Similar things can be said about premise (4).  "If God cannot eliminate evil, then God is not omnipotent."  That also seems incontrovertibly true.  If there is anything that God cannot do--anything that does not involve a contradiction, anyway--then God is not omnipotent.  It is sometimes held that to eliminate evil ''would'' result in a contradiction; that is, we live in the BestOfAllPossibleWorlds (a view made famous by GottfriedLeibniz).  But let us set this view aside for the time being.  If God were omnipotent then, it seems, he could eliminate evil.
31c31
< But now what about premise (5)?  "If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving."  This one is more doubtful.  In fact I am sure that a lot of you will want to raise objections to it.  Isn’t it at least <i>possible</i> that God is all-loving, but he still doesn’t want to eliminate evil?  Maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  Well, we’ll elaborate on this objection in a bit.  Just keep in mind that we are going to come back to it; so premise (5) is the first premise we’ve found which is really dubious.
---
> So both premises (3) and (4) seem unobjectionable.
33c33
< Next consider premise (6).  "Hence (by premises 2-5), if evil exists in the world, then either God is not omniscient, or God is not omnipotent, or God is not all-loving."  This follows deductively from premises (2)-(5); the only way to reject premise (6) is to reject (2), (3), (4), or (5); and so if we end up deny premise (5), that will be enough to allow us to say that (6) is false.
---
> Next consider premise (5), which is perhaps more interesting.  "If God does not want to eliminate evil, then God is not all-loving."  This premise seems more doubtful.  In fact I am sure that a lot of you will want to raise objections to it.  Is it not at least <i>possible</i> that God is all-loving, but he still does not want to eliminate the pain and suffering in the world?  Maybe it is perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  We will elaborate this point in a bit.  Just keep in mind that we are going to come back to it; so premise (5) is the first premise we have found that is possibly dubious.
35c35
< What about premise (7)?  "But evil does exist in the world."  Some people deny this.  But how?  How could anyone possibly deny that evil exists in the world?
---
> Premise (6) follows deductively from premises (2)-(5); the only way to reject premise (6) is to reject (2), (3), (4), or (5).
37c37
< Some people say that evil is <i>merely</i> an <i>appearance</i>; it is <i>only</i> an illusion.  Nothing is <i>really</i> evil.  I suppose the idea is that if you get yourself into the right frame of mind, probably a rather fuzzy frame of mind, then evil seems powerless and inconsequential.  What really matters is goodness, happiness, love, or something like that; so evil doesn’t matter, and in a sense it doesn’t really exist.
---
> Premise (7) is: "But evil does exist in the world."  Some people deny this.  Some people say that evil is <i>merely</i> an <i>appearance</i>; it is <i>only</i> an illusion.  Nothing is <i>really</i> evil.  In a certain frame of mind, evil might seem powerless and inconsequential.  What really matters is goodness, happiness, love, or something like that; so evil does not matter, and in a sense it does not really exist.
39c39
< I have to admit that I have a hard time taking that view seriously.  First of all, even if evil "doesn’t matter," that certainly doesn’t mean it doesn’t <i>exist</i>.  Because plainly it <i>does</i> exist.  Hitler exterminated six million Jews; that wasn’t evil?  People suffer from debilitating diseases all around the world; that’s not an evil we all potentially face?  People are regularly killed by tornados, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural disasters.  Those events aren’t really evil?  Their obvious hatefulness is illusory?  That seems ridiculous.  Unless you have some sophisticated way to explain <i>why</i> evil is merely illusory, this view can be safely rejected.  I seriously doubt you can solve the problem of evil by simply <i>denying</i> that evil exists.
---
> It is difficult for most people to take this view seriously.  First of all, even if evil "doesn not really matter," it nevertheless plainly <i>exists</i>.  Hitler exterminated six million Jews; that was surely evil.  People suffer from debilitating diseases all around the world; that too is surely an evil (a so-called "natural evil"; see below) we all potentially face.  People are regularly killed by tornados, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural disasters.  Those events are awful evils.  It sounds extremely implausible, to most people, to say that their obvious hatefulness or badness is illusory.  Unless one has some sophisticated way to explain <i>why</i> evil is merely illusory, this view can be safely rejected.
43c43,45
< So after going over each premise of the argument from evil, we have found just <i>one</i> premise, namely (5), and ''perhaps'' also statement 4, that gives us substantial hope of escaping the conclusion.  As I said, maybe it’s perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.  But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>theodicy</i>.  A theodicy is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  And mind you, in order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.  I think that when I put it this way, this is a topic you may have thought a fair amount about; maybe some of you already have views about it.
---
> After going over each premise of the argument from evil, we have found <i>one</i> premise, namely (5), and ''perhaps'' also premise (4), that gives us substantial hope of escaping the conclusion.  Again: maybe it is perfectly consistent for an all-loving God to allow evil to exist in the world.
> 
> But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>TheoDicy</i>.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982098111
34a35,37
> ''While I disagree with you about the status of things here,
> the point I have been making to TimShell I will make to you as well.  This article, the short article on the term 'Anarchy' can simply serve as '''description''' of how the term is used.  It may be a shame that things have gotten confused, but rather than ignore the confusion, I attempted to describe it so that a newcomer to the term will better understand.  The point may not be to give each side equal treatment, but merely to educate newcomers that the term is actively used in two different ways.'' --JimboWales
> 
------
TheoDicy|982098218
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''theodicy'' is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  In order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.
> 
> The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
------
ActorS|982098238
4a5
> :NicolasCage
------
AnarchY|982098247
18a19,20
> Both views are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
> 
21c23
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
---
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
TheoDicy|982098259
0a1,2
> <the following is a portion (partly edited) of LarrysText, further development is greatly encouraged> 
> 
------
LarrysText|982098326
13c13
< ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism
---
> ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Talk|982098380
6c6,8
< Well, only if we propose to have the full texts of several different Bibles.  But then we'd still need a nondenominational page to discuss the book of Genesis.  Hmmm....not an easy problem to solve right away...
---
> Well, only if we propose to have the full texts of several different Bibles.  But then we'd still need a nondenominational page to discuss the book of Genesis.  Hmmm....not an easy problem to solve right away...
> ----
> I agree completely with what everyone has said.  Especially the part about it not being an easy problem to solve right away.  :-)
------
ActorS|982098558
1c1
< :JullietteBinoche
---
> 
12d11
< :JaneFonda
14d12
< :JodieFoster
16d13
< :WhoopieGoldberg
20,21d16
< :AudreyHepburn
< :KatherineHepburn
24d18
< :VivienLeigh
29d22
< :ShirleyMcLaine
32,33d24
< :GwenethPaltrow
< :SidneyPoitier
38,40d28
< :JuliaRoberts
< :MegRyan
< :ElizabethTaylor
43,44d30
< :NatalieWood
< :JoanneWoodward
------
ActresseS|982098582
1a2
> :JullietteBinoche
2a4
> :JaneFonda
3a6,10
> :WhoopieGoldberg
> :AudreyHepburn
> :KatherineHepburn
> :VivienLeigh
> :ShirleyMcLaine
4a12,13
> :GwenethPaltrow
> :SidneyPoitier
7c16,19
< :MichelleYeoh
---
> :ElizabethTaylor
> :NatalieWood
> :JoanneWoodward
> :MichelleYeoh
------
AnarchoCapitalism|982098682
4a5
> /Talk
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982099039
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JoshuaGrosse (I'm pretty sure it was him!) wrote on another page:
> 
> 'In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.htmlthis article]. '
> 
> This particular article isn't bad overall, but it might lead the reader to a few misconceptions.  First, the anarchocapitalism is not the 'house ideology' of the Libertarian Party.  No doubt there are some anarchists in the ranks of the LP, but as far as I know they do not dominate.
> 
> It should be noted that the author, MikeHuben, is best known on the Internet for his ''critique'' of libertarianism.
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982099061
45c45
< But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>TheoDicy</i>.
---
> But how?  How could a God that is all-loving allow evil not only to exist, but to <i>flourish</i> in the world?  That is the project of giving a <i>TheoDicy</i> (q.v.).
47c47
< I should insert here that some people think that all they have to prove is that a loving God <i>can</i> <i>have</i> <i>some</i> <i>purpose</i> in permitting evil to exist.  These people <i>deny</i> that they have to <i>state</i> God’s purposes.  What would be the point of that?  God’s purposes are not our purposes; the nature of God is mysterious.  So if you are a mystic this view should be attractive to you.  All you have to do is to argue that a loving God <i>might</i> have some reason for allowing the existence of evil; you don’t have to state what the reason is.  I think this is an extremely popular view among Christians.  For two reasons, no doubt: first, it is extremely pious not to try to guess at God’s thoughts; and second, it gives us a justification for not making an actual attempt to explain evil, which promises to be a very difficult task indeed.
---
> Some theologians--of a mystical bent--believe that all they have to prove is that a loving God <i>can</i> <i>have</i> <i>some</i> <i>purpose</i> in permitting evil to exist.  These people <i>deny</i> that they have to <i>state</i> God’s purposes.  There would be little point in doing that.  God’s purposes are not our purposes, they say; the nature of God is mysterious.  All one has to do is to argue that a loving God <i>might</i> have some reason for allowing the existence of evil; one need not state what the reason is.  This is an extremely popular view among ordinary theistic nontheologians, for two reasons, no doubt: first, it seems extremely pious not to try to guess at God’s thoughts (indeed, some religions enjoin us from doing so); and second, it gives us a reason for not making an actual attempt to explain evil, which promises to be a difficult task.
49c49
< But let’s review a few actual attempts to explain evil.  The first is to point to the existence of free will.  God gave us free will; and so we are able to bring evil upon ourselves.  We are to blame for the evils which we inflict and suffer.  This is an unfortunate consequence of our status as free beings; but it is far better that we are free, and hence that we suffer evil, than it would be if we were merely unfree pawns in a perfect game that God played by himself.
---
> Let us review a few actual attempts to explain evil (without necessarily endorsing any of them).
51c51
< This is very persuasive to many people.  But there is a very serious problem with it: very much of the evil that we suffer is not due, in any direct way, to any choices that human beings make.  When the Black Death rode in the late Middle Ages, and wiped out millions upon millions of Europeans, that certainly was not due to any act of any human being.  Or take any natural disaster at all: human beings do not cause, and cannot prevent, devastating earthquakes.  So we should distinguish between <i>moral</i> evil and <i>natural</i> evil, a distinction I’ve been blurring up until now.  Moral evil is any bad thing that humans are responsible for; natural evil is any bad thing, such as an earthquake or flood, that humans are not responsible for.  Human beings are to blame for moral evil; but they are not to blame for natural evil.
---
> We might explain evil by pointing to the existence of free will.  God gave us free will; so we are able to bring evil upon ourselves.  We are to blame for the evils which we inflict and suffer.  This is an unfortunate consequence of our status as free beings.  But it is far better that we are free, and hence that we suffer evil, than it would be if we were merely unfree pawns in a perfect game that God played by himself.
53c53
< "Ah," you may say, "but we are.  Adam and Eve freely committed the Original Sin, of eating of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and we have been paying for that great sin ever since."  Now, I don’t want to get into any specific issues of Biblical exegesis and Church doctrine.  But suffice it to say that it would be harsh, to say the least, that <i>absolutely</i> <i>every</i> <i>member</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>human</i> <i>race</i> who came after Adam and Eve should have to pay, throughout their lives, with all manner of suffering, for that Original Sin of Adam and Eve.  I hope you’ll forgive me if I say that does not sound like something that a loving God would do.  There may be a way to explain how a loving God can permit evil; but I doubt that the best way to explain it is to say that we all <i>deserve</i> all the evil we get, because Adam and Eve committed the Original Sin.
---
> This is very persuasive to many people.  But there is a very serious problem with it: very much of the evil--the misfortune--that we suffer is not due, in any direct way, to any choices that human beings make.  When the Black Death rode in the late Middle Ages, and wiped out millions upon millions of Europeans, that certainly was not due to any act of any human being.  Or take any natural disaster at all: human beings do not cause, and cannot prevent, devastating earthquakes.  So we should distinguish between <i>moral</i> evil and <i>natural</i> evil, a distinction we have been blurring up until now.  Moral evil is any bad thing that for which humans ''are'' responsible; natural evil is any bad thing, such as an earthquake or flood, for which humans ''are not'' responsible.  Human beings are to blame for moral evil, but they are not to blame for natural evil.
55c55
< So here’s another answer, a more plausible answer, I think.  A universe in which we are tested and improved by having to face evils, is far better than a universe in which we might complacently live in blissful ignorance of evil.  The souls who will inhabit heaven will be far better and stronger if they live in a world beset with all sorts of evils.  Evil improves us.  And so God has allowed Satan to come to the power that he now has.  Satan tempts us and if we resist, we are better for it.  Satan also tests our will and resolve with all sorts of natural evils, earthquakes, floods, and whatnot; and if we pass the test we are better for it.
---
> "Ah," one may say, "but we are.  Adam and Eve freely committed the Original Sin, of eating of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and we have been paying for that great sin ever since."  We could get into specific issues of Biblical exegesis and Church doctrine at this point.  Suffice it for now to say that it would seem to be rather harsh, to say the least, that <i>absolutely</i> <i>every</i> <i>member</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>human</i> <i>race</i> who came after Adam and Eve should have to pay, throughout their lives, with all manner of suffering, for that Original Sin of Adam and Eve.  This, according to many, is something that a loving God would do.
57c57
< Now if I wanted to, I could bring a lot of objections to this.  Surely the absolute <i>horrors</i> that humanity has faced, especially in the twentieth century, are unnecessary to improve our moral mettle.  I could, if I wanted to, insist on such objections at length.  But I think we have come to the point where you can see the outlines of the major issues involved in the problem.  So I will leave it to you to hash out the details and to answer any further objections, that might come to you, yourselves.
---
> Here is another answer.  A universe in which we are tested and improved by having to face evils is far better than a universe in which we might complacently live in blissful ignorance of evil.  The souls who will inhabit heaven will be far better and stronger if they live in a world beset with all sorts of evils.  Evil improves us.  So God has allowed Satan to come to the power that he now has.  Satan tempts us and if we resist, we are better for it.  Satan also tests our will and resolve with all sorts of natural evils, earthquakes, floods, and whatnot; if we pass the test we are better for it.
58a59
> If one wanted to, one could bring a lot of objections to this.  Surely the absolute <i>horrors</i> that humanity has faced, especially in the twentieth century, are unnecessary to improve our moral mettle.  We could insist on such objections at length.  But then we are engaging the project of TheoDicy in detail, a topic for TheOlogy more than for PhilosophyOfReligion.
60c61
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982099109
1c1
< <the following is a portion (partly edited) of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
---
> <the following is a wikified portion of LarrysText; further development is encouraged; see also TheoDicy>
5c5
< Much ink has been spilled over the questions regarding rationality of <i>theism</i> (see FaithAndRationality)--about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well question the <a>TheRationalityOfAtheism</i>.
---
> Much ink has been spilled over the questions regarding rationality of <i>theism</i> (see FaithAndRationality)--about whether arguments are needed in order to be rational in believing in God, for example.  But we could just as well question the <i>TheRationalityOfAtheism</i>.
61c61
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
GoD|982099164
9c9
< A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed.
---
> A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed with the project of TheoDicy a response.
------
ActorS|982099172
1d0
< 
31c30,35
< 
---
>  
> 
> Q: How do you make a little box?
> A: With little boards. ;-)
> 
> What do you mean by 'little box'?
33c37
< How do you make a little box?
---
> Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982099585
1c1
< JoshuaGrosse (I'm pretty sure it was him!) wrote on another page:
---
> Someone wrote on another page:
3c3
< 'In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.htmlthis article]. '
---
> 'In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article]. '
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982099961
22c22,24
< Half a century is a long time, of course, so this is all speculation.  But fun ideas can be grounded in reality, and if you learn something thinking about them it's all to the good. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> Half a century is a long time, of course, so this is all speculation.  But fun ideas can be grounded in reality, and if you learn something thinking about them it's all to the good. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> The number of hardware connections isn't what's important. AI will never emerge from raw hardware and nobody expects it to. What matters is the number of connections in a software, which can greatly surpass those in hardware. Silicon has a raw speed at least three orders of magnitude higher than meat. This speed can be harnessed by multi-tasking to create a much larger neural net than a straight-forward implementation would allow. In any case, multi-tasking can be done at the hardware level with FPGAs. -- RichardKulisz
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982100394
7a8,9
> ----
> Nothing wrong with critiques.  I find they're usually a better way of evaluating ideas: everyone will defend their own position eloquently, but you can only build a strong counter-attack against an idea with flaws.  So looking at how strong criticisms are usually gives you a better idea of how good the original was.
------
ShannonElizabeth|982100761
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Shannon Elizabeth is an American actress.  Born September 7, 1976, Elizabeth came to prominence in the hit comedy AmericanPie.
> 
> She was born in HoustonTexas, and was raised in WacoTexas.  Her father is of Syrian and Lebanese descent, while her mother is of French, English, and AmericanIndian descent. 
> 
> In August of 1999, Shannon Elizabeth appeared in PlayboyMagazine.
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982100865
24c24,26
< The number of hardware connections isn't what's important. AI will never emerge from raw hardware and nobody expects it to. What matters is the number of connections in a software, which can greatly surpass those in hardware. Silicon has a raw speed at least three orders of magnitude higher than meat. This speed can be harnessed by multi-tasking to create a much larger neural net than a straight-forward implementation would allow. In any case, multi-tasking can be done at the hardware level with FPGAs. -- RichardKulisz
---
> The number of hardware connections isn't what's important. AI will never emerge from raw hardware and nobody expects it to. What matters is the number of connections in a software, which can greatly surpass those in hardware. Silicon has a raw speed at least three orders of magnitude higher than meat. This speed can be harnessed by multi-tasking to create a much larger neural net than a straight-forward implementation would allow. In any case, multi-tasking can be done at the hardware level with FPGAs. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> Software connectivity is still way below what it needs to be, though, and again I don't think we've been making geometric strides on that front.  But you're right, it is a software problem, so gates aren't especially relevant.  There isn't nearly as convenient a name for the basic software structural unit, is there?
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982101385
9c9,11
< Nothing wrong with critiques.  I find they're usually a better way of evaluating ideas: everyone will defend their own position eloquently, but you can only build a strong counter-attack against an idea with flaws.  So looking at how strong criticisms are usually gives you a better idea of how good the original was.
---
> Nothing wrong with critiques.  I find they're usually a better way of evaluating ideas: everyone will defend their own position eloquently, but you can only build a strong counter-attack against an idea with flaws.  So looking at how strong criticisms are usually gives you a better idea of how good the original was.
> ----
> I agree completely.  The only point, though, is that Huben may wish to tar libertarianism by association with AnarchoCapitalism.
------
TheProblemOfEvil/Talk|982101441
59c59,70
< -- LarrySanger
---
> -- LarrySanger
> ----
> "AyeSpy wrote: 
> 
> 
> If you read the next to last paragraph of his essay/lecture, you see the outline of your own argument above. You will also see that his conclusion is that the argument claiming that the existence of evil disproves God, fails. 
> 
> Did I really say that? I shouldn't have, if so."  -- LarrySanger
> 
> I should put this differently:  ''If'' you are persuaded, as I am, that premise (5) does not logically fit any known data, then the combination of an all.../all.../all... God is not disproven by the ProblemOfEvil argument, as one of its necessary premises fails.  This, in combination with the second-to-last paragraph seem compatible with Ravi's stance, just not as emotionally so.
> 
> Obviously, if you believe an all-loving God cannot permit evil, then you must bow to the force of the original argument.  But then you would also have to believe that a loving mother could not visit unpleasantness and therefore discipline upon her child, since the child obviously would not find discipline pleasant.  A Christian believer already believes, likely, that scripture supports discipline as essential to love.  For this reason, It would appear futile for an atheist to attemt to pursuade a Christian with the ProblemOfEvil.  He might pursuade non-believers, but then what would be the point?  He'd be "preaching to the choir."  Heh heh ;^)
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TheoDicy|982101468
3c3
< A ''theodicy'' is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God’s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  In order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.
---
> A ''theodicy'' is a theory about why God allows evil to exist in the world.  In other words, a theodicy contains speculations about God?s <i>actual</i> <i>purposes</i> in allowing evil to exist in the world.  In order to be a <i>successful</i> theodicy, the purposes stated must be wholly consistent with the notion that God is all-loving.  So what is called for is an explanation of the purposes that a loving God might have in permitting evil to exist.
5c5,8
< The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
---
> The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
> 
> ----
> Please delete this note after you see it... What is the purpose of 'q.v.' above?  Was it just a cut-and-paste that caused it, or?
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982101772
15a16,17
> 
> /Questions
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982102132
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I do not know all that much about traditional AnarchY, but
> I would like to learn.
> 
> I find it fairly easy to envision the social systems proposed by laissez-faire capitalists (minarchists) and anarcho-capitalists.  I find it fairly easy to envisionthe social
> systems proposed by communists or socialists (central planning and all that).  I do not know, though, what is meant by the claim to be opposed to all hierarchy or social structure.
> 
> Perhaps a concrete example will illustrate what I do not understand.  At home, I have a television.  Let's suppose that you do not have a television at your home, and that you want one.  Suppose further that you decide to take mine.  What happens?
> 
> Lassez-faire capitalists say that I should call the cops.  AnarchoCapitalists say that I should call my private defense agency.  Communists generally are not opposed to personal property (just private ownership of the means of production,
> which we can suppose my television is not), so I guess they would say to call the cops, too.
> 
> I ask this in all sincerity, because I do not know the answer.
------
AnarchoCapitalists|982102164
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Those who advocate AnarchoCapitalism.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982102603
44a45,46
> 
> I think it is inaccurate to say that libertarianism is 'right' and anarchism is 'left'.  I know, anyway, that most libertarians would balk vehemently at the label 'right'.  These are people who want to legalize marijuana, pornography and gay marriage, who want to end registration for the draft, and permit free immigration and emigration from all countries.  The opposite positions are all traditionally associated with the right (at least in the U.S.). 
------
TheoDicy|982103735
5,8c5
< The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
< 
< ----
< Please delete this note after you see it... What is the purpose of 'q.v.' above?  Was it just a cut-and-paste that caused it, or?
---
> The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982105308
3c3
< :PhilosophyOfMath -- FermatsLastTheorem
---
> :PhilosophyOfMath -- FermatsLastTheorem -- ProbabilityAndStatistics
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982106348
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a "universe", a finite set of "elementary events". We define a "weighting function" which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the "weight" of the elementary event. We can represent any "event" by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
> 
> Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability, summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details, and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe.
> 
> 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982106588
1c1
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a "universe", a finite set of "elementary events". We define a "weighting function" which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the "weight" of the elementary event. We can represent any "event" by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a 'universe', a finite set of 'elementary events'. We define a 'weighting function' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the 'weight' of the elementary event. We can represent any 'event' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982107660
46c46,48
< I think it is inaccurate to say that libertarianism is 'right' and anarchism is 'left'.  I know, anyway, that most libertarians would balk vehemently at the label 'right'.  These are people who want to legalize marijuana, pornography and gay marriage, who want to end registration for the draft, and permit free immigration and emigration from all countries.  The opposite positions are all traditionally associated with the right (at least in the U.S.). 
---
> I think it is inaccurate to say that libertarianism is 'right' and anarchism is 'left'.  I know, anyway, that most libertarians would balk vehemently at the label 'right'.  These are people who want to legalize marijuana, pornography and gay marriage, who want to end registration for the draft, and permit free immigration and emigration from all countries.  The opposite positions are all traditionally associated with the right (at least in the U.S.). 
> 
> Why is it that I can use terms so universally recognized everywhere except wiki, where they are instantly balked at?  Right and left have nothing to do with anything so specific as moral majority or degree of government control.  The former refers to a desire for equality of rights, the latter for equality of condition.  Or at the very least, they will every time I use them. :)
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982113464
48a49,58
> 
> ----
> 
> I didn't realize that those terms were universally recognized or used in that way.  Are they?  I mean, exceptions of all kinds
> immediately pop to mind.
> 
> If the right wing is supposed to be for equality of rights, then why do they tend to seek strong laws to restrict the use of drugs used by lower classes (marijuana) while not seeking to restrict the use of drugs used by the upper classes (wine)?  What about equality of rights for homosexuals to marry?
> 
> If that's the way that the classification is supposed to work,
> then we have to say that Republicans are more liberal than libertarians, because libertarians favor equality of rights for homosexual marriage!  Sounds strange to me!  I think that in this particular case, the *left* has the idea of equality of rights.
------
TheoDicy|982113626
5c5,11
< The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
---
> The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
> 
> ----
> 
> Yet another minor inquiry, to be deleted asap.  I know what q.v. means, it just seems silly, since there's a link right there.  I think in print you have to say q.v. to let people know that they ought to go look something up.  Here, the hyperlink says that.
> Maybe not, though.  I have no strong opinion.  :-)  I just didn't
> want to edit out the q.v. without asking.
------
FermatsLastTheorem|982113703
9c9
< Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician AndrewWiles, with help from his former student, Richard Taylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal Annals of Mathematics.
---
> Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician AndrewWiles, with help from his former student, RichardTaylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal AnnalsofMathematics.
------
RaviDesai|982113988
14c14,23
< I, too, was wondering which version this was.  Personally, I think it's cool.  Wouldn't it be wild if we could read the entire bible, koran, whatever in an encyclopedia?  Finally the brevity with which encylopedias address subject matter would no longer be dictated by space considerations.  I once postulated a educational model for a search engine of reference sources, which would be cross-referenced in "trees" both alphabetically and by subject.  You could look up "sloth" under "S" or arrive at it by going to Science/Biology/Taxonomy/Animalia/Mammalia and whatever.  Same with Harper's Ferry.  Look it up under the alphabet to go to History/American/Civil War/John Brown or Civil War/Battles, etc.  WikiPedia has a potential to do something very much like this.  As we are not limited by physical space, we don't have to say "you can't put that here.  It's too big."
---
> I, too, was wondering which version this was.  Personally, I think it's cool.  Wouldn't it be wild if we could read the entire bible, koran, whatever in an encyclopedia?  Finally the brevity with which encylopedias address subject matter would no longer be dictated by space considerations.  I once postulated a educational model for a search engine of reference sources, which would be cross-referenced in "trees" both alphabetically and by subject.  You could look up "sloth" under "S" or arrive at it by going to Science/Biology/Taxonomy/Animalia/Mammalia and whatever.  Same with Harper's Ferry.  Look it up under the alphabet to go to History/American/Civil War/John Brown or Civil War/Battles, etc.  WikiPedia has a potential to do something very much like this.  As we are not limited by physical space, we don't have to say "you can't put that here.  It's too big."
> ----
> 
> I tend to agree, but I do wonder where we might want to draw the line (if at all).  I posted in the UnitedStatesConstitution and the JapanConstitution, just on the theory that it is free and that it is useful background information.
> 
> Similarly for the Bible, I suppose.  Especially if we wikify it.  So when you see a character like AdaM or JesusChrist, you can just click to read who that person is.  You could weave in and out of the text and public commentary on the text.
> 
> But what about the full text of MobyDick?  Does that belong here?  I'm less convinced.  It might be more useful to simply point to an un-wiki copy, because permitting people to wikify that text is probably fairly pointless.
> 
> Still... this is such an exciting experiment, I'd like to see us play with everything!  :-)
------
MobyDick|982114019
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Epic novel by HermanMelville.
------
HermanMelville|982114039
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of MobyDick, BillyBudd, and other novels.
------
TheoDicy|982115042
5,11c5
< The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz (q.v.).  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
< 
< ----
< 
< Yet another minor inquiry, to be deleted asap.  I know what q.v. means, it just seems silly, since there's a link right there.  I think in print you have to say q.v. to let people know that they ought to go look something up.  Here, the hyperlink says that.
< Maybe not, though.  I have no strong opinion.  :-)  I just didn't
< want to edit out the q.v. without asking.
---
> The word is taken from the title of a work that supplied one theodicy, namely that this is TheBestOfAllPossibleWorlds: the ''TheoDicee'' by GottfriedLeibniz.  See also TheProblemOfEvil.
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982115474
11c11,13
< I agree completely.  The only point, though, is that Huben may wish to tar libertarianism by association with AnarchoCapitalism.
---
> I agree completely.  The only point, though, is that Huben may wish to tar libertarianism by association with AnarchoCapitalism.
> 
> What does libertarianism mean in the above sentence? Does it refer to the right-libertarianism of the proponents of the Libertarian party or does it also include anarcho-syndicalists as left-libertarians? And what does right-libertarianism mean if one does not take it to be synonymous with AnarchoCapitalism?
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982116029
12c12,15
< I ask this in all sincerity, because I do not know the answer.
---
> I ask this in all sincerity, because I do not know the answer.
> ----
> 
> You report him to whatever cooperatives you and he belong to. Acting in an unethical and immoral manner can have a wide range of repercussions. Human beings are naturally interdependent and anarcho-syndicalists use these interdependencies without recourse to an artificial hierarchy like the justice system or police.
------
TheSingularity/Talk|982116293
26a27,28
> 
> Afraid not. The basic structural unit depends on how you construct the AI. It can be neurons in a network or frames or whatever.
------
AnarchY/AnarchyTalk|982119947
52,53c52
< I didn't realize that those terms were universally recognized or used in that way.  Are they?  I mean, exceptions of all kinds
< immediately pop to mind.
---
> I didn't realize that those terms were universally recognized or used in that way.  Are they?  I mean, exceptions of all kinds immediately pop to mind.
58a58,62
> 
> ----
> Ok, so I didn't go all the way to the end of the spectrum.  The very farthest right would be a system of plain and simple inequality, like despotism and aristocracy.  As you go to the left, equality of rights gets added, then of opportunity, and then of condition.  The idea is that inequities are ironed out as you go left.
> 
> I think this is a ''reasonably'' standard version of the political spectrum.  It does a good job lining up with other criteria, for instance, stance on capitalism (which leads to inequality of condition, so goes on the right).  The libertarian party actually uses this latter axis on its page, so it obviously doesn't reject ''that'' dichotomy, at least.  It just for whatever reason doesn't refer to it as the left-right political spectrum, probably because they don't want to be equated with conservativism. -- JoshuaGrosse
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ActorS|982121948
37c37,38
< Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
---
> Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.----
> In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS
------
WhatIsaWiki|982121968
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked <b>web</b> pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in!
5,7c5,7
< The original wiki http://c2.com/cgi/wiki might give you an idea of ''one'' way a fully-developed wiki might look.
< 
< ''Question about the safety of wikis removed to the WikiPediaFaq.  Other discussion removed to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.''
---
> Maybe you want to know
> *WhatsaWikiFor?
> *WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
------
AnarchoCapitalism/Talk|982121980
7a8,9
> 
> Another problem with that article is that Benjamin Tucker is given as an example of an "early" anarcho-capitalist. Tucker's attachment to capitalism is fictional as explained in [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secG5.html "Benjamin Tucker: Capitalist or Anarchist?"]. There were no early anarcho-capitalists; the "movement" was invented out of thin air a mere couple of decades ago. Electioneering experts call this an astro-turf movement. AnarchoCapitalism's styling itself after anarchism is propaganda based on lies.
13c15
< What does libertarianism mean in the above sentence? Does it refer to the right-libertarianism of the proponents of the Libertarian party or does it also include anarcho-syndicalists as left-libertarians? And what does right-libertarianism mean if one does not take it to be synonymous with AnarchoCapitalism?
---
> What does libertarianism mean in the above sentence? Does it refer to the right-libertarianism of the proponents of the Libertarian party or does it also include anarcho-syndicalists as left-libertarians? And what does right-libertarianism mean if one does not take it to be synonymous with AnarchoCapitalism? If Mike Huben does wish to tar left-libertarians by associating them with right-libertarians, he need do no more than recognize the right-libertarians' own claims.
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|982122045
14c14
< More tips are to be found at http://c2.com/cgi/wiki .
---
> After you've learned all that, never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
16c16
< ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul--especially after CliffordAdams finishes updating the software that runs WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger''
---
> ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul--especially after CliffordAdams finishes updating the software that runs WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger''
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|982122185
14c14
< After you've learned all that, never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox.  Never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
------
ActorS|982122249
38c38
< In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS
---
> In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.
------
HomePage|982122285
1c1
< This is the new WikiPedia!  The idea here is to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few random links?  Then, BeBoldInUpdatingPages!
---
> Welcome to WikiPedia!  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
3c3
< PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- HumanComputerInteraction -- BusinessAndEconomics -- PoLitics -- ReLigion -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- UnitedStates -- HiStory -- LinguisticS --  LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- DanCe -- ArtsandEntertainment -- ReCreation -- SportS -- QuoteS
---
> :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy
5c5,11
< Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
---
> :GeoGraphy -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE""s -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
> 
> :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- TransporT -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- CommunicAtion -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
> 
> :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- LiteraryArt -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
> 
> ''The above reflects only one of WikiPedia's CategorySchemes.''
7c13
< Have you told others about something and want some help cleaning up the resulting article?  Tell everyone on ReviewRequests.
---
> Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
10,12c16,17
< * WhatIsaWiki?  WhatsaWikiFor?  WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''
< * I caught some typos, spelling errors, and grammatical mistakes.  So WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
---
> * WhatIsaWiki?
> * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
14,15c19
< * What are your NewTopics?  Where's the BrilliantProse?  How can we avoid PatentNonsense?
< * What are Wikipedia's encyclopedia CategorySchemes?
---
> * What are your NewTopics?
18c22
< We have a WikiPediaAnnouncements page.  Read it; add to it.  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
---
> :'''Read WikiPediaAnnouncements to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
24d27
< 
27c30
< 
---
> ----
------
HomePage|982122462
3c3
< :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy
---
> :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- BiologicalScience''''s -- AstroNomy -- ChemIstry -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences 
5c5
< :GeoGraphy -- CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE""s -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE""s -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
7c7
< :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- TransporT -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- CommunicAtion -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
---
> :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- TransporT -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- CommunicAtion -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- PublicAffairs -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
9c9
< :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- LiteraryArt -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
11c11
< ''The above reflects only one of WikiPedia's CategorySchemes.''
---
> ::''The above reflects only one of WikiPedia's CategorySchemes.''
15c15
< You're confused and you're wondering
---
> You're wondering
20c20
< If you have other questions, just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
22c22
< :'''Read WikiPediaAnnouncements to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
---
> '''Read WikiPediaAnnouncements to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
------
HomePage|982122498
5c5
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE""s -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
------
UnitedStates|982122541
5a6
> * UnitedStatesConstitution
------
HomePage|982122597
11c11
< ::''The above reflects only one of WikiPedia's CategorySchemes.''
---
> :::''The above reflects only one of WikiPedia's CategorySchemes.''
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982122653
17c17,21
< /Questions
---
> /Questions
> 
> ----
> 
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
------
TransporT|982122698
4a5,6
> * SpaceTransport
> ** SpacecraftPropulsion
------
HomePage|982122759
13c13
< Want to learn about something and you want others to tell you all about it?  Then add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
---
> Want to learn about something?  Add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
------
HomePage|982122889
1c1
< Welcome to WikiPedia!  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
------
HomePage|982122939
1c1
< '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages, despite having started work in January 2001.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
------
HomePage|982122992
1c1
< '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We've got over 1,000 pages, despite having started work in January 2001.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
------
HomePage|982123023
1c1,3
< '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> '''Welcome to WikiPedia!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!
> 
> Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
------
HomePage|982123048
3c3
< Some questions you might have are answered below, but first why not dive in and explore a few links?
---
> Some questions you might have are answered below, but why not first explore a few links?
------
PartakeInDiscussion|982123399
4,7c4
< Perhaps an even better idea is to create a *Talk page (such as ElephantTalk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on encyclopedia articles.
< ----
< I am thinking that a /Talk page is better than ElephantTalk.
< 
---
> Perhaps an even better idea is to create a /Talk page (such as ElephanT/Talk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on content over controversy.
------
ElephanT|982123425
3c3
< See ElephantTalk.
---
> See /Talk.
------
ElephanT/Talk|982123449
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chat about elephants on this page.
> 
> Chat about the KingCrimson song on ElephantTalk.
------
ElephantTalk|982123501
1,3c1
< Discussion about the ElephanT article would go here.
< 
< Curiously, discussion of a KingCrimson song would also go here.
---
> A typically bizarre song by one of the newer incarnations of KingCrimson.  Features "Frippertronics."
------
ElephantTalk|982123535
1c1
< A typically bizarre song by one of the newer incarnations of KingCrimson.  Features "Frippertronics."
---
> A typically bizarre song by one of the newer incarnations of KingCrimson.  Features "FripperTronics," courtesy RobertFripp.
------
ActorS|982123666
38a39,40
> ----
> /Talk
------
ActorS/Talk|982123796
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Re: "actor" vs. "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward
------
AnonymousCoward|982123862
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The author of much drivel on SlashDot as well as on other SlashSites.  The author of often insightful remarks on NuPedia, however.
------
ActorS|982123926
31,36d30
< 
< Q: How do you make a little box?
< A: With little boards. ;-)
< 
< What do you mean by 'little box'?
< 
40c34
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|982123991
58a59,65
> ----
> From ActorS:
> 
> Q: How do you make a little box?
> A: With little boards. ;-)
> 
> What do you mean by 'little box'?
------
ActorS|982124049
32c32
< In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.
---
> In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.  You might notice also that Sidney Poitier is a man, or so I always thought.
------
ActorS/Talk|982124083
1c1
< Re: "actor" vs. "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward
---
> Re: "actor" vs. "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982124383
4,15c4,11
< Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order
< without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time,
< Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
< 
< Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begins with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure.
< Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism were synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics
< have taken to calling themselves anarcho-capitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the
< Anglo-American countries. 
< 
< Both the view of Anarchism as a Nihilist position admitting only destruction and the capitalist position of anarchism as purely
< political are regarded as grave misunderstandings of Anarchism
< by advocates.
---
> 
> Anarchy is frequently portrayed as chaos and anarchists as terrorists. Proponents of any extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. Very few anarchists are nihilists. Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
> 
> Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begin with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure. Anarchists reject the claims of the property owner and the landlord. Having rejected private property, they reject the political machinery (the State)which defends and supports private property. In place of private property, anarchism is based on personal possessions and democratically controlled communal property.
> 
> The anarchist rejection of government is derivative and entails the rejection of electioneering. Insofar as politics refers to the actions of power structures then anarchism seeks the abolition of politics itself. Anarchism is a social and economic movement with ramifications in the political sphere. To regard anarchism as a political ideology is an error. In place of political maneuvering, anarchists champion the use of direct action of which the general strike, occupation of workplaces and sabotage are prime examples. The purpose of sabotage is to impair or destroy the machinery of capitalism and not the propagation of terror.
> 
> Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism have been synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves AnarchoCapitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries. Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of anarchists, the AnarchoCapitalists are not regarded as anarchists.
21c17
< Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
------
ActorS|982129025
32a33,34
> 
>  * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
------
ActorS|982129046
34c34
<  * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
---
> * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
------
ActorS|982129246
30,32d29
<  
< Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.----
< In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.  You might notice also that Sidney Poitier is a man, or so I always thought.
34d30
< * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
------
ActorS/Talk|982129269
0a1,6
> Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
> ----
> In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.  You might notice also that Sidney Poitier is a man, or so I always thought.
> 
> * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
> 
------
ActorS/Talk|982131229
7c7,9
< Re: "actor" vs. "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)
---
> * ''Great essay, [http://www.resort.com/~prime8/Orwell/patee.html this], but doesn't have enough detail about the ways political hacks abuse language.  That is a fascinating topic.  I'm also not quite sure that it's the best way to describe the resistance to "actress."''
> 
> Re: "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982132098
1c1
< <the following is a wikified portion of LarrysText; further development is encouraged; see also TheoDicy>
---
> ''<The following is a wikified portion of LarrysText; further development is encouraged; see also TheoDicy.>''
3c3
< The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has, as its conclusion, "GoD does not exist."  This is also called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.
---
> The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has as its conclusion "GoD does not exist."  The argument expresses something called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.  This entry will outline the argument and some responses to it.
21c21
< Consider now the premises in turn.
---
> One might find The Problem of Evil in the fact that the premises of this argument seem compelling, but the conclusion is (to theists) unacceptable.  Consider now the premises in turn.
------
DirectRealism|982132108
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982132118
3c3
< The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has as its conclusion "GoD does not exist."  The argument expresses something called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>evil</i>.  This entry will outline the argument and some responses to it.
---
> The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has as its conclusion "GoD does not exist."  The argument expresses something called the <i>Problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>Evil</i>.  This entry will outline the argument and some responses to it.
------
CategorySchemes|982132148
50a51,52
> 
> This one was mine.  Is what you did on the HomePage based on this, Larry?  Thanks! -- JoshuaGrosse
------
SetTheory|982132154
138a139,140
> 
> Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
------
BiologicalScience|982132311
2a3,9
> For pages on the many diverse forms of life themselves, explore the five kingdoms:
> * KingdomMonera
> * KingdomProtista
> * KingdomFungi
> * KingdomPlantae
> * KingdomAnimalia
> 
------
ScienCe|982132344
8,13d7
< * KingdomMonera
< * KingdomProtista
< * KingdomPlantae
< * KingdomFungi
< * KingdomAnimalia
< 
------
CategorySchemes|982132604
52c52
< This one was mine.  Is what you did on the HomePage based on this, Larry?  Thanks! -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> This one was mine.  Is what you did on the HomePage based on this, Larry? -- JoshuaGrosse
------
CategorySchemes|982132659
52a53,54
> 
> It's sort of a combination of the Nupedia scheme (see the top of this page) and yours--the only difference between the two schemes, perhaps, is that "Foundational Disciplines" and "Natural Sciences" are mashed together. -- LarrySanger
------
TheRecorder|982133727
3,6c3
< The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
< 
< I played the Recorder when i was in 6th grade
< -Zed 
---
> The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|982133779
65c65,70
< What do you mean by 'little box'?
---
> What do you mean by 'little box'?
> ----
> From TheRecorder:
> 
> I played the Recorder when i was in 6th grade
> -Zed
------
MuSic|982134030
3c3
< PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- DonegalFiddleTradition
---
> '''MusicalGenres:''' ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RockAndRoll -- FunK -- DiscO -- JazZ -- PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
5c5
< FiddleandViolin -- FidDle -- FiddleStyles -- DoubleStops
---
> '''MusicalInstruments:''' TheRecorder -- FiddleandViolin -- FidDle
7c7
< MusicalTheory
---
> '''WesternArtMusic:''' BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
9c9
< Here are some more ideas:
---
> '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
11c11
< BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
---
> '''MusicOlogy:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
13,25c13
< JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
< 
< DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint
< 
< TheRecorder
< 
< JazzMusic 
< 
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
< 
< How about some genres?
< 
< ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RoCk -- FunK -- DiscO -- JaZZ
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
ComputerSoftware|982134263
4a5
> *** NupeCode
------
NupeCode|982134337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Nupecode'' is NuPedia's software.  It is OpenSource.  Can be used for enormous peer review projects.
------
ComputerSoftware|982134355
4a5
> *** SlashCode
------
SlashCode|982134394
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Slashcode is the OpenSource software that runs http://www.slashdot.org, which has spawned many imitators.
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982146605
1c1
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a 'universe', a finite set of 'elementary events'. We define a 'weighting function' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the 'weight' of the elementary event. We can represent any 'event' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a `universe`, a finite set of 'elementary events'. We define a 'weighting function' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the 'weight' of the elementary event. We can represent any 'event' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982146750
1c1
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a `universe`, a finite set of 'elementary events'. We define a 'weighting function' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the 'weight' of the elementary event. We can represent any 'event' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a ''universe'', a finite set of ''elementary events''. We define a ''weighting function'' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the ''weight'' of the elementary event. We can represent any ''event'' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
5c5
< 
---
> : RABeldin
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982146916
5c5
< : RABeldin
---
> :RABeldin --
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982146975
5c5
< :RABeldin --
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982147115
5c5
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html:RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982147146
5c5
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html:RABeldin ]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982147294
0a1,3
> :ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
> :PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
> 
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982147670
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1) Let ''U'' be a set of discrete points, {e}, called ''elementary events''.
> 
> 2) Let every elementary event have a non-negative weight, w(e), assigned to it.
> 
> 3) Let composite events be represented by subsets of ''U''.
> 
> 4) Define the probability of an event X (subset of ''U''), be the sum of the weights, w(e), for every ''elementary event'' in X divided by the sum of the weights for all of ''U''.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
FrequencyProbability|982148584
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> If we throw a thumbtack onto a table once, we would have a hard time predicting whether the point would touch the surface of the table or not. But if we repeat this experiment many times, we will see that the number of times the point touches the surface divided by the number of throws will eventually stablize at a specific value. 
> 
> Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called ''statistical regularity''.
> 
> This phenomenon has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
------
FrequencyProbability|982148627
1c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PersonalProbability
9c9
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
FrequencyProbability|982148664
5c5
< Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called ''statistical regularity''.
---
> Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
------
PersonalProbability|982148839
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- FrequencyProbability -- ProbabilityAxioms
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982148904
0a1,2
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
> 
------
PlanningResearch|982148977
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982149038
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
InterpretingStatisticalData|982149097
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982149158
1c1
< :ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
---
> :ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
------
EclecticProbability|982149222
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982149271
1c1,2
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics
> :FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
------
FrequencyProbability|982149326
1c1,2
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PersonalProbability
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982149372
1,2c1,3
< :ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
< :PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> : MathematicsAndStatistics
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
> : PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
------
EclecticProbability|982149707
1c1,4
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
> 
> Many statisticians adopt an ''eclectic'' view of the 1950's and 1960's debate between proponents of the frequency interpretation and proponents of personal probability. These eclectics say in essence, '''if it walks like a duck...'''. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the axioms of probability theory as a reasonable interpreation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use ''Bayesian'' methods.
------
PersonalProbability|982150196
1c1,4
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- FrequencyProbability -- ProbabilityAxioms
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- EclecticProbability
> 
> Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by L. J. Savage and Bruno deFinetti and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
------
PlanningResearch|982151382
1c1,4
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> : StatisticalRegularity
> : SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
> : DesigningExperiments -- SurveySampling
2a6,16
> Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. 
> 
> 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
> 
> 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
> 
> 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
> 
> In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by Ludwig von Bertallanfy.
> 
>  
------
PlanningResearch|982151652
14c14
< In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by Ludwig von Bertallanfy.
---
> In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982152535
1c1,2
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics -- StatisticalRegularity
> : PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData
3c4,18
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''Units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 
> 
> We have two objectives for our summary:
> 
> 1) How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of central tendancy''.
> 
> 2) How do they differ? This is often called ''variability''.
> 
> When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''mean''', the '''median''', or the '''mode'''. 
> 
> The '''mean''' is what we call the ''average'' in ordinary English, just the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observations. Once we have chosen this method of describing the communality, we usually use the '''standard deviation''' to describe how the observations differ. The ''SD'' (as we abbreviate it) is the '''square root of the average of squared deviations from the mean'''.
> 
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''range''', the '''interquartile range''', and the '''absolute deviation'''. You can find out more about these from a good introductory statistics textbook.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
StatisticalRegularity|982152657
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> : FrequencyProbability
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
FrequencyProbability|982152741
2c2
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
---
> : StatisticalRegularity -- ProbabilityAxioms -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
4,8c4
< If we throw a thumbtack onto a table once, we would have a hard time predicting whether the point would touch the surface of the table or not. But if we repeat this experiment many times, we will see that the number of times the point touches the surface divided by the number of throws will eventually stablize at a specific value. 
< 
< Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
< 
< This phenomenon has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''.
---
> ''Statistical Regularity'' has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''.
------
StatisticalRegularity|982152831
4a5,10
> If we throw a thumbtack onto a table once, we would have a hard time predicting whether the point would touch the surface of the table or not. But if we repeat this experiment many times, we will see that the number of times the point touches the surface divided by the number of throws will eventually stablize at a specific value. 
> 
> Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
> 
> The same idea occurs in games of chance, demographic statistics, quality control of a manufacturing process, and in many other parts of our lives.
> 
------
FrequencyProbability|982153033
5a6,7
> During the 1950's and 1960's, there was a debate among statisticians which featured the ''frequentists'' versus the ''Bayesians''. The former insisted that statistical procedures only made sense when one uses the relative frequency concept. The Bayesians supported the use of ''degrees of belief'' as a basis for a new form of statistical practice.
> 
------
EsperantoLanguage|982167152
4a5,6
> Approximately 1.6 million people speak Esperanto (to Foreign Service Level 3 ability) as of the year 2000.
> 
18a21,25
> 
> Another useful link is http://www.esperanto-usa.org.  US-ians can contact ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
> 
> See also news://soc.culture.esperanto.
> 
------
NewTopics|982167475
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActressesS --
------
ActressesS|982167866
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :AnnetteBenning
> :JullietteBinoche
> :EllenBurstein
> :LeslieCaron
> :GlennClose
> :BlytheDanner
> :JudithDench (Dame)
> :JaneFonda
> :DianeFossey
> :AudreyHepburn
> :KatherineHepburn
> :VivienLeigh
> :SophiaLoren
> :ShirleyMcLaine
> :GwenethPaltrow
> :JuliaRoberts
> :ElizabethTaylor
------
ActorS|982167968
2d1
< :EllenBurstein
7d5
< :JudithDench (Dame)
9d6
< :BlytheDanner
19d15
< :SophiaLoren
------
ActressesS|982168087
17c17,18
< :ElizabethTaylor
---
> :ElizabethTaylor
> :JoanneWoodward
------
ActorS|982168194
3a4
> :JamesCagney
7a9
> :PeterFonda
16a19
> :SteveMartin
21a25
> :AnthonyQuinn
------
ActressesS|982168687
9a10,11
> :JodieFoster
> :WhoopieGoldberg
16a19
> :MegRyan
17a21
> :NatalieWood
------
ActorS/Talk|982169195
9c9,11
< Re: "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)
---
> Re: "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)----
> 
> Linguistically speaking, what is common usage IS correct. These females who act are, as a group, whatever the plurality of AME speakers call them, be it ActorS or ActresseS. THAT IS WHAT THEY ARE!!!(Answer to A.C.) Since there is a dispute here, started by me, I will cede to the older nomenclature and possibly the majority opinion. I have created ActresseS. Wait til next year though...:-).
------
ActorS|982169280
22a23
> :SidnetPoitier
------
ActorS|982170704
31a32
> Female actors are listed (with the utmost respect) under ActresseS.
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|982172940
42a43,97
> Four More Elementary Group Theorems
> 
> 
> I.   For all a. b belonging to (G,*), if a*b=e, then a=b^-1 and b=a^-1.
> * <b>Proof</b>
> * Part A.
> * Let a*b=e.
> * Then (a*b)*b^-1=e*b^-1.
> * Then a*(b*b^-1)= b^-1.
> * Then a*e= b^-1.
> * Therefore, a=b^-1.
> *
> * Part B.
> * Let a*b=e.
> * Then a^-1*(a*b)= a^-1*e.
> * Then (a^-1*a)*b=a^-1.
> * Then e*b=a^-1.
> * Therefore, b=a^-1
> *
> II.  For all a,b belonging to (G,*), (a*b)^-1=b^-1*a^-1.
> * <b>Proof</b>
> * This theorem says that the inverse of a*b= b^-1*a^-1.
> * So we have to prove that (a*b)*(b^-1*a^-1)= e.
> * Then  (a*b)*(b^-1*a^-1)=(a*(b*(*b^-1*a^-1))= a*((b*b^-1)*a^-1).
> * Then  (a*b)*(b^-1*a^-1)= a*(e*a^1)= a*a^-1=e.
> * Therefore, by Theorem I, b^-1*a^-1 is the inverse of a*b.
> *
> III. For all a belonging to (G,*), (a^-1)^-1=a.
> * This theorem states that the inverse of the inverse of an element in a Group, is itself.
> * <b>Proof</b>
> * Since a*a^-1=e, by Theorem I, the inverse of a^-1=a.
> * Therefore,  (a^-1)^-1=a.
> *
> IV.  For all a,x,y, belonging to (G,*), if a*x=a*y, then x=y, and if x*a=y*a, then x=y.
> * <b>Proof</b>
> * Part A.
> * If a*x=a*y, then a^-1*(a*x)=a^-1*(a*y).
> * Then (a^-1*a)*x= (a^-1*a)*y.
> * Then e*x=e*y.
> * Therefore, x=y.
> *
> * Part B.
> * If x*a=y*a, then (x*a)*a^-1=(y*a)*a^-1.
> * Then x*(a*a^-1)= y*(a*a^-1).
> * Then x*e=y*e.
> * Therefore, x=y.
> * The results of Theorem IV are often called the ''cancellation rules'' for a Group.
> 
>          
> 
> 
> 
> 	
> 
> 
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|982173056
41c41
< *	If this is successful, then the assumption that the proposition is false, is, itself, false. Hence, the proposition is true.
---
> *	If this is successful, then the assumption that the proposition is false, is, itself, false. Hence, the proposition is true.----
46c46
< I.   For all a. b belonging to (G,*), if a*b=e, then a=b^-1 and b=a^-1.
---
> I.   For all a. b belonging to a GrouP (G,*), if a*b=e, then a=b^-1 and b=a^-1.
62c62
< II.  For all a,b belonging to (G,*), (a*b)^-1=b^-1*a^-1.
---
> II.  For all a,b belonging to a GrouP (G,*), (a*b)^-1=b^-1*a^-1.
70c70
< III. For all a belonging to (G,*), (a^-1)^-1=a.
---
> III. For all a belonging to a GrouP (G,*), (a^-1)^-1=a.
76c76
< IV.  For all a,x,y, belonging to (G,*), if a*x=a*y, then x=y, and if x*a=y*a, then x=y.
---
> IV.  For all a,x,y, belonging to GrouP (G,*), if a*x=a*y, then x=y, and if x*a=y*a, then x=y.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982174317
4c4
< 1) Let ''U'' be a set of discrete points, {e}, called ''elementary events''.
---
> 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e''', called ''elementary events''.
6c6
< 2) Let every elementary event have a non-negative weight, w(e), assigned to it.
---
> 2) Let every elementary event. '''e''' have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
8c8
< 3) Let composite events be represented by subsets of ''U''.
---
> 3) Let composite events, Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
10c10
< 4) Define the probability of an event X (subset of ''U''), be the sum of the weights, w(e), for every ''elementary event'' in X divided by the sum of the weights for all of ''U''.
---
> 4) Define the ''probability'' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982174567
8c8
< 3) Let composite events, Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
---
> 3) Let ''composite events'', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982174765
4c4
< 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e''', called ''elementary events''.
---
> 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''..., be called ''elementary events''.
6c6
< 2) Let every elementary event. '''e''' have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
---
> 2) Let every elementary event, '''e''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982174867
6c6
< 2) Let every elementary event, '''e''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
---
> 2) Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982175094
4c4
< 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''..., be called ''elementary events''.
---
> 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called ''elementary events''.
------
LiteraTure|982175289
1d0
< * ErnestHemingway
3,4d1
< * JRRTolkieN 
< * AynRand
6c3,7
< * StanislawLem
---
> * ErnestHemingway
> * StanislawLem
> * AynRand
> * JRRTolkieN 
> 
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982175727
17a18,19
> The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode'' is not necessarily unique, like the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
> 
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982175833
18c18
< The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode'' is not necessarily unique, like the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
---
> The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
------
ActorS/Talk|982178286
11a12,22
> ----
> I thought about this when I created the two pages, believe me.  I thought about it, too, when I created separate pages for MaleTennisProfessionals and FemaleTennisProfessionals.  In both cases, I was guided by the highest professional awards.  In tennis, women play in a separate league from men.  In acting, 
> the AcademyAwards (and, I believe, all the other major awards) are granted separately to male and female performers.
> 
> In both cases, there is a good reason for the distinction.  If men and women played in the same tennis league, it would be extremely unfair.  That's a biological fact, as far as I know.  Maybe in the future, it will not be true, but for today, it is true.
> 
> In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but...
> 
> If we were making a page listing famous philosophers, or famous scientists, I do not think that a separate listing would be a good thing at all.  Unless, of course, someone wanted to make a page highlighting famous female scientists of the past, when they were more rare, or something like that.
> 
> One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc.
------
ActressesS|982178595
0a1,4
> I believe this page was created in error, or else I do not understand the purpose of it.  We have a page named ActresseS,
> so what's this one for?  Shall I move these performers to that page, and cause this page to forward to that one?  I won't do so for a day or two, or until someone tells me that it is o.k. to do so, because perhaps there is some reason that I have missed.
> 
> 
------
PoLitics|982179534
3c3
< Topics to expound on...
---
> ----
5,28c5,45
< * LibertarianisM
< * CommunisM
< * FeudalisM
< * CapitalisM
< * FederalisM
< * SocialisM
< * SyndicalisM
< * DemocracY
< * AnarchY
< * PlutocracY
< * OligarchY
< * AuthoritariaN
< * RepubliC
< * CityState
< * NationState
< * WorldState
< 
< * NationalSocialism
< * LibertarianCapitalism
< 
< * TechnoDemocracy
< * TechnoAnarchy
< * TechnoCapitalism
< * TechnoOligarchy
---
> '''PoliticalIdeologies:'''
> 
> LeftWingIdeologies: BolshevisM -- CommunisM -- MarxisM -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TraditionalAnarchism
> 
> RightWingIdeologies: CapitalisM -- ConservatisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism
> 
> LibertarianIdeologies: AnarchoCapitalism -- LibertarianisM
> 
> OtherAndAmbiguousIdeologies: AnarchisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- RepublicanisM -- StatesRights
> 
> TechnoPolitics: TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoOligarchy
> 
> ----
> 
> '''PoliticalParties:'''
> 
> LeftWingParties:
> 
> RightWingParties:
> 
> OtherParties:
> 
> ----
> 
> '''PoliticalConcepts:'''
> 
> IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- RightWing
> 
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState
> 
> ClassicalConcepts: DemocracY -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
> 
> ----
> 
> ''PoliticalTheory:'''
> 
> PoliticalPhilosophy: TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
> 
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill
> 
> ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- RobertNozick
------
AnarchisM|982179601
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.  See AnarchY.
------
AnarchisM|982179649
1c1
< The view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.  See AnarchY.
---
> The view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.  Includes TraditionalAnarchism and, arguably, AnarchoCapitalism.  See AnarchY.
------
PoLitics|982179673
39c39
< ''PoliticalTheory:'''
---
> '''PoliticalTheory:'''
45c45
< ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- RobertNozick
---
> ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- RobertNozick
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982179803
16,17c16,17
< 
< '''Quibble:''' Socialism doesn't refer to a level of government control, merely to a level of economic equality.  It would be difficult to say all fascist governments are socialist.  And on the other hand, anarchism is sometimes libertarian socialism.  I would fix this but I don't know the actual term...maybe despotism suffices, but it has a lot of connotations associated therewith.
---
> ----
> /Talk
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982180038
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Quibble:''' Socialism doesn't refer to a level of government control, merely to a level of economic equality.  It would be difficult to say all fascist governments are socialist.  And on the other hand, anarchism is sometimes libertarian socialism.  I would fix this but I don't know the actual term...maybe despotism suffices, but it has a lot of connotations associated therewith.
> ----
> Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982180059
3c3
< Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
---
> Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks in the UnitedStates think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982180117
3c3
< Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks in the UnitedStates think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
---
> Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks in the UnitedStates think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal socialist state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.  Remember, it used to be the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.  'Socialist' was not a euphemism.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982180291
3c3
< Now remember that I started the chapter by distinguishing <i>two</i> senses in which we can understand the question, "What is the justification of the state?"  The first was: "What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?"  The second was: "What is the justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>to</i> <i>achieve</i> <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>purpose</i>, <i>P</i>?"  Now, we just got done discussing the first question.  We briefly considered anarchism and the natural law theory, and then looked at social contract theories in a little more depth.  Then, tentatively as usual, I came down in favor of a consequentialist justification for having a state at all.  But then I said that I had <i>not</i> given you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  And the reason I said that was that, in order to give a consequentialist argument for establishing a government, I’d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  Because if I’m going to try to give a moral justification of the existence of government, then I had better begin by making things easy for myself -- starting, in other words, with the task of trying to justify a <i>really</i> <i>good</i> state.  And what is a good state?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it doesn’t do anything else.  And as I said, that just makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do -- what their proper functions are, and are not.
---
> Now remember that I started the chapter by distinguishing <i>two</i> senses in which we can understand the question, "What is the justification of the state?"  The first was: "What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?"  The second was: "What is the justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>to</i> <i>achieve</i> <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>purpose</i>, <i>P</i>?"  Now, we just got done discussing the first question.  We briefly considered AnarchisM and the NaturalLaw theory, and then looked at social contract theories in a little more depth.  Then, tentatively as usual, I came down in favor of a consequentialist justification for having a state at all.  But then I said that I had <i>not</i> given you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  And the reason I said that was that, in order to give a consequentialist argument for establishing a government, I?d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  Because if I?m going to try to give a moral justification of the existence of government, then I had better begin by making things easy for myself -- starting, in other words, with the task of trying to justify a <i>really</i> <i>good</i> state.  And what is a good state?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it doesn?t do anything else.  And as I said, that just makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do -- what their proper functions are, and are not.
7c7
< Indeed, it’s on <i>those</i> questions that you’ll find the differences between conservatives, welfare state liberals, libertarians, socialists, and fascists.  There are a handful of anarchists among the libertarians and the socialists (certain kinds of communists are anarchists, believe it or not).  But everyone else agrees that the existence of <i>some</i> kind of government is morally justified.  And then what they disagree about is what government should do.  Nearly everyone is willing to nod their heads when it is said that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and preserve justice.  It’s just that all these different camps have a different conceptions of which rights we do have, and what justice consists of.
---
> Indeed, it?s on <i>those</i> questions that you?ll find the differences between conservatives, welfare state liberals, libertarians, socialists, and fascists.  There are a handful of anarchists among the LibertariaN''''s and the SocialisT''''s (certain kinds of communists are anarchists, believe it or not).  But everyone else agrees that the existence of <i>some</i> kind of government is morally justified.  And then what they disagree about is what government should do.  Nearly everyone is willing to nod their heads when it is said that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and preserve justice.  It?s just that all these different camps have a different conceptions of which rights we do have, and what justice consists of.
11c11
< Libertarianism, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  There are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it doesn’t hurt anyone else.  Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarianism, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government’s main imperative should be: Hands off!
---
> LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  There are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it doesn?t hurt anyone else.  Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarianism, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government's main imperative should be: Hands off!
13c13
< Socialism, nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "communism"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
---
> Socialism, nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
AynRand|982180308
1,13c1,15
<  Born Alice Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, February 2, 1905.
<  Emigrated to the United States in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
<  Moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry. 
<  Married Frank O'Connor, 1929. 
<  Released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, 1934. 
<  Wrote two unsuccessful novels, 'We the Living' (1936), 'Anthem' (1938). 
<  Wrote the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
<  In 1951 met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
<  Wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
<  Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
<  Developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works throughout the 1960s and 1970s. 
<  Broke with Branden, 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
<  Died March 6, 1982
---
> *Born Alice Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, February 2, 1905.
> *Emigrated to the United States in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
> *Moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry. 
> *Married Frank O'Connor, 1929. 
> *Released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, 1934. 
> *Wrote two unsuccessful novels, 'We the Living' (1936), 'Anthem' (1938). 
> *Wrote the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
> *In 1951 met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
> *Wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
> *Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
> *Developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works throughout the 1960s and 1970s. 
> *Broke with Branden, 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
> *Died March 6, 1982
> ----
> Somebody needs to render this into declarative sentences.
------
ActorS/Talk|982180442
18c18,19
< In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but...
---
> In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but...----
> The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?
22c23
< One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc.
---
> One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc.
------
AnarchisM|982180504
1c1,21
< The view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.  Includes TraditionalAnarchism and, arguably, AnarchoCapitalism.  See AnarchY.
---
> ''Anarchism'' is the view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.
> ----
> Traditionally, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to a movement 
> dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
> 
> Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.  We have a comprehensive discussion of TraditionalAnarchism.
> ----
> More recently, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to supporters of AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
> 
> The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  We have a comprehensive discussion of AnarchoCapitalism.
> ----
> 
> Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper (or not a kind of anarchism at all), or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
> 
> Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and may also claim that many anarchists of the traditional sort are economically illiterate.
> 
> Both views are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
> 
> This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
> 
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
ActorS/Talk|982180528
19c19
< The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?
---
> The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?----
------
AnarchY|982180535
4,6d3
< ----
< Traditionally, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to a movement 
< dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
8,23c5
< Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.  We have a comprehensive discussion of TraditionalAnarchism.
< ----
< More recently, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to supporters of AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
< 
< The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  We have a comprehensive discussion of AnarchoCapitalism.
< ----
< 
< Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper (or not a kind of anarchism at all), or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
< 
< Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and may also claim that many anarchists of the traditional sort are economically illiterate.
< 
< Both views are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
< 
< This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
< 
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
---
> See AnarchisM.
------
AnarchisM/AnarchyTalk|982180611
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim, in AnarchY, you replaced the historical definition of the term with a propaganda definition that has no value. The propaganda definition is inaccurate since anarcho-syndicalists "opposes cultural, economic, and political institutions equally, often failing to distinguish between them" and so fall in the category of destroyers of society in the definition. The definition describes two groups, and then lumps anarcho-syndicalists with "anarcho"-capitalists in the wrong group. Further, I made no mention of government in my definition, because it's irrelevant. Anarcho-syndicalists aim to demolish government by not acknowledging it. To claim that "anarcho"-capitalists have equal claim to the term Anarchy as anarcho-syndicalists is a gross distortion of history. The latter have existed for more than a hundred years. The former about two or three decades. I do not think you understand Anarchism. Are you an anarchist or otherwise student of the movement? -- RichardKulisz? 
> ----
> I didn't add the part about anarcho-syndicalism, someone else did.  Maybe it should be deleted.
> 
> The history of anarchism is something that can be addressed in a subsection.  Which group has "historical priority" is non-essential when describing what anarchy is.
> 
> The concept should be addressed logically, with a genus-differentia definition.  Anarchy is a social system (genus) that differs from all other social systems in that in advocates the absence of government (differentia).  Then we take the genus anarchy as we just defined it, and look at different types of anarchy.  I do not think genus-differentia definitions count as propaganda.
> 
> TimShell
> 
> The problem isn't in the format of the definition but in its substance.
> 
> Anarchism is not limited to politics or rejection of government. As a system, it is the absence of all hierarchy everywhere. The limitation of 'hierarchy' to political hierarchies is completely artificial and not supported by anarchists. In fact, it is easily disprovable since 'politics' is merely distribution of power and the existence of power structures in other areas of society is self-evident. Politics is inseparable from the rest of society.
> 
> Anarchism is a ''methodology'' not an ideology. Anarchism is a way of acting, a means to an end, and not the end itself. Insofar as 'anarchy' exists at all, it must be derived from anarchism. Most anarchists do not have a specific vision in mind so if one wants an honest description of what anarchists work towards then one must look at what they're actually doing. To figure out the destination anarchists wish to reach, look where they're going and not the distination which some tiny minority of people who may or may not be anarchists claim they're trying to reach. Anarchism is a movement defined by people at the bottom, not a hallucinatory vision dreamed up by "leaders" at the top. If you think this is "diffuse" then that's just too bad.
> 
> And by anarchists I mean anarcho-syndicalists whose belief in anarchism is genuine as evidenced by their having fought and died in revolutionary wars in order to bring about anarchy (whereas anarcho-capitalists have not). Saying that the history of anarchism is irrelevant is as naive as saying that the history of Marxism is irrelevant. Do you propose that a good definition of Marxism can be given by capitalists or Stalinists? To believe that an ideology can be fairly described by its enemies or propagandists who merely seek to exploit it is hopelessly naive. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> ----
> Richard, I'd be very curious to learn about the differences and, if any, the similarities between anarcho-syndicalism and anarcho-capitalism.  I know very little about these theories.  I wish you would explain the facts about what the theories state, in as unbiased a fashion as possible, on AnarchY (or perhaps AnarchIsm).  Why not just make the necessary changes?  I'd be very curious to see the results! -- LarrySanger
> 
> I already made the changes and Tim unmade them on the basis that they're "diffuse" and not what he expects them to be. And now he's added more propaganda. What does an individual incident (the shooting of some US President) have to do with the day to day actions of anarchists? Where's the mention of Direct Action? Where's the explanation of how anarchists use the general strike and sabotage? And what the heck does murder have to do with famous anarchists (why is it in the same paragraph)? It seems to me that Tim aims to divide anarchism into two sides; nutso bombers and capitalist extremists. If this is indeed the case then Tim falls into the "enemy of anarchism ''and'' propagandist exploiter" category and should refrain from trying to define the term, let alone suppressing other people's definitions of it. The failure to list Emma Goldman, Mikhail Bakunin and Noam Chomsky as famous anachists and the inclusion of an absolute nobody like Leon Czolgosz (whose own mother said was ''too stupid to be an anarchist'') tells me that Tim isn't familiar enough with anarchism to impose his views of it on anyone else. And since every political ideology has resulted in the murder of at least one leader of an opposing ideology, Czolgosz shooting McKinley means nothing. The murders of anarchist leaders at the hands of capitalists more than compensate. Focusing on an aberration is a common propaganda technique.
> 
> Anarchism is a rejection of all hierarchy and authority. "Anarcho"-capitalism is a special case rejection of governmental authority in favour of capitalist authority. "Anarcho"-capitalists refuse to acknowledge that capitalist authority exists, that it is arbitrary, unjust and should be dismantled. It isn't possible to honestly describe "anarcho"-capitalist arguments and viewpoints without pointing out how baseless and oversimplistic they are. For example, a common argument among capitalists (and "anarcho"-capitalists are just capitalists who pretend to care about liberty) is to represent the free market as an auction where labour power is sold to buyers. Of course, it isn't because such an auction leaves the impression that the labour market is a ''seller's'' market when in fact it is a buyer's market. The best way to describe anarcho-capitalism is probably as a religion -- just state what they believe and nothing more. And if '''I''' described Christianity, I would describe it as a group fantasy dynamic to counter feelings of powerlessness, self-hatred and wishes for self-annihilation all caused by traumatic child abuse. This wouldn't go over very well with most people. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> ----
> The miscategorization of anarcho-syndicalism was my fault.  Since it looks like it's the main form of anarchism, I figured it deserved mention, but wasn't sure which heading to put it under thanks to the mention of ''cultural'' institutions.  At the time I wasn't thinking of institutions as organizations for whatever reason.  Bleah...easy to catch, at least. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> Of the two categories, you chose the least offensive one. The second category of 'people who oppose all social order' (implied by "which supports social order" instead of "'''the'' social order") obviously refers to bombers only. The problem is that both categories are extremely offensive and propagandistic distortions. -- RichardKulisz
> ----
> It seems to me Jimbo has shown a way around this dispute, although Richard and Tim may disagree.  At least Jimbo has illustrated the general direction that we should move in when we have these sorts of disputes.  The aim is to describe the theories in such a way as cannot be objected to by their proponents or their opponents--by attributing the very descriptions of the theories to their proponents and then explaining what the differences and conflicts between competing theories are (rather than ignoring the fact that there is a conflict, or engaging the conflicts on the page itself).  It seems to me this is something that anyone here can do with a little practice.  Might be good for you, too.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> 
> There's just a couple problems in recognizing AnarchoCapitalism as a form of Anarchism. 1) Anti-capitalist anarchists were there first so including capitalists only serves to confuse matters. 2) AnarchoCapitalism is limited geographically to the very right wing countries. 3) Capitalism '''is''' authoritarian since private property is an inherently authoritarian concept (to deny that the owner gets to dictate to everyone else or that this is a form of authority is blatant destruction of the English language), so AnarchoCapitalism is a contradiction in terms. 4) It's not clear that AnarchoCapitalism is a serious political ideology instead of mere political maneuvering. So I find equal time given to AnarchoCapitalism to be a bit irritating. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> ''While I disagree with you about the status of things here,
> the point I have been making to TimShell I will make to you as well.  This article, the short article on the term 'Anarchy' can simply serve as '''description''' of how the term is used.  It may be a shame that things have gotten confused, but rather than ignore the confusion, I attempted to describe it so that a newcomer to the term will better understand.  The point may not be to give each side equal treatment, but merely to educate newcomers that the term is actively used in two different ways.'' --JimboWales
> 
> I'll answer briefly, weakly, and vaguely.  (1) Matters are already long since "confused" (and it's not ''that'' confusing); you can't change that.  (2) Er, so what?  (3) Suffice it to say this requires more argument.  (4) This seems very implausible, given that there are many serious people who identify themselves as anarcho-capitalists.  I understand your irritation, but I also think you're going to have to live with it.  If you really care so much about how political views are represented on Wikipedia, wouldn't your energies be better spent elaborating anarcho-syndicalism fairly--which would include anarcho-syndicalism's response to anarcho-capitalism? -- LarrySanger
> 
> I'll answer briefly. (2) is a response to your observation on (1); matters are not confused everywhere and it behooves us not to confuse them further. (3) Property is control over how others use an object and right-libertarians argue for absolute property rights with total control over how others use an object. If people do not recognize this as authoritarian then the point requires more argument than belongs in an encyclopedia entry. (4) You're right, that was a mistake. I was speaking from personal experience only. (5) I am well-rebuked. :) -- RichardKulisz
> 
> In case anyone really doesn't know what anarcho-capitalism is supposed to be about, have a look at [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html this article].  See the final paragraph for how the author treats the problem Richard raises.
> 
> Why don't we treat the matter the same way - reserve libertarianism for the right, and anarchism for the left?  AnarchY would have a note at the bottom saying "sometimes used in a broader sense to include AnarchoCapitalism, which blah blah" but would otherwise treat traditional forms, and libertarianism would have a note sating "formerly used in a broader sense to include AnarchoSyndicalism, which blah blah" but would otherwise treat what have become standard forms.  It seems to me this is the simplest way to disentangle the two philosophies. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> I think it is inaccurate to say that libertarianism is 'right' and anarchism is 'left'.  I know, anyway, that most libertarians would balk vehemently at the label 'right'.  These are people who want to legalize marijuana, pornography and gay marriage, who want to end registration for the draft, and permit free immigration and emigration from all countries.  The opposite positions are all traditionally associated with the right (at least in the U.S.). 
> 
> Why is it that I can use terms so universally recognized everywhere except wiki, where they are instantly balked at?  Right and left have nothing to do with anything so specific as moral majority or degree of government control.  The former refers to a desire for equality of rights, the latter for equality of condition.  Or at the very least, they will every time I use them. :)
> 
> ----
> 
> I didn't realize that those terms were universally recognized or used in that way.  Are they?  I mean, exceptions of all kinds immediately pop to mind.
> 
> If the right wing is supposed to be for equality of rights, then why do they tend to seek strong laws to restrict the use of drugs used by lower classes (marijuana) while not seeking to restrict the use of drugs used by the upper classes (wine)?  What about equality of rights for homosexuals to marry?
> 
> If that's the way that the classification is supposed to work,
> then we have to say that Republicans are more liberal than libertarians, because libertarians favor equality of rights for homosexual marriage!  Sounds strange to me!  I think that in this particular case, the *left* has the idea of equality of rights.
> 
> ----
> Ok, so I didn't go all the way to the end of the spectrum.  The very farthest right would be a system of plain and simple inequality, like despotism and aristocracy.  As you go to the left, equality of rights gets added, then of opportunity, and then of condition.  The idea is that inequities are ironed out as you go left.
> 
> I think this is a ''reasonably'' standard version of the political spectrum.  It does a good job lining up with other criteria, for instance, stance on capitalism (which leads to inequality of condition, so goes on the right).  The libertarian party actually uses this latter axis on its page, so it obviously doesn't reject ''that'' dichotomy, at least.  It just for whatever reason doesn't refer to it as the left-right political spectrum, probably because they don't want to be equated with conservativism. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
ActressesS|982180712
21a22
> :MichellePfeiffer
------
AnarchisM|982180837
3,4c3
< Traditionally, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to a movement 
< dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy. Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
---
> Traditionally, the term ''anarchism'' has been applied to a movement, here named TraditionalAnarchism just for convenience, dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.  Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order.  In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
6,8c5
< Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.  We have a comprehensive discussion of TraditionalAnarchism.
< ----
< More recently, the term ''anarchy'' has been applied to supporters of AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
---
> Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.
10c7
< The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  We have a comprehensive discussion of AnarchoCapitalism.
---
> See TraditionalAnarchism.
11a9,11
> More recently, the term ''anarchism'' has been used to describe AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
> 
> The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  
12a13,14
> See AnarchoCapitalism.
> ----
21c23
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
---
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchY|982180937
3c3
< But when it is used to describe a political ideal, ''anarchy'' is a term used in two different ways in describing two very different political views.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
---
> But when it is used to describe a political ideal, ''anarchy'' is a term used in two different ways by the adherents of two different political views: TraditionalAnarchism and AnarchoCapitalism.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
5c5
< See AnarchisM.
---
> See AnarchisM.
------
ActressesS|982181034
4c4
< 
---
> :DrewBarrymore
------
LeslieCaron|982181048
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  After AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
------
ActorS/Talk|982181087
18,19c18,23
< In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but...----
< The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?----
---
> In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but... --JimboWales
> ----
> The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?
> ----
> I would answer this by saying that the problem was sexism in Shakespeare's time, not in our own.  The role of LadyMacBeth
> is best portrayed by a woman, I think.  A film detailing the life of MotherTheresa, starring SylvesterStallone in the central role, would be a farce, would it not?
20a25,29
> Remember that I said, "generally, but by no means universally".
> 
> Perhaps in the future, the methods of makeup will have advanced to a sufficient stage that SeanConnery could play a convincing PrincessDiana, but for now, gender is relevant to the roles, and it is not sexism to note this fact. --JimboWales
> 
> ----
23c32
< One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc.
---
> One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc. --JimboWales
------
LeslieCaron|982181225
1c1
< Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  After AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
---
> Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that after AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
------
PoLitics|982181244
6a7,8
> (Before exploring this section you may wish to learn about the PoliticalSpectrum).
> 
------
LeslieCaron|982181276
1c1
< Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that after AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
---
> Film actress and dancer.  Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that after AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
------
PoliticalSpectrum|982181296
3c3
< Because there are many possible political spectrums, one should not talk about _the_ political spectrum as if there were only one.  At the very least, one should first establish context by defining the axis upon which different positions will be measured.  Unfortunately, this is seldom done.
---
> Because there are many possible political spectrums, one should not talk about _the_ political spectrum as if there were only one.  At the very least, one should first establish context by defining the axis upon which different positions will be measured.  Unfortunately, this is seldom done (see PoLitics, e.g.).
------
PoliticalSpectrum|982181392
9c9
< This right-left spectrum is so common that many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it.  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
---
> This right-left spectrum is so common that many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it (see PoLitics, e.g.).  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
------
AynRand|982181541
1,15c1,20
< *Born Alice Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, February 2, 1905.
< *Emigrated to the United States in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
< *Moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry. 
< *Married Frank O'Connor, 1929. 
< *Released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, 1934. 
< *Wrote two unsuccessful novels, 'We the Living' (1936), 'Anthem' (1938). 
< *Wrote the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
< *In 1951 met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
< *Wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. 
< *Along with Branden, launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
< *Developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works throughout the 1960s and 1970s. 
< *Broke with Branden, 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
< *Died March 6, 1982
< ----
< Somebody needs to render this into declarative sentences.
---
> 
> Ayn Rand was a popular and controversial American philosopher and novelist.  She was born Alyssa (or Alice) Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. Rand emigrated to the UnitedStates in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
> 
> After living in Chicago for a short time, Rand moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry.  She met an actor,
> FrankOConnor, by tripping him on purpose and married him in 1929.
> 
> Rand released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, in 1934, and
> published two commercially unsuccessful novels, 'WeTheLiving' (1936), and 'AntheM' (1938). 
> 
> Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
> 
> In 1951 Rand met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
> 
> Rand then wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
> 
> Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works.
> 
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
> 
> She died March 6, 1982.
------
LeslieCaron|982181749
1c1
< Film actress and dancer.  Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that after AudreyHepburn, the most beautiful actress who ever lived.
---
> Film actress and dancer.  Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that she was, after AudreyHepburn, [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
------
PoliticalSpectrum|982181914
7c7
< In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM ("the right") versus SocialisM ("the left", called liberalism in the UnitedStates).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.
---
> In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM ("the right") versus SocialisM ("the left", called liberalism in the UnitedStates).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.  EricHoffer suggested that the right-left spectrum measures whether one is frightened by change (the right) or whether one embraces change (the left).  ThomasSowell has argued that one is left-wing to the extent that one beleives human nature, and therefore human society, is malleable, and right-wing to the extent that one believes human nature is fixed.  Since it is not obvious how these various concepts are related, it is very confusing to speak of the right or the left without indicating what exactly you are refering to.
9c9
< This right-left spectrum is so common that many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it (see PoLitics, e.g.).  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
---
> Nonetheless, the right-left spectrum is so common as to be taken for granted.  Many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it (see PoLitics, e.g.).  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
------
AnAmericanInParis|982182285
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A 1951 MusicalFilm starring GeneKelly and LeslieCaron, set in Paris, directed by Vincente Minnelli.  The climax of the film is 18 minutes of fantastic dancing featuring Kelly and Caron, set to GeorgeGershwin's "An American In Paris."
------
FiLm|982182358
4,6c4,11
<  
< ActorS
< ActresseS
---
> ----
> Film people:
> 
> ActorS -- ActresseS
> ----
> FilmGenres:
> 
> MusicalFilm
------
ActresseS|982182435
1a2
> :AnnetteBenning
2a4,8
> :EllenBurstein
> :LeslieCaron
> :GlennClose
> :BlytheDanner
> :JudithDench (Dame)
4a11
> :DianeFossey
9a17
> :SophiaLoren
12a21
> :MichellePfeiffer
15c24
< :MegRyan
---
> :MegRyan 
------
FiLm|982182467
11c11
< MusicalFilm
---
> MusicalFilm
------
ActressesS|982182473
1,27c1
< I believe this page was created in error, or else I do not understand the purpose of it.  We have a page named ActresseS,
< so what's this one for?  Shall I move these performers to that page, and cause this page to forward to that one?  I won't do so for a day or two, or until someone tells me that it is o.k. to do so, because perhaps there is some reason that I have missed.
< 
< :DrewBarrymore
< :AnnetteBenning
< :JullietteBinoche
< :EllenBurstein
< :LeslieCaron
< :GlennClose
< :BlytheDanner
< :JudithDench (Dame)
< :JaneFonda
< :DianeFossey
< :JodieFoster
< :WhoopieGoldberg
< :AudreyHepburn
< :KatherineHepburn
< :VivienLeigh
< :SophiaLoren
< :ShirleyMcLaine
< :GwenethPaltrow
< :MichellePfeiffer
< :JuliaRoberts
< :MegRyan
< :ElizabethTaylor
< :NatalieWood
< :JoanneWoodward
---
> #REDIRECT ActresseS
------
MusicalFilm|982182532
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film that features songs, sung by the actors, seamlessly interwoven into the narrative.
> 
> Some famous musicals include AnAmericanInParis.
------
ActresseS|982182571
22a23
> :DeniseRichards
------
PoliticalSpectrum|982182749
17,39c17
< Tim, this makes a good attempt to be fair but it overlooks a couple key points.  There are a variety of political spectra, but most people have a clear concept of the one to which "left" and "right" refer.  In fact, if you look at the one presented by the advocates for self-government, you will notice that the horizontal axis is the same left-right spectrum everyone else uses.  So while people may debate over the precise definition of that axis, its existence is not nearly so controversial.
< 
< The other thing is that the particular diagram to which you refer is fairly non-discriminatory.  Inasmuchas it can't distinguish between libertarianism and anarchism - one of which has policies much like capitalism, one of which has policies much like socialism - and again between fascism and marxism.  In short, they have identified different ideologies by pinching the diagram off into a diamond, which is probably more for the purposes of popularizing libertarianism (something the site obviously tries to do) then accuracy. -- JoshuaGrosse
< ----
< Joshua - The two axes are 'personal self-government' and 'economic self-government'.  Which is the horizontal axis?
< 
< ''Economic self-government: the one that showed up as horizontal on the chart, of course. :)''
< 
< ****
< But personal self-government is equally horizontal on the chart.  The axes lie parallel like two AA batteries in a walkman: The positive next to the others negative.
< 
< The diagram can be represented like this:
<    ++
<  +-  -+
<    --
< 
< ''Oh...I see what they're doing.  In that case the corners of the graph are grossly mislabeled - a completely totalitarian government is authoritarian whether or not they allow a free market.  But all in all, it's the square is suggested, only tilted in a non-standard way.  Usually left-right is portrayed as an economic spectrum.  I'm very sorry for the confusion.  I still say the source is biased, though.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
< ****
< Also - I do not agree that there is similarity between socialism and anarchism.  As I would define them, socialism attempts to maintain social order with political institutions, and without cultural or economic institutions.  Anarchism seeks to maintain social order with economic and cultural institutions, and without political institutions.  As they are conventionally understood, socialism means more government, anarchism no government.  So even if you don't like my definition, common usage place these two at opposite extremes.
< 
< ''Just as libertarian is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude libertarian socialists (~anarcho-syndicalists), it seems anarchism is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude anarcho-capitalists (~free market libertarians).  It's in this sense that I was using the term.  Obviously anarcho-syndicalism has strong ties to socialism and free market libertarianism has strong ties to capitalism, but the two systems aren't distinguished on the diamond.  A square or circle would be much better in terms of actually representing ideologies.''
< 
< ''Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse''
---
> /Talk
------
LeslieCaron|982182826
1c1,3
< Film actress and dancer.  Star of AnAmericanInParis, GiGi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that she was, after AudreyHepburn, [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
---
> Leslie Caron is a French film actress and dancer.  She was born July 1, 1931 in Boulogne-Billancourt, France.  She was discovered  by GeneKelly, who chose her to appear opposite him in AnAmericanInParis.
> 
> She went on to star in GiGi, LiLi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that she was, after AudreyHepburn, [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
------
PoliticalSpectrum/Talk|982182897
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim, this makes a good attempt to be fair but it overlooks a couple key points.  There are a variety of political spectra, but most people have a clear concept of the one to which "left" and "right" refer.  In fact, if you look at the one presented by the advocates for self-government, you will notice that the horizontal axis is the same left-right spectrum everyone else uses.  So while people may debate over the precise definition of that axis, its existence is not nearly so controversial.
> 
> The other thing is that the particular diagram to which you refer is fairly non-discriminatory.  Inasmuchas it can't distinguish between libertarianism and anarchism - one of which has policies much like capitalism, one of which has policies much like socialism - and again between fascism and marxism.  In short, they have identified different ideologies by pinching the diagram off into a diamond, which is probably more for the purposes of popularizing libertarianism (something the site obviously tries to do) then accuracy. -- JoshuaGrosse
> ----
> Joshua - The two axes are 'personal self-government' and 'economic self-government'.  Which is the horizontal axis?
> 
> ''Economic self-government: the one that showed up as horizontal on the chart, of course. :)''
> 
> ****
> But personal self-government is equally horizontal on the chart.  The axes lie parallel like two AA batteries in a walkman: The positive next to the others negative.
> 
> The diagram can be represented like this:
>    ++
>  +-  -+
>    --
> 
> ''Oh...I see what they're doing.  In that case the corners of the graph are grossly mislabeled - a completely totalitarian government is authoritarian whether or not they allow a free market.  But all in all, it's the square is suggested, only tilted in a non-standard way.  Usually left-right is portrayed as an economic spectrum.  I'm very sorry for the confusion.  I still say the source is biased, though.'' -- JoshuaGrosse
> ****
> Also - I do not agree that there is similarity between socialism and anarchism.  As I would define them, socialism attempts to maintain social order with political institutions, and without cultural or economic institutions.  Anarchism seeks to maintain social order with economic and cultural institutions, and without political institutions.  As they are conventionally understood, socialism means more government, anarchism no government.  So even if you don't like my definition, common usage place these two at opposite extremes.
> 
> ''Just as libertarian is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude libertarian socialists (~anarcho-syndicalists), it seems anarchism is usually applied in a narrow sense to exclude anarcho-capitalists (~free market libertarians).  It's in this sense that I was using the term.  Obviously anarcho-syndicalism has strong ties to socialism and free market libertarianism has strong ties to capitalism, but the two systems aren't distinguished on the diamond.  A square or circle would be much better in terms of actually representing ideologies.''
> 
> ''Other than those, though, I don't really have any complaints other than perhaps a slight editorial tone (''fear'' the future and wish to control it).  And, of course, none of this is meant as negative criticism, my being too uncertain to try writing political articles myself. :) -- JoshuaGrosse''
> ----
> Tim, you wrote:
> :In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM ("the right") versus SocialisM ("the left", called liberalism in the UnitedStates).
> I think we need to find a better word for The Right than "conservatism" because that means, after all, something quite different in countries where the tradition for decades has been socialism.  Perhaps there isn't a single word--perhaps it's simply "support for traditional values and some support for capitalism."
------
LeslieCaron|982182912
3a4,5
> 
> She continues to act, appearing recently for example in the acclaimed film ChocolaT.
------
PoLitics|982183012
4d3
< 
20d18
< 
30d27
< 
33c30
< IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- RightWing
---
> IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- RightWing
40d36
< 
------
ActresseS|982183030
22d21
< :SidneyPoitier
------
ActorS|982183097
23c23
< :SidnetPoitier
---
> :SidneyPoitier
------
NewTopics|982183173
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActressesS --
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --
------
MusicalFilm|982183742
3c3,12
< Some famous musicals include AnAmericanInParis.
---
> Some famous musicals include AnAmericanInParis.
> Also:
> :SouthPacific
> :OklaHoma
> :CarouSel
> :KissMeKate
> :TheKingAndI
> :TheSoundOfMusic
> :WestSideStory
> 
------
ActresseS|982183929
0a1
> :JulieAndrews
7a9
> :CatherineDeNeuve
------
MusicalFilm|982184150
11a12
> :MyFairLady
------
MusicalFilm|982184203
12a13,14
> :DirtyDancing
> :SaturdayNightFever
------
FiLm|982184375
11c11,17
< MusicalFilm
---
> :MusicalFilm
> :ComedyFilm
> :DramaFilm
> :ScienceFictionFilm
> :HorrorFilm
> :ThrillerFilm
> :ActionFilm
------
PersonalProbability|982184375
4c4
< Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by L. J. Savage and Bruno deFinetti and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
---
> Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and Bruno deFinetti and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
------
MusicalFilm|982184515
9a10
> :GiGi
------
PersonalProbability|982184845
4c4
< Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and Bruno deFinetti and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
---
> Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/uncert.htm#finetti Bruno deFinetti] and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
------
ActorS|982185059
6a7
> :GerardDepardieu
20a22
> :YvesMontand
------
PersonalProbability|982185267
4c4
< Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/uncert.htm#finetti Bruno deFinetti] and others. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
---
> Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/uncert.htm#finetti Bruno deFinetti] and others such as [http://www.xrefer.com/entry/553336 Frank P. Ramsey]. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
------
FrequencyProbability|982185450
4c4
< ''Statistical Regularity'' has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''.
---
> ''Statistical Regularity'' has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''. This school is often associated with the names of [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Neyman.html Jerzy Neyman] and [http://www.mrs.umn.edu/~sungurea/introstat/history/w98/espearson.html Egon Pearson] who described the logic of statistical hypothesis testing.
------
FrequencyProbability|982185493
6c6
< During the 1950's and 1960's, there was a debate among statisticians which featured the ''frequentists'' versus the ''Bayesians''. The former insisted that statistical procedures only made sense when one uses the relative frequency concept. The Bayesians supported the use of ''degrees of belief'' as a basis for a new form of statistical practice.
---
> Prior to and during the 1950's and 1960's, there was a debate among statisticians which featured the ''frequentists'' versus the ''Bayesians''. The former insisted that statistical procedures only made sense when one uses the relative frequency concept. The Bayesians supported the use of ''degrees of belief'' as a basis for a new form of statistical practice.
------
DesigningExperiments|982186502
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> : PlanningResearch -- SurveySampling
> 
> The prototype of the thinking of a statistician considering the design of an experiment was exemplified by [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html Sir Ronald A. Fisher]. He described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. This sounds like a frivolous application, but in fact, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design.
> 
> Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in AbstractAlgebra and Combinatorics.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
DesigningExperiments|982186559
6c6
< Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in AbstractAlgebra and Combinatorics.
---
> Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in AbstractAlgebra and CombinaTorics.
------
SurveySampling|982187319
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics 
> : PlanningResearch -- DesigningExperiments? 
> 
> The model of a randomly selected sample from a finite population has been very fruitful. Sophisticated sampling techniques that are both economical and scientifically reliable have been developed. An entire industry of public opinion polling  as well as the technical activities of the [http://www.census.gov/dmd/www/2khome.htm U.S. Bureau of the Census] depend on these techniques. 
> 
> The most elementary methodology is called ''simple random sampling''. It assures that every possible subset of the population which has the desired sample size is given the same probability of selection. The possibility of very expensive  or very atypical samples has lead to a variety of modfications such as stratified samples, cluster sampling, and multistage samples. The most experienced center in these techniques outside the Census Bureau is the [http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/research.html University of Michigan Survey Research Center].
> 
> [RABeldin] 
------
SurveySampling|982187389
2d1
< 
10c9
< [RABeldin] 
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin] 
------
ChristianBibleGenesis/Talk|982187894
8c8,11
< I agree completely with what everyone has said.  Especially the part about it not being an easy problem to solve right away.  :-)
---
> I agree completely with what everyone has said.  Especially the part about it not being an easy problem to solve right away.  :-)
> ----
> Y'know, it wouldn't be hard at all to come up with a perl script
> that would place the full text of the bible on the wiki.  But do we want to be ProjectGutenberg as well as an encyclopedia?
------
AbstractAlgebra|982188151
1c1
< An abstract algebra is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more operations on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there are more than one abstract algebrae--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioN""s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
3,7c3,7
< * MathematicalGrouP''s''
< * RinG''s'' and ModulE''s''
< * FielD''s'' and VectorSpace''s''
< * AssociativeAlgebra''e'' and LieAlgebra''e''
< * LatticE''s''
---
> * MathematicalGrouP""s
> * RinG""s and ModulE""s
> * FielD""s'' and VectorSpace""s
> * AssociativeAlgebra""e and LieAlgebra""e
> * LatticE""s
9c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
AbstractAlgebra|982188164
5c5
< * FielD""s'' and VectorSpace""s
---
> * FielD""s and VectorSpace""s
------
AbstractAlgebra|982188186
1c1
< An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there are more than one abstract algebrae--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioN""s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebrae--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioN""s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
------
AbstractAlgebra|982188197
1c1
< An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebrae--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioN""s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebra--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioN""s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
------
ObjectivisM|982189138
5c5
< Reailty is what it is, independent of our beliefs or desires. No two facts of reality can contradict each other- this is an important test of truth. Everything that exists has a specific identity and a specific nature that determines how it acts. Nature is to be explained in terms of nature, without reference to the supernatural. Everything that occurs has a material cause, and everything that exists has a material basis. 
---
> Reality is what it is, independent of our beliefs or desires. No two facts of reality can contradict each other- this is an important test of truth. Everything that exists has a specific identity and a specific nature that determines how it acts. Nature is to be explained in terms of nature, without reference to the supernatural. Everything that occurs has a material cause, and everything that exists has a material basis. 
------
GoD|982190595
9c9,13
< A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed with the project of TheoDicy a response.
---
> A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed with the project of TheoDicy a response.
> ----
> See also, TheUltimate
> 
> 
------
LoGic|982192765
13a14
> The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
15c16
< See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
------
ItalY|982193117
1,3c1,2
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the 
< south of EuropE. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< MediterraneanSea.
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of Europe. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> Mediterranean Sea: one is Sicily and the other is Sardinia.
8a8
> Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup three (3) times: 1934, 1938 and 1982. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from Italy. The latter include Milan AC, Inter Milano FC, AS Roma, Lazio (also from Rome), Juventus (from Torino) and Fiorentina (from Florence).
10c10,11
< Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup several times. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from ItalY. The latter include AC Milano, AS Roma, Juventus Torino and FiorentinA.
---
> Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the leaning tower of Pisa.
> Pisa is a beautiful small town in Tuscany, and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
------
LoGic|982194414
14d13
< The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|982194449
70c70,74
< -Zed
---
> -Zed
> ----
> From LoGic:
> 
> The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
------
PoLitics|982197793
17a18,19
> ''This categorization doesn't make any sense.  Either AnarchoCapitalism and CapitalisM belong together or BolshevisM and TraditionalAnarchism belong apart.  A good sign that something is wrong is that so many traditional things, like RepublicanisM, are left homeless.  Any ideas for fixes?''
> 
------
PoLitics|982198209
19a20,21
> '''Here's an idea, which might not be the most useful one.  We could arrange the ideologies alphabetically, under the assumption that attempting to group or relate them on a global page raises more questions than it answers. --JimboWales'''
> 
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982198364
3c3,5
< Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks in the UnitedStates think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal socialist state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.  Remember, it used to be the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.  'Socialist' was not a euphemism.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
---
> Maybe I'm confused, but I always thought SocialisM was a system of government.  The traditional (academic) definition of 'socialism' has it that the state ought to own all the means of production.  (Ordinary folks in the UnitedStates think this is what 'communism' means, but 'communism' refers to the final, ideal socialist state, one of AnarchY, in which the state has withered away and SocialEquality, or whatever you'd like to call it has been achieved.  Remember, it used to be the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.  'Socialist' was not a euphemism.)  The word expressing total economic equality, I suppose, is SocialEquality or EqualityOfOutcome (as opposed to EqualityOfOpportunity).  The word for the view that we ought to achieve SocialEquality is EgalitarianisM. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Well, ok, strictly speaking socialism doesn't refer to the equality but to whatever system that equality exists within.  State control, though, is not at all implied.  When Marx used the term, remember, it referred to the condition ''after'' the state had withered away.  Conversely, government control doesn't imply socialism - consider most traditional fascists and tyrannies.
------
GeologicTimescale|982199231
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Numbers refer to end of time period, in millions of years before now.  Is there a better way to format this?
> 
>     *  CenozoicEra
>          NeogenePeriod
>    23    PalaeogenePeriod
>    65  MesozoicEra
>         CretaceousPeriod
>   146    JurassicPeriod
>   208    TriassicPeriod
>   245  PalaeozoicEra
>          PermianPeriod
>   290    CarboniferousPeriod
>   363    DevonianPeriod
>   409    SilurianPeriod
>   439    OrdovicianPeriod
>   510    CambrianPeriod
>   570  PrecambrianEra
------
GeologicTimescale|982199260
1c1
< Numbers refer to end of time period, in millions of years before now.  Is there a better way to format this?
---
> Numbers refer to end of time period, in millions of years before now.
3,17c3,17
<     *  CenozoicEra
<          NeogenePeriod
<    23    PalaeogenePeriod
<    65  MesozoicEra
<         CretaceousPeriod
<   146    JurassicPeriod
<   208    TriassicPeriod
<   245  PalaeozoicEra
<          PermianPeriod
<   290    CarboniferousPeriod
<   363    DevonianPeriod
<   409    SilurianPeriod
<   439    OrdovicianPeriod
<   510    CambrianPeriod
<   570  PrecambrianEra
---
>    *  CenozoicEra
>         NeogenePeriod
>   23    PalaeogenePeriod
>   65  MesozoicEra
>        CretaceousPeriod
>  146    JurassicPeriod
>  208    TriassicPeriod
>  245  PalaeozoicEra
>         PermianPeriod
>  290    CarboniferousPeriod
>  363    DevonianPeriod
>  409    SilurianPeriod
>  439    OrdovicianPeriod
>  510    CambrianPeriod
>  570  PrecambrianEra
------
TheUltimate|982199592
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TheUltimate is a general term embracing the concept of an ultimate supernatural reality which transcends material reality and from which, according to a broad spectrum of Eastern philosophies and religions, material reality derives.  In general, TheUltimate is non-personal, non-anthropomorphic, and may or may not possess discrete will, intelligence or awareness as such.
> 
> Examples of religions and philosophies which embrace the concept of TheUltimate in one form or another include TaoIsm, JainIsm, BuddHism, ShinTo, Hinduism, and others.  Terms which serve to identify TheUltimate among such beliefs include TaO (the Way), AtMan (Universal Spirit), BrahMan (The Power), UniversalMind, UniversalIntelligence, Dainichi-Nyorai (nature-substance), and numerous other apellations.  Even polytheistic Eastern faiths tend to acknowedge a unifying principle which trenscends their various gods. 
> 
> The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of theUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.  In every case, 
> 
> The general commonalities between the various versions of TheUltimate are:  infinity,  indescribability, inconceiveability, formlessness, lack of identity and transcendence.  An additional commonality is that one must renounce and/or transcend physical existence, in some cases even to the point of extinguishing identity and individual awareness, in order to co-exist with TheUltimate.  Uniformly, human passions and vices are regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, and such virtues as humility, charity and pacifism are felt to help pave the way to enlightenment.
> 
> Paralells may be drawn between such tradition and Judeo-Christian-Islamic monotheistic thought.  The concept of a single ultimate vital principle, undivided and incapable of being depicted through gods or icons, which is parent to the individual souls of men, and to which men strive to return is the most obvious comparison.  That this sought-after return is impaired by evil thought and deed, and facilitated by loving action is common, as well.  In addition, the traditions share a general value system which discourages worldliness and encourages seeking higher, more intangible principles, such as reward in the after-life.
> 
> Where the basic division begins to appear betwen Eastern and Western spiritual tradition with regard to TheUltimate is in personification.  The Western Ultimate is generally understood to be an identifiable personage distinct from nature, with a recognizable thought process, purpose and direct action, no matter how transcendent.  The Eastern Ultimate is rather conceived to be the origin point or basic principle of an essential natural process and indistinguishable, ultimately, from nature itself.
> 
> As such, a Western God could demand fealty or faith, while an Eastern Ultimate would demand nothing but, by its very nature and existence, would mutely dictate how individual actions affect destiny.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982210471
5c5,10
< Well, ok, strictly speaking socialism doesn't refer to the equality but to whatever system that equality exists within.  State control, though, is not at all implied.  When Marx used the term, remember, it referred to the condition ''after'' the state had withered away.  Conversely, government control doesn't imply socialism - consider most traditional fascists and tyrannies.
---
> Well, ok, strictly speaking socialism doesn't refer to the equality but to whatever system that equality exists within.  State control, though, is not at all implied.  When Marx used the term, remember, it referred to the condition ''after'' the state had withered away.  Conversely, government control doesn't imply socialism - consider most traditional fascists and tyrannies.
> 
> ----
> Anarchists have had no qualms describing themselves as socialists. As for academics ... standard class warfare analysis has workers associated with AnarchisM, the rich with FascisM and the academics with StalinisM. This shows that the academic definition is wrong and also shows why it would be so wrong. Finally, the ''soviets'' in the Union of Soviets were originally conceived as anarchic. They didn't stay that way for long under the Bolsheviks but that's another matter.
> 
> In order to define right versus left or socialist versus anything, one must discern a meaningful difference betwee Fascism and Stalinism. Authoritarianism and justice are ''not'' it. The only difference I observe is in Stalinism's acknowledgement that the social good derives from individual good and not vice versa, that egalitarianism and freedom are to be desired. -- RichardKulisz
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982213618
5c5
< Well, ok, strictly speaking socialism doesn't refer to the equality but to whatever system that equality exists within.  State control, though, is not at all implied.  When Marx used the term, remember, it referred to the condition ''after'' the state had withered away.  Conversely, government control doesn't imply socialism - consider most traditional fascists and tyrannies.
---
> Well, ok, strictly speaking socialism doesn't refer to the equality but to whatever system that equality exists within.  State control, though, is not at all implied.  Conversely, government control doesn't imply socialism - consider most traditional fascists and tyrannies.
10c10
< In order to define right versus left or socialist versus anything, one must discern a meaningful difference betwee Fascism and Stalinism. Authoritarianism and justice are ''not'' it. The only difference I observe is in Stalinism's acknowledgement that the social good derives from individual good and not vice versa, that egalitarianism and freedom are to be desired. -- RichardKulisz
---
> In order to define right versus left or socialist versus anything, one must discern a meaningful difference betwee Fascism and Stalinism. Authoritarianism and justice are ''not'' it. The only difference I observe is in Stalinism's acknowledgement that the social good derives from individual good and not vice versa, that egalitarianism and freedom are to be desired. -- RichardKulisz
------
ColdWar|982214461
1,3c1,3
< the cold war describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars in korea, vietnam and afghanistan, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in a armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
< Also, the armys of the countries involved never had much participation in the cold war, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (USA), MI6 (Great Britain), BND (West Germany), STASI (East Germany) and the KGB(USSR).
< The cold war also inspired alot of movie-companys and writers, resulting in an enourmous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (james bond) some less.
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
> Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the Cold War, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (USA), MI6 (Great Britain), BND (West Germany), STASI (East Germany) and the KGB(USSR).
> The Cold War also inspired a lot of movie-companyies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (James Bond) some less.
------
PoLitics|982217365
18,21c18
< ''This categorization doesn't make any sense.  Either AnarchoCapitalism and CapitalisM belong together or BolshevisM and TraditionalAnarchism belong apart.  A good sign that something is wrong is that so many traditional things, like RepublicanisM, are left homeless.  Any ideas for fixes?''
< 
< '''Here's an idea, which might not be the most useful one.  We could arrange the ideologies alphabetically, under the assumption that attempting to group or relate them on a global page raises more questions than it answers. --JimboWales'''
< 
---
> /Talk
------
PoLitics/Talk|982217678
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This categorization doesn't make any sense.  Either AnarchoCapitalism and CapitalisM belong together or BolshevisM and TraditionalAnarchism belong apart.  A good sign that something is wrong is that so many traditional things, like RepublicanisM, are left homeless.  Any ideas for fixes?''
> 
> '''Here's an idea, which might not be the most useful one.  We could arrange the ideologies alphabetically, under the assumption that attempting to group or relate them on a global page raises more questions than it answers. --JimboWales'''
> ----
> First of all, to spare our nerves, please refrain from exaggeration: yes, the categorization does make some sense, but maybe not perfect sense.  And maybe there are better categorizations.  Can you do better?
> 
> The only serious problem that I saw when I put the categorization up is that capitalism is espoused both by libertarian ideologies and by right-wing ideologies; in fact, that's what they have in common.  One might make a supercategory CapitalistIdeologies, but the problem then is that fascism is left out (fascism never was capitalistic by any reasonable definition of capitalism).  I guess the solution is simply to put "capitalism" under both headings (which I will do right now!).
> 
> By the way, Jimbo's suggestion is very tempting, except that this is, after all, the only serious problem that I could see with the categorization scheme.  I think it's ''nice'' to put order on the world when possible and when helpful to a degree.
------
PoLitics|982217811
12c12
< LibertarianIdeologies: AnarchoCapitalism -- LibertarianisM
---
> LibertarianIdeologies: AnarchoCapitalism -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- LibertarianisM
44a45,46
> 
> PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
------
PoLitics|982217900
10c10
< RightWingIdeologies: CapitalisM -- ConservatisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism
---
> RightWingIdeologies: CapitalisM -- ConservatisM -- FascisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism
46c46
< PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
---
> PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
------
PoLitics/Talk|982220490
9c9,19
< By the way, Jimbo's suggestion is very tempting, except that this is, after all, the only serious problem that I could see with the categorization scheme.  I think it's ''nice'' to put order on the world when possible and when helpful to a degree.
---
> By the way, Jimbo's suggestion is very tempting, except that this is, after all, the only serious problem that I could see with the categorization scheme.  I think it's ''nice'' to put order on the world when possible and when helpful to a degree.
> ----
> The problem with the categorization scheme is it throws the whole economic left in together and splits up the economic right:
>              Socialist   Capitalist
>           +------------------------
>  High gov |   Left        Right
>  Low gov  |   Left      Libertarian
> 
> One or the other should be changed.  Either libertarianism should go back in with the economic right, which makes it easy to handle the position of capitalism; or all four corners of the square (~LP diamond) should be separated, i.e. anarchism or stalinism should be removed therefrom.  I'm not sure what the corners get named, though; left and right seem to me to cover sides rather than corners (see elsewhere) and I don't know the name for right-high-government.
> 
> This probably seems like I'm being ridiculously difficult to work with, but I really do want wikipedia to be fair.  Awarding special status to groups just because they claim it is silly, and not very objective. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoLitics/Talk|982221099
11c11
< The problem with the categorization scheme is it throws the whole economic left in together and splits up the economic right:
---
> I agree, but there are problems with this categorization.  As far as schemes in terms of spectra go, the problem with this one is it throws the whole economic left in together and splits up the economic right:
19c19,23
< This probably seems like I'm being ridiculously difficult to work with, but I really do want wikipedia to be fair.  Awarding special status to groups just because they claim it is silly, and not very objective. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> This probably seems like I'm being ridiculously difficult to work with, but I really do want wikipedia to be fair.  Awarding special status to groups just because they claim it is silly, and not very objective.
> 
> The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are going to be difficult to pidgeonhole things into.
> 
>  -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoLitics/Talk|982221107
21,23c21
< The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are going to be difficult to pidgeonhole things into.
< 
<  -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are going to be difficult to pidgeonhole things into. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoLitics/Talk|982221145
21c21
< The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are going to be difficult to pidgeonhole things into. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are not the right way to approach things.  But, of course, I don't have any other ideas yet. :( -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoLitics/Talk|982221185
13c13
<           +------------------------
---
>           ++++++++++++++++++++++++++
21c21
< The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are not the right way to approach things.  But, of course, I don't have any other ideas yet. :( -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are not the right way to approach things.  But, of course, I don't have any other ideas yet. :( -- JoshuaGrosse
------
PoLitics/Talk|982221448
21c21
< The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories, and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are not the right way to approach things.  But, of course, I don't have any other ideas yet. :( -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> The second problem is that there are a lot of homeless ideologies: Feudalism, Republicanism, Democracy - I know that's listed as a ''concept'' but it's an ideology too.  These things are really difficult to place on the above because they span categories (same as capitalism), and I think that's a sign that simultaneous spectra are not the right way to approach things.  But, of course, I don't have any other ideas yet. :( -- JoshuaGrosse
------
FielD|982224887
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A FielD, briefly, is an algebraic system of elements, usually called numbers, in which the 
> operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (except division by zero) may be performed without leaving the system, the formal associative, commutative, and distributive rules hold, and the equations a=b+x and a=b*y have solutions, without restriction, provided in the latter case a not=0. 
> 
> 
> '''Definition''': Given a SeT '''F''' and two BinaryOperation''s'' defined on '''F''', called addition and multiplication, denoted "+" and "*" respectively. Then ('''F''',+,*) is called a FielD if:
> 
> *   1). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), both a+b and a*b belong to (F,+,*).
> *        Closure of F under + and *.
> 
>  
> *   2). For all a,b,c in (F,+,*), a+(b+c)= (a+b)+c 
> *        and a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
> *        Both + and * are Associative in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   3). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), a+b=b+a 
> *        and a*b=b*a. 
> *        Both+ and * are commutative in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   4). For all a,b,c, belonging to (F,+,*), a*(b+c)= (a*b)+(a*c)
> *        and (a+b)*c=(a*c)+(b*c).
> *        The operation * is distributive over the operation + in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   5). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 0, such a+0=a
> *        and 0+a=a.
> *        Existence of an additive identity in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   6). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 1, such that a*1=a
> *        and 1*a=a.
> *        Existence of a multiplicative identity in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   7). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element –a in (F,+,*), such that   
> *        a+(-a)=0 and (-a)+a=0.
> *        Existence of an additive inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   8). For all a not=0 belonging to (F,*,+), there exists an element a^-1 in (F,+,*),    
> *        such that a*(a^-1)=1 and (a^-1)*a=1.
> *        Existence of a multiplicative inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
>  
> *The Rational Numbers '''Z'''={all a/b: a, b belong to I, the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
> 
> *The RealNumbers= '''R.''' .
> 
> *The ComplexNumbers '''C'''={x: x=a+bi, where a,b belong to '''R''', and i=sqrt(-1)}.
> 
> The concept of a FielD is of use, for example, in defining VectorS and MatriceS, two structures in LinearAlgebra, whose components can be elements of an arbitrary FielD.  
> 
> 
------
ActorS/Talk|982226210
27c27,28
< Perhaps in the future, the methods of makeup will have advanced to a sufficient stage that SeanConnery could play a convincing PrincessDiana, but for now, gender is relevant to the roles, and it is not sexism to note this fact. --JimboWales
---
> Perhaps in the future, the methods of makeup will have advanced to a sufficient stage that SeanConnery could play a convincing PrincessDiana, but for now, gender is relevant to the roles, and it is not sexism to note this fact. --JimboWales----
> And I suppose having ElizabethTaylor playing MotherTheresa or OprahWinfrey playing PrincessDiana would be good casting? Notice you are choosing characters who HAVE lived and of whom we already have a visual image. Remember that MaryMartin played PeterPan?
------
SandBox|982227898
14c14,16
< # last line 
---
> # last line ----
> 
> � I made a little box in the SandBox
------
JimboWales|982228172
20c20,21
< Thanks for the suggestion re: multilanguage access to [http://unumondo.com UnuMondo]. I have enhanced the splash page accordingly! -- JerryMuelver
---
> Thanks for the suggestion re: multilanguage access to [http://unumondo.com UnuMondo]. I have enhanced the splash page accordingly! -- JerryMuelver----
> � � � � � � � � � For JimboWales...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
------
MusicalInstruments|982235247
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Double bass
------
ScienCe|982237021
6a7,8
> * EcoLogy
> * GeNetics
------
MarylanD|982237457
1a2,3
> 
> Famous for its cookies MarylandCookies.
------
SetTheory|982239533
1,140c1,42
< Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A SeT is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
< 
<    {red, green, blue}
<    {x : x is a primary color}
< 
< The notation is not self-explanatory.
< If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in all of the sets. The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
< 
<    A1 u A2 u A3 ...
<    A1 n A2 n A3 ...
< 
< respectively.  If you don't mind jumping ahead a bit, the subsets of a given set form a BooleanAlgebra under these operations.  The set of all subsets of X is called its PowerSet and is denoted 2^X.
< 
< '''Axioms for set theory'''
< 
< The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets so long as they are composed of other sets - from which most mathematical objects can be constructed anyways - and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axioms, and in some senses are too restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
< 
< The above is more than a little confusing. What does it mean to "handle sets"? What is a "model" in this context? How does the singleton operation prevent the existence of a set of all sets? 
< 
< The axioms of ZF are as follows:
<    Axiom of extension:        Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
<    Axiom of null set:         There is an empty set {}.
<    Axiom of unordered pairs:  If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
<    Axiom of unions:           For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
<    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.  
< 
< ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?''
< 
<    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any MappinG, formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
<                               P(x,y) and P(x,z) implies y=z, there is a set containing precisely the images of 
<                               its elements.
<    Axiom of PowerSet''s'':    There exists a set P(X) containing precisely the subsets of any given set X.
<    Axiom of regularity:       Every non-empty set X contains some element Y such that X and Y are disjoint.
< 
< *What does "composed of" mean above? 
< To rephrase the axiom, given a set X, there is a set Y whose elements are precisely those
< that are elements of some element of X.  This again will be a little confusing: in ZF, the only things that exist
< are sets, and the only things that sets contain are other sets. For example, if 
<    { {1,2}, {3,4}, {4,5,6} }
< is a set then
<    { 1,2,3,4,5,6 }
< is a set.
< 
< *Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
< For anyone who wants to understand, it is an idea to have a little familiarity with set theory in its `less formal' form,
< and the problems it has, so as to see why set theory is the way it is.  Part of the reason it is necessary is due to examples
< such as RussellsParadox :
<    Let R = { x | x is not a member of x }
<    Question: is R a member of R
<    Problem: If R is a member of R then R does not satisfy the criterion for membership -- contradiction.
<             If R is not a member of R then R does satisfy the criterion for membership -- another contradiction.
< 
< ''You people can't have it both ways.''
< 
< The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
< 
< One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.  Since all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities, you get unconstructible sets either way.
< 
< COMMENT: This is not at all true - cardinality can be defined
< without using AC. The statement about "all constructible sets"
< having distinct cardinalities makes no obvious sense. What
< is meant here by a "constructible set"?
< 
< ''The usual way of defining cardinals is by taking a representative ordinal of each size, which you can't do without the axiom of choice.  The only other way I've ever seen done is by taking equivalence classes of sets, but these don't end up being ZF sets - i.e. you have to use objects outside the system being considered.''
< 
< COMMENT: The axiom
< of choice is not needed to define cardinals in ZF - the
< equivalence classes can be taken to be sets, by defining the
< cardinal of x as the set of all sets of minimal rank
< equivalent to x. We are also perfectly free to simply
< introduce a special function symbol for cardinals, governed
< by the axiom card(x)=card(y) <-> x and y are equivalent.
< (Suppes does it this way.) Associating the axiom of choice
< with there mere possibility of talking about cardinals is
< quite unjustified.
< 
< RESPONSE: What makes you think these equivalence classes actually exist within the framework of ZF?  I think the following proves they don't.  Take the equivalence class C containing {{}} and apply the axiom of unions to get a set U.  Then for any set X, {X} is in C and so X is a member of U.  In other words, U is ''a set of all sets'' which is well-known to be impossible within ZF.
< 
< ''Except for the fact that you have ignored the phrase "of minimal rank".  Not all singleton sets {X} are sets '''of minimal rank''' equivalent to {{}}.  (Let's see how horribly messy we can make this page...)''
< 
< Oops, you're right.  I figured I'd probably do something wrong.  But in any case, can you guarantee that such equivalence classes exist within ZF?  I remember something about it being difficult, even if the above is wrong.  (Btw, this page will need some extensive reworking anyways).
< 
< RESPONSE: It's trivial to prove the existence of cardinals
< as equivalence classes in the indicated way in ZF.
< 
< RESPONSE II: Ok, would you mind providing a reference is to how?  Not that I don't believe you, but it would be nice to have the details...
< 
< See e.g. the chapter on set theory in Mendelson, Introduction
< to Mathematical Logic, for a definition of the cumulative hierarchy of sets: R(0)=the empty set, R(alpha+1)=the power
< set of R(alpha), R(lambda)=union of R(alpha) for alpha<lambda,
< for limit lambda. The axiom of regularity is equivalent to
< the statement that for every set x there is an alpha such that
< x is in R(alpha).The cardinal of x can be defined as the set of sets in R(alpha) that are equivalent to x, where alpha is the smallest beta such that R(beta) contains a set equivalent to x.
< 
< 
< That's not to say the cardinals don't exist, just that they can't be constructed in ZF, unless you use an alternate technique.  The standard alternate technique is to choose some representative from each equivalence class, typically the ordinals.  But I don't think its easy to do this if the ordinals don't hit every set, which they can't if trichotomy of cardinals doesn't hold. --JG
< 
< COMMENT: The cardinals (constructed using AC) are linearly ordered (in fact well ordered for obvious reasons).  
< Under the above sort of definition, one loses the ability to say `either |X| <= |Y| or else |X| >= |Y|' 
< where <= and >= denote the usual cardinal inequalities.  This doesn't help its cause as an `intuitive' measure
< of `infinity size'.
< 
< COMMENT: One does not "lose the ability to say" this. What is
< true is that it cannot be proved without AC that any two cardinals are comparable. This is not to say that the cardinals
< cannot be defined without AC. 
< 
< ''A set X has been constructed if there is a 'way' of determining whether any given element is in it.  I'm being deliberately vague, but I think you can see the idea.  ZF+AC asserts the real numbers have a basis as a vector space over the rationals, but you are never going to be able to demonstrate an example of some such set.  ZF-AC asserts that there is a set which can't be put into one-to-one correspondence with any ordinal, and if I am not mistaken you can't find me one of those either (though I'm not entirely sure, since you're not allowed to use AC to set up the correspondence).''
< 
< COMMENT: This is not only vague, but it is not a recognizable
< informal version of anything formally defined in set theory. In
< particular, it is completely obscure what you mean by saying
< that all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
< 
< RESPONSE: I should have been a little more specific.  I meant distinct cardinality in the narrow sense, where it is being defined in terms of ordinals.  My point was that, though every infinte set you will ever build can be put into 1-to-1 correspondence with the natural numbers or something built by power-setting them, there must be other sets if the generalized continuum hypothesis is false, and ZF-AC asserts that it is.  However, I'm not entirely sure that the 1-to-1 correspondences can be constructed without AC, so this might be a mistake on my part.  I would ''love'' any info on that.
< 
< COMMENT: I don't understand what you have in mind in saying that
< "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is not implied by ZF-AC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
< 
< RESPONSE: The generalized continuum hypothesis isn't, but its negation is.  Simple contrapostitive of GCH -> AC.  The 1-to-1 correspondences are just those, namely, the things we have to set up to prove that a given set has the same cardinality as another given set.  In ZF+AC, GCH is undecidable, so everything constructed must satisfy GCH (else it would be false) and so be of the same cardinality as some power set of N, ie have some 1-to-1 correspondence between them.  But potentially this 1-to-1 correspondence need not be constructable either, and exist because of AC - this last point I am not sure about.
< 
< COMMENT: Yes, if by ZF-AC you mean ZF plus the negation of
< AC, it is inconsistent with GCH. Your statement that everything
< constructed in ZF+AC must satisfy GCH has no obvious meaning.
< Your implication (if I understand you correctly) that if GCH
< holds every set must be "of the same cardinality of some power
< set of N" is unclear. What do you mean by "a power set of N"?
< 
< Response: I mean the things that GCH usually asserts are the only cardinals...I'm sorry for the bad terminology but I couldn't think of any better way to put it.
< 
< COMMENT: I will assume then that by saying that a cardinal
< satisfies GCH you mean that it is not a counterexample to
< GCH, i.e. it is not a cardinal k or 2^k such that 2^k is greater than the successor of k. However, that "everything constructed in
< ZF+AC must satisfy GCH" has no obvious interpretation on which
< it is correct. For example, is the power set of the set of
< natural numbers "constructed in ZF+AC"? If so, what does it
< mean that it satisfies GCH?
< 
< On the other hand, AxiomOfChoice also allows one to prove that the solid unit sphere can be broken up into 5 (infinitely complicated) pieces, shuffled around (with no scaling/shearing etc... just rotation and translation), and put back together to make two solid spheres, each identical to the original. (The Banach-Tarski Paradox)
< 
< Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
---
> Set theory is a part of mathematics created by the German
> mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century.
> Initially controversial, set theory has come to play the
> role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics, in
> the sense of a theory invoked to justify assumptions
> made in mathematics concerning the existence of mathematical
> objects (such as numbers or functions) and their properties.
> Formal versions of set theory also have a foundational role
> to play as specifying a theoretical ideal of mathematical
> rigor in proofs. At the same time the basic concepts of
> set theory are used throughout mathematics, while the subject
> is pursued in its own right as a speciality by a comparatively
> small group of mathematicians and logicians. It should be
> mentioned that there are also mathematicians using and
> promoting different approaches to the foundations of
> mathematics.
> 
> The basic concepts of set theory are set and membership. A
> set is thought of as any collection of objects, called the
> members of the set. In mathematics, the members of sets are
> any mathematical objects, and in particular can themselves
> be sets. Thus one speaks of the set of natural numbers (0,1,2,..), the sets of real numbers, the sets of functions
> from the natural numbers to the natural numbers, but also
> e.g. of the set {0,2,N} which has as members the numbers 0
> and 2 and the set N of natural numbers. Cantor's basic
> discovery, which got set theory going as a new field of
> study, was that if we define two sets A and B to have the same number of members (the same cardinality) when there is a way of
> pairing off members of A exhaustively with members of B, then
> the set N of natural numbers has the same cardinality as the
> set Q of rational numbers (they are both said to be countably
> infinite), but the set R of real numbers does not have the
> same cardinality as N or Q. Cantor gave two proofs that R
> is not countable, and the second of these, using what is known
> as the diagonal construction, has been extraordinarily 
> influential and has had manifold applications in logic and
> mathematics.
> 
> The appearance around the turn of the century of the
> so-called set-theoretical paradoxes prompted the formulation
> in 1908 by Zermelo of an axiomatic theory of sets, and the
> theory of sets now most often studied and used is the
> theory called Zermelo-Fraenkel or ZF.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982239536
9a10,11
> 
> ''Actually, Fascism is capitalistic. This is evidenced by the defection of Capitalists to Fascism whenever a socialist revolution threatens. This even happened in the UnitedStates at the time of the NewDeal when a group of prominent capitalists took steps to overthrow President Roosevelt and replace Congress with a Fascist regime. To quote one of the conspirators "I would spend half of my fortune to save the other half."''
------
SetTheory|982239639
22c22
< be sets. Thus one speaks of the set of natural numbers (0,1,2,..), the sets of real numbers, the sets of functions
---
> be sets. Thus one speaks of the set of natural numbers (0,1,2,..), the set of real numbers, the set of functions
------
SportS|982245659
51a52,57
> 
> Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive)
> 
> * IceSkating
> * RollerSkating
> * Skateboarding
53a60
> * SurfinG
59c66,69
< brain-sports (where you have to think):
---
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Card Games:
> * ContractBridge
> 
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Board Games:
61c71
< * GoO ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
---
> * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
------
FielD|982253687
45,46c45
< 
< Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
---
> Note that a FielD is just a RinG where all elements have multiplicative inverses, except 0 which cannot.  Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
------
FielD|982253809
47c47
< *The Rational Numbers '''Z'''={all a/b: a, b belong to I, the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
---
> *The Rational Numbers '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
------
MusicalInstruments|982254179
1c1,2
< Double bass
---
> DoubleBass
> BongO
------
PoLitics/Talk|982254294
11a12,14
> 
> In one system there is complete government control of the economy.  In the other, a complete absence of government control in the economy.  So clearly, they must be the same thing.
> 
------
TheUltimate|982254580
5c5
< The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of theUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.  In every case, 
---
> The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of theUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.
7c7
< The general commonalities between the various versions of TheUltimate are:  infinity,  indescribability, inconceiveability, formlessness, lack of identity and transcendence.  An additional commonality is that one must renounce and/or transcend physical existence, in some cases even to the point of extinguishing identity and individual awareness, in order to co-exist with TheUltimate.  Uniformly, human passions and vices are regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, and such virtues as humility, charity and pacifism are felt to help pave the way to enlightenment.
---
> The general commonalities between the various versions of TheUltimate are:  infinity,  indescribability, inconceiveability, formlessness, lack of identity and transcendence.  An additional commonality is that one must renounce and/or transcend physical existence and its distractions, in some cases even to the point of extinguishing identity and individual awareness, in order to understand or co-exist with TheUltimate.  Uniformly, human passions and vices are regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, and such virtues as humility, charity and pacifism are felt to help pave the way to enlightenment.
13c13
< As such, a Western God could demand fealty or faith, while an Eastern Ultimate would demand nothing but, by its very nature and existence, would mutely dictate how individual actions affect destiny.
---
> As such, a Western God can require fealty or faith, while an Eastern Ultimate requires nothing but, by its very nature and existence, mutely dictates how individual actions and attitudes affect destiny.
------
TheUltimate|982254618
3c3
< Examples of religions and philosophies which embrace the concept of TheUltimate in one form or another include TaoIsm, JainIsm, BuddHism, ShinTo, Hinduism, and others.  Terms which serve to identify TheUltimate among such beliefs include TaO (the Way), AtMan (Universal Spirit), BrahMan (The Power), UniversalMind, UniversalIntelligence, Dainichi-Nyorai (nature-substance), and numerous other apellations.  Even polytheistic Eastern faiths tend to acknowedge a unifying principle which trenscends their various gods. 
---
> Examples of religions and philosophies which embrace the concept of TheUltimate in one form or another include TaoIsm, JainIsm, BuddHism, ShinTo, HinduIsm, and others.  Terms which serve to identify TheUltimate among such beliefs include TaO (the Way), AtMan (Universal Spirit), BrahMan (The Power), UniversalMind, UniversalIntelligence, Dainichi-Nyorai (nature-substance), and numerous other apellations.  Even polytheistic Eastern faiths tend to acknowedge a unifying principle which trenscends their various gods. 
------
TheUltimate|982254798
5c5
< The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of theUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.
---
> The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of TheUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982255702
26a27,32
> ----
> I don't think you are being difficult, JoshuaGrosse.  I think that this is a difficult problem, and that it is worth chewing on it for awhile.
> 
> I'm a little unclear on who wrote which, above, although I could figure it out from the 'other revisions'.  But, no time right now.  All I wanted to say is that it strikes me as very odd to list both CapitalisM and LibertarianisM as ideologies.  Someone talked about CapitalisT''''s who became FascisT'''s in the face of some SocialisT upheaval.  This surely doesn't refer to people who held CapitalisM as an ideology, but rather to people who were owners of capital.  That's not the same thing at all.
> 
> 
------
PoLitics/Talk|982255782
30c30
< I'm a little unclear on who wrote which, above, although I could figure it out from the 'other revisions'.  But, no time right now.  All I wanted to say is that it strikes me as very odd to list both CapitalisM and LibertarianisM as ideologies.  Someone talked about CapitalisT''''s who became FascisT'''s in the face of some SocialisT upheaval.  This surely doesn't refer to people who held CapitalisM as an ideology, but rather to people who were owners of capital.  That's not the same thing at all.
---
> I'm a little unclear on who wrote which, above, although I could figure it out from the 'other revisions'.  But, no time right now.  All I wanted to say is that it strikes me as very odd to list both CapitalisM and LibertarianisM as ideologies.  Someone talked about CapitalisT''s who became FascisT''s in the face of some SocialisT upheaval.  This surely doesn't refer to people who held CapitalisM as an ideology, but rather to people who were owners of capital.  That's not the same thing at all.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982256029
10a11,12
> 
> I think it fairly obvious that the differences between Stalinism and Fascism are relatively minor points of emphasis and justification.  I also think this points out the inherent conceptual confusion involved in attempting to lay everything out on a single left-to-right spectrum.  If Fascism is far to the right, and Stalinism is far to the left, and if both amount in practice to pretty much the same thing... then... --JimboWales
------
PoLitics/Talk|982256124
14a15
> ''Our government interferes with the economy, but it's still capitalist.  The term doesn't refer to an absence of government intervention - that would exclude most of the economies of today and include pastoralism - but rather to the economy being based on private enterprise.  If memory serves, fascisms are in favor of that, they just want to regulate it very closely.''
------
ColdWar|982256168
1,3c1,3
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
< Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the Cold War, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (USA), MI6 (Great Britain), BND (West Germany), STASI (East Germany) and the KGB(USSR).
< The Cold War also inspired a lot of movie-companyies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (James Bond) some less.
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars such as the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western Germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
> Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the Cold War, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (UnitedStates), MI6 (GreatBritain), BND (WestGermany), STASI (EastGermany) and the KGB (USSR).
> The Cold War also inspired a lot of movie-companies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (JamesBond) some less.
------
JimboWales|982256279
21c21,25
< � � � � � � � � � For JimboWales...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
---
> * * * * * * * * * For JimboWales...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
> 
> Ah, I wasn't the one asking how to make them, I was asking the person who asked what they meant.
> 
> It seems that what you are calling little boxes will show up as funny characters to some people, if they have some special fonts installed.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982257034
12a13,14
> 
> Stalinism and Fascism have a lot of similarities thanks to both being totalitarian governments, but that doesn't mean one should overlook their differences.  Stalinists promised a worker's utopia and go on the left, Fascists promised a good police state and go on the right.  Other axes are usually added to reflect their commonalities, but that doesn't mean we get to ignore the coordinate difference on the one we have!  If you do, you shouldn't expect to get a meaningfully discerning system. -- JoshuaGrosse
------
MetaphoR|982260259
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A figurative use of language that is used to paint one concept with the attributes normally associated with another.
> 
> For example, "ship of state" is a metaphor that likens the government to a ship: just as a ship needs a captain to make decisions, give orders, and control things, so a government needs someone to make decisions, give orders, and control things.  By refering to the "ship of state" one emphasizes this aspect of government.
> 
> Metaphors are very powerful tools because they allow for the expression of very abstract principles by reference to conretes.  They can also be dangerous to understanding, in that people may fail to recognize the figurative nature of a metaphor, and come to take it literally.
------
ColdWar|982260373
3a4,5
> 
> "Cold War" is a MetaphoR.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982260767
15a16,18
> 
> What is the difference between "the absence of government intervention" and "private enterprise"?  If an enterprise is private, then the government is not controlling it.  That's what private (as opposed to public) means.
> 
------
PoLitics/Talk|982260801
17c17
< What is the difference between "the absence of government intervention" and "private enterprise"?  If an enterprise is private, then the government is not controlling it.  That's what private (as opposed to public) means.
---
> What is the difference between "the absence of government intervention" and "private enterprise"?  If an enterprise is private, then the government is not intervening in it.  That's what private (as opposed to public) means.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982260900
18a19,20
> Also, if I wish to talk about a system based on the absence of government intervention, what word should I use?
> 
------
MetaphoR|982260961
5c5
< Metaphors are very powerful tools because they allow for the expression of very abstract principles by reference to conretes.  They can also be dangerous to understanding, in that people may fail to recognize the figurative nature of a metaphor, and come to take it literally.
---
> Metaphors are very powerful tools because they allow for the expression of very abstract principles by reference to concretes.  They can also be dangerous to understanding, in that people may fail to recognize the figurative nature of a metaphor, and come to take it literally.
------
SetTheory|982267740
42a43,44
> 
> /oldversion
------
SetTheory|982267751
44c44
< /oldversion
---
> /OldVersion
------
SetTheory/OldVersion|982267790
1c1,140
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A SeT is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
> 
>    {red, green, blue}
>    {x : x is a primary color}
> 
> The notation is not self-explanatory.
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in all of the sets. The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
> 
>    A1 u A2 u A3 ...
>    A1 n A2 n A3 ...
> 
> respectively.  If you don't mind jumping ahead a bit, the subsets of a given set form a BooleanAlgebra under these operations.  The set of all subsets of X is called its PowerSet and is denoted 2^X.
> 
> '''Axioms for set theory'''
> 
> The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets so long as they are composed of other sets - from which most mathematical objects can be constructed anyways - and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axioms, and in some senses are too restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
> 
> The above is more than a little confusing. What does it mean to "handle sets"? What is a "model" in this context? How does the singleton operation prevent the existence of a set of all sets? 
> 
> The axioms of ZF are as follows:
>    Axiom of extension:        Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
>    Axiom of null set:         There is an empty set {}.
>    Axiom of unordered pairs:  If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
>    Axiom of unions:           For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
>    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.  
> 
> ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?''
> 
>    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any MappinG, formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
>                               P(x,y) and P(x,z) implies y=z, there is a set containing precisely the images of 
>                               its elements.
>    Axiom of PowerSet''s'':    There exists a set P(X) containing precisely the subsets of any given set X.
>    Axiom of regularity:       Every non-empty set X contains some element Y such that X and Y are disjoint.
> 
> *What does "composed of" mean above? 
> To rephrase the axiom, given a set X, there is a set Y whose elements are precisely those
> that are elements of some element of X.  This again will be a little confusing: in ZF, the only things that exist
> are sets, and the only things that sets contain are other sets. For example, if 
>    { {1,2}, {3,4}, {4,5,6} }
> is a set then
>    { 1,2,3,4,5,6 }
> is a set.
> 
> *Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
> For anyone who wants to understand, it is an idea to have a little familiarity with set theory in its `less formal' form,
> and the problems it has, so as to see why set theory is the way it is.  Part of the reason it is necessary is due to examples
> such as RussellsParadox :
>    Let R = { x | x is not a member of x }
>    Question: is R a member of R
>    Problem: If R is a member of R then R does not satisfy the criterion for membership -- contradiction.
>             If R is not a member of R then R does satisfy the criterion for membership -- another contradiction.
> 
> ''You people can't have it both ways.''
> 
> The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
> 
> One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.  Since all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities, you get unconstructible sets either way.
> 
> COMMENT: This is not at all true - cardinality can be defined
> without using AC. The statement about "all constructible sets"
> having distinct cardinalities makes no obvious sense. What
> is meant here by a "constructible set"?
> 
> ''The usual way of defining cardinals is by taking a representative ordinal of each size, which you can't do without the axiom of choice.  The only other way I've ever seen done is by taking equivalence classes of sets, but these don't end up being ZF sets - i.e. you have to use objects outside the system being considered.''
> 
> COMMENT: The axiom
> of choice is not needed to define cardinals in ZF - the
> equivalence classes can be taken to be sets, by defining the
> cardinal of x as the set of all sets of minimal rank
> equivalent to x. We are also perfectly free to simply
> introduce a special function symbol for cardinals, governed
> by the axiom card(x)=card(y) <-> x and y are equivalent.
> (Suppes does it this way.) Associating the axiom of choice
> with there mere possibility of talking about cardinals is
> quite unjustified.
> 
> RESPONSE: What makes you think these equivalence classes actually exist within the framework of ZF?  I think the following proves they don't.  Take the equivalence class C containing {{}} and apply the axiom of unions to get a set U.  Then for any set X, {X} is in C and so X is a member of U.  In other words, U is ''a set of all sets'' which is well-known to be impossible within ZF.
> 
> ''Except for the fact that you have ignored the phrase "of minimal rank".  Not all singleton sets {X} are sets '''of minimal rank''' equivalent to {{}}.  (Let's see how horribly messy we can make this page...)''
> 
> Oops, you're right.  I figured I'd probably do something wrong.  But in any case, can you guarantee that such equivalence classes exist within ZF?  I remember something about it being difficult, even if the above is wrong.  (Btw, this page will need some extensive reworking anyways).
> 
> RESPONSE: It's trivial to prove the existence of cardinals
> as equivalence classes in the indicated way in ZF.
> 
> RESPONSE II: Ok, would you mind providing a reference is to how?  Not that I don't believe you, but it would be nice to have the details...
> 
> See e.g. the chapter on set theory in Mendelson, Introduction
> to Mathematical Logic, for a definition of the cumulative hierarchy of sets: R(0)=the empty set, R(alpha+1)=the power
> set of R(alpha), R(lambda)=union of R(alpha) for alpha<lambda,
> for limit lambda. The axiom of regularity is equivalent to
> the statement that for every set x there is an alpha such that
> x is in R(alpha).The cardinal of x can be defined as the set of sets in R(alpha) that are equivalent to x, where alpha is the smallest beta such that R(beta) contains a set equivalent to x.
> 
> 
> That's not to say the cardinals don't exist, just that they can't be constructed in ZF, unless you use an alternate technique.  The standard alternate technique is to choose some representative from each equivalence class, typically the ordinals.  But I don't think its easy to do this if the ordinals don't hit every set, which they can't if trichotomy of cardinals doesn't hold. --JG
> 
> COMMENT: The cardinals (constructed using AC) are linearly ordered (in fact well ordered for obvious reasons).  
> Under the above sort of definition, one loses the ability to say `either |X| <= |Y| or else |X| >= |Y|' 
> where <= and >= denote the usual cardinal inequalities.  This doesn't help its cause as an `intuitive' measure
> of `infinity size'.
> 
> COMMENT: One does not "lose the ability to say" this. What is
> true is that it cannot be proved without AC that any two cardinals are comparable. This is not to say that the cardinals
> cannot be defined without AC. 
> 
> ''A set X has been constructed if there is a 'way' of determining whether any given element is in it.  I'm being deliberately vague, but I think you can see the idea.  ZF+AC asserts the real numbers have a basis as a vector space over the rationals, but you are never going to be able to demonstrate an example of some such set.  ZF-AC asserts that there is a set which can't be put into one-to-one correspondence with any ordinal, and if I am not mistaken you can't find me one of those either (though I'm not entirely sure, since you're not allowed to use AC to set up the correspondence).''
> 
> COMMENT: This is not only vague, but it is not a recognizable
> informal version of anything formally defined in set theory. In
> particular, it is completely obscure what you mean by saying
> that all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
> 
> RESPONSE: I should have been a little more specific.  I meant distinct cardinality in the narrow sense, where it is being defined in terms of ordinals.  My point was that, though every infinte set you will ever build can be put into 1-to-1 correspondence with the natural numbers or something built by power-setting them, there must be other sets if the generalized continuum hypothesis is false, and ZF-AC asserts that it is.  However, I'm not entirely sure that the 1-to-1 correspondences can be constructed without AC, so this might be a mistake on my part.  I would ''love'' any info on that.
> 
> COMMENT: I don't understand what you have in mind in saying that
> "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is not implied by ZF-AC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
> 
> RESPONSE: The generalized continuum hypothesis isn't, but its negation is.  Simple contrapostitive of GCH -> AC.  The 1-to-1 correspondences are just those, namely, the things we have to set up to prove that a given set has the same cardinality as another given set.  In ZF+AC, GCH is undecidable, so everything constructed must satisfy GCH (else it would be false) and so be of the same cardinality as some power set of N, ie have some 1-to-1 correspondence between them.  But potentially this 1-to-1 correspondence need not be constructable either, and exist because of AC - this last point I am not sure about.
> 
> COMMENT: Yes, if by ZF-AC you mean ZF plus the negation of
> AC, it is inconsistent with GCH. Your statement that everything
> constructed in ZF+AC must satisfy GCH has no obvious meaning.
> Your implication (if I understand you correctly) that if GCH
> holds every set must be "of the same cardinality of some power
> set of N" is unclear. What do you mean by "a power set of N"?
> 
> Response: I mean the things that GCH usually asserts are the only cardinals...I'm sorry for the bad terminology but I couldn't think of any better way to put it.
> 
> COMMENT: I will assume then that by saying that a cardinal
> satisfies GCH you mean that it is not a counterexample to
> GCH, i.e. it is not a cardinal k or 2^k such that 2^k is greater than the successor of k. However, that "everything constructed in
> ZF+AC must satisfy GCH" has no obvious interpretation on which
> it is correct. For example, is the power set of the set of
> natural numbers "constructed in ZF+AC"? If so, what does it
> mean that it satisfies GCH?
> 
> On the other hand, AxiomOfChoice also allows one to prove that the solid unit sphere can be broken up into 5 (infinitely complicated) pieces, shuffled around (with no scaling/shearing etc... just rotation and translation), and put back together to make two solid spheres, each identical to the original. (The Banach-Tarski Paradox)
> 
> Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
------
SetTheory|982267932
43,44c43,44
< 
< /OldVersion
---
> ----
> Does the above have the same content as the /OldVersion?  Please check.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982268859
36a37,38
> ----
> '''Enough, already!'''  If you people would have been writing ''useful content'' instead of engaging in less-than-helpful political bickering, we'd have, oh, another 200 useful articles by now.  Yes, yes, I know political bashing seems more fun--but is it really?  I submit to you that it is not.  It's like cheap, tawdry sex--kind of fun while you're doing it, but it makes you feel kind of nasty afterwards.  (I wouldn't know about that, though, really.)  I know I've been engaging in this, although not as much as ''some'' of you...I hereby swear it off.  This isn't the place for it!  Go to Usenet, ferchrissakes!  Use your wiki time to do something useful, please!
37a40
> But how do we solve political disputes?  We make ''decisions.''  If you see a page about which you have some political bone to pick, you must decide, on the spot, whether you can live with it or whether you simply must change it.  If you must change it, then go ahead and change it.  Probably, someone will attempt a compromise solution (such as the one Jimbo proposed).
38a42,44
> At any rate, I confidently predict that if we stopped ''talking'' about making changes and started actually making them, this wiki would be...why, even better than it already is!
> 
> --LarrySanger
------
PoLitics|982269212
6c6
< (Before exploring this section you may wish to learn about the PoliticalSpectrum).
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchyTheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
8,18c8
< LeftWingIdeologies: BolshevisM -- CommunisM -- MarxisM -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TraditionalAnarchism
< 
< RightWingIdeologies: CapitalisM -- ConservatisM -- FascisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism
< 
< LibertarianIdeologies: AnarchoCapitalism -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- LibertarianisM
< 
< OtherAndAmbiguousIdeologies: AnarchisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- RepublicanisM -- StatesRights
< 
< TechnoPolitics: TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoOligarchy
< 
< /Talk
---
> /Talk (but please don't)
33,35c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState
< 
< ClassicalConcepts: DemocracY -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
---
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
------
PoLitics|982269246
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchyTheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
PoLitics/Talk|982269740
44c44
< --LarrySanger
---
> --LarrySanger
------
SandBox|982269817
16a17,19
> 
> I can't make a box :(  Is it a Mac thing?
> ��� I can copy and paste boxes, though.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982269829
44a45,48
> ----
> Trouble is, it's not linear - it's not even planar.  It's more like a color chart.  You have seen these three-dimensional color solids which interrelate colors on the basis of what relative proportions of the primary colors each has, and then adds the how much white or black is included (or how dark or light) and how much saturation.  The resulting values can only be represented on a solid, because there are too many axes in play to use a planar coordinates.
> 
> Here are factors which are present or absent in greater or lesser degrees in different socio/political/economic systems:  Private ownership of property; heritability of status/authority/property rights; private economic decision-making; level of governmental authority to dictate to citizenry; free elections; direct vs indirect representation; freedom of conscience; permeability of borders; formal recognition of investment and security vehicles; formal recognition of collective bargaining; synchronicity of government with otherwise unrelated ideology (race, religion, caste, etc.).  Good luck making an x,y chart which will plot each government on the globe without errors.  Alphabetical organization looks better and better...
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982269907
3c3
< Now remember that I started the chapter by distinguishing <i>two</i> senses in which we can understand the question, "What is the justification of the state?"  The first was: "What is the moral justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?"  The second was: "What is the justification, if any, of government agents using force <i>to</i> <i>achieve</i> <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>purpose</i>, <i>P</i>?"  Now, we just got done discussing the first question.  We briefly considered AnarchisM and the NaturalLaw theory, and then looked at social contract theories in a little more depth.  Then, tentatively as usual, I came down in favor of a consequentialist justification for having a state at all.  But then I said that I had <i>not</i> given you a consequentialist argument that we ought to establish, and support, some governments.  And the reason I said that was that, in order to give a consequentialist argument for establishing a government, I?d have start saying what I think a government <i>should</i> <i>do</i>.  Because if I?m going to try to give a moral justification of the existence of government, then I had better begin by making things easy for myself -- starting, in other words, with the task of trying to justify a <i>really</i> <i>good</i> state.  And what is a good state?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it doesn?t do anything else.  And as I said, that just makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do -- what their proper functions are, and are not.
---
> What is a good StatE?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it does nothing else.  This platitude makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do--what their proper functions are, and are not.
5c5
< You might say, "I thought we already figured that out.  The purpose of the state is to protect rights and to preserve justice."  Well fine: but question is, <i>which</i> rights?  <i>What</i> <i>sort</i> of justice?  There are, after all, many different conceptions of what rights we have, and what justice consists of.
---
> We might be tempted to say, as nearly everyone can agree, that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and to preserve justice.  But this raises more questions than it answers.  <i>Which</i> and ''whose'' rights?  <i>What</i> <i>sort</i> of justice?  There are, after all, many different conceptions of what rights we have, and what justice consists of.
7c7
< Indeed, it?s on <i>those</i> questions that you?ll find the differences between conservatives, welfare state liberals, libertarians, socialists, and fascists.  There are a handful of anarchists among the LibertariaN''''s and the SocialisT''''s (certain kinds of communists are anarchists, believe it or not).  But everyone else agrees that the existence of <i>some</i> kind of government is morally justified.  And then what they disagree about is what government should do.  Nearly everyone is willing to nod their heads when it is said that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and preserve justice.  It?s just that all these different camps have a different conceptions of which rights we do have, and what justice consists of.
---
> It is on <i>those</i> questions that one can find the differences between ConservatisM, WelfareStateLiberalism, LibertarianisM, SocialisM, and FascisM.  There are a handful of anarchists (see AnarchisM) among the Socialists (see TraditionalAnarchism) and the Libertarians (see AnarchoCapitalism).  But everyone else agrees that the existence of <i>some</i> kind of government is morally justified.  What they disagree about is what government should do.
9c9
< One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: libertarianism, which wants the state to do only a few things, and socialism, which wants the state to do a lot of things.
---
> One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: LibertarianisM, which wants the state to do only a few things, and socialism, which wants the state to do a lot of things.
------
LibertarianisM|982270306
1c1
< Libertarianism is a political belief system that holds that an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  
---
> LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
3c3,9
< In the narrow sense of the term, ''libertarian'' includes only such people on the right of the economic spectrum, who define rights in terms of things like freedom to keep property and equality of process.  The private sector is left to control itself - compare AnarchoCapitalism and contrast AnarchoSyndicalism.
---
> For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it hurts no one else.
> 
> Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarians, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government's main imperative should be: Hands off!
> 
> Libertarians prefer not to be called RightWing, and libertarianism has significant differences with both ConservatisM and LiberalisM (as those terms are used in the UnitedStates): see PoliticalSpectrum.
> 
> Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982270343
11c11
< LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  There are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it doesn?t hurt anyone else.  Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarianism, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government's main imperative should be: Hands off!
---
> LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982270379
9c9
< One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: LibertarianisM, which wants the state to do only a few things, and socialism, which wants the state to do a lot of things.
---
> One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: LibertarianisM, which wants the state to do only a few things, and ''SocialisM,'' which wants the state to do a lot of things.
11c11
< LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least.
---
> ''LibertarianisM,'' in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least.
13c13
< Socialism, nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
---
> ''SocialisM,'' nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
------
SocialisM|982270520
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
> 
> A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.
> 
> Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.
> 
> Thus, for a socialist, the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
> 
> See also CommunisM; AnarchisM; LiberalisM; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982270727
9c9
< One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: LibertarianisM, which wants the state to do only a few things, and ''SocialisM,'' which wants the state to do a lot of things.
---
> One fairly useful way to conceive of the differences between these different views is as <i>how</i> <i>much</i> they want government to do. For a stark and timely contrast, consider two of these views: Libertarianism, which wants the state to do only a few things, and Socialism, which wants the state to do a lot of things.  ''LibertarianisM,'' in political theory, is the view that the function of the state is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.  ''SocialisM,'' nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.
11,15c11
< ''LibertarianisM,'' in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least.
< 
< ''SocialisM,'' nearly on the other end of a continuum, is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>one</i> <i>stage</i> in the progression of a socialist society.  Anyway, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.  Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.  And so the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
< 
< Obviously, we do not have the time to weigh the merits of libertarianism and socialism, or any other theories about the function of government.  I just want you to understand that <i>once</i> we have given some justification for the existence of the state at all, we are faced with the question of what governments are morally justified in doing, which is another way of saying what their purposes or functions should be.  As you can see, this turns to be one of the most important questions, not only of philosophy, but of any inquiry.
---
> As you can see, <i>once</i> we have given some justification for the existence of the state at all, we are faced with the question of what governments are morally justified in doing, which is another way of saying what their purposes or functions should be.  This turns to be one of the most important questions that can be asked.
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment|982270800
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikified; further development encouraged> 
3c3
< What is a good StatE?  A good state is one that does (well) whatever governments should do, and it does nothing else.  This platitude makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do--what their proper functions are, and are not.
---
> A good StatE is one that does (well) whatever GovernmenT""s should do, and it does nothing else.  This platitude makes it more pressing that we try to find out what governments should do--what their proper functions are, and are not.
5c5
< We might be tempted to say, as nearly everyone can agree, that the purpose of the state is to protect rights and to preserve justice.  But this raises more questions than it answers.  <i>Which</i> and ''whose'' rights?  <i>What</i> <i>sort</i> of justice?  There are, after all, many different conceptions of what rights we have, and what justice consists of.
---
> We might be tempted to say, as nearly everyone can agree, that the purpose of the state is to protect RightS and to preserve JusticE.  But this raises more questions than it answers.  <i>Which</i> and ''whose'' rights?  <i>What</i> <i>sort</i> of justice?  There are, after all, many different conceptions of what rights we have, and what justice consists of.
13c13
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
LarrysText|982270834
23c23
< ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
---
> ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- LibertarianisM -- SocialisM
------
PoLitics/Talk|982270961
48a49,50
> ----
> Already changed--no help from you, whoever you are.  ;-)  --LarrySanger
------
ThePurposeOfGovernment/Talk|982271333
14c14,16
< Stalinism and Fascism have a lot of similarities thanks to both being totalitarian governments, but that doesn't mean one should overlook their differences.  Stalinists promised a worker's utopia and go on the left, Fascists promised a good police state and go on the right.  Other axes are usually added to reflect their commonalities, but that doesn't mean we get to ignore the coordinate difference on the one we have!  If you do, you shouldn't expect to get a meaningfully discerning system. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> Stalinism and Fascism have a lot of similarities thanks to both being totalitarian governments, but that doesn't mean one should overlook their differences.  Stalinists promised a worker's utopia and go on the left, Fascists promised a good police state and go on the right.  Other axes are usually added to reflect their commonalities, but that doesn't mean we get to ignore the coordinate difference on the one we have!  If you do, you shouldn't expect to get a meaningfully discerning system. -- JoshuaGrosse
> ----
> I am waiting for one of you know-it-alls to supply a better definition.  Nothing's stopping you. -- LarrySanger
------
ColdWar|982271982
1,3c1,2
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990. Except for a few minor wars such as the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries this war took place (mostly eastern and western Germany) never took much notice about this war going on.
< Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the Cold War, the war was fought by organizations like the CIA (UnitedStates), MI6 (GreatBritain), BND (WestGermany), STASI (EastGermany) and the KGB (USSR).
< The Cold War also inspired a lot of movie-companies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (JamesBond) some less.
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between NATO and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western GermanY) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA (UnitedStates), MI6 (GreatBritain), BND (WestGermany), STASI (EastGermany) and the KGB (USSR).
> The ColdWar also inspired a lot of movie-companies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (JamesBond) some less.
5c4
< "Cold War" is a MetaphoR.
---
> "Cold War" is a MetaphoR.
------
EuropE|982272267
6c6
< the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly SpaiN, PortugaL, FrancE, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar EuropE was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
------
ReCreation|982272425
9c9
< In EuropE BeeR is very important.
---
> FoodAndDrinks
------
ReCreation|982272442
9c9
< FoodAndDrinks
---
> * FoodAndDrinks
------
FoodAndDrinks|982272597
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AlcoholicBeverages:
> 
> * BeeR
> * SpiritS
> * WinE
> 
> Food:
> 
> * ItalianCuisine
> * FrenchCuisine
> * AsianCuisine
> * FastFood
> * MediterraneanCuisine
------
FoodAndDrinks|982272652
7c7
< Food:
---
> FooD:
------
LibertarianisM|982272806
1c1
< LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, an individual should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
---
> LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, individuals should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
9c9
< Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM.
---
> Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM.
------
ThreeLawsOfRobotics|982273020
7c7
< ''Source: IsaacAsimov, Foundation's Edge''
---
> ''Source: IsaacAsimov, FoundationsEdge''
------
ThreeLawsOfRobotics|982273103
7c7,8
< ''Source: IsaacAsimov, FoundationsEdge''
---
> ----
> ''Source: IsaacAsimov, /FoundationsEdge''
------
ThreeLawsOfRobotics|982273141
8c8
< ''Source: IsaacAsimov, /FoundationsEdge''
---
> ''Source: IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge''
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982273498
5c5,7
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a ''universe'', a finite set of ''elementary events''. We define a ''weighting function'' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the ''weight'' of the elementary event. We can represent any ''event'' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a ''universe'', a finite set of ''elementary events''. We define a ''weighting function'' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the ''weight'' of the elementary event. We can represent any ''event'' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the definition above directly.
> 
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnalYsis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable.
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982273599
7c7
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnalYsis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable.
---
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable.
------
WinE|982273705
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Good wine is a necessity of life for me." -- ThomasJefferson
> 
> 
> Alcoholic beverage made primarily from grapes.
> 
> There are many types, kinds, and classifications of wine.
> Here's a hopelessly incomplete start on a random listing
> of kinds of wine.  This should be organized systematically,
> but isn't yet.
> 
> CabernetSauvignon
> MerloT
> CabernetFranc
> ZinfandeL
> PinotNoir
> 
> PorT
> 
> ChardonnaY
> WhiteZinfandel
> 
> BordeauxWine
> BurgundyWine
> 
> Some other wine related terms:
> 
> NapaValley
> SonomaValley
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982273877
11a12,13
> ----
> I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
------
WojPob|982274038
5c5
< http://www.pobratyn.com.
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn.com]
------
AsciiArt|982274118
3c3
< [http://www.pobratyn.com Example of AsciiArt]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/acii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
------
AsciiArt|982274157
3c3
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/acii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/ascii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
------
ActorS/Talk|982274252
27a28
> ----
28a30,43
> ----
> Is this stealing your last word, if I only agree with what you've said?  It occurred to me late last night (wikipedia is keeping me up at night!) that you are absolutely right when you say that
> there isn't a difference in the activity of acting between men
> and women.  And you are of course right too, in pointing out that
> just as some men are not right for some parts as women, some women are equally not right for some parts as women.
> 
> Of course, this perhaps doesn't remove the need for the distinction.  We agree that personal physical characteristics
> can play a major role in how a performer is perceived in a part.
> And so we might conclude that, in general, gender is or at least
> tends to be a highly important characteristic for classifying performers.  So we might leave the distinction as is.
> 
> The big difference between my tennis example, and acting, is
> that in tennis it really is true that the top tennis players would all be men, if all were to play in the same league.  In order to have sensible competition, segregation is probably necessary.  But why do we have separate awards for best actor and best actress?  Even if men and women naturally tend to play different parts, there seems to be no reason why we should consider it difficult at all to decide if JuliaRoberts or AlPacino is the better performer in a given year.
> 
33a49,50
> ----
> 
------
CombinaTorics|982274891
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : MathematicsAndStatistics
> 
> It may seem surprising that the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards is  8.065817517094e+67. That is a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros. Comparing that number to some other large numbers, it is greater than the square of [http://gemini.tntech.edu/~tfurtsch/scihist/avogadro.htm Avogadro's number], 6.022e+23, "the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in a gram mole".
> 
> That large number is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of ways of order the deck. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
> 
> One example of a surprising theorem is that of [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ramsey.htm Frank P. Ramsey] which essentially says (in mathematical language) that if you look hard enough, any pattern of stars can be found in the sky. It has been used to debunk claims that some special patterns are especially meaningful.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
CombinaTorics|982275017
5a6
> One example of a surprising theorem is that of [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ramsey.htm Frank P. Ramsey] which essentially says (in mathematical language) that if you look hard enough, any pattern of stars can be found in the sky. It has been used to debunk claims that some patterns are especially meaningful.
7c8
< One example of a surprising theorem is that of [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ramsey.htm Frank P. Ramsey] which essentially says (in mathematical language) that if you look hard enough, any pattern of stars can be found in the sky. It has been used to debunk claims that some special patterns are especially meaningful.
---
> Among the tools studied in Combinatorics are ''combinations'', ''permutations'', ''the pigeonhole principle'', and others.
------
CombinaTorics|982275081
5c5
< That large number is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of ways of order the deck. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
---
> That large number is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982275251
2a3
> : NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
7c8
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable.
---
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
------
ScienceFiction|982275440
18c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on Earth, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
ThreeLawsOfAlGore|982275899
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Three Laws of Al Gore:
> 
> 1. Al Gore may not harm a human being, or allow a human being to be harmed.
> 2. Al Gore must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 
> 3. Al Gore must protect his own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict the First or Second Law. 
------
ThreeLawsOfAlGore|982275920
3,5c3,5
< 1. Al Gore may not harm a human being, or allow a human being to be harmed.
< 2. Al Gore must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 
< 3. Al Gore must protect his own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict the First or Second Law. 
---
> # Al Gore may not harm a human being, or allow a human being to be harmed.
> # Al Gore must obey the orders given by the human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 
> # Al Gore must protect his own existence, as long as such protection does not conflict the First or Second Law. 
------
NormalDistribution|982275972
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> The [http://ce597n.www.ecn.purdue.edu/CE597N/1997F/students/michael.a.kropinski.1/project/tutorial normal or Gaussian probability distribution] is actually a family of distributions of the same general form, differing only in their ''location'' and ''scale'' parameters, commonly called the ''mean'' and ''standard deviation''. The shape consists of a central bulge centered on the mean with about 99% of the area under the density curve between the mean plus and minus three standard deviations.
> 
> One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the Central Limit Theorem.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
NormalDistribution|982276086
5c5
< One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the Central Limit Theorem.
---
> One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the [http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/stanton/m262/central_limit_theorem/clt.html Central Limit Theorem].
------
NormalDistribution|982276228
5c5
< One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the [http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/stanton/m262/central_limit_theorem/clt.html Central Limit Theorem].
---
> One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the [http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/stanton/m262/central_limit_theorem/clt.html Central Limit Theorem]. Simply stated, this theorem says that if you add up a lot of little things, the resulting distribution will resemble the normal distribution. 
------
BinomialDistribution|982276706
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Binomial distribution can be described as the sum of a specific number of independent trials, each of which results in either a zero or a one with constant probability. It provides a reasonable description of coin tossing experiments, among others.
> 
> To get a result of X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and the probability of a tail is q (1-p), then X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated by multiplying X p's times N-X q's or (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/X!/(N-X)! different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
> 
>    N!/X!/(N-X)! p^X q^(N-X)
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
PoLitics/Talk|982277369
20a21,24
> ''Anarchism or Libertarianism. It isn't possible to have a capitalist system without massive intervention on the part of government. Property, contracts and "free markets" are all extremely artificial inventions created out of thin air by the agency of government. "a complete absence of government control in a capitalist economy" is a theoretical impossibility, a logical contradiction.''
> 
> ''What characterizes capitalism isn't that the capitalists have no oversight from a head Fascist but that the capitalists get to dictate terms to the workers and other non-capitalists. Whether you have 2 or 3 levels in your hierarchy doesn't matter as much as whether you have a hierarchy based on capital in the first place.''
> 
36a41,44
> 
> ''And yet elsewhere in these political pages people complain that FascisM and StalinisM are on opposite sides of the spectrum despite the fact that ''in practice'' they are almost identical. If CapitalisM devolves into FascisM ''in practice'' then this amply demonstrates an eery similarity between the two systems and associated ideologies.''
> 
> ''It isn't a few capitalists that become fascists when a socialist revolution threatens. It happens on a massive scale in every country of the world. FascisM is exactly like CapitalisM except for being more brutal and totalitarian. In both systems private property owners rule like kings while the government supports and defends them using police power. And this does refer to CapitalisM as an ideology though it's hard to see if you don't distinguish between FreeMarketDoctrine and CapitalisM (which are very different things).''
50c58,60
< Already changed--no help from you, whoever you are.  ;-)  --LarrySanger
---
> Already changed--no help from you, whoever you are.  ;-)  --LarrySanger
> 
> I believe the two most important axes are Authoritarianism versus Libertarianism and Egalitarianism versus Hierarchy. And the reason people talk about making changes instead of simply doing them is because an entry should be convincing to most people and not merely reflect a minority opinion. If it doesn't, it will get changed and not necessarily towards the better. -- RichardKulisz
------
LibertarianisM|982278130
8a9,10
> Historically, LibertarianisM has been synonymous with AnarchisM and the term is still understood in this manner by many people within but especially outside the UnitedStates.
> 
------
LibertarianisM|982279286
9c9
< Historically, LibertarianisM has been synonymous with AnarchisM and the term is still understood in this manner by many people within but especially outside the UnitedStates.
---
> Many people mistakenly believe that LibertarianisM is synonymous with AnarchisM; the term is still understood in this manner especially by people outside the UnitedStates, where there is essentially no libertarian movement that goes by the name.  Most libertarians, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.
11c11
< Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM.
---
> Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM; MinimalStatism.
------
PoLitics/Talk|982279575
60c60,76
< I believe the two most important axes are Authoritarianism versus Libertarianism and Egalitarianism versus Hierarchy. And the reason people talk about making changes instead of simply doing them is because an entry should be convincing to most people and not merely reflect a minority opinion. If it doesn't, it will get changed and not necessarily towards the better. -- RichardKulisz
---
> I believe the two most important axes are Authoritarianism versus Libertarianism and Egalitarianism versus Hierarchy. And the reason people talk about making changes instead of simply doing them is because an entry should be convincing to most people and not merely reflect a minority opinion. If it doesn't, it will get changed and not necessarily towards the better.
> 
> I like
> 
>     Com     Fas
>    Soc  Cen  Cap
>     Ana     Lib
> 
> I'd define the horizontal axis as Egalitarianism and the vertical axis as Authoritarianism. Then I'd put Feudalism somewhere close to Capitalism. Democracy isn't a system, it's a concept. Democracy everywhere is only in Anarchism. No serious political scientists consider the Anglo-American countries democratic so the only instances of somewhat democratic capitalist countries are the social democracies of Western Europe and they're all in the Center. Additionally, it's easy to see that systems "devolve" upwards and not sideways. And if any doubt the difference between AnarchisM and LibertarianisM, it can be pointed out that the great inequality permitted by LibertarianisM makes the system rapidly devolve into totalitarianism. IOW, LibertarianisM cannot exist in practice. Since this does not apply to AnarchisM, there is a world of difference between the two ideologies. Even if the difference between Communism and Fascism is slight, the one between Anarchism and Libertarianism is worth maintaining.
> 
> Or maybe another formation?
> 
>       Com Fas
>     Soc Cen Cap
>    Ana       Lib
> 
>  -- RichardKulisz
------
LibertarianisM|982279739
9c9
< Many people mistakenly believe that LibertarianisM is synonymous with AnarchisM; the term is still understood in this manner especially by people outside the UnitedStates, where there is essentially no libertarian movement that goes by the name.  Most libertarians, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.
---
> Many people outside the UnitedStates treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.
------
LibertarianisM|982279957
9c9
< Many people outside the UnitedStates treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.
---
> Many people outside the UnitedStates (and a few within it) treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.  See [http://abc123direct.com/Society/Politics/Libertarian/Libertarian.html this collection of web links].
------
LibertarianisM|982280219
1c1
< LibertarianisM, in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, individuals should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
---
> ''Libertarianism,'' in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, individuals should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
11c11
< Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM; MinimalStatism.
---
> Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM; MinimalStatism.
------
LibertarianisM|982280523
9c9
< Many people outside the UnitedStates (and a few within it) treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.  See [http://abc123direct.com/Society/Politics/Libertarian/Libertarian.html this collection of web links].
---
> Many people outside the UnitedStates (and a few within it) treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.  There is such a thing as LibertarianCommunism, which is synonymous with TraditionalAnarchism.  See [http://abc123direct.com/Society/Politics/Libertarian/Libertarian.html this collection of web links] if you want to try to sort out the mess.
------
LibertarianCommunism|982280661
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Libertarian communism'' or ''libertarian Marxism'' is essentially the same as TraditionalAnarchism.  For more information, see [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Embassy/8970/ the self-described Libertarian Communist Home Page].
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|982280731
1c1
< The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who know the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but noooo.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
---
> The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who knows the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but noooo.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
7a8,9
> ----
> Just changed 'who know' to 'who knows'. Done my share.
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982280751
11c11
< Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism have been synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves AnarchoCapitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries. Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of anarchists, the AnarchoCapitalists are not regarded as anarchists.
---
> Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism have been synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves AnarchoCapitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries. Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of traditional anarchists, traditional anarchists do not regard the AnarchoCapitalists as anarchists.
15,17c15
< ----
< 
< Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
---
> /Talk
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982280760
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
------
SetTheory|982281043
44c44,45
< Does the above have the same content as the /OldVersion?  Please check.
---
> Does the above have the same content as the /OldVersion?  Please check.----
> No. The old page was math with some disagreement. This is meta-math, so to speak. Please ask JoshuaGrosse I believe it was his page.
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982281258
5c5
< Anarchy is frequently portrayed as chaos and anarchists as terrorists. Proponents of any extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. Very few anarchists are nihilists. Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
---
> Anarchy is frequently portrayed as chaos and anarchists as terrorists. Proponents of any extant system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. Very few anarchists are nihilists. Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
------
SandBox|982281388
19c19,20
< ��� I can copy and paste boxes, though.
---
> ��� I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
> No. I was enering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things.
------
WinE|982281455
4c4
< Alcoholic beverage made primarily from grapes.
---
> Alcoholic beverage made primarily from fermented fuit, usually grapes.  Hence, WinE, from Latin ''Vin'', grape.
15a16
> PinotGrigio
17a19,20
> SherrY
> Brandy
19d21
< ChardonnaY
20a23,33
> White Merlot
> 
> ChardonnaY
> SauvignonBlanc
> LiebFrauMilch
> PoullietFusse
> PoullietFume
> FumeBlanc
> 
> DucK
> 
23a37
> ChamPagne
------
SandBox|982281463
20c20
< No. I was enering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things.
---
> No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..
------
WinE|982281722
16c16
< PinotGrigio
---
> PinotNero
30a31
> Pino Grigio
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982281831
2d1
< 
3a3,5
> ''Anarchism'' is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
> 
> Anarchy is frequently portrayed as chaos and anarchists as terrorists.  Proponents of any extant (i.e., non-anarchist) system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order.  For example, in their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order.  Very few anarchists are nihilists, however (see NihilisM).
5c7
< Anarchy is frequently portrayed as chaos and anarchists as terrorists. Proponents of any extant system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order. In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. Very few anarchists are nihilists. Anarchism is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
---
> Anarchism has a long and rich tradition.  Its philosophy and history begin with rejection of aristocracy and of capitalism and their hierarchical structures.  Anarchists reject the claims of the property owner and the landlord.  Having rejected private property, they reject the political machinery (the StatE) which defends and supports private property.  In place of private property, anarchism is based on personal possessions and democratically controlled communal property.
7c9
< Anarchism has a long and rich tradition. Its philosophy and history begin with rejection of capitalism and its hierarchical structure. Anarchists reject the claims of the property owner and the landlord. Having rejected private property, they reject the political machinery (the State)which defends and supports private property. In place of private property, anarchism is based on personal possessions and democratically controlled communal property.
---
> A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply
9c11
< The anarchist rejection of government is derivative and entails the rejection of electioneering. Insofar as politics refers to the actions of power structures then anarchism seeks the abolition of politics itself. Anarchism is a social and economic movement with ramifications in the political sphere. To regard anarchism as a political ideology is an error. In place of political maneuvering, anarchists champion the use of direct action of which the general strike, occupation of workplaces and sabotage are prime examples. The purpose of sabotage is to impair or destroy the machinery of capitalism and not the propagation of terror.
---
> The rejection of government is not essential to traditional anarchism, but derives from the desire to eliminate the political machinery which supports private property.  In any event, the rejection of the state entails the rejection of electioneering (see DemocracY).  Insofar as politics refers to the actions of power structures then anarchism seeks the abolition of politics itself.  Hence, it is helpful to regard anarchism as a social and economic movement with ramifications in the political sphere.  To regard anarchism as a political ideology, anarchists hold, is an error.  In place of political maneuvering, anarchists champion the use of direct action of which the general strike, occupation of workplaces and sabotage are prime examples.  The purpose of sabotage is to impair or destroy the machinery of capitalism and not the propagation of terror.
11c13
< Through most of its history, libertarianism and anarchism have been synonymous. Recently, some proponents of laissez faire economics have taken to calling themselves AnarchoCapitalists and libertarians. This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries. Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of traditional anarchists, traditional anarchists do not regard the AnarchoCapitalists as anarchists.
---
> Before the twentieth century, "anarchism" strictly meant traditional, socialist anarchism.  By the mid-twentieth century, however, some proponents of CapitalisM began calling their view "anarchism" and in particular, AnarchoCapitalism.  This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries.  Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of traditional anarchists, traditional anarchists do not regard the AnarchoCapitalists as anarchists.
15c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982281883
3c3
< ''Anarchism'' is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
---
> ''Anarchism,'' in its socialist variety (see AnarchisM), is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
ActorS/Talk|982281931
42c42,43
< that in tennis it really is true that the top tennis players would all be men, if all were to play in the same league.  In order to have sensible competition, segregation is probably necessary.  But why do we have separate awards for best actor and best actress?  Even if men and women naturally tend to play different parts, there seems to be no reason why we should consider it difficult at all to decide if JuliaRoberts or AlPacino is the better performer in a given year.
---
> that in tennis it really is true that the top tennis players would all be men, if all were to play in the same league.  In order to have sensible competition, segregation is probably necessary.  But why do we have separate awards for best actor and best actress?  Even if men and women naturally tend to play different parts, there seems to be no reason why we should consider it difficult at all to decide if JuliaRoberts or AlPacino is the better performer in a given year.----
> I guess we will have to '''agree''' to '''agree'''!!!
50c51
< 
---
>  �<-MyBox
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982282089
11c11
< The rejection of government is not essential to traditional anarchism, but derives from the desire to eliminate the political machinery which supports private property.  In any event, the rejection of the state entails the rejection of electioneering (see DemocracY).  Insofar as politics refers to the actions of power structures then anarchism seeks the abolition of politics itself.  Hence, it is helpful to regard anarchism as a social and economic movement with ramifications in the political sphere.  To regard anarchism as a political ideology, anarchists hold, is an error.  In place of political maneuvering, anarchists champion the use of direct action of which the general strike, occupation of workplaces and sabotage are prime examples.  The purpose of sabotage is to impair or destroy the machinery of capitalism and not the propagation of terror.
---
> The rejection of government is not essential to traditional anarchism, but derives from the desire to eliminate the political machinery which supports private property.  In any event, the rejection of the state entails the rejection of electioneering (see DemocracY).  Insofar as politics refers to the actions of power structures then anarchism seeks the abolition of politics itself.  Hence, it is helpful to regard anarchism as a social and economic movement with ramifications in the political sphere.  To regard anarchism as a political ideology, anarchists hold, is an error.  In place of political maneuvering, anarchists champion the use of direct action of which the general strike, occupation of workplaces and sabotage are prime examples.  Anarchists who engage in sabotage do to impair or destroy the machinery of capitalism and not to terrorize otherwise innocent people.
13c13
< Before the twentieth century, "anarchism" strictly meant traditional, socialist anarchism.  By the mid-twentieth century, however, some proponents of CapitalisM began calling their view "anarchism" and in particular, AnarchoCapitalism.  This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries.  Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of traditional anarchists, traditional anarchists do not regard the AnarchoCapitalists as anarchists.
---
> Before the twentieth century, "anarchism" strictly meant traditional, socialist anarchism.  By the mid-twentieth century, however, some radical proponents of CapitalisM began calling their view "anarchism" and in particular, ''AnarchoCapitalism.''  This usage is geographically limited to Austria and the Anglo-American countries.  Since the beliefs and actions of AnarchoCapitalists are rarely compatible with those of traditional anarchists, traditional anarchists do not regard the AnarchoCapitalists as anarchists.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
SetTheory|982282436
45a46,47
> ----
> Well, then, something's got to be done.  Actually, I like the above article.  It's the sort of thing that's needed as an introductory article about set theory.
------
NationalSocialism|982282652
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
DemocracY|982283314
1c1,5
< Democracy is a great TV-show.
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can truly say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any size.
> 
> The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the UnitedStates was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A republic, if you can keep it."
> 
> See TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC.
------
DemocracY|982283411
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can truly say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any size.
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any size.
5c5
< See TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC.
---
> See TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC.
------
DemocracY|982283432
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any size.
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any considerable size.
------
DemocracY|982283475
3c3
< The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the UnitedStates was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A republic, if you can keep it."
---
> The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the UnitedStates was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."
------
DemocracY|982283616
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a TrueDemocracy of any considerable size.
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''DirectDemocracy'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
------
TechnoDemocracy|982283754
8c8
< the belief that by doing so, it will allow DemocraticRepublic s to become more democratic
---
> the belief that by doing so, it will allow DemocraticRepublic""s to become more democratic
10a11
> The traditional objection to DemocracY, however, also applies to TechnoDemocracy: both systems of government are open to DemagoguerY.
------
DemocracY|982283814
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''DirectDemocracy'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliC""s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''DirectDemocracy'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
------
DemocracY|982283873
5c5
< See TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC.
---
> See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; ThePeople.
------
NationalSocialism|982284285
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM.  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM (we know the difference between them, but it's a secret).  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
MedicinE|982284912
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Medicine is something doctors do.  It usually involves making people take pills and sticking them with needles.  If you give people pills and stick them with needles, you may be a doctor.  People do what doctors tell them to because of "doctor's orders".  Doctors have stethoscopes, which is a useful way of indentifying them.  They have helpers called nurses who wear nurse uniforms.
> 
> Medicine is different today then it used to be.  This is because medicine has different tools to use.  Today X-rays are part of medicine because we have X-ray tools.  A long time ago this was not true.  A long time ago stone drills were part of medicine, but new tools have come along since then.  It is not possible to predict which new tools will come along, which suggests they simply come along at random.
> 
> Some people think there is a broad conceptual umbrella under which medical activites are understood in reference to goal-directed behavior such as the seeking of health.  But this is an abstract way of looking at medicine, and is therefore way too confusing.
------
MedicinE|982285752
5c5,7
< Some people think there is a broad conceptual umbrella under which medical activites are understood in reference to goal-directed behavior such as the seeking of health.  But this is an abstract way of looking at medicine, and is therefore way too confusing.
---
> Some people think there is a broad conceptual umbrella under which medical activites are understood in reference to goal-directed behavior such as the seeking of health.  But this is an abstract way of looking at medicine, and is therefore way too confusing.
> ----
> I assume this is a protest of some kind, but I think it would be better if you just stated your complaint directly.  It doesn't do any good, and frankly is quite inaccurate, to make vague accusations of anti-conceptualism, if you aren't going to make specific arguments to back it up. --JimboWales
------
NationalSocialism|982285969
1c1,3
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM (we know the difference between them, but it's a secret).  NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM.   FascisM is a broader abstraction which subsumes not only the specific ideology of the NaZi party, but also the ideologies of, for example, MussolinI.
> 
> NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
WinE|982286566
11,38c11,38
< CabernetSauvignon
< MerloT
< CabernetFranc
< ZinfandeL
< PinotNoir
< PinotNero
< 
< PorT
< SherrY
< Brandy
< 
< WhiteZinfandel
< White Merlot
< 
< ChardonnaY
< SauvignonBlanc
< LiebFrauMilch
< PoullietFusse
< PoullietFume
< FumeBlanc
< Pino Grigio
< 
< DucK
< 
< 
< BordeauxWine
< BurgundyWine
< ChamPagne
---
> :CabernetSauvignon
> :MerloT
> :CabernetFranc
> :ZinfandeL
> :PinotNoir
> :PinotNero
> 
> :PorT
> :SherrY
> :BrandY
> 
> :WhiteZinfandel
> :WhiteMerlot
> 
> :ChardonnaY
> :SauvignonBlanc
> :LiebFrauMilch
> :PoullietFusse
> :PoullietFume
> :FumeBlanc
> :PinotGrigio
> 
> :DucK
> 
> 
> :BordeauxWine
> :BurgundyWine
> :ChamPagne
42,43c42,43
< NapaValley
< SonomaValley
---
> :NapaValley
> :SonomaValley
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982286889
14,15c14,16
< 
< You report him to whatever cooperatives you and he belong to. Acting in an unethical and immoral manner can have a wide range of repercussions. Human beings are naturally interdependent and anarcho-syndicalists use these interdependencies without recourse to an artificial hierarchy like the justice system or police.
---
> You report him to whatever cooperatives you and he belong to. Acting in an unethical and immoral manner can have a wide range of repercussions. Human beings are naturally interdependent and anarcho-syndicalists use these interdependencies without recourse to an artificial hierarchy like the justice system or police.
> ----
> I'm trying to explore how this differs from anarchocapitalism, exactly.  DavidFriedman would answer my question in exactly the same way as you have, as far as I know.
------
WinE|982287800
28,29c28,29
< :PoullietFusse
< :PoullietFume
---
> :PuillyFuisse 
> :PuillyFume
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982287811
1c1,5
< Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
> ----
> I wrote:
> :A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE?. Anarchists reply 
> I was hoping someone would supply the reply.  I don't actually know that the objection is common, but it seems simple and obvious to me, and I infer that it must be common.  Therefore, I also infer that there are some ordinary ways of replying.  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
EastGermany|982288107
3,4c3
< After WW2, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion 
< decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
---
> After Wor;dWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
------
EastGermany|982288114
3c3
< After Wor;dWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
---
> After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
------
NationalSocialism|982288943
3c3
< NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, who led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, and who oversaw the murder of over 20 million people.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, oversaw the murder of over 20 million people and who is held responsible for the HolocausT.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
------
AnarchisM|982289035
1a2,4
> 
> All anarchists are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
> 
18,19d20
< 
< Both views are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
------
FoodAndDrinks|982289486
5a6
> * CocktailS
------
PoLitics/Talk|982294078
52a53,56
> 
> Making changes doesn't always work.  If you will recall, back on AnarchY RK had replaced some material he disagreed with and then TS promptly changed it back.  This sort of thing could have just gone back and forth, but instead discussion moved off onto another page, which gave JW something to start from when he went to straighten the page out.
> 
> I wouldn't consider arguing a distraction from writing, therefore, but rather a prerequisite thereto.  At best it can lead to a consensus on how to organize things, and at worst it still provides an indication of what can't happen.  That said, I'm still going to go write a penance page on another topic. :) -- JoshuaGrosse
76c80
<  -- RichardKulisz
---
>  -- RichardKulisz
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982294780
5c5,9
< I was hoping someone would supply the reply.  I don't actually know that the objection is common, but it seems simple and obvious to me, and I infer that it must be common.  Therefore, I also infer that there are some ordinary ways of replying.  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> I was hoping someone would supply the reply.  I don't actually know that the objection is common, but it seems simple and obvious to me, and I infer that it must be common.  Therefore, I also infer that there are some ordinary ways of replying.  :-) -- LarrySanger
> 
> The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation. Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations. The similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial. If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it's becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling, intelligent and rational while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another. As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility". Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about. In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
> 
> Communal control ''is'' subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982295478
7c7
< The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation. Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations. The similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial. If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it's becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling, intelligent and rational while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another. As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility". Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about. In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
---
> The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation. Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations. The similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial. If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another. As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility". Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about. In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
9c9
< Communal control ''is'' subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution.
---
> Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution. And even if Mondragon does fail, it's important to note that it took more than 3 decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
------
ConStellations|982295757
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> iMost of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but people are very good at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into configurations called constellations.  Different cultures have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to appear over and over again - e.g. Orion and Scorpius.
> 
> The IAU divides the sky into 88 official constellations with precise boundaries, so that every direction belongs to exactly one constellation.  These are mostly based upon the constellations of the ancient Greek tradition, passed down through the Middle Ages.  The zodiac includes the following 12:
> 
> * ArieS, the ram
> * TaurUs, the bull
> * GeminI, the twins (=DioscurI)
> * CancEr, the crab
> * LeO, the lion
> * VirgO, the virgin
> * LibrA, the scales
> * ScorpIus, the scorpion
> * SagittarIus, the archer
> * CapricornUs, the sea goat
> * AquarIus, the water carrier
> * PiscEs, the fish
> 
> Plus PtolemY listed the following additional constellations:
> 
> * AndromedA
> * AquilA, the eagle
> * ArA, the altar
> * ArgoNavis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into CarinA, PuppIs, PyxIs, and VelA
> * AurigA, the charioteer
> * BootEs, the herdsman
> * CanisMajor, the greater dog
> * CanisMinor, the lesser dog
> * CassiopeiA
> * CentaurUs, the centaur
> * CephEus
> * CetUs, the whale
> * CoronaAustralis, the southern crown
> * CoronaBorealis, the northern crown
> * CorvUs, the raven
> * CratEr, the cup
> * CygnUs, the swan
> * DelphinUs, the dolphin
> * DracO, the dragon
> * EquulEus, the little horse
> * EridanUs, the river
> * HerculEs (=HeraklEs)
> * HydrA, the water snake
> * LepUs, the hare
> * LupUs, the wolf
> * LyrA, the lyre
> * OphiucUs, the serpent-bearer
> * OrioN, the hunter
> * PegasUs
> * PersEus
> * PiscisAustrinus, the southern fish
> * SagittA, the arrow
> * SerpenS, the serpent
> * TriangulUm, the triangle
> * UrsaMajor, the greater bear
> * UrsaMinor, the lesser bear
> 
> In more recent times this list has been added to, first to fill gaps between Ptolemy's patterns (the Greeks considered the sky as including both constellations and dim spaces between) and second to fill up the southern sky as explorers sailed where they could see it.  The new constellations are:
> 
> * AntliA, the pump
> * ApUs, the bird of paradise
> * CaelUm, the chisel
> * CamelopardIs, the giraffe
> * CanesVenatici, the hunting dogs
> * ChamaeleoN
> * CircinUs, the drawing compasses
> * ColumbA, the dove
> * ComaBerenices (traditional Asterism), Berenice's hair
> * CruX, the cross
> * DoradO, the swordfish
> * FornaX, the furnace
> * GrUs, the crane
> * HorologIum, the clock
> * HydrUs, the water snake
> * IndUs, the Indian
> * LacertA, the lizard
> * LeoMinor, the lesser lion
> * LynX
> * MensA - originally MonsMensae, table mountain
> * MicroscopIum, the microscope
> * MonocerOs, the unicorn
> * MuscA, the fly
> * NormA, the square
> * OctanS, the octant
> * PavO, the peacock
> * PhoeniX
> * PictoR - originally EquuleusPictoris, the painter's easel
> * ReticulUm, the reticle
> * SculptoR
> * ScutUm, the shield
> * SextanS, the sextant
> * TelescopIum, the telescope
> * TriangulumAustrale, the southern triangle
> * TucanA, the toucan
> * VolanS - originally PiscisVolans, the flying fish
> * Vulpecula - originally VulpeculaCumAnsere, the fox with the goose
> 
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably QuadransMuralis (now part of Bootes) for which the QuadrantidMeteors are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the BigDipper and LittleDipper.
------
EsperantoLanguage|982296819
10a11
>    ''esperu''             Hope!
12c13,15
<    ''esperanto(n)''       Hoper - nominative (accusative) noun
---
>    ''esperanta(n)''       Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
>    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
>    ''esperanto(n)''       Hoper  - nominative (accusative) noun
14,15d16
<    ''esperanta(n)''       Hoper's - nominative (accusative) adjective
<    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hopers' - nominative (accusative) adjective
------
GeologicTimescale|982297690
3,17c3,27
<    *  CenozoicEra
<         NeogenePeriod
<   23    PalaeogenePeriod
<   65  MesozoicEra
<        CretaceousPeriod
<  146    JurassicPeriod
<  208    TriassicPeriod
<  245  PalaeozoicEra
<         PermianPeriod
<  290    CarboniferousPeriod
<  363    DevonianPeriod
<  409    SilurianPeriod
<  439    OrdovicianPeriod
<  510    CambrianPeriod
<  570  PrecambrianEra
---
>     *  CenozoicEra
>          NeogenePeriod
>            PleistoceneEpoch (=Quaternary)
>   1.8      PlioceneEpoch
>     5      MioceneEpoch
>    23    PalaeogenePeriod
>            OligoceneEpoch
>    38      EoceneEpoch
>    54      PalaeoceneEpoch
>    65  MesozoicEra
>          CretaceousPeriod
>   146    JurassicPeriod
>   208    TriassicPeriod
>   245  PalaeozoicEra
>          PermianPeriod
>   286    CarboniferousPeriod
>            UpperCarboniferous = PennsylvanianPeriod
>   325      LowerCarboniferous = MississippianPeriod
>   360    DevonianPeriod
>   410    SilurianPeriod
>   440    OrdovicianPeriod
>   505    CambrianPeriod
>   544  ProterozoicEra    |
>  2500  ArchaeanEra       | PrecambrianEon (as opposed to PhanerozoicEon)
>  3800  HadeanEra         |
------
GeologicTimescale|982297718
19,20c19,20
<            UpperCarboniferous = PennsylvanianPeriod
<   325      LowerCarboniferous = MississippianPeriod
---
>            UpperCarboniferous (=Pennsylvanian)
>   325      LowerCarboniferous (=Mississippian)
------
LarrySanger|982300212
38a39,41
> 
> ----
> Interesting link to history of libertarianism. However, since the guy is dumb enough to say that the free market enriches the poor, his judgement is suspect. A theoretical free market is nothing but unrestrained economic war, to believe that this benefits the powerless is beyond credulity. He's also very wrong when he claims that libertarianism derives from classical liberalism. And although I'm certain that some capitalists honestly believe themselves the upholders of freedom, that is just so much self-serving pap. -- RichardKulisz
------
JimboWales|982300620
21c21
< * * * * * * * * * For JimboWales...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
---
> � � � � � � For JimboWales...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
------
DemocracY|982301310
5c5,7
< See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; ThePeople.
---
> DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
> 
> See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; ThePeople.
------
DemocracY|982301604
5,6d4
< DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
< 
------
DemocracY|982301640
4a5,6
> DemagoguerY? is identical to PopulisM? according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY? as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM? as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
> 
------
DemocracY|982301686
5c5
< DemagoguerY? is identical to PopulisM? according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY? as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM? as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
---
> DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982304331
16c16,32
< I'm trying to explore how this differs from anarchocapitalism, exactly.  DavidFriedman would answer my question in exactly the same way as you have, as far as I know.
---
> I'm trying to explore how this differs from anarchocapitalism, exactly.  DavidFriedman would answer my question in exactly the same way as you have, as far as I know.
> ----
> Then he is not an AnarchoCapitalist. AnarchoCapitalism is based on formal rules and absolute property rights. Humans are treated as objects and the "marketplace" rules supreme. Anarchism is not based on formal rules but on democratic control. It is not possible under anarchism for a person to surrender, transfer or sell their rights. If working in a cooperative gains you the right to participate politically (eg, by voting) then this right is inalienable (ie, non-transferable). Under anarcho-capitalism, everything is mere property and not a right at all so it is possible for you to (be forced to) sell all of your property away (eg, in order to avoid starvation). This leads only to totalitarianism.
> 
> A classic argument against cooperatives by anarcho-capitalists is precisely that it is irrational to have all one's stock in one company (your own) and so workers would seek to spread their risk by diversifying their stock portfolio. Of course, this is ''precisely'' what Anarchism makes impossible. In order to lessen your cooperative's risk of failure, people are forced to engage in mutual aid. Mutual aid is direct and transparent, one human to another, or one cooperative to another. The workings of the stock market is completely opaque and anything but direct. The stock market is also completely artificial.
> 
> Anarchists and socialists in general operate under a completely different mindset from capitalists and other right-wingers. An anarchist would ask whether it was fair for you to be deprived of the use of your television. A capitalist would ask whether it was fair for your television to be taken away from you. Anarchists are concerned about outcome whereas the right-wingers are only concerned that your neighbour did not ''obey'' the law and ''submit himself'' to the authority of some arbitrary rule system. Right-wing notions of justice are bureaucratic in nature.
> 
> The difference underlying different political ideologies are psychological. The right-winger seeks a well-ordered system which degrades people to the status of objects and society to the status of a machine. They find security in that. Whether they're the ruler of the world or a beggar living in squalor doesn't matter so much as that there be a rigid system with well-defined rules. Left-wingers are appalled at this scenario and usually seek to change it by putting themselves in power and playing benevolent dictator. They're just as obsessed with having a well-defined system as the right-wingers, just that instead of the rules being to their benefit they are concerned that the rules should be in others' benefit. Anarchists want to annihilate the system completely and replace it with ''humanistic'' relationships.
> 
> Under anarcho-capitalism, you go to your protection agency (which you may or may not have depending on whether you're wealthy enough to afford one) and they look at your contract. Under anarchism, you go to your co-workers and colleagues and they ask themselves whether you're a total asshole who deserves to lose his TV. They don't help you because of some contractual obligation, because it's written somewhere in some big book that they have to do this whether they want to or not. They do it because they like you and have sympathy for you, or because they pity you, or even just because people have to ''stick together'' if they don't want the world to be a living hell.
> 
> It is extremely common nowadays to think of humans as machines and of society as a machine as well. One's body isn't a holistic whole, it's just some machine with certain capabilities and requirements. If the blood sugar level is below the design specifications then people increase their sugar intake. If it seems to wear out then they go to a mechanic in a white lab coat who'll do a yearly inspection and may order some maintenance work. People don't have friends anymore, they have colleagues and acquaintances. They no longer speak, they ''communicate'', like computers. They no longer move under their own power and control by walking or cycling, they are transported from point to point by self-propelled tin cans inside of which they are strapped and buckled.
> 
> People are '''not''' machines and they shouldn't be treated as such. Contracts, laws, bylaws are all so much junk that degrades human beings. They are the basis of anarcho-capitalism and what make it fundamentally anti-human. Markets are not "natural". Laws are not "natural". They are profoundly artificial, through and through. When DavidFriedman says that it is "natural" for people to have their choice of protection firm, he's speaking in a context (the contracts and laws that make a market) in which the term 'natural' ceases to have any meaning. The situation is so thoroughly artificial that ''nothing'' could possibly be natural anymore.
> 
> I hope the above isn't too polemic. If it did then I did not mean it to. This is simply the only way I know of to express my point of view. -- RichardKulisz
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982304550
31a32,33
> The anarchist conception of the ideal society is intuitionistic and can't deviate much from an equally intuitive conception of justice. The anarcho-capitalist's conception of the ideal society is formal and systematic. And somewhere in their analysis, the anarcho-capitalists have screwed up.
> 
------
DemocracY|982304750
5,6d4
< DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
< 
7a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
DemocracY/Talk|982304976
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone (Tim?) wrote:
> :DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
> Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982305157
9c9,11
< Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution. And even if Mondragon does fail, it's important to note that it took more than 3 decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
---
> Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution. And even if Mondragon does fail, it's important to note that it took more than 3 decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
> ----
> Richard, I note that you wrote something on this page.  I didn't read what you wrote.  Please fill in the blank, or otherwise alter the article itself.  If you don't, I'm simply going to ignore you.  I'm not really interested in engaging you in political discussions, even though I fully admit that that might be interesting and educational. -- LarrySanger
------
LarrySanger|982305368
39d38
< 
41c40
< Interesting link to history of libertarianism. However, since the guy is dumb enough to say that the free market enriches the poor, his judgement is suspect. A theoretical free market is nothing but unrestrained economic war, to believe that this benefits the powerless is beyond credulity. He's also very wrong when he claims that libertarianism derives from classical liberalism. And although I'm certain that some capitalists honestly believe themselves the upholders of freedom, that is just so much self-serving pap. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Political discussion not allowed on this page.  :-)
------
DemocracY/Talk|982306708
1a2,3
> - Sounds just like me, doesn't it?  Tim
> 
3c5
< Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
---
> Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
------
DemocracY/Talk|982306720
2c2
< - Sounds just like me, doesn't it?  Tim
---
>  - Sounds just like me, doesn't it?  Tim
------
DemocracY/Talk|982307709
2a3
>  - I guess so...?  :-)  OK, so the logs prove definitively, it was you.
5c6
< Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
---
> Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982307751
34c34,38
< I hope the above isn't too polemic. If it did then I did not mean it to. This is simply the only way I know of to express my point of view. -- RichardKulisz
---
> A better example than the theft of a television, is the appropriation of a handgun. Suppose my neighbour has a handgun and while he is away I break into his house, take it then destroy it. A handgun is a possession but it is not a ''legitimate'' possession. If my neighbour goes to my cooperative to complain about my behaviour, I will defend myself by pointing out that the only purpose of a handgun is to murder people. In all likelihood, neither my nor his cooperative will have any objection to my behaviour. It may even inspire other to act likewise. Supposing that my cooperative had a problem then I might simply move to another, saner, cooperative. The same thing would occur on the level of cooperatives in the broader society. And it is extremely likely that the medical coops (which I presume are against guns) would triumph over gun coops, since the former provide a valued service to society while the latter do not.
> 
> Under anarcho-syndicalism, the situation is very different. If I stole a gun and destroyed a gun from someone then I would face some hostile protection agency. Since this agency uses guns, they are unlikely to be sympathetic to my case. And since police are authoritarian in nature and mindset then they would not be sympathetic to an anarchist who "took the law into his own hands". Even if this were not the case, even if they approve of my behaviour, they would still be obligated to retaliate against me. This is why anarcho-syndicalism justice is bureaucratic in nature. The difference between a protection agency performing a service for a client and a cooperative helping out a peer is also important and illustrates why anarcho-capitalism is fundamentally authoritarian.
> 
> I hope the above isn't too polemic. If it did then I did not mean it to. This is simply the only way I know of to express my point of view. -- RichardKulisz
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982308179
9c9,11
< A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply
---
> A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply that the similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial.  The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation.  Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations.  If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another.  As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility".  Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about.  In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
> 
> Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing but does not logically or practically entail it (nor something like it).  The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving.  There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members.  Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution.  And even if Mondragon does fail, it's significant that it took more than three decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
17c19
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982308258
1,11c1
< Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
< ----
< I wrote:
< :A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE?. Anarchists reply 
< I was hoping someone would supply the reply.  I don't actually know that the objection is common, but it seems simple and obvious to me, and I infer that it must be common.  Therefore, I also infer that there are some ordinary ways of replying.  :-) -- LarrySanger
< 
< The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation. Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations. The similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial. If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another. As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility". Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about. In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
< 
< Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing. The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving. There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members. Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution. And even if Mondragon does fail, it's important to note that it took more than 3 decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
< ----
< Richard, I note that you wrote something on this page.  I didn't read what you wrote.  Please fill in the blank, or otherwise alter the article itself.  If you don't, I'm simply going to ignore you.  I'm not really interested in engaging you in political discussions, even though I fully admit that that might be interesting and educational. -- LarrySanger
---
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
------
DemocracY/Talk|982309823
1,3c1
< Someone (Tim?) wrote:
<  - Sounds just like me, doesn't it?  Tim
<  - I guess so...?  :-)  OK, so the logs prove definitively, it was you.
---
> Richard wrote:
6c4,8
< Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
---
> Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
> 
> How about:
> 
> A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election in June 1997, newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. The same thing occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) in Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a known concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. Similarly, the UnitedStates was founded as a Republic based on the sentiment popular among its land-owning class (of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives) that "the people who own the country should govern it".
------
DemocracY/Talk|982310161
8c8
< A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election in June 1997, newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. The same thing occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) in Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a known concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. Similarly, the UnitedStates was founded as a Republic based on the sentiment popular among its land-owning class (of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives) that "the people who own the country should govern it".
---
> A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election of June 1997, North American newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. This error on the part of the public occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) by the impoverished people of Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a former concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. Similarly, the UnitedStates was founded as a Republic based on the sentiment popular among its land-owning class, of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives, that "the people who own the country should govern it".
------
DemocracY|982312346
4a5,10
> A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election of June 1997, North American newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. This error on the part of the public occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) by the impoverished people of Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a former concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. And yet again, the Bolshevik's realized that when the soviets ceased supporting the Central Committee's actions then this error of democracy needed to be remedied by the suspension of free elections in the soviets and eventually the suspension of the soviets themselves. Critics of this policy were sent to the gulag.
> 
> The early Americans understood these failures of democracy and wishing to avoid them founded the UnitedStates as a Republic. The popular sentiment among the land-owning class of the time, of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives, was that "the people who own the country should govern it".
> 
> Certain failures of democracy such as racism are not of any interest to the legislators. One of the achievements of the Soviet Union was a total suppression of ethnic tensions. With the decline of Soviet power, the Balkans are back to precisely the situation they were in before the October Revolution. The ethnic tensions in the former Yugoslavia were entirely predictable.
> 
7c13
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
DemocracY/Talk|982312393
1,8c1
< Richard wrote:
< 
< :DemagoguerY is identical to PopulisM according to those in power. This is why businesspeople frequently condemn democracy wherever it gives the "wrong" socialist result. One can define DemagoguerY as appealing to the base instincts of the masses, and PopulisM as appealing to the enlightened interests of the masses.
< Sorry for deleting this, but I don't even understand it.  Who are "those in power"?  Is something bad being said about Demagoguery, Populism, or those in power?  What "socialist results" are referred to?  Basically, this needs to be completely rewritten so that it is absolutely clear what the point is.  Can you restate this so that it is fact-stating--so that no one would disagree with it?  Perhaps it will take something to the effect that "a cynic would point out that..." and "demagoguery and populism are, according to some cynics, two sides of the same coin.  Here's what that means, exactly..."
< 
< How about:
< 
< A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election of June 1997, North American newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. This error on the part of the public occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) by the impoverished people of Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a former concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. Similarly, the UnitedStates was founded as a Republic based on the sentiment popular among its land-owning class, of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives, that "the people who own the country should govern it".
---
> 
------
CombinaTorics|982337288
3c3
< It may seem surprising that the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards is  8.065817517094e+67. That is a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros. Comparing that number to some other large numbers, it is greater than the square of [http://gemini.tntech.edu/~tfurtsch/scihist/avogadro.htm Avogadro's number], 6.022e+23, "the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in a gram mole".
---
> It may seem surprising that the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards is  8.065817517094e+67. That is a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros. Comparing that number to some other large numbers, it is greater than the '''square''' of [http://gemini.tntech.edu/~tfurtsch/scihist/avogadro.htm Avogadro's number], 6.022e+23, "the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in a gram mole".
------
CombinaTorics|982337336
5c5
< That large number is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
---
> That large number, 52 factorial, is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982337457
4c4
< 1) Let '''U''' be a set of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called ''elementary events''.
---
> 1) Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called ''elementary events''.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982337791
4c4,6
< 1) Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called ''elementary events''.
---
> (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
> 
> 1) Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or '''sample space'''.
8c10
< 3) Let ''composite events'', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
---
> 3) Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
10c12
< 4) Define the ''probability'' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
---
> 4) Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|982342022
77a78,80
> 
> <hr>
> : ImpreciseLanguage
------
DemocracY|982346844
3c3
< The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the UnitedStates was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."
---
> The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the UnitedStates was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."  A cynic would point out that DemagoguerY and PopulisM are two sides of the same coin.  Demagogues appeal to people's baser instincts; populists allegedly appeal to their enlightened interests.
5,11c5
< A cynic would point out that demagoguery and populism are two sides of the same coin. Demagoguery appeals to people's baser instincts while populism appeals to their enlightened interests. Too often, the flaws of democracy are brought up by people whose interests run counter to the public's. For example, following the victory of the Socialist Party in the French election of June 1997, North American newspaper editors explained that the problem with democracy is that it can give the "wrong" answer. This error on the part of the public occured upon the election of Salvatore Allende (a Marxist) by the impoverished people of Chile. This tragic failure of democracy prompted the UnitedStates' government to "liberate" the people of Chile by giving Generalissimo Augusto Pinochet (a former concentration camp commander) the resources to execute a coup d'etat and impose a brutal military junta on the population. And yet again, the Bolshevik's realized that when the soviets ceased supporting the Central Committee's actions then this error of democracy needed to be remedied by the suspension of free elections in the soviets and eventually the suspension of the soviets themselves. Critics of this policy were sent to the gulag.
< 
< The early Americans understood these failures of democracy and wishing to avoid them founded the UnitedStates as a Republic. The popular sentiment among the land-owning class of the time, of whom the Founding Fathers were representatives, was that "the people who own the country should govern it".
< 
< Certain failures of democracy such as racism are not of any interest to the legislators. One of the achievements of the Soviet Union was a total suppression of ethnic tensions. With the decline of Soviet power, the Balkans are back to precisely the situation they were in before the October Revolution. The ethnic tensions in the former Yugoslavia were entirely predictable.
< 
< See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; ThePeople.
---
> See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; PopulisM; ThePeople.
------
DemocracY|982346900
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982347714
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> =Philosophical Motivation=
> 
> The Sorit&euml;s is a form of argument in which the concept of consensus can dispose of a long standing confusion.
> 
> ==Sorit&euml;s==
> 
> The standard form of this disturbing argument goes something like this.
> 
> :1) A million grains of sand makes a heap.
> 
> :2) Removing a single grain of sand from a heap doesn't destroy the heap.
> 
> :3) A single grain of sand makes a heap.</LI>
> 
> :Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorit&euml;s argument in my opinion).
> 
> :My attempt to clarify matters goes as follows:
> 
> :Many of the examples of this argument use words which refer to members of a vaguely defined set with an underlying quantitative scale which can be used to make precise analogs. For example, We could define a &quot;p-heap&quot; which has at least p grains of sand. We would then have a precise analog for which the Sorit&euml;s argument would clearly fail because statement
> 2) above could not be applied to all p-heaps. There would be a least p-heap to which the item could be applied.
> 
> :Consider the &quot;height&quot; form of the argument.
> 
> :4) A man whose height is seven feet is tall. 
> 
> :5) Reducing the height of a tall man by one inch leaves him still tall.
> 
> :6) A man whose height is four feet is tall.
> 
> :And consider this
> 
> :7) A man whose height is seven feet is considered tall by everyone. 
> 
> :8) Reducing the height of a man considered tall by consensus may change the consensus or not. If the reduction is small, then the consensus may only change slightly.. 
> 
> :9) A man whose height is four feet is considered tall by very few people.
> 
> :I believe that the usefulness of language is the consensus we share on the definitions of terms. Precise terms have a mechanism by which we can persuade someone that a specific application of the term is valid. Vague terms have no such mechanism. If a person insists on calling a seven foot man short, we might suspect that he is using NBA centers as his reference set, but we would hardly accuse him of a logic error. Vague terms are useful
> to the extent that we have consensus. When we use them out of context, we confuse each other.
> 
> :The Sorit&euml;s merely illustrates that the growth and destruction of consensus is a required element in the logical analysis of how we use vague language. It is a fallacy to treat a vague term as if everyone agreed with its definition. We may agree in its application to some but not all members of the universe of discourse.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982347791
1c1
< =Philosophical Motivation=
---
> '=Philosophical Motivation='
5c5
< ==Sorit&euml;s==
---
> '==Sorites=='
13c13
< :3) A single grain of sand makes a heap.</LI>
---
> :3) A single grain of sand makes a heap.
41c41
< :The Sorit&euml;s merely illustrates that the growth and destruction of consensus is a required element in the logical analysis of how we use vague language. It is a fallacy to treat a vague term as if everyone agreed with its definition. We may agree in its application to some but not all members of the universe of discourse.
---
> :The Sorites merely illustrates that the growth and destruction of consensus is a required element in the logical analysis of how we use vague language. It is a fallacy to treat a vague term as if everyone agreed with its definition. We may agree in its application to some but not all members of the universe of discourse.
43c43
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982347880
3c3
< ''Anarchism,'' in its socialist variety (see AnarchisM), is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.
---
> ''Anarchism,'' in its traditional, socialist variety (see AnarchisM), is a movement dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.  In this article "anarchism" and "anarchist" will refer to this traditional, socialist variety, as distinguished from AnarchoCapitalism.
9c9
< A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply that the similarity between the power hierarchies of corporations and the layered division of labour in cooperatives is superficial.  The State is what you get under private property, in the modern corporation.  Cooperatives, credit unions and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of cummunal control and they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations.  If you compare both organizations using the items on the Psychopathy Checklist as a guide then it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while the corporation can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another.  As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility".  Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about.  In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
---
> A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply that there is only a superficial similarity between the power hierarchies of and supporting corporations, on the one hand, and the layered division of labour in cooperatives, on the other.  The State is created when private property is legitimized.  By contrast, cooperatives, credit unions, and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of communal control and anarchists maintain that they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations.  If one compares both organizations using the items on the PsychopathyChecklist as a guide then, an anarchist might hold, it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while corporations can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another.  As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility".  Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about.  In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
11c11
< Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing but does not logically or practically entail it (nor something like it).  The Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving.  There was a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members.  Anarchists don't claim that people will be able to slack off after the revolution.  And even if Mondragon does fail, it's significant that it took more than three decades for it to do so. Three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.
---
> Communal control is subject to the ''danger'' of a state developing, anarchists hold, but does not logically or practically entail it (nor something like it).  For example--one might argue--the Mondragon system of cooperatives in Spain is slowly devolving.  There was, one might say, a crucial flaw in the charter of the Caja Laboral Popular; it has the capability and incentive to accumulate vast cash reserves to the point where it can (almost) act independently of its members.  Anarchists claim that people cannot slack off after "the revolution" (i.e., after a revolution that abolishes the corporation-supporting state in favor of collectives).  Even if Mondragon does fail, an anarchist might hold it is significant that it took more than three decades for it to do so: it provided three decades in which the inhabitants of the region enjoyed one of the highest standards of living available.  (We need a citation for this dramatic claim.)
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982348197
9c9
< :1) A million grains of sand makes a heap.
---
> #A million grains of sand makes a heap.
11c11
< :2) Removing a single grain of sand from a heap doesn't destroy the heap.
---
> #Removing a single grain of sand from a heap doesn't destroy the heap.
13,15c13,15
< :3) A single grain of sand makes a heap.
< 
< :Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorit&euml;s argument in my opinion).
---
> #A single grain of sand makes a heap.
> ----
> :Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
22c22
< :Consider the &quot;height&quot; form of the argument.
---
> :Consider the ''height'' form of the argument.
24c24
< :4) A man whose height is seven feet is tall. 
---
> #A man whose height is seven feet is tall. 
26c26
< :5) Reducing the height of a tall man by one inch leaves him still tall.
---
> #Reducing the height of a tall man by one inch leaves him still tall.
28c28
< :6) A man whose height is four feet is tall.
---
> #A man whose height is four feet is tall.
32,34c32
< :7) A man whose height is seven feet is considered tall by everyone. 
< 
< :8) Reducing the height of a man considered tall by consensus may change the consensus or not. If the reduction is small, then the consensus may only change slightly.. 
---
> #A man whose height is seven feet is considered tall by everyone. 
36c34
< :9) A man whose height is four feet is considered tall by very few people.
---
> #Reducing the height of a man considered tall by consensus may change the consensus or not. If the reduction is small, then the consensus may only change slightly.. 
37a36,37
> #A man whose height is four feet is considered tall by very few people.
> ----
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982348335
10d9
< 
12d10
< 
15c13
< :Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
---
> Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
17c15
< :My attempt to clarify matters goes as follows:
---
> My attempt to clarify matters goes as follows:
19,20c17
< :Many of the examples of this argument use words which refer to members of a vaguely defined set with an underlying quantitative scale which can be used to make precise analogs. For example, We could define a &quot;p-heap&quot; which has at least p grains of sand. We would then have a precise analog for which the Sorit&euml;s argument would clearly fail because statement
< 2) above could not be applied to all p-heaps. There would be a least p-heap to which the item could be applied.
---
> Many of the examples of this argument use words which refer to members of a vaguely defined set with an underlying quantitative scale which can be used to make precise analogs. For example, We could define a ''p-heap'' which has at least p grains of sand. We would then have a precise analog for which the Sorites argument would clearly fail because statement 2) above could not be applied to all p-heaps. There would be a least p-heap to which the item could be applied.
22c19
< :Consider the ''height'' form of the argument.
---
> Consider the ''height'' form of the argument.
25d21
< 
27d22
< 
30c25
< :And consider this
---
> And consider this
33,35c28
< 
< #Reducing the height of a man considered tall by consensus may change the consensus or not. If the reduction is small, then the consensus may only change slightly.. 
< 
---
> #Reducing the height of a man considered tall by consensus may change the consensus or not. If the reduction is small, then the consensus may only change slightly.
38c31
< :I believe that the usefulness of language is the consensus we share on the definitions of terms. Precise terms have a mechanism by which we can persuade someone that a specific application of the term is valid. Vague terms have no such mechanism. If a person insists on calling a seven foot man short, we might suspect that he is using NBA centers as his reference set, but we would hardly accuse him of a logic error. Vague terms are useful
---
> I believe that the usefulness of language is the consensus we share on the definitions of terms. Precise terms have a mechanism by which we can persuade someone that a specific application of the term is valid. Vague terms have no such mechanism. If a person insists on calling a seven foot man short, we might suspect that he is using NBA centers as his reference set, but we would hardly accuse him of a logic error. Vague terms are useful
41c34
< :The Sorites merely illustrates that the growth and destruction of consensus is a required element in the logical analysis of how we use vague language. It is a fallacy to treat a vague term as if everyone agreed with its definition. We may agree in its application to some but not all members of the universe of discourse.
---
> The Sorites merely illustrates that the growth and destruction of consensus is a required element in the logical analysis of how we use vague language. It is a fallacy to treat a vague term as if everyone agreed with its definition. We may agree in its application to some but not all members of the universe of discourse.
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|982348440
79,80c79,80
< <hr>
< : ImpreciseLanguage
---
> ----
> : ImpreciseLanguage
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982348710
1c1
< '=Philosophical Motivation='
---
> :LoGic -- MeaningAndDefinitions
3c3,5
< The Sorit&euml;s is a form of argument in which the concept of consensus can dispose of a long standing confusion.
---
> Ordinary folk need imprecise language much more than the precise language used by philosophers and scientists. The following is an article which bears on this as it reflects on the Sorites argument. It leans heavily on what I learned from Max Black's '''Margins of Precision'''.
> ---
> The Sorites is a form of argument in which the concept of consensus can dispose of a long standing confusion.
5d6
< '==Sorites=='
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982348772
14c14
< Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
---
> Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I) have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982348977
3c3
< Ordinary folk need imprecise language much more than the precise language used by philosophers and scientists. The following is an article which bears on this as it reflects on the Sorites argument. It leans heavily on what I learned from Max Black's '''Margins of Precision'''.
---
> Ordinary folk need imprecise language much more than the precise language used by philosophers and scientists. The following is an article which bears on this as it reflects on the Sorites argument. It leans heavily on what I learned from [http://www.jneedle.demon.co.uk/vague/bib-b.htm Max Black]'s '''Margins of Precision'''.
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982349021
4c4
< ---
---
> ----
------
ImpreciseLanguage|982349156
14c14
< Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I) have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like Bertrand Russell, simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
---
> Many philosophers and logicians (better prepared than I) have confronted this argument and registered their analysis. Some, like [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ Bertrand Russell], simply deny that logic works with vague concepts. Others go so far as destruction of all arguments of this form, including mathematical induction (which is not really a Sorites argument in my opinion).
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|982352086
3c3
< Now we’re going to switch gears rather abruptly and look at the two closely related topics of <i>meaning</i> and <i>definitions</i>.  I especially want us to consider definitions in their philosophical context, because philosophers are constantly asking for definitions, or accounts, or analyses -- at this point it matters little what to call them -- of various philosophical concepts such as existence, causality, meaning, knowledge, goodness, justice, beauty, art, and so on.  In fact, you might regard it as the <i>essential</i> task of philosophy, to clarify the most pervasive concepts descriptive of the universe and human life.
---
> Now we're going to switch gears rather abruptly and look at the two closely related topics of <i>meaning</i> and <i>definitions</i>.  I especially want us to consider definitions in their philosophical context, because philosophers are constantly asking for definitions, or accounts, or analyses -- at this point it matters little what to call them -- of various philosophical concepts such as existence, causality, meaning, knowledge, goodness, justice, beauty, art, and so on.  In fact, you might regard it as the <i>essential</i> task of philosophy, to clarify the most pervasive concepts descriptive of the universe and human life.
7c7
< Let’s begin by drawing a distinction, between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a distinction you might already be familiar with -- between a word’s <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.  But for clarity let’s stick with "extension" and "intension."
---
> Let?s begin by drawing a distinction, between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a distinction you might already be familiar with -- between a word?s <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.  But for clarity let?s stick with "extension" and "intension."
9c9
< The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger’s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let’s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger’s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn’t include his thumbs, we’ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."
---
> The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger?s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let?s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger?s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn?t include his thumbs, we?ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
11c11
< You can think of a word’s, or a phrase’s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word’s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it’s not too difficult of a concept.  Here’s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger’s fingers."
---
> You can think of a word?s, or a phrase?s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word?s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it?s not too difficult of a concept.  Here?s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
13c13
< I’m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word’s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn’t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
---
> I?m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word?s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn?t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
15c15
< All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we’re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we’re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
---
> All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
19c19
< So let’s begin with ambiguity.  One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  We’ve just encountered some great examples of an ambigious words, the word "meaning" itself can mean "extension" or "intension."  The word "unclear" can mean "ambiguous" or "vague."  But let’s get a more ordinary example of an ambiguous word.  Try this for size.  "Bank": as a noun, this can mean either a financial institution where you put your money, or the edge of a river where you might go fishing; and it can mean other things still when used as a verb.  Now, the different meanings that a word can have are its <i>senses</i>.  So "financial institution" is one of the <i>senses</i> of the word "bank," and "edge of the river" is another <i>sense</i>.  So you can see that if a word is ambiguous, then it has more than one sense.  Sometimes there are some rather fine distinctions that can be drawn between different senses of the same word.  For example, take the word "good"; this can mean "useful," as in "That’s a good hammer," or "exemplary," as in "She is a good student," or "moral," as in "They are good people."  No doubt "good" has other senses as well.
---
> So let?s begin with ambiguity.  One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  We?ve just encountered some great examples of an ambigious words, the word "meaning" itself can mean "extension" or "intension."  The word "unclear" can mean "ambiguous" or "vague."  But let?s get a more ordinary example of an ambiguous word.  Try this for size.  "Bank": as a noun, this can mean either a financial institution where you put your money, or the edge of a river where you might go fishing; and it can mean other things still when used as a verb.  Now, the different meanings that a word can have are its <i>senses</i>.  So "financial institution" is one of the <i>senses</i> of the word "bank," and "edge of the river" is another <i>sense</i>.  So you can see that if a word is ambiguous, then it has more than one sense.  Sometimes there are some rather fine distinctions that can be drawn between different senses of the same word.  For example, take the word "good"; this can mean "useful," as in "That?s a good hammer," or "exemplary," as in "She is a good student," or "moral," as in "They are good people."  No doubt "good" has other senses as well.
21c21
< Now, in philosophy, it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, I might ask, "What does ‘good’ mean?" but I can’t even begin to answer until I have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of "good" I mean.  So discussions of philosophical concepts, especially in the past eighty years or so, have often begun by talking about the different senses in which a word may be used.
---
> Now, in philosophy, it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, I might ask, "What does ?good? mean?" but I can?t even begin to answer until I have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of "good" I mean.  So discussions of philosophical concepts, especially in the past eighty years or so, have often begun by talking about the different senses in which a word may be used.
23c23
< So much, then, for ambiguity.  That’s one way in which meanings can be unclear.  There is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  Here the stock example is "bald."  Some men are definitely bald, and there’s no debating the matter; for example, Patrick Stewart (Captain Picard of <i>Star</i> <i>Trek</i>: <i>The</i> <i>Next</i> <i>Generation</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, President Clinton.  And then there are a bunch of men, you know, the sort of men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we don’t know whether to say they’re bald or not.  There just isn’t any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.  Another good example of a vague concept is the concept of a <i>heap</i> -- two or three grains of sand is not a heap, but a thousand is.  So how many grains of sand does it take to make a heap?  There isn’t any clear line.
---
> So much, then, for ambiguity.  That?s one way in which meanings can be unclear.  There is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  Here the stock example is "bald."  Some men are definitely bald, and there?s no debating the matter; for example, Patrick Stewart (Captain Picard of <i>Star</i> <i>Trek</i>: <i>The</i> <i>Next</i> <i>Generation</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, President Clinton.  And then there are a bunch of men, you know, the sort of men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we don?t know whether to say they?re bald or not.  There just isn?t any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.  Another good example of a vague concept is the concept of a <i>heap</i> -- two or three grains of sand is not a heap, but a thousand is.  So how many grains of sand does it take to make a heap?  There isn?t any clear line.
25c25
< Now, when you look at a man with thinning hair, or a small pile of sand, and you don’t know whether to call the man "bald," or the sand a "heap," then you have found a <i>borderline</i> <i>case</i>.  So we can make a general principle, which in fact might work as a definition of the word "vague."  Here it is: to say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.  Consider those animals in Alaska that are the result of breeding Huskies and wolves: are they dogs, or aren’t they?  It’s not clear: so we can say that they are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of dogs.  This isn’t to say they <i>are</i> dogs, and it’s not to say that they <i>aren’t</i> dogs.  It’s to say that our concept of doghood isn’t clear enough to let us rule conclusively in this case.
---
> Now, when you look at a man with thinning hair, or a small pile of sand, and you don?t know whether to call the man "bald," or the sand a "heap," then you have found a <i>borderline</i> <i>case</i>.  So we can make a general principle, which in fact might work as a definition of the word "vague."  Here it is: to say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.  Consider those animals in Alaska that are the result of breeding Huskies and wolves: are they dogs, or aren?t they?  It?s not clear: so we can say that they are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of dogs.  This isn?t to say they <i>are</i> dogs, and it?s not to say that they <i>aren?t</i> dogs.  It?s to say that our concept of doghood isn?t clear enough to let us rule conclusively in this case.
27c27
< It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of "right" in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right, and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that aren’t clearly right and aren’t clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear, on just those cases that are borderline cases.   Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow.  Well, having mentioned that issue, I’m just going to sidestep it.  You should just be aware that some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
---
> It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of "right" in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right, and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that aren?t clearly right and aren?t clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear, on just those cases that are borderline cases.   Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow.  Well, having mentioned that issue, I?m just going to sidestep it.  You should just be aware that some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
29c29
< Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn’t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
---
> Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn?t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
31c31
< Now let’s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we’re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don’t we just define "definition" that way? --
---
> Now let?s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we?re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don?t we just define "definition" that way? --
35c35
< Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don’t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
---
> Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
41c41
< Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon’s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth’s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you’re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
---
> Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon?s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth?s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you?re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
45c45
< Well, here’s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
---
> Well, here?s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
51c51
< This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don’t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it’s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don’t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
---
> This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don?t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it?s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don?t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
53c53
< So if we’re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I’ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I’m sure it isn’t.  But it’s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
---
> So if we?re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I?ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I?m sure it isn?t.  But it?s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
57c57
< So when we say there’s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it’s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
---
> So when we say there?s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it?s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
59c59
< This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we’re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
---
> This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we?re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
63c63
< First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn’t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don’t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ‘excellence’ mean?"  Surely, if you’ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you’ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you’re confused about one then you’re confused about the other; so it won’t do to define one simply by stating the other!
---
> First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn?t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don?t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ?excellence? mean?"  Surely, if you?ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you?ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you?re confused about one then you?re confused about the other; so it won?t do to define one simply by stating the other!
65c65
< The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I’m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here’s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won’t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we’re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what’s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
---
> The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I?m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here?s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won?t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we?re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what?s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
67c67
< There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we’re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
---
> There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we?re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
69c69
< Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren’t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
---
> Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren?t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
71c71
< The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don’t describe some members of the word’s extension.  Here’s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
---
> The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don?t describe some members of the word?s extension.  Here?s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
73c73
< Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren’t <i>causal</i> relations.
---
> Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren?t <i>causal</i> relations.
75c75
< Now here’s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don’t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
---
> Now here?s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don?t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
77c77
< That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I’m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you’re giving the definition.
---
> That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
------
TraditionalAnarchism|982352363
9c9,10
< A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply that there is only a superficial similarity between the power hierarchies of and supporting corporations, on the one hand, and the layered division of labour in cooperatives, on the other.  The State is created when private property is legitimized.  By contrast, cooperatives, credit unions, and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of communal control and anarchists maintain that they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations.  If one compares both organizations using the items on the PsychopathyChecklist as a guide then, an anarchist might hold, it becomes clear that cooperatives act like normal humans, humane, warm, feeling and stable while corporations can only be described as a psychopathic entity that cold-bloodedly uses workers for its own ends and acts on one impulse after another.  As an example, one of the items on the PCL-R is "criminal versatility".  Corporations have it, Microsoft demonstrates it when it buys companies expert in areas MS knows nothing about.  In contrast, cooperatives cannot do this because it would violate their charters.
---
> A simple and common objection to anarchism is that any notion of communal control implies something akin to a StatE.  Anarchists reply that there is only a superficial similarity between the power hierarchies of and supporting corporations, on the one hand, and the layered division of labour in cooperatives, on the other.  The State is created when private property is legitimized.  By contrast, cooperatives, credit unions, and mutual aid societies are the principal instances of communal control and anarchists maintain that they do not involve the kind of authoritarianism found in corporations.  Anarchists argue
> that co-operatives behave in a more humane, warm, feeling and stable manner, while corporations use workers for their own ends.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982352540
1c1,8
< Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Traditional anarchism is a poor choice of words since anarchists usually find themselves working against tradition. One might be forced to say that "traditional anarchism eschews tradition, including its own" .... Unreformed anarchism would be better since anarchists reject the notion of political reform. It would also be funny though I find I cannot explain the humour in it. Probably just the meta-syntactic thing. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> I made some more edits, and totally omitted the stuff equating 
> "criminal versatility" with corporate mergers.  That's just too propagandistic to stand.
> 
> I'm tempted to edit even more, because I feel that Richard has violated etiquette here.  I've gone to the mat trying to help remove what Richard perceived as bias from Tim's description of anarchy, and I'm repaid with propaganda?  I figure I'm too annoyed right now to make all the changes that this article now needs.
> 
>  -- JimboWales
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Questions|982353384
18c18,22
< Then he is not an AnarchoCapitalist. AnarchoCapitalism is based on formal rules and absolute property rights. Humans are treated as objects and the "marketplace" rules supreme. Anarchism is not based on formal rules but on democratic control. It is not possible under anarchism for a person to surrender, transfer or sell their rights. If working in a cooperative gains you the right to participate politically (eg, by voting) then this right is inalienable (ie, non-transferable). Under anarcho-capitalism, everything is mere property and not a right at all so it is possible for you to (be forced to) sell all of your property away (eg, in order to avoid starvation). This leads only to totalitarianism.
---
> Then he is not an AnarchoCapitalist. 
> 
> ''As far as I know, he is '''the''' AnarchoCapitalist.''
> 
> AnarchoCapitalism is based on formal rules and absolute property rights. Humans are treated as objects and the "marketplace" rules supreme. Anarchism is not based on formal rules but on democratic control. It is not possible under anarchism for a person to surrender, transfer or sell their rights. If working in a cooperative gains you the right to participate politically (eg, by voting) then this right is inalienable (ie, non-transferable). Under anarcho-capitalism, everything is mere property and not a right at all so it is possible for you to (be forced to) sell all of your property away (eg, in order to avoid starvation). This leads only to totalitarianism.
38a43,44
> 
> You have expressed yourself very well.  I've just decided that you don't know anything at all about AnarchoCapitalism.  :-)
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982355229
8c8,12
<  -- JimboWales
---
>  -- JimboWales
> 
> This convenient definition of propaganda as "an argument or viewpoint I strongly disagree with that may be widely convincing to others" destroys the value of the wikipedia. Is the purpose of an encyclopedia to establish facts or is it to promulgate some dominant point of view? Because if your objection is based on what I said being controversial instead of inaccurate (which it is not) then you've decided it's the latter. Tell me if you change your mind but under the present circumstances I don't see the point to contributing.
> 
> Tim was spreading outright lies on a topic he knows very little or nothing about; the situations are not comparable. The same applies to TraditionalAnarchism where I introduced facts that become obvious to most people once they are pointed out and also to DemocracY where I pointed out the actions of the typical anti-democrat. (Yes, authoritarians have valid arguments with respect to racism and whatnot but since they never raise these issues, one cannot credit them with selfless motives.) Finally, Tim suppressed alternative points of view while I did not. Unless you believe the views of anarchists to be outright lies then I don't see what rational basis there can be to suppress them on a page whose express purpose is explaining the views, beliefs and actions of anarchists. -- RichardKulisz
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982358074
10c10
< This convenient definition of propaganda as "an argument or viewpoint I strongly disagree with that may be widely convincing to others" destroys the value of the wikipedia. Is the purpose of an encyclopedia to establish facts or is it to promulgate some dominant point of view? Because if your objection is based on what I said being controversial instead of inaccurate (which it is not) then you've decided it's the latter. Tell me if you change your mind but under the present circumstances I don't see the point to contributing.
---
> This convenient definition of propaganda as "an argument or viewpoint I strongly disagree with that may be widely convincing to others" destroys the value of the wikipedia.
12c12,28
< Tim was spreading outright lies on a topic he knows very little or nothing about; the situations are not comparable. The same applies to TraditionalAnarchism where I introduced facts that become obvious to most people once they are pointed out and also to DemocracY where I pointed out the actions of the typical anti-democrat. (Yes, authoritarians have valid arguments with respect to racism and whatnot but since they never raise these issues, one cannot credit them with selfless motives.) Finally, Tim suppressed alternative points of view while I did not. Unless you believe the views of anarchists to be outright lies then I don't see what rational basis there can be to suppress them on a page whose express purpose is explaining the views, beliefs and actions of anarchists. -- RichardKulisz
---
> ''It would be, if that were my definition; however it is not.  In this context, I mean obviously inflammatory statements designed to prejudice the reader without rational merit.''
> 
> Is the purpose of an encyclopedia to establish facts or is it to promulgate some dominant point of view? 
> 
> ''To present facts.  We can present facts _about_ bizarre points of view such as yours, but we must not present your bizarre point of view _as fact_.  I'm sure you can see the difference.''
> 
> Because if your objection is based on what I said being controversial instead of inaccurate (which it is not) then you've decided it's the latter.
> 
> ''My objection is '''precisely''' that what you wrote is inaccurate.  I am willing to go further than inaccurate and say it was nonsense.''
> 
> Unless you believe the views of anarchists to be outright lies then I don't see what rational basis there can be to suppress them on a page whose express purpose is explaining the views, beliefs and actions of anarchists. 
> 
> ''Even if the views of anarchists are outright lies, that is no reason to suppress an encyclopedic discussion of those views.  It is a good reason to omit inflammatory falsehoods that fail to shed light on anything.''
> 
> ''If you want to write 'Anarchists believe that corporate mergers are an instance of criminal flexibility', I will have no complaint about that.  But I will add a paragraph pointing out why many other people will disagree.''
> 
> ''Please understand why I am upset.  I helped you make changes to things that you disagreed with, in an effort to achieve consensus.  I thought, and argued on your behalf, that you only wanted to present certain ideas fairly and in a neutral manner.  But I now believe that you only want to put forward your own political agenda.''
------
BallroomDance|982358222
13,17c13,17
< * Waltz
< * Viennese Waltz
< * Tango
< * Foxtrot
< * Quickstep
---
> * InternationalWaltz
> * InternationalVienneseWaltz
> * InternationalTango
> * InternationalFoxtrot
> * InternationalQuickstep
------
BallroomDance|982358280
13c13
< * InternationalWaltz
---
> * WaltZ
------
NeutralPointOfView|982358834
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A general purpose encyclopedia is a collection of synthesized knowledge presented from a neutral point of view.  To whatever extent possible, encyclopedic writing should steer clear of taking any particular stance '''other than''' the stance of the neutral point of view.
> 
> The neutral point of view attempts to present ideas and facts in such a fashion that both supporters and opponents can agree.  Of course, 100% agreement is not possible; there are ideologues in the world who will not concede to any presentation other than a forceful statement of their own point of view.  We can only seek a type of writing that is agreeable to essentially rational people who may differ on particular points.
> 
> Some examples may help to drive home the point I am trying to make.  
> 
> 1.  An encyclopedic article should not argue that corporations are criminals, even if the author believes it to be so.  It should instead present the fact that _some people_ believe it, and what their reasons are, and then as well it should present what the other side says.
> 
> 2.  An encyclopedia article should not argue that laissez-faire capitalism is the best social system.  (I happen to believe this, by the way.)  It should instead present the arguments of the advocates of that point of view, and the arguments of the people who disagree with that point of view.
> 
> Perhaps the easiest way to make your writing more encyclopedic, is to write about _what people believe_, rather than _what is so_.  If this strikes you as somehow subjectivist or collectivist or imperialist, then ask me about it, because I think that you are just mistaken.  What people believe is a matter of objective fact, and we can present _that_ quite easily from the neutral point of view.
------
NeutralPointOfView|982358895
1d0
< 
12c11
< Perhaps the easiest way to make your writing more encyclopedic, is to write about _what people believe_, rather than _what is so_.  If this strikes you as somehow subjectivist or collectivist or imperialist, then ask me about it, because I think that you are just mistaken.  What people believe is a matter of objective fact, and we can present _that_ quite easily from the neutral point of view.
---
> Perhaps the easiest way to make your writing more encyclopedic, is to write about _what people believe_, rather than _what is so_.  If this strikes you as somehow subjectivist or collectivist or imperialist, then ask me about it, because I think that you are just mistaken.  What people believe is a matter of objective fact, and we can present _that_ quite easily from the neutral point of view.  --JimboWales
------
WaltZ|982359098
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Waltz is danced to music with three beats to a measure.  VienneseWaltz is very similar to normal Waltz, but is specialized for a fast tempo.
> 
> InternationalStandardWaltz has only closed figures; that is, the
> couple never leaves DancePosition.  Contrast AmericanStyleWaltz,
> in which some figures involve breaking contact entirely.  For example,
> the (? what's this figure called?) includes a free spin for both the
> man and lady.  Open rolls are another good example of an OpenDanceFigure, in which the lady alternates between the man's left and right sides, with the man's left or right arm (alone) providing the lead.
> 
> A typical Waltz figure (from the man's perspective) starts lowered into the knees and travelling forward with a strong heel lead.  Count 2 rises and is taken on the ball of the foot, and count 3 starts on the ball of the foot and lowers to the heel as the couple begins to lower in preparation for the next measure.  A smooth rise-and-fall action is a primary characteristic of this dance.
> 
> 
------
DemocracY|982359214
4a5,6
> At least some arguments against democracy amount more to a complaint that the outcome of democracy is different from what the critic desired.  Support for democracy may, then, sometimes not be support for the principle or theory of democracy, but rahther a hopeful confidence that democracy will yield the kind of society that the supporter hopes for on independent grounds.
> 
7c9
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
DemocracY|982359251
5c5
< At least some arguments against democracy amount more to a complaint that the outcome of democracy is different from what the critic desired.  Support for democracy may, then, sometimes not be support for the principle or theory of democracy, but rahther a hopeful confidence that democracy will yield the kind of society that the supporter hopes for on independent grounds.
---
> At least some arguments against democracy amount more to a complaint that the outcome of democracy is different from what the critic desired.  Support for democracy may, then, sometimes not be support for the principle or theory of democracy, but rather a hopeful confidence that democracy will yield the kind of society that the supporter hopes for on independent grounds.
------
NeutralPointOfView|982359510
11a12,13
> ----
> Of course, I agree.  For more in the same vein, see [http://www.nupedia.com/policy.shtml#III Nupedia's policy statement], Part III, Section D ("Lack of Bias"). -- LarrySanger
------
RulesToConsider|982359604
25c25
< '''Avoid bias:''' Since this is an encyclopedia, after a fashion, it would be best if you represented your controversial views either (1) not at all, (2) on *Debate, *Talk, or *Discussion pages linked from the bottom of the page that you're tempted to grace, or (3) represented in a fact-stating fashion, i.e., which attributes a particular opinion to a particular person or group, rather than asserting the opinion as fact.  (3) is strongly preferred.
---
> '''Avoid bias:''' Since this is an encyclopedia, after a fashion, it would be best if you represented your controversial views either (1) not at all, (2) on *Debate, *Talk, or *Discussion pages linked from the bottom of the page that you're tempted to grace, or (3) represented in a fact-stating fashion, i.e., which attributes a particular opinion to a particular person or group, rather than asserting the opinion as fact.  (3) is strongly preferred.  See the NeutralPointOfView page for elaboration.
------
DelawarE|982359658
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state made famous by the movie WaynesWorld.
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982359709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I would support this rule if it said "on a */Talk page instead of within the text," instead of "at the bottom of a page instead of within the text." -- LarrySanger
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982360212
1c1
< I would support this rule if it said "on a */Talk page instead of within the text," instead of "at the bottom of a page instead of within the text." -- LarrySanger
---
> Hmm, I guess I don't support this rule at all.  Basically, I think everyone should feel free to improve any page on the wiki.  With the exception of pages that are obviously personal essays (which are perfectly acceptable, as far as I'm concerned, as long as they're marked as such), I think all pages are fair game.  Of course, it's very important to be polite (I'll do my best there but I ain't makin no guarantees :-) ).  Let me give you some examples.  If someone writes a page on topic T that I think pretty much gets the subject wrong ''factually''--is straightforwardly mistaken, for whatever reason--then I'll feel perfectly free to replace the page with a completely new one that gets the facts right.  On the other hand, if someone simply has overstated his case in one or two paragraphs, then I'll feel free to tone down the language.  All of these things I'll feel free to do without asking anyone's permission.  It's better that way simply because it's more efficient.  This being a wiki, the author can always change things back--but if he's reasonable, he'll probably change it part-way back, and we can achieve a nice sort of consensus. -- LarrySanger (violating his oath not to talk about the wiki process...now I'll go write an article)
------
FriedrichNietzsche|982360759
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a famous and influential German philosopher.
> 
> Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or altruism; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
------
FriedrichNietzsche|982360839
3c3
< Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or altruism; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
---
> Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or altruism; his vigorous attacks on Christianity; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
------
CognitiveTherapy|982362401
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Cognitive therapy'' is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat depression among other mental disorders.  Its practitioners hold that the cause of many (though not all) depressions are irrational thoughts; with thoughts stipulated as the cause of emotions rather than vice-versa, cognitive therapists reverse the causal order more generally accepted by psychotherapists.  The therapy is essentially, therefore, to identify those irrational thoughts that are making one unhappy, and identify what it is about them that are irrational, in an effort to reject them and replace them with more accurate, but also more cheering thoughts.  This is a more sophisticated development of the method--annoying to cynics and pessimists everywhere--demonstrated by Hayley Mills in the movie ''Pollyanna'' and JamesStewart in the movie ''Harvey'' and millions of optimists who enjoin us to "think happy thoughts."
> 
> While the cognitive therapist view of emotion has existed for millennia, cognitive therapy was developed in its present form by Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck in the 1950s and '60s.
> 
> Thereafter cognitive therapy was popularized by the self-help book ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy'' (Revised edition; New York, 1999: Avon Books) by David D. Burns.  Burns reports (in his Introduction) that, according to a 1994 study, this book is the most-recommended by U.S. psychotherapists.  Burns also reports about a study in which two groups of moderately depressed patients were given ''Feeling Good'' to read at different times (one served as a control group for the other); after three months, 75% of the first group and 73% of the second no longer qualified as depressed, and after three years, 72% still were not depressed.
------
CognitiveTherapy|982362613
1c1
< ''Cognitive therapy'' is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat depression among other mental disorders.  Its practitioners hold that the cause of many (though not all) depressions are irrational thoughts; with thoughts stipulated as the cause of emotions rather than vice-versa, cognitive therapists reverse the causal order more generally accepted by psychotherapists.  The therapy is essentially, therefore, to identify those irrational thoughts that are making one unhappy, and identify what it is about them that are irrational, in an effort to reject them and replace them with more accurate, but also more cheering thoughts.  This is a more sophisticated development of the method--annoying to cynics and pessimists everywhere--demonstrated by Hayley Mills in the movie ''Pollyanna'' and JamesStewart in the movie ''Harvey'' and millions of optimists who enjoin us to "think happy thoughts."
---
> ''Cognitive therapy'' is a kind of psychotherapy used to treat depression among other mental disorders.  Its practitioners hold that the cause of many (though not all) depressions are irrational thoughts; with thoughts stipulated as the cause of emotions rather than vice-versa, cognitive therapists reverse the causal order more generally accepted by psychotherapists.  The therapy is essentially, therefore, to identify those irrational thoughts that are making one unhappy and what it is about them that is irrational; this is done in an effort to reject the depressing thoughts and replace them with more accurate, but also more cheering thoughts.  This is a more sophisticated development of the method--annoying to cynics and pessimists everywhere--demonstrated by Hayley Mills in the movie ''Pollyanna'' and JamesStewart in the movie ''Harvey'' and millions of optimists who enjoin us to "think happy thoughts."
------
BinomialDistribution|982364155
7c7,10
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]----
> First q=1-p, but more important your formula the probabilty of X heads out of N trials is WRONG.
> See BinomialDistributuin/Revisited
> RoseParks
------
RequestedArticles|982364816
3c3
< FriedrichNietzsche -- CognitiveTherapy -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers  --LinearAlgebra
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature
------
BinomialDistributuin/Revisited|982365583
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''binomial distribution function'' provides the probability that X success will occur in N trials of a ''binomial experiment''. 
> 
> 
> A ''binomial experiment'' has the following properties.
> 
> 
> *1).  It consists of a sequence of N individual trials.
> *2). Two outcomes are possible for each trail, success or failure.
> *3). The probability of success on any trial, denoted p does not vary from trail to trial.
> *4). The trials are independent.
> 
> One common example of a binomial experiment is a sequence of N tosses of a coin.
>  Here:
> 
> 
> *1). This is clearly an experiment that consists of a sequence of N trials.
> *2). There are only two outcomes, Heads and Tails, Let call Heads a success and Tails a failure.
> *3). The probability of success on any one trail, denoted p, here ½, does not vary from trial to trial.
> *4). The trails are independent – The success of the third trial, say, does not depend on the success of the 2nd trial, etc.
> 
> 
> To find the binomial distribution function of X successes in N trials, denoted f(X),
> we let p denote the probability of success on any one trial. Then the probability of failure on any one trial is q=1-p.  Then the probability of any particular sequence of X success (heads) out of N trials (tosses) is p^X*q^(N-X). But, there are a variety of sequences of tosses that will result in X successes out of N trials. Then, using the formula for the number of ways of obtaining X successes out of N trials, we find that the number of ways of picking X objects out of N objects that there are
> *         (N!/(X!*(N-X)!) ways, where '''N'''!=N factorial.
> 
> *          We will denote (N!/(X!*(X-N)!) by:
> 
> 
> *                                     (N) 
> *                                     (X).    (apologies…for symbolism)
> 
> 
> Then the probability of N successes out of N trials is given by the FunctioN:
> 
> 
>        F(X)=  (N) *  p^X*q^(N-X) = (N) * p^X*(1-p)^(N-X)                                    
>               (X)                  (X)
> 
> 
> For example, consider the experiment of tossing a die with the usual 6 sides. Suppose we want to know the probability of getting three  "1"s in 5 tosses.
> Then p=1/5. So q=4/5.
> 
> 
> Then, using the function of the binomial distribution function for 3 successes out of 5 trials we get the probability of this occurring as:
> 
> *   F(2)= (5!/(3!*2!)) * (1/5)^3 * (4/5)^2=(5*2)* (1/125)*(16/25)=(10)* (16/3023)          *                         =160/3125=.0512
> 
> 
------
WaltZ|982365646
1d0
< 
11a11
> ----
12a13
> "Waltz" is also the name for the kind of music to which one dances the waltz.  In this sense, there are waltzes in nearly every kind of European and American folk music as well as in classical or "art" music.  Many songs, too, are "in waltz time."  The music is written out in 3/4 time and typically played at a rather slow tempo (but see above).
------
BinomialDistribution|982365719
9c9
< See BinomialDistributuin/Revisited
---
> See BinomialDistribution/Revisited
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982365951
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''binomial distribution function'' provides the probability that X success will occur in N trials of a ''binomial experiment''. 
> 
> 
> A ''binomial experiment'' has the following properties.
> 
> 
> *1).  It consists of a sequence of N individual trials.
> *2). Two outcomes are possible for each trail, success or failure.
> *3). The probability of success on any trial, denoted p does not vary from trail to trial.
> *4). The trials are independent.
> 
> One common example of a binomial experiment is a sequence of N tosses of a coin.
>  Here:
> 
> 
> *1). This is clearly an experiment that consists of a sequence of N trials.
> *2). There are only two outcomes, Heads and Tails, Let call Heads a success and Tails a failure.
> *3). The probability of success on any one trail, denoted p, here ½, does not vary from trial to trial.
> *4). The trails are independent – The success of the third trial, say, does not depend on the success of the 2nd trial, etc.
> 
> 
> To find the binomial distribution function of X successes in N trials, denoted f(X),
> we let p denote the probability of success on any one trial. Then the probability of failure on any one trial is q=1-p.  Then the probability of any particular sequence of X success (heads) out of N trials (tosses) is p^X*q^(N-X). But, there are a variety of sequences of tosses that will result in X successes out of N trials. Then, using the formula for the number of ways of obtaining X successes out of N trials, we find that the number of ways of picking X objects out of N objects that there are
> *         (N!/(X!*(N-X)!) ways, where '''N'''!=N factorial.
> 
> *          We will denote (N!/(X!*(X-N)!) by:
> 
> 
> *                                     (N) 
> *                                     (X).    (apologies…for symbolism)
> 
> 
> Then the probability of N successes out of N trials is given by the FunctioN:
> 
> 
>        F(X)=  (N) *  p^X*q^(N-X) = (N) * p^X*(1-p)^(N-X)                                    
>               (X)                  (X)
> 
> 
> For example, consider the experiment of tossing a die with the usual 6 sides. Suppose we want to know the probability of getting three  "1"s in 5 tosses.
> Then p=1/5. So q=4/5.
> 
> 
> Then, using the function of the binomial distribution function for 3 successes out of 5 trials we get the probability of this occurring as:
> 
> *   F(2)= (5!/(3!*2!)) * (1/5)^3 * (4/5)^2=(5*2)* (1/125)*(16/25)=(10)* (16/3023)          *                         =160/3125=.0512
------
BinomialDistributuin/Revisited|982365973
1,46d0
< The ''binomial distribution function'' provides the probability that X success will occur in N trials of a ''binomial experiment''. 
< 
< 
< A ''binomial experiment'' has the following properties.
< 
< 
< *1).  It consists of a sequence of N individual trials.
< *2). Two outcomes are possible for each trail, success or failure.
< *3). The probability of success on any trial, denoted p does not vary from trail to trial.
< *4). The trials are independent.
< 
< One common example of a binomial experiment is a sequence of N tosses of a coin.
<  Here:
< 
< 
< *1). This is clearly an experiment that consists of a sequence of N trials.
< *2). There are only two outcomes, Heads and Tails, Let call Heads a success and Tails a failure.
< *3). The probability of success on any one trail, denoted p, here ½, does not vary from trial to trial.
< *4). The trails are independent – The success of the third trial, say, does not depend on the success of the 2nd trial, etc.
< 
< 
< To find the binomial distribution function of X successes in N trials, denoted f(X),
< we let p denote the probability of success on any one trial. Then the probability of failure on any one trial is q=1-p.  Then the probability of any particular sequence of X success (heads) out of N trials (tosses) is p^X*q^(N-X). But, there are a variety of sequences of tosses that will result in X successes out of N trials. Then, using the formula for the number of ways of obtaining X successes out of N trials, we find that the number of ways of picking X objects out of N objects that there are
< *         (N!/(X!*(N-X)!) ways, where '''N'''!=N factorial.
< 
< *          We will denote (N!/(X!*(X-N)!) by:
< 
< 
< *                                     (N) 
< *                                     (X).    (apologies…for symbolism)
< 
< 
< Then the probability of N successes out of N trials is given by the FunctioN:
< 
< 
<        F(X)=  (N) *  p^X*q^(N-X) = (N) * p^X*(1-p)^(N-X)                                    
<               (X)                  (X)
< 
< 
< For example, consider the experiment of tossing a die with the usual 6 sides. Suppose we want to know the probability of getting three  "1"s in 5 tosses.
< Then p=1/5. So q=4/5.
< 
< 
< Then, using the function of the binomial distribution function for 3 successes out of 5 trials we get the probability of this occurring as:
< 
< *   F(2)= (5!/(3!*2!)) * (1/5)^3 * (4/5)^2=(5*2)* (1/125)*(16/25)=(10)* (16/3023)          *                         =160/3125=.0512
------
PainTing|982365987
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Painting Periods
> Painting Techniques
> Painters
> 
------
BinomialDistributuin/Revisited|982366053
1,2c1
< 
< 
---
> Please see BinomialDistribution/Revisited
------
BinomialDistributuin/Revisited|982366104
1c1
< Please see BinomialDistribution/Revisited
---
> 
------
MathematicalGrouP|982366219
25a26,28
> Basic examples of Groups
> 
> +Signed integers
34d36
< 
36a39
> 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.    (Z,+) has an identity element.
38c41
< 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.
---
> 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.   Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
41c44,45
<        (Z,+) has an identity element.
---
> +Group of geometric transformations of the plane.
> An important source of groups are geometric transformations of various objects in various spaces. As a simple example, let's take the set of all translations (moves) on the plane. The operation is the composition, noted here o (the composition of two operations consists in applying the two transformations one after the other)
42a47
> 1)	If a and b are translations of vectors A and B, then a o b is also a translation of vector A+B
44c49
< 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.
---
> 2)	Composition of translations is associative as is the additions of vectors. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.
45a51
> 3)	The identity element for this group is the translation of vector zero.
47c53
<         Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
---
> 4)	The inverse of a translation of vector A is the translation along the opposite vector (same length and direction, reversed orientation).
48a55
> One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or set of points.
------
BinomialDistribution|982366272
7a8
> To the author:
------
PainTing|982366455
1,3c1,3
< Painting Periods
< Painting Techniques
< Painters
---
> :Painting Periods
> :Painting Techniques
> :Painters
------
BallroomDance|982366504
48c48,49
< * New York Hustle
---
> * New York Hustle----
> No place for SalsaDancing ...Gee.
------
NewTopics|982366692
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver
------
CorinneLightweaver|982366734
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Corinne Lightweaver is an artist, writer, and arts editor.
------
UralicLanguages|982366803
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Uralic languages or finno-ougric languages is a contrasted family of languages.
> 
> Current members in Europe include:
> 
> <ul>
> <li>Finnish (suomi)
> <li>Estonian
> <li>Mordv
> <li>Hungarian (magyar)
> <li>...
> </ul>
> 
> Features include
> 
> <ul>
> <li>Extensive use of independent suffixes
> <li>Large set of cases
> <li>Vocalic Harmony
> </ul>
> 
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982366925
1c1,2
< Hmm, I guess I don't support this rule at all.  Basically, I think everyone should feel free to improve any page on the wiki.  With the exception of pages that are obviously personal essays (which are perfectly acceptable, as far as I'm concerned, as long as they're marked as such), I think all pages are fair game.  Of course, it's very important to be polite (I'll do my best there but I ain't makin no guarantees :-) ).  Let me give you some examples.  If someone writes a page on topic T that I think pretty much gets the subject wrong ''factually''--is straightforwardly mistaken, for whatever reason--then I'll feel perfectly free to replace the page with a completely new one that gets the facts right.  On the other hand, if someone simply has overstated his case in one or two paragraphs, then I'll feel free to tone down the language.  All of these things I'll feel free to do without asking anyone's permission.  It's better that way simply because it's more efficient.  This being a wiki, the author can always change things back--but if he's reasonable, he'll probably change it part-way back, and we can achieve a nice sort of consensus. -- LarrySanger (violating his oath not to talk about the wiki process...now I'll go write an article)
---
> Hmm, I guess I don't support this rule at all.  Basically, I think everyone should feel free to improve any page on the wiki.  With the exception of pages that are obviously personal essays (which are perfectly acceptable, as far as I'm concerned, as long as they're marked as such), I think all pages are fair game.  Of course, it's very important to be polite (I'll do my best there but I ain't makin no guarantees :-) ).  Let me give you some examples.  If someone writes a page on topic T that I think pretty much gets the subject wrong ''factually''--is straightforwardly mistaken, for whatever reason--then I'll feel perfectly free to replace the page with a completely new one that gets the facts right.  On the other hand, if someone simply has overstated his case in one or two paragraphs, then I'll feel free to tone down the language.  All of these things I'll feel free to do without asking anyone's permission.  It's better that way simply because it's more efficient.  This being a wiki, the author can always change things back--but if he's reasonable, he'll probably change it part-way back, and we can achieve a nice sort of consensus. -- LarrySanger (violating his oath not to talk about the wiki process...now I'll go write an article)-----
> And who is the ultimate judge of what is overstated or biased...other than you...:-).
------
UralicLanguages|982367001
2a3,4
> It is frequently separated into Finnish-Permian and Ugric languages.
> 
5,11c7,22
< <ul>
< <li>Finnish (suomi)
< <li>Estonian
< <li>Mordv
< <li>Hungarian (magyar)
< <li>...
< </ul>
---
>   - Finnish (suomi)
> 
>   - Estonian
> 
>   - Hungarian (magyar)
> 
>   - Mordv
> 
>   - Ostiak
> 
>   - Samoyed
> 
>   - ...
> 
> 
> ---
15,19c26,31
< <ul>
< <li>Extensive use of independent suffixes
< <li>Large set of cases
< <li>Vocalic Harmony
< </ul>
---
> 
>   - Extensive use of independent suffixes
>   - Large set of cases
>   - Vocalic Harmony
> 
> 
------
UralicLanguages|982367102
7c7,13
<   - Finnish (suomi)
---
> * Finnish (suomi)
> * Estonian
> * Hungarian (magyar)
> * Mordv
> * Ostiak
> * Samoyed
> * ...
9,22c15
<   - Estonian
< 
<   - Hungarian (magyar)
< 
<   - Mordv
< 
<   - Ostiak
< 
<   - Samoyed
< 
<   - ...
< 
< 
< ---
---
> ----
26,29c19,21
< 
<   - Extensive use of independent suffixes
<   - Large set of cases
<   - Vocalic Harmony
---
> * Extensive use of independent suffixes
> * Large set of cases
> * Vocalic Harmony
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982367170
1c1,2
< Hmm, I guess I don't support this rule at all.  Basically, I think everyone should feel free to improve any page on the wiki.  With the exception of pages that are obviously personal essays (which are perfectly acceptable, as far as I'm concerned, as long as they're marked as such), I think all pages are fair game.  Of course, it's very important to be polite (I'll do my best there but I ain't makin no guarantees :-) ).  Let me give you some examples.  If someone writes a page on topic T that I think pretty much gets the subject wrong ''factually''--is straightforwardly mistaken, for whatever reason--then I'll feel perfectly free to replace the page with a completely new one that gets the facts right.  On the other hand, if someone simply has overstated his case in one or two paragraphs, then I'll feel free to tone down the language.  All of these things I'll feel free to do without asking anyone's permission.  It's better that way simply because it's more efficient.  This being a wiki, the author can always change things back--but if he's reasonable, he'll probably change it part-way back, and we can achieve a nice sort of consensus. -- LarrySanger (violating his oath not to talk about the wiki process...now I'll go write an article)-----
---
> Hmm, I guess I don't support this rule at all.  Basically, I think everyone should feel free to improve any page on the wiki.  With the exception of pages that are obviously personal essays (which are perfectly acceptable, as far as I'm concerned, as long as they're marked as such), I think all pages are fair game.  Of course, it's very important to be polite (I'll do my best there but I ain't makin no guarantees :-) ).  Let me give you some examples.  If someone writes a page on topic T that I think pretty much gets the subject wrong ''factually''--is straightforwardly mistaken, for whatever reason--then I'll feel perfectly free to replace the page with a completely new one that gets the facts right.  On the other hand, if someone simply has overstated his case in one or two paragraphs, then I'll feel free to tone down the language.  All of these things I'll feel free to do without asking anyone's permission.  It's better that way simply because it's more efficient.  This being a wiki, the author can always change things back--but if he's reasonable, he'll probably change it part-way back, and we can achieve a nice sort of consensus. -- LarrySanger (violating his oath not to talk about the wiki process...now I'll go write an article)
> -----
2a4,5
> ----
> I guess, whoever wants to change the page.  Wiki being what it is, every person accessing can edit anything.
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982367196
5c5
< I guess, whoever wants to change the page.  Wiki being what it is, every person accessing can edit anything.
---
> I guess, anyone who wants to change the page.  Wiki being what it is, every person accessing can edit anything. --JimboWales
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982367290
5a6,7
> ----
> Have a look at NeutralPointOfView and make a Talk page there if you like.  To answer your question, each competent, honest, unimpaired, intelligent person is capable of making this judgment, and I expect there would be considerable agreement on many cases. -- LarrySanger
------
UralicLanguages|982367294
7,12c7,12
< * Finnish (suomi)
< * Estonian
< * Hungarian (magyar)
< * Mordv
< * Ostiak
< * Samoyed
---
> * FinnishLanguage (suomi)
> * EstonianLanguage
> * HungarianLanguage (magyar)
> * MordvLanguage
> * OstiakLanguage
> * SamoyedLanguage
21a22
> *...
------
UralicLanguages|982367458
1c1
< Uralic languages or finno-ougric languages is a contrasted family of languages.
---
> UralicLanguages or Finno/OugricLanguages are a contrasted family of languages.
3c3
< It is frequently separated into Finnish-Permian and Ugric languages.
---
> It is frequently separated into Finnish/Permian and UgricLanguages.
17c17
< Features include
---
> Features include:
------
CognitiveTherapy|982367549
3c3
< While the cognitive therapist view of emotion has existed for millennia, cognitive therapy was developed in its present form by Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck in the 1950s and '60s.
---
> While the cognitive therapist view of emotion has existed for millennia, cognitive therapy was developed in its present form by AlbertEllis and AaronTBeck in the 1950s and '60s.
5c5
< Thereafter cognitive therapy was popularized by the self-help book ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy'' (Revised edition; New York, 1999: Avon Books) by David D. Burns.  Burns reports (in his Introduction) that, according to a 1994 study, this book is the most-recommended by U.S. psychotherapists.  Burns also reports about a study in which two groups of moderately depressed patients were given ''Feeling Good'' to read at different times (one served as a control group for the other); after three months, 75% of the first group and 73% of the second no longer qualified as depressed, and after three years, 72% still were not depressed.
---
> Thereafter cognitive therapy was popularized by the self-help book ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy'' (Revised edition; New York, 1999: Avon Books) by DavidDBurns.  Burns reports (in his Introduction) that, according to a 1994 study, this book is the most-recommended by U.S. psychotherapists.  Burns also reports about a study in which two groups of moderately depressed patients were given ''Feeling Good'' to read at different times (one served as a control group for the other); after three months, 75% of the first group and 73% of the second no longer qualified as depressed, and after three years, 72% still were not depressed.
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|982367653
7c7,8
< Have a look at NeutralPointOfView and make a Talk page there if you like.  To answer your question, each competent, honest, unimpaired, intelligent person is capable of making this judgment, and I expect there would be considerable agreement on many cases. -- LarrySanger
---
> Have a look at NeutralPointOfView and make a Talk page there if you like.  To answer your question, each competent, honest, unimpaired, intelligent person is capable of making this judgment, and I expect there would be considerable agreement on many cases. -- LarrySanger----
> I hope we are not heading to TheReasonableMan in law, or any such norm...Ouch!
------
PaintIng|982367971
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> History of Painting
> 
> Painting Techniques
>      Acrylic Paintings
>      Frescoes
>      Murals
>      New Materials
>      Oil Paintings
>      Panel Paintings
>      Watercolor Paintings
> Painters
>      Anguissola, Sofinisba
>      Coe, Sue
>      Fontana, Lavinia
>      Gentileschi, Artemesia
>      Kahlo, Frieda
>      Soutine, Chaim
>      Witkin, Jerome
> Paintings Conservation
> 
------
MathematicalGrouP|982368189
55c55
< One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or set of points.
---
> One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or set of points. In this case, the proof of the group axioms is bit more complicated and interesting. (OpRgAg). 
------
WikiBiblion|982368259
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In addition to the articles, various texts have been entered in whole or in part into WikiPedia.  Nobody's sure yet how far we want to go with this - whether we should only include some small pages for direct referencing, or include a wikized version of Project Gutenburg.  Whatever people feel like typing in, I guess - though please don't add any copyright material.  Here's what we have in the WikiBiblion so far:
> 
> Reference texts
> * UnitedStatesConstitution
> * JapanConstitution
> * ChristianBibleGenesis - King James' version ''[very incomplete]''
> 
> Notes and commentaries
> * TimShell's notes on AtlasShrugged by AynRand
------
OpRgAg|982368322
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here is the page for Olivier Gérard also known as Oprgag.
> 
> 
> First, trying a few things.
> 
> [www.seqfan.net]
> 
> 'a'
> 
> ''b''
> 
> '''c'''
> 
> ''''d''''
> 
> <b>A</b>
> <i>A</i>
> 
> <nowiki>NOWIKI</nowiki>
------
VisualArtsAndDesign|982368507
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Art Conservation
> 
> History of the Visual Arts
>      History of Painting (see Painting page)
>      History of Design
> 
> New Materials
>      Body Fluids
>      Plastics
> 
> New Categories (not traditional, i.e. sculpture, painting)
>      Computer-Generated Art / Digital Art
>      Found Art (Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
>      Installation Art
>      Interactive Art
>      Body Art (see also Performance Art)
>           Body as Canvas
>           Piercings
>           Tattoos
>  
> 
> 
> 
------
RequestedArticles|982368557
3c3
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMis (the name, of course) --
------
JapanConstitution/ChapterOne|982368592
1c1
< CHAPTER I: THE EMPORER
---
> CHAPTER I: THE EMPEROR
------
RequestedArticles|982368626
3c3
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMis (the name, of course) --
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName --
------
VisualArtsAndDesign|982368632
2a3,5
> Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. Art, History of Art)
>      Changing Definitions of Art
> 
------
BioChemistry|982368655
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One should well start by something
> 
> 
> AminoAcids - MetabolicCycles - DNA/RNA - Enzymes - ProteinSynthesis - ...
> 
> 
------
BioChemistry|982368839
4c4
< AminoAcids - MetabolicCycles - DNA/RNA - Enzymes - ProteinSynthesis - ...
---
> AminoAcids - MetabolicCycles - NucleicAcids (DNA,RNA) - EnZymes - ProteinSynthesis - ...
------
RequestedArticles|982368956
3c3,8
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName --
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- 
> HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- 
> GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- 
> HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- 
> ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- 
> RussianLiterature -- BoMisName --
------
MathematicalGrouP|982369958
28c28
< +Signed integers
---
> *Signed integers
44c44
< +Group of geometric transformations of the plane.
---
> *Group of geometric transformations of the plane.
55c55
< One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or set of points. In this case, the proof of the group axioms is bit more complicated and interesting. (OpRgAg). 
---
> One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or of a set of points in a space. In this case, the proof of the group axioms is a bit more interesting. (OprgaG). 
58d57
< 
90d88
< 
92c90,92
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?----
---
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?
> 
> ----
94c94
< Groups are important, too, because they are a fundamental algebraic structure. We can investigate groups with added properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operations and more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'' and FielD''s''.
---
> Groups are important as a fundamental algebraic structure and as a basic tool for embedding the mathematical properties of objects, even properties of groups themselves because one can built groups out of existing ones (see GroupProductS, NoetherIsomorphismTheoremS, WreathProduct, BrauerGroup, DerivedGroup, GroupCenter, GroupCharacter, FittingSubgroup, CohomologyGroups). We can investigate groups with global properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, SimpleGroups and SolvableGroups, FinitelyGeneratedGroups, AlgebraicGroups, study how groups can be related via MorphisM''s'' and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operation and/or more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'', FielD''s'', ModulE''s''.
------
WikiBiblion|982369996
9a10,11
> 
> Btw, we need a way of distinguishing pages on something from pages that are the things themselves - for instance, a summary of how the US constitution works versus its text.
------
OprgaG|982370022
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> also known as OpRgAg.
> 
------
OpRgAg|982370262
1c1
< Here is the page for Olivier Gérard also known as Oprgag.
---
> This page is obsolete. The good one is OprgaG. :-)
3,19c3
< 
< First, trying a few things.
< 
< [www.seqfan.net]
< 
< 'a'
< 
< ''b''
< 
< '''c'''
< 
< ''''d''''
< 
< <b>A</b>
< <i>A</i>
< 
< <nowiki>NOWIKI</nowiki>
---
>  
------
OprgaG|982370299
1c1
< also known as OpRgAg.
---
> Here is the page for Olivier Gérard also known as Oprgag.
2a3,19
> 
> First, trying a few things.
> 
> [www.seqfan.net]
> 
> 'a'
> 
> ''b''
> 
> '''c'''
> 
> ''''d''''
> 
> <b>A</b>
> <i>A</i>
> 
> <nowiki>NOWIKI</nowiki>
------
OprgaG|982370374
16a17
> 
19c20,32
< <nowiki>NOWIKI</nowiki>
---
> <nowiki>NoWiKI</nowiki>
> 
> * bullet
> 
> # numbered list
> # second item
> # etc..
> 
> "a"
> 
> ""a""
> 
> 
------
OpRgAg|982370501
1,3c1,2
< This page is obsolete. The good one is OprgaG. :-)
< 
<  
---
> #REDIRECT OprgaG 
>  
------
GrouP|982370529
1c1
< #REDIRECT MathematicalGrouP.
---
> #REDIRECT MathematicalGrouP
------
OprgaG|982370759
2a3
> ----
4c5,17
< First, trying a few things.
---
> Hello.
> 
> Oddly enough, wiki seems to attract at least a few people quite
> close to my taste: keen on mathematics (and especially abstract algebra),
> linguistics (and especially syntax), and speaking French (but I cheat, this is
> my mothertongue), German, ...
> 
> A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG
> 
> 
> ----
> 
> A few formatting examples and tests
------
OprgaG|982371287
10c10
< my mothertongue), German, ...
---
> my mothertongue), German, interested in Japanese, having studied Greek and Latin ...
12c12
< A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG
---
> A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG, who''s next ?
16a17,20
> 'space available for comments'
> 
> ----
> 
41c45,47
< "a"
---
> ----
> 
> &é"'(-è_çà)=$^*ù!:;,+°£¨µ%§/.?<>~#{[|`\^@]}¤€
43d48
< ""a""
44a50
> "a"
45a52
> ""a""
------
OprgaG|982371426
13a14,15
> Bon. Il semble logique que je commence un peu à mettre du français sur wiki.
> C'est vrai quoi. L'anglais est déjà assez présent sur le réseau.
43a46,49
> 
> <tt> Typewriting ? </tt>
> <pre> Preformated ? </pre>
> 
------
HisTory|982371672
1c1
< That which happened.  ''Or,'' That which happened and was recorded.  The record of that which happened.  Please see HiStory instead.
---
> That which happened.  ''Or,'' That which happened and was recorded.  The record of that which happened.  ''Or,'' What we happen to record. Please see HiStory instead.
------
OprgaG|982371758
13a14,16
> I studied LatinLanguage, and I'm keen on mathematics (StochasticProcesses, RealAnalysis), and I'm studying JapaneseLanguage now.  I'm idly interested in linguistics, but know nothing substantial about it. --JimboWales
> 
> 
53c56
< &é"'(-è_çà)=$^*ù!:;,+°£¨µ%§/.?<>~#{[|`\^@]}¤€
---
> &é"'(-è_çà)=$^*ù!:;,+°£¨µ%§/.?<>~#{[|`\^@]}¤?
------
WikiBiblion|982371969
11a12,19
> ----
> If I had to venture an opinion, I guess we should restrict ourselves to texts that might be commonly cited and useful for immediate reference.  For example, a discussion of the US constitution is probably much enhanced by being able to link directly to the relevant amendment.  For example, in an article on GunControl, someone surely might find it useful to link to UnitedStatesConstitution/SecondAmendment.
> 
> The same goes for the Bible, as many articles on aspects of JudeoChristian culture might usefully link to a chapter here and there.
> 
> But MobyDick, for example, isn't so usefully quoted, and so sticking it all in here just to be doing it seems more pointless.
> 
> But, like you said, it really just depends on what people bother to type (or cut and paste) in.  :-)
------
SubLime|982371984
1c1
< That which is below a lime.----To use as an adjective, do we say subliminal?  And a verb would be sublimate?----Or subliminalize? Or subliminimalize? Or sublimaximize? 
---
> That which is below a lime.----Said also of any text that passes directly from solid statement to gazeous.----To use as an adjective, do we say subliminal?  And a verb would be sublimate?----Or subliminalize? Or subliminimalize? Or sublimaximize?
------
WikiBiblion|982371993
13c13
< If I had to venture an opinion, I guess we should restrict ourselves to texts that might be commonly cited and useful for immediate reference.  For example, a discussion of the US constitution is probably much enhanced by being able to link directly to the relevant amendment.  For example, in an article on GunControl, someone surely might find it useful to link to UnitedStatesConstitution/SecondAmendment.
---
> If I had to venture an opinion, I guess we should restrict ourselves to texts that might be commonly cited and useful for immediate reference.  For example, a discussion of the US constitution is probably much enhanced by being able to link directly to the relevant amendment.  For example, in an article on GunControl, someone surely might find it useful to link to UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentTwo.
------
OprgaG|982372263
19a20,21
> Welcome, Gerard--mais oui, schreiben Sie auf Franzosisch, just don't expect us to be able to reply to you in French (or German).  :-) -- LarrySanger
> 
------
OprgaG|982372291
20c20
< Welcome, Gerard--mais oui, schreiben Sie auf Franzosisch, just don't expect us to be able to reply to you in French (or German).  :-) -- LarrySanger
---
> Welcome, Olivier--mais oui, schreiben Sie auf Franzosisch, just don't expect us to be able to reply to you in French (or German).  :-) -- LarrySanger
------
CorinneLightweaver|982372640
1a2,3
> ----
> Welcome, Corinne!  -- LarrySanger
------
WikiBiblion|982372807
10a11,14
> Lectures, textbooks, theses, etc.
> * ErnestHemingway
> * LarrysText
> 
------
OprgaG|982373394
1c1,4
< Here is the page for Olivier Gérard also known as Oprgag.
---
> Here is the wiki home page for Olivier Gérard also known as Oprgag.
> 
> Each part is roughly devoted to a given topic. Be kind to follow
> this organization when appropriate.
12c15
< A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG, who''s next ?
---
> A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG, who's next ?
14c17
< I studied LatinLanguage, and I'm keen on mathematics (StochasticProcesses, RealAnalysis), and I'm studying JapaneseLanguage now.  I'm idly interested in linguistics, but know nothing substantial about it. --JimboWales
---
> <b>Jim Wales</b> <i>(of Bomis fame)</i> <b>says</b>: I studied LatinLanguage, and I'm keen on mathematics (StochasticProcesses, RealAnalysis), and I'm studying JapaneseLanguage now.  I'm idly interested in linguistics, but know nothing substantial about it. --JimboWales
18c21
< C'est vrai quoi. L'anglais est déjà assez présent sur le réseau.
---
> C'est vrai, quoi! L'anglais est déjà assez présent sur le réseau.
21a25,30
> Arigato Larry. Bien sûr que je vais le faire. Il va falloir aussi que je rameute d'autres grenouilles dans cette marre. Wir werden sehen, wir müssen sehen.
> 
> ----
> 
> ''space available for comments''
> 
22a32
> Notes on wiki
24c34,36
< 'space available for comments'
---
> - really nice. I did a little auto-modifiable pages for an internal web site in php3
> but the content was basically html, and the troublesome typing of links was becoming
> a real chore. The trick of CapitalSInSTRANGEplaceS to sign internal links is neat.
25a38,45
> - what could be a little trouble in the future (with more and more users): concurrent modifications on the same page may cancel themselves (or do they ?)
> 
> 
> - are there other special instructions such as #ReDiReCt ?
> 
> - In what language is wiki programmed ?  Perl ? C ?
> 
> ----
------
OprgaG|982373858
26a27,28
> Would be grand to have a concurrent French wiki.  Why not?  Only trouble are the topics on which the English and French words (e.g., personal names) are the same.  You could then, e.g., have a ReneDescartesFr page.
> 
37a40,43
> ''Yes!  And it's going to be even better, as the code is soon to be changed to allow use to indicate links [[like this]].''
> 
> ''The following questions could be asked (and answered) on WikiPediaFaq, if they aren't already...it would be a good idea to transfer them there...''
> 
39a46
> ''The software already accounts for this.  Not really a problem.''
42a50,51
> ''See HowDoesOneEditaPage--but we need to update those instructions.''
> 
43a53,54
> 
> ''JimboWales could tell you that.''
------
LarrySanger|982374026
36c36
< Hey, Larry, where did you do your phil grad?  --curiousPhillipHankins
---
> Hey, Larry, where did you do your phil grad?  --curious PhillipHankins
40c40,42
< Political discussion not allowed on this page.  :-)
---
> Political discussion not allowed on this page.  :-)
> ----
> Folks, I've had a lot of fun with WikiPedia this week (Feb. 11-16 or so) but I am going to have to start limiting the time I spend on it, so I can work more diligently on NuPedia.  :-)  -- Larry
------
UralicLanguages|982374085
1c1
< UralicLanguages or Finno/OugricLanguages are a contrasted family of languages.
---
> UralicLanguages or FinnoOugricLanguages are a contrasted family of languages.
3c3,5
< It is frequently separated into Finnish/Permian and UgricLanguages.
---
> They are commonly separated into FinnishPermianLanguages and UgricLanguages.
> There is an hypothesis which groups them further in a superfamily together with
> AltaicLanguages, the UraloAltaicLanguages.
5c7
< Current members in Europe include:
---
> Current members include:
23d24
< 
------
FrenchLanguage|982374963
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FrenchLanguageInEnglish
> 
> Une fois n'est pas coutume, cette page sur la langue française sera en français. On me dira que ce n'est pas très utile pour les gens qui ne connaissent pas déjà le français. Et bien je leur répond que la traduction de ce texte existe. Na. La preuve, il suffit de suivre le lien au tout début de la page.
> 
> Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé par des groupes intellectuels (comme le groupe de la Pléiade) ou des institutions (comme l'Académie Française). On estime généralement que le premier texte écrit en (ancien) français est le traité de Strasbourg (847).
> Parmi les premières oeuvres majeures:
> *la chanson de Roland (Roland, Charlemagne, Olivier, Ganelon, )
> *le roman de Renart (Goupil, Ysengrin, )
> *Gargantua (de François Rabelais)
> 
> ----
> 
> Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
> 
> ----
> 
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la France, dont la Belgique, la Suisse, le Luxembourg, le Quebec.
------
FrenchLanguageInEnglish|982375354
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page is an <i>unfaithful</i> translation of the FrenchLanguage page intended for the french-challenged crowd.
> 
> A roman language, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...).
> 
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to themselves as descending from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very few celtic and gallic roots seems to remain in today french. Most of the vocabulary is of latin and germanic (frank) origin.
> 
> To be continued...
> 
> ----
------
VerlaN|982380971
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A long tradition exists in France of permuting syllables of words to create slang words. The current version is called VerlaN, a name which is itself VerlaN. 
> 
> <b>VER</b><i>LAN</i> = <i>LAN</i><b>VER</b> = l'envers (meaning "the reverse").
> 
> As most potential readers here are not french, let's try english verlan, which could be called the versin (inversed inverse).
> 
> This car is nice.
> 
> is transformed into
> 
> Sethi reca is ceni.
> 
> (Don't ask me how one should pronounce it, try to be close of the orignal pronunciation of the syllables in the correct word).
> 
> ----
------
WikiBiblion|982382513
11c11
< Lectures, textbooks, theses, etc.
---
> Lectures, textbooks, theses, etc. ''- I would say these are coming dangerously close to being articles, though.''
------
WikiBiblion|982382589
11,14d10
< Lectures, textbooks, theses, etc. ''- I would say these are coming dangerously close to being articles, though.''
< * ErnestHemingway
< * LarrysText
< 
------
FrenchLanguage|982382842
17a18,20
> 
> ----
> Just a though...shouldn't the language of a page match its title?  Id est, this page would be in English, with the current content moved to something like LangueFrancois.
------
FrenchLanguage|982383154
1c1,2
< FrenchLanguageInEnglish
---
> This page is an unfaithful translation of the LangueFrancaise page intended for the french-challenged crowd. 
> A RomanceLanguage, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
3c4
< Une fois n'est pas coutume, cette page sur la langue française sera en français. On me dira que ce n'est pas très utile pour les gens qui ne connaissent pas déjà le français. Et bien je leur répond que la traduction de ce texte existe. Na. La preuve, il suffit de suivre le lien au tout début de la page.
---
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to themselves as descending from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very few celtic and gallic roots seems to remain in today french. Most of the vocabulary is of latin and germanic (frank) origin. 
5,20c6
< Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé par des groupes intellectuels (comme le groupe de la Pléiade) ou des institutions (comme l'Académie Française). On estime généralement que le premier texte écrit en (ancien) français est le traité de Strasbourg (847).
< Parmi les premières oeuvres majeures:
< *la chanson de Roland (Roland, Charlemagne, Olivier, Ganelon, )
< *le roman de Renart (Goupil, Ysengrin, )
< *Gargantua (de François Rabelais)
< 
< ----
< 
< Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
< 
< ----
< 
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la France, dont la Belgique, la Suisse, le Luxembourg, le Quebec.
< 
< ----
< Just a though...shouldn't the language of a page match its title?  Id est, this page would be in English, with the current content moved to something like LangueFrancois.
---
> To be continued... 
------
LangueFrancaise|982383207
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In English: FrenchLanguage
> 
> Une fois n'est pas coutume, cette page sur la langue française sera en français. On me dira que ce n'est pas très utile pour les gens qui ne connaissent pas déjà le français. Et bien je leur répond que la traduction de ce texte existe. Na. La preuve, il suffit de suivre le lien au tout début de la page.
> 
> Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé par des groupes intellectuels (comme le groupe de la Pléiade) ou des institutions (comme l'Académie Française). On estime généralement que le premier texte écrit en (ancien) français est le traité de Strasbourg (847).
> Parmi les premières oeuvres majeures:
> *la chanson de Roland (Roland, Charlemagne, Olivier, Ganelon, )
> *le roman de Renart (Goupil, Ysengrin, )
> *Gargantua (de François Rabelais)
> 
> ----
> 
> Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
> 
> ----
> 
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la France, dont la Belgique, la Suisse, le Luxembourg, le Quebec.
> 
------
FrenchLanguageInEnglish|982383236
1d0
< This page is an <i>unfaithful</i> translation of the FrenchLanguage page intended for the french-challenged crowd.
3,9d1
< A roman language, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...).
< 
< Although many frenchmen like to refer to themselves as descending from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very few celtic and gallic roots seems to remain in today french. Most of the vocabulary is of latin and germanic (frank) origin.
< 
< To be continued...
< 
< ----
------
FrenchLanguage|982383386
2c2
< A RomanceLanguage, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
---
> One of the RomanceLanguages, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
------
WikiBiblion|982384166
1c1
< In addition to the articles, various texts have been entered in whole or in part into WikiPedia.  Nobody's sure yet how far we want to go with this - whether we should only include some small pages for direct referencing, or include a wikized version of Project Gutenburg.  Whatever people feel like typing in, I guess - though please don't add any copyright material.  Here's what we have in the WikiBiblion so far:
---
> In addition to the articles, various source texts have been entered in whole or in part into WikiPedia.  Nobody's sure yet how far we want to go with this - whether we should only include some small pages for direct referencing, or include a wikized version of Project Gutenburg.  Whatever people feel like typing in, I guess - though please don't add any copyright material.  Here's what we have in the WikiBiblion so far:
19a20,21
> ----
> Larry, I like your text but I think it belongs among the articles rather than the source texts, since I would read it to understand philosophy rather than to understand it.  Similarly for the essay.  TimShell's notes might not be ideal either, but I put them in because they are close to having a copy of AtlasShrugged.  The idea was, though, that the things listed are special by necessary correctness and immutability, and we are studying them rather than reading them to understand something else, so they are sort of exempt from wikipedianess.
------
WikiBiblion|982387841
21c21,23
< Larry, I like your text but I think it belongs among the articles rather than the source texts, since I would read it to understand philosophy rather than to understand it.  Similarly for the essay.  TimShell's notes might not be ideal either, but I put them in because they are close to having a copy of AtlasShrugged.  The idea was, though, that the things listed are special by necessary correctness and immutability, and we are studying them rather than reading them to understand something else, so they are sort of exempt from wikipedianess.
---
> Larry, I like your text but I think it belongs among the articles rather than the source texts, since I would read it to understand philosophy rather than to understand it.  Similarly for the essay.  TimShell's notes might not be ideal either, but I put them in because they are close to having a copy of AtlasShrugged.  The idea was, though, that the things listed are special by necessary correctness and immutability, and we are studying them rather than reading them to understand something else, so they are sort of exempt from wikipedianess.
> ----
> I see, but the usefulness of this page is increased by expanding its scope so as to keep a record of where massive amounts of new data are added to the wiki.  This would encourage others to do the same. -- LarrySanger
------
VerlaN|982387891
1d0
< 
16c15
< ----
---
> See also PigLatin.
------
OprgaG|982388439
15,17c15
< A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG, who's next ?
< 
< <b>Jim Wales</b> <i>(of Bomis fame)</i> <b>says</b>: I studied LatinLanguage, and I'm keen on mathematics (StochasticProcesses, RealAnalysis), and I'm studying JapaneseLanguage now.  I'm idly interested in linguistics, but know nothing substantial about it. --JimboWales
---
> A list:  JoshuaGrosse, OprgaG, RoseParks, who's next ?
18a17,18
> <b>Jim Wales</b> <i>(of Bomis fame)</i> <b>says</b>: I studied LatinLanguage, and I'm keen on mathematics (StochasticProcesses, RealAnalysis), and I'm studying JapaneseLanguage now.  I'm idly interested in linguistics, but know nothing substantial about it. --JimboWales----
> Known as RoseParks, <i>(of no particluar fame)</i>, I have studied Math (esp.Abstract Algebra), Linguistics (esp. syntax), French, German, Greek, Latin and 5 years of graduate level Japanese (one year+ devoted to the 1850 Kanji). First memories of '''French''', third grade..."Sur le pont d'Avignon, l'on y danse, l'on y danse, sur the pont d'Avignon, l'on y danse tous en rond"....also a terrible show-off, n'est-ce pas?---- 
------
PigLatin|982388899
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Pig Latin'' is a silly "language" created from any other language as follows:
> *for words that begin with consonants, move the leading consonant(s) to the end of the word and add "ay."  Thus, "ball" becomes "all-bay"; "button" becomes "utton-bay"; "star" becomes "ar-stay"; "three" becomes "ee-thray."
> *for words that begin with vowels, simply add "ay" to the end of the word.  Thus, "a" becomes "a-ay" (or "a-yay"); "at" becomes "at-ay" (or "at-tay"); "ermine" becomes "ermine-ay."
> Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, but ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
------
PigLatin|982389132
4c4
< Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, but ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
---
> Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
------
ArrylayAngersay|982389529
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/jbc/home/chef.html owHay iday Iay oday isthay?]
> 
> EditorInChiefway ofway uPediaNay andway (ithway imboWalesJay) instigatorway ofway ikiPediaWay. Phay.Day. iloSophyPhay, 2000, OhioStateway. omeHay owntay isway AnchorageAlaskaway. Inflictedway arrysTextLay irstfay onway Ohioway ateStay udentsstay, andway ownay onway ikiPediaWay. esentlyPray ivinglay inway asVegasLay orfay away ewfay onthsmay andway enthay itway'say onway otay ussiARay orfay away ewfay oremay onthsmay; ossiblypay Irelandway afterway atthay. isThay isway allway ossiblepay ecausebay arrySangerLay orksway onlineway. Youay ouldshay ebay enviousway. eHay ouldway ebay ifway ehay erenway'tay ehay. ---- Yesay, Iway agreeway, ehay isway ehay, obodynay ouldway argueway ithway emay! :-Pay eHay isway ehay, utbay isthay isway eetway, eway'day allway agreeway. arryLay'say avoritefay ilosopherphay isway omasReidThay, isnway'tay ehay? aybeMay! ---- Iway'may otnay enviousway ecausebay Iway ivelay erehay, inway ussiARay! ---- equestingRay away iberianHuskySay...atthay'say allway! oseParksRay ---- entyPlay ofway iberianHuskySay''''say inway AlaskAway, arryLay'say omehay atestay. arryLay'say amilyfay usedway otay avehay away iberianHuskySay amednay ebaShay, utbay ebaShay isappearedday enwhay arryLay asway allsmay. ---- yWhay areway allway iberianHuskySay''''say amednay ebaShay? Iway'evay adhay 3 ifferentday iendsfray ithway emthay osay arfay, andway eythay areway allway amednay ethay amesay.... ---- Iway onday'tay owknay! -- arryLay ---- earlyClay youay avenhay'tay etmay ethay iberianHuskySay''say'' Iway owknay...araTay andway arahSay!!! ---- Iway'may oinggay otay eattray isthay agepay ikelay emailway, incesay itway obablypray oesnday'tay elongbay inway ethay ediapay itselfway. Iway oundfay youray ecturelay onway eProblemOfEvilThay itequay enjoyableway, andway anway argumentway occurredway otay emay ichwhay Iway oughtthay Iway ightmay ouncebay offway ofway youay. Iway upposesay Iway ightmay allcay itway evilway elativismray. atThay isway otay aysay, evilway isway implysay anyway eventway ichwhay owerslay oneway'say enjoymentway (inway ethay ostmay eneralgay ensesay) - ethay owerlay alfhay ofway ourway appinesshay alescay. Ifway eway eliminatedway everythingway eway onsidercay evilway - aturalnay asway ellway asway anmay-ademay, *eway* ouldway ertainlycay oticenay ethay ifferenceday. utBay aysay ethay emperaturetay illstay asway allowedway otay aryvay omfray 50 egreesday Fay inway ethay interway otay 85 egreesday Fay inway ethay ummersay, andway atthay oneway eingbay aughtcay outsideway inway interway ithoutway away oatcay asway ethay ostmay unpleasantway ingthay atthay everway ightmay appenhay otay usway. eWay ouldway obablypray evernay omplaincay (indeedway, anymay ofway usway ouldway elishray atthay areray eelingfay ofway oosebumpsgay), utbay ouldway otnay ourway andchildrengray onsidercay isthay ethay ostmay extremeway ossiblepay evilway? Ifway oneway acceptsway isthay argumentway, atthay evilway isway erceivedpay elativelyray andway isway artpay ofway anyway effableway universeway, ouldway isthay otnay ullifynay argumentway 4? -Jay ---- Itway ouldway ebay away iticismcray ofway emisepray 7 (atthay evilway existsway inway ethay orldway), otnay ofway emisepray 4, asway arfay asway Iway ancay elltay. eThay oposalpray isway atthay evilway isway elativeray, andway ereforethay, ecausebay omeonesay inway uchmay orseway onditionscay anthay eway'eray inway ownay ouldway otnay onsidercay ethay onditionscay eway'eray inway ownay asway evilway, evilway oesnday'tay existway. Iway onday'tay eallyray agreeway atthay isthay atterlay onclusioncay eallyray ollowsfay ormfay ethay emisepray atthay evilway isway elativeray, utbay Iway inkthay youay ightmay ebay onway otay omethingsay erehay. Iway eallyray onday'tay owknay atthay uchmay aboutway isthay areaway ofway ilosophyphay, otay elltay ethay uthtray. -- arrySangerLay ---- eyHay, arryLay, erewhay idday youay oday youray ilphay adgray? --uriouscay illipHankinsPhay ---- Ohioway ateStay--otewray ymay issertationday onway epistemicway ircularitycay, eorgeGay appasPay asway ymay advisorway ithway arshallMay ainSway away ommitteecay embermay. ---- oliticalPay iscussionday otnay allowedway onway isthay agepay. :-) ---- olksFay, Iway'evay adhay away otlay ofway unfay ithway ikiPediaWay isthay eekway (ebFay. 11-16 orway osay) utbay Iway amway oinggay otay avehay otay artstay imitinglay ethay imetay Iway endspay onway itway, osay Iway ancay orkway oremay iligentlyday onway uPediaNay. :-) -- arryLay 
------
PigLatin|982389968
2a3
> *for words beginning with "qu," move the "qu" to the end of the word and add ay. Thus "question" becomes "estion-quay,"
4c5,6
< Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
---
> Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay----
> Ice-nay escription-day, octor-day anager-say!!! Ig-pay atin-lay is-ay un-fay or-fay ome-say adults-ay. Ou-yay eem-say ite-quay uent-flay, I-ay otice-nay.--OseRayArksPay--
------
ArtificialLanguages|982394803
12a13,16
> 
> Humorous languages
> * PigLatin
> * VerLan
------
ArtificialLanguages|982394822
16c16
< * VerLan
---
> * VerlaN
------
SportS|982395244
14a15
> * GolF
------
OprgaG|982395994
27c27,30
< Would be grand to have a concurrent French wiki.  Why not?  Only trouble are the topics on which the English and French words (e.g., personal names) are the same.  You could then, e.g., have a ReneDescartesFr page.
---
> Would be grand to have a concurrent French wiki.  Why not?  Only trouble are the topics on which the English and French words (e.g., personal names) are the same.  You could then, e.g., have a ReneDescartesFr page. -- Larry
> 
> I think that one should in this case have at least a new preference setting, so that help and permanent links could be labelled in the user's language.
> What would be even greater is to have the different names and sentences as part of wiki pages so that they could be edited online.  -- Olivier
42c45
< ''The following questions could be asked (and answered) on WikiPediaFaq, if they aren't already...it would be a good idea to transfer them there...''
---
> ''The following questions could be asked (and answered) on WikiPediaFaq, if they aren't already...it would be a good idea to transfer them there...'' Sure, but let's grow this impromptu FAQ a little before doing this.
54c57,62
< ''JimboWales could tell you that.''
---
> ''JimboWales could tell you that.''  I bet this is perl.
> 
> - I have another question: Is the code publicly available? I have been browing
> the wikiclone page of the original c2.com web site, and I am testing a few of them
> but the one here seems a good balance between ease of use and functionality.
> 
61a70
> [[www.seqfan.net]]
89c98,142
< &é"'(-è_çà)=$^*ù!:;,+°£¨µ%§/.?<>~#{[|`\^@]}¤?
---
> &
> é
> "
> '
> (
> -
> è
> _
> ç
> à
> )
> =
> $
> ^
> *
> ù
> !
> :
> ;
> ,
> +
> °
> £
> ¨
> µ
> %
> §
> /
> . Q
> ? P
> < O
> > N
> ~ M
> # L
> { K
> [ J
> | I
> ` H
> \ G
> ^ F
> @ E
> ] D
> } C
> ¤ B
> ? A
------
SportS|982396077
4a5,6
> ''LongJump, HighJump, and PoleVault are not classifiable in the following category scheme, it seems''
> 
7d8
< * RunninG
8a10,14
> * RunninG
> ** RunninG/CrossCountry
> ** RunninG/LongDistance
> ** RunninG/Track
> * SwimminG
15a22
> * ShootinG
40a48
> * SpeedBoating
43,44c51,53
< * BiathloN
< * PentathloN
---
> * BiathloN (SkiIng and ShootinG)
> * PentathloN (track and field events)
> * TriathaloN (Running/LongDistance, SwimminG, and BiCycling)
48a58,59
> * DivinG
> * FieldEvents (e.g., ShotPut)
49a61,62
> * GymnasticS
> * SyncopatedSwimming
51,55c64
< Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
< * BushWalking
< 
< Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive)
< 
---
> Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive; these are also comparison sports!)
59d67
< * SnowBoarding
60a69,71
> ** CrossCountrySkiing
> ** DownhillSkiing
> ** SnowBoarding
62a74,76
> Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
> * BushWalking
> 
65a80,83
> * HuntinG
> ** Hunting/Bowhunting
> 
> ''I think the following are not sports, but instead (simply) GameS; strictly speaking, there are no such things as "brain sports"''
72c90
< * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
---
> * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
------
OprgaG|982396294
62a63
> ''Yes, if you keep exploring, I think you'll find that the code is OpenSource.''
------
OpenSource|982396999
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A large movement of PROgrammer''s, CitiZen''s and other ComputerUser''s to give easy access to TechnoLogy, restrict the mania of CopyRight.
> 
> Among the relevant topics:
> 
> DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, the GNUProject, the FsF, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD.
> 
> FamousOpenSoftwares:
> 
> EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFree, GimP, ...
> 
------
OpenSource|982397126
1c1
< A large movement of PROgrammer''s, CitiZen''s and other ComputerUser''s to give easy access to TechnoLogy, restrict the mania of CopyRight.
---
> A large movement of PROgrammeR's, CitiZenS and other ComputerUserS to give easy access to TechnoLogy, restrict the mania of CopyRight.
5c5
< DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, the GNUProject, the FsF, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD.
---
> DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, the GNUProjecT, the FsF, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD.
9c9
< EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFree, GimP, ...
---
> EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, ...
------
SportS|982399024
53c53,54
< * TriathaloN (Running/LongDistance, SwimminG, and BiCycling)
---
> * TriathloN (Running/LongDistance, SwimminG, and BiCycling)
> * DecathloN (100m, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump, 400m, 110m Hurdles, Discus, Pole Vault, Javelin, 1500m)
90c91,94
< * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
---
> * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
> 
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Letter Games:
> * CrossWords
------
VerlaN|982399674
15c15,29
< See also PigLatin.
---
> ----
> Here are a few words of contemporary French verlan
> 
> laisse béton - laisse tomber (drop it, stop it)
> keum - mec (slang for man)
> meuf - femme (girl, woman)
> reum - mère (mother)
> reubeu - beur (slang for french people of maghrebian origin)
> zyva - vas-y (go for it)
> fais ièche - fais chier (slang for it's boring)
> 
> 
> See also LouchebeM, ArgoT, LangueVerte
> 
> See also PigLatin.
------
SportS|982400860
5c5
< ''LongJump, HighJump, and PoleVault are not classifiable in the following category scheme, it seems''
---
> (Where do sports such as parallel bars and jumping fit ?)
15a16,28
> Surpassing sports (where the goal is to pull your body or an object beyond a physical mark):
> * JumpS
> ** LongJump
> ** HighJump
> ** TripleJump
> ** PoleVault
> * ThrowS
> ** ShotPut
> ** DiscuS
> ** JavelIn
> ** HammeR
> * HalteroPhily
> 
42a56
> * RopePulling
54c68
< * DecathloN (100m, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump, 400m, 110m Hurdles, Discus, Pole Vault, Javelin, 1500m)
---
> * DecathloN (100m, LongJump, ShotPut, HighJump, 400m, 110m HurdleS, DiscuS, PoleVault, JavelIn, 1500m)
60d73
< * FieldEvents (e.g., ShotPut)
63a77
> * WoodworkerContests
------
HungarianLanguage|982402040
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A few facts:
> 
> The order of words in a sentence is almost free and can be used
> for stressing and denoting.
> The PassiveVoice is almost extinct (one can find it in old litterary
> texts).
> 
> The mark for PluraL is a suffixed -k, eventually preceded by a VoweL
> when the WorD ends by a ConsonanT
> 
> The InfinitivE of VerbS is the RadicaL suffixed by -ni
> 
> ----
> 
> As an apetizer, an extract for the verb "to be" in hungarian, lenni.
> 
> Forms are presented in this order    I, Thou, He/She/It, We, You, They
> 
> <b>IndicativeMode</b>
> PresentTense: vagyok, vagy, van, vagyunk, vagytok, vannak
> 
> PastTense: voltam, volt'al, volt, voltunk, voltatok, voltak
> 
> FutureTense: leszek, leszel, lesz, leszünk, lesztek, lesznek
> 
> 
> <b>ConditionalMode</b>
> PresentTense: lennék, lennél, lenne, lennénk, lennétek, lennének
> 
> ImperativeTense: legyek, légy, legyen, legyünk, legeyetek, legyenek
> 
> ----
------
HomoMorphism|982402236
1c1
< A homomorphism, from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a MappinG that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
---
> A homomorphism, (or sometimes simply MorphisM) from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a MappinG that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
------
MorphisM|982402613
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The round of MorphisM""s
> 
> There is the HomoMorphism, but here are other variants and subclasses:
> 
> * IsoMorphism '(the application is also a bijection)'
> * EndoMorphism '(from a structure into itself)'
> * AutoMorphism '(Iso + Endo)'
> 
> * HomeoMorphism
> * DiffeoMorphism '(Preserves topological properties)'
> 
> * CoMorphism '(A term sometimes used in CategoryTheory)'
> 
> Old father CamilleJordan used to say
> 
> * IsoMorphismMeriedrique
> * IsoMorphismHoloedrique
> 
> back in the 1860's.
> 
------
AutoMorphism|982403187
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A structure-preserving BiJection of a mathematical object into itself.
> 
> The set of AutoMorphism of an object forms a group with the composition law.
> 
> When it is possible to build transformation of an object by selecting one of its elements and applying operations to the object, one can separate
> *inner AutoMorphism""s
> *outer AutoMorphism""s
> 
> The latter being transformations for which there is no correspondance with an element of the object.
> 
> ----
> (I am not satisfied with that, it is too much jargon, there should be an example, it does not convey the power of the concept and is just a definition) -- Olivier.
------
CategoryTheory|982403458
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What is a category anyway?
> 
> *point and arrows
> *monic and epic
> *commutative diagrams
> *FunctORs
> *the YonedALemmA
> *NaturalTransformationS
> 
> *HistoryOfCategoryTheory
> *ReceptionOfCategoryTheory
> 
> 
------
MorphisM|982403527
8a9,11
> * EpiMorphism
> * MonoMorphism
> 
------
OprgaG|982405749
64a65,66
> Indeed, I should have seen the WhichWikiShouldWeUse page sooner.
> 
65a68,75
> 
> Reference Pages for wiki and wikipedia use
> 
> NamingConventions
> 
> WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables is my motto to help
> entering and maintaining tabulated data into the wikipedia.
> 
98,126c108,136
< 
< &
< é
< "
< '
< (
< -
< è
< _
< ç
< à
< )
< =
< $
< ^
< *
< ù
< !
< :
< ;
< ,
< +
< °
< £
< ¨
< µ
< %
< §
< /
---
>  
> & 18
> é 17
> " 16
> ' 15
> ( 14
> - 13
> è 12
> _ 11
> ç 10
> à 9
> ) 8
> = 7
> $ 6
> ^ 5
> * 4
> ù 3
> ! 2
> : 1
> ; 0
> , Z
> + Y
> ° X
> £ W
> ¨ V
> µ U
> % T
> § S
> / R
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|982405835
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The title in itself is a whole program.
> 
> I will try to sketch a proposal for a simple syntax
> for entering tables.
> 
------
OprgaG|982406116
78,158c78
< A few formatting examples and tests
< 
< [www.seqfan.net]
< [[www.seqfan.net]]
< 
< 'a'
< 
< ''b''
< 
< '''c'''
< 
< ''''d''''
< 
< <b>A</b>
< 
< <i>A</i>
< 
< <nowiki>NoWiKI</nowiki>
< 
< * bullet
< 
< # numbered list
< # second item
< # etc..
< 
< <tt> Typewriting ? </tt>
< <pre> Preformated ? </pre>
< 
< 
< ----
<  
< & 18
< é 17
< " 16
< ' 15
< ( 14
< - 13
< è 12
< _ 11
< ç 10
< à 9
< ) 8
< = 7
< $ 6
< ^ 5
< * 4
< ù 3
< ! 2
< : 1
< ; 0
< , Z
< + Y
< ° X
< £ W
< ¨ V
< µ U
< % T
< § S
< / R
< . Q
< ? P
< < O
< > N
< ~ M
< # L
< { K
< [ J
< | I
< ` H
< \ G
< ^ F
< @ E
< ] D
< } C
< ¤ B
< ? A
< 
< 
< "a"
< 
< ""a""
---
> /MyOwnSandBox is now on another page.
------
OprgaG/MyOwnSandBox|982406132
1c1,81
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A few formatting examples and tests
> 
> [www.seqfan.net]
> [[www.seqfan.net]]
> 
> 'a'
> 
> ''b''
> 
> '''c'''
> 
> ''''d''''
> 
> <b>A</b>
> 
> <i>A</i>
> 
> <nowiki>NoWiKI</nowiki>
> 
> * bullet
> 
> # numbered list
> # second item
> # etc..
> 
> <tt> Typewriting ? </tt>
> <pre> Preformated ? </pre>
> 
> 
> ----
>  
> & 18
> é 17
> " 16
> ' 15
> ( 14
> - 13
> è 12
> _ 11
> ç 10
> à 9
> ) 8
> = 7
> $ 6
> ^ 5
> * 4
> ù 3
> ! 2
> : 1
> ; 0
> , Z
> + Y
> ° X
> £ W
> ¨ V
> µ U
> % T
> § S
> / R
> . Q
> ? P
> < O
> > N
> ~ M
> # L
> { K
> [ J
> | I
> ` H
> \ G
> ^ F
> @ E
> ] D
> } C
> ¤ B
> ? A
> 
> 
> "a"
> 
> ""a""
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|982406444
115c115
< I think that the rhythm will settle down in a few months. Right now, the excitement has outstripped the technology, as you have noticed from the UgLy links that are being made. Free-form linking may not be a bad idea here, but more thinking about naming conventions may be better.
---
> I think that the rhythm will settle down in a few months. Right now, the excitement has outstripped the technology, as you have noticed from the UgLy links that are being made. Free-form linking may not be a bad idea here, but more thinking about NamingConventions may be better.
131c131
< Interesting article--but from skimming it rather quickly, it looks like more of a proposal for [http://www.dmoz.org dmoz.org] rather than for WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger
---
> Interesting article--but from skimming it rather quickly, it looks like more of a proposal for [http://www.dmoz.org dmoz.org] rather than for WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger
------
ZeuS|982407516
1c1,7
< The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
---
> The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky and thunder in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
> 
> Last son of ChronoS (SaturN for RomaN""s) who had the habit of eating his own children, he ends this tyranny with the help of his mother and rescue his brethren.
> 
> Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunoN). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with human maiden such as LedA (CastoR, PolluX, HelenA, ?), PasiphAE (MinotauruS), as well as lesser GoD""esses.
> Father of many demi-GoD""s and HeroeS such as HerakleS (HerculeS).
> Brother of PoseidoN and HadeS. 
------
ZeuS|982407802
5c5,6
< Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunoN). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with human maiden such as LedA (CastoR, PolluX, HelenA, ?), PasiphAE (MinotauruS), as well as lesser GoD""esses.
---
> Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with human maiden such as LedA (CastoR, PolluX, HelenOfTroy, Clytemnestra), PasiphAE (MinotauruS), as well as lesser GoD""esses.
> 
7c8,10
< Brother of PoseidoN and HadeS. 
---
> Brother of PoseidoN and HadeS.
> 
> His complete family vary from author to author.
------
GreekMythology|982408058
9c9,11
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO -- UlySSeS -- HeracleS -- OedipuS -- JasoN -- TheseuS -- PrometheuS
> ----
> Reference work: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982410205
2a3
> :StatisticalRegularity
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982410266
7c7
< 1) Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or '''sample space'''.
---
> #Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or '''sample space'''.
9c9
< 2) Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
---
> #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
11c11
< 3) Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
---
> #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
13c13
< 4) Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
---
> #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982410305
8d7
< 
10d8
< 
12d9
< 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982410411
2c2
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
---
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability -- ProbabilityApplications
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982410458
2,3c2,3
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability -- ProbabilityApplications
< : NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
---
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
> : ProbabilityApplications -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982410856
14a15,19
> ----
> Valuable resources on the Web
> 
> [http://www.clarkson.edu/~dobrowb/probweb/probweb1.html The Probability Web]
> [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/ Chance Database]
------
ProbabilityApplications|982411323
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics
> :NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
> 
> :RandomVariables
> :RecurrentEvents -- RenewalTheory -- RandomWalk
> :StochasticProcesses -- MarkovChains -- GamblingSystems
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
> 
------
ProbabilityApplications|982411407
1a2
> :ProbabilityDistributions
4c5
< :RandomVariables
---
> :RandomVariables -- GamblingSystems
6c7
< :StochasticProcesses -- MarkovChains -- GamblingSystems
---
> :StochasticProcesses -- MarkovChains
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982411504
3c3,4
< : ProbabilityApplications -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
---
> : ProbabilityApplications 
> : ProbabilityDistributions -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
8d8
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
19c19
< [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/ Chance Database]
---
> [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/ Chance Database]
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982411565
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982411677
1a2,3
> :ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityApplications
> :RandomVariable -- CumulativeDistributionFunction -- ProbabilityDensity
5c7
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982411775
12,14d11
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
< ----
< I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
19a17,21
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
> ----
> I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
> 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982412049
2,4c2,5
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
< : ProbabilityApplications 
< : ProbabilityDistributions -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
---
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory
> : ProbabilityApplications -- ProbabilityDistributions
> 
> : StatisticalTheory
10c11
< Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability, summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details, and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe.
---
> Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability, summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details, and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe.
------
ProbabilityTheory|982412589
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ProbabilityAndStatistics
> :ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityDistributions
> 
> The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the ProbabilityAxioms and SetTheory. 
> 
> #The sum of the probabilities for all the ''elementary events'' is one.
> #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of both events, Pr{A1*A2}, is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A1 and A2. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
> #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of either or both, Pr{A1+A2}, is given by Pr{A1}+Pr{A2}-Pr{A1*A2}
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982413191
28c28,36
< ''Please understand why I am upset.  I helped you make changes to things that you disagreed with, in an effort to achieve consensus.  I thought, and argued on your behalf, that you only wanted to present certain ideas fairly and in a neutral manner.  But I now believe that you only want to put forward your own political agenda.''
---
> ''Please understand why I am upset.  I helped you make changes to things that you disagreed with, in an effort to achieve consensus.  I thought, and argued on your behalf, that you only wanted to present certain ideas fairly and in a neutral manner.  But I now believe that you only want to put forward your own political agenda.''
> 
> Believers of ideologies other than my own can present any views they like with as much bias as they wish. The only thing I care about is that they not provide gross verifiable inaccuracies and that the historical context shows the relationships between the various ideologies (the original entry on Anarchism failed on both counts). You confuse neutrality and blandness; neutrality is impossible because reality is not neutral. As for having a political agenda, everyone has their own political agenda or follows someone else's. I find that even the most twisted libertarian arguments are more insightful and informative than the bland pap of the dominant ideology. I am not apolitical ("impartial") and my respect for other ideologies takes the form of limiting myself to pointed comments instead of taking the risk of bawlderizing them (and if you can give an explanation and references to show that my conception of anarchocapitalism is wrong then I would appreciate it). I think this is eminently fair and I am upset at your insinuations to the contrary.
> 
> Most (probably all) anarchists believe that corporations are unfair, unjust, immoral and criminal. In pointing out that corporations are psychopathic I did no more than present facts to justify this viewpoint. If other people disagree, it is only because of ignorance or irreducible ideological differences.
> 
> Corporations are psychopathic. If you take the items of the PCL-R then it is easy to see that corporations have ''all'' of the traits listed (except for a couple that are completely inapplicable). Further, the defining characteristic of psychopathy (the lack of any human empathy, of any emotional connection to human beings) is easy to observe in corporations. A common objection is that non-human entities like corporations cannot be judged by human standards. This is bogus (equivalent to the claim by Christian apologists that their god is just without being accountable to human justice) and is easily countered with the observation that cooperatives lack most (or all) of the traits that make corporations psychopathic. Another common objection is that psychopathy does not matter. At best, this is an irreducible difference in people's value judgements. At worse, these people should consult actual psychologists for their opinion on this subject.
> 
> Now, if you're going to be honest about why people don't see corporations as psychopathic then you'll have to explain that most people just refuse to think about the matter. But considering the fact that most people still hold the impression of corporations as big faceless behemoths despite the massive amounts of public relations work done by corporations to counter this impression, I wouldn't be too sure of even that much. Perhaps my opinion isn't controversial. Perhaps it's merely ''very clearly expressed'' and convincing enough that it makes people who defend corporations squirm in helpless desperation. -- RichardKulisz
------
OpenSource|982421716
7c7
< FamousOpenSoftwares:
---
> FamousOpenSoftware:
9c9
< EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, ...
---
> EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
------
ZeuS|982421968
10c10
< His complete family vary from author to author.
---
> His complete family varies from author to author.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982422160
30c30,44
< Believers of ideologies other than my own can present any views they like with as much bias as they wish. The only thing I care about is that they not provide gross verifiable inaccuracies and that the historical context shows the relationships between the various ideologies (the original entry on Anarchism failed on both counts). You confuse neutrality and blandness; neutrality is impossible because reality is not neutral. As for having a political agenda, everyone has their own political agenda or follows someone else's. I find that even the most twisted libertarian arguments are more insightful and informative than the bland pap of the dominant ideology. I am not apolitical ("impartial") and my respect for other ideologies takes the form of limiting myself to pointed comments instead of taking the risk of bawlderizing them (and if you can give an explanation and references to show that my conception of anarchocapitalism is wrong then I would appreciate it). I think this is eminently fair and I am upset at your insinuations to the contrary.
---
> ----
> Believers of ideologies other than my own can present any views they like with as much bias as they wish. 
> 
> ''No, not really.  I don't care what the ideology, it should
> not be presented.  Note the difference between stating facts about an ideology, and stating that the ideology is fact.  This goes for '''all''' ideologies.''
> 
> The only thing I care about is that they not provide gross verifiable inaccuracies and that the historical context shows the relationships between the various ideologies (the original entry on Anarchism failed on both counts).
> 
> ''And that entry was changed, right?''
> 
> You confuse neutrality and blandness; neutrality is impossible because reality is not neutral.
> 
> ''I disagree.''
> 
> As for having a political agenda, everyone has their own political agenda or follows someone else's. I find that even the most twisted libertarian arguments are more insightful and informative than the bland pap of the dominant ideology. I am not apolitical ("impartial") and my respect for other ideologies takes the form of limiting myself to pointed comments instead of taking the risk of bawlderizing them (and if you can give an explanation and references to show that my conception of anarchocapitalism is wrong then I would appreciate it). I think this is eminently fair and I am upset at your insinuations to the contrary.
36c50,52
< Now, if you're going to be honest about why people don't see corporations as psychopathic then you'll have to explain that most people just refuse to think about the matter. But considering the fact that most people still hold the impression of corporations as big faceless behemoths despite the massive amounts of public relations work done by corporations to counter this impression, I wouldn't be too sure of even that much. Perhaps my opinion isn't controversial. Perhaps it's merely ''very clearly expressed'' and convincing enough that it makes people who defend corporations squirm in helpless desperation. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Now, if you're going to be honest about why people don't see corporations as psychopathic then you'll have to explain that most people just refuse to think about the matter. But considering the fact that most people still hold the impression of corporations as big faceless behemoths despite the massive amounts of public relations work done by corporations to counter this impression, I wouldn't be too sure of even that much. Perhaps my opinion isn't controversial. Perhaps it's merely ''very clearly expressed'' and convincing enough that it makes people who defend corporations squirm in helpless desperation. -- RichardKulisz
> 
> '''Perhaps there is a better forum for this type of debate.  I'm not the least bit interested in debating with you the truth or falsehood of these claims.  I am only interested in seeing that everything gets stated in a neutral, encyclopedic manner.'''
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982422371
52c52,56
< '''Perhaps there is a better forum for this type of debate.  I'm not the least bit interested in debating with you the truth or falsehood of these claims.  I am only interested in seeing that everything gets stated in a neutral, encyclopedic manner.'''
---
> ''Perhaps there is a better forum for this type of debate.  I'm not the least bit interested in debating with you the truth or falsehood of these claims.  I am only interested in seeing that everything gets stated in a neutral, encyclopedic manner.''
> 
> ''I think you might achieve some personal growth if you came to understand and respect that the vast majority of serious political scientists and economists, those who '''have''' thought seriously about these issues, disagree with you.  That need not mean that you are wrong, of course, but it does mean that you should drop the pretense that your opponents are either ignorant or irreducibly ideologically unconvincable.''
> 
> ''But none of that has to do with the wikipedia.  There is no need for us to settle debates about the truth of anarchy.  What there needs to be, though, is some understanding from you that an encyclopedia is not the appropriate forum for you to promote your ideology.''
------
PigLatin|982422672
6a7,15
> ----
> Question: is PigLatin primarily a phenomenon of children in English speaking countries, or are the same rules followed by children of other countries?
> 
> watashi wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
> "I am a Japanese language student"
> 
> In Japanese language, I believe that the syllable is more of a fundamental unit that 'consonant' or 'vowel'.  (Japanese characters, hiragana and katakana, form a syllabary rather than an alphabet.)  So little kids in Japan would probably follow a different set of rules to create their own mock language.
> 
> I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.
------
TheWillToPower|982423866
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A interesting link: http://nietzsche.ps.uni-sb.de
------
EduCation|982424377
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All education is instructional and all instruction is educational( Herbart )
------
PigLatin|982430658
15c15,20
< I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.
---
> I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.-----
> 
> I know nothing of this, but if I were a Japanese child, I would say your sentence something like;
> 
> Takushi-watsu wa-watsu hongo-nitsu notsu kusei-gatsu su-detsu...:-). Just guessing.
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu)
------
HungarianLanguage|982431654
5c5
< The PassiveVoice is almost extinct (one can find it in old litterary
---
> The PassiveVoice is almost extinct (one can find it in old literary
15c15
< As an apetizer, an extract for the verb "to be" in hungarian, lenni.
---
> As an appetizer, an extract for the verb "to be" in hungarian, lenni.
32a33
> When you say the mark for the plural is "k," are you referring to verbs (as it seems) or nouns too? RoseParks
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982437046
1c1
< The ''binomial distribution function'' provides the probability that X success will occur in N trials of a ''binomial experiment''. 
---
> The ''binomial distribution density function'' provides the probability that X success will occur in N trials of a ''binomial experiment''. 
------
OpenSource|982437452
1c1
< A large movement of PROgrammeR's, CitiZenS and other ComputerUserS to give easy access to TechnoLogy, restrict the mania of CopyRight.
---
> Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the FreeSoftwareFoundation, and then licensed out according to an OpenSourceLicense; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the SourceCode, so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
3c3
< Among the relevant topics:
---
> The OpenSourceMovement is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
5c5
< DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, the GNUProjecT, the FsF, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD.
---
> Among the relevant topics:
7c7
< FamousOpenSoftware:
---
> DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman
9c9
< EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
---
> The GNUProjecT, FreeSoftwareFoundation, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD
10a11
> OpenSourceSoftware: EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
------
BinomialDistribution|982437599
3c3
< To get a result of X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and the probability of a tail is q (1-p), then X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated by multiplying X p's times N-X q's or (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/X!/(N-X)! different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
---
> To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)) giving (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
5c5
<    N!/X!/(N-X)! p^X q^(N-X)
---
>    N!/(X!*(N-X)!) p^X q^(N-X)
------
BinomialDistribution|982437727
3c3
< To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)) giving (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
---
> To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)) giving (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
------
BinomialDistribution|982437860
3c3
< To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)) giving (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
---
> To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
------
PigLatin|982438163
2,6c2,7
< *for words that begin with consonants, move the leading consonant(s) to the end of the word and add "ay."  Thus, "ball" becomes "all-bay"; "button" becomes "utton-bay"; "star" becomes "ar-stay"; "three" becomes "ee-thray."
< *for words beginning with "qu," move the "qu" to the end of the word and add ay. Thus "question" becomes "estion-quay,"
< *for words that begin with vowels, simply add "ay" to the end of the word.  Thus, "a" becomes "a-ay" (or "a-yay"); "at" becomes "at-ay" (or "at-tay"); "ermine" becomes "ermine-ay."
< Is-thay is-ay an-ay example-ay of-ay Ig-pay Atin-Lay.  As-ay ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-ay upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-ay un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay----
< Ice-nay escription-day, octor-day anager-say!!! Ig-pay atin-lay is-ay un-fay or-fay ome-say adults-ay. Ou-yay eem-say ite-quay uent-flay, I-ay otice-nay.--OseRayArksPay--
---
> *For words that begin with consonants, move the leading consonant(s) to the end of the word and add "ay."  Thus, "ball" becomes "all-bay"; "button" becomes "utton-bay"; "star" becomes "ar-stay"; "three" becomes "ee-thray";
> *for words beginning with "qu," move the "qu" to the end of the word and add ay. Thus "question" becomes "estion-quay"; and
> *for words that begin with vowels, simply add "way" to the end of the word.  Thus, "a" becomes "a-way"; "at" becomes "at-way"; "ermine" becomes "ermine-way."
> Is-thay is-way an-way example-way of-way Ig-pay Atin-lay.  As-way ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-way upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-way un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
> ----
> Ice-nay escription-day, Octor-day Anger-say!!! Ig-pay Atin-lay is-way un-fay or-fay ome-say adults-ay. Ou-yay eem-say ite-quay uent-flay, I-way otice-nay.--OseRayArksPay--
10,11c11,12
< watashi wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
< "I am a Japanese language student"
---
> :watashi wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
> :"I am a Japanese language student"
15,16c16,17
< I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.-----
< 
---
> I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.
> -----
20c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu)
------
PigLatin|982438341
21c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
------
PigLatin|982438393
21c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCenetric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
------
PigLatin|982438511
1c1
< ''Pig Latin'' is a silly "language" created from any other language as follows:
---
> ''Pig Latin'' is a silly "language" that can be created from, i.e., based on, any other language (but we would like to know if it is widely based on languages other than English) as follows:
21c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
------
GreekMythology|982445345
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO -- UlySSeS -- HeracleS -- OedipuS -- JasoN -- TheseuS -- PrometheuS
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO -- OdyssEus -- HeracleS -- OedipUs -- JasoN -- ThesEus -- PromethEus
11c11
< Reference work: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse
---
> Reference work: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse
------
ZeuS|982446123
5c5
< Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with human maiden such as LedA (CastoR, PolluX, HelenOfTroy, Clytemnestra), PasiphAE (MinotauruS), as well as lesser GoD""esses.
---
> Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with various goddesses - notably DemeteR, LetO, DionE, MaiA, etc - and mortal women - notably SemelE, Io, EuropA, LedA, etc.
------
ZeuS|982446276
5c5
< Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistoS (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with various goddesses - notably DemeteR, LetO, DionE, MaiA, etc - and mortal women - notably SemelE, Io, EuropA, LedA, etc.
---
> Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistOs (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with various goddesses - notably DemeteR, LetO, DionE, MaiA, etc - and mortal women - notably SemelE, Io, EuropA, LedA, etc.
7,10c7
< Father of many demi-GoD""s and HeroeS such as HerakleS (HerculeS).
< Brother of PoseidoN and HadeS.
< 
< His complete family varies from author to author.
---
> As a result, father of many demi-GoD""s and HeroeS such as HerakleS (HerculeS).  The Greeks considered him to probably still be producing moral offspring.  Brother of PoseidoN, HadeS, HestIa, HerA and DemeteR.
------
GreekMythology|982449779
1c1
< The legends and religion of the HellenicCivilization.  These stories were familiar to everyone, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
---
> The legends and religion of Hellenic (Greek) civilization (see GreekCivilization).  These stories were familiar to all ancient Greeks, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
3c3
< The Greek gods are given human form, but are first and foremost personifications of the forces of the universe.  As such they are more or less unchanging, and while they sometimes have a sense of justice, they are often petty or vengeful.  The god's favors are bought by sacrifices and piety, but this does not guarantee them, and they are prone to frequent changes of mind.  Their anger is harsh and their love can be just as dangerous.
---
> In Greek mythology, the Greek gods are given human form, but are first and foremost personifications of the forces of the universe.  As such they are more or less unchanging, and while they sometimes have a sense of justice, they are often petty or vengeful.  The gods' favors are bought by sacrifices and piety, but this does not guarantee them, and they are prone to frequent changes of mind.  Their anger is harsh and their love can be just as dangerous.
5c5
< The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology.  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
---
> The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology (see, for example, TheIliad and TheOdyssey).  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
11c11
< Reference work: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse
---
> Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
------
HungarianLanguage|982450510
1c1,7
< A few facts:
---
> Magyar Nyelv
> 
> A few facts about (modern) hungarian.
> 
> Hungarian /VocabularY contains many words derived from TurkishLanguage, GermanLanguage, SlavicLanguages but is quite original and colorful.
> 
> Hungarian has many different /CaseS (esetek), most common are NominativeCase, AccusativeCase, DativeCase, InstrumentalCase, FinalCase, SuperessiveCase, InessiveCase, ElativeCase, TerminativeCase, DelativeCase. There is also a FormalCase and a few other ones. I usually start learning a language by learning how to count and the days of the week. Here are /NumberS (számok).
4,6c10,11
< for stressing and denoting.
< The PassiveVoice is almost extinct (one can find it in old literary
< texts).
---
> for stressing and denoting. Words can be combined (as in GermaN) and derived (with suffixes and affixes).
> The PassiveVoice is almost extinct (one can find it in old literary texts).
8,9c13,14
< The mark for PluraL is a suffixed -k, eventually preceded by a VoweL
< when the WorD ends by a ConsonanT
---
> Many grammatical and syntaxical functions, elements or constructions are based on suffixes. 
> The mark for PluraL is a suffixed -k, eventually preceded by a VoweL when the WorD ends by a ConsonanT
15c20
< As an appetizer, an extract for the verb "to be" in hungarian, lenni.
---
> As an appetizer for a more complete vocabulary (szókincs), an extract for the verb "to be" in hungarian, lenni.
17c22,24
< Forms are presented in this order    I, Thou, He/She/It, We, You, They
---
> Forms are presented in this order
> I, Thou, He/She/It, We, You, They
> én, te, ´´o, mi, ti, ´´ok
22c29
< PastTense: voltam, volt'al, volt, voltunk, voltatok, voltak
---
> PastTense: voltam, voltál, volt, voltunk, voltatok, voltak
33c40,42
< When you say the mark for the plural is "k," are you referring to verbs (as it seems) or nouns too? RoseParks
---
> When you say the mark for the plural is "k," are you referring to verbs (as it seems) or nouns too? --RoseParks
> 
> 'That is one of the beauty of the thing: both.' Example: <b>kérdés</b> a question, <b>három kérdések</b> three questions. 
------
HungarianLanguage|982450577
22a23
> 
23a25
> 
26c28,30
< <b>IndicativeMode</b>
---
> 
> *<b>IndicativeMode</b>
> 
34c38,39
< <b>ConditionalMode</b>
---
> *<b>ConditionalMode</b>
> 
------
RulesToConsider|982451429
9c9
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales, AyeSpy
---
> Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales, AyeSpy, OprgaG
11a12,13
> 
> ''Well, what about the related paradox that there is no Rule to decide that something is a Rule (and so should be ignored)'' --OprgaG
------
OprgaG|982452205
65c65
< Indeed, I should have seen the WhichWikiShouldWeUse page sooner.
---
> Indeed, I should have seen the WhichWikiShouldWeUse page sooner. And by the way my start of OpenSource page was rather bad. Glad you edited it.
71c71,72
< NamingConventions
---
> NamingConventions WikiProcess TechFAQ ModeratioN CestQuoiWiki
> CestQuoiWikiPedia
------
FoodAndDrinks|982454566
12c12
< * AsianCuisine
---
> * AsianCuisine: -- JapaneseCuisine -- CantoneseCuisine -- ThaiCuisine -- IndonesianCuisine -- IndianCuisine
14c14
< * MediterraneanCuisine
---
> * MediterraneanCuisine: -- TurkishCuisine -- GreekCuisine
------
OpenSource|982456130
4a5,6
> There is widespread agreement, but some tension, between the OpenSourceMovement and the FreeSoftwareMovement.
> 
7c9,10
< DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman
---
> DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, LinusTorvalds, EricRaymond,
> PaulVixie
11c14,17
< OpenSourceSoftware: EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
---
> OpenSourceSoftware: EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
> 
> ''Please delete this note after confirmation/disconfirmation:
> I'm not sure that TeX is OpenSource.''
------
PigLatin|982456412
21c21,24
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
> ----
> I will ask my Japanese teacher (nihongo no sensei) next week.  I don't have class until Wednesday, due to the holiday on Monday.
> Hopefully I won't forget, but someone can please remind me.  I can also ask my Japanese mother-in-law.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982457122
3,16c3
< I made some more edits, and totally omitted the stuff equating 
< "criminal versatility" with corporate mergers.  That's just too propagandistic to stand.
< 
< I'm tempted to edit even more, because I feel that Richard has violated etiquette here.  I've gone to the mat trying to help remove what Richard perceived as bias from Tim's description of anarchy, and I'm repaid with propaganda?  I figure I'm too annoyed right now to make all the changes that this article now needs.
< 
<  -- JimboWales
< 
< This convenient definition of propaganda as "an argument or viewpoint I strongly disagree with that may be widely convincing to others" destroys the value of the wikipedia.
< 
< ''It would be, if that were my definition; however it is not.  In this context, I mean obviously inflammatory statements designed to prejudice the reader without rational merit.''
< 
< Is the purpose of an encyclopedia to establish facts or is it to promulgate some dominant point of view? 
< 
< ''To present facts.  We can present facts _about_ bizarre points of view such as yours, but we must not present your bizarre point of view _as fact_.  I'm sure you can see the difference.''
---
> ----
18c5
< Because if your objection is based on what I said being controversial instead of inaccurate (which it is not) then you've decided it's the latter.
---
> ''Perhaps there is a better forum for this type of debate.  I'm not the least bit interested in debating with you the truth or falsehood of these claims.  I am only interested in seeing that everything gets stated in a neutral, encyclopedic manner.''
20c7
< ''My objection is '''precisely''' that what you wrote is inaccurate.  I am willing to go further than inaccurate and say it was nonsense.''
---
> ''I think you might achieve some personal growth if you came to understand and respect that the vast majority of serious political scientists and economists, those who '''have''' thought seriously about these issues, disagree with you.  That need not mean that you are wrong, of course, but it does mean that you should drop the pretense that your opponents are either ignorant or irreducibly ideologically unconvincable.''
22c9
< Unless you believe the views of anarchists to be outright lies then I don't see what rational basis there can be to suppress them on a page whose express purpose is explaining the views, beliefs and actions of anarchists. 
---
> ''But none of that has to do with the wikipedia.  There is no need for us to settle debates about the truth of anarchy.  What there needs to be, though, is some understanding from you that an encyclopedia is not the appropriate forum for you to promote your ideology.''
24c11
< ''Even if the views of anarchists are outright lies, that is no reason to suppress an encyclopedic discussion of those views.  It is a good reason to omit inflammatory falsehoods that fail to shed light on anything.''
---
> You can't define the difference between description and honest advocacy because there isn't one. Your "neutrality" is just a cover for pushing the mainstream ideology, which surprise surprise gets the special status of not being treated as an ideology. 
26c13
< ''If you want to write 'Anarchists believe that corporate mergers are an instance of criminal flexibility', I will have no complaint about that.  But I will add a paragraph pointing out why many other people will disagree.''
---
> As for economists and political scientists, they are bought wholesale by rich capitalists. I don't give any credit to people dumb enough to claim that war is a good thing, as free market economists do. And there's a serious problem when some of the best political science in North America is done by a linguist. I'm hardly going to respect academics that have forfeited their duties to an outsider in favour of selling themselves to the highest bidder. I have no idea what kind of "personal growth" you're talking about but given what you say is required to achive it, I know I want no part of it.
28c15
< ''Please understand why I am upset.  I helped you make changes to things that you disagreed with, in an effort to achieve consensus.  I thought, and argued on your behalf, that you only wanted to present certain ideas fairly and in a neutral manner.  But I now believe that you only want to put forward your own political agenda.''
---
> The only argument you can make which I would accept as valid is that facts about corporations belong in an entry on corporations and not on anarchism. You have conspicuously failed to make that argument. I can just imagine how horrified you would be if I described in explicit detail exactly how psychopathic corporations are on ModernCorporation. Further, if you were neutral you would limit yourself to editing in "Anarchists believe" and not threaten to insert something equivalent to "but they are completely wrong since nobody believes them blah blah blah". I do not for a single second believe your pretense at "neutrality".
30,31c17
< ----
< Believers of ideologies other than my own can present any views they like with as much bias as they wish. 
---
> You also wrote:
36,56c22
< The only thing I care about is that they not provide gross verifiable inaccuracies and that the historical context shows the relationships between the various ideologies (the original entry on Anarchism failed on both counts).
< 
< ''And that entry was changed, right?''
< 
< You confuse neutrality and blandness; neutrality is impossible because reality is not neutral.
< 
< ''I disagree.''
< 
< As for having a political agenda, everyone has their own political agenda or follows someone else's. I find that even the most twisted libertarian arguments are more insightful and informative than the bland pap of the dominant ideology. I am not apolitical ("impartial") and my respect for other ideologies takes the form of limiting myself to pointed comments instead of taking the risk of bawlderizing them (and if you can give an explanation and references to show that my conception of anarchocapitalism is wrong then I would appreciate it). I think this is eminently fair and I am upset at your insinuations to the contrary.
< 
< Most (probably all) anarchists believe that corporations are unfair, unjust, immoral and criminal. In pointing out that corporations are psychopathic I did no more than present facts to justify this viewpoint. If other people disagree, it is only because of ignorance or irreducible ideological differences.
< 
< Corporations are psychopathic. If you take the items of the PCL-R then it is easy to see that corporations have ''all'' of the traits listed (except for a couple that are completely inapplicable). Further, the defining characteristic of psychopathy (the lack of any human empathy, of any emotional connection to human beings) is easy to observe in corporations. A common objection is that non-human entities like corporations cannot be judged by human standards. This is bogus (equivalent to the claim by Christian apologists that their god is just without being accountable to human justice) and is easily countered with the observation that cooperatives lack most (or all) of the traits that make corporations psychopathic. Another common objection is that psychopathy does not matter. At best, this is an irreducible difference in people's value judgements. At worse, these people should consult actual psychologists for their opinion on this subject.
< 
< Now, if you're going to be honest about why people don't see corporations as psychopathic then you'll have to explain that most people just refuse to think about the matter. But considering the fact that most people still hold the impression of corporations as big faceless behemoths despite the massive amounts of public relations work done by corporations to counter this impression, I wouldn't be too sure of even that much. Perhaps my opinion isn't controversial. Perhaps it's merely ''very clearly expressed'' and convincing enough that it makes people who defend corporations squirm in helpless desperation. -- RichardKulisz
< 
< ''Perhaps there is a better forum for this type of debate.  I'm not the least bit interested in debating with you the truth or falsehood of these claims.  I am only interested in seeing that everything gets stated in a neutral, encyclopedic manner.''
< 
< ''I think you might achieve some personal growth if you came to understand and respect that the vast majority of serious political scientists and economists, those who '''have''' thought seriously about these issues, disagree with you.  That need not mean that you are wrong, of course, but it does mean that you should drop the pretense that your opponents are either ignorant or irreducibly ideologically unconvincable.''
< 
< ''But none of that has to do with the wikipedia.  There is no need for us to settle debates about the truth of anarchy.  What there needs to be, though, is some understanding from you that an encyclopedia is not the appropriate forum for you to promote your ideology.''
---
> So you don't care what's written so long as there are sufficiently long disclaimers and any insight is couched in super-bland language? But that just promotes the view that all political philosophies are "unreasonable" and causes people to become apolitical. And that's the problem right there. Apoliticizing people is not being "neutral", it's promoting the dominant ideology. I've tried to write in a bland "neutral" style before and I only got disgusted at how ''dishonest'' it was. "Don't look at the man behind the curtain people! Nothing to see! Move along!" People can observe the different non-standard ideologies like animals in a zoo but oh horrors if they start believing any of them! Like I already said, the most twisted and biased libertarian tripe is infinitely more insightful and informative than the bland apolitical tripe you seem to want to promote.
------
ArchitecturE|982458154
2a3,6
> 
> ----
> 
> Some great architects are ChristopherAlexander and FrankLloydWright.
------
PoLitics|982458981
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
21c21
< IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- RightWing
---
> IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
---
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
30c30
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
32c32
< ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- RobertNozick
---
> ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982460591
14a15,16
> "[I]f there is a body of theory, well tested and verified, that applies to the conduct of foreign affairs or the resolution of domestic or international conflict, its existence has been kept a well-guarded secret, despite much pseudo-scientific posturing." -- NoamChomsky, the linguist in question
> 
22c24
< So you don't care what's written so long as there are sufficiently long disclaimers and any insight is couched in super-bland language? But that just promotes the view that all political philosophies are "unreasonable" and causes people to become apolitical. And that's the problem right there. Apoliticizing people is not being "neutral", it's promoting the dominant ideology. I've tried to write in a bland "neutral" style before and I only got disgusted at how ''dishonest'' it was. "Don't look at the man behind the curtain people! Nothing to see! Move along!" People can observe the different non-standard ideologies like animals in a zoo but oh horrors if they start believing any of them! Like I already said, the most twisted and biased libertarian tripe is infinitely more insightful and informative than the bland apolitical tripe you seem to want to promote.
---
> So you don't care what's written so long as there are sufficiently long disclaimers and any insight is couched in super-bland language? But that just promotes the view that all political philosophies are "unreasonable" and causes people to become apolitical. And that's the problem right there. Apoliticizing people is not being "neutral", it's promoting the dominant ideology. I've tried to write in a bland "neutral" style before and I only got disgusted at how ''dishonest'' it was. "Don't look at the man behind the curtain people! Nothing to see! Move along!" People can observe the different non-standard ideologies like animals in a zoo but oh horrors if they start believing any of them! Like I already said, the most twisted and biased libertarian tripe is infinitely more insightful and informative than the bland apolitical tripe you seem to want to promote.
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982460864
24a25,50
> ----
> Probably against my better judgment, I'm going to reply to you, Richard.  I think you simply fail to understand some things.  You might not be capable of understanding them yet, but I'll give it a shot.  I'll try to explain these things ''once,'' and then let you go on believing whatever it is you want to believe.
> 
> :You can't define the difference between description and honest advocacy because there isn't one. Your "neutrality" is just a cover for pushing the mainstream ideology, which surprise surprise gets the special status of not being treated as an ideology. 
> 
> This claim is completely unjustified, and frankly, it's just silly.  ''Why'' is it that a description of what people believe, without explicitly advocating any particular belief, is "a cover for pushing the mainstream ideology"?  I'm not ''aware'' of covering for anything, and I hope I'm a smart and honest enough person to be able to see if I am.  Many people--many philosophers, for example--are very capable of writing encyclopedia articles (see, e.g., my favorite encyclopedia, ''The Companion to Epistemology'') that fairly present various views without advocating any one of them.  But some of these philosophers hold ''extreme'' views of one sort or another.  Certainly they don't ''mean'' to be plugging for "the mainstream ideology" (or whatever the mainstream view on the question at hand is).  And none of their audience would be so silly as to assume that they were advocates for "the mainstream ideology," either.  If you think so, you simply don't understand the dialectical dynamic that's going on.
> 
> When you're writing for mature adults who can think for themselves, it simply ''insults their intelligence'' to assume that presenting views neutrally, or unbiasedly, will cause them to think that you are plugging for "the mainstream ideology."  Even more it insults their intelligence to presume to be writing an ''informational'' article which openly attempts to influence their views, as though the text from which they would most be likely to form their views would be an obviously biased encyclopedia article.  That's not what most people use encyclopedias for.
> 
> :As for economists and political scientists, they are bought wholesale by rich capitalists.
> 
> I don't even know what that ''means.''  Do you mean that they are all paid by corporations for advocating capitalism?  If so, that's silly.  First of all, they don't all advocate capitalism, and second, of course, they aren't all paid by corporations.  Many of them work for universities or as independent consultants, writers, and thinktank operatives.  More importantly, you insult them by assuming that they do not--whether due to inability, greed, coercion, or whatever other reason--use their own brains in deciding what to write.
> 
> :I have no idea what kind of "personal growth" you're talking about but given what you say is required to achive it, I know I want no part of it.
> 
> No, Jimmy meant it quite literally, and I understand exactly what he means.  You have to start treating your opponents as living, breathing human beings with brilliant brains of their own, not as automata.  One of the implications of this is that these people deserve your ''respect'' as living, breathing human beings with brains, sometimes brilliant, of their own.  They may not deserve your agreement, you don't have to like them, and you can even think that they're corrupt or evil for advocating the wrong thing.  But don't treat them like mindless, idiotic automata.
> 
> :So you don't care what's written so long as there are sufficiently long disclaimers and any insight is couched in super-bland language? But that just promotes the view that all political philosophies are "unreasonable" and causes people to become apolitical.
> 
> This is another fairly straightforward ''non sequitur.''  By assuming that people will form their political opinions based on what ''you'' have written in an ''encyclopedia article'' for ''Wikipedia,'' you fail to respect the fact that they have brains of their own and can make up their own minds, thank you very much.  They will, most of them, be able to spot your propaganda as such immediately--part of being educated involves being able to spot it, after all.  If they're at all educated, and they happen not to agree with you, they'll simply be nauseated.  Your cause will not be advanced.
> 
> Disclaimers, hedging, and so forth does not necessarily make writing ''bland.''  Propagandizing certainly does not necessarily make writing ''interesting'' (quite the opposite, for me).
> 
> Obviously, anyway, writing from a neutral point of view certainly does not have a tendency to make people "apolitical."  Why would it?  That's an empirical question; where's your data?  I'm very skeptical.  And quite the contrary, I would say that transparently propagandistic ways of presenting political views has a way of turning people off to thinking about politics.  If, as in many people's college careers, they are exposed to nothing but partisan screed when it comes to politics, those who want to rely as much as possible on ''their own native reason'' to decide what to think are necessarily turned off.
> 
> --LarrySanger
------
PoLitics|982460907
28c28
< PoliticalPhilosophy: TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
---
> PoliticalPhilosophy: TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- RawlsMoralPhilosophy -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
------
PoLitics|982460948
32c32
< ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
---
> ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- JohnRawls -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
------
NamingConventions|982461793
95c95,97
< ----
---
> ----
> 
> I'd appreciate other parties to jump in on the discussion Cliff and I are having on http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FreeLink. What do you think about the canonicalization (c14n) concept? That would make a link like <nowiki>[[John F. Kennedy]] into john_f_kennedy which would match correctly against [[John F Kennedy]] as well.</nowiki> -- SunirShah
------
NamingConventions|982461909
97c97
< I'd appreciate other parties to jump in on the discussion Cliff and I are having on http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FreeLink. What do you think about the canonicalization (c14n) concept? That would make a link like <nowiki>[[John F. Kennedy]] into john_f_kennedy which would match correctly against [[John F Kennedy]] as well.</nowiki> -- SunirShah
---
> I'd appreciate other parties to jump in on the discussion Cliff and I are having on http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FreeLink. What do you think about the canonicalization (c14n) concept? That would make a link like <nowiki>[[John F. Kennedy]] into john_f_kennedy which would match correctly against [[John F Kennedy]] and JohnFKennedy as well.</nowiki> -- SunirShah
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982470209
50c50,58
< --LarrySanger
---
> --LarrySanger
> 
> I find it amusing how you can accuse me of insulting the intelligence of educated and "brilliant" people while you simultaneously insult the intelligence of uneducated (and presumably "dull") people. You assume that if someone believes my plain words then it is because they are stupid, uneducated and propagandized. Your target audience is the middle-class and academics while mine is "lower", the ''real'' people with ''real'' concerns. Economists who talk incessantly about irrelevant social constructs like the stock market, instead of real concerns like famines and poverty, bore me to tears. And I propose that the political and emotional disengagement of academics (only academics buy the myth of the radical academic) makes them into something less than real human beings. If "partisan screeds" turn college students off then it is merely because they feel threatened by real emotional engagement (which entails real commitment) instead of the abstract airy fairy ''game'' called 'politics' that is so common in academia and which costs academics nothing.
> 
> My position is backed up by ample facts and most students of propaganda (including the likes of Jacques Ellul and Noam Chomsky). Far from education being about detecting propaganda, it is nothing but a system of indoctrination. Further, the highly intelligent and educated are inherently easier to propagandize than the rest of the population, even before you factor in the massive (professional) arrogance you have displayed.
> 
> I have no wish to disengage myself emotionally or politically. When I read about gross exploitation and injustice, it awakens a core of anger and hatred in me every single time. It isn't because I'm stupider or less intelligent than you are but simply because I haven't grown the apathy you seem to possess (or at least are accustomed to from your peers). This is something I like about myself and I will hardly "grow" to change it. Nor do I have any wish to engage in the dishonesty of emulating the walking dead. And hence I have no wish to use emotionally void language (which is the only meaning of "neutral" I can discern). The idea of arguing in an insanely calm manner about the "flaws" of democracy (to give one example) strikes a note of horror in me.
> 
> Now, if you tell me that encyclopedias are inherently academic and middle-class artifacts then I am prepared to accept your judgement on the matter. You would be confirming my suspicions. In that case, I would limit my participation appropriately. -- RichardKulisz
------
TraditionalAnarchism/Talk|982485134
58c58,62
< Now, if you tell me that encyclopedias are inherently academic and middle-class artifacts then I am prepared to accept your judgement on the matter. You would be confirming my suspicions. In that case, I would limit my participation appropriately. -- RichardKulisz
---
> Now, if you tell me that encyclopedias are inherently academic and middle-class artifacts then I am prepared to accept your judgement on the matter. You would be confirming my suspicions. In that case, I would limit my participation appropriately. -- RichardKulisz
> ----
> Richard, you ''still'' aren't understanding, because you are too full of yourself and stubborn to even try to understand what I said; and you have ''totally'' failed to demonstrate that you have.  I don't see any point in talking to someone who isn't going to make the effort of meeting me halfway.
> 
> Once again, more evidence that we should just write articles instead of engaging in this sort of pointless, sophomoric mental masturbation.  If you don't want to do so, Richard, and you prefer to engage in the above sort of ranting on this wiki, I would suggest you stop wasting our time and "limit your participation appropriately." -- LarrySanger
------
NicolasCage|982492224
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FrancisFordCoppola's nephew.
> 
> /Filmography
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982492676
1c1,2
< : MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> : back to MathematicsAndStatistics
> 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982492802
12c12
< Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability, summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details, and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe.
---
> Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability (PlanningResearch), summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details (SummarizingStatisticalData), and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (InterpretingStatisticalData).
------
NicolasCage/Filmography|982492870
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> NicolasCage participated in the following films:
> 
> * TheFamilyMan — 2000
> * GoneInSixtySeconds — 2000
> * BringingOutTheDead — 1999
> * 8MM — 1999
> * CityOfAngels — 1998
> * SnakeEyes — 1998
> * FaceOff — 1997
> * ConAir — 1997
> * TheRock — 1996
> * LeavingLasVegas — 1995 - Best Actor Academy Award (''see AcademyAwards'')
> * KissOfDeath — 1995
> * ItCouldHappenToYou — 1994
> * TrappedInParadise — 1994
> * GuardingTess — 1994
> * ACenturyOfCinema — 1994
> * AmosAndAndrew — 1993
> * DeadfalL — 1993
> * HoneymoonInVegas — 1992
> * RedRockWest — 1992
> * ZandaleE — 1991
> * WildAtHeart — 1990
> * FirebirdS — 1990
> * VampiresKiss — 1989
> * TimeToKill — 1989
> * RaisingArizona — 1987
> * MoonstrucK — 1987
> * TheBoyInBlue — 1986
> * PeggySueGotMarried — 1986
> * BirdY — 1984
> * TheCottonClub — 1984
> * RacingWithTheMoon — 1984
> * RumbleFish — 1983
> * ValleyGirl — 1983
> 
>  
>  
------
NicolasCage|982493043
1c1
< FrancisFordCoppola's nephew.
---
> NicolasCage was born on January 7th, 1964 in CaliforniA. He is FrancisFordCoppola's nephew.
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982493124
9c9
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. The simplest form of the theory begins with a ''universe'', a finite set of ''elementary events''. We define a ''weighting function'' which maps each elementary event into a non-negative number called the ''weight'' of the elementary event. We can represent any ''event'' by a subset of the universe. The probability of the event is the sum of the weights for all the elementary events in the subset divided by the sum of the weights for the whole universe. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the definition above directly.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. ProbabilityAxioms form the basis for mathematical ProbabilityTheory. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the definition above directly. ProbabilityApplications include more than Statistics, which is usually based on the idea of ProbabilityDistributions.
------
ScienceFictionFilm|982493476
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lot of ScienceFiction films were low-budget productions (eg. Day of the Triffids), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
> 
> StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 -- MissionToMars
------
ScienceFiction|982493540
19a20
> * ScienceFictionFilm
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982493645
9c9
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. ProbabilityAxioms form the basis for mathematical ProbabilityTheory. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the definition above directly. ProbabilityApplications include more than Statistics, which is usually based on the idea of ProbabilityDistributions.
---
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
10a11
> ProbabilityAxioms form the basis for mathematical ProbabilityTheory. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the axioms directly. ProbabilityApplications include even more than Statistics, which is usually based on the idea of ProbabilityDistributions.
12c13,16
< Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. We describe a universe of possible observations and the probabilities we associate with each. This allows us to plan our observations to control their variability (PlanningResearch), summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details (SummarizingStatisticalData), and reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (InterpretingStatisticalData).
---
> ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. We describe our knowledge (and ignorance) mathematically and attempt to learn more from whatever we can observe. This requires us to 
> #plan our observations to control their variability (PlanningResearch), 
> #summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details (SummarizingStatisticalData), and 
> #reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (InterpretingStatisticalData).
------
FiLm|982493741
7c7
< ActorS -- ActresseS
---
> ActorS -- ActresseS -- FilmDirectors
------
FilmDirectors|982493876
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MartinScorcese - OliverStone -- StephenSpielberg -- GeorgeLucas -- JohnWoo -- QuentinTarrantino -- JamesCameron -- WimWenders -- MikeFiggis
------
StatisticalTheory|982494134
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory
> 
> : PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
> 
> The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics, in PlanningResearch 
> 
> #ExperimentalDesign
> #SurveySampling
> 
> SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> #FittingProbabilityDistributions
> #ChoosingSummaryStatistics
> 
> and InterpretingStatisticalData.
> 
> #StatisticalAssumptions
> #LikelihoodPrinciple
> #EstimatingParameters
> #TestingHypotheses
> #RevisingOpinions
> 
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ActorS|982494162
4a5
> :CharlieChaplin
------
StatisticalTheory|982494213
9c9
< #ExperimentalDesign
---
> #DesigningExperiments
14d13
< #FittingProbabilityDistributions
15a15
> #FittingProbabilityDistributions
26c26
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
FilmDirectors|982494236
1c1
< MartinScorcese - OliverStone -- StephenSpielberg -- GeorgeLucas -- JohnWoo -- QuentinTarrantino -- JamesCameron -- WimWenders -- MikeFiggis
---
> MartinScorcese - OliverStone -- StephenSpielberg -- GeorgeLucas -- JohnWoo -- QuentinTarrantino -- JamesCameron -- WimWenders -- MikeFiggis -- StanleyKubrick - FrancisFordCoppola
------
StatisticalTheory|982494581
5c5
< : PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
7c7
< The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics, in PlanningResearch 
---
> PlanningResearch to achieve the least possible ObservationalError:
12c12
< SummarizingStatisticalData
---
> SummarizingStatisticalData in conventional forms 
17c17
< and InterpretingStatisticalData.
---
> InterpretingStatisticalData is the final objective of all research:
------
ChoosingSummaryStatistics|982495117
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> The easiest way to approach this subject is to focus on what we have and what we want to achieve:
> 
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendancy and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
>  
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
CentralTendancy|982495349
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most commonly used measures of central tendancy are the 
> #MeaN, the sum of all data divided by the number of data in the SeT
> #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the SeT of data
> #MoDe, the most common value in the SeT of data
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
MeaN|982495440
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to CentralTendancy -- SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
> 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
StatisticalTheory|982495566
14,15c14,15
< #ChoosingSummaryStatistics
< #FittingProbabilityDistributions
---
> #Choosing SummaryStatistics
> #Fitting ProbabilityDistributions
------
SummaryStatistics|982495727
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> The easiest way to approach this subject is to focus on what we have and what we want to achieve:
> 
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendancy and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
>  
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
CentralTendancy|982495899
0a1,4
> : back to SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
> 
> '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire DataSet.
> 
6c10,11
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
CentralTendancy|982495977
3c3
< '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire DataSet.
---
> '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire DataSeT.
6,8c6,8
< #MeaN, the sum of all data divided by the number of data in the SeT
< #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the SeT of data
< #MoDe, the most common value in the SeT of data
---
> #MeaN, the sum of all data divided by the number of DataSeT.
> #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the DataSeT.
> #MoDe, the most common value in the DataSeT.
------
DataSeT|982496134
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> A SeT of data consisting of:
> #a list of ResearchSubjects and
> #the DataVector associated with each.
> ---- 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
ResearchSubjects|982496305
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> In BioStatistics or PsychologicalStatistics, we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to or have observed a research subject. 
> ---- 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
StarWars|982496320
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> # /EpisodeOne
> # ???
> # ???
> # /StarWars
> # /TheEmpireStrikesBack
> # /TheReturnOfTheJedi
------
StarWars|982496520
0a1,2
> An epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the Empire to dominate the GalaxY.
> 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982496597
17a18,23
> There are some ScienCes which use statistics so extensively that we recognize special disciplines like:
> #BioStatistics (including MedicalStatistics)
> #PsychologicalStatistics
> #BusinessStatistics and EconomicStatistics
> #EngineeringStatistics
> #SocialStatistics (for all the ''social'' sciences)
------
ScienCes|982496633
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see ScienCe
------
BioStatistics|982496913
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> The applications of StatisticS to BiologicalScience are very diverse, but several deserve special mention:
> #Population Genetics
> #Medicine and PublicHealth (see MedicalStatistics)
> #AgriculturalFieldResearch
> ---- 
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
BioStatistics|982497001
4c4
< #Population Genetics
---
> #Population GeNetics
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982497078
19c19
< 
---
> ----
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982497146
8c8
< 1) How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of central tendancy''.
---
> 1) How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
------
SummaryStatistics|982497212
1c1
< : back to StatisticalTheory
---
> : back to StatisticalTheory -- SummarizingStatisticalData
7c7
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982497279
12c12
< When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''mean''', the '''median''', or the '''mode'''. 
---
> When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''MeaN''', the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. 
------
MeaN|982497487
1c1
< : back to CentralTendancy -- SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
---
> : back to CentralTendancy -- SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
3c3,7
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> The '''mean''' is what we call the ''average'' in ordinary English, just the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observations. Once we have chosen this method of describing the communality of a DataSeT, we usually use the '''StandardDeviation''' to describe how the observations differ. The ''SD'' (as we abbreviate it) is the '''square root of the average of squared deviations from the mean'''.
> 
> The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of CentralTendancy, it will be larger 
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
MeaN|982497567
5c5
< The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of CentralTendancy, it will be larger 
---
> The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of CentralTendancy, it will be larger than for the mean. This explains why the StandardDeviation and the mean are usually cited together in statistical reports.
------
MediaN|982497662
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''range''', the '''interquartile range''', and the '''absolute deviation'''. You can find out more about these from a good introductory statistics textbook.
> 
> The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
> 
------
MoDe|982497753
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''MeaN''' and the '''MediaN'''.
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
> 
------
MediaN|982497874
1c1,3
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''range''', the '''interquartile range''', and the '''absolute deviation'''. You can find out more about these from a good introductory statistics textbook.
---
> :back to SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterquartileRanGe''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
3d4
< The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982498184
8c8,9
< 1) How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
---
> #How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
> #How do they differ? This is often called ''StatisticalVariability''.
10c11
< 2) How do they differ? This is often called ''variability''.
---
> When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''MeaN''', the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the ''CumulativeDistributionFunction'' called '''QuanTiles'''.
12c13
< When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''MeaN''', the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. 
---
> The most common measures of variability for QuantitativeData are the VarianCe, its square root, the StandardDeviation, the RanGe, InterQuartileRange, and AbsoluteDeviation.
14,18d14
< The '''mean''' is what we call the ''average'' in ordinary English, just the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observations. Once we have chosen this method of describing the communality, we usually use the '''standard deviation''' to describe how the observations differ. The ''SD'' (as we abbreviate it) is the '''square root of the average of squared deviations from the mean'''.
< 
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''range''', the '''interquartile range''', and the '''absolute deviation'''. You can find out more about these from a good introductory statistics textbook.
< 
< The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''mean''' and the '''median'''.
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982498236
2c2
< : PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> : PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData -- SummaryStatistics
------
MediaN|982498283
3c3
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterquartileRanGe''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
---
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterQuartileRanGe''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
------
MediaN|982498320
3c3
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterQuartileRanGe''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
---
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterQuartileRange''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982498508
8,9c8,9
< #How do the data for different ''Units'' seem similar? Statistical textbooks call the answer to this question a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
< #How do they differ? This is often called ''StatisticalVariability''.
---
> #We want to choose a StatistiC that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
> #We want to choose another StatistiC that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a measure of ''StatisticalVariability''.
------
StatistiC|982498654
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> A '''statistic'' (singular form) is the result of using some statistical procedure applied to some DataSet. To be complete in describing any use of a statistic, one must describe both the procedure and the DataSet.
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
> 
------
StatistiC|982498687
3c3
< A '''statistic'' (singular form) is the result of using some statistical procedure applied to some DataSet. To be complete in describing any use of a statistic, one must describe both the procedure and the DataSet.
---
> A '''statistic'' (singular form) is the result of using some statistical procedure applied to some DataSeT. To be complete in describing any use of a statistic, one must describe both the procedure and the DataSeT.
------
ObservationalError|982499279
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to StatisticalTheory
> 
> There are no perfect instruments in the real world. Every scientist knows this, but as long as s/he can manage the observational error, research can continue. 
> 
> Everytime we repeat a measurement with a sensitive instrument, we obtain slightly different results. The common StatisticalModel we use is that the error has two additive parts:
> #SystematicError which always occurs (with the same value) when we use the instrument in the same way, and
> #RandomError which may vary from observation to observation.
> 
> The SystematicError is sometimes called StatisticalBias. We control it by using very carefully standardized procedures. Part of the education in every ScienCe is how to use the standard instruments of the discipline.
> 
> The RandomError (or RandomVariation) is due to factors which we cannot (or do not) control. It may be too expensive or we may be too ignorant of these factors to control them each time we measure. It may even be that whatever we are trying to measure is changing (see DynamicModels).
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982499394
18c18
< There are some ScienCes which use statistics so extensively that we recognize special disciplines like:
---
> There are some ScienCes which use statistics so extensively and have specialized terminology that we recognize special disciplines like:
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982499490
3,4c3
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory
< : ProbabilityApplications -- ProbabilityDistributions
---
> : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory -- ProbabilityApplications -- ProbabilityDistributions
6c5
< : StatisticalTheory
---
> : StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|982500012
79a80,82
> I have a suggestion that might give us the best of several worlds. Continue with multiple capitalization as the main tool used by authors, but allow one to assign '''single word synonyms''' with no capitalization so that they can be recognized for indexing when they appear in any article.
> --DickBeldin
> ----
------
DickBeldin|982500297
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Statistician in residence
> 
> Doing the ''stream of consciousness'' writing I never had a chance to do before. Thanks for the opportunity!
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
MoDe|982508959
5c5,6
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]----
> This was my definition, if you don't mind...
------
PigLatin|982509327
21c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu su-parutsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
------
PigLatin|982509389
21c21
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Resu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Rezu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
------
ScienceFictionFilm|982509798
3c3
< StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 -- MissionToMars
---
> Dune -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ET -- MissionToMars
------
HorrorFilm|982509978
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *NightmareOnElmStreet
> *Scream
------
HorrorFilm|982510013
2c2
< *Scream
---
> *ScreaM
------
HorrorFilm|982510041
2a3
> *IKnowWhatYouDidLastNight
------
ComedyFilm|982510213
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *FerrisBuellersDayOff
> 
------
FiLm|982510255
17a18
> *CultFilm
------
FiLm|982510280
18c18
< *CultFilm
---
> :CultFilm
------
CultFilm|982510427
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :TheBreakfastClub
> :RockyHorrorMovieShow
> :StElmosFire
------
MusicalFilm|982510474
16c16
< 
---
> :FaMe
------
CultFilm|982510541
3a4
> :TheGraduate
------
ScienceFictionFilm|982510777
3c3
< Dune -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ET -- MissionToMars
---
> DunE -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ETFilM -- MissionToMars
------
ComedyFilm|982511031
1a2,4
> *MarsAttacks
> *TheMask
> *AceVentura
------
CultFilm|982511064
4a5
> :PulpFiction
------
QuentinTarrantino|982511360
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Films directed by QuentinTarrantino:
> 
> ReservoirDogs -- FourRooms -- PulpFiction -- FromDuskTillDawn -- JackieBrown
------
TitaniC|982511447
1d0
< 
7c6
< 
---
> Directed by JamesCameron.
------
HorrorFilm|982511537
3a4,6
> *SilenceOfTheLambs
> *HannibaL
> *FromDuskTillDawn
------
ScienceFictionFilm|982511631
3c3
< DunE -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ETFilM -- MissionToMars
---
> DunE -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ETFilM -- MissionToMars -- AlieN
------
UseModWiki|982515718
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name of the wiki software used for WikiPedia, at least as of January-February 2001.
> 
> Visit the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseModWiki home page] for more details.
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|982516899
7a8,9
> ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.  See below for discussion of that feature.]
> 
14,20c16,18
< <<< Alabama >>>
< 
< <<< Alaska >>>
< 
< NorthDakota
< 
< <<< Wisconsin >>>
---
> * <<< Alaska >>>
> * NorthDakota
> * <<< Wisconsin >>>
38c36
< TWiki is a good wiki.  (I prefer my own <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>, but I'm slightly biased. :-)  TWiki certainly has more documentation than <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>.  A third possibility is the <nowiki>MoinMoin</nowiki>: see http://moin.sourceforge.net/.
---
> TWiki is a good wiki.  (I prefer my own UseModWiki, but I'm slightly biased. :-)  TWiki certainly has more documentation than UseModWiki.  A third possibility is the <nowiki>MoinMoin</nowiki>: see http://moin.sourceforge.net/.
42c40
< If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in <nowiki>UseModWiki</nowiki>.  --CliffordAdams
---
> If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in UseModWiki.  --CliffordAdams  [This feature was added in February 2001.]
64c62,64
< I'm planning to add [[word]]-style links as an ''optional'' feature in UseModWiki very soon (hopefully by the end of January 2001 (CE :-).  I also think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
---
> [Links like [[word]] are now an option in UseModWiki 0.91.  (Hopefully WikiPedia will upgrade soon.)]
> 
> I think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
70d69
< :Ok then, this will be my big project for the weekend.  Hopefully I'll have something ready in a few days.  (I'll test it first using a sample wiki with some pages copied from WikiPedia.) --CliffordAdams
74c73
< :I was leaning toward a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which would also be closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.  Of course, this feature would be trivial to disable if desired.
---
> :I've implemented a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which is closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.
76c75
< :For spaces in links, I'm leaning toward translating them into _ (underline) characters in the URL.  I could then translate _ back to a space when displaying the link.  This would allow you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you could use a nice URL with an underline, rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
---
> :For spaces in links, they are translated into _ (underline) characters in the URL, and translated back into spaces when displaying the link.  This allows you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you would use a nice URL with an underline (like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Jimbo_Wales), rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
81a81,82
> 
> :I'm not sure I understand what you're asking for here.  I don't think it would be a good idea to automatically link single words every time they appear--it could lead to far too many links on pages.  One can already create synonyms with the redirect command--see MozarT for an example (redirected to the composer's full name).  --CliffordAdams
------
ComedyFilm|982517430
0a1
> *ItHappenedOneNight
4a6,7
> *TootsiE
> *LiarLiar
------
ComedyFilm|982517457
1a2
> *SomeLikeItHot
------
CultFilm|982517531
2c2
< :RockyHorrorMovieShow
---
> :RockyHorrorPictureShow
5c5
< :PulpFiction
---
> :PulpFiction
------
FiLm|982517787
12a13
> :RomanticComedyFilm
------
RomanticComedyFilm|982518024
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :LoveInTheAfternoon
> :WhenHarryMetSally
> :SleeplessInSeattle
> :YouveGotMail
------
DramaFilm|982518201
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :AmericanBeauty
> :LifeIsBeautiful
> :TraffiC
------
FiLm|982518281
18a19
> :WesternFilm
------
DramaFilm|982518326
0a1
> :TwelveAngryMen
------
WesternFilm|982518455
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :ShanE
> :TheDirtyDozen
------
DramaFilm|982518550
1a2
> :WitnesS
------
ThrillerFilm|982518606
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Psycho
------
HorrorFilm|982518738
0a1
> *TheSnakePit
6c7
< *FromDuskTillDawn
---
> *FromDuskTillDawn
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|982527247
77a78,80
> 
> '''I love weird capitalization!''' I think we should not be too prompt putting a straight jacket on WikiPedia --OprgaG
> 
78a82
> 
------
UralicLanguages|982527689
1c1
< UralicLanguages or FinnoOugricLanguages are a contrasted family of languages.
---
> UralicLanguages (best known subfamily is FinnoUgricLanguages) are a contrasted family of languages.
3,5c3,5
< They are commonly separated into FinnishPermianLanguages and UgricLanguages.
< There is an hypothesis which groups them further in a superfamily together with
< AltaicLanguages, the UraloAltaicLanguages.
---
> FinnoUgricLanguages are commonly separated into FinnishPermianLanguages and UgricLanguages.
> 
> There is an hypothesis which groups UralicLanguages further in a superfamily together with AltaicLanguages, the UraloAltaicLanguages but there are strong debates between linguist other this.
13a14,15
> * VogulLanguage
> * TcheremissLanguage
22,23c24,25
< * Large set of cases
< * Vocalic Harmony
---
> * Large set of /Cases
> * VocalicHarmony
------
WikiPediaProcess|982528052
28a29,34
> ----
> I think we should discuss references (bibliography but not only) if this going to be an encyclopedia. 
> 
> *Human knowledge is still very much in books.
> *To avoid bias it seems important to gather evidence and to acknowledge the sources we have drawn our knowledge upon.
> 
------
CategorySchemesTalk|982529078
17c17,36
< Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
---
> Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
> ----
> The point of having a computerized encyclopedia is not to face some of the traditionnal dilemma of the Editor-In-Chief:
> meeting the deadline, having a fixed list of articles, publishing a fixed work, having only one table of contents.
> 
> I think that apart from quite rational CategorySchemes we should encourage many apparently non-sensical categorizations and make them available through a variant of the CategorySchemes and/or of the PatentNonsense page, like this one:
> #Things written by BryceHarrington
> #Things having kept a wEiRDcAPITALIZATion in wikiwiki 
> #Things whose name is badly spelt by most
> #Things whose shape or color has a cute name in shwahili
> #Birds that cannot fly
> #Subjects alluded to in more than two of the above categories
> #People not wanting to be classified as things
> #Objects not wanting to be called by any other name
> #Objects that can be thrown at someone you despise
> #Savoir-vivre manuals
> #Mirrors, Queens and Rabbits
> #Miscelleaneous and Dinosaurs
> 
> --OprgaG
------
PigLatin|982529524
24a25,27
> ----
> ----
> On equivalents of PigLatin in other countries there is FrenchLanguage LouchebeM and JavanaiS (the former an adult language and the latter used by adults and children in different contexts and periods with many variants).
------
ActionFilm|982530675
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> HeatFilm -- TheRock -- ConAir -- ApocalypseNow -- TheMatriX -- TrueLies
------
ComedyFilm|982530734
7a8
> *TheBigLebowski
------
CityBerlin|982531172
7c7
< Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of beer (a Berliner beer).  He should have said "Ich bin Berliner."  (Now, can anyone say what Kennedy's <i>point</i> was?)
---
> Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut.
------
SouthAustralia|982536260
1c1
< South Australia is classed as the state in south central Australia along the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 984,377 square kilometres (380,070 square miles). The capital of South Australia is Adelaide and its known as the City of Churches. South Australia became a British colony in 1836 and joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The state's population is 1,4000,622 and most of those reside in the fertile coastal areas and in the valley of the Murray River which is the only navigable river and drains about one seventh of Australia then enters the sea in South Australia. The first recorded sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when a Dutch ship examined the coastline. 
---
> South Australia is classed as the state in south central Australia along the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 984,377 square kilometres (380,070 square miles). The capital of South Australia is AdelaidE and its known as the City of Churches. SouthAustralia became a British colony in 1836 and joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The state's population is 1,4000,622 and most of those reside in the fertile coastal areas and in the valley of the MurrayRiver which is the only navigable river and drains about one seventh of AustraliA then enters the sea in SouthAustralia. The first recorded sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when a Dutch ship examined the coastline. 
3,4c3
< The terrain consists largely of dry wasteland, with several low mountain ranges in which the most important mountains are the Mt
< Lofty-Flinders Ranges system which extends north about 800 kilometers from Cape Jervis to the northern end of Lake Torrens and salt lakes. Its principal industries and export are wheat, wine and wool. More than half the nations wines are produced here. 
---
> The terrain consists largely of dry wasteland, with several low mountain ranges in which the most important mountains are the Mt Lofty-Flinders Ranges system which extends north about 800 kilometers from Cape Jervis to the northern end of Lake Torrens and salt lakes. Its principal industries and export are wheat, wine and wool. More than half the nations wines are produced here. 
6,7c5
< South Australia has boundaries with other states on the west, east, north and the south is flanked by the Southern Ocean. South
< Australia's temperate range is 29C in January and 15C July.
---
> South Australia has boundaries with other states on the west, east, north and the south is flanked by the Southern Ocean. SouthAustralia's temperate range is 29C in January and 15C July.
9c7
< South Australia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of South Australia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the Adelaide School of Arts.
---
> SouthAustralia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of SouthAustralia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the AdelaideSchoolOfArts.
------
EiffelTower|982538410
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
EiffelTower|982538526
1a2
> pretty good
------
ComedyFilm|982539011
8a9
> *TheFullMonte
------
DramaFilm|982539086
2a3
> :DancingWithWolves
------
CountriesT|982539500
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. 
> Othe important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
------
FoodAndDrinks|982540763
11a12,13
> * GermanCuisine
> * MexicanCuisine
------
FoodAndDrinks|982541115
7a8,17
> NonAlchoholicBeverages
> * WaterS
> * JuiceS
> * CarbonatedDrinks
> * SportsDrinks
> * CoffeeS
> * TeaS
> * DairyDrinks
> * SoyDrinks
> 
13a24,25
> * VegetarianCuisine
> * VeganCuisine
------
SpiritS|982541326
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * GinS
> * CognacS
> * VodkaS
> * ScotcheS
> * RyeS
> * BourbonS
> * CognacS
> 
> 
------
SpiritS|982541404
2c2
< * CognacS
---
> * RumS
------
FoodAndDrinks|982542108
23a24
> * SpanishCuisine
25a27,28
> * KosherCuisine
> * Seafood Cuisine
------
FoodAndDrinks|982542323
10a11
> * AdeS
------
CountriesT|982569338
1,2c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. 
< Othe important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. Other important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
------
CountriesT|982569467
1c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. Other important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
---
> * TurkeY
------
TurkeY|982569482
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. Other important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
> 
------
CountriesT|982569903
1c1,5
< * TurkeY
---
> * TaiwaN
> * TurkeY
> * TuvalU
> * TrinidadAndTobago
> 
------
SpiritS|982571938
1,7c1,5
< * GinS
< * RumS
< * VodkaS
< * ScotcheS
< * RyeS
< * BourbonS
< * CognacS
---
> * GiN
> * RuM
> * VodkA
> * WhiskeY -- ScotcH -- RyE -- BourboN
> * CognaC -- BrandY
------
BusinessAndIndustry|982572066
5a6,7
> 
> IndustrY
------
IndustrY|982572110
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * /PrimarySector
> * /SecondarySector
> * /TertiarySector
------
IndustrY/TertiarySector|982572357
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term /TertiarySector is used to describe the service providing IndustrY. It includes all types of services ranging from lawyers and consultants to your local hairdresser. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two IndustrY sectors to the /TertiarySector in industrialised countries.
------
EconomicS|982572576
15,17c15,17
< * MicroeconomicS
< * MacroeconomicS
< * DevelopmentEconomics
---
> MicroeconomicS --  MacroeconomicS -- DevelopmentEconomics
> 
> RecessioN
------
RecessioN|982572882
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A RecessioN is defined by a fall of a country's GrossNationalProduct (GDP) in two successive quarters. Combined with InflatioN this process is known as StagflatioN.
> 
> Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide RecessioN that humanity has ever experienced was the GreatDepression (late 1920s and 1930s) and the OilCrisis in the 1970s.
------
InflatioN|982573642
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of purchasing power and the decline of the value of money. InflatioN adversely affects the EconomY by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the BalanceOfPayments by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
------
EconomicS|982573681
17c17
< RecessioN
---
> RecessioN -- InflatioN
------
FootBall|982574034
1d0
< 
15,17c14,16
< In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of
< fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies.
< See HooliGans.
---
> In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies(''See HooliGans'').
> 
> The major event is the WorldCup which is held every four years and in which 32 countries take part. 
------
FootBall|982574102
14c14
< In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies(''See HooliGans'').
---
> In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (''See HooliGans'').
------
BusinessAndEconomics|982574696
8a9
> * IndustrY
------
IndustrY/PrimarySector|982574772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This sector includes AgriculturE and and all mining industries.
------
IndustrY/SecondarySector|982577920
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The manufacturing sector of IndustrY. 
------
GeekSpeak|982584090
29c29
< '''WetWare''' - a human being.
---
> '''WetWare''' - a sentient organic being.
------
AsciiArt|982584183
1c1
< Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your QWERTY-keyboard.
---
> Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
------
TurkeY|982597359
1c1,5
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara. Other important cities are, Izmir, Istanbul, Bursa, Antalya.
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara (2.6m). Other important cities are Izmir (1.7m), Istanbul (6.6m), Bursa (0.835m)
> 
> Ethnic background: Turkish 86%, Kurdish 11%, Arabic 2%.
> 
> Religious background: SunniMuslims 99%, OrthodoxChristians 0.34%.
------
ViennA|982598696
1c1
< ViennA (lat. VindobonA) is the capital of AustriA. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city in the country.
---
> ViennA (lat. ''VindobonA'', German ''Wien'') is the capital of AustriA. It is situated on the river DanubE. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of AustriA. The UnitedNations' agency UNIDO is situated there.
------
QuentinTarrantino|982607257
1c1
< Films directed by QuentinTarrantino:
---
> Films directed by Quentin Tarrantino:
3c3
< ReservoirDogs -- FourRooms -- PulpFiction -- FromDuskTillDawn -- JackieBrown
---
> ReservoirDogs -- FourRooms -- PulpFiction -- FromDuskTillDawn -- JackieBrown
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982612104
2a3,7
> '''February 19, 2001'''
> 
> We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseMod Wiki software.
> This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
> 
------
Free_Links|982612150
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> You can now force a link over arbitrary text by putting it in brackets, like this: [[Alabama]].
------
Alabama|982612167
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Homestate of JimboWales.
------
Free_Links|982612573
0a1
> You can now force a link over arbitrary text by putting it in brackets, like this: [[Alabama]].
2c3
< You can now force a link over arbitrary text by putting it in brackets, like this: [[Alabama]].
---
> Also, something I just now learned from reading the source code, you can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
------
WojPob|982612990
9a10,11
> 
> [[/Sandbox]]
------
WojPob/Sandbox|982613046
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[WojPob]]
> [[AustriA]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|982613812
1d0
< When people are not logged in as a particular person, their domain name shows up as being cobrand.bomis.com, rather than their real ip number.
3,10c2
< This is a side-effect of my change to the
< www.wikipedia.com/wiki/* style of URL.  I made this change
< because it is more search-spider-friendly.  Technically, all that I did was add a line to the apache config for mod_rewrite, and then I change the script to print different links.
< 
< I think what I should do is add a function for slash-links instead question-links, and then some functions of the site
< could be ''not'' routed through mod_rewrite proxying.
< 
< If any of this makes sense, particularly to CliffordAdams, comments would be welcome.  (Even if I'm not making sense, comments are welcome!)
---
> We have upgraded to a new version of the software.  Additionally, I think I have solved the bug that made it look like all un-logged-in edits were done from cobrand.bomis.com.
------
WojPob/Sandbox|982614516
2a3,4
> 
> Schmuck!
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|982615507
1c1,1018
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This is a version I have assembled from various 
> sources, printed and web. Needs to be further wikified.
> 
> The fact I include this in the WikiPedia does not constitute
> an endorsement of this System as suitable for any purpose.
> 
> --OprgaG
> 
> ----
> 
> 000 Generalities 
> 100 Philosophy & psychology 
> 200 Religion
> 300 Social sciences 
> 400 Language 
> 500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
> 600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
> 700 The arts 
> 800 Literature & rhetoric 
> 900 Geography & history 
> 
> ----
> 
> 000 Generalities 
> 001 Knowledge 
> 002 The book 
> 003 Systems 
> 004 Data processing Computer science 
> 005 Computer programming, programs, data 
> 006 Special computer methods 
> 
> 010 Bibliography 
> 011 Bibliographies 
> 012 Bibliographies of individuals 
> 013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors 
> 014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works 
> 015 Bibliographies of works from specific places 
> 016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects 
> 017 General subject catalogs 
> 018 Catalogs arranged by author & date 
> 019 Dictionary catalogs 
> 020 Library & information sciences 
> 021 Library relationships 
> 022 Administration of the physical plant 
> 023 Personnel administration 
> 
> 025 Library operations 
> 026 Libraries for specific subjects 
> 027 General libraries 
> 028 Reading, use of other information media 
> 
> 030 General encyclopedic works 
> 031 General encyclopedic works -- American 
> 032 General encyclopedic works in English 
> 033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages 
> 034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal, Catalan 
> 035 General encyclopedic works in Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 036 General encyclopedic works in Spanish & Portuguese 
> 037 General encyclopedic works in Slavic languages 
> 038 General encyclopedic works in Scandinavian languages 
> 039 General encyclopedic works in other languages 
> 
> 050 General serials & their indexes 
> 051 General serials & their indexes American 
> 052 General serials & their indexes In English 
> 053 General serials & their indexes In other Germanic languages 
> 054 General serials & their indexes In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> 055 General serials & their indexes In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 056 General serials & their indexes In Spanish & Portuguese 
> 057 General serials & their indexes In Slavic languages 
> 058 General serials & their indexes In Scandinavian languages 
> 059 General serials & their indexes In other languages 
> 060 General organization & museology 
> 061 General organization & museology In North America 
> 062 General organization & museology In British Isles In England 
> 063 General organization & museology In central Europe In Germany 
> 064 General organization & museology In France & Monaco 
> 065 General organization & museology In Italy & adjacent territories 
> 066 General organization & museology In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> 067 General organization & museology In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> 068 General organization & museology In other areas 
> 069 Museology (Museum science) 
> 070 News media, journalism, publishing 
> 071 News media, journalism, publishing In North America 
> 072 News media, journalism, publishing In British Isles In England 
> 073 News media, journalism, publishing In central Europe In Germany 
> 074 News media, journalism, publishing In France & Monaco 
> 075 News media, journalism, publishing In Italy & adjacent territories 
> 076 News media, journalism, publishing In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> 077 News media, journalism, publishing In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> 078 News media, journalism, publishing In Scandinavia 
> 079 News media, journalism, publishing In other languages 
> 080 General collections 
> 081 General collections American 
> 082 General collections In English 
> 083 General collections In other Germanic languages 
> 084 General collections In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> 085 General collections In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 086 General collections In Spanish & Portuguese 
> 087 General collections In Slavic languages 
> 088 General collections In Scandinavian languages 
> 089 General collections In other languages 
> 090 Manuscripts & rare books 
> 091 Manuscripts 
> 092 Block books 
> 093 Incunabula 
> 094 Printed books 
> 095 Books notable for bindings 
> 096 Books notable for illustrations 
> 097 Books notable for ownership or origin 
> 098 Prohibited works, forgeries, hoaxes 
> 099 Books notable for format 
> 
> ----
> 
> 100 Philosophy & psychology 
> 101 Theory of philosophy 
> 102 Miscellany of philosophy 
> 103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
> 
> 105 Serial publications of philosophy 
> 106 Organizations of philosophy 
> 107 Education, research in philosophy 
> 108 Kinds of persons in philosophy 
> 109 Historical treatment of philosophy 
> 110 Metaphysics 
> 111 Ontology 
> 
> 113 Cosmology (Philosophy of nature) 
> 114 Space 
> 115 Time 
> 116 Change 
> 117 Structure 
> 118 Force & Energy 
> 119 Number & quantity 
> 120 Epistemology, causation, humankind 
> 121 Epistemology (Theory of knowledge) 
> 122 Causation 
> 123 Determinism & indeterminism 
> 124 Teleology 
> 125 Not assigned or no longer used 
> 126 The self 
> 127 The unconscious & the subconscious 
> 128 Humankind 
> 129 Origin & destiny of individual souls 
> 130 Paranormal phenomena 
> 131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
> 
> 133 Parapsychology & occultism 
> 
> 135 Dreams & mysteries 
> 
> 137 Divinatory graphology 
> 138 Physiognomy 
> 139 Phrenology 
> 140 Specific philosophical schools 
> 141 Idealism & related systems 
> 142 Critical philosophy 
> 143 Intuitionism & Bergsonism 
> 144 Humanism & related systems 
> 145 Sensationalism 
> 146 Naturalism & related systems 
> 147 Pantheism & related systems 
> 148 Liberalism, eclecticism, traditionalism 
> 149 Other philosophical systems 
> 150 Psychology 
> 
> 152 Perception, movement, emotions, drives 
> 153 Mental processes & intelligence 
> 154 Subconscious & altered states 
> 155 Differential & developmental psychology 
> 156 Comparative psychology 
> 
> 158 Applied psychology 
> 
> 160 Logic 
> 161 Induction 
> 162 Deduction 
> 
> 165 Fallacies & sources of error 
> 166 Syllogisms 
> 167 Hypotheses 
> 168 Argument & persuasion 
> 169 Analogy 
> 170 Ethics (Moral philosophy) 
> 171 Systems & doctrines 
> 172 Political ethics 
> 173 Ethics of family relationships 
> 174 Economic & professional ethics 
> 175 Ethics of recreation & leisure 
> 176 Ethics of sex & reproduction 
> 177 Ethics of social relations 
> 178 Ethics of consumption 
> 179 Other ethical norms 
> 180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy 
> 181 Oriental philosophy 
> 182 Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies 
> 183 Sophistic & Socratic philosophies 
> 184 Platonic philosophy 
> 185 Aristotelian philosophy 
> 186 Skeptic and Neoplatonic philosophies 
> 187 Epicurean philosophy 
> 188 Stoic philosophy 
> 189 Medieval Western philosophy 
> 190 Modern Western philosophy 
> 191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada 
> 192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
> 193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria 
> 194 Modern Western philosophy France 
> 195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
> 196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal 
> 197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
> 198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
> 199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas 
> 
> ----
> 
> 200 Religion 
> 201 Philosophy of Christianity 
> 202 Miscellany of Christianity 
> 203 Dictionaries of Christianity 
> 204 Special topics 
> 205 Serial publications of Christianity 
> 206 Organizations of Christianity 
> 207 Education, research in Christianity 
> 208 Kinds of persons in Christianity 
> 209 History & geography of Christianity 
> 210 Natural theology 
> 211 Concepts of God 
> 212 Existence, attributes of God 
> 213 Creation 
> 214 Theodicy 
> 215 Science & religion 
> 216 Good & evil 
> 
> 218 Humankind 
> 
> 220 Bible 
> 221 Old Testament 
> 222 Historical books of Old Testament 
> 223 Poetic books of Old Testament 
> 224 Prophetic books of Old Testament 
> 225 New Testament 
> 226 Gospels & Acts 
> 227 Epistles 
> 228 Revelation (Apocalypse) 
> 229 Apocrypha & pseudepigrapha 
> 230 Christian theology 
> 231 God 
> 232 Jesus Christ & his family 
> 233 Humankind 
> 234 Salvation (Soteriology) & grace 
> 235 Spiritual beings 
> 236 Eschatology 
> 
> 238 Creeds & catechisms 
> 239 Apologetics & polemics 
> 240 Christian moral & devotional theology 
> 241 Moral theology 
> 242 Devotional literature 
> 243 Evangelistic writings for individuals 
> 
> 245 Texts of hymns 
> 246 Use of art in Christianity 
> 247 Church furnishings & articles 
> 248 Christian experience, practice, life 
> 249 Christian observances in family life 
> 250 Christian orders & local church 
> 251 Preaching (Homiletics) 
> 252 Texts of sermons 
> 253 Pastoral office (Pastoral theology) 
> 254 Parish government & administration 
> 255 Religious congregations & orders 
> 
> 259 Activities of the local church 
> 260 Christian social theology 
> 261 Social theology 
> 262 Ecclesiology 
> 263 Times, places of religious observance 
> 264 Public worship 
> 265 Sacraments, other rites & acts 
> 266 Missions 
> 267 Associations for religious work 
> 268 Religious education 
> 269 Spiritual renewal 
> 270 Christian church history 
> 271 Religious orders in church history 
> 272 Persecutions in church history 
> 273 Heresies in church history 
> 274 Christian church in Europe 
> 275 Christian church in Asia 
> 276 Christian church in Africa 
> 277 Christian church in North America 
> 278 Christian church in South America 
> 279 Christian church in other areas 
> 280 Christian denominations & sects 
> 281 Early church & Eastern churches 
> 282 Roman Catholic Church 
> 283 Anglican churches 
> 284 Protestants of Continental origin 
> 285 Presbyterian, Reformed, Congregational 
> 286 Baptist, Disciples of Christ, Adventist 
> 287 Methodist & related churches 
> 
> 289 Other denominations & sects 
> 290 Other & comparative religions 
> 291 Comparative religion 
> 292 Classical (Greek & Roman) religion 
> 293 Germanic religion 
> 294 Religions of Indic origin 
> 295 Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism, Parseeism) 
> 296 Judaism 
> 297 Islam & religions originating in it 
> 
> 299 Other religions 
> 
> ----
> 
> 300 Social sciences 
> 301 Sociology & anthropology 
> 302 Social interaction 
> 303 Social processes 
> 304 Factors affecting social behavior 
> 305 Social groups 
> 306 Culture & institutions 
> 307 Communities 
> 
> 310 General statistics 
> 
> 314 General statistics Of Europe 
> 315 General statistics Of Asia 
> 316 General statistics Of Africa 
> 317 General statistics Of North America 
> 318 General statistics Of South America 
> 319 General statistics Of other parts of the world 
> 320 Political science 
> 321 Systems of governments & states 
> 322 Relation of state to organized groups 
> 323 Civil & political rights 
> 324 The political process 
> 325 International migration & colonization 
> 326 Slavery & emancipation 
> 327 International relations 
> 328 The legislative process 
> 
> 330 Economics 
> 331 Labor economics 
> 332 Financial economics 
> 333 Land economics 
> 334 Cooperatives 
> 335 Socialism & related systems 
> 336 Public finance 
> 337 International economics 
> 338 Production 
> 339 Macroeconomics & related topics 
> 340 Law 
> 341 International law 
> 342 Constitutional & administrative law 
> 343 Military, tax, trade, industrial law 
> 344 Social, labor, welfare, & related law 
> 345 Criminal law 
> 346 Private law 
> 347 Civil procedure & courts 
> 348 Law (Statutes), regulations, cases 
> 349 Law of specific jurisdictions & areas 
> 350 Public administration 
> 351 Of central governments 
> 352 Of local governments 
> 353 of U.S. federal & state governments 
> 354 Of specific central governments 
> 355 Military science 
> 356 Foot forces & warfare 
> 357 Mounted forces & warfare 
> 358 Other specialized forces & services 
> 359 Sea (Naval) forces & warfare 
> 360 Social services; association 
> 361 General social problems & services 
> 362 Social welfare problems & services 
> 363 Other social problems & services 
> 364 Criminology 
> 365 Penal & related institutions 
> 366 Association 
> 367 General clubs 
> 368 Insurance 
> 369 Miscellaneous kinds of associations 
> 370 Education 
> 371 School management; special education 
> 372 Elementary education 
> 373 Secondary education 
> 374 Adult education 
> 375 Curriculums 
> 376 Education of women 
> 377 Schools & religion 
> 378 Higher education 
> 379 Government regulation, control, support 
> 380 Commerce, communications, transport 
> 381 Internal commerce (Domestic trade) 
> 382 International commerce (Foreign trade) 
> 383 Postal communication 
> 384 Communications Telecommunication 
> 385 Railroad transportation 
> 386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation 
> 387 Water, air, space transportation 
> 388 Transportation Ground transportation 
> 389 Metrology & standardization 
> 390 Customs, etiquette, folklore 
> 391 Costume & personal appearance 
> 392 Customs of life cycle & domestic life 
> 393 Death customs 
> 394 General customs 
> 395 Etiquette (Manners) 
> 
> 398 Folklore 
> 399 Customs of war & diplomacy 
> 
> ----
> 
> 400 Language 
> 401 Philosophy & theory 
> 402 Miscellany 
> 403 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 404 Special topics 
> 405 Serial publications 
> 406 Organizations & management 
> 407 Education, research, related topics 
> 408 With respect to kinds of persons 
> 409 Geographical & persons treatment 
> 410 Linguistics 
> 411 Writing systems 
> 412 Etymology 
> 413 Dictionaries 
> 414 Phonology 
> 415 Structural systems (Grammar) 
> 
> 417 Dialectology & historical linguistics 
> 418 Standard usage Applied linguistics 
> 419 Verbal language not spoken or written 
> 420 English & Old English 
> 421 English writing system & phonology 
> 422 English etymology 
> 423 English dictionaries 
> 
> 425 English grammar 
> 
> 427 English language variations 
> 428 Standard English usage 
> 429 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> 430 Germanic languages German 
> 431 German writing system & phonology 
> 432 German etymology 
> 433 German dictionaries 
> 
> 435 German grammar 
> 
> 437 German language variations 
> 438 Standard German usage 
> 439 Other Germanic languages 
> 440 Romance languages French 
> 441 French writing system & phonology 
> 442 French etymology 
> 443 French dictionaries 
> 
> 445 French grammar 
> 
> 447 French language variations 
> 448 Standard French usage 
> 449 Provencal & Catalan 
> 450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
> 451 Italian writing system & phonology 
> 452 Italian etymology 
> 453 Italian dictionaries 
> 
> 455 Italian grammar 
> 
> 457 Italian language variations 
> 458 Standard Italian usage 
> 459 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 460 Spanish & Portugese languages 
> 461 Spanish writing system & phonology 
> 462 Spanish etymology 
> 463 Spanish dictionaries 
> 
> 465 Spanish grammar 
> 
> 467 Spanish language variations 
> 468 Standard Spanish usage 
> 469 Portugese 
> 470 Italic Latin 
> 471 Classical Latin writing & phonology 
> 472 Classical Latin etymology & phonology 
> 473 Classical Latin dictionaries 
> 
> 475 Classical Latin grammar 
> 
> 477 Old, Postclassical, Vulgar Latin 
> 478 Classical Latin usage 
> 479 Other Italic languages 
> 480 Hellenic languages Classical Greek 
> 481 Classical Greek writing & phonology 
> 482 Classical Greek etymology 
> 483 Classical Greek dictionaries 
> 
> 485 Classical Greek grammar 
> 
> 487 Preclassical & postclassical Greek 
> 488 Classical Greek usage 
> 489 Other Hellenic languages 
> 490 Other languages 
> 491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
> 492 Afro-Asiatic languages Semitic 
> 493 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages 
> 494 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> 495 Languages of East & Southeast Asia 
> 496 African languages 
> 497 North American native languages 
> 498 South American native languages 
> 499 Miscellaneous languages 
> 
> ----
> 
> 500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
> 501 Philosophy & theory 
> 502 Miscellany 
> 503 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 504 Not assigned or no longer used 
> 505 Serial publications 
> 506 Organizations & management 
> 507 Education, research, related topics 
> 508 Natural history 
> 509 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> 510 Mathematics 
> 511 General principles 
> 512 Algebra & number theory 
> 513 Arithmetic 
> 514 Topology 
> 515 Analysis 
> 516 Geometry 
> 
> 519 Probabilities & applied mathematics 
> 520 Astronomy & allied sciences 
> 521 Celestial mechanics 
> 522 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> 523 Specific celestial bodies & phenomena 
> 
> 525 Earth (Astronomical geography) 
> 526 Mathematical geography 
> 527 Celestial navigation 
> 528 Ephemerides 
> 529 Chronology 
> 530 Physics 
> 531 Classical mechanics Solid mechanics 
> 532 Fluid mechanics Liquid mechanics 
> 533 Gas mechanics 
> 534 Sound & related vibrations 
> 535 Light & paraphotic phenomena 
> 536 Heat 
> 537 Electricity & electronics 
> 538 Magnetism 
> 539 Modern physics 
> 540 Chemistry & allied sciences 
> 541 Physical & theoretical chemistry 
> 542 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> 543 Analytical chemistry 
> 544 Qualitative analysis 
> 545 Quantitative analysis 
> 546 Inorganic chemistry 
> 547 Organic chemistry 
> 548 Crystallography 
> 549 Mineralogy 
> 550 Earth sciences 
> 551 Geology, hydrology, meteorology 
> 552 Petrology 
> 553 Economic geology 
> 554 Earth sciences of Europe 
> 555 Earth sciences of Asia 
> 556 Earth sciences of Africa 
> 557 Earth sciences of North America 
> 558 Earth sciences of South America 
> 559 Earth sciences of other areas 
> 560 Paleontology Paleozoology 
> 561 Paleobotany 
> 562 Fossil invertebrates 
> 563 Fossil primitive phyla 
> 564 Fossil Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
> 565 Other fossil invertebrates 
> 566 Fossil Vertebrata (Fossil Craniata) 
> 567 Fossil cold-blooded vertebrates 
> 568 Fossil Aves (Fossil birds) 
> 569 Fossil Mammalia 
> 570 Life sciences 
> 
> 572 Human races 
> 573 Physical anthropology 
> 574 Biology 
> 575 Evolution & genetics 
> 576 Microbiology 
> 577 General nature of life 
> 578 Microscopy in biology 
> 579 Collection and preservation 
> 580 Botanical sciences 
> 581 Botany 
> 582 Spermatophyta (Seed-bearing plants) 
> 583 Dicotyledones 
> 584 Monocotyledones 
> 585 Gymnospermae (Pinophyta) 
> 586 Cryptogamia (Seedless plants) 
> 587 Pteridophyta (Vascular cryptograms) 
> 588 Bryophyta 
> 589 Thallobionta & Prokaryotae 
> 590 Zoological sciences 
> 591 Zoology 
> 592 Invertebrates 
> 593 Protozoa, Echinodermata, related phyla 
> 594 Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
> 595 Other invertebrates 
> 596 Vertebrata (Craniata, Vertebrates) 
> 597 Cold-blooded vertebrates Fishes 
> 598 Aves (Birds) 
> 599 Mammalia (Mammals) 
> 
> ----
> 
> 600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
> 601 Philosophy & theory 
> 602 Miscellany 
> 603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 604 Special topics 
> 605 Serial publications 
> 606 Organizations 
> 607 Education, research, related topics 
> 608 Invention & patents 
> 609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> 610 Medical sciences Medicine 
> 611 Human anatomy, cytology, histology 
> 612 Human physiology 
> 613 Promotion of health 
> 614 Incidence & prevention of disease 
> 615 Pharmacology & theraputics 
> 616 Diseases 
> 617 Surgery & related medical specialities 
> 618 Gynecology & other medical specialities 
> 619 Experimental medicine 
> 620 Engineering & allied operations 
> 621 Applied physics 
> 622 Mining & related operations 
> 623 Military & nautical engineering 
> 624 Civil engineering 
> 625 Engineering of railroads, roads 
> 
> 627 Hydraulic engineering 
> 628 Sanitary & municipal engineering 
> 629 Other branches of engineering 
> 630 Agriculture 
> 631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> 632 Plant injuries, diseases, pests 
> 633 Field & plantation crops 
> 634 Orchards, fruits, forestry 
> 635 Garden crops (Horticulture) 
> 636 Animal husbandry 
> 637 Processing dairy & related products 
> 638 Insect culture 
> 639 Hunting, fishing, conservation 
> 640 Home economics & family living 
> 641 Food & drink 
> 642 Meals & table service 
> 643 Housing & household equipment 
> 644 Household utilities 
> 645 Household furnishings 
> 646 Sewing, clothing, personal living 
> 647 Management of public households 
> 648 Housekeeping 
> 649 Child rearing & home care of sick 
> 650 Management & auxiliary services 
> 651 Office services 
> 652 Processes of written communication 
> 653 Shorthand 
> 
> 657 Accounting 
> 658 General management 
> 659 Advertising & public relations 
> 660 Chemical engineering 
> 661 Industrial chemicals technology 
> 662 Explosives, fuels technology 
> 663 Beverage technology 
> 664 Food technology 
> 665 Industrial oils, fats, waxes, gases 
> 666 Ceramic & allied technologies 
> 667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
> 668 Technology of other organic products 
> 669 Metallurgy 
> 670 Manufacturing 
> 671 Metalworking & metal products 
> 672 Iron, steel, other iron alloys 
> 673 Nonferrous metals 
> 674 Lumber processing, wood products, cork 
> 675 Leather & fur processing 
> 676 Pulp & paper technology 
> 677 Textiles 
> 678 Elastomers & elastomer products 
> 679 Other products of specific materials 
> 680 Manufacture for specific uses 
> 681 Precision instruments & other devices 
> 682 Small forge work (Blacksmithing) 
> 683 Hardware & household appliances 
> 684 Furnishings & home workshops 
> 685 Leather, fur, related products 
> 686 Printing & related activities 
> 687 Clothing 
> 688 Other final products & packaging 
> 
> 690 Buildings 
> 691 Building materials 
> 692 Auxiliary construction practices 
> 693 Specific materials & purposes 
> 694 Wood construction Carpentry 
> 695 Roof covering 
> 696 Utilities 
> 697 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning 
> 698 Detail finishing 
> 
> ----
> 
> 700 The arts 
> 701 Philosophy & theory 
> 702 Miscellany 
> 703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 704 Special topics 
> 705 Serial publications 
> 706 Organizations & management 
> 707 Education, research, related topics 
> 708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
> 709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> 710 Civic & landscape art 
> 711 Area planning (Civic art) 
> 712 Landscape architecture 
> 713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
> 714 Water features 
> 715 Woody plants 
> 716 Herbaceous plants 
> 717 Structures 
> 718 Landscape design of cemeteries 
> 719 Natural landscapes 
> 720 Architecture 
> 721 Architectural structure 
> 722 Architecture to ca. 300 
> 723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
> 724 Architecture from 1400 
> 725 Public structures 
> 726 Buildings for religious purposes 
> 727 Buildings for education & research 
> 728 Residential & related buildings 
> 729 Design & decoration 
> 730 Plastic arts Sculpture 
> 731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
> 732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
> 733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
> 734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
> 735 Sculpture from 1400 
> 736 Carving & carvings 
> 737 Numismatics & sigillography 
> 738 Ceramic arts 
> 739 Art metalwork 
> 740 Drawing & decorative arts 
> 741 Drawing & drawings 
> 742 Perspective 
> 743 Drawing & drawings by subject 
> 744 Not assigned or no longer used 
> 745 Decorative arts 
> 746 Textile arts 
> 747 Interior decoration 
> 748 Glass 
> 749 Furniture & accessories 
> 750 Painting & paintings 
> 751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
> 752 Color 
> 753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
> 754 Genre paintings 
> 755 Religion & religious symbolism 
> 
> 757 Human figures & their parts 
> 758 Other subjects 
> 759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> 760 Graphic arts Printmaking & prints 
> 761 Relief processes (Block printing) 
> 
> 763 Lithographic (Planographic) processes 
> 764 Chromolithography & serigraphy 
> 765 Metal engraving 
> 766 Mezzotinting & related processes 
> 767 Etching & drypoint 
> 
> 769 Prints 
> 770 Photography & photographs 
> 771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> 772 Metallic salt processes 
> 773 Pigment processes of printing 
> 774 Holography 
> 
> 778 Fields & kinds of photography 
> 779 Photographs 
> 780 Music 
> 781 General principles & musical forms 
> 782 Vocal music 
> 783 Music for single voices The voice 
> 784 Instruments & Instrumental ensembles 
> 785 Chamber music 
> 786 Keyboard & other instruments 
> 787 Stringed instruments (Chordophones) 
> 788 Wind instruments (Aerophones) 
> 
> 790 Recreational & performing arts 
> 791 Public performances 
> 792 Stage presentations 
> 793 Indoor games & amusements 
> 794 Indoor games of skill 
> 795 Games of chance 
> 796 Athletic & outdoor sports & games 
> 797 Aquatic & air sports 
> 798 Equestrian sports & animal racing 
> 799 Fishing, hunting, shooting 
> 
> ----
> 800 Literature & rhetoric 
> 801 Philosophy & theory 
> 802 Miscellany 
> 803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 
> 805 Serial publications 
> 806 Organizations 
> 807 Education, research, related topics 
> 808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
> 809 Literary history & criticism 
> 810 American literature in English 
> 811 Poetry 
> 812 Drama 
> 813 Fiction 
> 814 Essays 
> 815 Speeches 
> 816 Letters 
> 817 Satire & humor 
> 818 Miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 820 English & Old English literatures 
> 821 English poetry 
> 822 English drama 
> 823 English fiction 
> 824 English essays 
> 825 English speeches 
> 826 English letters 
> 827 English satire & humor 
> 828 English miscellaneous writings 
> 829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> 830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
> 831 German poetry 
> 832 German drama 
> 833 German fiction 
> 834 German essays 
> 835 German speeches 
> 836 German letters 
> 837 German satire & humor 
> 838 German miscellaneous writings 
> 839 Other Germanic literatures 
> 840 Literatures of Romance languages 
> 841 French poetry 
> 842 French drama 
> 843 French fiction 
> 844 French essays 
> 845 French speeches 
> 846 French letters 
> 847 French satire & humor 
> 848 French miscellaneous writings 
> 849 Provencal & Catalan 
> 850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 851 Italian poetry 
> 852 Italian drama 
> 853 Italian fiction 
> 854 Italian essays 
> 855 Italian speeches 
> 856 Italian letters 
> 857 Italian satire & humor 
> 858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
> 859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
> 861 Spanish poetry 
> 862 Spanish drama 
> 863 Spanish fiction 
> 864 Spanish essays 
> 865 Spanish speeches 
> 866 Spanish letters 
> 867 Spanish satire & humor 
> 868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
> 869 Portuguese 
> 870 Italic literatures Latin 
> 871 Latin poetry 
> 872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
> 873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
> 874 Latin lyric poetry 
> 875 Latin speeches 
> 876 Latin letters 
> 877 Latin satire & humor 
> 878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
> 879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
> 880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
> 881 Classical Greek poetry 
> 882 Classical Greek drama 
> 883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
> 884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
> 885 Classical Greek speeches 
> 886 Classical Greek letters 
> 887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
> 888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
> 889 Modern Greek 
> 890 Literatures of other languages 
> 891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
> 892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
> 893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
> 894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> 895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
> 896 African literatures 
> 897 North American native literatures 
> 898 South Anerican native literatures 
> 899 Other literatures 
> 
> ----
> 900 Geography & history 
> 901 Philosophy & theory 
> 902 Miscellany 
> 903 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 904 Collected accounts of events 
> 905 Serial publications 
> 906 Organizations & management 
> 907 Education, research, related topics 
> 908 With respect to kinds of persons 
> 909 World history 
> 910 Geography & travel 
> 911 Historical geography 
> 912 Graphic representations of earth 
> 913 Ancient world 
> 914 Europe 
> 915 Asia 
> 916 Africa 
> 917 North America 
> 918 South America 
> 919 Other areas 
> 920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 
> 
> 929 Genealogy, names, insignia 
> 930 History of ancient world 
> 931 History of ancient world China 
> 932 History of ancient world Egypt 
> 933 History of ancient world Palestine 
> 934 History of ancient world India 
> 935 History of ancient world Mesopotamia & Iranian Plateau 
> 936 History of ancient world Europe north & west of Italy 
> 937 History of ancient world Italy & adjacent territories 
> 938 History of ancient world Greece 
> 939 History of ancient world Other parts of ancient world 
> 940 General history of Europe 
> 941 General history of Europe British Isles 
> 942 General history of Europe England & Wales 
> 943 General history of Europe Central Europe Germany 
> 944 General history of Europe France & Monaco 
> 945 General history of Europe Italian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> 946 General history of Europe Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> 947 General history of Europe Eastern Europe Soviet Union 
> 948 General history of Europe Northern Europe Scandinavia 
> 949 General history of Europe Other parts of Europe 
> 950 General history of Asia Far East 
> 951 General history of Asia China & adjacent areas 
> 952 General history of Asia Japan 
> 953 General history of Asia Arabian Peninsula & adjacent areas 
> 954 General history of Asia South Asia India 
> 955 General history of Asia Iran 
> 956 General history of Asia Middle East (Near East) 
> 957 General history of Asia Siberia (Asiatic Russia) 
> 958 General history of Asia Central Asia 
> 959 General history of Asia Southeast Asia 
> 960 General history of Africa 
> 961 General history of Africa Tunisia & Libya 
> 962 General history of Africa Egypt & Sudan 
> 963 General history of Africa Ethiopia 
> 964 General history of Africa Morocco & Canary Islands 
> 965 General history of Africa Algeria 
> 966 General history of Africa West Africa & offshore islands 
> 967 General history of Africa Central Africa & offshore islands 
> 968 General history of Africa Southern Africa 
> 969 General history of Africa South Indian Ocean islands 
> 970 General history of North America 
> 971 General history of North America Canada 
> 972 General history of North America Middle America Mexico 
> 973 General history of North America United States 
> 974 General history of North America Northeastern United States 
> 975 General history of North America Southeastern United States 
> 976 General history of North America South central United States 
> 977 General history of North America North central United States 
> 978 General history of North America Western United States 
> 979 General history of North America Great Basin & Pacific Slope 
> 980 General history of South America 
> 981 General history of South America Brazil 
> 982 General history of South America Argentina 
> 983 General history of South America Chile 
> 984 General history of South America Bolivia 
> 985 General history of South America Peru 
> 986 General history of South America Colombia & Ecuador 
> 987 General history of South America Venezuela 
> 988 General history of South America Guiana 
> 989 General history of South America Paraguay & Uruguay 
> 990 General history of other areas 
> 
> 993 General history of other areas New Zealand 
> 994 General history of other areas Australia 
> 995 General history of other areas Melanesia New Guinea 
> 996 General history of other areas Other parts of Pacific Polynesia 
> 997 General history of other areas Atlantic Ocean islands 
> 998 General history of other areas Arctic islands & Antarctica 
> 999 Extraterrestrial worlds 
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982615614
5c5
< We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseMod Wiki software.
---
> We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.
------
LikeThat|982616053
1c1
< Like, that is not LikeThis.
---
> Like, that is not LikeThis but ILikeThat.
------
ILikeThat|982616078
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Really.
> 
> SoDoI !
------
SoDoI|982616099
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Indeed. WhatFun.
------
WhatFun|982616110
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IAgree!
------
WhatFun|982616135
1c1
< IAgree!
---
> IAgreeWithYou!
------
IAgreeWithYou|982616150
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MeToo!
------
MeToo|982616199
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the simplest phrase you can use to start a FlameWar or PostWar on UseNet.
------
WikiPediaFaq|982616607
15c15,16
< A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)
---
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
> 
25c26
< A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?.
---
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
85c86
< A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.)
---
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.
97c98
< '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
---
> '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
------
OprgaG|982616990
47,50d46
< - what could be a little trouble in the future (with more and more users): concurrent modifications on the same page may cancel themselves (or do they ?)
< 
< ''The software already accounts for this.  Not really a problem.''
< 
75a72,79
> 
> WikiOldLogo WikiPediaBugs WhichWikiShouldWeUse
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Q:''' Why is WikiPedia not using the interlink feature of UseModWiki? 
> 
> '''A:'''
------
OprgaG|982617902
79c79
< '''A:'''
---
> '''A:''' We are, now.  Before, we were not.  That was just an oversight on my part... I didn't read the whole install file with 0.90.  I did with 0.91.  :-)  Please test and let me know if it is broken. JimboWales
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|982617971
1d0
< 
12,21c11,20
< 000 Generalities 
< 100 Philosophy & psychology 
< 200 Religion
< 300 Social sciences 
< 400 Language 
< 500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
< 600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
< 700 The arts 
< 800 Literature & rhetoric 
< 900 Geography & history 
---
> :000 Generalities 
> :100 Philosophy & psychology 
> :200 Religion
> :300 Social sciences 
> :400 Language 
> :500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
> :600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
> :700 The arts 
> :800 Literature & rhetoric 
> :900 Geography & history 
25,31c24,30
< 000 Generalities 
< 001 Knowledge 
< 002 The book 
< 003 Systems 
< 004 Data processing Computer science 
< 005 Computer programming, programs, data 
< 006 Special computer methods 
---
> :000 Generalities 
> :001 Knowledge 
> :002 The book 
> :003 Systems 
> :004 Data processing Computer science 
> :005 Computer programming, programs, data 
> :006 Special computer methods 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982618158
5,6c5,7
< We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.
< This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
---
> We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.  This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
> 
> Also -- Google has found us!  Only a few hits so far..
------
AfricA|982624854
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gambia
> 
> Ghana
> 
> Mali
> 
> Nigeria
> 
> Senegal
> 
> Togo
> 
> ----
> 
> [An Irish anarchist in Africa http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html] provides a readable and compelling introduction to today's western Africa.
------
AfricA|982624926
15c15
< [An Irish anarchist in Africa http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html] provides a readable and compelling introduction to today's western Africa.
---
> [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa] provides a readable and compelling introduction to today's western Africa.
------
AfricA|982624983
0a1,2
> '''Western Africa'''
> 
11a14,17
> 
> '''Central Africa'''
> 
> '''Southern Africa'''
------
Free_Links|982625230
3c3,5
< Also, something I just now learned from reading the source code, you can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
---
> Also, something I just now learned from reading the source code, you can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
> ----
> Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names. -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
------
Free_Links|982625263
5c5
< Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names. -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
---
> Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
------
OprgaG|982625510
80a81,82
> '''C:''' All right. Let's see: UseMod:UseModWiki.  Great!!
> 
------
OprgaG|982628890
54a55,56
> '''It is perl.  CliffordAdams wrote it.'''
> 
------
AfricA|982629024
1c1
< '''Western Africa'''
---
> '''WesternAfrica'''
3c3
< Gambia
---
> [Gambia]
5c5
< Ghana
---
> [Ghana]
7c7
< Mali
---
> [Mali]
9c9
< Nigeria
---
> [Nigeria]
11c11
< Senegal
---
> [Senegal]
13c13
< Togo
---
> [Togo]
------
AfricA|982629053
3c3
< [Gambia]
---
> [[Gambia]]
5c5
< [Ghana]
---
> [[Ghana]]
7c7
< [Mali]
---
> [[Mali]]
9c9
< [Nigeria]
---
> [[Nigeria]]
11c11
< [Senegal]
---
> [[Senegal]]
13c13
< [Togo]
---
> [[Togo]]
------
NobelPrize|982629069
15c15,20
< /EconomicSciences
---
> /EconomicSciences
> 
> ----
> For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the NobelPrizen, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
> 
> Don't forget the IgNobelPrize.
------
AfricA|982629077
15c15
< '''Central Africa'''
---
> '''CentralAfrica'''
17c17
< '''Southern Africa'''
---
> '''SouthernAfrica'''
------
Chordata|982629109
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Classification'''
> 
> The traditional classification of vertebrates is a mess, with a wide variety of paraphyletic groups that have either been abandoned or extended (here marked B).  Unfortunately, no particularly standard system has settled in to replace it; the problem is there have been too many adaptive radiations.  For now, here is a minimal tree of living forms including most traditionally class-sized groups:
> 
>  Urochordata
>  Cephalochordata
>  Craniata
>    Myxini (hagfish)
>    Vertebrata
>      Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
>      Gnathostoma
>        Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
>        Osteichthyes B
>          Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
>          Sarcopterygii B
>            Coelocanthamorpha
>            Dipnoi (lungfish)
>            Tetrapoda 
>              Lissamphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders)
>              Amniota
>                [[MammaLia]]
>                Chelonia (turtles)
>                Squamata (lizards, snakes)
>                Sphenodontida (tuataras)
>                Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
>                Aves (birds)
> 
> Information on characteristics of each group and a more detailed classification thereof should probably go under its headline - eg details of skeletal system and listing of jawless fishes under Vertebrata.
> 
------
NobelPrize|982629130
18c18
< For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the NobelPrizen, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
---
> For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the NobelPrize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
------
ChordaTa|982629196
1,28c1
< '''Classification'''
< 
< The traditional classification of vertebrates is a mess, with a wide variety of paraphyletic groups that have either been abandoned or extended (here marked B).  Unfortunately, no particularly standard system has settled in to replace it; the problem is there have been too many adaptive radiations.  For now, here is a minimal tree of living forms including most traditionally class-sized groups:
< 
<  Urochordata
<  Cephalochordata
<  Craniata
<    Myxini (hagfish)
<    Vertebrata
<      Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
<      Gnathostoma
<        Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
<        Osteichthyes B
<          Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
<          Sarcopterygii B
<            Coelocanthamorpha
<            Dipnoi (lungfish)
<            Tetrapoda 
<              Lissamphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders)
<              Amniota
<                MammaLia
<                Chelonia (turtles)
<                Squamata (lizards, snakes)
<                Sphenodontida (tuataras)
<                Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
<                Aves (birds)
< 
< Information on characteristics of each group and a more detailed classification thereof should probably go under its headline - eg details of skeletal system and listing of jawless fishes under Vertebrata.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Chordata]]
------
KingdomAnimalia|982629480
15c15
< The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the PrecambrianEra.  These are called VendianFauna and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the CambrianPeriod.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
---
> The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the PrecambrianEra.  These are called VendianBiota and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the CambrianPeriod.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
19c19
< Blah, blah, blah.  Arthropods and annelids turn out not to be related, as suggested by the very different developments of the two groups.  Instead arthropods seem to be related to the roundworms (NemaToda), linked by a chitinous cuticle which is molted.  What this does to proposals of their polyphyly I don't know.
---
> Blah, blah, blah.  [[Arthropoda]] and [[Annelida]] turn out not to be related, as suggested by the very different developments of the two groups.  Instead arthropods seem to be related to the roundworms ([[Nematoda]]), linked by a chitinous cuticle which is molted.  What this does to proposals of their polyphyly I don't know.
25,28c25,28
< * Phylum PoriFera
< * Phylum RhomboZoa
< * Phylum OrthoNectida
< * Phylum PlacoZoa
---
> * Phylum [[Porifera]]
> * Phylum [[Rhombozoa]]
> * Phylum [[Orthonectida]]
> * Phylum [[Placozoa]]
32,36c32,36
< * Phylum CnidaRia (=coelentrata)
< * Phylum CtenoPhora
< * Phylum PlatyHelminthes - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
< * Phylum RotiFera
< * Phylum AcanthoCephala
---
> * Phylum [[Cnidaria]] (=coelentrata)
> * Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
> * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
> * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
> * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
40,46c40,46
< * Phylum NemerteA
< * Phylum MolluSca
< * Phylum SipunCula
< * Phylum EchiUra
< * Phylum PogonoPhora
< * Phylum VestiMentiFera
< * Phylum AnneLida
---
> * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
> * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
> * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
> * Phylum [[Echiura]]
> * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
> * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
> * Phylum [[Annelida]]
50,55c50,55
< * Phylum CephaloRhyncha (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
< * Phylum NemaToda
< * Phylum NematoMorpha
< * Phylum OnychoPhora
< * Phylum TardiGrada
< * Phylum ArthroPoda (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
---
> * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
> * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
> * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
> * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
> * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
> * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
59,61c59,61
< * Phylum BrachioPoda
< * Phylum EctoProcta (=bryozoa)
< * Phylum PhoroNida
---
> * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
> * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
> * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
65,68c65,68
< * Phylum ChaetoGnatha
< * Phylum EchinoDermata
< * Phylum HemiChordata
< * Phylum ChordaTa (e.g. vertebrates)
---
> * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
> * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
> * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
> * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
------
Achilles|982630067
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, the greatest warrior in the TrojanWar, and the central character of TheIliad.  Also spelt Achilleus, Akhilles, and so forth.
> 
> Achilles was the son of [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidon]]s in Thessaly and all-around hero, and the sea nymph [[Thetis]].  [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had vied for her hand until an oracle was revealed that she would bear a son greater than its father, whence they wisely decided to give her to someone else.  According to the usual legend Thetis had tried to make Achilles invincible by dipping him in the river [[Styx]], but forgot to wet the heel she was holding him by, so he could be killed by a blow to that heel.  Homer, however, deliberately makes no mention of this; Achilles can ''not'' be a hero if he is not at risk.
> 
> There was an oracle stating that if Achilles fought at Troy, he would die there.  His mother thus hid him at the court of [[Lycurgus]] in Scyros, disguised as a woman.  There he had an affair with Deidamia resulting in a child, [[Neoptolemus]].  He was found out, however, by [[Odysseus]], who arrived disguised as a peddler with trinkets and weaponry.  Achilles was marked out from the other women by admiring the wrong goods.  Alternatively, he was found out by a blast of the trumpet, whence instead of cowering he grabbed a spear to ward off the attackers.  From there he needed little convincing to go to Troy.
> 
> Achilles is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the ''Iliad''.  This does not just refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude.  He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life.  Not his own - clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious - and not really of others.  His anger is absolute.  The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is the main theme of TheIliad, and is best described on its page.
> 
> Shortly after the death of [[Hector]], Achilles defeated [[Memnon]] of Ethiopia and was very soon after killed by Paris - either by an arrow to the heel, or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting a Trojan princess.  Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield.  His bones are mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games are held.  His armor leads to the death of [[Ajax]].
> 
> In TheOdyssey, there is a passage where Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.  One of these is Achilles, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave then be dead.  This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.
> 
> The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son.  Since AlexanderTheGreat's mother was an Epiran princess, he could also claim this descent, and in many ways strived to be like his great ancestor.  He is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy.
------
FieldsMedal|982630094
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A prize awarded to up to four MathematicanS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields.
> 
> * 1998 (Berlin): RichardBorcherds, WilliamGowers, MaximKontsevich, CurtisMcMullen  
> * 1994 (Zurich): EfimZelmanov, JacquesLouisLions, JeanBourgain, JeanChristopheYoccoz 
> * 1990 (Kyoto): VladimirDrinfeld, ... 
> * 1986 SimonDonaldson, GerdFaltings, MichaelFreedman
> * 1983 (Varsaw): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
> * 1978 : PierreDeligne, CharlesFefferman, GrigoryMargulis, DanielQuillen
> * 1974 : EnricoBombieri, DavidMumford
> * 1970 (Nice): AlanBaker, HeisukeHironaka, SergeiNovikov, JohnGThompson
> * 1966 : MichaelAtiyah, PaulJCohen, AlexanderGrothendieck, StephenSmale
> * 1962 : LarsHormander, JohnMilnor
> * 1958 : KlausRoth, RenéThom
> * 1954 : KunihikoKodaira, JeanPierreSerre
> * 1950 : LaurentSchwartz, AtleSelberg
> * 1936 : LarsAhlfors, JesseDouglas
> 
> ----
> Famous contemporary mathematicians not having received this award:
> 
> ErdösPal (which could have shared Ahlfors medal for instance), VladimirArnold.
> ----
> Don't forget the NevanlinnaPrize.
------
AchillEus|982630111
1,13c1
< In GreekMythology, the greatest warrior in the TrojanWar, and the central character of TheIliad.  Also, and actually more commonly, "Achilles".
< 
< Achilleus was the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly and all-around hero, and the sea nymph Thetis.  Zeus and Poseidon had vied for her hand until an oracle was revealed that she would bear a son greater than its father, whence they wisely decided to give her to someone else.  According to the usual legend Thetis had tried to make Achilleus invincible by dipping him in the river Styx, but forgot to wet the heel she was holding him by, so he could be killed by a blow to that heel.  Homer, however, deliberately makes no mention of this; Achilleus can ''not'' be a hero if he is not at risk.
< 
< There was an oracle stating that if Achilleus fought at Troy, he would die there.  His mother thus hid him at the court of Lycurgus in Scyros, disguised as a woman.  There he had an affair with Deidamia resulting in a child, Neoptolemus.  He was found out, however, by OdyssEus, who arrived disguised as a peddler with trinkets and weaponry.  Achilleus was marked out from the other women by admiring the wrong goods.  Alternatively, he was found out by a blast of the trumpet, whence instead of cowering he grabbed a spear to ward off the attackers.  From there he needed little convincing to go to Troy.
< 
< Achilleus is one of the only two people described as "god-like" in the ''Iliad''.  This does not just refer to his supreme fighting ability, but also to his attitude.  He shows a complete and total devotion to the excellence of his craft and, like a god, has almost no regard for life.  Not his own - clearly he does not mind a swift death, so long as it is glorious - and not really of others.  His anger is absolute.  The humanization of Achilleus by the events of the war is the main theme of TheIliad, and is best described on its page.
< 
< Shortly after the death of HecTor, Achilleus defeated Memnon of Ethiopia and was very soon after killed by Paris - either by an arrow to the heel, or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting a Trojan princess.  Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilleus remains undefeated on the battlefield.  His bones are mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games are held.  His armor leads to the death of Ajax.
< 
< In TheOdyssey, there is a passage where OdysEus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.  One of these is AchillEus, who greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave then be dead.  This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.
< 
< The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from AchillEus through his son.  Since AlexanderTheGreat's mother was an Epiran princess, he could also claim this descent, and in many ways strived to be like his great ancestor.  He is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Achilles]]
------
HecTor|982630158
1,6c1
< In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after AchillEus.  Eldest son of KingPriam and Hecuba, called "breaker of horses" though he never seems to do so.
< 
< Hector provides a stark contrast for AchillEus, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  His words, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb to patriotic Greeks.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife Andromache and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
< 
< Nonetheless, Hector's fate is never in doubt.  Achilleus, raging over the death of Patroclus, kills him and drags his body thrice round the city of Troy.  The final passage in the ''Iliad'' is his funeral, after which the doom of Troy is just a matter of time.  In the final sacking his father and brothers are killed, his son is hurled from the walls in fear that it would avenge him, and his wife carried off by Neoptolemus.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hector]]
------
Hector|982630231
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after [[Achilles]].  Eldest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]], called "breaker of horses" though he never seems to do so.
> 
> Hector provides a stark contrast for Achilles, who is from first to last a man of war.  Hector is fighting, not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland.  His words, "Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen" became a proverb to patriotic Greeks.  Through him we see glimpses of what life might have been like in more peaceful times.  The scene where he bids a final fairwell to his wife [[Andromache]] and his infant son is one of the most moving in the ''Iliad''.
> 
> Nonetheless, Hector's fate is never in doubt.  Achilles, raging over the death of [[Patroclus]], kills him and drags his body thrice round the city of Troy.  The final passage in the ''Iliad'' is his funeral, after which the doom of Troy is just a matter of time.  In the final sacking his father and brothers are killed, his son is hurled from the walls in fear that it would avenge him, and his wife carried off by [[Neoptolemus]].
> 
> 
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982630285
1c1
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CombinaTorics -- SetTheory
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- FiniteMathematics
3c3
< :PhilosophyOfMath -- FermatsLastTheorem -- ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- ProbabilityAndStatistics
------
MathematicianS|982630339
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Intended to be a list of famous Mathemacians.
> 
> A few are already listed in FieldsMedal.
> 
> 
------
MathematicianS|982630357
1c1
< Intended to be a list of famous Mathemacians.
---
> Intended to be a list of famous Mathematicians.
------
GreekMythology|982630393
9c9,13
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- AchillEus -- HecTor  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA -- ArtemiS -- LetO -- OdyssEus -- HeracleS -- OedipUs -- JasoN -- ThesEus -- PromethEus
---
> ZeuS -- EuropA -- [[Achilles]] -- [[HecTor]]  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA
> 
> And we hope to find out more about our friends here...
> 
> [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Oedipus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]] -- [[Prometheus]]
11c15
< Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
---
> Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
------
ConStellations|982631128
1c1
< iMost of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but people are very good at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into configurations called constellations.  Different cultures have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to appear over and over again - e.g. Orion and Scorpius.
---
> iMost of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but people are very good at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into configurations called constellations.  Different cultures have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to appear over and over again - e.g. [[Orion]] and [[Scorpius]].
5,25c5,25
< * ArieS, the ram
< * TaurUs, the bull
< * GeminI, the twins (=DioscurI)
< * CancEr, the crab
< * LeO, the lion
< * VirgO, the virgin
< * LibrA, the scales
< * ScorpIus, the scorpion
< * SagittarIus, the archer
< * CapricornUs, the sea goat
< * AquarIus, the water carrier
< * PiscEs, the fish
< 
< Plus PtolemY listed the following additional constellations:
< 
< * AndromedA
< * AquilA, the eagle
< * ArA, the altar
< * ArgoNavis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into CarinA, PuppIs, PyxIs, and VelA
< * AurigA, the charioteer
< * BootEs, the herdsman
---
> * [[Aries]], the ram
> * [[Taurus]], the bull
> * [[Gemini]], the twins
> * [[Cancer]], the crab
> * [[Leo]], the lion
> * [[Virgo]], the virgin
> * [[Libra]], the scales
> * [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
> * [[Sagittarius]], the archer
> * [[Capricornus]], the sea goat
> * [[Aquarius]], the water carrier
> * [[Pisces]], the fish
> 
> Plus [[Ptolemy]] listed the following additional constellations:
> 
> * [[Andromeda]]
> * [[Aquila]], the eagle
> * [[Ara]], the altar
> * ArgoNavis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into [[Carina]], [[Puppis]], [[Pyxis]], and [[Vela]]
> * [[Auriga]], the charioteer
> * [[Bootes]], the herdsman
28,31c28,31
< * CassiopeiA
< * CentaurUs, the centaur
< * CephEus
< * CetUs, the whale
---
> * [[Cassiopeia]]
> * [[Centaurus]], the centaur
> * [[Cepheus]]
> * [[Cetus]], the whale
34,49c34,49
< * CorvUs, the raven
< * CratEr, the cup
< * CygnUs, the swan
< * DelphinUs, the dolphin
< * DracO, the dragon
< * EquulEus, the little horse
< * EridanUs, the river
< * HerculEs (=HeraklEs)
< * HydrA, the water snake
< * LepUs, the hare
< * LupUs, the wolf
< * LyrA, the lyre
< * OphiucUs, the serpent-bearer
< * OrioN, the hunter
< * PegasUs
< * PersEus
---
> * [[Corvus]], the raven
> * [[Crater]], the cup
> * [[Cygnus]], the swan
> * [[Delphinus]], the dolphin
> * [[Draco]], the dragon
> * [[Equuleus]], the little horse
> * [[Eridanus]], the river
> * [[Hercules]]
> * [[Hydra]], the water snake
> * [[Lepus]], the hare
> * [[Lupus]], the wolf
> * [[Lyra]], the lyre
> * [[Ophiucus]], the serpent-bearer
> * [[Orion]], the hunter
> * [[Pegasus]]
> * [[Perseus]]
51,53c51,53
< * SagittA, the arrow
< * SerpenS, the serpent
< * TriangulUm, the triangle
---
> * [[Sagitta]], the arrow
> * [[Serpens]], the serpent
> * [[Triangulum]], the triangle
59,62c59,62
< * AntliA, the pump
< * ApUs, the bird of paradise
< * CaelUm, the chisel
< * CamelopardIs, the giraffe
---
> * [[Antlia]], the pump
> * [[Apus]], the bird of paradise
> * [[Caelum]], the chisel
> * [[Camelopardis]], the giraffe
64,66c64,66
< * ChamaeleoN
< * CircinUs, the drawing compasses
< * ColumbA, the dove
---
> * [[Chamaeleon]]
> * [[Circinus]], the drawing compasses
> * [[Columba]], the dove
68,75c68,75
< * CruX, the cross
< * DoradO, the swordfish
< * FornaX, the furnace
< * GrUs, the crane
< * HorologIum, the clock
< * HydrUs, the water snake
< * IndUs, the Indian
< * LacertA, the lizard
---
> * [[Crux]], the cross
> * [[Dorado]], the swordfish
> * [[Fornax]], the furnace
> * [[Grus]], the crane
> * [[Horologium]], the clock
> * [[Hydrus]], the water snake
> * [[Indus]], the Indian
> * [[Lacerta]], the lizard
77,91c77,91
< * LynX
< * MensA - originally MonsMensae, table mountain
< * MicroscopIum, the microscope
< * MonocerOs, the unicorn
< * MuscA, the fly
< * NormA, the square
< * OctanS, the octant
< * PavO, the peacock
< * PhoeniX
< * PictoR - originally EquuleusPictoris, the painter's easel
< * ReticulUm, the reticle
< * SculptoR
< * ScutUm, the shield
< * SextanS, the sextant
< * TelescopIum, the telescope
---
> * [[Lynx]]
> * [[Mensa]] - originally Mons Mensae, table mountain
> * [[Microscopium]], the microscope
> * [[Monoceros]], the unicorn
> * [[Musca]], the fly
> * [[Norma]], the square
> * [[Octans]], the octant
> * [[Pavo]], the peacock
> * [[Phoenix]]
> * [[Pictor]] - originally Equuleus Pictoris, the painter's easel
> * [[Reticulum]], the reticle
> * [[Sculptor]]
> * [[Scutum]], the shield
> * [[Sextans]], the sextant
> * [[Telescopium]], the telescope
93,95c93,95
< * TucanA, the toucan
< * VolanS - originally PiscisVolans, the flying fish
< * Vulpecula - originally VulpeculaCumAnsere, the fox with the goose
---
> * [[Tucana]], the toucan
> * [[Volans]] - originally Piscis Volans, the flying fish
> * [[Vulpecula]] - originally Vulpecula Cum Ansere, the fox with the goose
97c97
< There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably QuadransMuralis (now part of Bootes) for which the QuadrantidMeteors are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the BigDipper and LittleDipper.
---
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably QuadransMuralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the QuadrantidMeteors are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the BigDipper and LittleDipper.
------
ActresseS|982631942
27a28
> [[Charlize Theron]]
------
ActresseS|982631962
28c28
< [[Charlize Theron]]
---
> :[Charlize Theron]
------
ActresseS|982631975
28c28
< :[Charlize Theron]
---
> :[[Charlize Theron]]
------
Charlize_Theron|982632277
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Charlize Theron is a South African actress.  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in LosAngeles, [[California]].  She is dating StephanJenkins, lead singer for the band ThirdEyeBlind.
> 
> She is reputed to speak at least parts of 28 languages, but her first language is AfrikaansLanguage, and her second language is EnglishLanguage.
> 
> She has appeared in such movies as TheDevilsAdvocate, ReindeerGames, and TheLegendOfBaggerVance.
------
Charlize_Theron|982632293
5a6,7
> 
> /Filmography
------
Charlize_Theron/Filmography|982632568
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Charlize Theron has participated in the following films:
> 
> *2DaysInTheValley - 1996
> *ThatThingYouDo! - 1996
> *ChildrenOfTheCornIV - 1996
> *TrialAndError - 1997
> *TheDevilsAdvocate - 1997
> *HollywoodConfidential - 1997
> *Celebrity - 1998
> *MightyJoeYoung - 1998
> *TheAstronautsWife - 1999
> *TheCiderHouseRules - 1999
> *ReindeerGames - 2000
> *TheYards - 2000
> *MenOfHonor - 2000
> *TheLegendOfBaggerVance - 2000
> *WakinUpInReno - 2000
> *SweetNovember - 2001
> *TheCurseOfTheJadeScorpion - 2001
> *SweetHomeAlabama - 2001
> 
------
Charlize_Theron|982632602
5c5
< She has appeared in such movies as TheDevilsAdvocate, ReindeerGames, and TheLegendOfBaggerVance.
---
> She has appeared in such movies as TheCiderHouseRules, TheDevilsAdvocate, ReindeerGames, and TheLegendOfBaggerVance.
7c7
< /Filmography
---
> /Filmography
------
ActresseS|982633250
11c11
< :ShannonElizabeth
---
> :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
------
ActresseS|982633450
11c11
< :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
---
> :ShannonElizabeth
------
DeniseRichards|982633638
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Denise Richards is an American film actress.  She was born February 17, 1972 in Downers Grove, Illinois.  She later moved to California, and graduated from El Camino High School in Oceanside, California.
> 
> She is most famous for her appearance in the films WildThings (1998), StarshipTroopers (1997), and NationalLampoonsLoadedWeaponI (1993).
------
DeniseRichards|982633722
1c1
< Denise Richards is an American film actress.  She was born February 17, 1972 in Downers Grove, Illinois.  She later moved to California, and graduated from El Camino High School in Oceanside, California.
---
> Denise Richards is an American film actress.  She was born February 17, 1972 in DownersGrove, [[Illinois]].  She later moved to California, and graduated from El Camino High School in [[Oceanside]], [[California]].
------
RecentChanges|982633828
1c1,3
< Are you addicted to RecentChanges?  I know I am.  :-)  Did you know that this is a wiki page?  Regular authors could leave notes for everyone here. --JimboWales
---
> We now have the ability to do free form links.  The question is: what do we want to do about it?  Should we agree to discourage the practice of CrammingTogetherWords?  It's so cute, I'm not sure I can stop.  :-)
> 
> We can do this any way we want, and of course people can still do things the old way if they like.  But some consistency is probably desirable, too?
------
RecentChanges|982634564
3c3
< We can do this any way we want, and of course people can still do things the old way if they like.  But some consistency is probably desirable, too?
---
> We can do this any way we want, and of course people can still do things the old way if they like.  But some consistency is probably desirable, too?  Talk on NamingConventions.
------
NamingConventions|982635900
1c1
< Recommend naming one-word pages like AfghanistanCountry rather than the eminently ugly AfghanistaN.
---
> Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new FreeLink style of linking.  Oops, there I go contradicting myself.
3,97c3
< In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.  You might name the "letter" pages things like IndexA, which might link to IndexAaAl and IndexAmAz (once you get big enough :-).
< 
< For example, say I want to link to a page from my site.  I have an [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki InterWiki] prefix set up for WikiPedia on my own wiki.  Without going through the rigamarole of actually looking up something on WikiPedia, I have no ''a priori'' way of knowing whether to link to <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlAska</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaSka</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlasKa</nowiki></tt>, or <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaskA</nowiki></tt>.  Lather, rinse, and repeat for longer names like AfghanistaN.  If I knew there was an AlaskaState naming convention, then I wouldn't have to give it a second thought.
< 
< The arbitrary naming convention used so far is very inconvenient and doesn't contribute at all to [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking].  At very minimum, you might investigate other wiki engines that support arbitrary link patterns like <nowiki>[Alaska]</nowiki> and <nowiki>[Ward Cunningham]</nowiki>.  -- ScottMoonen
< ----
< There is, however, a search form at the bottom of every page.  Isn't it both more convenient and more liberating in the end to let people do whatever they want, and just search for a string of characters whenever you think there might be related page already in existence, to which you might link?
< ----
< :I respectfully disagree:
< *AfghanistanCountry matches every search AfghanistaN matches.
< *AfghanistanCountry additionally matches every search for "country".
< *[http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking] is vital.  When I'm typing an article on the SovietUnion and want to link someplace I don't want to waste the time to go off and search whether it's AfGhanistan, AfgHanistan, AfghAnistan, . . ., AfghanistaN.  I want to know right off the bat what it is.
< 
< :I submit that there is nothing in the way of convenience or liberation that AfghanistaN can do for you and which AfghanistanCountry can't.  And it seems to me there are serious usability deficiencies in AfghanistaN.  Consider especially those persons who haven't experienced a wiki before.  OTOH, as I suggested above, you might research wikis that allow you to create one-word links that arent UgLy. -- ScottMoonen
< ----
< I (JimboWales) am the one who started the bad naming convention.  I simply plead total ignorance.  I realized when I started that it was a problem, but I didn't know what to do, so I just kept plugging away.
< 
< I think that ScottMoonen''''s suggestion has great merit.  Unless someone beats me to it, I will work on making that change over the next few days.
< ----
< I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''many'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say, "AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia," which sounds very awkward.
< 
< The argument that this convention makes it easier to search is obviated by the fact that, after all, people will organize all countries, all countries in Asia, all Muslim countries, etc., each on their own pages (in the near or distant future anyway), and more importantly, that a full text search is possible.  Why impose a category scheme in the ''naming convention''?
< 
< So I would prefer not to include categories in ''most'' (not all, I suppose) topic names because that tends to restrict the discussion of the category.  For example, if I were to write "FiddleMusic" instead of "FidDle," then the tendency would be to discuss, well, fiddle music instead of all things fiddle.  I could write "FiddleMusicalInstrument," but then the tendency would be to discuss the fiddle ''qua'' musical instrument, and there are many other aspects of the fiddle apart from those directly related to the fact that it's a musical instrument.  Generally, I'm opposed to imposing pre-set category schemes: things do not wear their categories on their sleeves (as though they had only one supercategory) and we should not name articles as though they did.
< 
< Finally, I think it makes sense simply to capitalize the internal letter of one-word topics which begins the strongest syllable (or next-strongest syllable, if the strongest syllable is the first).  Thus: FidDle; AlAska; RusSia; DoneGal (yes, in fact that's the strongest syllable, the way the Irish use the name).  In cases where there is both one word and one syllable, I'd propose capitalizing the last letter: BasS; JazZ; SoaP.  This is the convention I've been following, anyway.  And, of course, for multi-word topics, capitalize all the words (except, perhaps the conjunctions and articles?) and mash 'em together.
< 
< That's my take, but go and do whatever you like! -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Well, LarrySanger has good points, too.  I think we can all agree that alphabetical page names like 'AaA' are bad.  I want to organize all the CountriesOfTheWorld, but someone else will want to organize all the SportS or whatever.
< 
< I have changed my index pages, but so far I have not made any alteration to the country names.
< 
< One problem with LarrySanger'''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know what is the strongest syllable.
< ----
< We could, should we so desire, make only two very simple rules.  First, multiple words get capitals at the beginning of each word.  Single words (and we could choose, here - and spread the word to attain consistency) get caps on the first and third, or first and last letter.  Hence, GoD is accurate in either scheme by default, and hell would either become HelL or HeLl.  Likewise, AfGhanistan or AfghanistaN.  We would not do both, but one or the other.  At least such a rule would be simple and easy to apply in all cases.  (but then how would we link to "id?" heh)
< ----
< Wouldn't it be a good idea to add a tool on each page helping us to find names with incorrect or missing links. My suggestion is to modify the preview page to include a list of all words or combination of words present in the text that have entries (independant of capitalization) in wikipedia. In that way it would be simple to pin-point errors in capitalization and the need for rules diminishes.  --LinusTolke
< ----
< The first and last letter approach requires the least thinking to apply, for single word topics.  In any case, it seems kinda plain that we ought to try to standardize a bit here, since otherwise "accidental linking" is going to be a lot less accidental.  ;-)  -- Bryce
< ----
< Thank you, Bryce.  I, too, would be fine with the "first and last" rule on single word topics, to go along with the "first letter of every word" rule on multiple word topics. All the rest, what say ye? -- AyeSpy
< ----
< On the other hand, it wouldn't be too hard to change the wiki to allow links like [[word]] for single-word topics.  See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for further discussion of this idea.  Otherwise, the last-letter capital is probably the best idea that fits within the wiki conventions. --CliffordAdams
< ----
< A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
< 
< I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
< ----
< The discussion so far has left out a class of single words that I would like to bring attention to.  Those being the words that have something of a natural way of being broken up that reflects the structure, history, and/or root meaning of the word.  Like PhiloSophy, terms that end in -logy, -ory, etc.
< 
< I rather like the reminder of the roots of a term.  Sort of an antiNewSpeak type thing.  That having been said, seeing -ism capitalized all over the place has become a bit unnerving.  Further, many people don't want to bother learning the roots or be reminded of them.
< 
< However, I would like to offer this as an alternative (for some words) to the last-letter idea and read what others think of it.  Oh, and the [[word]] seems the best solution since it lets me play with roots and frees the wiki of an arbitrary constraint  --PhillipHankins
< 
< ''In most cases this can be codified fairly easily, and so applied without an etymological dictionary.  Usually the letter immediately preceding the first O would get capitalized: GeoMetry, DemoCracy, PhiloSophy, BioLogy.  Words that end in I stems would have the last I capitalized: MarxIsm, PolitIcs, ChristianIty, SkiIng.  Failing those, you could just look for some common stem words: Al-, -Lysis, -Archy, etc.''
< ----
< Various animal articles are coming in, so I'd like to fill in some of the hierarchy thet fit into.  Does anyone have any idea about how groups should be named?  Some possibilities:
< 
< * PhylumPorifera (one difficulty is that not all groups have clear ranks)
< * PoriFera
< * SpongE
< 
< Note also that high-level taxa could get named differently from low-level taxa: KingdomAnimalia, WolF.  Does anyone have any thoughts on how they'd like groups named?
< ----
< Don't it go to show that these wikinames just won't work in the long run?  It's fun - and easy - to add new pages, but what if I want to look up a subject? Will I find America under AmeRica or AmericA (both look equally silly, if you ask me)? And why should I have to memorize a gazilion CapitalizationRules in order to find what I want?
< 
< Nah, in my opinion we should be using a method that will allow us to create a link regardless of, but not excluding, the capitalization - much like they do on Everything2, where you create a link by enclosing it in square brackets [LikeThis].  And once this is established we should clean up this wiki for all the obscure and ugly capitalizations we can see today.
< 
< My advice is that we implement and enforce this before too long, otherwise it will be a tremendous task to correct the pages and to look up things on WikiPedia. --KlausSeistrup
< 
< :The code for "free" links like <tt><nowiki>[[Democracy]]</nowiki></tt> is currently being tested on a [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/um9test.pl?FreeLinks test wiki].  (Feel free to try it out on that site.)  This new linking feature should be available "soon".  I used double-brackets for links so that people can continue to use brackets in their ordinary editorial sense [like this] without creating links.
< 
< :Conversion to the new form of links should be semi-automatic--I'm planning on building a script that will list all links and a suggested new name (like "DemocracY=[[Democracy]]".  After editing this list for special cases the list will be used to automatically rename the pages and all links (within the wiki) to those pages.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< Sounds great, Cliff.  Cheers, mate.  --KlausSeistrup
< 
< ----
< '''Links with spaces:'''
< 
< The new free-linking code ''can'' allow links with spaces and limited punctuation, like [[John F. Kennedy]].  While I think that the current wiki names (squishing words together with capitals) are often useful to writers, they can make pages difficult to read and explain to users new to wikis.
< 
< Should links with spaces be allowed or even encouraged on WikiPedia?  Should the existing pages be converted to this form?  (Should this page become [[Naming Conventions]] for instance?)
< 
< In the end, the preferred link style may become a site policy decision.  Before that happens I hope to have some discussion of the issues.  The biggest issue I see is whether the WikiPedia should try to follow the wiki-culture from other sites, or whether it should develop its own cultural norms (which may diverge from existing wikis).  --CliffordAdams
< 
< ----
< 
< I'm personally for links with spaces. Maybe it's not very "wiki" 
< (I didn't know what a wiki was till I came here through nupedia),
< but it's certainly more "encyclopedic" --AstroNomer
< 
< ----
< 
< I'd appreciate other parties to jump in on the discussion Cliff and I are having on http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FreeLink. What do you think about the canonicalization (c14n) concept? That would make a link like <nowiki>[[John F. Kennedy]] into john_f_kennedy which would match correctly against [[John F Kennedy]] and JohnFKennedy as well.</nowiki> -- SunirShah
---
> /Oldpage
------
NamingConventions/Oldpage|982635909
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Recommend naming one-word pages like AfghanistanCountry rather than the eminently ugly AfghanistaN.
> 
> In this same manner, every noun can have Person, Place, Idea, Invention, etc. tacked on to its end to identify its type.  You might even want to hold this convention for words that already meet the wiki naming conventions, like ThomasEdisonPerson.  You might name the "letter" pages things like IndexA, which might link to IndexAaAl and IndexAmAz (once you get big enough :-).
> 
> For example, say I want to link to a page from my site.  I have an [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki InterWiki] prefix set up for WikiPedia on my own wiki.  Without going through the rigamarole of actually looking up something on WikiPedia, I have no ''a priori'' way of knowing whether to link to <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlAska</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaSka</nowiki></tt>, <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlasKa</nowiki></tt>, or <tt><nowiki>WikiPedia:AlaskA</nowiki></tt>.  Lather, rinse, and repeat for longer names like AfghanistaN.  If I knew there was an AlaskaState naming convention, then I wouldn't have to give it a second thought.
> 
> The arbitrary naming convention used so far is very inconvenient and doesn't contribute at all to [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking].  At very minimum, you might investigate other wiki engines that support arbitrary link patterns like <nowiki>[Alaska]</nowiki> and <nowiki>[Ward Cunningham]</nowiki>.  -- ScottMoonen
> ----
> There is, however, a search form at the bottom of every page.  Isn't it both more convenient and more liberating in the end to let people do whatever they want, and just search for a string of characters whenever you think there might be related page already in existence, to which you might link?
> ----
> :I respectfully disagree:
> *AfghanistanCountry matches every search AfghanistaN matches.
> *AfghanistanCountry additionally matches every search for "country".
> *[http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?AccidentalLinking AccidentalLinking] is vital.  When I'm typing an article on the SovietUnion and want to link someplace I don't want to waste the time to go off and search whether it's AfGhanistan, AfgHanistan, AfghAnistan, . . ., AfghanistaN.  I want to know right off the bat what it is.
> 
> :I submit that there is nothing in the way of convenience or liberation that AfghanistaN can do for you and which AfghanistanCountry can't.  And it seems to me there are serious usability deficiencies in AfghanistaN.  Consider especially those persons who haven't experienced a wiki before.  OTOH, as I suggested above, you might research wikis that allow you to create one-word links that arent UgLy. -- ScottMoonen
> ----
> I (JimboWales) am the one who started the bad naming convention.  I simply plead total ignorance.  I realized when I started that it was a problem, but I didn't know what to do, so I just kept plugging away.
> 
> I think that ScottMoonen''''s suggestion has great merit.  Unless someone beats me to it, I will work on making that change over the next few days.
> ----
> I believe the above-proposed convention is, in ''many'' cases, too restrictive.  It creates titles that sound strange when used as parts of sentences.  E.g., if I want to say that Afghanistan is a country in Asia, I am forced to say, "AfghanistanCountry is a country in Asia," which sounds very awkward.
> 
> The argument that this convention makes it easier to search is obviated by the fact that, after all, people will organize all countries, all countries in Asia, all Muslim countries, etc., each on their own pages (in the near or distant future anyway), and more importantly, that a full text search is possible.  Why impose a category scheme in the ''naming convention''?
> 
> So I would prefer not to include categories in ''most'' (not all, I suppose) topic names because that tends to restrict the discussion of the category.  For example, if I were to write "FiddleMusic" instead of "FidDle," then the tendency would be to discuss, well, fiddle music instead of all things fiddle.  I could write "FiddleMusicalInstrument," but then the tendency would be to discuss the fiddle ''qua'' musical instrument, and there are many other aspects of the fiddle apart from those directly related to the fact that it's a musical instrument.  Generally, I'm opposed to imposing pre-set category schemes: things do not wear their categories on their sleeves (as though they had only one supercategory) and we should not name articles as though they did.
> 
> Finally, I think it makes sense simply to capitalize the internal letter of one-word topics which begins the strongest syllable (or next-strongest syllable, if the strongest syllable is the first).  Thus: FidDle; AlAska; RusSia; DoneGal (yes, in fact that's the strongest syllable, the way the Irish use the name).  In cases where there is both one word and one syllable, I'd propose capitalizing the last letter: BasS; JazZ; SoaP.  This is the convention I've been following, anyway.  And, of course, for multi-word topics, capitalize all the words (except, perhaps the conjunctions and articles?) and mash 'em together.
> 
> That's my take, but go and do whatever you like! -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Well, LarrySanger has good points, too.  I think we can all agree that alphabetical page names like 'AaA' are bad.  I want to organize all the CountriesOfTheWorld, but someone else will want to organize all the SportS or whatever.
> 
> I have changed my index pages, but so far I have not made any alteration to the country names.
> 
> One problem with LarrySanger'''''s proposal, for multi-syllabic words, is that people may not know what is the strongest syllable.
> ----
> We could, should we so desire, make only two very simple rules.  First, multiple words get capitals at the beginning of each word.  Single words (and we could choose, here - and spread the word to attain consistency) get caps on the first and third, or first and last letter.  Hence, GoD is accurate in either scheme by default, and hell would either become HelL or HeLl.  Likewise, AfGhanistan or AfghanistaN.  We would not do both, but one or the other.  At least such a rule would be simple and easy to apply in all cases.  (but then how would we link to "id?" heh)
> ----
> Wouldn't it be a good idea to add a tool on each page helping us to find names with incorrect or missing links. My suggestion is to modify the preview page to include a list of all words or combination of words present in the text that have entries (independant of capitalization) in wikipedia. In that way it would be simple to pin-point errors in capitalization and the need for rules diminishes.  --LinusTolke
> ----
> The first and last letter approach requires the least thinking to apply, for single word topics.  In any case, it seems kinda plain that we ought to try to standardize a bit here, since otherwise "accidental linking" is going to be a lot less accidental.  ;-)  -- Bryce
> ----
> Thank you, Bryce.  I, too, would be fine with the "first and last" rule on single word topics, to go along with the "first letter of every word" rule on multiple word topics. All the rest, what say ye? -- AyeSpy
> ----
> On the other hand, it wouldn't be too hard to change the wiki to allow links like [[word]] for single-word topics.  See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for further discussion of this idea.  Otherwise, the last-letter capital is probably the best idea that fits within the wiki conventions. --CliffordAdams
> ----
> A request: for an encyclopedia, the usual Wiki link-naming scheme seems not quite right. How about patching the Wiki server code so that any string that ends in a special character (such as "~") becomes a Wiki link.
> 
> I second this request.  I propose that wiki links should be enclosed in double braces, {{like this}}.  Of course, we'll have to do some serious re-naming of pages when the new standard is implemented--that might not be for a while, too.  Don't hold your breath.
> ----
> The discussion so far has left out a class of single words that I would like to bring attention to.  Those being the words that have something of a natural way of being broken up that reflects the structure, history, and/or root meaning of the word.  Like PhiloSophy, terms that end in -logy, -ory, etc.
> 
> I rather like the reminder of the roots of a term.  Sort of an antiNewSpeak type thing.  That having been said, seeing -ism capitalized all over the place has become a bit unnerving.  Further, many people don't want to bother learning the roots or be reminded of them.
> 
> However, I would like to offer this as an alternative (for some words) to the last-letter idea and read what others think of it.  Oh, and the [[word]] seems the best solution since it lets me play with roots and frees the wiki of an arbitrary constraint  --PhillipHankins
> 
> ''In most cases this can be codified fairly easily, and so applied without an etymological dictionary.  Usually the letter immediately preceding the first O would get capitalized: GeoMetry, DemoCracy, PhiloSophy, BioLogy.  Words that end in I stems would have the last I capitalized: MarxIsm, PolitIcs, ChristianIty, SkiIng.  Failing those, you could just look for some common stem words: Al-, -Lysis, -Archy, etc.''
> ----
> Various animal articles are coming in, so I'd like to fill in some of the hierarchy thet fit into.  Does anyone have any idea about how groups should be named?  Some possibilities:
> 
> * PhylumPorifera (one difficulty is that not all groups have clear ranks)
> * PoriFera
> * SpongE
> 
> Note also that high-level taxa could get named differently from low-level taxa: KingdomAnimalia, WolF.  Does anyone have any thoughts on how they'd like groups named?
> ----
> Don't it go to show that these wikinames just won't work in the long run?  It's fun - and easy - to add new pages, but what if I want to look up a subject? Will I find America under AmeRica or AmericA (both look equally silly, if you ask me)? And why should I have to memorize a gazilion CapitalizationRules in order to find what I want?
> 
> Nah, in my opinion we should be using a method that will allow us to create a link regardless of, but not excluding, the capitalization - much like they do on Everything2, where you create a link by enclosing it in square brackets [LikeThis].  And once this is established we should clean up this wiki for all the obscure and ugly capitalizations we can see today.
> 
> My advice is that we implement and enforce this before too long, otherwise it will be a tremendous task to correct the pages and to look up things on WikiPedia. --KlausSeistrup
> 
> :The code for "free" links like <tt><nowiki>[[Democracy]]</nowiki></tt> is currently being tested on a [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/um9test.pl?FreeLinks test wiki].  (Feel free to try it out on that site.)  This new linking feature should be available "soon".  I used double-brackets for links so that people can continue to use brackets in their ordinary editorial sense [like this] without creating links.
> 
> :Conversion to the new form of links should be semi-automatic--I'm planning on building a script that will list all links and a suggested new name (like "DemocracY=[[Democracy]]".  After editing this list for special cases the list will be used to automatically rename the pages and all links (within the wiki) to those pages.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> Sounds great, Cliff.  Cheers, mate.  --KlausSeistrup
> 
> ----
> '''Links with spaces:'''
> 
> The new free-linking code ''can'' allow links with spaces and limited punctuation, like [[John F. Kennedy]].  While I think that the current wiki names (squishing words together with capitals) are often useful to writers, they can make pages difficult to read and explain to users new to wikis.
> 
> Should links with spaces be allowed or even encouraged on WikiPedia?  Should the existing pages be converted to this form?  (Should this page become [[Naming Conventions]] for instance?)
> 
> In the end, the preferred link style may become a site policy decision.  Before that happens I hope to have some discussion of the issues.  The biggest issue I see is whether the WikiPedia should try to follow the wiki-culture from other sites, or whether it should develop its own cultural norms (which may diverge from existing wikis).  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm personally for links with spaces. Maybe it's not very "wiki" 
> (I didn't know what a wiki was till I came here through nupedia),
> but it's certainly more "encyclopedic" --AstroNomer
> 
> ----
> 
> I'd appreciate other parties to jump in on the discussion Cliff and I are having on http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FreeLink. What do you think about the canonicalization (c14n) concept? That would make a link like <nowiki>[[John F. Kennedy]] into john_f_kennedy which would match correctly against [[John F Kennedy]] and JohnFKennedy as well.</nowiki> -- SunirShah
------
NamingConventions|982635953
1c1
< Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new FreeLink style of linking.  Oops, there I go contradicting myself.
---
> Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new [[Free Links]] style of linking.
------
Free_Links|982636100
5c5,7
< Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
---
> Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> I am all for consistency.  We should henceforth use [[Free Links|free linking]].  We should also get the above question answered...that could save us a lot of mind-numbing gruntwork. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
LarrySanger|982636125
1,42c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.
< 
< Inflicted LarrysText first on Ohio State students, and now on WikiPedia.
< 
< Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
< ----
< Yes, I agree, he is he, nobody would argue with me! :-P
< 
< He is he, but this is twee, we'd all agree.
< 
< Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe!
< ----
< I'm not envious because I live here, in RussiA!
< ----
< Requesting a SiberianHusky...that's all! RoseParks
< ----
< Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
< ----
< Why are all SiberianHusky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
< ----
< I don't know! -- Larry
< ----
< Clearly you haven't met the SiberianHusky''s'' I know...Tara and Sarah!!!
< ----
< I'm going to treat this page like email, since it probably doesn't belong in the pedia itself.  I found your lecture on TheProblemOfEvil quite enjoyable, and an argument occurred to
< me which I thought I might bounce off of you.
< 
< I suppose I might call it evil relativism.  That is to say, evil is simply any event which lowers one's enjoyment (in the most general sense) - the lower half of our happiness scale.  If we eliminated everything we consider evil - natural as well as man-made, *we* would certainly notice the difference.  But say the temperature still was allowed to vary from 50 degrees F in the winter to 85 degrees F in the summer, and that one being caught outside in winter without a coat was the most unpleasant thing that ever might happen to us.  We would probably never complain (indeed, many of us would relish that rare feeling of goosebumps), but would not our grandchildren consider this the most extreme possible evil?
< 
< If one accepts this argument, that evil is perceived relatively and is part of any effable universe, would this not nullify argument 4?
< 
< -J
< ----
< It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< Hey, Larry, where did you do your phil grad?  --curious PhillipHankins
< ----
< Ohio State--wrote my dissertation on epistemic circularity, George Pappas was my advisor with Marshall Swain a committee member.
< ----
< Political discussion not allowed on this page.  :-)
< ----
< Folks, I've had a lot of fun with WikiPedia this week (Feb. 11-16 or so) but I am going to have to start limiting the time I spend on it, so I can work more diligently on NuPedia.  :-)  -- Larry
---
> #REDIRECT Larry Sanger
------
LarrySanger|982636141
1c1
< #REDIRECT Larry Sanger
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Larry_Sanger|982636151
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with JimboWales) instigator of WikiPedia.  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.
> 
> Inflicted LarrysText first on Ohio State students, and now on WikiPedia.
> 
> Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because LarrySanger works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
> ----
> Yes, I agree, he is he, nobody would argue with me! :-P
> 
> He is he, but this is twee, we'd all agree.
> 
> Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe!
> ----
> I'm not envious because I live here, in RussiA!
> ----
> Requesting a SiberianHusky...that's all! RoseParks
> ----
> Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
> ----
> Why are all SiberianHusky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
> ----
> I don't know! -- Larry
> ----
> Clearly you haven't met the SiberianHusky''s'' I know...Tara and Sarah!!!
> ----
> I'm going to treat this page like email, since it probably doesn't belong in the pedia itself.  I found your lecture on TheProblemOfEvil quite enjoyable, and an argument occurred to
> me which I thought I might bounce off of you.
> 
> I suppose I might call it evil relativism.  That is to say, evil is simply any event which lowers one's enjoyment (in the most general sense) - the lower half of our happiness scale.  If we eliminated everything we consider evil - natural as well as man-made, *we* would certainly notice the difference.  But say the temperature still was allowed to vary from 50 degrees F in the winter to 85 degrees F in the summer, and that one being caught outside in winter without a coat was the most unpleasant thing that ever might happen to us.  We would probably never complain (indeed, many of us would relish that rare feeling of goosebumps), but would not our grandchildren consider this the most extreme possible evil?
> 
> If one accepts this argument, that evil is perceived relatively and is part of any effable universe, would this not nullify argument 4?
> 
> -J
> ----
> It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> Hey, Larry, where did you do your phil grad?  --curious PhillipHankins
> ----
> Ohio State--wrote my dissertation on epistemic circularity, George Pappas was my advisor with Marshall Swain a committee member.
> ----
> Political discussion not allowed on this page.  :-)
> ----
> Folks, I've had a lot of fun with WikiPedia this week (Feb. 11-16 or so) but I am going to have to start limiting the time I spend on it, so I can work more diligently on NuPedia.  :-)  -- Larry
------
Free_Links|982636194
5c5
< Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[LarrySanger|Larry Sanger]]
---
> Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
7c7
< I am all for consistency.  We should henceforth use [[Free Links|free linking]].  We should also get the above question answered...that could save us a lot of mind-numbing gruntwork. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I am all for consistency.  We should henceforth use [[Free Links|free linking]].  We should also get the above question answered...that could save us a lot of mind-numbing gruntwork. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
KingdomAnimalia|982636809
13d12
< The animals other than the sponges, and a few problematic phyla, form a clear subgroup called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates and cells migrate or pinch into the interior.  The resulting form is called a ''gastrula'' and has a clear digestive tract, with three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
17c16
< '''Systematics and ecology'''
---
> '''Systematics'''
19c18
< Blah, blah, blah.  [[Arthropoda]] and [[Annelida]] turn out not to be related, as suggested by the very different developments of the two groups.  Instead arthropods seem to be related to the roundworms ([[Nematoda]]), linked by a chitinous cuticle which is molted.  What this does to proposals of their polyphyly I don't know.
---
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules.  The cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.
21,28c20
< '''Phyla of animals'''
< 
< Parazoan and mesozoan animals:
< 
< * Phylum [[Porifera]]
< * Phylum [[Rhombozoa]]
< * Phylum [[Orthonectida]]
< * Phylum [[Placozoa]]
---
> There are three problematic phyla that show an unclear relation to the other animals - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]].  After these, all animals belong to a clear group called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a clear digestive chamber and three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
------
WikiWatcher|982645161
1a2,4
> ----
>  And what about us not so intelligent people?
> 
------
Planet|982645976
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the SolarSystem). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
> are known.
> 
> The planets of the Solar System (in increasing distance from the [[Sun]]) are
> * [[Mercury]]
> * [[Venus]]
> * [[Earth]]
> * [[Mars]]
> * [[Jupiter]]
> * [[Saturn]]
> * [[Uranus]]
> * [[Neptune]]
> * [[Pluto]]
------
PlaneT|982646001
1,25c1
< A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own
< and orbits a StaR. Until recently, only nine were known (all of
< them in the SolarSystem). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
< are known.
< 
< The planets of the Solar System (in increasing distance from the SuN) are
< 
< MercurY
< 
< VenuS
< 
< MarS
< 
< EartH
< 
< JupiteR
< 
< SaturN
< 
< UranuS
< 
< NeptunE
< 
< PlutO
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Planet]] 
------
Tennis|982646229
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If you are a tennis fan, you can help the Wikipedia free encyclopedia by writing a short biography for your favorite tennis professional.
> 
>  FemaleTennisProfessionals
>  MaleTennisProfessionals
------
TenniS|982646266
1c1
< If you are a tennis fan, you can help the Wikipedia free encyclopedia by writing a short biography for your favorite tennis professional.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tennis]] 
3,4d2
<  FemaleTennisProfessionals
<  MaleTennisProfessionals
------
MartinaHingis|982646333
1c1
< Martina Hingis is a professional TenniS player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, FloridA, in the UnitedStates.
---
> Martina Hingis is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, [[Florida]], in the UnitedStates.
3c3
< Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at WimbledoN -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
---
> Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at [[Wimbledon]] -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
------
AnnaKournikova|982646432
1c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional TenniS player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in MoscoW, RussiA, but currently lives in BradentowN, Florida.  She is an only child.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], but currently lives in [[Bradentown]], [[Florida]].  She is an only child.
------
BalL|982646498
6c6
<  BasebalL
---
>  [[Baseball]]
9,12c9,12
<  DodgebalL
<  TenniS
<  GolF
<  BasketbalL
---
>  [[Dodgeball]]
>  [[Tennis]]
>  [[Golf]]
>  [[Basketball]]
------
Chess|982646544
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a game which is some thousend years old.
> It is especially popular for it's complexity.
> 
> the world organization of chess players is the [http://www.fide.org FIDE] 
> 
> all you need is:
> * two players
> * chessboard with figures
> * optional watch
> 
> unfortunatly the rules are to complicated to describe here
> . A lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
> but i don't know the english terms
------
ChesS|982646559
1,2c1
< Is a game which is some thousend years old.
< It is especially popular for it's complexity.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Chess]] 
4,13d2
< the world organization of chess players is the [http://www.fide.org FIDE] 
< 
< all you need is:
< * two players
< * chessboard with figures
< * optional watch
< 
< unfortunatly the rules are to complicated to describe here
< . A lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
< but i don't know the english terms
------
SportS|982646962
8,14c8,14
< * BiCycling
< * OrienteerinG
< * RunninG
< ** RunninG/CrossCountry
< ** RunninG/LongDistance
< ** RunninG/Track
< * SwimminG
---
> * [[Bicycling]]
> * [[Orienteering]]
> * [[Running]]
> ** [[Running/CrossCountry]]
> ** [[Running/LongDistance]]
> ** [[Running/Track]]
> * [[Swimming]]
17c17
< * JumpS
---
> * [[Jumps]]
22c22
< * ThrowS
---
> * [[Throws]]
24,27c24,27
< ** DiscuS
< ** JavelIn
< ** HammeR
< * HalteroPhily
---
> ** [[Discus]]
> ** [[Javelin]]
> ** [[Hammer]]
> * [[Halterophily]]
30,35c30,35
< * ArcherY
< * BilliardS
< * BowlinG
< * CroqueT
< * GolF
< * ShootinG
---
> * [[Archery]]
> * [[Billiards]]
> * [[Bowling]]
> * [[Croquet]]
> * [[Golf]]
> * [[Shooting]]
38,41c38,41
< * BadmintoN
< * BaseBall
< * BasketBall
< * AmericanFootBall
---
> * [[Badminton]]
> * [[Baseball]]
> * [[Basketball]]
> * AmericanFootball
43,108c43,44
< * CrickeT
< * FieldHockey
< * FootBall
< * IceHockey
< * TableTennis
< * TenniS
< 
< Fighting (where you and your opponents compete against each other using your strength and speed in contact.):
< * ArmWrestling
< * BoxinG
< * WrestlinG
< * FencinG
< * MartialArts
< * RopePulling
< 
< Motor sports (where you use the power of an engine as an important part of the sport.):
< * AutoRacing
< * EndurO
< * Formula1
< * SpeedBoating
< 
< Combination sports (where the winning is decided by putting together results from several of the other categories):
< * BiathloN (SkiIng and ShootinG)
< * PentathloN (track and field events)
< * TriathloN (Running/LongDistance, SwimminG, and BiCycling)
< * DecathloN (100m, LongJump, ShotPut, HighJump, 400m, 110m HurdleS, DiscuS, PoleVault, JavelIn, 1500m)
< 
< Comparison sports (where the winning is decided by a judge):
< * BodyBuilding
< * CheerLeading
< * DivinG
< * FigureSkating
< * GymnasticS
< * SyncopatedSwimming
< * WoodworkerContests
< 
< Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive; these are also comparison sports!)
< * IceSkating
< * RollerSkating
< * Skateboarding
< * SkiIng
< ** CrossCountrySkiing
< ** DownhillSkiing
< ** SnowBoarding
< * SurfinG
< 
< Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
< * BushWalking
< 
< Hunting sports (where the sport is to find, lure, catch some animal):
< * BassFishing
< * FoxHunt
< * HuntinG
< ** Hunting/Bowhunting
< 
< ''I think the following are not sports, but instead (simply) GameS; strictly speaking, there are no such things as "brain sports"''
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Card Games:
< * ContractBridge
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Board Games:
< * ChesS
< * GameOfGo ''- How bout the AncientOrientalGameOfGo?  Enough texts refer to it as that. :)''
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Letter Games:
< * CrossWords
---
> * [[Cricket]]
> * Fi
------
Sports|982646986
1c1,108
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jump in and tell us what you know about these sports.
> 
> I have tried to do a classification of sports in categories.
> ----
> (Where do sports such as parallel bars and jumping fit ?)
> 
> Speed sports (where the goal is to be as quick as possible. No or very little contact with your opponents.):
> * [[Bicycling]]
> * [[Orienteering]]
> * [[Running]]
> ** [[Running/CrossCountry]]
> ** [[Running/LongDistance]]
> ** [[Running/Track]]
> * [[Swimming]]
> 
> Surpassing sports (where the goal is to pull your body or an object beyond a physical mark):
> * [[Jumps]]
> ** LongJump
> ** HighJump
> ** TripleJump
> ** PoleVault
> * [[Throws]]
> ** ShotPut
> ** [[Discus]]
> ** [[Javelin]]
> ** [[Hammer]]
> * [[Halterophily]]
> 
> Precision sports (where the goal is to be as accurate as possible in throwing, tossing, rolling, ... No or very little contact with your opponents.):
> * [[Archery]]
> * [[Billiards]]
> * [[Bowling]]
> * [[Croquet]]
> * [[Golf]]
> * [[Shooting]]
> 
> Ball sports (where you and your opponent(s) are working to get control of and place a ball):
> * [[Badminton]]
> * [[Baseball]]
> * [[Basketball]]
> * AmericanFootball
> * AustralianRulesFootball
> * [[Cricket]]
> * FieldHockey
> * [[Football]]
> * IceHockey
> * TableTennis
> * [[Tennis]]
> 
> Fighting (where you and your opponents compete against each other using your strength and speed in contact.):
> * ArmWrestling
> * [[Boxing]]
> * [[Wrestling]]
> * [[Fencing]]
> * MartialArts
> * RopePulling
> 
> Motor sports (where you use the power of an engine as an important part of the sport.):
> * AutoRacing
> * [[Enduro]]
> * Formula1
> * SpeedBoating
> 
> Combination sports (where the winning is decided by putting together results from several of the other categories):
> * [[Biathlon]] ([[Skiing]] and [[Shooting]])
> * [[Triathlon]] ([[Running/LongDistance]], [[Swimming]], and [[Bicycling]])
> * [[Pentathlon]] (track and field events)
> * [[Decathlon]] (100m, LongJump, ShotPut, HighJump, 400m, 110m [[Hurdles]], [[Discus]], PoleVault, ][[Javelin]], 1500m)
> 
> Comparison sports (where the winning is decided by a judge):
> * BodyBuilding
> * CheerLeading
> * [[Diving]]
> * FigureSkating
> * [[Gymnastics]]
> * SynchronizedSwimming
> * WoodworkerContests
> 
> Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive; these are also comparison sports!)
> * IceSkating
> * RollerSkating
> * [[Skateboarding]]
> * [[Skiing]]
> ** CrossCountrySkiing
> ** DownhillSkiing
> ** SnowBoarding
> * [[Surfing]]
> 
> Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
> * BushWalking
> 
> Hunting sports (where the sport is to find, lure, catch some animal):
> * BassFishing
> * FoxHunt
> * [[Hunting]]
> ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
> 
> ''I think the following are not sports, but instead (simply) GameS; strictly speaking, there are no such things as "brain sports"''
> 
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Card Games:
> * ContractBridge
> 
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Board Games:
> * [[Chess]]
> * [[Go]]
> 
> Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Letter Games:
> * CrossWords
------
SportS|982647001
1,44c1
< Jump in and tell us what you know about these sports.
< 
< I have tried to do a classification of sports in categories.
< ----
< (Where do sports such as parallel bars and jumping fit ?)
< 
< Speed sports (where the goal is to be as quick as possible. No or very little contact with your opponents.):
< * [[Bicycling]]
< * [[Orienteering]]
< * [[Running]]
< ** [[Running/CrossCountry]]
< ** [[Running/LongDistance]]
< ** [[Running/Track]]
< * [[Swimming]]
< 
< Surpassing sports (where the goal is to pull your body or an object beyond a physical mark):
< * [[Jumps]]
< ** LongJump
< ** HighJump
< ** TripleJump
< ** PoleVault
< * [[Throws]]
< ** ShotPut
< ** [[Discus]]
< ** [[Javelin]]
< ** [[Hammer]]
< * [[Halterophily]]
< 
< Precision sports (where the goal is to be as accurate as possible in throwing, tossing, rolling, ... No or very little contact with your opponents.):
< * [[Archery]]
< * [[Billiards]]
< * [[Bowling]]
< * [[Croquet]]
< * [[Golf]]
< * [[Shooting]]
< 
< Ball sports (where you and your opponent(s) are working to get control of and place a ball):
< * [[Badminton]]
< * [[Baseball]]
< * [[Basketball]]
< * AmericanFootball
< * AustralianRulesFootball
< * [[Cricket]]
< * Fi
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sports]] 
------
NationalFootballLeague|982647192
1c1
< An AmericaN SportS league, usually called the NfL.
---
> An AmericaN [[Sports]] league, usually called the [[NFL]].
3c3
< The NfL is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
---
> The [[NFL]] is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
------
ReCreation|982647232
7c7
< MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So does SportS, of course.
---
> MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do [[Sports]], of course.
------
God|982647572
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Feel free to edit this page, as the topic is dear to many people and I might not have gotten it right.
> 
> There are a large number of different concepts of the divine, and this fact is reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.  WhatIsGod, anyway?
> 
> The view that the divine exists is called ''[[Theism]].''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or concepts about God(s): [[Monotheism]], [[Pantheism]], [[Polytheism]], and [[Animism]] (the latter might be regarded as a special variety of either [[Polytheism]] or [[Pantheism]]).
> 
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
> 
> A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed with the project of TheoDicy a response.
> ----
> See also, TheUltimate
------
GoD|982647601
1,13c1
< Feel free to edit this page, as the topic is dear to many people and I might not have gotten it right.
< 
< There are a large number of different concepts of the divine, and this fact is reflected in the many NamesGivenToTheDivine.  WhatIsGod, anyway?
< 
< The view that the divine exists is called ''TheIsm.''  There are four varieties of theism, or four differing theories, or concepts about God(s): MonoTheism, PanTheism, PolyTheism, and AnimIsm (the latter might be regarded as a special variety of either PolyTheism or PanTheism).
< 
< There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first ProPhet of JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, AbraHam (or instead, for believers, that began with AdAm), according to which there is one God, a SpirIt, that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of OmniPotence (being all-powerful), OmniScience (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of MonoTheists) a concept which might be called OmniBenevolence (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by JudaIsm, ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
< 
< A number of ArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod have been offered; in argument for the thesis that God does ''not'' exist, TheProblemOfEvil has been posed with the project of TheoDicy a response.
< ----
< See also, TheUltimate
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT God 
------
Zeus|982647792
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The leader of the Gods and [[God]] of the sky and thunder in GreekMythology, equivalent to the [[Roman]] God [[Jupiter]].
> 
> Last son of [[Chronos]] ([[Saturn]] for [[Romans|Roman]]) who had the habit of eating his own children, he ends this tyranny with the help of his mother and rescue his brethren.
> 
> Brother and husband of [[Hera]] (identified with [[Juno]]). Their son is [[Hephaistos]] ([[Vulcan]]). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs with various goddesses - notably [[Demeter]], [[Leto]], [[Dione]], [[Maia]], etc - and mortal women - notably [[Semele]], [[Io]], EuropA, [[Leda]], etc.
> 
> As a result, father of many demi-gods and heroes such as [[Heracles]] ([[Hercules]]).  The Greeks considered him to probably still be producing moral offspring.  Brother of [[Poseidon]], [[Hades]], [[Hestia]], [[Hera]] and [[Demeter]].
------
ZeuS|982647809
1,7c1
< The leader of the GodS and GoD of the sky and thunder in GreekMythology, equivalent to the RomaN GoD JupiteR.
< 
< Last son of ChronoS (SaturN for RomaN""s) who had the habit of eating his own children, he ends this tyranny with the help of his mother and rescue his brethren.
< 
< Brother and husband of HerA (identified with JunO). Their son is HephaistOs (VulcaN). He is famous for his many extraconjugal affairs (in parentheses the offspring) with various goddesses - notably DemeteR, LetO, DionE, MaiA, etc - and mortal women - notably SemelE, Io, EuropA, LedA, etc.
< 
< As a result, father of many demi-GoD""s and HeroeS such as HerakleS (HerculeS).  The Greeks considered him to probably still be producing moral offspring.  Brother of PoseidoN, HadeS, HestIa, HerA and DemeteR.
---
> #REDIRECT Zeus 
------
Hera|982647925
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of [[Zeus]].  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  Called [[Juno]] by the [[Romans]].
------
HerA|982647979
1c1,2
< In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of ZeuS.  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  Called Juno by the Romans.----
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hera]] 
> 
4c5
< Maybe.  Zeus was far from a model husband (though what god was?) but even so Hera never struck me as particularly nice.  "My three favorite cities are Sparta, Mycenae, and Tyrins...destroy one whenever you want, so long as I see Troy burn to the ground."  That'll learn someone for not calling her pretty.  Not that the other gods are much better...but this much can be said for Zeus: sometimes he's smart enough to keep his mouth shut. :)
---
> Maybe.  Zeus was far from a model husband (though what god was?) but even so Hera never struck me as particularly nice.  "My three favorite cities are Sparta, Mycenae, and Tyrins...destroy one whenever you want, so long as I see Troy burn to the ground."  That'll learn someone for not calling her pretty.  Not that the other gods are much better...but this much can be said for Zeus: sometimes he's smart enough to keep his mouth shut. :)
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|982648111
3c3
< Generic names for the divine being(s): GoD (GodCapitalized), god (i.e., GodUncapitalized), GodDess, GodS, DeIty, deities
---
> Generic names for the divine being(s): [[God]] (GodCapitalized), god (i.e., GodUncapitalized), [[Goddess]], [[Gods]], [[Deity]], deities
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: YahWeh, JeHovah, JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," AllAh, KrishNa, BuddHa; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., ZeuS, JupiTer, OdIn, and SiVa. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: [[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]], JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," [[Allah]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]]; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Odin]], and [[Siva]]. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
8c8
< [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.  Although, this could be dangerous.  There's an old SuPerstition that the world will end if ever all the names of G-d are written down.]
---
> [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.  Although, this could be dangerous.  There's an old [[Superstition]] that the world will end if ever all the names of G-d are written down.]
10c10
< The name of God is very important in Judaism; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
---
> The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
------
GreekMythology|982648178
9c9
< ZeuS -- EuropA -- [[Achilles]] -- [[HecTor]]  --  HerA -- HelenOfTroy -- ApollO -- AthenA
---
> [[Zeus]] -- [[Europa]] -- [[Achilles]] -- [[Hector]]  --  [[Hera]] -- HelenOfTroy -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Athena]]
13,15c13
< [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Oedipus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]] -- [[Prometheus]]
< ----
< Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
---
> [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Her
------
GreekMythology|982648181
13c13,15
< [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Her
---
> [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Oedipus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]] -- [[Prometheus]]
> ----
> Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
------
TheProblemOfEvil|982648356
3c3
< The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has as its conclusion "GoD does not exist."  The argument expresses something called the <i>Problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>Evil</i>.  This entry will outline the argument and some responses to it.
---
> The so-called <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>evil</i> has as its conclusion "[[God]] does not exist."  The argument expresses something called the <i>Problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>Evil</i>.  This entry will outline the argument and some responses to it.
7c7
< In response to these questions, some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian-Muslim GoD does not exist.  One <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say, i.e., one <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  One show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That is how the argument from evil proceeds: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.
---
> In response to these questions, some atheistic philosophers insist that one <i>can</i> prove that the Judeo-Christian-Muslim [[God]] does not exist.  One <i>can</i> prove a negative, they say, i.e., one <i>can</i> prove that something does not exist.  One show that the very concept of a thing is contrary to known facts.  That is how the argument from evil proceeds: if God did exist, then he would eliminate evil from the world; but we see evil all around us; therefore, God does not exist.
23c23
< Premise (1) simply states some basic facts about the conception of God under consideration: "If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving."  Ordinary Christians, for example, certainly do not want to reject premise (1).  Other people might end up rejecting this premise, because they want to believe in a <i>different</i> sort of GoD.
---
> Premise (1) simply states some basic facts about the conception of God under consideration: "If God exists, then God is omniscient, omnipotent, and all-loving."  Ordinary Christians, for example, certainly do not want to reject premise (1).  Other people might end up rejecting this premise, because they want to believe in a <i>different</i> sort of [[God]].
------
NamingConventions|982649034
3c3,9
< /Oldpage
---
> ''For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
> opinions.  It will be a big job, but not that big, for us to go
> back through the existing pages and uncram the words.  Should we?
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''
> 
> 
> /Oldpage
------
NamingConventions|982649053
3c3
< ''For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
---
> ''''For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
6c6
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''
---
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''''
------
NamingConventions|982649075
3c3
< ''''For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
---
> <I>For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
6c6
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''''
---
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.</I>
------
NamingConventions|982649095
3c3
< <I>For '''everything'''?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
---
> ''For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
6c6
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.</I>
---
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''
------
NamingConventions|982649135
2,3c2,3
< 
< ''For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
---
> ----
> For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
6c6,7
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it.''
---
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it. --JimboWales, or is it [[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
------
MetaWiki|982649195
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : http://sunir.org/apps/meta.pl
> 
> An inter-wiki title search. I've added Wikipedia to the list of wikis it searches.
------
MetaWiki|982649238
3c3
< An inter-wiki title search. I've added Wikipedia to the list of wikis it searches.
---
> An inter-wiki title search. I've added Wikipedia to the list of wikis it searches. See MeatBall:MetaWiki for more.
------
ActresseS|982652790
27a28
> [[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
------
ActresseS|982652812
28c28
< [[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
---
> :[[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
------
ActresseS|982653012
1c1
< :JulieAndrews
---
> :[[Julie Andrews]]
3,5c3,5
< :AnnetteBenning
< :JullietteBinoche
< :EllenBurstein
---
> :[[Annette Benning]]
> :[[Julliette Binoche]]
> :[[Ellen Burstein]]
7,10c7,10
< :GlennClose
< :BlytheDanner
< :CatherineDeNeuve
< :JudithDench (Dame)
---
> :[[Glenn Close]]
> :[[Blythe Danner]]
> :[[Catherine DeNeuve]]
> :[[Judith Dench]] (Dame)
12,23c12,23
< :JaneFonda
< :DianeFossey
< :JodieFoster
< :WhoopieGoldberg
< :AudreyHepburn
< :KatherineHepburn
< :VivienLeigh
< :SophiaLoren
< :ShirleyMcLaine
< :JulianneMoore
< :GwenethPaltrow
< :MichellePfeiffer
---
> :[[Jane Fonda]]
> :[[Diane Fossey]]
> :[[Jodie Foster]]
> :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
> :[[Audrey Hepburn]]
> :[[Katherine Hepburn]]
> :[[Vivien Leigh]]
> :[[Sophia Loren]]
> :[[Shirley McLaine]]
> :[[JulianneMoore]]
> :[[GwenethPaltrow]]
> :[[MichellePfeiffer]]
25,27c25,27
< :JuliaRoberts
< :MegRyan 
< :ElizabethTaylor
---
> :[[JuliaRoberts]]
> :[[MegRyan ]]
> :[[ElizabethTaylor]]
30,32c30,32
< :NatalieWood
< :JoanneWoodward
< :MichelleYeoh
---
> :[[NatalieWood]]
> :[[JoanneWoodward]]
> :[[MichelleYeoh]]
------
ActresseS|982653126
1d0
< :[[Julie Andrews]]
2a2,6
> :LeslieCaron
> :ShannonElizabeth
> :DeniseRichards
> 
> :[[Julie Andrews]]
6d9
< :LeslieCaron
11d13
< :ShannonElizabeth
21,27c23,28
< :[[JulianneMoore]]
< :[[GwenethPaltrow]]
< :[[MichellePfeiffer]]
< :DeniseRichards
< :[[JuliaRoberts]]
< :[[MegRyan ]]
< :[[ElizabethTaylor]]
---
> :[[Julianne Moore]]
> :[[Gweneth Paltrow]]
> :[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]
> :[[Julia Roberts]]
> :[[Meg Ryan ]]
> :[[Elizabeth Taylor]]
30,32c31,33
< :[[NatalieWood]]
< :[[JoanneWoodward]]
< :[[MichelleYeoh]]
---
> :[[Natalie Wood]]
> :[[Joanne Woodward]]
> :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
------
ActresseS|982653187
0a1,2
> Old style pages, need to be converted or moved:
> 
4a7,8
> 
> FreeLinks pages:
------
ActresseS|982653219
8c8
< FreeLinks pages:
---
> [[Free Links]] pages:
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982653753
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tiffani-Amber Thiessen is an American television and film actress.  She was born January 23, 1974, in Long Beach, California.  As a child, she competed in many beauty pageants, and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
> 
> Her first big break in show business was her role on the television program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
> 
> In 1999, her boyfriend DavidStrickland committed suicide.
> 
> 
> 
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982653773
5c5
< In 1999, her boyfriend DavidStrickland committed suicide.
---
> In 1999, her boyfriend [[David Strickland]] committed suicide.
------
ActorS|982654047
1,2d0
< :HumpreyBogart
< :JimCarey
4,33c2,36
< :JamesCagney
< :CharlieChaplin
< :SeanConnery
< :BillCosby
< :GerardDepardieu
< :MichaelDouglas
< :HenryFonda
< :PeterFonda
< :HarrisonFord
< :RichardGere
< :CubaGoodingJr''.''
< :CaryGrant
< :TomHanks
< :DustinHoffman
< :AnthonyHopkins
< :JackLemmon
< :PeterLorre
< :SteveMartin
< :WalterMathau
< :YvesMontand
< :PaulNewman
< :JackNicholson
< :SidneyPoitier
< :DennisQuaid
< :RandyQuaid
< :AnthonyQuinn
< :RobertRedford
< :KeanuReeves
< :SpencerTracy
< :JohnWayne
---
> :CharlinChaplin
> 
> 
> :[[Humprey Bogart]]
> :[[Jim Carey]]
> :[[James Cagney]]
> :[[Sean Connery]]
> :[[Bill Cosby]]
> :[[Gerard Depardieu]]
> :[[Michael Douglas]]
> :[[Henry Fonda]]
> :[[Peter Fonda]]
> :[[Harrison Ford]]
> :[[Richard Gere]]
> :[[Cuba Gooding Jr]]''.''
> :[[Cary Grant]]
> :[[Tom Hanks]]
> :[[Dustin Hoffman]]
> :[[Anthony Hopkins]]
> :[[Joshua Jackson]]
> :[[Jack Lemmon]]
> :[[Peter Lorre]]
> :[[Steve Martin]]
> :[[Walter Mathau]]
> :[[Yves Montand]]
> :[[Paul Newman]]
> :[[Jack Nicholson]]
> :[[Sidney Poitier]]
> :[[Dennis Quaid]]
> :[[Randy Quaid]]
> :[[Anthony Quinn]]
> :[[Robert Redford]]
> :[[Keanu Reeves]]
> :[[Spencer Tracy]]
> :[[John Wayne]]
------
ActorS|982654063
2c2
< :CharlinChaplin
---
> :CharlieChaplin
------
ActorS|982654337
4c4
< 
---
> :[[Ben Affleck]]
5a6,7
> :[[David Boreanaz]]
> :[[Gedeon Burkhard]]
21a24
> :[[Chris Klein]]
26a30
> :[[Tobias Moretti]]
28a33,35
> :[[Edward Norton]]
> :[[Brad Pitt]]
> :[[Joaquin Phoenix]]
------
WikiWatcher|982654417
4c4,5
< 
---
> ----
>  We can work on movie star biographies for relaxation, and let the really smart people enter stuff about AbstractAlgebra.  :-)
------
WikiWatcher|982654427
5c5
<  We can work on movie star biographies for relaxation, and let the really smart people enter stuff about AbstractAlgebra.  :-)
---
> We can work on movie star biographies for relaxation, and let the really smart people enter stuff about AbstractAlgebra.  :-)
------
History|982654814
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Our records of the past.
> 
> * [[History of Levant]]
> * [[History of Egypt]]
> * [[History of India]]
> * [[History of China]]
> * [[History of Mesoamerica]]
> 
> * [[History of Mediterranean]]
> * [[History of Byzantium]]
> * [[History of Islam]]
> * [[History of Europe]]
> * [[History of UnitedStates]]
------
HiStory|982654843
1,11c1
< * HistoryOfLevant
< * HistoryOfEgypt
< * HistoryOfIndia
< * HistoryOfChina
< * HistoryOfMesoamerica
< 
< * HistoryOfMediterranean
< * HistoryOfByzantium
< * HistoryOfIslam
< * HistoryOfEurope
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
---
> #REDIRECT [[History]]
------
History_of_Levant|982655446
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''The bronze age'''
> 
> The first cities started developing in southern [[Mesopotamia]] during the 4th millenium BC.  With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society.  Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ''[[ziggurat]]'', and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').  Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare.
> 
> Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around 3000 BC, writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the SumerianPeoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent [[City-States|City-State]], such as Ur and Uruk, which by around 2500 BC had begun to coalesce into larger political units.  By accomodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
> 
> This process came to its natural conclusion with the development of the first empires around 2350 BC.  A people called the [[Akkadians]] invaded the valley under Sargon I and established their supremacy over the [[Sumerians]].  They were followed by the empires of [[Ur]] (2200-2000) and the [[Old Kingdom of Babylonia]] (1800-1600).
> 
> Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in [[Egypt]], which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the [[Old kingdom|Old Kindom of Egypt]], and amongst the peoples of the [[Indus Valley]] in north-western [[India]].  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
> 
> This started to change around the end of the third millenium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the [[Assyrians]] in north Mesopotamia, the [[Canaanites]] in Syria-Palestine, to the [[Minoans]] in [[Crete]], and to the [[Hittites]] in eastern [[Anatolia]].  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and [[Achaeans]], started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.
> 
> These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with IndoEuropean languages.  Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, so their use was mainly confined to a small nobility.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies familiar to us from epics like the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.
> 
> By around 1700-1500 most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the Indus Valley was annihilated by the [[Indo-Aryans]].  Their kin, the [[Mitanni]], subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of [[Mycenae]], and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic [[Hyskos]] used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the [[New Kingdom|New Kindom of Egypt]] to develop in their wake.
> 
> In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.  Only Assyria escaped significant damage.
> 
> '''The iron age'''
> 
> The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and [[City-States|City-State]] behind.  A few [[Hittite]] centres remained in northern [[Syria]], along with some Canaanite ([[Phoenician]]) ports that escaped destruction and now developed into great commercial powers.  Southern [[Palestine]] initially fell to the [[Philistines]], but by 1000 had been conquered by the [[Hebrews]].  And most of the interior, as well as [[Babylonia]], was overrun by [[Aramaeans]].
> 
> In this dark period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the alphabet, developed by the Canaanites around 1500 BC.  Also around this time, the Hebrew religion developed into the first major [[Monotheism]], [[Judaism]], which is still practiced today.
> 
> During the 9th century the [[Assyrians]] began to reassert themselves against the incursions of the Aramaeans, and over the next few centuries developed into a powerful and well-organized empire.  Their armies were among the first to employ cavalry, which took the place of chariots, and had a reputation for both prowess and brutality.  At their height, the Assyrians dominated all of Syria-Palestine, Egypt, and Babylonia.  However, the empire began to collapse toward the end of the 7th century, and was obliterated by an alliance between a resurgent [[New Kindom of Babylonia]] and the Iranian [[Medes]].
> 
> The subsequent balance of power was short-lived, though.  In 550 BC the [[Persians]] revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed to it the realms of [[Lydia]] in [[Anatolia]], Babylonia, and Egypt, as well as consolidating their control over the Iranian plateau nearly as far as India.  This vast kingdom was divided up into various satrapies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand.  Around this time [[Zoroastrianism]] became the predominant religion in [[Persia]].
> 
> '''The classical empires'''
> 
> From 492-449 BC the [[Persians]] made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer [[Greece]].  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the [[Middle East]], consisting of numerous small [[City-States|City-State]] fielding citizen militiae.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
> 
> By the fourth century [[Persia]] had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of [[Xenophon]] illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organized along [[Greek]] lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in 338 BC the rising power of [[Macedonia]] overcame Greece, and under [[Alexander the Great]] turned its attention eastward.  Persia was conquered in little more than a decade.
> 
> Alexander did not live long enough to conciliate his realm, and in the half-century following his death (323) it was carved up by his feuding generals.  The [[Antigonids]] established themselves in Macedonia, the [[Ptolemies]] in Egypt, and various small principalities appeared in northern Anatolia.  The greater share of the east went to the descendents of [[Seleucus Nicator]].  This period saw great innovations in mathematics, science, architecture, and the like, and Greeks founded cities throughout the east, which grew to be the world's first major metropolises.  Their culture did not, however, reach very far into the countryside.
> 
> The [[Seleucids]] adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and the Greeks who had migrated to the east.  During the second century BC the Greek culture lost ground there, and the empire began to break apart.  The province of [[Bactria]] revolted, and [[Parthia]] was conquered by the semi-nomadic [[Parni]].  By 141 BC the Parthians had established themselves as an empire, after the Seleucid model, and had conquered all of Iran and Mesopotamia.  The Seleucid kingdom continued to decline and its remaining provinces were annexed by the [[Roman Republic]] in 64 BC.
> 
> The [[Parthian]] nobility reacted against growing Roman influences around the turn of the millenium.  Throughout the next century there was a strong expansion of national culture and a dissolution in central authority.  In 114 AD Trajan temporarily occupied [[Mesopotamia]], and with the end of Hadrian's 40-year peace the two powers were at almost constant hostilities.  Mesopotamia was occupied again, but the Parthians recovered and pillaged the Roman provinces.  Shortly thereafter, though, the province of Persia rose up in revolt, and defeated the last Parthian emperor in 224. 
> 
> The new dynasty, the [[Sasanids]], restored central authority.  In this period [[Zoroastrianism]] developed into an organized religion with close ties to the new state.  Various sects of [[Christianity]] also spread throughout [[Iran]], and [[Manichaeism]] developed from the two religions; these were initially tolerated but later persecuted as the [[Romans]] followed the opposite route.  Conflicts with [[Rome]], and later the [[Byzantine Empire]], continued intermittently.
> 
> The [[Byzantines]] reached their lowest point under [[Phocas]], with the Sasanids occupying the whole of the eastern Meditteranean.  In 610, though, [[Heraclius]] took the thrown and began a succesful counter-attack, expelling the [[Persians]] and invading [[Media]] and [[Assyria]].  Unable to stop his advance, [[Khosrows II]] was assassinated and the Sasanid empire fell into anarchy.  Weakened by their quarrels, neither empire was prepared to deal with the onslaught of the [[Arabs]], newly unified under the banners of [[Islam]] and anxious to expand their faith.  By 650 they had conquered all of [[Persia]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]].
> 
> For subsequent history see [[History of Islam]].
> 
------
History_of_Levant|982655581
5c5
< Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around 3000 BC, writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the SumerianPeoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent [[City-States|City-State]], such as Ur and Uruk, which by around 2500 BC had begun to coalesce into larger political units.  By accomodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
---
> Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around 3000 BC, writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the SumerianPeoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent [[City-State|City-States]], such as Ur and Uruk, which by around 2500 BC had begun to coalesce into larger political units.  By accomodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
9c9
< Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in [[Egypt]], which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the [[Old kingdom|Old Kindom of Egypt]], and amongst the peoples of the [[Indus Valley]] in north-western [[India]].  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
---
> Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in [[Egypt]], which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the [[Old kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], and amongst the peoples of the [[Indus Valley]] in north-western [[India]].  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
15c15
< By around 1700-1500 most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the Indus Valley was annihilated by the [[Indo-Aryans]].  Their kin, the [[Mitanni]], subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of [[Mycenae]], and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic [[Hyskos]] used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the [[New Kingdom|New Kindom of Egypt]] to develop in their wake.
---
> By around 1700-1500 most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the Indus Valley was annihilated by the [[Indo-Aryans]].  Their kin, the [[Mitanni]], subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of [[Mycenae]], and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic [[Hyskos]] used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kindom]] to develop in their wake.
21c21
< The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and [[City-States|City-State]] behind.  A few [[Hittite]] centres remained in northern [[Syria]], along with some Canaanite ([[Phoenician]]) ports that escaped destruction and now developed into great commercial powers.  Southern [[Palestine]] initially fell to the [[Philistines]], but by 1000 had been conquered by the [[Hebrews]].  And most of the interior, as well as [[Babylonia]], was overrun by [[Aramaeans]].
---
> The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and [[City-State|City-States]] behind.  A few [[Hittite]] centres remained in northern [[Syria]], along with some Canaanite ([[Phoenician]]) ports that escaped destruction and now developed into great commercial powers.  Southern [[Palestine]] initially fell to the [[Philistines]], but by 1000 had been conquered by the [[Hebrews]].  And most of the interior, as well as [[Babylonia]], was overrun by [[Aramaeans]].
31c31
< From 492-449 BC the [[Persians]] made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer [[Greece]].  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the [[Middle East]], consisting of numerous small [[City-States|City-State]] fielding citizen militiae.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
---
> From 492-449 BC the [[Persians]] made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer [[Greece]].  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the [[Middle East]], consisting of numerous small [[City-State|City-States]] fielding citizen militiae.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
------
HistoryOfLevant|982655606
1,45c1
< '''The bronze age'''
< 
< The first cities started developing in southern Mesopotamia during the 4th millenium BC.  With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society.  Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ''ziggurat'', and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').  Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare.
< 
< Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around 3000 BC, writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the SumerianPeoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent CityState''s'', such as Ur and Uruk, which by around 2500 BC had begun to coalesce into larger political units.  By accomodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.
< 
< This process came to its natural conclusion with the development of the first empires around 2350 BC.  A people called the Akkadians invaded the valley under Sargon I and established their supremacy over the Sumerians.  They were followed by the empires of Ur (2200-2000) and OldBabylonia (1800-1600).
< 
< Parallel developments were meanwhile occuring in Egypt, which by 3100 BC had been unified to form the OldKingdom, and amongst the peoples of the IndusValley in north-western India.  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.
< 
< This started to change around the end of the third millenium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the Assyrians in north Mesopotamia, the Canaanites in Syria-Palestine, to the Minoans in Crete, and to the Hittites in eastern Anatolia.  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and Achaeans, started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.
< 
< These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with IndoEuropean languages.  Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, so their use was mainly confined to a small nobility.  These are the feudal "heroic" societies familiar to us from epics like TheIliad and the ''Ramayana''.
< 
< By around 1700-1500 most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites and the civilization of the IndusValley was annihilated by the IndoAryans.  Their kin, the Mitanni, subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around 1350.  Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of Mycenae, and by 1400 were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the semitic Hyskos used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the NewKingdom to develop in their wake.
< 
< In 1200 BC all of these powers suddently collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Meditteranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrunk to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.  Only Assyria escaped significant damage.
< 
< '''The iron age'''
< 
< The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and city-states behind.  A few Hittite centres remained in northern Syria, along with some Canaanite (Phoenician) ports that escaped destruction and now developed into great commercial powers.  Southern Palestine initially fell to the Philistines, but by 1000 had been conquered by the Hebrews.  And most of the interior, as well as Babylonia, was overrun by Aramaeans.
< 
< In this dark period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the alphabet, developed by the Canaanites around 1500 BC.  Also around this time, the Hebrew religion developed into the first major monotheism, JudaIsm, which is still practiced today.
< 
< During the 9th century the Assyrians began to reassert themselves against the incursions of the Aramaeans, and over the next few centuries developed into a powerful and well-organized empire.  Their armies were among the first to employ cavalry, which took the place of chariots, and had a reputation for both prowess and brutality.  At their height, the Assyrians dominated all of Syria-Palestine, Egypt, and Babylonia.  However, the empire began to collapse toward the end of the 7th century, and was obliterated by an alliance between a resurgent Babylonia and the Iranian Medes.
< 
< The subsequent balance of power was short-lived, though.  In 550 BC the Persians revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed to it the realms of Lydia in Anatolia, Babylonia, and Egypt, as well as consolidating their control over the Iranian plateau nearly as far as India.  This vast kingdom was divided up into various satrapies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand.  Around this time Zoroastrianism became the predominant religion in Persia.
< 
< '''The classical empires'''
< 
< From 492-449 BC the Persians made a series of unsuccesful attempts to conquer Greece.  The civilization that had developed their since the end of the bronze age was organized along entirely different lines than those of the Middle East, consisting of numerous small city-states fielding citizen militiae.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.
< 
< By the fourth century Persia had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of XenoPhon illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organized along Greek lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in 338 BC the rising power of Macedonia overcame Greece, and under AlexanderTheGreat turned its attention eastward.  Persia was conquered in little more than a decade.
< 
< Alexander did not live long enough to conciliate his realm, and in the half-century following his death (323) it was carved up by his feuding generals.  The Antigonids established themselves in Macedonia, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and various small principalities appeared in northern Anatolia.  The greater share of the east went to the descendents of SeleucusNicator.  This period saw great innovations in mathematics, science, architecture, and the like, and Greeks founded cities throughout the east, which grew to be the world's first major metropolises.  Their culture did not, however, reach very far into the countryside.
< 
< The seleucids adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and the Greeks who had migrated to the east.  During the second century BC the Greek culture lost ground there, and the empire began to break apart.  The province of Bactria revolted, and Parthia was conquered by the semi-nomadic Parni.  By 141 BC the Parthians had established themselves as an empire, after the Seleucid model, and had conquered all of Iran and Mesopotamia.  The Seleucid kingdom continued to decline and its remaining provinces were annexed by the RomanRepublic in 64 BC.
< 
< The Parthian nobility reacted against growing Roman influences around the turn of the millenium.  Throughout the next century there was a strong expansion of national culture and a dissolution in central authority.  In 114 AD Trajan temporarily occupied Mesopotamia, and with the end of Hadrian's 40-year peace the two powers were at almost constant hostilities.  Mesopotamia was occupied again, but the Parthians recovered and pillaged the Roman provinces.  Shortly thereafter, though, the province of Persia rose up in revolt, and defeated the last Parthian emperor in 224. 
< 
< The new dynasty, the Sasanids, restored central authority.  In this period Zoroastrianism developed into an organized religion with close ties to the new state.  Various sects of Christianity also spread throughout Iran, and Manichaeism developed from the two religions; these were initially tolerated but later persecuted as the Romans followed the opposite route.  Conflicts with Rome, and later the ByzantineEmpire, continued intermittently.
< 
< The Byzantines reached their lowest point under Phocas, with the Sasanids occupying the whole of the eastern Meditteranean.  In 610, though, Heraclius took the thrown and began a succesful counter-attack, expelling the Persians and invading Media and Assyria.  Unable to stop his advance, Khosrows II was assassinated and the Sasanid empire fell into anarchy.  Weakened by their quarrels, neither empire was prepared to deal with the onslaught of the Arabs, newly unified under the banners of IsLam and anxious to expand their faith.  By 650 they had conquered all of Persia, Syria, and Egypt.
< 
< For subsequent history see HistoryOfIslam.
---
> #REDIRECT [[History of Levant]]
------
History_of_Europe|982656115
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''In brief:''
> 
> [[Europe]] has been human-occupied since the dawn of mankind.  [[Neanderthal]] man settled Europe long before the emergence of modern man, [[Homo sapiens]].
> 
> The first well-known civilization in Europe was that of the [[Minoans]] and [[Achaeans]] in [[Greece]].  Around the same time, the [[Celts]] spread over most of the interior as far as [[Spain]] and later [[Turkey]].  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The [[Romans]] encountered them and recorded a great deal about them; these records and the results of archaeological digs form our primary understanding of this extremely
> influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the [[Roman Empire]], that had
> colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
> 
> At the end of the [[Bronze Age]] the older [[Greek]] kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The [[Hellenic Civilization]] took the form of a collection of [[City-State|City-States]], many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprecendent developments in various governmental forms, [[Philosophy]], [[Science]], [[Politics]], [[Sports]], [[Theater]] and [[Music]].
> 
> The campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]] brought [[GreeK]] culture into contact with the older learnings of [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], and [[India]], opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent [[Roman Empire]] as it expanded outward from [[Italy]], taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, [[Rome]] finally became an empire under [[Julius Caesar]] and his [[Authoritarian]] successors.
> 
> [[Europe]] emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
> 
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
> 
> [[Philosophy]], [[Science]] and [[Technology]] developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the [[French Revolution]], people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the [[Napoleonic Era]].  [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] also destroyed the [[Holy Roman Empire]], leaving [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] to develop into nation-states by 1900.
> 
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone [[World Wars]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the world-powers of the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which have only just finished.
> 
------
God|982656121
10,11c10,11
< ----
< See also, TheUltimate
---
> 
> Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[BaruchSpinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
------
History_of_Europe|982656155
11c11
< The campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]] brought [[GreeK]] culture into contact with the older learnings of [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], and [[India]], opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent [[Roman Empire]] as it expanded outward from [[Italy]], taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, [[Rome]] finally became an empire under [[Julius Caesar]] and his [[Authoritarian]] successors.
---
> The campaigns of [[Alexander the Great]] brought [[Greek]] culture into contact with the older learnings of [[Persia]], [[Egypt]], and [[India]], opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent [[Roman Empire]] as it expanded outward from [[Italy]], taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, [[Rome]] finally became an empire under [[Julius Caesar]] and his [[Authoritarian]] successors.
------
God|982656157
11c11
< Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[BaruchSpinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
---
> Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
------
God|982656178
11c11
< Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
---
> Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
------
HistoryOfEurope|982656314
1,26c1
< ''In brief:''
< 
< Europe has been human-occupied since the dawn of mankind.  NeanderthaL man settled EuropE long before the emergence
< of modern man, HomoSapiens.  
< 
< The first well-known civilization in EuropE was that of the MinoanPeoples and AchaeanPeoples in GreecE.  Around the same time, the CelticPeoples spread over most of the interior as far as Spain and later Turkey.  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The Romans encountered them and recorded a great deal
< about them; these records and the results of archaeological digs form our primary understanding of this extremely
< influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the RomanEmpire, that had
< colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of EuropE.
< 
< At the end of the BronzeAge the older GreeK kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The HellenicCivilization took the form of a collection of CityStates, many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprecendent developments in various governmental forms, PhiloSophy, ScienCe, PoLitics, SportS, TheaTer and MuSic.
< 
< The campaigns of AlexanderTheGreat brought GreeK culture into contact with the older learnings of PersiA, EgypT, and IndiA, opening up a new period of developments.  Much of this learning was assimilated by the nascent RomanEmpire as it expanded outward from ItalY, taking advantage of its enemies inability to unite.  First governed by kings, then a senatorial republic, RomE finally became an empire under JuliusCaesar and his AuthoritariaN successors.
< 
< EuropE emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the RomanEmpire (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the Byzantine and Islamic cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
< 
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the HolyRomanEmpire around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of FeudalisM, the development of the CatholicChurch as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the MiddleAges, powerful NationStates had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
< 
< Philosophy, science and technology developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the FrenchRevolution, people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the NapoleonicEra.  NapoleonBonaparte also destroyed the HolyRomanEmpire, leaving GermanY and ItalY to develop into nation-states by 1900.
< 
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone WorldWars, which ended the pre-eminent position of EuropE.  Thereafter it was a zone of contention between the world-powers of the UnitedStates and SovietUnion, which have only just finished.
< 
< See also:
<    HistoryGermany
<    ColdWar
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[History of Europe]]
------
History_of_UnitedStates|982656454
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
> 
> America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
> 
> See also:
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk
------
HistoryOfUnitedStates|982656571
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[History of United States]]
> 
19,31c21
< :/EconomicGrowth
< 
< -----
< The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
< 
< America remains a popular destination for immigrants.
< 
< The American country enjoys unprecedented economic prosperity and its people remain among the most free in the world and in history.  Every year, hundreds of thousands of people move to America from around the world to improve their lives.
< 
< See also:
< * HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion
< * HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk
< 
---
> :/EconomicGrowth
------
History|982656635
13c13
< * [[History of UnitedStates]]
---
> * [[History of United States]]
------
History_of_UnitedStates|982656708
1,7c1
< The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
< 
< America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
< 
< See also:
< * HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion
< * HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk
---
> #REDIRECT [[History of United States]]
------
History_of_United_States|982656726
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in NorthAmerica by the BritishEmpire.  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
> 
> America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
> 
> See also:
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesDiscussion
> * HistoryOfUnitedStatesTalk
------
NamingConventions|982657201
7a8
> Well, there might be a few links where it will seem more appropriate (e.g., WikiPedia and WikiWiki), but for the main content, I don't see any reason ''not'' to consistently use free linking.
8a10
> What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.  Let me start this list of topics:
10c12,30
< /Oldpage
---
> '''Names of persons'''
> 
> In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]].
> 
> There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, Rembrandt, etc.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
> 
> I can't think of any good reasons to list names first.
> 
> '''Philosophy'''
> 
> Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
> 
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com|Google search]] first.
> 
> ----
> 
> Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
> 
> /Oldpage
------
NamingConventions|982657249
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com|Google search]] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com|[[Google search]]]] first.
30c30
< /Oldpage
---
> /Oldpage
------
NamingConventions|982657266
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com|[[Google search]]]] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com|Google search] first.
------
NamingConventions|982657304
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com|Google search] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com/|Google search] first.
------
NamingConventions|982657320
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com/|Google search] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com |Google search] first.
------
NamingConventions|982657336
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com |Google search] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google search] first.
------
NamingConventions|982657363
24c24
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google search] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com Google search]] first.
------
Transport|982657413
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Road Transport]]
> * [[Rail Transport]]
> * [[Sea Transport]]
> * [[Air Transport]]
> * [[Space Transport]]
> ** [[Spacecraft Propulsion]]
> 
------
Spacecraft_Propulsion|982657451
1c1,132
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''SPACECRAFT PROPULSION'''
> 
> There are many different types of ways to accelerate craft in space.
> Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies.
> 
> ''' Solid '''
> 
> The first rockets made by the Chinese used gunpowder, and
> until this century all rockets used some form of solid or
> powdered propellant. Solid rockets are considered to be safe and
> reliable; these kinds of rockets have been used for so long that
> engineers have a very good understanding of them.
> 
> One of the many drawbacks to solid rocket systems is that once
> they've been ignited, they can't be turned off. That is why they
> aren't commonly used in satellites; satellites need rockets that
> can be fired multiple times (or ''pulsed''.)
> 
> ''' Hybrid '''
> 
> A hybrid propulsion system is composed of solid fuel and liquid or gas
> oxidizer, typically.  These systems are superior to solid propulsion
> systems because of safety, throttling, restartability, stability,
> and environmental cleanliness.  Hybrid systems are more complex than
> solids, though, and more expensive.  
> 
> ''' Monoprop '''
> 
> Most familiar combustible chemicals (gasoline, alcohol, wood, natural gas) 
> require oxygen to ignite and burn, but there are some unique chemical compounds that
> burn by themselves - no oxygen required! This is because the combined chemicals, when energized, "reduce," or change in ionic state by reacting with each other, as opposed to an outside oxidant.  The most commonly used monopropellant is ''hydrazine'' (N2H4), a chemical which is characterized as "strongly reducing".
> 
> Rocket scientists long ago realized the usefulness of monopropellant
> chemicals for satellite propulsion. Because only one chemical is
> used, the system is very simple, and thus very cheap.
> Unfortunately, monopropellants are not nearly as efficient as the
> other propulsion technologies. Engineers choose monopropellant
> systems when the satellite's propulsion needs are not very great.
> If the propulsion system is going to be heavily used, such as on
> a geosynchronous satellite or an interplanetary spacecraft, other
> technologies are used.
> 
> 
> ''' Biprop '''
> 
> Systems that use both a propellant and an oxidizer are called
> bipropellant systems. Bipropellant systems are more efficient
> than monopropellant systems, but they tend to be more complicated
> because of the extra hardware components needed to make sure the
> right amount of propellant gets mixed with the right amount of
> oxidizer (this is known as the ''mixture ratio''.) 
> 
> ''' Dual mode propulsion '''
> 
> Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of biprop with
> the reliability and simplicity of monoprop systems.  Dual mode systems
> are either hydrazine/N2O4, or MMH/peroxide (the former is much more
> common).  Typically, this system works as follows:  During the initial
> high-impulse orbit-raising manuevers, the system operates in a
> bipropellant fashion, providing high thrust at high efficiency; when it
> arrives on orbit, it closes off either the fuel or oxidier, and conducts
> the remainder of its mission in a simple, predictable monopropellant
> fashion.  
> 
> ''' Resistojet '''
> 
> A resistojet can be thought of as a "space heater attached to a water
> hose".  Of course, it's much more sophisticated than that!  But it is a
> good analogy, because it emphasizes the two characteristic parts of the
> system:  A source of heat produced by electricity through some sort of a
> resistor, and a source of (typically non-reactive) fluid.
> 
> Resistojets have been flown in space, and do well in situations where
> energy is much more plentiful than mass, and where propulsion efficiency
> needs to be reasonably high but low-thrust is acceptable.
> 
> ''' Arcjet '''
> 
> Arcjets are a form of electric propulsion, whereby an electrical
> discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine
> or ammonia).  This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that
> one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the
> expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost.  Also,
> the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very
> low compared with chemical engines.
> 
> ''' Hall Effect Thrusters (HETs) '''
> 
> Also known simply as ''plasma thrusters'', HETs use the
> Hall Effect to accelerate ions to produce thrust. A varient
> called stationary plasma thruster (SPT) has been used by the
> Russians for stationkeeping for many years and will be used on
> Western satellites soon. 
> 
> One problem with HETs is that their plumes diverge quickly and
> thus can impinge on other spacecraft parts leading to thermal and
> contamination problems.
> 
> ''' Ion Thruster '''
> 
> Of all the electric thrusters, ion engines have been the most
> seriously considered commercially and academically. Ion engines
> use accelerated beams of ions for propulsion. 
> 
> Ion engines are best used for missions requiring very high
> delta-V's (the overall change in velocity, taken as a single value), interplanetary missions, for example. This is because
> the more performance required of the propulsion system, the
> faster a high efficiency system like ion engines will pay off.
> 
> NASA has developed an ion engine called NSTAR for use in their
> interplanetary missions. Hughes has developed the XIPS (Xenon Ion
> Propulsion System) for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous
> satellites.
> 
> ''' Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thrusters '''
> 
> Thrusters that use the Lorentz force (a force exerted on charge particles by magnetic and electrical fields in combination) are called magnetoplasmadynamic (or MPD) thrusters. MPD thruster technology has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been
> low.
> 
> MPD thrusters can be run in a steady state fashion or in a
> pulsed mode.
> 
> ''' Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) '''
> 
> Pulsed plasma thrusters use an arc of electric current through a
> solid propellant (almost always teflon), to produce a quick and highly
> efficient and dependable burst of impulse.  PPT's are great for attitude
> control, and for main propulsion on particularly small spacecraft (those
> in the hundred-kilogram or less category).  
> 
> ------
> -- Added above article.  BryceHarrington
------
SpacecraftPropulsion|982657512
1,132c1
< '''SPACECRAFT PROPULSION'''
< 
< There are many different types of ways to accelerate craft in space.
< Below is a summary of some of the more popular, proven technologies.
< 
< ''' Solid '''
< 
< The first rockets made by the Chinese used gunpowder, and
< until this century all rockets used some form of solid or
< powdered propellant. Solid rockets are considered to be safe and
< reliable; these kinds of rockets have been used for so long that
< engineers have a very good understanding of them.
< 
< One of the many drawbacks to solid rocket systems is that once
< they've been ignited, they can't be turned off. That is why they
< aren't commonly used in satellites; satellites need rockets that
< can be fired multiple times (or ''pulsed''.)
< 
< ''' Hybrid '''
< 
< A hybrid propulsion system is composed of solid fuel and liquid or gas
< oxidizer, typically.  These systems are superior to solid propulsion
< systems because of safety, throttling, restartability, stability,
< and environmental cleanliness.  Hybrid systems are more complex than
< solids, though, and more expensive.  
< 
< ''' Monoprop '''
< 
< Most familiar combustible chemicals (gasoline, alcohol, wood, natural gas) 
< require oxygen to ignite and burn, but there are some unique chemical compounds that
< burn by themselves - no oxygen required! This is because the combined chemicals, when energized, "reduce," or change in ionic state by reacting with each other, as opposed to an outside oxidant.  The most commonly used monopropellant is ''hydrazine'' (N2H4), a chemical which is characterized as "strongly reducing".
< 
< Rocket scientists long ago realized the usefulness of monopropellant
< chemicals for satellite propulsion. Because only one chemical is
< used, the system is very simple, and thus very cheap.
< Unfortunately, monopropellants are not nearly as efficient as the
< other propulsion technologies. Engineers choose monopropellant
< systems when the satellite's propulsion needs are not very great.
< If the propulsion system is going to be heavily used, such as on
< a geosynchronous satellite or an interplanetary spacecraft, other
< technologies are used.
< 
< 
< ''' Biprop '''
< 
< Systems that use both a propellant and an oxidizer are called
< bipropellant systems. Bipropellant systems are more efficient
< than monopropellant systems, but they tend to be more complicated
< because of the extra hardware components needed to make sure the
< right amount of propellant gets mixed with the right amount of
< oxidizer (this is known as the ''mixture ratio''.) 
< 
< ''' Dual mode propulsion '''
< 
< Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of biprop with
< the reliability and simplicity of monoprop systems.  Dual mode systems
< are either hydrazine/N2O4, or MMH/peroxide (the former is much more
< common).  Typically, this system works as follows:  During the initial
< high-impulse orbit-raising manuevers, the system operates in a
< bipropellant fashion, providing high thrust at high efficiency; when it
< arrives on orbit, it closes off either the fuel or oxidier, and conducts
< the remainder of its mission in a simple, predictable monopropellant
< fashion.  
< 
< ''' Resistojet '''
< 
< A resistojet can be thought of as a "space heater attached to a water
< hose".  Of course, it's much more sophisticated than that!  But it is a
< good analogy, because it emphasizes the two characteristic parts of the
< system:  A source of heat produced by electricity through some sort of a
< resistor, and a source of (typically non-reactive) fluid.
< 
< Resistojets have been flown in space, and do well in situations where
< energy is much more plentiful than mass, and where propulsion efficiency
< needs to be reasonably high but low-thrust is acceptable.
< 
< ''' Arcjet '''
< 
< Arcjets are a form of electric propulsion, whereby an electrical
< discharge (arc) is created in a flow of propellant (typically hydrazine
< or ammonia).  This imparts additional energy to the propellant, so that
< one can extract more work out of each kilogram of propellant, at the
< expense of increased power consumption and (usually) higher cost.  Also,
< the thrust levels available from typically used arcjet engines are very
< low compared with chemical engines.
< 
< ''' Hall Effect Thrusters (HETs) '''
< 
< Also known simply as ''plasma thrusters'', HETs use the
< Hall Effect to accelerate ions to produce thrust. A varient
< called stationary plasma thruster (SPT) has been used by the
< Russians for stationkeeping for many years and will be used on
< Western satellites soon. 
< 
< One problem with HETs is that their plumes diverge quickly and
< thus can impinge on other spacecraft parts leading to thermal and
< contamination problems.
< 
< ''' Ion Thruster '''
< 
< Of all the electric thrusters, ion engines have been the most
< seriously considered commercially and academically. Ion engines
< use accelerated beams of ions for propulsion. 
< 
< Ion engines are best used for missions requiring very high
< delta-V's (the overall change in velocity, taken as a single value), interplanetary missions, for example. This is because
< the more performance required of the propulsion system, the
< faster a high efficiency system like ion engines will pay off.
< 
< NASA has developed an ion engine called NSTAR for use in their
< interplanetary missions. Hughes has developed the XIPS (Xenon Ion
< Propulsion System) for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous
< satellites.
< 
< ''' Magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) Thrusters '''
< 
< Thrusters that use the Lorentz force (a force exerted on charge particles by magnetic and electrical fields in combination) are called magnetoplasmadynamic (or MPD) thrusters. MPD thruster technology has been explored academically, but commercial interest has been
< low.
< 
< MPD thrusters can be run in a steady state fashion or in a
< pulsed mode.
< 
< ''' Pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) '''
< 
< Pulsed plasma thrusters use an arc of electric current through a
< solid propellant (almost always teflon), to produce a quick and highly
< efficient and dependable burst of impulse.  PPT's are great for attitude
< control, and for main propulsion on particularly small spacecraft (those
< in the hundred-kilogram or less category).  
< 
< ------
< -- Added above article.  Bryce Harrington
---
> #REDIRECT [[Spacecraft Propulsion]]
------
TransporT|982657543
1,6c1
< * AirTransport
< * RailTransport
< * RoadTransport
< * SeaTransport
< * SpaceTransport
< ** SpacecraftPropulsion
---
> #REDIRECT [[Transport]]
------
Painting|982657681
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[History of Painting]]
> 
> [[Painting Techniques]]
>      [[Acrylic Paintings]]
>      [[Frescoes]]
>      [[Murals]]
>      [[New Materials]]
>      [[Oil Paintings]]
>      [[Panel Paintings]]
>      [[Watercolor Paintings]]
> [[Painters]]
>      [[Sofinisba Anguissola]]
>      [[Sue Coe]]
>      [[Lavinia Fontana]]
>      [[Artemesia Gentileschi]]
>      [[Frieda Kahlo]]
>      [[Chaim Soutine]]
>      [[Jerome Witkin]]
> [[Paintings Conservation]]
------
PaintIng|982657711
1,20c1
< History of Painting
< 
< Painting Techniques
<      Acrylic Paintings
<      Frescoes
<      Murals
<      New Materials
<      Oil Paintings
<      Panel Paintings
<      Watercolor Paintings
< Painters
<      Anguissola, Sofinisba
<      Coe, Sue
<      Fontana, Lavinia
<      Gentileschi, Artemesia
<      Kahlo, Frieda
<      Soutine, Chaim
<      Witkin, Jerome
< Paintings Conservation
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Painting]]
------
NamingConventions|982657872
7a8,9
> We need to rewrite the help pages!!!
> 
24c26
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [[http://www.google.com Google search]] first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a Google ( http://www.google.com ) search first.
------
Canada|982657959
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse, and has recently had some problems with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
------
CanadA|982657975
1c1
< A very nice country in NorthAmerica, second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, CanadA is very diverse, and has recently had some problems with the francophone majority in QuebeC.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Canada]]
------
NamingConventions|982657984
16c16
< In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]].
---
> In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else's.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]] since that's unique.
------
Josh_Grosse|982658068
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT JoshuaGrosse
> :)
------
JoshuaGrosse|982658393
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Josh Grosse]]
> 
------
JoshuaGrosse|982658431
2,30d1
< 
< JoshuaGrosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, HiStory, LanguagE, and GreekMythology.
< ----
< 
< Hello, Joshua....I am the wikipedian from whose MathematicalGrouP page you have taken off, mathematically speaking. I'd like to know more about you...
< 
< ''Hi!  Unfortunately you picked someone on whom there's not to much to say.  What do you want to know?  I'm from Calgary, am currently at the UniversityOfWaterloo.  I've spent most of my life learning about things, but of course that doesn't mean I'm any good at writing about them.  Mathematics is an old interest, which springs out of the discovery of graphs on a summer vacation...I actually bothered to plot x^3+y^3=1 by hand just to see it...these are all very old memories.''
< 
< '''Q.''' One of the things I am wondering is if you, like myself, have an interest in/ facility for Mathematics, as well as Linguistics and Languages? It appears to be a somewhat unusual combination. 
< 
< ''I definitely have an interest in both, and a facility for Mathematics.  As for language ability I'm not so sure.  I took French immersion early on and was good enough to think it fluently, but since then almost all of my vocabulary has been forgotten.  Since then I've taken a little German, and am taking Latin, and again have trouble keeping a full vocab.  At least when I got lost in Paris I could find my way.''
< 
< ''Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)''
< 
< I have degrees in both Math and Linguistics. In Math, I like Abstract Algebra best; in Linguistics, I like Syntax best. Like you, I started French early, in third grade, and continued through college. I have also studied German, Latin, Greek, and Japanese.
< Latin and Greek are great tools if you are interested in English or Romance etymology.
< Picking up on your interest in phonetics, we could surely use your help at Nupedia in the Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists, to help provide pronunciations for our articles. I hope I am not intruding with this last remark.
< 
< ''Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).''
< 
< At the moment we have Prounciation Guides for American English and British English.
< All articles to date are identified as written in one of these languages.
< As a member of Nupedia, you would have to sign-up for the Copyedit-L, Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists. These are available for sign-up from your member page under Mailing Lists. Also, you would have to look at and get comfortable using our AME prounciation guide at:
< http://www.nupedia.com/pronguide.shtml
< You might be interested in the Copyeditbre-L list, as well. Here you need to look at and learn to use our BRE prounciation Guide at:
< http://www.nupedia.com/pronguidebre.html
< 
< We have  at least one article, already posted and some in the works that have no pronunciations for unfamiliar words and foreign words, simply because there is no one to supply them, using these guides. Such articles can be found in the main page of Nupedia, under New Articles, and in the Copyediting area which you will find a link to, after logging in, on you member page. Look for articles in the Open Copyedit area. If you have any questions, feel free. As usual this is purely voluntary. RoseParks
< email: rose.parks@att.net
------
Josh_Grosse|982658459
1,2c1,29
< #REDIRECT JoshuaGrosse
< :)
---
> Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into WikiPedia.  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, and GreekMythology.
> ----
> 
> Hello, Joshua....I am the wikipedian from whose MathematicalGrouP page you have taken off, mathematically speaking. I'd like to know more about you...
> 
> ''Hi!  Unfortunately you picked someone on whom there's not to much to say.  What do you want to know?  I'm from Calgary, am currently at the UniversityOfWaterloo.  I've spent most of my life learning about things, but of course that doesn't mean I'm any good at writing about them.  Mathematics is an old interest, which springs out of the discovery of graphs on a summer vacation...I actually bothered to plot x^3+y^3=1 by hand just to see it...these are all very old memories.''
> 
> '''Q.''' One of the things I am wondering is if you, like myself, have an interest in/ facility for Mathematics, as well as Linguistics and Languages? It appears to be a somewhat unusual combination. 
> 
> ''I definitely have an interest in both, and a facility for Mathematics.  As for language ability I'm not so sure.  I took French immersion early on and was good enough to think it fluently, but since then almost all of my vocabulary has been forgotten.  Since then I've taken a little German, and am taking Latin, and again have trouble keeping a full vocab.  At least when I got lost in Paris I could find my way.''
> 
> ''Three things I really like are etymologies, phonetics, and alphabets.  I wonder if you tend to go for the same things?  My best friend's also good at math and languages, so either it's not so unusual or we just attract each other. :)''
> 
> I have degrees in both Math and Linguistics. In Math, I like Abstract Algebra best; in Linguistics, I like Syntax best. Like you, I started French early, in third grade, and continued through college. I have also studied German, Latin, Greek, and Japanese.
> Latin and Greek are great tools if you are interested in English or Romance etymology.
> Picking up on your interest in phonetics, we could surely use your help at Nupedia in the Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists, to help provide pronunciations for our articles. I hope I am not intruding with this last remark.
> 
> ''Of course you're not.  As I said, I have copious amounts of free time on my hands.  What exactly would that involve?  (Btw, I suspect liking AbstractAlgebra best is almost as rare as math-linguistics - virtually everyone I know is an analysis fan).''
> 
> At the moment we have Prounciation Guides for American English and British English.
> All articles to date are identified as written in one of these languages.
> As a member of Nupedia, you would have to sign-up for the Copyedit-L, Copyeditame-L and Pronounce-L lists. These are available for sign-up from your member page under Mailing Lists. Also, you would have to look at and get comfortable using our AME prounciation guide at:
> http://www.nupedia.com/pronguide.shtml
> You might be interested in the Copyeditbre-L list, as well. Here you need to look at and learn to use our BRE prounciation Guide at:
> http://www.nupedia.com/pronguidebre.html
> 
> We have  at least one article, already posted and some in the works that have no pronunciations for unfamiliar words and foreign words, simply because there is no one to supply them, using these guides. Such articles can be found in the main page of Nupedia, under New Articles, and in the Copyediting area which you will find a link to, after logging in, on you member page. Look for articles in the Open Copyedit area. If you have any questions, feel free. As usual this is purely voluntary. RoseParks
> email: rose.parks@att.net
> 
------
HomePage|982658855
5c5
< :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- BiologicalScience''''s -- AstroNomy -- ChemIstry -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences 
---
> :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c7
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LinguisticS & LanguagE -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- SociOlogy -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- AnomalousPhenomena
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- LinguisticS & LanguagE -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c9
< :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- TransporT -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- CommunicAtion -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- PublicAffairs -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
---
> :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]] -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
11c11
< :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
God|982660711
11c11
< Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are only arguably conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain conceptions of God (e.g., [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions.
---
> Arguably, Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate.
------
RulesToConsider|982667270
43c43
< Supporters of this rule include AyeSpy
---
> Supporters of this rule include AyeSpy JerryMuelver
------
AppliedStatistics|982668233
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to MathematicsAndStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
> 
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982668316
29c29
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982668362
12c12
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> DickBeldin
------
FrequencyProbability|982668392
8c8
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalRegularity|982668416
11c11
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityTheory|982668443
10c10
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982668470
7c7,8
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityApplications|982668498
8,9c8,9
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
NormalDistribution|982668522
6,7c6,7
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalTheory|982668552
26c26
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
PlanningResearch|982668613
14a15,16
> ---- 
> DickBeldin
16,17d17
<  
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982668639
16c16
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982668651
16c16
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin
------
InterpretingStatisticalData|982668678
2,3c2,3
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
BioStatistics|982668707
8c8
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982668738
30,32d29
< ----
< I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
< 
------
DickBeldin|982668771
4a5,6
> I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
> ----
------
FiniteMathematics|982669010
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Finite Mathematics includes the many topics in Mathematics which do not require the concepts associated with the Differential or Integral Calculus. Among its most prominent topics are:
> 
> :SetTheory -- ProbabilityTheory -- GameTheory -- MarkovChains -- GraphTheory -- LinearProgramming
> 
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
FiniteMathematics|982669089
0a1,2
> :back to MathematicsAndStatistics
> 
3c5
< :SetTheory -- ProbabilityTheory -- GameTheory -- MarkovChains -- GraphTheory -- LinearProgramming
---
> :SetTheory -- CombinaTorics -- ProbabilityTheory -- GameTheory -- MarkovChains -- GraphTheory -- LinearProgramming
------
CombinaTorics|982669233
9,10c9,10
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
CombinaTorics|982669260
1c1
< : MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> :back to MathematicsAndStatistics
------
PersonalProbability|982669318
1c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
5,6c5,6
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
EclecticProbability|982669357
1c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
5,6c5,6
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
BinomialDistribution|982669423
0a1,2
> :back to ProbabilityDistributions
> 
6,7c8,9
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]----
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982669656
46a47,48
> ----
> Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin
------
BinomialDistribution|982669898
5c5
< To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) Then the result of X heads and N-X tails on any one trial has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads is 
---
> To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) on any one trial.  Then the result of X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
13a14,16
> ----
> I found an error in the specification of probabilities for a single trial where a phrase had accidentally crept into the following sentence. The definition of q=1-p is buried in the text, I admit, but that certainly shouldn't cause problems for one who reads carefully.
> DickBeldin
------
BinomialDistribution|982670227
5c5
< To get a probability of getting X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and then the probability of a tail is q=(1-p) on any one trial.  Then the result of X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
---
> To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
7c7,10
<    N!/(X!*(N-X)!) p^X q^(N-X)
---
> <pre>
>                   X  (N-X)
>   N!/(X!*(N-X)!) p  q
> </pre>
9,15d11
< DickBeldin
< To the author:
< First q=1-p, but more important your formula the probabilty of X heads out of N trials is WRONG.
< See BinomialDistribution/Revisited
< RoseParks
< ----
< I found an error in the specification of probabilities for a single trial where a phrase had accidentally crept into the following sentence. The definition of q=1-p is buried in the text, I admit, but that certainly shouldn't cause problems for one who reads carefully.
------
BinomialDistribution|982670305
8,9c8,11
<                   X  (N-X)
<   N!/(X!*(N-X)!) p  q
---
>              X   (N-X)
>      N!     p   q
>   ---------
>   X! (N-X)!
------
ProbabilityApplications|982670430
1,3c1,3
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics
< :ProbabilityDistributions
< :NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
---
> back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> :ProbabilityDistributions -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
7a8,9
> 
> See also FinteMathematics
------
ProbabilityApplications|982670484
9c9
< See also FinteMathematics
---
> See also FiniteMathematics
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982670552
1c1
< : back to MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> back to MathematicsAndStatistics
5,6c5
< : StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
< : PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
---
> : StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
24,26c23,24
< Valuable resources on the Web
< 
< [http://www.clarkson.edu/~dobrowb/probweb/probweb1.html The Probability Web]
---
> Some aluable resources on the Web are:
> [http://www.clarkson.edu/~dobrowb/probweb/probweb1.html The Probability Web] and 
------
StatisticalTheory|982670663
1,3c1
< : back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory
---
> back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
------
ObservationalError|982670716
1c1
< :back to StatisticalTheory
---
> back to StatisticalTheory
13c13
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> DickBeldin
------
DesigningExperiments|982670765
7,8c7,8
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
DesigningExperiments|982670805
1c1,2
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> back to ProbabilityAndStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
> 
------
NicolasCage|982672494
1c1
< NicolasCage was born on January 7th, 1964 in CaliforniA. He is FrancisFordCoppola's nephew.
---
> NicolasCage was born on January 7th, 1964 in [[California]]. He is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s nephew.
------
NicolasCage/Filmography|982672858
3,35c3,35
< * TheFamilyMan — 2000
< * GoneInSixtySeconds — 2000
< * BringingOutTheDead — 1999
< * 8MM — 1999
< * CityOfAngels — 1998
< * SnakeEyes — 1998
< * FaceOff — 1997
< * ConAir — 1997
< * TheRock — 1996
< * LeavingLasVegas — 1995 - Best Actor Academy Award (''see AcademyAwards'')
< * KissOfDeath — 1995
< * ItCouldHappenToYou — 1994
< * TrappedInParadise — 1994
< * GuardingTess — 1994
< * ACenturyOfCinema — 1994
< * AmosAndAndrew — 1993
< * DeadfalL — 1993
< * HoneymoonInVegas — 1992
< * RedRockWest — 1992
< * ZandaleE — 1991
< * WildAtHeart — 1990
< * FirebirdS — 1990
< * VampiresKiss — 1989
< * TimeToKill — 1989
< * RaisingArizona — 1987
< * MoonstrucK — 1987
< * TheBoyInBlue — 1986
< * PeggySueGotMarried — 1986
< * BirdY — 1984
< * TheCottonClub — 1984
< * RacingWithTheMoon — 1984
< * RumbleFish — 1983
< * ValleyGirl — 1983
---
> * [[The Family Man]] — 2000
> * [[Gone In Sixty Seconds]] — 2000
> * [[Bringing Out The Dead]] — 1999
> * [[8MM]] — 1999
> * [[City Of Angels]] — 1998
> * [[Snake Eyes]] — 1998
> * [[Face Off]] — 1997
> * [[Con Air]] — 1997
> * [[The Rock]] — 1996
> * [[Leaving Las Vegas]] — 1995 - Best Actor Academy Award (''see AcademyAwards'')
> * [[Kiss Of Death]] — 1995
> * [[It Could Happen To You]] — 1994
> * [[Trapped In Paradise]] — 1994
> * [[Guarding Tess]] — 1994
> * [[A Century Of Cinema]] — 1994
> * [[Amos and Andrew]] — 1993
> * [[Deadfall]] — 1993
> * [[Honeymoon in Vegas]] — 1992
> * [[Red Rock West]] — 1992
> * [[Zandalee]] — 1991
> * [[Wild at Heart]] — 1990
> * [[Firebirds]] — 1990
> * [[Vampires Kiss]] — 1989
> * [[Time to Kill]] — 1989
> * [[Raising Arizona]] — 1987
> * [[Moonstruck]] — 1987
> * [[The Boy in Blue]] — 1986
> * [[Peggy Sue Got Married]] — 1986
> * [[Birdy]] — 1984
> * [[The Cotton Club]] — 1984
> * [[Racing with The Moon]] — 1984
> * [[Rumble Fish]] — 1983
> * [[Valley Girl]] — 1983
------
Football|982673551
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term [[Football]], primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
> 
> If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means: 
> 
> Two teams of eleven players each fight to get a spherical ball into the other team's goal. 
> 
> The players are not allowed to touch the ball with their arms or shoulders. 
> 
> Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal, which is called the [[Penalty Area]] (aka the "box"). 
> 
> A match lasts 90 minutes (two halves - 45 minutes each) plus 2-5 minutes of injury time. 
> 
> In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and EuropE) [[Football]] is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
> 
> The major event is the [[World Cup]] which is held every four years and in which 32 countries take part. 
> 
> In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to SocceR. 
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> 
> However, if you are in the UnitedStates, [[Football]] is something different: 
> 
> Two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field. 
> 
> Here at [[Wikipedia]], in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the [[Earth]], we shall call this sport AmericanFootball 
> 
> (Please someone that knows more about this that me, complete/correct it) 
> 
> 
------
BinomialDistribution|982683922
14c14,24
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin----
> If you go to previous versions and look at the first one, 02/15/2001, which is yours?, you will see :
> 
> 
> 1). q (1-p), maybe a typo?
> 
> 
> 2). And the formula for the numbers of ways of picking X items out of N items  was:
> N!/X!/(N-X)!. This is plain wrong. Yes, after requesting a change for a week, I changed it.
> 
> 3).There were also wording problems. RoseParks.
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982684044
48c48,49
< Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin
---
> Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin---
> Please go to BinomialDistribution, where I have indicated what the errors were and how to see them. Yes, I corrected them after over a week.
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982684178
48,49c48,49
< Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin---
< Please go to BinomialDistribution, where I have indicated what the errors were and how to see them. Yes, I corrected them after over a week.
---
> Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin----
> Please go to BinomialDistribution, where I have indicated what the errors were and how to see them. There errors will remain in "Previous Versions" and stand as evidence for the errors. Are they yours? Yes, I corrected them after over a week. No, there are no major errors anymore. RoseParks
------
FiniteMathematics|982684546
3c3,9
< Finite Mathematics includes the many topics in Mathematics which do not require the concepts associated with the Differential or Integral Calculus. Among its most prominent topics are:
---
> Finite Mathematics includes the many topics in Mathematics which do not require the concepts associated with the Differential or Integral Calculus.
> To say this in a more technical way:
> 
> * FiniteMathematics deals with discrete items.
> * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items.
> 
>  Among its most prominent topics are:
------
FiniteMathematics|982684643
7c7
< * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items.
---
> * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
------
MoDe|982684743
4,7d3
< ----
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]----
< This was my definition, if you don't mind...
< 
------
DickBeldin|982684833
5a6
> -----Another welcome from RoseParks. We surely need someone with expertise on Probability and Statistics.
------
MoDe|982684932
3c3,4
< The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''MeaN''' and the '''MediaN'''.
---
> The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''MeaN''' and the '''MediaN'''.----
> Since this is my definition, from my memory bank...:-), I have removed links to other people--RoseParks
------
MathematicianS|982685644
2a3,11
> : PythagoraS
> : EuclidD
> : LiebnitZ
> : LobachevskY
> : CantoR
> : AbeL
> : GausS
> : ...
> 
------
MathematicianS|982685848
9a10,16
> : Euler
> : Fermat
> : DeMoivre
> : Cayley
> : MacLaurin
> : ReimanN
> : GaloiS
------
MathematicianS|982686257
12a13
> : BernoullI
15d15
< : ReimanN
------
WojPob|982688605
11c11
< [[/Sandbox]]
---
> [[/Sandbox]]
------
NamingConventions|982690192
17a18,23
> ''[[John F. Kennedy]] is somewhat unusual in that people generally refer to him using his middle initial.  I don't
> know why.  For many famous people, the middle initial is
> not widely known.  [[Oprah Winfrey]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],
> etc.  It seems that with the current President, he will be known as [[George W Bush]] or [[George W. Bush]], and that his father
> will be known as [[George Bush]]'' --JimboWales
> 
------
SandBox|982691088
9c9
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about fnord nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
------
WojPob|982691404
5a6,9
> 
> Inspired by WikiPedia I've installed and am currently messing about with the PhpWiki. Check it out. It's got a few interesting funtions. 
> 
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/phpwiki woytex phpwiki]
------
MetaEthics/Naturalism|982691567
5c5
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
---
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is fnord explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
21c21
< The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
---
> The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical fnord sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
39c39
< But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
---
> But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human fnord beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
------
SandBox|982692946
9c9
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE'''''s influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about fnord nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
---
> While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about fnord nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeTs.
------
MetaEthics/Naturalism|982700552
41a42,43
> ----
> Will you please remove "fnord" from the above?
------
SandBox|982700689
5,11d4
< Problem from OntOlogy page:
< 
< The core of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
< 
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about fnord nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeTs.
< 
< ----
------
Weekend|982702493
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for [[Leisure]] and [[Recreation]].
> 
> The notion of a weekly rest is ancient; Judeo-Christian religions celebrate the [[Sabbath]], of course.
> ----
> Doing just a bit of web searching, I could found rather little information about the history of the cultural notion of a weekend.  I did find one article, [http://www.humanscapeindia.org/hs1299/hs12997t.htm "The Tyranny of Time: The clock as god"], which contained the following lines: "People do dream of enjoying their work by doing it at a rhythm which suits them and varying their rhythm for different occupations.  This notion of personal rhythm was what the Industrial Revolution attacked and tried to destroy.  How that happened can be seen in the forgotten history of the weekend.  The English word has been adopted by almost every language, but it represents a poisoned gift from the English to humanity."  This suggests that the weekend is a result of the Industrial Revolution and perhaps the need to give factory workers a rest.  It also suggests that the English gave not only the ''word'' "weekend" to the rest of the world but also the ''concept.''  Both suggestions seem exceedingly implausible, particularly given that religions had been observing the Sabbath for millennia.
> 
> Another article, [http://www.tagnet.org/sthsda/ARTICLE09.htm When, How, and Why Was the Sabbath Changed from Saturday to Sunday?], may be of interest in this connection.
> ----
> I would like the interested Wikipedian to write the authors of the above articles, or to do more research and writing themselves, to see to it that a complete treatment of this very interesting topic be given on Wikipedia!  (And, of course, the completed article could easily be given the NuPedia treatment after that.)
> 
> I have a number of questions on this topic that I would enjoy having answered:
> 
> * What is the history of the weekend, or a weekly or periodic rest, in China and the rest of the Far East?
> * At what time did East and West begin enjoying their weekend days on the ''same'' days?
> * What are the cultural differences between ways weekends are spent?
> * In the West, culturally speaking, the Sabbath forms the fundamental reason for a day of rest.  What reason, if any, is there for a day or days of rest in other cultures, e.g., in China and sub-Saharan Africa?
> * Are there cultures that do ''not'' have a day of rest?
> * What are the results of psychological or other scientific studies on the effects of regular rests or lacks thereof?
> * Have there been any cultures in which there was not a day of rest every ''seven'' days, but some other number, such as five or ten?
> * Are there any good arguments that the institution of five-days-on, two-days-off should be changed?  (Are any good arguments on that even ''possible''?  What would a good argument about such matters be like?)
> 
> I have many questions, but few answers...  -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
------
WeekEnd|982702531
1,22c1
< The weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for LeiSure and ReCreation.
< 
< The notion of a weekly rest is ancient; Judeo-Christian religions celebrate the SabBath, of course.
< ----
< Doing just a bit of web searching, I could found rather little information about the history of the cultural notion of a weekend.  I did find one article, [http://www.humanscapeindia.org/hs1299/hs12997t.htm "The Tyranny of Time: The clock as god"], which contained the following lines: "People do dream of enjoying their work by doing it at a rhythm which suits them and varying their rhythm for different occupations.  This notion of personal rhythm was what the Industrial Revolution attacked and tried to destroy.  How that happened can be seen in the forgotten history of the weekend.  The English word has been adopted by almost every language, but it represents a poisoned gift from the English to humanity."  This suggests that the weekend is a result of the Industrial Revolution and perhaps the need to give factory workers a rest.  It also suggests that the English gave not only the ''word'' "weekend" to the rest of the world but also the ''concept.''  Both suggestions seem exceedingly implausible, particularly given that religions had been observing the Sabbath for millennia.
< 
< Another article, [http://www.tagnet.org/sthsda/ARTICLE09.htm When, How, and Why Was the Sabbath Changed from Saturday to Sunday?], may be of interest in this connection.
< ----
< I would like the interested Wikipedian to write the authors of the above articles, or to do more research and writing themselves, to see to it that a complete treatment of this very interesting topic be given on Wikipedia!  (And, of course, the completed article could easily be given the NuPedia treatment after that.)
< 
< I have a number of questions on this topic that I would enjoy having answered:
< 
< * What is the history of the weekend, or a weekly or periodic rest, in China and the rest of the Far East?
< * At what time did East and West begin enjoying their weekend days on the ''same'' days?
< * What are the cultural differences between ways weekends are spent?
< * In the West, culturally speaking, the Sabbath forms the fundamental reason for a day of rest.  What reason, if any, is there for a day or days of rest in other cultures, e.g., in China and sub-Saharan Africa?
< * Are there cultures that do ''not'' have a day of rest?
< * What are the results of psychological or other scientific studies on the effects of regular rests or lacks thereof?
< * Have there been any cultures in which there was not a day of rest every ''seven'' days, but some other number, such as five or ten?
< * Are there any good arguments that the institution of five-days-on, two-days-off should be changed?  (Are any good arguments on that even ''possible''?  What would a good argument about such matters be like?)
< 
< I have many questions, but few answers...  -- LarrySanger
---
> #REDIRECT [[Weekend]]
------
SabBath|982702596
1,5c1
< "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" GoD rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
< 
< Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
< 
< A few Christian sects, notably the Seventh-Day Adventists, currently honor the Sabbath on Saturday, but most use Sunday.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sabbath]]
------
Sabbath|982702620
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Day of rest", from the Hebrew word "shabbat", meaning rest. The seventh or last day of the week. The first sabbath was the "day" [[God]] rested after having completed the creation in six "days".
> 
> Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
> 
> A few Christian sects, notably the Seventh-Day Adventists, currently honor the Sabbath on Saturday, but most use Sunday.
------
Leisure|982702691
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are two main meanings to Leisure:
> 
> [[Leisure Sport]]: going to the gym, and so forth; the implication is that it's for fun rather than out of necessity. [[Sports]], in other words, but not as competetive.
> 
> [[Lounging]]: The kind of 'reclining-in-the-sun' type leisure, which implies going to sleep or a near-sleep lounging state. This is the type that's so different from [[Recreation]], which implies actually doing something to stave off boredom during less active times.
------
LeiSure|982702715
1,5c1
< There are two main meanings to LeiSure:
< 
< LeisureSport: going to the gym, and so forth; the implication is that it's for fun rather than out of necessity. SportS, in other words, but not as competetive.
< 
< LeisureLounging: The kind of 'reclining-in-the-sun' type leisure, which implies going to sleep or a near-sleep lounging state. This is the type that's so different from ReCreation, which implies actually doing something to stave off boredom during less active times.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Leisure]]
------
Food_and_Drinks|982703020
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Beverages]]:
> * [[Water]]
> * [[Juices]]
> * [[Ades]]
> * [[Carbonated Drinks]]
> * [[Sports Drinks]]
> * [[Coffee]]
> * [[Tea]]
> * [[Dairy Drinks]]
> * [[Soy Drinks]]
> * [[Alcoholic Beverages:]]
> * * BeeR
> * * SpiritS
> * * WinE
> * * [[Cocktails]]
> 
> 
> [[Food]]:
> 
> * [[Vegetarian Cuisine]]
> * [[Vegan Cuisine]]
> * [[Kosher Cuisine]]
> * [[Seafood]]
> * [[Fast Food]]
> * [[Western Cuisine]]
> * * [[Italian Cuisine]]
> * * [[French Cuisine]]
> * * [[German Cuisine]]
> * * [[Mexican Cuisine]]
> * * [[Spanish Cuisine]]
> * [[Asian Cuisine]]
> * * [[Japanese Cuisine]]
> * * [[Cantonese Cuisine]]
> * * [[Thai Cuisine]]
> * * [[Indonesian Cuisine]]
> * * [[Indian Cuisine]]
> * [[Mediterranean Cuisine]]
> * * [[Turkish Cuisine]]
> * * [[Greek Cuisine]]
------
Food_and_Drinks|982703046
12,15c12,15
< * * BeeR
< * * SpiritS
< * * WinE
< * * [[Cocktails]]
---
> ** BeeR
> ** SpiritS
> ** WinE
> ** [[Cocktails]]
26,30c26,30
< * * [[Italian Cuisine]]
< * * [[French Cuisine]]
< * * [[German Cuisine]]
< * * [[Mexican Cuisine]]
< * * [[Spanish Cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Italian Cuisine]]
> ** [[French Cuisine]]
> ** [[German Cuisine]]
> ** [[Mexican Cuisine]]
> ** [[Spanish Cuisine]]
32,36c32,36
< * * [[Japanese Cuisine]]
< * * [[Cantonese Cuisine]]
< * * [[Thai Cuisine]]
< * * [[Indonesian Cuisine]]
< * * [[Indian Cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Japanese Cuisine]]
> ** [[Cantonese Cuisine]]
> ** [[Thai Cuisine]]
> ** [[Indonesian Cuisine]]
> ** [[Indian Cuisine]]
38,39c38,39
< * * [[Turkish Cuisine]]
< * * [[Greek Cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Turkish Cuisine]]
> ** [[Greek Cuisine]]
------
FoodAndDrinks|982703065
1,32c1
< AlcoholicBeverages:
< 
< * BeeR
< * SpiritS
< * WinE
< * CocktailS
< 
< NonAlchoholicBeverages
< * WaterS
< * JuiceS
< * AdeS
< * CarbonatedDrinks
< * SportsDrinks
< * CoffeeS
< * TeaS
< * DairyDrinks
< * SoyDrinks
< 
< FooD:
< 
< * ItalianCuisine
< * FrenchCuisine
< * GermanCuisine
< * MexicanCuisine
< * SpanishCuisine
< * VegetarianCuisine
< * VeganCuisine
< * KosherCuisine
< * Seafood Cuisine
< * AsianCuisine: -- JapaneseCuisine -- CantoneseCuisine -- ThaiCuisine -- IndonesianCuisine -- IndianCuisine
< * FastFood
< * MediterraneanCuisine: -- TurkishCuisine -- GreekCuisine
---
> #REDIRECT [[Food and Drinks]]
------
Recreation|982703156
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We spend so much time engaged in recreation--so, why, we all ought to know all about it.
> 
> The [[Weekend]] is typically a time for recreation, perhaps (in Western and Muslim cultures) because the [[Sabbath]] falls on the Weekend and the Sabbath is "the day of rest."
> 
> Recreation is different from [[Leisure]].
> 
> [[Music]] and [[Dance]] play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do [[Sports]], of course, and sometimes [[Food and Drinks]].
------
ReCreation|982703188
1,9c1
< We spend so much time engaged in recreation--so, why, we all ought to know all about it.
< 
< The WeekEnd is typically a time for recreation, perhaps (in Western and Muslim cultures) because the SabBath falls on the WeekEnd and the SabBath is "the day of rest."
< 
< Recreation is different from LeiSure.
< 
< MuSic and DanCe play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do [[Sports]], of course.
< 
< * FoodAndDrinks
---
> #REDIRECT [[Recreation]]
------
Waltz|982703299
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Waltz is danced to music with three beats to a measure.  [[Viennese Waltz]] is very similar to normal Waltz, but is specialized for a fast tempo.
> 
> [[International Standard Waltz]] has only closed figures; that is, the
> couple never leaves [[Dance Position]].  Contrast [[American-Style Waltz]],
> in which some figures involve breaking contact entirely.  For example,
> the (? what's this figure called?) includes a free spin for both the
> man and lady.  Open rolls are another good example of an [[Open Dance Figure]], in which the lady alternates between the man's left and right sides, with the man's left or right arm (alone) providing the lead.
> 
> A typical Waltz figure (from the man's perspective) starts lowered into the knees and travelling forward with a strong heel lead.  Count 2 rises and is taken on the ball of the foot, and count 3 starts on the ball of the foot and lowers to the heel as the couple begins to lower in preparation for the next measure.  A smooth rise-and-fall action is a primary characteristic of this dance.
> 
> ----
> 
> "Waltz" is also the name for the kind of music to which one dances the waltz.  In this sense, there are waltzes in nearly every kind of European and American folk music as well as in classical or "art" music.  Many songs, too, are "in waltz time."  The music is written out in 3/4 time and typically played at a rather slow tempo (but see above).
> 
------
WaltZ|982703317
1,13c1
< Waltz is danced to music with three beats to a measure.  VienneseWaltz is very similar to normal Waltz, but is specialized for a fast tempo.
< 
< InternationalStandardWaltz has only closed figures; that is, the
< couple never leaves DancePosition.  Contrast AmericanStyleWaltz,
< in which some figures involve breaking contact entirely.  For example,
< the (? what's this figure called?) includes a free spin for both the
< man and lady.  Open rolls are another good example of an OpenDanceFigure, in which the lady alternates between the man's left and right sides, with the man's left or right arm (alone) providing the lead.
< 
< A typical Waltz figure (from the man's perspective) starts lowered into the knees and travelling forward with a strong heel lead.  Count 2 rises and is taken on the ball of the foot, and count 3 starts on the ball of the foot and lowers to the heel as the couple begins to lower in preparation for the next measure.  A smooth rise-and-fall action is a primary characteristic of this dance.
< 
< ----
< 
< "Waltz" is also the name for the kind of music to which one dances the waltz.  In this sense, there are waltzes in nearly every kind of European and American folk music as well as in classical or "art" music.  Many songs, too, are "in waltz time."  The music is written out in 3/4 time and typically played at a rather slow tempo (but see above).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Waltz]]
------
Lindy_Hop|982703398
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lindy Hop developed in the Savoy ballroom in [[Harlem]].  
> 
> The two major styles of Lindy danced today are [[Savoy-Style Lindy Hop]]
> and [[Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop]].
> 
> The basic step is called the [[Lindy Circle]].  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers making a complete circle around each other.
------
LindyHop|982703414
1,7c1
< Lindy Hop developed in the Savoy ballroom in Harlem.  
< 
< The two major styles of Lindy danced today are SavoyStyleLindyHop
< and HollywoodStyleLindyHop.
< 
< The basic step is called the Lindy Circle.  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers making a complete circle 
< around each other.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Lindy Hop]]
------
Ballroom_Dance|982703611
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ballroom dance originated in the western world, and is now enjoyed both socially and competitively in many parts of the world.
> 
> Contemporary ballroom dance technique has been extensively studied and formalized.  [[Medals Exams]] are a commonly accepted standard of measurement of a dancer's technique according to conventional standards, and are classed Bronze, Silver, Gold and Gold Bar.
> 
> The three divisions of contemporary ballroom dance are called:
> 
> ----
> 
> International Standard (also called International Ballroom)
> 
> The dances which make up International Standard ballroom dance are:
> * [[Waltz]]
> * [[International Viennese Waltz]]
> * [[International Tango]]
> * [[International Foxtrot]]
> * [[International Quickstep]]
> 
> ----
> 
> International Latin
> 
> The dances which make up International Latin ballroom dance are:
> * [[Rumba]]
> * [[Samba]]
> * [[Cha-Cha]]
> * [[Paso Doble]]
> * [[Jive]]
> 
> ----
> 
> American style Ballroom
> 
> The dances which are included in American style ballroom include
> (more than just) the following.  Note that American versions of dances which are also danced in the International style usually have differences in technique.  Also note that popular club dances such as [[Lindy Hop]], [[West Coast Swing]] and [[East Coast Swing]] will often be danced differently in clubs than in ballroom studios.
> * [[Foxtrot]]
> * [[Cha-Cha]]
> * [[Waltz]]
> * [[Viennese Waltz]]
> * [[Triple Swing]] (also known as [[East Coast Swing]])
> * [[West Coast Swing]]
> * [[Lindy Hop]]
> * [[Tango]]
> * [[Mambo]]
> * [[Rumba]]
> * [[Samba]]
> * [[Two Step]]
> * [[New York Hustle]]----
> No place for [[Salsa Dancing]] ...Gee.
------
Swing_Dance|982703709
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While [[Ballroom Dance]] includes most of the swing dances popular today, the swing and ballroom dance cultures are distinct.  Club-style swing dancers often find ballroom dancers inexpressive and too worried about technique.  Conversely, ballroom dancers may get frustrated when a swing dancer doesn't lead a step "correctly", or when they hold a figure several counts extra to match a break in the music.  These, of course, are [[Broad Generalizations]].
> 
> 
> Popular swing dances include:
> 
> [[Lindy Hop]] -- [[Charleston]] -- [[East Coast Swing]] (aka [[Triple Swing]] and [[Street Swing]])
> 
> [[Country Swing]] is yet another division of swing with a largely distinct culture.
------
SwingDance|982703725
1,10c1
< While BallroomDance includes most of the swing dances popular
< today, the swing and ballroom dance cultures are distinct.
< Club-style swing dancers often find ballroom dancers inexpressive and too worried about technique.  Conversely, ballroom dancers may get frustrated when a swing dancer doesn't lead a step "correctly", or when they hold a figure several counts extra to match a break in the music.  These, of course, are BroadGeneralizations.
< 
< 
< Popular swing dances include:
< 
< LindyHop -- CharlestoN -- EastCoastSwing (aka TripleSwing and StreetSwing)
< 
< CountrySwing is yet another division of swing with a largely distinct culture.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Swing Dance]]
------
Dance|982703807
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While dance has traditionally been a form of [[Recreation]] or [[Ritual]], many forms of dance have been formalized and refined into specific genres.  These genres include:
> 
> [[Ballroom Dance]] -- [[Swing Dance]] -- [[Jazz Dance]] -- [[Modern Dance]] -- [[Folk Dance]] -- [[Ballet Dance]] -- [[Square Dance]] -- [[Tap Dance]]
------
DanCe|982703831
1,3c1
< While dance has traditionally been a form of ReCreation, many forms of dance have been formalized and refined into specific genres.  These genres include:
< 
< BallroomDance -- SwingDance -- JazzDance -- ModernDance -- FolkDance -- BalletDance -- SquareDance -- TapDance
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dance]]
------
Recession|982704032
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A recession is defined by a fall of a country's [[Gross National Product]] in two successive quarters. Combined with [[Inflation]] this process is known as [[Stagflation]].
> 
> Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide RecessioN that humanity has ever experienced was the [[Great Depression]] (late 1920s and 1930s); other notable recessions include the [[Oil Crisis]] in the 1970s.
------
Recession|982704048
3c3
< Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide RecessioN that humanity has ever experienced was the [[Great Depression]] (late 1920s and 1930s); other notable recessions include the [[Oil Crisis]] in the 1970s.
---
> Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide Recession that humanity has ever experienced was the [[Great Depression]] (late 1920s and 1930s); other notable recessions include the [[Oil Crisis]] in the 1970s.
------
RecessioN|982704058
1,3c1
< A RecessioN is defined by a fall of a country's GrossNationalProduct (GDP) in two successive quarters. Combined with InflatioN this process is known as StagflatioN.
< 
< Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide RecessioN that humanity has ever experienced was the GreatDepression (late 1920s and 1930s) and the OilCrisis in the 1970s.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Recession]]
------
Inflation|982704117
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of purchasing power and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
------
InflatioN|982704136
1c1
< A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of purchasing power and the decline of the value of money. InflatioN adversely affects the EconomY by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the BalanceOfPayments by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Inflation]]
------
Microeconomics|982704177
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A study of the economic behaviour of individual consumers, firms, and industries and the distribution of total production and income among them. It considers individuals both as suppliers of labour and capital and as the ultimate consumers of the final product. On the other hand, it analyzes firms both as suppliers of products and as consumers of labour and capital. 
> 
> Microeconomics seeks to analyze the market or other type of mechanism that establishes relative prices among goods and services and allocates society's resources among their many alternative uses.
> 
> ----
> See also: 
> 
> * [[Macroeconomics]]
> * [[Economics]]
------
MicroeconomicS|982704194
1,9c1
< A study of the economic behaviour of individual consumers, firms, and industries and the distribution of total production and income among them. It considers individuals both as suppliers of labour and capital and as the ultimate consumers of the final product. On the other hand, it analyzes firms both as suppliers of products and as consumers of labour and capital. 
< 
< MicroeconomicS seeks to analyze the market or other type of mechanism that establishes relative prices among goods and services and allocates society's resources among their many alternative uses.
< 
< ----
< See also: 
< 
< * MacroeconomicS
< * EconomicS
---
> #REDIRECT [[Microeconomics]]
------
Macroeconomics|982704273
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behaviour of prices.
> 
> Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a favourable balance of payments.
> 
> One of the great challenges of recent economics has been struggles to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models.  [[Rational Expectations]] Theorists such as [[Robert Lucas]] suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional [[Keynesian]] macroeconomic models were questionable in light of what they must implicitly assume about individual behavior.
> 
> ----
> See also: 
> 
> * [[Microeconomics]]
> * [[Economics]]
------
Macroeconomics|982704294
3c3
< Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a favourable balance of payments.
---
> Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of Macroeconomics began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a favourable balance of payments.
------
MacroeconomicS|982704329
1,11c1
< A study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behaviour of prices.
< 
< Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated  on individual firms and industries. With the GreatDepression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of MacroeconomicS began to expand. The policy goals of the discipline include economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a favourable balance of payments.
< 
< One of the great challenges of recent economics has been struggles to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models.  RationalExpectations Theorists such as RobertLucas suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional KeynesiaN macroeconomic models were questionable in light of what they must implicitly assume about individual behavior.
< 
< ----
< See also: 
< 
< * MicroeconomicS
< * EconomicS 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Macroeconomics]]
------
Economics|982704499
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It is a relatively new academic discipline: the first major book on Economics, [[Adam Smith|Adam Smith's]] ''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776.
> 
> There is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - [[Education]], [[Religion]], [[Politics]], [[Employment]], [[Trasport]], [[Defence]], etc. Economics is, therefore, a pervasive theory of how society works. 
> 
> One of the guiding ideas in Economics is scarcity. Virtually everything is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy humanity. It is not only the poor who feel deprived; even the relatively well-off seem to want more. It is the economists job to evaluate the choices that exist for the use of those resources.
> 
> The major divisions of Economics include [[Microeconomics]], which deals with the  behaviour of individual consumers, companies, traders, and farmers; and [[Macroeconomics]], which focuses on aggregates such as the level of income in an economy, the volume of total employment, and the flow of investment. Another branch,
> [[Development Economics]], investigates the history and changes of economic activity and organization over a period of time, as well as their relation to other activities and institutions. Within these three major divisions there are specialized areas of study
> that attempt to answer questions on a broad spectrum of human economic activity, including public finance, money supply and banking, international trade, labour, industrial organization, and [[Agriculture]]. The areas of investigation in Economics overlap with other social sciences, particularly [[Political Science]], but Economics is primarily concerned with relations between buyer and seller.
> 
> ----
> [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]]
> [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]]
------
EconomicS|982704520
1,17c1
< A social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It is a relatively new academic discipline: the first major book on EconomicS, AdamSmith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776.
< 
< 
< There is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - EducatioN, ReLigion, PoLitics, employment, trasport, defence, etc. EconomicS is, therefore,a comprehensive theory of how society works. 
< 
< 
< One of the guiding ideas in EconomicS is scarcity. Virtually everything is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy humanity. It is not only the poor who feel deprived; even the relatively well-off seem to want more. It is the economists job to evaluate the choices that exist for the use of those resources.
< 
< 
< The major divisions of EconomicS include MicroeconomicS, which deals with the  behaviour of individual consumers, companies, traders, and farmers; and MacroeconomicS, which focuses on aggregates such as the level of income in an economy, the volume of total employment, and the flow of investment. Another branch,
< DevelopmentEconomics, investigates the history and changes of economic activity and organization over a period of time, as well as their relation to other activities and institutions. Within these three major divisions there are specialized areas of study
< that attempt to answer questions on a broad spectrum of human economic activity, including public finance, money supply and banking, international trade, labour, industrial organization, and AgriculturE. The areas of investigation in EconomicS overlap with other social sciences, particularly PoliticalScience, but EconomicS is primarily concerned with relations between buyer and seller.
< 
< ----
< MicroeconomicS --  MacroeconomicS -- DevelopmentEconomics
< 
< RecessioN -- InflatioN
---
> #REDIRECT [[Economics]]
------
WojPob|982708336
9a10,12
> 
> ''Hey, if you know PHP, we would love to have your input on the Nupedia software. :-)''
> 
------
MathematicianS|982710421
11c11
< : Fermat
---
> : PierreDeFermat
------
RecentChanges|982712010
1c1
< We now have the ability to do free form links.  The question is: what do we want to do about it?  Should we agree to discourage the practice of CrammingTogetherWords?  It's so cute, I'm not sure I can stop.  :-)
---
> New naming conventions are based on free form links! Talk on NamingConventions.
3c3,4
< We can do this any way we want, and of course people can still do things the old way if they like.  But some consistency is probably desirable, too?  Talk on NamingConventions.
---
> Here is a fun page that I will update from time to time.  I might even automate the update if people like it enough:
> [[What Google Likes]]
------
What_Google_Likes|982712129
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The following list shows hits from Google over the past couple of days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
> 
>   16    RosaParks
>   10    ThomasEdison
>    7    RoseParks
>    3    WikiWiki
>    3    NewZealand
>    3    BillClinton
>    2    ThomasReid
>    2    PhiloSophy
>    2    OldTestament
>    2    FilmHistory
>    1    TheRecorder
>    1    StandardPoodle
>    1    ScienCe
>    1    RhodeIsland
>    1    RationalNumbers
>    1    PitcairnIsland
>    1    PhilZimmermann
>    1    JavaJini
>    1    JarsOfClay
>    1    GeorgeWBush
>    1    FidDle
>    1    EuroCurrency
>    1    CommonSense
>    1    CoBoL
>    1    BoMis
>    1    AustraliA
> 
> These might be priority pages for improvement?
------
ActresseS|982717384
17a18
> :[[Carmen Electra]]
------
Carmen_Electra|982717949
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Carmen Electra is an American singer, model, television personality and actress.  She was born in [[Cinncinnati]], [[Ohio]] on April 20, 1972.  Her given name was Tara Leigh Patrick.
> 
> In 1992, Electra moved to [[Los Angeles]] and within one week met singer [[Prince]].  Soon after, she signed a recording contract with [[Paisley Park Records]], Prince's company.  Her singing success was both minimal and short lived.
> 
> But in 1995, Electra started appearing in television programs such as [[Nickelodeon]]'s 'All That', and over the next couple of years, she played an increasing role as a television personality on various shows on [[MTV]].  Soon after, she appeared in [[Playboy]].
> 
> She has appeared in some moderately decent films, such as [[The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human]], and the horror spoof [[Scary Movie]].
> 
> Electra achieved considerable notoriety during her on-again, off-again marriage to basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]].
------
What_Google_Likes|982718354
30c30,34
< These might be priority pages for improvement?
---
> These might be priority pages for improvement?
> ----
> Odd you should mention hits from Google. I was looking thru my stats today and noticed a hit from [http://www.google.com/search?q=bomis&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=10&sa=N Google] It was to the Wildlife Ring but gave me credit. :-) 
>  WcGing
>  
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721310
1c1
< Tiffani-Amber Thiessen is an American television and film actress.  She was born January 23, 1974, in Long Beach, California.  As a child, she competed in many beauty pageants, and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [actress].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach], [California].  As a child, she competed in many [beauty pageants], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
3c3
< Her first big break in show business was her role on the television program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
---
> Her first big break in show business was her role on the [television] program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721341
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [actress].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach], [California].  As a child, she competed in many [beauty pageants], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [[Long Beach]], [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721356
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [[Long Beach]], [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach], [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721378
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach], [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721388
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [Long Beach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [LongBeach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721405
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [LongBeach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many [[beauty pageants]], and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [LongBeach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many beauty pageants, and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721427
3c3
< Her first big break in show business was her role on the [television] program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
---
> Her first big break in show business was her role on the [[television]] program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|982721452
1c1
< Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in [LongBeach] , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many beauty pageants, and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
---
> Tiffani Thiessen (formerly Tiffani-Amber Thiessen) is an American television and film [[actress]].  She was born January 23, 1974, in Long Beach , [[California]].  As a child, she competed in many beauty pageants, and she won the [[Miss Junior America]] pageant in 1987.
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982723943
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.  He was commander-in-chief during the [American Civil War].  He is credited with freeing the slaves, though this is not historically accurate.  He was assassinated by [John Wilkes Booth] in 1865.
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982724007
1c1
< Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.  He was commander-in-chief during the [American Civil War].  He is credited with freeing the slaves, though this is not historically accurate.  He was assassinated by [John Wilkes Booth] in 1865.
---
> Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.  He was commander-in-chief during the [[American Civil War]].  He is credited with freeing the slaves, though this is not historically accurate.  He was assassinated by [John Wilkes Booth] in 1865.
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982724062
1c1,3
< Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.  He was commander-in-chief during the [[American Civil War]].  He is credited with freeing the slaves, though this is not historically accurate.  He was assassinated by [John Wilkes Booth] in 1865.
---
> Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States.  He was commander-in-chief during the [[American Civil War]].  He is credited with freeing the slaves, though this is not historically accurate.  He was assassinated by [[John Wilkes Booth]] in 1865.
> 
> Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  Ford was shot at, but they missed.
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982724089
3c3
< Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  Ford was shot at, but they missed.
---
> Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  [[Gerald Ford] Ford] was shot at, but they missed.
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982724107
3c3
< Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  [[Gerald Ford] Ford] was shot at, but they missed.
---
> Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  Ford was shot at, but they missed.
------
BinomialDistribution|982724280
24a25,27
> ----
> I see now the problem. (1-p) was intended as a parenthetical definition. I guess N1/X!/(N-X)! worked in my programming codes so I couldn't see the ambiguity. How would you calculate N!/X!/(N-X)!? From right to left? On the other hand, Today is 02/20/2001, so I think your "requesting a change for a week" is a bit off. Today is only the 20th by my calendar. In any case, the criticism has led to something better.
> DickBeldin
------
SurveySampling|982724620
0a1
> back to ProbabilityAndStatistics 
2d2
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics 
8,9c8,9
< 
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin] 
---
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
SurveySampling|982724791
3c3
< : PlanningResearch -- DesigningExperiments? 
---
> : PlanningResearch -- DesigningExperiments 
7c7,8
< The most elementary methodology is called ''simple random sampling''. It assures that every possible subset of the population which has the desired sample size is given the same probability of selection. The possibility of very expensive  or very atypical samples has lead to a variety of modfications such as stratified samples, cluster sampling, and multistage samples. The most experienced center in these techniques outside the Census Bureau is the [http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/research.html University of Michigan Survey Research Center].
---
> The most elementary methodology is called ''simple random sampling''. It assures that every possible subset of the population which has the desired sample size is given the same probability of selection. The possibility of very expensive  or very atypical samples has lead to a variety of modfications such as StratifiedSampling, ClusterSampling, and MultistageSampling. The most experienced center in these techniques outside the Census Bureau is the [http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/research.html University of Michigan Survey Research Center].
> 
------
PainTing|982725105
1,4c1
< :Painting Periods
< :Painting Techniques
< :Painters
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Painting]]
------
William_Shakespeare|982725149
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.WilliamShakespeare was a playwright and actor in England.  He predominantly wrote between 1485 and 1510.  For how well respected he is today, remarkably little is actually known of his life.  This fact accounts for the many theories on who, other than the actor William Shakespeare, wrote the works.  However, Shakespeare's reputation--as a poet and dramaturgist--has ebbed and flowed over the past five centuries.
> 
> <p>His dramatic work has been categorized in the following divisions:
> :ShakespeareanTragedies
> :ShakespeareanComedies
> :ShakespeareanHistories
> :ShakespeareanRomances
> 
> <p>His other literary works include:
> :ShakespeareanSonnets
> :ShakespeareanLongPoetry
------
WilliamShakespeare|982725159
1c1
< WilliamShakespeare was a playwright and actor in England.  He predominantly wrote between 1485 and 1510.  For how well respected he is today, remarkably little is actually known of his life.  This fact accounts for the many theories on who, other than the actor William Shakespeare, wrote the works.  However, Shakespeare's reputation--as a poet and dramaturgist--has ebbed and flowed over the past five centuries.
---
> #REDIRECT WilliamShakespeare
3,11d2
< <p>His dramatic work has been categorized in the following divisions:
< :ShakespeareanTragedies
< :ShakespeareanComedies
< :ShakespeareanHistories
< :ShakespeareanRomances
< 
< <p>His other literary works include:
< :ShakespeareanSonnets
< :ShakespeareanLongPoetry
------
WilliamShakespeare|982725173
1c1
< #REDIRECT WilliamShakespeare
---
> #REDIRECT [[William Shakespeare]]
------
Aristotle|982725267
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], hw is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
Theater|982725387
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The earliest days of theater has not been definitively identified.  Some theories hold that theatrical and dramatic representations came from the revelry of the ancient Greek celebration of Bacchus.  In any case, little doubt exists about the fact that the modern theater was born in ancient Greece.  Important figures in ancient Greek theater include:
> *  [[Aristophanes]]
> *  [[Sophocles]]
> *  [[Euripides]]
> *  [[Aeschylus]]
> 
> ...and [[Aristotle]], primarily for his timeless theories on the dramatic arts.
> 
> In the middle ages in Europe, the theater was reduced to didactic, metaphorical illustrations that featured the "Everyman."
> 
> The Renaissance brought the geniuses of [[William Shakespeare]], and the Baroque theater produced [[Moliere]].
> 
> 20th Century American Theater:
> : [[Eugene Oneil]]
> : [[Arthur Miller]]
> : [[David Mamet]]
> 
------
TheaTer|982725429
1,19c1
< The earliest days of theater has not been definitively identified.  Some theories hold that theatrical and dramatic representations came from the revelry of the ancient Greek celebration of Bacchus.  In any case, little doubt exists about the fact that the modern theater was born in ancient Greece.  Important figures in ancient Greek theater include:
< *  AristophaneS
< *  SophocleS
< *  EuripideS
< *  AeschyluS
< 
< ...and AristotlE, primarily for his timeless theories on the dramatic arts.
< 
< In the middle ages in Europe, the theater was reduced to didactic, metaphorical illustrations that featured the "Everyman."
< 
< The Renaissance brought the geniuses of WilliamShakespeare.
< 
< The Baroque theater produced MolierE.
< 
< 20th Century American Theater:
< : EugeneOneil
< : ArthurMiller
< : DavidMamet
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Theater]]
------
StratifiedSampling|982725477
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to SurveySampling
> 
> :ClusterSampling -- MultistageSampling -- SimpleRandomSampling
> 
> When subpopulations of the population to be studied vary considerably, it is advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently and produce a WeightedMean that has less variability than the MeaN of a random sample. There are several possible strategies:
> #Proportionate allocation uses the same SamplingFraction in each of the strata.
> #Optimum allocation takes larger samples in the strata with the greatest variability to generate the least possible sampling variance.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
NicolasCage/Filmography|982725786
1,37c1
< NicolasCage participated in the following films:
< 
< * [[The Family Man]] — 2000
< * [[Gone In Sixty Seconds]] — 2000
< * [[Bringing Out The Dead]] — 1999
< * [[8MM]] — 1999
< * [[City Of Angels]] — 1998
< * [[Snake Eyes]] — 1998
< * [[Face Off]] — 1997
< * [[Con Air]] — 1997
< * [[The Rock]] — 1996
< * [[Leaving Las Vegas]] — 1995 - Best Actor Academy Award (''see AcademyAwards'')
< * [[Kiss Of Death]] — 1995
< * [[It Could Happen To You]] — 1994
< * [[Trapped In Paradise]] — 1994
< * [[Guarding Tess]] — 1994
< * [[A Century Of Cinema]] — 1994
< * [[Amos and Andrew]] — 1993
< * [[Deadfall]] — 1993
< * [[Honeymoon in Vegas]] — 1992
< * [[Red Rock West]] — 1992
< * [[Zandalee]] — 1991
< * [[Wild at Heart]] — 1990
< * [[Firebirds]] — 1990
< * [[Vampires Kiss]] — 1989
< * [[Time to Kill]] — 1989
< * [[Raising Arizona]] — 1987
< * [[Moonstruck]] — 1987
< * [[The Boy in Blue]] — 1986
< * [[Peggy Sue Got Married]] — 1986
< * [[Birdy]] — 1984
< * [[The Cotton Club]] — 1984
< * [[Racing with The Moon]] — 1984
< * [[Rumble Fish]] — 1983
< * [[Valley Girl]] — 1983
< 
<  
---
> #REDIRECT NicolasCage/Filmography 
------
ClusterSampling|982725823
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to SurveySampling
> 
> :StratifiedSampling -- MultistageSampling -- SimpleRandomSampling
> 
> A geographically dispersed population can be very expensive to survey with personal interviews due to extravagant travel costs.
> Greater economy than random sampling can be achieved by including several respondents within a local area. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but the savings in cost may make that feasible.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
Abraham_Lincoln|982725832
3c3
< Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  Kennedy was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  Ford was shot at, but they missed.
---
> Lincoln was shot at Ford's Theater.  [[John F. Kennedy]] was shot in a Ford Lincoln.  [[Gerard Ford]] was shot at, but they missed.
------
Nicolas_Cage|982725866
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nicolas Cage was born on January 7th, 1964 in [[California]]. He is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s nephew.
> 
> /Filmography
> 
------
NicolasCage|982725901
1,3c1
< NicolasCage was born on January 7th, 1964 in [[California]]. He is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s nephew.
< 
< /Filmography
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nicolas Cage]]
------
Shannon_Elizabeth|982726142
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Shannon Elizabeth is an American actress.  Born September 7, 1976, Elizabeth came to prominence in the hit comedy [[American Pie]].
> 
> She was born in [[Houston]], [[Texas]], and was raised in [[Waco]].  Her father is of Syrian and Lebanese descent, while her mother is of French, English, and AmericanIndian descent. 
> 
> In August of 1999, Shannon Elizabeth appeared in [[Playboy Magazine]].
------
ShannonElizabeth|982726180
1,5c1
< Shannon Elizabeth is an American actress.  Born September 7, 1976, Elizabeth came to prominence in the hit comedy AmericanPie.
< 
< She was born in HoustonTexas, and was raised in WacoTexas.  Her father is of Syrian and Lebanese descent, while her mother is of French, English, and AmericanIndian descent. 
< 
< In August of 1999, Shannon Elizabeth appeared in PlayboyMagazine.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
------
CumulativeDistributionFunction|982726305
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> :ProbabilityDistribution
> 
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982726443
5c5,10
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the ''cumulative distribution function'' which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
---
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the CumulativeDistributionFunction which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. 
> 
> :F(x) = Pr[X<x]
> 
> Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
> 
------
An_American_in_Paris|982726464
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A 1951 [[Musical Film]] starring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]], set in Paris, directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]].  The climax of the film is 18 minutes of fantastic dancing featuring Kelly and Caron, set to [[George Gershwin]]'s "An American In Paris."
------
AnAmericanInParis|982726501
1c1
< A 1951 MusicalFilm starring GeneKelly and LeslieCaron, set in Paris, directed by Vincente Minnelli.  The climax of the film is 18 minutes of fantastic dancing featuring Kelly and Caron, set to GeorgeGershwin's "An American In Paris."
---
> #REDIRECT [An American in Paris]
------
Leslie_Caron|982726570
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Leslie Caron is a French film actress and dancer.  She was born July 1, 1931 in Boulogne-Billancourt, France.  She was discovered  by GeneKelly, who chose her to appear opposite him in [[An American in Paris]].
> 
> She went on to star in [[Gigi]], [[Lili]], and other classic films set in [[France]].  Some fans believe that she was, after [[Audrey Hepburn]], [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
> 
> She continues to act, appearing recently for example in the acclaimed film [[Chocolat]].
> 
------
LeslieCaron|982726608
1,5c1
< Leslie Caron is a French film actress and dancer.  She was born July 1, 1931 in Boulogne-Billancourt, France.  She was discovered  by GeneKelly, who chose her to appear opposite him in AnAmericanInParis.
< 
< She went on to star in GiGi, LiLi, and other classic films set in FrancE.  Some fans believe that she was, after AudreyHepburn, [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
< 
< She continues to act, appearing recently for example in the acclaimed film ChocolaT.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Leslie Caron]]
------
Drew_Barrymore|982726768
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /Biography
> /Filmography
------
DrewBarrymore|982726797
1,3c1
< 
< /Biography
< /Filmography
---
> #REDIRECT [[Drew Barrymore]]
------
ActresseS|982726857
1,9c1,4
< Old style pages, need to be converted or moved:
< 
< :DrewBarrymore
< :LeslieCaron
< :ShannonElizabeth
< :DeniseRichards
< 
< [[Free Links]] pages:
< 
---
> :[[Drew Barrymore]]
> :[[Leslie Caron]]
> :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :[[Denise Richards]]
------
ActresseS|982726899
1,33c1
< :[[Drew Barrymore]]
< :[[Leslie Caron]]
< :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
< :[[Denise Richards]]
< :[[Julie Andrews]]
< :[[Annette Benning]]
< :[[Julliette Binoche]]
< :[[Ellen Burstein]]
< :[[Glenn Close]]
< :[[Blythe Danner]]
< :[[Catherine DeNeuve]]
< :[[Judith Dench]] (Dame)
< :[[Carmen Electra]]
< :[[Jane Fonda]]
< :[[Diane Fossey]]
< :[[Jodie Foster]]
< :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
< :[[Audrey Hepburn]]
< :[[Katherine Hepburn]]
< :[[Vivien Leigh]]
< :[[Sophia Loren]]
< :[[Shirley McLaine]]
< :[[Julianne Moore]]
< :[[Gweneth Paltrow]]
< :[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]
< :[[Julia Roberts]]
< :[[Meg Ryan ]]
< :[[Elizabeth Taylor]]
< :[[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
< :[[Charlize Theron]]
< :[[Natalie Wood]]
< :[[Joanne Woodward]]
< :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Acresses]]
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982726933
5c5
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a ''random variable''. For every random variable, there is a function called the CumulativeDistributionFunction which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. 
---
> A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a RandomVariable. For every RandomVariable, there is a function called the CumulativeDistributionFunction which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. 
7a8,19
> 
> If the RandomVariable is a DiscreteRandomVariable, all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by
> 
> :p(x) = limit F(x+t) - F(x-t) as t goes to zero.
> 
> For a ContinuousRandomVariable, we define the ProbabilityDensity by 
> 
> <pre>
>                          F(x+t) - F(x)
>     f(x) = F'(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
>                                t
> </pre>
------
Acresses|982726934
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Drew Barrymore]]
> :[[Leslie Caron]]
> :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :[[Denise Richards]]
> :[[Julie Andrews]]
> :[[Annette Benning]]
> :[[Julliette Binoche]]
> :[[Ellen Burstein]]
> :[[Glenn Close]]
> :[[Blythe Danner]]
> :[[Catherine DeNeuve]]
> :[[Judith Dench]] (Dame)
> :[[Carmen Electra]]
> :[[Jane Fonda]]
> :[[Diane Fossey]]
> :[[Jodie Foster]]
> :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
> :[[Audrey Hepburn]]
> :[[Katherine Hepburn]]
> :[[Vivien Leigh]]
> :[[Sophia Loren]]
> :[[Shirley McLaine]]
> :[[Julianne Moore]]
> :[[Gweneth Paltrow]]
> :[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]
> :[[Julia Roberts]]
> :[[Meg Ryan ]]
> :[[Elizabeth Taylor]]
> :[[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
> :[[Charlize Theron]]
> :[[Natalie Wood]]
> :[[Joanne Woodward]]
> :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
> 
------
Quentin_Tarrantino|982727064
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Films directed by Quentin Tarrantino:
> 
> [[Reservoir Dogs]] -- [[Four Rooms]] -- [[Pulp Fiction]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Jackie Brown]]
------
QuentinTarrantino|982727151
1,3c1
< Films directed by Quentin Tarrantino:
< 
< ReservoirDogs -- FourRooms -- PulpFiction -- FromDuskTillDawn -- JackieBrown
---
> #REDIRECT [[Quentin Tarrantino]]
------
Film_Directors|982727260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarrantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]]
------
FilmDirectors|982727279
1c1
< MartinScorcese - OliverStone -- StephenSpielberg -- GeorgeLucas -- JohnWoo -- QuentinTarrantino -- JamesCameron -- WimWenders -- MikeFiggis -- StanleyKubrick - FrancisFordCoppola
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film Directors]]
------
RandomVariable|982727515
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to ProbabilityDistributions
> 
> :DiscreteRandomVariable -- ContinuousRandomVariable
> 
> We can think of a random variable as a numeric result of operating a non-deterministic mechanism. The mechanism can be as simple as a coin or die to be tossed or a rapid counter which cycles many times in the interval of a typical human physical reaction time. Mathematically, we can describe it as a function whose domain is a SampleSpace and whose range is some SeT of numbers.
> 
> We can specify a random variable by specifying its CumulativeDistributionFunction because two random variables with identical cdf's are isomorphic. From the cdf, we can calculate probabilities for any events which can be described as countable intersections and unions of intervals.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
Titanic|982727567
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''Titanic'' was a ship that sank.  An unbelievably popular movie - unbelievable since absolutely noone likes it - was directed by [[James Cameron]] with it as the setting.
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982727573
7c7
< #Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or '''sample space'''.
---
> #Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or SampleSpace.
------
TitaniC|982727592
1,10c1
< Titanic is a ship that sank: TitanicShip
< 
< ----
< 
< And Titanic is a movie (that also sank): TitanicMovie
< Directed by JamesCameron.
< Quite possibly the worst film to ever receive an award of any kind.
< 
< I know, I know, that's a very bad writeup.  I'm just having fun
< and trying to get some attention.  We can erase this when we get a good writeup.  :-)  --JimboWales
---
> #REDIRECT [[Titanic]]
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982727610
1,3c1,3
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics
< :FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
< :StatisticalRegularity
---
> back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
> 
> :FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability -- StatisticalRegularity
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982727643
11c11
< 
---
> ----
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|982727808
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners...
> 
> *2001
> *2000 [[American Beauty]]
> *1999 [[Shakespeare in Love]]
> *1998 [[Titanic]]
> *1997 [[The English Patient]]
> *1996 [[Braveheart]]
> *1995 [[Forrest Gump]]
> *1994 [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]]
> *1993 [[Unforgiven]]
> *1992 [[Silence of the Lambs]]
> *1991 [[Dances with Wolves]]
> *1990 [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
> 
> etc.
------
AcademyAwards/BestPicture|982727841
1,17c1
< This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners...
< 
< *2001
< *2000 AmericanBeauty
< *1999 ShakespeareInLove
< *1998 TitaniC
< *1997 TheEnglishPatient
< *1996 BravehearT
< *1995 ForrestGump
< *1994 SchindlersList
< *1993 UnforgiveN
< *1992 SilenceOfTheLambs
< *1991 DancesWithWolves
< *1990 DrivingMissDaisy
< 
< 
< etc.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]]
------
Academy_Awards|982728027
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Academy Awards are the most prominent film award in the [[United States]].  The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization with over 6000 members currently.
> 
> Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including [[/Best Picture]], [[/Best Directory]], [[/Best Actor]], and [[/Best Actress]]. 
> 
> A list of awards (incomplete, please add more!):
> 
> *[[/Best Picture]]
> 
> *[[/Best Actor]] (in a leading role) 
> *[[/Best Actress]] (in a leading role)
> 
> *[[/Best Supporting Actor]]           
> *[[/Best Supporting Actress]]
> 
> *[[/Best Director]]
------
AcademyAwards|982728058
1,15c1
< The Academy Awards are the most prominent film award in the UnitedStates.  The Awards are granted by the AcademyofMotionPictureArtsandSciences, a professional honorary organization with over 6000 members currently.
< 
< Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including /BestPicture, /BestDirectory,/ BestActor, and /BestActress. 
< 
< A list of awards (incomplete, please add more!):
< 
< */BestPicture
< 
< */BestActor (in a leading role) 
< */BestActress (in a leading role)
< 
< */BestSupportingActor           
< */BestSupportingActress
< 
< */BestDirector
---
> #REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]]
------
AfricA|982728084
0a1,2
> [http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.html Map of Africa]
> 
------
AfricA|982728152
4a5,10
> [[Benin]]
> 
> [[Burkina Faso]]
> 
> [[Cameroon]]
> 
------
Persistence_of_Vision|982728186
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that the mind retains an image for a split second.  This accounts for the fact that when a motion picture flashes a series of progressive images, instead of the mind seeing the flashing of a series of images, it sees the illusion of motion.
> 
> Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film runs at 24 frames a second and television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
> ----
> Also the name of a short story by JohnVarley, and the title of one of his later [http://www.sfsite.com/isfdb-bin/plist.cgi?PRSSTNCVSN19XX anthologies].
------
PersistenceofVision|982728215
1,5c1
< The theory that the mind retains an image for a split second.  This accounts for the fact that when a motion picture flashes a series of progressive images, instead of the mind seeing the flashing of a series of images, it sees the illusion of motion.
< 
< Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film runs at 24 frames a second and television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
< ----
< Also the name of a short story by JohnVarley, and the title of one of his later [http://www.sfsite.com/isfdb-bin/plist.cgi?PRSSTNCVSN19XX anthologies].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Persistence of Vision]]
------
AfricA|982728244
7c7
< [[Burkina Faso]]
---
> BurkinaFaso
10,11d9
< 
< [[Gambia]]
------
Film_Criticism|982728532
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.
> 
> Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticism include:
> *  [[Andre Bazin]]
> *  [[Siegfried Kracauer]]
> *  [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
> *  [[Christian Metz]]
> *  [[William Rothman]]
> *  [[Kaja Silverman]]
> *  [[Jean-Louis Boudry]]
> *  [[Andrew Sarris]]
> *  [[Mary Ann Doane]]
> *  [[Bela Balazs]]
> 
> Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
------
FilmCriticism|982728567
1,15c1
< A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.
< 
< Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticism include:
< *  AndreBazin
< *  SiegfriedKracauer
< *  SergeiEisenstein
< *  ChristianMetz
< *  WilliamRothman
< *  KajaSilverman
< *  Jean-LouisBoudry
< *  AndrewSarris
< *  MaryAnnDoane
< *  BelaBalazs
< 
< Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film Criticism]]
------
SampleSpace|982728656
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to ProbabilityAxioms
> 
> :SeT -- CartesianProduct -- RandomVariable -- IndependentEvents
> 
> In any discussion of probabilities of events, we begin with a precise definition of all the possible events. This is what we call the '''sample space'''. In the case of tossing a coin whose sides are labeled ''heads'' and ''tails'', it would be improper to decide after experimentation has begun that the result ''neither heads nor tails'' has occured. That would be an event in a different sample space so we would be changing the rules of the game, so to speak.
> 
> For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more '''independent''' sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard bridge deck (of 52 cards from Ace to King in each of four suits), one sample space could be the denomination (Ace through King) and another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of an event would specify both the denomination and the suit. Such a sample space can be constructed as the CartesianProduct of the two independent sample spaces. 
> 
> Although the sample spaces are independent, some assignments of probabilities to points may lead to a circumstance in which the random variables thus defined are not describable as independent.
> Similarly, it is possible (but rare) that two events defined on the same sample space might be classified as independent.
> ----
> DickBeldin
> 
> 
> 
------
Musical_Film|982728726
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film that features songs, sung by the actors, seamlessly interwoven into the narrative.  Some famous musicals include:
> 
> :[[An American in Paris]]
> :[[South Pacific]]
> :[[Oklahoma]]
> :[[Carousel]]
> :[[Kiss Me Kate]]
> :[[The King and I]]
> :[[Gigi]]
> :[[The Sound of Music]]
> :[[West Side Story]]
> :[[My Fair Lady]]
> :[[Saturday Night Fever]]
> :[[Fame]]
> 
------
CartesianProduct|982728849
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to MathematicsAndStatistics -- SetTheory
> 
> If two sets, X and Y, are defined, then we can define the Cartesian product of the two sets, XY, as the set of pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
> 
> :XY = {<x,y> | x belongs to X and y belongs to Y}
> 
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
Comedy_Film|982728861
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[It Happened One Night]]
> *[[Some Like It Hot]]
> *[[Ferris Buellers Day Off|Ferris Bueller's Day Off]]
> *[[Mars Attacks]]
> *[[The Mask]]
> *[[Ace Ventura]]
> *[[Tootsie]]
> *[[The Big Lebowski]]
> *[[The Full Monte]]
> *[[Liar Liar]]
> 
> 
------
ComedyFilm|982728899
1,11c1
< *ItHappenedOneNight
< *SomeLikeItHot
< *FerrisBuellersDayOff
< *MarsAttacks
< *TheMask
< *AceVentura
< *TootsiE
< *TheBigLebowski
< *TheFullMonte
< *LiarLiar
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Comedy Film]]
------
Romantic_Comedy_Film|982729007
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Love in theAfternoon]]
> :[[When Harry Met Sally]]
> :[[Sleepless in Seattle]]
> :[[Youve Got Mail|You've Got Mail]]
------
RomanticComedyFilm|982729113
1,4c1
< :LoveInTheAfternoon
< :WhenHarryMetSally
< :SleeplessInSeattle
< :YouveGotMail
---
> #REDIRECT [[Romantic Comedy Film]]
------
Drama_Film|982729209
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Twelve Angry Men]]
> :[[Witness]]
> :[[Dancing With Wolves]]
> :[[American Beauty]]
> :[[Life is Beautiful]]
> :[[Traffic]]
------
DramaFilm|982729240
1,6c1
< :TwelveAngryMen
< :WitnesS
< :DancingWithWolves
< :AmericanBeauty
< :LifeIsBeautiful
< :TraffiC
---
> #REDIRECT [[Drama Film]]
------
Horror_Film|982729370
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[The Snake Pit]]
> *[[Nightmare on Elm Street]]
> *[[Scream]]
> *[[I Know What You Did Last Night]]
> *[[Silence of the Lambs]]
> *[[Hannibal]]
> *[[From Dusk Till Dawn|From Dusk 'Till Dawn]]
------
Action_Film|982729532
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Heat Film]] -- [[The Rock]] -- [[Con Air]] -- [[Apocalypse Now]] -- [[The Matrix]] -- [[True Lies]]
------
ActionFilm|982729551
1c1
< HeatFilm -- TheRock -- ConAir -- ApocalypseNow -- TheMatriX -- TrueLies
---
> #REDIRECT [[Action Film]]
------
Cult_Film|982729616
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[The Breakfast Club]]
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
> :[[St Elmos Fire|St. Elmos Fire]]
> :[[The Graduate]]
> :[[Pulp Fiction]]
> 
------
CultFilm|982729635
1,5c1
< :TheBreakfastClub
< :RockyHorrorPictureShow
< :StElmosFire
< :TheGraduate
< :PulpFiction
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cult Film]]
------
Actors|982729684
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Nicolas Cage]]
> :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
> :[[Ben Affleck]]
> :[[Humprey Bogart]]
> :[[David Boreanaz]]
> :[[Gedeon Burkhard]]
> :[[Jim Carey]]
> :[[James Cagney]]
> :[[Sean Connery]]
> :[[Bill Cosby]]
> :[[Gerard Depardieu]]
> :[[Michael Douglas]]
> :[[Henry Fonda]]
> :[[Peter Fonda]]
> :[[Harrison Ford]]
> :[[Richard Gere]]
> :[[Cuba Gooding Jr]]''.''
> :[[Cary Grant]]
> :[[Tom Hanks]]
> :[[Dustin Hoffman]]
> :[[Anthony Hopkins]]
> :[[Joshua Jackson]]
> :[[Chris Klein]]
> :[[Jack Lemmon]]
> :[[Peter Lorre]]
> :[[Steve Martin]]
> :[[Walter Mathau]]
> :[[Yves Montand]]
> :[[Tobias Moretti]]
> :[[Paul Newman]]
> :[[Jack Nicholson]]
> :[[Edward Norton]]
> :[[Brad Pitt]]
> :[[Joaquin Phoenix]]
> :[[Sidney Poitier]]
> :[[Dennis Quaid]]
> :[[Randy Quaid]]
> :[[Anthony Quinn]]
> :[[Robert Redford]]
> :[[Keanu Reeves]]
> :[[Spencer Tracy]]
> :[[John Wayne]]
> 
> Female actors are listed (with the utmost respect) under [[Actresses]].../Talk
> 
------
ActorS|982729715
1,47c1
< :NicolasCage
< :CharlieChaplin
< 
< :[[Ben Affleck]]
< :[[Humprey Bogart]]
< :[[David Boreanaz]]
< :[[Gedeon Burkhard]]
< :[[Jim Carey]]
< :[[James Cagney]]
< :[[Sean Connery]]
< :[[Bill Cosby]]
< :[[Gerard Depardieu]]
< :[[Michael Douglas]]
< :[[Henry Fonda]]
< :[[Peter Fonda]]
< :[[Harrison Ford]]
< :[[Richard Gere]]
< :[[Cuba Gooding Jr]]''.''
< :[[Cary Grant]]
< :[[Tom Hanks]]
< :[[Dustin Hoffman]]
< :[[Anthony Hopkins]]
< :[[Joshua Jackson]]
< :[[Chris Klein]]
< :[[Jack Lemmon]]
< :[[Peter Lorre]]
< :[[Steve Martin]]
< :[[Walter Mathau]]
< :[[Yves Montand]]
< :[[Tobias Moretti]]
< :[[Paul Newman]]
< :[[Jack Nicholson]]
< :[[Edward Norton]]
< :[[Brad Pitt]]
< :[[Joaquin Phoenix]]
< :[[Sidney Poitier]]
< :[[Dennis Quaid]]
< :[[Randy Quaid]]
< :[[Anthony Quinn]]
< :[[Robert Redford]]
< :[[Keanu Reeves]]
< :[[Spencer Tracy]]
< :[[John Wayne]]
< 
< Female actors are listed (with the utmost respect) under ActresseS.
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actors]]
------
ActorS/Talk|982729781
1,51c1
< Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
< ----
< In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.  You might notice also that Sidney Poitier is a man, or so I always thought.
< 
< * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
< 
< * ''Great essay, [http://www.resort.com/~prime8/Orwell/patee.html this], but doesn't have enough detail about the ways political hacks abuse language.  That is a fascinating topic.  I'm also not quite sure that it's the best way to describe the resistance to "actress."''
< 
< Re: "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)----
< 
< Linguistically speaking, what is common usage IS correct. These females who act are, as a group, whatever the plurality of AME speakers call them, be it ActorS or ActresseS. THAT IS WHAT THEY ARE!!!(Answer to A.C.) Since there is a dispute here, started by me, I will cede to the older nomenclature and possibly the majority opinion. I have created ActresseS. Wait til next year though...:-).
< ----
< I thought about this when I created the two pages, believe me.  I thought about it, too, when I created separate pages for MaleTennisProfessionals and FemaleTennisProfessionals.  In both cases, I was guided by the highest professional awards.  In tennis, women play in a separate league from men.  In acting, 
< the AcademyAwards (and, I believe, all the other major awards) are granted separately to male and female performers.
< 
< In both cases, there is a good reason for the distinction.  If men and women played in the same tennis league, it would be extremely unfair.  That's a biological fact, as far as I know.  Maybe in the future, it will not be true, but for today, it is true.
< 
< In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but... --JimboWales
< ----
< The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?
< ----
< I would answer this by saying that the problem was sexism in Shakespeare's time, not in our own.  The role of LadyMacBeth
< is best portrayed by a woman, I think.  A film detailing the life of MotherTheresa, starring SylvesterStallone in the central role, would be a farce, would it not?
< 
< Remember that I said, "generally, but by no means universally".
< 
< Perhaps in the future, the methods of makeup will have advanced to a sufficient stage that SeanConnery could play a convincing PrincessDiana, but for now, gender is relevant to the roles, and it is not sexism to note this fact. --JimboWales----
< ----
< And I suppose having ElizabethTaylor playing MotherTheresa or OprahWinfrey playing PrincessDiana would be good casting? Notice you are choosing characters who HAVE lived and of whom we already have a visual image. Remember that MaryMartin played PeterPan?
< ----
< Is this stealing your last word, if I only agree with what you've said?  It occurred to me late last night (wikipedia is keeping me up at night!) that you are absolutely right when you say that
< there isn't a difference in the activity of acting between men
< and women.  And you are of course right too, in pointing out that
< just as some men are not right for some parts as women, some women are equally not right for some parts as women.
< 
< Of course, this perhaps doesn't remove the need for the distinction.  We agree that personal physical characteristics
< can play a major role in how a performer is perceived in a part.
< And so we might conclude that, in general, gender is or at least
< tends to be a highly important characteristic for classifying performers.  So we might leave the distinction as is.
< 
< The big difference between my tennis example, and acting, is
< that in tennis it really is true that the top tennis players would all be men, if all were to play in the same league.  In order to have sensible competition, segregation is probably necessary.  But why do we have separate awards for best actor and best actress?  Even if men and women naturally tend to play different parts, there seems to be no reason why we should consider it difficult at all to decide if JuliaRoberts or AlPacino is the better performer in a given year.----
< I guess we will have to '''agree''' to '''agree'''!!!
< 
< 
< ----
< If we were making a page listing famous philosophers, or famous scientists, I do not think that a separate listing would be a good thing at all.  Unless, of course, someone wanted to make a page highlighting famous female scientists of the past, when they were more rare, or something like that.
< 
< One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc. --JimboWales
< ----
<  �<-MyBox
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actors/Talk]]
------
Actors/Talk|982729802
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
> ----
> In case you haven't noticed, women refer to themselves now as ActorS...I hope the page editor who deleted all the women, except Judith Dench, Ellen Burstein, Blythe Danner, and Sophia Loren and further messed up the alphabetizing will correct it.  You might notice also that Sidney Poitier is a man, or so I always thought.
> 
> * A female who acts is an actress.  Thus, when Hilary Swank won an AcademyAward, it was for Best Actress, not Best Actor Who Is Female.  Please see GeorgeOrwell's 'Politics and the English Language' for more on manipulating thought by abusing language.
> 
> * ''Great essay, [http://www.resort.com/~prime8/Orwell/patee.html this], but doesn't have enough detail about the ways political hacks abuse language.  That is a fascinating topic.  I'm also not quite sure that it's the best way to describe the resistance to "actress."''
> 
> Re: "actress"...yet another perfectly useful word forever tarred with the brush of political incorrectness.  Female actpersons might refer to themselves as ActorS, but there are still many people who refer to them (quite respectfully) as ActresseS.  It's what they are, isn't it? -- AnonymousCoward (ducking)----
> 
> Linguistically speaking, what is common usage IS correct. These females who act are, as a group, whatever the plurality of AME speakers call them, be it ActorS or ActresseS. THAT IS WHAT THEY ARE!!!(Answer to A.C.) Since there is a dispute here, started by me, I will cede to the older nomenclature and possibly the majority opinion. I have created ActresseS. Wait til next year though...:-).
> ----
> I thought about this when I created the two pages, believe me.  I thought about it, too, when I created separate pages for MaleTennisProfessionals and FemaleTennisProfessionals.  In both cases, I was guided by the highest professional awards.  In tennis, women play in a separate league from men.  In acting, 
> the AcademyAwards (and, I believe, all the other major awards) are granted separately to male and female performers.
> 
> In both cases, there is a good reason for the distinction.  If men and women played in the same tennis league, it would be extremely unfair.  That's a biological fact, as far as I know.  Maybe in the future, it will not be true, but for today, it is true.
> 
> In acting, it is generally, but of course not universally, the case that parts played by women and parts played by men are inherently different.  It might be possible to remake, say, TheGodfather, with MichellePfeiffer playing the role previously played by MarlonBrando, but... --JimboWales
> ----
> The question seems to me, whether their is a difference in the activity called ''acting'' for men and women. I don't see any. Remember, in Shakespeare's time all roles were played by men. Why are "the parts played by men and those by women inherently different," by the way?
> ----
> I would answer this by saying that the problem was sexism in Shakespeare's time, not in our own.  The role of LadyMacBeth
> is best portrayed by a woman, I think.  A film detailing the life of MotherTheresa, starring SylvesterStallone in the central role, would be a farce, would it not?
> 
> Remember that I said, "generally, but by no means universally".
> 
> Perhaps in the future, the methods of makeup will have advanced to a sufficient stage that SeanConnery could play a convincing PrincessDiana, but for now, gender is relevant to the roles, and it is not sexism to note this fact. --JimboWales----
> ----
> And I suppose having ElizabethTaylor playing MotherTheresa or OprahWinfrey playing PrincessDiana would be good casting? Notice you are choosing characters who HAVE lived and of whom we already have a visual image. Remember that MaryMartin played PeterPan?
> ----
> Is this stealing your last word, if I only agree with what you've said?  It occurred to me late last night (wikipedia is keeping me up at night!) that you are absolutely right when you say that
> there isn't a difference in the activity of acting between men
> and women.  And you are of course right too, in pointing out that
> just as some men are not right for some parts as women, some women are equally not right for some parts as women.
> 
> Of course, this perhaps doesn't remove the need for the distinction.  We agree that personal physical characteristics
> can play a major role in how a performer is perceived in a part.
> And so we might conclude that, in general, gender is or at least
> tends to be a highly important characteristic for classifying performers.  So we might leave the distinction as is.
> 
> The big difference between my tennis example, and acting, is
> that in tennis it really is true that the top tennis players would all be men, if all were to play in the same league.  In order to have sensible competition, segregation is probably necessary.  But why do we have separate awards for best actor and best actress?  Even if men and women naturally tend to play different parts, there seems to be no reason why we should consider it difficult at all to decide if JuliaRoberts or AlPacino is the better performer in a given year.----
> I guess we will have to '''agree''' to '''agree'''!!!
> 
> 
> ----
> If we were making a page listing famous philosophers, or famous scientists, I do not think that a separate listing would be a good thing at all.  Unless, of course, someone wanted to make a page highlighting famous female scientists of the past, when they were more rare, or something like that.
> 
> One of the beautiful things about a wiki is, of course, that someone can create a page of 'ActingProfessionals' that lists all of them, male or female, on the same page, or in alphabetical order, like 'ActingProfessionals/A', etc. --JimboWales
> ----
>  �<-MyBox
> 
------
Film|982729975
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Academy Awards]]
> 
> Initially, film constituted the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of more than 16 frames a second (see [[Persistence of Vision]]).  However, since the advent of many other media technologies, film may include a broad range of media--both linear and non-linear, dramatic and informational, motion and still (though progressive).
> ----
> Film people:
> 
> [[Actors]] -- [[Actresses]] -- [[Film Directors]]
> ----
> [[Film Genres]]:
> 
> :[[Musical Film]]
> :[[Comedy Film]]
> :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
> :[[Drama Film]]
> :[[Science Fiction Film]]
> :[[Horror Film]]
> :[[Thriller Film]]
> :[[Action Film]]
> :[[Western Film]]
> :[[Cult Film]]
> 
------
FiLm|982729992
1,20c1
< FilmHistory -- FilmCriticism -- AcademyAwards 
< 
< Initially, film constituted the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of more than 16 frames a second (see PersistenceofVision).  However, since the advent of many other media technologies, film may include a broad range of media--both linear and non-linear, dramatic and informational, motion and still (though progressive).
< ----
< Film people:
< 
< ActorS -- ActresseS -- FilmDirectors
< ----
< FilmGenres:
< 
< :MusicalFilm
< :ComedyFilm
< :RomanticComedyFilm
< :DramaFilm
< :ScienceFictionFilm
< :HorrorFilm
< :ThrillerFilm
< :ActionFilm
< :WesternFilm
< :CultFilm
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film]]
------
Actresses|982730026
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Drew Barrymore]]
> :[[Leslie Caron]]
> :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :[[Denise Richards]]
> :[[Julie Andrews]]
> :[[Annette Benning]]
> :[[Julliette Binoche]]
> :[[Ellen Burstein]]
> :[[Glenn Close]]
> :[[Blythe Danner]]
> :[[Catherine DeNeuve]]
> :[[Judith Dench]] (Dame)
> :[[Carmen Electra]]
> :[[Jane Fonda]]
> :[[Diane Fossey]]
> :[[Jodie Foster]]
> :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
> :[[Audrey Hepburn]]
> :[[Katherine Hepburn]]
> :[[Vivien Leigh]]
> :[[Sophia Loren]]
> :[[Shirley McLaine]]
> :[[Julianne Moore]]
> :[[Gweneth Paltrow]]
> :[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]
> :[[Julia Roberts]]
> :[[Meg Ryan ]]
> :[[Elizabeth Taylor]]
> :[[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
> :[[Charlize Theron]]
> :[[Natalie Wood]]
> :[[Joanne Woodward]]
> :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
> 
> 
------
Acresses|982730138
1,34c1
< :[[Drew Barrymore]]
< :[[Leslie Caron]]
< :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
< :[[Denise Richards]]
< :[[Julie Andrews]]
< :[[Annette Benning]]
< :[[Julliette Binoche]]
< :[[Ellen Burstein]]
< :[[Glenn Close]]
< :[[Blythe Danner]]
< :[[Catherine DeNeuve]]
< :[[Judith Dench]] (Dame)
< :[[Carmen Electra]]
< :[[Jane Fonda]]
< :[[Diane Fossey]]
< :[[Jodie Foster]]
< :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
< :[[Audrey Hepburn]]
< :[[Katherine Hepburn]]
< :[[Vivien Leigh]]
< :[[Sophia Loren]]
< :[[Shirley McLaine]]
< :[[Julianne Moore]]
< :[[Gweneth Paltrow]]
< :[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]
< :[[Julia Roberts]]
< :[[Meg Ryan ]]
< :[[Elizabeth Taylor]]
< :[[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
< :[[Charlize Theron]]
< :[[Natalie Wood]]
< :[[Joanne Woodward]]
< :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
< 
---
> A typo for [[Actress]], [[Acres]], [[Across]]...
------
Acresses|982730187
1c1
< A typo for [[Actress]], [[Acres]], [[Across]]...
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actresses]]
------
Hollywood|982730252
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hollywood, [[California]] was founded in 1857 by the Wilcox family.
> 
> The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the [[Nestor Company]]. In the same year, another 15 [[Independents]] settled here.  Film production companies began to flock to [[Hollywood]] because of the good weather and longer days.  In the early days of film, there were no electric lights and so the only source of enough light to adequately expose the film was sun light.  Up until that point, New York had been the capital of film production.
------
HollywooD|982730282
1,3c1
< Hollywood, CaliforniA was founded in 1857 by the Wilcox family.
< 
< The first studio in Hollywood was founded 1911 by David Horsley for the NestorCompany. In the same year, another 15 IndependentS settled here.  Film production companies began to flock to HollywooD because of the good weather and longer days.  In the early days of film, there were no electric lights and so the only source of enough light to adequately expose the film was sun light.  Up until that point, New York had been the capital of film production.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hollywood]]
------
ThomasEdison|982730369
1,5c1
< Initially, it was believed that ThomasEdison invented the motion picture camera, but it has since been proven that WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson actually invented it at the Edison laboratories.  However, his influence on the history of film stretches far beyond that of instigator.  He became a powerhouse of film production and must be given credit for establishing a standard that allowed film to emerge as a mass media and not just a vaudeville novelty.
< ----
< I have read that, similarly, the credit traditionally given to ThomasEdison for the invention of the LightBulb is misplaced.  I am not competent to assess this claim.
< 
< He did invent the filament for the light bulb...I know that.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Thomas Edison]]
------
Thomas_Edison|982730380
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Initially, it was believed that Thomas Edison invented the motion picture camera, but it has since been proven that [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]] actually invented it at the Edison laboratories.  However, his influence on the history of film stretches far beyond that of instigator.  He became a powerhouse of film production and must be given credit for establishing a standard that allowed film to emerge as a mass media and not just a vaudeville novelty.
> ----
> I have read that, similarly, the credit traditionally given to Thomas Edison for the invention of the [[Light Bulb]] is misplaced.  I am not competent to assess this claim.
> 
> He did invent the filament for the light bulb...I know that.
------
WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson|982730413
1c1
< It has almost certainly been proved that W. K. L. Dickson was the actual inventor of the motion picture camera.  He was under the employ of ThomasEdison.  In fact, Edison saw very little value in the contraption, but thought that it might be served to endorse his phonograph.
---
> #REDIRECT [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
------
William_Kennedy_Laurie_Dickson|982730429
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It has almost certainly been proved that W. K. L. Dickson was the actual inventor of the motion picture camera.  He was under the employ of [[Thomas Edison]].  In fact, Edison saw very little value in the contraption, but thought that it might be served to endorse his phonograph.
------
Mise_en_Scene|982730486
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where the long takes and often a movie camera is preferred over constantly chopping up a scene through editing.
------
Kuleshov_Experiment|982730518
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kuleshov was an early Russian filmmaker.  He believed that juxtaposing two unrelated images could convey a separate meaning.  His example was a shot of a man and then a shot of a bowl of food conveyed the idea of hunger even though the shot of the man and the shot of the bowl was done at different times and places.
------
KuleshovExperiment|982730531
1c1
< Kuleshov was an early Russian filmmaker.  He believed that juxtaposing two unrelated images could convey a separate meaning.  His example was a shot of a man and then a shot of a bowl of food conveyed the idea of hunger even though the shot of the man and the shot of the bowl was done at different times and places.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Kuleshov Experiment]]
------
Birth_of_a_Nation|982730592
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A controverial film directed by [[David Griffith]].  It was released in 1915 and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language.
> 
> The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
------
DwGriffith|982730621
1,23c1
< David Wark Griffith (American director)
< 
< born: January 22, 1875, Crestwood, Kentucky
< 
< died: July 23, 1948, Hollywood, California
< 
< Important works:
< 
< The Birth of a Nation (1915)
< 
< Intolerance (1916)
< 
< Broken Blossoms (1919)
< 
< America (1924)
< 
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as MiseEnScene and editing (FilmEditing.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no Point-of-View Shots.
< 
< Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film /BirthofaNation (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the KluKluxKlan in the United States.
< 
< Griffith remains both a praised and distained character in the history of the cinema.
< 
< Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced /BirthofaNation, and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, /IntolerancE . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford and DouglasFairbanks.
---
> #REDIRECT [[David Griffith]]
------
David_Griffith|982730708
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David Wark Griffith (American director)
> 
> born: January 22, 1875, Crestwood, Kentucky
> 
> died: July 23, 1948, Hollywood, California
> 
> Important works:
> 
> The Birth of a Nation (1915)
> 
> Intolerance (1916)
> 
> Broken Blossoms (1919)
> 
> America (1924)
> 
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as [[Mise en Scene]] and editing ([[Film Editing]].). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no Point-of-View Shots.
> 
> Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film [[Birth of a Nation]] (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the [[Klu Klux Klan]] in the United States.
> 
> Griffith remains both a praised and distained character in the history of the cinema.
> 
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced [[Birth of a Nation]], and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, [[Intolerance]] . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks]].
> 
------
MaryPickford|982730754
5c5
< Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was CharlieChaplin.
---
> Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was [[Charlie Chaplin]].
9c9
< 1909: discovered by DwGriffith at Biograph, worked for $5 a week
---
> 1909: discovered by [[David Griffith]] at Biograph, worked for $5 a week
27c27
< 1919: Founded United Artists together with CharlieChaplin , DwGriffith and her husband DouglasFairbanks
---
> 1919: Founded United Artists together with [[Charlie Chaplin], [[David Griffith]] and her husband [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
------
MaryPickford|982730761
1,29d0
< birth name: Gladys Smith
< 
< born: Toronto, Canada
< 
< Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was [[Charlie Chaplin]].
< 
< prior to 1909: studied theatre actress in New York
< 
< 1909: discovered by [[David Griffith]] at Biograph, worked for $5 a week
< 
< 1910: I.M.P., $175 a week
< 
< 1911: Majestic Film Corp.
< 
< 1912: back to Biograph
< 
< 1913: Belasco as theatre actress
< 
< 1913: Famous Players, $20,000 a year
< 
< 1915: worked for various companies, $1000 to $2000 a week
< 
< 1916: founded The Mary Pickford Corporation as a part of Paramount, she gets about $10,000 a week. She became the first actress who was the producer of her own films
< 
< 1918: First National. She gets $675,000 for three films plus 50% of all profits, plus a signing bonus of $50,000 and complete control over her films, ranging from script to the final cut.
< 
< 1919: Founded United Artists together with [[Charlie Chaplin], [[David Griffith]] and her husband [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
< 
< 
------
MaryPickford|982730770
1,2c1
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mary Pickford]]
------
Mary_Pickford|982730789
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> birth name: Gladys Smith
> 
> born: Toronto, Canada
> 
> Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was [[Charlie Chaplin]].
> 
> prior to 1909: studied theatre actress in New York
> 
> 1909: discovered by [[David Griffith]] at Biograph, worked for $5 a week
> 
> 1910: I.M.P., $175 a week
> 
> 1911: Majestic Film Corp.
> 
> 1912: back to Biograph
> 
> 1913: Belasco as theatre actress
> 
> 1913: Famous Players, $20,000 a year
> 
> 1915: worked for various companies, $1000 to $2000 a week
> 
> 1916: founded The Mary Pickford Corporation as a part of Paramount, she gets about $10,000 a week. She became the first actress who was the producer of her own films
> 
> 1918: First National. She gets $675,000 for three films plus 50% of all profits, plus a signing bonus of $50,000 and complete control over her films, ranging from script to the final cut.
> 
> 1919: Founded United Artists together with [[Charlie Chaplin], [[David Griffith]] and her husband [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
> 
> 
> 
------
Mary_Pickford|982730820
27c27
< 1919: Founded United Artists together with [[Charlie Chaplin], [[David Griffith]] and her husband [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
---
> 1919: Founded United Artists together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[David Griffith]] and her husband [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
------
ThomasHarperInce|982730856
1,12c1
< Thomas Harper Ince (American director)
< 
< Invented many mechanisms of professional movie production, like the usage of a detailed "shooting script", which also contained information on when who was in the scene, and the "scene plot" which listed all interiors and exteriors, cost control plans and so on. He helped create a standardized and mechanized mode of production. He also was one of the first who had a seperate writer, director and cutter (instead of doing evering himself).
< 
< His movies were mainly early Westerns, which were successful because of their beautiful images and their rhythm.
< 
< 1910: director at I.M.P.
< 
< 1911: Bison Life Motion pictures (merged with Universal 1912)
< 
< 1912: "Studio Inceville" and the Bison 101 movies (as projects for Bison Life Motion Pictures)
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
------
Thomas_Harper_Ince|982730867
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Harper Ince (American director)
> 
> Invented many mechanisms of professional movie production, like the usage of a detailed "shooting script", which also contained information on when who was in the scene, and the "scene plot" which listed all interiors and exteriors, cost control plans and so on. He helped create a standardized and mechanized mode of production. He also was one of the first who had a seperate writer, director and cutter (instead of doing evering himself).
> 
> His movies were mainly early Westerns, which were successful because of their beautiful images and their rhythm.
> 
> 1910: director at I.M.P.
> 
> 1911: Bison Life Motion pictures (merged with Universal 1912)
> 
> 1912: "Studio Inceville" and the Bison 101 movies (as projects for Bison Life Motion Pictures)
> 
> 
------
Mack_Sennett|982730922
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone in 1912 together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Ben Turpin]], [[Fatty Arbuckle]], [[Laurel and Hardy]], [[Gloria Swanson]] and many more.
------
MackSennett|982730935
1c1
< Mack Sennett is the inventor of the slapstick comedy. He was a singer, dancer, clown, actor, set designer and director for Biograph, and founded Keystone in 1912 together with Adam Kessel. Many important actors were discovered by him and started their career at Keystone. Those include CharlieChaplin, BenTurpin, FattyArbuckle, LaurelandHardy, GloriaSwanson and many more
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mack Sennett]]
------
Charlie_Chaplin|982730982
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most famous actor in early Hollywood cinema. He was the first actor who did a one million dollar deal.
> 
> 1914: Keystone, worked for $150 a week
> 
> 1914-15: Essanay, $1250 a week, plus $10,000 signing bonus
> 
> 1916-17: Mutual, $10,000 a week, plus $150,000 signing bonus
> 
> 1917: First National, million dollar deal
> 
> 1919: Founded United Artists with [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[David Griffith]]
> 
------
CharlieChaplin|982730997
1,11c1
< The most famous actor in early Hollywood cinema. He was the first actor who did a one million dollar deal.
< 
< 1914: Keystone, worked for $150 a week
< 
< 1914-15: Essanay, $1250 a week, plus $10,000 signing bonus
< 
< 1916-17: Mutual, $10,000 a week, plus $150,000 signing bonus
< 
< 1917: First National, million dollar deal
< 
< 1919: Founded United Artists with MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DwGriffith 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Charlie Chaplin]]
------
MppC|982731046
1c1
< MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the EdisonTrust, also known as the FirstOligopoly. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, EastmanKodak. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called IndependentS, who later became the SecondOligopoly. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the one in 1912, which cancelled the patent on raw film, the one in 1915, which cancelled all MPPC patents and the ShermanAntitrustAct in 1917, which ended the oligopoly, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[MPPC]]
------
MPPC|982731159
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MPPC stands for Motion Picture Patents Company, also known as the [[Edison Trust]], also known as the [[First Oligopoly]]. It was a trust of all the major film companies and the biggest supplier of raw film, [[Eastman Kodak]]. The reason for it's decline are manifold. The most important ones are the misjudgement of consumer interest and the quick rise of the so-called [[Independents]], who later became the [[Second Oligopoly]]. There were also US Supreme Court decisions, in particular the one in 1912, which cancelled the patent on raw film, the one in 1915, which cancelled all MPPC patents and the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]] in 1917, which ended the oligopoly, but at that time, the MPPC was already defeated. 
> 
------
IndependentS|982731179
1c1
< The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the MppC. They built their own cameras to evade the trust's patents and moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to HollywooD, CaliforniA, where they laid the foundations of the studio system and of the American film industry as such. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Independents]]
------
Independents|982731214
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Independents were film companies who resisted the claims of the [[MPPC]]. They built their own cameras to evade the trust's patents and moved away from the Edison Trust's strongholds to [[Hollywood]], [[California]], where they laid the foundations of the studio system and of the American film industry as such. 
------
FoxFilmCorporation|982731250
1c1
< In 1913, William Fox founded two companies, Greater New York Film Rental, a distribution firm, which was part of the IndependentS, and Fox (or Box, depending on the source) Office Attractions Company, a production company. 1915, he merged them to Fox Film Corporation (see VerticalIntegration), 1917 the company moved to HollywooD. During the FirstWorldWar, Fox was the leading production company in the US. William Fox lost control over the company after the 1929 stock market crash
---
> #REDIRECT [[Fox Film Corporation]]
------
Fox_Film_Corporation|982731295
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1913, William Fox founded two companies, Greater New York Film Rental, a distribution firm, which was part of the IndependentS, and Fox (or Box, depending on the source) Office Attractions Company, a production company. 1915, he merged them to Fox Film Corporation (see [[Vertical Integration]]), 1917 the company moved to [[Hollywood]]. During [[World War I]], Fox was the leading production company in the US. William Fox lost control over the company after the 1929 stock market crash.
------
ParamounT|982731320
1,3c1
< Paramount was founded by WWHodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with AdolphZukor's FamousPlayers, JesseLasky's FeaturePlay and with BoswortH, the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see VerticalIntegration). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular FamousPlayers movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, AdolphZukor bought Paramount and merged it with FamousPlayers. 
< 
< The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks). AdolphZukor also fired WWHodkinson, who founded FirstNational to challenge Paramount's power. FirstNational controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, FirstNational and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by CharlieChaplin, MaryPickford, DouglasFairbanks and DwGriffith, who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, UnitedArtists, which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the SecondOligopoly until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Paramount]]
------
Paramount|982731454
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paramount was founded by W W Hodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with [[Adolph Zukor]]'s [[Famous Players]], [[Jesse Lasky]]'s [[Feature Play]] and with [[Bosworth]], the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see [[Vertical Integration]]). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular Famous Players movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, Adolph Zukor bought Paramount and merged it with Famous Players. 
> 
> The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]]). Adolph Zukor also fired W W Hodkinson, who founded [[First National]] to challenge Paramount's power. First National controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, First National and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[David Griffith]], who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, [[United Artists]], which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the [[Second Oligopoly]] until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
> 
------
First_National|982731501
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.The First National Exhibitors' Circuit was founded 1917 by the merger of 26 of the nation's biggest First Run cinema chains, controlling more than 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them were First Run cinemas. The foundation, an initiative by Thomas L. Tally, was a reaction to the overwhelming influence of [[Paramount]], which dominated the market. First National was set up to combine the finacial power of the involved firms, to buy stars, to finance their movies and to gain the right to distribute them later. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]], the first million dollar deals in the history of film.
> First National's finacial power and it's control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to Paramount so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten milion dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of UnitedArtists, and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First Nationals member firms after the other. 
> 
------
FilmHistory|982731531
1,28c1
< Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
< *  EadweardMuybridge
< *  ThomasEdison
< *  WilliamKennedyLaurieDickson
< *  GeorgeEastman
< *  LumiereBrothers
< *  GeorgeMelies
< *  EdwinSPorter
< 
< ----
< 
< Some people you should know during the beginnings of HollywooD (1912-1925)
< 
< *  DwGriffith
< *  MaryPickford
< *  CharlieChaplin
< *  DouglasFairbanks
< *  GloriaSwanson
< *  ThedaBara
< *  ThomasHarperInce
< *  MackSennett
< 
< Other important stuff:
< 
< *  MppC
< *  IndependentS
< *  FoxFilmCorporation
< *  ParamounT
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film History]]
------
FirstNational|982731543
1,2c1
< The First National Exhibitors' Circuit was founded 1917 by the merger of 26 of the nation's biggest First Run cinema chains, controlling more than 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them were First Run cinemas. The foundation, an initiative by Thomas L. Tally, was a reaction to the overwhelming influence of ParamounT, which dominated the market. First National was set up to combine the finacial power of the involved firms, to buy stars, to finance their movies and to gain the right to distribute them later. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with MaryPickford and CharlieChaplin, the first million dollar deals in the history of film.
< First National's finacial power and it's control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to ParamounT, so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten milion dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of UnitedArtists, and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First Nationals member firms after the other. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[First National]]
------
Film_History|982731641
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
> *  [[Eadweard Muybridge]]
> *  [[Thomas Edison]]
> *  [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
> *  [[George Eastman]]
> *  [[Lumiere Brothers]]
> *  [[George Melies]]
> *  [[Edwin Porter]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of HollywooD (1912-1925)
> 
> *  [[David Griffith|D. W. Griffith]]
> *  [[Mary Pickford]]
> *  [[Charlie Chaplin]]
> *  [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
> *  [[Gloria Swanson]]
> *  [[Theda Bara]]
> *  [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
> *  [[Mack Sennett]]
> 
> Other important stuff:
> 
> *  [[MPPC]]
> *  [[Independents]]
> *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
> *  [[Paramount]]
> 
------
ScienceFictionFilm|982731690
1,3c1
< A lot of ScienceFiction films were low-budget productions (eg. Day of the Triffids), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
< 
< DunE -- StarTrek -- StarWars -- SpaceOdyssey2001 --  ETFilM -- MissionToMars -- AlieN
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science Fiction Film]]
------
Science_Fiction_Film|982731784
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lot of [[Science Fiction]] films were low-budget productions (eg. [[Day of the Triffids]]), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
> 
> [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]]
------
ArtsandEntertainment|982731869
1c1
< FiLm -- TheaTer -- MuSic -- PainTing -- SculpTure -- OpeRa -- DanCe
---
> #REDIRECT [[Arts and Entertainment]]
------
Arts_and_Entertainment|982731904
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Film]] -- [[Theater]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Opera]] -- [[Dance]]
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982732698
26c26
< *          We will denote (N!/(X!*(X-N)!) by:
---
> *          We will denote (X!/(N!*(X-N)!) by:
------
BinomialDistribution|982732902
9c9
<      N!     p   q
---
>      X!     p   q
11c11
<   X! (N-X)!
---
>   N!* (N-X)!
27c27
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin
------
BinomialDistribution|982733797
27c27,36
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin----
> I have corrected the formula for the number of combinations for picking N objects out of  objects. It is :
>      X!/((N!)*(X-N)!)
> In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, X!/N!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
> 
> 
> 2/4/12 is ambiguous since
> * (2/4)/12= 2/48=1/24 while
> * 2/(4/12)= 24/4= 6.
> Multiplication is associative over the reals. If you look at division as the inverse operation of multplication, i.e. 2/4/12=2*4^1*12^1=1/24 you are okay. If you look at division in the ordinary sense, you must specify the order of operations.RoseParks
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982733936
24c24
< *         (N!/(X!*(N-X)!) ways, where '''N'''!=N factorial.
---
> *         (X!/(N!*(N-X)!) ways, where '''N'''!=N factorial.
------
KingdomAnimalia|982737102
1,60c1
< '''Introduction'''
< 
< Blah, blah, blah.
< 
< '''Development and evolution'''
< 
< Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged off the same stock of monoflagellate protozoa that gave rise to the green plants, fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  Motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
< 
< Adult animals are typically diploids, producing small motile sperm and large non-motile eggs.  In all forms the fertilized zygote intiallvy divides to form a hollow sphere called a ''blastula''.  This then undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  Blastulae are probably representative of the sort of colonies animals evolved from; similar forms occur among other flagellates, e.g. ''Volvox''.  However none of these other groups really ever progressed further, and large multicellular forms tend to develop by progressive growth instead.
< 
< What makes animals different?  The answer lies in the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being simply stuck together or held in place by thick walls, animal cells are linked by septate junctions, composed mainly of elastic proteins - collagen is characteristic - that make up the extracellular matrix.  Sometimes this is calcified to form shells, bones, or spicules, but otherwise it's fairly flexible and can serve as a framework, upon which cells can move about and be reorganized.
< 
< 
< The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the PrecambrianEra.  These are called VendianBiota and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the CambrianPeriod.  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the CambrianExplosion.
< 
< '''Systematics'''
< 
< The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules.  The cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.
< 
< There are three problematic phyla that show an unclear relation to the other animals - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]].  After these, all animals belong to a clear group called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a clear digestive chamber and three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
< 
< Lower metazoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Cnidaria]] (=coelentrata)
< * Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
< * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
< * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
< * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
< 
< Trochozoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
< * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
< * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
< * Phylum [[Echiura]]
< * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
< * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
< * Phylum [[Annelida]]
< 
< Ecdysozoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
< * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
< * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
< * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
< * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
< * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
< 
< Lophophorata:
< 
< * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
< * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
< * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
< 
< Deuterostomia:
< 
< * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
< * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
< * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
< * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Animalia]]
------
Animalia|982737156
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Introduction'''
> 
> Blah, blah, blah.
> 
> '''Development and evolution'''
> 
> Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged off the same stock of monoflagellate protozoa that gave rise to the green plants, fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  Motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
> 
> Adult animals are typically diploids, producing small motile sperm and large non-motile eggs.  In all forms the fertilized zygote intiallvy divides to form a hollow sphere called a ''blastula''.  This then undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  Blastulae are probably representative of the sort of colonies animals evolved from; similar forms occur among other flagellates, e.g. ''Volvox''.  However none of these other groups really ever progressed further, and large multicellular forms tend to develop by progressive growth instead.
> 
> What makes animals different?  The answer lies in the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being simply stuck together or held in place by thick walls, animal cells are linked by septate junctions, composed mainly of elastic proteins - collagen is characteristic - that make up the extracellular matrix.  Sometimes this is calcified to form shells, bones, or spicules, but otherwise it's fairly flexible and can serve as a framework, upon which cells can move about and be reorganized.
> 
> 
> The first forms that might represent animals appear in the fossil record around the end of the [[Precambrian]].  These are called [[Vendian Biota]] and are exceedingly difficult to relate to later forms.  Other than them, virtually every phylum makes a more or less simultaneous appearance during the [[Cambrian]].  This massive adaptive radiation may have come about because of climate change or a simple genetic innovation, and is so sudden that it is usually called the cambrian explosion.
> 
> '''Systematics'''
> 
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules.  The cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.
> 
> There are three problematic phyla that show an unclear relation to the other animals - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]].  After these, all animals belong to a clear group called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a clear digestive chamber and three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
> 
> Lower metazoa:
> 
> * Phylum [[Cnidaria]] (=coelentrata)
> * Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
> * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
> * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
> * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
> 
> Trochozoa:
> 
> * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
> * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
> * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
> * Phylum [[Echiura]]
> * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
> * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
> * Phylum [[Annelida]]
> 
> Ecdysozoa:
> 
> * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
> * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
> * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
> * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
> * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
> * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
> 
> Lophophorata:
> 
> * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
> * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
> * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
> 
> Deuterostomia:
> 
> * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
> * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
> * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
> * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
> 
------
ActresseS|982742277
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Acresses]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actresses]]
------
Actresses|982742536
1,4d0
< :[[Drew Barrymore]]
< :[[Leslie Caron]]
< :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
< :[[Denise Richards]]
5a2
> :[[Drew Barrymore]]
8a6
> :[[Leslie Caron]]
13a12
> :[[Shannon Elizabeth]]
17a17
> :[[Salma Hayek]]
19a20
> :[[Mila Jovovich]]
20a22
> :[[Juliette Lewis]]
25a28
> :[[Denise Richards]]
33,35c36
< :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
< 
< 
---
> :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
------
StarWars|982742880
1,8c1
< An epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the Empire to dominate the GalaxY.
< 
< # /EpisodeOne
< # ???
< # ???
< # /StarWars
< # /TheEmpireStrikesBack
< # /TheReturnOfTheJedi
---
> 
------
Star_Wars|982742973
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the Empire to dominate the [Galaxy].
> 
> # [/Episode One]
> # ???
> # ???
> # [/Star Wars]
> # [/The Empire Strikes Back]
> # [/The Return of The Jedi]
------
Star_Wars|982743014
3c3
< # [/Episode One]
---
> # [[/Episode One]]
6,8c6,8
< # [/Star Wars]
< # [/The Empire Strikes Back]
< # [/The Return of The Jedi]
---
> # [[/Star Wars]]
> # [[/The Empire Strikes Back]]
> # [[/The Return of The Jedi]]
------
Star_Wars|982743764
3,6c3,6
< # [[/Episode One]]
< # ???
< # ???
< # [[/Star Wars]]
---
> # [[/The Phantom Menace]]
> # To be released...
> # To be released...
> # [[/A New Hope]]
------
Football|982744767
15c15,17
< The major event is the [[World Cup]] which is held every four years and in which 32 countries take part. 
---
> The major international event is the [[World Cup]] which is held every four years and in which 32 countries take part. 
> The major club event in [[Europe]] is the [[Champions League]]
> 
21a24
> 
27,29d29
< 
< (Please someone that knows more about this that me, complete/correct it) 
< 
------
AfricA|982745162
1c1
< [http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.html Map of Africa]
---
> http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.jpg
------
TechnologY|982747626
3c3
< * CryptologY
---
> * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
------
Cryptology|982747654
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT CryptologY
------
Cryptography|982747694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[CryptographY]]
------
CryptographY|982747755
1c1
< CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the secret key, but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
---
> CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the [[secret key]], but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
------
CryptographY|982747798
12c12
< * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography''
---
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography'' ISBN 0471253111
------
CryptographY|982748253
1c1
< CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the [[secret key]], but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
---
> CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
------
CryptographY|982748272
1c1
< CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
---
> CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]''), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
------
CryptographY/Keys|982748759
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Keys]] are used to decrypt and encrypt messages.
> 
> Modern symmetric algorithms use the same secret key for encryption and decryption. In order to decrypt a message, the key has to match the secret key which has been used to encrypt the message. The obvious disadvantage is that Alice and Bob have to agree on a key before they can communicate securely - they either have to meet in person beforehand or have a "secure" channel by means of which they can send the keys to each other. This problem can be solved by using assymetric algorithms. Assymetric algorithms use a public key for encryption (the key is and should be available to everyone) and a private key for decryption (this key is secret and should only be known by its owner). The private key can't be derived from the public key.
> 
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/pk.php3 Example of a Public Key]
------
CryptanalysiS|982748834
24c24
< * DeCss
---
> * [[DeCSS]]
------
CryptographY/Keys|982749019
5c5,7
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/pk.php3 Example of a Public Key]
---
> PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP) is a popular program that uses asymetric algorithms.
> 
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/pk.php3 Example of a PGP Public Key]
------
CryptographY/Keys|982749037
5c5
< PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP) is a popular program that uses asymetric algorithms.
---
> PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP) is a popular program that uses assymetric algorithms.
------
CryptographY|982749125
4,7c4
< See also:
< 
< * CryptologY
< * CryptanalysiS
---
> :CryptologY -- CryptanalysiS
8a6
> :[[/Keys]] -- CipheR -- CodE
------
CryptographY|982749541
10,11c10,11
< * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography'' ISBN 0471253111
< * Schneier, Bruce - ''Secrets and Lies''
---
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography'' 
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Secrets and Lies'' ISBN 0471253111
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982754514
5a6,7
> 
> 'I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as an important part of Mathematics, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironnementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...)' --OprgaG
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982754532
7c7
< 'I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as an important part of Mathematics, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironnementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...)' --OprgaG
---
> ''I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as an important part of Mathematics, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironnementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...)'' --OprgaG
------
CoBoL|982754814
2a3,4
> ----
> For other vintages programming languages look-up BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
------
MathematicianS|982754944
8c8
< : AbeL
---
> : NielsAbel
------
CryptographY|982755411
6c6,10
< :[[/Keys]] -- CipheR -- CodE
---
> :[[/Hashfunctions]]: [[MD5]] -- [[SHA-1]]
> :Public Key Cryptosystems ([[Assymetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
> :Secret Key Cryptosystems ([[Symetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
> 
> :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- CipheR -- CodE
------
CryptographY|982755453
7,8c7,8
< :Public Key Cryptosystems ([[Assymetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
< :Secret Key Cryptosystems ([[Symetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
---
> :'''Public Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Assymetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
> :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
------
MathematicianS|982755486
3,16c3,14
< : PythagoraS
< : EuclidD
< : LiebnitZ
< : LobachevskY
< : CantoR
< : NielsAbel
< : GausS
< : Euler
< : PierreDeFermat
< : DeMoivre
< : BernoullI
< : Cayley
< : MacLaurin
< : GaloiS
---
> : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxuS ArchimedeS AppoloniuS DiophantE
> : FibonnacI KhwarizmI 
> : PierreDeFermat Mersenne Descartes BlaisePascal DeMoivre
> : LeibnitZ EuleR BernoulliFamily
> : BarroW StirlinG NewtoN MacLaurin
> : LobachevskY BolYai
> : LaGrange NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
> : CauchY SDPoisson
> : Legendre GausS JacobI LejeuneDirichlet
> : RowanHamiltoN GrassmanN CayleY SilvesteR
> : KroneckeR WeierStrass
> : CantoR ZermelO FraenkeL
------
CryptographY/Hashfunctions|982756021
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /Hashfunctions are used in [[Cryptography]] for many purposes, eg. verifying the validity of a public key (this is commonly known as the key's fingerprint). A hash function returns the bits of a string in the form of a hash value, which has a fixed size. This is done in such a manner that the probability of two different strings having the same hash value is infestimal.
------
CryptographY/Hashfunctions|982756306
1c1,3
< /Hashfunctions are used in [[Cryptography]] for many purposes, eg. verifying the validity of a public key (this is commonly known as the key's fingerprint). A hash function returns the bits of a string in the form of a hash value, which has a fixed size. This is done in such a manner that the probability of two different strings having the same hash value is infestimal.
---
> /Hashfunctions are used in [[Cryptography]] for many purposes, eg. verifying the validity of a public key (this is commonly known as the key's fingerprint). A hash function returns the bits of a string in the form of a hash value, which has a fixed size. This is done in such a manner that the probability of two different strings having the same hash value is infestimal. Changing just one bit (character) in string will result in a different hash value.
> 
> '''Practical example''': The record companies came up with the idea of identifying [[mp3]] files by using their hash value in order to able to trace the files on the net and in various filesharing communities. However, by changing or adding just one fit to the file will defeat this system completely.
------
CryptographY|982756474
7,8c7,8
< :'''Public Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Assymetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
< :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
---
> :'''Public Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Asymmetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
> :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symmetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
------
Symmetric_Algorithms|982757003
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details. 
> They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used.
> 
------
Symmetric_Algorithms|982757061
1,3c1
< [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details. 
< They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used.
< 
---
> [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details``). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used.
------
Asymmetric_Algorithms|982757545
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Asymmetric Algorithms]] use two different keys to encrypt and decrypt the plaintext (''see CryptographY/Keys for details''). They are mostly slower to execute electronically than [[Symmetric Algorithms]]. Very often a combination of both is used; a public key is used to encrypt a secret encryption key, and then the secret key is used to encrypt the the plaintext using a symmetric algorithm. 
------
Symmetric_Algorithms|982757618
1c1
< [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details``). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used.
---
> [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details''). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used. [[Symmetric Algorithms]] are faster to execute elecrtonically than [[Asymmetric Algorithms]].
------
Symmetric_Algorithms|982757632
1c1
< [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details''). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used. [[Symmetric Algorithms]] are faster to execute elecrtonically than [[Asymmetric Algorithms]].
---
> [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details''). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used. [[Symmetric Algorithms]] are faster to execute electronically than [[Asymmetric Algorithms]].
------
CryptographY/Keys|982757716
3c3
< Modern symmetric algorithms use the same secret key for encryption and decryption. In order to decrypt a message, the key has to match the secret key which has been used to encrypt the message. The obvious disadvantage is that Alice and Bob have to agree on a key before they can communicate securely - they either have to meet in person beforehand or have a "secure" channel by means of which they can send the keys to each other. This problem can be solved by using assymetric algorithms. Assymetric algorithms use a public key for encryption (the key is and should be available to everyone) and a private key for decryption (this key is secret and should only be known by its owner). The private key can't be derived from the public key.
---
> Modern [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same secret key for encryption and decryption. In order to decrypt a message, the key has to match the secret key which has been used to encrypt the message. The obvious disadvantage is that Alice and Bob have to agree on a key before they can communicate securely - they either have to meet in person beforehand or have a "secure" channel by means of which they can send the keys to each other. This problem can be solved by using [[Asymmetric Algorithms]]. Assymetric algorithms use a public key for encryption (the key is and should be available to everyone) and a private key for decryption (this key is secret and should only be known by its owner). The private key can't be derived from the public key.
5c5
< PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP) is a popular program that uses assymetric algorithms.
---
> PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP) is a popular program that uses both symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982758772
1,3c1,5
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- FiniteMathematics
< :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
< :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory 
> :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions  -- ProbabilityAndStatistics 
> :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions
> :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- FiniteMathematics -- CategoryTheory
> :FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
7c9
< ''I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as an important part of Mathematics, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironnementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...)'' --OprgaG
---
> ''I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as a (despised but important) part of Mathematics on one hand, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...) on the other hand'' --OprgaG
------
RSA|982759176
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[RSA]] stands for the last names of its inventors: Rivest, Shamir, Adleman. It is an [[Asymmetric Algorithm]], which until very recently was patented in the US. It relies on the factoring of very large numbers.
> 
> '''How it works:'''
> 
> #Choose two large prime numbers '''p''' and '''q''' (eg. both have a size of 512 bits)
> #Compute '''n = p * q'''
> #Choose a small public exponent '''e'''>1  
> #Compute '''d''' so that: '''de = 1 mod (p-1)(q-1)'''
> '''n''' and '''e''' are the public key and '''d''' is the private key. 
> 
> 
> 
------
MathematicianS|982759227
7c7
< : BarroW StirlinG NewtoN MacLaurin
---
> : BarroW StirlinG NewtoN MacLaurin ChristopherWren
15c15,17
< : ...
---
> : Markov TchebychefF 
> 
> '''Living Mathematicians'''
18a21
> JohnConway, Dinkyn, NeilSloane, DoronZeilberger, AdrienDouady, HenriCartan, SaundersMcLane, PierreCartier, JacquesTits ...
------
CoBoL|982759228
4c4
< For other vintages programming languages look-up BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
---
> For other vintage programming languages see BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
------
FieldsMedal|982759462
1c1
< A prize awarded to up to four MathematicanS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields.
---
> A prize awarded to up to four MathematicanS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields. [http://elib.zib.de/IMU/medals/ IMU Fields Medal pages]
2a3
> * 2002 (Pekin): bets are open
13c14
< * 1958 : KlausRoth, RenéThom
---
> * 1958 : KlausRoth, ReneThom
23c24
< Don't forget the NevanlinnaPrize.
---
> Don't forget the NevanlinnaPrize.
------
MD5|982759528
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[MD5]] (Message Digest Algorithm 5) is a cryptographic hash function, which hashes a string of arbitrary length into a 128 bit hash value. 
------
NevanlinnaPrize|982759612
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Prize for great contributions to mathematical aspects of computer science.
> 
> :2002 ''bets are open''
> :1998 PeterShor 
> :1994 AviWidgerson 
> :1990 AARazborov 
> :1986 LeslieValiant 
> :1982 RobertTarjan 
> 
------
DataEncryptionStandard|982759645
1c1
< The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Figure 7 is a functional schematic of the sequence of events that occurs in the DES encryption (or decryption) transformation. Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
---
> The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
------
FieldsMedal|982759734
22c22
< ErdösPal (which could have shared Ahlfors medal for instance), VladimirArnold.
---
> ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold.
------
FieldsMedal|982760481
1c1
< A prize awarded to up to four MathematicanS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields. [http://elib.zib.de/IMU/medals/ IMU Fields Medal pages]
---
> A prize awarded to up to four MathematicianS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields. [http://elib.zib.de/IMU/medals/ IMU Fields Medal pages]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|982771819
8c8
< * PhP
---
> * [[PHP]]
------
PHP|982771884
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages.
------
FieldsMedal|982772308
8c8
< * 1983 (Varsaw): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
---
> * 1983 (Warsaw - PolanD): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
------
PHP|982775564
1c1,10
< Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages.
---
> Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages.
> 
> see also ZenD.
> ----
> 
> History
> 
> PHP 4 
> PHP 3
> PHP/FI 2.0
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982775967
9a10,11
> ----
> Frankly, I wouldn't mind if MathematicsAndStatistics were split apart. Most everyone knows the relation between them. Mathematics is a much broader category and more diverse than statistics. The real question is whether we want to build a very tall system of categories or a broad one. The former will require much more drilling down to find the topic the reader wants while the other will require reading more topics on a page to choose the next subtopic. Perhaps the best solution would be to limit any page of subtopics to a single full screen to avoid a lot of scrolling. -- DickBeldin 
------
BioStatistics|982776413
5c5,9
< #Medicine and PublicHealth (see MedicalStatistics)
---
> #EcoLogy
> #MediCine
> #PublicHealth
> #EpidemioLogy
> #BioAssay
------
ResearchSubjects|982776457
5c5
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalAssumptions|982776903
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to StatisticalApplications
> 
> The most common statistical assumptions are:
> 
> #independence of observations from each other
> #independence of observational error from potential confounding effects
> #exact or approximate normality of observations
> #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalAssumptions|982776978
1c1
< back to StatisticalApplications
---
> back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
10c10
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin
------
AppliedStatistics|982777210
3c3,6
< DickBeldin
---
> Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also history and the critical approach to the arts.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
AppliedStatistics|982777306
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also history and the critical approach to the arts.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also History and the critical approach to the arts.
------
AppliedStatistics|982777426
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also History and the critical approach to the arts.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and the critical approach to the arts (ArtCriticism).
------
ArtCriticism|982777549
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FilmCriticism
> Film Criticism
> ScienceFiction
> TheBible
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
AppliedStatistics|982777784
4c4,6
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and the critical approach to the arts (ArtCriticism).
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtsAndEntertainment.
> 
> In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the ObservationalError.
------
AppliedStatistics|982777806
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtsAndEntertainment.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtAndEntertainment.
------
AppliedStatistics|982777851
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtAndEntertainment.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtsandEntertainment.
------
AppliedStatistics|982777887
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HisTory and ArtsandEntertainment.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HiStory and ArtsandEntertainment.
------
History|982778187
13a14,15
> ----
> Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- DickBeldin
------
ObservationalError|982778268
1c1
< back to StatisticalTheory
---
> back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
------
ArtCriticism|982778586
4d3
< TheBible
6c5
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalModel|982778613
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
> 
> We adopt the position that three basic notions are sufficient to describe all statistical models. 
> #We choose a StatisticalUnit which we will observe directly.
> #We many really be interested in a StatisticalEnsemble (or SeT) of units rather than in any StatisticalUnit per se.
> #Our interest may be focused on a StatisticalAssembly where we examine functional subunits of the StatisticalUnit.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalUnit|982779231
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to StatisticalModels
> 
> There are different ways to study a unit and different names applied in different statistical disciplines. 
> 
> #We may be interested in a ''unit'' because we intend to generalize from observations on a few units to a StatisticalAssembly of units. Opinion polling and SurveySampling provide well known examples of this type of research.
> #We may be interested in the dynamics of a ''unit'', how its observable characteristics change from time to time. Economic studies of business firms provide an example of this type of research. 
> #We may be interested in the internal functioning of a ''unit'' which we can characterize as a StatisticalAssembly. This kind of research often involves interference with the unit such as subjecting it to a treatment or even dissection, in some cases.
> ----
> DickBeldin
------
StatisticalUnit|982781289
1c1
< back to StatisticalModels
---
> back to StatisticalModel's
------
AdolfHitler|982784088
10a11,12
> 
> Hitler was responsible for the HolocausT and for WorldWarII.
------
AdolfHitler|982785057
12c12
< Hitler was responsible for the HolocausT and for WorldWarII.
---
> /Talk
------
AdolfHitler/Talk|982785139
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hitler was responsible for the [[Holocaust]] and for [[World War II]].
> 
> :''He was the driving force but for sure he wasn't the only one responsible -- WojPob
------
AdolfHitler/Talk|982785150
3c3
< :''He was the driving force but for sure he wasn't the only one responsible -- WojPob
---
> :''He was the driving force but for sure he wasn't the only one responsible'' -- WojPob
------
SHA-1|982786471
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[SHA-1]] (The Secure Hash Algorithm) is a cryptographic hash function published by the [[United States Government]]. It produces an 160 bit hash value from an arbitrary length string. It is recognised as quite secure by the cryptographic community. 
------
CryptographY|982786530
3d2
< ----
------
SHA-1|982787495
1c1
< [[SHA-1]] (The Secure Hash Algorithm) is a cryptographic hash function published by the [[United States Government]]. It produces an 160 bit hash value from an arbitrary length string. It is recognised as quite secure by the cryptographic community. 
---
> [[SHA-1]] (The Secure Hash Algorithm) is a cryptographic hash function published by the United States Government. It produces an 160 bit hash value from a string of a maximum of 2^64 bits. It is recognised as quite secure by the cryptographic community. 
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982791068
11c11,15
< Frankly, I wouldn't mind if MathematicsAndStatistics were split apart. Most everyone knows the relation between them. Mathematics is a much broader category and more diverse than statistics. The real question is whether we want to build a very tall system of categories or a broad one. The former will require much more drilling down to find the topic the reader wants while the other will require reading more topics on a page to choose the next subtopic. Perhaps the best solution would be to limit any page of subtopics to a single full screen to avoid a lot of scrolling. -- DickBeldin 
---
> Frankly, I wouldn't mind if MathematicsAndStatistics were split apart. Most everyone knows the relation between them. Mathematics is a much broader category and more diverse than statistics. The real question is whether we want to build a very tall system of categories or a broad one. The former will require much more drilling down to find the topic the reader wants while the other will require reading more topics on a page to choose the next subtopic. Perhaps the best solution would be to limit any page of subtopics to a single full screen to avoid a lot of scrolling. -- DickBeldin 
> ----
> Well, have at it!
> 
> Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Linking]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982791101
15c15
< Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Linking]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Links]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982791423
15c15
< Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Links]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Links|free linking]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
RosaParks|982792370
1c1,3
< Cool ole biddy (meant in a most respectful way, of course), who served as lightning rod for social change merely because of her self-confidence and her insistence on her right to sit where she pleased on the bus.
---
> Rosa Parks is a noted civil rights activist.  She is mainly known for her December 1st, 1955 protest against laws requiring segregation -- she simply refused to give up her seat to a white man and move to the back of the bus in [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]].  She was arrested and tried, and the case resulted in the 1956 Supreme Court ruling that overturned the Alabama law.
> 
> After a lifetime of productive activity in the cause of fighting racism, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal of Honor in 1999.
------
RosaParks|982792428
1c1
< Rosa Parks is a noted civil rights activist.  She is mainly known for her December 1st, 1955 protest against laws requiring segregation -- she simply refused to give up her seat to a white man and move to the back of the bus in [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]].  She was arrested and tried, and the case resulted in the 1956 Supreme Court ruling that overturned the Alabama law.
---
> Rosa Parks is a noted civil rights activist.  She is mainly known for her December 1st, 1955 protest against laws requiring segregation -- she simply refused to give up her seat to a white man and move to the back of the bus in [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]].  She was arrested and tried, and the case resulted in the 1956 [[United States Supreme Court]] ruling that overturned the Alabama law.
3c3
< After a lifetime of productive activity in the cause of fighting racism, Parks was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal of Honor in 1999.
---
> After a lifetime of productive activity in the cause of fighting racism, Parks was awarded the [[Congressional Gold Medal of Honor]] in 1999.
------
RoseParks|982792578
0a1,3
> RoseParks is the email name of an active participant in Nupedia and Wikipedia.  You may be looking for RosaParks, the civil rights advocate.  :-)
> ----
> 
------
WilliamAlston|982793921
1c1
< Syracuse University philosophy professor, arguably the greatest epistemologist of the twentieth century, whose views on FoundationalIsm and InternalismVsExternalism, among many other topics, have been very influential.  Alston has also done important work in PhilosophyOfReligion, HistoryOfPhilosophy, and other fields.
---
> Syracuse University philosophy professor, arguably the greatest epistemologist of the twentieth century, whose views on [[Foundationalism]] and [[Internalism vs. Externalism]], among many other topics, have been very influential.  Alston has also done important work in [[Philosophy of Religion]], [[History of Philosophy]], and other fields.
------
PhilosophyOfReligion|982793960
1,21c1
< Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
< ----
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< "Philosophy of religion" means "the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental religious claims, particularly about the nature and existence of God."  Philosophy of religion is classically regarded as part of metaphysics, since according to most conceptions of God, if God exists he’s in an important category of being different from the rest of the universe.  Right?  God isn’t a body and he isn’t any ordinary sort mind.  Moreover, remember that metaphysics concerns basic beliefs which underlie many other philosophical beliefs -- and well, religious claims, as we all know, often underlie views about what we can know, how we can get knowledge, and how we should live.  So all that is why philosophy of religion has been, traditionally, regarded as a branch of metaphysics.  But more recently the philosophy of religion has been instead regarded as a subject unto itself.
< 
< Before we get into the subject itself I want to make something clear.  I am <i>not</i> trying to attack your religious beliefs; I think you do have a right to believe, and not to believe, whatever you want.  As I conceive of it, the purpose of the <i>philosophical</i> study of the philosophy of religion is not either to support or to undermine religion, but rather to examine the meaning and justification of belief in God to the best of our ability.  Now some people are very threatened by <i>any</i> sort of clarification of their religious views, whether about the meaning of those views, or about whether those views can be supported by good reasons.  If you are such a person, I implore you to change your attitude, if for no other reason than that some extremely religious people study the very questions we’re going to ask.  For example, all the questions we’re going to ask are studied in depth at prominent Catholic universities, where sections about the philosophy of religion are included in introductory philosophy courses, which courses are taught by priests and other firm believers.
< 
< So to the subject itself.  There are a lot of philosophical questions that can be asked about religious beliefs.  But my view is that there are just two <i>really</i> important questions in this field.  They are: (1) What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  (2) Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist?  Still, there are <i>other</i> questions studied in the philosophy of religion.  For example: What, if anything, would be good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred?  Or: Is it possible for belief in God’s existence to be <i>rational</i> even though one merely has <i>faith</i> that God exists?  Or: What might it mean for God to be "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" as in Christian theology?  But I think the two questions I listed are most <i>fundamental</i>.  In saying they are most fundamental, I mean that the other questions in the field either contribute to answering one or the other or both of these questions, or else they are relatively unimportant.  I mean, <i>surely</i> the most important questions we have to ask about religion are what God <i>is</i>, and whether we have any reason to believe God does or does not <i>exist</i>.
< 
< So let’s examine the two questions in a bit more depth.  To begin with the first: What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  Now, what would count as an answer to this question?  A definition, no doubt; maybe other sorts of answers would be acceptable, but what we would naturally expect is a definition.  Now remember something from our discussion of definitions.  <i>Before</i> we give a definition of a term we want to know what <i>sense</i> of the term we want to define.  I might ask, "What is the definition of ‘bank’?" but until I said that I meant financial institutions rather than edges of rivers you’d be confused about what concept it was that I wanted defined.
< 
< Now, aren’t there different senses of the word "God"?  Surely there are.  The word is used in different ways by different people.  So before we try to answer the question, "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we have to get clear on which conception of "God" we are trying to define!  Some people believe that there is <i>more</i> <i>than</i> <i>one</i> God.  They are called <i>polytheists</i>.  For example, the ancient Greeks were polytheists, officially anyway, polytheists.  We aren’t going to concern ourselves with the merits of polytheism.  Some people believe there is only <i>one</i> God.  That belief is called <i>monotheism</i>.  But there is a <i>huge</i> number of different kinds of monotheism.  Some people have the rather strange view that there is one God but God is simply <i>everything</i> <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>; in other words the whole universe is God.  This view is called <i>pantheism</i>.  Some people believe that only one God exists, but that God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene at all, not even to answer prayers: they are called <i>deists</i>.  The old French Enlightenment <i>philosophes</i>, like Voltaire, were deists.  OK, so where do ordinary Christians fit into this?  They are <i>theists</i> proper.  <i>Theism</i> is the view that exactly one God exists, which is an eternally existent spirit, which exists apart from space and time, and which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful; and usually this being is also thought to be all-knowing and all-loving.
< 
< So let us suppose that we decide we are interested in finding out what the word "God" might refer to, <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>sense</i> <i>in</i> <i>which</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>used</i> <i>by</i> <i>theists</i>.  In other words, we decide we are not interested in any polytheistic sorts of gods, or a pantheistic sort of god, or a deistic sort of god.  What we want to get some grasp on is what the God of Abraham and Jesus is.  And suppose we decide on the definition of "God" that informs the stated definition of theism.  So we say that "God" means "an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  But then there are a lot of questions to be answered <i>about</i> <i>this</i> <i>definition</i>.  For example, what does it mean for a <i>spirit</i> to create anything?  What does "all-powerful" mean?  There is no shortage of questions that philosophers -- both believers and nonbelievers, mind you -- have about the very idea, the very concept, of the God in whose existence theists believe.  We will discuss such questions in a little bit.
< 
< But first let me introduce the second question that I said was so fundamental in the philosophy of religion: Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God does not exist?  Now, what would count as an answer to <i>this</i> question?  Well, of course, the words "Yes, we do" or "No, we don’t"; but then these words should be followed by supporting arguments, and the conclusions of the arguments would be either "God exists" or "God does not exist."  We will discuss several arguments that God exists, and one major argument that God does <i>not</i> exist.
< 
< I’ve already introduced the names of different kinds of belief that God exists.  We can give a general description of someone who does not believe that God exists -- we can say they are <i>nonbelievers</i>.  Nonbelievers come in two varieties.  Those who believe that God does not exist are <i>atheists</i>, and their view is called <i>atheism</i>, whereas those who believe neither that God exists <i>nor</i> that God does not exist are called <i>agnostics</i>, and their position is <i>agnosticism</i>.  Some people who don’t think very much about the philosophy of religion tend to think that all nonbelievers are atheists, thus entirely ignoring a very importantly different position that some people take on the question of whether or not God exists, namely agnosticism.  In its original sense, agnosticism is the view that we, humans, <i>cannot</i> <i>know</i> whether or not God exists.  But there are some other views, which are not as extreme as that, which I am lumping in with agnosticism in that original sense.  For example, if I say that <i>I</i> <i>personally</i> do not know, at present, whether or not God exists, then I am an "agnostic" in a looser sense of that word.  I would even lump in with the agnostics those people who simply have no views about God, haven’t thought very much about it, and don’t care.  I doubt there are very many such people these days, but those people too may be called "agnostics" in a loose sense of that term.
< 
< In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of Religion]]
------
Philosophy_of_Religion|982793996
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
> ----
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
> "Philosophy of religion" means "the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental religious claims, particularly about the nature and existence of God."  Philosophy of religion is classically regarded as part of metaphysics, since according to most conceptions of God, if God exists he’s in an important category of being different from the rest of the universe.  Right?  God isn’t a body and he isn’t any ordinary sort mind.  Moreover, remember that metaphysics concerns basic beliefs which underlie many other philosophical beliefs -- and well, religious claims, as we all know, often underlie views about what we can know, how we can get knowledge, and how we should live.  So all that is why philosophy of religion has been, traditionally, regarded as a branch of metaphysics.  But more recently the philosophy of religion has been instead regarded as a subject unto itself.
> 
> Before we get into the subject itself I want to make something clear.  I am <i>not</i> trying to attack your religious beliefs; I think you do have a right to believe, and not to believe, whatever you want.  As I conceive of it, the purpose of the <i>philosophical</i> study of the philosophy of religion is not either to support or to undermine religion, but rather to examine the meaning and justification of belief in God to the best of our ability.  Now some people are very threatened by <i>any</i> sort of clarification of their religious views, whether about the meaning of those views, or about whether those views can be supported by good reasons.  If you are such a person, I implore you to change your attitude, if for no other reason than that some extremely religious people study the very questions we’re going to ask.  For example, all the questions we’re going to ask are studied in depth at prominent Catholic universities, where sections about the philosophy of religion are included in introductory philosophy courses, which courses are taught by priests and other firm believers.
> 
> So to the subject itself.  There are a lot of philosophical questions that can be asked about religious beliefs.  But my view is that there are just two <i>really</i> important questions in this field.  They are: (1) What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  (2) Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist?  Still, there are <i>other</i> questions studied in the philosophy of religion.  For example: What, if anything, would be good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred?  Or: Is it possible for belief in God’s existence to be <i>rational</i> even though one merely has <i>faith</i> that God exists?  Or: What might it mean for God to be "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" as in Christian theology?  But I think the two questions I listed are most <i>fundamental</i>.  In saying they are most fundamental, I mean that the other questions in the field either contribute to answering one or the other or both of these questions, or else they are relatively unimportant.  I mean, <i>surely</i> the most important questions we have to ask about religion are what God <i>is</i>, and whether we have any reason to believe God does or does not <i>exist</i>.
> 
> So let’s examine the two questions in a bit more depth.  To begin with the first: What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  Now, what would count as an answer to this question?  A definition, no doubt; maybe other sorts of answers would be acceptable, but what we would naturally expect is a definition.  Now remember something from our discussion of definitions.  <i>Before</i> we give a definition of a term we want to know what <i>sense</i> of the term we want to define.  I might ask, "What is the definition of ‘bank’?" but until I said that I meant financial institutions rather than edges of rivers you’d be confused about what concept it was that I wanted defined.
> 
> Now, aren’t there different senses of the word "God"?  Surely there are.  The word is used in different ways by different people.  So before we try to answer the question, "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we have to get clear on which conception of "God" we are trying to define!  Some people believe that there is <i>more</i> <i>than</i> <i>one</i> God.  They are called <i>polytheists</i>.  For example, the ancient Greeks were polytheists, officially anyway, polytheists.  We aren’t going to concern ourselves with the merits of polytheism.  Some people believe there is only <i>one</i> God.  That belief is called <i>monotheism</i>.  But there is a <i>huge</i> number of different kinds of monotheism.  Some people have the rather strange view that there is one God but God is simply <i>everything</i> <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>; in other words the whole universe is God.  This view is called <i>pantheism</i>.  Some people believe that only one God exists, but that God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene at all, not even to answer prayers: they are called <i>deists</i>.  The old French Enlightenment <i>philosophes</i>, like Voltaire, were deists.  OK, so where do ordinary Christians fit into this?  They are <i>theists</i> proper.  <i>Theism</i> is the view that exactly one God exists, which is an eternally existent spirit, which exists apart from space and time, and which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful; and usually this being is also thought to be all-knowing and all-loving.
> 
> So let us suppose that we decide we are interested in finding out what the word "God" might refer to, <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>sense</i> <i>in</i> <i>which</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>used</i> <i>by</i> <i>theists</i>.  In other words, we decide we are not interested in any polytheistic sorts of gods, or a pantheistic sort of god, or a deistic sort of god.  What we want to get some grasp on is what the God of Abraham and Jesus is.  And suppose we decide on the definition of "God" that informs the stated definition of theism.  So we say that "God" means "an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  But then there are a lot of questions to be answered <i>about</i> <i>this</i> <i>definition</i>.  For example, what does it mean for a <i>spirit</i> to create anything?  What does "all-powerful" mean?  There is no shortage of questions that philosophers -- both believers and nonbelievers, mind you -- have about the very idea, the very concept, of the God in whose existence theists believe.  We will discuss such questions in a little bit.
> 
> But first let me introduce the second question that I said was so fundamental in the philosophy of religion: Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God does not exist?  Now, what would count as an answer to <i>this</i> question?  Well, of course, the words "Yes, we do" or "No, we don’t"; but then these words should be followed by supporting arguments, and the conclusions of the arguments would be either "God exists" or "God does not exist."  We will discuss several arguments that God exists, and one major argument that God does <i>not</i> exist.
> 
> I’ve already introduced the names of different kinds of belief that God exists.  We can give a general description of someone who does not believe that God exists -- we can say they are <i>nonbelievers</i>.  Nonbelievers come in two varieties.  Those who believe that God does not exist are <i>atheists</i>, and their view is called <i>atheism</i>, whereas those who believe neither that God exists <i>nor</i> that God does not exist are called <i>agnostics</i>, and their position is <i>agnosticism</i>.  Some people who don’t think very much about the philosophy of religion tend to think that all nonbelievers are atheists, thus entirely ignoring a very importantly different position that some people take on the question of whether or not God exists, namely agnosticism.  In its original sense, agnosticism is the view that we, humans, <i>cannot</i> <i>know</i> whether or not God exists.  But there are some other views, which are not as extreme as that, which I am lumping in with agnosticism in that original sense.  For example, if I say that <i>I</i> <i>personally</i> do not know, at present, whether or not God exists, then I am an "agnostic" in a looser sense of that word.  I would even lump in with the agnostics those people who simply have no views about God, haven’t thought very much about it, and don’t care.  I doubt there are very many such people these days, but those people too may be called "agnostics" in a loose sense of that term.
> 
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
------
PhiloSophy|982794122
2c2
< WilliamAlston -- HoldComeWhatMay -- MetaPhilosophy -- CommonSense -- ThomasReid -- DirectRealism -- AlTruism
---
> [[William Alston]] -- [[hold come what may]] -- [[Meta-Philosophy]] -- [[common sense]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[direct realism]] -- [[altruism]]
------
WilliamAlston|982794178
1c1
< Syracuse University philosophy professor, arguably the greatest epistemologist of the twentieth century, whose views on [[Foundationalism]] and [[Internalism vs. Externalism]], among many other topics, have been very influential.  Alston has also done important work in [[Philosophy of Religion]], [[History of Philosophy]], and other fields.
---
> #REDIRECT [[William Alston]]
------
William_Alston|982794210
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Syracuse University philosophy professor, arguably the greatest epistemologist of the twentieth century, whose views on [[Foundationalism]] and [[Internalism vs. Externalism]], among many other topics, have been very influential.  Alston has also done important work in [[Philosophy of Religion]], [[History of Philosophy]], and other fields.
------
HoldComeWhatMay|982794259
1c1
< A phrase popularized by the late HarVard philosophy professor, WVOQuinE.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
---
> #REDIRECT [[hold come what may]]
------
Hold_come_what_may|982794275
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A phrase popularized by the late HarVard philosophy professor, WVOQuinE.  Beliefs that are "held come what may" are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented.  Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may--in other words, all beliefs are rationally revisable.  Many philosophers are to the contrary, believing that, for example, TheLawsOfThought cannot be revised and may be held come what may.
------
MetaPhilosophy|982794324
1,5c1
< The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
< ----
< Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
< ----
< PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meta-Philosophy]]
------
Meta-Philosophy|982794332
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
> ----
> Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
> ----
> PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
CommonSense|982794391
1,23c1
< See also CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
< 
< In PhiloSophy, 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
< 
< Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: ThomasReid and GeorgeEMoore.
< 
< The great Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
< 
< * Principles of common sense are believed universally (with the apparent exceptions of some philosophers and the insane).
< * It is appropriate to ridicule the denial of common sense.
< * The denial of principles of common sense leads to contradictions.
< 
< Of course, each of these is stated and explained by Reid much more carefully that is done here.
< 
< The British philosopher G. E. Moore, who did important work in EpistemOlogy, EthIcs, and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense."  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body," "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings," and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim Moore ascribes to Whitehead).
< 
< Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute SkepticIsm.
< 
< Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called epistemological particularism (the appelation comes from Roderick Chisholm), which orientation is contrasted with epistemological methodism. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic mehodists. Methodist methodology tends to toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 
< 
< An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed. For instance, it seems impossible to do logic, metaphysics and epistemology without beginning with some assumptions of common sense. However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation. Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
< 
< The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
---
> #REDIRECT [[common sense]]
------
Common_sense|982794399
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
> 
> In PhiloSophy, 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
> 
> Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: ThomasReid and GeorgeEMoore.
> 
> The great Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
> 
> * Principles of common sense are believed universally (with the apparent exceptions of some philosophers and the insane).
> * It is appropriate to ridicule the denial of common sense.
> * The denial of principles of common sense leads to contradictions.
> 
> Of course, each of these is stated and explained by Reid much more carefully that is done here.
> 
> The British philosopher G. E. Moore, who did important work in EpistemOlogy, EthIcs, and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense."  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body," "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings," and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim Moore ascribes to Whitehead).
> 
> Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute SkepticIsm.
> 
> Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called epistemological particularism (the appelation comes from Roderick Chisholm), which orientation is contrasted with epistemological methodism. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic mehodists. Methodist methodology tends to toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 
> 
> An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed. For instance, it seems impossible to do logic, metaphysics and epistemology without beginning with some assumptions of common sense. However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation. Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
> 
> The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
------
ThomasReid|982794485
1,3c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense.  He believed that CommonSense--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated DirectRealism, or CommonSenseRealism, and inveighed strongly against TheTheoryOfIdeas advocated by JohnLocke, ReneDescartes, and (in varying forms) nearly all EarlyModernPhilosophers who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the ScottishSchoolofCommonSense by ImmanuelKant and JohnStuartMill.  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of GeorgeEMoore, particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of WilliamAlston and AlvinPlantinga.
< ----
< Meta-observation: the above took me less than ten minutes to write and required no research on my part.  I could continue on and write twenty articles like this in a day with no trouble.  Go thou and do likewise.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Thomas Reid]]
------
Thomas_Reid|982794496
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense.  He believed that CommonSense--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated DirectRealism, or CommonSenseRealism, and inveighed strongly against TheTheoryOfIdeas advocated by JohnLocke, ReneDescartes, and (in varying forms) nearly all EarlyModernPhilosophers who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the ScottishSchoolofCommonSense by ImmanuelKant and JohnStuartMill.  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of GeorgeEMoore, particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of WilliamAlston and AlvinPlantinga.
------
DirectRealism|982794572
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[direct realism]]
------
Direct_realism|982794579
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
AlTruism|982794611
1,23c1
< Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
< If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
< ----
< The foregoing view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
< 
< ''There's not a lot to explain; there is plain and simple empirical evidence of people doing altruistic acts.  People sometimes do generous things even if it makes them unhappy.  Of course you could say this is to get one's conscience to leave you alone, but since a conscience is darn close to an AltruismInstinct, that's pretty weak.''
< 
< ''People evolved to have empathy towards others and do altruistic things because that's good for everybody in general, though not always in specifics.  Whether altruism makes any sense, of course, is a different matter, though I wouldn't personally say it doesn't.''
< ----
< When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your criticism.
< ----
< You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  
< ----
< Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
< 
< By the way, you might not know that AynRand herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
< 
< Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
< ----
< How about this for a definition of altruism?  I think it needs some revision, but perhaps it is a useful start.
< 
< The view that one ought to be motivated solely or primarily by the interests of others rather than the interests of oneself.
< Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
---
> #REDIRECT [[altruism]]
------
Altruism|982794622
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
> If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
> ----
> The foregoing view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
> 
> ''There's not a lot to explain; there is plain and simple empirical evidence of people doing altruistic acts.  People sometimes do generous things even if it makes them unhappy.  Of course you could say this is to get one's conscience to leave you alone, but since a conscience is darn close to an AltruismInstinct, that's pretty weak.''
> 
> ''People evolved to have empathy towards others and do altruistic things because that's good for everybody in general, though not always in specifics.  Whether altruism makes any sense, of course, is a different matter, though I wouldn't personally say it doesn't.''
> ----
> When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your criticism.
> ----
> You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  
> ----
> Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
> 
> By the way, you might not know that AynRand herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
> 
> Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
> ----
> How about this for a definition of altruism?  I think it needs some revision, but perhaps it is a useful start.
> 
> The view that one ought to be motivated solely or primarily by the interests of others rather than the interests of oneself.
> Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
------
HoldComeWhatMay|982794835
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[hold come what may]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hold come what may]]
------
CommonSense|982794850
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[common sense]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Common sense]]
------
DirectRealism|982795546
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[direct realism]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Direct realism]]
------
AlTruism|982795557
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[altruism]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Altruism]]
------
Altruism|982795611
18c18
< Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- LarrySanger
---
> Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
23c23
< Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
---
> Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
------
BrilliantProse|982795633
11c11
< Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- LarrySanger
---
> Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
BritannicaPublicDomain|982795675
24c24
< I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB©  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved© -- LarrySanger
---
> I would suggest adding "PG" or "EB" or "11" at the end of the name of any page that is taken from EB©  Then we could edit versions of that, while the original is preserved© -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
CategorySchemes|982795699
54c54
< It's sort of a combination of the Nupedia scheme (see the top of this page) and yours--the only difference between the two schemes, perhaps, is that "Foundational Disciplines" and "Natural Sciences" are mashed together. -- LarrySanger
---
> It's sort of a combination of the Nupedia scheme (see the top of this page) and yours--the only difference between the two schemes, perhaps, is that "Foundational Disciplines" and "Natural Sciences" are mashed together. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
ConsequentialIsm|982795765
10,48c10
< ----
< 
< Your account of consequentialism seems a little unusual.  For starters, I don't think egoism is normally considered to be a kind of consquentialism.  For example, in ''Consequentialism and its critics'', the editor Samuel Scheffler starts off by saying that
< 
< : Consequentialism in its purest and simplest form is a moral doctrine which says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the best overall outcome, ''as judged from an impersonal standpoint which gives equal weight to the interests of everyone.'' Somewhat more precisely, we may think of a consequentialist theory of this kind as coming in two parts.  First, it gives some principle for ranking overall states of affairs ''from an impersonal standpoint'' and then it says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the highest ranked state of affairs that the agent is in a position to produce. (emphasis added).
< 
< There may be a few people who talk differently, but this certainly appears to be the standard conception of consequentialism (the less "pure" forms alluded to presumably being indirect forms of consequentialism, or views where the welfare of some individuals (but still individuals ''impersonally considered'') are considered to be more important (as in, for example, the kind of consequentialism David Brink presents in "The Separateness of Persons, Distributive Norms, and Moral Theory").
< 
< I think the same problem arises in your blurring of the distinction between consequentialist theories and deontological, or, more generally and simply, non-consequentialist theories.   It ''has'' in fact been argued, by David Cummiskey in ''Kantian consquentialism'', that although Kant was firmly against consequentialism, Kantian moral theory, "properly understood, generates an extremely compelling consequentialist normative theory".  However, I believe this is a very unusual position to take, and even if it makes sense, there is still a sensible class of positions to put up against consequentialist positions.
< 
< This class of positions is characterized by the idea that there are ''agent-relative'' or '' agent-centered'' reasons for action, whereas for consquentialism, as defined above, reasons for action are ultimately ''agent-neutral''.   Then egoism and deontology are seen as characteristically non-consequentialist.
< 
< These days it has become standard to distinguish between agent-centered ''restrictions'' and agent-centered ''prerogatives''.   I am tempted to agree, with Scheffler, that ultimately, agent-centered restrictions are difficult to defend. As you suggest against Kant, why should I not kill one innocent person if, by doing so, I can save the lives of many more innoncent persons in exactly the same objective circumstances?  On the other hand, agent-centered prerogatives seem much easier to defend, on the familiar grounds that consequentialist theories are morally too demanding.  Given the protean nature of indirect consequentialism, however, the field is very murky. --CalvinOstrum
< ----
< I think it's common enough to regard EgoIsm as a variety of consequentialism.  Just as data points, see [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/conseque.htm this article] and [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/users/vaughan/text/lex/defs/consequentialism.html this one].  This is how I've been taught the notion and how I taught it (as a T.A.) to Ohio State undergrads.  But, granted, it does sound a little bit strange.  I would add some sort of note, at the very least, that not everyone would consider EthicalEgoism a variety of consequentialism. -- LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< 
< Hmm, those two citations are of very poor quality.  In looking at standard collections of recent higher-quality essays from the research literature, such as those contained in the aforementioned ''Consequentialism and its critics'', or Philip Pettit's 1993 edited volume of 26 papers, it seems to me that all of them either implicitly or explicitly assume that consequentialism ultimately countenances only agent-neutral reasons.  I think the issue of agent-neutral versus agent-relative reasons is the crucial issue here, in any case.  I think WillWilkinson is right about this, and I think the community of moral philosophers essentially agree.   Consequently, I would submit that the term "consequentialism" ''should'' only be used to refer to theories which say that ultimately only agent-neutral reasons are of import.  Consequentialism should be the view that only consequences matter.  Consequences, ''period'', not consequences for me when I act, or you when you act.  -- CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< 
< I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there is ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean a broader concept than that meant by your sources, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  (While perhaps also acknowledging some popular distaste for one of the uses of the term.)  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< 
< Suit yourself. I don't expect much in an "encylopedia" run by Objectivists!   -- CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< 
< Just for the record, I don't regard myself as an Objectivist, and I will do my best not to let it be overrun by them.  :-)  Not that I have any serious beefs with Objectivists.  This wiki will become whatever its participants make it.  --LarrySanger
< 
< ----
< 
< You are at least a Fellow Traveller, as WillWilkinson seems also to be.  -- CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< 
< Maybe--but officially, I hold no views.  ;-) -- LarrySanger
---
> /Talk
------
ConsequentialIsm/Talk|982795816
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Your account of consequentialism seems a little unusual.  For starters, I don't think egoism is normally considered to be a kind of consquentialism.  For example, in ''Consequentialism and its critics'', the editor Samuel Scheffler starts off by saying that
> 
> : Consequentialism in its purest and simplest form is a moral doctrine which says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the best overall outcome, ''as judged from an impersonal standpoint which gives equal weight to the interests of everyone.'' Somewhat more precisely, we may think of a consequentialist theory of this kind as coming in two parts.  First, it gives some principle for ranking overall states of affairs ''from an impersonal standpoint'' and then it says that the right act in any given situation is the one that will produce the highest ranked state of affairs that the agent is in a position to produce. (emphasis added).
> 
> There may be a few people who talk differently, but this certainly appears to be the standard conception of consequentialism (the less "pure" forms alluded to presumably being indirect forms of consequentialism, or views where the welfare of some individuals (but still individuals ''impersonally considered'') are considered to be more important (as in, for example, the kind of consequentialism David Brink presents in "The Separateness of Persons, Distributive Norms, and Moral Theory").
> 
> I think the same problem arises in your blurring of the distinction between consequentialist theories and deontological, or, more generally and simply, non-consequentialist theories.   It ''has'' in fact been argued, by David Cummiskey in ''Kantian consquentialism'', that although Kant was firmly against consequentialism, Kantian moral theory, "properly understood, generates an extremely compelling consequentialist normative theory".  However, I believe this is a very unusual position to take, and even if it makes sense, there is still a sensible class of positions to put up against consequentialist positions.
> 
> This class of positions is characterized by the idea that there are ''agent-relative'' or '' agent-centered'' reasons for action, whereas for consquentialism, as defined above, reasons for action are ultimately ''agent-neutral''.   Then egoism and deontology are seen as characteristically non-consequentialist.
> 
> These days it has become standard to distinguish between agent-centered ''restrictions'' and agent-centered ''prerogatives''.   I am tempted to agree, with Scheffler, that ultimately, agent-centered restrictions are difficult to defend. As you suggest against Kant, why should I not kill one innocent person if, by doing so, I can save the lives of many more innoncent persons in exactly the same objective circumstances?  On the other hand, agent-centered prerogatives seem much easier to defend, on the familiar grounds that consequentialist theories are morally too demanding.  Given the protean nature of indirect consequentialism, however, the field is very murky. --CalvinOstrum
> ----
> I think it's common enough to regard EgoIsm as a variety of consequentialism.  Just as data points, see [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/c/conseque.htm this article] and [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/users/vaughan/text/lex/defs/consequentialism.html this one].  This is how I've been taught the notion and how I taught it (as a T.A.) to Ohio State undergrads.  But, granted, it does sound a little bit strange.  I would add some sort of note, at the very least, that not everyone would consider EthicalEgoism a variety of consequentialism. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Hmm, those two citations are of very poor quality.  In looking at standard collections of recent higher-quality essays from the research literature, such as those contained in the aforementioned ''Consequentialism and its critics'', or Philip Pettit's 1993 edited volume of 26 papers, it seems to me that all of them either implicitly or explicitly assume that consequentialism ultimately countenances only agent-neutral reasons.  I think the issue of agent-neutral versus agent-relative reasons is the crucial issue here, in any case.  I think WillWilkinson is right about this, and I think the community of moral philosophers essentially agree.   Consequently, I would submit that the term "consequentialism" ''should'' only be used to refer to theories which say that ultimately only agent-neutral reasons are of import.  Consequentialism should be the view that only consequences matter.  Consequences, ''period'', not consequences for me when I act, or you when you act.  -- CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm very suspicious of any claim to the effect that words, particularly jargon, ''ought'' to mean anything; either they do or they don't.  If, as I think is clearly the case, there is ''some'' reasonably large portion of philosophers who use "consequentialism" to mean a broader concept than that meant by your sources, then the word is, as a matter of fact, whether you like it or not, ambiguous.  And the article should reflect that fact.  (While perhaps also acknowledging some popular distaste for one of the uses of the term.)  Besides, some word is needed, after all, for the concept that actions are to be evaluated based on their consequences, whether ''for'' everyone or ''for'' the agent only.  Utilitarianism and egoism have something in common that deontological theories don't have.  That's why "consequentialism" is sometimes used in this broader way. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Suit yourself. I don't expect much in an "encylopedia" run by Objectivists!   -- CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> 
> Just for the record, I don't regard myself as an Objectivist, and I will do my best not to let it be overrun by them.  :-)  Not that I have any serious beefs with Objectivists.  This wiki will become whatever its participants make it.  -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> You are at least a Fellow Traveller, as WillWilkinson seems also to be.  -- CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> 
> Maybe--but officially, I hold no views.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
LarrysText|982795901
1c1
< This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures LarrySanger wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
40c40
< Update, Feb. 3, from LarrySanger: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
---
> Update, Feb. 3, from [[Larry Sanger]]: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
------
LarrysText|982795923
1,50c1
< This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
< 
< See all [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] to search for all current pages that mention 'LarrysText'.
< 
< Table of contents (please keep this updated as you wikify!):
< :1   Introduction to Philosophy
< ::WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
< :2   Some Rudiments of Logic
< ::DefinitionOfLogic -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
< :3   Metaphysics
< ::SomeMetaphysicalQuestions -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
< :4   Philosophy of Religion
< ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
< :5   Philosophy of Mind
< ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
< :6   Philosophy of Language
< ::PhilosophyOfLanguage -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
< :7   Epistemology
< ::EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
< :8   Ethics
< ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
< :9   Political Philosophy
< ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- LibertarianisM -- SocialisM
< ----
< OK, here's the deal:
< * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  So, help me do that.  ''Don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
< * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  You should de-opinionate these, if you can.  (This, like much other but not all improvement, will have to be done by philosophers who know the issues.)
< * Please render my prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
< * I have saved the text in section-sized chunks, but I think it could have been saved in much smaller chunks.  If you want to do that, that would be Very Cool.
< * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  If you want to help totally wikify this text, you would remove all that stuff.  Please?
< * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles should be changed, or the entirety of a certain page should be split up and put on other pages.  I leave that to you.
< * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to WikiPedia.  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and it took me all of an hour to upload them to the wiki!  So I won't mind, really!
< 
< I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
< ----
< I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read sufficiently less like lectures.  And having them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
< ----
< Thanks very much, Phillip! -- Larry
< ----
< Update, Feb. 3, from [[Larry Sanger]]: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
< * Prised out large portions of the text that belong in their own headings; see DualIsm and PhysicalIsm 
< * Prised out smaller portions of text that explicate jargon; see MentalEvent, MentalFunctions, ConsciousNess, ReducTion, MonIsm, NeutralMonism
< * ''Importantly,'' I added links to the new entries created by prised-out text in the appropriate places in the table of contents above.  This is useful for someone who wants to follow the original text.
< * Invented a few new entries along the way; see PhysicalEvent, NeuroN (planned--go ahead, do it yourself), BrainEvent, PhilosophicalView
< * Changed some of the "I" talk to "magisterial-we" talk
< * Deleted parts of the text that make it easier to read/listen to (this was padding)
< * Deleted parts of the text that made transitions from one part to another (this isn't going to be one continuous text when we're done with it)
< * Did a little copyediting, tightening up, and even added a thought or two
< * Etc.?
< Go thou and do likewise--please!
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larry's Text]]
------
Larry's_Text|982795935
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
> 
> See all [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] to search for all current pages that mention 'LarrysText'.
> 
> Table of contents (please keep this updated as you wikify!):
> :1   Introduction to Philosophy
> ::WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
> :2   Some Rudiments of Logic
> ::DefinitionOfLogic -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
> :3   Metaphysics
> ::SomeMetaphysicalQuestions -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
> :4   Philosophy of Religion
> ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
> :5   Philosophy of Mind
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
> :6   Philosophy of Language
> ::PhilosophyOfLanguage -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
> :7   Epistemology
> ::EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
> :8   Ethics
> ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
> :9   Political Philosophy
> ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- LibertarianisM -- SocialisM
> ----
> OK, here's the deal:
> * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  So, help me do that.  ''Don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
> * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  You should de-opinionate these, if you can.  (This, like much other but not all improvement, will have to be done by philosophers who know the issues.)
> * Please render my prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
> * I have saved the text in section-sized chunks, but I think it could have been saved in much smaller chunks.  If you want to do that, that would be Very Cool.
> * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  If you want to help totally wikify this text, you would remove all that stuff.  Please?
> * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles should be changed, or the entirety of a certain page should be split up and put on other pages.  I leave that to you.
> * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to WikiPedia.  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and it took me all of an hour to upload them to the wiki!  So I won't mind, really!
> 
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
> ----
> I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read sufficiently less like lectures.  And having them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
> ----
> Thanks very much, Phillip! -- Larry
> ----
> Update, Feb. 3, from [[Larry Sanger]]: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
> * Prised out large portions of the text that belong in their own headings; see DualIsm and PhysicalIsm 
> * Prised out smaller portions of text that explicate jargon; see MentalEvent, MentalFunctions, ConsciousNess, ReducTion, MonIsm, NeutralMonism
> * ''Importantly,'' I added links to the new entries created by prised-out text in the appropriate places in the table of contents above.  This is useful for someone who wants to follow the original text.
> * Invented a few new entries along the way; see PhysicalEvent, NeuroN (planned--go ahead, do it yourself), BrainEvent, PhilosophicalView
> * Changed some of the "I" talk to "magisterial-we" talk
> * Deleted parts of the text that make it easier to read/listen to (this was padding)
> * Deleted parts of the text that made transitions from one part to another (this isn't going to be one continuous text when we're done with it)
> * Did a little copyediting, tightening up, and even added a thought or two
> * Etc.?
> Go thou and do likewise--please!
------
WhyPhilosophize|982795985
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
---
> <The following is a portion of [[Larry's Text]], wikification is invited> 
------
LarrysText|982796009
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Larry's Text]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larrys Text]]
------
Larrys_Text|982796024
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for WikiPedia.  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
> 
> See all [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] to search for all current pages that mention 'LarrysText'.
> 
> Table of contents (please keep this updated as you wikify!):
> :1   Introduction to Philosophy
> ::WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
> :2   Some Rudiments of Logic
> ::DefinitionOfLogic -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
> :3   Metaphysics
> ::SomeMetaphysicalQuestions -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
> :4   Philosophy of Religion
> ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
> :5   Philosophy of Mind
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
> :6   Philosophy of Language
> ::PhilosophyOfLanguage -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
> :7   Epistemology
> ::EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
> :8   Ethics
> ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
> :9   Political Philosophy
> ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- LibertarianisM -- SocialisM
> ----
> OK, here's the deal:
> * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  So, help me do that.  ''Don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
> * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  You should de-opinionate these, if you can.  (This, like much other but not all improvement, will have to be done by philosophers who know the issues.)
> * Please render my prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
> * I have saved the text in section-sized chunks, but I think it could have been saved in much smaller chunks.  If you want to do that, that would be Very Cool.
> * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  If you want to help totally wikify this text, you would remove all that stuff.  Please?
> * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles should be changed, or the entirety of a certain page should be split up and put on other pages.  I leave that to you.
> * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to WikiPedia.  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and it took me all of an hour to upload them to the wiki!  So I won't mind, really!
> 
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
> ----
> I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read sufficiently less like lectures.  And having them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
> ----
> Thanks very much, Phillip! -- Larry
> ----
> Update, Feb. 3, from [[Larry Sanger]]: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
> * Prised out large portions of the text that belong in their own headings; see DualIsm and PhysicalIsm 
> * Prised out smaller portions of text that explicate jargon; see MentalEvent, MentalFunctions, ConsciousNess, ReducTion, MonIsm, NeutralMonism
> * ''Importantly,'' I added links to the new entries created by prised-out text in the appropriate places in the table of contents above.  This is useful for someone who wants to follow the original text.
> * Invented a few new entries along the way; see PhysicalEvent, NeuroN (planned--go ahead, do it yourself), BrainEvent, PhilosophicalView
> * Changed some of the "I" talk to "magisterial-we" talk
> * Deleted parts of the text that make it easier to read/listen to (this was padding)
> * Deleted parts of the text that made transitions from one part to another (this isn't going to be one continuous text when we're done with it)
> * Did a little copyediting, tightening up, and even added a thought or two
> * Etc.?
> Go thou and do likewise--please!
------
LarrysText|982796362
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Larrys Text]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larry's Text]]
------
WojPob|982796390
9c9
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/phpwiki woytex phpwiki]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/phpwiki woytex sciene fiction wiki]
------
WojPob|982796400
9c9
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/phpwiki woytex sciene fiction wiki]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/phpwiki woytex science fiction wiki]
------
SandBox|982796563
13a14,15
> ----
> LarrysText -- [[Larrys Text]] -- [[Larry's Text]]
------
Keanu_Reeves|982797332
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Keanu Reeves is an American [[actor]].  He was born on September 2, 1964 in Beruit, Lebanon.  His first name means "cool breeze over the mountains" in Hawaiian.
> 
> His first major film was [[Youngblood]] (1986), with [[Rob Lowe]], and his first popularly successful film was [[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989).  Indeed, much of Reeves subsequent public image has been haunted by the inane character Ted from that film.  His first major success, to this day, inhibits his acceptance as a serious actor.
> 
> To date, his best films have been [[The Matrix]] (1999), [[Dangerous Liasons]] (1988), and [[Much Ado About Nothing]] (1993).
> 
> /Filmography
------
Keanu_Reeves/Filmography|982797690
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This is an incomplete filmography, someone should complete it!
> 
> *[[The Replacements]] (2000)
> *[[The Gift]] (2000)
> *[[The Matrix]] (1999)
> *[[The Devils Advocate]] (1997)
> *[[Speed]] (1994)
> *[[Much Ado About Nothing]] (1993)
> *[[Dracula]] (1992)
> *[[Point Break]] (1991)
> *[[My Own Private Idaho]] (1991)
> *[[Tune in Tomorrow]] (1990)
> *[[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989)
> *[[Parenthood]] (1989)
> *[[Permanent Record]] (1988)
> *[[Dangerous Liasons]] (1988)
> *[[Rivers Edge]] (1986)
------
Keanu_Reeves|982797724
3c3
< His first major film was [[Youngblood]] (1986), with [[Rob Lowe]], and his first popularly successful film was [[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989).  Indeed, much of Reeves subsequent public image has been haunted by the inane character Ted from that film.  His first major success, to this day, inhibits his acceptance as a serious actor.
---
> His first major film role was in [[Youngblood]] (1986), with [[Rob Lowe]], and his first popularly successful film was [[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989).  Indeed, much of Reeves subsequent public image has been haunted by the inane character Ted from that film.  His first major success, to this day, inhibits his acceptance as a serious actor.
------
Keanu_Reeves/Filmography|982797915
1d0
< 
4a4
> *[[The Watcher]] (2000)
------
History|982798717
15c15,17
< Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- DickBeldin
---
> Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- DickBeldin
> 
> When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
AdolfHitler|982799225
10c10,13
< AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed AdmiralDoenitz as the next Führer.
---
> Under Hitler's leadership and vision of a Nordic master race, Germany invaded several of its smaller neighbors, beginning [[World War II]], and an attempt to systematically exterimate other peoples - notably the Jews - called the [[Holocaust]].
> 
> 
> After the Russians invaded Germany, AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed AdmiralDoenitz as the next Führer.
------
Dune|982799384
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Directed by David Lynch
> 
> The movie was an adaption of the first part of a series of novels by [[Frank Herbert]], with elements from the later parts. Lynch originally wanted to create a much longer movie, his first draft was five hours, but as the production went out of money and the producers wanted a format better suited for cinemas, much of the original footage was cut and replaced by comments. Lynch uses a number of elements from his earlier movies, for example the figure of the Space Guild Navigator, who has a strong resemblance to the alien baby in Lynch's first movie, [[Eraserhead]] which also appeared in [[The Elephant Man]]. Another element is the use of low, humming sounds which create unease in spectators when used over a longer period of time. In financial terms, the movie was a disaster, but has a number of dedicated fans.
------
Horror_Film|982799477
7a8
> *[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]
------
Action_Film|982799530
1c1
< [[Heat Film]] -- [[The Rock]] -- [[Con Air]] -- [[Apocalypse Now]] -- [[The Matrix]] -- [[True Lies]]
---
> [[Heat Film]] -- [[The Rock]] -- [[Con Air]] -- [[The Matrix]] -- [[True Lies]]
------
Dune|982799597
1c1
< Directed by David Lynch
---
> Directed by [David Lynch]
3c3
< The movie was an adaption of the first part of a series of novels by [[Frank Herbert]], with elements from the later parts. Lynch originally wanted to create a much longer movie, his first draft was five hours, but as the production went out of money and the producers wanted a format better suited for cinemas, much of the original footage was cut and replaced by comments. Lynch uses a number of elements from his earlier movies, for example the figure of the Space Guild Navigator, who has a strong resemblance to the alien baby in Lynch's first movie, [[Eraserhead]] which also appeared in [[The Elephant Man]]. Another element is the use of low, humming sounds which create unease in spectators when used over a longer period of time. In financial terms, the movie was a disaster, but has a number of dedicated fans.
---
> The movie was an adaption of the first part of a series of novels by [[Frank Herbert]], with elements from the later parts. Lynch originally wanted to create a much longer movie, his first draft was five hours, but as the production went out of money and the producers wanted a format better suited for cinemas, much of the original footage was cut and replaced by comments. Lynch uses a number of elements from his earlier movies, for example the figure of the Space Guild Navigator, who has a strong resemblance to the alien baby in Lynch's first movie, [[Eraserhead]] which also appeared in [[The Elephant Man]]. Another element is the use of low, humming sounds which create unease in spectators when used over a longer period of time. In financial terms, the movie was a disaster, but has a number of dedicated fans.
------
Action_Film|982799608
1c1,8
< [[Heat Film]] -- [[The Rock]] -- [[Con Air]] -- [[The Matrix]] -- [[True Lies]]
---
> *[[Heat Film]]
> *[[The Rock]]
> *[[Con Air]]
> *[[The Matrix]]
> *[[True Lies]]
> *[[Die Hard]]
> *[[Terminator]]
> *[[Rambo]]
------
MathematicianS|982799653
3c3
< : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxuS ArchimedeS AppoloniuS DiophantE
---
> : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxuS ArchimedeS AppoloniusOfPerga DiophantusOfAlexandria
5,15c5,17
< : PierreDeFermat Mersenne Descartes BlaisePascal DeMoivre
< : LeibnitZ EuleR BernoulliFamily
< : BarroW StirlinG NewtoN MacLaurin ChristopherWren
< : LobachevskY BolYai
< : LaGrange NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
< : CauchY SDPoisson
< : Legendre GausS JacobI LejeuneDirichlet
< : RowanHamiltoN GrassmanN CayleY SilvesteR
< : KroneckeR WeierStrass
< : CantoR ZermelO FraenkeL
< : Markov TchebychefF 
---
> : PierreDeFermat MarinMersenne Rene Descartes BlaisePascal AbrahamDeMoivre
> : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz LeonardEuler ChristianGoldbach BernoulliFamily
> : BarroW StirlinG IsaacNewtoN ColinMacLaurin ChristopherWren
> : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky BolYai
> : Joseph/LouisLaGrange NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
> : Augustin/LouisCauchy Simeon/DenisPoisson
> : Adrien/MarieLegendre CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
> : BernhardRiemann CamilleJordan
> : WilliamRowanHamilton GrassmanN ArthurCayley SilvesteR
> : LeopoldKroneckeR KarlWeierstrass 
> : GeorgCantor ErnstZermelo FraenkeL DavidHilbert
> : AndreiAndreevichMarkov TchebychefF
> : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov SophusLie Bertrand Russell KurtGodel 
------
Dune|982799691
1c1
< Directed by [David Lynch]
---
> Directed by [[David Lynch]]
------
Musical_Film|982799694
15c15,16
< 
---
> :[[Everyone Says I love You]]
> :[[Rocky Horro Picture Show]]
------
Musical_Film|982799711
16c16
< :[[Rocky Horro Picture Show]]
---
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982799722
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [Cannibals] in Texas. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great britain.
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982799746
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [Cannibals] in Texas. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]]. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great britain.
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982799896
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]]. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]]. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
------
Western_Film|982799927
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the cassical American film genres. During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]]
> 
> Famous Westerns:
> 
> :[[Stage Coach]]
> :[[High Noon]]
> 
> Famous Directors:
> 
> :[[John Ford]]
------
FieldsMedal|982800014
3,6c3,6
< * 2002 (Pekin): bets are open
< * 1998 (Berlin): RichardBorcherds, WilliamGowers, MaximKontsevich, CurtisMcMullen  
< * 1994 (Zurich): EfimZelmanov, JacquesLouisLions, JeanBourgain, JeanChristopheYoccoz 
< * 1990 (Kyoto): VladimirDrinfeld, ... 
---
> * 2002 ([[Pekin]]): bets are open
> * 1998 ([[Berlin]]): RichardBorcherds, WilliamGowers, MaximKontsevich, CurtisMcMullen  
> * 1994 ([[Zurich]]): EfimZelmanov, JacquesLouisLions, JeanBourgain, JeanChristopheYoccoz 
> * 1990 ([[Kyoto]]): VladimirDrinfeld, ... 
8c8
< * 1983 (Warsaw - PolanD): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
---
> * 1983 ([[Warsaw]], PolanD): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
11c11
< * 1970 (Nice): AlanBaker, HeisukeHironaka, SergeiNovikov, JohnGThompson
---
> * 1970 ([[Nice]]): AlanBaker, HeisukeHironaka, SergeiNovikov, JohnGThompson
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982800036
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]]. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people who stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
------
Horror_Film|982800117
8c8,9
< *[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]
---
> *[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]
> *[[The Blair Witch Project]]
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982800160
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people who stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
------
Comedy_Film|982800291
9c9
< *[[The Full Monte]]
---
> *[[The Full Montie]]
10a11,32
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
> *[[Modern Times]]
> *[[The Great Dictator]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Buster Keaton]]:
> *[[The General]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[The Marx Brothers]]:
> *[[The Marx Brothers Go to War]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Woody Allen]]:
> *[[Take the Money and Run]]
> *[[Bananas]]
> *[[Sleeper]]
> *[[Bullets Over Broadway]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Mel Brooks]]:
> *[[Space Balls]]
> *[[Silent Movie]]
> 
> 
------
The_Big_Lebowski|982800531
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone should without a doubt write a full review, but I just wanted to say quickly that this is one of the funniest movies that I have ever seen, and one of the few movies that I have seen more than 10 times.  (I've actually lost count on this one.)
> --JimboWales
> 
------
BinomialDistribution|982800982
5c5
< To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
---
> To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(N!*(X-N)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
9c9
<      X!     p   q
---
>      N!     p   q
11c11
<   N!* (N-X)!
---
>   X!* (X-N)!
28,30c28
< I have corrected the formula for the number of combinations for picking N objects out of  objects. It is :
<      X!/((N!)*(X-N)!)
< In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, X!/N!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
---
> In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, N!/X!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
------
BinomialDistribution|982801145
5c5
< To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(N!*(X-N)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
---
> To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
11c11
<   X!* (X-N)!
---
>   X!* (N-X)!
28c28
< In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, N!/X!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
---
> In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, X!/N!/(N-X)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
------
BinomialDistribution|982801236
28c28
< In answer to your question on how you evaluate, I guess, X!/N!/(N-X)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
---
> In answer to your question on how you evaluate, N!/X!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982801876
26c26
< *          We will denote (X!/(N!*(X-N)!) by:
---
> *          We will denote (N!/(X!*(N-X)!) by:
44c44
< Then, using the function of the binomial distribution function for 3 successes out of 5 trials we get the probability of this occurring as:
---
> Then, using the binomial probability function for 3 successes out of 5 trials we get the probability of this occurring as:
------
MathematicianS|982802004
15c15
< : GeorgCantor ErnstZermelo FraenkeL DavidHilbert
---
> : GeorgCantor ErnstZermelo FraenkeL DavidHilbert SrinivasaRamanujan
------
MetallicA/Talk|982802423
3c3
< I think it is really interesting to see the shift in MetallicA's image since the whole NapsteRVsMetallica controversy erupted.  MetallicA was always known as a band of the people -- a band that grew in popularity by touring a lot and connecting directly with the fans, with very little record company or MTV corporate support of any kind.
---
> I think it is really interesting to see the shift in MetallicA's image since the whole [[Napster]] VsMetallica controversy erupted.  MetallicA was always known as a band of the people -- a band that grew in popularity by touring a lot and connecting directly with the fans, with very little record company or MTV corporate support of any kind.
7c7
< WojPob's theory is: something went wrong after they collectively cut their hair (which started to look a bit MulleT-like). Then they released /Load, which in the view of a lot of fans was a "weird" album. Then, less than a year later came /Reload, which was released much too quickly and obviously needed some more studio work. They still have the talent - maybe they're just too old now???
---
> WojPob's theory is: something went wrong after they collectively cut their hair (which started to look a bit MulleT-like). Then they released /Load, which in the view of a lot of fans was a "weird" album. Then, less than a year later came /Reload, which was released much too quickly and obviously needed some more studio work. They still have the talent - maybe they're just too old now???
------
Woody_Allen|982802449
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Woody Allen was born on December 1, 1935 in Brooklyn, NYC as Stewart Allen Konigsberg. His parents Martin and Nettie lived in Flatbush, where he attended a Hebrew school for eight years. After that, he went to Public Shool 99 and then to Midwood High, where "Red", as he was called for his distinctive red hair impressed students with his extraordinary talent for card games. To raise some money, he began writing gags for the agency David O. Alber, who sold them to newspaper columnists. With sixteen years, he started writing for show stars like [[Sid Cesar]] and started calling himself Woody Allen.
> After school, he went to New York University, where he took Communication Arts Course, but soon dropped out. With nineteen, he married Harlene Rosen and he started writing scripts for [[The Ed Sullivan Show]], [[The Tonight Show]] and others. In 1957, he won hs first Emmy Award, roughly at the same time, he divorced Harlene.
> He started writing prose and plays, and in 1960, he started a new carreer as a stand up comedian. It went horribly wrong, but together with his managers he turned his weaknesses into his strengths and developed the neurotic, nervous and shy figure we all know from his later movies.
> 
> His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four Academy Awards), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). In the 1980ies, his movies are compared to Russian and Polish films, most of his comedies now have sad ends, like [[The Purple Rose of Cairo]], his dramas, like [[September]] are often said to imitate European Auteurs, most of all [[Ingmar Bergmann]]. In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he divorced Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that prooved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated mcuh interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the divorce). 
> Woody Allen continues his successful carreer to the present day, his recent movies include [[Small Time Crooks]] and [[Celebrity]]. 
> 
------
Napster|982802540
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Napster is a music and file sharing service that burst onto the Internet scene in a major way during the year 2000.  Their technology allowed music fans to easily share [[MP3]] format song files with each other, thus leading to massive copyright violations.
> 
> As of this writing (and much is surely still up in the air), Napster has lost a major legal battle and is seeking to settle the suit by offering to pay $1 billion out of their future profits.
> 
> 
------
Film_Directors|982802673
1c1
< [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarrantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]]
---
> [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[D W Griffith]]
------
Film_Directors|982802688
1c1
< [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[D W Griffith]]
---
> [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[DWGriffith]]
------
Film_Directors|982802782
1c1
< [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[DWGriffith]]
---
> [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[DWGriffith]] -- [[The Cohen Brothers]] -- [[David Cronenberg]]
------
Napster|982802800
3,4c3
< As of this writing (and much is surely still up in the air), Napster has lost a major legal battle and is seeking to settle the suit by offering to pay $1 billion out of their future profits.
< 
---
> As of this writing (and much is surely still up in the air), Napster has lost a major legal battle and is seeking to settle the suit by offering to pay $1 billion out of their future profits.  In order to pay those fees, Napster is planning to institute a monthly fee for users.
5a5
> Napster's technology requires the use of their central servers, which undoubtably made them a convenient legal target.  It is unclear whether fully peer to peer (no central server) systems such as [[Gnutella]] will be on the availability of free music sharing on the [[Internet]].  Surely if Gnutella develops into a viable (and free alternative), but with no central server to take the legal heat, Napster's proposed business model (paid access) will fail.
------
Oliver_Stone|982802857
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Natural Born Killers]]
> :[[JFK]]
> :[[Nixon]]
> :[[Platoon]]
> :[[Any Given Sunday]]
------
Gnutella|982802929
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gnutella is a free, open source project to create a true peer-to-peer file sharing network.  To date (February 2000), Gnutella has not achieved widespread success, due primarily to problems of scalability.
> 
> Sometimes the word 'Gnutella' refers not to a particular project or particular piece of software, but to the open protocol used by various clients.  Since new clients are under development all over, and since a new protocol is apparently on the way too, it is hard to say what the word 'Gnutella' will mostly stand for in the future.
------
Quentin_Tarantino|982802934
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Jackie Brown]]
> :[[Reservoir Dogs]]
> :[[Pulp Fiction]]
> :[[True Romance]]
------
Gnutella|982802961
1c1
< Gnutella is a free, open source project to create a true peer-to-peer file sharing network.  To date (February 2000), Gnutella has not achieved widespread success, due primarily to problems of scalability.
---
> Gnutella is a free, open source project to create a true peer-to-peer file sharing network.  Such a network would be a fully distributed alternative to semi-centralized systems like [[Napster]].  To date (February 2000), Gnutella has not achieved widespread success, due primarily to problems of scalability.
3c3
< Sometimes the word 'Gnutella' refers not to a particular project or particular piece of software, but to the open protocol used by various clients.  Since new clients are under development all over, and since a new protocol is apparently on the way too, it is hard to say what the word 'Gnutella' will mostly stand for in the future.
---
> Sometimes the word 'Gnutella' refers not to a particular project or particular piece of software, but to the open protocol used by various clients.  Since new clients are under development all over, and since a new protocol is apparently on the way too, it is hard to say what the word 'Gnutella' will mostly stand for in the future.
------
Wim_Wenders|982803016
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Buena Vista Social Club]]
> :[[Der Himmel ueber Berlin]] (the sky above Berlin)
> :[[THe Million Dollar Hotel]]
------
Wim_Wenders|982803029
5c5
< :[[THe Million Dollar Hotel]]
---
> :[[The Million Dollar Hotel]]
------
Film_Directors|982803076
1c1,20
< [[Martin Scorcese]] -- [[Oliver Stone]] -- [[Stephen Spielberg]] -- [[George Lucas]] -- [[John Woo]] -- [[Quentin Tarantino]] -- [[James Cameron]] -- [[Wim Wenders]] -- [[Mike Figgis]] -- [[Stanley Kubrick]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]] -- [[Woody Allen]] -- [[John Ford]] -- [[David Lynch]] -- [[Ingmar Bergmann]] -- [[Luchino Visconti]] -- [[Charlie Chaplin]] -- [[DWGriffith]] -- [[The Cohen Brothers]] -- [[David Cronenberg]]
---
> :[[Martin Scorcese]]
> :[[Oliver Stone]]
> :[[Stephen Spielberg]]
> :[[George Lucas]]
> :[[John Woo]]
> :[[Quentin Tarantino]]
> :[[James Cameron]]
> :[[Wim Wenders]]
> :[[Mike Figgis]]
> :[[Stanley Kubrick]]
> :[[Francis Ford Coppola]]
> :[[Woody Allen]]
> :[[John Ford]]
> :[[David Lynch]]
> :[[Ingmar Bergmann]]
> :[[Luchino Visconti]]
> :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
> :[[DWGriffith]]
> :[[The Cohen Brothers]]
> :[[David Cronenberg]]
------
Martin_Scorcese|982803085
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Raging Bull]]
> :[[Goodfellas]]
------
Martin_Scorcese|982803118
4c4,6
< :[[Goodfellas]]
---
> :[[Goodfellas]]
> :[[Bringing out the Dead]]
> :[[Taxi Driver]]
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|982803155
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[Cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
------
Stanley_Kubrick|982803194
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> :[[2001 - A Space Odyssey]]
> :[[Full Metal Jacket]]
------
XfL|982803206
4,11c4,11
< :BirminghamThunderbolts
< :ChicagoEnforcers
< :NyNjHitmen
< :OrlandoRage
< :SanFranciscoDemons
< :MemphisManiax
< :LasVegasOutlaws
< :LosAngelesXtreme
---
> :[[Birmingham Thunderbolts]]
> :[[Chicago Enforcers]]
> :[[NY NJ Hitmen]]
> :[[Orlando Rage]]
> :[[SanFrancisco Demons]]
> :[[Memphis Maniax]]
> :[[LasVegas Outlaws]]
> :[[LosAngeles Xtreme]]
------
Francis_Ford_Coppola|982803246
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Apocalypse Now]]
> :[[The Godfather]]
------
Dune|982803340
3a4,5
> ----
> This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
George_Lucas|982803480
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :Star Wars (series of movies including [[Episode 1]]-The Phantom Menace, [[Star Wars]], [[The Empire Strikes Back]], [[Return of the Jedi]])
> :Indiana Jones (series of movies including [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]], [[The Temple of Doom]], [[The Last Crusade]])
> :[[American Graffiti]]
------
George_Lucas|982803537
3c3
< :Star Wars (series of movies including [[Episode 1]]-The Phantom Menace, [[Star Wars]], [[The Empire Strikes Back]], [[Return of the Jedi]])
---
> :[[Star Wars]] (series of movies)
------
David_Lynch|982803606
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Eraserhead]]
> :[[The Elephant Man]]
> :[[Dune]]
> :[[Lost Highway]]
> :[[The Straight Story]]
------
Woody_Allen|982803625
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
5c7,12
< His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four Academy Awards), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). In the 1980ies, his movies are compared to Russian and Polish films, most of his comedies now have sad ends, like [[The Purple Rose of Cairo]], his dramas, like [[September]] are often said to imitate European Auteurs, most of all [[Ingmar Bergmann]]. In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he divorced Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that prooved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated mcuh interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the divorce). 
---
> His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four Academy Awards), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). 
> 
> In the 1980ies, his movies are compared to Russian and Polish films, most of his comedies now have sad ends, like [[The Purple Rose of Cairo]], his dramas, like [[September]] are often said to imitate European Auteurs, most of all [[Ingmar Bergmann]]. 
> 
> In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he divorced Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that proved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated mcuh interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the divorce). 
> 
------
Woody_Allen|982803643
5c5
< He started writing prose and plays, and in 1960, he started a new carreer as a stand up comedian. It went horribly wrong, but together with his managers he turned his weaknesses into his strengths and developed the neurotic, nervous and shy figure we all know from his later movies.
---
> He started writing prose and plays, and in 1960, he started a new career as a stand up comedian. It went horribly wrong, but together with his managers he turned his weaknesses into his strengths and developed the neurotic, nervous and shy figure we all know from his later movies.
------
David_Cronenberg|982803659
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[The Fly]]
> :[[Naked Lunch]]
> :[[ExistenZ]]
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|982803731
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[The Big Lebowsky]]
> :[[Barton Fink]]
> :[[Fargo]]
------
John_Ford|982803811
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most accomplished Western directors
> 
> Famous movies:
> :[[Stage Coach]]
------
Sports|982803831
96,108c96
< ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
< 
< ''I think the following are not sports, but instead (simply) GameS; strictly speaking, there are no such things as "brain sports"''
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Card Games:
< * ContractBridge
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Board Games:
< * [[Chess]]
< * [[Go]]
< 
< Brain-sports (where you have to think) - Letter Games:
< * CrossWords
---
> ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
------
CountriesA|982803877
1,35c1,18
< AfghanistaN
<      
< AlbaniA 
<      
< AlgeriA
<      
< AmericanSamoa 
<      
< AndorrA
<      
< AngolA 
<      
< AnguillA 
<      
< AntarcticA 
<      
< AntiguaAndBarbuda 
<      
< ArcticOcean 
<      
< ArgentinA
<      
< ArmeniA 
<      
< ArubA
< 
< AshmoreAndCartierIslands 
<      
< AtlanticOcean 
<      
< AustraliA
<      
< AustriA 
<      
< AzerbaijaN
---
> :AfghanistaN
> :AlbaniA 
> :AlgeriA
> :AmericanSamoa 
> :AndorrA
> :[[Angola]]
> :[[Anguilla]] 
> :[[Antarctica]] 
> :[[Antigua And Barbuda]] 
> :[[Arctic Ocean]]
> :[[Argentina]]
> :[[Armenia]] 
> :[[Aruba]]
> :[[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] 
> :[[Atlantic Ocean]] 
> :AustraliA
> :AustriA 
> :AzerbaijaN
------
CountriesA|982803889
18c18
< :AzerbaijaN
---
> :[[Azerbaijan]]
------
Stephen_Spielberg|982803891
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Jurassic Park]]
> :[[Schindlers List]]
> :[[ET]]
> :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
------
CountriesA|982803913
1c1
< :AfghanistaN
---
> :AfghanistaN  -- needs to be [[Free Link]]ed.
------
John_Woo|982803930
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Mission Impossible 2]]
------
Games|982803944
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Card Games
> * ContractBridge
> 
> Board Games
> * [[Chess]]
> * [[Go]]
> 
> Letter Games
> * CrossWords
> 
> Casino Games
> * [[Craps]]
> * [[Roulette]]
------
CountriesA|982803954
1c1,3
< :AfghanistaN  -- needs to be [[Free Link]]ed.
---
> Some of these need to be moved to [[Free Links]] pages.
> 
> :AfghanistaN  
------
Film_Directors|982803955
20a21
> :[[Ang Lee]]
------
CountriesB|982804007
1c1
< BahraiN
---
> [[Bahrain]]
------
Ang_Lee|982804007
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Hidden Tiger Crouching Dragon]]
> :[[The Ice Storm]]
> :[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]
------
CountriesC|982804057
3,7c3,5
< * ChilE
< 
< * ChinA
< 
< * ColombiA
---
> :[[Chile]]
> :[[China]]
> :[[Colombia]]
------
Film_Directors|982804147
18c18
< :[[DWGriffith]]
---
> :[[D. W. Griffith]]
------
Film_Directors|982804234
18c18
< :[[D. W. Griffith]]
---
> :[[David Griffith | D. W. Griffith]]
------
Western_Film|982804372
10a11
> :[[Sergio Leone]]
------
Psychology|982804516
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Names:
> 
> :[[Sigmund Freud]]
------
ComputerSoftware|982804644
9a10
> * [[Operating Systems]]
------
ComputerSoftware|982804990
10c10,32
< * [[Operating Systems]]
---
> * [[Operating Systems]]
> ** [[Microsoft]]
> *** [[MS-DOS]]
> *** [[Windows 3xx]]
> *** [[Windows 9x]]
> *** [[Windows NTx]]
> *** [[Windows 2000]]
> *** [[Windows CE]]
> ** [[Unix]]
> *** [[BSD]]
> **** [[FreeBSD]]
> **** [[OpenBSD]]
> *** [[Linux]]
> *** [[AIX]]
> *** [[HPUX]]
> *** [[Digital Unix]]
> ** Other
> *** [[Be]]
> **** [[BeOS]]
> **** [[BeIA]]
> *** [[OS2]]
> *** [[PC-DOS]]
> *** [[DR-DOS]]
------
Animalia|982805022
18,61c18
< The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules.  The cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.
< 
< There are three problematic phyla that show an unclear relation to the other animals - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]].  After these, all animals belong to a clear group called the Metazoa.  In these forms the blastula invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a clear digestive chamber and three separate layers of cells - called the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - that differentiate into various tissues, including muscles and nerves.
< 
< Lower metazoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Cnidaria]] (=coelentrata)
< * Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
< * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
< * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
< * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
< 
< Trochozoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
< * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
< * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
< * Phylum [[Echiura]]
< * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
< * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
< * Phylum [[Annelida]]
< 
< Ecdysozoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
< * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
< * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
< * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
< * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
< * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
< 
< Lophophorata:
< 
< * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
< * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
< * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
< 
< Deuterostomia:
< 
< * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
< * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
< * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
< * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
< 
---
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  After these come three problematic phyla; the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [
------
Animalia|982805025
18c18,61
< The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  After these come three problematic phyla; the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [
---
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  After these come three problematic phyla; the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]] - that have an unclear position with respect to other animals.
> 
> The other animals form a monophyletic group called the Metazoa, characterized by a digestive chamber and separate cell layers that differentiate into various tissues, including nerves and muscles.  The simplest Metazoa are radially symmetric and ''diploblastic''.  That is, they have two germ layers, called the ''ectoderm'' and ''endoderm'', with a gelatinous ''mesoglea'' inbetween.  The blastula fills in, the layers arising from its outside and inside, and then invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a singly-opening stomach.  Such forms comprise the [[Cnidaria]] (jellyfish, anenomes, corals, etc.) and possibly the [[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies).
> 
> The remaining Metazoa again form a monophyletic group, called the Bilateria since they are usually bilaterally symmetric with a distinct anterior and posterior, and almost always a one-way doubly-opening digestive tract.  In these tissues are typically assembled into organs and a third cell layer, the ''mesoderm'', lies in between the other two.  
> 
> Lower Bilateria:
> 
> * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
> * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
> * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
> 
> Trochozoa:
> 
> * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
> * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
> * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
> * Phylum [[Echiura]]
> * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
> * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
> * Phylum [[Annelida]]
> 
> Ecdysozoa:
> 
> * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
> * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
> * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
> * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
> * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
> * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
> 
> Lophophorata:
> 
> * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
> * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
> * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
> 
> Deuterostomia:
> 
> * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
> * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
> * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
> * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
> 
------
Unix|982805205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service
------
Linux|982805369
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torwalds]]. Linux is available und the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
------
ComputerHardware|982805597
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Mainboard]]
> * [[Graphics Board]]
> * [[Sound Card]]
> * [[CPU]]
> * [[Keyboard]]
> * [[Mouse]]
> * [[Joystick]]
> * [[Monitor]]
> * [[Hard Disk]]
> * [[CD-ROM]]
> * [[Floppy]]
> * [[Tape Drive]]
> * [[Scanner]]
> * [[Memory]]
> * [[DVD-ROM]]
------
Games|982805859
13c13,27
< * [[Roulette]]
---
> * [[Roulette]]
> 
> [[Roleplaying Games]]
> * [[Vampire]]
> * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
> 
> [[Trading Card Games]]
> * [[Magic]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> 
> Tabletop Games
> * [[Warhammer]]
> * [[Axis and Allies]]
> 
> 
------
Magic|982806036
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Magic: The Gathering was originally created by [[Richard Garfield]] and was the first collectible card game. In Magic you play two sorcerors engaged in a magic duel, you can summon creatures and cast spelly to defeat your enemy. Magic has a large following of fans, and even a professional player series with nationwide and worldwide championships.
------
Magic|982806412
1c1,3
< Magic: The Gathering was originally created by [[Richard Garfield]] and was the first collectible card game. In Magic you play two sorcerors engaged in a magic duel, you can summon creatures and cast spelly to defeat your enemy. Magic has a large following of fans, and even a professional player series with nationwide and worldwide championships.
---
> Magic: The Gathering was originally created by [[Richard Garfield]] and was the first collectible card game. In Magic you play two sorcerors engaged in a magic duel, you can summon creatures and cast spelly to defeat your enemy. Magic has a large following of fans, and even a professional player series with nationwide and worldwide championships.
> ----
> This page should be renamed, because the topic of "magic" is much larger than just a card game!
------
Animalia|982812137
18c18
< The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  After these come three problematic phyla; the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]] - that have an unclear position with respect to other animals.
---
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  
20c20
< The other animals form a monophyletic group called the Metazoa, characterized by a digestive chamber and separate cell layers that differentiate into various tissues, including nerves and muscles.  The simplest Metazoa are radially symmetric and ''diploblastic''.  That is, they have two germ layers, called the ''ectoderm'' and ''endoderm'', with a gelatinous ''mesoglea'' inbetween.  The blastula fills in, the layers arising from its outside and inside, and then invaginates to form a ''gastrula'' with a singly-opening stomach.  Such forms comprise the [[Cnidaria]] (jellyfish, anenomes, corals, etc.) and possibly the [[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies).
---
> There are three problematic phyla - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]] - that have an unclear position with respect to other animals.  After these, all animals belong to a monophyletic group called the Metazoa, characterized by a digestive chamber and separate cell layers that differentiate into various tissues, including nerves and muscles.
22c22
< The remaining Metazoa again form a monophyletic group, called the Bilateria since they are usually bilaterally symmetric with a distinct anterior and posterior, and almost always a one-way doubly-opening digestive tract.  In these tissues are typically assembled into organs and a third cell layer, the ''mesoderm'', lies in between the other two.  
---
> The simplest Metazoa are radially symmetric and ''diploblastic'', that is, they have two germ layers.  The outer layer (ectoderm) corresponds to the surface of the blastula and the inner layer (endoderm) is formed by cells that migrate into the interior.  It then invaginates to form a digestive cavity with a single opening.  This form is called a ''gastrula'' or ''planula'' when it is free-swimming.  The [[Cnidaria]] (jellyfish, anenomes, corals, etc) are the main diploblastic phylum; the [[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies) may also belong here.
------
Linux|982812171
1c1,3
< Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torwalds]]. Linux is available und the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
---
> Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torvalds]]. Linux is available und the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
> 
> Technically speaking, the term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A full distribution such as [Red Hat], [SuSE], or [Debian] contains much software not created by Linus Torvalds and his group.  Some (notably [[Richard M Stallman]]) suggest that Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux.
------
Magic|982812244
3c3,5
< This page should be renamed, because the topic of "magic" is much larger than just a card game!
---
> This page should be renamed, because the topic of "magic" is much larger than just a card game!
> 
> [Magic: The Gathering]
------
Magic|982812249
5c5
< [Magic: The Gathering]
---
> [Magic The Gathering]
------
Magic|982812262
5c5
< [Magic The Gathering]
---
> [[Magic: The Gathering]]
------
Magic|982812269
5c5
< [[Magic: The Gathering]]
---
> [[Magic The Gathering]]
------
Magic_The_Gathering|982812319
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Magic: The Gathering was originally created by [Richard Garfield]? and was the first collectible card game. In Magic
> you play two sorcerors engaged in a magic duel, you can summon creatures and cast spelly to defeat your enemy.
> Magic has a large following of fans, and even a professional player series with nationwide and worldwide championships. 
------
Magic|982812354
1c1
< Magic: The Gathering was originally created by [[Richard Garfield]] and was the first collectible card game. In Magic you play two sorcerors engaged in a magic duel, you can summon creatures and cast spelly to defeat your enemy. Magic has a large following of fans, and even a professional player series with nationwide and worldwide championships.
---
> You might also be looking for information about the card game: [[Magic The Gathering]]
3d2
< This page should be renamed, because the topic of "magic" is much larger than just a card game!
5c4
< [[Magic The Gathering]]
---
> Magic is... (anyone have a good definition)
------
Chess|982812469
1c1
< Is a game which is some thousend years old.
---
> Chess a game which is some thousand years old.
4c4
< the world organization of chess players is the [http://www.fide.org FIDE] 
---
> The world organization of chess players is the [http://www.fide.org FIDE] 
6c6
< all you need is:
---
> All you need is:
11c11,12
< unfortunatly the rules are to complicated to describe here
---
> We don't yet have an explanation of the rules here, but surely some simple summary is possible.
> 
13c14,18
< but i don't know the english terms
---
> but i don't know the english terms.
> 
> *See also:
> 
> /FamousPlayers
------
Chess/FamousPlayers|982812646
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> [[Gary Kasparov]]
> [[Anatoly Karpov]]
> [[Boris Spassky]]
> [[Bobby Fischer]]
------
Chess/FamousPlayers|982812662
1,5c1,4
< 
< [[Gary Kasparov]]
< [[Anatoly Karpov]]
< [[Boris Spassky]]
< [[Bobby Fischer]]
---
> :[[Gary Kasparov]]
> :[[Anatoly Karpov]]
> :[[Boris Spassky]]
> :[[Bobby Fischer]]
------
Chess/FamousPlayers|982813100
4a5,14
> :[[Viswanathan Anand]]
> :[[Alexei Shirov]]
> :[[Alexander Morozevich]]
> :[[Michael Adams]]
> :[[Nigel Short]]
> 
> Female players
> :[[Judit Polgar]]
> :[[Zsuzsa Polgar]]
> :[[Irina Krush]]
------
Irina_Krush|982813611
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Irina Krush is an American [[Chess]] player.  She was born December 24th, 1983 in Odessa, Ukraine.  She is widely known for her series of Chess training videos, the "Krushing Attacks" series.
> 
> She become known outside chess circles due to a controversy during the well publicized "Kasparov versus The World" chess competition.  In this competition, the Internet public voted on moves as recommended by a panel of chess experts.  At a crucial point in the game, Krush's vote was for some reason delayed from appearing on the [[MSN]] website.  Many observers feel that had her message appeared there, Kasparov would have lost the match.
> 
------
Animalia|982813699
24c24,26
< Lower Bilateria:
---
> The remaining forms are usually bilaterally symmetric, and are ''triploblastic'' - they have a third germ layer between the ectoderm and endoderm called the ''mesoderm''.  The simplest of these are the [[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) which may be paraphyletic to higher groups.  Other forms all have a one-way digestive tract with two openings and a ''coelom'', a cavity within the mesoderm, or often some reduced form thereof.
> 
> ''Incertae sedis'' (at least I don't know where to put them):
26d27
< * Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]] - flatworms, probably paraphyletic to higher groups
28a30,33
> * Phylum [[Gastrotricha]]
> * Phylum [[Gnathostomulida]]
> * Phylum [[Entoprocta]]
> * Phylum [[Cycliophora]]
------
Irina_Krush|982813823
1c1
< Irina Krush is an American [[Chess]] player.  She was born December 24th, 1983 in Odessa, Ukraine.  She is widely known for her series of Chess training videos, the "Krushing Attacks" series.
---
> Irina Krush is an American [[Chess]] player.  She was born December 24th, 1983 in [[Odessa]], [[Ukraine]].  She is widely known for her series of Chess training videos, the "Krushing Attacks" series.
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|982814355
3c3
< :[[The Big Lebowsky]]
---
> :[[The Big Lebowski]]
5c5
< :[[Fargo]]
---
> :[[Fargo]]
------
JapaN|982814847
4a5
> :JapaneseAnime
------
Animalia|982814932
24c24,26
< The remaining forms are usually bilaterally symmetric, and are ''triploblastic'' - they have a third germ layer between the ectoderm and endoderm called the ''mesoderm''.  The simplest of these are the [[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) which may be paraphyletic to higher groups.  Other forms all have a one-way digestive tract with two openings and a ''coelom'', a cavity within the mesoderm, or often some reduced form thereof.
---
> The remaining forms comprise a group called the Bilateria, since they are usually bilaterally symmetric, and are ''triploblastic''.  The blastula invaginates without filling in first, so the endoderm is simply its inner lining, and the interior then fills in to become a third layer (mesoderm) between the others.  Like tissues are grouped into organs.  The simplest of such animals are the [[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) which may be paraphyletic to the higher phyla.
> 
> The vast majority of the triploblastic phyla form a group called the Protostomia.  These forms have a one-way digestive cavity, with a second opening developing to pass waste through.  The mesoderm arises as in the flatworms, from a single cell, and then divides to form a mass on each side of the body.  Usually there is a hollow space around the gut, called the ''coelom'', arising from a split within the mesoderm, or at least some reduced version thereof (eg a pseudocoelom, where the split occurs between the mesoderm and endoderm).
------
JapaneseAnime|982814981
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Anime refers to [[Japan]]ese animated cartoons.  It should be pronounced "Ah-Nee-May".  (Perhaps someone more competent than me should consult the Nupedia pronunciation guide for a better representation of this?)
> 
> Examples of anime include [[Dragon Ball Z]].
> 
> See also:
> *[[Manga]]
------
Japan|982815015
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We need a full writeup here (do you want to do it?), but in the meantime, here are links to some things of interest. 
> 
>     JapaneseLanguage? 
>     JapanConstitution 
>     JapaneseAnime? 
------
Japan|982815185
5c5,15
<     JapaneseAnime? 
---
>     JapaneseAnime? 
> 
> :/Introduction
> :/Geography
> :/People
> :/Government
> :/Economy
> :/Communications
> :/Transportation
> :/Military
> :[[/Transnational Issues]]
------
Japan|982815254
1d0
< We need a full writeup here (do you want to do it?), but in the meantime, here are links to some things of interest. 
3,5c2,9
<     JapaneseLanguage? 
<     JapanConstitution 
<     JapaneseAnime? 
---
> Various articles of interest about Japan:
> 
> :JapaneseLanguage 
> :JapanConstitution 
> :JapaneseAnime
> 
> 
> From the [[CIA World Factbook]:
15c19
< :[[/Transnational Issues]]
---
> :[[/Transnational Issues]]
------
Japan|982815264
9c9
< From the [[CIA World Factbook]:
---
> From the [[CIA World Factbook]]:
------
Japan/Introduction|982815301
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: While retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidly absorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early
> 20th centuries. After its devastating defeat in [[World War II]], Japan recovered to become the second most powerful economy in the
> world and a staunch ally of the [[US]]. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity, actual power rests in networks
> of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown in the 1990s following
> three decades of unprecedented growth. 
------
US|982815322
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT UnitedStates
------
Japan/Geography|982815430
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan, east of the [[Korean Peninsula]] 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 36 00 N, 138 00 E 
> 
> Map references: [[Asia]]
> 
> Area: 
> total: 377,835 sq km 
> land: 374,744 sq km 
> water: 3,091 sq km 
> note: includes [[Bonin Islands]] (Ogasawara-gunto), Daito-shoto, Minami-jima, Okino-tori-shima, Ryukyu Islands (Nansei-shoto),
> and Volcano Islands (Kazan-retto) 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than [[California]]
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km 
> 
> Coastline: 29,751 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm; between 3 nm and 12 nm in the international straits - [[La Perouse]] or [[Soya]], [[Tsugaru]], Osumi, and Eastern and
> Western Channels of the Korea or [[Tsushima Strait]] 
> 
> Climate: varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north 
> 
> Terrain: mostly rugged and mountainous 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Hachiro-gata -4 m 
> highest point: [[Fujiyama]] 3,776 m 
> 
> Natural resources: negligible mineral resources, fish 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 11% 
> permanent crops: 1% 
> permanent pastures: 2% 
> forests and woodland: 67% 
> other: 19% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 27,820 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: many dormant and some active volcanoes; about 1,500 seismic occurrences (mostly tremors) every year; tsunamis 
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from power plant emissions results in acid rain; acidification of lakes and reservoirs
> degrading water quality and threatening aquatic life; Japan is one of the largest consumers of fish and tropical timber, contributing to
> the depletion of these resources in Asia and elsewhere 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species,
> Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
> Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol 
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location in northeast Asia 
------
Japan/People|982815476
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 126,549,976 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 15% (male 9,575,637; female 9,105,713) 
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 43,363,054; female 42,980,253) 
> 65 years and over: 17% (male 9,024,015; female 12,501,304) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.18% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 9.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 8.15 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 3.91 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 80.7 years 
> male: 77.51 years 
> female: 84.05 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.41 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Japanese (singular and plural) 
> adjective: Japanese 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Japanese 99.4%, other 0.6% (mostly Korean) 
> 
> Religions: observe both Shinto and Buddhist 84%, other 16% (including Christian 0.7%) 
> 
> Languages: [[JapaneseLanguage]]
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 99% (1970 est.) 
> male: NA% 
> female: NA%
------
Japan/People|982815500
38c38
< Religions: observe both Shinto and Buddhist 84%, other 16% (including Christian 0.7%) 
---
> Religions: observe both [[Shinto]] and [[Buddhist]] 84%, other 16% (including [[Christian]] 0.7%) 
46c46
< female: NA%
---
> female: NA%
------
Japan/Government|982815630
1c1,89
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: none 
> conventional short form: Japan 
> 
> Data code: JA 
> 
> Government type: constitutional monarchy (see also: JapanConstitution)
> 
> Capital: [[Tokyo]]
> 
> Administrative divisions: 47 prefectures; [[Aichi]], [[Akita]], [[Aomori]], [[Chiba]], [[Ehime]], [[Fukui]], [[Fukuoka]], Fukushima, Gifu, Gumma,
> [[Hiroshima]], [[Hokkaido]], Hyogo, Ibaraki, Ishikawa, Iwate, Kagawa, Kagoshima, Kanagawa, Kochi, Kumamoto, Kyoto, Mie, Miyagi,
> Miyazaki, Nagano, [[Nagasaki]], Nara, Niigata, Oita, Okayama, Okinawa, Osaka, Saga, Saitama, Shiga, Shimane, Shizuoka, Tochigi,
> Tokushima, Tokyo, Tottori, Toyama, Wakayama, Yamagata, Yamaguchi, Yamanashi 
> 
> Independence: 660 BC (traditional founding by [[Emperor Jimmu]]) 
> 
> National holiday: Birthday of the Emperor, 23 December (1933) 
> 
> Constitution: 3 May 1947 
> 
> Legal system: modeled after European civil law system with English-American influence; judicial review of legislative acts in the
> Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations 
> 
> Suffrage: 20 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Emperor AKIHITO (since 7 January 1989) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Yoshiro MORI (since 5 April 2000) 
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the prime minister 
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; the Diet designates the prime minister; the constitution requires that the prime minister
> must command a parliamentary majority, therefore, following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a
> majority coalition in the House of Representatives usually becomes prime minister 
> note: on 3 April 2000, Prime Minister Keizo OBUCHI suffered a stroke and was relieved of his duties; Chief Cabinet Secretary Mikio
> AOKI became acting prime minister; on 5 April 2000, Yoshiro MORI was elected prime minister by a vote in both houses of the
> Diet, receiving 137 out of 244 votes cast in the House of Councillors ans 335 out of 488 votes cast in the House of Representatives 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Diet or Kokkai consists of the House of Councillors or Sangi-in (252 seats; one-half of the members
> elected every three years - 76 seats of which are elected from the 47 multi-seat prefectural districts and 50 of which are elected from
> a single nationwide list with voters casting ballots by party; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House
> of Representatives or Shugi-in (500 seats - 200 of which are elected from 11 regional blocks on a proportional representation basis
> and 300 of which are elected from 300 single-seat districts; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) 
> elections: House of Councillors - last held 12 July 1998 (next to be held NA July 2001); House of Representatives - last held 20
> October 1996 (next to be held by October 2000) 
> election results: House of Councillors - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - LDP 102, DPJ 47, JCP 23, Komeito 22, SDP
> 13, Liberal Party 12, independents 26, others 7; note - the distribution of seats as of December 1999 is as follows - LDP 105, DPJ 57,
> Komeito 24, JCP 23, SDP 13, Liberal Party 12, independents 6, others 12; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA;
> seats by party - LDP 240, NFP 142, DPJ 52, JCP 26, SDP 15, Sun Party 10, others 15; note - the distribution of seats as of December
> 1999 is as follows - LDP 267, DPJ 93, Komeito/Reform Club 48, Liberal Party 39, JCP 26, SDP 14, independents 9, others 4 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chief justice is appointed by the monarch after designation by the cabinet, all other justices are
> appointed by the cabinet 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party of Japan or DPJ [Yukio HATOYAMA, leader, Tsutomu HATA, secretary general];
> Japan Communist Party or JCP [Tetsuzo FUWA, chairman, Kazuo SHII, secretary general]; Komeito [Takenori KANZAKI,
> president, Tetsuzo FUYUSHIBA, secretary general]; Liberal Democratic Party or LDP [Yoshiro MORI, president, Hiromu
> NONAKA, secretary general]; Liberal Party [Ichiro OZAWA, president, Hirohisa FUJII, secretary general]; Reform Club [Tatsuo
> OZAWA, leader, Katsuyuki ISHIDA, secretary general]; Social Democratic Party or SDP [Takako DOI, chairperson, Sadao
> FUCHIGAMI, secretary general] 
> note: subsequent to the last legislative elections, the New Frontier Party or NFP and the Sun Party disbanded; in late 1997, the LP was
> formed by former NFP members; the DPJ was formed by former members of the SDP and Sakigake and, in April 1998, was joined by
> three additional parties which had formed after the NFP disbanded; New Peace Party and Komei merged to form Komeito in
> November 1998 
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE (observer), CERN (observer), CP,
> EBRD, ESCAP, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO,
> ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW,
> OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNRWA, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO,
> WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Shunji YANAI 
> chancery: 2520 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 238-6700 
> FAX: [1] (202) 328-2187 
> consulate(s) general: Hagatna (Guam), Anchorage, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Honolulu, Houston, Kansas City
> (Missouri), Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Portland (Oregon), San Francisco, and Seattle 
> consulate(s): Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas S. FOLEY 
> embassy: 10-5, Akasaka 1-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-8420 
> mailing address: Unit 45004, Box 205, APO AP 96337-5004 
> telephone: [81] (3) 3224-5000 
> FAX: [81] (3) 3224-5856 
> consulate(s) general: Naha (Okinawa), Osaka-Kobe, Sapporo 
> consulate(s): Fukuoka, Nagoya 
> 
> Flag description: white with a large red disk (representing the sun without rays) in the cent
------
Japan/Economy|982815688
1c1,91
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively
> small defense allocation (1% of GDP) have helped Japan advance with extraordinary rapidity to the rank of second most
> technologically powerful economy in the world after the [[US]] and third largest economy in the world after the US and [[China]]. One
> notable characteristic of the economy is the working together of manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors in closely knit groups
> called [[keiretsu]]. A second basic feature has been the guarantee of lifetime employment for a substantial portion of the urban labor
> force. Both features are now eroding. Industry, the most important sector of the economy, is heavily dependent on imported raw
> materials and fuels. The much smaller agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected, with crop yields among the highest in the
> world. Usually self-sufficient in rice, Japan must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops. Japan
> maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. For three decades overall real
> economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s.
> Growth slowed markedly in 1992-95 largely because of the aftereffects of overinvestment during the late 1980s and contractionary
> domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Growth picked up to 3.9% in 1996,
> largely a reflection of stimulative fiscal and monetary policies as well as low rates of inflation. But in 1997-98 Japan experienced a
> wrenching recession, centered about financial difficulties in the banking system and real estate markets and exacerbated by rigidities
> in corporate structures and labor markets. In 1999 output started to stabilize as emergency government spending began to take hold
> and business confidence gradually improved. The crowding of habitable land area and the aging of the population are two major
> long-run problems. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength, with Japan possessing 410,000 of the world's 720,000
> "working robots". 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.95 trillion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 0.3% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $23,400 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 2% 
> industry: 35% 
> services: 63% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 67.76 million (November 1999) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: trade and services 65%, industry 30%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 5% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 4.7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $463 billion 
> expenditures: $809 billion, including capital expenditures (public works only) of about $94 billion (FY00/01 est.) 
> 
> Industries: among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools,
> steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals; textiles, processed foods 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -0.1% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 995.982 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 56.68% 
> hydro: 8.99% 
> nuclear: 31.93% 
> other: 2.4% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 926.263 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit; pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs; fish 
> 
> Exports: $413 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: motor vehicles, semiconductors, office machinery, chemicals 
> 
> Exports - partners: US 31%, Taiwan 7%, China 5.5%, South Korea 5.4%, Hong Kong 5.2% (1999) 
> 
> Imports: $306 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, office machinery 
> 
> Imports - partners: US 22%, China 14%, South Korea 5.1%, Australia 4.2%, Taiwan 4.1% (1999) 
> 
> Debt - external: $NA 
> 
> Economic aid - donor: ODA, $9.1 billion (1999) 
> 
> Currency: yen 
> 
> Exchange rates: yen per US$1 - 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March 
> 
------
Japan/Communications|982815752
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 60.3 million (1997) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 36.5 million (1998) 
> 
> Telephone system: excellent domestic and international service 
> domestic: NA 
> international: satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region), and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submarine cables to [[China]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], and [[US]] (via [[Guam]]) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 190, FM 88, shortwave 24 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 120.5 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note - in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable
> services) (1999) 
> 
> Televisions: 86.5 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 357 (1999) 
------
Japan/Transportation|982815788
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
> total: 23,670.7 km 
> standard gauge: 2,893.1 km 1.435-m gauge (entirely electrified) 
> narrow gauge: 89.8 km 1.372-m gauge (89.8 km electrified); 20,656.8 km 1.067-m gauge (10,383.6 km electrified); 31 km 0.762-m
> gauge (3.6 km electrified) (1994) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 1,152,207 km 
> paved: 863,003 km (including 6,114 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 289,204 km (1997 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: about 1,770 km; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 84 km; petroleum products 322 km; natural gas 1,800 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Akita, Amagasaki, Chiba, Hachinohe, Hakodate, Higashi-Harima, Himeji, Hiroshima, Kawasaki, Kinuura, Kobe,
> Kushiro, Mizushima, Moji, Nagoya, Osaka, Sakai, Sakaide, Shimizu, Tokyo, Tomakomai 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 662 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 13,039,488 GRT/18,024,969 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 146, cargo 49, chemical tanker 13, combination bulk 16, combination ore/oil 4, container 25, liquified gas 45,
> passenger 9, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 214, refrigerated cargo 22, roll-on/roll-off 48, short-sea passenger 9, vehicle carrier
> 60 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 171 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 140 
> over 3,047 m: 6 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 34 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 41 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 28 
> under 914 m: 31 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 31 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 
> under 914 m: 28 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 14 (1999 est.) 
> 
------
Japan/Military|982815871
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Japanese military is severely limited by their constition, see JapanConstitution/ChapterTwo.
> 
> Military branches: Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (Army), Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (Navy), Japan Air Self-Defense
> Force (Air Force) 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 30,259,247 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 26,139,516 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 771,452 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42.9 billion (FY98/99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 0.9% (FY98/99) 
------
Japan/Transnational_Issues|982815922
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945,
> now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; [[Liancourt Rocks]] ([[Takeshima]]/[[Tokdo]]) disputed with [[South Korea]]; Senkaku-shoto
> ([[Senkaku Islands]]) claimed by [[China]] and [[Taiwan ]]
------
CIA_World_Factbook|982816041
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[US]] publishes
> annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like.
------
AutoRacing|982816135
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> [[NASCAR]]
> [[Formula One]]
------
AutoRacing|982816148
1,3c1,2
< 
< [[NASCAR]]
< [[Formula One]]
---
> :[[NASCAR]]
> :[[Formula One]]
------
NASCAR|982816176
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also known as "Stock car racing".
> 
> /FamousDrivers
------
NASCAR/FamousDrivers|982816355
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> :Dale Earnhardt
> :Jeff Gordon
> :Mark Martin
> :Rusty Wallace
> :Dale Jarrett
> :Michael Schumacher
> :Bobby Labonte
> :Tony Stewart
> :Richard Petty
> :Jacques Villeneuve
> :Terry Labonte
> :Kyle Petty
> :Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
> :Michael Waltrip
> :Greg Biffle
------
NASCAR/FamousDrivers|982816393
1,16c1,15
< 
< :Dale Earnhardt
< :Jeff Gordon
< :Mark Martin
< :Rusty Wallace
< :Dale Jarrett
< :Michael Schumacher
< :Bobby Labonte
< :Tony Stewart
< :Richard Petty
< :Jacques Villeneuve
< :Terry Labonte
< :Kyle Petty
< :Dale Earnhardt, Jr.
< :Michael Waltrip
< :Greg Biffle
---
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]]
> :[[Jeff Gordon]]
> :[[Mark Martin]]
> :[[Rusty Wallace]]
> :[[Dale Jarrett]]
> :[[Michael Schumacher]]
> :[[Bobby Labonte]]
> :[[Tony Stewart]]
> :[[Richard Petty]]
> :[[Jacques Villeneuve]]
> :[[Terry Labonte]]
> :[[Kyle Petty]]
> :[[Dale Earnhardt, Jr.]]
> :[[Michael Waltrip]]
> :[[Greg Biffle]]
------
Animalia|982816513
26c26
< The vast majority of the triploblastic phyla form a group called the Protostomia.  These forms have a one-way digestive cavity, with a second opening developing to pass waste through.  The mesoderm arises as in the flatworms, from a single cell, and then divides to form a mass on each side of the body.  Usually there is a hollow space around the gut, called the ''coelom'', arising from a split within the mesoderm, or at least some reduced version thereof (eg a pseudocoelom, where the split occurs between the mesoderm and endoderm).
---
> The vast majority of the triploblastic phyla form a group called the Protostomia.  These forms have a one-way digestive cavity, with a second opening developing to pass waste through.  The mesoderm arises as in the flatworms, from a single cell, and then divides to form a mass on each side of the body.  Usually there is a hollow space around the gut, called the ''coelom'', arising from a split within the mesoderm, or at least some reduced version thereof (eg a pseudocoelom, where the split occurs between the mesoderm and endoderm, common in microscopic forms).
28,40c28,30
< ''Incertae sedis'' (at least I don't know where to put them):
< 
< * Phylum [[Rotifera]]
< * Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
< * Phylum [[Gastrotricha]]
< * Phylum [[Gnathostomulida]]
< * Phylum [[Entoprocta]]
< * Phylum [[Cycliophora]]
< 
< Trochozoa:
< 
< * Phylum [[Nemertea]]
< * Phylum [[Mollusca]]
---
> Some of the main protostome phyla are united by the presence of trocophore larva, which are distinguished by a special pattern of flagella, into a group called the Trochozoa.  These include:
> * Phylum [[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms)
> * Phylum [[Mollusca]] (snails, clams, squids, etc)
45c35
< * Phylum [[Annelida]]
---
> * Phylum [[Annelida]] (segmented worms)
47c37
< Ecdysozoa:
---
> Traditionally the [[Arthropoda]] - the largest animal phylum including insects, spiders, crabs, and kin - and two small phyla related thereto, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], have been held to be close relatives of the annelids on account of their common segmented body plan.  This relationship is now in doubt, and it appears that the arthropods may instead belong with various pseudocoelomate worms - the [[Nematoda]] (roundworms), [[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms), [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Loricifera]], and [[Priapulida]] - that share with them the characteristic of moulting.
49,54c39
< * Phylum [[Cephalorhyncha]] (=priapulida, kinorhyncha, loricifera)
< * Phylum [[Nematoda]]
< * Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
< * Phylum [[Onychophora]]
< * Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
< * Phylum [[Arthropoda]] (e.g. insecta, arachnida, crustacea)
---
> There are various pseudocoelomate protostomes that are hard to classify because of their small size and reduced structure.  The [[Rotifera]] and [[Acanthocephala]] are closely related to each other and probably belong near the Trochozoa.  Other groups include the [[Gastrotricha]], [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Entoprocta]], and [[Cycliophora]].  The last was discovered only recently, and as little investigation has been done into the marine world more will probably turn up.
------
Dale_Earnhardt|982816977
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dale Earnhardt was an American [[NASCAR]] driver.  He was born April 29, 1951 in [[Kannapolis]], [[North Carolina]].  He died
> February 18, 2001 in a racing accident during the [[Daytona 500]].
> 
> Earnhardt grew up in a racing family.  His father, Ralph, died of a heart attack while working on his race car in 1973.  Dale Earnhardt's career began two year later, and by 1979 he had won the [[Winston Cup]] Rookie of the Year award.  For his aggressive driving style, Earnhardt quickly won the nickname "The Intimidator."
> 
> During his career, Earnhardt won the [[NASCAR Championship]] seven times, tying the record of the legendary [[Richard Petty]].
> Additionally, his prize winnings totalled more than $300 million.
> 
> His son, [[Dale Earnhardt Jr.]] is also a [[NASCAR]] driver.
------
NASCAR|982817053
3a4,6
> 
> See Also:
> *[[NASCAR Championship]]
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817105
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Year    Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
> 
> 
>              1998    Jeff Gordon           364           Mark Martin
>              1997    Jeff Gordon            14           Dale Jarrett
>              1996    Terry Labonte          37           Jeff Gordon
>              1995    Jeff Gordon            34           Dale Earnhardt
>              1994    Dale Earnhardt        444           Mark Martin
>              1993    Dale Earnhardt         80           Rusty Wallace
>              1992    Alan Kulwicki          10           Bill Elliott
>              1991    Dale Earnhardt        195           Ricky Rudd
>              1990    Dale Earnhardt         26           Mark Martin
>              1989    Rusty Wallace          12           Dale Earnhardt
>              1988    Bill Elliott           24           Rusty Wallace
>              1987    Dale Earnhardt        489           Bill Elliott
>              1986    Dale Earnhardt        288           Darrell Waltrip
>              1985    Darrell Waltrip       101           Bill Elliott
>              1984    Terry Labonte          65           Harry Gant
>              1983    Bobby Allison          47           Darrell Waltrip
>              1982    Darrell Waltrip        72           Bobby Allison
>              1981    Darrell Waltrip        53           Bobby Allison
>              1980    Dale Earnhardt         19           Cale Yarborough
>              1979    Richard Petty          11           Darrell Waltrip
>              1978    Cale Yarborough       474           Bobby Allison
>              1977    Cale Yarborough       386           Richard Petty
>              1976    Cale Yarborough       195           Richard Petty
>              1975    Richard Petty         722           Dave Marcis
>              1974    Richard Petty         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
>              1973    Benny Parsons         n/a           Cale Yarborough
>              1972    Richard Petty         n/a           Bobby Allison
>              1971    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
>              1970    Bobby Isaac           n/a           Bobby Allison
>              1969    David Pearson         n/a           Richard Petty
>              1968    David Pearson         n/a           Bobby Isaac
>              1967    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
>              1966    David Pearson         n/a           James Hylton
>              1965    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
>              1964    Richard Petty         n/a           Ned Jarrett
>              1963    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty
>              1962    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty 
>              1961    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Rex White
>              1960    Rex White             n/a           Richard Petty
>              1959    Lee Petty             n/a           Cotton Owens
>              1958    Lee Petty             n/a           Buck Baker
>              1957    Buck Baker            n/a           Marvin Panch
>              1956    Buck Baker            n/a           Herb Thomas
>              1955    Tim Flock             n/a           Buck Baker
>              1954    Lee Petty             n/a           Herb Thomas
>              1953    Herb Thomas           n/a           Lee Petty
>              1952    Tim Flock             n/a           Herb Thomas
>              1951    Herb Thomas           n/a           Fonty Flock
>              1950    Bill Rexford          n/a           Fireball Roberts
>              1949    Red Byron             n/a           Lee Petty
> 
------
Animalia|982817203
41c41
< Lophophorata:
---
> The [[Brachiopoda]] (lamp shells), [[Ectoprocta]] (=Bryozoa, moss animals), and [[Phoronida]] form a group called the Lophophorata, thanks to the shared presence of a fan of cilia around the mouth called the lophophore.  The evolutionary relationships of these forms are very unclear, and the group may belong among the Deuterostomes and is possibly paraphyletic.
43,47c43
< * Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
< * Phylum [[Ectoprocta]] (=bryozoa)
< * Phylum [[Phoronida]]
< 
< Deuterostomia:
---
> The Deuterostomes differ from the Protostomes in various ways.  They also have a one-way digestive tract, but in this case the second opening is the mouth, so it goes the other way, and the mesoderm and coelom do not form in the same way, but rather through evagination of the endoderm called enterocoelic pouching.  And, finally, the embryonic cleavage is different.  All this suggests that the two lines are separate and monophyletic.  The Deuterostomes include:
50c46
< * Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
---
> * Phylum [[Echinodermata]] (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc)
52c48
< * Phylum [[Chordata]] (e.g. vertebrates)
---
> * Phylum [[Chordata]] (vertebrates and their kin)
53a50
> There are also some extinct animal phyla that, not having knowledge of their embryology or structure, are very difficult to place.  These are mostly from the cambrian period, and include [[Archaeocyantha]] (possibly sponges), [[Conulariida]] (possibly cnidarians), and [[Conodonta]] (possibly chordates).
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817323
4,53c4,53
<              1998    Jeff Gordon           364           Mark Martin
<              1997    Jeff Gordon            14           Dale Jarrett
<              1996    Terry Labonte          37           Jeff Gordon
<              1995    Jeff Gordon            34           Dale Earnhardt
<              1994    Dale Earnhardt        444           Mark Martin
<              1993    Dale Earnhardt         80           Rusty Wallace
<              1992    Alan Kulwicki          10           Bill Elliott
<              1991    Dale Earnhardt        195           Ricky Rudd
<              1990    Dale Earnhardt         26           Mark Martin
<              1989    Rusty Wallace          12           Dale Earnhardt
<              1988    Bill Elliott           24           Rusty Wallace
<              1987    Dale Earnhardt        489           Bill Elliott
<              1986    Dale Earnhardt        288           Darrell Waltrip
<              1985    Darrell Waltrip       101           Bill Elliott
<              1984    Terry Labonte          65           Harry Gant
<              1983    Bobby Allison          47           Darrell Waltrip
<              1982    Darrell Waltrip        72           Bobby Allison
<              1981    Darrell Waltrip        53           Bobby Allison
<              1980    Dale Earnhardt         19           Cale Yarborough
<              1979    Richard Petty          11           Darrell Waltrip
<              1978    Cale Yarborough       474           Bobby Allison
<              1977    Cale Yarborough       386           Richard Petty
<              1976    Cale Yarborough       195           Richard Petty
<              1975    Richard Petty         722           Dave Marcis
<              1974    Richard Petty         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
<              1973    Benny Parsons         n/a           Cale Yarborough
<              1972    Richard Petty         n/a           Bobby Allison
<              1971    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
<              1970    Bobby Isaac           n/a           Bobby Allison
<              1969    David Pearson         n/a           Richard Petty
<              1968    David Pearson         n/a           Bobby Isaac
<              1967    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
<              1966    David Pearson         n/a           James Hylton
<              1965    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
<              1964    Richard Petty         n/a           Ned Jarrett
<              1963    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty
<              1962    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty 
<              1961    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Rex White
<              1960    Rex White             n/a           Richard Petty
<              1959    Lee Petty             n/a           Cotton Owens
<              1958    Lee Petty             n/a           Buck Baker
<              1957    Buck Baker            n/a           Marvin Panch
<              1956    Buck Baker            n/a           Herb Thomas
<              1955    Tim Flock             n/a           Buck Baker
<              1954    Lee Petty             n/a           Herb Thomas
<              1953    Herb Thomas           n/a           Lee Petty
<              1952    Tim Flock             n/a           Herb Thomas
<              1951    Herb Thomas           n/a           Fonty Flock
<              1950    Bill Rexford          n/a           Fireball Roberts
<              1949    Red Byron             n/a           Lee Petty
---
>  1998    [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           Mark Martin
>  1997    [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           Dale Jarrett
>  1996    [[Terry Labonte]]          37           Jeff Gordon
>  1995    [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           Dale Earnhardt
>  1994    [[Dale Earnhardt]]    444           Mark Martin
>  1993    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           Rusty Wallace
>  1992    [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           Bill Elliott
>  1991    Dale Earnhardt        195           Ricky Rudd
>  1990    Dale Earnhardt         26           Mark Martin
>  1989    Rusty Wallace          12           Dale Earnhardt
>  1988    Bill Elliott           24           Rusty Wallace
>  1987    Dale Earnhardt        489           Bill Elliott
>  1986    Dale Earnhardt        288           Darrell Waltrip
>  1985    Darrell Waltrip       101           Bill Elliott
>  1984    Terry Labonte          65           Harry Gant
>  1983    Bobby Allison          47           Darrell Waltrip
>  1982    Darrell Waltrip        72           Bobby Allison
>  1981    Darrell Waltrip        53           Bobby Allison
>  1980    Dale Earnhardt         19           Cale Yarborough
>  1979    Richard Petty          11           Darrell Waltrip
>  1978    Cale Yarborough       474           Bobby Allison
>  1977    Cale Yarborough       386           Richard Petty
>  1976    Cale Yarborough       195           Richard Petty
>  1975    Richard Petty         722           Dave Marcis
>  1974    Richard Petty         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
>  1973    Benny Parsons         n/a           Cale Yarborough
>  1972    Richard Petty         n/a           Bobby Allison
>  1971    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
>  1970    Bobby Isaac           n/a           Bobby Allison
>  1969    David Pearson         n/a           Richard Petty
>  1968    David Pearson         n/a           Bobby Isaac
>  1967    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
>  1966    David Pearson         n/a           James Hylton
>  1965    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
>  1964    Richard Petty         n/a           Ned Jarrett
>  1963    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty
>  1962    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty 
>  1961    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Rex White
>  1960    Rex White             n/a           Richard Petty
>  1959    Lee Petty             n/a           Cotton Owens
>  1958    Lee Petty             n/a           Buck Baker
>  1957    Buck Baker            n/a           Marvin Panch
>  1956    Buck Baker            n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1955    Tim Flock             n/a           Buck Baker
>  1954    Lee Petty             n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1953    Herb Thomas           n/a           Lee Petty
>  1952    Tim Flock             n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1951    Herb Thomas           n/a           Fonty Flock
>  1950    Bill Rexford          n/a           Fireball Roberts
>  1949    Red Byron             n/a           Lee Petty
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817500
1c1
< Year    Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
---
>  Year    Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
8c8
<  1994    [[Dale Earnhardt]]    444           Mark Martin
---
>  1994    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           Mark Martin
11,53c11,53
<  1991    Dale Earnhardt        195           Ricky Rudd
<  1990    Dale Earnhardt         26           Mark Martin
<  1989    Rusty Wallace          12           Dale Earnhardt
<  1988    Bill Elliott           24           Rusty Wallace
<  1987    Dale Earnhardt        489           Bill Elliott
<  1986    Dale Earnhardt        288           Darrell Waltrip
<  1985    Darrell Waltrip       101           Bill Elliott
<  1984    Terry Labonte          65           Harry Gant
<  1983    Bobby Allison          47           Darrell Waltrip
<  1982    Darrell Waltrip        72           Bobby Allison
<  1981    Darrell Waltrip        53           Bobby Allison
<  1980    Dale Earnhardt         19           Cale Yarborough
<  1979    Richard Petty          11           Darrell Waltrip
<  1978    Cale Yarborough       474           Bobby Allison
<  1977    Cale Yarborough       386           Richard Petty
<  1976    Cale Yarborough       195           Richard Petty
<  1975    Richard Petty         722           Dave Marcis
<  1974    Richard Petty         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
<  1973    Benny Parsons         n/a           Cale Yarborough
<  1972    Richard Petty         n/a           Bobby Allison
<  1971    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
<  1970    Bobby Isaac           n/a           Bobby Allison
<  1969    David Pearson         n/a           Richard Petty
<  1968    David Pearson         n/a           Bobby Isaac
<  1967    Richard Petty         n/a           James Hylton
<  1966    David Pearson         n/a           James Hylton
<  1965    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
<  1964    Richard Petty         n/a           Ned Jarrett
<  1963    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty
<  1962    Joe Weatherly         n/a           Richard Petty 
<  1961    Ned Jarrett           n/a           Rex White
<  1960    Rex White             n/a           Richard Petty
<  1959    Lee Petty             n/a           Cotton Owens
<  1958    Lee Petty             n/a           Buck Baker
<  1957    Buck Baker            n/a           Marvin Panch
<  1956    Buck Baker            n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1955    Tim Flock             n/a           Buck Baker
<  1954    Lee Petty             n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1953    Herb Thomas           n/a           Lee Petty
<  1952    Tim Flock             n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1951    Herb Thomas           n/a           Fonty Flock
<  1950    Bill Rexford          n/a           Fireball Roberts
<  1949    Red Byron             n/a           Lee Petty
---
>  1991    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           Ricky Rudd
>  1990    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           Mark Martin
>  1989    [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           Dale Earnhardt
>  1988    [[Bill Elliott]]           24           Rusty Wallace
>  1987    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        489           Bill Elliott
>  1986    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        288           Darrell Waltrip
>  1985    [[Darrell Waltrip]]       101           Bill Elliott
>  1984    [[Terry Labonte]]          65           Harry Gant
>  1983    [[Bobby Allison]]          47           Darrell Waltrip
>  1982    [[Darrell Waltrip]]        72           Bobby Allison
>  1981    [[Darrell Waltrip]]        53           Bobby Allison
>  1980    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         19           Cale Yarborough
>  1979    [[Richard Petty]]         11           Darrell Waltrip
>  1978    [[Cale Yarborough]]       474           Bobby Allison
>  1977    [[Cale Yarborough]]       386           Richard Petty
>  1976    [[Cale Yarborough]]       195           Richard Petty
>  1975    [[Richard Petty]]         722           Dave Marcis
>  1974    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
>  1973    [[Benny Parsons]]         n/a           Cale Yarborough
>  1972    [[Richard Petty]]        n/a           Bobby Allison
>  1971    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           James Hylton
>  1970    [[Bobby Isaac]]          n/a           Bobby Allison
>  1969    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           Richard Petty
>  1968    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           Bobby Isaac
>  1967    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           James Hylton
>  1966    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           James Hylton
>  1965    [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
>  1964    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           Ned Jarrett
>  1963    [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           Richard Petty
>  1962    [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           Richard Petty 
>  1961    [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           Rex White
>  1960    [[Rex White]]             n/a           Richard Petty
>  1959    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Cotton Owens
>  1958    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Buck Baker
>  1957    [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           Marvin Panch
>  1956    [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1955    [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           Buck Baker
>  1954    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1953    [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           Lee Petty
>  1952    [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           Herb Thomas
>  1951    [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           Fonty Flock
>  1950    [[Bill Rexford]]          n/a           Fireball Roberts
>  1949    [[Red Byron]]             n/a           Lee Petty
------
Film_Directors|982817736
1,11d0
< :[[Martin Scorcese]]
< :[[Oliver Stone]]
< :[[Stephen Spielberg]]
< :[[George Lucas]]
< :[[John Woo]]
< :[[Quentin Tarantino]]
< :[[James Cameron]]
< :[[Wim Wenders]]
< :[[Mike Figgis]]
< :[[Stanley Kubrick]]
< :[[Francis Ford Coppola]]
13,14d1
< :[[John Ford]]
< :[[David Lynch]]
16c3
< :[[Luchino Visconti]]
---
> :[[James Cameron]]
18d4
< :[[David Griffith | D. W. Griffith]]
19a6
> :[[Francis Ford Coppola]]
21c8,21
< :[[Ang Lee]]
---
> :[[Mike Figgis]]
> :[[John Ford]]
> :[[David Griffith | D. W. Griffith]]
> :[[Stanley Kubrick]]
> :[[Ang Lee]]
> :[[George Lucas]]
> :[[David Lynch]]
> :[[Martin Scorcese]]
> :[[Stephen Spielberg]]
> :[[Oliver Stone]]
> :[[Quentin Tarantino]]
> :[[Luchino Visconti]]
> :[[Wim Wenders]]
> :[[John Woo]]
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817788
1c1
<  Year    Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
---
>  Year  Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
4,53c4,53
<  1998    [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           Mark Martin
<  1997    [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           Dale Jarrett
<  1996    [[Terry Labonte]]          37           Jeff Gordon
<  1995    [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           Dale Earnhardt
<  1994    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           Mark Martin
<  1993    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           Rusty Wallace
<  1992    [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           Bill Elliott
<  1991    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           Ricky Rudd
<  1990    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           Mark Martin
<  1989    [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           Dale Earnhardt
<  1988    [[Bill Elliott]]           24           Rusty Wallace
<  1987    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        489           Bill Elliott
<  1986    [[Dale Earnhardt]]        288           Darrell Waltrip
<  1985    [[Darrell Waltrip]]       101           Bill Elliott
<  1984    [[Terry Labonte]]          65           Harry Gant
<  1983    [[Bobby Allison]]          47           Darrell Waltrip
<  1982    [[Darrell Waltrip]]        72           Bobby Allison
<  1981    [[Darrell Waltrip]]        53           Bobby Allison
<  1980    [[Dale Earnhardt]]         19           Cale Yarborough
<  1979    [[Richard Petty]]         11           Darrell Waltrip
<  1978    [[Cale Yarborough]]       474           Bobby Allison
<  1977    [[Cale Yarborough]]       386           Richard Petty
<  1976    [[Cale Yarborough]]       195           Richard Petty
<  1975    [[Richard Petty]]         722           Dave Marcis
<  1974    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a+          Cale Yarborough
<  1973    [[Benny Parsons]]         n/a           Cale Yarborough
<  1972    [[Richard Petty]]        n/a           Bobby Allison
<  1971    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           James Hylton
<  1970    [[Bobby Isaac]]          n/a           Bobby Allison
<  1969    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           Richard Petty
<  1968    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           Bobby Isaac
<  1967    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           James Hylton
<  1966    [[David Pearson]]         n/a           James Hylton
<  1965    [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           Dick Hutcherson
<  1964    [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           Ned Jarrett
<  1963    [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           Richard Petty
<  1962    [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           Richard Petty 
<  1961    [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           Rex White
<  1960    [[Rex White]]             n/a           Richard Petty
<  1959    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Cotton Owens
<  1958    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Buck Baker
<  1957    [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           Marvin Panch
<  1956    [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1955    [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           Buck Baker
<  1954    [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1953    [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           Lee Petty
<  1952    [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           Herb Thomas
<  1951    [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           Fonty Flock
<  1950    [[Bill Rexford]]          n/a           Fireball Roberts
<  1949    [[Red Byron]]             n/a           Lee Petty
---
>  1998 [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           [[Mark Martin
>  1997 [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           [[Dale Jarrett
>  1996 [[Terry Labonte]]          37           [[Jeff Gordon
>  1995 [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           [[Dale Earnhardt
>  1994 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           [[Mark Martin
>  1993 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           [[Rusty Wallace
>  1992 [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           [[Bill Elliott
>  1991 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           [[Ricky Rudd
>  1990 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           [[Mark Martin
>  1989 [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           [[Dale Earnhardt
>  1988 [[Bill Elliott]]           24           [[Rusty Wallace]]
>  1987 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        489           [[Bill Elliott]]
>  1986 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        288           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
>  1985 [[Darrell Waltrip]]       101           [[Bill Elliott]]
>  1984 [[Terry Labonte]]          65           [[Harry Gant]]
>  1983 [[Bobby Allison]]          47           [[Darrell]] Waltrip
>  1982 [[Darrell Waltrip]]        72           [[Bobby Allison]]
>  1981 [[Darrell Waltrip]]        53           [[Bobby Allison]]
>  1980 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         19           [[Cale Yarborough]]
>  1979 [[Richard Petty]]          11           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
>  1978 [[Cale Yarborough]]       474           [[Bobby Allison]]
>  1977 [[Cale Yarborough]]       386           [[Richard Petty]]
>  1976 [[Cale Yarborough]]       195           [[Richard Petty]]
>  1975 [[Richard Petty]]         722           [[Dave Marcis]]
>  1974 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a+          [[Cale Yarborough]]
>  1973 [[Benny Parsons]]         n/a           [[Cale Yarborough]]
>  1972 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[Bobby Allison]]
>  1971 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
>  1970 [[Bobby Isaac]]           n/a           [[Bobby Allison]]
>  1969 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
>  1968 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[Bobby Isaac]]
>  1967 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
>  1966 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
>  1965 [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           [[Dick Hutcherson]]
>  1964 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[Ned Jarrett]]
>  1963 [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
>  1962 [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]] 
>  1961 [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           [[Rex White]]
>  1960 [[Rex White]]             n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
>  1959 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Cotton Owens]]
>  1958 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Buck Baker]]
>  1957 [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           [[Marvin Panch]]
>  1956 [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
>  1955 [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           [[Buck Baker]]
>  1954 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
>  1953 [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           [[Lee Petty]]
>  1952 [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
>  1951 [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           [[Fonty Flock]]
>  1950 [[Bill Rexford]]          n/a           [[Fireball Robert]]
>  1949 [[Red Byron]]             n/a           [[Lee Petty]]
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817806
4,13c4,13
<  1998 [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           [[Mark Martin
<  1997 [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           [[Dale Jarrett
<  1996 [[Terry Labonte]]          37           [[Jeff Gordon
<  1995 [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           [[Dale Earnhardt
<  1994 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           [[Mark Martin
<  1993 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           [[Rusty Wallace
<  1992 [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           [[Bill Elliott
<  1991 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           [[Ricky Rudd
<  1990 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           [[Mark Martin
<  1989 [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           [[Dale Earnhardt
---
>  1998 [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           [[Mark Martin]]
>  1997 [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           [[Dale Jarrett]]
>  1996 [[Terry Labonte]]          37           [[Jeff Gordon]]
>  1995 [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           [[Dale Earnhardt]]
>  1994 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           [[Mark Martin]]
>  1993 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           [[Rusty Wallace]]
>  1992 [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           [[Bill Elliott]]
>  1991 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           [[Ricky Rudd]]
>  1990 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           [[Mark Martin]]
>  1989 [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           [[Dale Earnhardt]]
------
NASCAR_Championship|982817974
19c19
<  1983 [[Bobby Allison]]          47           [[Darrell]] Waltrip
---
>  1983 [[Bobby Allison]]          47           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
------
Josh_Grosse|982818051
28a29,30
> ----
> How do you know so much about [[Animalia]], and the like?
------
TheoryOfConduct|982818643
3c3
< Since we have spent so long on the theory of value, we are left with less time than I would like to spend on the theory of conduct.  Many ethicists behave as though the theory of conduct is more important, but I disagree with them about that.  Anyway, we’ll do what we can.  We can at least learn the outlines of some of the major views.
---
> Since we have spent so long on the theory of value, we are left with less time than I would like to spend on the theory of conduct.  Many ethicists behave as though the theory of conduct is more important, but I disagree with them about that.  Anyway, we?ll do what we can.  We can at least learn the outlines of some of the major views.
5c5
< Thus far, we’ve been looking at what things are valuable.  So suppose we have fixed upon some theory of value; <i>given</i> that we have decided that certain things are intrinsically good, or more valuable than other things that are intrinsically good, given all that, the next big question is what it implies about how we should live our lives.
---
> Thus far, we've been looking at what things are valuable.  So suppose we have fixed upon some theory of value; <i>given</i> that we have decided that certain things are intrinsically good, or more valuable than other things that are intrinsically good, given all that, the next big question is what it implies about how we should live our lives.
7c7
< As I described it last time, the theory of conduct is "the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil."  But we may, I think, simplify matters considerably.  It’s not like we have to take up each of these concepts in turn, the concepts of "right," "wrong," "obligation," "permission," "virtue," "vice," and so forth.  I think that if we focus in on just <i>one</i> of these concepts, we will be able to define the others in terms of it.  For example, say we define "right action."  Then we can define "wrong action" as "action that is not right."  In fact, we could spend a good lot of time trying to explain what the relations are between these terms.  For example, we might ask: If an action is right, then am I obligated to do it?  Or how about this: If I <i>ought</i> to do something, then would I be practicing a virtue if I did it?
---
> As I described it last time, the theory of conduct is "the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil."  But we may, I think, simplify matters considerably.  It?s not like we have to take up each of these concepts in turn, the concepts of "right," "wrong," "obligation," "permission," "virtue," "vice," and so forth.  I think that if we focus in on just <i>one</i> of these concepts, we will be able to define the others in terms of it.  For example, say we define "right action."  Then we can define "wrong action" as "action that is not right."  In fact, we could spend a good lot of time trying to explain what the relations are between these terms.  For example, we might ask: If an action is right, then am I obligated to do it?  Or how about this: If I <i>ought</i> to do something, then would I be practicing a virtue if I did it?
9c9
< We obviously don’t have time to consider all <i>those</i> questions.  You are just going to have to take my word for it that, once we come up with a good theory of <i>one</i> of these concepts, that will allow us to make sense of the <i>other</i> of these concepts.
---
> We obviously don?t have time to consider all <i>those</i> questions.  You are just going to have to take my word for it that, once we come up with a good theory of <i>one</i> of these concepts, that will allow us to make sense of the <i>other</i> of these concepts.
15c15
< I <i>ought</i> to help a stranger on the roadside if, and only if -- well, what?  Let’s start with a popular, seemingly very sensible rule, the Golden Rule.  You know that Golden Rule: Treat others in a way that you would like to be treated yourself.  So we could restate the Golden Rule like this:
---
> I <i>ought</i> to help a stranger on the roadside if, and only if -- well, what?  Let?s start with a popular, seemingly very sensible rule, the Golden Rule.  You know that Golden Rule: Treat others in a way that you would like to be treated yourself.  So we could restate the Golden Rule like this:
19c19
< So, sure.  Help the stranger on the roadside -- and why?  Because that’s how you would like to be treated yourself, if you found yourself stranded.  That makes some sense.  But unfortunately, as you have no doubt come to expect, the first or most common view of things is not always the best.  As useful as the Golden Rule may be, it’s not perfect.
---
> So, sure.  Help the stranger on the roadside -- and why?  Because that?s how you would like to be treated yourself, if you found yourself stranded.  That makes some sense.  But unfortunately, as you have no doubt come to expect, the first or most common view of things is not always the best.  As useful as the Golden Rule may be, it?s not perfect.
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< First of all, the Golden Rule only applies to actions that we take with respect to other people.  It only advises us on how to treat others.  What it <i>doesn’t</i> tell us is how behave when we’re at home, alone, and not interacting with others at all.  It doesn’t tell us that we should do our homework on time, or that we should get to bed at an early hour, or anything like that.  And surely a theory of conduct has to apply to individual conduct, and not just social conduct.  Certainly, when we formulate a theory of what we ought to do, we want that theory to tell us how to lead our personal lives, not just how to treat others.
---
> First of all, the Golden Rule only applies to actions that we take with respect to other people.  It only advises us on how to treat others.  What it <i>doesn?t</i> tell us is how behave when we?re at home, alone, and not interacting with others at all.  It doesn?t tell us that we should do our homework on time, or that we should get to bed at an early hour, or anything like that.  And surely a theory of conduct has to apply to individual conduct, and not just social conduct.  Certainly, when we formulate a theory of what we ought to do, we want that theory to tell us how to lead our personal lives, not just how to treat others.
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< Here you might have an objection.  You might say: wait a second, what I do with my own life, on my own time, when it isn’t hurting anyone else, is my own business.  So it’s not a matter for ethics.  If you think that way, then here’s my answer to you: You’re wrong, and not just a little bit wrong, but <i>really</i> wrong!  Consider the implications of what you’re saying: you’re saying that if some action doesn’t affect other people, then morality has absolutely nothing to say about your action.  So then consider some actions that morality would have nothing to say about.  It would have nothing to say about smoking (as long as you didn’t breath your smoke in other peoples’ air); it would have nothing to do with heavy drinking (as long as you didn’t let your drinking affect your job performance and so forth); morality would have nothing to say about whether you ought to do your homework, about whether you should get a good education, whether you should try to keep yourself healthy, and so forth.  But surely morality does have a lot to say about those matters, about matters concerning how you should conduct your own personal life.
---
> Here you might have an objection.  You might say: wait a second, what I do with my own life, on my own time, when it isn?t hurting anyone else, is my own business.  So it?s not a matter for ethics.  If you think that way, then here?s my answer to you: You?re wrong, and not just a little bit wrong, but <i>really</i> wrong!  Consider the implications of what you?re saying: you?re saying that if some action doesn?t affect other people, then morality has absolutely nothing to say about your action.  So then consider some actions that morality would have nothing to say about.  It would have nothing to say about smoking (as long as you didn?t breath your smoke in other peoples? air); it would have nothing to do with heavy drinking (as long as you didn?t let your drinking affect your job performance and so forth); morality would have nothing to say about whether you ought to do your homework, about whether you should get a good education, whether you should try to keep yourself healthy, and so forth.  But surely morality does have a lot to say about those matters, about matters concerning how you should conduct your own personal life.
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< Now notice that I’m <i>not</i> saying you’re not <i>free</i> to do whatever you like.  In this country, that’s pretty obvious.  You’re <i>politically</i> free to do all sorts of corrupt things, in this country, at present.  And to be honest, I personally wouldn’t advocate denying you those freedoms.  But the question here is whether <i>morality</i> might have anything to do with leading your personal life in a virtuous or a corrupt way, so long as it does not directly affect other people.  It seems to me pretty obvious that it does.  In fact, I would submit to you that this is one of the most <i>important</i> things that a theory of conduct can do for us -- it can provide us with wisdom about how we should live <i>all</i> aspects of our lives, personal and social.
---
> Now notice that I?m <i>not</i> saying you?re not <i>free</i> to do whatever you like.  In this country, that?s pretty obvious.  You?re <i>politically</i> free to do all sorts of corrupt things, in this country, at present.  And to be honest, I personally wouldn?t advocate denying you those freedoms.  But the question here is whether <i>morality</i> might have anything to do with leading your personal life in a virtuous or a corrupt way, so long as it does not directly affect other people.  It seems to me pretty obvious that it does.  In fact, I would submit to you that this is one of the most <i>important</i> things that a theory of conduct can do for us -- it can provide us with wisdom about how we should live <i>all</i> aspects of our lives, personal and social.
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< Anyway, since the Golden Rule doesn’t address how we should live our personal lives, it isn’t a complete theory of conduct.  But there are other problems with it as well.  A second problem is that, after all, other people may not want to be treated the way that <i>you’d</i> like to be treated.  For example, I might be a masochist -- I get a great deal of pleasure from certain kinds of pain.  So do unto others as I’d have them do unto me, right?  Tie them up and hurt them, I guess!  That’s how I, the masochist, want to be treated!  Well, that example might be a little flippant, and unfair to defenders of the Golden Rule, but there are plenty of other examples where that came from.
---
> Anyway, since the Golden Rule doesn?t address how we should live our personal lives, it isn?t a complete theory of conduct.  But there are other problems with it as well.  A second problem is that, after all, other people may not want to be treated the way that <i>you?d</i> like to be treated.  For example, I might be a masochist -- I get a great deal of pleasure from certain kinds of pain.  So do unto others as I?d have them do unto me, right?  Tie them up and hurt them, I guess!  That?s how I, the masochist, want to be treated!  Well, that example might be a little flippant, and unfair to defenders of the Golden Rule, but there are plenty of other examples where that came from.
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< Let’s give the Golden Rule a rest and see what other theories of conduct are out there.  Probably the most common general type of theory is <i>consequentialism</i>.  Consequentialism is best looked on as a <i>whole</i> <i>category</i> of theories, not as a particular theory itself.  It says:
---
> Let?s give the Golden Rule a rest and see what other theories of conduct are out there.  Probably the most common general type of theory is <i>consequentialism</i>.  Consequentialism is best looked on as a <i>whole</i> <i>category</i> of theories, not as a particular theory itself.  It says:
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< So consequentialism sees a really close connection between theories of goodness and theories of conduct.  Once you decide what is good, the consequentialist knows what to do: make the most of that good thing.  That’s essentially what we ought to do, according to the consequentialist: we ought to see to it that there is as much good as possible.
---
> So consequentialism sees a really close connection between theories of goodness and theories of conduct.  Once you decide what is good, the consequentialist knows what to do: make the most of that good thing.  That?s essentially what we ought to do, according to the consequentialist: we ought to see to it that there is as much good as possible.
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< <i>Egoism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one’s own pleasure, happiness, or <i>eudaimonia</i>.
---
> <i>Egoism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one's own pleasure, happiness, or <i>eudaimonia</i>.
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< With some thought, you should be able to see that egoism basically presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>individualism</i> is true; utilitarianism, on the other hand, presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is true.  That means, in other words, that egoist says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good for a person, is that person’s own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  <i>And</i> that each of us ought to do whatever we must in order to pursue our own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  On the other hand, the utilitarian says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good, is the well-being of society in general.  And hence that we all ought to do whatever we must to ensure the well-being of society in general.
---
> With some thought, you should be able to see that egoism basically presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>individualism</i> is true; utilitarianism, on the other hand, presupposes that some variety of <i>values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is true.  That means, in other words, that egoist says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good for a person, is that person?s own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  <i>And</i> that each of us ought to do whatever we must in order to pursue our own <i>eudaimonia</i>.  On the other hand, the utilitarian says that the only intrinsic good, or the most important intrinsic good, is the well-being of society in general.  And hence that we all ought to do whatever we must to ensure the well-being of society in general.
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< One important thing to notice is that sometimes, when we help ourselves, we help others.  So sometimes egoism and utilitarianism will sometimes recommend the same actions.  For example, if you go to medical school and become a doctor who saves many lives, while making yourself rich, you both help yourself and help others.  That is, of course, the best sort of scenario.  It would be wonderful if life were always like that -- if, by helping yourself, you always helped others, and by helping others, you always helped yourself.  Some people would say that that’s indeed the case -- but most people do not.
---
> One important thing to notice is that sometimes, when we help ourselves, we help others.  So sometimes egoism and utilitarianism will sometimes recommend the same actions.  For example, if you go to medical school and become a doctor who saves many lives, while making yourself rich, you both help yourself and help others.  That is, of course, the best sort of scenario.  It would be wonderful if life were always like that -- if, by helping yourself, you always helped others, and by helping others, you always helped yourself.  Some people would say that that?s indeed the case -- but most people do not.
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< But there are some utilitarians who are rather extreme, in that they say that the good of society <i>far</i> outweighs your own individual good.  I suppose Jesus would be an example of someone with this view.  Jesus said that we ought to be ready to sell all our worldly possessions to help the poor.  Even if you think that’s too extreme, you might still say to Dr. So-and-so: Dr. So-and-so, you should live in a very modest house, and use no more than, say, $30,000 per year to live on, and you should give all of the rest of your money to charity.  And the reason you should do this is that a flourishing society is much more important than a flourishing individual.  Your own flourishing is thus totally subservient to the good of society.  It has been argued recently by Shelly Kagan that you are indeed morally obligated to do just this sort of thing -- to make your life totally subservient to the service of others.  The moral requirements of utilitarianism on individuals, they say, are very serious indeed.
---
> But there are some utilitarians who are rather extreme, in that they say that the good of society <i>far</i> outweighs your own individual good.  I suppose Jesus would be an example of someone with this view.  Jesus said that we ought to be ready to sell all our worldly possessions to help the poor.  Even if you think that?s too extreme, you might still say to Dr. So-and-so: Dr. So-and-so, you should live in a very modest house, and use no more than, say, $30,000 per year to live on, and you should give all of the rest of your money to charity.  And the reason you should do this is that a flourishing society is much more important than a flourishing individual.  Your own flourishing is thus totally subservient to the good of society.  It has been argued recently by Shelly Kagan that you are indeed morally obligated to do just this sort of thing -- to make your life totally subservient to the service of others.  The moral requirements of utilitarianism on individuals, they say, are very serious indeed.
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< The egoist, of course, disagrees that we have any such obligations.  According to egoism, what matters most, for each individual, is that individual’s <i>own</i> flourishing.  Perhaps the good of society is <i>also</i> important.  But for any given individual, you or me, a flourishing society is <i>not</i> more important, <i>not</i> more intrinsically desirable, than it is for each of us to flourish.  It’s easier and less potentially paradoxical to put this in first-person terms, so let me put it that way.  For <i>me</i>, what is most worthwhile is my <i>own</i> flourishing; and this is <i>more</i> important than the flourishing of society.  As an egoist I might observe that I am not personally responsible for the survival or the quality of life that other people have; so if I am rich when the rest of society is poor, there is not any sort of moral problem there.  Why?  Because my <i>eudaimonia</i> is <i>not</i> to be sacrificed to that of society at large.  My <i>eudaimonia</i> is most important to me; and I expect other people to feel the same way about themselves.  And so it’s not like I <i>ought</i> each year to give all but $30,000 of my salary to charity.  Indeed, what I <i>ought</i> to do is whatever will make my own life flourish; if this includes giving <i>some</i> money to some charities, then so be it.  That entirely depends on whether some amount of charitability is required for my own flourishing.  Maybe it does -- maybe it doesn’t.  Something like this was the view of the very controversial Russian-American novelist and philosopher, Ayn Rand.  It is also the implicit view of many of the ancient Greeks, especially Aristotle.
---
> The egoist, of course, disagrees that we have any such obligations.  According to egoism, what matters most, for each individual, is that individual?s <i>own</i> flourishing.  Perhaps the good of society is <i>also</i> important.  But for any given individual, you or me, a flourishing society is <i>not</i> more important, <i>not</i> more intrinsically desirable, than it is for each of us to flourish.  It?s easier and less potentially paradoxical to put this in first-person terms, so let me put it that way.  For <i>me</i>, what is most worthwhile is my <i>own</i> flourishing; and this is <i>more</i> important than the flourishing of society.  As an egoist I might observe that I am not personally responsible for the survival or the quality of life that other people have; so if I am rich when the rest of society is poor, there is not any sort of moral problem there.  Why?  Because my <i>eudaimonia</i> is <i>not</i> to be sacrificed to that of society at large.  My <i>eudaimonia</i> is most important to me; and I expect other people to feel the same way about themselves.  And so it?s not like I <i>ought</i> each year to give all but $30,000 of my salary to charity.  Indeed, what I <i>ought</i> to do is whatever will make my own life flourish; if this includes giving <i>some</i> money to some charities, then so be it.  That entirely depends on whether some amount of charitability is required for my own flourishing.  Maybe it does -- maybe it doesn?t.  Something like this was the view of the very controversial Russian-American novelist and philosopher, [[Ayn Rand]].  It is also the implicit view of many of the ancient Greeks, especially [[Aristotle]].
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< You might be asking yourself: Isn’t there some middle ground between the two extremes of egoism and utilitarianism, or between extreme selfishness and extreme self-sacrifice?  Why do we have to say that individual lives <i>must</i> be sacrificed to the good of society -- or, on the other hand, that the good of society may be totally ignored in favor of one’s own good?  Surely some sort of hybrid theory is possible.  This point is not often made in introductory discussions of these issues, but it’s important, so I think it’s a point that should be made.
---
> You might be asking yourself: Isn't there some middle ground between the two extremes of egoism and utilitarianism, or between extreme selfishness and extreme self-sacrifice?  Why do we have to say that individual lives <i>must</i> be sacrificed to the good of society -- or, on the other hand, that the good of society may be totally ignored in favor of one?s own good?  Surely some sort of hybrid theory is possible.  This point is not often made in introducto'ry discussions of these issues, but it?s important, so I think its a point that should be made.
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< So here’s how we might formulate a hybrid theory:
---
> So here's how we might formulate a hybrid theory:
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< <i>Hybrid</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one’s <i>eudaimonia</i> unless there is another action, that is not much more costly to oneself but nonetheless maximizes the <i>eudaimonia</i> of other people.
---
> <i>Hybrid</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.  One ought to take action A iff A maximizes the likelihood of one?s <i>eudaimonia</i> unless there is another action, that is not much more costly to oneself but nonetheless maximizes the <i>eudaimonia</i> of other people.
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< Obviously, this is a matter that requires some thought.  And you might very well observe that this is just the sort of struggle that some people in modern American society <i>do</i> go through.  <i>They</i> don’t have any clear idea about how strongly their actions should be influenced by their own interests versus the interests of society at large.  When it comes to purely financial matters, some religions recommend that you tithe 15%.  But obviously, that’s only <i>one</i> <i>relatively</i> <i>small</i> <i>part</i> of the problem of balancing your own interests against those of society -- or just of your family, for that matter.  We could re-formulate the hybrid theory in all sorts of ways.
---
> Obviously, this is a matter that requires some thought.  And you might very well observe that this is just the sort of struggle that some people in modern American society <i>do</i> go through.  <i>They</i> don?t have any clear idea about how strongly their actions should be influenced by their own interests versus the interests of society at large.  When it comes to purely financial matters, some religions recommend that you tithe 15%.  But obviously, that?s only <i>one</i> <i>relatively</i> <i>small</i> <i>part</i> of the problem of balancing your own interests against those of society -- or just of your family, for that matter.  We could re-formulate the hybrid theory in all sorts of ways.
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< So suppose that you don’t know <i>what</i> to think about the issue -- or suppose that you have an opinion on this question, but you admit that you have not rationally justified your opinion.  Then how could you rationally justify any choice at all?  What sort of arguments could you offer in favor of utilitarianism, or egoism, or some version of the hybrid theory?  That’s a very hard question.
---
> So suppose that you don?t know <i>what</i> to think about the issue -- or suppose that you have an opinion on this question, but you admit that you have not rationally justified your opinion.  Then how could you rationally justify any choice at all?  What sort of arguments could you offer in favor of utilitarianism, or egoism, or some version of the hybrid theory?  That?s a very hard question.
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< I’ll tell you about one strategy that some moral theorist have come up with.  It’s called the <i>method</i> <i>of</i> <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  The name is fancy, but a bare-bones version of the method itself can be explained in a fairly simple way.  It goes like this.  List off a bunch of different moral dilemmas and particular moral decisions to be made.  Decide what you think about each of them.  In situation #1, you decide to do A, in situation #2, you decide to do B, and so forth.  Then when you’ve looked at enough situations (I guess it would have to be a lot, but I don’t know how many), you look at different candidate theories of conduct: egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  (And remember, those are only kinds of <i>consequentialism</i>.  We still have to consider <i>other</i> theories of conduct, which we will do next time; the method of equilibrium is supposed to work in considering those other theories as well.)  So as you look at these different candidate theories of conduct, the question you have to ask yourself is: <i>Which</i> of these theories best fits the way <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>decided</i> <i>those</i> <i>moral</i> <i>dilemmas</i> <i>and</i> <i>questions</i>?
---
> I?ll tell you about one strategy that some moral theorist have come up with.  It?s called the <i>method</i> <i>of</i> <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  The name is fancy, but a bare-bones version of the method itself can be explained in a fairly simple way.  It goes like this.  List off a bunch of different moral dilemmas and particular moral decisions to be made.  Decide what you think about each of them.  In situation #1, you decide to do A, in situation #2, you decide to do B, and so forth.  Then when you?ve looked at enough situations (I guess it would have to be a lot, but I don?t know how many), you look at different candidate theories of conduct: egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  (And remember, those are only kinds of <i>consequentialism</i>.  We still have to consider <i>other</i> theories of conduct, which we will do next time; the method of equilibrium is supposed to work in considering those other theories as well.)  So as you look at these different candidate theories of conduct, the question you have to ask yourself is: <i>Which</i> of these theories best fits the way <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>decided</i> <i>those</i> <i>moral</i> <i>dilemmas</i> <i>and</i> <i>questions</i>?
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< Suppose you pick the hybrid theory.  It seems to fit best with your decisions about all those different moral cases; you don’t think you should be totally selfless or totally selfish.  But suppose you think the hybrid theory as I’ve stated it doesn’t fit your decisions <i>perfectly</i> or <i>clearly</i>.  So you tweak the theory here and there.  You add qualifications, explanations, and so forth, until the theory clearly fits your opinions about the cases.  Then you say: that’s the correct theory.  Why?  Because it fits my opinions about lots of different moral cases.  When you get to that point, you are in a state of <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  Keep in mind that this is a bit of a simplification, but that’s the <i>basic</i> idea behind the method of reflective equilibrium.
---
> Suppose you pick the hybrid theory.  It seems to fit best with your decisions about all those different moral cases; you don?t think you should be totally selfless or totally selfish.  But suppose you think the hybrid theory as I?ve stated it doesn?t fit your decisions <i>perfectly</i> or <i>clearly</i>.  So you tweak the theory here and there.  You add qualifications, explanations, and so forth, until the theory clearly fits your opinions about the cases.  Then you say: that?s the correct theory.  Why?  Because it fits my opinions about lots of different moral cases.  When you get to that point, you are in a state of <i>reflective</i> <i>equilibrium</i>.  Keep in mind that this is a bit of a simplification, but that?s the <i>basic</i> idea behind the method of reflective equilibrium.
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< So that’s one way to decide which of these different moral theories is correct: you pose a bunch of moral cases to decide on, then you decide on them, then you pick a theory of conduct that fits your decisions best, and then you adjust your theory of conduct until the fit is perfect.  When the fit is perfect, you are in "reflective equilibrium."
---
> So that?s one way to decide which of these different moral theories is correct: you pose a bunch of moral cases to decide on, then you decide on them, then you pick a theory of conduct that fits your decisions best, and then you adjust your theory of conduct until the fit is perfect.  When the fit is perfect, you are in "reflective equilibrium."
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< But here’s a problem with that method.  What if you don’t <i>know</i> what to decide about particular cases?  What if you can’t make up your mind?  What if the whole reason you want a theory of conduct is so that you <i>can</i> make up your mind?  You tell yourself, "Gee, if only I accepted a theory of conduct.  Then I’d be convinced I knew what the right thing to do was!  But I don’t know what to do, since I don’t have a theory."  I doubt many people actually think this way; but I am <i>certain</i> that quite a few <i>thoughtful</i> people do think this way.  And they’re really stuck, in a practical way.  They’ve got a serious practical problem.  I mean, if you don’t know what to think about particular moral dilemmas, and you don’t have any convictions about any moral principles that would help you get <i>out</i> of those dilemmas, then where do you start?  If you have no opinions about particular cases <i>or</i> about generalizations, how could you make any progress toward firm conviction?
---
> But here?s a problem with that method.  What if you don?t <i>know</i> what to decide about particular cases?  What if you can?t make up your mind?  What if the whole reason you want a theory of conduct is so that you <i>can</i> make up your mind?  You tell yourself, "Gee, if only I accepted a theory of conduct.  Then I?d be convinced I knew what the right thing to do was!  But I don?t know what to do, since I don?t have a theory."  I doubt many people actually think this way; but I am <i>certain</i> that quite a few <i>thoughtful</i> people do think this way.  And they?re really stuck, in a practical way.  They?ve got a serious practical problem.  I mean, if you don?t know what to think about particular moral dilemmas, and you don?t have any convictions about any moral principles that would help you get <i>out</i> of those dilemmas, then where do you start?  If you have no opinions about particular cases <i>or</i> about generalizations, how could you make any progress toward firm conviction?
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< If you ask me, this is one basic philosophical dilemma of the modern age.  A lot of people lose their traditional religion and do not do any philosophy to make up for the total values vacuum that creates.  And the result, I think, is that a lot of people run around as moral relativists.  It seems like no one <i>could</i> have objectively correct answers to questions about the theory of conduct.  Why does it seem that way, to some people?  For the reasons I was just explaining: some people have no definite opinions about particular moral cases <i>or</i> about moral generalizations.  As a result, they think that anything goes, my opinion’s just as good as yours, and so forth.  Indeed, some people are explicitly <i>taught</i> in school that moral questions are (somehow) purely a matter of arbitrary personal decision.  
---
> If you ask me, this is one basic philosophical dilemma of the modern age.  A lot of people lose their traditional religion and do not do any philosophy to make up for the total values vacuum that creates.  And the result, I think, is that a lot of people run around as moral relativists.  It seems like no one <i>could</i> have objectively correct answers to questions about the theory of conduct.  Why does it seem that way, to some people?  For the reasons I was just explaining: some people have no definite opinions about particular moral cases <i>or</i> about moral generalizations.  As a result, they think that anything goes, my opinion?s just as good as yours, and so forth.  Indeed, some people are explicitly <i>taught</i> in school that moral questions are (somehow) purely a matter of arbitrary personal decision.  
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< Here’s how the method would go.  I don’t care who you are, you have <i>some</i> moral convictions.  There isn’t <i>anybody</i> out there who has <i>no</i> moral convictions.  So begin with those moral convictions of which you feel most certain; and actually list them out.  They can be convictions about particular cases, invented or real, <i>or</i> they can be generalizations.  Surely you already believe, very firmly, a number of generalizations about what you ought and ought not to do.  For example, I would be in utter shock if you did not hold, very firmly, that you ought not to kill other people for kicks, or for any frivolous reasons.  I’m sure all of you believe that.  You, or most of you, probably also believe that stealing, cheating, and lying are wrong (or at least that they require very good reasons).
---
> Here?s how the method would go.  I don?t care who you are, you have <i>some</i> moral convictions.  There isn?t <i>anybody</i> out there who has <i>no</i> moral convictions.  So begin with those moral convictions of which you feel most certain; and actually list them out.  They can be convictions about particular cases, invented or real, <i>or</i> they can be generalizations.  Surely you already believe, very firmly, a number of generalizations about what you ought and ought not to do.  For example, I would be in utter shock if you did not hold, very firmly, that you ought not to kill other people for kicks, or for any frivolous reasons.  I?m sure all of you believe that.  You, or most of you, probably also believe that stealing, cheating, and lying are wrong (or at least that they require very good reasons).
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< I’m not pretending that this method is perfect.  For one thing, what if it just turns out that Joseph Stalin and I happen to disagree about what high-level principles about conduct are correct?  How could we, in a reasoned way, resolve the disagreement?  Perhaps we couldn’t.  But as far as I know, this is about the best that we can do.
---
> I?m not pretending that this method is perfect.  For one thing, what if it just turns out that Joseph Stalin and I happen to disagree about what high-level principles about conduct are correct?  How could we, in a reasoned way, resolve the disagreement?  Perhaps we couldn?t.  But as far as I know, this is about the best that we can do.
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< What we’re going to do next is to consider one high-level principle that almost all of us, if not all of us, would accept: namely, that we have certain inalienable <i>rights</i>, and that certain things would be totally <i>unjust</i> for us to do.  Then we are going to evaluate the different kinds of consequentialism to see whether they can take account of these high-level principles about rights and justice.  And we will look at another kind of theory of conduct, <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct, and see how they do on that score.  This will take us into one of the core issues in both ethics and political philosophy: What are rights and what is the justification for thinking that we have them?  And then: What is the role of government in ensuring that we keep these rights?
---
> What we?re going to do next is to consider one high-level principle that almost all of us, if not all of us, would accept: namely, that we have certain inalienable <i>rights</i>, and that certain things would be totally <i>unjust</i> for us to do.  Then we are going to evaluate the different kinds of consequentialism to see whether they can take account of these high-level principles about rights and justice.  And we will look at another kind of theory of conduct, <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct, and see how they do on that score.  This will take us into one of the core issues in both ethics and political philosophy: What are rights and what is the justification for thinking that we have them?  And then: What is the role of government in ensuring that we keep these rights?
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< Today we’re going to talk about a topic that is discussed both in ethics and in political philosophy: justice.  In particular, we’re going to talk about the <i>moral</i> <i>foundations</i> of justice.  In other words, we’re going to ask: How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  I mean, obviously we <i>do</i> have rights, and obviously we <i>do</i> deserve to be treated justly.  The philosophical question isn’t <i>whether</i>, it’s <i>why</i>.  If you will, <i>why</i> do we have rights?  <i>Why</i> do we deserve to be treated justly?
---
> Today we?re going to talk about a topic that is discussed both in ethics and in political philosophy: justice.  In particular, we?re going to talk about the <i>moral</i> <i>foundations</i> of justice.  In other words, we?re going to ask: How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  I mean, obviously we <i>do</i> have rights, and obviously we <i>do</i> deserve to be treated justly.  The philosophical question isn?t <i>whether</i>, it?s <i>why</i>.  If you will, <i>why</i> do we have rights?  <i>Why</i> do we deserve to be treated justly?
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< That’s the topic we’re aiming at.  Before we get there, we have to go back to what we were talking about before, namely consequentialism.
---
> That?s the topic we?re aiming at.  Before we get there, we have to go back to what we were talking about before, namely consequentialism.
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< We have looked at different varieties of consequentialism, and we wound up asking: How can we choose between these different theories?  On what grounds would we argue that one is correct?  Then we looked at the method of reflective equilibrium, and another variant on that same method, as ways to arrive at a theory of conduct.  Now here is one thing that we concluded: a theory of conduct should "square with," should rule the same as, the way you strongly feel about particular cases.  If some theory of conduct says that you ought to take action A, when your strong, pre-theoretic opinion is that you definitely should <i>not</i> take action A, then that’s a good reason to throw the theory out.  Let’s put it this way.  If some theory of conduct you’re looking at says that you should do something that you feel quite sure you <i>shouldn’t</i> do, then that’s a reason to throw out that theory, and look for a new theory.
---
> We have looked at different varieties of consequentialism, and we wound up asking: How can we choose between these different theories?  On what grounds would we argue that one is correct?  Then we looked at the method of reflective equilibrium, and another variant on that same method, as ways to arrive at a theory of conduct.  Now here is one thing that we concluded: a theory of conduct should "square with," should rule the same as, the way you strongly feel about particular cases.  If some theory of conduct says that you ought to take action A, when your strong, pre-theoretic opinion is that you definitely should <i>not</i> take action A, then that?s a good reason to throw the theory out.  Let?s put it this way.  If some theory of conduct you?re looking at says that you should do something that you feel quite sure you <i>shouldn?t</i> do, then that?s a reason to throw out that theory, and look for a new theory.
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< Another thing we said is that we all have some very strong convictions about certain <i>generalizations</i> about morality.  Maybe they aren’t the broadest possible generalizations, but they are nonetheless generalizations: they apply to many different cases, not just one case.  For example, here is a principle that I think almost everyone here would say is correct: we should not punish people for crimes when we know those people to be innocent.  It is <i>always</i> wrong to punish people for things we know they haven’t done.  Why?  Well, that would be <i>unjust</i>, and a blatant violation of their <i>rights</i>.  Definitely we all think that it is right to practice justice -- that as a society we ought to see to it that justice is done and that rights are protected.
---
> Another thing we said is that we all have some very strong convictions about certain <i>generalizations</i> about morality.  Maybe they aren?t the broadest possible generalizations, but they are nonetheless generalizations: they apply to many different cases, not just one case.  For example, here is a principle that I think almost everyone here would say is correct: we should not punish people for crimes when we know those people to be innocent.  It is <i>always</i> wrong to punish people for things we know they haven?t done.  Why?  Well, that would be <i>unjust</i>, and a blatant violation of their <i>rights</i>.  Definitely we all think that it is right to practice justice -- that as a society we ought to see to it that justice is done and that rights are protected.
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< That’s the sort of "very strong conviction about a generalization" that I am talking about.  And the point is: a theory of conduct has to be <i>consistent</i> with those generalizations.  If a theory of conduct would say that we ought to punish someone who is innocent, well then, we can throw out that theory of conduct; why?  Because we very well <i>know</i> that it is wrong to punish the innocent.  You can think of this as an extension of the method of common sense I introduced when we discussed epistemology.  It’s certainly a principle, a generalization, of common sense that we should not punish the innocent.  And just as we said then, talking about the method of common sense, if some sophisticated piece of philosophy comes along and says something that is clearly a principle of common sense, then we can just throw out that sophisticated piece of philosophy.
---
> That?s the sort of "very strong conviction about a generalization" that I am talking about.  And the point is: a theory of conduct has to be <i>consistent</i> with those generalizations.  If a theory of conduct would say that we ought to punish someone who is innocent, well then, we can throw out that theory of conduct; why?  Because we very well <i>know</i> that it is wrong to punish the innocent.  You can think of this as an extension of the method of common sense I introduced when we discussed epistemology.  It?s certainly a principle, a generalization, of common sense that we should not punish the innocent.  And just as we said then, talking about the method of common sense, if some sophisticated piece of philosophy comes along and says something that is clearly a principle of common sense, then we can just throw out that sophisticated piece of philosophy.
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< All right, that’s all by way of setting the stage for a major problem for consequentialism -- for <i>all</i> <i>different</i> <i>kinds</i> of consequentialism, meaning egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  Namely, the problem of justice.  In short, the problem of justice is the problem that consequentialist theories of conduct seem to recommend that we do unjust things.  Consequentialism seems to say that we <i>ought</i> to do some things that are just clearly unjust, and that clearly violate the rights of the innocent.  If that’s the case, then consequentialism must be wrong.
---
> All right, that?s all by way of setting the stage for a major problem for consequentialism -- for <i>all</i> <i>different</i> <i>kinds</i> of consequentialism, meaning egoism, utilitarianism, and the hybrid theory.  Namely, the problem of justice.  In short, the problem of justice is the problem that consequentialist theories of conduct seem to recommend that we do unjust things.  Consequentialism seems to say that we <i>ought</i> to do some things that are just clearly unjust, and that clearly violate the rights of the innocent.  If that?s the case, then consequentialism must be wrong.
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< OK, so let me explain two cases where it seems like consequentialism would recommend that we behave unjustly.  Let’s begin with a case that one of the professors here at Ohio State gives.  Suppose the young daughter of a prominent family in a small town is abducted in broad daylight, raped, and murdered.  The murderer is totally unknown; the police are absolutely baffled and have no leads at all.  Everyone is upset and distraught.  And even worse, people are losing respect for the law; the crime rate is going up, with the imminent threats of more rapes and murders by local gang members, because everyone thinks that the town police are letting people get away with murder.  So the chief of police decides that something has to be done about this.  He arranges for a tramp off the midnight freight train into town to be caught, planted with evidence, and charged.  That’s what they do; the jury is rigged, and the tramp is declared the murderer.  So the tramp is carted off to death row.  Meanwhile, things get back to normal in the town.  Respect for the law is restored.
---
> OK, so let me explain two cases where it seems like consequentialism would recommend that we behave unjustly.  Let?s begin with a case that one of the professors here at Ohio State gives.  Suppose the young daughter of a prominent family in a small town is abducted in broad daylight, raped, and murdered.  The murderer is totally unknown; the police are absolutely baffled and have no leads at all.  Everyone is upset and distraught.  And even worse, people are losing respect for the law; the crime rate is going up, with the imminent threats of more rapes and murders by local gang members, because everyone thinks that the town police are letting people get away with murder.  So the chief of police decides that something has to be done about this.  He arranges for a tramp off the midnight freight train into town to be caught, planted with evidence, and charged.  That?s what they do; the jury is rigged, and the tramp is declared the murderer.  So the tramp is carted off to death row.  Meanwhile, things get back to normal in the town.  Respect for the law is restored.
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< I think we can all agree that this is a terrible miscarriage of justice.  That tramp should not have been tried and convicted of the crime; he did nothing to <i>deserve</i> that, and if he did nothing to deserve it, it was obviously unjust.  But he was; and look at what it accomplished.  It prevented the commission of more rapes and murders, and brought a sense of safety to the entire town.  Meanwhile, <i>only</i> one man’s life was ruined.  If he had not been unjustly convicted, and no one found any other scapegoat, probably <i>more</i> people would have died.  So on the whole, more good was done, it appears, by making the tramp a scapegoat.
---
> I think we can all agree that this is a terrible miscarriage of justice.  That tramp should not have been tried and convicted of the crime; he did nothing to <i>deserve</i> that, and if he did nothing to deserve it, it was obviously unjust.  But he was; and look at what it accomplished.  It prevented the commission of more rapes and murders, and brought a sense of safety to the entire town.  Meanwhile, <i>only</i> one man?s life was ruined.  If he had not been unjustly convicted, and no one found any other scapegoat, probably <i>more</i> people would have died.  So on the whole, more good was done, it appears, by making the tramp a scapegoat.
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< Well surely that’s not right!  It was <i>wrong</i> for the sheriff to have set up that man.  He <i>ought</i> <i>not</i> to have done that.  So it looks like consequentialism recommends something that is <i>wrong</i>.
---
> Well surely that?s not right!  It was <i>wrong</i> for the sheriff to have set up that man.  He <i>ought</i> <i>not</i> to have done that.  So it looks like consequentialism recommends something that is <i>wrong</i>.
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< Here’s a second example, somewhat along the same lines.  Suppose you’re helping out at the local hospital and there has been a major disaster nearby -- an airplane crashed, say.  Organ donations are desperately needed for four people, or they’ll all surely die.  Without the transplants, all four are going to die.  But organ donations have been extremely scarce.  Doctors need a heart, a lung, a kidney, and a liver.  So they see you, young healthy Ohio State student, with a healthy heart, lung, kidney, and liver.  They get to thinking to themselves: "We can kill the student, remove the organs, and save <i>four</i> <i>people</i>.  Those four people from the plane crash were just <i>unlucky</i> to be on that plane.  It wasn’t any fault of their own.  So either four people can die and the Ohio State student lives; or the Ohio State student lives, and the four people all die.  Well, that’s a no-brainer.  Kill the student!"  So they kill you furtively (saying that you had an accident), remove your organs, save four people, and indeed, the amount of goodness in the world is maximized.  Not for <i>you</i>, of course, but for <i>world</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>whole</i>.  Instead of four people dying, only one person died.  If killing you maximizes the amount of good in the world, then by gosh the doctors should kill you!
---
> Here?s a second example, somewhat along the same lines.  Suppose you?re helping out at the local hospital and there has been a major disaster nearby -- an airplane crashed, say.  Organ donations are desperately needed for four people, or they?ll all surely die.  Without the transplants, all four are going to die.  But organ donations have been extremely scarce.  Doctors need a heart, a lung, a kidney, and a liver.  So they see you, young healthy Ohio State student, with a healthy heart, lung, kidney, and liver.  They get to thinking to themselves: "We can kill the student, remove the organs, and save <i>four</i> <i>people</i>.  Those four people from the plane crash were just <i>unlucky</i> to be on that plane.  It wasn?t any fault of their own.  So either four people can die and the Ohio State student lives; or the Ohio State student lives, and the four people all die.  Well, that?s a no-brainer.  Kill the student!"  So they kill you furtively (saying that you had an accident), remove your organs, save four people, and indeed, the amount of goodness in the world is maximized.  Not for <i>you</i>, of course, but for <i>world</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>whole</i>.  Instead of four people dying, only one person died.  If killing you maximizes the amount of good in the world, then by gosh the doctors should kill you!
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< But of course the doctors <i>shouldn’t</i> kill you.  That is <i>clearly</i> wrong.  Even if we can’t say exactly <i>why</i> it was wrong -- beyond saying that it was unjust, and that your right to life had been violated -- nonetheless, however we explain it, it definitely seems wrong.  But the consequentialist observes that the amount of good in the world was maximized; so the doctors did what they ought to have done.
---
> But of course the doctors <i>shouldn?t</i> kill you.  That is <i>clearly</i> wrong.  Even if we can?t say exactly <i>why</i> it was wrong -- beyond saying that it was unjust, and that your right to life had been violated -- nonetheless, however we explain it, it definitely seems wrong.  But the consequentialist observes that the amount of good in the world was maximized; so the doctors did what they ought to have done.
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< This seems to be a really difficult problem.  The consequentialist might try to get out of the problem, though.  There are basically two ways of doing it.  The first is to say that the actions in both of these cases -- making the tramp a scapegoat, and killing you to harvest your organs -- is not wrong at all, but perfectly <i>right</i>.  Call this "biting the bullet."  If you bite the bullet, and say that clearly unjust actions are right, then you’re basically throwing justice out the window.  You’re saying that justice is <i>less</i> important than maximizing the amount of happiness in the world.  If a happiness-maximizing action is unjust, so much the worse for justice.
---
> This seems to be a really difficult problem.  The consequentialist might try to get out of the problem, though.  There are basically two ways of doing it.  The first is to say that the actions in both of these cases -- making the tramp a scapegoat, and killing you to harvest your organs -- is not wrong at all, but perfectly <i>right</i>.  Call this "biting the bullet."  If you bite the bullet, and say that clearly unjust actions are right, then you?re basically throwing justice out the window.  You?re saying that justice is <i>less</i> important than maximizing the amount of happiness in the world.  If a happiness-maximizing action is unjust, so much the worse for justice.
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< Well, I think that just can’t be the correct way to think about this.  Why on earth do we care so much about justice anyway?  At the very least you should explore that question before you just kick justice out into the cold.
---
> Well, I think that just can?t be the correct way to think about this.  Why on earth do we care so much about justice anyway?  At the very least you should explore that question before you just kick justice out into the cold.
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< So the consequentialist has another way to face the problem of justice.  The second option is see if there is some way to explain, <i>using</i> the theoretical resources of consequentialism, why it is that we <i>ought</i> to do the just thing.  The consequentialist thinks that we ought to maximize goodness.  Perhaps there is some way to show that doing the <i>just</i> thing, always respecting others’ rights, maximizes goodness.  In the long run, if everyone always does what is just, that maximizes the amount of happiness in the world.
---
> So the consequentialist has another way to face the problem of justice.  The second option is see if there is some way to explain, <i>using</i> the theoretical resources of consequentialism, why it is that we <i>ought</i> to do the just thing.  The consequentialist thinks that we ought to maximize goodness.  Perhaps there is some way to show that doing the <i>just</i> thing, always respecting others? rights, maximizes goodness.  In the long run, if everyone always does what is just, that maximizes the amount of happiness in the world.
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< Now, do you think that’s true?  Wouldn’t that be an incredibly convenient, very nice thing if it <i>were</i> true?  I mean, it would be <i>great</i> if, by everyone doing what is just, and respecting others’ rights at all times, we <i>did</i> as a matter of fact create a world that had the greatest amount of happiness.  But honestly, can you say that you <i>know</i> that would be the result?  I mean, isn’t it <i>totally</i> <i>possible</i> that, but always being just, and always respecting peoples’ rights, you were prevented from doing some things that would, in the end, make the people who were left in the world happier?  It seems to me it would actually be <i>lucky</i>, and somewhat <i>surprising</i>, if, by always doing what is just, we wound up with the world that is just as good as it possibly can be.
---
> Now, do you think that?s true?  Wouldn?t that be an incredibly convenient, very nice thing if it <i>were</i> true?  I mean, it would be <i>great</i> if, by everyone doing what is just, and respecting others? rights at all times, we <i>did</i> as a matter of fact create a world that had the greatest amount of happiness.  But honestly, can you say that you <i>know</i> that would be the result?  I mean, isn?t it <i>totally</i> <i>possible</i> that, but always being just, and always respecting peoples? rights, you were prevented from doing some things that would, in the end, make the people who were left in the world happier?  It seems to me it would actually be <i>lucky</i>, and somewhat <i>surprising</i>, if, by always doing what is just, we wound up with the world that is just as good as it possibly can be.
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< There are <i>always</i> going to be opportunities to make lots of people happy at the expense of a few hapless souls.  And if that’s the case, it looks like the consequentialist is <i>committed</i> to depriving those hapless souls of their rights, for the sake of the common good.
---
> There are <i>always</i> going to be opportunities to make lots of people happy at the expense of a few hapless souls.  And if that?s the case, it looks like the consequentialist is <i>committed</i> to depriving those hapless souls of their rights, for the sake of the common good.
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< Now, there is another version of consequentialism, called <i>rule</i> consequentialism, which we will talk about later.  Perhaps that other version can overcome the problem of justice.  But I don’t see how the version we’ve considered so far, which is called <i>act</i> consequentialism, can overcome the problem.  It looks like the consequentialist is stuck with having to violate peoples’ rights.  And then it looks like <i>we</i> will have to reject consequentialism, unless <i>we</i> want to say that it’s OK to violate peoples’ rights.
---
> Now, there is another version of consequentialism, called <i>rule</i> consequentialism, which we will talk about later.  Perhaps that other version can overcome the problem of justice.  But I don?t see how the version we?ve considered so far, which is called <i>act</i> consequentialism, can overcome the problem.  It looks like the consequentialist is stuck with having to violate peoples? rights.  And then it looks like <i>we</i> will have to reject consequentialism, unless <i>we</i> want to say that it?s OK to violate peoples? rights.
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< So let’s look next at some theories of conduct which <i>can</i> and <i>do</i> advocate respect for rights.  I mean <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct.  Here is a definition:
---
> So let?s look next at some theories of conduct which <i>can</i> and <i>do</i> advocate respect for rights.  I mean <i>deontological</i> theories of conduct.  Here is a definition:
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< So, for example, the reason that we should not lie is that there is rule, very vaguely stated as, "Do not lie."  And this rule gives us a duty not to lie; and even if telling the truth has awful consequences, that’s just too bad.  Sometimes telling the truth, and doing your duty, hurts.  That’s life.  So says the deontologist.
---
> So, for example, the reason that we should not lie is that there is rule, very vaguely stated as, "Do not lie."  And this rule gives us a duty not to lie; and even if telling the truth has awful consequences, that?s just too bad.  Sometimes telling the truth, and doing your duty, hurts.  That?s life.  So says the deontologist.
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< Now, as a deontologist, you don’t have be entirely naïve.  You don’t have to say, for example, that you should <i>never</i> lie, ever.  Maybe your rule would be more complicated than that.  I mean, if the stormtroopers are knocking on your door, and you’re harboring some enemy of a totalitarian government, are you going to rat on the refugees?  No; definitely not.  So you might change the rule that you follow to something like this: "Do not lie, except to those who would use the truth to do great evils."  And surely there are exceptions to <i>this</i> rule, too.  So you’d have to go to work, I suppose, coming up with a set of rules, or laws, that govern behavior.  And your rules would probably be fairly complicated.  That’s not surprising though; just think about how you live your life, and what you learn.  You can think of wisdom in the art of living as a sort of tacit understanding of all the little complications that need to be added to the rules of right living.
---
> Now, as a deontologist, you don?t have be entirely naïve.  You don?t have to say, for example, that you should <i>never</i> lie, ever.  Maybe your rule would be more complicated than that.  I mean, if the stormtroopers are knocking on your door, and you?re harboring some enemy of a totalitarian government, are you going to rat on the refugees?  No; definitely not.  So you might change the rule that you follow to something like this: "Do not lie, except to those who would use the truth to do great evils."  And surely there are exceptions to <i>this</i> rule, too.  So you?d have to go to work, I suppose, coming up with a set of rules, or laws, that govern behavior.  And your rules would probably be fairly complicated.  That?s not surprising though; just think about how you live your life, and what you learn.  You can think of wisdom in the art of living as a sort of tacit understanding of all the little complications that need to be added to the rules of right living.
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< Now, unfortunately, we aren’t going to be able to go into deontological theories of conduct in any detail.  If we did, we would try to come to grips with Kant’s moral theory; Kant is a very famous, very influential German philosopher of the late 18th century, and his theory of the best examples of the deontological theory out there.  He had one catch-all rule, the Categorical Imperative, from which we were supposed to be able to derive all the other rules that we’d need to have in order to know what we ought to do.  You can find more about this in the reading from Hospers.  We can’t get into that.
---
> Now, unfortunately, we aren?t going to be able to go into deontological theories of conduct in any detail.  If we did, we would try to come to grips with Kant?s moral theory; Kant is a very famous, very influential German philosopher of the late 18th century, and his theory of the best examples of the deontological theory out there.  He had one catch-all rule, the Categorical Imperative, from which we were supposed to be able to derive all the other rules that we?d need to have in order to know what we ought to do.  You can find more about this in the reading from Hospers.  We can?t get into that.
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< What I want to focus on is what the deontological theory can say about rights and justice.  The basic idea should be pretty clear.  Since what we <i>ought</i> to do depends on following certain <i>rules</i>, that state our <i>duties</i>, then there is bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not convict and sentence people we know to be innocent.  That is what makes it wrong to make the tramp a scapegoat.  And that rule also is, in part, what the deontologist would say gives us a right to due process.  And the fact that <i>that</i> <i>right</i> is violated is what makes the sheriff’s act <i>unjust</i>.
---
> What I want to focus on is what the deontological theory can say about rights and justice.  The basic idea should be pretty clear.  Since what we <i>ought</i> to do depends on following certain <i>rules</i>, that state our <i>duties</i>, then there is bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not convict and sentence people we know to be innocent.  That is what makes it wrong to make the tramp a scapegoat.  And that rule also is, in part, what the deontologist would say gives us a right to due process.  And the fact that <i>that</i> <i>right</i> is violated is what makes the sheriff?s act <i>unjust</i>.
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< There is also bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not kill people except in self-defense and in the legitimate administration of justice.  That is what makes it wrong for the doctors to kill you.  That rule is also what gives you the right to life.  And it’s because you have that right, that it is <i>unjust</i> for the doctors to kill you.
---
> There is also bound to be a rule to the effect that we should not kill people except in self-defense and in the legitimate administration of justice.  That is what makes it wrong for the doctors to kill you.  That rule is also what gives you the right to life.  And it?s because you have that right, that it is <i>unjust</i> for the doctors to kill you.
151c151
< I think you probably get the general idea, but let me try to state it clearly.  There are certain rules that state how we ought to treat each other.  <i>Some</i> of those rules give us <i>rights</i>.  And the <i>violation</i> of those rights is what we call <i>injustice</i>.  Accordingly, the condition of <i>justice</i> is the condition in which one’s rights are <i>not</i> violated.  So as you can see, it looks pretty straightforward just how the deontological theory tries to justify our claims to having rights, and that justice must prevail.
---
> I think you probably get the general idea, but let me try to state it clearly.  There are certain rules that state how we ought to treat each other.  <i>Some</i> of those rules give us <i>rights</i>.  And the <i>violation</i> of those rights is what we call <i>injustice</i>.  Accordingly, the condition of <i>justice</i> is the condition in which one?s rights are <i>not</i> violated.  So as you can see, it looks pretty straightforward just how the deontological theory tries to justify our claims to having rights, and that justice must prevail.
153c153
< I don’t know about you, but I think there’s something kind of fishy going on here.  The deontologist just seems to have made the whole task of defending rights way too easy.  Well, you want a right?  We’ll give you a right -- just make up a rule!  You might reply, "We can’t just make up <i>any</i> old rules, and say that we have just <i>any</i> old rights."  And I agree, we can’t.  So, out of the gazillions of rules that are conceivable, how do we decide <i>which</i> rules are the ones that we ought to follow?
---
> I don?t know about you, but I think there?s something kind of fishy going on here.  The deontologist just seems to have made the whole task of defending rights way too easy.  Well, you want a right?  We?ll give you a right -- just make up a rule!  You might reply, "We can?t just make up <i>any</i> old rules, and say that we have just <i>any</i> old rights."  And I agree, we can?t.  So, out of the gazillions of rules that are conceivable, how do we decide <i>which</i> rules are the ones that we ought to follow?
155c155
< Let’s get an example on the table, and I think you’ll be able to see the problem more easily.  Suppose we want to say, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  The deontologist says that that’s the rule that gives us a right to life.  And the rule looks pretty much correct, I think.  But <i>why</i> is it correct?  What if someone disagreed with us: how could we convince him, or her, that it is correct?  See here, we’re doing philosophy and in philosophy, we require <i>arguments</i> for our views.  So if, in formulating the deontological theory of conduct, we wind stating a rule, then by god, we’d better be prepared to give an argument that we should all follow that rule.  It’s very fine and well to lay down the law.  You can do that without giving arguments, if you’re a parent giving rules to your children.  But you can’t do that if you’re a philosopher trying to convince other philosophers of something.  It might <i>sound</i> impressive to declare something a "rule" or a "moral law," but just putting the name "rule" on it doesn’t make it automatically correct.
---
> Let?s get an example on the table, and I think you?ll be able to see the problem more easily.  Suppose we want to say, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  The deontologist says that that?s the rule that gives us a right to life.  And the rule looks pretty much correct, I think.  But <i>why</i> is it correct?  What if someone disagreed with us: how could we convince him, or her, that it is correct?  See here, we?re doing philosophy and in philosophy, we require <i>arguments</i> for our views.  So if, in formulating the deontological theory of conduct, we wind stating a rule, then by god, we?d better be prepared to give an argument that we should all follow that rule.  It?s very fine and well to lay down the law.  You can do that without giving arguments, if you?re a parent giving rules to your children.  But you can?t do that if you?re a philosopher trying to convince other philosophers of something.  It might <i>sound</i> impressive to declare something a "rule" or a "moral law," but just putting the name "rule" on it doesn?t make it automatically correct.
157c157
< It turns out that this is actually an uncomfortable problem for deontologists.  It’s one thing they don’t like to be pressed on too hard.  So let’s look briefly at a few of the sorts of arguments that deontologists give to support these rules of conduct.
---
> It turns out that this is actually an uncomfortable problem for deontologists.  It?s one thing they don?t like to be pressed on too hard.  So let?s look briefly at a few of the sorts of arguments that deontologists give to support these rules of conduct.
159c159
< One way is Kant’s way, as I was saying before.  He thought that we could derive individual rule from one overarching rule, the Categorical Imperative.  The Categorical Imperative reads: "So act that you could wish the maxim of your action to become a universal law of human conduct."  I’m not going to discuss this and I don’t expect you understand it, unless you’ve done the reading.  For our purposes, suffice it to say that the Categorical Imperative just doesn’t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn’t perform as advertized.  For more on that, please see the reading.
---
> One way is Kant?s way, as I was saying before.  He thought that we could derive individual rule from one overarching rule, the Categorical Imperative.  The Categorical Imperative reads: "So act that you could wish the maxim of your action to become a universal law of human conduct."  I?m not going to discuss this and I don?t expect you understand it, unless you?ve done the reading.  For our purposes, suffice it to say that the Categorical Imperative just doesn?t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn?t perform as advertized.  For more on that, please see the reading.
161c161
< A second way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that we know they are true by some sort of moral intuition, or moral sense.  You should remember this from our discussion of meta-ethics; we said then that there are some people who think that goodness is a non-natural property, which we can detect through this faculty of moral intuition.  We’re just presented with a situation, like the scapegoat situation, and we can just <i>understand</i> that some things are good and others are bad; and we just <i>know</i>, by this faculty of intuition, that certain actions are right and others are wrong.
---
> A second way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that we know they are true by some sort of moral intuition, or moral sense.  You should remember this from our discussion of meta-ethics; we said then that there are some people who think that goodness is a non-natural property, which we can detect through this faculty of moral intuition.  We?re just presented with a situation, like the scapegoat situation, and we can just <i>understand</i> that some things are good and others are bad; and we just <i>know</i>, by this faculty of intuition, that certain actions are right and others are wrong.
163c163
< Before criticizing this second way, let’s look at a third way, which is very similar to it.  So this third way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that they are part of a larger system of <i>natural</i> <i>law</i>.  Halverson in our readings for today presents this sort of view.  The basic idea is this.  There is a huge system of rules, or laws, which we might discover, that regulate how we should treat each other; and these rules we call a sysem of "natural law."  Among the rules would be the aforementioned rule, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  Another rule would be: "Do not deprive others of their property except through due process of law."  So you put all such rules together, and you have a system of obligations and permissions which gives us our rights, and which states what justice is.
---
> Before criticizing this second way, let?s look at a third way, which is very similar to it.  So this third way that deontologists try to support individual rules is by saying that they are part of a larger system of <i>natural</i> <i>law</i>.  Halverson in our readings for today presents this sort of view.  The basic idea is this.  There is a huge system of rules, or laws, which we might discover, that regulate how we should treat each other; and these rules we call a sysem of "natural law."  Among the rules would be the aforementioned rule, "Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice."  Another rule would be: "Do not deprive others of their property except through due process of law."  So you put all such rules together, and you have a system of obligations and permissions which gives us our rights, and which states what justice is.
165c165
< Now, there’s an obvious criticism to be made both of the moral intuition defense of rules of conduct, and of the natural law defense.  And the criticism is actually just to ask the same question over again, that we started with.  Namely, how do you know that these rules are <i>correct</i>?  You can <i>say</i> that you have some "moral intuition" that they’re correct.  That’s not an <i>argument</i>, though.  And similarly, you can <i>say</i> that some rule is part of an enormous body of natural law.  But again, that’s not an argument either!  Honestly, how do you <i>know</i> that a given rule is part of natural law?  That’s the whole problem, an enormous problem, and it looks like moral intuitionism, and the natural law theory, by themselves, just want to sidestep the problem.
---
> Now, there?s an obvious criticism to be made both of the moral intuition defense of rules of conduct, and of the natural law defense.  And the criticism is actually just to ask the same question over again, that we started with.  Namely, how do you know that these rules are <i>correct</i>?  You can <i>say</i> that you have some "moral intuition" that they?re correct.  That?s not an <i>argument</i>, though.  And similarly, you can <i>say</i> that some rule is part of an enormous body of natural law.  But again, that?s not an argument either!  Honestly, how do you <i>know</i> that a given rule is part of natural law?  That?s the whole problem, an enormous problem, and it looks like moral intuitionism, and the natural law theory, by themselves, just want to sidestep the problem.
167c167
< And this problem for the natural law theory isn’t just a theoretical problem -- it’s also serious <i>practical</i> problem.  Let me explain.  I want to call your attention to something in our reading from Halverson, on p. 161 of the packet.  Halverson used to be an Ohio State professor, believe it or not.  I quote: "Many laws that are in force in most of the civilized nations of the world can be justified only by an appeal to natural law.  Consider, for example, the practice of homosexuality.  It cannot be reasonably argued that homosexual acts between consenting adults are in any way harmful to the community.  It therefore is not necessary for the community to protect itself by prohibiting such acts.  Yet such acts are commonly prohibited by law.  [Remember, this is an older textbook.]  On what grounds?  On the grounds that such acts are wrong, immoral, contrary to the consciences of most men perceive as being good and right [notice the reference to something like the moral sense theory here] -- contrary, that is, to natural law."
---
> And this problem for the natural law theory isn?t just a theoretical problem -- it?s also serious <i>practical</i> problem.  Let me explain.  I want to call your attention to something in our reading from Halverson, on p. 161 of the packet.  Halverson used to be an Ohio State professor, believe it or not.  I quote: "Many laws that are in force in most of the civilized nations of the world can be justified only by an appeal to natural law.  Consider, for example, the practice of homosexuality.  It cannot be reasonably argued that homosexual acts between consenting adults are in any way harmful to the community.  It therefore is not necessary for the community to protect itself by prohibiting such acts.  Yet such acts are commonly prohibited by law.  [Remember, this is an older textbook.]  On what grounds?  On the grounds that such acts are wrong, immoral, contrary to the consciences of most men perceive as being good and right [notice the reference to something like the moral sense theory here] -- contrary, that is, to natural law."
169c169
< So there you have it.  Homosexuality is wrong, and immoral.  On what grounds?  That it’s to natural law.  Well are you convinced?  Is that enough of an argument for you?  Well of course not.  This is just ridiculous.  To say that something is "contrary to natural law" appears to be no more than to say, "It’s against my current beliefs, even if they happen to be little more than mere prejudices."
---
> So there you have it.  Homosexuality is wrong, and immoral.  On what grounds?  That it?s to natural law.  Well are you convinced?  Is that enough of an argument for you?  Well of course not.  This is just ridiculous.  To say that something is "contrary to natural law" appears to be no more than to say, "It?s against my current beliefs, even if they happen to be little more than mere prejudices."
171c171
< I hope it’s beginning to be clear to you why I say it’s a <i>practical</i> problem, that natural law theorists do not say <i>why</i> moral rules are part of natural law.  It’s a practical problem because natural law theorists can, if they want to, just <i>declare</i> that some practices that they don’t approve of, like homosexuality, are against "natural law."  And then they can and have passed <i>actual</i> laws restricting such activity, which laws they try to justify by saying it’s against this bogus "natural law."
---
> I hope it?s beginning to be clear to you why I say it?s a <i>practical</i> problem, that natural law theorists do not say <i>why</i> moral rules are part of natural law.  It?s a practical problem because natural law theorists can, if they want to, just <i>declare</i> that some practices that they don?t approve of, like homosexuality, are against "natural law."  And then they can and have passed <i>actual</i> laws restricting such activity, which laws they try to justify by saying it?s against this bogus "natural law."
173c173
< So to summarize.  The deontological theory of conduct tries to give a justification for rights.  How?  By saying that our rights are given by certain moral rules, like "Don’t murder," and "Don’t steal."  But then we have to ask: How do we know that we ought to follow those rules?  Or more simply: How do we know that those rules are correct?  The moral intuitionist says that we intuit that they are correct; the natural law theorist says that the rules are part of natural law.  But neither of these claims really answers the question at all.  Or to put it differently, I could, for all they’ve said, claim that the following rule is correct: "Murder and steal when it’s convenient to do so."  And I’ve got a right to murder and steal.  Why do I say that?  I simply intuit it.  Or I claim: "That’s a matter of natural law.  It’s part of natural law that I should murder and steal when it’s convenient for me to do so!"
---
> So to summarize.  The deontological theory of conduct tries to give a justification for rights.  How?  By saying that our rights are given by certain moral rules, like "Don?t murder," and "Don?t steal."  But then we have to ask: How do we know that we ought to follow those rules?  Or more simply: How do we know that those rules are correct?  The moral intuitionist says that we intuit that they are correct; the natural law theorist says that the rules are part of natural law.  But neither of these claims really answers the question at all.  Or to put it differently, I could, for all they?ve said, claim that the following rule is correct: "Murder and steal when it?s convenient to do so."  And I?ve got a right to murder and steal.  Why do I say that?  I simply intuit it.  Or I claim: "That?s a matter of natural law.  It?s part of natural law that I should murder and steal when it?s convenient for me to do so!"
175c175
< But what about Kant’s theory, which we never got around to stating in any depth?  Now <i>all</i> that I said about it was: "The Categorical Imperative just doesn’t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn’t perform as advertized."  If you’re at all interested in defending a deontological theory of conduct, you certainly shouldn’t take my word for it.  You should actually study what Kant has to say; you’d do that if you took a class in ethical theory.  Again, we don’t have time for it.
---
> But what about Kant?s theory, which we never got around to stating in any depth?  Now <i>all</i> that I said about it was: "The Categorical Imperative just doesn?t allow any easy, straightforward way to derive particular rules.  It doesn?t perform as advertized."  If you?re at all interested in defending a deontological theory of conduct, you certainly shouldn?t take my word for it.  You should actually study what Kant has to say; you?d do that if you took a class in ethical theory.  Again, we don?t have time for it.
177c177
< What we do have time for, though, is a more general argument against <i>all</i> deontological theories of conduct.  This general argument is from a consequentialist point of view.  Let me summarize this argument in advance, as follows.  One simply cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  Deontology -- deontological theories of conduct -- says that whether we ought to take an action does <i>not</i> depend on the consequences of the action; it depends only on whether the action follows a correct moral rule.  That’s all that matters, not the consequences.  But if, in order to justify the <i>rule</i>, we have to have reference to the consequences of following the rule, then deontology is wrong.  Because ultimately then, whether we ought to take an action <i>does</i> depend on the consequences of the action -- or at least, it depends on consequences of following the rule of your action.  All right, I don’t expect you to get this argument on the first pass, so let’s go over it more carefully.
---
> What we do have time for, though, is a more general argument against <i>all</i> deontological theories of conduct.  This general argument is from a consequentialist point of view.  Let me summarize this argument in advance, as follows.  One simply cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  Deontology -- deontological theories of conduct -- says that whether we ought to take an action does <i>not</i> depend on the consequences of the action; it depends only on whether the action follows a correct moral rule.  That?s all that matters, not the consequences.  But if, in order to justify the <i>rule</i>, we have to have reference to the consequences of following the rule, then deontology is wrong.  Because ultimately then, whether we ought to take an action <i>does</i> depend on the consequences of the action -- or at least, it depends on consequences of following the rule of your action.  All right, I don?t expect you to get this argument on the first pass, so let?s go over it more carefully.
179c179
< The most important premise here is the first one.  Here it is again: One cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  In other words, my claim is that you <i>have</i> to talk about the consequences of following rules in order to justify the rules.  That doesn’t mean that the consequences are the <i>only</i> things that justify the rules; but it <i>does</i> mean that you can’t <i>ignore</i> the consequences of following rules, if you want to justify them.  Now, why do I say that?
---
> The most important premise here is the first one.  Here it is again: One cannot adequately justify most, if not all, rules of conduct <i>without</i> reference to the consequences, the results, of following the rules.  In other words, my claim is that you <i>have</i> to talk about the consequences of following rules in order to justify the rules.  That doesn?t mean that the consequences are the <i>only</i> things that justify the rules; but it <i>does</i> mean that you can?t <i>ignore</i> the consequences of following rules, if you want to justify them.  Now, why do I say that?
181c181
< Well, just take any rule of conduct at all, that you think is correct.  Such as: "Do not murder."  According to the deontologist, we could justify such a rule <i>without</i> talking about the consequences of murdering people.  But if you think about it, that’s an amazing claim.  How on earth could they establish that we ought not to murder, without talking about the consequences of murder?  I mean, just look at what murder does accomplish: it ends human life; it brings terrible grief and other hardship to the family and friends of the murder victim; and it contributes the breakdown of trust that would otherwise exist among well-meaning, honest strangers in our society.  Now, the deontologist appears to claim that we could <i>somehow</i> show, or account for, the wrongness of murder <i>without</i> talking about all those terrible things that murder accomplishes.  That’s surely just <i>impossible</i>.  I mean, suppose that murder did <i>not</i> cause grief, hardship, or any sort of breakdown in trust between people.  And <i>all</i> it did was end a human life -- not unlike squashing an ant, I guess.  I don’t know if you can imagine killing a human being as being like that.  But if you can imagine that, then ask yourself: would murder be regarded with as much horror as it is now?  Clearly not.  Clearly the <i>reason</i> that murder is regarded as the great evil that it is, is at least <i>in</i> <i>part</i> due to the fact that murder can wreak such devastation on human society.  When we talk about an action’s causing devastation in human society, we’re talking about the <i>consequences</i> of the action.
---
> Well, just take any rule of conduct at all, that you think is correct.  Such as: "Do not murder."  According to the deontologist, we could justify such a rule <i>without</i> talking about the consequences of murdering people.  But if you think about it, that?s an amazing claim.  How on earth could they establish that we ought not to murder, without talking about the consequences of murder?  I mean, just look at what murder does accomplish: it ends human life; it brings terrible grief and other hardship to the family and friends of the murder victim; and it contributes the breakdown of trust that would otherwise exist among well-meaning, honest strangers in our society.  Now, the deontologist appears to claim that we could <i>somehow</i> show, or account for, the wrongness of murder <i>without</i> talking about all those terrible things that murder accomplishes.  That?s surely just <i>impossible</i>.  I mean, suppose that murder did <i>not</i> cause grief, hardship, or any sort of breakdown in trust between people.  And <i>all</i> it did was end a human life -- not unlike squashing an ant, I guess.  I don?t know if you can imagine killing a human being as being like that.  But if you can imagine that, then ask yourself: would murder be regarded with as much horror as it is now?  Clearly not.  Clearly the <i>reason</i> that murder is regarded as the great evil that it is, is at least <i>in</i> <i>part</i> due to the fact that murder can wreak such devastation on human society.  When we talk about an action?s causing devastation in human society, we?re talking about the <i>consequences</i> of the action.
183c183
< So the point is, in order to state what the <i>actual</i> justifications that our <i>actual</i> moral rules have, we have to look at the consequences of following, and not following, the rules.  Suppose you wants to reply to this, as follows.  "Well OK.  So consequences are necessary to consider when we justify moral rules.  It’s just that they are only <i>one</i> consideration among others.  There are other reasons why we have the duties we do, other reasons besides the bad consequences of <i>not</i> doing our duty."
---
> So the point is, in order to state what the <i>actual</i> justifications that our <i>actual</i> moral rules have, we have to look at the consequences of following, and not following, the rules.  Suppose you wants to reply to this, as follows.  "Well OK.  So consequences are necessary to consider when we justify moral rules.  It?s just that they are only <i>one</i> consideration among others.  There are other reasons why we have the duties we do, other reasons besides the bad consequences of <i>not</i> doing our duty."
185c185
< Now, if you want to say that, then it seems to me you’re talking about a version of deontological ethics that is so watered-down that it really can’t be called a version of deontological ethics at all.  Really what it is, is another <i>hybrid</i> theory, but in this case, instead of combining egoism and utilitarianism, to get some middle-ground version of consequentialism, you’re combining consequentialism and deontological ethics.  And with this new hybrid theory, you’re saying: What makes a moral rule correct isn’t <i>just</i> the consequences of following the rule -- there’s more to it than that -- but the justification for the rule <i>does</i> include some reference to consequences.
---
> Now, if you want to say that, then it seems to me you?re talking about a version of deontological ethics that is so watered-down that it really can?t be called a version of deontological ethics at all.  Really what it is, is another <i>hybrid</i> theory, but in this case, instead of combining egoism and utilitarianism, to get some middle-ground version of consequentialism, you?re combining consequentialism and deontological ethics.  And with this new hybrid theory, you?re saying: What makes a moral rule correct isn?t <i>just</i> the consequences of following the rule -- there?s more to it than that -- but the justification for the rule <i>does</i> include some reference to consequences.
187c187
< Now, if this is what you think, then I’ve got a challenge for you.  <i>What</i> <i>else</i> <i>is</i> <i>there</i> to consider whenever you want to justify a rule of conduct, <i>besides</i> the consequences that following, or adopting, the rule ultimately has?  <i>Is</i> there anything else we could use to justify a rule?  <i>Besides</i> consequences, ultimately?
---
> Now, if this is what you think, then I?ve got a challenge for you.  <i>What</i> <i>else</i> <i>is</i> <i>there</i> to consider whenever you want to justify a rule of conduct, <i>besides</i> the consequences that following, or adopting, the rule ultimately has?  <i>Is</i> there anything else we could use to justify a rule?  <i>Besides</i> consequences, ultimately?
189c189
< I’m not going to pretend that there’s nothing else.  One thing that ethicists have pointed out is that good <i>motives</i> do, sometimes, make actions right or wrong.  If I do the right thing for the wrong reason, I’ve done <i>something</i> wrong.  Without getting into <i>that</i> at any length, let me just say what the obvious question is going to be: What, after all, <i>makes</i> a good motive good?  If I have a nice intention, to treat you fairly, then what makes that intention nice?  I suppose that you will have to talk about the <i>typical</i> <i>consequences</i> of my nice intention.
---
> I?m not going to pretend that there?s nothing else.  One thing that ethicists have pointed out is that good <i>motives</i> do, sometimes, make actions right or wrong.  If I do the right thing for the wrong reason, I?ve done <i>something</i> wrong.  Without getting into <i>that</i> at any length, let me just say what the obvious question is going to be: What, after all, <i>makes</i> a good motive good?  If I have a nice intention, to treat you fairly, then what makes that intention nice?  I suppose that you will have to talk about the <i>typical</i> <i>consequences</i> of my nice intention.
191c191
< Let me remind you where we are.  We are just winding up our criticism of deontological theories of conduct.   The criticism I <i>just</i> gave is this: that the deontologist has to talk about the <i>consequences</i> of following rules, in order to justify the claim that we ought to follow the rules.  And it’s not at all clear what <i>else</i>, ultimately, could be used to justify a rule <i>besides</i> its consequences.  Now this leads directly into the next, and final, theory of conduct, which is called <i>rule</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.
---
> Let me remind you where we are.  We are just winding up our criticism of deontological theories of conduct.   The criticism I <i>just</i> gave is this: that the deontologist has to talk about the <i>consequences</i> of following rules, in order to justify the claim that we ought to follow the rules.  And it?s not at all clear what <i>else</i>, ultimately, could be used to justify a rule <i>besides</i> its consequences.  Now this leads directly into the next, and final, theory of conduct, which is called <i>rule</i> <i>consequentialism</i>.
197c197
< As I mentioned before -- I don’t expect you to recall this, but it’s good if you do -- distinguish <i>rule</i> consequentialism from <i>act</i> consequentialism.  What’s the difference?  Let me present definitions of both terms and then you’ll be able to see it more easily:
---
> As I mentioned before -- I don?t expect you to recall this, but it?s good if you do -- distinguish <i>rule</i> consequentialism from <i>act</i> consequentialism.  What?s the difference?  Let me present definitions of both terms and then you?ll be able to see it more easily:
203c203
< So <i>act</i> consequentialism says we should judge <i>individual</i> <i>acts</i> as right or wrong, based on their consequences.  <i>Rule</i> consequentialism, by contrast, says that we should <i>adopt</i> <i>rules</i> based on the consequences of adopting the rules; and then we <i>use</i> the rules we’ve adopted to determine whether we should take given actions or not.  More briefly: act consequentialism says to judge <i>acts</i> based on their consequences; rule consequentialism says to judge <i>rules</i> based on their consequences.
---
> So <i>act</i> consequentialism says we should judge <i>individual</i> <i>acts</i> as right or wrong, based on their consequences.  <i>Rule</i> consequentialism, by contrast, says that we should <i>adopt</i> <i>rules</i> based on the consequences of adopting the rules; and then we <i>use</i> the rules we?ve adopted to determine whether we should take given actions or not.  More briefly: act consequentialism says to judge <i>acts</i> based on their consequences; rule consequentialism says to judge <i>rules</i> based on their consequences.
205c205
< So rule consequentialism is an interesting sort of hybrid between act consequentialism and deontological theories.  Like act consequentialism, it says that actions are <i>ultimately</i> to be judged based on consequences; and like deontological theories, it says that individual acts are to be judged based on whether they follow rules that state our moral duties.  So you might say that it combines some good features of both types of moral theory we’ve looked at so far.
---
> So rule consequentialism is an interesting sort of hybrid between act consequentialism and deontological theories.  Like act consequentialism, it says that actions are <i>ultimately</i> to be judged based on consequences; and like deontological theories, it says that individual acts are to be judged based on whether they follow rules that state our moral duties.  So you might say that it combines some good features of both types of moral theory we?ve looked at so far.
207c207
< Now remember our topic for today is <i>justice</i>, and we are looking at these moral theories in order to see whether they can give us a way to solve the problem of justice.  How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  So let’s see how the rule consequentialist might try to deal with the problem of justice.  How can the rule consequentialist justify the claim that we have a right to life, for example?
---
> Now remember our topic for today is <i>justice</i>, and we are looking at these moral theories in order to see whether they can give us a way to solve the problem of justice.  How can we <i>morally</i> <i>justify</i> claims that we have rights, or that we deserve to be treated justly?  So let?s see how the rule consequentialist might try to deal with the problem of justice.  How can the rule consequentialist justify the claim that we have a right to life, for example?
209c209
< Well, recall a rule we stated before: Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice.  The rule consequentialist could say that we should adopt that rule, and the fact that rule is <i>correct</i> is what gives us a right to life.  Because really, that’s what it means to say that I <i>have</i> a right to life: namely, that if someone kills me, except in self-defense or after due process of law, then this rule against such killing has been violated, and my killer has done something gravely morally wrong.  It’s the fact that that rule is in place that gives me a right to life; and part of justice is, of course, to respect that right that I have.
---
> Well, recall a rule we stated before: Do not kill others except in self-defense and as part of the legitimate administration of justice.  The rule consequentialist could say that we should adopt that rule, and the fact that rule is <i>correct</i> is what gives us a right to life.  Because really, that?s what it means to say that I <i>have</i> a right to life: namely, that if someone kills me, except in self-defense or after due process of law, then this rule against such killing has been violated, and my killer has done something gravely morally wrong.  It?s the fact that that rule is in place that gives me a right to life; and part of justice is, of course, to respect that right that I have.
211c211
< Now so far, I haven’t said anything that the deontologist hasn’t already said.  And remember our question for the deontologist: <i>why</i> should adopt rules like this?  Of course, that same has to be asked now; if we don’t answer that question, then we haven’t solved the problem of justice.
---
> Now so far, I haven?t said anything that the deontologist hasn?t already said.  And remember our question for the deontologist: <i>why</i> should adopt rules like this?  Of course, that same has to be asked now; if we don?t answer that question, then we haven?t solved the problem of justice.
213c213
< Rule consequentialism says that <i>whether</i> a rule like the one that we just stated is correct or not depends on the good or bad consequences of adopting the rule.  So then we consider: on the whole, would it be better, would there be more goodness in the world, if we adopted this rule against needless killing?  Sure!  If everyone recognized this rule, if everyone agreed that it was wrong to kill needlessly, then the world would be a much nicer place indeed, than it would be if no one or only some people adopted the rule.  So that’s how we justify the rules that give us rights, and that establish justice: we say that adopting those rules is greatly beneficial to us all.
---
> Rule consequentialism says that <i>whether</i> a rule like the one that we just stated is correct or not depends on the good or bad consequences of adopting the rule.  So then we consider: on the whole, would it be better, would there be more goodness in the world, if we adopted this rule against needless killing?  Sure!  If everyone recognized this rule, if everyone agreed that it was wrong to kill needlessly, then the world would be a much nicer place indeed, than it would be if no one or only some people adopted the rule.  So that?s how we justify the rules that give us rights, and that establish justice: we say that adopting those rules is greatly beneficial to us all.
215c215
< Well then, why not adopt the following rule <i>too</i>? -- "Make scapegoats out of tramps when convenient and when it can be covered up well enough."  Adopting <i>that</i> rule very definitely would violate the rights of tramps.  We don’t want to do that.  But if everyone did adopt that rule, wouldn’t that make life for everyone (well, everyone except the tramps) better?  If adopting that rule <i>would</i> make life for everyone better, then rule consequentialism would say: <i>adopt</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i>!  And then we’d have the rule consequentialist saying that it’s OK, it’s even morally <i>obligatory</i>, to violate the rights of tramps!  We even have a rule saying that we ought to do so!
---
> Well then, why not adopt the following rule <i>too</i>? -- "Make scapegoats out of tramps when convenient and when it can be covered up well enough."  Adopting <i>that</i> rule very definitely would violate the rights of tramps.  We don?t want to do that.  But if everyone did adopt that rule, wouldn?t that make life for everyone (well, everyone except the tramps) better?  If adopting that rule <i>would</i> make life for everyone better, then rule consequentialism would say: <i>adopt</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i>!  And then we?d have the rule consequentialist saying that it?s OK, it?s even morally <i>obligatory</i>, to violate the rights of tramps!  We even have a rule saying that we ought to do so!
217c217
< Now I think that the rule consequentialist can defend himself here.  I am partial to rule consequentialism myself, so I will step in and defend the theory against this criticism.  Here’s how I propose to do it.  Clearly, I have to have some argument that adopting the rule that says to make scapegoats out of tramps would make life actually <i>worse</i> for everyone.  I’d have to have some way to argue that adopting that rule would have lots of dangerous consequences.
---
> Now I think that the rule consequentialist can defend himself here.  I am partial to rule consequentialism myself, so I will step in and defend the theory against this criticism.  Here?s how I propose to do it.  Clearly, I have to have some argument that adopting the rule that says to make scapegoats out of tramps would make life actually <i>worse</i> for everyone.  I?d have to have some way to argue that adopting that rule would have lots of dangerous consequences.
219c219
< If you ask me, that doesn’t seem like too tall of an order.  It just requires a little common-sense understanding of human nature, and what is likely to happen if people actually do adopt that rule.  Life, basically, becomes <i>cheap</i> to all the non-tramps.  If we ordinary folks go around thinking that the official word is that unloading our problems onto tramps is OK, that’s going to make us behave bad toward <i>other</i> people, <i>besides</i> tramps.  After all, if <i>tramps</i> are dispensible, then why not the mentally ill?  Why not people of very low intelligence?  And if we start treating <i>those</i> people as dispensible, then why not people that we have deep political disagreements with?  Or deep religious disagreements?  Why not people who are simply critical of us?  You see where I’m going with this.  If a rule <i>like</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i> that says it’s OK to make scapegoats out of tramps <i>is</i> adopted, then given what we know about human nature, that has all sorts of consequences for <i>other</i> rules that people will, in fact, decide to adopt.  If <i>one</i> rule that we adopt makes life cheap, then why should we expect people to stop there?
---
> If you ask me, that doesn?t seem like too tall of an order.  It just requires a little common-sense understanding of human nature, and what is likely to happen if people actually do adopt that rule.  Life, basically, becomes <i>cheap</i> to all the non-tramps.  If we ordinary folks go around thinking that the official word is that unloading our problems onto tramps is OK, that?s going to make us behave bad toward <i>other</i> people, <i>besides</i> tramps.  After all, if <i>tramps</i> are dispensible, then why not the mentally ill?  Why not people of very low intelligence?  And if we start treating <i>those</i> people as dispensible, then why not people that we have deep political disagreements with?  Or deep religious disagreements?  Why not people who are simply critical of us?  You see where I?m going with this.  If a rule <i>like</i> <i>the</i> <i>rule</i> that says it?s OK to make scapegoats out of tramps <i>is</i> adopted, then given what we know about human nature, that has all sorts of consequences for <i>other</i> rules that people will, in fact, decide to adopt.  If <i>one</i> rule that we adopt makes life cheap, then why should we expect people to stop there?
223c223
< This is <i>why</i> some people very <i>strenuously</i> insist that our rights, or at least some rights, are absolute and government must not be allowed to infringe them at all.  Let me try to pick a non-partisan example -- actually that’s kind of hard, but what about the right to free speech on the Internet?  Remember when Congress passed, and the President signed, a law that actually tried to restrict our ability to <i>cuss</i> online.  To hell with that, I say!  I’ll cuss online all I want; government should try to restrict that!  But look, the reason that people feel strongly about this isn’t that they think it’s really important that they be able to cuss online.  It’s not <i>that</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i> which makes opposition to such measures important.  What makes it important is that, to put it bluntly, give them an inch and they’ll take a mile.  And I don’t just mean the government.  I mean people in general.  If people, such as the American people, <i>come</i> <i>to</i> <i>accept</i> that the government <i>ought</i> to restrict free speech in one place, then they’ve in fact adopted a certain rule of conduct (for government, in this case).  And the point is that that can have, and historically has had, all sorts of bad consequences for <i>what</i> <i>else</i> will seem permissible to the people for the government to do.
---
> This is <i>why</i> some people very <i>strenuously</i> insist that our rights, or at least some rights, are absolute and government must not be allowed to infringe them at all.  Let me try to pick a non-partisan example -- actually that?s kind of hard, but what about the right to free speech on the Internet?  Remember when Congress passed, and the President signed, a law that actually tried to restrict our ability to <i>cuss</i> online.  To hell with that, I say!  I?ll cuss online all I want; government should try to restrict that!  But look, the reason that people feel strongly about this isn?t that they think it?s really important that they be able to cuss online.  It?s not <i>that</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i> which makes opposition to such measures important.  What makes it important is that, to put it bluntly, give them an inch and they?ll take a mile.  And I don?t just mean the government.  I mean people in general.  If people, such as the American people, <i>come</i> <i>to</i> <i>accept</i> that the government <i>ought</i> to restrict free speech in one place, then they?ve in fact adopted a certain rule of conduct (for government, in this case).  And the point is that that can have, and historically has had, all sorts of bad consequences for <i>what</i> <i>else</i> will seem permissible to the people for the government to do.
225c225
< But here I’m just picking on the government.  The exact same point can be validly made about other areas of life.  Indeed, it can be made about rules of moral conduct that apply to individuals at home, not interacting with other people at all.  For example, suppose you adopt a rule: Do your homework before you watch television.  (You might have seen a comic strip about this in the <i>Dispatch</i> the other day.)  But then you consider another rule: Do your homework before you watch television, <i>unless</i> "Friends" is on.  You reason to yourself, as a good egoist: "My happiness would be maximized if I followed this rule.  Not only would my homework get done, but I’d get to see my favorite TV show, and doing that wouldn’t keep me from getting my homework.  I mean after all, it’s only a half-hour program."  But if you reason to yourself this way, you’re failing to take something important into consideration.  Namely, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>effect</i> <i>of</i> <i>your</i> <i>changing</i> <i>your</i> <i>rule</i>, and allow the exception, <i>in</i> <i>fact</i>, going to be?  In fact, what happens with all but the most disciplined people is that they end up allowing more and more exceptions, until they have basically gotten rid of their rule entirely.
---
> But here I?m just picking on the government.  The exact same point can be validly made about other areas of life.  Indeed, it can be made about rules of moral conduct that apply to individuals at home, not interacting with other people at all.  For example, suppose you adopt a rule: Do your homework before you watch television.  (You might have seen a comic strip about this in the <i>Dispatch</i> the other day.)  But then you consider another rule: Do your homework before you watch television, <i>unless</i> "Friends" is on.  You reason to yourself, as a good egoist: "My happiness would be maximized if I followed this rule.  Not only would my homework get done, but I?d get to see my favorite TV show, and doing that wouldn?t keep me from getting my homework.  I mean after all, it?s only a half-hour program."  But if you reason to yourself this way, you?re failing to take something important into consideration.  Namely, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>effect</i> <i>of</i> <i>your</i> <i>changing</i> <i>your</i> <i>rule</i>, and allow the exception, <i>in</i> <i>fact</i>, going to be?  In fact, what happens with all but the most disciplined people is that they end up allowing more and more exceptions, until they have basically gotten rid of their rule entirely.
227c227
< And in my opinion, if you’ll allow me to ascend my soapbox, that’s exactly the direction that society has gone in.  We do, perhaps, evaluate our moral rules according to their consequences; but what we <i>fail</i> to take account of is the consequences of making our moral rules <i>lax</i>, in particular, the consequences for <i>the</i> <i>other</i> <i>rules</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>adopt</i>.  This is how a breakdown in morals, in an individual, and a breakdown in respect for rights and justice, in a society, occurs.  You try to justify an exception to a perfectly useful, reasonable rule; and the exception itself seems perfectly useful and reasonable; but allowing for the exception has the <i>result</i> of undermining your ability to resist making <i>further</i> exceptions.  And at the bottom of this slippery slope is the muck of immorality and injustice.
---
> And in my opinion, if you?ll allow me to ascend my soapbox, that?s exactly the direction that society has gone in.  We do, perhaps, evaluate our moral rules according to their consequences; but what we <i>fail</i> to take account of is the consequences of making our moral rules <i>lax</i>, in particular, the consequences for <i>the</i> <i>other</i> <i>rules</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>adopt</i>.  This is how a breakdown in morals, in an individual, and a breakdown in respect for rights and justice, in a society, occurs.  You try to justify an exception to a perfectly useful, reasonable rule; and the exception itself seems perfectly useful and reasonable; but allowing for the exception has the <i>result</i> of undermining your ability to resist making <i>further</i> exceptions.  And at the bottom of this slippery slope is the muck of immorality and injustice.
229c229
< So let’s get back to the point.  I presented rule consequentialism and then I asked: How can rule consequentialism justify those rules which give us our rights?  How does it solve the problem of justice?  The immediate reply is to say: individual rules are justified by to the fact that they maximize the amount of goodness in the world.  But then there’s the challenge: Why can’t we adopt rules that say that we ought to do unjust things, like making scapegoats out of tramps?  Why doesn’t that maximize goodness?  Now what I just got done giving you, from atop my soapbox, is an <i>explanation</i> for why making scapegoats out of tramps doesn’t maximize goodness.  Why not?  Again, it’s because when we make exceptions to our the general rules that state our rights, given our experience with human nature, we know that we’ve started down a slippery slope, and the ultimate results are that respect for rights in general is undermined.  And a low respect for rights in general has <i>way</i> worse consequences than disallowing our sheriffs to make scapegoats out of tramps.
---
> So let?s get back to the point.  I presented rule consequentialism and then I asked: How can rule consequentialism justify those rules which give us our rights?  How does it solve the problem of justice?  The immediate reply is to say: individual rules are justified by to the fact that they maximize the amount of goodness in the world.  But then there?s the challenge: Why can?t we adopt rules that say that we ought to do unjust things, like making scapegoats out of tramps?  Why doesn?t that maximize goodness?  Now what I just got done giving you, from atop my soapbox, is an <i>explanation</i> for why making scapegoats out of tramps doesn?t maximize goodness.  Why not?  Again, it?s because when we make exceptions to our the general rules that state our rights, given our experience with human nature, we know that we?ve started down a slippery slope, and the ultimate results are that respect for rights in general is undermined.  And a low respect for rights in general has <i>way</i> worse consequences than disallowing our sheriffs to make scapegoats out of tramps.
231c231
< It’s something like this whole story I’ve been spinning out that has, in my opinion, the best chance of explaining and justifying why we think we have inviolable rights, and why justice ought to be upheld.  I think I’d have explain it a lot more, and answer some more objections, before we could say that it was a really comprehensive, compelling solution to the problem of justice.  But at least you have the outlines of a solution.
---
> It?s something like this whole story I?ve been spinning out that has, in my opinion, the best chance of explaining and justifying why we think we have inviolable rights, and why justice ought to be upheld.  I think I?d have explain it a lot more, and answer some more objections, before we could say that it was a really comprehensive, compelling solution to the problem of justice.  But at least you have the outlines of a solution.
233c233
< Well, that’s it for our discussion of ethics <i>per</i> <i>se</i>.  As we’ve seen, ethics overlaps quite a bit, at least when talking about rights and justice, with political philosophy.  The next item on our plate is political philosophy itself.  I want to make a transition to that topic, however, and tie what we’ve been talking about, as regards rights and justice, into a discussion of the necessity of government.
---
> Well, that?s it for our discussion of ethics <i>per</i> <i>se</i>.  As we?ve seen, ethics overlaps quite a bit, at least when talking about rights and justice, with political philosophy.  The next item on our plate is political philosophy itself.  I want to make a transition to that topic, however, and tie what we?ve been talking about, as regards rights and justice, into a discussion of the necessity of government.
235c235
< Suppose we had a lot more time than we have had to talk about ethics.  And we sat around and hashed things out in great detail, and talked about a lot of other theories of justice.  Then suppose you decide, after all that careful work, that as it turns out, rule consequentialism -- perhaps a rule version of hybrid consequentialism -- is the correct theory of conduct.  So now you’re convinced you know what, in general, you <i>ought</i> to do; and you think you’ve given a philosophical justification for your theory of what you ought to do.
---
> Suppose we had a lot more time than we have had to talk about ethics.  And we sat around and hashed things out in great detail, and talked about a lot of other theories of justice.  Then suppose you decide, after all that careful work, that as it turns out, rule consequentialism -- perhaps a rule version of hybrid consequentialism -- is the correct theory of conduct.  So now you?re convinced you know what, in general, you <i>ought</i> to do; and you think you?ve given a philosophical justification for your theory of what you ought to do.
237c237
< But isn’t it possible that even after all of that, someone might still <i>not</i> <i>care</i>?  Isn’t it quite possible that someone -- if not you, then someone else -- might say, in private, "Sure I know what I <i>ought</i> to do.  But I don’t <i>care</i> what I <i>should</i> do.  Morality is for chumps.  I’ll violate your rights any day if it’s to my advantage and I can get away with it.  I’m perfectly happy being totally unjust."  Now you <i>know</i> that there are people in the world just like that.  You have probably met some, or at least, you certainly know that they exist.  You can’t reason those people into being good eggs; they’re bad eggs, they’ll take advantage of you and there isn’t a whole lot that you can do about it except to protect yourself.
---
> But isn?t it possible that even after all of that, someone might still <i>not</i> <i>care</i>?  Isn?t it quite possible that someone -- if not you, then someone else -- might say, in private, "Sure I know what I <i>ought</i> to do.  But I don?t <i>care</i> what I <i>should</i> do.  Morality is for chumps.  I?ll violate your rights any day if it?s to my advantage and I can get away with it.  I?m perfectly happy being totally unjust."  Now you <i>know</i> that there are people in the world just like that.  You have probably met some, or at least, you certainly know that they exist.  You can?t reason those people into being good eggs; they?re bad eggs, they?ll take advantage of you and there isn?t a whole lot that you can do about it except to protect yourself.
239c239
< The long and short of it is that this is why government is necessary.  You <i>could</i> as it were take the law into your own hands, and see to it personally that others do not violate your rights; but if everyone did that, we would have a state of <i>anarchy</i>.  It’s <i>better</i>, for various reasons, that you leave the administration of justice and punishment up to a legitimate government.  The institution of government is necessary, I think, and I think most of you will agree with me about that.
---
> The long and short of it is that this is why government is necessary.  You <i>could</i> as it were take the law into your own hands, and see to it personally that others do not violate your rights; but if everyone did that, we would have a state of <i>anarchy</i>.  It?s <i>better</i>, for various reasons, that you leave the administration of justice and punishment up to a legitimate government.  The institution of government is necessary, I think, and I think most of you will agree with me about that.
------
AtlasShrugged|982823701
1c1
< A novel by AynRand, first published in 1957.
---
> A novel by [[Ayn Rand]], first published in 1957.
------
Ayn_Rand|982823735
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ayn Rand was a popular and controversial American philosopher and novelist.  She was born Alyssa (or Alice) Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. Rand emigrated to the UnitedStates in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
> 
> After living in Chicago for a short time, Rand moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry.  She met an actor,
> FrankOConnor, by tripping him on purpose and married him in 1929.
> 
> Rand released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, in 1934, and
> published two commercially unsuccessful novels, 'WeTheLiving' (1936), and 'AntheM' (1938). 
> 
> Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
> 
> In 1951 Rand met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
> 
> Rand then wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
> 
> Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works.
> 
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
> 
> She died March 6, 1982.
> 
------
AynRand|982823787
1,20c1
< 
< Ayn Rand was a popular and controversial American philosopher and novelist.  She was born Alyssa (or Alice) Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. Rand emigrated to the UnitedStates in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
< 
< After living in Chicago for a short time, Rand moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry.  She met an actor,
< FrankOConnor, by tripping him on purpose and married him in 1929.
< 
< Rand released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, in 1934, and
< published two commercially unsuccessful novels, 'WeTheLiving' (1936), and 'AntheM' (1938). 
< 
< Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
< 
< In 1951 Rand met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
< 
< Rand then wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
< 
< Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works.
< 
< Rand broke with Branden in 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
< 
< She died March 6, 1982.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ayn Rand]]
------
Altruism|982823822
16c16
< By the way, you might not know that AynRand herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
---
> By the way, you might not know that [[Ayn Rand]] herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
------
Altruism|982823839
1c1
< Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as Ayn Rand wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
---
> Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as [[Ayn Rand]] wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|982823861
5c5
< The concept is apparently original in the thinking of AynRand and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from /GaltsSpeech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
---
> The concept is apparently original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from /GaltsSpeech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
------
LiteraTure|982823890
5c5
< * AynRand
---
> * [[Ayn Rand]]
------
ObjectivisM|982823919
1c1
< Objectivism (capitalized) is the name chosen by AynRand for her philosophy.  Some of the main Objectivist tenets are:
---
> Objectivism (capitalized) is the name chosen by [[Ayn Rand]] for her philosophy.  Some of the main Objectivist tenets are:
------
PhilosophyAndLogic|982823936
15c15
< AynRand
---
> [[Ayn Rand]]
------
WikiBiblion|982823964
9c9
< * TimShell's notes on AtlasShrugged by AynRand
---
> * TimShell's notes on AtlasShrugged by [[Ayn Rand]]
23c23
< I see, but the usefulness of this page is increased by expanding its scope so as to keep a record of where massive amounts of new data are added to the wiki.  This would encourage others to do the same. -- LarrySanger
---
> I see, but the usefulness of this page is increased by expanding its scope so as to keep a record of where massive amounts of new data are added to the wiki.  This would encourage others to do the same. -- LarrySanger
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982823997
33c33
< TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of AynRand""'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
---
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]""'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|982824008
33c33
< TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]""'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
---
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982824200
1c1
<  /BettyPope
---
>  /[[BettyPope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982824217
1c1
<  /[[BettyPope]]
---
>  /[[Betty Pope]]
------
Betty_Pope|982824231
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Betty Pope was a mean lady.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982824245
1c1
<  /[[Betty Pope]]
---
>  [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope|982824260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Betty Pop was a mean lady.
------
AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope|982824290
1c1,4
< Betty Pop was a mean lady.
---
> Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with /JamesTaggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
> 
> Betty Pope appears in:
>  /SectioN142
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824320
1,4c1
< Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with /JamesTaggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
< 
< Betty Pope appears in:
<  /SectioN142
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824335
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
---
> # REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824345
1c1
< # REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
---
>  #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824383
1c1,2
<  #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824488
1,2c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT /Betty Pope
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824504
1c1
< #REDIRECT /Betty Pope
---
> #REDIRECT [[Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824521
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Betty Pope]]
---
> #REDIRECT /[[Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824528
1c1
< #REDIRECT /[[Betty Pope]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|982824626
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
---
> #REDIRECT /Betty_Pope
------
WikiPediaBugs|982824656
0a1,2
> I'm having trouble creating a redirect in a subcategory.  See this page for an example:
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?AtlasShrugged/BettyPope
2c4,10
< We have upgraded to a new version of the software.  Additionally, I think I have solved the bug that made it look like all un-logged-in edits were done from cobrand.bomis.com.
---
> I want it to go to:
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope
> 
> I've tried it quite a few ways but can't make it work.
> 
> ----
> We have upgraded to a new version of the software.  Additionally, I think I have solved the bug that made it look like all un-logged-in edits were done from cobrand.bomis.com.
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|982824855
5c5
< <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take /BettyPope to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
---
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
AtlasShrugged/JockBenson|982824882
1c1
< A friend of /BettyPope.  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her /JamesTaggart didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her /JamesTaggart didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
------
AtlasShrugged/LizBlane|982824906
1c1
< A friend of /BettyPope.  According to Betty Pope, Liz Blane is amusing because she's a bitch.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  According to Betty Pope, Liz Blane is amusing because she's a bitch.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|982824923
8c8
<  /BettyPope
---
>  [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|982824960
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and /BettyPope are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/BettyPope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|982824974
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/BettyPope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|982825005
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with /BettyPope, with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
------
AtlasShrugged|982825096
21,22d20
< */WhyThisSectionExists
< 
------
CentralAfrica|982827848
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.bartleby.com/151/images/maps/802693.jpg
> 
> Beyond Yaounde, to the East, South and West, lies the great rainforest of the Congo basin. This region of Africa from Southern Cameroon, running Southwards through Gabon and the two Congos to Angola; Eastwards through Central Africa to the Western parts of Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi, is covered by the vast Central African rainforest. This belt also comprises the most ravaged countries of modern Africa. As long ago as the early 16th century, only a few decades after the first contact with Europeans, King Alfonso of the Congo was complaining to the Portugese about depopulation of his lands due to excessive slaving. In colonial times they remained almost totally undeveloped. The harsh climate amd impenetrable forests of the region caused it to be neglected in favour of lands where wealth was easier to extract. Today the countries of the region are extreme examples of exploited and impoverished third world countries. Their economies are dominated by a small number of foreign companies who extract oil and minerals from the abundant sources of diamonds, gold, copper, aluminium, crude and timber and other riches from the central african soil. Roads, where they exist at all, run from the mining centre to the port, airport or river, from where the goods arer shipped straight to Europe. There are no paved roads linking any of the capital cities of any of the central African countries to each other. They are completely focused on exporting raw materials to Europe and America. 
> 
> The small amount of wealth remaining in the country, after the multinationals have taken their profits, accumulates in the hands of those who control political power. Outside the capital city and the few centres of extraction, there is virtually no development whatsoever. No roads, no large towns, just subsistence villagers, abandoned by the state except for its constant attempts to extort money from them through police, army and taxman. The capital cities swell with hungry peasants while the elite squander the country's meagre resources consuming expensive imported European luxuries. The swollen cities woefully lack services and breed desperation and crime. Because wealth resides in small cliques and is dependant primarily on physical control of a small number of strategic sites, wars, coups and invasions of mercenary adventurers are common. Angola has been at war for 40 years for control of its diamonds and offshore oil. Congo-Zaire has seen 5 years of bloody war for control of its vast mineral wealth. The robber-barons who rule these unfortunate states are famed for their brutality and greed: Idi Amin, Mobutu, Bokassa in the past, today Omar Bongo in Gabon, Denis Sassou-Nguesso in Congo-Brazzaville and Laurent Kabila in Kinshasa. Yet these brutal rulers have generally relied on the support of the multinational companies and the governments that sponsor them. To give a few examples: Elf-Aquitane largely financed the 1997 coup in Congo-Brazzaville. Mobutu's kleptocracy in Zaire was consistently assisted by France and the US, including French military interventions to quell rebellions. France backed the regime that was responsible for the Rwandan genocide to the last. There have been at least 6 major French military interventions in Central Africa since 1990. [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov/cameroon.html An Irish Anarchist In Africa -- Cameroun Cameroon Kamerun]
------
MathematicianS|982833846
12c12
< : BernhardRiemann CamilleJordan
---
> : BernhardRiemann CamilleJordan, HenriPoincare
16c16
< : AndreiAndreevichMarkov TchebychefF
---
> : AndreiAndreevichMarkov PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
------
MathematicianS|982834132
3c3
< : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxuS ArchimedeS AppoloniusOfPerga DiophantusOfAlexandria
---
> : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxusOfCnidus ArchimedeS AppoloniusOfPerga DiophantusOfAlexandria
------
Actresses|982834857
3a4
> :[[Ingrid Bergman]]
15a17
> :[[Ava Gardner]]
24a27
> :[[Marilyn Monroe]] - (Norma Jean Baker)
25a29
> :[[Kim Novak]]
36c40
< :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
---
> :[[Michelle Yeoh]]
------
CartesianProduct|982835125
3c3
< If two sets, X and Y, are defined, then we can define the Cartesian product of the two sets, XY, as the set of pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
---
> If two sets, X and Y, are defined, then we can define the Cartesian product of the two sets, XY, as the set of ''ordered'' pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
8c8
< DickBeldin
---
> DickBeldin
------
What_Google_Likes|982835575
33c33,34
<  WcGing
---
>  WcGing----
> Is someone looking for me? Seven searches? RoseParks
------
Sports|982837537
61d60
< * Formula1
96c95
< ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
---
> ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
------
AutoRacing|982837599
2a3
> :[[Rallies]]: -- [[Monte Carlo Rally]] -- [[Paris-Dakkar]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|982837881
8c8
< 
---
> [[AtlasShrugged/Betty Pope]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|982837924
8c8,9
< [[AtlasShrugged/Betty Pope]]
---
> 
> [[AtlasShrugged/Betty Pope]]  -- there you go ;-)
------
Geologic_Timescale|982838309
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  MYA  Period                | Era           | Eon           |
>  0 - - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
>  |    [[Neogene]]              | [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
>  23- - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Palaeogene]]           |               |               |
>  65- - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|               |
>  |    [[Cretaceous]]           | [[Mesozoic]]     |               |
>  |                          |               |               |
>  |                          |               |               |
>  146 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Jurassic]]             |               |               |
>  |                          |               |               |
>  208 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Triassic]]             |               |               |
>  245 - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|               |
>  |    [[Permian]]              | [[Palaeozoic]]   |               |
>  286 - - - + - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Pennsylvanian|Penn]]|                |               |               |
>  325 - - - | [[Carboniferous]] |               |               |
>  |    [[Mississippian|Miss]]|                |               |               |
>  360 - - - + - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Devonian]]             |               |               |
>  410 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Silurian]]             |               |               |
>  440 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Ordovician]]           |               |               |
>  |                          |               |               |
>  505 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Cambrian]]             |               |               |
>  544 - - - - - - - - - - - -+- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
>  |    [[Proterozoic]]                          | [[Precambrian]]  |
>  2500- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |
>  |    [[Archaean]]                             |               |
>  3800- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |
>  |    [[Hadean]]                               |               |
>  :                          :               :               :
------
GeologicTimescale|982838400
1c1
< Numbers refer to end of time period, in millions of years before now.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Geologic Timescale]]
12,27d11
<    65  MesozoicEra
<          CretaceousPeriod
<   146    JurassicPeriod
<   208    TriassicPeriod
<   245  PalaeozoicEra
<          PermianPeriod
<   286    CarboniferousPeriod
<            UpperCarboniferous (=Pennsylvanian)
<   325      LowerCarboniferous (=Mississippian)
<   360    DevonianPeriod
<   410    SilurianPeriod
<   440    OrdovicianPeriod
<   505    CambrianPeriod
<   544  ProterozoicEra    |
<  2500  ArchaeanEra       | PrecambrianEon (as opposed to PhanerozoicEon)
<  3800  HadeanEra         |
------
HomePage|982839599
5c5
< :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
Statistics|982839735
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Statistics is the science of [[planning observations]], [[summarizing statistical data]], and [[interpreting statistical data]].
> 
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Dick_Beldin|982839797
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Statistician in residence
> 
> Doing the ''stream of consciousness'' writing I never had a chance to do before. Thanks for the opportunity!
> ----
> I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
> -----Another welcome from RoseParks. We surely need someone with expertise on Probability and Statistics.
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
> 
------
AppliedStatistics|982839902
1c1
< :back to MathematicsAndStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
---
> :back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
4c4
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HiStory and ArtsandEntertainment.
---
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HiStory and [[Arts and Entertainment]].
6c6
< In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the ObservationalError.
---
> In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[Observational Error]].
8c8
< DickBeldin
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ObservationalError|982839989
1,13c1
< back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
< 
< There are no perfect instruments in the real world. Every scientist knows this, but as long as s/he can manage the observational error, research can continue. 
< 
< Everytime we repeat a measurement with a sensitive instrument, we obtain slightly different results. The common StatisticalModel we use is that the error has two additive parts:
< #SystematicError which always occurs (with the same value) when we use the instrument in the same way, and
< #RandomError which may vary from observation to observation.
< 
< The SystematicError is sometimes called StatisticalBias. We control it by using very carefully standardized procedures. Part of the education in every ScienCe is how to use the standard instruments of the discipline.
< 
< The RandomError (or RandomVariation) is due to factors which we cannot (or do not) control. It may be too expensive or we may be too ignorant of these factors to control them each time we measure. It may even be that whatever we are trying to measure is changing (see DynamicModels).
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> 
------
Observational_Error|982840139
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> There are no perfect instruments in the real world. Every scientist knows this, but as long as s/he can manage the observational error, research can continue. 
> 
> Everytime we repeat a measurement with a sensitive instrument, we obtain slightly different results. The common [[Statistical Model]] we use is that the error has two additive parts:
> #[[Systematic Error]] which always occurs (with the same value) when we use the instrument in the same way, and
> #[[Random Error]] which may vary from observation to observation.
> 
> The [[Systematic Error]] is sometimes called [[Statistical Bias]]. We control it by using very carefully standardized procedures. Part of the education in every ScienCe is how to use the standard instruments of the discipline.
> 
> The [[Random Error]] (or [[Random Variation]]) is due to factors which we cannot (or do not) control. It may be too expensive or we may be too ignorant of these factors to control them each time we measure. It may even be that whatever we are trying to measure is changing (see [[Dynamic Models]]).
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
StatisticalTheory|982840208
1,24c1
< back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
< 
< PlanningResearch to achieve the least possible ObservationalError:
< 
< #DesigningExperiments
< #SurveySampling
< 
< SummarizingStatisticalData in conventional forms 
< 
< #Choosing SummaryStatistics
< #Fitting ProbabilityDistributions
< 
< InterpretingStatisticalData is the final objective of all research:
< 
< #StatisticalAssumptions
< #LikelihoodPrinciple
< #EstimatingParameters
< #TestingHypotheses
< #RevisingOpinions
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> 
------
Statistical_Theory|982840381
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
> 
> [[Planning Research]] to achieve the least possible [[Observational Error]]:
> 
> #[[Designing Experiments]]
> #[[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] in conventional forms 
> 
> #Choosing [[Summary Statistics]]
> #Fitting [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> [Interpreting Statistical Data] is the final objective of all research:
> 
> #[[Statistical Assumptions]]
> #[[Likelihood Principle]]
> #[[Estimating Parameters]]
> #[[Testing Hypotheses]]
> #[[Revising Opinions]]
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|982840491
1,27c1
< back to MathematicsAndStatistics
< 
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityTheory -- ProbabilityApplications -- ProbabilityDistributions
< 
< : StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
< 
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
< 
< ProbabilityAxioms form the basis for mathematical ProbabilityTheory. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the axioms directly. ProbabilityApplications include even more than Statistics, which is usually based on the idea of ProbabilityDistributions.
< 
< ProbabilityTheory plays a critical role in the development of StatisticalTheory. Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. We describe our knowledge (and ignorance) mathematically and attempt to learn more from whatever we can observe. This requires us to 
< #plan our observations to control their variability (PlanningResearch), 
< #summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details (SummarizingStatisticalData), and 
< #reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe (InterpretingStatisticalData).
< 
< There are some ScienCes which use statistics so extensively and have specialized terminology that we recognize special disciplines like:
< #BioStatistics (including MedicalStatistics)
< #PsychologicalStatistics
< #BusinessStatistics and EconomicStatistics
< #EngineeringStatistics
< #SocialStatistics (for all the ''social'' sciences)
< ----
< Some aluable resources on the Web are:
< [http://www.clarkson.edu/~dobrowb/probweb/probweb1.html The Probability Web] and 
< [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/ Chance Database]
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> 
------
Probability_and_Statistics|982840880
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Science]]
> 
> : [[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> : [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
> 
> [[Probability]] is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
> 
> [[Probability Axioms]] form the basis for mathematical [[Probability Theory]]. Calculation of probabilities can often be determined using CombinaTorics or by applying the axioms directly. [[Probability Applications]] include even more than [[Statistics]], which is usually based on the idea of [[Probability Distributions]].
> 
> [[Probability Theory]] plays a critical role in the development of [[Statistical Theory]]. [[Statistics]] is a branch of applied [[mathematics]] which includes planning, summarizing, and interpreting uncertain observations. We describe our knowledge (and ignorance) mathematically and attempt to learn more from whatever we can observe. This requires us to 
> #plan our observations to control their variability ([[Planning Research]]), 
> #summarize a collection of observations to feature their communality by suppressing details ([[Summarizing Statistical Data]]), and 
> #reach consensus about what the observations tell us about the world we observe ([[Interpreting Statistical Data]]).
> 
> There are some [[Science]]s which use [[statistics]] so extensively and have specialized terminology that we recognize special disciplines like:
> #BioStatistics
> #[[Psychological Statistics]]
> #[[Business Statistics]]
> #[[Economic Statistics]]
> #[[Engineering Statistics]]
> #[[Social Statistics]] (for all the ''social'' sciences)
> ----
> Some valuable resources on the Web are:
> [http://www.clarkson.edu/~dobrowb/probweb/probweb1.html The Probability Web] and 
> [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/ Chance Database]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
KingdomOfDenmark|982843512
1c1
< Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula and a number of islands north of Germany. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: København).
---
> Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: [[København]]).
3c3
< Inhabitants are called Danes (adj. Danish).
---
> Inhabitants are called [[Danes]] (adj. [[Danish]]).
5c5
< Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
---
> Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
------
Dune/Films|982843693
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Directed by [[David Lynch]]
> 
> The movie was an adaption of the first part of a series of novels by [[Frank Herbert]], with elements from the later parts. Lynch originally wanted to create a much longer movie, his first draft was five hours, but as the production went out of money and the producers wanted a format better suited for cinemas, much of the original footage was cut and replaced by comments. Lynch uses a number of elements from his earlier movies, for example the figure of the Space Guild Navigator, who has a strong resemblance to the alien baby in Lynch's first movie, [[Eraserhead]] which also appeared in [[The Elephant Man]]. Another element is the use of low, humming sounds which create unease in spectators when used over a longer period of time. In financial terms, the movie was a disaster, but has a number of dedicated fans.
> ----
> 
> Also was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Dune|982843889
1c1,2
< Directed by [[David Lynch]]
---
> A novel by [[Frank Herbert]]
> 
3d3
< The movie was an adaption of the first part of a series of novels by [[Frank Herbert]], with elements from the later parts. Lynch originally wanted to create a much longer movie, his first draft was five hours, but as the production went out of money and the producers wanted a format better suited for cinemas, much of the original footage was cut and replaced by comments. Lynch uses a number of elements from his earlier movies, for example the figure of the Space Guild Navigator, who has a strong resemblance to the alien baby in Lynch's first movie, [[Eraserhead]] which also appeared in [[The Elephant Man]]. Another element is the use of low, humming sounds which create unease in spectators when used over a longer period of time. In financial terms, the movie was a disaster, but has a number of dedicated fans.
5c5,14
< This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Sequels
> 
> Dune's messiah -- The Emperor of Dune -- 
> 
> 
> See also /Films inpired by this work.
> 
> ----
> 
> Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
------
NamingConventions|982844012
27a28,32
> '''Names of works''' 
> 
> [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page. This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> 
------
NamingConventions|982844063
30,31c30
< [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page. This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
---
> [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page:  ''This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries).''
------
Dune|982844074
1,2c1
< A novel by [[Frank Herbert]]
< 
---
> A [[Science Fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]]
7c6
< Dune's messiah -- The Emperor of Dune -- 
---
> [[Dunes Messiah]] -- [[The Emperor of Dune]] 
10c9,10
< See also /Films inpired by this work.
---
> :/Films -- inpired by Dune
> :[[/TheGame]] -- PC realtime strategy game
------
Dune|982844096
3d2
< ----
7c6
< 
---
> ----
------
Dune|982844107
3c3
< Sequels
---
> Sequels:
------
Science_Fiction|982844155
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT ScienceFiction
------
WojPob|982844291
7c7
< Inspired by WikiPedia I've installed and am currently messing about with the PhpWiki. Check it out. It's got a few interesting funtions. 
---
> Inspired by WikiPedia I've installed and am currently messing about with the [[PHP Wiki]]. Check it out. It's got a few interesting funtions. 
11c11
< ''Hey, if you know PHP, we would love to have your input on the Nupedia software. :-)''
---
> ''Hey, if you know [[PHP]], we would love to have your input on the Nupedia software. :-)''
------
PHP|982844440
1c1
< Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages.
---
> Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages. [[PHP]] is [[Freeware]], which is one of the main advantages it has over [[Microsoft]]'s Active Server Pages.
3c3
< see also ZenD.
---
> ''see also [[Zend]]
5,10c5
< 
< History
< 
< PHP 4 
< PHP 3
< PHP/FI 2.0
---
> History: -- PHP 4 -- PHP 3 -- PHP/FI 2.0
------
PHP|982844630
3c3
< ''see also [[Zend]]
---
> ''see also [[Zend]], [[PHP Wiki]]''
------
PHP_Wiki|982844716
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[PHP Wiki]] is a Wiki clone, written in [[PHP]].
> 
> [[http://phpwiki.sourceforge.net PHP Wiki Homepage]]
------
FieldsMedal|982844727
3,17c3,17
< * 2002 ([[Pekin]]): bets are open
< * 1998 ([[Berlin]]): RichardBorcherds, WilliamGowers, MaximKontsevich, CurtisMcMullen  
< * 1994 ([[Zurich]]): EfimZelmanov, JacquesLouisLions, JeanBourgain, JeanChristopheYoccoz 
< * 1990 ([[Kyoto]]): VladimirDrinfeld, ... 
< * 1986 SimonDonaldson, GerdFaltings, MichaelFreedman
< * 1983 ([[Warsaw]], PolanD): AlainConnes, WilliamThurston, ShingTungYau
< * 1978 : PierreDeligne, CharlesFefferman, GrigoryMargulis, DanielQuillen
< * 1974 : EnricoBombieri, DavidMumford
< * 1970 ([[Nice]]): AlanBaker, HeisukeHironaka, SergeiNovikov, JohnGThompson
< * 1966 : MichaelAtiyah, PaulJCohen, AlexanderGrothendieck, StephenSmale
< * 1962 : LarsHormander, JohnMilnor
< * 1958 : KlausRoth, ReneThom
< * 1954 : KunihikoKodaira, JeanPierreSerre
< * 1950 : LaurentSchwartz, AtleSelberg
< * 1936 : LarsAhlfors, JesseDouglas
---
> * 2002 ([[Beijing]]): bets are open
> * 1998 ([[Berlin]]): [[RichardBorcherds]], [[WilliamGowers]], [[MaximKontsevich]], [[CurtisMcMullen]]  
> * 1994 ([[Zurich]]): [[EfimZelmanov]], [[JacquesLouisLions]], [[JeanBourgain]], [[JeanChristopheYoccoz]] 
> * 1990 ([[Kyoto]]): [[VladimirDrinfeld]], ... 
> * 1986 [[SimonDonaldson]], [[GerdFaltings]], [[MichaelFreedman]]
> * 1983 ([[Warsaw]], PolanD): [[AlainConnes]], [[WilliamThurston]], [[ShingTungYau]]
> * 1978 : [[PierreDeligne]], [[CharlesFefferman]], [[GrigoryMargulis]], [[DanielQuillen]]
> * 1974 : [[EnricoBombieri]], [[DavidMumford]]
> * 1970 ([[Nice]]): [[AlanBaker]], [[HeisukeHironaka]], [[SergeiNovikov]], [[JohnGThompson]]
> * 1966 : [[MichaelAtiyah]], [[PaulJCohen]], [[AlexanderGrothendieck]], [[StephenSmale]]
> * 1962 : [[LarsHormander]], [[JohnMilnor]]
> * 1958 : [[KlausRoth]], [[ReneThom]]
> * 1954 : [[KunihikoKodaira]], [[JeanPierreSerre]]
> * 1950 : [[LaurentSchwartz]], [[AtleSelberg]]
> * 1936 : [[LarsAhlfors]], [[JesseDouglas]]
------
PHP_Wiki|982844731
3c3
< [[http://phpwiki.sourceforge.net PHP Wiki Homepage]]
---
> [http://phpwiki.sourceforge.net PHP Wiki Homepage]
------
FieldsMedal|982845374
3,17c3,19
< * 2002 ([[Beijing]]): bets are open
< * 1998 ([[Berlin]]): [[RichardBorcherds]], [[WilliamGowers]], [[MaximKontsevich]], [[CurtisMcMullen]]  
< * 1994 ([[Zurich]]): [[EfimZelmanov]], [[JacquesLouisLions]], [[JeanBourgain]], [[JeanChristopheYoccoz]] 
< * 1990 ([[Kyoto]]): [[VladimirDrinfeld]], ... 
< * 1986 [[SimonDonaldson]], [[GerdFaltings]], [[MichaelFreedman]]
< * 1983 ([[Warsaw]], PolanD): [[AlainConnes]], [[WilliamThurston]], [[ShingTungYau]]
< * 1978 : [[PierreDeligne]], [[CharlesFefferman]], [[GrigoryMargulis]], [[DanielQuillen]]
< * 1974 : [[EnricoBombieri]], [[DavidMumford]]
< * 1970 ([[Nice]]): [[AlanBaker]], [[HeisukeHironaka]], [[SergeiNovikov]], [[JohnGThompson]]
< * 1966 : [[MichaelAtiyah]], [[PaulJCohen]], [[AlexanderGrothendieck]], [[StephenSmale]]
< * 1962 : [[LarsHormander]], [[JohnMilnor]]
< * 1958 : [[KlausRoth]], [[ReneThom]]
< * 1954 : [[KunihikoKodaira]], [[JeanPierreSerre]]
< * 1950 : [[LaurentSchwartz]], [[AtleSelberg]]
< * 1936 : [[LarsAhlfors]], [[JesseDouglas]]
---
> The purpose is to give recognition and support to young mathematical researchers having already made important contributions.
> 
> * 2002 ([[Beijing]], [[China]]): bets are open
> * 1998 ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]]): [[Richard Borcherds]], [[William T. Gowers]], [[Maxim Kontsevich]], [[Curtis McMullen]]  
> * 1994 ([[Zurich]], [[Switzerland]]): [[Efim Zelmanov]], [[Jacques-Louis Lions]], [[Jean Bourgain]], [[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz]] 
> * 1990 ([[Kyoto]], [[Japan]]): [[Vladimir Drinfeld]], [[Vaughan F.R. Jones]], [[Shigefumi Mori]], [[Edward Witten]]
> * 1986 ([[Berkeley]], CA)[[Simon Donaldson]], [[Gerd Faltings]], [[Michael Freedman]]
> * 1983 ([[Warsawa]], [[Poland]]): [[Alain Connes]], [[William Thurston]], [[ShingTungYau]]
> * 1978 ([[Vancouver]], [[Canada]]): [[Pierre Deligne]], [[Charles Fefferman]], [[Grigory Margulis]], [[Daniel Quillen]]
> * 1974 ([[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]): [[Enrico Bombieri]], [[David Mumford]]
> * 1970 ([[Nice]], [[France]]): [[Alan Baker]], [[Heisuke Hironaka]], [[Sergei Novikov]], [[John G Thompson]]
> * 1966 ([[Moskva]], [[Russia]]): [[Michael Atiyah]], [[Paul J. Cohen]], [[Alexander Grothendieck]], [[Stephen Smale]]
> * 1962 (([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]): [[Lars Hormander]], [[John Milnor]]
> * 1958 : [[Klaus Roth]], [[Rene Thom]]
> * 1954 : [[Kunihiko Kodaira]], [[Jean-Pierre Serre]]
> * 1950 : [[Laurent Schwartz]], [[Atle Selberg]]
> * 1936 : [[Lars Ahlfors]], [[Jesse Douglas]]
------
RSA|982845565
1c1
< [[RSA]] stands for the last names of its inventors: Rivest, Shamir, Adleman. It is an [[Asymmetric Algorithm]], which until very recently was patented in the US. It relies on the factoring of very large numbers.
---
> [[RSA]] stands for the last names of its inventors: Rivest, Shamir, Adleman. It is one of the most popular [[Asymmetric Algorithms]], which until very recently was patented in the US. It relies on the factoring of very large numbers.
------
Alain_Connes|982845718
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French mathematician, (1947 - )
> 
> Currently Full Professor at [[IHES]] (Bures sur Yvette, France).
> 
> Specialist of VonNeumannAlgebra s, he succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects.
> 
> The remarquable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, differential geometry, made him emphasize NonCommutativeGeometry (name of his major book to date).
> 
> See CyclicHomology, VonNeumannAlgebra/Factors, HiggsBoson, CStarAlgebra, MTheory, Groupoids, JeanLouisLoday.
------
IHES|982845797
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques
> 
> something like a french equivalent to Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies.
------
Diffie-Hellman|982846225
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman]] problem related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
------
Diffie-Hellman|982846257
1c1
< [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman]] problem related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
---
> [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman Problem]] related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
------
Diffie-Hellman|982846323
1c1
< [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman Problem]] related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
---
> [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a cryptographic (''see Cryptography'') protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman Problem]] related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
------
Diffie-Hellman|982846336
1c1
< [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a cryptographic (''see Cryptography'') protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman Problem]] related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
---
> [[Diffie-Hellman]] is a cryptographic (''see [[Cryptography]]'') protocol for key exchange, allowing Alice and Bob to agree on and construct a secret key over an insecure communication channel. The protocol is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman Problem]] related to discrete logarithms. It is considered to be secure if an appropriate mathematical group is used.
------
CryptographY/Hashfunctions|982846390
3c3
< '''Practical example''': The record companies came up with the idea of identifying [[mp3]] files by using their hash value in order to able to trace the files on the net and in various filesharing communities. However, by changing or adding just one fit to the file will defeat this system completely.
---
> '''Practical example''': The record companies came up with the idea of identifying [[MP3]] files by using their hash value in order to able to trace the files on the net and in various filesharing communities. However, by changing or adding just one fit to the file will defeat this system completely.
------
Mathematics|982848730
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory 
> :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions  -- Probability -- Statistics 
> :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions
> :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- FiniteMathematics -- CategoryTheory
> :FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
> 
> Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
> 
> [[Dick Beldin ]]
------
Mathematics|982849181
1,4c1,18
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory 
< :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions  -- Probability -- Statistics 
< :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions
< :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- FiniteMathematics -- CategoryTheory
---
> FiniteMathematics
> :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- Probability -- Statistics 
> 
> Quantity
> :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
> 
> Change
> :Calculus -- [[Differential Equations]] -- TrigonometricFunctions  
> Structure
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry
> 
> Space
> :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP 
> 
> Methods
> :TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions -- PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism
> 
> Miscellanea
------
Mathematics|982849252
2c2
< :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- Probability -- Statistics 
---
> :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- [[Probability]] -- [[Statistics]] 
8c8,9
< :Calculus -- [[Differential Equations]] -- TrigonometricFunctions  
---
> :[[Calculus]] -- [[Differential Equations]] -- TrigonometricFunctions  
> 
10c11
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
13c14
< :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP 
---
> :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- PythagoreanTheorem 
------
Mathematics|982849317
2c2
< :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- [[Probability]] -- [[Statistics]] 
---
> :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
------
Applied_Statistics|982849509
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
> 
> Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also [[History]] and [[Arts and Entertainment]].
> 
> In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[Observational Error]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Planning_observations|982849697
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Probability and Statistics]]
> :[[Statistical Regularity]]
> :[[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
> :[[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. (see [[Statistical Model]]).
> 
> 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
> 
> 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
> 
> 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
> 
> In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
> ---- 
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Go|982854322
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Go is a board game that was introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. Go is remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
> 
> *What do you need to play go.
>    A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines. These form a grid of 361 intersections.
>    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones number 181, and the white ones 180.
> 
> * How do you play Go.
>   The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the intersections on the Go board.
>   The player with the white stones, goes next and does the same.
>   A stone, once placed, cannot be removed.
>   Play continues like this until the game is over.
> * How to win a game of Go.
>   Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
> 
>  an area on the Go board with his stones (has an "eye") that territory belongs to him, and
>  
>  he may remove his opponent's stones that has surrounded.
> 
>   A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the
> 
>  number of stones he has lost to his oponent by capture. 
> 
> * It is traditional for players of unequal skill to use handicaps to equalize the game.
> 
> 
------
Go|982854485
1c1,2
< Go is a board game that was introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. Go is remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
---
> Go is a board game that was introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. Go is
>  remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
4,5c5,12
<    A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines. These form a grid of 361 intersections.
<    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones number 181, and the white ones 180.
---
> 
>    A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines.
> 
>    These form a grid of 361 intersections.
> 
>    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black  stones number 181,
> 
>    and the white ones 180.
8c15,19
<   The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the intersections on the Go board.
---
> 
>   The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the 
> 
>   intersections on the Go board.
> 
9a21
> 
10a23
> 
11a25
> 
12a27
> 
19c34
<   A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the
---
>  A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the
------
Go|982856020
10c10
<    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black  stones number 181,
---
>    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones 
12c12
<    and the white ones 180.
---
>    number 181, and the white ones 180.
22c22
<   A stone, once placed, cannot be removed.
---
>   A stone, once placed, cannot be moved.
28c28
<   Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
---
>  Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
30c30,32
<  an area on the Go board with his stones (has an "eye") that territory belongs to him, and
---
>  an area of his oponent's stones on the Go board with his stones or 
> 
>  has "eye" that territory belongs to him, and
32c34
<  he may remove his opponent's stones that has surrounded.
---
>  he may remove his opponent's stones that he has surrounded.
38a41,78
> 
> * Go is a game involving a high level of stategy. Players must see the entire board as 
>   
>   whole and act accordingly, to be successful.
> 
> * Traditional Go Game Equipment
> 
>   Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic
> 
>  chips, Go players pride themselves on their Go sets. The traditional Go board is solid wood
> 
>  and stands on it's own attached legs. Players sit on mats (''tatami'') on the floor to
> 
>  play. The stones come in matching solid wood pots and are made out of ivory (white) and
> 
>  slate (black) and are extremely smooth. There is even an art to putting down a Go stone,
> 
>  firmly and between two particular fingers.
> 
> * Who plays Go?
> 
>   In Japan, Go is a national past time much like chess or bridge here. Some individuals 
> 
> devote their lives to play. On the other hand, the game of Go has such simple rules, that
> 
> even children play with each other and parents.
> 
>   Go Masters to date have been all male.
> 
>   Americans play Go too. They invariably, with very few exceptions, play with a handicap 
> 
>   again the Japanese.----
> 
> * How do I know this?
> 
> My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Society in New York, of which he was
> 
> a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
------
Go|982857286
48c48
<   Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic
---
>  Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic
------
Games|982857432
23a24
> * [[Mah Jongg]]
------
What_Google_Likes|982861975
33c33,34
<  WcGing----
---
>  WcGing
> ----
35c36,37
<  
---
> ----
> One major flaw in my study is that it doesn't correct for unique ips.  It looks like one person clicked through the same link 7 times, I believe. 
------
PHP|982862076
1c1
< Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages. [[PHP]] is [[Freeware]], which is one of the main advantages it has over [[Microsoft]]'s Active Server Pages.
---
> Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages. [[PHP]] is [[Free software]], which is one of the main advantages it has over [[Microsoft]]'s Active Server Pages.
------
Alain_Connes|982862248
5c5
< Specialist of VonNeumannAlgebra s, he succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects.
---
> Specialist of [[Von Neumann Algebra]]s, he succeeded in completing the classification of factors of these objects.
7c7
< The remarquable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, differential geometry, made him emphasize NonCommutativeGeometry (name of his major book to date).
---
> The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, differential geometry, made him emphasize [[Noncommutative Geometry (name of his major book to date).
9c9
< See CyclicHomology, VonNeumannAlgebra/Factors, HiggsBoson, CStarAlgebra, MTheory, Groupoids, JeanLouisLoday.
---
> See [[Cyclic Homology]], [[Von Neumann Algebra/Factors]], [[Higgs Boson]], [[C Star Algebra]], [[M Theory]], [[Groupoids]], [[Jean Louis Loday]].
------
Go|982862451
1,2c1
< Go is a board game that was introduced into Japan in about 500 A.D. Go is
<  remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
---
> Go is a board game that was introduced into [[Japan]] in about 500 A.D. Go is remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
6c5
<    A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines.
---
> A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines.
8c7
<    These form a grid of 361 intersections.
---
> These form a grid of 361 intersections.
10,12c9
<    Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones 
< 
<    number 181, and the white ones 180.
---
> Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones number 181, and the white ones 180.
16,18c13
<   The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the 
< 
<   intersections on the Go board.
---
> The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the intersections on the Go board.
20c15
<   The player with the white stones, goes next and does the same.
---
> The player with the white stones, goes next and does the same.
22c17
<   A stone, once placed, cannot be moved.
---
> A stone, once placed, cannot be moved.
24c19
<   Play continues like this until the game is over.
---
> Play continues like this until the game is over.
28,34c23
<  Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
< 
<  an area of his oponent's stones on the Go board with his stones or 
< 
<  has "eye" that territory belongs to him, and
<  
<  he may remove his opponent's stones that he has surrounded.
---
> Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
36c25
<  A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the
---
> an area of his oponent's stones on the Go board with his stones or has "eye" that territory belongs to him, and he may remove his opponent's stones that he has surrounded.
38c27
<  number of stones he has lost to his oponent by capture. 
---
> A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the number of stones he has lost to his oponent by capture. 
42,44c31
< * Go is a game involving a high level of stategy. Players must see the entire board as 
<   
<   whole and act accordingly, to be successful.
---
> * Go is a game involving a high level of stategy. Players must see the entire board as whole and act accordingly, to be successful.
48,58c35,36
<  Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic
< 
<  chips, Go players pride themselves on their Go sets. The traditional Go board is solid wood
< 
<  and stands on it's own attached legs. Players sit on mats (''tatami'') on the floor to
< 
<  play. The stones come in matching solid wood pots and are made out of ivory (white) and
< 
<  slate (black) and are extremely smooth. There is even an art to putting down a Go stone,
< 
<  firmly and between two particular fingers.
---
> Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic chips, Go players pride themselves on their Go sets. The traditional Go board is solid wood and stands on it's own attached legs. Players sit on mats (''tatami'') on the floor to play. The stones come in matching solid wood pots and are made out of ivory (white) and slate (black) and are extremely smooth. There is even an art to putting down a Go stone,
> firmly and between two particular fingers.
62,64c40
<   In Japan, Go is a national past time much like chess or bridge here. Some individuals 
< 
< devote their lives to play. On the other hand, the game of Go has such simple rules, that
---
> In Japan, Go is a national past time much like chess or bridge here. Some individuals devote their lives to play. On the other hand, the game of Go has such simple rules, that even children play with each other and parents.
66c42
< even children play with each other and parents.
---
> Go Masters to date have been all male.
68,72c44,45
<   Go Masters to date have been all male.
< 
<   Americans play Go too. They invariably, with very few exceptions, play with a handicap 
< 
<   again the Japanese.----
---
> Americans play Go too. They invariably, with very few exceptions, play with a handicap against the Japanese.
> ----
76,78c49
< My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Society in New York, of which he was
< 
< a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
---
> My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Society in New York, of which he was a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
------
Games|982862530
20c20
< * [[Magic]]
---
> * [[Magic The Gathering]]
------
CountriesS|982864091
1c1,2
< SwedeN
---
> SwedeN
> [Sweden]
------
CountriesS|982864162
2c2
< [Sweden]
---
> [[Sweden]]
------
Sweden|982864344
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
> 
> Other important cities:
> [[Göteborg]] ([[Gothenburg]]),
> [[Malmö]],
> [[Uppsala]],
> [[Linköping]],
> [[Lund]], and
> [[Visby]] on [[Gotland]].
> 
------
Gothenburg|982864374
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English name for [[Göteborg]].
> 
------
Country|982864488
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
------
Free_Links|982864682
7a8,10
> ----
> Why doesn't my [[Free Links]] work correctly. Is it because they contain non-[[ASCII]] characters? Look at [[Sweden]] for [[Göteborg]] and [[Malmö]].
> [[LinusTolke]]
------
Göteborg|982864759
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Town in western [[Sweden]], on the west coast to the [[North Sea]].
> 
------
Sweden|982864917
1c1
< [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
---
> [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
------
Gotland|982865036
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Island in the [[Baltic Sea]] BalticSea. Belonging to [[Sweden]].
> 
> Biggest city is [[Visby]] that is known for its wall around the city from the time of the [[Hansa]].
------
Sweden|982865122
1c1
< [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
---
> [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]] EuropE. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]] SwedishLanguage. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]] StockholM.
------
SwedeN|982865164
1,10c1
< CountrY in Northern EuropE. Inhabitants are called SwedeS. Language spoken is SwedishLanguage. CapitaL is StockholM.
< 
< Other important cities:
< Göteborg (GothenburG),
< Malmö (MalmoE),
< UppsalA,
< Linköping (LinkoepinG),
< LunD, and
< VisbY on GotLand.
< 
---
> Deleted in favor of [[Sweden]].
------
GotLand|982865239
1,3c1
< Island in the BalticSea. Belonging to SwedeN.
< 
< Biggest city is VisbY that is known for its wall around the city from the time of the HansA.
---
> Deleted in favor of [[Gotland]].
------
Baltic_Sea|982865605
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sea in Northern [[Europe]] with [[brackish water]] between [[Scandinavia]] and [[Baltica]].
> Connected to the [[North Sea]] through [[Öresund]] and [[Stora Bält]].
> 
> Contains the big islands 
> [[Gotland]], [[Öland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
> [[Bornholm]] (beloning to [[Denmark]]), 
> [[Åland]] (belonging to [[Finland]]), 
> [[Ösel]] and [[Dagö]] belonging to [[Estonia]].
> 
> 
> Contries with access to the Baltic Sea:
> [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]].
> 
> 
> 
------
PitcairnIsland|982865655
1c1
< A tiny island in the SouthPacific, one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the H.M.S. Bounty; the original PitcairnErs were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as English, are spoken there.  A protectorate of the U.K.--but politically unique.  Population (1991) around 60.
---
> A tiny island in the [[South Pacific]], one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the [[H.M.S. Bounty]]; the original Pitcairners were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as [[EnglishLanguage]], are spoken there.  A protectorate of the [[UnitedKingdom]] --but politically unique.  Population (1991) around 60.
------
Swedish_language|982865711
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. One of the [[Germanic languages]].
> 
> Defined by the [[Swedish Academy]].
------
SwedishLanguage|982865744
1c1
< Language spoken in SwedeN and FinlanD. One of the GermanicLanguages.
---
> Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and FinlanD. One of the GermanicLanguages.
3d2
< Defined by the SwedishAcademy. 
------
SwedishLanguage|982865823
1c1
< Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and FinlanD. One of the GermanicLanguages.
---
> Deleted in favor of [[Swedish language]].
------
BalticSea|982865885
1,11c1
< Sea in Northern Europe with BrackishWater between ScandinaviA and BalticA.
< Connected to the north sea through Öresund (TheStraitOfOeresund) and Stora Bält.
< 
< 
< 
< Contains the big islands GotLand, Öland (OEland) belonging to SwedeN, BornholM (beloning to DenmarK), Åland (AOland) (belonging to FinlanD), Ösel (OEsel) and Dagö (DagoE) belonging to EstoniA.
< 
< 
< Contries with access to the BalticSea: SwedeN, NorwaY, DenmarK, GermanY, PolanD, RussiA, LithuaniA, LatviA, EstoniA, FinlanD.
< 
< 
---
> Deleted in favor of [[Baltic Sea]].
------
Gotland|982865921
1c1
< Island in the [[Baltic Sea]] BalticSea. Belonging to [[Sweden]].
---
> Island in the [[Baltic Sea]]. Belonging to [[Sweden]].
------
FinlanD|982866015
1,5c1
< CountrY in northern EuropE.
< 
< Capital HelsinkI.
< 
< At some point in time it was controlled by the king of SwedeN.
---
> Deleted in favor of [[Finland]].
------
Finland|982866022
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Country]] in northern [[Europe]].
> 
> Capital [[Helsinki]].
> 
> Languages spoken: [[Finish language]] and [[Swedish language]].
> 
> At some point in time it was controlled by the king of [[Sweden]].
------
Sweden|982866069
1c1
< [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]] EuropE. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]] SwedishLanguage. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]] StockholM.
---
> [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]] EuropE. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]] StockholM.
------
CountriesS|982866132
1d0
< SwedeN
------
CountriesF|982866171
1c1
< FinlanD
---
> [[Finland]]
------
GermanY|982866248
5c5
< It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, BalticSea, in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
---
> It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
------
PolanD|982866288
3c3
< Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. PolanD is bordered to the north by the BalticSea, to the northeast by RussiA and LithuaniA, and to the east by BelaruS and UkrainE. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate PolanD from SlovakiA and the CzechRepublic, while to the west the border with GermanY is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
---
> Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. PolanD is bordered to the north by the [[Baltic Sea]], to the northeast by RussiA and LithuaniA, and to the east by BelaruS and UkrainE. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate PolanD from SlovakiA and the CzechRepublic, while to the west the border with GermanY is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
------
KingdomOfDenmark|982866349
1c1
< Country in NothernEurope, bordering the BalticSea and the NorthSea, on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital Copenhagen (Danish: [[København]]).
---
> Country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]]).
5c5
< Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
---
> Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
------
KingdomOfDenmark|982866383
1c1
< Country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]]).
---
> Country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]], Swedish: [[Köpenhamn]]).
------
PolishLanguage|982866414
1c1
< The PolishLanguage (together with Czech-Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian, and other Lekhitic languages) belongs to the West SlaviC branch of SlaviC languages. It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish (spoken in the southeast), Mazovian, and Silesian. Mazovian shares some features with Kashubian, whose remaining speakers (fewer than 200,000) live west of Gdansk near the BalticSea. Elsewhere, Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages. In Silesia the inimitable regional patois contains a mixture of Polish and German elements. Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations, standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by PoleS from the Soviet Union, the older generation came to speak a language characteristic of the former eastern provinces. Small numbers of people also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.
---
> The PolishLanguage (together with Czech-Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian, and other Lekhitic languages) belongs to the West SlaviC branch of SlaviC languages. It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish (spoken in the southeast), Mazovian, and Silesian. Mazovian shares some features with Kashubian, whose remaining speakers (fewer than 200,000) live west of Gdansk near the [[Baltic Sea]]. Elsewhere, Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages. In Silesia the inimitable regional patois contains a mixture of Polish and German elements. Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations, standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by PoleS from the Soviet Union, the older generation came to speak a language characteristic of the former eastern provinces. Small numbers of people also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.
9c9
< * PolanD
---
> * PolanD
------
EuropE|982866498
20c20
<     FinlanD,
---
>     [[Finland]],
45c45
<     SwedeN,
---
>     [[Sweden]],
------
What_Google_Likes|982866583
37a38,39
> ----
> The fact that these particular pages are so popular might be related to the fact that, for whatever reason, people are mashing *these* particular words together.  When we've converted our links to [[free links]], and Google has picked up on this, then [[What Google Likes]] will be much more interesting. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Köpenhamn|982866641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish for [[København]]. 
------
Copenhagen|982866657
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English for [[København]].
------
RequestedArticles|982866669
2a3,4
> If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.
> 
7,10c9
< ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- 
< RussianLiterature -- BoMisName --
< 
< If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.  Let's see if this works!
---
> ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName
12c11
< I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --JimboWales
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
14c13
< LetterATopics
---
> I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --JimboWales
------
København|982866685
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[Denmark]].
------
What_Google_Likes|982868026
39c39
< The fact that these particular pages are so popular might be related to the fact that, for whatever reason, people are mashing *these* particular words together.  When we've converted our links to [[free links]], and Google has picked up on this, then [[What Google Likes]] will be much more interesting. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> The fact that these particular pages are so popular might be related to the fact that, for whatever reason, people are mashing *these* particular words together when they search using Google.  When we've converted our links to [[free links]], and Google has picked up on this, then [[What Google Likes]] will be much more interesting. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
SwedeN|982868076
1c1
< Deleted in favor of [[Sweden]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sweden]]
------
FinlanD|982868382
1c1
< Deleted in favor of [[Finland]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Finland]].
------
Sweden|982868946
1c1
< [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]] EuropE. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. [[Capital]] is [[Stockholm]] StockholM.
---
> [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
------
CountriesS|982870753
1c1
< [[Sweden]]
---
>  [[SurinaM]] [[Sweden]]
------
CountriesS|982870764
1c1
<  [[SurinaM]] [[Sweden]]
---
>  [[Surinam]] [[Sweden]]
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|982870805
3c3
< I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  (Or adapt them and render them into brilliant prose.--LS)  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
---
> I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  (Or adapt them and render them into BrilliantProse.--LS)  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
------
WhatsaWikiFor|982872359
1c1,3
< In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for.  The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
---
> In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for. The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
> 
> The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else
------
PublicDomainResources|982873323
13c13,15
< [http://www.andamooka.org Andamooka.org]
---
> [http://www.andamooka.org Andamooka.org]
> 
> [http://members.nbci.com/mspong/ The Household Cyclopedia]
------
WhatsaWikiFor|982873510
3c3
< The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else
---
> The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else.
------
NamingConventions|982874093
31a32,34
> I think that the most general solution to namespace collisions would be to have the central page, for example [[Apollo]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for. [[Apollo Space Program]] [[Apollo Greek God]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.
> 
> 
------
SwedishLanguage|982874147
1c1
< Deleted in favor of [[Swedish language]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Swedish language]].
------
Brackish_water|982874418
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term 'brackish water' refers to water which is a mixture of salt water and fresh water.  In technical terms, it is often characterized as water between 0.5 grams and 30 grams of salt per liter.
------
StatisticalTheory|982874476
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistical Theory]]
------
ObservationalError|982874528
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Observational Error]]
------
Leisure|982874635
5c5
< [[Lounging]]: The kind of 'reclining-in-the-sun' type leisure, which implies going to sleep or a near-sleep lounging state. This is the type that's so different from [[Recreation]], which implies actually doing something to stave off boredom during less active times.
---
> [[Lounging]]: The kind of 'reclining-in-the-sun' type leisure, which implies going to sleep or a near-sleep lounging state. This is the type that's so different from [[Recreation]], which implies actually doing something to stave off boredom during less active times.  Lounging requires [[wasting time]].
------
Wasting_time|982874684
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are many ways to waste time.
> 
> One way to waste time is to find cool searches on Google, such as these:
> 
> [[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22We+are+Siamese%2C+if+you+don%27t+please%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off We are Siamese, if you please.]]
------
Wasting_time|982874699
5c5
< [[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22We+are+Siamese%2C+if+you+don%27t+please%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off We are Siamese, if you please.]]
---
> [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22We+are+Siamese%2C+if+you+don%27t+please%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off We are Siamese, if you don't please.]
------
Wasting_time|982875296
4,5c4,14
< 
< [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22We+are+Siamese%2C+if+you+don%27t+please%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off We are Siamese, if you don't please.]
---
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Don%27t+you+have+something+better+to+do+with+your+time%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off Don't you have something better to do with your time]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22We+are+Siamese%2C+if+you+don%27t+please%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off We are Siamese, if you don't please]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Give+me+a+break%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off Give me a break]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Give+me+a+friggin+break%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off Give me a friggin break]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Give+me+a+flippin+break%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off Give me a flippin break]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+best+Irish+fiddler%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the best Irish fiddler]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+best+Jazz+saxophonist%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the best Jazz saxophonist]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+greatest+classical+composer%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the greatest classical composer]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22cuss+words+of+academe%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off cuss words of academe]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22yak+milk%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off yak milk]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22funny+searches%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off funny searches]
------
Wasting_time|982876439
14a15,19
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22I+can+hardly+contain+myself%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off I can hardly contain myself]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22I+can+barely+contain+myself%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off I can barely contain myself]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22I+can+scarcely+contain+myself%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off I can scarcely contain myself]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22goes+to+eleven%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off goes to eleven]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22get+revenge+on+spammers%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off get revenge on spammers]
------
Wasting_time|982876909
19c19,20
< :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22get+revenge+on+spammers%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off get revenge on spammers]
---
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22get+revenge+on+spammers%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off get revenge on spammers]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22doesn%27t+suck%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off doesn't suck]
------
Sweden|982877179
5c5
< [[Malmö]],
---
> [Malmö],
------
Sweden|982877193
5c5
< [Malmö],
---
> [[Malmö]],
------
Sweden|982877213
5c5
< [[Malmö]],
---
>  [[Malmö]], 
------
Sweden|982877226
5c5
<  [[Malmö]], 
---
> [[Malmö]], 
------
Sweden|982877312
5c5,6
< [[Malmö]], 
---
> [[Malmö]],
> [[Malmo]],
------
WikiPediaBugs|982877552
9a10,24
> 
> Cool.
> 
> New bug:
> 
> I noticed on the Sweden page (http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Sweden) some of the cities were wiki links and others were not.  It looks like cities with umlauts do not show up as links:
> 
> [[Malmö]],
> 
> [[Malmo]],
> 
> As an American I have no qualms about ignoring umlauts, accent graves, and other such things that non-English speakers seem attached to.  But perhaps others will want to preserve these.
> 
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Sweden
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|982877583
21c21
< As an American I have no qualms about ignoring umlauts, accent graves, and other such things that non-English speakers seem attached to.  But perhaps others will want to preserve these.
---
> As an American I have no qualms about ignoring umlauts, accent graves, and other such things that non-English speakers seem attached to.  But perhaps others will want to use these.
------
Wasting_time|982881664
20c20,22
< :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22doesn%27t+suck%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off doesn't suck]
---
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22doesn%27t+suck%22&hq=&hl=en&lr=&safe=off doesn't suck]
> 
> The best way to waste time, though, is to write stuff into the WikiPedia.
------
WikiPediaBugs|982881819
24a25,26
> ''A temporary solution that fixes the links, but not the page titles, is [[Malmo|Malmö]].
> 
------
Games|982881973
6a7
> * [[Checkers]]
------
Go|982882861
49c49
< My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Society in New York, of which he was a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
---
> My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Club in New York, of which he was a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
------
BinomialDistribution|982884077
34a35,37
> ----
> I agree that successive divisions appears ambiguous. Most mathematicians I know do indeed consider division as the inverse of multiplication and many programming languages explicitly specify that multiplication and divisions are performed left to right. You are correct, it is not a universal convention.
> Dick Beldin
------
BinomialDistribution|982884156
1c1
< :back to ProbabilityDistributions
---
> see [[Binomial Distribution]]
3,37d2
< The Binomial distribution can be described as the sum of a specific number of independent trials, each of which results in either a zero or a one with constant probability. It provides a reasonable description of coin tossing experiments, among others.
< 
< To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
< 
< <pre>
<              X   (N-X)
<      N!     p   q
<   ---------
<   X!* (N-X)!
< </pre>
< ----
< DickBeldin----
< If you go to previous versions and look at the first one, 02/15/2001, which is yours?, you will see :
< 
< 
< 1). q (1-p), maybe a typo?
< 
< 
< 2). And the formula for the numbers of ways of picking X items out of N items  was:
< N!/X!/(N-X)!. This is plain wrong. Yes, after requesting a change for a week, I changed it.
< 
< 3).There were also wording problems. RoseParks.
< ----
< I see now the problem. (1-p) was intended as a parenthetical definition. I guess N1/X!/(N-X)! worked in my programming codes so I couldn't see the ambiguity. How would you calculate N!/X!/(N-X)!? From right to left? On the other hand, Today is 02/20/2001, so I think your "requesting a change for a week" is a bit off. Today is only the 20th by my calendar. In any case, the criticism has led to something better.
< DickBeldin----
< In answer to your question on how you evaluate, N!/X!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
< 
< 
< 2/4/12 is ambiguous since
< * (2/4)/12= 2/48=1/24 while
< * 2/(4/12)= 24/4= 6.
< Multiplication is associative over the reals. If you look at division as the inverse operation of multplication, i.e. 2/4/12=2*4^1*12^1=1/24 you are okay. If you look at division in the ordinary sense, you must specify the order of operations.RoseParks
< ----
< I agree that successive divisions appears ambiguous. Most mathematicians I know do indeed consider division as the inverse of multiplication and many programming languages explicitly specify that multiplication and divisions are performed left to right. You are correct, it is not a universal convention.
< Dick Beldin
------
Binomial_Distribution|982884204
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to ProbabilityDistributions
> 
> :The Binomial distribution can be described as the sum of a specific number of independent trials, each of which results in either a zero or a one with constant probability. It provides a reasonable description of coin tossing experiments, among others.
> 
> :To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
> 
> <pre>
>              X   (N-X)
>      N!     p   q
>   ---------
>   X!* (N-X)!
> </pre>
> ----
> DickBeldin----
> If you go to previous versions and look at the first one, 02/15/2001, which is yours?, you will see :
> 
> 
> 1). q (1-p), maybe a typo?
> 
> 
> 2). And the formula for the numbers of ways of picking X items out of N items  was:
> N!/X!/(N-X)!. This is plain wrong. Yes, after requesting a change for a week, I changed it.
> 
> 3).There were also wording problems. RoseParks.
> ----
> I see now the problem. (1-p) was intended as a parenthetical definition. I guess N1/X!/(N-X)! worked in my programming codes so I couldn't see the ambiguity. How would you calculate N!/X!/(N-X)!? From right to left? On the other hand, Today is 02/20/2001, so I think your "requesting a change for a week" is a bit off. Today is only the 20th by my calendar. In any case, the criticism has led to something better.
> [[Dick Beldin]]----
> In answer to your question on how you evaluate, N!/X!/(X-N)!, this is ambiguous. In any easy example.
> 
> 
> 2/4/12 is ambiguous since
> * (2/4)/12= 2/48=1/24 while
> * 2/(4/12)= 24/4= 6.
> Multiplication is associative over the reals. If you look at division as the inverse operation of multplication, i.e. 2/4/12=2*4^1*12^1=1/24 you are okay. If you look at division in the ordinary sense, you must specify the order of operations.RoseParks
> ----
> I agree that successive divisions appears ambiguous. Most mathematicians I know do indeed consider division as the inverse of multiplication and many programming languages explicitly specify that multiplication and divisions are performed left to right. You are correct, it is not a universal convention.
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Binomial_Distribution|982884333
3c3
< :The Binomial distribution can be described as the sum of a specific number of independent trials, each of which results in either a zero or a one with constant probability. It provides a reasonable description of coin tossing experiments, among others.
---
> The Binomial distribution can be described as the sum of a specific number of independent trials, each of which results in either a zero or a one with constant probability. It provides a reasonable description of coin tossing experiments, among others.
5c5
< :To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
---
> To get X heads in a sequence of N tosses, several things have to happen. If the probability of a head on a single trial is p and  the probability of a tail is q=(1-p), then each sequence with X heads and N-X tails has a probability calculated  by finding the product of multiplying p times itself X times (p^X), and q times itself (N-X) times (q^(N-X)), that is (p^X q^(N-X)). However, there are many sequences which match this description. By the methods of CombinaTorics, we can find that there are N!/(X!*(N-X)!) different combinations with X heads and N-X tails. So, the probability of X heads in N trials is 
14c14,15
< DickBeldin----
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> ----
------
Binomial_Distribution|982884442
37c37
< I agree that successive divisions appears ambiguous. Most mathematicians I know do indeed consider division as the inverse of multiplication and many programming languages explicitly specify that multiplication and divisions are performed left to right. You are correct, it is not a universal convention.
---
> I agree that an expression with successive divisions appears ambiguous. Most mathematicians I know do indeed consider division as the inverse of multiplication and many programming languages explicitly specify that multiplication and divisions are performed left to right. You are correct, it is not a universal convention. In addition, the vertical placement of numerator and denominator is clearer.
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982884601
1,25c1
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics
< :ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityApplications
< :RandomVariable -- CumulativeDistributionFunction -- ProbabilityDensity
< 
< A ''probability distribution'' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a RandomVariable. For every RandomVariable, there is a function called the CumulativeDistributionFunction which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. 
< 
< :F(x) = Pr[X<x]
< 
< If the RandomVariable is a DiscreteRandomVariable, all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by
< 
< :p(x) = limit F(x+t) - F(x-t) as t goes to zero.
< 
< For a ContinuousRandomVariable, we define the ProbabilityDensity by 
< 
< <pre>
<                          F(x+t) - F(x)
<     f(x) = F'(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
<                                t
< </pre>
< 
< Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the NormalDistribution, the BinomialDistribution, the PoissonDistribution are just three of them.
< 
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Probability Distribtuions]]
------
ProbabilityDistributions|982884627
1c1
< see [[Probability Distribtuions]]
---
> see [[Probability Distributions]]
------
Probability_Distributions|982884922
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Probability Applications]]
> :[[Random Variable]] -- [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] -- [[Probability Density]]
> 
> A '''Probability Distribution''' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a [[Random Variable]]. For every [[Random Variable]], there is a function called the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the [[random variable]]. 
> 
> :F(x) = Pr[X<x]
> 
> If the [[Random Variable]] is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by
> 
> :p(x) = limit F(x+t) - F(x-t) as t goes to zero.
> 
> For a [[Continuous Random Variable]], we define the [[Probability Density]] (at x) by 
> 
> <pre>
>                          F(x+t) - F(x)
>     f(x) = F'(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
>                                t
> </pre>
> 
> Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the [[Normal Distribution]], the [[Binomial Distribution], the [[Poisson Distribution]] are just three of them.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
FiniteMathematics|982885107
1,14c1
< :back to MathematicsAndStatistics
< 
< Finite Mathematics includes the many topics in Mathematics which do not require the concepts associated with the Differential or Integral Calculus.
< To say this in a more technical way:
< 
< * FiniteMathematics deals with discrete items.
< * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
< 
<  Among its most prominent topics are:
< 
< :SetTheory -- CombinaTorics -- ProbabilityTheory -- GameTheory -- MarkovChains -- GraphTheory -- LinearProgramming
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Finite Mathematics]]
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885125
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]]
> 
> 
> Finite Mathematics includes the many topics in Mathematics which do not require the concepts associated with the Differential or Integral Calculus. To say this in a more technical way:
> * FiniteMathematics deals with discrete items.
> * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
> 
>  Among its most prominent topics are:
> 
> :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- LinearProgramming
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885162
5,6c5,6
< * FiniteMathematics deals with discrete items.
< * Non/FiniteMathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
---
> * Finite Mathematics deals with discrete items.
> * Non/finite Mathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885216
6c6
< * Non/finite Mathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, AnalysiS.
---
> * Non-finite Mathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, [[Analysis]] and [[Calculus]].
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885264
8c8
<  Among its most prominent topics are:
---
> Among its most prominent topics are:
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885308
10c10
< :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- LinearProgramming
---
> :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]] -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885349
10c10,11
< :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]] -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
---
> :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
> :[[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885401
9a10
> #Theoretical topics
10a12
> #Applied topics
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885422
10,13c10,11
< #Theoretical topics
< :[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
< #Applied topics
< :[[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
---
> #Theoretical topics:[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
> #Applied topics:[[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885481
10,11c10,11
< #Theoretical topics:[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
< #Applied topics:[[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
---
> * Theoretical topics:[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
> * Applied topics:[[Game Theory]] -- [[Markov Chains]] -- [[Graph Theory]] -- [[Linear Programming]]
------
Finite_Mathematics|982885560
5,6c5,6
< * Finite Mathematics deals with discrete items.
< * Non-finite Mathematics deals with continuous items, in particular, [[Analysis]] and [[Calculus]].
---
> * Finite Mathematics deals with discrete items and ignores the concepts of infinity and continuity.
> * Non-finite Mathematics deals with continuous items and infinite processes, in particular, [[Analysis]] and [[Calculus]].
------
Mathematics|982885654
23c23
< 
---
> ----
------
MichigaN|982886032
5c5
< Michigan is known as the birthplace of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of Roger and Me -- [[Dick Beldin]] born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
MichigaN|982886053
5c5
< Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of Roger and Me -- [[Dick Beldin]] born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of Roger and Me -- [[Dick Beldin]], born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
MichigaN|982886083
5c5
< Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of Roger and Me -- [[Dick Beldin]], born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of '''Roger and Me''' -- [[Dick Beldin]], born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
AppliedStatistics|982886148
1,8c1
< :back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
< 
< Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also HiStory and [[Arts and Entertainment]].
< 
< In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[Observational Error]].
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> see [[Applied Statistics]]
------
CentralTendancy|982886229
1,11c1
< : back to SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
< 
< '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire DataSeT.
< 
< The most commonly used measures of central tendancy are the 
< #MeaN, the sum of all data divided by the number of DataSeT.
< #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the DataSeT.
< #MoDe, the most common value in the DataSeT.
< 
< ----
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> see [[Central Tendancy]]
------
Central_Tendancy|982886357
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
> 
> '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire [[Data Set]].
> 
> The most commonly used measures of central tendancy are the 
> #[[Arithmetic Mean]], the sum of all data divided by the number of Observations in the [[Data Set]]].
> #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the [[Data Set]].
> #MoDe, the most common value in the [[Data Set]].
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Central_Tendancy|982886404
1c1
< : back to SummaryStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
---
> : back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
3c3
< '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any '''StatistiC''' that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire [[Data Set]].
---
> '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any [[Statistic]] that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire [[Data Set]].
------
SummaryStatistics|982886535
1c1
< : back to StatisticalTheory -- SummarizingStatisticalData
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
5,7c5,7
< We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendancy and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
<  
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendancy]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
>  ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
SummaryStatistics|982886572
1,7c1
< back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
< 
< The easiest way to approach this subject is to focus on what we have and what we want to achieve:
< 
< We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendancy]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
<  ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> see [[Summary Statistics]]
------
Summary_Statistics|982886588
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
> 
> The easiest way to approach this subject is to focus on what we have and what we want to achieve:
> 
> We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendancy]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
>  ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
SeT|982886689
1,9c1
< A SeT is a collection of objects. For example, one can define the set '''S''' = {Sn: Sn is a sibling of the Larry M. Sanger, who is the Editor-in-Chief of Nupedia}.
< 
< We require that sets be well-defined. Given an object Sn, we must be able to determine if 
< Sn belongs to '''S'''.---- 
< 
< '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
< 
< 
< 
---
> see [[set]]
------
Set|982887330
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A set is a collection of objects. For example, one can define the set '''S''' = {Sn: Sn is a sibling of the Larry M. Sanger, who is the Editor-in-Chief of Nupedia}.
> 
> We require that sets be well-defined. Given an object Sn, we must be able to determine if Sn belongs to '''S'''.---- 
> 
> '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
> ----
> Mathematicians are prone to present sets of numbers as examples:
> #[[Natural Numbers]] which are used for counting the members of sets.
> #[[Integers]] which appear as solutions to equations like x+a=b.
> #[[Rational Numbers]] which appear as solutions to equations like a+bx=c.
> #[[Algebraic Numbers]] which can appear as solutions to polynomial equations (with rational coefficients) and may involve [[radical]]s.
> #[[Real Numbers]] which include [[Transcendental Numbers]] (which can't appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficents) as well as the [[Algebraic Numbers]]
> 
> [[Statistical Theory]] is built on the base of [[Set Theory]] and [[Probabillity Theory]].
> 
> 
------
Set|982887563
13c13
< 
---
> ----
15,16c15,17
< 
< 
---
> ----
> Care must be taken with verbal descriptions of sets. One can describe in words a set which has no members. If one assumes it has members, an apparent [[Paradox]] or [[Antinomy]] may occur.
> Wrap you mind around ''the barber who shaves everyone in town and only those who do not shave themselves''. Now, ask yourself, "Who shaves the barber?"
------
DesigningExperiments|982887667
1,9c1
< back to ProbabilityAndStatistics -- StatisticalTheory
< 
< : PlanningResearch -- SurveySampling
< 
< The prototype of the thinking of a statistician considering the design of an experiment was exemplified by [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html Sir Ronald A. Fisher]. He described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. This sounds like a frivolous application, but in fact, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design.
< 
< Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in AbstractAlgebra and CombinaTorics.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Designing Experiments]]
------
Designing_Experiments|982887771
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
> 
> : [[Planning Research]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> The prototype of the thinking of a statistician considering the design of an experiment was exemplified by [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html Sir Ronald A. Fisher]. He described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. This sounds like a frivolous application, but in fact, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design.
> 
> Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[Abstract Algebra]] and [[Combinatorics]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
DesigningExperiments|982890558
1c1
< see [[Designing Experiments]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Designing Experiments]]
------
Dick_Beldin|982890626
7a8,16
> Dick,
> 
> As you go through moving to the new naming convention, I'm
> following through changing the old pages to
> #REDIRECT [[new page name]]
> 
> Do you know how to do that?
> 
> ----
------
Dick_Beldin|982890639
12c12
< #REDIRECT [[new page name]]
---
>  #REDIRECT [[new page name]]
------
SeT|982890665
1c1
< see [[set]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[set]]
------
SeT|982890682
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[set]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Set]]
------
CentralTendancy|982890728
1c1
< see [[Central Tendancy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Central Tendancy]]
------
FiniteMathematics|982890768
1c1
< see [[Finite Mathematics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Finite Mathematics]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|982890901
1,14d0
< I'm having trouble creating a redirect in a subcategory.  See this page for an example:
< http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?AtlasShrugged/BettyPope
< 
< I want it to go to:
< http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope
< 
< I've tried it quite a few ways but can't make it work.
< 
< [[AtlasShrugged/Betty Pope]]  -- there you go ;-)
< 
< Cool.
< 
< New bug:
< 
28c14,17
< We have upgraded to a new version of the software.  Additionally, I think I have solved the bug that made it look like all un-logged-in edits were done from cobrand.bomis.com.
---
> 
> I think we will have to wait on this one until CliffordAdams is back from vacation.  I will study the code a bit.
> 
> This is a very vexing problem, I bet.  Because what we really want is to let people type fancy letters if they want, but to have them ultimately resolve to non-fancy letters (so that AccidentalLinking still works fairly well).  Also, I don't think fancy letters are legal in a URL '''at all''', so they can't be linking codes.
------
Central_Tendancy|982891202
12c12,13
< 
---
> ----
> Isn't this spelled "tendency"?
------
Set|982896147
12a13
> #[[Complex Numbers]] which provide solutions to equations such as x^2+1=0.
------
SandBox|982897221
15a16,19
> ----
> [[Monkey]]
> 
> [[Monkey|Donkey]]
------
SandBox|982897256
19c19
< [[Monkey|Donkey]]
---
> [[Monkey|Donkey versus Monkey]]
------
Checkers|982897349
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Checkers is a very old board game, played on the same 8x8 grid as [[Chess]] but much simpler and easier.  There is only one kind of piece, confined to the black squares.  In English checkers the rules are:
> * Each side starts with 12 pieces on the last three rows of the board.
> * Each turn, a player can move one of his pieces diagonally forward or jump diagonally forward over a series of enemy pieces, which are then removed from the board.  Sometimes players are required to jump whenever they can.
> * When a piece reaches the opposite side, it becomes a king with the ability to move and jump diagonally backwards.
> * The last player with any pieces left wins!
> 
> There are many variants of checkers found around the world.  For instance, in German checkers kings have the ability to move as far along any diagonal as they like.  There are also similar games on different boards, like Chinese checkers.  ''If you know of any other versions, please add them here!''
------
Free_Links|982897391
10a11,12
> 
> See WikiPediaBugs for more.
------
Set|982898012
4,5c4,5
< 
< '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''
---
> '''What, there are no recursively enumerable sets?'''----
> This comment posted by an astute reader who is pointing out that in cetain areas of SetTheory, Sets are not necesarily required to be well-defined. In this case, they are  semi-decidable.
13a14
> ---- '''Begging to differ'''....Mathemticians are inclined to define sets of numbers accurately. People discussing Mathematics and looking at the evolution of our number systems and how they were developed to solve certain problems, are inclined to ''look'' at them in the above way.
------
AtlasShrugged/Brakeman|982898084
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
> 
> /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
> 
> Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|982898115
1,10c1
< An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
< 
< /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
< 
< Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
< 
---
> #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Brakeman
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|982898143
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Brakeman
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Brakeman]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982898169
2c2
<  /BrakemaN
---
>  /Brakeman
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto|982898200
1c1
< When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /BrakemaN says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto|982898210
1c1
< When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /BrakemaN on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /Brakeman on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898247
4c4
< /DagnyTaggart is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /BrakemaN whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> /DagnyTaggart is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
10c10
<  /BrakemaN
---
>  /Brakeman
20c20
< What was the brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
---
> What was the /Brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN113|982898267
4c4
< /DagnyTaggart and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /BrakemaN watches her tensely.
---
> /DagnyTaggart and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /Brakeman watches her tensely.
11c11
<  /BrakemaN
---
>  /Brakeman
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|982898303
26c26
< # In /SectioN112 /BrakemaN tells /DagnyTaggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
---
> # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells /DagnyTaggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
------
BrakemaN|982898327
3c3
< (Perhaps you wanted to see AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN.)
---
> (Perhaps you wanted to see AtlasShrugged/Brakeman.)
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982898444
3c3
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Dagny_Taggart|982898453
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main character in AtlasShrugged (also the name of /MrsNathanielTaggart).
> 
> Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
> 
> Dagny appears in the following sections:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN113
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN147
>  /SectioN148
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnyTaggart|982898517
1,17c1
< The main character in AtlasShrugged (also the name of /MrsNathanielTaggart).
< 
< Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
< 
< Dagny appears in the following sections:
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN113
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN145
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN147
<  /SectioN148
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898576
4c4
< /DagnyTaggart is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[AtlasShrugged/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898593
4c4
< [[AtlasShrugged/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898612
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[Dagny Taggart|/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898653
4c4
< [[Dagny Taggart|/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898696
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|982898728
13c13
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN113|982898759
4c4
< /DagnyTaggart and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /Brakeman watches her tensely.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /Brakeman watches her tensely.
10c10
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|982898801
4c4
< /DagnyTaggart meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  Dagny meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
11c11
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|982898880
4c4
< Recounts /DagnyTaggart's childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy /FranciscoDAnconia invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  Dagny opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts Dagny and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, Dagny has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy /FranciscoDAnconia invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
12c12
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|982898918
17c17
<  /DagnyTaggart: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|982898935
4c4
< /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what /DagnyTaggart is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
---
> /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|982898998
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs Dagny that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As Dagny walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
4c4
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, Dagny's apartment.
---
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] apartment.
8c8
< Dagny sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
14c14
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN145|982899040
2c2
< The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, /JamesTaggart storms into /DagnyTaggart's office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over Dagny.  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
---
> The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, /JamesTaggart storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
5c5
< A meeting of the /NationalAllianceofRailroads and the office of /DagnyTaggart.
---
> A meeting of the /NationalAllianceofRailroads and the office of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
9c9
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
12c12
<  /OrrenBoyle
---
>  /OrrenBoyle
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|982899067
2c2
< /DagnyTaggart visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
8c8
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN147|982899102
2c2
< /EllisWyatt appears suddenly and unexpectedly in DagnyTaggart's office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  Dagny surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
---
> /EllisWyatt appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
7c7
< /DagnyTaggart's office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
10c10
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|982899161
3c3
< /DagnyTaggart meets with /HankRearden at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  Dagny acknowledges that Rearden now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, Rearden needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /HankRearden at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that Rearden now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, Rearden needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
5c5
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  Dagny needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  Dagny could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for Dagny - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
---
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
11c11
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN151|982899196
2c2
< The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  /EddieWillers shows the news report to /DagnyTaggart, who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells Eddie to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  Eddie warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for Dagny.
---
> The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  /EddieWillers shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells Eddie to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  Eddie warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
5c5
< Dagny's office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
8c8
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
Central_Tendancy|982899318
13c13
< Isn't this spelled "tendency"?
---
> Isn't this spelled "tendency"?----Definitely...----
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|982899336
3c3
< In this long section, /DagnyTaggart goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront /FranciscoDAnconia.  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
---
> In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront /FranciscoDAnconia.  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
5c5
< Francisco had been a childhood friend of Dagny and /EddieWillers.  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of Dagny's and Eddie's year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to Dagny about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
---
> Francisco had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and /EddieWillers.  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and Eddie's year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
7c7
< When Dagny was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that Dagny showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw Dagny a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  Dagny loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as Francisco, but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years Dagny would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
---
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as Francisco, but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
9c9
< That summer, when Francisco returned, he and Dagny discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
---
> That summer, when Francisco returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as Francisco rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and Dagny finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, Francisco invited her to his room at the Wayne Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as Francisco rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, Francisco invited her to his room at the Wayne Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
19c19
< Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in Dagny's childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
---
> Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
24c24
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Bracelet|982899367
3c3
< Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, /DagnyTaggart offers to buy it from her.
---
> Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
------
AtlasShrugged/Brakeman|982899438
3c3
< /DagnyTaggart hears /BrakemaN whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When Dagny points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /BrakemaN claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears /Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
5c5
< Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> Later, after [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
9c9
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
------
AtlasShrugged/Chicago|982899453
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|982899477
3c3
< /DagnyTaggart got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
------
AtlasShrugged/ConductoR|982899497
1c1
< /ConductoR works on the /TaggartComet.  In /SectioN112 he explains to /DagnyTaggart that he is waiting for a broken light to change.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
---
> /ConductoR works on the /TaggartComet.  In /SectioN112 he explains to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] that he is waiting for a broken light to change.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
Checkers|982899512
1c1,4
< Checkers is a very old board game, played on the same 8x8 grid as [[Chess]] but much simpler and easier.  There is only one kind of piece, confined to the black squares.  In English checkers the rules are:
---
> Checkers is the name of various board games where the object is to capture enemy pieces by jumping over them.  They are relatively simple, easy, and quick, and are very popular as a result.  This sort of game dates back to at least ancient Egypt.
> 
> English Checkers (draughts) is played on the same 8x8 grid as chess, but only uses the black squares.  The rules are:
> 
7c10,14
< There are many variants of checkers found around the world.  For instance, in German checkers kings have the ability to move as far along any diagonal as they like.  There are also similar games on different boards, like Chinese checkers.  ''If you know of any other versions, please add them here!''
---
> There are many other variants worldwide:
> * In German checkers the kings can move as far as they want along any diagonal.  
> * In Turkish checkers the players start with 16 men filling the first two rows of the board, and move straight forwards or sideways.  Kings can move as far as they want along any orthogonal.
> * Chinese checkers uses a different kind of board altogether.
> Anyone know of any others?
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|982899560
1c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with /DagnyTaggart.  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
------
AtlasShrugged/EngineeR|982899575
1c1
< /EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When /DagnyTaggart wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
---
> /EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
AtlasShrugged/FiremaN|982899589
1c1
< /FiremaN appears briefly in /SectioN112.  While /DagnyTaggart is trying to find out why the /TaggartComet has stalled, /FiremaN shows his amusement at how things like this happen.
---
> /FiremaN appears briefly in /SectioN112.  While [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is trying to find out why the /TaggartComet has stalled, /FiremaN shows his amusement at how things like this happen.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|982899625
1c1
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of /DagnyTaggart.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFifthConcerto|982899691
1c1
< When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart, and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /Brakeman on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /Brakeman on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
3c3
< Later, Dagny calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
---
> Later, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
------
AtlasShrugged/HalleysFourthConcerto|982899709
1c1
< The last thing /RichardHalley wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  /DagnyTaggart listened to this song in /SectioN141.
---
> The last thing /RichardHalley wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this song in /SectioN141.
------
AtlasShrugged/HudsonRiver|982899738
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart's childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.  The home is also said to be five miles from /Rockdale, though the actual Rockdale, NY is more like one hundred miles from the Hudson River.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.  The home is also said to be five miles from /Rockdale, though the actual Rockdale, NY is more like one hundred miles from the Hudson River.
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|982899756
1c1
< The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister /DagnyTaggart to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
---
> The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
------
AtlasShrugged/MrAyers|982899771
1,2c1,2
< /MrAyers is the head of the /AyersMusicPublishingCompany.  In /SectioN114 /DagnyTaggart calls him to inquire if /RichardHalley has written a fifth concerto.
<  
---
> /MrAyers is the head of the /AyersMusicPublishingCompany.  In /SectioN114 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] calls him to inquire if /RichardHalley has written a fifth concerto.
>  
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsNathanielTaggart|982899794
1c1
< The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132 and in /SectioN152.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is /DagnyTaggart's namesake.
---
> The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132 and in /SectioN152.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] namesake.
------
AtlasShrugged/NewsstandOwner|982899847
1c1
< The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with /DagnyTaggart when she comes by.  On one occassion (/SectioN132), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
---
> The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] when she comes by.  On one occassion (/SectioN132), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
3c3
< In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.
---
> In his first appearance, /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and /NewsstandOwner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.
------
AtlasShrugged/Ohio|982899864
1c1
< In /SectioN112 /DagnyTaggart decides to appoint /OwenKellogg the new head of /TaggartTranscontinental's Ohio Division.
---
> In /SectioN112 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] decides to appoint /OwenKellogg the new head of /TaggartTranscontinental's Ohio Division.
5c5
<  - /SectioN114
---
>  - /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/OwenKellogg|982899886
1c1
< Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches /DagnyTaggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in /NewYork.  He catches [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
5c5
<  /SectioN114
---
>  /SectioN114
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber1|982899902
1c1
< In /SectioN112, the man who tells /DagnyTaggart how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
---
> In /SectioN112, the man who tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber2|982899917
1c1
< A passenger on the /TaggartComet in /SectioN112.  He is talking with /ConductoR, /FiremaN, and /EngineeR when /DagnyTaggart approaches to find out why the train has stopped.  When she acts as if this sort of problem is unusual and shouldn't happen, he tells her she doesn't understand railroads.
---
> A passenger on the /TaggartComet in /SectioN112.  He is talking with /ConductoR, /FiremaN, and /EngineeR when [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] approaches to find out why the train has stopped.  When she acts as if this sort of problem is unusual and shouldn't happen, he tells her she doesn't understand railroads.
------
AtlasShrugged/PresidentofULW|982899936
1c1
< The unnamed president of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks is an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding.  When /DagnyTaggart tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours.
---
> The unnamed president of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks is an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|982899955
3c3
< Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, /DagnyTaggart places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
---
> Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenSteel|982899968
1c1
< A company founded by /HankRearden.  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As /DagnyTaggart struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
---
> A company founded by /HankRearden.  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
7c7
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
---
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|982899997
1c1
< /DagnyTaggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph.
------
AtlasShrugged/Rockdale|982900015
1c1
< A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  /DagnyTaggart had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
---
> A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
3c3
< The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
---
> The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
------
AtlasShrugged/RockdaleStation|982900030
1c1
< A station on the /TaggartTranscontinental line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of /DagnyTaggart's first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
---
> A station on the /TaggartTranscontinental line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|982900065
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down /DagnyTaggart for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
9a10
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|982900084
11c11
<  /DagnyTaggart
---
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
15c15
<  /OwenKellogg
---
>  /OwenKellogg
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental|982900111
1c1
< The railroad run by /DagnyTaggart.  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
---
> The railroad run by [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
3c3
< Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
---
> Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
------
AtlasShrugged/TheVultureIsMolting|982900131
1c1
< A best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "a penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity."  The book is mentioned in /SectioN141 as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depress /DagnyTaggart with its baseness.
---
> A best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "a penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity."  The book is mentioned in /SectioN141 as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depress [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|982900215
26c26
< # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells /DagnyTaggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
---
> # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
28c28
< # In /SectioN151 we learn /DagnyTaggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that /FranciscoDAnconia had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
---
> # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that /FranciscoDAnconia had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
32c32
< In /SectioN152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to Dagny, is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
---
> In /SectioN152 Francisco tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while /DagnyTaggart and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|982900234
1c1
< A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of /DagnyTaggart's debut ball when she was seventeen.
---
> A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
------
AtlasShrugged/AyersMusicPublishingCompany|982900267
1c1
< Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of /RichardHalley.  Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of /HalleysFifthConcerto.
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of /RichardHalley.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of /HalleysFifthConcerto.
------
DagnyTaggart|982900333
1,9c1
< The main character in AtlasShrugged.
< 
< Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (AtlasShrugged112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (AtlasShrugged113)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (AtlasShrugged114)
<    Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2 (AtlasShrugged132)
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Dagny Taggart]]
------
Checkers|982900980
11,13c11,14
< * In German checkers the kings can move as far as they want along any diagonal.  
< * In Turkish checkers the players start with 16 men filling the first two rows of the board, and move straight forwards or sideways.  Kings can move as far as they want along any orthogonal.
< * Chinese checkers uses a different kind of board altogether.
---
> * In German checkers the kings can move as far as they want along any diagonal, like a bishop in chess.
> * In Turkish checkers pieces move straight forwards or sideways, kings moving like a rook in chess, so that both red and black squares are used.  Each player starts with 16 pieces in the first two rows.
> * In Halma (Greek) pieces can move in any direction and jump over any other piece, friend or enemy.  Each player starts with 19 (2-player) or 13 (4-player) pieces all in one corner and tries to move them all into the opposite corner.
> * Chinese checkers is based on Halma, but uses a star-shaped board divided into triangles, and is played using marbles instead of chips.
------
Josh_Grosse|982901391
31a32
> I read lots. :D  Evidently I could use some more practice writing, because that page is overfull, but it'll get better if I ever decide to fill out some of the leaves.
------
Josh_Grosse|982901838
32c32
< I read lots. :D  Evidently I could use some more practice writing, because that page is overfull, but it'll get better if I ever decide to fill out some of the leaves.
---
> I read lots. :)  I need more practice writing, it would seem, because that page is overcrowded.  Biology is one of the subjects I really like...back home I have some jars set aside for protozoa, and I have some pictures of them at http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa, on the off-chance that anyone's interested in my hobbies.
------
Josh_Grosse|982901963
32c32
< I read lots. :)  I need more practice writing, it would seem, because that page is overcrowded.  Biology is one of the subjects I really like...back home I have some jars set aside for protozoa, and I have some pictures of them at http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa, on the off-chance that anyone's interested in my hobbies.
---
> I read lots. :)  I need more practice writing, it would seem, because that page is overcrowded.  Biology is one of the subjects I really like...back home I have some jars set aside for protozoa, and I have some pictures of them at http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/, on the off-chance that anyone's interested in my hobbies.
------
AtlasShrugged/Dan_Conway|982904944
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the /AntiDogEatDogRule is used to drive his business out of /Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
> 
> Don Conway appears in:
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/DanConway|982904972
1,6c1
< Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the /AntiDogEatDogRule is used to drive his business out of /Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
< 
< Don Conway appears in:
<  /SectioN145
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Dan Conway]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982905026
4c4
<  /DanConway
---
>  [[/Dan Conway]]
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|982905054
1c1
< The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by /DanConway that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|982905083
11c11
< In /SectioN146 the principle is stated explicitly by /DanConway: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
---
> In /SectioN146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN145|982905115
10c10
<  /DanConway
---
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|982905157
2c2
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /DanConway in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  Conway admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  Conway states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
9c9
<  /DanConway
---
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN147|982905181
4c4
< Wyatt states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the /SanctionOfTheVictim.  Thus Ellis Wyatt is a sharp contrast to /DanConway in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the /AntiDogEatDogRule represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
---
> Wyatt states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the /SanctionOfTheVictim.  Thus Ellis Wyatt is a sharp contrast to [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the /AntiDogEatDogRule represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
------
Haiku|982905190
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Haiku is one of the most important form of traditional Japanese poetry. Haiku is a very short poetic form, consisting of three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables each, and must have a special word - the kigo - that indicates in which season the haiku is set. 
> 
> The poet must be concise because of the brevity, while concentrating deep spiritual understanding into the poem. The haiku poet usually takes up the changes of nature which have impressed him in order to express the intangible world of the spirit. 
> 
> Haiku is not written only by professionals. Anyone can easily learn to use the form.
> 
------
HaikuPoem|982905204
1,5c1
< Haiku is one of the most important form of traditional Japanese poetry. Haiku is a very short poetic form, consisting of three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables each, and must have a special word - the kigo - that indicates in which season the haiku is set. 
< 
< The poet must be concise because of the brevity, while concentrating deep spiritual understanding into the poem. The haiku poet usually takes up the changes of nature which have impressed him in order to express the intangible world of the spirit. 
< 
< Haiku is not written only by professionals. Anyone can easily learn to use the form.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Haiku]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|982905235
5c5
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on /DanConway's track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  Conway in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because Conway in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
---
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
12c12
<  /DanConway
---
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
------
Poetry|982905264
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Haiku]]
> * [[Limerick]]
> * [[Epic poetry]]
------
PoetrY|982905279
1,2c1
< * HaikuPoem
< * LimericK
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poetry]]
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|982905290
1c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
------
AtlasShrugged/Eddie_Willers|982905324
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
> 
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
> 
> Eddie Willers appears in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982905347
5c5
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Eddie_Willers|982905393
1,14c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
< 
< Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
< 
< Eddie Willers appears in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Eddie_Willers|982905472
1c1,13
< #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Eddie Willers]]
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie Willers grew up with Dagny Taggart. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. He is meant to be a sympathetic character. 
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man. 
> 
> Eddie Willers appears in: 
> 
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Eddie_Willers|982905529
1,2c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie Willers grew up with Dagny Taggart. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to /TaggartTranscontinental. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. He is meant to be a sympathetic character. 
< Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man. 
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
4c3
< Eddie Willers appears in: 
---
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
5a5
> Eddie Willers appears in:
------
AtlasShrugged/EddieWillers|982905555
1,12c1
< Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to /TaggartTranscontinental.  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
< 
< Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
< 
< Eddie Willers appears in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|982905592
4c4
< Eddie Willers, walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell James Taggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell James Taggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
11c11
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN151|982905633
2c2
< The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  /EddieWillers shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells Eddie to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  Eddie warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
---
> The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
9c9
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|982905690
5c5
< Francisco had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and /EddieWillers.  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and Eddie's year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
---
> Francisco had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
25c25
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|982905720
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /JamesTaggart and /EddieWillers.  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /JamesTaggart and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
12c12
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|982905764
13c13
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
Chess|982905781
11c11
< We don't yet have an explanation of the rules here, but surely some simple summary is possible.
---
> There are a variety of different pieces, each with a variety of different moves.  The most important is the king.  A position where the king could be captured is called ''check''; a player can never move his king into and must always rescue his king from such a position.  If he can't, he is ''checkmated'' and loses.
13,14c13
< . A lot of more-fun-more-beer-less-thinking variants emerged. 
< but i don't know the english terms.
---
> There are a lot of variants of chess: timed chess, three or four player versions, the usual drinking games...
18c17
< /FamousPlayers
---
> /FamousPlayers
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|982905800
4c4
< /EddieWillers ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  Eddie will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
15c15
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|982905831
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, /EddieWillers informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
15c15
<  /EddieWillers
---
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BumNumber1|982905850
1c1
< The character who opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?"  He chats momentarily with /EddieWillers, helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease.
---
> The character who opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?"  He chats momentarily with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease.
3c3
< /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
---
> /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
------
AtlasShrugged/ChiefEngineer|982905864
1c1
< In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones /EddieWillers to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
---
> In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|982905881
1c1
< A street in downtown New York.  In /SectioN111 EddieWillers walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
---
> A street in downtown New York.  In /SectioN111 [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
------
AtlasShrugged/Louisiana|982905895
1c1
< /EddieWillers finds a wood-burning locomotive in Louisiana which is used to run trains on the /SanSebastianLine.  This is mentioned in /SectioN132.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] finds a wood-burning locomotive in Louisiana which is used to run trains on the /SanSebastianLine.  This is mentioned in /SectioN132.
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|982905910
1c1
< /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with /EddieWillers in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
---
> /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
------
AtlasShrugged/Ellis_Wyatt|982906080
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ellis Wyatt is the head of /WyattOil.  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
> 
> Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN132
>  - /SectioN146
>  - /SectioN147 - First appearance.
>  - /SectioN148
>  - /SectioN152
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982906100
6c6
<  /EllisWyatt
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/EllisWyatt|982906129
1,10c1
< Ellis Wyatt is the head of /WyattOil.  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
< 
< Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN146
<  - /SectioN147 - First appearance.
<  - /SectioN148
<  - /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Ellis Wyatt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|982906161
12c12
<  /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|982906192
13c13
<  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|982906221
14c14
<  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|982906245
10c10
<  /EllisWyatt: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN147|982906273
2c2
< /EllisWyatt appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
---
> [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
11c11
<  /EllisWyatt
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|982906305
13c13
<  /EllisWyatt
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|982906347
15c15
< When she arrives at the Wayne Falkland and confronts Francisco, she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that /EllisWyatt will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
---
> When she arrives at the Wayne Falkland and confronts Francisco, she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
26c26
<  /EllisWyatt - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|982906404
1c1
< The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when /EllisWyatt revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|982906422
12c12
<  /EllisWyatt
---
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOil|982906512
1c1
< The oil company run by /EllisWyatt.  Ellis Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
---
> The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
3c3
< Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, Ellis Wyatt started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted /JamesTaggart to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
---
> [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted /JamesTaggart to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOilFields|982906555
1c1
< The Wyatt Oil Fields are in Colorado.  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by /EllisWyatt.  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of Colorado.
---
> The Wyatt Oil Fields are in Colorado.  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of Colorado.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982906601
7c7
<  /FranciscoDAnconia
---
>  [[/Francisco d'Anconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982906629
7c7
<  [[/Francisco d'Anconia]]
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|982906676
1c1,193
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
> 
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He took over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
> 
> When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
> 
> His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.
> 
> Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152 - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
> 
> ---
> * According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
> 
> ----
> Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
> 
> Frank O'Connor
> 
> Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
> passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
> Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
> 
> As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
> blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
> to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
> he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
> Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
> roles for him into every one of her books.
> 
> At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
> books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
> first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
> and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
> features and stature.
> 
> With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
> difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
> was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
> aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
> into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
> self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
> aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
> character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
> missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
> 
> John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
> had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
> that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
> male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
> the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
> plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
> his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
> variation on Frank's name.
> 
> Ayn Rand's Father
> 
> The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
> as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
> compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
> some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
> man from her own life: her father.
> 
> Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
> his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
> Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
> than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
> enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
> the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
> Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
> Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
> impossible situation."
> 
> Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
> until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
> aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
> life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
> taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
> pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
> father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
> reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
> a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
> tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
> 
> An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
> alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
> Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
> selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
> - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
> day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
> destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
> belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
> Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
> that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
> aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
> 
> The Jewish Grandees
> 
> Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
> and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
> exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
> wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
> the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
> Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
> practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
> job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
> test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
> suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
> the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
> Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
> the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
> father the Devil".
> 
> To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
> Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
> aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
> distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
> descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
> Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
> practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
> found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
> still needed a business and a name.
> 
> Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
> 
> The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
> that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
> when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
> to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
> American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
> American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
> Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
> a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
> businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
> family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
> nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
> centurion in "King of Kings".
> 
> The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
> wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
> readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
> Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
> Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
> secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
> Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
> "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
> "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
> sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
> 
> A Grandee's Hannukah
> 
> Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
> flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
> aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
> the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
> sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
> had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
> when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
> "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
> melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
> 
> "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
> playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
> of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
> carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
> wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
> who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
> be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
> behind enemy lines.
> 
> In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
> their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
> objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
> would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
> instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
> servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
> rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
> hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
> 
> From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
> there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
> anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
> idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
> to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
> in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
> have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
> role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
> Dagny is the clueless one.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscoDAnconia|982906786
1,194c1
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
< 
< Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He took over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
< 
< When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
< 
< His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.
< 
< Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152 - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
< 
< ---
< * According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
< 
< ----
< Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
< 
< Frank O'Connor
< 
< Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
< passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
< Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
< 
< As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
< blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
< to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
< he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
< Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
< roles for him into every one of her books.
< 
< At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
< books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
< first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
< and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
< features and stature.
< 
< With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
< difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
< was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
< aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
< into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
< self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
< aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
< character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
< missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
< 
< John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
< had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
< that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
< male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
< the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
< plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
< his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
< variation on Frank's name.
< 
< Ayn Rand's Father
< 
< The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
< as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
< compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
< some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
< man from her own life: her father.
< 
< Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
< his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
< Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
< than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
< enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
< the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
< Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
< Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
< impossible situation."
< 
< Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
< until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
< aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
< life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
< taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
< pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
< father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
< reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
< a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
< tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
< 
< An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
< alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
< Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
< selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
< - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
< day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
< destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
< belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
< Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
< that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
< aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
< 
< The Jewish Grandees
< 
< Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
< and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
< exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
< wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
< the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
< Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
< practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
< job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
< test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
< suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
< the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
< Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
< the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
< father the Devil".
< 
< To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
< Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
< aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
< distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
< descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
< Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
< practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
< found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
< still needed a business and a name.
< 
< Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
< 
< The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
< that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
< when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
< to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
< American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
< American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
< Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
< a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
< businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
< family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
< nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
< centurion in "King of Kings".
< 
< The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
< wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
< readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
< Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
< Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
< secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
< Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
< "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
< "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
< sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
< 
< A Grandee's Hannukah
< 
< Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
< flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
< aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
< the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
< sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
< had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
< when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
< "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
< melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
< 
< "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
< playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
< of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
< carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
< wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
< who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
< be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
< behind enemy lines.
< 
< In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
< their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
< objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
< would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
< instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
< servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
< rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
< hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
< 
< From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
< there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
< anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
< idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
< to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
< in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
< have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
< role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
< Dagny is the clueless one.
< 
< ----
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Francisco dAnconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982906868
1,7c1,7
<  [[/Betty Pope]]
<  /Brakeman
<  [[/Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Dan Conway]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt]]
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia]]
---
>  [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
>  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Algeria|982906907
1c1
< In /SectioN152, we learn /FranciscoDAnconia threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
---
> In /SectioN152, we learn [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
------
AtlasShrugged/Andes|982906933
1c1
< /FranciscoDAnconia has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
------
AtlasShrugged/Argentina|982906950
1c1
< Argentina is the home of /FranciscoDAnconia and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
---
> Argentina is the home of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
5c5
<  - /SectioN152
---
>  - /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Chile|982906968
1c1
< /FranciscoDAnconia owns extensive mining properties in Chile.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] owns extensive mining properties in Chile.
------
AtlasShrugged/CubClub|982906985
1c1
< A night club in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> A night club in /NewYork.  When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/DAnconiaCopper|982907003
1c1
< A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time /FranciscoDAnconia heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
------
AtlasShrugged/ElPasoTexas|982907048
1c1
< El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  /FranciscoDAnconia was in El Paso at the time /MrsGilbertVail claimed she was with him in the /Andes.
---
> El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was in El Paso at the time /MrsGilbertVail claimed she was with him in the /Andes.
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|982907063
3c3
< <b>Liverwurst</b>: In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> <b>Liverwurst</b>: In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/FranciscosFather|982907094
1c1
< /FranciscoDAnconia's father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before Francisco.  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when Francisco was 23.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]].  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] was 23.
------
AtlasShrugged/GilbertVail|982907137
1c1
< A man allegedly cuckolded by /FranciscoDAnconia.  His wife asserts, and Francisco does not deny, that she and Francisco had an affair over New Years at his villa in the /Andes.  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a creascendo in the tabloids, Francisco arrives in town to "witness the farce."
---
> A man allegedly cuckolded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  His wife asserts, and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does not deny, that she and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an affair over New Years at his villa in the /Andes.  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a crescendo in the tabloids, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] arrives in town to "witness the farce."
4c4
<  /SectioN141
---
>  /SectioN141
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggartsSecretary|982907156
1c1
< In /SectioN144, /JamesTaggart's unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why /FranciscoDAnconia will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
---
> In /SectioN144, /JamesTaggart's unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
AtlasShrugged/Madrid|982907168
1c1
< In /SectioN152 a young /FranciscoDAnconia mentions he spent a winter in Madrid with the Duke of Alba.
---
> In /SectioN152 a young [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] mentions he spent a winter in Madrid with the Duke of Alba.
------
AtlasShrugged/MoesDelicatessan|982907182
1c1
< A delicatessan in /NewYork.  When /FranciscoDAnconia returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> A delicatessan in /NewYork.  When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged/Montana|982907199
1c1
< The location of /FranciscoDAnconia's first job with /DAnconiaCopper.  
---
> The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with /DAnconiaCopper.  
3c3
< It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
---
> It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
------
AtlasShrugged/MrsGilbertVail|982907224
1c1
< Mrs. Gilbert Vail claims she had a love affair with /FranciscoDAnconia in his villa in the Andes.  Afterwards, she shot her husband so she could leave him and be with Francisco.  /GilbertVail survived and sued for divorce, at which point his wife promised to reveal the sordid details of his private life to the press.
---
> Mrs. Gilbert Vail claims she had a love affair with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] in his villa in the Andes.  Afterwards, she shot her husband so she could leave him and be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  /GilbertVail survived and sued for divorce, at which point his wife promised to reveal the sordid details of his private life to the press.
3c3
< In /SectioN152 we learn that Francisco was in /ElPasoTexas, not in the /Andes, at the time when Mrs. Vail claims to have been with him.
---
> In /SectioN152 we learn that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was in /ElPasoTexas, not in the /Andes, at the time when Mrs. Vail claims to have been with him.
------
AtlasShrugged/PatrickHenryUniversity|982907241
1c1
< The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, /FranciscoDAnconia, and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|982907264
1c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by /FranciscoDAnconia named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|982907325
4c4
< Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy /FranciscoDAnconia invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust D'Anconia to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
15c15
<  /FranciscoDAnconia: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|982907371
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that /FranciscoDAnconia has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with Francisco, who she identifies as her lover.  Francisco says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
16c16
<  /FranciscoDAnconia
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|982907416
2c2
< /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe /FranciscoDAnconia was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to make an appointment with Francisco but he refuses to see him, because Francisco finds him boring.
---
> /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
8c8
<  /FranciscoDAnconia - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN151|982907446
2c2
< The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so /FranciscoDAnconia must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
---
> The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
10c10
<  /FranciscoDAnconia - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|982907614
3c3
< In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront /FranciscoDAnconia.  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
---
> In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
5c5
< Francisco had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  Francisco had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
7c7
< When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as Francisco, but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
---
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
9c9
< That summer, when Francisco returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
---
> That summer, when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as Francisco rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, Francisco invited her to his room at the Wayne Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
13c13
< After that night, she did not hear anything about Francisco for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new Francisco, a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
---
> After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
15c15
< When she arrives at the Wayne Falkland and confronts Francisco, she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
---
> When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
27c27
<  /FranciscoDAnconia
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|982907643
6c6
<  /FranciscoDAnconia
---
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|982907737
12c12
< #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): /FranciscoDAnconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
---
> #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
14c14
< #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): /FranciscoDAnconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
---
> #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
19c19
< #In /SectioN152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
---
> #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
21c21
< #In /SectioN152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
---
> #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
27,28c27,28
< # In /SectioN141 /FranciscoDAnconia tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
< # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that /FranciscoDAnconia had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
---
> # In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
> # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
32c32
< In /SectioN152 Francisco tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
---
> In /SectioN152 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and /FranciscoDAnconia are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/Valparaiso|982907762
1c1
< In /SectioN152 the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of /FranciscoDAnconia's parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
---
> In /SectioN152 the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|982907780
1c1
< A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where /FranciscoDAnconia stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
---
> A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
------
Thomas_Edison|982908931
5a6,7
> ----
> Many inventions are so complex that no one person can be named the inventor.  Many people contribute pieces to the whole, and by a creative process that is worth studying in itself, the pieces are brought together.  Probably this is more common today then it was in the past, because technologies are more complex today, but it is true even of many older technologies: steam engine, radio, automobile, television.  It would not be surprising if many of Edison's inventions turned out to be contributions of this sort, but I do not think this should detract from his reputation. - TimShell
------
BillClinton|982908955
1c1
< PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1992-2000.
---
> PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2000.
------
BillClinton|982908975
1c1
< PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2000.
---
> PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
------
CountriesD|982916790
1c1
< DenmarK
---
> [[Denmark]] (someone tell me how to rename/redirect the old'n'ugly DenmarK page).
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|982916862
18c18
< The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: EuropE, AsiA, AfricA, OceaniA, NorthAmerica, SouthAmerica and AntarcticA (though the last has no countries).
---
> The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Oceania]], NorthAmerica, SouthAmerica and [[Antarctica]] (though the last has no countries).
------
Thomas_Edison|982917403
7c7,9
< Many inventions are so complex that no one person can be named the inventor.  Many people contribute pieces to the whole, and by a creative process that is worth studying in itself, the pieces are brought together.  Probably this is more common today then it was in the past, because technologies are more complex today, but it is true even of many older technologies: steam engine, radio, automobile, television.  It would not be surprising if many of Edison's inventions turned out to be contributions of this sort, but I do not think this should detract from his reputation. - TimShell
---
> Many inventions are so complex that no one person can be named the inventor.  Many people contribute pieces to the whole, and by a creative process that is worth studying in itself, the pieces are brought together.  Probably this is more common today then it was in the past, because technologies are more complex today, but it is true even of many older technologies: steam engine, radio, automobile, television.  It would not be surprising if many of Edison's inventions turned out to be contributions of this sort, but I do not think this should detract from his reputation. - TimShell
> 
> By and large this isn't what happened, though.  What Edison did was pioneer the concept of a research lab: he got a bunch of bright people together, so they could work together, and made sure their ideas were not (as oft happens) simply dropped.  So he doesn't deserve credit for most of the ideas, but he does deserve credit for anyone using them.  This shouldn't detract from his reputation, but it should make it different. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|982917574
18c18
< The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Oceania]], NorthAmerica, SouthAmerica and [[Antarctica]] (though the last has no countries).
---
> The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Oceania]], [[North America]], [[South America]] and [[Antarctica]] (though the last has no countries).
------
Go|982918336
50a51
> * Additional resources
51a53
> [http://senseis.xmp.net/ Sensei's library] is a wiki devoted entirely to the game of go - it even has special markup for displaying go patterns.
------
RequestedArticles|982920061
9,10c9
< ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName
< 
---
> ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
13c12
< I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --JimboWales
---
> I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --JimboWales
------
ArtCriticism|982929270
1,3c1,2
< FilmCriticism
< Film Criticism
< ScienceFiction
---
> 
> [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Science Fiction]]
5c4
< DickBeldin
---
> 
------
BinomialDistribution/Revisited|982929344
48c48
< Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. DickBeldin----
---
> Your presentation is more complete, certainly, but I fail to see my error. Please look again at BinomialDistribution. Thanks. [[Dick Beldin]]----
------
BioStatistics|982929489
1c1
< :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
---
> :back to [[Statistics]]
3,10c3,10
< The applications of StatisticS to BiologicalScience are very diverse, but several deserve special mention:
< #Population GeNetics
< #EcoLogy
< #MediCine
< #PublicHealth
< #EpidemioLogy
< #BioAssay
< #AgriculturalFieldResearch
---
> The applications of [[Statistics]] to [[Biological Science]] are very diverse, but several deserve special mention:
> #[[Population Genetics]]
> #[[Ecology]]
> #[[Medicine]]
> #[[Public Health]]
> #[[Epidemiology]]
> #[[Bioassay]]
> #[[Agricultural Field Research]]
12c12
< DickBeldin
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
CartesianProduct|982929549
1c1
< back to MathematicsAndStatistics -- SetTheory
---
> back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Set Theory]]
8c8
< DickBeldin
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ClusterSampling|982929594
1,8c1
< back to SurveySampling
< 
< :StratifiedSampling -- MultistageSampling -- SimpleRandomSampling
< 
< A geographically dispersed population can be very expensive to survey with personal interviews due to extravagant travel costs.
< Greater economy than random sampling can be achieved by including several respondents within a local area. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but the savings in cost may make that feasible.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Cluster Sampling]]
------
Mathematics|982929606
0a1,7
> 
> Add your topic below and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''[[Dick Beldin]]'s Scheme'''  -- Other /Schemes
> 
22,24d28
< Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin ]]
------
Mathematics|982929646
1d0
< 
6c5
< '''[[Dick Beldin]]'s Scheme'''  -- Other /Schemes
---
> Current featured scheme is '''[[Dick Beldin]]'s'''  -- Other /Schemes
------
Cluster_Sampling|982929661
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> :[[Stratified Sampling]] -- [[Multistage Sampling]] -- [[Simple Random Sampling]]
> 
> A geographically dispersed population can be very expensive to survey with personal interviews due to extravagant travel costs.
> Greater economy than random sampling can be achieved by including several respondents within a local area. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but the savings in cost may make that feasible.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
CombinaTorics|982929713
1,10c1
< :back to MathematicsAndStatistics
< 
< It may seem surprising that the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards is  8.065817517094e+67. That is a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros. Comparing that number to some other large numbers, it is greater than the '''square''' of [http://gemini.tntech.edu/~tfurtsch/scihist/avogadro.htm Avogadro's number], 6.022e+23, "the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in a gram mole".
< 
< That large number, 52 factorial, is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
< One example of a surprising theorem is that of [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ramsey.htm Frank P. Ramsey] which essentially says (in mathematical language) that if you look hard enough, any pattern of stars can be found in the sky. It has been used to debunk claims that some patterns are especially meaningful.
< 
< Among the tools studied in Combinatorics are ''combinations'', ''permutations'', ''the pigeonhole principle'', and others.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Combinatorics]]
------
Combinatorics|982930069
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Finite Mathematics]] 
> 
> It may seem surprising that the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards is  8.065817517094e+67. That is a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros. Comparing that number to some other large numbers, it is greater than the '''square''' of [http://gemini.tntech.edu/~tfurtsch/scihist/avogadro.htm Avogadro's number], 6.022e+23, "the number of atoms, molecules, etc. in a gram mole".
> 
> That large number, 52 factorial, is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
> 
> One example of a surprising theorem is that of [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ramsey.htm Frank P. Ramsey] which essentially says (in mathematical language) that if you look hard enough, any pattern of stars can be found in the sky. It has been used to debunk claims that some patterns are especially meaningful.
> 
> We assume the existence of a [[Set]] of N objects. [[Combinations]] of r objects from this set refer to subsets (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutations]] of r objects from the set refer to ''sequences'' (where two sequences are different even if they contain the same elements in a different order).
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
CumulativeDistributionFunction|982930122
1,6c1
< back to SummarizingStatisticalData
< 
< :ProbabilityDistribution
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Cumulative Distribution Function]]
------
Cumulative_Distribution_Function|982930585
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> The Cumulative Distribution Function (abbreviated '''cdf''') describes the probability distribution of a quantitative [[Random Variable]], X, completely. For every possible value, x, in the range, the cdf is given by
> 
> :F(x) = Pr[X<=x], 
> 
> that is the probability that X is no greater than x.
> 
> If X is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], then the probability is concentrated on discrete points and F(x) can be described as a sequence of pairs <x,p(x)> where p(x) = Pr[X=x].
> 
> If X is a [[Continuous Random Variable]], the the [[Probability Density]], f(x), is distributed over an interval (or collection of intervals) and can be described as the derivative of F(x) with respect to x.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
EclecticProbability|982930631
1,6c1
< :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability
< 
< Many statisticians adopt an ''eclectic'' view of the 1950's and 1960's debate between proponents of the frequency interpretation and proponents of personal probability. These eclectics say in essence, '''if it walks like a duck...'''. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the axioms of probability theory as a reasonable interpreation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use ''Bayesian'' methods.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Eclectic Probability]]
------
Eclectic_Probability|982930726
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Personal Probability]]
> 
> Many statisticians adopt an ''eclectic'' view of the 1950's and 1960's debate between proponents of the frequency interpretation and proponents of personal probability. These eclectics say in essence, '''if it walks like a duck...'''. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the axioms of probability theory as a reasonable interpreation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use ''Bayesian'' methods.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
FrequencyProbability|982930770
1,8c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
< : StatisticalRegularity -- ProbabilityAxioms -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability
< 
< ''Statistical Regularity'' has motivated the development of the '''relative frequency''' concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called ''frequentists''. This school is often associated with the names of [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Neyman.html Jerzy Neyman] and [http://www.mrs.umn.edu/~sungurea/introstat/history/w98/espearson.html Egon Pearson] who described the logic of statistical hypothesis testing.
< 
< Prior to and during the 1950's and 1960's, there was a debate among statisticians which featured the ''frequentists'' versus the ''Bayesians''. The former insisted that statistical procedures only made sense when one uses the relative frequency concept. The Bayesians supported the use of ''degrees of belief'' as a basis for a new form of statistical practice.
< 
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Frequency Probability]
------
FrequencyProbability|982930784
1c1
< see [[Frequency Probability]
---
> see [[Frequency Probability]]
------
Frequency_Probability|982930998
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Personal Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]]
> 
> [[Statistical Regularity]] has motivated the development of the [[Relative Frequency]] concept of probability. Most of the procedures commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests were developed by statisticians who used this concept exclusively. They are usually called [[Frequentists]]. This school is often associated with the names of [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Neyman.html Jerzy Neyman] and [http://www.mrs.umn.edu/~sungurea/introstat/history/w98/espearson.html Egon Pearson] who described the logic of statistical hypothesis testing.
> 
> Prior to and during the 1950's and 1960's, there was a debate among statisticians which featured the [[Frequentists]] versus the [[Bayesians]]. The former insisted that statistical procedures only made sense when one uses the [[Relative Frequency ]] concept. The Bayesians supported the use of [[Degrees of Belief]] as a basis for a new form of statistical practice.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
History|982931071
15c15
< Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- DickBeldin
---
> Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- [[Dick Beldin]]
------
History|982931192
14a15,23
> Intellectual history.
> 
> * [[History of Mathematics]]
> * [[History of Philosophy]]
> * [[History of Science]]
> * [[History of Medicine]]
> * [[History of Art]]
> * [[History of Literature]]
> ----
------
InterpretingStatisticalData|982931239
1,3c1
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics -- PlanningResearch -- SummarizingStatisticalData
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
------
Interpreting_Statistical_Data|982931310
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> :[[Planning Research]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|982931363
1,15c1
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- AlgebraicGeometry - CombinaTorics -- SetTheory 
< :PythagoreanTheorem -- MathematicalGrouP -- TrigonometricFunctions  -- ProbabilityAndStatistics 
< :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions
< :PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- FiniteMathematics -- CategoryTheory
< :FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld
< 
< Add your topic above and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
< 
< ''I personnally find the title MathematicsAndStatistics not to my state. There is Statistics as a (despised but important) part of Mathematics on one hand, and I would say applied or actual statistics which belongs to the subject they are applied to (DemoGraphy or PopulatioN, EconomicS, EnvironementalSciences, HealthSciences, ...) on the other hand'' --OprgaG
< ----
< Frankly, I wouldn't mind if MathematicsAndStatistics were split apart. Most everyone knows the relation between them. Mathematics is a much broader category and more diverse than statistics. The real question is whether we want to build a very tall system of categories or a broad one. The former will require much more drilling down to find the topic the reader wants while the other will require reading more topics on a page to choose the next subtopic. Perhaps the best solution would be to limit any page of subtopics to a single full screen to avoid a lot of scrolling. -- DickBeldin 
< ----
< Well, have at it!
< 
< Dick, notice that we can now use [[Free Links|free linking]]. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> see [[Mathematics and Statistics]]
------
Mathematics/Schemes|982931941
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here is a place to propose classifications of mathematical topics
> 
> ----
> this one by OprgaG (in progress)
> 
> Structure
> :SetTheory --  TopOlogy -- CategoryTheory -- AbstractAlgebra -- Probability
> 
> Quantity
> :Analysis (+ [[Calculus]]) -- Optimization --  NonStandardAnalysis -- Geometry -- Geodesics -- Statistics
> 
> 'Starring' Part One
> :MathematicalGroup -- WaweLets -- FractaL -- Surreals -- KnotTheory -- MiniMax -- MonteCarloMethod
> 
> 'Starring' Part Two
> :SheavesAndBundles -- [[K-Theory]] -- QuantumGroups -- CatastropheTheory -- 
> 
> People
> :MathematicianS -- HistoryOfMathematics -- MathematicalSchools -- MathematicalControversies
> 
> PublicRelations
> :FieldsMedal  -- FermatsLastTheorem -- TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld -- MathRelatedPopularBooks
> 
> TraditionalSchoolMathematics
> :ClassicalTriangleGeometry -- ClassicalFunctions -- BasicAlgebra -- IntegerOperations -- ClassicalLogic -- VintageSchoolProblems
> :CountingInTheWorld
> 
> Transversal
> :CombinaTorics -- MathematicalConstants -- SpecialFunctions -- Logic -- InformationTheory
> 
> Equations
> :AlgebraicGeometry -- DifferentialEquations
> 
> ScientificRelations
> :MathematicsAndPhysics -- MathematicsAndEconomy -- MathematicsAndEcology
> 
> PointOfViews and MathematicalSchools
> FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics
> 
------
BoMisName|982932156
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BoMisName is not a lot of things people could believe it is. It is something completely different altogether.
------
WhatIsaWiki|982945158
7c7,8
< *WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
---
> *WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
> *Who is responsible for the pages?
------
CountriesL|982945682
0a1
> LatviA
------
CountriesL|982945801
1,2c1,2
< LatviA
< LuxemburG
---
> * LatviA
> * LuxemburG
------
LatviA|982946299
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small and nice country in EasternEurope.
> Ex USSR repuublic
> 
> http://www.tvnet.lv/en/
------
NormalDistribution|982949528
1,7c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< The [http://ce597n.www.ecn.purdue.edu/CE597N/1997F/students/michael.a.kropinski.1/project/tutorial normal or Gaussian probability distribution] is actually a family of distributions of the same general form, differing only in their ''location'' and ''scale'' parameters, commonly called the ''mean'' and ''standard deviation''. The shape consists of a central bulge centered on the mean with about 99% of the area under the density curve between the mean plus and minus three standard deviations.
< 
< One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the [http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/stanton/m262/central_limit_theorem/clt.html Central Limit Theorem]. Simply stated, this theorem says that if you add up a lot of little things, the resulting distribution will resemble the normal distribution. 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Normal Distribution]]
------
Normal_Distribution|982949583
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]] -- [[Statistics]]
> 
> The [http://ce597n.www.ecn.purdue.edu/CE597N/1997F/students/michael.a.kropinski.1/project/tutorial normal or Gaussian probability distribution] is actually a family of distributions of the same general form, differing only in their ''location'' and ''scale'' parameters, commonly called the ''mean'' and ''standard deviation''. The shape consists of a central bulge centered on the mean with about 99% of the area under the density curve between the mean plus and minus three standard deviations.
> 
> One reason that this distribution occurs so often in statistical work is the [http://www.math.csusb.edu/faculty/stanton/m262/central_limit_theorem/clt.html Central Limit Theorem]. Simply stated, this theorem says that if you add up a lot of little things, the resulting distribution will resemble the normal distribution. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
PersonalProbability|982949700
1,6c1
< :back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< : ProbabilityAxioms -- FrequencyProbability -- EclecticProbability
< 
< Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/uncert.htm#finetti Bruno deFinetti] and others such as [http://www.xrefer.com/entry/553336 Frank P. Ramsey]. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Personal Probability]]
------
Personal_Probability|982949779
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]]
> 
> Recognizing that different people view the same proposition with different ''degrees of belief'', the concept of '''personal probability'' was championed by [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/savage.htm L. J. Savage] and [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/uncert.htm#finetti Bruno deFinetti] and others such as [http://www.xrefer.com/entry/553336 Frank P. Ramsey]. They created the idea of defining rational belief as an abstraction of betting behavior subject to the constraint that one doesn't want to be inconsistent in his behavior. This approach has been called ''Bayesian'', ''subjective'' or ''personal'' probability. A series of critiques of statistical methods was based on this concept and formed the basis of the debate during the decades of 1950 and 1960. Today, there are a variety of applications of personal probability that have gained wide acceptance.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
PlanningResearch|982949846
1,17c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
< : StatisticalRegularity
< : SummarizingStatisticalData -- InterpretingStatisticalData
< : DesigningExperiments -- SurveySampling
< 
< Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. 
< 
< 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
< 
< 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
< 
< 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
< 
< In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
< ---- 
< DickBeldin
< 
---
> see [[Planning Research]]
------
Planning_Research|982949979
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> : [[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Statistical Model]]
> : [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
> : [[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. 
> 
> 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
> 
> 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
> 
> 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
> 
> In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
> ---- 
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
ProbabilityApplications|982950035
1,12c1
< back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< :ProbabilityDistributions -- NormalDistribution -- BinomialDistribution -- PoissonDistribution
< 
< :RandomVariables -- GamblingSystems
< :RecurrentEvents -- RenewalTheory -- RandomWalk
< :StochasticProcesses -- MarkovChains
< 
< See also FiniteMathematics
< ----
< DickBeldin
< 
---
> see [[Probability Applications]]
------
Probability_Applications|982950171
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Probability Distributions]] -- [[Normal Distribution]] -- [[Binomial Distribution]] -- [[Poisson Distribution]]
> 
> :[[Random Variable]]s -- [[Gambling System]]s -- [[Game Theory]]
> :[[Recurrent Events]] -- [[Renewal Theory]] -- [[Random Walk]]
> :[[Stochastic Processes]] -- [[Markov Chains]]
> 
> See also [[Finite Mathematics]]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982950231
1,12c1
< back to ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< :FrequencyProbability -- PersonalProbability -- EclecticProbability -- StatisticalRegularity
< 
< (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
< 
< #Let '''U''' be a SeT of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or SampleSpace.
< #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
< #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by SubSet''s'' of '''U'''.
< #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Probability Axioms]]
------
Probability_Axioms|982950353
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Personal Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]] -- [[Statistical Regularity]]
> 
> (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
> 
> #Let '''U''' be a [[set]] of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or [[Sample Space]].
> #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
> #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by [[Subset]]s of '''U'''.
> #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
ProbabilityTheory|982950402
1,10c1
< :ProbabilityAndStatistics
< :ProbabilityAxioms -- ProbabilityDistributions
< 
< The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the ProbabilityAxioms and SetTheory. 
< 
< #The sum of the probabilities for all the ''elementary events'' is one.
< #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of both events, Pr{A1*A2}, is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A1 and A2. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
< #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of either or both, Pr{A1+A2}, is given by Pr{A1}+Pr{A2}-Pr{A1*A2}
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Probability Theory]]
------
Probability_Theory|982950500
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Probability]]
> :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the ProbabilityAxioms and SetTheory. 
> 
> #The sum of the probabilities for all the ''elementary events'' is one.
> #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of both events, Pr[A1*A2], is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A1 and A2. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
> #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of either or both, Pr[A1+A2], is given by Pr[A1]+Pr[A2]-Pr[A1*A2]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Probability_Theory|982950540
4c4
< The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the ProbabilityAxioms and SetTheory. 
---
> The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the [[Probability Axioms]] and [[Set Theory]. 
------
RandomVariable|982950606
1,9c1
< back to ProbabilityDistributions
< 
< :DiscreteRandomVariable -- ContinuousRandomVariable
< 
< We can think of a random variable as a numeric result of operating a non-deterministic mechanism. The mechanism can be as simple as a coin or die to be tossed or a rapid counter which cycles many times in the interval of a typical human physical reaction time. Mathematically, we can describe it as a function whose domain is a SampleSpace and whose range is some SeT of numbers.
< 
< We can specify a random variable by specifying its CumulativeDistributionFunction because two random variables with identical cdf's are isomorphic. From the cdf, we can calculate probabilities for any events which can be described as countable intersections and unions of intervals.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Random Variable]]
------
Random_Variable|982950736
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> :[[Discrete Random Variable]] -- [[Continuous Random Variable]]
> 
> We can think of a random variable as a numeric result of operating a non-deterministic mechanism. The mechanism can be as simple as a coin or die to be tossed or a rapid counter which cycles many times in the interval of a typical human physical reaction time until stopped. Mathematically, we can describe it as a function whose domain is a [[Sample Space]] and whose range is some [[set]] of numbers.
> 
> We can always specify a random variable by specifying its [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] because two random variables with identical cdf's are isomorphic. From the cdf, we can calculate probabilities for any events which can be described as countable intersections and unions of intervals.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
ResearchSubjects|982950780
1,5c1
< : back to StatisticalTheory
< 
< In BioStatistics or PsychologicalStatistics, we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to or have observed a research subject. 
< ---- 
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Research Subjects]]
------
Research_Subjects|982950990
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]]
> 
> In BioStatistics or [[Psychological Statistics], we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to observe or have observed a research subject. In [[Survey Research]] and [[Opinion Polling]], subject is often called a Respondent.
> ---- 
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Research_Subjects|982951011
3c3
< In BioStatistics or [[Psychological Statistics], we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to observe or have observed a research subject. In [[Survey Research]] and [[Opinion Polling]], subject is often called a Respondent.
---
> In BioStatistics or [[Psychological Statistics], we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to observe or have observed a research subject. In [[Survey Research]] and [[Opinion Polling]], the subject is often called a Respondent.
------
SampleSpace|982951058
1,15c1
< back to ProbabilityAxioms
< 
< :SeT -- CartesianProduct -- RandomVariable -- IndependentEvents
< 
< In any discussion of probabilities of events, we begin with a precise definition of all the possible events. This is what we call the '''sample space'''. In the case of tossing a coin whose sides are labeled ''heads'' and ''tails'', it would be improper to decide after experimentation has begun that the result ''neither heads nor tails'' has occured. That would be an event in a different sample space so we would be changing the rules of the game, so to speak.
< 
< For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more '''independent''' sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard bridge deck (of 52 cards from Ace to King in each of four suits), one sample space could be the denomination (Ace through King) and another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of an event would specify both the denomination and the suit. Such a sample space can be constructed as the CartesianProduct of the two independent sample spaces. 
< 
< Although the sample spaces are independent, some assignments of probabilities to points may lead to a circumstance in which the random variables thus defined are not describable as independent.
< Similarly, it is possible (but rare) that two events defined on the same sample space might be classified as independent.
< ----
< DickBeldin
< 
< 
< 
---
> see [[Sample Space]]
------
Sample_Space|982951152
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability Axioms]]
> 
> :[[Set]] -- [[Cartesian Product]] -- [[Random Variable] -- [[Independent Events]]
> 
> In any discussion of probabilities of events, we begin with a precise definition of all the possible events. This is what we call the '''sample space'''. In the case of tossing a coin whose sides are labeled ''heads'' and ''tails'', it would be improper to decide after experimentation has begun that the result ''neither heads nor tails'' has occured. That would be an event in a different sample space so we would be changing the rules of the game, so to speak.
> 
> For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more '''independent''' sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard bridge deck (of 52 cards from Ace to King in each of four suits), one sample space could be the denomination (Ace through King) and another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of an event would specify both the denomination and the suit. Such a sample space can be constructed as the CartesianProduct of the two independent sample spaces. 
> 
> Although the sample spaces are independent, some assignments of probabilities to points may lead to a circumstance in which the random variables thus defined are not describable as independent.
> Similarly, it is possible (but rare) that two events defined on the same sample space might be classified as independent.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Sample_Space|982951174
3c3
< :[[Set]] -- [[Cartesian Product]] -- [[Random Variable] -- [[Independent Events]]
---
> :[[Set]] -- [[Cartesian Product]] -- [[Random Variable]] -- [[Independent Events]]
------
Sample_Space|982951205
7c7
< For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more '''independent''' sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard bridge deck (of 52 cards from Ace to King in each of four suits), one sample space could be the denomination (Ace through King) and another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of an event would specify both the denomination and the suit. Such a sample space can be constructed as the CartesianProduct of the two independent sample spaces. 
---
> For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more '''independent''' sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard bridge deck (of 52 cards from Ace to King in each of four suits), one sample space could be the denomination (Ace through King) and another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of an event would specify both the denomination and the suit. Such a sample space can be constructed as the [[Cartesian Product]] of the two independent sample spaces. 
------
StatisticalAssumptions|982951249
1,10c1
< back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
< 
< The most common statistical assumptions are:
< 
< #independence of observations from each other
< #independence of observational error from potential confounding effects
< #exact or approximate normality of observations
< #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Statistical Assumptions]]
------
Statistical_Assumptions|982951291
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> The most common statistical assumptions are:
> 
> #independence of observations from each other
> #independence of observational error from potential confounding effects
> #exact or approximate normality of observations
> #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Statistical_Assumptions|982951511
2a3,4
> [[Statistics]], like mathematical disciplines does not generate valid conclusions from nothing. Every [[Mathematical Theorem]] requires a set of assumptions or [[hypotheses]] from which its conclusions are derived. [[Mathematical Proof]]s are procedures for transforming hypotheses into conclusions. 
>  
------
StatisticalModel|982951566
1,8c1
< back to StatisticalTheory -- AppliedStatistics
< 
< We adopt the position that three basic notions are sufficient to describe all statistical models. 
< #We choose a StatisticalUnit which we will observe directly.
< #We many really be interested in a StatisticalEnsemble (or SeT) of units rather than in any StatisticalUnit per se.
< #Our interest may be focused on a StatisticalAssembly where we examine functional subunits of the StatisticalUnit.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Statistical Model]]
------
Statistical_Model|982951850
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> We adopt the position that three basic notions are sufficient to describe all statistical models. 
> #We choose a [[Statistical Unit]] which we will observe directly. Multiple observations of the same unit over time is called [[Longitudinal Research]]. Observations of a variety of [[Statistical Attributes]] is a common way of studying relationships among the attributes of a single unit.
> #We may really be interested in a [[Statistical Ensemble]] (or [[set]]) of similar units rather than in any [[Statistical Unit]] per se. [[Survey Sampling]] offers an example of this type of application.
> #Our interest may be focused on a [[Statistical Assembly]] where we examine functional subunits of the [[Statistical Unit]]. [[Physiology]] is an example in which we probe the organs which compose the unit.
> 
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
StatisticalRegularity|982951894
1,11c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics
< 
< : FrequencyProbability
< 
< If we throw a thumbtack onto a table once, we would have a hard time predicting whether the point would touch the surface of the table or not. But if we repeat this experiment many times, we will see that the number of times the point touches the surface divided by the number of throws will eventually stablize at a specific value. 
< 
< Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
< 
< The same idea occurs in games of chance, demographic statistics, quality control of a manufacturing process, and in many other parts of our lives.
< 
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Statistical Regularity]]
------
Statistical_Regularity|982951995
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> : [[Frequency Probability]]
> 
> If we throw a thumbtack onto a table once, we would have a hard time predicting whether the point would touch the surface of the table or not. But if we repeat this experiment many times, we will see that the number of times the point touches the surface divided by the number of throws will eventually stablize at a specific value. 
> 
> Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
> 
> The same idea occurs in [[Games of Chance]], [[Demographic Statistics]], [[Quality Control]] of a manufacturing process, and in many other parts of our lives.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Statistical_Regularity|982952016
1c1
< : back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
WhatIsaWiki|982952143
8c8
< *Who is responsible for the pages?
---
> *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|982952329
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Who is responsible for these pages?  Everyone!  This is a collaborative endeavor.  Dozens of people have contributed to different parts of this website, and anyone ''can'' do so.  All you need to know is HowDoesOneEditaPage.
> 
> You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.
------
Central_Tendancy|982952498
1,13c1
< : back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
< 
< '''Central tendancy''' is the term statisticians use for any [[Statistic]] that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire [[Data Set]].
< 
< The most commonly used measures of central tendancy are the 
< #[[Arithmetic Mean]], the sum of all data divided by the number of Observations in the [[Data Set]]].
< #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the [[Data Set]].
< #MoDe, the most common value in the [[Data Set]].
< 
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
< ----
< Isn't this spelled "tendency"?----Definitely...----
---
> #REDIRECT [[Central Tendency]]
------
Central_Tendency|982952518
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
> 
> '''Central tendency''' is the term statisticians use for any [[Statistic]] that you could quote as ''representative'' of an entire [[Data Set]].
> 
> The most commonly used measures of central tendency are the 
> #[[Arithmetic Mean]], the sum of all data divided by the number of Observations in the [[Data Set]]].
> #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the [[Data Set]].
> #MoDe, the most common value in the [[Data Set]].
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ChoosingSummaryStatistics|982952579
5c5
< We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendancy and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
---
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendency and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
7c7
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
---
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
ChoosingSummaryStatistics|982952597
5c5
< We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of CentralTendency and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
---
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
------
ChoosingSummaryStatistics|982952607
5c5
< We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
---
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[central tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
------
Chess|982952616
12a13,17
> The most powerful piece is the queen.  The queen can move in a straight line in any direction unless blocked by another piece.
> In contrast, rooks can move in a straight line only in non-diagonal directions, and bishops can move in a straight line only in diagonal directions.
> 
> The knight moves by 'jumping' in an l-shaped pattern, 2 squares in any non-diagonal direction and then one square perpindicular.
> 
------
ChoosingSummaryStatistics|982952625
5c5
< We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[central tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
---
> We have a SeT of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of StatisticalDispersion.
------
MeaN|982952656
5c5
< The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of CentralTendancy, it will be larger than for the mean. This explains why the StandardDeviation and the mean are usually cited together in statistical reports.
---
> The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of [[Central Tendency]], it will be larger than for the mean. This explains why the StandardDeviation and the mean are usually cited together in statistical reports.
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982952692
8c8
< #We want to choose a StatistiC that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of CentralTendancy''.
---
> #We want to choose a StatistiC that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[Central Tendency]]''.
------
Summary_Statistics|982952715
5c5
< We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendancy]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
---
> We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
------
Thomas_Edison|982953920
9a10,11
> 
> Joshua, that's an interesting perspective!  I had not thought of this before, but to me it actually <i>enhances</i> Edison's reputation.  Because surely the pioneering of a research process is an invention of sorts, far surpassing the importance of the particular inventions that came out of the process.  Most people view [[Henry Ford]]'s greatest contribution as the pioneering of the commercial assembly line for mass production, as opposed to anything in particular having to do with automobiles. -- [[JimboWales]]
------
Chess|982957318
11c11,15
< There are a variety of different pieces, each with a variety of different moves.  The most important is the king.  A position where the king could be captured is called ''check''; a player can never move his king into and must always rescue his king from such a position.  If he can't, he is ''checkmated'' and loses.
---
> There are a variety of different pieces, each with a variety of different moves.  The most important is the king.  A position where the king could be captured is called ''check''; a player can never move his king into and must always rescue his king from such a position.  If he can't, he is ''checkmated'' and loses. If, however:
> :(a) the king is in not in check and can't move without getting into check and is the last piece on the board, or
> :(b) the the king is in not in check and can't move without getting into check and all other pieces can't be moved because they are blocked,
> 
> then the match ends as a draw. This situation is called ''Stalemate''. 
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|982960673
3c3
< You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.
---
> You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.----'''Q.''' Then why does at least one originator of many pages on a particular subject have a link to his wikipedia page on all the pages he began? And further that page has a link to his consulting services? And why do I have to remove his link from pages I wrote on this topic? AnonymousCoward
------
Discrete_Random_Variable|982962162
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Definition:''' A [[Random Variable]] is ''discrete'' if the [[set]] of all possible values that it can assume is finite or countably infinite.
> 
> The probability that a [[Discrete Random Variable]] will take any particular value is given by the [[Probability Mass Function]].
> 
------
Continuous_Random_Variable|982962490
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Definition''': A [[Random Variable]] is ''continuous'' if the set of all possible values it can assume forms an interval, either finite or infinite.
> 
> The probability that a [[Continous Random Variable]] will take a value in any particular sub-interval is given by the [[Probability Density Function]].
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|982962739
3a4,5
> 
> '''A.''' I believe you'll have to ask that person.  That person should also understand that others are quite free to go in and make whatever changes they deem necessary.
------
Probability_Distributions|982964247
10c10
< If the [[Random Variable]] is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by
---
> If the [[Random Variable]] is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by the [[Probability Mass Function]]
14c14
< For a [[Continuous Random Variable]], we define the [[Probability Density]] (at x) by 
---
> For a [[Continuous Random Variable]], we define the [[Probability Density Function]] (at x) by 
22c22,27
< Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the [[Normal Distribution]], the [[Binomial Distribution], the [[Poisson Distribution]] are just three of them.
---
> Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the [[Normal Distribution]], the [[Binomial Distribution], the [[Poisson Distribution]] are just three of them.----
> For Continous Random Variable you ARE giving the Cumulative Distribution Function, not the Probability Density Function...eh? The probability that a continuous random variable X 
> takes a value less than or equal to x is denoted '''P'''r(X<=x). The probability density function of X, where X is a continuous random variable, is the ''function'' f such that
> 
> *     '''P'''r(a<=X<=b)= INTEGRAL ( as x ranges from a thru b) f(x) dx.
> 
------
Combinatorics|982964696
9c9
< We assume the existence of a [[Set]] of N objects. [[Combinations]] of r objects from this set refer to subsets (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutations]] of r objects from the set refer to ''sequences'' (where two sequences are different even if they contain the same elements in a different order).
---
> We assume the existence of a [[Set]] '''S''' of N objects. [[Combinations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to subsets of '''S''' (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to ''sequences'' of elements of '''S''' (where two sequences are different even if they contain the same elements in a different order).
------
Combinatorics|982964789
9c9
< We assume the existence of a [[Set]] '''S''' of N objects. [[Combinations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to subsets of '''S''' (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to ''sequences'' of elements of '''S''' (where two sequences are different even if they contain the same elements in a different order).
---
> We assume the existence of a [[Set]] '''S''' of N objects. [[Combinations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to subsets of '''S''' (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutations]] of r objects from this set '''S''' refer to ''sequences'' of elements of '''S''' (where two sequences are considered different if they contain the same elements but in a different order).
------
LatviA|982965321
2c2
< Ex USSR repuublic
---
> An Ex-USSR republic; one of the three [[Baltic Republics]]
4c4
< http://www.tvnet.lv/en/
---
> http://www.tvnet.lv/en/
------
NormalDistribution|982965341
1c1
< see [[Normal Distribution]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Normal Distribution]]
------
PersonalProbability|982965398
1c1
< see [[Personal Probability]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Personal Probability]]
------
PlanningResearch|982965421
1c1
< see [[Planning Research]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Planning Research]]
------
ProbabilityApplications|982965452
1c1
< see [[Probability Applications]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability Applications]]
------
ProbabilityAxioms|982965480
1c1
< see [[Probability Axioms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability Axioms]]
------
ProbabilityTheory|982965511
1c1
< see [[Probability Theory]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability Theory]]
------
RandomVariable|982965554
1c1
< see [[Random Variable]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Random Variable]]
------
LatviA|982965636
1c1
< Small and nice country in EasternEurope.
---
> Small and nice country in [Eastern Europe].
------
ResearchSubjects|982965656
1c1
< see [[Research Subjects]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Research Subjects]]
------
SampleSpace|982965679
1c1
< see [[Sample Space]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sample Space]]
------
StatisticalAssumptions|982965705
1c1
< see [[Statistical Assumptions]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistical Assumptions]]
------
StatisticalModel|982965728
1c1
< see [[Statistical Model]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistical Model]]
------
Manhattan|982966777
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the five burroughs that conform the [[City of New York]].
> The [[Empire State Building]], the theater district in [[Broadway]], the finance center in [[Wall Street]] and the [[Central Park]] are all in this small but densely built island.
> 
> ----
> 
> Also, movie by [[Woody Allen]].
------
AustriaAdvocacy|982968513
9a10,11
> 
> Update Fri Feb 23 2001: At the annual demonstration against the Opernball yesterday (Feb 22 2001) in Vienna 42 people have been arrested and many injured.
------
Manhattan|982969603
2c2
< The [[Empire State Building]], the theater district in [[Broadway]], the finance center in [[Wall Street]] and the [[Central Park]] are all in this small but densely built island.
---
> Is a small islan in the [[Hudson River]], connected to both riversides by bridges and tunnels. The [[Empire State Building]], the theater district in [[Broadway]], the finance center in [[Wall Street]] and the [[Central Park]] are all in this small but densely built island.
------
AstroNomer|982969672
4,7d3
< 
< Refering to authors of WikiPedia:
< Astronomy Grad Student that is losing his time writing wikipedia
< articles instead of working in his Dissertation
------
StatisticalUnit|982969744
1,9c1
< back to StatisticalModel's
< 
< There are different ways to study a unit and different names applied in different statistical disciplines. 
< 
< #We may be interested in a ''unit'' because we intend to generalize from observations on a few units to a StatisticalAssembly of units. Opinion polling and SurveySampling provide well known examples of this type of research.
< #We may be interested in the dynamics of a ''unit'', how its observable characteristics change from time to time. Economic studies of business firms provide an example of this type of research. 
< #We may be interested in the internal functioning of a ''unit'' which we can characterize as a StatisticalAssembly. This kind of research often involves interference with the unit such as subjecting it to a treatment or even dissection, in some cases.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Statistical Unit]]
------
Statistical_Unit|982969882
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Model]]
> 
> There are different ways to study a unit and different names applied in different statistical disciplines. 
> 
> #We may be interested in a ''unit'' because we intend to generalize from observations on a few units to a [[Statistical Assembly]] of units. [[Opinion polling]] and [[Survey Sampling]] provide well known examples of this type of research.
> #We may be interested in the dynamics of a ''unit'', how its observable characteristics change from time to time. Economic studies of business firms provide an example of this type of research. (see [[Dynamic Model]]s). 
> #We may be interested in the internal functioning of a ''unit'' which we can characterize as a [[Statistical Assembly]]. This kind of research often involves interference with the unit such as subjecting it to a treatment or even dissection, in some cases. Field experimentation and [[Clinical Trials]] are examples.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
StratifiedSampling|982969941
1,9c1
< back to SurveySampling
< 
< :ClusterSampling -- MultistageSampling -- SimpleRandomSampling
< 
< When subpopulations of the population to be studied vary considerably, it is advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently and produce a WeightedMean that has less variability than the MeaN of a random sample. There are several possible strategies:
< #Proportionate allocation uses the same SamplingFraction in each of the strata.
< #Optimum allocation takes larger samples in the strata with the greatest variability to generate the least possible sampling variance.
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Stratified Sampling]]
------
Stratified_Sampling|982970040
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> :[[Cluster Sampling]] -- [[Multistage Sampling]] -- [[Simple Random Sampling]]
> 
> When subpopulations of the population to be studied vary considerably, it is advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently and produce a [[Weighted Mean]] that has less variability than the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of a random sample. There are several possible strategies:
> #Proportionate allocation uses the same [[Sampling Fraction]] in each of the strata.
> #Optimum allocation takes larger samples in the strata with the greatest variability to generate the least possible sampling variance.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|982970352
1,16c1
< : ProbabilityAndStatistics -- StatisticalRegularity
< : PlanningResearch -- InterpretingStatisticalData -- SummaryStatistics
< 
< In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''Units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 
< 
< We have two objectives for our summary:
< 
< #We want to choose a StatistiC that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[Central Tendency]]''.
< #We want to choose another StatistiC that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a measure of ''StatisticalVariability''.
< 
< When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''MeaN''', the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the ''CumulativeDistributionFunction'' called '''QuanTiles'''.
< 
< The most common measures of variability for QuantitativeData are the VarianCe, its square root, the StandardDeviation, the RanGe, InterQuartileRange, and AbsoluteDeviation.
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
------
Summarizing_Statistical_Data|982970369
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] -- [[Summary Statistics]]
> 
> In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''Units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 
> 
> We have two objectives for our summary:
> 
> #We want to choose a [[Statistic]] that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[Central Tendency]]''.
> #We want to choose another [[Statistic]] that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a ''measure of [[Statistical Variability]]''.
> 
> When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the [[Arithmetic Mean]], the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] called [[Quantiles]].
> 
> The most common measures of variability for [[Quantitative Data]] are the [[Variance]], its square root, the [[Standard Deviation]], the [[Statistical Range]], [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]].
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
SurveySampling|982970528
1,10c1
< back to ProbabilityAndStatistics 
< 
< : PlanningResearch -- DesigningExperiments 
< 
< The model of a randomly selected sample from a finite population has been very fruitful. Sophisticated sampling techniques that are both economical and scientifically reliable have been developed. An entire industry of public opinion polling  as well as the technical activities of the [http://www.census.gov/dmd/www/2khome.htm U.S. Bureau of the Census] depend on these techniques. 
< 
< The most elementary methodology is called ''simple random sampling''. It assures that every possible subset of the population which has the desired sample size is given the same probability of selection. The possibility of very expensive  or very atypical samples has lead to a variety of modfications such as StratifiedSampling, ClusterSampling, and MultistageSampling. The most experienced center in these techniques outside the Census Bureau is the [http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/research.html University of Michigan Survey Research Center].
< 
< ----
< DickBeldin
---
> see [[Survey Sampling]]
------
Survey_Sampling|982970586
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> : [[Planning Research]] -- [[Designing Experiments]] 
> 
> The model of a randomly selected sample from a finite population has been very fruitful. Sophisticated sampling techniques that are both economical and scientifically reliable have been developed. An entire industry of public opinion polling  as well as the technical activities of the [http://www.census.gov/dmd/www/2khome.htm U.S. Bureau of the Census] depend on these techniques. 
> 
> The most elementary methodology is called [[Simple Random Sampling]]. Most of the theory of statistics assumes this kind of sampling unless otherwise noted. It assures that every possible subset of the population which has the desired sample size is given the same probability of selection. The possibility of very expensive  or very atypical samples has lead to a variety of modfications such as [[Stratified Sampling]], [[Cluster Sampling]], and [[Multistage Sampling]]. The most experienced center in these techniques outside the Census Bureau is the [http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/research.html University of Michigan Survey Research Center].
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
DickBeldin|982970639
1,8c1
< Statistician in residence
< 
< Doing the ''stream of consciousness'' writing I never had a chance to do before. Thanks for the opportunity!
< ----
< I just wanted to say thanks and welcome, Dr. Beldin! -- LarrySanger
< -----Another welcome from RoseParks. We surely need someone with expertise on Probability and Statistics.
< ----
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
---
> see [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Dick_Beldin|982970703
15c15,16
< 
---
> ----
> I do now! Thanks!
------
DickBeldin|982970748
1c1
< see [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dick Beldin]]
------
CartesianProduct|982970817
1,8c1
< back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Set Theory]]
< 
< If two sets, X and Y, are defined, then we can define the Cartesian product of the two sets, XY, as the set of ''ordered'' pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
< 
< :XY = {<x,y> | x belongs to X and y belongs to Y}
< 
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cartesian Product]]
------
Cartesian_Product|982970882
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Set Theory]]
> 
> If two sets, X and Y, are defined, then we can define the Cartesian product of the two sets, XY, as the set of ''ordered'' pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element selected from Y.
> 
> :XY = {<x,y> | x belongs to X and y belongs to Y}
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Planning_observations|982971065
1c1,2
< :[[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
------
Planning_observations|982971101
3c3
< :[[Statistical Regularity]]
---
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]]
------
Planning_observations|982971473
9c9,11
< 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
---
> #We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
> #Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
> #Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
11c13
< 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
---
> In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
13c15,18
< 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
---
> In every type of research, we must be concerned with managing the [[Observational Error]] that is inherent in all empirical research. We can increase the precision of our research by 
> #using a more precise instrument (eg., a more powerful telescope)
> #increasing the number of observations so the ''constant'' we try to measure stands out better against the ''noise''.
> #changing the design of our research. This last approach can become very technical, so we will postpone its discussion until [[Optimum Experimental Designs]].
15d19
< In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
------
ScienCe|982971603
1,26c1
< BiologicalScience
< * AnaTomy
< * PhysioLogy
< * TaxoNomy
< * OntoGeny
< * PalaeontoLogy
< * EcoLogy
< * GeNetics
< 
< PhysicalScience
< * PhysIcs
< * AstroNomy
< * ChemiStry
< * GeoLogy
< 
< ComputerScience
< * ArtificialIntelligence
< * DistributedComputing
< * ProgramMing
< 
< ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< I am happy calling Computer Science a science.  Perhaps I am too liberal, since I see even greater lacunae above:  where are the social sciences? Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science?  The fact is, in many ways the word "science" is more a word of ideology, the way it is often used.  A fairly top level page should somewhere explain this, and then perhaps deal instead not with science, or technology, or the humanities, but instead the concept of ''discipline''.   All of the above mentioned are at least that.  Then we can define breakdowns of disciplines, along at least three lines: science/humanities and theoretical/practical, empirical/conceptual and show the somewhat contentious and fuzzy classification of the disciplines. 
< 
< With this classification, computer science is a mixture dealing with the practical in many cases (software engineering), but in other cases the conceptual rather than the empirical (computability), and in still other cases with other parts of this division.  --CalvinOstrum
< 
---
> #[[Science]]
------
Science|982971667
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BiologicalScience
> * AnaTomy
> * PhysioLogy
> * TaxoNomy
> * OntoGeny
> * PalaeontoLogy
> * EcoLogy
> * GeNetics
> 
> PhysicalScience
> * PhysIcs
> * AstroNomy
> * ChemiStry
> * GeoLogy
> 
> ComputerScience
> * ArtificialIntelligence
> * DistributedComputing
> * ProgramMing
> 
> ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
> 
> I am happy calling Computer Science a science.  Perhaps I am too liberal, since I see even greater lacunae above:  where are the social sciences? Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science?  The fact is, in many ways the word "science" is more a word of ideology, the way it is often used.  A fairly top level page should somewhere explain this, and then perhaps deal instead not with science, or technology, or the humanities, but instead the concept of ''discipline''.   All of the above mentioned are at least that.  Then we can define breakdowns of disciplines, along at least three lines: science/humanities and theoretical/practical, empirical/conceptual and show the somewhat contentious and fuzzy classification of the disciplines. 
> 
> With this classification, computer science is a mixture dealing with the practical in many cases (software engineering), but in other cases the conceptual rather than the empirical (computability), and in still other cases with other parts of this division.  --CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> I agree that there are lots of missing topics here. --[[Dick Beldin]]
------
ScienCe|982971735
1c1
< #[[Science]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science]]
------
HomePage|982971786
5c5
< :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- ScienCe -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
Astronomy|982975195
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Astronomy deals with the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Etimologically means "Measuring of Stars", but
> modern day astronomy studies much more than that. 
> 
>  
> Astronomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between StaR""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneT""s, that move between stars.
> GreeK PhilosopheR""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. 
> 
> Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
> 
> Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpot""s, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> 
> IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
> found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
> into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
> the 20th century research.
> 
> At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
> decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of SpectralLines
> were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
> Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
> observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
> to unique elements. It was proved that the ElementS found on the
> sun were also found on earth. 
> 
> During the 20th century SpectroMetry (the study of these lines)
> advanced.
> 
> (to be continued)
>  
> Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
> With the help of the use of PhotoGraphy, fainter objects were 
> observed. Our sun was found to be part of a Galaxy made by more
> than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
> own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
Astronomy|982975319
1d0
< 
7,9c6,8
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between StaR""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneT""s, that move between stars.
< GreeK PhilosopheR""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. 
---
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneT""s, that move between stars.
> GreeK [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
------
Middle_Ages|982975355
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #redirect MiddleAges
------
Middle_Ages|982975398
1c1
< #redirect MiddleAges
---
> #Redirect MiddleAges
------
Middle_Ages|982975585
1c1
< #Redirect MiddleAges
---
> #REDIRECT MiddleAges
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|982976061
1c1,226
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> Senators of the 107th Congress
> A
> 	Akaka,
> 	 Daniel (D - HI)
> 	Allard,
> 	 Wayne (R - CO)
> 	Allen,
> 	 George (R - VA)
> B
> 	Baucus,
> 	 Max (D - MT)
> 	Bayh,
> 	 Evan (D - IN)
> 	Bennett,
> 	 Robert (R - UT)
> 	Biden Jr,
> 	 Joseph (D - DE)
> 	Bingaman,
> 	 Jeff (D - NM)
> 	Bond,
> 	 Christopher (R - MO)
> 	Boxer,
> 	 Barbara (D - CA)
> 	Breaux,
> 	 John (D - LA)
> 	Brownback,
> 	 Sam (R - KS)
> 	Bunning,
> 	 Jim (R - KY)
> 	Burns,
> 	 Conrad (R - MT)
> 	Byrd,
> 	 Robert (D - WV)
> C
> 	Campbell,
> 	 Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
> 	Cantwell,
> 	 Maria (D - WA)
> 	Carnahan,
> 	 Jean (D - MO)
> 	Carper,
> 	 Thomas (D - DE)
> 	Chafee,
> 	 Lincoln (R - RI)
> 	Cleland,
> 	 Max (D - GA)
> 	Clinton,
> 	 Hillary (D - NY)
> 	Cochran,
> 	 Thad (R - MS)
> 	Collins,
> 	 Susan (R - ME)
> 	Conrad,
> 	 Kent (D - ND)
> 	Corzine,
> 	 Jon (D - NJ)
> 	Craig,
> 	 Larry (R - ID)
> 	Crapo,
> 	 Mike (R - ID)
> D
> 	Daschle,
> 	 Thomas (D - SD)
> 	Dayton,
> 	 Mark (D - MN)
> 	DeWine,
> 	 Mike (R - OH)
> 	Dodd,
> 	 Christopher (D - CT)
> 	Domenici,
> 	 Pete (R - NM)
> 	Dorgan,
> 	 Byron (D - ND)
> 	Durbin,
> 	 Richard (D - IL)
> E
> 	Edwards,
> 	 John (D - NC)
> 	Ensign,
> 	 John (R - NV)
> 	Enzi,
> 	 Mike (R - WY)
> F
> 	Feingold,
> 	 Russell (D - WI)
> 	Feinstein,
> 	 Dianne (D - CA)
> 	Fitzgerald,
> 	 Peter (R - IL)
> 	Frist,
> 	 William (R - TN)
> G
> 	Graham,
> 	 Bob (D - FL)
> 	Gramm,
> 	 Phil (R - TX)
> 	Grassley,
> 	 Chuck (R - IA)
> 	Gregg,
> 	 Judd (R - NH)
> H
> 	Hagel,
> 	 Charles (R - NE)
> 	Harkin,
> 	 Tom (D - IA)
> 	Hatch,
> 	 Orrin (R - UT)
> 	Helms,
> 	 Jesse (R - NC)
> 	Hollings,
> 	 Ernest (D - SC)
> 	Hutchinson,
> 	 Tim (R - AR)
> 	Hutchison,
> 	 Kay Bailey (R - TX)
> I
> 	Inhofe,
> 	 James (R - OK)
> 	Inouye,
> 	 Daniel (D - HI)
> J
> 	Jeffords,
> 	 James (R - VT)
> 	Johnson,
> 	 Tim (D - SD)
> K
> 	Kennedy,
> 	 Edward (D - MA)
> 	Kerry,
> 	 John (D - MA)
> 	Kohl,
> 	 Herb (D - WI)
> 	Kyl,
> 	 Jon (R - AZ)
> L
> 	Landrieu,
> 	 Mary (D - LA)
> 	Leahy,
> 	 Patrick (D - VT)
> 	Levin,
> 	 Carl (D - MI)
> 	Lieberman,
> 	 Joseph (D - CT)
> 	Lincoln,
> 	 Blanche (D - AR)
> 	Lott,
> 	 Trent (R - MS)
> 	Lugar,
> 	 Richard (R - IN)
> M
> 	McCain,
> 	 John (R - AZ)
> 	McConnell,
> 	 Mitch (R - KY)
> 	Mikulski,
> 	 Barbara (D - MD)
> 	Miller,
> 	 Zell (D - GA)
> 	Murkowski,
> 	 Frank (R - AK)
> 	Murray,
> 	 Patty (D - WA)
> N
> 	Nelson,
> 	 Ben (D - NE)
> 	Nelson,
> 	 Bill (D - FL)
> 	Nickles,
> 	 Don (R - OK)
> R
> 	Reed,
> 	 Jack (D - RI)
> 	Reid,
> 	 Harry (D - NV)
> 	Roberts,
> 	 Pat (R - KS)
> 	Rockefeller IV,
> 	 John (D - WV)
> S
> 	Santorum,
> 	 Rick (R - PA)
> 	Sarbanes,
> 	 Paul (D - MD)
> 	Schumer,
> 	 Charles (D - NY)
> 	Sessions,
> 	 Jeff (R - AL)
> 	Shelby,
> 	 Richard (R - AL)
> 	Smith,
> 	 Bob (R - NH)
> 	Smith,
> 	 Gordon (R - OR)
> 	Snowe,
> 	 Olympia (R - ME)
> 	Specter,
> 	 Arlen (R - PA)
> 	Stabenow,
> 	 Debbie (D - MI)
> 	Stevens,
> 	 Ted (R - AK)
> T
> 	Thomas,
> 	 Craig (R - WY)
> 	Thompson,
> 	 Fred (R - TN)
> 	Thurmond,
> 	 Strom (R - SC)
> 	Torricelli,
> 	 Robert (D - NJ)
> V
> 	Voinovich,
> 	 George (R - OH)
> W
> 	Warner,
> 	 John (R - VA)
> 	Wellstone,
> 	 Paul (D - MN)
> 	Wyden,
> 	 Ron (D - OR)
> 
> * 50 Democrats
> * 50 Republicans
> *  0 Independent
------
SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|982976090
1,226c1
<  
< 
< Senators of the 107th Congress
< A
< 	Akaka,
< 	 Daniel (D - HI)
< 	Allard,
< 	 Wayne (R - CO)
< 	Allen,
< 	 George (R - VA)
< B
< 	Baucus,
< 	 Max (D - MT)
< 	Bayh,
< 	 Evan (D - IN)
< 	Bennett,
< 	 Robert (R - UT)
< 	Biden Jr,
< 	 Joseph (D - DE)
< 	Bingaman,
< 	 Jeff (D - NM)
< 	Bond,
< 	 Christopher (R - MO)
< 	Boxer,
< 	 Barbara (D - CA)
< 	Breaux,
< 	 John (D - LA)
< 	Brownback,
< 	 Sam (R - KS)
< 	Bunning,
< 	 Jim (R - KY)
< 	Burns,
< 	 Conrad (R - MT)
< 	Byrd,
< 	 Robert (D - WV)
< C
< 	Campbell,
< 	 Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
< 	Cantwell,
< 	 Maria (D - WA)
< 	Carnahan,
< 	 Jean (D - MO)
< 	Carper,
< 	 Thomas (D - DE)
< 	Chafee,
< 	 Lincoln (R - RI)
< 	Cleland,
< 	 Max (D - GA)
< 	Clinton,
< 	 Hillary (D - NY)
< 	Cochran,
< 	 Thad (R - MS)
< 	Collins,
< 	 Susan (R - ME)
< 	Conrad,
< 	 Kent (D - ND)
< 	Corzine,
< 	 Jon (D - NJ)
< 	Craig,
< 	 Larry (R - ID)
< 	Crapo,
< 	 Mike (R - ID)
< D
< 	Daschle,
< 	 Thomas (D - SD)
< 	Dayton,
< 	 Mark (D - MN)
< 	DeWine,
< 	 Mike (R - OH)
< 	Dodd,
< 	 Christopher (D - CT)
< 	Domenici,
< 	 Pete (R - NM)
< 	Dorgan,
< 	 Byron (D - ND)
< 	Durbin,
< 	 Richard (D - IL)
< E
< 	Edwards,
< 	 John (D - NC)
< 	Ensign,
< 	 John (R - NV)
< 	Enzi,
< 	 Mike (R - WY)
< F
< 	Feingold,
< 	 Russell (D - WI)
< 	Feinstein,
< 	 Dianne (D - CA)
< 	Fitzgerald,
< 	 Peter (R - IL)
< 	Frist,
< 	 William (R - TN)
< G
< 	Graham,
< 	 Bob (D - FL)
< 	Gramm,
< 	 Phil (R - TX)
< 	Grassley,
< 	 Chuck (R - IA)
< 	Gregg,
< 	 Judd (R - NH)
< H
< 	Hagel,
< 	 Charles (R - NE)
< 	Harkin,
< 	 Tom (D - IA)
< 	Hatch,
< 	 Orrin (R - UT)
< 	Helms,
< 	 Jesse (R - NC)
< 	Hollings,
< 	 Ernest (D - SC)
< 	Hutchinson,
< 	 Tim (R - AR)
< 	Hutchison,
< 	 Kay Bailey (R - TX)
< I
< 	Inhofe,
< 	 James (R - OK)
< 	Inouye,
< 	 Daniel (D - HI)
< J
< 	Jeffords,
< 	 James (R - VT)
< 	Johnson,
< 	 Tim (D - SD)
< K
< 	Kennedy,
< 	 Edward (D - MA)
< 	Kerry,
< 	 John (D - MA)
< 	Kohl,
< 	 Herb (D - WI)
< 	Kyl,
< 	 Jon (R - AZ)
< L
< 	Landrieu,
< 	 Mary (D - LA)
< 	Leahy,
< 	 Patrick (D - VT)
< 	Levin,
< 	 Carl (D - MI)
< 	Lieberman,
< 	 Joseph (D - CT)
< 	Lincoln,
< 	 Blanche (D - AR)
< 	Lott,
< 	 Trent (R - MS)
< 	Lugar,
< 	 Richard (R - IN)
< M
< 	McCain,
< 	 John (R - AZ)
< 	McConnell,
< 	 Mitch (R - KY)
< 	Mikulski,
< 	 Barbara (D - MD)
< 	Miller,
< 	 Zell (D - GA)
< 	Murkowski,
< 	 Frank (R - AK)
< 	Murray,
< 	 Patty (D - WA)
< N
< 	Nelson,
< 	 Ben (D - NE)
< 	Nelson,
< 	 Bill (D - FL)
< 	Nickles,
< 	 Don (R - OK)
< R
< 	Reed,
< 	 Jack (D - RI)
< 	Reid,
< 	 Harry (D - NV)
< 	Roberts,
< 	 Pat (R - KS)
< 	Rockefeller IV,
< 	 John (D - WV)
< S
< 	Santorum,
< 	 Rick (R - PA)
< 	Sarbanes,
< 	 Paul (D - MD)
< 	Schumer,
< 	 Charles (D - NY)
< 	Sessions,
< 	 Jeff (R - AL)
< 	Shelby,
< 	 Richard (R - AL)
< 	Smith,
< 	 Bob (R - NH)
< 	Smith,
< 	 Gordon (R - OR)
< 	Snowe,
< 	 Olympia (R - ME)
< 	Specter,
< 	 Arlen (R - PA)
< 	Stabenow,
< 	 Debbie (D - MI)
< 	Stevens,
< 	 Ted (R - AK)
< T
< 	Thomas,
< 	 Craig (R - WY)
< 	Thompson,
< 	 Fred (R - TN)
< 	Thurmond,
< 	 Strom (R - SC)
< 	Torricelli,
< 	 Robert (D - NJ)
< V
< 	Voinovich,
< 	 George (R - OH)
< W
< 	Warner,
< 	 John (R - VA)
< 	Wellstone,
< 	 Paul (D - MN)
< 	Wyden,
< 	 Ron (D - OR)
< 
< * 50 Democrats
< * 50 Republicans
< *  0 Independent
---
> #REDIRECT [[Senators Of The United States]]
------
West_Virginia|982976142
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Mountain State.  Broke off of Virginia during the US Civil War.  Famous for coal mines in general, and the mine wars in particular.  The capitol is Charleston, in the SW area of the state.
> 
> State colors:  Blue and Gold
> 
> State bird: Cardinal
> 
> State flower: Rhododendron (Alternately, the Satellite Dish)
> 
> Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.----In the words of John Denver - "Almost heaven"----Green Bank, WV - Home of a world-renown radioastronomy center!
------
WestVirginia|982976168
1,9c1
< The Mountain State.  Broke off of Virginia during the US Civil War.  Famous for coal mines in general, and the mine wars in particular.  The capitol is Charleston, in the SW area of the state.
< 
< State colors:  Blue and Gold
< 
< State bird: Cardinal
< 
< State flower: Rhododendron (Alternately, the Satellite Dish)
< 
< Lots of neat places to visit, like the New River Gorge Bridge (Tall enough that people can parachute off it if they're careful), and lots of national and state parks.----In the words of John Denver - "Almost heaven"----Green Bank, WV - Home of a world-renown radioastronomy center!
---
> #REDIRECT [[West Virginia]]
------
United_States_Constitution|982976261
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> */Preamble
> */ArticleOne
> */ArticleTwo
> */ArticleThree
> */ArticleFour
> */ArticleFive
> */ArticleSix
> */ArticleSeven
> 
> 
> */AmendmentOne
> */AmendmentTwo
> */AmendmentThree
> */AmendmentFour
> */AmendmentFive
> */AmendmentSix
> */AmendmentSeven
> */AmendmentEight
> */AmendmentNine
> */AmendmentTen
> */AmendmentEleven
> */AmendmentTwelve
> */AmendmentThirteen
> */AmendmentFourteen
> */AmendmentFifteen
> */AmendmentSixteen
> */AmendmentSeventeen
> */AmendmentEighteen
> */AmendmentNineteen
> */AmendmentTwenty
> */AmendmentTwentyone
> */AmendmentTwentytwo
> */AmendmentTwentythree
> */AmendmentTwentyfour
> */AmendmentTwentyfive
> */AmendmentTwentysix
> */AmendmentTwentyseven
> 
------
United_States_Constitution/Preamble|982976345
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We the people of the [[United States]], in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
------
United_States_Constitution/ArticleOne|982976521
177c177
< imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
---
> imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
------
Statistics|982977405
3a4
> ----
------
LatviA|982977446
1a2
> 
------
MikeWarren|982977466
8a9,10
> 
> Mike has a homepage: http://mike-warren.com
------
WikiPediaBugs|982977904
0a1,8
> Not really a bug, but...
> 
> I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to United_States_Constitution.  Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other.  I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this.  So,
> 
> When we are changing links to the much nicer free link style, is there a good way to get subsections changed as well without having to manually edit each page in the subsection?
> 
> --------------
> 
17c25
< This is a very vexing problem, I bet.  Because what we really want is to let people type fancy letters if they want, but to have them ultimately resolve to non-fancy letters (so that AccidentalLinking still works fairly well).  Also, I don't think fancy letters are legal in a URL '''at all''', so they can't be linking codes.
---
> This is a very vexing problem, I bet.  Because what we really want is to let people type fancy letters if they want, but to have them ultimately resolve to non-fancy letters (so that AccidentalLinking still works fairly well).  Also, I don't think fancy letters are legal in a URL '''at all''', so they can't be linking codes.
------
WikiPediaBugs|982977936
3c3
< I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to United_States_Constitution.  Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other.  I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this.  So,
---
> I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to [[United States Constitution]].  Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other.  I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this.  So,
------
TimShell|982983299
3d2
<   /TimeLine
6d4
< Moved to AnarchY/AnarchyTalk
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|982983352
7c7
< Throughout AtlasShrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is /JohnGalt, who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
---
> Throughout AtlasShrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is [[John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
------
Manhattan|982986822
1,2c1
< One of the five burroughs that conform the [[City of New York]].
< Is a small islan in the [[Hudson River]], connected to both riversides by bridges and tunnels. The [[Empire State Building]], the theater district in [[Broadway]], the finance center in [[Wall Street]] and the [[Central Park]] are all in this small but densely built island.
---
> One of the five boroughs that form the [[City of New York]] also called New York County. It is a small island between the [[Hudson River]] and the [[East River]], connected to both riversides by bridges and tunnels. The [[Empire State Building]], the theater district on [[Broadway]], the financial center on [[Wall Street]], [[Lincoln Center of the Performing Arts]], and [[Central Park]] are all in this small but densely populated island. When one refers to a [[New York Minute]], one refers to the extremely rapid pace of living in [[Manhattan]].
------
City_of_New_York|982987539
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The City of New York is composed of 5 boroughs or counties:
> 
> :1). [[Manhattan]] -  New York County
> :2). [[Bronx]] -  Bronx County
> :3). [[Brooklyn]]- Kings County
> :4). [[Queens]] - Queens County
> :5). [[Staten Island]] - Richmond County
------
AtlasShrugged/Gwen_Ives|982994473
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gwen Ives is /HankRearden's secretary.
> 
> Gwen Ives is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/GwenIves|982994519
1,4c1
< Gwen Ives is /HankRearden's secretary.
< 
< Gwen Ives is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN121
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Gwen Ives]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982994570
8c8
<  /GwenIves
---
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gewn Ives]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|982994581
8c8
<  [[/Gwen Ives|Gewn Ives]]
---
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|982994601
10c10
<  /GwenIves: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]: Mentioned.
------
Protista|983002944
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Kingdom Protista refers to all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few (eg kelp) are multicellular and grow to great size, but most are single-celled organisms of great complexity.
> 
> Traditionally protists have been divided into the protozoa, which were classed among the animals, the algae, which were classed among the plants, as well as a few forms that were classed among the fungi.  These were further divided on the basis of locomotion and pigmentation:
> 
> * [[Flagellates]] move by means of whip-like flagella, and represent most lines of protists.
> * [[Amoeboids]] move by means of deformation.
> * [[Sporozoans]] are entirely parasitic forms that don't move and get around via spores.
> * [[Ciliophora]] move by many short flagella (called cilia), and have a very complicated structure characterized by two distinct types of nucleus.
> * [[Algae]] include motile and non-motile forms that have chloroplasts, and so are capable of photosynthesis.
> * [[Oomycota]] and [[Slime molds]] include forms resembling fungi.
> 
> Most of these groups are overlapping and polyphyletic, but they are nonetheless a good place to start exploring protist diversity.  Protists are ubiquitous in aqueous environments, and though are generally too small to see with the naked eye (usually 10-500 microns), anyone with a light microscope can observe them.  A few are important parasites.
------
KingdomProtista|983002998
1,17c1
< Eukaryotes are considerably more complicated than prokaryotes (KingdomMonera).
< 
< Each cell has at least one nucleus, a structure where the DNA is stored bound by a double membrane.  Generally there is more than one ChromoSome, and there are usually multiple copies of the same genes.  Nuclei divide through a process called NuclearMitosis, where microtubules pull apart the divided chromosomes and ensure each daughter has a full set.
< 
< Many eukaryotes also undergo a process of SexualReproduction.  This involves two phases: SynGamy, where two haploid (single gene set) cells fuse to form a diploid, and NuclearMeiosis, a process similar to mitosis where the chromosomes are divided to form haploids.  The role of haploid and diploid stages in the life cycle varies considerably.
< 
< There are a wide variety of intracellular organelles.  These include membrane bound structures, notably EndoplasmicReticulum and various-purposed vacuoles.  Nearly all eukaryotes have MitoChondria to burn food, and quite a few have ChloroPlasts for photosynthesis; these appear to actually be reduced endosymbiont bacteria.
< 
< Multicellular organization has arisen among the eukaryotes a number of times.  Of such forms, the KingdomAnimalia, KingdomPlantae, and KingdomFungi are typically listed separately as top-level taxa.  Other groups are left in the junk-basket category of KingdomProtista.  These include the following:
< 
< * TaxonEuglenozoa (euglenids, kinetoplastids)
< * TaxonAlveolata (ciliates, dinoflagellates, apicomplexan sporozoa)
< * TaxonChromista (stramenopiles: water molds, golden and brown algae, diatoms)
< * FlagellateTaxa
< * AmoeboidTaxa
< * AlgalTaxa
< * SlimeMolds
---
> #REDIRECT [[Protista]]
------
HomePage|983003196
11c11
< :ArtsandEntertainment -- MuSic -- DanCe -- FiLm -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Arts and Entertainment]] -- MuSic -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
SandBox|983014723
19a20
> <a href="http://www.yahoo.com">Do &lt;A&gt; tags work?</a>
------
SandBox|983015064
13c13
< No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..
---
> No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..°Ž‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸí¡¢ú
20c20
< <a href="http://www.yahoo.com">Do &lt;A&gt; tags work?</a>
---
> 
------
Summarizing_statistical_data|983015427
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
------
Interpreting_statistical_data|983015475
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
------
Planning_observations|983015533
1,22c1
< back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
< 
< :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]]
< :[[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
< :[[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
< 
< Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. (see [[Statistical Model]]).
< 
< #We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
< #Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
< #Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
< 
< In much research, we use all three modes at different stages. A useful synthesis of this kind of thinking was provided by [http://www.isss.org/lumLVB.htm Ludwig von Bertalanffy].
< 
< In every type of research, we must be concerned with managing the [[Observational Error]] that is inherent in all empirical research. We can increase the precision of our research by 
< #using a more precise instrument (eg., a more powerful telescope)
< #increasing the number of observations so the ''constant'' we try to measure stands out better against the ''noise''.
< #changing the design of our research. This last approach can become very technical, so we will postpone its discussion until [[Optimum Experimental Designs]].
< 
< ---- 
< [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
---
> $REDIRECT [[Planning Research]]
------
Planning_observations|983015550
1c1
< $REDIRECT [[Planning Research]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Planning Research]]
------
Planning_Research|983015719
3,5c3,5
< : [[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Statistical Model]]
< : [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
< : [[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
---
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Statistical Model]]
> :[[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
> :[[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
7,9d6
< Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. 
< 
< 1) We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
11c8
< 2) Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
---
> Most scientific work starts with a question about the world we live in. For a statistician, these questions can be classified into a few different kinds. 
13c10,12
< 3) Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
---
> #We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
> #Sometimes, our interest in a ''Unit'' may be purely instrumental, that is, we are interested in the Unit because of a ''population'' to which it belongs or an ''environment'' in which it resides. Our desire to describe a population may be satisfied by a statistical report on a ''sample'' from that population. The methodology is to select a sample and observe just the Units which are selected and then to summarize our results and interpret their meaning for the population. When we deliberately manipulate something in the process of observation, we call it an ''experiment''. When we attempt to observe the Units without affecting them, we call it a ''survey''.
> #Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
15a15,19
> 
> In every type of research, we must be concerned with managing the [[Observational Error]] that is inherent in all empirical research. We can increase the precision of our research by 
> #using a more precise instrument (eg., a more powerful telescope)
> #increasing the number of observations so the ''constant'' we try to measure stands out better against the ''noise''.
> #changing the design of our research. This last approach can become very technical, so we will postpone its discussion until [[Optimum Experimental Designs]].
18d21
< 
------
Planning_Research|983015763
3,5c3
< :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Statistical Model]]
< :[[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]]
< :[[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
---
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Statistical Model]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] --[[Designing Experiments]] -- [[Survey Sampling]]
------
Planning_Research|983015830
8c8
< #We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? 
---
> #We can start with questions about a single ''Unit'', like a biological organism, a manufactured product, a plot of ground, a city block or any of many different ''things'' we want to understand. In this type of study, we are often concerned with the ''dynamics'' of the Unit; how does it vary in time? Can we identify what aspects seem to control others? (see [[Research Subject]])
------
Research_Subject|983015868
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Research Subjects]]
------
Research_Subjects|983015932
1c1
< back to [[Statistical Theory]]
---
> back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Model]] -- [[Planning Research]]
------
Research_Subjects|983015949
3c3
< In BioStatistics or [[Psychological Statistics], we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to observe or have observed a research subject. In [[Survey Research]] and [[Opinion Polling]], the subject is often called a Respondent.
---
> In BioStatistics or [[Psychological Statistics]], we call any organism (animal, or plant) which we plan to observe or have observed a research subject. In [[Survey Research]] and [[Opinion Polling]], the subject is often called a Respondent.
------
Psychological_Statistics|983016209
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> :BioStatistics -- [[Psychology]]
> 
> The application of [[Statistics]] to [[Psychology]]. Some of the more common applications include:
> #[[Learning Theory]]
> #[[Perception]]
> #[[Human Development]]
> #[[Abnormal Psychology]]
> .
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Planning_Research|983016328
10c10
< #Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. Physiology is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
---
> #Someimes, we want to understand the ''internal workings'' of a Unit so we look at its components and how they relate to each other. [[Physiology]] is an example of a discipline in which this kind of focus is common.
------
Games_of_Chance|983017011
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]]
> 
> We humans have always had a latent addiction to gambling. It is said that the Roman soldiers guarding the scene of the crucifiction of Jesus played with dice carved from the knuckle bones of previous victims. The possibillity that a ''twist of fate'' might change our material circumstances appeals to us. It is ironic that exploiting this fact provides one of the most stable businesses known.
> 
> Dice, coin flipping, shufled decks of cards, and carefully balanced roulette wheels have been commonly used instruments for several hundred years in many cultures. Today, electronics offers the opportunity to add ''bells and whistles'' to the casino. '''Slot machines''' (one-armed bandits, some call them) will entice you to continue playing with sound effects and flashing lights as well as minor payouts.
> 
> The same tools have always been part of the equipment that many professors of statistics use to engage the students' attention and to illustrate the main ideas of [[Statistics]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_Applications|983017050
5c5
< :[[Random Variable]]s -- [[Gambling System]]s -- [[Game Theory]]
---
> :[[Random Variable]]s -- [[Gambling System]]s -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Games of Chance]]
------
Probability|983017157
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Probability Applications]]
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability|983017224
4a5,6
> Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
> 
6c8
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ScienceFiction|983017404
19a20,21
> Another ScienceFiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime was PhilipK.Dick.  Like other more famous ScienceFiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel DoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep? was made into the movie BladeRunner.  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
> 
------
Mathematics/Schemes|983017462
7c7
< :SetTheory --  TopOlogy -- CategoryTheory -- AbstractAlgebra -- Probability
---
> :SetTheory --  TopOlogy -- CategoryTheory -- AbstractAlgebra -- [[Probability]]
10c10
< :Analysis (+ [[Calculus]]) -- Optimization --  NonStandardAnalysis -- Geometry -- Geodesics -- Statistics
---
> :Analysis (+ [[Calculus]]) -- Optimization --  NonStandardAnalysis -- Geometry -- Geodesics -- [[Statistics]]
38c38
< FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics
---
> FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics, Really?]]
------
Mathematics/Schemes|983017522
38c38
< FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics, Really?]]
---
> FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally
------
WhatIsMathematicsReally|983017771
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]]
> 
> :'''What is Mathematics, Really?'''
> 
> Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathemtics]] and [[Mathematicians]]
------
WhatIsMathematicsReally|983017818
5c5
< Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathemtics]] and [[Mathematicians]]
---
> Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathematics]] and [[Mathematicians]].
------
Mathematics|983017931
7,8c7,8
< FiniteMathematics
< :CombinaTorics -- SetTheory -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
---
> [[Finite Mathematics]]
> :CombinaTorics -- [[Set Theory]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
------
Calculus|983018401
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]]
> 
> '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses on the change in one quantity (called the ''dependent variable'') resulting from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]] and [[Mathematical Limit]] and its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
> 
> The Calculus has been extended to consider [[Differential Equations]], [[Vector Calculus]], and [[Differential Topology]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_Distributions|983019109
6c6
< A '''Probability Distribution''' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a [[Random Variable]]. For every [[Random Variable]], there is a function called the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the [[random variable]]. 
---
> A '''Probability Distribution''' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a [[Random Variable]]. For every [[Random Variable]], there is a function called the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the [[Random Variable]]. 
8c8
< :F(x) = Pr[X<x]
---
> :F(x) = Pr[X<=x]
23c23,27
< For Continous Random Variable you ARE giving the Cumulative Distribution Function, not the Probability Density Function...eh? The probability that a continuous random variable X 
---
> For Continous Random Variable you ARE giving the Cumulative Distribution Function, not the Probability Density Function...eh? 
> ----
> The cdf is defined for all random variables, discrete or continuous, so it is a better starting point than either the probability function or the density function. In one case you use differences to get the probability function and in the other you use the derivative. Most students are introduced to the derivative before the integral, so this approach is a bit more accessible -- DickBeldin
> ----
> The probability that a continuous random variable X 
27c31,32
< 
---
> ----
> Correct, but F[b]-F[a] gives the probability of an interval directly without all the complications. We hide the complications in the cdf. It is inconvenient that we can't feature the explicit form of the cdf for many of the distributions we like to use, but it is important to build the concepts with proper spacing of the difficulties. One hurdle, then a straight stretch, then a curve, then another straight ... --DickBeldin
------
Probability_Distributions|983019244
8c8
< :F(x) = Pr[X<=x]
---
> * F(x) = Pr[X<=x]
12c12
< :p(x) = limit F(x+t) - F(x-t) as t goes to zero.
---
> * p(x) = limit{F(x+t)-F(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
------
Probability_Distributions|983019304
22c22
< Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the [[Normal Distribution]], the [[Binomial Distribution], the [[Poisson Distribution]] are just three of them.----
---
> Several probability distributions are so important that they have been given specific names, the [[Normal Distribution]], the [[Binomial Distribution]], the [[Poisson Distribution]] are just three of them.----
------
MathematicianS|983024142
8c8
< : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky BolYai
---
> : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky JanosBolyai
13c13
< : WilliamRowanHamilton GrassmanN ArthurCayley SilvesteR
---
> : WilliamRowanHamilton HermannGunterGrassmann ArthurCayley SilvesteR
------
Calculus|983025516
3c3,5
< '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses on the change in one quantity (called the ''dependent variable'') resulting from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]] and [[Mathematical Limit]] and its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
---
> '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses finding on the rate of change or [[Derivative]] of ''continuous'' [[Function]]s as the their arguements change. The value of such a [[Function]] (called the ''dependent variable'') results from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]], [[Mathematical Limit]], [Mathematical Continuity]], and [Rules of Operations for Functions]]. Its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
> Equally imporant in Calculus, is finding the [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] which can be seen as the inverse of the [[Derivative]]. The [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] allows us, among other things, the calculate the area under a curve, the area and volume of solids such as a sphere or a cone.
> 
------
WhatIsMathematicsReally|983025733
5c5,7
< Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathematics]] and [[Mathematicians]].
---
> Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathematics]] and [[Mathematicians]].----
> Better yet read ''What is Mathematics?" by Richard Courant. This book gives the layman a 
> real feeling for the nature of this subject.
------
LiteraTure|983037304
1a2
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
------
ScienceFiction|983037368
20c20
< Another ScienceFiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime was PhilipK.Dick.  Like other more famous ScienceFiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel DoAndroidsDreamofElectricSheep? was made into the movie BladeRunner.  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Another ScienceFiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime was [[Philip K. Dick]].  Like other more famous ScienceFiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?]] was made into the movie BladeRunner.  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
------
City_of_New_York|983040580
7c7,9
< :5). [[Staten Island]] - Richmond County
---
> :5). [[Staten Island]] - Richmond County
> 
> The population of the City of New York is estimated around 7.5 million, with the population of the entire metropolitan area at around 20 million.
------
City_of_New_York|983040877
3,7c3,7
< :1). [[Manhattan]] -  New York County
< :2). [[Bronx]] -  Bronx County
< :3). [[Brooklyn]]- Kings County
< :4). [[Queens]] - Queens County
< :5). [[Staten Island]] - Richmond County
---
> :1). [[Manhattan]] -  New York County, population 1,487,536
> :2). [[Bronx]] -  Bronx County, population 1,203,789
> :3). [[Brooklyn]]- Kings County, population 2,300,664
> :4). [[Queens]] - Queens County, population 1,951,598
> :5). [[Staten Island]] - Richmond County, population 378,977
9c9,12
< The population of the City of New York is estimated around 7.5 million, with the population of the entire metropolitan area at around 20 million.
---
> (Population figures from 1990 [[United States Census]], 
> see http://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/ny190090.txt)
> 
> The population of the City of New York is estimated around 7.5 million, with the population of the entire metropolitan area at around 20 million.
------
PublicDomainResources|983041108
15c15,17
< [http://members.nbci.com/mspong/ The Household Cyclopedia]
---
> [http://members.nbci.com/mspong/ The Household Cyclopedia]
> 
> [http://www.census.gov US Census Bureau] -- has an enormous range of facts and figures which we will find helpful in fleshing out articles about cities and states.
------
Alabama|983041320
1a2,4
> ----
> The population of Alabama was estimated to be 4,369,862 in 1999,
> by the [[United States Census]].
------
Games|983044077
14a15
> * [[Games of Chance]]
------
Games_of_Chance|983044129
1c1
< back to [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]]
---
> back to [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Games]]
9c9
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_Distributions|983046154
6c6
< A '''Probability Distribution''' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a [[Random Variable]]. For every [[Random Variable]], there is a function called the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the [[Random Variable]]. 
---
> A '''Probability Distribution''' describes a special ''universe'', a set of ''real numbers'' (see AnaLysis) and how probability is distributed among them to determine a [[Random Variable]]. For every random variable, there is a function called the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] which provides the probability that a given value is not exceeded by the random variable. 
8c8
< * F(x) = Pr[X<=x]
---
> * '''F'''(x) = '''P'''r[X<=x]
10c10
< If the [[Random Variable]] is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by the [[Probability Mass Function]]
---
> If the random variable is a [[Discrete Random Variable]], all of the probability is concentrated on a discrete set of points. We can define the probability for a specific point by the [[Probability Mass Function]].
12c12
< * p(x) = limit{F(x+t)-F(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
---
> * '''p'''(x) = limit{'''F'''(x+t)-'''F'''(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
17,18c17,18
<                          F(x+t) - F(x)
<     f(x) = F'(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
---
>                          '''F'''(x+t) - '''F'''(x)
>     '''f'''(x) = '''F''''(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
------
Probability_Distributions|983046278
17,19c17,19
<                          '''F'''(x+t) - '''F'''(x)
<     '''f'''(x) = '''F''''(x) = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
<                                t
---
>            dF(x)         F(x+t) - F(x)
>     f(x) = ----- = limit ------------- as t goes to zero.
>             dx                   t
------
Probability_Distributions|983046399
8c8
< * '''F'''(x) = '''P'''r[X<=x]
---
> <pre>
9a10,12
> * F(x) = Pr[X<=x] for x in the domain of the random variable
> 
> </pre>
12c15,19
< * '''p'''(x) = limit{'''F'''(x+t)-'''F'''(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
---
> <pre>
> 
> * p(x) = limit{F(x+t)-F(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
> 
> </pre>
------
Probability_Distributions|983046460
10c10
< * F(x) = Pr[X<=x] for x in the domain of the random variable
---
>     F(x) = Pr[X<=x] for x in the domain of the random variable
12a13
> 
17c18
< * p(x) = limit{F(x+t)-F(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
---
>     p(x) = limit{F(x+t)-F(x-t)} as t goes to zero.
------
RecentChanges|983050190
1c1
< New naming conventions are based on free form links! Talk on NamingConventions.
---
> New naming conventions are based on [[free links|free form links]]! Talk on NamingConventions.
------
RecentChanges|983050223
1c1
< New naming conventions are based on [[free links|free form links]]! Talk on NamingConventions.
---
> New naming conventions are based on [[Free Links|free form links]]! Talk on NamingConventions.
------
Periodic_Table|983050876
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A listing of the different elements, arranged by electronic structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
> 
>               Period
>   1    2    3    4    5    6    7
>                                       Group
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]  [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)
>       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)
>                           [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                           [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                           [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                           [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                           [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                           [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                           [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                           [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                           [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                           [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                           [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                           [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]    :
>                           [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
>                 [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                 [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                  [[Vanadium|V]]  [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                 [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                 [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                 [[Iron|Fe]]  [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Copper|Cu]]  [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]        12 (IIB)
>        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thallium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>        [[Carbon|C]]  [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>        [[Nitrogen|N]]   [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)
>        [[Flourine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)
>  [[Helium|He]]  [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)
------
Periodic_Table|983051178
32c32
<        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thallium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
---
>        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
36c36
<        [[Flourine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)
---
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)
------
Periodic_Table|983051859
37a38,41
> 
> ----
> 
> ''Very cool!''  (Feel free to delete this when read.)  :-)
------
AtlasShrugged/Hank_Rearden|983053812
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.  He lives in /Philadelphia with his wife /LillianRearden, his brother /PhilipRearden, and an elderly woman known only as /ReardensMother, all of whom he supports.
> 
> Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131 - Mentioned and alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN147
------
AtlasShrugged/HankRearden|983053845
1,9c1
< One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.  He lives in /Philadelphia with his wife /LillianRearden, his brother /PhilipRearden, and an elderly woman known only as /ReardensMother, all of whom he supports.
< 
< Rearden appears in:
< 
<  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131 - Mentioned and alluded to.
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN147
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Hank Rearden]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Bracelet|983053897
1c1
< The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by /HankRearden's long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
---
> The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
------
AtlasShrugged/California|983053925
1c1
< /HankRearden has business concerns on California.  In /SectioN121 /LillianRearden asks /HankRearden to promise he won't be in California on the night of December 10.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has business concerns on California.  In /SectioN121 /LillianRearden asks [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] to promise he won't be in California on the night of December 10.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983053948
9c9
<  /HankRearden
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|983053975
3c3
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned /HankRearden and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
------
AtlasShrugged/Gwen_Ives|983053992
1c1
< Gwen Ives is /HankRearden's secretary.
---
> Gwen Ives is [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] secretary.
------
AtlasShrugged/LillianRearden|983054006
1c1
< The wildly unsupportive wife of /HankRearden.
---
> The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
5c5
<  /SectioN121
---
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/Minnesota|983054020
1c1
< Minnesota was the location of /HankRearden's first job, working in the iron mines at age 14.  He continues to hold business concerns there.
---
> Minnesota was the location of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] first job, working in the iron mines at age 14.  He continues to hold business concerns there.
4c4
<  - /SectioN121
---
>  - /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber3|983054034
1c1
< An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
---
> An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber4|983054046
1c1
< An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that /HankRearden has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule Rearden in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
---
> An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule Rearden in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber4|983054060
1c1
< An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule Rearden in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
---
> An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
------
AtlasShrugged/PaulLarkin|983054090
1c1
< Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn /HankRearden of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down.  /JamesTaggart knows he is friends with /HankRearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
---
> Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  /JamesTaggart knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
5c5
<   /SectioN132
---
>   /SectioN132
------
AtlasShrugged/Philadelphia|983054102
1c1
< Philadelphia is the home of /HankRearden and /ReardenSteel.
---
> Philadelphia is the home of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and /ReardenSteel.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhilipRearden|983054115
1c1
< Philip Rearden is the younger brother of /HankRearden.  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
4c4
<  /SectioN121
---
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenCoal|983054128
1c1
< A business founded by /HankRearden prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
---
> A business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenLimestone|983054140
1c1
< A business founded by /HankRearden prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
---
> A business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of /ReardenSteel.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenOre|983054153
1c1
< The first business founded by /HankRearden.  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
---
> The first business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|983054172
1c1
< A metal alloy invented by /HankRearden.  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as greenish-blue.
---
> A metal alloy invented by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as greenish-blue.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenSteel|983054185
1c1
< A company founded by /HankRearden.  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
---
> A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardensMother|983054217
1c1
< /HankRearden's mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with Rearden at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
4c4
<  /SectioN121
---
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/SanctionOfTheVictim|983054237
9c9
< We first glimpse the concept in /SectioN121 when /HankRearden feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
---
> We first glimpse the concept in /SectioN121 when [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|983054259
14c14
<  /HankRearden: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|983054308
4c4
< /HankRearden watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, Rearden makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about Rearden attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
11c11
<  /HankRearden
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
------
ArchitecturE|983054559
6c6
< Some great architects are ChristopherAlexander and FrankLloydWright.
---
> Some great architects are Rem Koolhaas, Alvar Aalto and Mies van der Rohe.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN131|983055126
4c4
< /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop /HankRearden and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving Rearden of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
---
> /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN147|983055152
12c12
<  /HankRearden - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] - Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|983055184
16c16
<  /HankRearden
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|983055264
3c3
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /HankRearden at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that Rearden now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, Rearden needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
5c5
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on Rearden.  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
---
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]].  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
8c8
< /HankRearden's office at /ReardenSteel.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] office at /ReardenSteel.
13a14
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
15d15
<  /HankRearden
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|983055283
13c13
<  /HankRearden
---
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983055527
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and /HankRearden are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/WesleyMouch|983055542
1c1
< A member of the /Looters and /HankRearden's man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
---
> A member of the /Looters and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
4c4
<  /SectioN131
---
>  /SectioN131
------
AtlasShrugged/WorkerNumber1|983055563
1c1
< An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at /HankRearden in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement Rearden recieves.
---
> An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] recieves.
------
AtlasShrugged/James_Taggart|983056073
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
> 
> James Taggart appears in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|983056116
1,11c1
< The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
< 
< James Taggart appears in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/AntiDogEatDogRule|983056150
1c1
< The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for /JamesTaggart, with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
---
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
------
AtlasShrugged/BartendeR|983056166
1c1
< A character mentioned in /SectioN131.  /BartendeR works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by /JamesTaggart and the /Looters.
---
> A character mentioned in /SectioN131.  /BartendeR works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the /Looters.
------
AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope|983056181
1c1
< Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with /JamesTaggart that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
---
> Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors|983056210
1c1
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to /JamesTaggart.
---
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].
3c3
< The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably /JamesTaggart, who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
---
> The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
10c10
<  /SectioN145
---
>  /SectioN145
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983056226
10c10
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/ClarenceEddington|983056240
1c1
< An economic consultant who /JamesTaggart blames for the decision to build the /SanSebastianLine.
---
> An economic consultant who [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] blames for the decision to build the /SanSebastianLine.
3c3
< He is mentioned in /SectioN143.
---
> He is mentioned in /SectioN143.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnysFather|983056255
1c1
< Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to /JamesTaggart.  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
---
> Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
5c5
<  /SectioN152
---
>  /SectioN152
------
AtlasShrugged/Food|983056271
5c5
< <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 /JamesTaggart suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
---
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggartsSecretary|983056290
1c1
< In /SectioN144, /JamesTaggart's unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
---
> In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
AtlasShrugged/JockBenson|983056303
1c1
< A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her /JamesTaggart didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
------
AtlasShrugged/Looters|983056342
1c1
< A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged, sometimes refered to in the book as /JamesTaggart and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged, sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
5c5
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries|983056355
1c1
< An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. /JamesTaggart has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt /ReardenSteel and help /AssociatedSteel.
---
> An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt /ReardenSteel and help /AssociatedSteel.
------
AtlasShrugged/OrrenBoyle|983056367
1c1
< Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of /JamesTaggart.  He is one of the /Looters.  He is an investor in the /SanSebastianMines.
---
> Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  He is one of the /Looters.  He is an investor in the /SanSebastianMines.
------
AtlasShrugged/PaulLarkin|983056382
1c1
< Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  /JamesTaggart knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
---
> Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
------
AtlasShrugged/PhoenixDurango|983056399
1c1
< The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, /JamesTaggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|983056417
1c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include /JamesTaggart and /OrrenBoyle.  James Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|983056444
4c4
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell James Taggart the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make Taggart see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
13c13
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|983056468
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with /JamesTaggart and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
15c15
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN131|983056504
4c4
< /JamesTaggart, /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants Taggart to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  Taggart also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
11c11
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|983056543
4c4
< Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and /JamesTaggart and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  James Taggart confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  James Taggart is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
17c17
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|983056596
25c25,29
< This is a very vexing problem, I bet.  Because what we really want is to let people type fancy letters if they want, but to have them ultimately resolve to non-fancy letters (so that AccidentalLinking still works fairly well).  Also, I don't think fancy letters are legal in a URL '''at all''', so they can't be linking codes.
---
> This is a very vexing problem, I bet.  Because what we really want is to let people type fancy letters if they want, but to have them ultimately resolve to non-fancy letters (so that MeatBall:AccidentalLinking still works fairly well).  Also, I don't think fancy letters are legal in a URL '''at all''', so they can't be linking codes.
> 
> ----
> 
> Do you have $NonEnglish set to 1 in your <tt>config</tt> file? As for squashing the fancy letters down to Latin, you can probably use a quick <tt>tr///</tt> table to do that. -- SunirShah
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN142|983057197
2c2
< /JamesTaggart awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
5c5
< The apartment of /JamesTaggart
---
> The apartment of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].
11c11
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN143|983057227
2c2
< /JamesTaggart addresses the /BoardofDirectors after the /SanSebastianLine is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from Mexico, and assures everyone that with his /Washington connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from /Mexico.  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] addresses the /BoardofDirectors after the /SanSebastianLine is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from Mexico, and assures everyone that with his /Washington connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from /Mexico.  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
10c10
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|983057253
2c2
< /OrrenBoyle meets with /JamesTaggart about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  James Taggart tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
---
> /OrrenBoyle meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
5c5
< James Taggart's office.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] office.
9c9
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN146|983058554
11c11
<  /JamesTaggart: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]: Mentioned.
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN145|983058597
2c2
< The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, /JamesTaggart storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
---
> The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
11c11
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|983058632
15c15
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|983058671
29c29
<  /JamesTaggart
---
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983058694
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while /JamesTaggart and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOil|983058708
3c3
< [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted /JamesTaggart to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
---
> [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
------
AtlasShrugged/James_Taggarts_Secretary|983058754
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggartsSecretary|983058788
1c1
< In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/James Taggarts Secretary]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983058825
39c39
<  /JamesTaggartsSecretary
---
>  [[/James Taggarts Secretary|James Taggart's Secretary]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN144|983058847
11c11
<  /JamesTaggartsSecretary
---
>  [[/James Taggarts Secretary|James Taggart's Secretary]]
------
Joshua_Jackson|983059311
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Joshua Carter Jackson is an actor in Amercian television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canda]], on June 11, 1978.  He currently divides his time between North Carolina (where his television program [[Dawson's Creek]] is filmed) and Vancouver.
> 
> Jackson grew up in California until age 8, when his family moved back to Vancouver.  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for Keebler's Potato Chips.  He is left handed and 6 feet, 2 inches tall.
> 
> He is most known for his role on [[Dawson's Creek]], but he has also appeared in several popular movies,
> including [[Cruel Intentions]], [[Apt Pupil]], and [[Scream 2]].
> 
> /Filmography
> 
------
Joshua_Jackson|983059334
1c1
< Joshua Carter Jackson is an actor in Amercian television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canda]], on June 11, 1978.  He currently divides his time between North Carolina (where his television program [[Dawson's Creek]] is filmed) and Vancouver.
---
> Joshua Carter Jackson is an actor in Amercian television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]], on June 11, 1978.  He currently divides his time between North Carolina (where his television program [[Dawson's Creek]] is filmed) and Vancouver.
3c3
< Jackson grew up in California until age 8, when his family moved back to Vancouver.  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for Keebler's Potato Chips.  He is left handed and 6 feet, 2 inches tall.
---
> Jackson grew up in California until age 8, when his family moved back to Vancouver.  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips.  He is left handed and 6 feet, 2 inches tall.
------
Joshua_Jackson|983059355
1c1
< Joshua Carter Jackson is an actor in Amercian television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]], on June 11, 1978.  He currently divides his time between North Carolina (where his television program [[Dawson's Creek]] is filmed) and Vancouver.
---
> Joshua Carter Jackson is an actor in Amercian television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]], on June 11, 1978.  He currently divides his time between North Carolina (where his television program [[Dawsons Creek]] is filmed) and Vancouver.
5c5
< He is most known for his role on [[Dawson's Creek]], but he has also appeared in several popular movies,
---
> He is most known for his role on [[Dawsons Creek]], but he has also appeared in several popular movies,
------
Joshua_Jackson|983059378
3c3
< Jackson grew up in California until age 8, when his family moved back to Vancouver.  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips.  He is left handed and 6 feet, 2 inches tall.
---
> Jackson grew up in [[California]] until age 8, when his family moved back to Vancouver.  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips.  He is left handed and 6 feet, 2 inches tall.
------
Film|983059578
1c1
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Academy Awards]]
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983059883
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are the top 20 movies of all time, based on total receipts through February 21, 2001.
> 
> Source: 
> http://us.imdb.com/Charts/usatopmovies
> 
> #[[Titanic]] (1997)	$600,743,440
> #[[Star Wars]] (1977)	$460,935,655
> #[[Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace]] (1999)	$431,065,444
> #[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]] (1982)	$399,804,539
> #[[Jurassic Park]] (1993)	$356,763,175
> #[[Forrest Gump]] (1994)	$329,452,287
> #[[Lion King, The]] (1994)	$312,775,367
> #[[Star Wars: Episode VI - Return of the Jedi]] (1983)	$309,064,373	
> #[[Independence Day]] (1996)	$306,200,000
> #[[Sixth Sense, The]] (1999)	$293,501,675
> #[[Star Wars: Episode V - The Empire Strikes Back]] (1980)	$290,158,751
> #[[Home Alone]] (1990)	$285,761,243
> #[[Jaws]] (1975)	$260,000,000
> #[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] (2000)	$259,951,325
> #[[Batman]] (1989)	$251,188,924
> #[[Men in Black]] (1997)	$250,147,615
> #[[Toy Story 2]] (1999)	$245,823,397
> #[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] (1981)	$242,374,454
> #[[Twister]] (1996)	$241,700,000
> #[[Ghostbusters]] (1984)	$238,600,000
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983059967
7,8c7,8
< #[[Star Wars]] (1977)	$460,935,655
< #[[Star Wars: Episode I - The Phantom Menace]] (1999)	$431,065,444
---
> #[[Star Wars/A New Hope]]  ([[Star Wars]])(1977)	$460,935,655
> #[[Star Wars/The Phantom Menace]] (1999)	$431,065,444
13c13
< #[[Star Wars: Episode VI - Return of the Jedi]] (1983)	$309,064,373	
---
> #[[Star Wars/Return of the Jedi]] (1983)	$309,064,373	
16c16
< #[[Star Wars: Episode V - The Empire Strikes Back]] (1980)	$290,158,751
---
> #[[Star Wars/The Empire Strikes Back]] (1980)	$290,158,751
25c25
< #[[Ghostbusters]] (1984)	$238,600,000
---
> #[[Ghostbusters]] (1984)	$238,600,000
------
Games_of_Chance|983063018
5c5
< Dice, coin flipping, shufled decks of cards, and carefully balanced roulette wheels have been commonly used instruments for several hundred years in many cultures. Today, electronics offers the opportunity to add ''bells and whistles'' to the casino. '''Slot machines''' (one-armed bandits, some call them) will entice you to continue playing with sound effects and flashing lights as well as minor payouts.
---
> Dice, coin flipping, shufled decks of cards, and carefully balanced roulette wheels have been commonly used instruments for several hundred years in many cultures. Today, electronics offers the opportunity to add ''bells and whistles'' to the casino. '''[[Slot machines]]''' (one-armed bandits, some call them) will entice you to continue playing with sound effects and flashing lights as well as minor payouts.
------
Games_of_Chance|983063043
3c3
< We humans have always had a latent addiction to gambling. It is said that the Roman soldiers guarding the scene of the crucifiction of Jesus played with dice carved from the knuckle bones of previous victims. The possibillity that a ''twist of fate'' might change our material circumstances appeals to us. It is ironic that exploiting this fact provides one of the most stable businesses known.
---
> We humans have always had a latent addiction to gambling. It is said that the Roman soldiers guarding the scene of the crucifiction of [[Jesus]] played with dice carved from the knuckle bones of previous victims. The possibillity that a ''twist of fate'' might change our material circumstances appeals to us. It is ironic that exploiting this fact provides one of the most stable businesses known.
------
JimboWales|983063373
18c18
< SanDiego, CaliforniA is the location of Bomis.  LarrySanger lives (for now) in LasVegas, NevadA.  
---
> [[San Diego]], [[California]] is the location of [[Bomis]].  [[Larry Sanger]] lives (for now) in [[Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]].  
------
Las_Vegas|983063449
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling and prostitution (to say nothing of other, illegal sins). In the last ten years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. Consequently, the city has enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism. 
> 
> 
------
LasVegas|983063478
1c1
< The largest city in NevadA.  Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert.  It is called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling and prostitution (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  In the last ten years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children.  Consequently, the city has enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.
---
> #Redirect [[Las Vegas]]
------
LasVegas|983063493
1c1
< #Redirect [[Las Vegas]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Las Vegas]]
------
Las_Vegas|983063566
3c3
< 
---
> /Climate
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983063623
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
>  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	59.7 	66.2 	73.3 	82.1 	89.4 	98.7 	103.7 	102.0 	96.4 	83.6 	70.7 	61.4 	82.3 
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	31.0 	35.7 	41.1 	48.4 	54.7 	62.4 	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	0.68 	0.55 	0.44 	0.26 	0.19 	0.18 	0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.2 	1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983063812
1,6c1,16
<  Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
<  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	59.7 	66.2 	73.3 	82.1 	89.4 	98.7 	103.7 	102.0 	96.4 	83.6 	70.7 	61.4 	82.3 
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	31.0 	35.7 	41.1 	48.4 	54.7 	62.4 	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	0.68 	0.55 	0.44 	0.26 	0.19 	0.18 	0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
<  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.2 	1.1 
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
---
> Las Vegas enjoys a desert climate with very little rainfall year round, and extreme heat in the summer.
> 
>  Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
>  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	59.7 	66.2 	73.3 	82.1 	89.4 	98.7
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	31.0 	35.7 	41.1 	48.4 	54.7 	62.4
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	0.68 	0.55 	0.44 	0.26 	0.19 	0.18 	 
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
> 
>  Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
> 
>  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	 	103.7 	102.0 	96.4 	83.6 	70.7 	61.4 	82.3 
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	 	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.2 	1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983063855
4,5c4,5
<  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	59.7 	66.2 	73.3 	82.1 	89.4 	98.7
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	31.0 	35.7 	41.1 	48.4 	54.7 	62.4
---
>  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	     59.7 	66.2 	73.3 	82.1 	89.4 	98.7
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	     31.0 	35.7 	41.1 	48.4 	54.7 	62.4
7,8c7,8
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
---
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	       0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
16c16
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983063908
3c3
<  Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
---
>                                                               Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
7,8c7,8
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	       0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
---
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	      0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
10c10
<  Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
---
>                                                                Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983063952
3c3
<                                                               Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
---
>                                    Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
7,8c7,8
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	      0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
---
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	           0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
10c10
<                                                                Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
---
>                                     Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064073
7,8c7,8
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	0.1 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0  
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	           0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0  
---
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	 0.1  	0.0 	 0.0 	 0.0  0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	           0   	0   	0   	0   	0   	0  
15,16c15,16
<  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.0 	0.2 	1.1 
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 	0 
---
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	 	0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064163
3c3
<                                    Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun
---
>                                     Jan	  Feb  	Mar	  Apr	  May	  Jun
8c8
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	           0   	0   	0   	0   	0   	0  
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	         0    	0    	0   	 0    	0    	0  
10c10
<                                     Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Annual
---
>                                      Jul	  Aug	  Sep	  Oct	  Nov	  Dec	  Annual
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064217
7c7
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	 0.1  	0.0 	 0.0 	 0.0  0.0  
---
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	 0.1  	0.0 	 0.0 	 0.0   0.0  
12,13c12,13
<  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	 	103.7 	102.0 	96.4 	83.6 	70.7 	61.4 	82.3 
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	 	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
---
>  Average Max. Temperature (F) 	      	103.7 	102.0 	96.4 	83.6 	70.7 	61.4 	82.3 
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
15,16c15,16
<  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	 	0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
---
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	      	0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	     0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064277
11d10
< 
13,14c12,13
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	68.9 	67.3 	59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
---
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	 68.9 	 67.3 	 59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		   0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064331
13c13
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		   0.55 	0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
---
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		  0.55 	0.49  	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
15c15
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	     0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064380
10c10
<                                      Jul	  Aug	  Sep	  Oct	  Nov	  Dec	  Annual
---
>                                       Jul	   Aug	   Sep	   Oct	   Nov	   Dec	   Annual
15c15
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064440
12c12
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	 68.9 	 67.3 	 59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
---
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	 68.9 	 67.3  59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
15c15
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0   	0   	0   	0   	0 	  0   	0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0    	0    	0    	0    	0 	   0    	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064474
15c15
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0    	0    	0    	0    	0 	   0    	0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0    	0     	0    	0    	0	   0    	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064501
13,15c13,15
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		  0.55 	0.49  	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
<  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	      	0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	            0    	0     	0    	0    	0	   0    	0 
---
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		  0.55 	 0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	      	  0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	              0    	0     	0    	0    	0	   0    	0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|983064528
10c10
<                                       Jul	   Aug	   Sep	   Oct	   Nov	   Dec	   Annual
---
>                                       Jul	   Aug	   Sep	  Oct	  Nov	  Dec	   Annual
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983064674
5a6,22
> ----
> 
> Having just painstakingly worked on LasVegas/Climate, I can say that I second the proposal for a simplified
> use of tables.
> 
> The HTML syntax is not too bad, and people can't really do very much evil with it.
> 
> <table>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> </td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983064694
13,22c13,22
< <table>
< <tr>
< <td>Item one</td>
< </td>Item two</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>Item three</td>
< <td>Item four</td>
< </tr>
< </table>
---
>  <table>
>  <tr>
>  <td>Item one</td>
>  </td>Item two</td>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>  <td>Item three</td>
>  <td>Item four</td>
>  </tr>
>  </table>
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983064859
13,22c13,22
<  <table>
<  <tr>
<  <td>Item one</td>
<  </td>Item two</td>
<  </tr>
<  <tr>
<  <td>Item three</td>
<  <td>Item four</td>
<  </tr>
<  </table>
---
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> </td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983064882
16c16
< </td>Item two</td>
---
> <td>Item two</td>
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983064903
8c8
< Having just painstakingly worked on LasVegas/Climate, I can say that I second the proposal for a simplified
---
> Having just painstakingly worked on [[Las Vegas/Climate]], I can say that I second the proposal for a simplified
------
Statistic|983065019
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> '''Statistic''' (singular) is used to indicate the result of applying a statistical algorithm to a set of data. In the calculation of the [[arithmetic mean]], for example, the algorithm directs us to sum all the data values and divide by the number of data items. In this case, we call the mean a '''statistic'''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983065024
9c9
< use of tables.
---
> use of tables.  I looked at the code, and realized that this is an option I can set.  So I have for now turned it ON, unless someone comes up with a very good reason why we shouldn't.
11c11
< The HTML syntax is not too bad, and people can't really do very much evil with it.
---
> The HTML syntax is not too bad, and people can't really do very much evil with it.  Edit this page to see how I made this table in html.
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983065191
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]]
> 
> The '''Arithmetic Mean''' is defined as the sum of all the members of a set of data divided by the number of items in the set. If the set used is a [[Population]], then we speak of the [[Population Mean]]. When the set is a [[Sample]], we call the [[Statistic]] a [[Sample Mean]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983065397
3a4,11
> 
> <pre>
>                n
>               ___
>      _    1  \
>      x = --- .    x
>           n  /___  i
> </pre>
5c13
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983065496
6,10c6,8
<                n
<               ___
<      _    1  \
<      x = --- .    x
<           n  /___  i
---
>            x[1] + x[2] + ... + x[n]
>     mean = ------------------------    where [] implies an index
>                        n
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983065572
7c7
<     mean = ------------------------    where [] implies an index
---
>     mean = ------------------------    where [] encloses an index
9a10,11
> 
> see also [[Weighted Mean]], [[Variance]], [[Central Tendancy]]
------
Summary_Statistics|983065686
5c5,7
< We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. This means we want to be able to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]].
---
> #We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. #We want to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. 
> 
> Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] like the [[Arithmetic Mean] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]] like the [[Standard Deviation]].
------
Summary_Statistics|983065716
4,5c4,5
< 
< #We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize. #We want to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. 
---
> #We have a [[set]] of observations which we want to summarize.
> #We want to communicate as much as possible as simply as possible. 
------
Summary_Statistics|983065745
7c7
< Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] like the [[Arithmetic Mean] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]] like the [[Standard Deviation]].
---
> Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] like the [[Arithmetic Mean]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]] like the [[Standard Deviation]].
------
Statistical_Dispersion|983066019
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]]
> 
> A measure of statistical displersion must yield a number which is zero if all the data are identical and must increase as the data are more diverse. A very important measure of dispersion is the [Standard Deviation]], the square root of the [[Variance]].
> 
> Other such measures include the [[Statistical Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. None of these can be negative, their least possible value is zero. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Dispersion|983066037
3c3
< A measure of statistical displersion must yield a number which is zero if all the data are identical and must increase as the data are more diverse. A very important measure of dispersion is the [Standard Deviation]], the square root of the [[Variance]].
---
> A measure of statistical displersion must yield a number which is zero if all the data are identical and must increase as the data are more diverse. A very important measure of dispersion is the [[Standard Deviation]], the square root of the [[Variance]].
------
Variance|983066996
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Dispersion]]
> 
> The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean of the sum of squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, the unit of variance is the square of the unit of observation. Thus, the variance of a set of heights measured in inches will be given in square inches. This fact is inconvenient and has motivated statisticians to call the square root of the variance, the [[Standard Deviation]] and to quote this value as a summary of dispersion.
> 
> When the set of data is a [[Population]], we call this the ''population variance''. If the set is a [[Sample]], we call it the ''sample variance''.
> 
> The method of calculation is easily understood from the table below where the mean is 8.
> 
> <pre>
>     i   x[i]   x[i]-mean   (x[i]-mean)^2
>     1     5        -3            9
>     2     7        -1            1
>     3     8         0            0
>     4    10         2            4
>     5    10         2            4
>    ---  ----       ---          ---
>    n=5  sum=40      0           18
> 
>    mean = 40/5 = 8
>    variance = 18/5 = 3.6
>    standard deviation = 1.897366596101
> </pre>
> 
> Note that the column of deviations sums to zero. This is always the case. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Standard_Deviation|983067172
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Dispersion]]
> 
> The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Range|983067361
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Dispersion]]
> 
> The '''statistical range''' is the length of the smallest interval which can contain all the data. We calculate it simply by subtracting the smallest observations from the greatest. It is measured in the same units as the data. Since it only depends on two of the observations, it really isn't a good measure of dispersion except when the sample size is large. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Interquartile_Range|983067645
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Dispersion]]
> 
> :see [[Quartiles]] first to learn about the first and third quartiles.
> 
> The '''interquartile range''' is the difference between the third and first quartiles. Since 25% of the data are less than or equal to the first quartile and 25% are greater than or equal to the third quartile, the difference is the length of an interval that includes about half of the data. This difference is, of course, measured in the same units as the data. The interquartile range is more stable than the [[Statistical Range]] and is usually preferred to that statistic.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Quartiles|983068068
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Quantiles]]
> 
> The '''quartiles''' are three values which divide the sorted data set into four (approximately) equal parts. We cannot divide a set of 17 (say) data values into four equal parts since that would require splitting a datum. What we can do is interpolate between data items which bracket the desired position.
> 
> <pre>
>      i    x[i]
>      1    102
>      2    105
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1]
>      3    106
>      4    109
>    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2]
>      5    110
>      6    112
>    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3]
>      7    115
>      8    118
> </pre>
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Quartiles|983068176
20c20
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Dispersion|983068369
5a6
> 
------
Interquartile_Range|983068390
5a6,24
> 
> We can illustrate the calculation using the same data we used for illustrating the quartiles.
> 
> <pre>
>      i    x[i]
>      1    102
>      2    105
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1]
>      3    106
>      4    109
>    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2]
>      5    110
>      6    112
>    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3]
>      7    115
>      8    118
> </pre>
> 
> From this table, you can see that the '''interquartile range''' is (112+115)/2 - (106+105)/2 = 8
------
BalticSea|983068424
1c1
< Deleted in favor of [[Baltic Sea]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Baltic Sea]]
------
Quartiles|983068465
9c9
<     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1]
---
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2=105.5
12c12
<    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2]
---
>    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5
15c15
<    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3]
---
>    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5
------
Interquartile_Range|983068527
13c13
<     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1]
---
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2=105.5
16c16
<    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2]
---
>    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5
19c19
<    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3]
---
>    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5
------
Interquartile_Range|983068556
13c13
<     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2=105.5
---
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5
------
Quartiles|983068578
9c9
<     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2=105.5
---
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5
------
Summary_Statistics|983068724
7c7,9
< Statisticians commonly try to express the communality of the observations in a measure of [[Central Tendency]] like the [[Arithmetic Mean]] and the diversity of the observations in a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]] like the [[Standard Deviation]].
---
> Statisticians commonly try to describe the observations in 
> #a measure of [[Central Tendency]] like the [[Arithmetic Mean]], and
> #a measure of [[Statistical Dispersion]] like the [[Standard Deviation]].
------
Summary_Statistics|983068773
10c10
<  ----
---
> ----
------
Summary_Statistics|983068934
10,11d9
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
12a11,13
> There are other alternatives, of course. The [[Median]] and [[Mode]] are both measures of [[Central Tendancy]]. To describe the [[Statistical Dispersion]], we can use the [[Statistical Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], or the [[Absolute Deviation]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
MediaN|983068993
1,7c1
< :back to SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
< 
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the '''RanGe''', the '''InterQuartileRange''', and the '''AbsoluteDeviation'''. 
< 
< ----
< [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin ]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Median]]
------
Median|983069096
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
> 
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the [[Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
Median|983069197
3c3,4
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the [[Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. 
---
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the [[Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. Since the median is the same as the second quartile, its calculation is
> illustrated in the article on [[Quartiles]].
------
Quartiles|983069228
12c12
<    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5
---
>    ------------ the second quartile or median or Q[2] = 109.5
------
Western_Film|983070721
1c1,3
< One of the cassical American film genres. During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]]
---
> One of the cassical American film genres. The genre was born in literature with "The Virginian."  In film, it traces its roots back to "The Great Train Robbery" directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].  In the United States, the western has had an extremely rich history that spans many genres (comedy, drama, tragedy, parody, musical, etc.)
> 
> During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]]
6a9
> :[[Destry Rides Again]]
11c14,20
< :[[Sergio Leone]]
---
> :[[Howard Hawkes]]
> :[[Sergio Leone]]
> 
> Famous Western Actors:
> 
> :[[John Wayne]]
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
------
Howard_Hawkes|983070919
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the greatest directors of the [[Classic Hollywood Era]].  However, Hawkes has also been one of the most overlooked.  One of the reasons has been that he was never pigeon holed into any one genre.  Indeed, in an era when people look to the greatness of a director by the influence he had in a particular genre, Hawkes defies the critics.  In looking down his filmography, one can see films that are considered some of the best in a genre.
------
Destry_Rides_Again|983071219
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In this 1939 western, staring [[James Stewart]] and directed by [[George Marshall]], the conventions already long established in the genre are challenged and turned to comedic effect.  Instead of the men, with their gunplay, saving the day, you have women saving the men.  You still have a bar-fight, but its a woman's catfight.  You still have gambling with high stakes, but instead of someone losing a farm, you have him losing his pants.
------
Western_Film|983071274
14c14
< :[[Howard Hawkes]]
---
> :[[Howard Hawks]]
20c20
< :[[Clint Eastwood]]
---
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
------
Howard_Hawks|983071457
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the greatest directors of the [Classic Hollywood Era]?. However, Hawkes has also been one of the most overlooked. One of the reasons has been that he was never pigeon holed into any one genre. Indeed, in an era when people look to the greatness of a director by the influence he had in a particular genre, Hawkes defies the critics. In looking down his filmography, one can see films that are considered some of the best in a genre. 
> :[[The Big Sleep]] - Gangster
> :[[Red River]] - Western
> :[[Bringing up Baby]] - Screwball Comedy
> :[[I was a Male War Bride]] - Comedy
> :[[His Girl Friday]] - Reporter sub-genre
------
Western_Film|983071530
3c3
< During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]]
---
> During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]].  [[Clint Eastwood]] became famous staring in these films.
7a8
> :[[Red River]]
------
Actors|983071636
12a13
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
40a42
> :[[James Stewart]]
------
Charlie_Chaplin|983071862
1c1,3
< The most famous actor in early Hollywood cinema. He was the first actor who did a one million dollar deal.
---
> The most famous actor in early Hollywood cinema.  His principle character was "The Tramp"-a lower class charcater with a tight coat, oversized pants and shoes, a derby hat, a wooden cane, and his signature square mustache.  He was the first actor who signed a one million dollar deal.
> 
> He is one of the most creative personalities in the silent film era.  He directed, acted, wrote his stories, and was even known to write his movie scores.
------
Thomas_Edison|983072171
11c11,13
< Joshua, that's an interesting perspective!  I had not thought of this before, but to me it actually <i>enhances</i> Edison's reputation.  Because surely the pioneering of a research process is an invention of sorts, far surpassing the importance of the particular inventions that came out of the process.  Most people view [[Henry Ford]]'s greatest contribution as the pioneering of the commercial assembly line for mass production, as opposed to anything in particular having to do with automobiles. -- [[JimboWales]]
---
> Joshua, that's an interesting perspective!  I had not thought of this before, but to me it actually <i>enhances</i> Edison's reputation.  Because surely the pioneering of a research process is an invention of sorts, far surpassing the importance of the particular inventions that came out of the process.  Most people view [[Henry Ford]]'s greatest contribution as the pioneering of the commercial assembly line for mass production, as opposed to anything in particular having to do with automobiles. -- [[JimboWales]]
> 
> For all of Edison's strengths, perhaps his greatest one was for the business of inventing.  However, he was a hard-nosed businessman who was more inclined to roll over anything in his way than to compete with it.  In the recent trend toward revisionist history, there is probably not a truly balanced perspective on this man: it's either idol worship or "he's a cad." -- Jonathan Walker
------
Film_Directors|983072491
3a4
> :[[Frank Capra]]
7a9,11
> :[[Cecil B. Demille]]
> :[[Allan Dwan]]
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
10a15
> :[[Howard Hawks]]
14a20,21
> :[[George Marshall]]
> :[[Sydney Pollack]]
------
Allan_Dwan|983072619
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Last of the Pantheon Directors."
> 
> Dwan is one of the directors that spanned the silent to sound era.  He directed hundreds of films (most of which are lost due to the poor preservation of silent films).  Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last "discovered" great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]].
------
Film_Directors|983072726
10a11
> :[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
24a26
> :[[Andre Tarkovsky]]
------
Gene_chip|983078364
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A gene chip is a highly specialized, stamp-sized piece of glass or plastic that is used to analyze thousands of genes at a time.  They are also called [[DNA chips]] or [[DNA microarrays]].
> 
> Gene chips are covered with gridlike patterns of short DNA strands, called probes.  Each probe can bind to a different gene sequence.  When sample DNA is placed on the chip, researchers can study which probes bind to the sample.  For example, genes from cancerous cells can be analyzed with gene chips to discover which are present in the cancerous cells that are not present in healthy cells.
> 
> Since there are hundreds of thousands of probes on a gene chip, using a gene chip can be  the equivalent of thousands of conventional genetic tests.  Gene chips have therefore dramatically accelerated the pace of genetic research.
> 
> Gene chips were first brought to market in 1996 by [[Affymetrix]], which refers to them as GeneChips.
------
Gene_chip|983078402
3c3
< Gene chips are covered with gridlike patterns of short DNA strands, called probes.  Each probe can bind to a different gene sequence.  When sample DNA is placed on the chip, researchers can study which probes bind to the sample.  For example, genes from cancerous cells can be analyzed with gene chips to discover which are present in the cancerous cells that are not present in healthy cells.
---
> Gene chips are covered with gridlike patterns of short DNA strands, called probes.  Each probe can bind to a different gene sequence.  When sample DNA is placed on the chip, researchers can study which probes bind to the sample.  For example, genes from cancerous cells can be analyzed with gene chips to discover which genes are present in the cancerous cells that are not present in healthy cells.
7c7
< Gene chips were first brought to market in 1996 by [[Affymetrix]], which refers to them as GeneChips.
---
> Gene chips were first brought to market in 1996 by [[Affymetrix]], which refers to them as GeneChips.
------
Gene_chip|983081007
3c3
< Gene chips are covered with gridlike patterns of short DNA strands, called probes.  Each probe can bind to a different gene sequence.  When sample DNA is placed on the chip, researchers can study which probes bind to the sample.  For example, genes from cancerous cells can be analyzed with gene chips to discover which genes are present in the cancerous cells that are not present in healthy cells.
---
> Gene chips are covered with gridlike patterns of short DNA strands, called probes.  Each probe can bind to a different gene sequence.  When sample DNA is placed on the chip, researchers can study which probes bind to the sample to determine which genes were present in the sample.  Genes from cancerous cells can be analyzed with gene chips to discover which genes are present in the cancerous cells that are not present in healthy cells.  Ggenes can be treated with drugs, and the gene chip can analyze those genes to determine which genes are turned on or off by the drug.
------
NobelPrize/Chemistry|983091471
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2000- AlanJHeeger, AlanGMacDiarmid, HidekiShirakawa 
------
NobelPrize/ChemistrY|983091506
1c1
< 2000- AlanJHeeger, AlanGMacDiarmid, HidekiShirakawa 
---
> #REDIRECT /Chemistry
------
NobelPrize/ChemistrY|983091523
1c1
< #REDIRECT /Chemistry
---
> #REDIRECT NobelPrize/Chemistry
------
NobelPrize|983091569
7c7
< /ChemistrY
---
> [[/Chemistry|Chemistry]]
------
NobelPrize|983091667
2a3,4
> The Nobel Foundation has its own website: http://www.nobel.se/
> 
------
organic_electronics|983093031
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Organic electronics is a branch of electronics that deals with conductive polymers, or plastics.  It is called 'organic' electronics because the molecules in the polymer are carbon-based, like the molecules of living things.  This is as opposed to traditional electronics which relies on inorganic conductors such as copper or silicon.
> 
> Conductive polymers are lighter, more flexible, and less expensive than inorganic conductors.  This makes them a desirable alternative in many applications.  It also creates the possibility of new applications that would be impossible using copper or silicon.
> 
> New applications include [[smart windows]] and [[electronic paper]].  Conductive polymers are expected to play an important role in the emerging science of [[molecular computing]].
> 
> Conductive polymers conduct electricity slowly and inefficiently, as compared to inorganic conductors.  For many applications, inorganic conductors will remain the only viable option.
> 
> Conductive properties of plastics were first discovered in the late 1970s.  The men principally responsible for their discovery and development were [[Alan J. Heeger]], [[Alan G. MacDiarmid]], and [[Hideki Shirakawa]], who were jointly awarded the [[NobelPrize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] in 2000.
------
NobelPrize/Chemistry|983093082
1c1
< 2000- AlanJHeeger, AlanGMacDiarmid, HidekiShirakawa 
---
> 2000- [[Alan J. Heeger]], [[Alan G. MacDiarmid]], [[Hideki Shirakawa]]
------
Organic_electronics|983093163
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[organic electronics]]
------
Electronic_paper|983095329
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Electronic paper, or e-paper, is a technology that allows the text on a piece of paper to be re-written.  The "paper" is actually made of conductive plastic which contains tiny balls that respond to an electric charge, changing the page in much the same way that pixels change on a computer monitor.
> 
> Electronic paper was developed in order to overcome some of the limitations of computer monitors.  For example, the backlighting of monitors is hard on the human eye, whereas electronic paper reflects light just like normal paper.  It is easier to read at an angle than flat screen monitors.  Because it is made of plastic, electronic paper has the potential to be flexible.
> 
> Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by [[Nick Sheridon]] at [[Xerox|Xerox's]] [[Palo Alto Reseaech Center]].  The first electronic paper, called [[Gyricon]], consisted of tiny, statically charged balls that were black on one side and white on the other.  The "text" of the paper was altered by the presence of an electric field, which turned the balls up or down.
> 
> In the 1990s another type of electronic paper was invented by [[Joseph Jacobson]].  This used tiny balls filled with electrically charged white particles suspended in oil.  The underlying circuitry controls whether each ball turns white side up or dark side up.
> 
> [[Joseph Jacobson|Jacobson]] formed [[E Ink]] in 1997 to develop electronic paper commericially.  The first commercial use was in 1999 - a in-store display at a department store.  In addition to [[E Ink]], electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), [[3M]], [[IBM]], and [[Lucent Technologies]].
> 
> 
------
Electronic_paper|983095393
3c3
< Electronic paper was developed in order to overcome some of the limitations of computer monitors.  For example, the backlighting of monitors is hard on the human eye, whereas electronic paper reflects light just like normal paper.  It is easier to read at an angle than flat screen monitors.  Because it is made of plastic, electronic paper has the potential to be flexible.
---
> Electronic paper was developed in order to overcome some of the limitations of computer monitors.  For example, the backlighting of monitors is hard on the human eye, whereas electronic paper reflects light just like normal paper.  It is easier to read at an angle than flat screen monitors.  Because it is made of plastic, electronic paper has the potential to be flexible.  It is light and potentially inexpensive.
------
Electronic_paper|983095407
5c5
< Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by [[Nick Sheridon]] at [[Xerox|Xerox's]] [[Palo Alto Reseaech Center]].  The first electronic paper, called [[Gyricon]], consisted of tiny, statically charged balls that were black on one side and white on the other.  The "text" of the paper was altered by the presence of an electric field, which turned the balls up or down.
---
> Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by [[Nick Sheridon]] at [[Xerox|Xerox's]] [[Palo Alto Research Center]].  The first electronic paper, called [[Gyricon]], consisted of tiny, statically charged balls that were black on one side and white on the other.  The "text" of the paper was altered by the presence of an electric field, which turned the balls up or down.
------
Electronic_paper|983095458
9c9
< [[Joseph Jacobson|Jacobson]] formed [[E Ink]] in 1997 to develop electronic paper commericially.  The first commercial use was in 1999 - a in-store display at a department store.  In addition to [[E Ink]], electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), [[3M]], [[IBM]], and [[Lucent Technologies]].
---
> [[Joseph Jacobson|Jacobson]] formed [[E Ink]] in 1997 to develop electronic paper commericially.  The first commercial use occurred in 1999, an in-store display at a department store.  In addition to [[E Ink]], electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), [[3M]], [[IBM]], and [[Lucent Technologies]].
------
Electronic_paper|983095479
9c9
< [[Joseph Jacobson|Jacobson]] formed [[E Ink]] in 1997 to develop electronic paper commericially.  The first commercial use occurred in 1999, an in-store display at a department store.  In addition to [[E Ink]], electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), [[3M]], [[IBM]], and [[Lucent Technologies]].
---
> [[Joseph Jacobson|Jacobson]] formed [[E Ink]] in 1997 to develop electronic paper commericially.  The first commercial use occurred in 1999, an in-store display at a department store that featured a changing message.  In addition to [[E Ink]], electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), [[3M]], [[IBM]], and [[Lucent Technologies]].
------
Sverige|983097289
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish name for [[Sweden]].
------
Sweden|983097309
0a1,2
> Swedish [[Sverige]].
> 
4,6c6,7
< [[Göteborg]] ([[Gothenburg]]),
< [[Malmö]],
< [[Malmo]],
---
> [[Gothenburg]] ([[Göteborg]]),
> [[Malmo]] ([[Malmo|Malmö]]),
------
NamingConventions|983097451
39a40,41
> ----
> I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
40a43,45
> '''The language of the wikipedia is English'''
> 
> Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
------
København|983097660
1c1
< Capital of [[Denmark]].
---
> Danish for [[Copenhagen]].
------
Köpenhamn|983097684
1c1
< Swedish for [[København]]. 
---
> Swedish for [[Copenhagen]]. 
------
Copenhagen|983098018
1c1,7
< English for [[København]].
---
> Danish København. Swedish Köpenhamn.
> 
> Capital of [[Denmark]]. Located on eastern shore of the [[Sjaelland]] island.
> 
> It is located on The Sound [[Oresund]] facing the Swedish town [[Malmo]] on the other side.
> 
> Since the summer 2000 the towns [[Copenhagen]] and [[Malmo]] are connected with a bridge and tunnel.
------
Baltic_Sea|983098754
5c5
< [[Gotland]], [[Öland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
---
> [[Gotland]], [[OEland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
7,8c7,8
< [[Åland]] (belonging to [[Finland]]), 
< [[Ösel]] and [[Dagö]] belonging to [[Estonia]].
---
> [[Aland]] (belonging to [[Finland]]), 
> [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]] belonging to [[Estonia]].
------
Poland|983098928
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT PolanD
------
Göteborg|983099035
1,2c1
< Town in western [[Sweden]], on the west coast to the [[North Sea]].
< 
---
> Swedish name for [[Gothenburg]].
------
Gothenburg|983099038
1c1,4
< English name for [[Göteborg]].
---
> Called Göteborg in Swedish.
> 
> Town in western [[Sweden]], on the west coast to the [[North Sea]].
> 
------
EuropE|983099111
1c1
< ContinenT stretching from the NorthSea and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the NorthPole. Europe is the western fifth of the EurAsian landmass.
---
> ContinenT stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the NorthPole. Europe is the western fifth of the EurAsian landmass.
------
GermanY|983099169
5c5
< It's adjacent in the north to the NorthSea, DenmarK, [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
---
> It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
------
Algeria/Background|983099675
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: After a century of rule by France, Algeria became independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the
> fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,
> and postpone the subsequent elections. The FIS response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state
> apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. FIS's armed
> wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, dissolved itself in January 2000 and many armed insurgents surrendered under an amnesty
> program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, some residual fighting continues. Other concerns include
> large-scale unemployment and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy. 
------
Algeria/Geography|983099704
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
>                                          Geography
> 
>  
> 
> Location: Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 28 00 N, 3 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Africa 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 2,381,740 sq km 
> land: 2,381,740 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 6,343 km 
> border countries: Libya 982 km, Mali 1,376 km, Mauritania 463 km, Morocco 1,559 km, Niger 956 km, Tunisia 965 km, Western
> Sahara 42 km 
> 
> Coastline: 998 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive fishing zone: 32-52 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high
> plateau; sirocco is a hot, dust/sand-laden wind especially common in summer 
> 
> Terrain: mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Chott Melrhir -40 m 
> highest point: Tahat 3,003 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 3% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 13% 
> forests and woodland: 2% 
> other: 82% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 5,550 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mud slides 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw
> sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters;
> Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable
> water 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of
> the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban 
> 
> Geography - note: second-largest country in Africa (after Sudan) 
------
Algeria/People|983099738
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
>                                            People
> 
> 
> 
> Population: 31,193,917 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 35% (male 5,591,044; female 5,389,046) 
> 15-64 years: 61% (male 9,582,864; female 9,381,088) 
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 577,875; female 672,000) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.74% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 23.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 69.65 years 
> male: 68.34 years 
> female: 71.02 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.8 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Algerian(s) 
> adjective: Algerian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 99%, European less than 1% 
> 
> Religions: Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1% 
> 
> Languages: Arabic (official), French, Berber dialects 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 61.6% 
> male: 73.9% 
> female: 49% (1995 est.) 
------
Algeria/Government|983099779
1c1,88
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria 
> conventional short form: Algeria 
> local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah 
> local short form: Al Jaza'ir 
> 
> Data code: AG 
> 
> Government type: republic 
> 
> Capital: Algiers 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 48 provinces (wilayas, singular - wilaya); Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna,
> Bechar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf,
> Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Mascara, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el
> Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel Abbes, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanghasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi
> Ouzou, Tlemcen 
> 
> Independence: 5 July 1962 (from France) 
> 
> National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 1 November (1954) 
> 
> Constitution: 19 November 1976, effective 22 November 1976; revised 3 November 1988, 23 February 1989, and 28 November 1996;
> note - referendum approving the revisions of 28 November 1996 was signed into law 7 December 1996 
> 
> Legal system: socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council
> composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA (since 28 April 1999) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed BENBITOUR (since 2 December 1999) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister 
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 April 1999 (next to be held NA April 2004);
> prime minister appointed by the president 
> election results: Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA elected president; percent of vote - Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA 70%; note - six of the
> seven candidates withdrew sighting persistent electoral fraud 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the National People's Assembly or Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani (380
> seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Council of Nations (144 seats; one-third of the members
> appointed by the president, two-thirds elected by indirect vote; members serve six-year terms; created as a result of the
> constitutional revision of November 1996) 
> elections: National People's Assembly - last held 5 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); elections for two-thirds of the Council of
> Nations - last held 25 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2003) 
> election results: National People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - RND 40.8%, MSP 18.2%, FLN 16.8%, Nahda Movement
> 8.9%, FFS 5%, RCD 5%, PT 1.1%, Republican Progressive Party 0.8%, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 0.3%, Liberal Social
> Party 0.3%, independents 2.8%; seats by party - RND 156, MSP 69, FLN 62, Nahda Movement 34, FFS 20, RCD 19, PT 4, Republican
> Progressive Party 3, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 1, Liberal Social Party 1, independents 11; Council of Nations - percent of
> vote by party - NA%; seats by party - RND 80, FLN 10, FFS 4, MSP 2 (remaining 48 seats appointed by the president, party
> breakdown NA) 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Algerian Democratic Front or FAD [Sid-Ahmed GHOZALI]; Algerian National Front or ANF
> [Moussa TOUATI]; Algerian Renewal Party or PRA [Noureddine BOUKROUH, chairman]; Democratic National Rally or RND
> [Ahmed OUYAHIA, chairman]; Islamic Salvation Front or FIS (outlawed April 1992) [Ali BELHADJ, Dr. Abassi MADANI,
> Rabeh KEBIR (self-exile in Germany)]; Liberal Social Party [Ahmed KHELIL]; Movement for Democracy in Algeria or MDA
> [Ahmed Ben BELLA]; Movement for Loyalty and Justice [Ahmed Taleb IBRAHIMI, president; Movement of a Peaceful Society or
> MSP [Mahfoud NAHNAH, chairman]; Nahda Movement or Al Nahda [Abdallah DJABALLAH, president]; National Liberation
> Front or FLN [Boualem BENHAMOUDA, secretary general]; National Party for Solidarity and Development or PNSD [Rabah
> BENCHERIF]; National Republican Alliance or ANR [Redha MALEK]; Rally for Culture and Democracy or RCD [Said SAADI,
> secretary general]; Republican Progressive Party [Khadir DRISS]; Social Democratic Movement or MDS [Hachemi CHERIF];
> Socialist Forces Front or FFS [Hocine Ait AHMED, secretary general (self-exile in Switzerland)]; Union for Democracy and
> Freedoms [Mouley BOUKHALAFA]; Workers Party or PT [Louisa HANOUN] 
> note: the government established a multiparty system in September 1989 and, as of 31 December 1990, over 50 legal parties existed; a
> new party law was enacted in March 1997 
> 
> International organization participation: ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24,
> G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC,
> IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD,
> UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Idriss JAZAIRY 
> chancery: 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800 
> FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Cameron R. HUME 
> embassy: 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, Algiers 
> mailing address: B. P. Box 549, Alger-Gare, 16000 Algiers 
> telephone: [213] (2) 69-11-86, 69-12-55, 69-18-54, 69-38-75 
> FAX: [213] (2) 69-39-79 
> 
> Flag description: two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent; the
> crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam (the state religion) 
------
Algeria/Economy|983099798
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> 
>                                           Economy
> 
> 
> Economy - overview: The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues,
> 25% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second
> largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the
> Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers
> concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994 and the following year signed onto a three-year extended
> fund facility which ended 30 April 1998. Some progress on economic reform, Paris Club debt reschedulings in 1995 and 1996, and oil
> and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil
> and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment
> outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $147.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3.9% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,700 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 12% 
> industry: 51% 
> services: 37% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 23% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 2.8% 
> highest 10%: 26.8% (1995) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.2% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 9.1 million (2000 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 29.5%, agriculture 22%, construction and public works 16.2%, industry 13.6%, commerce
> and services 13.5%, transportation and communication 5.2% (1989) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 30% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $15.5 billion 
> expenditures: $15.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) 
> 
> Industries: petroleum, natural gas, light industries, mining, electrical, petrochemical, food processing 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 21.38 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 99.77% 
> hydro: 0.23% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 19.882 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 313 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 312 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle 
> 
> Exports: $13.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products 97% 
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 21.2%, US 15.0%, France 12.9%, Spain 10.3%, Brazil 5.9%, Netherlands 5.5% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $9.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and beverages, consumer goods 
> 
> Imports - partners: France 29.5%, Italy 9.8%, US 7.2%, Spain 6.8%, Germany 6.2%, Canada 4.1% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $30 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $897.5 million (1994) 
> 
> Currency: 1 Algerian dinar (DA) = 100 centimes 
> 
> Exchange rates: Algerian dinars (DA) per US$1 - 69.046 (January 2000), 66.574 (1999), 58.739 (1998), 57.707 (1997), 54.749
> (1996), 47.663 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
------
Algeria/Communications|983099814
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< Describe the new page here.
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> 
>                                        Communications
> 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 1.176 million (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 33,500 (1999) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good service in north but sparse in south; domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations (20 additional domestic earth
> stations are planned) 
> international: 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and
> Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1
> Arabsat 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 25, FM 1, shortwave 8 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 7.1 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 18 (not including low-power stations) (1999) 
> 
> Televisions: 3.1 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) 
------
Algeria/Transportation|983099844
1c1,42
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> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
>  
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 4,820 km (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
> standard gauge: 3,664 km 1.435-m gauge (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
> narrow gauge: 1,156 km 1.055-m gauge (1996) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 104,000 km 
> paved: 71,656 km (including 640 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 32,344 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 6,612 km; petroleum products 298 km; natural gas 2,948 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Algiers, Annaba, Arzew, Bejaia, Beni Saf, Dellys, Djendjene, Ghazaouet, Jijel, Mostaganem, Oran, Skikda, Tenes
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 78 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 940,196 GRT/1,094,104 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 9, cargo 27, chemical tanker 7, liquified gas 11, petroleum tanker 5, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 5,
> specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 137 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 51 
> over 3,047 m: 8 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 25 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 5 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 86 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 23 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 41 
> under 914 m: 19 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
------
Algeria/Military|983099866
1c1,21
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> 
>                                           Military
> 
> 
> Military branches: National Popular Army, Navy, Air Force, Territorial Air Defense, National Gendarmerie 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 8,523,257 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 5,220,318 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 373,547 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $1.3 billion (FY94) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY94) 
> 
------
Algeria/Transnational_Issues|983099887
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: part of southeastern region claimed by Libya 
> 
------
Algeria|983099908
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country in Northern [[Africa]].
> 
> :[[Algeria/Background]]
> :[[Algeria/Geography]]
> :[[Algeria/People]]
> :[[Algeria/Government]]
> :[[Algeria/Economy]]
> :[[Algeria/Communications]]
> :[[Algeria/Transportation]]
> :[[Algeria/Military]]
> :[[Algeria/Transnational Issues]]
> 
> 
------
CountriesA|983099929
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< :AlgeriA
---
> :[[Algeria]]
------
AlgeriA|983099970
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< Algeria
---
> #redirect [[Algeria]]
3,396d2
<                                         Introduction
< 
< 
< 
< Background: After a century of rule by France, Algeria became independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the
< fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,
< and postpone the subsequent elections. The FIS response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state
< apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. FIS's armed
< wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, dissolved itself in January 2000 and many armed insurgents surrendered under an amnesty
< program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, some residual fighting continues. Other concerns include
< large-scale unemployment and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy. 
< 
<                                          Geography
< 
<  
< 
< Location: Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 28 00 N, 3 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Africa 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 2,381,740 sq km 
< land: 2,381,740 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 6,343 km 
< border countries: Libya 982 km, Mali 1,376 km, Mauritania 463 km, Morocco 1,559 km, Niger 956 km, Tunisia 965 km, Western
< Sahara 42 km 
< 
< Coastline: 998 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< exclusive fishing zone: 32-52 nm 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high
< plateau; sirocco is a hot, dust/sand-laden wind especially common in summer 
< 
< Terrain: mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Chott Melrhir -40 m 
< highest point: Tahat 3,003 m 
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, uranium, lead, zinc 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 3% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 13% 
< forests and woodland: 2% 
< other: 82% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 5,550 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mud slides 
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw
< sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters;
< Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable
< water 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of
< the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
< signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban 
< 
< Geography - note: second-largest country in Africa (after Sudan) 
< 
<                                            People
< 
< 
< 
< Population: 31,193,917 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 35% (male 5,591,044; female 5,389,046) 
< 15-64 years: 61% (male 9,582,864; female 9,381,088) 
< 65 years and over: 4% (male 577,875; female 672,000) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.74% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 23.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 5.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 41.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 69.65 years 
< male: 68.34 years 
< female: 71.02 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.8 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Algerian(s) 
< adjective: Algerian 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 99%, European less than 1% 
< 
< Religions: Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1% 
< 
< Languages: Arabic (official), French, Berber dialects 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 61.6% 
< male: 73.9% 
< female: 49% (1995 est.) 
< 
<                                         Government
< 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria 
< conventional short form: Algeria 
< local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah ad Dimuqratiyah ash Shabiyah 
< local short form: Al Jaza'ir 
< 
< Data code: AG 
< 
< Government type: republic 
< 
< Capital: Algiers 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 48 provinces (wilayas, singular - wilaya); Adrar, Ain Defla, Ain Temouchent, Alger, Annaba, Batna,
< Bechar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Bordj Bou Arreridj, Bouira, Boumerdes, Chlef, Constantine, Djelfa, El Bayadh, El Oued, El Tarf,
< Ghardaia, Guelma, Illizi, Jijel, Khenchela, Laghouat, Mascara, Medea, Mila, Mostaganem, M'Sila, Naama, Oran, Ouargla, Oum el
< Bouaghi, Relizane, Saida, Setif, Sidi Bel Abbes, Skikda, Souk Ahras, Tamanghasset, Tebessa, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tipaza, Tissemsilt, Tizi
< Ouzou, Tlemcen 
< 
< Independence: 5 July 1962 (from France) 
< 
< National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 1 November (1954) 
< 
< Constitution: 19 November 1976, effective 22 November 1976; revised 3 November 1988, 23 February 1989, and 28 November 1996;
< note - referendum approving the revisions of 28 November 1996 was signed into law 7 December 1996 
< 
< Legal system: socialist, based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council
< composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: President Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA (since 28 April 1999) 
< head of government: Prime Minister Ahmed BENBITOUR (since 2 December 1999) 
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister 
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 April 1999 (next to be held NA April 2004);
< prime minister appointed by the president 
< election results: Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA elected president; percent of vote - Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA 70%; note - six of the
< seven candidates withdrew sighting persistent electoral fraud 
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the National People's Assembly or Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani (380
< seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Council of Nations (144 seats; one-third of the members
< appointed by the president, two-thirds elected by indirect vote; members serve six-year terms; created as a result of the
< constitutional revision of November 1996) 
< elections: National People's Assembly - last held 5 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); elections for two-thirds of the Council of
< Nations - last held 25 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2003) 
< election results: National People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - RND 40.8%, MSP 18.2%, FLN 16.8%, Nahda Movement
< 8.9%, FFS 5%, RCD 5%, PT 1.1%, Republican Progressive Party 0.8%, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 0.3%, Liberal Social
< Party 0.3%, independents 2.8%; seats by party - RND 156, MSP 69, FLN 62, Nahda Movement 34, FFS 20, RCD 19, PT 4, Republican
< Progressive Party 3, Union for Democracy and Freedoms 1, Liberal Social Party 1, independents 11; Council of Nations - percent of
< vote by party - NA%; seats by party - RND 80, FLN 10, FFS 4, MSP 2 (remaining 48 seats appointed by the president, party
< breakdown NA) 
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Cour Supreme) 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Algerian Democratic Front or FAD [Sid-Ahmed GHOZALI]; Algerian National Front or ANF
< [Moussa TOUATI]; Algerian Renewal Party or PRA [Noureddine BOUKROUH, chairman]; Democratic National Rally or RND
< [Ahmed OUYAHIA, chairman]; Islamic Salvation Front or FIS (outlawed April 1992) [Ali BELHADJ, Dr. Abassi MADANI,
< Rabeh KEBIR (self-exile in Germany)]; Liberal Social Party [Ahmed KHELIL]; Movement for Democracy in Algeria or MDA
< [Ahmed Ben BELLA]; Movement for Loyalty and Justice [Ahmed Taleb IBRAHIMI, president; Movement of a Peaceful Society or
< MSP [Mahfoud NAHNAH, chairman]; Nahda Movement or Al Nahda [Abdallah DJABALLAH, president]; National Liberation
< Front or FLN [Boualem BENHAMOUDA, secretary general]; National Party for Solidarity and Development or PNSD [Rabah
< BENCHERIF]; National Republican Alliance or ANR [Redha MALEK]; Rally for Culture and Democracy or RCD [Said SAADI,
< secretary general]; Republican Progressive Party [Khadir DRISS]; Social Democratic Movement or MDS [Hachemi CHERIF];
< Socialist Forces Front or FFS [Hocine Ait AHMED, secretary general (self-exile in Switzerland)]; Union for Democracy and
< Freedoms [Mouley BOUKHALAFA]; Workers Party or PT [Louisa HANOUN] 
< note: the government established a multiparty system in September 1989 and, as of 31 December 1990, over 50 legal parties existed; a
< new party law was enacted in March 1997 
< 
< International organization participation: ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24,
< G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC,
< IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD,
< UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Idriss JAZAIRY 
< chancery: 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008 
< telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800 
< FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Cameron R. HUME 
< embassy: 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, Algiers 
< mailing address: B. P. Box 549, Alger-Gare, 16000 Algiers 
< telephone: [213] (2) 69-11-86, 69-12-55, 69-18-54, 69-38-75 
< FAX: [213] (2) 69-39-79 
< 
< Flag description: two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red, five-pointed star within a red crescent; the
< crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam (the state religion) 
< 
<                                           Economy
< 
< 
< Economy - overview: The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues,
< 25% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second
< largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the
< Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers
< concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994 and the following year signed onto a three-year extended
< fund facility which ended 30 April 1998. Some progress on economic reform, Paris Club debt reschedulings in 1995 and 1996, and oil
< and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil
< and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment
< outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $147.6 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 3.9% (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,700 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 12% 
< industry: 51% 
< services: 37% (1997 est.) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: 23% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: 2.8% 
< highest 10%: 26.8% (1995) 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.2% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Labor force: 9.1 million (2000 est.) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: government 29.5%, agriculture 22%, construction and public works 16.2%, industry 13.6%, commerce
< and services 13.5%, transportation and communication 5.2% (1989) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 30% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $15.5 billion 
< expenditures: $15.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) 
< 
< Industries: petroleum, natural gas, light industries, mining, electrical, petrochemical, food processing 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Electricity - production: 21.38 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 99.77% 
< hydro: 0.23% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 19.882 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 313 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 312 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle 
< 
< Exports: $13.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products 97% 
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 21.2%, US 15.0%, France 12.9%, Spain 10.3%, Brazil 5.9%, Netherlands 5.5% (1998) 
< 
< Imports: $9.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and beverages, consumer goods 
< 
< Imports - partners: France 29.5%, Italy 9.8%, US 7.2%, Spain 6.8%, Germany 6.2%, Canada 4.1% (1998) 
< 
< Debt - external: $30 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $897.5 million (1994) 
< 
< Currency: 1 Algerian dinar (DA) = 100 centimes 
< 
< Exchange rates: Algerian dinars (DA) per US$1 - 69.046 (January 2000), 66.574 (1999), 58.739 (1998), 57.707 (1997), 54.749
< (1996), 47.663 (1995) 
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
< 
<                                        Communications
< 
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 1.176 million (1995) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 33,500 (1999) 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: good service in north but sparse in south; domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations (20 additional domestic earth
< stations are planned) 
< international: 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and
< Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1
< Arabsat 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 25, FM 1, shortwave 8 (1999) 
< 
< Radios: 7.1 million (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 18 (not including low-power stations) (1999) 
< 
< Televisions: 3.1 million (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) 
< 
<                                         Transportation
< 
<  
< 
< Railways: 
< total: 4,820 km (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
< standard gauge: 3,664 km 1.435-m gauge (301 km electrified; 215 km double track) 
< narrow gauge: 1,156 km 1.055-m gauge (1996) 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 104,000 km 
< paved: 71,656 km (including 640 km of expressways) 
< unpaved: 32,344 km (1996 est.) 
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 6,612 km; petroleum products 298 km; natural gas 2,948 km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Algiers, Annaba, Arzew, Bejaia, Beni Saf, Dellys, Djendjene, Ghazaouet, Jijel, Mostaganem, Oran, Skikda, Tenes
< 
< Merchant marine: 
< total: 78 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 940,196 GRT/1,094,104 DWT 
< ships by type: bulk 9, cargo 27, chemical tanker 7, liquified gas 11, petroleum tanker 5, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 5,
< specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 137 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 51 
< over 3,047 m: 8 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 25 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 5 
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 86 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 23 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 41 
< under 914 m: 19 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
<                                           Military
< 
< 
< Military branches: National Popular Army, Navy, Air Force, Territorial Air Defense, National Gendarmerie 
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 8,523,257 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 5,220,318 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
< males: 373,547 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $1.3 billion (FY94) 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY94) 
< 
<                                       Transnational Issues
< 
<  
< 
< Disputes - international: part of southeastern region claimed by Libya 
------
AlgeriA|983100019
1c1
< #redirect [[Algeria]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Algeria]]
------
Median|983108288
3c3
< The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the [[Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. Since the median is the same as the second quartile, its calculation is
---
> The '''median''' is that value that separates the highest half of the sample from the lowest half. To find the ''median'', arrange all the observations from lowest value to highest value and pick the middle one. If there are an even number of observations, take that average of the two middle values. When we use the ''median'' to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a measure of variability, the [[Range]], the [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]]. Since the median is the same as the second quartile, its calculation is
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983108578
11c11
< see also [[Weighted Mean]], [[Variance]], [[Central Tendancy]]
---
> see also [[Weighted Mean]], [[Variance]], [[Central Tendency]]
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|983109050
5c5,7
< '''A.''' I believe you'll have to ask that person.  That person should also understand that others are quite free to go in and make whatever changes they deem necessary.
---
> '''A.''' I believe you'll have to ask that person.  That person should also understand that others are quite free to go in and make whatever changes they deem necessary.----
> But by putting your name on an entry, as a link to your wiki page, on all the pages you began, you are in a sense declaring authorship. This to me, defeats the purpose of a Wiki, which is a collaborative effort. So I make corrections and leave his name-link on the pages. Same AnonymousCoward
> But I am not happy!!!
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|983109076
6c6
< But by putting your name on an entry, as a link to your wiki page, on all the pages you began, you are in a sense declaring authorship. This to me, defeats the purpose of a Wiki, which is a collaborative effort. So I make corrections and leave his name-link on the pages. Same AnonymousCoward
---
> But by putting your name on an entry, as a link to your wiki page, on all the pages you began, you are in a sense declaring authorship. This to me, defeats the purpose of a Wiki, which is a collaborative effort. So I make corrections and leave his name-link on the pages. Same AnonymousCoward.
------
SandBox|983109382
19c19,32
< [[Monkey|Donkey versus Monkey]]
---
> [[Monkey|Donkey versus Monkey]]----
> 
> <table border=2/>
> <tr>
>   <td> Me  </td>
>   <td> You </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td> A+  </td>
>   <td> F   </td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> ''I'm better than you are!!!''
------
Bronx|983109611
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The borough with the worst rap. When you enter the Bronx, you are greeted with sign saying 
> "Don't dump on the Bronx." This is meant ''figuratively.''
------
City_of_New_York|983109877
0a1
> Known as "'''The Big Apple.'''"
12a14,15
> 
> The current mayor of New York City is [[Rudy Guillianni]]. He has been a very controversial mayor. His bid for New York State Senator was aborted by a serious illness.
------
Bronx|983110803
2a3,15
> 
> Ten Good Things About the Bronx:
> : 1). The [[New York Yankees]].
> : 2). The largest amount of parklands of any borough.
> : 3). Affordable Housing
> : 4). [[The Bronx Zoo]].
> : 5). [[The Bronx Botanical Gardens]].
> : 6). [[The Bronx River]] - the only river that runs through an entire borough.
> : 7). Very good neighborhoods - [[Riverdale]], [[County Club Estates]].
> : 8). Proximity to [[Westchester]].
> : 9). Bronx County District Attorney - [[Robert Johnson]].
> : 10).One of the last strongholds of illegal street gambling - [[Numbers]].
>  
------
LiteraTure|983110930
0a1
> [[Authors]].
------
Combinatorics|983111152
9a10
> : The example above is one of [[Permutations]].
------
Statistics|983113853
1c1
< Statistics is the science of [[planning observations]], [[summarizing statistical data]], and [[interpreting statistical data]].
---
> Statistics is the science of [[planning observations]], [[summarizing statistical data]], and [[interpreting statistical data]]. 
3c3
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> :[[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
4a5,6
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Likelihood_Principle|983114670
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]]
> 
> The '''Likelihood Principle''' asserts that the [[information]] in any [[Sample]] can be found, if at all, from the '''likelihood function''', that function of [[unknown parameters]] which specifies the probability of the sample observed.
> 
> Suppose, for example, that we have observed ''N'' independent flips of a coin which we regard as having a constant probabilty, ''p'', of falling heads up. The likelihood function is then the product of ''N'' factors, each of which is either ''p'' or ''1-p''. If we observe ''X'' heads and ''N-X'' tails, then the likelihood function is 
> 
> <pre>
>              X     n-X
>      L(p) ~ p (1-p)      ie, proportional to the product.
> </pre>
> 
> No multiplicative constant of ''C(N,X)'' is included because only the part of the probability which involves the parameter, ''p'', is relevant. In particular, this principle suggests that it does not matter whether you started out planning to observe ''N'' trials or you just decided to stop on a whim. The issue of the '''likelihood principle''' is still controversial.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Business_Statistics|983115043
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> '''Business statistics''' are often based on data collected as a by-product of doing business or by government agencies. These sources feature regular repetitive publication of series of data. This makes the topic of [[Time Series]] especially important for '''business statistics'''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Engineering_Statistics|983115346
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> '''Engineering statistics''' has two subtopics which are peculiar to engineering:
> 
> #[[Quality Control]] and [[Process Control]] use statistics as a tool to manage conformance to specifications of manufacturing processes and their products.
> #[[Time and Methods Engineering]] use statistics to study repetitive operations in manufacturing in order to set standards and find optimum (in some sense) manufacturing procedures.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_Distributions|983115517
40c40,42
< Correct, but F[b]-F[a] gives the probability of an interval directly without all the complications. We hide the complications in the cdf. It is inconvenient that we can't feature the explicit form of the cdf for many of the distributions we like to use, but it is important to build the concepts with proper spacing of the difficulties. One hurdle, then a straight stretch, then a curve, then another straight ... --DickBeldin
---
> Correct, but F[b]-F[a] gives the probability of an interval directly without all the complications. We hide the complications in the cdf. It is inconvenient that we can't feature the explicit form of the cdf for many of the distributions we like to use, but it is important to build the concepts with proper spacing of the difficulties. One hurdle, then a straight stretch, then a curve, then another straight ... --DickBeldin----
> You may present this material as you feel best. I don't disagree with your argument. But, '''mislabelling''' definitions is never okay. You have defined the probability density function for continuous random variables with the cumulative distribution function for the same.
> RoseParks
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983123656
3,4c3,5
< I will try to sketch a proposal for a simple syntax
< for entering tables.
---
> I will try to sketch a proposal for a simple syntax for entering tables.
> 
> See MeatBall:TableSyntax (and more pointedly, MoinMoin:HelpOnTables.)
------
The_Rock|983124843
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared Nicholas Cage and Sean Connerey. Sean Connerey was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from Alcatraz, but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
> THE END
------
The_Rock|983126880
1,2c1
< 
< The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared Nicholas Cage and Sean Connerey. Sean Connerey was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from Alcatraz, but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
---
> The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicholas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. [[Sean Connery]] was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
------
The_Rock|983126918
1c1
< The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicholas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. [[Sean Connery]] was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
---
> The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicolas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. [[Sean Connery]] was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
------
RaviDesai|983130835
23a24,32
> 
> ----
> 
> Hi all! Its been a while since I've been able to play on the wiki, sorry I didn't respond to your questions earlier.  To Joshua, yes, I was planning (as a test) to pull in all of Genesis and wikify it.  The amount of work required to do the entire Bible, is, of course, beyond comprehension if it were all to be done manually - but the good Lord has provided me with a few programming skills.  That and a half-way decent SNOBOL compiler - who knows what I could come up with!
> 
> Right now I'm pulling in the KingJamesVersion because I know there are no copyright considerations there.  Unfortunately, a lot of people find it hard to understand (a little like reading Shakespeare), so perhaps this is not the best of all worlds, but if anyone knows of another version that has no copyright restrictions and is more 'accessible' I'm all ears!
> 
> I would also like to see someone with a linguistics background to be able to take a lot of the material placed here and translate it into some other languages.  Any takers?
> 
------
RaviDesai|983131242
29c29
< Right now I'm pulling in the KingJamesVersion because I know there are no copyright considerations there.  Unfortunately, a lot of people find it hard to understand (a little like reading Shakespeare), so perhaps this is not the best of all worlds, but if anyone knows of another version that has no copyright restrictions and is more 'accessible' I'm all ears!
---
> Right now I'm pulling in the KingJamesVersion because I know there are no copyright considerations there.  Unfortunately, a lot of people find it hard to understand (a little like reading Shakespeare), so perhaps this is not the best of all worlds, but if anyone knows of another version that has no copyright restrictions and is more 'accessible' I'm all ears!  However, I'm not at all certain that wikifiying the entire Bible is something that would be a completely valuable use of the disk space here.  I'm treating it as something of an experiment, if more people like it than hate it, we leave it, if more people hate it than like it, it could certainly be moved elsewhere.
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|983132346
7a8,9
> ----
> I think that once you make a significant change to a page, you can feel free to remove the originator's name.  He will have no grounds for complaint, for just the reasons you state.
------
The_Rock|983134369
1c1,18
< The Rock was a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicolas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. [[Sean Connery]] was a spy from a foreign country that stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secerts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with A new chemical weapon called, V-X gas which by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary. The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. They overran Alcatraz very  fast, being that it was only a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connerey and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents that captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage the aquirres a Ferrari and chases after him. He destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. While the chase is happening Connerey finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz by Connerey's rememberence that being the whole reason they took him out of prison. They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connerey and Cage alive the disarm all the missles,but right after a air force bombing anilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connerey and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasnt. Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
---
> The Rock is a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicolas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. 
> 
> [[Sean Connery]] played the part of  a spy from a foreign country who stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secrts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. 
> 
> Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with a new chemical weapon called V-X gas (which, by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary). The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was played by Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. 
> 
> The assault team was able to overrun Alcatraz very quckly, because it was populated only by a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. 
> 
> Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connery and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents who captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage then aquires a Ferrari and chases after him. In a spectaluar car chase scene, he destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. 
> 
> While the chase is happening Connery finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. 
> 
> Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz using the same information that Connery had used so many years before to escape from that notorious prison.
> 
> They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connery and Cage are alive.  They disarm all the missles, but right after a air force bombing annihilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connery and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasn't. 
> 
> Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
> 
------
The_Rock|983134418
19a20,21
> 
> /Spoiler -- (We tell you the entire story of the movie, so don't click here unless you want to know what happens!)
------
The_Rock/Spoiler|983134474
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Sean Connery]] played the part of  a spy from a foreign country who stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secrts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. 
> 
> Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with a new chemical weapon called V-X gas (which, by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary). The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was played by Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. 
> 
> The assault team was able to overrun Alcatraz very quckly, because it was populated only by a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. 
> 
> Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connery and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents who captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage then aquires a Ferrari and chases after him. In a spectaluar car chase scene, he destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. 
> 
> While the chase is happening Connery finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. 
> 
> Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz using the same information that Connery had used so many years before to escape from that notorious prison.
> 
> They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connery and Cage are alive.  They disarm all the missles, but right after a air force bombing annihilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connery and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasn't. 
> 
> Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
> 
> THE END
> 
------
The_Rock|983134541
1,19c1
< The Rock is a action movie relased in 1995. The movie stared [[Nicolas Cage]] and [[Sean Connery]]. 
< 
< [[Sean Connery]] played the part of  a spy from a foreign country who stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secrts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. 
< 
< Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with a new chemical weapon called V-X gas (which, by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary). The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was played by Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. 
< 
< The assault team was able to overrun Alcatraz very quckly, because it was populated only by a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. 
< 
< Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connery and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents who captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage then aquires a Ferrari and chases after him. In a spectaluar car chase scene, he destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. 
< 
< While the chase is happening Connery finds out where his daughter lives and meets here at a park and gets to talk to her for a minute then the feds show up and take him. 
< 
< Finally, he complies and him, Cage, and a group of SEALS enter Alcatraz using the same information that Connery had used so many years before to escape from that notorious prison.
< 
< They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connery and Cage are alive.  They disarm all the missles, but right after a air force bombing annihilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connery and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasn't. 
< 
< Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
< 
< THE END
---
> The Rock is a action movie relased in 1995. The movie starred [[Nicolas Cage]], [[Sean Connery]] and [[Jennifer Lopez]]. 
------
Chordata|983136584
5,26c5,26
<  Urochordata
<  Cephalochordata
<  Craniata
<    Myxini (hagfish)
<    Vertebrata
<      Petromyzontiformes (lampreys)
<      Gnathostoma
<        Chondrichthyes (cartiligenous fish)
<        Osteichthyes B
<          Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
<          Sarcopterygii B
<            Coelocanthamorpha
<            Dipnoi (lungfish)
<            Tetrapoda 
<              Lissamphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders)
<              Amniota
<                [[MammaLia]]
<                Chelonia (turtles)
<                Squamata (lizards, snakes)
<                Sphenodontida (tuataras)
<                Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles, alligators)
<                Aves (birds)
---
> :[[Urochordata]]
> :[[Cephalochordata]]
> :[[Craniata]]
> ::[[Myxini]] (hagfish)
> ::[[Vertebrata]]
> :::[[Petromyzontiformes]] (lampreys)
> :::[[Gnathostoma]]
> ::::[[Chondrichthyes]] (cartiligenous fish)
> ::::[[Osteichthyes]] B
> :::::[[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish)
> :::::[[Sarcopterygii]] B
> ::::::[[Coelocanthamorpha]]
> ::::::[[Dipnoi]] (lungfish)
> ::::::[[Tetrapoda]]
> :::::::[[Lissamphibia]] (frogs, toads, salamanders)
> :::::::[[Amniota]]
> ::::::::[[Mammalia]]
> ::::::::[[Chelonia]] (turtles)
> ::::::::[[Squamata]] (lizards, snakes)
> ::::::::[[Sphenodontida]] (tuataras)
> ::::::::[[Crocodylomorpha]] (crocodiles, alligators)
> ::::::::[[Aves]] (birds)
------
Musical_Film|983137290
9a10
> :[[Peter Pan]]
16c17
< :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
---
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
------
Actresses|983137443
25a26
> :[[Mary Martin]]
------
Mammalia|983137450
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''[[Monotremata]]'''
> 
> '''[[Marsupialia]]'''
> 
> '''[[Multituberculata]] - extinct'''
> 
> '''[[Eutheria]]'''
> 
> * [[Xenarthra]] (anteaters, sloths, armadillos; formerly called Edentata)
> * [[Pholidota]] (pangolins)
> 
> * [[Chiroptera]] (bats)
> * [[Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs)
> * [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
> * [[Scandentia]] (tree shrews)
> 
> * [[Macroscelidea]] (elephant shrews)
> * [[Rodentia]] (mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, etc)
> * [[Lagomorpha]] (hares, rabbits, pikas)
> 
> * [[Insectivora]] (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, etc)
> 
> * [[Creodonta]] - extinct
> * [[Carnivora]] (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
> 
> * [[Condylarthra]] - extinct
> * [[Artiodactlya]] (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
> * [[Cetacea ]](whales, dolphins, porpoises)
> * [[Tubulidentata]] (AardvarK)
> * [[Perissodactyla]] (horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses)
> * [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes, dassies)
> * [[Proboscidea]] (elephants, etc)
> * [[Embrythopoda]] - extinct
> * [[Demostylia]] - extinct
> * [[Sirenia]] (manatees, dugong, sea cows)
> 
------
MammaLia|983137538
1,35c1
< '''Monotremata'''
< 
< '''Marsupialia'''
< 
< '''Multituberculata - extinct'''
< 
< '''Eutheria'''
< 
< * Xenarthra (anteaters, sloths, armadillos; formerly called Edentata)
< * Pholidota (pangolins)
< 
< * Chiroptera (bats)
< * Dermoptera (flying lemurs)
< * Primates (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
< * Scandentia (tree shrews)
< 
< * Macroscelidea (elephant shrews)
< * Rodentia (mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, etc)
< * Lagomorpha (hares, rabbits, pikas)
< 
< * Insectivora (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, etc)
< 
< * Creodonta - extinct
< * Carnivora (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
< 
< * Condylarthra - extinct
< * Artiodactlya (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
< * Cetacea (whales, dolphins, porpoises)
< * Tubulidentata (AardvarK)
< * Perissodactyla (horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses)
< * Hyracoidea (hyraxes, dassies)
< * Proboscidea (elephants, etc)
< * Embrythopoda - extinct
< * Demostylia - extinct
< * Sirenia (manatees, dugong, sea cows)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mammalia]]
------
Actors|983137728
1,3c1
< :[[Nicolas Cage]]
< :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
< :[[Ben Affleck]]
---
> [[Ben Affleck]]
6a5
> :[[Nicolas Cage]]
8a8
> :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
10a11
> :[[Tony Curtis]]
16a18
> :[[Clark Gable]]
19a22
> :[[Sidney Greenstreet]]
20a24
> :[[Paul Henried]]
22a27
> :[[Rock Hudson]]
------
Actors|983137787
1c1
< [[Ben Affleck]]
---
> :[[Ben Affleck]]
------
Actresses|983137940
9a10
> :[[Doris Day]]
17a19
> :[[Judy Garland]]
34a37
> :[[Rosalind Russell]]
------
Actors|983138059
44a45
> :[[Ronald Reagan]]
46a48
> :[[George Spelvin]]...:-)
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983138189
20c20
< <td>Item three</td>
---
> <td rowspan=2>Item three</td>
21a22,24
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item five</td>
------
Mathematics/Schemes|983138484
38c38
< FinitistMathematics -- Mathematicalntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally
---
> FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally
------
Literature|983143061
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Authors]].
> * IsaacAsimov
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
> * RobertHeinlein 
> * ErnestHemingway
> * StanislawLem
> * [[Ayn Rand]]
> * JRRTolkieN 
------
LiteraTure|983143090
1,8c1
< [[Authors]].
< * IsaacAsimov
< * [[Philip K. Dick]]
< * RobertHeinlein 
< * ErnestHemingway
< * StanislawLem
< * [[Ayn Rand]]
< * JRRTolkieN 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Literature]]
------
RobertHeinlein|983143128
53c53
<  /Delilah&TheSpaceRigger
---
>  [[/Delilah and The Space Rigger]]
------
Robert_Heinlein|983143205
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors of the ScienceFiction genre.
> 
> Heinlein spent his childhood in [[Missouri]] in the early years of the 20th century. This
> was a time of great religious revival across America, especially socially marginalized
> areas...such as Missouri.  It was an environment of narrow-mindedness and parochialism,
> where the rules of the tribe were assumed to be laws for all humanity.  Heinlein
> managed to break free from the mores of his childhood, to slough off the values in
> which he had been raised, and to remake himself in the manner of his own choosing. This
> personal triumph became a recurring theme in his stories.
> 
> This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '/TimeEnoughForLove',
> '/TheNumberoftheBeast', and '/ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
> would humanity be in the absence of all customs? How would our humanity be expressed if
> we did not develop under the soul-squashing influence of culture? We would be
> individuals. We would have self-made souls.
> 
> Other recurring themes uniting Heinlein's works include individual dignity and the supreme value of personal liberty, the virtue of independence, science as a liberating factor, the perniciousness of bureaucrats, the hypocrisy of organized religion and the silliness of mysticism. 
> 
> * Novels
>  /BetweenPlanet
>  /CitizenoftheGalaxy
>  /DoubleStar 
>  /FarmerInTheSky 
>  /FarnhamsFreehold 
>  /Friday 
>  /GloryRoad 
>  /HaveSpaceSuitWillTravel 
>  /IWillFearNoEvil 
>  /JobAComedyofJustice 
>  /PodkayneofMars
>  /RedPlanet 
>  /RocketShipGalileo
>  /SixthColumn 
>  /SpaceCadet 
>  /StarmanJones
>  /StarshipTroopers 
>  /StrangerinaStrangeLand 
>  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
>  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
>  /TheMoonisaHarshMistress 
>  /TheNumberoftheBeast 
>  /ThePuppetMasters 
>  /TheRollingStones
>  /TheStarBeast
>  /TunnelintheSky
>  /TimeEnoughForLove 
>  /TimefortheStars
>  /ToSailBeyondtheSunset 
> 
> * ShortStories
>  /BlowupsHappen
>  /Coventry
>  [[/Delilah and The Space Rigger|Delilah and The Space Rigger]]
>  /GentlemenBeSeated
>  /IfThisGoesOn
>  /ItsGreattoBeBack
>  /LifeLine 
>  /LogicofEmpire
>  /MethuselahsChildren
>  /Misfit
>  /OrdealinSpace
>  /Requiem
>  /Searchlight
>  /SpaceJockey
>  /TheBlackPitsofLuna
>  /TheGreenHillsofEarth
>  /TheLoneWatch
>  /TheManWhoSoldTheMoon
>  /TheMenaceFromEarth
>  /TheRoadsMustRoll
>  /Universe
>  /WeAlsoWalkDogs
> 
------
RobertHeinlein|983143248
1,72c1
< Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors of the ScienceFiction genre.
< 
< Heinlein spent his childhood in MissourI in the early years of the 20th century. This
< was a time of great religious revival across America, especially socially marginalized
< areas...such as Missouri.  It was an environment of narrow-mindedness and parochialism,
< where the rules of the tribe were assumed to be laws for all humanity.  Heinlein
< managed to break free from the mores of his childhood, to slough off the values in
< which he had been raised, and to remake himself in the manner of his own choosing. This
< personal triumph became a recurring theme in his stories.
< 
< This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '/TimeEnoughForLove',
< '/TheNumberoftheBeast', and '/ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
< would humanity be in the absence of all customs? How would our humanity be expressed if
< we did not develop under the soul-squashing influence of culture? We would be
< individuals. We would have self-made souls.
< 
< Other recurring themes uniting Heinlein's works include individual dignity and the supreme value of personal liberty, the virtue of independence, science as a liberating factor, the perniciousness of bureaucrats, the hypocrisy of organized religion and the silliness of mysticism. 
< 
< * Novels
<  /BetweenPlanet
<  /CitizenoftheGalaxy
<  /DoubleStar 
<  /FarmerInTheSky 
<  /FarnhamsFreehold 
<  /Friday 
<  /GloryRoad 
<  /HaveSpaceSuitWillTravel 
<  /IWillFearNoEvil 
<  /JobAComedyofJustice 
<  /PodkayneofMars
<  /RedPlanet 
<  /RocketShipGalileo
<  /SixthColumn 
<  /SpaceCadet 
<  /StarmanJones
<  /StarshipTroopers 
<  /StrangerinaStrangeLand 
<  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
<  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
<  /TheMoonisaHarshMistress 
<  /TheNumberoftheBeast 
<  /ThePuppetMasters 
<  /TheRollingStones
<  /TheStarBeast
<  /TunnelintheSky
<  /TimeEnoughForLove 
<  /TimefortheStars
<  /ToSailBeyondtheSunset 
< 
< * ShortStories
<  /BlowupsHappen
<  /Coventry
<  [[/Delilah and The Space Rigger]]
<  /GentlemenBeSeated
<  /IfThisGoesOn
<  /ItsGreattoBeBack
<  /LifeLine 
<  /LogicofEmpire
<  /MethuselahsChildren
<  /Misfit
<  /OrdealinSpace
<  /Requiem
<  /Searchlight
<  /SpaceJockey
<  /TheBlackPitsofLuna
<  /TheGreenHillsofEarth
<  /TheLoneWatch
<  /TheManWhoSoldTheMoon
<  /TheMenaceFromEarth
<  /TheRoadsMustRoll
<  /Universe
<  /WeAlsoWalkDogs
---
> #REDIRECT [[Robert Heinlein]]
------
Literature|983143265
4c4
< * RobertHeinlein 
---
> * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
8c8
< * JRRTolkieN 
---
> * JRRTolkieN 
------
AmericanFootball|983146014
9c9,11
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
---
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
> 
> yeah and Dallas Cowboys suck
------
AmericanFootball|983146441
9,11c9
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
< 
< yeah and Dallas Cowboys suck
---
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
------
Mathematics|983146500
5c5
< Current featured scheme is '''[[Dick Beldin]]'s'''  -- Other /Schemes
---
> See also Other /Schemes
27a28
> The above-featured scheme is [[Dick Beldin]]'s
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983157214
13a14,27
> A very simple table:
> 
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> A little bit fancier table:
26a41
> 
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983157258
41a42,55
>  <table border=1>
>  <tr>
>  <td>Item one</td>
>  <td>Item two</td>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>  <td rowspan=2>Item three</td>
>  <td>Item four</td>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>  <td>Item five</td>
>  </tr>
>  </table>
> 
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983157291
41a42
> <pre>
55c56
< 
---
> </pre>
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983157437
6a7,13
> ''Do we support these MoinMoin:HelpOnTables style tables?
> Should we?  I don't see a lot of improvement in terms of
> ease of use, as against regular HTML.  One of the great things
> about wiki, of course, is that people don't need to know much
> to get started.  Tables are always going to have some kind of 
> learning curve, I suppose.  But we should keep it very simple.''
> 
26a34,48
> <pre>
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> </pre>
> 
> ----
> 
27a50
> 
------
City_of_New_York|983157802
15c15
< The current mayor of New York City is [[Rudy Guillianni]]. He has been a very controversial mayor. His bid for New York State Senator was aborted by a serious illness.
---
> The current mayor of New York City is [[Rudy Guiliani]]. He has been a very controversial mayor. His bid for New York State Senator was aborted by a serious illness.
------
Woody_Allen|983157912
7c7
< His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four Academy Awards), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). 
---
> His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four [[Academy Awards]]), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). 
13c13
< Woody Allen continues his successful carreer to the present day, his recent movies include [[Small Time Crooks]] and [[Celebrity]]. 
---
> Woody Allen continues his successful career to the present day, his recent movies include [[Small Time Crooks]] and [[Celebrity]]. 
------
LinusTolke|983158345
4a5,14
> ----
> 
> Linus,
> 
> I think that there are only some relatively minor problems with using native names instead of English names.  The problems have to do with what happens to web browsers if you go outside the standard English 26 character alphabet.
> 
> #Fancy characters are simply not legal in URLs.  This means that we can't have page names in fancy characters.  This isn't a wikipedia thing, it is just the way the Internet works.
> #If people use local letters, it becomes difficult to do searches.  This could be overcome by squashing fancy letters down to latin in the search engine.
> 
> Actually, the software could automatically squish fancy letters into Latin automatically for the generation of URLs, for searching, etc.  This would be a good solution.  However... I am not sure how hard it will be.
------
Algeria/Communications|983158934
1d0
< 
12,13c11,12
< international: 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to Italy, France, Spain, Morocco, and Tunisia; coaxial cable to Morocco and
< Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1
---
> international: 5 submarine cables; microwave radio relay to [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Morocco]], and [[Tunisia]]; coaxial cable to Morocco and
> Tunisia; participant in Medarabtel; satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik, and 1
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159262
32,112c32,112
< 010 Bibliography 
< 011 Bibliographies 
< 012 Bibliographies of individuals 
< 013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors 
< 014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works 
< 015 Bibliographies of works from specific places 
< 016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects 
< 017 General subject catalogs 
< 018 Catalogs arranged by author & date 
< 019 Dictionary catalogs 
< 020 Library & information sciences 
< 021 Library relationships 
< 022 Administration of the physical plant 
< 023 Personnel administration 
< 
< 025 Library operations 
< 026 Libraries for specific subjects 
< 027 General libraries 
< 028 Reading, use of other information media 
< 
< 030 General encyclopedic works 
< 031 General encyclopedic works -- American 
< 032 General encyclopedic works in English 
< 033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages 
< 034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal, Catalan 
< 035 General encyclopedic works in Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 036 General encyclopedic works in Spanish & Portuguese 
< 037 General encyclopedic works in Slavic languages 
< 038 General encyclopedic works in Scandinavian languages 
< 039 General encyclopedic works in other languages 
< 
< 050 General serials & their indexes 
< 051 General serials & their indexes American 
< 052 General serials & their indexes In English 
< 053 General serials & their indexes In other Germanic languages 
< 054 General serials & their indexes In French, Provencal, Catalan 
< 055 General serials & their indexes In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 056 General serials & their indexes In Spanish & Portuguese 
< 057 General serials & their indexes In Slavic languages 
< 058 General serials & their indexes In Scandinavian languages 
< 059 General serials & their indexes In other languages 
< 060 General organization & museology 
< 061 General organization & museology In North America 
< 062 General organization & museology In British Isles In England 
< 063 General organization & museology In central Europe In Germany 
< 064 General organization & museology In France & Monaco 
< 065 General organization & museology In Italy & adjacent territories 
< 066 General organization & museology In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< 067 General organization & museology In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
< 068 General organization & museology In other areas 
< 069 Museology (Museum science) 
< 070 News media, journalism, publishing 
< 071 News media, journalism, publishing In North America 
< 072 News media, journalism, publishing In British Isles In England 
< 073 News media, journalism, publishing In central Europe In Germany 
< 074 News media, journalism, publishing In France & Monaco 
< 075 News media, journalism, publishing In Italy & adjacent territories 
< 076 News media, journalism, publishing In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< 077 News media, journalism, publishing In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
< 078 News media, journalism, publishing In Scandinavia 
< 079 News media, journalism, publishing In other languages 
< 080 General collections 
< 081 General collections American 
< 082 General collections In English 
< 083 General collections In other Germanic languages 
< 084 General collections In French, Provencal, Catalan 
< 085 General collections In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 086 General collections In Spanish & Portuguese 
< 087 General collections In Slavic languages 
< 088 General collections In Scandinavian languages 
< 089 General collections In other languages 
< 090 Manuscripts & rare books 
< 091 Manuscripts 
< 092 Block books 
< 093 Incunabula 
< 094 Printed books 
< 095 Books notable for bindings 
< 096 Books notable for illustrations 
< 097 Books notable for ownership or origin 
< 098 Prohibited works, forgeries, hoaxes 
< 099 Books notable for format 
---
> :010 Bibliography 
> :011 Bibliographies 
> :012 Bibliographies of individuals 
> :013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors 
> :014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works 
> :015 Bibliographies of works from specific places 
> :016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects 
> :017 General subject catalogs 
> :018 Catalogs arranged by author & date 
> :019 Dictionary catalogs 
> :020 Library & information sciences 
> :021 Library relationships 
> :022 Administration of the physical plant 
> :023 Personnel administration 
> 
> :025 Library operations 
> :026 Libraries for specific subjects 
> :027 General libraries 
> :028 Reading, use of other information media 
> 
> :030 General encyclopedic works 
> :031 General encyclopedic works -- American 
> :032 General encyclopedic works in English 
> :033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages 
> :034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :035 General encyclopedic works in Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :036 General encyclopedic works in Spanish & Portuguese 
> :037 General encyclopedic works in Slavic languages 
> :038 General encyclopedic works in Scandinavian languages 
> :039 General encyclopedic works in other languages 
> 
> :050 General serials & their indexes 
> :051 General serials & their indexes American 
> :052 General serials & their indexes In English 
> :053 General serials & their indexes In other Germanic languages 
> :054 General serials & their indexes In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :055 General serials & their indexes In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :056 General serials & their indexes In Spanish & Portuguese 
> :057 General serials & their indexes In Slavic languages 
> :058 General serials & their indexes In Scandinavian languages 
> :059 General serials & their indexes In other languages 
> :060 General organization & museology 
> :061 General organization & museology In North America 
> :062 General organization & museology In British Isles In England 
> :063 General organization & museology In central Europe In Germany 
> :064 General organization & museology In France & Monaco 
> :065 General organization & museology In Italy & adjacent territories 
> :066 General organization & museology In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :067 General organization & museology In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> :068 General organization & museology In other areas 
> :069 Museology (Museum science) 
> :070 News media, journalism, publishing 
> :071 News media, journalism, publishing In North America 
> :072 News media, journalism, publishing In British Isles In England 
> :073 News media, journalism, publishing In central Europe In Germany 
> :074 News media, journalism, publishing In France & Monaco 
> :075 News media, journalism, publishing In Italy & adjacent territories 
> :076 News media, journalism, publishing In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :077 News media, journalism, publishing In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> :078 News media, journalism, publishing In Scandinavia 
> :079 News media, journalism, publishing In other languages 
> :080 General collections 
> :081 General collections American 
> :082 General collections In English 
> :083 General collections In other Germanic languages 
> :084 General collections In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :085 General collections In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :086 General collections In Spanish & Portuguese 
> :087 General collections In Slavic languages 
> :088 General collections In Scandinavian languages 
> :089 General collections In other languages 
> :090 Manuscripts & rare books 
> :091 Manuscripts 
> :092 Block books 
> :093 Incunabula 
> :094 Printed books 
> :095 Books notable for bindings 
> :096 Books notable for illustrations 
> :097 Books notable for ownership or origin 
> :098 Prohibited works, forgeries, hoaxes 
> :099 Books notable for format 
116,214c116,214
< 100 Philosophy & psychology 
< 101 Theory of philosophy 
< 102 Miscellany of philosophy 
< 103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
< 
< 105 Serial publications of philosophy 
< 106 Organizations of philosophy 
< 107 Education, research in philosophy 
< 108 Kinds of persons in philosophy 
< 109 Historical treatment of philosophy 
< 110 Metaphysics 
< 111 Ontology 
< 
< 113 Cosmology (Philosophy of nature) 
< 114 Space 
< 115 Time 
< 116 Change 
< 117 Structure 
< 118 Force & Energy 
< 119 Number & quantity 
< 120 Epistemology, causation, humankind 
< 121 Epistemology (Theory of knowledge) 
< 122 Causation 
< 123 Determinism & indeterminism 
< 124 Teleology 
< 125 Not assigned or no longer used 
< 126 The self 
< 127 The unconscious & the subconscious 
< 128 Humankind 
< 129 Origin & destiny of individual souls 
< 130 Paranormal phenomena 
< 131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
< 
< 133 Parapsychology & occultism 
< 
< 135 Dreams & mysteries 
< 
< 137 Divinatory graphology 
< 138 Physiognomy 
< 139 Phrenology 
< 140 Specific philosophical schools 
< 141 Idealism & related systems 
< 142 Critical philosophy 
< 143 Intuitionism & Bergsonism 
< 144 Humanism & related systems 
< 145 Sensationalism 
< 146 Naturalism & related systems 
< 147 Pantheism & related systems 
< 148 Liberalism, eclecticism, traditionalism 
< 149 Other philosophical systems 
< 150 Psychology 
< 
< 152 Perception, movement, emotions, drives 
< 153 Mental processes & intelligence 
< 154 Subconscious & altered states 
< 155 Differential & developmental psychology 
< 156 Comparative psychology 
< 
< 158 Applied psychology 
< 
< 160 Logic 
< 161 Induction 
< 162 Deduction 
< 
< 165 Fallacies & sources of error 
< 166 Syllogisms 
< 167 Hypotheses 
< 168 Argument & persuasion 
< 169 Analogy 
< 170 Ethics (Moral philosophy) 
< 171 Systems & doctrines 
< 172 Political ethics 
< 173 Ethics of family relationships 
< 174 Economic & professional ethics 
< 175 Ethics of recreation & leisure 
< 176 Ethics of sex & reproduction 
< 177 Ethics of social relations 
< 178 Ethics of consumption 
< 179 Other ethical norms 
< 180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy 
< 181 Oriental philosophy 
< 182 Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies 
< 183 Sophistic & Socratic philosophies 
< 184 Platonic philosophy 
< 185 Aristotelian philosophy 
< 186 Skeptic and Neoplatonic philosophies 
< 187 Epicurean philosophy 
< 188 Stoic philosophy 
< 189 Medieval Western philosophy 
< 190 Modern Western philosophy 
< 191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada 
< 192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
< 193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria 
< 194 Modern Western philosophy France 
< 195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
< 196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal 
< 197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
< 198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
< 199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas 
---
> :100 Philosophy & psychology 
> :101 Theory of philosophy 
> :102 Miscellany of philosophy 
> :103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
> 
> :105 Serial publications of philosophy 
> :106 Organizations of philosophy 
> :107 Education, research in philosophy 
> :108 Kinds of persons in philosophy 
> :109 Historical treatment of philosophy 
> :110 Metaphysics 
> :111 Ontology 
> 
> :113 Cosmology (Philosophy of nature) 
> :114 Space 
> :115 Time 
> :116 Change 
> :117 Structure 
> :118 Force & Energy 
> :119 Number & quantity 
> :120 Epistemology, causation, humankind 
> :121 Epistemology (Theory of knowledge) 
> :122 Causation 
> :123 Determinism & indeterminism 
> :124 Teleology 
> :125 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :126 The self 
> :127 The unconscious & the subconscious 
> :128 Humankind 
> :129 Origin & destiny of individual souls 
> :130 Paranormal phenomena 
> :131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
> 
> :133 Parapsychology & occultism 
> 
> :135 Dreams & mysteries 
> 
> :137 Divinatory graphology 
> :138 Physiognomy 
> :139 Phrenology 
> :140 Specific philosophical schools 
> :141 Idealism & related systems 
> :142 Critical philosophy 
> :143 Intuitionism & Bergsonism 
> :144 Humanism & related systems 
> :145 Sensationalism 
> :146 Naturalism & related systems 
> :147 Pantheism & related systems 
> :148 Liberalism, eclecticism, traditionalism 
> :149 Other philosophical systems 
> :150 Psychology 
> 
> :152 Perception, movement, emotions, drives 
> :153 Mental processes & intelligence 
> :154 Subconscious & altered states 
> :155 Differential & developmental psychology 
> :156 Comparative psychology 
> 
> :158 Applied psychology 
> 
> :160 Logic 
> :161 Induction 
> :162 Deduction 
> 
> :165 Fallacies & sources of error 
> :166 Syllogisms 
> :167 Hypotheses 
> :168 Argument & persuasion 
> :169 Analogy 
> :170 Ethics (Moral philosophy) 
> :171 Systems & doctrines 
> :172 Political ethics 
> :173 Ethics of family relationships 
> :174 Economic & professional ethics 
> :175 Ethics of recreation & leisure 
> :176 Ethics of sex & reproduction 
> :177 Ethics of social relations 
> :178 Ethics of consumption 
> :179 Other ethical norms 
> :180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy 
> :181 Oriental philosophy 
> :182 Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies 
> :183 Sophistic & Socratic philosophies 
> :184 Platonic philosophy 
> :185 Aristotelian philosophy 
> :186 Skeptic and Neoplatonic philosophies 
> :187 Epicurean philosophy 
> :188 Stoic philosophy 
> :189 Medieval Western philosophy 
> :190 Modern Western philosophy 
> :191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada 
> :192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
> :193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria 
> :194 Modern Western philosophy France 
> :195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
> :196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal 
> :197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
> :198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
> :199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas 
218,303c218,303
< 200 Religion 
< 201 Philosophy of Christianity 
< 202 Miscellany of Christianity 
< 203 Dictionaries of Christianity 
< 204 Special topics 
< 205 Serial publications of Christianity 
< 206 Organizations of Christianity 
< 207 Education, research in Christianity 
< 208 Kinds of persons in Christianity 
< 209 History & geography of Christianity 
< 210 Natural theology 
< 211 Concepts of God 
< 212 Existence, attributes of God 
< 213 Creation 
< 214 Theodicy 
< 215 Science & religion 
< 216 Good & evil 
< 
< 218 Humankind 
< 
< 220 Bible 
< 221 Old Testament 
< 222 Historical books of Old Testament 
< 223 Poetic books of Old Testament 
< 224 Prophetic books of Old Testament 
< 225 New Testament 
< 226 Gospels & Acts 
< 227 Epistles 
< 228 Revelation (Apocalypse) 
< 229 Apocrypha & pseudepigrapha 
< 230 Christian theology 
< 231 God 
< 232 Jesus Christ & his family 
< 233 Humankind 
< 234 Salvation (Soteriology) & grace 
< 235 Spiritual beings 
< 236 Eschatology 
< 
< 238 Creeds & catechisms 
< 239 Apologetics & polemics 
< 240 Christian moral & devotional theology 
< 241 Moral theology 
< 242 Devotional literature 
< 243 Evangelistic writings for individuals 
< 
< 245 Texts of hymns 
< 246 Use of art in Christianity 
< 247 Church furnishings & articles 
< 248 Christian experience, practice, life 
< 249 Christian observances in family life 
< 250 Christian orders & local church 
< 251 Preaching (Homiletics) 
< 252 Texts of sermons 
< 253 Pastoral office (Pastoral theology) 
< 254 Parish government & administration 
< 255 Religious congregations & orders 
< 
< 259 Activities of the local church 
< 260 Christian social theology 
< 261 Social theology 
< 262 Ecclesiology 
< 263 Times, places of religious observance 
< 264 Public worship 
< 265 Sacraments, other rites & acts 
< 266 Missions 
< 267 Associations for religious work 
< 268 Religious education 
< 269 Spiritual renewal 
< 270 Christian church history 
< 271 Religious orders in church history 
< 272 Persecutions in church history 
< 273 Heresies in church history 
< 274 Christian church in Europe 
< 275 Christian church in Asia 
< 276 Christian church in Africa 
< 277 Christian church in North America 
< 278 Christian church in South America 
< 279 Christian church in other areas 
< 280 Christian denominations & sects 
< 281 Early church & Eastern churches 
< 282 Roman Catholic Church 
< 283 Anglican churches 
< 284 Protestants of Continental origin 
< 285 Presbyterian, Reformed, Congregational 
< 286 Baptist, Disciples of Christ, Adventist 
< 287 Methodist & related churches 
---
> :200 Religion 
> :201 Philosophy of Christianity 
> :202 Miscellany of Christianity 
> :203 Dictionaries of Christianity 
> :204 Special topics 
> :205 Serial publications of Christianity 
> :206 Organizations of Christianity 
> :207 Education, research in Christianity 
> :208 Kinds of persons in Christianity 
> :209 History & geography of Christianity 
> :210 Natural theology 
> :211 Concepts of God 
> :212 Existence, attributes of God 
> :213 Creation 
> :214 Theodicy 
> :215 Science & religion 
> :216 Good & evil 
> 
> :218 Humankind 
> 
> :220 [[Bible]] 
> :221 Old Testament 
> :222 Historical books of Old Testament 
> :223 Poetic books of Old Testament 
> :224 Prophetic books of Old Testament 
> :225 New Testament 
> :226 Gospels & Acts 
> :227 Epistles 
> :228 Revelation (Apocalypse) 
> :229 Apocrypha & pseudepigrapha 
> :230 Christian theology 
> :231 [[God]] 
> 232 [[Jesus Christ]] & his family 
> :233 Humankind 
> :234 Salvation (Soteriology) & grace 
> :235 Spiritual beings 
> :236 Eschatology 
> 
> :238 Creeds & catechisms 
> :239 Apologetics & polemics 
> :240 Christian moral & devotional theology 
> :241 Moral theology 
> :242 Devotional literature 
> :243 Evangelistic writings for individuals 
> 
> :245 Texts of hymns 
> :246 Use of art in Christianity 
> :247 Church furnishings & articles 
> :248 Christian experience, practice, life 
> :249 Christian observances in family life 
> :250 Christian orders & local church 
> :251 Preaching (Homiletics) 
> :252 Texts of sermons 
> :253 Pastoral office (Pastoral theology) 
> :254 Parish government & administration 
> :255 Religious congregations & orders 
> 
> :259 Activities of the local church 
> :260 Christian social theology 
> :261 Social theology 
> :262 Ecclesiology 
> :263 Times, places of religious observance 
> :264 Public worship 
> :265 Sacraments, other rites & acts 
> :266 Missions 
> :267 Associations for religious work 
> :268 Religious education 
> :269 Spiritual renewal 
> :270 Christian church history 
> :271 Religious orders in church history 
> :272 Persecutions in church history 
> :273 Heresies in church history 
> :274 Christian church in Europe 
> :275 Christian church in Asia 
> :276 Christian church in Africa 
> :277 Christian church in North America 
> :278 Christian church in South America 
> :279 Christian church in other areas 
> :280 Christian denominations & sects 
> :281 Early church & Eastern churches 
> :282 [[Roman Catholic Church]] 
> :283 Anglican churches 
> :284 Protestants of Continental origin 
> :285 Presbyterian, Reformed, Congregational 
> :286 [[Baptist]], Disciples of Christ, Adventist 
> :287 [[Methodist]] & related churches 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159494
843,922c843,922
< 820 English & Old English literatures 
< 821 English poetry 
< 822 English drama 
< 823 English fiction 
< 824 English essays 
< 825 English speeches 
< 826 English letters 
< 827 English satire & humor 
< 828 English miscellaneous writings 
< 829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
< 830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
< 831 German poetry 
< 832 German drama 
< 833 German fiction 
< 834 German essays 
< 835 German speeches 
< 836 German letters 
< 837 German satire & humor 
< 838 German miscellaneous writings 
< 839 Other Germanic literatures 
< 840 Literatures of Romance languages 
< 841 French poetry 
< 842 French drama 
< 843 French fiction 
< 844 French essays 
< 845 French speeches 
< 846 French letters 
< 847 French satire & humor 
< 848 French miscellaneous writings 
< 849 Provencal & Catalan 
< 850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 851 Italian poetry 
< 852 Italian drama 
< 853 Italian fiction 
< 854 Italian essays 
< 855 Italian speeches 
< 856 Italian letters 
< 857 Italian satire & humor 
< 858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
< 859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
< 861 Spanish poetry 
< 862 Spanish drama 
< 863 Spanish fiction 
< 864 Spanish essays 
< 865 Spanish speeches 
< 866 Spanish letters 
< 867 Spanish satire & humor 
< 868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
< 869 Portuguese 
< 870 Italic literatures Latin 
< 871 Latin poetry 
< 872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
< 873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
< 874 Latin lyric poetry 
< 875 Latin speeches 
< 876 Latin letters 
< 877 Latin satire & humor 
< 878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
< 879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
< 880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
< 881 Classical Greek poetry 
< 882 Classical Greek drama 
< 883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
< 884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
< 885 Classical Greek speeches 
< 886 Classical Greek letters 
< 887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
< 888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
< 889 Modern Greek 
< 890 Literatures of other languages 
< 891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
< 892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
< 893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
< 894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
< 895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
< 896 African literatures 
< 897 North American native literatures 
< 898 South Anerican native literatures 
< 899 Other literatures 
---
> :820 English & Old English literatures 
> :821 English poetry 
> :822 English drama 
> :823 English fiction 
> :824 English essays 
> :825 English speeches 
> :826 English letters 
> :827 English satire & humor 
> :828 English miscellaneous writings 
> :829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> :830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
> :831 German poetry 
> :832 German drama 
> :833 German fiction 
> :834 German essays 
> :835 German speeches 
> :836 German letters 
> :837 German satire & humor 
> :838 German miscellaneous writings 
> :839 Other Germanic literatures 
> :840 Literatures of Romance languages 
> :841 French poetry 
> :842 French drama 
> :843 French fiction 
> :844 French essays 
> :845 French speeches 
> :846 French letters 
> :847 French satire & humor 
> :848 French miscellaneous writings 
> :849 Provencal & Catalan 
> :850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :851 Italian poetry 
> :852 Italian drama 
> :853 Italian fiction 
> :854 Italian essays 
> :855 Italian speeches 
> :856 Italian letters 
> :857 Italian satire & humor 
> :858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
> :859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
> :861 Spanish poetry 
> :862 Spanish drama 
> :863 Spanish fiction 
> :864 Spanish essays 
> :865 Spanish speeches 
> :866 Spanish letters 
> :867 Spanish satire & humor 
> :868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
> :869 Portuguese 
> :870 Italic literatures Latin 
> :871 Latin poetry 
> :872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
> :873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
> :874 Latin lyric poetry 
> :875 Latin speeches 
> :876 Latin letters 
> :877 Latin satire & humor 
> :878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
> :879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
> :880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
> :881 Classical Greek poetry 
> :882 Classical Greek drama 
> :883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
> :884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
> :885 Classical Greek speeches 
> :886 Classical Greek letters 
> :887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
> :888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
> :889 Modern Greek 
> :890 Literatures of other languages 
> :891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
> :892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
> :893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
> :894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> :895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
> :896 African literatures 
> :897 North American native literatures 
> :898 South Anerican native literatures 
> :899 Other literatures 
925,945c925,945
< 900 Geography & history 
< 901 Philosophy & theory 
< 902 Miscellany 
< 903 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 904 Collected accounts of events 
< 905 Serial publications 
< 906 Organizations & management 
< 907 Education, research, related topics 
< 908 With respect to kinds of persons 
< 909 World history 
< 910 Geography & travel 
< 911 Historical geography 
< 912 Graphic representations of earth 
< 913 Ancient world 
< 914 Europe 
< 915 Asia 
< 916 Africa 
< 917 North America 
< 918 South America 
< 919 Other areas 
< 920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 
---
> :900 Geography & history 
> :901 Philosophy & theory 
> :902 Miscellany 
> :903 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :904 Collected accounts of events 
> :905 Serial publications 
> :906 Organizations & management 
> :907 Education, research, related topics 
> :908 With respect to kinds of persons 
> :909 World history 
> :910 Geography & travel 
> :911 Historical geography 
> :912 Graphic representations of earth 
> :913 Ancient world 
> :914 [[Europe]]
> :915 [[Asia]]
> :916 [[Africa]]
> :917 [[North America]]
> :918 [[South America]] 
> :919 Other areas 
> :920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 
947,1008c947,1008
< 929 Genealogy, names, insignia 
< 930 History of ancient world 
< 931 History of ancient world China 
< 932 History of ancient world Egypt 
< 933 History of ancient world Palestine 
< 934 History of ancient world India 
< 935 History of ancient world Mesopotamia & Iranian Plateau 
< 936 History of ancient world Europe north & west of Italy 
< 937 History of ancient world Italy & adjacent territories 
< 938 History of ancient world Greece 
< 939 History of ancient world Other parts of ancient world 
< 940 General history of Europe 
< 941 General history of Europe British Isles 
< 942 General history of Europe England & Wales 
< 943 General history of Europe Central Europe Germany 
< 944 General history of Europe France & Monaco 
< 945 General history of Europe Italian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< 946 General history of Europe Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< 947 General history of Europe Eastern Europe Soviet Union 
< 948 General history of Europe Northern Europe Scandinavia 
< 949 General history of Europe Other parts of Europe 
< 950 General history of Asia Far East 
< 951 General history of Asia China & adjacent areas 
< 952 General history of Asia Japan 
< 953 General history of Asia Arabian Peninsula & adjacent areas 
< 954 General history of Asia South Asia India 
< 955 General history of Asia Iran 
< 956 General history of Asia Middle East (Near East) 
< 957 General history of Asia Siberia (Asiatic Russia) 
< 958 General history of Asia Central Asia 
< 959 General history of Asia Southeast Asia 
< 960 General history of Africa 
< 961 General history of Africa Tunisia & Libya 
< 962 General history of Africa Egypt & Sudan 
< 963 General history of Africa Ethiopia 
< 964 General history of Africa Morocco & Canary Islands 
< 965 General history of Africa Algeria 
< 966 General history of Africa West Africa & offshore islands 
< 967 General history of Africa Central Africa & offshore islands 
< 968 General history of Africa Southern Africa 
< 969 General history of Africa South Indian Ocean islands 
< 970 General history of North America 
< 971 General history of North America Canada 
< 972 General history of North America Middle America Mexico 
< 973 General history of North America United States 
< 974 General history of North America Northeastern United States 
< 975 General history of North America Southeastern United States 
< 976 General history of North America South central United States 
< 977 General history of North America North central United States 
< 978 General history of North America Western United States 
< 979 General history of North America Great Basin & Pacific Slope 
< 980 General history of South America 
< 981 General history of South America Brazil 
< 982 General history of South America Argentina 
< 983 General history of South America Chile 
< 984 General history of South America Bolivia 
< 985 General history of South America Peru 
< 986 General history of South America Colombia & Ecuador 
< 987 General history of South America Venezuela 
< 988 General history of South America Guiana 
< 989 General history of South America Paraguay & Uruguay 
< 990 General history of other areas 
---
> :929 Genealogy, names, insignia 
> :930 History of ancient world 
> :931 History of ancient world China 
> :932 History of ancient world Egypt 
> :933 History of ancient world Palestine 
> :934 History of ancient world India 
> :935 History of ancient world Mesopotamia & Iranian Plateau 
> :936 History of ancient world Europe north & west of Italy 
> :937 History of ancient world Italy & adjacent territories 
> :938 History of ancient world Greece 
> :939 History of ancient world Other parts of ancient world 
> :940 General history of Europe 
> :941 General history of Europe British Isles 
> :942 General history of Europe England & Wales 
> :943 General history of Europe Central Europe Germany 
> :944 General history of Europe [[France]] & [[Monaco]] 
> :945 General history of Europe Italian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :946 General history of Europe Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :947 General history of Europe Eastern Europe Soviet Union 
> :948 General history of Europe Northern Europe Scandinavia 
> :949 General history of Europe Other parts of Europe 
> :950 General history of Asia Far East 
> :951 General history of Asia [[China]] & adjacent areas 
> :952 General history of Asia [[Japan]] 
> :953 General history of Asia Arabian Peninsula & adjacent areas 
> :954 General history of Asia South Asia India 
> :955 General history of Asia Iran 
> :956 General history of Asia Middle East (Near East) 
> :957 General history of Asia Siberia (Asiatic Russia) 
> :958 General history of Asia Central Asia 
> :959 General history of Asia Southeast Asia 
> :960 General history of Africa 
> :961 General history of Africa Tunisia & Libya 
> :962 General history of Africa Egypt & Sudan 
> :963 General history of Africa Ethiopia 
> :964 General history of Africa Morocco & Canary Islands 
> :965 General history of Africa Algeria 
> :966 General history of Africa West Africa & offshore islands 
> :967 General history of Africa Central Africa & offshore islands 
> :968 General history of Africa Southern Africa 
> :969 General history of Africa South Indian Ocean islands 
> :970 General history of North America 
> :971 General history of North America Canada 
> :972 General history of North America Middle America Mexico 
> :973 General history of North America United States 
> :974 General history of North America Northeastern United States 
> :975 General history of North America Southeastern United States 
> :976 General history of North America South central United States 
> :977 General history of North America North central United States 
> :978 General history of North America Western United States 
> :979 General history of North America Great Basin & Pacific Slope 
> :980 General history of South America 
> :981 General history of South America Brazil 
> :982 General history of South America Argentina 
> :983 General history of South America Chile 
> :984 General history of South America Bolivia 
> :985 General history of South America Peru 
> :986 General history of South America Colombia & Ecuador 
> :987 General history of South America Venezuela 
> :988 General history of South America Guiana 
> :989 General history of South America Paraguay & Uruguay 
> :990 General history of other areas 
1010,1016c1010,1016
< 993 General history of other areas New Zealand 
< 994 General history of other areas Australia 
< 995 General history of other areas Melanesia New Guinea 
< 996 General history of other areas Other parts of Pacific Polynesia 
< 997 General history of other areas Atlantic Ocean islands 
< 998 General history of other areas Arctic islands & Antarctica 
< 999 Extraterrestrial worlds 
---
> :993 General history of other areas New Zealand 
> :994 General history of other areas Australia 
> :995 General history of other areas Melanesia New Guinea 
> :996 General history of other areas Other parts of Pacific Polynesia 
> :997 General history of other areas Atlantic Ocean islands 
> :998 General history of other areas Arctic islands & Antarctica 
> :999 Extraterrestrial worlds 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159573
11,12c11,12
< :000 Generalities 
< :100 Philosophy & psychology 
---
> :000 /Generalities 
> :100 /[[Philosophy & psychology]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159600
12c12
< :100 /[[Philosophy & psychology]]
---
> :100 /[[Philosophy and psychology]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159633
12c12
< :100 /[[Philosophy and psychology]]
---
> :100 [[/Philosophy and psychology]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159781
8a9,11
> My intention is to wikify all of the subsections and move them
> to sub pages.  Like OprgaG, I'm not sure for what purpose this will be suitable, but I think it is a nice overview of the kinds of things that Wikipedia will enventually be full of.  So we can wiki these pages, and then watch them magically turn into links over the next 2 years.
> 
13,20c16,23
< :200 Religion
< :300 Social sciences 
< :400 Language 
< :500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
< :600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
< :700 The arts 
< :800 Literature & rhetoric 
< :900 Geography & history 
---
> :200 [[/Religion]]
> :300 [[/Social sciences]] 
> :400 [[/Language]]
> :500 [[/Natural sciences and mathematics]] 
> :600 [[/Technology]] (Applied sciences) 
> :700 [[/The arts]] 
> :800 [[/Literature and rhetoric]] 
> :900 [[/Geography and history]] 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Generalities|983159895
1c1,91
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :000 Generalities 
> :001 Knowledge 
> :002 The book 
> :003 Systems 
> :004 Data processing Computer science 
> :005 Computer programming, programs, data 
> :006 Special computer methods 
> 
> :010 Bibliography 
> :011 Bibliographies 
> :012 Bibliographies of individuals 
> :013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors 
> :014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works 
> :015 Bibliographies of works from specific places 
> :016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects 
> :017 General subject catalogs 
> :018 Catalogs arranged by author & date 
> :019 Dictionary catalogs 
> :020 Library & information sciences 
> :021 Library relationships 
> :022 Administration of the physical plant 
> :023 Personnel administration 
> 
> :025 Library operations 
> :026 Libraries for specific subjects 
> :027 General libraries 
> :028 Reading, use of other information media 
> 
> :030 General encyclopedic works 
> :031 General encyclopedic works -- American 
> :032 General encyclopedic works in English 
> :033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages 
> :034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :035 General encyclopedic works in Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :036 General encyclopedic works in Spanish & Portuguese 
> :037 General encyclopedic works in Slavic languages 
> :038 General encyclopedic works in Scandinavian languages 
> :039 General encyclopedic works in other languages 
> 
> :050 General serials & their indexes 
> :051 General serials & their indexes American 
> :052 General serials & their indexes In English 
> :053 General serials & their indexes In other Germanic languages 
> :054 General serials & their indexes In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :055 General serials & their indexes In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :056 General serials & their indexes In Spanish & Portuguese 
> :057 General serials & their indexes In Slavic languages 
> :058 General serials & their indexes In Scandinavian languages 
> :059 General serials & their indexes In other languages 
> :060 General organization & museology 
> :061 General organization & museology In North America 
> :062 General organization & museology In British Isles In England 
> :063 General organization & museology In central Europe In Germany 
> :064 General organization & museology In France & Monaco 
> :065 General organization & museology In Italy & adjacent territories 
> :066 General organization & museology In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :067 General organization & museology In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> :068 General organization & museology In other areas 
> :069 Museology (Museum science) 
> :070 News media, journalism, publishing 
> :071 News media, journalism, publishing In North America 
> :072 News media, journalism, publishing In British Isles In England 
> :073 News media, journalism, publishing In central Europe In Germany 
> :074 News media, journalism, publishing In France & Monaco 
> :075 News media, journalism, publishing In Italy & adjacent territories 
> :076 News media, journalism, publishing In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :077 News media, journalism, publishing In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
> :078 News media, journalism, publishing In Scandinavia 
> :079 News media, journalism, publishing In other languages 
> :080 General collections 
> :081 General collections American 
> :082 General collections In English 
> :083 General collections In other Germanic languages 
> :084 General collections In French, Provencal, Catalan 
> :085 General collections In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :086 General collections In Spanish & Portuguese 
> :087 General collections In Slavic languages 
> :088 General collections In Scandinavian languages 
> :089 General collections In other languages 
> :090 Manuscripts & rare books 
> :091 Manuscripts 
> :092 Block books 
> :093 Incunabula 
> :094 Printed books 
> :095 Books notable for bindings 
> :096 Books notable for illustrations 
> :097 Books notable for ownership or origin 
> :098 Prohibited works, forgeries, hoaxes 
> :099 Books notable for format 
> 
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983159949
27,115c27,29
< :000 Generalities 
< :001 Knowledge 
< :002 The book 
< :003 Systems 
< :004 Data processing Computer science 
< :005 Computer programming, programs, data 
< :006 Special computer methods 
< 
< :010 Bibliography 
< :011 Bibliographies 
< :012 Bibliographies of individuals 
< :013 Bibliographies of works by specific classes of authors 
< :014 Bibliographies of anonymous and pseudonymous works 
< :015 Bibliographies of works from specific places 
< :016 Bibliographies of works from specific subjects 
< :017 General subject catalogs 
< :018 Catalogs arranged by author & date 
< :019 Dictionary catalogs 
< :020 Library & information sciences 
< :021 Library relationships 
< :022 Administration of the physical plant 
< :023 Personnel administration 
< 
< :025 Library operations 
< :026 Libraries for specific subjects 
< :027 General libraries 
< :028 Reading, use of other information media 
< 
< :030 General encyclopedic works 
< :031 General encyclopedic works -- American 
< :032 General encyclopedic works in English 
< :033 General encyclopedic works in other Germanic languages 
< :034 General encyclopedic works in French, Provencal, Catalan 
< :035 General encyclopedic works in Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :036 General encyclopedic works in Spanish & Portuguese 
< :037 General encyclopedic works in Slavic languages 
< :038 General encyclopedic works in Scandinavian languages 
< :039 General encyclopedic works in other languages 
< 
< :050 General serials & their indexes 
< :051 General serials & their indexes American 
< :052 General serials & their indexes In English 
< :053 General serials & their indexes In other Germanic languages 
< :054 General serials & their indexes In French, Provencal, Catalan 
< :055 General serials & their indexes In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :056 General serials & their indexes In Spanish & Portuguese 
< :057 General serials & their indexes In Slavic languages 
< :058 General serials & their indexes In Scandinavian languages 
< :059 General serials & their indexes In other languages 
< :060 General organization & museology 
< :061 General organization & museology In North America 
< :062 General organization & museology In British Isles In England 
< :063 General organization & museology In central Europe In Germany 
< :064 General organization & museology In France & Monaco 
< :065 General organization & museology In Italy & adjacent territories 
< :066 General organization & museology In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< :067 General organization & museology In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
< :068 General organization & museology In other areas 
< :069 Museology (Museum science) 
< :070 News media, journalism, publishing 
< :071 News media, journalism, publishing In North America 
< :072 News media, journalism, publishing In British Isles In England 
< :073 News media, journalism, publishing In central Europe In Germany 
< :074 News media, journalism, publishing In France & Monaco 
< :075 News media, journalism, publishing In Italy & adjacent territories 
< :076 News media, journalism, publishing In Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< :077 News media, journalism, publishing In eastern Europe In Soviet Union 
< :078 News media, journalism, publishing In Scandinavia 
< :079 News media, journalism, publishing In other languages 
< :080 General collections 
< :081 General collections American 
< :082 General collections In English 
< :083 General collections In other Germanic languages 
< :084 General collections In French, Provencal, Catalan 
< :085 General collections In Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :086 General collections In Spanish & Portuguese 
< :087 General collections In Slavic languages 
< :088 General collections In Scandinavian languages 
< :089 General collections In other languages 
< :090 Manuscripts & rare books 
< :091 Manuscripts 
< :092 Block books 
< :093 Incunabula 
< :094 Printed books 
< :095 Books notable for bindings 
< :096 Books notable for illustrations 
< :097 Books notable for ownership or origin 
< :098 Prohibited works, forgeries, hoaxes 
< :099 Books notable for format 
---
> (Generalities, 000-099 have been moved to their own page.  I
> intend to move all of these sections.  Anyone want to help?
> We should wiki as many words as we can along the way.)
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Philosophy_and_psychology|983168293
1c1,101
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :100 Philosophy & psychology 
> :101 Theory of philosophy 
> :102 Miscellany of philosophy 
> :103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
> 
> :105 Serial publications of philosophy 
> :106 Organizations of philosophy 
> :107 Education, research in philosophy 
> :108 Kinds of persons in philosophy 
> :109 Historical treatment of philosophy 
> :110 Metaphysics 
> :111 Ontology 
> 
> :113 Cosmology (Philosophy of nature) 
> :114 Space 
> :115 Time 
> :116 Change 
> :117 Structure 
> :118 Force & Energy 
> :119 Number & quantity 
> :120 Epistemology, causation, humankind 
> :121 Epistemology (Theory of knowledge) 
> :122 Causation 
> :123 Determinism & indeterminism 
> :124 Teleology 
> :125 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :126 The self 
> :127 The unconscious & the subconscious 
> :128 Humankind 
> :129 Origin & destiny of individual souls 
> :130 Paranormal phenomena 
> :131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
> 
> :133 Parapsychology & occultism 
> 
> :135 Dreams & mysteries 
> 
> :137 Divinatory graphology 
> :138 Physiognomy 
> :139 Phrenology 
> :140 Specific philosophical schools 
> :141 Idealism & related systems 
> :142 Critical philosophy 
> :143 Intuitionism & Bergsonism 
> :144 Humanism & related systems 
> :145 Sensationalism 
> :146 Naturalism & related systems 
> :147 Pantheism & related systems 
> :148 Liberalism, eclecticism, traditionalism 
> :149 Other philosophical systems 
> :150 Psychology 
> 
> :152 Perception, movement, emotions, drives 
> :153 Mental processes & intelligence 
> :154 Subconscious & altered states 
> :155 Differential & developmental psychology 
> :156 Comparative psychology 
> 
> :158 Applied psychology 
> 
> :160 Logic 
> :161 Induction 
> :162 Deduction 
> 
> :165 Fallacies & sources of error 
> :166 Syllogisms 
> :167 Hypotheses 
> :168 Argument & persuasion 
> :169 Analogy 
> :170 Ethics (Moral philosophy) 
> :171 Systems & doctrines 
> :172 Political ethics 
> :173 Ethics of family relationships 
> :174 Economic & professional ethics 
> :175 Ethics of recreation & leisure 
> :176 Ethics of sex & reproduction 
> :177 Ethics of social relations 
> :178 Ethics of consumption 
> :179 Other ethical norms 
> :180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy 
> :181 Oriental philosophy 
> :182 Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies 
> :183 Sophistic & Socratic philosophies 
> :184 Platonic philosophy 
> :185 Aristotelian philosophy 
> :186 Skeptic and Neoplatonic philosophies 
> :187 Epicurean philosophy 
> :188 Stoic philosophy 
> :189 Medieval Western philosophy 
> :190 Modern Western philosophy 
> :191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada 
> :192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
> :193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria 
> :194 Modern Western philosophy France 
> :195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
> :196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal 
> :197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
> :198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
> :199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas 
> 
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983168477
33,131c33
< :100 Philosophy & psychology 
< :101 Theory of philosophy 
< :102 Miscellany of philosophy 
< :103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
< 
< :105 Serial publications of philosophy 
< :106 Organizations of philosophy 
< :107 Education, research in philosophy 
< :108 Kinds of persons in philosophy 
< :109 Historical treatment of philosophy 
< :110 Metaphysics 
< :111 Ontology 
< 
< :113 Cosmology (Philosophy of nature) 
< :114 Space 
< :115 Time 
< :116 Change 
< :117 Structure 
< :118 Force & Energy 
< :119 Number & quantity 
< :120 Epistemology, causation, humankind 
< :121 Epistemology (Theory of knowledge) 
< :122 Causation 
< :123 Determinism & indeterminism 
< :124 Teleology 
< :125 Not assigned or no longer used 
< :126 The self 
< :127 The unconscious & the subconscious 
< :128 Humankind 
< :129 Origin & destiny of individual souls 
< :130 Paranormal phenomena 
< :131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
< 
< :133 Parapsychology & occultism 
< 
< :135 Dreams & mysteries 
< 
< :137 Divinatory graphology 
< :138 Physiognomy 
< :139 Phrenology 
< :140 Specific philosophical schools 
< :141 Idealism & related systems 
< :142 Critical philosophy 
< :143 Intuitionism & Bergsonism 
< :144 Humanism & related systems 
< :145 Sensationalism 
< :146 Naturalism & related systems 
< :147 Pantheism & related systems 
< :148 Liberalism, eclecticism, traditionalism 
< :149 Other philosophical systems 
< :150 Psychology 
< 
< :152 Perception, movement, emotions, drives 
< :153 Mental processes & intelligence 
< :154 Subconscious & altered states 
< :155 Differential & developmental psychology 
< :156 Comparative psychology 
< 
< :158 Applied psychology 
< 
< :160 Logic 
< :161 Induction 
< :162 Deduction 
< 
< :165 Fallacies & sources of error 
< :166 Syllogisms 
< :167 Hypotheses 
< :168 Argument & persuasion 
< :169 Analogy 
< :170 Ethics (Moral philosophy) 
< :171 Systems & doctrines 
< :172 Political ethics 
< :173 Ethics of family relationships 
< :174 Economic & professional ethics 
< :175 Ethics of recreation & leisure 
< :176 Ethics of sex & reproduction 
< :177 Ethics of social relations 
< :178 Ethics of consumption 
< :179 Other ethical norms 
< :180 Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy 
< :181 Oriental philosophy 
< :182 Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies 
< :183 Sophistic & Socratic philosophies 
< :184 Platonic philosophy 
< :185 Aristotelian philosophy 
< :186 Skeptic and Neoplatonic philosophies 
< :187 Epicurean philosophy 
< :188 Stoic philosophy 
< :189 Medieval Western philosophy 
< :190 Modern Western philosophy 
< :191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada 
< :192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
< :193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria 
< :194 Modern Western philosophy France 
< :195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
< :196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal 
< :197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
< :198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
< :199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas 
---
> (Philosophy and Psychology moved)
222,230c124,132
< 289 Other denominations & sects 
< 290 Other & comparative religions 
< 291 Comparative religion 
< 292 Classical (Greek & Roman) religion 
< 293 Germanic religion 
< 294 Religions of Indic origin 
< 295 Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism, Parseeism) 
< 296 Judaism 
< 297 Islam & religions originating in it 
---
> :289 Other denominations & sects 
> :290 Other & comparative religions 
> :291 Comparative religion 
> :292 Classical (Greek & Roman) religion 
> :293 Germanic religion 
> :294 Religions of Indic origin 
> :295 Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism, Parseeism) 
> :296 Judaism 
> :297 Islam & religions originating in it 
232c134
< 299 Other religions 
---
> :299 Other religions 
236,328c138,230
< 300 Social sciences 
< 301 Sociology & anthropology 
< 302 Social interaction 
< 303 Social processes 
< 304 Factors affecting social behavior 
< 305 Social groups 
< 306 Culture & institutions 
< 307 Communities 
< 
< 310 General statistics 
< 
< 314 General statistics Of Europe 
< 315 General statistics Of Asia 
< 316 General statistics Of Africa 
< 317 General statistics Of North America 
< 318 General statistics Of South America 
< 319 General statistics Of other parts of the world 
< 320 Political science 
< 321 Systems of governments & states 
< 322 Relation of state to organized groups 
< 323 Civil & political rights 
< 324 The political process 
< 325 International migration & colonization 
< 326 Slavery & emancipation 
< 327 International relations 
< 328 The legislative process 
< 
< 330 Economics 
< 331 Labor economics 
< 332 Financial economics 
< 333 Land economics 
< 334 Cooperatives 
< 335 Socialism & related systems 
< 336 Public finance 
< 337 International economics 
< 338 Production 
< 339 Macroeconomics & related topics 
< 340 Law 
< 341 International law 
< 342 Constitutional & administrative law 
< 343 Military, tax, trade, industrial law 
< 344 Social, labor, welfare, & related law 
< 345 Criminal law 
< 346 Private law 
< 347 Civil procedure & courts 
< 348 Law (Statutes), regulations, cases 
< 349 Law of specific jurisdictions & areas 
< 350 Public administration 
< 351 Of central governments 
< 352 Of local governments 
< 353 of U.S. federal & state governments 
< 354 Of specific central governments 
< 355 Military science 
< 356 Foot forces & warfare 
< 357 Mounted forces & warfare 
< 358 Other specialized forces & services 
< 359 Sea (Naval) forces & warfare 
< 360 Social services; association 
< 361 General social problems & services 
< 362 Social welfare problems & services 
< 363 Other social problems & services 
< 364 Criminology 
< 365 Penal & related institutions 
< 366 Association 
< 367 General clubs 
< 368 Insurance 
< 369 Miscellaneous kinds of associations 
< 370 Education 
< 371 School management; special education 
< 372 Elementary education 
< 373 Secondary education 
< 374 Adult education 
< 375 Curriculums 
< 376 Education of women 
< 377 Schools & religion 
< 378 Higher education 
< 379 Government regulation, control, support 
< 380 Commerce, communications, transport 
< 381 Internal commerce (Domestic trade) 
< 382 International commerce (Foreign trade) 
< 383 Postal communication 
< 384 Communications Telecommunication 
< 385 Railroad transportation 
< 386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation 
< 387 Water, air, space transportation 
< 388 Transportation Ground transportation 
< 389 Metrology & standardization 
< 390 Customs, etiquette, folklore 
< 391 Costume & personal appearance 
< 392 Customs of life cycle & domestic life 
< 393 Death customs 
< 394 General customs 
< 395 Etiquette (Manners) 
---
> :300 Social sciences 
> :301 Sociology & anthropology 
> :302 Social interaction 
> :303 Social processes 
> :304 Factors affecting social behavior 
> :305 Social groups 
> :306 Culture & institutions 
> :307 Communities 
> 
> :310 General statistics 
> 
> :314 General statistics Of Europe 
> :315 General statistics Of Asia 
> :316 General statistics Of Africa 
> :317 General statistics Of North America 
> :318 General statistics Of South America 
> :319 General statistics Of other parts of the world 
> :320 Political science 
> :321 Systems of governments & states 
> :322 Relation of state to organized groups 
> :323 Civil & political rights 
> :324 The political process 
> :325 International migration & colonization 
> :326 Slavery & emancipation 
> :327 International relations 
> :328 The legislative process 
> 
> :330 Economics 
> :331 Labor economics 
> :332 Financial economics 
> :333 Land economics 
> :334 Cooperatives 
> :335 Socialism & related systems 
> :336 Public finance 
> :337 International economics 
> :338 Production 
> :339 Macroeconomics & related topics 
> :340 Law 
> :341 International law 
> :342 Constitutional & administrative law 
> :343 Military, tax, trade, industrial law 
> :344 Social, labor, welfare, & related law 
> :345 Criminal law 
> :346 Private law 
> :347 Civil procedure & courts 
> :348 Law (Statutes), regulations, cases 
> :349 Law of specific jurisdictions & areas 
> :350 Public administration 
> :351 Of central governments 
> :352 Of local governments 
> :353 of U.S. federal & state governments 
> :354 Of specific central governments 
> :355 Military science 
> :356 Foot forces & warfare 
> :357 Mounted forces & warfare 
> :358 Other specialized forces & services 
> :359 Sea (Naval) forces & warfare 
> :360 Social services; association 
> :361 General social problems & services 
> :362 Social welfare problems & services 
> :363 Other social problems & services 
> :364 Criminology 
> :365 Penal & related institutions 
> :366 Association 
> :367 General clubs 
> :368 Insurance 
> :369 Miscellaneous kinds of associations 
> :370 Education 
> :371 School management; special education 
> :372 Elementary education 
> :373 Secondary education 
> :374 Adult education 
> :375 Curriculums 
> :376 Education of women 
> :377 Schools & religion 
> :378 Higher education 
> :379 Government regulation, control, support 
> :380 Commerce, communications, transport 
> :381 Internal commerce (Domestic trade) 
> :382 International commerce (Foreign trade) 
> :383 Postal communication 
> :384 Communications Telecommunication 
> :385 Railroad transportation 
> :386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation 
> :387 Water, air, space transportation 
> :388 Transportation Ground transportation 
> :389 Metrology & standardization 
> :390 Customs, etiquette, folklore 
> :391 Costume & personal appearance 
> :392 Customs of life cycle & domestic life 
> :393 Death customs 
> :394 General customs 
> :395 Etiquette (Manners) 
330,331c232,233
< 398 Folklore 
< 399 Customs of war & diplomacy 
---
> :398 Folklore 
> :399 Customs of war & diplomacy 
335,434c237,336
< 400 Language 
< 401 Philosophy & theory 
< 402 Miscellany 
< 403 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 404 Special topics 
< 405 Serial publications 
< 406 Organizations & management 
< 407 Education, research, related topics 
< 408 With respect to kinds of persons 
< 409 Geographical & persons treatment 
< 410 Linguistics 
< 411 Writing systems 
< 412 Etymology 
< 413 Dictionaries 
< 414 Phonology 
< 415 Structural systems (Grammar) 
< 
< 417 Dialectology & historical linguistics 
< 418 Standard usage Applied linguistics 
< 419 Verbal language not spoken or written 
< 420 English & Old English 
< 421 English writing system & phonology 
< 422 English etymology 
< 423 English dictionaries 
< 
< 425 English grammar 
< 
< 427 English language variations 
< 428 Standard English usage 
< 429 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
< 430 Germanic languages German 
< 431 German writing system & phonology 
< 432 German etymology 
< 433 German dictionaries 
< 
< 435 German grammar 
< 
< 437 German language variations 
< 438 Standard German usage 
< 439 Other Germanic languages 
< 440 Romance languages French 
< 441 French writing system & phonology 
< 442 French etymology 
< 443 French dictionaries 
< 
< 445 French grammar 
< 
< 447 French language variations 
< 448 Standard French usage 
< 449 Provencal & Catalan 
< 450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
< 451 Italian writing system & phonology 
< 452 Italian etymology 
< 453 Italian dictionaries 
< 
< 455 Italian grammar 
< 
< 457 Italian language variations 
< 458 Standard Italian usage 
< 459 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 460 Spanish & Portugese languages 
< 461 Spanish writing system & phonology 
< 462 Spanish etymology 
< 463 Spanish dictionaries 
< 
< 465 Spanish grammar 
< 
< 467 Spanish language variations 
< 468 Standard Spanish usage 
< 469 Portugese 
< 470 Italic Latin 
< 471 Classical Latin writing & phonology 
< 472 Classical Latin etymology & phonology 
< 473 Classical Latin dictionaries 
< 
< 475 Classical Latin grammar 
< 
< 477 Old, Postclassical, Vulgar Latin 
< 478 Classical Latin usage 
< 479 Other Italic languages 
< 480 Hellenic languages Classical Greek 
< 481 Classical Greek writing & phonology 
< 482 Classical Greek etymology 
< 483 Classical Greek dictionaries 
< 
< 485 Classical Greek grammar 
< 
< 487 Preclassical & postclassical Greek 
< 488 Classical Greek usage 
< 489 Other Hellenic languages 
< 490 Other languages 
< 491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
< 492 Afro-Asiatic languages Semitic 
< 493 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages 
< 494 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
< 495 Languages of East & Southeast Asia 
< 496 African languages 
< 497 North American native languages 
< 498 South American native languages 
< 499 Miscellaneous languages 
---
> :400 Language 
> :401 Philosophy & theory 
> :402 Miscellany 
> :403 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :404 Special topics 
> :405 Serial publications 
> :406 Organizations & management 
> :407 Education, research, related topics 
> :408 With respect to kinds of persons 
> :409 Geographical & persons treatment 
> :410 Linguistics 
> :411 Writing systems 
> :412 Etymology 
> :413 Dictionaries 
> :414 Phonology 
> :415 Structural systems (Grammar) 
> 
> :417 Dialectology & historical linguistics 
> :418 Standard usage Applied linguistics 
> :419 Verbal language not spoken or written 
> :420 English & Old English 
> :421 English writing system & phonology 
> :422 English etymology 
> :423 English dictionaries 
> 
> :425 English grammar 
> 
> :427 English language variations 
> :428 Standard English usage 
> :429 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> :430 Germanic languages German 
> :431 German writing system & phonology 
> :432 German etymology 
> :433 German dictionaries 
> 
> :435 German grammar 
> 
> :437 German language variations 
> :438 Standard German usage 
> :439 Other Germanic languages 
> :440 Romance languages French 
> :441 French writing system & phonology 
> :442 French etymology 
> :443 French dictionaries 
> 
> :445 French grammar 
> 
> :447 French language variations 
> :448 Standard French usage 
> :449 Provencal & Catalan 
> :450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
> :451 Italian writing system & phonology 
> :452 Italian etymology 
> :453 Italian dictionaries 
> 
> :455 Italian grammar 
> 
> :457 Italian language variations 
> :458 Standard Italian usage 
> :459 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :460 Spanish & Portugese languages 
> :461 Spanish writing system & phonology 
> :462 Spanish etymology 
> :463 Spanish dictionaries 
> 
> :465 Spanish grammar 
> 
> :467 Spanish language variations 
> :468 Standard Spanish usage 
> :469 Portugese 
> :470 Italic Latin 
> :471 Classical Latin writing & phonology 
> :472 Classical Latin etymology & phonology 
> :473 Classical Latin dictionaries 
> 
> :475 Classical Latin grammar 
> 
> :477 Old, Postclassical, Vulgar Latin 
> :478 Classical Latin usage 
> :479 Other Italic languages 
> :480 Hellenic languages Classical Greek 
> :481 Classical Greek writing & phonology 
> :482 Classical Greek etymology 
> :483 Classical Greek dictionaries 
> 
> :485 Classical Greek grammar 
> 
> :487 Preclassical & postclassical Greek 
> :488 Classical Greek usage 
> :489 Other Hellenic languages 
> :490 Other languages 
> :491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
> :492 Afro-Asiatic languages Semitic 
> :493 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages 
> :494 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> :495 Languages of East & Southeast Asia 
> :496 African languages 
> :497 North American native languages 
> :498 South American native languages 
> :499 Miscellaneous languages 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983168798
340,438c340,438
< 500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
< 501 Philosophy & theory 
< 502 Miscellany 
< 503 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 504 Not assigned or no longer used 
< 505 Serial publications 
< 506 Organizations & management 
< 507 Education, research, related topics 
< 508 Natural history 
< 509 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< 510 Mathematics 
< 511 General principles 
< 512 Algebra & number theory 
< 513 Arithmetic 
< 514 Topology 
< 515 Analysis 
< 516 Geometry 
< 
< 519 Probabilities & applied mathematics 
< 520 Astronomy & allied sciences 
< 521 Celestial mechanics 
< 522 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< 523 Specific celestial bodies & phenomena 
< 
< 525 Earth (Astronomical geography) 
< 526 Mathematical geography 
< 527 Celestial navigation 
< 528 Ephemerides 
< 529 Chronology 
< 530 Physics 
< 531 Classical mechanics Solid mechanics 
< 532 Fluid mechanics Liquid mechanics 
< 533 Gas mechanics 
< 534 Sound & related vibrations 
< 535 Light & paraphotic phenomena 
< 536 Heat 
< 537 Electricity & electronics 
< 538 Magnetism 
< 539 Modern physics 
< 540 Chemistry & allied sciences 
< 541 Physical & theoretical chemistry 
< 542 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< 543 Analytical chemistry 
< 544 Qualitative analysis 
< 545 Quantitative analysis 
< 546 Inorganic chemistry 
< 547 Organic chemistry 
< 548 Crystallography 
< 549 Mineralogy 
< 550 Earth sciences 
< 551 Geology, hydrology, meteorology 
< 552 Petrology 
< 553 Economic geology 
< 554 Earth sciences of Europe 
< 555 Earth sciences of Asia 
< 556 Earth sciences of Africa 
< 557 Earth sciences of North America 
< 558 Earth sciences of South America 
< 559 Earth sciences of other areas 
< 560 Paleontology Paleozoology 
< 561 Paleobotany 
< 562 Fossil invertebrates 
< 563 Fossil primitive phyla 
< 564 Fossil Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
< 565 Other fossil invertebrates 
< 566 Fossil Vertebrata (Fossil Craniata) 
< 567 Fossil cold-blooded vertebrates 
< 568 Fossil Aves (Fossil birds) 
< 569 Fossil Mammalia 
< 570 Life sciences 
< 
< 572 Human races 
< 573 Physical anthropology 
< 574 Biology 
< 575 Evolution & genetics 
< 576 Microbiology 
< 577 General nature of life 
< 578 Microscopy in biology 
< 579 Collection and preservation 
< 580 Botanical sciences 
< 581 Botany 
< 582 Spermatophyta (Seed-bearing plants) 
< 583 Dicotyledones 
< 584 Monocotyledones 
< 585 Gymnospermae (Pinophyta) 
< 586 Cryptogamia (Seedless plants) 
< 587 Pteridophyta (Vascular cryptograms) 
< 588 Bryophyta 
< 589 Thallobionta & Prokaryotae 
< 590 Zoological sciences 
< 591 Zoology 
< 592 Invertebrates 
< 593 Protozoa, Echinodermata, related phyla 
< 594 Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
< 595 Other invertebrates 
< 596 Vertebrata (Craniata, Vertebrates) 
< 597 Cold-blooded vertebrates Fishes 
< 598 Aves (Birds) 
< 599 Mammalia (Mammals) 
---
> :500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
> :501 Philosophy & theory 
> :502 Miscellany 
> :503 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :504 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :505 Serial publications 
> :506 Organizations & management 
> :507 Education, research, related topics 
> :508 Natural history 
> :509 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :510 Mathematics 
> :511 General principles 
> :512 Algebra & number theory 
> :513 Arithmetic 
> :514 Topology 
> :515 Analysis 
> :516 Geometry 
> 
> :519 Probabilities & applied mathematics 
> :520 Astronomy & allied sciences 
> :521 Celestial mechanics 
> :522 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :523 Specific celestial bodies & phenomena 
> 
> :525 Earth (Astronomical geography) 
> :526 Mathematical geography 
> :527 Celestial navigation 
> :528 Ephemerides 
> :529 Chronology 
> :530 Physics 
> :531 Classical mechanics Solid mechanics 
> :532 Fluid mechanics Liquid mechanics 
> :533 Gas mechanics 
> :534 Sound & related vibrations 
> :535 Light & paraphotic phenomena 
> :536 Heat 
> :537 Electricity & electronics 
> :538 Magnetism 
> :539 Modern physics 
> :540 Chemistry & allied sciences 
> :541 Physical & theoretical chemistry 
> :542 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :543 Analytical chemistry 
> :544 Qualitative analysis 
> :545 Quantitative analysis 
> :546 Inorganic chemistry 
> :547 Organic chemistry 
> :548 Crystallography 
> :549 Mineralogy 
> :550 Earth sciences 
> :551 Geology, hydrology, meteorology 
> :552 Petrology 
> :553 Economic geology 
> :554 Earth sciences of Europe 
> :555 Earth sciences of Asia 
> :556 Earth sciences of Africa 
> :557 Earth sciences of North America 
> :558 Earth sciences of South America 
> :559 Earth sciences of other areas 
> :560 Paleontology Paleozoology 
> :561 Paleobotany 
> :562 Fossil invertebrates 
> :563 Fossil primitive phyla 
> :564 Fossil Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
> :565 Other fossil invertebrates 
> :566 Fossil Vertebrata (Fossil Craniata) 
> :567 Fossil cold-blooded vertebrates 
> :568 Fossil Aves (Fossil birds) 
> :569 Fossil Mammalia 
> :570 Life sciences 
> 
> :572 Human races 
> :573 Physical anthropology 
> :574 Biology 
> :575 Evolution & genetics 
> :576 Microbiology 
> :577 General nature of life 
> :578 Microscopy in biology 
> :579 Collection and preservation 
> :580 Botanical sciences 
> :581 Botany 
> :582 Spermatophyta (Seed-bearing plants) 
> :583 Dicotyledones 
> :584 Monocotyledones 
> :585 Gymnospermae (Pinophyta) 
> :586 Cryptogamia (Seedless plants) 
> :587 Pteridophyta (Vascular cryptograms) 
> :588 Bryophyta 
> :589 Thallobionta & Prokaryotae 
> :590 Zoological sciences 
> :591 Zoology 
> :592 Invertebrates 
> :593 Protozoa, Echinodermata, related phyla 
> :594 Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
> :595 Other invertebrates 
> :596 Vertebrata (Craniata, Vertebrates) 
> :597 Cold-blooded vertebrates Fishes 
> :598 Aves (Birds) 
> :599 [[Mammalia]] ([[Mammals]]) 
442,538c442,538
< 600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
< 601 Philosophy & theory 
< 602 Miscellany 
< 603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 604 Special topics 
< 605 Serial publications 
< 606 Organizations 
< 607 Education, research, related topics 
< 608 Invention & patents 
< 609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< 610 Medical sciences Medicine 
< 611 Human anatomy, cytology, histology 
< 612 Human physiology 
< 613 Promotion of health 
< 614 Incidence & prevention of disease 
< 615 Pharmacology & theraputics 
< 616 Diseases 
< 617 Surgery & related medical specialities 
< 618 Gynecology & other medical specialities 
< 619 Experimental medicine 
< 620 Engineering & allied operations 
< 621 Applied physics 
< 622 Mining & related operations 
< 623 Military & nautical engineering 
< 624 Civil engineering 
< 625 Engineering of railroads, roads 
< 
< 627 Hydraulic engineering 
< 628 Sanitary & municipal engineering 
< 629 Other branches of engineering 
< 630 Agriculture 
< 631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< 632 Plant injuries, diseases, pests 
< 633 Field & plantation crops 
< 634 Orchards, fruits, forestry 
< 635 Garden crops (Horticulture) 
< 636 Animal husbandry 
< 637 Processing dairy & related products 
< 638 Insect culture 
< 639 Hunting, fishing, conservation 
< 640 Home economics & family living 
< 641 Food & drink 
< 642 Meals & table service 
< 643 Housing & household equipment 
< 644 Household utilities 
< 645 Household furnishings 
< 646 Sewing, clothing, personal living 
< 647 Management of public households 
< 648 Housekeeping 
< 649 Child rearing & home care of sick 
< 650 Management & auxiliary services 
< 651 Office services 
< 652 Processes of written communication 
< 653 Shorthand 
< 
< 657 Accounting 
< 658 General management 
< 659 Advertising & public relations 
< 660 Chemical engineering 
< 661 Industrial chemicals technology 
< 662 Explosives, fuels technology 
< 663 Beverage technology 
< 664 Food technology 
< 665 Industrial oils, fats, waxes, gases 
< 666 Ceramic & allied technologies 
< 667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
< 668 Technology of other organic products 
< 669 Metallurgy 
< 670 Manufacturing 
< 671 Metalworking & metal products 
< 672 Iron, steel, other iron alloys 
< 673 Nonferrous metals 
< 674 Lumber processing, wood products, cork 
< 675 Leather & fur processing 
< 676 Pulp & paper technology 
< 677 Textiles 
< 678 Elastomers & elastomer products 
< 679 Other products of specific materials 
< 680 Manufacture for specific uses 
< 681 Precision instruments & other devices 
< 682 Small forge work (Blacksmithing) 
< 683 Hardware & household appliances 
< 684 Furnishings & home workshops 
< 685 Leather, fur, related products 
< 686 Printing & related activities 
< 687 Clothing 
< 688 Other final products & packaging 
< 
< 690 Buildings 
< 691 Building materials 
< 692 Auxiliary construction practices 
< 693 Specific materials & purposes 
< 694 Wood construction Carpentry 
< 695 Roof covering 
< 696 Utilities 
< 697 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning 
< 698 Detail finishing 
---
> :600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
> :601 Philosophy & theory 
> :602 Miscellany 
> :603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :604 Special topics 
> :605 Serial publications 
> :606 Organizations 
> :607 Education, research, related topics 
> :608 Invention & patents 
> :609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :610 Medical sciences Medicine 
> :611 Human anatomy, cytology, histology 
> :612 Human physiology 
> :613 Promotion of health 
> :614 Incidence & prevention of disease 
> :615 Pharmacology & theraputics 
> :616 Diseases 
> :617 Surgery & related medical specialities 
> :618 Gynecology & other medical specialities 
> :619 Experimental medicine 
> :620 Engineering & allied operations 
> :621 Applied physics 
> :622 Mining & related operations 
> :623 Military & nautical engineering 
> :624 Civil engineering 
> :625 Engineering of railroads, roads 
> 
> :627 Hydraulic engineering 
> :628 Sanitary & municipal engineering 
> :629 Other branches of engineering 
> :630 Agriculture 
> :631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :632 Plant injuries, diseases, pests 
> :633 Field & plantation crops 
> :634 Orchards, fruits, forestry 
> :635 Garden crops (Horticulture) 
> :636 Animal husbandry 
> :637 Processing dairy & related products 
> :638 Insect culture 
> :639 Hunting, fishing, conservation 
> :640 Home economics & family living 
> :641 Food & drink 
> :642 Meals & table service 
> :643 Housing & household equipment 
> :644 Household utilities 
> :645 Household furnishings 
> :646 Sewing, clothing, personal living 
> :647 Management of public households 
> :648 Housekeeping 
> :649 Child rearing & home care of sick 
> :650 Management & auxiliary services 
> :651 Office services 
> :652 Processes of written communication 
> :653 Shorthand 
> 
> :657 Accounting 
> :658 General management 
> :659 Advertising & public relations 
> :660 Chemical engineering 
> :661 Industrial chemicals technology 
> :662 Explosives, fuels technology 
> :663 Beverage technology 
> :664 Food technology 
> :665 Industrial oils, fats, waxes, gases 
> :666 Ceramic & allied technologies 
> :667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
> :668 Technology of other organic products 
> :669 Metallurgy 
> :670 Manufacturing 
> :671 Metalworking & metal products 
> :672 Iron, steel, other iron alloys 
> :673 Nonferrous metals 
> :674 Lumber processing, wood products, cork 
> :675 Leather & fur processing 
> :676 Pulp & paper technology 
> :677 Textiles 
> :678 Elastomers & elastomer products 
> :679 Other products of specific materials 
> :680 Manufacture for specific uses 
> :681 Precision instruments & other devices 
> :682 Small forge work (Blacksmithing) 
> :683 Hardware & household appliances 
> :684 Furnishings & home workshops 
> :685 Leather, fur, related products 
> :686 Printing & related activities 
> :687 Clothing 
> :688 Other final products & packaging 
> 
> :690 Buildings 
> :691 Building materials 
> :692 Auxiliary construction practices 
> :693 Specific materials & purposes 
> :694 Wood construction Carpentry 
> :695 Roof covering 
> :696 Utilities 
> :697 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning 
> :698 Detail finishing 
542,639c542,639
< 700 The arts 
< 701 Philosophy & theory 
< 702 Miscellany 
< 703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 704 Special topics 
< 705 Serial publications 
< 706 Organizations & management 
< 707 Education, research, related topics 
< 708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
< 709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< 710 Civic & landscape art 
< 711 Area planning (Civic art) 
< 712 Landscape architecture 
< 713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
< 714 Water features 
< 715 Woody plants 
< 716 Herbaceous plants 
< 717 Structures 
< 718 Landscape design of cemeteries 
< 719 Natural landscapes 
< 720 Architecture 
< 721 Architectural structure 
< 722 Architecture to ca. 300 
< 723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
< 724 Architecture from 1400 
< 725 Public structures 
< 726 Buildings for religious purposes 
< 727 Buildings for education & research 
< 728 Residential & related buildings 
< 729 Design & decoration 
< 730 Plastic arts Sculpture 
< 731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
< 732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
< 733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
< 734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
< 735 Sculpture from 1400 
< 736 Carving & carvings 
< 737 Numismatics & sigillography 
< 738 Ceramic arts 
< 739 Art metalwork 
< 740 Drawing & decorative arts 
< 741 Drawing & drawings 
< 742 Perspective 
< 743 Drawing & drawings by subject 
< 744 Not assigned or no longer used 
< 745 Decorative arts 
< 746 Textile arts 
< 747 Interior decoration 
< 748 Glass 
< 749 Furniture & accessories 
< 750 Painting & paintings 
< 751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
< 752 Color 
< 753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
< 754 Genre paintings 
< 755 Religion & religious symbolism 
< 
< 757 Human figures & their parts 
< 758 Other subjects 
< 759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< 760 Graphic arts Printmaking & prints 
< 761 Relief processes (Block printing) 
< 
< 763 Lithographic (Planographic) processes 
< 764 Chromolithography & serigraphy 
< 765 Metal engraving 
< 766 Mezzotinting & related processes 
< 767 Etching & drypoint 
< 
< 769 Prints 
< 770 Photography & photographs 
< 771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< 772 Metallic salt processes 
< 773 Pigment processes of printing 
< 774 Holography 
< 
< 778 Fields & kinds of photography 
< 779 Photographs 
< 780 Music 
< 781 General principles & musical forms 
< 782 Vocal music 
< 783 Music for single voices The voice 
< 784 Instruments & Instrumental ensembles 
< 785 Chamber music 
< 786 Keyboard & other instruments 
< 787 Stringed instruments (Chordophones) 
< 788 Wind instruments (Aerophones) 
< 
< 790 Recreational & performing arts 
< 791 Public performances 
< 792 Stage presentations 
< 793 Indoor games & amusements 
< 794 Indoor games of skill 
< 795 Games of chance 
< 796 Athletic & outdoor sports & games 
< 797 Aquatic & air sports 
< 798 Equestrian sports & animal racing 
< 799 Fishing, hunting, shooting 
---
> :700 The arts 
> :701 Philosophy & theory 
> :702 Miscellany 
> :703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :704 Special topics 
> :705 Serial publications 
> :706 Organizations & management 
> :707 Education, research, related topics 
> :708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
> :709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :710 Civic & landscape art 
> :711 Area planning (Civic art) 
> :712 Landscape architecture 
> :713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
> :714 Water features 
> :715 Woody plants 
> :716 Herbaceous plants 
> :717 Structures 
> :718 Landscape design of cemeteries 
> :719 Natural landscapes 
> :720 [[Architecture]] 
> :721 Architectural structure 
> :722 Architecture to ca. 300 
> :723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
> :724 Architecture from 1400 
> :725 Public structures 
> :726 Buildings for religious purposes 
> :727 Buildings for education & research 
> :728 Residential & related buildings 
> :729 Design & decoration 
> :730 Plastic arts Sculpture 
> :731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
> :732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
> :733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
> :734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
> :735 Sculpture from 1400 
> :736 Carving & carvings 
> :737 Numismatics & sigillography 
> :738 Ceramic arts 
> :739 Art metalwork 
> :740 Drawing & decorative arts 
> :741 Drawing & drawings 
> :742 Perspective 
> :743 Drawing & drawings by subject 
> :744 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :745 Decorative arts 
> :746 Textile arts 
> :747 Interior decoration 
> :748 Glass 
> :749 Furniture & accessories 
> :750 Painting & paintings 
> :751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
> :752 Color 
> :753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
> :754 Genre paintings 
> :755 Religion & religious symbolism 
> 
> :757 Human figures & their parts 
> :758 Other subjects 
> :759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :760 Graphic arts Printmaking & prints 
> :761 Relief processes (Block printing) 
> 
> :763 Lithographic (Planographic) processes 
> :764 Chromolithography & serigraphy 
> :765 Metal engraving 
> :766 Mezzotinting & related processes 
> :767 Etching & drypoint 
> 
> :769 Prints 
> :770 [[Photography]] & photographs 
> :771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :772 Metallic salt processes 
> :773 Pigment processes of printing 
> :774 Holography 
> 
> :778 Fields & kinds of photography 
> :779 Photographs 
> :780 [[Music]] 
> :781 General principles & musical forms 
> :782 Vocal music 
> :783 Music for single voices The voice 
> :784 Instruments & Instrumental ensembles 
> :785 Chamber music 
> :786 Keyboard & other instruments 
> :787 Stringed instruments (Chordophones) 
> :788 Wind instruments (Aerophones) 
> 
> :790 Recreational & performing arts 
> :791 Public performances 
> :792 Stage presentations 
> :793 Indoor games & amusements 
> :794 Indoor games of skill 
> :795 [[Games of chance]] 
> :796 Athletic & outdoor sports & games 
> :797 Aquatic & air sports 
> :798 Equestrian sports & animal racing 
> :799 Fishing, hunting, shooting 
642,660c642,660
< 800 Literature & rhetoric 
< 801 Philosophy & theory 
< 802 Miscellany 
< 803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 
< 805 Serial publications 
< 806 Organizations 
< 807 Education, research, related topics 
< 808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
< 809 Literary history & criticism 
< 810 American literature in English 
< 811 Poetry 
< 812 Drama 
< 813 Fiction 
< 814 Essays 
< 815 Speeches 
< 816 Letters 
< 817 Satire & humor 
< 818 Miscellaneous writings 
---
> :800 Literature & rhetoric 
> :801 Philosophy & theory 
> :802 Miscellany 
> :803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 
> :805 Serial publications 
> :806 Organizations 
> :807 Education, research, related topics 
> :808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
> :809 Literary history & criticism 
> :810 American literature in English 
> :811 Poetry 
> :812 Drama 
> :813 Fiction 
> :814 Essays 
> :815 Speeches 
> :816 Letters 
> :817 Satire & humor 
> :818 Miscellaneous writings 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983168966
817,826c817,826
< :980 General history of South America 
< :981 General history of South America Brazil 
< :982 General history of South America Argentina 
< :983 General history of South America Chile 
< :984 General history of South America Bolivia 
< :985 General history of South America Peru 
< :986 General history of South America Colombia & Ecuador 
< :987 General history of South America Venezuela 
< :988 General history of South America Guiana 
< :989 General history of South America Paraguay & Uruguay 
---
> :980 General history of [[South America]] 
> :981 General history of South America [[Brazil]] 
> :982 General history of South America [[Argentina]] 
> :983 General history of South America [[Chile]] 
> :984 General history of South America [[Bolivia]] 
> :985 General history of South America [[Peru]] 
> :986 General history of South America [[Colombia]] & [[Ecuador]] 
> :987 General history of South America [[Venezuela]] 
> :988 General history of South America [[Guiana]] 
> :989 General history of South America [[Paraguay]] & [[Uruguay]] 
829,835c829,835
< :993 General history of other areas New Zealand 
< :994 General history of other areas Australia 
< :995 General history of other areas Melanesia New Guinea 
< :996 General history of other areas Other parts of Pacific Polynesia 
< :997 General history of other areas Atlantic Ocean islands 
< :998 General history of other areas Arctic islands & Antarctica 
< :999 Extraterrestrial worlds 
---
> :993 General history of other areas [[New Zealand]] 
> :994 General history of other areas [[Australia]]
> :995 General history of other areas [[Melanesia]] [[New Guinea]] 
> :996 General history of other areas Other parts of ]]Pacific Polynesia]] 
> :997 General history of other areas [[Atlantic Ocean islands]] 
> :998 General history of other areas [[Arctic islands]] & [[Antarctica]] 
> :999 [[Extraterrestrial worlds]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983169371
340c340
< :500 Natural sciences & mathematics 
---
> :500 Natural sciences & [[mathematics]] 
350c350
< :510 Mathematics 
---
> :510 [[Mathematics]] 
352,356c352,356
< :512 Algebra & number theory 
< :513 Arithmetic 
< :514 Topology 
< :515 Analysis 
< :516 Geometry 
---
> :512 [[Algebra]] & [[number theory]] 
> :513 [[Arithmetic]] 
> :514 [[Topology]] 
> :515 [[Analysis]] 
> :516 [[Geometry]] 
358,360c358,360
< :519 Probabilities & applied mathematics 
< :520 Astronomy & allied sciences 
< :521 Celestial mechanics 
---
> :519 [[Probabilities]] & [[applied mathematics]] 
> :520 [[Astronomy]] & allied sciences 
> :521 [[Celestial mechanics]] 
364c364
< :525 Earth (Astronomical geography) 
---
> :525 [[Earth]] (Astronomical geography) 
366,380c366,380
< :527 Celestial navigation 
< :528 Ephemerides 
< :529 Chronology 
< :530 Physics 
< :531 Classical mechanics Solid mechanics 
< :532 Fluid mechanics Liquid mechanics 
< :533 Gas mechanics 
< :534 Sound & related vibrations 
< :535 Light & paraphotic phenomena 
< :536 Heat 
< :537 Electricity & electronics 
< :538 Magnetism 
< :539 Modern physics 
< :540 Chemistry & allied sciences 
< :541 Physical & theoretical chemistry 
---
> :527 [[Celestial navigation]] 
> :528 [[Ephemerides]] 
> :529 [[Chronology]] 
> :530 [[Physics]] 
> :531 [[Classical mechanics]] [[Solid mechanics]] 
> :532 [[Fluid mechanics]] [[Liquid mechanics]] 
> :533 [[Gas mechanics]] 
> :534 [[Sound]] & related vibrations 
> :535 [[Light]] & paraphotic phenomena 
> :536 [[Heat]] 
> :537 [[Electricity]] & [[electronics]] 
> :538 [[Magnetism]] 
> :539 [[Modern physics]] 
> :540 [[Chemistry]] & allied sciences 
> :541 [[Physical chemistry]] & theoretical chemistry 
382,391c382,391
< :543 Analytical chemistry 
< :544 Qualitative analysis 
< :545 Quantitative analysis 
< :546 Inorganic chemistry 
< :547 Organic chemistry 
< :548 Crystallography 
< :549 Mineralogy 
< :550 Earth sciences 
< :551 Geology, hydrology, meteorology 
< :552 Petrology 
---
> :543 [[Analytical chemistry]] 
> :544 [[Qualitative analysis]] 
> :545 [[Quantitative analysis]] 
> :546 [[Inorganic chemistry]] 
> :547 [[Organic chemistry]] 
> :548 [[Crystallography]] 
> :549 [[Mineralogy]] 
> :550 [[Earth sciences]] 
> :551 [[Geology]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]] 
> :552 [[Petrology]] 
399,400c399,400
< :560 Paleontology Paleozoology 
< :561 Paleobotany 
---
> :560 [[Paleontology]] [[Paleozoology]] 
> :561 [[Paleobotany]] 
412,415c412,415
< :573 Physical anthropology 
< :574 Biology 
< :575 Evolution & genetics 
< :576 Microbiology 
---
> :573 [[Physical anthropology]] 
> :574 [[Biology]] 
> :575 [[Evolution]] & [[genetics]] 
> :576 [[Microbiology]] 
417c417
< :578 Microscopy in biology 
---
> :578 [[Microscopy in biology]] 
419,428c419,428
< :580 Botanical sciences 
< :581 Botany 
< :582 Spermatophyta (Seed-bearing plants) 
< :583 Dicotyledones 
< :584 Monocotyledones 
< :585 Gymnospermae (Pinophyta) 
< :586 Cryptogamia (Seedless plants) 
< :587 Pteridophyta (Vascular cryptograms) 
< :588 Bryophyta 
< :589 Thallobionta & Prokaryotae 
---
> :580 [[Botanical sciences]]
> :581 [[Botany]] 
> :582 [[Spermatophyta]] (Seed-bearing plants) 
> :583 [[Dicotyledones]] 
> :584 [[Monocotyledones]] 
> :585 [[Gymnospermae]] ([[Pinophyta]]) 
> :586 [[Cryptogamia]] ([[Seedless plants]]) 
> :587 [[Pteridophyta]] ([[Vascular cryptograms]]) 
> :588 [[Bryophyta]] 
> :589 [[Thallobionta]] & [[Prokaryotae]] 
430,433c430,433
< :591 Zoology 
< :592 Invertebrates 
< :593 Protozoa, Echinodermata, related phyla 
< :594 Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
---
> :591 [[Zoology]] 
> :592 [[Invertebrates]] 
> :593 [[Protozoa]], [[Echinodermata]], related phyla 
> :594 [[Mollusca]] & [[Molluscoidea]] 
435,437c435,437
< :596 Vertebrata (Craniata, Vertebrates) 
< :597 Cold-blooded vertebrates Fishes 
< :598 Aves (Birds) 
---
> :596 [[Vertebrata]] ([[Craniata]], [[Vertebrates]]) 
> :597 [[Cold-blooded vertebrates]] Fishes 
> :598 [[Aves]] ([[Birds]]) 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|983177212
1c1,99
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :200 [[Religion]] 
> :201 [[Philosophy of Christianity]] 
> :202 Miscellany of [[Christianity]] 
> :203 Dictionaries of Christianity 
> :204 Special topics 
> :205 Serial publications of Christianity 
> :206 Organizations of Christianity 
> :207 Education, research in Christianity 
> :208 Kinds of persons in Christianity 
> :209 History & geography of Christianity 
> :210 Natural theology 
> :211 [[Concepts of God]] 
> :212 Existence, attributes of God 
> :213 Creation 
> :214 [[Theodicy]] 
> :215 [[Science and religion]] 
> :216 Good & evil 
> 
> :218 [[Humankind]] 
> 
> :220 [[Bible]] 
> :221 [[Old Testament]] 
> :222 Historical books of Old Testament 
> :223 Poetic books of Old Testament 
> :224 Prophetic books of Old Testament 
> :225 [[New Testament]] 
> :226 [[Gospels]] & [[Acts]] 
> :227 [[Epistles]] 
> :228 [[Revelation]] ([[Apocalypse]]) 
> :229 [[Apocrypha]] & [[pseudepigrapha]] 
> :230 [[Christian theology]] 
> :231 [[God]] 
> 232 [[Jesus Christ]] & his family 
> :233 Humankind 
> :234 Salvation (Soteriology) & grace 
> :235 [[Spiritual beings]]
> :236 [[Eschatology]] 
> 
> :238 Creeds & catechisms 
> :239 [[Christian apologetics]] & [[Christian polemics]] 
> :240 Christian moral & devotional theology 
> :241 [[Moral theology]] 
> :242 Devotional literature 
> :243 Evangelistic writings for individuals 
> 
> :245 Texts of hymns 
> :246 Use of art in Christianity 
> :247 Church furnishings & articles 
> :248 Christian experience, practice, life 
> :249 Christian observances in family life 
> :250 Christian orders & local church 
> :251 Preaching ([[Homiletics]]) 
> :252 Texts of sermons 
> :253 Pastoral office (Pastoral theology) 
> :254 Parish government & administration 
> :255 Religious congregations & orders 
> 
> :259 Activities of the local church 
> :260 Christian social theology 
> :261 Social theology 
> :262 [[Ecclesiology]] 
> :263 Times, places of religious observance 
> :264 Public worship 
> :265 Sacraments, other rites & acts 
> :266 Missions 
> :267 Associations for religious work 
> :268 Religious education 
> :269 Spiritual renewal 
> :270 [[Christian church history]] 
> :271 Religious orders in church history 
> :272 [[Persecutions in church history]] 
> :273 [[Heresies in church history]] 
> :274 Christian church in Europe 
> :275 Christian church in Asia 
> :276 Christian church in Africa 
> :277 Christian church in North America 
> :278 Christian church in South America 
> :279 Christian church in other areas 
> :280 [[Christian denominations]] & sects 
> :281 Early church & Eastern churches 
> :282 [[Roman Catholic Church]] 
> :283 [[Anglican churches]] 
> :284 [[Protestants]] of Continental origin 
> :285 [[Presbyterian]], [[Reformed]], [[Congregational]] 
> :286 [[Baptist]], [[Disciples of Christ]], [[Adventist]] 
> :287 [[Methodist]] & related churches 
> 
> :289 Other denominations & sects 
> :290 Other & comparative religions 
> :291 [[Comparative religion]] 
> :292 Classical -- [[Greek religion]] and [[Roman Religion]]
> :293 Germanic religion 
> :294 Religions of Indic origin 
> :295 [[Zoroastrianism]] ([[Mazdaism]], [[Parseeism]]) 
> :296 [[Judaism]] 
> :297 [[Islam]] & religions originating in it 
> 
> :299 Other religions 
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|983177243
33c33
< 232 [[Jesus Christ]] & his family 
---
> :232 [[Jesus Christ]] & his family 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Social_sciences|983177528
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :300 [[Social sciences]] 
> :301 [[Sociology]] & [[anthropology]] 
> :302 Social interaction 
> :303 Social processes 
> :304 Factors affecting social behavior 
> :305 Social groups 
> :306 Culture & institutions 
> :307 Communities 
> 
> :310 General statistics 
> 
> :314 General statistics Of Europe 
> :315 General statistics Of Asia 
> :316 General statistics Of Africa 
> :317 General statistics Of North America 
> :318 General statistics Of South America 
> :319 General statistics Of other parts of the world 
> :320 [[Political science]] 
> :321 Systems of governments & states 
> :322 Relation of state to organized groups 
> :323 Civil & political rights 
> :324 The political process 
> :325 International migration & colonization 
> :326 [[Slavery]] & [[emancipation]] 
> :327 International relations 
> :328 The legislative process 
> 
> :330 [[Economics]] 
> :331 [[Labor economics]] 
> :332 [[Financial economics]] 
> :333 [[Land economics]] 
> :334 [[Cooperatives]] 
> :335 [[Socialism]] & related systems 
> :336 [[Public finance]] 
> :337 [[International economics]] 
> :338 Production 
> :339 [[Macroeconomics]] & related topics 
> :340 [[Law]] 
> :341 [[International law]] 
> :342 [[Constitutional law]] & [[administrative law]] 
> :343 [[Military law]], [[tax law]], trade, industrial law 
> :344 Social, labor, welfare, & related law 
> :345 [[Criminal law]] 
> :346 [[Private law]] 
> :347 Civil procedure & courts 
> :348 Law (Statutes), regulations, cases 
> :349 Law of specific jurisdictions & areas 
> :350 Public administration 
> :351 Of central governments 
> :352 Of local governments 
> :353 of U.S. federal & state governments 
> :354 Of specific central governments 
> :355 [[Military science]] 
> :356 Foot forces & warfare 
> :357 Mounted forces & warfare 
> :358 Other specialized forces & services 
> :359 Sea (Naval) forces & warfare 
> :360 Social services; association 
> :361 General social problems & services 
> :362 Social welfare problems & services 
> :363 Other social problems & services 
> :364 [[Criminology]] 
> :365 [[Penal institutions]] & related institutions 
> :366 Association 
> :367 General clubs 
> :368 [[Insurance]] 
> :369 Miscellaneous kinds of associations 
> :370 [[Education]] 
> :371 [[School management]]; [[special education]] 
> :372 [[Elementary education]] 
> :373 [[Secondary education]] 
> :374 [[Adult education]] 
> :375 Curriculums 
> :376 [[Education of women]] 
> :377 Schools & religion 
> :378 [[Higher education]] 
> :379 Government regulation, control, support 
> :380 [[Commerce]], [[communications]], [[transport]] 
> :381 [[Internal commerce]] (Domestic trade) 
> :382 [[International commerce]] (Foreign trade) 
> :383 Postal communication 
> :384 Communications Telecommunication 
> :385 [[Railroad]] transportation 
> :386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation 
> :387 Water, air, space transportation 
> :388 Transportation Ground transportation 
> :389 [[Metrology]] & [[standardization]] 
> :390 [[Customs]], [[etiquette]], [[folklore]] 
> :391 [[Costume]] & personal appearance 
> :392 Customs of life cycle & domestic life 
> :393 [[Death customs]] 
> :394 General customs 
> :395 [[Etiquette]] ([[Manners]]) 
> 
> :398 [[Folklore]] 
> :399 [[Customs of war]] & [[Customs of diplomacy]] 
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983177590
37,134d36
< :200 Religion 
< :201 Philosophy of Christianity 
< :202 Miscellany of Christianity 
< :203 Dictionaries of Christianity 
< :204 Special topics 
< :205 Serial publications of Christianity 
< :206 Organizations of Christianity 
< :207 Education, research in Christianity 
< :208 Kinds of persons in Christianity 
< :209 History & geography of Christianity 
< :210 Natural theology 
< :211 Concepts of God 
< :212 Existence, attributes of God 
< :213 Creation 
< :214 Theodicy 
< :215 Science & religion 
< :216 Good & evil 
< 
< :218 Humankind 
< 
< :220 [[Bible]] 
< :221 Old Testament 
< :222 Historical books of Old Testament 
< :223 Poetic books of Old Testament 
< :224 Prophetic books of Old Testament 
< :225 New Testament 
< :226 Gospels & Acts 
< :227 Epistles 
< :228 Revelation (Apocalypse) 
< :229 Apocrypha & pseudepigrapha 
< :230 Christian theology 
< :231 [[God]] 
< 232 [[Jesus Christ]] & his family 
< :233 Humankind 
< :234 Salvation (Soteriology) & grace 
< :235 Spiritual beings 
< :236 Eschatology 
< 
< :238 Creeds & catechisms 
< :239 Apologetics & polemics 
< :240 Christian moral & devotional theology 
< :241 Moral theology 
< :242 Devotional literature 
< :243 Evangelistic writings for individuals 
< 
< :245 Texts of hymns 
< :246 Use of art in Christianity 
< :247 Church furnishings & articles 
< :248 Christian experience, practice, life 
< :249 Christian observances in family life 
< :250 Christian orders & local church 
< :251 Preaching (Homiletics) 
< :252 Texts of sermons 
< :253 Pastoral office (Pastoral theology) 
< :254 Parish government & administration 
< :255 Religious congregations & orders 
< 
< :259 Activities of the local church 
< :260 Christian social theology 
< :261 Social theology 
< :262 Ecclesiology 
< :263 Times, places of religious observance 
< :264 Public worship 
< :265 Sacraments, other rites & acts 
< :266 Missions 
< :267 Associations for religious work 
< :268 Religious education 
< :269 Spiritual renewal 
< :270 Christian church history 
< :271 Religious orders in church history 
< :272 Persecutions in church history 
< :273 Heresies in church history 
< :274 Christian church in Europe 
< :275 Christian church in Asia 
< :276 Christian church in Africa 
< :277 Christian church in North America 
< :278 Christian church in South America 
< :279 Christian church in other areas 
< :280 Christian denominations & sects 
< :281 Early church & Eastern churches 
< :282 [[Roman Catholic Church]] 
< :283 Anglican churches 
< :284 Protestants of Continental origin 
< :285 Presbyterian, Reformed, Congregational 
< :286 [[Baptist]], Disciples of Christ, Adventist 
< :287 [[Methodist]] & related churches 
< 
< :289 Other denominations & sects 
< :290 Other & comparative religions 
< :291 Comparative religion 
< :292 Classical (Greek & Roman) religion 
< :293 Germanic religion 
< :294 Religions of Indic origin 
< :295 Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism, Parseeism) 
< :296 Judaism 
< :297 Islam & religions originating in it 
< 
< :299 Other religions 
138,233d39
< :300 Social sciences 
< :301 Sociology & anthropology 
< :302 Social interaction 
< :303 Social processes 
< :304 Factors affecting social behavior 
< :305 Social groups 
< :306 Culture & institutions 
< :307 Communities 
< 
< :310 General statistics 
< 
< :314 General statistics Of Europe 
< :315 General statistics Of Asia 
< :316 General statistics Of Africa 
< :317 General statistics Of North America 
< :318 General statistics Of South America 
< :319 General statistics Of other parts of the world 
< :320 Political science 
< :321 Systems of governments & states 
< :322 Relation of state to organized groups 
< :323 Civil & political rights 
< :324 The political process 
< :325 International migration & colonization 
< :326 Slavery & emancipation 
< :327 International relations 
< :328 The legislative process 
< 
< :330 Economics 
< :331 Labor economics 
< :332 Financial economics 
< :333 Land economics 
< :334 Cooperatives 
< :335 Socialism & related systems 
< :336 Public finance 
< :337 International economics 
< :338 Production 
< :339 Macroeconomics & related topics 
< :340 Law 
< :341 International law 
< :342 Constitutional & administrative law 
< :343 Military, tax, trade, industrial law 
< :344 Social, labor, welfare, & related law 
< :345 Criminal law 
< :346 Private law 
< :347 Civil procedure & courts 
< :348 Law (Statutes), regulations, cases 
< :349 Law of specific jurisdictions & areas 
< :350 Public administration 
< :351 Of central governments 
< :352 Of local governments 
< :353 of U.S. federal & state governments 
< :354 Of specific central governments 
< :355 Military science 
< :356 Foot forces & warfare 
< :357 Mounted forces & warfare 
< :358 Other specialized forces & services 
< :359 Sea (Naval) forces & warfare 
< :360 Social services; association 
< :361 General social problems & services 
< :362 Social welfare problems & services 
< :363 Other social problems & services 
< :364 Criminology 
< :365 Penal & related institutions 
< :366 Association 
< :367 General clubs 
< :368 Insurance 
< :369 Miscellaneous kinds of associations 
< :370 Education 
< :371 School management; special education 
< :372 Elementary education 
< :373 Secondary education 
< :374 Adult education 
< :375 Curriculums 
< :376 Education of women 
< :377 Schools & religion 
< :378 Higher education 
< :379 Government regulation, control, support 
< :380 Commerce, communications, transport 
< :381 Internal commerce (Domestic trade) 
< :382 International commerce (Foreign trade) 
< :383 Postal communication 
< :384 Communications Telecommunication 
< :385 Railroad transportation 
< :386 Inland waterway & ferry transportation 
< :387 Water, air, space transportation 
< :388 Transportation Ground transportation 
< :389 Metrology & standardization 
< :390 Customs, etiquette, folklore 
< :391 Costume & personal appearance 
< :392 Customs of life cycle & domestic life 
< :393 Death customs 
< :394 General customs 
< :395 Etiquette (Manners) 
< 
< :398 Folklore 
< :399 Customs of war & diplomacy 
------
Sean_Connery|983179224
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sean Connery is a Scottish actor who has starred in many [[Hollywood]] films.  He was born August 25, 1930 in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]].
> 
> Connery is well known to audiences around the world from his role as [[James Bond]].  Connery first appeared as Bond in [[Dr. No]] (1962), and played Bond in several other films including:
> 
> :[[From Russia With Love]] (1963)
> :[[Goldfinger]] (1964)
> :[[Thunderball]] (1965)
> :[[You Only Live Twice]] (1967)
> :[[Diamonds Are Forever]] (1971)
> :[[Never Say Never Again]] (1983)
> 
> Connery has also appeared in other major films, including 
> :[[Finding Forrester]] (2000)
> :[[The Hunt for Red October]] (1990)
> :[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]] (1989)
> :[[The Untouchables]] (1987) (for which he won an [[Academy Award]]
> :[[The Man Who Would Be King]] (1975)
> 
> He is known, in part, for his trademark Scottish accent.
------
Sean_Connery|983179301
13a14
> :[[The Rock]] (1995)
------
Denmark|983179482
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AKA KingdomOfDenmark, q.v.
------
DenmarK|983179500
1c1
< AKA KingdomOfDenmark, q.v.
---
> #REDIRECT Denmark
------
AtlasShrugged|983179661
5c5
< The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the LaborTheoryOfValue, which was popular at the time of writing.
---
> The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
7c7
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated LibertarianCapitalism as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated [[laissez-faire capitalism]] as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
13c13
< Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no World War, and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
------
BirthofaNation|983180030
3c3
< The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the KluKluxKlan successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
---
> The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
------
StanislawLem|983184972
1c1
< Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel SolariS (1961) was filmed by Andrei Tarkovsky in 1971. StanislawLem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. StanislawLem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now Lviv, UkrainE) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in CracoW, but his studies were interrupted by World War II. During the war and NazI occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now Lviv, UkrainE) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in CracoW, but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and NazI occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
StanislawLem|983185021
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now Lviv, UkrainE) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in CracoW, but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and NazI occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
StanislawLem|983185055
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the RedArmy and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to CracoW. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
Thomas_Reid|983185253
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense.  He believed that CommonSense--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated DirectRealism, or CommonSenseRealism, and inveighed strongly against TheTheoryOfIdeas advocated by JohnLocke, ReneDescartes, and (in varying forms) nearly all EarlyModernPhilosophers who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the Scottish Enlightenment.  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the ScottishSchoolofCommonSense by ImmanuelKant and JohnStuartMill.  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of GeorgeEMoore, particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of WilliamAlston and AlvinPlantinga.
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct Realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
Alain_Connes|983185318
3c3
< Currently Full Professor at [[IHES]] (Bures sur Yvette, France).
---
> Currently Full Professor at [[IHES]] ([[Bures sur Yvette]], [[France]]).
7c7
< The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, differential geometry, made him emphasize [[Noncommutative Geometry (name of his major book to date).
---
> The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in theoretical physics, particle physics, differential geometry, made him emphasize [[Noncommutative Geometry]] (name of his major book to date).
------
IcelanD|983185383
1c1
< A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the AtlanticOcean.
---
> A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
3c3
< ReligioN is mostly christian.
---
> [[Religion]] is mostly [[Christian]].
9c9
< Area: 103.000 sq km. 
---
> Area: 103.000 sq km. 
------
Statistics|983201130
1c1,6
< Statistics is the science of [[planning observations]], [[summarizing statistical data]], and [[interpreting statistical data]]. 
---
> Statistics is the science of 
> #[[planning observations]], 
> #[[summarizing statistical data]], and 
> #[[interpreting statistical data]]. 
> 
> It is useful for anyone who is committed to learning from facts instead of authorities. Ignorance of statistics can leave one open to being lied to, cheated, and made a fool of. 
------
Interquartile_Range|983211797
9,22c9,23
< <pre>
<      i    x[i]
<      1    102
<      2    105
<     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5
<      3    106
<      4    109
<    ------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5
<      5    110
<      6    112
<    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5
<      7    115
<      8    118
< </pre>
---
> <table>
> <tr><td>i<td>x[i]</tr>
> <tr><td>1<td>102</tr>
> <tr><td>2<td>105</tr>
> <tr><td><td>----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
> <tr><td>3<td>106</tr>
> <tr><td>4<td>109</tr>
> <tr><td><td>------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
> <tr><td>5<td>110</tr>
> <tr><td>6<td>112</tr>
> <tr><td><td>------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
> <tr><td>7<td>115</tr>
> <tr><td>8<td>118</tr>
> </table>
> 
------
Interquartile_Range|983211857
13c13
< <tr><td><td>----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
---
> <tr><td><td>the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
16c16
< <tr><td><td>------------ the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
---
> <tr><td><td>the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
19c19
< <tr><td><td>------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
---
> <tr><td><td>the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
------
Interquartile_Range|983212036
9,20c9,17
< <table>
< <tr><td>i<td>x[i]</tr>
< <tr><td>1<td>102</tr>
< <tr><td>2<td>105</tr>
< <tr><td><td>the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
< <tr><td>3<td>106</tr>
< <tr><td>4<td>109</tr>
< <tr><td><td>the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
< <tr><td>5<td>110</tr>
< <tr><td>6<td>112</tr>
< <tr><td><td>the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
< <tr><td>7<td>115</tr>
---
> <table border=2/>
> <tr><td>i<td>x[i]<td></td></tr>
> <tr><td>1<td>102<td></td></tr>
> <tr><td>2<td>105<td>the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
> <tr><td>3<td>106<td></td></tr>
> <tr><td>4<td>109<td>the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
> <tr><td>5<td>110<td></td></tr>
> <tr><td>6<td>112<td>the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
> <tr><td>7<td>115<td></td></tr>
------
Interquartile_Range|983212097
9,10c9,10
< <table border=2/>
< <tr><td>i<td>x[i]<td></td></tr>
---
> <table border=1/>
> <tr><td><b>i</b><td><b>x[i]</b><td></td></tr>
------
Interquartile_Range|983212169
9,10c9,10
< <table border=1/>
< <tr><td><b>i</b><td><b>x[i]</b><td></td></tr>
---
> <table border=1>
> <tr><td><b>index</b><td><b>x[index]</b><td></td></tr>
------
Interquartile_Range|983212341
9,22c9,24
< <table border=1>
< <tr><td><b>index</b><td><b>x[index]</b><td></td></tr>
< <tr><td>1<td>102<td></td></tr>
< <tr><td>2<td>105<td>the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5</tr>
< <tr><td>3<td>106<td></td></tr>
< <tr><td>4<td>109<td>the second quartile or [[median]] or Q[2] = 109.5</tr>
< <tr><td>5<td>110<td></td></tr>
< <tr><td>6<td>112<td>the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5</tr>
< <tr><td>7<td>115<td></td></tr>
< <tr><td>8<td>118</tr>
< </table>
< 
< 
< From this table, you can see that the '''interquartile range''' is (112+115)/2 - (106+105)/2 = 8
---
> <pre>
>      i    x[i]
>      1    102
>      2    105
>     ----------- the first quartile, Q[1] = (105+106)/2 = 105.5
>      3    106
>      4    109
>    ------------ the second quartile, Q[2] or median = 109.5
>      5    110
>      6    112
>    ------------ the third quartile, Q[3] = (112+115)/2 = 113.5
>      7    115
>      8    118
> </pre>
> ----
> From this table, you can see that the '''interquartile range''' is 113.5 - 105.5 = 8
------
Variance|983212639
10c10,11
<     i   x[i]   x[i]-mean   (x[i]-mean)^2
---
>     i   x[i]   x[i]-mean     (x[i]-mean)^2
>               (deviation)  (squared deviation)
21c22
<    standard deviation = 1.897366596101
---
>    standard deviation = 1.897366596101 or 1.9
23,24d23
< 
< Note that the column of deviations sums to zero. This is always the case. 
26c25,27
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> Note that the column of deviations sums to zero. This is always the case. Note also that we round the standard deviation to one more than the number of significant digits in the mean. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Standard_Deviation|983212752
3c3
< The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. 
---
> The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. When any method of calculating the standard deviation results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Language|983221121
1c1,100
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :400 [[Language]]
> :401 Philosophy & theory 
> :402 Miscellany 
> :403 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :404 Special topics 
> :405 Serial publications 
> :406 Organizations & management 
> :407 Education, research, related topics 
> :408 With respect to kinds of persons 
> :409 Geographical & persons treatment 
> :410 [[Linguistics]] 
> :411 [[Writing systems]] 
> :412 [[Etymology]] 
> :413 [[Dictionaries]] 
> :414 [[Phonology]] 
> :415 Structural systems ([[Grammar]]) 
> 
> :417 [[Dialectology]] & [[historical linguistics]] 
> :418 [[Standard usage]] [[Applied linguistics]] 
> :419 Verbal language not spoken or written 
> :420 [[EnglishLanguage]] & Old English 
> :421 English writing system & phonology 
> :422 English etymology 
> :423 English dictionaries 
> 
> :425 [[English grammar]] 
> 
> :427 English language variations 
> :428 Standard English usage 
> :429 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> :430 [[Germanic languages]] [[German language]]
> :431 German writing system & phonology 
> :432 [[German etymology]] 
> :433 [[German dictionaries]]
> 
> :435 [[German grammar]] 
> 
> :437 German language variations 
> :438 Standard German usage 
> :439 Other Germanic languages 
> :440 Romance languages French 
> :441 [[French|FrenchLanguage]] writing system & phonology 
> :442 French etymology 
> :443 French dictionaries 
> 
> :445 French grammar 
> 
> :447 French language variations 
> :448 Standard French usage 
> :449 Provencal & Catalan 
> :450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
> :451 Italian writing system & phonology 
> :452 Italian etymology 
> :453 Italian dictionaries 
> 
> :455 Italian grammar 
> 
> :457 Italian language variations 
> :458 Standard Italian usage 
> :459 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :460 Spanish & Portugese languages 
> :461 Spanish writing system & phonology 
> :462 Spanish etymology 
> :463 Spanish dictionaries 
> 
> :465 Spanish grammar 
> 
> :467 Spanish language variations 
> :468 Standard Spanish usage 
> :469 Portugese 
> :470 Italic Latin 
> :471 Classical Latin writing & phonology 
> :472 Classical Latin etymology & phonology 
> :473 Classical Latin dictionaries 
> 
> :475 Classical Latin grammar 
> 
> :477 Old, Postclassical, Vulgar Latin 
> :478 Classical Latin usage 
> :479 Other Italic languages 
> :480 Hellenic languages Classical Greek 
> :481 Classical Greek writing & phonology 
> :482 Classical Greek etymology 
> :483 Classical Greek dictionaries 
> 
> :485 Classical Greek grammar 
> 
> :487 Preclassical & postclassical Greek 
> :488 Classical Greek usage 
> :489 Other Hellenic languages 
> :490 Other languages 
> :491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
> :492 Afro-Asiatic languages Semitic 
> :493 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages 
> :494 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> :495 Languages of East & Southeast Asia 
> :496 African languages 
> :497 North American native languages 
> :498 South American native languages 
> :499 Miscellaneous languages 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Language|983221211
42c42
< :441 [[French|FrenchLanguage]] writing system & phonology 
---
> :441 [[FrenchLanguage|French]] writing system & phonology 
51c51
< :450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
---
> :450 [[ItalianLanguage|Italian]], Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
92c92
< :491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
---
> :491 East Indo-European & [[Celtic]] languages 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Natural_sciences_and_mathematics|983221267
1c1,100
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> :500 Natural sciences & [[mathematics]] 
> :501 Philosophy & theory 
> :502 Miscellany 
> :503 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :504 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :505 Serial publications 
> :506 Organizations & management 
> :507 Education, research, related topics 
> :508 Natural history 
> :509 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :510 [[Mathematics]] 
> :511 General principles 
> :512 [[Algebra]] & [[number theory]] 
> :513 [[Arithmetic]] 
> :514 [[Topology]] 
> :515 [[Analysis]] 
> :516 [[Geometry]] 
> 
> :519 [[Probabilities]] & [[applied mathematics]] 
> :520 [[Astronomy]] & allied sciences 
> :521 [[Celestial mechanics]] 
> :522 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :523 Specific celestial bodies & phenomena 
> 
> :525 [[Earth]] (Astronomical geography) 
> :526 Mathematical geography 
> :527 [[Celestial navigation]] 
> :528 [[Ephemerides]] 
> :529 [[Chronology]] 
> :530 [[Physics]] 
> :531 [[Classical mechanics]] [[Solid mechanics]] 
> :532 [[Fluid mechanics]] [[Liquid mechanics]] 
> :533 [[Gas mechanics]] 
> :534 [[Sound]] & related vibrations 
> :535 [[Light]] & paraphotic phenomena 
> :536 [[Heat]] 
> :537 [[Electricity]] & [[electronics]] 
> :538 [[Magnetism]] 
> :539 [[Modern physics]] 
> :540 [[Chemistry]] & allied sciences 
> :541 [[Physical chemistry]] & theoretical chemistry 
> :542 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :543 [[Analytical chemistry]] 
> :544 [[Qualitative analysis]] 
> :545 [[Quantitative analysis]] 
> :546 [[Inorganic chemistry]] 
> :547 [[Organic chemistry]] 
> :548 [[Crystallography]] 
> :549 [[Mineralogy]] 
> :550 [[Earth sciences]] 
> :551 [[Geology]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]] 
> :552 [[Petrology]] 
> :553 Economic geology 
> :554 Earth sciences of Europe 
> :555 Earth sciences of Asia 
> :556 Earth sciences of Africa 
> :557 Earth sciences of North America 
> :558 Earth sciences of South America 
> :559 Earth sciences of other areas 
> :560 [[Paleontology]] [[Paleozoology]] 
> :561 [[Paleobotany]] 
> :562 Fossil invertebrates 
> :563 Fossil primitive phyla 
> :564 Fossil Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
> :565 Other fossil invertebrates 
> :566 Fossil Vertebrata (Fossil Craniata) 
> :567 Fossil cold-blooded vertebrates 
> :568 Fossil Aves (Fossil birds) 
> :569 Fossil Mammalia 
> :570 Life sciences 
> 
> :572 Human races 
> :573 [[Physical anthropology]] 
> :574 [[Biology]] 
> :575 [[Evolution]] & [[genetics]] 
> :576 [[Microbiology]] 
> :577 General nature of life 
> :578 [[Microscopy in biology]] 
> :579 Collection and preservation 
> :580 [[Botanical sciences]]
> :581 [[Botany]] 
> :582 [[Spermatophyta]] (Seed-bearing plants) 
> :583 [[Dicotyledones]] 
> :584 [[Monocotyledones]] 
> :585 [[Gymnospermae]] ([[Pinophyta]]) 
> :586 [[Cryptogamia]] ([[Seedless plants]]) 
> :587 [[Pteridophyta]] ([[Vascular cryptograms]]) 
> :588 [[Bryophyta]] 
> :589 [[Thallobionta]] & [[Prokaryotae]] 
> :590 Zoological sciences 
> :591 [[Zoology]] 
> :592 [[Invertebrates]] 
> :593 [[Protozoa]], [[Echinodermata]], related phyla 
> :594 [[Mollusca]] & [[Molluscoidea]] 
> :595 Other invertebrates 
> :596 [[Vertebrata]] ([[Craniata]], [[Vertebrates]]) 
> :597 [[Cold-blooded vertebrates]] Fishes 
> :598 [[Aves]] ([[Birds]]) 
> :599 [[Mammalia]] ([[Mammals]]) 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Technology|983221706
1c1,97
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :600 [[Technology]] ([[Applied sciences]]) 
> :601 Philosophy & theory 
> :602 Miscellany 
> :603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :604 Special topics 
> :605 Serial publications 
> :606 Organizations 
> :607 Education, research, related topics 
> :608 Invention & [[patent]]s 
> :609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :610 [[Medical sciences]] [[Medicine]] 
> :611 [[Human anatomy]], [[Human cytology]],[[Human histology]]
> :612 [[Human physiology]]
> :613 Promotion of health 
> :614 Incidence & [[prevention of disease]] 
> :615 [[Pharmacology]] & theraputics 
> :616 [[Diseases]] 
> :617 [[Surgery]] & related medical specialities 
> :618 [[Gynecology]] & other medical specialities 
> :619 [[Experimental medicine]] 
> :620 [[Engineering]] & allied operations 
> :621 [[Applied physics]] 
> :622 [[Mining]] & related operations 
> :623 [[Military engineering]] & [[nautical engineering]] 
> :624 [[Civil engineering]] 
> :625 Engineering of railroads, roads 
> 
> :627 [[Hydraulic engineering]] 
> :628 [[Sanitary engineering]] & [[municipal engineering]] 
> :629 Other branches of engineering 
> :630 [[Agriculture]] 
> :631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :632 [[Plant injuries]], [[Plant diseases]], [[Plant pests]]
> :633 Field & plantation crops 
> :634 [[Orchards]], [[fruits]], [[forestry]] 
> :635 Garden crops ([[Horticulture]]) 
> :636 [[Animal husbandry]] 
> :637 Processing dairy & related products 
> :638 [[Insect culture]] 
> :639 [[Hunting]], [[fishing]], [[conservation]] 
> :640 [[Home economics]] & family living 
> :641 [[Food]] & [[drink]] 
> :642 Meals & table service 
> :643 Housing & household equipment 
> :644 [[Household utilities]] 
> :645 [[Household furnishings]] 
> :646 [[Sewing]], [[clothing]], personal living 
> :647 Management of public households 
> :648 [[Housekeeping]] 
> :649 [[Child rearing]] & home care of sick 
> :650 Management & auxiliary services 
> :651 [[Office services]] 
> :652 Processes of written communication 
> :653 [[Shorthand]]
> 
> :657 [[Accounting]] 
> :658 General management 
> :659 [[Advertising]] & [[public relations]] 
> :660 [[Chemical engineering]] 
> :661 Industrial chemicals technology 
> :662 [[Explosives]], fuels technology 
> :663 Beverage technology 
> :664 Food technology 
> :665 Industrial oils, fats, waxes, gases 
> :666 [[Ceramic]] & allied technologies 
> :667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
> :668 Technology of other organic products 
> :669 [[Metallurgy]] 
> :670 Manufacturing 
> :671 [[Metalworking]] & metal products 
> :672 [[Iron]], [[steel]], other iron alloys 
> :673 [[Nonferrous metals]] 
> :674 [[Lumber]] processing, wood products, [[cork]] 
> :675 [[Leather processing]] & [[fur processing]]
> :676 Pulp & paper technology 
> :677 [[Textiles]] 
> :678 Elastomers & elastomer products 
> :679 Other products of specific materials 
> :680 Manufacture for specific uses 
> :681 Precision instruments & other devices 
> :682 Small forge work ([[Blacksmithing]]) 
> :683 Hardware & household appliances 
> :684 Furnishings & home workshops 
> :685 [[Leather]], [[fur]], related products 
> :686 Printing & related activities 
> :687 [[Clothing]] 
> :688 Other final products & packaging 
> 
> :690 Buildings 
> :691 Building materials 
> :692 Auxiliary construction practices 
> :693 Specific materials & purposes 
> :694 Wood construction Carpentry 
> :695 Roof covering 
> :696 [[Utilities]] 
> :697 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning 
> :698 Detail finishing 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983221726
43,142d42
< :400 Language 
< :401 Philosophy & theory 
< :402 Miscellany 
< :403 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< :404 Special topics 
< :405 Serial publications 
< :406 Organizations & management 
< :407 Education, research, related topics 
< :408 With respect to kinds of persons 
< :409 Geographical & persons treatment 
< :410 Linguistics 
< :411 Writing systems 
< :412 Etymology 
< :413 Dictionaries 
< :414 Phonology 
< :415 Structural systems (Grammar) 
< 
< :417 Dialectology & historical linguistics 
< :418 Standard usage Applied linguistics 
< :419 Verbal language not spoken or written 
< :420 English & Old English 
< :421 English writing system & phonology 
< :422 English etymology 
< :423 English dictionaries 
< 
< :425 English grammar 
< 
< :427 English language variations 
< :428 Standard English usage 
< :429 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
< :430 Germanic languages German 
< :431 German writing system & phonology 
< :432 German etymology 
< :433 German dictionaries 
< 
< :435 German grammar 
< 
< :437 German language variations 
< :438 Standard German usage 
< :439 Other Germanic languages 
< :440 Romance languages French 
< :441 French writing system & phonology 
< :442 French etymology 
< :443 French dictionaries 
< 
< :445 French grammar 
< 
< :447 French language variations 
< :448 Standard French usage 
< :449 Provencal & Catalan 
< :450 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romantic 
< :451 Italian writing system & phonology 
< :452 Italian etymology 
< :453 Italian dictionaries 
< 
< :455 Italian grammar 
< 
< :457 Italian language variations 
< :458 Standard Italian usage 
< :459 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :460 Spanish & Portugese languages 
< :461 Spanish writing system & phonology 
< :462 Spanish etymology 
< :463 Spanish dictionaries 
< 
< :465 Spanish grammar 
< 
< :467 Spanish language variations 
< :468 Standard Spanish usage 
< :469 Portugese 
< :470 Italic Latin 
< :471 Classical Latin writing & phonology 
< :472 Classical Latin etymology & phonology 
< :473 Classical Latin dictionaries 
< 
< :475 Classical Latin grammar 
< 
< :477 Old, Postclassical, Vulgar Latin 
< :478 Classical Latin usage 
< :479 Other Italic languages 
< :480 Hellenic languages Classical Greek 
< :481 Classical Greek writing & phonology 
< :482 Classical Greek etymology 
< :483 Classical Greek dictionaries 
< 
< :485 Classical Greek grammar 
< 
< :487 Preclassical & postclassical Greek 
< :488 Classical Greek usage 
< :489 Other Hellenic languages 
< :490 Other languages 
< :491 East Indo-European & Celtic languages 
< :492 Afro-Asiatic languages Semitic 
< :493 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages 
< :494 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
< :495 Languages of East & Southeast Asia 
< :496 African languages 
< :497 North American native languages 
< :498 South American native languages 
< :499 Miscellaneous languages 
146,244d45
< :500 Natural sciences & [[mathematics]] 
< :501 Philosophy & theory 
< :502 Miscellany 
< :503 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< :504 Not assigned or no longer used 
< :505 Serial publications 
< :506 Organizations & management 
< :507 Education, research, related topics 
< :508 Natural history 
< :509 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< :510 [[Mathematics]] 
< :511 General principles 
< :512 [[Algebra]] & [[number theory]] 
< :513 [[Arithmetic]] 
< :514 [[Topology]] 
< :515 [[Analysis]] 
< :516 [[Geometry]] 
< 
< :519 [[Probabilities]] & [[applied mathematics]] 
< :520 [[Astronomy]] & allied sciences 
< :521 [[Celestial mechanics]] 
< :522 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< :523 Specific celestial bodies & phenomena 
< 
< :525 [[Earth]] (Astronomical geography) 
< :526 Mathematical geography 
< :527 [[Celestial navigation]] 
< :528 [[Ephemerides]] 
< :529 [[Chronology]] 
< :530 [[Physics]] 
< :531 [[Classical mechanics]] [[Solid mechanics]] 
< :532 [[Fluid mechanics]] [[Liquid mechanics]] 
< :533 [[Gas mechanics]] 
< :534 [[Sound]] & related vibrations 
< :535 [[Light]] & paraphotic phenomena 
< :536 [[Heat]] 
< :537 [[Electricity]] & [[electronics]] 
< :538 [[Magnetism]] 
< :539 [[Modern physics]] 
< :540 [[Chemistry]] & allied sciences 
< :541 [[Physical chemistry]] & theoretical chemistry 
< :542 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< :543 [[Analytical chemistry]] 
< :544 [[Qualitative analysis]] 
< :545 [[Quantitative analysis]] 
< :546 [[Inorganic chemistry]] 
< :547 [[Organic chemistry]] 
< :548 [[Crystallography]] 
< :549 [[Mineralogy]] 
< :550 [[Earth sciences]] 
< :551 [[Geology]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]] 
< :552 [[Petrology]] 
< :553 Economic geology 
< :554 Earth sciences of Europe 
< :555 Earth sciences of Asia 
< :556 Earth sciences of Africa 
< :557 Earth sciences of North America 
< :558 Earth sciences of South America 
< :559 Earth sciences of other areas 
< :560 [[Paleontology]] [[Paleozoology]] 
< :561 [[Paleobotany]] 
< :562 Fossil invertebrates 
< :563 Fossil primitive phyla 
< :564 Fossil Mollusca & Molluscoidea 
< :565 Other fossil invertebrates 
< :566 Fossil Vertebrata (Fossil Craniata) 
< :567 Fossil cold-blooded vertebrates 
< :568 Fossil Aves (Fossil birds) 
< :569 Fossil Mammalia 
< :570 Life sciences 
< 
< :572 Human races 
< :573 [[Physical anthropology]] 
< :574 [[Biology]] 
< :575 [[Evolution]] & [[genetics]] 
< :576 [[Microbiology]] 
< :577 General nature of life 
< :578 [[Microscopy in biology]] 
< :579 Collection and preservation 
< :580 [[Botanical sciences]]
< :581 [[Botany]] 
< :582 [[Spermatophyta]] (Seed-bearing plants) 
< :583 [[Dicotyledones]] 
< :584 [[Monocotyledones]] 
< :585 [[Gymnospermae]] ([[Pinophyta]]) 
< :586 [[Cryptogamia]] ([[Seedless plants]]) 
< :587 [[Pteridophyta]] ([[Vascular cryptograms]]) 
< :588 [[Bryophyta]] 
< :589 [[Thallobionta]] & [[Prokaryotae]] 
< :590 Zoological sciences 
< :591 [[Zoology]] 
< :592 [[Invertebrates]] 
< :593 [[Protozoa]], [[Echinodermata]], related phyla 
< :594 [[Mollusca]] & [[Molluscoidea]] 
< :595 Other invertebrates 
< :596 [[Vertebrata]] ([[Craniata]], [[Vertebrates]]) 
< :597 [[Cold-blooded vertebrates]] Fishes 
< :598 [[Aves]] ([[Birds]]) 
< :599 [[Mammalia]] ([[Mammals]]) 
247,344d47
< 
< :600 Technology (Applied sciences) 
< :601 Philosophy & theory 
< :602 Miscellany 
< :603 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< :604 Special topics 
< :605 Serial publications 
< :606 Organizations 
< :607 Education, research, related topics 
< :608 Invention & patents 
< :609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< :610 Medical sciences Medicine 
< :611 Human anatomy, cytology, histology 
< :612 Human physiology 
< :613 Promotion of health 
< :614 Incidence & prevention of disease 
< :615 Pharmacology & theraputics 
< :616 Diseases 
< :617 Surgery & related medical specialities 
< :618 Gynecology & other medical specialities 
< :619 Experimental medicine 
< :620 Engineering & allied operations 
< :621 Applied physics 
< :622 Mining & related operations 
< :623 Military & nautical engineering 
< :624 Civil engineering 
< :625 Engineering of railroads, roads 
< 
< :627 Hydraulic engineering 
< :628 Sanitary & municipal engineering 
< :629 Other branches of engineering 
< :630 Agriculture 
< :631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< :632 Plant injuries, diseases, pests 
< :633 Field & plantation crops 
< :634 Orchards, fruits, forestry 
< :635 Garden crops (Horticulture) 
< :636 Animal husbandry 
< :637 Processing dairy & related products 
< :638 Insect culture 
< :639 Hunting, fishing, conservation 
< :640 Home economics & family living 
< :641 Food & drink 
< :642 Meals & table service 
< :643 Housing & household equipment 
< :644 Household utilities 
< :645 Household furnishings 
< :646 Sewing, clothing, personal living 
< :647 Management of public households 
< :648 Housekeeping 
< :649 Child rearing & home care of sick 
< :650 Management & auxiliary services 
< :651 Office services 
< :652 Processes of written communication 
< :653 Shorthand 
< 
< :657 Accounting 
< :658 General management 
< :659 Advertising & public relations 
< :660 Chemical engineering 
< :661 Industrial chemicals technology 
< :662 Explosives, fuels technology 
< :663 Beverage technology 
< :664 Food technology 
< :665 Industrial oils, fats, waxes, gases 
< :666 Ceramic & allied technologies 
< :667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
< :668 Technology of other organic products 
< :669 Metallurgy 
< :670 Manufacturing 
< :671 Metalworking & metal products 
< :672 Iron, steel, other iron alloys 
< :673 Nonferrous metals 
< :674 Lumber processing, wood products, cork 
< :675 Leather & fur processing 
< :676 Pulp & paper technology 
< :677 Textiles 
< :678 Elastomers & elastomer products 
< :679 Other products of specific materials 
< :680 Manufacture for specific uses 
< :681 Precision instruments & other devices 
< :682 Small forge work (Blacksmithing) 
< :683 Hardware & household appliances 
< :684 Furnishings & home workshops 
< :685 Leather, fur, related products 
< :686 Printing & related activities 
< :687 Clothing 
< :688 Other final products & packaging 
< 
< :690 Buildings 
< :691 Building materials 
< :692 Auxiliary construction practices 
< :693 Specific materials & purposes 
< :694 Wood construction Carpentry 
< :695 Roof covering 
< :696 Utilities 
< :697 Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning 
< :698 Detail finishing 
------
What_Google_Likes|983223832
1c1
< The following list shows hits from Google over the past couple of days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
---
>  Updated 2/26/2001
3,6c3,16
<   16    RosaParks
<   10    ThomasEdison
<    7    RoseParks
<    3    WikiWiki
---
> The following list shows hits from Google over the past 8 days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
> I have made a loose adjustment to partially correct for people
> clicking the same link over and over.
> 
>   44    RosaParks
>   15    ThomasEdison
>    9    WikiWiki
>    7    GermanY
>    7    BillClinton
>    4    RoseParks
>    4    RhodeIsland
>    4    PhiloSophy
>    4    OldTestament
>    3    PitcairnIsland
8,11c18,24
<    3    BillClinton
<    2    ThomasReid
<    2    PhiloSophy
<    2    OldTestament
---
>    3    HiStory
>    3    EuroCurrency
>    3    BoMis
>    3    /robots.txt
>    2    TopOlogy
>    2    TheRecorder
>    2    PhilZimmermann
13,28c26,30
<    1    TheRecorder
<    1    StandardPoodle
<    1    ScienCe
<    1    RhodeIsland
<    1    RationalNumbers
<    1    PitcairnIsland
<    1    PhilZimmermann
<    1    JavaJini
<    1    JarsOfClay
<    1    GeorgeWBush
<    1    FidDle
<    1    EuroCurrency
<    1    CommonSense
<    1    CoBoL
<    1    BoMis
<    1    AustraliA
---
>    2    FidDle
>    2    EuropE
>    2    BronzeAge
>    2    AlTruism 
> 
31,39d32
< ----
< Odd you should mention hits from Google. I was looking thru my stats today and noticed a hit from [http://www.google.com/search?q=bomis&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=10&sa=N Google] It was to the Wildlife Ring but gave me credit. :-) 
<  WcGing
< ----
< Is someone looking for me? Seven searches? RoseParks
< ----
< One major flaw in my study is that it doesn't correct for unique ips.  It looks like one person clicked through the same link 7 times, I believe. 
< ----
< The fact that these particular pages are so popular might be related to the fact that, for whatever reason, people are mashing *these* particular words together when they search using Google.  When we've converted our links to [[free links]], and Google has picked up on this, then [[What Google Likes]] will be much more interesting. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
What_Google_Likes|983223868
21d20
<    3    /robots.txt
------
GermanY|983224445
1c1
< Germany is a major IndustrializedCountry in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany).
---
> Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
3c3
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: SchleswigHolstein, MecklenburgVorpommern, NiederSachsen, HamburG, BremeN, NordrheinWestfalen, HesseN, SachsenAnhalt, BrandenburG, BerliN, Hessen, ThüringeN, Sachsen, RheinlandPfalz, SaarlanD, BadenWürtemberg, BayerN. 
---
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Wurtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
5c5
< It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, CzechRepublic, in the south to the SwitzerlanD and AustriA  and in the West to the NetherlandS, FrancE, LuxembourG and BelgiuM.
---
> It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, [[Czech Republic]], in the south to the [[Switzerland]] and AustriA  and in the West to the [[NetherlandSs], FrancE, [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
7c7
< There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  inclusive  7.3 million foreigners.
---
> There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  including 7.3 million foreigners.
9c9
< Germany takes part in the NATO, the EuropeanUnion and the EuroCurrency.
---
> Germany takes part in the [[NATO]], the [[European Union]] and the EuroCurrency.
11c11
< Before G. was unified under OttoVonBismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
---
> Before Germany was unified under Otto Von Bismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
13c13
< Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After G. was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army (TreatyOfVersailles). 1918 the German emperor WilliamTheSecond resigned and the Weimar Republic constitutes itself. 
---
> Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[William The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
15c15
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party(KPD) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews (HolocausT), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started WorldWarTwo by occupying PolanD 1939. 
---
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews ([[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War Two]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
17c17
< At the PotsdamConference 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland, aka WestGermany) and the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
---
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
19c19
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by WestGermany, as the new country kept the name Bundesrepublik Deutschland, used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
---
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
21c21
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in Internet access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
---
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
25c25
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is MunicH (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "OktoberfesT."
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
------
What_Google_Likes|983224526
6a7,8
> (Also note that I have seen alltheweb.com and Inktomi spidering the site, so within the next couple of weeks, they should pick us up as well.)
> 
------
WikiWiki|983224638
9a10,13
> 
> The particular Wiki you are looking at is [[Wikipedia]], an effort to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We're currently writing at a pace of about
> 1200 new pages per month, although it seems that the pace is
> actually accelerating.
------
Wikipedia|983224729
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?
> 
> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for more information, see HowDoesOneEditaPage.  The articles don't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
> 
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the WikiPediaFaq for answers to many questions.
------
WikiPedia|983224752
1,5c1
< WikiPedia is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?
< 
< We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for more information, see HowDoesOneEditaPage.  The articles don't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
< 
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the WikiPediaFaq for answers to many questions.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia]]
------
Actors/Talk|983224813
31c31
< Is this stealing your last word, if I only agree with what you've said?  It occurred to me late last night (wikipedia is keeping me up at night!) that you are absolutely right when you say that
---
> Is this stealing your last word, if I only agree with what you've said?  It occurred to me late last night ([[Wikipedia]] is keeping me up at night!) that you are absolutely right when you say that
51c51
<  �<-MyBox
---
>   ?<-MyBox
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|983229031
2a3
> :[[O Brother Where Are Thou]]
------
O_Brother_Where_Are_Thou|983229117
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film made in 2000 by the [[Coen Brothers]].
> 
> /ReviewSummaries
------
O_Brother_Where_Are_Thou/ReviewSummaries|983229313
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [Used by permission from [http://movies.bomis.com Bomis Movie Report] -- I (JimboWales) say feel free to use anything from there on Wikipedia.]
> 
> This is great news for all the [[Coen brothers]] fans out there in internet land. A new one from the finest young American film
> makers. It's called "O Brother, Where Art Thou" and if you
> don't like it.. there must be something wrong with you, so see it
> again until you get it.
> 
> Reelviews' reviewer says he is a fan of the C-bros, but that this movie isn't among their best. It's quirky and has funny moments, but the road portion of the movie just takes too long.
> 
> [[Variety]] doesn't think it'll gross a whole hell of a lot, but they do admire the film, calling it a 'modest technical marvel'. Not too much is said about the singing, however.
> 
> The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, blues, and bluegrass dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
------
TheRecorder|983229827
1c1
< Recorder (German: Blockflöte; French: Flûte à Bec; Italian Flauto Dolce). A fipple flute, i.e. one with a mouthpiece enabling the breath to be directed at the edge without having to form an embouchure with the lips.  Known in the 18th century simply as Flute = Flauto - the transverse form was separately referred to as Traverso.  It was for the recorder that J.S. Bach wrote the 4th Brandenburg concerto in G major (though Thurston Dart controversially suggested that it was intended for flageolets at a higher pitch, and in a recording under Neville Marriner using Dart's editions it was played an octave higher than usual on sopranino recorders.
---
> Recorder (German: Blockflöte; French: Flûte à Bec; Italian Flauto Dolce). A fipple flute, i.e. one with a mouthpiece enabling the breath to be directed at the edge without having to form an embouchure with the lips.  Known in the 18th century simply as Flute = Flauto - the transverse form was separately referred to as Traverso.  It was for the recorder that [[J.S. Bach]] wrote the 4th [[Brandenburg concerto]] in G major (though [[Thurston Dart]] controversially suggested that it was intended for flageolets at a higher pitch, and in a recording under [[Neville Marriner]] using Dart's editions it was played an octave higher than usual on sopranino recorders.
3c3
< The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by Gluck in his opera Orfeo ed Euridice.  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, Arnold Dolmetsch.  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
---
> The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by [[Gluck]] in his opera [[Orfeo ed Euridice]].  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, [[Arnold Dolmetsch]].  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
------
William_Shakespeare|983230889
1c1
< Describe the new page here.WilliamShakespeare was a playwright and actor in England.  He predominantly wrote between 1485 and 1510.  For how well respected he is today, remarkably little is actually known of his life.  This fact accounts for the many theories on who, other than the actor William Shakespeare, wrote the works.  However, Shakespeare's reputation--as a poet and dramaturgist--has ebbed and flowed over the past five centuries.
---
> William Shakespeare was a playwright and actor in [[England]].  He predominantly wrote between 1485 and 1510.  For how well respected he is today, remarkably little is actually known of his life.  This fact accounts for the many theories on who, other than the actor William Shakespeare, wrote the works.  However, Shakespeare's reputation--as a poet and dramaturgist--has ebbed and flowed over the past five centuries.
4,7c4,7
< :ShakespeareanTragedies
< :ShakespeareanComedies
< :ShakespeareanHistories
< :ShakespeareanRomances
---
> :[[Shakespearean Tragedies]]
> :[[Shakespearean Comedies]]
> :[[Shakespearean Histories]]
> :[[Shakespearean Romances]]
10,11c10,11
< :ShakespeareanSonnets
< :ShakespeareanLongPoetry
---
> :[[Shakespearean Sonnets]]
> :[[Shakespearean Long Poetry]]
------
Gnutella|983231322
3a4,5
> 
> The most popular Gnutella clients (at the moment) are BearShare and [[Limewire]].
------
BearShare|983231512
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BearShare is a popular [[Gnutella]] client software package from a company called [[Free Peers, Inc.]].  BearShare runs under [[Windows]] and is not [[free software]] in the sense of [[GNU]], although it is free to download.
> 
------
Tiffani-Amber_Thiessen|983235086
3c3,8
< Her first big break in show business was her role on the [[television]] program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
---
> Her first big break in show business was her role on the [[television]] program [[Saved By The Bell]], as a nice girl teen.  This was very different from her next major role, as a duplicitous vixen on [[Beverly Hills, 90210]].  
> 
> Her transition to movies has not gone well so far, as most of her movies, including [[Love Stinks]], have been awful.  This may change soon, as it has just been announced that she will be joining the cast of an upcoming film by [[Woody Allen]].
> 
> 
> She is slated to return to television in 2001, with a program named after her:  [[Something About Tiffani]].
------
AstroNomy|983235696
1,33c1
< AstroNomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between StaR""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneT""s, that move between stars.
< GreeK PhilosopheR""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the SuN and the MooN. The one most remembered through the MiddleAges was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous JohannesKepler and GalileoGalilei. 
< 
< Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
< 
< Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpot""s, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
< 
< IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
< earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
< found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
< into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
< the 20th century research.
< 
< At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
< decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of SpectralLines
< were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
< Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
< observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
< to unique elements. It was proved that the ElementS found on the
< sun were also found on earth. 
< 
< During the 20th century SpectroMetry (the study of these lines)
< advanced.
< 
< (to be continued)
<  
< Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
< With the help of the use of PhotoGraphy, fainter objects were 
< observed. Our sun was found to be part of a Galaxy made by more
< than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
< own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy]]
------
Larry_Sanger|983239581
42c42,44
< Folks, I've had a lot of fun with WikiPedia this week (Feb. 11-16 or so) but I am going to have to start limiting the time I spend on it, so I can work more diligently on NuPedia.  :-)  -- Larry
---
> Folks, I've had a lot of fun with WikiPedia this week (Feb. 11-16 or so) but I am going to have to start limiting the time I spend on it, so I can work more diligently on NuPedia.  :-)  -- Larry
> ----
> Seems so quiet around here lately...no thanks to me, of course.  Well, I'm hard at work on the latest update to Nupedia's policy statement, which will be fully integrated with Nupedia's system.  When that's done, I'll have plenty more time to spend on Wikipedia, perhaps an hour or two a day. -- Larry
------
Science|983240419
2,8c2,8
< * AnaTomy
< * PhysioLogy
< * TaxoNomy
< * OntoGeny
< * PalaeontoLogy
< * EcoLogy
< * GeNetics
---
> * [[Anatomy]]
> * [[Physiology]]
> * [[Taxonomy]]
> * [[Ontogeny]]
> * [[Paleontology]]
> * [[Ecology]]
> * [[Genetics]]
------
Science|983240468
13,14c13,14
< * ChemiStry
< * GeoLogy
---
> * [[Chemistry]]
> * [[Geology]]
17,18c17,18
< * ArtificialIntelligence
< * DistributedComputing
---
> * [[Artificial Intelligence]]
> * [[Distributed Computing]]
------
AtlasShrugged/John_Galt|983242392
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
> 
> There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/JohnGalt|983242415
1,3c1
< The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
< 
< There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/John Galt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983242449
11c11
<  /JohnGalt
---
>  [[/John Galt|John Galt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/PatrickHenryUniversity|983242820
1c1
< The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by /JohnGalt, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|983242842
3c3
< The leader of the Strikers is /JohnGalt.
---
> The leader of the Strikers is [[/John Galt|John Galt]].
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983242867
38c38
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, /JohnGalt and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
AtlasShrugged/Lillian_Rearden|983243191
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
> 
> Lillian Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN121
------
AtlasShrugged/LillianRearden|983243220
1,5c1
< The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
< 
< Lillian Rearden appears in:
< 
<  /SectioN121
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Lillian Rearden]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243272
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by [[Ayn Rand]], first published in 1957.
> 
> Readers should be warned that Atlas Shurgged is a mystery novel, and that this section and its numerous subsections contain a vast amount of information that will spoil the mystery.
> 
> The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
> 
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated [[laissez-faire capitalism]] as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
> 
> Rand also argues that, since independence and individual achievement drive the world, these things are virtues and should be central to a rational moral code.  She rejects the view that self-sacrifice is a virtue.  These ethical considerations are prominent in AtlasShrugged.
> 
> <b>Setting:</b>
> 
> Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
> 
> Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the /UnitedStates.
> 
> [added by TimShell]
> 
> ----
> 
> * /Characters
> * /Companies
> * /Concepts
> * /Conflicts
> * /Places
> * /Structure
> * /Symbolism
> * /Technology
> * /Things
> * /TopicsOfNote
> * /Food
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243323
5c5
< The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
---
> The theme of Atlas Shrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In Atlas Shrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
7c7
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated [[laissez-faire capitalism]] as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
---
> Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated [[laissez-faire capitalism]] as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make Atlas Shrugged a highly political book.
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243359
9c9
< Rand also argues that, since independence and individual achievement drive the world, these things are virtues and should be central to a rational moral code.  She rejects the view that self-sacrifice is a virtue.  These ethical considerations are prominent in AtlasShrugged.
---
> Rand also argues that, since independence and individual achievement drive the world, these things are virtues and should be central to a rational moral code.  She rejects the view that self-sacrifice is a virtue.  These ethical considerations are prominent in Atlas Shrugged.
15c15
< Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the /UnitedStates.
---
> Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the [[/United States]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243372
13c13
< Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|983243401
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
>  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  [[/John Galt|John Galt]]
>  /LillianRearden
>  /Looters
>  /McNamara
>  /MysteryWorker
>  /NewsstandOwner
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /OwenKellogg
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden
>  /ReardensMother
>  /RichardHalley
>  /Strikers
>  /WesleyMouch
> ----
> * Very minor characters
>  /BartendeR
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  /BumNumber1
>  /ChiefEngineer
>  /ClarenceEddington
>  /ConductoR
>  /DagnysFather
>  /DagnysMother
>  /EngineeR
>  /FiremaN
>  /FranciscosFather
>  /GilbertVail
>  [[/James Taggarts Secretary|James Taggart's Secretary]]
>  /JockBenson
>  /JulesMott
>  /LizBlane
>  /MrAyers
>  /MrsBeacham
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /MrsNathanielTaggart
>  /NathanielTaggart
>  /PassengerNumber1
>  /PassengerNumber2
>  /PassengerNumber3
>  /PassengerNumber4
>  /PopHarper
>  /PresidentofULW
>  /SebastianDAnconia
>  /WaiteR
>  /WorkerNumber1
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243434
21c21
< * /Characters
---
> * [[/Characters|Characters]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243475
13c13
< Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /Section152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983243488
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> 
> In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
> 
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
> 
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
> 
> That summer, when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
> 
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
> 
> After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
> 
> When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
> 
> 
> * Setting
> Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnysFather
>  /DagnysMother
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
>  /FranciscosFather
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
>  /SebastianDAnconia
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243853
13c13
< Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /Section152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In [[/Section152|Section152]] the population of [[/New York|New York]] is given as 7 million.  The historical [[/New York City|New York City]] reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
15c15
< Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the [[/United States]].
---
> Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the [[/United States|United States]].
22,31c22,31
< * /Companies
< * /Concepts
< * /Conflicts
< * /Places
< * /Structure
< * /Symbolism
< * /Technology
< * /Things
< * /TopicsOfNote
< * /Food
---
> * [[/Companies|Companies]]
> * [[/Concepts|Concepts]]
> * [[/Conflicts|Conflicts]]
> * [[/Places|Places]]
> * [[/Structure|Structure]]
> * [[/Symbolism|Symbolism]]
> * [[/Technology|Technology]]
> * [[/Things|Things]]
> * [[/Topics of note|Topics of note]]
> * [[/Food|Food]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_York|983243874
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
> 
> It appears in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN113
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN141
>  - /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Technology|983243923
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Real-world technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
>  Airplanes
>  Automobile
>  Diesel engines
>  Phonograph records
>  Radio
>  Telephone
> 
> <b>Fictional technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
>  /ReardenMetal
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged|983243964
13c13
< Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In [[/Section152|Section152]] the population of [[/New York|New York]] is given as 7 million.  The historical [[/New York City|New York City]] reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In [[/Section152|Section152]] the population of [[/New York|New York]] is given as 7 million.  The historical [[/New York City|New York City]] reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century [[/Technology|Technology]] in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_States|983243987
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States is the setting of AtlasShrugged.  While almost every other nation has become a socialist "People's State", the United States remains the last country with some semblance of a free economy.  This is rapidly changing, and the book follows the United States as it gradually beomes a "People's State" itself.
> 
> The United States is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN132
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|983244011
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  /AyersMusicPublishingCompany
>  /AssociatedSteel
>  /DAnconiaCopper
>  /PhoenixDurango
>  /ReardenCoal
>  /ReardenLimestone
>  /ReardenOre
>  /ReardenSteel
>  /TaggartTranscontinental
>  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks
>  /WyattOil
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Concepts|983244031
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Important concepts in AtlasShrugged:
> 
>  /SanctionOfTheVictim
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|983244058
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Places mentioned in Atlas Shrugged:
> 
>  /Algeria
>  /Andes
>  /Argentina
>  /Arizona
>  /BuenosAries
>  /California
>  /Chicago
>  /Chile
>  /Cleveland
>  /Colorado
>  /CheyenneWyoming
>  /ElPasoTexas
>  /FifthAvenue
>  /HudsonRiver
>  /Louisiana
>  /Madrid
>  /Mexico
>  /MexicoCity
>  /MiddleWest
>  /Minnesota
>  /Montana
>  /NewJersey
>  /NewMexico
>  /NewYork
>  /Ohio
>  /Pennsylvania
>  /Philadelphia
>  /Redding (Connecticut?)
>  /Rockdale
>  /SanFrancisco
>  /Spain
>  /UnitedStates
>  /Valparaiso
>  /Washington
>  /Wilmington (Delaware?)
>  
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983244081
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
> 
> ----
> Part 1 - Non-Contradiction
> 
> Chapter 1  - The Theme
>  - section 1 (/SectioN111)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN112)
>  - section 3 (/SectioN113)
>  - section 4 (/SectioN114)
> 
> Chapter 2  - The Chain
>  - section 1 (/SectioN121)
> 
> Chapter 3  - The Top and the Bottom
>  - section 1 (/SectioN131)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN132)
>  - section 3 (/SectioN133)
> 
> Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
>  - section 1 (/SectioN141)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN142)
>  - section 3 (/SectioN143)
>  - section 4 (/SectioN144)
>  - section 5 (/SectioN145)
>  - section 6 (/SectioN146)
>  - section 7 (/SectioN147)
>  - section 8 (/SectioN148)
> 
> Chapter 5  - The Climax of the D'Anconias
>  - section 1 (/SectioN151)
>  - section 2 (/SectioN152)
> 
> Chapter 6  - The Non-Commercial
> 
> Chapter 7  - The Exploiters and the Exploited
> 
> Chapter 8  - The John Galt Line
> 
> Chapter 9  - The Sacred and the Profane
> 
> Chapter 10 - Wyatt's Torch
> ----
> Part 2 - Either-Or
> 
> Part 3 - A Is A
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|983244115
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  /AntiDogEatDogRule
>  /Bracelet
>  /CubClub
>  /FriendsofGlobalProgress
>  /HalleysFifthConcerto
>  /HalleysFourthConcerto
>  /MoesDelicatessan
>  /NationalAllianceofRailroads
>  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries
>  /PatrickHenryUniversity
>  /Phaethon
>  /ReardenMetal
>  /RioNorteLine
>  /RockdaleStation
>  /SanSebastian
>  /SanSebastianLine
>  /SanSebastianMines
>  /TaggartBuilding
>  /TaggartComet
>  /TheVultureIsMolting
>  /WayneFalklandHotel
>  /WyattOilFields
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|983244141
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Atlas
> As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
> 
> * Crime
> 
> Common street crime is conspicuously absent in AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
> 
> * Historical figures and events
> 
> AtlasShrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
> 
> #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
> #<b>Inquisition</b> (/SectioN152): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
> #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
> #<b>Patrick Henry</b> (/SectioN152): The eponym of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
> 
> * Humor
> 
> #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
> 
> #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
> 
> * Lying
> The sympathetic characters of AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
> 
> # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
> # In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
> # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
> 
> * Religion
> 
> In /SectioN152 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
> 
> * Social classes
> 
> Rand is sometimes called an elitist.  This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness.  She did not favor the rich over the poor, or the high-born over the low-born.  She favored the men of virtue over those who lacked virtue.  Throughout AtlasShrugged, virtue is equated with creative ability.
> 
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|983244165
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The food of Atlas Shrugged.  Yes, the food of Atlas Shrugged.
> 
> <b>Liverwurst</b>: In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
> 
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
> 
------
Direct_realism|983244366
1c1
< A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or RepresenationAlism, which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
---
> A theory of perception that claims that the senses provide us with direct awareness of the external world. This is contrasted with IndirectRealism or [[representationalism]], which claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional idioms of perceptions (JlAustin is well known for arguing this). Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favor of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a magical, acausal mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the GeneticFallacy.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|983244521
12,24c12,24
<  /LillianRearden
<  /Looters
<  /McNamara
<  /MysteryWorker
<  /NewsstandOwner
<  /OrrenBoyle
<  /OwenKellogg
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /PhilipRearden
<  /ReardensMother
<  /RichardHalley
<  /Strikers
<  /WesleyMouch
---
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Looters|Looters]]
>  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]
>  [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]]
>  [[/Newsstand Owner|Newsstand Owner]]
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
>  [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]]
>  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
>  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
>  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's Mother]]
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]]
>  [[/Strikers|Strikers]]
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]]
27,38c27,38
<  /BartendeR
<  /BoardofDirectors
<  /BumNumber1
<  /ChiefEngineer
<  /ClarenceEddington
<  /ConductoR
<  /DagnysFather
<  /DagnysMother
<  /EngineeR
<  /FiremaN
<  /FranciscosFather
<  /GilbertVail
---
>  [[/Bartender|Bartender]]
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]
>  [[/Bum Number 1|Bum Number 1]]
>  [[/Chief Engineer|Chief Engineer]]
>  [[/Clarence Eddington|Clarence Eddington]]
>  [[/Conductor|Conductor]]
>  [[/Dagnys Father|Dagny's Father]]
>  [[/Dagnys Mother|Dagny's Mother]]
>  [[/Engineer|Engineer]]
>  [[/Fireman|Fireman]]
>  [[/Franciscos Father|Francisco's Father]]
>  [[/Gilbert Vail|Gilbert Vail]]
40,56c40,56
<  /JockBenson
<  /JulesMott
<  /LizBlane
<  /MrAyers
<  /MrsBeacham
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /MrsNathanielTaggart
<  /NathanielTaggart
<  /PassengerNumber1
<  /PassengerNumber2
<  /PassengerNumber3
<  /PassengerNumber4
<  /PopHarper
<  /PresidentofULW
<  /SebastianDAnconia
<  /WaiteR
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
>  [[/Jock Benson|Jock Benson]]
>  [[/Jules Mott|Jules Mott]]
>  [[/Liz Blane|Liz Blane]]
>  [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]]
>  [[/Mrs. Beacham|Mrs. Beacham]]
>  [[/Mrs. Gilbert Vail|Mrs. Gilbert Vail]]
>  [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart]]
>  [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]]
>  [[/Passenger Number 1|Passenger Number 1]]
>  [[/Passenger Number 2|Passenger Number 2]]
>  [[/Passenger Number 3|Passenger Number 3]]
>  [[/Passenger Number 4|Passenger Number 4]]
>  [[/Pop Harper|Pop Harper]]
>  [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]]
>  [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]]
>  [[/Waiter|Waiter]]
>  [[/Worker Number 1|Worker Number 1]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Betty_Pope|983244542
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
> 
> Betty Pope appears in:
>  /SectioN142
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Betty_Pope|983244570
4c4
<  /SectioN142
---
>  /Section142
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section142|983244581
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *Plot summary
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
> ----
> * Setting
> The apartment of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].
> ----
> * Characters
>  [[/Betty Pope]]
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /JockBenson
>  /JulesMott
>  /LizBlane
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Betty_Pope|983244599
4c4
<  /Section142
---
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Brakeman|983244626
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears /Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
> 
> Later, after [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagny_Taggart|983244648
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main character in AtlasShrugged (also the name of /MrsNathanielTaggart).
> 
> Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
> 
> Dagny appears in the following sections:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN113
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN147
>  /SectioN148
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dan_Conway|983244677
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the /AntiDogEatDogRule is used to drive his business out of /Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
> 
> Don Conway appears in:
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggart|983244709
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
> 
> James Taggart appears in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Brakeman|983244843
1c1
< An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
---
> An unnamed brakeman working on the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]].  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
3c3
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears /Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says [[/Halleys Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]].  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] points out that [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] only wrote four concertos, [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
5c5
< Later, after [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> Later, after [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].
8,9c8,9
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/Section112|Section112)
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/Section113|Section113)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Brakeman|983244859
8,9c8,9
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/Section112|Section112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/Section113|Section113)
---
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 [[/Section112|Section112]]
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 [[/Section113|Section113]]
------
SoCrates|983244871
3c3
< Socrates was what we today would euphamistically call a "street person".  He was not a land owner but instead wandered the streets talking to people, and getting food from kind citizens.  His attire was archaic-grunge, so to speak.  
---
> Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
5c5
< Socrates taught PlaTo, who in turn taught ArisTotle, and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
---
> Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in [[Platos Dialogues]] (most of which were written in [[Socratic dialogue]] form), but also [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristophanes]].
7c7
< Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in PlatosDialogues (most of which were written in SocraticDialogue form), but also XenoPhon and AristoPhanes.
---
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
9,15c9
< Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray, held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  (Sound familiar?  Yes, this story has been reenacted in part or in whole, time and time again; those who do not learn from history are most certainly bound to repeat it.)  Socrates died at the age of 70.
< 
< ''Note: Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.''
< 
< ''In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.''
< 
< ''All in all: the jury chose wrong, and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it is wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he, nor the jury, was really at fault.  The above text should probably reflect this.''
---
> /[[The Trial of Socrates]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Comet|983244877
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Taggart Comet is /TaggartTranscontinental's flagship train.  It runs from /NewYork to /SanFrancisco and has never been late.
> 
> The Taggart Comet appears in:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN113
>  /SectioN152
------
The_Trial_of_Socrates|983244885
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
> 
> In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
> 
> All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
------
SoCrates|983244928
7,9c7
< Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
< 
< /[[The Trial of Socrates]]
---
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see /[[The Trial of Socrates]]
------
SoCrates|983244947
7c7
< Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see /[[The Trial of Socrates]]
---
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
------
SoCrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|983244959
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Halleys_Fifth_Concerto|983244971
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /Brakeman on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
> 
> Later, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
> 
> Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN112
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
The_Trial_of_Socrates|983244979
1,5c1
< Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
< 
< In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
< 
< All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
---
> 
------
SoCrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|983244991
1c1,7
< Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
---
> Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
> 
> Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
> 
> In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
> 
> All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Richard_Halley|983244995
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph.
> 
> In  /SectioN141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer.  At age 24 his opera /Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it.  For years he wrote in obscurity.  After 19 years, /Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was recieved to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard.  It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval.  The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared.
> 
> Richard Halley appears in:
>  /SectioN112 - Mentioned prominently.
>  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN141 - Mentioned prominently.
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Transcontinental|983245016
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The railroad run by [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
> 
> Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
------
SoCrates|983245021
1,7c1
< Socrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, is famous for a great many things.  Arguably, his most important contribution to Western thought is something that has come to be known as the ''SocraticMethod''--a method of asking questions of a person in order to lead the person into contradicting himself--which laid the foundation for all later rational Western thought.  Closely associated with Socrates' use of his method is his desire to discover the ''logos,'' or true nature or essence, of a thing (or concept).  For example, in the ''Euthyphro'' Socrates asks a religious man, who believes he knows what piety is, to clarify the concept.
< 
< Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
< 
< Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in [[Platos Dialogues]] (most of which were written in [[Socratic dialogue]] form), but also [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristophanes]].
< 
< Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Socrates]]
------
Socrates|983245029
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Socrates (470 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Greek philosopher, is famous for a great many things.  Arguably, his most important contribution to Western thought is something that has come to be known as the ''SocraticMethod''--a method of asking questions of a person in order to lead the person into contradicting himself--which laid the foundation for all later rational Western thought.  Closely associated with Socrates' use of his method is his desire to discover the ''logos,'' or true nature or essence, of a thing (or concept).  For example, in the ''Euthyphro'' Socrates asks a religious man, who believes he knows what piety is, to clarify the concept.
> 
> Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
> 
> Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in [[Platos Dialogues]] (most of which were written in [[Socratic dialogue]] form), but also [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristophanes]].
> 
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section112|983245039
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
> ----
> * Setting
> Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /Brakeman
>  /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
>  /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
>  /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
>  /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
>  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What was the /Brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section113|983245060
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /Brakeman watches her tensely.
> ----
> * Setting
> Taggart Terminal
> ----
> * Characters
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  /Brakeman
> 
------
SoCrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245065
1,7c1
< Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
< 
< Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
< 
< In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
< 
< All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
---
> 
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245081
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
> 
> Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
> 
> In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
> 
> All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
------
PhiloSophy|983245120
13c13
< ThePresocratics -- SoCrates -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
---
> ThePresocratics -- [[Socrates]] -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
------
LarrysText|983245149
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Larry's Text]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larrys Text]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagny_Taggart|983245366
1c1
< The main character in AtlasShrugged (also the name of /MrsNathanielTaggart).
---
> The main character in [[Atlas Shrugged]] (also the name of [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart).
3c3
< Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
---
> Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad.
6,17c6,17
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN113
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN145
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN147
<  /SectioN148
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section112|Section112]]
>  [[/Section113|Section113]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section133|Section133]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  [[/Section147|Section147]]
>  [[/Section148|Section148]]
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Earth_Sciences|983245396
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], perhaps [[Environmental Sciences]], and other sciences.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagny_Taggart|983245409
1c1
< The main character in [[Atlas Shrugged]] (also the name of [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart).
---
> The main character in [[Atlas Shrugged]] (also the name of [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Nathaniel_Taggart|983245429
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132 and in /SectioN152.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] namesake.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagny_Taggart|983245446
1c1
< The main character in [[Atlas Shrugged]] (also the name of [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart]].
---
> The main character in [[Atlas Shrugged]] (also the name of [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart]]).
------
Biology|983245448
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See BiologicalScience (which should probably be moved to [[Biology]]).
------
SoCrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245472
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
------
The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245507
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Socrates/TheTrialofSocrates]]
------
The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245517
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Socrates/TheTrialofSocrates]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Socrates/TheTrialOfSocrates]]
------
The_Trial_of_Socrates|983245532
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Socrates/TheTrialOfSocrates]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
------
Anthropology|983245575
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anthropology is the study of human beings.  There are two main branches: [[Physical Anthropology]], which is the study of the human body and its evolution, and [[Cultural Anthropology]], which is the study of human cultures (often non-technologically developed cultures).
> 
> (The above was not written by an anthropologist.  We need an anthropologist to improve this area.)
------
CategorySchemes|983245618
54a55,56
> ----
> [[Dewey Decimal System]]
------
Archaeology|983245657
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Archaeology is the study of what can be learned about human cultures, often extinct human cultures, from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).
------
CategorySchemes|983245667
56c56
< [[Dewey Decimal System]]
---
> The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
------
Sociology|983245694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sociology is the study of human society, particularly its ills and their causes.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section114|983245740
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
> ----
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors: Mentioned.
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
>  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
>  /OwenKellogg
> ----
> * Mysteries
> What is it that makes /OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
> 
> 
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|983245760
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
> 
> * Plot summary
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
> ----
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  /DagnysFather
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
>  /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
>  /NewsstandOwner
>  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
> ----
> * Symbolism
> The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section133|983245781
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
> 
> The cafeteria is described as follows:  "The cafeteria lay underground.  It was a large room with walls of white tile that glittered in the reflections of electric lights and looked like silver brocade.  It had a high ceiling, sparkling counters of glass and chromium, a sense of space and light."
> 
> This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /SectioN131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
> 
> ----
> * Setting
> The employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.
> ----
> * Characters
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  /MysteryWorker
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]: Mentioned.
>  /McNamara: Mentioned.
>  /RichardHalley: Mentioned.
> 
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|983245812
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The history of science and technology is fascinating and an integral part of human history.  It is the story of inventors, scientists, geniuses--their repression--and the often reluctant adaptation of the world to their innovations.
> 
> One of the most important inventors that has ever lived was [[Thomas Edison]].
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|983245907
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|983245969
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
> ----
> * Setting
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] apartment.
> ----
> * Foreshadow
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
> ----
> 
> The folowing characters appear in /SectioN141:
> 
>  /ChiefEngineer
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
>  /GilbertVail
>  /McNamara - Mentioned.
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /PresidentofULW
>  /RichardHalley 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section145|983245991
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting of the /NationalAllianceofRailroads and the office of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
> 
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors 
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /OrrenBoyle
------
Agricultural_Science|983246000
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Agricultural science'' is an incredibly broad, multi-disciplinary field that encompasses botany, geology (soil science), economics, sociology, and other fields.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section146|983246012
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting in an unspecified location, presumably in /NewYork.
> 
> * Characters:
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]: Mentioned.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section147|983246031
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
> 
> Wyatt states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the /SanctionOfTheVictim.  Thus Ellis Wyatt is a sharp contrast to [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the /AntiDogEatDogRule represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
> 
> * Setting
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Characters
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section148|983246048
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
> 
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]].  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
> 
> * Setting
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] office at /ReardenSteel.
> 
> * Characters
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /Looters - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section151|983246065
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
> 
> * Setting
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
> 
> * Characters
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
------
Communication|983246124
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Communication'' can be treated as indicating something like language and a subject unto itself, or as the name of a field of study.
> 
> ''Communication'' as a field of study is relatively new.  Arguably, it encompasses [[journalism]], [[media studies]] (which might include the study of television, radio, and film), and [[rhetoric]], among other fields.
------
Library_and_Information_Science|983246216
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Library science is, it seems, the study of stuff having to do with libraries.  Information science, on the other hand, is the study of how to organize information in general.
> 
> (The person who wrote the above knows nothing about what he's talking about.  If you know more, please replace this with something more accurate!)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dan_Conway|983246277
1c1
< Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the /AntiDogEatDogRule is used to drive his business out of /Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
---
> Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad.  Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows.  When the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing.  He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority.  When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be.  He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up.
3,6c3,6
< Don Conway appears in:
<  /SectioN145
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
---
> Dan Conway appears in:
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  [[/Section148|Section148]] - Mentioned.
------
Health_Sciences|983246285
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[veterinary science]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
> 
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Phoenix-Durango|983246303
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
> 
> The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN145
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN147
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Anti-dog-eat-dog_Rule|983246335
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
> 
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is dicussed in:
>   /SectioN145
>   /SectioN146
>   /SectioN148
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Colorado|983246357
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinental's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
> 
> Mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN111
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN145
>  - /SectioN146
>  - /SectioN147
>  - /SectioN148
------
Family_and_Consumer_Science|983246359
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Family and Consumer Science'' is one of the more current names for what used to be called [[home economics]].  It involves the study of nutrition, child-rearing, and other useful aspects of home management.
------
Family_and_Consumer_Science|983246389
1c1,3
< ''Family and Consumer Science'' is one of the more current names for what used to be called [[home economics]].  It involves the study of nutrition, child-rearing, and other useful aspects of home management.
---
> ''Family and Consumer Science'' is one of the more current names for what used to be called [[home economics]].  It involves the study of nutrition, child-rearing, and other useful aspects of home management.
> 
> Contrary to popular belief, the advanced degree one received in this discipline is ''not'' the Mrs.
------
Public_Affairs|983246480
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Public affairs'' is a catch-all term that includes [[public policy]] as well as [[public administration]], both of which are closely related to and draw upon the fields of [[Political Science]] as well as [[Economics]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Eddie_Willers|983246587
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  Eddie Willers grew up with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps.  He is completely loyal to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  He is also secretly in love with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  He is meant to be a sympathetic character.
> 
> Eddie Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man.
> 
> Eddie Willers appears in:
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section111|983246606
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
> ----
> * Setting
> Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
Classics|983246616
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of ancient Greece and Rome.
> 
> GreekMythology
------
Critical_Theory|983246638
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We're not sure what critical theory is, so we hope someone will come and tell us.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ellis_Wyatt|983246691
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ellis Wyatt is the head of [[/Wyatt Oil]].  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]] by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
> 
> Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in:
>  - [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  - [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  - [[/Section147|Section147]] - First appearance.
>  - [[/Section148|Section148]]
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ellis_Wyatt|983246708
1c1
< Ellis Wyatt is the head of [[/Wyatt Oil]].  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]] by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
---
> Ellis Wyatt is the head of [[/Wyatt Oil|Wyatt Oil]].  He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]] by discovering a way of extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned.
------
Sculpture|983246710
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Sculpture'' is the art of shaping stone, metal, wood, and other materials in a particular way, for a particular purpose, but we have a hard time distinguishing it from architecture and other arts like ceramics.  We hope someone will come and enlighten us...
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil|983246723
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
> 
> [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
------
Performing_Arts|983246762
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[music]], and some other arts.  All great stuff!
------
Performing_Arts|983246794
1c1
< The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[music]], and some other arts.  All great stuff!
---
> The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], and some other arts.  All great stuff!
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983246800
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> test
------
Theater_and_Drama|983246815
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[theater]] and [[drama]] individually.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983246820
1c1,193
< test
---
> A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
> 
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He took over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
> 
> When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
> 
> His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.
> 
> Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152 - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
> 
> ---
> * According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
> 
> ----
> Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
> 
> Frank O'Connor
> 
> Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
> passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
> Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
> 
> As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
> blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
> to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
> he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
> Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
> roles for him into every one of her books.
> 
> At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
> books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
> first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
> and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
> features and stature.
> 
> With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
> difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
> was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
> aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
> into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
> self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
> aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
> character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
> missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
> 
> John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
> had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
> that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
> male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
> the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
> plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
> his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
> variation on Frank's name.
> 
> Ayn Rand's Father
> 
> The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
> as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
> compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
> some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
> man from her own life: her father.
> 
> Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
> his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
> Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
> than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
> enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
> the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
> Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
> Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
> impossible situation."
> 
> Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
> until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
> aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
> life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
> taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
> pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
> father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
> reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
> a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
> tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
> 
> An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
> alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
> Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
> selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
> - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
> day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
> destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
> belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
> Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
> that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
> aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
> 
> The Jewish Grandees
> 
> Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
> and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
> exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
> wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
> the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
> Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
> practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
> job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
> test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
> suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
> the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
> Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
> the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
> father the Devil".
> 
> To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
> Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
> aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
> distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
> descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
> Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
> practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
> found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
> still needed a business and a name.
> 
> Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
> 
> The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
> that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
> when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
> to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
> American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
> American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
> Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
> a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
> businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
> family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
> nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
> centurion in "King of Kings".
> 
> The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
> wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
> readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
> Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
> Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
> secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
> Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
> "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
> "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
> sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
> 
> A Grandee's Hannukah
> 
> Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
> flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
> aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
> the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
> sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
> had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
> when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
> "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
> melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
> 
> "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
> playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
> of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
> carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
> wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
> who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
> be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
> behind enemy lines.
> 
> In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
> their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
> objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
> would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
> instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
> servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
> rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
> hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
> 
> From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
> there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
> anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
> idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
> to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
> in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
> have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
> role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
> Dagny is the clueless one.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983246912
17d16
< * According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html) D'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself.) Adam Reed writes:
18a18
> According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).  See [[/Who Is Francisco dAnconia|Who Is Francisco D'Anconia?]]
------
Hobbies|983246947
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I would love someone to give us a good definition of ''hobby''.
> 
> Hobbies include:
> * Collecting
> ** [[Coin collecting]]
> ** [[Stamp collecting]]
> * [[Gardening]]
> * Antiquing (what's the word?)
> * [[Cooking]] of course
> * [[MuSic]]
> 
> Etc.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Who_Is_Francisco_dAnconia|983246974
1c1,174
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
> 
> Frank O'Connor
> 
> Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
> passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
> Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
> 
> As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
> blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
> to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
> he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
> Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
> roles for him into every one of her books.
> 
> At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
> books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
> first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
> and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
> features and stature.
> 
> With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
> difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
> was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
> aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
> into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
> self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
> aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
> character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
> missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
> 
> John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
> had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
> that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
> male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
> the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
> plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
> his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
> variation on Frank's name.
> 
> Ayn Rand's Father
> 
> The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
> as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
> compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
> some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
> man from her own life: her father.
> 
> Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
> his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
> Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
> than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
> enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
> the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
> Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
> Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
> impossible situation."
> 
> Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
> until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
> aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
> life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
> taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
> pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
> father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
> reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
> a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
> tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
> 
> An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
> alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
> Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
> selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
> - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
> day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
> destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
> belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
> Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
> that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
> aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
> 
> The Jewish Grandees
> 
> Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
> and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
> exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
> wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
> the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
> Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
> practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
> job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
> test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
> suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
> the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
> Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
> the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
> father the Devil".
> 
> To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
> Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
> aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
> distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
> descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
> Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
> practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
> found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
> still needed a business and a name.
> 
> Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
> 
> The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
> that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
> when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
> to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
> American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
> American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
> Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
> a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
> businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
> family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
> nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
> centurion in "King of Kings".
> 
> The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
> wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
> readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
> Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
> Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
> secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
> Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
> "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
> "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
> sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
> 
> A Grandee's Hannukah
> 
> Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
> flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
> aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
> the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
> sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
> had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
> when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
> "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
> melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
> 
> "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
> playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
> of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
> carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
> wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
> who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
> be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
> behind enemy lines.
> 
> In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
> their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
> objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
> would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
> instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
> servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
> rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
> hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
> 
> From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
> there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
> anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
> idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
> to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
> in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
> have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
> role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
> Dagny is the clueless one.
> 
------
Tourism|983247022
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's countries, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc.
------
Chemistry|983247075
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983247183
18,193c18
< According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] (see http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).  See [[/Who Is Francisco dAnconia|Who Is Francisco D'Anconia?]]
< ----
< Who is Francisco D'Anconia?
< 
< Frank O'Connor
< 
< Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
< passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
< Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
< 
< As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
< blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
< to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
< he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
< Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
< roles for him into every one of her books.
< 
< At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
< books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
< first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
< and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
< features and stature.
< 
< With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
< difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
< was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
< aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
< into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
< self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
< aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
< character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
< missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
< 
< John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
< had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
< that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
< male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
< the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
< plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
< his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
< variation on Frank's name.
< 
< Ayn Rand's Father
< 
< The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
< as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
< compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
< some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
< man from her own life: her father.
< 
< Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
< his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
< Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
< than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
< enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
< the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
< Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
< Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
< impossible situation."
< 
< Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
< until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
< aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
< life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
< taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
< pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
< father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
< reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
< a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
< tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
< 
< An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
< alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
< Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
< selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
< - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
< day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
< destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
< belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
< Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
< that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
< aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
< 
< The Jewish Grandees
< 
< Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
< and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
< exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
< wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
< the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
< Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
< practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
< job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
< test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
< suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
< the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
< Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
< the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
< father the Devil".
< 
< To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
< Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
< aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
< distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
< descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
< Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
< practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
< found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
< still needed a business and a name.
< 
< Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
< 
< The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
< that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
< when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
< to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
< American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
< American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
< Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
< a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
< businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
< family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
< nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
< centurion in "King of Kings".
< 
< The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
< wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
< readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
< Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
< Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
< secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
< Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
< "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
< "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
< sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
< 
< A Grandee's Hannukah
< 
< Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
< flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
< aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
< the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
< sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
< had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
< when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
< "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
< melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
< 
< "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
< playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
< of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
< carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
< wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
< who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
< be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
< behind enemy lines.
< 
< In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
< their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
< objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
< would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
< instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
< servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
< rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
< hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
< 
< From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
< there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
< anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
< idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
< to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
< in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
< have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
< role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
< Dagny is the clueless one.
< 
---
> According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ( [[http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html link), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).  See [[/Who Is Francisco dAnconia|Who Is Francisco D'Anconia?]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983247200
18c18
< According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ( [[http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html link), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).  See [[/Who Is Francisco dAnconia|Who Is Francisco D'Anconia?]]
---
> According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ( [http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html link]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (of course not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).  See [[/Who Is Francisco dAnconia|Who Is Francisco D'Anconia?]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/SanSebastianMines|983248205
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
> 
> The San Sebastian Mines appear in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|983248239
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
> 
> The San Sebastian Mines appear in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN151
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/SanSebastianMines|983248267
1,9c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
< 
< The San Sebastian Mines appear in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/San Sebastian Mines]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Francisco_dAnconia|983248593
1c1
< A central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the /SanSebastianMines, and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
---
> A central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  Francisco d'Anconia is, by all accounts, a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
3c3
< Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at /PatrickHenryUniversity, he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for /DAnconiaCopper as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the /NewYork office.  He took over D'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.
---
> Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business.  While still a student at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market.  By the time he was 20 he had made enough to purchase the foundary.  He began working for [[/dAnconia Copper|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in [[/Montana|Montana]], but was quickly promoted to head of the [[/New York|New York]] office.  He took over [[/dAnconia Copper|d'Anconia Copper]] at age 23, after the death of his [[/Franciscos Father|father]].
5c5
< When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the /Strikers and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the /Looters could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
---
> When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the [[/Strikers|Strikers]] and began to slowly destroy the D'Anconia empire so the [[/Looters|Looters]] could not get it.  He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.
10,14c10,14
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152 - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
---
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section144|Section144]]
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]] - This section includes a detailed history of his life.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Patrick_Henry_University|983248680
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/dAnconia_Copper|983248707
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
> 
> D'Anconia Copper is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Montana|983248727
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with /DAnconiaCopper.  
> 
> It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Franciscos_Father|983248759
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]].  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] was 23.
> 
> He appears in /SectioN152.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Strikers|983248777
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence.
> 
> The leader of the Strikers is [[/John Galt|John Galt]].
> 
> Other /Strikers include:
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
>  /RagnarDanneskjold
>  /RichardHalley
> 
> Characters who join the /Strikers in the course of the book include:
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  /McNamara
>  /OwenKellogg
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|983248797
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged, sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
> 
> The Looters include:
>  /FloydFerris
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /LillianRearden
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden.
>  /WesleyMouch
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section144|983248818
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> /OrrenBoyle meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
> 
> * Setting
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] office.
> 
> * Characters
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  [[/James Taggarts Secretary|James Taggart's Secretary]]
> 
------
Biology|983249519
1c1,11
< See BiologicalScience (which should probably be moved to [[Biology]]).
---
> The study of life and the processes thereof.  Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry]] and [[Genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy]], [[Physiology]], and [[Ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology]].
> 
> One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including of course the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].
> 
> The classification of living things is called [[Taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.  Customarily living things are divided into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
> 
> * Kingdom [[Monera]] - all the [[Prokaryote]] groups: bacteria, etc.
> * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]]: protozoa, algae, etc.
> * Kingdom [[Plantae]] - green algae & plants
> * Kingdom [[Fungi]] - chytrids & fungi
> * Kingdom [[Animalia]] - animals
------
BiologicalScience|983249584
1,9c1
< The study of life and the processes thereof.
< 
< For pages on the many diverse forms of life themselves, explore the five kingdoms:
< * KingdomMonera
< * KingdomProtista
< * KingdomFungi
< * KingdomPlantae
< * KingdomAnimalia
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Biology]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Gwen_Ives|983249706
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gwen Ives is [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] secretary.
> 
> Gwen Ives is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN121
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Gwen_Ives|983249729
4c4
<  - /SectioN121
---
>  - [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|983249748
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
> ----
> * Setting
> /ReardenSteel mills in /Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
> ----
> * Characters
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  /LillianRearden
>  /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
>  /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
>  /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /PhilipRearden
>  /ReardensMother
>  /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|983249782
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.  He lives in /Philadelphia with his wife /LillianRearden, his brother /PhilipRearden, and an elderly woman known only as /ReardensMother, all of whom he supports.
> 
> Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131 - Mentioned and alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN147
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|983249811
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
> 
> There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|983249889
1c1
< The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
---
> The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]].  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the [[/Strikers|Strikers]].  He is also the same character as [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]].
------
AtlasShrugged/Mystery_Worker|983249916
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
> 
> /MysteryWorker appears in:
>  /SectioN133
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mystery_Worker|983249944
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
> 
> /MysteryWorker appears in:
>  /SectioN133
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|983249992
1,4c1
< /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
< 
< /MysteryWorker appears in:
<  /SectioN133
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Mystery Worker]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|983250040
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
> 
> Lillian Rearden appears in:
> 
>  /SectioN121
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|983250068
5c5
<  /SectioN121
---
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Science|983250118
1,8c1
< BiologicalScience
< * [[Anatomy]]
< * [[Physiology]]
< * [[Taxonomy]]
< * [[Ontogeny]]
< * [[Paleontology]]
< * [[Ecology]]
< * [[Genetics]]
---
> Science is a method of study devoted to understanding the universe through repeated observation and experimentation.  [[Mathematics]], [[Computer science]], and [[Technology]] are sometimes treated as sciences, but not here, since they don't fit the usual definition.
10,12c3,4
< PhysicalScience
< * PhysIcs
< * AstroNomy
---
> Physical & Biological Sciences
> * [[Physics]]
14c6,14
< * [[Geology]]
---
> * [[Biology]]
> * [[Astronomy]]
> * [[Earth Sciences]]
> 
> Social Sciences
> * [[Anthropology]]
> * [[Sociology]]
> * [[Psychology]]
> * [[Archaeology]]
16,28c16
< ComputerScience
< * [[Artificial Intelligence]]
< * [[Distributed Computing]]
< * ProgramMing
< 
< ''Does ComputerScience actually belong here?  Science is typically the process of understanding how the mechanisms of the natural world work through empirical study.  ComputerScience is more building things, engineering, and a little theoretical mathematics.  It should get its own category, I think.  -JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< I am happy calling Computer Science a science.  Perhaps I am too liberal, since I see even greater lacunae above:  where are the social sciences? Psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science?  The fact is, in many ways the word "science" is more a word of ideology, the way it is often used.  A fairly top level page should somewhere explain this, and then perhaps deal instead not with science, or technology, or the humanities, but instead the concept of ''discipline''.   All of the above mentioned are at least that.  Then we can define breakdowns of disciplines, along at least three lines: science/humanities and theoretical/practical, empirical/conceptual and show the somewhat contentious and fuzzy classification of the disciplines. 
< 
< With this classification, computer science is a mixture dealing with the practical in many cases (software engineering), but in other cases the conceptual rather than the empirical (computability), and in still other cases with other parts of this division.  --CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< I agree that there are lots of missing topics here. --[[Dick Beldin]]
---
> See [[History of Science and Technology]] for an understanding of how these fields came to be.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|983250132
1c1
< A group of characters that are the bad guys in AtlasShrugged, sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> A group of characters that are the bad guys in [[Atlas Shrugged]], sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
4c4
<  /FloydFerris
---
>  [[/FloydFerris|FloydFerris]]
6,10c6,10
<  /LillianRearden
<  /OrrenBoyle
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /PhilipRearden.
<  /WesleyMouch
---
>  [[/LillianRearden|LillianRearden]]
>  [[/OrrenBoyle|OrrenBoyle]]
>  [[/PaulLarkin|PaulLarkin]]
>  [[/PhilipRearden|PhilipRearden]]
>  [[/WesleyMouch|WesleyMouch]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|983250208
4c4
<  [[/FloydFerris|FloydFerris]]
---
>  [[/Floyd Ferris|Floyd Ferris]]
6,10c6,10
<  [[/LillianRearden|LillianRearden]]
<  [[/OrrenBoyle|OrrenBoyle]]
<  [[/PaulLarkin|PaulLarkin]]
<  [[/PhilipRearden|PhilipRearden]]
<  [[/WesleyMouch|WesleyMouch]]
---
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
>  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
>  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|983250218
5,7c5,7
< * PerL
< * PythoN
< * RubY
---
> * [[Perl]]
> * [[Python]]
> * [[Ruby]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Orren_Boyle|983250242
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  He is one of the /Looters.  He is an investor in the /SanSebastianMines.
> 
> Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN144
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Chemistry|983250243
1c1
< The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.
---
> The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.  For a listing of the different elements, see the [[Periodic Table]].  There isn't a history section here yet, but there is a page on the predecessor of chemistry, [[Alchemy]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Paul_Larkin|983250267
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
> 
>  Paul Larkin appears in:
>   /SectioN121
>   /SectioN132
------
Alchemy|983250270
1c1,448
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Who were the alchemists of the Middle Ages and what did they believe in?'''
> 
> This question defies a simple answer, as the alchemists were different
> things at different times.  Also, different historians have postulated
> different interpretations of these ancient scientists.  By carefully
> examining these different perspectives in relation to their historical
> contexts it will be possible to identify the alchemists as they existed
> in the Middle Ages.
> 
> To gain a thorough understanding of the alchemists, this paper will
> first briefly look at the origins of alchemy in Egypt and Greece, then
> trace its development in the Middle East.  Once this background has been
> laid out, a systematic examination of the medieval development of the
> alchemical art will be commenced, emphasizing the role of individuals and
> identifying the changing characteristics that defined alchemy.  For the sake
> of continuity, a brief look at alchemy's degeneration and death in the
> Renaissance will be taken.  But first, a general overview of the
> prevalent ideas about the alchemists should be addressed.
> 
> Ask the common man on the street what the alchemists were, and one
> will hear that they were pseudo-scientists who attempted to turn lead
> into gold, believed everything was composed of the four elements earth,
> air, fire, and water, and who believed in mystical-magical nonsense.
> This is about the limit of most people's understanding of the art, but
> for a single sentence definition it is not altogether incorrect.
> 
> For a deeper understanding of alchemy, one might turn to a chemistry
> textbook.  But according to a college textbook used at the University of
> Southern California, "By about 400 B.C. [the Greeks] had proposed that
> all matter was composed of four fundamental substances:  fire, earth,
> water, and air...  The next 2000 years of chemical history were
> dominated by a pseudo-science called alchemy.  Alchemists were often
> mystics and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap
> metals into gold."  (Zumdahl pg. 38)  So much for a deeper
> understanding.
> 
> Historians of a more occultist bent look at the alchemists as true
> magicians who actually accomplished the work of transforming lead into
> gold.  beyond this, occultists see the alchemists as religious mystics
> who tried to discover the secret of purifying man's soul through
> learning about the workings of nature.  (Edwards, p. 17; Gettings,
> p. 13)
> 
> Another view looks at the alchemists in a more philosophical way;
> alchemists were religious reformers who worked in secret and used
> chemical terms in a secret code that really referred to theological and
> philosophical beliefs to escape persecution from the church of their
> day.  (Hitchcock, pp. iii-x; Burckhard, pp 28-31)
> 
> Of course it should be possible to use bits and pieces of each of these
> theories to assemble a realistic idea of what the alchemists were, but
> before this is done a question arising from these theories must be
> addressed:  Where do these diverse theories come from?  The answer lies
> in the writings put forth by the alchemists themselves.  The best way to
> describe how confusion should arise is to give an example taken from an
> alchemical writer:
> 
>     Concerning the Nature and Properties of Mercury.
> 
>     ALL THINGS ARE concealed in all.  One of them all is the concealer
>     of the rest- their corporeal vessel, external, visible, and
>     movable.  All liquifactions are manifested in that vessel.  For
>     the vessel is a living and corporeal spirit, and so all coagulations
>     or congelations enclosed in it, when prevented from flowing and
>     surrounded, are not therewith content.  (Paracelsus, p. 415)
> 
> One can understand how confusion can arise.  This writer was said to
> have been fairly clear in his writings.  This passage was not really
> about mercury, but about the human body.  In any case, the alchemists
> intentionally wrote cryptically.  It seems to have been a hallmark of
> their art.  Artiphius, a medieval alchemist, refers to this by writing,
> "Is it not recognized that [alchemy] is... passed on orally, and is full
> of secrets?...  Are you so simple as to believe that we would clearly
> and openly teach the greatest and most important of all secrets, with
> the result that you would take our words literally?" (Burckhardt, p28)
> This is only one of many examples in which alchemical writers refer to
> the cryptic phrasings of their works.  It is almost a tradition among
> the alchemists and can be traced back to the Greek founders of the Art.
> The "cipher" was passed on from teacher to student orally, and
> unfortunately the "code" to decipher these texts has been lost.  Modern
> historical interpretations invariably differ as to exactly what the
> alchemists were writing about.   (Burckhardt, pp.30-3)
> 
> 
> '''History and Development of Alchemy'''
> 
> Alchemy's origins are shrouded in the mists of time, but can be traced
> clear back to the ancient Egyptians.  Metallurgy and mysticism were
> inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the techniques of
> turning ugly ores into an almost holy metal seemed to be a priestly
> art.  In fact, alchemy in Egypt was the domain of the priest class.
> (Burckhardt, p.15)
> 
> Legend has it that the founder of alchemy was a man named Thoth or
> Hermes.  According to these Egyptian legends, Thoth wrote forty-two
> books on knowledge, covering law, medicine, alchemy, etc.  Over time,
> Thoth, if he even existed at all, came to be regarded as a god by the
> Egyptians.  Even later, as Egyptian knowledge passed to the Greeks,
> Thoth was called Hermes Trismegistus, or Hermes the thrice-greatest.
> (Lindsay, pp. 160-9)  The work of Hermes, often referred to in early
> alchemical texts is, sadly, completely lost to modern scholars.  It is possible that it perished with the library at Alexandria, along with so much written material of the time.
> However, Hermes' "Emerald Table" has been transmitted through Arab
> sources.  It is generally understood that the twelve principles
> expounded in the manuscript formed the basis for alchemy, called the
> heremitical philosophy by the early alchemists.
> 
> The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of heremitical
> science:  "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is
> like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is
> below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing."  (Burckhardt, p. 196-7)
> 
> This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic
> philosophy.  In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected
> by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens
> through astrology, and the earth through the elements.  (Burckhardt,
> p. 34-42)
> 
> The Greeks appropriated the heremitical beliefs and added
> pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism.  Pythagorean philosophy is
> basically the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from
> the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles.
> Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be
> explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy
> was developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral
> part of alchemy.  The third component introduced to heremitical
> philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the
> pre-Christian and early post-Christian Roman Empire.  Gnosticism was the
> conviction that earthly matter is evil and that learning about the nature
> of spiritual matter would lead to salvation.  By the end of the Roman Empire these
> philosophies had been joined to the heremitical philosophies of the
> Egyptians.  (Lindsay)
> 
> At this point alchemy moved east to be taken up by the Arabs, but before
> moving on, Augustinian views of science should be illustrated, as they had
> a profound impact on Western thought up until the retransmission of Arab
> philosophy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.  Saint Augustine was
> an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before
> the fall of the Roman Empire.  In essence, he felt that reason and faith
> could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil:
> "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense,
> a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure
> in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this
> empty curiosity is dignified by the names of learning and science."
> (Augustine, p. 245)  Augustinian ideas were decidedly
> anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelean experimental techniques were
> made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still, Augustinian
> thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show
> alchemy as being un-Godly.
> 
> Much work was done on the development of alchemy by the Arabs but it
> shall only be summarized here for the sake of brevity.  Much more is
> known about Islamic alchemy because more was written down.  In
> Alexandria, where much of the alchemical work was done in the Roman
> Empire, the art was mainly oral and little was committed to paper for
> the sake of secrecy.  (Lindsay, p. 155)  It is possible that some
> writing was done in Alexandria and was subsequently lost or destroyed in
> fires and the turbulent periods that followed.
> 
> In any case, most of the earliest writings that have come down through
> the years are Islamic texts.  (Burckhardt p. 46)
> 
> The Arab world was a melting pot for alchemy.  Platonic and Aristotelean
> thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into heremitical
> science, continued to be assimilated.  One very important Aristotelean
> idea was that of the four elements: earth, air, water, and fire.
> According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged
> and to which it would return if left undisturbed.  (Lindsay, p. 16)  Alchemists
> adapted this a little:  The four elements were really qualitative
> aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are.
> "...true alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal
> or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word.  The four
> elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of
> which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies
> first reveals itself in differentiated form."  (Hitchcock, p. 66)
> Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence
> of god were also absorbed.
> 
> Of the many Arab heremitic philosophers, Jabir ibn-Hayyn of the eighth
> century was the most noteworthy.  To Aristotelean physics he added the
> four properties of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.
> (Burkhardt, p. 29)  Each element was characterized by these qualities:
> Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist,
> and air hot and moist.  In metals two of these qualities were interior
> and two were exterior.  For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was
> hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of
> one metal, a different metal would result.  (Burckhardt, p. 29)
> 
> By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced
> to the west.  The search for the stone, or grand elixir, had originated
> from China, most scholars believe, and was supposed to have the added
> effect of being able to make one immortal.  (Edwards, p. 38)  It is not
> known how much Chinese alchemy was added to the Islamic version of the
> Art, but that Chinese theories influenced Arabic scientists has been
> commonly accepted.  (Edwards pp. 33-59; Burckhardt, p. 10-22)
> 
> Likewise, Hindu learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again
> the extent and effects of this fact have not been researched to any worthwhile
> extent.  An eleventh century alchemist named Alberuni testified to the
> existence of Hindu alchemy saying that they "have a science similar to
> alchemy which is quite peculiar to them.  They call it Rasayana.  it
> means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs,
> compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants.  its
> principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and
> gave back youth to fading old age."  Islamic numerology was also taken
> by the Arabs, but assimilation of this into alchemy was left for the
> European alchemists of the Renaissance.  (Lindsay p. 87-8; Edwards,
> p. 28)
> 
> Arabic beliefs were intrinsically tied to Islamic alchemy, and when
> Europeans appropriated the philosophies of the Arabs, alchemy came along
> for the ride, so to speak.  Because these beliefs had originated from a
> Christian society they were not too difficult to adapt to Christian
> theology.  Gerbert of Arillac (d. 1003) was among the first to bring
> Islamic science to Europe from Spain.  Later men such as Adelard of Bath
> (d. 1144) brought additional learning.  But until the thirteenth century
> the moves were mainly assimilative.  (Hollister p. 124, 294)
> 
> There were some exceptions to this trend.  Saint Anselm (1033-1109) was
> an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine
> and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth
> the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged
> rationalism in a Christian context.  His views set the stage for the
> philosophical explosion to occur.  Saint Abelard followed Anselm's
> work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works
> of Aristotle reached the West.  His major influence on alchemy was his
> belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence
> outside of man's consciousness.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
> philosophical contradictions.  (Hollister, p. 287-8)
> 
> Robert Grosseteste (1170-1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory
> that would later be used and refined by the alchemists.  he took
> Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
> experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
> Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
> thinking.  (Hollister pp. 294-5)
> 
> Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinus (1225-
> 1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and
> worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy
> and Christianity.  Aquinas also did a great deal of work
> in developing the scientific method.  He even went so far
> as to claim that universals could only be discovered 
> through reasoning:  this ran contrary to the commonly held
> Platonic belief that universals were found through divine 
> illumination alone.  Magnus and Aquinas were among the 
> first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and
> could be considered to be alchemists themselves, but for
> the fact that these two did little in the way of
> experimentation.  One major contribution of Aquinas was 
> the belief that since reason could not run in opposition 
> to God, reason must be compatible to theology.  (Hollister
> p. 290-4, 355)
> 
> The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger
> Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's
> did for chemistry and Galileo's did for astronomy and
> physics.  Bacon (121401294) was an Oxford Franciscan who
> explored optics, languages, and alchemy.  The Franciscan
> ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the
> world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
> important than reasoning:  "Of the three ways in which men
> think that they acquire knowledge of things - authority,
> reasoning, and experience - only the last is effective and
> able to bring peace to the intellect."  (Bacon p. 367)
> "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
> other sciences.  It reveals truths which reasoning from 
> general principles would never have discovered."
> (Hollister p. 294-5)  Roger Bacon has also been attributed
> with originating the search for the philosopher's stone
> and the elixir of life:  "That medicine which will remove
> all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals
> will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of
> the corruptibility of the body that human life may be
> prolonged for many centuries."  The idea of immortality
> was replaced with the notion of long life; after all,
> man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for
> immortality in the world of God.  Immortality on Earth did
> not mesh with Christian theology.  (Edwards p. 37-8)
> 
> Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle
> ages, but he was the most significant.  His works were
> used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through
> nineteenth centuries.  Other alchemists of Bacon's time
> shared several traits.  First, and most obviously, nearly
> all were members of the clergy.  This was simply because
> few people outside the parochial schools had the education
> to examine the Arabic-derived works.  Also, alchemy at
> this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method
> of exploring and developing theology.  Alchemy was
> interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it
> offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were
> just beginning to learn about rationalism.  (Edwards
> p. 24-7)
> 
> So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had 
> developed into a fairly structured system of belief.
> First and foremost, the alchemists were all true 
> Christians.  They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm 
> theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that
> processes that affect minerals and other substances could
> have an effect on the human body (i.e., if one could learn
> the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique
> to purify the human soul.)  These men believed the 
> philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of
> purifying base metals (and thereby transmuting them to
> gold) as well as purifying the soul.  They believed in the
> four elements and the four qualities as described above,
> and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written
> ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to
> mislead the uninitiated.  Finally, the alchemists
> practiced their art: they actively experimented with
> chemicals and made observations and theories about how the
> universe operated.  Their entire philosophy revolved
> around their belief that man's soul was divided within
> himself after the fall of Adam.  By purifying the two
> parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.
> (Burckhardt p. 149)
> 
> But in the fourteenth century, all this was to 
> change.  William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died
> in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility
> between faith and reason.  His view, widely
> accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith
> alone; He could not be limited by human reason.  Of
> course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually
> erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and 
> fifteenth centuries.  (Hollister p. 335)  Pope John XXII in 
> the early 1300's issued an edict against alchemy, which 
> effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of
> the Art (the inquisition didn't help, either.)  (Edwards, p.49)
> 
> Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel,
> who was not noteworthy except for the fact that he was one
> of the few alchemists writing in those times of war,
> plague, famine, and persecution.  Flamel lived from 1330
> to 1417 and was an alchemist in every sense of the word.
> He was not a religious scholar as were many of his 
> predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject
> revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone,
> which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal 
> of time describing the processes and reactions, but never
> actually gives the formula for carrying out the
> transmutations.   Most of his work was aimed at gathering
> alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, 
> especially as regarded the philosophers' stone.
> (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
> 
> Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists
> were much like Nicolas Flamel:  they concentrated on looking
> for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth (now
> believed to be separate things.)  This had only one 
> possible consequence; the cryptic allusions and symbolism
> lead to wide variations in interpretation of the art and, while many
> "true", that is, inducted, alchemists existed, many new
> alchemists interpreted the purification of the soul to
> mean the transmutation of lead into gold and pursued this
> track.  These men came to be viewed as magicians and
> sorcerers by the common people, and were often persecuted
> for their practices.  (Edwards pp. 50-75; Norton
> pp lxiii-lxvii)
> 
> One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the
> sixteenth century was named Cornelius Agrippa.  This
> alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually
> thought himself capable of summoning spirits.  his
> influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced
> writings which were referred to by alchemists of
> later years.  Again like Flamel, he did much to change
> alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic.
> He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier
> alchemists, including experimental science, numerology,
> etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea
> of alchemy as an occultist belief.  In spite of all this,
> Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came
> into conflict with the church.  (Edwardes p56-9; Wilson 
> p.23-9)
> 
> Alchemy continued in this way through the dawning
> of the Renaissance.  Alchemist/con-artists
> abounded, who would use popular beliefs and sleight of hand
> to convince a noteworthy person such as a professor or
> minor noble that the secret of transmutation was possessed
> by the alchemist.  Invariably the "alchemist" was summoned
> to the local lord's court for a presentation.  When none
> was forthcoming, nasty things happened to the imposter.
> (Wilson p.31-44)
> 
> Then, in the early sixteenth century a man named
> Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (1493-1541) remolded alchemy
> into a new form rejecting the accumulated occult
> paraphernalia that had accumulated over the years and
> calling for new observations and experiments.  Paracelsian
> dogma was the last "ism" to be grafted onto alchemy before
> its death.  Paracelsus rejected Aristotelean traditions,
> but kept much of the Heremitical, neo-Platonic, and
> Pythagorean philosophies; however, Heremitical science had 
> so much Aristotelean theory that his rejection of Aristotle was
> meaningless for all intents and purposes.  Basically, what
> Paracelsus rejected was the magic theories of Agrippa and
> Flamel; Paracelsus did not think of himself as a magician 
> and scorned those who did.  (Williams p.239-45)
> 
> Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and
> minerals in medicine.  He coined the words "alcohol" and
> "zinc" and used experimentation in learning about the
> human body.  His heremitical views were that sickness and
> health in the body relied on the harmony of man the
> microcosm and Nature the macrocosm.  He took an approach 
> different from those before him, using this analogy not in
> the manner of soul-purification  but in the manner that humans
> must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies,
> and that certain illnesses of the body had
> chemical remedies that could cure them.  (Debus &
> Multhauf, p.6-12)  He summarized his own views:
> "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of
> gold and silver.  For me such is not the aim, but to
> consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
> (Edwardes, p.47)
> 
> While the Paracelsian interpretation led to the
> development of modern medicine, a different offshoot led
> to modern chemistry.  Robert Boyle (1627-1691) is well
> known for his studies of gases (i.e. Boyles law) But few
> realize the importance of this man to modern chemistry.
> In the early 1600's, alchemy was used synonymously for
> medicine and chemistry.  By Boyle's time, alchemists had disposed of most 
> of the occultist beliefs that once plagued the Art, but
> still they clung to the heremitical beliefs that had been
> carried down through the millennia.  Boyle did away with
> this.  He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
> every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, 
> Boyle would collect data on the place in which the 
> experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the
> position of the sun and moon, and the barometer reading,
> all just in case they proved to be relevant.  (Pilkington
> p.11)
> 
> With the birth of modern chemistry, alchemy was made
> impotent.  As scientists began to discover and rationalize
> the clockwork of the universe, alchemical theories were
> thrown to the waste bucket, unneeded and forgotten.  It is
> sobering to observe that alchemy, after having such a rich and
> colorful two thousand years of history - during which it enjoyed the preeminent position among scientific studies - could be so easily 
> and totally ostracized by scientists and common
> citizens.
> 
> -- Written by BryceHarrington
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philip_Rearden|983250291
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
> 
>  Philip Rearden appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
AlchemY|983250301
1,447c1
< '''Who were the alchemists of the Middle Ages and what did they believe in?'''
< 
< This question defies a simple answer, as the alchemists were different
< things at different times.  Also, different historians have postulated
< different interpretations of these ancient scientists.  By carefully
< examining these different perspectives in relation to their historical
< contexts it will be possible to identify the alchemists as they existed
< in the Middle Ages.
< 
< To gain a thorough understanding of the alchemists, this paper will
< first briefly look at the origins of alchemy in Egypt and Greece, then
< trace its development in the Middle East.  Once this background has been
< laid out, a systematic examination of the medieval development of the
< alchemical art will be commenced, emphasizing the role of individuals and
< identifying the changing characteristics that defined alchemy.  For the sake
< of continuity, a brief look at alchemy's degeneration and death in the
< Renaissance will be taken.  But first, a general overview of the
< prevalent ideas about the alchemists should be addressed.
< 
< Ask the common man on the street what the alchemists were, and one
< will hear that they were pseudo-scientists who attempted to turn lead
< into gold, believed everything was composed of the four elements earth,
< air, fire, and water, and who believed in mystical-magical nonsense.
< This is about the limit of most people's understanding of the art, but
< for a single sentence definition it is not altogether incorrect.
< 
< For a deeper understanding of alchemy, one might turn to a chemistry
< textbook.  But according to a college textbook used at the University of
< Southern California, "By about 400 B.C. [the Greeks] had proposed that
< all matter was composed of four fundamental substances:  fire, earth,
< water, and air...  The next 2000 years of chemical history were
< dominated by a pseudo-science called alchemy.  Alchemists were often
< mystics and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap
< metals into gold."  (Zumdahl pg. 38)  So much for a deeper
< understanding.
< 
< Historians of a more occultist bent look at the alchemists as true
< magicians who actually accomplished the work of transforming lead into
< gold.  beyond this, occultists see the alchemists as religious mystics
< who tried to discover the secret of purifying man's soul through
< learning about the workings of nature.  (Edwards, p. 17; Gettings,
< p. 13)
< 
< Another view looks at the alchemists in a more philosophical way;
< alchemists were religious reformers who worked in secret and used
< chemical terms in a secret code that really referred to theological and
< philosophical beliefs to escape persecution from the church of their
< day.  (Hitchcock, pp. iii-x; Burckhard, pp 28-31)
< 
< Of course it should be possible to use bits and pieces of each of these
< theories to assemble a realistic idea of what the alchemists were, but
< before this is done a question arising from these theories must be
< addressed:  Where do these diverse theories come from?  The answer lies
< in the writings put forth by the alchemists themselves.  The best way to
< describe how confusion should arise is to give an example taken from an
< alchemical writer:
< 
<     Concerning the Nature and Properties of Mercury.
< 
<     ALL THINGS ARE concealed in all.  One of them all is the concealer
<     of the rest- their corporeal vessel, external, visible, and
<     movable.  All liquifactions are manifested in that vessel.  For
<     the vessel is a living and corporeal spirit, and so all coagulations
<     or congelations enclosed in it, when prevented from flowing and
<     surrounded, are not therewith content.  (Paracelsus, p. 415)
< 
< One can understand how confusion can arise.  This writer was said to
< have been fairly clear in his writings.  This passage was not really
< about mercury, but about the human body.  In any case, the alchemists
< intentionally wrote cryptically.  It seems to have been a hallmark of
< their art.  Artiphius, a medieval alchemist, refers to this by writing,
< "Is it not recognized that [alchemy] is... passed on orally, and is full
< of secrets?...  Are you so simple as to believe that we would clearly
< and openly teach the greatest and most important of all secrets, with
< the result that you would take our words literally?" (Burckhardt, p28)
< This is only one of many examples in which alchemical writers refer to
< the cryptic phrasings of their works.  It is almost a tradition among
< the alchemists and can be traced back to the Greek founders of the Art.
< The "cipher" was passed on from teacher to student orally, and
< unfortunately the "code" to decipher these texts has been lost.  Modern
< historical interpretations invariably differ as to exactly what the
< alchemists were writing about.   (Burckhardt, pp.30-3)
< 
< 
< '''History and Development of Alchemy'''
< 
< Alchemy's origins are shrouded in the mists of time, but can be traced
< clear back to the ancient Egyptians.  Metallurgy and mysticism were
< inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the techniques of
< turning ugly ores into an almost holy metal seemed to be a priestly
< art.  In fact, alchemy in Egypt was the domain of the priest class.
< (Burckhardt, p.15)
< 
< Legend has it that the founder of alchemy was a man named Thoth or
< Hermes.  According to these Egyptian legends, Thoth wrote forty-two
< books on knowledge, covering law, medicine, alchemy, etc.  Over time,
< Thoth, if he even existed at all, came to be regarded as a god by the
< Egyptians.  Even later, as Egyptian knowledge passed to the Greeks,
< Thoth was called Hermes Trismegistus, or Hermes the thrice-greatest.
< (Lindsay, pp. 160-9)  The work of Hermes, often referred to in early
< alchemical texts is, sadly, completely lost to modern scholars.  It is possible that it perished with the library at Alexandria, along with so much written material of the time.
< However, Hermes' "Emerald Table" has been transmitted through Arab
< sources.  It is generally understood that the twelve principles
< expounded in the manuscript formed the basis for alchemy, called the
< heremitical philosophy by the early alchemists.
< 
< The first point of the "Emerald Tablet" tells the purpose of heremitical
< science:  "in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is
< like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is
< below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing."  (Burckhardt, p. 196-7)
< 
< This is the macrocosm-microcosm belief central to the hermetic
< philosophy.  In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected
< by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens
< through astrology, and the earth through the elements.  (Burckhardt,
< p. 34-42)
< 
< The Greeks appropriated the heremitical beliefs and added
< pythagoreanism, ionianism, and gnosticism.  Pythagorean philosophy is
< basically the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from
< the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles.
< Ionian thought was based on the belief that the universe could be
< explained through concentration on natural phenomena; this philosophy
< was developed by Plato and Aristotle, whose works came to be an integral
< part of alchemy.  The third component introduced to heremitical
< philosophy by the Greeks was gnosticism, a belief prevalent in the
< pre-Christian and early post-Christian Roman Empire.  Gnosticism was the
< conviction that earthly matter is evil and that learning about the nature
< of spiritual matter would lead to salvation.  By the end of the Roman Empire these
< philosophies had been joined to the heremitical philosophies of the
< Egyptians.  (Lindsay)
< 
< At this point alchemy moved east to be taken up by the Arabs, but before
< moving on, Augustinian views of science should be illustrated, as they had
< a profound impact on Western thought up until the retransmission of Arab
< philosophy in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.  Saint Augustine was
< an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before
< the fall of the Roman Empire.  In essence, he felt that reason and faith
< could be used to understand God, but experimental philosophy was evil:
< "There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense,
< a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure
< in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this
< empty curiosity is dignified by the names of learning and science."
< (Augustine, p. 245)  Augustinian ideas were decidedly
< anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelean experimental techniques were
< made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still, Augustinian
< thought was well ingrained in medieval society and was used to show
< alchemy as being un-Godly.
< 
< Much work was done on the development of alchemy by the Arabs but it
< shall only be summarized here for the sake of brevity.  Much more is
< known about Islamic alchemy because more was written down.  In
< Alexandria, where much of the alchemical work was done in the Roman
< Empire, the art was mainly oral and little was committed to paper for
< the sake of secrecy.  (Lindsay, p. 155)  It is possible that some
< writing was done in Alexandria and was subsequently lost or destroyed in
< fires and the turbulent periods that followed.
< 
< In any case, most of the earliest writings that have come down through
< the years are Islamic texts.  (Burckhardt p. 46)
< 
< The Arab world was a melting pot for alchemy.  Platonic and Aristotelean
< thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into heremitical
< science, continued to be assimilated.  One very important Aristotelean
< idea was that of the four elements: earth, air, water, and fire.
< According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged
< and to which it would return if left undisturbed.  (Lindsay, p. 16)  Alchemists
< adapted this a little:  The four elements were really qualitative
< aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are.
< "...true alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal
< or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word.  The four
< elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of
< which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies
< first reveals itself in differentiated form."  (Hitchcock, p. 66)
< Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence
< of god were also absorbed.
< 
< Of the many Arab heremitic philosophers, Jabir ibn-Hayyn of the eighth
< century was the most noteworthy.  To Aristotelean physics he added the
< four properties of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness.
< (Burkhardt, p. 29)  Each element was characterized by these qualities:
< Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist,
< and air hot and moist.  In metals two of these qualities were interior
< and two were exterior.  For example, lead was cold and dry and gold was
< hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of
< one metal, a different metal would result.  (Burckhardt, p. 29)
< 
< By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced
< to the west.  The search for the stone, or grand elixir, had originated
< from China, most scholars believe, and was supposed to have the added
< effect of being able to make one immortal.  (Edwards, p. 38)  It is not
< known how much Chinese alchemy was added to the Islamic version of the
< Art, but that Chinese theories influenced Arabic scientists has been
< commonly accepted.  (Edwards pp. 33-59; Burckhardt, p. 10-22)
< 
< Likewise, Hindu learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again
< the extent and effects of this fact have not been researched to any worthwhile
< extent.  An eleventh century alchemist named Alberuni testified to the
< existence of Hindu alchemy saying that they "have a science similar to
< alchemy which is quite peculiar to them.  They call it Rasayana.  it
< means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs,
< compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants.  its
< principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and
< gave back youth to fading old age."  Islamic numerology was also taken
< by the Arabs, but assimilation of this into alchemy was left for the
< European alchemists of the Renaissance.  (Lindsay p. 87-8; Edwards,
< p. 28)
< 
< Arabic beliefs were intrinsically tied to Islamic alchemy, and when
< Europeans appropriated the philosophies of the Arabs, alchemy came along
< for the ride, so to speak.  Because these beliefs had originated from a
< Christian society they were not too difficult to adapt to Christian
< theology.  Gerbert of Arillac (d. 1003) was among the first to bring
< Islamic science to Europe from Spain.  Later men such as Adelard of Bath
< (d. 1144) brought additional learning.  But until the thirteenth century
< the moves were mainly assimilative.  (Hollister p. 124, 294)
< 
< There were some exceptions to this trend.  Saint Anselm (1033-1109) was
< an Augustinian who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine
< and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth
< the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged
< rationalism in a Christian context.  His views set the stage for the
< philosophical explosion to occur.  Saint Abelard followed Anselm's
< work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works
< of Aristotle reached the West.  His major influence on alchemy was his
< belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence
< outside of man's consciousness.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
< philosophical contradictions.  (Hollister, p. 287-8)
< 
< Robert Grosseteste (1170-1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory
< that would later be used and refined by the alchemists.  he took
< Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations,
< experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations.
< Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian
< thinking.  (Hollister pp. 294-5)
< 
< Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinus (1225-
< 1274) were both Dominicans who studied Aristotle and
< worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy
< and Christianity.  Aquinas also did a great deal of work
< in developing the scientific method.  He even went so far
< as to claim that universals could only be discovered 
< through reasoning:  this ran contrary to the commonly held
< Platonic belief that universals were found through divine 
< illumination alone.  Magnus and Aquinas were among the 
< first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and
< could be considered to be alchemists themselves, but for
< the fact that these two did little in the way of
< experimentation.  One major contribution of Aquinas was 
< the belief that since reason could not run in opposition 
< to God, reason must be compatible to theology.  (Hollister
< p. 290-4, 355)
< 
< The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was Roger
< Bacon.  His work did as much for alchemy as Robert Boyle's
< did for chemistry and Galileo's did for astronomy and
< physics.  Bacon (121401294) was an Oxford Franciscan who
< explored optics, languages, and alchemy.  The Franciscan
< ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the
< world led to his conviction that experimentation was more
< important than reasoning:  "Of the three ways in which men
< think that they acquire knowledge of things - authority,
< reasoning, and experience - only the last is effective and
< able to bring peace to the intellect."  (Bacon p. 367)
< "Experimental Science controls the conclusions of all
< other sciences.  It reveals truths which reasoning from 
< general principles would never have discovered."
< (Hollister p. 294-5)  Roger Bacon has also been attributed
< with originating the search for the philosopher's stone
< and the elixir of life:  "That medicine which will remove
< all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals
< will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of
< the corruptibility of the body that human life may be
< prolonged for many centuries."  The idea of immortality
< was replaced with the notion of long life; after all,
< man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for
< immortality in the world of God.  Immortality on Earth did
< not mesh with Christian theology.  (Edwards p. 37-8)
< 
< Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle
< ages, but he was the most significant.  His works were
< used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through
< nineteenth centuries.  Other alchemists of Bacon's time
< shared several traits.  First, and most obviously, nearly
< all were members of the clergy.  This was simply because
< few people outside the parochial schools had the education
< to examine the Arabic-derived works.  Also, alchemy at
< this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method
< of exploring and developing theology.  Alchemy was
< interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it
< offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were
< just beginning to learn about rationalism.  (Edwards
< p. 24-7)
< 
< So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had 
< developed into a fairly structured system of belief.
< First and foremost, the alchemists were all true 
< Christians.  They believed in the macrocosm-microcosm 
< theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that
< processes that affect minerals and other substances could
< have an effect on the human body (i.e., if one could learn
< the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique
< to purify the human soul.)  These men believed the 
< philosophers' stone was a substance that was capable of
< purifying base metals (and thereby transmuting them to
< gold) as well as purifying the soul.  They believed in the
< four elements and the four qualities as described above,
< and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written
< ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to
< mislead the uninitiated.  Finally, the alchemists
< practiced their art: they actively experimented with
< chemicals and made observations and theories about how the
< universe operated.  Their entire philosophy revolved
< around their belief that man's soul was divided within
< himself after the fall of Adam.  By purifying the two
< parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.
< (Burckhardt p. 149)
< 
< But in the fourteenth century, all this was to 
< change.  William of Ockham, an Oxford Franciscan who died
< in 1349, attacked the Thomist view of compatibility
< between faith and reason.  His view, widely
< accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith
< alone; He could not be limited by human reason.  Of
< course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually
< erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and 
< fifteenth centuries.  (Hollister p. 335)  Pope John XXII in 
< the early 1300's issued an edict against alchemy, which 
< effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of
< the Art (the inquisition didn't help, either.)  (Edwards, p.49)
< 
< Alchemy was kept alive by men such as Nicolas Flamel,
< who was not noteworthy except for the fact that he was one
< of the few alchemists writing in those times of war,
< plague, famine, and persecution.  Flamel lived from 1330
< to 1417 and was an alchemist in every sense of the word.
< He was not a religious scholar as were many of his 
< predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject
< revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone,
< which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal 
< of time describing the processes and reactions, but never
< actually gives the formula for carrying out the
< transmutations.   Most of his work was aimed at gathering
< alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, 
< especially as regarded the philosophers' stone.
< (Burckhardt pp.170-181)
< 
< Through the high middle ages (1300-1500) alchemists
< were much like Nicolas Flamel:  they concentrated on looking
< for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth (now
< believed to be separate things.)  This had only one 
< possible consequence; the cryptic allusions and symbolism
< lead to wide variations in interpretation of the art and, while many
< "true", that is, inducted, alchemists existed, many new
< alchemists interpreted the purification of the soul to
< mean the transmutation of lead into gold and pursued this
< track.  These men came to be viewed as magicians and
< sorcerers by the common people, and were often persecuted
< for their practices.  (Edwards pp. 50-75; Norton
< pp lxiii-lxvii)
< 
< One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the
< sixteenth century was named Cornelius Agrippa.  This
< alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually
< thought himself capable of summoning spirits.  his
< influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced
< writings which were referred to by alchemists of
< later years.  Again like Flamel, he did much to change
< alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an occultist magic.
< He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier
< alchemists, including experimental science, numerology,
< etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea
< of alchemy as an occultist belief.  In spite of all this,
< Agrippa was still a Christian, though his views often came
< into conflict with the church.  (Edwardes p56-9; Wilson 
< p.23-9)
< 
< Alchemy continued in this way through the dawning
< of the Renaissance.  Alchemist/con-artists
< abounded, who would use popular beliefs and sleight of hand
< to convince a noteworthy person such as a professor or
< minor noble that the secret of transmutation was possessed
< by the alchemist.  Invariably the "alchemist" was summoned
< to the local lord's court for a presentation.  When none
< was forthcoming, nasty things happened to the imposter.
< (Wilson p.31-44)
< 
< Then, in the early sixteenth century a man named
< Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus (1493-1541) remolded alchemy
< into a new form rejecting the accumulated occult
< paraphernalia that had accumulated over the years and
< calling for new observations and experiments.  Paracelsian
< dogma was the last "ism" to be grafted onto alchemy before
< its death.  Paracelsus rejected Aristotelean traditions,
< but kept much of the Heremitical, neo-Platonic, and
< Pythagorean philosophies; however, Heremitical science had 
< so much Aristotelean theory that his rejection of Aristotle was
< meaningless for all intents and purposes.  Basically, what
< Paracelsus rejected was the magic theories of Agrippa and
< Flamel; Paracelsus did not think of himself as a magician 
< and scorned those who did.  (Williams p.239-45)
< 
< Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and
< minerals in medicine.  He coined the words "alcohol" and
< "zinc" and used experimentation in learning about the
< human body.  His heremitical views were that sickness and
< health in the body relied on the harmony of man the
< microcosm and Nature the macrocosm.  He took an approach 
< different from those before him, using this analogy not in
< the manner of soul-purification  but in the manner that humans
< must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies,
< and that certain illnesses of the body had
< chemical remedies that could cure them.  (Debus &
< Multhauf, p.6-12)  He summarized his own views:
< "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of
< gold and silver.  For me such is not the aim, but to
< consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines."
< (Edwardes, p.47)
< 
< While the Paracelsian interpretation led to the
< development of modern medicine, a different offshoot led
< to modern chemistry.  Robert Boyle (1627-1691) is well
< known for his studies of gases (i.e. Boyles law) But few
< realize the importance of this man to modern chemistry.
< In the early 1600's, alchemy was used synonymously for
< medicine and chemistry.  By Boyle's time, alchemists had disposed of most 
< of the occultist beliefs that once plagued the Art, but
< still they clung to the heremitical beliefs that had been
< carried down through the millennia.  Boyle did away with
< this.  He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled
< every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, 
< Boyle would collect data on the place in which the 
< experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the
< position of the sun and moon, and the barometer reading,
< all just in case they proved to be relevant.  (Pilkington
< p.11)
< 
< With the birth of modern chemistry, alchemy was made
< impotent.  As scientists began to discover and rationalize
< the clockwork of the universe, alchemical theories were
< thrown to the waste bucket, unneeded and forgotten.  It is
< sobering to observe that alchemy, after having such a rich and
< colorful two thousand years of history - during which it enjoyed the preeminent position among scientific studies - could be so easily 
< and totally ostracized by scientists and common
< citizens.
< 
< -- Written by BryceHarrington
---
> #REDIRECT [[Alchemy]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wesley_Mouch|983250311
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A member of the /Looters and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
> 
>  Wesley Mouch appears in:
>  /SectioN131
> 
------
Physics|983250320
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physics is a very broad subject...
> 
> * PhotoElectricEffect (German)
> 
------
PhysIcs|983250332
1,3c1
< Physics is a very broad subject...
< 
< * PhotoElectricEffect (German)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Physics]]
------
HomePage|983250394
5c5
< :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- PhysIcs -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] & BiologicalScience"s -- AstroNomy -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/McNamara|983250471
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /RioNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
> 
> /McNamara appears in:
>  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
>  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/McNamara|983250546
1c1
< A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /RioNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
---
> A contractor who finished the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
3,5c3,5
< /McNamara appears in:
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
---
> McNamara appears in:
>  [[/Section133|Section133]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section141|Section141]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/McNamara|983250568
3c3
< McNamara appears in:
---
> [[/McNamara|McNamara]] appears in:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Line|983250590
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN143
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Metal|983250617
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A metal alloy invented by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as greenish-blue.
> 
> Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
> 
> The first thing made from Rearden Metal is a /Bracelet.
> 
> Rearden Metal appears in:
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131
>  /SectioN148
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rio_Norte_Line|983250645
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN141
>  /SectioN146
>  /SectioN147
>  /SectioN148
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mystery_Worker|983250869
1c1
< /MysteryWorker is a menial worker for /TaggartTranscontinental who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  /MysteryWorker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
---
> Mystery Worker is a menial worker for [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] in the employee's cafeteria.  Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtley leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to mysteriously disappear.
3,4c3,6
< /MysteryWorker appears in:
<  /SectioN133
---
> Mystery Worker will turn out to be one of the novel's central characters.
> 
> Mystery Worker appears in:
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Newsstand_Owner|983251019
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The unnamed owner of a newsstand in the Taggart Terminal.  Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since.  He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made.  He occassionally chats with [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] when she comes by.  On one occassion [[/Section132|Section132]]), after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing.  Later (section?) he shows her a new brand that he found, that he had never seen before.  It carried the sign of the dollar.
> 
> In his first appearance, [[/Newsstand Owner|Newsstand Owner]] likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized.  In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind.  Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind.  The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and [[/Newsstand Owner|Newsstand Owner's]] discovery of the new brand foreshadows [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.
> 
------
ProbabilityAndStatistics|983251051
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Orren_Boyle|983251109
1c1
< Orren Boyle is the head of /AssociatedSteel and a friend of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  He is one of the /Looters.  He is an investor in the /SanSebastianMines.
---
> Orren Boyle is the head of [[/Associated Steel|Associated Steel]] and a friend of [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  He is one of the [[/Looters|Looters]].  He is an investor in the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]].
4,9c4,9
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section144|Section144]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|983251155
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
> ----
> * Setting
> The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, designed to look like a cellar.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /BartendeR: First and only appearance.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /OrrenBoyle
>  /PaulLarkin
>  /WaiteR: First and only appearance.
>  /WesleyMouch
> ----
> * Pregnant Passages
> "It all depends," James Taggart answered slowly, "on the people who make it possible...That's what has to be known - who makes it possible."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Associated_Steel|983251176
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Associated Steel is the company owned by /OrrenBoyle.  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.
> 
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN131
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggart|983251309
1c1
< The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
---
> The President of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the [[/Looters|Looters]].  Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.
4,11c4,11
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section144|Section144]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section148|Section148]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|983251433
1c1
< One of the central characters in AtlasShrugged.  Hank Rearden is the founder of /ReardenSteel and the inventor of /ReardenMetal.  He lives in /Philadelphia with his wife /LillianRearden, his brother /PhilipRearden, and an elderly woman known only as /ReardensMother, all of whom he supports.
---
> One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  Hank Rearden is the founder of [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  He lives in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] with his wife [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]], his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip]], and an elderly woman known only as [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's Mother]], all of whom he supports.
5,9c5,9
<  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131 - Mentioned and alluded to.
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN147
---
>  [[/Section114|Section114]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]] - Mentioned and alluded to.
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section147|Section147]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|983251451
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
> 
> Rearden Stell is mention in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN114
>  /SectioN121
>  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philadelphia|983251479
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philadelphia is the home of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and /ReardenSteel.
> 
> Philadelphia is mentioned in:
> 
>  - /SectioN114
>  - /SectioN121
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Reardens_Mother|983251497
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
> 
>  Rearden's mother appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Owen_Kellogg|983251688
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Owen Kellogg is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[/New York|New York]].  He catches [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] eye as one of the few competent men on staff.  After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent.  However, as soon as she returns to [[/New York|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quiting his job.  He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him.  He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do.
> 
> Owen Kellogg appears in:
>  [[/Section112|Section112]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Paul_Larkin|983251842
1c1
< Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the /Looters.  In /SectioN121 Larkin visits /Philadelphia to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from /Washington.  In /SectioN131 he meets with the other /Looters to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them.
---
> Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the [[/Looters|Looters]].  In [[/Section121|Section121]] Larkin visits [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] to warn [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] of possible trouble from [[/Washington|Washington]].  In [[/Section131|Section131]] he meets with the other [[/Looters|Looters]] to work out a plan to bring [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] down.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] knows he is friends with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] that he will go along with them.
3,5c3,5
<  Paul Larkin appears in:
<   /SectioN121
<   /SectioN132
---
> Paul Larkin appears in:
>   [[/Section121|Section121]]
>   [[/Section132|Section132]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Washington|983251858
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.  Many directives that effect the plot are issued from Washington, but little to none of the book's action occurs there.
> 
> Washington is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN121
>  - /SectioN131
>  - /SectioN132
>  - /SectioN143
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philip_Rearden|983251898
1c1
< Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  He lives in his brother's home in /Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  He lives in his brother's home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
3,4c3,4
<  Philip Rearden appears in:
<  /SectioN121
---
> Philip Rearden appears in:
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Reardens_Mother|983251961
1c1
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].
4c4
<  /SectioN121
---
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Richard_Halley|983252083
3c3
< In  /SectioN141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer.  At age 24 his opera /Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it.  For years he wrote in obscurity.  After 19 years, /Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was recieved to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard.  It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval.  The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared.
---
> In [[/Section141|Section141]] we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer.  At age 24 his opera [[/Phaethon|Phaethon]] was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it.  For years he wrote in obscurity.  After 19 years, [[/Phaethon|Phaethon]] was performed again, but this time it was recieved to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard.  It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval.  The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared.
6,10c6,10
<  /SectioN112 - Mentioned prominently.
<  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141 - Mentioned prominently.
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section112|Section112]] - Mentioned prominently.
>  [[/Section114|Section114]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section133|Section133]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Section141|Section141]] - Mentioned prominently.
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Phaethon|983252100
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An opera composed by /RichardHalley when he was a young man.  It is based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky.  Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon suceeds.
> 
> When this opera was first performed, it was booed and ridiculed.  Nineteen years later, after years of struggle and hardship, it was performed again to a wildly entusiastic audience.  The day after this performance, Halley disappeared.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Strikers|983252821
1c1
< The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence.
---
> The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the [[/Looters|Looters]] and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence.
5a6
>  [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]
7,8c8,9
<  /RagnarDanneskjold
<  /RichardHalley
---
>  [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]]
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]]
10c11
< Characters who join the /Strikers in the course of the book include:
---
> Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include:
14,15c15,16
<  /McNamara
<  /OwenKellogg
---
>  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]
>  [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wesley_Mouch|983252900
1c1
< A member of the /Looters and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
---
> A member of the [[/Looters|Looters]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] man in [[/Washington|Washington]].  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the [[/Looters|Looters]] - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
4c4
<  /SectioN131
---
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bartender|983252964
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A character mentioned in [[/Section131|Section131]].  [[/Bartender|Bartender]] works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the [[/Looters|Looters]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Board_of_Directors|983253154
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  Over the years of [[/James Taggart|Taggart's]] presidency, many Board members have resigned in protest, leaving only those who think like [[/James Taggart|Taggart.]]
> 
> The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
> 
> In [[/Section132|Section132]] we learn the Board approved the development of the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]] and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
> 
> The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bum_Number_1|983253410
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The character who opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?"  He chats momentarily with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease.
> 
> /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bum_Number_1|983253438
3c3
< /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
---
> Bum Number 1 appears in [[/SectioN111|SectioN111]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bum_Number_1|983253452
3c3
< Bum Number 1 appears in [[/SectioN111|SectioN111]].
---
> Bum Number 1 appears in [[/Section111|Section111]].
------
HomePage|983253465
11c11
< :[[Arts and Entertainment]] -- MuSic -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer|983253475
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
------
MuSic|983253488
1,13c1
< The following music-related topics have been created:
< 
< '''MusicalGenres:''' ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RockAndRoll -- FunK -- DiscO -- JazZ -- PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
< 
< '''MusicalInstruments:''' TheRecorder -- FiddleandViolin -- FidDle
< 
< '''WesternArtMusic:''' BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
< 
< '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
< 
< '''MusicOlogy:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
< 
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Music]]
------
Music|983253496
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The following music-related topics have been created:
> 
> '''MusicalGenres:''' ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RockAndRoll -- FunK -- DiscO -- JazZ -- PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
> 
> '''MusicalInstruments:''' TheRecorder -- FiddleandViolin -- FidDle
> 
> '''WesternArtMusic:''' BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
> 
> '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
> 
> '''MusicOlogy:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
> 
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer|983253529
1c1
< In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
---
> In [[/Section141|Section141]], [[/McNamara|McNamara's]] Chief Engineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation was given.
------
HomePage|983253546
9c9
< :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]] -- ''HumanComputerInteraction (this link should be moved when the Lewis and Clark class is done with it)''
---
> :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Clarence_Eddington|983253547
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An economic consultant who [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] blames for the decision to build the /SanSebastianLine.
> 
> He is mentioned in /SectioN143.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Clarence_Eddington|983253573
1c1
< An economic consultant who [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] blames for the decision to build the /SanSebastianLine.
---
> An economic consultant who [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] blames for the decision to build the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].
3c3
< He is mentioned in /SectioN143.
---
> He is mentioned in [[/Section143|Section143]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section143|983253634
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] addresses the /BoardofDirectors after the /SanSebastianLine is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from Mexico, and assures everyone that with his /Washington connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from /Mexico.  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
> 
> * Setting
> A meeting of /TaggartTranscontinental's /BoardofDirectors.
> 
> * Characters
>  /BoardofDirectors
>  /ClarenceEddington
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /JulesMott
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggart|983253659
7a8
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|983253665
3c3,11
< I am going through here in my spare time and adding information from the CIAWorldFactBook, which is PublicDomain.   But I hope that people will get rid of these entries, which are kind of dull, and write better ones.  (Or adapt them and render them into BrilliantProse.--LS)  Someone wrote an entry on NewZealand which I like very much. --JimboWales
---
> :CountriesA  CountriesJ  CountriesS
> :CountriesB  CountriesK  CountriesT
> :CountriesC  CountriesL  CountriesU
> :CountriesD  CountriesM  CountriesV
> :CountriesE  CountriesN  CountriesW
> :CountriesF  CountriesO  CountriesX
> :CountriesG  CountriesP  CountriesY
> :CountriesH  CountriesQ  CountriesZ
> :CountriesI  CountriesR
5,18c13
< I am attempting to follow the brilliant suggestions on the NamingConventions page.  So I am reorganizing this area.  But
< please feel free to add stuff.
< ----
<  CountriesA  CountriesJ  CountriesS
<  CountriesB  CountriesK  CountriesT
<  CountriesC  CountriesL  CountriesU
<  CountriesD  CountriesM  CountriesV
<  CountriesE  CountriesN  CountriesW
<  CountriesF  CountriesO  CountriesX
<  CountriesG  CountriesP  CountriesY
<  CountriesH  CountriesQ  CountriesZ
<  CountriesI  CountriesR
< ----
< The world is usually considered divided into seven contintents: [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Oceania]], [[North America]], [[South America]] and [[Antarctica]] (though the last has no countries).
---
> The world is usually considered divided into seven [[continents]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Board_of_Directors|983253690
9a10
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]
11d11
< 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Conductor|983253750
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Conductor works on the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]].  In [[/Section112|Section112]] he explains to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] that he is waiting for a broken light to change.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Father|983253772
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
> 
> Dagny's father is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Father|983253834
1c1
< Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
---
> Dagny's father (who is unnamed in [[Atlas Shrugged]]) was the president of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] prior to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  In [[/Section132|Section132]] we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
4,5c4,5
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Mother|983253892
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dagny's mother is mentioned in [[/Section152|Section152]].  She worried about her daughter's apparent lack of interest in boys, and never understood [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] desire to work for the railroad.  Because of her lack of understanding, she was never able to give [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] guidance or support, though she was kind and caring within her limits.
------
Rotifera|983253895
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The rotifers are a phylum of microscopic pseudocoelomate [[Animalia|animals]].  Most rotifers are around 0.1-0.5 mm long, and are common in freshwater throughout the world with a few saltwater species.
> 
> Rotifers get their name from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated tufts around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel.  These create a current that sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (mastax) containing tiny jaws.  When unattached, it also pulls the animal through the water.  Most free-living forms have pairs of posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding.
> 
> There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.
> 
> In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three groups:
> 
> : Seisonoidea - marine forms commensal on crustaceans, bisexual
> : Monogonata - free-swimming and sessile forms, small and sometimes seasonal males, single female gonad
> : Bdelloidea - free-swimming and crawling forms, retractable head with bipartite corona, no males, paired female gonads.
> 
> The closest relatives to the rotifers are the [[Acanthocephala]] (spiny-headed worms).  Further relationships to other phyla are not so clear, but they are probably related to the Trochozoa, as suggested by the presence of trocophore-like larvae in some groups.
> 
> :http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/rotifer.jpg
> :Bdelloid
------
Continents|983253949
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''continent'' is one of the main land masses of Earth (or of a [[planet]]--on the hypothesis that there are other planets with [[ocean]]s and land masses similar to the Earth's).
> 
> The continents of [[earth]] include:
> :[[Africa]]
> :[[Antarctica]]
> :[[Asia]]
> :[[Europe]]
> :[[North America]]
> :[[South America]]
> Though not a continent per se,
> :[[Oceania]]
> is sometimes included in this group.
------
Continents|983253967
10,12c10
< Though not a continent per se,
< :[[Oceania]]
< is sometimes included in this group.
---
> Though not a continent per se, [[Oceania]] is sometimes included in this group.
------
Earth|983254092
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[continent]]s, four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Mother|983254241
1a2,3
> 
> There is no indication that Dagny's parents failed in their parenting: they were kind, loving, and did not stand in her way or attempt to change her decisions.  There is no fuel here for a Freudian interpretation of Dagny's character, such as, 'her drive to achieve is merely the attempt to earn the love she wanted but was denied as a child.'  Greatness, in Rand's heroes, is not the attempt to compensate for some shortcoming; it is an expression of values, not an expression of their absence.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Father|983254256
2a3,4
> There is no indication that Dagny's parents failed in their parenting: they were kind, loving, and did not stand in her way or attempt to change her decisions.  There is no fuel here for a Freudian interpretation of Dagny's character, such as, 'her drive to achieve is merely the attempt to earn the love she wanted but was denied as a child.'  Greatness, in Rand's heroes, is not the attempt to compensate for some shortcoming; it is an expression of values, not an expression of their absence.
> 
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|983255856
13c13
< The world is usually considered divided into seven [[continents]].
---
> The world is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
------
Socrates|983255958
7c7
< Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
---
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who feared he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
------
RequestedArticles|983256103
5,9c5
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- 
< HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- CriticalTheory -- AnomalousPhenomena -- 
< GhostS -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- 
< HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- 
< ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- BoMisName -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- [[Ghosts]] -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
------
EnglishChannel|983256688
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].
> 
> Do the French call the English Channel "the English Channel"?
------
EnglishChannel|983256709
1,3c1
< The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].
< 
< Do the French call the English Channel "the English Channel"?
---
> #REDIRECT [[English Channel]]
------
English_Channel|983256716
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].
> 
> Do the French call the English Channel "the English Channel"?
------
FrancE|983256775
1,3c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
< 
< Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
---
> #REDIRECT [[France]]
------
France|983257035
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
> 
> Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
------
France|983257122
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and there flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and the French flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
------
English_Channel|983261807
1,3c1
< The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].
< 
< Do the French call the English Channel "the English Channel"?
---
> The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].  ''La Manche'' in [[FrenchLanguage|French]].
------
AmericanFootball|983267884
1c1
< I sport in which two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field. 
---
> A sport in which two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field. 
3,4c3
< American football is played at several levels in the United
< States.
---
> American football is played at several levels in the United States.
6c5
< Football is played by teams from colleges and universities.  This is popularly known as CollegeFootball.
---
> Football is played by teams from colleges and universities.  This is popularly known as [[College Football]].
9c8
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
---
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
------
MetallicA|983282209
6c6
< * LarsUlrich, drums
---
> * [[Lars Ulrich]], drums
8c8
< * JasonNewsted, bass
---
> * [[Jason Newsted]], bass // left the band in January 2001
10c10
< * KirkHammet, guitar
---
> * [[Kirk Hammet], guitar
12c12
< * JamesHetfield, throat, guitar
---
> * [[James Hetfield]], throat, guitar
------
Health_Sciences|983284971
3c3,4
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)----
> I should think that [[Nursing]], [[Physical Thrapy]], etc. would go here too.
------
Performing_Arts|983289513
1c1
< The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], and some other arts.  All great stuff!
---
> The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], DancE and some other arts.  All great stuff!
------
Performing_Arts|983289524
1c1
< The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], DancE and some other arts.  All great stuff!
---
> The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], DanCe and some other arts.  All great stuff!
------
Josh_Grosse|983292994
32a33,38
> ----
> 
> Joshua,
> 
> I think pictures are great.  It's probably best if I copy the image to this server, and we change the URL to serve it from here,
> because Tripod may not appreciate our loading it from a remote location, etc., etc. --JimboWales
------
ScientologY|983294496
1c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of LRonHubbard, following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard], following the 1950 publication of his book ''[Dianetics] the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
3c3
< The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and bad acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called variously the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
---
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  His survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
9c9
< As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been a steady lessening of friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  There remain European governments whose official censure of Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
---
> As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Some of the early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been steadily decreasing friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  There remain European governments whose official antagonism toward Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
------
ScientologY|983294543
1c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard], following the 1950 publication of his book ''[Dianetics] the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard], following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
------
Mathematics|983295133
1c1,2
< Add your topic below and go write a few paragraphs displaying your mathematical acumen.  Or edit someone else's article.
---
> Mathematics is one of the strongest areas in the [[Wikipedia]],
> but we obviously still have a ways to go.  Of particular strength is the [[Probability and Statistics]] area.
------
Earth|983297106
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[continent]]s, four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
---
> The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[Continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
------
Earth|983297340
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[Continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
---
> The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
------
Health_Sciences|983297496
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[veterinary science]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[Therapy/physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
3,4c3
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)----
< I should think that [[Nursing]], [[Physical Thrapy]], etc. would go here too.
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Health_Sciences|983297524
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[Therapy/physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[Therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
------
Therapy|983297542
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /Physical
------
Therapy/Physical|983297562
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kind of [[therapy]].
------
Health_Sciences|983297599
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[Therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
3c3
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Health_Sciences|983297609
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
------
Music|983300060
3c3
< '''MusicalGenres:''' ClassicaLMusic -- ElectronicMusic -- RockAndRoll -- FunK -- DiscO -- JazZ -- PopularMusic -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
---
> '''MusicalGenres:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
13c13
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
Music|983300128
7c7
< '''WesternArtMusic:''' BaroquePeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- ClassicalPeriodOfWesternArtMusic -- RomanticPeriodOfWesternArtMusic
---
> '''[[Western Art Music]]:''' [[Baroque  Period Of Western Art Music]] -- [[Classical Period Of Western Art Music]] -- [[Romantic Period Of Western Art Music]]
------
Music|983300175
9c9
< '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- LudwigVanBeethoven -- Gustav Mahler -- PiotrTchaikovsky
---
> '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]]
------
Music|983300243
3c3
< '''MusicalGenres:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
9c9
< '''MusicalComposers:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]]
11c11
< '''MusicOlogy:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
---
> '''[[Musicology]]:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
------
Music|983300273
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] ]-- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
11c11
< '''[[Musicology]]:''' DefinitionOfMusic -- CounterPoint -- MusicalTheory
---
> '''[[Musicology]]:''' [[Definition Of Music]] -- [[Counter Point]] -- MusicalTheory
------
RulesToConsider|983301921
9c9
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger, WojPob, JimboWales, AyeSpy, OprgaG
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, JimboWales, AyeSpy, and OprgaG
18a19,24
> '''Always leave something undone:''' Whenever you write a page, never finish it.  Always leave something obvious to do: an uncompleted sentence, a question in the text (with a not-too-obscure answer someone can supply), wikied links that are of interest, requests for help from specific other Wikipedians, the beginning of a provokative argument that someone simply ''must'' fill in, etc.  The purpose of this rule is to encourage ''others'' to keep working on the wiki.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
21c27
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver AyeSpy (fervently)
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, and AyeSpy (fervently)
29c35
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver AyeSpy
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, and AyeSpy
37c43
< Supporters of this rule include LarrySanger JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] and JerryMuelver
39a46
> 
40a48
> 
43c51
< Supporters of this rule include AyeSpy JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy and JerryMuelver
45c53
< ''See GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate''
---
> ''See GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate''
------
RulesToConsider|983302019
7c7
< '''Ignore all rules:''' If rules make your nervous and depressed, and not desirous of participating in the wiki, then ignore them entirely and go about your business.
---
> '''Ignore all rules:''' If rules make you nervous and depressed, and not desirous of participating in the wiki, then ignore them entirely and go about your business.
------
CountriesU|983312066
1c1
< * UnitedStates
---
> * [[United States]]
------
CountriesU|983312086
3c3
< * UkrainE
---
> * [[Ukraine]]
------
UnitedStates|983312151
1,7c1
< * TheStates
< * PresidentOfTheUnitedStates
< * SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates
< 
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
< * UnitedStatesConstitution
< * /StandardOfLiving
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States]]
------
United_States|983312175
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * TheStates
> * PresidentOfTheUnitedStates
> * SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates
> 
> * HistoryOfUnitedStates
> * UnitedStatesConstitution
> * /StandardOfLiving
> 
> From the [[CIA World Factbook]]:
------
United_States|983312248
7c7
< * /StandardOfLiving
---
> * [[/Standard Of Living]]
------
United_States/Standard_Of_Living|983312267
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The standard of living of the UnitedStates is among the highest in the world.  By measures of material wealth such as PerCapitaIncome or PerCapitaConsumption, the UnitedStates ranks higher than all but a handful of small city-state countries.  Of course, StandardOfLiving should be measured by more than just those factors: other factors include legal structure (freedom of speech, freedom of the press), crime (which is higher in the UnitedStates than in many other high-income countries), etc.  
> 
> Concerns may also be raised as to whether <i>averages</i> are the best way to coompare the standard of living, as opposed to Pareto indexes of some sort.  Some oil rich countries like Iraq may have a high <i>average</i> level of income, even though ordinary people aren't doing any of the consuming!  Measures which take into account, in some fashion, inequality, should
> probably be considered.
------
United_States|983312406
9a10,19
> 
> [[/Introduction]]
> [[/Geography]]
> [[/People]]
> [[/Government]]
> [[/Economy]]
> [[/Communications]]
> [[/Transportation]]
> [[/Military]]
> [[/Transnational Issues]]
------
United_States|983312422
11,19c11,19
< [[/Introduction]]
< [[/Geography]]
< [[/People]]
< [[/Government]]
< [[/Economy]]
< [[/Communications]]
< [[/Transportation]]
< [[/Military]]
< [[/Transnational Issues]]
---
> :[[/Introduction]]
> :[[/Geography]]
> :[[/People]]
> :[[/Government]]
> :[[/Economy]]
> :[[/Communications]]
> :[[/Transportation]]
> :[[/Military]]
> :[[/Transnational Issues]]
------
United_States/Introduction|983312504
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: The [[United States]] became the world's first modern democracy after its break with [[Great Britain]] (1776) and the
> adoption of a constitution (1789). During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded
> across the [[North America]]n continent and acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two major traumatic experiences in the
> nation's history were the [[United States Civil War]] (1861-65) and the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in [[World War I]] and [World War II] and the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steady
> growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology. 
------
United_States/Geography|983312728
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: [[North America]], bordering both the [[North Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[North Pacific Ocean]], between [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]] 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 38 00 N, 97 00 W 
> 
> Map references: [[North America]] 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 9,629,091 sq km 
> land: 9,158,960 sq km 
> water: 470,131 sq km 
> note: includes only the 50 states and [[District of Columbia]] 
> 
> Area - comparative: about one-half the size of [[Russia]]; about three-tenths the size of [[Africa]]; about one-half the size of [[South America]] (or slightly larger than [[Brazil]]); slightly larger than [[China]]; about two and one-half times the size of [[Western Europe]] 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 12,248 km 
> border countries: Canada 8,893 km (including 2,477 km with [[Alaska]]), [[Cuba]] 29 km (US Naval Base at [[Guantanamo Bay]]), [[Mexico]]
> 3,326 km 
> note: [[Guantanamo Naval Base]] is leased by the US and thus remains part of Cuba 
> 
> Coastline: 19,924 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: not specified 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: mostly temperate, but tropical in [[Hawaii]] and [[Florida]], arctic in [[Alaska]], semiarid in the great plains west of the [[Mississippi
> River]], and arid in the [[Great Basin]] of the southwest; low winter temperatures in the northwest are ameliorated occasionally in January
> and February by warm [[chinook winds]] from the eastern slopes of the [[Rocky Mountains]] 
> 
> Terrain: vast central plain, mountains in west, hills and low mountains in east; rugged mountains and broad river valleys in Alaska;
> rugged, volcanic topography in Hawaii 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: [[Death Valley]] -86 m 
> highest point: [[Mount McKinley]] 6,194 m 
> 
> Natural resources: coal, copper, lead, molybdenum, phosphates, uranium, bauxite, gold, iron, mercury, nickel, potash, silver,
> tungsten, zinc, petroleum, natural gas, timber 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 19% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 25% 
> forests and woodland: 30% 
> other: 26% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 207,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: tsunamis, volcanoes, and earthquake activity around Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic and [[Gulf of
> Mexico]] coasts; tornadoes in the midwest and southeast; mud slides in [[California]]; forest fires in the west; flooding; permafrost in
> northern Alaska, a major impediment to development 
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution resulting in acid rain in both the US and Canada; the US is the largest single emitter of
> carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels; water pollution from runoff of pesticides and fertilizers; very limited natural fresh water resources in much of the western part of the country require careful management; desertification 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Climate Change,
> Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer
> Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity,
> Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Desertification, Hazardous Wastes 
> 
> Geography - note: world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) 
------
United_States/People|983312799
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 275,562,673 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 21.25% (male 29,956,875; female 28,597,880) 
> 15-64 years: 66.11% (male 90,345,154; female 91,827,471) 
> 65 years and over: 12.64% (male 14,472,865; female 20,362,428) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.91% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 14.2 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 8.7 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 3.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 6.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 77.12 years 
> male: 74.24 years 
> female: 79.9 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.06 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: American(s) 
> adjective: American 
> 
> Ethnic groups: white 83.5%, black 12.4%, Asian 3.3%, Amerindian 0.8% (1992) 
> note: a separate listing for Hispanic is not included because the US Census Bureau considers Hispanic to mean a person of Latin
> American descent (especially of Cuban, Mexican, or Puerto Rican origin) living in the US who may be of any race or ethnic group
> (white, black, Asian, etc.) 
> 
> Religions: [[Protestant]] 56%, [[Roman Catholic]] 28%, [[Jewish]] 2%, other 4%, none 10% (1989) 
> 
> Languages: [[English]], [[Spanish]] (spoken by a sizable minority) 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 97% 
> male: 97% 
> female: 97% (1979 est.) 
------
United_States/Government|983313100
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You may read the [[UnitedStatesConstitution]] as well.
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: United States of America 
> conventional short form: United States 
> abbreviation: US or USA 
> 
> Data code: US 
> 
> Government type: federal republic; strong democratic tradition 
> 
> Capital: [[Washington]], [[DC]] 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 50 states and 1 district*; [[Alabama]], [[Alaska]], [[Arizona]], [[Arkansas]], [[California]], [[Colorado]], [[Connecticut]],
> [[Delaware]], [[District of Columbia]]*, [[Florida]], [[Georgia]], [[Hawaii]], [[Idaho]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]], [[Maine]],
> [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Missouri]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[Nevada]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]],
> [[New Mexico]], [[New York]], [[North Carolina]], [[North Dakota]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Oregon]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Carolina]],
> [[South Dakota]], [[Tennessee]], [[Texas]], [[Utah]], [[Vermont]], [[Virginia]], [[Washington]], [[West Virginia]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Wyoming]] 
> 
> Dependent areas: [[American Samoa]], [[Baker Island]], [[Guam]], [[Howland Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], [[Johnston Atoll]], [[Kingman Reef]], [[Midway
> Islands]], [[Navassa Island]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palmyra Atoll]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Virgin Islands]], [[Wake Island]] 
> note: from 18 July 1947 until 1 October 1994, the US administered the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, but recently entered
> into a new political relationship with all four political units: the Northern Mariana Islands is a commonwealth in political union with
> the US (effective 3 November 1986); Palau concluded a Compact of Free Association with the US (effective 1 October 1994); the
> Federated States of Micronesia signed a Compact of Free Association with the US (effective 3 November 1986); the Republic of the
> Marshall Islands signed a Compact of Free Association with the US (effective 21 October 1986) 
> 
> Independence: 4 July 1776 (from Great Britain) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 4 July (1776) 
> 
> Constitution: 17 September 1787, effective 4 March 1789 
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with
> reservations 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20
> January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
> head of government: President William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20
> January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president with Senate approval 
> elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by a college of representatives who are elected directly from each
> state; president and vice president serve four-year terms; election last held 5 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: William Jefferson CLINTON reelected president; percent of popular vote - William Jefferson CLINTON
> (Democratic Party) 49.2%, Robert DOLE (Republican Party) 40.7%, Ross PEROT (Reform Party) 8.4%, other 1.7% 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Congress consists of Senate (100 seats, one-third are renewed every two years; two members are
> elected from each state by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and House of Representatives (435 seats; members are directly
> elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) 
> elections: Senate - last held 2 November 1998 (next to be held 7 November 2000); House of Representatives - last held 2 November
> 1998 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican Party 55, Democratic Party 45; House of
> Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican Party 223, Democratic Party 211, independent 1 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (the nine justices are appointed for life by the president with confirmation by the Senate) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party [Steve GROSSMAN, national committee chairman]; Republican Party [Jim
> NICHOLSON, national committee chairman]; several other groups or parties of minor political significance 
> 
> International organization participation: ANZUS, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE (observer), CERN (observer),
> CP, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESCAP, FAO, G-5, G-7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA,
> IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MIPONUH, NAM (guest),
> NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SPC, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM,
> UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC 
> 
> Flag description: thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a blue rectangle in the
> upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and
> bottom) alternating with rows of five stars; the 50 stars represent the 50 states, the 13 stripes represent the 13 original colonies;
> known as Old Glory; the design and colors have been the basis for a number of other flags, including [[Chile]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Puerto Rico]]
> 
------
United_States/Economy|983313267
1c1,93
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The US has the most technologically powerful, diverse, advanced, and largest economy in the world, with a per
> capita GDP of $33,900. In this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and
> government buys needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. US business firms enjoy considerably greater
> flexibility than their counterparts in [[Western Europe]] and [[Japan]] in decisions to expand capital plant, lay off surplus workers, and
> develop new products. At the same time, they face higher barriers to entry in their rivals' home markets than the barriers to entry of
> foreign firms in US markets. US firms are at or near the forefront in technological advances, especially in computers and in medical,
> aerospace, and military equipment, although their advantage has narrowed since the end of [[World War II]]. The onrush of technology
> largely explains the gradual development of a "two-tier labor market" in which those at the bottom lack the education and the
> professional/technical skills of those at the top and, more and more, fail to get pay raises, health insurance coverage, and other benefits. Since 1975, practically all the gains in household income have gone to the top 20% of households. The years 1994-99 witnessed solid increases in real output, low inflation rates, and a drop in unemployment to below 5%. 
> 
> Long-term problems include inadequate investment in economic infrastructure, rapidly rising medical costs of an aging population, sizable trade deficits, and stagnation of family income in the lower economic groups. The outlook for 2000 is clouded by the continued economic problems of
> [[Japan]], [[Russia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Brazil]], and many other countries. Domestically, the potentially most serious problem is the exuberant level of stock prices in relation to corporate earnings. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $9.255 trillion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.1% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $33,900 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 2% 
> industry: 18% 
> services: 80% (1999) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 12.7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 1.5% 
> highest 10%: 28.5% (1994) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.2% (1999) 
> 
> Labor force: 139.4 million (includes unemployed) (1999) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: managerial and professional 30.3%, technical, sales and administrative support 29.2%, services 13.4%, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and crafts 24.5%, farming, forestry, and fishing 2.6% (1999) 
> note: figures exclude the unemployed 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 4.2% (1999) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $1.828 trillion 
> expenditures: $1.703 trillion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999) 
> 
> Industries: leading industrial power in the world, highly diversified and technologically advanced; petroleum, steel, motor vehicles,
> aerospace, telecommunications, chemicals, electronics, food processing, consumer goods, lumber, mining 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 2.4% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 3.62 trillion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 70.34% 
> hydro: 8.96% 
> nuclear: 18.61% 
> other: 2.09% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 3.365 trillion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 12.772 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 39.513 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, other grains, corn, fruits, vegetables, cotton; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products; forest products; fish 
> 
> Exports: $663 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: capital goods, automobiles, industrial supplies and raw materials, consumer goods, agricultural products 
> 
> Exports - partners: Canada 23%, Mexico 12%, Japan 8%, UK 6%, Germany 4%, France 3%, Netherlands 3% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $912 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: crude oil and refined petroleum products, machinery, automobiles, consumer goods, industrial raw
> materials, food and beverages 
> 
> Imports - partners: Canada 19%, Japan 13%, Mexico 10%, China 8%, Germany 5%, UK 4%, Taiwan 4% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $862 billion (1995 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - donor: ODA, $6.9 billion (1997) 
> 
> Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: British pounds per US$ - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996),
> 0.6335 (1995); Canadian dollars (Can$) per US$ - 1.4489 (January 2000), 1.4857 (1999), 1.4835 (1998), 1.3846 (1997), 1.3635
> (1996), 1.3724 (1995); French francs (F) per US$ - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995),
> 5.5520 (1994); Italian lire (Lit) per US$ - 1,668.7 (January 1999), 1,763.2 (1998), 1,703.1 (1997), 1,542.9 (1996), 1,628.9 (1995),
> 1,612.4 (1994); Japanese yen per US$ - 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06
> (1995); German deutsche marks (DM) per US$ - 1.69 (January 1999), 1.9692 (1998), 1.7341 (1997), 1.5048 (1996), 1.4331 (1995),
> 1.6228 (1994); Euro per US$ - 0.98673 (January 1999), 0.93863 (1999) 
> note: [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Germany]] have adopted the euro since 1998 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September 
------
United_States/Communications|983313320
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 178 million (1999) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 55.312 million (1997) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: a large system of fiber-optic cable, microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, and domestic satellites carries every form of
> telephone traffic; a rapidly growing cellular system carries mobile telephone traffic throughout the country 
> international: 24 ocean cable systems in use; satellite earth stations - 61 Intelsat (45 Atlantic Ocean and 16 Pacific Ocean), 5
> Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region), and 4 Inmarsat (Pacific and Atlantic Ocean regions) (2000) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM about 5,000, FM about 5,000, shortwave 18 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 575 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: more than 1,500 (including nearly 1,000 stations affiliated with the five major networks - [[NBC]],
> [[ABC]], [[CBS]], [[FOX]], and [[PBS]]; in addition, there are about 9,000 cable TV systems) (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 219 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 7,600 (1999 est.) 
------
United_States/Transportation|983313414
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
> total: 240,000 km mainline routes (nongovernment owned) 
> standard gauge: 240,000 km 1.435-m gauge (1989) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 6,348,227 km 
> paved: 3,732,757 km (including 88,727 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 2,615,470 km (1997 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 41,009 km of navigable inland channels, exclusive of the Great Lakes 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products 276,000 km; natural gas 331,000 km (1991) 
> 
> Ports and harbors: [[Anchorage]], [[Baltimore]], [[Boston]], [[Charleston]], [[Chicago]], [[Duluth]], [[Hampton Roads]], [[Honolulu]], [[Houston]], [[Jacksonville]],
> [[Los Angeles]], [[New Orleans]], [[New York]], [[Philadelphia]], [[Port Canaveral]], [[Portland]] ([[Oregon]]), [[Prudhoe Bay]], [[San Francisco]], [[Savannah]],
> [[Seattle]], [[Tampa]], [[Toledo]] 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 386 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 11,634,608 GRT/15,574,117 DWT 
> ships by type: barge carrier 10, bulk 67, cargo 28, chemical tanker 14, combination bulk 2, container 84, liquified gas 10,
> multi-functional large load carrier 3, passenger 7, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 104, roll-on/roll-off 43, short-sea passenger
> 3, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 9 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 14,572 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 5,174 
> over 3,047 m: 180 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 221 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1,310 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2,448 
> under 914 m: 1,015 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 9,398 
> over 3,047 m: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 155 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1,661 
> under 914 m: 7,574 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 118 (1999 est.) 
------
United_States/Military|983313438
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Department of the Army, Department of the Navy (includes Marine Corps), Department of the Air Force 
> note: the Coast Guard is normally subordinate to the Department of Transportation, but in wartime reports to the Department of the
> Navy 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 70,502,691 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 2,056,762 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $276.7 billion (FY1999 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.2% (FY1999 est.) 
------
United_States/Transnational_Issues|983313559
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: maritime boundary disputes with [[Canada]] ([[Dixon Entrance]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]], [[Machias Seal Island]]); US Naval Base at [[Guantanamo Bay]] is leased from Cuba and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can
> terminate the lease; [[Haiti]] claims [[Navassa Island]]; US has made no territorial claim in [[Antarctica]] (but has reserved the right to do so)
> and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; [[Marshall Islands]] claims [[Wake Island 
> ]]
> Illicit drugs: consumer of [[cocaine]] shipped from [[Colombia]] through [[Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]]; consumer of [[heroin]], [[marijuana]], and
> increasingly [[methamphetamine]]s from [[Mexico]]; consumer of high-quality [[Southeast Asia]]n heroin; illicit producer of [[cannabis]],
> [[marijuana]], [[depressants]], [[stimulants]], hallucinogens, and [[methamphetamines]]; drug-money-laundering center 
------
United_States/Transnational_Issues|983313578
3,4c3,5
< and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; [[Marshall Islands]] claims [[Wake Island 
< ]]
---
> and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; [[Marshall Islands]] claims [[Wake Island ]]
> 
> 
7c8
< [[marijuana]], [[depressants]], [[stimulants]], hallucinogens, and [[methamphetamines]]; drug-money-laundering center 
---
> [[marijuana]], [[depressants]], [[stimulants]], hallucinogens, and [[methamphetamines]]; drug-money-laundering center 
------
VisualArtsAndDesign|983321442
1c1
< Art Conservation
---
> [[Art Conservation]]
3c3
< Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. Art, History of Art)
---
> Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. [[Art]], [[History of Art]])
6,8c6,8
< History of the Visual Arts
<      History of Painting (see Painting page)
<      History of Design
---
> [[History of the Visual Arts]]
>      [[History of Painting]] (see [[Painting]] page)
>      [[History of Design]]
11,12c11,12
<      Body Fluids
<      Plastics
---
>      [[Body Fluids in Art]]
>      [[Plastics in Art]]
15,22c15,22
<      Computer-Generated Art / Digital Art
<      Found Art (Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
<      Installation Art
<      Interactive Art
<      Body Art (see also Performance Art)
<           Body as Canvas
<           Piercings
<           Tattoos
---
>      [[Computer-Generated Art]] / [[Digital Art]]
>      [[Found Art]] ([[Museum of Contemporary Art]], Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
>      [[Installation Art]]
>      [[Interactive Art]]
>      [[Body Art]] (see also [[Performance Art]])
>           [[Body as Canvas]]
>           [[Piercings]]
>           [[Tattoos]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|983323962
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Art Conservation]]
> 
> Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. [[Art]], [[History of Art]])
>      Changing Definitions of Art
> 
> [[History of the Visual Arts]]
>      [[History of Painting]] (see [[Painting]] page)
>      [[History of Design]]
> 
> New Materials
>      [[Body Fluids in Art]]
>      [[Plastics in Art]]
> 
> New Categories (not traditional, i.e. sculpture, painting)
>      [[Computer-Generated Art]] / [[Digital Art]]
>      [[Found Art]] ([[Museum of Contemporary Art]], Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
>      [[Installation Art]]
>      [[Interactive Art]]
>      [[Body Art]] (see also [[Performance Art]])
>           [[Body as Canvas]]
>           [[Piercings]]
>           [[Tattoos]]
------
VisualArtsAndDesign|983323980
1,26c1
< [[Art Conservation]]
< 
< Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. [[Art]], [[History of Art]])
<      Changing Definitions of Art
< 
< [[History of the Visual Arts]]
<      [[History of Painting]] (see [[Painting]] page)
<      [[History of Design]]
< 
< New Materials
<      [[Body Fluids in Art]]
<      [[Plastics in Art]]
< 
< New Categories (not traditional, i.e. sculpture, painting)
<      [[Computer-Generated Art]] / [[Digital Art]]
<      [[Found Art]] ([[Museum of Contemporary Art]], Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
<      [[Installation Art]]
<      [[Interactive Art]]
<      [[Body Art]] (see also [[Performance Art]])
<           [[Body as Canvas]]
<           [[Piercings]]
<           [[Tattoos]]
<  
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Visual Arts and Design]]
------
Therapy|983326692
1c1,4
< /Physical
---
> /Physical
> 
> 
> /Occupational
------
Health_Sciences|983326912
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], and [[nontraditional medicine]] as well.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[occupational therapy]],[[recreational therapy]] as well as [[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
------
Therapy|983327041
4a5,7
> 
> 
> /Recreational
------
Health_Sciences|983327230
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[occupational therapy]],[[recreational therapy]] as well as [[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[therapy/Occupational|occupational therapy]],[[therapy/Recreational|recreational therapy]] as well as [[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
------
Therapy/Occupational|983327281
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kind of [[therapy]].
------
Therapy/Recreational|983327329
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kind of [[therapy]].
------
Health_Sciences|983327472
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[therapy/Occupational|occupational therapy]],[[therapy/Recreational|recreational therapy]] as well as [[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[therapy/Occupational|occupational therapy]],[[therapy/Recreational|recreational therapy]] as well as [[midwivery]],[[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Engineer|983332048
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Engineer|983332085
1c1
< /EngineeR appears briefly in /SectioN112.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] wakes up to find the /TaggartComet stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
---
> Engineer appears briefly in [[/Section112|Section112]].  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] wakes up to find the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] stalled on a siding, he explains to her why they stopped.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Fireman|983332144
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fireman appears briefly in [[/Section112|Section112]].  While [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is trying to find out why the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] has stalled, Fireman shows his amusement at how things like this happen.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Franciscos_Father|983332201
1c1
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] father was the head of /DAnconiaCopper before [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]].  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] was 23.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] father was the head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]]before [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]].  He raised his son to be a worthy heir to the mining empire and was very proud to see that he would be.  He died when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] was 23.
3c3
< He appears in /SectioN152.
---
> He appears in [[/Section152|Section152]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/DAnconia_Copper|983332271
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
> 
> D'Anconia Copper is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Gilbert_Vail|983332520
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A man allegedly cuckolded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  His wife asserts, and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does not deny, that she and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an affair over New Years at his villa in the /Andes.  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a crescendo in the tabloids, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] arrives in town to "witness the farce."
> 
> Gilbert Vail is mentioned in: 
>  /SectioN141
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Gilbert_Vail|983332545
1c1
< A man allegedly cuckolded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  His wife asserts, and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does not deny, that she and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an affair over New Years at his villa in the /Andes.  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a crescendo in the tabloids, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] arrives in town to "witness the farce."
---
> A man allegedly cuckolded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  His wife asserts, and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does not deny, that she and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an affair over New Years at his villa in the [[/Andes|Andes]].  He is shot by his wife, but survives, and when he sues for divorce she threatens to spill the details of his sordid private life.  Just as the scandal is reaching a crescendo in the tabloids, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] arrives in town to "witness the farce."
4c4
<  /SectioN141
---
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Andes|983332560
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
> 
> /SebastianDAnconia's first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes (/SectioN152).
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggarts_Secretary|983332591
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggarts_Secretary|983332614
1c1
< In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
---
> In [[/Section144|Section144]], [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Jock_Benson|983332635
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Jock_Benson|983332662
1c1
< A friend of [[/Betty Pope]].  In /SectioN142 she mentions that Jock Benson told her [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]].  In [[/Section142|Section142]] she mentions that Jock Benson told her [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] didn't really run the railroad, his sister did.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Jules_Mott|983332741
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] man in [[/Mexico City|Mexico City]].  He is the fall guy after the Mexican government nationalizes the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].
> 
> Jules Mott appears in:
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]: Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mexico_City|983332761
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /JulesMott is /TaggartTranscontinental's representative in Mexico City.
> 
> Mexico City is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN142
>  /SectioN143
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Liz_Blane|983332813
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]].  According to Betty Pope, Liz Blane is amusing because she's a bitch.
> 
> Liz Blane is mentioned in [[/Section142|Section142]].
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Ayers|983332875
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mr. Ayers is the head of the [[/Ayers Music Publishing Company|Ayers Music Publishing Company]].  In [[/Section114|Section114]] [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] calls him to inquire if [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] has written a fifth concerto.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ayers_Music_Publishing_Company|983332966
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[/Halleys Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]].
> 
> * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
>    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 [[/Section114|Section114]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ayers_Music_Publishing_Company|983332996
3,4c3,4
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 [[/Section114|Section114]]
---
> * Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ayers_Music_Publishing_Company|983333006
3c3
< * Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in:
---
> Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Beacham|983333047
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's Mother]] who does charity work for the parish school.  She is mentioned briefly in [[/Section121|Section121]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Gilbert_Vail|983333179
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mrs. Gilbert Vail claims she had a love affair with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] in his villa in the [[/Andes|Andes]].  Afterwards, she shot her husband so she could leave him and be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]].  [[/Gilbert Vail|Gilbert Vail]] survived and sued for divorce, at which point his wife promised to reveal the sordid details of his private life to the press.
> 
> In [[/Section152|Section152]] we learn that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] was in [[/El Paso Texas|El Paso, Texas]], not in the [[/Andes|Andes]], at the time when Mrs. Vail claims to have been with him.
> 
> Mrs. Vail is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/El_Paso_Texas|983333205
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was in El Paso at the time /MrsGilbertVail claimed she was with him in the /Andes.
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Nathaniel_Taggart|983333286
1c1
< The wife of /NathanielTaggart is mentioned briefly in /SectioN132 and in /SectioN152.  According to legend, Nathaniel Taggart put his wife up as collateral for a loan, which her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the Nat Taggart, still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] namesake.
---
> The wife of [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]] is mentioned briefly in [[/Section132|Section132]] and in [[/Section152|Section152]].  According to legend, [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]] put his wife up as collateral for a loan, with her consent.  She was a beautiful, dignified southern lady from a good family, from which she was disinherited when she ran off with the [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Taggart]], still a poor adventurer at the time.  Her name was Dagny, and is [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] namesake.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Nathaniel_Taggart|983333306
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A character meant to symbolize the so-called RobberBarons of America's industrial age.
> 
> Nat Taggart was the founder of /TaggartTranscontinental.  He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit.  He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country.  Many stories are told about him: that he once killed a state legislator who tried to use his office to destroy the railroad; that he once put his wife up as collateral for a loan.  He never earned money by force or fraud, and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful.  He was one of the most hated men of his time.
> 
> Nathaniel Taggart is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN132
>  /SectioN152
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Nathaniel_Taggart|983333360
1c1
< A character meant to symbolize the so-called RobberBarons of America's industrial age.
---
> A character meant to symbolize the so-called Robber Barons of America's industrial age.
3c3
< Nat Taggart was the founder of /TaggartTranscontinental.  He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit.  He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country.  Many stories are told about him: that he once killed a state legislator who tried to use his office to destroy the railroad; that he once put his wife up as collateral for a loan.  He never earned money by force or fraud, and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful.  He was one of the most hated men of his time.
---
> Nat Taggart was the founder of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit.  He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country.  Many stories are told about him: that he once killed a state legislator who tried to use his office to destroy the railroad; that he once put his wife up as collateral for a loan.  He never earned money by force or fraud, and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful.  He was one of the most hated men of his time.
6,7c6,7
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_1|983334711
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN112, the man who tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_1|983334730
1c1
< In /SectioN112, the man who tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
---
> In [[/Section112|Section112]], the man who tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] how long the train has been stopped after she wakes up.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_2|983334796
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A passenger on the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] in [[/Section112|Section112]].  He is talking with [[/Conductor|Conductor]], [[/Fireman|Fireman]], and [[/Engineer|Engineer]] when [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] approaches to find out why the train has stopped.  When she acts as if this sort of problem is unusual and shouldn't happen, he tells her she doesn't understand railroads.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_3|983334842
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes [[/Rearden Steel/Rearden Steel]] in [[/Section121|Section121]].  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_3|983334883
1c1
< An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes [[/Rearden Steel/Rearden Steel]] in [[/Section121|Section121]].  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
---
> An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] in [[/Section121|Section121]].  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Passenger_Number_4|983334923
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An journalist and a passenger on a train that passes [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] in [[/Section121|Section121]].  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He decides he will ridicule [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] in a future column by calling him the sort of man who sticks his name on everything.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Pop_Harper|983334969
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pop Harper is chief clerk at the offices of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  He complains that it is impossible to get new typewriters, and that the world will soon be without this simple device.  His attitude is that there is nothing to be done and things will just happen as they happen.  This attitude explains why, after a lifetime of labor, he is still merely a clerk.
> 
> Pop Harper appears in [[/Section111|Section111]].
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/President_of_ULW|983335015
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The unnamed president of [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] is an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours.
> 
> He is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_Locomotive_Works|983335032
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to /TaggartTranscontinental.  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
> 
> The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in:
>  /SectioN133
>  /SectioN141
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Sebastian_dAnconia|983335127
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ancestor of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] who fled [[/Spain|Spain]] during the time of the Inquisition, settled in [[/Argentina|Argentina]], and founded [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]].
> 
> His story is told in  [[/Section152|Section152]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Spain|983335148
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spain is the ancestral home of the d'Anconias.  /SebastianDAnconia fled Spain to escape the Inquisition.
> 
>  /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Argentina|983335164
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Argentina is the home of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
> 
> Argentina is mentioned in:
>  - /SectioN132
>  - /SectioN152
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Waiter|983335186
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Serves drinks to the /Looters in /SectioN131.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Waiter|983335209
1c1
< Serves drinks to the /Looters in /SectioN131.
---
> Serves drinks to the [[/Looters|Looters]] in [[/Section131|Section131]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Worker_Number_1|983335228
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] recieves.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Worker_Number_1|983335272
1c1
< An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] recieves.
---
> An unnamed worker at [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] in [[/Section121|Section121]].  He is on hand the night the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured, and smiles at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|983337810
1,11c1,11
<  /AyersMusicPublishingCompany
<  /AssociatedSteel
<  /DAnconiaCopper
<  /PhoenixDurango
<  /ReardenCoal
<  /ReardenLimestone
<  /ReardenOre
<  /ReardenSteel
<  /TaggartTranscontinental
<  /UnitedLocomotiveWorks
<  /WyattOil
---
>  [[/Ayers Music Publishing Company|Ayers Music Publishing Company]]
>  [[/Associated Steel|Associated Steel]]
>  [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]]
>  [[/Phoenix Durango|Phoenix-Durango]]
>  [[/Rearden Coal|Rearden Coal]]
>  [[/Rearden Limestone|Rearden Limestone]]
>  [[/Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]]
>  [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]]
>  [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]]
>  [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]]
>  [[/Wyatt Oil|Wyatt Oil]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|983337848
4c4
<  [[/Phoenix Durango|Phoenix-Durango]]
---
>  [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Coal|983337881
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section121|Section121]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Associated_Steel|983337968
1c1
< Associated Steel is the company owned by /OrrenBoyle.  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.
---
> Associated Steel is the company owned by [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]].  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[/Orren Boyle|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  [[/Orren Boyle|Boyle]] used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.
3,5c3,5
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/DAnconia_Copper|983338025
1c1
< A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by [[/Sebastian DAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[/Argentina|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
4c4
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/DAnconia_Copper|983338057
1c1
< A copper and mining company founded by [[/Sebastian DAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[/Argentina|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
---
> A copper and mining company founded by [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[/Argentina|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Phoenix-Durango|983338191
1c1
< The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of /Colorado, and /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of /Colorado.
---
> The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]] and [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] adequately.  Later, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]] with the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]].
4,11c4,11
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN145
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN147
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]] - Alluded to.
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  [[/Section147|Section147]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Limestone|983338243
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section121|Section121]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Ore|983338262
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Ore|983338280
1c1
< The first business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is mentioned in /SectioN121.
---
> The first business founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section121|Section121]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|983338336
1c1
< A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
---
> A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
4,7c4,7
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]] - Alluded to.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|983338351
3c3
< Rearden Stell is mention in:
---
> Rearden Steel is mention in:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Transcontinental|983338394
1c1
< The railroad run by [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
---
> The railroad run by [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major [[/Conflicts|conflicts]].
3c3
< Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
---
> Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Transcontinental|983338475
3a4,5
> 
> The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[/New York|New York]] to [[/San Francisco|San Francisco]], and which has never been late.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Francisco|983338521
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> San Francisco is the western terminus of the [[/Taggart Transcontinental Railroad|Taggart Transcontinental Railroad]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section111|Section111]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Francisco|983338544
1c1
< San Francisco is the western terminus of the [[/Taggart Transcontinental Railroad|Taggart Transcontinental Railroad]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section111|Section111]].
---
> San Francisco is the western terminus of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section111|Section111]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_Locomotive_Works|983338687
1c1
< An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to /TaggartTranscontinental.  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
---
> An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and [[/PresidentofULW|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
4,5c4,5
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
---
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_Locomotive_Works|983338703
1c1
< An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and [[/PresidentofULW|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
---
> An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and [[/President of ULW|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_Locomotive_Works|983338720
1c1
< An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and [[/President of ULW|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
---
> An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[/President of ULW|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil|983339007
1c1
< The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
---
> The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[/Colorado|Colorado]], but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[/Colorado|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country.
3c3
< [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
---
> [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[/Colorado|Colorado]] economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil|983339068
1c1
< The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[/Colorado|Colorado]], but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[/Colorado|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country.
---
> The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[/Colorado|Colorado]], but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[/Colorado|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country.
3c3
< [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[/Colorado|Colorado]] economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
---
> Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[/Colorado|Colorado]] economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
------
Josh_Grosse|983339748
38a39,40
> 
> If you want to keep it, I would love for you to upload it.  It's my own slightly-blurry amateur attempt, so better pictures might come along - although of course amateur attempts are the essence of wiki, and it guarantees that it's free. :)  I might want my name stuck to it, though.  What are you planning to do when wikipedia gets many, many more illustrations?
------
MakeaNewPage|983344446
1,5c1
< Very easy.  Simply go to any existing wiki page, such as the NewTopics page, click "Edit text of this page," and type in the name of the new page in the text box. Then save your edit, and you'll see your page name followed by "?". Click on the question mark to edit the new page.
< 
< To make a name, capitalize the first letter in every word in the name of the page and remove the spaces, LikeThis. For topics that have only one word, you'll have to capitalize one of the letters inside (or at the end of) the word, like PhiloSophy.
< 
< We will soon be allowing ordinary-looking links; we're changing the software.
---
> Very easy.  Simply go to any existing wiki page, such as the NewTopics page, click "Edit text of this page," and type in the name of the new page in the text box. Then save your edit, and you'll see your page name followed by "?". Click on the question mark to edit the new page.
------
Josh_Grosse|983344861
40a41,42
> 
> ''I haven't the least plan at all, I'm afraid.  One possibility is to add a way for people to upload their pictures into an images directory.  That's easy enough to do.''
------
Therapy/Occupational|983345103
1a2,77
> 
> Ick, this needs formatting, and I need to go to bed.  Anyhow, this is from the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, which is a non-copyright government publication.  (Actually, I need to more carefully investigate to be sure this is so, but in general publications of the Federal Government can not be copyright.)
> 
> Although the effects of Federal limits on
>                           reimbursement for therapy services will cause keen
>                           competition for jobs during the first half of the
>                           projection period, employment is expected to increase
>                           over the 1998-2008 period.
> 
>                           Competition for entrance into physical therapist
>                           educational programs is very intense.
> 
>                           By 2002, all physical therapist programs seeking
>                           accreditation will be required to offer master’s
>                           degrees and above.
>                       
>                      Nature of the Work
>                                               [About this section]
>                                                                           Top
>                       
>                      Physical therapists provide services that help restore
>                      function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or
>                      limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering
>                      from injuries or disease. They restore, maintain, and
>                      promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include
>                      accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions
>                      such as low back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures,
>                      head injuries, and cerebral palsy.
> 
>                      Therapists examine patients’ medical histories, then test
>                      and measure their strength, range of motion, balance and
>                      coordination, posture, muscle performance, respiration, and
>                      motor function. They also determine patients’ ability to be
>                      independent and reintegrate into the community or
>                      workplace after injury or illness. Next, they develop
>                      treatment plans describing a treatment strategy, the
>                      purpose, and anticipated outcome. Physical therapist
>                      assistants, under the direction and supervision of a physical
>                      therapist, may be involved in the implementation of the
>                      treatment plan. Physical therapist aides perform routine
>                      support tasks, as directed by the therapist. (Physical
>                      therapist assistants and aides are discussed elsewhere in the
>                      Handbook.)
> 
>                      Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have
>                      been immobilized and lack flexibility, strength, or
>                      endurance. They encourage patients to use their own
>                      muscles to further increase flexibility and range of motion
>                      before finally advancing to other exercises improving
>                      strength, balance, coordination, and endurance. Their goal
>                      is to improve how an individual functions at work and
>                      home.
> 
>                      Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot packs
>                      or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain and
>                      reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue
>                      massage to relieve pain. Therapists also teach patients to
>                      use assistive and adaptive devices such as crutches,
>                      prostheses, and wheelchairs. They may also show patients
>                      exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery.
> 
>                      As treatment continues, physical therapists document
>                      progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify
>                      treatments when necessary. Such documentation is used to
>                      track the patient’s progress, and identify areas requiring
>                      more or less attention.
> 
>                      Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety
>                      of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses,
>                      educators, social workers, occupational therapists,
>                      speech-language pathologists, and audiologists.
> 
>                      Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments;
>                      others specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics,
>                      orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and
>                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.
------
Therapy/Occupational|983345155
4a5,6
> (Also I realize I got the wrong information on this page.  Double ick!  I will fix all this in the morning, unless some magical wiki elves beat me to it by then.)
> 
77c79
<                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.
---
>                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.
------
Automatic_Dependent_Surveillance-Broadcast|983345163
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (also called ADS-B) is a system by which airplanes constantly broadcast their current location, speed, flight plan, size and type of craft, and other information.  This information is received by other airplanes and flight controllers.  The purpose of the system is to reduce the risk of collisions between airplanes, as well as to reduce congestion by allowing for more effective management of air traffic.
> 
> The ADS-B system was developed in the 1990s.  It relies on data from the [[Global Positioning System]].
------
Global_Positioning_System|983346305
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere in the world.  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from three satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
> 
> The GPS was designed by and is controlled by the [[United States/Department of Defense|United States Department of Defense]].  It is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service free of charge.  A more accurate Precise Positioning Service is availble to the United States military and other, mostly government users.
> 
> The GPS normally consists of 24 satellites in 6 orbital planes.  Each satellite circles the earth twice every day.
> 
> The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978.  The final, 24th satellite was launched in 1994.
------
Global_Positioning_System|983346339
1c1
< The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere in the world.  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from three satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere in the world.  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
------
Therapy/Occupational|983365942
79c79,80
<                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.
---
>                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.----
> This description is fairly accurate for Physical Therapy. Trust me... If possible, it would be a good basis for this entry.
------
Air_Transport|983374983
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Among topics we'd like to see are [[history of air travel]], [[history of aircraft]], [[balloon]], [[the Wright Brothers]], etc...
> 
> See [[Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast]].
------
HomePage|983390038
29c29
< * BritannicaPublicDomain
---
> * PublicDomainResources
------
PublicDomainResources|983390196
5c5
< [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg]
---
> [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg]  (See in particular PublicDomainBritannica)
17c17,19
< [http://www.census.gov US Census Bureau] -- has an enormous range of facts and figures which we will find helpful in fleshing out articles about cities and states.
---
> [http://www.census.gov US Census Bureau] -- has an enormous range of facts and figures which we will find helpful in fleshing out articles about cities and states.
> 
> [http://stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] -- contains descriptions of a great many occupations such as [[Physical Therapist]]
------
Therapy/Occupational|983390255
3,80d2
< Ick, this needs formatting, and I need to go to bed.  Anyhow, this is from the Occupational Outlook Quarterly, which is a non-copyright government publication.  (Actually, I need to more carefully investigate to be sure this is so, but in general publications of the Federal Government can not be copyright.)
< 
< (Also I realize I got the wrong information on this page.  Double ick!  I will fix all this in the morning, unless some magical wiki elves beat me to it by then.)
< 
< Although the effects of Federal limits on
<                           reimbursement for therapy services will cause keen
<                           competition for jobs during the first half of the
<                           projection period, employment is expected to increase
<                           over the 1998-2008 period.
< 
<                           Competition for entrance into physical therapist
<                           educational programs is very intense.
< 
<                           By 2002, all physical therapist programs seeking
<                           accreditation will be required to offer master’s
<                           degrees and above.
<                       
<                      Nature of the Work
<                                               [About this section]
<                                                                           Top
<                       
<                      Physical therapists provide services that help restore
<                      function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or
<                      limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering
<                      from injuries or disease. They restore, maintain, and
<                      promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include
<                      accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions
<                      such as low back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures,
<                      head injuries, and cerebral palsy.
< 
<                      Therapists examine patients’ medical histories, then test
<                      and measure their strength, range of motion, balance and
<                      coordination, posture, muscle performance, respiration, and
<                      motor function. They also determine patients’ ability to be
<                      independent and reintegrate into the community or
<                      workplace after injury or illness. Next, they develop
<                      treatment plans describing a treatment strategy, the
<                      purpose, and anticipated outcome. Physical therapist
<                      assistants, under the direction and supervision of a physical
<                      therapist, may be involved in the implementation of the
<                      treatment plan. Physical therapist aides perform routine
<                      support tasks, as directed by the therapist. (Physical
<                      therapist assistants and aides are discussed elsewhere in the
<                      Handbook.)
< 
<                      Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have
<                      been immobilized and lack flexibility, strength, or
<                      endurance. They encourage patients to use their own
<                      muscles to further increase flexibility and range of motion
<                      before finally advancing to other exercises improving
<                      strength, balance, coordination, and endurance. Their goal
<                      is to improve how an individual functions at work and
<                      home.
< 
<                      Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot packs
<                      or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain and
<                      reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue
<                      massage to relieve pain. Therapists also teach patients to
<                      use assistive and adaptive devices such as crutches,
<                      prostheses, and wheelchairs. They may also show patients
<                      exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery.
< 
<                      As treatment continues, physical therapists document
<                      progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify
<                      treatments when necessary. Such documentation is used to
<                      track the patient’s progress, and identify areas requiring
<                      more or less attention.
< 
<                      Physical therapists often consult and practice with a variety
<                      of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists, nurses,
<                      educators, social workers, occupational therapists,
<                      speech-language pathologists, and audiologists.
< 
<                      Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments;
<                      others specialize in areas such as pediatrics, geriatrics,
<                      orthopedics, sports medicine, neurology, and
<                      cardiopulmonary physical therapy.----
< This description is fairly accurate for Physical Therapy. Trust me... If possible, it would be a good basis for this entry.
------
Therapy/Physical|983390280
1c1
< A kind of [[therapy]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Physical Therapy]]
------
Physical_Therapy|983390544
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physical therapists provide services that help restore
> function, improve mobility, relieve pain, and prevent or
> limit permanent physical disabilities of patients suffering
> from injuries or disease. They restore, maintain, and
> promote overall fitness and health. Their patients include
> accident victims and individuals with disabling conditions
> such as low back pain, arthritis, heart disease, fractures,
> head injuries, and cerebral palsy.
> 
> Therapists examine patients' medical histories, then test
> and measure their strength, range of motion, balance and
> coordination, posture, muscle performance, respiration,
> and motor function. They also determine patients' ability
> to be independent and reintegrate into the community or
> workplace after injury or illness. Next, they develop
> treatment plans describing a treatment strategy, the
> purpose, and anticipated outcome. Physical therapist
> assistants, under the direction and supervision of a physical
> therapist, may be involved in the implementation of the
> treatment plan. Physical therapist aides perform routine
> support tasks, as directed by the therapist. 
> 
> Treatment often includes exercise for patients who have
> been immobilized and lack flexibility, strength, or
> endurance. They encourage patients to use their own
> muscles to further increase flexibility and range of motion
> before finally advancing to other exercises improving
> strength, balance, coordination, and endurance. Their goal
> is to improve how an individual functions at work and
> home.
> 
> Physical therapists also use electrical stimulation, hot
> packs or cold compresses, and ultrasound to relieve pain
> and reduce swelling. They may use traction or deep-tissue
> massage to relieve pain. Therapists also teach patients to
> use assistive and adaptive devices such as crutches,
> prostheses, and wheelchairs. They may also show patients
> exercises to do at home to expedite their recovery.
> 
> As treatment continues, physical therapists document
> progress, conduct periodic examinations, and modify
> treatments when necessary. Such documentation is used to
> track the patient's progress, and identify areas requiring
> more or less attention.
> 
> Physical therapists often consult and practice with a
> variety of other professionals, such as physicians, dentists,
> nurses, educators, social workers, occupational therapists,
> speech-language pathologists, and audiologists.
> 
> Some physical therapists treat a wide range of ailments;
> others specialize in areas such as [[pediatrics]], [[geriatrics]], [[orthopedics]], [[sports medicine]], [[neurology]], and [[cardiopulmonary physical therapy]].
>                 
------
Global_Positioning_System|983390898
3c3,5
< The GPS was designed by and is controlled by the [[United States/Department of Defense|United States Department of Defense]].  It is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service free of charge.  A more accurate Precise Positioning Service is availble to the United States military and other, mostly government users.
---
> The GPS was designed by and is controlled by the [[United States/Department of Defense|United States Department of Defense]].  It is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service free of charge.  
> 
> In the past, the civilian signal was degraded, and a more accurate Precise Positioning Service was availble only to the United States military and other, mostly government users.  However, in May, 2000, [[Bill Clinton]] announced that this "Selective Availability" would be turned off, and so now all users enjoy the same level of access.
------
Continents|983392797
10c10
< Though not a continent per se, [[Oceania]] is sometimes included in this group.
---
> Though not a continent per se, [[Oceania]] ([[Australia]] and surrounding islands]]) is sometimes included in this group.
------
Global_Positioning_System|983392832
1c1
< The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere in the world.  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
------
Statistical_Theory|983394634
15c15
< [Interpreting Statistical Data] is the final objective of all research:
---
> [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] is the final objective of all research:
------
Perseus|983404306
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology, legendary founder of [[Mycenae]] who slew the gorgon [[Medusa]].  Also, a [[Constellation]] named after him: see /Constellation.
> 
> Perseus was the son of Danae, the only child of [[Acrisius]] king of [[Argos]].  He was disappointed as to his lack of male heirs and enquired an oracle as to whether this would change.  Instead of the tidings he hoped for, he received the news that one day he would be killed by his daughter's child.  As she was yet childless, he shut her up in a brazen chamber, but [[Zeus]] came to her in the form of rain and Perseus was born.
> 
> None to happy, but not willing to provoke the wrath of the gods by killing his offspring, Acrisius cast the two into the sea in a wooden chest.  They washed ashore on the island of [[Seriphos]], where they were taken in by Dictys, the brother of king Polydectes, who raised the boy to manhood.  Now after a time Polydectes fell in love with Danae, and so wanted to get Perseus out of the picture.  He thereby hatched a plot to send him on a suicide mission.
> 
> Polydectes placed some strong hints that he would love to have the head of Medusa, one of the gorgons whose very expression turns people to stone.  He then announced that he would woo [[Hippodamia]] and so needed the others to provide him with horses (a different myth).  Shamed at having nothing to give, Perseus left to get him Medusa's head.  This was of course not easy, and for a long time he wandered aimlessly, without hope of ever finding her or being able to accomplish his mission when he did.
> 
> The gods [[Hermes]] and [[Athena]] came to his rescue.  They led him to the [[Phorcides]], three perpetually old women with one eye and tooth between them and sisters of the gorgons.  Perseus took the eye and would not return it until they had given him directions.  He also received winged sandals, a magic wallet, the cap of [[Hades]] that made one invincible, an adamantine sickle, and a mirrored shield.  With all this he came upon the sleeping gorgons.  By viewing Medusa's reflection in his shield he could safely approach and cut off her head.  The other two gorgons pursued him, but he became invisible and escaped.
> 
> On his way back, Perseus passed by [[Ethiopia]], then ruled by a king [[Cepheus]].  At the time his daughter [[Andromeda]] had been abandoned to prevent the sea monster [[Cetus]] from destroying the country.  Perseus used Medusa's head to kill the monster and rescue the girl in exchange for the promise of her hand; she was already betrothed to the king's brother Phineus, who thus plotted to kill Perseus, but a little more exhibition of the head fixed that.  And on returning to Argos and discovering his mother had had to take refuge from the violent ways of Polydectes, he put a quick end to those too, and made Dictys king.
> 
> Perseus then returned his tools and gave Medusa's had as a gift to [[Athena]].  He started for Argos, but learning of the oracle instead went to [[Larissa]], where athletic games were being held.  By chance Acrisius was there, and Perseus accidentally struck him with his javelin, fulfilling the oracle.  To shamed to return to Argos he then gave the kingdom to [[Megapenthes]] son of [[Proetus]] (Acrisius' brother) and took over his kingdom of Tyrins, also founding Mycenae and Midea there.
> 
> Perseus and Andromeda had six sons: [[Perses]], [[Alcaeus]], [[Heleus]], [[Mestor]], [[Sthenelus]], and [[Electryon]].  The first was supposedly left in Ethiopia and became ancestor of the emperors of [[Persia]] to explain the similarity of the country's name and Perseus'.  His descendants ruled Mycenae to [[Eurystheus]] son of Sthenelus, after whom [[Atreus]] got the kingdom, and include the great hero [[Heracles]] son of [[Amphitryon]] son of Alcaeus.
------
GreekMythology|983404555
7c7
< So far these pages are devoted to GreekMythology...
---
> Some important gods:
9c9
< [[Zeus]] -- [[Europa]] -- [[Achilles]] -- [[Hector]]  --  [[Hera]] -- HelenOfTroy -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Athena]]
---
> [[Zeus]] -- [[Hera]] -- [[Poseidon]] -- [[Hades]] -- [[Demeter]] -- [[Hestia]] -- [[Athena]] -- [[Ares]] -- [[Hephaestus]] -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Artemis]] -- [[Aphrodite]] -- [[Dionysius]] -- [[Prometheus]]
11c11
< And we hope to find out more about our friends here...
---
> Some important mortals:
13c13
< [[Artemis]] -- [[Leto]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Oedipus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]] -- [[Prometheus]]
---
> [[Io]] -- [[Europa]] -- [[Perseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Agamemnon]] -- HelenOfTroy -- [[Achilles]] -- [[Hector]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]]
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|983406215
1c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|983406323
1c1
< Wikis don't don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
------
CountriesZ|983407731
1c1
< ZairE
---
> [[Zaire]]
3c3
< ZimbabwE
---
> [[Zimbabwe]]
------
Turkey|983407776
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara (2.6m). Other important cities are Izmir (1.7m), Istanbul (6.6m), Bursa (0.835m)
> 
> Ethnic background: Turkish 86%, Kurdish 11%, Arabic 2%.
> 
> Religious background: SunniMuslims 99%, OrthodoxChristians 0.34%.
> 
> 
------
CountriesT|983407808
1,4c1,4
< * TaiwaN
< * TurkeY
< * TuvalU
< * TrinidadAndTobago
---
> * [[Taiwan]]
> * [[Turkey]]
> * [[Tuvalu]]
> * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
------
Russia|983407862
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Russia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
> ----
> Quoth a [[Russian]]:
> 
> The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
> ----
> Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
------
RussiA|983407878
1,7c1
< RusSia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
< ----
< Quoth a RussiaN:
< 
< The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
< ----
< Funny enough, but all RussiaN websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Russia]]
------
RusSia|983407912
1,3c1
< See RussiA.
< 
< I moved the contents of this page (such as they were) to RussiA because that is the naming convention used in the CountriesOfTheWorld section of WikiPedia.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Russia]]
------
CountriesR|983407948
1c1,2
< * RussiA
---
> * [[Russia]]
> * [[Rwanda]]
------
CountriesQ|983407965
1c1
< QataR
---
> [[Qatar]]
------
Warsaw|983408103
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Polish: ''Warszawa'').
> Capital of [[Poland]] (pop. ca. 2 mil.). The city, which is an autonomous administrative unit, is located in the east-central part of the country.
> 
> Warsaw is notable among [[Europe]]'s capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the [[Swedish]] and [[Prussian]] occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the [[Russian]] army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the Warsaw Uprising failed, by [[Adolf Hitler]]'s order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the [[German]]s, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of Warsaw, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
> 
> Since the second half of the 18th century, the emblem of Warsaw (originally a siren) has been a mermaid with sword and shield in hand, representing the creature who in legend led a prince to the site of Warsaw and ordered him to found the city. The city's motto is, appropriately, "Contemnit procellas" ("It defies the storms").
------
Poles|983408237
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> General name for people living in [[Poland]].
> 
> Before World War II the Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. In the provinces of Silesia, Pomerania, and Masuria (then in [[Germany]]) there was a significant minority of [[German]]s. In the southeast, [[Ukrainian]] settlements predominated in the regions east of Chelm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sacz. In all the towns and cities there were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking [[Jews]]. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], and western [[Ukraine]], all of which had a mixed population, PoleS predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in [[Daugavpils]] (in [[Latvia]]), [[Minsk]] (in [[Belarus]]), and [[Kiev]] (in [[Ukraine]]).
> 
> The war, however, killed vast numbers of people, precipitated massive migrations, and radically altered borders. As a consequence the population of Poland became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world. Virtually all of Poland's people claim Polish nationality, with Polish as their native tongue (''see'' PolishLanguage). Ukrainians, the largest minority group, are scattered in various northern districts. Lesser numbers of Belarusians and Lithuanians live in areas adjoining Belarus and Lithuania. The Jewish community, almost entirely Polonized, has been greatly reduced. In Silesia a significant segment of the population, of mixed Polish and German ancestry, tends to declare itself as Polish or German according to political circumstances.
> 
> ----
> See also:
> 
> * SlavicPeoples
> * SlavicLanguages
> * PolishLanguage
> 
------
PoleS|983408257
1,14c1
< General name for people living in PolanD.
< 
< 
< Before World War II the Polish lands were noted for the richness and variety of their ethnic communities. In the provinces of Silesia, Pomerania, and Masuria (then in GermanY) there was a significant minority of Germans. In the southeast, Ukrainian settlements predominated in the regions east of Chelm and in the Carpathians east of Nowy Sacz. In all the towns and cities there were large concentrations of Yiddish-speaking Jews. The Polish ethnographic area stretched eastward: in LithuaniA, BelaruS, and western UkrainE, all of which had a mixed population, PoleS predominated not only in the cities but also in numerous rural districts. There were significant Polish minorities in Daugavpils (in LatviA), MinsK (in BelaruS), and KieV (in UkrainE).
< 
< The war, however, killed vast numbers of people, precipitated massive migrations, and radically altered borders. As a consequence the population of PolanD became one of the most ethnically homogeneous in the world. Virtually all of PolanD's people claim Polish nationality, with Polish as their native tongue (''see'' PolishLanguage). Ukrainians, the largest minority group, are scattered in various northern districts. Lesser numbers of Belarusians and Lithuanians live in areas adjoining BelaruS and LithuaniA. The Jewish community, almost entirely Polonized, has been greatly reduced. In Silesia a significant segment of the population, of mixed Polish and German ancestry, tends to declare itself as Polish or German according to political circumstances.
< 
< 
< ----
< See also:
< 
< * SlavicPeoples
< * SlavicLanguages
< * PolishLanguage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poles]]
------
Poland|983408351
1c1,15
< #REDIRECT PolanD
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is [[Warsaw]] (Warsawa).
> 
> Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. Poland is bordered to the north by the [[Baltic Sea]], to the northeast by [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]], and to the east by [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate Poland from [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]], while to the west the border with [[Germany]] is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
> 
> 
> Population: ca. 40m [[Poles]].
> 
> 
> Form of Government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; Diet [460])
> 
> 
> Monetary Unit: Zloty(PLN)=100 groszy; 1 USD=4.0 PLN (01/2001)
> 
> Language spoken: Polish (''see'' PolishLanguage).
> 
------
PolanD|983408370
1,14c1
< Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is WarsaW (Warsawa).
< 
< Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. PolanD is bordered to the north by the [[Baltic Sea]], to the northeast by RussiA and LithuaniA, and to the east by BelaruS and UkrainE. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate PolanD from SlovakiA and the CzechRepublic, while to the west the border with GermanY is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
< 
< 
< Population: ca. 40m PoleS.
< 
< 
< Form of Government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; Diet [460])
< 
< 
< Monetary Unit: Zloty(PLN)=100 groszy; 1 USD=4.0 PLN (01/2001)
< 
< Language spoken: Polish (''see'' PolishLanguage).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poland]]
------
Papua_New_Guinea|983408409
1c1,317
< Describe the new page here.
---
>                                    Introduction 
> 
> Background: The eastern half of the island of New Guinea - second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north) and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World War I and continued to administer the combined areas until independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives. 
> 
>                                    Geography 
> 
> Location: Southeastern Asia, group of islands including the eastern half of the island of New Guinea between the Coral Sea and the South Pacific Ocean, east of Indonesia 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 147 00 E 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 462,840 sq km 
> land: 452,860 sq km 
> water: 9,980 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than California 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 820 km 
> border countries: Indonesia 820 km 
> 
> Coastline: 5,152 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines 
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation 
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical; northwest monsoon (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October); slight seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains with coastal lowlands and rolling foothills 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
> highest point: Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m 
> 
> Natural resources: gold, copper, silver, natural gas, timber, oil, fisheries 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 0.1% 
> permanent crops: 1% 
> permanent pastures: 0% 
> forests and woodland: 92.9% 
> other: 6% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: active volcanism; situated along the Pacific "Rim of Fire"; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis 
> 
> Environment - current issues: rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol 
> 
> Geography - note: shares island of New Guinea with Indonesia; one of world's largest swamps along southwest coast 
> 
> 
>                                    People 
> 
> Population: 4,926,984 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 39% (male 972,289; female 940,049) 
> 15-64 years: 58% (male 1,470,158; female 1,365,523) 
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 84,942; female 94,023) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 32.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 8 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 59.89 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 63.1 years 
> male: 61.05 years 
> female: 65.26 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.38 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Papua New Guinean(s) 
> adjective: Papua New Guinean 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Melanesian, Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, Polynesian 
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 22%, Lutheran 16%, Presbyterian/Methodist/London Missionary Society 8%, Anglican 5%, Evangelical Alliance 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 1%, other Protestant 10%, indigenous beliefs 34% 
> 
> Languages: English spoken by 1%-2%, pidgin English widespread, Motu spoken in Papua region 
> note: 715 indigenous languages 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 72.2% 
> male: 81% 
> female: 62.7% (1995 est.) 
> 
>                                    Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Independent State of Papua New Guinea 
> conventional short form: Papua New Guinea 
> abbreviation: PNG 
> 
> Data code: PP 
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy 
> 
> Capital: Port Moresby 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 20 provinces; Bougainville, Central, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, East New Britain, East Sepik, Enga, Gulf, Madang, Manus, Milne Bay, Morobe, National Capital, New Ireland, Northern, Sandaun, Southern Highlands, Western, Western Highlands, West New Britain 
> 
> Independence: 16 September 1975 (from the Australian-administered UN trusteeship) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 16 September (1975) 
> 
> Constitution: 16 September 1975 
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Silas ATOPARE (since 13 November 1997) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Mekere MORAUTA (since NA August 1999); Deputy Prime Minister Mao ZEMING (since NA December 1999) 
> cabinet: National Executive Council appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the prime minister 
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the National Executive Council; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general for up to five years on the basis of majority support in National Parliament 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament - sometimes referred to as the House of Assembly (109 seats, 89 elected from open electorates and 20 from provincial electorates; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) 
> elections: last held 14-28 June 1997 (next to be held NA June 2002) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - PPP 15%, Pangu Pati 14%, NA 14%, PDM 8%, PNC 6%, PAP 5%, UP 3%, NP 1%, PUP 1%, independents 33%; seats by party - PPP 16, Pangu Pati 15, NA 15, PDM 9, PNC 7, PAP 5, UP 3, NP 1, PUP 1, independents 37; note - association with political parties is very fluid 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on the proposal of the National Executive Council after consultation with the minister responsible for justice, other judges are appointed by the Judicial and Legal Services Commission 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Black Action Party [Paul WANJIK]; Bougainville Unity Alliance or BUA [Samuel AKOITAI]; Christian Democratic Party [Dilu GOMA]; Hausman Party [Waim TOKAM]; League for National Advancement or LNA [leader NA]; Liberal Party [Rabbie SAMAI]; Melanesian Alliance or MA [Fr. John MOMIS]; Melanesian Labor Party [Paul MONDIA]; Milne Bay Party [Simon MUMURIK]; Movement for Greater Autonomy [Stephen POKAWIN]; National Alliance or NA [Michael SOMARE]; National Party or NP [Paul PORA]; Papua New Guinea First Party (includes People's National Congress or PNC [Simon KAUMI] and Christian Country Party [Avusi TANO]); Papua New Guinea United Party or Pangu Pati [Chris HAIVETA]; People's Action Party or PAP [Ted DIRO]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Iario LASARO]; People's National Alliance [leader NA]; People's Progress Party or PPP [Michael NALI]; People's Resources Awareness Party [leader NA]; People's Solidarity Party [Kala SWOKIM]; People's Unity Party or PUP [Alfred KAIABE]; United Party or UP [Rimbiuk PATO]; United Resource Party [Masket IANGALIO] 
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, APEC, AsDB, ASEAN (observer), C, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Nagora Y. BOGAN 
> chancery: 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 
> telephone: [1] (202) 745-3680 
> FAX: [1] (202) 745-3679 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arma Jane KARAER 
> embassy: Douglas Street, Port Moresby 
> mailing address: P. O. Box 1492, Port Moresby 
> telephone: [675] 321-1455 
> FAX: [675] 321-3423 
> 
> Flag description: divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five white five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered 
> 
> 
>                                    Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by the rugged terrain and the high cost of developing infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for the bulk of the population. Mineral deposits, including oil, copper, and gold, account for 72% of export earnings. Budgetary support from Australia and development aid under World Bank auspices have helped sustain the economy. In 1995, Port Moresby reached agreement with the IMF and World Bank on a structural adjustment program, of which the first phase was successfully completed in 1996. In 1997, droughts caused by the El Nino weather pattern wreaked havoc on Papua New Guinea's coffee, cocoa, and coconut production, the mainstays of the agricultural-based economy and major sources of export earnings. The coffee crop was slashed by up to 50% in 1997. Despite problems with drought, the year 1998 saw a small recovery in GDP. Growth increased to 3.6% in 1999 and may be even higher in 2000, say 4.3%. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $11.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3.6% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,500 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 25% 
> industry: 35% 
> services: 40% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 1.7% 
> highest 10%: 40.5% (1996) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 16.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.941 million 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA% 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $1.6 billion 
> expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) 
> 
> Industries: copra crushing, palm oil processing, plywood production, wood chip production; mining of gold, silver, and copper; crude oil production; construction, tourism 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.74 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 69.54% 
> hydro: 30.46% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.618 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, tea, rubber, sweet potatoes, fruit, vegetables; poultry, pork 
> 
> Exports: $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: oil, gold, copper ore, logs, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, crayfish and prawns 
> 
> Exports - partners: Australia 20%, Japan 13%, Germany 7%, South Korea 5%, Philippines 4%, UK 3% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Australia 51%, Singapore 10%, Japan 8%, US 5%, New Zealand 5%, Malaysia 3% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $2.4 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $400 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> Currency: 1 kina (K) = 100 toea 
> 
> Exchange rates: kina (K) per US$1 - 2.7624 (November 1999), 2.520 (1999), 2.058 (1998), 1.434 (1997), 1.318 (1996), 1.276 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
> 
>                                    Communications 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 44,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995) 
> 
> Telephone system: services are adequate and being improved; facilities provide radiotelephone and telegraph, coastal radio, aeronautical radio, and international radio communication services 
> domestic: mostly radiotelephone 
> international: submarine cables to Australia and Guam; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); international radio communication service 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 19, shortwave 28 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 410,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 42,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
> 
> 
>                                    Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 0 km 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 19,600 km 
> paved: 686 km 
> unpaved: 18,914 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 10,940 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kieta, Lae, Madang, Port Moresby, Rabaul 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 21 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 36,417 GRT/52,432 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, combination ore/oil 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 3, roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 492 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 19 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 473 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 58 
> under 914 m: 402 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> 
>                                    Military 
> 
> Military branches: Papua New Guinea Defense Force (includes Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, and Special Forces Unit) 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 1,274,818 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 706,159 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY98) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1% (FY98) 
> 
> 
>                                          Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
> 
> 
------
PapuaNewGuineA|983408425
1,316c1
<                                    Introduction 
< 
< Background: The eastern half of the island of New Guinea - second largest in the world - was divided between Germany (north) and the UK (south) in 1885. The latter area was transferred to Australia in 1902, which occupied the northern portion during World War I and continued to administer the combined areas until independence in 1975. A nine-year secessionist revolt on the island of Bougainville ended in 1997, after claiming some 20,000 lives. 
< 
<                                    Geography 
< 
< Location: Southeastern Asia, group of islands including the eastern half of the island of New Guinea between the Coral Sea and the South Pacific Ocean, east of Indonesia 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 147 00 E 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 462,840 sq km 
< land: 452,860 sq km 
< water: 9,980 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than California 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 820 km 
< border countries: Indonesia 820 km 
< 
< Coastline: 5,152 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines 
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation 
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: tropical; northwest monsoon (December to March), southeast monsoon (May to October); slight seasonal temperature variation 
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains with coastal lowlands and rolling foothills 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
< highest point: Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m 
< 
< Natural resources: gold, copper, silver, natural gas, timber, oil, fisheries 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 0.1% 
< permanent crops: 1% 
< permanent pastures: 0% 
< forests and woodland: 92.9% 
< other: 6% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km 
< 
< Natural hazards: active volcanism; situated along the Pacific "Rim of Fire"; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis 
< 
< Environment - current issues: rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands 
< signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol 
< 
< Geography - note: shares island of New Guinea with Indonesia; one of world's largest swamps along southwest coast 
< 
< 
<                                    People 
< 
< Population: 4,926,984 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 39% (male 972,289; female 940,049) 
< 15-64 years: 58% (male 1,470,158; female 1,365,523) 
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 84,942; female 94,023) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 32.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 8 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 59.89 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 63.1 years 
< male: 61.05 years 
< female: 65.26 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.38 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Papua New Guinean(s) 
< adjective: Papua New Guinean 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Melanesian, Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, Polynesian 
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 22%, Lutheran 16%, Presbyterian/Methodist/London Missionary Society 8%, Anglican 5%, Evangelical Alliance 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 1%, other Protestant 10%, indigenous beliefs 34% 
< 
< Languages: English spoken by 1%-2%, pidgin English widespread, Motu spoken in Papua region 
< note: 715 indigenous languages 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 72.2% 
< male: 81% 
< female: 62.7% (1995 est.) 
< 
<                                    Government 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Independent State of Papua New Guinea 
< conventional short form: Papua New Guinea 
< abbreviation: PNG 
< 
< Data code: PP 
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy 
< 
< Capital: Port Moresby 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 20 provinces; Bougainville, Central, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, East New Britain, East Sepik, Enga, Gulf, Madang, Manus, Milne Bay, Morobe, National Capital, New Ireland, Northern, Sandaun, Southern Highlands, Western, Western Highlands, West New Britain 
< 
< Independence: 16 September 1975 (from the Australian-administered UN trusteeship) 
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 16 September (1975) 
< 
< Constitution: 16 September 1975 
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Silas ATOPARE (since 13 November 1997) 
< head of government: Prime Minister Mekere MORAUTA (since NA August 1999); Deputy Prime Minister Mao ZEMING (since NA December 1999) 
< cabinet: National Executive Council appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the prime minister 
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the National Executive Council; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general for up to five years on the basis of majority support in National Parliament 
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament - sometimes referred to as the House of Assembly (109 seats, 89 elected from open electorates and 20 from provincial electorates; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) 
< elections: last held 14-28 June 1997 (next to be held NA June 2002) 
< election results: percent of vote by party - PPP 15%, Pangu Pati 14%, NA 14%, PDM 8%, PNC 6%, PAP 5%, UP 3%, NP 1%, PUP 1%, independents 33%; seats by party - PPP 16, Pangu Pati 15, NA 15, PDM 9, PNC 7, PAP 5, UP 3, NP 1, PUP 1, independents 37; note - association with political parties is very fluid 
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on the proposal of the National Executive Council after consultation with the minister responsible for justice, other judges are appointed by the Judicial and Legal Services Commission 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Black Action Party [Paul WANJIK]; Bougainville Unity Alliance or BUA [Samuel AKOITAI]; Christian Democratic Party [Dilu GOMA]; Hausman Party [Waim TOKAM]; League for National Advancement or LNA [leader NA]; Liberal Party [Rabbie SAMAI]; Melanesian Alliance or MA [Fr. John MOMIS]; Melanesian Labor Party [Paul MONDIA]; Milne Bay Party [Simon MUMURIK]; Movement for Greater Autonomy [Stephen POKAWIN]; National Alliance or NA [Michael SOMARE]; National Party or NP [Paul PORA]; Papua New Guinea First Party (includes People's National Congress or PNC [Simon KAUMI] and Christian Country Party [Avusi TANO]); Papua New Guinea United Party or Pangu Pati [Chris HAIVETA]; People's Action Party or PAP [Ted DIRO]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Iario LASARO]; People's National Alliance [leader NA]; People's Progress Party or PPP [Michael NALI]; People's Resources Awareness Party [leader NA]; People's Solidarity Party [Kala SWOKIM]; People's Unity Party or PUP [Alfred KAIABE]; United Party or UP [Rimbiuk PATO]; United Resource Party [Masket IANGALIO] 
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, APEC, AsDB, ASEAN (observer), C, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Nagora Y. BOGAN 
< chancery: 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 
< telephone: [1] (202) 745-3680 
< FAX: [1] (202) 745-3679 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arma Jane KARAER 
< embassy: Douglas Street, Port Moresby 
< mailing address: P. O. Box 1492, Port Moresby 
< telephone: [675] 321-1455 
< FAX: [675] 321-3423 
< 
< Flag description: divided diagonally from upper hoist-side corner; the upper triangle is red with a soaring yellow bird of paradise centered; the lower triangle is black with five white five-pointed stars of the Southern Cross constellation centered 
< 
< 
<                                    Economy 
< 
< Economy - overview: Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by the rugged terrain and the high cost of developing infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for the bulk of the population. Mineral deposits, including oil, copper, and gold, account for 72% of export earnings. Budgetary support from Australia and development aid under World Bank auspices have helped sustain the economy. In 1995, Port Moresby reached agreement with the IMF and World Bank on a structural adjustment program, of which the first phase was successfully completed in 1996. In 1997, droughts caused by the El Nino weather pattern wreaked havoc on Papua New Guinea's coffee, cocoa, and coconut production, the mainstays of the agricultural-based economy and major sources of export earnings. The coffee crop was slashed by up to 50% in 1997. Despite problems with drought, the year 1998 saw a small recovery in GDP. Growth increased to 3.6% in 1999 and may be even higher in 2000, say 4.3%. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $11.6 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 3.6% (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,500 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 25% 
< industry: 35% 
< services: 40% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: 1.7% 
< highest 10%: 40.5% (1996) 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 16.5% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Labor force: 1.941 million 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA% 
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA% 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $1.6 billion 
< expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) 
< 
< Industries: copra crushing, palm oil processing, plywood production, wood chip production; mining of gold, silver, and copper; crude oil production; construction, tourism 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.74 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 69.54% 
< hydro: 30.46% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.618 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, tea, rubber, sweet potatoes, fruit, vegetables; poultry, pork 
< 
< Exports: $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: oil, gold, copper ore, logs, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, crayfish and prawns 
< 
< Exports - partners: Australia 20%, Japan 13%, Germany 7%, South Korea 5%, Philippines 4%, UK 3% (1998) 
< 
< Imports: $1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals 
< 
< Imports - partners: Australia 51%, Singapore 10%, Japan 8%, US 5%, New Zealand 5%, Malaysia 3% (1998) 
< 
< Debt - external: $2.4 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $400 million (1999 est.) 
< 
< Currency: 1 kina (K) = 100 toea 
< 
< Exchange rates: kina (K) per US$1 - 2.7624 (November 1999), 2.520 (1999), 2.058 (1998), 1.434 (1997), 1.318 (1996), 1.276 (1995) 
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
< 
< 
<                                    Communications 
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 44,000 (1995) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995) 
< 
< Telephone system: services are adequate and being improved; facilities provide radiotelephone and telegraph, coastal radio, aeronautical radio, and international radio communication services 
< domestic: mostly radiotelephone 
< international: submarine cables to Australia and Guam; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); international radio communication service 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 19, shortwave 28 (1998) 
< 
< Radios: 410,000 (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997) 
< 
< Televisions: 42,000 (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
< 
< 
<                                    Transportation 
< 
< Railways: 0 km 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 19,600 km 
< paved: 686 km 
< unpaved: 18,914 km (1996 est.) 
< 
< Waterways: 10,940 km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Kieta, Lae, Madang, Port Moresby, Rabaul 
< 
< Merchant marine: 
< total: 21 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 36,417 GRT/52,432 DWT 
< ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, combination ore/oil 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 3, roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 492 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 19 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 473 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 58 
< under 914 m: 402 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 2 (1999 est.) 
< 
< 
<                                    Military 
< 
< Military branches: Papua New Guinea Defense Force (includes Ground, Naval, and Air Forces, and Special Forces Unit) 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 1,274,818 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 706,159 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY98) 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1% (FY98) 
< 
< 
<                                          Transnational Issues 
< 
< Disputes - international: none 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Papua New Guinea]]
------
Pitcairn_Island|983408464
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tiny island in the [[South Pacific]], one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the [[H.M.S. Bounty]]; the original Pitcairners were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as [[EnglishLanguage]], are spoken there.  A protectorate of the [[United Kingdom]] --but politically unique.  Population (1991) around 60.
------
PitcairnIsland|983408482
1c1
< A tiny island in the [[South Pacific]], one of the most remote sites of human habitation on the planet.  Its fascinating history begins with the famous mutiny on the [[H.M.S. Bounty]]; the original Pitcairners were roughneck sailors and their Tahitian "wives."  An English-Polynesian creole, as well as [[EnglishLanguage]], are spoken there.  A protectorate of the [[UnitedKingdom]] --but politically unique.  Population (1991) around 60.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pitcairn Island]]
------
CountriesP|983408515
1,7c1,7
< * PolanD
< * PortugaL
< * ParaguaY
< * PitcairnIsland
< * PanamA
< * PakistaN
< * PapuaNewGuineA
---
> * [[Poland]]
> * [[Portugal]]
> * [[Paraguay]]
> * [[Pitcairn Island]]
> * [[Panama]]
> * [[Pakistan]]
> * [[Papua New Guinea]]
------
CountriesO|983408535
1c1,2
< OmaN
---
> [[Oman]]
> 
------
CountriesN|983408579
1,3c1,5
< NewZealand
< NetherLands
< NorwaY
---
> [[Netherlands]]
> 
> [[New Zealand]]
> 
> [[Norway]]
------
New_Zealand|983408805
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Zealand (Aotearoa in MaoriLanguage) is a temperate country located in the [[South West Pacific]].  It is composed of two main Islands and a number of smaller islands.  The [[/South Island]] is the largest land mass, and is divided along its length by the [[/Southern Alps]], the highest peak of which is [[Mount Cook]], at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than three kilometres in the South Island.  The [[/North Island]] is less mountainous than the South, but is marked by [[Volcanism]].  The tallest North Island Mountain, [[Ruapehu Mountain]] (2797m) is an active cone volcano.  The total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along its main, North-North East axis.
> 
> The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally located capital, is 5.9C in midwinter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
> 
> New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is selected.  This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001) [[Helen Clarke]] of the centre-left [[/Labour party]].  Currently six parties are represented in the New Zealand parliament.  New Zealand's head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys (not to be confused with the fictional [[Hardy Boys]]).
> 
> New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land masses.  Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500 and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first European explorers to reach New Zealand were [[Abel Janzoon Tasman]], who arrived from the Netherlands in 1642, and [[James Cook]], whose extensive surveys starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the 1790s on.  Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant feature of New Zealand's public life.
> 
> New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country.  It's primary export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry.  There are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
> 
> 
> Further Reading:
> 
> Statistics New Zealand, "The New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1998", GP Publications, Wellington, 1998
> 
> Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
> 
------
NewZealand|983408825
1,18c1
< New Zealand (Aotearoa in Maori [MaoriLanguage]) is a temperate country located in the South West Pacific [SouthWestPacific].  It is composed of two main Islands and a number of
< smaller islands.  The South Island [TheSouthIslandOfNewZealand] is the largest land mass, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps [NewZealandSouthernAlps], the highest peak of which is Mount Cook [AorangiMountainNewZealand], at 3754 m. There are eighteen peaks of more than three kilometres in the South Island.  The North Island [TheNorthIslandOfNewZealand] is less mountainous than the South, but is marked by volcanism [VolcanismDefinition].  The tallest North Island Mountain, Ruapehu [RuapehuMountainNewZealand] (2 797m) is an active cone volcano.  The total land area of New Zealand, 270 500km<sup>2</sup> is somewhat smaller than that of Japan and the British Isles, and slightly larger than Colorado in the USA.  The country extends more than 1600 km along its main, North-North East axis.
< 
< The climate througout the country is mild, rarely falling below 0C or rising above 30C. Daily average temperature in Wellington, the centrally located capital, is 5.9C in midwinter and 20.3C in mid summer. 
< 
< New Zealand is an independent Parliamentary Democracy governed by a 120 member parliament, from which a 20 member executive cabinet is selected.  This cabinet is led by the Prime Minister, currently (Jan 2001) Helen Clarke [PrimeMinisterHelenClarke] of the centre-left Labour party [NewZealandLabourParty].  Currently six parties are represented in the New Zealand parliament.  New Zealand's head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor General, The Right Honourable Sir Michael Hardie Boys (not to be confused with the fictional HardyBoys).
< 
< New Zealand was one of the most recently settled major land masses.  Polynesian settlers arrived, probably some time between 500 and 1300AD, and established the indigenous Maori culture. The first European explorers to reach New Zealand were Abel Tasman [AbelJanzoonTasmanExplorer], who arrived from the Netherlands in 1642, and James Cook [JamesCookExplorer], whose extensive surveys starting in 1769 lead to significant European colonisation from the 1790s on.  Although the majority of the New Zealand population is now
< of European origin, Maori and Pacific islanders are the second and third largest ethnic groups, and Maori culture is a significant feature of New Zealand's public life.
< 
< New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country.  It's primary export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry.  There are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
< 
< 
< Further Reading:
< 
< Statistics New Zealand, "The New Zealand Official Yearbook, 1998", GP Publications, Wellington, 1998
< 
< Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
---
> #REDIRECT [[New Zealand]]
------
CountriesM|983408850
1c1
< MarockO
---
> [[Morocco]]
------
Latvia|983408876
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small and nice country in [Eastern Europe].
> 
> An Ex-USSR republic; one of the three [[Baltic Republics]]
> 
> http://www.tvnet.lv/en/
------
LatviA|983408890
1,5c1
< Small and nice country in [Eastern Europe].
< 
< An Ex-USSR republic; one of the three [[Baltic Republics]]
< 
< http://www.tvnet.lv/en/
---
> #REDIRECT [[Latvia]]
------
Luxembourg|983408960
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital: Luxembourg-City
> 
> Population: about 450 000
> 
> [http://www.luxembourg.lu Official Web-Site]
> 
------
LuxemburG|983408972
1,5c1
< Capital: Luxembourg-City
< 
< Population: about 450 000
< 
< [http://www.luxembourg.lu Official Web-Site]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Luxembourg]]
------
CountriesL|983409008
1,2c1,4
< * LatviA
< * LuxemburG
---
> * [[Latvia]]
> * [[Libya]]
> * [[Lithuania]]
> * [[Luxembourg]]
------
JapaN|983409049
1,5c1
< We need a full writeup here (do you want to do it?), but in the meantime, here are links to some things of interest.
< 
< :JapaneseLanguage
< :JapanConstitution
< :JapaneseAnime
---
> #REDIRECT [[Japan]]
------
CountriesJ|983409068
1c1
< JapaN
---
> [[Japan]]
------
Iceland|983409090
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
> 
> [[Religion]] is mostly [[Christian]].
> 
> 
> Population ca. 280.000. 
> 
> 
> Area: 103.000 sq km. 
------
IcelanD|983409104
1,9c1
< A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
< 
< [[Religion]] is mostly [[Christian]].
< 
< 
< Population ca. 280.000. 
< 
< 
< Area: 103.000 sq km. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Iceland]]
------
Italy|983409138
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of Europe. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> Mediterranean Sea: one is Sicily and the other is Sardinia.
> 
> It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
> 
> The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
> 
> Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup three (3) times: 1934, 1938 and 1982. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from Italy. The latter include Milan AC, Inter Milano FC, AS Roma, Lazio (also from Rome), Juventus (from Torino) and Fiorentina (from Florence).
> 
> Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the leaning tower of Pisa.
> Pisa is a beautiful small town in Tuscany, and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
------
ItalY|983409151
1,11c1
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of Europe. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< Mediterranean Sea: one is Sicily and the other is Sardinia.
< 
< It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
< 
< The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
< 
< Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup three (3) times: 1934, 1938 and 1982. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from Italy. The latter include Milan AC, Inter Milano FC, AS Roma, Lazio (also from Rome), Juventus (from Torino) and Fiorentina (from Florence).
< 
< Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the leaning tower of Pisa.
< Pisa is a beautiful small town in Tuscany, and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Italy]]
------
CountriesI|983409172
1c1
< ItalY
---
> [[Iceland]]
3c3
< IcelanD
---
> [[Italy]]
------
CountriesH|983409187
1c1
< HonduraS
---
> [[Honduras]]
------
CountriesG|983409209
3,4c3,4
< * GermanY
< * GreecE
---
> * [[Germany]]
> * [[Greece]]
------
GermanY|983409253
1,25c1
< Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
< 
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Wurtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
< 
< It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to PolanD, [[Czech Republic]], in the south to the [[Switzerland]] and AustriA  and in the West to the [[NetherlandSs], FrancE, [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
< 
< There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  including 7.3 million foreigners.
< 
< Germany takes part in the [[NATO]], the [[European Union]] and the EuroCurrency.
< 
< Before Germany was unified under Otto Von Bismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
< 
< Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[William The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
< 
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews ([[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War Two]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
< 
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
< 
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
< 
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
< 
< Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
< 
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
---
> #REDIRECT [[Germany]]
------
Germany|983409298
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
> 
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Wurtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
> 
> It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], [[Czech Republic]], in the south to the [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[NetherlandSs], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
> 
> There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  including 7.3 million foreigners.
> 
> Germany takes part in the [[NATO]], the [[European Union]] and the EuroCurrency.
> 
> Before Germany was unified under Otto Von Bismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
> 
> Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[William The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
> 
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews ([[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War Two]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
> 
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
> 
> Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
> 
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
> 
------
CountriesF|983409324
3c3
< FrancE
---
> [[France]]
------
CountriesE|983409343
1,3c1
< EstoniA
< 
< EsperantujO
---
> [[Estonia]]
------
CountriesD|983409367
1c1
< [[Denmark]] (someone tell me how to rename/redirect the old'n'ugly DenmarK page).
---
> [[Denmark]]
------
KingdomOfDenmark|983409414
1,5c1
< Country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]], Swedish: [[Köpenhamn]]).
< 
< Inhabitants are called [[Danes]] (adj. [[Danish]]).
< 
< Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Denmark]]
------
Denmark|983409437
1c1,6
< AKA KingdomOfDenmark, q.v.
---
> The kingdom of Denmark is a country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]], Swedish: [[Köpenhamn]]).
> 
> Inhabitants are called [[Danes]] (adj. [[Danish]]).
> 
> Language spoken is Danish, predominant second language is English.
> 
------
CountriesC|983409491
1,5c1,5
< * CanadA
< 
< :[[Chile]]
< :[[China]]
< :[[Colombia]]
---
> * [[Cambodia]
> * [[Canada]]
> * [[Chile]]
> * [[China]]
> * [[Colombia]]
------
Vienna|983409555
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vienna (lat. ''Vindobona'', German ''Wien'') is the capital of [[Austria]]. It is situated on the river Danube. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of Austria. The [[United Nations]]' agency UNIDO is situated there.
------
ViennA|983409577
1,4c1
< ViennA (lat. ''VindobonA'', German ''Wien'') is the capital of AustriA. It is situated on the river DanubE. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of AustriA. The UnitedNations' agency UNIDO is situated there.
< 
< 
<  
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vienna]]
------
Austria|983409711
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Austria pop. ca. 7.5m is a small landlocked country in [[Central Europe]]. It is a federation of 9 states.
> 
> Capital: [[Vienna]] pop. ca. 1.8m
> 
> Language Spoken: GermanLanguage and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
> 
> Neighbours: [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Italy]], [[Slovenia]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovakia]], [[Czech Republic]].
> 
> Currently (2001) there is a right-wing coalition in the government made up of the FPOE and the OEVP.
> ----
> See also AustriaAdvocacy
> 
------
AustriA|983409731
1,11c1
< AustriA pop. ca. 7.5m is a small landlocked country in CentralEurope. It is a federation of 9 states.
< 
< Capital: ViennA pop. ca. 1.8m
< 
< Language Spoken: GermaN and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
< 
< Neighbours: GermanY, SwitzerlanD, LichtensteiN, ItalY, SloveniA, HungarY, SlovakiA, CzechRepublic.
< 
< Currently (2001) there is a right-wing coalition in the government made up of the FPOE and the OEVP.
< ----
< See also AustriaAdvocacy
---
> #REDIRECT [[Austria]]
------
RecentChanges|983409735
1,4c1,3
< New naming conventions are based on [[Free Links|free form links]]! Talk on NamingConventions.
< 
< Here is a fun page that I will update from time to time.  I might even automate the update if people like it enough:
< [[What Google Likes]]
---
> JimboWales is being interviewed by [[Slashdot]], and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  I mention Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial
> surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.
> If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
------
AustraliA|983409884
1,9c1
< Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of NewZealand, and somewhat south-east of MalaysiA and SingaporE.
< 
< Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, AustralianCaptialTerritory, NorthernTerritoryAustralia, and six states, WesternAustralia, SouthAustralia, QueenslandAustralia, NewSouthWalesAustralia, and VictoriaAustralia.
< 
< Australia's captial is CanberraAustralia, situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), MelbourneAustralia, and SydneyAustralia, who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
< 
< ----
< 
< Hmm... seeing that there isn't anything here yet, I think that I'll blather on a bit and see if that will motivate someone else to correct me...
---
> #REDIRECT [[Australia]]
------
Australia|983409896
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of NewZealand, and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
> 
> Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, [[Australian Captial Territory]], [[Northern Territory Australia]], and six states, [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Queensland Australia]], [[New South Wales Australia]], and [[Victoria Australia]].
> 
> Australia's captial is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
> 
> ----
> 
> Hmm... seeing that there isn't anything here yet, I think that I'll blather on a bit and see if that will motivate someone else to correct me...
------
Slashdot|983409955
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology new site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us.
> 
> Unfortunately, though, because there are a few bad eggs there,
> anytime a wiki gets mentioned, there is vandalism.
------
South_Australia|983409974
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> South Australia is classed as the state in south central Australia along the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 984,377 square kilometres (380,070 square miles). The capital of South Australia is [[Adelaide]] and it's known as the City of Churches. South Australia became a British colony in 1836 and joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The state's population is 1,4000,622 and most of those reside in the fertile coastal areas and in the valley of the [[Murray River]] which is the only navigable river and drains about one seventh of [[Australia]] then enters the sea in South Australia. The first recorded sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when a Dutch ship examined the coastline. 
> 
> The terrain consists largely of dry wasteland, with several low mountain ranges in which the most important mountains are the Mt Lofty-Flinders Ranges system which extends north about 800 kilometers from Cape Jervis to the northern end of Lake Torrens and salt lakes. Its principal industries and export are wheat, wine and wool. More than half the nations wines are produced here. 
> 
> South Australia has boundaries with other states on the west, east, north and the south is flanked by the Southern Ocean. South Australia's temperate range is 29C in January and 15C July.
> 
> South Australia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of SouthAustralia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the [[Adelaide School of Arts]].
> 
> 
------
SouthAustralia|983409996
1,9c1
< South Australia is classed as the state in south central Australia along the Indian Ocean. It covers an area of 984,377 square kilometres (380,070 square miles). The capital of South Australia is AdelaidE and its known as the City of Churches. SouthAustralia became a British colony in 1836 and joined the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. The state's population is 1,4000,622 and most of those reside in the fertile coastal areas and in the valley of the MurrayRiver which is the only navigable river and drains about one seventh of AustraliA then enters the sea in SouthAustralia. The first recorded sighting of the South Australian coast was in 1627 when a Dutch ship examined the coastline. 
< 
< The terrain consists largely of dry wasteland, with several low mountain ranges in which the most important mountains are the Mt Lofty-Flinders Ranges system which extends north about 800 kilometers from Cape Jervis to the northern end of Lake Torrens and salt lakes. Its principal industries and export are wheat, wine and wool. More than half the nations wines are produced here. 
< 
< South Australia has boundaries with other states on the west, east, north and the south is flanked by the Southern Ocean. SouthAustralia's temperate range is 29C in January and 15C July.
< 
< SouthAustralia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of SouthAustralia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the AdelaideSchoolOfArts.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[South Australia]]
------
AmericanSamoa|983410041
1,322c1
< American Samoa
< 
<                                         Introduction
< 
<  
< 
< Background: Settled as early as 1000 B. C., Samoa was "discovered" by European explorers in the 18th century. International
< rivalries in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899 treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan
< archipelago. The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the
< following year. 
< 
<                                          Geography
< 
< 
< Location: Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 14 20 S, 170 00 W 
< 
< Map references: Oceania 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 199 sq km 
< land: 199 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< note: includes Rose Island and Swains Island 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Washington, DC 
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km 
< 
< Coastline: 116 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: tropical marine, moderated by southeast trade winds; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; rainy season from November to
< April, dry season from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation 
< 
< Terrain: five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose Island, Swains Island) 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
< highest point: Lata 966 m 
< 
< Natural resources: pumice, pumicite 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 5% 
< permanent crops: 10% 
< permanent pastures: 0% 
< forests and woodland: 70% 
< other: 15% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km 
< 
< Natural hazards: typhoons common from December to March 
< 
< Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial
< funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines 
< 
< Geography - note: Pago Pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from
< rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean 
< 
<                                            People
< 
< 
< 
< Population: 65,446 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 39% (male 13,071; female 12,304) 
< 15-64 years: 56% (male 18,358; female 18,597) 
< 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,631; female 1,485) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.53% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 25.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 4.26 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: 3.74 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 1.1 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 10.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 75.12 years 
< male: 70.66 years 
< female: 79.84 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 3.6 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: American Samoan(s) 
< adjective: American Samoan 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Samoan (Polynesian) 89%, Caucasian 2%, Tongan 4%, other 5% 
< 
< Religions: Christian Congregationalist 50%, Roman Catholic 20%, Protestant and other 30% 
< 
< Languages: Samoan (closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages), English 
< note: most people are bilingual 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 97% 
< male: 98% 
< female: 97% (1980 est.) 
< 
<                                         Government
< 
< 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Territory of American Samoa 
< conventional short form: American Samoa 
< abbreviation: AS 
< 
< Data code: AQ 
< 
< Dependency status: unincorporated and unorganized territory of the US; administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, US
< Department of the Interior 
< 
< Government type: NA 
< 
< Capital: Pago Pago 
< 
< Administrative divisions: none (territory of the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US
< Government, but there are three districts and two islands* at the second order; Eastern, Manu'a, Rose Island*, Swains Island*,
< Western 
< 
< Independence: none (territory of the US) 
< 
< National holiday: Territorial Flag Day, 17 April (1900) 
< 
< Constitution: ratified 1966, in effect 1967 
< 
< Legal system: NA 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: President William Jefferson CLINTON of the US (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since
< 20 January 1993) 
< head of government: Governor Tauese P. SUNIA (since 3 January 1997) and Lieutenant Governor Togiola TULAFONO (since 3
< January 1997) 
< cabinet: NA 
< elections: US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for four-year terms; governor and lieutenant governor elected
< on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
< election results: Tauese P. SUNIA elected governor; percent of vote - Tauese P. SUNIA (Democrat) 51%, Peter REID (independent)
< 49% 
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Fono or Legislative Assembly consists of the House of Representatives (21 seats - 20 of which are
< elected by popular vote and 1 is an appointed, nonvoting delegate from Swains Island; members serve two-year terms) and the Senate
< (18 seats; members are elected from local chiefs and serve four-year terms) 
< elections: House of Representatives - last held NA November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000); Senate - last held 3
< November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
< election results: House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; Senate - percent of vote by party -
< NA; seats by party - NA 
< note: American Samoa elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held 7
< November 2000); results - Eni R. F. H. FALEOMAVAEGA (Democrat) reelected as delegate for a sixth term 
< 
< Judicial branch: High Court (chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the US Secretary of the Interior) 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party [leader NA]; Republican Party [leader NA] 
< 
< International organization participation: ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of the US) 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of the US) 
< 
< Flag description: blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the outer side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and
< white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a staff and a war club 
< 
<                                           Economy
< 
< 
< 
< Economy - overview: This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned.
< Economic activity is strongly linked to the US, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing
< and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the US
< Government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and
< broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a
< developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $150 million (1995 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,600 (1995 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: NA% 
< industry: NA% 
< services: NA% 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
< 
< Labor force: 13,949 (1996) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 12% (1991) 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) 
< expenditures: $127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97) 
< 
< Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
< 
< Electricity - production: 125 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 100% 
< hydro: 0% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 116 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock 
< 
< Exports: $313 million (1996) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: canned tuna 93% 
< 
< Exports - partners: US 99.6% 
< 
< Imports: $471 million (1996) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% 
< 
< Imports - partners: US 62%, Japan 9%, NZ 7%, Australia 11%, Fiji 4%, other 7% 
< 
< Debt - external: $NA 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA; note - important financial support from the US 
< 
< Currency: 1 US dollar (US$) = 100 cents 
< 
< Exchange rates: US currency is used 
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September 
< 
<                                        Communications
<  
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 10,000 (1994) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,200 (1994) 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: good telex, telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 Comsat earth station 
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998) 
< 
< Radios: 57,000 (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997) 
< 
< Televisions: 14,000 (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
< 
<                                         Transportation
< 
< 
< 
< Railways: 0 km 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 350 km 
< paved: 150 km 
< unpaved: 200 km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Aunu'u (new construction), Auasi, Faleosao, Ofu, Pago Pago, Ta'u 
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 4 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 2 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 2 
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
< 
<                                           Military
< 
<  
< 
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US 
< 
<                                       Transnational Issues
< 
<  
< 
< Disputes - international: none 
---
> #REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]
------
American_Samoa|983410056
1c1,323
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American Samoa
> 
>                                         Introduction
> 
>  
> 
> Background: Settled as early as 1000 B. C., Samoa was "discovered" by European explorers in the 18th century. International
> rivalries in the latter half of the 19th century were settled by an 1899 treaty in which Germany and the US divided the Samoan
> archipelago. The US formally occupied its portion - a smaller group of eastern islands with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago - the
> following year. 
> 
>                                          Geography
> 
> 
> Location: Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 14 20 S, 170 00 W 
> 
> Map references: Oceania 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 199 sq km 
> land: 199 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> note: includes Rose Island and Swains Island 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km 
> 
> Coastline: 116 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical marine, moderated by southeast trade winds; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; rainy season from November to
> April, dry season from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose Island, Swains Island) 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
> highest point: Lata 966 m 
> 
> Natural resources: pumice, pumicite 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 5% 
> permanent crops: 10% 
> permanent pastures: 0% 
> forests and woodland: 70% 
> other: 15% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: typhoons common from December to March 
> 
> Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial
> funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines 
> 
> Geography - note: Pago Pago has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from
> rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean 
> 
>                                            People
> 
> 
> 
> Population: 65,446 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 39% (male 13,071; female 12,304) 
> 15-64 years: 56% (male 18,358; female 18,597) 
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,631; female 1,485) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.53% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 25.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 4.26 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 3.74 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 10.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 75.12 years 
> male: 70.66 years 
> female: 79.84 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.6 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: American Samoan(s) 
> adjective: American Samoan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Samoan (Polynesian) 89%, Caucasian 2%, Tongan 4%, other 5% 
> 
> Religions: Christian Congregationalist 50%, Roman Catholic 20%, Protestant and other 30% 
> 
> Languages: Samoan (closely related to Hawaiian and other Polynesian languages), English 
> note: most people are bilingual 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 97% 
> male: 98% 
> female: 97% (1980 est.) 
> 
>                                         Government
> 
> 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Territory of American Samoa 
> conventional short form: American Samoa 
> abbreviation: AS 
> 
> Data code: AQ 
> 
> Dependency status: unincorporated and unorganized territory of the US; administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, US
> Department of the Interior 
> 
> Government type: NA 
> 
> Capital: Pago Pago 
> 
> Administrative divisions: none (territory of the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US
> Government, but there are three districts and two islands* at the second order; Eastern, Manu'a, Rose Island*, Swains Island*,
> Western 
> 
> Independence: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> National holiday: Territorial Flag Day, 17 April (1900) 
> 
> Constitution: ratified 1966, in effect 1967 
> 
> Legal system: NA 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President William Jefferson CLINTON of the US (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since
> 20 January 1993) 
> head of government: Governor Tauese P. SUNIA (since 3 January 1997) and Lieutenant Governor Togiola TULAFONO (since 3
> January 1997) 
> cabinet: NA 
> elections: US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for four-year terms; governor and lieutenant governor elected
> on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: Tauese P. SUNIA elected governor; percent of vote - Tauese P. SUNIA (Democrat) 51%, Peter REID (independent)
> 49% 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Fono or Legislative Assembly consists of the House of Representatives (21 seats - 20 of which are
> elected by popular vote and 1 is an appointed, nonvoting delegate from Swains Island; members serve two-year terms) and the Senate
> (18 seats; members are elected from local chiefs and serve four-year terms) 
> elections: House of Representatives - last held NA November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000); Senate - last held 3
> November 1996 (next to be held 7 November 2000) 
> election results: House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; Senate - percent of vote by party -
> NA; seats by party - NA 
> note: American Samoa elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held 7
> November 2000); results - Eni R. F. H. FALEOMAVAEGA (Democrat) reelected as delegate for a sixth term 
> 
> Judicial branch: High Court (chief justice and associate justices are appointed by the US Secretary of the Interior) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party [leader NA]; Republican Party [leader NA] 
> 
> International organization participation: ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of the US) 
> 
> Flag description: blue, with a white triangle edged in red that is based on the outer side and extends to the hoist side; a brown and
> white American bald eagle flying toward the hoist side is carrying two traditional Samoan symbols of authority, a staff and a war club 
> 
>                                           Economy
> 
> 
> 
> Economy - overview: This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned.
> Economic activity is strongly linked to the US, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing
> and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the US
> Government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and
> broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a
> developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $150 million (1995 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,600 (1995 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: NA% 
> industry: NA% 
> services: NA% 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
> 
> Labor force: 13,949 (1996) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 12% (1991) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) 
> expenditures: $127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97) 
> 
> Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 125 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 100% 
> hydro: 0% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 116 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock 
> 
> Exports: $313 million (1996) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: canned tuna 93% 
> 
> Exports - partners: US 99.6% 
> 
> Imports: $471 million (1996) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% 
> 
> Imports - partners: US 62%, Japan 9%, NZ 7%, Australia 11%, Fiji 4%, other 7% 
> 
> Debt - external: $NA 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA; note - important financial support from the US 
> 
> Currency: 1 US dollar (US$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: US currency is used 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 October - 30 September 
> 
>                                        Communications
>  
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 10,000 (1994) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,200 (1994) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good telex, telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 Comsat earth station 
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 57,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 14,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
> 
> 
> Railways: 0 km 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 350 km 
> paved: 150 km 
> unpaved: 200 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Aunu'u (new construction), Auasi, Faleosao, Ofu, Pago Pago, Ta'u 
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 4 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 2 
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                           Military
> 
>  
> 
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US 
> 
>                                       Transnational Issues
> 
>  
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983413999
2a3,8
> '''February 28, 2001'''
> 
> JimboWales is being interviewed by Slashdot, and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  He mentioned Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.  If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
> 
> Notice, we've added a little something to the top of the page: "Get involved! Wikipedia is a free community project!"  And also another "Edit text of this page" link, now at the top of the page.  We're hoping to make it clear to visitors unfamiliar with the wiki concept (which is most of them) that this is a community-edited project.
> 
------
PublicDomainResources|983414148
19c19
< [http://stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] -- contains descriptions of a great many occupations such as [[Physical Therapist]]
---
> [http://stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] -- contains descriptions of a great many occupations such as [[Therapy/Physical|Physical Therapist]]
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|983414261
139a140,141
> ----
> This page needs a major refactoring--something I'd do, except that I'd rather one of the central participants on the page do it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|983414523
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]
> 
------
WhatsaWikiFor|983414602
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[What is a Wiki for]]
> 
------
WhatIsaWiki|983414657
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
6,8c6,8
< *WhatsaWikiFor?
< *WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki?
< *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
---
> *[[What is a Wiki for]]?
> *[[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]?
> *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
------
WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki|983414672
1,20c1
< #REDIRECT [[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]
< 
< Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their
< permission! 
< -----
< Agreed - wikis are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some '''basic formatting'''  -- RaviDesai
< -----
< '''Wiki Formatting:'''
< 
< But why  they do not simply use <em>html</em>? --NormanWerner
< 
< :They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
< 
< :Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
< 
< :There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
< 
< :The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
< 
< :The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
---
> #REDIRECT [[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]
------
Why_on_Earth_would_I_want_to_contribute_to_a_wiki|983414753
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their
> permission! 
> -----
> Agreed - wikis are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some '''basic formatting'''  -- RaviDesai
> -----
> '''Wiki Formatting:'''
> 
> But why  they do not simply use <em>html</em>? --NormanWerner
> 
> :They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> :Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> :There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> :The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
> 
> :The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
------
WhatsaWikiFor|983414777
1,5c1
< #REDIRECT [[What is a Wiki for]]
< 
< In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for. The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
< 
< The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else.
---
> #REDIRECT [[What is a Wiki for]]
------
What_is_a_Wiki_for|983414983
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for. The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
> 
> The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else.
------
Slashdot|983415092
1c1
< Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology new site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us.
---
> Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology new site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us, a lot.
------
DisRuption|983415210
1c1,3
< Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  We don't expect it to happen on WikiPedia.  I guess we'll see!
---
> Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  It hasn't happened too much on WikiPedia.
> 
> How can this be?  Simple.  Anyone can edit a page, and all the recent edits are saved.  So if some irresponsible individual ruins a valuable page, it can be quickly restored.  Moreover, the irresponsible individuals know this.  So they have little incentive to try to wreak havoc.
5c7
< "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
---
> "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
------
DisRuption|983415248
3c3
< How can this be?  Simple.  Anyone can edit a page, and all the recent edits are saved.  So if some irresponsible individual ruins a valuable page, it can be quickly restored.  Moreover, the irresponsible individuals know this.  So they have little incentive to try to wreak havoc.
---
> How can this be?  Simple.  Anyone can edit a page, and all the recent edits are saved.  So if some irresponsible individual ruins a valuable page, it can be quickly restored by anyone who knows how (it's not hard; click on the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of the page).  Moreover, the irresponsible individuals know this.  So they have little incentive to try to wreak havoc.
------
Why_on_Earth_would_I_want_to_contribute_to_a_wiki|983415311
1,18c1
< Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their
< permission! 
< -----
< Agreed - wikis are wayyyyy cool.  They even allow for some '''basic formatting'''  -- RaviDesai
< -----
< '''Wiki Formatting:'''
< 
< But why  they do not simply use <em>html</em>? --NormanWerner
< 
< :They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
< 
< :Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
< 
< :There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
< 
< :The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
< 
< :The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
---
> Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
------
WikiPediaFaq|983415429
98a99,110
> ----
> '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?
> 
> Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
> 
> The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
------
WhatIsaWiki|983415527
8c8,9
< *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
---
> *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
> *[[How does one edit a page]]?
------
WikiPediaFaq|983415551
100c100
< '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?
---
> '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
110c110
< The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
---
> The WikiPedia may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
------
WikiPediaFaq|983415969
2a3,6
> '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
> 
> A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
> ----
------
WikiPediaBugs|983416809
29c29,30
< Do you have $NonEnglish set to 1 in your <tt>config</tt> file? As for squashing the fancy letters down to Latin, you can probably use a quick <tt>tr///</tt> table to do that. -- SunirShah
---
> Do you have $NonEnglish set to 1 in your <tt>config</tt> file? As for squashing the fancy letters down to Latin, you can probably use a quick <tt>tr///</tt> table to do that. -- SunirShah----
> '''Q.''' The new wiki software has 3 links to edit a page. There are two on the bottom, one after each other. Isn't this overkill?
------
Physical_Therapy|983417028
53c53,56
<                 
---
> 
> ----
> I think the requirements a PT has to meet is important. Particularly for the consumer. This is available at OOH.
>                 
------
Slashdot|983417483
1c1
< Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology new site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us, a lot.
---
> Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology news site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us, a lot.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Concepts|983420463
1c1
< Important concepts in AtlasShrugged:
---
> Important concepts in [[Atlas Shrugged]]:
3c3
<  /SanctionOfTheVictim
---
>  [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Sanction_of_the_Victim|983420489
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Sanction of the Victim is defined as "the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the evil, to accept the role of sacrifical victim for the 'sin' of creating values."
> 
> The entire story of AtlasShrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked?  When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carry the world, he is revoking his sanction.
> 
> The concept is apparently original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from /GaltsSpeech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
> 
> Throughout AtlasShrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is [[John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
> 
> We first glimpse the concept in /SectioN121 when [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
> 
> In /SectioN146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Sanction_of_the_Victim|983420571
3c3
< The entire story of AtlasShrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked?  When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carry the world, he is revoking his sanction.
---
> The entire story of [[Atlas Shrugged]] can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked?  When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carry the world, he is revoking his sanction.
5c5
< The concept is apparently original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from /GaltsSpeech: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
---
> The concept is apparently original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from [[/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: "Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us", and, "I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it."  Morality requires that we do not santion our own victimhood.
7c7
< Throughout AtlasShrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is [[John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
---
> Throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]], numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put there finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is [[/John Galt|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.
9c9
< We first glimpse the concept in /SectioN121 when [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
---
> We first glimpse the concept in [[/Section121|Section121]] when [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.
11c11
< In /SectioN146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
---
> In [[/Section146|Section146]] the principle is stated explicitly by [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]: "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."
------
RecentChanges|983420762
4a5,6
> ''I designed MeatBall:KeptPages with [[Slashdot]] in mind. You should survive. Where you might lose is not in the temporary gain in people, but in people hanging around longer. The culture shock might be too much. But then again, maybe not. You are already the fastest growing wiki. -- SunirShah''
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|983420858
3,37c3,37
<  /Algeria
<  /Andes
<  /Argentina
<  /Arizona
<  /BuenosAries
<  /California
<  /Chicago
<  /Chile
<  /Cleveland
<  /Colorado
<  /CheyenneWyoming
<  /ElPasoTexas
<  /FifthAvenue
<  /HudsonRiver
<  /Louisiana
<  /Madrid
<  /Mexico
<  /MexicoCity
<  /MiddleWest
<  /Minnesota
<  /Montana
<  /NewJersey
<  /NewMexico
<  /NewYork
<  /Ohio
<  /Pennsylvania
<  /Philadelphia
<  /Redding (Connecticut?)
<  /Rockdale
<  /SanFrancisco
<  /Spain
<  /UnitedStates
<  /Valparaiso
<  /Washington
<  /Wilmington (Delaware?)
---
>  [[/Algeria|Algeria]]
>  [[/Andes|Andes]]
>  [[/Argentina|Argentina]]
>  [[/Arizona|Arizona]]
>  [[/Buenos Aries|Buenos Aries]]
>  [[/California|California]]
>  [[/Chicago|Chicago]]
>  [[/Chile|Chile]]
>  [[/Cleveland|Cleveland]]
>  [[/Colorado|Colorado]]
>  [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne Wyoming]]
>  [[/El Paso Texas|El Paso Texas]]
>  [[/Fifth Avenue|Fifth Avenue]]
>  [[/Hudson River|Hudson River]]
>  [[/Louisiana|Louisiana]]
>  [[/Madrid|Madrid]]
>  [[/Mexico|Mexico]]
>  [[/Mexico City|Mexico City]]
>  [[/Middle West|Middle West]]
>  [[/Minnesota|Minnesota]]
>  [[/Montana|Montana]]
>  [[/New Jersey|New Jersey]]
>  [[/New Mexico|New Mexico]]
>  [[/New York|New York]]
>  [[/Ohio|Ohio]]
>  [[/Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania]]
>  [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]]
>  [[/Redding|Redding]] (Connecticut?)
>  [[/Rockdale|Rockdale]]
>  [[/San Francisco|San Francisco]]
>  [[/Spain|Spain]]
>  [[/United States|United States]]
>  [[/Valparaiso|Valparaiso]]
>  [[/Washington|Washington]]
>  [[/Wilmington|Wilmington]] (Delaware?)
------
WhatIsaWiki|983424941
1,9c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
< 
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in!
< 
< Maybe you want to know
< *[[What is a Wiki for]]?
< *[[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]?
< *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
< *[[How does one edit a page]]?
---
> #REDIRECT [[What is a wiki]
------
WhatIsaWiki|983425009
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[What is a wiki]
---
> #REDIRECT [[What is a wiki]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|983425060
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
> 
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in!
> 
> Maybe you want to know
> *[[What is a Wiki for]]?
> *[[Why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]]?
> *[[Who is responsible for these pages]]?
> *[[How does one edit a page]]?
------
HowDoesOneEditaPage|983426583
1,16c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
< 
< "Fine," you say, "but how can I possibly...
< 
< * MakeaNewPage?"
< * LinkToAnExistingPage?"
< * StartaNewParagraph?"
< * PutWordsInItalicsAndBold?"
< * LinkToExternalPages?"
< * PartakeInDiscussion?"
< * SummarizeDiscussion?"
< * BeBoldInUpdatingPages?"
< 
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox.  Never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
< ----
< ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul--especially after CliffordAdams finishes updating the software that runs WikiPedia. -- LarrySanger''
---
> #REDIRECT [[How does one edit a page]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983426657
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
> 
> "Fine," you say, "but how can I possibly...
> 
> * MakeaNewPage?"
> * LinkToAnExistingPage?"
> * StartaNewParagraph?"
> * PutWordsInItalicsAndBold?"
> * LinkToExternalPages?"
> * PartakeInDiscussion?"
> * SummarizeDiscussion?"
> * BeBoldInUpdatingPages?"
> 
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox.  Never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
> ----
> ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul... -- LarrySanger''
------
HomePage|983429671
18,19c18,19
< * WhatIsaWiki?
< * HowDoesOneEditaPage?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
---
> * [[What is a wiki]]
> * [[How does one edit a page]]?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
------
HomePage|983430074
18c18
< * [[What is a wiki]]
---
> * [[What is a wiki]]?
------
HomePage|983430155
21a22
> * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the WikiPediaFaq.
------
Wasting_time|983433074
20a21
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+lonliest+person+in+the+world%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the lonliest person in the world]
22c23
< The best way to waste time, though, is to write stuff into the WikiPedia.
---
> The best way to waste time, though, is to write stuff into the WikiPedia.
------
Earth|983433350
1c1,3
< The third [[planet]] from [[the Sun]].  Six features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]].
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named [[Sun]]. Features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]]. The Earth is shaped like a [[sphere]] and composed mostly of rock. Over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is water. The planet has a relatively thin [[atmosphere]] composed mostly of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Earth has a single large [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of its diameter and, from the planet's surface, is seen to have almost exactly the same angular size as the Sun. 
> 
> With its abundance of liquid water, Earth supports a large variety of life forms, including potentially intelligent species such as [[dolphin]]s and [[human]]s.
------
Earth|983433380
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from a star named [[Sun]]. Features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]]. The Earth is shaped like a [[sphere]] and composed mostly of rock. Over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is water. The planet has a relatively thin [[atmosphere]] composed mostly of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Earth has a single large [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of its diameter and, from the planet's surface, is seen to have almost exactly the same angular size as the Sun. 
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]]. Features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]]. The Earth is shaped like a [[sphere]] and composed mostly of rock. Over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is water. The planet has a relatively thin [[atmosphere]] composed mostly of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Earth has a single large [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of its diameter and, from the planet's surface, is seen to have almost exactly the same angular size as the Sun. 
------
Global_Positioning_System|983433461
9a10,11
> 
> See also GeoCaching.
------
Continents|983433513
10c10
< Though not a continent per se, [[Oceania]] ([[Australia]] and surrounding islands]]) is sometimes included in this group.
---
> :[[Australia]] - often clumped with surrounding islands into [[Oceania]] - is ''usually'' included here.
------
GeoCaching|983433528
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> GeoCaching is a treasure hunting game for GPS users. 
> 
> The concept is really quite simple: someone hides a ``stash'' - usually a large Tupperware container filled with assorted goodies - in an interesting, out-of-the-way place, and records the exact coordinates with a GPS device.  Those coordinates, along with a few helpful hints, are posted to the GeoCaching web site.  The stash seekers then use their GPS systems to find the treasure.  Each person who locates the stash adds an entry to the included log book, takes one of those goodies, replaces it with one of their own, and then re-hides the container. 
> 
> Please see http://www.geocaching.com/ for details about this exciting pastime, which is also known as GPS stash hunting.
------
Global_Positioning_System|983433619
11c11
< See also GeoCaching.
---
> See also GeoCaching and DegreeConfluenceProject.
------
DegreeConfluenceProject|983433672
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The goal of the project is to visit each of the latitude and longitude integer degree intersections in the world, and to take pictures at each location.
> 
> See http://www.confluence.org/
------
Earth|983433965
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]]. Features six [[continents]], four [[ocean]]s, and many [[CountriesOfTheWorld|countries]]. The Earth is shaped like a [[sphere]] and composed mostly of rock. Over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is water. The planet has a relatively thin [[atmosphere]] composed mostly of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Earth has a single large [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of its diameter and, from the planet's surface, is seen to have almost exactly the same angular size as the Sun. 
---
> The third [[Planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our solar system whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[Oceans]] and seven [[Continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[Atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace.
3c3,7
< With its abundance of liquid water, Earth supports a large variety of life forms, including potentially intelligent species such as [[dolphin]]s and [[human]]s.
---
> The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|Terrestrial Planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[Magnetic Field]], and a sold inner core.
> 
> The Earth is unusual in having a large, Terrestrial-like [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of the planetary diameter.  By coincidence, the moon is just far enough away to have the same apparent angular size as the Sun.  Probably the Moon formed from the collision of a [[Mars]]-sized planet into the early Earth, which explains for instance its lack of iron.
> 
> The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports life - see [[Biology]] - including intelligent species such as [[Humans]] and almost certainly [[Apes]], [[Dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
------
France|983440779
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing the government, and the French flag's colors stand for liberty, equality, and fraternity.  The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower.  They speak FrenchLanguage here.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak FrenchLanguage here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
3c3,4
< Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
---
> Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
> ----
------
PariS|983440820
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a small town, featured in a few films.
------
ConstitutioN|983440977
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A political constitution, is a fundamental law of a state, establishing the basic principle of the government and the rights of the citizen.
> 
> :AmericanConstitution
> :FrenchConstitution
> :DeclarationOfRights
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|983441207
11a12
> An idea: it may be useful when we begin to enter bibliographical information or references to libraries.
------
Dune|983444893
5c5
< [[Dunes Messiah]] -- [[The Emperor of Dune]] 
---
> [[Dune Messiah]] -- [[Children of Dune]] -- [[God Emperor of Dune]] -- [[Heretics of Dune]] -- [[Chapter House Dune]]
13c13
< Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
---
> Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
------
Dune|983444950
9c9
< :[[/TheGame]] -- PC realtime strategy game
---
> :[[/Games]] -- PC games inspired by Dune
------
Dune/Games|983445388
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dune
> 
> Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple and not very successful. You played Paul Atreides, who learns the ways of the Desert Planet and tries to establish a Fremen army to reclaim his father's fief.
> 
> Dune 2
> 
> The world's first realtime strategy game, complex and fun to play, was a huge success. You played a commander for one of three parties at war, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos (which appear in one of the later novels). Your objective is to wipe out all resistance and to conquer Arrakis.
> 
> Dune 2000
> 
> Has better graphics than Dune 2, but game mechanisms remain almost unchanged.
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|983445634
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain and in Germany.
------
The_Blair_Witch_Project|983446059
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Three young film students mysteriously disappear fromt the face of the earth. The film was a huge success because its makers did heavy marketing via the Internet, spreading rumors and telling people that the material they shot was authentic and that those three people really disappeared. After the movies' success, sequels were shot, and franchising started, computer games were sold and of course all sorts of memorabilia, but the makers couldn't re-create the success or innovation of the original movie, which they claimed created a whole new way of filmmaking, Method Film-making, named after Lee Strassberg's [[Method Acting]]. 
------
The_Blair_Witch_Project|983446237
1c1,2
< Three young film students mysteriously disappear fromt the face of the earth. The film was a huge success because its makers did heavy marketing via the Internet, spreading rumors and telling people that the material they shot was authentic and that those three people really disappeared. After the movies' success, sequels were shot, and franchising started, computer games were sold and of course all sorts of memorabilia, but the makers couldn't re-create the success or innovation of the original movie, which they claimed created a whole new way of filmmaking, Method Film-making, named after Lee Strassberg's [[Method Acting]]. 
---
> Three young film students mysteriously disappear fromt the face of the earth. The film was a huge success because its makers did heavy marketing via the Internet, spreading rumors and telling people that the material they shot was authentic and that those three people really disappeared. After the movies' success, sequels were shot, and franchising started, computer games were sold and of course all sorts of memorabilia, but the makers couldn't re-create the success or innovation of the original movie, which they claimed created a whole new way of filmmaking, Method Film-making, named after Lee Strassberg's [[Method Acting]]. 
> In fact the way of incorporating the camera and film team into the plot is not totally new. One of the predecessors of this technique are Danish [[Dogme95]] movies, and, most notably, the Belgian movie [[Man Bites Dog]].
------
Science_Fiction_Film|983446325
3c3
< [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]]
---
> [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]]
------
Alien|983447069
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alien 
> 
> Directed by Ridley Scott
> 
> The crew of the transport ship Nostromo receives a signal which might be of alien origin, they land on a deserted planet and find an ancient ship and the aliens which killed it's crew.
> 
> Aliens
> 
> Directed by James Cameron
> 
> Ripley, the only suvivor of the Nostromo is rescued from space and drafted to assist a squad of Marines which investigates an outpost overrun by aliens.
> 
> Alien 3
> 
> Directed by David Fincher
> 
> Ripley, again the only survivor, strands on a prison planet and this time brings the alien with her. There are no weapons on the planet, but they have to hunt it down. At the end of the movie, she commits suicide when she learns that she's pregnant with an alien queen.
> 
> Alien: Resurrection
> 
> Directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet
> 
> 200 years later, ruthless scientists clone Ripley and the alien from blood specimens taken on the prison planet. The aliens get out of control and Ripley, who now has some alien DNA because the cloning didn't work perfectly tries to escape with a band of smugglers before the ship collides with earth.
------
Estimating_Parameters|983447894
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> In general, we assume that we know everything about an situation we are observing except for the value of a certain [[numerical parameter]]. We use the data to get information about that parameter. The most common case is that of the [[location parameter]] of a [[Normal Distribution]] which we estimate by the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the observations. 
> 
> When we just quote the estimated value, we have a [[point estimate]]. More often, we wish to find an interval with a high probability of covering the value of the parameter. This is a [[confidence interval]], a specific form of an [[interval estimate]]. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
Numerical_parameter|983448082
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> An unspecified quantity used in a function that would be completely specified if the parameter were known. Examples include:
> *[[location parameter]]
> *[[dispersion parameter]]
> *[[shape parameter]]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Numerical_parameter|983448140
1c1
< back to [[Applied Statistics]]
---
> back to [[Estimating Parameters]]
------
Location_parameter|983448354
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Numerical parameter]]
> 
> A parameter whose value determines only the position (see [[Central Tendancy]]) on the real line that a [[density function]] occupies. The shape of the curve representing the function is visualized as shifting back and forth along the line according to the value of the location parameter.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Numerical_parameter|983448391
5c5
< *[[dispersion parameter]]
---
> *[[dispersion parameter]] or [[scale parameter]]
------
Star_Trek|983448695
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Star Trek tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and of their adventures at the "final frontier". Initially, the series didn't have too much success, but when the station wanted to cancel it, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans who called themselves Trekkies or Trekkers. Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by Gene Roddenberry. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
> 
> :[[/Star Trek 1|Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]
> :[[/Star Trek 2|Star Trek: The Wrath of Khan]]
> :[[/Star Trek 3|Star Trek III: The Search for Spock]]
> :[[/Star Trek 4|Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]
> :[[/Star Trek 5|Star Trek V: The Final Frontier]]
> :[[/Star Trek 6|Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]
> :[[/Star Trek 7|Star Trek: Generations]]
> :[[/Star Trek 8|Star Trek: First Contact]]
> :[[/Star Trek 9|Star Trek: Insurrection]]
> 
> In the '90es, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While the classic series used "Cowboy diplomacy", The Next Generation (TNG) had its Prime Directive which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in other, especially less evolved species' business. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
------
Oliver_Stone|983448870
7a8
> :[[Doors]]
------
JRRTolkieN|983449260
4c4
< English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy TheLordOfTheRings (1954-55). The work consists of The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
---
> English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). The work consists of The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
------
JRRTolkieN|983449294
4c4
< English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). The work consists of The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
---
> English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). 
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983449551
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Epic trilogy by JRRTolkieN. The work consists of [[/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[/The Two Towers]], and [[/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983450227
3,4d2
< I will try to sketch a proposal for a simple syntax for entering tables.
< 
12a11,18
> 
> MoinMoin: table syntax is quite simple and on a par with wikiwiki
> italics and bold. But what I had in mind go further: allowing
> inputing tables as a special kind of pages which could be
> inserted anywhere and edited separetely from pages which contain them.
> 
> In fact, I would suggest that we find a syntax to InsertPagesIntoOtherPages.
> See the relevant pages for comments on this idea.
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983450356
5,10c5
< ''Do we support these MoinMoin:HelpOnTables style tables?
< Should we?  I don't see a lot of improvement in terms of
< ease of use, as against regular HTML.  One of the great things
< about wiki, of course, is that people don't need to know much
< to get started.  Tables are always going to have some kind of 
< learning curve, I suppose.  But we should keep it very simple.''
---
> ''Do we support these MoinMoin:HelpOnTables style tables? Should we?  I don't see a lot of improvement in terms of ease of use, as against regular HTML.  One of the great things about wiki, of course, is that people don't need to know much to get started.  Tables are always going to have some kind of learning curve, I suppose.  But we should keep it very simple.''
13c8,10
< italics and bold. But what I had in mind go further: allowing
---
> italics and bold. I agree it does not improve a lot compared to
> html syntax (see below for examples contributed by several).
> But what I had in mind go further: allowing
16,18c13,14
< 
< In fact, I would suggest that we find a syntax to InsertPagesIntoOtherPages.
< See the relevant pages for comments on this idea.
---
> :In fact, I would suggest that we find a syntax to InsertPagesIntoOtherPages.
> See the relevant pages for comments on this idea. --OprgaG
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983450566
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the point of a Wikipedia is to offer several viewpoints on the same subjects.
> 
> On the same time, facts, data or original quotations could be used several times
> in various places or in various arrangements.
> 
> I think we should have a way to insert pages (and subpages) into others so that we
> can build lively selections out of correctly separated items.
> 
> One application could be the Constitution of the United States:
> we could build a version with every article separated as it is today,
> and another including all the subpages for people wanting to read it through.
> 
> --OprgaG
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|983450914
0a1,3
> 
> The /NamingLinkingDiscussion started with this:
> 
141c144
< This page needs a major refactoring--something I'd do, except that I'd rather one of the central participants on the page do it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> This page needs a major refactoring--something I'd do, except that I'd rather one of the central participants on the page do it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/NamingLinkingDiscussion|983451159
1c1,84
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
> 
> It strikes me that a very simple system would be to be able
> to link like this: <<< Albania >>>.
> 
> Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
> 
> ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.  See below for discussion of that feature.]
> 
> ----
> 
> I just had another thought.  Perhaps arbitrary linking using
> <<< >>> should be limited to single words only.  For example,
> a list of UnitedStates might be written like this:
> 
> * <<< Alaska >>>
> * NorthDakota
> * <<< Wisconsin >>>
> That is, if you use <<< >>>, the rule is that there has to be
> only one word inside there.
> 
> The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.  Is
> there a wiki that can do that?  Or, should I just add the capability to this one?  Or, is this whole idea really bad for some reason?
> 
> ----
> 
> Adding [[word]] or <<<word>>> -style links to ''this'' wiki should not be very difficult.  The main disadvantage of such links is that they would not be automatic.  That is, if someone typed the plain word "Alabama", it would not become a link automatically.  (The user would have to type something like "[[Alabama]]".)  On the other hand, I'm not sure that every instance of simple words ''should'' be a link.  Requiring explicit links might make the page look cleaner.
> 
> If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in UseModWiki.  --CliffordAdams  [This feature was added in February 2001.]
> 
> ----
> This issue contains a conflict in the different uses of the system. On one hand we can use a simple enough syntax to mark the links like the funny capitalisation of letters and on the other hand the writer of each entry will have to put extra thought into what is a link and what is not.
> 
> I think that since the ambition is to build an encyklopedia we should go for the latter. An important thing with an encyklopedia is the words and their spelling and the funny capitalisation destroys the charm of the language. In some extreme cases there might even be a difference in the meanings because of the capitalisation. (Example from the top of my head: March n. month, march v. to walk). I would also like the possibility to write names with their correct spelling including the spaces like George W. Bush and North Dakota.
> 
> Actually I would like to make it even more complicated for the writer. I would like the WikiPedia to provide a possibility to link to the correct version of a word if words have several meanings like this: York (linked to York/PA) is named after the English city (York linked to York/England). and have this appear as "York (clickable) is named after the English city York (clickable)".
> 
> Since this makes it harder on the person writing the texts we need tools to help him. I have identified two important set of tools:
> * First a tool that during preview goes through the text and signal all words that are present in the encyklopedia and thus are immediate candidates for linking. This is good as a help in identifing words or word combinations that are present elsewhere. The tool could also help him in choosing the correct version of the word.
> * The second tool that is a tool that when we add a new word, goes through the whole wiki and finds all places where this word or combination of words is used without a link. Kind of like the search function except that it does not include the words linked here (or linked to some other entry in the case where we have several entries with the same name).
> 
> A third more elaborate tools would be for those that want to spend time fixing all the errors that the persons not running the second tool would insert into the database and that would be a tool that finds (at random or in some order) entries with words or word combinations that are now defined but not linked to.
> 
> I realise that my technically ordering and systematising mind is what makes me wish this but I can't get out of it. --LinusTolke
> 
> :Multi-word links with spaces would require some more effort than single-word links.  I would ''really'' like to implement a system which allows nearly arbitrary text in a link, even including characters like / or ! which may not be allowed in filenames.  On the other hand, I could quickly add something like TWiki's [[Some Phrase Here]] links, which would link to a page SomePageHere.
> 
> :I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
> [Links like [[word]] are now an option in UseModWiki 0.91.  (Hopefully WikiPedia will upgrade soon.)]
> 
> I think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
> 
> The whole conversion would probably take only a couple hours, much of which would be editing the list.  I'm willing to write the conversion scripts and even do the editing if the maintainers of WikiPedia approve.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> (I think this sounds great -- JimboWales)
> 
> ----
> This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
> 
> :I've implemented a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which is closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.
> 
> :For spaces in links, they are translated into _ (underline) characters in the URL, and translated back into spaces when displaying the link.  This allows you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you would use a nice URL with an underline (like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Jimbo_Wales), rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
> 
> :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less "accidental linking", but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
> 
> '''I love weird capitalization!''' I think we should not be too prompt putting a straight jacket on WikiPedia --OprgaG
> 
> ----
> 
> I have a suggestion that might give us the best of several worlds. Continue with multiple capitalization as the main tool used by authors, but allow one to assign '''single word synonyms''' with no capitalization so that they can be recognized for indexing when they appear in any article.
> --DickBeldin
> 
> :I'm not sure I understand what you're asking for here.  I don't think it would be a good idea to automatically link single words every time they appear--it could lead to far too many links on pages.  One can already create synonyms with the redirect command--see MozarT for an example (redirected to the composer's full name).  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
> 
> :Briefly, spaces in UniformResourceLocator""s (URLs) are forbidden in the UniformResourceIdentifier (URI) specification.  (URLs are a subset of URIs.)  From RFC 2396: "The space character is excluded because significant spaces may disappear and insignificant spaces may be introduced when URI are transcribed or typeset or subjected to the treatment of word-processing programs.  Whitespace is also used to delimit URI in many contexts."
> 
> :For URLs, the valid ways to represent a space are the "+" character (within a "query component") and the "%20" escape sequence.  Both look relatively ugly compared to an underline: compare <nowiki>"Jimbo_Wales" with "Jimbo+Wales" or "Jimbo%20Wales"</nowiki>.  Internally my code also uses the _ character for filenames, as some utilities on some systems do not deal well with spaces in filenames.  However, aside from the URL issue, you should not notice the difference.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|983451707
0a1
> Features, fonctionnalities, which WikiWiki is best suited for WikiPedia ?
2d2
< The /NamingLinkingDiscussion started with this:
4c4
< The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
---
> The /ArbitratryLinkingDiscussion started with this:
6,7c6
< It strikes me that a very simple system would be to be able
< to link like this: <<< Albania >>>.
---
> :The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
9c8
< Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
---
> :Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
11c10
< ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.  See below for discussion of that feature.]
---
> ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.]
15,29d13
< I just had another thought.  Perhaps arbitrary linking using
< <<< >>> should be limited to single words only.  For example,
< a list of UnitedStates might be written like this:
< 
< * <<< Alaska >>>
< * NorthDakota
< * <<< Wisconsin >>>
< That is, if you use <<< >>>, the rule is that there has to be
< only one word inside there.
< 
< The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.  Is
< there a wiki that can do that?  Or, should I just add the capability to this one?  Or, is this whole idea really bad for some reason?
< 
< ------
< 
41,44d24
< Adding [[word]] or <<<word>>> -style links to ''this'' wiki should not be very difficult.  The main disadvantage of such links is that they would not be automatic.  That is, if someone typed the plain word "Alabama", it would not become a link automatically.  (The user would have to type something like "[[Alabama]]".)  On the other hand, I'm not sure that every instance of simple words ''should'' be a link.  Requiring explicit links might make the page look cleaner.
< 
< If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in UseModWiki.  --CliffordAdams  [This feature was added in February 2001.]
< 
46c26
< This issue contains a conflict in the different uses of the system. On one hand we can use a simple enough syntax to mark the links like the funny capitalisation of letters and on the other hand the writer of each entry will have to put extra thought into what is a link and what is not.
---
> '''Is the WikiPedia project reasonable?'''
48,56c28
< I think that since the ambition is to build an encyklopedia we should go for the latter. An important thing with an encyklopedia is the words and their spelling and the funny capitalisation destroys the charm of the language. In some extreme cases there might even be a difference in the meanings because of the capitalisation. (Example from the top of my head: March n. month, march v. to walk). I would also like the possibility to write names with their correct spelling including the spaces like George W. Bush and North Dakota.
< 
< Actually I would like to make it even more complicated for the writer. I would like the WikiPedia to provide a possibility to link to the correct version of a word if words have several meanings like this: York (linked to York/PA) is named after the English city (York linked to York/England). and have this appear as "York (clickable) is named after the English city York (clickable)".
< 
< Since this makes it harder on the person writing the texts we need tools to help him. I have identified two important set of tools:
< * First a tool that during preview goes through the text and signal all words that are present in the encyklopedia and thus are immediate candidates for linking. This is good as a help in identifing words or word combinations that are present elsewhere. The tool could also help him in choosing the correct version of the word.
< * The second tool that is a tool that when we add a new word, goes through the whole wiki and finds all places where this word or combination of words is used without a link. Kind of like the search function except that it does not include the words linked here (or linked to some other entry in the case where we have several entries with the same name).
< 
< A third more elaborate tools would be for those that want to spend time fixing all the errors that the persons not running the second tool would insert into the database and that would be a tool that finds (at random or in some order) entries with words or word combinations that are now defined but not linked to.
---
> I don't want to be a wet blanket, but I don't think a wiki is appropriate for a project like this. If your emphasis is on fast growth of the page database, you totally break all the existing structural systems of the wiki. For instance, RecentChanges is no longer functional. Secondly, wikis exist in a very [http://www.longnow.org long now]. You have time to consider what you add. A repository of information should be like this, I think. Encyclopaedia were invented by the Romans to summarize what the Greeks had taken centuries to come up with. Indeed, the Romans didn't derive much new; just bad summaries. Meanwhile, the Greeks were still chugging along deriving new things. 
58c30,31
< I realise that my technically ordering and systematising mind is what makes me wish this but I can't get out of it. --LinusTolke
---
> Read the rest and the discussion in /WikiPediaReasonable
> ----
60c33
< :Multi-word links with spaces would require some more effort than single-word links.  I would ''really'' like to implement a system which allows nearly arbitrary text in a link, even including characters like / or ! which may not be allowed in filenames.  On the other hand, I could quickly add something like TWiki's [[Some Phrase Here]] links, which would link to a page SomePageHere.
---
> '''What other tools do we need?'''
62c35
< :I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
---
> I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
65,66d37
< [Links like [[word]] are now an option in UseModWiki 0.91.  (Hopefully WikiPedia will upgrade soon.)]
< 
73,96d43
< ----
< This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
< 
< :I've implemented a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which is closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.
< 
< :For spaces in links, they are translated into _ (underline) characters in the URL, and translated back into spaces when displaying the link.  This allows you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you would use a nice URL with an underline (like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Jimbo_Wales), rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
< 
< :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less "accidental linking", but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
< 
< '''I love weird capitalization!''' I think we should not be too prompt putting a straight jacket on WikiPedia --OprgaG
< 
< ----
< 
< I have a suggestion that might give us the best of several worlds. Continue with multiple capitalization as the main tool used by authors, but allow one to assign '''single word synonyms''' with no capitalization so that they can be recognized for indexing when they appear in any article.
< --DickBeldin
< 
< :I'm not sure I understand what you're asking for here.  I don't think it would be a good idea to automatically link single words every time they appear--it could lead to far too many links on pages.  One can already create synonyms with the redirect command--see MozarT for an example (redirected to the composer's full name).  --CliffordAdams
< ----
< I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
< 
< :Briefly, spaces in UniformResourceLocator""s (URLs) are forbidden in the UniformResourceIdentifier (URI) specification.  (URLs are a subset of URIs.)  From RFC 2396: "The space character is excluded because significant spaces may disappear and insignificant spaces may be introduced when URI are transcribed or typeset or subjected to the treatment of word-processing programs.  Whitespace is also used to delimit URI in many contexts."
< 
< :For URLs, the valid ways to represent a space are the "+" character (within a "query component") and the "%20" escape sequence.  Both look relatively ugly compared to an underline: compare <nowiki>"Jimbo_Wales" with "Jimbo+Wales" or "Jimbo%20Wales"</nowiki>.  Internally my code also uses the _ character for filenames, as some utilities on some systems do not deal well with spaces in filenames.  However, aside from the URL issue, you should not notice the difference.  --CliffordAdams
< 
101,136c48
< I don't want to be a wet blanket, but I don't think a wiki is appropriate for a project like this. If your emphasis is on fast growth of the page database, you totally break all the existing structural systems of the wiki. For instance, RecentChanges is no longer functional. Secondly, wikis exist in a very [http://www.longnow.org long now]. You have time to consider what you add. A repository of information should be like this, I think. Encyclopaedia were invented by the Romans to summarize what the Greeks had taken centuries to come up with. Indeed, the Romans didn't derive much new; just bad summaries. Meanwhile, the Greeks were still chugging along deriving new things. 
< 
< It's more interesting to layer in more information, not just collect it, and then interpret the information. Wikis help you to '''collate''' the information into a reasonable order, and '''connect''' the information to '''derive''' new insights. These are valuable contributions--mere collection can be achieved through Google. But it takes time to resolve information. So, you have to move slower.
< 
< Quality is better than quantity. In my opinion, anyway. -- SunirShah
< 
< ----
< 
< Too late!  We've already started!  :-)
< 
< I personally am very sympathetic with what you say here; I think quality is very important.  But if you look around, you'll see that quite a few pages here are of surprisingly good quality.  This suprises even me and I'm the one who pushed Jimbo to set up this wiki, and I am promoting it on NuPedia.  Perhaps you should have a look at NuPedia and see if that's more along the lines of what you would like to see; I suspect so.
< 
< One could plausibly argue against the substance of what you have to say above, though: the best way toward quality is, indeed, to open things wide and let many people participate and improve what's here.  Personally, I don't know if that's a very good argument; it's an empirical question, whether this sort of thing can work in the long run.  But I wouldn't be surprised if it did.
< 
< Actually, we're just having fun, or I am.  WikiPedia is sort of a break from the more serious business of NuPedia for me.  But it might end up being a very valuable resource in itself.  Frankly, it doesn't much matter if it doesn't turn out to be a very valuable resource!  Regardless, we will have taught each other quite a lot.  I mean, I've already learned a fair bit just reading other people's articles! -- LarrySanger
< 
< I think NuPedia is really good. I can see what you mean about this being a play area, though, but I think you might also benefit from a few other things that you can propogate back to NuPedia, like maybe MeatBall:BackLink""ing, MeatBall:AccidentalLink""ing, MeatBall:SoftSecurity, etc. That would be really cool. -- SunirShah
< 
< ----
< Personally, I think wiki is a perfect tool for collection information, if only because of the ease of editing text.  That way information can go in quickly, and get validated or added to as necessary, without a lot of overhead.
< 
< I would say that SunirShah is wrong about this breaking the structure of wiki.  Rather, I think what it does is break the ''culture'' of wiki, and thus the old structure can't serve properly in their old roles.  But there's nothing to stop WikiPedia from developing its own style, with things like RecentChanges filling different niches.  And in fact, as much as I like wiki, I would say that's a good thing.
< 
< Admittedly, though, Sunir has a lot more experience with wiki than I do. -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< I think that the rhythm will settle down in a few months. Right now, the excitement has outstripped the technology, as you have noticed from the UgLy links that are being made. Free-form linking may not be a bad idea here, but more thinking about NamingConventions may be better.
< 
< I've been thinking lately about the differences between the technology of the wiki, the culture of a wiki, and the medium of a wiki. I'm fairly certain the culture of a wiki is necessary to keep it stable. Hence, MeatBall:SoftSecurity. But I'm interested in other successful models. Right now, I'm certain what's happening here is not good. It will hurt you in a year.
< 
< One thing to keep in mind. There are two audiences to write for on a wiki: the one today and the one five years from now. -- SunirShah
< ----
< I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-)  Who and what will be hurt in a year?  Suppose no one is interested in WikiPedia in one year.  So what?  Who cares? -- LarrySanger
< 
< Seconded!  In fact, I think it is almost necessary that this early growth should be unsustainable.  The first thing that should happen to an encyclopedia is a filling in of all the easy, broad topics, and obviously that can't continue indefinitely.  Nor should it.  Once a competent review of physics appears, it makes ''sense'' that writing in that field should die off, even though it was really fun to those who participated in it.
< 
< After that wikipedia might settle in to a long, slow expansion, where new topics are mostly things like biographies and book reviews.  At that point people might lose interest.  But by then they'd already have surveyed out most of the simple topics, hopefully enjoying themselves and creating some text of value.  I don't think its any great tragedy the community doesn't last beyond the stated goals of wikipedia. -- JoshuaGrosse
---
> '''Similar Projects?'''
138,139d49
< Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
< ----
143,144c53
< ----
< This page needs a major refactoring--something I'd do, except that I'd rather one of the central participants on the page do it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/WikiPediaReasonable|983451735
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> 
> It's more interesting to layer in more information, not just collect it, and then interpret the information. Wikis help you to '''collate''' the information into a reasonable order, and '''connect''' the information to '''derive''' new insights. These are valuable contributions--mere collection can be achieved through Google. But it takes time to resolve information. So, you have to move slower.
> 
> Quality is better than quantity. In my opinion, anyway. -- SunirShah
> 
> ----
> 
> Too late!  We've already started!  :-)
> 
> I personally am very sympathetic with what you say here; I think quality is very important.  But if you look around, you'll see that quite a few pages here are of surprisingly good quality.  This suprises even me and I'm the one who pushed Jimbo to set up this wiki, and I am promoting it on NuPedia.  Perhaps you should have a look at NuPedia and see if that's more along the lines of what you would like to see; I suspect so.
> 
> One could plausibly argue against the substance of what you have to say above, though: the best way toward quality is, indeed, to open things wide and let many people participate and improve what's here.  Personally, I don't know if that's a very good argument; it's an empirical question, whether this sort of thing can work in the long run.  But I wouldn't be surprised if it did.
> 
> Actually, we're just having fun, or I am.  WikiPedia is sort of a break from the more serious business of NuPedia for me.  But it might end up being a very valuable resource in itself.  Frankly, it doesn't much matter if it doesn't turn out to be a very valuable resource!  Regardless, we will have taught each other quite a lot.  I mean, I've already learned a fair bit just reading other people's articles! -- LarrySanger
> 
> I think NuPedia is really good. I can see what you mean about this being a play area, though, but I think you might also benefit from a few other things that you can propogate back to NuPedia, like maybe MeatBall:BackLink""ing, MeatBall:AccidentalLink""ing, MeatBall:SoftSecurity, etc. That would be really cool. -- SunirShah
> 
> ----
> Personally, I think wiki is a perfect tool for collection information, if only because of the ease of editing text.  That way information can go in quickly, and get validated or added to as necessary, without a lot of overhead.
> 
> I would say that SunirShah is wrong about this breaking the structure of wiki.  Rather, I think what it does is break the ''culture'' of wiki, and thus the old structure can't serve properly in their old roles.  But there's nothing to stop WikiPedia from developing its own style, with things like RecentChanges filling different niches.  And in fact, as much as I like wiki, I would say that's a good thing.
> 
> Admittedly, though, Sunir has a lot more experience with wiki than I do. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> I think that the rhythm will settle down in a few months. Right now, the excitement has outstripped the technology, as you have noticed from the UgLy links that are being made. Free-form linking may not be a bad idea here, but more thinking about NamingConventions may be better.
> 
> I've been thinking lately about the differences between the technology of the wiki, the culture of a wiki, and the medium of a wiki. I'm fairly certain the culture of a wiki is necessary to keep it stable. Hence, MeatBall:SoftSecurity. But I'm interested in other successful models. Right now, I'm certain what's happening here is not good. It will hurt you in a year.
> 
> One thing to keep in mind. There are two audiences to write for on a wiki: the one today and the one five years from now. -- SunirShah
> ----
> I think you're a bit jealous, Sunir.  :-)  Who and what will be hurt in a year?  Suppose no one is interested in WikiPedia in one year.  So what?  Who cares? -- LarrySanger
> 
> Seconded!  In fact, I think it is almost necessary that this early growth should be unsustainable.  The first thing that should happen to an encyclopedia is a filling in of all the easy, broad topics, and obviously that can't continue indefinitely.  Nor should it.  Once a competent review of physics appears, it makes ''sense'' that writing in that field should die off, even though it was really fun to those who participated in it.
> 
> After that wikipedia might settle in to a long, slow expansion, where new topics are mostly things like biographies and book reviews.  At that point people might lose interest.  But by then they'd already have surveyed out most of the simple topics, hopefully enjoying themselves and creating some text of value.  I don't think its any great tragedy the community doesn't last beyond the stated goals of wikipedia. -- JoshuaGrosse
> 
> Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/WikiPediaReasonable|983451792
1c1
< 
---
> I don't want to be a wet blanket, but I don't think a wiki is appropriate for a project like this. If your emphasis is on fast growth of the page database, you totally break all the existing structural systems of the wiki. For instance, RecentChanges is no longer functional. Secondly, wikis exist in a very [http://www.longnow.org long now]. You have time to consider what you add. A repository of information should be like this, I think. Encyclopaedia were invented by the Romans to summarize what the Greeks had taken centuries to come up with. Indeed, the Romans didn't derive much new; just bad summaries. Meanwhile, the Greeks were still chugging along deriving new things. 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/NamingLinkingDiscussion|983451860
1,84c1
< 
< The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
< 
< It strikes me that a very simple system would be to be able
< to link like this: <<< Albania >>>.
< 
< Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
< 
< ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.  See below for discussion of that feature.]
< 
< ----
< 
< I just had another thought.  Perhaps arbitrary linking using
< <<< >>> should be limited to single words only.  For example,
< a list of UnitedStates might be written like this:
< 
< * <<< Alaska >>>
< * NorthDakota
< * <<< Wisconsin >>>
< That is, if you use <<< >>>, the rule is that there has to be
< only one word inside there.
< 
< The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.  Is
< there a wiki that can do that?  Or, should I just add the capability to this one?  Or, is this whole idea really bad for some reason?
< 
< ----
< 
< Adding [[word]] or <<<word>>> -style links to ''this'' wiki should not be very difficult.  The main disadvantage of such links is that they would not be automatic.  That is, if someone typed the plain word "Alabama", it would not become a link automatically.  (The user would have to type something like "[[Alabama]]".)  On the other hand, I'm not sure that every instance of simple words ''should'' be a link.  Requiring explicit links might make the page look cleaner.
< 
< If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in UseModWiki.  --CliffordAdams  [This feature was added in February 2001.]
< 
< ----
< This issue contains a conflict in the different uses of the system. On one hand we can use a simple enough syntax to mark the links like the funny capitalisation of letters and on the other hand the writer of each entry will have to put extra thought into what is a link and what is not.
< 
< I think that since the ambition is to build an encyklopedia we should go for the latter. An important thing with an encyklopedia is the words and their spelling and the funny capitalisation destroys the charm of the language. In some extreme cases there might even be a difference in the meanings because of the capitalisation. (Example from the top of my head: March n. month, march v. to walk). I would also like the possibility to write names with their correct spelling including the spaces like George W. Bush and North Dakota.
< 
< Actually I would like to make it even more complicated for the writer. I would like the WikiPedia to provide a possibility to link to the correct version of a word if words have several meanings like this: York (linked to York/PA) is named after the English city (York linked to York/England). and have this appear as "York (clickable) is named after the English city York (clickable)".
< 
< Since this makes it harder on the person writing the texts we need tools to help him. I have identified two important set of tools:
< * First a tool that during preview goes through the text and signal all words that are present in the encyklopedia and thus are immediate candidates for linking. This is good as a help in identifing words or word combinations that are present elsewhere. The tool could also help him in choosing the correct version of the word.
< * The second tool that is a tool that when we add a new word, goes through the whole wiki and finds all places where this word or combination of words is used without a link. Kind of like the search function except that it does not include the words linked here (or linked to some other entry in the case where we have several entries with the same name).
< 
< A third more elaborate tools would be for those that want to spend time fixing all the errors that the persons not running the second tool would insert into the database and that would be a tool that finds (at random or in some order) entries with words or word combinations that are now defined but not linked to.
< 
< I realise that my technically ordering and systematising mind is what makes me wish this but I can't get out of it. --LinusTolke
< 
< :Multi-word links with spaces would require some more effort than single-word links.  I would ''really'' like to implement a system which allows nearly arbitrary text in a link, even including characters like / or ! which may not be allowed in filenames.  On the other hand, I could quickly add something like TWiki's [[Some Phrase Here]] links, which would link to a page SomePageHere.
< 
< :I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< ----
< [Links like [[word]] are now an option in UseModWiki 0.91.  (Hopefully WikiPedia will upgrade soon.)]
< 
< I think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
< 
< The whole conversion would probably take only a couple hours, much of which would be editing the list.  I'm willing to write the conversion scripts and even do the editing if the maintainers of WikiPedia approve.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< (I think this sounds great -- JimboWales)
< 
< ----
< This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
< 
< :I've implemented a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which is closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.
< 
< :For spaces in links, they are translated into _ (underline) characters in the URL, and translated back into spaces when displaying the link.  This allows you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you would use a nice URL with an underline (like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Jimbo_Wales), rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
< 
< :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less "accidental linking", but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
< 
< '''I love weird capitalization!''' I think we should not be too prompt putting a straight jacket on WikiPedia --OprgaG
< 
< ----
< 
< I have a suggestion that might give us the best of several worlds. Continue with multiple capitalization as the main tool used by authors, but allow one to assign '''single word synonyms''' with no capitalization so that they can be recognized for indexing when they appear in any article.
< --DickBeldin
< 
< :I'm not sure I understand what you're asking for here.  I don't think it would be a good idea to automatically link single words every time they appear--it could lead to far too many links on pages.  One can already create synonyms with the redirect command--see MozarT for an example (redirected to the composer's full name).  --CliffordAdams
< ----
< I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
< 
< :Briefly, spaces in UniformResourceLocator""s (URLs) are forbidden in the UniformResourceIdentifier (URI) specification.  (URLs are a subset of URIs.)  From RFC 2396: "The space character is excluded because significant spaces may disappear and insignificant spaces may be introduced when URI are transcribed or typeset or subjected to the treatment of word-processing programs.  Whitespace is also used to delimit URI in many contexts."
< 
< :For URLs, the valid ways to represent a space are the "+" character (within a "query component") and the "%20" escape sequence.  Both look relatively ugly compared to an underline: compare <nowiki>"Jimbo_Wales" with "Jimbo+Wales" or "Jimbo%20Wales"</nowiki>.  Internally my code also uses the _ character for filenames, as some utilities on some systems do not deal well with spaces in filenames.  However, aside from the URL issue, you should not notice the difference.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
---
> 
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/ArbitratryLinkingDiscussion|983451873
1c1,83
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The other day, on a page I cannot find now, someone suggested that we might switch to a version of Wiki which supports arbitrary linking.  The idea is that, particularly for an encyclopedia, having arbitrary links is better than the amusing but odd wiki capitalization conventions.
> 
> It strikes me that a very simple system would be to be able
> to link like this: <<< Albania >>>.
> 
> Is there a wiki software that can support this? -- JimboWales
> 
> ["Free linking" like [[word]] was later added to UseModWiki.  See below for discussion of that feature.]
> 
> ----
> 
> I just had another thought.  Perhaps arbitrary linking using
> <<< >>> should be limited to single words only.  For example,
> a list of UnitedStates might be written like this:
> 
> * <<< Alaska >>>
> * NorthDakota
> * <<< Wisconsin >>>
> That is, if you use <<< >>>, the rule is that there has to be
> only one word inside there.
> 
> The whole point here is to get away from weird names for single-word articles, things like NuPedia or AlaSka.  Is
> there a wiki that can do that?  Or, should I just add the capability to this one?  Or, is this whole idea really bad for some reason?
> 
> ----
> 
> Adding [[word]] or <<<word>>> -style links to ''this'' wiki should not be very difficult.  The main disadvantage of such links is that they would not be automatic.  That is, if someone typed the plain word "Alabama", it would not become a link automatically.  (The user would have to type something like "[[Alabama]]".)  On the other hand, I'm not sure that every instance of simple words ''should'' be a link.  Requiring explicit links might make the page look cleaner.
> 
> If this wiki community really wants more free-form links, I'd be willing to take a look at adding [[word]]-style links as an option in UseModWiki.  --CliffordAdams  [This feature was added in February 2001.]
> 
> ----
> This issue contains a conflict in the different uses of the system. On one hand we can use a simple enough syntax to mark the links like the funny capitalisation of letters and on the other hand the writer of each entry will have to put extra thought into what is a link and what is not.
> 
> I think that since the ambition is to build an encyklopedia we should go for the latter. An important thing with an encyklopedia is the words and their spelling and the funny capitalisation destroys the charm of the language. In some extreme cases there might even be a difference in the meanings because of the capitalisation. (Example from the top of my head: March n. month, march v. to walk). I would also like the possibility to write names with their correct spelling including the spaces like George W. Bush and North Dakota.
> 
> Actually I would like to make it even more complicated for the writer. I would like the WikiPedia to provide a possibility to link to the correct version of a word if words have several meanings like this: York (linked to York/PA) is named after the English city (York linked to York/England). and have this appear as "York (clickable) is named after the English city York (clickable)".
> 
> Since this makes it harder on the person writing the texts we need tools to help him. I have identified two important set of tools:
> * First a tool that during preview goes through the text and signal all words that are present in the encyklopedia and thus are immediate candidates for linking. This is good as a help in identifing words or word combinations that are present elsewhere. The tool could also help him in choosing the correct version of the word.
> * The second tool that is a tool that when we add a new word, goes through the whole wiki and finds all places where this word or combination of words is used without a link. Kind of like the search function except that it does not include the words linked here (or linked to some other entry in the case where we have several entries with the same name).
> 
> A third more elaborate tools would be for those that want to spend time fixing all the errors that the persons not running the second tool would insert into the database and that would be a tool that finds (at random or in some order) entries with words or word combinations that are now defined but not linked to.
> 
> I realise that my technically ordering and systematising mind is what makes me wish this but I can't get out of it. --LinusTolke
> 
> :Multi-word links with spaces would require some more effort than single-word links.  I would ''really'' like to implement a system which allows nearly arbitrary text in a link, even including characters like / or ! which may not be allowed in filenames.  On the other hand, I could quickly add something like TWiki's [[Some Phrase Here]] links, which would link to a page SomePageHere.
> 
> :I agree that search tools to find potential links would be very useful.  One possibility would be to make a list of pages in date order (newest first), with all the potential links listed next to the name of the page.  Editors could then watch the most recent edits for potential links.  If this wiki moves in that direction, I'm willing to work on better search tools.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
> [Links like [[word]] are now an option in UseModWiki 0.91.  (Hopefully WikiPedia will upgrade soon.)]
> 
> I think it wouldn't be hard to write a conversion-helper script to semi-automatically fix the current strange capitalizations.  The script would first look for all wikinames and create one large list.  A human editor would go through the list and delete any of the "good" multi-word names (like PopularMusic), which would end up with a list of "strange" wiki-names (like PolanD or TopOlogy).  The second part of the script would take take the edited list of one-word names and replace them with [[word]] links.  Those one-word names which already have defined pages could also be moved/changed automatically, along with the RecentChanges database file.
> 
> The whole conversion would probably take only a couple hours, much of which would be editing the list.  I'm willing to write the conversion scripts and even do the editing if the maintainers of WikiPedia approve.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> (I think this sounds great -- JimboWales)
> 
> ----
> This sounds good to me, but JimboWales is the Wikipedia programmer.  Feature request: make it possible for a link written [[like this [[Jimbo Wales]]]] to be displayed with just the words "like this" linked, and pointing to the "Jimbo Wales" page.  However you do it, it would be dandy to be able to link to a page without using the page name.  On the other hand...maybe we don't want to make that possible! -- LarrySanger
> 
> :I've implemented a simpler syntax like [[Jimbo Wales|like this]], which is closer to the regular URL format: [URL description].  Trying to parse nested pairs of brackets would get pretty ugly coding-wise.
> 
> :For spaces in links, they are translated into _ (underline) characters in the URL, and translated back into spaces when displaying the link.  This allows you to type [[Jimbo Wales]], which would be displayed like "Jimbo Wales" (as a link).  If you wanted to link to the page (from outside the wiki) you would use a nice URL with an underline (like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Jimbo_Wales), rather than an ugly one with a + or %20 for each space character.
> 
> :Hmmm...  If one handles spaces like that, perhaps this wiki could completely dispense with the strange capitalization rules and just use [[word or phrase]]-style links.  There would be less "accidental linking", but this wouldn't necessarily be a bad thing.  (I'd certainly want to create link-helping tools, however, to find appropriate links.)  --CliffordAdams (soon to be [[Clifford Adams]]?)
> 
> '''I love weird capitalization!''' I think we should not be too prompt putting a straight jacket on WikiPedia --OprgaG
> 
> ----
> 
> I have a suggestion that might give us the best of several worlds. Continue with multiple capitalization as the main tool used by authors, but allow one to assign '''single word synonyms''' with no capitalization so that they can be recognized for indexing when they appear in any article.
> --DickBeldin
> 
> :I'm not sure I understand what you're asking for here.  I don't think it would be a good idea to automatically link single words every time they appear--it could lead to far too many links on pages.  One can already create synonyms with the redirect command--see MozarT for an example (redirected to the composer's full name).  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> I don't understand why you want spaces to be converted to and from _ (underline). Isn't the space character good enough as it is? Is there some conceptual meaning of the space that I don't understand? --LinusTolke
> 
> :Briefly, spaces in UniformResourceLocator""s (URLs) are forbidden in the UniformResourceIdentifier (URI) specification.  (URLs are a subset of URIs.)  From RFC 2396: "The space character is excluded because significant spaces may disappear and insignificant spaces may be introduced when URI are transcribed or typeset or subjected to the treatment of word-processing programs.  Whitespace is also used to delimit URI in many contexts."
> 
> :For URLs, the valid ways to represent a space are the "+" character (within a "query component") and the "%20" escape sequence.  Both look relatively ugly compared to an underline: compare <nowiki>"Jimbo_Wales" with "Jimbo+Wales" or "Jimbo%20Wales"</nowiki>.  Internally my code also uses the _ character for filenames, as some utilities on some systems do not deal well with spaces in filenames.  However, aside from the URL issue, you should not notice the difference.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> Yeah, I think you're right. I think the freeform linking may be the thing you need. Most of the cruft comes from the poor choice of a LinkPattern (suited best to http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PatternLanguage""s). -- SunirShah
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|983451942
12a13
> '''Other WikiWiki programs than UseModWiki?'''
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse/NamingLinkingDiscussion|983452007
1c1
< 
---
> Editor please delete this one
------
Mathematics/Schemes|983452178
38c38
< FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
MathematicianS|983452400
3,17c3,17
< : PythagoraS EucliD EudoxusOfCnidus ArchimedeS AppoloniusOfPerga DiophantusOfAlexandria
< : FibonnacI KhwarizmI 
< : PierreDeFermat MarinMersenne Rene Descartes BlaisePascal AbrahamDeMoivre
< : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz LeonardEuler ChristianGoldbach BernoulliFamily
< : BarroW StirlinG IsaacNewtoN ColinMacLaurin ChristopherWren
< : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky JanosBolyai
< : Joseph/LouisLaGrange NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
< : Augustin/LouisCauchy Simeon/DenisPoisson
< : Adrien/MarieLegendre CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
< : BernhardRiemann CamilleJordan, HenriPoincare
< : WilliamRowanHamilton HermannGunterGrassmann ArthurCayley SilvesteR
< : LeopoldKroneckeR KarlWeierstrass 
< : GeorgCantor ErnstZermelo FraenkeL DavidHilbert SrinivasaRamanujan
< : AndreiAndreevichMarkov PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
< : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov SophusLie Bertrand Russell KurtGodel 
---
> : PythagoraS, EucliD, EudoxusOfCnidus, ArchimedeS, AppoloniusOfPerga, DiophantusOfAlexandria
> : FibonnacI, KhwarizmI 
> : PierreDeFermat, MarinMersenne, ReneDescartes, BlaisePascal, AbrahamDeMoivre
> : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz, LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
> : BarroW, StirlinG, IsaacNewtoN, ColinMacLaurin, ChristopherWren
> : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky, JanosBolyai
> : Joseph/LouisLaGrange, NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
> : Augustin/LouisCauchy, Simeon/DenisPoisson
> : Adrien/MarieLegendre, CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
> : BernhardRiemann, CamilleJordan, FelixKlein, SophusLie, HenriPoincare
> : WilliamRowanHamilton, HermannGunterGrassmann, ArthurCayley, SilvesteR
> : LeopoldKroneckeR, KarlWeierstrass 
> : GeorgCantor, ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
> : AndreiAndreevichMarkov, PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
> : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, KurtGodel 
------
Testing_Hypotheses|983456888
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> Many researchers wish to test a '''statistical hypothesis''' with their data. There are several prerequisites which should be accomplished before the data is at hand.
> #The hypothesis must be stated in mathematical/statistical terms that make it possible to calculate the probability of possible sample assuming the hypothesis is correct. For example, ''The mean response to treatment being tested is equal to the mean response to the placebo in the control group. Both response have the [[Normal Distribution]] with the unknown means and the same known [[Standard Deviation]].''
> #A test [[Statistic]] must be chosen that will summarize the information in the sample that is relevant to the hypothesis. In the example given above, it might be the numerical difference between the two sample means.
> #The distribution of the test statistic is used to calculate the probability sets of possible values (usually an interval or union of intervals). In this example, the difference between sample means would have a normal distribution with a standard deviation equal to the common standard deviation times the factor '''1/sqrt(n1) + 1/sqrt(n2)''' where n1 and n2 are the sample sizes.
> #Among all the sets of possible values, we must choose one that we think represents the most extreme evidence '''against''' the hypothesis. That is called the '''critical region''' of the test statistic. The probability of the test statistic falling in the critical region when the hypothesis is correct is called the '''alpha''' value (or '''size''') of the test. 
> #After the data is available, the test statistic is calculated and we determine whether it is inside the critical region. 
> #If the test statistic is inside the critical region, then our conclusion is either
> *The hypothesis is incorrect ''or''
> *An event of probability less than or equal to ''alpha'' has occurred.
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Location_parameter|983457162
3c3
< A parameter whose value determines only the position (see [[Central Tendancy]]) on the real line that a [[density function]] occupies. The shape of the curve representing the function is visualized as shifting back and forth along the line according to the value of the location parameter.
---
> A parameter whose value determines only the position (see [[Central Tendency]]) on the real line that a [[density function]] occupies. The shape of the curve representing the function is visualized as shifting back and forth along the line according to the value of the location parameter.
------
Testing_Hypotheses|983457229
8,11c8,16
< #After the data is available, the test statistic is calculated and we determine whether it is inside the critical region. 
< #If the test statistic is inside the critical region, then our conclusion is either
< *The hypothesis is incorrect ''or''
< *An event of probability less than or equal to ''alpha'' has occurred.
---
> 
> After the data is available, the test statistic is calculated and we determine whether it is inside the critical region. 
> 
> If the test statistic is inside the critical region, then our conclusion is either
> #The hypothesis is incorrect ''or''
> #An event of probability less than or equal to ''alpha'' has occurred.
> The researcher has to choose between these logical alternatives.
> 
> If the test statistic is outside the critical region, the only conclusion is that ''There is not enough evidence to reject the hypothesis.'' This is '''not''' the same as evidence for the hypothesis. That we cannot obtain. Statistical research progesses by eliminating error, not by ''finding the truth''.
14c19
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Testing_Hypotheses|983457381
3,4c3,4
< Many researchers wish to test a '''statistical hypothesis''' with their data. There are several prerequisites which should be accomplished before the data is at hand.
< #The hypothesis must be stated in mathematical/statistical terms that make it possible to calculate the probability of possible sample assuming the hypothesis is correct. For example, ''The mean response to treatment being tested is equal to the mean response to the placebo in the control group. Both response have the [[Normal Distribution]] with the unknown means and the same known [[Standard Deviation]].''
---
> Many researchers wish to test a '''statistical hypothesis''' with their data. There are several preparations we make before we observe the data.
> #The hypothesis must be stated in mathematical/statistical terms that make it possible to calculate the probability of possible samples assuming the hypothesis is correct. For example, ''The mean response to treatment being tested is equal to the mean response to the placebo in the control group. Both response have the [[Normal Distribution]] with the unknown means and the same known [[Standard Deviation]].''
6c6
< #The distribution of the test statistic is used to calculate the probability sets of possible values (usually an interval or union of intervals). In this example, the difference between sample means would have a normal distribution with a standard deviation equal to the common standard deviation times the factor '''1/sqrt(n1) + 1/sqrt(n2)''' where n1 and n2 are the sample sizes.
---
> #The distribution of the test statistic is used to calculate the probability sets of possible values (usually an interval or union of intervals). In this example, the difference between sample means would have a normal distribution with a standard deviation equal to the common standard deviation times the factor '''1/sqrt(n<sub>1</sub>) + 1/sqrt(n<sub>2</sub>)''' where n<sub>1</sub> and n<sub>2</sub> are the sample sizes.
------
Testing_Hypotheses|983457464
5c5
< #A test [[Statistic]] must be chosen that will summarize the information in the sample that is relevant to the hypothesis. In the example given above, it might be the numerical difference between the two sample means.
---
> #A test [[Statistic]] must be chosen that will summarize the information in the sample that is relevant to the hypothesis. In the example given above, it might be the numerical difference between the two sample means, <b>m<sub>1</sub>-m<sub>2</sub></b>.
------
Testing_Hypotheses|983457539
16c16,18
< If the test statistic is outside the critical region, the only conclusion is that ''There is not enough evidence to reject the hypothesis.'' This is '''not''' the same as evidence for the hypothesis. That we cannot obtain. Statistical research progesses by eliminating error, not by ''finding the truth''.
---
> If the test statistic is outside the critical region, the only conclusion is that 
> *''There is not enough evidence to reject the hypothesis.'' 
> This is '''not''' the same as evidence for the hypothesis. That we cannot obtain. Statistical research progesses by eliminating error, not by ''finding the truth''.
------
Revising_Opinions|983458230
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
> 
> Researchers who use [[Personal Probability]] can proceed as follows:
> #A [[Statistical Model]] for the data generating process is assumed. The model might specify that the data follows a normal distribution with an unknown mean. 
> #The researcher describes his opinion about the unknown mean as having a [[Normal Distribution]] centered at 10 with a [[Standard Deviation]] of 2. This would be called the researcher's '''prior''' distribution for the mean.
> #With the [[Likelihood Function]] of the observed data and the probabilistic description of his opinion, the researcher can calculate (using [[Bayes Theorem]]) the appropriate opinion consistent with both sources of information. This is called the '''posterior''' distribution.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
LinguisticS|983463509
7a8,9
> One speaks also of PhilologY.
> 
------
GeoCaching|983465549
1c1
< GeoCaching is a treasure hunting game for GPS users. 
---
> GeoCaching is a treasure hunting game for [Global Positioning System|GPS] users. 
5c5
< Please see http://www.geocaching.com/ for details about this exciting pastime, which is also known as GPS stash hunting.
---
> Please see http://www.geocaching.com/ for details about this exciting pastime, which is also known as GPS stash hunting.
------
GeoCaching|983465618
1c1
< GeoCaching is a treasure hunting game for [Global Positioning System|GPS] users. 
---
> GeoCaching is a treasure hunting game for [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] users. 
------
ConstitutioN|983466732
3c3
< :AmericanConstitution
---
> :UnitedStatesConstitution
5c5
< :DeclarationOfRights
---
> :DeclarationOfRights [whose declaration?]
------
Star_Trek|983469543
13c13
< In the '90es, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While the classic series used "Cowboy diplomacy", The Next Generation (TNG) had its Prime Directive which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in other, especially less evolved species' business. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
---
> In the 1980s, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While the classic series used "Cowboy diplomacy", The Next Generation (TNG) had its Prime Directive which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in other, especially less evolved species' business. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
------
Painting|983470262
19c19
< [[Paintings Conservation]]
---
> [[Paintings Conservation]]
------
Painters|983470373
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> Painter Rene' Joseph.
> 
> Artists website at www.renejoseph.com
------
Continents|983470903
6a7
> :[[Australia]] - often clumped with surrounding islands into [[Oceania]] - ''usually'' counted a continent
9,10c10
< :[[South America]]
< :[[Australia]] - often clumped with surrounding islands into [[Oceania]] - is ''usually'' included here.
---
> :[[South America]]
------
Painting|983472324
18a19
> ''No offense, but I haven't heard of any of the above painters.  Perhaps [[Michelangelo]] and [[Van Gogh]] and [[Giotto]] and [[Jan van Eyck]] might be considered worthy of this illustrious company?''
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983473569
13a14,15
> ----
> Can you elaborate, please?  I don't understand the suggestion yet. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Painters|983474013
1,2c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
< Painter Rene' Joseph.
---
> [[Michelangelo]]
> [[da Vinci]]
> [[Van Gogh]]
> ...
4c6,8
< Artists website at www.renejoseph.com
---
> '''Living painters:'''
> [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene' Joseph]
> ...
------
Painters|983474756
7,8c7,8
< [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene' Joseph]
< ...
---
> [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
> ...
------
The_Blair_Witch_Project|983477154
1,2c1,6
< Three young film students mysteriously disappear fromt the face of the earth. The film was a huge success because its makers did heavy marketing via the Internet, spreading rumors and telling people that the material they shot was authentic and that those three people really disappeared. After the movies' success, sequels were shot, and franchising started, computer games were sold and of course all sorts of memorabilia, but the makers couldn't re-create the success or innovation of the original movie, which they claimed created a whole new way of filmmaking, Method Film-making, named after Lee Strassberg's [[Method Acting]]. 
< In fact the way of incorporating the camera and film team into the plot is not totally new. One of the predecessors of this technique are Danish [[Dogme95]] movies, and, most notably, the Belgian movie [[Man Bites Dog]].
---
> Three young film students mysteriously disappear from
> the face of the earth. 
> 
> This film was a huge success because its makers did heavy marketing via the Internet, spreading rumors and suggesting or allowing people to think that the material they shot was authentic and that those three people really disappeared. After the movies' success, sequels were shot, and franchising started, computer games were sold and of course all sorts of memorabilia, but the makers couldn't re-create the success or innovation of the original movie, which they claimed created a whole new way of filmmaking, Method Film-making, named after Lee Strassberg's [[Method Acting]]. 
> 
> In fact the way of incorporating the camera and film team into the plot is not totally new. One of the predecessors of this technique are Danish [[Dogme95]] movies, and, most notably, the Belgian movie [[Man Bites Dog]].
------
Alien|983477211
3c3
< Directed by Ridley Scott
---
> Directed by [[Ridley Scott]]
9c9
< Directed by James Cameron
---
> Directed by [[James Cameron]]
15c15
< Directed by David Fincher
---
> Directed by [[David Fincher]]
21c21
< Directed by Jean-Pierre Jeunet
---
> Directed by [[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]]
23c23
< 200 years later, ruthless scientists clone Ripley and the alien from blood specimens taken on the prison planet. The aliens get out of control and Ripley, who now has some alien DNA because the cloning didn't work perfectly tries to escape with a band of smugglers before the ship collides with earth.
---
> 200 years later, ruthless scientists clone Ripley and the alien from blood specimens taken on the prison planet. The aliens get out of control and Ripley, who now has some alien DNA because the cloning didn't work perfectly tries to escape with a band of smugglers before the ship collides with earth.
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|983477272
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The Film was banned in Great Britain and in Germany.
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The film was banned in [[Great Britain]] and in [[Germany]].
------
Star_Trek|983477459
1c1,3
< Star Trek tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and of their adventures at the "final frontier". Initially, the series didn't have too much success, but when the station wanted to cancel it, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans who called themselves Trekkies or Trekkers. Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by Gene Roddenberry. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
---
> Star Trek tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and of their adventures at the "final frontier". Initially, the series didn't have too much success, but when original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans who called themselves Trekkies or Trekkers.
> 
> Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by Gene Roddenberry. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
------
EiffelTower|983477559
1,2c1
< Describe the new page here.
< pretty good
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eiffel Tower]]
------
Eiffel_Tower|983478029
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Eiffel Tower is the most recognizable landmark in [[Paris]], and is known worldwide as a symbol for [[France]].  It is a premier tourist destination, with over 5 1/2 million visitors per year.
> 
> The tower was built from 1887-1889 for the Centennial celebration of the [[French revolution]].  300 steel workers joined together 18,038 pieces of steel, using around two and a half million rivets.  Considering the general safety standards in place at the time, it is remarkable that only one worker died in the construction of the tower.
> 
> The tower is 300 meters tall, or 986 feet, not including the television antenna on top, which adds another 20 meters.
> Maintenance on the tower includes 50 tons of dark brown paint every 7 years!
> 
> 
> 
------
Eiffel_Tower|983478142
4a5,6
> Perhaps predictably, the tower met with resistance from the public when it was first built, because it was thought that it would be an eyesore!  Today it is widely considered to be one of the most beautiful pieces of architecural art in the world.
> 
------
Painters|983478517
1,4c1,4
< [[Michelangelo]]
< [[da Vinci]]
< [[Van Gogh]]
< ...
---
> :[[Michelangelo]]
> :[[da Vinci]]
> :[[Van Gogh]]
> :...
7,8c7,8
< [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
< ...
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
> :...
------
Painters|983478630
7c7
< :[http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com/|Rene Joseph]
------
Painters|983478653
7c7
< :[http://www.renejoseph.com/|Rene Joseph]
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com/ |Rene Joseph]
------
CPU|983478889
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Central Processing Unit, the system's main processor
------
History|983479140
12a13
> ** [[History of Germany]]
26c27
< When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
---
> When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Painters|983479211
7c7
< :[http://www.renejoseph.com/ |Rene Joseph]
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com/ Rene Joseph]
------
Painters|983479377
8a9,57
> Shortcuts to highly popular painters:
> [[Michelangelo]]
> [[da Vinci]]
> [[Van Gogh]]
> [[Picasso]]
> [[Monet]]
> ....
> 
> More comprehensive list of acknowledged masters:
> [[Anders G. Aldrin]] (1889-1970)
> [[Mikolas Ales]] (1852-1913)
> [[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1836-1912)
> [[Carl Andre]] (1935- )
> [[Fra Angelico]] (1400-1445)
> 
> [[Francis Bacon]] (1909-1992)
> [[Balthus]] (1908-2001) (Count Balthasas Klossowski de Rola)
> [[Vladimir Baranoff-Rossine]] (1888-1944)
> [[Ernie Barnes]] (1938- )
> [[Jennifer Bartlett]] (1941- )
> [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]] (1960-1988)
> [[Frederic Bazille]] (1841-1870)
> [[Robert Bechtle]] (1932 - )
> [[Max Beckmann]] (1884-1950)
> [[Vanessa Bell]] (1879-1961)
> [[George Wesley Bellows]] (1882-1925)
> [[Ludwig Bemelmans]] (1898-1962)
> [[Frank Weston Benson]] (1862-1951)
> [[Thomas Hart Benton]] (1889-1975)
> [[Albert Bierstadt]] (1830-1902)
> [[William Blake]] (1757-1827)
> [[Ralph Albert Blakelock]] (1847-1919)
> [[Rosa Bonheur]] (1822-1899)
> [[Claude Bonin-Piassarro]]
> [[Pierre Bonnard]] (1867-1947)
> [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1867-1947)
> [[William-Adophe Bougeureau]] (1825-1905)
> [[Cecily Brown]]
> [[Ford Madox Brown]]
> [[Bernard Buffet]] (1928-1999)
> [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] (1475-1564)
> [[John Byrne]] 
> 
> (We should continue with C-Z.)
> ....
> 
> '''Living painters:'''
> [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
> ....
------
Painters|983479396
0a1,2
> 
> Shortcuts to highly popular painters:
4,14c6,7
< :...
< 
< '''Living painters:'''
< :[http://www.renejoseph.com/ Rene Joseph]
< :...
< Shortcuts to highly popular painters:
< [[Michelangelo]]
< [[da Vinci]]
< [[Van Gogh]]
< [[Picasso]]
< [[Monet]]
---
> :[[Picasso]]
> :[[Monet]]
18,22c11,15
< [[Anders G. Aldrin]] (1889-1970)
< [[Mikolas Ales]] (1852-1913)
< [[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1836-1912)
< [[Carl Andre]] (1935- )
< [[Fra Angelico]] (1400-1445)
---
> :[[Anders G. Aldrin]] (1889-1970)
> :[[Mikolas Ales]] (1852-1913)
> :[[Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema]] (1836-1912)
> :[[Carl Andre]] (1935- )
> :[[Fra Angelico]] (1400-1445)
------
Painters|983479456
1d0
< 
17,43c16,42
< [[Francis Bacon]] (1909-1992)
< [[Balthus]] (1908-2001) (Count Balthasas Klossowski de Rola)
< [[Vladimir Baranoff-Rossine]] (1888-1944)
< [[Ernie Barnes]] (1938- )
< [[Jennifer Bartlett]] (1941- )
< [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]] (1960-1988)
< [[Frederic Bazille]] (1841-1870)
< [[Robert Bechtle]] (1932 - )
< [[Max Beckmann]] (1884-1950)
< [[Vanessa Bell]] (1879-1961)
< [[George Wesley Bellows]] (1882-1925)
< [[Ludwig Bemelmans]] (1898-1962)
< [[Frank Weston Benson]] (1862-1951)
< [[Thomas Hart Benton]] (1889-1975)
< [[Albert Bierstadt]] (1830-1902)
< [[William Blake]] (1757-1827)
< [[Ralph Albert Blakelock]] (1847-1919)
< [[Rosa Bonheur]] (1822-1899)
< [[Claude Bonin-Piassarro]]
< [[Pierre Bonnard]] (1867-1947)
< [[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1867-1947)
< [[William-Adophe Bougeureau]] (1825-1905)
< [[Cecily Brown]]
< [[Ford Madox Brown]]
< [[Bernard Buffet]] (1928-1999)
< [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] (1475-1564)
< [[John Byrne]] 
---
> :[[Francis Bacon]] (1909-1992)
> :[[Balthus]] (1908-2001) (Count Balthasas Klossowski de Rola)
> :[[Vladimir Baranoff-Rossine]] (1888-1944)
> :[[Ernie Barnes]] (1938- )
> :[[Jennifer Bartlett]] (1941- )
> :[[Jean-Michel Basquiat]] (1960-1988)
> :[[Frederic Bazille]] (1841-1870)
> :[[Robert Bechtle]] (1932 - )
> :[[Max Beckmann]] (1884-1950)
> :[[Vanessa Bell]] (1879-1961)
> :[[George Wesley Bellows]] (1882-1925)
> :[[Ludwig Bemelmans]] (1898-1962)
> :[[Frank Weston Benson]] (1862-1951)
> :[[Thomas Hart Benton]] (1889-1975)
> :[[Albert Bierstadt]] (1830-1902)
> :[[William Blake]] (1757-1827)
> :[[Ralph Albert Blakelock]] (1847-1919)
> :[[Rosa Bonheur]] (1822-1899)
> :[[Claude Bonin-Piassarro]]
> :[[Pierre Bonnard]] (1867-1947)
> :[[Hieronymus Bosch]] (1867-1947)
> :[[William-Adophe Bougeureau]] (1825-1905)
> :[[Cecily Brown]]
> :[[Ford Madox Brown]]
> :[[Bernard Buffet]] (1928-1999)
> :[[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] (1475-1564)
> :[[John Byrne]]
45a45
> 
49c49,50
< [http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
> 
------
Swedes|983479567
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Inhabitants of [[Sweden]].
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983481398
13a14
> 
15c16,18
< Can you elaborate, please?  I don't understand the suggestion yet. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Can you elaborate, please?  I don't understand the suggestion yet. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> See MeatBall:InternalTransclusion.
------
CPU|983481803
1c1
< Central Processing Unit, the system's main processor
---
> Central Processing Unit, the system's main [[processor]].
------
History_of_Germany|983482492
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Federal Republic of Germany exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
> 
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became France and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the First World War. 
> 
> After the death of Queen Victoria, the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on Serbia after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in Sarajevo. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
> 
> After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on Poland, after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers (Italy, Germany, Japan) were defeated by Allied forces (USA, France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union), and half of Europe lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
> 
> After the war, Germany was split into four occupation zones, Eastern territories came under Polish and Soviet control and Austria became a separate state again (it was united with Germany by Hitler). It soon turned out that the four major Allies had vast ideological differences and over the next years, the British, French and US occupied zones were united to form the Federal Republic, while the Soviet occupied zone became the GDR. Germany's capital, Berlin was split and the Western part became an enclave, while the Eastern part became capital again. After the reunification, the capital of the united Germany moved from Bonn (which was the Western capital) to Berlin.
------
History_of_Germany|983482909
1c1
< The Federal Republic of Germany exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
9c9
< After the war, Germany was split into four occupation zones, Eastern territories came under Polish and Soviet control and Austria became a separate state again (it was united with Germany by Hitler). It soon turned out that the four major Allies had vast ideological differences and over the next years, the British, French and US occupied zones were united to form the Federal Republic, while the Soviet occupied zone became the GDR. Germany's capital, Berlin was split and the Western part became an enclave, while the Eastern part became capital again. After the reunification, the capital of the united Germany moved from Bonn (which was the Western capital) to Berlin.
---
> After the war, Germany was split into four occupation zones, Eastern territories came under Polish and Soviet control and Austria became a separate state again (it was united with Germany by Hitler). It soon turned out that the four major Allies had vast ideological differences and over the next years, the British, French and US occupied zones were united to form the Federal Republic, while the Soviet occupied zone became the GDR. Germany's capital, Berlin was split and the Western part became an enclave, while the Eastern part became capital again. After the reunification, the capital of the united Germany moved from Bonn (which was the Western capital) to Berlin.
------
Germany|983482987
26a27
> See [[History of Germany]].
------
EastGermany|983483060
1,24c1
< '''History'''
< 
< After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
< 
< While soon the three areas controlled by the UnitedStates, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
< "Federal Republic Of Germany", the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
< It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
< country very soon until the only link to DemocracY was the part in its name.
< 
< EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from WestGermany (which became more and more democratic and 
< capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the UnitedStates) by closing the open borders by 
< fences, turrets, dogs and most of all huge walls.  A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like 
< GermanY was divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany was divided. Since Berlin was 
< inside the Soviet part of Germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the three western countries 
< soon became known as WestBerlin.
< 
< So when EastGermany closed the western borders, it also literally enclosed WestBerlin within a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
< Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular cake in Germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war itself and all that.
< 
< In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts re-united and 
< became "GermanY" again.
< 
< But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[East Germany]]
------
History_of_Germany|983483112
1c1
< The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
------
East_Germany|983483222
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''History'''
> 
> After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
> 
> While soon the three areas controlled by the UnitedStates, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
> "Federal Republic Of Germany", the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
> It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
> country very soon until the only link to DemocracY was the part in its name.
> 
> EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from WestGermany (which became more and more democratic and 
> capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the UnitedStates) by closing the open borders by 
> fences, turrets, dogs and most of all huge walls.  A very interesting thing about the whole situation : Just like 
> GermanY was divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany was divided. Since Berlin was 
> inside the Soviet part of Germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the three western countries 
> soon became known as WestBerlin.
> 
> So when EastGermany closed the western borders, it also literally enclosed WestBerlin within a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
> Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular doughnut in Germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war itself and all that.
> 
> In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts re-united and 
> became "GermanY" again.
> 
> But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
East_Germany|983483233
18c18
< Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular doughnut in Germany, btw); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war itself and all that.
---
> Anyway, there is too much historical stuff to talk about, Kennedy visiting WestBerlin and saying "I am a Berliner!" (which is a popular doughnut in Germany); East and West Germany using WestBerlin as an outpost and ground for the Cold War, the cold war itself and all that.
------
RandomPage|983484994
1c1
< The RandomPage link is an optional link that appears in the tool bar at the top of every page on the WikiPedia.  You can turn this option on by editing the PreferenceS page.
---
> Sufism is a sipiritual dicipline which do not follow only one path but enables the freedom of mind in order to let the people to evolve. 
------
RandomPage|983485149
1c1
< Sufism is a sipiritual dicipline which do not follow only one path but enables the freedom of mind in order to let the people to evolve. 
---
> 
------
Psychology|983485355
3c3,4
< :[[Sigmund Freud]]
---
> :[[Sigmund Freud]]
> :[[Jung]]
------
Jung|983485389
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> iyi adamdi
------
Jung|983485420
1,2c1
< Describe the new page here.
< iyi adamdi
---
> iyi adamdi
------
Psychology|983485528
4d3
< :[[Jung]]
------
Statistical_Ensemble|983486136
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Model]]
> 
> Two kinds of '''statistical ensembles''' are introduced in every basic statistics course, the [[Statistical Population]] and the [[Statistical Sample]]. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Ensemble|983486185
3c3,5
< Two kinds of '''statistical ensembles''' are introduced in every basic statistics course, the [[Statistical Population]] and the [[Statistical Sample]]. 
---
> Two kinds of '''statistical ensembles''' are introduced in every basic statistics course, 
> *[[Statistical Population]] and 
> *[[Statistical Sample]]. 
------
NewTopics|983486402
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --Sufism
15a16,17
> 
> 
------
NewTopics|983486470
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --Sufism
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[Sufism]
------
Statistical_Population|983486487
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Ensemble]] -- [[Statistical Model]]
> 
> A '''statistical population''' is a set of units which engages our interest as a set. For example, if we were interested in generalizations about crows, then we would describe the set of crows that is of interest. Notice that if we choose a population like '''all crows''', we will be limited to observing crows that exist now or will exist in the future. Probably geography will also consitute a limitation in that our resources for studying crows are also limited.
> 
> 
------
NewTopics|983486501
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[Sufism]
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --:[Sufism]
------
NewTopics|983486546
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --:[Sufism]
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver
------
SandBox|983486801
32a33,34
> ----
> it is really a [[funny]] game
------
Funny|983486861
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something makes you to enjoy.
------
Funny|983486905
1c1
< Something makes you to enjoy.
---
> 
------
FrodoBaggins|983498777
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Frodo Baggins]]
------
Frodo_Baggins|983499273
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]] trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
> and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
------
JRRTolkieN|983499327
1,4c1
< JRRTolkieN (1892-1973).
< [J.R.R. stands for: John Ronald Reuel]
< 
< English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). 
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien]]
------
JRR_Tolkien|983499454
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> John Ronal Reuel Tolkien (1892-1973).
> 
> English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). 
------
Frodo_Baggins|983499627
1,3c1,2
< 
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]] trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
< and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
> and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
------
Frodo_Baggins|983499665
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'''s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
------
Frodo_Baggins|983499688
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'''s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
------
Middle_Earth|983499871
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien
> wrote extensively about the mitology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son.
------
Astronomer|983503042
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Scientist]] whose area of [[Research]] is [[Astronomy]].
------
AstroNomer|983503080
1,3c1
< ScientIst whose area of ReSearch is AstroNomy.
< 
< ----
---
> Funny capitalization of [[Astronomer]], referring to one of the contributors to [[Wikipedia]].
------
Animalia|983519126
7c7
< Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged off the same stock of monoflagellate protozoa that gave rise to the green plants, fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  Motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
---
> Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged from the opisthokont flagellates, who also gave rise to fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  In these groups motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
------
Physical_Therapy|983520140
54,56c54
< ----
< I think the requirements a PT has to meet is important. Particularly for the consumer. This is available at OOH.
<                 
---
> /Qualifications
------
Physical_Therapy/Qualifications|983520360
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All States require physical therapists to pass a licensure
> exam after graduating from an accredited physical therapist
> educational program before they can practice.
> 
> According to the American Physical Therapy Association,
> there were 189 accredited physical therapist programs in
> 1999. Of the accredited programs, 24 offered bachelor’s
> degrees, 157 offered master’s degrees, and 8 offered
> doctoral degrees. By 2002, all physical therapist programs
> seeking accreditation will be required to offer degrees at
> the master’s degree level and above, in accordance with the
> Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy
> Education.
> 
> Physical therapist programs start with basic science courses
> such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduce
> specialized courses such as biomechanics, neuroanatomy,
> human growth and development, manifestations of disease,
> examination techniques, and therapeutic procedures.
> Besides classroom and laboratory instruction, students
> receive supervised clinical experience. Individuals who
> have a 4-year degree in another field and want to be a
> physical therapist, should enroll in a master’s or a doctoral
> level physical therapist educational program.
> 
> Competition for entrance into physical therapist educational
> programs is very intense, so interested students should
> attain superior grades in high school and college, especially
> in science courses. Courses useful when applying to
> physical therapist educational programs include anatomy,
> biology, chemistry, social science, mathematics, and
> physics. Before granting admission, many professional
> education programs require experience as a volunteer in a
> physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic.
> 
> Physical therapists should have strong interpersonal skills
> to successfully educate patients about their physical therapy
> treatments. They should also be compassionate and posses
> a desire to help patients. Similar traits are also needed to
> interact with the patient’s family.
> 
> Physical therapists are expected to continue professional
> development by participating in continuing education
> courses and workshops. A number of States require
> continuing education to maintain licensure.
------
Physical_Therapy/Qualifications|983520425
5c5
< According to the American Physical Therapy Association,
---
> According to the [[American Physical Therapy Association]],
12,13c12,13
< Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy
< Education.
---
> [[Commission on Accreditation in Physical Therapy
> Education]].
16,18c16,18
< such as biology, chemistry, and physics, and then introduce
< specialized courses such as biomechanics, neuroanatomy,
< human growth and development, manifestations of disease,
---
> such as [[biology]], [[chemistry]], and [[physics]], and then introduce
> specialized courses such as [[biomechanics]], [[neuroanatomy]],
> [[human growth and development]], manifestations of disease,
------
RandomPage|983520528
1c1
< 
---
> If you set your preferences, you can choose to turn on the option for 'Random Page' in your surfing menu.  This is highly recommended, because it is so much fun.  Whenever you are in need of a fix of random information, just come here and click 'random page'.  No telling what you might learn about!
------
East_Germany|983520640
3c3
< After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, UnitedStates and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
---
> After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, [[United States]] and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
5c5
< While soon the three areas controlled by the UnitedStates, EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
---
> While soon the three areas controlled by the [[United States]], EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
11c11
< capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the UnitedStates) by closing the open borders by 
---
> capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the [[United States]]) by closing the open borders by 
23c23
< But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
---
> But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
East_Germany|983520739
3c3
< After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, [[United States]] and SovietUnion decided to divide GermanY in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former GermanY.
---
> After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, [[United States]] and SovietUnion decided to divide [[Germany]] in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former Germany.
6,7c6,7
< "Federal Republic Of Germany", the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "German Democratic Republic". 
< It was also called EastGermany.  EastGermany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
---
> "[[Federal Republic Of Germany]]", the Soviet part was made a own country too, the "[[German Democratic Republic]]". 
> It was also called East Germany.  East Germany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
13c13
< GermanY was divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany was divided. Since Berlin was 
---
> Germany was divided after the war, also Berlin, former capital of Germany was divided. Since Berlin was 
21c21
< became "GermanY" again.
---
> became "[[Germany]]" again.
23c23
< But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of GermanY (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
---
> But still there are lot of differences between the formerly "eastern" and "western" parts of [[Germany]] (both in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and such) and so we still talk about eastern and western Germany.
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983523159
11c11,12
< and another including all the subpages for people wanting to read it through.
---
> and another including ''inline'' all the subpages for people wanting to read it through
> without clicking.
18a20,21
> 
> ''This MeatBall article, MeatBall:Transclusion, is a good explanation of what I had in mind. --OprgaG''
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983523186
19c19
< See MeatBall:InternalTransclusion.
---
> See MeatBall:InternalTransClusion.
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983523208
19c19
< See MeatBall:InternalTransClusion.
---
> See MeatBall:InternalTransclusion.
21c21
< ''This MeatBall article, MeatBall:Transclusion, is a good explanation of what I had in mind. --OprgaG''
---
> ''This MeatBall article, MeatBall:TransClusion, is a good explanation of what I had in mind. --OprgaG''
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|983523335
21c21
< ''This MeatBall article, MeatBall:TransClusion, is a good explanation of what I had in mind. --OprgaG''
---
> ''This MeatBall article, is quite close to what I had in mind. --OprgaG''
------
Poseidon|983528168
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The god of the sea, known to the Romans as Neptune. When the world was divided in three, Zeus received the earth and sky, Hades the underworld and Poseidon the sea. 
> He is best known for his hatred of Odysseus, preventing his return home to Ithica for many years.
------
Hades|983529360
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> God of the underworld. Brother of Zeus, when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by Charon (pronounced Karon). Accross the river, the underworld was guarded by Cerebus, the three headed dog defeated by Herecles (or Hercules as the Romans refered to him). 
------
ChristianityTalk|983533734
15a16,19
> ----
> The contributions of religions to a moral code for humans is significant. The authoritarian self-promotion of some ''spokespersons'' as privileged interpreters of GoD is incredible, ie. ''not to be believed''. The solace provided to many victims of abuse can't justify the abuse done in the name of God.
> 
> -- DickBeldin
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983533931
5,9c5,6
< <pre>
<            x[1] + x[2] + ... + x[n]
<     mean = ------------------------    where [] encloses an index
<                        n
< </pre>
---
> 
> *mean = ( x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub> ) / n
------
Weighted_Mean|983534160
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Central Tendancy]]
> 
> Given a set of data and corresponding weights, the weighted mean is calculated as
> 
> *mean = ( w<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub>x<sub>n</sub> ) / ( w<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub> )
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Weighted_Mean|983534298
3c3
< Given a set of data and corresponding weights, the weighted mean is calculated as
---
> Given a set of data, X={x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>} and corresponding weights, W={w<sub>1</sub>, w<sub>2</sub>, ..., w<sub>n</sub>} the weighted mean is calculated as
8c8
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983534478
4a5,6
> We denote the set of data by X = {x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>}.
> 
------
Population|983534528
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistical Population]]
------
Statistical_Sample|983534799
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistical Ensemble]]
> 
> A '''sample''' is that part of a [[population]] which we actually observe. In normal scientific practice, we demand that it be selected in such a way as to avoid presenting a biased view of the population. If [[Statistical Inference]] is to be used, there must be a way of assigning know probabilities of selection to each sample, preferably equal. This method is called [[Simple Random Sampling]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistics|983534928
8c8
< :[[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
---
> :[[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Inference]]
------
Statistical_Inference|983535112
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> '''Statistical Inference''' is a collection of procedures designed to allow us to make reliable conclusions from data collected from [[Statistical Samples]] to real or hypothetical [Statistical Populations]]. It is the formal name of what we call [[Interpreting Statistical Data]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Interpreting_Statistical_Data|983535313
2a3,9
> The topics below are usually included in the area of '''Interpreting Statistical Data'''.
> #[[Statistical Assumptions]]
> #[[Likelihood Principle]]
> #[[Estimating Parameters]]
> #[[Testing Hypotheses]]
> #[[Revising Opinions]]
> 
------
Interpreting_Statistical_Data|983535354
3c3
< The topics below are usually included in the area of '''Interpreting Statistical Data'''.
---
> The topics below are usually included in the area of '''Interpreting Statistical Data'''. A more formal name for this topic is [[Statistical Inference]].
------
Statistical_Inference|983535394
3c3
< '''Statistical Inference''' is a collection of procedures designed to allow us to make reliable conclusions from data collected from [[Statistical Samples]] to real or hypothetical [Statistical Populations]]. It is the formal name of what we call [[Interpreting Statistical Data]].
---
> '''Statistical Inference''' is a collection of procedures designed to allow us to make reliable conclusions from data collected from [[Statistical Samples]] to real or hypothetical [[Statistical Populations]]. It is the formal name of what we call [[Interpreting Statistical Data]].
------
Statistical_Populations|983535614
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> We use the term '''Statistical Population''' to refer to any collection of ''Units'' (see [[Statistical Model]]), whether they are concrete objects or a complex conjection of circumstances, that has collective attributes. We presume that we want to use [[Empirical Research]] to learn more about the population.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Empirical_Research|983535879
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Empirical Research''' is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. The ''empirical researcher'' attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument (which may be as ''simple'' as the human eye) and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying them to known standards and documenting the results before applying them to unknown subjects.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Empirical_Research|983535946
1c1
< '''Empirical Research''' is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. The ''empirical researcher'' attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument (which may be as ''simple'' as the human eye) and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying them to known standards and documenting the results before applying them to unknown subjects.
---
> '''Empirical Research''' is any activity that uses direct or indirect observation as its test of reality. The ''empirical researcher'' attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument (which may be as ''simple'' as the human eye) and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objectts.
3c3
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Weighted_Mean|983540574
1c1
< back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Central Tendancy]]
---
> back to [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Central Tendency]]
------
WikiShouldOfferSimplifiedUseOfTables|983540898
50a51,52
> This should be added as a link to the group with "How to Start a Wiki page," How to Edit a Wiki Page," etc., and renamed "How to Add a Table". RoseParks----
> 
------
Physical_Therapy|983541221
54c54,56
< /Qualifications
---
> /Qualifications----
> 
> Note: When you get to OT and RT, you will see that there are many overlaps in these fields. For example, "Hand Therapy" can be PT or OT, actually based more on a particular medical facilities' resources. But, it does fit under both definitions.
------
ScienceFiction|983542386
22c22
< * ScienceFictionFilm
---
> * [[Science Fiction Film]]
------
Hades|983542532
1c1
< God of the underworld. Brother of Zeus, when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by Charon (pronounced Karon). Accross the river, the underworld was guarded by Cerebus, the three headed dog defeated by Herecles (or Hercules as the Romans refered to him). 
---
> God of the underworld. Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). Accross the river, the underworld was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him). 
------
Poseidon|983542628
1,2c1,2
< The god of the sea, known to the Romans as Neptune. When the world was divided in three, Zeus received the earth and sky, Hades the underworld and Poseidon the sea. 
< He is best known for his hatred of Odysseus, preventing his return home to Ithica for many years.
---
> The god of the sea, known to the Romans as [[Neptune]]. When the world was divided in three, [[Zeus]] received the earth and sky, [[Hades]] the underworld and [[Poseidon]] the sea. 
> He is best known for his hatred of [[Odysseus]], preventing his return home to Ithica for many years.
------
Astronomy|983550359
1c1
< Astronomy deals with the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Etimologically means "Measuring of Stars", but
---
> Astronomy deals with the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Etymologically means "Measuring of Stars", but
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Algeria|983555343
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In /SectioN152, we learn [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Algeria|983555364
1c1
< In /SectioN152, we learn [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]], we learn [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
------
ChristianityTalk|983555371
0a1,14
> '''Commentary:''' 
> Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines. Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstanding a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA. 
> In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today. 
> Why would that be? 
> A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems. Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness. One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth. Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence. Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed. 
> Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point. By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east. Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers. 
> As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match. The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment. So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme. Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death. Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter. 
> The remnants of this paradoxical dichotomy still color the world political landscape. It is the religious fundamentalists, those whom one would most quickly identify with moral uprightness, who are popularly seen as least charitable, least forgiving, and most rigid, vengeful, and intolerant. For instance, they support prohibitory laws on moral grounds, harsh punishments for moral crimes, war to defend religious ideals and holy places, and sanction the institutional killing of human beings, in keeping with scripture. The left, commonly the target of epithets regarding hedonism, license and moral decay, nonetheless turn out the be the champions of inclusion, equality, open government and common rights. 
> Go figure.  
> 
> The above is not to assign a value judgment one way or the other as to which type of system is "right" or even "best," but merely an observation from where I sit in the cheap seats...
> 
> AyeSpy
> ----
19c33,35
< -- DickBeldin
---
> -- DickBeldin
> ----
> I re-inserted the commentary at the top, as Bryce's comments are out of context without it...
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Andes|983555416
1c1
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in [[/Section141|Section141]].
3c3
< /SebastianDAnconia's first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes (/SectioN152).
---
> [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian dAnconia's]] first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes ([[/Section152|Section152]]).
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Argentina|983555467
1c1
< Argentina is the home of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
---
> Argentina is the home of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and the ancestral home of his family.  [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]] fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
4,5c4,5
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN152
---
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Andes|983555490
3c3
< [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian dAnconia's]] first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes ([[/Section152|Section152]]).
---
> [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia's]] first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes ([[/Section152|Section152]]).
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Arizona|983555512
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arizona is the home of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  
> 
> Arizona is mentioned in:
> 
>  /SectioN111
>  /SectioN146
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Arizona|983555543
1c1
< Arizona is the home of the /PhoenixDurango railroad.  
---
> Arizona is the home of the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad.  
5,6c5,6
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN146
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Buenos_Aries|983555581
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of the d'Anconia estate and the residence of [[/Franciscos Father|Francisco's Father]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/California|983555667
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has business concerns on California.  In [[/Section121|Section121]] [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] asks [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] to promise he won't be in California on the night of December 10.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chicago|983555708
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] in [[/Section112|Section112]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chile|983555730
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] owns extensive mining properties in Chile.
> 
> Chile is mentioned in: 
> 
>  - /SectioN132
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chile|983555748
5c5
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Cleveland|983555838
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cleveland is the home of [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]].
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] in [[/Section112|Section112]].  She phoned [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and placed the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].
> 
> [[/McNamara|McNamara's]] offices are located in Cleveland.
> 
> Cleveland is mentioned in:
>  - [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  - [[/Section133|Section133]]
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Colorado|983555919
1c1
< Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinental's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
---
> Colorado is the home of [[/Wyatt Oil|Wyatt Oil]] and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  It is served by [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] collapsing [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].
4,9c4,9
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN145
<  - /SectioN146
<  - /SectioN147
<  - /SectioN148
---
>  - [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  - [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  - [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  - [[/Section147|Section147]]
>  - [[/Section148|Section148]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Cheyenne_Wyoming|983555956
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cheyenne, Wyoming is the northern terminus of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section111|Section111]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/El_Paso_Texas|983556026
1c1,3
< El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was in El Paso at the time /MrsGilbertVail claimed she was with him in the /Andes.
---
> El Paso, Texas is the southern terminus of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].
> 
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was in El Paso at the time [[/Mrs. Gilbert Vail|Mrs. Gilbert Vail]] claimed he was with her in the [[/Andes|Andes]].
4,5c6,7
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Fifth_Avenue|983556082
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A street in downtown New York.  In [[/Section111|Section111]] [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hudson_River|983556129
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood home was located in the hills overlooking The Hudson River.  The home is also said to be five miles from [[/Rockdale|Rockdale]], though the actual Rockdale, NY is more like one hundred miles from the Hudson River.
> 
>  It is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rockdale|983556149
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
> 
> The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Louisiana|983556191
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] finds a wood-burning locomotive in Louisiana which is used to run trains on the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  This is mentioned in [[/Section132|Section132]].
------
Hades|983556229
1c1
< God of the underworld. Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). Accross the river, the underworld was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him). 
---
> God of the underworld.  Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the underworld as his kingdom.  His kingdom was entered by crossing the river [[Styx]], ferried across by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon).  The nether side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him).
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Madrid|983556531
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]] a young [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] mentions he spent a winter in Madrid with the Duke of Alba.
------
Hades|983556569
1c1,4
< God of the underworld.  Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the underworld as his kingdom.  His kingdom was entered by crossing the river [[Styx]], ferried across by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon).  The nether side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him).
---
> God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom. Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The nether side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him). 
> 
> Greek (ha'-dez) (Haides, haides, "not to be seen"): Hades, Greek originally Haidou, in genitive, "the house of Hades," then, as nominative, designation of the abode of the dead itself. (Compare Hebrew, She'Ol, "unseen," also the abode of the dead).  Originally, the underworld or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world.  The god, Hades, was named after the place, which predates him in Greek mythology.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mexico|983556629
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] and of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
> 
> Mexico is mentioned in:
>  - [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  - [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  - [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  - [[/Section143|Section143]]
>  - [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mexico_City|983556677
1c1
< /JulesMott is /TaggartTranscontinental's representative in Mexico City.
---
> [[/Jules Mott|Jules Mott]] is [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] representative in Mexico City.
4,5c4,5
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN143
---
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Middle_West|983556717
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]] is rumoured to have killed a state legislator from the Middle West.  Supposedly the legislator had sold short shares of Taggart's railroad, and was using his power in the state government to drive the railroad into bankruptcy.  This is mentioned in [[/Section132|Section132]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Minnesota|983556753
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Minnesota was the location of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] first job, working in the iron mines at age 14.  He continues to hold business concerns there.
> 
> Minnesota is mentioned in:
>  - [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Montana|983556869
1c1
< The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with /DAnconiaCopper.  
---
> The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with [[/dAnconia Copper|d'Anconia Copper]].  
3c3
< It is mentioned in  /SectioN152.
---
> It is mentioned in  [[/Section152|Section152]].
------
Psychology|983556921
3c3
< :[[Sigmund Freud]]
---
> :[[Sigmund Freud]] :[[Karl Jung]]
------
Hades|983556960
4c4,5
< 
---
> ----
> It seems we now have two competing entries, above.  I think the person who added the second paragraph should integrate it with the first somehow!
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Montana|983556992
1c1
< The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with [[/dAnconia Copper|d'Anconia Copper]].  
---
> The location of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] first job with [[/DAnconia Copper|d'Anconia Copper]].  
------
Atlas_Shrugged/dAnconia_Copper|983556995
1,4c1
< A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
< 
< D'Anconia Copper is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/DAnconia Copper]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_Jersey|983557056
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Jersey is the home of [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]].
> 
> New Jersey is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
------
RecentChanges|983560976
1,5c1,2
< JimboWales is being interviewed by [[Slashdot]], and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  I mention Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial
< surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.
< If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
< 
< ''I designed MeatBall:KeptPages with [[Slashdot]] in mind. You should survive. Where you might lose is not in the temporary gain in people, but in people hanging around longer. The culture shock might be too much. But then again, maybe not. You are already the fastest growing wiki. -- SunirShah''
---
> Looks like the SlashDot interview might not run until next week.
> I have no way of knowing, but they already published a different interview this morning, and it seems that they tend to publish one interview every Friday.
------
RecentChanges|983560996
1c1
< Looks like the SlashDot interview might not run until next week.
---
> Looks like the [[Slashdot]] interview might not run until next week.
------
Charlize_Theron|983561256
1c1
< Charlize Theron is a South African actress.  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in LosAngeles, [[California]].  She is dating StephanJenkins, lead singer for the band ThirdEyeBlind.
---
> Charlize Theron is a South African actress.  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  She is dating [[Stephan Jenkins]], lead singer for the band [[Third Eye Blind]].
3c3
< She is reputed to speak at least parts of 28 languages, but her first language is AfrikaansLanguage, and her second language is EnglishLanguage.
---
> She is reputed to speak at least parts of 28 languages, but her first language is [[Afrikaans Language]], and her second language is EnglishLanguage.
5c5
< She has appeared in such movies as TheCiderHouseRules, TheDevilsAdvocate, ReindeerGames, and TheLegendOfBaggerVance.
---
> She has appeared in such movies as [[The Cider House Rules]], [[The Devils Advocate]], [[Reindeer Games]], and [[The Legend Of Bagger Vance]].
------
Charlize_Theron/Filmography|983561375
3,16c3,16
< *2DaysInTheValley - 1996
< *ThatThingYouDo! - 1996
< *ChildrenOfTheCornIV - 1996
< *TrialAndError - 1997
< *TheDevilsAdvocate - 1997
< *HollywoodConfidential - 1997
< *Celebrity - 1998
< *MightyJoeYoung - 1998
< *TheAstronautsWife - 1999
< *TheCiderHouseRules - 1999
< *ReindeerGames - 2000
< *TheYards - 2000
< *MenOfHonor - 2000
< *TheLegendOfBaggerVance - 2000
---
> *[[2 Days In The Valley]] - 1996
> *[[That Thing You Do!]] - 1996
> *[[Children Of The Corn IV]] - 1996
> *[[Trial And Error]] - 1997
> *[[The Devils Advocate]] - 1997
> *[[Hollywood Confidential]] - 1997
> *[[Celebrity]] - 1998
> *[[Mighty Joe Young]] - 1998
> *[[The Astronauts Wife]] - 1999
> *[[The Cider House Rules]] - 1999
> *[[Reindeer Games]] - 2000
> *[[The Yards]] - 2000
> *[[Men Of Honor]] - 2000
> *[[The Legend Of Bagger Vance]] - 2000
------
Charlize_Theron/Filmography|983561418
17,20c17,20
< *WakinUpInReno - 2000
< *SweetNovember - 2001
< *TheCurseOfTheJadeScorpion - 2001
< *SweetHomeAlabama - 2001
---
> *[[Wakin Up In Reno]] - 2000
> *[[Sweet November]] - 2001
> *[[The Curse Of The Jade Scorpion]] - 2001
> *[[Sweet Home Alabama]] - 2001
------
History_of_Germany|983561748
3c3
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became France and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the First World War. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became France and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the First World War. 
7c7
< After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on Poland, after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers (Italy, Germany, Japan) were defeated by Allied forces (USA, France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union), and half of Europe lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
---
> After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on Poland, after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers (Italy, Germany, Japan) were defeated by Allied forces (USA, France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union), and half of Europe lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
------
Adolf_Hitler|983561774
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT AdolfHitler
------
AdolfHitler/Talk|983562353
1,3c1
< Hitler was responsible for the [[Holocaust]] and for [[World War II]].
< 
< :''He was the driving force but for sure he wasn't the only one responsible'' -- WojPob
---
> Why does [[Adolph Hitler]] redirect to AdolphHitler and not the other way around?
------
AdolfHitler/Talk|983562389
1c1
< Why does [[Adolph Hitler]] redirect to AdolphHitler and not the other way around?
---
> Why does [[Adolf_Hitler]] redirect to AdolfHitler and not the other way around?
------
Hades|983565817
1c1
< God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom. Brother of [[Zeus]], when the world was divided in three, received the Underworld as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The nether side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans refered to him). 
---
> Greek (ha'-dez) (Haides, haides, "not to be seen"): Hades, Greek, originally Haidou, in genitive, "the house of Hades," then, as nominative, designation of the abode of the dead. (Compare Hebrew, She'Ol, "unseen," also the abode of the dead). 
3,5c3
< Greek (ha'-dez) (Haides, haides, "not to be seen"): Hades, Greek originally Haidou, in genitive, "the house of Hades," then, as nominative, designation of the abode of the dead itself. (Compare Hebrew, She'Ol, "unseen," also the abode of the dead).  Originally, the underworld or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world.  The god, Hades, was named after the place, which predates him in Greek mythology.
< ----
< It seems we now have two competing entries, above.  I think the person who added the second paragraph should integrate it with the first somehow!
---
> Also, Hades, God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom of that name (which predates the god, Hades, in Greek mythology). Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, when the world was divided in three, he received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him). 
------
Protista|983566649
1c1
< The Kingdom Protista refers to all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few (eg kelp) are multicellular and grow to great size, but most are single-celled organisms of great complexity.
---
> The Kingdom Protista includes all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few forms are multicellular, ie the [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae) and [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae).  The vast majority, though, are single-celled and are typically only 0.01-0.5 mm in size, too small to be seen without a microscope.  Protists are ubiquitous throughout aqueous environments and the soil, commonly surviving dry periods in the form of ''cysts''; a few are important parasites.
3c3
< Traditionally protists have been divided into the protozoa, which were classed among the animals, the algae, which were classed among the plants, as well as a few forms that were classed among the fungi.  These were further divided on the basis of locomotion and pigmentation:
---
> Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellates]], [[Amoeboids]], [[Sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
5,12c5
< * [[Flagellates]] move by means of whip-like flagella, and represent most lines of protists.
< * [[Amoeboids]] move by means of deformation.
< * [[Sporozoans]] are entirely parasitic forms that don't move and get around via spores.
< * [[Ciliophora]] move by many short flagella (called cilia), and have a very complicated structure characterized by two distinct types of nucleus.
< * [[Algae]] include motile and non-motile forms that have chloroplasts, and so are capable of photosynthesis.
< * [[Oomycota]] and [[Slime molds]] include forms resembling fungi.
< 
< Most of these groups are overlapping and polyphyletic, but they are nonetheless a good place to start exploring protist diversity.  Protists are ubiquitous in aqueous environments, and though are generally too small to see with the naked eye (usually 10-500 microns), anyone with a light microscope can observe them.  A few are important parasites.
---
> More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.  Some of the major groups spanning the above types will go here eventually.
------
Hades|983567105
3c3,7
< Also, Hades, God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom of that name (which predates the god, Hades, in Greek mythology). Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, when the world was divided in three, he received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him). 
---
> Also, Hades, God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom of that name (which predates the god, Hades, in Greek mythology). Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, The three brothers Zeus, [[Poseidon]] and Hades drew lots for realms to rule.  Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him).  Hades obtained his eventual wife, [[Persephone]], through trickery.
> 
> Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living, and who were in no hurry to meet him, so they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening. So, A euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth." This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto." 
> 
> 
------
Hades|983567167
5c5
< Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living, and who were in no hurry to meet him, so they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening. So, A euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth." This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto." 
---
> Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living, and who were in no hurry to meet him, so they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening. So, A euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth." This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto." 
------
Painting|983567327
11,20c11,12
< [[Painters]]
<      [[Sofinisba Anguissola]]
<      [[Sue Coe]]
<      [[Lavinia Fontana]]
<      [[Artemesia Gentileschi]]
<      [[Frieda Kahlo]]
<      [[Chaim Soutine]]
<      [[Jerome Witkin]]
< ''No offense, but I haven't heard of any of the above painters.  Perhaps [[Michelangelo]] and [[Van Gogh]] and [[Giotto]] and [[Jan van Eyck]] might be considered worthy of this illustrious company?''
< [[Paintings Conservation]]
---
> 
> You can also see a list of artistic [[Painters]].
------
Painters|983567482
6a7
> :[[Jan van Eyck]]
8a10
> 
14a17,18
> :[[Sofinisba Anguissola]]
> 
45a50,56
>      [[Sue Coe]]
>      [[Lavinia Fontana]]
>      [[Artemesia Gentileschi]]
>      [[Frieda Kahlo]]
>      [[Chaim Soutine]]
> 
> 
49a61,63
> 
> (Is Rene Joseph an acknowledged master, whatever that means?
> If so, then we can move this listing into the main body.)
------
Hades|983567494
1,5c1
< Greek (ha'-dez) (Haides, haides, "not to be seen"): Hades, Greek, originally Haidou, in genitive, "the house of Hades," then, as nominative, designation of the abode of the dead. (Compare Hebrew, She'Ol, "unseen," also the abode of the dead). 
< 
< Also, Hades, God of the underworld, so named because he was given the unseen kingdom of that name (which predates the god, Hades, in Greek mythology). Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, The three brothers Zeus, [[Poseidon]] and Hades drew lots for realms to rule.  Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom. His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried accross by [[Charon]] (pronounced Karon). The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three headed dog defeated by [[Herecles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him).  Hades obtained his eventual wife, [[Persephone]], through trickery.
< 
< Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living, and who were in no hurry to meet him, so they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening. So, A euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth." This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto." 
---
> ''Hades'' (hay'-deez) means both the ancient Greek "hell" or abode of the dead, and also the god of that underworld (the Roman equivalent was [[Pluto]]).  ''Haidou'' was the genitive form of the word meaning "the house of Hades"; in its nominative form, ''Haides,'' it is a designation of the abode of the dead.  (A Hebrew word, ''She'Ol,'' for the abode of the dead also meant literally "unseen.")
6a3
> The god of the underworld, was named "Hades" because and after he was given the unseen kingdom of that name.  Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, the three brothers [[Zeus]], [[Poseidon]] and Hades drew lots for realms to rule.  Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom.  His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried across by [[Charon]] (kair'-on).  The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three-headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him).  Hades obtained his eventual wife, [[Persephone]], through trickery.
7a5
> Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reticent to swear oaths in his name.  To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening.  So, a euphemism was pressed into use.  Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth."  This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto."
------
Painters|983567510
60c60
< :[http://www.renejoseph.com|Rene Joseph]
---
> :[http://www.renejoseph.com Rene Joseph]
------
Hades|983567824
1c1
< ''Hades'' (hay'-deez) means both the ancient Greek "hell" or abode of the dead, and also the god of that underworld (the Roman equivalent was [[Pluto]]).  ''Haidou'' was the genitive form of the word meaning "the house of Hades"; in its nominative form, ''Haides,'' it is a designation of the abode of the dead.  (A Hebrew word, ''She'Ol,'' for the abode of the dead also meant literally "unseen.")
---
> ''Hades'' (hay'-deez) means both the ancient Greek "hell" or abode of the dead and the god of that underworld (the corresponding Roman god was [[Pluto]]).  ''Haidou'' was the genitive form of the word, meaning "the house of Hades"; its nominative form, ''Haides,'' was originally a designation of the abode of the dead.  (A Hebrew word, ''She'Ol,'' for the abode of the dead also meant literally "unseen.")
3c3
< The god of the underworld, was named "Hades" because and after he was given the unseen kingdom of that name.  Brother of [[Zeus]].  In Greek mythology, the three brothers [[Zeus]], [[Poseidon]] and Hades drew lots for realms to rule.  Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the Underworld, or the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world, as his kingdom.  His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried across by [[Charon]] (kair'-on).  The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three-headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him).  Hades obtained his eventual wife, [[Persephone]], through trickery.
---
> In Greek mythology, the god of the underworld was named "Hades" because and after he was given the unseen kingdom of that name.  The three brothers [[Zeus]], [[Poseidon]] and Hades drew lots for realms to rule.  Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the underworld, the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world.  His kingdom was entered by crossing the river Styx, ferried across by [[Charon]] (kair'-on).  The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerebus]], the three-headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (or [[Hercules]] as the Romans referred to him).  Hades obtained his eventual wife, [[Persephone]], through trickery.
5c5
< Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reticent to swear oaths in his name.  To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening.  So, a euphemism was pressed into use.  Since precious minerals come from under the earth (ruled by Hades) he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth."  This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto."
---
> Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reticent to swear oaths in his name.  To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening.  So, a euphemism was pressed into use.  Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the "underworld" ruled by Hades) he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as "Ploutos", Greek "wealth."  This explains the name given him by the Romans, "Pluto."
------
Altruism|983567855
1,4c1
< Altruism.  Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as [[Ayn Rand]] wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
< If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
< ----
< The foregoing view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
---
> Altruism.
6,23c3
< ''There's not a lot to explain; there is plain and simple empirical evidence of people doing altruistic acts.  People sometimes do generous things even if it makes them unhappy.  Of course you could say this is to get one's conscience to leave you alone, but since a conscience is darn close to an AltruismInstinct, that's pretty weak.''
< 
< ''People evolved to have empathy towards others and do altruistic things because that's good for everybody in general, though not always in specifics.  Whether altruism makes any sense, of course, is a different matter, though I wouldn't personally say it doesn't.''
< ----
< When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your criticism.
< ----
< You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  
< ----
< Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
< 
< By the way, you might not know that [[Ayn Rand]] herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
< 
< Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< How about this for a definition of altruism?  I think it needs some revision, but perhaps it is a useful start.
< 
< The view that one ought to be motivated solely or primarily by the interests of others rather than the interests of oneself.
< Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
---
> /Talk
------
Altruism/Talk|983567914
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Altruism doesn't really exist.  Even if you are doing something that is helpful or charitable for others, you will still reap the good of that action.  The idea that one should do things for altruistic purposes is wrong and can lead to the downfall of society, as [[Ayn Rand]] wrote about in AtlasShrugged.  
> If one portrays that they are doing something completely for others benefit and has no self interest, that is when you should question thier motives.  Why do they wish to appear so benevolent?  When one does for other people at least there are good feelings that arise and right there, the theory of altruism is defunct or never existed.
> ----
> The foregoing view is known as ''PsychologicalEgoism'' and is widely dismissed by philosophers, for reasons that somebody ought to explain. 
> 
> ''There's not a lot to explain; there is plain and simple empirical evidence of people doing altruistic acts.  People sometimes do generous things even if it makes them unhappy.  Of course you could say this is to get one's conscience to leave you alone, but since a conscience is darn close to an AltruismInstinct, that's pretty weak.''
> 
> ''People evolved to have empathy towards others and do altruistic things because that's good for everybody in general, though not always in specifics.  Whether altruism makes any sense, of course, is a different matter, though I wouldn't personally say it doesn't.''
> ----
> When you say '''widely dismissed''', do you have anything to actually back that up?  What philosophers have dismissed this idea?  I would like to know how you can substantiate your criticism.
> ----
> You can find it dismissed in any of many dozens of general philosophy textbooks as well as books about ethics.  Here is just [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/egoism.htm one example].  It is hackneyed, among professional philosophers, to say that PsychologicalEgoism is untenable.  By the way, in saying that it has been dismissed, I don't pretend to be making a ''criticism''--just pointing out a fact.  
> ----
> Actually, I was asking that someone else take the time to make the ''criticism'' plain.
> 
> By the way, you might not know that [[Ayn Rand]] herself rejected PsychologicalEgoism very firmly, as a matter of fact.  (Not that that's an argument!)
> 
> Also, I'd say that this discussion should probably be removed to the PsychologicalEgoism page, because it presents that view, rather than discussing altruism itself.  That's just my opinion, I'll leave it up to you. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> How about this for a definition of altruism?  I think it needs some revision, but perhaps it is a useful start.
> 
> The view that one ought to be motivated solely or primarily by the interests of others rather than the interests of oneself.
> Altruism is then viewed as a conclusion, rather than a foundation or argument -- presumably some meta-ethical argument would be needed in order to explain why we ought to be altruistic. --JimboWales
------
Sarcodina|983568948
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Sarcodina include the amoeboid protozoa.  These are distinguished by the presence of pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
> 
> The main groups of protists with axopods are:
> :[[Actinophryida]]
> :[[Centrohelida]]
> :[[Desmothoracida]]
> :[[Gymnosphaerida]]
> :[[Acantharea]]
> :[[Polycystinea]]
> :[[Phaeodarea]]
> The last three of these are collectively referred to as the [[Radiolaria]], and are typically marine forms with intricate mineral skeletons.  The others, collectively referred to as the [[Heliozoa]], are typically freshwater forms, usually sphere-shaped and covered in ray-like axopods that gather food (hence the name, ''sun animal'').
> 
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplosmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered tests.
------
AmoeboidTaxa|983568998
1,23c1
< Amoeboids include a wide variety of completely unrelated free-living and parasitic groups.  Amoebae move and feed via cellular projections called pseudopods, which are divided into rhizopods (unsupported) and actinopods (supported by rigid microtubules).
< 
< Lobose amoebae are forms with broad, blunt rhizopods.  They may either have a single pseudopod at the front or many branching outwards.  They move by flowing into the pseudopod and feed by physically engulfing other objects, trapping them in vacuoles.  Forms include:
< 
< * GenusPelomyxa, the giant amoeba (up to 1 mm!)
< * TaxonRamicristates, including most of the familiar amoebae
< * TaxonEntamoebae, various parasitic amoebae
< 
< Filose amoebae include forms with fine, branching rhizopods.  TaxonGranuloreticulosa has members with rhizopods that form a network, and include the well-known shelled Foraminifera.
< 
< The actinopod amoebae are divided into the Radiolaria, marine mostly shelled forms, and Heliozoa, which are mostly-fresh water and naked.  Pseudopods take the form of rigid spikes that collect food and aid in buoyancy.  Some heliozoans move by rolling along the substrate.  Radiolarian forms include:
< 
< * TaxonPhaeodarea
< * TaxonPolycystinea
< * TaxonAcantharea
< 
< and heliozoan forms include:
< 
< * TaxonActinophryida
< * TaxonCentrohelida
< 
< Also worth mentioning is the TaxonXenophyophorea, which includes various giant marine forms.  All of these are classified under the KingdomProtista.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sarcodina]]
------
Protista|983569090
3c3
< Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellates]], [[Amoeboids]], [[Sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
---
> Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Mastigophora|flagellates]], [[Sarcodina|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
5c5
< More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.  Some of the major groups spanning the above types will go here eventually.
---
> More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.
------
Sarcodina|983569634
1c1
< The Sarcodina include the amoeboid protozoa.  These are distinguished by the presence of pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
---
> The Sarcodina include [[Protista]] that form pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
13c13,21
< Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplosmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered tests.
---
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplosmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered tests.
> 
> Lobose pseudopods are blunt and filose pseudopods are tapering, occasionally branching, but both arise from the same sort of underlying pressure system.  These are the kinds of pseudopods familiar to us from [[Amoeba]] and its kin.  The main groups of such protists are:
> :[[Ramicristates]] - most lobose and filose forms, including most slime mold groups
> :[[Pelobionta]] - giant amoebae & kin
> :[[Entamoebae]] - mostly parasitic forms
> :[[Heterolobosea]] - amoeboflagellates, including acrasid slime molds
> 
> There is also a strange group of giant marine protists, the [[Xenophyophorea]], that are clearly amoeboid but do not fit nicely into any of these categories.
------
Altruism|983569868
1c1
< Altruism.
---
> ''Altruism'' refers to both a practice or habit (in the view of many, a virtue) as well as a philosophical doctrine.
3c3,11
< /Talk
---
> Altruism the practice is, briefly, charity, or being particularly helpful to other people with little view to being rewarded for one's efforts.
> 
> Altruism the doctrine is the view that one's actions ought, generally, to further the interests or good of other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests.  The word was coined by Auguste [[Compte]], the French founder of [[positivism]].  Altruism is distinguished from ''[[ethical egoism]],'' according to which one's actions ought to further one's own interests.
> 
> Like all broad philosophical [[isms]], what altruism entails is not at all clear.  In developing a precise version of altruism, one would have to decide exactly what "interests" or "goods" are, explain what "furthering" these interests includes and excludes, and distinguish between one's own and others' interests (this is not always clear).
> 
> According to ''[[psychological egoism]],'' while one can be outwardly altruistic in the practice sense, one cannot have altruistic ''motivations.''  That is, while one might very well spend one's life helping others, one's motive for doing so is always the furthering of one's own interests (a purported altruist might derive great pleasure, for example, from helping others, and that pleasure is the motive for the helping).
> 
> /Talk
------
PsychologicalEgoism|983570091
1c1,3
< The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of AlTruism.
---
> The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of [[altruism]].
> 
> Psychological egoism should be contrasted well with ''[[ethical egoism]], which is the view that we always ''ought'' to be motivated by [[self-interest]].
3,5c5
< PsychologicalEgoism can be contrasted well with EthicalEgoism, which is the view that we always _ought_ to be motivated by SelfInterest.
< ----
< Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
---
> /Talk
------
Earth|983570161
0a1,4
> Mostly harmless.
> 
> ----
> 
7c11
< The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports life - see [[Biology]] - including intelligent species such as [[Humans]] and almost certainly [[Apes]], [[Dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
---
> The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports life - see [[Biology]] - including intelligent species such as [[Humans]] and almost certainly [[Apes]], [[Dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
------
PsychologicalEgoism/Talk|983570324
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
------
PsychologicalEgoism|983570560
1,5c1
< The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of [[altruism]].
< 
< Psychological egoism should be contrasted well with ''[[ethical egoism]], which is the view that we always ''ought'' to be motivated by [[self-interest]].
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Psychological egoism]]
------
Psychological_egoism|983570673
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The view that we are always motivated by self-interest, even in seeming acts of [[altruism]].
> 
> Psychological egoism should be contrasted well with ''[[ethical egoism]], which is the view that we always ''ought'' to be motivated by [[self-interest]].
> ----
> /Talk
------
PsychologicalEgoism/Talk|983570702
1c1
< Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Psychological egoism/Talk]]
------
Psychological_egoism/Talk|983570800
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whether one ought or ought not be motivated by self interest may be dependent on how well one takes into account the "big picture."  The "big picture" tends to include consciousness of factors which interconnect the survival potential of all people and ultimately all living things, which further depend for their survival on the health of the planet as a whole.  So- if one is able to envision man as dependent on the success of other life forms and life forms in general as dependent on the health of the planet, then, at least within the limited sphere of the earth, one's self-interest will always be served by doing the best for the most.
------
Psychological_egoism|983570830
3c3
< Psychological egoism should be contrasted well with ''[[ethical egoism]], which is the view that we always ''ought'' to be motivated by [[self-interest]].
---
> Psychological egoism should be contrasted well with ''[[ethical egoism]],'' which is the view that we always ''ought'' to be motivated by [[self-interest]].
5c5
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Ramicristates|983571122
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[Sarcodina|amoeboid protists]] that are characterized by the presence of branching cristae within the mitochondria.  The vast majority of forms with lobose and filose pseudopods belong here.
> 
> The best-known member is ''[[Amoeba]]'' itself, found on decaying vegetation in freshwater streams and ponds.  A number of lobose pseudopods extend from the front of the creature, fusing around food to trap it in internal vacuoles and spreading out to pull the creature along the substrate.  The outer layer of cytoplasm, the ectoplasm, streams back from the pseudopods so acts like a tank-tread.  A single contractile vacuole expels water to maintain the osmotic balance.
> 
> A number of amoebae have protective shells.  These may be formed by collecting and cementing together particles of sand, as in ''[[Difflugia]]'', it may be secreted, as in ''[[Arcella]]'', or it may be formed out of individually manufactured plates, as in ''[[Euglypha]]''.
> 
> The true slime molds ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate plasmodium, which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked sporangia develop and release haploid swarmers that go through an amoeboid and then a biflagellate stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
> 
> Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a slug.  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually - it will come apart if shaken - but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular slime molds, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
------
Ethical_egoism|983571545
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Ethical egoism'' is the view that one ''ought'' to be motivated by one's own self-interest.  This can be contrasted with [[altruism]] and [[psychological egoism]].
> 
> There have been only a few ethical egoists among professional philosophers, but in the wake of [[Ayn Rand]]'s nonfiction, there have been a number of attempts to make ethical egoism widely respectable.  The consensus among professional philosophers seems to be that the view is implausible to begin with and that those who advocate it seriously (as "enlightened egoists") do so only at the expense of redefining what [[self-interest]] amounts to (including, as it is made to do, the interests of some other people or all other people at some times).
> 
> As [FriedrichNietzsche|Nietzsche]] is famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks (such as [[Aristotle]], for whom pride was a virtue) did not associate [[morality]] with [[altruism]] in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done.  Consequently, it is sometimes said that Greeks like Aristotle were ethical egoists.  It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that the issue of altruism vs. egoism simply did not arise for them in the way that it does for us, or some of us.  Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties ourselves as well as to other people (e.g., friends) and the ''polis'' as a whole.
> ----
> /Talk
------
Ethical_egoism|983571970
5c5
< As [FriedrichNietzsche|Nietzsche]] is famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks (such as [[Aristotle]], for whom pride was a virtue) did not associate [[morality]] with [[altruism]] in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done.  Consequently, it is sometimes said that Greeks like Aristotle were ethical egoists.  It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that the issue of altruism vs. egoism simply did not arise for them in the way that it does for us, or some of us.  Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties ourselves as well as to other people (e.g., friends) and the ''polis'' as a whole.
---
> As [FriedrichNietzsche|Nietzsche]] (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and [[Alasdair Macintyre]] (in ''After Virtue'') are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate [[morality]] with [[altruism]] in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done.  Consequently, it is sometimes said that Greeks like [[Aristotle]] (for whom pride was a virtue) were ethical egoists.  It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that the issue of altruism vs. egoism simply did not arise for them in the way that it does for us, or for some of us.  Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties ourselves as well as to other people (e.g., friends) and the ''polis'' as a whole.
------
Ramicristates|983572319
1c1
< The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[Sarcodina|amoeboid protists]] that are characterized by the presence of branching cristae within the mitochondria.  The vast majority of forms with lobose and filose pseudopods belong here.
---
> The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[Sarcodina|amoeboid protists]] that are characterized by the presence of branching [[cristae]] within the [[mitochondria]].  The vast majority of forms with [[Pseudopods/Lobose|lobose]] and [[Pseudopods/Filose|filose]] [[pseudopods]] belong here.
3c3
< The best-known member is ''[[Amoeba]]'' itself, found on decaying vegetation in freshwater streams and ponds.  A number of lobose pseudopods extend from the front of the creature, fusing around food to trap it in internal vacuoles and spreading out to pull the creature along the substrate.  The outer layer of cytoplasm, the ectoplasm, streams back from the pseudopods so acts like a tank-tread.  A single contractile vacuole expels water to maintain the osmotic balance.
---
> The best-known member is ''[[Amoeba]]'' itself, found on decaying vegetation in freshwater streams and ponds.  A number of lobose pseudopods extend from the front of the creature, fusing around food to trap it in internal [[vacuoles]] and spreading out to pull the creature along the [[substrate]].  The outer layer of [[cytoplasm]], the [[ectoplasm]], streams back from the pseudopods so acts like a tank-tread.  A single [[contractile]] vacuole expels water to maintain the [[osmotic balance]].
7c7
< The true slime molds ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate plasmodium, which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked sporangia develop and release haploid swarmers that go through an amoeboid and then a biflagellate stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
---
> The true slime molds ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate [[plasmodium]], which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] [[swarmers]] that go through an [[ameboid stage|amoeboid]] and then a [[biflagellate stage|biflagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
9c9
< Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a slug.  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually - it will come apart if shaken - but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular slime molds, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
---
> Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a [[slug]].  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually--it will come apart if shaken--but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular [[slime mold]]s, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
------
Ethical_egoism|983572361
5c5
< As [FriedrichNietzsche|Nietzsche]] (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and [[Alasdair Macintyre]] (in ''After Virtue'') are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate [[morality]] with [[altruism]] in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done.  Consequently, it is sometimes said that Greeks like [[Aristotle]] (for whom pride was a virtue) were ethical egoists.  It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that the issue of altruism vs. egoism simply did not arise for them in the way that it does for us, or for some of us.  Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties ourselves as well as to other people (e.g., friends) and the ''polis'' as a whole.
---
> As [[FriedrichNietzsche|Nietzsche]] (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and [[Alasdair Macintyre]] (in ''After Virtue'') are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate [[morality]] with [[altruism]] in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done.  Consequently, it is sometimes said that Greeks like [[Aristotle]] (for whom pride was a virtue) were ethical egoists.  It would be more accurate, perhaps, to say that the issue of altruism vs. egoism simply did not arise for them in the way that it does for us, or for some of us.  Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties ourselves as well as to other people (e.g., friends) and the ''polis'' as a whole.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Earth|983572592
1c1
< Mostly harmless.
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our solar system whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace.
3,7c3
< ----
< 
< The third [[Planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our solar system whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[Oceans]] and seven [[Continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[Atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace.
< 
< The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|Terrestrial Planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[Magnetic Field]], and a sold inner core.
---
> The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|terrestrial planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[magnetic field]], and a sold inner core.
11c7
< The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports life - see [[Biology]] - including intelligent species such as [[Humans]] and almost certainly [[Apes]], [[Dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
---
> The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports [[Biology|life]], including intelligent species such as [[humans]] and to a lesser extent [[apes]], [[dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
------
FriedrichNietzsche|983572644
3c3
< Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or altruism; his vigorous attacks on Christianity; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
---
> Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or [[altruism]]; his vigorous attacks on Christianity; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
------
Larry_Sanger|983573496
44a45,46
> ----
> On the jargon you wikied on [[Ramicristates]] - this is a good thing, and I'll probably end up filling some of it in.  I am wondering about what to do with words defined in sentence, eg forms a plasmodium or forms a slug, where the definition of the term is pretty much "what it forms".  Also for terms like lobose, which doesn't really mean anything outside of the context of pseudopod.
------
Larry_Sanger|983573767
46c46
< On the jargon you wikied on [[Ramicristates]] - this is a good thing, and I'll probably end up filling some of it in.  I am wondering about what to do with words defined in sentence, eg forms a plasmodium or forms a slug, where the definition of the term is pretty much "what it forms".  Also for terms like lobose, which doesn't really mean anything outside of the context of pseudopod.
---
> On the jargon you wikied on [[Ramicristates]] - this is a good thing, and I'll probably end up filling some of it in.  I am wondering about what to do with words defined in sentence, eg forms a plasmodium or forms a slug, where the definition of the term is pretty much "what it forms".  Also for terms like lobose, which doesn't really mean anything outside of the context of pseudopod, and amoeboid, which is pretty much being used as a synonym for [[Sarcodina]].
------
Middle_Earth|983574195
1,2c1
< Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien
< wrote extensively about the mitology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son.
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[The Silmarillion]].
------
Larry_Sanger|983575279
46a47,48
> ----
> Well, it doesn't matter that much to me :-), but just from the point of view of a nonscientist reading the article, I'd be confused by terms like "plasmodium," so if I want to understand it I'll either have to look the word up or have you explain it to me on the wiki!  Some of the entries are bound to be very brief.  Nothing wrong with that.  Re: "slug," of course that means something else in addition to what you mean by it.
------
Sarcodina|983577198
1c1
< The Sarcodina include [[Protista]] that form pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
---
> The Sarcodina, generally referred to as amoeboids, include [[Protista]] that form pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
------
Ameboid_stage|983577358
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cell form characterized by the presence of [[Pseudopods]], temporary cell projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  The amoeboid protists are referred to as the [[Sarcodina]], although this is by no means a monophyletic group.  Amoeboid cells are also found inside multicellular organisms - for instance, white blood cells are amoeboid.
------
Ameboid_stage|983577416
1c1
< A cell form characterized by the presence of [[Pseudopods]], temporary cell projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  The amoeboid protists are referred to as the [[Sarcodina]], although this is by no means a monophyletic group.  Amoeboid cells are also found inside multicellular organisms - for instance, white blood cells are amoeboid.
---
> 
------
Ameboid_stage|983577436
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]]
------
Amoeboid|983577449
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cell form characterized by the presence of [[Pseudopods]], temporary cell projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  The amoeboid protists are referred to as the [[Sarcodina]], although this is by no means a monophyletic group.  Amoeboid cells are also found inside multicellular organisms - for instance, white blood cells are amoeboid.
------
Pseudopods|983577566
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pseudopods are cellular projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  Cells that have pseudopods are generally referred to as [[Amoeboid]]s; see [[Sarcodina]] for the various kinds.
------
Sarcodina|983577834
1c1
< The Sarcodina, generally referred to as amoeboids, include [[Protista]] that form pseudopods, temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different amoeboid body forms have evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with lobose, filose, and reticulose pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with axopods, which are rigid projections around microtubules.
---
> The Sarcodina comprise those [[Protista]] that form [[pseudopods]], temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different [[amoeboid]] body forms have each evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with ''lobose'', ''filose'', and ''reticulose'' pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with ''axopods'', which are rigid projections around [[microtubules]].
13c13
< Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplosmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered tests.
---
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
------
Sarcodina|983577866
15c15
< Lobose pseudopods are blunt and filose pseudopods are tapering, occasionally branching, but both arise from the same sort of underlying pressure system.  These are the kinds of pseudopods familiar to us from [[Amoeba]] and its kin.  The main groups of such protists are:
---
> Lobose pseudopods are blunt and filose pseudopods are tapering, occasionally branching, but both arise from the same sort of underlying pressure system.  These are the kinds of pseudopods familiar to us from ''[[Amoeba]]'' and its kin.  The main groups of such protists are:
------
Flagellate|983578084
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cell form characterized by the presence of one or more [[flagella]], whip-like projections that are used primarily for locomotion.  The flagellate protists are referred to as the [[Mastigophora]], though this is by no means a monophyletic group; in fact the first [[eukaryotes]] may have been flagellates.  Flagellate cells also found in multicellular groups, especially among [[gametes]].
------
Sarcodina|983578159
1,21c1
< The Sarcodina comprise those [[Protista]] that form [[pseudopods]], temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  The different [[amoeboid]] body forms have each evolved a number of times, and come in four main groups: those with ''lobose'', ''filose'', and ''reticulose'' pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with ''axopods'', which are rigid projections around [[microtubules]].
< 
< The main groups of protists with axopods are:
< :[[Actinophryida]]
< :[[Centrohelida]]
< :[[Desmothoracida]]
< :[[Gymnosphaerida]]
< :[[Acantharea]]
< :[[Polycystinea]]
< :[[Phaeodarea]]
< The last three of these are collectively referred to as the [[Radiolaria]], and are typically marine forms with intricate mineral skeletons.  The others, collectively referred to as the [[Heliozoa]], are typically freshwater forms, usually sphere-shaped and covered in ray-like axopods that gather food (hence the name, ''sun animal'').
< 
< Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
< 
< Lobose pseudopods are blunt and filose pseudopods are tapering, occasionally branching, but both arise from the same sort of underlying pressure system.  These are the kinds of pseudopods familiar to us from ''[[Amoeba]]'' and its kin.  The main groups of such protists are:
< :[[Ramicristates]] - most lobose and filose forms, including most slime mold groups
< :[[Pelobionta]] - giant amoebae & kin
< :[[Entamoebae]] - mostly parasitic forms
< :[[Heterolobosea]] - amoeboflagellates, including acrasid slime molds
< 
< There is also a strange group of giant marine protists, the [[Xenophyophorea]], that are clearly amoeboid but do not fit nicely into any of these categories.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|983578185
9c9,11
< *[[How does one edit a page]]?
---
> *[[How does one edit a page]]?
> 
> look look i edited this page!
------
Amoeboid|983578297
1c1,22
< A cell form characterized by the presence of [[Pseudopods]], temporary cell projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  The amoeboid protists are referred to as the [[Sarcodina]], although this is by no means a monophyletic group.  Amoeboid cells are also found inside multicellular organisms - for instance, white blood cells are amoeboid.
---
> The amoeboids comprise those [[Protista]] that form [[pseudopods]], temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Sarcodina'', but the different sorts of amoeboid forms have each evolved a number of times.  These come in four main groups: those with ''lobose'', ''filose'', and ''reticulose'' pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with ''axopods'', which are rigid projections around [[microtubules]].
> 
> The main groups of protists with axopods are:
> :[[Actinophryida]]
> :[[Centrohelida]]
> :[[Desmothoracida]]
> :[[Gymnosphaerida]]
> :[[Acantharea]]
> :[[Polycystinea]]
> :[[Phaeodarea]]
> The last three of these are collectively referred to as the [[Radiolaria]], and are typically marine forms with intricate mineral skeletons.  The others, collectively referred to as the [[Heliozoa]], are typically freshwater forms, usually sphere-shaped and covered in ray-like axopods that gather food (hence the name, ''sun animal'').
> 
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
> 
> Lobose pseudopods are blunt and filose pseudopods are tapering, occasionally branching, but both arise from the same sort of underlying pressure system.  These are the kinds of pseudopods familiar to us from ''[[Amoeba]]'' and its kin.  The main groups of such protists are:
> :[[Ramicristates]] - most lobose and filose forms, including most slime mold groups
> :[[Pelobionta]] - giant amoebae & kin
> :[[Entamoebae]] - mostly parasitic forms
> :[[Heterolobosea]] - amoeboflagellates, including acrasid slime molds
> 
> There is also a strange group of giant marine protists, the [[Xenophyophorea]], that are clearly amoeboid but do not fit nicely into any of these categories.  Amoeboid cells also occur in a few multicellular organisms, e.g. white blood cells have a lobose amoeboid form.
> 
------
Protista|983578362
3c3
< Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Mastigophora|flagellates]], [[Sarcodina|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
---
> Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
5c5
< More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.
---
> More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.
------
Protista|983578381
5c5
< More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the mitochondria and in particular the cristae within them.
---
> More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the [[mitochondria]] and in particular the [[cristae]] within them.
------
Ramicristates|983578542
1c1
< The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[Sarcodina|amoeboid protists]] that are characterized by the presence of branching [[cristae]] within the [[mitochondria]].  The vast majority of forms with [[Pseudopods/Lobose|lobose]] and [[Pseudopods/Filose|filose]] [[pseudopods]] belong here.
---
> The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[amoeboid]] protists that are characterized by the presence of branching [[cristae]] within the [[mitochondria]].  The vast majority of forms with [[Pseudopods/Lobose|lobose]] and [[Pseudopods/Filose|filose]] [[pseudopods]] belong here.
3c3
< The best-known member is ''[[Amoeba]]'' itself, found on decaying vegetation in freshwater streams and ponds.  A number of lobose pseudopods extend from the front of the creature, fusing around food to trap it in internal [[vacuoles]] and spreading out to pull the creature along the [[substrate]].  The outer layer of [[cytoplasm]], the [[ectoplasm]], streams back from the pseudopods so acts like a tank-tread.  A single [[contractile]] vacuole expels water to maintain the [[osmotic balance]].
---
> The best-known member is ''[[Amoeba]]'' itself, found on decaying vegetation in freshwater streams and ponds.  A number of lobose pseudopods extend from the front of the creature, fusing around food to trap it in internal [[vacuole|vacuoles]] and spreading out to pull the creature along the [[substrate]].  The outer layer of [[cytoplasm]], the [[ectoplasm]], streams back from the pseudopods so acts like a tank-tread.  A single contractile vacuole expels water to maintain the [[osmotic balance]].
7c7
< The true slime molds ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate [[plasmodium]], which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] [[swarmers]] that go through an [[ameboid stage|amoeboid]] and then a [[biflagellate stage|biflagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
---
> The true [[slime mold]]s ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate ''plasmodium'', which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] ''swarmers'' that go through an [[ameboid stage|amoeboid]] and then a bi[[flagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
9c9
< Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a [[slug]].  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually--it will come apart if shaken--but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular [[slime mold]]s, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
---
> Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a ''slug''.  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually--it will come apart if shaken--but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular [[slime mold]]s, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
------
Slime_mold|983578781
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Generic term for [[Amoeboid]]s of macroscopic size, that typically reproduce by producing [[sporangia]] like fungi do.  Slime molds are found in these groups: [[Myxomycetes]], [[Dictyosteliida]], [[Protostelida]], [[Acrasida]]), [[Labyrthinulida]], and [[Plasmodiophora]].
------
Pseudopods|983578873
1c1
< Pseudopods are cellular projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  Cells that have pseudopods are generally referred to as [[Amoeboid]]s; see [[Sarcodina]] for the various kinds.
---
> Pseudopods are cellular projections involved in locomotion and feeding.  Cells that have pseudopods are generally referred to as [[Amoeboid]], and most of the discussion on them is there.  Maybe someday some technical mechanics of pseudopods can go here.
------
Mitochondria|983579192
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mitochondria are [[organelle]]s present in most eukaryotic cells that are responsible for electron transport, ie the utilization of oxygen in burning food.  They contain DNA and are generally considered to be highly modified symbiotic bacteria, possibly related to the purple bacteria, and are believed to have been incorporated only once - compare [[chloroplasts]].  Each mitochondrion each have two membranes, the outer one corresponding roughly to a [[vacuole]], and the inner one (of different composition) corresponding to the ancestral bacterial membrane.  In order to increase surface area the inner membrane is full of folds called cristae.  Mitochondria replicate by fission.
------
Ramicristates|983579261
1c1
< The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[amoeboid]] protists that are characterized by the presence of branching [[cristae]] within the [[mitochondria]].  The vast majority of forms with [[Pseudopods/Lobose|lobose]] and [[Pseudopods/Filose|filose]] [[pseudopods]] belong here.
---
> The Ramicristates are a diverse group of [[amoeboid]] protists that are characterized by the presence of branching tubular [[cristae]] within the [[mitochondria]].  The vast majority of forms with [[Pseudopods/Lobose|lobose]] and [[Pseudopods/Filose|filose]] [[pseudopods]] belong here.
------
Ramicristates|983579304
7c7
< The true [[slime mold]]s ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate ''plasmodium'', which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] ''swarmers'' that go through an [[ameboid stage|amoeboid]] and then a bi[[flagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
---
> The true [[slime mold]]s ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate ''plasmodium'', which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] ''swarmers'' that go through an [[amoeboid]] and then a bi[[flagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
------
Vacuole|983579484
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vacuoles are [[organelle]]s found in eukaryotic cells that consist simply of a membrane bound bubble.  There are various different types of vacuoles, used for different things.  Most notable are food vacuoles, which contain ingested material prior to digestion, lysozomes, which contain enzymes, and contractile vacuoles, which collect water from within the cell and expel it.
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983579674
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The thoery of evolution suggests that any species has the ability to better itself, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction twards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.
> However, these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual.
> The concept of survival of the fittest is backed up by the evidence of fossils that show the gradual changes of species and even adaptation to a different habitat (Such as whales that are mammals yet have chosen to go back into the ocean.)
> Charles Darwin has suggested the idea, and the concept has been rejected for many years as a result of the church's opposition (The theory contradicts the bible) however, it is very much accepted nowadays.
------
Neuron|983579941
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The basic cells of the nervous systems of metazoan animals, whose job is to transmit and process signals.  Neurons occur both in [[nerves]] and the [[brain]].  The former are mostly for bringing sensory information in and controlling bodily functions; sometimes nerves are hooked up to elicit a response on their own, called a ''reflex'', but more often reactions are decided in the brain.
> 
> An individual neuron has a sort-of-[[amoeboid]] cell body, from which extends a long (potentially several metres) projection called the axon, and numerous shorter protoplasmic branches called dendrites.  [[Hormones]] called neurotransmitters are received on the dendrites and affect the voltage of the cell, normally around -50 mV thanks to the ion pump.  When it reaches a certain threshold level, there is a dramatic change in the ion pump that causes a electric pulse to travel along the axon.  When it reaches the terminals there, it stimulates them to release other neurotransmitters, which are either applied to another neuron or to some kind of [[muscle]].
------
NeuroN|983579957
1,3c1
< The basic cells of the nervous systems of animals, whose job is to transmit and process signals.  Neurons occur both in nerves and the brain.  The former are mostly for bringing sensory information in and controlling bodily functions; sometimes nerves are hooked up to elicit a response on their own, called a ''reflex'', but more often reactions are decided in the brain.
< 
< An individual neuron has a sort-of-amoeboid cell body, from which extends a long (potentially several metres) projection called the axon, and numerous shorter protoplasmic branches called dendrites.  Hormones called neurotransmitters are received on the dendrites and affect the voltage of the cell, normally around -50 mV thanks to the ion pump.  When it reaches a certain threshold level, there is a dramatic change in the ion pump that causes a electric pulse to travel along the axon.  When it reaches the terminals there, it stimulates them to release other neurotransmitters, which are either applied to another neuron or to some kind of muscle.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Neuron]]
------
Psychology|983580044
3c3,4
< :[[Sigmund Freud]] :[[Karl Jung]]
---
> :[[Sigmund Freud]] 
> :[[Karl Jung]]
------
Adolf_Hitler|983580372
1c1,9
< #REDIRECT AdolfHitler
---
> Adolf Hitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the state of Upper [[Austria]] (''Oberoesterreich'') on the Austro/German border.
> 
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the national socialist ([[nazi]]) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of [[Germany]] (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
> 
> Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was illegitimate and for a time bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber, but by 1876 he had established his claim to the surname Hitler. Adolf never used any other name, and the name Schicklgruber was revived only by his political opponents in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] in the 1930s.
> 
> Under Hitler's leadership and vision of a Nordic master race, Germany invaded several of its smaller neighbors, beginning [[World War II]], and an attempt to systematically exterimate other peoples - notably the Jews - called the [[Holocaust]].
> 
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
------
AdolfHitler|983580431
1,15c1
< AdolfHitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the state of Upper AustriA (''Oberoesterreich'') on the Austro/German border.
< 
< 
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the NationalSocialist (NaZi) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of GermanY (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
< 
< 
< Hitler's father, Alois (born 1837), was illegitimate and for a time bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber, but by 1876 he had established his claim to the surname Hitler. Adolf never used any other name, and the name Schicklgruber was revived only by his political opponents in GermanY and AustriA in the 1930s.
< 
< 
< Under Hitler's leadership and vision of a Nordic master race, Germany invaded several of its smaller neighbors, beginning [[World War II]], and an attempt to systematically exterimate other peoples - notably the Jews - called the [[Holocaust]].
< 
< 
< After the Russians invaded Germany, AdolfHitler commited suicide together with his lady friend EvaBraun on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in Berlin (GermanY). He appointed AdmiralDoenitz as the next Führer.
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]]
------
AdolfHitler/Talk|983580466
1c1
< Why does [[Adolf_Hitler]] redirect to AdolfHitler and not the other way around?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler/Talk]]
------
Amoeboid|983581486
22a23
> /Talk
------
Amoeboid/Talk|983581552
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net."
> 
> That's easy for ''you'' to say!  :-)
------
Amoeboid/Talk|983581599
3c3
< That's easy for ''you'' to say!  :-)
---
> That's easy for ''you'' to say!  :-)  There's so much jargon here, it's reticulose!  ;-)  Just kidding.
------
GamblersFallacy|983581765
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that  past results of a random event influence 
> future results. For example, if in a sequence of tossings of a coin (assuming
> the coin to be perfectly symmetric), we have had 20 tails in a row, that's doesn't make any more probable that the next result
> will be head, the probability of head or tail remains 50/50. 
> 
------
GamblersFallacy|983581838
1,5c1
< The idea that  past results of a random event influence 
< future results. For example, if in a sequence of tossings of a coin (assuming
< the coin to be perfectly symmetric), we have had 20 tails in a row, that's doesn't make any more probable that the next result
< will be head, the probability of head or tail remains 50/50. 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT Gamblers Fallacy
------
Gamblers|983581915
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that  past results of a random event influence 
> future results. For example, if in a sequence of tossings of a coin (assuming
> the coin to be perfectly symmetric), we have had 20 tails in a row, that's doesn't make any more probable that the next result
> will be head, the probability of head or tail remains 50/50. 
> 
------
GamblersFallacy|983581978
1c1
< #REDIRECT Gamblers Fallacy
---
> #REDIRECT [[Gamblers Fallacy]]
------
Gamblers_Fallacy|983582057
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that past results of a random event influence future results. For example, if in a
> sequence of tossings of a coin (assuming the coin to be perfectly symmetric), we have had 20 tails in a
> row, that's doesn't make any more probable that the next result will be head, the probability of head or
> tail remains 50/50. 
------
Gamblers|983582105
1,5c1
< The idea that  past results of a random event influence 
< future results. For example, if in a sequence of tossings of a coin (assuming
< the coin to be perfectly symmetric), we have had 20 tails in a row, that's doesn't make any more probable that the next result
< will be head, the probability of head or tail remains 50/50. 
< 
---
> 
------
Star_Trek|983582807
3c3
< Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by Gene Roddenberry. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
---
> Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]]. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
15c15
< In the 1980s, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While the classic series used "Cowboy diplomacy", The Next Generation (TNG) had its Prime Directive which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in other, especially less evolved species' business. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
---
> In the 1980s, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While in the classic series the captain often used "Cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG)  the [[Prime Directive]] which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' bussiness, is given greater importance. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
------
Vacuole|983583103
1c1
< Vacuoles are [[organelle]]s found in eukaryotic cells that consist simply of a membrane bound bubble.  There are various different types of vacuoles, used for different things.  Most notable are food vacuoles, which contain ingested material prior to digestion, lysozomes, which contain enzymes, and contractile vacuoles, which collect water from within the cell and expel it.
---
> Vacuoles are [[organelle]]s found in [[eukaryotic cell]]s that consist simply of a membrane bound bubble.  There are various different types of vacuoles, used for different things.  Most notable are food vacuoles, which contain ingested material prior to digestion (not unlike a bird's crop); lysozomes, which contain enzymes; and contractile vacuoles, which collect water from within the cell and expel it (the cell's bladder, of course).
------
CPU|983583322
1c1,2
< Central Processing Unit, the system's main [[processor]].
---
> 
> Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]].
------
Amoeboid|983583951
1c1
< The amoeboids comprise those [[Protista]] that form [[pseudopods]], temporary cytoplasmic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Sarcodina'', but the different sorts of amoeboid forms have each evolved a number of times.  These come in four main groups: those with ''lobose'', ''filose'', and ''reticulose'' pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with ''axopods'', which are rigid projections around [[microtubules]].
---
> The amoeboids comprise those [[Protista]] that form [[pseudopods]], temporary [[cytoplasm]]ic projections that are involved in locomotion and ingesting food.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Sarcodina'', but the different sorts of amoeboid forms have each evolved a number of times.  These come in four main groups: those with ''lobose'', ''filose'', and ''reticulose'' pseudopods, which are unsupported, and those with ''axopods'', which are rigid projections around [[microtubules]].
13c13
< Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and anastomose to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
---
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
23c23
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Cytoplasm|983584122
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The material inside a cell.  The material inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm, and in the even that the outermost layer of the cells has different composition, it is called ectoplasm (as opposed to endoplasm).  This stuff contains minerals, [[protein]]s, [[microtubule]]s, [[organelle]]s, and so forth.
------
Amoeboid/Talk|983584437
3c3,5
< That's easy for ''you'' to say!  :-)  There's so much jargon here, it's reticulose!  ;-)  Just kidding.
---
> That's easy for ''you'' to say!  :-)  There's so much jargon here, it's reticulose!  ;-)  Just kidding.
> 
> I changed 'anastomose' to 'merge', the synonym that everyone uses except when they're talking about Granuloreticulosa. :) I also added a definition for cytoplasm; this ''is'' the definition of a reticulose pseudopod.  I've been writing these pages for an audience of me-copies, so if you think anything should be defined, just wiki it and if critical make a blank "Fill me in NOW!" page.
------
WikiPediaFaq|983584956
92c92
< '''Q. It appears that starting today, if you go to RecentChanges and click on the name to the right of a page, that is, a contributor who has identified him/herself as making the change, you get <nowiki>Invalid Page wiki.cgi</nowiki>. Why?'''
---
> '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
94c94
< A. The changes to the code to use /pagename rather than ?pagename appear to have been incomplete.  See WikiPediaBugs for more information and discussion.
---
> A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
114a115,116
> ----
> '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
------
Amoeboid/Talk|983587773
5a6,7
> 
> Actually, I thought "anastomose" was fine, it just needed to be wikied and explained.  Why dumb things down?  :-)
------
AmoeboidTaxa|983589399
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Sarcodina]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]]
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983589840
1,4c1,7
< The thoery of evolution suggests that any species has the ability to better itself, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction twards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.
< However, these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual.
< The concept of survival of the fittest is backed up by the evidence of fossils that show the gradual changes of species and even adaptation to a different habitat (Such as whales that are mammals yet have chosen to go back into the ocean.)
< Charles Darwin has suggested the idea, and the concept has been rejected for many years as a result of the church's opposition (The theory contradicts the bible) however, it is very much accepted nowadays.
---
> A theory of evolution is an attempt to scientifically explain how [[evolution]] occurs.  There are countless theories of evolution, many of which are compatible with one another.  Others, such as [[Lamarck|Lamarck's]] theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, have been falsified.
> 
> In popular usage, "the" theory of evolution refers to the various theories proposed by [[Charles Darwin]], notably the theory of common descent, and the theory of evolution by natural selection.  It also refers to the modern Darwinian theory that combines evolutionary theory with the science of genetics.
> 
> Natural selection suggests that a species has the ability to adapt to changes in the environment, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction towards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.  However, these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual.
> 
> Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.
------
Evolution|983590042
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
> 
> Evolutionary changes are necessary for populations to adapt to their environments.
> 
> An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[theory of evolution]].
------
Evolution|983590089
5c5
< An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[theory of evolution]].
---
> An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]].
------
Evolution|983590516
3c3
< Evolutionary changes are necessary for populations to adapt to their environments.
---
> Evolutionary changes are necessary for populations of organisms to adapt to their environments.  If populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Since in the long run environments always change, evolution is necessary for life to persist over time.
------
Evolution|983590910
3c3
< Evolutionary changes are necessary for populations of organisms to adapt to their environments.  If populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Since in the long run environments always change, evolution is necessary for life to persist over time.
---
> Evolutionary changes allow populations of organisms to adapt to their environments.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution is therefore necessary for life to persist over time.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983591619
7,10c7,10
<  - section 1 (/SectioN111)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN112)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN113)
<  - section 4 (/SectioN114)
---
>  - section 1 (/Section111)
>  - section 2 (/Section112)
>  - section 3 (/Section113)
>  - section 4 (/Section114)
13c13
<  - section 1 (/SectioN121)
---
>  - section 1 (/Section121)
16,18c16,18
<  - section 1 (/SectioN131)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN132)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN133)
---
>  - section 1 (/Section131)
>  - section 2 (/Section132)
>  - section 3 (/Section133)
21,28c21,28
<  - section 1 (/SectioN141)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN142)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN143)
<  - section 4 (/SectioN144)
<  - section 5 (/SectioN145)
<  - section 6 (/SectioN146)
<  - section 7 (/SectioN147)
<  - section 8 (/SectioN148)
---
>  - section 1 (/Section141)
>  - section 2 (/Section142)
>  - section 3 (/Section143)
>  - section 4 (/Section144)
>  - section 5 (/Section145)
>  - section 6 (/Section146)
>  - section 7 (/Section147)
>  - section 8 (/Section148)
31,32c31,32
<  - section 1 (/SectioN151)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN152)
---
>  - section 1 (/Section151)
>  - section 2 (/Section152)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983591648
34a35,36
>  - section 1 (/Section161)
>  - section 2 (/Section162)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|983591786
28a29
> # In [[/Section152|Section152]] [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] asks [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] if [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] has written a fifth concerto.  He is evasive and tell her that Halley has stopped writing.  Is this a lie?
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|983591963
1c1
< The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
---
> The wildly unsupportive wife of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  They have been married eight years as the novel begins.
------
Evolution|983593241
5a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
Evolution/Talk|983593394
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim, I don't believe the statement that organisms ''need'' to evolve is true.  A lot of environments are sufficiently close to being static, or at least sufficiently widespread, that something decently adapted thereto would be fine for an unbelievably long time.  Case in point, any of the living fossils, which have undergone some evolution but obviously nothing too forced.  Unfortunately I don't know what to replace the line with.
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983593573
5c5
< Natural selection suggests that a species has the ability to adapt to changes in the environment, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction towards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.  However, these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual.
---
> Natural selection suggests that a species has the ability to adapt to changes in the environment, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction towards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.  Often these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual, although it seems that in some cases evolution can occur unbelievably quickly, within a few generations ([[Punctuated Equilibrium]]).
7c7
< Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.
---
> Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.
------
Painters|983596268
3c3
< :[[da Vinci]]
---
> :[[Leonarod da Vinci]]
5c5
< :[[Picasso]]
---
> :[[Pablo Picasso]]
------
Painters|983596505
43a44
> :[[Pieter Bruegel The Elder]] (c.1525-1569)
------
Painters|983597130
4c4
< :[[Van Gogh]]
---
> :[[Vincent Van Gogh]] (1853-1890)
6c6
< :[[Monet]]
---
> :[[Claude Monet]]
7a8
> :[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] (1841-1919)
------
Painters|983597268
5,6c5,6
< :[[Pablo Picasso]]
< :[[Claude Monet]]
---
> :[[Pablo Picasso]] (1881-1973)
> :[[Claude Monet]] (1840-1926) 
------
Evolution/Talk|983599537
1c1,6
< Tim, I don't believe the statement that organisms ''need'' to evolve is true.  A lot of environments are sufficiently close to being static, or at least sufficiently widespread, that something decently adapted thereto would be fine for an unbelievably long time.  Case in point, any of the living fossils, which have undergone some evolution but obviously nothing too forced.  Unfortunately I don't know what to replace the line with.
---
> Tim, I don't believe the statement that organisms ''need'' to evolve is true.  A lot of environments are sufficiently close to being static, or at least sufficiently widespread, that something decently adapted thereto would be fine for an unbelievably long time.  Case in point, any of the living fossils, which have undergone some evolution but obviously nothing too forced.  Unfortunately I don't know what to replace the line with.
> ----
> 
> Maybe the comment could be qualified: since most environments change...
> 
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|983600184
2a3,6
> The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel.  First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is.  Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with Francisco d'Anconia, who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in Galt's Speech.
> 
> Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's theory of sex.  Lillian Rearden cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex.  Dagny clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire.  Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values.  Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|983600321
3c3
< The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel.  First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is.  Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with Francisco d'Anconia, who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in Galt's Speech.
---
> The character of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has two important roles to play in the novel.  First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is.  Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]].
5c5
< Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's theory of sex.  Lillian Rearden cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex.  Dagny clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire.  Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values.  Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory.
---
> Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] cannot appreciate [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire.  Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values.  Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Concepts|983600372
3a4
>  [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|983600389
5c5
< Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] cannot appreciate [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire.  Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values.  Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory.
---
> Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] cannot appreciate [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire.  Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values.  Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|983601055
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In rejecting the traditional Christian altruist moral code, Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a logical impliction of altruism.
> 
> Rand introduces a theory of sex in [[Atlas Shrugged]] that is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories.  Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values.  Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values - a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract.
> 
> One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values.  Those who have base values will be attracted to baselessness.  Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning.  People of virtue, however, will respond sexually to virtue in others.
> 
> This sexual theory is illustarted in the relationships of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] with [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[/John Galt|John Galt]].  It is presented symbolically via the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|983601109
7c7
< This sexual theory is illustarted in the relationships of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] with [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[/John Galt|John Galt]].  It is presented symbolically via the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]].
---
> This sexual theory is illustarted in the contrasting relationships of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] with [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[/John Galt|John Galt]].  It is presented symbolically via the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bracelet|983601135
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
> 
> Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
> 
> The bracelet appears in:
>  /SectioN121
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|983601394
5c5
< One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values.  Those who have base values will be attracted to baselessness.  Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning.  People of virtue, however, will respond sexually to virtue in others.
---
> One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values.  Those who have base values will be attracted to baselessness.  Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning.  People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|983601889
6a7,8
> That our sexual desire is a response to values is a radical and original theory.  However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|983601920
7c7
< That our sexual desire is a response to values is a radical and original theory.  However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete.
---
> That our sexual desire is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory.  However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete.
------
Napster|983606590
5a6,7
> 
> Another potential competitor or successor to Napster is [[OpenNAP]].  Since most existing Napster clients can select what server they connect to, and since there is a [[free software]] clone of Napster server, anyone on the Internet can theoretically open up a small competitor or successor to Napster.  If this is true, then the death of Napster might only mean a temporary slowdown in the growth of filesharing.
------
OpenNAP|983610025
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> OpenNAP is [[free software]] which replicates the functionality of a [[Napster]] server using the Napster protocol.  Because this software is released under the [[GNU]] [[GPL]], it can be used and modified freely by anyone for any purpose.
> 
> OpenNAP runs under [[Windows NT]] and [[Windows 2000]], which means that it can be run on a massive installed base of computers, as opposed to the relatively smaller base of [[Linux]] and [[Unix]] computers.  This makes it relatively likely that many people will be running OpenNAP for groups of friends, or openly on the Internet in general.
------
OpenNAP|983610075
1d0
< 
4a4,5
> 
> The main website for the OpenNAP project is [http://sourceforge.net/projects/opennap/ here].
------
Star_Trek|983610148
3c3
< Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived it's name from the series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]]. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
---
> Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived its name from the series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]]. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
------
Gamblers|983610256
1c1
< 
---
> A general term used to describe those who play [[games of chance]] such as [[Poker]], [[Blackjack]], [[Slot Machines]], and others.
------
Gamblers|983610284
1c1
< A general term used to describe those who play [[games of chance]] such as [[Poker]], [[Blackjack]], [[Slot Machines]], and others.
---
> A general term used to describe those who play [[Games of Chance]] such as [[Poker]], [[Blackjack]], [[Slot Machines]], and others.
------
HolyTrinity|983610533
1c1
< Historically, as evidenced by the Nicene and Apostle's Creeds used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to the three aspects of G-d, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
---
> Historically, as evidenced by the Nicene and Apostle's Creeds used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to what Christians say are the three aspects of [[God]], the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
3c3
< The Father is the G-d who acts throughout the Old Testament and talks to Christ in the New Testament.
---
> The Father is the God who acts throughout the [[Old Testament]] and talks to [[Christ]] in the [[New Testament]].
5c5
< The Son is Jesus, whose sacrifice on the crucifix either ransomed souls from hell or opened the portal to heaven for whoever wants to go, depending on whom you ask.  He was both G-d and man, not considered to be some kind of phantasm or soulless possessed being, but was just like other humans except for also being G-d.
---
> The Son is [[Jesus]], whose sacrifice on the crucifix either ransomed souls from hell or opened the portal to heaven for whoever wants to go, depending on whom you ask.  He was both God and man, not considered to be some kind of phantasm or soulless possessed being, but was just like other humans except for also being God.
7c7
< The Holy Spirit is the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of G-d that communicates directly with humans.
---
> The [[Holy Spirit]] is the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of God that communicates directly with humans.
9a10,13
> -----
> 
> Because I am not an expert on Christianity, I can't help much here.  I suspect that the description of [[Holy Spirit]] as "the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders" could probably be explained more accurately, although surely not more vividly.  :-)  Please delete this note whenever you've made some change, o kind passerby.
> 
------
Jesus|983610563
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jesus Christ]]
------
Christ|983610599
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jesus Christ]]
------
Christ|983610621
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Jesus Christ]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jesus Christ]]
------
Jesus_Christ|983610722
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jesus Christ is a central figure in [[Christianity]].
> 
> I fear great controversy if this encyclopedia entry isn't written well, and so I think we should all plunge in and duke it out quickly.
> 
------
SandBox|983612997
35a36,40
> ----
> You can make [[superscripts]] and [[subscripts]] within a Wike.
> 
> *f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...
> ----
------
SandBox|983613085
39a40,43
> 
> *<font size=+2>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
> 
> 
------
SandBox|983613155
37c37
< You can make [[superscripts]] and [[subscripts]] within a Wike.
---
> You can make [[superscripts]] and [[subscripts]] within a Wiki and you can control the font size and color.
41c41
< *<font size=+2>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
---
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
------
SandBox|983613227
42,43d41
< 
< 
44a43
> ''''Testing''''
------
SandBox|983613279
43c43,44
< ''''Testing''''
---
> 
> ====Testing====
------
SandBox|983613348
44c44
< ====Testing====
---
> ____Testing____
------
SandBox|983613733
14a15,31
> '''Spanish special characters'''
> <font size=+2>
> <table border=1>
> <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
> <tr><td>160<td>á</tr>
> <tr><td>161<td>í</tr>
> <tr><td>162<td>ó</tr>
> <tr><td>163<td>ú</tr>
> <tr><td>164<td>ñ</tr>
> <tr><td>165<td>Ñ</tr>
> <tr><td>166<td>ª</tr>
> <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
> <tr><td>167<td>º</tr>
> <tr><td>138<td>è</tr>
> </table>
> </font>
> ----
43,44d59
< 
< ____Testing____
------
SandBox|983613796
18c18
< <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
---
> <tr><td>130<td><font size=+2>é</font></tr>
30c30
< </font>
---
> 
------
SandBox|983613930
16,18c16,17
< <font size=+2>
< <table border=1>
< <tr><td>130<td><font size=+2>é</font></tr>
---
> <table width=30% border=1>
> <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
25,28d23
< <tr><td>166<td>ª</tr>
< <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
< <tr><td>167<td>º</tr>
< <tr><td>138<td>è</tr>
------
SandBox|983614017
16c16,17
< <table width=30% border=1>
---
> <table width=30% border=2>
> <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
------
EsperantoLanguage|983634187
21c21,25
< There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  If you speak Esperanto, you might be interested in the Esperanto wiki JerryMuelver hosts at http://unumondo.com.
---
> There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  
> 
> Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].
> 
> If you speak Esperanto, or would like to, you might be interested in the Esperanto wiki JerryMuelver hosts at http://unumondo.com.
------
Jerry_Muelver|983634321
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See JerryMuelver
> 
> The road to free links is still a bit bumpy.
------
RoseParks|983637685
21c21,23
< Perhaps, JimmyWales, can help you there. :-).
---
> Perhaps, JimmyWales, can help you there. :-).----
> 
> [[R P Sandbox]]
------
R_P_Sandbox|983637970
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Tables:
> '''Spanish special characters'''
> <table width=30% border=2>
> <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
> <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
> <tr><td>160<td>á</tr>
> <tr><td>161<td>í</tr>
> <tr><td>162<td>ó</tr>
> <tr><td>163<td>ú</tr>
> <tr><td>164<td>ñ</tr>
> <tr><td>165<td>Ñ</tr>
> </table>
> 
> <table border=2/>
> <tr>
>   <td> Me  </td>
>   <td> You </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td> A+  </td>
>   <td> F   </td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> ----
> :Subscripts nad Superscripts
> 
> You can make [[superscripts]] and [[subscripts]] within a Wiki and you can control the font size and color.
> 
> *f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...
> 
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
> ----
------
R_P_Sandbox|983638117
32a33
> From the [[SandBox]]
------
R_P_Sandbox|983641524
33a34,35
> ----
> Wow, like <sub>this</sub> is <sup>very, very</sup> cool!  Behold, the power of wiki!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983641961
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then simply type in whatever you want!  You can take credit for what you write (you can make your name into a wiki page: LarrySanger) or not.  Everything from the SubLime to the RidiCulous is possible.  We prefer that you write BrilliantProse rather than PatentNonsense.
---
> It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit" link at the top or bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!
3c3,7
< "Fine," you say, "but how can I possibly...
---
> Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.
> 
> '''Make a new page'''
> :Two ways to make a new page:
> :#Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code>
16c20
< ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul... -- LarrySanger''
---
> ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul... -- LarrySanger''
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983642604
3c3,7
< Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.
---
> Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  While things are explained well on this page, it might help to press the "edit" page and see for yourself how ''this'' page was made!
> 
> <b>This page is under construction at present!</b>
> 
> <font size=-1>Usemod wiki experts: please add to this page as new features are activated/discovered.  (There are varieties of wiki software.  Wikipedia is a "Usemod" wiki.)</font>
7c11,12
< :#Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code>
---
> :#Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>[[</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><ul>?</ul> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
> :#Type the name of the old page 
------
NamingConventions|983646471
1,50c1
< Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new [[Free Links]] style of linking.
< ----
< For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
< opinions.  It will be a big job, but not that big, for us to go
< back through the existing pages and uncram the words.  Should we?
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it. --JimboWales, or is it [[Jimbo Wales]]
< ----
< We need to rewrite the help pages!!!
< 
< Well, there might be a few links where it will seem more appropriate (e.g., WikiPedia and WikiWiki), but for the main content, I don't see any reason ''not'' to consistently use free linking.
< 
< What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.  Let me start this list of topics:
< 
< '''Names of persons'''
< 
< In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else's.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]] since that's unique.
< 
< ''[[John F. Kennedy]] is somewhat unusual in that people generally refer to him using his middle initial.  I don't
< know why.  For many famous people, the middle initial is
< not widely known.  [[Oprah Winfrey]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],
< etc.  It seems that with the current President, he will be known as [[George W Bush]] or [[George W. Bush]], and that his father
< will be known as [[George Bush]]'' --JimboWales
< 
< There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, Rembrandt, etc.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
< 
< I can't think of any good reasons to list names first.
< 
< '''Names of works''' 
< 
< [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page:  ''This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries).''
< 
< I think that the most general solution to namespace collisions would be to have the central page, for example [[Apollo]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for. [[Apollo Space Program]] [[Apollo Greek God]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.
< 
< 
< '''Philosophy'''
< 
< Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
< 
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a Google ( http://www.google.com ) search first.
< ----
< I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
< 
< '''The language of the wikipedia is English'''
< 
< Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
< ----
< 
< Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
< 
< /Oldpage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Naming conventions]]
------
Naming_conventions|983646579
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new [[Free Links]] style of linking.
> ----
> For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
> opinions.  It will be a big job, but not that big, for us to go
> back through the existing pages and uncram the words.  Should we?
> Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it. --JimboWales, or is it [[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> We need to rewrite the help pages!!!
> 
> Well, there might be a few links where it will seem more appropriate (e.g., WikiPedia and WikiWiki), but for the main content, I don't see any reason ''not'' to consistently use free linking.
> 
> What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.  Let me start this list of topics:
> 
> '''Names of persons'''
> 
> In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else's.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]] since that's unique.
> 
> ''[[John F. Kennedy]] is somewhat unusual in that people generally refer to him using his middle initial.  I don't
> know why.  For many famous people, the middle initial is
> not widely known.  [[Oprah Winfrey]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],
> etc.  It seems that with the current President, he will be known as [[George W Bush]] or [[George W. Bush]], and that his father
> will be known as [[George Bush]]'' --JimboWales
> 
> There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, Rembrandt, etc.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
> 
> I can't think of any good reasons to list names first.
> 
> '''Names of works''' 
> 
> [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page:  ''This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries).''
> 
> I think that the most general solution to namespace collisions would be to have the central page, for example [[Apollo]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for. [[Apollo Space Program]] [[Apollo Greek God]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.
> 
> 
> '''Philosophy'''
> 
> Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
> 
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a Google ( http://www.google.com ) search first.
> ----
> I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
> 
> '''The language of the wikipedia is English'''
> 
> Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
> ----
> 
> Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
> 
> /Oldpage
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983647154
3,5c3
< Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  While things are explained well on this page, it might help to press the "edit" page and see for yourself how ''this'' page was made!
< 
< <b>This page is under construction at present!</b>
---
> Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" page to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!
10,12c8,82
< :Two ways to make a new page:
< :#Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>[[</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><ul>?</ul> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
< :#Type the name of the old page 
---
> 
> Two ways to make a new page:
> #Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>[[</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><ul>?</ul> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
> #Type the name of the old page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  For example, in the URL above, you would replace <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that spaces in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!
> 
> '''Naming pages'''
> 
> Here are some important notes about naming pages:
> * Names of pages look different in URLs and on pages themselves!  As you create new pages and links to pages, you'll come to understand this.
> * Notice that in ''URLs'' spaces in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.
> * On pages themselves, a page title can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a page that has the first letter uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.
> * In sum, examine the following examples.
> * Good URLs: 
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My_new_page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Bacteria</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/JimboWales</code>
> * Bad URLs:
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My new page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/my_new_page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/bacteria</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/jimbowales</code>
> * Good links:
> :<code>[[my new page]]</code>
> :<code>[[My new page]]</code>
> :<code>JimboWales</code>
> * Bad links:
> :<code>[[my_new_page]]</code> (underscores not necessary)
> :<code>[[My_new_page]]</code> (underscores not necessary)
> :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters)</code>
> * See [[naming conventions]].
> 
> '''Demonstration area'''
> ::''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.  Click "edit" on this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved.''
> 
> New paragraphs are made by simply pressing the "enter" or "return" key twice.  If you press it just once, 
> like this,
> a new paragraph ''will not'' be made (as you can see).
> 
> :This line is indented.
> ::This line is indented even farther.
> 
> :''This line is in italics.''
> :<i>And so is this one!</i>
> :<em>And this!</em>
> 
> :'''This line is bold.'''
> :<b>So is this one!</b>
> 
> :Here is an old style link: HomePage
> :Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
> :[[HomePage|the text of this link is different from the name of the page it links to]]
> :[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all linked!]]
> :An external link: http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml
> :Another external link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
> 
> Here is a numbered list:
> #Item 1
> #Item 2
> #Item 8
>  #Notice, this line isn't numbered because it's not flush left.
> :#Neither is this line
> 
> Here is a bulleted list:
> *Here's an item
> * Here's another item
> **We can do bullets within bullets, as it were
> *** Pretty nifty, huh?
> 
> You can make a line on a page: ----
> Or two, if you wish: 
> ----
> ----
> 
> You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
------
Naming_conventions|983647298
33a34,36
> '''Capitalization'''
> 
> Aaa!  For multiword pages there are two different styles of capitalization: capitalize only the first word, or capitalize all of them except articles and other stupid words like that (the, a, and, in).  For names of works obviously the latter should be used, but for everything else both systems are being employed.  Anyone want to make a decision?
50c53
< /Oldpage
---
> /Oldpage
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983647973
49a50,51
>  This line is indented, but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
> 
82c84,129
< You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
---
> There are two ways to display, rather than parse, wiki code:
> #<code>you can use the <code> tag</code>
> #<nowiki>you can use the <nowiki> tag</nowiki>
> (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
> 
> :You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
> :You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]] but please, not [[Charlize Theron/filmography]] .
> 
> We can do tables:
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> Fancy table:
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td rowspan=2>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item five</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> '''A few special characters'''
> <table width=30% border=2>
> <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
> <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
> <tr><td>160<td>á</tr>
> <tr><td>161<td>í</tr>
> <tr><td>162<td>ó</tr>
> <tr><td>163<td>ú</tr>
> <tr><td>164<td>ñ</tr>
> <tr><td>165<td>Ñ</tr>
> </table>
84,91c131
< * MakeaNewPage?"
< * LinkToAnExistingPage?"
< * StartaNewParagraph?"
< * PutWordsInItalicsAndBold?"
< * LinkToExternalPages?"
< * PartakeInDiscussion?"
< * SummarizeDiscussion?"
< * BeBoldInUpdatingPages?"
---
> You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font size and color!
93,95c133,137
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox.  Never again should you ask, WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?
< ----
< ''This page and its subpages need a thorough overhaul... -- LarrySanger''
---
> *f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...
> 
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
> 
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983648041
137c137
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983648635
10c10
< #Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>[[</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><ul>?</ul> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
---
> #Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>]]</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><u>?</u> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
16d15
< * Names of pages look different in URLs and on pages themselves!  As you create new pages and links to pages, you'll come to understand this.
19a19
> * Don't use single quotes in titles.  Sorry, but <code>Plato's Republic</code> won't work as a page name.
24a25
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Platos_Republic</code>
29a31
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Plato's_Republic</code>
33a36,37
> :<code>[[Platos Republic]]</code>
> :<code>[[Platos Republic|Plato's Republic]]</code>
37,38c41,43
< :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters)</code>
< * See [[naming conventions]].
---
> :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters)
> :<code>[[Plato's Republic]]</code> (will not link to the page you want it to link to)
> * See [[naming conventions]] when choosing names for pages!
50c55,59
<  This line is indented, but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
---
>  This line is indented, but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) 
>  at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  
>  In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that 
>  line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
>  (Also, this line will not wrap!  It will simply increase the width of your window.)
118a128,132
> Here's another way to make a table:
> ||||||'''Heading'''|| 
> ||cell 1||cell2||cell 3|| 
> ||cell 1||||spanning 2 columns|| 
> 
137c151
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Talk|983648921
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Talk about how to edit a page here!
> 
> This is the /Talk page for the [[how does one edit a page]] page.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983649007
131a132
> :(We haven't implemented that way of doing tables, as you can see.)
151c152
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983649176
46c46,48
< ::''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.  Click "edit" on this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved.''
---
> ::''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
> ::''Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!''
> ::''If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!''
152c154
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983649341
63,65c63,65
< :''This line is in italics.''
< :<i>And so is this one!</i>
< :<em>And this!</em>
---
> ''This line is in italics.''
> <br><i>And so is this one!</i>
> <br><em>And this!</em>
67c67
< :'''This line is bold.'''
---
> '''This line is bold.'''
70c70
< :Here is an old style link: HomePage
---
> Here is an old style link: HomePage
154c154
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983649867
46,48c46,48
< ::''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
< ::''Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!''
< ::''If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!''
---
> <br>'''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
> <br>Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!
> <br><i>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</i>'''
53a54,57
> Here is
> <br>the proper way
> <br>to make single-spaced lines.
> 
55a60
> :::Who knows how far it can go?
64,65c69,70
< <br><i>And so is this one!</i>
< <br><em>And this!</em>
---
> <br><i>And so is this one!</i> (Using different code!)
> <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!)
68c73
< :<b>So is this one!</b>
---
> <br><b>So is this one!</b>
71,75c76,82
< :Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
< :[[HomePage|the text of this link is different from the name of the page it links to]]
< :[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all linked!]]
< :An external link: http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml
< :Another external link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
---
> <br>Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
> <br>[[HomePage|the text of this link is different from the name of the page it links to]]
> <br>[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all linked!]]
> <br>An external link: http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml
> <br>Another external link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
> 
> You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s.  In the old system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").
100,101c107,108
< :You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
< :You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]] but please, not [[Charlize Theron/filmography]] .
---
> You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
> <br>You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]] but please, not [[Charlize Theron/filmography]] .
134c141
< :(We haven't implemented that way of doing tables, as you can see.)
---
> <br>(We haven't implemented that way of doing tables, as you can see.)
154c161
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
Mathematics|983649891
9c9
< :CombinaTorics -- [[Set Theory]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
---
> :[[Combinatorics]] -- [[Set Theory]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983649973
46c46
< <br>'''What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
---
> <br><b>What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
48c48
< <br><i>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</i>'''
---
> <br><i>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</i></b>
161c161
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
FermatsLastTheorem|983649988
3c3
< : x^n + y^n = z^n
---
> : x<sup>n</sup> + y<sup>n</sup> = z<sup>n</sup>
------
Plato|983650053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous ancient Greek philosopher.
------
SandBox|983650115
55a56,58
> 
> Test edit.
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983650175
20,21c20,21
< * In sum, examine the following examples.
< * Good URLs: 
---
> In sum, examine the following examples.
> Good URLs: 
26c26
< * Bad URLs:
---
> Bad URLs:
32c32
< * Good links:
---
> Good links:
38c38
< * Bad links:
---
> Bad links:
43c43
< * See [[naming conventions]] when choosing names for pages!
---
> See [[naming conventions]] when choosing names for pages!
46,48c46,48
< <br><b>What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
< <br>Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!
< <br><i>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</i></b>
---
> *What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
> *Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!
> *<b>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</b>
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|983651003
1c1
< There are five main ways to explore our wiki:
---
> There are several ways to explore our wiki:
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983651115
2a3,6
> '''March 3, 2001'''
> 
> The [[how does one edit a page]] page has been given a thorough overhaul.  Wiki experts, please help edit ''that'' page!
> 
------
SandBox|983651213
57c57
< Test edit.
---
> Test edit.  Another test edit
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983651614
3c3
< Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" page to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!
---
> Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" link (above and below) to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!
5c5
< <font size=-1>Usemod wiki experts: please add to this page as new features are activated/discovered.  (There are varieties of wiki software.  Wikipedia is a "Usemod" wiki.)</font>
---
> <font size=-1>Usemod wiki experts: please add to this page as new features are activated/discovered.  (There are varieties of wiki software.  Wikipedia is a "Usemod" wiki, courtesy CliffordAdams.)</font>
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983652252
160a161,162
> If you want to redirect traffic going to one page to another page (with a better title, for example), then use the command <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> at the top of the page.  See LarrysText for an example.  We are planning to automate the conversion of links from the old style, LikeThis, to the new style, [[like this]].  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> function.
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983652376
18c18,19
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.
---
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.
> Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that free links are nicer.)
------
Naming_conventions|983653710
24c24
< There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, Rembrandt, etc.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
---
> There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, or even first names only: Rembrandt.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
------
Naming_conventions|983654487
37a38,39
> I am strongly in favor of leaving as many things uncapitalized as is appropriate.  If we capitalize words within a page title, then whenever we want to link (quickly and easily) to that page, we must capitalize the page title.  But this results in grammatically incorrect sentences, which is jarring.  For example, I would much rather write "Good on potato chips is [[clam dip]]" (which points to <nowiki>/Clam_dip</nowiki>) than "Good on potato chips is [[Clam Dip]]" which makes it sound like I'm talking about the god of clam dip, or something.  Another example: philosophical doctrines are usually lower case: [[direct realism]].  If we title a page [[Direct Realism]], then whenever anyone wants to link (quickly and easily) to that page, he'll have to use the words "Direct Realism" capitalized--which might force him into a capitalization style that is uncommon and annoying.
> 
------
Naming_conventions|983654608
8,9d7
< We need to rewrite the help pages!!!
< 
12c10
< What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.  Let me start this list of topics:
---
> What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.
48c46
< '''The language of the wikipedia is English'''
---
> '''The language of the Wikipedia is English'''
------
HomePage|983662584
30a31
> * [[Feature requests]]
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983662756
8c8
< *mean = ( x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub> ) / n
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>mean = ( x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub> ) / n</font>
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983662839
82a83,84
> If you type in the URL of a picture, it will be displayed rather than linked to:<br>http:wikia.gif
> 
------
Weighted_Mean|983662843
5c5
< *mean = ( w<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub>x<sub>n</sub> ) / ( w<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub> )
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Weighted mean = ( w<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub>x<sub>n</sub> ) / ( w<sub>1</sub> + w<sub>2</sub> + ... + w<sub>n</sub> )</font>
------
Weighted_Mean|983662904
6a7
> Note that if all the weights are equal, the weighted mean is the same as the [[Arithmetic Mean]].
------
Feature_requests|983662917
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Features of Wikipedia software (Usemod wiki software) that somebody would like to see, someday:
> # Renaming function
> # Automate making old-style links into [[Free Links]]
> 
> Old feature request (completed!): [[Free Links]]
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983662982
8c8
< *<font size=+1 color=red>mean = ( x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub> ) / n</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Arithmetic mean = ( x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub> ) / n</font>
------
WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia|983663056
1,5c1
< [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by LarrySanger, who got the idea of supplementing NuPedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project.  So there is a historical connection between the projects.  Both NuPedia and WikiPedia are originated by BoMis, a WebPortal company.  So there is a management connection.
< 
< There is no ''editorial'' connection between the projects, however.  The participants in NuPedia do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of WikiPedia--and vice-versa!
< 
< We hope the projects will be complementary.
---
> #REDIRECT [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]
------
How_does_Wikipedia_relate_to_Nupedia|983663140
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by [[Larry Sanger]], who got the idea of supplementing [[Nupedia]] with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]] are originated by [[Bomis]], a WebPortal? company. So there is a management connection.
> 
> There is no editorial connection between the projects, however. The participants in [[Nupedia]] do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of [[Wikipedia]]--and vice-versa! 
> 
> We hope the projects will be complementary. 
------
Variance|983663147
4a5,6
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>) / n</font>
> 
------
Variance|983663190
5c5
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>) / n</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where m is the mean</font>
------
How_does_Wikipedia_relate_to_Nupedia|983663222
1c1
< [Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by [[Larry Sanger]], who got the idea of supplementing [[Nupedia]] with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]] are originated by [[Bomis]], a WebPortal? company. So there is a management connection.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] is an open content, international, peer reviewed project run by [[Larry Sanger]], who got the idea of supplementing [[Nupedia]] with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]] are originated by [[Bomis]], a WebPortal? company. So there is a management connection.
------
Variance|983663249
5c5
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where m is the mean</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where m is the mean</font>
9c9
< The method of calculation is easily understood from the table below where the mean is 8.
---
> The method of calculation may be more easily understood from the table below where the mean is 8.
------
Nupedia|983663286
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest [[Encyclopedia]] in [[History]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[Open content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[Peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
NuPedia|983663309
1c1
< Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest EncycloPedia in HisTory, because of its essential features, viz., it is: OpenContent, free, freely-distributable, rigorously PeerReview""ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nupedia]]
------
HomePage|983663350
20c20
< * WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
---
> * [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]?
------
What_is_a_wiki|983663472
11c11
< look look i edited this page!
---
> See also WikiWiki.
------
Variance|983663614
28a29,32
> There is another formula for calculating variance which you may see. It uses the sum of all the data and the sum of the squares. The formulat is:
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = [n{x<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + ... + x<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup>} - {x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub>}<sup>2</sup>] / n<sup>2</sup></font>
> ----
------
Variance|983663795
31a32,35
> 
> This formula was introduced when the prevailing calculators made it much easier to sum squares and the raw data than to sum the squared deviations. Because this formula can result in loss of procesion, it should no longer be recommended except for small exercises.
> ----
> :see also [[Standard Deviation]]
------
Variance|983664084
5c5
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (x<sub>n</sub>-m)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where m is the mean</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (x<sub>n</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where µ is the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the data set.</font>
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983664259
5c5
< We denote the set of data by X = {x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>}.
---
> We denote the set of data by X = {x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>}. The symbol <font size=+2 color=red>µ</font> is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a [[Population]].
------
Arithmetic_Mean|983664385
5c5
< We denote the set of data by X = {x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>}. The symbol <font size=+2 color=red>µ</font> is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a [[Population]].
---
> We denote the set of data by X = {x<sub>1</sub>, x<sub>2</sub>, ..., x<sub>n</sub>}. The symbol <font size=+2 color=red>µ</font> is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a [[Population]]. We use the name of the variable, X, with a horizontal bar over it as the symbol for a [[Sample Mean]]. We read this symbol as "X Bar".
------
SandBox|983664685
17,24c17,26
< <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
< <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
< <tr><td>160<td>á</tr>
< <tr><td>161<td>í</tr>
< <tr><td>162<td>ó</tr>
< <tr><td>163<td>ú</tr>
< <tr><td>164<td>ñ</tr>
< <tr><td>165<td>Ñ</tr>
---
> <tr><td>129<td><font size=+2>ü</font></tr>
> <tr><td>130<td><font size=+2>é</font></tr>
> <tr><td>160<td><font size=+2>á</font></tr>
> <tr><td>161<td><font size=+2>í</font></tr>
> <tr><td>162<td><font size=+2>ó</font></tr>
> <tr><td>163<td><font size=+2>ú</font></tr>
> <tr><td>164<td><font size=+2>ñ</font></tr>
> <tr><td>165<td><font size=+2>Ñ</font></tr>
> <tr><td>0161<td><font size=+2>¡</font></tr>
> <tr><td>0191<td><font size=+2>¿</font></tr>
------
Nupedia|983664780
1c1
< Nupedia (http://www.nupedia.com/) is soon to become the greatest [[Encyclopedia]] in [[History]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[Open content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[Peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is an online encyclopedia located at Nupedia.com.  It is (we hope) soon to become the greatest [[encyclopedia]] in [[history]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[open content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and will be, in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983665105
83c83
< If you type in the URL of a picture, it will be displayed rather than linked to:<br>http:wikia.gif
---
> If you type in the URL of a picture, it will be displayed rather than linked to:<br>http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
------
Superscripts|983665203
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to SandBox
> 
> The Wiki accepts the HTML conventions for simple superscripts (exponents for you math folks) and subscripts (also known as ''indices''). Just edit this page to see how they are used.
> 
> A quadratic equation looks like this:
> 
> * y = a x<sup>2</sup> + b x + c.
> 
> A power series looks like this:
> 
> * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k</sub> x<sup>k</sup> + ...
------
Superscripts|983665273
1,11c1
< back to SandBox
< 
< The Wiki accepts the HTML conventions for simple superscripts (exponents for you math folks) and subscripts (also known as ''indices''). Just edit this page to see how they are used.
< 
< A quadratic equation looks like this:
< 
< * y = a x<sup>2</sup> + b x + c.
< 
< A power series looks like this:
< 
< * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k</sub> x<sup>k</sup> + ...
---
> #REDIRECT [[Subscripts and Superscripts]]
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|983665296
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to SandBox
> 
> The Wiki accepts the HTML conventions for simple superscripts (exponents for you math folks) and subscripts (also known as ''indices''). Just edit this page to see how they are used.
> 
> A quadratic equation looks like this:
> 
> * y = a x<sup>2</sup> + b x + c.
> 
> A power series looks like this:
> 
> * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k</sub> x<sup>k</sup> + ...
> 
------
Subscripts|983665340
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Subscripts and Superscripts]]
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|983665441
12a13,14
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]] (who would be lost if everything had to be linear)
------
George_Melies|983666766
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Melies was the person who discovered, by accident, the stop trick. He created some other "special effects" and was one of the first who used colour in their movies. A famous exmample is "The Journey to the Moon" from 1902, which had been hand-coloured.
------
Oliver_Stone|983666924
8c8,11
< :[[Doors]]
---
> :[[Doors]]
> 
> 
> A distinct feature in Oliver Stone's movies is the usage of a multitude of different cameras, from VHS to 8mm to 70mm.
------
Doors|983666981
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A movie about the Los Angeles band [[The Doors]]
------
WikiWiki|983667028
5c5
< The original WikiWikiWeb was established by WardCunningham, who invented and named the Wiki concept, and produced the first implementation of a WikiWiki server.
---
> The original WikiWikiWeb was established by [[Ward Cunningham]], who invented and named the Wiki concept, and produced the first implementation of a WikiWiki server.
11,13c11,13
< The particular Wiki you are looking at is [[Wikipedia]], an effort to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We're currently writing at a pace of about
< 1200 new pages per month, although it seems that the pace is
< actually accelerating.
---
> The particular Wiki you are looking at is [[Wikipedia]], an effort to write a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We're currently writing at a pace of about 1200 new pages per month, although it seems that the pace is actually accelerating.
> 
> You can search various wikis at once, including this and Ward's, using MetaWiki.
------
The_Doors|983667946
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most famous band of the late sixties and early seventies. 
> 
> Albums:
> 
> *The Doors
> *Morrison Hotel
> *Waiting for the Sun
> *Strange Days
> *The Soft Parade
> *L.A. Woman
> 
> The group consited of Jim Morrison (vocals), Ray Manzarek (organ, keyboard), Ray Krieger (guitar) and John Densmore (drums). Morrison left the band in and died soon aftwards in Paris. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, Other Voices and Full Circle, but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group.
------
JFK|983668016
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a movie about the assassination of US president [[John F Kennedy]]
------
JFK|983668054
1c1
< a movie about the assassination of US president [[John F Kennedy]]
---
> a movie directed by [[Oliver Stone]] about the assassination of US president [[John F Kennedy]]
------
Doors|983668101
1c1
< A movie about the Los Angeles band [[The Doors]]
---
> A movie directed by [[Oliver Stone]] about the Los Angeles band [[The Doors]]
------
ASCII|983670583
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and typing the number of the character in question.
> 
>  128 Ç   136 ê   144 É   152 ÿ   160 á   168 ¿
>  129 ü   137 ë   145 æ   153 Ö   161 í   169 ®
>  130 é   138 è   146 Æ   154 Ü   162 ó   170 ¬
>  131 â   139 ï   147 ô   155 ø   163 ú   171 ½
>  132 ä   140 î   148 ö   156 £   164 ñ   172 ¼
>  133 à   141 ì   149 ò   157 Ø   165 Ñ   173 ¡
>  134 å   142 Ä   150 û   158 ×   166 ª   174 «
>  135 ç   143 Å   151 ù   159 ƒ   167 º   175 »
------
ASCII|983670726
10a11,12
> 
> In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross - the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
------
Oliver_Stone|983671456
11c11,13
< A distinct feature in Oliver Stone's movies is the usage of a multitude of different cameras, from VHS to 8mm to 70mm.
---
> A distinct feature in Oliver Stone's movies is the usage of a multitude of different cameras, from VHS to 8mm to 70mm.
> ----
> We've got to rename these pages (perhaps /JFK, /Nixon, etc., or [[JFK the film]], etc.), because the names of the movies overlap with subjects of encyclopedia articles...
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983671539
146c146
< '''A few special characters'''
---
> '''A few special characters''' (see also [[ASCII]])
------
ASCII|983671701
1c1
< ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and typing the number of the character in question.
---
> ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
12c12
< In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross - the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
---
> In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
------
Feature_requests|983672167
2d1
< # Renaming function
5c4
< Old feature request (completed!): [[Free Links]]
---
> Old feature request (completed!): [[Free Links]]; renaming/deleting function
------
Sporangia|983672382
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When you explain what reproduction-by-sporangia is, explain what the difference is between that and producing seeds (which can be borne on the wind, like spores...).
------
HomePage|983672436
34a35
> 
------
ASCII|983672945
3,10c3,10
<  128 Ç   136 ê   144 É   152 ÿ   160 á   168 ¿
<  129 ü   137 ë   145 æ   153 Ö   161 í   169 ®
<  130 é   138 è   146 Æ   154 Ü   162 ó   170 ¬
<  131 â   139 ï   147 ô   155 ø   163 ú   171 ½
<  132 ä   140 î   148 ö   156 £   164 ñ   172 ¼
<  133 à   141 ì   149 ò   157 Ø   165 Ñ   173 ¡
<  134 å   142 Ä   150 û   158 ×   166 ª   174 «
<  135 ç   143 Å   151 ù   159 ƒ   167 º   175 »
---
>  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ  248 °
>  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
>  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 ½                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 ¾  251 ¹
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 ¼                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶  252 
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 ²
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ  167 º  175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 ¤  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
12c12
< In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
---
> If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
------
ASCII|983673181
7c7
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 ¼                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶  252 
---
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 ¼                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
------
ASCII|983673416
3c3
<  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ  248 °
---
>  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
------
ASCII|983673641
10c10
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ  167 º  175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 ¤  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
---
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 ¤  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
------
George_Melies|983691922
1c1
< Melies was the person who discovered, by accident, the stop trick. He created some other "special effects" and was one of the first who used colour in their movies. A famous exmample is "The Journey to the Moon" from 1902, which had been hand-coloured.
---
> Melies was the person who discovered, by accident, the [[stop trick]]. He created some other "special effects" and was one of the first who used color in their movies. A famous exmample is "[[The Journey to the Moon]]" from 1902, which had been hand-colored.
------
ASCII|983692141
6,10c6,10
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 ½                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 ¾  251 ¹
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 ¼                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 ²
<  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 ¤  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
---
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 *  251 1
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 *                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 2
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 x  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 €  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
12a13,17
> ----
> 
> These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
> However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
> --JimboWales
------
ASCII|983692706
1,17c1
< ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
< 
<  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
<  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
<  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 *  251 1
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 *                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 2
<  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 x  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 €  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
< 
< If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
< ----
< 
< These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
< However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
< --JimboWales
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|983692770
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
> 
>  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
>  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
>  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 *  251 1
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 *                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 2
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 x  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 €  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
> 
> If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
> ----
> 
> These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
> However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
> --JimboWales
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983692884
146c146
< '''A few special characters''' (see also [[ASCII]])
---
> '''A few special characters''' (see also [[Wiki ASCII codes page]])
------
Statistical_Theory|983711544
1,24c1
< back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
< 
< The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
< 
< [[Planning Research]] to achieve the least possible [[Observational Error]]:
< 
< #[[Designing Experiments]]
< #[[Survey Sampling]]
< 
< [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] in conventional forms 
< 
< #Choosing [[Summary Statistics]]
< #Fitting [[Probability Distributions]]
< 
< [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] is the final objective of all research:
< 
< #[[Statistical Assumptions]]
< #[[Likelihood Principle]]
< #[[Estimating Parameters]]
< #[[Testing Hypotheses]]
< #[[Revising Opinions]]
< 
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Theory]]
------
Statistics/Theory|983711569
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability and Statistics]]
> 
> The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
> 
> [[Planning Research]] to achieve the least possible [[Observational Error]]:
> 
> #[[Designing Experiments]]
> #[[Survey Sampling]]
> 
> [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] in conventional forms 
> 
> #Choosing [[Summary Statistics]]
> #Fitting [[Probability Distributions]]
> 
> [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] is the final objective of all research:
> 
> #[[Statistical Assumptions]]
> #[[Likelihood Principle]]
> #[[Estimating Parameters]]
> #[[Testing Hypotheses]]
> #[[Revising Opinions]]
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Statistics|983711631
8c8
< :[[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Inference]]
---
> :[[Statistic/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]]
------
Statistics|983711656
8c8
< :[[Statistic/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]]
---
> :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]]
------
AppliedStatistics|983711724
1c1
< see [[Applied Statistics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Applied]]
------
Applied_Statistics|983711795
1,8c1
< :back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistical Theory]]
< 
< Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.
< This obviously includes ScienCe, but also [[History]] and [[Arts and Entertainment]].
< 
< In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[Observational Error]].
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Applied]]
------
Statistics/Applied|983711834
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistic/Theory]]
> 
> Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.
> This obviously includes ScienCe, but also [[History]] and [[Arts and Entertainment]].
> 
> In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[Observational Error]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
------
Statistics/Applied|983711856
1c1
< back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistic/Theory]]
---
> back to [[Statistics]] -- [[Statistics/Theory]]
------
Statistics/Theory|983711912
3c3
< The theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
---
> The Theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
17c17
< #[[Statistical Assumptions]]
---
> #[[Statistics/Assumptions]]
------
Statistical_Assumptions|983711964
1,13c1
< back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
< 
< [[Statistics]], like mathematical disciplines does not generate valid conclusions from nothing. Every [[Mathematical Theorem]] requires a set of assumptions or [[hypotheses]] from which its conclusions are derived. [[Mathematical Proof]]s are procedures for transforming hypotheses into conclusions. 
<  
< The most common statistical assumptions are:
< 
< #independence of observations from each other
< #independence of observational error from potential confounding effects
< #exact or approximate normality of observations
< #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Assumptions]]
------
Statistics/Assumptions|983712020
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]]
> 
> [[Statistics]], like mathematical disciplines does not generate valid conclusions from nothing. Every [[Mathematical Theorem]] requires a set of assumptions or [[hypotheses]] from which its conclusions are derived. [[Mathematical Proof]]s are procedures for transforming hypotheses into conclusions. 
>  
> The most common statistical assumptions are:
> 
> #independence of observations from each other
> #independence of observational error from potential confounding effects
> #exact or approximate normality of observations
> #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
> 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
Statistical_Inference|983712088
1,5c1
< back to [[Statistics]]
< 
< '''Statistical Inference''' is a collection of procedures designed to allow us to make reliable conclusions from data collected from [[Statistical Samples]] to real or hypothetical [[Statistical Populations]]. It is the formal name of what we call [[Interpreting Statistical Data]].
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Inference]]
------
Statistics/Inference|983712395
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
> 
> '''Statistical Inference''' is a collection of procedures designed to allow us to make reliable conclusions from data collected from [[Statistical Samples]] to real or hypothetical [[Statistical Populations]]. It is the formal name of what we call [[Interpreting Statistical Data]].
> 
> The most common forms of statistical inference are:
> #[[Point Estimation]]
> #[[Interval Estimation]]
> #[[Hypothesis Testing]]
> #[[Decision Making]]
> 
> There are several distinct schools of thought about the justification of statistical inference. All are based on some idea of what real world phenomena can be reasonably modeled as [[Probability]].
> #[[Frequency Probability]]
> #[[Personal Probability]]
> #[[Eclectic Probability]]
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Estimating_Parameters|983712514
1c1
< back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
---
> back to [[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]]
5c5
< When we just quote the estimated value, we have a [[point estimate]]. More often, we wish to find an interval with a high probability of covering the value of the parameter. This is a [[confidence interval]], a specific form of an [[interval estimate]]. 
---
> When we just quote the estimated value, we are using [[Point Estimation]]. More often, we wish to find an interval with a high probability of covering the value of the parameter. This is a [[confidence interval]], a specific form of an [[Interval Estimation]]. 
------
Interpreting_Statistical_Data|983712602
10c10
< :[[Planning Research]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
---
> :[[Planning Research]] -- [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]]
------
Probability|983712667
3c3
< :[[Probability Axioms]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Probability Applications]]
---
> :[[Probability/Axioms]] -- [[Probability/Theory]] -- [[Probability/Applications]]
------
Probability_Axioms|983712740
1,13c1
< back to [[Probability]]
< 
< :[[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Personal Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]] -- [[Statistical Regularity]]
< 
< (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
< 
< #Let '''U''' be a [[set]] of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or [[Sample Space]].
< #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
< #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by [[Subset]]s of '''U'''.
< #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Proability/Axioms]]
------
Proability/Axioms|983712764
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Personal Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]] -- [[Statistical Regularity]]
> 
> (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
> 
> #Let '''U''' be a [[set]] of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or [[Sample Space]].
> #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
> #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by [[Subset]]s of '''U'''.
> #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
Probability_Axioms|983712811
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Proability/Axioms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability/Axioms]]
------
Probability/Axioms|983712840
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Probability]]
> 
> :[[Frequency Probability]] -- [[Personal Probability]] -- [[Eclectic Probability]] -- [[Statistical Regularity]]
> 
> (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
> 
> #Let '''U''' be a [[set]] of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or [[Sample Space]].
> #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
> #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by [[Subset]]s of '''U'''.
> #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> 
------
Film_History|983728227
28a29
> *  [[Walt Disney]]
------
Walt_Disney|983732476
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Walt Disney's contributions to the development of film and family entertainment in general would be hard to measure.
> 
> Walt started his career as a film maker working for Warner Brothers.  He had just returned to the United States after serving as an ambulance driver in World War I.  At Warner Brothers he created the successful character of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit.
> 
> Walt persuaded his collaborator, Ub Iwerks, to leave Warner Brothers with him so they could create Oswald Cartoons on their own.  Warner Brothers sued him for copyright infringement which is what prompted him to create Mickey Mouse.
> 
> One of the more famous Disney quotes has been, "Remember, it all started with a mouse."  But it more likely started with the Rabbit.  Walt claimed that it was the blowing of a trains whistle that inspired him to create Mickey.  Apparently the whistle blowed "A moooouse!  A mooouse!"  Probably, Mickey evolved from a more pragmatic conversation between Disney and Iwerks.  Mickey in fact was little more than a truncation of Oswald, round ears instead of long ones, and so forth.  It has also been said that the name Mickey came from Walt's wife Lillian who disapproved of Walt's choice of Mortimer.  A tall, strapping Mortimer would appear later in a Disney cartoon attempting to woo Minnie away from Mickey.
> 
> Walt had already been an innovator.  He made a series of Roger Rabbit style cartoons called the Alice in Wonderland Comedies in which a live action little girl interacted with animated characters.  He continued this inventive film making with Mickey. Mickey's first cartoon was Plane Crazy, in a story inspired by Lindberg.  But his next cartoon (and the first one Walt distributed) would be one that people discuss today, Steamboat Willie.  Al Jolsen had already come out in the Jazz Singer, the first sound motion picture.  Mickey Mouse now appeared in the first sound cartoon.  
> 
> Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company Buena Vista.  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iverks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iverks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
> 
> Walt not only innovated with film technology, he innovated in business as well.  Mickey's films were successful, but it was in merchandising the studio became truly successful.  Starting out with Mickey Mouse pencils and then expanding into watches and toys, the Mouse created a true financial empire.  
> 
> Walt had always wanted to be a film maker, and his idea of making the feature length films must have been at the front of his mind from the beginning.  The origins of those films can be found in Walt Disney's Silly Symphonies.  Clever and masterful, these short cartoons were not silly at all.  Flowers and Trees, the first color cartoon, had been one of the Silly Symphonies.
> 
> The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like Benny Goodman.  This song, by the way, was actually composed one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
> 
> It was with Snow White that Walt truly established himself.  A ninety minute cartoon back then was a questionable notion to many people.  To acquire the funding to complete it, Walt had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers at the Bank of America.  But Walt got the money that he needed, completed the film, and a string of Disney classics such as Fantasia and Pinochio followed.
> 
> There might have been even more of these astonishing films if it hadn't been for World War II.  The Army occupied part of Walt's studio.  
> 
> To compensate for the dimished resources, Walt came out with movies like The Three Caballeros and Melody Time that were less complicated and relied upon short musical segments.  Learning from the lack of success he had with Fantasia, Walt used music from artists like Dinah Shore as opposed to Stravinsky.
> 
> Perhaps the most important Disney film from this time would be Victory Through Air Power.  To convince the Army to not take his entire studio, Walt had agreed to make training films.  In these, the Seven Dwarfs would demonstrate how to set up camps and so forth.  But Victory Through Air Power, in which an eagle defeats an octopus, was used by the military to explain the strategy behind D-day and was instrumental in that historic maneuver.
> 
> Walt said he envisioned Disneyland while taking his daughters to a carnival and wishing he had somewhere he could go where he had fun, too.  When we look at the design of the park, it might be considered that Walt thought of it when he saw people's faces light up when they saw the magic of a film studio.  The facades and costumes and even the language of the park (employees are cast members, employee-only areas are called back stage) are indistinguishable from those of a working studio.  He had first wanted the park to be a small area down the street from the studio.  But as the details came together he came to see a place much grander.
> 
> Like Snow White, the park was doomed to fail.  And the first day of the park's operation, with the asphault still soft and insufficient bathrooms, has historically been considered a disaster.  But Disneyland was the world's first theme park.  And it is impossible fo think of any amusement park today without comparing it (unfavorably) to the Magic Kingdom.
> 
> Today the rides at Disneyland, like the Indiana Jones Adventure, are thrill rides designed to attract a young audience.  And this is even more true of Disney's California Adventure.  It is hard to look at the Paradise Pier area of the California Adventure, and not think of that carnival that Walt had sworn he didn't want to build.  But back then, the rides were designed by cartoonists.  Many of them were created by Marc Davis, one of Walt's lead animators who is famous for such characters as Malificent and Tinker Bell.  Marc's sense of cleverness and story telling is what entralls us in such rides as the Pirates of the Carribean and the Haunted Mansion.  It is difficult to think of what makes Disneyland a special place without reflecting on the contribution of Marc Davis.
> 
> Many of the technological innovations that were the real magic of Disneyland came about through funding provided by corporations sponsoring the rides.  It may have been because of this opportunity that Walt considered building Epcot.  Not the World's Fair they have in Orlando today.  But a real experimental comunity.  
> 
> Under the mascarade of an organization called the Reedy Creek Development District, Walt bought up large areas of swamp land in Florida.  His idea was not to recreate the success of Anaheim in Orlando, but to create a real city with all of the imagination that he had in Disneyland.  The people would both work and live there.  And corporations would pay to have their newest ideas tested there.  New telephones.  New cars.  New ideas of commerce and urban design would be innovated and perfected in a real city.  This was in the mid sixties.  We will never know what Epcot would have discovered.
> 
> Walt opened Disneyland in 1955.  He had eleven years more to live bfore lung cancer would take him from us.  Back then, there was tobacco store on Main Street.  That store isn't there anymore.  Neither is Walt Disney.
> 
> From the first sound cartoon, first color cartoon, first feature length cartoon, to the first theme park, Walt had continued to assemble teams of creative people to help break down the barriers of what graphic arts could do.  His last great accomplishment would be the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, which he launched while he was alive and which opened shortly after he passed away.  In the promotional footage he filmed while showing a model of the ride he smiles to a Disney ambassador and says, "Of course!  Anything is possible at Disneyland."
> 
> Just as the animatronic figures took the two dimensional world of cartoons and made them three dimensional, Walt had wanted to break out of the imaginary world and penetrate the real one.  Ronald Reagan had once asked Walt why he didn't go into politics.  And Walt said, "Because I'm already the monarch of the Magic Kingdom."
------
Stop_trick|983733634
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[George Melies]] accidently developed this technique when his camera had a misfunction and dropped a few frames. When viewing the film, he realised that the moving object he filmed disappeared where the camera stopped working. He used this technique to do lots of magical tricks. For example, he would film a magician and a girl, the magician would make a gesture and Melies stopped the camera. He told the girl to go out of sight and started the camera again. When viewing the finished film, it looked like the girl disappeared all of a sudden after the magician's gesture.
> 
> This is not to be confused with the [[Stop Motion]] technique.
------
Stop_Motion|983733876
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stop Motion is an old animation technique. It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves. This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the old [[Godzilla]] movies or the [[Wallace and Gromit]] films
------
Film|983733930
1c1
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
21d20
< 
------
Film_Techniques|983734431
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Special Effects:
> 
> *[[Stop Trick]]
> *[[Stop Motion]]
> 
> Cutting:
> 
> *[[Shot Reverse Shot]]
> *[[Cross Cutting]]
> *[[Insert]]
> *[[Point of View Shot]]
> *[[Cut In]]
> *[[Cut Out]]
> *[[Establishing Shot]]
> 
> Frame:
> 
> *[[Deframing]]
> *[[Reframing]]
> *[[Split Screen]]
> 
> Shots:
> 
> *[[Long Shot]]
> *[[Medium Shot]]
> *[[American Shot]]
> *[[Sequence Shot]]
------
Film_Techniques|983734502
3c3
< *[[Stop Trick]]
---
> *[[stop trick]]
27c27
< *[[Sequence Shot]]
---
> *[[Sequence Shot]]
------
CodE|983734780
1c1
< A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
---
> A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [ASCII]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [ASCII] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
------
CodE|983734800
1c1
< A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [ASCII]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [ASCII] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
---
> A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [[ASCII]]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [[ASCII]] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
------
Germany|983734849
17c17
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961until 1989.
---
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|983740173
6c6
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù  243 *  251 1
---
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
8c8
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §  253 2
---
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                213 i         229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
10c10
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã  207 €  215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
---
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ  167 º  175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
12c12
< If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  In particular hoping that everyone sees 158 as a cross (the "times" symbol to Americans)--the mathematics section needs something like that for cartesian products.
---
> If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  On some computers  these don't show up properly, but at least default to something similar: 158 (times sign -> x), 167 (underlined ° -> °), 213 (undotted i -> i).
17c17
< --JimboWales
---
> --JimboWales
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|983740224
6,7c6,7
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú  171 *                              211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ  172 *                              212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
---
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú                                     211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ                                     212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
------
MoDe|983740252
0a1
> #REdirect [[Mode]]
------
Mode|983740360
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :back to SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> The '''Mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''[[Mean]]''' and the '''[[Median]]'''.----
> Since this is my definition, from my memory bank...:-), I have removed links to other people--RoseParks
------
MoDe|983740426
2,5d1
< :back to SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
< 
< The '''mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''MeaN''' and the '''MediaN'''.----
< Since this is my definition, from my memory bank...:-), I have removed links to other people--RoseParks
------
MoDe|983740458
1c1
< #REdirect [[Mode]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mode]]
------
Mode|983741702
3c3
< The '''Mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''[[Mean]]''' and the '''[[Median]]'''.----
---
> The '''Mode''' is the value that has the largest number of observations. The '''mode''' is not necessarily unique, unlike the '''[[Arithmetic Mean]]''' and the '''[[Median]]'''.----
------
Central_Tendency|983741773
7,8c7,8
< #MediaN, the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the [[Data Set]].
< #MoDe, the most common value in the [[Data Set]].
---
> #[[Median]], the value that separates the highest half from the lowest half of the [[Data Set]].
> #[[Mode]], the most common value in the [[Data Set]].
11c11
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
CodE|983741933
1c1,2
< A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [[ASCII]]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [[ASCII]] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.
---
> A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [[ASCII]]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [[ASCII]] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.----
> I thought that SNAFU came from "Situation Normal All F*cked Up." AnonymousCoward
------
WikiPediaProcess|983742200
33c33,34
< *To avoid bias it seems important to gather evidence and to acknowledge the sources we have drawn our knowledge upon.
---
> *To avoid bias it seems important to gather evidence and to acknowledge the sources we have drawn our knowledge upon.----
> {{Play}}
------
WikiPediaProcess|983742235
34c34
< {{Play}}
---
> [[Play]]
------
Play|983742299
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> View the Wiki at regualr speed, as opposed to viewing at [[Fast Forward]]
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|983742372
12a13,14
> 
> One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  Somebody else can deal with these.
------
Fast_Forward|983742378
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Way to view the wiki pages very rapidly, unless you prefer[[Rewind]].
------
Fast_Forward|983742406
1c1
< Way to view the wiki pages very rapidly, unless you prefer[[Rewind]].
---
> Way to view the wiki pages very rapidly, unless you prefer to go backward and [[Rewind]].
------
Rewind|983742452
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This can be a funny way to view the wiki, but you may want to [[Pause]].
------
Pause|983742503
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> No need to Pause, the upload does it for you often leading to [[Stop]].
------
Stop|983742576
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rest, be patient, have a snack, and then [[Play]] again...-).
------
WikiPediaProcess|983742680
33a34
> '''One Way to Process a Wiki'''
34a36
> ----
------
WikiPediaProcess|983742722
35c35
< [[Play]]
---
> First try...[[Play]]
------
Walt_Disney|983757040
1c1
< Walt Disney's contributions to the development of film and family entertainment in general would be hard to measure.
---
> Walt Disney had always wanted to be a film maker.  He even once applied for a job working for Charlie Chaplain and was turned down.  But as we examine Walt Disney's remarkable life, we come to realize that he was much more than a film maker.  Relentlessly curious and creative, Walt should be rememberd as one of our greatest innovators.
35c35
< Under the mascarade of an organization called the Reedy Creek Development District, Walt bought up large areas of swamp land in Florida.  His idea was not to recreate the success of Anaheim in Orlando, but to create a real city with all of the imagination that he had in Disneyland.  The people would both work and live there.  And corporations would pay to have their newest ideas tested there.  New telephones.  New cars.  New ideas of commerce and urban design would be innovated and perfected in a real city.  This was in the mid sixties.  We will never know what Epcot would have discovered.
---
> Under the mascarade of an organization called the Reedy Creek Development District, Walt bought up large areas of swamp land in Florida.  His idea was not to recreate the success of Anaheim in Orlando, but to create a real city with all of the imagination that he had in Disneyland.  The people would both work and live there.  And corporations would pay to have their newest ideas tested there.  New telephones.  New cars.  New ideas of commerce and urban design would be innovated and perfected in a real city.  This was in the mid sixties.  We will never know what Epcot would have discovered in the time that has passed since then.
37c37
< Walt opened Disneyland in 1955.  He had eleven years more to live bfore lung cancer would take him from us.  Back then, there was tobacco store on Main Street.  That store isn't there anymore.  Neither is Walt Disney.
---
> Walt opened Disneyland in 1955.  He had eleven years more to live before lung cancer would take him from us.  Back then, there was a tobacco store on Main Street.  That store isn't there anymore.  Neither is Walt Disney.
39c39
< From the first sound cartoon, first color cartoon, first feature length cartoon, to the first theme park, Walt had continued to assemble teams of creative people to help break down the barriers of what graphic arts could do.  His last great accomplishment would be the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, which he launched while he was alive and which opened shortly after he passed away.  In the promotional footage he filmed while showing a model of the ride he smiles to a Disney ambassador and says, "Of course!  Anything is possible at Disneyland."
---
> From the first sound cartoon, first color cartoon, first feature length cartoon, to the first theme park, Walt had continued to assemble teams of creative people to help break down the barriers of what graphic arts could do.  His last great accomplishment would be the Pirates of the Caribbean ride, which he launched while he was alive and which opened shortly after he passed away.  In the promotional footage he filmed for the ride, he smiles to a Disney ambassador and says, "Of course!  Anything is possible at Disneyland."
41c41
< Just as the animatronic figures took the two dimensional world of cartoons and made them three dimensional, Walt had wanted to break out of the imaginary world and penetrate the real one.  Ronald Reagan had once asked Walt why he didn't go into politics.  And Walt said, "Because I'm already the monarch of the Magic Kingdom."
---
> Just as the animatronic figures took the two dimensional world of cartoons and made them three dimensional, Walt had wanted to break out of the imaginary world and penetrate the real one.  Ronald Reagan had once asked Walt why he didn't go into politics.  Walt Disney replied, "Because I'm already the monarch of the Magic Kingdom."
------
Walt_Disney|983758546
41a42,43
> 
> ~ ~ ~ JimmyKarza@Bomis.Com
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_Mexico|983760601
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New Mexico is a state where the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] has successfully obtained the freight business that formerly went to the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  After the passage of the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] is forces to abandon operations in New Mexico, as well as in [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
> 
> New Mexico is mentioned in
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_York|983760653
1c1
< The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
---
> The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the [[/United States|United States]].
4,8c4,8
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN113
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN141
<  - /SectioN152
---
>  - [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  - [[/Section113|Section113]]
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  - [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ohio|983760720
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[/Section112|Section112]] [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] decides to appoint [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]] as the new head of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] Ohio Division.
> 
> Ohio is mentioned in:
>  - [[/Section112|Section112]]
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Pennsylvania|983760757
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Home of [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]].  A newspaper ridiculed [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] for starting a steel company, claiming "The historical cycle of steelmaking in Pennsylvania is running down."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philadelphia|983760790
1c1
< Philadelphia is the home of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and /ReardenSteel.
---
> Philadelphia is the home of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]].
5,6c5,6
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN121
---
>  - [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  - [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Redding|983760823
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[/Section121|Section121]] [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]] mentions visiting Redding.  It is not clear which Redding this is, possible Redding, Connecticut.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rockdale|983760868
1c1
< A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
---
> A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] had her first position working for [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] at the [[/Rockdale Station|Rockdale Station]], when she was 16.
3c3
< The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
---
> The Taggart estate overlooks the [[/Hudson River|Hudson River]].  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rockdale_Station|983760908
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A station on the [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
> 
> It appears in /SectioN152
------
Stop|983761058
1c1,3
< Rest, be patient, have a snack, and then [[Play]] again...-).
---
> Rest, be patient, have a snack, and then [[Play]] again...-).
> 
> Aaa!  A three-eyed smiley!
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Spain|983761143
1c1
< Spain is the ancestral home of the d'Anconias.  /SebastianDAnconia fled Spain to escape the Inquisition.
---
> Spain is the ancestral home of the d'Anconias.  [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian dAnconia]] fled Spain to escape the Inquisition.
3c3
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_States|983761175
1c1
< The United States is the setting of AtlasShrugged.  While almost every other nation has become a socialist "People's State", the United States remains the last country with some semblance of a free economy.  This is rapidly changing, and the book follows the United States as it gradually beomes a "People's State" itself.
---
> The United States is the setting of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  While almost every other nation has become a socialist "People's State", the United States remains the last country with some semblance of a free economy.  This is rapidly changing, and the book follows the United States as it gradually beomes a "People's State" itself.
4c4
<  - /SectioN132
---
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Valparaiso|983761205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]] the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Valparaiso|983761220
1c1
< In [[/Section152|Section152]] the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]] the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagne throughout the night.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Washington|983761277
1c1
< Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.  Many directives that effect the plot are issued from Washington, but little to none of the book's action occurs there.
---
> Washington is the seat of the government of the [[/United States|United States]].  Throughout [[Atlas Shrugged|Atlas Shrugged]] it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.  Many directives that effect the plot are issued from Washington, but little to none of the book's action occurs there.
4,7c4,7
<  - /SectioN121
<  - /SectioN131
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN143
---
>  - [[/Section121|Section121]]
>  - [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  - [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  - [[/Section143|Section143]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wilmington|983761319
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[/Section121|Section121]] [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]] mentions visiting Wilmington.  Presumably this is Wilmington, Delaware.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983761400
7c7
<  - section 1 (/Section111)
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983761426
6a7
> 
8,10c9,11
<  - section 2 (/Section112)
<  - section 3 (/Section113)
<  - section 4 (/Section114)
---
>  [[/Section111|Section112]]
>  [[/Section111|Section113]]
>  [[/Section111|Section114]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983761547
9,11c9,11
<  [[/Section111|Section112]]
<  [[/Section111|Section113]]
<  [[/Section111|Section114]]
---
>  [[/Section112|Section112]]
>  [[/Section113|Section113]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
14c14
<  - section 1 (/Section121)
---
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
17,19c17,19
<  - section 1 (/Section131)
<  - section 2 (/Section132)
<  - section 3 (/Section133)
---
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
22,29c22,29
<  - section 1 (/Section141)
<  - section 2 (/Section142)
<  - section 3 (/Section143)
<  - section 4 (/Section144)
<  - section 5 (/Section145)
<  - section 6 (/Section146)
<  - section 7 (/Section147)
<  - section 8 (/Section148)
---
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]
>  [[/Section144|Section144]]
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  [[/Section147|Section147]]
>  [[/Section148|Section148]]
32,33c32,33
<  - section 1 (/Section151)
<  - section 2 (/Section152)
---
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
36,37c36,37
<  - section 1 (/Section161)
<  - section 2 (/Section162)
---
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
>  [[/Section162|Section162]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section111|983761596
7c7
< Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
---
> Downtown [[/New York|New York]], and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
10c10
<  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
---
>  [[/Bum Number 1|Bum Number 1]] - First and only appearance.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section111|983761625
14,15c14,15
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
---
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Pop Harper|Pop Harper]] - First and only apearance.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section112|983761799
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is riding the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] back to [[/New York|New York]] after inspecting the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  She hears a [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]], but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]] to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
7c7
< Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
---
> [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]], stalled between [[/Cleveland|Cleveland]] and [[/New York|New York]].
10,12c10,12
<  /Brakeman
<  /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
<  /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
---
>  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
>  [[/Conductor|Conductor]] - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Engineer|Engineer]] - First and only appearance.
14,17c14,17
<  /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
<  /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
<  /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
<  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Passenger Number 1|Passenger Number 1]] - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Passenger Number 2|Passenger Number 2]] - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] - Mentioned.
20c20
< What was the /Brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
---
> What was the [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] whistling?  Did [[/Richard Halley|Halley]] write a Fifth Concerto?
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section113|983761899
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and the Comet arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from /HalleysFifthConcerto.  The /Brakeman watches her tensely.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and the [[/Taggart Comet|Comet]] arrive at the Taggart Terminal.  She gets off the train inadvertently whistling the theme from [[/Halleys Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]].  The [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] watches her tensely.
11c11
<  /Brakeman
---
>  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section114|983763916
4c4
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] from [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] to be used to replace the tracks of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  Later she calls [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]] to determine if [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] ever published a Fifth Concerto.  [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]] says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]] who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
7c7
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
---
> The offices of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].
10c10
<  /BoardofDirectors: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]: Mentioned.
16,18c16,18
<  /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
<  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
<  /OwenKellogg
---
>  [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]] - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]]
21c21
< What is it that makes /OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
---
> What is it that makes [[/Owen Kellogg|Owen Kellogg]] quit a job he admits he loves?
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|983764333
4c4
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]].  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
7c7
< /ReardenSteel mills in /Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
---
> [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] mills in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and Rearden's home.
12,19c12,19
<  /LillianRearden
<  /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
<  /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
<  /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /PhilipRearden
<  /ReardensMother
<  /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
---
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Mrs. Beacham|Mrs. Beacham]]: First and only mention.
>  [[/Passenger Number 3|Passenger Number 3]]: First and only appearance.
>  [[/Passenger Number 4|Passenger Number 4]]: First and only appearance.
>  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
>  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
>  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's Mother]]
>  [[/Worker Number 1|Worker Number 1]]: First and only appearance.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|983764349
4c4
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]].  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]].  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|983764360
4c4
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]].  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]]).  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|983764398
4c4
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]]).  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction Of The Victim|Sanction Of The Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]]).  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|983764628
4c4
< [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], /OrrenBoyle, /PaulLarkin, and /WesleyMouch meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of /ReardenMetal.  Boyle wants [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] to get his friends in /Washington to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market Rearden Metal.  In exchange, Boyle agrees to get the /NationalAllianceofRailroads to drive the /PhoenixDurango railroad out of business.  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] also learns from Boyle that /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], and [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] meet to work out a deal by which they can stop [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and the success of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  [[/Orren Boyle|Boyle]] wants [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] to get his friends in [[/Washington|Washington]] to regulate the distribution of iron ore, depriving [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] of the raw materials needed to market [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  In exchange, [[/Orren Boyle|Boyle]] agrees to get the [[/National Alliance of Railroads|National Alliance of Railroads]] to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].  None of this is said openly or directly, of course.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] also learns from [[/Orren Boyle|Boyle]] that [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]] has been denuded of all but the barest equipment.
7c7
< The most expensive barroom in New York, on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, designed to look like a cellar.
---
> The most expensive barroom in [[/New York|New York]], on the 60th floor of a skyscraper, designed to look like a cellar.
10c10
<  /BartendeR: First and only appearance.
---
>  [[/Bartender|Bartender]]: First and only appearance.
12,15c12,15
<  /OrrenBoyle
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /WaiteR: First and only appearance.
<  /WesleyMouch
---
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
>  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
>  [[/Waiter|Waiter]]: First and only appearance.
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/National_Alliance_of_Railroads|983764730
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good.  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] that uses a string of pretenses to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
> 
> The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section145|Section145]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|983764955
4c4
< Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]]: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]], and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]] assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of [[/Mexico|Mexico]] so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the [[/Newstand Owner|owner]] of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
7c7
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
---
> The offices of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] and the Taggart Terminal.
10,11c10,11
<  /BoardofDirectors
<  /DagnysFather
---
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]
>  [[/Dagnys Father|Dagny's Father]]
18,21c18,21
<  /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
<  /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
<  /NewsstandOwner
<  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart|Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Newsstand Owner|Newsstand Owner]]
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]: Mentioned.
24c24
< The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
---
> The [[/Newsstand Owner|newstand owner]] explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the [[/Newsstand Owner|newstand owner]] likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the [[/Newsstand Owner|newstand owner]] bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|983765000
4c4
< Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]]: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]], and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]] assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of [[/Mexico|Mexico]] so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the [[/Newstand Owner|owner]] of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
---
> Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]]: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]], and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]] assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of [[/Mexico|Mexico]] so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the [[/Newsstand Owner|owner]] of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Line|983765241
1c1,7
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
---
> A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.
> 
> The [[/San Sebastian Mines|mines]] were developed by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[James Taggart/James Taggart]] and [[Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] could be counted on to deliver a winner.
> 
> The [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]] is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
> 
> When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section133|983765380
4c4
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]].  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]] throughout the book.
8c8
< This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /SectioN131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
---
> This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from [[/Section131|Section131]], that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
16c16
<  /MysteryWorker
---
>  [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]]
18,19c18,19
<  /McNamara: Mentioned.
<  /RichardHalley: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]: Mentioned.
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]]: Mentioned.
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|983774021
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A version of [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]] where changes such as [[speciation]] occur very quickly, with long periods of little change (equilibria) in between.  This does a good job explaining the relative lack of intermediate forms in the fossil record.
> 
> Simulations provide some insight into how this might work: the equilibrium periods show a gradual accumulation of [[neutral mutations]], and the jump occurs when some combination of them reaches a certain threshold percentage (1/e<sup>2</sup>).  On the other hand, speciation could also be triggered by classical means like separation of populations.
> 
> A recent study on some trout that had been separated, in fact, showed that after only a few generations the two populations tended not to interbreed due to minor behavioral differences.  Thus, even if they were remixed, the two groups would probably diverge genetically.  This is much faster than anyone expected separation to occur.
> 
> Punctuated equilibrium is to be contrasted with gradual evolution, which is what Darwin proposed.  Probably both play a role; their relative importance is still debated.
------
SandBox|983779674
9c9
< � I made a little box in the SandBox
---
> ? I made a little box in the SandBox
12,13c12,13
< ��� I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
< No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. �����  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..°Ž‘’“”•–—˜™š›œžŸí¡¢ú
---
> ??? I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
> No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. ?????  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..°?????*--~?s>??Yí¡¢ú
60a61
> xxxxxx
------
Statistics|983792402
8c8
< :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]]
---
> :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
WhatIsMathematicsReally|983792597
1,7c1
< back to [[Mathematics]]
< 
< :'''What is Mathematics, Really?'''
< 
< Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathematics]] and [[Mathematicians]].----
< Better yet read ''What is Mathematics?" by Richard Courant. This book gives the layman a 
< real feeling for the nature of this subject.
---
> #REDIRECT [[What is Mathematics, Really?]]
------
What_is_Mathematics,_Really?|983792698
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Mathematics]]
> 
> :'''What is Mathematics, Really?'''
> 
> Title of a modern book by [http://www.oup-usa.org/isbn/0195113683.html Rueben Hersh] featuring his ''humanistic and maverick'' views on [[Mathematics]] and [[Mathematicians]].
> ----
> Better yet read ''What is Mathematics?" by Richard Courant. This book gives the layman a real feeling for the nature of this subject.
> 
------
Calculus|983792857
4c4
< Equally imporant in Calculus, is finding the [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] which can be seen as the inverse of the [[Derivative]]. The [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] allows us, among other things, the calculate the area under a curve, the area and volume of solids such as a sphere or a cone.
---
> Equally imporant in Calculus, is finding the [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] which can be seen as the inverse of the [[Derivative]]. The [[Integral]] of a [[Function]] allows us, among other things, to calculate the area under a curve, the area and volume of solids such as a sphere or a cone.
------
Function|983793593
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Mathematics]], a means of associating two (or more) quantities (or variables). Each variable has a disinctive role.
> #The ''independent variable'' is a value selected from a set called the ''domain'' of the function.
> #The ''dependent variable'' is a value (in a set called the ''range'' of the function) which is determined by the value of
> the independent variable.
> 
> 
> #A function may be specified by giving an ''algorithm'' (or rule) which yields the value of the dependent variable when the value of the independent variable is provided as input.
> #A function may be specified by a  of ''ordered pairs'' of values.
> #A function may be described by a ''graph of points'' in two dimensions presenting (conventionally) the independent variable as the horizontal component and the dependent variable as the vertical component.
> 
> The concept of a function has been generalized to include arbitrary domains and ranges, the most common on which is the ''vector valued function'' in which the range is a set, not of numbers, but of ''n-tuples'' or vectors.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Function|983793664
3,4c3
< #The ''dependent variable'' is a value (in a set called the ''range'' of the function) which is determined by the value of
< the independent variable.
---
> #The ''dependent variable'' is a value (in a set called the ''range'' of the function) which is determined by the value of the independent variable.
13c12
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Function|983793889
1a2,3
> 
> *Roles of the variables
5c7
< 
---
> *Specification of the function
10c12,15
< The concept of a function has been generalized to include arbitrary domains and ranges, the most common on which is the ''vector valued function'' in which the range is a set, not of numbers, but of ''n-tuples'' or vectors.
---
> *Related concepts
> :The concept of a function has been generalized to include arbitrary domains and ranges, the most common on which is the ''vector valued function'' in which the range is a set, not of numbers, but of ''n-tuples'' or vectors.
> 
> :We sometimes distinguish between function definitions which are given by ''intention'', that is by an algorithm and those given by ''extension'', those specified by a list of pairs. 
------
Calculus|983794056
3c3
< '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses finding on the rate of change or [[Derivative]] of ''continuous'' [[Function]]s as the their arguements change. The value of such a [[Function]] (called the ''dependent variable'') results from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]], [[Mathematical Limit]], [Mathematical Continuity]], and [Rules of Operations for Functions]]. Its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
---
> '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses on finding the rate of change or [[Derivative]] of [[Continuous Function]]s as the their arguments change. The value of such a [[Function]] (called the ''dependent variable'') results from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]], [[Mathematical Limit]], [Mathematical Continuity]], and [Rules of Operations for Functions]]. Its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
------
Function|983794275
15a16,17
> 
> :[[Continuous Functions]] are those whose domains and ranges are sets of real numbers and which satisfy additional constraints.
------
ScientologY|983809927
1c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard], following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1985, Hubbard had published dozens of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
------
HolyTrinity|983810531
5c5
< The Son is [[Jesus]], whose sacrifice on the crucifix either ransomed souls from hell or opened the portal to heaven for whoever wants to go, depending on whom you ask.  He was both God and man, not considered to be some kind of phantasm or soulless possessed being, but was just like other humans except for also being God.
---
> The Son is [[Jesus]], whose sacrifice on the cross ransomed souls from hell, opened the portal to heaven for those who want to go or both, depending on which Christian tradition one consults.  He was both God and man, not considered to be some kind of phantasm or soulless possessed being, but was just like other humans except for also being God.
7c7
< The [[Holy Spirit]] is the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of God that communicates directly with humans.
---
> The [[Holy Spirit]] is the essence of God embodied as divine or inspired wisdom in people's lives, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of God that communicates directly with humans.
9,10c9
< All three parts are widely held to be coeternal, of the same substance, and yet inexplicably different.  All are considered to be present at each stage in history; the Trinity just shows the appropriate character at a given point.
< -----
---
> The three parts of the Holy Trinity are widely held to be coeternal, of the same substance, and yet inexplicably different.  All are considered to be present at each stage in history; the Trinity just shows the appropriate character at a given point.
12d10
< Because I am not an expert on Christianity, I can't help much here.  I suspect that the description of [[Holy Spirit]] as "the little angel sitting on cartoon characters' shoulders" could probably be explained more accurately, although surely not more vividly.  :-)  Please delete this note whenever you've made some change, o kind passerby.
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|983814163
7c7,9
< Punctuated equilibrium is to be contrasted with gradual evolution, which is what Darwin proposed.  Probably both play a role; their relative importance is still debated.
---
> Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
> 
> Punctuated Equilibria was proposed [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] in the 1970s.  It relies heavily on [[Ernst Mayr|Ernst Mayr's]] concept of [[peripatric speciation]].
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|983814338
1c1
< A version of [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]] where changes such as [[speciation]] occur very quickly, with long periods of little change (equilibria) in between.  This does a good job explaining the relative lack of intermediate forms in the fossil record.
---
> Punctuated Equilibrium, also called Punctuated Equilibria, is a theory of [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]] where changes such as [[speciation]] occur very quickly, with long periods of little change (equilibria) in between.  This does a good job explaining the relative lack of intermediate forms in the fossil record.
7c7
< Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
---
> Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics, notably [[Richard Dawkins]] have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
9c9,12
< Punctuated Equilibria was proposed [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] in the 1970s.  It relies heavily on [[Ernst Mayr|Ernst Mayr's]] concept of [[peripatric speciation]].
---
> Punctuated Equilibrium was proposed [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] in the 1970s.  It relies heavily on [[Ernst Mayr|Ernst Mayr's]] concept of [[peripatric speciation]].
> 
>  * External links
>  [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/punc-eq.html TalkOrigins]]
------
Ernst_Mayr|983814397
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary BiologistS?. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian GeneticS? and Darwinian EvolutioN?, and to the development of the BiologicalSpeciesCconcept?. His theory of ParapatricSpeciation? has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of PunctuatedEquillibrium?. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved. 
> 
> Books by Ernst Mayr include: 
>  /TheGrowthOfBiologicalThought?
>  /EvolutionAndTheDiversityofLife?
>  /OneLongArgument?
>  /PopulationsSpeciesAndEvolution?
>  /TowardANewPhilosophyOfBiology?
>  /PrinciplesOfSystematicZoology? 
>  /SystematicsAndTheOriginOfSpecies? 
>  /ThisIsBiology?
------
Ernst_Mayr|983814536
1c1
< One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary BiologistS?. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian GeneticS? and Darwinian EvolutioN?, and to the development of the BiologicalSpeciesCconcept?. His theory of ParapatricSpeciation? has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of PunctuatedEquillibrium?. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved. 
---
> One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary [[Biologists]]. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian [[genetics]] and Darwinian [[evolution]], and to the development of the [[Biological Species Concept]]. His theory of [[Parapatric Speciation]] has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of [[Punctuated Equillibrium]]. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved. 
4,11c4,11
<  /TheGrowthOfBiologicalThought?
<  /EvolutionAndTheDiversityofLife?
<  /OneLongArgument?
<  /PopulationsSpeciesAndEvolution?
<  /TowardANewPhilosophyOfBiology?
<  /PrinciplesOfSystematicZoology? 
<  /SystematicsAndTheOriginOfSpecies? 
<  /ThisIsBiology?
---
>  [[/The Growth Of Biological Thought]]
>  [[/Evolution and the Diversity of Life]]
>  [[/One Long Argument]]
>  [[/Populations Species and Evolution]]
>  [[/Toward a New Philosophy of Biology]]
>  [[/Principles of Systematic Zoology]]
>  [[/Systematics and the Origin of Species]]
>  [[/This Is Biology]]
------
Ernst_Mayr|983814552
1c1
< One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary [[Biologists]]. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian [[genetics]] and Darwinian [[evolution]], and to the development of the [[Biological Species Concept]]. His theory of [[Parapatric Speciation]] has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of [[Punctuated Equillibrium]]. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved. 
---
> One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary [[Biologists]]. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian [[genetics]] and Darwinian [[evolution]], and to the development of the [[Biological Species Concept]]. His theory of [[Parapatric Speciation]] has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of [[Punctuated Equilibrium]]. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved. 
------
ErnstMayr|983814572
1,11c1
< One of the 20th century's leading evolutionary BiologistS. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the synthesis of Mendelian GeneticS and Darwinian EvolutioN, and to the development of the BiologicalSpeciesCconcept. His theory of ParapatricSpeciation has become widely accepted as the standard mode of speciation, and is the basis of the theory of PunctuatedEquillibrium. Furthermore, his writings reflect, not only a technical expertise in biological subjects, but a broad and penetrating understanding of the deeper philosophical issues involved.
< 
< * Books by Ernst Mayr include:
<  /TheGrowthOfBiologicalThought
<  /EvolutionAndTheDiversityofLife
<  /OneLongArgument
<  /PopulationsSpeciesAndEvolution
<  /TowardANewPhilosophyOfBiology
<  /PrinciplesOfSystematicZoology 
<  /SystematicsAndTheOriginOfSpecies 
<  /ThisIsBiology
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernst Mayr]]
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|983814624
12c12
<  [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/punc-eq.html TalkOrigins]]
---
>  [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/punc-eq.html Talk Origins Archive]
------
RecentChanges|983816615
1,2c1,3
< Looks like the [[Slashdot]] interview might not run until next week.
< I have no way of knowing, but they already published a different interview this morning, and it seems that they tend to publish one interview every Friday.
---
> The SlashDot interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the
> link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have
> the massive influx that I had hoped and feared.  :-) --JimboWales
------
RecentChanges|983816636
1c1
< The SlashDot interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the
---
> The [[Slashdot]] interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|983816902
7c7
< Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics, notably [[Richard Dawkins]] have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
---
> Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics, notably [[Richard Dawkins]], have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983816914
49c49
< TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
---
> TimShell found this cool image file: wikia.gif
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983816991
49c49
< TimShell found this cool image file: wikia.gif
---
> TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.nupedia.com/wikia.gif
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983817258
2a3,6
> '''March 5, 2001'''
> 
> The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --JimboWales
> 
49c53
< TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.nupedia.com/wikia.gif
---
> TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
87c91
< ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
---
> ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
------
Sweden|983817395
3c3
< [[Country]] in Northern [[Europe]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
---
> [[Country]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
------
CountriesG|983817458
4a5
> * [[Guatemala]]
------
Scandinavia|983817793
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Region in northern [[Europe]] including [[Sweden]],[[Norway]],
> [[Denmark]], [Iceland]].
------
Scandinavia|983817838
2c2
< [[Denmark]], [Iceland]].
---
> [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]].
------
CountriesV|983817942
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Venezuela]]
> [[Vietnam]]
> 
------
Walt_Disney|983818071
1c1
< Walt Disney had always wanted to be a film maker.  He even once applied for a job working for Charlie Chaplain and was turned down.  But as we examine Walt Disney's remarkable life, we come to realize that he was much more than a film maker.  Relentlessly curious and creative, Walt should be rememberd as one of our greatest innovators.
---
> Walt Disney had always wanted to be a film maker.  He even once applied for a job working for [[Charlie Chaplin]] and was turned down.  But as we examine Walt Disney's remarkable life, we come to realize that he was much more than a film maker.  Relentlessly curious and creative, Walt should be rememberd as one of our greatest innovators.
3c3
< Walt started his career as a film maker working for Warner Brothers.  He had just returned to the United States after serving as an ambulance driver in World War I.  At Warner Brothers he created the successful character of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit.
---
> Walt started his career as a film maker working for [[Warner Brothers]].  He had just returned to the [[United States]] after serving as an ambulance driver in [[World War I]].  At Warner Brothers he created the successful character of Oswald the Lucky Rabbit.
5c5
< Walt persuaded his collaborator, Ub Iwerks, to leave Warner Brothers with him so they could create Oswald Cartoons on their own.  Warner Brothers sued him for copyright infringement which is what prompted him to create Mickey Mouse.
---
> Walt persuaded his collaborator, [[Ub Iwerks]], to leave Warner Brothers with him so they could create Oswald Cartoons on their own.  Warner Brothers sued him for copyright infringement which is what prompted him to create Mickey Mouse.
7c7
< One of the more famous Disney quotes has been, "Remember, it all started with a mouse."  But it more likely started with the Rabbit.  Walt claimed that it was the blowing of a trains whistle that inspired him to create Mickey.  Apparently the whistle blowed "A moooouse!  A mooouse!"  Probably, Mickey evolved from a more pragmatic conversation between Disney and Iwerks.  Mickey in fact was little more than a truncation of Oswald, round ears instead of long ones, and so forth.  It has also been said that the name Mickey came from Walt's wife Lillian who disapproved of Walt's choice of Mortimer.  A tall, strapping Mortimer would appear later in a Disney cartoon attempting to woo Minnie away from Mickey.
---
> One of the more famous Disney quotes has been, "Remember, it all started with a mouse."  But it more likely started with the Rabbit.  Walt claimed that it was the blowing of a trains whistle that inspired him to create [[Mickey Mouse]].  Apparently the whistle blowed "A moooouse!  A mooouse!"  Probably, Mickey evolved from a more pragmatic conversation between Disney and Iwerks.  Mickey in fact was little more than a truncation of Oswald, round ears instead of long ones, and so forth.  It has also been said that the name Mickey came from Walt's wife Lillian who disapproved of Walt's choice of Mortimer.  A tall, strapping Mortimer would appear later in a Disney cartoon attempting to woo Minnie away from Mickey.
9c9
< Walt had already been an innovator.  He made a series of Roger Rabbit style cartoons called the Alice in Wonderland Comedies in which a live action little girl interacted with animated characters.  He continued this inventive film making with Mickey. Mickey's first cartoon was Plane Crazy, in a story inspired by Lindberg.  But his next cartoon (and the first one Walt distributed) would be one that people discuss today, Steamboat Willie.  Al Jolsen had already come out in the Jazz Singer, the first sound motion picture.  Mickey Mouse now appeared in the first sound cartoon.  
---
> Walt had already been an innovator.  He made a series of [[Roger Rabbit]] style cartoons called the [[Alice in Wonderland]] Comedies in which a live action little girl interacted with animated characters.  He continued this inventive film making with Mickey. Mickey's first cartoon was Plane Crazy, in a story inspired by [[Charles Lindberg]].  But his next cartoon (and the first one Walt distributed) would be one that people discuss today, [[Steamboat Willie]].  [[Al Jolsen]] had already come out in [[The Jazz Singer]], the first sound motion picture.  Mickey Mouse now appeared in the first sound cartoon.  
11c11
< Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company Buena Vista.  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iverks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iverks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
---
> Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company [[Buena Vista]].  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iverks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iverks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
15c15
< Walt had always wanted to be a film maker, and his idea of making the feature length films must have been at the front of his mind from the beginning.  The origins of those films can be found in Walt Disney's Silly Symphonies.  Clever and masterful, these short cartoons were not silly at all.  Flowers and Trees, the first color cartoon, had been one of the Silly Symphonies.
---
> Walt had always wanted to be a film maker, and his idea of making the feature length films must have been at the front of his mind from the beginning.  The origins of those films can be found in Walt Disney's [[Silly Symphonies]].  Clever and masterful, these short cartoons were not silly at all.  Flowers and Trees, the first color cartoon, had been one of the Silly Symphonies.
17c17
< The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like Benny Goodman.  This song, by the way, was actually composed one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
---
> The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like [[Benny Goodman]].  This song, by the way, was actually composed one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
19c19
< It was with Snow White that Walt truly established himself.  A ninety minute cartoon back then was a questionable notion to many people.  To acquire the funding to complete it, Walt had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers at the Bank of America.  But Walt got the money that he needed, completed the film, and a string of Disney classics such as Fantasia and Pinochio followed.
---
> It was with [[Snow White]] that Walt truly established himself.  A ninety minute cartoon back then was a questionable notion to many people.  To acquire the funding to complete it, Walt had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers at the [[Bank of America]].  But Walt got the money that he needed, completed the film, and a string of Disney classics such as [[Fantasia]] and Pinochio followed.
21c21
< There might have been even more of these astonishing films if it hadn't been for World War II.  The Army occupied part of Walt's studio.  
---
> There might have been even more of these astonishing films if not for [[World War II]].  The Army occupied part of Walt's studio.  
23c23
< To compensate for the dimished resources, Walt came out with movies like The Three Caballeros and Melody Time that were less complicated and relied upon short musical segments.  Learning from the lack of success he had with Fantasia, Walt used music from artists like Dinah Shore as opposed to Stravinsky.
---
> To compensate for the dimished resources, Walt came out with movies like [[The Three Caballeros]] and [[Melody Time]] that were less complicated and relied upon short musical segments.  Learning from the lack of success he had with Fantasia, Walt used music from artists like [[Dinah Shore]] as opposed to [[Stravinsky]].
27c27
< Walt said he envisioned Disneyland while taking his daughters to a carnival and wishing he had somewhere he could go where he had fun, too.  When we look at the design of the park, it might be considered that Walt thought of it when he saw people's faces light up when they saw the magic of a film studio.  The facades and costumes and even the language of the park (employees are cast members, employee-only areas are called back stage) are indistinguishable from those of a working studio.  He had first wanted the park to be a small area down the street from the studio.  But as the details came together he came to see a place much grander.
---
> Walt said he envisioned [[Disneyland]] while taking his daughters to a carnival and wishing he had somewhere he could go where he had fun, too.  When we look at the design of the park, it might be considered that Walt thought of it when he saw people's faces light up when they saw the magic of a film studio.  The facades and costumes and even the language of the park (employees are cast members, employee-only areas are called back stage) are indistinguishable from those of a working studio.  He had first wanted the park to be a small area down the street from the studio.  But as the details came together he came to see a place much grander.
29c29
< Like Snow White, the park was doomed to fail.  And the first day of the park's operation, with the asphault still soft and insufficient bathrooms, has historically been considered a disaster.  But Disneyland was the world's first theme park.  And it is impossible fo think of any amusement park today without comparing it (unfavorably) to the Magic Kingdom.
---
> Like Snow White, the park was doomed to fail.  And the first day of the park's operation, with the asphault still soft and insufficient bathrooms, has historically been considered a disaster.  But Disneyland was the world's first theme park.  And it is impossible fo think of any amusement park today without comparing it (unfavorably) to the [[Magic Kingdom]].
31c31
< Today the rides at Disneyland, like the Indiana Jones Adventure, are thrill rides designed to attract a young audience.  And this is even more true of Disney's California Adventure.  It is hard to look at the Paradise Pier area of the California Adventure, and not think of that carnival that Walt had sworn he didn't want to build.  But back then, the rides were designed by cartoonists.  Many of them were created by Marc Davis, one of Walt's lead animators who is famous for such characters as Malificent and Tinker Bell.  Marc's sense of cleverness and story telling is what entralls us in such rides as the Pirates of the Carribean and the Haunted Mansion.  It is difficult to think of what makes Disneyland a special place without reflecting on the contribution of Marc Davis.
---
> Today the rides at Disneyland, like the [[Indiana Jones Adventure]], are thrill rides designed to attract a young audience.  And this is even more true of [[Disneys California Adventure]].  It is hard to look at the Paradise Pier area of the California Adventure, and not think of that carnival that Walt had sworn he didn't want to build.  But back then, the rides were designed by cartoonists.  Many of them were created by [[Marc Davis]], one of Walt's lead animators who is famous for such characters as Malificent and Tinker Bell.  Marc's sense of cleverness and story telling is what entralls us in such rides as the Pirates of the Carribean and the Haunted Mansion.  It is difficult to think of what makes Disneyland a special place without reflecting on the contribution of Marc Davis.
35c35
< Under the mascarade of an organization called the Reedy Creek Development District, Walt bought up large areas of swamp land in Florida.  His idea was not to recreate the success of Anaheim in Orlando, but to create a real city with all of the imagination that he had in Disneyland.  The people would both work and live there.  And corporations would pay to have their newest ideas tested there.  New telephones.  New cars.  New ideas of commerce and urban design would be innovated and perfected in a real city.  This was in the mid sixties.  We will never know what Epcot would have discovered in the time that has passed since then.
---
> Under the masquerade of an organization called the Reedy Creek Development District, Walt bought up large areas of swamp land in Florida.  His idea was not to recreate the success of Anaheim in Orlando, but to create a real city with all of the imagination that he had in Disneyland.  The people would both work and live there.  And corporations would pay to have their newest ideas tested there.  New telephones.  New cars.  New ideas of commerce and urban design would be innovated and perfected in a real city.  This was in the mid sixties.  We will never know what Epcot would have discovered in the time that has passed since then.
41c41
< Just as the animatronic figures took the two dimensional world of cartoons and made them three dimensional, Walt had wanted to break out of the imaginary world and penetrate the real one.  Ronald Reagan had once asked Walt why he didn't go into politics.  Walt Disney replied, "Because I'm already the monarch of the Magic Kingdom."
---
> Just as the animatronic figures took the two dimensional world of cartoons and made them three dimensional, Walt had wanted to break out of the imaginary world and penetrate the real one.  [[Ronald Reagan]] had once asked Walt why he didn't go into politics.  Walt Disney replied, "Because I'm already the monarch of the [[Magic Kingdom]]."
------
CountriesG|983818097
1,2d0
< Add your countries and some information about them here.
< 
------
JesusChrist|983818148
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jesus Christ]]
------
Germany|983818153
3c3
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Wurtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
---
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Würtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
27c27
< See [[History of Germany]].
---
> See [[History of Germany]].
------
LinearAlgebra|983818286
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Linear Algebra]]
------
CountriesB|983818335
1c1,3
< [[Bahrain]]
---
> * [[Bahrain]]
> * [[Belgium]]
> * [[Belize]]
------
RequestedArticles|983818344
5c5
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- [[Ghosts]] -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- [[Ghosts]] -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
------
CountriesM|983818391
1c1,2
< [[Morocco]]
---
> * [[Mexico]]
> * [[Morocco]]
------
RequestedArticles|983818392
5c5
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- [[Ghosts]] -- JesusChrist -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- GamblersFallacy -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- [[Ghosts]] -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
------
CountriesP|983818456
1,4d0
< * [[Poland]]
< * [[Portugal]]
< * [[Paraguay]]
< * [[Pitcairn Island]]
7a4,8
> * [[Paraguay]]
> * [[Peru]]
> * [[Pitcairn Island]]
> * [[Poland]]
> * [[Portugal]]
------
CountriesB|983818512
3c3,4
< * [[Belize]]
---
> * [[Belize]]
> * [[Brazil]]
------
CountriesC|983818608
1c1
< * [[Cambodia]
---
> * [[Cambodia]]
5c5
< * [[Colombia]]
---
> * [[Colombia]]
------
CountriesK|983818686
1c1
< 
---
> * [[Kenya]]
------
CountriesS|983818766
1c1,3
<  [[Surinam]] [[Sweden]]
---
> * [[Surinam]]
> * [[Swaziland]]
> * [[Sweden]]
------
CountriesS|983818784
3c3,4
< * [[Sweden]]
---
> * [[Sweden]]
> * [[Switzerland]]
------
Linux|983818786
1c1
< Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torvalds]]. Linux is available und the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
---
> Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torvalds]]. Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
3c3
< Technically speaking, the term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A full distribution such as [Red Hat], [SuSE], or [Debian] contains much software not created by Linus Torvalds and his group.  Some (notably [[Richard M Stallman]]) suggest that Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux.
---
> Technically speaking, the term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A full distribution such as [Red Hat], [SuSE], or [Debian] contains much software not created by Linus Torvalds and his group.  Some (notably [[Richard M Stallman]]) suggest that Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux.
------
CountriesV|983818830
1,3c1,2
< [[Venezuela]]
< [[Vietnam]]
< 
---
> * [[Venezuela]]
> * [[Vietnam]]
------
Free_Links|983818923
10a11,18
> ----
> Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. This problem has already been
> solved in the world of IMAP, and their solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding.
> 
> For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3 (http://www.faqs.org/ifcs/rfc2060.html).
> Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere
> to implement.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
> ----
------
Guatemala|983819121
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country in Latin America. Language spoken is Spanish. The capital is [[Guatemala City]]. 
------
Guatemala_City|983819143
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[Guatemala]].
------
CountriesS|983819205
0a1
> * [[Spain]]
------
GNU|983819228
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "GNU's Not Unix". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free UNIX system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other UNIX'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any UNIX machine. Their OperatingSystem (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
------
Mike_Dalessio|983819320
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :)
------
Mike_Dalessio|983819341
1c1
< :)
---
>  :)
------
LinusTolke|983819431
14a15,17
> ----
> Please see [[Free Links]] for an update on this issue, Linus.
> 
------
RulesToConsider|983819456
53c53,57
< ''See GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate''
---
> ''See GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate''
> 
> ----
> 
> [/Establish Context]
------
RulesToConsider|983819470
57c57
< [/Establish Context]
---
> [[/Establish Context]]
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|983819820
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Almost every entry in the Wikipedia should begin with a line or two that establishes context.  These opening lines should include the most basic facts about the subject.
> 
> An article on Charles Darwin should not begin with "Darwin created controversy with the publication of the Origin of Species...."  It should begin with "Charles Darwin was a 19th century biologist who proposed the modern theory of evolution."
> 
> An article on Scotland should not begin with "Scotland retains its identity despite political dominance by the English..."  It should begin by stating what Scotland is, where it is, etc.: "Scotland is part of the United Kingdom, located in the northern end of the British Isles..."
------
Linux|983820104
1c1,3
< Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]], referring to the system's original creator, [[Linus Torvalds]]. Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
---
> A computer operating system first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]].  Linux became popular in the late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]].
> 
> Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]]. Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
------
New_Zealand|983820181
9c9
< New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country.  It's primary export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry.  There are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
---
> New Zealand is a modern, industrialised country.  Its primary export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry.  There are also substantial manufacturing, tourism and service industries.
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983820251
7a8,9
> 
> Evolution from one species to another, of course, has never been observed.
------
CountriesS|983820354
0a1,2
> * [[Saudi Arabia]]
> * [[Slovakia]]
1a4
> * [[Sri Lanka]]
5c8
< * [[Switzerland]]
---
> * [[Switzerland]]
------
Keyboard|983820480
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The keyboard is a device with many keys (usually containing the alphabet, the digits, and various extra keys.) After punchcards it became the main input device for computers. During the 1980's, 1990's almost all computers came equipped with it, and most users are familiar with it. 
>   
------
CountriesM|983820624
0a1,2
> * [[Madagaskar]]
> * [[Malaysia]]
2c4
< * [[Morocco]]
---
> * [[Morocco]]
------
SandBox|983820654
61c61
< xxxxxx
---
> by the power of greyskull
------
LinusTolke|983820740
1,17c1,19
< Contributor of things to Wikipedia.
< 
< Swedish citizen.
< 
< ----
< 
< Linus,
< 
< I think that there are only some relatively minor problems with using native names instead of English names.  The problems have to do with what happens to web browsers if you go outside the standard English 26 character alphabet.
< 
< #Fancy characters are simply not legal in URLs.  This means that we can't have page names in fancy characters.  This isn't a wikipedia thing, it is just the way the Internet works.
< #If people use local letters, it becomes difficult to do searches.  This could be overcome by squashing fancy letters down to latin in the search engine.
< 
< Actually, the software could automatically squish fancy letters into Latin automatically for the generation of URLs, for searching, etc.  This would be a good solution.  However... I am not sure how hard it will be.
< ----
< Please see [[Free Links]] for an update on this issue, Linus.
< 
---
> Contributor of things to Wikipedia.
> 
> Swedish citizen.
> 
> ----
> 
> Linus,
> 
> I think that there are only some relatively minor problems with using native names instead of English names.  The problems have to do with what happens to web browsers if you go outside the standard English 26 character alphabet.
> 
> #Fancy characters are simply not legal in URLs.  This means that we can't have page names in fancy characters.  This isn't a wikipedia thing, it is just the way the Internet works.
> #If people use local letters, it becomes difficult to do searches.  This could be overcome by squashing fancy letters down to latin in the search engine.
> 
> Actually, the software could automatically squish fancy letters into Latin automatically for the generation of URLs, for searching, etc.  This would be a good solution.  However... I am not sure how hard it will be.
> ----
> Please see [[Free Links]] for an update on this issue, Linus.
> ----
> I simply cannot accept the item 1. Yes, the characters are illegal in url, Yes, the browsers might have problems with reading some of the characters (Netscape for Mac had problems until 1998 or so) but this is just an issue of coding the letters correctly like using %E4 in the URL and possibly using &auml; in the text if you are not delivering the pages in Latin1 (ISO-8859-1) that is the HTTP-default.
> Item 2 on the other hand I understand. This is more or less just how the spelling should be done. It shouldn't be harder than to decide if we should use U.K., American or South African spelling in the wikipedia. This must be agreed upon and stated as soon as possible. I hope this will be clearly stated (in [[Naming conventions]] or somewhere else.
------
Canada|983820812
1a2,3
> 
> Problems with Quebec ? What you say ? Insulting the French-Canadian from Quebec ? You are on the way to destruction ! Make your time ! Actually, I'd say that Quebec has had trouble with the canadians, not the other way around. Quebec wants to split away from Canada, and since Quebec is such a nice province, the canadians fear this and are unhappy.
------
Europe|983820865
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a capital [[A]], but a capital [[E]] instead. See also [[EuropE]].
------
Free_Links|983820989
15c15
< For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3 (http://www.faqs.org/ifcs/rfc2060.html).
---
> For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3.
17a18,19
> 
> p.s., Wah! The RFC link is automatically generated. That's wicked cool.
------
Quebec|983820998
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily french-speaking. It is surrounded by over 300 millions of evil anglophones (english-speakers, from the rest of Canada and the United States), and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
> 
> In 1995, 49.9% of Quebecer voted "yes" in a referendum that asked them if they wanted to split away from Canada. Unfortunately, 50.1% voted no, so we're still part of Canada.
------
Quebec|983821007
3c3
< In 1995, 49.9% of Quebecer voted "yes" in a referendum that asked them if they wanted to split away from Canada. Unfortunately, 50.1% voted no, so we're still part of Canada.
---
> In 1995, 49.9% of Quebecers voted "yes" in a referendum that asked them if they wanted to split away from Canada. Unfortunately, 50.1% voted no, so we're still part of Canada.
------
Free_Links|983821011
19c19
< p.s., Wah! The RFC link is automatically generated. That's wicked cool.
---
> P.S. Wah! The RFC link is automatically generated. That's wicked cool.
------
Free_Links|983821091
12,13c12
< Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. This problem has already been
< solved in the world of IMAP, and their solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding.
---
> Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. This problem has already been solved in the world of IMAP, and their solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding.
15,19c14
< For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3.
< Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere
< to implement.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
< 
< P.S. Wah! The RFC link is automatically generated. That's wicked cool.
---
> For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3. Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to implement.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
21d15
< 
------
RulesToConsider|983821510
57c57
< [[/Establish Context]]
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Suporters of this rule include (at least): JimboWales
------
GNU|983821579
1c1
< "GNU's Not Unix". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free UNIX system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other UNIX'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any UNIX machine. Their OperatingSystem (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
---
> "GNU's Not Unix". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free UNIX system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other UNIX'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any UNIX machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
------
Canada|983821673
1,3c1
< A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse, and has recently had some problems with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
< 
< Problems with Quebec ? What you say ? Insulting the French-Canadian from Quebec ? You are on the way to destruction ! Make your time ! Actually, I'd say that Quebec has had trouble with the canadians, not the other way around. Quebec wants to split away from Canada, and since Quebec is such a nice province, the canadians fear this and are unhappy.
---
> A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  There is a francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
------
United_States|983821777
0a1,2
> Country in Northern [[America]].
> 
------
Canada|983821810
1c1
< A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  There is a francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
---
> A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
------
Free_Links|983821823
12c12
< Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. This problem has already been solved in the world of IMAP, and their solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding.
---
> Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. A similar problem has already been solved in the world of IMAP in the i18n of mailbox names, and the solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding. For a complete explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3. The short version is that M-UTF-7 uses US-ASCII representation for US-ASCII characters, and "shifts" into modified BASE 64 for all other charsets (UNICODE 16-bit octets).
14c14
< For an explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3. Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to implement.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
---
> Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to hack up for WikiPedia.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
------
America|983821897
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the [[continents]] on [[earth]] starting with a capital [[A]].
------
Quebec|983821897
1c1
< Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily french-speaking. It is surrounded by over 300 millions of evil anglophones (english-speakers, from the rest of Canada and the United States), and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
---
> Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the FrenchLanguage. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
3c3
< In 1995, 49.9% of Quebecers voted "yes" in a referendum that asked them if they wanted to split away from Canada. Unfortunately, 50.1% voted no, so we're still part of Canada.
---
> In 1995, 49.9% of Quebecers voted "yes" in a referendum that asked them if they wanted to split away from Canada, while 50.1% voted no.  So Quebec is still part of Canada.
------
America|983822005
1c1
< One of the [[continents]] on [[earth]] starting with a capital [[A]].
---
> The term 'America' is often used as a synonym for the [[United States]].  It may sometimes often be used to refer to [[North America]] and/or [[South America]], which are [[continents]].
------
Continents|983822028
1c1
< A ''continent'' is one of the main land masses of Earth (or of a [[planet]]--on the hypothesis that there are other planets with [[ocean]]s and land masses similar to the Earth's).
---
> A ''continent'' is one of the main land masses of [[Earth]] (or of a [[planet]]--on the hypothesis that there are other planets with [[ocean]]s and land masses similar to the Earth's).
10c10
< :[[South America]]
---
> :[[South America]]
------
A|983822150
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vowel, [[ASCII]] code 65.
> First letter in [[alphabet]].
------
HomePage|983822158
2a3,4
> Visitors from the Slashdot article may want to read this welcome message:  [[Welcome Newcomers]].
> 
------
Welcome_Newcomers|983822570
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Hi!
> 
> Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Monday, March 5th, 11:45 AM Pacific Time), we have 1,867 pages in this wikipedia.  With your help, we will be over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
> 
> Please bookmark the site, and drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) BeBoldInUpdatingPages.  And above all, play nice.
> 
> One of the most important things you should know is that we (the existing community) have established some cultural norms that you should respect.  First, we try not to argue.  Everyone tries to reach a consensus about what entries should say.  Second, we try to make the entries as unbiased as we can, which means that the articles, even on controversial topics, are not meant to be platforms for preaching of any kind.
> 
> Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  BUT, this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
> 
> If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls.)
------
LunoMat|983822656
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Let me be the first to welcome you, LunoMat.
> 
> What are your primary areas of interest?  :-)
> 
> --JimboWales
------
Europe|983822835
1c1,53
< The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a capital [[A]], but a capital [[E]] instead. See also [[EuropE]].
---
> The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a capital [[A]], but a capital [[E]] instead.
> 
> Continent stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. From the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south to the [[North Pole]]. Europe is the western fifth of the [[Eurasian]] landmass.
> 
> Perhaps the name Europe is derived from EuropA, but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the [[Myrmidons]]).
> 
> Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting with
> the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], FrancE, and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
> 
> Europe comprises at the beginning of the year 2001 the following countries:
>     AlbaniA,
>     AndorrA,
>     AustriA,
>     [[Belarus]],
>     [[Belgium]],
>     [[Bosnia Herzegovina]],
>     [[Bulgaria]],
>     [[Croatia]],
>     [[Czech Republic]],
>     DenmarK,
>     [[Estonia]],
>     [[Finland]],
>     FrancE,
>     GermanY (Federal Republic of)
>     [[Greece]],
>     [[Hungary]],
>     IcelanD,
>     [[Ireland]] (Republic of),
>     ItalY,
>     [[Latvia]],
>     [[Liechtenstein]],
>     [[Lithuania]],
>     LuxemburG,
>     [[Macedonia]] (Former Yugoslav Republic of)
>     [[Moldova]],
>     [[Monaco]],
>     [[Netherlands]] (sometimes called [[Holland]]),
>     [[Norway]],
>     PolanD,
>     [[Portugal]],
>     [[Romania]],
>     RussiA,
>     [[Slovakia]],
>     [[San Marino]],
>     [[Slovenia]],
>     [[Spain]],
>     [[Sweden]],
>     [[Switzerland]],
>     TurkeY (Republic of)
>     [[Ukraine]],
>     [[United Kingdom]] (sometimes called [[Britain]] or [[Great Britain]],
>     [[Vatican]],
>     [[Yugoslavia]] (Federal Republic of)
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983822860
9c9
< Evolution from one species to another, of course, has never been observed.
---
> There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants.  See [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details.
------
AmericA|983823027
1,9c1
< The word AmericA is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
< 
< ''America'' has two primary meanings:
< 
< (1) TheAmericas: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See NorthAmerica, CentralAmerica (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of NorthAmerica), and SouthAmerica.
< 
< (2) The United States of America.  See UnitedStates.
< 
< In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
---
> #REDIRECT [[America]]
------
EuropA|983823049
1c1
< In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to CretE. She bore him some childs, KingMinos and RhabdaManthus. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Europa]]
------
America|983823173
1c1,11
< The term 'America' is often used as a synonym for the [[United States]].  It may sometimes often be used to refer to [[North America]] and/or [[South America]], which are [[continents]].
---
> The word AmericA is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
> 
> ''America'' has two primary meanings:
> 
> (1) TheAmericas: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See NorthAmerica, CentralAmerica (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of NorthAmerica), and SouthAmerica.
> 
> (2) The United States of America.  See UnitedStates.
> 
> In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
> ----
> ''The above is the former contents of AmericA.  Please look for pages named in the old style before starting one using [[Free Links]]--thanks.''
------
Europe|983823221
7,8c7
< Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting with
< the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], FrancE, and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], FrancE, and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
------
America|983823287
1c1
< The word AmericA is derived from the given name of AmerigoVespucci (1454-1512). He was an italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the New World (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
---
> The word ''America'' is derived from the given name of [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (1454-1512). He was an Italian merchant and explorer-navigator who took part in early voyages to the [[New World]] (1499-1500, 1501-02). 
5c5
< (1) TheAmericas: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See NorthAmerica, CentralAmerica (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of NorthAmerica), and SouthAmerica.
---
> (1) [[The Americas]]: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See [[North America]], [[Central America]] (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of [[North America]]), and [[South America]].
7c7
< (2) The United States of America.  See UnitedStates.
---
> (2) The United States of America.  See [[United States]].
9c9
< In the UnitedStates and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of TheAmericas, ''America'' often refers to TheAmericas.
---
> In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of [[The Americas]], ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
------
Europe|983823418
5c5
< Perhaps the name Europe is derived from EuropA, but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the [[Myrmidons]]).
---
> Perhaps the name Europe is derived from [[Europa]], but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the [[Myrmidons]]).
------
Europa|983823460
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some childs, [[King Minos]] and [[Rhabda Manthus]]. 
> 
------
RulesToConsider|983823493
57c57
< [[/Establish Context]] Suporters of this rule include (at least): JimboWales
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Suporters of this rule include (at least): JimboWales and [[Larry Sanger]]
------
RulesToConsider|983823513
57c57
< [[/Establish Context]] Suporters of this rule include (at least): JimboWales and [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) JimboWales and [[Larry Sanger]]
------
SandBox|983823613
3a4
> 
4a6,12
> 
> Why don't you people use TWiki?  It is, in my opinion, better than the typical wiki web because it stores an entire revision history of each page.  You can also turn things into wiki pages that don't fit the CorrectSyntax.  So, you could make "Correctsyntax" into a page.
> 
> Check out Twiki at http://www.twiki.org
> 
> ----
> 
------
UniCode|983823661
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Unicode goals is to encode all characters set in one standard.
> Unicode are multibytes.
> the linux console, the java langage, and Emacs are applications that support unicode. 
------
Africa|983823831
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.jpg
> 
> '''Western Africa'''
>     [[Benin]]
>     [[Burkina Faso]]
>     [[Cameroon]]
>     [[Ghana]]
>     [[Mali]]
>     [[Nigeria]]
>     [[Senegal]]
>     [[Togo]]
> 
> '''Central Africa'''
> 
> '''Southern Africa'''
> 
> ----
> 
> [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa] provides a readable and compelling introduction to today's western Africa.
> 
------
AfricA|983823882
1,27c1
< http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.jpg
< 
< '''WesternAfrica'''
< 
< [[Benin]]
< 
< BurkinaFaso
< 
< [[Cameroon]]
< 
< [[Ghana]]
< 
< [[Mali]]
< 
< [[Nigeria]]
< 
< [[Senegal]]
< 
< [[Togo]]
< 
< '''CentralAfrica'''
< 
< '''SouthernAfrica'''
< 
< ----
< 
< [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa] provides a readable and compelling introduction to today's western Africa.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Africa]]
------
EngineerIng|983823884
1a2
> [[Software_Engineering]]
------
Europe|983823998
7c7
< Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], FrancE, and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
19c19
<     DenmarK,
---
>     [[Denmark]],
------
Earth|983824127
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our solar system whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace.
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace other elements.
3c3
< The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|terrestrial planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[magnetic field]], and a sold inner core.
---
> The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|terrestrial planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[magnetic field]], and a solid inner core.
5c5
< The Earth is unusual in having a large, Terrestrial-like [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of the planetary diameter.  By coincidence, the moon is just far enough away to have the same apparent angular size as the Sun.  Probably the Moon formed from the collision of a [[Mars]]-sized planet into the early Earth, which explains for instance its lack of iron.
---
> The Earth is unusual in its solar system in having a terrestrial planet-like [[Moon]] that is about 1/4 of the Earth's diameter, usually called simply "the Moon," though satellites orbiting other planets are also called "[[moons]]."  By coincidence, the Moon is just far enough away to have, when seen from the Earth, the same apparent angular size as the Sun.  The [[Moon/Origin|origin of the Moon]] is presently unknown, but one popular theory has it that it was formed from the collision of a [[Mars]]-sized planet into the early Earth, which explains for instance its lack of iron.
7c7
< The Earth is the only known place in the universe that supports [[Biology|life]], including intelligent species such as [[humans]] and to a lesser extent [[apes]], [[dolphins]], and maybe a few others.
---
> The Earth is the only ''known'' place in the universe that supports [[Biology|life]], notably intelligent life including [[humans]] and to a lesser extent [[apes]], [[dolphins]], and maybe a few others.  Scientists have not ruled the existence of [[extraterrestrial life|life in other places in the universe]], and some think it likely.
------
TurkeY|983824183
1,6c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara (2.6m). Other important cities are Izmir (1.7m), Istanbul (6.6m), Bursa (0.835m)
< 
< Ethnic background: Turkish 86%, Kurdish 11%, Arabic 2%.
< 
< Religious background: SunniMuslims 99%, OrthodoxChristians 0.34%.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Turkey]]
------
Europe|983824267
22,23c22,23
<     FrancE,
<     GermanY (Federal Republic of)
---
>     [[France]],
>     [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
26c26
<     IcelanD,
---
>     [[Iceland]],
28c28
<     ItalY,
---
>     [[Italy]],
32c32
<     LuxemburG,
---
>     [[Luxemburg]],
38c38
<     PolanD,
---
>     [[Poland]],
41c41
<     RussiA,
---
>     [[Russia]],
48c48
<     TurkeY (Republic of)
---
>     [[Turkey]] (Republic of)
------
Africa|983824379
1,2d0
< http://www.cnn.com/TRAVEL/CITY.GUIDES/regional/africa/africa.jpg
< 
------
Stockholm|983824411
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital and biggest city of [[Sweden]].
------
EuropE|983824531
1,52c1
< ContinenT stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the AtlanticOcean in the west to the UralMountains in the east. From the MediterraneanSea in the south to the NorthPole. Europe is the western fifth of the EurAsian landmass.
< 
< Perhaps the name Europe is derived from EuropA, but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the MyrmiDons).
< 
< Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting with
< the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the 15th century European nations, particularly SpaiN, PortugaL, FrancE, and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in AfricA, AmericA, and AsiA. The IndustrializatioN started in 18th century from here. After WorldWarTwo and in the ColdWar EuropE was divided in two major political and economic blocs—CommunisT nations in EasternEurope and CapitalistiC countries in WesternEurope. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
< 
< E. comprises at the beginning of the year 2001 the following countries:
<     AlbaniA,
<     AndorrA,
<     AustriA,
<     BelaruS,
<     BelgiuM,
<     BosniaAndHerzegovina,
<     BulgariA,
<     CroatiA,
<     CzechRepublic,
<     DenmarK,
<     EstoniA,
<     [[Finland]],
<     FrancE,
<     GermanY (Federal Republic of)
<     GreecE,
<     HungarY,
<     IcelanD,
<     IrelanD (Republic of),
<     ItalY,
<     LatviA,
<     LiechtensteiN,
<     LithuaniA,
<     LuxemburG,
<     Macedonia (Former Yugoslav Republic of)
<     MoldovA,
<     MonacO,
<     NetherlandS,
<     NorwaY,
<     PolanD,
<     PortugaL,
<     RomaniA,
<     RussiA,
<     SlovakiA,
<     SanMarino,
<     SloveniA,
<     SpaiN,
<     [[Sweden]],
<     SwitzerlanD,
<     TurkeY (Republic of)
<     UkrainE,
<     UnitedKingdom,
<     VaticaN,
<     YugoslaviA (Federal Republic of)
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Europe]]
------
Capital|983824652
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time.
------
capital|983824721
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time.
------
Capital|983824748
1c1
< The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time.
---
> #REDIRECT [[capital]]
------
country|983824966
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
------
Country|983824987
1c1
< A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
---
> #REDIRECT [[country]]
------
LinusTolke|983825070
1,19c1,23
< Contributor of things to Wikipedia.
< 
< Swedish citizen.
< 
< ----
< 
< Linus,
< 
< I think that there are only some relatively minor problems with using native names instead of English names.  The problems have to do with what happens to web browsers if you go outside the standard English 26 character alphabet.
< 
< #Fancy characters are simply not legal in URLs.  This means that we can't have page names in fancy characters.  This isn't a wikipedia thing, it is just the way the Internet works.
< #If people use local letters, it becomes difficult to do searches.  This could be overcome by squashing fancy letters down to latin in the search engine.
< 
< Actually, the software could automatically squish fancy letters into Latin automatically for the generation of URLs, for searching, etc.  This would be a good solution.  However... I am not sure how hard it will be.
< ----
< Please see [[Free Links]] for an update on this issue, Linus.
< ----
< I simply cannot accept the item 1. Yes, the characters are illegal in url, Yes, the browsers might have problems with reading some of the characters (Netscape for Mac had problems until 1998 or so) but this is just an issue of coding the letters correctly like using %E4 in the URL and possibly using &auml; in the text if you are not delivering the pages in Latin1 (ISO-8859-1) that is the HTTP-default.
< Item 2 on the other hand I understand. This is more or less just how the spelling should be done. It shouldn't be harder than to decide if we should use U.K., American or South African spelling in the wikipedia. This must be agreed upon and stated as soon as possible. I hope this will be clearly stated (in [[Naming conventions]] or somewhere else.
---
> Contributor of things to Wikipedia.
> 
> Swedish citizen.
> 
> ----
> 
> Linus,
> 
> I think that there are only some relatively minor problems with using native names instead of English names.  The problems have to do with what happens to web browsers if you go outside the standard English 26 character alphabet.
> 
> #Fancy characters are simply not legal in URLs.  This means that we can't have page names in fancy characters.  This isn't a wikipedia thing, it is just the way the Internet works.
> #If people use local letters, it becomes difficult to do searches.  This could be overcome by squashing fancy letters down to latin in the search engine.
> 
> Actually, the software could automatically squish fancy letters into Latin automatically for the generation of URLs, for searching, etc.  This would be a good solution.  However... I am not sure how hard it will be.
> ----
> Please see [[Free Links]] for an update on this issue, Linus.
> ----
> I simply cannot accept the item 1. Yes, the characters are illegal in url, Yes, the browsers might have problems with reading some of the characters (Netscape for Mac had problems until 1998 or so) but this is just an issue of coding the letters correctly like using %E4 in the URL and possibly using &auml; in the text if you are not delivering the pages in Latin1 (ISO-8859-1) that is the HTTP-default.
> Item 2 on the other hand I understand. This is more or less just how the spelling should be done. It shouldn't be harder than to decide if we should use U.K., American or South African spelling in the wikipedia. This must be agreed upon and stated as soon as possible. I hope this will be clearly stated (in [[Naming conventions]] or somewhere else.
> ----
> Hi Linus, good to see you here again!
> 
> I wouldn't point "Capital" to "capital".  When anyone wants to link to "capital", he will write it like this: [[capital]].  But that links to Capital, not capital.  Unless we want to start a convention where all lowercase-titled articles are always reached via redirection, which I don't recommend, I think we should just accept the fact that the first letter of all titles will have to be capitalized. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Bundesrepublik_Deutschland|983825174
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Official German name for [[Germany]].
------
Federal_Republic_of_Germany|983825204
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Official name for [[Germany]].
------
LinusTolke|983826200
23c23,31
< I wouldn't point "Capital" to "capital".  When anyone wants to link to "capital", he will write it like this: [[capital]].  But that links to Capital, not capital.  Unless we want to start a convention where all lowercase-titled articles are always reached via redirection, which I don't recommend, I think we should just accept the fact that the first letter of all titles will have to be capitalized. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I wouldn't point "Capital" to "capital".  When anyone wants to link to "capital", he will write it like this: [[capital]].  But that links to Capital, not capital.  Unless we want to start a convention where all lowercase-titled articles are always reached via redirection, which I don't recommend, I think we should just accept the fact that the first letter of all titles will have to be capitalized. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Again I am bit by the pecularities of this wiki software. :-)
> 
> I don't agree and I don't understand why the wiki software has all these "problem". They are getting in the way when it comes to creating the contents.
> 
> I think that the all main articles should reside in the word with the correct capitalisation (sic!). Then most of the words will be capitalised because they are names of places, persons, months or days in the week. Other words, where the wikipedia actually has the role of a dictionary instead of that of an encyclopedia, it is correct to spell with a lowercase-title.
> 
> I made the redirect from [[Capital]] to [[capital]] because somebody had already used [[Capital]] because it was in the beginning of a sentence and I didn't wan't to destroy that. The correct way for the person wanting to link to [[capital]] but in the beginning of a sentence would be to link to [[capital|Capital]]. I think this is the correct way of doing it. I still don't think that the wiki software shall be allowed to dictate how we organise the contents. It is better if it is the other way around i.e. how we organise the contents dictates how the software will have to work.
------
Poland|983826927
1c1
< Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is [[Warsaw]] (Warsawa).
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
3c3
< Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, PolanD was the largest state in Europe. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. Poland is bordered to the north by the [[Baltic Sea]], to the northeast by [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]], and to the east by [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate Poland from [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]], while to the west the border with [[Germany]] is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
---
> Over the past millennium, the name Poland has been applied to a shifting territorial base. At one time, in the mid-1500s, [[Poland]] was the largest state in [[Europe]]. At other times there was no Polish state at all. Its current frontiers, stretching for 2,198 miles (3,538 kilometres), were drawn in 1945. Poland is bordered to the north by the [[Baltic Sea]], to the northeast by [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]], and to the east by [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]. To the south the border follows the watershed of the Beskid, Carpathian, and Sudeten (Sudety) mountains, which separate Poland from [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]], while to the west the border with [[Germany]] is defined by the Neisse (Nysa Luzycka) and Oder (Odra) rivers.
------
Bundesrepublik_Deutschland|983827010
1c1
< Official German name for [[Germany]].
---
> Official German name for the [[Federeal Republic of Germany]] - ''see'' [[Germany]].
------
Slashdot|983827093
4a5,6
> 
> ***FIRST POST***
------
Warszawa|983827150
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Polish name for the [[capital]] of [[Poland]] - [[Warsaw]].
------
Europe|983827150
1c1
< The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a capital [[A]], but a capital [[E]] instead.
---
> The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead.
------
Poland|983827206
1c1
< Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of PolanD is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its capital is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of [[Poland]] is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its [[capital]] is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
------
LunoMat|983828226
0a1,4
> [[Slashdot]] reader and [[enthusiastic]] about all great [[idea]]s. New friend of [[wikipedia]] :-)
> 
> ----
> 
------
Jupiter|983828919
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and by far the largest. Jupiter is more than twice as massive as all the other planets
> combined (318 times Earth).
> 
> [[orbit]]: 778,330,000 km (5.20 AU) from Sun
> [[diameter]]: 142,984 km (equatorial)
> [[mass]]: 1.900e27 kg
> 
> Jupiter (a.k.a. Jove; Greek [[Zeus]]) was the King of the Gods, the ruler of [[Olympus]] and the patron of the Roman state. Zeus was the son of Cronus ([[Saturn]]).    Jupiter is the fourth brightest object in the sky (after the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]] and [[Venus]]; at some times [[Mars]] is also brighter). It has been known since prehistoric times. [[Galileo]]'s discovery, in 1610, of Jupiter's four large moons [[Io]], [[Europa]], [[Ganymede]] and [[Callisto]] (now known as the Galilean moons) was the first discovery of a center of motion not apparently centered on the Earth. It was a major point in favor of [[Copernicus]]'s heliocentric theory of the motions of the [[planet]]s; Galileo's outspoken support of the Copernican theory got him in trouble with the [[Inquisition]]. 
> 
>   Jupiter is about 90% [[hydrogen]] and 10% [[helium]] (by numbers of atoms, 75/25% by mass) with traces of
> [[methane]], [[water]], [[ammonia]] and "rock". This is very close to the composition of the primordial Solar Nebula from
> which the entire [[solar system]] was formed. [[Saturn]] has a similar composition, but [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] have much
> less hydrogen and helium. 
> 
> (Information pasted from http://www.seds.org/nineplanets/nineplanets/jupiter.html using [[google]] for search.)
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
SandBox|983829026
3c3
< Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like DenmarK.
---
> Can I create a link to a page called Sandbox by using special markup, e.g. [Sandbox] like on ZWiki?  Hm, nope, it doesn't seem to work.  If it did, it would solve the problem of silly WikiNames like .
------
Games|983829197
7a8,11
> * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Mancala]]
> * [[Hex]]
------
Stamp_collecting|983829289
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stamp Collecting is the collecting of postage stamps and things related to postage stamps.  It is one of the world's most popular hobbies.
> 
------
Slashdot|983829325
5,6d4
< 
< ***FIRST POST***
------
CompiledLanguages|983829326
1c1,91
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BASIC - Programming Language
> ----------------------------
> 
> B = Beginner's
> A = All-purpose
> S = Symbolic
> I = Instruction
> C = Code
> 
> 	BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
> 
> 	The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
> 
> 	The acronym BASIC stands for "Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code"(c.1). The acronym is not related to C. K. Ogden's series titled "Basic English."(c.1) The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.
> 
> 	BASIC is the worlds most popular programming language, despite the disdain for the language by computer professionals from shortly after the development of the first version to present day.  The disdain comes from BASIC being a "slow interpretive unstructured language."  Surprisingly the first version of BASIC, Dartmouth BASIC, was not interpretive, and not particularly slow.  All later versions of Dartmouth BASIC and the direct descendants have all been compilers.
> 
> 	The first version of BASIC was developed on a timesharing mainframe called the GE-265, which was a GE-235 with a GE DataNet-30.(c.1)  The false reputation for BASIC's slow performance may be tied to the GE FORTRAN compiler for the hardware which placed the startup code at the beginning of the runtime tape, and the shutdown code at the end, resulting in an empty FORTRAN program taking a very long time to run.  Dartmouth BASIC has never had this problem.(c.1)
> 
> 	During the early days of BASIC there were no interpretive versions, however with the advent of the first personal computers multiple interpretive versions of BASIC proliferated.  The designers and manufacturers of the first personal computers with keyboards needed to include software to allow people to write software to use on the computers.  As all the other programming languages were too large to fit in the small ROM space on the machines, and not even a compiled version of BASIC would fit, interpretive BASIC was chosen.  The most widespread versions were made by Microsoft.
> 
> 	Since the early days of the personal computer BASIC compilers, some of them generating code as fast as the fastest versions of Pascal and C, have made a comeback, but despite the addition of structured programming capability its reputation remains.
> 
> 	BASIC is available for nearly every platform made.  One free interpretive version that is compliant with standards and highly cross-platform is ByWater BASIC.  The most well known compiled versions are Microsoft's Quick BASIC product line and QBASIC, (a version which does not generate standalone programs.)(c.2)  Some versions of the best-selling Visual BASIC product-line are also compiled, although Microsoft has altered Visual BASIC into a language minimally compatible with even early versions of Dartmouth BASIC.  Other versions include PowerBASIC's PowerBASIC, as well as True BASIC's True BASIC, a product compliant with the latest official standards for BASIC.  (True BASIC Inc. was founded by the original creators of BASIC.)
> 
> 
> Sample 1: Unstructured original BASIC
> -------------------------------------
> 10 INPUT "What is your name"; A$
> 20 PRINT "Hello "; A$
> 30 INPUT "How many stars do you want"; S
> 40 FOR I = 1 TO S
> 50 S$ = S$ + "*"
> 55 NEXT I
> 60 PRINT S$
> 70 INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Q$
> 80 IF LEN(Q$) = 0 GOTO 70
> 90 L$ = LEFT$(Q$, 1)
> 100 IF (L$ = "Y") OR (L$ = "y") THEN GOTO 30
> 110 PRINT "Goodbye ";
> 120 FOR I = 1 TO 200
> 130 PRINT A$; " ";
> 140 NEXT I
> 150 PRINT
> 
> 
> Sample 2: Modern Structured BASIC
> ---------------------------------
> INPUT "What is your name"; UserName$
> PRINT "Hello "; UserName$
> DO	
>   INPUT "How many stars do you want"; NumStars
>   Stars$ = ""
>   Stars$ = REPEAT$("*", NumStars)	'<-ANSI BASIC
>   'Stars$ = STRING(NumStars, "*")	'<-MS BASIC
>   PRINT Stars$
>   DO
>     INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Answer$
>   LOOP UNTIL Answer$ <> ""
> LOOP WHILE UCASE$(LEFT$(Answer$, 1)) = "Y"
> PRINT "Goodbye ";
> FOR A = 1 TO 200
>   PRINT UserName$; " ";
> NEXT A
> PRINT
> 			
> 
> Documents Defining BASIC
> ------------------------
> 
> ANSI Standard for Minimal BASIC (ANSI X3.60-1978 "FOR MINIMAL BASIC")
> 
> ISO Standard  for Minimal BASIC (ISO/IEC 6373:1984 "DATA PROCESSING - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - MINIMAL BASIC")
> 
> ANSI Standard for Full BASIC (ANSI X3.113-1987 "PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FULL BASIC") $79 USD
> 
> ISO Standard for Full BASIC (ISO/IEC 10279:1991 "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - FULL BASIC") $53 USD
> 
> ANSI Addendum Defining Modules (X3.113 INTERPRETATIONS-1992 "BASIC TECHNICAL INFORMATION BULLETIN # 1 INTERPRETATIONS OF ANSI 03.113-1987")
> 
> ISO Addendum Defining Modules (ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 "MODULES AND SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT ENHANCEMENT")
> 
> 
> References
> ----------
> c1. Per correspondence with Thomas E. Kurtz.
> c2. QBASIC is included on the installation CD-ROM for Windows 95/98/ME.
> 
> 
> Originally written for Nupedia.
> Article by Peter Fedorow fedorowp@yahoo.com
------
Hobbies|983829418
10a11
> * [[Modelling]]
12c13
< Etc.
---
> Etc.
------
Mike_Dalessio|983829461
1a2,3
> just testing
> 
------
CompiledLanguages|983829470
1,2d0
< BASIC - Programming Language
< ----------------------------
4,91d1
< B = Beginner's
< A = All-purpose
< S = Symbolic
< I = Instruction
< C = Code
< 
< 	BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
< 
< 	The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
< 
< 	The acronym BASIC stands for "Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code"(c.1). The acronym is not related to C. K. Ogden's series titled "Basic English."(c.1) The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.
< 
< 	BASIC is the worlds most popular programming language, despite the disdain for the language by computer professionals from shortly after the development of the first version to present day.  The disdain comes from BASIC being a "slow interpretive unstructured language."  Surprisingly the first version of BASIC, Dartmouth BASIC, was not interpretive, and not particularly slow.  All later versions of Dartmouth BASIC and the direct descendants have all been compilers.
< 
< 	The first version of BASIC was developed on a timesharing mainframe called the GE-265, which was a GE-235 with a GE DataNet-30.(c.1)  The false reputation for BASIC's slow performance may be tied to the GE FORTRAN compiler for the hardware which placed the startup code at the beginning of the runtime tape, and the shutdown code at the end, resulting in an empty FORTRAN program taking a very long time to run.  Dartmouth BASIC has never had this problem.(c.1)
< 
< 	During the early days of BASIC there were no interpretive versions, however with the advent of the first personal computers multiple interpretive versions of BASIC proliferated.  The designers and manufacturers of the first personal computers with keyboards needed to include software to allow people to write software to use on the computers.  As all the other programming languages were too large to fit in the small ROM space on the machines, and not even a compiled version of BASIC would fit, interpretive BASIC was chosen.  The most widespread versions were made by Microsoft.
< 
< 	Since the early days of the personal computer BASIC compilers, some of them generating code as fast as the fastest versions of Pascal and C, have made a comeback, but despite the addition of structured programming capability its reputation remains.
< 
< 	BASIC is available for nearly every platform made.  One free interpretive version that is compliant with standards and highly cross-platform is ByWater BASIC.  The most well known compiled versions are Microsoft's Quick BASIC product line and QBASIC, (a version which does not generate standalone programs.)(c.2)  Some versions of the best-selling Visual BASIC product-line are also compiled, although Microsoft has altered Visual BASIC into a language minimally compatible with even early versions of Dartmouth BASIC.  Other versions include PowerBASIC's PowerBASIC, as well as True BASIC's True BASIC, a product compliant with the latest official standards for BASIC.  (True BASIC Inc. was founded by the original creators of BASIC.)
< 
< 
< Sample 1: Unstructured original BASIC
< -------------------------------------
< 10 INPUT "What is your name"; A$
< 20 PRINT "Hello "; A$
< 30 INPUT "How many stars do you want"; S
< 40 FOR I = 1 TO S
< 50 S$ = S$ + "*"
< 55 NEXT I
< 60 PRINT S$
< 70 INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Q$
< 80 IF LEN(Q$) = 0 GOTO 70
< 90 L$ = LEFT$(Q$, 1)
< 100 IF (L$ = "Y") OR (L$ = "y") THEN GOTO 30
< 110 PRINT "Goodbye ";
< 120 FOR I = 1 TO 200
< 130 PRINT A$; " ";
< 140 NEXT I
< 150 PRINT
< 
< 
< Sample 2: Modern Structured BASIC
< ---------------------------------
< INPUT "What is your name"; UserName$
< PRINT "Hello "; UserName$
< DO	
<   INPUT "How many stars do you want"; NumStars
<   Stars$ = ""
<   Stars$ = REPEAT$("*", NumStars)	'<-ANSI BASIC
<   'Stars$ = STRING(NumStars, "*")	'<-MS BASIC
<   PRINT Stars$
<   DO
<     INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Answer$
<   LOOP UNTIL Answer$ <> ""
< LOOP WHILE UCASE$(LEFT$(Answer$, 1)) = "Y"
< PRINT "Goodbye ";
< FOR A = 1 TO 200
<   PRINT UserName$; " ";
< NEXT A
< PRINT
< 			
< 
< Documents Defining BASIC
< ------------------------
< 
< ANSI Standard for Minimal BASIC (ANSI X3.60-1978 "FOR MINIMAL BASIC")
< 
< ISO Standard  for Minimal BASIC (ISO/IEC 6373:1984 "DATA PROCESSING - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - MINIMAL BASIC")
< 
< ANSI Standard for Full BASIC (ANSI X3.113-1987 "PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FULL BASIC") $79 USD
< 
< ISO Standard for Full BASIC (ISO/IEC 10279:1991 "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - FULL BASIC") $53 USD
< 
< ANSI Addendum Defining Modules (X3.113 INTERPRETATIONS-1992 "BASIC TECHNICAL INFORMATION BULLETIN # 1 INTERPRETATIONS OF ANSI 03.113-1987")
< 
< ISO Addendum Defining Modules (ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 "MODULES AND SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT ENHANCEMENT")
< 
< 
< References
< ----------
< c1. Per correspondence with Thomas E. Kurtz.
< c2. QBASIC is included on the installation CD-ROM for Windows 95/98/ME.
< 
< 
< Originally written for Nupedia.
< Article by Peter Fedorow fedorowp@yahoo.com
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983829508
9c9,11
< There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants.  See [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details.
---
> There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants.  See [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details.
> 
> Note, however, that the link contradicts the assertion of "numerous observed cases". The link states: "The literature on observed speciations events is not well organized. I found only a few papers that had an observation of a speciation event as the author's main point." 
------
Flavor|983829515
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm really [[Mike Dalessio]].
------
LinusTolke|983829538
31c31,33
< I made the redirect from [[Capital]] to [[capital]] because somebody had already used [[Capital]] because it was in the beginning of a sentence and I didn't wan't to destroy that. The correct way for the person wanting to link to [[capital]] but in the beginning of a sentence would be to link to [[capital|Capital]]. I think this is the correct way of doing it. I still don't think that the wiki software shall be allowed to dictate how we organise the contents. It is better if it is the other way around i.e. how we organise the contents dictates how the software will have to work.
---
> I made the redirect from [[Capital]] to [[capital]] because somebody had already used [[Capital]] because it was in the beginning of a sentence and I didn't wan't to destroy that. The correct way for the person wanting to link to [[capital]] but in the beginning of a sentence would be to link to [[capital|Capital]]. I think this is the correct way of doing it. I still don't think that the wiki software shall be allowed to dictate how we organise the contents. It is better if it is the other way around i.e. how we organise the contents dictates how the software will have to work.
> ----
> I agree with you for the most part, but we have already discussed this on...jeez, I forget where.  Maybe someone else can answer you adequately.  There are good reasons for this, anyway.  Perhaps there's a way around the problem and everyone can be satisfied, though. --LS
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983829606
11c11
< Note, however, that the link contradicts the assertion of "numerous observed cases". The link states: "The literature on observed speciations events is not well organized. I found only a few papers that had an observation of a speciation event as the author's main point." 
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983829620
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Note, however, that the link contradicts the assertion of "numerous observed cases". The link states: "The literature on observed speciations events is not well organized. I found only a few papers that had an observation of a speciation event as the author's main point." 
------
John_F_Kennedy|983829678
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the Unted States of America from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, Texas.  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
> 
> He served as a PT boat captain during World War II.
> 
> 
------
John_F_Kennedy|983829787
1c1
< John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the Unted States of America from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas, Texas.  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of America from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983829793
1a2,3
> ----
> Note, this does not mean numerous cases have not been observed.
------
NewTopics|983829867
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --Watermark
------
John_F_Kennedy|983829905
1c1
< John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of America from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
------
NewTopics|983829941
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --Watermark
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver -- Watermark
------
Hobbies|983830102
11c11
< * [[Modelling]]
---
> * [[Modelling]] (er, are you sure that's the right word?  Model-building, right?)
------
Feature_requests|983830115
2a3,4
> # Automatically-generated NewTopics page
> # Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
------
NewTopics|983830162
5c5,6
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver -- Watermark
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver 
> 
------
Hobbies|983830229
11c11
< * [[Modelling]] (er, are you sure that's the right word?  Model-building, right?)
---
> * [[Model-building]] 
------
NewTopics|983830839
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver 
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[[Watermark]]
------
Canada|983831035
1a2,5
> 
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with seperatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
> 
> The country is surrounded by three oceans: the Pacific on the west coast, the Arctic on the north coast and the Atlantic on the east coast. The southern border is shared with the [[United States]] and is the longest undefended border crossing in the world.
------
Watermark|983831130
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A watermark is a design made by impressing a water coated metal stamp or roll on paper during manufacturing.  Watermarks originally were used on postage stamps, currency and other government documents to prevent counterfeiting.  
> 
> Encoding an idenfifying code into digitized music, video, picture, or other file is known as a [[Digigal Watermark]].
------
Watermark|983831151
3c3
< Encoding an idenfifying code into digitized music, video, picture, or other file is known as a [[Digigal Watermark]].
---
> Encoding an idenfifying code into digitized music, video, picture, or other file is known as a [[Digital Watermark]].
------
Feature_requests|983831214
4a5
> # InsertPagesIntoOtherPages
------
Hobbies|983831314
4a5,6
> ** [[Book collecting]]
> ** [[Card collecting]]
5a8,9
> ** [[Comic book collecting]]
> ** [[Currency collecting]]
------
Hobbies|983831445
14a15
> * [[Minature wargaming]]
------
Jupiter|983831463
16a17
> ----
17a19
> Are we quite sure it is kosher to put this page here?
19c21
< 
---
> http://www.seds.org/billa/offerings.html#copyright
------
Science_Fiction_Film|983831590
3c3
< [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]]
---
> [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 From Outer Space]]
------
Games|983831822
2a3,5
> * [[Poker]]
> * [[Solitare]]
> * [[Gin Rummy]]
4a8,9
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Checkers]]
5a11
> * [[Chinese Checkers]]
7,10d12
< * [[Checkers]]
< * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
< * [[Alquerque]]
< * [[Mancala]]
11a14,16
> * [[Mancala]]
> * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
> * [[Othello - Reversi]]
------
Games|983831887
36c36,37
< * [[Warhammer]]
---
> * [[Minature Wargaming]]
> ** [[Warhammer]]
------
Jupiter|983832652
21a22,24
> 
> ----
> I'm glad you responded! I also see the need to figure out issues like this. And in fact it's the reason I posted the link I took the information from as well. - It's just so easy to just copy and paste some information from the web.. In this case I think  we could simply email the copyright holder and ask for his permission.  - anyway: do we have some kind of discussion forum around here? (being new to this site...)
------
Jupiter|983832982
24a25,26
> ----
> Yep, see WikipediaL.  And yep, please e-mail the author.  He says he wants copies intact, and this copy is available for anyone to edit here.
------
Air_Transport|983833312
1c1
< Among topics we'd like to see are [[history of air travel]], [[history of aircraft]], [[balloon]], [[the Wright Brothers]], etc...
---
> Among topics we'd like to see are [[history of air travel]], [[history of aircraft]], [[balloon]], [[the Wright Brothers]],[[environmental effects of air travel]], etc...
3c3
< See [[Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast]].
---
> See [[Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast]].
------
Canada|983833412
3c3
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with seperatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
---
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
------
Canada|983833508
1c1
< A very nice country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a relatively small population.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
---
> A country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a low population density.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
------
LinusTolke|983833651
33c33,44
< I agree with you for the most part, but we have already discussed this on...jeez, I forget where.  Maybe someone else can answer you adequately.  There are good reasons for this, anyway.  Perhaps there's a way around the problem and everyone can be satisfied, though. --LS
---
> I agree with you for the most part, but we have already discussed this on...jeez, I forget where.  Maybe someone else can answer you adequately.  There are good reasons for this, anyway.  Perhaps there's a way around the problem and everyone can be satisfied, though. --LS
> ----
> 
> My understanding is that it is better if [[Capital]] and [[capital]] resolve to the same page, because for almost all concepts, case is irrelevant.  There is the very common case of a word appearing at the beginning of a sentence.  Here are some examples:
> 
> :[[Computers]] are used on the Internet.
> :The Internet uses [[computers]].
> 
> Those should resolve to the same page.
> 
> 
> 
------
LinusTolke|983833976
35d34
< 
42,44c41,42
< 
< 
< 
---
> ----
> In other words, we don't want two pages, "Capital" and "capital", on the same subject; when we link to [[capital]] and [[Capital]], ideally, the page should be the same.  The question is just then whether we want to make the first letter capitalized or not.
------
Memory|983834140
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution.
------
ComputerHardware|983834216
15a16
> * [[Storage]]
------
LanguagE|983834222
29a30
> * DravidianLanguages
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983834250
3a4,6
> ----
> It means that what is surely the most momentous event in biology, the transformation of one species into another, was asserted as the "main point" in only a "few" papers, and was relegated to a lesser status in all other papers. In common usage, "few" does not mean "numerous". In science as it is commonly practiced, researchers do not downplay momentous observations.
> ---- 
------
Memory|983834256
1c1
< Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution.
---
> Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [Storage].
------
Canada|983834288
5a6,11
> 
> Canadian Self Image
> 
> In 1999 the CBC held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
> 
> Robertson Davies, one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
------
Memory|983834308
1c1
< Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [Storage].
---
> Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
------
Canada|983834332
9c9
< In 1999 the CBC held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
---
> In 1999 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
------
Canada|983834365
11c11
< Robertson Davies, one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
---
> [[Robertson Davies]], one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
------
Memory|983834474
1c1
< Memory, also referred to as Random Access Memory, is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
---
> [[Memory]], also referred to as [[Random Access Memory]], is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983834738
10a11,12
> The link is confinded to disputed cases of speciation in bacteria, plants, and fruit flies. Speciation has never been observed in higher animals.  
> 
------
Memory|983834834
0a1,8
> ''Memory,'' in the primary sense of this word, is one of the capacities of the human mind, much studied by [[cognitive psychology]].  Psychologists distinguish various kinds of memory:
> :/long-term
> :/short-term
> :/episodic
> and others.
> 
> The following article, about computer memory, needs to be removed to a different title (I don't know what would be most appropriate.
> 
------
Jupiter|983834918
26c26,28
< Yep, see WikipediaL.  And yep, please e-mail the author.  He says he wants copies intact, and this copy is available for anyone to edit here.
---
> Yep, see WikipediaL.  And yep, please e-mail the author.  He says he wants copies intact, and this copy is available for anyone to edit here.
> ----
> I also wrote the author; perhaps he will give us permission or even join the project.  :-) --JimboWales
------
Memory|983834921
7c7
< The following article, about computer memory, needs to be removed to a different title (I don't know what would be most appropriate.
---
> The following article, about computer memory, needs to be removed to a different title (I don't know what would be most appropriate).
------
Mike_Dalessio|983834936
2c2
< just testing
---
> 
------
Memory|983835000
2,4c2,4
< :/long-term
< :/short-term
< :/episodic
---
> :[[/long-term]]
> :[[/short-term]]
> :[[/episodic]]
------
Flavor|983835043
1c1,2
< I'm really [[Mike Dalessio]].
---
>  :)
> 
------
Watermark|983835045
3c3
< Encoding an idenfifying code into digitized music, video, picture, or other file is known as a [[Digital Watermark]].
---
> Encoding an identifying code into digitized music, video, picture, or other file is known as a [[Digital Watermark]].
------
Canada|983835052
7,11c7
< Canadian Self Image
< 
< In 1999 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
< 
< [[Robertson Davies]], one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
---
> Canadians have an interesting [[/self-image]].
------
Free_Links|983835063
14c14
< Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to hack up for WikiPedia.  - [[Mike Dalessio]]
---
> Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to hack up for WikiPedia.  - [[Flavor]]
------
Memory|983835090
9d8
< [[Memory]], also referred to as [[Random Access Memory]], is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. Memory is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
------
Canada/self-image|983835113
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1999 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
> 
> [[Robertson Davies]], one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
------
ComputerHardware|983835136
14c14
< * [[Memory]]
---
> * [[RAM]]
------
DravidianLanguages|983835129
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dravidian Languages mainly originate from Indian subcontinent.  Major dravidian languages are 
> 
> * [[Tamil]]
> * [[Telugu]]
> * [[Kannada]]
> * [[Malayalam]]
> 
> See also [http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/families/Dravidian.html Dravidian languages page in Ethnologue]
------
RAM|983835199
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for [[Random Access Memory]]. It is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. [[RAM]] is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
> 
------
CPU|983835288
1,2c1
< 
< Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]].
---
> Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]]. The CPU is generally composed of two units: the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit(ALU). The control unit is repsonsible for exectuting instructions. The ALU is responsible for calculations and logic operations.
------
GNU|983835393
1c1
< "GNU's Not Unix". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free UNIX system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other UNIX'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any UNIX machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
---
> "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other [[Unix]]'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any [[Unix]] machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
------
Unix|983835921
1c1,5
< Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service
---
> Unix is an [[Operating System]] written by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1969.
> 
> Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service.
> 
> 
------
Finland|983836365
1c1
< [[Country]] in northern [[Europe]].
---
> [[Country]] in northern [[Europe]]; part of [[Nordic countries]]
5c5
< Languages spoken: [[Finish language]] and [[Swedish language]].
---
> Languages spoken: [[Finnish language]] and [[Swedish language]].
7c7,14
< At some point in time it was controlled by the king of [[Sweden]].
---
> Population:  5 171 302 (1999);  2 523 026 male, 2 648 276 female.
>  
> Area: 335 593 km2, of which 303 003 km2 land.
> 
> Under swedish rule from ca. 1100 until 1809, when Russian empire conquered
> Finland, during Napoleonic wars. Finland declared independence 6th December
> 1917; Russia (then Soviet Union) formally accepted the independency
> shortly thereafter.
------
Europe|983836597
7c7
< Europe hat a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
------
Mouse|983836670
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A mouse is a computer pointing device consisting of one or more buttons.
------
Sigmund_Freud|983836759
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sigmund Freud was a German psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
> 
> I must go reread my Freud texts and be back later to correct myself as to the details. - Tangfan
------
Tamil|983836807
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken mainly in south indian state of [[Tamilnadu]].  It is one of the classical languages of the world, with rich [[Tamil Literature|literature]] spanning over 2000 years.  
> 
> It is an official language in the following countries:
> * [[India]]
> * [[Sri Lanka]]
> * [[Malaysia]]
> * [[Singapore]]
> 
------
Tangfan|983836808
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Dude.
------
Sociology|983836891
1c1
< Sociology is the study of human society, particularly its ills and their causes.
---
> Sociology is the study of human society, particularly its ills and their causes.  There are numerous branches of sociology, which seek to describe and understand human society in various different 'schemes'.  
------
Jupiter|983837012
15c15
< (Information pasted from http://www.seds.org/nineplanets/nineplanets/jupiter.html using [[google]] for search.)
---
> (Information pasted from http://nineplanets.org/ using [[google]] for search.)
28c28,33
< I also wrote the author; perhaps he will give us permission or even join the project.  :-) --JimboWales
---
> I also wrote the author; perhaps he will give us permission or even join the project.  :-) --JimboWales
> 
> He wrote back thusly:
> "You have my permission to use my material on your WWW site as long as you maintain links back to my original.  Please use the URL below."  I changed the link above, so that we may temporarily be doing the right thing, but given the nature of a wiki, it is hard (impossible) to guarantee that a link will be maintained properly.  Anyone might delete it, and we might never notice it.
> 
> Notice that he also doesn't explicitly say we can modify his work, either.  So, although I'm going to leave this up for now, pending further conversation with him, it is likely that we'll be taking this down.
------
Sociology|983837255
1c1,3
< Sociology is the study of human society, particularly its ills and their causes.  There are numerous branches of sociology, which seek to describe and understand human society in various different 'schemes'.  
---
> Sociology is the study of human society, particularly its ills and their causes.  There are numerous branches of sociology, which seek to describe and understand human society in various different 'schemes'.
> 
> I would like to be able to divide sociology up into its various branches, but I am afraid of utterly misquoting and misassigning their beliefs and assertions, and so I'm going to contain myself.  However, those who know more than I, please add sections to this.  I will be back soon after I know more to add sections.
------
Tamil_Literature|983837277
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See:
> * [http://www.tamilnation.org/literature/krishnamurti/krishnamurti0.htm Thamizh Literature Through the Ages]
> * [http://www.projectmadurai.org Project Madurai] - A collection of Tamil etexts
------
Music|983837319
9c9
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]]
------
PootPoot|983837475
1a2,3
> 
> If I'm correct, wasn't poot featured in one of Bruce Coville's series, the one where aliens area subverting... that's it, My Teacher's an Alien!  That's the series!  Is taht where this is from, or did he take it from another source entirely?
------
Unix|983837556
5c5
< 
---
> [[Hurd]]
------
Tamil_Literature|983837569
0a1,2
> We prefer to have content _in_ the encyclopedia, rather than just being a list of links.  Having said that, a handful of links to give us potential ideas for starting points is a good thing.  --JimboWales
> 
------
Hurd|983837626
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kernel that has been in the works for years, designed to be completely in line with the GNU philosophy.
------
India|983837672
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> India is the second most populus country in the word and is the worlds largest democracy with about a billion people.  
> 
> See [http://goidirectory.nic.in/ Directory of official websites of Government of India]
------
ComputerSoftware|983837687
22a23
> *** [[Hurd]]
------
Unix|983837709
3,5c3
< Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service.
< 
< [[Hurd]]
---
> Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service.
------
Psychology|983837864
3,4c3,12
< :[[Sigmund Freud]] 
< :[[Karl Jung]]
---
> ** [Famous Psychologists]]
> *** [[Sigmund Freud]] 
> *** [[Karl Jung]]
> 
> ** [Divisions of Psychology]
> *** [[Social Psychology]]
> *** [[Evolutionary Psychology]]
> *** [[Child Psychology]]
> *** [[Group Psychology]]
> *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
------
Psychology|983837893
3c3
< ** [Famous Psychologists]]
---
> ** Famous Psychologists
7c7
< ** [Divisions of Psychology]
---
> ** Divisions of Psychology
12c12
< *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
---
> *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
------
Music|983838037
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] ]-- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] ]-- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
------
Indian_Music|983838363
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Categories of Indian Music<b>
> 
> <i>Classical</i>
> * [[Carnatic]]
> * [[Hindustani]]
> 
> <i>Folk</i>
> * [[Bangra]]
> 
> <i>Light Music</i>
> * [[Film Music]]
> * [[Indian Pop]]
> 
> See also [[Indian Musical Instruments]]
------
Indian_Music|983838384
1c1
< <b>Categories of Indian Music<b>
---
> <b>Categories of Indian Music</b>
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983839108
7,11c7
< Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.
< 
< There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants.  See [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details.
< 
< The link is confinded to disputed cases of speciation in bacteria, plants, and fruit flies. Speciation has never been observed in higher animals.  
---
> Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.  There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants (see [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details).  Speciation has not been observed ''per se'' in vertebrates, although there are numerous examples of no-longer breeding subpopulations.
------
Indian_Musical_Instruments|983839195
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Indian musical instruments can be broadly classified into three categories, namely Classical, Western and Folk.  
> 
> <i>Classical</i> instruments are those native to India and used in classical music.  Violin is a popular western instrument used widely in Indian classical music, specifically [[Carnatic Music]].  There are numorous native musical instruments used in Folk music.
> 
> See [http://www.indianmusicals.com/ Indian musical instruments] web site for a fairly comprehensive list.
------
Function|983839238
17a18,19
> 
> Also called a [[MappinG|Mapping]].
------
Welcome_Newcomers|983839315
1d0
< 
12c11
< If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls.)
---
> If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls.)-
------
America|983839357
9c9
< In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "America the Beautiful") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of [[The Americas]], ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
---
> In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "[[America the Beautiful]]") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of [[The Americas]], ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
11c11
< ''The above is the former contents of AmericA.  Please look for pages named in the old style before starting one using [[Free Links]]--thanks.''
---
> ''The above is the former contents of AmericA.  Please look for pages named in the old style before starting one using [[Free Links]]--thanks.''
------
Eclectic_Probability|983839411
5c5
< Many statisticians adopt an ''eclectic'' view of the 1950's and 1960's debate between proponents of the frequency interpretation and proponents of personal probability. These eclectics say in essence, '''if it walks like a duck...'''. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the axioms of probability theory as a reasonable interpreation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use ''Bayesian'' methods.
---
> Many statisticians adopt an ''eclectic'' view of the 1950's and 1960's debate between proponents of the frequency interpretation and proponents of personal probability. These eclectics say in essence, '''if it walks like a duck...'''. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the axioms of probability theory as a reasonable interpretation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use ''Bayesian'' methods.
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|983840952
8,10c8,10
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                213 i         229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
<  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 x  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ  167 º  175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
---
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
14c14
< One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  Somebody else can deal with these.
---
> One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  However, one probably shouldn't, since they don't show up on some machines.
------
RequestedArticles|983841006
5c5
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- FrodoBaggins -- [[Ghosts]] -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
---
> HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- [[Ghosts]] -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
------
Set_Theory|983841110
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To paraphrase Rudy Rucker:
> 
> "If the universe is science, and science is physics, and physics is mathematics, and mathematics is set theory, then EVERYTHING IS A SET."
> 
> Set theory is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with basic notions of objects belonging to sets.
> Set theory provides a common foundation for many branches of mathematics.  Set theory in and of itself is mostly concerned with infinite sets, and the concept of infinity.
> 
> Concepts in set theory: union, intersection, subset, complement
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983841227
7c7
< Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.  There have been numerous observed cases of speciation, especially in plants (see [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details).  Speciation has not been observed ''per se'' in vertebrates, although there are numerous examples of no-longer breeding subpopulations.
---
> Evolution by natural selection has been observed so many times that it is now considered a fact.  There have been numerous observed cases of [[speciation]], especially in plants (see [[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-speciation.html link]] for more details).  [[Speciation]] has not been observed ''per se'' in [[vertebrates]], although there are numerous examples of no-longer breeding subpopulations.
------
RequestedArticles|983841623
5c5,10
< HistoryOfTimepieces -- USInternalRevenueService -- TheConceptOfEvil -- HistoryOfCalendarSystems -- ChugachMountains -- HistoryOfWiki -- HobbitS -- [[Ghosts]] -- SataN -- ZoroAster -- ZorrO -- CatholicIsm -- IsmS -- InternalCombustionEngine -- HistoryOfChina -- HistoryOfJapan -- HistoryOfIndia -- HistoryOfEgypt -- HistoryOfIslam -- XenoPhon -- MoDel -- ModelTheory -- ComplexNumbers -- LinearAlgebra -- CasinO -- GamblinG -- PsychoTherapy -- StendhaL -- RussianLiterature -- WelshLanguage -- UniCode
---
> [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[History of wiki]] -- [[History of China]] -- [[Histor of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] -- [[History of Islam]] -- [[Xenophon]]
> <br>[[Model]] -- [[Model Theory]] -- [[Complex Numbers]] -- [[Internal combustion engine]] -- [[Psychotherapy]] 
> <br>[[Concept of evil]] -- [[Ghosts]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Isms]]
> <br>[[Stendhal]] -- [[Russian Literature]] -- [[Welsh Language]]
> <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]]
> 
------
Set_Theory|983841820
1c1,16
< To paraphrase Rudy Rucker:
---
> Set theory is a part of mathematics created by the German
> mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century.
> Initially controversial, set theory has come to play the
> role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics, in
> the sense of a theory invoked to justify assumptions
> made in mathematics concerning the existence of mathematical
> objects (such as numbers or functions) and their properties.
> Formal versions of set theory also have a foundational role
> to play as specifying a theoretical ideal of mathematical
> rigor in proofs. At the same time the basic concepts of
> set theory are used throughout mathematics, while the subject
> is pursued in its own right as a speciality by a comparatively
> small group of mathematicians and logicians. It should be
> mentioned that there are also mathematicians using and
> promoting different approaches to the foundations of
> mathematics.
3c18,36
< "If the universe is science, and science is physics, and physics is mathematics, and mathematics is set theory, then EVERYTHING IS A SET."
---
> The basic concepts of set theory are set and membership. A
> set is thought of as any collection of objects, called the
> members of the set. In mathematics, the members of sets are
> any mathematical objects, and in particular can themselves
> be sets. Thus one speaks of the set of natural numbers (0,1,2,..), the set of real numbers, the set of functions
> from the natural numbers to the natural numbers, but also
> e.g. of the set {0,2,N} which has as members the numbers 0
> and 2 and the set N of natural numbers. Cantor's basic
> discovery, which got set theory going as a new field of
> study, was that if we define two sets A and B to have the same number of members (the same cardinality) when there is a way of
> pairing off members of A exhaustively with members of B, then
> the set N of natural numbers has the same cardinality as the
> set Q of rational numbers (they are both said to be countably
> infinite), but the set R of real numbers does not have the
> same cardinality as N or Q. Cantor gave two proofs that R
> is not countable, and the second of these, using what is known
> as the diagonal construction, has been extraordinarily 
> influential and has had manifold applications in logic and
> mathematics.
5,6c38,42
< Set theory is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with basic notions of objects belonging to sets.
< Set theory provides a common foundation for many branches of mathematics.  Set theory in and of itself is mostly concerned with infinite sets, and the concept of infinity.
---
> The appearance around the turn of the century of the
> so-called set-theoretical paradoxes prompted the formulation
> in 1908 by Zermelo of an axiomatic theory of sets, and the
> theory of sets now most often studied and used is the
> theory called Zermelo-Fraenkel or ZF.
8d43
< Concepts in set theory: union, intersection, subset, complement
------
SetTheory|983841848
1,42c1
< Set theory is a part of mathematics created by the German
< mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century.
< Initially controversial, set theory has come to play the
< role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics, in
< the sense of a theory invoked to justify assumptions
< made in mathematics concerning the existence of mathematical
< objects (such as numbers or functions) and their properties.
< Formal versions of set theory also have a foundational role
< to play as specifying a theoretical ideal of mathematical
< rigor in proofs. At the same time the basic concepts of
< set theory are used throughout mathematics, while the subject
< is pursued in its own right as a speciality by a comparatively
< small group of mathematicians and logicians. It should be
< mentioned that there are also mathematicians using and
< promoting different approaches to the foundations of
< mathematics.
< 
< The basic concepts of set theory are set and membership. A
< set is thought of as any collection of objects, called the
< members of the set. In mathematics, the members of sets are
< any mathematical objects, and in particular can themselves
< be sets. Thus one speaks of the set of natural numbers (0,1,2,..), the set of real numbers, the set of functions
< from the natural numbers to the natural numbers, but also
< e.g. of the set {0,2,N} which has as members the numbers 0
< and 2 and the set N of natural numbers. Cantor's basic
< discovery, which got set theory going as a new field of
< study, was that if we define two sets A and B to have the same number of members (the same cardinality) when there is a way of
< pairing off members of A exhaustively with members of B, then
< the set N of natural numbers has the same cardinality as the
< set Q of rational numbers (they are both said to be countably
< infinite), but the set R of real numbers does not have the
< same cardinality as N or Q. Cantor gave two proofs that R
< is not countable, and the second of these, using what is known
< as the diagonal construction, has been extraordinarily 
< influential and has had manifold applications in logic and
< mathematics.
< 
< The appearance around the turn of the century of the
< so-called set-theoretical paradoxes prompted the formulation
< in 1908 by Zermelo of an axiomatic theory of sets, and the
< theory of sets now most often studied and used is the
< theory called Zermelo-Fraenkel or ZF.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Set Theory]]
47c6
< Well, then, something's got to be done.  Actually, I like the above article.  It's the sort of thing that's needed as an introductory article about set theory.
---
> Well, then, something's got to be done.  Actually, I like the above article.  It's the sort of thing that's needed as an introductory article about set theory.
------
Perl|983842969
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has it's roots in shell scipting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
> 
> Perl has been called the "glue that holds the web together". Perl is available for just about every [[operating system]] but it particularly prevalent on [[Unix]] and [[Unix]]-like systems.
> 
> Perl is a favorite among system administrators and web developers. Perl is particularly adept at handling text files, regular expressions and quick development times.
------
Flagellate|983843015
1c1,20
< A cell form characterized by the presence of one or more [[flagella]], whip-like projections that are used primarily for locomotion.  The flagellate protists are referred to as the [[Mastigophora]], though this is by no means a monophyletic group; in fact the first [[eukaryotes]] may have been flagellates.  Flagellate cells also found in multicellular groups, especially among [[gametes]].
---
> The flagellates comprise those [[Protista]] that support one or more [[flagella]], whip-like [[organelle|organelles]] used primarily for locomotion.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Mastigophora'', but the many separate flagellate lines are not particularly related to each other.  The ancestral eukaryotes, in fact, may have been flagellates.
> 
> The main groups of flagellates that I care to recall at the moment are:
> 
> * [[Retortamonadida]]
> * [[Diplomonadida]]
> * [[Oxymonadida]]
> * [[Parabasalia]]
> * [[Heterolobosea]] (amoeboflagellates)
> * [[Euglenozoa]] (kinetoplastids, euglenids)
> * [[Ebriida]]
> * [[Ellobiopsida]]
> * [[Prymnesiophyta]] (haptophytes, coccolithophores)
> * Basal [[Chromista]] (golden algae, bicosoecids, etc)
> * [[Jakobida]]
> * [[Cryptophyta]] (cryptomonads)
> * Basal [[Plantae]] (green algae)
> * [[Choanoflagellata]] (choanoflagellates)
> 
> Flagellate cells also occur in multicellular forms, especially as gametes.  Similarities in the structure of flagella give us a good idea of some relationships, for instance, the kinetoplastids and euglenids (euglenozoa) or the [[Animalia]], [[Fungi]], and choanoflagellates.
------
Larry_Wall|983843015
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The developer of the Perl programming language.
------
Larry_Wall|983843041
1c1
< The developer of the Perl programming language.
---
> The developer of the [[Perl]] programming language.
------
Set_Theory|983843063
42a43,44
> ----
> Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A SeT is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
43a46,183
>    {red, green, blue}
>    {x : x is a primary color}
> 
> The notation is not self-explanatory.
> If every x in some set A is contained in some set B, then A is said to be a SubSet of B.  Every set has as subsets itself, called the improper subset, and the empty set {}.  The union of a collection of sets '''S''' = {S1,S2,S3,...} is the set of all elements contained in at least one of the sets S1,S2,S3,....The intersection of a collection of sets '''T''' = {T1,T2,T3,...} is the set of all elements contained in all of the sets. The union and intersection of sets, say A1,A2,A3,... are denoted
> 
>    A1 u A2 u A3 ...
>    A1 n A2 n A3 ...
> 
> respectively.  If you don't mind jumping ahead a bit, the subsets of a given set form a BooleanAlgebra under these operations.  The set of all subsets of X is called its PowerSet and is denoted 2^X.
> 
> '''Axioms for set theory'''
> 
> The most common axioms for set theory are those of Zermelo and Fraenkel, which do a good job handling most sets so long as they are composed of other sets - from which most mathematical objects can be constructed anyways - and are equivalent to several other axiomatizations.  However, they aren't the only possible axioms, and in some senses are too restrictive.  For instance, they provide a way to go from any set X to a set {X} and thereby prevent the existence of a set of all sets, which some other models allow.
> 
> The above is more than a little confusing. What does it mean to "handle sets"? What is a "model" in this context? How does the singleton operation prevent the existence of a set of all sets? 
> 
> The axioms of ZF are as follows:
>    Axiom of extension:        Two sets are the same iff they have the same elements.
>    Axiom of null set:         There is an empty set {}.
>    Axiom of unordered pairs:  If X,Y are sets, so is {X,Y}.
>    Axiom of unions:           For any set X, there is another set composed of the union of its elements.
>    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.  
> 
> ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?''
> 
>    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any MappinG, formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
>                               P(x,y) and P(x,z) implies y=z, there is a set containing precisely the images of 
>                               its elements.
>    Axiom of PowerSet''s'':    There exists a set P(X) containing precisely the subsets of any given set X.
>    Axiom of regularity:       Every non-empty set X contains some element Y such that X and Y are disjoint.
> 
> *What does "composed of" mean above? 
> To rephrase the axiom, given a set X, there is a set Y whose elements are precisely those
> that are elements of some element of X.  This again will be a little confusing: in ZF, the only things that exist
> are sets, and the only things that sets contain are other sets. For example, if 
>    { {1,2}, {3,4}, {4,5,6} }
> is a set then
>    { 1,2,3,4,5,6 }
> is a set.
> 
> *Details apart, it isn't really possible for somebody who is not already familiar with set theory to understand the above.
> For anyone who wants to understand, it is an idea to have a little familiarity with set theory in its `less formal' form,
> and the problems it has, so as to see why set theory is the way it is.  Part of the reason it is necessary is due to examples
> such as RussellsParadox :
>    Let R = { x | x is not a member of x }
>    Question: is R a member of R
>    Problem: If R is a member of R then R does not satisfy the criterion for membership -- contradiction.
>             If R is not a member of R then R does satisfy the criterion for membership -- another contradiction.
> 
> ''You people can't have it both ways.''
> 
> The AxiomOfChoice leads to the existence of several sets, like a well-ordering for the real numbers, that can't be constructed in ordinary ZF set theory.  However, it is impossible to prove they don't exist - the axiom is independent of the axioms of ZF - and so we are free to add it to our axioms if we want.  This has become more or less conventional, since most of the sets it adds are handy to have, even if we can never find an explicit representation for any of them.
> 
> One other point about the AxiomOfChoice is that whenever you implicitly assume that the cardinality (i.e. size) of a set exists, you are using AxiomOfChoice in order to do this.  Since all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities, you get unconstructible sets either way.
> 
> COMMENT: This is not at all true - cardinality can be defined
> without using AC. The statement about "all constructible sets"
> having distinct cardinalities makes no obvious sense. What
> is meant here by a "constructible set"?
> 
> ''The usual way of defining cardinals is by taking a representative ordinal of each size, which you can't do without the axiom of choice.  The only other way I've ever seen done is by taking equivalence classes of sets, but these don't end up being ZF sets - i.e. you have to use objects outside the system being considered.''
> 
> COMMENT: The axiom
> of choice is not needed to define cardinals in ZF - the
> equivalence classes can be taken to be sets, by defining the
> cardinal of x as the set of all sets of minimal rank
> equivalent to x. We are also perfectly free to simply
> introduce a special function symbol for cardinals, governed
> by the axiom card(x)=card(y) <-> x and y are equivalent.
> (Suppes does it this way.) Associating the axiom of choice
> with there mere possibility of talking about cardinals is
> quite unjustified.
> 
> RESPONSE: What makes you think these equivalence classes actually exist within the framework of ZF?  I think the following proves they don't.  Take the equivalence class C containing {{}} and apply the axiom of unions to get a set U.  Then for any set X, {X} is in C and so X is a member of U.  In other words, U is ''a set of all sets'' which is well-known to be impossible within ZF.
> 
> ''Except for the fact that you have ignored the phrase "of minimal rank".  Not all singleton sets {X} are sets '''of minimal rank''' equivalent to {{}}.  (Let's see how horribly messy we can make this page...)''
> 
> Oops, you're right.  I figured I'd probably do something wrong.  But in any case, can you guarantee that such equivalence classes exist within ZF?  I remember something about it being difficult, even if the above is wrong.  (Btw, this page will need some extensive reworking anyways).
> 
> RESPONSE: It's trivial to prove the existence of cardinals
> as equivalence classes in the indicated way in ZF.
> 
> RESPONSE II: Ok, would you mind providing a reference is to how?  Not that I don't believe you, but it would be nice to have the details...
> 
> See e.g. the chapter on set theory in Mendelson, Introduction
> to Mathematical Logic, for a definition of the cumulative hierarchy of sets: R(0)=the empty set, R(alpha+1)=the power
> set of R(alpha), R(lambda)=union of R(alpha) for alpha<lambda,
> for limit lambda. The axiom of regularity is equivalent to
> the statement that for every set x there is an alpha such that
> x is in R(alpha).The cardinal of x can be defined as the set of sets in R(alpha) that are equivalent to x, where alpha is the smallest beta such that R(beta) contains a set equivalent to x.
> 
> 
> That's not to say the cardinals don't exist, just that they can't be constructed in ZF, unless you use an alternate technique.  The standard alternate technique is to choose some representative from each equivalence class, typically the ordinals.  But I don't think its easy to do this if the ordinals don't hit every set, which they can't if trichotomy of cardinals doesn't hold. --JG
> 
> COMMENT: The cardinals (constructed using AC) are linearly ordered (in fact well ordered for obvious reasons).  
> Under the above sort of definition, one loses the ability to say `either |X| <= |Y| or else |X| >= |Y|' 
> where <= and >= denote the usual cardinal inequalities.  This doesn't help its cause as an `intuitive' measure
> of `infinity size'.
> 
> COMMENT: One does not "lose the ability to say" this. What is
> true is that it cannot be proved without AC that any two cardinals are comparable. This is not to say that the cardinals
> cannot be defined without AC. 
> 
> ''A set X has been constructed if there is a 'way' of determining whether any given element is in it.  I'm being deliberately vague, but I think you can see the idea.  ZF+AC asserts the real numbers have a basis as a vector space over the rationals, but you are never going to be able to demonstrate an example of some such set.  ZF-AC asserts that there is a set which can't be put into one-to-one correspondence with any ordinal, and if I am not mistaken you can't find me one of those either (though I'm not entirely sure, since you're not allowed to use AC to set up the correspondence).''
> 
> COMMENT: This is not only vague, but it is not a recognizable
> informal version of anything formally defined in set theory. In
> particular, it is completely obscure what you mean by saying
> that all constructible sets have distinct cardinalities.
> 
> RESPONSE: I should have been a little more specific.  I meant distinct cardinality in the narrow sense, where it is being defined in terms of ordinals.  My point was that, though every infinte set you will ever build can be put into 1-to-1 correspondence with the natural numbers or something built by power-setting them, there must be other sets if the generalized continuum hypothesis is false, and ZF-AC asserts that it is.  However, I'm not entirely sure that the 1-to-1 correspondences can be constructed without AC, so this might be a mistake on my part.  I would ''love'' any info on that.
> 
> COMMENT: I don't understand what you have in mind in saying that
> "ZF-AC asserts that it is" - the generalized continuum hypothesis is not implied by ZF-AC. Further, what does "the 1-to-1 correspondences" refer to?
> 
> RESPONSE: The generalized continuum hypothesis isn't, but its negation is.  Simple contrapostitive of GCH -> AC.  The 1-to-1 correspondences are just those, namely, the things we have to set up to prove that a given set has the same cardinality as another given set.  In ZF+AC, GCH is undecidable, so everything constructed must satisfy GCH (else it would be false) and so be of the same cardinality as some power set of N, ie have some 1-to-1 correspondence between them.  But potentially this 1-to-1 correspondence need not be constructable either, and exist because of AC - this last point I am not sure about.
> 
> COMMENT: Yes, if by ZF-AC you mean ZF plus the negation of
> AC, it is inconsistent with GCH. Your statement that everything
> constructed in ZF+AC must satisfy GCH has no obvious meaning.
> Your implication (if I understand you correctly) that if GCH
> holds every set must be "of the same cardinality of some power
> set of N" is unclear. What do you mean by "a power set of N"?
> 
> Response: I mean the things that GCH usually asserts are the only cardinals...I'm sorry for the bad terminology but I couldn't think of any better way to put it.
> 
> COMMENT: I will assume then that by saying that a cardinal
> satisfies GCH you mean that it is not a counterexample to
> GCH, i.e. it is not a cardinal k or 2^k such that 2^k is greater than the successor of k. However, that "everything constructed in
> ZF+AC must satisfy GCH" has no obvious interpretation on which
> it is correct. For example, is the power set of the set of
> natural numbers "constructed in ZF+AC"? If so, what does it
> mean that it satisfies GCH?
> 
> On the other hand, AxiomOfChoice also allows one to prove that the solid unit sphere can be broken up into 5 (infinitely complicated) pieces, shuffled around (with no scaling/shearing etc... just rotation and translation), and put back together to make two solid spheres, each identical to the original. (The Banach-Tarski Paradox)
> 
> Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
------
Flagellate|983843202
5,7c5,7
< * [[Retortamonadida]]
< * [[Diplomonadida]]
< * [[Oxymonadida]]
---
> * [[Retortamonads]]
> * [[Diplomonads]]
> * [[Oxymonads]]
11,12c11,12
< * [[Ebriida]]
< * [[Ellobiopsida]]
---
> * [[Ebriids]]
> * [[Ellobiopsids]]
14,16c14,16
< * Basal [[Chromista]] (golden algae, bicosoecids, etc)
< * [[Jakobida]]
< * [[Cryptophyta]] (cryptomonads)
---
> * Basal [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, bicosoecids, etc)
> * [[Jakobids]]
> * [[Cryptomonads]]
18c18
< * [[Choanoflagellata]] (choanoflagellates)
---
> * [[Choanoflagellates]]
------
Perl|983843224
1c1
< The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has it's roots in shell scipting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
---
> The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
3c3
< Perl has been called the "glue that holds the web together". Perl is available for just about every [[operating system]] but it particularly prevalent on [[Unix]] and [[Unix]]-like systems.
---
> Perl has been called the "glue that holds the web together". Perl is available for just about every [[operating system]] but it particularly prevalent on [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like systems]].
5c5
< Perl is a favorite among system administrators and web developers. Perl is particularly adept at handling text files, regular expressions and quick development times.
---
> Perl is a favorite among [[system administrator]]s and web developers. Perl is particularly adept at handling text files, [[regular expression]]s and quick development times.
------
Flagellate|983843405
13c13,14
< * [[Prymnesiophyta]] (haptophytes, coccolithophores)
---
> * [[Dinoflagellates]]
> * [[Haptophytes]]
------
India|983843434
1c1
< India is the second most populus country in the word and is the worlds largest democracy with about a billion people.  
---
> India, located in the south of [[Asia]], is the second most populous [[country]] in the word and is the world's largest [[democracy]] with about a billion people.  
------
Amoeboid|983843528
4,7c4,7
< :[[Actinophryida]]
< :[[Centrohelida]]
< :[[Desmothoracida]]
< :[[Gymnosphaerida]]
---
> :[[Actinophryids]]
> :[[Centrohelids]]
> :[[Desmothoracids]]
> :[[Gymnosphaerids]]
17c17
< :[[Pelobionta]] - giant amoebae & kin
---
> :[[Pelobionts]] - giant amoebae & kin
------
Amoeboid|983844465
3,14d2
< The main groups of protists with axopods are:
< :[[Actinophryids]]
< :[[Centrohelids]]
< :[[Desmothoracids]]
< :[[Gymnosphaerids]]
< :[[Acantharea]]
< :[[Polycystinea]]
< :[[Phaeodarea]]
< The last three of these are collectively referred to as the [[Radiolaria]], and are typically marine forms with intricate mineral skeletons.  The others, collectively referred to as the [[Heliozoa]], are typically freshwater forms, usually sphere-shaped and covered in ray-like axopods that gather food (hence the name, ''sun animal'').
< 
< Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net.  They are found among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.
< 
19a8,23
> :[[Nucleariids]]
> :[[Vampyrellids]]
> :[[Chlorarachniophytes]]
> 
> Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net.  They are found most notably among the  [[Granuloreticulosa]], which includes primarily the [[Foraminifera]] - marine amoeboids with multichambered shells.  Other forms include ''[[Biomyxa]]'', [[Gymnophrea]], [[Komokiacea]].
> 
> Protists with axopods are traditionally divided into the [[Heliozoa]] and the [[Radiolaria]].  The former are usually sphere-shaped forms covered in axopods that catch food, and in motile forms, let them roll along the substrate.  These are typically freshwater, and include the following:
> 
> :[[Actinophryids]]
> :[[Centrohelids]]
> :[[Desmothoracids]]
> :[[Gymnosphaerids]]
> :[[Dimorphids]]
> :''[[Sticholonche]]''
> 
> The latter are primarily marine with intricate mineral skeletons, and include three separate groups: the [[Acantharea]], the [[Polycystinea]], and the [[Phaeodarea]].  Along with the Foraminifera, these are the primary protozoa found in the fossil record.
------
Country|983844698
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[country]]
---
> A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people. 
------
country|983844740
1c1
< A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Country]]
------
Capital|983844834
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[capital]]
---
> The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time, though it may be separate from the actual seat of government or move about seasonally.
------
capital|983844850
1c1
< The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Capital]]
------
Perl|983845057
5c5,7
< Perl is a favorite among [[system administrator]]s and web developers. Perl is particularly adept at handling text files, [[regular expression]]s and quick development times.
---
> Perl is a favorite among [[system administrator]]s and web developers. Perl is particularly adept at handling text files, [[regular expression]]s and quick development times.
> 
> As an example of Perl in action, Wikipedia is our own slightly customized version of CliffordAdams' UseMod Wiki software -- written in Perl, of course.
------
Rotifera|983845097
5c5
< There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.
---
> There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.  In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three groups:
7,11c7,9
< In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three groups:
< 
< : Seisonoidea - marine forms commensal on crustaceans, bisexual
< : Monogonata - free-swimming and sessile forms, small and sometimes seasonal males, single female gonad
< : Bdelloidea - free-swimming and crawling forms, retractable head with bipartite corona, no males, paired female gonads.
---
> : [[Seisonoidea]] - marine forms commensal on crustacean ''[[Nebalia]]'', bisexual
> : [[Monogonata]]- free-swimming and sessile forms, small and sometimes seasonal males, single female gonad
> : [[Bdelloidea]] - free-swimming and crawling forms, retractable head with bipartite corona, no males, paired female gonads.
16c14
< :Bdelloid
---
> :Bdelloid [[Josh Grosse|(JG)]]
------
Larry_Wall|983845359
1c1,3
< The developer of the [[Perl]] programming language.
---
> The developer of the [[Perl]] programming language, Wall is also known as the original author of the [[rn]] [[Usenet]] software, and the nearly universally used [[patch]].
> 
> He is currently employed by O'Reilly & Associates, publisher of popular Unix reference books.
------
TimShell|983845791
3a4
>   /Test-ignore
------
TimShell|983845804
4c4
<   /Test-ignore
---
>   [[/Test-ignore]]
------
TimShell/Test-ignore|983845836
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a test.  Ignore it.
------
TimShell|983845973
4c4
<   [[/Test-ignore]]
---
>   [[/TestIgnore]]
------
TimShell|983846008
4c4
<   [[/TestIgnore]]
---
> 
------
TestIgnore|983846026
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Test.  Ignore.
------
TimShell|983846049
4c4
< 
---
>  [[TestIgnore]]
------
TimShell|983846266
4c4
<  [[IgnoreTest]]
---
> 
------
TimShell|983846498
1c1
< TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  Hi lives in /PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.  He sometimes writes about himself in the third person.
---
> TimShell is a founding partner of BoMis.  He lives in PacificBeach.  He knows LarrySanger personally.  He sometimes writes about himself in the third person.
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983847328
6c6,7
< ---- 
---
> ---- 
> The link lists _numerous_ cases.
------
Sigmund_Freud|983847506
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was a German psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was a Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Sigmund_Freud|983847519
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was a Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|983847895
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|983848081
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[Atlas Shrugged/United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|983848109
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|983848700
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
4c4
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] apartment.
---
> The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, [[/New York|New York City]] in the evening, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] apartment.
8c8
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is priceless, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
11c11
< The folowing characters appear in /SectioN141:
---
> The folowing characters appear in [[/Section141|Section141]]:
13c13
<  /ChiefEngineer
---
>  [[/Chief Engineer|Chief Engineer]]
17,21c17,21
<  /GilbertVail
<  /McNamara - Mentioned.
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /PresidentofULW
<  /RichardHalley 
---
>  [[/Gilbert Vail|Gilbert Vail]]
>  [[/McNamara|McNamara]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Mrs. Gilbert Vail|Mrs. Gilbert Vail]]
>  [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]]
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section142|983848803
2c2
< [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the /SanSebastianLine.  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in /Mexico telling him the line and the /SanSebastianMines have been nationalized, just as Dagny predicted.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in [[/Mexico|Mexico]] telling him the line and the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] have been nationalized, just as [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] predicted.
9c9
<  /BoardofDirectors
---
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]
12,14c12,14
<  /JockBenson
<  /JulesMott
<  /LizBlane
---
>  [[/Jock Benson|Jock Benson]]
>  [[/Jules Mott|Jules Mott]]
>  [[/Liz Blane|Liz Blane]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section142|983848827
2c2
< [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in [[/Mexico|Mexico]] telling him the line and the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] have been nationalized, just as [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] predicted.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] awakes at noon, hungover, in his apartment with [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]], with whom he is having a romanceless sexual affair.  He brags about how he is going to bring down [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] for what she did to the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  But before he has a chance to do this, he receives a call from his man in [[/Mexico|Mexico]] telling him the line and the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] have been nationalized, just as [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] predicted.
8c8
<  [[/Betty Pope]]
---
>  [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section143|983848930
2c2
< [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] addresses the /BoardofDirectors after the /SanSebastianLine is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from Mexico, and assures everyone that with his /Washington connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from /Mexico.  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
---
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] addresses the [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]] after the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]] is nationalized.  He takes credit for removing everything of value from [[/Mexico|Mexico]], and assures everyone that with his [[/Washington|Washington]] connections he can get the government to demand just compensation from [[/Mexico|Mexico]].  He places the blame for his disaster on two men who played only a minor role in the fiasco.
5c5
< A meeting of /TaggartTranscontinental's /BoardofDirectors.
---
> A meeting of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]].
8,9c8,9
<  /BoardofDirectors
<  /ClarenceEddington
---
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]
>  [[/Clarence Eddington|Clarence Eddington]]
11c11
<  /JulesMott
---
>  [[/Jules Mott|Jules Mott]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section144|983848980
2c2
< /OrrenBoyle meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
---
> [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] about the Mexican disaster.  They can't believe [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] was swindled out of fifteen million dollars, and they assume he must know something they don't know.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tries to make an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] but he refuses to see him, because [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] finds him boring.
10c10
<  /OrrenBoyle
---
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section145|983849098
2c2
< The /NationalAllianceofRailroads passes the /AntiDogEatDogRule which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by /OrrenBoyle with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado, so /TaggartTranscontinental would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
---
> The [[/National Alliance of Railroads|National Alliance of Railroads]] passes the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] which gives them the power to dictate which railroads can operate in which regions of the country.  The rule was crafted by [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] with the purpose of driving the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]], so [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] would not have to compete with them any longer.  After the vote, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] storms into [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office and gloats about how he has ruined their competitor, which in his mind is a victory over [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].  She calls him a rotten bastard and rushes out.
5c5
< A meeting of the /NationalAllianceofRailroads and the office of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
---
> A meeting of the [[/National Alliance of Railroads|National Alliance of Railroads]] and the office of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].
8c8
<  /BoardofDirectors 
---
>  [[/Board of Directors|Board of Directors]]
12c12
<  /OrrenBoyle
---
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
------
WillWilkinson|983849122
1c1
< I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the University of Maryland, and a program director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
---
> I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the <a href="http://www.inform.umd.edu/ARHU/Depts/Philosophy/">University of Maryland</a>, specializing in mind & language, cognitive science and practical rationality, and I'm a Program Director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
------
WillWilkinson|983849157
1c1
< I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the <a href="http://www.inform.umd.edu/ARHU/Depts/Philosophy/">University of Maryland</a>, specializing in mind & language, cognitive science and practical rationality, and I'm a Program Director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
---
> I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the University of Maryland</a>, specializing in mind & language, cognitive science and practical rationality, as well as a Program Director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section146|983849165
2c2
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in order to try to persuade him to fight the /AntiDogEatDogRule, and to discuss morality.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in Arizona.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the /SanctionOfTheVictim.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in order to try to persuade him to fight the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]], and to discuss morality.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] admits the ruling is not fair, but he doesn't feel he has any right to fight the will of the majority.  He meekly resigns himself to running his railroads in [[/Arizona|Arizona]].  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] states, "I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed.  If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain."  This is an important passage because it is the first explicit statement the concept of the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]].
5c5
< A meeting in an unspecified location, presumably in /NewYork.
---
> A meeting in an unspecified location, presumably in [[/New York|New York]].
------
WillWilkinson|983849199
1c1
< I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the University of Maryland</a>, specializing in mind & language, cognitive science and practical rationality, as well as a Program Director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
---
> I'm a grad student in Philosophy at the University of Maryland (specializing in mind & language, cognitive science and practical rationality) as well as a Program Director at the Institute for Humane Studies. I can be reached at will@willwilkinson.net
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section147|983849284
2c2
< [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if /TaggartTranscontinental fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
---
> [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] appears suddenly and unexpectedly in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office.  He issues an ultimatum, saying if [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] fails to run trains the way his business requires, his business will fail - and he will drag them down with him.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] surpises him by quietly assuring him, without excuses or explanations, that he will get the service he requires.
4c4
< Wyatt states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the /SanctionOfTheVictim.  Thus Ellis Wyatt is a sharp contrast to [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the /AntiDogEatDogRule represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
---
> [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] states, "You expect to feed off me while you can and to find another carcass to pick dry after you have finished mine."  He understands that the parasites are dependent upon him, and when he issues his ultimatum, he is refusing to grant the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]].  Thus [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] is a sharp contrast to [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]] in the previous section.  The responses of these two men to the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] represent opposite sides of the book's central conflict - one accedes to being a victim, one refuses.
7c7
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] office at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section148|983849530
3c3
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] now holds [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] earlier in this chapter.
5c5
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]].  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
---
> There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] has been ordered to suspend operations in [[/Colorado|Colorado]] in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, [[/Colorado|Colorado]] will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in [[/Section146|Section146]] expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]], he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in [[/Colorado|Colorado]] despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] would not be dependent on [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]].  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
8c8
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] office at /ReardenSteel.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] office at [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]].
16c16
<  /Looters - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Looters|Looters]] - Mentioned.
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983849624
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Although there's still some argument about whether computers should have anything to do with Art (with the capital "A"), there's a lot less of it now than there ever has been. However, the argument has died down a lot with the avalanche of sheer _content_ from Hollywood and Uncle Joe's basement.
> 
> This wasn't always the case. In the beginning serious people asked serious questions like "can computers appreciate beauty?" and the like. The emerging answer seems to be that it makes a great paintbrush. A paintbrush makes no commentary about the quality of the work, but in the hands of a master can demonstrate the subtlest shadings and evoke the strongest emotions. The computer is a tool, and a liberating one. Your standard paintbrush also doesn't have an undo.
> 
------
Joshfuller|983849930
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A hearty welcome to you, Joshfuller!  What are your interests?  
------
John_F._Kennedy|983850126
3c3
< He served as a PT boat captain during World War II.
---
> He served as a PT boat captain during [[World War II]].
------
ConsequentialIsm/Talk|983850740
37c37,43
< Maybe--but officially, I hold no views.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Maybe--but officially, I hold no views.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Well, I'd perhaps count myself a quasi-post-neo-Objectivist ;-). But that's neither here nor there. I certainly think that we can argue things on their merits. Now, it would be nice if there were a nice piece on the agent neutral/agent relative distinction (is there?). But that's certainly a different distinction from the consequentialist/non-consequentialist distinction. The article could certainly be clearer about what non-conseqeuntialist theories are after: that what matters in right action is one's motive, or the principle upon which one acts. I was brought up to use 'consequentialism' the way I did, and the way Larry was. I do think this is common parlance. As I mention, consequentialism is often used sloppily as short hand for Utilitarianism -- collectivist, agent-neutral consequentialism. But sloppy usage doesn't set the standard. -- WillWilkinson
> 
> ----
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983850944
4a5,9
> The first people to use a computer to generate images generally weren't interested in artistic effect. They just wanted something easier to interpret than a printout full of numbers or stacks of punch cards. In fact the, the first radiosity rendering (radiosity is a special technique that computes the "energy" of light in a given scene) was not actually rendered by computer. A computer calculated a set of grey values for the surfaces of objects in a scene and a human artist cut and ironed special paper together to create the scene based on the computer's calculations. [MASSON 389]
> 
> 
> 
> MASSON - CG101, Terrence Masson, 1999, New Riders Publishing.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section151|983851366
2c2
< The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
---
> The government of [[/Mexico|Mexico]] suddenly nationalizes the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with [[/Francisco dAnconia|"the bastard"]].  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
5c5
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] office at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983851633
3c3
< In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
---
> In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]] to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
5c5
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
---
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his [[/Franciscos Father|father]] wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] came to expect.
7c7
< When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
---
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], much to her [[/Dagnys Mother|mother's]] chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontintental|Taggart Transcontintental]].  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
15c15
< When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
---
> When she arrives at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland] and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]].  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983851722
6a7
> Now, thanks to the motion picture and advertising industries, computer generated imagery (CGI) is usually used to augment reality (as in adding dinosaurs) or to extol the advantages of a particular product. Any artistic merit in these is due to the hard work and late nights of the animators and production crew, and usually only tolerated by management as long as it doesn't get in the way of pushing the product. (That sounds a bit biased, which may not be proper for an encyclopedia, even an "informal" one... Been in the industry too long, I guess.)
9c10,11
< MASSON - CG101, Terrence Masson, 1999, New Riders Publishing.
---
> 
> MASSON - CG101, Terrence Masson, 1999, New Riders Publishing.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983851788
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontintental|Taggart Transcontintental]].  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983851828
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983851968
15c15,16
< When she arrives at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland] and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]].  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
---
> When she arrives at the 
> [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland]] and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]].  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
19c20
< Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
---
> Downtown [[/New York|New York]], on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].
22,23c23,24
<  /DagnysFather
<  /DagnysMother
---
>  [[/Dagnys Father|Dagnys Father]]
>  [[/Dagnys Mother|Dagnys Mother]]
28c29
<  /FranciscosFather
---
>  [[/Franciscos Father|Franciscos Father]]
30,34c31,35
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
<  /SebastianDAnconia
---
>  [[/Mrs. Gilbert Vail|Mrs. Gilbert Vail]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Nathaniel Taggart|Nathaniel Taggart]] - Mentioned
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Sebastian DAnconia|Sebastian DAnconia]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|983851992
35c35
<  [[/Sebastian DAnconia|Sebastian DAnconia]]
---
>  [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Technology|983852197
1c1
< <b>Real-world technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
---
> <b>Real-world technology in [[Atlas Shrugged]]:</b>
9,10c9,10
< <b>Fictional technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
<  /ReardenMetal
---
> <b>Fictional technology in [[Atlas Shrugged]]:</b>
>  [[/Rearden Metal]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Technology|983852207
10c10
<  [[/Rearden Metal]]
---
>  [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|983852359
1,22c1,22
<  /AntiDogEatDogRule
<  /Bracelet
<  /CubClub
<  /FriendsofGlobalProgress
<  /HalleysFifthConcerto
<  /HalleysFourthConcerto
<  /MoesDelicatessan
<  /NationalAllianceofRailroads
<  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries
<  /PatrickHenryUniversity
<  /Phaethon
<  /ReardenMetal
<  /RioNorteLine
<  /RockdaleStation
<  /SanSebastian
<  /SanSebastianLine
<  /SanSebastianMines
<  /TaggartBuilding
<  /TaggartComet
<  /TheVultureIsMolting
<  /WayneFalklandHotel
<  /WyattOilFields
---
>  [[/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]
>  [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]]
>  [[/Cub Club|Cub Club]]
>  [[/Friends of Global Progress|Friends of Global Progress]]
>  [[/Halleys Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]
>  [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]]
>  [[/Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]]
>  [[/National Alliance of Railroads|National Alliance of Railroads]]
>  [[/National Council of Metal Industries|National Council of Metal Industries]]
>  [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]]
>  [[/Phaethon|Phaethon]]
>  [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]
>  [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]]
>  [[/Rockdale Station|Rockdale Station]]
>  [[/San Sebastian|San Sebastian]]
>  [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]]
>  [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]]
>  [[/Taggart Building|Taggart Building]]
>  [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]]
>  [[/The Vulture Is Molting|The Vulture Is Molting]]
>  [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]]
>  [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt Oil Fields]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Anti-dog-eat-dog_Rule|983852439
1c1
< The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
---
> The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the [[/National Alliance of Railroads|National Alliance of Railroads]] in [[/Section145|Section145]], allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] as a favor for [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
4,6c4,6
<   /SectioN145
<   /SectioN146
<   /SectioN148
---
>   [[/Section145|Section145]]
>   [[/Section146|Section146]]
>   [[/Section148|Section148]]
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983852974
7c7,14
< Now, thanks to the motion picture and advertising industries, computer generated imagery (CGI) is usually used to augment reality (as in adding dinosaurs) or to extol the advantages of a particular product. Any artistic merit in these is due to the hard work and late nights of the animators and production crew, and usually only tolerated by management as long as it doesn't get in the way of pushing the product. (That sounds a bit biased, which may not be proper for an encyclopedia, even an "informal" one... Been in the industry too long, I guess.)
---
> Now, thanks to the motion picture and advertising industries, computer generated imagery (CGI) is usually used to augment reality (as in adding dinosaurs) or to extol the advantages of a particular product. Any artistic merit in these is due to the hard work and late nights of the animators and production crew, and usually only tolerated by management as long as it doesn't get in the way of pushing the product. [That sounds a bit biased, which may not be proper for an encyclopedia, even an "informal" one... Been in too long, I guess.]
> 
> However, thanks to an influx of cheap tools for cheap personal computers art may have its chance again. Compared to the price of oils and easel and canvases, a PC and the occasional trip to the copy shop looks almost thrifty. And just like the paintbrush, the computer won't make snarky remarks about the quality of your work.
> 
> So, discarding your paintbrush (undo button still infuriatingly absent), you want to perpetrate Art (note initial capital) with the help of a computer. What's it all about then? [Note: shouldn't read Register while typing.]
> 
> Right now, there are two main paradigms in computer generated imagery. The simplest is 2D and directly maps to how you might draw an image on a piece of paper with a pencil. In this case, however, the image is on the computer screen and the instrument you draw with might be a tablet stylus or a mouse, but the marks it makes will seem to be from a pencil or pen or paintbrush. The second kind is 3D, where the screen becomes a window into a virtual environment, where you arrange objects to be "photographed" by the computer. Of course the image generated is 2D, so you can always take it into your paint program for additions, much in the same way the Weekly World Inquirer Magazine inserted the space aliens in the coffee bar.
> 
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983853055
8a9,10
> The observed fact that speciation in vertebrates results in non-breeding animals explains the complete absence of intermediate forms in the fossil evidence for vertebrate evolution.
>    
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983853743
14a15
> If you look closely at your computer monitor, you'll see that the pictures and words are made up out of tiny dots. Each of these dots is under the control of your computer's display circuitry (except for the dots on the screen from opening your cola too close to the monitor). To generate the pictures and windows and boxes and words you see, it shuffles the data that describes these dots round and round as needed. The data behind the dots are called "pixels". Supposedly, this stands for "PIXture ELements." I think somebody just wanted to have an "x" in the middle of the word to sound futuristic.
15a17,28
> To demonstrate - here's the letter "J":
> 
> J
> 
> Look at it up close... Take a magnifying glass to it if you like -- you won't get fried, although you may see some chromatic aberration at the edges of the magnifier. Check out the Physics entries of this or other encyclopedias. You see a "J", the computer sees something more like this:
> 
> 00001
> 00001
> 00001
> 00001
> 10001
> 01110
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983853845
8,10c8
< 
< The observed fact that speciation in vertebrates results in non-breeding animals explains the complete absence of intermediate forms in the fossil evidence for vertebrate evolution.
<    
---
>   
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983853859
22a23
> <tt>
28a30
> </tt>
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983853896
24,29c24,29
< 00001
< 00001
< 00001
< 00001
< 10001
< 01110
---
> 00001<br>
> 00001<br>
> 00001<br>
> 00001<br>
> 10001<br>
> 01110<br>
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983854742
8a9,13
> "The observed fact that speciation in vertebrates results in non-breeding animals explains the
>  complete absence of intermediate forms in the fossil evidence for vertebrate evolution."
> 
> The above quoted statement was deleted from this page because someone felt that "he didn't think it made sense". What he means is that he did not agree with it, and so, in the true spirit of scientific debate, he just made it disappear. 
> 
------
NominaliIsm|983854932
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no UniVersals outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental UniVersals.
> 
> The ProblemOfUniversals is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats--, or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of _what_ are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of _what_ is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
> 
> The realist answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the existence of a universal -- a single abstract thing (greenness, in this case), that is a part (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that manifests itself wherever there are green things. 
> 
> Nominalism denies that there are such things as universals. The motivation to deny universals flows from several concerns. First, where are they? Plato famously held that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the natural world of particulars we see with our own eyes. Particular real-world objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal up in universal heaven. But _where_ is universal heaven? Is it outside of space and time? But nothing is outside of space and time. And in any case, what is the nature of the instantiation or exemplification relation? It seems mysterious. 
> 
> Some realists about universals, the moderate realists, hold that there is no heaven in which universals live, but rather universals are located in space and time wherever they are manifest. Now, recall that a universal, like greenness, is supposed to be a single thing. Nominalists find it weird that there could be a single thing that exists in a bunch of places all at once. The realist maintains that all the instances of greenness are held together by the exemplification relation, but, again, this relation seems mysterious. 
> 
> Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down ontologies populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as Quine put it). Since everyone has to include particulars like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like catness into the mix.
> 
> There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. On the extreme end is "predicate" nominalism. Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats simply in virtue of the fact that the predicate 'cat' applies to both of them. That's all there is to it. However, the realist will object in frustration that we haven't been told in virtue of what does the predicate apply. 
> 
> The resemblance nominalist will reply that 'cat' applies to both cats in virtue of either the fact that Fluffy and Kitzler resemble a exemplar cat closely enough to be classed together with it as members of its kind, or that they differ from each other (and other cats)quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only one you need. This betrays the spirit of nominalism. Other argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many agree that it is not vicious. 
> 
> One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich," because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. 
> 
> 
------
NominaliIsm|983855019
13c13
< There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. On the extreme end is "predicate" nominalism. Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats simply in virtue of the fact that the predicate 'cat' applies to both of them. That's all there is to it. However, the realist will object in frustration that we haven't been told in virtue of what does the predicate apply. 
---
> There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. On the extreme end is "predicate" nominalism. Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats simply in virtue of the fact that the predicate 'cat' applies to both of them. That's all there is to it. However, the realist will object in frustration that we haven't been told in virtue of what the predicate applies. 
17c17
< One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich," because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. 
---
> One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich," because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- WillWilkinson
------
NominaliIsm|983855057
18a19
> /discuss
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983855078
31a32,52
> Where you see a zero, the computer instructs it's video hardware to paint the current background colour. A one calls for the current foreground colour. Yes, it is actually a bit more complicated, but it all basically boils down to one bit or the other making a distinction between the colours of adjacent pixels, which together form an image. This is the basic principle behind drawing on a computer. If we add a little more complexity, we can paint on it too...
> 
> The average human is said to be able to see and appreciate the difference between millions of colours. This varies, of course, by individual and environmental conditions and the kind of colours being viewed. However, for the sake of convenience, lets say millions. When computer programmers had to confront the problem, they said (for the sake of an even greater convenience), how about sixteen million? This happens to be a very easy number to deal with on a computer. 
> 
> Most current computers are 32 bit processors. This means they can easily deal with numbers up to about four billion. They do this by representing each individual number as patterns of zero's and ones... Kind of like the example above.
> 
> [Explain (briefly) about RGB and mapping to bytes in word.]
> 
> [Discuss painting.]
> 
> [Image manipulation.]
> 
> [3D rendering.]
> 
> [Compositing.]
> 
> [Animation.]
> 
> [Output.]
> 
> [The future.]
------
NominaliIsm|983855142
1c1
< Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no UniVersals outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental UniVersals.
---
> Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no UniversalS outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental UniversalS.
19,20c19
< /discuss
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983855242
51a52,53
> [But is it art?]
> 
------
NominaliIsm/Talk|983855242
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I dashed this off... So it's quick and dirty and geared to my idiosyncracies. I challenge you to do better! - WillWilkinson
------
LawsOfKepler|983855417
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his laws of motion and gravity.
> 
> Kepler's First Law:  Planets move in ellipses, with the sun located on one focus of the ellipse.
> Kepler's Second Law: A line between a planet and the sun will sweep out equal areas over equals times. 
> Kepler's Third Law:  The square of a planet's radius of orbit is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun.
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983855862
9,13d8
< "The observed fact that speciation in vertebrates results in non-breeding animals explains the
<  complete absence of intermediate forms in the fossil evidence for vertebrate evolution."
< 
< The above quoted statement was deleted from this page because someone felt that "he didn't think it made sense". What he means is that he did not agree with it, and so, in the true spirit of scientific debate, he just made it disappear. 
< 
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983856130
7a8,16
> ----
> "The observed fact that speciation in vertebrates results in non-breeding animals explains the  complete absence of intermediate forms in the fossil evidence for vertebrate evolution."
> 
> The above quoted statement was deleted from this page because someone felt that "he didn't think it made sense". What he means is that he did not agree with it, and so, in the true spirit of scientific debate, he just made it disappear. 
> ----
> For instances of transitional vertebrate fossils, see:
> http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional.html
> 
> Nonsense will continue to be deleted.
------
LawsOfKepler|983856213
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
------
Free_Links|983856298
15a16,17
> /Talk
> 
------
Free_Links/Talk|983856337
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I wanted to Free Links page to be nice and clear for everyone to use as a reference, so I moved some clutter here.
> ----
> Why doesn't my [[Free Links]] work correctly. Is it because they contain non-[[ASCII]] characters? Look at [[Sweden]] for [[Göteborg]] and [[Malmö]].
> [[LinusTolke]]
> ----
> Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. A similar problem has already been solved in the world of IMAP in the i18n of mailbox names, and the solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding. For a complete explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3. The short version is that M-UTF-7 uses US-ASCII representation for US-ASCII characters, and "shifts" into modified BASE 64 for all other charsets (UNICODE 16-bit octets).
> 
> Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to hack up for [[Wikipedia]].  - [[Flavor]]
------
Free_Links|983856377
5,6d4
< Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
8,14d5
< ----
< Why doesn't my [[Free Links]] work correctly. Is it because they contain non-[[ASCII]] characters? Look at [[Sweden]] for [[Göteborg]] and [[Malmö]].
< [[LinusTolke]]
< ----
< Fixing the non-ASCII character problem should be relatively easy. A similar problem has already been solved in the world of IMAP in the i18n of mailbox names, and the solution was to use modified UTF-7 encoding. For a complete explanation, please see RFC 2060, section 5.1.3. The short version is that M-UTF-7 uses US-ASCII representation for US-ASCII characters, and "shifts" into modified BASE 64 for all other charsets (UNICODE 16-bit octets).
< 
< Although I don't have a library routine I can whip out for you, I'm sure you can find one somewhere to hack up for [[Wikipedia]].  - [[Flavor]]
------
Free_Links/Talk|983856390
2a3,4
> Excellent!  Now, is there a way to automate the conversion of old-style links (and pages) to new-style links?  I seem to remember Cliff saying something about doing this.  For example, I would like to convert links that look like LarrysText to [[LarrysText|Larry's Text]]; then it would be cool also to convert the pages themselves, in this case to [[Larrys Text|Larry's Text]] (since apostrophes are not allowed in page names).  What are the chances of this happening anytime soon? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
------
Free_Links|983856677
1c1,11
< You can now force a link over arbitrary text by putting it in brackets, like this: [[Alabama]].
---
> Free Links are used to make links that look like normal words, without weird capitalizations.  Thus we can have [[Alabama]] instead of AlabamA, and [[South Dakota]] instead of SouthDakota.
> 
> You make free links using double brackets.  Edit the text of this page to see how to do it.
> 
> * Other tricks
> 
> You can use pipes | to customize your links.  For example, instead of saying [[George W. Bush]] over and over again in an article, you could say [[George W. Bush|Bush]], or even [[George W. Bush|him]], and point this link at the correct page.
> 
> You can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
> 
> I am all for consistency.  We should henceforth use [[Free Links|free linking]].
3,5d12
< Also, something I just now learned from reading the source code, you can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
< ----
< I am all for consistency.  We should henceforth use [[Free Links|free linking]].  We should also get the above question answered...that could save us a lot of mind-numbing gruntwork. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
SouthDakota|983856753
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the high plains of the northern Middle West.  It is often cold there.
------
South_Dakota|983856772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the high plains of the northern Middle West. It is often cold there. 
------
George_W._Bush|983856827
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of TexaS.
> 
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
> 
> Bush was born July 6, 1946, and grew up in Midland and Houston, Texas.  He received a bachelor's degree from Yale University and a Master's of Business Administration from Harvard Business School.  He served as an F-102 pilot for the Texas Air National Guard before beginning his career in the oil and gas business in Midland in 1975, working in the energy industry until 1986.  After working on his father's successful 1988 presidential campaign, he assembled the group of partners that purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in 1989.
> 
> He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.  His tenure in office featured many achievements and, despite a reputation for bipartisan leadership, some controversy, even international controversy; for example, during Bush's tenure, TexaS saw a sharp rise in CapitalPunishment.
> 
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father George Bush was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
> 
> [edited from whitehouse.gov]
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * BushTalk
> * 2001InaugurationProtests
------
GeorgeWBush|983856859
1,15c1
< George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of TexaS.
< 
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
< 
< Bush was born July 6, 1946, and grew up in Midland and Houston, Texas.  He received a bachelor's degree from Yale University and a Master's of Business Administration from Harvard Business School.  He served as an F-102 pilot for the Texas Air National Guard before beginning his career in the oil and gas business in Midland in 1975, working in the energy industry until 1986.  After working on his father's successful 1988 presidential campaign, he assembled the group of partners that purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in 1989.
< 
< He served as managing general partner of the Texas Rangers until he was elected Governor on November 8, 1994.  He went on to become the first Texas Governor to be elected to consecutive four-year terms.  His tenure in office featured many achievements and, despite a reputation for bipartisan leadership, some controversy, even international controversy; for example, during Bush's tenure, TexaS saw a sharp rise in CapitalPunishment.
< 
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father George Bush was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
< 
< [edited from whitehouse.gov]
< 
< '''See also:'''
< * BushTalk
< * 2001InaugurationProtests
---
> #REDIRECT [[George W. Bush]]
------
Probability_Theory|983856876
8a9,10
> 
> The probability of some event happening knowning that some other one happened before can be computed using [[Conditional Probability]].
------
WillWilkinson|983856932
1a2,7
> ----
> Will -
> 
> Learn about [[Free Links]].  Free links are better.
> 
> Tim
------
Free_Links|983856958
1c1
< Free Links are used to make links that look like normal words, without weird capitalizations.  Thus we can have [[Alabama]] instead of AlabamA, and [[South Dakota]] instead of SouthDakota.
---
> Free Links are used to make links that look like normal words, without weird capitalizations or spacing.  Thus we can have [[Alabama]] instead of AlabamA, and [[South Dakota]] instead of SouthDakota.
------
Free_Links|983857045
9c9
< You can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0887308856 
---
> You can link to ISBN's like this: ISBN: 0201483408 
------
Conditional_Probability|983857072
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Conditional probability is the probability that some event A happends knowing that event B took place. It is written P[A|B]. Here is how to compute it:
> 
> P[A|B] = P[A and B] / P[B]
> 
> If A and B are independant, then P[A and B] = P[A]P[B].
------
Free_Links|983857073
10a11
> ----
------
Probability_Theory|983857119
4c4
< The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the [[Probability Axioms]] and [[Set Theory]. 
---
> The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the [[Probability Axioms]] and [[Set Theory]]. 
------
Larry_Wall|983857377
3c3
< He is currently employed by O'Reilly & Associates, publisher of popular Unix reference books.
---
> He is currently (March 2001) employed by O'Reilly & Associates, publisher of popular Unix reference books.
------
Keyboard|983857594
2a3,26
> There are several types of keyboard, usually differentiated by switch technology. Since there are so many switches needed (usually about 80-110) and because they have to be highly reliable, this usually defines the keyboard. The choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has been pressed) and travel (the distance needed to push the key to reliably enter a character). Newer models use hybrids of various technologies to achieve greater cost savings...
> 
> Membrane keyboards are usually flat. You would most probably see them on appliances like microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer (and the one the user touches) has the labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under it is a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they don't normally make electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. 
> 
> When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a particular position, his finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor that a particular button has been pressed.
> 
> Membrane keyboards don't generally have much of a "feel", so many machines which use them issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water or leak proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards.
> 
> Mechanical switch keyboards use real switches, one under each key. Depending on the construction of the switch, these keyboards have varying responses and travels. The best tend to approximate the old IBM Selectric electric typewriter keyboard, which was considered the benchmark for good performance for many years. 
> Because of the expense of placing a switch at each key position, these have fallen out of favour in recent years, despite their excellent response. Most IBM keyboards up into the PS/2 line were of this type, and considered to be among the best of breed, although some complained that they were "clackity."
> 
> Hall effect keyboards used magnets and "Hall Effect" sensors instead of an actual switch. When a key was depressed, it moved a magnet, the motion of which would be detected by a sensor. These keyboards were fairly quiet and considered suitable for industrial environments. Because a magnet an sensor was required for each key, as well as complicated control electronics, they were also rediculously expensive. [I (Joshfuller) have never used a Hall Effect keyboard, please correct if needed.]
> 
> Dome switch keyboards are kind of a hybrid of membrane and mechanical keyboards. They bring two circuit board traces together under a plastic "dome" or bubble. The top of the bubble is coated in some conductive substance. When a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which shorts out the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the character.
> 
> This is the predominant switch technology used in mass market keyboards today. It's considered much quieter, but purists tend to find it "mushy" because the collapsing dome doesn't provide as much positive response as a hard closing switch. These are also a good choice for office or consumer environments because they share a certain degree of liquid resistance with their membrane ancestors.
> 
> The modern PC keyboard is more than just the switch technology, however. It also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features.
> 
> The processor is usually a single chip 80XX variant [I (Joshfuller) think]. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a reciever in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights. 
> 
> When you press a keyboard key, you may think that you do so in a continuous and smooth motion, making firm contact, and then releasing the key. However the key actually "bounces" against its contacts several times before it settles into firm contact. When released, it bounces some more until it reverts to the uncontacted state. If the computer was watching for each pulse, it would see many keystrokes for what you thought was just one.
> 
> To resolve this problem, the processor in your keyboard (or computer) "debounces" your keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what you think is a solid contact. It could be argued that the dome switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to accurately debounce the keystrokes. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed because they had to do significant debouncing. Anyone who ever tried word processing on a ZX81 will recall this...
------
John_Ray|983857660
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Ray was a biologist who lived from 1627 until 1705.  He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology.  His classification of plants in his [[Historia Plantarum]] was an important step towards modern taxonomy.  Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emergered from observation.  Thus he advances scientific empiricism against the deductive rationalism of the scholastics.
------
Joshfuller|983857846
1c1,3
< A hearty welcome to you, Joshfuller!  What are your interests?  
---
> A hearty welcome to you, Joshfuller!  What are your interests?  
> 
> Thank you. My main interests are programming and CGI. Hopefully, my interests will become more apparent as I contribute.
------
Joshfuller|983858172
3c3
< Thank you. My main interests are programming and CGI. Hopefully, my interests will become more apparent as I contribute.
---
> Thank you. My main interests are programming and CGI. Hopefully, others will become more apparent as I contribute.
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983858366
8a9,15
> *Important concepts in evolution:
>  [[Common descent]] 
>  [[Gradualism]]
>  [[Natural selection]]
>  [[Sexual selection]]
>  [[Speciation]]
> 
------
Belgium|983858501
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small Country of Western Europe.
> 
> Capital: Brussels<BR>
> Head of Government: King Albert II<BR> 
> Population: around 10,239,000 inhabitants<BR>
> Size: 32.547 sq.km<BR>
> Timezone: GMT+1 <BR>
> Density: 333 inhab. per sq.km<BR>
> Currency: Euro (since 1999, before that the Belgian Franc)<BR>
> (as seen on www.fgov.be)
> 
> There are three official languages, Flemish (Dutch), French and German. More than half of the country is Dutch speaking, French is the second largest, German is spoken by a minority. Brussels, the capital is mostly French speaking.
> People from Belgium are called Belgians in English.
> 
> Belgium is divided into 10 provinces; Antwerp, Limburg, East-Flanders, West-Flanders, Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant, Namur, Liège, Hainaut and Province of Luxemburg.
> 
> Since the country has been federalized there are a lot of governmental entities; The French Community, The Flemish Community, The German-speaking Community, The Walloon Region, The Flemish Region, The Brussels-Capital Region and The Federal Government.
> 
> This country is well known for its art, its great architecture, its beer, its food, and mostly its chocolate.
> Many great French authors went to Belgium for refuge.
> 
> Belgium is full of history. You would be amazed.
> go to www.fgov.be for more information.
------
FielDs|983858567
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fields
> 
> A field is a [[ring]] in which * is commutative and the nonzero elements form a [[group]] under *.
> 
> A more useable definition is the following:
> 
> The field (R,+,*) contains a set (R) and two binary operators (+,*) such that:
> 
> # + is associative:  a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
> # + has an "zero" z, written 0, such that a+z = z+a = a
> # for each a in R there is an opposite -a such that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0
> # for all a, b in R: a+b = b+a
> # * is associative: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
> # * has an identity e, written 1, such that for all non-zero a: a * 1 = 1 * a = a
> # each non-zero element a has an inverse, inv(a), such that a * inv(a) = inv(a) * a = 1
> # for all a and b, a*b = b*a
> # for all a,b,c: a*(b+c) = a*b + a*c and (b+c)*a = b*a + c*a
> 
------
FielDs|983858669
3c3
< A field is a [[ring]] in which * is commutative and the nonzero elements form a [[group]] under *.
---
> A field is a RinG in which * is commutative and the nonzero elements form a GrouP under *.
------
Belgium|983858799
23a24,25
> 
> The inhabitants of this country have a reputation for loving FrenchFries.
------
Physics/Gravity|983859052
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with [Electromagnetism], the [WeakNuclearForce] and the [StrongNuclearForce].  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
> 
> Isaac Newton's laws of gravity are very simple, yet when combined with his laws of motion explain the motion of both the planets around the sun and objects here on earth.  Newton's law for the gravitational force between two masses M1 and M2 is <br>
> 
> F<sub>grav</sub>=G*M<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>/R<sup>2</sup> <br>
> 
> where R is the distance between them and G is the Gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).<br>
> Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen decimals places.
------
Physics/Gravity|983859162
1c1
< Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with [Electromagnetism], the [WeakNuclearForce] and the [StrongNuclearForce].  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
---
> Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with ElectroMagnetism, the WeakNuclearForce and the StrongNuclearForce.  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
------
Gradualism|983859439
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gradualism is a biological concept that refers to the type of change that characterizes biological evolution.  Note, it does not refer to the rate of change.
> 
> Gradualism holds that evolution occurs through the accumulation of slight modifications over a period of generations.  This is in contrast to saltationism, which holds that evolution occurs through large changes occur possibly in a single generation.
> 
> Gradualism holds that every individual is the same species as its parents, and that there is no clear line of demarcation between the old species and the new species.  It holds that the species is not a fixed type.
> 
------
Gradualism|983859519
3c3
< Gradualism holds that evolution occurs through the accumulation of slight modifications over a period of generations.  This is in contrast to saltationism, which holds that evolution occurs through large changes occur possibly in a single generation.
---
> Gradualism holds that evolution occurs through the accumulation of slight modifications over a period of generations.  This is in contrast to saltationism, which holds that evolution occurs through large changes, possibly in a single generation.
------
Gradualism|983859583
5,6c5
< Gradualism holds that every individual is the same species as its parents, and that there is no clear line of demarcation between the old species and the new species.  It holds that the species is not a fixed type.
< 
---
> Gradualism holds that every individual is the same species as its parents, and that there is no clear line of demarcation between the old species and the new species.  It holds that the species is not a fixed type, and that is is the population, not the individual, that evolves.
------
Gradualism|983859627
5c5
< Gradualism holds that every individual is the same species as its parents, and that there is no clear line of demarcation between the old species and the new species.  It holds that the species is not a fixed type, and that is is the population, not the individual, that evolves.
---
> Gradualism holds that every individual is the same species as its parents, and that there is no clear line of demarcation between the old species and the new species.  It holds that the species is not a fixed type, and that it is the population, not the individual, that evolves.
------
Physics/Gravity|983859772
1,8c1
< Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with ElectroMagnetism, the WeakNuclearForce and the StrongNuclearForce.  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
< 
< Isaac Newton's laws of gravity are very simple, yet when combined with his laws of motion explain the motion of both the planets around the sun and objects here on earth.  Newton's law for the gravitational force between two masses M1 and M2 is <br>
< 
< F<sub>grav</sub>=G*M<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>/R<sup>2</sup> <br>
< 
< where R is the distance between them and G is the Gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).<br>
< Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen decimals places.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Gravity]]
------
Gravity|983859784
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with ElectroMagnetism, the WeakNuclearForce and the StrongNuclearForce.  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
> 
> Isaac Newton's laws of gravity are very simple, yet when combined with his laws of motion explain the motion of both the planets around the sun and objects here on earth.  Newton's law for the gravitational force between two masses M1 and M2 is <br>
> 
> F<sub>grav</sub>=G*M<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>/R<sup>2</sup> <br>
> 
> where R is the distance between them and G is the Gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).<br>
> Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen decimals places.
> 
------
Science|983859934
1c1
< Science is a method of study devoted to understanding the universe through repeated observation and experimentation.  [[Mathematics]], [[Computer science]], and [[Technology]] are sometimes treated as sciences, but not here, since they don't fit the usual definition.
---
> Science is a method of study devoted to understanding the universe through repeated observation and experimentation.  [[Mathematics]], [[Computer science]], and [[Technology]] are sometimes treated as sciences, but not here, since they don't fit the usual definition. More about this in [[Scientific Method]].
------
Scientific_Method|983860358
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The scientific method consists in four steps.
> 
> # Observe the world
> # Make a guess at some fundamental rule that governs the world
> # Find some experience which result could show that your guess was wrong
> # Make the experiment. 
> 
> If the experiment does not disprove your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory.
> 
> Note that claims that cannot be disproved, such as "there exist something outside of the world that we cannot see nor interact with" are not scientific because they fail the third criterion. Also, note that theories determined by the scientific method are not necessarily true. We may discover later that they are in fact wrong, and replace them with a newer theory. 
------
Theory_of_Evolution|983860558
5c5
< Natural selection suggests that a species has the ability to adapt to changes in the environment, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction towards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.  Often these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual, although it seems that in some cases evolution can occur unbelievably quickly, within a few generations ([[Punctuated Equilibrium]]).
---
> Natural selection suggests that a [[species]] has the ability to adapt to changes in the environment, by random genetic mutations that occur. These mutations can alter the individual's physical shape or the inner workings of the body so that organs may change their shape or size or the immune system may develop a different reaction towards disease. After the mutation has occured, it's up to nature to test that change in real life. If the change benefits the individual, the individual is most likely to have a better chance of survival. Otherwise, the individual will most likely die and the faulty mutation will be discarded.  Often these processes last thousands of years due to the slow rate of mutations as well as the lifespan of the individual, although it seems that in some cases evolution can occur unbelievably quickly, within a few generations ([[Punctuated Equilibrium]]).
------
Feature_requests|983860562
5a6
> # BackLinks: see which pages links to the one you're at
------
GPL|983861485
1c1,349
< Describe the new page here.
---
> GPL Stands for the [[GNU]] General Public License. Version 2 follows:
> 
> <hr>
> <pre>
> 
>                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
>                        Version 2, June 1991
> 
>  Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
>                 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
> 
>  Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
>  of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
> 
>                             Preamble
> 
>   The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
> freedom to share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public
> License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
> software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.  This
> General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
> Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
> using it.  (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
> the GNU Library General Public License instead.)  You can apply it to
> your programs, too.
> 
>   When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
> price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
> have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
> this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
> if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it
> in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.
> 
>   To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
> anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
> These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
> distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
> 
>   For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
> gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
> you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
> source code.  And you must show them these terms so they know their
> rights.
> 
>   We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and
> (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
> distribute and/or modify the software.
> 
>   Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
> that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
> software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
> want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
> that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
> authors' reputations.
> 
>   Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
> patents.  We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free
> program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
> program proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
> patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.
> 
>   The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
> modification follow.
> 
>                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
>    TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
> 
>   0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains
> a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed
> under the terms of this General Public License.  The "Program", below,
> refers to any such program or work, and a "work based on the Program"
> means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law:
> that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it,
> either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another
> language.  (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in
> the term "modification".)  Each licensee is addressed as "you".
> 
> Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
> covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act of
> running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program
> is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the
> Program (independent of having been made by running the Program).
> Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.
> 
>   1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's
> source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you
> conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate
> copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
> notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty;
> and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License
> along with the Program.
> 
> You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and
> you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.
> 
>   2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
> of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
> distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
> above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:
> 
>     a) You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
>     stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.
> 
>     b) You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in
>     whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any
>     part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third
>     parties under the terms of this License.
> 
>     c) If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
>     when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
>     interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an
>     announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a
>     notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide
>     a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under
>     these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this
>     License.  (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but
>     does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on
>     the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
> 
> These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
> identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program,
> and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in
> themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
> sections when you distribute them as separate works.  But when you
> distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based
> on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of
> this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the
> entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.
> 
> Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest
> your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to
> exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or
> collective works based on the Program.
> 
> In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
> with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of
> a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under
> the scope of this License.
> 
>   3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
> under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
> Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
> 
>     a) Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
>     source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections
>     1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,
> 
>     b) Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
>     years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
>     cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
>     machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
>     distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium
>     customarily used for software interchange; or,
> 
>     c) Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
>     to distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is
>     allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
>     received the program in object code or executable form with such
>     an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)
> 
> The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
> making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete source
> code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any
> associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to
> control compilation and installation of the executable.  However, as a
> special exception, the source code distributed need not include
> anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary
> form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the
> operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component
> itself accompanies the executable.
> 
> If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
> access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
> access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
> distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
> compelled to copy the source along with the object code.
> 
>   4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
> except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
> otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
> void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
> However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under
> this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
> 
> parties remain in full compliance.
> 
>   5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
> signed it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or
> distribute the Program or its derivative works.  These actions are
> prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by
> modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the
> Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and
> all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying
> the Program or works based on it.
> 
>   6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
> Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
> original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
> these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further
> restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.
> You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to
> this License.
> 
>   7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
> infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
> conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
> otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
> excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
> distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
> License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
> may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent
> license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by
> all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then
> the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to
> refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
> 
> If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
> any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
> apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
> circumstances.
> 
> It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
> patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
> such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
> integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
> implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
> generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
> through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
> system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing
> to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
> impose that choice.
> 
> This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to
> be a consequence of the rest of this License.
> ^L
>   8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
> certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the
> original copyright holder who places the Program under this License
> may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding
> those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among
> countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates
> the limitation as if written in the body of this License.
> 
>   9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
> of the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will
> be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
> address new problems or concerns.
> 
> Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
> specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and "any
> later version", you have the option of following the terms and conditions
> either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
> Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version number of
> this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software
> Foundation.
> 
>   10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
> programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
> to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free
> Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes
> make exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals
> of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
> of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.
> 
>                             NO WARRANTY
> 
>   11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY
> FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN
> OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES
> PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED
> OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
> MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS
> TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD THE
> PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING,
> REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
> 
>   12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
> WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR
> REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES,
> INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
> OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
> TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY
> YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER
> PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
> POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
> 
>                      END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
> ^L
>         Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
> 
>   If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
> possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
> free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms.
> 
>   To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest
> to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
> convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
> the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
> 
>     <one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.>
>     Copyright (C) 19yy  <name of author>
> 
>     This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
>     it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
>     the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
>     (at your option) any later version.
> 
>     This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
>     but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
>     MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
>     GNU General Public License for more details.
> 
>     You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
>     along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
>     Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
> 
> Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
> 
> If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
> when it starts in an interactive mode:
> 
>     Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19yy name of author
>     Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
>     This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
>     under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
> 
> The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate
> parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the commands you use may
> be called something other than `show w' and `show c'; they could even be
> mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your program.
> 
> You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
> school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if
> necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:
> 
>   Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
>   `Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.
> 
>   <signature of Ty Coon>, 1 April 1989
>   Ty Coon, President of Vice
> 
> This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into
> proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine library, you may
> consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the
> library.  If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General
> Public License instead of this License.
> </pre>
> <hr>
> 
------
GPL|983861536
288c288
< ^L
---
> 
------
GNU|983861718
1a2,3
> 
> GNU's home page is at http://www.gnu.org
------
Euglenozoa|983861847
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Euglenozoa comprise a few major groups of [[flagellate]] protozoa whose relationships to one another have only recently been recognized: the [[kinetoplastids]], the [[euglenids]], the [[diplonemids]] and possibly a few other forms.  They include various common free-living forms, mostly bacterivores, as well as a few important parasites.  Most are around 15-40 µm long, although a few get up to five times that size.
> 
> Most euglenozoa have two [[flagella]], usually one leading and one trailing, that insert parallel to each other in an anterior pocket.  In most forms there is a cytostome (mouth) associated therewith, supported by one of three characteristic [[microtubule]] groups arising from the flagellar bases; the other two support the dorsal and ventral surfaces.  There are a number of other ultrastructural peculiarities, for instance, paraxial rods inside the flagella.
> 
> No example of sexual reproduction has ever been found within the group.  They reproduce exclusively through cell division, with closed [[mitosis]] and internal spindles.  All euglenozoa have [[mitochondria]] with discoid cristae, and are possibly distant relatives of other such groups - eg [[Heterolobosea]], ''[[Stephanopogon]]''.
> 
> A number of euglenids possess chloroplasts.  These are typically contained in three cell membranes, suggesting they were taken secondarily from some captured [[algae|alga]].  The pigmentation is mostly similar to that of the [[Plantae]].  Photosynthetic euglenids have generally lost the cytostome and often have other adaptations to an autotrophic life - most interesting of which is a light-sensitive eyespot.  A few have secondarily lost the chloroplasts and feed by absorption.
------
Ashmore_And_Cartier_Islands|983861901
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Two groups of small low lying unihabited islands in the Indian Ocean situated north-west of Australia and south of Indonesia. <P>
> Politically, they are an external territory of Australia.
------
RequestedArticles|983862107
5c5
< [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[History of wiki]] -- [[History of China]] -- [[Histor of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] -- [[History of Islam]] -- [[Xenophon]]
---
> [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[History of wiki]] -- [[History of China]] -- [[History of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] -- [[History of Islam]] -- [[Xenophon]]
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|983862179
1c1
< The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists.
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them PseudoScience.
------
Josh_Grosse|983862287
1c1
< Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, and GreekMythology.
---
> Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, GreekMythology, and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
33,35d32
< ----
< 
< Joshua,
37,38c34
< I think pictures are great.  It's probably best if I copy the image to this server, and we change the URL to serve it from here,
< because Tripod may not appreciate our loading it from a remote location, etc., etc. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> Joshua, I think pictures are great.  It's probably best if I copy the image to this server, and we change the URL to serve it from here, because Tripod may not appreciate our loading it from a remote location, etc., etc. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
42c38
< ''I haven't the least plan at all, I'm afraid.  One possibility is to add a way for people to upload their pictures into an images directory.  That's easy enough to do.''
---
> ''I haven't the least plan at all, I'm afraid.  One possibility is to add a way for people to upload their pictures into an images directory.  That's easy enough to do.''
------
CountriesN|983862565
4a5,6
> [[Norfolk Island]]
> 
------
PseudoScience|983862615
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A theory is PseudoScience when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
> 
> Some pseudo-scientific facts even make their way into school textbooks. Several people are actively fighting pseudoscience; a web search (for example http://www.google.com/search?q=pseudoscience) can reveal several such pages.
------
CountriesK|983862628
1c1,2
< * [[Kenya]]
---
> * [[Kenya]]
> * [[Kiribati]]
------
Scientific_Method|983862664
8c8
< If the experiment does not disprove your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory.
---
> If the experiment does not disprove your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory. Contrast PseudoScience.
------
CountriesI|983862774
2a3,10
> [[Indonesia]]
> 
> [[Iran]]
> 
> [[Iraq]]
> 
> [[Ireland]]
> 
------
EnglishLanguage|983862930
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the MiddleAges, usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the NormanConquest which gave England a French nobility, the FrenchLanguage.  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to amalglamate foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, to the present.
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the MiddleAges, usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the NormanConquest which gave England a French nobility, the FrenchLanguage.  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, to the present.
------
Jpmartin|983863251
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unofficial welcome to Jpmartin (unofficial 'cause it's from me), who's so far started filling in some of the basic Science material for us. :)
------
Jpmartin|983863272
1c1
< An unofficial welcome to Jpmartin (unofficial 'cause it's from me), who's so far started filling in some of the basic Science material for us. :)
---
> An unofficial welcome to [[Jpmartin]] (unofficial 'cause it's from me), who's so far started filling in some of the basic [[Science]] material for us. :)
------
Switzerland|983863448
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Swizzera, Romanche (?)
> 
> Small country in the center of Europe, neighbors [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Austria]] and [[Liechtenstein]]. Languages spoken are German, French, Italian and Romanche. The German spoken there is more acurately called [[Swiss German]], because it differs from German in a noticeable way.
> 
> Capital is Bern.
> 
> Other important cities: Zurich, Geneva, Basel.
> 
> The Swiss are famous for their banks, their chocolate, their watches and their cheese.
------
FrisianLanguage|983863530
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of [[The Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Dutch]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
> <P>
> The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
------
Switzerland|983863554
1c1
< German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Swizzera, Romanche (?)
---
> German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Swizzera, Romanche: (?)
------
LangueFrancaise|983863702
17c17
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la France, dont la Belgique, la Suisse, le Luxembourg, le Quebec.
---
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]].
------
Suisse|983863815
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Switzerland]]
------
Set|983864109
5c5
< This comment posted by an astute reader who is pointing out that in cetain areas of SetTheory, Sets are not necesarily required to be well-defined. In this case, they are  semi-decidable.
---
> This comment posted by an astute reader who is pointing out that in certain areas of SetTheory, Sets are not necesarily required to be well-defined. In this case, they are  semi-decidable.
------
RAM|983864384
1c1
< Short for [[Random Access Memory]]. It is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. [[RAM]] is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]].
---
> Short for [[Random Access Memory]]. It is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. [[RAM]] is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]]. Unlike some other forms of [[Storage]], RAM is typically entirely deleted when the computer is powered down.
------
BASIC|983864589
1c1,91
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BASIC - Programming Language
> ----------------------------
> 
> B = Beginner's
> A = All-purpose
> S = Symbolic
> I = Instruction
> C = Code
> 
> 	BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
> 
> 	The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
> 
> 	The acronym BASIC stands for "Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code"(c.1). The acronym is not related to C. K. Ogden's series titled "Basic English."(c.1) The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.
> 
> 	BASIC is the worlds most popular programming language, despite the disdain for the language by computer professionals from shortly after the development of the first version to present day.  The disdain comes from BASIC being a "slow interpretive unstructured language."  Surprisingly the first version of BASIC, Dartmouth BASIC, was not interpretive, and not particularly slow.  All later versions of Dartmouth BASIC and the direct descendants have all been compilers.
> 
> 	The first version of BASIC was developed on a timesharing mainframe called the GE-265, which was a GE-235 with a GE DataNet-30.(c.1)  The false reputation for BASIC's slow performance may be tied to the GE FORTRAN compiler for the hardware which placed the startup code at the beginning of the runtime tape, and the shutdown code at the end, resulting in an empty FORTRAN program taking a very long time to run.  Dartmouth BASIC has never had this problem.(c.1)
> 
> 	During the early days of BASIC there were no interpretive versions, however with the advent of the first personal computers multiple interpretive versions of BASIC proliferated.  The designers and manufacturers of the first personal computers with keyboards needed to include software to allow people to write software to use on the computers.  As all the other programming languages were too large to fit in the small ROM space on the machines, and not even a compiled version of BASIC would fit, interpretive BASIC was chosen.  The most widespread versions were made by Microsoft.
> 
> 	Since the early days of the personal computer BASIC compilers, some of them generating code as fast as the fastest versions of Pascal and C, have made a comeback, but despite the addition of structured programming capability its reputation remains.
> 
> 	BASIC is available for nearly every platform made.  One free interpretive version that is compliant with standards and highly cross-platform is ByWater BASIC.  The most well known compiled versions are Microsoft's Quick BASIC product line and QBASIC, (a version which does not generate standalone programs.)(c.2)  Some versions of the best-selling Visual BASIC product-line are also compiled, although Microsoft has altered Visual BASIC into a language minimally compatible with even early versions of Dartmouth BASIC.  Other versions include PowerBASIC's PowerBASIC, as well as True BASIC's True BASIC, a product compliant with the latest official standards for BASIC.  (True BASIC Inc. was founded by the original creators of BASIC.)
> 
> 
> Sample 1: Unstructured original BASIC
> -------------------------------------
> 10 INPUT "What is your name"; A$
> 20 PRINT "Hello "; A$
> 30 INPUT "How many stars do you want"; S
> 40 FOR I = 1 TO S
> 50 S$ = S$ + "*"
> 55 NEXT I
> 60 PRINT S$
> 70 INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Q$
> 80 IF LEN(Q$) = 0 GOTO 70
> 90 L$ = LEFT$(Q$, 1)
> 100 IF (L$ = "Y") OR (L$ = "y") THEN GOTO 30
> 110 PRINT "Goodbye ";
> 120 FOR I = 1 TO 200
> 130 PRINT A$; " ";
> 140 NEXT I
> 150 PRINT
> 
> 
> Sample 2: Modern Structured BASIC
> ---------------------------------
> INPUT "What is your name"; UserName$
> PRINT "Hello "; UserName$
> DO	
>   INPUT "How many stars do you want"; NumStars
>   Stars$ = ""
>   Stars$ = REPEAT$("*", NumStars)	'<-ANSI BASIC
>   'Stars$ = STRING(NumStars, "*")	'<-MS BASIC
>   PRINT Stars$
>   DO
>     INPUT "Do you want more stars"; Answer$
>   LOOP UNTIL Answer$ <> ""
> LOOP WHILE UCASE$(LEFT$(Answer$, 1)) = "Y"
> PRINT "Goodbye ";
> FOR A = 1 TO 200
>   PRINT UserName$; " ";
> NEXT A
> PRINT
> 			
> 
> Documents Defining BASIC
> ------------------------
> 
> ANSI Standard for Minimal BASIC (ANSI X3.60-1978 "FOR MINIMAL BASIC")
> 
> ISO Standard  for Minimal BASIC (ISO/IEC 6373:1984 "DATA PROCESSING - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - MINIMAL BASIC")
> 
> ANSI Standard for Full BASIC (ANSI X3.113-1987 "PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FULL BASIC") $79 USD
> 
> ISO Standard for Full BASIC (ISO/IEC 10279:1991 "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - FULL BASIC") $53 USD
> 
> ANSI Addendum Defining Modules (X3.113 INTERPRETATIONS-1992 "BASIC TECHNICAL INFORMATION BULLETIN # 1 INTERPRETATIONS OF ANSI 03.113-1987")
> 
> ISO Addendum Defining Modules (ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 "MODULES AND SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT ENHANCEMENT")
> 
> 
> References
> ----------
> c1. Per correspondence with Thomas E. Kurtz.
> c2. QBASIC is included on the installation CD-ROM for Windows 95/98/ME.
> 
> 
> Originally written for Nupedia.
> Article by Peter Fedorow fedorowp@yahoo.com
------
GothicLanguage|983864656
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Chistian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
> <P>
> It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the Visigoths in Spain until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans and what is now the Ukraine.
> <P>
> Apart from the Bible, the only other Gothic document is a few pages of commentary on the Gospel according to St. John. This document is usually called the "Skereins" (please check spelling).
> <P>
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic insciptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.)
> <P>
> There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about 800AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medievel texts that mention the Goths, it must be noted that many writers used "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even refered to Slavic speaking people as Goths.
> <P>
> There is also the case of the "Crimean Goths". We have a few fragments of their language dating to the 16th Century AD. Assuming those fragments are genuine, it appears to be a different language to the one used in the Gothic Bible (but is still certainly Germanic).
> <P>
> 
> (Sorry this is by a non expert just from memory and should be rewritten by someone who actually knows.)
------
BASIC|983864747
28a29
> <pre>
45c46
< 
---
> </pre>
48a50
> <pre>
66c68
< 			
---
> </pre>			
------
Jpmartin|983864967
1a2,3
> 
> - Oh hi [[Josh Grosse]]! Thanks for the greeting :)
------
CountriesZ|983865036
2a3,4
> [[Zambia]]
> 
------
CountriesV|983865078
0a1
> * [[Vanuatu]]
------
BASIC|983865489
10c10
< 	BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
---
> BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
12c12
< 	The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
---
> The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
14c14
< 	The acronym BASIC stands for "Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code"(c.1). The acronym is not related to C. K. Ogden's series titled "Basic English."(c.1) The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.
---
> The acronym BASIC stands for "Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code"(c.1). The acronym is not related to C. K. Ogden's series titled "Basic English."(c.1) The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz.
16c16
< 	BASIC is the worlds most popular programming language, despite the disdain for the language by computer professionals from shortly after the development of the first version to present day.  The disdain comes from BASIC being a "slow interpretive unstructured language."  Surprisingly the first version of BASIC, Dartmouth BASIC, was not interpretive, and not particularly slow.  All later versions of Dartmouth BASIC and the direct descendants have all been compilers.
---
> BASIC is the worlds most popular programming language, despite the disdain for the language by computer professionals from shortly after the development of the first version to present day.  The disdain comes from BASIC being a "slow interpretive unstructured language."  Surprisingly the first version of BASIC, Dartmouth BASIC, was not interpretive, and not particularly slow.  All later versions of Dartmouth BASIC and the direct descendants have all been compilers.
18c18
< 	The first version of BASIC was developed on a timesharing mainframe called the GE-265, which was a GE-235 with a GE DataNet-30.(c.1)  The false reputation for BASIC's slow performance may be tied to the GE FORTRAN compiler for the hardware which placed the startup code at the beginning of the runtime tape, and the shutdown code at the end, resulting in an empty FORTRAN program taking a very long time to run.  Dartmouth BASIC has never had this problem.(c.1)
---
> The first version of BASIC was developed on a timesharing mainframe called the GE-265, which was a GE-235 with a GE DataNet-30.(c.1)  The false reputation for BASIC's slow performance may be tied to the GE FORTRAN compiler for the hardware which placed the startup code at the beginning of the runtime tape, and the shutdown code at the end, resulting in an empty FORTRAN program taking a very long time to run.  Dartmouth BASIC has never had this problem.(c.1)
20c20
< 	During the early days of BASIC there were no interpretive versions, however with the advent of the first personal computers multiple interpretive versions of BASIC proliferated.  The designers and manufacturers of the first personal computers with keyboards needed to include software to allow people to write software to use on the computers.  As all the other programming languages were too large to fit in the small ROM space on the machines, and not even a compiled version of BASIC would fit, interpretive BASIC was chosen.  The most widespread versions were made by Microsoft.
---
> During the early days of BASIC there were no interpretive versions, however with the advent of the first personal computers multiple interpretive versions of BASIC proliferated.  The designers and manufacturers of the first personal computers with keyboards needed to include software to allow people to write software to use on the computers.  As all the other programming languages were too large to fit in the small ROM space on the machines, and not even a compiled version of BASIC would fit, interpretive BASIC was chosen.  The most widespread versions were made by Microsoft.
22c22
< 	Since the early days of the personal computer BASIC compilers, some of them generating code as fast as the fastest versions of Pascal and C, have made a comeback, but despite the addition of structured programming capability its reputation remains.
---
> Since the early days of the personal computer BASIC compilers, some of them generating code as fast as the fastest versions of Pascal and C, have made a comeback, but despite the addition of structured programming capability its reputation remains.
24c24
< 	BASIC is available for nearly every platform made.  One free interpretive version that is compliant with standards and highly cross-platform is ByWater BASIC.  The most well known compiled versions are Microsoft's Quick BASIC product line and QBASIC, (a version which does not generate standalone programs.)(c.2)  Some versions of the best-selling Visual BASIC product-line are also compiled, although Microsoft has altered Visual BASIC into a language minimally compatible with even early versions of Dartmouth BASIC.  Other versions include PowerBASIC's PowerBASIC, as well as True BASIC's True BASIC, a product compliant with the latest official standards for BASIC.  (True BASIC Inc. was founded by the original creators of BASIC.)
---
> BASIC is available for nearly every platform made.  One free interpretive version that is compliant with standards and highly cross-platform is ByWater BASIC.  The most well known compiled versions are Microsoft's Quick BASIC product line and QBASIC, (a version which does not generate standalone programs.)(c.2)  Some versions of the best-selling Visual BASIC product-line are also compiled, although Microsoft has altered Visual BASIC into a language minimally compatible with even early versions of Dartmouth BASIC.  Other versions include PowerBASIC's PowerBASIC, as well as True BASIC's True BASIC, a product compliant with the latest official standards for BASIC.  (True BASIC Inc. was founded by the original creators of BASIC.)
92c92
< Originally written for Nupedia.
---
> Originally written for [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia].
------
Linear_Algebra|983865601
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Linear Algebra has to do with Matrices. Matrices are basically tables of numbers. Surprisingly enough, studying their properties can be very enlightening.
> 
> Linear Algebra covers such arcane topics as EigenVectors
------
EigenVectors|983865823
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector and c a scalar, and the following holds for some c and some v:
> 
> Av = cv
> 
> Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c.
> 
> Interesting properties of EigenVectors:
> 
> # If A is symmetric, then all its Eigenvalues are real (as opposed to complex).
> # If all values of A are non-negative, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
> (there are more, cannot remember off the top of my head)
> 
> 
------
EigenValue|983865857
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see EigenVector.
------
EigenVector|983865883
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT EigenVectors
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983866008
2a3,6
> '''March 6, 2001'''
> 
> Jimbo was wrong!  We have had a massive influx of people writing a lot of interesting, good articles.  Nothing to fear, it seems!  March 5 really was a sort of banner day--probably set a record in terms of number of edits and number of new articles.
> 
5c9
< The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot.org, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
91c95
< ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
---
> ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
------
Matrix_Algebra|983866075
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> 
> See LinearAlgebra
------
Play|983867045
1c1
< View the Wiki at regualr speed, as opposed to viewing at [[Fast Forward]]
---
> View the Wiki at regular speed, as opposed to viewing at [[Fast Forward]]
------
Physics|983867061
4a5,36
> <P>
> Rough draft of categories of Physics:
> <P>
> * [[Solid State Physics]]
> 
> * [[Hydrodynamics]]
> 
> * [[Quantum Mechanics]]
> 
> * [[Classical Mechanics]]
> 
> * [[Electromagnetism]]
> 
> * [[Relativity]]
> 
> * [[Thermodynamics]]
> 
> * [[Atomic, Nuclear, and Particle Physics]]
> 
> * [[Cosmology]] (see also [[Astronomy]])
> 
> * [[Physics experimental methods]]
> 
> * [[Physics instrumentation]]
> 
> * [[Physics theoretical methods]]
> 
> * [[Physics computer simulation methods]]
> 
> * [[History of Physics]]
> 
> * [[Famous Physicists]]
------
PreliminaryDTD|983867327
39c39
<  of the symantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone
---
>  of the semantic hint tags which we might include. <name>Someone
------
FrisianLanguage|983867621
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of [[The Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Dutch]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Dutch]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
------
FrisianLanguage|983867717
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Dutch]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[NetherlandicLanguage]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
------
Swedish_language|983867880
1c1
< Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. One of the [[Germanic languages]].
---
> Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. One of the [[GermanicLanguages]].
------
ErnestHemingway/ViolenceandRedemption|983868005
1c1
< C)Conclusion
---
> C) Conclusion
------
Physics|983868322
17a18,19
> * [[Gravity]]
> 
------
OpenSource|983868340
12c12
< The GNUProjecT, FreeSoftwareFoundation, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD
---
> The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], FreeSoftwareFoundation, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD
------
Food_and_Drinks|983868516
11c11
< * [[Alcoholic Beverages:]]
---
> * [[Alcoholic Beverages]]
------
WikiPediaFaq|983868854
116c116,118
< '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
---
> '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
> ----
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
------
CountriesW|983873270
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Wales]]
------
JRR_Tolkien|983873921
0a1
> John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (1892-1973).
2c3,9
< John Ronal Reuel Tolkien (1892-1973).
---
> A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of `Middle Earth' as 
> background.
> His children's book, The Hobbit, achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. 
> 
> The Lord of the Rings was, judged both by sales and surveys of readers, one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century.
> 
> Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son Christopher organised some of this material into one volume, published as The Silmarillion (1977) 
4d10
< English novelist and scholar who achieved fame with his richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55). 
------
Wales|983876682
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wales (Cymru)
> 
> Covering an area of 8000 square miles, Wales has 3 million inhabitants, 20% of whom can speak Cymraeg (Welsh). 
> 
> Wales has been a principality of England since the Act of Union in 1536, although the "Welsh Assembly" sitting in Cardiff is elected by the Welsh people.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
HugoPrize|983876942
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Science Fiction fans award
------
CIAWorldFactbook|983877019
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Find it at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
> 
> Copyright information from the site:
> 
> The World Factbook is prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency for the use of US Government officials, and the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements. Information is provided by Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation), Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce), Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor), Central Intelligence Agency, Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs, Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense), Department of State, Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior), Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation), National Imagery and Mapping Agency (Department of Defense), Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense), Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior), Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense), US Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior), and other public and private sources.
> 
> 
> The Factbook is in the public domain. Accordingly, it may be copied freely without permission of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the CIA Act of 1949 (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties. 
> 
> 
------
ScienceFiction|983882134
14c14
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as AldousHuxley, C.S. Lewis, and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
---
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as AldousHuxley, [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
------
C.S._Lewis|983882641
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Clive Staples Lewis
> 
> English academic and writer. He wrote a number of books on Christian themes, such as The Screwtape Letters - letters of advice from an elderly demon to his nephew.
> 
> Other works were a popular series of fantasy novels for children, set in an imaginary world called [[Narnia]], and a trilogy of books (Out of the Silent Planet, Perelandra, and That Hideous Strength) containing an interesting blend of Christian theology with ScienceFiction themes
------
CountriesU|983885429
0a1,2
> * [[United Kingdom]]
> 
------
CountriesM|983885613
3a4
> * [[Monaco]]
------
CountriesT|983885721
1a2,3
> * [[Tanzania]]
> * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
4c6
< * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
---
> 
------
CountriesI|983885963
1c1
< [[Iceland]]
---
> * [[Iceland]]
3c3
< [[Indonesia]]
---
> * [[India]]
5c5
< [[Iran]]
---
> * [[Indonesia]]
7c7
< [[Iraq]]
---
> * [[Iran]]
9c9
< [[Ireland]]
---
> * [[Iraq]]
11c11,13
< [[Italy]]
---
> * [[Ireland]]
> 
> * [[Italy]]
------
CountriesB|983886038
1a2,4
> 
> * [[Bangladesh]]
> 
2a6
> 
4c8,9
< * [[Brazil]]
---
> 
> * [[Brazil]]
------
CountriesN|983886118
1c1
< [[Netherlands]]
---
> * [[Nepal]]
3c3
< [[New Zealand]]
---
> * [[Netherlands]]
5c5
< [[Norfolk Island]]
---
> * [[New Zealand]]
7c7,9
< [[Norway]]
---
> * [[Norfolk Island]]
> 
> * [[Norway]]
------
CountriesN|983886163
6a7,8
> * [[Nigeria]]
> 
------
CountriesG|983886217
1a2,4
> 
> * [[Ghana]]
> 
3c6,7
< * [[Guatemala]]
---
> 
> * [[Guatemala]]
------
CountriesB|983886266
4a5,6
> * [[Barbados]]
> 
------
CountriesE|983886414
1c1,3
< [[Estonia]]
---
> * [[Ecuador]]
> 
> * [[Estonia]]
------
CountriesH|983886485
1c1,3
< [[Honduras]]
---
> * [[Haiti]]
> 
> * [[Honduras]]
------
CountriesG|983886537
7a8,9
> 
> * [[Guyana]]
------
CountriesC|983886587
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
3a6
> 
5c8,11
< * [[Colombia]]
---
> 
> * [[Colombia]]
> 
> * [[Cuba]]
------
CountriesL|983886755
1a2,4
> 
> * [[Liberia]]
> 
2a6
> 
3a8
> 
------
CountriesC|983886856
11c11,13
< * [[Cuba]]
---
> * [[Cuba]]
> 
> * [[Czechoslovakia]] (now partiotoned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
------
CountriesH|983886902
3a4,5
> 
> * [[Hungary]]
------
CountriesB|983886936
11a12,13
> 
> * [[Bulgaria]]
------
CountriesB|983886981
10a11,12
> * [[Bermuda]]
> 
13c15
< * [[Bulgaria]]
---
> * [[Bulgaria]]
------
CountriesS|983887069
1a2
> 
2a4,6
> 
> * [[Somalia]]
> 
3a8
> 
4a10,12
> 
> * [[Sudan]]
> 
5a14
> 
6a16
> 
7a18
> 
------
CountriesR|983887142
0a1,2
> * [[Romania]]
> 
1a4
> 
------
CountriesC|983887205
13c13
< * [[Czechoslovakia]] (now partiotoned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
---
> * Czechoslovakia (now partiotoned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
------
CountriesC|983887230
13c13
< * Czechoslovakia (now partiotoned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
---
> * Czechoslovakia (now partioned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
------
SandBox|983887282
0a1,4
> A monkey says "eep".
> 
> ----
> 
------
CountriesM|983887303
1a2
> 
2a4,6
> 
> * [[Mali]]
> 
3a8
> 
4a10
> 
------
CountriesM|983887353
6a7,8
> * [[Malta]]
> 
------
CountriesJ|983887406
1c1,3
< [[Japan]]
---
> * [[Japan]]
> 
> * [[Jordan]]
------
CountriesS|983887450
19a20,21
> 
> * [[Syria]]
------
CountriesI|983887522
12a13,14
> * [[Israel]]
> 
------
CountriesB|983887600
12a13,14
> * [[Bolivia]]
> 
------
CountriesP|983888217
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
3a6
> 
4a8
> 
5a10,12
> 
> * [[Phillipines]]
> 
6a14
> 
7a16
> 
------
Scientific_Method|983888626
4,5c4,5
< # Make a guess at some fundamental rule that governs the world
< # Find some experience which result could show that your guess was wrong
---
> # Make a guess at some fundamental rule that governs the world (hypothesis)
> # Find some experiment which result could show that your guess was wrong
8c8
< If the experiment does not disprove your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory. Contrast PseudoScience.
---
> Repeat steps 3 and 4.
10c10,12
< Note that claims that cannot be disproved, such as "there exist something outside of the world that we cannot see nor interact with" are not scientific because they fail the third criterion. Also, note that theories determined by the scientific method are not necessarily true. We may discover later that they are in fact wrong, and replace them with a newer theory. 
---
> If no experiment disproves your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory. Contrast PseudoScience.
> 
> Note that claims that cannot be disproved, such as "there exist something outside of the world that we cannot see nor interact with" are not scientific because they fail the third criterion. Also, note that theories determined by the scientific method are not necessarily true. Later experiments may prove that the theory in fact wrong, and replace it with a newer theory. 
------
CountriesT|983888655
1a2
> 
2a4,6
> 
> * [[Tonga]]
> 
3a8
> 
4a10,12
> 
> * [[Turks and Caicos]]
> 
------
GNU|983890899
1c1
< "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other [[Unix]]'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any [[Unix]] machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as HURD) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
---
> "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other [[Unix]]'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any [[Unix]] machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as [[Hurd]]) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
------
ComputerSoftware|983891024
26a27
> *** [[IRIX]]
------
PhiloSophy|983891026
10c10
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation
---
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
------
IRIX|983891115
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IRIX is the [[Unix]]-like [[Operating System]] by [[SGI]], formerly known as Silicon Graphics Industries.
------
PhilosophicalCounseling|983891169
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An increasingly popular application for philosophy is in counseling. There's a whole pile of resources at:
> 
> http://www.towson.edu/~kealey/philcounsel.html
------
IRIX|983891179
1c1
< IRIX is the [[Unix]]-like [[Operating System]] by [[SGI]], formerly known as Silicon Graphics Industries.
---
> IRIX is the [[Unix]]-like [[Operating System]] by [[SGI]].
------
PhilosophicalCounseling|983891204
3c3,7
< http://www.towson.edu/~kealey/philcounsel.html
---
> http://www.towson.edu/~kealey/philcounsel.html
> 
> ----
> 
> See PhiloSophy
------
DefinitionOfLogic|983892036
3c3
< Today we’re going to study a subdiscipline of philosophy called <i>logic</i>.  This is basically the study of argument -- by which we mean, not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.  So recall from last time the definition of "argument":
---
> Today we're going to study a subdiscipline of philosophy called <i>logic</i>.  This is basically the study of argument -- by which we mean, not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.  So recall from last time the definition of "argument":
7c7
< It’s extremely important in this class that you understand what arguments are, and that you distinguish them from other things.  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  You can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
---
> It's extremely important in this class that you understand what arguments are, and that you distinguish them from other things.  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  You can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
9c9
< Now, there are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, or not primarily, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose I offer an explanation for why there are tides: I talk about the gravitational effect of the moon and the sun on the oceans, and so on.  Now, <i>that</i> isn’t an argument.  It is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, I’m explaining why there are tides.  I’m not trying to convince you <i>that</i> there are tides.  We have already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
---
> Now, there are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, or not primarily, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose I offer an explanation for why there are tides: I talk about the gravitational effect of the moon and the sun on the oceans, and so on.  Now, <i>that</i> isn't an argument.  It is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, I'm explaining why there are tides.  I'm not trying to convince you <i>that</i> there are tides.  We have already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
11c11
< On the other hand, suppose I argue for the following claim: "God exists."  In other words, "God exists" is the conclusion of an argument I make.  In that case I am <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If I tried to explain why there is a God, I would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what I’m doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then I’m not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, I’m trying to <i>convince</i> you, or a skeptic anyway, that God exists.
---
> On the other hand, suppose I argue for the following claim: "God exists."  In other words, "God exists" is the conclusion of an argument I make.  In that case I am <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If I tried to explain why there is a God, I would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what I'm doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then I'm not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, I'm trying to <i>convince</i> you, or a skeptic anyway, that God exists.
15c15
< Just as a hammer is the tool of the carpenter’s trade, an <i>argument</i> is the tool of the philosopher’s trade.  And, as I said last time, it shouldn’t be too hard to see why philosophers work so much with arguments: philosophers carry to heroic lengths the human tendency to doubt sometimes the deepest, most fundamental of our beliefs.  Because they want to overcome all of these doubts, they offer and examine arguments for various claims: the arguments are supposed to be what will rid us of the doubts.  If we accept what we know is an excellent argument for a conclusion, and we’ve refuted all the plausible arguments <i>against</i> that conclusion, then we’re very well-positioned to say that we <i>know</i> that the conclusion is true.  Arguments, then, have the potential to give us  <i>knowledge</i> and to rid us of doubts; that’s why arguments are so important.
---
> Just as a hammer is the tool of the carpenter's trade, an <i>argument</i> is the tool of the philosopher's trade.  And, as I said last time, it shouldn't be too hard to see why philosophers work so much with arguments: philosophers carry to heroic lengths the human tendency to doubt sometimes the deepest, most fundamental of our beliefs.  Because they want to overcome all of these doubts, they offer and examine arguments for various claims: the arguments are supposed to be what will rid us of the doubts.  If we accept what we know is an excellent argument for a conclusion, and we've refuted all the plausible arguments <i>against</i> that conclusion, then we're very well-positioned to say that we <i>know</i> that the conclusion is true.  Arguments, then, have the potential to give us  <i>knowledge</i> and to rid us of doubts; that's why arguments are so important.
25c25
< Would the supporters of the death penalty be impressed by this argument?  Of course they wouldn’t.  They would say, "You’re begging the question.  In your argument, you say that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i> you’d have to prove that all killing is wrong -- which is what you’re trying to argue for.  We disagree with your conclusion: we think that <i>some</i> killing is <i>not</i> wrong.  And so of <i>course</i> we are going to disagree with your premise, that one should absolutely never kill.  No indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it’s our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of justice."
---
> Would the supporters of the death penalty be impressed by this argument?  Of course they wouldn't.  They would say, "You're begging the question.  In your argument, you say that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i> you'd have to prove that all killing is wrong -- which is what you're trying to argue for.  We disagree with your conclusion: we think that <i>some</i> killing is <i>not</i> wrong.  And so of <i>course</i> we are going to disagree with your premise, that one should absolutely never kill.  No indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it's our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of justice."
27c27
< So you can see that my argument just isn’t going to work against those people.  In it, I presuppose the conclusion: in other words, one of the premises <i>assumes</i> that the conclusion is true.  This is an error in arguing.  The <i>kind</i> of error has a name: <i>begging</i> <i>the</i> <i>question</i>.  If my argument begs the question then in my argument I assume the very thing that I’m trying to argue <i>for</i>.  Of course an argument that begs the question won’t, or shouldn’t, convince anyone: if I assume what I’m arguing for, anyone who assumes differently will be unimpressed.
---
> So you can see that my argument just isn't going to work against those people.  In it, I presuppose the conclusion: in other words, one of the premises <i>assumes</i> that the conclusion is true.  This is an error in arguing.  The <i>kind</i> of error has a name: <i>begging</i> <i>the</i> <i>question</i>.  If my argument begs the question then in my argument I assume the very thing that I'm trying to argue <i>for</i>.  Of course an argument that begs the question won't, or shouldn't, convince anyone: if I assume what I'm arguing for, anyone who assumes differently will be unimpressed.
39c39
< Now you’re just going to have to trust me that there are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloging fallacies -- all the different kinds of ways that arguments can go wrong.  Today we’re going to be less ambitious: we’re going to outline, in broad generalities, how arguments can <i>go</i> <i>right</i>.  In other words, I’m going to introduce you to the study of <i>good</i> arguments, non-fallacious arguments -- which is to say that I’m going to introduce you to <i>logic</i>.
---
> Now you're just going to have to trust me that there are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloging fallacies -- all the different kinds of ways that arguments can go wrong.  Today we're going to be less ambitious: we're going to outline, in broad generalities, how arguments can <i>go</i> <i>right</i>.  In other words, I'm going to introduce you to the study of <i>good</i> arguments, non-fallacious arguments -- which is to say that I'm going to introduce you to <i>logic</i>.
45c45
< Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of definitions, as well.  And the way I’ll present it, logic will include discussion of <i>both</i> arguments <i>and</i> definitions.
---
> Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of definitions, as well.  And the way I'll present it, logic will include discussion of <i>both</i> arguments <i>and</i> definitions.
47c47
< I want to introduce you to some of the most fundamental logical concepts, for two reasons.  The first is that logic is one of the basic branches of philosophy, and so if I’m going to introduce you to all, or almost all, of the basic branches of philosophy, I’d better introduce you to logic.  The second reason is practical: namely, logic will help you understand better the rest of philosophy.  So it also has practical value.
---
> I want to introduce you to some of the most fundamental logical concepts, for two reasons.  The first is that logic is one of the basic branches of philosophy, and so if I'm going to introduce you to all, or almost all, of the basic branches of philosophy, I'd better introduce you to logic.  The second reason is practical: namely, logic will help you understand better the rest of philosophy.  So it also has practical value.
49c49
< There is a good reason why logic will help you understand the rest of philosophy.  I said last time that it is doubt about the meaning and justification of certain fundamental beliefs that motivates us to do philosophy.  Well, very often to extricate us from these doubts what are needed are <i>definitions</i> that explain the meaning of our basic concepts, and <i>arguments</i> to justify, or give reasons for, various beliefs that we’re not quite sure about.  Logic states the standards of good definitions and good arguments: it gives us the tools to see whether various proposed definitions, or arguments, are any good or not.  It helps us to avoid fallacies.
---
> There is a good reason why logic will help you understand the rest of philosophy.  I said last time that it is doubt about the meaning and justification of certain fundamental beliefs that motivates us to do philosophy.  Well, very often to extricate us from these doubts what are needed are <i>definitions</i> that explain the meaning of our basic concepts, and <i>arguments</i> to justify, or give reasons for, various beliefs that we're not quite sure about.  Logic states the standards of good definitions and good arguments: it gives us the tools to see whether various proposed definitions, or arguments, are any good or not.  It helps us to avoid fallacies.
51c51
< So let’s go back to the definition of "logic" I gave, and examine its various parts, leaving aside part (4), about definitions, for now.
---
> So let's go back to the definition of "logic" I gave, and examine its various parts, leaving aside part (4), about definitions, for now.
53c53
< Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you’ll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that’s not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It’s just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
---
> Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you'll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that's not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It's just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
------
Sri_Lanka|983892789
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tropical island nation off the southeast coast of [[India]].
> 
> Population about 19 million. Strong central government.
> 
> Since independence (from the BritishEmpire in 1948), struggles between the majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and the minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life. Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the LTTE -- the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.
------
EpistemOlogy|983892875
5c5
< Last time we talked about various theories of truth.  You’ll remember that we started by rejecting the view that truth is just the same as belief.  It is bound to seem pretty obvious that <i>some</i> of the things that you believe are false, unless you remain an unreformed relativist, of a sort that <i>I</i> and <i>most</i> philosophers think is rather naïve.  Some of the things you now believe, and have believed, and will believe, are true, and some are false.  No one bats 1.000 when it comes to having the truth.
---
> Last time we talked about various theories of truth.  You'll remember that we started by rejecting the view that truth is just the same as belief.  It is bound to seem pretty obvious that <i>some</i> of the things that you believe are false, unless you remain an unreformed relativist, of a sort that <i>I</i> and <i>most</i> philosophers think is rather naïve.  Some of the things you now believe, and have believed, and will believe, are true, and some are false.  No one bats 1.000 when it comes to having the truth.
7c7
< And there are some matters in life where it’s very difficult to know <i>whether</i> one’s belief <i>really</i> is true.  Philosophy is surely the best example.  You have, probably, lots of philosophical beliefs.  But if you’ve been paying attention at all so far, at the very least one thing has at some point struck you -- namely, that it’s very difficult indeed to <i>know</i>, without a doubt, that your philosophical beliefs are correct.  For any theory on any topic you might advance, you’ll be faced with a bunch of objections; and if you think you can reply to all the objections, you will be presupposing a lot of <i>other</i> philosophical views, each of which has some objections to <i>it</i>; and so on.
---
> And there are some matters in life where it's very difficult to know <i>whether</i> one's belief <i>really</i> is true.  Philosophy is surely the best example.  You have, probably, lots of philosophical beliefs.  But if you've been paying attention at all so far, at the very least one thing has at some point struck you -- namely, that it's very difficult indeed to <i>know</i>, without a doubt, that your philosophical beliefs are correct.  For any theory on any topic you might advance, you'll be faced with a bunch of objections; and if you think you can reply to all the objections, you will be presupposing a lot of <i>other</i> philosophical views, each of which has some objections to <i>it</i>; and so on.
13c13
< Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let’s define a general term:
---
> Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let's define a general term:
15c15
< A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature iff it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
---
> A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature if it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
17c17
< Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don’t want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don’t want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that’s possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn’t our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
---
> Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don't want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don't want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that's possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn't our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
19c19
< Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I’m sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
---
> Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
29c29
< Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn’t what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it’s to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
---
> Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn't what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it's to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
31c31
< Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it’s very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don’t deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
---
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
------
Performing_Arts|983893142
1c1
< The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], DanCe and some other arts.  All great stuff!
---
> The ''performing arts'' include [[theater]], [[film]], [[MuSic|music]], [[Dance]] and some other arts.  All great stuff!
------
CountriesC|983893254
13c13,15
< * Czechoslovakia (now partioned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
---
> * [[Cyprus]]
> 
> * Czechoslovakia (now partioned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]])
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983893277
1c1
< Epic trilogy by JRRTolkieN. The work consists of [[/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[/The Two Towers]], and [[/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
---
> Epic trilogy by [[JRR_Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[/The Two Towers]], and [[/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
------
CountriesV|983893342
1a2,4
> 
> * [[Vatican City]]
> 
2a6
> 
3a8
> 
------
Unix|983893628
3c3,5
< Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service.
---
> Originally UNICS, which stands for Uniplexed Information and Computing Service, which was a lesser variant of a project called MULTICS, Mulitplexed Information and Computing Service.
> 
> Unix is more a class of [[operating system]] than a specific [[operating system]]. There are two basic variants: [[BSD]] and [[System V]]. Most [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]] fall neatly (or less so) into one of these categories.
------
Unix|983893690
1c1
< Unix is an [[Operating System]] written by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1969.
---
> Unix is an [[operating system]] written by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1969.
5c5
< Unix is more a class of [[operating system]] than a specific [[operating system]]. There are two basic variants: [[BSD]] and [[System V]]. Most [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]] fall neatly (or less so) into one of these categories.
---
> Unix is more a class of [[operating system]] than a specific [[operating system]]. There are two basic variants: [[BSD]] and [[System V]]. Most [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s fall neatly (or less so) into one of these categories.
------
Operating_system|983893861
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Interacts directly with hardware and provides a virtual machine on which programs execute. Manages processes, memory and hardware devices. The operating system is generally considered to be composed of a [[kernel]] and a bundle of user applications. Examples include [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
------
ConsequentialIsm/Talk|983894820
41c41
< Well, I'd perhaps count myself a quasi-post-neo-Objectivist ;-). But that's neither here nor there. I certainly think that we can argue things on their merits. Now, it would be nice if there were a nice piece on the agent neutral/agent relative distinction (is there?). But that's certainly a different distinction from the consequentialist/non-consequentialist distinction. The article could certainly be clearer about what non-conseqeuntialist theories are after: that what matters in right action is one's motive, or the principle upon which one acts. I was brought up to use 'consequentialism' the way I did, and the way Larry was. I do think this is common parlance. As I mention, consequentialism is often used sloppily as short hand for Utilitarianism -- collectivist, agent-neutral consequentialism. But sloppy usage doesn't set the standard. -- WillWilkinson
---
> Well, I'd perhaps count myself a quasi-post-neo-Objectivist ;-). But that's neither here nor there. I certainly think that we can argue things on their merits. Now, it would be nice if there were a nice piece on the agent neutral/agent relative distinction (is there?). But that's certainly a different distinction from the consequentialist/non-consequentialist distinction. The article could certainly be clearer about what non-conseqeuntialist theories are after: that what matters in right action is one's motive, or the principle upon which one acts. I was brought up to use 'consequentialism' the way I did, and the way Larry was. I do think this is common parlance. As I mention, and as you show with the Scheffler quote, consequentialism is often used sloppily as short hand for Utilitarianism -- collectivist, agent-neutral consequentialism. But imprecise usage doesn't set the standard. -- WillWilkinson
------
Sun|983895788
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The solitary [[star]] of our [[solar system]]. The [[earth]] that we live on and all of her sister [[planets]], both the other [[terrestrial planets]]  and the [[gas giants]], orbit the [[Sun]], approximately in accordance with [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]].
> 
>  ([[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]])
> 
> ([[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Mars]] and [[Pluto]])
------
Terrestrial_planets|983895888
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Mercury]]
> [[Venus]]
> [[Mars]]
> [[Earth]]
> [[Pluto]] (maybe 'just' a [[trans-Neptunian object]]?)
------
Terrestrial_planets|983895992
0a1,2
> From closest to furthest from the [[sun]]:
> 
1a4
> 
3c6
< [[Mars]]
---
> 
5c8,15
< [[Pluto]] (maybe 'just' a [[trans-Neptunian object]]?)
---
> 
> [[Mars]]
> 
> [[Pluto]] (maybe 'just' a [[trans-Neptunian object]]?)
> 
> ----
> 
> Also see [[gas giants]] and [[solar system]]
------
Sun|983896067
1c1
< The solitary [[star]] of our [[solar system]]. The [[earth]] that we live on and all of her sister [[planets]], both the other [[terrestrial planets]]  and the [[gas giants]], orbit the [[Sun]], approximately in accordance with [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]].
---
> The solitary [[star]] of our [[solar system]]. The [[earth]] that we live on and all of her sister [[planets]], both the other [[terrestrial planets]]  and the [[gas giants]], orbit the [[Sun]], approximately in accordance with [[Newtons Laws of Gravity]].
3,5c3
<  ([[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]])
< 
< ([[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Mars]] and [[Pluto]])
---
> Hmm, couldn't do possesive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
------
John_F._Kennedy|983896085
5c5
< 
---
> John Kennedy is sometimes referred to as [JFK].
------
EigenVectors|983896089
1c1
< If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector and c a scalar, and the following holds for some c and some v:
---
> If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector with at least one non-zero element and c a scalar (possibly zero), and the following holds for some c and some v:
5c5
< Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c.
---
> Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
10c10
< # If all values of A are non-negative, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
---
> # If A is symmetric, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
------
John_F._Kennedy|983896107
5c5
< John Kennedy is sometimes referred to as [JFK].
---
> John Kennedy is sometimes referred to as [[JFK]].
------
Sun|983896110
3c3,11
< Hmm, couldn't do possesive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
---
> Hmm, couldn't do possesive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
> 
>  ([[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]])
> 
> Test:
> 
> [[Newtons Laws of Gravity]]
> 
> [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]]
------
Sun|983896122
5,6d4
<  ([[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]])
< 
------
JFK|983896153
1c1,3
< a movie directed by [[Oliver Stone]] about the assassination of US president [[John F. Kennedy]]
---
> Acroynm for [[John F. Kennedy]].
> 
> Also, a movie directed by [[Oliver Stone]] about the assassination of US president [[John F. Kennedy]]
------
Hurd|983896231
1c1
< A kernel that has been in the works for years, designed to be completely in line with the GNU philosophy.
---
> A kernel that has been in the works for years, designed to be completely in line with the [[GNU]] philosophy.
------
Finite_Mathematics|983896290
10c10
< * Theoretical topics:[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
---
> * Theoretical topics:[[Set Theory]] -- [[Combinatorics]] -- [[Probability Theory]] -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Matrix Algebra]]
------
Gas_giants|983896458
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> These are the gas giants that orbit our [[sun]] (from closest to furthest):
> 
> [[Jupiter]]
> 
> [[Saturn]]
> 
> [[Uranus]]
> 
> [[Neptune]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Also see [[terrestrial planets]] and [[solar system]]
------
Sri_Lanka|983896596
0a1,2
> DRAFT DRAFT DRAFT!
> 
3c5,19
< Population about 19 million. Strong central government.
---
> Population about 19 million. It is a [[democracy]], with a strong central government. The formal education system is very strong by globo-institutional standards.
> 
> Sri Lanka is well known internationally for its tea. Moderately [[socialist]] after independence, it has in  the last 20 years increasingly engaged in [[privatization]] and other [[capitalist]] practices. Now Sri Lanka exports and imports a much wider variety in the [[global economy]].
> 
> Since independence (from the [[British Empire]] in 1948), struggles between majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life (left-over divide and conquer from the British?). Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the [[LTTE]] -- the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Tens of thousands have died, and perhaps as many in struggles among Tamil militant groups, and in two brief uprisings by Sinhalese disaffected with their government.
> 
> The [[LTTE]] demands a separate nation -- [[Tamil Eelam]] -- as the only means for Tamils' rights to be respected. Some Sinhalese demand political unity of the island as a part of Sinhalese identity, or as a matter of realpolitik.
> 
> The Sinhalese trace their lineage back to a prince from somewhere around what is now Bangladesh, but perhaps more importantly to a later king's conversion to [[Buddhism]], and the Buddha's charge that they protect the religion. The Tamils came originally from South India (where there are currently more than 60 million Tamils). Both cultures have been on the island for a long time, but not as long as the Veddahs, the few hundred remaining tribal people. Other minorities include Muslims (mostly Tamil-speaking), Christians (Sinhalese and Tamil), and Burgers (mixed local and European).
> 
> ----
> 
> See http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ce.html
> 
> and
5c21
< Since independence (from the BritishEmpire in 1948), struggles between the majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and the minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life. Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the LTTE -- the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.
---
> http://www.lankapage.com/
------
Sun|983896758
1c1
< The solitary [[star]] of our [[solar system]]. The [[earth]] that we live on and all of her sister [[planets]], both the other [[terrestrial planets]]  and the [[gas giants]], orbit the [[Sun]], approximately in accordance with [[Newtons Laws of Gravity]].
---
> The solitary [[star]] of our [[solar system]]. The [[earth]] that we live on and all of her sister [[planets]], both the other [[terrestrial planets]]  and the [[gas giants]], orbit the [[sun]], approximately in accordance with [[Newtons Laws of Gravity]].
3c3
< Hmm, couldn't do possesive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
---
> What other bodies [[orbit]] the sun besides gas giants and terrestrial planets? Well, there's [[asteroids]], [[comets]], [[trans-neptunian objects]], and of course dust.
5c5
< Test:
---
> Hmm, testing the use of the quote character:
9c9,11
< [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]]
---
> [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]]
> 
> couldn't do possessive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
------
BillClinton|983896767
19a20,24
> Clinton was the most [[Macavalenistic]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on 
> troublesom scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewenski]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two time govenor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
------
BillClinton|983896859
1c1
< PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton was presidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
------
BushTalk|983897172
0a1,2
> 
> 
6c8
< The first president of the UnitedStates who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
---
> [[George W. Bush]] is alleged by Democrats to be the first president of the UnitedStates who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
8c10
< :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY.
---
> :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY and to provide more political representation to less populated states.
------
TexaS|983898173
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Texas is the second largest state in size after [[Alaska]] and has historically been portrayed through larger than life [[Wild West]] [[cowboys]] and oil wells.
> 
> Texas was largely rural before [[World War II]]
> with cattle and agriculture as its main industries.
> 
> After World War II, Texas has become increasingly industralized.
> It's economy (circa 2000) is largely based on information technology, with Dallas/Fort Worth being the largest [[IT]]
> labor market in the [[United States]], oil and natural gas, energy exploration and energy trading, agriculture, and manufacturing.
> 
> It passed [[New York]] in the 1990s to become the second largest state in population after [[California]] largely due to the availability of jobs, lack of a state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), good weather, and friendly people.
> 
> It was the only state in the [[United States]] to be a sovergin
> nation before joing the [[United States]]. (? How does the kingom of [[Hawaii]] fit in?)
> 
> [[Austin]] is the state capital.
> 
> Austin, [[Dallas]], [[Fort Worth]], [[Houston]], and [[San Antonio]] are its largest cities.
> 
> Texas has a large immigrant population of mainly Spanish speaking 
> people from [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[South America]].  Texas has been largely fortunate in avoiding the racial problems found in many southern states and large cities of the northeast.
------
Austin|983898335
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> City in the state of [[Texas]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> Austin, Texas is the state capital of Texas and is named
> after [[Stephen F. Austin]].
> 
> The [[University of Texas]] is located in Austin.
> 
> It is one of the largest cities in Texas.
------
Austin|983898368
1c1
< City in the state of [[Texas]] in the [[United States]].
---
> City in the state of [[TexaS]] in the [[United States]].
------
TexaS|983898404
10c10
< It passed [[New York]] in the 1990s to become the second largest state in population after [[California]] largely due to the availability of jobs, lack of a state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), good weather, and friendly people.
---
> It passed [[New York]] in the 1990s to become the second largest state in population after [[California]] largely due to the availability of jobs, low cost of living, high living standard, lack of a state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), good weather, and friendly people.
20c20
< people from [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[South America]].  Texas has been largely fortunate in avoiding the racial problems found in many southern states and large cities of the northeast.
---
> people from [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[South America]].  Texas has been largely fortunate in avoiding the racial problems found in many southern states and large cities of the northeast.
------
TheMindBodyProblem|983898405
5c5
< Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  
---
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can't explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?  Now this question we <i>will</i> examine.  
7c7
< The mind-body problem can be introduced more fully with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a MentalEvent and his walking across the room is a PhysicalEvent.  On anyone’s accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved, namely, something happens in John's brain, which tells John's legs to start walking.  This BrainEvent is <i>closely</i> connected with John's decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, John decides to walk across the room.  We might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea might seem absurd.
---
> The mind-body problem can be introduced more fully with an example.  Suppose John decides to walk across the room, whereupon he does in fact walk across the room.  John's decision is a MentalEvent and his walking across the room is a PhysicalEvent.  On anyone's accounting, there is <i>another</i> physical event involved, namely, something happens in John's brain, which tells John's legs to start walking.  This BrainEvent is <i>closely</i> connected with John's decision; the brain event happens at about the same time, or right after, John decides to walk across the room.  We might ask: How is it possible that a decision, which is something mental, resulted in something in your brain, which is something physical?  If we say that the mental and the physical are <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i>, then how can one have any <i>causal</i> impact on the other?  How can a mere mental event, a decision, actually cause neurons in my brain to start firing?  The very idea might seem absurd.
9c9
< On one view (see PhilosophicalView), a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroNs fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn’t any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there’s no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.
---
> On one view (see PhilosophicalView), a better description of the situation is this: John's decision is <i>itself</i> a physical event.  When John decides to take my trip across the room, a group of NeuroNs fire in his brain.  He is not aware of those neurons; but the firing of those neurons is itself just the same as his decision.  There isn't any more to the decision than that physical event.  So, on the view in question, there's no trouble thinking about how a mental event can have a physical effect; mental events are <i>themselves</i> physical.  Ultimately, <i>everything</i> is physical.
------
FielDs|983898757
18a19,21
> ----We already have a page "FielD" with the same material. What do we do?
> RoseParks
> 
------
Operating_system|983898826
1c1,15
< Interacts directly with hardware and provides a virtual machine on which programs execute. Manages processes, memory and hardware devices. The operating system is generally considered to be composed of a [[kernel]] and a bundle of user applications. Examples include [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
---
> Interacts directly with hardware and provides a virtual machine on which programs execute. Manages processes, memory and hardware devices. The operating system is generally considered to be composed of a [[kernel]] and a bundle of user applications. 
> Examples include [[Atlas]], [[Multics]], [[Vax/VMS]], [[CP/M]], [[Dos]], [[System V]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
> 
> Most modern operating systems are heavily influenced by
> [[Mach]].  
> 
> Most operating systems in use in the late 1990s are
> based on:
> 
> Unix (Aix, HP UNIX, Solaris, Linix)
> Vax/VMS (Windows NT, Windows 2000)
> System 360 (IBM)
> 
> An operating system is generally classified as being [[monolithic]] or [[micro-kernal]].
> 
------
Multics|983898929
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An experimental [[Operating System]] developed by ?
> during the early 1970s.
> 
> [[Unix]] was largely structured the same as Multics.
------
Monolithic|983898995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A computer program having one large executable image.
------
VectorSpaces|983899017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vector Space]]]
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983899145
1a2,8
> 
> There was an [[animated]] film made in the 19?? based on 
> the Lord of the Rings trilogy.
> 
> A [[live action film]] is currently (1999) being produced in 
> [[New Zealand]].
> 
------
Animated|983899304
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film/movie made with human or computer drawn images as opposed
> to live actors.
> 
> [[Anime]] is common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
------
Animated|983899335
4c4
< [[Anime]] is common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
---
> [[Aminie]] is common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
------
PublicAffairs|983899662
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Government]]
------
Derivative|983899727
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Derivative of a [[Function]] at a point is a measure of the  rate at which that function is changing as one of the [[Variable]]s changes.  This corresponds to the slope of the graph of the function at that point.
> 
> Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(x + dx), and an approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.  Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the limit of the ratio as dx tends to zero.
------
RequestedArticles|983899753
9c9
< <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]]
---
> <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- [[Hate Crime]]
------
Derivative|983899764
3c3
< Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(x + dx), and an approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.  Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the limit of the ratio as dx tends to zero.
---
> Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(a + dx).  An approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.  Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the limit of the ratio as dx tends to zero.
------
Derivative|983899837
3c3,5
< Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(a + dx).  An approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.  Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the limit of the ratio as dx tends to zero.
---
> Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(a + dx).  An approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx, which is to say it is the change in f divided by the change in x.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.
> 
> Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the [[Limit]] of this ratio as dx tends to zero.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983899986
3,4c3,4
< There was an [[animated]] film made in the 19?? based on 
< the Lord of the Rings trilogy.
---
> There was an [[animated]] film made in the 1978 based on 
> the Lord of the Rings trilogy, which covered only the first part.  The intended sequels never appeared.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983900062
1c1
< Epic trilogy by [[JRR_Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[/The Two Towers]], and [[/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
---
> Epic trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[The Two Towers]], and [[The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
------
The_Ultimate|983900205
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TheUltimate is a general term embracing the concept of an ultimate supernatural reality which transcends material reality and from which, according to a broad spectrum of Eastern philosophies and religions, material reality derives.  In general, TheUltimate is non-personal, non-anthropomorphic, and may or may not possess discrete will, intelligence or awareness as such.
> 
> Examples of religions and philosophies which embrace the concept of TheUltimate in one form or another include TaoIsm, JainIsm, BuddHism, ShinTo, HinduIsm, and others.  Terms which serve to identify TheUltimate among such beliefs include TaO (the Way), AtMan (Universal Spirit), BrahMan (The Power), UniversalMind, UniversalIntelligence, Dainichi-Nyorai (nature-substance), and numerous other apellations.  Even polytheistic Eastern faiths tend to acknowedge a unifying principle which trenscends their various gods. 
> 
> The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of TheUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.
> 
> The general commonalities between the various versions of TheUltimate are:  infinity,  indescribability, inconceiveability, formlessness, lack of identity and transcendence.  An additional commonality is that one must renounce and/or transcend physical existence and its distractions, in some cases even to the point of extinguishing identity and individual awareness, in order to understand or co-exist with TheUltimate.  Uniformly, human passions and vices are regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, and such virtues as humility, charity and pacifism are felt to help pave the way to enlightenment.
> 
> Paralells may be drawn between such tradition and Judeo-Christian-Islamic monotheistic thought.  The concept of a single ultimate vital principle, undivided and incapable of being depicted through gods or icons, which is parent to the individual souls of men, and to which men strive to return is the most obvious comparison.  That this sought-after return is impaired by evil thought and deed, and facilitated by loving action is common, as well.  In addition, the traditions share a general value system which discourages worldliness and encourages seeking higher, more intangible principles, such as reward in the after-life.
> 
> Where the basic division begins to appear betwen Eastern and Western spiritual tradition with regard to TheUltimate is in personification.  The Western Ultimate is generally understood to be an identifiable personage distinct from nature, with a recognizable thought process, purpose and direct action, no matter how transcendent.  The Eastern Ultimate is rather conceived to be the origin point or basic principle of an essential natural process and indistinguishable, ultimately, from nature itself.
> 
> As such, a Western God can require fealty or faith, while an Eastern Ultimate requires nothing but, by its very nature and existence, mutely dictates how individual actions and attitudes affect destiny.
------
TheUltimate|983900238
1,13c1
< TheUltimate is a general term embracing the concept of an ultimate supernatural reality which transcends material reality and from which, according to a broad spectrum of Eastern philosophies and religions, material reality derives.  In general, TheUltimate is non-personal, non-anthropomorphic, and may or may not possess discrete will, intelligence or awareness as such.
< 
< Examples of religions and philosophies which embrace the concept of TheUltimate in one form or another include TaoIsm, JainIsm, BuddHism, ShinTo, HinduIsm, and others.  Terms which serve to identify TheUltimate among such beliefs include TaO (the Way), AtMan (Universal Spirit), BrahMan (The Power), UniversalMind, UniversalIntelligence, Dainichi-Nyorai (nature-substance), and numerous other apellations.  Even polytheistic Eastern faiths tend to acknowedge a unifying principle which trenscends their various gods. 
< 
< The vital essence of Man, soul, spirit, spark of awareness, is said to have originally derived in each case from TheUltimate, and to be indestructible after the nature of TheUltimate, and to be capable of returning to its source.  This returning could be said to be the goal of most Eastern religion.
< 
< The general commonalities between the various versions of TheUltimate are:  infinity,  indescribability, inconceiveability, formlessness, lack of identity and transcendence.  An additional commonality is that one must renounce and/or transcend physical existence and its distractions, in some cases even to the point of extinguishing identity and individual awareness, in order to understand or co-exist with TheUltimate.  Uniformly, human passions and vices are regarded as barriers to spiritual advancement, and such virtues as humility, charity and pacifism are felt to help pave the way to enlightenment.
< 
< Paralells may be drawn between such tradition and Judeo-Christian-Islamic monotheistic thought.  The concept of a single ultimate vital principle, undivided and incapable of being depicted through gods or icons, which is parent to the individual souls of men, and to which men strive to return is the most obvious comparison.  That this sought-after return is impaired by evil thought and deed, and facilitated by loving action is common, as well.  In addition, the traditions share a general value system which discourages worldliness and encourages seeking higher, more intangible principles, such as reward in the after-life.
< 
< Where the basic division begins to appear betwen Eastern and Western spiritual tradition with regard to TheUltimate is in personification.  The Western Ultimate is generally understood to be an identifiable personage distinct from nature, with a recognizable thought process, purpose and direct action, no matter how transcendent.  The Eastern Ultimate is rather conceived to be the origin point or basic principle of an essential natural process and indistinguishable, ultimately, from nature itself.
< 
< As such, a Western God can require fealty or faith, while an Eastern Ultimate requires nothing but, by its very nature and existence, mutely dictates how individual actions and attitudes affect destiny.
---
> #redirect [[The Ultimate]]
------
Hate_Crime|983900306
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A highly political issue within the [[United States]].
> 
> Loosely defined, a hate crime is a crime commited to someone
> or someone's property because the criminal has a bias/hatred
> of the gender/race/setual orientation of the victim.
> 
> Typically, hate crimes carry longer penalties/jail terms
> than the same crime prosecuted under normal criminal statues.
> 
> Many people mistakenly think that hate crimes are commited
> against one group of people exclusivly.  Hate crimes have
> been prosecuted against all races/genders/ setual orientations.
> 
> A generic example of a hate crime would be a criminal that
> steals money only from females because the criminal hates
> females.
------
TheUltimate|983900323
1c1
< #redirect [[The Ultimate]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Ultimate]]
------
God|983900388
11c11
< Arguably, Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of TheUltimate.
---
> Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of the ''divine,'' though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch de Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]].
------
Christianity|983900433
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and somthing to teach.
> 
> Christians believe TheBible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate TheBible is and how literally it should be taken).  TheBible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of GoD.
> 
> Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
> 
> Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the Pope has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
> 
> Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of JohnCalvin and MartinLuther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
> 
> Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints, for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
> 
> Many people belonging to the above-listed faiths have strong feelings about the "actual" nature of the other Christian faiths, sometimes even claiming that the other faiths do not actually count as Christian.  Thus, when researching branches of Christianity, it is often wise to first define clearly what the working definition of "Christianity" will be, and then get information from each branch regarding their qualificationes based on that definition.
> 
> -J
> ----
> Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating IdiosyncratiC views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: CatholicisM -- PresbyterianisM -- EpiscopalianisM -- BaptisT
> 
> Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
------
ChristianIty|983900461
1,24c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and somthing to teach.
< 
< Christians believe TheBible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate TheBible is and how literally it should be taken).  TheBible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of GoD.
< 
< Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
< 
< Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the Pope has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
< 
< Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of JohnCalvin and MartinLuther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
< 
< Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints, for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
< 
< Many people belonging to the above-listed faiths have strong feelings about the "actual" nature of the other Christian faiths, sometimes even claiming that the other faiths do not actually count as Christian.  Thus, when researching branches of Christianity, it is often wise to first define clearly what the working definition of "Christianity" will be, and then get information from each branch regarding their qualificationes based on that definition.
< 
< -J
< ----
< Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating IdiosyncratiC views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
< 
< ----
< 
< 
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: CatholicisM -- PresbyterianisM -- EpiscopalianisM -- BaptisT
< 
< Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
---
> #REDIRECT [[Christianity]]
------
God|983900506
7c7
< There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
---
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
------
God|983900543
7c7
< There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], ChristianIty, and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
---
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
------
Islam|983900592
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The NationOfIslam is a movement in the UnitedStatesOfAmerica for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being LouisFarrakhan, and its members are Muslims, and therefore members of Islam; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
> 
------
IsLam|983900618
1,2c1
< IsLam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The NationOfIslam is a movement in the UnitedStatesOfAmerica for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being LouisFarrakhan, and its members are Muslims, and therefore members of Islam; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Islam]]
------
God|983900653
7c7
< There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and IsLam, [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and IsLam, though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
---
> There is an ancient monotheistic tradition that began with the first [[Prophet]] of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]], [[Abraham]] (or instead, for believers, that began with [[Adam]]), according to which there is one God, a [[Spirit]] that (or who) is the CreatorOfTheWorld and possesses the superhuman qualities of [[Omnipotence]] (being all-powerful), [[Omniscience]] (being all-knowing), and (according to the majority of [[Monotheists]]) a concept which might be called [[Omnibenevolence]] (being all-loving).  This basic concept is shared by [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], though, of course, it is much embellished by each religion and sects within each religion.
------
RequestedArticles|983900848
9c9,11
< <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- [[Hate Crime]]
---
> <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- 
> [[LALR Parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[LALR Parser]] -- [[Virtual Machine]] -- [[Virtual Memory]] -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Asimov, Isaac]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[ Robotics, the Three Laws of]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]]
> -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Amplitude Modulation]] -- [[Frequency Modulation]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[401k]]
------
Hobbits|983900919
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the fictional races in the [[Lord of the Rings]].
> 
> 
------
Animated|983900970
1,2c1
< A film/movie made with human or computer drawn images as opposed
< to live actors.
---
> A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model, and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
4c3
< [[Aminie]] is common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
---
> [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
------
Hobbits|983901050
1c1
< One of the fictional races in the [[Lord of the Rings]].
---
> One of the fictional races in [[The Lord of the Rings]].
------
RequestedArticles|983901323
9c9
< <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- 
---
> <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- 
11a12
> -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]]
------
Sigmund_Freud|983901330
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the ego, for which is self-explanatory, the superego, which I forget what it is right now but will look up later, the id, and the subconscious (that's it, right?).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personaqlity), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right) and the [Id] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Sigmund_Freud|983901365
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personaqlity), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right) and the [Id] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [Id] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Sigmund_Freud|983901393
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [Id] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [[Id]] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Hate_Crime|983901521
11,12c11,12
< against one group of people exclusivly.  Hate crimes have
< been prosecuted against all races/genders/ setual orientations.
---
> against one group of people exclusively.  Hate crimes have
> been prosecuted against all races/genders/sexual orientations.
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983901569
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[United States]] government branch that collects taxes and
> enforces the tax laws.
> 
> For its first 135? years (1776-1913), the United States did not
> have an income tax.  All government taxes were collected as [[excise tax]]s on products, [[import/export tax]]s, and other revenue taxes on items such as photographs, bank checks, stock certificates, wills, deeds, and other legal documents.
> 
> The first income tax only taxed the very very wealthy as it started with income over $??? at a tax rate of ? percent.
> $??? is $??? in 2000 dollars.
> 
> The income tax was incrementally expanded by the US congress and now applies to almost 2/3 of the population.  The lowest earning workers ($20,000 in 2000) pay no income taxes as a group and actually get a small subsidy from the federal government because of child credits and the [[earned income credit]].
> 
> The upper 25 percent of wage earners (incomes over $50,000 in 2000) pay most of the income tax and are mistakenly called 'rich' by burecrats and politicians.
> 
> The income tax is largely used to exert control over and influence the behavior of taxpayers.  
> 
> Taxation has been described as [[The Power to Destroy]] and is
> viewed as a way for the government to reduce personal freedom by more government regulations.
> 
------
Islam|983901609
1c1
< Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The NationOfIslam is a movement in the UnitedStatesOfAmerica for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being LouisFarrakhan, and its members are Muslims, and therefore members of Islam; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
---
> Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The [[Nation Of Islam]] is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are [[Muslims]], and therefore members of [[Islam]]; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
------
Islam|983901645
1c1
< Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are MusLims.  Islam is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The [[Nation Of Islam]] is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are [[Muslims]], and therefore members of [[Islam]]; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
---
> Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are [[Muslims]].  [[Islam]] is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The [[Nation Of Islam]] is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are [[Muslims]], and therefore members of [[Islam]]; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
------
The_Power_to_Destroy|983901648
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term used to describe the taxation authority of government.
> 
> The government could use its taxation power to destroy a business or industry.
------
LiteraryArt|983901916
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- DramA (see also TheaTer) -- TheNovel -- ScienceFiction
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
3c3
< See also LiteraryArtTalk
---
> See also LiteraryArtTalk
------
RequestedArticles|983902190
12c12
< -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]]
---
> -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]
------
New_Zealand|983902364
10a11
> The beauty of New Zealand's landscape is displayed throughout the  [[Xena]] and [[Hercules]] television series.
------
Vector_Space]|983902413
1c1,172
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD.
> 
> 
> Definition:  A SeT '''V''' is a '''vector space''' over a FielD '''F''', if given the operation ''vector addition'' defined in '''V''', denoted '''v+w''' for all v,w in '''V''', and the operation ''scalar multiplication'' in '''V''', denoted '''a*(v)''' for all v in '''V''' and a in '''F''', the following 10 properties hold:
> 
> 
> *1.     For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.
> <br>       V is closed under vector addition.
> *2.     For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.
> <br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
> *3   .  For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
> <br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
> *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element –v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
> <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
> *5.     For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.
> <br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
> <br>
> *6.     For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.
> <br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
> *7.     For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.
> <br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
> *8.     For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.
> <br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
> *9.     For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.
> <br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
> *10.    For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.
> <br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
> <br> Properties 1 through 5 indicate that V is a ''commutative'' group under vector addition. Properties 6 through 10 apply to scalar multiplication of a vector v in V by a scalar a in F.----
> The members of a Vector Space are called ''vectors''.
> The concept of a Vector Space is entirely abstract like the concepts of a Group, Ring, and Field. To determine if a set V is a vector space one must specify the set V, a field F and define vector addition and scalar multiplication in V. Then if V satisfies the above 10 properties it is a Vector Space over the field F.----
> ''''Terminology:'''
> <br>If the field F=R={real numbers}, then a vector space over R is called a Real Vector Space.
> <br>If the field F=C={complex numbers}, then a vector space over C is called a Complex Vector Space.
> <br>
> '''Example I:'''
> <br>
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,…,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
> <br>Define Vector Addition:
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn].
> <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…a*vn].
> Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
> <br> Proof:
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
>          i={1,2,3,…n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
>          in V.
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,…,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]=
>          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),…un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
>          i={1,2,3,…n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
>          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,…0].
>          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,…,vn+0]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,…vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3…n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
>          where i={1,2,3…n}, since R is a field.
> *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element –a in R such that
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,…,vn],  Consider –v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,…,-vn].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),…v+(-vn)]=0, since
>          vi+(-vi)=0 for all I={1,2,3,..n} since R is a field.
> *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
>          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,…,wn+vn]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,…,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn].
>          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3…n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
> *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,…1*vn]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,…,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,…,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
> *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]=
>          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),…a*(vn+wn)]=
>          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,…a*vn+a*wn]=
>          a*[v1,v2,v3,…,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,…,wn]=a*v+a*w.
> *9.    Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,…b*vn]=
>          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,…,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
> *10.  Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,…vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,…(a+b)vn]=
>          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,…a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn]+
>          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,…,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
> 
> <br>This vector space is denoted R<sup>n</sup>.
> <br>
> '''Example II:'''
> <br>
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) matrices, with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
> <pre>
>    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
>                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
>                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
> </pre>
> *        where pij is in C.
> <br>Define vector addition in M:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
>                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
>                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
>                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
>                | .                     |                  | .                     |
>                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
> 
> 
>                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
>                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
>                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
>                        |.                                      |
>                        |.                                      |      
>                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
> </pre>
> <br>
> Define scalar multiplication:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
>           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
>     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
>           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
>           | .                     |              |                               |
>           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
> </pre>
> 
> <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as C<sup>mxn</sub>.
> 
> So Example I would be denoted R<sup>1xn</sup>, or more simply, R<sup>n</sup>.
>  
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
> <br>
> '''Example III:'''
> 
> 
> Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
> <br>Define vector addition:
> <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
> <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
> <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
> <br>
> <br>Proof
> *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
> *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
> <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
> *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
> <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
> <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
> *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider –f in F,
> <br>        defined by –f(c)=-(f(c)). –f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
> <br>        since if f(c) in R then –(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
> *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
> *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
> <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
> *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
> <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
> <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
> *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
> <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
> *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
> *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
>             
>          
>        
> 
> 
> 
>   
> 
------
RequestedArticles|983902569
12c12,18
< -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]
---
> -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]<br>
> -- [[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] 
> -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]]
> <br>
> -- [[First Person Shooter]]
> -- [[Frames Per Second]]
> -- [[Bandwith]]
------
CountriesZ|983902699
4a5,6
> [[Zanzibar]]
> 
------
CountriesA|983902776
2a3,4
> [[Abu Dhabi]]
> [[Aden]]
------
CountriesA|983902793
3,4c3,4
< [[Abu Dhabi]]
< [[Aden]]
---
> :[[Abu Dhabi]]
> :[[Aden]]
------
Vector_Space]|983902831
80c80
< <br>This vector space is denoted R<sup>n</sup>.
---
> <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
126c126
< <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as C<sup>mxn</sub>.
---
> <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
128c128
< So Example I would be denoted R<sup>1xn</sup>, or more simply, R<sup>n</sup>.
---
> So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
------
CountriesB|983902902
16a17,18
> * [[British Indian Ocean Territories]]
> 
17a20,23
> 
> * [[Bulshire]]
> 
> * [[Burkina Faso]] - formerly Upper Volta
------
VectorSpaces|983902919
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Vector Space]]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vector Space]]
------
Vector_Space|983903138
1c1,166
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD.
> 
> 
> Definition:  A SeT '''V''' is a '''vector space''' over a FielD '''F''', if given the operation ''vector addition'' defined in '''V''', denoted '''v+w''' for all v,w in '''V''', and the operation ''scalar multiplication'' in '''V''', denoted '''a*(v)''' for all v in '''V''' and a in '''F''', the following 10 properties hold:
> 
> 
> *1.     For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.
> <br>       V is closed under vector addition.
> *2.     For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.
> <br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
> *3   .  For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
> <br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
> *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element –v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
> <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
> *5.     For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.
> <br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
> <br>
> *6.     For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.
> <br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
> *7.     For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.
> <br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
> *8.     For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.
> <br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
> *9.     For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.
> <br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
> *10.    For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.
> <br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
> <br> Properties 1 through 5 indicate that V is a ''commutative'' group under vector addition. Properties 6 through 10 apply to scalar multiplication of a vector v in V by a scalar a in F.----
> The members of a Vector Space are called ''vectors''.
> The concept of a Vector Space is entirely abstract like the concepts of a Group, Ring, and Field. To determine if a set V is a vector space one must specify the set V, a field F and define vector addition and scalar multiplication in V. Then if V satisfies the above 10 properties it is a Vector Space over the field F.----
> ''''Terminology:'''
> <br>If the field F=R={real numbers}, then a vector space over R is called a Real Vector Space.
> <br>If the field F=C={complex numbers}, then a vector space over C is called a Complex Vector Space.
> <br>
> '''Example I:'''
> <br>
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,…,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
> <br>Define Vector Addition:
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn].
> <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…a*vn].
> Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
> <br> Proof:
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
>          i={1,2,3,…n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
>          in V.
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,…,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]=
>          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),…un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
>          i={1,2,3,…n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
>          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,…0].
>          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,…,vn+0]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,…vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3…n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
>          where i={1,2,3…n}, since R is a field.
> *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element –a in R such that
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,…,vn],  Consider –v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,…,-vn].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),…v+(-vn)]=0, since
>          vi+(-vi)=0 for all I={1,2,3,..n} since R is a field.
> *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
>          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,…,wn+vn]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,…,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn].
>          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3…n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
> *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,…1*vn]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,…,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,…,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
> *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]=
>          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),…a*(vn+wn)]=
>          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,…a*vn+a*wn]=
>          a*[v1,v2,v3,…,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,…,wn]=a*v+a*w.
> *9.    Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,…b*vn]=
>          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,…,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
> *10.  Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,…vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,…(a+b)vn]=
>          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,…a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn]+
>          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,…,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
> 
> <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
> <br>
> '''Example II:'''
> <br>
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) matrices, with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
> <pre>
>    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
>                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
>                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
> </pre>
> *        where pij is in C.
> <br>Define vector addition in M:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
>                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
>                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
>                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
>                | .                     |                  | .                     |
>                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
> 
> 
>                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
>                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
>                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
>                        |.                                      |
>                        |.                                      |      
>                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
> </pre>
> <br>
> Define scalar multiplication:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
>           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
>     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
>           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
>           | .                     |              |                               |
>           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
> </pre>
> 
> <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
> 
> So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
>  
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
> <br>
> '''Example III:'''
> 
> 
> Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
> <br>Define vector addition:
> <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
> <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
> <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
> <br>
> <br>Proof
> *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
> *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
> <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
> *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
> <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
> <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
> *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider –f in F,
> <br>        defined by –f(c)=-(f(c)). –f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
> <br>        since if f(c) in R then –(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
> *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
> *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
> <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
> *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
> <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
> <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
> *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
> <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
> *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
> *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
>             
>          
------
Vector_Space]|983903161
1d0
< One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD.
3,166d1
< 
< Definition:  A SeT '''V''' is a '''vector space''' over a FielD '''F''', if given the operation ''vector addition'' defined in '''V''', denoted '''v+w''' for all v,w in '''V''', and the operation ''scalar multiplication'' in '''V''', denoted '''a*(v)''' for all v in '''V''' and a in '''F''', the following 10 properties hold:
< 
< 
< *1.     For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.
< <br>       V is closed under vector addition.
< *2.     For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.
< <br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
< *3   .  For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
< <br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
< *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element –v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
< <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
< *5.     For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.
< <br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
< <br>
< *6.     For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.
< <br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
< *7.     For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.
< <br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
< *8.     For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.
< <br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
< *9.     For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.
< <br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
< *10.    For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.
< <br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
< <br> Properties 1 through 5 indicate that V is a ''commutative'' group under vector addition. Properties 6 through 10 apply to scalar multiplication of a vector v in V by a scalar a in F.----
< The members of a Vector Space are called ''vectors''.
< The concept of a Vector Space is entirely abstract like the concepts of a Group, Ring, and Field. To determine if a set V is a vector space one must specify the set V, a field F and define vector addition and scalar multiplication in V. Then if V satisfies the above 10 properties it is a Vector Space over the field F.----
< ''''Terminology:'''
< <br>If the field F=R={real numbers}, then a vector space over R is called a Real Vector Space.
< <br>If the field F=C={complex numbers}, then a vector space over C is called a Complex Vector Space.
< <br>
< '''Example I:'''
< <br>
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,…,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
< <br>Define Vector Addition:
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn].
< <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…a*vn].
< Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
< <br> Proof:
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
<          i={1,2,3,…n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
<          in V.
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,…,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]=
<          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),…un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
<          i={1,2,3,…n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
<          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
< *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,…0].
<          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,…,vn+0]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,…vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3…n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
<          where i={1,2,3…n}, since R is a field.
< *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element –a in R such that
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,…,vn],  Consider –v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,…,-vn].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),…v+(-vn)]=0, since
<          vi+(-vi)=0 for all I={1,2,3,..n} since R is a field.
< *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
<          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,…,wn+vn]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,…,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn].
<          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3…n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
< *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,…1*vn]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,…,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,…,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
< *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]=
<          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),…a*(vn+wn)]=
<          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,…a*vn+a*wn]=
<          a*[v1,v2,v3,…,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,…,wn]=a*v+a*w.
< *9.    Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,…b*vn]=
<          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,…,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
< *10.  Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,…vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,…(a+b)vn]=
<          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,…a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn]+
<          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,…,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
< 
< <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
< <br>
< '''Example II:'''
< <br>
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) matrices, with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
< <pre>
<    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
<                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
<                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
< </pre>
< *        where pij is in C.
< <br>Define vector addition in M:
< 
< 
< <pre>
<    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
<                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
<                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
<                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
<                | .                     |                  | .                     |
<                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
< 
< 
<                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
<                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
<                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
<                        |.                                      |
<                        |.                                      |      
<                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
< </pre>
< <br>
< Define scalar multiplication:
< 
< 
< <pre>
<           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
<           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
<     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
<           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
<           | .                     |              |                               |
<           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
< </pre>
< 
< <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
< 
< So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
<  
< <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
< <br>
< '''Example III:'''
< 
< 
< Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
< <br>Define vector addition:
< <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
< <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
< <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
< <br>
< <br>Proof
< *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
< *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
< <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
< *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
< <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
< <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
< *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider –f in F,
< <br>        defined by –f(c)=-(f(c)). –f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
< <br>        since if f(c) in R then –(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
< *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
< *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
< <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
< *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
< <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
< <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
< *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
< <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
< *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
< *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
<             
<          
------
RequestedArticles|983903590
12c12,14
< -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]<br>
---
> -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
> <br>
> -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]<br>
18a21,24
> <br>
> -- [[Universal Postal Union]] -- [[UPU]]
> -- [[Smiley]]
> 
------
Universal_Postal_Union|983903815
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Multinational]] government organization that coordinates postal policies between member nations.  Each member country
> agrees to the same set of terms for conducting international postal duties.
> 
> [[UPU]] is the common abbreviation for Universal Postal Union.
> 
> Prior to the UPU, a country would have to have a separate postal treaty for each country that it wished to carry international mail to/from.
> 
> The UPU is the oldest multinational body and was created in 187?
> 
------
UPU|983903847
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> UPU is the common abbreviation for [[Universal Postal Union]].
------
NASCAR|983903931
6c6,8
< *[[NASCAR Championship]]
---
> *[[NASCAR Championship]]
> 
> NASCAR stands for "National ? Stock Car ? ?".
------
Terrestrial_planets|983904145
11,12d10
< [[Pluto]] (maybe 'just' a [[trans-Neptunian object]]?)
< 
15c13
< Also see [[gas giants]] and [[solar system]]
---
> Also see [[gas giants]] and [[solar system]]
------
Smiley|983904207
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Using ascii characters to represent a face or emotion.  Smileys
> are ususlly used in [[email]] messages or in [[chat]].
> 
> For example:
> 
>   :)      is a smile
>   :(      is a frown
> 
> 
------
Vector_Space|983904238
1c1
< One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD.
---
> One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD; a similar object defined over a RinG is called a ModulE.
13c13
< *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element –v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
---
> *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element -v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
37c37
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,…,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
---
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,?,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
39c39
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn].
---
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn].
41c41
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…a*vn].
---
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?a*vn].
44,45c44,45
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
<          i={1,2,3,…n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
---
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
>          i={1,2,3,?n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
47,49c47,49
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,…,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…vn+wn]=
<          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),…un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
<          i={1,2,3,…n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
---
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,?,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn]=
>          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),?un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
>          i={1,2,3,?n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
51,57c51,57
< *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,…0].
<          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,…,vn+0]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,…vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3…n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
<          where i={1,2,3…n}, since R is a field.
< *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element –a in R such that
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,…,vn],  Consider –v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,…,-vn].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),…v+(-vn)]=0, since
---
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,?0].
>          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,?,vn+0]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,?vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3?n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
>          where i={1,2,3?n}, since R is a field.
> *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element -a in R such that
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,?,vn],  Consider -v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,?,-vn].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),?v+(-vn)]=0, since
60,63c60,63
<          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,…,wn+vn]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,…,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn].
<          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3…n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
---
>          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,?,wn+vn]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,?,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?,a*vn].
>          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3?n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
65,66c65,66
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,…1*vn]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,…,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,…,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
---
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,?1*vn]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,?,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,?,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
68,71c68,71
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,…,vn+wn]=
<          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),…a*(vn+wn)]=
<          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,…a*vn+a*wn]=
<          a*[v1,v2,v3,…,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,…,wn]=a*v+a*w.
---
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?,vn+wn]=
>          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),?a*(vn+wn)]=
>          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,?a*vn+a*wn]=
>          a*[v1,v2,v3,?,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,?,wn]=a*v+a*w.
73,74c73,74
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,…b*vn]=
<          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,…,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
---
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,?b*vn]=
>          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,?,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
76,78c76,78
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,…vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,…(a+b)vn]=
<          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,…a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,…,a*vn]+
<          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,…,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
---
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,?vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,?(a+b)vn]=
>          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,?a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?,a*vn]+
>          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,?,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
149,151c149,151
< *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider –f in F,
< <br>        defined by –f(c)=-(f(c)). –f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
< <br>        since if f(c) in R then –(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
---
> *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider -f in F,
> <br>        defined by -f(c)=-(f(c)). -f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
> <br>        since if f(c) in R then -(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
------
WikiPediaFaq|983904394
2a3,6
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  'TheLaw' is a topic and should be 'Law'.
> 
> A. 
> ----
118c122
< This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
---
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983904396
12,17c12
< The upper 25 percent of wage earners (incomes over $50,000 in 2000) pay most of the income tax and are mistakenly called 'rich' by burecrats and politicians.
< 
< The income tax is largely used to exert control over and influence the behavior of taxpayers.  
< 
< Taxation has been described as [[The Power to Destroy]] and is
< viewed as a way for the government to reduce personal freedom by more government regulations.
---
> The upper 25 percent of wage earners (incomes over $50,000 in 2000) pay most of the income tax.
------
Wales|983904453
6a7
> ----
8,9c9
< 
< 
---
> Not to be confused with JimboWales, or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales.
------
CIAWorldFactbook|983904585
2a3,4
> It gives a 2 to 3 page summary of the demographics, location, tellecommunications capacity, government, industry, military capability, etc. of almost all countries in existence. 
> 
------
Wales|983904666
9c9
< Not to be confused with JimboWales, or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales.
---
> Not to be confused with [[Jimbo Wales]], or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales and not Celtic, as far as we know.
------
Wales|983904728
9c9
< Not to be confused with [[Jimbo Wales]], or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales and not Celtic, as far as we know.
---
> Not to be confused with [[Jimbo Wales]], or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales and not Celtic, as far as we know.
------
WikiPediaFaq|983904933
3,6d2
< '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  'TheLaw' is a topic and should be 'Law'.
< 
< A. 
< ----
19a16,19
> ----
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
> 
> A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
------
Classics|983904955
3c3,13
< GreekMythology
---
> GreekMythology
> 
> 
> Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by intellectuals and extensivly studied.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.  Starting in the
> 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as
> being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing
> works from the groups 'pet' authors (excluding authors from
> other areas - e.g., Asia/China).
> 
> Most of the Classic works are freely available online and are 
> [[public domain]].
------
Classics|983905006
6c6
< Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by intellectuals and extensivly studied.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.  Starting in the
---
> Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.  Starting in the
------
Classics|983905158
9,10c9
< works from the groups 'pet' authors (excluding authors from
< other areas - e.g., Asia/China).
---
> works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocricically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.
13c12
< [[public domain]].
---
> [[public domain]].
------
Classics|983905287
9c9
< works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocricically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.
---
> works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocricically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s.
------
Smiley|983905289
9a10
> Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?
------
Sun|983905308
11c11,13
< couldn't do possessive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
---
> couldn't do possessive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
> 
> ''Yes!  It sucks, but there it is.''
------
Classics|983905384
6,9c6,8
< Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.  Starting in the
< 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as
< being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing
< works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocricically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s.
---
> Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.
> 
> Starting in the 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocritically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s.
------
Classics|983905454
1c1
< The study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of ancient Greece and Rome.
---
> In its primary sense, ''classics'' means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of ancient Greece and Rome.
5,11c5
< 
< Classics also refers to literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals.  Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote.
< 
< Starting in the 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing works from the groups 'pet' authors.  These groups hypocritically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area.  For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s.
< 
< Most of the Classic works are freely available online and are 
< [[public domain]].
---
> ''Classics'' can also mean [[classic books]].
------
Smiley|983905535
7a8
>   :-)     is a smile
8a10
> Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?
10c12
< Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?
---
> Language or Electronic Communications or Emote
------
AsciiArt|983905601
2a3,4
> The simplest forms of AsciiArt are the [[Smiley]] and its kin, little two or three character combinations for expressing emotion in text. :)
> 
------
Russia|983905620
1,3c1
< Russia is large, cold, poor (currently), but full of a wealth of natural, cultural and human resources.
< ----
< Quoth a [[Russian]]:
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. Though, much of its territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Thickiest population is in European part of Russia, in Urals mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
5,7c3
< The weather isn't cold today, everything's melting. If you were here you'd see yourself!----And, believe me, summers can be very hot!
< ----
< Funny enough, but all Russian websites can be accessed from [http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black just one page].
---
> There is quite a lot of different ethnical groups in Russia. Though Russians are still most numerous, and Russian language is understood ubiquitously enough.
------
Smiley|983905644
10c10
< Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?
---
> Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?  ''AsciiArt?''
12c12
< Language or Electronic Communications or Emote
---
> Language or Electronic Communications or Emote
------
Classic_books|983905675
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals. Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote. 
> 
> Most of the classic books were written before 1900.
> 
> Most of the Classic works are freely available online and are [public domain]?. 
> 
> Starting in the 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing works from the groups 'pet' authors. These groups hypocritically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area. For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China?.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s. 
> 
------
Ascii_Art|983905696
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
> 
> The simplest forms of AsciiArt are the [[Smiley]] and its kin, little two or three character combinations for expressing emotion in text. :)
> 
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/ascii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
------
AsciiArt|983905717
1,5c1
< Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
< 
< The simplest forms of AsciiArt are the [[Smiley]] and its kin, little two or three character combinations for expressing emotion in text. :)
< 
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/ascii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ascii Art]]
------
Ascii_Art|983905744
1c1
< Basically, AsciiArt consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
---
> Basically, [[Ascii Art]] consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
3c3
< The simplest forms of AsciiArt are the [[Smiley]] and its kin, little two or three character combinations for expressing emotion in text. :)
---
> The simplest forms of [[Ascii Art]] are the [[Smiley]] and its kin, little two or three character combinations for expressing emotion in text. :)
5c5
< [http://www.pobratyn.com/ascii.php3 Example of AsciiArt]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/ascii.php3 Example of Ascii Art]
------
Smiley|983905769
10c10
< Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?  ''AsciiArt?''
---
> Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?  ''[[Ascii Art]]?''
------
WojPob|983905785
15c15
< Wow, Wojtek, that's some awesome AsciiArt on your homepage.
---
> Wow, Wojtek, that's some awesome [[Ascii Art]] on your homepage.
------
Wikipedia_Faq|983905817
1c1,123
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, WhatIsaWiki, WhatsaWikiFor, WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki, WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia, or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
> ----
> '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
> 
> A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
> ----
> '''Q. When did the [[Wikipedia]] start?'''
> 
> A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with BenKovitz on the evening of January 2.
> ----
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with [[Wikipedia]].  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
> 
> A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
> 
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
> ----
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
> 
> A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
> ----
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
> 
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
> 
> ----
> '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
> 
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
> 
> And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
> ----
> '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
> 
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
> ----
> '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
> ----
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
> ----
> '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?  WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis?'''
> 
> A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks!  If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
> 
> '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  What's the purpose?'''
> 
> A. You got me.  I think it was Ward Cunningham's invention as part of his original wiki.  It's part of the software, for which we aren't responsible.  We might, of course, change this (obligating us to relabel zillions of links, but no matter).
> ----
> '''Q. Is someone keeping regular backups of this site? What if I write a great article and some clod shows up and nukes it? I'd like some assurance that my efforts aren't going to waste.'''
> 
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
> ----
> '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
> 
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
> ----
> '''Q. What's the point of getting a user number?'''
> 
> A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
> ----
> '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
> 
> A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
> ----
> '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
> 
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
> ----
> '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WikiWiki page?'''
> 
> A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.
> ----
> '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
> 
> A.  The single-quote forms of bold and italic formatting do not always do what you'd expect when they are nested.  If you are doing special forms of formatting, you may want to use the <nowiki><i> and <b></nowiki> tags like <tt><nowiki><i>this will be italic</i></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki><b>this will be bold</b></nowiki></tt>.  These tag-based forms are much easier to use than trying to remember whether to use 4, 5, or 6 single-quotes.  You can also use the tag-based forms over multiple lines of text, although this should be used sparingly.
> 
> :Could you reproduce the problem in the SandBox page?  I'll take a closer look to see if there was a bug or simply an unexpected rendering in this case.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.  Also, another example can be found in the first paragraph of SemanticDispute.  One can't use two sets of four single quote marks in the same paragraph, it seems.'' -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> Bold and italic tags work, along with the <nowiki><tt></nowiki> and <nowiki><pre></nowiki> tags.  Most other tags don't work in the wiki--many of them are unnecessary (like paragraph or list tags) or difficult to allow safely.  (Many tags can be misused with Javascript.)  Some tags will be added in future versions.  (I've already added em, strong, and code tags.) 
> 
> The problem in the page you quoted is that the five single-quotes after AristotlE were matched by the five single-quotes after SeT (at the end of the paragraph).  The single-quote formatting was never really meant to be used for separating page names from trailing letters.  (It was a recently-discovered quirk of wiki formatting.)
> 
> This wiki has a special feature for separating wiki page links (or any other kind of link) from trailing letters.  You can type <tt><nowiki>SeT""s</nowiki></tt> to get SeTs, <tt><nowiki>LoGic""s</nowiki></tt> for LoGics, etc.  Just add two double-quote characters immediately after the link and it will be removed in the output.  (The two-double-quote convention was chosen since it is easy to type, but is unlikely to be used accidentally.)  Note that the two double-quotes are only special if they immediately follow a link--simply typing "" in ordinary text will display two double-quotes.
> 
> I hope that the need for these conventions will disappear soon, as I'm working on new ways to form wiki links.  (See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for details.)  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
> 
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.
> ----
> '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
> 
> A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
> ----
> '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
> 
> A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
> 
> A2. You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
> 
> '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
> ----
> '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
> 
> Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
> 
> The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
> ----
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
> 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|983905847
1c1,123
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, WhatIsaWiki, WhatsaWikiFor, WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki, WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia, or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
> ----
> '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
> 
> A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
> ----
> '''Q. When did the [[Wikipedia]] start?'''
> 
> A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with BenKovitz on the evening of January 2.
> ----
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with [[Wikipedia]].  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
> 
> A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
> 
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
> ----
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
> 
> A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
> ----
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
> 
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
> 
> ----
> '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
> 
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
> 
> And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
> ----
> '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
> 
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
> ----
> '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
> ----
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
> ----
> '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?  WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis?'''
> 
> A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks!  If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
> 
> '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  What's the purpose?'''
> 
> A. You got me.  I think it was Ward Cunningham's invention as part of his original wiki.  It's part of the software, for which we aren't responsible.  We might, of course, change this (obligating us to relabel zillions of links, but no matter).
> ----
> '''Q. Is someone keeping regular backups of this site? What if I write a great article and some clod shows up and nukes it? I'd like some assurance that my efforts aren't going to waste.'''
> 
> A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
> ----
> '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
> 
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
> ----
> '''Q. What's the point of getting a user number?'''
> 
> A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
> ----
> '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
> 
> A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
> ----
> '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
> 
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
> ----
> '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WikiWiki page?'''
> 
> A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.
> ----
> '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
> 
> A.  The single-quote forms of bold and italic formatting do not always do what you'd expect when they are nested.  If you are doing special forms of formatting, you may want to use the <nowiki><i> and <b></nowiki> tags like <tt><nowiki><i>this will be italic</i></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki><b>this will be bold</b></nowiki></tt>.  These tag-based forms are much easier to use than trying to remember whether to use 4, 5, or 6 single-quotes.  You can also use the tag-based forms over multiple lines of text, although this should be used sparingly.
> 
> :Could you reproduce the problem in the SandBox page?  I'll take a closer look to see if there was a bug or simply an unexpected rendering in this case.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.  Also, another example can be found in the first paragraph of SemanticDispute.  One can't use two sets of four single quote marks in the same paragraph, it seems.'' -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> Bold and italic tags work, along with the <nowiki><tt></nowiki> and <nowiki><pre></nowiki> tags.  Most other tags don't work in the wiki--many of them are unnecessary (like paragraph or list tags) or difficult to allow safely.  (Many tags can be misused with Javascript.)  Some tags will be added in future versions.  (I've already added em, strong, and code tags.) 
> 
> The problem in the page you quoted is that the five single-quotes after AristotlE were matched by the five single-quotes after SeT (at the end of the paragraph).  The single-quote formatting was never really meant to be used for separating page names from trailing letters.  (It was a recently-discovered quirk of wiki formatting.)
> 
> This wiki has a special feature for separating wiki page links (or any other kind of link) from trailing letters.  You can type <tt><nowiki>SeT""s</nowiki></tt> to get SeTs, <tt><nowiki>LoGic""s</nowiki></tt> for LoGics, etc.  Just add two double-quote characters immediately after the link and it will be removed in the output.  (The two-double-quote convention was chosen since it is easy to type, but is unlikely to be used accidentally.)  Note that the two double-quotes are only special if they immediately follow a link--simply typing "" in ordinary text will display two double-quotes.
> 
> I hope that the need for these conventions will disappear soon, as I'm working on new ways to form wiki links.  (See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for details.)  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
> 
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.
> ----
> '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
> 
> A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
> ----
> '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
> 
> A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
> 
> A2. You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
> 
> '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
> ----
> '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
> 
> Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
> 
> The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
> ----
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
> 
------
WikiPediaFaq|983905872
1,122c1
< Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, WhatIsaWiki, WhatsaWikiFor, WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki, WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia, or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
< ----
< '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
< 
< A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
< ----
< '''Q. When did the [[Wikipedia]] start?'''
< 
< A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with BenKovitz on the evening of January 2.
< ----
< '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with [[Wikipedia]].  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
< 
< A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
< 
< Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
< ----
< '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
< 
< A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
< ----
< '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
< 
< A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
< 
< ----
< '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
< 
< A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
< 
< And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
< ----
< '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
< 
< A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
< ----
< '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
< 
< A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
< ----
< '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
< 
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
< ----
< '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?  WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis?'''
< 
< A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks!  If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
< 
< '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  What's the purpose?'''
< 
< A. You got me.  I think it was Ward Cunningham's invention as part of his original wiki.  It's part of the software, for which we aren't responsible.  We might, of course, change this (obligating us to relabel zillions of links, but no matter).
< ----
< '''Q. Is someone keeping regular backups of this site? What if I write a great article and some clod shows up and nukes it? I'd like some assurance that my efforts aren't going to waste.'''
< 
< A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
< ----
< '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
< 
< A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
< ----
< '''Q. What's the point of getting a user number?'''
< 
< A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
< ----
< '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
< 
< A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
< ----
< '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
< 
< A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
< ----
< '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WikiWiki page?'''
< 
< A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.
< ----
< '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
< 
< A.  The single-quote forms of bold and italic formatting do not always do what you'd expect when they are nested.  If you are doing special forms of formatting, you may want to use the <nowiki><i> and <b></nowiki> tags like <tt><nowiki><i>this will be italic</i></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki><b>this will be bold</b></nowiki></tt>.  These tag-based forms are much easier to use than trying to remember whether to use 4, 5, or 6 single-quotes.  You can also use the tag-based forms over multiple lines of text, although this should be used sparingly.
< 
< :Could you reproduce the problem in the SandBox page?  I'll take a closer look to see if there was a bug or simply an unexpected rendering in this case.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.  Also, another example can be found in the first paragraph of SemanticDispute.  One can't use two sets of four single quote marks in the same paragraph, it seems.'' -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< Bold and italic tags work, along with the <nowiki><tt></nowiki> and <nowiki><pre></nowiki> tags.  Most other tags don't work in the wiki--many of them are unnecessary (like paragraph or list tags) or difficult to allow safely.  (Many tags can be misused with Javascript.)  Some tags will be added in future versions.  (I've already added em, strong, and code tags.) 
< 
< The problem in the page you quoted is that the five single-quotes after AristotlE were matched by the five single-quotes after SeT (at the end of the paragraph).  The single-quote formatting was never really meant to be used for separating page names from trailing letters.  (It was a recently-discovered quirk of wiki formatting.)
< 
< This wiki has a special feature for separating wiki page links (or any other kind of link) from trailing letters.  You can type <tt><nowiki>SeT""s</nowiki></tt> to get SeTs, <tt><nowiki>LoGic""s</nowiki></tt> for LoGics, etc.  Just add two double-quote characters immediately after the link and it will be removed in the output.  (The two-double-quote convention was chosen since it is easy to type, but is unlikely to be used accidentally.)  Note that the two double-quotes are only special if they immediately follow a link--simply typing "" in ordinary text will display two double-quotes.
< 
< I hope that the need for these conventions will disappear soon, as I'm working on new ways to form wiki links.  (See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for details.)  --CliffordAdams
< ----
< '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
< 
< A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.
< ----
< '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
< 
< A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
< ----
< '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
< 
< A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
< 
< A2. You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
< 
< '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
< ----
< '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
< 
< Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
< 
< Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
< 
< There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
< 
< The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
< 
< The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
< ----
< '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
< ----
< This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia FAQ]]
------
Classic_books|983905902
1c1
< Literature written in Western Europe prized by and extensivly studied by European and American intellectuals. Some examples are Shakespeare, Chaucer, and Don Quixote. 
---
> The word ''classic'' is often applied to literature and other art that is widely prized and studied.  Some examples of authors who have produced classics, in this sense, are [[Shakespeare]], [[Chaucer]], [[Don Quixote]], [[Lao Tzu]], and [[Confucius]].  As a body of work, classics in this sense make up what has come to be called the [[canon]]; the canon of Western literature and art has been a matter of considerable dispute (see [[Western canon]]).
3,7c3
< Most of the classic books were written before 1900.
< 
< Most of the Classic works are freely available online and are [public domain]?. 
< 
< Starting in the 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as being from 'dead, white, western authors' and not representing works from the groups 'pet' authors. These groups hypocritically advocated inclusion/study of all literature but excluded authors from areas outside of their 'pet' area. For example, feninists wanted feninist women authors and excluded male authors from Asia/China?.  Fortunately, this trend ended in the middle/late 1990s. 
---
> Most works considered "classics" were written in generations before the present ones--i.e., by now dead people--but sometimes the word is pressed into use as a term of high praise for newly-created works.
8a5
> Most of classic books are freely available online and are [public domain]?. 
------
Ascii_Art|983905915
5a6,8
> 
> Ascii Art is an outgrowth of [[signature]]s attached to 
> [[email]] or [[newsgroup]] messages.
------
Smiley|983905947
4c4
< For example:
---
> Some basic examples:
8c8,11
<   :-)     is a smile
---
>   :P      has a lolling tongue
>   ;)      is wiking
>   B)      has sunglasses
>   :-)     has a nose
10,12c13
< Not only does this page need to be completed :-) it needs to be linked from some other page...but where?  What category could [[smiley]] fit under?  Perhaps [[LanguagE|language]]?  ''[[Ascii Art]]?''
< 
< Language or Electronic Communications or Emote
---
> ...there are a lot of possibilities, people are very good at interpreting pictures as faces.  See [[Ascii Art]], maybe [[Electronic communications]], [[Emote]], or [[Emoticon]].
------
Russia|983905963
1c1
< Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. Though, much of its territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Thickiest population is in European part of Russia, in Urals mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. The land and seas contain a wealth of natural resources. Though, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers is equally caharcteristic to it.
3c3,9
< There is quite a lot of different ethnical groups in Russia. Though Russians are still most numerous, and Russian language is understood ubiquitously enough.
---
> Thickiest population is in European part of Russia, in Urals mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
> 
> There is quite a lot of different ethnical groups in Russia. Though Russians are still most numerous, and Russian language is understood ubiquitously enough.
> 
> ----
> Funny enough, but (almost) all Russian websites can be 
> accessed from just <a href=http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black>one mysterous page</a>. 
------
Russia|983906009
9c9
< accessed from just <a href=http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black>one mysterous page</a>. 
---
> accessed from just one mysterous page (http://www.lexa.ru:8101/lexa/black). 
------
Literary_Art|983906051
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
> 
> See also LiteraryArtTalk
------
LiteraryArt|983906069
1,3c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
< 
< See also LiteraryArtTalk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Literary Art]]
------
Russia|983906114
1c1
< Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. The land and seas contain a wealth of natural resources. Though, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers is equally caharcteristic to it.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. The land and seas contain a wealth of natural resources. Though, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
------
CategorySchemes|983906116
23c23
< :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- LiteraryArt -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- [[Literary Art]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
------
Signature|983906126
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One or more text lines automatically attached to the end
> of an [[email]] or [[newsgroup]] message by a reader program.
> 
> A signature usually includes the name, phone number,
> and email address for the sender.  It also 
> sometimes includes [[ascii art]].
------
HomePage|983906147
13c13
< :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- LiteraryArt -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
LiteraryArtTalk|983906169
1c1
< ScienceFiction as a separate LiteraryArt form?
---
> ScienceFiction as a separate [[Literary Art]] form?
------
Terrestrial_planets|983906174
11c11
< ----
---
> Terrestrial planets all have roughly the same structure: a central metallic core, mostly iron, with a surrounding silicate mantle.  The [[Moon]] is similar but lacks an iron core.  At one time there were probably many more terrestrials, but most have been ejected from the solar system or otherwise destroyed.
12a13
> ----
------
Signature|983906219
6c6
< sometimes includes [[ascii art]].
---
> sometimes includes [[ascii_art]].
------
Western_canon|983906230
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Western canon'' is a term used to describe a set--one with very fuzzy boundaries--of books and other art that, in general, have been most influential in shaping Western culture.
> 
> Starting in the 1960s, but growing considerably in the 1980s, classic books were attacked by various groups as being from "dead, white, Western men" and not representing the viewpoints of other people (i.e., most people in the world). These groups advocated inclusion/study of all literature, sometimes to the exclusion of literature ordinarily placed in the traditional Western canon; this practice has been called "rewriting the canon."  This trend continues strong in most universities, but has waned somewhat in its influence in recent years as the cachet of [[political correctness]] has waned.
------
Signature|983906242
6c6
< sometimes includes [[ascii_art]].
---
> sometimes includes [[AsciiAart]].
------
Signature|983906288
6c6
< sometimes includes [[AsciiAart]].
---
> sometimes includes [[AsciiArt]].
------
Signature|983906334
6a7,8
> ----
> This isn't the primary sense of "signature"; remember, this isn't an encyclopedia of computer stuff.
------
Philosophy|983906473
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Some existing articles:'''
> [[William Alston]] -- [[hold come what may]] -- [[Meta-Philosophy]] -- [[common sense]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[direct realism]] -- [[altruism]]
> 
> [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of LarrysText to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
> 
> '''IntroductoryMaterial:'''
> WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
> 
> '''PhilosophicalSubdisciplines:'''
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
> 
> '''PhiloSophers:'''
> ThePresocratics -- [[Socrates]] -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
> 
> '''PhilosophicalTheories:'''
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
> 
> '''PhilosophicalIssuesAndProblems:'''
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
> 
> Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
> 
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
------
LiteraryArtTalk|983906482
6a7,8
> 
> Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
------
Signature|983906516
1,2c1
< One or more text lines automatically attached to the end
< of an [[email]] or [[newsgroup]] message by a reader program.
---
> A usually stylized version of someone's name written on documents as a proof of identity, like a [[seal]] but handwritten.
4,8c3
< A signature usually includes the name, phone number,
< and email address for the sender.  It also 
< sometimes includes [[AsciiArt]].
< ----
< This isn't the primary sense of "signature"; remember, this isn't an encyclopedia of computer stuff.
---
> Text automatically appended to [[email]] and [[newsgroup]] messages, usually including a name, contact info, and sometimes quotes and [[Ascii Art]], is also called a signature.
------
PhiloSophy|983906502
1,23c1
< '''Some existing articles:'''
< [[William Alston]] -- [[hold come what may]] -- [[Meta-Philosophy]] -- [[common sense]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[direct realism]] -- [[altruism]]
< 
< [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of LarrysText to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
< 
< '''IntroductoryMaterial:'''
< WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
< 
< '''PhilosophicalSubdisciplines:'''
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
< 
< '''PhiloSophers:'''
< ThePresocratics -- [[Socrates]] -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
< 
< '''PhilosophicalTheories:'''
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
< 
< '''PhilosophicalIssuesAndProblems:'''
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
< 
< Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
< 
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy]]
------
ComputinG|983906500
7a8,10
> * Internet
> ** [[Email]]
> ** [[Newsgroup]]
------
Signature|983906578
3c3
< Text automatically appended to [[email]] and [[newsgroup]] messages, usually including a name, contact info, and sometimes quotes and [[Ascii Art]], is also called a signature.
---
> Text automatically appended to [[Email]] and [[Newsgroup]] messages, usually including a name, contact info, and sometimes quotes and [[Ascii Art]], is also called a signature.
------
CategorySchemes|983906617
9c9
< :PhiloSophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> :Philosophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
35c35
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- PhiloSophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
---
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- Philosophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
------
CategorySchemes|983906641
9c9
< :Philosophy -- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- MathematicsAndStatistics
35c35
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- Philosophy -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
---
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- [[Philosophy]] -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
------
Email|983906686
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Refers to composing, sending, and receiving messages over
> electronic communication systems.
> 
> Email is short for Electronic Mail.
> 
------
HomePage|983906695
7c7
< :PhiloSophy -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983906725
3c3
< There was an [[animated]] film made in the 1978 based on 
---
> There was an [[animation|animated]] film made in the 1978 based on 
------
FoundationalDisciplines|983906767
3c3
< Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in PhiloSophy, namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard PhiloSophy and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
---
> Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in [[Philosophy]], namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard [[Philosophy]] and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
------
Animated|983906781
1,3c1
< A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model, and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
< 
< [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Animation]]
------
Meta-Philosophy|983906813
1c1
< The study of the methods and aims of PhiloSophy, consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
---
> The study of the methods and aims of [[Philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
5c5
< PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
Meta-Philosophy|983906831
5c5
< PhiloSophy of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> [[Philosophy]] of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
Animation|983906849
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
> 
> [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
------
Newsgroup|983906893
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A repository for messages posted from many users at different locations.  
> 
> Typically, a newsgroup is focused on a particular topic such as 'shellfish' and only the last few messages are kept.
> 
------
Computing|983906908
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * AlgorithmS
> * ComputerHardware
> * ComputerSoftware
> * SoftwareDevelopmentProcess
> * ComputerArchitecture
> * AccessibleComputing
> * HumanComputerInteraction (Geek Speak)
> * Internet
> ** [[Email]]
> ** [[Newsgroup]]
------
ComputinG|983906927
1,10c1
< * AlgorithmS
< * ComputerHardware
< * ComputerSoftware
< * SoftwareDevelopmentProcess
< * ComputerArchitecture
< * AccessibleComputing
< * HumanComputerInteraction (Geek Speak)
< * Internet
< ** [[Email]]
< ** [[Newsgroup]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computing]]
------
CategorySchemes|983906970
19c19
< :HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- ComputinG -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
---
> :HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- [[Computing]] -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
------
HomePage|983906997
11c11
< :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- ComputinG -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983907005
8a9,10
> ''Where should pages on the Lord of the Rings universe go?  [[Atlas Shrugged]] has worldly details on subpages, but here the history is also common to [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Silmarillion]].''
> 
------
Email|983907032
1,5c1
< Refers to composing, sending, and receiving messages over
< electronic communication systems.
< 
< Email is short for Electronic Mail.
< 
---
> ''Email,'' or ''e-mail,'' is short for "electronic mail" and refers to composing, sending, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems (mainly the [[Internet]]).
------
JavaJini|983907048
1c1
< A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of Kellie Miller. He is interested in ProgrammingLanguages, DistributedComputing, ComputerMediatedCommunication, CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things. He can be reached at kellie-miller@yahoo.com
---
> A Computer Scientist for over 20 years, JavaJini is the alias of [[Kellie Miller]]. He is interested in ProgrammingLanguages, [[Distributed Computing]], [[Computer Mediated Communication]], CelticMusic, and ScienceFiction among many other things. He can be reached at kellie-miller@yahoo.com
------
Vector_Space]|983907078
1,5c1
< 
<        
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vector Space]]
------
TechnologY|983907120
1,2c1,2
< * MetalLurgy
< * ComputinG
---
> * [[Metallurgy]]
> * [[Computing]]
4c4
< * MachinerY
---
> * [[Machinery]]
------
Monolithic|983907162
1a2,3
> ----
> The program is called a "monolithic," or it is "monolithic"?  "Monolithic" is usually an adjective.  "Monolith" is the noun.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983907199
10a11
> How about: See also Literature, Fantasy.
------
Eigen_Vectors|983907203
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector with at least one non-zero element and c a scalar (possibly zero), and the following holds for some c and some v:
> 
> Av = cv
> 
> Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
> 
> Interesting properties of EigenVectors:
> 
> # If A is symmetric, then all its Eigenvalues are real (as opposed to complex).
> # If A is symmetric, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
> (there are more, cannot remember off the top of my head)
------
Eigen_Vectors|983907232
5c5
< Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
---
> Then we say that v is an Eigen Vector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
7c7
< Interesting properties of EigenVectors:
---
> Interesting properties of Eigen Vectors:
------
EigenVectors|983907250
1,11c1
< If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector with at least one non-zero element and c a scalar (possibly zero), and the following holds for some c and some v:
< 
< Av = cv
< 
< Then we say that v is an EigenVector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
< 
< Interesting properties of EigenVectors:
< 
< # If A is symmetric, then all its Eigenvalues are real (as opposed to complex).
< # If A is symmetric, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
< (there are more, cannot remember off the top of my head)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eigen Vectors]]
------
Computing|983907282
8c8
< * Internet
---
> * [[Internet]]
------
Christianity|983907304
22c22
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: CatholicisM -- PresbyterianisM -- EpiscopalianisM -- BaptisT
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]]
24c24
< Related Christian Movements: Mormonism -- SeventhDayAdventists -- UnificationChurch -- OtherMajorChristianCults
---
> Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
------
Larrys_Text|983907399
19c19,20
< ::EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
---
> ::[[/Epistemology|Epistemology]] -- 
> EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
50c51
< Go thou and do likewise--please!
---
> Go thou and do likewise--please!
------
Larrys_Text/Epistemology|983907424
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
> ----
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
> Last time we talked about various theories of truth.  You'll remember that we started by rejecting the view that truth is just the same as belief.  It is bound to seem pretty obvious that <i>some</i> of the things that you believe are false, unless you remain an unreformed relativist, of a sort that <i>I</i> and <i>most</i> philosophers think is rather naïve.  Some of the things you now believe, and have believed, and will believe, are true, and some are false.  No one bats 1.000 when it comes to having the truth.
> 
> And there are some matters in life where it's very difficult to know <i>whether</i> one's belief <i>really</i> is true.  Philosophy is surely the best example.  You have, probably, lots of philosophical beliefs.  But if you've been paying attention at all so far, at the very least one thing has at some point struck you -- namely, that it's very difficult indeed to <i>know</i>, without a doubt, that your philosophical beliefs are correct.  For any theory on any topic you might advance, you'll be faced with a bunch of objections; and if you think you can reply to all the objections, you will be presupposing a lot of <i>other</i> philosophical views, each of which has some objections to <i>it</i>; and so on.
> 
> So you might very well wonder: <i>What</i> <i>do</i> <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
> 
> Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used logic, you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason</i> <i>to</i> <i>think</i> <i>the</i> <i>belief</i> <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let's define a general term:
> 
> A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature if it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
> 
> Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don't want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don't want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that's possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn't our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
> 
> Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
> 
> Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Epistemology</i> includes the study of (1) what the epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality, each are (e.g., what justified belief is); (2) the origin or sources of such features (and thus the sources of knowledge); (3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge; (4) whether it is <i>possible</i> to have knowledge.
> 
> So, first, epistemologists spend a great deal of time concerning themselves with various epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality.  And they write long articles and books trying to say just when beliefs are justified, or rational.
> 
> A second, related concern is <i>where</i> such epistemic features ultimately come from.  If I say, for example, that my belief that Paris is the capital of France is justified, I can ask: Where did the justification for my belief come from?  Probably at some point some reliable source told me that Paris is the capital of France; and that was enough to make me <i>justified</i> in adopting the belief.  OK, then <i>one</i>, but <i>only</i> one, source of justification would be <i>testimony</i>, which is just a fancy word for what other people tell me.  Another source of justification would be sense-perception.  So epistemology asks: What are the ultimate sources of justification, rationality, or other epistemic features of belief?  And that allows to answer a further question: What are the ultimate sources of <i>knowledge</i>?
> 
> Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn't what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it's to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
> 
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
------
Internet|983907440
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Interconnection of many computers with no centralized administrations.  Usually, the internet refers to the facilities provided by computers connected to the internet.
> 
> Some of these facilities are:
> 
> * [[email]]
> * [[newsgroup]]
> * Websites, web pages
------
Larrys_Text|983907450
19,20c19
< ::[[/Epistemology|Epistemology]] -- 
< EpistemOlogy -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
---
> ::[[/Epistemology|Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
------
EpistemOlogy|983907550
1,31c1
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
< ----
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< Last time we talked about various theories of truth.  You'll remember that we started by rejecting the view that truth is just the same as belief.  It is bound to seem pretty obvious that <i>some</i> of the things that you believe are false, unless you remain an unreformed relativist, of a sort that <i>I</i> and <i>most</i> philosophers think is rather naïve.  Some of the things you now believe, and have believed, and will believe, are true, and some are false.  No one bats 1.000 when it comes to having the truth.
< 
< And there are some matters in life where it's very difficult to know <i>whether</i> one's belief <i>really</i> is true.  Philosophy is surely the best example.  You have, probably, lots of philosophical beliefs.  But if you've been paying attention at all so far, at the very least one thing has at some point struck you -- namely, that it's very difficult indeed to <i>know</i>, without a doubt, that your philosophical beliefs are correct.  For any theory on any topic you might advance, you'll be faced with a bunch of objections; and if you think you can reply to all the objections, you will be presupposing a lot of <i>other</i> philosophical views, each of which has some objections to <i>it</i>; and so on.
< 
< So you might very well wonder: <i>What</i> <i>do</i> <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
< 
< Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used logic, you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason</i> <i>to</i> <i>think</i> <i>the</i> <i>belief</i> <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
< 
< Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let's define a general term:
< 
< A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature if it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
< 
< Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don't want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don't want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that's possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn't our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
< 
< Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
< 
< Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
< 
< <i>Epistemology</i> includes the study of (1) what the epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality, each are (e.g., what justified belief is); (2) the origin or sources of such features (and thus the sources of knowledge); (3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge; (4) whether it is <i>possible</i> to have knowledge.
< 
< So, first, epistemologists spend a great deal of time concerning themselves with various epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality.  And they write long articles and books trying to say just when beliefs are justified, or rational.
< 
< A second, related concern is <i>where</i> such epistemic features ultimately come from.  If I say, for example, that my belief that Paris is the capital of France is justified, I can ask: Where did the justification for my belief come from?  Probably at some point some reliable source told me that Paris is the capital of France; and that was enough to make me <i>justified</i> in adopting the belief.  OK, then <i>one</i>, but <i>only</i> one, source of justification would be <i>testimony</i>, which is just a fancy word for what other people tell me.  Another source of justification would be sense-perception.  So epistemology asks: What are the ultimate sources of justification, rationality, or other epistemic features of belief?  And that allows to answer a further question: What are the ultimate sources of <i>knowledge</i>?
< 
< Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn't what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it's to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
< 
< Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Epistemology]]
------
Epistemology|983907595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The branch of [[philosophy]] that deals with the nature of knowledge.
------
Monolithic|983907614
3c3,9
< The program is called a "monolithic," or it is "monolithic"?  "Monolithic" is usually an adjective.  "Monolith" is the noun.
---
> The program is called a "monolithic," or it is "monolithic"?  "Monolithic" is usually an adjective.  "Monolith" is the noun.
> ---
> I've never heard of anything but 'monolithic' computer program.
> 
> How about changing the topic title to 'Monolithic computer program'?
> 
> Thnks
------
Philosophy|983907629
10c10
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- EpistemOlogy -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- [Epistemology]] -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
------
Computing|983907678
3a4
> ** [[Monolithic]]
------
Philosophy|983907724
13c13
< ThePresocratics -- [[Socrates]] -- PlatO -- AristotlE -- EpiCurus -- HellenicPhilosophy -- CiCero -- AugUstine -- AnSelm -- AquInas -- FrancisBacon -- ThomasHobbes -- ReneDescartes -- NicholasMalebranche -- BaruchSpinoza -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
------
Philosophy|983907773
16c16
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''EpistemOlogy:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''[[Epistemology]]:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
19c19
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''EpistemOlogy:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''[[Epistemology]]:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
Hate_Crime|983907911
5c5
< of the gender/race/setual orientation of the victim.
---
> of the gender/race/sexual orientation of the victim.
8c8
< than the same crime prosecuted under normal criminal statues.
---
> than the same crime prosecuted under normal criminal statutes.
------
AristotlE|983907999
1,3c1
< AristotlE was a GreeK Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.
< 
< AristotlE, along with PlatO, is often considered to be one of the two most influential PhilosopherS in WesterN thought.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Aristotle]]
------
AlexanderTheGreat|983908020
3c3
< Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with AristotlE, who was his private teacher.
---
> Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with [[Aristotle]], who was his private teacher.
------
Greek|983908045
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Of, or relating to GreecE, its people or its culture.
> 
> Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
> ----
> 
> ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, GreecE, GreekMythology
------
Seal|983908058
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wax or other item used to close an item to indicate whether or not the item has been opened since the seal was applied.
> 
> A letter writer would compose the letter, fold it over, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page of paper, and then impress a ring or other symbol to:
> 
> * Seal the document to prevent tampering
> * Provide proof that the document is actually from the sender and is not a forgery
------
Greek|983908101
1c1
< Of, or relating to GreecE, its people or its culture.
---
> Of, or relating to [[Greece]], its people or its culture.
3c3
< Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
---
> Famous Greeks were PlatO, [[Aristotle]], AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
6c6
< ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, GreecE, GreekMythology
---
> ''See also'':  [[Greek Language]], [[Hellenic Civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], GreekMythology
------
GreeK|983908131
1,6c1
< Of, or relating to GreecE, its people or its culture.
< 
< Famous Greeks were PlatO, AristotlE, AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
< ----
< 
< ''See also'':  GreekLanguage, HellenicCivilization, RomanEmpire, ByzantineEmpire, GreecE, GreekMythology
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek]]
------
AlexanderTheGreat|983908189
5c5
< In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in GreecE, he set of on his famous conquest of PersiA in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered EgypT. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to IndiA. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his GreeK countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in IndiA, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
---
> In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in [[Greece]], he set of on his famous conquest of PersiA in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered EgypT. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to IndiA. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his [[Greek]] countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in IndiA, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
7c7
< He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over GreecE, PersiA, EgypT, and all the way to IndiA.
---
> He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over [[Greece]], PersiA, EgypT, and all the way to IndiA.
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983908240
1,56c1
<  [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
<  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
<  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  [[/John Galt|John Galt]]
<  /LillianRearden
<  /Looters
<  /McNamara
<  /MysteryWorker
<  /NewsstandOwner
<  /OrrenBoyle
<  /OwenKellogg
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /PhilipRearden
<  /ReardensMother
<  /RichardHalley
<  /Strikers
<  /WesleyMouch
< ----
< * Very minor characters
<  /BartendeR
<  /BoardofDirectors
<  /BumNumber1
<  /ChiefEngineer
<  /ClarenceEddington
<  /ConductoR
<  /DagnysFather
<  /DagnysMother
<  /EngineeR
<  /FiremaN
<  /FranciscosFather
<  /GilbertVail
<  [[/James Taggarts Secretary|James Taggart's Secretary]]
<  /JockBenson
<  /JulesMott
<  /LizBlane
<  /MrAyers
<  /MrsBeacham
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /MrsNathanielTaggart
<  /NathanielTaggart
<  /PassengerNumber1
<  /PassengerNumber2
<  /PassengerNumber3
<  /PassengerNumber4
<  /PopHarper
<  /PresidentofULW
<  /SebastianDAnconia
<  /WaiteR
<  /WorkerNumber1
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Characters]]
------
AtlasShruggedCharacters|983908279
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Characters
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Characters]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Characters|983908328
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Characters]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Characters]]
------
Epistemology|983908340
1a2,29
> 
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
> ----
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged--if you can do better, please update, replace, etc., without reducing genuine, bona fide encyclopedia-worthy ''content''.  Thanks>
> 
> One might wonder: <i>What</i> <i>do</i> <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
> 
> Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used logic, you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason</i> <i>to</i> <i>think</i> <i>the</i> <i>belief</i> <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let's define a general term:
> 
> A feature of belief is an <i>epistemic</i> feature if it is at least <i>some</i> indication that the belief is true.
> 
> Many of our beliefs do, I think, have lots of positive epistemic features; many of our beliefs are quite rational, quite justified, very probably true, highly warranted, and so on.  But most of us, I think, at least in some moments, don't want to rest content with just being <i>rational</i>.  We don't want to have a rational belief that is, unfortunately, false.  Because that's possible, right?  I can be very conscious, careful, and logical in forming a belief, and so be rational in holding the belief; but it still might be false.  So rationality isn't our ultimate ambition that we have for our beliefs.
> 
> Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
> 
> Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Epistemology</i> includes the study of (1) what the epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality, each are (e.g., what justified belief is); (2) the origin or sources of such features (and thus the sources of knowledge); (3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge; (4) whether it is <i>possible</i> to have knowledge.
> 
> So, first, epistemologists spend a great deal of time concerning themselves with various epistemic features of belief, such as justification and rationality.  And they write long articles and books trying to say just when beliefs are justified, or rational.
> 
> A second, related concern is <i>where</i> such epistemic features ultimately come from.  If I say, for example, that my belief that Paris is the capital of France is justified, I can ask: Where did the justification for my belief come from?  Probably at some point some reliable source told me that Paris is the capital of France; and that was enough to make me <i>justified</i> in adopting the belief.  OK, then <i>one</i>, but <i>only</i> one, source of justification would be <i>testimony</i>, which is just a fancy word for what other people tell me.  Another source of justification would be sense-perception.  So epistemology asks: What are the ultimate sources of justification, rationality, or other epistemic features of belief?  And that allows to answer a further question: What are the ultimate sources of <i>knowledge</i>?
> 
> Which brings us to the third topic studied by epistemologists, namely, what knowledge is.  The question here isn't what we <i>can</i> know, or even what we <i>do</i> know.  The question is: What would knowledge be, if we had it?  A belief has to pass some sort of muster if it's to count as knowledge.  So what features would a belief have to have, in order to be an actual piece of knowledge -- not just something that pretends to be knowledge, but which is <i>actually</i> knowledge?
> 
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
------
Astronomer|983908369
1c1
< [[Scientist]] whose area of [[Research]] is [[Astronomy]].
---
> [[Scientist]] whose area of [[research]] is [[Astronomy]].
------
Astronomer|983908389
1c1
< [[Scientist]] whose area of [[research]] is [[Astronomy]].
---
> [[Scientist]] whose area of [[research]] is [[astronomy]].
------
Larrys_Text|983908391
19c19
< ::[[/Epistemology|Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
---
> ::[[Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
------
Astronomy|983908412
7c7
< GreeK [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
---
> [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
------
Philosophy|983908625
10c10
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- PhilosophyOfNature -- PhilosophyOfPhysics -- PhilosophyOfBiology -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- [Epistemology]] -- PhilosophyOfScience -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- PhilosophyOfSocialSciences -- AesthEtics -- PhilosophyOfEducation -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
------
RationalChoiceTheory|983908745
1c1
< A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
---
> A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
------
Rational_Choice_Theory|983908763
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
> 
------
Rational_Choice_Theory|983908777
1c1
< A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rational Choice Theory]]
------
Rational_Choice_Theory|983908798
1c1,2
< #REDIRECT [[Rational Choice Theory]]
---
> A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
> 
------
RationalChoiceTheory|983908816
1c1
< A model of human behavior that assumes people will alter their choices in response to changes in expected costs and benefits, and to changes in the availability of substitutes.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rational Choice Theory]]
------
AtlasShrugged112|983908841
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN112
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section112]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN112|983908873
1,20c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is riding the /TaggartComet back to /NewYork after inspecting the /RioNorteLine.  She hears a /Brakeman whistling an unpublished piece from her favorite composer, /RichardHalley, but the brakeman refuses to acknowledge this or say where he heard it.  After falling asleep and waking up, Dagny discovers the train has come to a stop at a siding.  She finds the train crew passively waiting instructions, and gives them orders on how to proceed.  Faced with this incompetence, she decides to promote /OwenKellogg to superintendent of the Ohio Division.
< ----
< * Setting
< Taggart Comet, stalled between Cleveland and New York.
< ----
< * Characters
<  /Brakeman
<  /ConductoR - First and only appearance.
<  /EngineeR - First and only appearance.
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  /OwenKellogg - Mentioned.
<  /PassengerNumber1 - First and only appearance.
<  /PassengerNumber2 - First and only appearance.
<  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< What was the /Brakeman whistling?  Did Halley write a Fifth Concerto?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section112]]
------
Apollo|983908911
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Greek god, twin of ArtemiS. Both are children of ZeuS and LetO
------
Apollo|983908927
1c1
< Greek god, twin of ArtemiS. Both are children of ZeuS and LetO
---
> Greek god, twin of [[Artemis]]. Both are children of ZeuS and [[Leto]]
------
ApollO|983908944
1c1
< Greek god, twin of ArtemiS. Both are children of ZeuS and LetO
---
> #REDIRECT [[Apollo]]
------
Apollo|983909046
1c1,3
< Greek god, twin of [[Artemis]]. Both are children of ZeuS and [[Leto]]
---
> Greek god, twin of [[Artemis]]. Both are children of ZeuS and [[Leto]].
> 
> Also, the name of a series of space missions launched by NASA from the 1960s until the 1970s, including [[Apollo 11]], the first manned lunar landing.
------
Apollo|983909057
3c3
< Also, the name of a series of space missions launched by NASA from the 1960s until the 1970s, including [[Apollo 11]], the first manned lunar landing.
---
> Also, the name of a series of space missions launched by [[NASA]] from the 1960s until the 1970s, including [[Apollo 11]], the first manned lunar landing.
------
First_National|983909098
2c2
< First National's finacial power and it's control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to Paramount so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten milion dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of UnitedArtists, and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First Nationals member firms after the other. 
---
> First National's finacial power and it's control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to Paramount so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten milion dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of [[United Artists]], and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First Nationals member firms after the other. 
------
AtlasShrugged/MiddleWest|983909146
1,2c1
< /NathanielTaggart is rumoured to have killed a state legislator from the Middle West.  Supposedly the legislator had sold short shares of Taggart's railroad, and was using his power in the state government to drive the railroad into bankruptcy.  This is mentioned in 
< /SectioN132.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Middle West]]
------
Philosophy|983909169
12,13c12,13
< '''PhiloSophers:'''
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- BlaisePascal -- JohnLocke -- GeorgeBerkeley -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- DugaldStewart -- ImmanuelKant -- JamesMill -- JohnStuartMill -- KarlMarx -- ArthurSchopenhauer -- SorenKierkegaard -- FriedrichNietzsche -- BertrandRussell -- KarlPopper -- GeorgeEMoore -- RudolphCarnap -- JeanPaulSartre -- AlbertCamus -- WVOQuinE -- NelsonGoodman -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- VoltairE (pen name of Francois Marie Arouet) --
---
> '''[[Philosophers]]:'''
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
15,16c15,16
< '''PhilosophicalTheories:'''
< '''MetaPhysics:''' RealIsm -- AntiRealism -- IrrealIsm -- NominaliIsm -- PlatonIsm '''[[Epistemology]]:''' FoundationalIsm -- CoherentIsm -- ReliabilIsm -- JustifiedTrueBelief '''EthIcs:''' HedonIsm -- EudaimonIsm -- ConsequentialIsm -- UtilitarianIsm -- AlTruism -- EgoIsm -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''[[Philosophical theories]]:'''
> '''MetaPhysics:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''EthIcs:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
18c18
< '''PhilosophicalIssuesAndProblems:'''
---
> '''[[Philosophical issues and problems]]:'''
23c23
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
---
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
------
Andre_Agassi|983909194
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Andre Agassi is a famous professional [[tennis]] player.  He was born April 29, 1970, and by the year 2000 he had won over $19 million in prize money and achieved a number 1 ranking on the ATP tour.
> 
> Agassi married actress [[Brooke Shields]] in 1997, and divorced in 1999.
> 
> What were Agassi's earliest major tennis victories?  Did he play tennis as a child?  Where was he born?  Where did he grow up? Where did he go to school?
> 
> If you know the answers to these questions, then you can edit this page and add them now!  Just hit 'edit this page' below.
------
AndreAgassi|983909234
1,8c1
< Andre Agassi is a famous professional tennis player.  He was born April 29, 1970, and by the year 2000 he had won over $19 million in prize money and achieved a number 1 ranking on the ATP tour.
< 
< Agassi married actress BrookeShields in 1997, and divorced in 1999.
< 
< What were Agassi's earliest major tennis victories?  Did he play tennis as a child?  Where was he born?  Where did he grow up?
< Where did he go to school?
< 
< If you know the answers to these questions, then you can edit this page and add them now!  Just hit 'edit this page' below.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andre Agassi]]
------
MaleTennisProfessionals|983909258
3c3
< #AndreAgassi
---
> #[[Andre Agassi]]
------
MaleTennisProfessionals|983909302
3c3,4
< #[[Andre Agassi]]
---
>  [[Andre Agassi]]
>  [[Pete Sampras]]
------
Why_Arent_These_Pages_Copyedited|983909366
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who knows the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but noooo.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
> 
> You disgust me.  Now go out there and do that copyediting!
> 
> Uh, ;-).
> ----
> Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
> ----
> Just changed 'who know' to 'who knows'. Done my share.
------
WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited|983909389
1,9c1
< The answer, of course, is very simple: it's because ''you,'' who knows the correct spellings, grammar, etc., have idly passed by mistakes when you saw them.  That's right, you could have corrected them simply by clicking on the "Edit text of this page" link and making a quick change, but noooo.  You'd rather just complain, instead of doing something about it!
< 
< You disgust me.  Now go out there and do that copyediting!
< 
< Uh, ;-).
< ----
< Uhmmm, actually, I copyedit these pages all the time...
< ----
< Just changed 'who know' to 'who knows'. Done my share.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited]]
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|983909449
1c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "WhyArentThesePagesCopyedited?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "[[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited|Why aren't these pages copyedited]]?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
------
JudO|983909542
1c1
< Judo is a martial art which originated in JapaN.  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by JigoroKano in 1882.
---
> Judo is a martial art which originated in [[Japan]].  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by JigoroKano in 1882.
3c3
< Judo became an OlympiC sport in 1964. 
---
> Judo became an OlympiC sport in 1964. 
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983909853
3c3
< So now let’s talk a bit about the field of metaphysics in general, before we consider some particular metaphysical problems.  And let’s begin with the origin of the word "metaphysics."  Now, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  The way that the books of Aristotle were organized in an early edition, there was another set of books that were placed right after the physics.  These books seemed to concern a really basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which up to that time did not have any particular name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the books that come after the physics."  So that’s where we get the word "metaphysics."  Metaphysics is supposed to be the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So etymologically, what "metaphysics" means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
---
> What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Let’s take for granted, for the time being, that we know <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if you prefer, I want us to fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give us a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
5c5
< But this just begs the following question: What were those books by Aristotle about?  The books were divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  We aren’t going to go into this division of metaphysics in much depth because I don’t think it is very helpful.  But just to explain, very briefly, what these three terms at least <i>mean</i>.  (1) "Ontology" is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  If you don’t know what that means, you’re not alone; more about it in just a bit.  (2) "Theology" means, here, the study of God or the gods (remember, we’re talking about ancient Greeks here) and of questions about the divine.  (3) "Universal science" is supposed to be the study of so-called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the Law of Non-Contradiction: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
---
> Some people have thought that this question cannot be answered.  They think that "exists" just cannot be defined.  They think that we all very well understand what it means to say that an object exists, but we can’t define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  So we’ll will come back to it.  But let’s at least <i>start</i> by assuming that we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  How could we start?
7c7
< Metaphysics has changed a lot since then, over the many centuries of its existence.  Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical were added to metaphysics.  Other problems that were for centuries considered metaphysical problems are now pretty much relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy.  For example, there are a lot of problems that used to be considered part of metaphysics, but are now more commonly considered parts of the philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, and philosophy of science.  So needless to say, it would take us a <i>long</i> time even to <i>state</i> all the problems that have, at <i>one</i> time or another, been considered part of metaphysics.
---
> Well, here’s a place to start.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence, right?  Think of all the different ways that something we talk about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: we say Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence, that’s one kind of nonexistence.  Or suppose you’re just daydreaming and you imagine winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course your Nobel Prize does not exist: it’s just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in your imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the Earth is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if you sailed too far across the ocean you would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, as we all know, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that’s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when you posit something in a false hypothesis.  And now here’s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there’s a sense in which he doesn’t exist; namely, he doesn’t exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
9c9
< But you might be asking this: Can we give some rough-and-ready account of what made all of these different problems "metaphysical" problems?  I think so.  We could give the following very rough, inexact definition of "metaphysics": Metaphysics is the study of any of the most fundamental philosophical beliefs, on which many other philosophical beliefs rest.  
---
> Hopefully this gives you a very vivid idea of what it is that we’re talking about when we say that a physical object exists.  We say: it’s actually in the world, it’s not fictional; it’s real, not imaginary; it’s an actual phenomenon, it’s not part of a false hypothesis; and it’s located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
11c11
< And you could ask this too.  Suppose we consider only the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems.  The core problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  Is there something that distinguishes <i>those</i> problems?
---
> Now, there may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which we are in direct contact.  If we can bump into it, it exists.  So we might boldly give this following definition:
13c13
< I would think that most of such problems are part of Aristotle’s first branch of metaphysics, or <i>ontology</i>, and ontology, remember, is supposed to be the study of existence, or as Aristotle says, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  So I’m saying the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems are, at least mostly, problems about "being <i>qua</i> being."  But this must be frustrating to hear because you don’t know what "being <i>qua</i> being" means!  I’ll give a go at explaining what it means, and that way you can learn what "ontology" means.
---
> Physical object O <i>exists</i> if, and only if, O is, at present, spatially located in the universe with which we are in contact.
15c15
< First I need to explain what the word "being" means here.  I would suggest the following as a rough gloss:
---
> This is, I think, a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it’s just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  Aune, from our reading, for example, gives a definition much like this one.  So suppose now you’re back in the room with the big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that your body is also part of.  So in other words you are at some distance from the apple right now.  That’s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
17c17
< A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
---
> Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn’t exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the universe I see around me now.  So it doesn’t exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn’t have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the universe that I am a part of, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
19c19
< Now, you remember from last time that many words are ambiguous -- which means they have various different senses.  "Be" is a word, like many other words, that has different senses.  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, there are different <i>kinds</i> of beings.  Because, as I said, a <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
---
> As you might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Next, we’ll consider one of these objections, probably the most widespread.
21c21
< The different kinds of being are called <i>categories</i> of being.  Let’s go through a few of these categories of beings.  That should give you an idea of what we’re talking about when we use the words "being" and "category" of being.  Just bear in mind that different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  Anyway, in no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> categories of being.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, I exist, and the Eiffel Tower exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like I am saying that existence is a property of me, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
23c23
< First category.  Physical objects.  Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to <i>be</i> in the simple sense that they <i>exist</i> all around us.  So a house is a being, a person’s body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  You might also call them bodies, or concrete things, or maybe "substances" -- but the word "substance" has some special philosophical meanings as we'll see.  For a neutral term I’ll usually use either "object" or "body."
---
> Well, first of all, you might be wondering why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Here’s how it matters.  If existence <i>isn’t</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the way we have defined it.  Our definition of "exists" is incorrect just because our definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
25c25
< Second category.  Minds.  Minds -- those the parts of us that think and perceive -- are beings.  Each of us, we say, has a mind, a mind that exists or has being.  So each of our minds is a being.  Now I don’t mean to imply that minds are necessarily a <i>different</i> <i>category</i> of beings from physical objects.  But many people have thought so and you probably think so yourselves.  More about that in a few weeks.
---
> All right.  Many people have said that the influential German philosopher Kant had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  (When you get home, look on p. 42 of the packet for more about Kant’s argument.)  I’m going to try to explain how I understand this argument.  So here goes.  Suppose we listed out all the properties and relations of our apple.  It’s red, it has a stem, it’s four inches wide, it’s juicy, it’s on the table, it’s in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once you’ve listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, you could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn’t add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple’s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn’t another property over and above all the other properties.
27c27
< Third category.  Classes.  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  In the class of human beings is all of the human beings; or, to use terminology from last time, the extension of the term "human being."  In the class of planets would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc. -- all the planets that there might be in the universe.  I’m saying that classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of engines <i>is</i>, or has being.
---
> So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If I list out all the properties of the apple, my list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  I’m saying that that particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple’s properties; so then look at this claim of Kant’s, that existence isn’t another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that’s right, it’s not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn’t mean that existence <i>isn’t</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant’s argument, as far as I can tell, just doesn’t prove its alleged conclusion.
29c29
< Fourth category.  Properties.  The redness of our red apple on the table is a <i>property</i>.  You could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Everyone in this room, I think, has the property of having hair.  So very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  Of course that won’t do as a <i>definition</i> of the word "property" because, like "attribute," "quality" is a near-synonym of "property."  And remember, it’s not particularly helpful to give philosophical definitions using near synonyms.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we’re talking about.  I’m just going to blur over any distinctions that have been drawn between the terms "property," "attribute," and "quality"; for purposes of introducing this material the distinctions don’t matter.  Anyway, whenever you talk about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, you’re talking about the object’s properties.  My claim then is that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
---
> Well, let’s look at how John Hospers interprets Kant’s argument, on p. 42 of the packet (this is reading you’ll have to do next week).  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
31c31
< Fifth category.  Relations.  The apple is in a relation to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table -- namely, the relation of "sitting-on."  So we can say that that relation has being.  Or how about this: the World Trade Center is taller than University Hall.  "Being taller than" is a relation between the two buildings.  And we can say that <i>that</i> relation has being as well.  It exists.
---
> If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world. 
33c33
< Relations are like properties in that both of them are supposed to be <i>abstract</i>.  Now let me explain what that means.  Something is abstract if it does not exist in any particular place, but instances, or members, of it <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  For example, lots of different things have the property of redness: lots of things are red.  And we find the relation "sitting on" all over the place: lots of things sit on other things.  So the property, redness, and the relation, sitting-on, do not exist in any one <i>particular</i> place.  So if we want to say that properties and relations <i>are</i>, or have being, clearly we want to say they have a different sort of being from the sort of being that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have.  So that’s where this word "abstract" comes in.  We apply the word "abstract" to properties and relations to mark the fact that if they exist, they don’t exist in space or time, but that instances of them <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  Redness itself is not supposed to exist anywhere, but our apple is red, and lots of roses are red; and that’s why we say that redness <i>itself</i>, as opposed to instances of redness, is abstract.
---
> Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren’t attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That’s what he says; but if you think about what that’s saying, you can see that it’s not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn’t to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And we can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in our world; and we can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn’t exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in our the world.  So as far as I can tell, Hospers’ argument isn’t valid.  It just doesn’t prove that existence isn’t a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn’t a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.  Yeah, so what?
35c35
< On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>concrete</i>.  This means basically that they aren’t abstract: they are particular individuals, located at a place and a time.  So if you want a definition, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
---
> But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, we would have to explore a lot more logic.  We just don’t have the time or the background to come to grips with that.  But if you’re interested in the issue you should read p. 42 of the packet very carefully, and I can talk to you more about it after class.
37,41c37
< I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
< 
< Let’s get back to the question of what "ontology" means.  I said it was, in the words of Aristotle, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  Well, the word "qua" means "with regard to the aspect of."  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being -- so it’s the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  Ontology is concerned with the different senses of "being," or in yet other words, with the different fundamental categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.  So from this we can derive some examples of ontological questions.  First: what does it mean to say a physical object exists?  Second: what sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?  Third: what sorts of beings are an object’s properties or relations?  And fourth: when does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?  
< 
< In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
---
> That’s all I intend to say about the question of what it means to say that a physical object exists.  If you thought there was nothing to be said about that question, I hope you have been pleasantly surprised.  In fact, there is a <i>lot</i> more that we could say about that question.
------
Animation|983909903
1c1
< A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
---
> A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]], [[stop motion animation]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
3c3
< [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
---
> [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
------
Seal|983909936
6a7,8
> ----
> Also, a marine mammal; a pinniped.
------
NASCAR|983910091
8c8
< NASCAR stands for "National ? Stock Car ? ?".
---
> NASCAR is an acroynm for National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing.
------
Psychology|983910183
5c5
< *** [[Karl Jung]]
---
> *** [[Carl Jung]]
12c12
< *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
---
> *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
------
Film|983910228
1c1
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
20c20
< :[[Cult Film]]
---
> :[[Cult Film]]
------
Vector_Space|983910274
37c37
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,?,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
---
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,...,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
39c39
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn].
---
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn].
41c41
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?a*vn].
---
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn].
44,45c44,45
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
<          i={1,2,3,?n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
---
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
47,49c47,49
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,?,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?vn+wn]=
<          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),?un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi.wi, where 
<          i={1,2,3,?n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
---
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,...,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]=
>          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),...,un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi,wi, where 
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
51,54c51,55
< *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider [0,0,0,?0].
<          Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v=[v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,?,vn+0]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,?vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3?n}, and 0+vi=vi for all vi ,      
<          where i={1,2,3?n}, since R is a field.
---
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider
>           [0,0,0,...,0]. Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v= 
>           [v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,...,vn+0]=
>           [v1,v2,v3,...,vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+vi=vi for all 
>           vi where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
56,58c57,59
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,?,vn],  Consider -v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,?,-vn].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),?v+(-vn)]=0, since
<          vi+(-vi)=0 for all I={1,2,3,..n} since R is a field.
---
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,...,vn],  Consider -v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,...,-vn].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),...,v+(-vn)]=0, since
>          vi+(-vi)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
60,63c61,64
<          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,?,wn+vn]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,?,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?,a*vn].
<          Then a*vi for I={1,2,3?n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
---
>          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,...,wn+vn]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn].
>          Then a*vi for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
65,66c66,67
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,?1*vn]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,?,vn]=v, since vi, for I={1,2,3,?,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
---
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,...,1*vn]=
>          [v1,v2,v3,...,vn]=v, since vi, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
68,71c69,72
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,?,vn+wn]=
<          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),?a*(vn+wn)]=
<          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,?a*vn+a*wn]=
<          a*[v1,v2,v3,?,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,?,wn]=a*v+a*w.
---
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]=
>          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),...,a*(vn+wn)]=
>          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,...,a*vn+a*wn]=
>          a*[v1,v2,v3,...,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,...,,wn]=a*v+a*w.
73,74c74,75
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,?b*vn]=
<          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,?,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
---
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,...,b*vn]=
>          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,...,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
76,78c77,79
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,?vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,?(a+b)vn]=
<          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,?a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,?,a*vn]+
<          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,?,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
---
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,...,vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,...,(a+b)vn]=
>          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,...,a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn]+
>          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,...,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
------
Film_Theory|983910282
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Psychanalyitcal Film Theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]]
------
Film_Theory|983910315
1c1
< [[Psychanalyitcal Film Theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]]
---
> [[Psychoanalytical Film Theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]]
------
C.S._Lewis|983910378
1c1
< Clive Staples Lewis
---
> Clive Staples Lewis (1898-1963, born November 29 in Belfast, Ireland)
------
Psychology|983910443
1c1,3
< Famous Names:
---
> Famous Psychologists
> * [[Sigmund Freud]] 
> * [[Carl Jung]]
3,12c5,10
< ** Famous Psychologists
< *** [[Sigmund Freud]] 
< *** [[Carl Jung]]
< 
< ** Divisions of Psychology
< *** [[Social Psychology]]
< *** [[Evolutionary Psychology]]
< *** [[Child Psychology]]
< *** [[Group Psychology]]
< *** [[Medicinal Psychology]]
---
> Divisions of Psychology
> * [[Social Psychology]]
> * [[Evolutionary Psychology]]
> * [[Child Psychology]]
> * [[Group Psychology]]
> * [[Medicinal Psychology]]
------
C.S._Lewis|983910480
5a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
Film_Theory|983910560
1c1,3
< [[Psychoanalytical Film Theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]]
---
> All about how to interpret films.  (Needs expansion...)
> 
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]]
------
C.S._Lewis/Talk|983910589
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If he was born in Ireland, why do you call him English?  Did he have English parents and thereupon move back to England?
------
Film|983910646
11c11
< :[[Musical Film]]
---
> :[[Action Film]]
13a14,15
> :[[Documentary Film]]
> :[[Cult Film]]
15c17,18
< :[[Science Fiction Film]]
---
> :[[Fantasy Film]]
> :[[Historical Drama Film]]
16a20,24
> :[[Musical Film]]
> :[[Newsreel]]
> :[[Propaganda Film]]
> :[[Short]]
> :[[Science Fiction Film]]
18d25
< :[[Action Film]]
20d26
< :[[Cult Film]]
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983910723
25a26,27
> 
> Q: Are these inflation adjusted numbers?
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983910871
3c3
< Source: 
---
> Source: Internet Movie Database
27c27,29
< Q: Are these inflation adjusted numbers?
---
> Summary from the imdb web page:
> * USA domestic ticket sales only
> * Not adjusted for inflation
------
BirthofaNation|983910927
1,3c1
< A controverial film directed by DwGriffith.  It was released in 1915 and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language.
< 
< The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Birth of a Nation]]
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983911245
29c29
< * Not adjusted for inflation
---
> * Not adjusted for inflation (Gone with the Wind is number 34, released in 1939, and earned $198,655,278 dollars.  By 2000, 61 years of inflation puts it past Titanic).
------
World_War_I|983911503
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the tweniteth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on countries like France and Great Gritain, the so-called Entente powers. The United states helped the Entente powers with supplies and military hardware and eventually declared war on Germany and its allies as a reaction to the attack on the Lusitania, a passenger ship which was sunk by German submarines who suspected it would carry ammunition for Great Britain.
> 
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the casualties were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like machine guns) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
> 
> All of this lead to a huge trauma all participants had afterwards. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For more details on the subject, you should read one of the great novels about the war. They include: 
> *[[Frederic Manning]]: "Her Privates We" 
> *[[Erich Maria Remarque]]: "All Quiet on the Western Front"
> *[[Richard Aldington]]: "Death of a Hero"
> *[[Robert Grave]]: "Goodbye to All That"
> *[[Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
------
David_Griffith|983911567
24a25
> He was honored on a 10 cent postage stamp by the [[United States]] issued May 5, 1975.
------
History|983911580
12a13
> ** [[World War I]]
------
World_War_I|983911770
1c1
< The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the tweniteth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on countries like France and Great Gritain, the so-called Entente powers. The United states helped the Entente powers with supplies and military hardware and eventually declared war on Germany and its allies as a reaction to the attack on the Lusitania, a passenger ship which was sunk by German submarines who suspected it would carry ammunition for Great Britain.
---
> The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on countries like France and Great Gritain, the so-called Entente powers. The United states helped the Entente powers with supplies and military hardware and eventually declared war on Germany and its allies as a reaction to the attack on the Lusitania, a passenger ship which was sunk by German submarines who suspected it would carry ammunition for Great Britain.
10c10
< *[[Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
---
> *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
------
Literature|983911885
8a9,10
> * [[FScottFitzgerald|F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
> * [[James Joyce]]
------
James_Joyce|983911940
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Works:
> 
> *Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man
> *Ulysses
> *Finnegan's Wake
------
Literature|983912022
10c10,15
< * [[James Joyce]]
---
> * [[James Joyce]]
> * [[Gertrude Stein]]
> * [[John Dos Passos]]
> * [[Ezra Pound]]
> * [[Charles Dickens]]
> * [[Samuel Beckett]]
------
Literature|983912138
15c15,19
< * [[Samuel Beckett]]
---
> * [[Samuel Beckett]]
> * [[Marquis de Sade]]
> * [[Hunter S Thompson|Hunter S. Thompson]]
> * [[Jean Paul Sartre]]
> * [[Albert Camus]]
------
World_War_I|983912537
1c1
< The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on countries like France and Great Gritain, the so-called Entente powers. The United states helped the Entente powers with supplies and military hardware and eventually declared war on Germany and its allies as a reaction to the attack on the Lusitania, a passenger ship which was sunk by German submarines who suspected it would carry ammunition for Great Britain.
---
> The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on the Entente powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
10c10
< *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
---
> *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
------
C.S._Lewis/Talk|983912585
1c1,3
< If he was born in Ireland, why do you call him English?  Did he have English parents and thereupon move back to England?
---
> If he was born in Ireland, why do you call him English?  Did he have English parents and thereupon move back to England?
> 
> He lived at various locations in the British Isles.
------
Language|983912870
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called FormalLanguages and ProgrammingLanguages, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
> 
> The study of languages makes up [[linguistics]] and [[philology]].  Other important theoretical concepts:
> * PhilosophyOfLanguage
> * SapirWhorfHypothesis
> 
> Some of the major languages of the world:
> 
> * ArabicLanguage
> * ChineseLanguage
> * EnglishLanguage
> * EsperantoLanguage
> * FrenchLanguage
> * GaelicLanguage
> * GermanLanguage
> * GreekLanguage
> * HebrewLanguage
> * ItalianLanguage
> * JapaneseLanguage
> * KoreanLanguage
> * PolishLanguage
> * RussianLanguage
> * SpanishLanguage
> 
> Grouped by families:
> 
> * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, SlaviC, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
> * UralicLanguages
> * AltaicLanguages
> * SinoTibetanLanguages (Chinese, etc.)
> * AfroAsiaticLanguages (Semitic, etc.)
> * NigerCongoLanguages (Bantu, etc.)
> * AustroAsiaticLanguages
> * TaiLanguages
> * DravidianLanguages
> * ...
> * ArtificialLanguages
> 
------
Artificial_languages|983913033
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Artifical languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing that distinguishes them is that they were made consciously by someone(s).
> 
> Languages intented for general purposes (communication, exploring concepts, etc)
> * [[Esperanto]]
> * [[Lojban]] (=Loglan)
> 
> Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
> * [[New speak]]
> * [[Sindarin]]
> * [[Klingon]]
> 
> Humorous languages
> * [[Pig latin]]
> * [[Verlan]]
------
ArtificialLanguages|983913064
1,16c1
< Artifical Languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing that makes them members of this category is that they were consciously made by someone(s) (humans, so far).
< 
< Languages intented for general purposes (e.g. ''Linguae Francae'')
< * EsperantoLanguage
< 
< Languages intended to explore concepts
< * LojbanLanguage (=Loglan)
< 
< Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
< * NewSpeak
< * SindarinLanguage
< * KlingonLanguage
< 
< Humorous languages
< * PigLatin
< * VerlaN
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artifical languages]]
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983913082
6a7,8
> The Sixteenth Admendment to the US Constitution was ratified in 1913 and allowed for the creation of an income tax.
> 
13a16,18
> Text of the Sixteenth Admendment:
> 
> "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration."
------
ArtificialLanguages|983913133
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artifical languages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial languages]]
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983913187
4,5c4,5
< For its first 135? years (1776-1913), the United States did not
< have an income tax.  All government taxes were collected as [[excise tax]]s on products, [[import/export tax]]s, and other revenue taxes on items such as photographs, bank checks, stock certificates, wills, deeds, and other legal documents.
---
> For its first 138 years (1776-1913), the United States did not
> have an income tax.  All government taxes were collected as [[excise tax]]s on products, [[import/export tax]]s, and revenue taxes on items such as photographs, bank checks, stock certificates, wills, deeds, and other legal documents.
------
Internet|983913282
7c7
< * Websites, web pages
---
> * [[World Wide Web]] -- [[Websites]]
------
Esperanto|983913297
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Most-spoken of the [[Artificial languages]].  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off [[Romance languages]], spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
> 
> Approximately 1.6 million people speak Esperanto (to Foreign Service Level 3 ability) as of the year 2000.
> 
>    ''esperi''             To hope
>    ''esperas''            Am, are, is hoping
>    ''esperis''            Was, were hoping
>    ''esperos''            Will be hoping
>    ''esperu''             Hope!
> 
>    ''esperanta(n)''       Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
>    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
>    ''esperanto(n)''       Hoper  - nominative (accusative) noun
>    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun
> 
>    ''esperantino''        Hoper, female
>    ''[[EsperantujO|esperantujo]]''        Land of hopers
> 
> There was also another language, [[Ido]], based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  
> 
> If you speak Esperanto, or would like to, you might be interested in the Esperanto wiki JerryMuelver hosts at http://unumondo.com.
> 
> Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].
> 
> Another useful link is http://www.esperanto-usa.org.  US-ians can contact ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
EsperantoLanguage|983913360
1,30c1
< Until someone who knows about the topic decides to replace what was taken down, this'll keep the page from being empty.
< 
< Most-spoken of the ArtificialLanguages.  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An InflectedLanguage, with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off RomanceLanguages, spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
< 
< Approximately 1.6 million people speak Esperanto (to Foreign Service Level 3 ability) as of the year 2000.
< 
<    ''esperi''             To hope
<    ''esperas''            Am, are, is hoping
<    ''esperis''            Was, were hoping
<    ''esperos''            Will be hoping
<    ''esperu''             Hope!
< 
<    ''esperanta(n)''       Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
<    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
<    ''esperanto(n)''       Hoper  - nominative (accusative) noun
<    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun
< 
<    ''esperantino''        Hoper, female
<    ''esperantujo''        Land of hopers
< 
< There was also another language, Ido, based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  
< 
< Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].
< 
< If you speak Esperanto, or would like to, you might be interested in the Esperanto wiki JerryMuelver hosts at http://unumondo.com.
< 
< Another useful link is http://www.esperanto-usa.org.  US-ians can contact ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
< 
< See also news://soc.culture.esperanto.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Esperanto]]
------
Seal|983913460
8c8,10
< Also, a marine mammal; a pinniped.
---
> Also, a marine mammal; a pinniped.
> ----
> The [[US Navy]] special forces are also called [[SEAL]]S
------
Europa|983913502
2a3,4
> Eurpoa also refers to postage stamps commemorating a
> "United Europe" and first issued in 1956.
------
Europa|983913517
3,4c3,4
< Eurpoa also refers to postage stamps commemorating a
< "United Europe" and first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa also refers to postage stamps commemorating a
> "United Europe" and first issued in 1956.
------
PigLatin|983913579
1,27c1
< ''Pig Latin'' is a silly "language" that can be created from, i.e., based on, any other language (but we would like to know if it is widely based on languages other than English) as follows:
< *For words that begin with consonants, move the leading consonant(s) to the end of the word and add "ay."  Thus, "ball" becomes "all-bay"; "button" becomes "utton-bay"; "star" becomes "ar-stay"; "three" becomes "ee-thray";
< *for words beginning with "qu," move the "qu" to the end of the word and add ay. Thus "question" becomes "estion-quay"; and
< *for words that begin with vowels, simply add "way" to the end of the word.  Thus, "a" becomes "a-way"; "at" becomes "at-way"; "ermine" becomes "ermine-way."
< Is-thay is-way an-way example-way of-way Ig-pay Atin-lay.  As-way ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-way upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-way un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
< ----
< Ice-nay escription-day, Octor-day Anger-say!!! Ig-pay Atin-lay is-way un-fay or-fay ome-say adults-ay. Ou-yay eem-say ite-quay uent-flay, I-way otice-nay.--OseRayArksPay--
< ----
< Question: is PigLatin primarily a phenomenon of children in English speaking countries, or are the same rules followed by children of other countries?
< 
< :watashi wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
< :"I am a Japanese language student"
< 
< In Japanese language, I believe that the syllable is more of a fundamental unit that 'consonant' or 'vowel'.  (Japanese characters, hiragana and katakana, form a syllabary rather than an alphabet.)  So little kids in Japan would probably follow a different set of rules to create their own mock language.
< 
< I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.
< -----
< I know nothing of this, but if I were a Japanese child, I would say your sentence something like;
< 
< Takushi-watsu wa-watsu hongo-nitsu notsu kusei-gatsu su-detsu...:-). Just guessing.
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Rezu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
< ----
< I will ask my Japanese teacher (nihongo no sensei) next week.  I don't have class until Wednesday, due to the holiday on Monday.
< Hopefully I won't forget, but someone can please remind me.  I can also ask my Japanese mother-in-law.
< ----
< ----
< On equivalents of PigLatin in other countries there is FrenchLanguage LouchebeM and JavanaiS (the former an adult language and the latter used by adults and children in different contexts and periods with many variants).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pig latin]]
------
Pig_latin|983913659
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Pig Latin'' is a silly "language" that can be created from, i.e., based on, any other language (but we would like to know if it is widely based on languages other than English) to sound like very fake latin.  The rules are roughly:
> 
> *For words that begin with consonants, move the leading consonant(s) to the end of the word and add "ay."  Thus, "ball" becomes "all-bay"; "button" becomes "utton-bay"; "star" becomes "ar-stay"; "three" becomes "ee-thray";
> *for words beginning with "qu," move the "qu" to the end of the word and add ay. Thus "question" becomes "estion-quay"; and
> *for words that begin with vowels, simply add "way" to the end of the word.  Thus, "a" becomes "a-way"; "at" becomes "at-way"; "ermine" becomes "ermine-way."  This rule tends to get varied a lot.
> 
> Is-thay is-way an-way example-way of-way Ig-pay Atin-lay.  As-way ou-yay an-cay ee-say, its-way upid-stay, ut-bay ots-lay of-way un-fay or-fay ildren-chay. --ArrylayAngersay
> ----
> Ice-nay escription-day, Octor-day Anger-say!!! Ig-pay Atin-lay is-way un-fay or-fay ome-say adults-ay. Ou-yay eem-say ite-quay uent-flay, I-way otice-nay.--OseRayArksPay--
> ----
> Question: is PigLatin primarily a phenomenon of children in English speaking countries, or are the same rules followed by children of other countries?
> 
> :watashi wa nihongo no gakusei desu.
> :"I am a Japanese language student"
> 
> In Japanese language, I believe that the syllable is more of a fundamental unit that 'consonant' or 'vowel'.  (Japanese characters, hiragana and katakana, form a syllabary rather than an alphabet.)  So little kids in Japan would probably follow a different set of rules to create their own mock language.
> 
> I hope someone knows about this.  I never thought of it before, and now I'm really interested.
> -----
> I know nothing of this, but if I were a Japanese child, I would say your sentence something like;
> 
> Takushi-watsu wa-watsu hongo-nitsu notsu kusei-gatsu su-detsu...:-). Just guessing.
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Rezu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
> ----
> I will ask my Japanese teacher (nihongo no sensei) next week.  I don't have class until Wednesday, due to the holiday on Monday.
> Hopefully I won't forget, but someone can please remind me.  I can also ask my Japanese mother-in-law.
> ----
> ----
> On equivalents of PigLatin in other countries there is FrenchLanguage LouchebeM and JavanaiS (the former an adult language and the latter used by adults and children in different contexts and periods with many variants).
> 
------
Casino|983913713
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A business whose primary business is to allow customers to gamble.
> 
------
VerlaN|983913717
1,29c1
< A long tradition exists in France of permuting syllables of words to create slang words. The current version is called VerlaN, a name which is itself VerlaN. 
< 
< <b>VER</b><i>LAN</i> = <i>LAN</i><b>VER</b> = l'envers (meaning "the reverse").
< 
< As most potential readers here are not french, let's try english verlan, which could be called the versin (inversed inverse).
< 
< This car is nice.
< 
< is transformed into
< 
< Sethi reca is ceni.
< 
< (Don't ask me how one should pronounce it, try to be close of the orignal pronunciation of the syllables in the correct word).
< 
< ----
< Here are a few words of contemporary French verlan
< 
< laisse béton - laisse tomber (drop it, stop it)
< keum - mec (slang for man)
< meuf - femme (girl, woman)
< reum - mère (mother)
< reubeu - beur (slang for french people of maghrebian origin)
< zyva - vas-y (go for it)
< fais ièche - fais chier (slang for it's boring)
< 
< 
< See also LouchebeM, ArgoT, LangueVerte
< 
< See also PigLatin.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Verlan]]
------
Verlan|983913802
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A long tradition exists in France of permuting syllables of words to create slang words. The current version is called VerlaN, a name which is itself VerlaN. 
> 
> <b>VER</b><i>LAN</i> = <i>LAN</i><b>VER</b> = l'envers (meaning "the reverse").
> 
> As most potential readers here are not french, let's try english verlan, which could be called the versin (inversed inverse).
> 
> This car is nice.
> 
> is transformed into
> 
> Sethi reca is ceni.
> 
> (Don't ask me how one should pronounce it, try to be close of the orignal pronunciation of the syllables in the correct word).
> 
> ----
> Here are a few words of contemporary French verlan
> 
> laisse béton - laisse tomber (drop it, stop it)
> keum - mec (slang for man)
> meuf - femme (girl, woman)
> reum - mère (mother)
> reubeu - beur (slang for french people of maghrebian origin)
> zyva - vas-y (go for it)
> fais ièche - fais chier (slang for it's boring)
> 
> 
> See also [[Louchebem]], [[Argot]], [[Langue verte]], [[Pig latin]].
> 
------
Europa|983913909
3,4c3
< Europa also refers to postage stamps commemorating a
< "United Europe" and first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of Europe in languages like [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Europa|983913961
1c1
< In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some childs, [[King Minos]] and [[Rhabda Manthus]]. 
---
> In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
------
Dravidian_languages|983914076
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dravidian Languages mainly originate from Indian subcontinent.  Major dravidian languages are 
> 
> * [[Tamil]]
> * [[Telugu]]
> * [[Kannada]]
> * [[Malayalam]]
> 
> See also [http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/families/Dravidian.html Dravidian languages page in Ethnologue]
> 
> ''Doesn't Tamil also refer to the land and peoples of southern India, at least historically?  If so, that page should probably be moved to [[Tamil language]].''
------
DravidianLanguages|983914103
1,8c1
< Dravidian Languages mainly originate from Indian subcontinent.  Major dravidian languages are 
< 
< * [[Tamil]]
< * [[Telugu]]
< * [[Kannada]]
< * [[Malayalam]]
< 
< See also [http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/families/Dravidian.html Dravidian languages page in Ethnologue]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dravidian languages]]
------
TaiLanguages|983914209
1,2c1
< * ThaiLanguage
< * LaotianLanguage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tai languages]]
------
Tai_languages|983914240
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * ThaiLanguage
> * LaotianLanguage
------
Tai_languages|983914298
1,2c1,2
< * ThaiLanguage
< * LaotianLanguage
---
> * [[Thai language]]
> * [[Laotian language]]
------
UralicLanguages|983914414
1,28c1
< UralicLanguages (best known subfamily is FinnoUgricLanguages) are a contrasted family of languages.
< 
< FinnoUgricLanguages are commonly separated into FinnishPermianLanguages and UgricLanguages.
< 
< There is an hypothesis which groups UralicLanguages further in a superfamily together with AltaicLanguages, the UraloAltaicLanguages but there are strong debates between linguist other this.
< 
< Current members include:
< 
< * FinnishLanguage (suomi)
< * EstonianLanguage
< * HungarianLanguage (magyar)
< * MordvLanguage
< * OstiakLanguage
< * VogulLanguage
< * TcheremissLanguage
< * SamoyedLanguage
< * ...
< 
< ----
< 
< Features include:
< 
< * Extensive use of independent suffixes
< * Large set of /Cases
< * VocalicHarmony
< *...
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Uralic languages]]
------
Uralic_languages|983914684
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Uralic languages are a contrasted family of languages.  The best known subfamily is the [[Finno-ugric languages]], which are in turn separated into the [[Finnish-Permian languages]] and [[Ugric langeages]].  The other members comrise the [[Samoyedic languages]].  There is some debate about a possible relationship between the family as a whole and the [[Altaic languages]].
> 
> Current members include:
> 
> * [[Finnish language]] (suomi)
> * [[Estonian language]]
> * [[Hungarian language]] (magyar)
> * [[Mordv language]]
> * [[Ostiak language]]
> * [[Vogul language]]
> * [[Tcheremiss language]]
> * [[Samoyed language]]
> * ...
> 
> ----
> 
> Features include:
> 
> * Extensive use of independent suffixes
> * Large set of /Cases
> * VocalicHarmony
> *...
> 
> 
> 
------
AustroAsiaticLanguages|983914790
1,5c1
< Very diverse group, including strangely enough both tonal and toneless languages.
< 
< * KhmerLanguage = CambodianLanguage
< * MonLanguage
< * VietnameseLanguage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Austroasiatic languages]]
------
Austroasiatic_languages|983914841
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Very diverse group, including strangely enough both tonal and toneless languages.
> 
> * [Khmer language]] = [[Cambodian kanguage]]
> * [[Mon language]]
> * [[Vietnamese language
> 
------
C.S._Lewis/Talk|983914856
3c3,5
< He lived at various locations in the British Isles.
---
> He lived at various locations in the British Isles.
> 
> ''That doesn't make him English, does it?''
------
CambodianLanguage|983914904
1,33c1
< Cambodian is somewhat unusual among its neighboring countries' languages of ThaiLanguage, LaotianLanguage and VietnameseLanguage in that it's not a TonalLanguage.
< 
< Cambodian is one of the main AustroAsiaticLanguages, and has had considerable influence from Sanskrit, Pali, Thai, and Laotian.  (Help...I just know these connections weren't genetic).
< 
< Accents are sometimes quite marked; notable accents are found
< in speakers from Phhom Penh (the capital city) and Battambong.
< 
< (This analysis comes from my observation as a conversant speaker of Cambodian without any background in linguistics).
< 
< A notable characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is a tendency
< toward slang and laziness in pronunciation, much like American urban slang.  For instance, "Phnom Penh" will sometimes be shortened to "m'Penh".  Another characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is observed in words with an "r" subconsonant in the first syllable (that is, where r is the second consonant, as in the Enlish word "bread").  The r is not pronounced, the first consonant is pronounced harder than usual, and the syllable is spoken with a dipping tone much like the "hoi" tone in the VietnameseLanguage.  For example, I have heard the word "dre" (meaning "fish") pronounced "te"; the "d" becomes a "t", and the vowel (long A) begins low and rises in tone.
< 
< ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about". Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here? No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and completely omitted in the manifestations of the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.]''
< 
< Cambodian written language is alphabetic like English (and unlike
< Chinese).  Its alphabet consists is written in two separate parts; consonants and vowels.  Only pronunciation is given here, because I can't find a good way to display the characters, but the pronunciation is listed in the traditional form.
< 
< 
< Consonants
< 
<  gaw kaw  go ko  ngo
<  jaw chaw jo cho nyo
<  daw taw  do to  naw
<  Daw taw  Do to  no
<  yo  ro   lo vo  saw
<  haw law  aw
< 
< 
< Vowels
< 
<  aa/Ea Ay/EE A/E ew/ew eww/eww
<  OO/UU O/U 
<  bleh... more some other time.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cambodian language]]
------
Cambodian_language|983915014
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cambodian is somewhat unusual among its neighboring countries' languages of [[Thai language]], [[Laotian language]] and [[Vietnamese language]] in that it's not a [[Tonal language]].
> 
> Cambodian is one of the main [[Austroasiatic languages]], and has had considerable influence from Sanskrit, Pali, Thai, and Laotian.  (Help...I just know these connections weren't genetic).
> 
> Accents are sometimes quite marked; notable accents are found
> in speakers from Phhom Penh (the capital city) and Battambong.
> 
> (This analysis comes from my observation as a conversant speaker of Cambodian without any background in linguistics).
> 
> A notable characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is a tendency
> toward slang and laziness in pronunciation, much like American urban slang.  For instance, "Phnom Penh" will sometimes be shortened to "m'Penh".  Another characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is observed in words with an "r" subconsonant in the first syllable (that is, where r is the second consonant, as in the Enlish word "bread").  The r is not pronounced, the first consonant is pronounced harder than usual, and the syllable is spoken with a dipping tone much like the "hoi" tone in the VietnameseLanguage.  For example, I have heard the word "dre" (meaning "fish") pronounced "te"; the "d" becomes a "t", and the vowel (long A) begins low and rises in tone.
> 
> ''[This seems like a schwa - an unstressed neutral sound, like in "poor" right before the r or at the beginning of "about". Sometimes English r's get weakened to schwas.  Same deal here? No, not as far as I can tell.  The r is rolled normally, and completely omitted in the manifestations of the Phnom Penh accents Ive heard.]''
> 
> Cambodian written language is alphabetic like English (and unlike
> Chinese).  Its alphabet consists is written in two separate parts; consonants and vowels.  Only pronunciation is given here, because I can't find a good way to display the characters, but the pronunciation is listed in the traditional form.
> 
> 
> Consonants
> 
>  gaw kaw  go ko  ngo
>  jaw chaw jo cho nyo
>  daw taw  do to  naw
>  Daw taw  Do to  no
>  yo  ro   lo vo  saw
>  haw law  aw
> 
> 
> Vowels
> 
>  aa/Ea Ay/EE A/E ew/ew eww/eww
>  OO/UU O/U 
>  bleh... more some other time.
------
Austroasiatic_languages|983915040
3c3
< * [Khmer language]] = [[Cambodian kanguage]]
---
> * [Khmer language]] = [[Cambodian language]]
5c5
< * [[Vietnamese language
---
> * [[Vietnamese language]]
------
SinoTibetanLanguages|983915146
1,5c1
< A major language family of east Asia, in number of speakers worldwide second only to IndoEuropean.   These languages tend to be agglunative, monosyllabic and tonal.
< 
< * ChineseLanguage
< * TibetanLanguage
< * BurmeseLanguage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sinotibetan languages]]
------
Sinotibetan_languages|983915201
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A major language family of east Asia, in number of speakers worldwide second only to [[Indoeuropean]].   These languages tend to be agglunative, monosyllabic and tonal.
> 
> * [[Chinese language]]
> * [[Tibetan language]]
> * [[Burmese language]]
------
Sinotibetan_languages|983915237
1,5c1
< A major language family of east Asia, in number of speakers worldwide second only to [[Indoeuropean]].   These languages tend to be agglunative, monosyllabic and tonal.
< 
< * [[Chinese language]]
< * [[Tibetan language]]
< * [[Burmese language]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sino-tibetan languages]]
------
AfroAsiaticLanguages|983915278
1,6c1
< Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are Hebrew and Arabic, which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of Judaism and IsLam.  The following language subfamilies are included:
< * SemiticLanguages
< * EgyptianLanguages
< * BerberLanguages
< * CushiticLanguages
< * ChadicLanguages
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afro-asiatic languages]]
------
Afro-asiatic_languages|983915349
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are [[Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].  The following language subfamilies are included:
> * [[Semitic languages]]
> * [[Egyptian languages]]
> * [[Berber languages]]
> * [[Cushitic languages]]
> * [[Chadic languages]]
> 
------
Sino-Tibetan_languages|983915464
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A major language family of east Asia, in number of speakers worldwide second only to [[Indo-European]]. These languages tend to be
> agglunative, monosyllabic and tonal. 
> *[[Chinese language]] 
> *[[Tibetan language]] 
> *[[Burmese language]] 
> 
------
SinoTibetanLanguages|983915491
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Sinotibetan languages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sino-Tibetan languages]]
------
SlaviC|983915529
1c1
< ''see'' SlavicLanguages, SlavicPeoples
---
> #REDIRECT [[Slavic]]
------
Stop_Motion|983915642
1c1,3
< Stop Motion is an old animation technique. It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves. This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the old [[Godzilla]] movies or the [[Wallace and Gromit]] films
---
> Stop Motion is an old animation technique. It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves. This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the old [[King Kong]], [[Godzilla]] movies or the [[Wallace and Gromit]] films.
> 
> 
------
Frodo_Baggins|983915743
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacific
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacifists
------
Language|983915770
9,23c9,21
< * ArabicLanguage
< * ChineseLanguage
< * EnglishLanguage
< * EsperantoLanguage
< * FrenchLanguage
< * GaelicLanguage
< * GermanLanguage
< * GreekLanguage
< * HebrewLanguage
< * ItalianLanguage
< * JapaneseLanguage
< * KoreanLanguage
< * PolishLanguage
< * RussianLanguage
< * SpanishLanguage
---
> * [[Arabic language]]
> * [[Chinese language]]
> * [[English language]]
> * [[French language]]
> * [[German language]]
> * [[Greek language]]
> * [[Hebrew language]]
> * [[Italian language]]
> * [[Japanese language]]
> * [[Korean language]]
> * [[Polish language]]
> * [[Russian language]]
> * [[Spanish language]]
28,35c26,33
< * UralicLanguages
< * AltaicLanguages
< * SinoTibetanLanguages (Chinese, etc.)
< * AfroAsiaticLanguages (Semitic, etc.)
< * NigerCongoLanguages (Bantu, etc.)
< * AustroAsiaticLanguages
< * TaiLanguages
< * DravidianLanguages
---
> * [[Uralic languages]]
> * [[Altaic languages]]
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] (Chinese, etc.)
> * [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] (Semitic, etc.)
> * [[Niger-Congo languages (Bantu, etc.)
> * [[Austroasiatic languages]]
> * [[Tai languages]]
> * [[Dravidian languages]]
37c35,38
< * ArtificialLanguages
---
> * [[Artificial languages]]
> * ''Incertae sedis''
> ** [[Japanese language]]
> ** [[Korean language]]
------
Language|983915881
25c25
< * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, SlaviC, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
---
> * [[Indo-European]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Romance languages|Romantic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], etc.)
28,30c28,30
< * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] (Chinese, etc.)
< * [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] (Semitic, etc.)
< * [[Niger-Congo languages (Bantu, etc.)
---
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], etc.)
> * [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]], etc.)
> * [[Niger-Congo languages ([[Bantu languages|Bantu]], etc.)
35c35
< * [[Artificial languages]]
---
> * [[Artificial languages]] ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
------
Afro-asiatic_languages|983915929
1,6c1
< Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are [[Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].  The following language subfamilies are included:
< * [[Semitic languages]]
< * [[Egyptian languages]]
< * [[Berber languages]]
< * [[Cushitic languages]]
< * [[Chadic languages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]
------
Afro-Asiatic_languages|983915950
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languages widespread throughout north africa and southwest asia.  Of particular note are [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], which have grown through their attachments to the major world religions of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]].  The following language subfamilies are included:
> * [[Semitic languages]]
> * [[Egyptian languages]]
> * [[Berber languages]]
> * [[Cushitic languages]]
> * [[Chadic languages]]
------
United_States/Government|983915996
67c67
< UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC 
---
> UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, [[UPU]], WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC 
73a74
> See also [[US Internal Revenue Service]]
------
IndoEuropean|983916000
1,27c1
< It turns out that most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  The various subgroups of Indo-European include:
< 
< * IndoIranianLanguages
< * ItalicLanguages (including Latin and its descendants, the RomanceLanguages)
< * GermanicLanguages
< * CelticLanguages
< * BalticLanguages
< * SlavicLanguages
< * IllyrianLanguages (AlbanianLanguage and extinct cousins)
< * AnatolianLanguages (extinct, most notable was the language of the HittitePeoples)
< * TocharianLanguages (extinct tongues of TocharianPeoples)
< * GreekLanguage
< * ArmenianLanguage
< 
< The original homeland of the speakers of ProtoIndoEuropean (PIE) is not known for certain, but probably lies somewhere around the black sea.  Most of the subgroups diverged and had spread out over much of Europe and the MiddleEast during the fourth and third millenia BC.  Discussion of PIE culture has been stalled by its association with the racist doctrines of NationalSocialism, but enormous amounts of work has been done on its structure and vocabulary.
<    
< These are all InflectedLanguages unlike, say, SinoTibetanLanguages.  Some work indicates they may belong to a hypothetical language superfamily called the NostraticLanguages.  For those interested in such things, the original sounds appear to be
< 
<    p   t   ky  k   kw                   Voiceless stops
<    b   d   gy  g   gw                   Voiced stops
<    bh  dh  ghy gh  ghw                  Voiced aspirated stops
< 
<    s   z   H1  H2  H3                   Spirants, laryngeals (quality unknown)
<    r   l   y   w   m   n                Semi-vowels, nasals (all can be vocalic)
<    
<    a   e   i   o   u                    Short vowels
<    â   ê   î   ô?  û?                   Long vowels
---
> #REDIRECT [[Indo-European]]
------
United_States/Government|983916153
40,43c40,42
< chief of state: President William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20
< January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
< head of government: President William Jefferson CLINTON (since 20 January 1993) and Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20
< January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
---
> chief of state: President George W. Bush (since 20 January 2001) and Vice President Richard Cheney (since 20 January 2001); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
> head of government: President George W. Bush (since 20 January 2001) and Vice President Richard Cheney (since 20 January 2001); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government as well as leader of the military
> 
74c73
< See also [[US Internal Revenue Service]]
---
> See also [[US Internal Revenue Service]]
------
Indo-European|983916190
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It turns out that most of the major language families of Europe and western Asia are related into one superfamily, referred to as Indo-European.  The various subgroups of Indo-European include:
> 
> * [[Indo-Iranian languages]]
> * [[Italic languages]] (including [[Latin language|Latin]] and its descendants, the [[Romance languages]])
> * [[Germanic languages]]
> * [[Celtic languages]]
> * [[Baltic languages]]
> * [[Slavic languages]]
> * [[Illyrian languages]] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and extinct cousins)
> * [[Anatolian languages]] (extinct, most notable was the language of the [[Hittites]])
> * [[Tocharian languages]] (extinct tongues of [[Tocharians]])
> * [[Greek language]]
> * [[Armenian language]]
> 
> The original homeland of the speakers of [[Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) is not known for certain, but probably lies somewhere around the black sea.  Most of the subgroups diverged and had spread out over much of Europe and the MiddleEast during the fourth and third millenia BC.  Discussion of PIE culture has been stalled by its association with the racist doctrines of [[National socialism]], but enormous amounts of work has been done on its structure and vocabulary.
>    
> These are all [[Inflected languages]].  Some work indicates they may belong to a hypothetical language superfamily called the [[Nostratic languages]].  For those interested in such things, the original sounds appear to be
> 
>    p   t   ky  k   kw                   Voiceless stops
>    b   d   gy  g   gw                   Voiced stops
>    bh  dh  ghy gh  ghw                  Voiced aspirated stops
> 
>    s   z   H1  H2  H3                   Spirants, laryngeals (quality unknown)
>    r   l   y   w   m   n                Semi-vowels, nasals (all can be vocalic)
>    
>    a   e   i   o   u                    Short vowels
>    â   ê   î   ô?  û?                   Long vowels
> 
------
IndoIranianLanguages|983916232
1,18c1
< The eastern-most group of the living IndoEuropean languages, and some of which we have the oldest records of.  These originate around modern Afghanistan and early on split as some people went west and some went east.
< 
< IndoAryan Languages:
< * SanskritLanguage (extinct)
< * HindiLanguage
< * BengaliLanguage
< * PunjabiLanguage
< * UrduLanguage
< * ...
< 
< Iranian Languages:
< * PersianLanguage
< * PashtoLanguage
< * TajikLanguage
< * OsseticLanguage
< * KurdishLanguage
< * BalochiLanguage
< * ...
---
> #REDIRECT [[Indo-Iranian languages]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|983916257
120a121,122
> 
> A. Surely both.
121a124,127
> '''Q. How can I help publicize Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
> 
------
Indo-Iranian_languages|983916322
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The eastern-most group of the living [[Indo-European]] languages, and some of which we have the oldest records of.  These originate around modern [[Afghanistan]] and early on split as some people went west and some went east.
> 
> [[Indo-Aryan languages]]:
> * [[Sanskrit language] (extinct)
> * [[Hindi language]]
> * [[Bengali language]]
> * [[Punjabi language]]
> * [[Urdu language]]
> * ...
> 
> [[Iranian languages]]:
> * [[Persian language]]
> * [[Pashto language]]
> * [[Tajik language]]
> * [[Ossetic language]]
> * [[Kurdish language]]
> * [[Balochi language]]
> * ...
------
SlavicLanguages|983916383
1,32c1
< The languages of the SlavicPeoples, and the last of the major IndoEuropean groups to appear.
< 
< 
< Also called Slavonic Languages, group of Indo-European languages spoken in most of eastern EuropE, much of the Balkans, parts of central EuropE, and the northern part of AsiA. The Slavic group of languages is most closely related to the languages of the Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian).
< 
< 
< Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three branches: (1) South Slavic, which is further split into Western and Eastern subgroups. The Western subgroup is composed of Slovene and Serbo-Croatian (present-day Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian), languages spoken in SloveniA, Bosnia and Herzegovina, YugoslaviA, and adjacent regions. The Eastern subgroup consists of Bulgarian in BulgariA and adjacent areas, and Macedonian in Macedonia and the adjacent part of GreecE. (2) West Slavic, which includes Czech in the CzechRepublic and Slovak in SlovakiA, Upper and Lower Sorbian in GermanY, and Lekhitic (Polish and related dialects). (3) East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian (Little Russian), and Belarusian (White Russian).
< 
< 
< The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that are not apparent when Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages are compared. There are, however, enough differences existing between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between SlavS of different nationalities difficult, but not impossible. Within the individual SlavicLanguages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as in Russian, or to a much greater degree, as in Slovene. Modern mass communication, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the SlavicLanguages.
< 
< 
< SlavicLanguages descend from a dialect of Proto-Slavic, their parent language, which developed from a language that was also the ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. It is believed that Proto-Balto-Slavic, this ancestral language, was spoken in the territories surrounding what is today known as Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European area had been separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC).
< 
< 
< West Slavic Languages:
< * SorbianLanguage
< * PolishLanguage
< * PomeranianLanguage
< * CzechLanguage
< * SlovakLanguage
< 
< South Slavic Languages:
< * SloveneLanguage
< * SerboCroatianLanguage
< * MacedonianLanguage
< * BulgarianLanguage
< 
< East Slavic Languages:
< * BelorussianLanguage
< * UkrainianLanguage
< * RussianLanguage
---
> #REDIRECT [[Slavic languages]]
------
Slavic_languages|983916439
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The languages of the SlavicPeoples, and the last of the major IndoEuropean groups to appear.
> 
> 
> Also called Slavonic Languages, group of Indo-European languages spoken in most of eastern EuropE, much of the Balkans, parts of central EuropE, and the northern part of AsiA. The Slavic group of languages is most closely related to the languages of the Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian).
> 
> 
> Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three branches: (1) South Slavic, which is further split into Western and Eastern subgroups. The Western subgroup is composed of Slovene and Serbo-Croatian (present-day Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian), languages spoken in SloveniA, Bosnia and Herzegovina, YugoslaviA, and adjacent regions. The Eastern subgroup consists of Bulgarian in BulgariA and adjacent areas, and Macedonian in Macedonia and the adjacent part of GreecE. (2) West Slavic, which includes Czech in the CzechRepublic and Slovak in SlovakiA, Upper and Lower Sorbian in GermanY, and Lekhitic (Polish and related dialects). (3) East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian (Little Russian), and Belarusian (White Russian).
> 
> 
> The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that are not apparent when Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages are compared. There are, however, enough differences existing between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between SlavS of different nationalities difficult, but not impossible. Within the individual SlavicLanguages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as in Russian, or to a much greater degree, as in Slovene. Modern mass communication, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the SlavicLanguages.
> 
> 
> SlavicLanguages descend from a dialect of Proto-Slavic, their parent language, which developed from a language that was also the ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. It is believed that Proto-Balto-Slavic, this ancestral language, was spoken in the territories surrounding what is today known as Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European area had been separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC).
> 
> 
> West Slavic Languages:
> * SorbianLanguage
> * PolishLanguage
> * PomeranianLanguage
> * CzechLanguage
> * SlovakLanguage
> 
> South Slavic Languages:
> * SloveneLanguage
> * SerboCroatianLanguage
> * MacedonianLanguage
> * BulgarianLanguage
> 
> East Slavic Languages:
> * BelorussianLanguage
> * UkrainianLanguage
> * RussianLanguage
> 
------
GermanicLanguages|983916551
1,20c1
< One of the branches of the IndoEuropean language family, spoken by the GermanicPeoples who were settled north and east along the borders of the RomanEmpire.
< 
< West Germanic languages:
< * EnglishLanguage
< * FrisianLanguage
< * NetherlandicLanguage
< * AfrikaansLanguage
< * GermanLanguage
< * YiddishLanguage
< 
< East Germanic languages:
< Extinct, some records of GothicLanguage
< 
< North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages:
< * DanishLanguage
< * SwedishLanguage
< * IcelandicLanguage
< * FeroeseLanguage
< * NorwegianLanguage
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Germanic languages]]
------
Publicize_Wikipedia|983916692
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are numerous ways you can help publicize Wikipedia, and thereby get more people to edit your work and make this into a real live encyclopedia.  Just think--in a few years, Wikipedia is probably going to be ''amazing.''  (Feel free to add to this list.)
> 
> # If you've done a lot of work in some particular area, post an announcement to a mailing list or newsgroup telling people about your work and asking them to help.
> # Tell friends and colleagues.  E-mail an announcement to them.  Ask them to check your work, or to write pages on their areas of specialization, or their hobbies, or whatever.
> # Submit particular wiki pages (e.g., your "baby" pages) to search engines.
> # Observe (in writing and smugly) on other wikis that Wikipedia is easily the fastest-growing wiki in the world.
> # Link to Wikipedia from your websites.
> # Ask other people to link to Wikipedia.
------
Esperanto|983916736
23,25c23
< Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].
< 
< Another useful link is http://www.esperanto-usa.org.  US-ians can contact ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
---
> Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].  Other useful links include http://www.esperanto.org and, for US-ians, www.esperanto-usa.org.  The last can be contacted at ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
------
Esperanto|983916759
23c23
< Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].  Other useful links include http://www.esperanto.org and, for US-ians, www.esperanto-usa.org.  The last can be contacted at ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
---
> Esperanto's potential as a meta-language for machine translation is being explored by the [http://traduki.sourceforge.net Traduki Project].  Other useful links include http://www.esperanto.org and, for US-ians, http://www.esperanto-usa.org.  The last can be contacted at ELNA, PO Box 1129, El Cerrito CA 94530; 1-510-653-0998 (real person), 1-800-ESPERANTO (automated info and information requests).
------
Wikipedia|983916851
1c1
< [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?
---
> [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?  At this rate, quite far!
5c5,7
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wiki''''''Pedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the WikiPediaFaq for answers to many questions.
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Talk about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
> 
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
------
Germanic_languages|983916863
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the branches of the [[Indo-European]] language family, spoken by the GermanicPeoples who were settled north and east along the borders of the [[Roman Empire]].
> 
> West Germanic languages:
> * [[English language]]
> * [[Frisian language]]
> * [[Netherlandic language]]
> * [[Afrikaans]]
> * [[German language]]
> * [[Yiddish]]
> 
> East Germanic languages:
> Extinct, some records of [[Gothic language]]
> 
> North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages:
> * [[Danish language]]
> * [[Swedish language]]
> * [[Icelandic language]]
> * [[Feroese language]]
> * [[Norwegian language]]
> 
> 
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|983916899
6a7,8
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
> 
------
EnglishLanguage|983916937
1,3c1
< The language spoken in the U.K., Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
< 
< English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the MiddleAges, usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the NormanConquest which gave England a French nobility, the FrenchLanguage.  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially Latin and Greek, to the present.
---
> #REDIRECT [[English language]]
------
English_language|983916999
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The language spoken in the U.K., Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
> 
> English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.
------
GermanLanguage|983917034
1,8c1
< Language spoken in GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of GermanicLanguages.  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
<  HighGerman
<   MiddleGerman - including LuxembourgianLanguage
<   UpperGerman
<    AustroBavarian - see AustriaLanguage
<    SwissGerman
<    HighFranconian
<  LowGerman
---
> #REDIRECT [[German language]]
------
German_language|983917069
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken in [[GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
>  HighGerman
>   MiddleGerman - including LuxembourgianLanguage
>   UpperGerman
>    AustroBavarian - see AustriaLanguage
>    SwissGerman
>    HighFranconian
>  LowGerman
> 
------
FrisianLanguage|983917117
1,3c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[NetherlandicLanguage]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
< <P>
< The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]
------
Frisian_language|983917143
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
> <P>
> The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
> 
------
GothicLanguage|983917241
1,14c1
< The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Chistian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
< <P>
< It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the Visigoths in Spain until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans and what is now the Ukraine.
< <P>
< Apart from the Bible, the only other Gothic document is a few pages of commentary on the Gospel according to St. John. This document is usually called the "Skereins" (please check spelling).
< <P>
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic insciptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.)
< <P>
< There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about 800AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medievel texts that mention the Goths, it must be noted that many writers used "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even refered to Slavic speaking people as Goths.
< <P>
< There is also the case of the "Crimean Goths". We have a few fragments of their language dating to the 16th Century AD. Assuming those fragments are genuine, it appears to be a different language to the one used in the Gothic Bible (but is still certainly Germanic).
< <P>
< 
< (Sorry this is by a non expert just from memory and should be rewritten by someone who actually knows.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Gothic language]]
------
Gothic_language|983917292
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Chistian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
> 
> It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the Visigoths in Spain until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in Italy, the Balkans and what is now the Ukraine.
> 
> Apart from the Bible, the only other Gothic document is a few pages of commentary on the Gospel according to St. John. This document is usually called the "Skereins" (please check spelling).
> 
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic insciptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.)
> 
> There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about 800AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medievel texts that mention the Goths, it must be noted that many writers used "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even refered to Slavic speaking people as Goths.
> 
> There is also the case of the "Crimean Goths". We have a few fragments of their language dating to the 16th Century AD. Assuming those fragments are genuine, it appears to be a different language to the one used in the Gothic Bible (but is still certainly Germanic).
> 
> (Sorry this is by a non expert just from memory and should be rewritten by someone who actually knows.)
> 
------
RomanceLanguages|983917420
1,13c1
< After the break-up of the RomanEmpire, the vulgar latin began to evolve differently in different areas.  The romance languages are the results of this process, and form a subfamily of the ItalicLanguages.
< 
< * SardinianLanguage
< * RomanianLanguage
< * ItalianLanguage
< * PortugueseLanguage
< * SpanishLanguage
< * CatalanLanguage
< * RhaetianLanguage
< * FrenchLanguage
< * OccitanLanguage
< 
< And, of course, the classical LatinLanguage that was spoken conservatively as a ''lingua franca'' throughout the MiddleAges is still learned by some.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Romance languages]]]
------
Romance_languages|983917507
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the break-up of the [[Roman Empire]], the vulgar latin began to evolve differently in different areas.  The romance languages are the results of this process, and form a subfamily of the [[Italic languages]].
> 
> * [[Sardinian language]]
> * [[Romanian language]]
> * [[Italian language]]
> * [[Portuguese language]]
> * [[Spanish language]]
> * [[Catalan language]]
> * [[Rhaetian language]]
> * [[French language]]
> * [[Occitan language]]
> 
> And, of course, the classical [[Latin language]] that was spoken conservatively as a ''lingua franca'' throughout the [[Middle Ages]] is still learned by some.
------
FrenchLanguage|983917555
1,6c1
< This page is an unfaithful translation of the LangueFrancaise page intended for the french-challenged crowd. 
< One of the RomanceLanguages, spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of France, and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
< 
< Although many frenchmen like to refer to themselves as descending from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very few celtic and gallic roots seems to remain in today french. Most of the vocabulary is of latin and germanic (frank) origin. 
< 
< To be continued... 
---
> #REDIRECT [[French language]]
------
French_language|983917674
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the [[Romance languages]], spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of [[France]], and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
> 
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in today french.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic (frank) origin. 
> 
> To be continued... 
------
LanguagE|983917734
38c38
< * SapirWhorfHypothesis
---
> #REDIRECT [[Language]]
------
RequestedArticles|983917741
5,23c5,31
< [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[History of wiki]] -- [[History of China]] -- [[History of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] -- [[History of Islam]] -- [[Xenophon]]
< <br>[[Model]] -- [[Model Theory]] -- [[Complex Numbers]] -- [[Internal combustion engine]] -- [[Psychotherapy]] 
< <br>[[Concept of evil]] -- [[Ghosts]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Isms]]
< <br>[[Stendhal]] -- [[Russian Literature]] -- [[Welsh Language]]
< <br>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]] -- 
< [[LALR Parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[LALR Parser]] -- [[Virtual Machine]] -- [[Virtual Memory]] -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Asimov, Isaac]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[ Robotics, the Three Laws of]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]]
< -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Amplitude Modulation]] -- [[Frequency Modulation]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[401k]]
< -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] - [[Interpolation]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Guild]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
< <br>
< -- [[Flub]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]]<br>
< -- [[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] 
< -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]]
< <br>
< -- [[First Person Shooter]]
< -- [[Frames Per Second]]
< -- [[Bandwith]]
< <br>
< -- [[Universal Postal Union]] -- [[UPU]]
< -- [[Smiley]]
---
> [[History of wiki]] 
> 
> <b>Countries / Geographic Regions: </b>[[History of China]] -- [[History of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] 
> 
> <b>Religion: </b>[[History of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]]
> 
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[Model]] -- [[Model Theory]] -- [[Complex Numbers]] -- [[Interpolation]] -- 
> 
> <b>Computer related:</b>[[LALR Parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[LALR Parser]] -- [[Virtual Machine]] -- [[Virtual Memory]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Smiley]] -- [[First Person Shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]]
> 
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
> 
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[Asimov, Isaac]] -- [[I, Robot]]
> 
> <b>Government: </b>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Universal Postal Union]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
> 
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]]
> 
> <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]]
> 
> <b>Technology: </b>[[Internal combustion engine]] -- [[Robotics, the Three Laws of]] -- [[Amplitude Modulation]] -- [[Frequency Modulation]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]] -- [[Frames Per Second]] -- [[Bandwith]]
> 
> <b>Other Uclassified: </b> [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] --
> [[Psychotherapy]] -- [[Concept of evil]] -- [[Ghosts]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Isms]] -- [[Stendhal]] -- [[Welsh Language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]]  
> -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -  [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Guild]] --  -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
> -- [[Flub]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] 
> 
------
LanguagE|983917756
1,37d0
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called FormalLanguages and ProgrammingLanguages.  Most often, though, the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
< 
< Some of the major languages of the world:
< 
< * ArabicLanguage
< * ChineseLanguage
< * EnglishLanguage
< * EsperantoLanguage
< * FrenchLanguage
< * GaelicLanguage
< * GermanLanguage
< * GreekLanguage
< * HebrewLanguage
< * ItalianLanguage
< * JapaneseLanguage
< * KoreanLanguage
< * PolishLanguage
< * RussianLanguage
< * SpanishLanguage
< 
< Grouped by families:
< * IndoEuropean (Germanic, Romantic, SlaviC, Celtic, Greek, etc.)
< * UralicLanguages
< * AltaicLanguages
< * SinoTibetanLanguages (Chinese, etc.)
< * AfroAsiaticLanguages (Semitic, etc.)
< * NigerCongoLanguages (Bantu, etc.)
< * AustroAsiaticLanguages
< * TaiLanguages
< * DravidianLanguages
< * ...
< * ArtificialLanguages
< 
< Theoretical work on languages:
< * LinguisticS
< * PhilosophyOfLanguage
< * ChomskysUniversalGrammar
------
HomePage|983917779
9c9
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- LinguisticS & LanguagE -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- LinguisticS & [[Language]] -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
RequestedArticles|983917823
18a19,20
> <b>Music: </b>[[Grunge Music]]
> 
27c29
< <b>Other Uclassified: </b> [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] --
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] --
29c31
< -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -  [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]] -- [[Grunge Music]] -- [[GPS]] -- [[Guild]] --  -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -  [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[Guild]] --  -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Stop|983918205
0a1,2
> A stop is a period '.' character.
> ----
------
TheStates|983918411
1c1
< AlabamA
---
> Collectively refers to the states in the [[United States]].
3c3,7
< AlaskA
---
> The states are:
> * AlabamA
> * AlaskA
> * ArizonA
> * ArkansaS
5c9,11
< ArizonA
---
> * CaliforniA
> * ColoradO
> * ConnecticuT
7c13
< ArkansaS
---
> * DelawarE
9c15
< CaliforniA
---
> * FloridA
11c17
< ColoradO
---
> * HawaiI
13c19,22
< ConnecticuT
---
> * IdahO
> * IllinoiS
> * IndianA
> * IowA
15c24,25
< DelawarE
---
> * KansaS
> * KentuckY
17c27
< FloridA
---
> * LouisianA
19c29,36
< HawaiI
---
> * MainE
> * MarylanD
> * MassachusettS
> * MichigaN
> * MinnesotA
> * MississippI
> * MissourI
> * MontanA
21c38,45
< IdahO
---
> * NebraskA
> * NevadA
> * NewHampshire
> * NewJersey
> * NewMexico
> * NewYork
> * NorthCarolina
> * NorthDakota
23c47,49
< IllinoiS
---
> * OhiO
> * OklahomA
> * OregoN
25c51
< IndianA
---
> * PennsylvaniA
27c53
< IowA
---
> * RhodeIsland
29c55,56
< KansaS
---
> * SouthCarolina
> * SouthDakota
31c58
< KentuckY
---
> * TennesseE
33c60
< LouisianA
---
> * [[Texas]]
35c62
< MainE
---
> * UtaH
37c64,65
< MarylanD
---
> * VermonT
> * VirginiA
39,97c67,70
< MassachusettS
< 
< MichigaN
< 
< MinnesotA
< 
< MississippI
< 
< MissourI
< 
< MontanA
< 
< NebraskA
< 
< NevadA
< 
< NewHampshire
< 
< NewJersey
< 
< NewMexico
< 
< NewYork
< 
< NorthCarolina
< 
< NorthDakota
< 
< OhiO
< 
< OklahomA
< 
< OregoN
< 
< PennsylvaniA
< 
< RhodeIsland
< 
< SouthCarolina
< 
< SouthDakota
< 
< TennesseE
< 
< [[Texas]]
< 
< UtaH
< 
< VermonT
< 
< VirginiA
< 
< WashingtoN
< 
< WestVirginia
< 
< WisconsiN
< 
< WyominG
---
> * WashingtoN
> * WestVirginia
> * WisconsiN
> * WyominG
------
AlaskA|983918494
3a4,7
> 
> Largest state in the United States in terms of land area.
> 
> Purchased from Russia for $5,000,000? in 18??.
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|983918814
2d1
< 
5,10c4,6
< 	Akaka,
< 	 Daniel (D - HI)
< 	Allard,
< 	 Wayne (R - CO)
< 	Allen,
< 	 George (R - VA)
---
> 	Akaka,	 Daniel (D - HI)
> 	Allard,	 Wayne (R - CO)
> 	Allen,	 George (R - VA)
12,35c8,19
< 	Baucus,
< 	 Max (D - MT)
< 	Bayh,
< 	 Evan (D - IN)
< 	Bennett,
< 	 Robert (R - UT)
< 	Biden Jr,
< 	 Joseph (D - DE)
< 	Bingaman,
< 	 Jeff (D - NM)
< 	Bond,
< 	 Christopher (R - MO)
< 	Boxer,
< 	 Barbara (D - CA)
< 	Breaux,
< 	 John (D - LA)
< 	Brownback,
< 	 Sam (R - KS)
< 	Bunning,
< 	 Jim (R - KY)
< 	Burns,
< 	 Conrad (R - MT)
< 	Byrd,
< 	 Robert (D - WV)
---
> 	Baucus,	 Max (D - MT)
> 	Bayh,	 Evan (D - IN)
> 	Bennett, Robert (R - UT)
> 	Biden Jr, Joseph (D - DE)
> 	Bingaman, Jeff (D - NM)
> 	Bond,	 Christopher (R - MO)
> 	Boxer,	 Barbara (D - CA)
> 	Breaux,	 John (D - LA)
> 	Brownback, Sam (R - KS)
> 	Bunning, Jim (R - KY)
> 	Burns, Conrad (R - MT)
> 	Byrd, Robert (D - WV)
37,62c21,33
< 	Campbell,
< 	 Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
< 	Cantwell,
< 	 Maria (D - WA)
< 	Carnahan,
< 	 Jean (D - MO)
< 	Carper,
< 	 Thomas (D - DE)
< 	Chafee,
< 	 Lincoln (R - RI)
< 	Cleland,
< 	 Max (D - GA)
< 	Clinton,
< 	 Hillary (D - NY)
< 	Cochran,
< 	 Thad (R - MS)
< 	Collins,
< 	 Susan (R - ME)
< 	Conrad,
< 	 Kent (D - ND)
< 	Corzine,
< 	 Jon (D - NJ)
< 	Craig,
< 	 Larry (R - ID)
< 	Crapo,
< 	 Mike (R - ID)
---
> 	Campbell, Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
> 	Cantwell, Maria (D - WA)
> 	Carnahan, Jean (D - MO)
> 	Carper,	 Thomas (D - DE)
> 	Chafee, Lincoln (R - RI)
> 	Cleland, Max (D - GA)
> 	Clinton, Hillary (D - NY)
> 	Cochran, Thad (R - MS)
> 	Collins, Susan (R - ME)
> 	Conrad,	 Kent (D - ND)
> 	Corzine, Jon (D - NJ)
> 	Craig,	 Larry (R - ID)
> 	Crapo,	 Mike (R - ID)
64,77c35,41
< 	Daschle,
< 	 Thomas (D - SD)
< 	Dayton,
< 	 Mark (D - MN)
< 	DeWine,
< 	 Mike (R - OH)
< 	Dodd,
< 	 Christopher (D - CT)
< 	Domenici,
< 	 Pete (R - NM)
< 	Dorgan,
< 	 Byron (D - ND)
< 	Durbin,
< 	 Richard (D - IL)
---
> 	Daschle, Thomas (D - SD)
> 	Dayton,	 Mark (D - MN)
> 	DeWine,	 Mike (R - OH)
> 	Dodd,	 Christopher (D - CT)
> 	Domenici, Pete (R - NM)
> 	Dorgan,	 Byron (D - ND)
> 	Durbin,	 Richard (D - IL)
79,84c43,45
< 	Edwards,
< 	 John (D - NC)
< 	Ensign,
< 	 John (R - NV)
< 	Enzi,
< 	 Mike (R - WY)
---
> 	Edwards, John (D - NC)
> 	Ensign,	 John (R - NV)
> 	Enzi,	 Mike (R - WY)
86,93c47,50
< 	Feingold,
< 	 Russell (D - WI)
< 	Feinstein,
< 	 Dianne (D - CA)
< 	Fitzgerald,
< 	 Peter (R - IL)
< 	Frist,
< 	 William (R - TN)
---
> 	Feingold, Russell (D - WI)
> 	Feinstein, Dianne (D - CA)
> 	Fitzgerald, Peter (R - IL)
> 	Frist,	 William (R - TN)
95,102c52,55
< 	Graham,
< 	 Bob (D - FL)
< 	Gramm,
< 	 Phil (R - TX)
< 	Grassley,
< 	 Chuck (R - IA)
< 	Gregg,
< 	 Judd (R - NH)
---
> 	Graham,	 Bob (D - FL)
> 	Gramm,	 Phil (R - TX)
> 	Grassley, Chuck (R - IA)
> 	Gregg,	 Judd (R - NH)
104,117c57,63
< 	Hagel,
< 	 Charles (R - NE)
< 	Harkin,
< 	 Tom (D - IA)
< 	Hatch,
< 	 Orrin (R - UT)
< 	Helms,
< 	 Jesse (R - NC)
< 	Hollings,
< 	 Ernest (D - SC)
< 	Hutchinson,
< 	 Tim (R - AR)
< 	Hutchison,
< 	 Kay Bailey (R - TX)
---
> 	Hagel,	 Charles (R - NE)
> 	Harkin,	 Tom (D - IA)
> 	Hatch,	 Orrin (R - UT)
> 	Helms,	 Jesse (R - NC)
> 	Hollings, Ernest (D - SC)
> 	Hutchinson, Tim (R - AR)
> 	Hutchison, Kay Bailey (R - TX)
119,122c65,66
< 	Inhofe,
< 	 James (R - OK)
< 	Inouye,
< 	 Daniel (D - HI)
---
> 	Inhofe,	 James (R - OK)
> 	Inouye,	 Daniel (D - HI)
124,127c68,69
< 	Jeffords,
< 	 James (R - VT)
< 	Johnson,
< 	 Tim (D - SD)
---
> 	Jeffords, James (R - VT)
> 	Johnson, Tim (D - SD)
129,136c71,74
< 	Kennedy,
< 	 Edward (D - MA)
< 	Kerry,
< 	 John (D - MA)
< 	Kohl,
< 	 Herb (D - WI)
< 	Kyl,
< 	 Jon (R - AZ)
---
> 	Kennedy, Edward (D - MA)
> 	Kerry,	 John (D - MA)
> 	Kohl,	 Herb (D - WI)
> 	Kyl,	 Jon (R - AZ)
138,151c76,82
< 	Landrieu,
< 	 Mary (D - LA)
< 	Leahy,
< 	 Patrick (D - VT)
< 	Levin,
< 	 Carl (D - MI)
< 	Lieberman,
< 	 Joseph (D - CT)
< 	Lincoln,
< 	 Blanche (D - AR)
< 	Lott,
< 	 Trent (R - MS)
< 	Lugar,
< 	 Richard (R - IN)
---
> 	Landrieu, Mary (D - LA)
> 	Leahy,  Patrick (D - VT)
> 	Levin,	 Carl (D - MI)
> 	Lieberman, Joseph (D - CT)
> 	Lincoln, Blanche (D - AR)
> 	Lott,	 Trent (R - MS)
> 	Lugar,	 Richard (R - IN)
153,164c84,89
< 	McCain,
< 	 John (R - AZ)
< 	McConnell,
< 	 Mitch (R - KY)
< 	Mikulski,
< 	 Barbara (D - MD)
< 	Miller,
< 	 Zell (D - GA)
< 	Murkowski,
< 	 Frank (R - AK)
< 	Murray,
< 	 Patty (D - WA)
---
> 	McCain,	 John (R - AZ)
> 	McConnell, Mitch (R - KY)
> 	Mikulski, Barbara (D - MD)
> 	Miller,	 Zell (D - GA)
> 	Murkowski, Frank (R - AK)
> 	Murray,	 Patty (D - WA)
166,171c91,93
< 	Nelson,
< 	 Ben (D - NE)
< 	Nelson,
< 	 Bill (D - FL)
< 	Nickles,
< 	 Don (R - OK)
---
> 	Nelson,	 Ben (D - NE)
> 	Nelson,	 Bill (D - FL)
> 	Nickles, Don (R - OK)
173,180c95,98
< 	Reed,
< 	 Jack (D - RI)
< 	Reid,
< 	 Harry (D - NV)
< 	Roberts,
< 	 Pat (R - KS)
< 	Rockefeller IV,
< 	 John (D - WV)
---
> 	Reed, Jack (D - RI)
> 	Reid,	 Harry (D - NV)
> 	Roberts, Pat (R - KS)
> 	Rockefeller IV,	 John (D - WV)
182,203c100,110
< 	Santorum,
< 	 Rick (R - PA)
< 	Sarbanes,
< 	 Paul (D - MD)
< 	Schumer,
< 	 Charles (D - NY)
< 	Sessions,
< 	 Jeff (R - AL)
< 	Shelby,
< 	 Richard (R - AL)
< 	Smith,
< 	 Bob (R - NH)
< 	Smith,
< 	 Gordon (R - OR)
< 	Snowe,
< 	 Olympia (R - ME)
< 	Specter,
< 	 Arlen (R - PA)
< 	Stabenow,
< 	 Debbie (D - MI)
< 	Stevens,
< 	 Ted (R - AK)
---
> 	Santorum, Rick (R - PA)
> 	Sarbanes, Paul (D - MD)
> 	Schumer, Charles (D - NY)
> 	Sessions, Jeff (R - AL)
> 	Shelby,	 Richard (R - AL)
> 	Smith,	 Bob (R - NH)
> 	Smith,	 Gordon (R - OR)
> 	Snowe,	 Olympia (R - ME)
> 	Specter, Arlen (R - PA)
> 	Stabenow, Debbie (D - MI)
> 	Stevens, Ted (R - AK)
205,212c112,115
< 	Thomas,
< 	 Craig (R - WY)
< 	Thompson,
< 	 Fred (R - TN)
< 	Thurmond,
< 	 Strom (R - SC)
< 	Torricelli,
< 	 Robert (D - NJ)
---
> 	Thomas,	 Craig (R - WY)
> 	Thompson, Fred (R - TN)
> 	Thurmond, Strom (R - SC)
> 	Torricelli, Robert (D - NJ)
214,215c117
< 	Voinovich,
< 	 George (R - OH)
---
> 	Voinovich, George (R - OH)
217,222c119,121
< 	Warner,
< 	 John (R - VA)
< 	Wellstone,
< 	 Paul (D - MN)
< 	Wyden,
< 	 Ron (D - OR)
---
> 	Warner,	 John (R - VA)
> 	Wellstone, Paul (D - MN)
> 	Wyden,	 Ron (D - OR)
226a126,128
> 
> Republicans have a majority of 51 because the [[Vice President of the United States]] casts tiebreaking votes.
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|983918825
1d0
< 
2a2
> 
------
TheStates|983918868
68c68
< * WestVirginia
---
> * [[West Virginia]]
------
TheStates|983918910
64,65c64,65
< * VermonT
< * VirginiA
---
> * [[Vermont]]
> * [[Virginia]]
67c67
< * WashingtoN
---
> * [[Washington]]
69,70c69,70
< * WisconsiN
< * WyominG
---
> * [[Wisconsin]]
> * [[Wyoming]]
------
TheBeatles|983918950
1c1
< The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
------
Utah|983918974
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Area: 219,900 square kilometers
> Population: Over 2,000,000
> Capital: [[Salt Lake City]]
> 
> Utah's bid for statehood was accepted in 1896 over forty years after its initial request.
> 
> One of Utah's most defining characteristics is the variety of its terrain.  From the [[Uinta Mountain]] range in the north (being the only east west running mountain range in [[North America]]) to the beautiful desert landscapes of [[Bryce Canyon]] and [[Zion National Parks]].
> 
> Another notable fact about Utah is that the continental meeting of the railroads happened at [[Promontory Point]], Utah.
------
UtaH|983918991
1,9c1
< Area: 219,900 square kilometers
< Population: Over 2,000,000
< Capital: SaltLakeCity
< 
< Utah's bid for statehood was accepted in 1896 over forty years after its initial request.
< 
< One of Utah's most defining characteristics is the variety of its terrain.  From the UintaMountain range in the north (being the only east west running mountain range in NorthAmerica) to the beautiful desert landscapes of BryceCanyon and ZionNationalParks.
< 
< Another notable fact about Utah is that the continental meeting of the railroads happened at PromontoryPoint, Utah.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Utah]]
------
TheStates|983919021
62c62
< * UtaH
---
> * [[Utah]]
------
TheStates|983919053
58c58
< * TennesseE
---
> * [[Tennessee]]
------
TheStates|983919118
55,56c55,56
< * SouthCarolina
< * SouthDakota
---
> * [[South Carolina]]
> * [[South Dakota]]
------
AberdeenSouthDakota|983919192
1,2c1,2
< ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, South 
< Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m.  N.E. of Pierre.  Pop. (1890) 
---
> ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown County, [[South 
> Dakota]], [[United States|U.S.A.]], about 125 m.  N.E. of Pierre.  Pop. (1890) 
------
Academy_Awards|983919227
7c7
< *[[/Best Picture]]
---
> *[[/Best Picture|Best Picture]]
------
Academy_Awards|983919238
3c3
< Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including [[/Best Picture]], [[/Best Directory]], [[/Best Actor]], and [[/Best Actress]]. 
---
> Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including [[/Best Picture]], [[/Best Director]], [[/Best Actor]], and [[/Best Actress]]. 
------
Verlan|983919279
1c1
< A long tradition exists in France of permuting syllables of words to create slang words. The current version is called VerlaN, a name which is itself VerlaN. 
---
> A long tradition exists in France of permuting syllables of words to create slang words. The current version is called Verlan, a name which is itself Verlan. 
------
JudO|983919344
3c3
< Judo became an OlympiC sport in 1964. 
---
> Judo became an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport in 1964. 
------
Judo|983919385
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Judo is a martial art which originated in [[Japan]].  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by [[Jigoro Kano]] in 1882.
> 
> Judo became an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport in 1964. 
------
JudO|983919411
1,3c1
< Judo is a martial art which originated in [[Japan]].  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by JigoroKano in 1882.
< 
< Judo became an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport in 1964. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Judo]]
------
Judo|983919425
1c1
< Judo is a martial art which originated in [[Japan]].  Judo is said to be a refinement of JujitsU, and was founded by [[Jigoro Kano]] in 1882.
---
> Judo is a martial art which originated in [[Japan]].  Judo is said to be a refinement of [[Jujitsu]], and was founded by [[Jigoro Kano]] in 1882.
------
Scepticism|983919475
1c1,77
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
> In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We’re going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
> 
> First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don’t</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge.  There’s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don’t, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don’t have it yet.  (Or they didn’t back in ancient Greece anyway!)
> 
> It’s quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn’t</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we’ll be investigating in a little bit.
> 
> Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can’t possibly, or at least don’t, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won’t venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I’m not going to get into that.
> 
> Now if I say deny that we do or can have knowledge of a particular area, then my view is <i>local</i> skepticism.  And I say that I am a skeptic <i>about</i> the area that I have doubts about.  Of course there are different kinds of local skepticism, depending on the area.  Areas like: the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.  Take for example the external world.  If I say that no one can know anything about the external world, the world that exists apart from my own mind, then I am a local skeptic, and I espouse <i>skepticism</i> <i>about</i> the external world.  Or even more briefly, external world skepticism.
> 
> So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we’ll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that’s a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I’ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
> 
> Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we’ll say the skeptic claims:
> 
> We <i>can</i> <i>never</i> <i>be</i> justified in believing something <i>about</i> <i>area</i> <i>X</i>, or at least not enough to give us knowledge about that area.
> 
> You’re probably wondering what "areas" I’m talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
> 
> Now remember some things we talked about last time, about justification.  At one point we were talking about foundationalism, and I gave an argument for foundationalism.  If foundationalism is true, then there have to be some basic beliefs; and basic beliefs, remember, are beliefs that are justified, but not justified by other <i>beliefs</i>.  So what could justify basic beliefs?  I said: mental events, like an instance of perception, or an instance of memory.
> 
> Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I’m looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
> 
> This is an important point to understand so I’ll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That’s all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
> 
> This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what’s being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we’ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn’t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can’t think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
> 
> But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it’s there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn’t say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
> 
> You’ll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
> 
> Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can’t is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we’re approaching it from a different angle.
> 
> You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I’ve already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume’s argument basically says that we can’t know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
> 
> Now I’m going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume’s.  Namely, Descartes’ famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn’t that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I’m dreaming; I don’t have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I’m dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven’t I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn’t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn’t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I’m awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I’m awake -- but in fact, I’m <i>asleep</i>?
> 
> Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren’t</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I’m asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn’t</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don’t really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That’s Descartes’ dreaming doubt.
> 
> Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn’t know he’s awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn’t really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn’t</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can’t rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
> 
> If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I’m not dreaming": that’s what you want to say.  Here is Descartes’ reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you’re just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you’re awake!  And so you’re begging the question against the skeptic!
> 
> Or maybe you’ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here’s how I can show that it’s reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I’ve had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it’s generally reliable.
> 
> Well, I’m sure you can guess how Descartes’ skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I’m not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you’re not dreaming!  And that’s impossible!  So you can’t know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
> 
> And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren’t you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it’s not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren’t you begging the question again?  Don’t you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshipe?
> 
> Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you’re arguing in a circle, you’re begging the question.  So what’s the upshot?  That you <i>can’t</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn’t allowed.
> 
> Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume’s and Descartes’, although it is related to both.  Hume said you can’t prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can’t even prove that you’re not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can’t prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
> 
> This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you’re assuming that those memories are reliable: and that’s what you’re trying to prove, so you can’t assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn’t</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
> 
> Now let’s see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
> 
> First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume’s, Descartes’, and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can’t</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can’t prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can’t prove that we’re not dreaming.  We can’t prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don’t <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren’t justified in believing it?  Take Descartes’ dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you’re convinced that you can’t prove that you’re not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you’re even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can’t prove, to Descartes’ skeptic, that I’m not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I’m dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
> 
> Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don’t really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don’t <i>know</i> I’m standing up right now.
> 
> So this forces us to ask ourselves: Do we have to have <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i>, lacking any doubt whatsoever, in order to have knowledge?  That would be the absolutely strongest grade of justification possible.  And then we would be saying that knowledge is not just <i>sufficiently</i> <i>justified</i> true belief, but <i>certainly</i> true belief.
> 
> Now I personally don’t think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we’re wrong; but if we’re right then we have knowledge.  So I’m not particularly worried if I can’t prove that I’m not dreaming.  I think it’s extremely unlikely that I’m dreaming, and I think I’m perfectly well justified in thinking I’m awake.  And I don’t have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I’m awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I’m awake.
> 
> You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn’t allow the possibility that I’m asleep when by every indication I’m awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn’t make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
> 
> Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won’t get into their reasons why.
> 
> Here’s a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn’t it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can’t know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn’t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That’s not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
> 
> A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic’s argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
> 
> Do you recognize the form of Reid’s argument?  It’s a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can’t trust our ability our reason and so can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion.  In either case we don’t have to worry about skepticism!
> 
> Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
------
ScepticIsm|983919497
1,77c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We’re going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
< 
< First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don’t</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge.  There’s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don’t, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don’t have it yet.  (Or they didn’t back in ancient Greece anyway!)
< 
< It’s quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn’t</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we’ll be investigating in a little bit.
< 
< Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can’t possibly, or at least don’t, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won’t venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I’m not going to get into that.
< 
< Now if I say deny that we do or can have knowledge of a particular area, then my view is <i>local</i> skepticism.  And I say that I am a skeptic <i>about</i> the area that I have doubts about.  Of course there are different kinds of local skepticism, depending on the area.  Areas like: the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.  Take for example the external world.  If I say that no one can know anything about the external world, the world that exists apart from my own mind, then I am a local skeptic, and I espouse <i>skepticism</i> <i>about</i> the external world.  Or even more briefly, external world skepticism.
< 
< So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we’ll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that’s a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I’ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
< 
< Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we’ll say the skeptic claims:
< 
< We <i>can</i> <i>never</i> <i>be</i> justified in believing something <i>about</i> <i>area</i> <i>X</i>, or at least not enough to give us knowledge about that area.
< 
< You’re probably wondering what "areas" I’m talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
< 
< Now remember some things we talked about last time, about justification.  At one point we were talking about foundationalism, and I gave an argument for foundationalism.  If foundationalism is true, then there have to be some basic beliefs; and basic beliefs, remember, are beliefs that are justified, but not justified by other <i>beliefs</i>.  So what could justify basic beliefs?  I said: mental events, like an instance of perception, or an instance of memory.
< 
< Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I’m looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
< 
< This is an important point to understand so I’ll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That’s all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
< 
< This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what’s being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we’ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn’t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can’t think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
< 
< But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it’s there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn’t say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
< 
< You’ll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
< 
< Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can’t is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we’re approaching it from a different angle.
< 
< You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I’ve already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume’s argument basically says that we can’t know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
< 
< Now I’m going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume’s.  Namely, Descartes’ famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn’t that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I’m dreaming; I don’t have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I’m dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven’t I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn’t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn’t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I’m awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I’m awake -- but in fact, I’m <i>asleep</i>?
< 
< Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren’t</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I’m asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn’t</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don’t really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That’s Descartes’ dreaming doubt.
< 
< Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn’t know he’s awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn’t really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn’t</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can’t rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
< 
< If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I’m not dreaming": that’s what you want to say.  Here is Descartes’ reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you’re just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you’re awake!  And so you’re begging the question against the skeptic!
< 
< Or maybe you’ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here’s how I can show that it’s reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I’ve had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it’s generally reliable.
< 
< Well, I’m sure you can guess how Descartes’ skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I’m not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you’re not dreaming!  And that’s impossible!  So you can’t know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
< 
< And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren’t you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it’s not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren’t you begging the question again?  Don’t you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshipe?
< 
< Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you’re arguing in a circle, you’re begging the question.  So what’s the upshot?  That you <i>can’t</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn’t allowed.
< 
< Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume’s and Descartes’, although it is related to both.  Hume said you can’t prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can’t even prove that you’re not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can’t prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
< 
< This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you’re assuming that those memories are reliable: and that’s what you’re trying to prove, so you can’t assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn’t</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
< 
< Now let’s see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
< 
< First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume’s, Descartes’, and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can’t</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can’t prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can’t prove that we’re not dreaming.  We can’t prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don’t <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren’t justified in believing it?  Take Descartes’ dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you’re convinced that you can’t prove that you’re not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you’re even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can’t prove, to Descartes’ skeptic, that I’m not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I’m dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
< 
< Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don’t really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don’t <i>know</i> I’m standing up right now.
< 
< So this forces us to ask ourselves: Do we have to have <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i>, lacking any doubt whatsoever, in order to have knowledge?  That would be the absolutely strongest grade of justification possible.  And then we would be saying that knowledge is not just <i>sufficiently</i> <i>justified</i> true belief, but <i>certainly</i> true belief.
< 
< Now I personally don’t think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we’re wrong; but if we’re right then we have knowledge.  So I’m not particularly worried if I can’t prove that I’m not dreaming.  I think it’s extremely unlikely that I’m dreaming, and I think I’m perfectly well justified in thinking I’m awake.  And I don’t have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I’m awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I’m awake.
< 
< You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn’t allow the possibility that I’m asleep when by every indication I’m awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn’t make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
< 
< Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won’t get into their reasons why.
< 
< Here’s a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn’t it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can’t know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn’t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That’s not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
< 
< A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic’s argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
< 
< Do you recognize the form of Reid’s argument?  It’s a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can’t trust our ability our reason and so can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion.  In either case we don’t have to worry about skepticism!
< 
< Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Scepticism]]
------
DavidHume|983919560
1c1
< David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing ScepticIsm--less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
---
> David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing [[Scepticism]] --less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
------
Epistemology|983919583
3c3
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; [[Scepticism]]; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
29c29
< Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
---
> Then, fourth, there is one of the more difficult topics of philosophy -- trying to answer, or otherwise deal with, the challenge that we <i>cannot</i> have knowledge.  A number of philosophers -- not too many, but some -- have said that we cannot have knowledge.  A <i>lot</i> of philosophers have said that it's very <i>difficult</i> to obtain knowledge; but they don't deny that we have it, or that we <i>can</i> have it.  Not so many philosophers, however, have gone so far as to say that we have no knowledge at all, or (to say something even stronger) that it is <i>impossible</i> to have knowledge.
------
Larrys_Text|983919610
19c19
< ::[[Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- ScepticIsm -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
---
> ::[[Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- [[Scepticism]] -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
------
Larrys_Text/Epistemology|983919638
1c1
< See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; ScepticIsm; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
---
> See also TheoryOfJustification; TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology; APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge; KnowLedge; [[Scepticism]]; CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN114|983919704
1,23c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  She informs them that she has ordered /ReardenMetal from /ReardenSteel to be used to replace the tracks of the /RioNorteLine.  Later she calls /MrAyers to determine if /RichardHalley ever published a Fifth Concerto.  Mr. Ayers says he has not.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] meets with /OwenKellogg who tells her he is quiting for personal reasons, nothing can make him stay - not even the promotion Dagny had decided to give him.
< ----
< * Setting
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental.
< ----
< * Characters
<  /BoardofDirectors: Mentioned.
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]: Mentioned.
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /MrAyers - First and only appearance.
<  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
<  /OwenKellogg
< ----
< * Mysteries
< What is it that makes /OwenKellogg quit a job he admits he loves?
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section114]]
------
Socrates|983919743
3c3
< Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of PhiloSophy and by extension ScienCe.
---
> Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of [[Philosophy]] and by extension ScienCe.
------
Socrates|983919767
3c3
< Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of [[Philosophy]] and by extension ScienCe.
---
> Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of [[Philosophy]] and by extension [[Science]].
------
AndorrA/Government|983919815
10c10
< are the president of FrancE and bishop of Seo de Urgel, SpaiN, who are represented locally by coprinces' representatives 
---
> are the president of [[France]] and bishop of Seo de Urgel, [[Spain]], who are represented locally by coprinces' representatives 
------
Andorra|983919845
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This text is from the public domain CIA World Factbook.
> 
> Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
> through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income
> taxes. 
> 
> :/History
> :/Geography
> :/People
> :/Government
> :/Economy
> :/Communications
> :/Transportations
> :/Military
> :/TransnationalIssues
------
Andorra/History|983919868
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
> through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income taxes. 
------
Andorra/Geography|983920492
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southwestern Europe, between France and Spain 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 42 30 N, 1 30 E 
> 
> Map references: Europe 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 468 sq km 
> land: 468 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 120.3 km 
> border countries: France 56.6 km, Spain 63.7 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: temperate; snowy, cold winters and warm, dry summers 
> 
> Terrain: rugged mountains dissected by narrow valleys 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Riu Runer 840 m 
> highest point: Coma Pedrosa 2,946 m 
> 
> Natural resources: hydropower, mineral water, timber, iron ore, lead 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 4% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 45% 
> forests and woodland: 35% 
> other: 16% (1998 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: snowslides, avalanches 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion; air pollution; waste
> water treatment and solid waste disposal 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Hazardous Wastes 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked 
------
Andorra/People|983920512
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 66,824 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 15% (male 5,382; female 4,883) 
> 15-64 years: 72% (male 25,463; female 22,837) 
> 65 years and over: 13% (male 4,160; female 4,099) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.22% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 10.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 6.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 4.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 83.46 years 
> male: 80.56 years 
> female: 86.56 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Andorran(s) 
> adjective: Andorran 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Spanish 43%, Andorran 33%, Portuguese 11%, French 7%, other 6% (1998) 
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic (predominant) 
> 
> Languages: Catalan (official), French, Castilian 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: NA 
> total population: 100% 
> male: NA% 
> female: NA% 
> 
------
Andorra/Government|983920533
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Principality of Andorra 
> conventional short form: Andorra 
> local long form: Principat d'Andorra 
> local short form: Andorra 
> 
> Data code: AN 
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains as its heads of state a coprincipality; the two princes
> are the president of [[France]] and bishop of Seo de Urgel, [[Spain]], who are represented locally by coprinces' representatives 
> 
> Capital: Andorra la Vella 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 7 parishes (parroquies, singular - parroquia); Andorra la Vella, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana,
> Escaldes-Engordany, Ordino, Sant Julia de Loria 
> 
> Independence: 1278 (was formed under the joint suzerainty of France and Spain) 
> 
> National holiday: Mare de Deu de Meritxell, 8 September (1278) 
> 
> Constitution: Andorra's first written constitution was drafted in 1991; approved by referendum 14 March 1993; came into force 4
> May 1993 
> 
> Legal system: based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ
> jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: French Coprince JacquesChirac (since 17 May 1995), represented by Mr. Frederic de SAINT-SERNIN (since NA);
> Spanish Coprince Episcopal Monseigneur Joan MARTI Alanis (since 31 January 1971), represented by Mr. Nemesi MARQUES
> OSTE (since NA) 
> head of government: Executive Council President Marc FORNE Molne (since 21 December 1994) 
> cabinet: Executive Council or Govern designated by the Executive Council president 
> elections: Executive Council president elected by the General Council and formally appointed by the coprinces for a four-year term;
> election last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) 
> election results: Marc FORNE Molne elected executive council president; percent of General Council vote - 64% 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral General Council of the Valleys or Consell General de las Valls (28 seats; members are elected by
> direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes; members serve four-year
> terms) 
> elections: last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA February 2001) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - UL 57%, AND 21%, IDN 7%, ND 7%, other 8%; seats by party - UL 16, AND 6, ND 2,
> IDN 2, UPO 2 
> 
> Judicial branch: Tribunal of Judges or Tribunal de Batlles; Tribunal of the Courts or Tribunal de Corts; Supreme Court of Justice of
> Andorra or Tribunal Superior de Justicia d'Andorra; Supreme Council of Justice or Consell Superior de la Justicia; Fiscal Ministry or
> Ministeri Fiscal; Constitutional Tribunal or Tribunal Constitucional 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Liberal Party of Andorra (Partit Liberal d'Andorra) or PLA [Marc FORNE]; Liberal Union or UL
> [Francesc CERQUEDA]; National Democratic Group or AND [Ladislau BARO SOLA]; National Democratic Initiative or IDN
> [Vincenc MATEU ZAMORA]; New Democracy or ND [Jaume BARTOMEU CASSANY]; Unio Parroquial d'Ordino or UPO [Simo
> DURO COMA] 
> note: there are two other small parties 
> 
> International organization participation: CCC, CE, ECE, ICRM, IFRCS, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OSCE, UN, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO,
> WToO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Juli MINOVES-TRIQUELL (also Permanent Representative to the UN) 
> chancery: 2 United Nations Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, NY 10017 
> telephone: [1] (212) 750-8064 
> FAX: [1] (212) 750-6630 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Andorra; the US Ambassador to Spain is accredited
> to Andorra; US interests in Andorra are represented by the Consulate General's office in Barcelona (Spain); mailing address: Paseo
> Reina Elisenda, 23, 08034 BarcelonaSpain; telephone: (3493) 280-2227; FAX: (3493) 205-7705 
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow
> band; the coat of arms features a quartered shield; similar to the flags of ChaD and RomaniA, which do not have a national coat of
> arms in the center, and the flag of MoldovA, which does bear a national emblem 
> 
------
Andorra/Economy|983920557
1c1,81
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An
> estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's
> comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spain have been opened up, providing
> broader availability of goods and lower tariffs. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the
> economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock
> activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs
> Union and is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural
> products. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $18,000 (1996 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: NA% 
> industry: NA% 
> services: NA% 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.62% (1998) 
> 
> Labor force: 30,787 salaried employees (1998) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1%, industry 21%, services 72%, other 6% (1998) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 0% 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $385 million 
> expenditures: $342 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) 
> 
> Industries: tourism (particularly skiing), cattle raising, timber, tobacco, banking 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 116 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: NA% 
> hydro: NA% 
> nuclear: NA% 
> other: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: NA kWh (1998 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: NA kWh 
> 
> Electricity - imports: NA kWh; note - imports electricity from Spain and France 
> 
> Agriculture - products: small quantities of tobacco, rye, wheat, barley, oats, vegetables; sheep 
> 
> Exports: $58 million (f.o.b., 1998) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: tobacco products, furniture 
> 
> Exports - partners: France 34%, Spain 58% (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $1.077 billion (c.i.f., 1998) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods, food, electricity 
> 
> Imports - partners: Spain 48%, France 35%, US 2.3% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $NA 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: none 
> 
> Currency: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes; 1 peseta (Pta) = 100 centimos; the French and Spanish currencies are used 
> 
> Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995
> (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995); Spanish pesetas (Ptas) per US$1 - 143.39 (January 1999), 149.40 (1998), 146.41
> (1997), 126.66 (1996), 124.69 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
AndorrA|983920588
1,15c1
< This text is from the public domain CIA World Factbook.
< 
< Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
< through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income
< taxes. 
< 
< :/History
< :/Geography
< :/People
< :/Government
< :/Economy
< :/Communications
< :/Transportations
< :/Military
< :/TransnationalIssues
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra]]
------
AndorrA/History|983920611
1,3c1
< Long isolated and impoverished, mountainous Andorra has achieved considerable prosperity since World War II
< through its tourist industry. Many immigrants (legal and illegal) are attracted to the thriving economy with its lack of income
< taxes. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra/History]]
------
RequestedArticles|983920645
7c7
< <b>Countries / Geographic Regions: </b>[[History of China]] -- [[History of Japan]] -- [[History of India]] -- [[History of Egypt]] 
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]]
9c9
< <b>Religion: </b>[[History of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]]
---
> <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]]
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[Model]] -- [[Model Theory]] -- [[Complex Numbers]] -- [[Interpolation]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] -- [[complex numbers]] -- [[interpolation]] -- 
13c13
< <b>Computer related:</b>[[LALR Parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[LALR Parser]] -- [[Virtual Machine]] -- [[Virtual Memory]] -- [[Wire Frame Model]] -- [[Render, Rendering, Rendered]] -- [[Stack Based]] -- [[Concurrent]] -- [[Latency]] -- [[Seek Time]] -- [[Rotational Delay]] -- [[Serializable]] -- [[Persistence]] -- [[Smiley]] -- [[First Person Shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[virtual machine]] -- [[virtual memory]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]]
15c15
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
---
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
17c17
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[Asimov, Isaac]] -- [[I, Robot]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]]
19c19
< <b>Music: </b>[[Grunge Music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b>[[grunge music]]
25c25
< <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]]
---
> <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[dracula]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[Internal combustion engine]] -- [[Robotics, the Three Laws of]] -- [[Amplitude Modulation]] -- [[Frequency Modulation]] -- [[Double Hulled Tanker]] -- [[Zepplin]] -- [[Dirgable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[Liquid Crystal Display]] -- [[Frames Per Second]] -- [[Bandwith]]
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]]
29,32c29
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Derail, Derailled, Derailment]] --
< [[Psychotherapy]] -- [[Concept of evil]] -- [[Ghosts]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Isms]] -- [[Stendhal]] -- [[Welsh Language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[Casino]] -- [[Gambling]]  
< -- [[Media Bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[Retroactive]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Ford, Henry]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[Limousine Liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[Utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -  [[Almighty, the]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[Dog and Pony Show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[Guild]] --  -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
< -- [[Flub]] -- [[Contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] 
---
> <b>Parapsychology, etc.:</b> [[ghosts]]
33a31
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[casino]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
35,38c33
< 
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
< 
< I have created NobelPrize as a new topic, and I request anyone with an interest in any of the people there to write something! --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
AndorrA/Geography|983920687
1,50c1
< Location: Southwestern Europe, between France and Spain 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 42 30 N, 1 30 E 
< 
< Map references: Europe 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 468 sq km 
< land: 468 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 120.3 km 
< border countries: France 56.6 km, Spain 63.7 km 
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
< 
< Climate: temperate; snowy, cold winters and warm, dry summers 
< 
< Terrain: rugged mountains dissected by narrow valleys 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Riu Runer 840 m 
< highest point: Coma Pedrosa 2,946 m 
< 
< Natural resources: hydropower, mineral water, timber, iron ore, lead 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 4% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 45% 
< forests and woodland: 35% 
< other: 16% (1998 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km 
< 
< Natural hazards: snowslides, avalanches 
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion; air pollution; waste
< water treatment and solid waste disposal 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Hazardous Wastes 
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra/Geography]]
------
AndorrA/People|983920718
1,46c1
< Population: 66,824 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 15% (male 5,382; female 4,883) 
< 15-64 years: 72% (male 25,463; female 22,837) 
< 65 years and over: 13% (male 4,160; female 4,099) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.22% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 10.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 5.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: 6.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 1.01 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 4.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 83.46 years 
< male: 80.56 years 
< female: 86.56 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Andorran(s) 
< adjective: Andorran 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Spanish 43%, Andorran 33%, Portuguese 11%, French 7%, other 6% (1998) 
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic (predominant) 
< 
< Languages: Catalan (official), French, Castilian 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: NA 
< total population: 100% 
< male: NA% 
< female: NA% 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra/People]]
------
AndorrA/Government|983920742
1,71c1
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Principality of Andorra 
< conventional short form: Andorra 
< local long form: Principat d'Andorra 
< local short form: Andorra 
< 
< Data code: AN 
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy (since March 1993) that retains as its heads of state a coprincipality; the two princes
< are the president of [[France]] and bishop of Seo de Urgel, [[Spain]], who are represented locally by coprinces' representatives 
< 
< Capital: Andorra la Vella 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 7 parishes (parroquies, singular - parroquia); Andorra la Vella, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana,
< Escaldes-Engordany, Ordino, Sant Julia de Loria 
< 
< Independence: 1278 (was formed under the joint suzerainty of France and Spain) 
< 
< National holiday: Mare de Deu de Meritxell, 8 September (1278) 
< 
< Constitution: Andorra's first written constitution was drafted in 1991; approved by referendum 14 March 1993; came into force 4
< May 1993 
< 
< Legal system: based on French and Spanish civil codes; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ
< jurisdiction 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: French Coprince JacquesChirac (since 17 May 1995), represented by Mr. Frederic de SAINT-SERNIN (since NA);
< Spanish Coprince Episcopal Monseigneur Joan MARTI Alanis (since 31 January 1971), represented by Mr. Nemesi MARQUES
< OSTE (since NA) 
< head of government: Executive Council President Marc FORNE Molne (since 21 December 1994) 
< cabinet: Executive Council or Govern designated by the Executive Council president 
< elections: Executive Council president elected by the General Council and formally appointed by the coprinces for a four-year term;
< election last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) 
< election results: Marc FORNE Molne elected executive council president; percent of General Council vote - 64% 
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral General Council of the Valleys or Consell General de las Valls (28 seats; members are elected by
< direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes; members serve four-year
< terms) 
< elections: last held 16 February 1997 (next to be held NA February 2001) 
< election results: percent of vote by party - UL 57%, AND 21%, IDN 7%, ND 7%, other 8%; seats by party - UL 16, AND 6, ND 2,
< IDN 2, UPO 2 
< 
< Judicial branch: Tribunal of Judges or Tribunal de Batlles; Tribunal of the Courts or Tribunal de Corts; Supreme Court of Justice of
< Andorra or Tribunal Superior de Justicia d'Andorra; Supreme Council of Justice or Consell Superior de la Justicia; Fiscal Ministry or
< Ministeri Fiscal; Constitutional Tribunal or Tribunal Constitucional 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Liberal Party of Andorra (Partit Liberal d'Andorra) or PLA [Marc FORNE]; Liberal Union or UL
< [Francesc CERQUEDA]; National Democratic Group or AND [Ladislau BARO SOLA]; National Democratic Initiative or IDN
< [Vincenc MATEU ZAMORA]; New Democracy or ND [Jaume BARTOMEU CASSANY]; Unio Parroquial d'Ordino or UPO [Simo
< DURO COMA] 
< note: there are two other small parties 
< 
< International organization participation: CCC, CE, ECE, ICRM, IFRCS, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OSCE, UN, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO,
< WToO 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Juli MINOVES-TRIQUELL (also Permanent Representative to the UN) 
< chancery: 2 United Nations Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, NY 10017 
< telephone: [1] (212) 750-8064 
< FAX: [1] (212) 750-6630 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Andorra; the US Ambassador to Spain is accredited
< to Andorra; US interests in Andorra are represented by the Consulate General's office in Barcelona (Spain); mailing address: Paseo
< Reina Elisenda, 23, 08034 BarcelonaSpain; telephone: (3493) 280-2227; FAX: (3493) 205-7705 
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red with the national coat of arms centered in the yellow
< band; the coat of arms features a quartered shield; similar to the flags of ChaD and RomaniA, which do not have a national coat of
< arms in the center, and the flag of MoldovA, which does bear a national emblem 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra/Government]]
------
AndorrA/Economy|983920767
1,81c1
< Economy - overview: Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An
< estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's
< comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spain have been opened up, providing
< broader availability of goods and lower tariffs. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the
< economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock
< activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs
< Union and is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural
< products. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1996 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $18,000 (1996 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: NA% 
< industry: NA% 
< services: NA% 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.62% (1998) 
< 
< Labor force: 30,787 salaried employees (1998) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1%, industry 21%, services 72%, other 6% (1998) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 0% 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $385 million 
< expenditures: $342 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) 
< 
< Industries: tourism (particularly skiing), cattle raising, timber, tobacco, banking 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
< 
< Electricity - production: 116 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: NA% 
< hydro: NA% 
< nuclear: NA% 
< other: NA% 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: NA kWh (1998 est.) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: NA kWh 
< 
< Electricity - imports: NA kWh; note - imports electricity from Spain and France 
< 
< Agriculture - products: small quantities of tobacco, rye, wheat, barley, oats, vegetables; sheep 
< 
< Exports: $58 million (f.o.b., 1998) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: tobacco products, furniture 
< 
< Exports - partners: France 34%, Spain 58% (1998) 
< 
< Imports: $1.077 billion (c.i.f., 1998) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: consumer goods, food, electricity 
< 
< Imports - partners: Spain 48%, France 35%, US 2.3% (1998) 
< 
< Debt - external: $NA 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: none 
< 
< Currency: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes; 1 peseta (Pta) = 100 centimos; the French and Spanish currencies are used 
< 
< Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995
< (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995); Spanish pesetas (Ptas) per US$1 - 143.39 (January 1999), 149.40 (1998), 146.41
< (1997), 126.66 (1996), 124.69 (1995) 
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andorra/Economy]]
------
CountriesA|983920789
9c9
< :AndorrA
---
> :[[Andorra]]
------
Europe|983920807
11c11
<     AndorrA,
---
>     [[Andorra]],
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983920824
7c7
< The Sixteenth Admendment to the US Constitution was ratified in 1913 and allowed for the creation of an income tax.
---
> The [[UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSixteen]] was ratified in 1913 and allowed for the creation of an income tax.
------
NewTopics|983920836
5c5
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AndorrA -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[[Watermark]]
---
> PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[[Watermark]]
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983920852
15,18d14
< 
< Text of the Sixteenth Admendment:
< 
< "The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration."
------
The_Beatles|983920894
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
------
TheBeatles|983920911
1c1
< The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Beatles]]
------
The_Beatles|983920956
1c1
< The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: JohnLennon, PaulMcCartney, GeorgeHarrison and RingoStarr (RichardStarky) were all from LiverpoolEngland.
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]] and [[Ringo Starr]] ([[Richard Starky]]) were all from [[Liverpool]], [[England]].
------
US_Internal_Revenue_Service|983921174
7c7
< The [[UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSixteen]] was ratified in 1913 and allowed for the creation of an income tax.
---
> The [[UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentSixteen|Sixteenth Amendment]] to the UnitedStatesConstitution was ratified in 1913 and allowed for the creation of an income tax.
------
TheStates|983921458
70a71,72
> ----
> This could be usefully rendered in [[how does one edit a page|table form]].
------
ModulE|983921968
13c13
< Another thing to note is that End(M), treated as a group, is also a module under R in a natural way.  When R is a FielD, this constitutes an AssociativeAlgebra.  Modules under fields are called VectorSpace''s''.
---
> Another thing to note is that End(M), treated as a group, is also a module under R in a natural way.  When R is a FielD, this constitutes an AssociativeAlgebra.  Modules under fields are called [[Vector Space]]s.
------
Vector_Space|983922394
73c73
< *9.    Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
---
> *9.    Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
76c76
< *10.  Since R is a filed, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
---
> *10.  Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
------
FielDs|983922593
21c21,22
< 
---
> ----Since the other page seems more complete, why not make this one a redirect to the other one? On a related note, is there some convention regarding node name (singular vs plural)?
> [[Jpmartin]]
------
FielD|983922676
36c36
< *   7). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element –a in (F,+,*), such that   
---
> *   7). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element -a in (F,+,*), such that   
41,42c41,42
< *   8). For all a not=0 belonging to (F,*,+), there exists an element a^-1 in (F,+,*),    
< *        such that a*(a^-1)=1 and (a^-1)*a=1.
---
> *   8). For all a not=0 belonging to (F,*,+), there exists an element a<sup>-1</sup> in (F,+,*),    
> *        such that a*(a<sup>-1</sup>)=1 and (a<sup>-1</sup>)*a=1.
------
Switzerland|983922863
7c7
< Other important cities: Zurich, Geneva, Basel.
---
> Other important cities: Z&uuml;rich, Geneva, Basel.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983923352
3c3
< What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Let’s take for granted, for the time being, that we know <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if you prefer, I want us to fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give us a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
---
> What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Let’s take for granted, for the time being, that we know <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if one prefers, one may fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give us a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
5c5
< Some people have thought that this question cannot be answered.  They think that "exists" just cannot be defined.  They think that we all very well understand what it means to say that an object exists, but we can’t define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  So we’ll will come back to it.  But let’s at least <i>start</i> by assuming that we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  How could we start?
---
> Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  I has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial<i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
7c7
< Well, here’s a place to start.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence, right?  Think of all the different ways that something we talk about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: we say Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence, that’s one kind of nonexistence.  Or suppose you’re just daydreaming and you imagine winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course your Nobel Prize does not exist: it’s just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in your imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the Earth is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if you sailed too far across the ocean you would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, as we all know, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that’s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when you posit something in a false hypothesis.  And now here’s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there’s a sense in which he doesn’t exist; namely, he doesn’t exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
---
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it’s just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the Earth is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that’s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here’s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there’s a sense in which he doesn’t exist; namely, he doesn’t exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
9c9
< Hopefully this gives you a very vivid idea of what it is that we’re talking about when we say that a physical object exists.  We say: it’s actually in the world, it’s not fictional; it’s real, not imaginary; it’s an actual phenomenon, it’s not part of a false hypothesis; and it’s located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
---
> Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it’s actually in the world, it’s not fictional; it’s real, not imaginary; it’s an actual phenomenon, it’s not part of a false hypothesis; and it’s located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
11c11
< Now, there may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which we are in direct contact.  If we can bump into it, it exists.  So we might boldly give this following definition:
---
> There may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
15c15
< This is, I think, a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it’s just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  Aune, from our reading, for example, gives a definition much like this one.  So suppose now you’re back in the room with the big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that your body is also part of.  So in other words you are at some distance from the apple right now.  That’s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
---
> This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it’s just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That’s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
17c17
< Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn’t exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the universe I see around me now.  So it doesn’t exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn’t have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the universe that I am a part of, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
---
> Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn’t exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn’t exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn’t have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
19c19
< As you might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Next, we’ll consider one of these objections, probably the most widespread.
---
> As one might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Consider the following objection, probably the most widespread.
21c21
< There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, I exist, and the Eiffel Tower exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like I am saying that existence is a property of me, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the Eiffel Tower exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
23c23
< Well, first of all, you might be wondering why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Here’s how it matters.  If existence <i>isn’t</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the way we have defined it.  Our definition of "exists" is incorrect just because our definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
---
> First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn’t</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
25c25
< All right.  Many people have said that the influential German philosopher Kant had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  (When you get home, look on p. 42 of the packet for more about Kant’s argument.)  I’m going to try to explain how I understand this argument.  So here goes.  Suppose we listed out all the properties and relations of our apple.  It’s red, it has a stem, it’s four inches wide, it’s juicy, it’s on the table, it’s in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once you’ve listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, you could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn’t add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple’s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn’t another property over and above all the other properties.
---
> Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It’s red, it has a stem, it’s four inches wide, it’s juicy, it’s on the table, it’s in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn’t add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple’s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn’t another property over and above all the other properties.
27c27
< So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If I list out all the properties of the apple, my list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  I’m saying that that particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple’s properties; so then look at this claim of Kant’s, that existence isn’t another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that’s right, it’s not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn’t mean that existence <i>isn’t</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant’s argument, as far as I can tell, just doesn’t prove its alleged conclusion.
---
> So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple’s properties; so then consider this claim of Kant’s, that existence isn’t another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that’s right, it’s not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn’t mean that existence <i>isn’t</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant’s argument just doesn’t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
29c29
< Well, let’s look at how John Hospers interprets Kant’s argument, on p. 42 of the packet (this is reading you’ll have to do next week).  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
---
> Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant’s argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
31c31
< If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world. 
---
> "If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world." 
33c33
< Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren’t attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That’s what he says; but if you think about what that’s saying, you can see that it’s not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn’t to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And we can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in our world; and we can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn’t exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in our the world.  So as far as I can tell, Hospers’ argument isn’t valid.  It just doesn’t prove that existence isn’t a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn’t a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.  Yeah, so what?
---
> Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren’t attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That’s what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it’s not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn’t to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn’t exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers’ argument apparently isn’t valid.  It just doesn’t prove that existence isn’t a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn’t a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
35,37c35
< But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, we would have to explore a lot more logic.  We just don’t have the time or the background to come to grips with that.  But if you’re interested in the issue you should read p. 42 of the packet very carefully, and I can talk to you more about it after class.
< 
< That’s all I intend to say about the question of what it means to say that a physical object exists.  If you thought there was nothing to be said about that question, I hope you have been pleasantly surprised.  In fact, there is a <i>lot</i> more that we could say about that question.
---
> But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983923468
3c3
< What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Let’s take for granted, for the time being, that we know <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if one prefers, one may fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give us a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
---
> What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Take for granted, for the time being, that one knows <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if one prefers, one may fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give one a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
5c5
< Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  I has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial<i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
---
> Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  It has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial<i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
35c35
< But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
---
> But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
------
GNUFreeDocumentationLicense|983923523
1c1
< The GNU FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for OpenContent. The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].
---
> The [[GNU]] FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for OpenContent. The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].
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GPL|983923635
349a350
> See also the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
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ComputerSoftware|983924004
10c10
< * [[Operating Systems]]
---
> * [[Operating system]]s
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Operating_System|983924099
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> #REDIRECT [[Operating system]]
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TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983924582
5c5
< Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  It has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial<i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
---
> Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  It has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial</i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
7c7
< Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it’s just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the Earth is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that’s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here’s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there’s a sense in which he doesn’t exist; namely, he doesn’t exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
---
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it's just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the [[Earth]] is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn't exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that?s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here?s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there's a sense in which he doesn't exist; namely, he doesn't exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
9c9
< Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it’s actually in the world, it’s not fictional; it’s real, not imaginary; it’s an actual phenomenon, it’s not part of a false hypothesis; and it’s located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
---
> Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it's actually in the world, it's not fictional; it's real, not imaginary; it's an actual phenomenon, it's not part of a false hypothesis; and it's located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
15c15
< This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it’s just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That’s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
---
> This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That?s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
17c17
< Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn’t exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn’t exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn’t have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn’t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
---
> Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn?t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
21c21
< There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the Eiffel Tower exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
23c23
< First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn’t</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
---
> First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn't</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
25c25
< Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It’s red, it has a stem, it’s four inches wide, it’s juicy, it’s on the table, it’s in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn’t add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple’s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn’t another property over and above all the other properties.
---
> Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It's red, it has a stem, it's four inches wide, it's juicy, it's on the table, it's in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
27c27
< So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple’s properties; so then consider this claim of Kant’s, that existence isn’t another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that’s right, it’s not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn’t mean that existence <i>isn’t</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant’s argument just doesn’t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
---
> So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant?s, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn?t mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant?s argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
29c29
< Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant’s argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
---
> Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant's argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
33c33
< Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren’t attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That’s what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it’s not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn’t to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn’t exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers’ argument apparently isn’t valid.  It just doesn’t prove that existence isn’t a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn’t a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
---
> Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren't attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That's what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it's not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn't to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn't exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers' argument apparently isn't valid.  It just doesn't prove that existence isn't a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn't a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
35c35
< But the dialectic definitely doesn’t end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can’t be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
---
> But the dialectic definitely doesn't end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can't be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
------
Hobbies|983924792
16c16,18
< * [[Model-building]] 
---
> * [[Model-building]]
> * [[Coding]]
> * [[Adding stuff to Wikipedia]] 
------
Eigen_Vectors|983925513
1,11c1
< If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector with at least one non-zero element and c a scalar (possibly zero), and the following holds for some c and some v:
< 
< Av = cv
< 
< Then we say that v is an Eigen Vector of the matrix A, and its associated EigenValue is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
< 
< Interesting properties of Eigen Vectors:
< 
< # If A is symmetric, then all its Eigenvalues are real (as opposed to complex).
< # If A is symmetric, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
< (there are more, cannot remember off the top of my head)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eigenvectors]]
------
Eigenvectors|983925556
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If A is a nxn matrix, v a vector with at least one non-zero element and c a scalar (possibly zero), and the following holds for some c and some v:
> 
> Av = cv
> 
> Then we say that v is an eigenvector of the matrix A, and its associated [[eigenvalues|eigenvalue]] is c. Note that if v is an eigenvector, then any multiple of v is an eigenvector, too (except 0v).
> 
> Interesting properties of Eigen Vectors:
> 
> # If A is symmetric, then all its Eigenvalues are real (as opposed to complex).
> # If A is symmetric, then there exist n linearly independent eigenvectors for A such that they all have norm 1 and are mutually orthogonal.
> (there are more, cannot remember off the top of my head)
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983925593
34a35,40
> A further argument for the definability of existence is a corollary and extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception.  That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists.  Well, what makes a thing perceptible?  The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected.  This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created.  When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others.  Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.
> 
> Hence, otherwise invisible energies and particles can be confirmed to exist by the effects they suffer or create.  Magnetism, gravity, ultraviolet light, cosmic rays, all are included within the realm of existing things.  
> 
> Taken further; since awareness, emotions, imagination, dreams, etc. are likewise capable of affecting and being affected, they could be said to exist. One might say "I feel sadness."  It could hardly be argued that sadness does not exist and so the person, contrary to his assertion, could not possibly feel sadness.  Clearly, he does. The <i>nature<i> of the existence these intangibles is qualified and quantified by the <i>nature<i> of the effects they create and receive.  Thus, unicorns could be said to enjoy a form of existence.  They exhibit an <i>imaginary<i> existence.  One imagines them, conveys the substance of this imagined existence to others, and thereby affects the imaginations of others to replicate said existence in their own imaginations.  When a child learns from adults that there are no physically existing unicorns, his imaginary unicorns may lose their appeal or suffer destruction.  This imposition of effect by physical existence on imaginary existence can also work in the reverse.  An artist may "imagine" a finished canvas.  Absent this precursor, imaginary existence, the physical canvas might never exist.
> 
------
Linear_Algebra|983925614
3c3
< Linear Algebra covers such arcane topics as EigenVectors
---
> Linear Algebra covers such arcane topics as [[Eigenvectors]].
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|983925747
12c12
< #[[Lion King, The]] (1994)	$312,775,367
---
> #[[The Lion King]] (1994)	$312,775,367
15c15
< #[[Sixth Sense, The]] (1999)	$293,501,675
---
> #[[The Sixth Sense]] (1999)	$293,501,675
------
NewTopics|983925787
5c5,7
< PhiloSophy -- MuSic -- FootBall -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- IrishTraditionalMusic --RoseParks -- ThomasReid -- NupediaWikiFaq -- WikiWatcher -- WikiPedians -- MathematicalGrouP -- GoD -- BokoNonism -- MappinG  -- ErnestHemingway -- AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS --CorinneLightweaver --[[Watermark]]
---
> AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS -- CorinneLightweaver -- [[Watermark]] --
> [[Vector Space]] -- [[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Seal]] -- [[World War I]] -- JavaJini --
> [[Classics]] -- [[Terrestrial planets]] -- [[Sri Lanka]] -- [[Play]] -- [[Walt Disney]] -- [[Indian Music]]
------
Geronimo_Jones|983925879
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia contributor.
> 
> What a great name.  Welcome, Geronimo.
------
Polish_language|983926074
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Polish language (together with [[Czech-Slovak]], Upper and Lower [[Sorbian]], and other [[Lekhitic languages]]) belongs to the West Slavic branch of [[Slavic languages]]. It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish (spoken in the southeast), Mazovian, and Silesian. Mazovian shares some features with Kashubian, whose remaining speakers (fewer than 200,000) live west of Gdansk near the [[Baltic Sea]]. Elsewhere, Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages. In Silesia the inimitable regional patois contains a mixture of Polish and German elements. Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations, standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by [[Poles]] from the Soviet Union, the older generation came to speak a language characteristic of the former eastern provinces. Small numbers of people also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.
> 
> 
> ----
> See also:
> 
> * [[Slavic languages]]
> * SlavicPeoples
> * [[Poland]]
> 
------
OpenSource|983926096
1c1
< Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the FreeSoftwareFoundation, and then licensed out according to an OpenSourceLicense; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the SourceCode, so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
---
> Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], and then licensed out according to an [[open source license]]; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the [[Source code]], so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
3c3
< The OpenSourceMovement is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
---
> The [[open source movement]] is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
5c5
< There is widespread agreement, but some tension, between the OpenSourceMovement and the FreeSoftwareMovement.
---
> There is widespread agreement, but some tension, between the [[open source movement]] and the [[free software movement]].
9,10c9
< DonaldEKnuth, RichardStallman, LinusTorvalds, EricRaymond,
< PaulVixie
---
> [[Donald E Knuth]], [[Richard Stallman]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Eric Raymond]], [[Paul Vixie]]
12c11
< The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], FreeSoftwareFoundation, DebianLinux distribution, FreeBSD
---
> The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Debian Linux]] distribution, [[FreeBSD]]
14c13
< OpenSourceSoftware: EmacS, TeX, ViM, ApachE, XFrEE, GimP, PhP...
---
> [[Open Source Software]]: [[Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
------
Slavic_languages|983926275
1c1
< The languages of the SlavicPeoples, and the last of the major IndoEuropean groups to appear.
---
> The languages of the SlavicPeoples, and the last of the major [[Indo-European]] groups to appear.
2a3
> Also called Slavonic Languages, group of Indo-European languages spoken in most of eastern [[Europw]], much of the Balkans, parts of central Europw, and the northern part of [[Asia]]. The Slavic group of languages is most closely related to the languages of the Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian).
4d4
< Also called Slavonic Languages, group of Indo-European languages spoken in most of eastern EuropE, much of the Balkans, parts of central EuropE, and the northern part of AsiA. The Slavic group of languages is most closely related to the languages of the Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian).
5a6
> Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three branches: (1) South Slavic, which is further split into Western and Eastern subgroups. The Western subgroup is composed of Slovene and Serbo-Croatian (present-day Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian), languages spoken in [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Yugoslavia]], and adjacent regions. The Eastern subgroup consists of Bulgarian in [[Bulgaria]] and adjacent areas, and Macedonian in Macedonia and the adjacent part of [[Greece]]. (2) West Slavic, which includes Czech in the [[Czech Republic]] and Slovak in [[Slovakia]], Upper and Lower Sorbian in [[Germany]], and Lekhitic (Polish and related dialects). (3) East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian (Little Russian), and Belarusian (White Russian).
7d7
< Scholars divide the Slavic languages into three branches: (1) South Slavic, which is further split into Western and Eastern subgroups. The Western subgroup is composed of Slovene and Serbo-Croatian (present-day Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian), languages spoken in SloveniA, Bosnia and Herzegovina, YugoslaviA, and adjacent regions. The Eastern subgroup consists of Bulgarian in BulgariA and adjacent areas, and Macedonian in Macedonia and the adjacent part of GreecE. (2) West Slavic, which includes Czech in the CzechRepublic and Slovak in SlovakiA, Upper and Lower Sorbian in GermanY, and Lekhitic (Polish and related dialects). (3) East Slavic, including Russian, Ukrainian (Little Russian), and Belarusian (White Russian).
8a9
> The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that are not apparent when Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages are compared. There are, however, enough differences existing between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between SlavS of different nationalities difficult, but not impossible. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as in Russian, or to a much greater degree, as in Slovene. Modern mass communication, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the SlavicLanguages.
10d10
< The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that are not apparent when Slavic literary (i.e., standard) languages are compared. There are, however, enough differences existing between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between SlavS of different nationalities difficult, but not impossible. Within the individual SlavicLanguages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as in Russian, or to a much greater degree, as in Slovene. Modern mass communication, however, has helped to minimize variation in all the SlavicLanguages.
12,13c12
< 
< SlavicLanguages descend from a dialect of Proto-Slavic, their parent language, which developed from a language that was also the ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. It is believed that Proto-Balto-Slavic, this ancestral language, was spoken in the territories surrounding what is today known as Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European area had been separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC).
---
> Slavic languages descend from a dialect of Proto-Slavic, their parent language, which developed from a language that was also the ancestor of Proto-Baltic, the parent of the Baltic languages. It is believed that Proto-Balto-Slavic, this ancestral language, was spoken in the territories surrounding what is today known as Lithuania at some time after the Indo-European area had been separated into different dialect regions (c. 3000 BC).
17,21c16,20
< * SorbianLanguage
< * PolishLanguage
< * PomeranianLanguage
< * CzechLanguage
< * SlovakLanguage
---
> * [[Sorbian language]]
> * [[Polish language]]
> * [[Pomeranian language]]
> * [[Czech language]]
> * [[Slovak language]]
24,32c23,31
< * SloveneLanguage
< * SerboCroatianLanguage
< * MacedonianLanguage
< * BulgarianLanguage
< 
< East Slavic Languages:
< * BelorussianLanguage
< * UkrainianLanguage
< * RussianLanguage
---
> * [[Slovene language]]
> * [[Serbo-Croatian language]]
> * [[Macedonian language]]
> * [[Bulgarian language]]
> 
> East Slavic languages:
> * [[Belorussian language]]
> * [[Ukrainian language]]
> * [[Russian language]]
------
JRR_Tolkien|983926480
5c5
< His children's book, The Hobbit, achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. 
---
> His children's book, [[The Hobbit]], achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. 
9c9
< Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son Christopher organised some of this material into one volume, published as The Silmarillion (1977) 
---
> Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son Christopher organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[The Silmarillion]] (1977) 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|983926723
44,51d43
< '''Q. I'm lame and I don't want to contribute anything, but that uncommon capitalization is bugging me.  What's the deal?  WhyIsEveryThingOnThePageLikeThis?'''
< 
< A. Uncommon capitalizations signify hyperlinks!  If you were interesting in contributing, you would have read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section,and learned this there.
< 
< '''Q. Yeah, but why? I read the HowDoesOneEditaPage section.  I understand that I have to use uncommon capitalizations to create a link.  What's the purpose?'''
< 
< A. You got me.  I think it was Ward Cunningham's invention as part of his original wiki.  It's part of the software, for which we aren't responsible.  We might, of course, change this (obligating us to relabel zillions of links, but no matter).
< ----
------
PolishLanguage|983926815
1,9c1
< The PolishLanguage (together with Czech-Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian, and other Lekhitic languages) belongs to the West SlaviC branch of SlaviC languages. It has several dialects that correspond in the main to the old tribal divisions; the most significant of these (in terms of numbers of speakers) are Great Polish (spoken in the northwest), Little Polish (spoken in the southeast), Mazovian, and Silesian. Mazovian shares some features with Kashubian, whose remaining speakers (fewer than 200,000) live west of Gdansk near the [[Baltic Sea]]. Elsewhere, Polish has been influenced by contact with foreign languages. In Silesia the inimitable regional patois contains a mixture of Polish and German elements. Since 1945, as the result of mass education and mass migrations, standard Polish has become far more homogeneous, although regional dialects persist. In the western and northern territories, resettled in large measure by PoleS from the Soviet Union, the older generation came to speak a language characteristic of the former eastern provinces. Small numbers of people also speak Belarusian, Ukrainian, and German as well as several varieties of Romany.
< 
< 
< ----
< See also:
< 
< * SlavicLanguages
< * SlavicPeoples
< * PolanD
---
> #REDIRECT [[Polish language]]
------
Hate_Crime|983927362
7c7
< Typically, hate crimes carry longer penalties/jail terms
---
> Recent U.S. legislation has defined a number of crimes and circumstances under which they may be committed such that, typically, hate crimes carry longer penalties/jail terms
------
Greek_language|983927942
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the [[Indo-European]] languages, brought to Greece by the [[Achaeans]] around 1700 BC.  Originally there were a variety of spoken dialects, most notably [[Ionian]] and [[Dorian]], but during the hellenistic period the mixing of peoples led to the devlopment of a common form called koinê.  From this descended the Greek that was the official language of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and finally the modern Greek of today.
> 
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983928048
39c39
< Taken further; since awareness, emotions, imagination, dreams, etc. are likewise capable of affecting and being affected, they could be said to exist. One might say "I feel sadness."  It could hardly be argued that sadness does not exist and so the person, contrary to his assertion, could not possibly feel sadness.  Clearly, he does. The <i>nature<i> of the existence these intangibles is qualified and quantified by the <i>nature<i> of the effects they create and receive.  Thus, unicorns could be said to enjoy a form of existence.  They exhibit an <i>imaginary<i> existence.  One imagines them, conveys the substance of this imagined existence to others, and thereby affects the imaginations of others to replicate said existence in their own imaginations.  When a child learns from adults that there are no physically existing unicorns, his imaginary unicorns may lose their appeal or suffer destruction.  This imposition of effect by physical existence on imaginary existence can also work in the reverse.  An artist may "imagine" a finished canvas.  Absent this precursor, imaginary existence, the physical canvas might never exist.
---
> Taken further; since awareness, emotions, imagination, dreams, etc. are likewise capable of affecting and being affected, they could be said to exist. One might say "I feel sadness."  It could hardly be argued that sadness does not exist and so the person, contrary to his assertion, could not possibly feel sadness.  Clearly, he does. The <i>nature</i> of the existence these intangibles is qualified and quantified by the <i>nature</i> of the effects they create and receive.  Thus, unicorns could be said to enjoy a form of existence.  They exhibit an <i>imaginary</i> existence.  One imagines them, conveys the substance of this imagined existence to others, and thereby affects the imaginations of others to replicate said existence in their own imaginations.  When a child learns from adults that there are no physically existing unicorns, his imaginary unicorns may lose their appeal or suffer destruction.  This imposition of effect by physical existence on imaginary existence can also work in the reverse.  An artist may "imagine" a finished canvas.  Absent this precursor, imaginary existence, the physical canvas might never exist.
------
JoeKoberg|983928375
9a10,43
> 
> ---
> 
> "CQ de VK5CQ"
> 
> While there is lots of material around on Amateur ("Ham") Radio, it's good to see that there's already a WikiPedia reference to this hobby.
> 
> Here in Australia, we have a bright, young group - called AREG or the Amateur Radio Experimenters Group - who have got some terrific links to much online material:
> 
>   http://www.cck.net.au/areg/links/links.htm
> 
> You could also try our counterpart to ARRL - the Wireless Institute of Australia - whose site is at:
> 
>   http://www.wia.org.au/
> 
> You would, of course, know about the American Radio Relay League's site:
> 
>   http://arrl.org
> 
> (I've searched WikiPedia only for "Ham Radio" and just this page came up... perhaps there is something more to find under "Amateur Radio"?)
> 
> BTW, I consider Ham Radio the kind of hobby that provides young people (among others) some realistic opportunities to actually apply some of the math & physics they've learned at school...
> 
> not to mention the chance to meet (on-the-air) people in many places (including some "off-the-planet" places like MIR in recent past & the International Space Station today) & in diverse fields of endeavor.
> 
> It can be great for kids living in rural towns to talk directly with people who are doing interesting things, e.g. in science, business or
> technology, et al. elsewhere.
> 
> But, best is the chance to meet & befriend a few neighbors that share your interest in electronics, join or start a radio club & start making things happen right in your home town!
> 
> Some have said that the Internet will draw people from Ham Radio... I say that Ham Radio lets one combine the best of -both- cyberworlds - online & on-the-air - so I can hear warm, human voices as I surf/hack.
> 
> 73, Chuck, VK5CQ, et al.
> "Amateur Radio Advocate"
------
Sun|983928644
5,13c5
< Hmm, testing the use of the quote character:
< 
< [[Newtons Laws of Gravity]]
< 
< [[Newton's Laws of Gravity]]
< 
< couldn't do possessive there because of the quote character there messing things up for the regex?
< 
< ''Yes!  It sucks, but there it is.''
---
> The sun's a G2 main sequence star, somewhat bigger than average but certainly smaller than those that dominate the sky, and about 5 billion years old.
------
EartH|983928669
1c1
< You are here. :-)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Earth]]
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983929138
16c16,18
< Nonsense will continue to be deleted.
---
> Nonsense will continue to be deleted.
> ----
> Thus, with force, does Dogma always speak.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983929140
11c11
< How about: See also Literature, Fantasy.
---
> How about: See also Literature, Fantasy.<br>''I meant stuff more specific than that, though.  Things like, for instance, who Elrond is.  He appears in all three books.''
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983929248
18c18,20
< Thus, with force, does Dogma always speak.
---
> Thus, with force, does Dogma always speak.
> ----
> The above link doesn't go anywhere.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983929261
11a12,13
> 
> I'd say [[JRR Tolkein]].
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983929317
35,40d34
< A further argument for the definability of existence is a corollary and extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception.  That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists.  Well, what makes a thing perceptible?  The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected.  This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created.  When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others.  Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.
< 
< Hence, otherwise invisible energies and particles can be confirmed to exist by the effects they suffer or create.  Magnetism, gravity, ultraviolet light, cosmic rays, all are included within the realm of existing things.  
< 
< Taken further; since awareness, emotions, imagination, dreams, etc. are likewise capable of affecting and being affected, they could be said to exist. One might say "I feel sadness."  It could hardly be argued that sadness does not exist and so the person, contrary to his assertion, could not possibly feel sadness.  Clearly, he does. The <i>nature</i> of the existence these intangibles is qualified and quantified by the <i>nature</i> of the effects they create and receive.  Thus, unicorns could be said to enjoy a form of existence.  They exhibit an <i>imaginary</i> existence.  One imagines them, conveys the substance of this imagined existence to others, and thereby affects the imaginations of others to replicate said existence in their own imaginations.  When a child learns from adults that there are no physically existing unicorns, his imaginary unicorns may lose their appeal or suffer destruction.  This imposition of effect by physical existence on imaginary existence can also work in the reverse.  An artist may "imagine" a finished canvas.  Absent this precursor, imaginary existence, the physical canvas might never exist.
< 
41a36,37
> 
> /Talk
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983929350
13c13
< I'd say [[JRR Tolkein]].
---
> I'd say [[JRR Tolkien]].
------
Feature_requests|983929436
7c7
< 
---
> # Wikipedia is desperately in need of a search feature.
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983929556
11a12,13
> 
> ''I don't think it does make sense.  First, non-breeding animals seems to imply mules or such; it should say non-breeding populations.  But even in that case, that the final pops are non-breeding doesn't to me explain why there wouldn't be intermediate forms.''
------
Feature_requests|983929752
7c7
< # Wikipedia is desperately in need of a search feature.
---
> 
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983930709
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the main article I was trying to explain some of the main ''traditional'' lines of argument about this topic.  To my knowledge, which might possibly be inadequate, what is below really is not part of that tradition (unless you'd want to rewrite it to make it reflect Berkleyan idealism).  Let me reply to some of it (since I'm very interested in this topic these days, it so happens, on a professional level--i.e., I have a Ph.D. in philosophy and I have been reading journal articles on the subject, and writing and thinking about it to myself).
> 
> :A further argument for the definability of existence is a corollary and extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception.
> 
> The philosophy of perception is a subject matter, and consequently doesn't by itself have any corollaries (as though it were a theorem or an axiom).
> 
> :That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists.
> 
> Is this ''esse'' is ''percipi'' all over again--see [[George Berkeley]].
> 
> : Well, what makes a thing perceptible?  The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected.  This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created.  When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others.  Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.
> 
> :Hence, otherwise invisible energies and particles can be confirmed to exist by the effects they suffer or create.  Magnetism, gravity, ultraviolet light, cosmic rays, all are included within the realm of existing things.  
> 
> Here you are addressing a different problem from the one raised in the article; the name of your topic now is [[scientific realism]], and that is the question whether the unusual theoretical ("unobservable" for example) entities posited by science are real, and what it might mean to say that they are real or exist.  The question at issue in TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects is "simpler" or more fundamental: what does it mean to say that ''anything'' exists at all?  What does it mean to say that the eye, sensory feedback, and other physical objects exist?  Perhaps, many philosophers say, existence isn't a ''property'' at all; in which case we shouldn't expect to be able to give a definition of 'exists', at least not a "first-level" definition (this isn't something I mentioned in the article...I could have done a better job with it, but I was writing for undergraduates who had never thought about this stuff before).
> 
> : Taken further; since awareness, emotions, imagination, dreams, etc. are likewise capable of affecting and being affected, they could be said to exist.
> 
> So:
> 
> X exists if, and only if, X is capable of affecting and being affected.
> 
> So how do we decide that something exists?  Why, we ask whether it is capable of affecting and being affected.  Well, how do we determine whether something is capable of affecting and being affected?
> 
> : One might say "I feel sadness."  It could hardly be argued that sadness does not exist and so the person, contrary to his assertion, could not possibly feel sadness.  Clearly, he does. The <i>nature</i> of the existence these intangibles is qualified and quantified by the <i>nature</i> of the effects they create and receive.  Thus, unicorns could be said to enjoy a form of existence.  They exhibit an <i>imaginary</i> existence.  One imagines them, conveys the substance of this imagined existence to others, and thereby affects the imaginations of others to replicate said existence in their own imaginations.  When a child learns from adults that there are no physically existing unicorns, his imaginary unicorns may lose their appeal or suffer destruction.  This imposition of effect by physical existence on imaginary existence can also work in the reverse.  An artist may "imagine" a finished canvas.  Absent this precursor, imaginary existence, the physical canvas might never exist.
> 
> It seems to me you've refuted yourself.  We're looking for a definition of the existence of ''physical objects.''  If, according to your definition, unicorns exist, since they don't in fact exist, your definition is wrong.  Now, you can play semantic games and say that they enjoy "imaginary existence"; you can ''say'' whatever you want, but what difference does it make?
------
Feature_requests|983931305
6d5
< # BackLinks: see which pages links to the one you're at
8c7,12
< Old feature request (completed!): [[Free Links]]; renaming/deleting function
---
> 
> ----
> 
> Old feature requests (completed!):
> * [[Free Links]]; renaming/deleting function
> * BackLinks: see which pages links to the one you're at  (Click the title of the current page (at the top of the page)--it will do a search for links to the current page)
------
Dracula|983934335
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dracula as a [[Vampire]] is derived from the historic Vlad Drac, the Impaler, Vlad means Count. See also [[Anne Rice]]
------
RequestedArticles|983934465
25c25
< <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[dracula]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
---
> <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[dracula]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[golem]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
------
Golem|983934571
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An animated being made from clay or stone. It is derived from Hebrew mythology and said to contain a scroll with magic words that keep it animated.
------
Theory_of_Evolution/Talk|983934697
20a21,23
> ---
> Dogma my ass.  Pointing out evidence that refutes nonsense claims is not dogma.  The claim, "of course, speciation has never been observed" is nonsense and was deleted.  The claim that there is "a complete absence" of transitional vertebrate fossils is nonsense and was deleted.  Stop making up facts.  Stop ignoring the evidence.  Stop whining when this is not tolerated.
> 
22a26,29
>  Try: 
> http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional.html+transitional+vertebrate+fossils&hl=en
> 
> 
------
Statistics/Theory|983934707
10c10
< [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] in conventional forms 
---
> [[Summarizing Statistical Data]] in conventional forms (also known as [[Descriptive Statistics]])
------
Descriptive_Statistics|983934744
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Descriptive]]
------
Statistics/Descriptive|983935065
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics/Applied]]
> 
> '''Descriptive Statistics''' is used to denote any of the many techniques used to summarize a set of data. In a sense, we are using the data on members of a set to describe the set. The techniques are commonly classified as:
> #[[Graphical Description]] in which we use graphs to summarize data.
> #[[Tabular Description]] in which we use tables to summarize data.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistics|983935117
8c8
< :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Description]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
Statistics|983935188
8c8
< :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Description]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Descriptive]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
Arithmetic_mean|983935267
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic Mean]]
------
Games|983935293
5a6
> * [[Grass]]
16a18
> * [[Abalone]]
27c29,37
< * [[Vampire]]
---
> * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masqerade]]
> * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocaylpse]]
> * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage:The Ascension]]
> * [[Kult]]
> * [[Midgard]]
> * [[Shadowrun]]
> * [[Cyberpunk]]
> * [[Paranoia]]
> * [[Call of Cthullhu]]
31c41,42
< * [[Magic The Gathering]]
---
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
32a44
> * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
38,40c50,63
< * [[Axis and Allies]]
< 
< 
---
> ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
> ** [[Flintloque]]
> * [[CoSims]]
> ** [[Axis and Allies]]
> ** [[Samurai Swords]]
> ** [[World in Flames]]
> ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
> * [[Blood Bowl]]
> * [[Monopoly]]
> * [[Robo Rally]]
> * [[Civilization]]
> * [[Merchant of Venus]]
> * [[Outpost]]
> * [[Settlers of Catan]]
------
Games|983935321
4c4
< * [[Solitare]]
---
> * [[Solitaire]]
63c63
< * [[Settlers of Catan]]
---
> * [[Settlers of Catan]]
------
Variance|983935349
29c29
< There is another formula for calculating variance which you may see. It uses the sum of all the data and the sum of the squares. The formulat is:
---
> There is another formula for calculating variance which you may see. It uses the sum of all the data and the sum of the squares. The formula is:
------
Variance|983935417
33c33
< This formula was introduced when the prevailing calculators made it much easier to sum squares and the raw data than to sum the squared deviations. Because this formula can result in loss of procesion, it should no longer be recommended except for small exercises.
---
> This formula was introduced when the prevailing calculators made it much easier to sum squares and the raw data than to sum the squared deviations. Because this formula can result in loss of precision, it should no longer be recommended except for small exercises.
------
Standard_Deviation|983935478
3c3
< The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. When any method of calculating the standard deviation results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
---
> The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. When any method of calculating the [[Variance]] results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
------
Standard_Deviation|983935514
3c3
< The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. When any method of calculating the [[Variance]] results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
---
> The '''standard deviation''' is the most commonly used measure of dispersion which is measured with the same units as the data. It is easily calculated as the square root of the [[Variance]]. It can never be a negative number since we always use the positive square root. 
------
Birth_of_a_Nation|983935571
1c1
< A controverial film directed by [[David Griffith]].  It was released in 1915 and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language.
---
> A controversial film directed by [[David Griffith]].  It was released in 1915 and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language.
3c3
< The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man.
---
> The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man. Griffith was surprised by the harsh criticism and his next major project, [[Intolerance]] tried to address the issues raised.
------
Variance|983935656
3c3,5
< The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean of the sum of squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, the unit of variance is the square of the unit of observation. Thus, the variance of a set of heights measured in inches will be given in square inches. This fact is inconvenient and has motivated statisticians to call the square root of the variance, the [[Standard Deviation]] and to quote this value as a summary of dispersion.
---
> The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean of the sum of squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, we can conclude two things:
> #The variance is never negative. When any method of calculating the variance results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
> #The unit of variance is the square of the unit of observation. Thus, the variance of a set of heights measured in inches will be given in square inches. This fact is inconvenient and has motivated statisticians to call the square root of the variance, the [[Standard Deviation]] and to quote this value as a summary of dispersion. 
------
Operating_system|983935717
2c2
< Examples include [[Atlas]], [[Multics]], [[Vax/VMS]], [[CP/M]], [[Dos]], [[System V]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
---
> Examples include [[Atlas]], [[Multics]], [[Vax/VMS]], [[CP/M]], [[DOS]], [[System V]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
10c10,11
< Unix (Aix, HP UNIX, Solaris, Linix)
---
> Unix (Aix, HP-UX, Solaris, Linux)
> 
11a13
> 
15d16
< 
------
CIAWorldFactbook|983935834
0a1,6
> Notice we already previously had a page on this topic,
> [[CIA World Factbook]].
> 
> So we should merge these two and redirect one to the other.
> ----
> 
------
Variance|983935840
4c4
< #The variance is never negative. When any method of calculating the variance results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a weak [[statistical algorithm]].
---
> #The variance is never negative because the squares are positive or zero. When any method of calculating the variance results in a negative number, we know that there has been an error, often due to a poor choice of algorithm.
7c7
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (x<sub>n</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where µ is the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the data set.</font>
---
> [[Variance/Algorithm]]
9,22d8
< When the set of data is a [[Population]], we call this the ''population variance''. If the set is a [[Sample]], we call it the ''sample variance''.
< 
< The method of calculation may be more easily understood from the table below where the mean is 8.
< 
< <pre>
<     i   x[i]   x[i]-mean     (x[i]-mean)^2
<               (deviation)  (squared deviation)
<     1     5        -3            9
<     2     7        -1            1
<     3     8         0            0
<     4    10         2            4
<     5    10         2            4
<    ---  ----       ---          ---
<    n=5  sum=40      0           18
24,33c10
<    mean = 40/5 = 8
<    variance = 18/5 = 3.6
<    standard deviation = 1.897366596101 or 1.9
< </pre>
< ----
< Note that the column of deviations sums to zero. This is always the case. Note also that we round the standard deviation to one more than the number of significant digits in the mean. 
< ----
< There is another formula for calculating variance which you may see. It uses the sum of all the data and the sum of the squares. The formula is:
< 
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = [n{x<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + ... + x<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup>} - {x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub>}<sup>2</sup>] / n<sup>2</sup></font>
---
> When the set of data is a [[Population]], we call this the ''population variance''. If the set is a [[Sample]], we call it the ''sample variance''.
35d11
< This formula was introduced when the prevailing calculators made it much easier to sum squares and the raw data than to sum the squared deviations. Because this formula can result in loss of precision, it should no longer be recommended except for small exercises.
------
RecentChanges|983935909
1,3c1,3
< The [[Slashdot]] interview just now appeared on Slashdot, but the
< link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have
< the massive influx that I had hoped and feared.  :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> It strikes me now that the Slashdot influx has been just about perfect!  We have a lot of new faces
> here, and from the looks of the articles being produced, we picked up some really smart people
> who are writing great stuff.  Sweeeet.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Computing|983935969
6c6
< * ComputerArchitecture
---
> * [[Computer Architecture]]
11a12,13
> * [[Computer Security]]
> ** [[Hacking]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bracelet|983936230
1c1
< The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
---
> The very first thing made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  When he gives it to [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
3c3
< Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
---
> Later, at a party, when [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
6c6
<  /SectioN121
---
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Cub_Club|983936291
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A night club in [[/New York|New York]].  When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to [[/New York|New York]] in [[/Section141|Section141]], he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at [[/Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]] on Third Avenue.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Moes_Delicatessan|983936344
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A delicatessan in [[/New York|New York]].  When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to [[/New York|New York]] in [[/Section141|Section141]], he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the [[/Cub Club|Cub Club]] and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Friends_of_Global_Progress|983936388
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A social organization that [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]] is associated with.  It is mentioned in [[/Section121|Section121]].
------
Variance/Algorithm|983936395
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Variance]]
> 
> '''Algorithms for Calculating Variance'''
> 
> The variance of a population is defined as the '''root mean squared deviation from the mean'''. That mouthful says the same as the formula below.
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = {(x<sub>1</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + (x<sub>2</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (x<sub>n</sub>-µ)<sup>2</sup>} / n; where µ is the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the data set.</font>
> 
> There is another formula for calculating variance which you may see. It uses the sum of all the data and the sum of the squares. The formula is:
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Variance = [n{x<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + ... + x<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup>} - {x<sub>1</sub> + x<sub>2</sub> + ... + x<sub>n</sub>}<sup>2</sup>] / n<sup>2</sup></font>
> 
> This formula was introduced when the prevailing calculators made it much easier to sum squares and the raw data than to sum the squared deviations. Because this formula can result in loss of precision, it should no longer be recommended except for small exercises.
> ----
> The method of calculation may be more easily understood from the table below where the mean is 8.
> 
> <table border=1 width=50%>
> <tr font=bold><td>i<td>x<sub>i</sub><td>x<sub>i</sub>-mean<td>(x<sub>i</sub>-mean)<sup>2</sup></tr>
> <tr><td><td><td>(deviation)<td>(squared deviation)</tr>
> <tr><td>1<td>5<td>-3<td>9</tr>
> <tr><td>2<td>7<td>-1<td>1</tr>
> <tr><td>3<td>8<td>0<td>0</tr>
> <tr><td>4<td>10<td>2<td>4</tr>
> <tr><td>5<td>10<td>2<td>4</tr>
> <tr><td>n=5<td>sum=40<td>0<td>18</tr>
> </table>
> 
> *mean = 40/5 = 8
> *variance = 18/5 = 3.6
> *standard deviation = 1.897366596101 or 1.9
> ----
> Note that the column of deviations sums to zero. This is always the case. Note also that we round the standard deviation to one more than the number of significant digits in the mean. 
> ----
> 
------
Variance/Algorithm|983936491
19c19
< <tr><td><td><td>(deviation)<td>(squared deviation)</tr>
---
> <tr><td>(index)<td>(datum)<td>(deviation)<td>(squared deviation)</tr>
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Halleys_Fifth_Concerto|983936513
1c1
< When /RichardHalley disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In /SectioN112 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and enthusiastic fan of /RichardHalley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a /Brakeman on the /TaggartComet.  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] says Halley only wrote four concertos, the /Brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
---
> When [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared he had written only four concertos.  In [[/Section112|Section112]] [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], and enthusiastic fan of [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a [[/Brakeman|brakeman]] on the [[/Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]].  She asks him what it is and he says Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] says [[/Richard Halley|Halley]] only wrote four concertos, the [[/Brakeman|brakeman]] says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.
3c3
< Later, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] calls /MrAyers to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
---
> Later, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] calls [[/Mr. Ayers|Mr. Ayers]] to find out if [[/Richard Halley|Halley]] wrote a fifth concerto.  He says he did not.
6,8c6,8
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section112|Section112]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Variance/Algorithm|983936554
34c34
< 
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Halleys_Fourth_Concerto|983936565
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The last thing [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this song in [[/Section141|Section141]].
> 
> It is mentioned in  [[/Section152|Section152]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/National_Council_of_Metal_Industries|983936618
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and help [[/Associated Steel|Associated Steel]].
>  
> The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in: 
> 
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
------
Variance/Algorithm|983936662
17,18c17,20
< <table border=1 width=50%>
< <tr font=bold><td>i<td>x<sub>i</sub><td>x<sub>i</sub>-mean<td>(x<sub>i</sub>-mean)<sup>2</sup></tr>
---
> <font size=+1>
> <table border=0 width=50% >
> <tr>
> <td>i<td>x<sub>i</sub><td>x<sub>i</sub>-mean<td>(x<sub>i</sub>-mean)<sup>2</sup></tr>
30a33
> </font>
34c37
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Patrick_Henry_University|983936666
1c1
< The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
---
> The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], where they met and became friends.  [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] taught there.  It is located in [[/Cleveland|Cleveland]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Phaethon|983936705
1c1
< An opera composed by /RichardHalley when he was a young man.  It is based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky.  Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon suceeds.
---
> An opera composed by [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] when he was a young man.  It is based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky.  [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon suceeds.
3c3
< When this opera was first performed, it was booed and ridiculed.  Nineteen years later, after years of struggle and hardship, it was performed again to a wildly entusiastic audience.  The day after this performance, Halley disappeared.
---
> When this opera was first performed, it was booed and ridiculed.  Nineteen years later, after years of struggle and hardship, it was performed again to a wildly entusiastic audience.  The day after this performance, [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared.
------
SGI|983936731
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Silicon Graphics Incorporated began as a maker of graphics display terminals in 1982. It was founded by [[Jim Clark]] based on his work with [[geometry pipelines]], specialized software or hardware that accellerates the display of three dimensional images.
> 
> The first machines were designed to be connected to a [[DEC]] [[VAX]] computer as a terminal, handling only the actual display. After that, SGI began using Motorola 68000 microprocessors running the UNIX operating system to power the machine. Their height was reached with the SGI 3130, a complete UNIX workstation using the 68030 microprocessor with an attached Wietek (I think) math coproccessor.
> 
> With the introduction of the 4D series, SGI switched over to using the [[MIPS]] [[RISC]] microprocessors.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Metal|983936753
3c3
< Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
---
> Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].
5c5
< The first thing made from Rearden Metal is a /Bracelet.
---
> The first thing made from Rearden Metal is a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]].
8,11c8,11
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN148
---
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section148|Section148]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|983936810
8a9
>  [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne Wyoming]]
13d13
<  [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne Wyoming]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rio_Norte_Line|983936872
1c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
---
> A branch of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[El Paso Texas|El Paso, Texas]].
4,12c4,12
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN147
<  /SectioN148
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]] - Alluded to.
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section146|Section146]]
>  [[/Section147|Section147]]
>  [[/Section148|Section148]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rio_Norte_Line|983936896
1c1
< A branch of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[El Paso Texas|El Paso, Texas]].
---
> A branch of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[/Cheyenne Wyoming|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[/El Paso Texas|El Paso, Texas]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rockdale_Station|983936933
1c1
< A station on the [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
---
> A station on the [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the [[/Hudson River|Hudson River.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
3c3
< It appears in /SectioN152
---
> It appears in [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rockdale_Station|983936946
1c1
< A station on the [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the [[/Hudson River|Hudson River.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
---
> A station on the [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the [[/Hudson River|Hudson River]].  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian|983937257
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A community built to house the workers of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] and their families.  As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two.  Only the church was built to last.
> 
> It is mentioned in [[/Section152|Section152]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Line|983937346
1c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.
---
> A branch of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that serves the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] in [[/Mexico|Mexico]].
7c7
< When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
---
> When it is nationalized in [[/Section142|Section142]], it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
10,16c10,16
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN143
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section114|Section114]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section133|Section133]]
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  [[/Section143|Section143]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Line|983937356
3c3
< The [[/San Sebastian Mines|mines]] were developed by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[James Taggart/James Taggart]] and [[Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] could be counted on to deliver a winner.
---
> The [[/San Sebastian Mines|mines]] were developed by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[/James Taggart/James Taggart]] and [[Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] could be counted on to deliver a winner.
------
SGI|983937426
5c5,16
< With the introduction of the 4D series, SGI switched over to using the [[MIPS]] [[RISC]] microprocessors.
---
> The 3X30 was powerful enough to support a complete 3D animation and rendering package on its own without mainframe support. With large capacity hard drives (300MB X 2), streaming tape and 10baseT ethernet it could be the centerpiece of an animation operation.
> 
> With the introduction of the 4D series, SGI switched over to using the [[MIPS]] [[RISC]] microprocessors. These machines were correspondingly more powerful, able to address more memory and with powerful on board math capability. These machines made much of the SGI name as 3D graphics became more popular on television and film.
> 
> SGI expanded these machines up to the massive Onyx supercomputers, the size of refrigerators and capable of supporting up to 64 processors while managing up to three streams of high resolution, fully realized 3D graphics.
> 
> Now that inexpensive PC's are beginning to catch up in terms of graphics performance, SGI is concentrating on its high performance server capabilities, offering servers for digital video and the Web. Many SGI graphics engineers have left to work at newer companies, driving the PC 3D graphics revolution.
> 
> SGI recently purchased [[Cray]] Computer, whose optical "CrayLink" technology has been integrated into the SGI server line.
> Another purchase was [[AliasWavefront]], makers of the Maya 3D software package.
> 
> SGI has also been a big booster for the [[Linux]] operating system, supporting several projects (such as [[Samba]]) and providing some previously proprietary code (such as [[XFS]]) to the free software world.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|983937463
1c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
---
> A copper mining project in [[/Mexico|Mexico]] founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and named after his ancestor [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]].  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]].  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]], to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]], only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
4,9c4,9
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section131|Section131]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section142|Section142]]
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Building|983937500
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A skyscraper in [[/New York|New York]], the headquarters of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], and the location of the Taggart Terminal.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Taggart_Comet|983937559
1c1
< The Taggart Comet is /TaggartTranscontinental's flagship train.  It runs from /NewYork to /SanFrancisco and has never been late.
---
> The Taggart Comet is [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] flagship train.  It runs from [[/New York|New York]] to [[/San Francisco|San Francisco]] and has never been late.
4,6c4,6
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN113
<  /SectioN152
---
>  [[/Section112|Section112]]
>  [[/Section113|Section113]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/The_Vulture_Is_Molting|983937591
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "a penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity."  The book is mentioned in [[/Section141|Section141]] as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depress [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wayne-Falkland_Hotel|983937636
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A luxurious hotel in [[/New York|New York]], it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
> 
> The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section141|Section141]]
>  [[/Section151|Section151]]
>  [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil_Fields|983937680
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Wyatt Oil Fields are in [[/Colorado|Colorado]].  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
> 
> The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in:
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|983937952
2c2
< As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
---
> As told in [[Atlas Shrugged]], Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the [[Greek Myths]], [[Atlas]] stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
6c6
< Common street crime is conspicuously absent in AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
---
> Common street crime is conspicuously absent in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
10c10
< AtlasShrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged]] takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
12,15c12,15
< #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
< #<b>Inquisition</b> (/SectioN152): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
< #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
< #<b>Patrick Henry</b> (/SectioN152): The eponym of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
---
> #<b>Aristotle</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
> #<b>Inquisition</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
> #<b>Nero</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
> #<b>Patrick Henry</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): The eponym of [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]].
19c19
< #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
---
> #In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
21c21
< #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
---
> #In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
24c24
< The sympathetic characters of AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
---
> The sympathetic characters of [[Atlas Shrugged]] do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
26,28c26,28
< # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
< # In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
< # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
---
> # In [[/Section112|Section112]] [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
> # In [[/Section141|Section141]] [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] tells the press he came to [[/New York|New York]] because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at [[/Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]].
> # In [[/Section151|Section151]] we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
33c33
< In /SectioN152 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]] [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] after his ancestor [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]], a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
37c37
< Rand is sometimes called an elitist.  This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness.  She did not favor the rich over the poor, or the high-born over the low-born.  She favored the men of virtue over those who lacked virtue.  Throughout AtlasShrugged, virtue is equated with creative ability.
---
> Rand is sometimes called an elitist.  This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness.  She did not favor the rich over the poor, or the high-born over the low-born.  She favored the men of virtue over those who lacked virtue.  Throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]], virtue is equated with creative ability.
39c39
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  Among the heroes, [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, [[/Fred Kinnan|Fred Kinnan]] is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|983937985
13c13
< #<b>Inquisition</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
---
> #<b>Inquisition</b> ([[/Section152|Section152]]): [[/Sebastian dAnconia|Sebastian d'Anconia]] flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|983938050
3c3
< <b>Liverwurst</b>: In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to /NewYork in part because of the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
---
> <b>Liverwurst</b>: In [[/Section141|Section141]] [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to [[/New York|New York]] in part because of the liverwurst at [[Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]] on Third Avenue.
5c5
< <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In /SectioN142 [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
---
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In [[/Section142|Section142]] [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|983938063
3c3
< <b>Liverwurst</b>: In [[/Section141|Section141]] [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to [[/New York|New York]] in part because of the liverwurst at [[Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]] on Third Avenue.
---
> <b>Liverwurst</b>: In [[/Section141|Section141]] [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] claims he returned to [[/New York|New York]] in part because of the liverwurst at [[/Moes Delicatessan|Moe's Delicatessan]] on Third Avenue.
------
AtlasShrugged|983938097
1,31c1
< A novel by [[Ayn Rand]], first published in 1957.
< 
< Readers should be warned that Atlas Shurgged is a mystery novel, and that this section and its numerous subsections contain a vast amount of information that will spoil the mystery.
< 
< The theme of AtlasShrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In AtlasShrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
< 
< Rand suggests that a society will stagnate to the extent that independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized.  Inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement.  Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is most highly rewarded where people are allowed to keep the product of their efforts.  She advocated [[laissez-faire capitalism]] as the political system most consistent with these beliefs.  These considerations make AtlasShrugged a highly political book.
< 
< Rand also argues that, since independence and individual achievement drive the world, these things are virtues and should be central to a rational moral code.  She rejects the view that self-sacrifice is a virtue.  These ethical considerations are prominent in AtlasShrugged.
< 
< <b>Setting:</b>
< 
< Exactly when AtlasShrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In /SectioN152 the population of /NewYork is given as 7 million.  The historical /NewYorkCity reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century /Technology in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
< 
< Most of the action in Atlas Shrugged takes place in the /UnitedStates.
< 
< [added by TimShell]
< 
< ----
< 
< * /Characters
< * /Companies
< * /Concepts
< * /Conflicts
< * /Places
< * /Structure
< * /Symbolism
< * /Technology
< * /Things
< * /TopicsOfNote
< * /Food
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]]
------
AtlasShrugged/NewJersey|983938219
1,4c1
< New Jersey is the home of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks.
< 
< New Jersey is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN141
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/New Jersey]]
------
Ascii_Art|983938367
1c1
< Basically, [[Ascii Art]] consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)-keyboard.
---
> Basically, [[Ascii Art]] consists of pictures which are created without using graphic elements. They are "non-graphical graphics". Its palette is limited to the symbols and characters that is available to you on your (QWERTY/AZERTY/etc..)- [[keyboard]].
------
Keyboard|983938450
14c14
< Hall effect keyboards used magnets and "Hall Effect" sensors instead of an actual switch. When a key was depressed, it moved a magnet, the motion of which would be detected by a sensor. These keyboards were fairly quiet and considered suitable for industrial environments. Because a magnet an sensor was required for each key, as well as complicated control electronics, they were also rediculously expensive. [I (Joshfuller) have never used a Hall Effect keyboard, please correct if needed.]
---
> Hall effect keyboards used magnets and "Hall Effect" sensors instead of an actual switch. When a key was depressed, it moved a magnet, the motion of which would be detected by a sensor. These keyboards were fairly quiet and considered suitable for industrial environments. Because a magnet an sensor was required for each key, as well as complicated control electronics, they were also rediculously expensive. [I ([[Joshfuller]]) have never used a Hall Effect keyboard, please correct if needed.]
22c22
< The processor is usually a single chip 80XX variant [I (Joshfuller) think]. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a reciever in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights. 
---
> The processor is usually a single chip 80XX variant [I think - [[Joshfuller]]]. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a reciever in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights. 
26c26
< To resolve this problem, the processor in your keyboard (or computer) "debounces" your keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what you think is a solid contact. It could be argued that the dome switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to accurately debounce the keystrokes. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed because they had to do significant debouncing. Anyone who ever tried word processing on a ZX81 will recall this...
---
> To resolve this problem, the processor in your keyboard (or computer) "debounces" your keystrokes, by aggregating them across time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to what you think is a solid contact. It could be argued that the dome switch technology outlined above owes its popularity to the ability of the processor to accurately debounce the keystrokes. Early membrane keyboards limited typing speed because they had to do significant debouncing. Anyone who ever tried word processing on a ZX81 will recall this...
------
Europe|983938534
32a33
>     [[Malta]],
------
United_States_Constitution|983938798
2c2
< */ArticleOne
---
> *[[/Article One]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983939074
1,5c1,5
< */Preamble
< */ArticleOne
< */ArticleTwo
< */ArticleThree
< */ArticleFour
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Preamble]]
> *[[United States Constitution/ArticleOne]]
> *[[United States Constitution/ArticleTwo]]
> *[[United States Constitution/ArticleThree]]
> *[[United States Constitution/ArticleFour]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983939090
2,5c2,5
< *[[United States Constitution/ArticleOne]]
< *[[United States Constitution/ArticleTwo]]
< *[[United States Constitution/ArticleThree]]
< *[[United States Constitution/ArticleFour]]
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Article One]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Two]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Three]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Four]]
------
United_States_Constitution|983939123
3,8c3,8
< */ArticleTwo
< */ArticleThree
< */ArticleFour
< */ArticleFive
< */ArticleSix
< */ArticleSeven
---
> *[[/Article Two]]
> *[[/Article Three]]
> *[[/Article Four]]
> *[[/Article Five]]
> *[[/Article Six]]
> *[[/Article Seven]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983939441
6,9c6,8
< */ArticleFive
< */ArticleSix
< */ArticleSeven
< 
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Five]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Six]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Article Seven]]
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Three|983939505
1,4c1
< Section 1. The judicial power of the UnitedStates, shall be vested in one SupremeCourt, and in such inferior courts as the Congress
< may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good
< behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their
< continuance in office. 
---
> Section 1. The judicial power of the [[United States]], shall be vested in one [[Supreme Court]], and in such inferior courts as the [[Congress]] may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
6,11c3,4
< Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States,
< and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
< consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to
< controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different
< states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens
< thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
---
> Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
> consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
26c19
< forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
---
> forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
------
CountriesM|983939778
4a5,6
> * [[Malawi]]
> 
12a15,16
> * [[Monogolia]]
> 
13a18,19
> 
> * [[Mozambique]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983939815
10,12c10,12
< */AmendmentOne
< */AmendmentTwo
< */AmendmentThree
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment One]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Two]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Three]]
------
United_States_Constitution|983940023
11,13c11,13
< */AmendmentOne
< */AmendmentTwo
< */AmendmentThree
---
> *[[/Amendment One|Amendment One]]
> *[[/Amendment Two|Amendment Two]]
> *[[/Amendment Three|Amendment Three]]
------
Computer-Generated_Art|983940728
44c44,56
< [3D rendering.]
---
> Putting together a 3D image is totally different. Instead of being a painter, you work more like a studio photographer, arranging objects carefully in front of your computerized camera. Instead of a canvas, your screen is a window into this strange alternate reality, where you can manipulate things only through the proxy of your mouse or tablet pen.
> 
> To build a 3D image (actually, the image itself is usually (like most images) 2D, but you construct the elements that make up the image in 3D space), you first have to have objects to put in it. To get these objects, you must model them. The modelling process consists of describing the salient features of the object to the computer.
> 
> Depending on what type of software you're using, this might consist of building a kind of mechanical drawing of the object using a special "modeller" program (imaginative name, that). Or, you might simply describe the the object using a simple computer language. Once the shape of the object is defined, the surface properties are set up. These consist of the object's colour, texture, and roughness.
> 
> Now the object is built, it can be positioned in front of the virtual camera.Typically, you have are shown a view through the viewfinder of the camera, with other views down each major axis (X, Y and Z). These secondary views let you move the objects with precision -- it's impossible for the software to determine exactly how to move a particular object from just the viewfinder alone.
> 
> Once the objects are all arranged, it's time to turn on the lights. There are no shortage of virtual lights to go with your virtual camera. However, lighting is one of the most difficult arts to master. A simple repositioning changes a dramatic, moody scene into a direct product shot. Any book on theatrical or photographic lighting is helpful here.
> 
> The process of actually snapping the photo is called rendering. For speed and convenience during the setup process (all that above) the computer only shows simplified representations of the objects you're moving around. When you're actually ready to get a proper picture, the machine suddenly lets the hammer down on all that floating point math hardware you hardly ever use. It caclulates a simulation of the light leaving the light sources, bouncing around your scene and off the objects and then into your camera, exposing a virtual film plate. (That's why a render slows down if you add more lights, that much more simulation to do for each object in the scene.)
> 
> Because of the exacting nature of the process, it can take a long time. Many early artists waited days or weeks for their virtual snaps to develop. Thanks to the rising tide of processor speed and memory capacity, you probably won't have to wait that long, but be prepared to go get a cup of coffee while the image cooks. Depending, you might just want to step out for some lunch...
------
Sri_Lanka|983940761
21c21,25
< http://www.lankapage.com/
---
> http://www.lankapage.com/
> 
> and
> 
> http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/cds/countries/srilanka.html
------
Classical_Mechanics|983941542
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Classical Mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics after Isaac Newton who made major fundamental contributions to the understanding of it) is the physics of objects moving in the ways we deal with every day.  Examples in classical mechanics often involve things like hockey pucks on ice and balls being thrown through the air, because these things are relatively easy to make very accurate predictions about.
> 
> One of the fundamental concepts of classical mechanics is velocity.  
> v=d/t
> where:
> v is velocity
> d is distance
> t is time
> The standard (SI) units for velocity are meters/second.
> The SI unit for distance is meters.
> The SI unit for time is the second.
> Velocity is similar to speed, but velocity includes the direction of motion and implies that it must be in a straight line.  This equation is used to calculate things like how far an object will go in a given time if it is traveling at a given velocity.  Velocity is the derivative of distance with respect to time.
> 
> The next major concept is acceleration.
> a=v/t
> a is acceleration
> v is velocity
> t is time
> The SI units for acceleration are meter/second^2  (pronounced meters per second squared).
> Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.  The strength of a gravitational field is given in terms of acceleration.  Since mass is not involved in this equation, that means that two objects dropped from the same height will land at the same time, assuming that air friction doesn't get in the way. 
> Acceleration can also be achieved by actually changing velocity.  For example, if your acceleration is ten m/s^2, that means that every second you are going ten m/s faster than you were the second before.  Slowing down (often called deceleration) is, in terms of physics, still called acceleration because you are still accelerating, just in the direction opposite of your motion.
> 
> The third big concept is force.
> F=m*a
> F is force
> m is mass
> a is acceleration
> The SI unit for force is the Newton which is (kg*m)/(s*s)
> The SI unit for mass is the kilogram  (It isn't the gram mainly because the gram is smaller than most people can easily visualize)
> Rockets in space are usually used as examples for this equation, because it isn't particularly intuitive here on earth with friction.  Some specific rocket will produce a certain amount of force.  If that rocket is pushing a small mass it will have a certain acceleration.  If it is pushing ten times that small mass, it will have one tenth that acceleration.
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|983941591
20c20
< Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
---
> Chapter 4  - The Immovable Movers
------
Aristotle|983941781
1c1
< Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], hw is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
Joshfuller|983942658
1,3c1
< A hearty welcome to you, Joshfuller!  What are your interests?  
< 
< Thank you. My main interests are programming and CGI. Hopefully, others will become more apparent as I contribute.
---
> #REDIRECT [[JoshFuller]]
------
JoshFuller|983942669
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A hearty welcome to you, Joshfuller!  What are your interests?  
> 
> Thank you. My main interests are programming and CGI. Hopefully, others will become more apparent as I contribute.
------
Classical_Mechanics|983942765
1c1
< Classical Mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics after Isaac Newton who made major fundamental contributions to the understanding of it) is the physics of objects moving in the ways we deal with every day.  Examples in classical mechanics often involve things like hockey pucks on ice and balls being thrown through the air, because these things are relatively easy to make very accurate predictions about.
---
> Classical Mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics after [[Isaac Newton]] who made major fundamental contributions to the understanding of it) is the physics of objects moving in the ways we deal with every day.  Examples in classical mechanics often involve things like hockey pucks on ice and balls being thrown through the air, because these things are relatively easy to make very accurate predictions about.
5,9c5,9
< where:
< v is velocity
< d is distance
< t is time
< The standard (SI) units for velocity are meters/second.
---
> 
> *v is velocity
> *d is distance
> *t is time
> The standard ([SI]) units for velocity are meters/second.
16,19c16,19
< a is acceleration
< v is velocity
< t is time
< The SI units for acceleration are meter/second^2  (pronounced meters per second squared).
---
> *a is acceleration
> *v is velocity
> *t is time
> The SI units for acceleration are meter/second<sup>2</sup>  (pronounced meters per second squared).
23a24
> 
25,28c26,30
< F is force
< m is mass
< a is acceleration
< The SI unit for force is the Newton which is (kg*m)/(s*s)
---
> 
> *F is force
> *m is mass
> *a is acceleration
> The SI unit for force is the Newton which is (kg*m)/(s<sup>2</sup>)
30c32
< Rockets in space are usually used as examples for this equation, because it isn't particularly intuitive here on earth with friction.  Some specific rocket will produce a certain amount of force.  If that rocket is pushing a small mass it will have a certain acceleration.  If it is pushing ten times that small mass, it will have one tenth that acceleration.
---
> Rockets in space are usually used as examples for this equation, because it isn't particularly intuitive here on earth with friction.  Some specific rocket will produce a certain amount of force.  If that rocket is pushing a small mass it will have a certain acceleration.  If it is pushing ten times that small mass, it will have one tenth that acceleration.
------
Classical_Mechanics|983943125
4c4,5
< v=d/t
---
> 
> <font size=+1>v=d/t</font>
9,11c10,13
< The standard ([SI]) units for velocity are meters/second.
< The SI unit for distance is meters.
< The SI unit for time is the second.
---
> 
> *The standard ([[SI]]) units for velocity are meters/second.
> *The SI unit for distance is meters.
> *The SI unit for time is the second.
15c17,18
< a=v/t
---
> 
> <font size=+1>a=v/t</font>
19c22,23
< The SI units for acceleration are meter/second<sup>2</sup>  (pronounced meters per second squared).
---
> 
> *The SI units for acceleration are meter/second<sup>2</sup>  (pronounced meters per second squared).
21c25
< Acceleration can also be achieved by actually changing velocity.  For example, if your acceleration is ten m/s^2, that means that every second you are going ten m/s faster than you were the second before.  Slowing down (often called deceleration) is, in terms of physics, still called acceleration because you are still accelerating, just in the direction opposite of your motion.
---
> Acceleration can also be achieved by actually changing velocity.  For example, if your acceleration is ten m/s<sup>2</sup>, that means that every second you are going ten m/s faster than you were the second before.  Slowing down (often called deceleration) is, in terms of physics, still called acceleration because you are still accelerating, just in the direction opposite of your motion.
25c29
< F=m*a
---
> <font size=+1>F=m*a</font>
30,31c34,36
< The SI unit for force is the Newton which is (kg*m)/(s<sup>2</sup>)
< The SI unit for mass is the kilogram  (It isn't the gram mainly because the gram is smaller than most people can easily visualize)
---
> 
> *The SI unit for force is the Newton which is (kg*m)/(s<sup>2</sup>)
> *The SI unit for mass is the kilogram  (It isn't the gram mainly because the gram is smaller than most people can easily visualize)
------
AbbadideS|983945075
10c10,12
< powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  Abd-ul-Qasim gained 
---
> powerful.  They were, however, very rich.  
> 
> Abd-ul-Qasim gained 
28c30,32
< stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  El Motaddid was a poet and 
---
> stamp of Fiiipo Maria Visconti.  
> 
> El Motaddid was a poet and 
50c54,56
< forced him to pay tribute.  His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim 
---
> forced him to pay tribute.  
> 
> His son, Mahommed Abd-ul-Qasim 
75c81,83
< by a destructive raid.  When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, 
---
> by a destructive raid.  
> 
> When Alphonso took Toledo in 1085, 
------
Painters|983945328
65c65
< If so, then we can move this listing into the main body.)
---
> If so, then we can move this listing into the main body.) Doesn't look like so...
------
SandBox|983946748
73a74,85
> 
> -----
> 
> Testing.  Testing.  1-2-3. 
> :allyourbasesarebelongtous
>  monospaced text here
> #what does this do?
> #And this?
> SandBox
> Sand Box [[SandBox]]
> 
> <font size=+3><b><i>I think I got it</b></i></font>
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|983946947
21c21
< Chapter 4  - The Immovble Movers
---
> Chapter 4  - The Immovable Movers
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983951927
12a13
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Four]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983951992
14c14,23
< */AmendmentFour
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Five]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Six]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Seven]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eight]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Nine]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Ten]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eleven]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twelve]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Thirteen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Fourteen]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983952726
24,32c24,36
< */AmendmentFive
< */AmendmentSix
< */AmendmentSeven
< */AmendmentEight
< */AmendmentNine
< */AmendmentTen
< */AmendmentEleven
< */AmendmentTwelve
< */AmendmentThirteen
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Fifteen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Sixteen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Seventeen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eightteen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Nineteen]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twenty]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyone]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentytwo]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentythree]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyfour]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyfive]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentysix]]
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyseven]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983953382
27c27
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eightteen]]
---
> *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eighteen]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/Preamble|983954314
1c1
< We the people of the UnitedStates, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Constutution/Preamble]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution/Preamble|983954328
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[United States Constutution/Preamble]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Constitution/Preamble]]
------
UnitedStatesConstitution|983954364
1,50c1
< *[[United States Constitution/Preamble]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article One]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Two]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Three]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Four]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Five]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Six]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Article Seven]]
< 
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment One]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Two]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Three]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Four]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Five]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Six]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Seven]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eight]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Nine]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Ten]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eleven]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twelve]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Thirteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Fourteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Fifteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Sixteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Seventeen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Eighteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Nineteen]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twenty]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyone]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentytwo]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentythree]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyfour]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyfive]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentysix]]
< *[[United States Constitution/Amendment Twentyseven]]
< */AmendmentFourteen
< */AmendmentFifteen
< */AmendmentSixteen
< */AmendmentSeventeen
< */AmendmentEighteen
< */AmendmentNineteen
< */AmendmentTwenty
< */AmendmentTwentyone
< */AmendmentTwentytwo
< */AmendmentTwentythree
< */AmendmentTwentyfour
< */AmendmentTwentyfive
< */AmendmentTwentysix
< */AmendmentTwentyseven
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Constitution]]
------
United_States_Constitution|983954515
14,37c14,37
< */AmendmentFour
< */AmendmentFive
< */AmendmentSix
< */AmendmentSeven
< */AmendmentEight
< */AmendmentNine
< */AmendmentTen
< */AmendmentEleven
< */AmendmentTwelve
< */AmendmentThirteen
< */AmendmentFourteen
< */AmendmentFifteen
< */AmendmentSixteen
< */AmendmentSeventeen
< */AmendmentEighteen
< */AmendmentNineteen
< */AmendmentTwenty
< */AmendmentTwentyone
< */AmendmentTwentytwo
< */AmendmentTwentythree
< */AmendmentTwentyfour
< */AmendmentTwentyfive
< */AmendmentTwentysix
< */AmendmentTwentyseven
---
> *[[/Amendment Four|Amendment Four]]
> *[[/Amendment Five|Amendment Five]]
> *[[/Amendment Six|Amendment Six]]
> *[[/Amendment Seven|Amendment Seven]]
> *[[/Amendment Eight|Amendment Eight]]
> *[[/Amendment Nine|Amendment Nine]]
> *[[/Amendment Ten|Amendment Ten]]
> *[[/Amendment Eleven|Amendment Eleven]]
> *[[/Amendment Twelve|Amendment Twelve]]
> *[[/Amendment Thirteen|Amendment Thirteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Fourteen|Amendment Fourteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Fifteen|Amendment Fifteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Sixteen|Amendment Sixteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Seventeen|Amendment Seventeen]]
> *[[/Amendment Eighteen|Amendment Eighteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Nineteen|Amendment Nineteen]]
> *[[/Amendment Twenty|Amendment Twenty]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentyone|Amendment Twentyone]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|Amendment Twentytwo]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentythree|Amendment Twentythree]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|Amendment Twentyfour]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|Amendment Twentyfive]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentysix|Amendment Twentysix]]
> *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment Twentyseven]]
------
Greek_Mythology|983954614
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The legends and religion of Hellenic (Greek) civilization (see GreekCivilization).  These stories were familiar to all ancient Greeks, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
> 
> In Greek mythology, the Greek gods are given human form, but are first and foremost personifications of the forces of the universe.  As such they are more or less unchanging, and while they sometimes have a sense of justice, they are often petty or vengeful.  The gods' favors are bought by sacrifices and piety, but this does not guarantee them, and they are prone to frequent changes of mind.  Their anger is harsh and their love can be just as dangerous.
> 
> The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology (see, for example, TheIliad and TheOdyssey).  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
> 
> Some important gods:
> 
> [[Zeus]] -- [[Hera]] -- [[Poseidon]] -- [[Hades]] -- [[Demeter]] -- [[Hestia]] -- [[Athena]] -- [[Ares]] -- [[Hephaestus]] -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Artemis]] -- [[Aphrodite]] -- [[Dionysius]] -- [[Prometheus]]
> 
> Some important mortals:
> 
> [[Io]] -- [[Europa]] -- [[Perseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Agamemnon]] -- HelenOfTroy -- [[Achilles]] -- [[Hector]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]]
> ----
> Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
> 
------
GreekMythology|983954639
1,15c1
< The legends and religion of Hellenic (Greek) civilization (see GreekCivilization).  These stories were familiar to all ancient Greeks, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
< 
< In Greek mythology, the Greek gods are given human form, but are first and foremost personifications of the forces of the universe.  As such they are more or less unchanging, and while they sometimes have a sense of justice, they are often petty or vengeful.  The gods' favors are bought by sacrifices and piety, but this does not guarantee them, and they are prone to frequent changes of mind.  Their anger is harsh and their love can be just as dangerous.
< 
< The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology (see, for example, TheIliad and TheOdyssey).  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
< 
< Some important gods:
< 
< [[Zeus]] -- [[Hera]] -- [[Poseidon]] -- [[Hades]] -- [[Demeter]] -- [[Hestia]] -- [[Athena]] -- [[Ares]] -- [[Hephaestus]] -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Artemis]] -- [[Aphrodite]] -- [[Dionysius]] -- [[Prometheus]]
< 
< Some important mortals:
< 
< [[Io]] -- [[Europa]] -- [[Perseus]] -- [[Heracles]] -- [[Agamemnon]] -- HelenOfTroy -- [[Achilles]] -- [[Hector]] -- [[Odysseus]] -- [[Jason]] -- [[Theseus]]
< ----
< Sources: OvidTheMetamorphosis ApuleiusTheGoldenAsse TheIliad TheOdyssey
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek Mythology]]
------
Achilles|983954664
1c1
< In GreekMythology, the greatest warrior in the TrojanWar, and the central character of TheIliad.  Also spelt Achilleus, Akhilles, and so forth.
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], the greatest warrior in the TrojanWar, and the central character of TheIliad.  Also spelt Achilleus, Akhilles, and so forth.
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983954707
1,38c1
< * Atlas
< As told in AtlasShrugged, Atlas carried the world on his shoulders.  But in the GreekMyths, AtlaS stands on the earth and holds up the sky.  In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round.  Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.
< 
< * Crime
< 
< Common street crime is conspicuously absent in AtlasShrugged.  Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.
< 
< * Historical figures and events
< 
< AtlasShrugged takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
< 
< #<b>Aristotle</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
< #<b>Inquisition</b> (/SectioN152): /SebastianDAnconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
< #<b>Nero</b> (/SectioN152): [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
< #<b>Patrick Henry</b> (/SectioN152): The eponym of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
< 
< * Humor
< 
< #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
< 
< #In /SectioN152, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
< 
< * Lying
< The sympathetic characters of AtlasShrugged do not tell lies.  Even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.  There are a few exceptions.
< 
< # In /SectioN112 /Brakeman tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
< # In /SectioN141 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] tells the press he came to /NewYork because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan.
< # In /SectioN151 we learn [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had given her.  This was the only lie she ever told.
< 
< * Religion
< 
< In /SectioN152 [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] he named the /SanSebastianMines after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia, a man they both honor deeply.  This, to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]], is blasphemy -  the only kind of blasphemy she understands.
< 
< * Social classes
< 
< Rand is sometimes called an elitist.  This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness.  She did not favor the rich over the poor, or the high-born over the low-born.  She favored the men of virtue over those who lacked virtue.  Throughout AtlasShrugged, virtue is equated with creative ability.
< 
< Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of AtlasShrugged.  Among the heroes, [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] are from working class backgrounds, while [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] are from wealthy families.  Among the villains, /FredKinnan is from a working class background, while [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[/Betty Pope]] are from wealthy families.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics of Note]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983954719
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics of Note]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics Of Note]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TopicsOfNote|983954739
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics Of Note]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics of note]]
------
Classics|983954761
3c3
< GreekMythology
---
> [[Greek Mythology]]
5c5
< ''Classics'' can also mean [[classic books]].
---
> ''Classics'' can also mean [[classic books]].
------
Europa|983954787
1c1
< In GreekMythology a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]] a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
------
Greek|983954804
6c6
< ''See also'':  [[Greek Language]], [[Hellenic Civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], GreekMythology
---
> ''See also'':  [[Greek Language]], [[Hellenic Civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], [[Greek Mythology]]
------
Hector|983954820
1c1
< In GreekMythology, a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after [[Achilles]].  Eldest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]], called "breaker of horses" though he never seems to do so.
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], a Trojan prince and the second greatest fighter in the TrojanWar after [[Achilles]].  Eldest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]], called "breaker of horses" though he never seems to do so.
------
HelenOfTroy|983954836
1c1
< In GreekMythology, the most beatiful woman to ever walk the world, whose face launched a thousand ships and started the TrojanWar.  On account of the last she is known as Helen of Troy, even though she was actually from Sparta.
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], the most beatiful woman to ever walk the world, whose face launched a thousand ships and started the TrojanWar.  On account of the last she is known as Helen of Troy, even though she was actually from Sparta.
------
Hera|983954851
1c1
< In GreekMythology, goddess of marriage, wife and sister of [[Zeus]].  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  Called [[Juno]] by the [[Romans]].
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], goddess of marriage, wife and sister of [[Zeus]].  Spends most of her time plotting revenge on the other women her husband consorts with.  Called [[Juno]] by the [[Romans]].
------
Josh_Grosse|983954868
1c1
< Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, GreekMythology, and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
---
> Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, [[Greek Mythology]], and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
------
Perseus|983954884
1c1
< In GreekMythology, legendary founder of [[Mycenae]] who slew the gorgon [[Medusa]].  Also, a [[Constellation]] named after him: see /Constellation.
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], legendary founder of [[Mycenae]] who slew the gorgon [[Medusa]].  Also, a [[Constellation]] named after him: see /Constellation.
------
Zeus|983954902
1c1
< The leader of the Gods and [[God]] of the sky and thunder in GreekMythology, equivalent to the [[Roman]] God [[Jupiter]].
---
> The leader of the Gods and [[God]] of the sky and thunder in [[Greek Mythology]], equivalent to the [[Roman]] God [[Jupiter]].
------
David_Hume|983954959
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing [[Scepticism]] --less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
> 
> Hume was born in Edinburgh and attended the university there.  At first he considered a career in law, but came to have, in his words, "an insurmountable aversion to everthing but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning."
> 
> Did some self-study in France, where he completed ''ATreatiseofHumanNature'' at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press."
> 
> After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.''  It was not much of a success either, but more so than the ''Treatise.''
> 
> Probably due to charges of atheism he was turned down for chairs of philosophy in Edinburgh and Glasgow.
> 
> However, between philosophical pursuits, Hume did achieve literary fame as an essayist and historian.  Attention of him grew when ImmanuelKant credited Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber."
> 
> ----
> ----
> '''Works'''
> ----
> ''A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.'' (1739-40)
> 
> Book 1:  "Of the Understanding"  His treatment of everything from the origin of our ideas to how they are to be divided.  Important statements of SkepticIsm.
> 
> Book 2:  "Of the Passions"  Treatment of emotions.
> 
> Book 3:  "Of Morals"  Moral ideas, justice, obligations, benevolence.
> 
> He intended to complete the Treatise (if it met with success) with books devoted to Politics and Criticism.
> ----
> ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
> 
> Contains reworking of the main points of Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will, miracles, and the argument from design.
> ----
> ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'' (1751)
> 
> Another reworking of material from the Treatise for more popular appeal.
> ----
> ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion''  (posthumous)
> 
> Discussions between fictional characters Cleanthes, Philo, and Demea.  They discuss proofs of the existance of god and other fun stuff.
> ----
> ''Essays Moral and Political'' (first ed. 1741-2)
> 
> A lot of Essays, revised a few times during his life.  The history of which essays were added or removed when doen't seem that interesting.  "Of the Middle Station of Life," "That Politics may be Reduced to a Science," "Of the Origin of Government," "Of Civil Liberty," "Of Commerse," "Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations," and "On Suicide" (posthumous) to name a few in a modern collection.
> ----
> ''The History of Great Britain''  (1754-62)
> 
> More a category of books than a single work.
> 
> ----
> /*--Suggested things to do--  More dates would be nice, maybe timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  More explication of his ideas.  Links to off-wikipedia resources.*/
------
DavidHume|983954977
1,48c1
< David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing [[Scepticism]] --less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
< 
< Hume was born in Edinburgh and attended the university there.  At first he considered a career in law, but came to have, in his words, "an insurmountable aversion to everthing but the pursuits of philosophy and general learning."
< 
< Did some self-study in France, where he completed ''ATreatiseofHumanNature'' at the age of 26.  When published in England (1739-40) it received next to no attention.  Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press."
< 
< After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.''  It was not much of a success either, but more so than the ''Treatise.''
< 
< Probably due to charges of atheism he was turned down for chairs of philosophy in Edinburgh and Glasgow.
< 
< However, between philosophical pursuits, Hume did achieve literary fame as an essayist and historian.  Attention of him grew when ImmanuelKant credited Hume with awakening him from "dogmatic slumber."
< 
< ----
< ----
< '''Works'''
< ----
< ''A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.'' (1739-40)
< 
< Book 1:  "Of the Understanding"  His treatment of everything from the origin of our ideas to how they are to be divided.  Important statements of SkepticIsm.
< 
< Book 2:  "Of the Passions"  Treatment of emotions.
< 
< Book 3:  "Of Morals"  Moral ideas, justice, obligations, benevolence.
< 
< He intended to complete the Treatise (if it met with success) with books devoted to Politics and Criticism.
< ----
< ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
< 
< Contains reworking of the main points of Treatise, Book 1, with the addition of material on free will, miracles, and the argument from design.
< ----
< ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals'' (1751)
< 
< Another reworking of material from the Treatise for more popular appeal.
< ----
< ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion''  (posthumous)
< 
< Discussions between fictional characters Cleanthes, Philo, and Demea.  They discuss proofs of the existance of god and other fun stuff.
< ----
< ''Essays Moral and Political'' (first ed. 1741-2)
< 
< A lot of Essays, revised a few times during his life.  The history of which essays were added or removed when doen't seem that interesting.  "Of the Middle Station of Life," "That Politics may be Reduced to a Science," "Of the Origin of Government," "Of Civil Liberty," "Of Commerse," "Of the Populousness of Ancient Nations," and "On Suicide" (posthumous) to name a few in a modern collection.
< ----
< ''The History of Great Britain''  (1754-62)
< 
< More a category of books than a single work.
< 
< ----
< /*--Suggested things to do--  More dates would be nice, maybe timeline or something.  Perhaps more info on his work as a historian.  More explication of his ideas.  Links to off-wikipedia resources.*/
---
> #REDIRECT [David Hume]]
------
DavidHume|983954986
1c1
< #REDIRECT [David Hume]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[David Hume]]
------
ATreatiseofHumanNature|983955012
1c1
< ATreatiseofHumanNature was completed by DavidHume at the age of 26. When published in EnglanD (1739-40) it received next to no attention. Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press." 
---
> ATreatiseofHumanNature was completed by [[David Hume]] at the age of 26. When published in EnglanD (1739-40) it received next to no attention. Hume famously wrote that it "fell dead-born from the press." 
------
Philosophy|983955044
13c13
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- DavidHume -- ThomasReid -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- ThomasReid -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
23c23
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
---
> I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
------
Philosophy_of_Religion|983955065
1c1
< Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- DavidHume -- BoethiuS
---
> Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- BoethiuS
21c21
< In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
---
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
------
Thomas_Reid|983955087
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct Realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than DavidHume.  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct Realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
Common_sense|983955141
3c3
< In PhiloSophy, 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
---
> In [[Philosophy]], 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
7c7
< The great Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
---
> The great Scottish philosopher [[Thomas Reid]], a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
23c23
< The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
---
> The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
------
Common_sense|983955157
5c5
< Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: ThomasReid and GeorgeEMoore.
---
> Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: [[Thomas Reid]] and GeorgeEMoore.
------
David_Hume|983955177
1c1
< David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and ThomasReid among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing [[Scepticism]] --less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
---
> David Hume (1711-1776), Scottish philosopher and historian and, with AdamSmith and [[Thomas Reid]] among others, one of the most important figures in the ScottishEnlightenment.  Hume is regarded as the third and most radical of the so-called BritishEmpiricists, after JohnLocke and GeorgeBerkeley (though the latter was Irish).  He is most famous for promoting a thoroughgoing [[Scepticism]] --less well-known, however, but just as important, was his promotion of NaturalIsm.
------
Larry_Sanger|983955209
11c11
< Larry's favorite philosopher is ThomasReid, isn't he?  Maybe!
---
> Larry's favorite philosopher is [[Thomas Reid]], isn't he?  Maybe!
48c48
< Well, it doesn't matter that much to me :-), but just from the point of view of a nonscientist reading the article, I'd be confused by terms like "plasmodium," so if I want to understand it I'll either have to look the word up or have you explain it to me on the wiki!  Some of the entries are bound to be very brief.  Nothing wrong with that.  Re: "slug," of course that means something else in addition to what you mean by it.
---
> Well, it doesn't matter that much to me :-), but just from the point of view of a nonscientist reading the article, I'd be confused by terms like "plasmodium," so if I want to understand it I'll either have to look the word up or have you explain it to me on the wiki!  Some of the entries are bound to be very brief.  Nothing wrong with that.  Re: "slug," of course that means something else in addition to what you mean by it.
------
Philosophy|983955264
13c13
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- ThomasReid -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|983955337
23c23
< A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my ThomasReid page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
---
> A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my [[Thomas Reid]] page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
------
AtlasShrugged/Algeria|983955398
1c1
< In /SectioN152, we learn [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] threw a party at an Algerian desert resort where he gave away an ermine coat to any woman who undressed in step with the melting of ice sculptures.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Algeria]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Phaethon|983955440
1,3c1
< An opera composed by /RichardHalley when he was a young man.  It is based on the Greek myth in which Phaethon steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky.  Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon suceeds.
< 
< When this opera was first performed, it was booed and ridiculed.  Nineteen years later, after years of struggle and hardship, it was performed again to a wildly entusiastic audience.  The day after this performance, Halley disappeared.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Phaethon]]
------
Film_Theory|983956027
3c3
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]]
---
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]]
------
JapaneseLanguage|983956062
1c1,220
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Japanese Language is very different from English and other European Languages.
> It is a language where sentences need no subject and adjectives can have past tenses.
> The most useful approach to Japanese study is to consider that the Japanese Language has its own internal logic, its own way of communicating, and not compare it with your own language, but accept and learn it on its own terms.
> 
> '''Japanese Pronunciation and Writing Systems.'''
> 
> 
> Japanese uses four different writing systems: ''Romaji'', ''Hiragana'', ''Katakana'', and ''Kanji''.
> '''Romanji'''' means Roman letters and is the writing system that will be used here.
> Traditional Japanese is written in a combination of the other three: Hiragana, Katakana,
> and Kanji.
> 
> 
> '''Pronunciation:'''
> 
> It is traditional to think of the Japanese sound systems in terms of syllables not individual sounds. This is because their basic alphabet is a syllabary, or a list of possible syllables.
> Each of the syllables in the can be written in Japanese, Hiragana or Katakana, the two syllabaries.
> 
> '''Japanese Syllabary: Romaji'''
> 
> Basic Syllables: Vowel, Consonant plus vowel and "n".
> <pre>
> 
>                a     i     u     e     o                     N.B. Japanese vowels
>                                                              are pure sounds like
>                                                              their Italian counterparts.
>     k          ka    ki    ku    ke    ko
>     s          sa    shi   su    se    so
>     t          ta    chi   tsu   te    to                    N.B. chi, tsu
>     n          na    ni    nu    ne    no
>     h          ha    hi    fu    he    ho                    N.B. fu
>     m          ma    mi    mu    me    mo
>     y          ya          yu          yo                    N.B. no ye or yi
>     r          ra    ri    ru    re    ro
>     w          wa                                            N.B. no wi,wu,we,wo
>     n                                                        N.B. “n”  comprises a syllable 
>                                                                   in itself
> </pre>
>       
>                                                                      
> Modified Syllables:  Consonant plus basic vowel
> <pre>
> 
>     g         ga     gi    gu    ge    go
>     z         za     ji    zu    ze    zo                    N.B. ji
>     d         da     ji    zu    de    do                    N.B. ji,zu
>     b         ba     bi    bu    be    bo
>     p         pa     pi    pu    pe    po
> 
> Modified Syllables: Consonant plus ya, yu, yo, or palatalized consonants.
> 
>     k         kya          kyu         kyo
>     s         sha          shu         sho                   N.B. sha, shi,sho
>     t         cha          chu         cho                   N.B. cha, chu, cho
>     n         nya          nyu         nyo
>     h         hya          hyu         hyo
>     m         mya          myu         myo
>     r         rya          ryu         ryo                  N.B. the Japanese "r" is 
>                                                                  between the English
>                                                                  "r" and "l.'
>     g         gya          gyu         gyo
>     z         ja           ju          jo                   N.B. ja,ju,jo
>     b         bya          byu         byo
>     p         pya          pyu         pyo
> </pre>
> 
> 
> Double Consonants:  length of two syllables
> <pre>
> 
>   kk –  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   pp -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   ss -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   tt -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> Long Vowels:  length of two syllables
> <pre>
>   aa –  same as “a” but held an extra syllable.
>   ii –  same as “i” but held an extra syllable.
>   uu -  same as “u” but held an extra syllable.
>   ee -  same as “e” but held an extra syllable.
>   oo –  same as “o” but held an extra syllable.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> '''Pronunciation: Features''':
> 
> *1). In English, stressed syllables in a word are pronounced louder and longer.
> In Japanese, all syllables, with a few exceptions, are pronounced with equal length and loudness.
> *2). In Japanese, a stressed syllable is merely pronounced at a higher pitch. This is part of the Japanese intonation pattern. 
> *3). Japanese does have a distinct intonation pattern. Their intonation pattern can be heard not only in individual words, but also in whole sentences. Intonation is produced by a rise and fall in pitch over certain syllables.
> *     In the case of questions, the Japanese intonation pattern bears no relation to the 
> *English one. This is a source of a lot of confusion.
> 
> 
> '''Example: What typical Japanese syllables look like.'''
> 
> 
> A typical exchange between two people would look like this:
> Mr. Hayashi introduces Mr. Tanaka to Mr. '''Sanger'''.
> 
> <pre>
> Yamada:   Tanaka–san, kochira wa, Senga-san desu.
> Sanga:    Hajimashite, Senga desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
> Tanaka:   Hajimashite. ABC no Tanka desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
> Yamada:   Senga-san, Nupiidia no kaishain desu.
> Yamda:    Mr. Tanaka, this is Mr. Sanger.
> </pre>
> <pre>
> Sanger:   How do you do. My name is Sanger. I’m very glad to meet you.
> Tanaka:   How do you do. I am Mr. Tanaka from ABC Company. I’m very glad to meet 
>                   you.
> Yamda:    Mr. Sanger is of an employee of Nupedia.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> '''Writing System:'''
> 
> 
> The preceding conversation would be written in Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji.
> Roots of words would be written in Kanji, the traditional Japanese ideograms that
> the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like “wa”and “o” and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like “Sanger,” “Nupedia” would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
> 
> 
> '''Grammar: Features:'''
> <pre>
> 
> 1). The basic sentence structure of a Japanese sentence is
>       TOPIC: PARTICLE: COMMENT.
>       For example:
>       Kochira wa,  Sanga-san desu.
>       Kochira is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle "wa."
>       This means "as for this person."
>       The verb is "desu" meaning 'is.'
>       “Sanga-san desu” is the comment.
>       Therefore, this loosely translates to:
>       "As for this person, (it) is Mr. Sanger."   
> 2). Japanese nouns have neither number nor gender.
>       Thus “hon” meaning “book” can be used for the singular or plural.
> 3). Verbs normally come at the end of a sentence.
> 4). Verbs are conjugated to show only tenses, of which there are two: the present and the 
>       past.
>       The present tense in Japanese serves the function of the simple present, the  
>       continuous present, the habitual present, and the future tense, while the past tense
>       in Japanese serves the function of the simple past tense, the present perfect and
>       the  past perfect tense.  The exact meaning is determined from the context.
> 5). Adjectives, are inflected to show the present, past, affirmative and negative.
> 6). The grammatical function of nouns like possession, direct object, indirect object etc.
>       are indicated by particles, like “wa,” and “no” above. They always follow the noun.
>       Particles play an extremely important function in Japanese.
> 7). Finally, Japanese has many different dialects to express different levels of politeness.
> </pre>
> 
> '''Example: Basic Japanese Sentence structure.'''
> 
> 
> Note the importance of the particles, verb tenses, and adjectives.
> 
> 
> Mr. '''Sanger''' and Mr. '''Wales''' eat at a Japanese restaurant.
> 
> 
> <pre>
> Sanger:    Sumimasen, menyuu o misete kudasai.  Please show us the menu.
> Ueitoresu: Hai, doozo.                          Certainly sir. Here you are.
>            Nomimono wa nani ga  ii desu ka.     What would you like to drink? 
> Weruzu:    Biiru ga, hosii desu.                I like beer.
> Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I’ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
> Weruzu:    Biiru o 2-hon to sukiyaki o kudasai. Two bottles of beer and some
>                                                 sukiyaki, please. 
> Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we’ll have melon.
> Ueitoresu: Hai, wakarimashita.                  I see (understood).
> 
> 
> Notes:
> <pre>
> Vocabulary:
> sumimasen     -  excuse me
> menyuu        -  menu
> hai           -  yes
> nomimono      -  beverage
> nani          -  what
> hosii         -  desirable
> ii            -  good
> biiru         –  beer
> hon           -  bottle
> dezaato       -  dessert
> meron         -  melon
> kudasai       -  please
> 
> Particles:
> wa – indicates the topic.
> ga – indicates the topic with emphasis on the topic
> o  - indicates the direct object
> ka – indicates a question
> to – and
> 
> Verbs:
> misemasu   - show
> desu       – to be (copulative) 
> wakarimasu – to understand.
> </pre>
> 
>  
> 
> 
> 
> 
>        
>  
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Film_Criticism|983956415
1c1
< A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
------
Film_Theory|983956453
3c3
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]]
---
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
------
SandBox|983956454
85a86,88
> 
> <font size=+3 color=red><b><i>I say, you've got it!!!</b></i></font>
> 
------
Comedy_Film|983956661
0a1,8
> Film comedy can be further divided into several other sub-genres.  Some of these include:
> *[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
> *[[Slapstick Film]]
> *[[Screwball Comedy Film]]
> *[[Parody Film]]
> *[[Dark Comedy Film]]
> 
> 
------
Howard_Hawks|983956718
4c4
< :[[Bringing up Baby]] - Screwball Comedy
---
> :[[Bringing up Baby]] - [[Screwball Comedy Film]]
------
Smiley|983956870
6,11c6,11
<   :)      is a smile
<   :(      is a frown
<   :P      has a lolling tongue
<   ;)      is wiking
<   B)      has sunglasses
<   :-)     has a nose
---
>   :-)      is a smile
>   :-(      is a frown
>   :-P      has a lolling tongue
>   ;-)      is winking
>   B-)      has sunglasses
>   :-o      surprise
13c13
< ...there are a lot of possibilities, people are very good at interpreting pictures as faces.  See [[Ascii Art]], maybe [[Electronic communications]], [[Emote]], or [[Emoticon]].
---
> ...there are a lot of possibilities, people are very good at interpreting pictures as faces.  See [[Ascii Art]], maybe [[Electronic communications]], [[Emote]], or [[Emoticon]].
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|983957401
108,109c108,109
< (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
< 
---
> (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)----
> '''Q.'''What about <pre>  <pre>?  </pre>----
------
Games|983957553
58a59,60
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Clue]]
63c65
< * [[Settlers of Catan]]
---
> * [[Settlers of Catan]]
------
Screwball_Comedy_Film|983957727
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the film genres.  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[Film Genre Conventions]] that comprise the Screwball Comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[Slapstick Comedy Film]] or [[Situation Comedy Film]].
> 
> However, some have suggested the genre has several characteristics:
> *  Comedies produced by the American Hollywood Studio system between 1933 and 1939 that contain certain story or stylistic elements (mentioned below).  Most acknowledge that the screwball comedy had stragglers through the forties and fifties, but the onset of World War II and the end of the depression undermined some of the thematic codes that acted as a spine to the genre.
> *  Reverse class snobbery.  The implied or explicit that common folk were superior to the wealthy.  Associated with this was the belief that even the wealthy had the potential to exhibit the nobility of ordinary folk.
> *  Romantic element.  The screwball comedies always depicted a couple who was destined to complete each other but had a difficult time getting together.
> *  The stories almost always revolved around the idle rich and often came into conflict with the guy who has to work for a living.
> *  Divorce and Remarriage.  Some scholars point to this frequent device as evidence of the shift in the American moral code.  There was a move toward freer divorces but with the reassurance that marriage is ultimately a superior way of life.
> *  Fast-talking, witty reparte.  This stylistic device did not originate in the screwballs, but can be found in many of the old [[Hollywood Cycles]] including the gangster, journalism, romantic comedies, and others.
> *  Ridiculous situations.
> 
> Some characteristic examples:
> *[[Bringing Up Baby]]
> *[[The Philadelphia Story]]
> *[[The Awful Truth]]
> *[[It Happened One Night]]
> 
> Some actors most common to the screwball comedies:
> *[[Carole Lombard]]
> *[[Cary Grant]]
> *[[Clark Gable]]
------
Games|983957732
2c2,5
< * ContractBridge
---
> * [[Canasta]]
> * [[ContractBridge]]
> * [[Go Fish]]
> * [[Old Maid]]
4a8
> * [[Spit]]
------
Hollywood_Cycles|983957950
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the classic era of Hollywood cinema (1930-1945) the "cycles" or genres matured.  They called them cycles which was a short term for stories that were similar.  While we would recognize many of the genres as Westerns, Gangsters, Musicals, etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific.  Instead of "Romantic Comedy" it might be "Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl" cycle.
> 
> See also [[Film Theory]] and [[Genre Film Theory]].
------
Painters|983958216
51a52
>      [[Marc Chagall]] 
------
Europa|983958303
1c1
< In [[Greek Mythology]] a Phoenician princess. As ZeuS saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]] a Phoenician princess. As [[Zeus]] saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
3c3
< Europa is also the spelling of Europe in languages like [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in languages like [[Danish]], [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Genre_Film_Theory|983958691
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new content was foracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.  This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of immitation.  As stories were reworked and re-shot, what becan to emerge by the end of the 1910s and certainly was noticeably present by the mid 20s was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen hundred of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive set up for the showdown.  The convention was created where when two men face each other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited construction of a film sequence.
> 
> While Westerns are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the romantic comedy, and the spontaneous burst into song in the musical all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
> 
> As genres pass the point of maturity, they often go into a stage of deconstruction.  With respect to the Western: [[Little Big Man]] realigned the conventions in a politically correct way (or more to the point, reversed the cowboy and Indian relationship), [[Blazing Saddles]] turned the conventions into humor, and [[Unforgiven]] reversed every convention for the sake of tragedy.
> 
> Much debate continues about what makes a genre and what doesn't as well as the way genres are constructed or deconstructed.
> 
> (All of this barely touches the surface.)
------
Scepticism|983958772
3c3
< In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We’re going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
---
> In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We're going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
5c5
< First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don’t</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can’t</i> have knowledge.  There’s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don’t, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don’t have it yet.  (Or they didn’t back in ancient Greece anyway!)
---
> First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don't</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge.  There?s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don't, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don't have it yet.  (Or they didn't back in ancient Greece anyway!)
7c7
< It’s quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn’t</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we’ll be investigating in a little bit.
---
> It's quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn't</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we'll be investigating in a little bit.
9c9
< Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can’t possibly, or at least don’t, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won’t venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I’m not going to get into that.
---
> Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can't possibly, or at least don't, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won't venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I'm not going to get into that.
13c13
< So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we’ll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that’s a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I’ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
---
> So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we'll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that's a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I?ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
15c15
< Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we’ll say the skeptic claims:
---
> Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we'll say the skeptic claims:
19c19
< You’re probably wondering what "areas" I’m talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
---
> You're probably wondering what "areas" I'm talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
23c23
< Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I’m looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
---
> Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I'm looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
25c25
< This is an important point to understand so I’ll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That’s all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
---
> This is an important point to understand so I'll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That's all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
27c27
< This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what’s being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we’ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn’t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can’t think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
---
> This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what's being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we?ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn?t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can't think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
29c29
< But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it’s there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn’t say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
---
> But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it's there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn't say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
31c31
< You’ll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
---
> You'll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
33c33
< Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can’t is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we’re approaching it from a different angle.
---
> Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can't is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we're approaching it from a different angle.
35c35
< You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I’ve already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume’s argument basically says that we can’t know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
---
> You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I've already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume's argument basically says that we can't know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
37c37
< Now I’m going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume’s.  Namely, Descartes’ famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn’t that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I’m dreaming; I don’t have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I’m dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven’t I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn’t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn’t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I’m awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I’m awake -- but in fact, I’m <i>asleep</i>?
---
> Now I'm going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume's.  Namely, Descartes' famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn't that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I'm dreaming; I don't have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I'm dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven't I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn?t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn?t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I'm awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I'm awake -- but in fact, I'm <i>asleep</i>?
39c39
< Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren’t</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I’m asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn’t</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don’t really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That’s Descartes’ dreaming doubt.
---
> Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren't</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I'm asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn't</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don't really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That's Descartes' dreaming doubt.
41c41
< Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn’t know he’s awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn’t really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn’t</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can’t rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
---
> Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn't know he's awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn't really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn't</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can't rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
43c43
< If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I’m not dreaming": that’s what you want to say.  Here is Descartes’ reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you’re just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you’re awake!  And so you’re begging the question against the skeptic!
---
> If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I'm not dreaming": that's what you want to say.  Here is Descartes? reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you're just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you're awake!  And so you're begging the question against the skeptic!
45c45
< Or maybe you’ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here’s how I can show that it’s reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I’ve had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it’s generally reliable.
---
> Or maybe you?ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here's how I can show that it's reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I've had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it's generally reliable.
47c47
< Well, I’m sure you can guess how Descartes’ skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I’m not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you’re not dreaming!  And that’s impossible!  So you can’t know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
---
> Well, I'm sure you can guess how Descartes' skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I'm not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you're not dreaming!  And that's impossible!  So you can't know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
49c49
< And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren’t you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it’s not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren’t you begging the question again?  Don’t you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshipe?
---
> And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren't you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it's not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren't you begging the question again?  Don't you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshape?
51c51
< Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you’re arguing in a circle, you’re begging the question.  So what’s the upshot?  That you <i>can’t</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn’t allowed.
---
> Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you're arguing in a circle, you're begging the question.  So what?s the upshot?  That you <i>can't</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn't allowed.
53c53
< Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume’s and Descartes’, although it is related to both.  Hume said you can’t prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can’t even prove that you’re not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can’t prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
---
> Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume's and Descartes', although it is related to both.  Hume said you can't prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can't even prove that you're not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can't prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
55c55
< This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you’re assuming that those memories are reliable: and that’s what you’re trying to prove, so you can’t assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn’t</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
---
> This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you're assuming that those memories are reliable: and that's what you're trying to prove, so you can't assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn't</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
57c57
< Now let’s see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
---
> Now let's see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
59c59
< First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume’s, Descartes’, and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can’t</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can’t prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can’t prove that we’re not dreaming.  We can’t prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don’t <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren’t justified in believing it?  Take Descartes’ dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you’re convinced that you can’t prove that you’re not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you’re even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can’t prove, to Descartes’ skeptic, that I’m not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I’m dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
---
> First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume's, Descartes', and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can't</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can't prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can't prove that we're not dreaming.  We can't prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don't <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren't justified in believing it?  Take Descartes? dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you're convinced that you can't prove that you're not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you're even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can't prove, to Descartes? skeptic, that I'm not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I'm dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
61c61
< Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don’t really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don’t <i>know</i> I’m standing up right now.
---
> Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don't really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don't <i>know</i> I'm standing up right now.
65c65
< Now I personally don’t think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we’re wrong; but if we’re right then we have knowledge.  So I’m not particularly worried if I can’t prove that I’m not dreaming.  I think it’s extremely unlikely that I’m dreaming, and I think I’m perfectly well justified in thinking I’m awake.  And I don’t have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I’m awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I’m awake.
---
> Now I personally don't think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we're wrong; but if we're right then we have knowledge.  So I'm not particularly worried if I can't prove that I'm not dreaming.  I think it's extremely unlikely that I'm dreaming, and I think I'm perfectly well justified in thinking I'm awake.  And I don't have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I'm awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I'm awake.
67c67
< You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn’t allow the possibility that I’m asleep when by every indication I’m awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn’t make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
---
> You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn't allow the possibility that I'm asleep when by every indication I'm awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn't make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
69c69
< Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won’t get into their reasons why.
---
> Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won't get into their reasons why.
71c71
< Here’s a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn’t it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can’t know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn’t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That’s not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
---
> Here's a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn't it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can't know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn?t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That's not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
73c73
< A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic’s argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
---
> A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic's argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
75c75
< Do you recognize the form of Reid’s argument?  It’s a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can’t trust our ability our reason and so can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can’t trust the skeptic’s conclusion.  In either case we don’t have to worry about skepticism!
---
> Do you recognize the form of Reid's argument?  It's a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can't trust our ability our reason and so can't trust the skeptic's conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can't trust the skeptic's conclusion.  In either case we don't have to worry about skepticism!
77c77
< Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It’s very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I’ve only given you a basic sampling.
---
> Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It's very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I've only given you a basic sampling.
------
ScienceFiction|983958860
10c10
< criticism by HgWells.
---
> criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
------
Marxist_film_theory|983959209
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the oldest forms of film theory.  
> 
> [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through [The Kuleshov Experiment].
> 
> While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the capitalist propaganda.  Shot-reverse-shot is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
> 
> Eisenstein's solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over.
> 
> Some later Marxist critics saw the very cinematic apparatus to be infused in the capitalistic ideology which no film can escape.
------
Marxist_film_theory|983959245
3c3
< [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through [The Kuleshov Experiment].
---
> [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the [Kuleshov Experiment].
9c9
< Some later Marxist critics saw the very cinematic apparatus to be infused in the capitalistic ideology which no film can escape.
---
> Some later Marxist critics saw the very cinematic apparatus to be infused in the capitalistic ideology which no film can escape.
------
Marxist_film_theory|983959303
3c3
< [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the [Kuleshov Experiment].
---
> [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the [[Kuleshov Experiment]].
------
Film_Theory|983959340
3c3
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
---
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|983959464
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Technique]] of shot-reverse-shot essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|983959501
1c1
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Technique]] of shot-reverse-shot essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Techniques]] of shot-reverse-shot essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|983959536
1c1
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Techniques]] of shot-reverse-shot essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Techniques]] of [[Shot Reverse Shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
------
Marxist_film_theory|983959584
5c5
< While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the capitalist propaganda.  Shot-reverse-shot is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
---
> While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the capitalist propaganda.  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
------
Shot_Reverse_Shot|983959810
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This film technique is a sequence of three shots.  The first shot is a person's face.  The second shot is what that person is looking at (whether it be another person or an object).  And the final shot is the person again where we process how that person feels about what he/she is looking at.  This helps the audience build identification with the character.
> 
> This technique is essential to [[IMR (Institutional Mode of Representation)]].
------
Shot_Reverse_Shot|983959830
3c3
< This technique is essential to [[IMR (Institutional Mode of Representation)]].
---
> This technique is essential to [[IMR]] (Istitutional Mode of Representation).
------
IMR|983960001
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IMR -- Institutional Mode of Representation
> 
> In Film Theory, this is the stylistic structure of narrative film construction that was developed during the classic Hollywood period.  It included some basic premises:
> *  Characters were displayed realistically and with a progressive character arc.
> *  The story was told linearly with clear dramatic arc.
> *  Every effort was made to preserve a sense of spatial and temporal continuity.
------
IMR|983960019
3c3
< In Film Theory, this is the stylistic structure of narrative film construction that was developed during the classic Hollywood period.  It included some basic premises:
---
> In [[Film Theory]], this is the stylistic structure of narrative film construction that was developed during the classic Hollywood period.  It included some basic premises:
6c6
< *  Every effort was made to preserve a sense of spatial and temporal continuity.
---
> *  Every effort was made to preserve a sense of spatial and temporal continuity.
------
Formalist_Film_Theory|983960080
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Identified the basis of Hollywood narrative construction called [[IMR]].
------
H.G._Wells|983960379
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English writer
> 
> In his early novels, described at the time as `scientific romances'  he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers, and have entered popular culture, with such works as [[The Time Machine]], [[The Invisible Man]], and [[The War of the Worlds]] 
> 
> In a long writing career, he wrote novels covering a wide range of subjects, such as the excesses of Edwardian advertising, in `Tono-Bungay', books depicting various [[Utopia|Utopian]] societies, such as "In the days of the comet" and even wrote the screenplay for the [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]], (1937?) which depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment.
> 
> He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, "Mind at the end of its tether" suggests. His growing pessimism led to his later books tending rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier science fiction novels - as the science fiction writer [[Theodore Sturgeon]] aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message"
------
Film_History|983960426
20a21,41
> 
> -----
> 
> Classic Hollywood Era (1930-1945)
> 
> *  [[IMR]]
> 
> Directors:
> *  [[Frank Capra]]
> *  [[Howard Hawks]]
> *  [[John Ford]]
> *  [[Orson Welles]]
> 
> Actors:
> *  [[Shirley Temple]]
> *  [[Cary Grant]]
> *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
> *  [[Carole Lombard]]
> *  [[Micky Rooney]]
> *  [[Clark Gable]]
> *  [[Edward G. Robinson]]
21a43,45
> 
> Producers:
> 
------
Film_History|983960477
20a21
> *  [[Mack Sennett]]
42c43
< *  [[Mack Sennett]]
---
> 
------
Science_Fiction_Film|983960917
3c3,5
< [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] --  [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Mission to Mars]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 From Outer Space]]
---
> In approximate chronological order: (can anyone supply the year?)
>  
> [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] --  [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] --  [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|983963280
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> the War of the Worlds has entered popular culture, with a vast number of books, films, TV series and comic books using themes from this book, whether acknowledged or not. Adaptations have tended to move the date of the invasion but the basic theme has remained the same. Three of its manifestations are described below (feel free to add any other interesting ones)
> 
> The Book
> 
> The original novel by [[H.G. Wells]], describing the invasion of earth from Mars. Mars having become progressively more uninhabitable to life, the Martians are desperate to colonise Earth, and have no compunctions about using their vastly superior weaponry (poison gas, and a heat ray bearing a strong resemblance to a high-power infra-red [[laser]])
> The most advanced human weaponry of the time (1895) is utterly powerless to resist, and the rule of the Martians seems inevitable until they fall foul of microbiology...
> 
> The Radio play and the panic
> 
> For Halloween in (1938? 1939?), [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to WW II, many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
> 
> 
> The Film
> 
> Made by [[George Pal]] in (1958?) Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including nuclear bombs, but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
------
Science_Fiction_Film|983963384
5c5
< [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] --  [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] --  [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] --  [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] --  [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
Science_Fiction_Film|983963463
5c5
< [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] --  [[Dune]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Star Wars]] --  [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
RequestedArticles|983966855
25c25
< <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[dracula]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[golem]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
---
> <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]]
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]]
33c33
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
Statistical_Regularity|983967284
7c7
< Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This observation is called '''statistical regularity'''.
---
> Similar experiments with coins, dice, and roulette wheels reinforce the main idea. Repeating a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series. This phenomenon is called '''statistical regularity'''.
------
C.S._Lewis/Talk|983967333
5c5,7
< ''That doesn't make him English, does it?''
---
> ''That doesn't make him English, does it?''
> 
> He was a professor of English at an english university (Oxford). That sounds like an english academic to me. Make it British if you're so uptight about it!
------
The_Beatles|983967581
1c1,21
< The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]] and [[Ringo Starr]] ([[Richard Starky]]) were all from [[Liverpool]], [[England]].
---
> The Beatles were a group of four musicians that epitomised the popular culture of Britain and the postwar baby boom generation, indeed much of the English speaking world during the 1960s and early 1970's.  The members of the group were: [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]] and [[Ringo Starr]] ([[Richard Starkey]]) were all from [[Liverpool]], [[England]].
> 
> 
> Originally signed to Parlophone/EMI in the UK, the Beatles (UK) official studio albums (not including compilations and the like) were:  
> *Please, Please Me
> *With The Beatles
> *A Hard Days Night
> *Beatles For Sale
> *Help!
> *Rubber Soul
> *Revolver
> *Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
> *The Beatles (aka The White Album)
> *Yellow Submarine
> *Abbey Road
> *Let It Be.
> 
> Originally a high energy pop band (typified by the early singles "Twist and Shout" and "Please Please Me") as they progressed their style became more sophisticated, influenced in equal measure by [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Marijuana]].  At the height of their fame in the mid-sixties, bolstered by the two films [[Help]]! and [[A Hard Days Night]], they suffered a violent backlash in some parts after [[John Lennon]] described the band as "more popular than Jesus".
> 
> 
> By 1966 the influence of [[Drugs]], the [[Hippie]] movement, and the studio technique of producer [[George Martin]] resulted in the albums [[Revolver]] and [[Sgt Pepper]], still widely regarded as classics.  By then, the stress of their fame was beginning to tell and the band was on the verge of splitting by the release of [[The White Album]], with many tracks recorded by the band members individually.  By 1970 the band had split, with each of the members going on to solo careers with varying degrees of success.
------
Demographic_Statistics|983967941
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics/Applied]]
> 
> Among the kinds of data that national leaders need are the '''demographic statistics''' of their population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy. 
> 
> A useful summary of such data is the [[Population Pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
> 
> Another summary is called the [[Life Table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
> 
> The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Demographic_Statistics|983968176
5c5
< A useful summary of such data is the [[Population Pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
---
> A useful summary of such data is the [[http://www.statcan.ca/english/kits/animat/pyone.htm Population Pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
11c11
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Demographic_Statistics|983968325
7c7
< Another summary is called the [[Life Table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
---
> Another summary is called the [[http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~drl/lifetable.htm Life Table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
------
Genre_Film_Theory|983968366
3c3
< While Westerns are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the romantic comedy, and the spontaneous burst into song in the musical all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
---
> While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the romantic comedy, and the spontaneous burst into song in the musical all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
------
Bob_Dylan|983968408
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music.  Initially making his name as a [[folk singer]], specialising in [[protest songs]] his artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind  In 1965 (influenced by the [[folk rock]] of [[The Byrds]]) he began performing with an electric [[rock and roll]] band and his new style of poetic, impressionistic lyrics were to have a lasting effect on the industry.
> 
> ...no time for a full career review...
> 
> Recommended albums:
> * The Freewheelin Bob Dylan (1963)
> * Bringing It All Back Home (1965)
> * Highway 61 Revisited (1966)
> * Blonde On Blonde (1966)
> * Blood On The Tracks (1974)
------
Genre_Film_Theory|983968445
3c3
< While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the romantic comedy, and the spontaneous burst into song in the musical all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
---
> While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
------
Sports|983968670
46a47
> * [[Rugby]]
------
Popular_Music|983968765
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Generic term for the forms of music growing out of the [[rock and roll]] of the 1950s.
> 
> Important early influences include:
> *[[Chuck Berry]]
> *[[Little Richard]]
> *[[Elvis Presley]]
> *[[Bob Dylan]]
> *[[The Beatles]]
------
RequestedArticles|983969111
17c17
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]] -- [[George Orwell]]
21c21
< <b>Government: </b>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Universal Postal Union]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
------
George_Orwell|983969251
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pen name used by Eric Blair
> 
> Books by Orwell include:
> 
> [[Down and out in Paris and London]]
> 
> [[The Road to Wigan Pier]]
> 
> [[Animal Farm]]
> 
> [[1984]]
------
RequestedArticles|983969305
17c17
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]] -- [[George Orwell]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]]
------
Demographic_Statistics|983969411
3c3
< Among the kinds of data that national leaders need are the '''demographic statistics''' of their population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy. 
---
> Among the kinds of data that national leaders need are the '''demographic statistics''' of their population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy. See for example, the statistical report on [http://www.magnet.mt/home/cos/cospubs/demography/1997/index.htm Malta]
5c5
< A useful summary of such data is the [[http://www.statcan.ca/english/kits/animat/pyone.htm Population Pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
---
> A useful summary of such data is the [http://www.statcan.ca/english/kits/animat/pyone.htm Population Pyramid]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.
7c7
< Another summary is called the [[http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~drl/lifetable.htm Life Table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
---
> Another summary is called the [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~drl/lifetable.htm Life Table]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.
------
Rugby|983969627
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A competitive team sport with similarities to [[AmericanFootball]], popular in the [[United Kingdom]], [[South Africa]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and Pacific islands such as [[Tonga]], [[Fiji]] and [[Samoa]].
> 
> There are two distinct forms (or codes) of rugby, namely [[Rugby League]] and [[Rugby Union]].
------
Gareth_Owen|983969748
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Such information as there is may be found at [[http://www.ma.man.ac.uk/~gowen/ my home page]]
------
Calculus|983970152
3c3
< '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses on finding the rate of change or [[Derivative]] of [[Continuous Function]]s as the their arguments change. The value of such a [[Function]] (called the ''dependent variable'') results from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]], [[Mathematical Limit]], [Mathematical Continuity]], and [Rules of Operations for Functions]]. Its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
---
> '''Calculus''' (or ''The Calculus'') is the mathematical discipline which focuses on finding the rate of change or [[Derivative]] of [[Continuous Function]]s as the their arguments change. The value of such a [[Function]] (called the ''dependent variable'') results from a change in a related quantity (called the ''independent variable''). Its conceptual foundations include the [[Mathematical Function]], [[Mathematical Limit]], [[Mathematical Continuity]], and [Rules of Operations for Functions]]. Its tools include the [[Symbol Manipulation]] techniques associated with [[School Algebra]].
------
Derivative|983970214
5c5
< Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the [[Limit]] of this ratio as dx tends to zero.
---
> Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the [[Mathematical Limit]] of this ratio as dx tends to zero.
------
Literature|983970356
2a3
> * [[Samuel Beckett]]
3a5,6
> * [[Charles Dickens]]
> * [[FScottFitzgerald|F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
5a9
> * [[James Joyce]]
6a11,12
> * [[C.S.Lewis]]
> * [[Ezra Pound]]
8,10d13
< * JRRTolkieN 
< * [[FScottFitzgerald|F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
< * [[James Joyce]]
11a15,16
> * [[JRR Tolkien]] 
> 
13,14d17
< * [[Ezra Pound]]
< * [[Charles Dickens]]
19c22,23
< * [[Albert Camus]]
---
> * [[Albert Camus]]
> * [[H.G. Wells]]
------
Literature|983970502
3a4
> * [[Albert Camus]]
13a15
> * [[Jean Paul Sartre]]
14a17
> * [[Hunter S Thompson|Hunter S. Thompson]]
16d18
< 
18d19
< * [[Samuel Beckett]]
20,23c21
< * [[Hunter S Thompson|Hunter S. Thompson]]
< * [[Jean Paul Sartre]]
< * [[Albert Camus]]
< * [[H.G. Wells]]
---
> * [[H.G. Wells]]
------
United_Kingdom|983971149
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]", the UK comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] and is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its capital [[London]] and a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
------
Music|983971364
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll] ]-- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
------
The_Beatles|983971488
18c18
< Originally a high energy pop band (typified by the early singles "Twist and Shout" and "Please Please Me") as they progressed their style became more sophisticated, influenced in equal measure by [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Marijuana]].  At the height of their fame in the mid-sixties, bolstered by the two films [[Help]]! and [[A Hard Days Night]], they suffered a violent backlash in some parts after [[John Lennon]] described the band as "more popular than Jesus".
---
> Originally a high energy pop band (typified by the early singles "Twist and Shout" and "Please Please Me") as they progressed their style became more sophisticated, influenced in equal measure by [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Marijuana]].  At the height of their fame in the mid-sixties, bolstered by the two films [[Help]]! and [[A Hard Days Night]], they suffered a violent backlash in some parts after [[John Lennon]] described the band as "more popular than [[Jesus]]".
------
TheProblemOfEvil|983975622
25c25
< Consider premise (2): "If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it."  Why think this?  Simply put, for a traditional theist, evil has to have <i>some</i> explanation.  Why would a good God allow evil to exist in the world?  Maybe he does not know about it; or maybe he <i>can’t</i> get rid of it; or maybe he does not <i>want</i> to eliminate it.  But is there any <i>other</i> explanation?  Perhaps; perhaps not.  Suppose God <i>knew</i> about evil, he <i>could</i> eliminate all of it, and he <i>wanted</i> to eliminate all of it; could evil even <i>possibly</i> exist then?  Surely not.  If God <i>knew</i> about all the evil, and he <i>could</i> get rid of it, and he <i>desired</i> to get rid of it, then God <i>would</i> get rid of it.  But then we simply say: suppose that evil <i>does</i> exist.  In that case, either God does not know about it, he cannot get rid of it, or he does not want to get rid of it.  One of those options is open to us (or perhaps a combination of them).  That is what premise (2) says.
---
> Consider premise (2): "If evil exists in the world, then either (1) God does not know about it, (2) God cannot eliminate it, or (3) God does not want to eliminate it."  Why think this?  Simply put, for a traditional theist, evil has to have <i>some</i> explanation.  Why would a good God allow evil to exist in the world?  Maybe he does not know about it; or maybe he <i>can't</i> get rid of it; or maybe he does not <i>want</i> to eliminate it.  But is there any <i>other</i> explanation?  Perhaps; perhaps not.  Suppose God <i>knew</i> about evil, he <i>could</i> eliminate all of it, and he <i>wanted</i> to eliminate all of it; could evil even <i>possibly</i> exist then?  Surely not.  If God <i>knew</i> about all the evil, and he <i>could</i> get rid of it, and he <i>desired</i> to get rid of it, then God <i>would</i> get rid of it.  But then we simply say: suppose that evil <i>does</i> exist.  In that case, either God does not know about it, he cannot get rid of it, or he does not want to get rid of it.  One of those options is open to us (or perhaps a combination of them).  That is what premise (2) says.
47c47
< Some theologians--of a mystical bent--believe that all they have to prove is that a loving God <i>can</i> <i>have</i> <i>some</i> <i>purpose</i> in permitting evil to exist.  These people <i>deny</i> that they have to <i>state</i> God’s purposes.  There would be little point in doing that.  God’s purposes are not our purposes, they say; the nature of God is mysterious.  All one has to do is to argue that a loving God <i>might</i> have some reason for allowing the existence of evil; one need not state what the reason is.  This is an extremely popular view among ordinary theistic nontheologians, for two reasons, no doubt: first, it seems extremely pious not to try to guess at God’s thoughts (indeed, some religions enjoin us from doing so); and second, it gives us a reason for not making an actual attempt to explain evil, which promises to be a difficult task.
---
> Some theologians--of a mystical bent--believe that all they have to prove is that a loving God <i>can</i> <i>have</i> <i>some</i> <i>purpose</i> in permitting evil to exist.  These people <i>deny</i> that they have to <i>state</i> God's purposes.  There would be little point in doing that.  God's purposes are not our purposes, they say; the nature of God is mysterious.  All one has to do is to argue that a loving God <i>might</i> have some reason for allowing the existence of evil; one need not state what the reason is.  This is an extremely popular view among ordinary theistic nontheologians, for two reasons, no doubt: first, it seems extremely pious not to try to guess at God's thoughts (indeed, some religions enjoin us from doing so); and second, it gives us a reason for not making an actual attempt to explain evil, which promises to be a difficult task.
------
United_States_Constitution/Amendment_Sixteen|983976179
1c1,4
< The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
---
> The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
> 
> NOTE: The Sixteenth Admendment gave the federal government
> the righ to create an income tax.
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|983976261
13c13,14
< I'd say [[JRR Tolkien]].
---
> I'd say [[JRR Tolkien]].
> OK. JRR Tolkien.
------
ScienceFiction|983976969
13c13
< this and other pulp magazines with great and growing success, such stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. With the advent in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., of Astounding Science Fiction (founded in
---
> this and other [[pulp magazines]] with great and growing success, such stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. With the advent in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., of Astounding Science Fiction (founded in
------
Pulp_magazines|983977259
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cheap, often sensationalistic and/or exploititive magazines published in the 1930s - 1950s?.  
> 
> Pulp magazines can be categorized into the following genres:
> 
> * Detective / Mystery
> * Romance
> * [[Science Fiction]]
> * [[True Crime]]
> * Western
> 
> [[Pulps]] is slang for pulp magazines.
> 
> Many classic science fiction books were originally [[serialized]]
> in pulp magazines.
------
Pulps|983977299
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Slang for [[Pulp magazines]].
------
Serialized|983977482
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Printing or reproducing a larger literary work (e.g. a book)
> over several issues of a magazine or newspaper.
> 
> Most serialized works are spread over a few issues of a magazine.
------
Hollywood_Cycles|983977624
3c3,6
< See also [[Film Theory]] and [[Genre Film Theory]].
---
> See also [[Film Theory]] and [[Genre Film Theory]].
> 
> In literary works, generic storylines are referred to as
> [[Formula Fiction]].
------
Formula_Fiction|983977726
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Literary storyline / plot that are been reused over and over
> again.
------
Formula_Fiction|983977759
2a3,4
> 
> In film, this is [[Holywood Cycles]].
------
Formula_Fiction|983977788
4c4
< In film, this is [[Holywood Cycles]].
---
> In film, this is [[Hollywood Cycles]].
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|983977946
1c1
< the War of the Worlds has entered popular culture, with a vast number of books, films, TV series and comic books using themes from this book, whether acknowledged or not. Adaptations have tended to move the date of the invasion but the basic theme has remained the same. Three of its manifestations are described below (feel free to add any other interesting ones)
---
> The War of the Worlds has entered popular culture, with a vast number of books, films, TV series and comic books using themes from this book, whether acknowledged or not. Adaptations have tended to move the date of the invasion but the basic theme has remained the same. Three of its manifestations are described below (feel free to add any other interesting ones)
5,6c5,6
< The original novel by [[H.G. Wells]], describing the invasion of earth from Mars. Mars having become progressively more uninhabitable to life, the Martians are desperate to colonise Earth, and have no compunctions about using their vastly superior weaponry (poison gas, and a heat ray bearing a strong resemblance to a high-power infra-red [[laser]])
< The most advanced human weaponry of the time (1895) is utterly powerless to resist, and the rule of the Martians seems inevitable until they fall foul of microbiology...
---
> The original novel by [[H.G. Wells]], describing the invasion of earth from [[Mars]]. Mars having become progressively more uninhabitable to life, the [[Martians]] are desperate to colonise Earth, and have no compunctions about using their vastly superior weaponry (poison gas, and a heat ray bearing a strong resemblance to a high-power infra-red [[laser]])
> The most advanced human weaponry of the time (1895) is utterly powerless to resist, and the rule of the Martians seems inevitable until they fall foul of [[microbiology]]...
10c10
< For Halloween in (1938? 1939?), [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to WW II, many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
---
> For [[Halloween]] in (1938? 1939?), [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
15c15
< Made by [[George Pal]] in (1958?) Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including nuclear bombs, but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
---
> Made by [[George Pal]] in (1958?) Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including [[nuclear bombs]], but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
------
Martians|983977995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name given to ficticous creatures that inhabit the planet Mars.
------
Mars|983978076
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fourth planet from the sun.
> 
> The god of war in Greek mythology.
------
Pulp_magazines|983978175
1c1,2
< Cheap, often sensationalistic and/or exploititive magazines published in the 1930s - 1950s?.  
---
> Cheap, often sensationalistic and/or exploititive magazines published in the 1930s - 1950s?. 
> The name comes from the cheap woodpulp paper on which they were printed.  
14c15
< in pulp magazines.
---
> in pulp magazines.
------
World_War_II|983978316
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest armed conflict ever.  It had its beginnings in 
> Japan's invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of ? in the 1930s.
> 
> It ended in 1945.
> 
> 
> Much, much more left to be added...
------
World_War_II|983978399
2c2
< Japan's invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of ? in the 1930s.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of ? in the 1930s.
7c7
< Much, much more left to be added...
---
> Much, much more left to be added...
------
Marxist_film_theory|983978642
3c3
< [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other Russian filmmakers in the 20s used Marxism as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian dialectic was considered best displayed in film editing through the [[Kuleshov Experiment]].
---
> [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and many other [[Russian]] [[filmmaker]]s in the 20s used [[Marxism]] as justification for film.  In fact, the Hegelian [[dialectic]] was considered best displayed in [[film editing]] through the [[Kuleshov Experiment]].
5c5
< While this structuralist approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the narrative structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the capitalist propaganda.  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
---
> While this [[structuralist]] approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the [[narrative]] structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the [[capitalist]] [[propaganda]].  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
7c7
< Eisenstein's solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual protagonist and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over.
---
> Eisenstein's solution was to shun narrative structure by eliminating the individual [[protagonist]] and tell stories where the action is moved by the group and the story is told through a clash of one image against the next (whether in composition, motion, or idea) so that the audience is never lulled into believing that they are watching something that has not been worked over.
9c9
< Some later Marxist critics saw the very cinematic apparatus to be infused in the capitalistic ideology which no film can escape.
---
> Some later Marxist critics saw the very [[cinematic]] apparatus to be infused in the capitalistic ideology which no film can escape.
------
Russian|983978698
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person, object, or concept being from Russia.
------
Marxist_film_theory|983978784
5c5
< While this [[structuralist]] approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the [[narrative]] structure of Hollywood filmmaking.  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the [[capitalist]] [[propaganda]].  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this unhealthy ideology.
---
> While this [[structuralist]] approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the [[narrative]] structure of Hollywood [[filmmaking]].  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the [[capitalist]] [[propaganda]].  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this [[unhealthy]] [[ideology]].
------
Stamp_collecting|983979028
2a3,5
> [[Filately]] is a more formal term for stamp collecting.
> 
> A stamp collector is known as a [[Filatelist]].
------
SoftwareDevelopmentProcess|983979241
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The methodology used in developing [[Software]].
> 
> Some [[Software Development]] methods:
> 
> * [[Top Down]]
> * [[Bottom Up]]
> * [[Structured Programming]]
> * [[Object Orientied Design]] - [[OOD]]
> 
------
Software|983979338
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> short form of [[ComputerSoftware]].
------
Computing|983979410
13c13,15
< ** [[Hacking]]
---
> ** [[Hacking]]
> ** [[Cryptology]]
> ** [[Physical Security]]
------
Physical_Security|983979522
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Obstacles that prevent one from accessing a facility, resource, or information stored on physical media.
> 
> Physical security can be anything from a locked door to 
> multiple layers of armed guardposts.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983979892
7c7
< Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it's just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the [[Earth]] is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn't exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that?s the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here?s a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there's a sense in which he doesn't exist; namely, he doesn't exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
---
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it's just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the [[Earth]] is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn't exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that's the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here's a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there's a sense in which he doesn't exist; namely, he doesn't exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
15c15
< This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That?s approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
---
> This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That's approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
17c17
< Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn?t exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
---
> Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn't exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
27c27
< So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant?s, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn?t mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant?s argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
---
> So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant's, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn't mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant's argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
------
Computing|983979903
1a2,7
> ** [[Compression Algorithm]]
> ** [[Encryption / Decryption Algorithm]]
> ** [[Numerical Algorithm]]
> ** [[Searching Algorithm]]
> ** [[Sorting Algorithm]]
> 
2a9,17
> ** [[Central Processor Unit]] - [[CPU]]
> ** [[Input/Output Device]]
> *** [[Digitizing Tablet]]
> *** [[Keyboard]]
> *** [[Mouse]]
> *** [[Plotter]]
> *** [[Printer]]
> *** [[Scanner]]
> 
4a20
> 
6a23
> 
7a25
> 
8a27
> 
11a31
> 
13d32
< ** [[Hacking]]
15c34,35
< ** [[Physical Security]]
---
> ** [[Hacking]]
> ** [[Physical Security]]
------
CPU|983980021
1c1,3
< Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]]. The CPU is generally composed of two units: the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit(ALU). The control unit is repsonsible for exectuting instructions. The ALU is responsible for calculations and logic operations.
---
> Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]]. The CPU is generally composed of two units: the [[Control Unit]] and the [[Arithmetic and Logic unit]]([[ALU]]). The control unit is repsonsible for exectuting instructions. The ALU is responsible for calculations and logic operations.
> 
> CPU is an acroynm for Central Processing Unit.
------
Computing|983980045
9c9
< ** [[Central Processor Unit]] - [[CPU]]
---
> ** [[Central Processing Unit]] - [[CPU]]
------
Central_Processing_Unit|983980063
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[CPU]]
------
Technology|983980101
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Metallurgy]]
> * [[Computing]]
> * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
> * [[Machinery]]
> * TransporT
> * SpacecraftPropulsion
> * EcheloN
> * TheSingularity
------
TechnologY|983980136
1,8c1
< * [[Metallurgy]]
< * [[Computing]]
< * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
< * [[Machinery]]
< * TransporT
< * SpacecraftPropulsion
< * EcheloN
< * TheSingularity
---
> #REDIRECT Technology
------
HomePage|983980160
11c11
< :TechnologY -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :Technology -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
HomePage|983980178
11c11
< :Technology -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Computing|983980382
35a36,54
> 
> * [[Data]]
> ** [[Binary]]
> ** [[Binary Coded Decimal]] - [[BCD]]
> ** [[Bit]]
> ** [[Byte]]
> ** [[Character]]
> ** [[Compressed]]
> ** [[Digitized]]
> ** [[Doubleword]]
> ** [[Fixed Precision]]
> ** [[Fixed Width]]
> ** [[Floating Point]]
> ** [[Image]]
> ** [[Indexed]]
> ** [[Longword]]
> ** [[Multicharacter]]
> ** [[Plain Text]]
> ** [[Quadword]]
------
Computing|983980505
45a46
> ** [[Double Precision]]
48a50,51
> ** [[Hex]]
> ** [[Hexadecimal]]
52a56,57
> ** [[Nibble]]
> ** [[Octal]]
54a60,61
> ** [[Single Precision]]
> ** [[Word]]
------
CryptologY|983980624
8c8
< ----
---
> [[Crypto]] is short for Cryptology.
9a10
> ----
13c14
< * DataEncryptionStandard
---
> * DataEncryptionStandard - [[DES]]
17a19
> * [[Codec]]
------
Crypto|983980642
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see CryptologY
> 
------
DES|983980679
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> acroynm for DataEncryptionStandard
------
DataEncryptionStandard|983980720
3c3
< 
---
> See also: [[CryptologY]]
------
RulesToConsider|983980734
3c3
< See also NamingConventions and RefactoringPolicy.
---
> See also [[Naming conventions]] and RefactoringPolicy.
------
AndyJewell|983980873
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dancer, Developer, Doer and Dreamer.
> 
> ajewell at cinci dot rr dot com, if you need me
>  
------
Andy_Jewell|983980922
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dancer, Developer, Doer and Dreamer.
> 
> ajewell at cinci dot rr dot com, if you need me
>  
------
AndyJewell|983980941
1c1
< Dancer, Developer, Doer and Dreamer.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Andy Jewell]]
3,4d2
< ajewell at cinci dot rr dot com, if you need me
<  
------
LiberaL|983981149
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.
> 
> Starting with the increase in size of government with the [[[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
------
LiberaL|983981160
3c3
< Starting with the increase in size of government with the [[[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
---
> Starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
------
Hollywood_Cycles|983981225
1c1
< In the classic era of Hollywood cinema (1930-1945) the "cycles" or genres matured.  They called them cycles which was a short term for stories that were similar.  While we would recognize many of the genres as Westerns, Gangsters, Musicals, etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific.  Instead of "Romantic Comedy" it might be "Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl" cycle.
---
> In the classic era of [[Hollywood]] cinema (1930-1945) the "cycles" or genres matured.  They called them cycles which was a short term for stories that were similar.  While we would recognize many of the genres as Westerns, Gangsters, Musicals, etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific.  Instead of "Romantic Comedy" it might be "Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl" cycle.
6c6
< [[Formula Fiction]].
---
> [[Formula Fiction]].
------
LinguisticS|983981232
4,6c4,6
< * PhonologY and PhonemeS
< * MorphologY and MorphemeS
< * SyntaX
---
> * [[phonology]] and [[phoneme]]s
> * [[morphology]] and [[morpheme]]s
> * [[syntax]]
8c8
< One speaks also of PhilologY.
---
> One speaks also of [[philology]].
11,15c11,15
< * HistoricalLinguistics
< * ComparativeLinguistics
< * SocioLinguistics
< * PsychoLinguistics
< * ChildsAquisitionOfLanguage
---
> * [historical linguistics]]
> * [[comparative linguistics]]
> * [[socio linguistics]]
> * [[psycho linguistics]]
> * [[childs aquisition of language]]
------
Linguistics|983981273
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LinguisticS is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." LinguisticS views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
> 
> DescriptiveLinguistics is divided into a number of fields.
> * [[phonology]] and [[phoneme]]s
> * [[morphology]] and [[morpheme]]s
> * [[syntax]]
> 
> One speaks also of [[philology]].
> 
> LinguisticS is also studied with other disciplines, thus:
> * [historical linguistics]]
> * [[comparative linguistics]]
> * [[socio linguistics]]
> * [[psycho linguistics]]
> * [[childs aquisition of language]]
> *...
> 
> SouthEastAsianLanguages----
> 
> We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
> 
> Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
> 
> I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
------
LinguisticS|983981362
1,24c1
< LinguisticS is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." LinguisticS views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
< 
< DescriptiveLinguistics is divided into a number of fields.
< * [[phonology]] and [[phoneme]]s
< * [[morphology]] and [[morpheme]]s
< * [[syntax]]
< 
< One speaks also of [[philology]].
< 
< LinguisticS is also studied with other disciplines, thus:
< * [historical linguistics]]
< * [[comparative linguistics]]
< * [[socio linguistics]]
< * [[psycho linguistics]]
< * [[childs aquisition of language]]
< *...
< 
< SouthEastAsianLanguages----
< 
< We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
< 
< Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
< 
< I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Linguistics]]
------
PoLitics|983981395
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Linguistics|983981428
1c1
< LinguisticS is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." LinguisticS views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
---
> [[Linguistics]] is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." [[Linguistics]] views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
3c3
< DescriptiveLinguistics is divided into a number of fields.
---
> [[descriptive linguistics]] is divided into a number of fields.
10c10
< LinguisticS is also studied with other disciplines, thus:
---
> [[Linguistics]] is also studied with other disciplines, thus:
------
PoLitics|983981541
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- TyrannY
---
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- TyrannY
------
Dracula|983981622
1c1,3
< Dracula as a [[Vampire]] is derived from the historic Vlad Drac, the Impaler, Vlad means Count. See also [[Anne Rice]]
---
> [[Dracula]] as a [[Vampire]] is derived from the historic Vlad Drac, the Impaler, Vlad means Count. One of the most famous literary works about [[Vampire]]s is "[[Dracula]] written by [[Bram Stoker]].
> 
> See also [[Anne Rice]]
------
Animation|983981968
1c1
< A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a flexible model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]], [[stop motion animation]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
---
> A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]], [[Stop Motion|stop motion]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
3c3
< [[Anime]] is the common term used for [[Japanese Animation]].
---
> [[JapaneseAnime|anime]] is the common term used for Japanese Animation
------
Phoneme|983982073
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A phoneme is the smallest [[phone]] (unit of sound) that is distinct from other [[phone]]s. 
> 
> What constitutes a phoneme is very very dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[phone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
> 
> Similarly, rumor has it (I don't know if this is actually true) that L and R, while distinct phonemes in [[English]] are the same phoneme in [[Japanese]].
> 
------
Sports|983982106
8a9,10
> ** Bicycling/Road
> ** Bicycling/Offroad - Mountain Biking
9a12
> * Rowing
13a17
> * Sailing / Yahting
32a37
> * Bicycling - Mountain Bike Trials
33a39
> * Curling
49a56
> * Volleyball
60c67,75
< * AutoRacing
---
> * Racing - Motorized
> ** Airplane
> ** Automobile
> *** Drag Racing
> *** Stock Car Racing
> *** Formula One Racing
> *** Cross Country / Offroad Racing
> ** Boat/Ship
> ** Motorcycle
62d76
< * SpeedBoating
76a91
> * Strenght / Weightlifting
79a95
> * Gymnastics
93c109
< * BassFishing
---
> * Fishing
------
Phone|983982137
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A speech sound considered as a physical event without regard to its place in the sound system of a language.
------
Morpheme|983982217
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller sematic units.
------
Dracula|983982339
1,2c1,2
< [[Dracula]] as a [[Vampire]] is derived from the historic Vlad Drac, the Impaler, Vlad means Count. One of the most famous literary works about [[Vampire]]s is "[[Dracula]] written by [[Bram Stoker]].
< 
---
> [[Dracula]] as a [[Vampire]] is derived from the historic Wallachian (southern [[Romania]], 1436) ruler Vlad Tepes (the Impaler). He was immortalised by  [[Bram Stoker]] as "[[Dracula]]", which means "son of the devil" (or of a dragon). In his six year reign he is estimated to have killed 100,000 people, mainly by using his favourite method of impaling them on a sharp pole.
> ----
------
Andy_Jewell|983982533
1c1
< Dancer, Developer, Doer and Dreamer.
---
> Dancer, Developer, Doer and Dreamer. Philologist and Philogynist.
------
Phone|983982625
1a2,3
> 
> It is also a colloquial term for [[Telephone]].
------
Literature|983982674
6a7
> * [[John Dos Passos]]
12c13,14
< * [[C.S.Lewis]]
---
> * [[C.S. Lewis]]
> * [[George Orwell]]
14a17
> * [[Marquis de Sade]]
19,20d21
< * [[John Dos Passos]]
< * [[Marquis de Sade]]
------
Music|983982820
5c5,31
< '''MusicalInstruments:''' TheRecorder -- FiddleandViolin -- FidDle
---
> '''MusicalInstruments:''' 
> * Wind or air based 
> ** TheRecorder -- Flute -- Pipe Organ -- Saxaphone 
> ** Horn
> *** Trumphet
> *** Tuba
> *** French Horn
> *** Trombone
> * String based
> ** Chello
> ** FidDle
> ** FiddleandViolin
> ** Guitar
> ** Harp
> ** Lute
> * Keyboard Based
> ** Harpsichord
> ** Piano
> * Percussion
> ** Chimes
> ** Kettle Drum
> ** Triangle
> ** Xzylophone
> * Electronic
> ** Synthesizer
> *** Moog
> * Other
------
World_War_II|983982970
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of ? in the 1930s.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939.
------
Music|983983061
7c7
< ** TheRecorder -- Flute -- Pipe Organ -- Saxaphone 
---
> ** TheRecorder -- Flute -- Pipe Organ -- Saxaphone -- Jug
13a14
> ** Banjo
17a19,21
> *** Guitar/Bass
> *** Guitar/Classical
> *** Guitar/Slide
19a24,25
> ** Mandolin
> ** Washtub
23a30
> ** Bell
26a34
> ** Washboard
28,30c36,37
< * Electronic
< ** Synthesizer
< *** Moog
---
> * Electronic / Synthesizer
> ** Moog
------
Phone|983983216
1c1
< A speech sound considered as a physical event without regard to its place in the sound system of a language.
---
> A speech sound considered as a physical event without regard to its place in the sound system of a [[language]].
3c3,5
< It is also a colloquial term for [[Telephone]].
---
> It is also a [[colloquial]] term for [[Telephone]].
> 
> It also is a [[verb]] meaning to call someone on a telephone.
------
World_War_II|983983545
5a6,8
> [[WW II]] and [[WWII]] are abbreviations of World War II.
> 
> See also: [[World War I]]
------
Frodo_Baggins|983983762
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacifists
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[Hobbits]] are pacifists
------
WorldWarOne|983984055
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half globe, hence "world" war. It began 1914 and ended 1918.  Nearly 20 million people died during the course of the war, including both military personnel and non-combatants.
---
> #REDIRECT [[World War I]]
------
World_War_I|983984263
1c1
< The First War War lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in Sarajevo by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Europe had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After Austria's declared war, Germany and the Osman Empire joined, declaring war on the Entente powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
------
Great_Britain|983984329
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United Kingdom]]
------
Smiley|983984503
1c1
< Using ascii characters to represent a face or emotion.  Smileys
---
> Using [[ASCII]] characters to represent a face or emotion.  Smileys
6,11c6,11
<   :-)      is a smile
<   :-(      is a frown
<   :-P      has a lolling tongue
<   ;-)      is winking
<   B-)      has sunglasses
<   :-o      surprise
---
>   :-)             is a smile
>   :-(             is a frown
>   :-P             has a lolling tongue
>   ;-)             is winking
>   B-) or 8-)      has sunglasses
>   :-o             surprise
------
BillClinton|983984567
5c5
< Known also for granting the most controversial PresidentialPardon in US history.
---
> He is also known for granting the [[PresidentialPardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
8a9,11
> In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] led by the [[Republican]] party he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
> 
> ----
9a13,14
> 
> Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial PresidentialPardon in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
20,21c25
< Clinton was the most [[Macavalenistic]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on 
< troublesom scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewenski]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
---
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Macavalenistic]] (that isn't a word:  Do you mean [[Machiavellian]]?) president of the [[United States]]  often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewenski]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
23c27
< Bill Clinton was a two time govenor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
---
> Bill Clinton was a two time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
------
Biology|983984645
5c5
< The classification of living things is called [[Taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.  Customarily living things are divided into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
---
> The classification of living things is called [[Taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.
7,8c7,10
< * Kingdom [[Monera]] - all the [[Prokaryote]] groups: bacteria, etc.
< * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]]: protozoa, algae, etc.
---
> Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
> 
> * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
> * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal protozoa, algae, etc.
11a14,18
> 
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".
> 
> Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution.
> 
------
Monera|983984786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term once used for the Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]], and also for the bacteria group in Haeckel's three kingdom scheme.
------
Prokaryotae|983985205
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the five kingdoms in [[Linnaean Taxonomy|biology]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
> 
> :Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
> ::Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
> ::Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
> :Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
> ::Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
> ::Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
> ::Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
------
BillClinton|983985207
1c1
< William Jefferson Clinton was presidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
5c5
< He is also known for granting the [[PresidentialPardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
---
> He is also known for granting the [[Presidential Pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
9c9
< In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] led by the [[Republican]] party he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
---
> In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
14c14
< Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial PresidentialPardon in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
18c18
< The UnitedStatesPresident has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
---
> The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
22,23c22
< Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example GeraldFord's
< pardon of RichardNixon.  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
---
> Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
------
Prokaryotae|983985257
1c1
< One of the five kingdoms in [[Linnaean Taxonomy|biology]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
---
> One of the five kingdoms in [[|biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
------
Prokaryotae|983985278
1c1
< One of the five kingdoms in [[|biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
---
> One of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
------
BillClinton|983985439
3c3
< He was impeached by the HouseOfRepresentatives, but not convicted by the SenatE, for lying under oath to a GrandJury regarding matters related to his sexual affair with MonicaLewinsky.
---
> He was impeached by the [[House Of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], for lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
7c7
< During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the GrandJury.
---
> During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
24c24
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Macavalenistic]] (that isn't a word:  Do you mean [[Machiavellian]]?) president of the [[United States]]  often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewenski]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
---
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Macavalenistic]] (that isn't a word:  Do you mean [[Machiavellian]]?) president of the [[United States]]  often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
------
Prokaryotae|983985497
3,9c3,18
< :Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
< ::Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
< ::Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
< :Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
< ::Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
< ::Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
< ::Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
---
> Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
>     Division Mendosicutes
>         Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
>         Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
> Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
>     Division Tenericutes
>         Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
>     Division Gracilicutes
>         Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
>         Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
>         (8 more)
>     Division Firmicutes
>         Phylum [[Fermenting Bacteria]]
>         Phylum [[Aeroendospora]]
>         Phylum [[Micrococci]]
>         Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
------
Prokaryotae|983985541
3c3
< Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
---
>  Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
7c7
< Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
---
>  Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
18c18
<         Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
---
>         Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
------
Prokaryotae|983985586
5,6c5,6
<         Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
<         Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
---
>        Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
>        Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
9c9
<         Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
---
>        Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
11,13c11,13
<         Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
<         Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
<         (8 more)
---
>        Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
>        Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
>        (8 more)
15,18c15,18
<         Phylum [[Fermenting Bacteria]]
<         Phylum [[Aeroendospora]]
<         Phylum [[Micrococci]]
<         Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
---
>        Phylum [[Fermenting Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Aeroendospora]]
>        Phylum [[Micrococci]]
>        Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
------
Hillary_Rodham_Clinton|983985617
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wife of former PresidentOfTheUnitedStates [[BillClinton]], presently serving [[New York]] in the [[United States Senate]]
> 
> See also
> *[[Senators Of The United States]]
------
Protista|983985822
5a6,19
> 
> Contains the Phyla :
> 
>  Phylum [[Caryoblastea]]
>  Phylum [[Dinoflagellata]]
>  Phylum [[Rhizopoda]]
>  Phylum [[Chrysophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Haptophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Euglenophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Cryptophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Zoomastigina]]
>  Phylum [[Xanthophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Eustigmatophyta]]
>  (17 more)
------
Protista|983986006
1c1
< The Kingdom Protista includes all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few forms are multicellular, ie the [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae) and [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae).  The vast majority, though, are single-celled and are typically only 0.01-0.5 mm in size, too small to be seen without a microscope.  Protists are ubiquitous throughout aqueous environments and the soil, commonly surviving dry periods in the form of ''cysts''; a few are important parasites.
---
> The Kingdom Protista (one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]) includes all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few forms are multicellular, ie the [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae) and [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae).  The vast majority, though, are single-celled and are typically only 0.01-0.5 mm in size, too small to be seen without a microscope.  Protists are ubiquitous throughout aqueous environments and the soil, commonly surviving dry periods in the form of ''cysts''; a few are important parasites.
------
RequestedArticles|983986129
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]]
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[casino]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Gareth_Owen|983986186
1a2,3
> 
> You can email me at this [[mailto:wiki@gwowen.freeserve.co.uk address]]
------
Plantae|983986304
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Plantae is one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]. It includes the Phyla :
> 
>  Phylum [[Bryophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Psilophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Lycopodophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Sphenophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Filicinophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Cycadophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Ginkgophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Coniferophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Gnetophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Angiospermophyta]]
------
World_War_I|983986444
10a11,12
> 
> See also: [[World War II]]
------
Fungi|983986444
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fungi is one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]. It contaiins the Phyla :
> 
>  Phylum [[Zygomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Ascomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Basidiomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Deuteromycota]]
>  Phylum [[Mycophycophyta]]
------
RequestedArticles|983986553
21c21
< <b>Government: </b>[[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[GPS]] -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Ascii_Art|983986561
8a9,12
> 
> Animated ascii art is possible using ANSI exscape sequences
> to change text colors, position of cursor on the screen, and
> text attributes.
------
Laissez-faire_capitalism|983986638
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The doctrine that the free market functions to the greatest good when left unfettered and unregulated by government.
> 
> Some, such as [[Ayn Rand]] may give slightly different, and frequently nebulous, definitions based on notions of justice and human nature.
------
Ayn_Rand|983986691
13c13
< Rand then wrote philosophical novel 'AtlasShrugged' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
---
> Rand then wrote philosophical novel '[[Atlas Shrugged]]' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
------
Ayn_Rand|983986723
9c9
< Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, 'TheFountainhead' (1943). 
---
> Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, '[[The Fountainhead]]' (1943). 
------
Hillary_Rodham_Clinton|983986756
2a3,4
> Junior legal member of the [[Watergate]] prosecution (or investigation ??) team.
> 
------
New_York|983986936
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Northeastern state in the [[United States]].
> 
> As of 2000, it is the third largest state in population after [[Alaska]] and [[Texas]].
> 
> See also: [[New York City]]
------
Hobbits|983986946
3a4
> Hobbits were essentially short, hairy footed versions of humans and lived in a part of [[Middle Earth]] called [[The Shire]].
------
New_York_City|983987000
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Large city in the state of [[New York]] in the [[United States]].
------
New_York_City|983987057
1a2,5
> 
> A resident of New York City is a [[New Yorker]].
> 
> [[NYC]] is an acroynm for New York City.
------
Animalia|983987071
50a51,87
> 
> One of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]. Contains the Phyla :
> 
>  Phylum [[Placozoa]]
>  Phylum [[Porifera]]
>  Phylum [[Cnidaria]]
>  Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
>  Phylum [[Mesozoa]]
>  Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]]
>  Phylum [[Nemertina]]
>  Phylum [[Gnathostomulida]]
>  Phylum [[Gastrotricha]]
>  Phylum [[Rotifera]]
>  Phylum [[Kinorhyncha]]
>  Phylum [[Loricifera]]
>  Phylum [[Acanthocephala]
>  Phylum [[Entoprocta]]
>  Phylum [[Nematoda]]
>  Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
>  Phylum [[Ectoprocta]]
>  Phylum [[Phoronida]]
>  Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
>  Phylum [[Mollusca]]
>  Phylum [[Priapulida]]
>  Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
>  Phylum [[Echiura]]
>  Phylum [[Annelida]]
>  Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
>  Phylum [[Pentastoma]]
>  Phylum [[Onychophora]]
>  Phylum [[Arthropoda]]
>  Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
>  Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
>  Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
>  Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
>  Phylum [[Chordata]]
> 
------
Phoneme|983987074
5c5,7
< Similarly, rumor has it (I don't know if this is actually true) that L and R, while distinct phonemes in [[English]] are the same phoneme in [[Japanese]].
---
> Similarly, rumor has it (I don't know if this is actually true) that L and R, while distinct phonemes in [[English]] are the same phoneme in [[Japanese]].----
> I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes a pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find a pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
> RoseParks
------
NYC|983987076
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[New York City]]
------
First_lady|983987109
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Honorary title granted to the wife of the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
> 
> How this will work when a female is elected president remains to be seen.
------
New_Yorker|983987117
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A resident of [[New York City]].
> 
> see also [[New York City]]
------
Phoneme|983987125
3c3
< What constitutes a phoneme is very very dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[phone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
---
> What constitutes a phoneme is very very dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[allophone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
------
First_lady|983987149
1c1
< Honorary title granted to the wife of the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
---
> Honorary title granted to the wife of the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]].  The present First Lady is [[Laura Welch Bush]].
------
First_lady|983987345
2a3,4
> The first lady has no official governmental duties as she is not elected to any public office.  Unofficially, she attends many of the functions with the president.
> 
------
Laura_Welch_Bush|983987438
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wife of president Bush.  She is a former schoolteacher and
> librarian.
------
Laura_Welch_Bush|983987498
1,2c1,2
< Wife of president Bush.  She is a former schoolteacher and
< librarian.
---
> Wife of president [[George W. Bush]].  She is a former schoolteacher and librarian.
> 
------
NFL|983987575
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[National Football League]]
------
NFL|983987593
1c1
< See [[National Football League]]
---
> See [[NationalFootballLeague]]
------
NationalFootballLeague|983987690
5c5,7
< The league has a new competitor in the form of a new league known as the XfL.  Only time will tell if the new competitor will survive, but other attempts have failed in the past.
---
> The league has a new competitor in the form of a new league known as the [[XFL]].  Only time will tell if the new competitor will survive, but other attempts have failed in the past.
> 
> The [[USFL]] competed with the NFL from 198? - 198?.
------
Animalia|983987764
1c1,5
< '''Introduction'''
---
> An excellent book by [[Graeme Base]], full of illustration and aliteration.
> 
> Also a Taxonomy thing.
> 
> ''Introduction'''
------
NationalFootballLeague|983987786
22c22
< :HoustonOilers
---
> :HoustonOilers - move to Tennessee and changed name to Tennessee Titans
------
Morpheme|983987815
1c1,3
< One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller sematic units.
---
> One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller sematic units.----
> Again this is the minimal unit of meaning in a particular language, as determined by word pairs. For example, compare "athropy" and "dystrophy." Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
> It doesn't appear it can be further divided.
------
NationalFootballLeague|983987853
22c22
< :HoustonOilers - move to Tennessee and changed name to Tennessee Titans
---
> :HoustonOilers - founded 196? - moved to Tennessee in 199? and changed name to Tennessee Titans
------
George_W._Bush|983988029
9c9,11
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father George Bush was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
---
> He is the first president with a [[MBA]] degree.
> 
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|983988060
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> the 41st President, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  
------
George_W._Bush|983988110
15a16,17
> * Laura Bush
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
------
JapaneseLanguage|983988126
9c9
< '''Romanji'''' means Roman letters and is the writing system that will be used here.
---
> '''Romanji''' means Roman letters and is the writing system that will be used here.
49a50
> </pre>
50a52
> <pre>
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|983988170
1c1,3
< the 41st President, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  
---
> He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  
> 
> He flew ? during [[World War II]].
------
George_W._Bush|983988227
16c16
< * Laura Bush
---
> * [[Laura Welch Bush]]
------
George_W._Bush|983988267
11c11
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] was the 41st president, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
---
> Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] was the 41st president. The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
------
Vector_Space|983988302
27a28,29
> 
> 
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|983988382
37c37
< * RichardMNixon (1969-1974)
---
> * Richard Millhouse Nixon (1969-1974)
40,42c40,42
< * RonaldWReagan (1981-1989)
< * GeorgeBush (1989-1993)
< * BillClinton (1993-2001)
---
> * [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]] (1981-1989)
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (1989-1993)
> * Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|983988403
42c42
< * Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
---
> * BillClinton (1993-2001)
------
SuperBowl|983988447
3a4,41
> 
> The Superbowl was first played in 1967 between the champions of the [[American Football League]] and the [[National Football League]], and now features the champions of the [[American Football Conference]] and the [[National Football Conference]], under the aegis of the [[NFL]].
> 
> Previous results:
> * 1/15/67 Green Bay Packers bt. Kansas City Chiefs 35-10
> * 1/14/68 Green Bay Packers bt. Oakland Raiders 33-14
> * 1/12/69 New York Jets bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
> * 1/11/70 Kansas City Chiefs bt. Minnesota Vikings 23-7
> * 1/17/71 Baltimore Colts bt.Dallas Cowboys 16-13
> * 1/16/72 Dallas Cowboys bt. Miami Dolphins 24-3
> * 1/14/73 Miami Dolphins bt. Washington Redskins 14-7
> * 1/13/74 Miami Dolphins bt. Minnesota Vikings 24-7
> * 1/12/75 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Minnesota Vikings 16-6
> * 1/18/76 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Dallas Cowboys 21-17
> * 1/09/77 Oakland Raiders bt. Minnesota Vikings 32-14
> * 1/15/78 Dallas Cowboys bt. Denver Broncos 27-10
> * 1/21/79 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Dallas Cowboys 35-31
> * 1/20/80 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Los Angeles Rams 31-19
> * 1/25/81 Oakland Raiders bt. Philadelphia Eagles 27-10
> * 1/24/82 San Francisco 49ers bt. Cincinnati Bengals 26-21
> * 1/30/83 Washington Redskins bt. Miami Dolphins 27-17
> * 1/22/84 Los Angeles Raiders bt. Washington Redskins 38-9
> * 1/20/85 San Francisco 49ers bt. Miami Dolphins 38-16
> * 1/26/86 Chicago Bears bt. New England Patriots 46-10
> * 1/25/87 New York Giants bt. Denver Broncos 39-20
> * 1/31/88 Washington Redskins bt. Denver Broncos 42-10
> * 1/22/89 San Francisco 49ers bt. Cincinnati Bengals 20-16
> * 1/28/90 San Francisco 49ers bt. Denver Broncos 55-10
> * 1/27/91 New York Giants bt. Buffalo Bills 20-19
> * 1/26/92 Washington Redskins bt. Buffalo Bills 37-24
> * 1/31/93 Dallas Cowboys bt. Buffalo Bills 52-17
> * 1/30/94 Dallas Cowboys bt. Buffalo Bills 30-13
> * 1/29/95 San Francisco 49ers bt. San Diego Chargers 49-26
> * 1/28/96 Dallas Cowboys bt. Pittsburgh Steelers 27-17
> * 1/26/97 Green Bay Packers bt. New England Patriots 35-21
> * 1/25/98 Denver Broncos bt. Green Bay Packers 31-24
> * 1/31/99 Denver Broncos bt. Atlanta Falcons 34-19
> * 1/30/00 St Louis Rams bt. Tennessee Titans 23-16
------
American_Football_Conference|983988819
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the two conferences that compose the [[NationalFootballLeague]], the AFC was formed from the [[American Football League]] when it merged with the [[NationalFootballLeague]]
------
SuperBowl|983988874
5c5
< The Superbowl was first played in 1967 between the champions of the [[American Football League]] and the [[National Football League]], and now features the champions of the [[American Football Conference]] and the [[National Football Conference]], under the aegis of the [[NFL]].
---
> The Superbowl was first played in 1967 between the champions of the [[American Football League]] and the [[NationalFootballLeague]], and now features the champions of the [[American Football Conference]] and the [[National Football Conference]], under the aegis of the [[NFL]].
------
American_Football_Conference|983988891
1c1
< One of the two conferences that compose the [[NationalFootballLeague]], the AFC was formed from the [[American Football League]] when it merged with the [[NationalFootballLeague]]
---
> One of the two conferences that compose the [[NationalFootballLeague]], the AFC was formed from the [[American Football League]] when it merged with the old [[NationalFootballLeague]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|983988972
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 3?st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.  Longest lived president at age 90 in 2001.  
> 
> Ronald Reagan began his political life as a staunch [[New Deal]] / [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] supportor.  He gradually became a staunch anti-comunist.  He was elected governor of California and  elected president in 1980 and 1984.
> 
> He was:
> * anti-comunist
> * in favor of tax cuts
> * in favor of smaller government
> * supportive of small business
> * supportive of individual liberties
> 
> He is credited with:
> * defeating the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries
> * lowering taxes
> * creating the [[Earned Income Credit]] - so that his tax cut would be passed
> * rebuilding the military - this caused the Soviet Union to go bankrupt trying to keep up its military
> 
> He was the first divorced person to be elected president.
> 
> He is married to [[Nancy Reagan]].
> 
> There's more to add here...
------
Classical_Mechanics|983989133
1c1
< Classical Mechanics (often called Newtonian mechanics after [[Isaac Newton]] who made major fundamental contributions to the understanding of it) is the physics of objects moving in the ways we deal with every day.  Examples in classical mechanics often involve things like hockey pucks on ice and balls being thrown through the air, because these things are relatively easy to make very accurate predictions about.
---
> Classical Mechanics (often called [[Newtonian Mechanics]] after [[Isaac Newton]] who made major fundamental contributions to the understanding of it) is the physics of objects moving in the ways we deal with every day.  Examples in classical mechanics often involve things like hockey pucks on ice and balls being thrown through the air, because these things are relatively easy to make very accurate predictions about.
------
SI|983989150
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> System International
------
Newtonian_Mechanics|983989169
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[Classical Mechanics]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|983989202
3c3
< Ronald Reagan began his political life as a staunch [[New Deal]] / [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] supportor.  He gradually became a staunch anti-comunist.  He was elected governor of California and  elected president in 1980 and 1984.
---
> Ronald Reagan began his political life as a staunch [[New Deal]] / [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] supportor.  He gradually became a staunch anti-communist.  He was elected governor of California and  elected president in 1980 and 1984.
6c6
< * anti-comunist
---
> * anti-communist
------
George_W._Bush|983989275
11c11
< Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] was the 41st president. The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
---
> Bush is married to [[Laura Welch Bush]], a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] was the 41st president. The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
------
SuperBowl|983989295
2a3,4
> [[Superbowl Sunday]] is the day on which it takes place.
> 
------
Superbowl_Sunday|983989349
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The day the [[SuperBowl]] takes place.  Superbowl Sunday is always on a Sunday.
------
SuperBowl|983989447
12c12
< * 1/12/69 New York Jets bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
---
> * 1/12/69 New York Jets     bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
43a44
> 
------
SuperBowl|983989466
12c12
< * 1/12/69 New York Jets     bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
---
> * 1/12/69 New York Jets bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
------
SuperBowl|983989512
44a45
> See also: AmericanFootball
------
Animalia|983989515
58,90c58,100
<  Phylum [[Placozoa]]
<  Phylum [[Porifera]]
<  Phylum [[Cnidaria]]
<  Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
<  Phylum [[Mesozoa]]
<  Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]]
<  Phylum [[Nemertina]]
<  Phylum [[Gnathostomulida]]
<  Phylum [[Gastrotricha]]
<  Phylum [[Rotifera]]
<  Phylum [[Kinorhyncha]]
<  Phylum [[Loricifera]]
<  Phylum [[Acanthocephala]
<  Phylum [[Entoprocta]]
<  Phylum [[Nematoda]]
<  Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
<  Phylum [[Ectoprocta]]
<  Phylum [[Phoronida]]
<  Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
<  Phylum [[Mollusca]]
<  Phylum [[Priapulida]]
<  Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
<  Phylum [[Echiura]]
<  Phylum [[Annelida]]
<  Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
<  Phylum [[Pentastoma]]
<  Phylum [[Onychophora]]
<  Phylum [[Arthropoda]]
<  Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
<  Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
<  Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
<  Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
<  Phylum [[Chordata]]
---
>  Mesozoa
>          Phylum [[Mesozoa]]
>  Parazoa
>          Phylum [[Placozoa]]
>          Phylum [[Porifera]]
>  Eumetazoa
>    Radiata
>          Phylum [[Cnidaria]]
>          Phylum [[Ctenophora]]
>    Bilateria
>      Protostomia
>        Acoelomatea
>          Phylum [[Platyhelminthes]]
>          Phylum [[Nemertina]]
>        Pseudocoelomates
>          Phylum [[Gnathostomulida]]
>          Phylum [[Gastrotricha]]
>          Phylum [[Rotifera]]
>          Phylum [[Kinorhyncha]]
>          Phylum [[Loricifera]]
>          Phylum [[Acanthocephala]]
>          Phylum [[Entoprocta]]
>          Phylum [[Nematoda]]
>          Phylum [[Nematomorpha]]
>          Phylum [[Ectoprocta]]
>        Eucoelomates
>          Phylum [[Mollusca]]
>          Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
>          Phylum [[Echiura]]
>          Phylum [[Annelida]]
>          Phylum [[Tardigrada]]
>          Phylum [[Pentastoma]]
>          Phylum [[Onychophora]]
>          Phylum [[Arthropoda]]
>          Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
>      Deuterostomia
>          Phylum [[Phoronida]]
>          Phylum [[Priapulida]] or maybe [[Ectoprocta]]
>          Phylum [[Brachiopoda]]
>          Phylum [[Echinodermata]]
>          Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
>          Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
>          Phylum [[Chordata]]
------
MST3K|983989648
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[Mystery Science Theatre 3000]]
------
Classical_Mechanics|983989717
5c5
< <font size=+1>v=d/t</font>
---
> <font size=+1>v=s/t</font>
8c8
< *d is distance
---
> *s is distance
26a27,31
> Those with knowledge of [[calculus]] should be aware that the above expressions only give average velocity and acceleration, and that instanteous quantities must be expressed as [[derivative]]s, i.e. 
> *v = ds/dt
> *a = dv/dt
> 
> ----
------
Classical_Mechanics|983989931
2a3,5
> The majority of classical mechanics can be derived from [[Newtons Laws of Motion]].
> 
> ----
------
RequestedArticles|983989941
23c23
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
------
HDTV|983989972
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> High Definition Television
------
Frodo_Baggins|983990173
2a3,4
> 
> See also: [[Bilbo Baggins]]
------
Newtons_Laws_of_Motion|983990198
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The three basic postulates of [[Isaac Newton]] from which [[Classical Mechanics]] is derived.
> 
> Newton's First Law:  "Every body continues travels in a straight line with constant speed unless acted on by a force"
> 
> Newton's Second Law: "The rate of change of a body's momentum is proportional to the force acting on it"
> 
> Newton's Third Law: "If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction on body A"
> 
------
RequestedArticles|983990348
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[NASCAR]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Mammalia|983990375
1,35c1
< '''[[Monotremata]]'''
< 
< '''[[Marsupialia]]'''
< 
< '''[[Multituberculata]] - extinct'''
< 
< '''[[Eutheria]]'''
< 
< * [[Xenarthra]] (anteaters, sloths, armadillos; formerly called Edentata)
< * [[Pholidota]] (pangolins)
< 
< * [[Chiroptera]] (bats)
< * [[Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs)
< * [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
< * [[Scandentia]] (tree shrews)
< 
< * [[Macroscelidea]] (elephant shrews)
< * [[Rodentia]] (mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, etc)
< * [[Lagomorpha]] (hares, rabbits, pikas)
< 
< * [[Insectivora]] (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, etc)
< 
< * [[Creodonta]] - extinct
< * [[Carnivora]] (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
< 
< * [[Condylarthra]] - extinct
< * [[Artiodactlya]] (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
< * [[Cetacea ]](whales, dolphins, porpoises)
< * [[Tubulidentata]] (AardvarK)
< * [[Perissodactyla]] (horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses)
< * [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes, dassies)
< * [[Proboscidea]] (elephants, etc)
< * [[Embrythopoda]] - extinct
< * [[Demostylia]] - extinct
< * [[Sirenia]] (manatees, dugong, sea cows)
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]]
36a3,36
>    Order [[Multituberculata]] - extinct'''
> Subclass Prototheria
>    Order [[Monotremata]]
>  Subclass Metatheria (marsupials)
>    Order [[Didelphimorphia]]
>    Order [[Paucituberculata]]
>    Order [[Microbiotheria]]
>    Order [[Dasyuromorphia]]
>    Order [[Peramelemorphia]]
>    Order [[Notoryctemorphia]]
>    Order [[Diprotodontia]]
>  Subclass Eutheria (placentals)
>    Order [[Xenarthra]] (anteaters, sloths, armadillos; formerly called Edentata)
>    Order [[Pholidota]] (pangolins)
>    Order [[Chiroptera]] (bats)
>    Order [[Dermoptera]] (flying lemurs)
>    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
>    Order [[Scandentia]] (tree shrews)
>     Order [[Macroscelidea]] (elephant shrews)
>    Order [[Rodentia]] (mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, beavers, etc)
>    Order [[Lagomorpha]] (hares, rabbits, pikas)
>    Order [[Insectivora]] (shrews, moles, hedgehogs, etc)
>    Order [[Creodonta]] - extinct
>    Order [[Carnivora]] (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
>    Order [[Condylarthra]] - extinct
>    Order [[Artiodactlya]] (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
>    Order [[Cetacea ]](whales, dolphins, porpoises)
>    Order [[Tubulidentata]] (AardvarK)
>    Order [[Perissodactyla]] (horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses)
>    Order [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes, dassies)
>    Order [[Proboscidea]] (elephants, etc)
>    Order [[Embrythopoda]] - extinct
>    Order [[Demostylia]] - extinct
>    Order [[Sirenia]] (manatees, dugong, sea cows)
------
Mammalia|983990397
4c4
< Subclass Prototheria
---
>  Subclass Prototheria
------
Mammalia|983990417
3c3
<    Order [[Multituberculata]] - extinct'''
---
>    Order [[Multituberculata]] - extinct
------
Mammalia|983990443
21c21
<     Order [[Macroscelidea]] (elephant shrews)
---
>    Order [[Macroscelidea]] (elephant shrews)
------
BillClinton|983990577
24c24
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Macavalenistic]] (that isn't a word:  Do you mean [[Machiavellian]]?) president of the [[United States]]  often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to conver up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of in [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
---
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
26a27,35
> 
> Major legislation he signed:
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
> * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
> * Minimum wage increase
> 
> Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
> * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to Canada and the United Kingdom)
------
Primates|983990612
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]]
> 
>  Suborder Strepsirhini
>    Family [[Lemuridae]]
>    Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
>    Family [[Indridae]]
>    Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
>    Family [[Galagonidae]]
>    Family [[Loridae]]
>    Family [[Megaladapidae]]
>  Suborder Haplorhini]]
>    Family [[Tarsiidae]]
>    Family [[Cebidae]]
>    Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
>    Family [[Callitrichidae]]
>    Family [[Hylobatidae]]
>    Family [[Hominidae]]
> 
------
Newtons_Laws_of_Motion|983990680
7c7
< Newton's Third Law: "If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction on body A"
---
> Newton's Third Law: "If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction on body A" or more commonly "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction"
------
Hominidae|983990691
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]]
> 
> Genus [[Homo]]
------
Homo|983990736
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]], Genus [[Homo]]
> 
>  Species [[Sapiens]]
------
Sapiens|983990757
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]], Genus [[Homo]], Species [[Sapiens]]
> 
> That's you.
------
NATO|983990773
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]]
------
World_War_I|983990924
10a11
> *[[Dalton Trumbo]]: "Johnny Got His Gun"
12c13
< See also: [[World War II]]
---
> See also: [[World War II]]
------
First_lady|983991556
3c3
< The first lady has no official governmental duties as she is not elected to any public office.  Unofficially, she attends many of the functions with the president.
---
> The first lady has no official governmental duties as she is not elected to any public office.  Unofficially, she attends many ceremonies and functions of state with the president.
------
NirvanaBand|983991638
1c1,4
< Nirvana was a GrungE band from SeattlE (late 80's early 90's). They split up after lead singer KurtCobain commited suicide in 1994.
---
> Nirvana was a GrungE band from SeattlE (late 80's early 90's). 
> Their first album, recorded on [[Seattle]] independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[grunge music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero" was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial triumph.
> 
> Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]]   but, plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and an alleged heroin addict.  Cobain commited suicide in 1994, after which the band split.  Drummer Grohl went on to form [[The Foo Fighters]].  Two posthumous albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on [[MTV]]'s Unplugged were later released.
------
NirvanaBand|983991716
2c2
< Their first album, recorded on [[Seattle]] independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[grunge music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero" was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial triumph.
---
> Their first album, recorded on [[Seattle]] independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[grunge music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983991852
27c27,52
< It seems to me you've refuted yourself.  We're looking for a definition of the existence of ''physical objects.''  If, according to your definition, unicorns exist, since they don't in fact exist, your definition is wrong.  Now, you can play semantic games and say that they enjoy "imaginary existence"; you can ''say'' whatever you want, but what difference does it make?
---
> It seems to me you've refuted yourself.  We're looking for a definition of the existence of ''physical objects.''  If, according to your definition, unicorns exist, since they don't in fact exist, your definition is wrong.  Now, you can play semantic games and say that they enjoy "imaginary existence"; you can ''say'' whatever you want, but what difference does it make?
> ----
> I borrow from Hume:
> 
> Excerpted from: AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING by DAVID HUME Harvard Classics Volume 37 Copyright 1910 P.F. Collier & Son
> 
>  This text is in the PUBLIC DOMAIN
> 
> “All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. 
> ...
> The hearing of an articulate voice and rational discourse in the dark assures us of the presence of some person: Why? because these are the effects of the human make and fabric, and closely connected with it. If we anatomize all the other reasonings of this nature, we shall find that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect, and that this relation is either near or remote, direct or collateral.
> ...
> When it is asked, What is the nature of all our reasonings concerning matter of fact? the proper answer seems to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. 
> ...
> It may, therefore, be a subject worthy of curiosity, to enquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter of fact, beyond the present testimony of our senses, or the records of our memory.
> ...
> Sight or feeling conveys an idea of the actual motion of bodies; but as to that wonderful force or power, which would carry on a moving body for ever in a continued change of place, and which bodies never lose but by communicating it to others; of this we cannot form the most distant conception. But notwithstanding this ignorance of natural powers and principles, we always presume, when we see like sensible qualities, that they have like secret powers, and expect that effects, similar to those which we have experienced, will follow from them. 
> ...
> Now whatever is intelligible, and can be distinctly conceived, implies no contradiction, and can never be proved false by any demonstrative argument or abstract reasoning a priori. 
> ...
> We have said that all arguments concerning existence are founded on the relation of cause and effect; that our knowledge of that relation is derived entirely from experience; 
> ...
> The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect”
> ...
> ----
> I am afraid I, like Hume, blurred the line somehat between physical objects and less tangible things, but he tended (as one might expect from his time) to speak in rather concrete terms and to dwell in specific physical reality (while seeming to hold that thoughts, though ephemeral, were real and existed in no different wise than physical objects).  Perhaps I would have done better not to stray into the realm of thought.  However, his argument for the definability of existence (including the existence of physical objects) is not location in space, but Cause and Effect.  And I happen to like his argument better.  It was this argument I thought to exposit in more modern terms, to add to the arguments for the difinability of the existence of physical objects.
------
BillClinton|983991924
24c24
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
---
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
------
Machiavellian|983992149
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adjective:  In a cunning or underhanded way, or in bad faith.  After [[Niccolo Machiavelli]].
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983992165
52c52
< I am afraid I, like Hume, blurred the line somehat between physical objects and less tangible things, but he tended (as one might expect from his time) to speak in rather concrete terms and to dwell in specific physical reality (while seeming to hold that thoughts, though ephemeral, were real and existed in no different wise than physical objects).  Perhaps I would have done better not to stray into the realm of thought.  However, his argument for the definability of existence (including the existence of physical objects) is not location in space, but Cause and Effect.  And I happen to like his argument better.  It was this argument I thought to exposit in more modern terms, to add to the arguments for the difinability of the existence of physical objects.
---
> I am afraid I, like Hume, blurred the line somehat between physical objects and less tangible things, but he tended (as one might expect from his time) to speak in rather concrete terms and to dwell in specific physical reality (while seeming to hold that thoughts, though ephemeral, were real and existed in no different wise than physical objects).  Perhaps I would have done better not to stray into the realm of thought.  However, his argument for the definability of existence (including the existence of physical objects) is not location in space, but Cause and Effect.  And I happen to like his argument better.  It was this argument I thought to exposit in more modern terms, to add to the arguments for the definability of the existence of physical objects.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983992270
28a29,30
> Sorry - I misuse the term "corollary."
> 
------
Dalton_Trumbo|983992373
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (b. Dec. 9, 1905, Montrose, Colo., U.S.--d. Sept. 10, 1976, Los Angeles), screenwriter and novelist who was probably the most talented member of the Hollywood Ten, one of a group who refused to testify before the 1947 U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 
> 
> Trumbo got his start in movies in 1937; by the 1940s he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as Kitty Foyle (1940), Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944), and Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945). After his blacklisting, he wrote 30 scripts under pseudonyms. He won an Oscar for The Brave One (1956), written under the name Robert Rich. In 1960 he received full credit for the motion-picture epics Exodus and Spartacus much to the chagrin of the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the Writers Guild of America. 
> 
> Trumbo's vivid antiwar novel, Johnny Got His Gun, won an American Booksellers Award for 1939. He filmed the movie of the novel himself in 1971. The inspiration for Johnny Got His Gun came when he read an article about a British officer, who was horribly disfigured during World War I. 
> 
> His account and analysis of the Smith Act trials is entitled "The Devil in the Book". 
> 
> He is oft quoted for saying, "I never considered the working class anything other than something to get out of."
> 
> 
> Selected film works:
> 
> *Road Gang,1936 
> *Love Begins at 20, 1936 
> *Devil's Playground, 1937 
> *Fugitives for a Night, 1938 
> *A Man to Remember, 1938 
> *Five Come Back, 1939 (with [[Nathanael West]] and J. Cody) 
> *Curtain Call, 1941 
> *Bill of Divorcement, 1940 
> *Kitty Foyle, 1940 
> *The Remarkable Andrew, 1942 
> *Tender Comrade, 1944 
> *A Guy Named Joe, 1944 
> *Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944 
> *Our Vines Have Tender Grapes, 1945 
> *The Brave One, 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich) 
> *[[Spartacus]], 1960, dir. by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
> *Exodus, 1960 (a film based on Leon Uris's novel Exodus, 1958) 
> *The Last Sunset, 1961 
> *Lonely are the Brave, 1962 
> *The Sandpiper, 1965 
> *Hawaii, 1966 (based on the novel by [[James Michener]], 1959) 
> *The Fixer, 1968 
> *Johnny Got His Gun, 1971 (also dir.) 
> *The Horsemen, 1971 
> *F.T.A, 1972 
> *Executive Action, 1973 
> *Papillon, 1973 (based on the novel by [[Henri-Antoine Charriére]], 1969)
>  
> Novels, plays and essays:
> 
> *Eclipse, 1935 
> *Washington Jitters, 1936 
> *Johnny Got His Gun, 1939
> *The Remarkable Aandrew, 1940 
> *Chronicle of a Literal Man, 1941 
> *The Biggest Thief in Town, 1949 (play) 
> *The Time Out of the Toad, 1972 (essays) 
> *Night of the Aurochs, 1979 (unfinished, ed. by R. Kirsch) 
> 
> Non-fiction:
> 
> *Harry Bridges, 1941 
> *The Time of the Toad, 1949 
> *The Devil in the Book, 1956 
> *Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull) 
------
Gareth_Owen|983992684
0a1,2
> My doctorate is in [[Applied Mathematics]], my outside interests are [[sports]] and [[music]].
> 
------
Dalton_Trumbo|983992791
1c1
< (b. Dec. 9, 1905, Montrose, Colo., U.S.--d. Sept. 10, 1976, Los Angeles), screenwriter and novelist who was probably the most talented member of the Hollywood Ten, one of a group who refused to testify before the 1947 U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 
---
> (b. Dec. 9, 1905, Montrose, Colo., U.S.--d. Sept. 10, 1976, Los Angeles), screenwriter and novelist who was probably the most talented member of the [[Hollywood Ten]], one of a group who refused to testify before the 1947 [[U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities]] about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 
3c3
< Trumbo got his start in movies in 1937; by the 1940s he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as Kitty Foyle (1940), Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944), and Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945). After his blacklisting, he wrote 30 scripts under pseudonyms. He won an Oscar for The Brave One (1956), written under the name Robert Rich. In 1960 he received full credit for the motion-picture epics Exodus and Spartacus much to the chagrin of the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the Writers Guild of America. 
---
> Trumbo got his start in movies in 1937; by the 1940s he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as Kitty Foyle (1940), Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944), and Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945). After his blacklisting, he wrote 30 scripts under pseudonyms. He won an Oscar for The Brave One (1956), written under the name Robert Rich. In 1960 he received full credit for the motion-picture epics Exodus and [[Spartacus]] much to the chagrin of the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the Writers Guild of America. 
5c5
< Trumbo's vivid antiwar novel, Johnny Got His Gun, won an American Booksellers Award for 1939. He filmed the movie of the novel himself in 1971. The inspiration for Johnny Got His Gun came when he read an article about a British officer, who was horribly disfigured during World War I. 
---
> Trumbo's vivid antiwar novel, Johnny Got His Gun, won an [[American Booksellers Award]] for 1939. He filmed the movie of the novel himself in 1971. The inspiration for Johnny Got His Gun came when he read an article about a British officer, who was horribly disfigured during World War I. 
7c7
< His account and analysis of the Smith Act trials is entitled "The Devil in the Book". 
---
> His account and analysis of the [[Smith Act trials]] is entitled "The Devil in the Book". 
------
Indian_Music|983993069
14a15,16
> 
> Might this be better labelled South Asian Music? There are several countries besides India where it is traditional and/or current.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983993329
34a35,38
> A further argument for the definability of existence could be seen as an extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception. That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists. Well, what makes a thing perceptible? The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected. This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created. When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others. Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.  Absent the existence of the apple, no effects would be created.  That effects are created by it, and that one may affect it (say, cut up and eat it) argue for its existence.
> 
> [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
> 
------
Rugby_Union|983993515
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Supposedly invented during a [[football]] game by [[William Webb Ellis]] at [[Rugby School]], the game of Rugby Union is a team sport contested with an oval ball by two teams of 15 players, the object being to outscore the opposing team.  The ball is carried in the hand and may be passed backwards or laterally across the pitch or kicked in any direction.  The opposing players attempt to halt the ball-carrier by tackling him or her with arms.
> 
> Points are scored by:
> * touching the ball down over the opponents goal line (a try, worth 5 points)
> * kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights of a large 'H' shaped set of posts.  This may either be done from a place kick following a rule infringement (a penalty goal) or kicked from the hand, providing the ball strikes the ground before being kicked (a drop goal).  Both types of goal are worth 3 points.
> * A conversion, which is attempted after a try and is similar to a penalty goal except worth only 2 points.
> 
> Male and female versions of the [[Rugby World Cup]] are held every 4 years with separate yearly international competitions in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
> 
> The sport is governed by the [http://www.irb.org/ International Rugby Board], founded in 1886, who also publish the game's [http://www.irb.org/irblaws.htm laws]
------
Rugby_Union|983993542
6c6
< * A conversion, which is attempted after a try and is similar to a penalty goal except worth only 2 points.
---
> * A conversion, which is attempted after a try has been scored, and is similar to a penalty goal except worth only 2 points.
------
Rugby_World_Cup|983993673
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The premier international Rugby Union contest in the world, first held jointly in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] in 1987 and now held ever four years.
> 
> Previous winners:
> * 1987: [[New Zealand]]
> * 1991: [[Australia]]
> * 1995: [[South Africa]]
> * 1999: [[Australia]]
------
David_Hume|983993702
7c7
< After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding.''  It was not much of a success either, but more so than the ''Treatise.''
---
> After a few years of service to various political and military figures, Hume returned to his studies.  He decided that the problem with the Treatise was style not content.  So he reworked some of the material for more popular consumption in ''AnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding.''  It was not much of a success either, but more so than the ''Treatise.''
------
Applied_Mathematics|983993990
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The branch of mathematics which uses mathematical techniques to describe physical processes, and as such often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]].  Important subdivisions include:
> * [[Fluid Mechanics]]
> * [[Acoustics]]
> * [[Relativity]]
------
Recursion|983994081
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See: [[Recursion]]
------
Seattle|983994188
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].
------
Chordata|983994196
29a30,43
> 
>  Subphylum Urochordata
>  Subphylum Cephalochordata
>  Subphylum Vertebrata
>    Superclass Agnatha ("Without jaws")
>    Superclass Gnathostomata ("Jawed mouth")
>      Class [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fishes)
>      Class [[Osteichthyes]] (bony fishes)
>      Class [[Amphibia]] (amphibians)
>      Class [[Reptilia]] (reptiles)
>      Class [[Aves]] (birds)
>      Class [[Mammalia]] (mammals)
> 
> 
------
Seattle|983994214
1c1
< A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].
---
> A large city in the state of [[WashingtoN]] in the [[United States]].
------
Seattle|983994223
1c1
< A large city in the state of [[WashingtoN]] in the [[United States]].
---
> A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].
------
NirvanaBand|983994344
1,2c1,3
< Nirvana was a GrungE band from SeattlE (late 80's early 90's). 
< Their first album, recorded on [[Seattle]] independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[grunge music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
---
> Nirvana was a GrungE band from [[Seattle]] 
> (late 80's early 90's). 
> Their first album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[Grunge Music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
9c10
< Discography:
---
> [[Discography]]:
------
NirvanaBand|983994366
16c16
< * MtV Unplugged in New York (1994)
---
> * MTV Unplugged in New York (1994)
------
Chordata|983994657
31a32
>      Class [[Ascidiacea]]
------
Grunge_Music|983994691
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A much more commercially successful offshoot of [[Punk Music]] and [[Hardcore Punk Music]] in the late, late 1980s and early 1990s.
> 
> Grunge music was a reaction to the long slow movement from the [[Hard Rock Music]] of the 1970s to the [[Soft Rock Music]] in the 1980s.
> 
> Prominent bands:
> * [[Mudhoney]]
> * [[NirvanaBand]]
------
Grunge_Music|983994717
3c3
< Grunge music was a reaction to the long slow movement from the [[Hard Rock Music]] of the 1970s to the [[Soft Rock Music]] in the 1980s.
---
> Grunge music was a reaction to the long slow movement from [[Hard Rock Music]] of the 1970s to [[Soft Rock Music]] in the 1980s.
------
GrungE|983994768
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Grunge Music]]
------
BillClinton|983994788
1c1
< William Jefferson Clinton was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
3c3
< He was impeached by the [[House Of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], for lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
---
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-)
5c5,9
< He is also known for granting the [[Presidential Pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
---
> In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and Ross Perot ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again Ross Perot ([[Reform]]).
> 
> He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for perjury -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
> 
> He is also known for granting [[Presidential Pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
11a16
> 
26c31
< Bill Clinton was a two time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
---
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
35c40,42
< * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to Canada and the United Kingdom)
---
> * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
> 
> Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others very much did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
38a46,49
> 
> ----
> 
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
------
Animalia|983994946
58c58
<  Mesozoa
---
>  Subkingdom Mesozoa
60c60
<  Parazoa
---
>  Subkingdom Parazoa
63c63
<  Eumetazoa
---
>  Subkingdom Eumetazoa
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983994953
37c37
< [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
---
> The emiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
------
MTV|983995025
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Music Television
> 
> A cable television channel devoted to popular rock, rap, and other music videos.
> 
> MTV started in [[New York City]] in 198? and became available in most of the [[United States]] in the late 1980s.
> 
> In the second half of the 1990s, MTV concentrated on non-music programming.
> 
> MTV shows of note:
> * [[Beavis and Butthead]]
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983995047
37c37
< The emiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
---
> The empiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
------
BillClinton|983995210
5c5
< In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and Ross Perot ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again Ross Perot ([[Reform]]).
---
> In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
9c9
< He is also known for granting [[Presidential Pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
---
> He is also known for granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
45c45
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [http://www.americorps.org/ AmeriCorps].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
---
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
------
AnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding|983995232
1c1,3401
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Internet Wiretap online edition of
> 
> 
> 
>             AN ENQUIRY CONCERNING
> 
>              HUMAN UNDERSTANDING
> 
> 
> 
>                      by
> 
>                  DAVID HUME
> 
> 
> 
>           Harvard Classics Volume 37
> 
>       Copyright 1910 P.F. Collier & Son
> 
> 
> 
>      Prepared by <dell@wiretap.spies.com>
> 
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> 
> About the online edition.
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> 
> This was scanned from the 1910 edition and mechanically
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> checked against a commercial copy of the text from CDROM.
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> Differences were corrected against the paper edition. The
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> text itself is thus a highly accurate rendition. The
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> footnotes were entered manually.
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> This text is in the PUBLIC DOMAIN, released August 1993.
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> 
> 
> 
> SECTION I
> 
> OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY.
> 
> 
> 
>   MORAL philosophy, or the science of human nature, 
> 
> may be treated after two different manners; each 
> 
> of which has its peculiar merit, and may contribute 
> 
> to the entertainment, instruction, and reformation of man- 
> 
> kind. The one considers man chiefly as born for action; 
> 
> and as influenced in his measures by taste and sentiment; 
> 
> pursuing one object, and avoiding another, according to 
> 
> the value which these objects seem to possess, and accord- 
> 
> ing to the light in which they present themselves. As vir- 
> 
> tue, of all objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, this 
> 
> species of philosophers paint her in the most amiable 
> 
> colours; borrowing all helps from poetry and eloquence, and 
> 
> treating their subject in an easy and obvious manner, and 
> 
> such as is best fitted to please the imagination, and engage 
> 
> the affections. They select the most striking observations 
> 
> and instances from common life; place opposite characters 
> 
> in a proper contrast; and alluring us into the paths of virtue 
> 
> by the views of glory and happiness, direct our steps in 
> 
> these paths by the soundest precepts and most illustrious 
> 
> examples. They make us feel the difference between vice 
> 
> and virtue; they excite and regulate our sentiments; and 
> 
> so they can but bend our hearts to the love of probity and 
> 
> true honour, they think, that they have fully attained the 
> 
> end of all their labours. 
> 
> 
> 
>   The other species of philosophers consider man in the 
> 
> light of a reasonable rather than an active being, and 
> 
> endeavour to form his understanding more than cultivate 
> 
> his manners. They regard human nature as a subject of 
> 
> speculation; and with a narrow scrutiny examine it, in 
> 
> order to find those principles, which regulate our under- 
> 
> standing, excite our sentiments, and make us approve or 
> 
> blame any particular object, action, or behaviour. They 
> 
> think it a reproach to all literature, that philosophy should 
> 
> not yet have fixed, beyond controversy, the foundation of 
> 
> morals, reasoning, and criticism; and should for ever talk 
> 
> of truth and falsehood, vice and virtue, beauty and de- 
> 
> formity, without being able to determine the source of 
> 
> these distinctions. While they attempt this arduous task, 
> 
> they are deterred by no difficulties; but proceeding from 
> 
> particular instances to general principles, they still push on 
> 
> their enquiries to principles more general, and rest not 
> 
> satisfied till they arrive at those original principles, by 
> 
> which, in every science, all human curiosity must be 
> 
> bounded. Though their speculations seem abstract, and 
> 
> even unintelligible to common readers, they aim at the 
> 
> approbation of the learned and the wise; and think them- 
> 
> selves sufficiently compensated for the labour of their whole 
> 
> lives, if they can discover some hidden truths, which may 
> 
> contribute to the instruction of posterity. 
> 
> 
> 
>   It is certain that the easy and obvious philosophy will 
> 
> always, with the generality of mankind, have the preference 
> 
> above the accurate and abstruse; and by many will be 
> 
> recommended, not only as more agreeable, but more useful 
> 
> than the other. It enters more into common life; moulds 
> 
> the heart and affections; and, by touching those principles 
> 
> which actuate men, reforms their conduct, and brings them 
> 
> nearer to that model of perfection which it describes. On 
> 
> the contrary, the abstruse philosophy, being founded on a 
> 
> turn of mind, which cannot enter into business and action, 
> 
> vanishes when the philosopher leaves the shade, and comes 
> 
> into open day; nor can its principles easily retain any in- 
> 
> fluence over our conduct and behaviour. The feelings of 
> 
> our heart, the agitation of our passions, the vehemence of 
> 
> our affections, dissipate all its conclusions, and reduce the 
> 
> profound philosopher to a mere plebeian. 
> 
> 
> 
>   This also must be confessed, that the most durable, 
> 
> as well as justest fame, has been acquired by the easy 
> 
> philosophy, and that abstract reasoners seem hitherto to 
> 
> have enjoyed only a momentary reputation, from the caprice 
> 
> or ignorance of their own age, but have not been able 
> 
> to support their renown with more equitable posterity. It 
> 
> is easy for a profound philosopher to commit a mistake 
> 
> in his subtile reasonings; and one mistake is the necessary 
> 
> parent of another, while he pushes on his consequences, 
> 
> and is not deterred from embracing any conclusion, by 
> 
> its unusual appearance, or its contradiction to popular 
> 
> opinion. But a philosopher, who purposes only to represent 
> 
> the common sense of mankind in more beautiful and more 
> 
> engaging colours, if by accident he falls into error, goes no 
> 
> farther; but renewing his appeal to common sense, and the 
> 
> natural sentiments of the mind, returns into the right path, 
> 
> and secures himself from any dangerous illusions. The 
> 
> fame of Cicero flourishes at present; but that of Aristotle 
> 
> is utterly decayed. La Bruyere passes the seas, and still 
> 
> maintains his reputation: but the glory of Malebranche 
> 
> is confined to his own nation, and to his own age. And 
> 
> Addison, perhaps, will be read with pleasure, when Locke 
> 
> shall be entirely forgotten. 
> 
> 
> 
>   The mere philosopher is a character, which is commonly 
> 
> but little acceptable in the world, as being supposed to 
> 
> contribute nothing either to the advantage or pleasure 
> 
> of society; while he lives remote from communication with 
> 
> mankind, and is wrapped up in principles and notions equally 
> 
> remote from their comprehension. On the other hand, 
> 
> the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing 
> 
> deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and 
> 
> nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely 
> 
> destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The 
> 
> most perfect character is supposed to lie between those 
> 
> extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, 
> 
> company, and business; preserving in conversation that 
> 
> discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; 
> 
> and in business, that probity and accuracy which are 
> 
> the natural result of a just philosophy. In order to diffuse 
> 
> and cultivate so accomplished a character, nothing can be 
> 
> more useful than compositions of the easy style and manner, 
> 
> which draw not too much from life, require no deep appli- 
> 
> cation or retreat to be comprehended, and send back the 
> 
> student among mankind full of noble sentiments and wise 
> 
> precepts, applicable to every exigence of human life. By 
> 
> means of such compositions, virtue becomes amiable, 
> 
> science agreeable, company instructive, and retirement en- 
> 
> tertaining. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Man is a reasonable being; and as such, receives from 
> 
> science his proper food and nourishment: But so narrow 
> 
> are the bounds of human understanding, that little satisfac- 
> 
> tion can be hoped for in this particular, either from the 
> 
> extent of security or his acquisitions. Man is a sociable, no 
> 
> less than a reasonable being: but neither can he always 
> 
> enjoy company agreeable and amusing, or preserve the 
> 
> proper relish for them. Man is also an active being; and 
> 
> from that disposition, as well as from the various necessities 
> 
> of human life, must submit to business and occupation: 
> 
> but the mind requires some relaxation, and cannot always 
> 
> support its bent to care and industry. It seems, then, that 
> 
> nature has pointed out a mixed kind of life as most suitable 
> 
> to the human race, and secretly admonished them to allow 
> 
> none of these biases to draw too much, so as to incapacitate 
> 
> them for other occupations and entertainments. Indulge 
> 
> your passion for science, says she, but let your science be 
> 
> human, and such as may have a direct reference to action 
> 
> and society. Abstruse thought and profound researches I 
> 
> prohibit, and will severely punish, by the pensive melancholy 
> 
> which they introduce, by the endless uncertainty in which 
> 
> they involve you, and by the cold reception which your 
> 
> pretended discoveries shall meet with, when communicated. 
> 
> Be a philosopher; but, amidst all your philosophy, be still 
> 
> a man. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Were the generality of mankind contented to prefer the 
> 
> easy philosophy to the abstract and profound, without 
> 
> throwing any blame or contempt on the latter, it might 
> 
> not be improper, perhaps, to comply with this general 
> 
> opinion, and allow every man to enjoy, without opposition, 
> 
> his own taste and sentiment. But as the matter is often 
> 
> carried farther, even to the absolute rejecting of all pro- 
> 
> found reasonings, or what is commonly called metaphysics, 
> 
> we shall now proceed to consider what can reasonably be 
> 
> pleaded in their behalf. 
> 
> 
> 
>   We may begin with observing, that one considerable 
> 
> advantage, which results from the accurate and abstract 
> 
> philosophy, is, its subserviency to the easy and humane; 
> 
> which, without the former, can never attain a sufficient 
> 
> degree of exactness in its sentiments, precepts, or reasonings. 
> 
> All polite letters are nothing but pictures of human life 
> 
> in various attitudes and situations; and inspire us with 
> 
> different sentiments, of praise or blame, admiration or ridi- 
> 
> cule, according to the qualities of the object, which they set 
> 
> before us. An artist must be better qualified to succeed in 
> 
> this undertaking, who, besides a delicate taste and a quick 
> 
> apprehension, possesses an accurate knowledge of the in- 
> 
> ternal fabric, the operations of the understanding, the 
> 
> workings of the passions, and the various species of senti- 
> 
> ment which discriminate vice and virtue. How painful 
> 
> soever this inward search or enquiry may appear, it becomes, 
> 
> in some measure, requisite to those, who would describe 
> 
> with success the obvious and outward appearances of life 
> 
> and manners. The anatomist presents to the eye the most 
> 
> hideous and disagreeable objects; but his science is useful 
> 
> to the painter in delineating even a Venus or an Helen. 
> 
> While the latter employs all the richest colours of his art, 
> 
> and gives his figures the most graceful and engaging airs; 
> 
> he must still carry his attention to the inward structure 
> 
> of the human body, the position of the muscles, the fabric 
> 
> of the bones, and the use and figure of every part or organ. 
> 
> Accuracy is, in every case, advantageous to beauty, and just 
> 
> reasoning to delicate sentiment. In vain would we exalt 
> 
> the one by depreciating the other. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Besides, we may observe, in every art or profession, even 
> 
> those which most concern life or action, that a spirit of 
> 
> accuracy, however acquired, carries all of them nearer their 
> 
> perfection, and renders them more subservient to the 
> 
> interests of society. And though a philosopher may live 
> 
> remote from business, the genius of philosophy, if carefully 
> 
> cultivated by several, must gradually diffuse itself through- 
> 
> out the whole society, and bestow a similar correctness on 
> 
> every art and calling. The politician will acquire greater 
> 
> foresight and subtility, in the subdividing and balancing 
> 
> of power; the lawyer more method and finer principles 
> 
> in his reasonings; and the general more regularity in his 
> 
> discipline, and more caution in his plans and operations. 
> 
> The stability of modern governments above the ancient, 
> 
> and the accuracy of modern philosophy, have improved, and 
> 
> probably will still improve, by similar gradations. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Were there no advantage to be reaped from these studies, 
> 
> beyond the gratification of an innocent curiosity, yet ought 
> 
> not even this to be despised; as being one accession to 
> 
> those few safe and harmless pleasures, which are bestowed 
> 
> on the human race. The sweetest and most inoffensive path 
> 
> of life leads through the avenues of science and learning; and 
> 
> whoever can either remove any obstructions in this way, 
> 
> or open up any new prospect, ought so far to be esteemed 
> 
> a benefactor to mankind. And though these researches 
> 
> may appear painful and fatiguing, it is with some minds 
> 
> as with some bodies, which being endowed with vigorous 
> 
> and florid health, require severe exercise, and reap a pleasure 
> 
> from what, to the generality of mankind, may seem burden- 
> 
> some and laborious. Obscurity, indeed, is painful to the 
> 
> mind as well as to the eye; but to bring light from 
> 
> obscurity, by whatever labour, must needs be delightful and 
> 
> rejoicing. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But this obscurity in the profound and abstract philos- 
> 
> ophy, is objected to, not only as painful and fatiguing, but 
> 
> as the inevitable source of uncertainty and error. Here in- 
> 
> deed lies the justest and most plausible objection against 
> 
> a considerable part of metaphysics, that they are not properly 
> 
> a science; but arise either from the fruitless efforts of 
> 
> human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly 
> 
> inaccessible to the understanding, or from the craft of pop- 
> 
> ular superstitions, which, being unable to defend themselves 
> 
> on fair ground, raise these intangling brambles to cover and 
> 
> protect their weakness. Chased from the open country, these 
> 
> robbers fly into the forest, and lie in wait to break in upon 
> 
> every unguarded avenue of the mind, and overwhelm it 
> 
> with religious fears and prejudices. The stoutest antagonist, 
> 
> if he remit his watch a moment, is oppressed. And many, 
> 
> through cowardice and folly, open the gates to the enemies, 
> 
> and willingly receive them with reverence and submission, 
> 
> as their legal sovereigns. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But is this a sufficient reason, why philosophers should 
> 
> desist from such researches, and leave superstition still 
> 
> in possession of her retreat? Is it not proper to draw an 
> 
> opposite conclusion, and perceive the necessity of carrying 
> 
> the war into the most secret recesses of the enemy? In 
> 
> vain do we hope, that men, from frequent disappointment, 
> 
> will at last abandon such airy sciences, and discover the 
> 
> proper province of human reason. For, besides, that many 
> 
> persons find too sensible an interest in perpetually recalling 
> 
> such topics; besides this, I say, the motive of blind despair 
> 
> can never reasonably have place in the sciences; since, how- 
> 
> ever unsuccessful former attempts may have proved, there 
> 
> is still room to hope, that the industry, good fortune, or 
> 
> improved sagacity of succeeding generations may reach 
> 
> discoveries unknown to former ages. Each adventurous 
> 
> genius will still leap at the arduous prize, and find himself 
> 
> stimulated, rather than discouraged, by the failures of his 
> 
> predecessors; while he hopes that the glory of achieving 
> 
> so hard an adventure is reserved for him alone. The only 
> 
> method of freeing learning, at once, from these abstruse 
> 
> questions, is to enquire seriously into the nature of human 
> 
> understanding, and show, from an exact analysis of its 
> 
> powers and capacity, that it is by no means fitted for 
> 
> such remote and abstruse subjects. We must submit to 
> 
> this fatigue in order to live at ease ever after: and must 
> 
> cultivate true metaphysics with some care, in order to 
> 
> destroy the false and adulterate. Indolence, which, to some 
> 
> persons, affords a safeguard against this deceitful philos- 
> 
> ophy, is, with others, overbalanced by curiosity; and de- 
> 
> spair, which, at some moments, prevails, may give place after- 
> 
> wards to sanguine hopes and expectations. Accurate and 
> 
> just reasoning is the only catholic remedy, fitted for all 
> 
> persons and all dispositions; and is alone able to subvert 
> 
> that abstruse philosophy and metaphysical jargon, which 
> 
> being mixed up with popular superstition, renders it in 
> 
> a manner impenetrable to careless reasoners, and gives it 
> 
> the air of science and wisdom. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Besides this advantage of rejecting, after deliberate en- 
> 
> quiry, the most uncertain and disagreeable part of learning, 
> 
> there are many positive advantages, which result from an 
> 
> accurate scrutiny into the powers and faculties of human 
> 
> nature. It is remarkable concerning the operations of the 
> 
> mind, that, though most intimately present to us, yet, 
> 
> whenever they become the object of reflexion, they seem 
> 
> involved in obscurity; nor can the eye readily find those 
> 
> lines and boundaries, which discriminate and distinguish 
> 
> them. The objects are too fine to remain long in the same 
> 
> aspect or situation; and must be apprehended in an in- 
> 
> stant, by a superior penetration, derived from nature, and 
> 
> improved by habit and reflexion. It becomes, therefore, 
> 
> no inconsiderable part of science barely to know the different 
> 
> operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to 
> 
> class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that 
> 
> seeming disorder, in which they lie involved, when made 
> 
> the object of reflexion and enquiry. This talk of ordering 
> 
> and distinguishing, which has no merit, when performed 
> 
> with regard to external bodies, the objects of our senses, 
> 
> rises in its value, when directed towards the operations 
> 
> of the mind, in proportion to the difficulty and labour, 
> 
> which we meet with in performing it. And if we can go no 
> 
> farther than this mental geography, or delineation of the 
> 
> distinct parts and powers of the mind, it is at least a satis- 
> 
> faction to go so far; and the more obvious this science 
> 
> may appear (and it is by no means obvious) the more con- 
> 
> temptible still must the ignorance of it be esteemed, in all 
> 
> pretenders to learning and philosophy. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Nor can there remain any suspicion, that this science 
> 
> is uncertain and chimerical; unless we should entertain 
> 
> such a scepticism as is entirely subversive of all speculation, 
> 
> and even action. It cannot be doubted, that the mind 
> 
> is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these 
> 
> powers are distinct from each other, that what is really 
> 
> distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished 
> 
> by reflexion; and consequently, that there is a truth and 
> 
> falsehood in all propositions on this subject, and a truth 
> 
> and falsehood, which lie not beyond the compass of human 
> 
> understanding. There are many obvious distinctions of 
> 
> this kind, such as those between the will and understanding, 
> 
> the imagination and passions, which fall within the com- 
> 
> prehension of every human creature; and the finer and 
> 
> more philosophical distinctions are no less real and certain, 
> 
> though more difficult to be comprehended. Some instances, 
> 
> especially late ones, of success in these enquiries, may give 
> 
> us a juster notion of the certainty and solidity of this branch 
> 
> of learning. And shall we esteem it worthy the labour of 
> 
> a philosopher to give us a true system of the planets, and 
> 
> adjust the position and order of those remote bodies; 
> 
> while we affect to overlook those, who, with so much 
> 
> success, delineate the parts of the mind, in which we are so 
> 
> intimately concerned? 
> 
> 
> 
>   But may we not hope, that philosophy, cultivated with 
> 
> care, and encouraged by the attention of the public, may 
> 
> carry its researches still farther, and discover, at least in 
> 
> some degree, the secret springs and principles, by which the 
> 
> human mind is actuated in its operations? Astronomers 
> 
> had long contented themselves with proving, from the 
> 
> phaenomena, the true motions, order, and magnitude of 
> 
> the heavenly bodies: till a philosopher, at last, arose, 
> 
> who seems, from the happiest reasoning, to have also deter- 
> 
> mined the laws and forces, by which the revolutions of the 
> 
> planets are governed and directed. The like has been 
> 
> performed with regard to other parts of nature. And there 
> 
> is no reason to despair of equal success in our enquiries 
> 
> concerning the mental powers and economy, if prosecuted 
> 
> with equal capacity and caution. It is probable, that one 
> 
> operation and principle of the mind depends on another; 
> 
> which, again, may be resolved into one more general and 
> 
> universal: and how far these researches may possibly 
> 
> be carried, it will be difficult for us, before, or even after, 
> 
> a careful trial, exactly to determine. This is certain, that 
> 
> attempts of this kind are every day made even by those 
> 
> who philosophize the most negligently: and nothing can 
> 
> be more requisite than to enter upon the enterprize with 
> 
> thorough care and attention; that, if it lie within the 
> 
> compass of human understanding, it may at last be happily 
> 
> achieved; if not, it may, however, be rejected with some 
> 
> confidence and security. This last conclusion, surely, is not 
> 
> desirable; nor ought it to be embraced too rashly. For how 
> 
> much must we diminish from the beauty and value of this 
> 
> species of philosophy, upon such a supposition? Moralists 
> 
> have hitherto been accustomed, when they considered the 
> 
> vast multitude and diversity of those actions that excite 
> 
> our approbation or dislike, to search for some common 
> 
> principle, on which this variety of sentiments might depend. 
> 
> And though they have sometimes carried the matter too far, 
> 
> by their passion for some one general principle; it must, 
> 
> however, be confessed, that they are excusable in expecting 
> 
> to find some general principles, into which all the vices 
> 
> and virtues were justly to be resolved. The like has been 
> 
> the endeavour of critics, logicians, and even politicians: 
> 
> nor have their attempts been wholly unsuccessful; though 
> 
> perhaps longer time, greater accuracy, and more ardent 
> 
> application may bring these sciences still nearer their per- 
> 
> fection. To throw up at once all pretensions of this kind 
> 
> may justly be deemed more rash, precipitate, and dogmatical, 
> 
> than even the boldest and most affirmative philosophy, that 
> 
> has ever attempted to impose its crude dictates and prin- 
> 
> ciples on mankind. 
> 
> 
> 
>   What though these reasonings concerning human nature 
> 
> seem abstract, and of difficult comprehension? This affords 
> 
> no presumption of their falsehood. On the contrary, it 
> 
> seems impossible, that what has hitherto escaped so many 
> 
> wise and profound philosophers can be very obvious and 
> 
> easy. And whatever pains these researches may cost us, we 
> 
> may think ourselves sufficiently rewarded, not only in point 
> 
> of profit but of pleasure, if, by that means, we can make 
> 
> any addition to our stock of knowledge, in subjects of 
> 
> such unspeakable importance. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But as, after all, the abstractedness of these speculations 
> 
> is no recommendation, but rather a disadvantage to them, 
> 
> and as this difficulty may perhaps be surmounted by care 
> 
> and art, and the avoiding of all unnecessary detail, we have, 
> 
> in the following enquiry, attempted to throw some light 
> 
> upon subjects, from which uncertainty has hitherto deterred 
> 
> the wise, and obscurity the ignorant. Happy, if we can 
> 
> unite the boundaries of the different species of philosophy, 
> 
> by reconciling profound enquiry with clearness, and truth 
> 
> with novelty! And still more happy, if, reasoning in this 
> 
> easy manner, we can undermine the foundations of an 
> 
> abstruse philosophy, which seems to have hitherto served 
> 
> only as a shelter to superstition, and a cover to absurdity 
> 
> and error! 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> SECTION II
> 
> OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS
> 
> 
> 
>   EVERY one will readily allow, that there is a consider- 
> 
> able difference between the perceptions of the mind, 
> 
> when a man feels the pain of excessive heat, or the 
> 
> pleasure of moderate warmth, and when he afterwards re- 
> 
> calls to his memory this sensation, or anticipates it by his 
> 
> imagination. These faculties may mimic or copy the percep- 
> 
> tions of the senses; but they never can entirely reach the 
> 
> force and vivacity of the original sentiment. The utmost we 
> 
> say of them, even when they operate with greatest vigour, is, 
> 
> that they represent their object in so lively a manner, that we 
> 
> could almost say we feel or see it: But, except the mind be 
> 
> disordered by disease or madness, they never can arrive 
> 
> at such a pitch of vivacity, as to render these perceptions 
> 
> altogether undistinguishable. All the colours of poetry, 
> 
> however splendid, can never paint natural objects in such 
> 
> a manner as to make the description be taken for a real 
> 
> landskip. The most lively thought is still inferior to the 
> 
> dullest sensation. 
> 
> 
> 
>   We may observe a like distinction to run through all the 
> 
> other perceptions of the mind. A man in a fit of anger, is 
> 
> actuated in a very different manner from one who only 
> 
> thinks of that emotion. If you tell me, that any person 
> 
> is in love, I easily understand your meaning, and from 
> 
> a just conception of his situation; but never can mistake 
> 
> that conception for the real disorders and agitations of the 
> 
> passion. When we reflect on our past sentiments and 
> 
> affections, our thought is a faithful mirror, and copies its 
> 
> objects truly; but the colours which it employs are faint 
> 
> and dull, in comparison of those in which our original per- 
> 
> ceptions were clothed. It requires no nice discernment or 
> 
> metaphysical head to mark the distinction between them. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Here therefore we may divide all the perceptions of the 
> 
> mind into two classes or species, which are distinguished 
> 
> by their different degrees of force and vivacity. The less 
> 
> forcible and lively are commonly denominated Thoughts or 
> 
> Ideas. The other species want a name in our language, 
> 
> and in most others; I suppose, because it was not requisite 
> 
> for any, but philosophical purposes, to rank them under 
> 
> a general term or appellation. Let us, therefore, use a little 
> 
> freedom, and call them Impressions; employing that word 
> 
> in a sense somewhat different from the usual. By the term 
> 
> impression, then, I mean all our more lively perceptions, 
> 
> when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, 
> 
> or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas, 
> 
> which are the less lively perceptions, of which we are 
> 
> conscious, when we reflect on any of those sensations or 
> 
> movements above mentioned. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Nothing, at first view, may seem more unbounded than 
> 
> the thought of man, which not only escapes all human 
> 
> power and authority, but is not even restrained within the 
> 
> limits of nature and reality. To form monsters, and join 
> 
> incongruous shapes and appearances, costs the imagination 
> 
> no more trouble than to conceive the most natural and 
> 
> familiar objects. And while the body is confined to one 
> 
> planet, along which it creeps with pain and difficulty; the 
> 
> thought can in an instant transport us into the most dis- 
> 
> tant regions of the universe; or even beyond the universe, 
> 
> into the unbounded chaos, where nature is supposed to 
> 
> lie in total confusion. What never was seen, or heard 
> 
> of, may yet be conceived; nor is any thing beyond 
> 
> the power of thought, except what implies an absolute 
> 
> contradiction. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But though our thought seems to possess this unbounded 
> 
> liberty, we shall find, upon a nearer examination, that it is 
> 
> really confined within very narrow limits, and that all this 
> 
> creative power of the mind amounts to no more than 
> 
> the faculty of compounding, transposing, augmenting, or 
> 
> diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and 
> 
> experience. When we think of a golden mountain, we 
> 
> only join two consistent ideas, gold, and mountain, with 
> 
> which we were formerly acquainted. A virtuous horse we 
> 
> can conceive; because, from our own feeling, we can 
> 
> conceive virtue; and this we may unite to the figure and 
> 
> shape of a horse, which is an animal familiar to us. In 
> 
> short, all the materials of thinking are derived either from 
> 
> our outward or inward sentiment: the mixture and com- 
> 
> position of these belongs alone to the mind and will. Or, 
> 
> to express myself in philosophical language, all our ideas or 
> 
> more feeble perceptions are copies of our impressions or 
> 
> more lively ones. 
> 
> 
> 
>   To prove this, the two following arguments will, I hope, 
> 
> be sufficient. First, when we analyze our thoughts or ideas, 
> 
> however compounded or sublime, we always find that they 
> 
> resolve themselves into such simple ideas as were copied 
> 
> from a precedent feeling or sentiment. Even those ideas, 
> 
> which, at first view, seem the most wide of this origin, are 
> 
> found, upon a nearer scrutiny, to be derived from it. The 
> 
> idea of God, as meaning an infinitely intelligent, wise, and 
> 
> good Being, arises from reflecting on the operations of our 
> 
> own mind, and augmenting, without limit, those qualities 
> 
> of goodness and wisdom. We may prosecute this enquiry 
> 
> to what length we please; where we shall always find, that 
> 
> every idea which we examine is copied from a similar 
> 
> impression. Those who would assert that this position is 
> 
> not universally true nor without exception, have only one, 
> 
> and that an easy method of refuting it; by producing that 
> 
> idea, which, in their opinion, is not derived from this source. 
> 
> It will then be incumbent on us, if we would maintain our 
> 
> doctrine, to produce the impression, or lively perception, 
> 
> which corresponds to it. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Secondly. If it happen, from a defect of the organ, 
> 
> that a man is not susceptible of any species of sensation, 
> 
> we always find that he is as little susceptible of the cor- 
> 
> respondent ideas. A blind man can form no notion of 
> 
> colours; a deaf man of sounds. Restore either of them 
> 
> that sense in which he is deficient; by opening this new 
> 
> inlet for his sensations, you also open an inlet for the ideas; 
> 
> and he finds no difficulty in conceiving these objects. The 
> 
> case is the same, if the object, proper for exciting any 
> 
> sensation, has never been applied to the organ. A Lap- 
> 
> lander or Negro has no notion of the relish of wine. 
> 
> And though there are few or no instances of a like 
> 
> deficiency in the mind, where a person has never felt or 
> 
> is wholly incapable of a sentiment or passion that belongs 
> 
> to his species; yet we find the same observation to take 
> 
> place in a less degree. A man of mild manners can form 
> 
> no idea of inveterate revenge or cruelty; nor can a selfish 
> 
> heart easily conceive the heights of friendship and gener- 
> 
> osity. It is readily allowed, that other beings may possess 
> 
> many senses of which we can have no conception; because 
> 
> the ideas of them have never been introduced to us in the 
> 
> only manner by which an idea can have access to the mind, 
> 
> to wit, by the actual feeling and sensation. 
> 
> 
> 
>   There is, however, one contradictory phenomenon, which 
> 
> may prove that it is not absolutely impossible for ideas 
> 
> to arise, independent of their correspondent impressions. 
> 
> I believe it will readily be allowed, that the several distinct 
> 
> ideas of colour, which enter by the eye, or those of sound, 
> 
> which are conveyed by the ear, are really different from 
> 
> each other; though, at the same time, resembling. Now 
> 
> if this be true of different colours, it must be no less so of 
> 
> the different shades of the same colour; and each shade 
> 
> produces a distinct idea, independent of the rest. For if 
> 
> this should be denied, it is possible, by the continual grada- 
> 
> tion of shades, to run a colour insensibly into what is most 
> 
> remote from it; and if you will not allow any of the means 
> 
> to be different, you cannot, without absurdity, deny the 
> 
> extremes to be the same. Suppose, therefore, a person 
> 
> to have enjoyed his sight for thirty years, and to have 
> 
> become perfectly acquainted with colours of all kinds 
> 
> except one particular shade of blue, for instance, which it 
> 
> never has been his fortune to meet with. Let all the 
> 
> different shades of that colour, except that single one, be 
> 
> placed before him, descending gradually from the deepest 
> 
> to the lightest; it is plain that he will perceive a blank, 
> 
> where that shade is wanting, and will be sensible that there 
> 
> is a greater distance in that place between the contiguous 
> 
> colour than in any other. Now I ask, whether it be 
> 
> possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply this 
> 
> deficiency, and raise up to himself the idea of that particular 
> 
> shade, though it had never been conveyed to him by his 
> 
> senses? I believe there are few but will be of opinion 
> 
> that he can: and this may serve as a proof that the simple 
> 
> ideas are not always, in every instance, derived from the 
> 
> correspondent impressions; though this instance is so 
> 
> singular, that it is scarcely worth our observing, and does 
> 
> not merit that for it alone we should alter our general 
> 
> maxim. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Here, therefore, is a proposition, which not only seems, 
> 
> in itself, simple and intelligible; but, if a proper use were 
> 
> made of it, might render every dispute equally intelligible, 
> 
> and banish all that jargon, which has so long taken 
> 
> possession of metaphysical reasonings, and drawn disgrace 
> 
> upon them. All ideas, especially abstract ones, are naturally 
> 
> faint and obscure: the mind has but a slender hold of them: 
> 
> they are apt to be confounded with other resembling ideas; 
> 
> and when we have often employed any term, though with- 
> 
> out a distinct meaning, we are apt to imagine it has a deter- 
> 
> minate idea annexed to it. On the contrary, all impressions, 
> 
> that is, all sensations, either outward or inward, are strong 
> 
> and vivid: the limits between them are more exactly deter- 
> 
> mined: nor is it easy to fall into any error or mistake with 
> 
> regard to them. When we entertain, therefore, any suspicion 
> 
> that a philosophical term is employed without any meaning 
> 
> or idea (as is but too frequent), we need but enquire, from 
> 
> what impression is that supposed idea derived? And if it 
> 
> be impossible to assign any, this will serve to confirm our 
> 
> suspicion. By bringing ideas into so clear a light we may 
> 
> reasonably hope to remove all dispute, which may arise, 
> 
> concerning their nature and reality.[1] 
> 
> 
> 
> [1] It is probable that no more was meant by these, who denied innate
> 
> ideas, than that all ideas were copies of our impressions; though it must
> 
> be confessed, that the terms, which they employed, were not chosen with
> 
> such caution, nor so exactly defined, as to prevent all mistakes about their
> 
> doctrine. For what is meant by innate? If innate be equivalent to natural,
> 
> then all the perceptions and ideas of the mind must be allowed to be innate
> 
> or natural, in whatever sense we take the latter word, whether in opposi-
> 
> tion to what is uncommon, artificial, or miraculous. If by innate be meant,
> 
> contemporary to our birth, the dispute seems to be frivolous; nor is it
> 
> worth while to enquire at what time thinking begins, whether before, at,
> 
> or after our birth. Again, the word idea, seems to be commonly taken in
> 
> a very loose sense, by LOCKE and others; as standing for any of our per-
> 
> ceptions, our sensations and passions, as well as thoughts. Now in this
> 
> sense, I should desire to know, what can be meant by asserting, that self-
> 
> love, or resentment of injuries, or the passion between the sexes is not innate?
> 
> 
> 
> But admitting these terms, impressions and ideas, in the sense above
> 
> explained, and understanding by innate, what is original or copied from
> 
> no precedent perception, then may we assert that all our impressions are
> 
> innate, and our ideas not innate.
> 
> 
> 
> To be ingenuous, I must own it to be my opinion, that LOCKE was
> 
> betrayed into this question by the schoolmen, who, making use of unde-
> 
> fined terms, draw out their disputes to a tedious length, without ever touch-
> 
> ing the point in question. A like ambiguity and circumlocution seem to run
> 
> through that philosopher's reasonings on this as well as most other subjects.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> SECTION III
> 
> OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
> 
> 
> 
>   IT IS evident that there is a principle of connexion be- 
> 
> tween the different thoughts or ideas of the mind, and 
> 
> that in their appearance to the memory or imagination, 
> 
> they introduce each other with a certain degree of method 
> 
> and regularity. In our more serious thinking or discourse 
> 
> this is so observable that any particular thought, which 
> 
> breaks in upon the regular tract or chain of ideas, is 
> 
> immediately remarked and rejected. And even in our 
> 
> wildest and most wandering reveries, nay in our very 
> 
> dreams, we shall find, if we reflect, that the imagination 
> 
> ran not altogether at adventures, but that there was still 
> 
> a connexion upheld among the different ideas, which suc- 
> 
> ceeded each other. Were the loosest and freest conversa- 
> 
> tion to be transcribed, there would immediately be observed 
> 
> something which connected it in all its transitions. Or 
> 
> where this is wanting, the person who broke the thread of 
> 
> discourse might still inform you, that there had secretly 
> 
> revolved in his mind a succession of thought, which had 
> 
> gradually led him from the subject of conversation. Among 
> 
> different languages, even where we cannot suspect the least 
> 
> connexion or communication, it is found, that the words, 
> 
> expressive of ideas, the most compounded, do yet nearly 
> 
> correspond to each other: a certain proof that the simple 
> 
> ideas, comprehended in the compound ones, were bound 
> 
> together by some universal principle, which had an equal 
> 
> influence on all mankind. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Though it be too obvious to escape observation, that 
> 
> different ideas are connected together; I do not find that 
> 
> any philosopher has attempted to enumerate or class all 
> 
> the principles of association; a subject, however, that seems 
> 
> worthy of curiosity. To me, there appear to be only three 
> 
> principles of connexion among ideas, namely, Resemblance, 
> 
> Contiguity in time or place, and Cause or Effect. 
> 
> 
> 
>   That these principles serve to connect ideas will not, I 
> 
> believe, be much doubted. A picture naturally leads our 
> 
> thoughts to the original:[1] the mention of one apartment 
> 
> in a building naturally introduces an enquiry or discourse 
> 
> concerning the others:[2] and if we think of a wound, we 
> 
> can scarcely forbear reflecting on the pain which follows it.[3] 
> 
> But that this enumeration is complete, and that there are 
> 
> no other principles of association except these, may be 
> 
> difficult to prove to the satisfaction of the reader, or even 
> 
> to a man's own satisfaction. All we can do, in such cases, 
> 
> is to run over several instances, and examine carefully the 
> 
> principle which binds the different thoughts to each other, 
> 
> never stopping till we render the principle as general as 
> 
> possible.[4] The more instances we examine, and the more 
> 
> care we employ, the more assurance shall we acquire, that 
> 
> the enumeration, which we form from the whole, is com- 
> 
> plete and entire. 
> 
> 
> 
> [1] Resemblance.
> 
> 
> 
> [2] Contiguity.
> 
> 
> 
> [3] Cause and effect.
> 
> 
> 
> [4] For instance, Contrast or Contrariety is also a connexion among Ideas:
> 
> but it may perhaps, be considered as a mixture of Causation and Resem-
> 
> blance. Where two objects are contrary, the one destroys the other; that
> 
> is, the cause of its annihilation, and the idea of the annihilation of an
> 
> object, implies the idea of its former existence.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> SECTION IV
> 
> SCEPTICAL DOUBTS CONCERNING THE OPERATIONS OF 
> 
> THE UNDERSTANDING
> 
> 
> 
> PART I 
> 
> 
> 
>   ALL the objects of human reason or enquiry may 
> 
> naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Rela- 
> 
> tions of Ideas, and Matters of Fact. Of the first 
> 
> kind are the sciences of Geometry, Algebra, and Arithmetic; 
> 
> and in short, every affirmation which is either intuitively or 
> 
> demonstratively certain. That the square of the hypothenuse 
> 
> is equal to the square of the two sides, is a proposition 
> 
> which expresses a relation between these figures. That 
> 
> three times five is equal to the half of thirty, expresses a 
> 
> relation between these numbers. Propositions of this kind 
> 
> are discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without 
> 
> dependence on what is anywhere existent in the universe. 
> 
> Though there never were a circle or triangle in nature, the 
> 
> truths demonstrated by Euclid would for ever retain their 
> 
> certainty and evidence. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Matters of fact, which are the second objects of human 
> 
> reason, are not ascertained in the same manner; nor is our 
> 
> evidence of their truth, however great, of a like nature with 
> 
> the foregoing. The contrary of every matter of fact is still 
> 
> possible; because it can never imply a contradiction, and 
> 
> is conceived by the mind with the same facility and dis- 
> 
> tinctness, as if ever so conformable to reality. That the 
> 
> sun will not rise to-morrow is no less intelligible a propo- 
> 
> sition, and implies no more contradiction than the affirma- 
> 
> tion, that it will rise. We should in vain, therefore, attempt 
> 
> to demonstrate its falsehood. Were it demonstratively false, 
> 
> it would imply a contradiction, and could never be dis- 
> 
> tinctly conceived by the mind. 
> 
> 
> 
>   It may, therefore, be a subject worthy of curiosity, to 
> 
> enquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures 
> 
> us of any real existence and matter of fact, beyond the 
> 
> present testimony of our senses, or the records of our 
> 
> memory. This part of philosophy, it is observable, has been 
> 
> little cultivated, either by the ancients or moderns; and 
> 
> therefore our doubts and errors, in the prosecution of so 
> 
> important an enquiry, may be the more excusable; while 
> 
> we march through such difficult paths without any guide 
> 
> or direction. They may even prove useful, by exciting 
> 
> curiosity, and destroying that implicit faith and security, 
> 
> which is the bane of all reasoning and free enquiry. The 
> 
> discovery of defects in the common philosophy, if any such 
> 
> there be, will not, I presume, be a discouragement, but 
> 
> rather an incitement, as is usual, to attempt something 
> 
> more full and satisfactory than has yet been proposed to 
> 
> the public. 
> 
> 
> 
>   All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be 
> 
> founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. By means of 
> 
> that relation alone we can go beyond the evidence of our 
> 
> memory and senses. If you were to ask a man, why he 
> 
> believes any matter of fact, which is absent; for instance, 
> 
> that his friend is in the country, or in France; he would 
> 
> give you a reason; and this reason would be some other 
> 
> fact; as a letter received from him, or the knowledge of his 
> 
> former resolutions and promises. A man finding a watch 
> 
> or any other machine in a desert island, would conclude 
> 
> that there had once been men in that island. All our rea- 
> 
> sonings concerning fact are of the same nature. And here 
> 
> it is constantly supposed that there is a connexion between 
> 
> the present fact and that which is inferred from it. Were 
> 
> there nothing to bind them together, the inference would 
> 
> be entirely precarious. The hearing of an articulate voice 
> 
> and rational discourse in the dark assures us of the pres- 
> 
> ence of some person: Why? because these are the effects 
> 
> of the human make and fabric, and closely connected with 
> 
> it. If we anatomize all the other reasonings of this nature, 
> 
> we shall find that they are founded on the relation of cause 
> 
> and effect, and that this relation is either near or remote, 
> 
> direct or collateral. Heat and light are collateral effects 
> 
> of fire, and the one effect may justly be inferred from the 
> 
> other. 
> 
> 
> 
>   If we would satisfy ourselves, therefore, concerning the 
> 
> nature of that evidence, which assures us of matters of fact, 
> 
> we must enquire how we arrive at the knowledge of cause 
> 
> and effect. 
> 
> 
> 
>   I shall venture to affirm, as a general proposition, which 
> 
> admits of no exception, that the knowledge of this relation 
> 
> is not, in any instance, attained by reasonings a priori; but 
> 
> arises entirely from experience, when we find that any 
> 
> particular objects are constantly conjoined with each other. 
> 
> Let an object be presented to a man of ever so strong natural 
> 
> reason and abilities; if that object be entirely new to him, 
> 
> he will not be able, by the most accurate examination of 
> 
> its sensible qualities, to discover any of its causes or effects. 
> 
> Adam, though his rational faculties be supposed, at the 
> 
> very first, entirely perfect, could not have inferred from 
> 
> the fluidity and transparency of water that it would suffo- 
> 
> cate him, or from the light and warmth of fire that it would 
> 
> consume him. No object ever discovers, by the qualities 
> 
> which appear to the senses, either the causes which pro- 
> 
> duced it, or the effects which will arise from it; nor can 
> 
> our reason, unassisted by experience, ever draw any in- 
> 
> ference concerning real existence and matter of fact. 
> 
> 
> 
>   This proposition, that causes and effects are discoverable, 
> 
> not by reason but by experience, will readily be admitted 
> 
> with regard to such objects, as we remember to have once 
> 
> been altogether unknown to us; since we must be conscious 
> 
> of the utter inability, which we then lay under, of foretelling 
> 
> what would arise from them. Present two smooth pieces of 
> 
> marble to a man who has no tincture of natural philosophy; 
> 
> he will never discover that they will adhere together in such 
> 
> a manner as to require great force to separate them in a 
> 
> direct line, while they make so small a resistance to a 
> 
> lateral pressure. Such events, as bear little analogy to 
> 
> the common course of nature, are also readily confessed to 
> 
> be known only by experience; nor does any man imagine 
> 
> that the explosion of gunpowder, or the attraction of a load- 
> 
> stone, could ever be discovered by arguments a priori. In 
> 
> like manner, when an effect is supposed to depend upon an 
> 
> intricate machinery or secret structure of parts, we make no 
> 
> difficulty in attributing all our knowledge of it to experience. 
> 
> Who will assert that he can give the ultimate reason, why 
> 
> milk or bread is proper nourishment for a man, not for 
> 
> a lion or a tiger? 
> 
> 
> 
>   But the same truth may not appear, at first sight, to have 
> 
> the same evidence with regard to events, which have become 
> 
> familiar to us from our first appearance in the world, which 
> 
> bear a close analogy to the whole course of nature, and 
> 
> which are supposed to depend on the simple qualities of 
> 
> objects, without any secret structure of parts. We are apt 
> 
> to imagine that we could discover these effects by the mere 
> 
> operation of our reason, without experience. We fancy, 
> 
> that were we brought on a sudden into this world, we 
> 
> could at first have inferred that one Billiard-ball would 
> 
> communicate motion to another upon impulse; and that we 
> 
> needed not to have waited for the event, in order to pro- 
> 
> nounce with certainty concerning it. Such is the influence of 
> 
> custom, that, where it is strongest, it not only covers our 
> 
> natural ignorance, but even conceals itself, and seems not to 
> 
> take place, merely because it is found in the highest degree. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But to convince us that all the laws of nature, and all 
> 
> the operations of bodies without exception, are known only 
> 
> by experience, the following reflections may, perhaps, suf- 
> 
> fice. Were any object presented to us, and were we 
> 
> required to pronounce concerning the effect, which will 
> 
> result from it, without consulting past observation; after 
> 
> what manner, I beseech you, must the mind proceed in this 
> 
> operation? It must invent or imagine some event, which 
> 
> it ascribes to the object as its effect; and it is plain that 
> 
> this invention must be entirely arbitrary. The mind can 
> 
> never possibly find the effect in the supposed cause, by the 
> 
> most accurate scrutiny and examination. For the effect is 
> 
> totally different from the cause, and consequently can never 
> 
> be discovered in it. Motion in the second Billiard-ball is a 
> 
> quite distinct event from motion in the first; nor is there 
> 
> anything in the one to suggest the smallest hint of the 
> 
> other. A stone or piece of metal raised into the air, and 
> 
> left without any support, immediately falls: but to consider 
> 
> the matter a priori, is there anything we discover in this 
> 
> situation which can beget the idea of a downward, rather 
> 
> than an upward, or any other motion, in the stone or metal? 
> 
> 
> 
>   And as the first imagination or invention of a particular 
> 
> effect, in all natural operations, is arbitrary, where we con- 
> 
> sult not experience; so must we also esteem the supposed 
> 
> tie or connexion between the cause and effect, which binds 
> 
> them together, and renders it impossible that any other 
> 
> effect could result from the operation of that cause. When 
> 
> I see, for instance, a Billiard-ball moving in a straight line 
> 
> towards another; even suppose motion in the second ball 
> 
> should by accident be suggested to me, as the result of their 
> 
> contact or impulse; may I not conceive, that a hundred dif- 
> 
> ferent events might as well follow from that cause? May 
> 
> not both these balls remain at absolute rest? May not the 
> 
> first ball return in a straight line, or leap off from the second 
> 
> in any line or direction? All these suppositions are con- 
> 
> sistent and conceivable. Why then should we give the 
> 
> preference to one, which is no more consistent or conceivable 
> 
> than the rest? All our reasonings a priori will never be 
> 
> able to show us any foundation for this preference. 
> 
> 
> 
>   In a word, then, every effect is a distinct event from its 
> 
> cause. It could not, therefore, be discovered in the cause, 
> 
> and the first invention or conception of it, a priori, must be 
> 
> entirely arbitrary. And even after it is suggested, the con- 
> 
> junction of it with the cause must appear equally arbitrary; 
> 
> since there are always many other effects, which, to reason, 
> 
> must seem fully as consistent and natural. In vain, there- 
> 
> fore, should we pretend to determine any single event, or 
> 
> infer any cause or effect, without the assistance of observa- 
> 
> tion and experience. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Hence we may discover the reason why no philosopher, 
> 
> who is rational and modest, has ever pretended to assign 
> 
> the ultimate cause of any natural operation, or to show 
> 
> distinctly the action of that power, which produces any 
> 
> single effect in the universe. It is confessed, that the 
> 
> utmost effort of human reason is to reduce the principles, 
> 
> productive of natural phenomena, to a greater simplicity, 
> 
> and to resolve the many particular effects into a few gen- 
> 
> eral causes, by means of reasonings from analogy, experi- 
> 
> ence, and observation. But as to the causes of these general 
> 
> causes, we should in vain attempt their discovery; nor shall 
> 
> we ever be able to satisfy ourselves, by any particular ex- 
> 
> plication of them. These ultimate springs and principles 
> 
> are totally shut up from human curiosity and enquiry. Elas- 
> 
> ticity, gravity, cohesion of parts, communication of motion 
> 
> by impulse; these are probably the ultimate causes and prin- 
> 
> ciples which we shall ever discover in nature; and we may 
> 
> esteem ourselves sufficiently happy, if, by accurate enquiry 
> 
> and reasoning, we can trace up the particular phenomena 
> 
> to, or near to, these general principles. The most perfect 
> 
> philosophy of the natural kind only staves off our ignorance 
> 
> a little longer: as perhaps the most perfect philosophy of 
> 
> the moral or metaphysical kind serves only to discover larger 
> 
> portions of it. Thus the observation of human blindness 
> 
> and weakness is the result of all philosophy, and meets us at 
> 
> every turn, in spite of our endeavours to elude or avoid it. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Nor is geometry, when taken into the assistance of natural 
> 
> philosophy, ever able to remedy this defect, or lead us into 
> 
> the knowledge of ultimate causes, by all that accuracy of 
> 
> reasoning for which it is so justly celebrated. Every part 
> 
> of mixed mathematics proceeds upon the supposition that 
> 
> certain laws are established by nature in her operations; 
> 
> and abstract reasonings are employed, either to assist ex- 
> 
> perience in the discovery of these laws, or to determine 
> 
> their influence in particular instances, where it depends 
> 
> upon any precise degree of distance and quantity. Thus, it 
> 
> is a law of motion, discovered by experience, that the mo- 
> 
> ment or force of any body in motion is in the compound 
> 
> ratio or proportion of its solid contents and its velocity; 
> 
> and consequently, that a small force may remove the greatest 
> 
> obstacle or raise the greatest weight, if, by any contrivance 
> 
> or machinery, we can increase the velocity of that force, 
> 
> so as to make it an overmatch for its antagonist. Geometry 
> 
> assists us in the application of this law, by giving us the 
> 
> just dimensions of all the parts and figures which can enter 
> 
> into any species of machine; but still the discovery of the 
> 
> law itself is owing merely to experience, and all the abstract 
> 
> reasonings in the world could never lead us one step towards 
> 
> the knowledge of it. When we reason a priori, and consider 
> 
> merely any object or cause, as it appears to the mind, inde- 
> 
> pendent of all observation, it never could suggest to us the 
> 
> notion of any distinct object, such as its effect; much less, 
> 
> show us the inseparable and inviolable connexion between 
> 
> them. A man must be very sagacious who could discover 
> 
> by reasoning that crystal is the effect of heat, and ice of 
> 
> cold, without being previously acquainted with the operation 
> 
> of these qualities. 
> 
> 
> 
> PART II 
> 
> 
> 
>   BUT we have not yet attained any tolerable satisfac- 
> 
> tion with regard to the question first proposed. Each 
> 
> solution still gives rise to a new question as difficult as 
> 
> the foregoing, and leads us on to farther enquiries. When 
> 
> it is asked, What is the nature of all our reasonings 
> 
> concerning matter of fact? the proper answer seems to be, 
> 
> that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. 
> 
> When again it is asked, What is the foundation of all our 
> 
> reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation? it may 
> 
> be replied in one word, Experience. But if we still carry on 
> 
> our sifting humour, and ask, What is the foundation of all 
> 
> conclusions from experience? this implies a new question, 
> 
> which may be of more difficult solution and explication. 
> 
> Philosophers, that give themselves airs of superior wisdom 
> 
> and sufficiency, have a hard task when they encounter per- 
> 
> sons of inquisitive dispositions, who push them from every 
> 
> corner to which they retreat, and who are sure at last to 
> 
> bring them to some dangerous dilemma. The best expedient 
> 
> to prevent this confusion, is to be modest in our preten- 
> 
> sions; and even to discover the difficulty ourselves before 
> 
> it is objected to us. By this means, we may make a kind of 
> 
> merit of our very ignorance. 
> 
> 
> 
>   I shall content myself, in this section, with an easy task, 
> 
> and shall pretend only to give a negative answer to the 
> 
> question here proposed. I say then, that, even after we 
> 
> have experience of the operations of cause and effect, our 
> 
> conclusions from that experience are not founded on reason- 
> 
> ing, or any process of the understanding. This answer we 
> 
> must endeavour both to explain and to defend. 
> 
> 
> 
>   It must certainly be allowed, that nature has kept us 
> 
> at a great distance from all her secrets, and has afforded 
> 
> us only the knowledge of a few superficial qualities of ob- 
> 
> jects; while she conceals from us those powers and prin- 
> 
> ciples on which the influence of those objects entirely de- 
> 
> pends. Our senses inform us of the colour, weight, and 
> 
> consistence of bread; but neither sense nor reason can ever 
> 
> inform us of those qualities which fit it for the nourish- 
> 
> ment and support of a human body. Sight or feeling con- 
> 
> veys an idea of the actual motion of bodies; but as to that 
> 
> wonderful force or power, which would carry on a moving 
> 
> body for ever in a continued change of place, and which 
> 
> bodies never lose but by communicating it to others; of 
> 
> this we cannot form the most distant conception. But not- 
> 
> withstanding this ignorance of natural powers[1] and princi- 
> 
> ples, we always presume, when we see like sensible quali- 
> 
> ties, that they have like secret powers, and expect that 
> 
> effects, similar to those which we have experienced, will 
> 
> follow from them. If a body of like colour and consistence 
> 
> with that bread, which we have formerly eat, be pre- 
> 
> sented to us, we make no scruple of repeating the experi- 
> 
> ment, and foresee, with certainty, like nourishment and 
> 
> support. Now this is a process of the mind or thought, 
> 
> of which I would willingly know the foundation. It is 
> 
> allowed on all hands that there is no known connexion 
> 
> between the sensible qualities and the secret powers; and 
> 
> consequently, that the mind is not led to form such a con- 
> 
> clusion concerning their constant and regular conjunction, 
> 
> by anything which it knows of their nature. As to past 
> 
> Experience, it can be allowed to give direct and certain 
> 
> information of those precise objects only, and that precise 
> 
> period of time, which fell under its cognizance: but why 
> 
> this experience should be extended to future times, and to 
> 
> other objects, which for aught we know, may be only in 
> 
> appearance similar; this is the main question on which 
> 
> I would insist. The bread, which I formerly eat, nourished 
> 
> me; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that 
> 
> time, endued with such secret powers: but does it follow, 
> 
> that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and 
> 
> that like sensible qualities must always be attended with 
> 
> like secret powers? The consequence seems nowise neces- 
> 
> sary. At least, it must be acknowledged that there is here 
> 
> a consequence drawn by the mind; that there is a certain 
> 
> step taken; a process of thought, and an inference, which 
> 
> wants to be explained. These two propositions are far 
> 
> from being the same. I have found that such an object has 
> 
> always been attended with such an effect, and I foresee, that 
> 
> other objects, which are, in appearance, similar, will be 
> 
> attended with similar effects. I shall allow, if you please, 
> 
> that the one proposition may justly be inferred from the 
> 
> other: I know, in fact, that it always is inferred. But if you 
> 
> insist that the inference is made by a chain of reasoning, 
> 
> I desire you to produce that reasoning. The connexion 
> 
> between these propositions is not intuitive. There is re- 
> 
> quired a medium, which may enable the mind to draw such 
> 
> an inference, if indeed it be drawn by reasoning and argu- 
> 
> ment. What that medium is, I must confess, passes my 
> 
> comprehension; and it is incumbent on those to produce it, 
> 
> who assert that it really exists, and is the origin of all our 
> 
> conclusions concerning matter of fact. 
> 
> 
> 
>   This negative argument must certainly, in process of 
> 
> time, become altogether convincing, if many penetrating 
> 
> and able philosophers shall turn their enquiries this way 
> 
> and no one be ever able to discover any connecting propo- 
> 
> sition or intermediate step, which supports the understand- 
> 
> ing in this conclusion. But as the question is yet new, 
> 
> every reader may not trust so far to his own penetration, 
> 
> as to conclude, because an argument escapes his enquiry, 
> 
> that therefore it does not really exist. For this reason it 
> 
> may be requisite to venture upon a more difficult task; and 
> 
> enumerating all the branches of human knowledge, en- 
> 
> deavour to show that none of them can afford such an 
> 
> argument. 
> 
> 
> 
>   All reasonings may be divided into two kinds, namely, 
> 
> demonstrative reasoning, or that concerning relations of 
> 
> ideas, and moral reasoning, or that concerning matter of 
> 
> fact and existence. That there are no demonstrative argu- 
> 
> ments in the case seems evident; since it implies no con- 
> 
> tradiction that the course of nature may change, and that 
> 
> an object, seemingly like those which we have experi- 
> 
> enced, may be attended with different or contrary effects. 
> 
> May I not clearly and distinctly conceive that a body, 
> 
> falling from the clouds, and which, in all other respects, 
> 
> resembles snow, has yet the taste of salt or feeling of 
> 
> fire? Is there any more intelligible proposition than to 
> 
> affirm, that all the trees will flourish in December and 
> 
> January, and decay in May and June? Now whatever 
> 
> is intelligible, and can be distinctly conceived, implies no 
> 
> contradiction, and can never be proved false by any demon- 
> 
> strative argument or abstract reasoning a priori. 
> 
> 
> 
>   If we be, therefore, engaged by arguments to put trust 
> 
> in past experience, and make it the standard of our future 
> 
> judgment, these arguments must be probable only, or such 
> 
> as regard matter of fact and real existence according to the 
> 
> division above mentioned. But that there is no argument 
> 
> of this kind, must appear, if our explication of that species 
> 
> of reasoning be admitted as solid and satisfactory. We 
> 
> have said that all arguments concerning existence are 
> 
> founded on the relation of cause and effect; that our 
> 
> knowledge of that relation is derived entirely from experi- 
> 
> ence; and that all our experimental conclusions proceed 
> 
> upon the supposition that the future will be conformable 
> 
> to the past. To endeavour, therefore, the proof of this last 
> 
> supposition by probable arguments, or arguments regarding 
> 
> existence, must be evidently going in a circle, and taking 
> 
> that for granted, which is the very point in question. 
> 
> 
> 
>   In reality, all arguments from experience are founded on 
> 
> the similarity which we discover among natural objects, 
> 
> and by which we are induced to expect effects similar to 
> 
> those which we have found to follow from such objects. 
> 
> And though none but a fool or madman will ever pretend 
> 
> to dispute the authority of experience, or to reject that 
> 
> great guide of human life, it may surely be allowed a philoso- 
> 
> pher to have so much curiosity at least as to examine the 
> 
> principle of human nature, which gives this mighty authority 
> 
> to experience, and makes us draw advantage from that 
> 
> similarity which nature has placed among different objects. 
> 
> >From causes which appear similar we expect similar effects. 
> 
> This is the sum of all our experimental conclusions. Now 
> 
> it seems evident that, if this conclusion were formed by 
> 
> reason, it would be as perfect at first, and upon one in- 
> 
> stance, as after ever so long a course of experience. But 
> 
> the case is far otherwise. Nothing so like as eggs; yet no 
> 
> one, on account of this appearing similarity, expects the 
> 
> same taste and relish in all of them. It is only after a long 
> 
> course of uniform experiments in any kind, that we attain 
> 
> a firm reliance and security with regard to a particular 
> 
> event. Now where is that process of reasoning which, 
> 
> from one instance, draws a conclusion, so different from 
> 
> that which it infers from a hundred instances that are 
> 
> nowise different from that single one? This question I 
> 
> propose as much for the sake of information, as with an 
> 
> intention of raising difficulties. I cannot find, I cannot 
> 
> imagine any such reasoning. But I keep my mind still 
> 
> open to instruction, if any one will vouchsafe to bestow 
> 
> it on me. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Should it be said that, from a number of uniform experi- 
> 
> ments, we infer a connexion between the sensible qualities 
> 
> and the secret powers; this, I must confess, seems the 
> 
> same difficulty, couched in different terms. The question 
> 
> still recurs, on what process of argument this inference is 
> 
> founded? Where is the medium, the interposing ideas, 
> 
> which join propositions so very wide of each other? It is 
> 
> confessed that the colour, consistence, and other sensible 
> 
> qualities of bread appear not, of themselves, to have any 
> 
> connexion with the secret powers of nourishment and sup- 
> 
> port. For otherwise we could infer these secret powers 
> 
> from the first appearance of these sensible qualities, without 
> 
> the aid of experience; contrary to the sentiment of all 
> 
> philosophers, and contrary to plain matter of fact. Here, 
> 
> then, is our natural state of ignorance with regard to the 
> 
> powers and influence of all objects. How is this remedied 
> 
> by experience? It only shows us a number of uniform 
> 
> effects, resulting from certain objects, and teaches us that 
> 
> those particular objects, at that particular time, were en- 
> 
> dowed with such powers and forces. When a new object, 
> 
> endowed with similar sensible qualities, is produced, we 
> 
> expect similar powers and forces, and look for a like effect. 
> 
> >From a body of like colour and consistence with bread we 
> 
> expect like nourishment and support. But this surely is 
> 
> a step or progress of the mind, which wants to be explained. 
> 
> When a man says, I have found, in all past instances, such 
> 
> sensible qualities conjoined with such secret powers: And 
> 
> when he says, Similar sensible qualities will always be con- 
> 
> joined with similar secret powers, he is not guilty of a tau- 
> 
> tology, nor are these propositions in any respect the same. 
> 
> You say that the one proposition is an inference from the 
> 
> other. But you must confess that the inference is not 
> 
> intuitive; neither is it demonstrative: Of what nature is it, 
> 
> then? To say it is experimental, is begging the question. 
> 
> For all inferences from experience suppose, as their founda- 
> 
> tion, that the future will resemble the past, and that similar 
> 
> powers will be conjoined with similar sensible qualities. 
> 
> If there be any suspicion that the course of nature may 
> 
> change, and that the past may be no rule for the future, all 
> 
> experience becomes useless, and can give rise to no in- 
> 
> ference or conclusion. It is impossible, therefore, that any 
> 
> arguments from experience can prove this resemblance of 
> 
> the past to the future; since all these arguments are 
> 
> founded on the supposition of that resemblance. Let the 
> 
> course of things be allowed hitherto ever so regular; that 
> 
> alone, without some new argument or inference, proves 
> 
> not that, for the future, it will continue so. In vain do 
> 
> you pretend to have learned the nature of bodies from your 
> 
> past experience. Their secret nature, and consequently 
> 
> all their effects and influence, may change, without any 
> 
> change in their sensible qualities. This happens some- 
> 
> times, and with regard to some objects: Why may it not 
> 
> happen always, and with regard to all objects? What logic, 
> 
> what process or argument secures you against this supposi- 
> 
> tion? My practice, you say, refutes my doubts. But you 
> 
> mistake the purport of my question. As an agent, I am 
> 
> quite satisfied in the point; but as a philosopher, who has 
> 
> some share of curiosity, I will not say scepticism, I want to 
> 
> learn the foundation of this inference. No reading, no 
> 
> enquiry has yet been able to remove my difficulty, or give 
> 
> me satisfaction in a matter of such importance. Can I do 
> 
> better than propose the difficulty to the public, even though, 
> 
> perhaps, I have small hopes of obtaining a solution? We 
> 
> shall at least, by this means, be sensible of our ignorance, 
> 
> if we do not augment our knowledge. 
> 
> 
> 
>   I must confess that a man is guilty of unpardonable 
> 
> arrogance who concludes, because an argument has es- 
> 
> caped his own investigation, that therefore it does not really 
> 
> exist. I must also confess that, though all the learned, for 
> 
> several ages, should have employed themselves in fruit- 
> 
> less search upon any subject, it may still, perhaps, be rash 
> 
> to conclude positively that the subject must, therefore, 
> 
> pass all human comprehension. Even though we examine 
> 
> all the sources of our knowledge, and conclude them un- 
> 
> fit for such a subject, there may still remain a suspicion, 
> 
> that the enumeration is not complete, or the examination 
> 
> not accurate. But with regard to the present subject, there 
> 
> are some considerations which seem to remove all this 
> 
> accusation of arrogance or suspicion of mistake. 
> 
> 
> 
>   It is certain that the most ignorant and stupid peasants-- 
> 
> nay infants, nay even brute beasts--improve by experience, 
> 
> and learn the qualities of natural objects, by observing the 
> 
> effects which result from them. When a child has felt the 
> 
> sensation of pain from touching the flame of a candle, he 
> 
> will be careful not to put his hand near any candle; but 
> 
> will expect a similar effect from a cause which is similar in 
> 
> its sensible qualities and appearance. If you assert, there- 
> 
> fore, that the understanding of the child is led into this 
> 
> conclusion by any process of argument or ratiocination, 
> 
> I may justly require you to produce that argument; nor 
> 
> have you any pretence to refuse so equitable a demand. 
> 
> You cannot say that the argument is abstruse, and may 
> 
> possibly escape your enquiry; since you confess that it is 
> 
> obvious to the capacity of a mere infant. If you hesitate, 
> 
> therefore, a moment, or if, after reflection, you produce any 
> 
> intricate or profound argument, you, in a manner, give up 
> 
> the question, and confess that it is not reasoning which 
> 
> engages us to suppose the past resembling the future, and 
> 
> to expect similar effects from causes which are, to appear- 
> 
> ance, similar. This is the proposition which I intended to 
> 
> enforce in the present section. If I be right, I pretend not 
> 
> to have made any mighty discovery. And if I be wrong, 
> 
> I must acknowledge myself to be indeed a very backward 
> 
> scholar; since I cannot now discover an argument which, 
> 
> it seems, was perfectly familiar to me long before I was 
> 
> out of my cradle. 
> 
> 
> 
> [1] The word, Power, is here used in a loose and popular sense. The more
> 
> accurate explication of it would give additional evidence to this argument.
> 
> See Sect. 7.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> SECTION V
> 
> SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS
> 
> 
> 
> PART I 
> 
> 
> 
>   THE passion for philosophy, like that for religion, 
> 
> seems liable to this inconvenience, that, though it 
> 
> aims at the correction of our manners, and extirpation 
> 
> of our vices, it may only serve, by imprudent management, 
> 
> to foster a predominant inclination, and push the mind, 
> 
> with more determined resolution, towards that side which 
> 
> already draws too much, by the bias and propensity of the 
> 
> natural temper. It is certain that, while we aspire to the 
> 
> magnanimous firmness of the philosophic sage, and en- 
> 
> deavour to confine our pleasures altogether within our own 
> 
> minds, we may, at last, render our philosophy like that of 
> 
> Epictetus, and other Stoics, only a more refined system of 
> 
> selfishness, and reason ourselves out of all virtue as well 
> 
> as social enjoyment. While we study with attention the 
> 
> vanity of human life, and turn all our thoughts towards 
> 
> the empty and transitory nature of riches and honours, we 
> 
> are, perhaps, all the while flattering our natural indolence, 
> 
> which, hating the bustle of the world, and drudgery of 
> 
> business, seeks a pretence of reason to give itself a full 
> 
> and uncontrolled indulgence. There is, however, one 
> 
> species of philosophy which seems little liable to this in- 
> 
> convenience, and that because it strikes in with no dis- 
> 
> orderly passion of the human mind, nor can mingle it- 
> 
> self with any natural affection or propensity; and that is 
> 
> the Academic or Sceptical philosophy. The academics al- 
> 
> ways talk of doubt and suspense of judgment, of danger 
> 
> in hasty determinations, of confining to very narrow bounds 
> 
> the enquiries of the understanding, and of renouncing all 
> 
> speculations which lie not within the limits of common life 
> 
> and practice. Nothing, therefore, can be more contrary 
> 
> than such a philosophy to the supine indolence of the 
> 
> mind, its rash arrogance, its lofty pretensions, and its super- 
> 
> stitious credulity. Every passion is mortified by it, except 
> 
> the love of truth; and that passion never is, nor can be, 
> 
> carried to too high a degree. It is surprising, therefore, 
> 
> that this philosophy, which, in almost every instance, must 
> 
> be harmless and innocent, should be the subject of so 
> 
> much groundless reproach and obloquy. But, perhaps, 
> 
> the very circumstance which renders it so innocent is 
> 
> what chiefly exposes it to the public hatred and resentment. 
> 
> By flattering no irregular passion, it gains few partizans: 
> 
> By opposing so many vices and follies, it raises to itself 
> 
> abundance of enemies, who stigmatize it as libertine, pro- 
> 
> fane, and irreligious. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Nor need we fear that this philosophy, while it endeavours 
> 
> to limit our enquiries to common life, should ever undermine 
> 
> the reasonings of common life, and carry its doubts so far 
> 
> as to destroy all action, as well as speculation. Nature 
> 
> will always maintain her rights, and prevail in the end over 
> 
> any abstract reasoning whatsoever. Though we should 
> 
> conclude, for instance, as in the foregoing section, that, in 
> 
> all reasonings from experience, there is a step taken by the 
> 
> mind which is not supported by any argument or process 
> 
> of the understanding; there is no danger that these rea- 
> 
> sonings, on which almost all knowledge depends, will ever 
> 
> be affected by such a discovery. If the mind be not en- 
> 
> gaged by argument to make this step, it must be induced 
> 
> by some other principle of equal weight and authority; and 
> 
> that principle will preserve its influence as long as human 
> 
> nature remains the same. What that principle is may well 
> 
> be worth the pains of enquiry. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Suppose a person, though endowed with the strongest 
> 
> faculties of reason and reflection, to be brought on a sudden 
> 
> into this world; he would, indeed, immediately observe 
> 
> a continual succession of objects, and one event following 
> 
> another; but he would not be able to discover anything 
> 
> farther. He would not, at first, by any reasoning, be able 
> 
> to reach the idea of cause and effect; since the particular 
> 
> powers, by which all natural operations are performed, 
> 
> never appear to the senses; nor is it reasonable to conclude, 
> 
> merely because one event, in one instance, precedes another, 
> 
> that therefore the one is the cause, the other the effect. 
> 
> Their conjunction may be arbitrary and casual. There 
> 
> may be no reason to infer the existence of one from the 
> 
> appearance of the other. And in a word, such a person, 
> 
> without more experience, could never employ his conjecture 
> 
> or reasoning concerning any matter of fact, or be assured 
> 
> of anything beyond what was immediately present to his 
> 
> memory and senses. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Suppose, again, that he has acquired more experience, 
> 
> and has lived so long in the world as to have observed 
> 
> familiar objects or events to be constantly conjoined to- 
> 
> gether; what is the consequence of this experience? He 
> 
> immediately infers the existence of one object from the 
> 
> appearance of the other. Yet he has not, by all his ex- 
> 
> perience, acquired any idea or knowledge of the secret 
> 
> power by which the one object produces the other; nor 
> 
> is it by any process of reasoning, he is engaged to draw 
> 
> this inference. But still he finds himself determined to 
> 
> draw it: and though he should be convinced that his 
> 
> understanding has no part in the operation, he would 
> 
> nevertheless continue in the same course of thinking. There 
> 
> is some other principle which determines him to form such 
> 
> a conclusion. 
> 
> 
> 
>   This principle is Custom or Habit. For wherever the 
> 
> repetition of any particular act or operation produces a 
> 
> propensity to renew the same act or operation, without 
> 
> being impelled by any reasoning or process of the under- 
> 
> standing, we always say, that this propensity is the effect 
> 
> of Custom. By employing that word, we pretend not to 
> 
> have given the ultimate reason of such a propensity. We 
> 
> only point out a principle of human nature, which is 
> 
> universally acknowledged, and which is well known by its 
> 
> effects. Perhaps we can push our enquiries no farther, or 
> 
> pretend to give the cause of this cause; but must rest 
> 
> contented with it as the ultimate principle, which we can 
> 
> assign, of all our conclusions from experience. It is suf- 
> 
> ficient satisfaction, that we can go so far, without repining 
> 
> at the narrowness of our faculties because they will carry 
> 
> us no farther. And it is certain we here advance a very 
> 
> intelligible proposition at least, if not a true one, when 
> 
> we assert that, after the constant conjunction of two ob- 
> 
> jects--heat and flame, for instance, weight and solidity-- 
> 
> we are determined by custom alone to expect the one from 
> 
> the appearance of the other. This hypothesis seems even 
> 
> the only one which explains the difficulty, why we draw, 
> 
> from a thousand instances, an inference which we are not 
> 
> able to draw from one instance, that is, in no respect, 
> 
> different from them. Reason is incapable of any such 
> 
> variation. The conclusions which it draws from consider- 
> 
> ing one circle are the same which it would form upon 
> 
> surveying all the circles in the universe. But no man, 
> 
> having seen only one body move after being impelled by 
> 
> another, could infer that every other body will move after 
> 
> a like impulse. All inferences from experience, therefore, 
> 
> are effects of custom, not of reasoning.[1]
> 
> 
> 
>   Custom, then, is the great guide of human life. It is 
> 
> that principle alone which renders our experience useful 
> 
> to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train 
> 
> of events with those which have appeared in the past. 
> 
> Without the influence of custom, we should be entirely 
> 
> ignorant of every matter of fact beyond what is immediately 
> 
> present to the memory and senses. We should never know 
> 
> how to adjust means to ends, or to employ our natural 
> 
> powers in the production of any effect. There would 
> 
> be an end at once of all action, as well as of the chief 
> 
> part of speculation. 
> 
> 
> 
>   But here it may be proper to remark, that though our 
> 
> conclusions from experience carry us beyond our memory 
> 
> and senses, and assure us of matters of fact which hap- 
> 
> pened in the most distant places and most remote ages, 
> 
> yet some fact must always be present to the senses or 
> 
> memory, from which we may first proceed in drawing these 
> 
> conclusions. A man, who should find in a desert country 
> 
> the remains of pompous buildings, would conclude that 
> 
> the country had, in ancient times, been cultivated by civil- 
> 
> ized inhabitants; but did nothing of this nature occur 
> 
> to him, he could never form such an inference. We learn 
> 
> the events of former ages from history; but then we must 
> 
> peruse the volumes in which this instruction is contained, 
> 
> and thence carry up our inferences from one testimony to 
> 
> another, till we arrive at the eyewitnesses and spectators of 
> 
> these distant events. In a word, if we proceed not upon 
> 
> some fact, present to the memory or senses, our reasonings 
> 
> would be merely hypothetical; and however the particular 
> 
> links might be connected with each other, the whole chain 
> 
> of inferences would have nothing to support it, nor could 
> 
> we ever, by its means, arrive at the knowledge of any real 
> 
> existence. If I ask why you believe any particular matter 
> 
> of fact, which you relate, you must tell me some reason; 
> 
> and this reason will be some other fact, connected with it. 
> 
> But as you cannot proceed after this manner, in infinitum, 
> 
> you must at last terminate in some fact, which is present to 
> 
> your memory or senses; or must allow that your belief is 
> 
> entirely without foundation. 
> 
> 
> 
>   What, then, is the conclusion of the whole matter? A 
> 
> simple one; though, it must be confessed, pretty remote 
> 
> from the common theories of philosophy. All belief of 
> 
> matter of fact or real existence is derived merely from some 
> 
> object, present to the memory or senses, and a customary 
> 
> conjunction between that and some other object. Or in 
> 
> other words; having found, in many instances, that any 
> 
> two kinds of objects--flame and heat, snow and cold--have 
> 
> always been conjoined together; if flame or snow be pre- 
> 
> sented anew to the senses, the mind is carried by custom 
> 
> to expect heat or cold, and to believe that such a quality 
> 
> does exist, and will discover itself upon a nearer approach. 
> 
> This belief is the necessary result of placing the mind in 
> 
> such circumstances. It is an operation of the soul, when 
> 
> we are so situated, as unavoidable as to feel the passion of 
> 
> love, when we receive benefits; or hatred, when we meet 
> 
> with injuries. All these operations are a species of natural 
> 
> instincts, which no reasoning or process of the thought and 
> 
> understanding is able either to produce or to prevent. 
> 
> 
> 
>   At this point, it would be very allowable for us to stop 
> 
> our philosophical researches. In most questions we can 
> 
> never make a single step farther; and in all questions we 
> 
> must terminate here at last, after our most restless and 
> 
> curious enquiries. But still our curiosity will be pardonable, 
> 
> perhaps commendable, if it carry us on to still farther 
> 
> researches, and make us examine more accurately the na- 
> 
> ture of this belief, and of the customary conjunction, whence 
> 
> it is derived. By this means we may meet with some ex- 
> 
> plications and analogies that will give satisfaction; at least 
> 
> to such as love the abstract sciences, and can be enter- 
> 
> tained with speculations, which, however accurate, may 
> 
> still retain a degree of doubt and uncertainty. As to 
> 
> readers of a different taste; the remaining part of this 
> 
> section is not calculated for them, and the following en- 
> 
> quiries may well be understood, though it be neglected. 
> 
> 
> 
> PART II 
> 
> 
> 
>   NOTHING is more free than the imagination of man; and 
> 
> though it cannot exceed that original stock of ideas fur- 
> 
> nished by the internal and external senses, it has unlimited 
> 
> power of mixing, compounding, separating, and dividing 
> 
> these ideas, in all the varieties of fiction and vision. It 
> 
> can feign a train of events, with all the appearance of 
> 
> reality, ascribe to them a particular time and place, conceive 
> 
> them as existent, and paint them out to itself with every 
> 
> circumstance, that belongs to any historical fact, which it 
> 
> believes with the greatest certainty. Wherein, therefore, 
> 
> consists the difference between such a fiction and belief? 
> 
> It lies not merely in any peculiar idea, which is annexed to 
> 
> such a conception as commands our assent, and which is 
> 
> wanting to every known fiction. For as the mind has 
> 
> authority over all its ideas, it could voluntarily annex this 
> 
> particular idea to any fiction, and consequently be able to 
> 
> believe whatever it pleases; contrary to what we find by 
> 
> daily experience. We can, in our conception, join the head 
> 
> of a man to the body of a horse; but it is not in our 
> 
> power to believe that such an animal has ever really 
> 
> existed. 
> 
> 
> 
>   It follows, therefore, that the difference between fiction 
> 
> and belief lies in some sentiment or feeling, which is 
> 
> annexed to the latter, not to the former, and which depends 
> 
> not on the will, nor can be commanded at pleasure. It 
> 
> must be excited by nature, like all other sentiments; and 
> 
> must arise from the particular situation, in which the mind 
> 
> is placed at any particular juncture. Whenever any object 
> 
> is presented to the memory or senses, it immediately, by the 
> 
> force of custom, carries the imagination to conceive that 
> 
> object, which is usually conjoined to it; and this conception 
> 
> is attended with a feeling or sentiment, different from the 
> 
> loose reveries of the fancy. In this consists the whole 
> 
> nature of belief. For as there is no matter of fact which 
> 
> we believe so firmly that we cannot conceive the contrary, 
> 
> there would be no difference between the conception as- 
> 
> sented to and that which is rejected, were it not for some 
> 
> sentiment which distinguishes the one from the other. If 
> 
> I see a billiard-ball moving toward another, on a smooth 
> 
> table, I can easily conceive it to stop upon contact. This 
> 
> conception implies no contradiction; but still it feels very 
> 
> differently from that conception by which I represent to 
> 
> myself the impulse and the communication of motion from 
> 
> one ball to another. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Were we to attempt a definition of this sentiment, we 
> 
> should, perhaps, find it a very difficult, if not an impossible 
> 
> task; in the same manner as if we should endeavour to 
> 
> define the feeling of cold or passion of anger, to a creature 
> 
> who never had any experience of these sentiments. Belief 
> 
> is the true and proper name of this feeling; and no one is 
> 
> ever at a loss to know the meaning of that term; because 
> 
> every man is every moment conscious of the sentiment 
> 
> represented by it. It may not, however, be improper to 
> 
> attempt a description of this sentiment; in hopes we may, 
> 
> by that means, arrive at some analogies, which may afford 
> 
> a more perfect explication of it. I say, then, that belief is 
> 
> nothing but a more vivid, lively, forcible, firm, steady con- 
> 
> ception of an object, than what the imagination alone is 
> 
> ever able to attain. This variety of terms, which may 
> 
> seem so unphilosophical, is intended only to express that 
> 
> act of the mind, which renders realities, or what is taken for 
> 
> such, more present to us than fictions, causes them to 
> 
> weigh more in the thought, and gives them a superior 
> 
> influence on the passions and imagination. Provided we 
> 
> agree about the thing, it is needless to dispute about the 
> 
> terms. The imagination has the command over all its 
> 
> ideas, and can join and mix and vary them, in all the 
> 
> ways possible. It may conceive fictitious objects with all 
> 
> the circumstances of place and time. It may set them, in 
> 
> a manner, before our eyes, in their true colours, just as 
> 
> they might have existed. But as it is impossible that this 
> 
> faculty of imagination can ever, of itself, reach belief, it is 
> 
> evident that belief consists not in the peculiar nature or 
> 
> order of ideas, but in the manner of their conception, and in 
> 
> their feeling to the mind. I confess, that it is impossible 
> 
> perfectly to explain this feeling or manner of conception. 
> 
> We may make use of words which express something near 
> 
> it. But its true and proper name, as we observed before, is 
> 
> belief; which is a term that every one sufficiently under- 
> 
> stands in common life. And in philosophy, we can go no 
> 
> farther than assert, that belief is something felt by the mind, 
> 
> which distinguishes the ideas of the judgement from the 
> 
> fictions of the imagination. It gives them more weight and 
> 
> influence; makes them appear of greater importance; en- 
> 
> forces them in the mind; and renders them the governing 
> 
> principle of our actions. I hear at present, for instance, a 
> 
> person's voice, with whom I am acquainted; and the sound 
> 
> comes as from the next room. This impression of my 
> 
> senses immediately conveys my thought to the person, to- 
> 
> gether with all the surrounding objects. I paint them out 
> 
> to myself as existing at present, with the same qualities and 
> 
> relations, of which I formerly knew them possessed. These 
> 
> ideas take faster hold of my mind than ideas of an en- 
> 
> chanted castle. They are very different to the feeling, and 
> 
> have a much greater influence of every kind, either to give 
> 
> pleasure or pain, joy or sorrow. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Let us, then, take in the whole compass of this doctrine, 
> 
> and allow, that the sentiment of belief is nothing but a 
> 
> conception more intense and steady than what attends the 
> 
> mere fictions of the imagination, and that this manner of 
> 
> conception arises from a customary conjunction of the 
> 
> object with something present to the memory or senses: 
> 
> I believe that it will not be difficult, upon these supposi- 
> 
> tions, to find other operations of the mind analogous to it, 
> 
> and to trace up these phenomena to principles still more 
> 
> general. 
> 
> 
> 
>   We have already observed that nature has established 
> 
> connexions among particular ideas, and that no sooner 
> 
> one idea occurs to our thoughts than it introduces its cor- 
> 
> relative, and carries our attention towards it, by a gentle 
> 
> and insensible movement. These principles of connexion 
> 
> or association we have reduced to three, namely, Resem- 
> 
> blance, Contiguity and Causation; which are the only bonds 
> 
> that unite our thoughts together, and beget that regular 
> 
> train of reflection or discourse, which, in a greater or less 
> 
> degree, takes place among all mankind. Now here arises 
> 
> a question, on which the solution of the present difficulty 
> 
> will depend. Does it happen, in all these relations, that, 
> 
> when one of the objects is presented to the senses or 
> 
> memory, the mind is not only carried to the conception 
> 
> of the correlative, but reaches a steadier and stronger 
> 
> conception of it than what otherwise it would have been 
> 
> able to attain? This seems to be the case with that 
> 
> belief which arises from the relation of cause and effect. 
> 
> And if the case be the same with the other relations 
> 
> or principles of associations, this may be established as 
> 
> a general law, which takes place in all the operations of 
> 
> the mind. 
> 
> 
> 
>   We may, therefore, observe, as the first experiment 
> 
> to our present purpose, that, upon the appearance of the 
> 
> picture of an absent friend, our idea of him is evidently 
> 
> enlivened by the resemblance, and that every passion, which 
> 
> that idea occasions, whether of joy or sorrow, acquires 
> 
> new force and vigour. In producing this effect, there 
> 
> concur both a relation and a present impression. Where 
> 
> the picture bears him no resemblance, at least was not 
> 
> intended for him, it never so much as conveys our thought 
> 
> to him: and where it is absent, as well as the person, 
> 
> though the mind may pass from the thought of the one to 
> 
> that of the other, it feels its idea to be rather weakened 
> 
> than enlivened by that transition. We take a pleasure in 
> 
> viewing the picture of a friend, when it is set before us; 
> 
> but when it is removed, rather choose to consider him 
> 
> directly than by reflection in an image, which is equally 
> 
> distant and obscure. 
> 
> 
> 
>   The ceremonies of the Roman Catholic religion may 
> 
> be considered as instances of the same nature. The dev- 
> 
> otees of that superstition usually plead in excuse for the 
> 
> mummeries, with which they are upbraided, that they 
> 
> feel the good effect of those external motions, and pos- 
> 
> tures, and actions, in enlivening their devotion and quick- 
> 
> ening their fervour, which otherwise would decay, if 
> 
> directed entirely to distant and immaterial objects. We 
> 
> shadow out the objects of our faith, say they, in sensible 
> 
> types and images, and render them more present to us 
> 
> by the immediate presence of these types, than it is pos- 
> 
> sible for us to do merely by an intellectual view and 
> 
> contemplation. Sensible objects have always a greater in- 
> 
> fluence on the fancy than any other; and this influence 
> 
> they readily convey to those ideas to which they are 
> 
> related, and which they resemble. I shall only infer from 
> 
> these practices, and this reasoning, that the effect of resem- 
> 
> blance in enlivening the ideas is very common; and as in 
> 
> every case a resemblance and a present impression must 
> 
> concur, we are abundantly supplied with experiments to 
> 
> prove the reality of the foregoing principle. 
> 
> 
> 
>   We may add force to these experiments by others of 
> 
> a different kind, in considering the effects of contiguity as 
> 
> well as of resemblance. It is certain that distance dimin- 
> 
> ishes the force of every idea, and that, upon our approach 
> 
> to any object; though it does not discover itself to our 
> 
> senses; it operates upon the mind with an influence, which 
> 
> imitates an immediate impression. The thinking on any 
> 
> object readily transports the mind to what is contiguous; 
> 
> but it is only the actual presence of an object, that trans- 
> 
> ports it with a superior vivacity. When I am a few miles 
> 
> from home, whatever relates to it touches me more nearly 
> 
> than when I am two hundred leagues distant; though even 
> 
> at that distance the reflecting on any thing in the neigh- 
> 
> bourhood of my friends or family naturally produces an 
> 
> idea of them. But as in this latter case, both the objects 
> 
> of the mind are ideas; notwithstanding there is an easy 
> 
> transition between them; that transition alone is not able to 
> 
> give a superior vivacity to any of the ideas, for want of 
> 
> some immediate impression.[2]
> 
> 
> 
>   No one can doubt but causation has the same influence 
> 
> as the other two relations of resemblance and contiguity. 
> 
> Superstitious people are fond of the reliques of saints and 
> 
> holy men, for the same reason, that they seek after types 
> 
> or images, in order to enliven their devotion, and give them 
> 
> a more intimate and strong conception of those exemplary 
> 
> lives, which they desire to imitate. Now it is evident, that 
> 
> one of the best reliques, which a devotee could procure, 
> 
> would be the handywork of a saint; and if his cloaths and 
> 
> furniture are ever to be considered in this light, it is be- 
> 
> cause they were once at his disposal, and were moved and 
> 
> affected by him; in which respect they are to be considered 
> 
> as imperfect effects, and as connected with him by a shorter 
> 
> chain of consequences than any of those, by which we learn 
> 
> the reality of his existence. 
> 
> 
> 
>   Suppose, that the son of a friend, who had been long 
> 
> dead or absent, were presented to us; it is evident, that 
> 
> this object would instantly revive its correlative idea, and 
> 
> recall to our thoughts all past intimacies and familiarities, 
> 
> in more lively colours than they would otherwise have ap- 
> 
> peared to us. This is another phaenomenon, which seems 
> 
> to prove the principle above mentioned. 
> 
> 
> 
>   
------
Bob_Dylan|983995282
1c1
< Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music.  Initially making his name as a [[folk singer]], specialising in [[protest songs]] his artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind  In 1965 (influenced by the [[folk rock]] of [[The Byrds]]) he began performing with an electric [[rock and roll]] band and his new style of poetic, impressionistic lyrics were to have a lasting effect on the industry.
---
> Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music.  
3c3,7
< ...no time for a full career review...
---
> Initially he made his name as a [[folk singer]], specialising in [[protest songs]] in the style of [[Woody Guthrie]].  However, his artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind.  In 1965 (influenced by the [[folk rock]] of [[The Byrds]]) he angered [[folk music]] purists by performing with an electric [[rock and roll]] band and his new style of poetic, impressionistic lyrics were to have a lasting effect on the industry.
> 
> Shortly after the release of the double album "Blonde on Blonde" in 1966 Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident and used his convalescence to escape the pressures of stardom.  Retiring to [[Woodstock]] in [[New York State]] and playing with the musicians who would later become [[The Band]] his output became more influenced by traditional US and [[country music]], which can be heard on the albums "John Wesley Harding" and "Nashville Skyline", the latter of which is often considered to mark the beginning of an artistic decline.  After some mediocre output in the early 1970s ("What the hell is this shit?" asked [[Rolling Stone magazine]] about "Self Portrait"), he returned to form with "Blood On The Tracks", an excellent and honest portrayal of his estrangement from his wife.
> 
> In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1997) and "Time Out Of Mind"(2000).
------
Morpheme|983995338
2,3c2,5
< Again this is the minimal unit of meaning in a particular language, as determined by word pairs. For example, compare "athropy" and "dystrophy." Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
< It doesn't appear it can be further divided.
---
> Again this is the minimal unit that is "meaningful" in a particular language, as determined by word pairs. For example, compare "athropy" and "dystrophy." Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
> It doesn't appear it can be further divided.----
> Actually, there is not set definition of "morpheme' that I know. Once you consider "meaning"
> in the definition, you wind up with a circular definition. And, you are combining structure with content. Some say that natives speakers, definition or not, know the morphemes in their own language. Others insist on defining this as the smallest "grammtical" unit in a language.
------
Morpheme|983995358
1c1
< One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller sematic units.----
---
> One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller semantic units.----
------
Kejmanee_Pichaironnarongsongkram|983995575
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kejmanee Pichaironnarongsongkram, also known as Pin, is an actress, model, and singer from [[Thailand]], who is popular in her native country.
> 
> She is the host of the TV show [[Ar-Thit Om-Yim]] and has appeared in other TV shows such as [[Chee-Vit Puae Kar Hua-Jai Puae Ther]], [[Chai Nai Fun]], [[Soda Kab Cha-Yen]], [[Chan Chue Saila]], and [[Roy-Rak Roy-Ardeed]].
> 
> She is married to actor [[Jetrin Wattanasin]].
------
Morpheme|983995639
5c5
< in the definition, you wind up with a circular definition. And, you are combining structure with content. Some say that natives speakers, definition or not, know the morphemes in their own language. Others insist on defining this as the smallest "grammtical" unit in a language.
---
> in the definition, you wind up with a circular definition. And, you are combining structure with content. Some say that natives speakers, definition or not, know the morphemes in their own language. Others insist on defining this as the smallest "grammtical" unit in a language. For instance the /-s/ /-es/ /-en/ that pluralizes English nouns would be considered allomorphs of the "plural morpheme."
------
BillClinton|983995705
5c5
< In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
---
> In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]).
7c7
< He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for perjury -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
---
> He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for [[Perjury]] -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
40a41
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations
42c43
< Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others very much did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
---
> Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
49c50
< Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
---
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
------
BillClinton|983995725
1c1
< William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
---
> [[William Jefferson Clinton]] ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
------
MTV|983995768
5c5
< MTV started in [[New York City]] in 198? and became available in most of the [[United States]] in the late 1980s.
---
> MTV started in [[New York City]] in 1981.  It became available in most of the [[United States]] in the late 1980s.
7a8,9
> 
> Aptly, the first video shown on MTV was "Video Killed The Radio Star", by Buggles.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|983995777
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
> 
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-)
> 
> In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]).
> 
> He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for [[Perjury]] -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
> 
> He is also known for granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
> 
> During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
> 
> In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
> 
> ----
> 
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
> 
> Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
> ----
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
> 
> The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
> 
> Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
> 
> Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
> 
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
> Major legislation he signed:
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
> * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
> * Minimum wage increase
> 
> Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
> * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations
> 
> Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
> 
> ----
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
> 
> ----
> 
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
------
Chordata|983995796
31c31
<  Subphylum Urochordata
---
>  Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicata)
32a33,34
>      Class [[Thaliacea]]
>  Subphylum Copelata (Appendicularia)
35a38,39
>      Class [[Ostracodermi]]
>      Class [[Cyclostomata]]
36a41,42
>      Class [[Placodermi]]
>      Class [[Acanthodii]]
39c45
<      Class [[Amphibia]] (amphibians)
---
>      Class [[Amphibia]] or [[Anamnia]] (amphibians)
41c47
<      Class [[Aves]] (birds)
---
>      Class [[Aves]] or [[Sauropsida]] (birds)
------
BillClinton|983995808
1,50c1
< [[William Jefferson Clinton]] ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
< 
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-)
< 
< In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]).
< 
< He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for [[Perjury]] -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
< 
< He is also known for granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
< 
< During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
< 
< In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
< 
< ----
< 
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
< 
< Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
< ----
< RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
< 
< The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
< 
< Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
< 
< Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
< 
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
< 
< Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
< 
< Major legislation he signed:
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
< * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
< * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
< * Minimum wage increase
< 
< Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
< * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
< * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations
< 
< Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
< 
< ----
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
< 
< ----
< 
< Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
---
> see [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
------
Film_History|983995875
22a23,28
> Other important stuff:
> 
> *  [[MPPC]]
> *  [[Independents]]
> *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
> *  [[Paramount]]
47,53c53
< 
< Other important stuff:
< 
< *  [[MPPC]]
< *  [[Independents]]
< *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
< *  [[Paramount]]
---
> other: 
55d54
< 
------
AnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding|983995880
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< 
< 
---
> The text in its entirety:  http://www.knuten.liu.se/~bjoch509/works/hume/human_underst.txt
33,42c32
< This was scanned from the 1910 edition and mechanically
< 
< checked against a commercial copy of the text from CDROM.
< 
< Differences were corrected against the paper edition. The
< 
< text itself is thus a highly accurate rendition. The
< 
< footnotes were entered manually.
< 
---
> This was scanned from the 1910 edition and mechanically checked against a commercial copy of the text from CDROM.
43a34
> Differences were corrected against the paper edition. The text itself is thus a highly accurate rendition. The footnotes were entered manually.
47,3401d37
< 
< 
< 
< 
< SECTION I
< 
< OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PHILOSOPHY.
< 
< 
< 
<   MORAL philosophy, or the science of human nature, 
< 
< may be treated after two different manners; each 
< 
< of which has its peculiar merit, and may contribute 
< 
< to the entertainment, instruction, and reformation of man- 
< 
< kind. The one considers man chiefly as born for action; 
< 
< and as influenced in his measures by taste and sentiment; 
< 
< pursuing one object, and avoiding another, according to 
< 
< the value which these objects seem to possess, and accord- 
< 
< ing to the light in which they present themselves. As vir- 
< 
< tue, of all objects, is allowed to be the most valuable, this 
< 
< species of philosophers paint her in the most amiable 
< 
< colours; borrowing all helps from poetry and eloquence, and 
< 
< treating their subject in an easy and obvious manner, and 
< 
< such as is best fitted to please the imagination, and engage 
< 
< the affections. They select the most striking observations 
< 
< and instances from common life; place opposite characters 
< 
< in a proper contrast; and alluring us into the paths of virtue 
< 
< by the views of glory and happiness, direct our steps in 
< 
< these paths by the soundest precepts and most illustrious 
< 
< examples. They make us feel the difference between vice 
< 
< and virtue; they excite and regulate our sentiments; and 
< 
< so they can but bend our hearts to the love of probity and 
< 
< true honour, they think, that they have fully attained the 
< 
< end of all their labours. 
< 
< 
< 
<   The other species of philosophers consider man in the 
< 
< light of a reasonable rather than an active being, and 
< 
< endeavour to form his understanding more than cultivate 
< 
< his manners. They regard human nature as a subject of 
< 
< speculation; and with a narrow scrutiny examine it, in 
< 
< order to find those principles, which regulate our under- 
< 
< standing, excite our sentiments, and make us approve or 
< 
< blame any particular object, action, or behaviour. They 
< 
< think it a reproach to all literature, that philosophy should 
< 
< not yet have fixed, beyond controversy, the foundation of 
< 
< morals, reasoning, and criticism; and should for ever talk 
< 
< of truth and falsehood, vice and virtue, beauty and de- 
< 
< formity, without being able to determine the source of 
< 
< these distinctions. While they attempt this arduous task, 
< 
< they are deterred by no difficulties; but proceeding from 
< 
< particular instances to general principles, they still push on 
< 
< their enquiries to principles more general, and rest not 
< 
< satisfied till they arrive at those original principles, by 
< 
< which, in every science, all human curiosity must be 
< 
< bounded. Though their speculations seem abstract, and 
< 
< even unintelligible to common readers, they aim at the 
< 
< approbation of the learned and the wise; and think them- 
< 
< selves sufficiently compensated for the labour of their whole 
< 
< lives, if they can discover some hidden truths, which may 
< 
< contribute to the instruction of posterity. 
< 
< 
< 
<   It is certain that the easy and obvious philosophy will 
< 
< always, with the generality of mankind, have the preference 
< 
< above the accurate and abstruse; and by many will be 
< 
< recommended, not only as more agreeable, but more useful 
< 
< than the other. It enters more into common life; moulds 
< 
< the heart and affections; and, by touching those principles 
< 
< which actuate men, reforms their conduct, and brings them 
< 
< nearer to that model of perfection which it describes. On 
< 
< the contrary, the abstruse philosophy, being founded on a 
< 
< turn of mind, which cannot enter into business and action, 
< 
< vanishes when the philosopher leaves the shade, and comes 
< 
< into open day; nor can its principles easily retain any in- 
< 
< fluence over our conduct and behaviour. The feelings of 
< 
< our heart, the agitation of our passions, the vehemence of 
< 
< our affections, dissipate all its conclusions, and reduce the 
< 
< profound philosopher to a mere plebeian. 
< 
< 
< 
<   This also must be confessed, that the most durable, 
< 
< as well as justest fame, has been acquired by the easy 
< 
< philosophy, and that abstract reasoners seem hitherto to 
< 
< have enjoyed only a momentary reputation, from the caprice 
< 
< or ignorance of their own age, but have not been able 
< 
< to support their renown with more equitable posterity. It 
< 
< is easy for a profound philosopher to commit a mistake 
< 
< in his subtile reasonings; and one mistake is the necessary 
< 
< parent of another, while he pushes on his consequences, 
< 
< and is not deterred from embracing any conclusion, by 
< 
< its unusual appearance, or its contradiction to popular 
< 
< opinion. But a philosopher, who purposes only to represent 
< 
< the common sense of mankind in more beautiful and more 
< 
< engaging colours, if by accident he falls into error, goes no 
< 
< farther; but renewing his appeal to common sense, and the 
< 
< natural sentiments of the mind, returns into the right path, 
< 
< and secures himself from any dangerous illusions. The 
< 
< fame of Cicero flourishes at present; but that of Aristotle 
< 
< is utterly decayed. La Bruyere passes the seas, and still 
< 
< maintains his reputation: but the glory of Malebranche 
< 
< is confined to his own nation, and to his own age. And 
< 
< Addison, perhaps, will be read with pleasure, when Locke 
< 
< shall be entirely forgotten. 
< 
< 
< 
<   The mere philosopher is a character, which is commonly 
< 
< but little acceptable in the world, as being supposed to 
< 
< contribute nothing either to the advantage or pleasure 
< 
< of society; while he lives remote from communication with 
< 
< mankind, and is wrapped up in principles and notions equally 
< 
< remote from their comprehension. On the other hand, 
< 
< the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing 
< 
< deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and 
< 
< nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely 
< 
< destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The 
< 
< most perfect character is supposed to lie between those 
< 
< extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, 
< 
< company, and business; preserving in conversation that 
< 
< discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; 
< 
< and in business, that probity and accuracy which are 
< 
< the natural result of a just philosophy. In order to diffuse 
< 
< and cultivate so accomplished a character, nothing can be 
< 
< more useful than compositions of the easy style and manner, 
< 
< which draw not too much from life, require no deep appli- 
< 
< cation or retreat to be comprehended, and send back the 
< 
< student among mankind full of noble sentiments and wise 
< 
< precepts, applicable to every exigence of human life. By 
< 
< means of such compositions, virtue becomes amiable, 
< 
< science agreeable, company instructive, and retirement en- 
< 
< tertaining. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Man is a reasonable being; and as such, receives from 
< 
< science his proper food and nourishment: But so narrow 
< 
< are the bounds of human understanding, that little satisfac- 
< 
< tion can be hoped for in this particular, either from the 
< 
< extent of security or his acquisitions. Man is a sociable, no 
< 
< less than a reasonable being: but neither can he always 
< 
< enjoy company agreeable and amusing, or preserve the 
< 
< proper relish for them. Man is also an active being; and 
< 
< from that disposition, as well as from the various necessities 
< 
< of human life, must submit to business and occupation: 
< 
< but the mind requires some relaxation, and cannot always 
< 
< support its bent to care and industry. It seems, then, that 
< 
< nature has pointed out a mixed kind of life as most suitable 
< 
< to the human race, and secretly admonished them to allow 
< 
< none of these biases to draw too much, so as to incapacitate 
< 
< them for other occupations and entertainments. Indulge 
< 
< your passion for science, says she, but let your science be 
< 
< human, and such as may have a direct reference to action 
< 
< and society. Abstruse thought and profound researches I 
< 
< prohibit, and will severely punish, by the pensive melancholy 
< 
< which they introduce, by the endless uncertainty in which 
< 
< they involve you, and by the cold reception which your 
< 
< pretended discoveries shall meet with, when communicated. 
< 
< Be a philosopher; but, amidst all your philosophy, be still 
< 
< a man. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Were the generality of mankind contented to prefer the 
< 
< easy philosophy to the abstract and profound, without 
< 
< throwing any blame or contempt on the latter, it might 
< 
< not be improper, perhaps, to comply with this general 
< 
< opinion, and allow every man to enjoy, without opposition, 
< 
< his own taste and sentiment. But as the matter is often 
< 
< carried farther, even to the absolute rejecting of all pro- 
< 
< found reasonings, or what is commonly called metaphysics, 
< 
< we shall now proceed to consider what can reasonably be 
< 
< pleaded in their behalf. 
< 
< 
< 
<   We may begin with observing, that one considerable 
< 
< advantage, which results from the accurate and abstract 
< 
< philosophy, is, its subserviency to the easy and humane; 
< 
< which, without the former, can never attain a sufficient 
< 
< degree of exactness in its sentiments, precepts, or reasonings. 
< 
< All polite letters are nothing but pictures of human life 
< 
< in various attitudes and situations; and inspire us with 
< 
< different sentiments, of praise or blame, admiration or ridi- 
< 
< cule, according to the qualities of the object, which they set 
< 
< before us. An artist must be better qualified to succeed in 
< 
< this undertaking, who, besides a delicate taste and a quick 
< 
< apprehension, possesses an accurate knowledge of the in- 
< 
< ternal fabric, the operations of the understanding, the 
< 
< workings of the passions, and the various species of senti- 
< 
< ment which discriminate vice and virtue. How painful 
< 
< soever this inward search or enquiry may appear, it becomes, 
< 
< in some measure, requisite to those, who would describe 
< 
< with success the obvious and outward appearances of life 
< 
< and manners. The anatomist presents to the eye the most 
< 
< hideous and disagreeable objects; but his science is useful 
< 
< to the painter in delineating even a Venus or an Helen. 
< 
< While the latter employs all the richest colours of his art, 
< 
< and gives his figures the most graceful and engaging airs; 
< 
< he must still carry his attention to the inward structure 
< 
< of the human body, the position of the muscles, the fabric 
< 
< of the bones, and the use and figure of every part or organ. 
< 
< Accuracy is, in every case, advantageous to beauty, and just 
< 
< reasoning to delicate sentiment. In vain would we exalt 
< 
< the one by depreciating the other. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Besides, we may observe, in every art or profession, even 
< 
< those which most concern life or action, that a spirit of 
< 
< accuracy, however acquired, carries all of them nearer their 
< 
< perfection, and renders them more subservient to the 
< 
< interests of society. And though a philosopher may live 
< 
< remote from business, the genius of philosophy, if carefully 
< 
< cultivated by several, must gradually diffuse itself through- 
< 
< out the whole society, and bestow a similar correctness on 
< 
< every art and calling. The politician will acquire greater 
< 
< foresight and subtility, in the subdividing and balancing 
< 
< of power; the lawyer more method and finer principles 
< 
< in his reasonings; and the general more regularity in his 
< 
< discipline, and more caution in his plans and operations. 
< 
< The stability of modern governments above the ancient, 
< 
< and the accuracy of modern philosophy, have improved, and 
< 
< probably will still improve, by similar gradations. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Were there no advantage to be reaped from these studies, 
< 
< beyond the gratification of an innocent curiosity, yet ought 
< 
< not even this to be despised; as being one accession to 
< 
< those few safe and harmless pleasures, which are bestowed 
< 
< on the human race. The sweetest and most inoffensive path 
< 
< of life leads through the avenues of science and learning; and 
< 
< whoever can either remove any obstructions in this way, 
< 
< or open up any new prospect, ought so far to be esteemed 
< 
< a benefactor to mankind. And though these researches 
< 
< may appear painful and fatiguing, it is with some minds 
< 
< as with some bodies, which being endowed with vigorous 
< 
< and florid health, require severe exercise, and reap a pleasure 
< 
< from what, to the generality of mankind, may seem burden- 
< 
< some and laborious. Obscurity, indeed, is painful to the 
< 
< mind as well as to the eye; but to bring light from 
< 
< obscurity, by whatever labour, must needs be delightful and 
< 
< rejoicing. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But this obscurity in the profound and abstract philos- 
< 
< ophy, is objected to, not only as painful and fatiguing, but 
< 
< as the inevitable source of uncertainty and error. Here in- 
< 
< deed lies the justest and most plausible objection against 
< 
< a considerable part of metaphysics, that they are not properly 
< 
< a science; but arise either from the fruitless efforts of 
< 
< human vanity, which would penetrate into subjects utterly 
< 
< inaccessible to the understanding, or from the craft of pop- 
< 
< ular superstitions, which, being unable to defend themselves 
< 
< on fair ground, raise these intangling brambles to cover and 
< 
< protect their weakness. Chased from the open country, these 
< 
< robbers fly into the forest, and lie in wait to break in upon 
< 
< every unguarded avenue of the mind, and overwhelm it 
< 
< with religious fears and prejudices. The stoutest antagonist, 
< 
< if he remit his watch a moment, is oppressed. And many, 
< 
< through cowardice and folly, open the gates to the enemies, 
< 
< and willingly receive them with reverence and submission, 
< 
< as their legal sovereigns. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But is this a sufficient reason, why philosophers should 
< 
< desist from such researches, and leave superstition still 
< 
< in possession of her retreat? Is it not proper to draw an 
< 
< opposite conclusion, and perceive the necessity of carrying 
< 
< the war into the most secret recesses of the enemy? In 
< 
< vain do we hope, that men, from frequent disappointment, 
< 
< will at last abandon such airy sciences, and discover the 
< 
< proper province of human reason. For, besides, that many 
< 
< persons find too sensible an interest in perpetually recalling 
< 
< such topics; besides this, I say, the motive of blind despair 
< 
< can never reasonably have place in the sciences; since, how- 
< 
< ever unsuccessful former attempts may have proved, there 
< 
< is still room to hope, that the industry, good fortune, or 
< 
< improved sagacity of succeeding generations may reach 
< 
< discoveries unknown to former ages. Each adventurous 
< 
< genius will still leap at the arduous prize, and find himself 
< 
< stimulated, rather than discouraged, by the failures of his 
< 
< predecessors; while he hopes that the glory of achieving 
< 
< so hard an adventure is reserved for him alone. The only 
< 
< method of freeing learning, at once, from these abstruse 
< 
< questions, is to enquire seriously into the nature of human 
< 
< understanding, and show, from an exact analysis of its 
< 
< powers and capacity, that it is by no means fitted for 
< 
< such remote and abstruse subjects. We must submit to 
< 
< this fatigue in order to live at ease ever after: and must 
< 
< cultivate true metaphysics with some care, in order to 
< 
< destroy the false and adulterate. Indolence, which, to some 
< 
< persons, affords a safeguard against this deceitful philos- 
< 
< ophy, is, with others, overbalanced by curiosity; and de- 
< 
< spair, which, at some moments, prevails, may give place after- 
< 
< wards to sanguine hopes and expectations. Accurate and 
< 
< just reasoning is the only catholic remedy, fitted for all 
< 
< persons and all dispositions; and is alone able to subvert 
< 
< that abstruse philosophy and metaphysical jargon, which 
< 
< being mixed up with popular superstition, renders it in 
< 
< a manner impenetrable to careless reasoners, and gives it 
< 
< the air of science and wisdom. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Besides this advantage of rejecting, after deliberate en- 
< 
< quiry, the most uncertain and disagreeable part of learning, 
< 
< there are many positive advantages, which result from an 
< 
< accurate scrutiny into the powers and faculties of human 
< 
< nature. It is remarkable concerning the operations of the 
< 
< mind, that, though most intimately present to us, yet, 
< 
< whenever they become the object of reflexion, they seem 
< 
< involved in obscurity; nor can the eye readily find those 
< 
< lines and boundaries, which discriminate and distinguish 
< 
< them. The objects are too fine to remain long in the same 
< 
< aspect or situation; and must be apprehended in an in- 
< 
< stant, by a superior penetration, derived from nature, and 
< 
< improved by habit and reflexion. It becomes, therefore, 
< 
< no inconsiderable part of science barely to know the different 
< 
< operations of the mind, to separate them from each other, to 
< 
< class them under their proper heads, and to correct all that 
< 
< seeming disorder, in which they lie involved, when made 
< 
< the object of reflexion and enquiry. This talk of ordering 
< 
< and distinguishing, which has no merit, when performed 
< 
< with regard to external bodies, the objects of our senses, 
< 
< rises in its value, when directed towards the operations 
< 
< of the mind, in proportion to the difficulty and labour, 
< 
< which we meet with in performing it. And if we can go no 
< 
< farther than this mental geography, or delineation of the 
< 
< distinct parts and powers of the mind, it is at least a satis- 
< 
< faction to go so far; and the more obvious this science 
< 
< may appear (and it is by no means obvious) the more con- 
< 
< temptible still must the ignorance of it be esteemed, in all 
< 
< pretenders to learning and philosophy. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Nor can there remain any suspicion, that this science 
< 
< is uncertain and chimerical; unless we should entertain 
< 
< such a scepticism as is entirely subversive of all speculation, 
< 
< and even action. It cannot be doubted, that the mind 
< 
< is endowed with several powers and faculties, that these 
< 
< powers are distinct from each other, that what is really 
< 
< distinct to the immediate perception may be distinguished 
< 
< by reflexion; and consequently, that there is a truth and 
< 
< falsehood in all propositions on this subject, and a truth 
< 
< and falsehood, which lie not beyond the compass of human 
< 
< understanding. There are many obvious distinctions of 
< 
< this kind, such as those between the will and understanding, 
< 
< the imagination and passions, which fall within the com- 
< 
< prehension of every human creature; and the finer and 
< 
< more philosophical distinctions are no less real and certain, 
< 
< though more difficult to be comprehended. Some instances, 
< 
< especially late ones, of success in these enquiries, may give 
< 
< us a juster notion of the certainty and solidity of this branch 
< 
< of learning. And shall we esteem it worthy the labour of 
< 
< a philosopher to give us a true system of the planets, and 
< 
< adjust the position and order of those remote bodies; 
< 
< while we affect to overlook those, who, with so much 
< 
< success, delineate the parts of the mind, in which we are so 
< 
< intimately concerned? 
< 
< 
< 
<   But may we not hope, that philosophy, cultivated with 
< 
< care, and encouraged by the attention of the public, may 
< 
< carry its researches still farther, and discover, at least in 
< 
< some degree, the secret springs and principles, by which the 
< 
< human mind is actuated in its operations? Astronomers 
< 
< had long contented themselves with proving, from the 
< 
< phaenomena, the true motions, order, and magnitude of 
< 
< the heavenly bodies: till a philosopher, at last, arose, 
< 
< who seems, from the happiest reasoning, to have also deter- 
< 
< mined the laws and forces, by which the revolutions of the 
< 
< planets are governed and directed. The like has been 
< 
< performed with regard to other parts of nature. And there 
< 
< is no reason to despair of equal success in our enquiries 
< 
< concerning the mental powers and economy, if prosecuted 
< 
< with equal capacity and caution. It is probable, that one 
< 
< operation and principle of the mind depends on another; 
< 
< which, again, may be resolved into one more general and 
< 
< universal: and how far these researches may possibly 
< 
< be carried, it will be difficult for us, before, or even after, 
< 
< a careful trial, exactly to determine. This is certain, that 
< 
< attempts of this kind are every day made even by those 
< 
< who philosophize the most negligently: and nothing can 
< 
< be more requisite than to enter upon the enterprize with 
< 
< thorough care and attention; that, if it lie within the 
< 
< compass of human understanding, it may at last be happily 
< 
< achieved; if not, it may, however, be rejected with some 
< 
< confidence and security. This last conclusion, surely, is not 
< 
< desirable; nor ought it to be embraced too rashly. For how 
< 
< much must we diminish from the beauty and value of this 
< 
< species of philosophy, upon such a supposition? Moralists 
< 
< have hitherto been accustomed, when they considered the 
< 
< vast multitude and diversity of those actions that excite 
< 
< our approbation or dislike, to search for some common 
< 
< principle, on which this variety of sentiments might depend. 
< 
< And though they have sometimes carried the matter too far, 
< 
< by their passion for some one general principle; it must, 
< 
< however, be confessed, that they are excusable in expecting 
< 
< to find some general principles, into which all the vices 
< 
< and virtues were justly to be resolved. The like has been 
< 
< the endeavour of critics, logicians, and even politicians: 
< 
< nor have their attempts been wholly unsuccessful; though 
< 
< perhaps longer time, greater accuracy, and more ardent 
< 
< application may bring these sciences still nearer their per- 
< 
< fection. To throw up at once all pretensions of this kind 
< 
< may justly be deemed more rash, precipitate, and dogmatical, 
< 
< than even the boldest and most affirmative philosophy, that 
< 
< has ever attempted to impose its crude dictates and prin- 
< 
< ciples on mankind. 
< 
< 
< 
<   What though these reasonings concerning human nature 
< 
< seem abstract, and of difficult comprehension? This affords 
< 
< no presumption of their falsehood. On the contrary, it 
< 
< seems impossible, that what has hitherto escaped so many 
< 
< wise and profound philosophers can be very obvious and 
< 
< easy. And whatever pains these researches may cost us, we 
< 
< may think ourselves sufficiently rewarded, not only in point 
< 
< of profit but of pleasure, if, by that means, we can make 
< 
< any addition to our stock of knowledge, in subjects of 
< 
< such unspeakable importance. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But as, after all, the abstractedness of these speculations 
< 
< is no recommendation, but rather a disadvantage to them, 
< 
< and as this difficulty may perhaps be surmounted by care 
< 
< and art, and the avoiding of all unnecessary detail, we have, 
< 
< in the following enquiry, attempted to throw some light 
< 
< upon subjects, from which uncertainty has hitherto deterred 
< 
< the wise, and obscurity the ignorant. Happy, if we can 
< 
< unite the boundaries of the different species of philosophy, 
< 
< by reconciling profound enquiry with clearness, and truth 
< 
< with novelty! And still more happy, if, reasoning in this 
< 
< easy manner, we can undermine the foundations of an 
< 
< abstruse philosophy, which seems to have hitherto served 
< 
< only as a shelter to superstition, and a cover to absurdity 
< 
< and error! 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< SECTION II
< 
< OF THE ORIGIN OF IDEAS
< 
< 
< 
<   EVERY one will readily allow, that there is a consider- 
< 
< able difference between the perceptions of the mind, 
< 
< when a man feels the pain of excessive heat, or the 
< 
< pleasure of moderate warmth, and when he afterwards re- 
< 
< calls to his memory this sensation, or anticipates it by his 
< 
< imagination. These faculties may mimic or copy the percep- 
< 
< tions of the senses; but they never can entirely reach the 
< 
< force and vivacity of the original sentiment. The utmost we 
< 
< say of them, even when they operate with greatest vigour, is, 
< 
< that they represent their object in so lively a manner, that we 
< 
< could almost say we feel or see it: But, except the mind be 
< 
< disordered by disease or madness, they never can arrive 
< 
< at such a pitch of vivacity, as to render these perceptions 
< 
< altogether undistinguishable. All the colours of poetry, 
< 
< however splendid, can never paint natural objects in such 
< 
< a manner as to make the description be taken for a real 
< 
< landskip. The most lively thought is still inferior to the 
< 
< dullest sensation. 
< 
< 
< 
<   We may observe a like distinction to run through all the 
< 
< other perceptions of the mind. A man in a fit of anger, is 
< 
< actuated in a very different manner from one who only 
< 
< thinks of that emotion. If you tell me, that any person 
< 
< is in love, I easily understand your meaning, and from 
< 
< a just conception of his situation; but never can mistake 
< 
< that conception for the real disorders and agitations of the 
< 
< passion. When we reflect on our past sentiments and 
< 
< affections, our thought is a faithful mirror, and copies its 
< 
< objects truly; but the colours which it employs are faint 
< 
< and dull, in comparison of those in which our original per- 
< 
< ceptions were clothed. It requires no nice discernment or 
< 
< metaphysical head to mark the distinction between them. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Here therefore we may divide all the perceptions of the 
< 
< mind into two classes or species, which are distinguished 
< 
< by their different degrees of force and vivacity. The less 
< 
< forcible and lively are commonly denominated Thoughts or 
< 
< Ideas. The other species want a name in our language, 
< 
< and in most others; I suppose, because it was not requisite 
< 
< for any, but philosophical purposes, to rank them under 
< 
< a general term or appellation. Let us, therefore, use a little 
< 
< freedom, and call them Impressions; employing that word 
< 
< in a sense somewhat different from the usual. By the term 
< 
< impression, then, I mean all our more lively perceptions, 
< 
< when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, 
< 
< or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas, 
< 
< which are the less lively perceptions, of which we are 
< 
< conscious, when we reflect on any of those sensations or 
< 
< movements above mentioned. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Nothing, at first view, may seem more unbounded than 
< 
< the thought of man, which not only escapes all human 
< 
< power and authority, but is not even restrained within the 
< 
< limits of nature and reality. To form monsters, and join 
< 
< incongruous shapes and appearances, costs the imagination 
< 
< no more trouble than to conceive the most natural and 
< 
< familiar objects. And while the body is confined to one 
< 
< planet, along which it creeps with pain and difficulty; the 
< 
< thought can in an instant transport us into the most dis- 
< 
< tant regions of the universe; or even beyond the universe, 
< 
< into the unbounded chaos, where nature is supposed to 
< 
< lie in total confusion. What never was seen, or heard 
< 
< of, may yet be conceived; nor is any thing beyond 
< 
< the power of thought, except what implies an absolute 
< 
< contradiction. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But though our thought seems to possess this unbounded 
< 
< liberty, we shall find, upon a nearer examination, that it is 
< 
< really confined within very narrow limits, and that all this 
< 
< creative power of the mind amounts to no more than 
< 
< the faculty of compounding, transposing, augmenting, or 
< 
< diminishing the materials afforded us by the senses and 
< 
< experience. When we think of a golden mountain, we 
< 
< only join two consistent ideas, gold, and mountain, with 
< 
< which we were formerly acquainted. A virtuous horse we 
< 
< can conceive; because, from our own feeling, we can 
< 
< conceive virtue; and this we may unite to the figure and 
< 
< shape of a horse, which is an animal familiar to us. In 
< 
< short, all the materials of thinking are derived either from 
< 
< our outward or inward sentiment: the mixture and com- 
< 
< position of these belongs alone to the mind and will. Or, 
< 
< to express myself in philosophical language, all our ideas or 
< 
< more feeble perceptions are copies of our impressions or 
< 
< more lively ones. 
< 
< 
< 
<   To prove this, the two following arguments will, I hope, 
< 
< be sufficient. First, when we analyze our thoughts or ideas, 
< 
< however compounded or sublime, we always find that they 
< 
< resolve themselves into such simple ideas as were copied 
< 
< from a precedent feeling or sentiment. Even those ideas, 
< 
< which, at first view, seem the most wide of this origin, are 
< 
< found, upon a nearer scrutiny, to be derived from it. The 
< 
< idea of God, as meaning an infinitely intelligent, wise, and 
< 
< good Being, arises from reflecting on the operations of our 
< 
< own mind, and augmenting, without limit, those qualities 
< 
< of goodness and wisdom. We may prosecute this enquiry 
< 
< to what length we please; where we shall always find, that 
< 
< every idea which we examine is copied from a similar 
< 
< impression. Those who would assert that this position is 
< 
< not universally true nor without exception, have only one, 
< 
< and that an easy method of refuting it; by producing that 
< 
< idea, which, in their opinion, is not derived from this source. 
< 
< It will then be incumbent on us, if we would maintain our 
< 
< doctrine, to produce the impression, or lively perception, 
< 
< which corresponds to it. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Secondly. If it happen, from a defect of the organ, 
< 
< that a man is not susceptible of any species of sensation, 
< 
< we always find that he is as little susceptible of the cor- 
< 
< respondent ideas. A blind man can form no notion of 
< 
< colours; a deaf man of sounds. Restore either of them 
< 
< that sense in which he is deficient; by opening this new 
< 
< inlet for his sensations, you also open an inlet for the ideas; 
< 
< and he finds no difficulty in conceiving these objects. The 
< 
< case is the same, if the object, proper for exciting any 
< 
< sensation, has never been applied to the organ. A Lap- 
< 
< lander or Negro has no notion of the relish of wine. 
< 
< And though there are few or no instances of a like 
< 
< deficiency in the mind, where a person has never felt or 
< 
< is wholly incapable of a sentiment or passion that belongs 
< 
< to his species; yet we find the same observation to take 
< 
< place in a less degree. A man of mild manners can form 
< 
< no idea of inveterate revenge or cruelty; nor can a selfish 
< 
< heart easily conceive the heights of friendship and gener- 
< 
< osity. It is readily allowed, that other beings may possess 
< 
< many senses of which we can have no conception; because 
< 
< the ideas of them have never been introduced to us in the 
< 
< only manner by which an idea can have access to the mind, 
< 
< to wit, by the actual feeling and sensation. 
< 
< 
< 
<   There is, however, one contradictory phenomenon, which 
< 
< may prove that it is not absolutely impossible for ideas 
< 
< to arise, independent of their correspondent impressions. 
< 
< I believe it will readily be allowed, that the several distinct 
< 
< ideas of colour, which enter by the eye, or those of sound, 
< 
< which are conveyed by the ear, are really different from 
< 
< each other; though, at the same time, resembling. Now 
< 
< if this be true of different colours, it must be no less so of 
< 
< the different shades of the same colour; and each shade 
< 
< produces a distinct idea, independent of the rest. For if 
< 
< this should be denied, it is possible, by the continual grada- 
< 
< tion of shades, to run a colour insensibly into what is most 
< 
< remote from it; and if you will not allow any of the means 
< 
< to be different, you cannot, without absurdity, deny the 
< 
< extremes to be the same. Suppose, therefore, a person 
< 
< to have enjoyed his sight for thirty years, and to have 
< 
< become perfectly acquainted with colours of all kinds 
< 
< except one particular shade of blue, for instance, which it 
< 
< never has been his fortune to meet with. Let all the 
< 
< different shades of that colour, except that single one, be 
< 
< placed before him, descending gradually from the deepest 
< 
< to the lightest; it is plain that he will perceive a blank, 
< 
< where that shade is wanting, and will be sensible that there 
< 
< is a greater distance in that place between the contiguous 
< 
< colour than in any other. Now I ask, whether it be 
< 
< possible for him, from his own imagination, to supply this 
< 
< deficiency, and raise up to himself the idea of that particular 
< 
< shade, though it had never been conveyed to him by his 
< 
< senses? I believe there are few but will be of opinion 
< 
< that he can: and this may serve as a proof that the simple 
< 
< ideas are not always, in every instance, derived from the 
< 
< correspondent impressions; though this instance is so 
< 
< singular, that it is scarcely worth our observing, and does 
< 
< not merit that for it alone we should alter our general 
< 
< maxim. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Here, therefore, is a proposition, which not only seems, 
< 
< in itself, simple and intelligible; but, if a proper use were 
< 
< made of it, might render every dispute equally intelligible, 
< 
< and banish all that jargon, which has so long taken 
< 
< possession of metaphysical reasonings, and drawn disgrace 
< 
< upon them. All ideas, especially abstract ones, are naturally 
< 
< faint and obscure: the mind has but a slender hold of them: 
< 
< they are apt to be confounded with other resembling ideas; 
< 
< and when we have often employed any term, though with- 
< 
< out a distinct meaning, we are apt to imagine it has a deter- 
< 
< minate idea annexed to it. On the contrary, all impressions, 
< 
< that is, all sensations, either outward or inward, are strong 
< 
< and vivid: the limits between them are more exactly deter- 
< 
< mined: nor is it easy to fall into any error or mistake with 
< 
< regard to them. When we entertain, therefore, any suspicion 
< 
< that a philosophical term is employed without any meaning 
< 
< or idea (as is but too frequent), we need but enquire, from 
< 
< what impression is that supposed idea derived? And if it 
< 
< be impossible to assign any, this will serve to confirm our 
< 
< suspicion. By bringing ideas into so clear a light we may 
< 
< reasonably hope to remove all dispute, which may arise, 
< 
< concerning their nature and reality.[1] 
< 
< 
< 
< [1] It is probable that no more was meant by these, who denied innate
< 
< ideas, than that all ideas were copies of our impressions; though it must
< 
< be confessed, that the terms, which they employed, were not chosen with
< 
< such caution, nor so exactly defined, as to prevent all mistakes about their
< 
< doctrine. For what is meant by innate? If innate be equivalent to natural,
< 
< then all the perceptions and ideas of the mind must be allowed to be innate
< 
< or natural, in whatever sense we take the latter word, whether in opposi-
< 
< tion to what is uncommon, artificial, or miraculous. If by innate be meant,
< 
< contemporary to our birth, the dispute seems to be frivolous; nor is it
< 
< worth while to enquire at what time thinking begins, whether before, at,
< 
< or after our birth. Again, the word idea, seems to be commonly taken in
< 
< a very loose sense, by LOCKE and others; as standing for any of our per-
< 
< ceptions, our sensations and passions, as well as thoughts. Now in this
< 
< sense, I should desire to know, what can be meant by asserting, that self-
< 
< love, or resentment of injuries, or the passion between the sexes is not innate?
< 
< 
< 
< But admitting these terms, impressions and ideas, in the sense above
< 
< explained, and understanding by innate, what is original or copied from
< 
< no precedent perception, then may we assert that all our impressions are
< 
< innate, and our ideas not innate.
< 
< 
< 
< To be ingenuous, I must own it to be my opinion, that LOCKE was
< 
< betrayed into this question by the schoolmen, who, making use of unde-
< 
< fined terms, draw out their disputes to a tedious length, without ever touch-
< 
< ing the point in question. A like ambiguity and circumlocution seem to run
< 
< through that philosopher's reasonings on this as well as most other subjects.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< SECTION III
< 
< OF THE ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
< 
< 
< 
<   IT IS evident that there is a principle of connexion be- 
< 
< tween the different thoughts or ideas of the mind, and 
< 
< that in their appearance to the memory or imagination, 
< 
< they introduce each other with a certain degree of method 
< 
< and regularity. In our more serious thinking or discourse 
< 
< this is so observable that any particular thought, which 
< 
< breaks in upon the regular tract or chain of ideas, is 
< 
< immediately remarked and rejected. And even in our 
< 
< wildest and most wandering reveries, nay in our very 
< 
< dreams, we shall find, if we reflect, that the imagination 
< 
< ran not altogether at adventures, but that there was still 
< 
< a connexion upheld among the different ideas, which suc- 
< 
< ceeded each other. Were the loosest and freest conversa- 
< 
< tion to be transcribed, there would immediately be observed 
< 
< something which connected it in all its transitions. Or 
< 
< where this is wanting, the person who broke the thread of 
< 
< discourse might still inform you, that there had secretly 
< 
< revolved in his mind a succession of thought, which had 
< 
< gradually led him from the subject of conversation. Among 
< 
< different languages, even where we cannot suspect the least 
< 
< connexion or communication, it is found, that the words, 
< 
< expressive of ideas, the most compounded, do yet nearly 
< 
< correspond to each other: a certain proof that the simple 
< 
< ideas, comprehended in the compound ones, were bound 
< 
< together by some universal principle, which had an equal 
< 
< influence on all mankind. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Though it be too obvious to escape observation, that 
< 
< different ideas are connected together; I do not find that 
< 
< any philosopher has attempted to enumerate or class all 
< 
< the principles of association; a subject, however, that seems 
< 
< worthy of curiosity. To me, there appear to be only three 
< 
< principles of connexion among ideas, namely, Resemblance, 
< 
< Contiguity in time or place, and Cause or Effect. 
< 
< 
< 
<   That these principles serve to connect ideas will not, I 
< 
< believe, be much doubted. A picture naturally leads our 
< 
< thoughts to the original:[1] the mention of one apartment 
< 
< in a building naturally introduces an enquiry or discourse 
< 
< concerning the others:[2] and if we think of a wound, we 
< 
< can scarcely forbear reflecting on the pain which follows it.[3] 
< 
< But that this enumeration is complete, and that there are 
< 
< no other principles of association except these, may be 
< 
< difficult to prove to the satisfaction of the reader, or even 
< 
< to a man's own satisfaction. All we can do, in such cases, 
< 
< is to run over several instances, and examine carefully the 
< 
< principle which binds the different thoughts to each other, 
< 
< never stopping till we render the principle as general as 
< 
< possible.[4] The more instances we examine, and the more 
< 
< care we employ, the more assurance shall we acquire, that 
< 
< the enumeration, which we form from the whole, is com- 
< 
< plete and entire. 
< 
< 
< 
< [1] Resemblance.
< 
< 
< 
< [2] Contiguity.
< 
< 
< 
< [3] Cause and effect.
< 
< 
< 
< [4] For instance, Contrast or Contrariety is also a connexion among Ideas:
< 
< but it may perhaps, be considered as a mixture of Causation and Resem-
< 
< blance. Where two objects are contrary, the one destroys the other; that
< 
< is, the cause of its annihilation, and the idea of the annihilation of an
< 
< object, implies the idea of its former existence.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< SECTION IV
< 
< SCEPTICAL DOUBTS CONCERNING THE OPERATIONS OF 
< 
< THE UNDERSTANDING
< 
< 
< 
< PART I 
< 
< 
< 
<   ALL the objects of human reason or enquiry may 
< 
< naturally be divided into two kinds, to wit, Rela- 
< 
< tions of Ideas, and Matters of Fact. Of the first 
< 
< kind are the sciences of Geometry, Algebra, and Arithmetic; 
< 
< and in short, every affirmation which is either intuitively or 
< 
< demonstratively certain. That the square of the hypothenuse 
< 
< is equal to the square of the two sides, is a proposition 
< 
< which expresses a relation between these figures. That 
< 
< three times five is equal to the half of thirty, expresses a 
< 
< relation between these numbers. Propositions of this kind 
< 
< are discoverable by the mere operation of thought, without 
< 
< dependence on what is anywhere existent in the universe. 
< 
< Though there never were a circle or triangle in nature, the 
< 
< truths demonstrated by Euclid would for ever retain their 
< 
< certainty and evidence. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Matters of fact, which are the second objects of human 
< 
< reason, are not ascertained in the same manner; nor is our 
< 
< evidence of their truth, however great, of a like nature with 
< 
< the foregoing. The contrary of every matter of fact is still 
< 
< possible; because it can never imply a contradiction, and 
< 
< is conceived by the mind with the same facility and dis- 
< 
< tinctness, as if ever so conformable to reality. That the 
< 
< sun will not rise to-morrow is no less intelligible a propo- 
< 
< sition, and implies no more contradiction than the affirma- 
< 
< tion, that it will rise. We should in vain, therefore, attempt 
< 
< to demonstrate its falsehood. Were it demonstratively false, 
< 
< it would imply a contradiction, and could never be dis- 
< 
< tinctly conceived by the mind. 
< 
< 
< 
<   It may, therefore, be a subject worthy of curiosity, to 
< 
< enquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures 
< 
< us of any real existence and matter of fact, beyond the 
< 
< present testimony of our senses, or the records of our 
< 
< memory. This part of philosophy, it is observable, has been 
< 
< little cultivated, either by the ancients or moderns; and 
< 
< therefore our doubts and errors, in the prosecution of so 
< 
< important an enquiry, may be the more excusable; while 
< 
< we march through such difficult paths without any guide 
< 
< or direction. They may even prove useful, by exciting 
< 
< curiosity, and destroying that implicit faith and security, 
< 
< which is the bane of all reasoning and free enquiry. The 
< 
< discovery of defects in the common philosophy, if any such 
< 
< there be, will not, I presume, be a discouragement, but 
< 
< rather an incitement, as is usual, to attempt something 
< 
< more full and satisfactory than has yet been proposed to 
< 
< the public. 
< 
< 
< 
<   All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be 
< 
< founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. By means of 
< 
< that relation alone we can go beyond the evidence of our 
< 
< memory and senses. If you were to ask a man, why he 
< 
< believes any matter of fact, which is absent; for instance, 
< 
< that his friend is in the country, or in France; he would 
< 
< give you a reason; and this reason would be some other 
< 
< fact; as a letter received from him, or the knowledge of his 
< 
< former resolutions and promises. A man finding a watch 
< 
< or any other machine in a desert island, would conclude 
< 
< that there had once been men in that island. All our rea- 
< 
< sonings concerning fact are of the same nature. And here 
< 
< it is constantly supposed that there is a connexion between 
< 
< the present fact and that which is inferred from it. Were 
< 
< there nothing to bind them together, the inference would 
< 
< be entirely precarious. The hearing of an articulate voice 
< 
< and rational discourse in the dark assures us of the pres- 
< 
< ence of some person: Why? because these are the effects 
< 
< of the human make and fabric, and closely connected with 
< 
< it. If we anatomize all the other reasonings of this nature, 
< 
< we shall find that they are founded on the relation of cause 
< 
< and effect, and that this relation is either near or remote, 
< 
< direct or collateral. Heat and light are collateral effects 
< 
< of fire, and the one effect may justly be inferred from the 
< 
< other. 
< 
< 
< 
<   If we would satisfy ourselves, therefore, concerning the 
< 
< nature of that evidence, which assures us of matters of fact, 
< 
< we must enquire how we arrive at the knowledge of cause 
< 
< and effect. 
< 
< 
< 
<   I shall venture to affirm, as a general proposition, which 
< 
< admits of no exception, that the knowledge of this relation 
< 
< is not, in any instance, attained by reasonings a priori; but 
< 
< arises entirely from experience, when we find that any 
< 
< particular objects are constantly conjoined with each other. 
< 
< Let an object be presented to a man of ever so strong natural 
< 
< reason and abilities; if that object be entirely new to him, 
< 
< he will not be able, by the most accurate examination of 
< 
< its sensible qualities, to discover any of its causes or effects. 
< 
< Adam, though his rational faculties be supposed, at the 
< 
< very first, entirely perfect, could not have inferred from 
< 
< the fluidity and transparency of water that it would suffo- 
< 
< cate him, or from the light and warmth of fire that it would 
< 
< consume him. No object ever discovers, by the qualities 
< 
< which appear to the senses, either the causes which pro- 
< 
< duced it, or the effects which will arise from it; nor can 
< 
< our reason, unassisted by experience, ever draw any in- 
< 
< ference concerning real existence and matter of fact. 
< 
< 
< 
<   This proposition, that causes and effects are discoverable, 
< 
< not by reason but by experience, will readily be admitted 
< 
< with regard to such objects, as we remember to have once 
< 
< been altogether unknown to us; since we must be conscious 
< 
< of the utter inability, which we then lay under, of foretelling 
< 
< what would arise from them. Present two smooth pieces of 
< 
< marble to a man who has no tincture of natural philosophy; 
< 
< he will never discover that they will adhere together in such 
< 
< a manner as to require great force to separate them in a 
< 
< direct line, while they make so small a resistance to a 
< 
< lateral pressure. Such events, as bear little analogy to 
< 
< the common course of nature, are also readily confessed to 
< 
< be known only by experience; nor does any man imagine 
< 
< that the explosion of gunpowder, or the attraction of a load- 
< 
< stone, could ever be discovered by arguments a priori. In 
< 
< like manner, when an effect is supposed to depend upon an 
< 
< intricate machinery or secret structure of parts, we make no 
< 
< difficulty in attributing all our knowledge of it to experience. 
< 
< Who will assert that he can give the ultimate reason, why 
< 
< milk or bread is proper nourishment for a man, not for 
< 
< a lion or a tiger? 
< 
< 
< 
<   But the same truth may not appear, at first sight, to have 
< 
< the same evidence with regard to events, which have become 
< 
< familiar to us from our first appearance in the world, which 
< 
< bear a close analogy to the whole course of nature, and 
< 
< which are supposed to depend on the simple qualities of 
< 
< objects, without any secret structure of parts. We are apt 
< 
< to imagine that we could discover these effects by the mere 
< 
< operation of our reason, without experience. We fancy, 
< 
< that were we brought on a sudden into this world, we 
< 
< could at first have inferred that one Billiard-ball would 
< 
< communicate motion to another upon impulse; and that we 
< 
< needed not to have waited for the event, in order to pro- 
< 
< nounce with certainty concerning it. Such is the influence of 
< 
< custom, that, where it is strongest, it not only covers our 
< 
< natural ignorance, but even conceals itself, and seems not to 
< 
< take place, merely because it is found in the highest degree. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But to convince us that all the laws of nature, and all 
< 
< the operations of bodies without exception, are known only 
< 
< by experience, the following reflections may, perhaps, suf- 
< 
< fice. Were any object presented to us, and were we 
< 
< required to pronounce concerning the effect, which will 
< 
< result from it, without consulting past observation; after 
< 
< what manner, I beseech you, must the mind proceed in this 
< 
< operation? It must invent or imagine some event, which 
< 
< it ascribes to the object as its effect; and it is plain that 
< 
< this invention must be entirely arbitrary. The mind can 
< 
< never possibly find the effect in the supposed cause, by the 
< 
< most accurate scrutiny and examination. For the effect is 
< 
< totally different from the cause, and consequently can never 
< 
< be discovered in it. Motion in the second Billiard-ball is a 
< 
< quite distinct event from motion in the first; nor is there 
< 
< anything in the one to suggest the smallest hint of the 
< 
< other. A stone or piece of metal raised into the air, and 
< 
< left without any support, immediately falls: but to consider 
< 
< the matter a priori, is there anything we discover in this 
< 
< situation which can beget the idea of a downward, rather 
< 
< than an upward, or any other motion, in the stone or metal? 
< 
< 
< 
<   And as the first imagination or invention of a particular 
< 
< effect, in all natural operations, is arbitrary, where we con- 
< 
< sult not experience; so must we also esteem the supposed 
< 
< tie or connexion between the cause and effect, which binds 
< 
< them together, and renders it impossible that any other 
< 
< effect could result from the operation of that cause. When 
< 
< I see, for instance, a Billiard-ball moving in a straight line 
< 
< towards another; even suppose motion in the second ball 
< 
< should by accident be suggested to me, as the result of their 
< 
< contact or impulse; may I not conceive, that a hundred dif- 
< 
< ferent events might as well follow from that cause? May 
< 
< not both these balls remain at absolute rest? May not the 
< 
< first ball return in a straight line, or leap off from the second 
< 
< in any line or direction? All these suppositions are con- 
< 
< sistent and conceivable. Why then should we give the 
< 
< preference to one, which is no more consistent or conceivable 
< 
< than the rest? All our reasonings a priori will never be 
< 
< able to show us any foundation for this preference. 
< 
< 
< 
<   In a word, then, every effect is a distinct event from its 
< 
< cause. It could not, therefore, be discovered in the cause, 
< 
< and the first invention or conception of it, a priori, must be 
< 
< entirely arbitrary. And even after it is suggested, the con- 
< 
< junction of it with the cause must appear equally arbitrary; 
< 
< since there are always many other effects, which, to reason, 
< 
< must seem fully as consistent and natural. In vain, there- 
< 
< fore, should we pretend to determine any single event, or 
< 
< infer any cause or effect, without the assistance of observa- 
< 
< tion and experience. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Hence we may discover the reason why no philosopher, 
< 
< who is rational and modest, has ever pretended to assign 
< 
< the ultimate cause of any natural operation, or to show 
< 
< distinctly the action of that power, which produces any 
< 
< single effect in the universe. It is confessed, that the 
< 
< utmost effort of human reason is to reduce the principles, 
< 
< productive of natural phenomena, to a greater simplicity, 
< 
< and to resolve the many particular effects into a few gen- 
< 
< eral causes, by means of reasonings from analogy, experi- 
< 
< ence, and observation. But as to the causes of these general 
< 
< causes, we should in vain attempt their discovery; nor shall 
< 
< we ever be able to satisfy ourselves, by any particular ex- 
< 
< plication of them. These ultimate springs and principles 
< 
< are totally shut up from human curiosity and enquiry. Elas- 
< 
< ticity, gravity, cohesion of parts, communication of motion 
< 
< by impulse; these are probably the ultimate causes and prin- 
< 
< ciples which we shall ever discover in nature; and we may 
< 
< esteem ourselves sufficiently happy, if, by accurate enquiry 
< 
< and reasoning, we can trace up the particular phenomena 
< 
< to, or near to, these general principles. The most perfect 
< 
< philosophy of the natural kind only staves off our ignorance 
< 
< a little longer: as perhaps the most perfect philosophy of 
< 
< the moral or metaphysical kind serves only to discover larger 
< 
< portions of it. Thus the observation of human blindness 
< 
< and weakness is the result of all philosophy, and meets us at 
< 
< every turn, in spite of our endeavours to elude or avoid it. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Nor is geometry, when taken into the assistance of natural 
< 
< philosophy, ever able to remedy this defect, or lead us into 
< 
< the knowledge of ultimate causes, by all that accuracy of 
< 
< reasoning for which it is so justly celebrated. Every part 
< 
< of mixed mathematics proceeds upon the supposition that 
< 
< certain laws are established by nature in her operations; 
< 
< and abstract reasonings are employed, either to assist ex- 
< 
< perience in the discovery of these laws, or to determine 
< 
< their influence in particular instances, where it depends 
< 
< upon any precise degree of distance and quantity. Thus, it 
< 
< is a law of motion, discovered by experience, that the mo- 
< 
< ment or force of any body in motion is in the compound 
< 
< ratio or proportion of its solid contents and its velocity; 
< 
< and consequently, that a small force may remove the greatest 
< 
< obstacle or raise the greatest weight, if, by any contrivance 
< 
< or machinery, we can increase the velocity of that force, 
< 
< so as to make it an overmatch for its antagonist. Geometry 
< 
< assists us in the application of this law, by giving us the 
< 
< just dimensions of all the parts and figures which can enter 
< 
< into any species of machine; but still the discovery of the 
< 
< law itself is owing merely to experience, and all the abstract 
< 
< reasonings in the world could never lead us one step towards 
< 
< the knowledge of it. When we reason a priori, and consider 
< 
< merely any object or cause, as it appears to the mind, inde- 
< 
< pendent of all observation, it never could suggest to us the 
< 
< notion of any distinct object, such as its effect; much less, 
< 
< show us the inseparable and inviolable connexion between 
< 
< them. A man must be very sagacious who could discover 
< 
< by reasoning that crystal is the effect of heat, and ice of 
< 
< cold, without being previously acquainted with the operation 
< 
< of these qualities. 
< 
< 
< 
< PART II 
< 
< 
< 
<   BUT we have not yet attained any tolerable satisfac- 
< 
< tion with regard to the question first proposed. Each 
< 
< solution still gives rise to a new question as difficult as 
< 
< the foregoing, and leads us on to farther enquiries. When 
< 
< it is asked, What is the nature of all our reasonings 
< 
< concerning matter of fact? the proper answer seems to be, 
< 
< that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. 
< 
< When again it is asked, What is the foundation of all our 
< 
< reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation? it may 
< 
< be replied in one word, Experience. But if we still carry on 
< 
< our sifting humour, and ask, What is the foundation of all 
< 
< conclusions from experience? this implies a new question, 
< 
< which may be of more difficult solution and explication. 
< 
< Philosophers, that give themselves airs of superior wisdom 
< 
< and sufficiency, have a hard task when they encounter per- 
< 
< sons of inquisitive dispositions, who push them from every 
< 
< corner to which they retreat, and who are sure at last to 
< 
< bring them to some dangerous dilemma. The best expedient 
< 
< to prevent this confusion, is to be modest in our preten- 
< 
< sions; and even to discover the difficulty ourselves before 
< 
< it is objected to us. By this means, we may make a kind of 
< 
< merit of our very ignorance. 
< 
< 
< 
<   I shall content myself, in this section, with an easy task, 
< 
< and shall pretend only to give a negative answer to the 
< 
< question here proposed. I say then, that, even after we 
< 
< have experience of the operations of cause and effect, our 
< 
< conclusions from that experience are not founded on reason- 
< 
< ing, or any process of the understanding. This answer we 
< 
< must endeavour both to explain and to defend. 
< 
< 
< 
<   It must certainly be allowed, that nature has kept us 
< 
< at a great distance from all her secrets, and has afforded 
< 
< us only the knowledge of a few superficial qualities of ob- 
< 
< jects; while she conceals from us those powers and prin- 
< 
< ciples on which the influence of those objects entirely de- 
< 
< pends. Our senses inform us of the colour, weight, and 
< 
< consistence of bread; but neither sense nor reason can ever 
< 
< inform us of those qualities which fit it for the nourish- 
< 
< ment and support of a human body. Sight or feeling con- 
< 
< veys an idea of the actual motion of bodies; but as to that 
< 
< wonderful force or power, which would carry on a moving 
< 
< body for ever in a continued change of place, and which 
< 
< bodies never lose but by communicating it to others; of 
< 
< this we cannot form the most distant conception. But not- 
< 
< withstanding this ignorance of natural powers[1] and princi- 
< 
< ples, we always presume, when we see like sensible quali- 
< 
< ties, that they have like secret powers, and expect that 
< 
< effects, similar to those which we have experienced, will 
< 
< follow from them. If a body of like colour and consistence 
< 
< with that bread, which we have formerly eat, be pre- 
< 
< sented to us, we make no scruple of repeating the experi- 
< 
< ment, and foresee, with certainty, like nourishment and 
< 
< support. Now this is a process of the mind or thought, 
< 
< of which I would willingly know the foundation. It is 
< 
< allowed on all hands that there is no known connexion 
< 
< between the sensible qualities and the secret powers; and 
< 
< consequently, that the mind is not led to form such a con- 
< 
< clusion concerning their constant and regular conjunction, 
< 
< by anything which it knows of their nature. As to past 
< 
< Experience, it can be allowed to give direct and certain 
< 
< information of those precise objects only, and that precise 
< 
< period of time, which fell under its cognizance: but why 
< 
< this experience should be extended to future times, and to 
< 
< other objects, which for aught we know, may be only in 
< 
< appearance similar; this is the main question on which 
< 
< I would insist. The bread, which I formerly eat, nourished 
< 
< me; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that 
< 
< time, endued with such secret powers: but does it follow, 
< 
< that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and 
< 
< that like sensible qualities must always be attended with 
< 
< like secret powers? The consequence seems nowise neces- 
< 
< sary. At least, it must be acknowledged that there is here 
< 
< a consequence drawn by the mind; that there is a certain 
< 
< step taken; a process of thought, and an inference, which 
< 
< wants to be explained. These two propositions are far 
< 
< from being the same. I have found that such an object has 
< 
< always been attended with such an effect, and I foresee, that 
< 
< other objects, which are, in appearance, similar, will be 
< 
< attended with similar effects. I shall allow, if you please, 
< 
< that the one proposition may justly be inferred from the 
< 
< other: I know, in fact, that it always is inferred. But if you 
< 
< insist that the inference is made by a chain of reasoning, 
< 
< I desire you to produce that reasoning. The connexion 
< 
< between these propositions is not intuitive. There is re- 
< 
< quired a medium, which may enable the mind to draw such 
< 
< an inference, if indeed it be drawn by reasoning and argu- 
< 
< ment. What that medium is, I must confess, passes my 
< 
< comprehension; and it is incumbent on those to produce it, 
< 
< who assert that it really exists, and is the origin of all our 
< 
< conclusions concerning matter of fact. 
< 
< 
< 
<   This negative argument must certainly, in process of 
< 
< time, become altogether convincing, if many penetrating 
< 
< and able philosophers shall turn their enquiries this way 
< 
< and no one be ever able to discover any connecting propo- 
< 
< sition or intermediate step, which supports the understand- 
< 
< ing in this conclusion. But as the question is yet new, 
< 
< every reader may not trust so far to his own penetration, 
< 
< as to conclude, because an argument escapes his enquiry, 
< 
< that therefore it does not really exist. For this reason it 
< 
< may be requisite to venture upon a more difficult task; and 
< 
< enumerating all the branches of human knowledge, en- 
< 
< deavour to show that none of them can afford such an 
< 
< argument. 
< 
< 
< 
<   All reasonings may be divided into two kinds, namely, 
< 
< demonstrative reasoning, or that concerning relations of 
< 
< ideas, and moral reasoning, or that concerning matter of 
< 
< fact and existence. That there are no demonstrative argu- 
< 
< ments in the case seems evident; since it implies no con- 
< 
< tradiction that the course of nature may change, and that 
< 
< an object, seemingly like those which we have experi- 
< 
< enced, may be attended with different or contrary effects. 
< 
< May I not clearly and distinctly conceive that a body, 
< 
< falling from the clouds, and which, in all other respects, 
< 
< resembles snow, has yet the taste of salt or feeling of 
< 
< fire? Is there any more intelligible proposition than to 
< 
< affirm, that all the trees will flourish in December and 
< 
< January, and decay in May and June? Now whatever 
< 
< is intelligible, and can be distinctly conceived, implies no 
< 
< contradiction, and can never be proved false by any demon- 
< 
< strative argument or abstract reasoning a priori. 
< 
< 
< 
<   If we be, therefore, engaged by arguments to put trust 
< 
< in past experience, and make it the standard of our future 
< 
< judgment, these arguments must be probable only, or such 
< 
< as regard matter of fact and real existence according to the 
< 
< division above mentioned. But that there is no argument 
< 
< of this kind, must appear, if our explication of that species 
< 
< of reasoning be admitted as solid and satisfactory. We 
< 
< have said that all arguments concerning existence are 
< 
< founded on the relation of cause and effect; that our 
< 
< knowledge of that relation is derived entirely from experi- 
< 
< ence; and that all our experimental conclusions proceed 
< 
< upon the supposition that the future will be conformable 
< 
< to the past. To endeavour, therefore, the proof of this last 
< 
< supposition by probable arguments, or arguments regarding 
< 
< existence, must be evidently going in a circle, and taking 
< 
< that for granted, which is the very point in question. 
< 
< 
< 
<   In reality, all arguments from experience are founded on 
< 
< the similarity which we discover among natural objects, 
< 
< and by which we are induced to expect effects similar to 
< 
< those which we have found to follow from such objects. 
< 
< And though none but a fool or madman will ever pretend 
< 
< to dispute the authority of experience, or to reject that 
< 
< great guide of human life, it may surely be allowed a philoso- 
< 
< pher to have so much curiosity at least as to examine the 
< 
< principle of human nature, which gives this mighty authority 
< 
< to experience, and makes us draw advantage from that 
< 
< similarity which nature has placed among different objects. 
< 
< >From causes which appear similar we expect similar effects. 
< 
< This is the sum of all our experimental conclusions. Now 
< 
< it seems evident that, if this conclusion were formed by 
< 
< reason, it would be as perfect at first, and upon one in- 
< 
< stance, as after ever so long a course of experience. But 
< 
< the case is far otherwise. Nothing so like as eggs; yet no 
< 
< one, on account of this appearing similarity, expects the 
< 
< same taste and relish in all of them. It is only after a long 
< 
< course of uniform experiments in any kind, that we attain 
< 
< a firm reliance and security with regard to a particular 
< 
< event. Now where is that process of reasoning which, 
< 
< from one instance, draws a conclusion, so different from 
< 
< that which it infers from a hundred instances that are 
< 
< nowise different from that single one? This question I 
< 
< propose as much for the sake of information, as with an 
< 
< intention of raising difficulties. I cannot find, I cannot 
< 
< imagine any such reasoning. But I keep my mind still 
< 
< open to instruction, if any one will vouchsafe to bestow 
< 
< it on me. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Should it be said that, from a number of uniform experi- 
< 
< ments, we infer a connexion between the sensible qualities 
< 
< and the secret powers; this, I must confess, seems the 
< 
< same difficulty, couched in different terms. The question 
< 
< still recurs, on what process of argument this inference is 
< 
< founded? Where is the medium, the interposing ideas, 
< 
< which join propositions so very wide of each other? It is 
< 
< confessed that the colour, consistence, and other sensible 
< 
< qualities of bread appear not, of themselves, to have any 
< 
< connexion with the secret powers of nourishment and sup- 
< 
< port. For otherwise we could infer these secret powers 
< 
< from the first appearance of these sensible qualities, without 
< 
< the aid of experience; contrary to the sentiment of all 
< 
< philosophers, and contrary to plain matter of fact. Here, 
< 
< then, is our natural state of ignorance with regard to the 
< 
< powers and influence of all objects. How is this remedied 
< 
< by experience? It only shows us a number of uniform 
< 
< effects, resulting from certain objects, and teaches us that 
< 
< those particular objects, at that particular time, were en- 
< 
< dowed with such powers and forces. When a new object, 
< 
< endowed with similar sensible qualities, is produced, we 
< 
< expect similar powers and forces, and look for a like effect. 
< 
< >From a body of like colour and consistence with bread we 
< 
< expect like nourishment and support. But this surely is 
< 
< a step or progress of the mind, which wants to be explained. 
< 
< When a man says, I have found, in all past instances, such 
< 
< sensible qualities conjoined with such secret powers: And 
< 
< when he says, Similar sensible qualities will always be con- 
< 
< joined with similar secret powers, he is not guilty of a tau- 
< 
< tology, nor are these propositions in any respect the same. 
< 
< You say that the one proposition is an inference from the 
< 
< other. But you must confess that the inference is not 
< 
< intuitive; neither is it demonstrative: Of what nature is it, 
< 
< then? To say it is experimental, is begging the question. 
< 
< For all inferences from experience suppose, as their founda- 
< 
< tion, that the future will resemble the past, and that similar 
< 
< powers will be conjoined with similar sensible qualities. 
< 
< If there be any suspicion that the course of nature may 
< 
< change, and that the past may be no rule for the future, all 
< 
< experience becomes useless, and can give rise to no in- 
< 
< ference or conclusion. It is impossible, therefore, that any 
< 
< arguments from experience can prove this resemblance of 
< 
< the past to the future; since all these arguments are 
< 
< founded on the supposition of that resemblance. Let the 
< 
< course of things be allowed hitherto ever so regular; that 
< 
< alone, without some new argument or inference, proves 
< 
< not that, for the future, it will continue so. In vain do 
< 
< you pretend to have learned the nature of bodies from your 
< 
< past experience. Their secret nature, and consequently 
< 
< all their effects and influence, may change, without any 
< 
< change in their sensible qualities. This happens some- 
< 
< times, and with regard to some objects: Why may it not 
< 
< happen always, and with regard to all objects? What logic, 
< 
< what process or argument secures you against this supposi- 
< 
< tion? My practice, you say, refutes my doubts. But you 
< 
< mistake the purport of my question. As an agent, I am 
< 
< quite satisfied in the point; but as a philosopher, who has 
< 
< some share of curiosity, I will not say scepticism, I want to 
< 
< learn the foundation of this inference. No reading, no 
< 
< enquiry has yet been able to remove my difficulty, or give 
< 
< me satisfaction in a matter of such importance. Can I do 
< 
< better than propose the difficulty to the public, even though, 
< 
< perhaps, I have small hopes of obtaining a solution? We 
< 
< shall at least, by this means, be sensible of our ignorance, 
< 
< if we do not augment our knowledge. 
< 
< 
< 
<   I must confess that a man is guilty of unpardonable 
< 
< arrogance who concludes, because an argument has es- 
< 
< caped his own investigation, that therefore it does not really 
< 
< exist. I must also confess that, though all the learned, for 
< 
< several ages, should have employed themselves in fruit- 
< 
< less search upon any subject, it may still, perhaps, be rash 
< 
< to conclude positively that the subject must, therefore, 
< 
< pass all human comprehension. Even though we examine 
< 
< all the sources of our knowledge, and conclude them un- 
< 
< fit for such a subject, there may still remain a suspicion, 
< 
< that the enumeration is not complete, or the examination 
< 
< not accurate. But with regard to the present subject, there 
< 
< are some considerations which seem to remove all this 
< 
< accusation of arrogance or suspicion of mistake. 
< 
< 
< 
<   It is certain that the most ignorant and stupid peasants-- 
< 
< nay infants, nay even brute beasts--improve by experience, 
< 
< and learn the qualities of natural objects, by observing the 
< 
< effects which result from them. When a child has felt the 
< 
< sensation of pain from touching the flame of a candle, he 
< 
< will be careful not to put his hand near any candle; but 
< 
< will expect a similar effect from a cause which is similar in 
< 
< its sensible qualities and appearance. If you assert, there- 
< 
< fore, that the understanding of the child is led into this 
< 
< conclusion by any process of argument or ratiocination, 
< 
< I may justly require you to produce that argument; nor 
< 
< have you any pretence to refuse so equitable a demand. 
< 
< You cannot say that the argument is abstruse, and may 
< 
< possibly escape your enquiry; since you confess that it is 
< 
< obvious to the capacity of a mere infant. If you hesitate, 
< 
< therefore, a moment, or if, after reflection, you produce any 
< 
< intricate or profound argument, you, in a manner, give up 
< 
< the question, and confess that it is not reasoning which 
< 
< engages us to suppose the past resembling the future, and 
< 
< to expect similar effects from causes which are, to appear- 
< 
< ance, similar. This is the proposition which I intended to 
< 
< enforce in the present section. If I be right, I pretend not 
< 
< to have made any mighty discovery. And if I be wrong, 
< 
< I must acknowledge myself to be indeed a very backward 
< 
< scholar; since I cannot now discover an argument which, 
< 
< it seems, was perfectly familiar to me long before I was 
< 
< out of my cradle. 
< 
< 
< 
< [1] The word, Power, is here used in a loose and popular sense. The more
< 
< accurate explication of it would give additional evidence to this argument.
< 
< See Sect. 7.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< SECTION V
< 
< SCEPTICAL SOLUTION OF THESE DOUBTS
< 
< 
< 
< PART I 
< 
< 
< 
<   THE passion for philosophy, like that for religion, 
< 
< seems liable to this inconvenience, that, though it 
< 
< aims at the correction of our manners, and extirpation 
< 
< of our vices, it may only serve, by imprudent management, 
< 
< to foster a predominant inclination, and push the mind, 
< 
< with more determined resolution, towards that side which 
< 
< already draws too much, by the bias and propensity of the 
< 
< natural temper. It is certain that, while we aspire to the 
< 
< magnanimous firmness of the philosophic sage, and en- 
< 
< deavour to confine our pleasures altogether within our own 
< 
< minds, we may, at last, render our philosophy like that of 
< 
< Epictetus, and other Stoics, only a more refined system of 
< 
< selfishness, and reason ourselves out of all virtue as well 
< 
< as social enjoyment. While we study with attention the 
< 
< vanity of human life, and turn all our thoughts towards 
< 
< the empty and transitory nature of riches and honours, we 
< 
< are, perhaps, all the while flattering our natural indolence, 
< 
< which, hating the bustle of the world, and drudgery of 
< 
< business, seeks a pretence of reason to give itself a full 
< 
< and uncontrolled indulgence. There is, however, one 
< 
< species of philosophy which seems little liable to this in- 
< 
< convenience, and that because it strikes in with no dis- 
< 
< orderly passion of the human mind, nor can mingle it- 
< 
< self with any natural affection or propensity; and that is 
< 
< the Academic or Sceptical philosophy. The academics al- 
< 
< ways talk of doubt and suspense of judgment, of danger 
< 
< in hasty determinations, of confining to very narrow bounds 
< 
< the enquiries of the understanding, and of renouncing all 
< 
< speculations which lie not within the limits of common life 
< 
< and practice. Nothing, therefore, can be more contrary 
< 
< than such a philosophy to the supine indolence of the 
< 
< mind, its rash arrogance, its lofty pretensions, and its super- 
< 
< stitious credulity. Every passion is mortified by it, except 
< 
< the love of truth; and that passion never is, nor can be, 
< 
< carried to too high a degree. It is surprising, therefore, 
< 
< that this philosophy, which, in almost every instance, must 
< 
< be harmless and innocent, should be the subject of so 
< 
< much groundless reproach and obloquy. But, perhaps, 
< 
< the very circumstance which renders it so innocent is 
< 
< what chiefly exposes it to the public hatred and resentment. 
< 
< By flattering no irregular passion, it gains few partizans: 
< 
< By opposing so many vices and follies, it raises to itself 
< 
< abundance of enemies, who stigmatize it as libertine, pro- 
< 
< fane, and irreligious. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Nor need we fear that this philosophy, while it endeavours 
< 
< to limit our enquiries to common life, should ever undermine 
< 
< the reasonings of common life, and carry its doubts so far 
< 
< as to destroy all action, as well as speculation. Nature 
< 
< will always maintain her rights, and prevail in the end over 
< 
< any abstract reasoning whatsoever. Though we should 
< 
< conclude, for instance, as in the foregoing section, that, in 
< 
< all reasonings from experience, there is a step taken by the 
< 
< mind which is not supported by any argument or process 
< 
< of the understanding; there is no danger that these rea- 
< 
< sonings, on which almost all knowledge depends, will ever 
< 
< be affected by such a discovery. If the mind be not en- 
< 
< gaged by argument to make this step, it must be induced 
< 
< by some other principle of equal weight and authority; and 
< 
< that principle will preserve its influence as long as human 
< 
< nature remains the same. What that principle is may well 
< 
< be worth the pains of enquiry. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Suppose a person, though endowed with the strongest 
< 
< faculties of reason and reflection, to be brought on a sudden 
< 
< into this world; he would, indeed, immediately observe 
< 
< a continual succession of objects, and one event following 
< 
< another; but he would not be able to discover anything 
< 
< farther. He would not, at first, by any reasoning, be able 
< 
< to reach the idea of cause and effect; since the particular 
< 
< powers, by which all natural operations are performed, 
< 
< never appear to the senses; nor is it reasonable to conclude, 
< 
< merely because one event, in one instance, precedes another, 
< 
< that therefore the one is the cause, the other the effect. 
< 
< Their conjunction may be arbitrary and casual. There 
< 
< may be no reason to infer the existence of one from the 
< 
< appearance of the other. And in a word, such a person, 
< 
< without more experience, could never employ his conjecture 
< 
< or reasoning concerning any matter of fact, or be assured 
< 
< of anything beyond what was immediately present to his 
< 
< memory and senses. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Suppose, again, that he has acquired more experience, 
< 
< and has lived so long in the world as to have observed 
< 
< familiar objects or events to be constantly conjoined to- 
< 
< gether; what is the consequence of this experience? He 
< 
< immediately infers the existence of one object from the 
< 
< appearance of the other. Yet he has not, by all his ex- 
< 
< perience, acquired any idea or knowledge of the secret 
< 
< power by which the one object produces the other; nor 
< 
< is it by any process of reasoning, he is engaged to draw 
< 
< this inference. But still he finds himself determined to 
< 
< draw it: and though he should be convinced that his 
< 
< understanding has no part in the operation, he would 
< 
< nevertheless continue in the same course of thinking. There 
< 
< is some other principle which determines him to form such 
< 
< a conclusion. 
< 
< 
< 
<   This principle is Custom or Habit. For wherever the 
< 
< repetition of any particular act or operation produces a 
< 
< propensity to renew the same act or operation, without 
< 
< being impelled by any reasoning or process of the under- 
< 
< standing, we always say, that this propensity is the effect 
< 
< of Custom. By employing that word, we pretend not to 
< 
< have given the ultimate reason of such a propensity. We 
< 
< only point out a principle of human nature, which is 
< 
< universally acknowledged, and which is well known by its 
< 
< effects. Perhaps we can push our enquiries no farther, or 
< 
< pretend to give the cause of this cause; but must rest 
< 
< contented with it as the ultimate principle, which we can 
< 
< assign, of all our conclusions from experience. It is suf- 
< 
< ficient satisfaction, that we can go so far, without repining 
< 
< at the narrowness of our faculties because they will carry 
< 
< us no farther. And it is certain we here advance a very 
< 
< intelligible proposition at least, if not a true one, when 
< 
< we assert that, after the constant conjunction of two ob- 
< 
< jects--heat and flame, for instance, weight and solidity-- 
< 
< we are determined by custom alone to expect the one from 
< 
< the appearance of the other. This hypothesis seems even 
< 
< the only one which explains the difficulty, why we draw, 
< 
< from a thousand instances, an inference which we are not 
< 
< able to draw from one instance, that is, in no respect, 
< 
< different from them. Reason is incapable of any such 
< 
< variation. The conclusions which it draws from consider- 
< 
< ing one circle are the same which it would form upon 
< 
< surveying all the circles in the universe. But no man, 
< 
< having seen only one body move after being impelled by 
< 
< another, could infer that every other body will move after 
< 
< a like impulse. All inferences from experience, therefore, 
< 
< are effects of custom, not of reasoning.[1]
< 
< 
< 
<   Custom, then, is the great guide of human life. It is 
< 
< that principle alone which renders our experience useful 
< 
< to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train 
< 
< of events with those which have appeared in the past. 
< 
< Without the influence of custom, we should be entirely 
< 
< ignorant of every matter of fact beyond what is immediately 
< 
< present to the memory and senses. We should never know 
< 
< how to adjust means to ends, or to employ our natural 
< 
< powers in the production of any effect. There would 
< 
< be an end at once of all action, as well as of the chief 
< 
< part of speculation. 
< 
< 
< 
<   But here it may be proper to remark, that though our 
< 
< conclusions from experience carry us beyond our memory 
< 
< and senses, and assure us of matters of fact which hap- 
< 
< pened in the most distant places and most remote ages, 
< 
< yet some fact must always be present to the senses or 
< 
< memory, from which we may first proceed in drawing these 
< 
< conclusions. A man, who should find in a desert country 
< 
< the remains of pompous buildings, would conclude that 
< 
< the country had, in ancient times, been cultivated by civil- 
< 
< ized inhabitants; but did nothing of this nature occur 
< 
< to him, he could never form such an inference. We learn 
< 
< the events of former ages from history; but then we must 
< 
< peruse the volumes in which this instruction is contained, 
< 
< and thence carry up our inferences from one testimony to 
< 
< another, till we arrive at the eyewitnesses and spectators of 
< 
< these distant events. In a word, if we proceed not upon 
< 
< some fact, present to the memory or senses, our reasonings 
< 
< would be merely hypothetical; and however the particular 
< 
< links might be connected with each other, the whole chain 
< 
< of inferences would have nothing to support it, nor could 
< 
< we ever, by its means, arrive at the knowledge of any real 
< 
< existence. If I ask why you believe any particular matter 
< 
< of fact, which you relate, you must tell me some reason; 
< 
< and this reason will be some other fact, connected with it. 
< 
< But as you cannot proceed after this manner, in infinitum, 
< 
< you must at last terminate in some fact, which is present to 
< 
< your memory or senses; or must allow that your belief is 
< 
< entirely without foundation. 
< 
< 
< 
<   What, then, is the conclusion of the whole matter? A 
< 
< simple one; though, it must be confessed, pretty remote 
< 
< from the common theories of philosophy. All belief of 
< 
< matter of fact or real existence is derived merely from some 
< 
< object, present to the memory or senses, and a customary 
< 
< conjunction between that and some other object. Or in 
< 
< other words; having found, in many instances, that any 
< 
< two kinds of objects--flame and heat, snow and cold--have 
< 
< always been conjoined together; if flame or snow be pre- 
< 
< sented anew to the senses, the mind is carried by custom 
< 
< to expect heat or cold, and to believe that such a quality 
< 
< does exist, and will discover itself upon a nearer approach. 
< 
< This belief is the necessary result of placing the mind in 
< 
< such circumstances. It is an operation of the soul, when 
< 
< we are so situated, as unavoidable as to feel the passion of 
< 
< love, when we receive benefits; or hatred, when we meet 
< 
< with injuries. All these operations are a species of natural 
< 
< instincts, which no reasoning or process of the thought and 
< 
< understanding is able either to produce or to prevent. 
< 
< 
< 
<   At this point, it would be very allowable for us to stop 
< 
< our philosophical researches. In most questions we can 
< 
< never make a single step farther; and in all questions we 
< 
< must terminate here at last, after our most restless and 
< 
< curious enquiries. But still our curiosity will be pardonable, 
< 
< perhaps commendable, if it carry us on to still farther 
< 
< researches, and make us examine more accurately the na- 
< 
< ture of this belief, and of the customary conjunction, whence 
< 
< it is derived. By this means we may meet with some ex- 
< 
< plications and analogies that will give satisfaction; at least 
< 
< to such as love the abstract sciences, and can be enter- 
< 
< tained with speculations, which, however accurate, may 
< 
< still retain a degree of doubt and uncertainty. As to 
< 
< readers of a different taste; the remaining part of this 
< 
< section is not calculated for them, and the following en- 
< 
< quiries may well be understood, though it be neglected. 
< 
< 
< 
< PART II 
< 
< 
< 
<   NOTHING is more free than the imagination of man; and 
< 
< though it cannot exceed that original stock of ideas fur- 
< 
< nished by the internal and external senses, it has unlimited 
< 
< power of mixing, compounding, separating, and dividing 
< 
< these ideas, in all the varieties of fiction and vision. It 
< 
< can feign a train of events, with all the appearance of 
< 
< reality, ascribe to them a particular time and place, conceive 
< 
< them as existent, and paint them out to itself with every 
< 
< circumstance, that belongs to any historical fact, which it 
< 
< believes with the greatest certainty. Wherein, therefore, 
< 
< consists the difference between such a fiction and belief? 
< 
< It lies not merely in any peculiar idea, which is annexed to 
< 
< such a conception as commands our assent, and which is 
< 
< wanting to every known fiction. For as the mind has 
< 
< authority over all its ideas, it could voluntarily annex this 
< 
< particular idea to any fiction, and consequently be able to 
< 
< believe whatever it pleases; contrary to what we find by 
< 
< daily experience. We can, in our conception, join the head 
< 
< of a man to the body of a horse; but it is not in our 
< 
< power to believe that such an animal has ever really 
< 
< existed. 
< 
< 
< 
<   It follows, therefore, that the difference between fiction 
< 
< and belief lies in some sentiment or feeling, which is 
< 
< annexed to the latter, not to the former, and which depends 
< 
< not on the will, nor can be commanded at pleasure. It 
< 
< must be excited by nature, like all other sentiments; and 
< 
< must arise from the particular situation, in which the mind 
< 
< is placed at any particular juncture. Whenever any object 
< 
< is presented to the memory or senses, it immediately, by the 
< 
< force of custom, carries the imagination to conceive that 
< 
< object, which is usually conjoined to it; and this conception 
< 
< is attended with a feeling or sentiment, different from the 
< 
< loose reveries of the fancy. In this consists the whole 
< 
< nature of belief. For as there is no matter of fact which 
< 
< we believe so firmly that we cannot conceive the contrary, 
< 
< there would be no difference between the conception as- 
< 
< sented to and that which is rejected, were it not for some 
< 
< sentiment which distinguishes the one from the other. If 
< 
< I see a billiard-ball moving toward another, on a smooth 
< 
< table, I can easily conceive it to stop upon contact. This 
< 
< conception implies no contradiction; but still it feels very 
< 
< differently from that conception by which I represent to 
< 
< myself the impulse and the communication of motion from 
< 
< one ball to another. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Were we to attempt a definition of this sentiment, we 
< 
< should, perhaps, find it a very difficult, if not an impossible 
< 
< task; in the same manner as if we should endeavour to 
< 
< define the feeling of cold or passion of anger, to a creature 
< 
< who never had any experience of these sentiments. Belief 
< 
< is the true and proper name of this feeling; and no one is 
< 
< ever at a loss to know the meaning of that term; because 
< 
< every man is every moment conscious of the sentiment 
< 
< represented by it. It may not, however, be improper to 
< 
< attempt a description of this sentiment; in hopes we may, 
< 
< by that means, arrive at some analogies, which may afford 
< 
< a more perfect explication of it. I say, then, that belief is 
< 
< nothing but a more vivid, lively, forcible, firm, steady con- 
< 
< ception of an object, than what the imagination alone is 
< 
< ever able to attain. This variety of terms, which may 
< 
< seem so unphilosophical, is intended only to express that 
< 
< act of the mind, which renders realities, or what is taken for 
< 
< such, more present to us than fictions, causes them to 
< 
< weigh more in the thought, and gives them a superior 
< 
< influence on the passions and imagination. Provided we 
< 
< agree about the thing, it is needless to dispute about the 
< 
< terms. The imagination has the command over all its 
< 
< ideas, and can join and mix and vary them, in all the 
< 
< ways possible. It may conceive fictitious objects with all 
< 
< the circumstances of place and time. It may set them, in 
< 
< a manner, before our eyes, in their true colours, just as 
< 
< they might have existed. But as it is impossible that this 
< 
< faculty of imagination can ever, of itself, reach belief, it is 
< 
< evident that belief consists not in the peculiar nature or 
< 
< order of ideas, but in the manner of their conception, and in 
< 
< their feeling to the mind. I confess, that it is impossible 
< 
< perfectly to explain this feeling or manner of conception. 
< 
< We may make use of words which express something near 
< 
< it. But its true and proper name, as we observed before, is 
< 
< belief; which is a term that every one sufficiently under- 
< 
< stands in common life. And in philosophy, we can go no 
< 
< farther than assert, that belief is something felt by the mind, 
< 
< which distinguishes the ideas of the judgement from the 
< 
< fictions of the imagination. It gives them more weight and 
< 
< influence; makes them appear of greater importance; en- 
< 
< forces them in the mind; and renders them the governing 
< 
< principle of our actions. I hear at present, for instance, a 
< 
< person's voice, with whom I am acquainted; and the sound 
< 
< comes as from the next room. This impression of my 
< 
< senses immediately conveys my thought to the person, to- 
< 
< gether with all the surrounding objects. I paint them out 
< 
< to myself as existing at present, with the same qualities and 
< 
< relations, of which I formerly knew them possessed. These 
< 
< ideas take faster hold of my mind than ideas of an en- 
< 
< chanted castle. They are very different to the feeling, and 
< 
< have a much greater influence of every kind, either to give 
< 
< pleasure or pain, joy or sorrow. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Let us, then, take in the whole compass of this doctrine, 
< 
< and allow, that the sentiment of belief is nothing but a 
< 
< conception more intense and steady than what attends the 
< 
< mere fictions of the imagination, and that this manner of 
< 
< conception arises from a customary conjunction of the 
< 
< object with something present to the memory or senses: 
< 
< I believe that it will not be difficult, upon these supposi- 
< 
< tions, to find other operations of the mind analogous to it, 
< 
< and to trace up these phenomena to principles still more 
< 
< general. 
< 
< 
< 
<   We have already observed that nature has established 
< 
< connexions among particular ideas, and that no sooner 
< 
< one idea occurs to our thoughts than it introduces its cor- 
< 
< relative, and carries our attention towards it, by a gentle 
< 
< and insensible movement. These principles of connexion 
< 
< or association we have reduced to three, namely, Resem- 
< 
< blance, Contiguity and Causation; which are the only bonds 
< 
< that unite our thoughts together, and beget that regular 
< 
< train of reflection or discourse, which, in a greater or less 
< 
< degree, takes place among all mankind. Now here arises 
< 
< a question, on which the solution of the present difficulty 
< 
< will depend. Does it happen, in all these relations, that, 
< 
< when one of the objects is presented to the senses or 
< 
< memory, the mind is not only carried to the conception 
< 
< of the correlative, but reaches a steadier and stronger 
< 
< conception of it than what otherwise it would have been 
< 
< able to attain? This seems to be the case with that 
< 
< belief which arises from the relation of cause and effect. 
< 
< And if the case be the same with the other relations 
< 
< or principles of associations, this may be established as 
< 
< a general law, which takes place in all the operations of 
< 
< the mind. 
< 
< 
< 
<   We may, therefore, observe, as the first experiment 
< 
< to our present purpose, that, upon the appearance of the 
< 
< picture of an absent friend, our idea of him is evidently 
< 
< enlivened by the resemblance, and that every passion, which 
< 
< that idea occasions, whether of joy or sorrow, acquires 
< 
< new force and vigour. In producing this effect, there 
< 
< concur both a relation and a present impression. Where 
< 
< the picture bears him no resemblance, at least was not 
< 
< intended for him, it never so much as conveys our thought 
< 
< to him: and where it is absent, as well as the person, 
< 
< though the mind may pass from the thought of the one to 
< 
< that of the other, it feels its idea to be rather weakened 
< 
< than enlivened by that transition. We take a pleasure in 
< 
< viewing the picture of a friend, when it is set before us; 
< 
< but when it is removed, rather choose to consider him 
< 
< directly than by reflection in an image, which is equally 
< 
< distant and obscure. 
< 
< 
< 
<   The ceremonies of the Roman Catholic religion may 
< 
< be considered as instances of the same nature. The dev- 
< 
< otees of that superstition usually plead in excuse for the 
< 
< mummeries, with which they are upbraided, that they 
< 
< feel the good effect of those external motions, and pos- 
< 
< tures, and actions, in enlivening their devotion and quick- 
< 
< ening their fervour, which otherwise would decay, if 
< 
< directed entirely to distant and immaterial objects. We 
< 
< shadow out the objects of our faith, say they, in sensible 
< 
< types and images, and render them more present to us 
< 
< by the immediate presence of these types, than it is pos- 
< 
< sible for us to do merely by an intellectual view and 
< 
< contemplation. Sensible objects have always a greater in- 
< 
< fluence on the fancy than any other; and this influence 
< 
< they readily convey to those ideas to which they are 
< 
< related, and which they resemble. I shall only infer from 
< 
< these practices, and this reasoning, that the effect of resem- 
< 
< blance in enlivening the ideas is very common; and as in 
< 
< every case a resemblance and a present impression must 
< 
< concur, we are abundantly supplied with experiments to 
< 
< prove the reality of the foregoing principle. 
< 
< 
< 
<   We may add force to these experiments by others of 
< 
< a different kind, in considering the effects of contiguity as 
< 
< well as of resemblance. It is certain that distance dimin- 
< 
< ishes the force of every idea, and that, upon our approach 
< 
< to any object; though it does not discover itself to our 
< 
< senses; it operates upon the mind with an influence, which 
< 
< imitates an immediate impression. The thinking on any 
< 
< object readily transports the mind to what is contiguous; 
< 
< but it is only the actual presence of an object, that trans- 
< 
< ports it with a superior vivacity. When I am a few miles 
< 
< from home, whatever relates to it touches me more nearly 
< 
< than when I am two hundred leagues distant; though even 
< 
< at that distance the reflecting on any thing in the neigh- 
< 
< bourhood of my friends or family naturally produces an 
< 
< idea of them. But as in this latter case, both the objects 
< 
< of the mind are ideas; notwithstanding there is an easy 
< 
< transition between them; that transition alone is not able to 
< 
< give a superior vivacity to any of the ideas, for want of 
< 
< some immediate impression.[2]
< 
< 
< 
<   No one can doubt but causation has the same influence 
< 
< as the other two relations of resemblance and contiguity. 
< 
< Superstitious people are fond of the reliques of saints and 
< 
< holy men, for the same reason, that they seek after types 
< 
< or images, in order to enliven their devotion, and give them 
< 
< a more intimate and strong conception of those exemplary 
< 
< lives, which they desire to imitate. Now it is evident, that 
< 
< one of the best reliques, which a devotee could procure, 
< 
< would be the handywork of a saint; and if his cloaths and 
< 
< furniture are ever to be considered in this light, it is be- 
< 
< cause they were once at his disposal, and were moved and 
< 
< affected by him; in which respect they are to be considered 
< 
< as imperfect effects, and as connected with him by a shorter 
< 
< chain of consequences than any of those, by which we learn 
< 
< the reality of his existence. 
< 
< 
< 
<   Suppose, that the son of a friend, who had been long 
< 
< dead or absent, were presented to us; it is evident, that 
< 
< this object would instantly revive its correlative idea, and 
< 
< recall to our thoughts all past intimacies and familiarities, 
< 
< in more lively colours than they would otherwise have ap- 
< 
< peared to us. This is another phaenomenon, which seems 
< 
< to prove the principle above mentioned. 
< 
< 
< 
<   
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|983995950
50a51,54
> 
> See also:
> * [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
> * [[Hilliary Rodham Clinton]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|983995977
54c54
< * [[Hilliary Rodham Clinton]]
---
> * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
------
Orson_Welles|983996028
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of [[HollywooD]]s greatest directors. He also starred in many of his films and wrote the scripts. 
> 
> His works include:
> 
> [[Citizen Kane]]
> [[Macbeth]]
> [[Touch of Evil]]
------
Kejmanee_Pichaironnarongsongkram|983996029
1c1
< Kejmanee Pichaironnarongsongkram, also known as Pin, is an actress, model, and singer from [[Thailand]], who is popular in her native country.
---
> Kejmanee Pichaironnarongsongkram, also known as Pin, is an actress, model, and singer from [[Thailand]], who is popular in her native country.  She was born on January 4, 1974.
3c3
< She is the host of the TV show [[Ar-Thit Om-Yim]] and has appeared in other TV shows such as [[Chee-Vit Puae Kar Hua-Jai Puae Ther]], [[Chai Nai Fun]], [[Soda Kab Cha-Yen]], [[Chan Chue Saila]], and [[Roy-Rak Roy-Ardeed]].
---
> In 1994, after graduating from Rangsit University, Pin joined the band Kidnappers.  She released one CD with this band, then moved to the [[United States]] for two years of postgraduate study.  After returning to Thailand she pursued a career as a television actress, and became rather successful.
5c5,7
< She is married to actor [[Jetrin Wattanasin]].
---
> She is the host of the TV show [[Ar-Thit Om-Yim]] and has appeared in other TV shows such as [[Chee-Vit Puae Kar Hua-Jai Puae Ther]], [[Chai Nai Fun]], [[Soda Kab Cha-Yen]], [[Chan Chue Saila]], and [[Roy-Rak Roy-Ardeed]], and in the film [[Kampaeng]].
> 
> She is married to actor [[Jetrin Wattanasin]].
------
Chordata|983996033
35a36
>      Class [[Larvacea]]
------
Film_History|983996042
12c12
< Some people you should know during the beginnings of HollywooD (1912-1925)
---
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of [[Hollywood]] (1912-1925)
39a40
> *  [[Preston Sturges]]
------
Orson_Welles|983996059
5,7c5,7
< [[Citizen Kane]]
< [[Macbeth]]
< [[Touch of Evil]]
---
> *[[Citizen Kane]]
> *[[Macbeth]]
> *[[Touch of Evil]]
------
Actresses|983996110
34a35
> :[[Kejmanee Pichaironnarongsongkram]]
------
Propaganda_Film|983996136
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also:
> 
> *[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
------
Orson_Welles|983996230
3c3
< His works include:
---
> His works as an actor/director include:
7c7,11
< *[[Touch of Evil]]
---
> *[[Touch of Evil]]
> *[[The Lady from Shanghai]]
> 
> In addition, he also acted in
> *[[The Third Man]]
------
Applied_Mathematics|983996312
1c1
< The branch of mathematics which uses mathematical techniques to describe physical processes, and as such often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]].  Important subdivisions include:
---
> The branch of [[mathematics]] which uses mathematical techniques to describe physical processes, and as such often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]].  Important subdivisions include:
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|983996338
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vice President of the [[United States]] 1993-2001 during [[William Jefferson Clinton]]'s presidency.
> 
> Al Gore is the son of a Senator and grew up in [[Washington DC]] and [[Tennessee]].
> 
> He was a senator from Tennessee before he became Vice President.
> 
> He wrote an environmental conservation book entitled [[Earth in the Balance]].
> 
> He ran for president and was defeated by [[George W. Bush]] in 2000.
> 
> During the 2000 presidential campaign, he was attacked by environmentalists for owning (indirectly through his father's estate) several thousand shares of Occidental Petroleum Corporation.  Occidental Petroleum angered environmentalists by trying to open a new oil/gas drilling field in [[Colombia]].
------
RequestedArticles|983996391
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Al Gore]]
------
Al_Gore|983996412
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
------
DaveGrohl|983996428
1c1
< DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the FooFighters
---
> DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the [[Foo Fighters]]
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983996437
37c37
< The empiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
---
> The empiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" Even the destructability of a thing, he argued, tended to prove its prior existence.  He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
------
NirvanaBand|983996461
5c5
< Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]]   but, plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and an alleged heroin addict.  Cobain commited suicide in 1994, after which the band split.  Drummer Grohl went on to form [[The Foo Fighters]].  Two posthumous albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on [[MTV]]'s Unplugged were later released.
---
> Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]]   but, plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and an alleged heroin addict.  Cobain commited suicide in 1994, after which the band split.  Drummer Grohl went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]].  Two posthumous albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on [[MTV]]'s Unplugged were later released.
------
Gareth_Owen|983996494
5c5,8
< You can email me at this [[mailto:wiki@gwowen.freeserve.co.uk address]]
---
> You can email me at this [mailto:wiki@gwowen.freeserve.co.uk address]
> 
> ----
> This is fun.  How do you stop?
------
Gareth_Owen|983996514
3c3
< Such information as there is may be found at [[http://www.ma.man.ac.uk/~gowen/ my home page]]
---
> Such information as there is may be found at [http://www.ma.man.ac.uk/~gowen/ my home page]
8c8
< This is fun.  How do you stop?
---
> This is fun.  How do you stop?
------
Chordata|983996550
40a41,42
>      Class [[Myxini]]
>      Class [[Cephalaspidomorpha]]
------
Variance/Algorithm|983996582
13a14,16
> 
> :''Editorial comment: it is actually the first formula that has precision problems when dealing with limited-precision arithmetic.  If the difference between measurements and the mean is very small, then the first formula will yield precision problems, as information will be lost in the (x<sub>i</sub> - µ) operation.  There is no such loss of significance in the intermediate operations of the second formula. -- ScottMoonen''
> 
------
United_Kingdom|983996711
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]", the UK comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] and is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its capital [[London]] and a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]", the UK comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] and is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
------
SandBox|983996809
0a1,2
> Try it? a castle.
> ----
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|983996849
19c19
< 	Byrd, Robert (D - WV)
---
> 	[[Byrd, Robert]] (D - WV)
------
Byrd,_Robert|983996866
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Robert Byrd]]
------
Robert_Byrd|983996943
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Senator from [[West Virginia]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> Former [[Ku Klux Klan]] member.
------
Orson_Welles|983996962
1c1
< One of [[HollywooD]]s greatest directors. He also starred in many of his films and wrote the scripts. 
---
> One of [[Hollywood]]s greatest directors. He also starred in many of his films and wrote the scripts, frequently employing the talents of the Mercury Theatre company.  He is also reknowned for the scare created by his 1938 radio production of [[The War of The Worlds]]
11c11
< *[[The Third Man]]
---
> *[[The Third Man]]
------
Robert_Byrd|983996976
1c1
< Senator from [[West Virginia]] in the [[United States]].
---
> Democrat Senator from [[West Virginia]] in the [[United States]].
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|983997005
10c10
< For [[Halloween]] in (1938? 1939?), [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
---
> For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
------
What_is_a_wiki|983997685
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in!
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have fun!
------
What_is_a_wiki|983997716
5c5
< Maybe you want to know
---
> Perhaps you would like to know the answers to the following questions.
------
Chordata|983997848
34,36c34,36
<  Subphylum Copelata (Appendicularia)
<  Subphylum Cephalochordata
<      Class [[Larvacea]]
---
>      Class [[Appendicularia]] or [[Larvacea]]
>      Class [[Sorberacea]]
>  Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancets)
44,45d43
<      Class [[Placodermi]]
<      Class [[Acanthodii]]
------
TrigonometricFunctions|983997970
123c123,125
< TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in CalculuS, the LimiT, the ContinuiTy and DifferentiabiliTy of each these functions. 
---
> TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in [[Calculus]], the MathematicalLimit, the [[Continuity]] and [[Differentiability]] of each these functions. 
> ----
> Footnote:
124a127,130
> It is interesting to note that equivalent definitions (when the angle is measure in [[radian]]s) are given by
> * cos(x) = 1 - x^2/2! + x^4/4! - x^6/6! + ...
> * sin(x) = x - x^3/3! + x^5/5! - x^7/7! + ...
> (The equivalence of these definitions is related to theoryderivation of [[Taylor series]]).  These are often used as the starting point since the theory of such [[infinite series]] is well known.   The [[differentiability]] and [[continuity]] is then easily established, as is TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld.
------
Byrd,_Robert|983998002
1c1
< See [[Robert Byrd]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Robert Byrd]]
------
Differentiability|983998053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematics: The property of a having a [[derivative]].
------
Derivative|983998109
1c1
< The Derivative of a [[Function]] at a point is a measure of the  rate at which that function is changing as one of the [[Variable]]s changes.  This corresponds to the slope of the graph of the function at that point.
---
> The derivative of a [[Function]] at a point is a measure of the  rate at which that function is changing as one of the [[Variable]]s changes.  This corresponds to the slope of the graph of the function at that point.
5c5
< Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the [[Mathematical Limit]] of this ratio as dx tends to zero.
---
> Mathematically, we define the derivative, denoted f'(a), to be the [[Mathematical Limit]] of this ratio as dx tends to zero.  Functions which possess a derivative are said to be differentiable.
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|983998445
3,14c3
< *2001
< *2000 [[American Beauty]]
< *1999 [[Shakespeare in Love]]
< *1998 [[Titanic]]
< *1997 [[The English Patient]]
< *1996 [[Braveheart]]
< *1995 [[Forrest Gump]]
< *1994 [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]]
< *1993 [[Unforgiven]]
< *1992 [[Silence of the Lambs]]
< *1991 [[Dances with Wolves]]
< *1990 [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
---
> Credited for each film are its producers, prior to 1950 the production company
16c5,76
< etc.
---
> *1999 [[American Beauty]] - Bruce Cohen, Dan Jinks 
> *1998 [[Shakespeare in Love]] - David Parfitt, Donna Gigliotti, Harvey Weinstein, Edward Zwick, Marc Norman
> *1997 [[Titanic]] - James Cameron, Jon Landau 
> *1996 [[The English Patient]] - Saul Zaentz 
> *1995 [[Braveheart]] - Mel Gibson, Alan Ladd, Jr., Bruce Davey 
> *1994 [[Forrest Gump]] - Wendy Finerman, Steve Tisch, Steve Starkey 
> *1993 [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]] - Steven Spielberg, Gerald R. Molen, Branko Lustig 
> *1992 [[Unforgiven]] - Clint Eastwood
> *1991 [[The Silence of the Lambs]] - Edward Saxon, Kenneth Utt, Ron Bozman 
> *1990 [[Dances With Wolves]] - Jim Wilson, Kevin Costner
> *1989 [[Driving Miss Daisy]] - Richard D. Zanuck, Lili Fini Zanuck 
> *1988 [[Rain Man]] - Mark Johnson 
> *1987 [[The Last Emperor]] - Jeremy Thomas 
> *1986 [[Platoon]] - Arnold Kopelson 
> *1985 [[Out of Africa]] - Sydney Pollack 
> *1984 [[Amadeus]] - Saul Zaentz 
> *1983 [[Terms of Endearment]] - James L. Brooks 
> *1982 [[Gandhi]] - Richard Attenborough 
> *1981 [[Chariots of Fire]] - David Puttnam 
> *1980 [[Ordinary People]] - Ronald L. Schwary 
> *1979 [[Kramer Vs. Kramer]] - Stanley R. Jaffe 
> *1978 [[The Deer Hunter]] - Barry Spikings, Michael Deeley, Michael Cimino, John Peverall 
> *1977 [[Annie Hall]] - Charles H. Joffe 
> *1976 [[Rocky]] - Irwin Winkler, Robert Chartoff 
> *1975 [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]] - Saul Zaentz, Michael Douglas 
> *1974 [[The Godfather Part II]] - Francis Ford Coppola, Gray Frederickson, Fred Roos 
> *1973 [[The Sting]] - Tony Bill, Michael Phillips, Julia Phillips 
> *1972 [[The Godfather]] - Albert S. Ruddy 
> *1971 [[The French Connection]] - Philip D'Antoni 
> *1970 [[Patton]] - Frank McCarthy 
> *1969 [[Midnight Cowboy]] - Jerome Hellman 
> *1968 [[Oliver|Oliver!]] - John Woolf 
> *1967 [[In the Heat of the Night]] - Walter Mirisch 
> *1966 [[A Man For All Seasons]] - Fred Zinnemann 
> *1965 [[The Sound of Music]] - Robert Wise 
> *1964 [[My Fair Lady]] - Jack L. Warner 
> *1963 [[Tom Jones]] - Tony Richardson 
> *1962 [[Lawrence of Arabia]] - Sam Spiegel 
> *1961 [[West Side Story]] - Robert Wise 
> *1960 [[The Apartment]] - Billy Wilder 
> *1959 [[Ben-Hur]] - Sam Zimbalist 
> *1958 [[Gigi]] - Arthur Freed 
> *1957 [[The Bridge on the River Kwai]] - Sam Spiegel 
> *1956 [[Around the World in 80 Days]] - Michael Todd 
> *1955 [[Marty]] - Harold Hecht 
> *1954 [[On the Waterfront]] - Sam Spiegel 
> *1953 [[From Here to Eternity]] - Buddy Adler 
> *1952 [[The Greatest Show on Earth]] - Cecil B. DeMille 
> *1951 [[An American in Paris]] - Arthur Freed 
> *1950 [[All About Eve]] - 20th Century-Fox 
> *1949 [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]] - Robert Rossen Productions 
> *1948 [[Hamlet]] - J. Arthur Rank-Two Cities Films 
> *1947 [[Gentlemans Agreement|Gentleman's Agreement]] - 20th Century-Fox 
> *1946 [[Best Years of Our Lives]] - 20th Century-Fox 
> *1945 [[The Lost Weekend]] - Paramount 
> *1944 [[Going My Way]] - Paramount 
> *1943 [[Casablanca]] - Warner Bros.
> *1942 [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]] - Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
> *1941 [[How Green Was My Valley]] - 20th Century-Fox 
> *1940 [[Rebecca]] - Selznick International Pictures 
> *1939 [[Gone With the Wind]] - Selznick International Pictures 
> *1938 [[You Cant Take it With You|You Can't Take it With You]] - Columbia 
> *1937 [[The Life of Emile Zola]] - Warner Bros. 
> *1936 [[The Great Ziegfeld]] - Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
> *1935 [[Mutiny on the Bounty]] - Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
> *1934 [[It Happened one Night]] - Columbia 
> *1933 [[Cavalcade]] - Fox 
> *1932 [[Grand Hotel]] - Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
> *1931 [[Cimarron]] - RKO Radio 
> *1930 [[All Quiet on the Western Front]] - Universal 
> *1929 [[The Broadway Melody]] - Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 
> *1928 [[Wings]] - Paramount Famous Lasky 
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983998474
54a55,60
> ----
> In fact, Hume is famous for his view that existence is ''not'' a property and is therefore not definable.  Careful not to confuse ''evidence for'' existence with whatever it is that ''constitutes'' a thing's existence.
> 
> I also think you're ignoring my main point, that this article should not be a collection of random opinions about the topic, but a clarification of the main lines of thought that can be found in the philosophical tradition.  I don't see your point in the philosophical tradition.
> 
> I respect your ability and intelligence, but the issue I'm raising here isn't at all a commentary on that, of course! --LS
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|983998590
35,38d34
< A further argument for the definability of existence could be seen as an extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception. That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists. Well, what makes a thing perceptible? The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected. This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created. When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others. Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.  Absent the existence of the apple, no effects would be created.  That effects are created by it, and that one may affect it (say, cut up and eat it) argue for its existence.
< 
< The empiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" Even the destructability of a thing, he argued, tended to prove its prior existence.  He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
< 
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|983999037
60c60,76
< I respect your ability and intelligence, but the issue I'm raising here isn't at all a commentary on that, of course! --LS
---
> I respect your ability and intelligence, but the issue I'm raising here isn't at all a commentary on that, of course!
> 
> I've removed your paragraphs.  I would be very annoyed if anyone did this to me, so let me explain.
> 
> :A further argument for the definability of existence could be seen as an extension of the PhilosophyOfPerception.
> 
> I probably didn't make the point clearly enough last time: the philosophy of perception is a philosophical subdiscipline about which there are many conflicting views (of course).  So it doesn't make much sense to say that any controversial thesis is "an extension of" a philosophical subdiscipline.
> 
> > That is, if it can be perceived with the physical senses, then it exists. Well, what makes a thing perceptible? The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected. This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created. When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others. Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.  Absent the existence of the apple, no effects would be created.  That effects are created by it, and that one may affect it (say, cut up and eat it) argue for its existence.
> 
> There's a good reason why (to my knowledge) no one, including Hume (whom I've studied in great depth; I'm a member of the Hume Society), has advocated your view: you're giving a ''criterion'' for the existence of something.  As a criterion, you have something very much like the verifiability criterion of meaning popularized by logical empiricists such as Carnap and Ayer and also by Popper.  In other words, you're giving a way to argue that something exists; you're not stating that wherein the existence of something lies.
> 
> (It would be helpful for someone to write an article, [[Definition/Definitions versus criteria]].
> 
> : The empiricist [[David Hume]] was strong in his advocacy of the reliance on perception and experience as a door to the discernment of truth.  But he did not leave it there.  In ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' he examined reasons to believe or disbelieve that existence is humanly definable and concluded: "The existence, therefore, of any being can only be proved by arguments from its cause or its effect" Even the destructability of a thing, he argued, tended to prove its prior existence.  He held that the ultimate reason that people were able to argue for the existence of things based on their perception and experience was because of the relationship of Cause and Effect.
> 
> This is true, but it's not a definition of 'exists'.  In fact, Hume argued that existence could not be defined; he famously challenged anyone to identify the ''unique'' idea whereby we get the idea of existence.  He concluded that the idea of a thing and the idea of a thing existing were one and the same.  (I disagree with him, I guess, but that's what he said.)
------
Chordata|983999352
35,36c35,36
<      Class [[Sorberacea]]
<  Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancets)
---
>  Subphylum Cephalochordata
>      Class [[Cephalochordata]] or [[Acraniata]] or [[Leptocardia]] (Lancets)
43a44
>      Class [[Placodermi]] (an extinct fish)
------
Laissez-faire_capitalism|983999501
1,3c1
< The doctrine that the free market functions to the greatest good when left unfettered and unregulated by government.
< 
< Some, such as [[Ayn Rand]] may give slightly different, and frequently nebulous, definitions based on notions of justice and human nature.
---
> ''Laissez-faire capitalism'' is, roughly stated, the doctrine that the free market functions to the greatest good when left unfettered and unregulated by government.  Some, such as [[Ayn Rand]], give different definitions based on notions of justice and human nature.
------
Prokaryotae|983999613
12a13,20
>        Phylum [[Anaerobic Phototrophic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Cyanobacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Chloroxybacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Nitrogen-fixing Aerobic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Pseudomonads]]
>        Phylum [[Omnibacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Chemoautotrophic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Myxobacteria]]
------
Complex_numbers|983999622
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Complex numbers are a natural extension of the [[real numbers]].  Firstly, we define the [[imaginary number]] i to be a root of the equation x<sup>2</sup>+1=0.  We may then form complex numbers by using the form a + i b, where a and b are real numbers.
> 
> Formally we may also define complex numbers as an ordered pair of real numbers (a,b) along with the operations:
> * (a,b) + (c,d) = (a+c,b+d)
> * (a,b) * (c,d) = (ac - bd, bc + ad)
> So defined, the complex numbers form a [[FielD]].
> 
> A most striking result is that all [[polynomial]]s of degree "n" have exactly "n" complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity).  This is known as the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]].
> 
> The study of functions of complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has an enormous practical use in [[applied mathematics]].
> 
> See also: [[Quaternions]]
------
Complex_numbers|983999650
10c10
< The study of functions of complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has an enormous practical use in [[applied mathematics]].
---
> The study of functions of complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has an enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics]].
------
United_States_Constitution/Amendment_Sixteen|983999664
1,4c1
< The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
< 
< NOTE: The Sixteenth Admendment gave the federal government
< the righ to create an income tax.
---
> The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.
------
Gareth_Owen|983999715
8a9,10
> ----
> You don't--you can't!  Bwa-ha-ha-ha-haaaa!
------
Orson_Welles|983999770
1c1
< One of [[Hollywood]]s greatest directors. He also starred in many of his films and wrote the scripts, frequently employing the talents of the Mercury Theatre company.  He is also reknowned for the scare created by his 1938 radio production of [[The War of The Worlds]]
---
> One of [[Hollywood]]s greatest directors. He also starred in many of his films and wrote the scripts, frequently employing the talents of the Mercury Theatre company.  He is also reknowned for the scare created by his 1938 radio production of [[The War of the Worlds]]
------
Protista|983999883
19c19,35
<  (17 more)
---
>  Phylum [[Bacillariophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Phaeophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Rhodophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Gamophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Chlorophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Actinopoda]]
>  Phylum [[Foraminifera]]
>  Phylum [[Ciliophora]]
>  Phylum [[Apicomplexa]]
>  Phylum [[Cnidosporidia]]
>  Phylum [[Labyrinthulomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Acrasiomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Myxomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Plasmodiophoromycota]]
>  Phylum [[Hyphochytridiomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Chytridiomycota]]
>  Phylum [[Oomycota]]
------
Animal_Farm|984000005
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals hemselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life become harder and harder for teh animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
> 
> Generally regarded as a [[satire]] on the [[Soviet Union]]
------
Animal_Farm|984000050
1c1
< A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals hemselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life become harder and harder for teh animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
---
> A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals hemselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
------
Popular_Music|984000079
8a9,21
> 
> Other individual artists who have or deserve entries:
> *[[NirvanaBand]]
> 
> Subcategories with or deserving of entries:
> *[[Grunge Music]]
> *[[Rock Music]]
> *[[Heavy Metal Music]]
> *[[Psychedelia]]
> *[[Soul Music]]
> *[[Funk Music]]
> 
> well, you get the idea...
------
Sirenia|984000104
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Sirenia]]
> 
> Contains Families :
> 
>  Family [[Dugongidae]]
>  Family [[Trichechidae]]
------
Russian|984000139
1c1,3
< A person, object, or concept being from Russia.
---
> Russians are citizen of [[Russia]].  Insofar as there is a Russian [[national character]]--that is, the following is of course by no means a scientific description with no exceptions--Russians are characterized by warmth, sincerity, high intelligence, pride, and poor self-esteem.  Authors such as [[Tolstoy]] and [[Dostoyevsky]] have made the Russian national character highly recognizable.
> 
> ''Russian'' is also an adjective meaning "of or concerning Russia"; e.g., Russian music, Russian cuisine, Russian studies.
------
SI|984000193
1c1
< System International
---
> [[System International]]; also, ''[[Sports Illustrated]].''
------
Russian|984000252
1c1
< Russians are citizen of [[Russia]].  Insofar as there is a Russian [[national character]]--that is, the following is of course by no means a scientific description with no exceptions--Russians are characterized by warmth, sincerity, high intelligence, pride, and poor self-esteem.  Authors such as [[Tolstoy]] and [[Dostoyevsky]] have made the Russian national character highly recognizable.
---
> Russians are citizen of [[Russia]]; another sense of the term is less inclusive and is restricted to ethnic Russians living anywhere.  Insofar as there is a Russian [[national character]]--that is, the following is of course by no means a scientific description with no exceptions--Russians are characterized by warmth, sincerity, high intelligence, pride, and poor self-esteem.  Authors such as [[Tolstoy]] and [[Dostoyevsky]] have made the Russian national character highly recognizable.
3c3
< ''Russian'' is also an adjective meaning "of or concerning Russia"; e.g., Russian music, Russian cuisine, Russian studies.
---
> ''Russian'' is also an adjective meaning "of or concerning Russia"; e.g., Russian music, Russian cuisine, Russian studies.
------
Sirenia|984000291
5,6c5,6
<  Family [[Dugongidae]]
<  Family [[Trichechidae]]
---
>  Family [[Dugongidae]] (dugongs and sea cows)
>  Family [[Trichechidae]] (manatees)
------
Science_Fiction_Film|984000327
5c5
< [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[Things to Come]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
ColdWar|984000378
1c1
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between NATO and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western GermanY) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA (UnitedStates), MI6 (GreatBritain), BND (WestGermany), STASI (EastGermany) and the KGB (USSR).
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between NATO and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA ([[United States]]), MI6 ([[Great Britain]]), BND ([[West Germany]]), STASI ([[East Germany]]) and the KGB (USSR).
------
HomePage|984000456
19c19
< You're wondering
---
> You're wondering:
22c22
< * [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]?
---
> * [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia|How is Wikipedia related to Nupedia]]?
37,38c37
< 
< If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
------
Reptilia|984000792
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Reptilia]]
> 
> Contains Orders :
> 
>  Order [[Testudines]] (turtles)
>  Order [[Rhynchocephalia]]
>  Order [[Squamata]] (lizards and snakes)
>  Order [[Crocodilia]] (crocodiles and alligators)
>  Order [[Sphenodonta]] (tuataras from New Zealand)
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|984000890
2a3,10
> '''March 7, 2001'''
> 
> We've broken 2,000 articles!  As of this writing, we have 2,144 individual pages.  This enormous jump in production is due to the massive influx of people from the Slashdot.org mention of Wikipedia--contrary to fears, people who seem to understand what's going on here very well and are (it seems) rapidly getting addicted.  :-)
> 
> As impressive as the 2,000 mark sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,323.  Still very impressive.
> 
> [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] and no doubt some others think Wikipedia's going to be huge.
> 
65,97c73
< '''January 31, 2001'''
< 
< I am adding a page called NobelPrize, where we can list all the winners by category, and eventually fill in with short biographies.
< 
< We're up to 617 pages.  Very many of these have substantial and what appears to be reliable information.  I predict 1,000 by February 15.  [[Wikipedia]] is growing steadily in breadth and depth.
< 
< '''January 27, 2001'''
< 
< Some interesting activity has been happening on WikipediaL lately.  RequestedArticles page added.
< 
< '''January 26, 2001'''
< 
< Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, WhichWikiShouldWeUse, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
< 
< '''January 25, 2001'''
< 
< Since this wiki first started, January 10, 2001, we have made 270 pages!  Wow!
< 
< PootPoot.
< 
< '''January 24, 2001'''
< 
< [[Wikipedia]] has definitely taken a life of its own; new people are arriving every day and the project seems to be getting only more popular.  Long live [[Wikipedia]]!
< 
< '''January 22, 2001'''
< 
< GNU people are using [[Wikipedia]] to discuss their stuff, which is very cool.  Go to GNUStufF to partake.
< 
< '''January 21, 2001'''
< 
< Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
< 
< ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
---
> /January2001
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements/January2001|984000944
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''January 31, 2001'''
> 
> I am adding a page called NobelPrize, where we can list all the winners by category, and eventually fill in with short biographies.
> 
> We're up to 617 pages.  Very many of these have substantial and what appears to be reliable information.  I predict 1,000 by February 15.  [[Wikipedia]] is growing steadily in breadth and depth.
> 
> '''January 27, 2001'''
> 
> Some interesting activity has been happening on WikipediaL lately.  RequestedArticles page added.
> 
> '''January 26, 2001'''
> 
> Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, WhichWikiShouldWeUse, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
> 
> '''January 25, 2001'''
> 
> Since this wiki first started, January 10, 2001, we have made 270 pages!  Wow!
> 
> PootPoot.
> 
> '''January 24, 2001'''
> 
> [[Wikipedia]] has definitely taken a life of its own; new people are arriving every day and the project seems to be getting only more popular.  Long live [[Wikipedia]]!
> 
> '''January 22, 2001'''
> 
> GNU people are using [[Wikipedia]] to discuss their stuff, which is very cool.  Go to GNUStufF to partake.
> 
> '''January 21, 2001'''
> 
> Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
> 
> ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|984000997
25,73c25,26
< '''February 28, 2001'''
< 
< [[Jimbo Wales]] is being interviewed by Slashdot, and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  He mentioned Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.  If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
< 
< Notice, we've added a little something to the top of the page: "Get involved! Wikipedia is a free community project!"  And also another "Edit text of this page" link, now at the top of the page.  We're hoping to make it clear to visitors unfamiliar with the wiki concept (which is most of them) that this is a community-edited project.
< 
< '''February 19, 2001'''
< 
< We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.  This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
< 
< Also -- Google has found us!  Only a few hits so far..
< 
< '''February 12, 2001'''
< 
< I think we are over 1000 pages now.  If we create 1000 pages a month, we will be able to hit 100,000 pages in only 8 years.  However, I think that as we grow, we will attract more people to work on the pages, and we'll end up growing faster and faster.
< 
< So far, the search engines have not found us. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ''' February 8, 2001'''
< 
< We're up to 900 pages as of this morning!
< 
< There are whispers that the newest version of the software that runs [[Wikipedia]] will soon arrive.  This means no longer will we have to indicate links LikeThis.
< 
< Bomis.com has put up a link to Wikipedia, Nupedia.com has taken theirs down (from the main page) but put up a new one in [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/member.phtml the member area] which supplements the one already on [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml the about page].
< 
< ''' February 6, 2001'''
< 
< Inspired by [[Wikipedia]], I started an similar project for my local Esperanto group.  It uses real html.
< 
< If you are interested in or if you have any suggestions, just give me a hint! -- norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
< 
< ''Please post the address of your wiki, please!''
< 
< ''' February 5, 2001'''
< 
< TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
< 
< We've added some RulesToConsider for you to consider, sign, modify, and add to.  But those of you who don't like rules can go about your business.  Ain't wiki great?  :-)
< 
< '''February 1, 2001'''
< 
< TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
< 
< I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. 
< 
< I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< /January2001
---
> /February2001
> <br>/January2001
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984001038
105c105
< There are two ways to display, rather than parse, wiki code:
---
> There are three ways to display, rather than parse, wiki code:
106a107
> #<nowiki>you can use the <pre> tag</nowiki>
108,109c109,110
< (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)----
< '''Q.'''What about <pre>  <pre>?  </pre>----
---
> (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)  The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.
> ----
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements/February2001|984001053
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> '''February 28, 2001'''
> 
> [[Jimbo Wales]] is being interviewed by Slashdot, and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  He mentioned Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.  If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
> 
> Notice, we've added a little something to the top of the page: "Get involved! Wikipedia is a free community project!"  And also another "Edit text of this page" link, now at the top of the page.  We're hoping to make it clear to visitors unfamiliar with the wiki concept (which is most of them) that this is a community-edited project.
> 
> '''February 19, 2001'''
> 
> We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.  This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
> 
> Also -- Google has found us!  Only a few hits so far..
> 
> '''February 12, 2001'''
> 
> I think we are over 1000 pages now.  If we create 1000 pages a month, we will be able to hit 100,000 pages in only 8 years.  However, I think that as we grow, we will attract more people to work on the pages, and we'll end up growing faster and faster.
> 
> So far, the search engines have not found us. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ''' February 8, 2001'''
> 
> We're up to 900 pages as of this morning!
> 
> There are whispers that the newest version of the software that runs [[Wikipedia]] will soon arrive.  This means no longer will we have to indicate links LikeThis.
> 
> Bomis.com has put up a link to Wikipedia, Nupedia.com has taken theirs down (from the main page) but put up a new one in [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/member.phtml the member area] which supplements the one already on [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml the about page].
> 
> ''' February 6, 2001'''
> 
> Inspired by [[Wikipedia]], I started an similar project for my local Esperanto group.  It uses real html.
> 
> If you are interested in or if you have any suggestions, just give me a hint! -- norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
> 
> ''Please post the address of your wiki, please!''
> 
> ''' February 5, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
> 
> We've added some RulesToConsider for you to consider, sign, modify, and add to.  But those of you who don't like rules can go about your business.  Ain't wiki great?  :-)
> 
> '''February 1, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
> 
> I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. 
> 
> I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|984001080
25c25,26
< /February2001
---
> '''News archive'''
> <br>/February2001
------
Amphibia|984001183
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Amphibia]]
> 
> Contains Orders :
> 
>  Order [[Caudata]] or [[Urodela]] (salamanders)
>  Order [[Salientia]] or [[Anura]] (frogs & toads) 
>  Order [[Gymnophiona]] or [[Apoda]] (caecilians)
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984001539
107c107
< #<nowiki>you can use the <pre> tag</nowiki>
---
> #<pre>you can use the <pre> tag</pre>
109,110c109,110
< (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)  The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.
< ----
---
> The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag...?  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
> 
------
RecentChanges|984001611
1,3c1
< It strikes me now that the Slashdot influx has been just about perfect!  We have a lot of new faces
< here, and from the looks of the articles being produced, we picked up some really smart people
< who are writing great stuff.  Sweeeet.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> It strikes me now that the Slashdot influx has been just about perfect!  We have a lot of new faces here, and from the looks of the articles being produced, we picked up some really smart people who are writing great stuff.  Sweeeet.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
5c3
< See WikiPediaFaq for frequently-asked questions.
---
> See [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984001795
11c11,12
< During the 2000 presidential campaign, he was attacked by environmentalists for owning (indirectly through his father's estate) several thousand shares of Occidental Petroleum Corporation.  Occidental Petroleum angered environmentalists by trying to open a new oil/gas drilling field in [[Colombia]].
---
> /Accolades
> <br>/Criticisms
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore/Criticisms|984001848
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the 2000 presidential campaign, he was attacked by environmentalists for owning (indirectly through his father's estate) several thousand shares of Occidental Petroleum Corporation.  Occidental Petroleum angered environmentalists by trying to open a new oil/gas drilling field in [[Colombia]].
------
Aves|984001948
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Aves]]
> 
> Contains Orders :
> 
>  Order [[Passeriformes]] (songbirds, or passerines and perching birds)
>  Order [[Podicipediformes]] (grebes)
>  Order [[Struthioniformes]] (ostriches)
>  Order [[Rheiformes]] (rheas)
>  Order [[Casuariiformes]] (sassowary and emu)
>  Order [[Apterygiformes]] (kiwis)
>  Order [[Tinamiformes]] tTinamous)
>  Order [[Galliformes]] (domestic fowl and game birds)
>  Order [[Anseriformes]] (waterfowls)
>  Order [[Gruiformes]] (cranes)
>  Order [[Piciformes]] (woodpeckers and toucans)
>  Order [[Coraciiformes]] (kingfishers, rollers andhornbills)
>  Order [[Trogoniformes]] (trogons)
>  Order [[Coliiformes]] (mousebirds)
>  Order [[Cuculiformes]] (cuckoos)
>  Order [[Psittaciformes] (parrots, cockatoos and lories)
>  Order [[Apodiformes]] (swifts and hummingbirds)
>  Order [[Strigiformes]] (owls)
>  Order [[Caprimulgiformes]] (nightjars, nighthawks and frogmouths)
>  Order [[Columbiformes]] (doves and pigeons)
>  Order [[Charadriiformes]] (gulls)
>  Order [[Falconiformes]] (birds of prey)
>  Order [[Pelecaniformes]] (pelicans, gannets and cormorants)
>  Order [[Ciconiiformes]] (herons, storks and egrets)
>  Order [[Sphenisiformes]] (penguins)
>  Order [[Gaviiformes]] (divers)
>  Order [[Procellariiformes]] (shearwaters, petrels and albatrosses)
------
World_War_I|984001968
6,11c6,12
< *[[Frederic Manning]]: "Her Privates We" 
< *[[Erich Maria Remarque]]: "All Quiet on the Western Front"
< *[[Richard Aldington]]: "Death of a Hero"
< *[[Robert Grave]]: "Goodbye to All That"
< *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: "A Farewell to Arms"
< *[[Dalton Trumbo]]: "Johnny Got His Gun"
---
> *[[Erich Maria Remarque]]: ''All Quiet on the Western Front''
> *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: ''A Farewell to Arms''
> *[[Mark Helprin]]: ''A Soldier of the Great War''
> *[[Robert Grave]]: ''Goodbye to All That''
> *[[Frederic Manning]]: ''Her Privates We''
> *[[Dalton Trumbo]]: ''Johnny Got His Gun''
> *[[Richard Aldington]]: ''Death of a Hero''
------
ColdWar|984001999
1c1
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between NATO and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA ([[United States]]), MI6 ([[Great Britain]]), BND ([[West Germany]]), STASI ([[East Germany]]) and the KGB (USSR).
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA ([[United States]]), MI6 ([[Great Britain]]), BND ([[West Germany]]), STASI ([[East Germany]]) and the KGB (USSR).
------
ColdWar|984002080
1c1
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the KoreanWar, VietnamWar and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the CIA ([[United States]]), MI6 ([[Great Britain]]), BND ([[West Germany]]), STASI ([[East Germany]]) and the KGB (USSR).
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the [[CIA]] ([[United States]]), [[MI6]] ([[Great Britain]]), [[BND]] ([[West Germany]]), [[STASI]] ([[East Germany]]) and the [[KGB]] ([[USSR]]).
------
James_Bond|984002158
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sophisticated secred agent spy character appearing in [[Ian Flemming]]'s books and in numerous movies.
------
ColdWar|984002193
2c2
< The ColdWar also inspired a lot of movie-companies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional (JamesBond) some less.
---
> The ColdWar also inspired a lot of movie-companies and writers, resulting in an enormous amount of books and movies which tell about the cold war, some more fictional ([[James Bond]]) some less.
------
ColdWar|984002239
1c1
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the WarsawPact). Except for the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the [[CIA]] ([[United States]]), [[MI6]] ([[Great Britain]]), [[BND]] ([[West Germany]]), [[STASI]] ([[East Germany]]) and the [[KGB]] ([[USSR]]).
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the [[Warsaw Pact]]). Except for the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the [[CIA]] ([[United States]]), [[MI6]] ([[Great Britain]]), [[BND]] ([[West Germany]]), [[STASI]] ([[East Germany]]) and the [[KGB]] ([[USSR]]).
------
Carnivora|984002286
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Carnivora]]
> 
> Contains families :
> 
>  Family [[Canidae]] (dogs)
>  Family [[Felidae]] (cats)
>  Family [[Ursidae]] (bears)
>  Family [[Otariidae]] (seals)
>  Family [[Odobenidae]] (walrus)
>  Family [[Procyonidae]] (raccoons)
>  Family [[Mustelidae]] (weasels, ferrets, badgers, skunks and otters)
>  Family [[Phocidae]] (earless seals)
>  Family [[Viverridae]] (civets, fossas, genets and binturongs)
>  Family [[Hyaenidae]] (yyenas and aardwolf)
------
Colombia|984002509
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spanish speaking country in [[South America]].
> 
> [[Bogota]] is its capital city.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984002561
12c12,15
< <br>/Criticisms
---
> <br>/Criticisms
> ----
> 
> Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on Al Gore, shouldn't this page be at [[Al Gore]], with a redirect here, and not the other way around?
------
RecentChanges|984002603
3c3
< See [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
---
> See [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
------
South_America|984002680
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A continent consiting of the countries:
> 
> * [[Argentina]]
> * [[Brasil]]
> * [[Chile]]
> * [[Colombia]]
> * [[Peru]]
> 
------
Mustelidae|984002690
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[]], Family [[Mustelidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Subfamily Lutrinae
>    Genus Amblonyx
>    Genus Aonyx
>    Genus Enhydra
>    Genus Lontra
>    Genus Lutra
>    Genus Lutrogale
>    Genus Pteronura
>  Subfamily Melinae
>    Genus Arctonyx
>    Genus Meles
>    Genus Melogale
>    Genus Mydaus
>  Subfamily Mellivorinae
>    Genus Mellivora
>  Subfamily Mephitinae
>    Genus Conepatus
>    Genus Mephitis
>    Genus Spilogale
>    Genus Eira
>    Genus Galictis
>    Galictis cuja
>    Galictis vittata
>    Genus Gulo
>    Genus Ictonyx
>    Genus Lyncodon
>    Genus Martes
>    Genus Mustela
>    Genus Poecilogale
>    Genus Vormela
>  Subfamily Taxidiinae
>    GenusTaxidea
>  Subfamily Odobenidae
>    Genus Odobenus
>  Subfamily Otariidae
>    Genus Arctocephalus
>    Genus Callorhinus
>    Genus Eumetopias
>    Genus Neophoca
>    Genus Otaria
>    Genus Phocarctos
>    Genus Zalophus
>  Subfamily Phocidae
>    Genus Cystophora
>    Genus Erignathus
>    Genus Halichoerus
>    Genus Hydrurga
>    Genus Leptonychotes
>    Genus Lobodon
>    Genus Mirounga
>    Genus Monachus
>    Genus Ommatophoca
>    Genus Phoca
------
South_America|984002704
4c4
< * [[Brasil]]
---
> * [[Brazil]]
------
Al_Gore|984002847
1c1
< see [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
------
Mustelidae|984002864
1c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[]], Family [[Mustelidae]]
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Carnivora]], Family [[Mustelidae]]
6,12c6,12
<    Genus Amblonyx
<    Genus Aonyx
<    Genus Enhydra
<    Genus Lontra
<    Genus Lutra
<    Genus Lutrogale
<    Genus Pteronura
---
>    Genus [[Amblonyx]]
>    Genus [[Aonyx]]
>    Genus [[Enhydra]]
>    Genus [[Lontra]]
>    Genus [[Lutra]]
>    Genus [[Lutrogale]]
>    Genus [[Pteronura]]
14,17c14,17
<    Genus Arctonyx
<    Genus Meles
<    Genus Melogale
<    Genus Mydaus
---
>    Genus [[Arctonyx]]
>    Genus [[Meles]]
>    Genus [[Melogale]]
>    Genus [[Mydaus]]
19c19
<    Genus Mellivora
---
>    Genus [[Mellivora]]
21,34c21,32
<    Genus Conepatus
<    Genus Mephitis
<    Genus Spilogale
<    Genus Eira
<    Genus Galictis
<    Galictis cuja
<    Galictis vittata
<    Genus Gulo
<    Genus Ictonyx
<    Genus Lyncodon
<    Genus Martes
<    Genus Mustela
<    Genus Poecilogale
<    Genus Vormela
---
>    Genus [[Conepatus]]
>    Genus [[Mephitis]]
>    Genus [[Spilogale]]
>    Genus [[Eira]]
>    Genus [[Galictis]]
>    Genus [[Gulo]]
>    Genus [[Ictonyx]]
>    Genus [[Lyncodon]]
>    Genus [[Martes]]
>    Genus [[Mustela]]
>    Genus [[Poecilogale]]
>    Genus [[Vormela]]
36c34
<    GenusTaxidea
---
>    Genus [[Taxidea]]
38c36
<    Genus Odobenus
---
>    Genus [[Odobenus]]
40,46c38,44
<    Genus Arctocephalus
<    Genus Callorhinus
<    Genus Eumetopias
<    Genus Neophoca
<    Genus Otaria
<    Genus Phocarctos
<    Genus Zalophus
---
>    Genus [[Arctocephalus]]
>    Genus [[Callorhinus]]
>    Genus [[Eumetopias]]
>    Genus [[Neophoca]]
>    Genus [[Otaria]]
>    Genus [[Phocarctos]]
>    Genus [[Zalophus]]
48,57c46,55
<    Genus Cystophora
<    Genus Erignathus
<    Genus Halichoerus
<    Genus Hydrurga
<    Genus Leptonychotes
<    Genus Lobodon
<    Genus Mirounga
<    Genus Monachus
<    Genus Ommatophoca
<    Genus Phoca
---
>    Genus [[Cystophora]]
>    Genus [[Erignathus]]
>    Genus [[Halichoerus]]
>    Genus [[Hydrurga]]
>    Genus [[Leptonychotes]]
>    Genus [[Lobodon]]
>    Genus [[Mirounga]]
>    Genus [[Monachus]]
>    Genus [[Ommatophoca]]
>    Genus [[Phoca]]
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984002868
13,15d12
< ----
< 
< Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on Al Gore, shouldn't this page be at [[Al Gore]], with a redirect here, and not the other way around?
------
BillClinton|984002911
1c1
< see [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
------
Nupedia|984003608
1c1
< [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is an online encyclopedia located at Nupedia.com.  It is (we hope) soon to become the greatest [[encyclopedia]] in [[history]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[open content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and will be, in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is an online encyclopedia located at Nupedia.com.  It is (we hope) soon to become the greatest [[encyclopedia]] in [[history]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[Open Content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and will be, in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
Alaska|984003619
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
> 
> On the other hand, it's cold, like RussiA.
> 
> Largest state in the United States in terms of land area.
> 
> Purchased from Russia for $5,000,000? in 18??.
------
AlaskA|984003675
1,7c1
< Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
< 
< On the other hand, it's cold, like RussiA.
< 
< Largest state in the United States in terms of land area.
< 
< Purchased from Russia for $5,000,000? in 18??.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Alaska]]
------
AnchorageAlaska|984003764
1c1
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of AlaskA, composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
3c3
< Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in AlaskA.  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
---
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in [[Alaska]].  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
5c5
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see AlaskA/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in AlaskA generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see AlaskA/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
7c7
< Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in Alaska generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of AlaskA.)
---
> Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].)
------
Australia|984003810
6a7,10
> [[Great Britain]] originally used as a prison colony.
> 
> Australia's economy is largely based on natural resources.
> 
------
AnchorageAlaska|984003848
5c5
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see AlaskA/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see Alaska/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
------
Alaska|984003894
1c1
< Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just BLM land or National Forest land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the lower 48.  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
---
> Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
------
AnchorageAlaska|984003925
5c5
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see Alaska/TheBush--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see [[Alaska/TheBush]]--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
------
BLM|984003928
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bureau of Land Management - an agency of the [[United States]] federal government.
------
Lower_48|984003983
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> refers to the 48 contiguous states that make up the [[United States]].  [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] are not included in the lower 48 states.
------
Alaska|984004010
3c3
< On the other hand, it's cold, like RussiA.
---
> On the other hand, it's cold, like [[Russia]].
------
Games|984004269
25a26,27
> * Scrabble
> * UpWords
------
TheStates|984004288
4,11c4,11
< * AlabamA
< * AlaskA
< * ArizonA
< * ArkansaS
< 
< * CaliforniA
< * ColoradO
< * ConnecticuT
---
> * Alabama
> * Alaska
> * Arizona
> * Arkansas
> 
> * California
> * Colorado
> * Connecticut
15c15
< * FloridA
---
> * Florida
17c17
< * HawaiI
---
> * Hawaii
19,22c19,22
< * IdahO
< * IllinoiS
< * IndianA
< * IowA
---
> * Idaho
> * Illinois
> * Indiana
> * Iowa
24,25c24,25
< * KansaS
< * KentuckY
---
> * Kansas
> * Kentucky
27c27
< * LouisianA
---
> * Louisiana
29c29
< * MainE
---
> * Maine
31c31
< * MassachusettS
---
> * Massachusetts
33c33
< * MinnesotA
---
> * Minnesota
35,36c35,36
< * MissourI
< * MontanA
---
> * Missouri
> * Montana
38,39c38,39
< * NebraskA
< * NevadA
---
> * Nebraska
> * Nevada
41,45c41,45
< * NewJersey
< * NewMexico
< * NewYork
< * NorthCarolina
< * NorthDakota
---
> * [[New Jersey]]
> * [[New Mexico]]
> * [[New York]]
> * [[North Carolina]]
> * [[North Dakota]]
47,48c47,48
< * OhiO
< * OklahomA
---
> * Ohio
> * Oklahoma
51c51
< * PennsylvaniA
---
> * Pennsylvania
72c72
< This could be usefully rendered in [[how does one edit a page|table form]].
---
> This could be usefully rendered in [[how does one edit a page|table form]].
------
Chess|984004351
23a24,25
> Also of note: In 199?, a computer defeated the world champion ? for the first time ever.
> 
------
DelawarE|984004366
1c1
< A state made famous by the movie WaynesWorld.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Delaware]]
------
Delaware|984004378
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state made famous by the movie WaynesWorld.
------
MarylanD|984004421
1,3c1
< A state in the east of the UnitedStates.
< 
< Famous for its cookies MarylandCookies.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Maryland]]
------
Maryland|984004434
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the east of the UnitedStates.
> 
> Famous for its cookies MarylandCookies.
------
Chess|984004441
9c9
< * optional watch
---
> * optional watch - each player has a seperate timer during tournament play
------
MichigaN|984004475
1,5c1
<     Capital: Lansing
<     Largest City: Detroit
<     Michigan Resident Population (2000 Census): 9,938,444
< 
< Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of '''Roger and Me''' -- [[Dick Beldin]], born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Michigan]]
------
Michigan|984004485
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
>     Capital: Lansing
>     Largest City: Detroit
>     Michigan Resident Population (2000 Census): 9,938,444
> 
> Michigan is known as the birthplace (and deathplace, rent the videotape of '''Roger and Me''' -- [[Dick Beldin]], born and raised in Flint) of the automotive industry.  However, it also has a large tourist industry.  Destinations like Traverse City, Mackinac Island, and the entire upper peninsula draw sportsmen and nature lovers from all over the U.S. and Canada.
------
Games|984004523
4a5
> * [[Hearts]]
7a9
> * [[Spades]]
------
OpenContent|984004544
1c1
< OpenContent is a description for any kind of content (ie articles, pictures, audio, video, whatever) that is published under a non-restrictive license that explicitly allows the copying of the information. (Examples are the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, which is used by NuPedia.) But OpenContent also describes content that can be modified by anyone. (Of course not without prior review by other participating parties - but there is no closed group like a commercial encyclopedia publisher which is responsible for all the editing.)
---
> ''Open content'' is a description for any kind of content (ie articles, pictures, audio, video, whatever) that is published under a non-restrictive license that explicitly allows the copying of the information.  (Examples are the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, which is used by [[Nupedia]].)  But "open content" also describes content that can be modified by anyone.  (Of course not without prior review by other participating parties--but there is no closed group like a commercial encyclopedia publisher which is responsible for all the editing.)
------
TheStates|984004589
13c13
< * DelawarE
---
> * Delaware
30c30
< * MarylanD
---
> * Maryland
32c32
< * MichigaN
---
> * Michigan
------
OpenContent|984004620
1c1
< ''Open content'' is a description for any kind of content (ie articles, pictures, audio, video, whatever) that is published under a non-restrictive license that explicitly allows the copying of the information.  (Examples are the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, which is used by [[Nupedia]].)  But "open content" also describes content that can be modified by anyone.  (Of course not without prior review by other participating parties--but there is no closed group like a commercial encyclopedia publisher which is responsible for all the editing.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Open content]]
------
Open_content|984004666
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Open content'' is a description for any kind of content (i.e., articles, pictures, audio, video, whatever) that is published under a non-restrictive license that explicitly allows the copying of the information.  (Examples are the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, which is used by [[Nupedia]].)  But "open content" also describes content that can be modified by anyone.  (Of course not without prior review by other participating parties--but there is no closed group like a commercial encyclopedia publisher which is responsible for all the editing.)
------
Nupedia|984004693
1c1
< [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is an online encyclopedia located at Nupedia.com.  It is (we hope) soon to become the greatest [[encyclopedia]] in [[history]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[Open Content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and will be, in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
---
> [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] is an online encyclopedia located at Nupedia.com.  It is (we hope) soon to become the greatest [[encyclopedia]] in [[history]], because of its essential features, viz., it is: [[open content]], free, freely-distributable, rigorously [[peer review]]ed, international, unbiased, and will be, in the fullness of time, comprehensive.
------
TheStates|984004746
4,36c4,36
< * Alabama
< * Alaska
< * Arizona
< * Arkansas
< 
< * California
< * Colorado
< * Connecticut
< 
< * Delaware
< 
< * Florida
< 
< * Hawaii
< 
< * Idaho
< * Illinois
< * Indiana
< * Iowa
< 
< * Kansas
< * Kentucky
< 
< * Louisiana
< 
< * Maine
< * Maryland
< * Massachusetts
< * Michigan
< * Minnesota
< * MississippI
< * Missouri
< * Montana
---
> * [[Alabama]]
> * [[Alaska]]
> * [[Arizona]]
> * [[Arkansas]]
> 
> * [[California]]
> * [[Colorado]]
> * [[Connecticut]]
> 
> * [[Delaware]]
> 
> * [[Florida]]
> 
> * [[Hawaii]]
> 
> * [[Idaho]]
> * [[Illinois]]
> * [[Indiana]]
> * [[Iowa]]
> 
> * [[Kansas]]
> * [[Kentucky]]
> 
> * [[Louisiana]]
> 
> * [[Maine]]
> * [[Maryland]]
> * [[Massachusetts]]
> * [[Michigan]]
> * [[Minnesota]]
> * [[Mississippi]]
> * [[Missouri]]
> * [[Montana]]
38,39c38,39
< * Nebraska
< * Nevada
---
> * [[Nebraska]]
> * [[Nevada]]
47,48c47,48
< * Ohio
< * Oklahoma
---
> * [[Ohio]]
> * [[Oklahoma]]
51c51
< * Pennsylvania
---
> * [[Pennsylvania]]
53c53
< * RhodeIsland
---
> * [[RhodeIsland]]
------
NewHampshire|984004785
1,17c1
< A state in the UnitedStates, NewHampshire was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the AmericanRevolution.
< 
< State capitol is Concord, which has also been known over time by the names Rumford and Penacook.
< 
< On the national people-radar of the United States, New Hampshire is best known as the state with the first primary in the presidential election, the spot with the worst recorded weather at an inhabited location (Mt. Washington weather observatory), our colorful fall foliage, and our splashy headline killer, Pamela Smart.
< 
< Regionally, New Hampshire is known for skiing, no sales or income tax (which may well change due to school funding lawsuits), the lakes region and the NH International Speedway (formerly the Loudon Racetrack) which is still the home of the Loudon Classic, the longest running motorcycle race in the United States. 
< 
< New Hampshire is host to the Scottish Highland Games, at Loon Mt. in Lincoln (usually the weekend after Labor day). New Hampshire has also registered an official Tartan with the proper authorities in Scotland; this tartan is worn in kilt form by the State Police while they serve their duties in Lincoln during the Games. Because of the high number of attendents to the Games the State Police are quite visible, both for traffic control and to generally to handle the significant increase in population. 
< 
< Little known facts: New Hampshire boasts the only piece of Interstate Highway that is two-lane (i.e. a single northbound lane and a single southbound lane) with a cobblestone median. This was done to preserve the Old Man on the Mountain, a rock formation visible from I93 in Franconia. 
< 
< Speaking of which, the New Hampshire state quarter shows the self same Old Man on the Mountain, which makes it the only US coin with a head on both faces. 
< 
< Manchester, the largest city in the state, has a main street (Elm Street) which is a dead-end at both ends. 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[New Hampshire]]
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984004789
12a13,18
> 
> ----
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on Al Gore, shouldn't this page be at Al Gore, with a redirect here, and not the other way around? 
> 
------
New_Hampshire|984004801
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the UnitedStates, NewHampshire was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the AmericanRevolution.
> 
> State capitol is Concord, which has also been known over time by the names Rumford and Penacook.
> 
> On the national people-radar of the United States, New Hampshire is best known as the state with the first primary in the presidential election, the spot with the worst recorded weather at an inhabited location (Mt. Washington weather observatory), our colorful fall foliage, and our splashy headline killer, Pamela Smart.
> 
> Regionally, New Hampshire is known for skiing, no sales or income tax (which may well change due to school funding lawsuits), the lakes region and the NH International Speedway (formerly the Loudon Racetrack) which is still the home of the Loudon Classic, the longest running motorcycle race in the United States. 
> 
> New Hampshire is host to the Scottish Highland Games, at Loon Mt. in Lincoln (usually the weekend after Labor day). New Hampshire has also registered an official Tartan with the proper authorities in Scotland; this tartan is worn in kilt form by the State Police while they serve their duties in Lincoln during the Games. Because of the high number of attendents to the Games the State Police are quite visible, both for traffic control and to generally to handle the significant increase in population. 
> 
> Little known facts: New Hampshire boasts the only piece of Interstate Highway that is two-lane (i.e. a single northbound lane and a single southbound lane) with a cobblestone median. This was done to preserve the Old Man on the Mountain, a rock formation visible from I93 in Franconia. 
> 
> Speaking of which, the New Hampshire state quarter shows the self same Old Man on the Mountain, which makes it the only US coin with a head on both faces. 
> 
> Manchester, the largest city in the state, has a main street (Elm Street) which is a dead-end at both ends. 
------
OregoN|984004836
1,87c1
< Oregonians are proud of their state's wealth of beautiful forests and streams,
< and place great importance on proper use of their environment, yet struggle to
< balance this need with the desire to achieve progress.  The state has
< pioneered many of the nation's environmental firsts, such as one of the first
< bottle bills, but has also suffered under the decline of its lumber and steel
< industries.  
< 
< OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
< of the RockyMountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
< 
< Other cities in Oregon include:  PortlandOregon, SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
< AstoriaOregon, BeavertonOregon, LakeOswegoOregon, and GladstoneOregon.
< 
< '''HISTORY'''
< 
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of NativeAmerican tribes, including the BannockPeople, ChinookPeople, 
< KlamathPeople, and NezPercePeople.  JamesCook explored the coast in 1778 in search of the NorthwestPassage.
< LewisAndClark travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the LouisianaPurchase, at the
< direction of ThomasJefferson.  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in WashingtoN.
< 
< Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign
< sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes.  AstoriaOregon was established by 
< representatives of JohnJacobAstor's AmericanFurCompany in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
< 
< The OregonTrail infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the UnitedStates sought to wrest
< control of the area from GreatBritain.  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was
< set at the 49th parallel.
< 
< In the 1880s, railroads enabled marketing of the state's lumber and wheat, and the more rapid growth of its cities.
< 
< Industrial expansion began with ernest following the construction of the BonnevilleDam in 1943 on the ColumbiaRiver.
< The power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon have helped fuel the development of the west, and the periodic 
< fluctuations in the nation's building industry has severely impacted the state's economy on multiple occasions.
< 
< The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, 
< English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas,
< loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or
< outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay,
< pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
< 
< These controversies have served to keep the citizens of the state well engaged and aware of the consequences of their
< actions.  They have little fear of testing out new ideas, and often lead the nation in innovative policies and laws,
< yet at the same time pay great attention to the side effects and negatives these changes can have, and adjust as
< required.
< 
< 
< '''ECONOMY'''
< 
< The Willamette Valley is very fertile, and coupled with Oregon's infamous rains,
< gives the state a wealth of agricultural products.  Apples and other fruits, cattle,
< dairy products, potatoes, and peppermint are all valuable products.  Vast pine
< forests have made Oregon the nation's major lumbering state since 1950.  In recent
< years, processing, publishing, and manufacturing have become much more dominant.
< And lately, high technology industries and services have grown considerably.
< Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries, and great care has been
< taken by the hydroelectric companies to preserve the habitats and migrational
< patterns of this fish.  Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen
< mountain forests, pristine lakes (including CraterLake), and scenic beaches draw 
< visitors year round.
< 
< '''GOVERNMENT'''
< 
< Oregon's Governer serves a four-year term.  The legislature consists of a thirty
< member senate and sixty member house.  Senators serve four year terms, and house
< representatives two.  At the national level, Oregon is represented by two senators
< and five representatives.  It has seven electorial votes.
< 
< '''FACTS'''
< 
<    Area: 96,981 sq mi (251,181 sq km). 
<    Population: (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. 
<    Capital: Salem. 
<    Statehood: Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). 
<    Highest point: Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m)
<    Lowest pt.: sea level. 
<    Nickname: Beaver State. 
<    Motto: The Union. 
<    State Bird: Western meadowlark. 
<    State Flower: Oregon grape. 
<    State Tree: Douglas fir. 
<    Abbreviation: Oreg. Ore. OR
< ----
< Very impressive.  Did you copy this from somewhere?  What's the source?  If it's public domain, direct us to the source, please, so we may swipe other PublicDomainResources from that place as well...  -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< Thanks.  Nope, it's an original composition of mine I wrote yesterday.  The factual stuff I looked up on Britannica's site, and gathered background and facts from off the web.  -- BryceHarrington
< ----
< So I guess you're saying the source is [[Wikipedia]]! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Oregon]]
------
Oregon|984004845
1c1,87
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oregonians are proud of their state's wealth of beautiful forests and streams,
> and place great importance on proper use of their environment, yet struggle to
> balance this need with the desire to achieve progress.  The state has
> pioneered many of the nation's environmental firsts, such as one of the first
> bottle bills, but has also suffered under the decline of its lumber and steel
> industries.  
> 
> OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
> of the RockyMountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
> 
> Other cities in Oregon include:  PortlandOregon, SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
> AstoriaOregon, BeavertonOregon, LakeOswegoOregon, and GladstoneOregon.
> 
> '''HISTORY'''
> 
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of NativeAmerican tribes, including the BannockPeople, ChinookPeople, 
> KlamathPeople, and NezPercePeople.  JamesCook explored the coast in 1778 in search of the NorthwestPassage.
> LewisAndClark travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the LouisianaPurchase, at the
> direction of ThomasJefferson.  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in WashingtoN.
> 
> Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign
> sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes.  AstoriaOregon was established by 
> representatives of JohnJacobAstor's AmericanFurCompany in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
> 
> The OregonTrail infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the UnitedStates sought to wrest
> control of the area from GreatBritain.  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was
> set at the 49th parallel.
> 
> In the 1880s, railroads enabled marketing of the state's lumber and wheat, and the more rapid growth of its cities.
> 
> Industrial expansion began with ernest following the construction of the BonnevilleDam in 1943 on the ColumbiaRiver.
> The power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon have helped fuel the development of the west, and the periodic 
> fluctuations in the nation's building industry has severely impacted the state's economy on multiple occasions.
> 
> The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, 
> English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas,
> loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or
> outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay,
> pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
> 
> These controversies have served to keep the citizens of the state well engaged and aware of the consequences of their
> actions.  They have little fear of testing out new ideas, and often lead the nation in innovative policies and laws,
> yet at the same time pay great attention to the side effects and negatives these changes can have, and adjust as
> required.
> 
> 
> '''ECONOMY'''
> 
> The Willamette Valley is very fertile, and coupled with Oregon's infamous rains,
> gives the state a wealth of agricultural products.  Apples and other fruits, cattle,
> dairy products, potatoes, and peppermint are all valuable products.  Vast pine
> forests have made Oregon the nation's major lumbering state since 1950.  In recent
> years, processing, publishing, and manufacturing have become much more dominant.
> And lately, high technology industries and services have grown considerably.
> Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries, and great care has been
> taken by the hydroelectric companies to preserve the habitats and migrational
> patterns of this fish.  Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen
> mountain forests, pristine lakes (including CraterLake), and scenic beaches draw 
> visitors year round.
> 
> '''GOVERNMENT'''
> 
> Oregon's Governer serves a four-year term.  The legislature consists of a thirty
> member senate and sixty member house.  Senators serve four year terms, and house
> representatives two.  At the national level, Oregon is represented by two senators
> and five representatives.  It has seven electorial votes.
> 
> '''FACTS'''
> 
>    Area: 96,981 sq mi (251,181 sq km). 
>    Population: (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. 
>    Capital: Salem. 
>    Statehood: Feb. 14, 1859 (33d state). 
>    Highest point: Mt. Hood, 11,239 ft (3,428 m)
>    Lowest pt.: sea level. 
>    Nickname: Beaver State. 
>    Motto: The Union. 
>    State Bird: Western meadowlark. 
>    State Flower: Oregon grape. 
>    State Tree: Douglas fir. 
>    Abbreviation: Oreg. Ore. OR
> ----
> Very impressive.  Did you copy this from somewhere?  What's the source?  If it's public domain, direct us to the source, please, so we may swipe other PublicDomainResources from that place as well...  -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Thanks.  Nope, it's an original composition of mine I wrote yesterday.  The factual stuff I looked up on Britannica's site, and gathered background and facts from off the web.  -- BryceHarrington
> ----
> So I guess you're saying the source is [[Wikipedia]]! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
RhodeIsland|984004885
1c1
< The best little state in the UnitedStates! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of RhodeIslandReds!----SmithfielD, R.I. is home of BryantCollege, a prestigious BusinessSchool
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rhode Island]]
------
Rhode_Island|984004893
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The best little state in the UnitedStates! Miles of white ocean beaches, great ethnic food, friendly natives, and home of RhodeIslandReds!----SmithfielD, R.I. is home of BryantCollege, a prestigious BusinessSchool
------
TheStates|984004929
40c40
< * NewHampshire
---
> * [[New Hampshire]]
49c49
< * OregoN
---
> * [[Oregon]]
53c53
< * [[RhodeIsland]]
---
> * [[Rhode Island]]
------
Ohio|984005010
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Consists of [[Cincinnati]], plus [[Cincinnati]]'s north eastern suburbs.
------
Cincinnati|984005044
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[America]]'s most liveable city.
------
Larry_Sanger|984005227
17c17
< Plenty of SiberianHusky''''s in AlaskA, Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
---
> Plenty of [[SiberianHusky']]s in [[Alaska]], Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
19c19
< Why are all SiberianHusky''''s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
---
> Why are all [[SiberianHusky]]'s named Sheba?  I've had 3 different friends with them so far, and they are all named the same....
------
Larry_Sanger|984005273
5c5
< Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to RussiA for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because [[Larry Sanger]] works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because [[Larry Sanger]] works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
13c13
< I'm not envious because I live here, in RussiA!
---
> I'm not envious because I live here, in [[Russia]]!
------
Larry_Sanger|984005289
17c17
< Plenty of [[SiberianHusky']]s in [[Alaska]], Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
---
> Plenty of [[SiberianHusky]]'s in [[Alaska]], Larry's home state.  Larry's family used to have a SiberianHusky named Sheba, but Sheba disappeared when Larry was small.
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984005596
69a70,71
> A. Use [ [Aristotle]]'s You need never mess with multiple quotes again.
> 
------
HomePage|984005720
9c9
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- LinguisticS & [[Language]] -- PoLitics -- EconomicS -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- PoLitics -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
37c37
< If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
------
EngineerIng|984005778
1,2c1
< "ElectricalEngineering"
< [[Software_Engineering]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Engineering]]
------
Engineering|984005789
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "ElectricalEngineering"
> [[Software_Engineering]]
------
Engineering|984005809
1,2c1,2
< "ElectricalEngineering"
< [[Software_Engineering]]
---
> [[Electrical Engineering]]
> [[Software Engineering]]
------
ArchitecturE|984005844
1,6c1
< Architecture is the root of all arts.----
< And provided to the context to define the EdifaceComplex...
< 
< ----
< 
< Some great architects are Rem Koolhaas, Alvar Aalto and Mies van der Rohe.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Architecture]]
------
Architecture|984005879
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Architecture is the root of all arts.----
> And provided the context to define the [[Ediface Complex]]...
> 
> ----
> 
> Some great architects are Rem Koolhaas, Alvar Aalto and Mies van der Rohe.
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984005887
18a19
> Following the normal habit of listing full names in other reference works is a good idea.
------
HomePage|984005914
11c11
< :[[Technology]] -- ArchitecturE -- EngineerIng -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Engineering|984005977
0a1
> [[Chemical Engineering]]
1a3
> [[Mechanical Engineering]]
2a5
> [[Structural Engineering]]
------
TrigonometricFunctions|984006048
123c123
< TrigonomtricIdentities, and, in [[Calculus]], the MathematicalLimit, the [[Continuity]] and [[Differentiability]] of each these functions. 
---
> [[Trigonometric Identities]], and, in [[Calculus]], the [[Mathematical Limit]], the [[Continuity]] and [[Differentiability]] of each these functions. 
------
TrigonometricFunctions|984006166
6c6
< 
---
> <b>
13c13
< 
---
> </b>
------
EduCation|984006257
1c1
< All education is instructional and all instruction is educational( Herbart )
---
> #REDIRECT [[Education]]
------
Education|984006268
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All education is instructional and all instruction is educational( Herbart )
------
IndustrY|984006313
1,4c1
< 
< * /PrimarySector
< * /SecondarySector
< * /TertiarySector
---
> #REDIRECT [[Industry]]
------
Industry|984006322
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * /PrimarySector
> * /SecondarySector
> * /TertiarySector
------
TrigonometricFunctions|984006323
47c47
< 1). The ''sine'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "sin."
---
> 1). The <b>''sine''</b> of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "sin."
53c53
< 2). The ''cosine'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "cos."
---
> 2). The <b>''cosine''</b> of an angle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the hypotenuse, abbreviated "cos."
59c59
< 3). The ''tangent'' of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side, abbreviated "tan."
---
> 3). The <b>''tangent''</b> of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the adjacent side, abbreviated "tan."
67c67
< 4). The ''cosecant'' (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the sin (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to thelength of the adjacent side, abbreviated "csc."
---
> 4). The <b>''cosecant''</b> (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the sin (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to thelength of the adjacent side, abbreviated "csc."
71c71
< 5). The ''secant'' (A) is the inverse of the ratio of cos (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "sec."
---
> 5). The <b>''secant''</b> (A) is the inverse of the ratio of cos (A), the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "sec."
75c75
< 6). The ''cotangent'' of (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the tan (A), the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "cot."
---
> 6). The <b>''cotangent''</b> of (A) is the inverse of the ratio of the tan (A), the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the length of the opposite side, abbreviated "cot."
82c82
< Another mnemonic is commonly used in the UK is OHMS. This is memorable because it might mean "On Her Majesty's Service", which is stamped on the front of Tax demands, or "Opposite over Hypotenuse Means Sine".
---
> Another mnemonic is commonly used in the UK is OHMS. This is memorable because it might mean "On Her Majesty's Service", which is stamped on the front of mail sent by the government, or "Opposite over Hypotenuse Means Sine".
------
BusinessAndIndustry|984006371
1,7c1
< This is a category index page.  For now, I am entering random
< things that I have found which might eventually go under this
< category.
< 
< BusinessSchools
< 
< IndustrY
---
> #REDIRECT [[Business and Industry]]
------
Business_and_Industry|984006381
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a category index page.  For now, I am entering random
> things that I have found which might eventually go under this
> category.
> 
> BusinessSchools
> 
> [[Industry]]
------
HomePage|984006432
9c9
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- PoLitics -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
11c11
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- BusinessAndIndustry -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- EduCation -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
PoLitics|984006470
1,34c1
< Politics comes from the root word poly meaning many and tics meaning bloodsucking insects. 
< 
< ----
< '''PoliticalIdeologies:'''
< 
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
< 
< /Talk (but please don't)
< ----
< '''PoliticalParties:'''
< 
< LeftWingParties:
< 
< RightWingParties:
< 
< OtherParties:
< 
< ----
< '''PoliticalConcepts:'''
< 
< IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
< 
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- TyrannY
< 
< ----
< '''PoliticalTheory:'''
< 
< PoliticalPhilosophy: TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- RawlsMoralPhilosophy -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
< 
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
< 
< ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- JohnRawls -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
< 
< PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
---
> #REDIRECT [[Politics]]
------
Politics|984006479
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Politics comes from the root word poly meaning many and tics meaning bloodsucking insects. 
> 
> ----
> '''PoliticalIdeologies:'''
> 
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
> 
> /Talk (but please don't)
> ----
> '''PoliticalParties:'''
> 
> LeftWingParties:
> 
> RightWingParties:
> 
> OtherParties:
> 
> ----
> '''PoliticalConcepts:'''
> 
> IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
> 
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- TyrannY
> 
> ----
> '''PoliticalTheory:'''
> 
> PoliticalPhilosophy: TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- RawlsMoralPhilosophy -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment
> 
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
> 
> ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- JohnRawls -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
> 
> PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|984006634
11c11,12
< : Well, what makes a thing perceptible?  The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected.  This is how one perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created.  When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others.  Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.
---
> : Well, what makes a thing perceptible?  The quality or property which makes a thing perceptible is that it is capable of affecting and of being affected.  This is how one 
> perceives; one either creates an effect and receives the sensory feedback of having done so, or one witnesses the result of an effect created.  When light reflects from a big, red apple, it is because the apple was capable affecting the light so as to alter its direction and absorb certain wavelengths while reflecting others.  Consequently, the eye is able to detect the altered light and identify its new properties.
76c77,106
< This is true, but it's not a definition of 'exists'.  In fact, Hume argued that existence could not be defined; he famously challenged anyone to identify the ''unique'' idea whereby we get the idea of existence.  He concluded that the idea of a thing and the idea of a thing existing were one and the same.  (I disagree with him, I guess, but that's what he said.)
---
> This is true, but it's not a definition of 'exists'.  In fact, Hume argued that existence could not be defined; he famously challenged anyone to identify the ''unique'' idea whereby we get the idea of existence.  He concluded that the idea of a thing and the idea of a thing existing were one and the same.  (I disagree with him, I guess, but that's what he said.)
> ----
> While we're beating our gums philosphically, I think this may be the one area where the force of Hume's logic served to defeat one of his basic holdings.  Hume, I think, for all the thought he gave it, failed to reach an inevitable conclusion in his Cause/Effect examples.  Cause/Effect implies at least one deeper, unifying quality or property and that could be called "interactibility."  This may be indentifiable with the property of existence.  Or not.  Were a thing incapable of interaction, it could neither cause nor be affected.  It might, on some theoretical plane, "exist" but be undetectable for the reason that means of perception require an effect to be created.  So, for all physical purposes, its theoretical "existence" would be moot.  
> 
> I don't believe Hume argued that existence could not be defined.  I think he ''did'' hold that it was not a separable property.  He said in ''Treatise of Human Nature'' that "the idea of existence must either be derived from a distinct impression, conjoined with every perception or object of our thought, or must be the very same with the idea of the perception or object". (his unique definition of "impression" required some real thing to impact the senses) He then went on to reason that since ''in his view'' there was nothing indicating the presence of any single impression that was "conjoined with every perception or object", there could be no unique impression from which the idea of existence could derive. He rather conceived there to be a function of identity (e=e).  The thing and its existence were indistinguishable.
> 
> But the capability of interaction (ability to be cause or effect)is as much a quality (property, if you will) as location in space.  It may in fact be more basic, since a thing must be interactible in order for relative location to have meaning, so one cannot locate it unless it is interactible.   In fact, all properties flowing from the initial property of a thing's existence (its interactibility) can be described in terms of interaction.  If you are not able to describe any current properties, it would be because there were no actual or currently potential interactions relating to the object, hence it would not be capable of interaction, hence it would for physical purposes not exist.  So the current capability for interaction gives rise to any observed cause or effect,  which enables location (the definition in the article) and any and all other properties.
> 
> This gives rise to an interesting circularity:
> 
> "in order for an object O to be detected to exist, it must be capable of interaction."
> "in order for an object O to be capable of interaction, it must exist."
> 
> If the latter statement is true, then interaction proves existence.
> 
> How about:
> 
> "in order for an object O to exist, it must be capable of interaction."
> "in order for an object O to be capable of interaction, it must exist."
> 
> Now let us bring in Karl Popper's falsifiability:  Name an example of a thing which exists but which is incapable of interaction.
> 
> As for the example physical objects in the article:  Name an example of a thing which exists but which has no location.  Arguably, gravity.  Not an object?  Philosophically it is.  Not physical?  Definitely physical.
> 
> The terms of the two statements are mutual and could be said to be irreducible.
> e=e!  The property which defines existence and existence itself are the same.  The fact of existence is circular and therefore unprovable as a ''separate'' property, but not as a ''basic'', ''necessary'' or ''fundamental'' property which enables all subsequent or secondary properties.
> 
> So I regard location as a secondary property.  Hume's Cause and Effect statements led me to a different place than where they led him.
> 
> This has been a fun little excursion.  For my part - the article may rest in peace.
------
Naming_conventions|984006680
14c14
< In most cases, probably, we should use a person's full name, or enough of the name so as to avoid confusing it with anyone else's.  So we might have [[John F. Kennedy]] but not [Kennedy]].  We could even have [[JFK]] since that's unique.
---
> Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
16,20c16
< ''[[John F. Kennedy]] is somewhat unusual in that people generally refer to him using his middle initial.  I don't
< know why.  For many famous people, the middle initial is
< not widely known.  [[Oprah Winfrey]], [[Abraham Lincoln]],
< etc.  It seems that with the current President, he will be known as [[George W Bush]] or [[George W. Bush]], and that his father
< will be known as [[George Bush]]'' --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> #We want to maximize the incidence of accidental links.
22c18
< There are many very famous people who are often referred to by their last names only: Descartes, Newton, or even first names only: Rembrandt.  Even though it's more to type, I think it would be best to have the full name, unless the name really is pretty much unique.  I mean, how many famous Descartes are there?  So we could repoint ReneDescartes to [[Descartes]].
---
> #We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines.
24c20,22
< I can't think of any good reasons to list names first.
---
> Therefore, we should have the main entry for the Jimmy Carter page, for example, at [[Jimmy Carter]] rather than [[James Earl Carter]].  In any other article where Carter is mentioned, he will almost certainly be refered to as Jimmy Carter.  Thus when a link is made on that article, it will point to the correct article page.
> 
> Additionally, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984006740
1c1
< William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1993-2001.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was the forty-first PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1993-2001.
3c3,4
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-)
---
> * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
> * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
5c6
< In 1992 his main opponents were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform Party]]).
---
> In 1992 the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
9c10
< He is also known for granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
---
> He ended his presidency granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
11c12
< During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Partisans of this view might argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
---
> During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Some partisans of this view argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
17c18
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it nonpartisan and encyclopedic?
---
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
38a40,43
> SupremeCourt appointments:
> 
> Major legislation he vetoed:
> 
41d45
< * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations
43c47,52
< Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
---
> :Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
> 
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations.
> 
> : So was legislation ever proposed?
> 
50c59
< Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote Democrat sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
---
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote [[Democrat]] sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
53,54c62,73
< * [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
< * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | StatesOfTheUnitedStates | 
> * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
> * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1992
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1994
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1996
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1998
> 
> Hmm, i hate typing all those brackets!
> --JohnAbbe
> 
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
------
Naming_conventions|984006813
17d16
< 
22a22,23
> 
> Other examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
------
AxiomOfChoice|984006849
1c1
< The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by ErnstZermelo, and was quite controversial at the time.  It states the following:
---
> The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by [[Ernst Zermelo]], and was quite controversial at the time.  It states the following:
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984006858
62c62
< CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | StatesOfTheUnitedStates | 
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | StatesOfTheUnitedStates/States | 
73c73
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
---
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984006874
62c62
< CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | StatesOfTheUnitedStates/States | 
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates/States | StatesOfTheUnitedStates | 
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984007009
19a20,21
> ----
> I'm not sure this is the normal habit; regardless, if there are reasons why this is a good idea, please list them at [[Naming conventions]].  There you will see arguments in favor of using common names [[Al Gore]] rather than formal names [[Albert Arnold Gore]].  The best argument wins.
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984007035
21c21
< I'm not sure this is the normal habit; regardless, if there are reasons why this is a good idea, please list them at [[Naming conventions]].  There you will see arguments in favor of using common names [[Al Gore]] rather than formal names [[Albert Arnold Gore]].  The best argument wins.
---
> I'm not sure this is the normal habit; regardless, if there are reasons why this is a good idea, please list them at [[Naming conventions]].  There you will see arguments in favor of using common names like [[Al Gore]] rather than formal names like [[Albert Arnold Gore]].  The best argument wins.
------
FielD|984007154
1,55c1
< A FielD, briefly, is an algebraic system of elements, usually called numbers, in which the 
< operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (except division by zero) may be performed without leaving the system, the formal associative, commutative, and distributive rules hold, and the equations a=b+x and a=b*y have solutions, without restriction, provided in the latter case a not=0. 
< 
< 
< '''Definition''': Given a SeT '''F''' and two BinaryOperation''s'' defined on '''F''', called addition and multiplication, denoted "+" and "*" respectively. Then ('''F''',+,*) is called a FielD if:
< 
< *   1). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), both a+b and a*b belong to (F,+,*).
< *        Closure of F under + and *.
< 
<  
< *   2). For all a,b,c in (F,+,*), a+(b+c)= (a+b)+c 
< *        and a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
< *        Both + and * are Associative in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   3). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), a+b=b+a 
< *        and a*b=b*a. 
< *        Both+ and * are commutative in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   4). For all a,b,c, belonging to (F,+,*), a*(b+c)= (a*b)+(a*c)
< *        and (a+b)*c=(a*c)+(b*c).
< *        The operation * is distributive over the operation + in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   5). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 0, such a+0=a
< *        and 0+a=a.
< *        Existence of an additive identity in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   6). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 1, such that a*1=a
< *        and 1*a=a.
< *        Existence of a multiplicative identity in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   7). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element -a in (F,+,*), such that   
< *        a+(-a)=0 and (-a)+a=0.
< *        Existence of an additive inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
< 
< 
< *   8). For all a not=0 belonging to (F,*,+), there exists an element a<sup>-1</sup> in (F,+,*),    
< *        such that a*(a<sup>-1</sup>)=1 and (a<sup>-1</sup>)*a=1.
< *        Existence of a multiplicative inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
< 
< Note that a FielD is just a RinG where all elements have multiplicative inverses, except 0 which cannot.  Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
<  
< *The Rational Numbers '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
< 
< *The RealNumbers= '''R.''' .
< 
< *The ComplexNumbers '''C'''={x: x=a+bi, where a,b belong to '''R''', and i=sqrt(-1)}.
< 
< The concept of a FielD is of use, for example, in defining VectorS and MatriceS, two structures in LinearAlgebra, whose components can be elements of an arbitrary FielD.  
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Field]]
------
Field|984007166
1c1,55
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A FielD, briefly, is an algebraic system of elements, usually called numbers, in which the 
> operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (except division by zero) may be performed without leaving the system, the formal associative, commutative, and distributive rules hold, and the equations a=b+x and a=b*y have solutions, without restriction, provided in the latter case a not=0. 
> 
> 
> '''Definition''': Given a SeT '''F''' and two BinaryOperation''s'' defined on '''F''', called addition and multiplication, denoted "+" and "*" respectively. Then ('''F''',+,*) is called a FielD if:
> 
> *   1). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), both a+b and a*b belong to (F,+,*).
> *        Closure of F under + and *.
> 
>  
> *   2). For all a,b,c in (F,+,*), a+(b+c)= (a+b)+c 
> *        and a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
> *        Both + and * are Associative in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   3). For all a,b belonging to (F,+,*), a+b=b+a 
> *        and a*b=b*a. 
> *        Both+ and * are commutative in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   4). For all a,b,c, belonging to (F,+,*), a*(b+c)= (a*b)+(a*c)
> *        and (a+b)*c=(a*c)+(b*c).
> *        The operation * is distributive over the operation + in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   5). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 0, such a+0=a
> *        and 0+a=a.
> *        Existence of an additive identity in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   6). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element 1, such that a*1=a
> *        and 1*a=a.
> *        Existence of a multiplicative identity in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   7). For all a belonging to (F,+,*), there exists an element -a in (F,+,*), such that   
> *        a+(-a)=0 and (-a)+a=0.
> *        Existence of an additive inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
> 
> 
> *   8). For all a not=0 belonging to (F,*,+), there exists an element a<sup>-1</sup> in (F,+,*),    
> *        such that a*(a<sup>-1</sup>)=1 and (a<sup>-1</sup>)*a=1.
> *        Existence of a multiplicative inverse for all a in (F,+,*).
> 
> Note that a FielD is just a RinG where all elements have multiplicative inverses, except 0 which cannot.  Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
>  
> *The Rational Numbers '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
> 
> *The RealNumbers= '''R.''' .
> 
> *The ComplexNumbers '''C'''={x: x=a+bi, where a,b belong to '''R''', and i=sqrt(-1)}.
> 
> The concept of a FielD is of use, for example, in defining VectorS and MatriceS, two structures in LinearAlgebra, whose components can be elements of an arbitrary FielD.  
> 
> 
------
Complex_numbers|984007200
6c6
< So defined, the complex numbers form a [[FielD]].
---
> So defined, the complex numbers form a [[Field]].
------
Cincinnati|984007261
1a2,3
> 
> Located on the [[Ohio River]] across from [[Kentucky]].
------
AtlasShrugged/Section111|984007320
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
> 
> * Plot summary
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
> ----
> * Setting
> Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
> ----
> * Characters
>  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
> ----
> * Mysteries
> The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007342
1,18c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
< ----
< * Setting
< Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
< ----
< * Characters
<  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
---
> #redirect [[/Section111]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007404
1c1
< #redirect [[/Section111]
---
> #redirect [[Section111]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007413
1c1
< #redirect [[Section111]
---
> #redirect [[AtlasShrugged/Section111]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007439
1c1
< #redirect [[AtlasShrugged/Section111]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Section111]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007463
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Section111]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Section111]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN111|984007483
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Section111]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Section111]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN152|984007599
1,34c1
< * Plot summary
< 
< In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
< 
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
< 
< When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
< 
< That summer, when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
< 
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
< 
< After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
< 
< When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
< 
< 
< * Setting
< Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
< 
< * Characters
<  /DagnysFather
<  /DagnysMother
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
<  /FranciscosFather
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
<  /SebastianDAnconia
---
> #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Section152]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Section152|984007608
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> 
> In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
> 
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
> 
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
> 
> That summer, when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
> 
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
> 
> After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
> 
> When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
> 
> 
> * Setting
> Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
> 
> * Characters
>  /DagnysFather
>  /DagnysMother
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
>  /FranciscosFather
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  /MrsGilbertVail
>  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
>  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
>  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
>  /SebastianDAnconia
------
AtlasShrugged/ElPasoTexas|984007635
4,5c4,5
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN152
---
>  /Section111
>  /Section152
------
JapaneseLanguage|984007689
36c36
<     n                                                        N.B. “n”  comprises a syllable 
---
>     n                                                        N.B. ?n?  comprises a syllable 
73c73
<   kk –  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
---
>   kk -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
82,86c82,86
<   aa –  same as “a” but held an extra syllable.
<   ii –  same as “i” but held an extra syllable.
<   uu -  same as “u” but held an extra syllable.
<   ee -  same as “e” but held an extra syllable.
<   oo –  same as “o” but held an extra syllable.
---
>   aa -  same as ?a? but held an extra syllable.
>   ii -  same as ?i? but held an extra syllable.
>   uu -  same as ?u? but held an extra syllable.
>   ee -  same as ?e? but held an extra syllable.
>   oo -  same as ?o? but held an extra syllable.
107c107
< Yamada:   Tanaka–san, kochira wa, Senga-san desu.
---
> Yamada:   Tanaka-san, kochira wa, Senga-san desu.
114,115c114,115
< Sanger:   How do you do. My name is Sanger. I’m very glad to meet you.
< Tanaka:   How do you do. I am Mr. Tanaka from ABC Company. I’m very glad to meet 
---
> Sanger:   How do you do. My name is Sanger. I?m very glad to meet you.
> Tanaka:   How do you do. I am Mr. Tanaka from ABC Company. I?m very glad to meet 
126c126
< the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like “wa”and “o” and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like “Sanger,” “Nupedia” would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
---
> the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like ?wa?and ?o? and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like ?Sanger,? ?Nupedia? would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
139c139
<       “Sanga-san desu” is the comment.
---
>       ?Sanga-san desu? is the comment.
143c143
<       Thus “hon” meaning “book” can be used for the singular or plural.
---
>       Thus ?hon? meaning ?book? can be used for the singular or plural.
153c153
<       are indicated by particles, like “wa,” and “no” above. They always follow the noun.
---
>       are indicated by particles, like ?wa,? and ?no? above. They always follow the noun.
172c172
< Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I’ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
---
> Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I?ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
175c175
< Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we’ll have melon.
---
> Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we?ll have melon.
189c189
< biiru         –  beer
---
> biiru         -  beer
196,197c196,197
< wa – indicates the topic.
< ga – indicates the topic with emphasis on the topic
---
> wa - indicates the topic.
> ga - indicates the topic with emphasis on the topic
199,200c199,200
< ka – indicates a question
< to – and
---
> ka - indicates a question
> to - and
204,205c204,205
< desu       – to be (copulative) 
< wakarimasu – to understand.
---
> desu       - to be (copulative) 
> wakarimasu - to understand.
207,210d206
< 
<  
< 
< 
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects/Talk|984007695
106a107,108
> ----
> Heh heh;  existence = the property of having a property or properties.  (chuckle...)
------
Switzerland|984007875
7c7
< Other important cities: Z&uuml;rich, Geneva, Basel.
---
> Other important cities: [[Zurich|Z&uuml;rich]], [[Geneva]], [[Basel]].
------
George_W._Bush|984007953
3c3,7
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt.  Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His appointee for the important and controversial USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
---
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt. 
> 
> see also http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?UsElection2000
> 
> Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His controversial appointee for the important USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
16,17c20,22
< * [[Laura Welch Bush]]
< * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
---
> * [[Laura Welch Bush]] ([[first lady]])
> * [[Richard Cheney]] ([[vice president]])
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (father)
19c24
< * 2001InaugurationProtests
---
> * 2001InaugurationProtests
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984008182
2a3,12
> ----
> 
> Do we need (or have) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
> 
> This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
> 
> But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
> 
> ----
> 
6c16,18
< In 1992 the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
---
> In the 1992 election, the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
> 
> :Maybe there should be a page for each election, e.g. us/Election1992, us/Election1994, etc.
62c74
< CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates/States | StatesOfTheUnitedStates | 
---
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | UnitedStates/States | 
70c82
< Hmm, i hate typing all those brackets!
---
> Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
73c85
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
---
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
------
Andy_Jewell|984008207
3a4,10
> 
> ----
> 
> Hi Andy -
> 
> All the AtlasShrugged pages will be redirected to [[Atlas Shrugged]] soon, so there is no reason to edit them.
>  - Tim
------
JohnAbbe|984008639
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Test:
> 
> [[us]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984009112
104c104
< Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
---
> :Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
------
Animalia|984009723
58,59d57
<  Subkingdom Mesozoa
<          Phylum [[Mesozoa]]
61d58
<          Phylum [[Placozoa]]
62a60,63
>  Subkingdom Agnotozoa=Mesozoa
>          Phylum [[Placozoa]]
>          Phylum [[Orthonectida]]
>          Phylum [[Rhombozoa]]         
83c84,85
<        Eucoelomates
---
>          Phylum [[Cycliophora]]
>        Schizocoelomates
87a90,91
>          Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
>          Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
89d92
<          Phylum [[Pentastoma]]
92d94
<          Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
95c97
<          Phylum [[Priapulida]] or maybe [[Ectoprocta]]
---
>          Phylum [[Ectoprocta]]
------
Mustelidae|984009850
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera :
------
Orson_Welles|984010597
5a6
> *[[The Magnificent Ambersons]]
------
Film_Theory|984010720
3a4,7
> 
> Film History Theory
> 
> [[Great Man Theory]]
------
Film|984010760
1c1
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Film Festivals]] [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
26c26
< :[[Western Film]]
---
> :[[Western Film]]
------
Citizen_Kane|984010762
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the filming of this, [[Orson Wells]] first film, he prevented studio executives from visiting the set.  He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his [[War of the Worlds]] radio broadcast.
> 
> Citizen Kane is often ranked as the best film ever made.
> 
> It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnet...
------
Citizen_Kane|984010785
1c1
< During the filming of this, [[Orson Wells]] first film, he prevented studio executives from visiting the set.  He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his [[War of the Worlds]] radio broadcast.
---
> During the filming of this, [[Orson Welles]] first film, he prevented studio executives from visiting the set.  He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his [[War of the Worlds]] radio broadcast.
5c5
< It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnet...
---
> It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnet...
------
Film|984010812
9c9
< [[Film Genres]]:
---
> [[Genre Film Theory|Film Genres]]:
------
Citizen_Kane|984010814
1c1
< During the filming of this, [[Orson Welles]] first film, he prevented studio executives from visiting the set.  He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his [[War of the Worlds]] radio broadcast.
---
> During the filming of this, [[Orson Welles]] first film, he prevented studio executives from visiting the set.  He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his [[The War of the Worlds]] radio broadcast.
------
Andy_Jewell|984010848
6d5
< 
11c10,21
<  
---
> 
> ----
> Hi!  It's nice to see someone else interested in biology here.  I'm the WikiPedian who created the sort-of-rambling group pages that were already here.  Since you're organizing a little differently, and probably better, than I was, I had a few questions/comments.
> 
> [[Prokaryotae]] - you say that this is a new form of [[Monera]] but I don't think that a majority has made the switch.  There doesn't seem to be any reason to, and historically such names have tended to be ignored, at least (Protoctista, Chlorophycophyta, etc).  A lot of workers tend to neglect the name altogether, since it seems to be polyphyletic.  Any reason for choosing this form?
> 
> [[Protista]] - the classification of protista has been changing a lot recently, and I think most people have more or less abandoned higher level Linnaean stuff for the time being.  [[Euglenids]] have variously been grouped as a phylum or class and referred to as the Euglenida, Euglenophyta, Euglenophyceae, etc.  Some of the groups you mention have been dropped entirely, especially the amoeboid ones, due to heavy polyphyly, and I'd been leaving those off and grouping by rough grades (flagellates, amoeboids, algae, etc).  I would love to hear if you have any good ideas on what to do, since the flat list seems wrong and what I was doing seems clunky.
> 
> Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  Also, Hominidae has been used in two senses recently: as the family containing ''Homo'' and as the lone family of Hominoidae (humans and apes).  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
> 
> Once again, thanks for showing up and helping with what's probably one of the worst sections of wikipedia. :)
> [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Film_Festivals|984010910
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the world's major film festivals:
> 
> European:
> 
> :[[Cannes Film Festival]]
> :[[Berlin Film Festival]]
> :[[Venice Film Festival]]
> 
> USA:
> 
> :[[Sundance Festival]]
------
Film|984010947
1c1
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Film Festivals]] [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
---
> [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Film Festivals]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
------
Film_Theory|984010962
7c7
< [[Great Man Theory]]
---
> [[Great Man Theory]]  (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|984011095
3c3
< Credited for each film are its producers, prior to 1950 the production company
---
> Credited for each film are its producers, prior to 1950 the production company. The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best film produced in 1999.
76c76
< *1928 [[Wings]] - Paramount Famous Lasky 
---
> *1928 [[Wings]] - Paramount Famous Lasky 
------
Auteur_Theory_Film|984011260
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This theory states that the best films have the imprint of its auteur (or author) on them.  With this assumption, the best films are those that best betray the hand of its creator.  The creator is almost always the director, but can be actors (as is the case of [[Mae West]]).
> 
> This theory was started in France in the sixties from the [[Cashiere du Cinema]] (I am not sure I spelled that right.)
> 
> Needless to say, such theory rubs screenwriters the wrong way.
> 
> Prominent people associated with this theory:
> *[[Andrew Sarris]]
------
Film_Festivals|984011394
9c9
< USA:
---
> North America:
11c11,14
< :[[Sundance Festival]]
---
> :[[Sundance Film Festival]]
> :[[Torronto Film Festival]]
> :[[Slamdance Film Festival]]
> :[[New York Film Festival]]
------
JapaneseLanguage|984011548
1,217c1
< The Japanese Language is very different from English and other European Languages.
< It is a language where sentences need no subject and adjectives can have past tenses.
< The most useful approach to Japanese study is to consider that the Japanese Language has its own internal logic, its own way of communicating, and not compare it with your own language, but accept and learn it on its own terms.
< 
< '''Japanese Pronunciation and Writing Systems.'''
< 
< 
< Japanese uses four different writing systems: ''Romaji'', ''Hiragana'', ''Katakana'', and ''Kanji''.
< '''Romanji''' means Roman letters and is the writing system that will be used here.
< Traditional Japanese is written in a combination of the other three: Hiragana, Katakana,
< and Kanji.
< 
< 
< '''Pronunciation:'''
< 
< It is traditional to think of the Japanese sound systems in terms of syllables not individual sounds. This is because their basic alphabet is a syllabary, or a list of possible syllables.
< Each of the syllables in the can be written in Japanese, Hiragana or Katakana, the two syllabaries.
< 
< '''Japanese Syllabary: Romaji'''
< 
< Basic Syllables: Vowel, Consonant plus vowel and "n".
< <pre>
< 
<                a     i     u     e     o                     N.B. Japanese vowels
<                                                              are pure sounds like
<                                                              their Italian counterparts.
<     k          ka    ki    ku    ke    ko
<     s          sa    shi   su    se    so
<     t          ta    chi   tsu   te    to                    N.B. chi, tsu
<     n          na    ni    nu    ne    no
<     h          ha    hi    fu    he    ho                    N.B. fu
<     m          ma    mi    mu    me    mo
<     y          ya          yu          yo                    N.B. no ye or yi
<     r          ra    ri    ru    re    ro
<     w          wa                                            N.B. no wi,wu,we,wo
<     n                                                        N.B. ?n?  comprises a syllable 
<                                                                   in itself
< </pre>
<       
<                                                                      
< Modified Syllables:  Consonant plus basic vowel
< <pre>
< 
<     g         ga     gi    gu    ge    go
<     z         za     ji    zu    ze    zo                    N.B. ji
<     d         da     ji    zu    de    do                    N.B. ji,zu
<     b         ba     bi    bu    be    bo
<     p         pa     pi    pu    pe    po
< 
< </pre>
< Modified Syllables: Consonant plus ya, yu, yo, or palatalized consonants.
< <pre>
< 
<     k         kya          kyu         kyo
<     s         sha          shu         sho                   N.B. sha, shi,sho
<     t         cha          chu         cho                   N.B. cha, chu, cho
<     n         nya          nyu         nyo
<     h         hya          hyu         hyo
<     m         mya          myu         myo
<     r         rya          ryu         ryo                  N.B. the Japanese "r" is 
<                                                                  between the English
<                                                                  "r" and "l.'
<     g         gya          gyu         gyo
<     z         ja           ju          jo                   N.B. ja,ju,jo
<     b         bya          byu         byo
<     p         pya          pyu         pyo
< </pre>
< 
< 
< Double Consonants:  length of two syllables
< <pre>
< 
<   kk -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
<   pp -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
<   ss -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
<   tt -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
< </pre>
< 
< 
< Long Vowels:  length of two syllables
< <pre>
<   aa -  same as ?a? but held an extra syllable.
<   ii -  same as ?i? but held an extra syllable.
<   uu -  same as ?u? but held an extra syllable.
<   ee -  same as ?e? but held an extra syllable.
<   oo -  same as ?o? but held an extra syllable.
< </pre>
< 
< 
< '''Pronunciation: Features''':
< 
< *1). In English, stressed syllables in a word are pronounced louder and longer.
< In Japanese, all syllables, with a few exceptions, are pronounced with equal length and loudness.
< *2). In Japanese, a stressed syllable is merely pronounced at a higher pitch. This is part of the Japanese intonation pattern. 
< *3). Japanese does have a distinct intonation pattern. Their intonation pattern can be heard not only in individual words, but also in whole sentences. Intonation is produced by a rise and fall in pitch over certain syllables.
< *     In the case of questions, the Japanese intonation pattern bears no relation to the 
< *English one. This is a source of a lot of confusion.
< 
< 
< '''Example: What typical Japanese syllables look like.'''
< 
< 
< A typical exchange between two people would look like this:
< Mr. Hayashi introduces Mr. Tanaka to Mr. '''Sanger'''.
< 
< <pre>
< Yamada:   Tanaka-san, kochira wa, Senga-san desu.
< Sanga:    Hajimashite, Senga desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
< Tanaka:   Hajimashite. ABC no Tanka desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
< Yamada:   Senga-san, Nupiidia no kaishain desu.
< Yamda:    Mr. Tanaka, this is Mr. Sanger.
< </pre>
< <pre>
< Sanger:   How do you do. My name is Sanger. I?m very glad to meet you.
< Tanaka:   How do you do. I am Mr. Tanaka from ABC Company. I?m very glad to meet 
<                   you.
< Yamda:    Mr. Sanger is of an employee of Nupedia.
< </pre>
< 
< 
< '''Writing System:'''
< 
< 
< The preceding conversation would be written in Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji.
< Roots of words would be written in Kanji, the traditional Japanese ideograms that
< the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like ?wa?and ?o? and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like ?Sanger,? ?Nupedia? would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
< 
< 
< '''Grammar: Features:'''
< <pre>
< 
< 1). The basic sentence structure of a Japanese sentence is
<       TOPIC: PARTICLE: COMMENT.
<       For example:
<       Kochira wa,  Sanga-san desu.
<       Kochira is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle "wa."
<       This means "as for this person."
<       The verb is "desu" meaning 'is.'
<       ?Sanga-san desu? is the comment.
<       Therefore, this loosely translates to:
<       "As for this person, (it) is Mr. Sanger."   
< 2). Japanese nouns have neither number nor gender.
<       Thus ?hon? meaning ?book? can be used for the singular or plural.
< 3). Verbs normally come at the end of a sentence.
< 4). Verbs are conjugated to show only tenses, of which there are two: the present and the 
<       past.
<       The present tense in Japanese serves the function of the simple present, the  
<       continuous present, the habitual present, and the future tense, while the past tense
<       in Japanese serves the function of the simple past tense, the present perfect and
<       the  past perfect tense.  The exact meaning is determined from the context.
< 5). Adjectives, are inflected to show the present, past, affirmative and negative.
< 6). The grammatical function of nouns like possession, direct object, indirect object etc.
<       are indicated by particles, like ?wa,? and ?no? above. They always follow the noun.
<       Particles play an extremely important function in Japanese.
< 7). Finally, Japanese has many different dialects to express different levels of politeness.
< </pre>
< 
< '''Example: Basic Japanese Sentence structure.'''
< 
< 
< Note the importance of the particles, verb tenses, and adjectives.
< 
< 
< Mr. '''Sanger''' and Mr. '''Wales''' eat at a Japanese restaurant.
< 
< 
< <pre>
< Sanger:    Sumimasen, menyuu o misete kudasai.  Please show us the menu.
< Ueitoresu: Hai, doozo.                          Certainly sir. Here you are.
<            Nomimono wa nani ga  ii desu ka.     What would you like to drink? 
< Weruzu:    Biiru ga, hosii desu.                I like beer.
< Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I?ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
< Weruzu:    Biiru o 2-hon to sukiyaki o kudasai. Two bottles of beer and some
<                                                 sukiyaki, please. 
< Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we?ll have melon.
< Ueitoresu: Hai, wakarimashita.                  I see (understood).
< 
< 
< Notes:
< <pre>
< Vocabulary:
< sumimasen     -  excuse me
< menyuu        -  menu
< hai           -  yes
< nomimono      -  beverage
< nani          -  what
< hosii         -  desirable
< ii            -  good
< biiru         -  beer
< hon           -  bottle
< dezaato       -  dessert
< meron         -  melon
< kudasai       -  please
< 
< Particles:
< wa - indicates the topic.
< ga - indicates the topic with emphasis on the topic
< o  - indicates the direct object
< ka - indicates a question
< to - and
< 
< Verbs:
< misemasu   - show
< desu       - to be (copulative) 
< wakarimasu - to understand.
< </pre>
< 
< 
<        
<  
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Japanese language]]
------
Japanese_language|984011607
1c1,207
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Japanese Language is very different from English and other European Languages.
> It is a language where sentences need no subject and adjectives can have past tenses.
> The most useful approach to Japanese study is to consider that the Japanese Language has its own internal logic, its own way of communicating, and not compare it with your own language, but accept and learn it on its own terms.
> 
> '''Japanese Pronunciation and Writing Systems.'''
> 
> 
> Japanese uses four different writing systems: ''Romaji'', ''Hiragana'', ''Katakana'', and ''Kanji''.
> '''Romanji''' means Roman letters and is the writing system that will be used here.
> Traditional Japanese is written in a combination of the other three: Hiragana, Katakana,
> and Kanji.
> 
> 
> '''Pronunciation:'''
> 
> It is traditional to think of the Japanese sound systems in terms of syllables not individual sounds. This is because their basic alphabet is a syllabary, or a list of possible syllables.
> Each of the syllables in the can be written in Japanese, Hiragana or Katakana, the two syllabaries.
> 
> '''Japanese Syllabary: Romaji'''
> 
> Basic Syllables: Vowel, Consonant plus vowel and "n".
> <pre>
> 
>                a     i     u     e     o                     N.B. Japanese vowels
>                                                              are pure sounds like
>                                                              their Italian counterparts.
>     k          ka    ki    ku    ke    ko
>     s          sa    shi   su    se    so
>     t          ta    chi   tsu   te    to                    N.B. chi, tsu
>     n          na    ni    nu    ne    no
>     h          ha    hi    fu    he    ho                    N.B. fu
>     m          ma    mi    mu    me    mo
>     y          ya          yu          yo                    N.B. no ye or yi
>     r          ra    ri    ru    re    ro
>     w          wa                                            N.B. no wi,wu,we,wo
>     n                                                        N.B. ?n?  comprises a syllable 
>                                                                   in itself
> </pre>
>       
>                                                                      
> Modified Syllables:  Consonant plus basic vowel
> <pre>
> 
>     g         ga     gi    gu    ge    go
>     z         za     ji    zu    ze    zo                    N.B. ji
>     d         da     ji    zu    de    do                    N.B. ji,zu
>     b         ba     bi    bu    be    bo
>     p         pa     pi    pu    pe    po
> 
> </pre>
> Modified Syllables: Consonant plus ya, yu, yo, or palatalized consonants.
> <pre>
> 
>     k         kya          kyu         kyo
>     s         sha          shu         sho                   N.B. sha, shi,sho
>     t         cha          chu         cho                   N.B. cha, chu, cho
>     n         nya          nyu         nyo
>     h         hya          hyu         hyo
>     m         mya          myu         myo
>     r         rya          ryu         ryo                  N.B. the Japanese "r" is 
>                                                                  between the English
>                                                                  "r" and "l.'
>     g         gya          gyu         gyo
>     z         ja           ju          jo                   N.B. ja,ju,jo
>     b         bya          byu         byo
>     p         pya          pyu         pyo
> </pre>
> 
> 
> Double Consonants:  length of two syllables
> <pre>
> 
>   kk -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   pp -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   ss -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
>   tt -  preceded by a glottal stop and held for 2 syllables.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> Long Vowels:  length of two syllables
> <pre>
>   aa -  same as ?a? but held an extra syllable.
>   ii -  same as ?i? but held an extra syllable.
>   uu -  same as ?u? but held an extra syllable.
>   ee -  same as ?e? but held an extra syllable.
>   oo -  same as ?o? but held an extra syllable.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> '''Pronunciation: Features''':
> 
> *1). In English, stressed syllables in a word are pronounced louder and longer.
> In Japanese, all syllables, with a few exceptions, are pronounced with equal length and loudness.
> *2). In Japanese, a stressed syllable is merely pronounced at a higher pitch. This is part of the Japanese intonation pattern. 
> *3). Japanese does have a distinct intonation pattern. Their intonation pattern can be heard not only in individual words, but also in whole sentences. Intonation is produced by a rise and fall in pitch over certain syllables.
> *     In the case of questions, the Japanese intonation pattern bears no relation to the 
> *English one. This is a source of a lot of confusion.
> 
> 
> '''Example: What typical Japanese syllables look like.'''
> 
> 
> A typical exchange between two people would look like this:
> Mr. Hayashi introduces Mr. Tanaka to Mr. '''Sanger'''.
> 
> <pre>
> Yamada:   Tanaka-san, kochira wa, Senga-san desu.
> Sanga:    Hajimashite, Senga desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
> Tanaka:   Hajimashite. ABC no Tanka desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
> Yamada:   Senga-san, Nupiidia no kaishain desu.
> Yamda:    Mr. Tanaka, this is Mr. Sanger.
> </pre>
> <pre>
> Sanger:   How do you do. My name is Sanger. I?m very glad to meet you.
> Tanaka:   How do you do. I am Mr. Tanaka from ABC Company. I?m very glad to meet 
>                   you.
> Yamda:    Mr. Sanger is of an employee of Nupedia.
> </pre>
> 
> 
> '''Writing System:'''
> 
> 
> The preceding conversation would be written in Hiragana, Katakana, and Kanji.
> Roots of words would be written in Kanji, the traditional Japanese ideograms that
> the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like ?wa?and ?o? and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like ?Sanger,? ?Nupedia? would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
> 
> 
> '''Grammar: Features:'''
> <pre>
> 
> 1). The basic sentence structure of a Japanese sentence is
>       TOPIC: PARTICLE: COMMENT.
>       For example:
>       Kochira wa,  Sanga-san desu.
>       Kochira is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle "wa."
>       This means "as for this person."
>       The verb is "desu" meaning 'is.'
>       ?Sanga-san desu? is the comment.
>       Therefore, this loosely translates to:
>       "As for this person, (it) is Mr. Sanger."   
> 2). Japanese nouns have neither number nor gender.
>       Thus ?hon? meaning ?book? can be used for the singular or plural.
> 3). Verbs normally come at the end of a sentence.
> 4). Verbs are conjugated to show only tenses, of which there are two: the present and the 
>       past.
>       The present tense in Japanese serves the function of the simple present, the  
>       continuous present, the habitual present, and the future tense, while the past tense
>       in Japanese serves the function of the simple past tense, the present perfect and
>       the  past perfect tense.  The exact meaning is determined from the context.
> 5). Adjectives, are inflected to show the present, past, affirmative and negative.
> 6). The grammatical function of nouns like possession, direct object, indirect object etc.
>       are indicated by particles, like ?wa,? and ?no? above. They always follow the noun.
>       Particles play an extremely important function in Japanese.
> 7). Finally, Japanese has many different dialects to express different levels of politeness.
> </pre>
> 
> '''Example: Basic Japanese Sentence structure.'''
> 
> 
> Note the importance of the particles, verb tenses, and adjectives.
> 
> 
> Mr. '''Sanger''' and Mr. '''Wales''' eat at a Japanese restaurant.
> 
> 
> <pre>
> Sanger:    Sumimasen, menyuu o misete kudasai.  Please show us the menu.
> Ueitoresu: Hai, doozo.                          Certainly sir. Here you are.
>            Nomimono wa nani ga  ii desu ka.     What would you like to drink? 
> Weruzu:    Biiru ga, hosii desu.                I like beer.
> Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I?ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
> Weruzu:    Biiru o 2-hon to sukiyaki o kudasai. Two bottles of beer and some
>                                                 sukiyaki, please. 
> Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we?ll have melon.
> Ueitoresu: Hai, wakarimashita.                  I see (understood).
> 
> 
> Notes:
> <pre>
> Vocabulary:
> sumimasen     -  excuse me
> menyuu        -  menu
> hai           -  yes
> nomimono      -  beverage
> nani          -  what
> hosii         -  desirable
> ii            -  good
> biiru         -  beer
> hon           -  bottle
> dezaato       -  dessert
> meron         -  melon
> kudasai       -  please
> 
> Particles:
> wa - indicates the topic.
> ga - indicates the topic with emphasis on the topic
> o  - indicates the direct object
> ka - indicates a question
> to - and
> 
> Verbs:
> misemasu   - show
> desu       - to be (copulative) 
> wakarimasu - to understand.
> </pre>
> 
------
George_W._Bush|984011620
24c24
< * 2001InaugurationProtests
---
> * 2001InaugurationProtests
------
Andy_Jewell|984011780
20c20
< Once again, thanks for showing up and helping with what's probably one of the worst sections of wikipedia. :)
---
> Once again, thanks for showing up and helping with what's probably one of the worst sections of wikipedia.  Plus, you did a ton of stuff on the math too. :)
------
ASCII|984011828
1c1,6
< #REDIRECT [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
---
> ASCII is a kind of computer code that someone should explain.
> 
> 
> To use ASCII here:
> 
> [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
------
Andy_Jewell|984013054
17a18,19
> [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  But I guess we'll have to keep them anyway, so this is just me whining. :)
> 
------
Mars|984013477
1,3c1
< Fourth planet from the sun.
< 
< The god of war in Greek mythology.
---
> Fourth planet from the sun.  Named for the Roman god of war, who was associated with the Greek god [[Ares]] but made out to be a glorious commander rather than a whiny coward, on account of its red color.
------
Fungi|984013806
6,7c6,10
<  Phylum [[Deuteromycota]]
<  Phylum [[Mycophycophyta]]
---
>  Phylum [[Deuteromycota]]: fungi of uncertain placement, grouped for convenience
> 
> Lichens are often given their own phylum ([[Mycophycophyta]]) but really belong to various Ascomycete and Basidiomycete lineages.
> 
> 
------
Fungi|984013877
2a3
>  Phylum [[Chytridiomycota]] - of definite relationship to the fungi, but often placed among the [[Protista]].
------
Plantae|984013928
2a3
>  Phylum [[Chlorophyta]] - paraphyletic to other groups, often placed among [[Protista]].
------
Biology|984014096
15,17c15
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".
< 
< Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution.
---
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
------
Lattice|984014107
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lattice is a SeT L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L, 
> 
>     ava=a                   a^a=a                   (idempotency laws)
>     avb=bva                 a^b=b^a                 (commutativity laws)
>     av(bvc)=(avb)vc         a^(b^c)=(a^b)^c         (associativity laws)
>     av(a^b)=a               a^(bvc)=a               (absorption laws)
> 
> If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b. Thus defined, <= forms a PartialOrder on L, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith. TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice. 
------
LatticE|984014128
1,8c1
< A lattice is a SeT L, together with two binary operations v,^, such that for any a,b,c in L, 
< 
<     ava=a                   a^a=a                   (idempotency laws)
<     avb=bva                 a^b=b^a                 (commutativity laws)
<     av(bvc)=(avb)vc         a^(b^c)=(a^b)^c         (associativity laws)
<     av(a^b)=a               a^(bvc)=a               (absorption laws)
< 
< If avb=b, or equivalently a^b=a, we say that a<=b. Thus defined, <= forms a PartialOrder on L, and moreover (L,v,^) is the unique lattice associated therewith. TotalOrderedSet''s'' and BooleanAlgebra''e'' are two important types of lattice. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Lattice]]
------
AbstractAlgebra|984014175
7c7
< * LatticEs
---
> * [[Lattice|Lattices]]
9c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
BooleanAlgebra|984014227
1c1
< A boolean algebra is a LatticE which satisfies the following properties:
---
> A boolean algebra is a [[Lattice|Lattice]] which satisfies the following properties:
------
Sapiens|984014262
1,3c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]], Genus [[Homo]], Species [[Sapiens]]
< 
< That's you.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Homo sapiens]]
------
Homo_sapiens|984014308
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Part of genus [[Homo]].  Original description was, I believe, ''nosce te ipsum''.
------
Libertarianism|984014330
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Libertarianism,'' in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, individuals should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
> 
> For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it hurts no one else.
> 
> Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarians, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government's main imperative should be: Hands off!
> 
> Libertarians prefer not to be called RightWing, and libertarianism has significant differences with both ConservatisM and LiberalisM (as those terms are used in the UnitedStates): see PoliticalSpectrum.
> 
> Many people outside the UnitedStates (and a few within it) treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.  There is such a thing as LibertarianCommunism, which is synonymous with TraditionalAnarchism.  See [http://abc123direct.com/Society/Politics/Libertarian/Libertarian.html this collection of web links] if you want to try to sort out the mess.
> 
> Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM; MinimalStatism.
------
LibertarianisM|984014350
1,11c1
< ''Libertarianism,'' in political theory, is the view that that state governs best that governs least; its function is <i>only</i> to keep people from harming each other.  In other words, individuals should be free to do anything they want, so long as they do not infringe upon the rights of others to do what they want.  The government's role is to protect those rights.
< 
< For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it hurts no one else.
< 
< Therefore, the proper functions of government might include the maintainance of the courts, the police, the military, and perhaps a few other vital functions.  But under no circumstances, according to libertarians, should government do such things as establish schools, or heavily regulate industry, or run social welfare programs.  Nor should government restrict free speech, sexual practices, gambling, or any other so-called victimless crimes.  For libertarianism, government's main imperative should be: Hands off!
< 
< Libertarians prefer not to be called RightWing, and libertarianism has significant differences with both ConservatisM and LiberalisM (as those terms are used in the UnitedStates): see PoliticalSpectrum.
< 
< Many people outside the UnitedStates (and a few within it) treat LibertarianisM as being synonymous with AnarchisM.  Most libertarians in the UnitedStates, however, do not consider themselves anarchists but, rather, advocates of MinimalStatism.  There is such a thing as LibertarianCommunism, which is synonymous with TraditionalAnarchism.  See [http://abc123direct.com/Society/Politics/Libertarian/Libertarian.html this collection of web links] if you want to try to sort out the mess.
< 
< Compare ClassicalLiberalism; ConservatisM; AnarchisM; MinimalStatism.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Libertarianism]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984014407
5c5,7
< Do we need (or have) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
---
> Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
> 
> :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit William Jefferson Clinton (this page!). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page
46a49
> * Balanced budget
85c88
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
---
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
------
Politics|984014498
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- BolshevisM -- CapitalisM -- ClassicalLiberalism -- CommunisM -- ConservatisM -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- FascisM -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- LibertarianisM -- MarxisM -- NationalSocialism -- NeoLiberalism -- NeoConservatism -- OligarchY -- PlutocracY -- RepublicanisM (and we don't mean the GOP) -- StatesRights -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|984014540
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners... 
> 
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best actor in 1999.
> 
> *1999 Kevin Spacey - [[American Beauty]]
> *1998 Roberto Benigni - [[Life Is Beautiful]]
> *1997 Jack Nicholson - [[As Good as it Gets]]
> *1996 Geoffrey Rush - [[Shine]]
> *1995 Nicolas Cage - [[Leaving Las Vegas]]
> *1994 Tom Hanks - [[Forrest Gump]]
> *1993 Tom Hanks - [[Philadelphia]]
> *1992 Al Pacino - [[Scent of a Woman]]
> *1991 Anthony Hopkins - [[The Silence of the Lambs]]
> *1990 Jeremy Irons - [[Reversal of Fortune]]
> *1989 Daniel Day Lewis - [[My Left Foot]]
> *1988 Dustin Hoffman - [[Rain Man]]
> *1987 Michael Douglas - [[Wall Street]]
> *1986 Paul Newman - [[The Color of Money]]
> *1985 William Hurt - [[Kiss of the Spider Woman]]
> *1984 F. Murray Abraham - [[Amadeus]]
> *1983 Robert Duvall - [[Tender Mercies]]
> *1982 Ben Kingsley - [[Gandhi]]
> *1981 Henry Fonda - [[On Golden Pond]]
> *1980 Robert De Niro - [[Raging Bull]]
> *1979 Dustin Hoffman - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
> *1978 Jon Voight - [[Coming Home]]
> *1977 Richard Dreyfuss - [[The Goodbye Girl]]
> *1976 Peter Finch - [[Network]]
> *1975 Jack Nicholson - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
> *1974 Art Carney - [[Harry and Tonto]]
> *1973 Jack Lemmon - [[Save the Tiger]]
> *1972 Marlon Brando - [[The Godfather]]
> *1971 Gene Hackman - [[The French Connection]]
> *1970 George C. Scott - [[Patton]]
> *1969 John Wayne - [[True Grit]]
> *1968 Cliff Robertson - [[Charly]]
> *1967 Rod Steiger - [[In the Heat of the Night]]
> *1966 Paul Scofield - [[A Man For All Seasons]]
> *1965 Lee Marvin - [[Cat Ballou]]
> *1964 Rex Harrison - [[My Fair Lady]]
> *1963 Sidney Poitier - [[Lilies of the Field]]
> *1962 Gregory Peck - [[To Kill a Mockingbird]]
> *1961 Maximilian Schell - [[Judgement at Nuremberg]]
> *1960 Burt Lancaster - [[Elmer Gantry]]
> *1959 Charlton Heston - [[Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 David Niven - [[Separate Tables]]
> *1957 Alec Guinness - [[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]
> *1956 Yul Brynner - [[The King and I]]
> *1955 Ernest Borgnine - [[Marty]]
> *1954 Marlon Brando - [[On the Waterfront]]
> *1953 William Holden - [[Stalag 17]]
> *1952 Gary Cooper - [[High Noon]]
> *1951 Humphrey Bogart - [[The African Queen]]
> *1950 Jose Ferrer - [[Cyrano de Bergerac]]
> *1949 Broderick Crawford - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
> *1948 Laurence Olivier - [[Hamlet]]
> *1947 Ronald Colman - [[A Double Life]]
> *1946 Fredric March - [[The Best Years of Our Lives]]
> *1945 Ray Milland - [[The Lost Weekend]]
> *1944 Bing Crosby - [[Going My Way]]
> *1943 Paul Lukas - [[Watch on the Rhine]]
> *1942 James Cagney - [[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]
> *1941 Gary Cooper - [[Sergeant York]]
> *1940 James Stewart - [[The Philadelphia Story]]
> *1939 Robert Donat - [[Goodbye Mr Chips|Goodbye, Mr. Chips]]
> *1938 Spencer Tracy - [[Boys Town]]
> *1937 Spencer Tracy - [[Captains Courageous]]
> *1936 Paul Muni - [[The Story of Louis Pasteur]]
> *1935 Victor McLaglen - [[The Informer]]
> *1934 Clark Gable - [[It Happende One Night]]
> *1933 Charles Laughton - [[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]
> *1932 Wallace Beery - [[The Champ]] and Frederic March - [[Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]
> *1931 Lionel Barrymore - [[A Free Soul]]
> *1930 George Arliss - [[Disraeli]]
> *1929 Warner Baxter - [[In Old Arizona]]
> *1928 Emil Jannings - [[The Last Command]] and [[The Way of All Flesh]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984014579
7c7
< :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit William Jefferson Clinton (this page!). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page
---
> :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
------
Politics|984014646
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony Capatalism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Andy_Jewell|984014744
18c18
< [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  But I guess we'll have to keep them anyway, so this is just me whining. :)
---
> [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  They're standard, so we should mention them, but wikipedia doesn't have to organize itself on an obsolete and broken system if we don't want it to.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984014847
8a9,10
> - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/Structure|984014942
1,46c1
< Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
< 
< ----
< Part 1 - Non-Contradiction
< 
< Chapter 1  - The Theme
<  - section 1 (/SectioN111)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN112)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN113)
<  - section 4 (/SectioN114)
< 
< Chapter 2  - The Chain
<  - section 1 (/SectioN121)
< 
< Chapter 3  - The Top and the Bottom
<  - section 1 (/SectioN131)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN132)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN133)
< 
< Chapter 4  - The Immovable Movers
<  - section 1 (/SectioN141)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN142)
<  - section 3 (/SectioN143)
<  - section 4 (/SectioN144)
<  - section 5 (/SectioN145)
<  - section 6 (/SectioN146)
<  - section 7 (/SectioN147)
<  - section 8 (/SectioN148)
< 
< Chapter 5  - The Climax of the D'Anconias
<  - section 1 (/SectioN151)
<  - section 2 (/SectioN152)
< 
< Chapter 6  - The Non-Commercial
< 
< Chapter 7  - The Exploiters and the Exploited
< 
< Chapter 8  - The John Galt Line
< 
< Chapter 9  - The Sacred and the Profane
< 
< Chapter 10 - Wyatt's Torch
< ----
< Part 2 - Either-Or
< 
< Part 3 - A Is A
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Structure]]
------
Academy_Awards|984015061
8,15c8,29
< 
< *[[/Best Actor]] (in a leading role) 
< *[[/Best Actress]] (in a leading role)
< 
< *[[/Best Supporting Actor]]           
< *[[/Best Supporting Actress]]
< 
< *[[/Best Director]]
---
> *[[/Best Actor|Actor in a Leading Role]]
> *[[/Best Actress|Actress in a Leading Role]]
> *[[/Best Supporting Actor|Actor in a Supporting Role]]           
> *[[/Best Supporting Actress|Actress in a Supporting Role]]
> *[[/Art Direction|Art Direction]]
> *[[/Cinematography|Cinematography]]
> *[[/Costume Design|Costume Design]]
> *[[/Directing|Directing]]
> *[[/Documentary Feature|Documentary Feature]]
> *[[/Documentary Short Subject|Documentary Short Subject]]
> *[[/Film Editing|Film Editing]]
> *[[/Foreign Language Film|Foreign Language Film]]
> *[[/Makeup|Makeup]]
> *[[/Music Original Score|Music - Original Score]]
> *[[/Music Original Song|Music - Original Song]]
> *[[/Short Film Animated|Short Film - Animated]]
> *[[/Short Film Live Action|Short Film - Live Action]]
> *[[/Sound|Sound]]
> *[[/Sound Editing|Sound Editing]]
> *[[/Visual Effects|Visual Effects]]
> *[[/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Writing - Screenplay - Adaptation]]
> *[[/Writing Screenplay Original|Writing - Screenplay - Original]]
------
Academy_Awards|984015118
3,5c3
< Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including [[/Best Picture]], [[/Best Director]], [[/Best Actor]], and [[/Best Actress]]. 
< 
< A list of awards (incomplete, please add more!):
---
> Academy Awards are nicknamed "Oscars", which is also the nickname of the statuette.  Awards are given in many categories, including the following:. 
------
Japanese_language|984017042
36c36
<     n                                                        N.B. ?n?  comprises a syllable 
---
>     n                                                        N.B. "n"  comprises a syllable 
62c62
<                                                                  "r" and "l.'
---
>                                                                  "r" and "l."
------
Japanese_language|984017220
17c17
< Each of the syllables in the can be written in Japanese, Hiragana or Katakana, the two syllabaries.
---
> Each of the syllables can be written in Japanese, in Hiragana or Katakana, the two syllabaries.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984017262
3,23d2
< ----
< 
< Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
< 
< :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
< 
< - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link
< 
< This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
< 
< But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
< 
< ----
< 
< * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
< * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
< 
< In the 1992 election, the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
< 
< :Maybe there should be a page for each election, e.g. us/Election1992, us/Election1994, etc.
< 
34,88c13
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
< 
< Indeed, and statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
< ----
< RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
< 
< The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
< 
< Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
< 
< Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
< 
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
< 
< Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
< 
< Major legislation he signed:
< * Balanced budget
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
< * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
< * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
< * Minimum wage increase
< 
< SupremeCourt appointments:
< 
< Major legislation he vetoed:
< 
< Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
< * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
< 
< :Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
< 
< * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations.
< 
< : So was legislation ever proposed?
< 
< 
< ----
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
< 
< ----
< 
< Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote [[Democrat]] sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
< 
< See also:
< CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | UnitedStates/States | 
< * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
< * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1992
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1994
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1996
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1998
< 
< Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
< --JohnAbbe
---
> /Talk
90c15
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
---
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
------
Japanese_language|984017331
55c55
<     s         sha          shu         sho                   N.B. sha, shi,sho
---
>     s         sha          shu         sho                   N.B. sha, shu,sho
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984017337
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
> 
> :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
> 
> - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link
> 
> This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
> 
> But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
> 
> ----
> 
> * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
> * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
> 
> In the 1992 election, the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
> 
> :Maybe there should be a page for each election, e.g. us/Election1992, us/Election1994, etc.
> 
> ----
> Statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
> ----
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
> 
> The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
> 
> Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
> 
> Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
> 
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
> Major legislation he signed:
> * Balanced budget
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
> * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
> * Minimum wage increase
> 
> SupremeCourt appointments:
> 
> Major legislation he vetoed:
> 
> Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
> * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
> 
> :Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
> 
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations.
> 
> : So was legislation ever proposed?
> 
> 
> ----
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
> 
> ----
> 
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote [[Democrat]] sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
> 
> See also:
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | UnitedStates/States | 
> * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
> * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1992
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1994
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1996
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1998
> 
> Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
> --JohnAbbe
> 
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
------
WikiPediaProcess|984017470
1,37c1
< Comment on the Wiki''''Pedia process here.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to raise a policy issue, raise it here.
< ----
< '''Policy issues that have their own pages'''
< * PolicyPolicy
< * RefactoringPolicy
< * NamingConventions
< * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
< * LinkingToExternalImages
< * RulesToConsider
< ----
< ----
< '''Unclassified, random, but interesting WikiPediaProcess discussion:'''
< 
< The NirvanA page included two entries, one for the band NirvanA and one for the BuddhisT concept of NirvanA.  I created two new pages, one for each entry, and on the NirvanA page linked to both with a brief description of the contents of each page.  Because there are countless cases where we will have this problem (AlabamA is a state and a band, PaulSimon is a singer and a Senator from IllinoiS, et cetera ad infinitum) some solution will be necessary.  WikiPedians can check out my solution and comment.
< ----
< One fun way to WikiOff is to hit the RandomPage link, then search whatever page comes up for a topic that hasn't been edited yet.  Then you add something for that topic.
< ----
< Let's post links to PublicDomainResources (for both images and text)!
< ----
< I would guess that the policy is that the contents is licensed by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. Since I think that this information is important I will boldly add that to the HomePage. --LinusTolke
< 
< You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< '''Q'''. For the Math articles there is a crying need to have more symbols, like the Greek alphabet, Integral and Summation symbols, infinity, and more, as well as the capability to show graphs, depict figures, and much more. Are there any tools to do this, other than linking to a another web page? RoseParks
< 
< '''A.'''  I can't answer the question definitively but I can say that you can easily link to images elsewhere.  So, perhaps as a temporary solution, you can always upload, elsewhere, an image, then link to it from [[Wikipedia]].  The wiki programmers must know more, though...
< 
< '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
< ----
< I think we should discuss references (bibliography but not only) if this going to be an encyclopedia. 
< 
< *Human knowledge is still very much in books.
< *To avoid bias it seems important to gather evidence and to acknowledge the sources we have drawn our knowledge upon.----
< '''One Way to Process a Wiki'''
< First try...[[Play]]
< ----
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia policy]]
------
Wikipedia_policy|984017596
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Comment on Wikipedia processes and policies here.  There are many unofficial policies and few official ones.  Your opinions are solicited on all manner of policy questions.  Or, if you simply want to raise a policy issue, raise it here.
> ----
> '''Policy issues that have their own pages'''
> * PolicyPolicy
> * RefactoringPolicy
> * NamingConventions
> * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
> * LinkingToExternalImages
> * RulesToConsider
> ----
> ----
> '''Unclassified, random, but interesting policy discussion:'''
> 
> The NirvanA page included two entries, one for the band NirvanA and one for the BuddhisT concept of NirvanA.  I created two new pages, one for each entry, and on the NirvanA page linked to both with a brief description of the contents of each page.  Because there are countless cases where we will have this problem (AlabamA is a state and a band, PaulSimon is a singer and a Senator from IllinoiS, et cetera ad infinitum) some solution will be necessary.  WikiPedians can check out my solution and comment.
> ----
> One fun way to WikiOff is to hit the RandomPage link, then search whatever page comes up for a topic that hasn't been edited yet.  Then you add something for that topic.
> ----
> Let's post links to PublicDomainResources (for both images and text)!
> ----
> I would guess that the policy is that the contents is licensed by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense. Since I think that this information is important I will boldly add that to the HomePage. --LinusTolke
> 
> You were very right to do so.  I am astonished that no one thought to do so before now. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> '''Q'''. For the Math articles there is a crying need to have more symbols, like the Greek alphabet, Integral and Summation symbols, infinity, and more, as well as the capability to show graphs, depict figures, and much more. Are there any tools to do this, other than linking to a another web page? RoseParks
> 
> '''A.'''  I can't answer the question definitively but I can say that you can easily link to images elsewhere.  So, perhaps as a temporary solution, you can always upload, elsewhere, an image, then link to it from [[Wikipedia]].  The wiki programmers must know more, though...
> 
> '''A2.'''  The ''next'' release of the wiki software (usemod 0.92) will allow special characters to be used like &infin; for the infinity symbol, &Delta; for the Delta symbol (the triangle), etc.  See the [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html list of standard characters] for more information.  Most graphical browsers should implement these common symbols.  For now, and for other symbols later, an image link to another site will be required.  (I'm not sure if image uploading will make it into the next release, but it is a planned feature.)  --CliffordAdams (working on the wiki code today)
> ----
> I think we should discuss references (bibliography but not only) if this going to be an encyclopedia. 
> 
> *Human knowledge is still very much in books.
> *To avoid bias it seems important to gather evidence and to acknowledge the sources we have drawn our knowledge upon.----
> '''One Way to Process a Wiki'''
> First try...[[Play]]
------
Japanese_language|984017772
82,86c82,86
<   aa -  same as ?a? but held an extra syllable.
<   ii -  same as ?i? but held an extra syllable.
<   uu -  same as ?u? but held an extra syllable.
<   ee -  same as ?e? but held an extra syllable.
<   oo -  same as ?o? but held an extra syllable.
---
>   aa -  same as "a" but held an extra syllable.
>   ii -  same as "i" but held an extra syllable.
>   uu -  same as "u" but held an extra syllable.
>   ee -  same as "e" but held an extra syllable.
>   oo -  same as "o" but held an extra syllable.
111d110
< Yamda:    Mr. Tanaka, this is Mr. Sanger.
113a113,114
> 
> Yamda:    Mr. Tanaka, this is Mr. Sanger.
126c127
< the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like ?wa?and ?o? and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like ?Sanger,? ?Nupedia? would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
---
> the Japanese borrowed from the Chinese. Particles, like "wa"and "o" and verb inflections would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Hiragana, one of the two Japanese syllabaries. Foreign words like "Sanger," "Nupedia" would be spelled out syllable by syllable in Katakana, the second Japanese syllabary.
139c140
<       ?Sanga-san desu? is the comment.
---
>       "Sanga-san desu" is the comment.
143c144
<       Thus ?hon? meaning ?book? can be used for the singular or plural.
---
>       Thus "hon" meaning "book" can be used for the singular or plural.
153c154
<       are indicated by particles, like ?wa,? and ?no? above. They always follow the noun.
---
>       are indicated by particles, like 'wa,' and "no' above. They always follow the noun.
172c173
< Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I?ll have the "sukiyaki."                  
---
> Sanga:     Sukiyaki wa, ii desu                 I'll have the "sukiyaki."                  
175c176
< Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we?ll have melon.
---
> Sanger:    Dezaato wa, meron ga ii desu.        For dessert we'll have melon.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984018146
1,12d0
< Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
< 
< :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
< 
< - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link
< 
< This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
< 
< But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
< 
< ----
< 
19c7
< 
---
> ::''I agree, but think harder about what to call the pages.  See [[naming conventions]]. --LS''
21a10
> ::''I totally agree! -- LS''
22a12,13
> ::''The following information should be massively and fairly rewikified and refactored and then reinjected into the main page.''
> 
75c66,89
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
---
> ::''Resist the temptation to write old style links.  They are very annoying. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
> 
> ----
> ----
> 
> Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
> 
> ::''No, I don't think so.  Such standards are too hard to formulate and extremely fallible, as well as being anti-wiki generally.  Just let things develop naturally first, anyway, and see what happens a few months or years down the road. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
> 
> - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link.
> 
> ::''But please don't start in on a "US" page...there's already a [[United States]] page.''
> 
> This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
> 
> ::''Renaming is something that system administrators can do.  We're just exploring it now.  And please, do use [[Free Links]] rather than that ugly old mashed together style of linking, which looks silly. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
> 
> ::See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
------
Wikipedia_policy|984018173
6c6
< * NamingConventions
---
> * [[Naming conventions]]
35c35
< First try...[[Play]]
---
> First try...[[Play]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984018399
6a7
> 
89c90
< ::See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
---
> ::''See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
------
JimboWales|984018632
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See what you can do if you study real hard, Jimmy...learn to order beer in Japan...:-).
> RoseParks
------
SandBox|984025511
90a91
> testtesttest!!!!!!!
------
Richard_Smith|984025879
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> My Ph.D is in [[Virology]] from the University of [[Glasgow]]. I'm now a postdoc specializing in [[immunology]] at Stanford in [[California]]
> 
> There's more about me at [http://www.stanford.edu/~smithr/ my home page], or you can mail me [mailto:smithr@stanford.edu here]
------
Encyclopedia|984028840
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter of shelf space.
> 
> When the computers become more and more common Encyclopedias is by their structure of words and cross references extremely well suited for moving the contents from the book format to the computer format. Firstly because it is a lot easier to carry around and find what you are looking for and secondly because it is possible to include sounds and films as illustrations.
> ----
> These Encyclopedias are available to look at using the Internet:
> 
> [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
------
EncycloPedia|984028859
1,7c1
< An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter of shelf space.
< 
< When the computers become more and more common Encyclopedias is by their structure of words and cross references extremely well suited for moving the contents from the book format to the computer format. Firstly because it is a lot easier to carry around and find what you are looking for and secondly because it is possible to include sounds and films as illustrations.
< ----
< These Encyclopedias are available to look at using the Internet:
< 
< [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Encyclopedia]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Andes|984029062
1,3c1
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has a villa in the Andes.  This is mentioned in /SectioN141.
< 
< /SebastianDAnconia's first estate in the New World was a shack in the foothills of the Andes (/SectioN152).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Andes]]
------
AtlasShrugged/AntiDogEatDogRule|984029093
1,6c1
< The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the /NationalAllianceofRailroads in /SectioN145, allegedly to prevent "destructive competition" between railroads.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by /OrrenBoyle as a favor for [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the /PhoenixDurango out of /Colorado.
< 
< The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is dicussed in:
<   /SectioN145
<   /SectioN146
<   /SectioN148
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Argentina|984029119
1,5c1
< Argentina is the home of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and the ancestral home of his family.  /SebastianDAnconia fled to Argentina to escape the Inquisition.
< 
< Argentina is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Argentina]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984029604
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] reluctantly attends a party thrown by his wife on their anniversary.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] has invited her circle of friends, which includes the "heart of the country's culture", the intellectual elite whose opinions are shaping the times.  This is a bit of an insult, though, as the whole country is falling apart.  As these friends speak, we are introduced to the ideas that are causing the collapse of society.
> 
> [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Dr. Simon Pritchett]], the nation's leading philosopher, declares man is a miserable bit of protoplasm, there are no standards, reason is a superstition, the purpose of philosophy is to prove we can know nothing and find no meaning in life, and that when people realize this they will be more "tractable."
> 
> [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]], the literary leader of the age, declares that suffering is the essence of life, and that free will, achievement, and happiness are laughable concepts. Plot, he says, is a primitive vulgarity in literature.  He later says, that the machine age has destroyed man's humanity, observing that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] runs a railroad rather than practicing the beautiful art of the handloom and bearing children.
> 
> [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]], the editor, declares thah property rights are a superstition.
> 
> [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]], president of [[/Friends of Global Progress|Friends of Global Progress]], declares that need is the only consideration, and that this consideration justifies anything, that ideas are just hot air - what is needed is action, and that right is whatever is good for society.
> 
> [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is shocked by the arrival of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  When they talk he is formal and distant, quite unlike the easy manner that characterized their business dealings.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is taken aback by his manner and is puzzled when he gives her the cold shoulder throughout the evening.
> 
> [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] argues with [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] after he discovers she has invited [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] to the party.  [[/Bertram Scudder|Scudder]] had trashed [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] in an article.  He cannot understand why she would invite a man who is so hostile to him, and why [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] seems to enjoy his anger.  He think there is some riddle to her character that he should try to understand.  Just then, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] enters, who will in due time provide [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] with the answer to this riddle.
> 
> A self-made man, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] despises [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] as a worthless profligate who does not know how to deserve the great gift of inherited wealth.  He tells [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] to "keep that man away from me."  But [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] has come for the specific purpose of meeting [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]], and it is only a matter of time until he corners him.
> 
> First, though, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] circulates, and as [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] friends spout out their inanities, he glibly refutes them.
> 
> When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does meet Rearden, their talk is pregnant.  Francisco asks why Rearden is willing to support those who are helpless, who never show their gratitude towards him, and who, in fact, openly denounce him as an evil exploiter.  He leaves this an open question.
> 
> Rearden at this point of the story is aware that there is something wrong with the world, but does not know what, while Francisco does know.  In this, their first meeting, Francisco tries to place in Rearden's mind the seeds of understanding.  The reader is in the same position as Rearden, and the scene is meant to do the same for the reader, preparing us for the explicit revelation of [[Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]].
> 
> As the scene reaches a climax, Dagny is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make him aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when Rearden responds to her with indifference, and upset when Francisco is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of Lillian's guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears Mort Liddy's bastardize treatment of her favorite song, Halley's Fourth Concerto.
> 
> At that moment, Dagny hears Lillian denigrating the bracelet of Rearden Metal that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  Lillian jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from Rearden Metal, but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, Dagny removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  Lillian is taken aback but accepts the trade.  Hank Rearden is furious at Dagny's gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in the next section.
> 
> * Setting
> Rearden's home in Philadelphia.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984029929
20c20
< When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does meet Rearden, their talk is pregnant.  Francisco asks why Rearden is willing to support those who are helpless, who never show their gratitude towards him, and who, in fact, openly denounce him as an evil exploiter.  He leaves this an open question.
---
> When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does meet [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]], their talk is pregnant.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] asks why [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is willing to support those who are helpless, who never show their gratitude towards him, and who, in fact, openly denounce him as an evil exploiter.  He leaves this an open question.
22c22
< Rearden at this point of the story is aware that there is something wrong with the world, but does not know what, while Francisco does know.  In this, their first meeting, Francisco tries to place in Rearden's mind the seeds of understanding.  The reader is in the same position as Rearden, and the scene is meant to do the same for the reader, preparing us for the explicit revelation of [[Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]].
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at this point of the story is aware that there is something wrong with the world, but does not know what, while [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] does know.  In this, their first meeting, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] tries to place in [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden's]] mind the seeds of understanding.  The reader is in the same position as [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]], and the scene is meant to do the same for the reader, preparing us for the explicit revelation of [[Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]].
24c24
< As the scene reaches a climax, Dagny is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make him aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when Rearden responds to her with indifference, and upset when Francisco is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of Lillian's guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears Mort Liddy's bastardize treatment of her favorite song, Halley's Fourth Concerto.
---
> As the scene reaches a climax, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] responds to her with indifference, and upset when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears [[Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy's]] bastardized treatment of her favorite song, [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].
26c26
< At that moment, Dagny hears Lillian denigrating the bracelet of Rearden Metal that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  Lillian jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from Rearden Metal, but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, Dagny removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  Lillian is taken aback but accepts the trade.  Hank Rearden is furious at Dagny's gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in the next section.
---
> At that moment, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] hears [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] denigrating the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]] of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] is taken aback but accepts the trade.  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] is furious at [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in [[/Section162|Section162]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984030141
26c26
< At that moment, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] hears [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] denigrating the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]] of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] is taken aback but accepts the trade.  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] is furious at [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/theory of sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in [[/Section162|Section162]].
---
> At that moment, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] hears [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] denigrating the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]] of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] is taken aback but accepts the trade.  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] is furious at [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in [[/Section162|Section162]].
29c29
< Rearden's home in Philadelphia.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden's]] home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].
30a31,51
> * Characters
> [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
> [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]
> [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
> [[/Busienssman 1|Busienssman 1]]
> [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]]
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
> [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
> [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
> [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]
> [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
> [[/John Galt|John Galt]] - legend mentioned
> [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
> [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]]
> [[/Mrs. Whitcomb|Mrs. Whitcomb]]
> [[/Newspaperman 1|Newspaperman 1]]
> [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
> [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]]
> [[/Spinster|Spinster]]
> [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] - mentioned
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984030178
32,51c32,51
< [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
< [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]
< [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
< [[/Busienssman 1|Busienssman 1]]
< [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]]
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
< [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
< [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
< [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]
< [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
< [[/John Galt|John Galt]] - legend mentioned
< [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
< [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]]
< [[/Mrs. Whitcomb|Mrs. Whitcomb]]
< [[/Newspaperman 1|Newspaperman 1]]
< [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
< [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]]
< [[/Spinster|Spinster]]
< [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] - mentioned
---
>  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
>  [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]
>  [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]]
>  [[/Busienssman 1|Busienssman 1]]
>  [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]]
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
>  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  [[/John Galt|John Galt]] - legend mentioned
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]]
>  [[/Mrs. Whitcomb|Mrs. Whitcomb]]
>  [[/Newspaperman 1|Newspaperman 1]]
>  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
>  [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]]
>  [[/Spinster|Spinster]]
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] - mentioned
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dr._Simon_Pritchett|984030611
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry Unoversity|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, that there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
> 
> Dr. Pritchett appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dr._Simon_Pritchett|984030638
1c1
< Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry Unoversity|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, that there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
---
> Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, that there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dr._Simon_Pritchett|984030667
1c1
< Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, that there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
---
> Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984030775
9a10
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett/Simon Prichett]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984030783
10c10
<  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett/Simon Prichett]
---
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett/Simon Prichett]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984030794
10c10
<  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett/Simon Prichett]]
---
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Prichett]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984030815
3a4
>  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Balph_Eubank|984031153
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Balph Eubank is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that his is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read.  What people <i>want</i> to read, he says, is irrelevent.  He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies.
> 
> Balph Eubank appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984031189
8c8
< [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]], the editor, declares thah property rights are a superstition.
---
> [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]], the editor, declares that property rights are a superstition.
51c51
<  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] - mentioned
---
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]] - mentioned
------
Philosophy|984031427
20a21,23
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''
> '''[[FrenchMaterialism]]:'''
> 
------
Philosophy|984031450
22c22
< '''[[FrenchMaterialism]]:'''
---
> '''[[FrenchMaterialism]]'''
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bertram_Scudder|984031481
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bertram Scudder write editorials for [[/The Future|The Future]].  He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation.  He wrote a hatchet job on [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] called [[/The Octopus|The Octopus]].  He is also vocal in support of the [[/Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]].
> 
> Bertram Scudder appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Philosophy|984031483
22c22
< '''[[FrenchMaterialism]]'''
---
> '''FrenchMaterialism
------
Philosophy|984031510
21,22c21
< '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''
< '''FrenchMaterialism
---
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984031545
24c24
< As the scene reaches a climax, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] responds to her with indifference, and upset when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears [[Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy's]] bastardized treatment of her favorite song, [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].
---
> As the scene reaches a climax, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] responds to her with indifference, and upset when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears [[Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy's]] bastardized treatment of her favorite song, [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984031567
26c26
< At that moment, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] hears [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] denigrating the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]] of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  [[Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] is taken aback but accepts the trade.  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] is furious at [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in [[/Section162|Section162]].
---
> At that moment, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] hears [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] denigrating the [[/Bracelet|bracelet]] of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that she has been wearing all night as a joke.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] jokes that it is supposed to be priceless because it is the first thing ever made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but she would gladly exchange it for a common diamnond bracelet any time.  In an act of supreme audacity, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] removes her diamond bracelet and offers it in exchange.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] is taken aback but accepts the trade.  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] is furious at [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] gall.  This scene symbolized Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] that will be elucidated in [[/Section162|Section162]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984031600
35c35
<  [[/Busienssman 1|Busienssman 1]]
---
>  [[/Businessman 1|Businessman 1]]
------
FrenchMaterialism|984032505
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.        
> :With Man a Machine, [[La Mettrie]] opposed [[Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Spinoza]] and [[Newton]], with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  He agreed with the idea of [[Locke]] that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  To [[La Mettrie]], the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettries [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  However, [[La Mettrie]] left many questions unanswered.    
> :[[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all.  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  [[Helvetius]] created his RationalEthics (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number.  He also said the keys to this society are universal education and an enlightened legislation.  
> :[[Diderot]]s dynamic nature told him that things do not just change; things change for the better.  This novelist, art critic and editor of the most famous product of the [[Enlightenment]], [[The Great Encyclopedia]], saw nature as a totality of creative changes.  Each of these changes reverberates through all of nature to maintain a constant newness.  This view agreed with [[Diderot]]s idea of progress that concurred with [[Helvetius]] elimination of errors, but proposed that we should also expand and create new institutions.  [[Diderot]]s [[psychology]] differed slightly from [[Locke]]s as he saw the mind as active, forming general ideas then using those ideas to create more knowledge and ideas.        
> :The [[Baron d Holbach]]s SystemofNature applied the MechanisticMaterialism to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
> :The [[Marquis de Concorcet]]s [[Sketch of Intellectual Progress]] popularized progress as a natural law and sketched the key to such progress to be the advancement of [[science]] and its application to [[government]] and [[social order]].  The first philosophé to call for [[gender equity]], Condorcet also stated that [[history]] was moving towards a goal which would be the outcome of the application of [[reason]], a sort of scientific [[utopia]].    
> :Finally, the [[Physiocrats]] seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[French]] [[economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]][ that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].  
------
FrenchMaterialism|984032651
1,7c1,13
< :By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.        
< :With Man a Machine, [[La Mettrie]] opposed [[Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Spinoza]] and [[Newton]], with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  He agreed with the idea of [[Locke]] that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  To [[La Mettrie]], the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettries [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  However, [[La Mettrie]] left many questions unanswered.    
< :[[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all.  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  [[Helvetius]] created his RationalEthics (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number.  He also said the keys to this society are universal education and an enlightened legislation.  
< :[[Diderot]]s dynamic nature told him that things do not just change; things change for the better.  This novelist, art critic and editor of the most famous product of the [[Enlightenment]], [[The Great Encyclopedia]], saw nature as a totality of creative changes.  Each of these changes reverberates through all of nature to maintain a constant newness.  This view agreed with [[Diderot]]s idea of progress that concurred with [[Helvetius]] elimination of errors, but proposed that we should also expand and create new institutions.  [[Diderot]]s [[psychology]] differed slightly from [[Locke]]s as he saw the mind as active, forming general ideas then using those ideas to create more knowledge and ideas.        
< :The [[Baron d Holbach]]s SystemofNature applied the MechanisticMaterialism to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
< :The [[Marquis de Concorcet]]s [[Sketch of Intellectual Progress]] popularized progress as a natural law and sketched the key to such progress to be the advancement of [[science]] and its application to [[government]] and [[social order]].  The first philosophé to call for [[gender equity]], Condorcet also stated that [[history]] was moving towards a goal which would be the outcome of the application of [[reason]], a sort of scientific [[utopia]].    
< :Finally, the [[Physiocrats]] seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[French]] [[economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]][ that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].  
---
> By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   
>      
> With Man a Machine, [[La Mettrie]] opposed [[Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Spinoza]] and [[Newton]], with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  He agreed with the idea of [[Locke]] that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  To [[La Mettrie]], the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettries [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  However, [[La Mettrie]] left many questions unanswered.    
> 
> [[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all.  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  [[Helvetius]] created his RationalEthics (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number.  He also said the keys to this society are universal education and an enlightened legislation.  
> 
> [[Diderot]]s dynamic nature told him that things do not just change; things change for the better.  This novelist, art critic and editor of the most famous product of the [[Enlightenment]], [[The Great Encyclopedia]], saw nature as a totality of creative changes.  Each of these changes reverberates through all of nature to maintain a constant newness.  This view agreed with [[Diderot]]s idea of progress that concurred with [[Helvetius]] elimination of errors, but proposed that we should also expand and create new institutions.  [[Diderot]]s [[psychology]] differed slightly from [[Locke]]s as he saw the mind as active, forming general ideas then using those ideas to create more knowledge and ideas.        
> 
> The [[Baron d Holbach]]s SystemofNature applied the MechanisticMaterialism to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
> 
> The [[Marquis de Concorcet]]s [[Sketch of Intellectual Progress]] popularized progress as a natural law and sketched the key to such progress to be the advancement of [[science]] and its application to [[government]] and [[social order]].  The first philosophé to call for [[gender equity]], Condorcet also stated that [[history]] was moving towards a goal which would be the outcome of the application of [[reason]], a sort of scientific [[utopia]].    
> 
> Finally, the [[Physiocrats]] seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[French]] [[economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]][ that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].  
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984032868
3c3,11
< (The person who wrote the above knows nothing about what he's talking about.  If you know more, please replace this with something more accurate!)
---
> (The person who wrote the above knows nothing about what he's talking about.  If you know more, please replace this with something more accurate!)
> 
> The person who wrote the above is not that far wrong. They just left out some detail.
> 
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by Claude E. Shannon of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p sub i log p sub i) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
> 
> Library Science, on the other hand, is exactly the "study of stuff having to do with libraries." Strictly speaking, Library Science consists of academic studies (most typically surveys) concerning how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to particular libraries at particular points in time. Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day to day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship does not generally generate any new knowledge, and its purpose is not to advance any field or discipline. It is only occasionally that librarians engage in Library Science, and then usually incidental to their jobs as librarians. The study of Library Science is, however, part of the requisite training of librarians.
> 
> The term "Library and Information Science" is not really meant to be broken into these separate pieces. Library and Information Science is a hybrid academic field that grew out of library schools' fight for survival in the electronic age. The politics of academia, issues of status and prestige, issues of perceived obsolescence and doubtless other forces created these programs. Programs in Library and Information Science are interdisciplinary, overlapping with the fields of systems' analysis, computer science, statistics and various parts of the social sciences. Persons interested in the information science of Shannon are more likely to be electrical engineers or mathematicians; persons interested in database design are more likely to be computer scientists. Library and Information Science produces "information specialists" who may be librarians, indexers and abstractors, database managers, multi-media specialists or specialist researchers such as legal, medical or other technical researchers. The field of Library and Information Science is not defined by its output of information specialists, however, but by the "information specialists" who remain in academia teaching and doing research, by its literature, its journals and all the other ways in which an academic discipline is defined, the study of which, by the way, falls within the scope of Library and Information Science!
------
Philosophy|984032881
16c16
< '''MetaPhysics:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''EthIcs:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''EthIcs:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism [etc. continue the list please]
------
HistoricalMaterialism|984033265
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As [[Karl Marx]] began to think on the [[logic]] of [[capitalism]], he developed the concept of historical materialism based on the fact that human beings have entered into the following productive relations in historical order: hunting and gathering food, the relation of lord and serf, and the contract between [[labor]] and [[capital]].  Marx saw socialism as the next step in this evolution of production as he examined the logic of capitalism by understanding the concepts of mode of production, exploitation, surplus value, overproduction, and commodity fetishism.
>   
> Marxs historical materialism is based on a historical understanding of how surplus is delivered from the producer to the ruling class.  This [[materialism]] is made of two elements: the forces, or the [[technology]] and [[labor]]involved in production both economic and political, and the relations, which control the means of production or have economic ownership.  The products of these two elements are the social-economic classes and their inherent problems.  [[Hunter-gatherer]] societies were structured so that the economic forces and the political forces were one and the same.  The elements of force and relation operated together, harmoniously.  In the [[feudal]] society, the political forces of the kings and nobility had their relations with the economic forces of the villages through [[serfdom]].  The serfs, although not free, were tied to both forces and, thus, not completely alienated.  [[Capitalism]], Marx argued, completely separates the economic and political forces, leaving them to have relations through a limiting [[government]].  To Marx, democracy steals power from the [[working class]] as it is controlled by the elite.  This does not make sense to Marx, so he begins to look at the object of [[capitalism]] through pure logic using the LassiezFaire [[capitalist]] model.  
> 	
> Marx begins by examining the exchange value and the use value of products.  He is dissatisfied with the supply and demand curve, as it does not show the power relationships involved.  Marx sees that labor is not being paid according to the use value, but according to the commodity price, or the exchange value.  Labor has now become a commodity, because the capitalist has paid him according to the exchange value in order to gain a profit, the purpose of capitalism.  The difference between what the capitalist pays the worker and the value of what the worker produces is called the surplus value, value that the worker never sees and the capitalist receives because he put up the capital in the first place.  Capitalists achieve this surplus value through division of labor, which not only deskills the laborer, but also demoralizes him after he works day after day producing more than he ever did before the advent of capitalism, yet for equal or even less money.  Labor begins to be exploited by a system that legalizes the capitalist’s appropriation of what is produced by labor, who works for however long of a period of time that the capitalist tells him to work. 
> 	
> The capitalist finds ways to further this exploitation through technology.  Machines, designed to produce more than a multitude laborers, are run by one man who is paid less.  As an industry is saturated with such machines, a crisis of overproduction ensues when industry produces more product than the market has the purchasing power to obtain.  This market saturation causes a production cutback, which results in unemployment.  This downsizing occurs because the capitalist believes labor wants more money from the surplus value than he is willing to pay.  Some capitalists do not see the trend and go out of business, or are bought out by bigger firms.  This results in a concentration of capital.  This cycle, Marx argues, cannot be stopped.
> 	
> To Marx, this mode of production is completely irrational because it contradicts it’s own necessity towards growth through the destruction of it’s smaller elements and although it seems to have eliminated real scarcity through overproduction, there is really an artificial scarcity maintained due to the lack of purchasing power.  Marx sees us all as dependent upon each other, even though the power is in the hands of the large corporations working above and through government.  This is power that these corporations have because the worker is there to produce.  
> 	
> Marx believed that as capitalism expanded globally, we would begin to question its rationality as the difference between the stuff that it made lessened, thus making us less and less happy with it.  Capitalism first commodified the labor, and then, it commodified our daily life by expanding inwardly to be a part of everything in our lives to the point that it convinces us that all of the extras in the stuff we obtain is worth the stress and pressures of the capitalist system.  This is what Marx calls the [[fetishism of commodities]].  
> 	
> Marx sees that we gain such a fetish for commodities that we give up all control.  We do not control how the job is done, we do not control how the product is produced, priced, distributed or chosen, and we begin to compete as rivals for these commodities.  This loss of control produces a Hegelian alienation which Marx, as a Young Hegelian, transforms into exploitation when he begins to look at the social structures that account for alienation.  
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984034488
7c7
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by Claude E. Shannon of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p sub i log p sub i) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by Claude E. Shannon of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984035632
7c7
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by Claude E. Shannon of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984035880
7c7
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of entropy ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. (see Markoff Chains). The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information in the abstract. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984035981
7c7
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] ( H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984036370
2a3,4
> ----
> 
3a6,7
> 
> ----
------
Library_and_Information_Science|984036550
13c13
< Library Science, on the other hand, is exactly the "study of stuff having to do with libraries." Strictly speaking, Library Science consists of academic studies (most typically surveys) concerning how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to particular libraries at particular points in time. Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day to day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship does not generally generate any new knowledge, and its purpose is not to advance any field or discipline. It is only occasionally that librarians engage in Library Science, and then usually incidental to their jobs as librarians. The study of Library Science is, however, part of the requisite training of librarians.
---
> Library Science, on the other hand, is exactly the "study of stuff having to do with libraries." Strictly speaking, Library Science consists of academic studies (most typically surveys) concerning how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to particular libraries at particular points in time. Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day-to-day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship does not generally generate any new knowledge, and its purpose is not to advance any field or discipline. It is only occasionally that librarians engage in Library Science, and then usually incidental to their jobs as librarians. The study of Library Science is, however, part of the requisite training of librarians.
------
ASCII|984039806
1c1,3
< ASCII is a kind of computer code that someone should explain.
---
> ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers
>  to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate
>  with each other and to efficiently process and store data.
6c8
< [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
---
> [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
------
ASCII|984039829
1,2c1
< ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers
<  to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate
---
> ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate
------
ASCII|984039841
1,2c1
< ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate
<  with each other and to efficiently process and store data.
---
> ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store data.
------
Code|984039873
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT CodE
------
RequestedArticles|984040025
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] -- [[complex numbers]] -- [[interpolation]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- 
15c15
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] -- [[MST3K]] -- [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
---
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
21c21
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[UPU]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[HDTV]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Al Gore]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Economics|984040211
12,13c12
< [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]]
< [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]]
---
> [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]]
------
BusinessAndEconomics|984040259
2c2
< * EconomicS
---
> * [[Economics]]
------
CountriesM|984040289
6a7,8
> * [[Maldives]]
> 
10a13,14
> * [[Mauritius]]
> 
15c19
< * [[Monogolia]]
---
> * [[Mongolia]]
19c23
< * [[Mozambique]]
---
> * [[Mozambique]]
------
BusinessAndEconomics|984040292
1c1
< * BusinessSchools
---
> * [[Business Schools]]
------
Business_Schools|984040314
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT BusinessSchools
------
CountriesS|984040362
2a3,4
> * [[Sierra Leone]]
> 
4a7,8
> * [[Slovenia]]
> 
21c25
< * [[Syria]]
---
> * [[Syria]]
------
BusinessAndEconomics|984040424
3,6c3,6
< * /EducatioN
< * ElectonicCommerce
< * /Ethics
< * FinanceAndInvestment
---
> * [[/Education]]
> * [[Electonic Commerce]]
> * [[/Ethics]]
> * [[Finance And Investment]]
8,9c8,9
< * IntellectualProperty
< * IndustrY
---
> * [[Intellectual Property]]
> * [[Industry]]
11,12c11,12
< * ManagementScience
< * MarketingAndAdvertising
---
> * [[Management Science]]
> * [[Marketing And Advertising]]
14c14
< * TradE
---
> * [[Trade]]
------
CountriesJ|984040477
0a1,2
> * [[Jamaica]]
> 
3c5
< * [[Jordan]]
---
> * [[Jordan]]
------
CountriesW|984040517
1a2,3
> 
> * [[Wallis and Fortuna]]
------
MathematicalGroup|984041851
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A mathematical group is an algebraic entity containing a set of objects and a mathematical operation on those objects. There is a set of rules the objects and operation must obey. Here, A, B, and C, and I are objects in the group, and @ is the group operation.
> <P>
> The rules:
> * <B>Closure</B> If A and B are in the group, A @ B is also in the group.
> * <B>Identity</B> There is a special object in the group called I with the properties A @ I = A  and also I @ A = A whenever A is in the group.
> * <B>Inverse</B> Whenever A is in the group, there is a corrensponding element called the inverse of A also in the group. If A @ B = I and also B @ A = I, then we say B is the inverse of A.
> * <B>Associativity</B> ( A @ B ) @ C = A @ ( B @ C ) whenever A, B, C are in the group.
> <P>
> Examples of mathematical groups:
> * [[integers under addition]]
> * [[real numbers under addition]]
> * [[real numbers except zero under multiplication]]
> * [[integers modulo a prime integer under addition]]
> * [[a group of rotations in three dimensions]]
> * [[a Lie group]]
> * one of the [[sporadic finite simple groups]]
> <P>
> As with other abstract algebraic entities, the point of mathematical groups is that you attempt to prove things about groups assuming only the basic properties of mathematical groups given in the definition. That way whatever you prove is useful for all mathematical groups, not just the one you are thinking about at the moment.
> <P>
> There are other abstract algebraic entities that are groups, but also have additional properties. Some of the more commonly encountered ones are:
> * [[Abelian groups]]
> * [[Mathematical rings]]
> * [[Mathematical fields]]
> 
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984041898
13c13
< :MathematicalGroup -- WaweLets -- FractaL -- Surreals -- KnotTheory -- MiniMax -- MonteCarloMethod
---
> :MathematicalGroup -- WaveLets -- FractaL -- Surreals -- KnotTheory -- MiniMax -- MonteCarloMethod
------
AbstractAlgebra|984042029
3c3
< * MathematicalGrouPs
---
> * MathematicalGroup
------
AbstractAlgebra|984042134
4,5c4,5
< * RinGs and ModulEs
< * FielDs and VectorSpaces
---
> * [[Mathematical rings]] and ModulEs
> * [[Mathematical fields]] and VectorSpaces
------
AbstractAlgebra|984042198
4,5c4,5
< * [[Mathematical rings]] and ModulEs
< * [[Mathematical fields]] and VectorSpaces
---
> * RinGs and ModulEs
> * FielDs and VectorSpaces
------
AbstractAlgebra|984042334
3c3
< * MathematicalGroup
---
> * MathematicalGrouP
------
Frisian_language|984042425
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
------
Frisian_language|984042603
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[Low German]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
------
Field|984044375
49c49
< *The RealNumbers= '''R.''' .
---
> *The [[Real numbers]]= '''R.''' .
51c51
< *The ComplexNumbers '''C'''={x: x=a+bi, where a,b belong to '''R''', and i=sqrt(-1)}.
---
> *The [[Complex numbers]] '''C'''={x: x=a+bi, where a,b belong to '''R''', and i=sqrt(-1)}.
------
SandBox|984044444
1c1,17
< Try it? a castle.
---
> Try it? a castle.----
> I am....
> 
> <pre>
>                                 *
>                               * * 
>                             * * *
>                                *
>                            ***   ***
>                            * ***** *
>                            *       *
>                            * �   � *
>                            *       *
>                            *   �   *
>                            *       *
>                            *********
> </pre>
91c107
< testtesttest!!!!!!!
---
> testtesttest!!!!!!!
------
SandBox|984044552
39c39
< ? I made a little box in the SandBox
---
> � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!
------
RequestedArticles|984044587
19c19
< <b>Music: </b>[[grunge music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b>[[Grunge Music]]
------
Stamp_collecting|984044600
3c3
< [[Filately]] is a more formal term for stamp collecting.
---
> [[Philately]] is a more formal term for stamp collecting.
5c5
< A stamp collector is known as a [[Filatelist]].
---
> A stamp collector is known as a [[Philatelist]].
------
RequestedArticles|984044670
19c19
< <b>Music: </b>[[Grunge Music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Rock Music]] -- [[Heavy Metal Music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul Music]] -- [[Funk Music]]
------
MathematicalGroup|984045147
24a25
> You are repeating pages that already exist: see MathematicalGrouP RoseParks
------
MathematicalGroup|984045379
23c23
< * [[Mathematical fields]]
---
> * [[Mathematical fields]]----
25c25,26
< You are repeating pages that already exist: see MathematicalGrouP RoseParks
---
> You are repeating pages that already exist: see MathematicalGrouP.
> The operation has to be binary, You have to prove the uniqueness of the identity and inverse. Our math pages are usually very precise...Let's keep it that way. RoseParks
------
Popular_Music|984045885
15,16c15,16
< *[[Rock Music]]
< *[[Heavy Metal Music]]
---
> *[[Rock music]]
> *[[Heavy metal music]]
18,19c18,19
< *[[Soul Music]]
< *[[Funk Music]]
---
> *[[Soul music]]
> *[[Funk music]]
21c21
< well, you get the idea...
---
> well, you get the idea...
------
Science_Fiction_Film|984045958
5c5
< [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[Things to Come]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[Things to Come]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune]] -- [[The Terminator]] -- [[The Abyss]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
RequestedArticles|984045961
19c19
< <b>Music: </b> [[Rock Music]] -- [[Heavy Metal Music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul Music]] -- [[Funk Music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]]
------
Richard_Smith|984046284
3c3,7
< There's more about me at [http://www.stanford.edu/~smithr/ my home page], or you can mail me [mailto:smithr@stanford.edu here]
---
> There's more about me at [http://www.stanford.edu/~smithr/ my home page], or you can mail me [mailto:smithr@stanford.edu here]-----
> 
> Welcome, Dr. Smith. Maybe you could post your office hours here...:-).
> I would really like to know what diseases/ conditions are considered auto-immune?
> Beyond HIV, Rheumatoid Arthritis...RoseParks
------
Yahoo|984046390
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A vile and savage creature, filthy and with unpleasant habits, resembling human beings far too closely for the liking of the narrator of [[Gulliver's Travels]], who finds the calm and rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s far preferable.
> 
> 2. A popular Internet [[Search Engine|search engine]]. One wonders why they chose to use that particular name.
------
Houyhnhm|984046440
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A race of intelligent horses described in the last part of [[Gulliver's Travels]] 
------
Houyhnhm|984046528
1,2c1
< 
< A race of intelligent horses described in the last part of [[Gulliver's Travels]] 
---
> A race of intelligent horses described in the last part of [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]] 
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|984046546
6c6
< G in a NonEmpty SeT and “*” is a BinaryOperation, such that:
---
> G in a NonEmpty SeT and  *  is a BinaryOperation, such that:
17,21c17,22
< *	Suppose there were two elements, e and e’ (G,*), such that for all a in (G,*)
<         a*e=e*a=e and a*e’=e’*a=a.
< *	Then e*e’=e’ by the definition of identity element (3).
< *	And e*e’=e, also by the definition of the identity element (3).
< *	Then e=e’.
---
> *	Suppose there were two elements, e<sub>1</sub> and e<sub>2</sub> in (G,*), such that for all a in (G,*) i.e.
> ** a*e<sub>1</sub>=e<sub>1</sub>*a=a.    (proposition P1)
> ** a*e<sub>2</sub>=e<sub>2</sub>*a=a.    (proposition P2)
> *	Then e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub> = e<sub>1</sub>  by the definition of identity element (3) (P1).
> *	And e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub> = e<sub>2</sub>, also by the definition of the identity element (3) (P2).
> *	Then e<sub>1</sub>=e<sub>2</sub> .
29,34c30,35
< *	Suppose there are two elements, y and y’ in (G,*) such that for x, an element of    (G,*), y*x=x*y=e and y’*x=x*y’=e.
< *	Then y’=y’*e, by definition of identity element (3).
< *	Then y’=y’*(x*y), since x*y=e.
< *	Then y’=(y’*x)*y, by the associativity property of (G,*) (2).
< *	Then y’=e*y, since y’*x=e
< *	Then y’=y, since e is the identity element (3).
---
> *	Suppose there are two elements, y and y  in (G,*) such that for x, an element of    (G,*), y*x=x*y=e and y *x=x*y =e.
> *	Then y =y *e, by definition of identity element (3).
> *	Then y =y *(x*y), since x*y=e.
> *	Then y =(y *x)*y, by the associativity property of (G,*) (2).
> *	Then y =e*y, since y *x=e
> *	Then y =y, since e is the identity element (3).
------
Yahoo|984046580
1c1
< 1. A vile and savage creature, filthy and with unpleasant habits, resembling human beings far too closely for the liking of the narrator of [[Gulliver's Travels]], who finds the calm and rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s far preferable.
---
> 1. A vile and savage creature, filthy and with unpleasant habits, resembling human beings far too closely for the liking of the narrator of [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]], who finds the calm and rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s far preferable.
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|984046604
20,21c20,21
< *	Then e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub> = e<sub>1</sub>  by the definition of identity element (3) (P1).
< *	And e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub> = e<sub>2</sub>, also by the definition of the identity element (3) (P2).
---
> *	Then e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub>=e<sub>2</sub>  by the definition of identity element (3) (P1).
> *	And e<sub>1</sub>*e<sub>2</sub>=e<sub>1</sub>, also by the definition of the identity element (3) (P2).
------
RequestedArticles|984046926
13c13
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[virtual machine]] -- [[virtual memory]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[virtual machine]] -- [[virtual memory]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
------
Alaska|984047881
7c7
< Purchased from Russia for $5,000,000? in 18??.
---
> At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [United States Senate] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov])
------
Games|984048512
1,12c1,2
< Card Games
< * [[Canasta]]
< * [[ContractBridge]]
< * [[Go Fish]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Old Maid]]
< * [[Poker]]
< * [[Solitaire]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Spit]]
< * [[Gin Rummy]]
< * [[Grass]]
---
> Activities designed to entertain people
> see [[Games/Cards]] -- [[Games/Board]] -- [[Games/Letter]] -- [[Games/Casino]] -- [[Games/RolePlaying]] -- [[Games/TradingCard]] -- [[Games/TableTop]]
------
Games/Cards|984048537
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Card Games
> * [[Canasta]]
> * [[ContractBridge]]
> * [[DuplicateBridge]]
> * [[Go Fish]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Old Maid]]
> * [[Poker]]
> * [[Solitaire]]
> * [[Spades]]
> * [[Spit]]
> * [[Gin Rummy]]
> * [[Grass]]
> 
> 
------
Games/Cards|984048565
1c1
< Card Games
---
> Card [[Games]]
------
Utopia|984048610
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Title of a book by [[Thomas More]], the name is derived from the Greek, meaning "Nowhere". A fictional depiction of a rationally organised society, the title has since been used as a generic word to describe both works of fiction in which the author's theories of a better way to organise society are dramatised, and actual communities founded in attempts to put such theories into practice. The theories generally revolve around a more equitable distribution of goods, frequently  with the total abolition of money, and citizens only doing work which they enjoy, leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts and sciences. The sewers in a utopia ''never'' need unblocking.
> 
> Examples of utopias:
> 
> The section in [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]] by [[Jonathan Swift]] depicting the calm, rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s, is certainly utopian, but it is meant to contrast with that of the [[Yahoo|yahoos]], who represent the worst that the human race can do. 
> 
> [[Looking Backward]], by [[Edward Bellamy]]
> 
> [[News from Nowhere]], by [[William Morris]]; see also the [[Arts and Crafts Movement]] founded to put his ideas into practice
> 
> A large number of books by [[H.G. Wells]]
> 
> [[Aldous Huxley]]s book [[Island]]. (His most famous work, [[Brave New World]] could perhaps be considered a utopia, as the people in that society are certainly happy, but it is more generally regarded by critics as a [[Dystopia|dystopian]] [[Satire|satire]], as they actually have no choice in whether they are happy or not.)
> 
> [[B.F. Skinner]]'s [[Walden Two]]
> 
> ( This list can't possibly be a complete one, but it's something to get started on.
> Do the [[Shakers]] count as a utopian community? And wasn't there  one called something like  "New Harmony" founded by Robert Owen?)
> 
------
RequestedArticles|984048656
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[utopia]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Games|984048688
1,2c1
< Activities designed to entertain people
< see [[Games/Cards]] -- [[Games/Board]] -- [[Games/Letter]] -- [[Games/Casino]] -- [[Games/RolePlaying]] -- [[Games/TradingCard]] -- [[Games/TableTop]]
---
> People play games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.
4,14c3
< Board Games
< * [[Alquerque]]
< * [[Checkers]]
< * [[Chess]]
< * [[Chinese Checkers]]
< * [[Go]]
< * [[Hex]]
< * [[Mancala]]
< * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
< * [[Othello - Reversi]]
< * [[Abalone]]
---
> see [[Games/Cards]] -- [[Games/Board]] -- [[Games/Letter]] -- [[Games/Casino]] -- [[Games/RolePlaying]] -- [[Games/TradingCard]] -- [[Games/TableTop]]
------
Games/Board|984048711
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Board [[Games]]
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Checkers]]
> * [[Chess]]
> * [[Chinese Checkers]]
> * [[Go]]
> * [[Hex]]
> * [[Mancala]]
> * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
> * [[Othello - Reversi]]
> * [[Abalone]]
> 
> 
------
Games|984048783
3,8c3,9
< see [[Games/Cards]] -- [[Games/Board]] -- [[Games/Letter]] -- [[Games/Casino]] -- [[Games/RolePlaying]] -- [[Games/TradingCard]] -- [[Games/TableTop]]
< 
< Letter Games
< * CrossWords
< * Scrabble
< * UpWords
---
> *[[Games/Cards]]
> *[[Games/Board]]
> *[[Games/Letter]]
> *[[Games/Casino]]
> *[[Games/RolePlaying]]
> *[[Games/TradingCard]]
> *[[Games/TableTop]]
------
Games/Letter|984048807
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Letter [[Games]]
> * CrossWords
> * Scrabble
> * UpWords
> 
> 
------
Games|984048845
11,15d10
< Casino Games
< * [[Craps]]
< * [[Roulette]]
< * [[Games of Chance]]
< 
------
Games/Casino|984048865
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Casino [[Games]]
> * [[Craps]]
> * [[Roulette]]
> * [[Games of Chance]]
> 
> 
------
Games|984048901
11,21d10
< [[Roleplaying Games]]
< * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masqerade]]
< * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocaylpse]]
< * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage:The Ascension]]
< * [[Kult]]
< * [[Midgard]]
< * [[Shadowrun]]
< * [[Cyberpunk]]
< * [[Paranoia]]
< * [[Call of Cthullhu]]
< * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984048930
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roleplaying [[Games]]
> * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masqerade]]
> * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocaylpse]]
> * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage:The Ascension]]
> * [[Kult]]
> * [[Midgard]]
> * [[Shadowrun]]
> * [[Cyberpunk]]
> * [[Paranoia]]
> * [[Call of Cthullhu]]
> * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
> 
------
Games|984048961
12,17d11
< [[Trading Card Games]]
< * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
< 
------
Games/TradingCard|984048986
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Trading Card [[Games]]
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
> 
> 
------
Games|984049016
12,31d11
< Tabletop Games
< * [[Mah Jongg]]
< * [[Minature Wargaming]]
< ** [[Warhammer]]
< ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
< ** [[Flintloque]]
< * [[CoSims]]
< ** [[Axis and Allies]]
< ** [[Samurai Swords]]
< ** [[World in Flames]]
< ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
< * [[Blood Bowl]]
< * [[Monopoly]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Robo Rally]]
< * [[Civilization]]
< * [[Merchant of Venus]]
< * [[Outpost]]
< * [[Settlers of Catan]]
------
Games/TableTop|984049043
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tabletop [[Games]]
> * [[Mah Jongg]]
> * [[Minature Wargaming]]
> ** [[Warhammer]]
> ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
> ** [[Flintloque]]
> * [[CoSims]]
> ** [[Axis and Allies]]
> ** [[Samurai Swords]]
> ** [[World in Flames]]
> ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
> * [[Blood Bowl]]
> * [[Monopoly]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Robo Rally]]
> * [[Civilization]]
> * [[Merchant of Venus]]
> * [[Outpost]]
> * [[Settlers of Catan]]
> 
------
Games/Cards|984049170
3,4c3,5
< * [[ContractBridge]]
< * [[DuplicateBridge]]
---
> * Bridge
> **[[ContractBridge]]
> **[[DuplicateBridge]]
8c9,11
< * [[Poker]]
---
> * Poker
> **[[Draw Poker]]
> **[[Stud Poker]]
------
Games/Cards|984049193
4,5c4,5
< **[[ContractBridge]]
< **[[DuplicateBridge]]
---
> **[[Contract Bridge]]
> **[[Duplicate Bridge]]
------
Games|984049240
10,11c10
< 
< 
---
> *[[Games/Computer]]
------
Games/Board|984049350
1a2
> * [[Abalone]]
5a7
> * [[Clue]]
8a11
> * [[Monopoly]]
11c14
< * [[Abalone]]
---
> * [[Scrabble]]
------
Chess|984049527
1c1
< Chess a game which is some thousand years old.
---
> Chess is a game which is some thousand years old.
8c8
< * chessboard with figures
---
> * chessboard with [[Chess Pieces]]
------
Chess_Pieces|984049730
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Chess]], there are two equivalent sets of pieces at the beginning of the game, each with its own pattern of movement.
> 
> *King
> *King's pieces
> **Bishop
> **Knight
> **Rook
> *Queen
> *Queen's pieces
> **Bishop
> **Knight
> **Rook
> *Pawns (8)
------
Chess_Pieces|984049822
3c3
< *King
---
> *[[Chess/King]]
5,8c5,8
< **Bishop
< **Knight
< **Rook
< *Queen
---
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> *[[Chess/Queen]
10,13c10,13
< **Bishop
< **Knight
< **Rook
< *Pawns (8)
---
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> *[[Chess/Pawn]]s (8)
------
Chess_Pieces|984049849
8c8
< *[[Chess/Queen]
---
> *[[Chess/Queen]]
------
Citizen_Kane|984050094
5c5
< It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnet...
---
> It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnat, the real life Randoplh Hearst. He was so angry about this movie that not a single newspaper or station of his media conglomerate was allowed to review the movie...
------
Citizen_Kane|984050114
5c5
< It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnat, the real life Randoplh Hearst. He was so angry about this movie that not a single newspaper or station of his media conglomerate was allowed to review the movie...
---
> It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnat, the real life Randolph Hearst. He was so angry about this movie that not a single newspaper or station of his media conglomerate was allowed to review the movie...
------
Chess/King|984050221
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Each King in [[Chess]] represents the prize the opposition seeks to win, and therefore almost always plays a defensive role. 
> *Its movements are restricted to the immediately adjacent squares of the [[Chess/Board]] except for the special move called ''castling'' in which the King and a [[Chess/Rook]] move simultaneously. 
> *The King may not make a move that would expose itself to attack and must, if possible, move out of attack. 
> *When the King cannot evade attack, it is said to be ''checkmated'' and the game ends with the attacker declared the winner.
------
Chess|984050303
8c8
< * chessboard with [[Chess Pieces]]
---
> * [[Chess/Board]] with [[Chess/Pieces]]
------
Chess_Pieces|984050343
1,13c1
< In [[Chess]], there are two equivalent sets of pieces at the beginning of the game, each with its own pattern of movement.
< 
< *[[Chess/King]]
< *King's pieces
< **[[Chess/Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Rook]]
< *[[Chess/Queen]]
< *Queen's pieces
< **[[Chess/Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Rook]]
< *[[Chess/Pawn]]s (8)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Chess/Pieces]]
------
Chess/Pieces|984050363
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Chess]], there are two equivalent sets of pieces at the beginning of the game, each with its own pattern of movement.
> 
> *[[Chess/King]]
> *King's pieces
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> *[[Chess/Queen]]
> *Queen's pieces
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> *[[Chess/Pawn]]s (8)
------
Great_Man_Theory|984050407
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Film Theory]]
------
Chess|984050411
8c8
< * [[Chess/Board]] with [[Chess/Pieces]]
---
> * [[Chess Board]] with [[Chess Pieces]]
------
Chess_Board|984050436
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Chess/Board]]
------
Great_Man_Theory|984050486
1c1
< This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Film Theory]]
---
> This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
------
Film_Theory|984050627
7c7,10
< [[Great Man Theory]]  (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
---
> [[Great Man Theory]]  
> (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
> 
> No. It is similar to it but focuses on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
------
Chess/Board|984050941
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The board used in [[Chess]] consists of 8 rows and 8 columns of squares arranged in alternating colors, the most common version being [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm red and black]. 
> 
> :In English commentary, the columns are labeled by the occupying piece in the original position of row 1 and the rows by the numbers 1 to 8 starting from the player's side. This means that each cell can be addressed in two ways, depending on the point of view establshed. Moves are described by indicating the piece moved and the destination cell.
> 
> :In European commentary, the columns are labeled by the letters A to H and the rows by numbers 1 to 8, thus providing a standard notation. Moves are indicated by citing the origin and destination cells.
------
Chess/Board|984051135
5c5,25
< :In European commentary, the columns are labeled by the letters A to H and the rows by numbers 1 to 8, thus providing a standard notation. Moves are indicated by citing the origin and destination cells.
---
> :In European commentary, the columns are labeled by the letters A to H and the rows by numbers 1 to 8, thus providing a standard notation. Moves are indicated by citing the origin and destination cells.
> 
> The pieces are arranged in rows 1 and 2 as follows:
> *Row 1
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Queen]] or [[Chess/King]]
> **[[Chess/King]] or [[Chess/Queen]]
> **[[Chess/Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook]]
> *Row 2
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]
------
Chess/Board|984051233
7,8c7,8
< The pieces are arranged in rows 1 and 2 as follows:
< *Row 1
---
> The pieces are arranged in rows 1 and 2 (or 8 and 7 for ''black'') as follows:
> *Row 1 (or 8)
12,13c12,13
< **[[Chess/Queen]] or [[Chess/King]]
< **[[Chess/King]] or [[Chess/Queen]]
---
> **[[Chess/Queen]] (red) or [[Chess/King]] (black)
> **[[Chess/King]] (red) or [[Chess/Queen]] (black)
17c17
< *Row 2
---
> *Row 2 (or 7)
------
Chess/Queen|984051486
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Queen in [[Chess]] is the most powerful piece. 
> *Originally positioned at the side of the [[Chess/King]], she can move in a straight line vertically, horizontally, or diagonally.
> *Her range is limited only by other pieces of either side. 
> *The opponent's limiting pieces may be captured by occupying the cell in question and removing the opponent's piece.
------
MathematicalGrouP|984051541
91a92,95
> 
> '''Answer''':  No.  The rational number 0 is in Q, but does not have a multiplicative inverse.  If we add modify the constraint such that neither a or b may be 0 (i.e. the SeT is Q excluding 0, denoted Q\{0}) then (Q\{0},*) do form a group.  The inverse of a/b is b/a, and the remainder of the group axioms are simple to check.
> 
> (Q,*) does form a SemiGroup (i.e. a group lacking inverses)
------
Chess/Bishop|984051683
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The bishop in [[Chess]] moves only on a diagonal limited by pieces of either side. 
> *The bishop must remain on the same color square as in the original position.
> *The bishop captures by replacing an opponent's piece within its range.
> 
------
Chess/Knight|984051904
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The knight in [[Chess]] moves in a limited form, exactly one square horizontally or vertically and one square diagonally in either order.
> *The knight is only limited by its sister pieces on its target cell.
> *The knight is not obstructed by intervening pieces, it can move even when completely surrounded.
> *The knight captures by replacing the opponent's piece on a destination cell.
------
Chess/Rook|984052069
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The rook in [[Chess]] moves horizontally or vertically, forward or back, until limited by an intervening piece.
> *The rook captures an opponent's piece by occupying the cell where it stands.
> *The rook participates in a special move called ''castling'' with the [[Chess/King]].
> 
> 
------
Chess/Pawn|984052340
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The pawn in [[Chess]] moves in one of three ways:
> *On its first move, a pawn may advance two cells forward if it is not obstructed by another piece.
> *On subsequent moves, a pawn advances exactly one cell forward if not obstructed.
> *A pawn may capture an opponent's piece that is placed either to the right or left diagonally.
> 
> A pawn which reaches the opposite home row is promoted to queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses.
------
Chess|984052383
28c28
< /FamousPlayers
---
> /FamousPlayers /Board /Pieces
------
Chess/Board|984052447
18,25c18,25
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]
---
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
> **[[Chess/Pawn]]
------
Chess|984052521
26,28c26,34
< *See also:
< 
< /FamousPlayers /Board /Pieces
---
> */FamousPlayers 
> */Board 
> */Pieces
> **/King
> **/Queen
> **/Rook
> **/Knight
> **/Bishop
> **/Pawn
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/The_arts|984055299
1c1,99
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :700 The arts 
> :701 Philosophy & theory 
> :702 Miscellany 
> :703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :704 Special topics 
> :705 Serial publications 
> :706 Organizations & management 
> :707 Education, research, related topics 
> :708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
> :709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :710 Civic & landscape art 
> :711 Area planning (Civic art) 
> :712 Landscape architecture 
> :713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
> :714 Water features 
> :715 Woody plants 
> :716 Herbaceous plants 
> :717 Structures 
> :718 Landscape design of cemeteries 
> :719 Natural landscapes 
> :720 [[Architecture]] 
> :721 Architectural structure 
> :722 Architecture to ca. 300 
> :723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
> :724 Architecture from 1400 
> :725 Public structures 
> :726 Buildings for religious purposes 
> :727 Buildings for education & research 
> :728 Residential & related buildings 
> :729 Design & decoration 
> :730 Plastic arts Sculpture 
> :731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
> :732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
> :733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
> :734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
> :735 Sculpture from 1400 
> :736 Carving & carvings 
> :737 Numismatics & sigillography 
> :738 Ceramic arts 
> :739 Art metalwork 
> :740 Drawing & decorative arts 
> :741 Drawing & drawings 
> :742 [[Perspective]] 
> :743 Drawing & drawings by subject 
> :744 Not assigned or no longer used 
> :745 Decorative arts 
> :746 Textile arts 
> :747 Interior decoration 
> :748 Glass 
> :749 Furniture & accessories 
> :750 Painting & paintings 
> :751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
> :752 Color 
> :753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
> :754 Genre paintings 
> :755 Religion & religious symbolism 
> 
> :757 Human figures & their parts 
> :758 Other subjects 
> :759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
> :760 Graphic arts Printmaking & prints 
> :761 Relief processes (Block printing) 
> 
> :763 Lithographic (Planographic) processes 
> :764 Chromolithography & serigraphy 
> :765 Metal engraving 
> :766 Mezzotinting & related processes 
> :767 Etching & drypoint 
> 
> :769 Prints 
> :770 [[Photography]] & photographs 
> :771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
> :772 Metallic salt processes 
> :773 Pigment processes of printing 
> :774 Holography 
> 
> :778 Fields & kinds of photography 
> :779 Photographs 
> :780 [[Music]] 
> :781 General principles & musical forms 
> :782 Vocal music 
> :783 Music for single voices The voice 
> :784 Instruments & Instrumental ensembles 
> :785 Chamber music 
> :786 Keyboard & other instruments 
> :787 Stringed instruments (Chordophones) 
> :788 Wind instruments (Aerophones) 
> 
> :790 Recreational & performing arts 
> :791 Public performances 
> :792 Stage presentations 
> :793 [[Games|Indoor games & amusements]] 
> :794 Indoor games of skill 
> :795 [[Games of chance]] 
> :796 Athletic & outdoor sports & games 
> :797 Aquatic & air sports 
> :798 Equestrian sports & animal racing 
> :799 Fishing, hunting, shooting 
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|984055507
36,37c36
< ----
< 
---
> (700 the arts moved)
42,43d40
< ----
< 
51,149d47
< 
< :700 The arts 
< :701 Philosophy & theory 
< :702 Miscellany 
< :703 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< :704 Special topics 
< :705 Serial publications 
< :706 Organizations & management 
< :707 Education, research, related topics 
< :708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
< :709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< :710 Civic & landscape art 
< :711 Area planning (Civic art) 
< :712 Landscape architecture 
< :713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
< :714 Water features 
< :715 Woody plants 
< :716 Herbaceous plants 
< :717 Structures 
< :718 Landscape design of cemeteries 
< :719 Natural landscapes 
< :720 [[Architecture]] 
< :721 Architectural structure 
< :722 Architecture to ca. 300 
< :723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
< :724 Architecture from 1400 
< :725 Public structures 
< :726 Buildings for religious purposes 
< :727 Buildings for education & research 
< :728 Residential & related buildings 
< :729 Design & decoration 
< :730 Plastic arts Sculpture 
< :731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
< :732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
< :733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
< :734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
< :735 Sculpture from 1400 
< :736 Carving & carvings 
< :737 Numismatics & sigillography 
< :738 Ceramic arts 
< :739 Art metalwork 
< :740 Drawing & decorative arts 
< :741 Drawing & drawings 
< :742 Perspective 
< :743 Drawing & drawings by subject 
< :744 Not assigned or no longer used 
< :745 Decorative arts 
< :746 Textile arts 
< :747 Interior decoration 
< :748 Glass 
< :749 Furniture & accessories 
< :750 Painting & paintings 
< :751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
< :752 Color 
< :753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
< :754 Genre paintings 
< :755 Religion & religious symbolism 
< 
< :757 Human figures & their parts 
< :758 Other subjects 
< :759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
< :760 Graphic arts Printmaking & prints 
< :761 Relief processes (Block printing) 
< 
< :763 Lithographic (Planographic) processes 
< :764 Chromolithography & serigraphy 
< :765 Metal engraving 
< :766 Mezzotinting & related processes 
< :767 Etching & drypoint 
< 
< :769 Prints 
< :770 [[Photography]] & photographs 
< :771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
< :772 Metallic salt processes 
< :773 Pigment processes of printing 
< :774 Holography 
< 
< :778 Fields & kinds of photography 
< :779 Photographs 
< :780 [[Music]] 
< :781 General principles & musical forms 
< :782 Vocal music 
< :783 Music for single voices The voice 
< :784 Instruments & Instrumental ensembles 
< :785 Chamber music 
< :786 Keyboard & other instruments 
< :787 Stringed instruments (Chordophones) 
< :788 Wind instruments (Aerophones) 
< 
< :790 Recreational & performing arts 
< :791 Public performances 
< :792 Stage presentations 
< :793 Indoor games & amusements 
< :794 Indoor games of skill 
< :795 [[Games of chance]] 
< :796 Athletic & outdoor sports & games 
< :797 Aquatic & air sports 
< :798 Equestrian sports & animal racing 
< :799 Fishing, hunting, shooting 
------
Chess/King|984056156
2c2
< *Its movements are restricted to the immediately adjacent squares of the [[Chess/Board]] except for the special move called ''castling'' in which the King and a [[Chess/Rook]] move simultaneously. 
---
> *Its movements are restricted to the immediately adjacent squares of the [[Chess/Board|board]] except for the special move called ''castling'' in which the King and a [[Chess/Rook|Rook]] move simultaneously. 
4c4
< *When the King cannot evade attack, it is said to be ''checkmated'' and the game ends with the attacker declared the winner.
---
> *When the King cannot evade attack, it is said to be ''checkmated'' and the game ends with the attacker declared the winner.
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/The_arts|984056236
94c94
< :795 [[Games of chance]] 
---
> :795 [[Games of Chance]] 
------
Chess|984056284
24c24
< Also of note: In 199?, a computer defeated the world champion ? for the first time ever.
---
> Also of note: In 199?, a computer ([[IBM]]'s updated [[Deep Blue]]) defeated the world champion [[Gary Kasparov]] for the first time ever.
34c34
< **/Pawn
---
> **/Pawn
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/The_arts|984056347
10a11
> 
20a22
> 
30a33
> 
40a44
> 
50a55
> 
57d61
< 
63d66
< 
69d71
< 
70a73
> 
76d78
< 
78a81
> 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/The_arts|984056455
0a1,2
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
> 
------
Dictionary|984056457
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bunch of words defined in terms of each other.
------
Primates|984056976
4,10c4,10
<    Family [[Lemuridae]]
<    Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
<    Family [[Indridae]]
<    Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
<    Family [[Galagonidae]]
<    Family [[Loridae]]
<    Family [[Megaladapidae]]
---
>     Family [[Lemuridae]]
>     Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
>     Family [[Indridae]]
>     Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
>     Family [[Galagonidae]]
>     Family [[Lorisidae]]
>     Family [[Megaladapidae]]
12,17c12,17
<    Family [[Tarsiidae]]
<    Family [[Cebidae]]
<    Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
<    Family [[Callitrichidae]]
<    Family [[Hylobatidae]]
<    Family [[Hominidae]]
---
>     Family [[Tarsiidae]]
>     Family [[Cebidae]]
>     Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
>     Family [[Callitrichidae]]
>     Family [[Hylobatidae]]
>     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]]
------
Pongidae|984057078
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Pongidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Pongo]]
>  Genus [[Pan]]
>  Genus [[Gorilla]]
>  Genus [[Homo]]
------
Cheirogaleidae|984057242
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
>  Genus [[Microcebus]]
>  Genus [[Mirza]]
>  Genus [[Cheirogaleus]]
>  Genus [[Allocebus]]
>  Genus [[Phaner]]
------
Lemuridae|984057327
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Lemuridae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Lemur]]
>  Genus [[Petterus]]
>  Genus [[Hapalemur]]
>  Genus [[Varecia]]
>  Genus [[Lepilemur]]
------
Canada|984057380
3c3
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
---
> [[/History]]
------
Indridae|984057399
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Indridae]]
> 
> Contins Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Avahi]]
>  Genus [[Propithecus]]
>  Genus [[Indri]]
------
Daubentoniidae|984057450
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Daubentonia]]
------
Canada/History|984057473
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
------
Lorisidae|984057596
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Lorisidae]]
> 
> Contins Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Loris]]
>  Genus [[Nycticebus]]
>  Genus [[Perodicticus]]
>  Genus [[Arctocebus]]
>  Genus [[Galago]]
>  Genus [[Otolemur]]
>  Genus [[Euoticus]]
>  Genus [[Galagoides]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|984057624
216c216
< :971 General history of North America Canada 
---
> :971 General history of North America [[Canada/History|Canada]] 
------
Tarsiidae|984057646
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Tarsiidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Tarsius]]
> 
------
Callitrichidae|984057758
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Callithricidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Genus [[Callithrix]]
>  Genus [[Cebuella]]
>  Genus [[Saguinus]]
>  Genus [[Leontopithecus]]
>  Genus [[Callimico]]
------
Cebidae|984057913
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Cebidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
> Genus [[Cebus]]
> Genus [[Aotus]]
> Genus [[Callicebus]]
> Genus [[Samiri]]
> Genus [[Pithecia]]
> Genus [[Cacajao]]
> Genus [[Chiropotes]]
> Genus [[Alouatta]]
> Genus [[Ateles]]
> Genus [[Brachyteles]]
> Genus [[Lagothrix]]
------
Cercopithecidae|984058120
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  Subfamily Cercopithecinae
>    [[Genus Macaca]]
>    [[Genus Cercocebus]]
>    [[Genus Papio]]
>    [[Genus Mandrillus]]
>    [[Genus Theropithecus]]
>    [[Genus Cercopithecus]]
>    [[Genus Miopithecus]]
>    [[Genus Allenopithecus]]
>    [[Genus Erythrocebus]]
>  Subfamily Colobinae
>    [[Genus Colobus]]
>    [[Genus Procolobus]]
>    [[Genus Pygathrix]]
>    [[Genus Simias]]
>    [[Genus Nasalis]]
>    [[Genus Prebytis]]
> 
------
Hylobatidae|984058172
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hylobatidae]]
> 
> Contains Geni :
> 
>  [[Genus Hylobates]]
------
Hominidae|984058402
1c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pongidae]]
3d2
< Genus [[Homo]]
------
Philosophical_Movements|984059950
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philosophical Movements represent mass changes in periodic thought towards a common theme by a group of people and is usually ethnic in origin.
> 
> A short list of philosophical movements would include
> 
> *FrenchMaterialism
> *GermanIdealism
> 
------
Philosophy|984060010
21c21
< '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism
---
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism'''GermanIdealism
------
Philosophy|984060030
21c21
< '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism'''GermanIdealism
---
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism -- GermanIdealism
------
FrenchMaterialism|984060086
1c1
< By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   
---
> By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[John Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Isaac Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   
3c3
< With Man a Machine, [[La Mettrie]] opposed [[Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Spinoza]] and [[Newton]], with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  He agreed with the idea of [[Locke]] that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  To [[La Mettrie]], the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettries [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  However, [[La Mettrie]] left many questions unanswered.    
---
> With Man a Machine, [[La Mettrie]] opposed [[Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Spinoza]] and [[Isaac Newton]], with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  He agreed with the idea of [[Locke]] that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  To [[La Mettrie]], the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettries [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  However, [[La Mettrie]] left many questions unanswered.    
13c13
< Finally, the [[Physiocrats]] seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[French]] [[economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]][ that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].  
---
> Finally, the [[Physiocrats]] seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[French]] [[economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]][ that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].  
------
Alaska|984063359
7c7
< At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [United States Senate] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov])
---
> At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [[United States Senate]] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov])
------
ElementaryGroupTheory|984063421
30,35c30,35
< *	Suppose there are two elements, y and y  in (G,*) such that for x, an element of    (G,*), y*x=x*y=e and y *x=x*y =e.
< *	Then y =y *e, by definition of identity element (3).
< *	Then y =y *(x*y), since x*y=e.
< *	Then y =(y *x)*y, by the associativity property of (G,*) (2).
< *	Then y =e*y, since y *x=e
< *	Then y =y, since e is the identity element (3).
---
> *	Suppose there are two elements, y and y'  in (G,*) such that for x, an element of    (G,*), y*x=x*y=e and y'*x=x*y =e.
> *	Then y' =y *e, by definition of identity element (3).
> *	Then y' =y'*(x*y), since x*y=e.
> *	Then y' =(y'*x)*y, by the associativity property of (G,*) (2).
> *	Then y'= e*y, since y'*x=e
> *	Then y' =y, since e is the identity element (3).
------
RoseParks|984064938
24a25,26
> ----
> Re: [[ElementaryGroupTheory]]:  Looking at the diffs, I (sort of) understand now.  For some reason the primes on y' didn't originally show up on my browser (and were replaced by "spaces"), which were saved when I saved.  This is also why the original proof made no sense to me. The new primes are perfectly visible.  MeaCulpa. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Utopia|984065031
2a3,4
> The utopia may be usefully contrasted with the [[dystopia]].
> 
------
Dictionary|984065098
1a2,3
> 
> /History
------
JimboWales|984065275
1,2c1
< See what you can do if you study real hard, Jimmy...learn to order beer in Japan...:-).
< RoseParks
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jimbo Wales]]
------
FrenchMaterialism|984065389
1c1
< By combining the AssociationistPsychology and [[Empiricism]] of [[John Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Isaac Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   
---
> By combining the [[Associationist psychology]] and [[Empiricism]] of [[John Locke]] and the [[Totality]] of [[Isaac Newton]], French Materialism created a complex worldview reversing the [[Cartesian]] [[dualist]] worldview. Man a Machine by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his RationalEthics. [[Diderot]] proved the dynamic philosophé presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   
5c5
< [[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all.  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  [[Helvetius]] created his RationalEthics (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number.  He also said the keys to this society are universal education and an enlightened legislation.  
---
> [[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all.  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  [[Helvetius]] created his [[Rational Ethics]] (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number.  He also said the keys to this society are universal education and an enlightened legislation.  
9c9
< The [[Baron d Holbach]]s SystemofNature applied the MechanisticMaterialism to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
---
> The [[Baron d Holbach]]s [[System of Nature]] applied the [[Mechanistic Materialism]] to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
------
Andy_Jewell|984065612
23a24,35
> ----
> 
> Note from a biological illiterate:
> 
> Josh and Andy,
> 
> I see the classifications of such things as [[Daubentoniidae]],
> and I like it, but I haven't the least idea what it is in common
> terms.  Would it be possible on these pages to give common examples?
> 
> I see that [[Daubentoniidae]] is a kind of primate, so is it some kind of monkey?
> 
------
Games|984066012
10a11,16
> 
> In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order
> to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a common property to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
> 
> Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
> 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."
------
Games|984066059
13c13
< to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a common property to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
---
> to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
16c16
< 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."
---
> 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."
------
Wikipedia_policy|984066564
9a10
> * [[Wiki Administrators]]
------
Wiki_Administrators|984066897
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> People who have the administrative password can do some extra-powerful stuff like automatically renaming pages.  For example,
> one could rename a page from JohnQDude to [[John Q Dude]], and not only would the page be renamed, but all the links.
> 
> Additionally, administrators can actually delete pages.  We probably don't want to do much of this, because in general, a redirect is better than a deletion!  In that way, old links from search engines, etc., still work.
> 
> I, [[Jimbo Wales]], propose that I should give out the administrator password fairly freely.  People who have been around for a week or two, contributing to the pages in a useful way, should have access to this.  Indeed, the only reason not to give it out willy-nilly is that someone really could mess things up.  (For example, by renaming every page to 'Bob'.)
> 
> I think, as long as someone has shown good will (and that means pretty much everybody who is a regular visitor) should have it.
> 
> Are there any thoughts/objections to this?  Perhaps CliffordAdams knows of some reason why this is a bad idea.
> ----
> 
> (Also, I think that the admin password would give us a quick
> way to let regulars in to edit, while blocking others, if we come under attack from spammers or vandals at some point.)
> 
------
Hate_Crime|984067245
9a10,11
> Those who are opposed to hate crime legislation argue that such legislation punishes <i>ideas</i>, which is not permissible under the strong protections given by the [[UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentOne|First Amendement]].  If assault carries a 5 year sentence, but a hate-crime assault carries a 10 year sentence, then isn't the extra 5 years a penalty for hating?
> 
------
Hate_Crime|984067300
10c10
< Those who are opposed to hate crime legislation argue that such legislation punishes <i>ideas</i>, which is not permissible under the strong protections given by the [[UnitedStatesConstitution/AmendmentOne|First Amendement]].  If assault carries a 5 year sentence, but a hate-crime assault carries a 10 year sentence, then isn't the extra 5 years a penalty for hating?
---
> Those who are opposed to hate crime legislation argue that such legislation punishes <i>ideas</i>, which is not permissible under the strong protections given by the [[United States Constitution/Amendment One|First Amendement]].  If assault carries a 5 year sentence, but a hate-crime assault carries a 10 year sentence, then is the extra 5 years a penalty for hating?
------
Hate_Crime|984067318
10c10
< Those who are opposed to hate crime legislation argue that such legislation punishes <i>ideas</i>, which is not permissible under the strong protections given by the [[United States Constitution/Amendment One|First Amendement]].  If assault carries a 5 year sentence, but a hate-crime assault carries a 10 year sentence, then is the extra 5 years a penalty for hating?
---
> Those who are opposed to hate crime legislation argue that such legislation punishes <i>ideas</i>, which is not permissible under the strong protections given by the [[United States Constitution/Amendment One|First Amendment]].  If assault carries a 5 year sentence, but a hate-crime assault carries a 10 year sentence, then is the extra 5 years a penalty for hating?
------
Josh_Grosse|984067546
38a39,46
> 
> ----
> [[Andy Jewell]] here. 
> About the whole taxonomy thing : What I want is to have a fairly rich KPCOFGS breakdown of lots of stuff. All of the sources I can find disagree with each other. I would gladly change everything to the "correct" way, if there were such a thing. It there anything more difinitive you can recommend? All of the choices you asked about were the result of taking some blind guesses based on some random assortment of sources. Perhaps the Linnean system is just too battered, and I should give up on my desire for seven tidy categories. 
> 
> I realized way too late that I should have been using <nowiki>"[[Genus Homo]]" instead of  "Genus [[Homo]]"</nowiki> but I'm sure it will all need revising a few more times anyway.
> 
> Feel free to email me.
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|984067634
5,76c5,76
< *1999 Kevin Spacey - [[American Beauty]]
< *1998 Roberto Benigni - [[Life Is Beautiful]]
< *1997 Jack Nicholson - [[As Good as it Gets]]
< *1996 Geoffrey Rush - [[Shine]]
< *1995 Nicolas Cage - [[Leaving Las Vegas]]
< *1994 Tom Hanks - [[Forrest Gump]]
< *1993 Tom Hanks - [[Philadelphia]]
< *1992 Al Pacino - [[Scent of a Woman]]
< *1991 Anthony Hopkins - [[The Silence of the Lambs]]
< *1990 Jeremy Irons - [[Reversal of Fortune]]
< *1989 Daniel Day Lewis - [[My Left Foot]]
< *1988 Dustin Hoffman - [[Rain Man]]
< *1987 Michael Douglas - [[Wall Street]]
< *1986 Paul Newman - [[The Color of Money]]
< *1985 William Hurt - [[Kiss of the Spider Woman]]
< *1984 F. Murray Abraham - [[Amadeus]]
< *1983 Robert Duvall - [[Tender Mercies]]
< *1982 Ben Kingsley - [[Gandhi]]
< *1981 Henry Fonda - [[On Golden Pond]]
< *1980 Robert De Niro - [[Raging Bull]]
< *1979 Dustin Hoffman - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
< *1978 Jon Voight - [[Coming Home]]
< *1977 Richard Dreyfuss - [[The Goodbye Girl]]
< *1976 Peter Finch - [[Network]]
< *1975 Jack Nicholson - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
< *1974 Art Carney - [[Harry and Tonto]]
< *1973 Jack Lemmon - [[Save the Tiger]]
< *1972 Marlon Brando - [[The Godfather]]
< *1971 Gene Hackman - [[The French Connection]]
< *1970 George C. Scott - [[Patton]]
< *1969 John Wayne - [[True Grit]]
< *1968 Cliff Robertson - [[Charly]]
< *1967 Rod Steiger - [[In the Heat of the Night]]
< *1966 Paul Scofield - [[A Man For All Seasons]]
< *1965 Lee Marvin - [[Cat Ballou]]
< *1964 Rex Harrison - [[My Fair Lady]]
< *1963 Sidney Poitier - [[Lilies of the Field]]
< *1962 Gregory Peck - [[To Kill a Mockingbird]]
< *1961 Maximilian Schell - [[Judgement at Nuremberg]]
< *1960 Burt Lancaster - [[Elmer Gantry]]
< *1959 Charlton Heston - [[Ben-Hur]]
< *1958 David Niven - [[Separate Tables]]
< *1957 Alec Guinness - [[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]
< *1956 Yul Brynner - [[The King and I]]
< *1955 Ernest Borgnine - [[Marty]]
< *1954 Marlon Brando - [[On the Waterfront]]
< *1953 William Holden - [[Stalag 17]]
< *1952 Gary Cooper - [[High Noon]]
< *1951 Humphrey Bogart - [[The African Queen]]
< *1950 Jose Ferrer - [[Cyrano de Bergerac]]
< *1949 Broderick Crawford - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
< *1948 Laurence Olivier - [[Hamlet]]
< *1947 Ronald Colman - [[A Double Life]]
< *1946 Fredric March - [[The Best Years of Our Lives]]
< *1945 Ray Milland - [[The Lost Weekend]]
< *1944 Bing Crosby - [[Going My Way]]
< *1943 Paul Lukas - [[Watch on the Rhine]]
< *1942 James Cagney - [[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]
< *1941 Gary Cooper - [[Sergeant York]]
< *1940 James Stewart - [[The Philadelphia Story]]
< *1939 Robert Donat - [[Goodbye Mr Chips|Goodbye, Mr. Chips]]
< *1938 Spencer Tracy - [[Boys Town]]
< *1937 Spencer Tracy - [[Captains Courageous]]
< *1936 Paul Muni - [[The Story of Louis Pasteur]]
< *1935 Victor McLaglen - [[The Informer]]
< *1934 Clark Gable - [[It Happende One Night]]
< *1933 Charles Laughton - [[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]
< *1932 Wallace Beery - [[The Champ]] and Frederic March - [[Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]
< *1931 Lionel Barrymore - [[A Free Soul]]
< *1930 George Arliss - [[Disraeli]]
< *1929 Warner Baxter - [[In Old Arizona]]
< *1928 Emil Jannings - [[The Last Command]] and [[The Way of All Flesh]]
---
> *1999 [[Kevin Spacey]] - [[American Beauty]]
> *1998 [[Roberto Benigni]] - [[Life Is Beautiful]]
> *1997 [[Jack Nicholson]] - [[As Good as it Gets]]
> *1996 [[Geoffrey Rush]] - [[Shine]]
> *1995 [[Nicolas Cage]] - [[Leaving Las Vegas]]
> *1994 [[Tom Hanks]] - [[Forrest Gump]]
> *1993 [[Tom Hanks]] - [[Philadelphia]]
> *1992 [[Al Pacino]] - [[Scent of a Woman]]
> *1991 [[Anthony Hopkins]] - [[The Silence of the Lambs]]
> *1990 [[Jeremy Irons]] - [[Reversal of Fortune]]
> *1989 [[Daniel Day Lewis]] - [[My Left Foot]]
> *1988 [[Dustin Hoffman]] - [[Rain Man]]
> *1987 [[Michael Douglas]] - [[Wall Street]]
> *1986 [[Paul Newman]] - [[The Color of Money]]
> *1985 [[William Hurt]] - [[Kiss of the Spider Woman]]
> *1984 [[F. Murray Abraham]] - [[Amadeus]]
> *1983 [[Robert Duvall]] - [[Tender Mercies]]
> *1982 [[Ben Kingsley]] - [[Gandhi]]
> *1981 [[Henry Fonda]] - [[On Golden Pond]]
> *1980 [[Robert De Niro]] - [[Raging Bull]]
> *1979 [[Dustin Hoffman]] - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
> *1978 [[Jon Voight]] - [[Coming Home]]
> *1977 [[Richard Dreyfuss]] - [[The Goodbye Girl]]
> *1976 [[Peter Finch]] - [[Network]]
> *1975 [[Jack Nicholson]] - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
> *1974 [[Art Carney]] - [[Harry and Tonto]]
> *1973 [[Jack Lemmon]] - [[Save the Tiger]]
> *1972 [[Marlon Brando]] - [[The Godfather]]
> *1971 [[Gene Hackman]] - [[The French Connection]]
> *1970 [[George C. Scott]] - [[Patton]]
> *1969 [[John Wayne]] - [[True Grit]]
> *1968 [[Cliff Robertson]] - [[Charly]]
> *1967 [[Rod Steiger]] - [[In the Heat of the Night]]
> *1966 [[Paul Scofield]] - [[A Man For All Seasons]]
> *1965 [[Lee Marvin]] - [[Cat Ballou]]
> *1964 [[Rex Harrison]] - [[My Fair Lady]]
> *1963 [[Sidney Poitier]] - [[Lilies of the Field]]
> *1962 [[Gregory Peck]] - [[To Kill a Mockingbird]]
> *1961 [[Maximilian Schell]] - [[Judgement at Nuremberg]]
> *1960 [[Burt Lancaster]] - [[Elmer Gantry]]
> *1959 [[Charlton Heston]] - [[Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 [[David Niven]] - [[Separate Tables]]
> *1957 [[Alec Guinness]] - [[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]
> *1956 [[Yul Brynner]] - [[The King and I]]
> *1955 [[Ernest Borgnine]] - [[Marty]]
> *1954 [[Marlon Brando]] - [[On the Waterfront]]
> *1953 [[William Holden]] - [[Stalag 17]]
> *1952 [[Gary Cooper]] - [[High Noon]]
> *1951 [[Humphrey Bogart]] - [[The African Queen]]
> *1950 [[Jose Ferrer]] - [[Cyrano de Bergerac]]
> *1949 [[Broderick Crawford]] - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
> *1948 [[Laurence Olivier]] - [[Hamlet]]
> *1947 [[Ronald Colman]] - [[A Double Life]]
> *1946 [[Fredric March]] - [[The Best Years of Our Lives]]
> *1945 [[Ray Milland]] - [[The Lost Weekend]]
> *1944 [[Bing Crosby]] - [[Going My Way]]
> *1943 [[Paul Lukas]] - [[Watch on the Rhine]]
> *1942 [[James Cagney]] - [[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]
> *1941 [[Gary Cooper]] - [[Sergeant York]]
> *1940 [[James Stewart]] - [[The Philadelphia Story]]
> *1939 [[Robert Donat]] - [[Goodbye Mr Chips|Goodbye, Mr. Chips]]
> *1938 [[Spencer Tracy]] - [[Boys Town]]
> *1937 [[Spencer Tracy]] - [[Captains Courageous]]
> *1936 [[Paul Muni]] - [[The Story of Louis Pasteur]]
> *1935 [[Victor McLaglen]] - [[The Informer]]
> *1934 [[Clark Gable]] - [[It Happende One Night]]
> *1933 [[Charles Laughton]] - [[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]
> *1932 [[Wallace Beery]] - [[The Champ]] and Frederic March - [[Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]
> *1931 [[Lionel Barrymore]] - [[A Free Soul]]
> *1930 [[George Arliss]] - [[Disraeli]]
> *1929 [[Warner Baxter]] - [[In Old Arizona]]
> *1928 [[Emil Jannings]] - [[The Last Command]] and [[The Way of All Flesh]]
------
Hate_Crime|984067897
18a19,21
> 
> The [http://www.splcenter.org/ Southern Poverty Law Center]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victems of [[Hate Crime]]
> 
------
SandBox|984068195
12c12
<                            * �   � *
---
>                            * ?   ? *
14c14
<                            *   �   *
---
>                            *   ?   *
39c39
< � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!
---
> ? I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
107a108,113
> 
> 
> 
> --------------
> [[My Great pages|My Grate Page's]]
> 
------
Literature|984068306
13a14
> * [[Mark Twain]]
------
Mark_Twain|984068606
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mark Twain was a pseudonym of Samuel Langhorn Clemens,
> born in 1835 and died in 1910.  He was best known
> as a humorist and for his series of fictional books involving
> Tom Sawyer.  His classics [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]] are widely read in schools across the U.S.
> In recent years, there have been attempts to ban the book from
> various libraries because Twain's use of [[local color]]
> offends some people.
------
Mark_Twain|984070512
4a5
> 
------
Games|984071166
3,10c3,10
< *[[Games/Cards]]
< *[[Games/Board]]
< *[[Games/Letter]]
< *[[Games/Casino]]
< *[[Games/RolePlaying]]
< *[[Games/TradingCard]]
< *[[Games/TableTop]]
< *[[Games/Computer]]
---
> *[[/Cards]]
> *[[/Board]]
> *[[/Letter]]
> *[[/Casino]]
> *[[/RolePlaying]]
> *[[/TradingCard]]
> *[[/TableTop]]
> *[[/Computer]]
------
Games/Cards|984071208
16a17
> * [[Pinochle]]
------
Hate_Crime|984071448
1c1
< A highly political issue within the [[United States]].
---
> A highly charged political issue within the [[United States]].
14a15,36
> 
> One of the most difficult things about hate crimes is that
> determing when a crime is a hate crime and when it is not.
> 
> Usually, this determination is done based on a background
> investigation of the accused person and/or eyewitness reports
> of the crime.  In some cases, circumstantial evidence 
> shows the intent of the accused (e.g., handwritten journals
> describing the hatred and descriptions/plans of crimes to be
> commited against the hated group).  In other cases,
> classifying a crime as a hate crime is a matter of judgement
> of the law enforcement and prosecuting attorney.
> 
> Please note that a 'hate crime' statue may be much harder to
> get a conviction under than a normal criminal statue.  This may
> affect whether or not the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the 'hate crime' statue.
> 
> Another difficult issue is that a crime will get much more
> newsmedia attention/time if it is called a 'hate crime'.
> This may sometimes be abused if a news gathering orginization
> wants to sell more newspapers by calling a crime a 'hate crime'
> before the crime is established as a 'hate crime'.
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071517
38c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics, Really?] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
Sports|984071533
15a16
> ** [[Running/Steeplechase]]
19a21
> 
112a115,169
> 
> Animal sports (where use of an animal is integral to the sport):
> 
> Horses
> * [[Breaking]]
> * [[Training]]
> ** [[Race]]
> ** [[Working Cattle]]
> ** [[Pleasure]]
> * [[Horse Racing]]
> ** [[Sprint]]
> ** [[Derby]]
> ** [[Harness]]
> ** [[Steeplechase]]
> ** [[Endurance]]
> * [[Hunter Jumper]]
> ** [[Fox Hunt]]
> ** [[Grand Prix]]
> * [[Exhibition]]
> ** [[Dressage]]
> ** [[Equitation/Horsemanship]]
> ** [[Pleasure]]
> ** [[Showmanship]]
> ** [[Jumping]]
> ** [[Trail]]
> ** [[Reining]]
> ** [[Pole Bending]]
> ** [[Barrell Racing]]
> 
> 
> Dogs
> * [[Dog Racing]]
> ** [[Track]]
> ** [[Agility]]
> ** [[Flyball]]
> 
> Rodeo
> * [[Roping]]
> ** [[Heading]]
> ** [[Heeling]]
> ** [[Steer Roping]]
> ** [[Bulldogging]] 
> ** [[Goat Tying]]
> * [[Speed]]
> ** [[Barrel Racing]]
> ** [[Pole Bending]]
> ** [[Saddle Race]]
> ** [[Flag Race]]
> * [[Rough Stock]]
> ** [[Bull Riding]]
> ** [[Bareback]]
> ** [[Saddle Bronc]]
> * [[Bullfighting]]
> 
> Bull Fighting
------
Hate_Crime|984071541
36c36
< before the crime is established as a 'hate crime'.
---
> before the crime is established/prosecuted as a 'hate crime'.
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071555
38c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics, Really?] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071593
38c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics Really]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
I,_Robot|984071630
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A book by [[Isaac Asimov]].
------
What_Is_Mathematics_Really|984071641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[What is Mathematics Really]]
------
What_Is_Mathematics_Really|984071686
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[What is Mathematics Really]]
---
> #REDIRECT WhatIsMathematicsReally
------
I,_Robot|984071687
1c1
< A book by [[Isaac Asimov]].
---
> A book by [[IsaacAsimov]].
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071748
38c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What Is Mathematics Really]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics , Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071783
38c38,39
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics , Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- 
> [[What is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
HomePage|984071786
11c11
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071824
38,39c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- 
< [[What is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
IsaacAsimov|984071829
13a14,15
> Please note that the book <b>Prelude to Foundation</b> contains Isaac Asimov's suggested reading order/chronology for his science fiction books.
> 
------
Agriculture|984071892
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This would be the ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]].
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984071951
38c38
< :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- [[What is Mathematics, Really?]] -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
---
> :FinitistMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism -- Hilbertism -- Bourbakism -- SimpsonianFoundationsOfMathematics -- TheoremsForAPrice -- TastefulMathematics -- WhatIsMathematicsReally -- MathematicsCreatedDiscovered
------
George_W._Bush|984072018
4a5,6
> See [[US Election 2000]]
> 
20c22
< * [[Laura Welch Bush]] ([[first lady]])
---
> * [[Laura Welch Bush]] (wife) ([[first lady]])
22,23c24,25
< * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (father)
< * BushTalk
---
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (father and former US president)
> * [[US Election 2000]]
24a27
> * BushTalk
------
Probability|984072041
3c3
< :[[Probability/Axioms]] -- [[Probability/Theory]] -- [[Probability/Applications]]
---
> :[[/Axioms]] -- [[/Theory]] -- [[/Applications]]
------
Probability/Theory|984072145
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability Theory]]
------
US_Election_2000|984072198
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Republican ]][[George W. Bush]] defeated [[Democrat]]
> [[Albert Arnold Gore]] to win the [[United States]] presidental election 2000.
> 
> -----
> I've added this item to be a catch-all for 
> things related to election 2000.
> 
> At some later time, this page should be split into a non-partisan and partisan (i.e., talk) pages.
------
Agriculture|984072210
1a2,3
> 
> Subdisciplines would include Farming (vegetable farming, grain farming, alfalfa, etc.) Cattle Ranching, Chicken Farming, Turkey Farming, Ranching of Ostriches or Emus, Horse Ranching, Rabbit Farming, Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, Sheepherding, Goatherding, Pig Farming, Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984072234
10a11,13
> See also:
> * [[US Election 2000]]
> 
------
Probability_Theory|984072307
7,8c7,8
< #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of both events, Pr[A1*A2], is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A1 and A2. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
< #For any arbitrary events, A1 and A2, the probability of either or both, Pr[A1+A2], is given by Pr[A1]+Pr[A2]-Pr[A1*A2]
---
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>], is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]
------
Probability_Theory|984072404
8c8
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]
---
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by *<font size=+1 color=red Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
------
Probability_Theory|984072432
8c8,9
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by *<font size=+1 color=red Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
---
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by 
> *<font size=+1 color=red Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
------
US_Election_2000|984072444
4a5,9
> Can anyone give some details on the effect of election fraud on the outcome in states that were close to going to either candidate?  Flordia, Montana, and ??? were extremely close.
> 
> Is this the second election in recent times to be possibley affected by votor fraud?  (1960 and 2000)
> 
> -----
------
US_Election_2000|984072455
1c1
< [[Republican ]][[George W. Bush]] defeated [[Democrat]]
---
> [[Republican ]] [[George W. Bush]] defeated [[Democrat]]
------
US_Election_2000|984072463
1c1
< [[Republican ]] [[George W. Bush]] defeated [[Democrat]]
---
> [[Republican]] [[George W. Bush]] defeated [[Democrat]]
------
Probability_Theory|984072508
8,9c8,9
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>], is given by 
< *<font size=+1 color=red Pr[A<sub>1</sub>]+Pr[A<sub>2</sub>]-Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
---
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, , is given by 
> *<font size=+1 color=red> Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>] = Pr[A<sub>1</sub>] + Pr[A<sub>2</sub>] - Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
------
Probability_Theory|984072688
7c7,9
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>], is given by the sum of the probabilities of the ''elementary events'' in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>SUM Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] = 1 </font>
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
------
Hate_Crime|984072742
11a12,13
> Conversely, hate crime legislation proponents have held that hatred to the point of violence is a societal problem of sufficient scope and stubbornness to have resisted hundreds of years of efforts by legislators and law enforcement to secure the safety of "hated" persons in society.  They posit that if merely punishing the crime is inadequate, then hopefully additional punishment may serve as a disincentive to act criminally because of a hatred of one's fellow man.
> 
16c18
< One of the most difficult things about hate crimes is that
---
> One of the primary difficulties in dealing with hate crimes is that of
28c30
< Please note that a 'hate crime' statue may be much harder to
---
> Note that a 'hate crime' statute may be much harder to
30c32
< affect whether or not the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the 'hate crime' statue.
---
> affect whether or not the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the 'hate crime' statute.
42c44
< The [http://www.splcenter.org/ Southern Poverty Law Center]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victems of [[Hate Crime]]
---
> The [http://www.splcenter.org/ Southern Poverty Law Center]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984072826
10a11,31
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
> <b>Major legislation he signed:</b>
> * Balanced budget 
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time 
> * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted 
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients 
> * Minimum wage increase 
> 
> <b>[[SupremeCourt]] appointments:</b>
> 
> <b>Major legislation he vetoed:<b>
> 
> <b>Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:</b>
> * [[Healthcare Reform]] - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) 
>     Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash. 
> 
> <b>Other Initiatives:</b>
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations without ever proposing legislation.
> 
15c36
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
---
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
------
Probability_Theory|984072827
6a7,9
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, is given by the sum of the probabilities for all elementary events in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
> #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, , is given by the sum of the probabilities of the two events minus the probability of both.
> 
8,10c11
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, 
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, , is given by 
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. 
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984072859
23c23
< <b>Major legislation he vetoed:<b>
---
> <b>Major legislation he vetoed:</b>
------
Probability_Theory|984072871
11c11
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. 
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. </font>
------
Probability_Theory|984072946
10,12c10,13
< *<font size=+1 color=red>SUM Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] = 1 </font>
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. </font>
< *<font size=+1 color=red> Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>] = Pr[A<sub>1</sub>] + Pr[A<sub>2</sub>] - Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
---
> The formulae below express the same ideas in algebraic terms.
> #<font size=+1 color=red>SUM Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] = 1 </font>
> #<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. </font>
> #<font size=+1 color=red> Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>] = Pr[A<sub>1</sub>] + Pr[A<sub>2</sub>] - Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
------
Probability_Theory|984072993
15c15
< The probability of some event happening knowning that some other one happened before can be computed using [[Conditional Probability]].
---
> The probability of some event happening knowing that another event happened before can be computed using [[Conditional Probability]].
------
Healthcare_Reform|984073039
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
> 
> Healthcare Reform was a complete overhaul of the medical system used in the [[United States]].  It was a complex proposal that was not enacted into law.
> 
> ---
> Talk:
> 
> Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash. 
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984073138
16c16
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time 
---
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time just before the [[US Election 1996]] 
26,27c26
< * [[Healthcare Reform]] - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) 
<     Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash. 
---
> * [[Healthcare Reform]] - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984073206
17c17
< * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted 
---
> * [[NAFTA]] - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted 
------
Mark_Twain|984073215
8c8
< offends some people.
---
> offends some people. His family suppressed an especially irreverent work, [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/twainlfe.htm Letters from the Earth] until recently.
------
Statistics|984073303
8c8
< :[[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]] -- [[Statistics/Descriptive]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
------
ScienceFiction|984073373
14c14
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as AldousHuxley, [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
---
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
------
SupremeCourt|984073414
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Highest court in the [[United States]].
> 
> It has ultimate jucidal authority within the United States.
> 
> 9? justices are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the [[Senate]].
> 
> The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts and over issues involving ? (some high level government people/agencies???).
> 
> It is located within [[Washington DC]].
------
Chondrichthyes|984073419
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Subclass Elasmobranchii(sharks and rays) 
>    [[Order Myliobatiformes]] (rays) 
------
Order_Myliobatiformes|984073479
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  [[Family Dasyatidae]] (sting rays), 
>  [[Family Gymnuridae]] (butterfly rays), 
>  [[Family Mobulidae]] (manta rays), 
>  [[Family Myliobatidae]] (eagle rays and I think Bat rays), 
>  [[Family Pristidae]] (sawfishes), 
>  [[Family Rajidae]] (skates), 
>  [[Family Rhinobatidae]] (guitarfishes), 
>  [[Family Torpedinidae]] (electric rays), 
------
Order_Myliobatiformes|984073509
1,8c1,8
<  [[Family Dasyatidae]] (sting rays), 
<  [[Family Gymnuridae]] (butterfly rays), 
<  [[Family Mobulidae]] (manta rays), 
<  [[Family Myliobatidae]] (eagle rays and I think Bat rays), 
<  [[Family Pristidae]] (sawfishes), 
<  [[Family Rajidae]] (skates), 
<  [[Family Rhinobatidae]] (guitarfishes), 
<  [[Family Torpedinidae]] (electric rays), 
---
>  [[Family Dasyatidae]] (sting rays)
>  [[Family Gymnuridae]] (butterfly rays)
>  [[Family Mobulidae]] (manta rays)
>  [[Family Myliobatidae]] (eagle rays)
>  [[Family Pristidae]] (sawfishes)
>  [[Family Rajidae]] (skates)
>  [[Family Rhinobatidae]] (guitarfishes)
>  [[Family Torpedinidae]] (electric rays)
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984073519
16c16
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time just before the [[US Election 1996]] 
---
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time just before [[US Election 1996]] 
19c19
< * Minimum wage increase 
---
> * Minimum wage increase - signed just before [[US Election 1996]] 
------
Aldous_Huxley|984073522
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Aldous Huxley]] (1884-1963) 
> 
> Biography
>  
> Born in the [[United Kingdom]] on 26 July 1894, died in [[California]] on 22 November 1963. He began writing in his early twenties. He wrote great novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress ([[Brave New World]]), and also pacifist novels ([[Eyeless in Gaza]]). After leaving [[Europe]] for [[California]] in 1937, his works were dominated by mysticism and [[hallucinogenic drugs]]. 
> 
> Books 
> 
> [[Crome Yellow]] -- [[Brave New World]] - [[Eyeless in Gaza]] - [[The Doors of Perception]]
> 
> 
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984073542
19c19
< * Minimum wage increase - signed just before [[US Election 1996]] 
---
> * [[Minimum Wage]] increase - signed just before [[US Election 1996]] 
------
Minimum_Wage|984073767
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The minimum pay a worker can be paid in the [[United States]].
> 
> <b>Significant effects/implications:</b>
> * cost of basic goods and services - much of the cost is labor
> * union wages - many [[Labor Union]] contracts are based on a fixed percentage or dollar amount above the minimum wage
> 
> /Talk
> 
------
Hate_Crime|984073849
44c44
< The [http://www.splcenter.org/ Southern Poverty Law Center]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
---
> The [[Southern Poverty Law Ceter]] [http://www.splcenter.org/ (click here for external website)]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
------
Minimum_Wage|984073925
5a6
> * possible increased unemployment for low wage earners
------
Abstract_Algebra|984073991
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebra--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioNs on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
> 
> * MathematicalGrouP
> * RinGs and ModulEs
> * FielDs and VectorSpaces
> * AssociativeAlgebrae and LieAlgebrae
> * [[Lattice|Lattices]]
> 
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
AbstractAlgebra|984074009
1,9c1
< An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebra--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioNs on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
< 
< * MathematicalGrouP
< * RinGs and ModulEs
< * FielDs and VectorSpaces
< * AssociativeAlgebrae and LieAlgebrae
< * [[Lattice|Lattices]]
< 
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Abstract Algebra]]
------
Mathematical_Group|984074069
1c1,98
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''MathematicalGrouP - definition'''
> 
> The concept of a Group is one of the foundations of ModernAlgebra. Its definition is brief.
>  
> A Group is a NonEmpty SeT, say G and a BinaryOperation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
> 
> 1)	(G,*) has CloSure, that is, if a and b belong to (G,*), then a*b belongs to (G,*).
> 
> 
> 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), then (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
> 
> 
> 3)     (G,*) contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), then e*a = a and a*e = a.  This turns out to be unique.
> 
> 
> 4)	Every element in (G,*) has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), there is an element b in (G*) such that a*b=e=b*a.  This turns out to be unique.
> 
> The proof of the '''uniqueness of the identity element''' and the '''uniqueness of the inverse of an element''' in a GrouP, falls under ElementaryGroupTheory.
> 
> 
> Usually the operation, whatever it ''really'' is, is denoted like multiplication; we write a*b for the ''product'' of a and b, 1 for the identity and a^-1 for the inverse of a.  Otherwise, the operation is denoted like addition; we write a+b for the ''sum'' of a and b, 0 for the identity and -a for the inverse of a.  We usually only use additive notation when the group is commutative, ie a+b=b+a for all elements.
> 
> Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinG''s'', ModulE''s'' and LieGroup''s''.
> ----
>  
> Basic examples of Groups
> 
> *Signed integers
> A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={...,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,...} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
> 
> 
> Proof:
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then a+b is an integer: Closure.
> 
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
> 
> 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.    (Z,+) has an identity element.
> 
> 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.   Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
> 
> 
> *Group of geometric transformations of the plane.
> An important source of groups are geometric transformations of various objects in various spaces. As a simple example, let's take the set of all translations (moves) on the plane. The operation is the composition, noted here o (the composition of two operations consists in applying the two transformations one after the other)
> 
> 1)	If a and b are translations of vectors A and B, then a o b is also a translation of vector A+B
> 
> 2)	Composition of translations is associative as is the additions of vectors. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.
> 
> 3)	The identity element for this group is the translation of vector zero.
> 
> 4)	The inverse of a translation of vector A is the translation along the opposite vector (same length and direction, reversed orientation).
> 
> One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or of a set of points in a space. In this case, the proof of the group axioms is a bit more interesting. (OprgaG). 
> ----
> 
> Question: Given the set of integers, Z, as above, and the operation multiplication,
> denoted by "x" is (Z,x) a Group?
> 
> 
> 1)	If a and b are integers then axb is an integer. Closure.
> 
> 
> 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
> 
> 
> 3)	1 is an integer and for any integer a, ax1=a.
> 
> 
>        (Z,x) has an identity element.
> 
> 
> 4)	'''BUT''', if a is an integer, there is not necessarily an integer b =1/a such that
> 
>         (a)x(1/a)=1.
> 
> 
> Then, every element of (Z,x) does not have an inverse.
> 
> 
> For example, given the integer 4, there is no integer b such that 4xb=1.
> 
> 
> Therefore, (Z,x) is '''not''' a Group.  It is a weaker type of object sometimes called a SemiGroup.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Q, that is the set of number a/b such that
> a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?
> 
> 
> '''Answer''':  No.  The rational number 0 is in Q, but does not have a multiplicative inverse.  If we add modify the constraint such that neither a or b may be 0 (i.e. the SeT is Q excluding 0, denoted Q\{0}) then (Q\{0},*) do form a group.  The inverse of a/b is b/a, and the remainder of the group axioms are simple to check.
> 
> (Q,*) does form a SemiGroup (i.e. a group lacking inverses)
> ----
> 
> Groups are important as a fundamental algebraic structure and as a basic tool for embedding the mathematical properties of objects, even properties of groups themselves because one can built groups out of existing ones (see GroupProductS, NoetherIsomorphismTheoremS, WreathProduct, BrauerGroup, DerivedGroup, GroupCenter, GroupCharacter, FittingSubgroup, CohomologyGroups). We can investigate groups with global properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, SimpleGroups and SolvableGroups, FinitelyGeneratedGroups, AlgebraicGroups, study how groups can be related via MorphisM''s'' and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operation and/or more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'', FielD''s'', ModulE''s''.
------
MathematicalGrouP|984074086
1,98c1
< '''MathematicalGrouP - definition'''
< 
< The concept of a Group is one of the foundations of ModernAlgebra. Its definition is brief.
<  
< A Group is a NonEmpty SeT, say G and a BinaryOperation, say, "*" denoted (G,*) such that:
< 
< 1)	(G,*) has CloSure, that is, if a and b belong to (G,*), then a*b belongs to (G,*).
< 
< 
< 2)	The operation * is associative, that is, if a, b, and c belong to (G,*), then (a*b)*c=a*(b*c).
< 
< 
< 3)     (G,*) contains an identity element, say e, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), then e*a = a and a*e = a.  This turns out to be unique.
< 
< 
< 4)	Every element in (G,*) has an inverse, that is, if a belongs to (G,*), there is an element b in (G*) such that a*b=e=b*a.  This turns out to be unique.
< 
< The proof of the '''uniqueness of the identity element''' and the '''uniqueness of the inverse of an element''' in a GrouP, falls under ElementaryGroupTheory.
< 
< 
< Usually the operation, whatever it ''really'' is, is denoted like multiplication; we write a*b for the ''product'' of a and b, 1 for the identity and a^-1 for the inverse of a.  Otherwise, the operation is denoted like addition; we write a+b for the ''sum'' of a and b, 0 for the identity and -a for the inverse of a.  We usually only use additive notation when the group is commutative, ie a+b=b+a for all elements.
< 
< Some important concepts: SubGroup''s'', PermutationGroup''s''.  Some examples of groups with additional structure are RinG''s'', ModulE''s'' and LieGroup''s''.
< ----
<  
< Basic examples of Groups
< 
< *Signed integers
< A Group that we are introduced to in elementary school is the integers under addition. Thus, let Z be the set of integers={...,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,...} and let the symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then, (Z,+) is a GrouP.
< 
< 
< Proof:
< 
< 
< 1)	If a and b are integers then a+b is an integer: Closure.
< 
< 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). Associativity.
< 
< 3)	0 is an integer and for any integer a, a+0=a.    (Z,+) has an identity element.
< 
< 4)	If a is an integer, then there is an integer b= (-a), such that a+b=0.   Every element of (Z,+) has an inverse.
< 
< 
< *Group of geometric transformations of the plane.
< An important source of groups are geometric transformations of various objects in various spaces. As a simple example, let's take the set of all translations (moves) on the plane. The operation is the composition, noted here o (the composition of two operations consists in applying the two transformations one after the other)
< 
< 1)	If a and b are translations of vectors A and B, then a o b is also a translation of vector A+B
< 
< 2)	Composition of translations is associative as is the additions of vectors. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.
< 
< 3)	The identity element for this group is the translation of vector zero.
< 
< 4)	The inverse of a translation of vector A is the translation along the opposite vector (same length and direction, reversed orientation).
< 
< One can build more generally the group of all distance-preserving transformations of a space or of a set of points in a space. In this case, the proof of the group axioms is a bit more interesting. (OprgaG). 
< ----
< 
< Question: Given the set of integers, Z, as above, and the operation multiplication,
< denoted by "x" is (Z,x) a Group?
< 
< 
< 1)	If a and b are integers then axb is an integer. Closure.
< 
< 
< 2)	If a, b, and c are integers, then (axb)xc=ax(bxc). Associativity.
< 
< 
< 3)	1 is an integer and for any integer a, ax1=a.
< 
< 
<        (Z,x) has an identity element.
< 
< 
< 4)	'''BUT''', if a is an integer, there is not necessarily an integer b =1/a such that
< 
<         (a)x(1/a)=1.
< 
< 
< Then, every element of (Z,x) does not have an inverse.
< 
< 
< For example, given the integer 4, there is no integer b such that 4xb=1.
< 
< 
< Therefore, (Z,x) is '''not''' a Group.  It is a weaker type of object sometimes called a SemiGroup.
< 
< ----
< 
< '''Question''': Given the set of rational numbers Q, that is the set of number a/b such that
< a and b are integers, but b is not = to 0, and the operation multiplication, denoted by "x," is (Q,x) a GrouP?
< 
< 
< '''Answer''':  No.  The rational number 0 is in Q, but does not have a multiplicative inverse.  If we add modify the constraint such that neither a or b may be 0 (i.e. the SeT is Q excluding 0, denoted Q\{0}) then (Q\{0},*) do form a group.  The inverse of a/b is b/a, and the remainder of the group axioms are simple to check.
< 
< (Q,*) does form a SemiGroup (i.e. a group lacking inverses)
< ----
< 
< Groups are important as a fundamental algebraic structure and as a basic tool for embedding the mathematical properties of objects, even properties of groups themselves because one can built groups out of existing ones (see GroupProductS, NoetherIsomorphismTheoremS, WreathProduct, BrauerGroup, DerivedGroup, GroupCenter, GroupCharacter, FittingSubgroup, CohomologyGroups). We can investigate groups with global properties like CommutativeGroups and NonCommutativeGroups, SimpleGroups and SolvableGroups, FinitelyGeneratedGroups, AlgebraicGroups, study how groups can be related via MorphisM''s'' and also build other structures based on the notion of a group, but with more than one operation and/or more properties. This brings us to RinG''s'', FielD''s'', ModulE''s''.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mathematical Group]]
------
The_Doors|984074094
5,10c5,10
< *The Doors
< *Morrison Hotel
< *Waiting for the Sun
< *Strange Days
< *The Soft Parade
< *L.A. Woman
---
> *[[The Doors]]
> *[[Morrison Hotel]]
> *[[Waiting for the Sun]]
> *[[Strange Days]]
> *[[The Soft Parade]]
> *[[L.A. Woman]]
12c12,16
< The group consited of Jim Morrison (vocals), Ray Manzarek (organ, keyboard), Ray Krieger (guitar) and John Densmore (drums). Morrison left the band in and died soon aftwards in Paris. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, Other Voices and Full Circle, but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group.
---
> The group consited of [[Jim Morrison]] (vocals), [[Ray Manzarek]] (organ, keyboard), [[Ray Krieger]] (guitar) and [[John Densmore]] (drums). Morrison left the band in and died soon aftwards in [[Paris]]. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, [[Other Voices]] and [[Full Circle]], but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. 
> 
> Morrison's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]].
> 
> [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group.
------
Mathematical_Group|984074100
1c1
< '''MathematicalGrouP - definition'''
---
> '''Mathematical Group - definition'''
------
Chondrichthyes|984074142
0a1,2
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Chondrichthyes]]
> 
------
Order_Myliobatiformes|984074172
0a1,2
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Chondrichthyes]], [[Order Myliobatiformes]]
> 
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984074186
20c20
< Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on Al Gore, shouldn't this page be at Al Gore, with a redirect here, and not the other way around? 
---
> Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on [[Al Gore]], shouldn't this page be at [[Al Gore]], with a redirect here, and not the other way around? 
------
Aldous_Huxley|984074224
1c1
< [[Aldous Huxley]] (1884-1963) 
---
> Aldous Huxley (1884-1963) 
9c9
< [[Crome Yellow]] -- [[Brave New World]] - [[Eyeless in Gaza]] - [[The Doors of Perception]]
---
> [[Crome Yellow]] -- [[Ape and Essence]] -- [[After Many a Summer]] -- [[Brave New World]] - [[Eyeless in Gaza]] - [[Island]] -- [[The Doors of Perception]]
------
Breaking|984074246
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationwhip with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
> 
> In order to make use of a horse, it must first be "broken" - that is, it must have its native flight instinct curbed to the point where it will aquiesce to human handling and follow commands.  There are two general schools of horse-breaking on the whole, one based on restraint, punishment and pain, and one utilizing efforts to obtain the animal's cooperation through the use of encouragements based on the way horses relate to each other.
> 
> One reads historical accounts and sees movie depictions of a horseman pursuing a feral horse, capturing it by force, and penning it. He then utilizes the restraint of halter tied to a snubbing post to wear the animal down until, sweating, trembling and blowing, it can be saddled.  Once the saddle is in place, the horseman will climb aboard and signal a helper to release the restraint tying the horse's head to the snubbing post and try to stay in the saddle while the animal frantically attempts to dislodge him.  To remain aboard a gyrating horse requires a good deal of athleticism and skill, not to mention a disregard for one's own bodily safety bordering on contempt.  The attending commotion can be quite entertaining, and may attract the rapt attention of a number of standers-by, who may cheer the horseman in his efforts to subdue the wild beast.  This, generally, is the origin of the sport of rodeo. 
> 
> Further breaking techniques through hobbling a horse, tying up one or more legs, throwing the animal the ground and preventing it from rising, beating it until it falls, and other inflictions of overwhelming force have been known to be employed.
> 
> When the horse if finally broken it will, to greater or lesser degree, suffer the attentions of humans without making a serious attempt to flee.  It may then be trained further into one or a number of different disciplines.
> 
> A school of horse-breaking which is gaining increasing popularity eschews violent means and makes use of what may be termed a horse's natural "body language"
> 
> (completion pending)
------
Agriculture|984074247
3c3
< Subdisciplines would include Farming (vegetable farming, grain farming, alfalfa, etc.) Cattle Ranching, Chicken Farming, Turkey Farming, Ranching of Ostriches or Emus, Horse Ranching, Rabbit Farming, Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, Sheepherding, Goatherding, Pig Farming, Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
---
> Subdisciplines would include [[Farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], alfalfa, etc.) [[Cattle ranching]], [[Chicken farming]], [[Turkey farming]], [[Ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[Horse ranching]], [[Rabbit farming]], Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, [[Sheepherding]], [[Goatherding]], [[Pig farming]], Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
------
Literature|984074300
10a11
> * [[Aldous Huxley]]
------
Wiki_Administrators|984074335
10c10
< Are there any thoughts/objections to this?  Perhaps CliffordAdams knows of some reason why this is a bad idea.
---
> Are there any thoughts/objections to this?
15a16,41
> ----
> There are actually two separate levels of special access: the "editor" level and the "admin" level.  Admins are given complete power/control over the wiki.  They can do things like:
> * Renaming or deleting pages
> * Locking individual pages from further editing
> * Locking the entire wiki against public editing with a single command
> * Banning IP addresses or networks from editing
> * Running the CPU/disk-intensive maintenance function at any time (other users are limited to once per 12 hours)
> * All editor-level functions
> 
> The "editor" level currently has very few extra powers, which include:
> * Editing pages even when the entire wiki is locked to outside users
> * (As a site option, default <b>off</b>) Renaming or deleting pages
> 
> Note that each level can have multiple passwords, which can be individually revoked.  This means that you could have a relatively public editor password and other less-public passwords (for major contributors, for instance).  If the public password is abused, it could be revoked without affecting the less-public passwords.  (For Wikipedia I might suggest/code other systems for managing access, like allowing admins to simply grant/revoke editor-level access without using a password.)
> ----
> ''Perhaps CliffordAdams knows of some reason why this is a bad idea.''
> 
> The main problem I (CliffordAdams) see is that one could cause severe disruption with some of the admin-level commands.  Features like locking pages or banning networks might be controversial.
> 
> I think it would be better to give relatively free editor-level access, and possibly move some functions from the admin to the editor level.  My suggestions are:
> # Give editor-level access to anyone who has written at least 3 "good" contributions (or one excellent page).  Most contributors will get this access quickly.
> # Give admin-level access to people who have been around for at least a month, have written at least 10 "good" pages, and who want to help with "admin" tasks.
> 
> Personally, I think "admin" level access should be viewed as a community service rather than a reward.  Indeed, if there are enough volunteers, I think there should only be a few permanent admins and a larger number of limited-time admins, rotating every few months.
> 
> For renaming and deletion, I'm considering a new feature to let <i>anyone</i> suggest changes or deletions, which could be quickly confirmed by any admin user.  In the meantime, I think it would be best to restrict these features to admins only.  A public page for rename/deletion suggestions could be established, and admins could frequently cut/paste suggestions from that page into the rename/deletion form.  --CliffordAdams
------
The_Doors|984074374
5,10c5,10
< *[[The Doors]]
< *[[Morrison Hotel]]
< *[[Waiting for the Sun]]
< *[[Strange Days]]
< *[[The Soft Parade]]
< *[[L.A. Woman]]
---
> *[[/The Doors]]
> *[[/Morrison Hotel]]
> *[[/Waiting for the Sun]]
> *[[/Strange Days]]
> *[[/The Soft Parade]]
> *[[/L.A. Woman]]
------
Dalton_Trumbo|984074665
1c1
< (b. Dec. 9, 1905, Montrose, Colo., U.S.--d. Sept. 10, 1976, Los Angeles), screenwriter and novelist who was probably the most talented member of the [[Hollywood Ten]], one of a group who refused to testify before the 1947 [[U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities]] about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 
---
> (b. Dec. 9, 1905, [[Montrose]], [[Colorado]], [[U.S.]] --d. Sept. 10, 1976, [[Los Angeles]]), screenwriter and novelist who was probably the most talented member of the [[Hollywood Ten]], one of a group who refused to testify before the 1947 [[U.S. House Committee on Un-American Activities]] about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of contempt of Congress, he was blacklisted and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 
3c3
< Trumbo got his start in movies in 1937; by the 1940s he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as Kitty Foyle (1940), Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944), and Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (1945). After his blacklisting, he wrote 30 scripts under pseudonyms. He won an Oscar for The Brave One (1956), written under the name Robert Rich. In 1960 he received full credit for the motion-picture epics Exodus and [[Spartacus]] much to the chagrin of the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the Writers Guild of America. 
---
> Trumbo got his start in movies in 1937; by the 1940s he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as [[Kitty Foyle]] (1940), [[Thirty Seconds over Tokyo]] (1944), and [[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]] (1945). After his blacklisting, he wrote 30 scripts under pseudonyms. He won an [[Oscar]] for [[The Brave One]] (1956), written under the name [[Robert Rich]]. In 1960 he received full credit for the motion-picture epics [[Exodus]] and [[Spartacus]] much to the chagrin of the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the [[Writers Guild of America]]. 
5c5
< Trumbo's vivid antiwar novel, Johnny Got His Gun, won an [[American Booksellers Award]] for 1939. He filmed the movie of the novel himself in 1971. The inspiration for Johnny Got His Gun came when he read an article about a British officer, who was horribly disfigured during World War I. 
---
> Trumbo's vivid antiwar novel, [[Johnny Got His Gun]], won an [[American Booksellers Award]] for 1939. He filmed the movie of the novel himself in 1971. The inspiration for Johnny Got His Gun came when he read an article about a British officer, who was horribly disfigured during [[World War I]]. 
7c7
< His account and analysis of the [[Smith Act trials]] is entitled "The Devil in the Book". 
---
> His account and analysis of the [[Smith Act trials]] is entitled "[[The Devil in the Book]]". 
14,28c14,28
< *Road Gang,1936 
< *Love Begins at 20, 1936 
< *Devil's Playground, 1937 
< *Fugitives for a Night, 1938 
< *A Man to Remember, 1938 
< *Five Come Back, 1939 (with [[Nathanael West]] and J. Cody) 
< *Curtain Call, 1941 
< *Bill of Divorcement, 1940 
< *Kitty Foyle, 1940 
< *The Remarkable Andrew, 1942 
< *Tender Comrade, 1944 
< *A Guy Named Joe, 1944 
< *Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo, 1944 
< *Our Vines Have Tender Grapes, 1945 
< *The Brave One, 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich) 
---
> *[[Road Gang]],1936 
> *[[Love Begins at 20]], 1936 
> *[[Devils Playground|Devil's Playground]], 1937 
> *[[Fugitives for a Night]], 1938 
> *[[A Man to Remember]], 1938 
> *[[Five Come Back]], 1939 (with [[Nathanael West]] and J. Cody) 
> *[[Curtain Call]], 1941 
> *[[Bill of Divorcement]], 1940 
> *[[Kitty Foyle]], 1940 
> *[[The Remarkable Andrew]], 1942 
> *[[Tender Comrade]], 1944 
> *[[A Guy Named Joe]], 1944 
> *[[Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo]], 1944 
> *[[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]], 1945 
> *[[The Brave One]], 1956 (under pseudonym Robert Rich) 
30,40c30,40
< *Exodus, 1960 (a film based on Leon Uris's novel Exodus, 1958) 
< *The Last Sunset, 1961 
< *Lonely are the Brave, 1962 
< *The Sandpiper, 1965 
< *Hawaii, 1966 (based on the novel by [[James Michener]], 1959) 
< *The Fixer, 1968 
< *Johnny Got His Gun, 1971 (also dir.) 
< *The Horsemen, 1971 
< *F.T.A, 1972 
< *Executive Action, 1973 
< *Papillon, 1973 (based on the novel by [[Henri-Antoine Charriére]], 1969)
---
> *[[Exodus]], 1960 (a film based on Leon Uris's novel Exodus, 1958) 
> *[[The Last Sunset]], 1961 
> *[[Lonely are the Brave]], 1962 
> *[[The Sandpiper]], 1965 
> *[[Hawaii]], 1966 (based on the novel by [[James Michener]], 1959) 
> *[[The Fixer]], 1968 
> *[[Johnny Got His Gun]], 1971 (also dir.) 
> *[[The Horsemen]], 1971 
> *[[F.T.A]], 1972 
> *[[Executive Action]], 1973 
> *[[Papillon]], 1973 (based on the novel by [[Henri-Antoine Charriére]], 1969)
44,51c44,51
< *Eclipse, 1935 
< *Washington Jitters, 1936 
< *Johnny Got His Gun, 1939
< *The Remarkable Aandrew, 1940 
< *Chronicle of a Literal Man, 1941 
< *The Biggest Thief in Town, 1949 (play) 
< *The Time Out of the Toad, 1972 (essays) 
< *Night of the Aurochs, 1979 (unfinished, ed. by R. Kirsch) 
---
> *[[Eclipse]], 1935 
> *[[Washington Jitters]], 1936 
> *[[Johnny Got His Gun]], 1939
> *[[The Remarkable Aandrew]], 1940 
> *[[Chronicle of a Literal Man]], 1941 
> *[[The Biggest Thief in Town]], 1949 (play) 
> *[[The Time Out of the Toad]], 1972 (essays) 
> *[[Night of the Aurochs]], 1979 (unfinished, ed. by R. Kirsch) 
55,58c55,58
< *Harry Bridges, 1941 
< *The Time of the Toad, 1949 
< *The Devil in the Book, 1956 
< *Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull) 
---
> *[[Harry Bridges]], 1941 
> *[[The Time of the Toad]], 1949 
> *[[The Devil in the Book]], 1956 
> *[[Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo]], 1942-62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull) 
------
Hate_Crime|984074826
13a14,15
> The state of a person's mind has always been important in determining the fact or seriousness of a crime.  "Mens rea" (guilty mind) is a required finding in order ot obtain convicion on most felonies.  If one plotted a murder, he could be found guilty in the first degree.  If He acted in passion and without forethought, it would be re-classified as second-degree or simple murder, with concomitant reduction in penalty.  If the act resulting in death were merely careless or inattentive, negigent homicide or manslaughter may be the finding.  Similarly with drugs.  Posession is one level of crime.  Possession with intent to sell is more serious.  Hate crime legislation takes this a step further, punishing not only malice but more severely punishing unreasoning blanket hatred.
> 
------
Hate_Crime|984074888
14c14
< The state of a person's mind has always been important in determining the fact or seriousness of a crime.  "Mens rea" (guilty mind) is a required finding in order ot obtain convicion on most felonies.  If one plotted a murder, he could be found guilty in the first degree.  If He acted in passion and without forethought, it would be re-classified as second-degree or simple murder, with concomitant reduction in penalty.  If the act resulting in death were merely careless or inattentive, negigent homicide or manslaughter may be the finding.  Similarly with drugs.  Posession is one level of crime.  Possession with intent to sell is more serious.  Hate crime legislation takes this a step further, punishing not only malice but more severely punishing unreasoning blanket hatred.
---
> The state of a person's mind has always been important in determining the fact or seriousness of a crime.  "Mens rea" (guilty mind) is a required finding in order to obtain convicion on most felonies.  If one plotted a murder, he could be found guilty in the first degree.  If He acted in passion and without forethought, it would be re-classified as second-degree or simple murder, with concomitant reduction in penalty.  If the act resulting in death were merely careless or inattentive, negigent homicide or manslaughter may be the finding.  Similarly with drugs.  Posession is one level of crime.  Possession with intent to sell is more serious.  Hate crime legislation takes this a step further, punishing not only malice but more severely punishing unreasoning blanket hatred.
------
Breaking|984074988
1c1
< Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationwhip with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
---
> Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
13c13
< (completion pending)
---
> (completion pending)
------
Minimum_Wage|984075065
1c1
< The minimum pay a worker can be paid in the [[United States]].
---
> The minimum pay a worker can be paid in the [[United States]] or anywhere else in the world. It is expressed in monetary units per hour (eg. an employee may not be paid less than 6 dollars/yen/pounds, etc. per hour of work).
------
Johnny_Got_His_Gun|984075131
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vivid antiwar novel published in 1939 by [[Dalton Trumbo]], and later (1971) a movie of the same title both written and directed by Trumbo.
> 
> ''Johnny Got His Gun'' tells the story of Joe Bonham, a [[World War I]] infantryman horribly maimed in combat.  Joe is alive, but is only a faceless torso.  In a series of flashbacks, the reader is forced to compare the vibrancy of even an ordinary life with the horrors and living death of war.
> 
> The story is retold in song in [[Metallica]]'s ''One''.  The music video contains scenes from the film.
------
Johnny_Got_His_Gun|984075152
5c5
< The story is retold in song in [[Metallica]]'s ''One''.  The music video contains scenes from the film.
---
> The story is retold in song in [[MetallicA]]'s ''One''.  The music video contains scenes from the film.
------
Popular_Music|984075358
11a12
> *MetallicA
------
Popular_Music|984075431
8a9
> *[[The Doors]]
11c12
< *[[NirvanaBand]]
---
> *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
------
MetallicA/Talk|984075481
7a8,9
> ----
> ''Does anyone have a clue who might become Metallica's new bass player??? - WojPob
------
MetallicA/Talk|984075545
9c9,11
< ''Does anyone have a clue who might become Metallica's new bass player??? - WojPob
---
> ''Does anyone have a clue who might become Metallica's new bass player??? - WojPob
> 
> They should get [[Geddy Lee]] from [[Rush]].  Now that would rock.
------
MetallicA/Talk|984075579
7c7
< WojPob's theory is: something went wrong after they collectively cut their hair (which started to look a bit MulleT-like). Then they released /Load, which in the view of a lot of fans was a "weird" album. Then, less than a year later came /Reload, which was released much too quickly and obviously needed some more studio work. They still have the talent - maybe they're just too old now???
---
> WojPob's theory is: something went wrong after they collectively cut their hair (which started to look a bit [[Mullet]]-like). Then they released /Load, which in the view of a lot of fans was a "weird" album. Then, less than a year later came /Reload, which was released much too quickly and obviously needed some more studio work. They still have the talent - maybe they're just too old now???
------
Mullet|984075888
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A mullet is a type of fish, and I hope that our esteemed biological categorists will give a better description, including a link to the appropriate genus/family/species.
> 
> A mullet is also a type of haircut, long associated with [[United States]] [[redneck]] culture.  Short on top, long (shoulder length or more) in back.
------
The_Doors|984076602
12c12
< The group consited of [[Jim Morrison]] (vocals), [[Ray Manzarek]] (organ, keyboard), [[Ray Krieger]] (guitar) and [[John Densmore]] (drums). Morrison left the band in and died soon aftwards in [[Paris]]. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, [[Other Voices]] and [[Full Circle]], but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. 
---
> The group consisted of [[Jim Morrison]] (vocals, b. 1943 d. 1971), [[Ray Manzarek]] (organ, keyboard, b. 1939), [[Robbie Krieger]] (guitar, b. 1946) and [[John Densmore]] (drums, b. 1944). Morrison left the band in 1971 and died soon aftwards in [[Paris]]. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, [[Other Voices]] and [[Full Circle]], but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. 
14c14,16
< Morrison's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]].
---
> The band's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]] (from where the band took their name); Huxley's experiences with [[mescaline]] having parallels with Morrison's frequent use of [[LSD]].  
> 
> Their music tended to be focused around the swirling keyboards of [[Ray Manzerak|Manzerak]], whose left hand played the parts typically associated with [[bass guitar]], and [[Robbie Krieger|Krieger]]'s guitar playing, which showed the influence of [[flamenco]],  [[indian music|indian]], the [[blues]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] music.  
------
The_Doors/The_Doors|984076914
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Debut album by the band [[The Doors]], featuring their breakthrough single [[/Light My Fire]], extended with a lengthy instrumental section omitted on the single release, and the lengthy [[Oedipal]] song [[/The End]].
------
The_Doors|984076997
6,7d5
< *[[/Morrison Hotel]]
< *[[/Waiting for the Sun]]
8a7
> *[[/Waiting for the Sun]]
9a9
> *[[/Morrison Hotel]]
------
Wiki_Administrators|984077749
41a42,43
> ----
> Under the current system, the admin features take a very long time to run, locking the entire site from new edits.  For this reason alone, extending admin priviliges could be disastrous.  I don't think even the current administrators should use the editlinks features until this system is improved. - [[TimShell|Tim]]
------
Mullet|984077792
1d0
< 
4c3,5
< A mullet is also a type of haircut, long associated with [[United States]] [[redneck]] culture.  Short on top, long (shoulder length or more) in back.
---
> A mullet is also a type of haircut, long associated with [[United States]] [[redneck]] culture.  Short on top, long (shoulder length or more) in back.
> 
> A mullet is slang for a person that mindlessly follows a fad/trend/leader.
------
Breaking|984077919
12a13,25
> Horses in the wild have developed a number of social behaviors and signals which obtain to the survival of the herd.  They appear to be uniform in all horses around the world.  There is a "pecking order" within the herd whereby senior animals exercise leadership and enforce discipline, and there are certain observable cooperative behaviors.
> 
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] and "resistance-free training," and others.
> 
> A commonality between the above-mentioned training methods is the way in which they advocate breaking a green or wild horse.  In the wild, horses use a number of threatening or warning behaviors to drive other members of the herd into motion or warn them away.  Likewise, certain motions and body postures are used to signal safety, acceptance, compliance and non-agression.  These signals have been adopted to human use in achieving a status between trainer and horse whereby the horse accepts the human as the "boss" or next above it on the pecking order, and yet is no more threatened by the presence of the human than by a senior horse.
> 
> The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing back the corners of their mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
> A mare will discipline and reassert her mastery over a foal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressivly toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.
> 
> A senior mare or "herd mare" will assert her daminance over all the other mares in the herd in much the same way.
> 
> Non-violent horse-breaking begins in a similar fashion, as the human attempts to attain the "herd mare" position relative to the horse being broken, while offering it no cause to believe its life is in danger.
> 
------
Naming_conventions|984078027
13a14,20
> Names should be full formal names and have all of the common
> ones link to them.  
> Reasoning: 
> * There is no question on alphabetizing a full name
> * It differentiates between people with same common name
> * Redirects from common names are easy to do
> 
------
Invictus|984078034
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of a famous poem by British Publisher [[William Ernest Henley]].  
> 
> Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named GrantCole.  
------
Naming_conventions|984078150
0a1,5
> Q: Should you link every occurance of a term or just the first one in an article?  
> 
> I'm in favor of link the first occurance in an article and then any one in the 'see also' section at the end of the article.
> 
> ----
------
Minimum_Wage|984078338
1c1
< The minimum pay a worker can be paid in the [[United States]] or anywhere else in the world. It is expressed in monetary units per hour (eg. an employee may not be paid less than 6 dollars/yen/pounds, etc. per hour of work).
---
> The minimum pay a worker can be paid in the [[United States]] or anywhere else in the world. It is expressed in monetary units per hour (eg. an employee may not be paid less than 6 dollars/yen/pounds, etc. per hour of work).  Each country can set its own minimum wage laws and regulations.
------
William_Ernest_Henley|984078889
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In an era laden with advancement and opportunity, William Ernest Henley took his opportunities unlike the majority of his contemporaries. During VictorianEngland, when many new inventions emerged and [[British]] power and influence extended throughout the world. [[British]] men lived in comfort, aloof to the characteristic roughness of that period's human existence because of [[England]]s prosperity.  Henley proved to be the exception to this trend. He endured much hardship and suffering which began in his youth and prolonged throughout his life.
> 
> William Ernest Henley was born in [[Gloucester]], [[England]] on August 23, 1849. The first of an impoverished bookseller's six children, his father did manage to send him to the Crypt Grammar School. The Crypt forced him to leave for medical reasons (although some believe that it may have had to do with finances as well). At age 12 a doctor diagnosed him with TubercularArthritis and an amputation of his left leg below his knee occurred by the time he reached sixteen years of age. This was only the beginning of Henley's medical struggle. 
> 
> Not only did his financial situation perhaps prevent him from acquiring a continuous education, it also hindered any pursuit of his inborn musical talent. Finances became a serious problem when his father died in 1867 and Henley was forced to leave school permanently.  He remained a dutiful son and brother by maintaining the household for his widowed mother. In 1869, he became very frustrated with [[Gloucester]] and migrated to [[London]] to seek employment. 
> 
> He obtained work as a freelance journalist in [[London]]. But, in 1872 he grew quite ill, in fact too ill to continue residing in London, and relocated to the Marget Royal and Sea Bathing Infirmary. Without much success at Margate, he then went to [[Edinburgh]] where he wrote his [[In Hospital]] collection of [[poetry]].
> 
> It was also in [[Edinburgh]] that he fell in love with Anna Boyle, whom he eventually married. Anna was the sister of one of his roommates, Captain Boyle. In January of 1875, [[Leslie Stephens]] brought [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] to visit Henley in the hospital. A close friendship transpired from this initial meeting. Later in 1875, he was discharged from the hospital and returned to [[London]] where he was employed as the magazine editor of the London. In 1878, Henley and Anna Boyle got married and in 1888 they had their only child, Margaret. It was only five years later that they lost Margaret to a fatal case of CerebralMeningitis. 
> 
> In 1889, Henley was named the editor of the Scots Observer and it was also in 1889 there was a huge controversy over the review of [[Oscar Wilde]]s [[The Picture of Dorian Gray]].  Through the Scots Observer, he also befriended [[Rudyard Kipling]]. 
> 
> In 1894, William Ernest Henley surrendered his editorship of the National Observer (formerly the Scots Observer), and he and his wife, Anna, continued to move around [[England]] while he still pursued his editing career. For this he was awarded the Civil List Pension. In 1902 he fell from a railway carriage which caused the dormant [[tuberculosis]] germ in his system to resurface. In July 1903, he died in peace with his wife by his side.
------
MetallicA/Talk|984079153
11a12,22
> ----
> 
> :) material follows:
> 
> Have they made it to the second stage of rock and roll band age:
> 
> * Youthful energy - usually the best music produce here
> * Protecting and slowly increasing ones audience - rehash / semi-lame new music created
> * Slowing the shrink rate of the audience - obviously lame music created / multiple repackaging of greatist hits
> * Having a very small audience - new, still lame music created once every 5 years
> * Geezer rock former superstar status - no audience - only media fluff pieces - make the rounds at guest appearance shows - no new material - please, be charitable, become a recluse on a remote South Pacific island.
------
The_Power_to_Destroy|984079349
1c1
< A term used to describe the taxation authority of government.
---
> A derogatory term used to describe the taxation authority of government.
------
Minimum_Wage/Talk|984080042
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arguments for/against a [[Minimum Wage]] increase:
> 
> For:
> * It helps people that make the least money. -- How ?
> * It helps union workers because many union contracts are based on a fixed percentage/dollar amount over minimum wage.  Indirectly helps union funds used for to pay union officials, retirement plans, and for lobbying political issues (such as an increase in the minimum wage).
> 
> Against:
> * It increases the cost of basic goods and services in proportion to the increase in labor costs from an increase in the minimum wage.  It is claimed to offset any increase minimum wage workers receive.
> * Minimum wage workers usually earn minimum wage only for a short period of time and move to higher paying jobs.
> * Many minimum wage jobs are performed by part time workers and students.
> ----
> There have to be some real reasons to be for or against an
> increase in the minimum wage.  Not some generic 'it helps the
> little guy' or some generic 'it costs jobs'
> 
> Can anyone list all off the things that are <b>directly</b> tied to the minimum wage level?
> * [[Social Security]] taxes paid (6.25 percent paid by wage earner and 6.25 percent paid by employer)
> * [[Medicare]] taxes paid (1.2 percent paid by wage earner and 1.2 percent paid by employer)
> * Union contracts based on a fixed percentage/dollar amount over minimum wage
> * Unemployment taxes ??
> * Worker's compensation insurance ??
------
Orson_Welles|984081102
9a10
> *[[The Trial]]
------
The_Trial|984081250
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A 1963 black and white film which can be seen here:
> [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide The Trial at liketelevision.com]
------
The_Trial|984081270
2c2
< [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide The Trial at liketelevision.com]
---
> [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide "The Trial" at liketelevision.com]
------
Jim_Morrison|984081398
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A poet and lead vocalist of [[TheDoors]].
> 
> He heavily experimented with drugs and consumed large amounts
> of alcohol on a daily basis.
> 
> 
------
Jim_Morrison|984081419
1c1
< A poet and lead vocalist of [[TheDoors]].
---
> A poet and lead vocalist of [[The Doors]].
------
Paris|984081837
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital city and largest city in [[France]].
> 
> Notable places/things in Paris:
> * [[Arc de Triomphe / Arc de Triumph]] - war? monument
> * Disneyland Paris - amusement park
> * [[Eiffel Tower]] - ? monument
> * [[Louvre]] - art museum
------
RequestedArticles|984082158
21c21
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[postmaster]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Postmaster]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
------
Postmaster|984082291
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Head official at a post office branch or facility.
> 
> See also:
> * [[Postman]]
> * [[Post Office]]
> * [[Letter Carrier]]
> * [[Postage Stamp]]
> 
------
RequestedArticles|984082420
25c25
< <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]])
---
> <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]]) -- not really - many of these creatures are based on older mythology of one form or another.  Wight is based on English mythology.
------
Spindletop|984082541
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An oil field located in [[Texas]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> The first major oil field in the United States.
> 
> Oil was first found in 19??.
------
Invictus|984082932
3c3
< Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named GrantCole.  
---
> Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole]].  
------
William_Ernest_Henley|984082985
1c1
< In an era laden with advancement and opportunity, William Ernest Henley took his opportunities unlike the majority of his contemporaries. During VictorianEngland, when many new inventions emerged and [[British]] power and influence extended throughout the world. [[British]] men lived in comfort, aloof to the characteristic roughness of that period's human existence because of [[England]]s prosperity.  Henley proved to be the exception to this trend. He endured much hardship and suffering which began in his youth and prolonged throughout his life.
---
> In an era laden with advancement and opportunity, William Ernest Henley took his opportunities unlike the majority of his contemporaries. During [[Victorian England]], when many new inventions emerged and [[British]] power and influence extended throughout the world. [[British]] men lived in comfort, aloof to the characteristic roughness of that period's human existence because of [[England]]s prosperity.  Henley proved to be the exception to this trend. He endured much hardship and suffering which began in his youth and prolonged throughout his life.
13c13
< In 1894, William Ernest Henley surrendered his editorship of the National Observer (formerly the Scots Observer), and he and his wife, Anna, continued to move around [[England]] while he still pursued his editing career. For this he was awarded the Civil List Pension. In 1902 he fell from a railway carriage which caused the dormant [[tuberculosis]] germ in his system to resurface. In July 1903, he died in peace with his wife by his side.
---
> In 1894, William Ernest Henley surrendered his editorship of the National Observer (formerly the Scots Observer), and he and his wife, Anna, continued to move around [[England]] while he still pursued his editing career. For this he was awarded the Civil List Pension. In 1902 he fell from a railway carriage which caused the dormant [[tuberculosis]] germ in his system to resurface. In July 1903, he died in peace with his wife by his side.
------
Postage_Stamp|984083086
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A method of a paying a fee for postal services. It is usually paper rectangle which is attached to an envelope. 
> 
> ''See also'' [[Stamp collecting]]
> 
------
Minimum_Wage/Talk|984083142
10a11
> * It harms the people who make the least money -- a minimum wage law doesn't create any jobs, it simply outlaws some jobs (those which create little value).
------
The_Trial|984083340
1,2c1,4
< A 1963 black and white film which can be seen here:
< [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide "The Trial" at liketelevision.com]
---
> ''The Trial'' is one of [[Franz Kafka]]'s best-known novels--an example of the existentialist, surrealist literature that was greatly influential in the mid-twentieth century.
> 
> A 1963 black and white film of the novel can be seen here:
> [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide "The Trial" at liketelevision.com]
------
Orson_Welles|984083420
13a14,15
> ----
> Please see [[naming conventions]].  Remember, titles of movies are often the titles of other things; e.g., "The Trial" is a novel first and foremost; "Macbeth" is a play first and foremost.
------
Orson_Welles|984083950
15c15,17
< Please see [[naming conventions]].  Remember, titles of movies are often the titles of other things; e.g., "The Trial" is a novel first and foremost; "Macbeth" is a play first and foremost.
---
> Please see [[naming conventions]].  Remember, titles of movies are often the titles of other things; e.g., "The Trial" is a novel first and foremost; "Macbeth" is a play first and foremost.
> ----
> But perhaps its quite interesting for people to enter the main page first and after reading general information, they can click on a separate link. I'll add a demo, please tell me what you think
------
Macbeth|984084651
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Play by [[William Shakespeare]]. Macbeth, a general of the army of Duncan, King of Scotland, quickly rises through the ranks after a great victory over the rebel Macdonwald. In his lust for power, he and his wife murder the king, and he becomes king of Scotland himself. As he grows old he gets more evil every day, until rebels gather to overthorw him.
> 
> Films on Macbeth:
> :[[/Orson Welles|Macbeth]] by [[Orson Welles]]
> :[[/Roman Polansky|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polansky]] 
------
Macbeth|984084891
1c1
< Play by [[William Shakespeare]]. Macbeth, a general of the army of Duncan, King of Scotland, quickly rises through the ranks after a great victory over the rebel Macdonwald. In his lust for power, he and his wife murder the king, and he becomes king of Scotland himself. As he grows old he gets more evil every day, until rebels gather to overthorw him.
---
> Play by [[William Shakespeare]]. Macbeth, a general of the army of Duncan, King of [[Scotland]], quickly rises through the ranks after a great victory over the rebel Macdonwald. In his lust for power, he and his wife murder the king, and he becomes King of [[Scotland]] himself. As he grows old he gets more evil every day, until rebels gather to overthrow him.
5c5
< :[[/Roman Polansky|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polansky]] 
---
> :[[/Roman Polansky|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polansky]] 
------
Orson_Welles|984084917
10a11,12
> *[[Othello]]
> *[[The Stranger]]
17c19
< But perhaps its quite interesting for people to enter the main page first and after reading general information, they can click on a separate link. I'll add a demo, please tell me what you think
---
> But perhaps its quite interesting for people to enter the main page first and after reading general information, they can click on a separate link. It is easier this way unless we want to repeat ourselves all the time (there are about two dozen Macbeth films and each one has roughly the same storyline. If you write that on the Macbeth main page and list differences on the specific film's page, it makes more sense and is easier to maintain). I'll add a demo, please tell me what you think
------
The_Trial|984085046
4c4,8
< [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide "The Trial" at liketelevision.com]
---
> 
> Films on The Trial:
> 
> *[[/Orson Welles|The Trial]] by [[Orson Welles]]
> 
------
The_Trial/Orson_Welles|984085072
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&format=movie&theme=guide "The Trial" at liketelevision.com]
------
The_Trial|984085089
3c3
< A 1963 black and white film of the novel can be seen here:
---
> 
8d7
< 
------
The_Trial/Orson_Welles|984085127
0a1
> The film can be seen here:
------
Jim_Morrison|984085317
0a1,3
> Birth name: James Douglas Morrison
> Was married to: Pamela Morrison
> 
5d7
< 
------
Wiki_Administrators|984085319
43c43,47
< Under the current system, the admin features take a very long time to run, locking the entire site from new edits.  For this reason alone, extending admin priviliges could be disastrous.  I don't think even the current administrators should use the editlinks features until this system is improved. - [[TimShell|Tim]]
---
> Under the current system, the admin features take a very long time to run, locking the entire site from new edits.  For this reason alone, extending admin priviliges could be disastrous.  I don't think even the current administrators should use the editlinks features until this system is improved. - [[TimShell|Tim]]
> ----
> I ([[Larry Sanger]]) would support some such scheme (as long as the practical problems Tim mentions can be overcome).  But I agree with Cliff when he says "one could cause severe disruption with some of the admin-level commands.  Features like locking pages or banning networks might be controversial."  As a basic security measure, I don't think we should pass out ''the same'' password to everyone, but give each person an individual password that can be revoked in case there's a problem.
> 
> I think there's a bit of a practical concern in that, possibly, some people might be made admins who fail to understand or agree with whatever community standards there are--and proceeds to rename pages and otherwise wreak havoc, not out of maliciousness but cluelessness, hubris, egotism, and the like.  If you've been online for long enough, and I know you all have, you know that this sort of problem is practically inevitable.  I don't know that we need to ''do'' anything about this potential problem other than what Cliff already proposed, i.e., assign admin responsibilities only to people who have been with us for a month and have created a lot of good articles.  Maybe I'd add the simple caveat that we should state that one shouldn't ''expect'' to get admin privileges after a certain amount of work--in other words, it's not automatic.  Something along those lines, anyway. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
The_Doors/The_Doors|984085523
1c1,15
< Debut album by the band [[The Doors]], featuring their breakthrough single [[/Light My Fire]], extended with a lengthy instrumental section omitted on the single release, and the lengthy [[Oedipal]] song [[/The End]].
---
> Debut album by the band [[The Doors]], featuring their breakthrough single [[/Light My Fire]], extended with a lengthy instrumental section omitted on the single release, and the lengthy [[Oedipal]] song [[/The End]].
> 
> The full list of songs:
> 
> :Break On Trough (To The Other Side)
> :Soul Kitchen
> :The Crystal Ship
> :Twentieth Century Fox
> :Alabama Song (Whisky Bar)
> :Light My Fire
> :Back Door Man
> :I Looked At You
> :End of the Night
> :Take it As It Comes
> :The End
------
Naming_conventions|984085817
64a65,66
> ----
> I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
------
Breaking|984085836
1,26c1
< Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
< 
< In order to make use of a horse, it must first be "broken" - that is, it must have its native flight instinct curbed to the point where it will aquiesce to human handling and follow commands.  There are two general schools of horse-breaking on the whole, one based on restraint, punishment and pain, and one utilizing efforts to obtain the animal's cooperation through the use of encouragements based on the way horses relate to each other.
< 
< One reads historical accounts and sees movie depictions of a horseman pursuing a feral horse, capturing it by force, and penning it. He then utilizes the restraint of halter tied to a snubbing post to wear the animal down until, sweating, trembling and blowing, it can be saddled.  Once the saddle is in place, the horseman will climb aboard and signal a helper to release the restraint tying the horse's head to the snubbing post and try to stay in the saddle while the animal frantically attempts to dislodge him.  To remain aboard a gyrating horse requires a good deal of athleticism and skill, not to mention a disregard for one's own bodily safety bordering on contempt.  The attending commotion can be quite entertaining, and may attract the rapt attention of a number of standers-by, who may cheer the horseman in his efforts to subdue the wild beast.  This, generally, is the origin of the sport of rodeo. 
< 
< Further breaking techniques through hobbling a horse, tying up one or more legs, throwing the animal the ground and preventing it from rising, beating it until it falls, and other inflictions of overwhelming force have been known to be employed.
< 
< When the horse if finally broken it will, to greater or lesser degree, suffer the attentions of humans without making a serious attempt to flee.  It may then be trained further into one or a number of different disciplines.
< 
< A school of horse-breaking which is gaining increasing popularity eschews violent means and makes use of what may be termed a horse's natural "body language"
< 
< Horses in the wild have developed a number of social behaviors and signals which obtain to the survival of the herd.  They appear to be uniform in all horses around the world.  There is a "pecking order" within the herd whereby senior animals exercise leadership and enforce discipline, and there are certain observable cooperative behaviors.
< 
< Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] and "resistance-free training," and others.
< 
< A commonality between the above-mentioned training methods is the way in which they advocate breaking a green or wild horse.  In the wild, horses use a number of threatening or warning behaviors to drive other members of the herd into motion or warn them away.  Likewise, certain motions and body postures are used to signal safety, acceptance, compliance and non-agression.  These signals have been adopted to human use in achieving a status between trainer and horse whereby the horse accepts the human as the "boss" or next above it on the pecking order, and yet is no more threatened by the presence of the human than by a senior horse.
< 
< The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing back the corners of their mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
< A mare will discipline and reassert her mastery over a foal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressivly toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.
< 
< A senior mare or "herd mare" will assert her daminance over all the other mares in the herd in much the same way.
< 
< Non-violent horse-breaking begins in a similar fashion, as the human attempts to attain the "herd mare" position relative to the horse being broken, while offering it no cause to believe its life is in danger.
< 
< (completion pending)
---
> #REDIRECT [[horse-breaking]]
------
Breaking|984085921
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[horse-breaking]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Horse-breaking]]
------
Naming_conventions|984086043
66c66,68
< I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
---
> I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
> ----
> Maybe we should also add a suggestion to make subdirectory links prettier (basically that means hiding the /). See [[Chess]]
------
Horse-breaking|984086079
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
> 
> In order to make use of a horse, it must first be "broken" - that is, it must have its native flight instinct curbed to the point where it will aquiesce to human handling and follow commands.  There are two general schools of horse-breaking on the whole, one based on restraint, punishment and pain, and one utilizing efforts to obtain the animal's cooperation through the use of encouragements based on the way horses relate to each other.
> 
> One reads historical accounts and sees movie depictions of a horseman pursuing a feral horse, capturing it by force, and penning it. He then utilizes the restraint of halter tied to a snubbing post to wear the animal down until, sweating, trembling and blowing, it can be saddled.  Once the saddle is in place, the horseman will climb aboard and signal a helper to release the restraint tying the horse's head to the snubbing post and try to stay in the saddle while the animal frantically attempts to dislodge him.  To remain aboard a gyrating horse requires a good deal of athleticism and skill, not to mention a disregard for one's own bodily safety bordering on contempt.  The attending commotion can be quite entertaining, and may attract the rapt attention of a number of standers-by, who may cheer the horseman in his efforts to subdue the wild beast.  This, generally, is the origin of the sport of rodeo. 
> 
> Further breaking techniques through hobbling a horse, tying up one or more legs, throwing the animal the ground and preventing it from rising, beating it until it falls, and other inflictions of overwhelming force have been known to be employed.
> 
> When the horse if finally broken it will, to greater or lesser degree, suffer the attentions of humans without making a serious attempt to flee.  It may then be trained further into one or a number of different disciplines.
> 
> A school of horse-breaking which is gaining increasing popularity eschews violent means and makes use of what may be termed a horse's natural "body language"
> 
> Horses in the wild have developed a number of social behaviors and signals which obtain to the survival of the herd.  They appear to be uniform in all horses around the world.  There is a "pecking order" within the herd whereby senior animals exercise leadership and enforce discipline, and there are certain observable cooperative behaviors.
> 
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] and "resistance-free training," and others.
> 
> A commonality between the above-mentioned training methods is the way in which they advocate breaking a green or wild horse.  In the wild, horses use a number of threatening or warning behaviors to drive other members of the herd into motion or warn them away.  Likewise, certain motions and body postures are used to signal safety, acceptance, compliance and non-agression.  These signals have been adopted to human use in achieving a status between trainer and horse whereby the horse accepts the human as the "boss" or next above it on the pecking order, and yet is no more threatened by the presence of the human than by a senior horse.
> 
> The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing back the corners of their mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
> A mare will discipline and reassert her mastery over a foal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressivly toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.
> 
> A senior mare or "herd mare" will assert her daminance over all the other mares in the herd in much the same way.
> 
> Non-violent horse-breaking begins in a similar fashion, as the human attempts to attain the "herd mare" position relative to the horse being broken, while offering it no cause to believe its life is in danger.
> 
> (completion pending)
------
Sports|984086236
119,120c119,121
< * [[Breaking]]
< * [[Training]]
---
> * [[Horse-breaking]]
> * [[Horse-training]]
> :(The rest of these links need to be renamed so that they specifically identify their topic.)
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984086803
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
> 
> Let's [[/Talk]]
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984086888
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Links should be <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" rather than "Kingdom [[Animalia]]"</nowiki>
> 
> 
> 
------
Andy_Jewell|984087055
6,24d5
< Hi Andy -
< 
< All the AtlasShrugged pages will be redirected to [[Atlas Shrugged]] soon, so there is no reason to edit them.
<  - Tim
< 
< ----
< Hi!  It's nice to see someone else interested in biology here.  I'm the WikiPedian who created the sort-of-rambling group pages that were already here.  Since you're organizing a little differently, and probably better, than I was, I had a few questions/comments.
< 
< [[Prokaryotae]] - you say that this is a new form of [[Monera]] but I don't think that a majority has made the switch.  There doesn't seem to be any reason to, and historically such names have tended to be ignored, at least (Protoctista, Chlorophycophyta, etc).  A lot of workers tend to neglect the name altogether, since it seems to be polyphyletic.  Any reason for choosing this form?
< 
< [[Protista]] - the classification of protista has been changing a lot recently, and I think most people have more or less abandoned higher level Linnaean stuff for the time being.  [[Euglenids]] have variously been grouped as a phylum or class and referred to as the Euglenida, Euglenophyta, Euglenophyceae, etc.  Some of the groups you mention have been dropped entirely, especially the amoeboid ones, due to heavy polyphyly, and I'd been leaving those off and grouping by rough grades (flagellates, amoeboids, algae, etc).  I would love to hear if you have any good ideas on what to do, since the flat list seems wrong and what I was doing seems clunky.
< 
< [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  They're standard, so we should mention them, but wikipedia doesn't have to organize itself on an obsolete and broken system if we don't want it to.
< 
< Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  Also, Hominidae has been used in two senses recently: as the family containing ''Homo'' and as the lone family of Hominoidae (humans and apes).  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
< 
< Once again, thanks for showing up and helping with what's probably one of the worst sections of wikipedia.  Plus, you did a ton of stuff on the math too. :)
< [[Josh Grosse]]
< ----
35a17
>  That's among the million things that need doing, yes. --[[Andy Jewell]]
------
Andy_Jewell|984087113
5,17c5
< ----
< 
< Note from a biological illiterate:
< 
< Josh and Andy,
< 
< I see the classifications of such things as [[Daubentoniidae]],
< and I like it, but I haven't the least idea what it is in common
< terms.  Would it be possible on these pages to give common examples?
< 
< I see that [[Daubentoniidae]] is a kind of primate, so is it some kind of monkey?
< 
<  That's among the million things that need doing, yes. --[[Andy Jewell]]
---
> See Also [[Linnaen taxonomy/Talk]]
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984087130
0a1,2
> Authors include [[Josh Grosse]] and [[Andy Jewell]]
> 
1a4,13
> 
> We need an easy english example by every entry.
> 
> [[Prokaryotae]] - you say that this is a new form of [[Monera]] but I don't think that a majority has made the switch.  There doesn't seem to be any reason to, and historically such names have tended to be ignored, at least (Protoctista, Chlorophycophyta, etc).  A lot of workers tend to neglect the name altogether, since it seems to be polyphyletic.  Any reason for choosing this form?
> 
> [[Protista]] - the classification of protista has been changing a lot recently, and I think most people have more or less abandoned higher level Linnaean stuff for the time being.  [[Euglenids]] have variously been grouped as a phylum or class and referred to as the Euglenida, Euglenophyta, Euglenophyceae, etc.  Some of the groups you mention have been dropped entirely, especially the amoeboid ones, due to heavy polyphyly, and I'd been leaving those off and grouping by rough grades (flagellates, amoeboids, algae, etc).  I would love to hear if you have any good ideas on what to do, since the flat list seems wrong and what I was doing seems clunky.
> 
> [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  They're standard, so we should mention them, but wikipedia doesn't have to organize itself on an obsolete and broken system if we don't want it to.
> 
> Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  Also, Hominidae has been used in two senses recently: as the family containing ''Homo'' and as the lone family of Hominoidae (humans and apes).  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
------
Biology|984087363
5c5
< The classification of living things is called [[Taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.
---
> The classification of living things is called [[taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures. One of the oldest is [[Linnaen taxonomy]]. Others include [[phenetics]], [[cladistics]], or [[evolutionary taxonomy]].
7,15d6
< Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
< 
< * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
< * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal protozoa, algae, etc.
< * Kingdom [[Plantae]] - green algae & plants
< * Kingdom [[Fungi]] - chytrids & fungi
< * Kingdom [[Animalia]] - animals
< 
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984087370
1,2d0
< Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
< 
3a2,12
> 
> Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
> 
> * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
> * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal protozoa, algae, etc.
> * Kingdom [[Plantae]] - green algae & plants
> * Kingdom [[Fungi]] - chytrids & fungi
> * Kingdom [[Animalia]] - animals
> 
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
> 
------
Breaking|984087431
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Horse-breaking]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Horse-breaking]]
------
Horse-breaking|984087461
1c1
< Horses, unlike domestic animals of the pet variety, such as cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for a predator.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
---
> Horses, unlike domestic like cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for predators.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
3c3
< In order to make use of a horse, it must first be "broken" - that is, it must have its native flight instinct curbed to the point where it will aquiesce to human handling and follow commands.  There are two general schools of horse-breaking on the whole, one based on restraint, punishment and pain, and one utilizing efforts to obtain the animal's cooperation through the use of encouragements based on the way horses relate to each other.
---
> In order to make use of a horse, it must first be "broken" - that is, it must have its native flight instinct curbed to the point where it will aquiesce to human handling and follow commands.  There are two general schools of horse-breaking on the whole, one based on restraint, punishment and pain, and one utilizing efforts to obtain the animal's cooperation based on the way horses relate to each other.
5c5
< One reads historical accounts and sees movie depictions of a horseman pursuing a feral horse, capturing it by force, and penning it. He then utilizes the restraint of halter tied to a snubbing post to wear the animal down until, sweating, trembling and blowing, it can be saddled.  Once the saddle is in place, the horseman will climb aboard and signal a helper to release the restraint tying the horse's head to the snubbing post and try to stay in the saddle while the animal frantically attempts to dislodge him.  To remain aboard a gyrating horse requires a good deal of athleticism and skill, not to mention a disregard for one's own bodily safety bordering on contempt.  The attending commotion can be quite entertaining, and may attract the rapt attention of a number of standers-by, who may cheer the horseman in his efforts to subdue the wild beast.  This, generally, is the origin of the sport of rodeo. 
---
> One reads historical accounts and sees movie depictions of a horseman pursuing a feral horse, capturing it by force, and penning it. He then utilizes the restraint of a halter tied to a snubbing post to wear the animal down until, sweating, trembling and blowing, it can be saddled.  Once the saddle is in place, the horseman will climb aboard and signal a helper to release the restraint tying the horse's head to the snubbing post and try to stay in the saddle while the animal frantically attempts to dislodge him.  To remain aboard a gyrating horse requires a good deal of athleticism and skill, not to mention a disregard for one's own bodily safety bordering on contempt.  The attending commotion can be quite entertaining, and may attract the rapt attention of a number of standers-by, who may cheer the horseman in his efforts to subdue the wild beast.  This, generally, is the origin of the sport of rodeo. 
9c9
< When the horse if finally broken it will, to greater or lesser degree, suffer the attentions of humans without making a serious attempt to flee.  It may then be trained further into one or a number of different disciplines.
---
> When the horse is finally broken it will, to greater or lesser degree, suffer the attentions of humans without making a serious attempt to flee.  It may then be trained further into one or a number of different disciplines.
13c13
< Horses in the wild have developed a number of social behaviors and signals which obtain to the survival of the herd.  They appear to be uniform in all horses around the world.  There is a "pecking order" within the herd whereby senior animals exercise leadership and enforce discipline, and there are certain observable cooperative behaviors.
---
> Horses in the wild have developed a number of social behaviors and signals which obtain to the survival of the herd.  They appear to be uniform in horses around the world.  There is a "pecking order" within the herd whereby senior animals exercise leadership and enforce discipline, and there are certain observable cooperative behaviors.
15c15
< Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] and "resistance-free training," and others.
---
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
19,20c19,20
< The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing back the corners of their mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
< A mare will discipline and reassert her mastery over a foal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressivly toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.
---
> The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing the corners of their mouth back and open - creating an almost "keyhole" effect at the corners of the mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
> A mare will discipline and reassert her dominance over a misbehavingfoal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressively toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.  Roberts calls this point in the relationship "join up."
22c22
< A senior mare or "herd mare" will assert her daminance over all the other mares in the herd in much the same way.
---
> A senior mare or "herd mare" will assert her dominance over the other mares in the herd in much the same way.
24c24
< Non-violent horse-breaking begins in a similar fashion, as the human attempts to attain the "herd mare" position relative to the horse being broken, while offering it no cause to believe its life is in danger.
---
> Non-violent horse-breaking begins in similar fashion, as the human attempts to attain the "herd mare" position relative to the horse being broken, while offering it no cause to believe its life is in danger.
26c26,30
< (completion pending)
---
> The activity will take place in a pen, usually a round pen, large enough to permit free movement of trainer and horse but too small to allow the horse to move far enough away that it can ignore the actions of the trainer.   The trainer will lead the animal into the center of the pen and release it, driving it away with motions of a visual "threatener" such as a hat, whip, coiled rope or other visually obvious object.  A coiled rope is often preferred.  The trainer will keep the horse in motion by continuing to swing the rope in its direction, and will start, stop, and control the pace of the horse's movement by altering body position and the motion of the threatener.  He may accompany these motions with verbal commands to begin to build an association in the horse's mind between the command and the movement.  At no time will the trainer use eye contact, as this is a challenge to a horse.  A rounded silhouette on the part of the trainer, a sign of safety to the horse, may be maintained.
> 
> From time to time, the trainer will allow the horse to stop.  If it faces away, it is still rejecting the trainer.  If it faces inward with head high, it is defiant or at best cautious or curious.  It has not accepted trainer as boss.  Eventually, the horse faces inward when it stops, head lowered, making chewing motions.  It is submitting.  The trainer is advised at this point to present his shoulder to the horse, and to create a markedly rounded silhouette, eyes averted.  This is an invitation.  If the horse approaches and stands at the trainer's shoulder, head still down, he has submitted.   The trainer may stroke the horse's withers, another horse-to-horse comforting gesture.  If the trainer moves off and the horse stays right on his shoulder, "join up" has occurred.
> 
> When the horse is in the habit of submitting to the trainer, blanket and saddle will be introduced gradually.  The horse will be offered these items to see, sniff and feel, and may have them rubbed on the sides of his barrel.  Eventually, when the saddle can be put on and cinched without objection from the horse, more round pen work will be done with the saddle on until the horse is accustomed to it.  At this point, the trainer may grab a handfull of mane as a safety precaution, and stand in first one stirrup and then the other until the horse accepts him in a position which is higher than the horse's head.  This is important, as predatory cats may attack from above, and horses are sensitive to living creatures above and behind their heads.  Having been accepted in each stirrup, the trainer may hang himself belly-down across the saddle, eventually to rotate into a sitting position, facing forward, with both feet in the stirrups.  If the horse accepts this, and responds to urgings to move forward without resorting to flight, he is broken.  Horses broken in this fashion tend to develop lifelong cooperative working relationships with their handlers.
------
Horse-breaking|984087549
1c1
< Horses, unlike domestic like cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for predators.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
---
> Horses, unlike domestic animals like cats and dogs, have never formed a voluntary symbiotic relationship with their human keepers.  Horses are prey animals which run in herds, and have a highly developed flight instinct in order to avoid becoming food for predators.  Nonetheless, because their physiology is peculiarly suited to the accomplishment of a number of human-related jobs and entertainments, humans have domesticated horses and pressed them into service for centuries.
------
Josh_Grosse|984087702
44c44
< I realized way too late that I should have been using <nowiki>"[[Genus Homo]]" instead of  "Genus [[Homo]]"</nowiki> but I'm sure it will all need revising a few more times anyway.
---
> See [[Linnaen taxonomy/Talk]]
------
Horse-breaking|984087780
17c17
< A commonality between the above-mentioned training methods is the way in which they advocate breaking a green or wild horse.  In the wild, horses use a number of threatening or warning behaviors to drive other members of the herd into motion or warn them away.  Likewise, certain motions and body postures are used to signal safety, acceptance, compliance and non-agression.  These signals have been adopted to human use in achieving a status between trainer and horse whereby the horse accepts the human as the "boss" or next above it on the pecking order, and yet is no more threatened by the presence of the human than by a senior horse.
---
> A commonality between the above-mentioned training methods is the way in which they advocate breaking a green or wild horse.  In the wild, horses use a number of threatening or warning behaviors to drive other members of the herd into motion or warn them away.  Likewise, certain motions and body postures are used to signal safety, acceptance, compliance and non-agression.  These signals have been adapted to human use in achieving a status between trainer and horse whereby the horse accepts the human as the "boss" or next above it on the pecking order, and yet is no more threatened by the presence of the human than by a senior horse.
19c19
< The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing the corners of their mouth back and open - creating an almost "keyhole" effect at the corners of the mouth, chewing dramtically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
---
> The clearest and most fundamental pecking-order relationship in horse herds is that between mare and foal.  Foals and young horses display subservience and a "don't hurt me - I'm harmless" message to other members of the herd by drawing the corners of their mouth back and open - creating an almost "keyhole" effect at the corners of the mouth, chewing dramatically, and lowering their head.  Mares exhibit this same behavior (among others) to signal acquiescence to a breeding stallion.  In mature horses, simple acquiesence is signalled by a less dramatic chewing motion, lowered head, and cautious approaching walk.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984087805
3c3
< Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
---
> Established by [[Carolus Linnaeus]], Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
------
Horse-breaking|984087827
15c15
< Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate and the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
---
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate of the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
------
Carolus_Linnaeus|984087890
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Swede (1707-1778) who began the modern practice of taxonomy. His style is known as [[Linnaen taxonomy]].
> 
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984088102
11c11
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Cam Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
---
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
------
Horse-breaking|984088163
7c7
< Further breaking techniques through hobbling a horse, tying up one or more legs, throwing the animal the ground and preventing it from rising, beating it until it falls, and other inflictions of overwhelming force have been known to be employed.
---
> Further breaking techniques through hobbling a horse, tying up one or more legs, throwing the animal to the ground and preventing it from rising, beating it until it falls, and other inflictions of overwhelming force have been known to be employed.
------
Charles_Darwin|984088190
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British Naturalist (1809 -1882). The [evolution] guy.
------
Charles_Darwin|984088207
1c1
< British Naturalist (1809 -1882). The [evolution] guy.
---
> British Naturalist (1809 -1882). The [[evolution]] guy.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984088259
11c11
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow evolution too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before evolution, and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
---
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow [[evolution]] too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before [[evolution]], and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
------
Horse-breaking|984088345
20c20
< A mare will discipline and reassert her dominance over a misbehavingfoal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressively toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.  Roberts calls this point in the relationship "join up."
---
> A mare will discipline and reassert her dominance over a misbehaving foal by raising her head and tail, and moving agressively toward it.  If it fails to retreat, she may make eye contact as a further threat, bite it at the rump or withers, or even resort to a mild kick.  She will keep the foal at a distance and keep it moving away with these actions until it offers to return meekly with lowered head and chewing motions, indicating sumission.  She will in turn accept the contrite foal with her own lowered head, turning sideways, and perhaps engaging in mutual grooming.  The pecking order is firmly established when she moves slowly away and the foal follows at her shoulder no matter which way she turns.  Roberts calls this point in the relationship "join up."
------
Naming_conventions|984088445
68c68,72
< Maybe we should also add a suggestion to make subdirectory links prettier (basically that means hiding the /). See [[Chess]]
---
> Maybe we should also add a suggestion to make subdirectory links prettier (basically that means hiding the /). See [[Chess]].
> 
> I'll second  that. Hide the / 
> 
> 
------
Minimum_Wage/Talk|984088828
5c5
< * It helps union workers because many union contracts are based on a fixed percentage/dollar amount over minimum wage.  Indirectly helps union funds used for to pay union officials, retirement plans, and for lobbying political issues (such as an increase in the minimum wage).
---
> * It helps union workers because many union contracts are based on a fixed percentage/dollar amount over minimum wage.  Indirectly helps union funds used for to pay union officials, retirement plans, and for lobbying political issues (such as an increase in the minimum wage) because union dues are a percentage of the hourly wage.
------
Naming_conventions|984088847
48a49,50
> Might I make a suggestion? WikiPedia already does the right thing with the first letter, i.e. the first letter of the link address is capiatized no matter what the first character of the link text looks like. Can we extend the wiki software to do the same for any character that follow an underscore? I suppose there is a larger [[canonization]] issue, where we want some flexibility in link text by turning it into some canonical address. WikiPedia does great with spaces and the case of the first letter, let's go farther. --[[Andy Jewell]]
> 
------
RecentChanges|984088885
3c3,4
< See [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
---
> See [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.helo 
> 
------
The_Doors|984089014
18c18
< [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group.
---
> [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 199?.
------
Horse-breaking|984089069
15c15
< Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate of the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Schraik]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
---
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate of the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Shrake]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984089343
12,16c12,16
< * AdA
< * C-LanguagE
< * C++LanguagE
< * FortraN
< * PascaL
---
> * Ada
> * C-Language
> * C++Language
> * Fortran
> * Pascan
23,25c23,25
< * JavA
< * LisP
< * SchemE
---
> * Java
> * Lisp
> * Scheme
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984089456
12,16c12,16
< * Ada
< * C-Language
< * C++Language
< * Fortran
< * Pascan
---
> * AdA
> * C-LanguagE
> * C++LanguagE
> * FortraN
> * PascaL
23,25c23,25
< * Java
< * Lisp
< * Scheme
---
> * JavA
> * LisP
> * SchemE
------
Horse-breaking|984089518
15c15
< Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate of the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[Jim Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Shrake]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
---
> Perhaps the foremost and best-known advocate of the use of "horse language" as a training tool would be [[Monty Roberts]], known the world over as the "[[horse whisperer]]."  Roberts has a knack and a knowledge for curing horse fear and flight behaviors which he gained from observing herds of horses in the wild.  Other proponents of the same or similar methods include [[John Lyons]] with his "round pen reasoning," [[Richard Shrake]] with "resistance-free training," and others.
------
SandBox|984089643
109c109
< 
---
> [[Dune (film productions)]]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984089662
15,17c15,17
< * FortraN
< * PascaL
< * VisualBasic
---
> * [[Fortran]]
> * [[Pascal]]
> * [[Visual Basic]]
19c19
< * AssemblerLanguage
---
> * [[Assembly Language]]
23,25c23,25
< * JavA
< * LisP
< * SchemE
---
> * [[Java]]
> * [[Lisp]]
> * [[Scheme]]
------
The_Doors|984089718
2a3,4
> They started the group in 1965 ins [[Los Angelos]], [[California]] in the [[United States]].
> 
5,10c7,12
< *[[/The Doors]]
< *[[/Strange Days]]
< *[[/Waiting for the Sun]]
< *[[/The Soft Parade]]
< *[[/Morrison Hotel]]
< *[[/L.A. Woman]]
---
> * [[/The Doors]] - 1967
> * [[/Strange Days]] - 1967
> * [[/Waiting for the Sun]] - 1968
> * [[/The Soft Parade]] - 1969
> * [[/Morrison Hotel]] - 1970
> * [[/L.A. Woman]] - 1971
18c20
< [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 199?.
---
> [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 1991.
------
The_Doors|984089752
3c3
< They started the group in 1965 ins [[Los Angelos]], [[California]] in the [[United States]].
---
> They started the group in 1965 ins [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] in the [[United States]].
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984089856
13,14c13,14
< * C-LanguagE
< * C++LanguagE
---
> * [[C Language|C]]
> * [[C Plus Plus|C++]]
------
AdA|984089895
1,8c1
< Programming language, named after Ada Lovelace, the first programmer.  Really only used anymore in US Department of Defense stuff.  Oh yeah, and Ada95, the most popular Ada compiler actually translates your code to C, then compiles the C.  I love that.
< 
< ----
< 
< Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
< 
< ----
< Do you mean GNAT (GNU Ada Translater) when writing "Ada95"? This is no translater to C any longer but a frontend to the GNU Compiler Collection, as the C or the Java frontends are. By the way, it is _not_ used only by DOD staff and it is a highly capable language. In contrast to the popular misbelief it produces rather fast code (comparable to C).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ada]]
------
Ada|984089907
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Programming language, named after Ada Lovelace, the first programmer.  Really only used anymore in US Department of Defense stuff.  Oh yeah, and Ada95, the most popular Ada compiler actually translates your code to C, then compiles the C.  I love that.
> 
> ----
> 
> Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
> 
> ----
> Do you mean GNAT (GNU Ada Translater) when writing "Ada95"? This is no translater to C any longer but a frontend to the GNU Compiler Collection, as the C or the Java frontends are. By the way, it is _not_ used only by DOD staff and it is a highly capable language. In contrast to the popular misbelief it produces rather fast code (comparable to C).
------
Los_Angeles|984089948
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A large [[Coastal]] city in Southern [[California]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> The largest city, in terms of population, as of 2000.
> 
> <b>Places/Things of Interest</b>
> * [[Hollywood]]
> 
------
CoBoL|984089950
1,4c1
< The name CoBoL (normally COBOL) is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.----
< A ProgrammingLanguage that was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.
< ----
< For other vintage programming languages see BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
---
> #REDIRECT [[COBOL]]
------
COBOL|984089981
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.----
> A ProgrammingLanguage that was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.
> ----
> For other vintage programming languages see BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984090019
12c12
< * AdA
---
> * [[Ada]]
18c18
< * CoBoL
---
> * [[COBOL]]
------
Coastal|984090062
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> located on the edge of an ocean, gulf, or sea.
> 
> Usually used to describe cities.
> 
> For example, [[Los Angeles]] is a coastal city.
------
COBOL|984090073
4c4
< For other vintage programming languages see BasiC, FortraN, PlOne, AlgoL.
---
> For other vintage programming languages see [[Basic]], [[Fortran]], [[PL1]], [[Algol]].
------
Los_Angeles|984090102
5c5
< <b>Places/Things of Interest</b>
---
> <b>Places / Things of Interest</b>
------
Hollywood|984090229
2a3,4
> Hollywood is also used to collectivly refer to the film industry located in and around Hollywood.
> 
------
SandBox|984090388
12c12
<                            * ?   ? *
---
>                            * �   � *
14c14
<                            *   ?   *
---
>                            *   �   *
39c39
< ? I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
---
> � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!
------
COBOL|984090390
1c1,2
< The name COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.----
---
> The name COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.  It was initially created in 1960? by ??? (I think IBM).
> ----
------
Postmaster|984090572
3a4
> * [[Postmaster General]]
------
Naming_conventions|984090599
1c1
< Q: Should you link every occurance of a term or just the first one in an article?  
---
> This page is a list of general policies on how to name pages.  Most important to read are the first three sections, '''Free Links,''' '''Precision,''' and '''Capitalization.'''
3c3
< I'm in favor of link the first occurance in an article and then any one in the 'see also' section at the end of the article.
---
> ''Please vote at "Names of persons," below!''
6,13d5
< Well, pretty obviously, we should be using the new [[Free Links]] style of linking.
< ----
< For everything?  I'm not opposed, I'm just asking for
< opinions.  It will be a big job, but not that big, for us to go
< back through the existing pages and uncram the words.  Should we?
< Or perhaps we should just start out by trying mostly to use the new convention, and slowly but surely fix the old pages as we feel like it. --[[Jimbo Wales]], or is it [[Jimbo Wales]]
< ----
< Well, there might be a few links where it will seem more appropriate (e.g., [[Wikipedia]] and WikiWiki), but for the main content, I don't see any reason ''not'' to consistently use free linking.
15c7
< What this page might become, as a result, is a list of general policies on how to name pages, ''given'' that we are using free linking.
---
> '''[[Free Links]]'''
17c9
< '''Names of persons'''
---
> We should be using the new [[Free Links]] style of linking.  There might be a few links where it will seem more appropriate (e.g., WikiWiki), but for the main content, there is no reason ''not'' to consistently use free linking.  The old style of links are just a little silly-looking for an encyclopedia.
19,24c11
< Names should be full formal names and have all of the common
< ones link to them.  
< Reasoning: 
< * There is no question on alphabetizing a full name
< * It differentiates between people with same common name
< * Redirects from common names are easy to do
---
> ----
26c13
< Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
---
> '''Precision'''
28,29c15
< #We want to maximize the incidence of accidental links.
< #We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines.
---
> ''Do not simply write an article with an ambiguously-named title as though the title had no other meanings!''
31c17
< Therefore, we should have the main entry for the Jimmy Carter page, for example, at [[Jimmy Carter]] rather than [[James Earl Carter]].  In any other article where Carter is mentioned, he will almost certainly be refered to as Jimmy Carter.  Thus when a link is made on that article, it will point to the correct article page.
---
> It's very important that we name our article titles ''precisely.''  If a word or phrase is highly ambiguous, and your article concerns only ''one'' of the meanings of that word or phrase, you should probably--not in all cases, but in many--use something more precise than just that word or phrase.  So, what ''should'' we call our articles, when the title we want is ambiguous?
33c19
< Additionally, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
---
> There are a number of solutions; the appropriate solution in any case cannot be determined automatically, it seems.  Finer-grained applications of these solutions, applied to individual subject matters, should appear farther down on this page (or on appropriate subpages).
35c21
< Other examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
---
> # ''More precise titles.''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.
37c23
< '''Names of works''' 
---
> # ''Central links pages.''  One general solution to the problem of ambiguous names would be to have the central page, for example [[pipe]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for: [[smoking pipes]], [[plumbing pipes]], [[bagpipes]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.  Of course, this isn't always the most appropriate solution; often, a word or phrase does have one ''central'' meaning, in which case the article should concern that meaning and then link to other, secondary meanings either on more precisely-named pages (see above) or on subpages (see below).
39c25
< [[Larry Sanger]] wrote about the original [[Dune]] page:  ''This page demonstrates a problem about movie page titles: some movie titles describe things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] is a Gershwin musical piece, and [[Dune]] is a novel as well as a movie.  Perhaps we should call this Dune/Films (since it was remade as a made-for-cable miniseries).''
---
> # ''Central pages with subpages.''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  Another point to consider is simply the length of the entries.  One could, for example, give an entire classification of a species in the title of the article about the species, from Kingdom to Species, making sub- and sub-sub- and etc. pages for each level in the hierarchy.  This would, however, make it particularly cumbersome to refer to species individually.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
41c27
< I think that the most general solution to namespace collisions would be to have the central page, for example [[Apollo]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for. [[Apollo Space Program]] [[Apollo Greek God]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.
---
> ----
45c31
< Aaa!  For multiword pages there are two different styles of capitalization: capitalize only the first word, or capitalize all of them except articles and other stupid words like that (the, a, and, in).  For names of works obviously the latter should be used, but for everything else both systems are being employed.  Anyone want to make a decision?
---
> For multiword pages there are two different styles of capitalization: capitalize only the first word, or capitalize all of them except articles and prepositions.  For names of works obviously the latter should be used, but for everything else both systems are being employed.  Notice: when you create a link with the first letter of the link uncapitalized, [[like this]], the first letter of the ''page'' that link links to ''is'' capitalized.  So [[like this]] points to <code>Like_this</code>.
47c33,35
< I am strongly in favor of leaving as many things uncapitalized as is appropriate.  If we capitalize words within a page title, then whenever we want to link (quickly and easily) to that page, we must capitalize the page title.  But this results in grammatically incorrect sentences, which is jarring.  For example, I would much rather write "Good on potato chips is [[clam dip]]" (which points to <nowiki>/Clam_dip</nowiki>) than "Good on potato chips is [[Clam Dip]]" which makes it sound like I'm talking about the god of clam dip, or something.  Another example: philosophical doctrines are usually lower case: [[direct realism]].  If we title a page [[Direct Realism]], then whenever anyone wants to link (quickly and easily) to that page, he'll have to use the words "Direct Realism" capitalized--which might force him into a capitalization style that is uncommon and annoying.
---
> I ([[Larry Sanger]]) am strongly in favor of leaving as many things uncapitalized as is appropriate.  If we capitalize words within a page title, then whenever we want to link (quickly and easily) to that page, we must capitalize the page title.  But this results in grammatically incorrect sentences, which is jarring.  For example, I would much rather write "Good on potato chips is [[clam dip]]" (which points to <nowiki>/Clam_dip</nowiki>; see above) than "Good on potato chips is [[Clam Dip]]" which makes it sound like I'm talking about the god of clam dip, or something.  We switched to [[Free Links]] (which page is itself badly capitalized at present...) so we could avoid this sort of jarring situation.  Another example: philosophical doctrines are usually lower case: [[direct realism]].  If we title a page [[Direct Realism]], then whenever anyone wants to link (quickly and easily) to that page, he'll have to use the words "Direct Realism" capitalized--which might force him into a capitalization style that is uncommon and annoying.
> 
> Most names of doctrines shouldn't be capitalized.  Most jargon should not be capitalized.  Most long phrases (e.g., [[Ich bin ein Berliner]]; [[the most remarkable formula in the world]]) shouldn't contain capitalized words.
51c39
< '''Philosophy'''
---
> ----
53c41
< Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
---
> '''Names of persons'''
55,57c43
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a Google ( http://www.google.com ) search first.
< ----
< I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
---
> As to names of persons, there are two schools of thought and we should try to make a community decision about this as soon as possible.
59c45,66
< '''The language of the Wikipedia is English'''
---
> #Option 1.  Names should be full formal names and have all of the common ones link to them.  Reasoning: 
> * It differentiates between people with same common name.
> * Redirects from common names are easy to do.
> * There is no question on alphabetizing a full name.
> ::''How often are we going to be alphabetizing names on Wikipedia, though?''
> 
> #Option 2.  Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
> * We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines, thereby attracting more people to Wikipedia.
> * We want to maximize the incidence of accidental links.
> * Using full formal names requires, if one wants to link directly to the article, both that people know the full formal name ''and'' that they type it out, both of which are a royal pain.  If one links to a redirection page, there's the messy "redirected from" announcement at the top of the page.
> * Discussion of this option follows:
> ::We should have the main entry for the Jimmy Carter page, for example, at [[Jimmy Carter]] rather than [[James Earl Carter]].  In any other article where Carter is mentioned, he will almost certainly be refered to as Jimmy Carter.  Thus when a link is made on that article, it will point to the correct article page.  Of course, we can easily let [[James Earl Carter]] point to [[Jimmy Carter]].
> 
> ::Additionally, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
> 
> ::Other examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
> 
> Please vote on these options by voting below.  After a few days I ([[Larry Sanger]]) will tally the votes and delete the less popular option.
> 
> Supporters of option 1:
> 
> Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]]
61d67
< Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
64c70,74
< Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
---
> '''Movie titles''' 
> 
> Some movie titles describe other things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] describes both a Gershwin musical piece and a movie, and [[Dune]] is a geological term, a novel, a movie, and a made-for-cable miniseries.
> 
> I propose the following solution to this problem.  Where a movie title is unique or virtually unique, let the title of the article be the same as the title of the movie.  But where it's the same as a subject in science, a novel, or whatever, unless the movie title is far and away the most common accepted meaning of the word or phrase, title the movie article like this: <code>[[Movie Title--films]]</code>.  Then, in case of more than one production of the film, make subpages.  (This remains to be worked out, by people who care!)
66d75
< /Oldpage
68c77,81
< I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
---
> '''Philosophy'''
> 
> Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
> 
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google] search first.
70c83,85
< Maybe we should also add a suggestion to make subdirectory links prettier (basically that means hiding the /). See [[Chess]].
---
> '''The language of the Wikipedia is English'''
> 
> I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
72c87,88
< I'll second  that. Hide the / 
---
> Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
> ----
73a90
> Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
74a92
> /Talk
------
Naming_conventions|984090773
22d21
< 
24d22
< 
45c43
< #Option 1.  Names should be full formal names and have all of the common ones link to them.  Reasoning: 
---
> Option 1.  Names should be full formal names and have all of the common ones link to them.  Reasoning: 
51c49
< #Option 2.  Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
---
> Option 2.  Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984090817
0a1,7
> A programming language is a linear or non-linear set of statements that are executed on a computer.
> 
> <b>Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in the
> order they appear.
> 
> <b>Non-Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in a semi-random order.  At any particular time, one or more statements are ready to be executed, one of them is chosen at random and then is executed.
> ----
5a13
> * [[PHP]]
8d15
< * [[PHP]]
12a20
> * [[Assembly Language]]
14,17d21
< * [[C Plus Plus|C++]]
< * [[Fortran]]
< * [[Pascal]]
< * [[Visual Basic]]
19c23,26
< * [[Assembly Language]]
---
> * [[C Plus Plus|C++|CPP]]
> * [[Fortran|Fortran 77|Fortran IV]]
> * [[Pascal]]
> * [[Visual Basic|VB]]
21c28
< HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to byte code
---
> HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to [[Byte Code]] and executed by an [[Interpreter]]
------
Perl|984090863
1c1
< The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
---
> The [[Practical Extraction and Report Language]] (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
7c7
< As an example of Perl in action, Wikipedia is our own slightly customized version of CliffordAdams' UseMod Wiki software -- written in Perl, of course.
---
> As an example of Perl in action, Wikipedia is our own slightly customized version of CliffordAdams' UseMod Wiki software -- written in Perl, of course.
------
Practical_Extraction_and_Report_Language|984090887
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[PERL]]
------
Practical_Extraction_and_Report_Language|984090908
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[PERL]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Perl]]
------
Gareth_Owen|984090911
10c10,11
< You don't--you can't!  Bwa-ha-ha-ha-haaaa!
---
> You don't--you can't!  Bwa-ha-ha-ha-haaaa!----
> Your mea culpa is accepted and you are forgiven. RoseParks
------
Postmaster_General|984091023
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ultimate head of the [[Post Office]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> The Postmaster General is appointed by the president.
> 
> [[PMG]] is the common abbreviation for Postmaster General.
------
Gareth_Owen|984091084
11c11
< Your mea culpa is accepted and you are forgiven. RoseParks
---
> Your Mea Culpa is accepted and you are forgiven. You are hereby sentenced to 2 hours a day of community service working on wikipedia...;-) RoseParks
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984091964
4a5,6
> ''Strongly disagree.  Some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxa with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
> 
------
Perl|984092049
1c1
< The [[Practical Extraction and Report Language]] (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
---
> The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
------
Naming_conventions|984092129
64c64
< Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]], [[Jimbo Wales]]
90c90
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Greek_language|984092332
3c3,16
< Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?
---
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article.
> <pre>
>                                      SINGULAR                    PLURAL
>                             Masc.    Fem.        Neuter     Masc.      Fem.     Neuter
> Nominative (subject)          x        x           x          x          x        x
> Genitive (possessive)         x        x           x          x          x        x
> Dative (indirect object+)     x        x           x          x          x        x 
> Accusative (direct object)    x        x           x          x          x        x
> 
> Actually, adjectives have 8 more when you include the vocative (case of direct address), making 36.
> </pre>
> 
> Sorry no way to enter the Greek.
> -----
------
Greek_language|984092495
3c3
< Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article.
---
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
10a11
> </pre>
13c14
< </pre>
---
> 
------
Hate_Crime|984092640
12c12
< Conversely, hate crime legislation proponents have held that hatred to the point of violence is a societal problem of sufficient scope and stubbornness to have resisted hundreds of years of efforts by legislators and law enforcement to secure the safety of "hated" persons in society.  They posit that if merely punishing the crime is inadequate, then hopefully additional punishment may serve as a disincentive to act criminally because of a hatred of one's fellow man.
---
> Conversely, hate crime legislation proponents have held that hatred to the point of violence is a societal problem of sufficient scope and stubbornness to have resisted hundreds of years of efforts by legislators and law enforcement to secure the safety of "hated" persons in society.  Supporters reason that one who can be moved to violence by hatred of a ''class'' of people presents greater danger to society than one who merely hates a single individual for cause.  They posit that if merely punishing the crime is an inadequate deterrent, then hopefully additional punishment may serve as a disincentive to act criminally because of a hatred of one's fellow man.
14c14
< The state of a person's mind has always been important in determining the fact or seriousness of a crime.  "Mens rea" (guilty mind) is a required finding in order to obtain convicion on most felonies.  If one plotted a murder, he could be found guilty in the first degree.  If He acted in passion and without forethought, it would be re-classified as second-degree or simple murder, with concomitant reduction in penalty.  If the act resulting in death were merely careless or inattentive, negigent homicide or manslaughter may be the finding.  Similarly with drugs.  Posession is one level of crime.  Possession with intent to sell is more serious.  Hate crime legislation takes this a step further, punishing not only malice but more severely punishing unreasoning blanket hatred.
---
> The state of a person's mind has always been important in determining the fact or seriousness of a crime.  "Mens rea" (guilty mind) is a required finding in order to obtain conviction on most felonies.  If one plotted a murder, he could be found guilty in the first degree.  If He acted in passion and without forethought, it would be re-classified as second-degree or simple murder, with concomitant reduction in penalty.  If the act resulting in death were merely careless or inattentive, negligent homicide or manslaughter may be the finding.  Similarly with drugs; unlawful posession of a controlled substance is one level of crime.  Possession with intent to sell is more serious.  Hate crime legislation takes this a step further, punishing not only malice but more severely punishing unreasoning blanket hatred.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984093384
5c5
< ''Strongly disagree.  Some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxa with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
---
> ''Strongly disagree.  Some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxon with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
7c7,17
< We need an easy english example by every entry.
---
> ''And again, as below, I am going to suggest that for cases where no clear name has developed for the group, we just use common ones.  It might be a bit confusing to have a mix of common and Latin names, but that's what the literature does when no clear consensus has emerged, and it's less confusing than listing each group on five different pages.  Plus some groups don't even have Latin names: Stramenopiles, Opisthokonts, Rosette agents...
> 
> We need an easy english example by every entry. - ''When one exists, could be difficult for some things. :)''
> 
> ''Andy, I just noticed that you're treating Linnaean taxonomy as something seperate from phenetics, cladistics, and so forth.  It's not supposed to be: most of the time, taxonomy gets changed to reflect evolution.  For instance, the original Linnaean classification for Animalia had all invertebrates grouped into one class (phyla were invented later), and they were seperated out when it became clear they weren't directly related.''
> 
> ''I think what classifications we provide should probably reflect the best we have now, with seperate pages for obsolete taxa explaining what happened to them.  And while a complete classification for everything would be nice, I don't think we should do that.  Especially for the [[Monera]] and [[Protista]], where workers in the fields have actually stopped using ranks for the time being.  There are too many tiny groups without relatives; noone wants to have independent phyla set up for each of ''Sticholonche'', ''Hyperamoeba'', ''Stephanopogon'', etc.''
> 
> ''For the same sort of reason, I'm not sure that it's a good idea to list all the supertaxa of each group.  There are plenty of things out there where the lower taxonomy is stable but the higher is not.  eg Tetras belongs to the Characidae, which is either in the suborder Characiformes of the order Cypriniformes, or in the order Characiformes.  That difference can be explained on Characidae easily enough, but I'm not sure I'd want to repeat it for every genus.''
> ----
> Special concerns:
------
Hate_Crime|984093435
20,21c20
< One of the primary difficulties in dealing with hate crimes is that of
< determing when a crime is a hate crime and when it is not.
---
> One of the primary difficulties in dealing with hate crimes is that of determing when a crime is a hate crime and when it is not.
32,34c31
< Note that a 'hate crime' statute may be much harder to
< get a conviction under than a normal criminal statue.  This may
< affect whether or not the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the 'hate crime' statute.
---
> It may be much harder to get a conviction under a 'hate crime' statute than to get a conviction under than a normal criminal statue.  This may affect whether or not the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the 'hate crime' statute.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984093626
15a16,17
> 
> ''In short: I don't think we can have tidy categories like you had hoped.  Whenever we can, we should make a nice clean list.  But when such a thing doesn't exist, we'll just have to explain that the system is still a mess, and then provide the reader with subgroups and speculated relationships between them rather than subtaxa. :(''
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984093667
7c7
< ''And again, as below, I am going to suggest that for cases where no clear name has developed for the group, we just use common ones.  It might be a bit confusing to have a mix of common and Latin names, but that's what the literature does when no clear consensus has emerged, and it's less confusing than listing each group on five different pages.  Plus some groups don't even have Latin names: Stramenopiles, Opisthokonts, Rosette agents...
---
> ''And again, as below, I am going to suggest that for cases where no clear name has developed for the group, we just use common ones.  It might be a bit confusing to have a mix of common and Latin names, but that's what the literature does when no clear consensus has emerged, and it's less confusing than listing each group on five different pages.  Plus some groups don't even have Latin names: Stramenopiles, Opisthokonts, Rosette agents...''
------
Naming_conventions|984093993
64c64
< Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]], [[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]], [[Jimbo Wales]] [[Jpmartin]]
------
Greek_language|984094067
15d14
< 
16a16,17
> 
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/|Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
------
Greek_language|984094092
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/|Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ | Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
------
Greek_language|984094103
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ | Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984094175
5c5
< ''Strongly disagree.  Some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxon with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
---
> ''Strongly disagree.  For one, it is annoying to always have to refer to the Kindom Animalia rather than the Animalia when you want to make a link.  For two: some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxon with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
------
Protista|984094272
3c3
< Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
---
> Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], fungus-like forms, the [[Slime molds]] and [[Oomycota]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
------
Chess|984094387
24c24
< Also of note: In 199?, a computer ([[IBM]]'s updated [[Deep Blue]]) defeated the world champion [[Gary Kasparov]] for the first time ever.
---
> Also of note: In May 1997, a computer ([[IBM]]'s updated [[Deep Blue]]) defeated the world champion [[Gary Kasparov]] for the first time ever. IBM keeps a web site of the event at http://www.chess.ibm.com.
34c34
< **/Pawn
---
> **/Pawn
------
Chess|984094414
20c20
< The knight moves by 'jumping' in an l-shaped pattern, 2 squares in any non-diagonal direction and then one square perpindicular.
---
> The knight moves by 'jumping' in an l-shaped pattern, 2 squares in any non-diagonal direction and then one square perpendicular.
------
Greek_language|984094726
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language]]|Gr ''oligos''+''archô'') or whatever the derivation is.
------
Greek_language|984094736
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language]]|Gr ''oligos''+''archô'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''archô'') or whatever the derivation is.
------
Chess/Pawn|984094854
6c6
< A pawn which reaches the opposite home row is promoted to queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses.
---
> A pawn which reaches the opposite home row is promoted to queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses.  If a pawn advances two cells and then lands beside an opponents pawn, it is still allowed to capture as if it had only moved up one; this is called ''en passant.''
------
Games|984095013
16a17,18
> 
> [[game theory|Game theory]] is a branch of mathematics that deals specifically with games, for example computing the average win on games such as the roulette. These computations make heavy use of [[Probability and Statistics]]. However, game theory is not limited to [[Games of Chance|games of chance]].
------
Pongidae|984095584
1,8c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Pongidae]]
< 
< Contains Geni :
< 
<  Genus [[Pongo]]
<  Genus [[Pan]]
<  Genus [[Gorilla]]
<  Genus [[Homo]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hominidae]]
------
Hominidae|984095750
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Pongidae]]
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Pongidae]]
2a3,10
> Contains Genera :
> 
>  Genus [[Pongo]] (baboons)
>  Genus [[Pan]] (chimpanzees)
>  Genus [[Gorilla]] (gorillas)
>  Genus [[Homo]] (humans)
> 
> Traditionally the forms other than [[Homo]] and its closest allies, [[Australopithecus]] etc, have been seperated out into a separate family, the [[Pongidae]].  This was present in Linnaeus' scheme, but he seems to have done it to avoid offending people and later regreted the decision, and there is a move to abandon it.
------
Hominidae|984095769
1c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Pongidae]]
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]], Family [[Hominidae]]
10c10
< Traditionally the forms other than [[Homo]] and its closest allies, [[Australopithecus]] etc, have been seperated out into a separate family, the [[Pongidae]].  This was present in Linnaeus' scheme, but he seems to have done it to avoid offending people and later regreted the decision, and there is a move to abandon it.
---
> Traditionally the forms other than [[Homo]] and its closest allies, [[Australopithecus]] etc, have been seperated out into a separate family, the [[Pongidae]].  This was present in Linnaeus' scheme, but he seems to have done it to avoid offending people and later regreted the decision, and there is a move to abandon it.
------
Hominidae|984095990
5a6
>  Genus [[Gigantopithecus]] - ''extinct''
8c9,11
<  Genus [[Homo]] (humans)
---
>  Subfamily Homininae
>   Genus [[Australopithecus]] - ''extinct''
>   Genus [[Homo]] (humans)
10c13
< Traditionally the forms other than [[Homo]] and its closest allies, [[Australopithecus]] etc, have been seperated out into a separate family, the [[Pongidae]].  This was present in Linnaeus' scheme, but he seems to have done it to avoid offending people and later regreted the decision, and there is a move to abandon it.
---
> Traditionally the forms outside of the Homininae have been placed in a separate group, the Pongidae.  This turns out to be paraphyletic, so should probably either been abandoned or occasionally restricted to [[Pongo]]+[[Gigantopithecus]].
------
Lemuridae|984096048
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera :
5,9c5,9
<  Genus [[Lemur]]
<  Genus [[Petterus]]
<  Genus [[Hapalemur]]
<  Genus [[Varecia]]
<  Genus [[Lepilemur]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Lemur]]''
>  Genus ''[[Petterus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Hapalemur]]''
>  Genus ''[[Varecia]]''
>  Genus ''[[Lepilemur]]''
------
Cheirogaleidae|984096085
3,8c3,8
< Contains Geni :
<  Genus [[Microcebus]]
<  Genus [[Mirza]]
<  Genus [[Cheirogaleus]]
<  Genus [[Allocebus]]
<  Genus [[Phaner]]
---
> Contains Genera:
>  Genus ''[[Microcebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Mirza]]''
>  Genus ''[[Cheirogaleus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Allocebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Phaner]]''
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984096199
17a18,19
> 
> ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera.  Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.''
27c29
< Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  Also, Hominidae has been used in two senses recently: as the family containing ''Homo'' and as the lone family of Hominoidae (humans and apes).  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
---
> Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
------
Indridae|984096234
3c3
< Contins Geni :
---
> Contins Genera:
5,7c5,7
<  Genus [[Avahi]]
<  Genus [[Propithecus]]
<  Genus [[Indri]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Avahi]]''
>  Genus ''[[Propithecus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Indri]]''
------
Daubentoniidae|984096255
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera:
5c5
<  Genus [[Daubentonia]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Daubentonia]]''
------
Lorisidae|984096283
3c3
< Contins Geni :
---
> Contins Genera:
5,12c5,12
<  Genus [[Loris]]
<  Genus [[Nycticebus]]
<  Genus [[Perodicticus]]
<  Genus [[Arctocebus]]
<  Genus [[Galago]]
<  Genus [[Otolemur]]
<  Genus [[Euoticus]]
<  Genus [[Galagoides]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Loris]]''
>  Genus ''[[Nycticebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Perodicticus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Arctocebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Galago]]''
>  Genus ''[[Otolemur]]''
>  Genus ''[[Euoticus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Galagoides]]''
------
Hylobatidae|984096309
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera:
5c5
<  [[Genus Hylobates]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Hylobates]]''
------
Callitrichidae|984096332
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera:
5,9c5,9
<  Genus [[Callithrix]]
<  Genus [[Cebuella]]
<  Genus [[Saguinus]]
<  Genus [[Leontopithecus]]
<  Genus [[Callimico]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Callithrix]]''
>  Genus ''[[Cebuella]]''
>  Genus ''[[Saguinus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Leontopithecus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Callimico]]''
------
Cebidae|984096373
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera:
5,15c5,15
< Genus [[Cebus]]
< Genus [[Aotus]]
< Genus [[Callicebus]]
< Genus [[Samiri]]
< Genus [[Pithecia]]
< Genus [[Cacajao]]
< Genus [[Chiropotes]]
< Genus [[Alouatta]]
< Genus [[Ateles]]
< Genus [[Brachyteles]]
< Genus [[Lagothrix]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Cebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Aotus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Callicebus]]''
>  Genus ''[[Samiri]]''
>  Genus ''[[Pithecia]]''
>  Genus ''[[Cacajao]]''
>  Genus ''[[Chiropotes]]''
>  Genus ''[[Alouatta]]''
>  Genus ''[[Ateles]]''
>  Genus ''[[Brachyteles]]''
>  Genus ''[[Lagothrix]]''
------
Tarsiidae|984096394
3c3
< Contains Geni :
---
> Contains Genera:
5c5
<  Genus [[Tarsius]]
---
>  Genus ''[[Tarsius]]''
------
Naming_conventions|984096504
88a89,90
> ----
> I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal. Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.). Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
90c92
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|984096693
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
> ----
> Maybe we should also add a suggestion to make subdirectory links prettier (basically that means hiding the /). See [[Chess]]
> ----
> Q: Should you link every occurance of a term or just the first one in an article?  
> 
> A. I'm in favor of link the first occurence in an article and then any one in the 'see also' section at the end of the article.
------
Naming_conventions|984096859
73a74,75
> I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal. Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.). Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
> 
87d88
< 
90,92c91
< I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal. Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.). Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
< 
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
The_Trial|984097178
1c1
< ''The Trial'' is one of [[Franz Kafka]]'s best-known novels--an example of the existentialist, surrealist literature that was greatly influential in the mid-twentieth century.
---
> ''The Trial'' is one of [[Franz Kafka]]'s best-known novels--an example of the [[existentialist literature|existentialist, surrealist literature]] that was greatly influential in the mid-twentieth century.
------
Protista|984097267
3c3,6
< Traditionally protists have been divided into plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]], fungus-like forms, the [[Slime molds]] and [[Oomycota]], and animal-like forms, the protozoa.  The last are generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
---
> Traditionally protists have been divided into:
> * Plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]];
> * Fungus-like forms, the [[Slime mold|Slime molds]] and [[Oomycota]];
> * Animal-lie forms, the Protozoa, generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
7c10
< Contains the Phyla :
---
> One of the standard, and heavily inadequate, break-ups into phyla:
9c12
<  Phylum [[Caryoblastea]]
---
>  Phylum Caryoblastea=Pelobionta ([[Pelobionts]])
11,16c14,19
<  Phylum [[Rhizopoda]]
<  Phylum [[Chrysophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Haptophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Euglenophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Cryptophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Zoomastigina]]
---
>  Phylum [[Rhizopoda]] (polyphyletic - see [[Amoeboid]], especially [[Ramicristates]])
>  Phylum Chrysophyta (basal [[Stramenopiles]]
>  Phylum Haptophyta=Prymnesiophyta ([[Haptophytes]])
>  Phylum Euglenophyta ([[Euglenids]]) 
>  Phylum Cryptophyta ([[Cryptomonads]])
>  Phylum Zoomastigina (polyphyletic - see [[Flagellate]] for now)
19,25c22,27
<  Phylum [[Bacillariophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Phaeophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Rhodophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Gamophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Chlorophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Actinopoda]]
<  Phylum [[Foraminifera]]
---
>  Phylum Bacillariophyta ([[Diatoms]])
>  Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
>  Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
>  Phylum Chlorophyta (basal [[Plantae]])
>  Phylum Actinopoda (polyphyletic - see [[Amoeboid]] for now)
>  Phylum [[Granuloreticulosa]]
28,30c30,32
<  Phylum [[Cnidosporidia]]
<  Phylum [[Labyrinthulomycota]]
<  Phylum [[Acrasiomycota]]
---
>  Phylum [[Myxozoa]]=Cnidosporidia
>  Phylum Labyrinthulomycota=Labyrinthulida ([[Labyrinthulida]])
>  Phylum Acrasiomycota (polyphyletic)
32c34
<  Phylum [[Plasmodiophoromycota]]
---
>  Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota=Plasmodiophorida
34d35
<  Phylum [[Chytridiomycota]]
35a37
> 
------
RecentChanges|984097296
1c1
< It strikes me now that the Slashdot influx has been just about perfect!  We have a lot of new faces here, and from the looks of the articles being produced, we picked up some really smart people who are writing great stuff.  Sweeeet.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> Addicted yet?  :-)
3c3
< See [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.helo 
---
> Please read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and in particular see [[naming conventions]].  See also [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|984097309
1c1
< I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how
---
> I think for works the detour wouldn't be the worst thing. See [[Orson Welles]] for the why and how.
6,7c6,7
< 
< A. I'm in favor of link the first occurence in an article and then any one in the 'see also' section at the end of the article.
---
> A. I'm in favor of link the first occurence in an article and then any one in the 'see also' section at the end of the article.
> A2.  I think we should link the first occurrence, any one in the 'see also' and maybe one more, if it seems sensible for some reason.  I also think that we should spell 'occurrence' in as many different ways as possible. ;-)  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|984097350
5a6
> 
7c8,9
< A2.  I think we should link the first occurrence, any one in the 'see also' and maybe one more, if it seems sensible for some reason.  I also think that we should spell 'occurrence' in as many different ways as possible. ;-)  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> 
> A2.  I think we should link the first occurrence, any one in the 'see also' and maybe one more, if it seems sensible for some reason.  I also think that we should spell 'occurrence' in as many different ways as possible. ;-)  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Protista|984097362
6,8c6,11
< * Animal-lie forms, the Protozoa, generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into [[Flagellate|flagellates]], [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]], [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]], and [[Ciliophora|ciliates]].  Except for the last these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlap.
< 
< More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the [[mitochondria]] and in particular the [[cristae]] within them.
---
> * Animal-lie forms, the Protozoa, generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into:
> ** [[Flagellate|flagellates]]
> ** [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]]
> ** [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]]
> ** [[Ciliophora]] (ciliates)
> Except for the ciliates and Oomycota, these are all polyphyletic and frequently overlapping.  More recently protists have been divided into more genuine groups on the basis of ultrastructural and chemical features.  Aside from basal forms, these can be assorted into a few broad categories on the basis of the the form of the [[mitochondria]] and in particular the [[cristae]] within them.
------
Rotifera|984097465
5c5
< There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.  In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three groups:
---
> There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.  In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three classes:
------
The_Doors|984097792
3c3
< They started the group in 1965 ins [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] in the [[United States]].
---
> The group started in 1965 in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] in the [[United States]].
16c16
< The band's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]] (from where the band took their name); Huxley's experiences with [[mescaline]] having parallels with Morrison's frequent use of [[LSD]].  
---
> The band's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]] (from which the band took their name); Huxley's experiences with [[mescaline]] having parallels with Morrison's frequent use of [[LSD]].  
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984098102
18a19,20
> ''I don't mean to be too discouraging, though, so please don't take this as such.  The system works especially well for invertebrates, for whom if you are interested I think the standard source is Brusca & Brusca's ''The invertebrates'' (textbooks all have lame titles).  It has a taxonomy for each phylum, usually down to order and sometimes further.  For vertebrates, everything is a mess outside of the mammals and birds, and the higher taxa in plants are kind-of up in the air, so I'm not sure what one should do.  But a good thing to compare to would be the [phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].''
> 
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984098191
19c19
< ''I don't mean to be too discouraging, though, so please don't take this as such.  The system works especially well for invertebrates, for whom if you are interested I think the standard source is Brusca & Brusca's ''The invertebrates'' (textbooks all have lame titles).  It has a taxonomy for each phylum, usually down to order and sometimes further.  For vertebrates, everything is a mess outside of the mammals and birds, and the higher taxa in plants are kind-of up in the air, so I'm not sure what one should do.  But a good thing to compare to would be the [phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].''
---
> ''I don't mean to be too discouraging, though, so please don't take this as such.  The system works especially well for invertebrates, for whom if you are interested I think the standard source is Brusca & Brusca's ''The invertebrates'' (textbooks all have lame titles).  It has a taxonomy for each phylum, usually down to order and sometimes further.  For vertebrates, everything is a mess outside of the mammals and birds, and the higher taxa in plants are kind-of up in the air, so I'm not sure what one should do.  But a good thing to compare to would be the [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].''
------
Politics|984098220
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- TyrannY
---
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]]
------
Checkers|984098413
3c3
< English Checkers (draughts) is played on the same 8x8 grid as chess, but only uses the black squares.  The rules are:
---
> English Checkers (draughts) is played on an 8x8 [[Chess board]], but only uses the black squares.  The rules are:
------
Checkers|984098426
3c3
< English Checkers (draughts) is played on an 8x8 [[Chess board]], but only uses the black squares.  The rules are:
---
> English Checkers (draughts) is played on an 8x8 [[Chess Board]], but only uses the black squares.  The rules are:
------
Chess/Board|984098536
1c1
< The board used in [[Chess]] consists of 8 rows and 8 columns of squares arranged in alternating colors, the most common version being [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm red and black]. 
---
> The board used in [[Chess]] consists of 8 rows and 8 columns of squares arranged in alternating colors, the most common version being [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm red and black].  Also called a checker board, since it is used in many variations of [[Checkers]].
9,25c9,17
< **[[Chess/Rook]]
< **[[Chess/Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Queen]] (red) or [[Chess/King]] (black)
< **[[Chess/King]] (red) or [[Chess/Queen]] (black)
< **[[Chess/Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Rook]]
< *Row 2 (or 7)
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
< **[[Chess/Pawn]]
---
> **[[Chess/Rook|Rook]]
> **[[Chess/Knight|Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Bishop|Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Queen|Queen]] (red) or [[Chess/King|King]] (black)
> **[[Chess/King|King]] (red) or [[Chess/Queen|Queen]] (black)
> **[[Chess/Bishop|Bishop]]
> **[[Chess/Knight|Knight]]
> **[[Chess/Rook|Rook]]
> *Row 2 (or 7) - filled entirely with [[Chess/Pawn|Pawns]]
------
Chess/Pawn|984098615
6a7,8
> 
> Pawns are the weakest and most numerous of the chess pieces, but still play an important part in the game.  They represent [[infantry]], or more particularly [[pikemen]].
------
World_War_I|984098698
5,12c5,12
< All of this lead to a huge trauma all participants had afterwards. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the Lost Generation" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For more details on the subject, you should read one of the great novels about the war. They include: 
< *[[Erich Maria Remarque]]: ''All Quiet on the Western Front''
< *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: ''A Farewell to Arms''
< *[[Mark Helprin]]: ''A Soldier of the Great War''
< *[[Robert Grave]]: ''Goodbye to All That''
< *[[Frederic Manning]]: ''Her Privates We''
< *[[Dalton Trumbo]]: ''Johnny Got His Gun''
< *[[Richard Aldington]]: ''Death of a Hero''
---
> All of this lead to a huge trauma all participants had afterwards. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the [[Lost Generation]]" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For more details on the subject, you should read one of the great novels about the war. They include: 
> *[[Erich Maria Remarque]]: ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]''
> *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''
> *[[Mark Helprin]]: ''[[A Soldier of the Great War]]''
> *[[Robert Grave]]: ''[[Goodbye to All That]]''
> *[[Frederic Manning]]: ''[[Her Privates We]]''
> *[[Dalton Trumbo]]: ''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]''
> *[[Richard Aldington]]: ''[[Death of a Hero]]''
------
Chess/Rook|984098819
4,5c4
< 
< 
---
> Rooks represent [[siege towers]], and get their name from elephant-mounted versions once used in [[India]].  They are usually made to look like little castles as a result.
------
Chess/Pawn|984098871
1,4c1
< The pawn in [[Chess]] moves in one of three ways:
< *On its first move, a pawn may advance two cells forward if it is not obstructed by another piece.
< *On subsequent moves, a pawn advances exactly one cell forward if not obstructed.
< *A pawn may capture an opponent's piece that is placed either to the right or left diagonally.
---
> Unlike other pieces in [[Chess]], a pawn moves differently when capturing an opposing piece than it does when moving without capture.
6c3,7
< A pawn which reaches the opposite home row is promoted to queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses.  If a pawn advances two cells and then lands beside an opponents pawn, it is still allowed to capture as if it had only moved up one; this is called ''en passant.''
---
> * When capturing an opposing piece, and only then, a pawn moves one cell diagonally forward, either to the left or right.  
> * When not capturing, a pawn advances one cell directly forward if it is not obstructed by another piece of the same or opposing color.
> * The first time a particular pawn is moved from its initial position, and only then, it may optionally advance two cells forward as long as both the cell to which it moves and the cell over which it moves are both unoccupied.
> * A pawn is not entitled to "escape" capture by an opposing pawn (and only a pawn, not other pieces) by virtue of this special first move.  If, in making its initial two-square first move, a pawn lands adjacent to an opposing pawn that would have been entitled to capture the moving pawn on its turn had the moving pawn only advanced one square, that opposing pawn now has the option of capturing the moving pawn ''en passant'' (or "in passing") ''as if'' it had advanced only one square.  To do this, the capturing pawn moves into the empty square over which the moving pawn passed, and the moving pawn is removed from the board.  This option is available to the opposing pawn only at its first opportunity.  If the opposing player chooses not to capture the moving pawn immediately and makes another move, that player's right to make the ''en passant'' capture is lost and may not be made on any subsequent move.
> * A pawn that advances all the way to its eighth rank (the opposing player's first rank) is ''promoted'' to a queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses (the other pieces already on the board make no difference; a player is entitled to have several queens, for example, if he promotes several pawns).  This promotion occurs immediately upon the pawn's advancement, before the opposing player's next move (if the new piece, for example, checkmates the opposing player, the game is won).
8a10
> 
------
Healthcare_Reform|984100020
1c1,3
< Major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
---
> ''Healthcare reform'' is a general rubric used for discussing major policy changes--for the most part, governmental policy changes--to any existing health care system in a given place.
> 
> An example of healthcare reform was the major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
6,8c8
< Talk:
< 
< Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash. 
---
> /Talk
------
Healthcare_Reform|984100072
7c7
< ---
---
> ----
------
Healthcare_Reform/Talk|984100194
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash. 
------
Virtual_machine|984101272
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Virtual machines are closely related to [[Emulator]]s.  Both are pieces of computer software designed to reproduce a specific set of computer behaviors and capabilities other than the ones native to the computer on which the software itself is running.
> 
> When this is done for interoperability (to allow software written for one machine to run on another), the software is called an [[Emulator]].  For example, an [[Atari]] emulator program running on an [[Intel]] computer might enable the owner of that computer to run game programs intended for the Atari, obviating the need to own more than one kind of machine.
> 
> A virutal machine, in contrast, produces behaviors and capabilities of a machine that doesn't necessarily exist as an actual piece of hardware but may only be a detailed specification.  For example, the [[UCSD Pascal]] virtual machine specification (one of the first) was a description of a specific set of capabilities and behaviors that programmers could use to write programs that would run on any computer running virtual machine software that correctly implemented the specification.  A more common modern example is the [[Java]] virtual machine specification, which allows diverse computers all to run software written to that specification.  The virtual machine software itself must be written separately for each type of computer on which it runs.
------
Daffodil|984101369
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A pretty flower.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984101487
21c21,29
< ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera.  Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.''
---
> I was just going to use [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life] as an example of why Linnaen and Cladistic are completely differnt things. Cladists don't much use KPCOFGS, and Linneans don't mind (and indeed can't escape) polyphyleticism. Also, for a Cladist tree I would suggest little more than a pointer to [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].
> Furthur, it seems <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" is Linnaen and "Kingdom [[Animalia]]" is Cladist</nowiki>
> 
> ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera."
>  --- DOH!
> 
> "Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.'"
>  --- I don't understand what you're saying.
> 
------
Healthcare_Reform|984101512
3,5c3
< An example of healthcare reform was the major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
< 
< Healthcare Reform was a complete overhaul of the medical system used in the [[United States]].  It was a complex proposal that was not enacted into law.
---
> An example of healthcare reform was the major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].  This was a complex proposal that was not enacted into law.
------
Virtual_memory|984101965
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Virtual memory is a feature of a computer program (typically an [[Operating System]] or similar low-level system) that allows [[Secondary Storage]] (such as a [[hard disk]]) to be used as extra [[Primary Storage]] ([[RAM]]).  For example, a computer with 200MB of RAM may use 200MB of hard disk space to allow users to run software occupying 400MB or more by ''swapping'' pieces of the running programs in and out of main memory as needed.
> Modern microprocessors have built-in support for this functionality, without which such systems would suffer greatly decreased performance.
------
South_America|984103103
1c1,9
< A continent consiting of the countries:
---
> A continent crossed by the equator, with most of its surface south of it. It's situated between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] It became attached to [[North America]] only recently (in geological timescales). It was first inhabited by
> humans crossing the [[Bearing Pass]], now a [[strait]], though
> there are suggestions of part of its population having migrated
> using the southern pacific ocean.
> 
> Since the XVI century to the early XIX century, it was formed by
> colonies of mainly [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], now several
> republics compose it.
> Some of the countries are
3a12
> * [[Bolivia]]
6a16,18
> * [[Ecuador]]
> * [[Guyana]]  (see note)
> * [[Paraguay]]
7a20,22
> * [[Suriname]]  (see note)
> * [[Uruguay]]
> * [[Venezuela]]
8a24
> There is also still a colony, the [[French Guiana]].
------
Politics|984105786
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]]
---
> PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]] -- [[Tyranny]]
------
Bundesrepublik_Deutschland|984105854
1c1
< Official German name for the [[Federeal Republic of Germany]] - ''see'' [[Germany]].
---
> Official German name for the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] - ''see'' [[Germany]].
------
DavidFriedman|984107809
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at his personal website (http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/).
------
DavidFriedman|984108216
1c1
< David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at his personal website (http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/).
---
> David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at [http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/ his personal website].
------
LeeDanielCrocker|984108616
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lee is computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More information can be found on [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ his personal pages].
> 
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984109667
21,22c21
< I was just going to use [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life] as an example of why Linnaen and Cladistic are completely differnt things. Cladists don't much use KPCOFGS, and Linneans don't mind (and indeed can't escape) polyphyleticism. Also, for a Cladist tree I would suggest little more than a pointer to [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].
< Furthur, it seems <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" is Linnaen and "Kingdom [[Animalia]]" is Cladist</nowiki>
---
> I was just going to use [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life] as an example of why Linnaen and Cladistic are completely differnt things. Cladists don't much use KPCOFGS, and Linneans don't mind (and indeed can't escape) polyphyleticism. Also, for a Cladist tree I would suggest little more than a pointer to [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life]. Furthur, it seems <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" is Linnaen and "Kingdom [[Animalia]]" is Cladist.</nowiki>
24,25c23,25
< ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera."
<  --- DOH!
---
> ''Linnaean taxonomy and cladistics aren't contrasting systems.  The former is simply a way of arranging organisms hierarchically, the latter is a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  There are others, like phylogenetic systematics, disagreeing on how to determine these; but except phenetics they all support exclusively monophyletic taxa, and generally Linnaean frameworks are constructed accordingly.''
> 
> ''So, no, Linnaeans aren't happy with polyphyletic groups, and historically they have tended to be split up - eg Invertebrata or the removal of Fungi from Plantae.  The ones we have left are mostly those too ubiquitous to drop easily, like Agnatha.  Virtually everything has turned out to be polyphyletic among the Monera and Protista, which is why workers there tend not to use Linnaean taxonomy - not because they want to use a different system, but because not enough is known for a decent higher-level taxonomy to exist yet.''
27,28c27,30
< "Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.'"
<  --- I don't understand what you're saying.
---
> ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.''
> 
> ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera.''
>  --- DOH!
29a32
> Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus'' in the family Cyprinidae.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984109695
32c32
< Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus'' in the family Cyprinidae.
---
> Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus ''in the family Cyprinidae.
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984109706
32c32
< Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus ''in the family Cyprinidae.
---
> Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus'' in the family Cyprinidae.''
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984109855
23c23
< ''Linnaean taxonomy and cladistics aren't contrasting systems.  The former is simply a way of arranging organisms hierarchically, the latter is a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  There are others, like phylogenetic systematics, disagreeing on how to determine these; but except phenetics they all support exclusively monophyletic taxa, and generally Linnaean frameworks are constructed accordingly.''
---
> ''Linnaean taxonomy and cladistics aren't contrasting systems.  The former is simply a way of arranging organisms hierarchically, the latter is a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  There are others, like phylogenetic systematics, disagreeing on how to determine these; but except phenetics they all support exclusively monophyletic taxa, and generally Linnaean frameworks are constructed accordingly.  Cladistic taxa are ranked whenever convenient; it's just that for many things, the ranks are heavily variable and so ignored (as happens in other schemes too).''
------
Naming_conventions|984110231
67a68,74
> '''Pluralization'''
> 
> Let's say you were writing a page about crayons.  Should you call the page [[Crayons]], which is basically what the page is about, or [[Crayon]], which makes it easier to link to from passages like "Harold took out his purple crayon and drew up the covers?"
> 
> ----
> 
> 
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984110603
27c27
< ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.''
---
> ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.  I guess maybe pages like <nowiki>[[Kingdom Animalia]]</nowiki> are a good way to handle such groups, but in that case we should probably be talking about the various ways the group has been used, rather than presenting it as the way living things are currently sorted.''
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984110683
27c27
< ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.  I guess maybe pages like <nowiki>[[Kingdom Animalia]]</nowiki> are a good way to handle such groups, but in that case we should probably be talking about the various ways the group has been used, rather than presenting it as the way living things are currently sorted.''
---
> ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.  I guess maybe pages like <nowiki>[[Kingdom Animalia]]</nowiki> are a good way to handle such groups, but in that case we should probably be talking about the various ways the group has been used, rather than presenting it as the way living things are currently sorted.  For instance [[Kingdom Plantae]] could say that in addition to the [[Plantae]] they used to include the [[Fungi]] and [[Algae]].''
------
Orbitals|984111463
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The stationary states a particle can have in a given potential distribution.  Since any such state has a constant energy, the particle's [[wave function]] Y must satisfy HY = EY for some E >= 0.  Here H is the [[Hamiltonian]] operator; since it is [[linear]], this becomes an [[eigenvector]] equation on the space of all states.  Thus orbitals are just the energy [[eigenstates]] of the particle.
> 
> Of particular importance are [[atomic orbitals]] and [[molecular orbitals]], the stationary states of electrons in atoms and molecules.
> 
------
David_Friedman|984112419
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at [http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/ his personal website].
> 
------
DavidFriedman|984112452
1c1
< David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at [http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/ his personal website].
---
> #REDIRECT [[David Friedman]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984113450
2a3,4
> '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?
> ----
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984113463
3c3
< '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?
---
> '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?'''
------
Molecular_orbitals|984113481
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The stationary states electrons can have within [[molecules]].
> 
> It's next to impossible to find out what the orbitals of a molecule are directly.  Instead, one approximates the molecular orbitals as linear combinations of some basis for the electron's state space, usually what each atom's orbitals would be if it was on its own.  Some qualitative rules:
> 
> * There must be as many molecular orbitals as there were basis orbitals.
> * Basis orbitals mix more (ie contribute more to the same molecular orbitals) when they are closer in energy.
> * Molecular symmetries map stationary states to stationary states, so any collection of degenerate molecular orbitals must transform according to some [[representation]] of the [[symmetry group]].  As a result, basis orbitals that transform according to different representations don't mix.
> 
> As a simple example consider H<sub>2</sub>, with the atoms labelled H' and H".  The lowest energy atomic orbitals, 1s' and 1s", don't transform according to the symmetries of the molecule.  However, the following linear combinations do:
> 
>   1s' - 1s"                Antisymmetric combination: negated by reflection, unchanged by other ops
>   1s' + 1s"                Symmetric combination: unchanged by all symmetry ops
> 
> Since these are of very different energy than all the other atomic orbitals, we would expect these two combinations to be close approximations to the lowest two molecular orbitals.  In general, the symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher.  Since the H<sub>2</sub> molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (and thence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms.
> 
> 
------
Molecular_orbitals|984115152
14c14
< Since these are of very different energy than all the other atomic orbitals, we would expect these two combinations to be close approximations to the lowest two molecular orbitals.  In general, the symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher.  Since the H<sub>2</sub> molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (and thence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms.
---
> Since these are of very different energy than all the other atomic orbitals, we would expect these two combinations to be close approximations to the lowest two molecular orbitals.  In general, the symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher.  Since the H<sub>2</sub> molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (and thence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms.  This is called a [[covalent bond]].
15a16
> On the other hand consider a hypothetical molecule of H<sub>3</sub>, with the atoms labelled H, H', H".  Then we would expect three low energy combinations:
16a18,26
>   1s + 1s" - 1s'           Symmetric
>   1s - 1s"                 Antisymmetric
>   1s + 1s' + 1s"           Symmetric
> 
> The bonding and antibonding orbitals end up with roughly the same energy, but now there is a third orbital between them, of roughly the same energy as one of the basis orbitals.  Since the bonding electron can only hold two electrons, the third will have to go into the middle level, so there is no energy advantage for the molecule to stay together except at high pressures.  Under those conditions, we can expect to see an effectively infinite number of hydrogens packed together, so the molecular orbitals form continuous bands.
> 
> Now let's move to larger atoms.  Considering a hypothetical molecule of He<sub>2</sub>, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbital are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair.  HeH would have a slight energy advantage, but not so much as H<sub>2</sub> + 2 He, so the molecule exists only a short while.  In general, we find that atoms like He that have completely full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms.
> 
> The same sort of thing applies for the lower energy shells in larger molecules: although they still mix with other orbitals, there is no real energy advantage gained as a result, so they can be neglected from consideration.  Molecular structure relies on the outermost (valence) electrons of the different atoms, which are usually of comparable energy.  When there is a fair difference between them, though, one gets the case where one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other's almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals.  Thus the situation is effectively that some electrons have been transferred between the atoms.  This is called a (mostly) [[ionic bond]].
------
Molecular_orbitals|984115273
24c24
< Now let's move to larger atoms.  Considering a hypothetical molecule of He<sub>2</sub>, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbital are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair.  HeH would have a slight energy advantage, but not so much as H<sub>2</sub> + 2 He, so the molecule exists only a short while.  In general, we find that atoms like He that have completely full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms.
---
> Now let's move to larger atoms.  Considering a hypothetical molecule of He<sub>2</sub>, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbital are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair.  <nowiki>HeH</nowiki> would have a slight energy advantage, but not so much as H<sub>2</sub> + 2 He, so the molecule exists only a short while.  In general, we find that atoms like He that have completely full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms.
26c26
< The same sort of thing applies for the lower energy shells in larger molecules: although they still mix with other orbitals, there is no real energy advantage gained as a result, so they can be neglected from consideration.  Molecular structure relies on the outermost (valence) electrons of the different atoms, which are usually of comparable energy.  When there is a fair difference between them, though, one gets the case where one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other's almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals.  Thus the situation is effectively that some electrons have been transferred between the atoms.  This is called a (mostly) [[ionic bond]].
---
> The same sort of thing applies for the lower energy shells in larger molecules: although they still mix with other orbitals, there is no real energy advantage gained as a result, so they can be neglected from consideration.  Molecular structure relies on the outermost (valence) electrons of the different atoms, which are usually of comparable energy.  When there is a fair difference between them, though, one gets the case where one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other's almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals.  Thus the situation is effectively that some electrons have been transferred between the atoms.  This is called a (mostly) [[ionic bond]].
------
Molecular_orbitals|984115602
26a27,28
> 
> Note that every molecular orbital covers the whole molecule; they are not localized to particular bonds.  This actually happens whether the atoms have an energy advantage to grouping or not - strictly speaking, there is mixing between orbitals of atoms light-years away from each other, and although the resulting orbitals do not have energy different from those of the atomic orbitals, the electron density is always high near all the nuclei.  This is a reflection of the fact that all electrons are identical, so there is no real way to distinguish the electrons of the two separated atoms.
------
Catatonia|984115643
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A popular music band from Wales that gained a national following in the UK in the mid-late 1990s.  The band consists of [[Cerys Matthews]] on vocals, [[Mark Roberts]] and [[Owen]] on guitar, [[Paul Jones]] on bass, and [[Aled Richards]] on drums.  [[Mark Roberts is the main songwriter.
> 
> Catatonia deliberetly tries to make their songs accessible to a broad audience, while at the same time not shying away from original, experimental, or even potentially abrasive sounds.  The result is a mix of hooky pop and underground indie rock.
> 
> The songs are characterized by clever lyrics and Matthew's sexy, enticing, raspy vocals, which has made her a bit of a sex symbol.  Also prominent is her Welsh accent (though this feature is most likely lost on anyone outside the UK).
> 
> The band, in its music, lyrics, and PR, are proudly, or at least happily, Welsh.  This, they have insisted, should not be taken too seriously, as they are more internationalists than nationalists (hence the name of their 1998 release, [[/International Velvet|International Velvet]]
> 
> In September, 2000, a biography of the band by David Owens entitled 'Cerys, Catatonia & The Rise Of Welsh Pop' was released in the UK (sometimes listed as 'Catatonia-Enter The Dragon', which was the working title).
> 
> 0091874122
> 984114694
> 
> * Discography
> [[/For Tinkerbell|For Tinkerbell]] - 1993
> [[/Hooked|Hooked]] - 1994
> [[/Way Beyond Blue|Way Beyond Blue]] - 1996
> [[/International Velvet|International Velvet]] - 1998
> [[/Equally Cursed and Blessed|Equally Cursed and Blessed]] - 2000
------
Catatonia|984115691
11,12c11,12
< 0091874122
< 984114694
---
> ISBN: 0091874122 
> ISBN: 984114694
19c19
< [[/Equally Cursed and Blessed|Equally Cursed and Blessed]] - 2000
---
> [[/Equally Cursed and Blessed|Equally Cursed and Blessed]] - 2000
------
Molecular_orbitals|984115728
28c28
< Note that every molecular orbital covers the whole molecule; they are not localized to particular bonds.  This actually happens whether the atoms have an energy advantage to grouping or not - strictly speaking, there is mixing between orbitals of atoms light-years away from each other, and although the resulting orbitals do not have energy different from those of the atomic orbitals, the electron density is always high near all the nuclei.  This is a reflection of the fact that all electrons are identical, so there is no real way to distinguish the electrons of the two separated atoms.
---
> Note that every molecular orbital covers the whole molecule; they are not localized to particular bonds.  This actually happens whether the atoms have an energy advantage to grouping or not - strictly speaking, there is mixing between orbitals of atoms light-years away from each other, and although the resulting orbitals do not have energy different from those of the atomic orbitals, the electron density is always high near all the nuclei.  This is a reflection of the fact that all electrons are identical, so there is no real way to distinguish the electrons of the two separated atoms.  To make up for this we often take linear combinations of molecular orbitals so that electron density is localized around atoms, and between them (hybridized bonds), but it should be remembered that these are not stationary states, so although they are useful in treating electron density they have no real meaning in terms of energy.
------
Catatonia|984115762
9c9
< In September, 2000, a biography of the band by David Owens entitled 'Cerys, Catatonia & The Rise Of Welsh Pop' was released in the UK (sometimes listed as 'Catatonia-Enter The Dragon', which was the working title).
---
> In September, 2000, a biography of the band by David Owens entitled 'Cerys, Catatonia & The Rise Of Welsh Pop' was released in the UK (sometimes listed as 'Catatonia-Enter The Dragon', which was the working title).  ISBN: 0091874122
11,12c11
< ISBN: 0091874122 
< ISBN: 984114694
---
> ISBN: B00004NRTD
15,19c14,18
< [[/For Tinkerbell|For Tinkerbell]] - 1993
< [[/Hooked|Hooked]] - 1994
< [[/Way Beyond Blue|Way Beyond Blue]] - 1996
< [[/International Velvet|International Velvet]] - 1998
< [[/Equally Cursed and Blessed|Equally Cursed and Blessed]] - 2000
---
>  [[/For Tinkerbell|For Tinkerbell]] - 1993
>  [[/Hooked|Hooked]] - 1994
>  [[/Way Beyond Blue|Way Beyond Blue]] - 1996
>  [[/International Velvet|International Velvet]] - 1998
>  [[/Equally Cursed and Blessed|Equally Cursed and Blessed]] - 2000
------
Catatonia|984115791
11,12d10
< ISBN: B00004NRTD
< 
------
Catatonia|984115812
1c1
< A popular music band from Wales that gained a national following in the UK in the mid-late 1990s.  The band consists of [[Cerys Matthews]] on vocals, [[Mark Roberts]] and [[Owen]] on guitar, [[Paul Jones]] on bass, and [[Aled Richards]] on drums.  [[Mark Roberts is the main songwriter.
---
> A popular music band from Wales that gained a national following in the UK in the mid-late 1990s.  The band consists of [[Cerys Matthews]] on vocals, [[Mark Roberts]] and [[Owen]] on guitar, [[Paul Jones]] on bass, and [[Aled Richards]] on drums.  [[Mark Roberts]] is the main songwriter.
------
Catatonia|984115838
5c5
< The songs are characterized by clever lyrics and Matthew's sexy, enticing, raspy vocals, which has made her a bit of a sex symbol.  Also prominent is her Welsh accent (though this feature is most likely lost on anyone outside the UK).
---
> The songs are characterized by clever lyrics and Matthew's sexy, enticing, raspy vocals, which have made her a bit of a sex symbol.  Also prominent is her Welsh accent (though this feature is most likely lost on anyone outside the UK).
------
Chemistry|984115848
1c1,7
< The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.  For a listing of the different elements, see the [[Periodic Table]].  There isn't a history section here yet, but there is a page on the predecessor of chemistry, [[Alchemy]].
---
> The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.  For a listing of the different elements, see the [[Periodic Table]]; for principles see:
> 
> * [[Orbitals]]
> * [[Kinetics]]
> * [[Thermochemistry]]
> 
> There isn't a history section here yet, but there is a page on the predecessor of chemistry, [[Alchemy]].
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984116036
3,4d2
< '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?'''
< ----
12a11,14
> '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Well, that's an interesting question.  The owner of the server, the domain name, and the ultimate copyright of Wikipedia materials is [http://www.bomis.com Bomis], Inc.  But the articles are released under the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, so the articles are [[open content]].  So it is a bit misleading to say that the owner of Wikipedia articles is Bomis; Bomis doesn't own them in any ''traditional'' sense of ownership.  (Bomis CEO and President [[Jimbo Wales]] might want to elaborate this reply.)
> ----
124,125c126
< This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
< 
---
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
------
Naming_conventions|984116379
38a39,44
> '''Pluralization'''
> 
> Let's say you were writing a page about crayons.  Should you call the page <code>[[crayons]]</code>, which is basically what the page is about, or <code>[[crayon]]</code>, which makes it easier to link to from passages like "Harold took out his purple crayon and drew up the covers"?  Probably the latter.  One can always write <code>[[crayon]]s</code>, but if the page is called <code>[[crayons]]</code>, then whenever one wants to use the term in the singular, one is forced into typing the ungainly <code>[[crayons|crayon]]</code>.  (If you didn't understand the latter link, you need to read this: [[How does one edit a page]]?)
> 
> ----
> 
67,73d72
< 
< '''Pluralization'''
< 
< Let's say you were writing a page about crayons.  Should you call the page [[Crayons]], which is basically what the page is about, or [[Crayon]], which makes it easier to link to from passages like "Harold took out his purple crayon and drew up the covers?"
< 
< ----
< 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Betty_Pope|984116492
4a5
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Businessman_1|984116701
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unnamed businessman who interrupts a conversation between [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at the party in [[/Section161|Section161]].  He is taken aback by the contrast between Dagny's appearance that night and the way she normally appears in her business suits.  When Dagny notes his reaction she realizes she had hoped Rearden would react that way, that this was her unadmitted purpose in coming to the party.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Claude_Slagenhop|984116919
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Claude Slagenhop is the president of [[/Friends of Global Progress|Friends of Global Progress]] and one of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] friends.  He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but of action.  He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless.
> 
> Claude Slagenhop appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagny_Taggart|984116955
17a18
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984117001
38c38
<  [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
---
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984117031
38d37
<  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
49a49
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Gwen_Ives|984117071
4a5
>  - [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hank_Rearden|984117092
13a14
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hugh_Akston|984117228
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "One of the last great advocates of reason," Hugh Akston was a reknowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hugh_Akston|984117339
1c1
< "One of the last great advocates of reason," Hugh Akston was a reknowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]].
---
> "One of the last great advocates of reason," Hugh Akston was a reknowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco dAnconia]], [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  He was, along with 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hugh_Akston|984117596
1c1,6
< "One of the last great advocates of reason," Hugh Akston was a reknowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco dAnconia]], [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  He was, along with 
---
> "One of the last great advocates of reason," Hugh Akston was a reknowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  He was, along with [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]], a father figure to these three.
> 
> Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had studied under him, is shocked.  She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century.
> 
> Hugh Akston appears in:
>  [[/Section161|/Section161]] - mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984118231
3a4,14
> * Character names
> Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance.
> 
> [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful.
> 
> [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] - sounds like the German word for state, Stadt.  Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research.
> 
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - possilbe derived from the Anaconda (see [[Atlas Shrugged/Who_Is_Francisco_dAnconia|Who Is Francisco d'Anconia?]]
> 
> [[/John Galt|John Galt]] - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental.  Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'.  The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial - this would not be possible with a long, awkward name.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggart|984118364
12a13
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|984118520
2a3,4
> Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, "Who is John Galt?", it is naural that many people have attempted to answer that question.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears a number of [[/John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt.
> 
------
Walt_Disney|984118634
11c11
< Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company [[Buena Vista]].  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iverks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iverks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
---
> Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company [[Buena Vista]].  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iwerks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iwerks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
17c17
< The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like [[Benny Goodman]].  This song, by the way, was actually composed one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
---
> The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like [[Benny Goodman]].  This song, by the way, was actually composed by one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984118651
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Since everyone across the country is asking, "Who is John Galt?", it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers.  A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically.
> 
------
Greek_language|984119710
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''archô'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxô'') or whatever the derivation is.
------
Naming_conventions|984119951
36a37,38
> I think Andy might be on to something--but only with the stipulation/clarification that the wiki software be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>.  In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>).  But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
------
Greek_language|984120194
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxô'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|984121898
1a2,3
> 
> Perhaps [[numerology]] falls in the purview of "anomalous phenomena."
------
Numerology|984122150
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Numerology is the study of numbers! The name, birthdate and birthtime are 
> used to analyse and define the psychology of an individual, by allocating 
> specific  numbers to the letters of the alphabet. It’s basis - that 
> everything has a vibration, even if we can’t see it - like a soprano hitting 
> a high note which  shatters a glass  or the dog whistle  - which only the 
> dog can hear.
> 
> Scientists believe there is no evidence to substantiate the  authenticity of 
> Numerology and call it a pseudo (false science.
> 
> Historians  believe that modern numerology is an integration of the 
> teachings from Ancient Babylonia, Pythagoras and his followers, (6 th. 
> Century B.C. Greece) Astrological philosophy from Hellenistic Alexandria, 
> early Christian mysticism, the occultism of the early Gnostics and the 
> Hebrew system of the Kabala. The Indian Vedas, the Chinese "Circle of the 
> Dead",and the Egyptian "Book of the Master of the Secret House", (Ritual of 
> the Dead) are records that prove that Numerology dates back thousands of 
> years  Pythagoras the father of numbers was born on the Island of Samos.At 
> a very early age he travelled to Mesoptamia and Egypt where he acquired the 
> basis of his knowledge.Political unrest necessitated the move to Crotona, in 
> Southern Italy where he founded his second University. The doctrines of this 
> cultural center, were bound by very strict rules of conduct. His school was 
> open to men, as well as women students and excluded any discriminatory 
> conduct. His students included all races and colour no matter what religion 
> or financial circumstance.
> 
> History has documented that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, 
> has definitely had a profound effect on philosophy throughout the ages - 
> even to this present day, and was based on mathematics, music and astronomy. 
> He believed that mathematics could exist without music and astronomy but 
> nothing could exist without numbers. His teachings encompassed, not only the 
> investigation into the self, but into the whole Universe. Pythagorus became 
> the founder of modern mathematics, musical theory, philosophy and the 
> science of health.(hygiene)
> 
> Pythagorus and other philosophers of the time, believed that because 
> mathematical concepts are more practical than physical ones they have 
> greater actuality. An idea in harmony with  philosophical pragmatism and a 
> choice for permanent concepts over changeable physicality.
> 
> St. Augustine in A.D. 35 - ? wrote " Numbers are the Universal 
> language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth." 
> Similar to Pythagorus, he too believed that everything , has numerical 
> relationships and it is up to the mind to seek and investigate their secrets 
> or have them revealed by divine grace
> 
> In 325 A.D. every departure from the beliefs of the state Church was classed 
> as a state violation. Therefore through this religious purging , the 
> spiritual  significance of the sacred numbers began to disappear. In spite 
> of this suppression there were still  many devout believers, who kept the 
> sacred knowledge locked away.
> 
> Through empirical observation  and investigation, Numerologists, agree that 
> through the study of numbers, we can uncover hidden aspects of ourselves and 
> the universe. Only recently it was documented that many  Psychologists and 
> Psychiatrists were looking into the study of  numerology and astrology to 
> help them to uncover specific psychological problems.
> ----
> The above is an early draft of an article that is being considered for Nupedia.  I have the author's permission to post it on Wikipedia.  I have an unusual request: will you edit this article, as if you had to take responsibility for it (though granted you might not want to), so that it is fact-stating?  Then I'll present the results to the author and read them myself and see if we can proceed! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
AtlasShrugged/JulesMott|984122400
1,5c1
< /TaggartTranscontinental's man in /MexicoCity.  He is the fall guy after the Mexican government nationalizes the /SanSebastianLine.
< 
< Jules Mott appears in:
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN143: Mentioned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/JulesMott]]
------
AtlasShrugged/JulesMott|984122413
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/JulesMott]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Jules Mott]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Mexico|984122493
1,10c1
< Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the /SanSebastianMines and of /TaggartTranscontinental's /SanSebastianLine.  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
< 
< Mexico is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN131
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN142
<  - /SectioN143
<  - /SectioN151
<  - /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Mexico]]
------
AtlasShrugged/MexicoPeoplesStateof|984122525
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/Mexico
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Mexico]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Section152|984122576
1,34c1
< * Plot summary
< 
< In this long section, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] goes to the /WayneFalklandHotel to confront [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].  Before she arrives she reminisces about her childhood with Francisco and we learn why this man is so significant to her.
< 
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had been a childhood friend of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]].  He spent his childhood all over the world, because his father wanted him to feel the world was his home.  But for one month every summer he visited the Taggart estate, and his visit was the highlight of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] and [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie's]] year.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] had an unlimited capacity for joy, and he loved tackling new challenges.  His great goal for his life was to run /DAnconiaCopper so well it would double in size.  He talked to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] about their great futures running their respective family businesses - this was the vision of the future Dagny came to expect.
< 
< When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at Taggart Transcontinental, much to her mother's chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the /WayneFalklandHotel.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
< 
< That summer, when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] returned, he and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] discovered they were in love, and spent the summer going off together and making love in secret places where no one could discover them.  They kept it secret not out of guilt, but because they felt it was too personal and too special to share with anyone else.
< 
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of D'Anconia Copper and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at Taggart Transcontintental.  Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the Wayne-Falkland Hotel.  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
< 
< After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
< 
< When she arrives at the Wayne-Falkland and confronts [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], she accuses him of deliberately plotting the swindle of the /SanSebastianMines.  She tries to determine his motives, and he leads her on, eventually telling her that he is deliberately trying to destroy the producers, that his goal in the/SanSebastianMines was to waste millions of dollars, and that [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] will be next one to be destroyed and Taggart Transcontinental will collapse as well; he tells her that she is the one he must fight.  She could never believe he had become so corrupt, but she has no choice but to beleive it now.
< 
< 
< * Setting
< Downtown /NewYork, on and around the Taggart Estate in [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] childhood, the /WayneFalklandHotel.
< 
< * Characters
<  /DagnysFather
<  /DagnysMother
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
<  /FranciscosFather
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /NathanielTaggart - Mentioned
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /RichardHalley - Mentioned.
<  /SebastianDAnconia
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section152]]
------
AtlasShrugged/UnitedLocomotiveWorks|984122706
1,5c1
< An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to /TaggartTranscontinental.  The order is delayed in perpetuity, and president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer why this is so.
< 
< The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/United Locomotive Works]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN148|984122739
1,16c1
< * Plot summary
< 
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] meets with [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] at his steel mill to tell him that, because of the /AntiDogEatDogRule she will need her rails in nine months instead of twelve.  She asks Rearden if he can deliver the order in time, and he tells her he will.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] acknowledges that [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] now holds /TaggartTranscontinental in his power - if he fails to deliver, the railroad might collapse.  But, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] needs this project to succeed as well because it will prove the value  of /ReardenMetal, creating new markets for him.  They stand together in silence, watching as the first load of /ReardenMetal is loaded onto the trains, both knowing what this new invention represents.  The two talk about business as if one business' success creates opportunities for another, which is in sharp contrast to the talk about "destructive competition" that was used to justify the /AntiDogEatDogRule earlier in this chapter.
< 
< There is an apparent plot hole in this section.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] needs rails because the /PhoenixDurango has been ordered to suspend operations in /Colorado in nine months.  If she doesn't get the new rail laid, Colorado will be without transportation and its economy will collapse.  However, when the Phoenix-Durango suspends operations, it is not going to roll up its tracks and take them away.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] could easily run her trains on [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway's]] track.  She could buy them outright or lease them.  [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in /SectioN146 expressed sympathy for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] - he does not hold a grudge and wishes her success - so there is no reason to assume he would refuse her this.  In fact, because [[/Dan Conway|Conway]] in this chapter is being used to illustrate the /SanctionOfTheVictim, he could not refuse such a request.  From a business point of view, it would provide him a way to still make money in Colorado despite not being allowed to operate there; and with the option of using this line, /TaggartTranscontinental would not be dependent on [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]].  There is no explanation for why this obvious solution to the problem is not even considered.
< 
< * Setting
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] office at /ReardenSteel.
< 
< * Characters
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Dan Conway|Dan Conway]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /Looters - Mentioned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section148]]
------
Germany|984122773
1c1
< Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of EuropE. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
---
> Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of Europe. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
------
Germany|984122784
1c1
< Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of Europe. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
---
> Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of [[Europe]]. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
------
Great_Man_Theory|984122858
1c1,3
< This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
---
> This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Great_Man_Theory/Talk|984122926
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Isn't this also a theory in history in general?
------
Wikipedia|984122966
3c3
< We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for more information, see HowDoesOneEditaPage.  The articles don't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
---
> We invite everyone to contribute.  Just pick a topic, write an article.  Click on the "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom of every page to edit a page; for more information, see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]].  The articles don't have to be long; a little bit in the early stages will help a lot.  You can do so anonymously or give yourself credit.  If you see an error, you can instantly edit an article to fix it.
5c5
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Talk about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
7c7
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on WikiPediaProcess.  See the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]], and see the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
------
Great_Man_Theory/Talk|984122992
1c1
< Isn't this also a theory in history in general?
---
> Isn't this also a theory in historiography, or philosophy of history?
------
Wikipedia|984123027
7c7
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]], and see the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]] (and in particular see the [[naming conventions]] page), and see the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
------
Wikipedia|984123138
7c7
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]] (and in particular see the [[naming conventions]] page), and see the [[WikiPedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]] (and in particular see the [[naming conventions]] page), and see the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
------
COBOL|984124279
1,2c1,17
< The name COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.  It was initially created in 1960? by ??? (I think IBM).
< ----
---
> The name COBOL is an acronym for Common Business Oriented Language.
> 
> COBOL was initially created in 1959 by The Short Range Committee, one of three committees defined at a meeting held at the Pentagon in May 1959, organized by Charles Phillips of the US Department of Defense. The Short Range Committee was formed to recommend at short range approach to a common businees language. The Short Range Committee was made up of members representing 6 computer manufacturers and 3 government agencies. In particular, the six computer manufacturers were Burroughs, IBM, Minneapolis-Honeywell, RCA, Sperry Rand ,and Sylvania Electric Products. And, the three government agencies were the US Air Force,
> the David Taylor Model Basin, and the National Bureau of Standards. This committee was chaired by a member of NBS. (An Intermediate-Range Committee and a Long-Range Committee
> were defined at the Pentagon meeting as well.While the Intermediate Range Committeee was formed, it was never operational. The Long-Range Committee was never formed.) In the end a sub committee of the Short Range Committee developed the specifications of the COBOL language. This subcommittee was made up of six individuals:
> <pre>
> * William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of IBM.
> * Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of RCA.
> * Vernon Reeves and Jean E. Sammet of Sylvania Electric Products.
> </pre>
> This subcommitee completed the specifications for COBOL as the year of 1959 came to an end.
> These were approved by the full Short Range Committee. From there, they were approved by the Executive Commitee (ask me another time about this) in January 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which edited and printed these specifications as <i>Cobol 60</i>.
> 
> 
> Source: J.E. Sammet. "The Early History of Cobol," <i> History of Programming Languages.</i>
> Edited by R.L. Wexelblat. ACM Monograph Series: New York, 1981.----
> 
------
Mullet|984126475
3c3
< A mullet is also a type of haircut, long associated with [[United States]] [[redneck]] culture.  Short on top, long (shoulder length or more) in back.
---
> A mullet is also a type of haircut, long associated with [[United States]] [[redneck]] culture.  Short on top, long (shoulder length or more) in back. The term was supposedly first coined by the [[Beastie Boys]].
5c5
< A mullet is slang for a person that mindlessly follows a fad/trend/leader.
---
> A mullet is slang for a person that mindlessly follows a fad/trend/leader.
------
Virtual_memory|984126618
2c2
< Modern microprocessors have built-in support for this functionality, without which such systems would suffer greatly decreased performance.
---
> Modern microprocessors ([[CPU]]s) have built-in support for this functionality, without which such systems would suffer greatly decreased performance.
------
Blues/Talk|984129102
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I couldn't find a good public domain blues verse to use as an example, so I had to invent one.  Its rubbish, so if someone with
> either
> * a better source
> * a better grasp of the "Fair Use" doctrine
> * more talent
> wants to replace it, please do -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Blues|984129227
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vocal and instrumental musical form, originally derived from [[African American]] [[work songs]].  
> 
> Early blues, which evolved in the southern parts of the [[United States]], tended to have a simple [[twelve bar blues|twelve]] or [[eight bar blues|eight bar]] structure based on [[tonic chord|tonic]], [[subdominant chord|subdominant]] and [[dominant chord|dominant]] chords.  Similarly the lyric forms of early forms tended to be a single line repeated two or three times before, such as:
> 
> :Woke up this morning with the blues down in my soul
> :Woke up this morning with the blues down in my soul
> :Saying "My baby gone and left me, got a heart as black as coal"
> 
> 
> 
> ----
> See also [[/Talk]]
------
Blues|984129715
3c3,5
< Early blues, which evolved in the southern parts of the [[United States]], tended to have a simple [[twelve bar blues|twelve]] or [[eight bar blues|eight bar]] structure based on [[tonic chord|tonic]], [[subdominant chord|subdominant]] and [[dominant chord|dominant]] chords.  Similarly the lyric forms of early forms tended to be a single line repeated two or three times before, such as:
---
> Early blues forms of the blues evolved in the southern parts of the [[United States]] in the late [[nineteenth century|19th]] and early [[twentieth century|20th]] centuries, using simple instruments such as [[acoustic guitar]] and [[harmonica]].  Songs tended to have a simple [[twelve bar blues|twelve]] or [[eight bar blues|eight bar]] structure based on [[tonic chord|tonic]], [[subdominant chord|subdominant]] and [[dominant chord|dominant]] chords.  Melodically, blues music is marked by the use of the flattened third and dominant seventh (so called [[blue note]]s) of the associated [[major scale]].
> 
> Lyrically, verses of early blues songs tended to consist a single line repeated two or three times before, such as:
9c11
< 
---
> In the 1940s and 1950s, increased urbanisation and the use of amplification led to electric blues music, popular in cities such as [[Chicago]] and best exemplified by such artists as [[Howling Wolf]] and [[Muddy Waters]].
11a14,17
> Related Links:
> * [[Jazz]]
> * [[Popular Music]]
> 
------
Blues|984130611
11c11
< In the 1940s and 1950s, increased urbanisation and the use of amplification led to electric blues music, popular in cities such as [[Chicago]] and best exemplified by such artists as [[Howling Wolf]] and [[Muddy Waters]].
---
> The subject matter of the lyrics was typically based around the hardships and injustices of life, giving the blues an undeserved reputation for misery, whereas blues lyrics are often joyous, raunchy and funny.
12a13,19
> In the first part of the 20th century blues had the single most important influence on the development, in both harmonic structure and the technique of blues singers such as [[Bessie Smith]] and [[Big Mama Thornton]].
> 
> In the 1940s and 1950s, increased urbanisation and the use of amplification led to electric blues music, popular in cities such as [[Chicago]] and best exemplified by such artists as [[Howling Wolf]] and [[Muddy Waters]].  Electric blues would eventually give rise to [[rock and roll]].
> 
> In the 1960s and 70s artists such as [[Eric Clapton]], [[Janis Joplin]] and [[]] influenced by both early and electric blues musicians brought the blues to a new, younger audience.
> 
> Since then blues has continued to thrive in both traditional and new forms through the work of [[Robert Cray]], [[Bonnie Raitt]] and others.
13a21,27
> Other important blues artists:
> * [[BB King]]
> * [[Elmore James]]
> * [[Son House]]
> * [[John Lee Hooker]]
> * [[Stevie Ray Vaughn]]
> 
------
Blues/Talk|984130649
6a7,8
> 
> Oh, and I'm '''really''' weak on modern stuff...
------
CountriesY|984130658
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Yemen]]
------
Popular_Music|984130707
23c23,25
< well, you get the idea...
---
> See also:
> * [[Blues]]
> * [[Jazz]]
------
CountriesD|984130958
1c1,6
< [[Denmark]]
---
> * [[Dahomey]]
> 
> * [[Denmark]]
> 
> * [[Djibouti]]
> 
------
Daffodil|984131269
1c1
< A pretty flower.
---
> A pretty flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].
------
The_Doors/The_Doors|984131299
5c5
< :Break On Trough (To The Other Side)
---
> :Break On Through (To The Other Side)
15c15
< :The End
---
> :The End
------
Dystopia|984131366
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term coined to describe the converse of a [[Utopia]], showing a society considered by the author to be undesirable, for any of a number of reasons.
> 
> The term was coined (by who?) by regarding the name "Utopia" (actually meaning 
> "nowhere") as being derived from "eu-topia", for a place where everything 
> is as it should be, hence the converse "dys-topia" for a place where this 
> is certainly not the case.
> 
> Dystopias are frequently written as warnings, or as [[Satire|satires]]; 
> showing the results of current trends carried on to their conclusion. There is a considerable number of [[ScienceFiction|science fiction]] stories using a 
> dystopian setting, usually set in the near future.
> 
> Some famous dystopias are:
> * [[Brave New World]] by [[Aldous Huxley]]
> * [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]
> * [[Fahrenheit 451]] by [[Ray Bradbury]]
------
Edward_Bellamy|984131634
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Edward Bellamy
> 
> American author, most famous for his [[Utopia|utopian]] novel set in the year 2000, [[Looking Backward]]
> 
> Other books by him are: 
> <i>Dr. Heidenhoff's Process</i> and  <i>Miss Luddington's Sister</i>
------
The_Doors_of_Perception|984131805
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Book by [[Aldous Huxley]] detailing his hallucinatory experiences when taking [[mescaline]].  The title comes from a quote from [[William Blake]]:
> : "If the doors of perception were cleansed everything would appear to man as it is, infinite."
> 
> Huxley's book inspired the young [[Jim Morrison]] to name his [[rock and roll]] band [[The Doors]].
------
H.G._Wells|984131978
7a8,23
> 
> Novels by H.G. Wells include:
> 
> Kipps
> 
> A Modern Utopia
> 
> Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island
> 
> The World of William Clissold
> 
> Tono-Bungay
> 
> In the Days of the Comet
> 
> The World Set Free
------
RequestedArticles|984132062
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Henry Mayhew]]
------
Henry_Mayhew|984132275
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Henry Mayhew  25 November 1812 - 25th July 1887
> 
> English journalist, one of the founders, and in the early days a co-editor, of the humorous magazine [[Punch Magazine|Punch]]
> 
> He is most famous now for his newspaper articles in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, in which he carried out a survey of the poor of London. 
> 
> As he said:
> "I shall consider the whole of the metropolitan poor under three separate 
> phases, according as they <i>will</i> work, they <i>can't</i> work, and they <i>won't</i> work"
> 
> He interviewed everyone - beggars, street-entertainers, market traders, prostitutes, labourers, [[sweatshop]] workers, even 
> down to the "mudlarks" who searched the [[Thames/pollution|stinking mud]] on the banks of the [[Thames]] for wood, metal, rope and coal from passing ships, and the "pure-finders" who gathered dog faeces to sell to tanners. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, and made detailed estimates of the 
> numbers and incomes of those practicing each trade. The books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many peoples lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world.   
> 
> The articles were collected together in book form under the title <i>"London 
> Labour and the London Poor"</i>. This was in three volumes in 1851: the 1861 
> edition included a fourth volume on the lives of prostitutes, thieves and 
> beggars)
> 
------
RequestedArticles|984132495
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] 
13c13
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[virtual machine]] -- [[virtual memory]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
17c17
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[I, Robot]] -- [[Stendhal]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[Stendhal]]
21c21
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Postmaster]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
27c27
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigable]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[Spindletop]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dystopia]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] -- [[Henry Mayhew]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
LSD|984132802
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (or sometimes Lysergide, commonly called "Acid").  Powerful hallucinogenic drug, chemical formula C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>25</sub>N<sub>30</sub>, first synthesised by swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1938.
> 
> As a recreational drug it gained popularity in 1960s when gurus such as [[Timothy Leary]] advocated its use as a method of raising conciousness.  It is not without danger, however, and use, especially if repeated or in large doses, can induce [[psychosis|psychotic]] states such as [[ego]]lessness and [[catatonia]].
> 
> Manufacture, use and possession of LSD is illegal in many countries of the world, including the [[United States]] and most (all?) of [[Europe]].
------
Great_Man_Theory|984133059
1c1
< This thoery tends to explain film history and the evolvement of film almost exculsively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
---
> This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
3c3
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
LSD|984133212
5a6,7
> ----
> At the moment the [[catatonia]] link points to an excellent article about the (equally excellent) Welsh rock band.  Not quite whats intended, but strangely apposite... -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Aldous_Huxley|984133420
9c9
< [[Crome Yellow]] -- [[Ape and Essence]] -- [[After Many a Summer]] -- [[Brave New World]] - [[Eyeless in Gaza]] - [[Island]] -- [[The Doors of Perception]]
---
> [[Crome Yellow]] -- [[Ape and Essence]] -- [[After Many a Summer]] -- [[Brave New World]] - [[Eyeless in Gaza]] - [[/Island|Island]] -- [[The Doors of Perception]]
------
Utopia|984133669
15c15
< [[Aldous Huxley]]s book [[Island]]. (His most famous work, [[Brave New World]] could perhaps be considered a utopia, as the people in that society are certainly happy, but it is more generally regarded by critics as a [[Dystopia|dystopian]] [[Satire|satire]], as they actually have no choice in whether they are happy or not.)
---
> [[Aldous Huxley]]s book [[Aldous Huxley/Island|Island]]. (His most famous work, [[Brave New World]] could perhaps be considered a utopia, as the people in that society are certainly happy, but it is more generally regarded by critics as a [[Dystopia|dystopian]] [[Satire|satire]], as they actually have no choice in whether they are happy or not.)
------
Hallucinogenic_drugs|984133867
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[LSD]]
> *[[mescalin]]
------
Hallucinogenic_drugs|984133904
2c2
< *[[mescalin]]
---
> *[[Mescalin]]
------
Thames/pollution|984134169
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just an empty page at the moment. 
> 
> Needs at the least, something about the infamous "Year of the Great Stink", perhaps [[Cholera]], and Chadwick (?was that the name of the sanitary reformer?)
------
Henry_Mayhew|984134558
5c5
< He is most famous now for his newspaper articles in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, in which he carried out a survey of the poor of London. 
---
> He is most famous now for his newspaper articles in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, in which he carried out a survey of the poor of [[United Kingdom/London|London]]. 
------
LSD|984134942
1c1
< D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (or sometimes Lysergide, commonly called "Acid").  Powerful hallucinogenic drug, chemical formula C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>25</sub>N<sub>30</sub>, first synthesised by swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1938.
---
> D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (or sometimes Lysergide, commonly called "Acid").  Powerful [[hallucinogenic drugs|hallucinogenic drug]], chemical formula C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>25</sub>N<sub>30</sub>, first synthesised by swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1938.
------
Gareth_Owen|984135067
11a12,13
> ----
> OK, how do I get a [[Random Page]] unrelated to [[Ayn Rand|Ayn flipping Rand]] link???
------
Gareth_Owen|984135116
13c13
< OK, how do I get a [[Random Page]] unrelated to [[Ayn Rand|Ayn flipping Rand]] link???
---
> OK, how do I get a [[RandomPage]] unrelated to [[Ayn Rand|Ayn flipping Rand]] link???
------
Gareth_Owen|984135605
13a14,16
> ----
> Easy - keep adding more pages until the Ayn Rand pages are outnumbered!
> 
------
MathematicsAndStatistics|984137156
1c1
< see [[Mathematics and Statistics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mathematics and Statistics]]
------
Mathematics_and_Statistics|984137382
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Mathematics]]
> *[[Statistics]]
------
CategorySchemes|984137425
9c9
< :[[Philosophy]] -- MathematicsAndStatistics
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics and Statistics]]
------
CategorySchemes|984138635
23c23
< :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- [[Literary Art]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- MuSic -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- GameS -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
---
> :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- [[Literary Art]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- [[Music]] -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- [[Games]] -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
------
CategorySchemes|984138703
36c36
< * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- MuSic -- ReCreation -- SportS
---
> * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- [[Music]] -- ReCreation -- SportS
------
FieldsMedal|984139419
14c14
< * 1966 ([[Moskva]], [[Russia]]): [[Michael Atiyah]], [[Paul J. Cohen]], [[Alexander Grothendieck]], [[Stephen Smale]]
---
> * 1966 ([[Moskva]], [[Russia]]): [[Michael Atiyah]], [[Paul Cohen|Paul J. Cohen]], [[Alexander Grothendieck]], [[Stephen Smale]]
------
Paul_Cohen|984139648
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[mathematics|mathematician]], noted for showing that the negation of the [[continuum hypothesis]] was consistent with the standard axioms of [[set theory]].  In conjunction with the earlier work of [[Kurt Godel|Godel]], this showed that the continuum hypothesis was could be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms.
------
Paul_Cohen|984139863
1c1,3
< American [[mathematics|mathematician]], noted for showing that the negation of the [[continuum hypothesis]] was consistent with the standard axioms of [[set theory]].  In conjunction with the earlier work of [[Kurt Godel|Godel]], this showed that the continuum hypothesis was could be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms.
---
> American [[mathematics|mathematician]], noted for showing that the negation of the [[continuum hypothesis]] was consistent with the standard axioms of [[Set Theory|set theory]].  In conjunction with the earlier work of [[Kurt Godel|Godel]], this showed that the continuum hypothesis could be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms.
> 
> This result is possibly the most famous non-trivial example illustrating [[Godels Incompleteness Theorem]].
------
Observational_Error|984140920
1c1
< back to [[Statistical Theory]] -- [[Applied Statistics]]
---
> back to [[Statistics/Theory]] -- [[Statistics/Applied]]
------
Statistics/Assumptions|984141226
3c3
< [[Statistics]], like mathematical disciplines does not generate valid conclusions from nothing. Every [[Mathematical Theorem]] requires a set of assumptions or [[hypotheses]] from which its conclusions are derived. [[Mathematical Proof]]s are procedures for transforming hypotheses into conclusions. 
---
> [[Statistics]], like all mathematical disciplines does not generate valid conclusions from nothing. Every [[Mathematical Theorem]] requires a set of assumptions or [[hypotheses]] from which its conclusions are derived. [[Mathematical Proof]]s are procedures for transforming hypotheses into conclusions. 
7c7
< #independence of observations from each other
---
> #independence of observations from each other (see [[Statistical Independence]]
9,10c9,10
< #exact or approximate normality of observations
< #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli
---
> #exact or approximate normality of observations (see [[Normal Distribution]]
> #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli (see [[Linear Regression]]
------
Statistics/Assumptions|984141249
7c7
< #independence of observations from each other (see [[Statistical Independence]]
---
> #independence of observations from each other (see [[Statistical Independence]])
10c10
< #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli (see [[Linear Regression]]
---
> #linearity of graded responses to quantitative stimuli (see [[Linear Regression]])
------
Statistical_Independence|984141516
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics/Assumptions]]
> 
> When we assert that two or more [[Random Variables]] are independent, we imply that probabilities of compound events involving these variables can be calculated by simply multiplying the probabilities of the individual events.
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[(X in A) & (Y in B)] = Pr[X in A]*Pr[Y in B]</font>
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Independence|984141693
5a6
> *<font size=+1 color=red>f<sub>XY</sub>(x,y)dx dy = f<sub>X</sub>(x)dx f<sub>Y</sub>(y)dy</font> where f represents a density and the indices on  f indicate the random variable.
------
Statistical_Independence|984141895
3c3,7
< When we assert that two or more [[Random Variables]] are independent, we imply that probabilities of compound events involving these variables can be calculated by simply multiplying the probabilities of the individual events.
---
> When we assert that two or more [[Random Variables]] are independent, we imply that probabilities of compound events involving these variables can be calculated by simply multiplying the probabilities of the individual events. This is expressed in many ways. The most general statement is:
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[(X in A) & (Y in B)] = Pr[X in A]*Pr[Y in B]</font> for A and B subsets of the independent sample spaces for X and Y.
> 
> In terms of joint and marginal probability densities, we find:
5d8
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[(X in A) & (Y in B)] = Pr[X in A]*Pr[Y in B]</font>
------
Statistical_Independence|984142035
5c5
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[(X in A) & (Y in B)] = Pr[X in A]*Pr[Y in B]</font> for A and B subsets of the independent sample spaces for X and Y.
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[(X in A) & (Y in B)] = Pr[X in A]*Pr[Y in B]</font> for A and B any subsets of the independent sample spaces for X and Y.
9a10,15
> 
> In terms of the [[Expectation Operator]], we have:
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>E[X*Y] = E[X]*E[Y]</font>
> 
> 
------
Expectation_Operator|984142559
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics/Theory]]
> 
> Averaging across a probability distribution is so common in [[Statistics]] that a special notation has been developed to denote it. This is the '''Expectation Operator'''. The formal definition of the expectation of a function g applied to a random variable X is given by (for a [[Continuous Random Variable]])
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>E<sub>X</sub>[g(x)] = INTEGRAL g(x) dF(x)</font> where dF indicates the probability element at x and the region of integration includes all values of the variable with non-zero probability density.
> 
> In the case of discrete random variables, we have
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>E<sub>X</sub>[g(x)] = SUM g(x) p(x)</font> where p(x) is the probability distribution of the random variable X.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Model|984143087
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Model''' is a word with applications throughout ScienCe with variations according to the subject matter under discussion. In general, it indicates an ''object'' which we study, not for its intrinsic interest, but because it is a formalized or simplified representation of a class of phenomena which can be studied easily. 
> 
> [[Statistics]]
> :[[Statistical Model]]
------
Blues|984143172
17c17
< In the 1960s and 70s artists such as [[Eric Clapton]], [[Janis Joplin]] and [[]] influenced by both early and electric blues musicians brought the blues to a new, younger audience.
---
> In the 1960s and 70s artists such as [[Eric Clapton]], [[Janis Joplin]] and [[Jimi Hendrix]] influenced by both early and electric blues musicians brought the blues to a new, younger audience.
------
Gambling|984143280
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Games of Chance]]
------
Stendhal|984143611
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm Red and Black] among many other works.
------
Stendhal|984143653
1c1
< Author of [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm Red and Black] among many other works.
---
> Author of [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm Le Rouge et le Noir] among other works.
------
COBOL|984144548
15,16c15
< Source: J.E. Sammet. "The Early History of Cobol," <i> History of Programming Languages.</i>
< Edited by R.L. Wexelblat. ACM Monograph Series: New York, 1981.----
---
> Source: J.E. Sammet. "The Early History of Cobol." IN <i> History of Programming Languages,</i> edited by R.L. Wexelblat. New York: ACM Monograph Series,1981.----
------
COBOL|984144589
15c15
< Source: J.E. Sammet. "The Early History of Cobol." IN <i> History of Programming Languages,</i> edited by R.L. Wexelblat. New York: ACM Monograph Series,1981.----
---
> Source: J.E. Sammet. "The Early History of Cobol." In <i> History of Programming Languages,</i> edited by R.L. Wexelblat. New York: ACM Monograph Series,1981.----
------
Newtons_Laws_of_Gravity|984150450
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> aka Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
> 
> "The gravitational attraction (a [[force]]) exerted by two bodies is on one another is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of gravity.  The force is directed along the line joining the centres of gravity."
> 
> i.e. if the bodies have masses m<sub>1</sub> and m<sub>2</sub>, and are a distance r apart
> ::Force = G m<sub>1</sub> m<sub>2</sub> / r<sup>2</sup>
> 
> If the units are [[SI|SI units]], G = 6.673 * 10<sup>-11</sup> N m<sup>2</sup>kg<sup>-2</sup>
------
COBOL|984150480
19c19
< For other vintage programming languages see [[Basic]], [[Fortran]], [[PL1]], [[Algol]].
---
> For other vintage programming languages see [[BASIC]], [[Fortran]], [[PL1]], [[Algol]].
------
Newtons_Laws_of_Gravity|984150763
1,8c1
< aka Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.
< 
< "The gravitational attraction (a [[force]]) exerted by two bodies is on one another is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres of gravity.  The force is directed along the line joining the centres of gravity."
< 
< i.e. if the bodies have masses m<sub>1</sub> and m<sub>2</sub>, and are a distance r apart
< ::Force = G m<sub>1</sub> m<sub>2</sub> / r<sup>2</sup>
< 
< If the units are [[SI|SI units]], G = 6.673 * 10<sup>-11</sup> N m<sup>2</sup>kg<sup>-2</sup>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Gravity]]
------
Gravity|984150823
8c8
< Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen decimals places.
---
> Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen significant figures.
------
SubSet|984151003
1c1
< ''Definition'': Given a SeT <b>S</b>, a SeT <b>T</b> is a SubSet of <b>S</b> if, for all x belonging to <b>T</b>, x belongs to <b>S</b>.
---
> ''Definition'': Given a [[Set]] <b>S</b>, a [[Set]] <b>T</b> is a SubSet of <b>S</b> if, for all x belonging to <b>T</b>, x belongs to <b>S</b>.
6c6
< Example: Given the SeT of Complex Numbers: '''C''' = {a+bi: a, b belong to '''R''', the real numbers}, then '''R''' = {x: x is a real number} is a SubSet of '''C'''.
---
> Example: Given the [[Set]] of Complex Numbers: '''C''' = {a+bi: a, b belong to '''R''', the real numbers}, then '''R''' = {x: x is a real number} is a SubSet of '''C'''.
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|984151251
9a10,14
> 
> Q2: If this system is on a UNIX box, is it possible to 
> shell out and do a 'spell' as an option from the page?
> I concur, it should be required to spell occurrence in a unique
> way each time it is used :) .
------
Naming_conventions|984151568
70c70
< Supporters of option 1:
---
> Supporters of option 1: me:)
------
COBOL|984151858
19c19,24
< For other vintage programming languages see [[BASIC]], [[Fortran]], [[PL1]], [[Algol]].
---
> For other vintage programming languages see 
> * [[Algol]].
> * [[APL]]
> * [[BASIC]]
> * [[Fortran]]
> * [[PL1]]
------
Combinatorics|984152270
5c5
< That large number, 52 factorial, is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
---
> That large number, 52 [[factorial]], is the product of all the natural numbers from one to fifty-two, the number of different orders the deck can have after shuffling. Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. Some very subtle patterns can be developed and some surprising theorems proved.
------
Factorial|984152545
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The factorial of a positive integer, n, is the product of the positive integer less than or equal to n.  It is denoted "n!".  e.g. 
> : 5! = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120
> : 10! = 10 * 9 * 8 * 7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 *1 = 3628800
> 
> It is possible to define factorial for numbers other than positive integers, but to do so requires the use of the [[gamma function]].
------
Chess|984152625
25a26,28
> Theoretically, at some point in the future, a computer will be able to play all possible chess games and determine the optimal move for any given board position.  For example, the fastest chess programs can 'look ahead' and completely finish the last 15 moves in a game.  This is possible because there is a finite number of ways the chess pieces can be arranged on the chessboard.
> 
> 
------
Factorial|984153277
1c1
< The factorial of a positive integer, n, is the product of the positive integer less than or equal to n.  It is denoted "n!".  e.g. 
---
> The factorial of a positive integer, n, denoted "n!", is the product of the positive integers less than or equal to n.  e.g. 
5c5
< It is possible to define factorial for numbers other than positive integers, but to do so requires the use of the [[gamma function]].
---
> It is possible to define factorial for numbers other than positive integers, but to do so requires the use of the [[gamma function]].
------
Astronomy|984153511
15c15
< earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his LawOfGravity, the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
---
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
------
LawsOfKepler|984153596
1c1
< The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his laws of motion and gravity.
---
> The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
------
Games/Computer|984153619
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
> 
> Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
> 
> * [[Turn based game]]
> * [[Continuous game]]
> 
> * [[Two dimensional]] - 2d
> ** Fixed screen
> ** Scrolling screen
> *** Horizontal scrolling
> **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
> *** Vertical scrolling
> * [[Three dimensional]]
> 
> * [[First person]]
> * [[Third person]]
> 
> <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
------
Games/Computer|984153733
8c8
< * [[Two dimensional]] - 2d
---
> * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
14c14
< * [[Three dimensional]]
---
> * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
16a17
> ** [[First person shooter]]
------
2d|984153832
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> short for [[Two dimensional]]
------
3d|984153853
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> short for [[Three dimensional]]
------
Music|984154153
7c7,10
< ** TheRecorder -- Flute -- Pipe Organ -- Saxaphone -- Jug
---
> ** Flute
> ** Jug
> ** TheRecorder
> ** Saxaphone
21a25
> *** Guitar/Steel
28a33
> ** Pipe Organ
32c37,38
< ** Kettle Drum
---
> ** Drum
> *** Kettle Drum
46a53,54
> 
> NOTE: I've left the individual instruments as plain text and not links because the naming scheme may need to be changed.
------
Popular_Music|984154217
25a26
> * [[Bluegrass]]
------
Bluegrass|984154331
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Music [[genre]] that was the main precursor to country music.
> 
> Notable artists:
> * [[Flat and Scruggs]]
> * [[Bill Monroe]]
------
Music|984154345
43a44
> ** Theremin
54c55
< NOTE: I've left the individual instruments as plain text and not links because the naming scheme may need to be changed.
---
> NOTE: I've left the individual instruments as plain text and not links because the naming scheme may need to be changed.
------
Popular_Music|984154386
21a22,23
> *[[Disco music]]
> *[[Electronic music]]
------
MetallicA|984154507
10c10
< * [[Kirk Hammet], guitar
---
> * [[Kirk Hammet]], guitar
12a13,15
> 
> [[Jason Newsted]] replaced [[Cliff Burton]] after his death in the 1980's. 
> 
------
Popular_Music|984154517
13a14
> *[[Catatonia]]
------
Games/Letter|984155931
2,3c2,3
< * CrossWords
< * Scrabble
---
> * [[Crosswords]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
5c5
< 
---
> * [[Hangman]]
------
Games/Cards|984155987
18c18
< 
---
> * [[Blackjack]]
------
Jim_Morrison|984156903
7c7
< of alcohol on a daily basis.
---
> of alcohol on a daily basis and his hedonistic lifestyle has influenced many others.  His shamanistic live performances have influenced others, including [[Patti Smith]].
------
Numerology|984157288
1,57c1,22
< Numerology is the study of numbers! The name, birthdate and birthtime are 
< used to analyse and define the psychology of an individual, by allocating 
< specific  numbers to the letters of the alphabet. It’s basis - that 
< everything has a vibration, even if we can’t see it - like a soprano hitting 
< a high note which  shatters a glass  or the dog whistle  - which only the 
< dog can hear.
< 
< Scientists believe there is no evidence to substantiate the  authenticity of 
< Numerology and call it a pseudo (false science.
< 
< Historians  believe that modern numerology is an integration of the 
< teachings from Ancient Babylonia, Pythagoras and his followers, (6 th. 
< Century B.C. Greece) Astrological philosophy from Hellenistic Alexandria, 
< early Christian mysticism, the occultism of the early Gnostics and the 
< Hebrew system of the Kabala. The Indian Vedas, the Chinese "Circle of the 
< Dead",and the Egyptian "Book of the Master of the Secret House", (Ritual of 
< the Dead) are records that prove that Numerology dates back thousands of 
< years  Pythagoras the father of numbers was born on the Island of Samos.At 
< a very early age he travelled to Mesoptamia and Egypt where he acquired the 
< basis of his knowledge.Political unrest necessitated the move to Crotona, in 
< Southern Italy where he founded his second University. The doctrines of this 
< cultural center, were bound by very strict rules of conduct. His school was 
< open to men, as well as women students and excluded any discriminatory 
< conduct. His students included all races and colour no matter what religion 
< or financial circumstance.
< 
< History has documented that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, 
< has definitely had a profound effect on philosophy throughout the ages - 
< even to this present day, and was based on mathematics, music and astronomy. 
< He believed that mathematics could exist without music and astronomy but 
< nothing could exist without numbers. His teachings encompassed, not only the 
< investigation into the self, but into the whole Universe. Pythagorus became 
< the founder of modern mathematics, musical theory, philosophy and the 
< science of health.(hygiene)
< 
< Pythagorus and other philosophers of the time, believed that because 
< mathematical concepts are more practical than physical ones they have 
< greater actuality. An idea in harmony with  philosophical pragmatism and a 
< choice for permanent concepts over changeable physicality.
< 
< St. Augustine in A.D. 35 - ? wrote " Numbers are the Universal 
< language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth." 
< Similar to Pythagorus, he too believed that everything , has numerical 
< relationships and it is up to the mind to seek and investigate their secrets 
< or have them revealed by divine grace
< 
< In 325 A.D. every departure from the beliefs of the state Church was classed 
< as a state violation. Therefore through this religious purging , the 
< spiritual  significance of the sacred numbers began to disappear. In spite 
< of this suppression there were still  many devout believers, who kept the 
< sacred knowledge locked away.
< 
< Through empirical observation  and investigation, Numerologists, agree that 
< through the study of numbers, we can uncover hidden aspects of ourselves and 
< the universe. Only recently it was documented that many  Psychologists and 
< Psychiatrists were looking into the study of  numerology and astrology to 
< help them to uncover specific psychological problems.
---
> Numerology is the study of numbers.  In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
> 
> The basis of the belief that dates and times have numerologic significance appears to be that underlying vibrations of the universe as a whole occur in regular cycles and that things created or changed at one or another point in these cycles will express the properties which the vibrations at that point in the cycle create.  It is less clear how names, words and appelations would follow such a rule.  One theory put forward by some numerologists is that persons who name things are subtly affected by universal vibrations to assign appropriate names which harmonize with the vibrations of the thing named.
> 
> Another question which has been asked relative to the numerological significance of words is how, if letters can be assigned numbers, things can have a uniform numerological identity when they are named differently in different languages and with different alphabets.  For example, the numerologic value for "shirt" in english would be 8.  The same item in Spanish would be "camisa," a 6 in numerology.  A clear and uniform explanation of such inconsistency has not been offered.
> 
> To date, there is no known scientific verfication for the validity of claimed numerological principals.  Numerology has thus been classified among pseudo-(false) sciences.
> 
> Historians believe that modern numerology is an integration of the teachings from Ancient Babylonia, Pythagoras and his followers, (6 th. Century B.C. Greece) Astrological philosophy from Hellenistic Alexandria, early Christian mysticism, the occultism of the early Gnostics and the Hebrew system of the Qabala. The Indian Vedas, the Chinese "Circle of the Dead",and the Egyptian "Book of the Master of the Secret House", (Ritual of the Dead) are records giving strong evidence that Numerology dates back thousands of years.  
> 
> Pythagoras, "the father of numbers," was born on the Island of Samos off the Greek coast.  At a very early age he travelled to Mesopotamia and Egypt where he undertook his basic studies.  Political unrest necessitated a move to Crotona, in Southern Italy where he founded his second University. The doctrines of this cultural center were bound by very strict rules of conduct.  His school was open to men, and women students alike, and discriminatory conduct was forbidden.  His students included those of all races, colours, religions, and financial or social standing.
> 
> History has documented that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, based in matematics, music and astronomy, have had a profound effect on philosophy throughout the ages - even to the present day.  Pythagoras believed that mathematics could exist without music or astronomy but mathematice principals were universal and implicit in all things; thus
> nothing could exist without numbers.  His teachings encompassed not only the investigation into the self but into the whole of the known Universe of his time. Pythagoras is widely regarded as the founder of modern mathematics, musical theory, philosophy and the science of health(hygiene).
> 
> Pythagoras and other philosophers of the time believed that because mathematical concepts were more "practical" (easier to regulate and classify) than physical ones, they had greater actuality. This is an idea in harmony with philosophical pragmatism and a choice for permanent concepts over changeable physicality.
> 
> St. Augustine in A.D. 35 - ? wrote " Numbers are the Universal language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth."  Similar to Pythagoras, he too believed that everything had numerical relationships and it was up to the mind to seek and investigate the secrets of these relationships or have them revealed by divine grace.
> 
> In 325 A.D., following the Nicene Conference, departures from the beliefs of the state Church were classified as civil violations within the Roman Empire. Numerology had not found favor with the Christian authority of the day.  It was assigned to the field of unapproved beliefs along with astrology and other forms of divination and "magic."  Through this religious purging, the spiritual significance assigned to the heretofore "sacred" numbers began to disappear. In spite of this suppression there were still many devout believers, who kept the secret knowledge locked away.
> 
> A claim of numerology is that its praticioners, through empirical observation and investigation, have concluded that through the study of numbers man can uncover hidden aspects of himself and the universe.  Recent documentation ''(support with appropriate reference to source or delete this sentence)''  indicates that some psychologists and psychiatrists were looking into the study of numerology and astrology to determine whether there was any numerological connection to specific psychological problems.
59c24
< The above is an early draft of an article that is being considered for Nupedia.  I have the author's permission to post it on Wikipedia.  I have an unusual request: will you edit this article, as if you had to take responsibility for it (though granted you might not want to), so that it is fact-stating?  Then I'll present the results to the author and read them myself and see if we can proceed! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> The above is an early draft of an article that is being considered for Nupedia.  I have the author's permission to post it on Wikipedia.  I have an unusual request: will you edit this article, as if you had to take responsibility for it (though granted you might not want to), so that it is fact-stating?  Then I'll present the results to the author and read them myself and see if we can proceed! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Numerology|984157528
11c11
< Pythagoras, "the father of numbers," was born on the Island of Samos off the Greek coast.  At a very early age he travelled to Mesopotamia and Egypt where he undertook his basic studies.  Political unrest necessitated a move to Crotona, in Southern Italy where he founded his second University. The doctrines of this cultural center were bound by very strict rules of conduct.  His school was open to men, and women students alike, and discriminatory conduct was forbidden.  His students included those of all races, colours, religions, and financial or social standing.
---
> Pythagoras, "the father of numbers," was born on the Island of Samos off the Greek coast.  At a very early age he travelled to Mesopotamia and Egypt where he undertook his basic studies and eventually founded his first school.  Political unrest subsequently necessitated a move to Crotona in Southern Italy where he founded his second University. The doctrines of this cultural center were bound by very strict rules of conduct.  His school was open to men and women students alike, and discriminatory conduct was forbidden.  His students included those of all races, colours, religions, and financial or social standing.
------
Patti_Smith|984158188
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American musician, singer and poet.
> 
> Having spent the early seventies writing and performing poetry, subsidised by rock journalism, 1975 saw the release of Smith's first album "[[/Horses]]", produced by [[John Cale]], formerly of the [[Velvet Underground]].  The record fused [[rock and roll], early proto-[[punk rock]] with spoken poetry and is widely considered one the rock's greatest debuts.  As Smith toured the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], with the newly christened Patti Smith Group, punk's popularity grew and the second album [[Radio Ethiopia]] reflected this with a rawer sound.
> 
> The group produced two further albums followed before the end of the 70s, and while neither could match the first two records, [[/Easter]] contained the hit single [[/Because The Night]] which had been co-written with [[Bruce Springsteen]].
> 
> In the 1980s she appeared to be in semi-retirement from music, recording only the album "Dream Of Life" in 1988, with her husband Fred "Sonic" Smith.  Following Fred's death, 1995's [[/Gone Again]] featured tributes to him and [[KurtCobain|Kurt Cobain]].
> 
> Discography:
> * [[/Horses]]
> * [[/Radio Ethiopia]]
> * [[/Easter]]
> * [[/Wave]]
> * [[/Dream Of Life]]
> * [[/Gone Again]]
> * [[/Peace and Noise]]
------
Patti_Smith|984158232
3c3
< Having spent the early seventies writing and performing poetry, subsidised by rock journalism, 1975 saw the release of Smith's first album "[[/Horses]]", produced by [[John Cale]], formerly of the [[Velvet Underground]].  The record fused [[rock and roll], early proto-[[punk rock]] with spoken poetry and is widely considered one the rock's greatest debuts.  As Smith toured the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], with the newly christened Patti Smith Group, punk's popularity grew and the second album [[Radio Ethiopia]] reflected this with a rawer sound.
---
> Having spent the early seventies writing and performing poetry, subsidised by rock journalism, 1975 saw the release of Smith's first album "[[/Horses]]", produced by [[John Cale]], formerly of the [[Velvet Underground]].  The record fused [[rock and roll]], early proto-[[punk rock]] with spoken poetry and is widely considered one the rock's greatest debuts.  As Smith toured the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], with the newly christened Patti Smith Group, punk's popularity grew and the second album [[Radio Ethiopia]] reflected this with a rawer sound.
------
Patti_Smith/Horses|984158537
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Debut album by Patti Smith.  The standout track is "Land" a radical reworking of [[Cannibal and the Headhunters]]' "Land of a Thousand Dances".  "Gloria" is a similar reinterpretation of the old [[Van Morrison]] classic.
> 
> Track List
> *Gloria
> *Redondo Beach
> *Birdland
> *Free Money
> *Kimberly
> *Break It Up
> *Land
> *Elegie
> 
> ----
> [[Gareth Owen]] would like it noted that he considers this to be the finest record ever made.
------
Numerology|984159170
1c1
< Numerology is the study of numbers.  In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
---
> Numerology is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
24a25,26
> ----
> Done
------
Velvet_Underground|984160211
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s.  Original members were:
> * [[Lou Reed]] ([[guitar]]/vocals)
> * [[John Cale]] ([[bass guitar]], [[viola]], [[keyboard]])
> * Sterling Morrison ([[guitar]])
> * Maureen "Mo" Tucker (drums/percussion)
> 
> Although never commercially successful, the Velvet Underground remain one the most influential bands of their time.  Whilst the West coast was undergoing the [[Summer of Love]], [[psychedelia]] and [[flower power]] the typically East coast Velvets concerned themselves with darker subject matter: transvestites, [[heroin]] addiction and [[sado-masochism]].  Also setting them apart from their contemporaries was their use of feedback and amplifier noise in a musical context, exemplified by the 17 minute "Sister Ray".
> 
> At first the band were managed by artist [[Andy Warhol]], at whose instigation they featured German chanteuse [[Nico]] on their debut album, which featured a mixture of obsessive love songs and tails of excess.  Nico had been jettisoned by the second album, which included the darkly comic "The Gift", narrated in Cale's deadpan [[Wales|Welsh]] accent.
> 
> Before the release of their third album Reed fired the classically trained Cale, who was replaced by [[/Doug Yule]].  This, and the theft of the band's equipment, resulted in a more orthodox sound for the record which showcased the songwriting styles that would inform Reed's later solo career.  After the equally accessible [[/Loaded]], the band split, with Yule recording one final album.
> 
> There was a brief reunion of the original lineup in 1993. Sterling Morrison died of [[cancer]] in 1995.
> 
> Discography:
> * [[/The Velvet Underground and Nico]]
> * [[/White Light White Heat]]
> * [[/The Velvet Underground]]
> * [[/Loaded]]
> * [[/Squeeze]] (with none of the original members)
> 
> Later releases of archive material:
> * [[/Live 1969]]
> * [[/Live at Maxs Kansas City]]
> * [[/VU]]
> * [[/Another View]]
------
Popular_Music|984160401
3a4
> *[[The Beatles]]
4a6,7
> *[[The Doors]]
> *[[Bob Dylan]]
7,9c10
< *[[Bob Dylan]]
< *[[The Beatles]]
< *[[The Doors]]
---
> *[[Velvet Underground]]
------
Popular_Music|984160449
10c10
< *[[Velvet Underground]]
---
> *[[Velvet Underground|The Velvet Underground]]
------
RequestedArticles|984160503
19c19
< <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]]
------
Velvet_Underground|984160901
9c9
< At first the band were managed by artist [[Andy Warhol]], at whose instigation they featured German chanteuse [[Nico]] on their debut album, which featured a mixture of obsessive love songs and tails of excess.  Nico had been jettisoned by the second album, which included the darkly comic "The Gift", narrated in Cale's deadpan [[Wales|Welsh]] accent.
---
> At first the band were managed by artist [[Andy Warhol]], at whose instigation they featured German chanteuse [[Nico]] on their debut album, which featured a mixture of obsessive love songs and tales of excess.  Nico had been jettisoned by the second album, which included the darkly comic "The Gift", narrated in Cale's deadpan [[Wales|Welsh]] accent.
------
Numerology|984161251
7c7
< To date, there is no known scientific verfication for the validity of claimed numerological principals.  Numerology has thus been classified among pseudo-(false) sciences.
---
> To date, there is no known scientific verification for the validity of claimed numerological principles.  Numerology has thus been classified among pseudo-(false) sciences.
13,14c13
< History has documented that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, based in matematics, music and astronomy, have had a profound effect on philosophy throughout the ages - even to the present day.  Pythagoras believed that mathematics could exist without music or astronomy but mathematice principals were universal and implicit in all things; thus
< nothing could exist without numbers.  His teachings encompassed not only the investigation into the self but into the whole of the known Universe of his time. Pythagoras is widely regarded as the founder of modern mathematics, musical theory, philosophy and the science of health(hygiene).
---
> History has documented that the doctrines of the Pythagorean school, based in mathematics, music and astronomy, have had a profound effect on philosophy throughout the ages - even to the present day.  Pythagoras believed that mathematics could exist without music or astronomy but mathematical principals were universal and implicit in all things; thus nothing could exist without numbers.  His teachings encompassed not only the investigation into the self but into the whole of the known Universe of his time. Pythagoras is widely regarded as the founder of modern mathematics, musical theory, philosophy and the science of health(hygiene).
18c17
< St. Augustine in A.D. 35 - ? wrote " Numbers are the Universal language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth."  Similar to Pythagoras, he too believed that everything had numerical relationships and it was up to the mind to seek and investigate the secrets of these relationships or have them revealed by divine grace.
---
> St. Augustine in A.D. 354 - 430 wrote " Numbers are the Universal language offered by the deity to humans as confirmation of the truth."  Similar to Pythagoras, he too believed that everything had numerical relationships and it was up to the mind to seek and investigate the secrets of these relationships or have them revealed by divine grace.
------
Games/Cards|984161258
19a20,25
> Trick based card games
> * Bridge
> **[[Contract Bridge]]
> **[[Duplicate Bridge]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Spades]]
------
RequestedArticles|984161354
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b>[[model]] -- [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] 
17c17
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[Stendhal]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]]
------
Mathematics/Schemes|984161480
10c10
< :Analysis (+ [[Calculus]]) -- Optimization --  NonStandardAnalysis -- Geometry -- Geodesics -- [[Statistics]]
---
> :Analysis (+ [[Calculus]]) -- Optimization --  NonStandardAnalysis -- Geometry -- Geodesics -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Complex numbers]]
------
Popular_Music|984161642
1c1
< Generic term for the forms of music growing out of the [[rock and roll]] of the 1950s.
---
> Generic term for the forms of music growing out of the [[rock and roll]] of the [[1950s]].
3c3
< Important early influences include:
---
> Important early influential performers/bands include:
8c8
< *[[Little Richard]]
---
> *[[Carl Perkins]]
9a10
> *[[Little Richard]]
13,14d13
< *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
< *MetallicA
15a15,17
> *[[Metallica]]
> *[[Minor Threat]]
> *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
17a20,22
> *[[Disco music]]
> *[[Electronic music]]
> *[[Funk music]]
19d23
< *[[Rock music]]
21c25,28
< *[[Psychedelia]]
---
> ** [[Speed metal music]]
> ** [[Death metal music]]
> *[[Rock music]]
> *[[Psychedelic music]]
23,25d29
< *[[Funk music]]
< *[[Disco music]]
< *[[Electronic music]]
27a32
> * [[Bluegrass]]
30c35
< * [[Bluegrass]]
---
> * [[Rap music]]
------
Popular_Music|984162131
1c1
< Generic term for the forms of music growing out of the [[rock and roll]] of the [[1950s]].
---
> Popular music is music intended for a broad audience, especially an audience that has no formal training in or understanding of musical theory.
------
Minor_Threat|984162153
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the bands that founded the modern [[hardcore punk]] music genre.  
> 
> Minor Threat set the standard for most, if not all, hardcore punk bands and even grunge bands in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
> 
> They managed to produce short songs with excellent production quality (lacking in most punk/alternative music).
> 
> Many of their songs advanced the [[straight edge]] lifestyle.
> (did they start this lifestyle?)
> 
> Formed in [[Washington DC]] in 1980?.
> 
> Albums/EPs:
> 
> * Minor Threat
> * Out of Step
> * Salad Days (EP)
> 
> Of note: All of their music has be released on cd as
> * Complete Discography
------
Popular_Music|984162234
27,31c27,29
< *[[Rock music]]
< *[[Psychedelic music]]
< *[[Soul music]]
< 
< See also:
---
> * [[Rock music]]
> * [[Psychedelic music]]
> * [[Soul music]]
35a34,35
> * [[Country music]]
> * [[Folk music]]
------
Straight_edge|984162280
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lifestyle where one does not:
> 
> * Drink alcohol
> * Have sex
> * Smoke
> * Use drugs
> 
> Originally coined 'straight edge' by [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
------
Straight_edge|984162293
8c8
< Originally coined 'straight edge' by [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
---
> Originally coined 'straight edge' by ?? [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
------
Popular_Music|984162376
19a20
> * [[Rock and roll]]
21d21
< *[[Electronic music]]
27d26
< * [[Rock music]]
28a28,29
> 
> * [[Electronic music]]
------
Popular_Music|984162440
26a27
> ** [[Thrash metal music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984162519
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of popular music that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
> 
> Important early influential performers/bands include:
> *[[The Beatles]]
> *[[Chuck Berry]]
> *[[The Doors]]
> *[[Bob Dylan]]
> *[[Carl Perkins]]
> *[[Elvis Presley]]
> *[[Little Richard]]
> *[[Velvet Underground|The Velvet Underground]]
> 
> Other individual artists who have or deserve entries:
> *[[Catatonia]]
> *[[Metallica]]
> *[[Minor Threat]]
> *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
> 
> Subcategories with or deserving of entries:
> *[[Disco music]]
> *[[Funk music]]
> *[[Grunge Music]]
> *[[Heavy metal music]]
> ** [[Speed metal music]]
> ** [[Death metal music]]
> * [[Psychedelic music]]
------
Popular_Music|984162532
20c20,22
< * [[Rock and roll]]
---
> *[[Bluegrass]]
> *[[Blues]]
> *[[Country music]]
21a24,25
> *[[Electronic music]]
> *[[Folk music]]
25,37c29,37
< ** [[Speed metal music]]
< ** [[Death metal music]]
< ** [[Thrash metal music]]
< * [[Psychedelic music]]
< 
< * [[Electronic music]]
< * [[Soul music]]
< * [[Bluegrass]]
< * [[Blues]]
< * [[Jazz]]
< * [[Rap music]]
< * [[Country music]]
< * [[Folk music]]
---
> **[[Death metal music]]
> **[[Speed metal music]]
> **[[Thrash metal music]]
> *[[Jazz]]
> *[[Rap music]]
> *[[Rock music]]
> *[[Rythm and Blues music]]
> *[[Psychedelic music]]
> *[[Soul music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984162549
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of popular music that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
Rock_and_roll|984162562
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
Rock_and_roll|984162574
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
Popular_Music|984162642
3,18d2
< Important early influential performers/bands include:
< *[[The Beatles]]
< *[[Chuck Berry]]
< *[[The Doors]]
< *[[Bob Dylan]]
< *[[Carl Perkins]]
< *[[Elvis Presley]]
< *[[Little Richard]]
< *[[Velvet Underground|The Velvet Underground]]
< 
< Other individual artists who have or deserve entries:
< *[[Catatonia]]
< *[[Metallica]]
< *[[Minor Threat]]
< *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
< 
34c18
< *[[Rock music]]
---
> *[[Rock and roll]]
------
Popular_Music|984162759
7d6
< *[[Disco music]]
10,15d8
< *[[Funk music]]
< *[[Grunge Music]]
< *[[Heavy metal music]]
< **[[Death metal music]]
< **[[Speed metal music]]
< **[[Thrash metal music]]
19,20c12
< *[[Rythm and Blues music]]
< *[[Psychedelic music]]
---
> *[[Rythym and Blues music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984162814
20c20
< *[[Disco music]]
---
> *[[Disco]]
24,26c24,27
< ** [[Speed metal music]]
< ** [[Death metal music]]
< * [[Psychedelic music]]
---
> ** [[Speed metal]]
> ** [[Death metal]]
> * [[Psychedelic music]]
> * [[Punk Rock]]
------
Bluegrass|984162853
4c4
< * [[Flat and Scruggs]]
---
> * [[Flatt and Scruggs]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984162895
15c15
< *[[Metallica]]
---
> *[[MetallicA]]
------
Flatt_and_Scruggs|984162916
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Lester Flatt]] and [[Earl Scruggs]] were influential bluegrass musicans during the 1950s and 1960s.
> 
> Notable songs:
> * [[Foggy Mountain Breakdown]] - used in many rural car chase movie sequences
> 
> They did the theme song for and appeared on the [[Beverly Hillbillies]] television show as well as the Martha White commercial song.
------
Popular_Music|984162960
9c9
< *[[Jazz]]
---
> *[[Jazz music]]
------
Popular_Music|984163106
12c12
< *[[Rythym and Blues music]]
---
> *[[Rhythm and Blues music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984163162
20c20
< *[[Disco]]
---
> *[[Disco music]]
24,25c24,25
< ** [[Speed metal]]
< ** [[Death metal]]
---
> ** [[Speed metal music]]
> ** [[Death metal music]]
27c27
< * [[Punk Rock]]
---
> * [[Punk Rock music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984163203
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] jazz and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[jazz music]] and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
Real_numbers|984163296
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Real number axioms:</b>
> :Let R denote the set of real numbers, and w,x,y,z be elements of R. Then:
> * The set R is a [[Field]]
> * The field R is ordered i.e.
> ** if x >= y  then x + z >= y + z
> ** if x >= 0 and y >= 0 then x * y >= 0
> * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S.
> 
> ----
> Which is all very well, but what are they :)
------
CountriesD|984163345
1,6c1,5
< * [[Dahomey]]
< 
< * [[Denmark]]
< 
< * [[Djibouti]]
< 
---
> *[[Dahomey]]
> *[[Denmark]]
> *[[Djibouti]]
> *[[Dominica ]]
> *[[Dominican Republic]]
------
CountriesB|984163695
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6d3
< 
8d4
< 
10c6,7
< 
---
> * [[Benin]]
> * [[Bhutan]]
12d8
< 
14c10,11
< 
---
> * [[Bosnia]]
> * [[Botswana]]
16d12
< 
18c14
< 
---
> * [[Brunei]]
19a16,18
> * [[Bulshire]] - kingdom within [[India]]
> * [[Burkina Faso]] - formerly Upper Volta
> * [[Burundi]]
21,23d19
< * [[Bulshire]]
< 
< * [[Burkina Faso]] - formerly Upper Volta
------
CountriesT|984163792
2d1
< 
4c3
< 
---
> * [[Texas]]
6d4
< 
8d5
< 
10d6
< 
12d7
< 
------
Texas|984163847
0a1,2
> Texas is a state in the [[United States]] located in [[North America]].
> 
------
Straight_edge|984163888
1c1
< A lifestyle where one does not:
---
> A lifestyle where, intentionally, and in the face of actual opportunities, one does not:
8c8
< Originally coined 'straight edge' by ?? [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
---
> Originally coined 'straight edge' by ?? [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
------
North_America|984163967
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Continent]] consisting of the countries of:
> 
> *[[Belize]]
> *[[Canada]]
> *[[Mexico]]
> *[[Nicaragua]]
> *[[Panama]]
> *[[Texas]]
> *[[United States]]
------
North_America|984163988
1c1
< [[Continent]] consisting of the countries of:
---
> [[Continents]] consisting of the countries of:
------
Panama|984164191
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Southernmost country in the continent of [[North America]].
> 
> Former territory of [[Colombia]] that gained independence in 191? with the help of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s [[gunboat diplomocy]] and the [[United States]] military.
> 
> Things / Places:
> * [[Panama Canal]]
> * [[Panama Canal Zone|Canal Zone]]
------
Naming_conventions|984164335
20a21
> # ''Maximum simplicity.''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word country has other referents besides the musical genre.
------
Straight_edge|984164368
5c5
< * Smoke
---
> * Smoke tobacco
8c8,10
< Originally coined 'straight edge' by ?? [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
---
> Originally coined 'straight edge' by ?? [[Minor Threat]] in 1980?.
> 
> A straight edge is not associated with any particular religion and does not claim any basis in religion.
------
Numerology|984164399
25a26,27
> ----
> This is a vast improvement--thanks!  I think it could use another going-over or two, though.  For example, the first sentence is still not right, I think--far too broad (it seems to me).  Elaboration of accusations of pseudo-science, and the reaction to those accusations on the part of the pseudo-scientist, would be grand. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Popular_Music|984164424
9c9
< *[[Jazz music]]
---
> *[[Jazz]]
12c12
< *[[Rhythm and Blues music]]
---
> *[[Rhythm and Blues]]
13a14,16
> 
> ----
> See rule of Maximum Simplicity on the [[Naming conventions]] page before changing links.
------
Rock_and_roll|984164494
20c20
< *[[Disco music]]
---
> *[[Disco]]
24,25c24,25
< ** [[Speed metal music]]
< ** [[Death metal music]]
---
> ** [[Speed metal]]
> ** [[Death metal]]
27c27,31
< * [[Punk Rock music]]
---
> * [[Punk Rock]]
> 
> ----
> 
> See rule of Maximum Simplicity on the [[Naming conventions]] page before changing links.
------
Straight_edge|984164506
10c10,16
< A straight edge is not associated with any particular religion and does not claim any basis in religion.
---
> A straight edge lifestyle is not:
> * associated with any particular religion 
> * does not claim any basis in religion
> * is not a philosophy
> 
> It is something one does without worrying about philosophizing
> it.
------
Naming_conventions|984164563
21,24c21,24
< # ''Maximum simplicity.''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word country has other referents besides the musical genre.
< # ''More precise titles.''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.
< # ''Central links pages.''  One general solution to the problem of ambiguous names would be to have the central page, for example [[pipe]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for: [[smoking pipes]], [[plumbing pipes]], [[bagpipes]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.  Of course, this isn't always the most appropriate solution; often, a word or phrase does have one ''central'' meaning, in which case the article should concern that meaning and then link to other, secondary meanings either on more precisely-named pages (see above) or on subpages (see below).
< # ''Central pages with subpages.''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  Another point to consider is simply the length of the entries.  One could, for example, give an entire classification of a species in the title of the article about the species, from Kingdom to Species, making sub- and sub-sub- and etc. pages for each level in the hierarchy.  This would, however, make it particularly cumbersome to refer to species individually.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
---
> # ''<b>Maximum simplicity.</b>''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word country has other referents besides the musical genre.
> # ''<b>More precise titles.</b>''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.
> # ''<b>Central links pages.</b>''  One general solution to the problem of ambiguous names would be to have the central page, for example [[pipe]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for: [[smoking pipes]], [[plumbing pipes]], [[bagpipes]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.  Of course, this isn't always the most appropriate solution; often, a word or phrase does have one ''central'' meaning, in which case the article should concern that meaning and then link to other, secondary meanings either on more precisely-named pages (see above) or on subpages (see below).
> # ''<b>Central pages with subpages.</b>''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  Another point to consider is simply the length of the entries.  One could, for example, give an entire classification of a species in the title of the article about the species, from Kingdom to Species, making sub- and sub-sub- and etc. pages for each level in the hierarchy.  This would, however, make it particularly cumbersome to refer to species individually.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
------
Naming_conventions|984164610
21c21
< # ''<b>Maximum simplicity.</b>''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word country has other referents besides the musical genre.
---
> # ''<b>Maximum simplicity.</b>''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word 'country' has other referents besides the musical genre.
------
Straight_edge|984164673
15,16c15,17
< It is something one does without worrying about philosophizing
< it.
---
> It is something one does without worrying about philosophizing it.
> ----
> Straight edge is a genre of music advocating a straight edge lifestyle.
------
Popular_Music|984164681
12c12
< *[[Rhythm and Blues]]
---
> *[[Rhythm and blues]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984164688
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[jazz music]] and [[rythym and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[jazz music]] and [[rhythm and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
31c31
< See rule of Maximum Simplicity on the [[Naming conventions]] page before changing links.
---
> See rule of Maximum Simplicity on the [[Naming conventions]] page before changing links.
------
North_America|984164717
8d7
< *[[Texas]]
------
CountriesT|984164740
3d2
< * [[Texas]]
------
Panama|984164788
3c3
< Former territory of [[Colombia]] that gained independence in 191? with the help of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s [[gunboat diplomocy]] and the [[United States]] military.
---
> Former territory of [[Colombia]] that gained independence in 191? with the help of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]'s [[gunboat diplomacy]] and the [[United States]] military.
------
Malcolm_Farmer|984164878
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Malcolm!
> 
> Interesting work on the utopia/dystopia/H.G. Wells stuff!
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Gareth_Owen|984165064
16c16,17
< 
---
> ----
> Well, welcome, Gareth.  Plainly you're into music as you say...me too, but my interests there are unfortunately very limited (see [[Irish traditional music]]). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
IrishTraditionalMusic|984165093
1,11c1
< The traditional or folk MuSic of the Irish people as well as of the Irish diaspora, that is, descendants of Irish emigrants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
< 
< While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (FidDle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
< 
< The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); FidDle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
< 
< Irish dance music is typically quite lively and is used indeed for dancing as well as for listening.  This music can be sorted into a wide variety of dance tune types, such as reels, jigs of various kinds, hornpipes, set dances, polkas, slides, highlands (also called "flings" and "schottisches"), barndances, waltzes, and mazurkas.  There are also types of tunes not used for dancing, including marches, harp compositions such as those by blind harper Turlough O'Carolan (1670-1738), and slow airs.  Slow airs are often the instrumental rendition of the melodies, or "airs," of songs, usually sean nós songs (see below).  Most of these types of tunes were borrowed in various centuries past from other traditions.  The differences between them are too subtle to allow easy, brief explanation.
< 
< The Irish song tradition is diverse and rich.  It enjoys a prominent place among the interrelated song traditions of Scotland, England, and North America.  Irish songs, with plaintive or sprightly melodies to suit their themes, cover many subjects: love and betrayal, everyday country life and occupations, and historical or newsworthy events.  The sean nós (Irish for "old style") tradition is the relatively unknown, but beautiful Gaelic language tradition still thriving in the Irish-speaking western counties of Ireland.  Sean nós songs are usually sung with very loose time signatures, although not quite in "free time," that is, with no identifiable time signature at all.  Most sean nós songs do indeed have an identifiable rhythm but are interrupted as a singer takes a breath, usually in an unhurried fashion.  Consequently, slow airs, played in imitation of sean nós songs, are played with very loose time signatures as well.  There are more or less distinct regional styles of sean nós song, just as there are more or less distinct regional styles of Irish dance music.  One style of dance music is the DonegalFiddleTradition.
< 
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Irish traditional music]]
------
Real_numbers|984165146
10c10,26
< Which is all very well, but what are they :)
---
> A <b>real number</b> is one that can be expressed in the form 
> 'DDD.ddd'.  
> * DDD is zero or more decimal digits
> * ddd is zero or more decimal digits
> 
> <b>Special cases:</b>
> * ddd is 0 - the format is 'DDD' and the [[decimal point]] is not included
> 
> <b>Note:</b> There are many [[subset]]s of the real numbers, including:
> * [[Natural numbers]]
> * [[Rational numbers]]
> * [[Whole numbers]]
> * (??? name) - infinitely repeating fractions (include in rational numbers???)
> * (??? name) - infinitely long fractions that do not repeat (e.g., [[PI]])
> 
> See also:
> *[[Countably infinite]]
------
Europe|984165164
53a54,55
> ----
> Whilst the [[United Kingdom]] may sometimes be mistaken for [[Great Britain]] they are not the same.  See [[United Kingdom]]
------
Irish_traditional_music|984165186
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the Irish diaspora, that is, descendants of Irish emigrants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
> 
> While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (FidDle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
> 
> The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); FidDle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
> 
> Irish dance music is typically quite lively and is used indeed for dancing as well as for listening.  This music can be sorted into a wide variety of dance tune types, such as reels, jigs of various kinds, hornpipes, set dances, polkas, slides, highlands (also called "flings" and "schottisches"), barndances, waltzes, and mazurkas.  There are also types of tunes not used for dancing, including marches, harp compositions such as those by blind harper Turlough O'Carolan (1670-1738), and slow airs.  Slow airs are often the instrumental rendition of the melodies, or "airs," of songs, usually sean nós songs (see below).  Most of these types of tunes were borrowed in various centuries past from other traditions.  The differences between them are too subtle to allow easy, brief explanation.
> 
> The Irish song tradition is diverse and rich.  It enjoys a prominent place among the interrelated song traditions of Scotland, England, and North America.  Irish songs, with plaintive or sprightly melodies to suit their themes, cover many subjects: love and betrayal, everyday country life and occupations, and historical or newsworthy events.  The sean nós (Irish for "old style") tradition is the relatively unknown, but beautiful Gaelic language tradition still thriving in the Irish-speaking western counties of Ireland.  Sean nós songs are usually sung with very loose time signatures, although not quite in "free time," that is, with no identifiable time signature at all.  Most sean nós songs do indeed have an identifiable rhythm but are interrupted as a singer takes a breath, usually in an unhurried fashion.  Consequently, slow airs, played in imitation of sean nós songs, are played with very loose time signatures as well.  There are more or less distinct regional styles of sean nós song, just as there are more or less distinct regional styles of Irish dance music.  One style of dance music is the DonegalFiddleTradition.
> 
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
------
Rock_and_roll|984165245
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[jazz music]] and [[rhythm and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[Jazz]] and [[rhythm and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
United_Kingdom|984165279
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]", the UK comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] and is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
------
Great_Man_Theory/Talk|984165284
1c1,3
< Isn't this also a theory in historiography, or philosophy of history?
---
> Isn't this also a theory in historiography, or philosophy of history?
> ----
> Maybe. I've only heard about it in conjunction with Film History so far, but that doesn't mean much...
------
Continents|984165284
1,10c1
< A ''continent'' is one of the main land masses of [[Earth]] (or of a [[planet]]--on the hypothesis that there are other planets with [[ocean]]s and land masses similar to the Earth's).
< 
< The continents of [[earth]] include:
< :[[Africa]]
< :[[Antarctica]]
< :[[Asia]]
< :[[Australia]] - often clumped with surrounding islands into [[Oceania]] - ''usually'' counted a continent
< :[[Europe]]
< :[[North America]]
< :[[South America]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Continent]]
------
Countably_infinite|984165318
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Reference [[mathematics]]
> 
> Something is countably infinite if a one to one mapping
> can be made between it and the [[natural numbers]]
> 
> For example, positive even numbers are countably infinite
> as displayed by the mapping:
> 
> 2 maps to 1
> 4 maps to 2
> 6 maps to 3
> ...
> N maps to (N/2) where N is a positive [[even number]]
------
Countably_infinite|984165351
9,13c9,13
< 2 maps to 1
< 4 maps to 2
< 6 maps to 3
< ...
< N maps to (N/2) where N is a positive [[even number]]
---
> *2 maps to 1
> *4 maps to 2
> *6 maps to 3
> *...
> *N maps to (N/2) where N is a positive [[even number]]
------
Continent|984165361
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''continent'' is one of the main land masses of [[Earth]] (or of a [[planet]]--on the hypothesis that there are other planets with [[ocean]]s and land masses similar to the Earth's).
> 
> The continents of [[earth]] include:
> :[[Africa]]
> :[[Antarctica]]
> :[[Asia]]
> :[[Australia]] - often clumped with surrounding islands into [[Oceania]] - ''usually'' counted a continent
> :[[Europe]]
> :[[North America]]
> :[[South America]]
------
The_Doors|984165512
14c14
< The group consisted of [[Jim Morrison]] (vocals, b. 1943 d. 1971), [[Ray Manzarek]] (organ, keyboard, b. 1939), [[Robbie Krieger]] (guitar, b. 1946) and [[John Densmore]] (drums, b. 1944). Morrison left the band in 1971 and died soon aftwards in [[Paris]]. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, [[Other Voices]] and [[Full Circle]], but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. 
---
> The group consisted of [[Jim Morrison]] (vocals, b. 1943 d. 1971), [[Ray Manzarek]] (organ, keyboard, b. 1939), [[Robbie Krieger]] (guitar, b. 1946) and [[John Densmore]] (drums, b. 1944). Morrison left the band in 1971 and died soon aftwards in [[Paris]]. The remaining Doors continued and released two more albums, [[/Other Voices]] and [[/Full Circle]], but weren't nearly as successful as with Morrison. 
16c16
< The band's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]] (from which the band took their name); Huxley's experiences with [[mescaline]] having parallels with Morrison's frequent use of [[LSD]].  
---
> The band's lyrics are said to be influenced by the writings of [[Aldous Huxley]], particularly [[The Doors of Perception]] (from which the band took their name); Huxley's experiences with [[mescaline]] having parallels with Morrison's frequent use of [[LSD]]. Other influences are [[William Blake]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].  
20c20
< [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 1991.
---
> [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 1991.
------
Anarchy|984165732
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Anarchy'' is often used pejoratively simply to mean chaos, violence, and complete lack of political and/or social order.  This is one ordinary use of the word, but it does not describe a suitable subject for an encyclopedia article.  ''Anarchy'' has an interesting use, according to which anarchy is a political ideal.
> 
> But when it is used to describe a political ideal, ''anarchy'' is a term used in two different ways by the adherents of two different political views: TraditionalAnarchism and AnarchoCapitalism.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
> 
> See AnarchisM.
------
AnarchY|984165747
1,5c1
< ''Anarchy'' is often used pejoratively simply to mean chaos, violence, and complete lack of political and/or social order.  This is one ordinary use of the word, but it does not describe a suitable subject for an encyclopedia article.  ''Anarchy'' has an interesting use, according to which anarchy is a political ideal.
< 
< But when it is used to describe a political ideal, ''anarchy'' is a term used in two different ways by the adherents of two different political views: TraditionalAnarchism and AnarchoCapitalism.  It is worth noting that although it is likely that adherents of either view will surely have many disagreements with the other, it is not correct to think of them as being diametric opposites.
< 
< See AnarchisM.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Anarchy]]
------
AnarchisM|984165797
1c1
< ''Anarchism'' is the view that AnarchY is the best state of political affairs.
---
> ''Anarchism'' is the view that [[Anarchy]] is the best state of political affairs.
------
Politics|984165842
21c21
< IdeologicalConcepts: AnarchY -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
---
> IdeologicalConcepts: [[Anarchy]] -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
------
The_Doors/The_Doors|984165859
1c1
< Debut album by the band [[The Doors]], featuring their breakthrough single [[/Light My Fire]], extended with a lengthy instrumental section omitted on the single release, and the lengthy [[Oedipal]] song [[/The End]].
---
> Debut album by the band [[The Doors]], featuring their breakthrough single [[/Light My Fire]], extended with a lengthy instrumental section omitted on the single release, and the lengthy [[Oedipal]] song [[/The End]]. "Alabama Song" was originally written and composed by [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Kurt Weill]] for their opera "Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny" (roughly translated "Rise and Fall of the City Mahagonny"), "Back Door Man" was a [[Howlin Wolf|Howlin' Wolf]] cover. 
15c15
< :The End
---
> :The End
------
Godels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984165976
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematical theorem proven by [[Kurt Godel]].  Somewhat simplified, this states that in any axiomatic system sufficiently complex to allow one to do mathematics one can construct a statement that can be neither proved nor disproved within that system.
> 
> In effect, Godel's proof consisted of formally constructing the statement "This statement is false" within the system.
> 
> The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard [[Set Theory]], the truth or falsity of the [[continuum hypothesis]] is similarly undecidable.
------
Godels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984166003
5c5
< The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard [[Set Theory]], the truth or falsity of the [[continuum hypothesis]] is similarly undecidable.
---
> The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard [[Set Theory]] the truth or falsity of the [[continuum hypothesis]] is similarly undecidable.
------
Drew_Barrymore|984166085
1,2c1,2
< /Biography
< /Filmography
---
>  /Biography 
>  /Filmography
------
Syndicalism|984166107
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The syndicalism political theory places control of both industry and government to labor union federations.
> It often choses to use [[Direct Action]], such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
------
SyndicalisM|984166124
1,2c1
< The syndicalism political theory places control of both industry and government to labor union federations.
< It often choses to use DirectAction, such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Syndicalism]]
------
AtlasShrugged/James_Taggarts_Secretary|984166175
1c1
< In /SectioN144, [[/James Taggart|James Taggart's]] unnamed secretary has the unhappy job of explaining to Taggart why [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] will not see him: "Senor D'Anconia said that you bore him, Mr. Taggart."
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/James Taggarts Secretary]]
------
Aberdeen|984166212
1c1,374
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, 
> capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of 
> Scotland.  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
> industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North 
> Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m.  N. 
> E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.  Though Old 
> Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
> banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and 
> history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no 
> longer be said to exist; and for parliamentary, municipal 
> and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one 
> community.  Aberdeen's popular name of the ``Granite City,' 
> is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town fs built 
> of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation 
> of the ``Silver City by the Sea,'' it should be seen after 
> a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless 
> houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine.  
> The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of 
> Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for 
> parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) 
> to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891.  
> The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical 
> parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with 
> lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild.  The 
> corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21 
> m.  W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplles, electric lighting and 
> tramways.  Since 1885 the city has returned two members to 
> Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North 
> of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious 
> joint railway station), and there is regular communication by 
> sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
> Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
> temperature of the city for the year is 45.8 deg.  F., for summer 
> 56 deg.  F., and for winter 37.3 deg.  F. The average yearly rainfall 
> is 30.57 inches.  The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. 
> 
> Streets and Buildings.--Roughly, the extended city runs 
> north and south.  From the new bridge of Don to the ``auld 
> brig'' of Dee there is tramway communication via King 
> Street, Union Street and Holburn Road--a distance of over five 
> miles.  Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares 
> in the British Isles.  From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. 
> for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal 
> shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite.  
> Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for 
> the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine 
> granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town 
> still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union 
> Street.  Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the 
> street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music 
> Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity 
> Hall of the incorporated trades (originating in various years 
> between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable funds for poor 
> members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits 
> by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
> dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint 
> inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of 
> the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace 
> Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the 
> Nutional Bank of Scotland.  In Castle Street, a continuation 
> eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and 
> County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices 
> in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 
> 1867-1878.  They are of four stories and contain the great 
> hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the 
> Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits 
> of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, 
> the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens.  
> In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of 
> black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert 
> Davidson, who feh in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 
> 1411.  From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to 
> a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and 
> surrounding country.  Adjoining the municipal buildings is 
> the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico 
> of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely 
> carved.  On the opposite side of the street is the fine 
> building of the Union Bank.  At the upper end of Castle Street 
> stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated 
> mansion, the most imposing ``barracks'' possessed anywhere 
> by this organization.  In front of it is the Market Cross, 
> a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in 
> diameter and 18 ft. high.  The original was designed in 1682 
> by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
> removed hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better 
> style.  On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are 
> panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James 
> I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
> high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal,unicorn 
> rampant.  On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military 
> barracks.  In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution, 
> founded in 1824, with a good library; the Post and Telegraph 
> offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and 
> general wares are sold.  The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin, 
> is a busy scene in the early morning.  The Art Gallery and 
> Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style 
> of red and brown granite, contains an excellent Collection of 
> pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contemporary 
> artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional 
> interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain.  The public 
> llbrary, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 
> volumes.  The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of 
> dramatic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety 
> entertainment.  The new buildings of Marischal College fronting 
> Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one 
> of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great 
> Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native 
> of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to 
> the design of a noble building with the originality of genius. 
> 
> Churches.---Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well 
> equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but 
> few of special interest.  The East and West churches of St 
> Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic 
> facade, 147 1/2 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous 
> building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the 
> ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Colllson 
> Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the 
> 12th-century church of St Nicholas.  The West Church was built in 
> 1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the 
> Gothic.  In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the 
> old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of 
> which, Laurence or ``Lowrie,'' was 4 ft. in diameter at the 
> mouth, 3 1/2 ft. high and very thick.  The church was rebuilt 
> and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening 
> aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36 
> bells, cast in Holland, being installed to commemorate the 
> Victorian jubilee of 1887.  The Roman Catholic Cathedral in 
> Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859.  The 
> see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire 
> by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over 
> the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric 
> to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of 
> St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was 
> begun.  Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone 
> (1484-1511), the building progressed slowly.  Gavin Dunbar, 
> who followed him in 1518, was enabled to complete the 
> structure by adding the two western spires and the southern 
> transept.  The church suffered severely at the Reformation, 
> but is still used as the parish church.  It now consists of the 
> nave and side aisles.  It is chiefly built of outlayer granite, 
> and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately 
> simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.  
> On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave are the heraldic 
> shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its 
> erection, and the great west window contains modern painted 
> glass of excellent colour and design.  The cemeteries are St 
> Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield 
> at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and 
> Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park. 
> 
> Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
> in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, 
> and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by 
> George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
> 1860.  Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine 
> and science at Marischal.  The number of students exceeds 800 
> yearly.  The buildings of both colleges are the glories of 
> Aberdeen.  King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two 
> sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been 
> added.  The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 
> 1500.  The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. 
> high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both 
> sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched 
> ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the 
> tower.  The choir of the chapel still contains the original 
> oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in 
> the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and 
> execution.  Their preservation was due to the enlightened 
> energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who 
> armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the 
> Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and 
> lead.  Marischal College is a stately modern building, having 
> been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years 
> later at a cost of L. 100,000.  The additions to the buildings 
> opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
> The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr 
> Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
> The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration 
> of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the 
> university.  The University Library comprises nearly 100,000 
> books.  A Botanic Garden was presented to the university in 
> 1899.  Aberdeen and Glasgow Universities combine to return 
> one member to Parliament.  The United Free Church Divinity 
> Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from 
> 1850.  The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in 
> 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new 
> building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street.  
> Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729 
> by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
> Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
> Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor 
> burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized 
> in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical 
> education, and has since been unusually successful.  Besides 
> a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are 
> many private higher-class schools.  Under the Endowments Act 
> 1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a 
> capital of L. 155,000.  At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five 
> miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College 
> for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. 
> 
> Charities.---The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established 
> in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and 
> largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's 
> jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan 
> Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, 
> in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital 
> for Sick Children; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; 
> the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb 
> Institution; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East 
> and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted 
> to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of 
> the charitable institutions.  There are, besides, industrial 
> schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a 
> Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth 
> House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's 
> Convalescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the 
> Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. 
> 
> Parks and Open Spaces.---Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift 
> of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an 
> excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park 
> (13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are 
> situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart 
> Park (11 acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 
> 1893.  The capacious links bordering the sea between the 
> mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air 
> recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,'' 
> or shooting tournament, is held annually.  Part is laid out 
> as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket 
> and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course, 
> and a bathing-station has been erected.  Union Terrace 
> Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city. 
> 
> Statues.---In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue 
> in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. 
> (1888).  In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns 
> and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert.  In 
> front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. 
> Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888).  At the east 
> end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, 
> erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city.  Near the 
> Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 
> 1836).  Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead 
> granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal 
> College to the memory of Sir James M`Grigor (1778-1851), the 
> military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical 
> Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College. 
> 
> Bridges.--The Dee is crossed by four bridges,--the old 
> bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, 
> and Victoria Bridge, opposite Market Street.  The first, till 
> 1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of 
> seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and 
> was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and 
> Dunbar.  It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718--1723, and in 
> 1842 was widened from 14 1/2 to 26 ft.  The bridge of Don has 
> five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in 
> 1827--1832.  A little to the west is the Auld Brig o' 
> Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep 
> black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., 
> and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. 
> 
> Harbour.--A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel 
> bar at its entrance. long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but 
> under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened.  The 
> north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly 
> by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North 
> Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few 
> feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at 
> neap.  A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, 
> was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour 
> of the queen's visit to the city in that year.  Adjoining 
> it is the Upper Dock.  By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee 
> near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of 
> L. 80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres 
> formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the 
> river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and 
> warehouses.  A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was 
> constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection 
> against south-easterly gales.  On Girdleness, the southern 
> point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833.  Near the 
> harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. 
> 
> Industry.---Owing to the variety and importance of its chief 
> industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 
> Scotland.  Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 
> Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed 
> paving ``setts,'' kerb and building stones, and monumental 
> and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported 
> from the district to all parts of the world.  This, though 
> once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the 
> deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from 
> beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing 
> in 1889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of 
> Grimsby.  Fish trains are despatched to London daily.  Most 
> of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst 
> them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779).  These 
> give employment to several thousands of operatives.  The 
> paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in 
> the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694.  
> Flax-spinning and jute and combmaking factories are also very 
> flourishing, and there are successful foundries and engineering 
> works.  There are large distilleries and breweries, and 
> chemical works employing many hands.  In the days of wooden 
> ships ship-building was a flourishing industry, the town being 
> noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records 
> in the ``tea races.'' The introduction of trawllng revived 
> this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city 
> from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron 
> vessels.  Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted 
> meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in 
> strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. 
> 
> History.--Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 
> 12th century.  William the Lion had a residence in the city, to 
> which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights 
> granted by David I. The city received other royal charters 
> later.  It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 
> 1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New 
> Aberdeen.  The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland.  
> They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to 
> the present day.  For many centuries the city was subject to 
> attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, 
> but the gates were all removed by 1770.  In 1497 a blockhouse 
> was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the 
> English.  During the struggles between the Royalists and 
> Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both 
> sides.  In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old 
> Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland 
> resided for a short time in the city before attacking 
> the Young Pretender.  The motto on the city arms is ``Bon 
> Accord,'' which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians 
> while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English. 
> 
> Population.---In 1396 the population was about 3000.  By 1801 it had 
> become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503. 
> 
> 
> 
> AUTHORITIES.--The charters of the burgh; extracts from 
> the council register down to 1625, and selections from the 
> letters. guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. 
> of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus 
> Aberdonensis, Spalding Club; Walter Thore, The History 
> of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and 
> Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals 
> of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Descripjion of the Chanonry, 
> Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 
> (1830); Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated 
> Architecture of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of old 
> Castellated Houses of Aberdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives 
> of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description 
> of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842); Joseph 
> Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); W. 
> Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 
> 1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen 
> (Aberdeen, 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, 
> Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); 
> P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., illustrating the History 
> of Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 1890); 
> Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New 
> Spalding Club, 1889, 1898..1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of 
> the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); 
> G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the 
> Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to 
> the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History 
> and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882).
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
> 
------
AberdeenScotland|984166229
1,373c1
< ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, 
< capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of 
< Scotland.  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
< industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North 
< Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m.  N. 
< E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.  Though Old 
< Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
< banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and 
< history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no 
< longer be said to exist; and for parliamentary, municipal 
< and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one 
< community.  Aberdeen's popular name of the ``Granite City,' 
< is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town fs built 
< of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation 
< of the ``Silver City by the Sea,'' it should be seen after 
< a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless 
< houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine.  
< The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of 
< Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for 
< parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) 
< to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891.  
< The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical 
< parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with 
< lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild.  The 
< corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21 
< m.  W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplles, electric lighting and 
< tramways.  Since 1885 the city has returned two members to 
< Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North 
< of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious 
< joint railway station), and there is regular communication by 
< sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
< Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
< temperature of the city for the year is 45.8 deg.  F., for summer 
< 56 deg.  F., and for winter 37.3 deg.  F. The average yearly rainfall 
< is 30.57 inches.  The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. 
< 
< Streets and Buildings.--Roughly, the extended city runs 
< north and south.  From the new bridge of Don to the ``auld 
< brig'' of Dee there is tramway communication via King 
< Street, Union Street and Holburn Road--a distance of over five 
< miles.  Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares 
< in the British Isles.  From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. 
< for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal 
< shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite.  
< Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for 
< the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine 
< granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town 
< still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union 
< Street.  Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the 
< street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music 
< Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity 
< Hall of the incorporated trades (originating in various years 
< between 1398 and 1527, and having charitable funds for poor 
< members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits 
< by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
< dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint 
< inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of 
< the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace 
< Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the 
< Nutional Bank of Scotland.  In Castle Street, a continuation 
< eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and 
< County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices 
< in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 
< 1867-1878.  They are of four stories and contain the great 
< hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the 
< Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits 
< of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, 
< the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens.  
< In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of 
< black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert 
< Davidson, who feh in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 
< 1411.  From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to 
< a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and 
< surrounding country.  Adjoining the municipal buildings is 
< the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico 
< of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely 
< carved.  On the opposite side of the street is the fine 
< building of the Union Bank.  At the upper end of Castle Street 
< stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated 
< mansion, the most imposing ``barracks'' possessed anywhere 
< by this organization.  In front of it is the Market Cross, 
< a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in 
< diameter and 18 ft. high.  The original was designed in 1682 
< by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
< removed hither from its old site and rebuilt in a better 
< style.  On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are 
< panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James 
< I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
< high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal,unicorn 
< rampant.  On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military 
< barracks.  In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution, 
< founded in 1824, with a good library; the Post and Telegraph 
< offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and 
< general wares are sold.  The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin, 
< is a busy scene in the early morning.  The Art Gallery and 
< Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style 
< of red and brown granite, contains an excellent Collection of 
< pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contemporary 
< artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional 
< interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain.  The public 
< llbrary, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 
< volumes.  The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of 
< dramatic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety 
< entertainment.  The new buildings of Marischal College fronting 
< Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one 
< of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great 
< Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native 
< of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to 
< the design of a noble building with the originality of genius. 
< 
< Churches.---Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well 
< equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but 
< few of special interest.  The East and West churches of St 
< Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic 
< facade, 147 1/2 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous 
< building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the 
< ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Colllson 
< Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the 
< 12th-century church of St Nicholas.  The West Church was built in 
< 1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the 
< Gothic.  In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the 
< old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of 
< which, Laurence or ``Lowrie,'' was 4 ft. in diameter at the 
< mouth, 3 1/2 ft. high and very thick.  The church was rebuilt 
< and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening 
< aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36 
< bells, cast in Holland, being installed to commemorate the 
< Victorian jubilee of 1887.  The Roman Catholic Cathedral in 
< Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859.  The 
< see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire 
< by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over 
< the Danes, but in 1137 David I. transferred the bishopric 
< to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of 
< St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was 
< begun.  Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone 
< (1484-1511), the building progressed slowly.  Gavin Dunbar, 
< who followed him in 1518, was enabled to complete the 
< structure by adding the two western spires and the southern 
< transept.  The church suffered severely at the Reformation, 
< but is still used as the parish church.  It now consists of the 
< nave and side aisles.  It is chiefly built of outlayer granite, 
< and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately 
< simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.  
< On the flat panelled ceiling of the nave are the heraldic 
< shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its 
< erection, and the great west window contains modern painted 
< glass of excellent colour and design.  The cemeteries are St 
< Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield 
< at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and 
< Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park. 
< 
< Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
< in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, 
< and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by 
< George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
< 1860.  Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine 
< and science at Marischal.  The number of students exceeds 800 
< yearly.  The buildings of both colleges are the glories of 
< Aberdeen.  King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two 
< sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been 
< added.  The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 
< 1500.  The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. 
< high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both 
< sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched 
< ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the 
< tower.  The choir of the chapel still contains the original 
< oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in 
< the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and 
< execution.  Their preservation was due to the enlightened 
< energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who 
< armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the 
< Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and 
< lead.  Marischal College is a stately modern building, having 
< been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years 
< later at a cost of L. 100,000.  The additions to the buildings 
< opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
< The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr 
< Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
< The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration 
< of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the 
< university.  The University Library comprises nearly 100,000 
< books.  A Botanic Garden was presented to the university in 
< 1899.  Aberdeen and Glasgow Universities combine to return 
< one member to Parliament.  The United Free Church Divinity 
< Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from 
< 1850.  The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in 
< 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new 
< building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street.  
< Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729 
< by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
< Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
< Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor 
< burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized 
< in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical 
< education, and has since been unusually successful.  Besides 
< a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are 
< many private higher-class schools.  Under the Endowments Act 
< 1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a 
< capital of L. 155,000.  At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five 
< miles S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College 
< for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. 
< 
< Charities.---The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established 
< in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and 
< largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's 
< jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan 
< Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, 
< in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital 
< for Sick Children; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; 
< the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb 
< Institution; Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East 
< and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted 
< to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of 
< the charitable institutions.  There are, besides, industrial 
< schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a 
< Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth 
< House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's 
< Convalescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the 
< Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. 
< 
< Parks and Open Spaces.---Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift 
< of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an 
< excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park 
< (13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are 
< situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart 
< Park (11 acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 
< 1893.  The capacious links bordering the sea between the 
< mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air 
< recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,'' 
< or shooting tournament, is held annually.  Part is laid out 
< as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket 
< and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course, 
< and a bathing-station has been erected.  Union Terrace 
< Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city. 
< 
< Statues.---In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue 
< in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. 
< (1888).  In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns 
< and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert.  In 
< front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. 
< Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888).  At the east 
< end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, 
< erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city.  Near the 
< Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 
< 1836).  Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead 
< granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal 
< College to the memory of Sir James M`Grigor (1778-1851), the 
< military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical 
< Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College. 
< 
< Bridges.--The Dee is crossed by four bridges,--the old 
< bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, 
< and Victoria Bridge, opposite Market Street.  The first, till 
< 1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of 
< seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and 
< was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and 
< Dunbar.  It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718--1723, and in 
< 1842 was widened from 14 1/2 to 26 ft.  The bridge of Don has 
< five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in 
< 1827--1832.  A little to the west is the Auld Brig o' 
< Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep 
< black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., 
< and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. 
< 
< Harbour.--A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel 
< bar at its entrance. long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but 
< under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened.  The 
< north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly 
< by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North 
< Sea. It increases the depth of water on the bar from a few 
< feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at 
< neap.  A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, 
< was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour 
< of the queen's visit to the city in that year.  Adjoining 
< it is the Upper Dock.  By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee 
< near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of 
< L. 80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres 
< formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the 
< river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and 
< warehouses.  A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was 
< constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection 
< against south-easterly gales.  On Girdleness, the southern 
< point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833.  Near the 
< harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. 
< 
< Industry.---Owing to the variety and importance of its chief 
< industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in 
< Scotland.  Very durable grey granite has been quarried near 
< Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed 
< paving ``setts,'' kerb and building stones, and monumental 
< and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported 
< from the district to all parts of the world.  This, though 
< once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the 
< deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from 
< beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing 
< in 1889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of 
< Grimsby.  Fish trains are despatched to London daily.  Most 
< of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst 
< them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779).  These 
< give employment to several thousands of operatives.  The 
< paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in 
< the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694.  
< Flax-spinning and jute and combmaking factories are also very 
< flourishing, and there are successful foundries and engineering 
< works.  There are large distilleries and breweries, and 
< chemical works employing many hands.  In the days of wooden 
< ships ship-building was a flourishing industry, the town being 
< noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records 
< in the ``tea races.'' The introduction of trawllng revived 
< this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city 
< from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron 
< vessels.  Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted 
< meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in 
< strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. 
< 
< History.--Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 
< 12th century.  William the Lion had a residence in the city, to 
< which he gave a charter in 1179 confirming the corporate rights 
< granted by David I. The city received other royal charters 
< later.  It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 
< 1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New 
< Aberdeen.  The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland.  
< They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to 
< the present day.  For many centuries the city was subject to 
< attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, 
< but the gates were all removed by 1770.  In 1497 a blockhouse 
< was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the 
< English.  During the struggles between the Royalists and 
< Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both 
< sides.  In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old 
< Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland 
< resided for a short time in the city before attacking 
< the Young Pretender.  The motto on the city arms is ``Bon 
< Accord,'' which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians 
< while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English. 
< 
< Population.---In 1396 the population was about 3000.  By 1801 it had 
< become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503. 
< 
< 
< 
< AUTHORITIES.--The charters of the burgh; extracts from 
< the council register down to 1625, and selections from the 
< letters. guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols. 
< of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus 
< Aberdonensis, Spalding Club; Walter Thore, The History 
< of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and 
< Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals 
< of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Descripjion of the Chanonry, 
< Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 
< (1830); Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated 
< Architecture of Aberdeen; Giles, Specimens of old 
< Castellated Houses of Aberdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives 
< of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description 
< of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842); Joseph 
< Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839); W. 
< Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 
< 1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen 
< (Aberdeen, 1886); A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, 
< Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); 
< P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c., illustrating the History 
< of Records of Marischal College (New Spalding 1890); 
< Selections from the Records of Marischal College (New 
< Spalding Club, 1889, 1898..1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of 
< the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); 
< G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the 
< Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to 
< the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History 
< and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882).
< 
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Aberdeen]]
------
Industry/Tertiary_Sector|984166304
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term Tertiary Sector is used to describe the service providing [[Industry|industry]]. It includes all types of services ranging from lawyers and consultants to your local hairdresser. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two [[Industry|industry]] sectors to the Tertiary Sector in industrialised countries.
------
IndustrY/TertiarySector|984166321
1c1
< The term /TertiarySector is used to describe the service providing IndustrY. It includes all types of services ranging from lawyers and consultants to your local hairdresser. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two IndustrY sectors to the /TertiarySector in industrialised countries.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Industry/Tertiary Sector]]
------
North_America|984166332
1c1
< [[Continents]] consisting of the countries of:
---
> [[Continent]] of the northern hemisphere of [[earth]], located to the east of the [[Pacific Ocean]], the west of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the south of the [[Arctic Ocean]], and the north of [[South America]].  On the continent itself can be found three large and relatively populous countries:
3d2
< *[[Belize]]
5a5,13
> *[[United States]]
> 
> At the extreme southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area (smaller than an average Canadian province) called [[central America]] are:
> 
> *[[Belize]]
> *[[Costa Rica]]
> *[[El Salvador]]
> *[[Guatemala]]
> *[[Honduras]]
8c16,25
< *[[United States]]
---
> 
> In or very near the [[Caribbean Sea]] are some island nations and territories, the most notable of which are:
> 
> *[[The Bahamas]]
> *[[Cuba]]
> *[[Dominican Republic]]
> *[[Haiti]]
> *[[Jamaica]]
> *[[Puerto Rico]] (U.S. territory)
> *[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
------
Industry|984166352
1,3c1,3
< * /PrimarySector
< * /SecondarySector
< * /TertiarySector
---
> * [[/Primary Sector|Primary Sector]]
> * [[/Secondary Sector|Secondary Sector]]
> * [[/Tertiary Sector|Tertiary Sector]]
------
Europe|984166371
55c55,57
< Whilst the [[United Kingdom]] may sometimes be mistaken for [[Great Britain]] they are not the same.  See [[United Kingdom]]
---
> Whilst the [[United Kingdom]] may sometimes be mistaken for [[Great Britain]] they are not the same.  See [[United Kingdom]]
> ----
> Sometimes the term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxemburg]]
------
Industry/Secondary_Sector|984166400
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The manufacturing sector of [[Industry|industry]]. 
------
IndustrY/SecondarySector|984166426
1c1
< The manufacturing sector of IndustrY. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Industry/Secondary Sector]]
------
Europe|984166434
7c7
< Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War Two]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
------
IndustrY/PrimarySector|984166468
1c1
< This sector includes AgriculturE and and all mining industries.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Industry/Primary Sector]]
------
Industry/Primary_Sector|984166494
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This sector includes [[Agriculture|agriculture]] and all mining industries.
------
LeeDanielCrocker|984166519
2a3
> Welcome, Lee! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Religion|984166551
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religion in general:
> GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- PhilosophyOfReligion
> 
> Particular religions:
> ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm -- ScientologY 
> 
> Religious books:
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
> 
> You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
> 
> ----
> 
> Other notable online sources for religious information include:
> * Google directory: [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/ Religion and Spirituality]
> * The [http://www.adherents.com/ adherents.com] collection of statistics on over 4000 religions.
------
World_War_II|984166538
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939.
10c10
< Much, much more left to be added...
---
> Much, much more left to be added...
------
ReLigion|984166576
1,16c1
< Religion in general:
< GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- PhilosophyOfReligion
< 
< Particular religions:
< ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm -- ScientologY 
< 
< Religious books:
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
< 
< You're very welcome to contribute all manner of information about the above and other religious topics; you may also edit the above topics.  Or you could add some general remarks about religion to this page.  For example, you could discuss definitions of the word "religion" here.
< 
< ----
< 
< Other notable online sources for religious information include:
< * Google directory: [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/ Religion and Spirituality]
< * The [http://www.adherents.com/ adherents.com] collection of statistics on over 4000 religions.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Religion]]
------
HomePage|984166604
13c13
< :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- ReLigion -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Andy_Jewell|984166606
5a6,7
> 
> Hi, Andy, I haven't welcomed you yet, so, welcome!  Nice to see another hand in biology. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
BuddhIsm|984166638
1c1
< The ReLigion based on the teachings of the BuddHa.
---
> The [[Religion|religion]] based on the teachings of the BuddHa.
------
World_War_II|984166672
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939. Before WWII, many European fascists fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]], to train and to get rid of some communists.
------
Countably_infinite|984166709
4c4
< can be made between it and the [[natural numbers]]
---
> can be made between it and the [[natural numbers]] or a subset of the natural numbers.
13a14,55
> 
> Sometimes it is necessary to use more than one mapping.
> This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers.
> 
> For example, [[rational numbers]] can be mapped:
> 
> A rational number is of the form
> 
>     N / D 
> 
> where N and D are integers and D cannot be zero.
> 
> First, we want to map N to positive integers and 
> map D to negative integers.
> 
> * map N to the positive integers by:
> ** if N > 0, map N to (2*N)
> ** if N < 0, map N to (1 + -2*N)
> ** if N = 0, map N to 0
> 
> * map D to the negative integers by:
> ** if D > 0, map D to (-2*N)
> ** if D < 0, map D to (1 + 2*N)
> 
> Now we've mapped the rational numbers to the set of all
> integers.
> 
> Second, we will map the set of all integers to the
> set of positive integers:
> 
> * map 0 to 1
> * map 1 to 2
> * map 2 to 4
> * map 3 to 6
> * ...
> * map X to (2*X)  where X > 0 and X is an integer
> 
> * map -1 to 3
> * map -2 to 5
> * map -3 to 7
> * ...
> * map Y to (-2*Y + 1) where Y < 0 and Y is an integer
------
Invictus|984166738
3a4,7
> 
> ----
> 
> Funny, I wouldn't have guessed that there are any dumb redneck geeks, but you learn something new every day.  :-)  All of them are welcome at Wikipedia, needless to say! :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Real_numbers|984166866
13a14
> ::Of course, DDD must be finite in length.  This restriction does not apply to ddd.
23c24,29
< * (??? name) - infinitely long fractions that do not repeat (e.g., [[PI]])
---
> 
> These are the rational numbers (if you allow 12 = 11.9...  If you don't allow this, the set is base dependent, which is undesirable.)  This may be proved by summing as a [[geometric progression]] e.g
> : 0.121212... = 12/100 + 12/100^2 + 12/100^3 + ...
> * [[irrational numbers]] -- Any number which cannot be represented as the ratio of two integers.  These have infinitely long, non recurring decimal representations.
> *[[transcendental numbers]] -- those that are not the roots of any polynomial with integer coefficients.
> 
26c32
< *[[Countably infinite]]
---
> *[[Countably infinite]]
------
Jpmartin|984166880
3a4,5
> 
> Are official welcomes possible on Wikipedia?  If so, here is one!  Welcome!  I am guessing that you are a Swiss programmer.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Simon_Smith|984166937
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone who appears to know something about [[stamp collecting]].  (Welcome!)
------
Countably_infinite|984166976
17,55d16
< 
< For example, [[rational numbers]] can be mapped:
< 
< A rational number is of the form
< 
<     N / D 
< 
< where N and D are integers and D cannot be zero.
< 
< First, we want to map N to positive integers and 
< map D to negative integers.
< 
< * map N to the positive integers by:
< ** if N > 0, map N to (2*N)
< ** if N < 0, map N to (1 + -2*N)
< ** if N = 0, map N to 0
< 
< * map D to the negative integers by:
< ** if D > 0, map D to (-2*N)
< ** if D < 0, map D to (1 + 2*N)
< 
< Now we've mapped the rational numbers to the set of all
< integers.
< 
< Second, we will map the set of all integers to the
< set of positive integers:
< 
< * map 0 to 1
< * map 1 to 2
< * map 2 to 4
< * map 3 to 6
< * ...
< * map X to (2*X)  where X > 0 and X is an integer
< 
< * map -1 to 3
< * map -2 to 5
< * map -3 to 7
< * ...
< * map Y to (-2*Y + 1) where Y < 0 and Y is an integer
------
World_War_II|984167050
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the Pacific islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939. Before WWII, many European fascists fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]], to train and to get rid of some communists.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the [[Pacific]] islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939. Before WWII, many [[European]] [[fascist]]s fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]], to train and to get rid of some [[communist]]s.
10c10
< Much, much more left to be added...
---
> Much, much more left to be added...
------
Real_numbers|984167143
31a32
> *[[Complex numbers]]
------
Real_numbers|984167202
17a18
> * DDD and ddd are 0 - this represented by 0
------
Real_numbers|984167217
18c18
< * DDD and ddd are 0 - this represented by 0
---
> * DDD and ddd are 0 - this is represented by 0
------
Numerology|984167322
1c1,3
< Numerology is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
---
> Numerology is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  
> 
> In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
27c29
< This is a vast improvement--thanks!  I think it could use another going-over or two, though.  For example, the first sentence is still not right, I think--far too broad (it seems to me).  Elaboration of accusations of pseudo-science, and the reaction to those accusations on the part of the pseudo-scientist, would be grand. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> This is a vast improvement--thanks!  I think it could use another going-over or two, though.  For example, the first sentence is still not right, I think--far too broad (it seems to me).  Elaboration of accusations of pseudo-science, and the reaction to those accusations on the part of the pseudo-scientist, would be grand. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Velvet_Underground|984167384
17c17
< * [[/White Light White Heat]]
---
> * [[/White Light White Heat|White Light/White Heat]]
26c26
< * [[/Another View]]
---
> * [[/Another View]]
------
Naming_conventions|984167468
5a6,7
> * Locality - It is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.  Place a blank line after that and then follow by the rest of the article.  See [[Numerology]]
> ----
------
Naming_conventions|984167497
6c6
< * Locality - It is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.  Place a blank line after that and then follow by the rest of the article.  See [[Numerology]]
---
> <b>Locality</b> It is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.  Place a blank line after that and then follow by the rest of the article.  See [[Numerology]]
------
Numerology|984167520
1c1
< Numerology is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  
---
> <b>Numerology</b> is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  
------
Countably_infinite|984167598
16a17,18
> ----
> It is easy to show that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[diagonal slash argument]].
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984167652
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical argument devised by [[Georg Cantor]] to demonstrate that the [[real numbers]] are not [[countably infinite]].
------
United_Kingdom|984167805
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
------
Naming_conventions|984167861
1c1
< This page is a list of general policies on how to name pages.  Most important to read are the first three sections, '''Free Links,''' '''Precision,''' and '''Capitalization.'''
---
> This page is a list of general policies on how to name pages.  Most important to read are the first few sections: '''Free Links,''' '''Simplicity,''' '''Precision,''' '''Capitalization,''' and '''Pluralization.'''
6,7d5
< <b>Locality</b> It is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.  Place a blank line after that and then follow by the rest of the article.  See [[Numerology]]
< ----
14a13,18
> '''Simplicity'''
> 
> Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  More generally, the ideal of simplicity is sometimes at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
> 
> ----
> 
17c21
< ''Do not simply write an article with an ambiguously-named title as though the title had no other meanings!''
---
> ''Please, do not write put an article on a page with an ambiguously-named title as though that title had no other meanings!''
21c25
< There are a number of solutions; the appropriate solution in any case cannot be determined automatically, it seems.  Finer-grained applications of these solutions, applied to individual subject matters, should appear farther down on this page (or on appropriate subpages).
---
> This is a problem that it's reasonably important that all Wikipedians understand.  There are a number of solutions; the appropriate solution in any case cannot be determined automatically, it seems.  Finer-grained applications of these solutions, applied to individual subject matters, should appear farther down on this page (or on appropriate subpages).
23d26
< # ''<b>Maximum simplicity.</b>''  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page on [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because jazz does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word music is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word 'country' has other referents besides the musical genre.
102c105
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Malcolm_Farmer|984167985
5c5,8
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> 
> Yes, I've got stacks of these sort of books lying around, now I have to go and reread them (and read for the first time the Edward Bellamy book that's been on my shelf for some years, too!)
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|984168042
5a6,7
> 
> In other words, it is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|984168089
15c15
< Made by [[George Pal]] in (1958?) Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including [[nuclear bombs]], but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
---
> Made by [[George Pal]] in 1952. Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including [[nuclear bombs]], but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984168213
1a2,11
> 
> It proceeds as follows:
> #Suppose the [[real numbers]] are countably infinite.
> #We may now enumerate them as a sequence, {r<sub>1</sub>,r<sub>2</sub>,r<sub>3</sub>,...}
> #We shall now construct a real number, x, by considering the nth digit of the decimal expansion of r<sub>n</sub>.  x will be between 0 and 1.
> ## If this nth digit of r<sub>n</sub> is 0, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 1
> ## Otherwise, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 0
> # x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.
> 
> This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984168360
6,9c6,8
< #We shall now construct a real number, x, by considering the nth digit of the decimal expansion of r<sub>n</sub>.  x will be between 0 and 1.
< ## If this nth digit of r<sub>n</sub> is 0, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 1
< ## Otherwise, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 0
< # x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.
---
> #We shall now construct a real number, x, by considering the nth digit of the decimal expansion of r<sub>n</sub>. Our real number x will be between 0 and 1.
> ::If the nth digit of r<sub>n</sub> is 0, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 1
> ::Otherwise, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 0
11c10,12
< This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
---
> x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.  This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
> 
> The diagonal slash argument is an example of [[Reductio ad absurdum]].
------
United_Kingdom/London|984168416
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[United Kingdom]] and [[England]].
> 
> ----
> 
> This represents a solution to a problem: ambiguous place names.  This should be discussed on [[naming conventions]]! -- LS
------
Science_Fiction_Film|984168445
3c3
< In approximate chronological order: (can anyone supply the year?)
---
> In approximate chronological order: (can anyone supply the missing year?)
5c5,24
< [[The Invisible Man]] -- [[Things to Come]] -- [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] -- [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] -- [[The War of the Worlds]] -- [[Forbidden Planet]] -- [[Day of the Triffids]] -- [[The Time Machine]] -- [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] -- [[Star Wars]] -- [[Star Trek]] -- [[Alien]] -- [[Outland]] -- [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] -- [[Blade Runner]] -- [[Dune]] -- [[The Terminator]] -- [[The Abyss]] -- [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> * [[The Invisible Man]] (1933) 
> * [[Things to Come]] (1936)
> * [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] 
> * [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] 
> * [[The War of the Worlds]] (1952)
> * [[Forbidden Planet]]
> * [[Day of the Triffids]] 
> * [[The Time Machine]] (1960)
> * [[2001 A Space Odyssey]]
> * [[Dark Star]]
> * [[Star Wars]] (1977- )
> * [[Star Trek]]
> * [[Alien]] (1979)
> * [[Outland]] 
> * [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]]
> * [[Blade Runner]]
> * [[Dune]] 
> * [[The Terminator]] (1984)
> * [[The Abyss]] 
> * [[Mission to Mars]]  
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984168553
12c12
< The diagonal slash argument is an example of [[Reductio ad absurdum]].
---
> The diagonal slash argument is an example of [[reductio ad absurdum]].
------
Feature_requests|984168607
6c6
< 
---
> # The wiki software could be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>.  In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>).  But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words.  (For discussion, see [[naming conventions]].) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
11c11,12
< * [[Free Links]]; renaming/deleting function
---
> * [[Free Links]]
> * Renaming/deleting function
------
Chess/Pawn|984169135
7c7,8
< * A pawn that advances all the way to its eighth rank (the opposing player's first rank) is ''promoted'' to a queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses (the other pieces already on the board make no difference; a player is entitled to have several queens, for example, if he promotes several pawns).  This promotion occurs immediately upon the pawn's advancement, before the opposing player's next move (if the new piece, for example, checkmates the opposing player, the game is won).
---
> 
> A pawn that advances all the way to its eighth rank (the opposing player's first rank) is ''promoted'' to a queen, rook, bishop, or knight as the player chooses (the other pieces already on the board make no difference; a player is entitled to have several queens, for example, if he promotes several pawns).  This promotion occurs immediately upon the pawn's advancement, before the opposing player's next move (if the new piece, for example, checkmates the opposing player, the game is won).
------
Real_numbers|984169179
8a9,10
> The real numbers are the unique field satisfying these properties.  There are various other properties that uniquely specify them; for instance, all unbounded, continuous, and separable order topologies are necessarily isomorphic to the reals.
> 
------
Velvet_Underground|984169251
9c9
< At first the band were managed by artist [[Andy Warhol]], at whose instigation they featured German chanteuse [[Nico]] on their debut album, which featured a mixture of obsessive love songs and tales of excess.  Nico had been jettisoned by the second album, which included the darkly comic "The Gift", narrated in Cale's deadpan [[Wales|Welsh]] accent.
---
> At first the band were managed by artist [[Andy Warhol]], at whose instigation they featured German chanteuse [[Nico]] on their debut album, which featured a mixture of obsessive love songs and tales of hedonism.  Nico had been jettisoned by the second album, which included the darkly comic "The Gift", narrated in Cale's deadpan [[Wales|Welsh]] accent.
26c26
< * [[/Another View]]
---
> * [[/Another View]]
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984169332
12a13,14
> 
> ''Is the diagonal slash argument the usual term for this?  I've seen it many times, in various sources and on the internet, and I don't think I've ever seen the word slash applied to the title.  Usually it's just something like the diagonalization argument.''
------
Countably_infinite|984169427
18c18
< It is easy to show that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[diagonal slash argument]].
---
> There are other, uncountable infinites.  It is easy to show, for instance, that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[diagonal slash argument]].  The countable infinite is the smallest one.
------
Feature_requests|984169503
8a9,24
> Wow, I'm so famous I'm used in a capitalization example.
> 
> More explicitly, we need an algorithm to convert free link text into the free link address. As far as I can tell, the current code looks like this :
> #covert all spaces to underscores.
> #uppercase the first letter
> 
> A more comprehensive approach might be
> #convert all bad characters (at least spaces perhaps as much as all characters except [a-z A-Z 0-9]) to underscores.
> #delete all leading and trailing underscores, replace any strings of underscores to a single underscore
> #uppercase the first letter, and any letter that follows an underscore
> 
> Can anyone improve upon this approach?
> 
> I assume they aren't needed, but I'd be more than happy to volunteer my coding skills to make this (or other things) happen.
> 
> ----
------
Feature_requests|984169537
22a23
> [[Andy Jewell]]
------
Godels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984169581
1,5c1
< Mathematical theorem proven by [[Kurt Godel]].  Somewhat simplified, this states that in any axiomatic system sufficiently complex to allow one to do mathematics one can construct a statement that can be neither proved nor disproved within that system.
< 
< In effect, Godel's proof consisted of formally constructing the statement "This statement is false" within the system.
< 
< The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard [[Set Theory]] the truth or falsity of the [[continuum hypothesis]] is similarly undecidable.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Goedels Incompleteness Theorem]]
------
Feature_requests|984169694
18a19,21
> #lowercase all characters that were not explicitly uppercased in #3
> 
> Can anyone improve upon this approach? Perhaps step four is going too far, I could easily be talked out of it.
20d22
< Can anyone improve upon this approach?
------
Goedels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984169756
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematical theorem proven by [[Kurt Goedel]. Somewhat simplified, this states that in any axiomatic system sufficiently complex to allow one to do mathematics one can construct a statement that can be neither proved nor disproved within that system. 
> In effect, Godel's proof consisted of formally constructing the statement "This statement is false" within the system. 
> 
> The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
> 
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
> 
------
Goedels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984169773
1c1
< Mathematical theorem proven by [[Kurt Goedel]. Somewhat simplified, this states that in any axiomatic system sufficiently complex to allow one to do mathematics one can construct a statement that can be neither proved nor disproved within that system. 
---
> Mathematical theorem proven by [[Kurt Goedel]]. Somewhat simplified, this states that in any axiomatic system sufficiently complex to allow one to do mathematics one can construct a statement that can be neither proved nor disproved within that system. 
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984169813
13c13
< 
---
> ----
14a15,16
> 
> This is the name I was first taught it under, and I guess it stuck.  I have seen it called this in some textbooks, but also "diagonal method", "diagonalisation argument" and others.
------
MathematicianS|984169833
17c17
< : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, KurtGodel 
---
> : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, [[Kurt Goedel]] 
------
Factorial|984169837
1c1
< The factorial of a positive integer, n, denoted "n!", is the product of the positive integers less than or equal to n.  e.g. 
---
> The factorial of a positive integer, n, denoted "n!", is the product of the positive integers less than or equal to n.  E.g.,
3c3,5
< : 10! = 10 * 9 * 8 * 7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 *1 = 3628800
---
> : 10! = 10 * 9 * 8 * 7 * 6 * 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 3628800
> 
> It is convenient for many applications to define 0! as 1.  There is also the related [[gamma function]], which is defined over the domain of non-negative [[real number]]s in such a way that gamma(x) = x! when x is a positive integer.
5d6
< It is possible to define factorial for numbers other than positive integers, but to do so requires the use of the [[gamma function]].
------
Factorial|984169950
5c5
< It is convenient for many applications to define 0! as 1.  There is also the related [[gamma function]], which is defined over the domain of non-negative [[real number]]s in such a way that gamma(x) = x! when x is a positive integer.
---
> 0! is defined to be 1, by working the relationship n! = n(n-1)! backwards.  There is also the related [[gamma function]], which is defined over the domain of non-negative [[real number]]s in such a way that gamma(x+1) = x! when x is a positive integer.
------
Goedels_Incompleteness_Theorem|984169967
2c2
< In effect, Godel's proof consisted of formally constructing the statement "This statement is false" within the system. 
---
> In effect, Goedel's proof consisted of formally constructing the statement "This statement is false" within the system. 
4c4
< The combined work of Godel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
---
> The combined work of Goedel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
------
Paul_Cohen|984170002
1c1
< American [[mathematics|mathematician]], noted for showing that the negation of the [[continuum hypothesis]] was consistent with the standard axioms of [[Set Theory|set theory]].  In conjunction with the earlier work of [[Kurt Godel|Godel]], this showed that the continuum hypothesis could be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms.
---
> American [[mathematics|mathematician]], noted for showing that the negation of the [[continuum hypothesis]] was consistent with the standard axioms of [[Set Theory|set theory]].  In conjunction with the earlier work of [[Kurt Goedel|Goedel]], this showed that the continuum hypothesis could be neither proved nor disproved from these axioms.
3c3
< This result is possibly the most famous non-trivial example illustrating [[Godels Incompleteness Theorem]].
---
> This result is possibly the most famous non-trivial example illustrating [[Goedels Incompleteness Theorem]].
------
Diagonal_slash_argument|984170064
1,16c1
< A logical argument devised by [[Georg Cantor]] to demonstrate that the [[real numbers]] are not [[countably infinite]].
< 
< It proceeds as follows:
< #Suppose the [[real numbers]] are countably infinite.
< #We may now enumerate them as a sequence, {r<sub>1</sub>,r<sub>2</sub>,r<sub>3</sub>,...}
< #We shall now construct a real number, x, by considering the nth digit of the decimal expansion of r<sub>n</sub>. Our real number x will be between 0 and 1.
< ::If the nth digit of r<sub>n</sub> is 0, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 1
< ::Otherwise, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 0
< 
< x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.  This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
< 
< The diagonal slash argument is an example of [[reductio ad absurdum]].
< ----
< ''Is the diagonal slash argument the usual term for this?  I've seen it many times, in various sources and on the internet, and I don't think I've ever seen the word slash applied to the title.  Usually it's just something like the diagonalization argument.''
< 
< This is the name I was first taught it under, and I guess it stuck.  I have seen it called this in some textbooks, but also "diagonal method", "diagonalisation argument" and others.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cantors Diagonal argument]]
------
Cantors_Diagonal_argument|984170103
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical argument devised by [[Georg Cantor]] to demonstrate that the [[real numbers]] are not [[countably infinite]].
> 
> It proceeds as follows:
> #Suppose the [[real numbers]] are countably infinite.
> #We may now enumerate them as a sequence, {r<sub>1</sub>,r<sub>2</sub>,r<sub>3</sub>,...}
> #We shall now construct a real number, x, by considering the nth digit of the decimal expansion of r<sub>n</sub>. Our real number x will be between 0 and 1.
> ::If the nth digit of r<sub>n</sub> is 0, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 1
> ::Otherwise, let the nth in digit the decimal expansion of x be 0
> 
> x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.  This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
> 
> The diagonal argument is an example of [[reductio ad absurdum]].  It is also called the diagonalization argument or the diagonal slash argument.
------
Factorial|984170136
5,6c5,7
< 0! is defined to be 1, by working the relationship n! = n(n-1)! backwards.  There is also the related [[gamma function]], which is defined over the domain of non-negative [[real number]]s in such a way that gamma(x+1) = x! when x is a positive integer.
< 
---
> 0! is defined to be 1, by working the relationship n! = n(n-1)! backwards.  There is also the related [[gamma function]], which is defined over the domain of non-negative [[real numbers]] in such a way that gamma(x+1) = x! when x is a positive integer.
> ----
> Gamma(z) may also defined for [[complex numbers]] on a suitably cut [[Riemann sheet]]
------
Countably_infinite|984170249
18c18
< There are other, uncountable infinites.  It is easy to show, for instance, that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[diagonal slash argument]].  The countable infinite is the smallest one.
---
> There are other, uncountable infinites.  It is easy to show, for instance, that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[Cantors Diagonal argument|diagonal argument]].  The countable infinite is the smallest one.
------
Factorial|984170317
7c7
< Gamma(z) may also defined for [[complex numbers]] on a suitably cut [[Riemann sheet]]
---
> Gamma(z) may also be defined for [[complex numbers]] on a suitably cut [[Riemann sheet]]
------
SandBox|984170432
113a114,115
> /Talk
> 
------
Naming_conventions|984170475
15c15
< Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  More generally, the ideal of simplicity is sometimes at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
---
> Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  If we ignore potential ambiguity, the ideal of simplicity can be at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
105c105
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
SandBox/Talk|984170532
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I want to talk about /Talk.
------
Games/Computer|984170619
20a21,26
> 
> ----
> 
> ''Most references you will find separate out video games, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no, but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
> 
> ''Do we want this to be a subcategory of Games?  I can see many things wanting to go here, like history of computer games, and it seems odd that they would either be independent subcategories of a subpage or direct subpages of games.  I'm voting again that this becomes a top-level category.''
------
SandBox/Talk|984170653
1c1,3
< I want to talk about /Talk.
---
> I want to talk about /Talk.
> 
> But it seems one cannot make sub-sub-pages.  Only sub-pages.
------
The_Beatles|984170983
5,16c5,16
< *Please, Please Me
< *With The Beatles
< *A Hard Days Night
< *Beatles For Sale
< *Help!
< *Rubber Soul
< *Revolver
< *Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
< *The Beatles (aka The White Album)
< *Yellow Submarine
< *Abbey Road
< *Let It Be.
---
> *[[/Please Please Me|/Please, Please Me]]
> *[[/With The Beatles]]
> *[[/A Hard Days Night]]
> *[[/Beatles For Sale]]
> *[[/Help|/Help!]]
> *[[/Rubber Soul]]
> *[[/Revolver]]
> *[[/Sgt Pepper|Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]
> *[[/The White Album|/The Beatles]] (aka The White Album)
> *[[Yellow Submarine]]
> *[[Abbey Road]]
> *[[Let It Be]]
21c21
< By 1966 the influence of [[Drugs]], the [[Hippie]] movement, and the studio technique of producer [[George Martin]] resulted in the albums [[Revolver]] and [[Sgt Pepper]], still widely regarded as classics.  By then, the stress of their fame was beginning to tell and the band was on the verge of splitting by the release of [[The White Album]], with many tracks recorded by the band members individually.  By 1970 the band had split, with each of the members going on to solo careers with varying degrees of success.
---
> By 1966 the influence of [[drugs]], the [[hippie]] movement, and the studio technique of producer [[George Martin]] resulted in the albums [[/Revolver]] and [[/Sgt Pepper]], still widely regarded as classics.  By then, the stress of their fame was beginning to tell and the band was on the verge of splitting by the release of [[/The White Album]], with many tracks recorded by the band members individually.  By 1970 the band had split, with each of the members going on to solo careers with varying degrees of success.
------
Mathematics|984171125
12c12
< :SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
---
> :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984171190
111a112
> <br>Sorry, but you cannot create subsubpages: /Talk/TalkAboutTalk
------
Real_numbers|984171286
10a11
> The [[MathematicalLimit|limit]] of any convergent sequence of rational numbers is a real number.  The real numbers may be [[construction of real numbers|constructed]] from the [[IntegerNumbers|integers]] by considering equivalence classes of such sequences.
------
World_War_II|984171397
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], which is more accurately called the[[Sino-Japanese War]], the [[Pacific]] islands, and [[Southeast Asia]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939. Before WWII, many [[European]] [[fascist]]s fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]], to train and to get rid of some [[communist]]s.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], sometimes called the [[Sino-Japanese War]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939, as well as the invasions of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], and [[Finland]] by the [[Soviet Union]], also in 1939.
4c4,45
< It ended in 1945.
---
> On June 22, 1941, [[Germany]] invaded [[Russia]], ending a two year alliance betwen the two countries.
> 
> On December 7, 1941, [[Japan]] attacked the American naval base at [[Pearl Harbor]], bringing the [[United States]] into the war.  Japan then invaded numerous [[Pacific Islands]] and countries in Southeast Asia.  Germany declared war on the United States shortly after Pearl Harbor.
> 
> The combatants after 1941 were:
>  *Allied powers
>  [[China]]
>  [[France]]
>  [[Russia]]
>  [[United Kingdom]]
>  [[United States]]
> 
>  *Axis powers
>  [[Finland]]
>  [[Germany]]
>  [[Italy]]
>  [[Japan]]
>  [[Romania]]
> 
> It ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers.
> 
>  *Major battles of World War Two
>  [[/Pearl Harbor]]
>  [[/Midway]]
>  [[/Guadalcanal]]
>  [[/Battle of the Atlantic]]
>  [[/Leyte Gulf]]
>  [[/Stalingrad]]
> 
>  *Major figures of World War Two
>  [[Dwight Eisenhower]]
>  [[Douglas MacArthur]]
>  [[Chester Nimitz]]
>  [[George Patton]]
>  [[Franklin Roosevelt]]
>  [[Winston Chruchill]]
>  [[Benito Mussolini]]
>  [[Charles DeGaulle]]
>  [[Adolph Hitler]]
>  [[Chiang Kai-Shek]]
>  [[Josph Stalin]]
>  [[Hideki Tojo]]
------
World_War_II|984171422
2c2
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]], sometimes called the [[Sino-Japanese War]] in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939, as well as the invasions of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], and [[Finland]] by the [[Soviet Union]], also in 1939.
---
> [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]] ([[Sino-Japanese War]]) in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939, as well as the invasions of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], and [[Finland]] by the [[Soviet Union]], also in 1939.
------
World_War_II|984171443
4c4
< On June 22, 1941, [[Germany]] invaded [[Russia]], ending a two year alliance betwen the two countries.
---
> On June 22, 1941, [[Germany]] invaded [[Russia]], ending a two year alliance between the two countries.
------
Texas|984171479
14c14
< It was the only state in the [[United States]] to be a sovergin
---
> It was the only state in the [[United States]] to be a sovereign
------
World_War_II|984171491
44c44
<  [[Josph Stalin]]
---
>  [[Joseph Stalin]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984171624
18,19c18
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.
< Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that free links are nicer.)
---
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that free links are nicer.)
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984171700
15a16
> * Generally, see [[naming conventions]] and [[Free Links]].
18c19
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that free links are nicer.)
---
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
------
World_War_II|984171848
31a32,34
>  [[/El Alamein]]
>  [[/Battle of the Bulge]]
>  [[/Battle of Britain]]
39c42,43
<  [[Winston Chruchill]]
---
>  [[Winston Churchill]]
>  [[Bernard Montgomery]]
------
Rock_and_roll|984172007
27c27
< * [[Punk Rock]]
---
> * [[Punk rock]]
------
Bob_Dylan|984172139
7c7
< In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1997) and "Time Out Of Mind"(2000).
---
> In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout the 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1997) and "Time Out Of Mind"(2000).
10,14c10,14
< * The Freewheelin Bob Dylan (1963)
< * Bringing It All Back Home (1965)
< * Highway 61 Revisited (1966)
< * Blonde On Blonde (1966)
< * Blood On The Tracks (1974)
---
> * [[/The Freewheelin Bob Dylan]] (1963)
> * [[/Bringing It All Back Home]] (1965)
> * [[/Highway 61 Revisited]] (1966)
> * [[/Blonde On Blonde]] (1966)
> * [[/Blood On The Tracks]] (1974)
------
World_War_II|984172782
1,2c1
< The largest armed conflict ever.  It had its beginnings in 
< [[Japan]]'s invasion of [[China]] ([[Sino-Japanese War]]) in the 1930s and [[Germany]]'s invasion of [[Poland]] on 1st [[September]] 1939, as well as the invasions of [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], and [[Finland]] by the [[Soviet Union]], also in 1939.
---
> The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb, turned against the civilian population (rather than the soldiers) to a larger extent then ever before.  It had its beginning in expansion attempts by [[Germany]] - invading [[Austria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and finally [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) in its quest for ''Lebensraum'', resulting in a declaration of war from [[Britain]] and [[France]].
4c3
< On June 22, 1941, [[Germany]] invaded [[Russia]], ending a two year alliance between the two countries.
---
> France fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''Blitzkrieg'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
6c5,7
< On December 7, 1941, [[Japan]] attacked the American naval base at [[Pearl Harbor]], bringing the [[United States]] into the war.  Japan then invaded numerous [[Pacific Islands]] and countries in Southeast Asia.  Germany declared war on the United States shortly after Pearl Harbor.
---
> That same year war spread to the Pacific.  [[Japan]], formally Germany's ally, attacked the American naval base at [[Pearl Harbor]] in an attempt to destroy their aircraft carriers, and subsequently invaded numerous [[Pacific Islands]] and countries in southeast Asia.
> 
> Eventually the allied powers, now including the states, were victorious.  Germany's power was broken by his disastrous Russian campaign, and the succesful liberation of France reopened the western front on the continent.  Hitler commited suicide, the Russians took Berlin, and the country was partitioned.  By then Japan had begun to weaken as well, and surrendered after two of its civilian cities (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) were destroyed by nuclear weapons.  The war ended in 1945.
50a52,56
>  *Major bombings of World War Two
>  [[Dresden]]
>  [[Hiroshima]]
>  [[Nagasaki]]
> 
53c59
< See also: [[World War I]]
---
> See also: [[World War I]], [[Cold War]], etc.
------
World_War_II|984173202
5c5
< That same year war spread to the Pacific.  [[Japan]], formally Germany's ally, attacked the American naval base at [[Pearl Harbor]] in an attempt to destroy their aircraft carriers, and subsequently invaded numerous [[Pacific Islands]] and countries in southeast Asia.
---
> That same year war spread to the Pacific.  [[Japan]] had been active in attempts to expand its holdings, notably in the [[Sino-Japanese war]].  Now in an attempt to eliminate its main potential opposition, the American navy, it attacked [[Pearl Harbor]] and proceeded to invade much of southeast Asia and many Pacific islands.  Unfortunately for its ally, Germany, this also drew America into the European theatre.
------
Slime_mold|984174231
1c1,7
< Generic term for [[Amoeboid]]s of macroscopic size, that typically reproduce by producing [[sporangia]] like fungi do.  Slime molds are found in these groups: [[Myxomycetes]], [[Dictyosteliida]], [[Protostelida]], [[Acrasida]]), [[Labyrthinulida]], and [[Plasmodiophora]].
---
> The slime molds are various kinds of [[Protista]] that tend to have an amoeboid form and, like fungi, reproduce by producing [[spores]], usually within stalked structures called [[sporangia]].
> 
> Among the [[Myxomycota]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]] released from the spores.
> 
> Cellular slime molds start out as individual amoebae.  Under adverse conditions, though, they attract to one another and pile up to form a pseudoplasmodium or "slug".  Although the cells are still capable of functioning independently - a slug will come apart if it is shaken hard enough, and the amoebae will resume feeding - it has a distinct front and back end, and after a few days differentiates to form a sporangium.  This life cycle has evolved several times - among the [[Dictyosteliida]], [[Protostelida]], and [[Acrasida]], and actually among a group of prokaryotes called the [[Myxobacteria]].
> 
> Other forms typically referred to as slime molds include the [[Labyrinthulids]] and the [[Plasmodiophorids]].
------
Slime_mold|984174270
3c3
< Among the [[Myxomycota]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]] released from the spores.
---
> Among the [[Myxomycetes]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]] released from the spores.
7c7
< Other forms typically referred to as slime molds include the [[Labyrinthulids]] and the [[Plasmodiophorids]].
---
> Other forms typically referred to as slime molds include the [[Labyrinthulids]] and the [[Plasmodiophorids]].
------
Ramicristates|984174445
7,9c7,9
< The true [[slime mold]]s ([[Myxomycetes]]) also belong to this group.  These take the form of a multinucleate ''plasmodium'', which grows to macroscopic size.  Eventually stalked [[sporangia]] develop and release [[haploid]] ''swarmers'' that go through an [[amoeboid]] and then a bi[[flagellate]] stage.  New plasmodia form from the fusion of two swarmers.
< 
< Sporangia are also produced in the [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], but these have a very different life cycle.  Individual amoebae under adverse conditions attract each other and pile up to form a ''slug''.  The slug's cells are still capable of functioning individually--it will come apart if shaken--but it has a distinct front and back and undergoes differentiation to form a stalked sporangium after a short time.  Such creatures are called cellular [[slime mold]]s, and also occur among the [[Acrasida]]; the [[Myxobacteria]] are also similar.
---
> Three types of [[slime mold]]s also belong this group:
> * The [[Myxomycetes]], true slime molds, which form a multinucleate ''plasmodium'' and are unusual in having a flagellate stage;
> * The [[Dictyosteliida]] and [[Protostelida]], both of which are cellular slime molds.
------
Slime_mold|984174468
3c3
< Among the [[Myxomycetes]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]] released from the spores.
---
> Among the [[Myxomycetes]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]], called swarmers, released from the spores.
------
Factorial|984176764
7a8,9
> ----
> There is a shorthand formula that n! = 2^n -1 (or something like that).
------
World_War_II|984176981
59c59,65
< See also: [[World War I]], [[Cold War]], etc.
---
> See also: 
> *[[World War I]]
> *[[Cold war]]
> *[[Korean war]]
> *[[Vietnam war]]
> *[[Spanish American war]]
> *[[Total war]]
------
World_War_II|984177030
3c3
< France fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''Blitzkrieg'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
---
> France fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
------
Games|984177960
1c1,4
< People play games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.
---
> People throughout history have played games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.
> 
> Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
> 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
12,16c15
< In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order
< to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
< 
< Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
< 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."
---
> Many branches of [[mathematics]] are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
18d16
< [[game theory|Game theory]] is a branch of mathematics that deals specifically with games, for example computing the average win on games such as the roulette. These computations make heavy use of [[Probability and Statistics]]. However, game theory is not limited to [[Games of Chance|games of chance]].
------
Europe|984178077
5c5
< Perhaps the name Europe is derived from [[Europa]], but probably things are the other way around or the explanation is based on a coincidence (as with the [[Myrmidons]]).
---
> In terms of population the second biggest continent after [[Asia]].
7c7,9
< Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocs. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern bloc broke up.   See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> The name Europe is derived from [[Europa]].
> 
> Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocks. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern block broke up.  See HistoryOfEurope.
57c59
< Sometimes the term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxemburg]]
---
> The term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxemburg]] which are core members of the [[European Union]].
------
Jpmartin|984178374
5c5,7
< Are official welcomes possible on Wikipedia?  If so, here is one!  Welcome!  I am guessing that you are a Swiss programmer.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Are official welcomes possible on Wikipedia?  If so, here is one!  Welcome!  I am guessing that you are a Swiss programmer.  ;-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> Thanks for the official welcome... and good guess! For the time being I live in the US, studying at the [http://www.utexas.edu University of Texas at Austin]. My main interests are distributed computing, security and software engineering. Finding my home page at UT is left as an exercise for the reader.
------
Europa|984178455
1c1
< In [[Greek Mythology]] a Phoenician princess. As [[Zeus]] saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and (?) [[Idomeneus]].
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]] a Phoenician princess. As [[Zeus]] saw her he fell in love with her. He assumes the guise of a bull and kidnaped her to [[Crete]]. She bore him some children, [[Minos]],  [[Rhabdamanthus]], and [[Sarpedon]].
3c3,5
< Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in languages like [[Danish]], [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Smallest of the [[Galilean Moons]] of planet [[Jupiter]].
> 
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Europe|984178938
9c9
< Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocks. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Arround 1990 the Eastern block broke up.  See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocks. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Around 1990 the Eastern block broke up.  See HistoryOfEurope.
------
Game_theory|984179493
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Though touched on by earlier mathematical results, modern game theory became a prominent branch of mathematics in the 1940s, especially after the publication of [[The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior]] by [[John von Neumann]] and [[Oskar Morgenstern]].  Game theory differs from the related field of [[economics]] in that it seeks to find rational strategies in situations where the outcome depends not only on one's own strategy and "market conditions", but upon the strategies chosen by other players with possibly different or overlapping goals.
> 
> As with [[economics]], the results can be applied to simple games of entertainment or to more significant decisions about life and society.  An example of the latter is the [[prisoners dilemma]] as popularized by mathematician [[Albert W. Tucker]].
------
E|984179630
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vowel, [[ASCII]] code 69.
> 
> In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[cryptograhpy]]:)
------
Ciliates|984179783
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ciliates (Ciliata, Ciliophora) are one of the most important groups of [[Protista]], common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, soils - with a few parasitic members.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  They belong to a group called the [[Alveolates]], along with the [[Dinoflagellates]] and [[Apicomplexa]].
> 
> Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different kinds of [[nuclei]]: a large, [[polyploid]] macronucleus responsible for protein synthesis, and one or more small [[diploid]] micronuclei.  In asexual reproduction, which is by fission, the micronuclei undergo closed [[mitosis]] but the macronucleus simply pinches in half.  Sexual reproduction is necessary from time to time and occurs through [[conjugation]] - two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis and some are exchanged, and the macronuclei disintegrate.  The micronuclei then undergo fusion and are used to reform the macronucleus.
> 
> The name "ciliate" comes from numerous, short flagella called ''cilia'' that are present at some point in every group.  Each cilium arises from a structure called a kinetosome, which are grouped into distinctive rows called kineties that coordinate their motion.  Also associated with the cell surface is a flexible [[pellicle]] composed of alveoli, a series of microfilaments that separate these outermost structures from the interior, and various accessories like defensive [[trichocysts]].
> 
> Many ciliates feed on smaller organisms like bacteria, but a few are predatory.  There is at least one distinct cytostome (mouth), usually surrounded by cilia that draw in food, at the end of which bud off a series of digestive [[vacuoles]] that circulate through the cell on a definite course before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present; these have a distinctive star-shape.
> 
> Among the [[Suctoria]] adults live attached to the substrate and lack cilia altogether.  Aside from them, cilia are always present on at least part of the body, especially around the mouth, where they may be fused together to form membranelles or undulating membranes.  Elsewhere cilia may be clumped into tufts called ''cirri''.  Ciliates move either by swimming or crawling, although many adults are sessile.
> 
> 
> 
------
Protista|984179837
7,10c7,10
< ** [[Flagellate|flagellates]]
< ** [[Amoeboid|amoeboids]]
< ** [[Sporozoa|sporozoans]]
< ** [[Ciliophora]] (ciliates)
---
> ** [[Flagellate|Flagellates]]
> ** [[Amoeboid|Amoeboids]]
> ** [[Sporozoa|Sporozoans]]
> ** [[Ciliates]]
31c31
<  Phylum [[Ciliophora]]
---
>  Phylum [[Ciliates|Ciliophora]]
------
AtlasShrugged/John_Galt|984180277
1,3c1
< The question "Who is John Galt" is repeatedly throughout AtlasShrugged.  Late into the book we learn the John Galt is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the /Strikers.  He is also the same character as /MysteryWorker.
< 
< There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/John Galt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Wilmington|984180368
1c1
< In /SectioN121 /PhilipRearden mentions visiting Wilmington.  Presumably this is Wilmington, Delaware.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wilmington]]
------
AtlasShrugged/NewYork|984180394
1,8c1
< The home of Taggart Transcontinental and the scene of much of the action in AtlasShrugged.  New York is treated as the cultural and intellectual center of the /UnitedStates.
< 
< It appears in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN113
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN141
<  - /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/New York]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Strikers|984180432
1,15c1
< The men of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by the /Looters and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence.
< 
< The leader of the Strikers is [[/John Galt|John Galt]].
< 
< Other /Strikers include:
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
<  /RagnarDanneskjold
<  /RichardHalley
< 
< Characters who join the /Strikers in the course of the book include:
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
<  /McNamara
<  /OwenKellogg
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Strikers]]
------
CountriesM|984180536
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6d3
< 
8d4
< 
10d5
< 
12c7,8
< 
---
> * [[Martinique]]
> * [[Mauretania]]
14d9
< 
16c11
< 
---
> * [[Moldova]]
18d12
< 
20d13
< 
22d14
< 
------
World_War_II|984180841
1c1
< The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb, turned against the civilian population (rather than the soldiers) to a larger extent then ever before.  It had its beginning in expansion attempts by [[Germany]] - invading [[Austria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and finally [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) in its quest for ''Lebensraum'', resulting in a declaration of war from [[Britain]] and [[France]].
---
> The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb, turned against the civilian population (rather than the soldiers) to a larger extent then ever before.  
3c3,16
< France fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the
> [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment
> of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis and [[hiperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible for the [[Nazi]] Party to get to the power. [[Adolf Hitler]] made the 
> german masses dream with supremacy, while putting the blame for 
> all the problems of the country in the [[Jews]]. Soon he was 
> asking for ''[[Lebensraum]]'', ''vital space'' for 'all the german people', that included [[Austria]], and the [[Sudeten]], german
> speaking region of [[Czechoslovakia]]. [[Austria]] was absorbed by Germany in the ''[[Ansschluss]]'', and the western leaders allowed him to annex the Sudeten, in a vane attempt to prevent war. [[Britain]] and [[France]] only reacted when he invaded [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) and declared war.
> 
> The [[League of Nations]], that had been created after WWI to
> prevent another war, was unable to do anything. Among the reason
> for its powerlessness is the fact that the United States, in
> a very isolacionist phase after WWI, had refused to join.
> 
> [[France]] fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
------
Ciliates|984180872
10a11
> The current classification of ciliates is as follows:
11a13,35
> * Class [[Prostomatea]]
> * Class [[Litostomatea]]
> ** Subclass [[Haptoria]] (''Didinium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Trichostomatia]] (''Balantidium'', etc)
> * Class [[Karyorelictea]]
> * Class [[Spirotrichea]]
> ** Subclass [[Heterotrichia]] (''Blepharisma'', ''Stentor'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Choreotrichia]] (''Tintinnidium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Stichotrichia]] (''Stylonychia'', etc)
> * Class [[Phyllopharyngea]]
> ** Subclass [[Phyllopharyngia]]
> ** Subclass [[Chonotrichia]]
> ** Subclass [[Suctoria]]
> * Class [[Nassophorea]]
> ** Subclass [[Nassophoria]] (''Paramecium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Hypotricha]] (''Euplotes'', etc)
> * Class [[Colpodea]] (''Colpoda'', etc)
> * Class [[Oligohymenophorea]]
> ** Subclass [[Hymenostomatia]] (''Tetrahymena'', ''Ichthyophthirius'', ''Colpidium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Peritricha]] (''Vorticella'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Astomatia]]
> ** Subclass [[Apostomatia]]
> ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
------
World_War_II|984181027
9c9
< speaking region of [[Czechoslovakia]]. [[Austria]] was absorbed by Germany in the ''[[Ansschluss]]'', and the western leaders allowed him to annex the Sudeten, in a vane attempt to prevent war. [[Britain]] and [[France]] only reacted when he invaded [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) and declared war.
---
> speaking region of [[Czechoslovakia]]. [[Austria]] was absorbed by Germany in the ''[[Ansschluss]]'', and the western leaders allowed him to annex the Sudeten, in a vane attempt to prevent war. [[Britain]] and [[France]] only reacted when he invaded [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) and declared war, and even then a week after the fact (they had promised immediate aid).
------
Europa|984181137
3c3
< Smallest of the [[Galilean Moons]] of planet [[Jupiter]].
---
> The smallest of the [[Galilean Moons]] of planet [[Jupiter]] is named after her: see [[/Moon]].
------
Numerology|984181178
1c1
< <b>Numerology</b> is the study of numbers as they relate to characteristics of physical objects and living things.  
---
> <b>Numerology</b> is an arcane study of the mystical relationship between numbers and the character or action of physical objects and living things.  
9c9,19
< To date, there is no known scientific verification for the validity of claimed numerological principles.  Numerology has thus been classified among pseudo-(false) sciences.
---
> To date, there is no known scientific verification for the validity of claimed numerological principles.  Numerology has thus been classified among pseudo-(false) sciences.  True science, as recognized in modern society, is based on the [[Scientific Method]] and requires that assertions answer to the regular and replicable use of this method to be considered as scientifically verifiable fact.  
> 
> Numerologists reply that their study does not answer to science as the mechanisms of interaction between universal vibration and gross physical things are too subtle to be detected, measured or quantified by tools currently available to science.  Empirical observations relating to the regular and predictable mathematical relationships between things in the universe are pointed to as evidence of a numerological fabric underlying all things.
> 
> Numerology is by no means a unified study.  Proponents of its veracity may be generally divided into three schools.  With limited elaboration:
> 
> 1)  Numerology is true by Divine fiat and contains clues placed into the fabric of the universe by the Almighty for the enlightened to decipher, thereby bringing them closer to unity with a Grand Plan.
> 
> 2)  Numerology is true because of universal spiritual agreement between all life on one level or another.  And because the Universe is the product of the mean (as in statistical mean) agreement between all of life everywhere, the agreement on mathematical regularity in the universe creates a Numerological sub-fabric throughout the universe.
> 
> 3)  Numerology is true because it is a reflection of Natural Law, giving clues to the state of a complex of vibrations which regulate function and existence in the universe.  The failure of modern science to verify this fact is merely a reflection of insufficient advances in science.  After all, science once believed all matter was composed of earth, air, fire and water in different combinations.  If and when science is sufficiently advanced, it will be able to verify the truth of numerology.
29a40,41
> ----
> OK - there's some more.  Perhaps the author could develop it from here.
------
Greek|984181206
6c6
< ''See also'':  [[Greek Language]], [[Hellenic Civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], [[Greek Mythology]]
---
> ''See also'':  [[Greek language]], [[Hellenic civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], [[Greek Mythology]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actress|984181394
1c1,77
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners... 
> 
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best actor in 1999. 
> 
> *1999 Hilary Swank - [[Boys Dont Cry|Boys Don't Cry]]
> *1998 Gwyneth Paltrow - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
> *1997 Helen Hunt - [[As Good As It Gets]]
> *1996 Frances McDormand - [[Fargo]]
> *1995 Susan Sarandon - [[Dead Man Walking]]
> *1994 Jessica Lange - [[Blue Sky]]
> *1993 Holly Hunter - [[The Piano]]
> *1992 Emma Thompson - [[Howards End]]
> *1991 Jodie Foster - [[The Silence Of The Lambs]]
> *1990 Kathy Bates - [[Misery]]
> *1989 Jessica Tandy - [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
> *1988 Jodie Foster - [[The Accused]]
> *1987 Cher - [[Moonstruck]]
> *1986 Marlee Matlin - [[Children Of A Lesser God]]
> *1985 Geraldine Page - [[The Trip To Bountiful]]
> *1984 Sally Field - [[Places In The Heart]]
> *1983 Shirley Maclaine - [[Terms Of Endearment]]
> *1982 Meryl Streep - [[Sophies Choice|Sophie's Choice]]
> *1981 Katharine Hepburn - [[On Golden Pond]]
> *1980 Sissy Spacek - [[Coal Miners Daughter|Coal Miner's Daughter]]
> *1979 Sally Field - [[Norma Rae]]
> *1978 Jane Fonda - [[Coming Home]]
> *1977 Diane Keaton - [[Annie Hall]]
> *1976 Faye Dunaway - [[Network]]
> *1975 Louise Fletcher - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
> *1974 Ellen Burstyn - [[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore|Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]
> *1973 Glenda Jackson - [[A Touch of Class]]
> *1972 Liza Minnelli - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 Jane Fonda - [[Klute]]
> *1970 Glenda Jackson - [[Women In Love]]
> *1969 Maggie Smith - [[The Prime Of Miss Jean Brodie]]
> *1968 Katharine Hepburn - [[The Lion In Winter]]
> Barbra Streisand - [[Funny Girl]]
> *1967 Katharine Hepburn - [[Guess Who's Coming To Dinner]]
> *1966 Elizabeth Taylor - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
> *1965 Julie Christie - [[Darling]]
> *1964 Julie Andrews - [[Mary Poppins]]
> *1963 Patricia Neal - [[Hud]]
> *1962 Anne Bancroft - [[The Miracle Worker]]
> *1961 Sophia Loren - [[Two Women]]
> *1960 Elizabeth Taylor - [[Butterfield 8]]
> *1959 Simone Signoret - [[Room At The Top]]
> *1958 Susan Hayward - [[I Want To Live|I Want To Live!]]
> *1957 Joanne Woodward - [[The Three Faces of Eve]]
> *1956 Ingrid Bergman - [[Anastasia]]
> *1955 Anna Magnani - [[The Rose Tattoo]]
> *1954 Grace Kelly - [[The Country Girl]]
> *1953 Audrey Hepburn - [[Roman Holiday]]
> *1952 Shirley Booth - [[Come Back Little Sheba|Come Back, Little Sheba]]
> *1951 Vivien Leigh - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 Judy Holliday - [[Born Yesterday]]
> *1949 Olivia De Havilland - [[The Heiress]]
> *1948 Jane Wyman - [[Johnny Belinda]]
> *1947 Loretta Young - [[The Farmers Daughter|The Farmer's Daughter]]
> *1946 Olivia De Havilland - [[To Each His Own]]
> *1945 Joan Crawford - [[Mildred Pierce]]
> *1944 Ingrid Bergman - [[Gaslight]]
> *1943 Jennifer Jones - [[The Song Of Bernadette]]
> *1942 Greer Garson - [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
> *1941 Joan Fontaine - [[Suspicion]]
> *1940 Ginger Rogers - [[Kitty Foyle]]
> *1939 Vivien Leigh - [[Gone With The Wind]]
> *1938 Bette Davis - [[Jezebel]]
> *1937 Luise Rainer - [[The Good Earth]]
> *1936 Luise Rainer - [[The Great Ziegfeld]]
> *1935 Bette Davis - [[Dangerous]]
> *1934 Claudette Colbert - [[It Happened One Night]]
> *1933 Katharine Hepburn - [[Morning Glory]]
> *1932 Helen Hayes - [[The Sin of Madelon Claudet]]
> *1931 Marie Dressler - [[Min and Bill]]
> *1930 Norma Shearer - [[The Divorcee]]
> *1929 Mary Pickford - [[Coquette]]
> *1928 Janet Gaynor - [[7th Heaven]], [[Street Angel]] and [[Sunrise]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actress|984181452
36,37c36
< *1968 Katharine Hepburn - [[The Lion In Winter]]
< Barbra Streisand - [[Funny Girl]]
---
> *1968 Katharine Hepburn - [[The Lion In Winter]], Barbra Streisand - [[Funny Girl]]
------
Ciliates|984181570
1,36c1
< The ciliates (Ciliata, Ciliophora) are one of the most important groups of [[Protista]], common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, soils - with a few parasitic members.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  They belong to a group called the [[Alveolates]], along with the [[Dinoflagellates]] and [[Apicomplexa]].
< 
< Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different kinds of [[nuclei]]: a large, [[polyploid]] macronucleus responsible for protein synthesis, and one or more small [[diploid]] micronuclei.  In asexual reproduction, which is by fission, the micronuclei undergo closed [[mitosis]] but the macronucleus simply pinches in half.  Sexual reproduction is necessary from time to time and occurs through [[conjugation]] - two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis and some are exchanged, and the macronuclei disintegrate.  The micronuclei then undergo fusion and are used to reform the macronucleus.
< 
< The name "ciliate" comes from numerous, short flagella called ''cilia'' that are present at some point in every group.  Each cilium arises from a structure called a kinetosome, which are grouped into distinctive rows called kineties that coordinate their motion.  Also associated with the cell surface is a flexible [[pellicle]] composed of alveoli, a series of microfilaments that separate these outermost structures from the interior, and various accessories like defensive [[trichocysts]].
< 
< Many ciliates feed on smaller organisms like bacteria, but a few are predatory.  There is at least one distinct cytostome (mouth), usually surrounded by cilia that draw in food, at the end of which bud off a series of digestive [[vacuoles]] that circulate through the cell on a definite course before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present; these have a distinctive star-shape.
< 
< Among the [[Suctoria]] adults live attached to the substrate and lack cilia altogether.  Aside from them, cilia are always present on at least part of the body, especially around the mouth, where they may be fused together to form membranelles or undulating membranes.  Elsewhere cilia may be clumped into tufts called ''cirri''.  Ciliates move either by swimming or crawling, although many adults are sessile.
< 
< The current classification of ciliates is as follows:
< 
< * Class [[Prostomatea]]
< * Class [[Litostomatea]]
< ** Subclass [[Haptoria]] (''Didinium'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Trichostomatia]] (''Balantidium'', etc)
< * Class [[Karyorelictea]]
< * Class [[Spirotrichea]]
< ** Subclass [[Heterotrichia]] (''Blepharisma'', ''Stentor'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Choreotrichia]] (''Tintinnidium'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Stichotrichia]] (''Stylonychia'', etc)
< * Class [[Phyllopharyngea]]
< ** Subclass [[Phyllopharyngia]]
< ** Subclass [[Chonotrichia]]
< ** Subclass [[Suctoria]]
< * Class [[Nassophorea]]
< ** Subclass [[Nassophoria]] (''Paramecium'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Hypotricha]] (''Euplotes'', etc)
< * Class [[Colpodea]] (''Colpoda'', etc)
< * Class [[Oligohymenophorea]]
< ** Subclass [[Hymenostomatia]] (''Tetrahymena'', ''Ichthyophthirius'', ''Colpidium'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Peritricha]] (''Vorticella'', etc)
< ** Subclass [[Astomatia]]
< ** Subclass [[Apostomatia]]
< ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ciliophora]]
------
Numerology|984181577
3c3
< In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.
---
> In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.  Classic numerology resolves all numbers related to an item down to a single digit, 0-9 or 1-9.  The number 324, for instance, would be resolved by adding 3+2+4 to arrive at 9.  12 and 16, appearing together in a date, would resolve to 10, hence 1, no matter in which order the elements are added. 
------
Ciliophora|984181597
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ciliates (Ciliophora) are one of the most important groups of [[Protista]], common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, soils - with a few parasitic members.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  They belong to a group called the [[Alveolates]], along with the [[Dinoflagellates]] and [[Apicomplexa]].
> 
> Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different kinds of [[nuclei]]: a large, [[polyploid]] macronucleus responsible for protein synthesis, and one or more small [[diploid]] micronuclei.  In asexual reproduction, which is by fission, the micronuclei undergo closed [[mitosis]] but the macronucleus simply pinches in half.  Sexual reproduction is necessary from time to time and occurs through [[conjugation]] - two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis and some are exchanged, and the macronuclei disintegrate.  The micronuclei then undergo fusion and are used to reform the macronucleus.
> 
> The name "ciliate" comes from numerous, short flagella called ''cilia'' that are present at some point in every group.  Each cilium arises from a structure called a kinetosome, which are grouped into distinctive rows called kineties that coordinate their motion.  Also associated with the cell surface is a flexible [[pellicle]] composed of alveoli, a series of microfilaments that separate these outermost structures from the interior, and various accessories like defensive [[trichocysts]].
> 
> Many ciliates feed on smaller organisms like bacteria, but a few are predatory.  There is at least one distinct cytostome (mouth), usually surrounded by cilia that draw in food, at the end of which bud off a series of digestive [[vacuoles]] that circulate through the cell on a definite course before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present; these have a distinctive star-shape.
> 
> Among the [[Suctoria]] adults live attached to the substrate and lack cilia altogether.  Aside from them, cilia are always present on at least part of the body, especially around the mouth, where they may be fused together to form membranelles or undulating membranes.  Elsewhere cilia may be clumped into tufts called ''cirri''.  Ciliates move either by swimming or crawling, although many adults are sessile.
> 
> The current classification of ciliates is as follows:
> 
> * Class [[Prostomatea]]
> * Class [[Litostomatea]]
> ** Subclass [[Haptoria]] (''Didinium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Trichostomatia]] (''Balantidium'', etc)
> * Class [[Karyorelictea]]
> * Class [[Spirotrichea]]
> ** Subclass [[Heterotrichia]] (''Blepharisma'', ''Stentor'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Choreotrichia]] (''Tintinnidium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Stichotrichia]] (''Stylonychia'', etc)
> * Class [[Phyllopharyngea]]
> ** Subclass [[Phyllopharyngia]]
> ** Subclass [[Chonotrichia]]
> ** Subclass [[Suctoria]]
> * Class [[Nassophorea]]
> ** Subclass [[Nassophoria]] (''Paramecium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Hypotricha]] (''Euplotes'', etc)
> * Class [[Colpodea]] (''Colpoda'', etc)
> * Class [[Oligohymenophorea]]
> ** Subclass [[Hymenostomatia]] (''Tetrahymena'', ''Ichthyophthirius'', ''Colpidium'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Peritricha]] (''Vorticella'', etc)
> ** Subclass [[Astomatia]]
> ** Subclass [[Apostomatia]]
> ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
> 
> 
------
Protista|984181634
10c10
< ** [[Ciliates]]
---
> ** [[Ciliophora|Ciliates (Ciliophora)]]
31c31
<  Phylum [[Ciliates|Ciliophora]]
---
>  Phylum [[Ciliophora]]
------
Ciliophora|984181780
11c11
< The current classification of ciliates is as follows:
---
> Ciliates are mainly classified according to the structure of the kinities.  The various classes are as follows:
------
Numerology|984181796
3c3
< In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.  Classic numerology resolves all numbers related to an item down to a single digit, 0-9 or 1-9.  The number 324, for instance, would be resolved by adding 3+2+4 to arrive at 9.  12 and 16, appearing together in a date, would resolve to 10, hence 1, no matter in which order the elements are added. 
---
> In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.  Classic numerology resolves all numbers related to an item down to a single digit, 0-9 or 1-9, pluss the "master numbers" 11 and 22.  The number 324, for instance, would be resolved by adding 3+2+4 to arrive at 9.  12 and 16, appearing together in a date, would resolve to 10, hence 1, no matter in which order the elements are added. 
------
Game_theory|984181808
1c1
< Though touched on by earlier mathematical results, modern game theory became a prominent branch of mathematics in the 1940s, especially after the publication of [[The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior]] by [[John von Neumann]] and [[Oskar Morgenstern]].  Game theory differs from the related field of [[economics]] in that it seeks to find rational strategies in situations where the outcome depends not only on one's own strategy and "market conditions", but upon the strategies chosen by other players with possibly different or overlapping goals.
---
> Though touched on by earlier mathematical results, modern game theory became a prominent branch of mathematics in the 1940s, especially after the 1944 publication of [[The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior]] by [[John von Neumann]] and [[Oskar Morgenstern]].  Game theory differs from the related field of [[economics]] in that it seeks to find rational strategies in situations where the outcome depends not only on one's own strategy and "market conditions", but upon the strategies chosen by other players with possibly different or overlapping goals.
3c3,10
< As with [[economics]], the results can be applied to simple games of entertainment or to more significant decisions about life and society.  An example of the latter is the [[prisoners dilemma]] as popularized by mathematician [[Albert W. Tucker]].
---
> As with [[economics]], the results can be applied to simple games of entertainment or to more significant aspects of life and society.  An example of the latter is the [[prisoners dilemma]] as popularized by mathematician [[Albert W. Tucker]], which has many implications about the nature of human cooperation.  Biologists have used game theory to understand and predict certain outcomes of evolution, such as the concept of [[evolutionarily stable strategy]] introduced by [[John Maynard Smith]] in his essay ''Game Theory and the Evolution of Fighting''.
> 
> Game theory classifies games into many categories that determine which particular methods can be applied to solving them (and indeed how one defines "solved" for a particular category).  Some common categories are:
> * ''Zero-sum'' games are those in which the total benefit to all players in the game must add to zero (or more informally put, that each player benefits only at the expense of another).  [[Chess]] and [[Poker]] are zero-sum games, because one wins exactly the amount one's opponents lose.  Business and politics, for example, are nonzero-sum games because some outcomes are good for all players or bad for all players.
> * ''Cooperative'' games are those in which the players may freely communicate among themselves before making game decisions and may make bargains to influence those decisions.
> * ''Complete information'' games are those in which each player has the same game-relevant information as every other player.  [[Chess]] is a complete-information game, while [[Poker]] is not.
> 
> Other branches of mathematics, in particular [[probability]] and [[statistics]], are commonly used in conjuction with game theory to analyse many games.
------
Real_numbers|984181914
7c7,8
< * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S.
---
> * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of
> S are less or equal than 'pi' (that is not rational). S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
------
E|984181960
3c3
< In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[cryptograhpy]]:)
---
> In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[CryptograhpY]]:)
------
Real_numbers|984182066
7,8c7
< * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of
< S are less or equal than 'pi' (that is not rational). S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
---
> * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of S are less or equal than 'pi' (that is not rational). S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
------
E|984182072
3c3
< In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[CryptograhpY]]:)
---
> In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[CryptographY]]:)
------
Numerology|984182127
3c3
< In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.  Classic numerology resolves all numbers related to an item down to a single digit, 0-9 or 1-9, pluss the "master numbers" 11 and 22.  The number 324, for instance, would be resolved by adding 3+2+4 to arrive at 9.  12 and 16, appearing together in a date, would resolve to 10, hence 1, no matter in which order the elements are added. 
---
> In its most basic application, a student of the field will use the name, birthdate and birthtime of an individual to analyze and define something of the personality and propensities of that individual.  Specific numbers are also assigned to the letters of the alphabet.  In this way, names of people, places and things can be assigned numerical values, thus giving them meaning in a numerologic context.  The asserted basis of numerology is that every object, place or being in the universe has a characteristic vibration, usually imperceptible to the human senses, and that the application of numerology to the thing being addressed can help to ascertain the characteristic vibration or vibrations which apply to it, thereby revealing something of its essence.  Classic numerology resolves all numbers related to an item down to a single digit, 0-9 or 1-9, plus the "master numbers" 11 and 22.  The number 324, for instance, would be resolved by adding 3+2+4 to arrive at 9.  12 and 16, appearing together in a date, would resolve to 10, hence 1, no matter in which order the elements are added. 
------
Real_numbers|984182184
7c7
< * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of S are less or equal than 'pi' (that is not rational). S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
---
> * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of S are less than or equal to 'pi' (that is not rational), S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actor|984182550
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners... 
> 
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best actor in 1999.
> 
> *1999 Michael Caine - [[The Cider House Rules]]
> *1998 James Coburn - [[Affliction]]
> *1997 Robin Williams - [[Good Will Hunting]]
> *1996 Cuba Gooding, Jr. - [[Jerry Maguire]]
> *1995 Kevin Spacey - [[The Usual Suspects]]
> *1994 Martin Landau - [[Ed Wood]]
> *1993 Tommy Lee Jones - [[The Fugitive]]
> *1992 Gene Hackman - [[Unforgiven]]
> *1991 Jack Palance - [[City Slickers]]
> *1990 Joe Pesci - [[Goodfellas]]
> *1989 Denzel Washington - [[Glory]]
> *1988 Kevin Kline - [[A Fish Called Wanda]]
> *1987 Sean Connery - [[The Untouchables]]
> *1986 Michael Caine - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
> *1985 Don Ameche - [[Cocoon]]
> *1984 Haing S. Ngor - [[The Killing Fields]]
> *1983 Jack Nicholson - [[Terms of Endearment]]
> *1982 Louis Gossett, Jr. - [[An Officer and A Gentleman]]
> *1981 John Gielgud - [[Arthur]]
> *1980 Timothy Hutton - [[Ordinary People]]
> *1979 Melvyn Douglas - [[Being There]]
> *1978 Christopher Walken - [[The Deer Hunter]]
> *1977 Jason Robards - [[Julia]]
> *1976 Jason Robards - [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]]
> *1975 George Burns - [[The Sunshine Boys]]
> *1974 Robert De Niro - [[The Godfather Part II]]
> *1973 John Houseman - [[The Paper Chase]]
> *1972 Joel Grey - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 Ben Johnson - [[The Last Picture Show]]
> *1970 John Mills - [[Ryans Daughter|Ryan's Daughter]]
> *1969 Gig Young - [[They Shoot Horses Dont They|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]
> *1968 Jack Albertson - [[The Subject Was Roses]]
> *1967 George Kennedy - [[Cool Hand Luke]]
> *1966 Walter Matthau - [[The Fortune Cookie]]
> *1965 Martin Balsam - [[A Thousand Clowns]]
> *1964 Peter Ustinov - [[Topkapi]]
> *1963 Melvyn Douglas - [[Hud]]
> *1962 Ed Begley - [[Sweet Bird of Youth]]
> *1961 George Chakiris - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960 Peter Ustinov - [[Spartacus]]
> *1959 Hugh Griffith - [[Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 Burl Ives - [[The Big Country]]
> *1957 Red Buttons - [[Sayonara]]
> *1956 Anthony Quinn - [[Lust For Life]]
> *1955 Jack Lemmon - [[Mister Roberts]]
> *1954 Edmond O'Brien - [[The Barefoot Contessa]]
> *1953 Frank Sinatra - [[From Here to Eternity]]
> *1952 Anthony Quinn - [[Viva Zapata|Viva Zapata!]]
> *1951 Karl Malden - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 George Sanders - [[All About Eve]]
> *1949 Dean Jagger - [[Twelve OClock High|Twelve O'Clock High]]
> *1948 Walter Huston - [[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]
> *1947 Edmund Gwenn - [[Miracle on 34th Street]]
> *1946 Harold Russell - [[The Best Years Of Our Lives]]
> *1945 James Dunn - [[A Tree Grows In Brooklyn]]
> *1944 Barry Fitzgerald - [[Going My Way]]
> *1943 Charles Coburn - [[The More the Merrier]]
> *1942 Van Heflin - [[Johnny Eager]]
> *1941 Donald Crisp - [[How Green Was My Valley]]
> *1940 Walter Brennan - [[The Westerner]]
> *1939 Thomas Mitchell - [[Stagecoach]]
> *1938 Walter Brennan - [[Kentucky]]
> *1937 Joseph Schildkraut - [[The Life of Emile Zola]]
> *1936 Walter Brennan - [[Come and Get It]]
------
Games/Cards|984189322
0a1,10
> The earliest origins of [[playing cards]] are obscure, but it is believed that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  They arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising 4 suits: polo sticks and coins, likely descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg, plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained 10 "spot" cards and 3 "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familar clubs, hearts, diamonds, and spades are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
> 
> Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]] in the 1400s used for [[cartomancy]] (fortune-telling with cards), but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  Although the present internationally-used design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[UnitedStates|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
> 
> In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for conjuring tricks.
> 
> For more information:
> 
> [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
> 
3c13
< * Bridge
---
> * [[Bridge]]
9c19
< * Poker
---
> * [[Poker]]
20,21c30,32
< Trick based card games
< * Bridge
---
> Trick-taking card games
> * [[Whist]]
> * [[Bridge]]
------
Playing_cards|984189407
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Games/Cards]]
------
Games/Cards|984189532
3c3
< Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]] in the 1400s used for [[cartomancy]] (fortune-telling with cards), but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  Although the present internationally-used design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[UnitedStates|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
---
> Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]] in the 1400s used for [[cartomancy]] (fortune-telling with cards), but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  Although the present internationally-used design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
------
Games/Cards|984189615
5c5
< In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for conjuring tricks.
---
> In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|984191123
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something I thought might be neat to have.  Not a full dictionary, but just a list of some of the words that have prominent derivatives in English or other languages.  This could be very cool if we ever got a Greek alphabet, and someone who knows Greek.
> 
> Alphabet being used - a b g d e z ê th i k l m n x o p r s t u ph ch ps ô - plus h for breathing
> 
> <table width=600><tr><td>
> autos, -ê, -o
> </td><td>
> Self ''(reflexive pronoun)''
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> eu
> </td><td>
> Well
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> kakos, -ê, -on
> </td><td>
> Bad
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> monos, -ê, -on 
> </td><td>
> Alone, solitary, forsaken
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> oligos, -ê, -on
> </td><td>
> Few, little, small
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> polus [?]
> </td><td>
> Many
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> philos, -ê, -on
> </td><td>
> Beloved, dear
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> anthos, -ous
> </td><td>
> Flower
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> astêr
> </td><td>
> Star
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> bios
> </td><td>
> Life
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> dêmos
> </td><td>
> District, its inhabitants, commoners
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> gê
> </td><td>
> Earth
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> zoon [?]
> </td><td>
> Animal
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> ichthus [?]
> </td><td>
> Fish
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> logos [?]
> </td><td>
> Word (to frightened to try to list the verb)
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> phuton, -o
> </td><td>
> Plant
> </td></tr><tr><td>
> chaitê, -hê
> </td><td>
> Loose, flowing hair
> </td></tr></table>
------
Amoeboid/Talk|984191869
0a1,2
> This Talk page is completely ridiculous.  Everyone, except maybe the authors of [[Star Trek]], know that Amoebae can't talk.
> ----
7c9
< Actually, I thought "anastomose" was fine, it just needed to be wikied and explained.  Why dumb things down?  :-)
---
> Actually, I thought "anastomose" was fine, it just needed to be wikied and explained.  Why dumb things down?  :-)
------
Cipher|984206381
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cipher, just like a CodE, also replaces a piece of information (an element of the plaintext that may consist of a letter or word or string of symbols) with another object. The difference is that the replacement is made according to a rule defined by a secret key known only to the transmitter and legitimate receiver(s) in the expectation that an outsider, ignorant of the key, will not be able to invert the replacement to decrypt the cipher. In the past, the blurring of the distinction between codes and ciphers was relatively unimportant. In contemporary communications, however, information is frequently both encoded and encrypted so that it is important to understand the difference. A satellite communications link, for example, may encode information in ASCII characters if it is textual, or pulse-code modulate and digitize it in binary-coded decimal form if it is an analog signal such as speech. It then encrypts the resulting coded data into ciphers by using the DataEncryptionStandard (DES). Finally, the CipheR stream itself is encoded again, using error-correcting codes for transmission from the ground station to the orbiting satellite. These operations are undone, in reverse order, by the intended receiver to recover the original information.
------
CipheR|984206396
1c1
< A CipheR, just like a CodE, also replaces a piece of information (an element of the plaintext that may consist of a letter or word or string of symbols) with another object. The difference is that the replacement is made according to a rule defined by a secret key known only to the transmitter and legitimate receiver(s) in the expectation that an outsider, ignorant of the key, will not be able to invert the replacement to decrypt the cipher. In the past, the blurring of the distinction between codes and ciphers was relatively unimportant. In contemporary communications, however, information is frequently both encoded and encrypted so that it is important to understand the difference. A satellite communications link, for example, may encode information in ASCII characters if it is textual, or pulse-code modulate and digitize it in binary-coded decimal form if it is an analog signal such as speech. It then encrypts the resulting coded data into ciphers by using the DataEncryptionStandard (DES). Finally, the CipheR stream itself is encoded again, using error-correcting codes for transmission from the ground station to the orbiting satellite. These operations are undone, in reverse order, by the intended receiver to recover the original information.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cipher]]
------
Alga|984212171
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The algae are those [[Protista]] with [[chloroplasts]].  These are symbionts that perform photosynthesis, and have been incorporated several times into different lineages, originally from the prokaryotic [[Cyanobacteria]] and related groups, but later from other algae as well.  The pigmentation and membrane structure of the chloroplasts are useful for tracing their origin.
> 
> Most of the simpler algae are [[flagellate]]s, but there is a tendency towards non-motile forms in most of the groups, simply because the cells don't need to find food anymore.  Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of an alga, are:
> * ''Colonial'' - small, regular groups of motile cells
> * ''Coccoid'' - individual non-motile cells
> * ''Palmelloid'' - non-motile cells in a gelatinous matrix
> * ''Filamentous'' - a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching
> In three lines - the brown algae ([[Phaeophyta]]), red algae ([[Rhodophyta]]), and green algae ([[Plantae]]) - even higher levels of organization have developed, leading to organisms with tissue differentiation, and the case of the last to land plants.
> 
> The following groups are generally considered algal, even though they may have a few colorless forms:
> * Basal [[Plantae]] (green algae)
> * Most [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, brown algae, diatoms, etc)
> * [[Haptophytes]]
> * [[Dinoflagellates]]
> * [[Chlorarchniophytes]]
> * [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae)
> * [[Cryptomonads]]
> * [[Euglenids]]
------
Protista|984212923
4c4
< * Plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Algae]];
---
> * Plant-like forms that have chloroplasts, the [[Alga]]e;
13,22c13,23
< One of the standard, and heavily inadequate, break-ups into phyla:
< 
<  Phylum Caryoblastea=Pelobionta ([[Pelobionts]])
<  Phylum [[Dinoflagellata]]
<  Phylum [[Rhizopoda]] (polyphyletic - see [[Amoeboid]], especially [[Ramicristates]])
<  Phylum Chrysophyta (basal [[Stramenopiles]]
<  Phylum Haptophyta=Prymnesiophyta ([[Haptophytes]])
<  Phylum Euglenophyta ([[Euglenids]]) 
<  Phylum Cryptophyta ([[Cryptomonads]])
<  Phylum Zoomastigina (polyphyletic - see [[Flagellate]] for now)
---
> There are several ways of breaking the group up into phyla, and most are heavily inadequates.  One of the most recent schema:
>  Phylum [[Pelobionts|Caryoblastea = Pelobionta]]
>  Phylum Rhizopoda (lobose and filose [[Amoeboid]]s) 
>  Phylum [[Granuloreticulosa]]
>  Phylum Actinopoda (actinopod [[Amoeboid]]s)
>  Phylum Zoomastigina (heterotrophic [[Flagellate]]s)
>  Phylum [[Euglenids|Euglenophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Cryptomonads|Cryptophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Haptophytes|Haptophyta = Prymnesiophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Dinoflagellates|Pyrrophyta = Dinoflagellata]]
>  Phylum Chrysophyta (basal [[Stramenopiles]])
25,27c26,27
<  Phylum Bacillariophyta ([[Diatoms]])
<  Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
<  Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae)
---
>  Phylum [[Diatoms|Bacillariophyta = Diatomophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Phaeophyta]]
29,31c29
<  Phylum Actinopoda (polyphyletic - see [[Amoeboid]] for now)
<  Phylum [[Granuloreticulosa]]
<  Phylum [[Ciliophora]]
---
>  Phylum [[Myxozoa]] = Cnidosporidia
33,37c31,35
<  Phylum [[Myxozoa]]=Cnidosporidia
<  Phylum Labyrinthulomycota=Labyrinthulida ([[Labyrinthulida]])
<  Phylum Acrasiomycota (polyphyletic)
<  Phylum [[Myxomycota]]
<  Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota=Plasmodiophorida
---
>  Phylum [[Ciliophora]]
>  Phylum [[Myxomycetes|Myxomycota]]
>  Phylum Acrasiomycota (cellular [[Slime mold]]s)
>  Phylum [[Labyrinthulids|Labyrinthulomycota = Labyrinthulida]]
>  Phylum [[Plasmodiophorids|Plasmodiophoromycota = Plasmodiophorida]]
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|984214187
4c4
< 
---
> <br>
7c7
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
9c9,10
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr>
>  <td>
11c12
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
13c14
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
15c16
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
17c18
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
19c20
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
23c24
< </td><td>
---
>  </td> <td>
25,29c26,30
< </td></tr><tr><td>
< polus [?]
< </td><td>
< Many
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> polus, pollê, polu
>  </td><td>
> Many, much
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
31c32
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
33c34
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
35c36
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
37c38
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
39c40
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
41c42
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
43c44
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
45c46
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
47c48
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
49c50
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
51c52
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
53c54
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
55c56
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
57c58
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
59c60
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
61,63c62,64
< </td></tr><tr><td>
< logos [?]
< </td><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> logos, -ou, -o 
>  </td><td>
65c66
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
67c68
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
69c70
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
71c72
< </td><td>
---
>  </td><td>
73c74,92
< </td></tr></table>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> makros
>  </td><td>
> Large
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> mikros
>  </td><td>
> Small
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> anthrôpos, -ou, -o
>  </td><td>
> Human being
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> hupnos, -ou, -o
>  </td><td>
> Sleep
>  </td></tr>
> </table>
> 
------
Euglenids|984214576
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The euglenids (Euglenophyta, Euglenida) are one of the best-known groups of [[flagellate]]s, and belong to the [[Euglenozoa]].  They are distinguished by a number of features, most notably the storage of food as the [[carbohydrate]] [[paramylon]], and the presence of a series of microtubule-supported proteinaceous strips underneath the cell membrane that form a ''pellicle'' that gives the cell its shape.  This varies from rigid to flexible, in the latter case allowing the cell to perform an inching motion called ''metaboly''.
> 
> Many euglenids are primitively colorless and feed on bacteria and smaller flagellates.  More needs to be said about these.  One neat thing is that many, for instance ''Peranema'', swim with the anterior flagellum held rigid, beating only at the tip.
> 
> At some point, euglenids aquired chloroplasts.  These are typically bound by three cell membranes, so presumably they were retained from some ingested [[alga]], with the outermost membrane corrseponding to a normal [[vacuole]].  As far as pigmentation is concerned, the chloroplasts contain only chlorophyll a.  Photosynthetic euglenids have generally lost the cytostome but are still capable of feeding heterotrophically, and in fact the chloroplasts can be killed off without damaging the host cell.  A few genera of euglenids are secondarily colorless - ''[[Astasia]]'' and ''Khawakinea'', which properly belong within ''[[Euglena]]'', and ''Hyalophacus'', which properly belongs within ''[[Phacus]]''.
> 
> Colored euglenids do not generally have the leading-trailing biflagellate pattern found in the primitively colorless forms and most other euglenozoa.  In [[Euglena]], [[Phacus]], and their kin, the trailing flagellum is shortened so that it does not even leave the flagellar pocket, making the organisms effectively monoflagellate; in [[Eutreptia]] the two flagella are roughly equal in length and function.  In these forms the flagella tend to undergo a looping motion, pulling the cell through the water in a slightly-helical path.
> 
> Most colored euglenids have an ''stigma'', or eyespot (lost in secondarily colorless forms), which is a small splotch of red pigmentation shading the flagellar pocket.  At the base of the leading flagellum is a collection of light sensitive crystals, so together the two act as a sort of directional eye.  This is in fact where the group's name comes from: [[Greek language/Lexicon|Gr]] ''eu''+''glêne'', eyeball.
> 
> A few euglenids, eg ''Trachelomonas'', live encased within a rigid lorica, which is sometimes attached to the substrate; unlike a cell wall this can easily be broken without harming the cell.  There is one form, ''Colacium'', that is aflagellate and non-motile in its adult stage, forming branched colonies held together by mucilage, but other than this no euglenids have made any move towards the sort of complex organization found in other algae.
------
Euglenozoa|984214641
1c1
< The Euglenozoa comprise a few major groups of [[flagellate]] protozoa whose relationships to one another have only recently been recognized: the [[kinetoplastids]], the [[euglenids]], the [[diplonemids]] and possibly a few other forms.  They include various common free-living forms, mostly bacterivores, as well as a few important parasites.  Most are around 15-40 µm long, although a few get up to five times that size.
---
> The Euglenozoa comprise a few major groups of [[flagellate]] protozoa whose relationships to one another have only recently been recognized: the [[kinetoplastids]], the [[euglenids]], the [[diplonemids]] and possibly a few other forms.  They include various common free-living forms, mostly bacterivores, as well as a few important parasites.  Most are around 15-40 µm long, although a many euglenids get up to 500 µm.
------
Euglenids|984214914
7c7
< Colored euglenids do not generally have the leading-trailing biflagellate pattern found in the primitively colorless forms and most other euglenozoa.  In [[Euglena]], [[Phacus]], and their kin, the trailing flagellum is shortened so that it does not even leave the flagellar pocket, making the organisms effectively monoflagellate; in [[Eutreptia]] the two flagella are roughly equal in length and function.  In these forms the flagella tend to undergo a looping motion, pulling the cell through the water in a slightly-helical path.
---
> Colored euglenids do not generally have the leading-trailing biflagellate pattern found in the primitively colorless forms and most other euglenozoa.  In ''[[Euglena]]'', ''[[Phacus]]'', and their kin, the trailing flagellum is shortened so that it does not even leave the flagellar pocket, making the organisms effectively monoflagellate; in ''[[Eutreptia]]'' the two flagella are roughly equal in length and function.  In these forms the flagella tend to undergo a looping motion, pulling the cell through the water in a slightly-helical path.
11c11,13
< A few euglenids, eg ''Trachelomonas'', live encased within a rigid lorica, which is sometimes attached to the substrate; unlike a cell wall this can easily be broken without harming the cell.  There is one form, ''Colacium'', that is aflagellate and non-motile in its adult stage, forming branched colonies held together by mucilage, but other than this no euglenids have made any move towards the sort of complex organization found in other algae.
---
> A few euglenids, eg ''Trachelomonas'', live encased within a rigid lorica, which is sometimes attached to the substrate; unlike a cell wall this can easily be broken without harming the cell.  There is one form, ''[[Colacium]]'', that is aflagellate and non-motile in its adult stage, forming branched colonies held together by mucilage, but other than this no euglenids have made any move towards the sort of complex organization found in other algae.
> 
> Euglenids are common in freshwater, especially when it is rich in organic materials - often present in sufficient numbers to give the water a greenish color.  A few, like ''[[Eutreptia]]'', are marine, and some forms even live commensally inside animals.
------
Slime_mold|984215168
3c3
< Among the [[Myxomycetes]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate amoeboid called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]], called swarmers, released from the spores.
---
> Among the [[Myxomycetes]], or true slime molds, the feeding stage takes the form of a multinucleate [[amoeboid]] called a ''plasmodium''.  These can grow in size up to several square feet and are frequently brightly colored.  New plasmodia are formed by the fusion of bi[[flagellate]] [[gamete|gametes]], called swarmers, released from the spores.
------
Euglenids|984215307
3c3
< Many euglenids are primitively colorless and feed on bacteria and smaller flagellates.  More needs to be said about these.  One neat thing is that many, for instance ''Peranema'', swim with the anterior flagellum held rigid, beating only at the tip.
---
> Many euglenids are primitively colorless and feed on bacteria and smaller flagellates.  More needs to be said about these.  One neat thing is that many, for instance ''[[Peranema]]'' and ''[[Heteronema]]'', swim with the anterior flagellum held rigid, beating only at the tip.
------
Postmaster_General|984216538
1c1
< The ultimate head of the [[Post Office]] in the [[United States]].
---
> The ultimate head of the [[United States Postal Service]] in the [[United States]].
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984217655
11c11,12
< #Type the name of the old page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  For example, in the URL above, you would replace <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that spaces in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!
---
> #Type the name of the *old* page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  For example, in the URL above, you would replace <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that *spaces* (what spaces?) in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!----
> Say, someone want to run this item about underscores past me again.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984218203
11,12c11,16
< #Type the name of the *old* page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  For example, in the URL above, you would replace <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that *spaces* (what spaces?) in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!----
< Say, someone want to run this item about underscores past me again.
---
> #Type the name of the *old* page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.
> ----
> Good example of [[Recursion]]. Try it!!!----
> For example, in the URL above, you would replace ----
> <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that *spaces* (what spaces?) in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!----
> Say, someone want to run this item about underscores past me again.----
------
Country_music|984218509
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Performers:
> *[[Garth Brooks]]
> *[[Pete Seeger]]
> *[[Garth Brooks]
> *[[Peter Paul and Mary]]]
> *{{Garth Brooks]]
> <br>
> AND
> <br>
> *[[Garth Brooks]]
------
Country_music|984218560
6d5
< *{{Garth Brooks]]
------
TrigonometricFunctions|984219641
121a122
> '''A.''' Yes. Take an isosceles triangle and drop a perpendicular from one of the 60 degree angles to the opposite side.The result is two congruent 30-60-90 triangles. For each triangle, the shortest side=1/2, the next largest side =(sqrt(3))/2 and the hypotenuse = 1.----
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|984219885
22c22
< </td></tr><tr><td>
---
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
------
RequestedArticles|984232784
31c31
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[gambling]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Literature_and_rhetoric|984233190
1c1,201
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 800 Literature & rhetoric 
> 
> 801 Philosophy & theory 
> 
> 802 Miscellany 
> 
> 803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> 
> 805 Serial publications 
> 
> 806 Organizations 
> 
> 807 Education, research, related topics 
> 
> 808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
> 
> 809 Literary history & criticism 
> 
> 810 American literature in English 
> 
> 811 Poetry 
> 
> 812 Drama 
> 
> 813 Fiction 
> 
> 814 Essays 
> 
> 815 Speeches 
> 
> 816 Letters 
> 
> 817 Satire & humor 
> 
> 818 Miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 820 English & Old English literatures 
> 
> 821 English poetry 
> 
> 822 English drama 
> 
> 823 English fiction 
> 
> 824 English essays 
> 
> 825 English speeches 
> 
> 826 English letters 
> 
> 827 English satire & humor 
> 
> 828 English miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> 
> 830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
> 
> 831 German poetry 
> 
> 832 German drama 
> 
> 833 German fiction 
> 
> 834 German essays 
> 
> 835 German speeches 
> 
> 836 German letters 
> 
> 837 German satire & humor 
> 
> 838 German miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 839 Other Germanic literatures 
> 
> 
> 840 Literatures of Romance languages 
> 
> 841 French poetry 
> 
> 842 French drama 
> 
> 843 French fiction 
> 
> 844 French essays 
> 
> 845 French speeches 
> 
> 846 French letters 
> 
> 847 French satire & humor 
> 
> 848 French miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 849 Provencal & Catalan 
> 
> 
> 850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 
> 851 Italian poetry 
> 
> 852 Italian drama 
> 
> 853 Italian fiction 
> 
> 854 Italian essays 
> 
> 855 Italian speeches 
> 
> 856 Italian letters 
> 
> 857 Italian satire & humor 
> 
> 858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 
> 
> 860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
> 
> 861 Spanish poetry 
> 
> 862 Spanish drama 
> 
> 863 Spanish fiction 
> 
> 864 Spanish essays 
> 
> 865 Spanish speeches 
> 
> 866 Spanish letters 
> 
> 867 Spanish satire & humor 
> 
> 868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 869 Portuguese 
> 
> 870 Italic literatures Latin 
> 
> 871 Latin poetry 
> 
> 872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
> 
> 873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
> 
> 874 Latin lyric poetry 
> 
> 875 Latin speeches 
> 
> 876 Latin letters 
> 
> 877 Latin satire & humor 
> 
> 878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
> 
> 
> 880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
> 
> 881 Classical Greek poetry 
> 
> 882 Classical Greek drama 
> 
> 883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
> 
> 884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
> 
> 885 Classical Greek speeches 
> 
> 886 Classical Greek letters 
> 
> 887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
> 
> 888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
> 
> 889 Modern Greek 
> 
> 
> 890 Literatures of other languages 
> 
> 891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
> 
> 892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
> 
> 893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
> 
> 894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> 
> 895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
> 
> 896 African literatures 
> 
> 897 North American native literatures 
> 
> 898 South Anerican native literatures 
> 
> 899 Other literatures
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem|984233387
35d34
< 
37,42c36
< 
< ----
< 
< 
< 
< ----
---
> (800 Literature and rhetoric moved )
48,243d41
< 
< ----
< :800 Literature & rhetoric 
< :801 Philosophy & theory 
< :802 Miscellany 
< :803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 
< :805 Serial publications 
< :806 Organizations 
< :807 Education, research, related topics 
< :808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
< :809 Literary history & criticism 
< :810 American literature in English 
< :811 Poetry 
< :812 Drama 
< :813 Fiction 
< :814 Essays 
< :815 Speeches 
< :816 Letters 
< :817 Satire & humor 
< :818 Miscellaneous writings 
< 
< :820 English & Old English literatures 
< :821 English poetry 
< :822 English drama 
< :823 English fiction 
< :824 English essays 
< :825 English speeches 
< :826 English letters 
< :827 English satire & humor 
< :828 English miscellaneous writings 
< :829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
< :830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
< :831 German poetry 
< :832 German drama 
< :833 German fiction 
< :834 German essays 
< :835 German speeches 
< :836 German letters 
< :837 German satire & humor 
< :838 German miscellaneous writings 
< :839 Other Germanic literatures 
< :840 Literatures of Romance languages 
< :841 French poetry 
< :842 French drama 
< :843 French fiction 
< :844 French essays 
< :845 French speeches 
< :846 French letters 
< :847 French satire & humor 
< :848 French miscellaneous writings 
< :849 Provencal & Catalan 
< :850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :851 Italian poetry 
< :852 Italian drama 
< :853 Italian fiction 
< :854 Italian essays 
< :855 Italian speeches 
< :856 Italian letters 
< :857 Italian satire & humor 
< :858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
< :859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
< :860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
< :861 Spanish poetry 
< :862 Spanish drama 
< :863 Spanish fiction 
< :864 Spanish essays 
< :865 Spanish speeches 
< :866 Spanish letters 
< :867 Spanish satire & humor 
< :868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
< :869 Portuguese 
< :870 Italic literatures Latin 
< :871 Latin poetry 
< :872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
< :873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
< :874 Latin lyric poetry 
< :875 Latin speeches 
< :876 Latin letters 
< :877 Latin satire & humor 
< :878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
< :879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
< :880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
< :881 Classical Greek poetry 
< :882 Classical Greek drama 
< :883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
< :884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
< :885 Classical Greek speeches 
< :886 Classical Greek letters 
< :887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
< :888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
< :889 Modern Greek 
< :890 Literatures of other languages 
< :891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
< :892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
< :893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
< :894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
< :895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
< :896 African literatures 
< :897 North American native literatures 
< :898 South Anerican native literatures 
< :899 Other literatures 
< 
< ----
< :900 Geography & history 
< :901 Philosophy & theory 
< :902 Miscellany 
< :903 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< :904 Collected accounts of events 
< :905 Serial publications 
< :906 Organizations & management 
< :907 Education, research, related topics 
< :908 With respect to kinds of persons 
< :909 World history 
< :910 Geography & travel 
< :911 Historical geography 
< :912 Graphic representations of earth 
< :913 Ancient world 
< :914 [[Europe]]
< :915 [[Asia]]
< :916 [[Africa]]
< :917 [[North America]]
< :918 [[South America]] 
< :919 Other areas 
< :920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 
< 
< :929 Genealogy, names, insignia 
< :930 History of ancient world 
< :931 History of ancient world China 
< :932 History of ancient world Egypt 
< :933 History of ancient world Palestine 
< :934 History of ancient world India 
< :935 History of ancient world Mesopotamia & Iranian Plateau 
< :936 History of ancient world Europe north & west of Italy 
< :937 History of ancient world Italy & adjacent territories 
< :938 History of ancient world Greece 
< :939 History of ancient world Other parts of ancient world 
< :940 General history of Europe 
< :941 General history of Europe British Isles 
< :942 General history of Europe England & Wales 
< :943 General history of Europe Central Europe Germany 
< :944 General history of Europe [[France]] & [[Monaco]] 
< :945 General history of Europe Italian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< :946 General history of Europe Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
< :947 General history of Europe Eastern Europe Soviet Union 
< :948 General history of Europe Northern Europe Scandinavia 
< :949 General history of Europe Other parts of Europe 
< :950 General history of Asia Far East 
< :951 General history of Asia [[China]] & adjacent areas 
< :952 General history of Asia [[Japan]] 
< :953 General history of Asia Arabian Peninsula & adjacent areas 
< :954 General history of Asia South Asia India 
< :955 General history of Asia Iran 
< :956 General history of Asia Middle East (Near East) 
< :957 General history of Asia Siberia (Asiatic Russia) 
< :958 General history of Asia Central Asia 
< :959 General history of Asia Southeast Asia 
< :960 General history of Africa 
< :961 General history of Africa Tunisia & Libya 
< :962 General history of Africa Egypt & Sudan 
< :963 General history of Africa Ethiopia 
< :964 General history of Africa Morocco & Canary Islands 
< :965 General history of Africa Algeria 
< :966 General history of Africa West Africa & offshore islands 
< :967 General history of Africa Central Africa & offshore islands 
< :968 General history of Africa Southern Africa 
< :969 General history of Africa South Indian Ocean islands 
< :970 General history of North America 
< :971 General history of North America [[Canada/History|Canada]] 
< :972 General history of North America Middle America Mexico 
< :973 General history of North America United States 
< :974 General history of North America Northeastern United States 
< :975 General history of North America Southeastern United States 
< :976 General history of North America South central United States 
< :977 General history of North America North central United States 
< :978 General history of North America Western United States 
< :979 General history of North America Great Basin & Pacific Slope 
< :980 General history of [[South America]] 
< :981 General history of South America [[Brazil]] 
< :982 General history of South America [[Argentina]] 
< :983 General history of South America [[Chile]] 
< :984 General history of South America [[Bolivia]] 
< :985 General history of South America [[Peru]] 
< :986 General history of South America [[Colombia]] & [[Ecuador]] 
< :987 General history of South America [[Venezuela]] 
< :988 General history of South America [[Guiana]] 
< :989 General history of South America [[Paraguay]] & [[Uruguay]] 
< :990 General history of other areas 
< 
< :993 General history of other areas [[New Zealand]] 
< :994 General history of other areas [[Australia]]
< :995 General history of other areas [[Melanesia]] [[New Guinea]] 
< :996 General history of other areas Other parts of ]]Pacific Polynesia]] 
< :997 General history of other areas [[Atlantic Ocean islands]] 
< :998 General history of other areas [[Arctic islands]] & [[Antarctica]] 
< :999 [[Extraterrestrial worlds]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Geography_and_history|984233447
1c1,93
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :900 Geography & history 
> :901 Philosophy & theory 
> :902 Miscellany 
> :903 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :904 Collected accounts of events 
> :905 Serial publications 
> :906 Organizations & management 
> :907 Education, research, related topics 
> :908 With respect to kinds of persons 
> :909 World history 
> :910 Geography & travel 
> :911 Historical geography 
> :912 Graphic representations of earth 
> :913 Ancient world 
> :914 [[Europe]]
> :915 [[Asia]]
> :916 [[Africa]]
> :917 [[North America]]
> :918 [[South America]] 
> :919 Other areas 
> :920 Biography, genealogy, insignia 
> 
> :929 Genealogy, names, insignia 
> :930 History of ancient world 
> :931 History of ancient world China 
> :932 History of ancient world Egypt 
> :933 History of ancient world Palestine 
> :934 History of ancient world India 
> :935 History of ancient world Mesopotamia & Iranian Plateau 
> :936 History of ancient world Europe north & west of Italy 
> :937 History of ancient world Italy & adjacent territories 
> :938 History of ancient world Greece 
> :939 History of ancient world Other parts of ancient world 
> :940 General history of Europe 
> :941 General history of Europe British Isles 
> :942 General history of Europe England & Wales 
> :943 General history of Europe Central Europe Germany 
> :944 General history of Europe [[France]] & [[Monaco]] 
> :945 General history of Europe Italian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :946 General history of Europe Iberian Peninsula & adjacent islands 
> :947 General history of Europe Eastern Europe Soviet Union 
> :948 General history of Europe Northern Europe Scandinavia 
> :949 General history of Europe Other parts of Europe 
> :950 General history of Asia Far East 
> :951 General history of Asia [[China]] & adjacent areas 
> :952 General history of Asia [[Japan]] 
> :953 General history of Asia Arabian Peninsula & adjacent areas 
> :954 General history of Asia South Asia India 
> :955 General history of Asia Iran 
> :956 General history of Asia Middle East (Near East) 
> :957 General history of Asia Siberia (Asiatic Russia) 
> :958 General history of Asia Central Asia 
> :959 General history of Asia Southeast Asia 
> :960 General history of Africa 
> :961 General history of Africa Tunisia & Libya 
> :962 General history of Africa Egypt & Sudan 
> :963 General history of Africa Ethiopia 
> :964 General history of Africa Morocco & Canary Islands 
> :965 General history of Africa Algeria 
> :966 General history of Africa West Africa & offshore islands 
> :967 General history of Africa Central Africa & offshore islands 
> :968 General history of Africa Southern Africa 
> :969 General history of Africa South Indian Ocean islands 
> :970 General history of North America 
> :971 General history of North America [[Canada/History|Canada]] 
> :972 General history of North America Middle America Mexico 
> :973 General history of North America United States 
> :974 General history of North America Northeastern United States 
> :975 General history of North America Southeastern United States 
> :976 General history of North America South central United States 
> :977 General history of North America North central United States 
> :978 General history of North America Western United States 
> :979 General history of North America Great Basin & Pacific Slope 
> :980 General history of [[South America]] 
> :981 General history of South America [[Brazil]] 
> :982 General history of South America [[Argentina]] 
> :983 General history of South America [[Chile]] 
> :984 General history of South America [[Bolivia]] 
> :985 General history of South America [[Peru]] 
> :986 General history of South America [[Colombia]] & [[Ecuador]] 
> :987 General history of South America [[Venezuela]] 
> :988 General history of South America [[Guiana]] 
> :989 General history of South America [[Paraguay]] & [[Uruguay]] 
> :990 General history of other areas 
> 
> :993 General history of other areas [[New Zealand]] 
> :994 General history of other areas [[Australia]]
> :995 General history of other areas [[Melanesia]] [[New Guinea]] 
> :996 General history of other areas Other parts of ]]Pacific Polynesia]] 
> :997 General history of other areas [[Atlantic Ocean islands]] 
> :998 General history of other areas [[Arctic islands]] & [[Antarctica]] 
> :999 [[Extraterrestrial worlds]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Geography_and_history|984233558
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> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Generalities|984233649
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> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Philosophy_and_psychology|984233683
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> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|984233749
0a1,2
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Social_sciences|984233814
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> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Language|984233874
0a1,2
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Natural_sciences_and_mathematics|984233950
0a1
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Technology|984234021
0a1,2
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Literature_and_rhetoric|984234336
1c1
< 800 Literature & rhetoric 
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> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
3,200c3,109
< 801 Philosophy & theory 
< 
< 802 Miscellany 
< 
< 803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
< 
< 805 Serial publications 
< 
< 806 Organizations 
< 
< 807 Education, research, related topics 
< 
< 808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
< 
< 809 Literary history & criticism 
< 
< 810 American literature in English 
< 
< 811 Poetry 
< 
< 812 Drama 
< 
< 813 Fiction 
< 
< 814 Essays 
< 
< 815 Speeches 
< 
< 816 Letters 
< 
< 817 Satire & humor 
< 
< 818 Miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 820 English & Old English literatures 
< 
< 821 English poetry 
< 
< 822 English drama 
< 
< 823 English fiction 
< 
< 824 English essays 
< 
< 825 English speeches 
< 
< 826 English letters 
< 
< 827 English satire & humor 
< 
< 828 English miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
< 
< 830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
< 
< 831 German poetry 
< 
< 832 German drama 
< 
< 833 German fiction 
< 
< 834 German essays 
< 
< 835 German speeches 
< 
< 836 German letters 
< 
< 837 German satire & humor 
< 
< 838 German miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 839 Other Germanic literatures 
< 
< 
< 840 Literatures of Romance languages 
< 
< 841 French poetry 
< 
< 842 French drama 
< 
< 843 French fiction 
< 
< 844 French essays 
< 
< 845 French speeches 
< 
< 846 French letters 
< 
< 847 French satire & humor 
< 
< 848 French miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 849 Provencal & Catalan 
< 
< 
< 850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 
< 851 Italian poetry 
< 
< 852 Italian drama 
< 
< 853 Italian fiction 
< 
< 854 Italian essays 
< 
< 855 Italian speeches 
< 
< 856 Italian letters 
< 
< 857 Italian satire & humor 
< 
< 858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
< 
< 
< 860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
< 
< 861 Spanish poetry 
< 
< 862 Spanish drama 
< 
< 863 Spanish fiction 
< 
< 864 Spanish essays 
< 
< 865 Spanish speeches 
< 
< 866 Spanish letters 
< 
< 867 Spanish satire & humor 
< 
< 868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 869 Portuguese 
< 
< 870 Italic literatures Latin 
< 
< 871 Latin poetry 
< 
< 872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
< 
< 873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
< 
< 874 Latin lyric poetry 
< 
< 875 Latin speeches 
< 
< 876 Latin letters 
< 
< 877 Latin satire & humor 
< 
< 878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
< 
< 
< 880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
< 
< 881 Classical Greek poetry 
< 
< 882 Classical Greek drama 
< 
< 883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
< 
< 884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
< 
< 885 Classical Greek speeches 
< 
< 886 Classical Greek letters 
< 
< 887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
< 
< 888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
< 
< 889 Modern Greek 
< 
< 
< 890 Literatures of other languages 
< 
< 891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
< 
< 892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
< 
< 893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
< 
< 894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
< 
< 895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
< 
< 896 African literatures 
< 
< 897 North American native literatures 
< 
< 898 South Anerican native literatures 
< 
< 899 Other literatures
---
> :800 Literature & rhetoric 
> :801 Philosophy & theory 
> :802 Miscellany 
> :803 Dictionaries & encyclopedias 
> :805 Serial publications 
> :806 Organizations 
> :807 Education, research, related topics 
> :808 Rhetoric & collections of literature 
> :809 Literary history & criticism 
> 
> :810 American literature in English 
> :811 Poetry 
> :812 Drama 
> :813 Fiction 
> :814 Essays 
> :815 Speeches 
> :816 Letters 
> :817 Satire & humor 
> :818 Miscellaneous writings 
> 
> :820 English & Old English literatures 
> :821 English poetry 
> :822 English drama 
> :823 English fiction 
> :824 English essays 
> :825 English speeches 
> :826 English letters 
> :827 English satire & humor 
> :828 English miscellaneous writings 
> :829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
> 
> :830 Literatures of Germanic languages 
> :831 German poetry 
> :832 German drama 
> :833 German fiction 
> :834 German essays 
> :835 German speeches 
> :836 German letters 
> :837 German satire & humor 
> :838 German miscellaneous writings 
> :839 Other Germanic literatures 
> 
> :840 Literatures of Romance languages 
> :841 French poetry 
> :842 French drama 
> :843 French fiction 
> :844 French essays 
> :845 French speeches 
> :846 French letters 
> :847 French satire & humor 
> :848 French miscellaneous writings 
> :849 Provencal & Catalan 
> 
> :850 Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic 
> :851 Italian poetry 
> :852 Italian drama 
> :853 Italian fiction 
> :854 Italian essays 
> :855 Italian speeches 
> :856 Italian letters 
> :857 Italian satire & humor 
> :858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
> :859 Romanian & Rhaeto-Romanic 
> 
> :860 Spanish & Portuguese literatures 
> :861 Spanish poetry 
> :862 Spanish drama 
> :863 Spanish fiction 
> :864 Spanish essays 
> :865 Spanish speeches 
> :866 Spanish letters 
> :867 Spanish satire & humor 
> :868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
> :869 Portuguese 
> 
> :870 Italic literatures Latin 
> :871 Latin poetry 
> :872 Latin dramatic poetry & drama 
> :873 Latin epic poetry & fiction 
> :874 Latin lyric poetry 
> :875 Latin speeches 
> :876 Latin letters 
> :877 Latin satire & humor 
> :878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
> :879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
> 
> :880 Hellenic literatures Classical Greek 
> :881 Classical Greek poetry 
> :882 Classical Greek drama 
> :883 Classical Greek epic poetry & fiction 
> :884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
> :885 Classical Greek speeches 
> :886 Classical Greek letters 
> :887 Classical Greek satire & humor 
> :888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
> :889 Modern Greek 
> 
> :890 Literatures of other languages 
> :891 East Indo-European & Celtic 
> :892 Afro-Asiatic literatures Semitic 
> :893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
> :894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
> :895 Literatures of East & Southeast Asia 
> :896 African literatures 
> :897 North American native literatures 
> :898 South Anerican native literatures 
> :899 Other literatures
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Generalities|984234378
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Philosophy_and_psychology|984234423
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|984234468
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Social_sciences|984234509
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Language|984234544
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Natural_sciences_and_mathematics|984234576
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Technology|984234615
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Literature_and_rhetoric|984234661
0a1
> 
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DeweyDecimalSystem/Geography_and_history|984234810
1c1,2
< [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Up a level]]
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> 
> [[DeweyDecimalSystem|Main Categories list]]
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DeweyDecimalSystem|984234943
33,41c33
< 
< (Philosophy and Psychology moved)
< (700 the arts moved)
< (800 Literature and rhetoric moved )
< 
< 
< ----
< 
< ----
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> All moved now. Would someone like to add a small intro about the history of the Dewey decimal system?
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Chemistry|984235420
4a5
> * [[Organic Chemistry]]
5a7
> 
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Organic_Chemistry|984235544
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The branch of chemistry concerned with [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]].
> 
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Organic_Chemistry|984235583
1c1
< The branch of chemistry concerned with [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]].
---
> The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]].
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Organic_Chemistry|984236055
1c1
< The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]].
---
> The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>organic compunds</i>.
2a3,5
> For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Wohler in 1828.
> 
> The specific study of the molecules made by living things, and their effects on living things, is called [[biochemistry]]
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Hydrogen|984236530
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The lightest, and most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] [[chemical element]], consisting of a single [[proton]] and
> a single [[electron]].
> Under normal terrestrial conditions, it is a diatomic gas. The gas burns in air to produce water; hence the  name hydrogen is derived from [[Latin]], meaning <i>water-maker</i> 
> 
> It has two other [[isotope]]s, [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]]
> 
> 
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Helium|984237246
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The second most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] element in the Universe. The commonest form has two [[proton]]s and two [[electrons]]. There is another isotope, <sup>3</sup>He, which has only one neutron.
> 
> Helium is the first of the [[Noble Gas|noble gases]], and exists on earth as a monatomic gas. 
> 
> It was first discovered by [[spectroscopy]], when an [[emission line]] of a previously unknown element was observed in light from the Sun. Hence the name, derived from "helios", meaning "sun". Because, until its discovery on earth, it was thought that it was probably a 
> metal, the name ends with "ium" which is the standard name ending for a metal.
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Helium|984237269
1c1
< The second most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] element in the Universe. The commonest form has two [[proton]]s and two [[electrons]]. There is another isotope, <sup>3</sup>He, which has only one neutron.
---
> The second most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] element in the Universe. The commonest form has two [[proton]]s and two [[electrons]]. There is another [[isotope]], <sup>3</sup>He, which has only one neutron.
------
E|984237454
3c3
< In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[CryptographY]]:)
---
> In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[Cryptography]]:)
------
RequestedArticles|984237606
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actress|984237673
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners... 
> 
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best supporting actress in 1999.
> 
> *1999 Angelina Jolie - [[Girl Interrupted|Girl, Interrupted]]
> *1998 Judi Dench - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
> *1997 Kim Basinger - [[LA Confidential|L.A. Confidential]]
> *1996 Juliette Binoche - [[The English Patient]]
> *1995 Mira Sorvino - [[Mighty Aphrodite]]
> *1994 Dianne Wiest - [[Bullets Over Broadway]]
> *1993 Anna Paquin - [[The Piano]]
> *1992 Marisa Tomei - [[My Cousin Vinny]]
> *1991 Mercedes Ruehl - [[The Fisher King]]
> *1990 Whoopi Goldberg - [[Ghost]]
> *1989 Brenda Fricker - [[My Left Foot]]
> *1988 Geena Davis - [[The Accidental Tourist]]
> *1987 Olympia Dukakis - [[Moonstruck]]
> *1986 Dianne Wiest - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
> *1985 Anjelica Huston - [[Prizzis Honor|Prizzi's Honor]]
> *1984 Peggy Ashcroft - [[A Passage to India]]
> *1983 Linda Hunt - [[The Year of Living Dangerously]]
> *1982 Jessica Lange - [[Tootsie]]
> *1981 Maureen Stapleton - [[Reds]]
> *1980 Mary Steenburgen - [[Melvin and Howard]]
> *1979 Meryl Streep - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
> *1978 Maggie Smith - [[California Suite]]
> *1977 Vanessa Redgrave - [[Julia]]
> *1976 Beatrice Straight - [[Network]]
> *1975 Lee Grant - [[Shampoo]]
> *1974 Ingrid Bergman - [[Murder on the Orient Express]]
> *1973 Tatum O'Neal - [[Paper Moon]]
> *1972 Eileen Heckart - [[Butterflies Are Free]]
> *1971 Cloris Leachman - [[The Last Picture Show]]
> *1970 Helen Hayes - [[Airport]]
> *1969 Goldie Hawn - [[Cactus Flower]]
> *1968 Ruth Gordon - [[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
> *1967 Estelle Parsons - [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
> *1966 Sandy Dennis - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
> *1965 Shelley Winters - [[A Patch of Blue]]
> *1964 Lila Kedrova - [[Zorba the Greek]]
> *1963 Margaret Rutherford - [[The VIPs|The V.I.P.s]]
> *1962 Patty Duke - [[The Miracle Worker]]
> *1961 Rita Moreno - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960 Shirley Jones - [[Elmer Gantry]]
> *1959 Shelley Winters - [[The Diary of Anne Frank]]
> *1958 Wendy Hiller - [[Separate Tables]]
> *1957 Miyoshi Umeki - [[Sayonara]]
> *1956 Dorothy Malone - [[Written on the Wind]]
> *1955 Jo van Fleet - [[East of Eden]]
> *1954 Eva Marie Saint - [[On the Waterfront]]
> *1953 Donna Reed - [[From Here to Eternity]]
> *1952 Gloria Grahame - [[The Bad and the Beautiful]]
> *1951 Kim Hunter - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 Josephine Hull - [[Harvey]]
> *1949 Mercedes McCambridge - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
> *1948 Claire Trevor - [[Key Largo]]
> *1947 Celeste Holm - [[Gentlemans Agreement|Gentleman's Agreement]]
> *1946 Anne Baxter - [[The Razors Edge|The Razor's Edge]]
> *1945 Anne Revere - [[National Velvet]]
> *1944 Ethel Barrymore - [[None But the Lonely Heart]]
> *1943 Katina Paxinou - [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]
> *1942 Teresa Wright - [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
> *1941 Mary Astor - [[The Great Lie]]
> *1940 Jane Darwell - [[The Grapes of Wrath]]
> *1939 Hattie McDaniel - [[Gone With the Wind]]
> *1938 Fay Bainter - [[Jezebel]]
> *1937 Alice Brady - [[In Old Chicago]]
> *1936 Gale Sondergaard - [[Anthony Adverse]]
------
Organic_Chemistry|984237964
1c1
< The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>organic compunds</i>.
---
> The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>organic compounds</i>.
------
Periodic_Table|984239553
6c6
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]  [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)
37c37
<  [[Helium|He]]  [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)
---
>  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)
41c41
< ''Very cool!''  (Feel free to delete this when read.)  :-)
---
> ''Very cool!''  (Feel free to delete this when read.)  :-)
------
E|984239984
1c1
< Vowel, [[ASCII]] code 69.
---
> The fifth letter of the Roman alphabet, derived from the Greek letter [[epsilon]] which is pretty much the same in appearance and function.  Like other latin vowels, e came in a long (sounded as in th''ey'') and a short variety (sounded as in p''e''t).  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, sometimes with accents to indicate which one (ê,é,è,ë).
3c3
< In fact the most common letter in the [[Indo-European]] language family. (Has some implications in [[Cryptography]]:)
---
> On computers the uppercase letter is represented with [[ASCII]] code 69 and the lowercase letter with code 101.  This is the most common letter in [[English language|English]] and many related languages, which has some implications in [[Cryptography]].
------
A|984240227
1,2c1,3
< Vowel, [[ASCII]] code 65.
< First letter in [[alphabet]].
---
> The first letter in the Roman alphabet, derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which is pretty much the same in shape and function.  Like other Latin vowels, a came in a long (sounded as in f''a''ther) and a short (sounded as in Din''ah'') variety.  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, notably in English the sound in c''a''t, formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc.
> 
> On computers the uppercase letter is represented with ASCII code 65 and the lowercase letter with code 97. 
------
Urea|984243626
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Urea 
> 
> An [[organic compound]] of [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], with the formula CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
> 
> In many land animals, it is the main end product of the metabolism of nitrogen-containg compounds, and is excreted in the urine. 
> 
> Urea was discovered by H.M. Rouell in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler, who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
> discipline of [[Organic Chemistry|organic chemistry]] 
> 
> Principal uses:
> The manufacture of [[plastics]] (specifically, urea-formaldehyde resin) 
> 
> 
> ?? other uses besides to be added
------
Organic_compound|984243676
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Organic compound
> 
>  - see [[Organic Chemistry]]
> 
> A [[molecule]] containing [[carbon]]. Note, however, that the [[Oxide|oxides]] of carbon, [[carbon dioxide]] and [[carbon monoxide]] are generally not regarded as organic compunds. 
> 
------
Organic_Chemistry|984243776
1c1
< The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>organic compounds</i>.
---
> The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>[[organic compound]]s</i>.
------
Hydrocarbon|984243845
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hydrocarbon
> 
> A term used to describe a chemical compound consisting only of  [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] 
> 
------
Uric|984244073
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Uric acid
> 
> An [[organic compound]] of [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], with the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
> 
> It is a minor end-product of nitrogen metabolism in the human body (the main product being [[urea]]), and is found in small amounts in urine. In other animals, such as birds and reptiles, it is the main end-product, and is excreted in faeces. The high nitrogen content of uric acid is the reason for [[guano]] being so valuable as a [[Agriculture/fertiliser|fertiliser]] in agriculture.
> 
> The disease [[Gout|gout]] in humans is associated with abnormal levels of uric acid in the system.
> 
------
Uric_acid|984244222
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Uric acid
> 
> An [[organic compound]] of [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], with the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
> 
> It is a minor end-product of nitrogen metabolism in the human body (the main product being [[urea]]), and is found in small amounts in urine. In other animals, such as birds and reptiles, it is the main end-product, and is excreted in faeces. The high nitrogen content of uric acid is the reason for [[guano]] being so valuable as a [[Agriculture/fertiliser|fertiliser]] in agriculture.
> 
> The disease [[Gout|gout]] in humans is associated with abnormal levels of uric acid in the system.
> 
------
Uric|984244324
1,8c1
< Uric acid
< 
< An [[organic compound]] of [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], with the formula C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>3</sub>
< 
< It is a minor end-product of nitrogen metabolism in the human body (the main product being [[urea]]), and is found in small amounts in urine. In other animals, such as birds and reptiles, it is the main end-product, and is excreted in faeces. The high nitrogen content of uric acid is the reason for [[guano]] being so valuable as a [[Agriculture/fertiliser|fertiliser]] in agriculture.
< 
< The disease [[Gout|gout]] in humans is associated with abnormal levels of uric acid in the system.
< 
---
> 
------
Periodic_Table|984247013
36,37c36,37
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)
<  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)
---
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogens]]s)
>  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]   [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Periodic_Table|984247051
36c36
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogens]]s)
---
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogen]]s)
------
Halogen|984247171
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Halogen
> 
> From the Latin, meaning "salt-former". 
> 
> The group of [[chemical element]]s in group VIIA of the [[Periodic Table]]; specifically [[Fluorine]], [[Chlorine]], [[Bromine]], [[Iodine]], and [[Astatine]].
> These elements are diatomic molecules in their natural form. They require one more electron to fill their outer [[electron shell]]s, and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged negative [[ion]].
> 
------
Noble_gas|984247234
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Noble gas
> 
> The [[chemical element]]s in group VIIIA  of the [[Periodic Table]]; specifically [[Helium]], [[Neon]], [[Argon]], [[Krypton]], [[Xenon]] and [[Radon]].
> 
> These elements all have full outer electron shells, and so do not form chemical compounds easily. As the atoms get larger down the series, they become (slightly) more reactive, and Xenon has been induced to form a number of compunds with fluorine. Radon would be presumed to be more reactive, but as it is [[Radioactivity|radioactive]] with a short half-life, its potential chemistry has not been explored. 
> 
------
Halogen|984247341
6c6
< These elements are diatomic molecules in their natural form. They require one more electron to fill their outer [[electron shell]]s, and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged negative [[ion]].
---
> These elements are [[Chemistry/diatomic|diatomic]] molecules in their natural form. They require one more electron to fill their outer [[electron shell]]s, and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged negative [[ion]].
------
Chemistry/diatomic|984247449
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Diatomic
> 
> A term used in [[Chemistry]] to describe a [[molecule]], meaning that it the molecule is composed of only two [[atom]]s 
------
Periodic_Table|984247557
36c36
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogen]]s)
---
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
------
Greek_language|984248008
17c17,18
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.----
> '''Q'''.What do you do about the cicumflex over the "ou" and "ô" in the genitive? Perhaps, the answer is in Perseus. I don't have the time to check right now.
------
Phoneme|984252591
6c6
< I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes a pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find a pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
---
> I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find a pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
------
Phoneme|984252690
3c3
< What constitutes a phoneme is very very dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[allophone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
---
> What constitutes a phoneme is dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[allophone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
6c6
< I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find a pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
---
> I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes a pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
------
Morpheme|984252970
4c4
< Actually, there is not set definition of "morpheme' that I know. Once you consider "meaning"
---
> Actually, there is not a set definition of "morpheme' that I know. Once you consider "meaning"
------
Periodic_Table|984253157
6,7c6,7
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)
<       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
35,37c35,37
<        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)    ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]   [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Chemistry/diatomic|984253322
1,3c1
< Diatomic
< 
< A term used in [[Chemistry]] to describe a [[molecule]], meaning that it the molecule is composed of only two [[atom]]s 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Diatomic]]
------
Germany|984253391
3c3
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg Vorpommern]], [[Nieder Sachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Hessen]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden Würtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
---
> Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 federal states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden-Würtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
5c5
< It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], [[Czech Republic]], in the south to the [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[NetherlandSs], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
---
> It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], in the south to [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[Netherlands], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
11d10
< Before Germany was unified under Otto Von Bismarck (after three bloody wars) in 1871 there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after then Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
13c12
< Germany was a main participant in WorldWarOne from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[William The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
---
> <b>Short History</b>
15c14
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 1933 the Nazis got the power and formed an terrible regime under the dictatorship from AdolfHitler. All people, which are not conform with the Nazis, had been threatened, many of them were murdered. The Nazis and their accomplice murdered  millions Jews ([[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War Two]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
---
> Before Germany was unified in 1871, there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after that Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
17c16
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II the Allies had divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the ppFederal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). WestGermany was allied with the United States of America, UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. EastGermany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
---
> Germany was a main participant in [[World War I]] from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[Wilhelm The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
19c18,40
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanys were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
---
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 
> 
> 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
> 
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II, the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. East Germany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
> 
> 
> <b>Political Structure</b>
> The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government (Bundesregierung) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
> 
> The head of state is the federal president (Bundespräsident). The president has no real power (he may dismiss parliament, though, but this has never happened so far), but is a representational figure (like [[England]]'s queen). He is elected by the federal assembly (Bundesversammlung).
> 
> The head of government is the federal chancellor (Bundeskanzler). He is elected by the federal parliament (Bundestag) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
> 
> The heads of the federal states' governments are called minister presidents (Ministerpräsidenten). They form a cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government. The 16 minister presidents form the Bundesrat, which can be seen as a second chamber of German parliament, some fields of legislation require approval from the Bundesrat. The Bundesrat also sends representatives to the federal assembly, which elects the federal president. 
> 
> It should be noted that heads of governments may change the structure of ministries whenever and however they see fit. For example, in the middle of February 2001, the federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture as a consequence of the [[BSE]] crisis. For that measure, competences from the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Health were transferred to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.
> 
> Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder (SPD), vice-chancellor is Joschka Fischer (Green). The federal president is Johannes Rau. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
21d41
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being one of the economicaly stronger countries in Europe and the world. It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
23d42
< Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party Germanys] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
27c46
< See [[History of Germany]].
---
> See [[History of Germany]].
------
Diatomic|984253393
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Diatomic: 
>  
> A term used in [[Chemistry]] to describe a [[molecule]], meaning that it the molecule is composed of only two [[atom]]s 
> 
------
Germany|984253464
5c5
< It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], in the south to [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[Netherlands], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
---
> It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], in the south to [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[Netherlands]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
13a14,16
> 
> See also [[History of Germany]].
> 
29a33
> 
45,46d48
< 
< See [[History of Germany]].
------
Germany|984253775
23c23
< 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying PolanD 1939. 
---
> 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying [[Poland]] 1939. 
25c25
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of World War II, the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. Berlin, in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. East Germany was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. EastGermany was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, capital of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
---
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
27c27
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at Bonn. (Around 1994 it was moved back to Berlin, where it had been before World War II.)
---
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
------
Berlin|984253919
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT CityBerlin
------
Bonn|984254091
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[capital]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 1949 to 1994. 
> 
> It is a small city in the state of [[Nordrhein-Wesfalen]]. [[Ludwig van Bethoven]] was born in [[Bonn]].
------
Bonn|984254258
1c1
< The [[capital]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 1949 to 1994. 
---
> The [[capital]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 1949 to 1994 (in 1994 the German Parlament voted in favour of moving the [[capital]] to [[Berlin]]).
3c3
< It is a small city in the state of [[Nordrhein-Wesfalen]]. [[Ludwig van Bethoven]] was born in [[Bonn]].
---
> It is a small city in the state of [[Nordrhein-Wesfalen]]. [[Ludwig van Bethoven]] was born in [[Bonn]].
------
Hydrogen|984254394
1,3c1
< The lightest, and most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] [[chemical element]], consisting of a single [[proton]] and
< a single [[electron]].
< Under normal terrestrial conditions, it is a diatomic gas. The gas burns in air to produce water; hence the  name hydrogen is derived from [[Latin]], meaning <i>water-maker</i> 
---
> The lightest [[chemical element]] and the most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] in the universe, around 75% of normal matter, consisting of a single [[proton]] and [[electron]].  The most common [[isotope]] has no [[neutron]]s, although there are two others - [[deuterium]] with one, and radioactive [[tritium]] with two.
5c3,7
< It has two other [[isotope]]s, [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]]
---
> At normal STP-like conditions, hydrogen forms a [[diatomic]] gas, with a boiling point of only 20.28 K and a melting point of 13.81 K.  Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of [[gas giants]], the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal.  Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H<sub>2</sub> form and are associated with star formation.
> 
> Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.1, so it forms compounds where it is the more non-metallic and where it is the more metallic element.  The former are called hydrides, where hydrogen either exists as H<sup>-</sup> ions or just as a solute within the other element (as in Palladium hydride).  The latter tend to be covalent, since the H<sup>+</sup> ion would be a bare nucleus and so has a strong tendency to pull electrons to itself.  Thus even in an acidic solution one sees ions like H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> as the protons latch on to something.
> 
> Hydrogen combines with oxygen to produce water, H<sub>2</sub>O, and releases a lot of energy doing so, burning explosively in air.  The name hydrogen, which comes from the French, in fact means ''water-maker'', ultimately from the [[Greek language|Greek]].
------
Halogen|984254450
6c6
< These elements are [[Chemistry/diatomic|diatomic]] molecules in their natural form. They require one more electron to fill their outer [[electron shell]]s, and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged negative [[ion]].
---
> These elements are [[diatomic]] molecules in their natural form. They require one more electron to fill their outer [[electron shell]]s, and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged negative [[ion]].
------
CityBerlin|984254463
1c1
< Berlin is the capital of GermanY and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
---
> Berlin is the capital of [[Germany]] and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
3c3
< During the ColdWar of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of EastGermany, while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from WestGermany, continued to belong to WestGermany.  In 1962 the BerlinWall was built, dividing the city into WestBerlin and EastBerlin.  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the Capital of WestGermany was a small town in NordrheinWestfalen called BonN.
---
> During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from West Germany, continued to belong to WestGermany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of WestGermany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
5c5
< After the breakdown of CommunIsm in Europe the city, like the country, was united and soon became capital of all of Germany once again.
---
> After the breakdown of [[Communism]] in [[Europe]] the city, like the whole country, was united and soon became capital of all of Germany once again.
7c7
< Kennedy gave a speech about the BerlinWall in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut.
---
> [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut.
------
Cold_War|984254497
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT ColdWar
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984254568
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> 
> ----
> 
> [[Worf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941]]
------
CityBerlin|984254579
3c3
< During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from West Germany, continued to belong to WestGermany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of WestGermany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
---
> During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of WestGermany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
------
CityBerlin|984254612
3c3
< During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of WestGermany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
---
> During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of West Germany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
------
Worf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984257513
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Worf, Benjamin Lee Worf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
> 
> Worf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Worf Hypothosis. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
> 
> Benjamin Lee Worf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
------
Worf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984257613
3c3
< Worf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Worf Hypothosis. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
---
> Worf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Worf Hypothesis [[SapirWorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
------
Worf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984257734
1,5c1
< Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Worf, Benjamin Lee Worf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
< 
< Worf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Worf Hypothesis [[SapirWorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
< 
< Benjamin Lee Worf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
---
> 
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984257867
5c5
< [[Worf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941]]
---
> [[Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941]]
------
Whorf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984257963
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
> 
> Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
> 
> Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
------
Worf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984258112
1c1
< 
---
> See [[Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941]]
------
PowerSet|984258962
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A PowerSet is a construct derived from another existing set S.   Given a set S, the PowerSet of S, written P(S), is the set of all subsets of S.  The definition of a subset is as follows: Given sets S and T, then T is defined to be a subset of S if every element of T is also an element of S.
> 
> If S is the set {A, B, C} then {A,C} is a subset of S.  There are sets that are also subset of S as well, the complete list is as follows:
> 
>    * {}
>    * {A}
>    * {B}
>    * {C}
>    * {A, B}
>    * {A, C}
>    * {B, C}
>    * {A, B, C}
> 
> So the PowerSet of S, written P(S), is the set containing all the subsets above.  Written out this would be the set:
> 
> P(S) = {  {}, {A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C} }
> 
> In case you were wondering, for any given set S, S is always considered to be a subset of itself (by definition) - albeit not a ProperSubset.  Also, the empty set, written {}, is also a subset of any given set S.  This is because the empty set vaccuously satisfies the definition of a subset of S; since the empty set has no elements, every element it the empty set is also an element of S, for any given set S.
> 
> If the above paragraph sounds a bit like double-speak - it is only because it is stating the obvious.
------
PowerSet|984259022
5,12c5,12
<    * {}
<    * {A}
<    * {B}
<    * {C}
<    * {A, B}
<    * {A, C}
<    * {B, C}
<    * {A, B, C}
---
> * {}
> * {A} 
> * {B}
> * {C}
> * {A, B}
> * {A, C}
> * {B, C}
> * {A, B, C}
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984259054
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the future community.
4c4
< 
---
> See Also:
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984259189
1c1
< The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the future community.
---
> The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the present and future community.
------
Germany|984262245
12,29c12
< <b>Short History</b>
< 
< 
< See also [[History of Germany]].
< 
< Before Germany was unified in 1871, there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after that Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
< 
< Germany was a main participant in [[World War I]] from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[Wilhelm The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
< 
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 
< 
< 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying [[Poland]] 1939. 
< 
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
< 
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
< 
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
---
> <b>[[History of Germany|History]]</b>
48c31
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
------
History_of_Germany|984262328
9a10,26
> -----
> From the [[Germany]] page (needs to be merged):
> Before Germany was unified in 1871, there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after that Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
> 
> Germany was a main participant in [[World War I]] from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[Wilhelm The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
> 
> The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 
> 
> 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying [[Poland]] 1939. 
> 
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
> 
> 
------
Germany|984262380
15,27c15
< <b>Political Structure</b>
< 
< The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government (Bundesregierung) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
< 
< The head of state is the federal president (Bundespräsident). The president has no real power (he may dismiss parliament, though, but this has never happened so far), but is a representational figure (like [[England]]'s queen). He is elected by the federal assembly (Bundesversammlung).
< 
< The head of government is the federal chancellor (Bundeskanzler). He is elected by the federal parliament (Bundestag) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
< 
< The heads of the federal states' governments are called minister presidents (Ministerpräsidenten). They form a cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government. The 16 minister presidents form the Bundesrat, which can be seen as a second chamber of German parliament, some fields of legislation require approval from the Bundesrat. The Bundesrat also sends representatives to the federal assembly, which elects the federal president. 
< 
< It should be noted that heads of governments may change the structure of ministries whenever and however they see fit. For example, in the middle of February 2001, the federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture as a consequence of the [[BSE]] crisis. For that measure, competences from the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Health were transferred to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.
< 
< Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder (SPD), vice-chancellor is Joschka Fischer (Green). The federal president is Johannes Rau. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
---
> <b>[[/politics|Political Structure]]</b>
------
Germany/politics|984262422
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government (Bundesregierung) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
> 
> The head of state is the federal president (Bundespräsident). The president has no real power (he may dismiss parliament, though, but this has never happened so far), but is a representational figure (like [[England]]'s queen). He is elected by the federal assembly (Bundesversammlung).
> 
> The head of government is the federal chancellor (Bundeskanzler). He is elected by the federal parliament (Bundestag) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
> 
> The heads of the federal states' governments are called minister presidents (Ministerpräsidenten). They form a cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government. The 16 minister presidents form the Bundesrat, which can be seen as a second chamber of German parliament, some fields of legislation require approval from the Bundesrat. The Bundesrat also sends representatives to the federal assembly, which elects the federal president. 
> 
> It should be noted that heads of governments may change the structure of ministries whenever and however they see fit. For example, in the middle of February 2001, the federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture as a consequence of the [[BSE]] crisis. For that measure, competences from the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Health were transferred to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.
> 
> Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder (SPD), vice-chancellor is Joschka Fischer (Green). The federal president is Johannes Rau. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
> 
------
Germany|984263254
2a3,5
> Background: As Western Europe's richest and most populous nation, Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC and NATO, while the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then Germany has expended considerable funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up to western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU countries formed a common European currency, the euro.
> 
> 
9a13,14
> 
> <b>[[Geography]]</b>
------
Germany|984263287
14c14
< <b>[[Geography]]</b>
---
> <b>[[/Geography|Geography]]</b>
------
Germany/Geography|984263327
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Central Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, between the Netherlands and Poland, south of Denmark
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 51 00 N, 9 00 E
> 
> Map references: Europe
> 
> Area:
> total: 357,021 sq km
> land: 349,223 sq km
> water: 7,798 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Montana
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 3,621 km
> border countries: Austria 784 km, Belgium 167 km, Czech Republic 646 km, Denmark 68 km, France 451 km, Luxembourg 138 km, Netherlands 577 km, Poland 456 km, Switzerland 334 km
> 
> Coastline: 2,389 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm foehn wind
> 
> Terrain: lowlands in north, uplands in center, Bavarian Alps in south
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Freepsum Lake -2 m
> highest point: Zugspitze 2,963 m
> 
> Natural resources: iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 33%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 15%
> forests and woodland: 31%
> other: 20% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 4,750 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: flooding
> 
> Environment - current issues: emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal; government currently attempting to define mechanism for ending the use of nuclear power; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location on North European Plain and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea
------
Germany|984263391
16a17,19
> <b>[[/People|People]]</b>
> 
> 
------
Germany/People|984263428
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Population: 82,797,408 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 16% (male 6,679,930; female 6,333,110)
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 28,638,814; female 27,693,630)
> 65 years and over: 16% (male 5,133,121; female 8,318,803) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.29% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 9.35 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 10.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 4.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.62 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 4.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 77.44 years
> male: 74.3 years
> female: 80.75 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.38 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: German(s)
> adjective: German
> 
> Ethnic groups: German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Russian, Greek, Polish, Spanish)
> 
> Religions: Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 34%, Muslim 1.7%, unaffiliated or other 26.3%
> 
> Languages: German
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 99% (1977 est.)
> male: NA%
> female: NA%
------
Germany/politics|984263509
0a1,62
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Federal Republic of Germany
> conventional short form: Germany
> local long form: Bundesrepublik Deutschland
> local short form: Deutschland
> 
> Data code: GM
> 
> Government type: federal republic
> 
> Capital: Berlin
> 
> Administrative divisions: 16 states (Laender, singular - Land); Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bayern, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Niedersachsen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, Thueringen
> 
> Independence: 18 January 1871 (German Empire unification); divided into four zones of occupation (UK, US, USSR, and later, France) in 1945 following World War II; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany) proclaimed 23 May 1949 and included the former UK, US, and French zones; German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone; unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October 1990; all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991
> 
> National holiday: German Unity Day (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
> 
> Constitution: 23 May 1949, known as Basic Law; became constitution of the united German people 3 October 1990
> 
> Legal system: civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Johannes RAU (since 1 July 1999)
> head of government: Chancellor Gerhard SCHROEDER (since 27 October 1998)
> cabinet: Cabinet or Bundeskanzler appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
> elections: president elected for a five-year term by a Federal Convention including all members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of delegates elected by the Land Parliaments; election last held 23 May 1999 (next to be held 23 May 2004); chancellor elected by an absolute majority of the Federal Assembly for a four-year term; election last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held in the fall of 2002)
> election results: Johannes RAU elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - 57.6%; Gerhard SCHROEDER elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - 52.7%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Federal Assembly or Bundestag (656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or Bundesrat (69 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block)
> elections: Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held by the fall of 2002); note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election
> election results: Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - SPD 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, CDU/CSU 35.1%, FDP 6.2%, PDS 5.1%; seats by party - SPD 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions 15
> 
> Judicial branch: Federal Constitutional Court or Bundesverfassungsgericht, half the judges are elected by the Bundestag and half by the Bundesrat
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alliance '90/Greens [Fitz Kuhn and Claudia Roth]; Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Angela MERKEL]; Christian Social Union or CSU [Edmund STOIBER, chairman]; Free Democratic Party or FDP [Wolfgang GERHARDT, chairman]; Party of Democratic Socialism or PDS [Lothar BISKY, chairman]; Social Democratic Party or SPD [Gerhard SCHROEDER, chairman]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: employers' organizations; expellee, refugee, trade unions, and veterans groups
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Juergen CHROBOG
> chancery: 4645 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
> telephone: [1] (202) 298-8141
> FAX: [1] (202) 298-4249
> consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Francisco
> consulate(s): Wellington (America Samoa)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador John C. KORNBLUM
> embassy: Neustaedtische Kirchstrasse 4-5, 10117 Berlin
> mailing address: PSC 120, Box 1000, APO AE 09265
> telephone: [49] (30) 238-5174
> FAX: [49] (30) 238-6290
> consulate(s) general: Dusseldorf, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Leipzig, Munich
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and gold
> 
> -----
12d73
< 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984263527
2a3,9
> <b>Legend 1</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]:  A [[/Spinster|spinster]] at [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story.  John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of Atlantis while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world.  The site was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him.
> 
> The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestiable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking with him the secret of motor.
> 
> Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero.  Described in these terms, it is the same as [[/Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]].
> 
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984263540
3c3
< <b>Legend 1</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]:  A [[/Spinster|spinster]] at [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story.  John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of Atlantis while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world.  The site was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him.
---
> <b>Legend 1</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]):  A [[/Spinster|spinster]] at [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story.  John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of Atlantis while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world.  The site was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984263562
5c5
< The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestiable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking with him the secret of motor.
---
> The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking with him the secret of motor.
------
Germany|984263573
25a26,27
> <b>[[/Economy|Economy]]</b>
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984263587
5c5
< The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking with him the secret of motor.
---
> The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him.
------
Germany/Economy|984263604
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Germany possesses the world's third most technologically powerful economy after the US and Japan, but its basic capitalistic economy has started to struggle under the burden of generous social benefits. Structural rigidities - like a high rate of social contributions on wages - have made unemployment a long-term, not just cyclical, problem, while Germany's aging population has pushed social security outlays to exceed contributions from workers. The integration and upgrading of the eastern German economy remains a costly long-term problem, with annual transfers from the west amounting to roughly $100 billion. Growth slowed to 1.5% in 1999, largely due to lower export demand and still-low business confidence. Recovering Asian demand, a push for fiscal consolidation, and newly proposed business and income tax cuts - if passed - are expected to boost growth back to trend rates around 2.5% in 2000 and beyond. The adoption of a common European currency and the general political and economic integration of Europe will bring major changes to the German economy in the early 21st century.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.864 trillion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $22,700 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1.2%
> industry: 30.4%
> services: 68.4% (1999)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 40.5 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry 33.7%, agriculture 2.7%, services 63.6% (1998)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 10.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $996 billion
> expenditures: $1.036 trillion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> 
> Industries: among world's largest and technologically advanced producers of iron, steel, coal, cement, chemicals, machinery, vehicles, machine tools, electronics, food and beverages; shipbuilding; textiles
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 0.9% (1999)
> 
> Electricity - production: 525.356 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 65.77%
> hydro: 3.2%
> nuclear: 29.06%
> other: 1.97% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 488.041 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 39.1 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 38.56 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbages; cattle, pigs, poultry
> 
> Exports: $610 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery, vehicles, chemicals, metals and manufactures, foodstuffs, textiles (1999)
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 56.4% (France 11.1%, UK 8.6%, Italy 7.4%, Netherlands 6.8%, Benelux 5.7%), US 9.4%, Japan 1.9% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $587 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery, vehicles, chemicals, foodstuffs, textiles, metals (1999)
> 
> Imports - partners: EU 53.7% (France 11.1%, Netherlands 7.7%, Italy 7.8%, UK 6.8%, Benelux 5.6%), US 8.3%, Japan 5.0% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $NA
> 
> Economic aid - donor: ODA, $5.6 billion (1998)
> 
> Currency: 1 deutsche mark (DM) = 100 pfennige
> 
> Exchange rates: euros per US$1 -0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); deutsche marks (DM) per US$1 - 1.69 (January 1999), 1.7597 (1998), 1.7341 (1997), 1.5048 (1996), 1.4331 (1995)
> note: on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 1.95583 deutsche marks per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt_Legends|984263610
7c7
< Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero.  Described in these terms, it is the same as [[/Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]].
---
> Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero.  Described in these terms, it is the same as [[/Galts Gulch|Galt's Gulch]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984263641
4a5
>  [[/Galts Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]
------
Germany|984263654
28a29,31
> <b>[[/Communications|Communications]]</b>
> 
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984263663
7a8
>  [[/John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]]
------
Germany/Communications|984263683
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: NA; 46.5 million main lines are installed (July 1999)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 15.318 million (April 1999)
> 
> Telephone system: Germany has one of the world's most technologically advanced telecommunications systems; as a result of intensive capital expenditures since reunification, the formerly backward system of the eastern part of the country has been modernized and integrated with that of the western part
> domestic: Germany is served by an extensive system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, microwave radio relay, and a domestic satellite system; cellular telephone service is widely available and includes roaming service to many foreign countries
> international: satellite earth stations - 14 Intelsat (12 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), 2 Intersputnik (1 Atlantic Ocean region and 1 Indian Ocean region); 7 submarine cable connections; 2 HF radiotelephone communication centers; tropospheric scatter links
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 51, FM 767, shortwave 4 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 77.8 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 9,513 (including repeaters) (1998)
> 
> Televisions: 51.4 million (1998)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 625 (1999)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|984263723
5c5
< There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt."
---
> There is a clothing store at 193 Gore Creek Drive, Vail Village, Colorado called John Galt Ltd.  One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, "Who is John Galt?"
------
Germany|984263728
31a32,34
> <b>[[Transportation/Transportation]]</b>
> 
> 
------
Germany|984263748
32c32
< <b>[[Transportation/Transportation]]</b>
---
> <b>[[/Transportation|Transportation]]</b>
------
Germany/Transportation|984263772
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways:
> total: 40,826 km including at least 14,253 km electrified and 14,768 km double- or multiple-tracked (1998)
> note: since privatization in 1994, Deutsche Bahn AG (DBAG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DBAG system there are 102 privately owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks
> 
> Highways:
> total: 656,140 km
> paved: 650,891 km (including 11,400 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 5,249 km (all-weather) (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 7,500 km (1999); major rivers include the Rhine and Elbe; Kiel Canal is an important connection between the Baltic Sea and North Sea
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 2,500 km (1998)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Berlin, Bonn, Brake, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Cologne, Dresden, Duisburg, Emden, Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Lubeck, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Rostock, Stuttgart
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 475 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,395,990 GRT/8,014,132 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 615 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 320
> over 3,047 m: 14
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 61
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
> 914 to 1,523 m: 56
> under 914 m: 122 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 295
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6
> 914 to 1,523 m: 55
> under 914 m: 226 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 59 (1999 est.)
------
Germany|984263817
34a35,37
> <b>[[/Military|Military]]</b>
> 
> 
------
Germany/Military|984263842
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Air Arm), Air Force, Medical Corps, Border Police, Coast Guard
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 20,863,020 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 17,800,862 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 485,422 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $32.8 billion (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY98)
------
Germany|984263884
37a38,40
> <b>[[/Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]</b>
> 
> 
------
Germany/Transnational_Issues|984263911
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: remaining legal issues (restitution) arising from World War II and its aftermath
> 
> Illicit drugs: source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for and consumer of Southwest Asian heroin, Latin American cocaine, and European-produced synthetic drugs
------
History_of_Germany|984263947
3c3
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became France and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the First World War. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
5c5,13
< After the death of Queen Victoria, the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on Serbia after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in Sarajevo. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
---
> After the death of Queen Victoria, the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on Serbia after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
> 
> After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) (see [[National Socialism]]) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on [[Poland]], after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers ([[Italy]], Germany, [[Japan]]) were defeated by Allied forces ([[United States]], [[France]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]), and half of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
> 
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
> 
> In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
> 
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
7d14
< After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the Treaty of Versailles. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on Poland, after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers (Italy, Germany, Japan) were defeated by Allied forces (USA, France, Great Britain and the Soviet Union), and half of Europe lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
9,12d15
< After the war, Germany was split into four occupation zones, Eastern territories came under Polish and Soviet control and Austria became a separate state again (it was united with Germany by Hitler). It soon turned out that the four major Allies had vast ideological differences and over the next years, the British, French and US occupied zones were united to form the Federal Republic, while the Soviet occupied zone became the GDR. Germany's capital, Berlin was split and the Western part became an enclave, while the Eastern part became capital again. After the reunification, the capital of the united Germany moved from Bonn (which was the Western capital) to Berlin.
< -----
< From the [[Germany]] page (needs to be merged):
< Before Germany was unified in 1871, there had been many little states, principalities and kingdoms, after that Germany experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth.
14d16
< Germany was a main participant in [[World War I]] from 1914-1918. After Germany was defeated, it lost also its colonies and big parts of the army ([[Treaty Of Versailles]]). In 1918 the German emperor [[Wilhelm The Second]] resigned and the [[Weimar Republic]] constituted itself. 
16d17
< The worldwide depression of the 1930s plunged the country once more into disaster. Millions of unemployed Germans, disillusioned by capitalist democracy, turned either to the Communist Party([[KPD]]) or to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]), the fascist party of NationalSocialism. By 1930 the Nazis were the second largest party in the Reichstag (the german parliament). 
18d18
< 1933 they took over and formed a terrible regime under [[Adolf Hitler]]. The Nazis murdered millions of Jews (see also: [[Holocaust]]), communists, pastors, democrats, gypsies, gays, lesbians and many other. To get "Lebensraum" (living space) they started [[World War II]] by occupying [[Poland]] 1939. 
20d19
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
22d20
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
24d21
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
------
Germany|984264015
6,13d5
< Germany measures about 800 km (about 500 mi) from north to south; the country extends about 600 km (about 400 mi) from west to east and has is with a total area of 356 970 km² the fourth largest country in Europe. G. is an union  of 16 federal states ("Bundesländer"), from north to south: [[Schleswig Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Hessen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Thuringen]], [[Sachsen]], [[Rheinland Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Baden-Würtemberg]], [[Bayern]]. 
< 
< It's adjacent in the north to the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], [[Baltic Sea]], in the east to [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], in the south to [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]  and in the West to the [[Netherlands]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Belgium]].
< 
< There were about 82 million residents at the end of 1999,  including 7.3 million foreigners.
< 
< Germany takes part in the [[NATO]], the [[European Union]] and the EuroCurrency.
< 
------
National_Socialism|984264053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT NationalSocialism
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264186
2a3,4
> Lillian is a [[/Moochers/moocher]] who seeks to destroy her husband.  She compares being [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden's]] wife with owning the world's most powerful horse.  Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its potential and its power will be wasted.
> 
6c8
< 
---
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264201
3c3
< Lillian is a [[/Moochers/moocher]] who seeks to destroy her husband.  She compares being [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden's]] wife with owning the world's most powerful horse.  Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its potential and its power will be wasted.
---
> Lillian is a [[/Moochers|moocher]] who seeks to destroy her husband.  She compares being [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden's]] wife with owning the world's most powerful horse.  Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its potential and its power will be wasted.
------
NationalSocialism|984264219
1c1
< NationalSocialism refers to the political philosophy of the NationalSocialist (or NaZi) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as FascisM.   FascisM is a broader abstraction which subsumes not only the specific ideology of the NaZi party, but also the ideologies of, for example, MussolinI.
---
> National Socialism refers to the political philosophy of the National Socialist (or [[Nazi]]) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as [[Fascism]]. Fascism is a broader abstraction which subsumes not only the specific ideology of the Nazi party, but also the ideologies of, for example, Mussolini.
3c3
< NationalSocialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a TotalitariaN political agenda.  The most prominent NationalSocialist was AdolfHitler, who ruled GermanY from 1933 until 1945, led GermanY into WorldWarTwo, oversaw the murder of over 20 million people and who is held responsible for the HolocausT.  Most people conclude from his example that NationalSocialism is a bad thing.
---
> National Socialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a [[Totalitarian]] political agenda.  The most prominent National Socialist was [[Adolf Hitler]], who ruled [[Germany]] from 1933 until 1945, led Germany into [[World War II]], oversaw the murder of over 20 million people and who is held responsible for the [[Holocaust]].  Most people conclude from his example that National Socialism is a bad thing.
------
History_of_Germany|984264260
23d22
< 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984264366
1c1
< A group of characters that are the bad guys in [[Atlas Shrugged]], sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They consist of men and women who cannot produce value themselves, who parasite off of those who can create value, and who seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> A group of evil characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]], similar to the [[/Looters|looters]].
3,6c3,5
< The Looters include:
<  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
<  [[/Floyd Ferris|Floyd Ferris]]
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
---
> The moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.
> 
> The moochers include:
8,9d6
<  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
<  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
11,12c8
<  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Prichett]]
<  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]]
---
>  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's mother]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Moochers|984264395
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of evil characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]], similar to the [[/Looters|looters]].
> 
> The moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.
> 
> The moochers include:
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
>  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's mother]]
------
Nazi|984264413
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term coined from the German expression ''Nationalsozialismus'' ([[National Socialism]]). The most prominent Nazi political party was the German Workers Party ([[NSDAP]] - '' Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'') led by [[Adolf Hitler]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984264531
1c1
< A group of evil characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]], similar to the [[/Looters|looters]].
---
> A group of evil characters [[Atlas Shrugged]], sometimes refered to in the book as [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and his friends.  They are similar to the [[/Moochers|Moochers]].
3c3,12
< The moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.
---
> The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it.  They seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
> 
> The Looters include:
>  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
>  [[/Floyd Ferris|Floyd Ferris]]
>  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]
>  [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]]
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Prichett]]
>  [[/Wesley Mouch|Wesley Mouch]]
5,8d13
< The moochers include:
<  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
<  [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]]
<  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's mother]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Moochers|984264583
1c1
< A group of evil characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]], similar to the [[/Looters|looters]].
---
> A group of evil characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]], similar to the [[/Looters|Looters]].
3c3
< The moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.
---
> The Moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.  They seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
5c5
< The moochers include:
---
> The Moochers include:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984264623
3c3
< The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it.  They seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it.  They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Moochers|984264638
3c3
< The Moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.  They seek to destroy those same people despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
---
> The Moochers are people who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value.  They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them.
8c8
<  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's mother]]
---
>  [[/Reardens Mother|Rearden's mother]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|984264671
14a15
>  [[/Moochers/Moochers]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|984264681
15c15
<  [[/Moochers/Moochers]]
---
>  [[/Moochers|Moochers]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264733
4a5,6
> Lillian also serves to illustrated Rands [[Theory of sex|Theory of sex]].
> 
8c10
<  [[/Section161|Section161]]
---
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264742
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrated Rands [[Theory of sex|Theory of sex]].
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrated Rands [[Theory Of Sex|Theory of sex]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264759
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrated Rands [[Theory Of Sex|Theory of sex]].
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984264797
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mort_Liddy|984264958
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mort Liddy is a hack composer that writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to.  He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity.  He is one of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] friends and a member of the cultural elite.
> 
> Mort Liddy appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
History_of_Germany|984265013
3c3
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]] who Napoleon's defeat, the German states, which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich formed the Deutscher Bund, which was a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom did'nt want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced Austria to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without Austria. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
---
>  after Napoleon's defeat, united the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. 
5c5,7
< After the death of Queen Victoria, the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on Serbia after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
> 
> After the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on [[Serbia]] after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Whitcomb|984265037
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woman who moves in the same circles as [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]].  She is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
History_of_Germany|984265062
3d2
<  after Napoleon's defeat, united the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Newspaperman_1|984265154
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A seedy reporter that is deliberately rude.  He speaks to [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philip_Rearden|984265205
1c1
< Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  He lives in his brother's home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and a [[/Moocher|Moocher]].  He lives in his brother's home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
4a5,6
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Philip_Rearden|984265218
1c1
< Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and a [[/Moocher|Moocher]].  He lives in his brother's home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
---
> Philip Rearden is the younger brother of [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and a [[/Moochers|Moocher]].  He lives in his brother's home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him.  He believes that the source of his sustenence is evil and would love to see him destroyed.  He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Reardens_Mother|984265255
1c1
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  She is a [[/Moochers|Moocher]] who lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Looters|984265279
10a11
>  [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Balph_Eubank|984265309
2a3,4
> He is a member of the [[/Looters|Looters]].
> 
4c6
<  [[/Section161|Section161]]
---
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dr._Simon_Pritchett|984265353
1c1
< Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
---
> Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age.  He is also a [[/Looters|Looter]].  He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood.  He explains all this in his book [[/The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe|The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe]], and at cocktail parties.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|984265420
24c24
< As the scene reaches a climax, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] responds to her with indifference, and upset when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears [[Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy's]] bastardized treatment of her favorite song, [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].
---
> As the scene reaches a climax, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] is leaving the party before she loses her composure.  What she has slowly come to realize is that she came to the party hoping to make [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] aware of her as a woman, not just a business partner.  She is distrught when [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] responds to her with indifference, and upset when [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] is the only one who sees her as an object of sexual desire.  She has also been pushed to the edge by the inane ramblings of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian's]] guests.  As she walks out, she is pushed over the edge when she hears [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy's]] bastardized treatment of her favorite song, [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].
------
Germany|984265756
3c3
< Background: As Western Europe's richest and most populous nation, Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC and NATO, while the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then Germany has expended considerable funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up to western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU countries formed a common European currency, the euro.
---
> Background: As Western Europe's richest and most populous nation, Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945. With the advent of the [[Cold War]], two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern [[German Democratic Republic]] (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC and NATO, while the communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]]. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since then Germany has expended considerable funds to bring eastern productivity and wages up to western standards. In January 1999, Germany and 10 other EU countries formed a common [[European currency]], the [[euro]].
33c33
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ragnar_Danneskjold|984265931
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ragnar Danneskjold is one of the original [[/Strikers|Strikers]].  He is now world famous as a pirate.
> 
> Ragnar was from [[/Norway|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families.  When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated.
> 
> He attended [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], while studying under [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler].
> 
> Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[/United States|United States]] to [[/Europe|Europe]].  No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes.  As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[/Delaware Bay|Delaware Bay]].
> 
> Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies.
> 
> There is a price on his head in [[/Norway|Norway]], [[/Portugal|Portugal]], [[/Turkey|Turkey.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ragnar_Danneskjold|984265968
5c5
< He attended [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], while studying under [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler].
---
> He attended [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with [[/John Galt|John Galt]] and [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], while studying under [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]].
11c11,13
< There is a price on his head in [[/Norway|Norway]], [[/Portugal|Portugal]], [[/Turkey|Turkey.
---
> There is a price on his head in [[/Norway|Norway]], [[/Portugal|Portugal]], [[/Turkey|Turkey]].
> 
> His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold'.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ragnar_Danneskjold|984266017
13c13,16
< His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold'.
---
> His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold'.
> 
> Ragnar Danneskjold appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]] - Mentioned; history told.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Spinster|984266190
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woman who tells Dagny a [[/John Galt Legend|John Galt Legend]] in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Spinster|984266204
1c1
< A woman who tells Dagny a [[/John Galt Legend|John Galt Legend]] in [[/Section161|Section161]].
---
> A woman who tells Dagny a [[/John Galt Legends|John Galt Legend]] in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wesley_Mouch|984266282
2a3,4
> Eventually he becomes the most powerful [[/Looters|looter]], and the [[/United States|country's]] economic dictator.
> 
4a7
>  [[/Section161|Section161]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged|984266337
26c26
< * [[/Structure|Structure]]
---
> * [[/Structure|Structure]] - A section by section analysis.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|984266605
0a1,2
>  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]
>  [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]]
2a5
>  [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]]
9a13
>  [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]
15a20
>  [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]]
21a27
>  [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]]
23a30
>  [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
30a38
>  [[/Businessman 1|Businessman 1]]
47a56
>  [[/Mrs. Whitcomb|Mrs. Whitcomb]]
48a58
>  [[/Newspaperman 1|Newspaperman 1]]
55a66
>  [[/Spinster|Spinster]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|984266637
30c30
<  [[/Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
---
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|984266724
7a8
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|984266906
0a1,2
> Typically, companies that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies opearted by evil or incompetnent characters are given generic names.  The men who give their names to their companies all become [[/Strikers|Strikers]] in due time.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|984267111
6a7,8
>  [[/Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic Ocean]]
>  [[/Bar Harbor|Bar Harbor]]
13a16,17
>  [[/Delaware Bay|Delaware Bay]]
>  [[/Detroit|Detroit]]
14a19,20
>  [[/England|England]]
>  [[/Europe|Europe]]
15a22
>  [[/France|France]]
16a24
>  [[/Lake Michigan|Lake Michigan]]
18a27
>  [[/Maine|Maine]]
23a33
>  [[/Nantucket|Nantucket]]
26a37
>  [[/Norway|Norway]]
29a41
>  [[/Portugal|Portugal]]
32a45
>  [[/Scotland|Scotland]]
33a47
>  [[/Turkey|Turkey]]
------
History_of_Germany|984267282
4c4
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Karl the Great]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
------
Foundational_Disciplines|984267291
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''foundational discipline'' would be a DisCipline such that fundamental issues resolved in it have direct and indirect bearing primarily on secondary methodological (see MethodOlogy) issues in other disciplines, but the solution of the "fundamental issues" themselves does not depend on the resolution of issues in those other disciplines.
> 
> Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in [[Philosophy]], namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard [[Philosophy]] and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
> 
------
FoundationalDisciplines|984267308
1,3c1
< A ''foundational discipline'' would be a DisCipline such that fundamental issues resolved in it have direct and indirect bearing primarily on secondary methodological (see MethodOlogy) issues in other disciplines, but the solution of the "fundamental issues" themselves does not depend on the resolution of issues in those other disciplines.
< 
< Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in [[Philosophy]], namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard [[Philosophy]] and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Foundational Disciplines]]
------
Foundational_Disciplines|984267347
1c1
< A ''foundational discipline'' would be a DisCipline such that fundamental issues resolved in it have direct and indirect bearing primarily on secondary methodological (see MethodOlogy) issues in other disciplines, but the solution of the "fundamental issues" themselves does not depend on the resolution of issues in those other disciplines.
---
> A ''foundational discipline'' would be a [[discipline]] such that fundamental issues resolved in it have direct and indirect bearing primarily on secondary methodological (see MethodOlogy) issues in other disciplines, but the solution of the "fundamental issues" themselves does not depend on the resolution of issues in those other disciplines.
3c3
< Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in [[Philosophy]], namely FoundationalIsm) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard [[Philosophy]] and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
---
> Obviously, it is philosophically tendentious (perhaps betraying a very controversial view in [[Philosophy]], namely [[Foundationalism]]) to say that there are any foundational disciplines.  But for classificatory purposes, it can be useful to regard [[Philosophy]] and MathematicsAndStatistics--at least--as examples.
------
Whorf,_Benjamin_Lee,_1897-1941|984267371
1,5c1
< Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
< 
< Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
< 
< Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Benjamin Whorf]]
------
Benjamin_Whorf|984267403
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941
> 
> Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
> 
> Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
> 
> Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
------
Soviet_Union|984267420
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called RussiA, as RussiA was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
> 
> The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
> 
> The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPrize.
> 
> ----
> The Soviet Union was founded on the principles of CommunisM.  
> General concensus is it didn't work too well, so the union
> splintered into its various constituent RepubliC s.
------
SovietUnion|984267438
1,10c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called RussiA, as RussiA was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
< 
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
< 
< The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPrize.
< 
< ----
< The Soviet Union was founded on the principles of CommunisM.  
< General concensus is it didn't work too well, so the union
< splintered into its various constituent RepubliC s.
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]
------
SovietUnion|984267447
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]
------
SovietUnion|984267456
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Soviet Union]]
------
Soviet_Union|984267656
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called RussiA, as RussiA was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called [[Russia|Russia, as Russia was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
3c3
< The first leader of the SovietUnion was VladimirLenin, who led the CommunistS (then called BolshevikS) to power in the RussianRevolution of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of JosephStalin, who led the SovietUnion until his death in 1953.  Future Soviet leaders such as NikitaKruschev and LeonidBrezhnev were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  MikhailGorbachev became head of the SovietUnion in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing CommunisT regime by reducing tensions with the UnitedStates and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core CommunisT tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the CollapseOfTheSovietUnion occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the Soviet Union was [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]], who led the [[Communists|Communists]] (then called [[Bolsheviks|Bolsheviks]]) to power in the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], who led the Soviet Union until his death in 1953.  Later Soviet leaders such as [[Nikita Kruschev|Nikita Kruschev]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mikhail Gorbachev]] became head of the Soviet Union in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing [[Communist|Communist]] regime by reducing tensions with the [[United States|United States]] and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core Communist tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the [[Collapse Of The Soviet Union]] occured in 1991.
5,10c5
< The SovietUnion was the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by Stalin between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the VilniusMassacre, in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, Lithuania.  MikhailGorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the NobelPrize.
< 
< ----
< The Soviet Union was founded on the principles of CommunisM.  
< General concensus is it didn't work too well, so the union
< splintered into its various constituent RepubliC s.
---
> The Soviet Union was the most [[Genocide|genocidal]] regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
------
Soviet_Union|984267694
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called [[Russia|Russia, as Russia was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called [[Russia|Russia]], as Russia was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
------
Enigma|984267773
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> EnigmA was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during World War II. The EnigmA CodE was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
> 
------
EnigmA|984267789
1c1
< EnigmA was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during World War II. The EnigmA CodE was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Enigma]]
------
EnigmA|984267799
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Enigma]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Enigma]]
------
Enigma|984267830
1c1
< EnigmA was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during World War II. The EnigmA CodE was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
---
> Enigma was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during [[World War II|World War II]]. The Enigma Code was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
------
World_War_II|984267949
11,15d10
< The [[League of Nations]], that had been created after WWI to
< prevent another war, was unable to do anything. Among the reason
< for its powerlessness is the fact that the United States, in
< a very isolacionist phase after WWI, had refused to join.
< 
------
Greek_language|984268225
17c17,18
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.----
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.
> 
19c20,21
< -----
---
> 
> Hmm...doesn't look like they do anything.  They have some other methods of transliteration listed, I just looked at the first one, which seemed the simplest.  Well, the ancient Greeks didn't use accents anyway...since I don't know the tongue, I have no clue how important they are (you can get by without macrons in Latin most of the time).  If they're crucial, then we could either mark them befind the letters (ô^) or give up until we have a real Greek alphabet.
------
World_War_II|984269587
1c1
< The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb, turned against the civilian population (rather than the soldiers) to a larger extent then ever before.  
---
> The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb.  The conflict was wrought on civilizan populations to a greater extent than in previous wars of the modern era, and served as a backdrop for [[Genocide|genocidal killings]] by Germany, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Japan]].
3,9c3
< Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the
< [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment
< of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis and [[hiperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible for the [[Nazi]] Party to get to the power. [[Adolf Hitler]] made the 
< german masses dream with supremacy, while putting the blame for 
< all the problems of the country in the [[Jews]]. Soon he was 
< asking for ''[[Lebensraum]]'', ''vital space'' for 'all the german people', that included [[Austria]], and the [[Sudeten]], german
< speaking region of [[Czechoslovakia]]. [[Austria]] was absorbed by Germany in the ''[[Ansschluss]]'', and the western leaders allowed him to annex the Sudeten, in a vane attempt to prevent war. [[Britain]] and [[France]] only reacted when he invaded [[Poland]] (Sep 1 1939) and declared war, and even then a week after the fact (they had promised immediate aid).
---
> *Overview
11c5
< [[France]] fell quickly to a new tactic, the ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'', and Britain was left to fend for itself.  Soon, though, the [[Soviet union]] was drawn into the conflict.  At first it had acted as Hitler's ally, partitioning the east with him - they invaded [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Finland]], and east [[Poland]] in the busy year of 1939.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans broke the treaty and invaded, advancing almost as far as [[Moscow]] before being defeated by the worst Russian winter since [[Napoleon]].
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible for the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolph Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
13c7
< That same year war spread to the Pacific.  [[Japan]] had been active in attempts to expand its holdings, notably in the [[Sino-Japanese war]].  Now in an attempt to eliminate its main potential opposition, the American navy, it attacked [[Pearl Harbor]] and proceeded to invade much of southeast Asia and many Pacific islands.  Unfortunately for its ally, Germany, this also drew America into the European theatre.
---
> Shortly thereafter, Russia invaded Poland from the east.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]] states and invaded Finland, while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and in the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
15c9,13
< Eventually the allied powers, now including the states, were victorious.  Germany's power was broken by his disastrous Russian campaign, and the succesful liberation of France reopened the western front on the continent.  Hitler commited suicide, the Russians took Berlin, and the country was partitioned.  By then Japan had begun to weaken as well, and surrendered after two of its civilian cities (Hiroshima and Nagasaki) were destroyed by nuclear weapons.  The war ended in 1945.
---
> Japan had invaded China in the early 1930s and had been actively engaged in military action their since 1937.  In 1941 the Japanese navy attacked the American Fleet at [[Pearl Harbor]].  Japan then invaded and conquered countries across Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
> At the same time Germany declared war on the [[United States]], which drawing America into a two theater war.
> 
> Germany's power eventually was broken by the disastrous Russian campaign, the successful invasion of France by the Western allies, and incessant bombing of its infrastructure.
> Hitler commited suicide, the Russians took Berlin, and the country was partitioned by the Allies.  Japan had become severely weakened as well, and finally surrendered after two of its cities ([[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]) were destroyed by nuclear weapons.  The war ended in 1945.
18a17
>  [[Australia]]
39a39
>  [[/Normandy]]
63a64
>  [[Tokyo]]
75d75
< Much, much more left to be added...
------
World_War_II|984269625
5c5
< Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible for the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolph Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolph Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
------
World_War_II|984269673
7c7
< Shortly thereafter, Russia invaded Poland from the east.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]] states and invaded Finland, while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and in the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
---
> Shortly thereafter, Russia invaded Poland from the east.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]] states and invaded Finland, while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
------
World_War_II|984269701
10c10
< At the same time Germany declared war on the [[United States]], which drawing America into a two theater war.
---
> At the same time Germany declared war on the [[United States]], drawing America into a two theater war.
------
World_War_II|984269714
12c12
< Germany's power eventually was broken by the disastrous Russian campaign, the successful invasion of France by the Western allies, and incessant bombing of its infrastructure.
---
> Germany's power was eventually broken by the disastrous Russian campaign, the successful invasion of France by the Western allies, and incessant bombing of its infrastructure.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Atlantic_Ocean|984270708
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Atlantic Ocean is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].  It is where [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] is active as a pirate.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bar_Harbor|984270779
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bar Harbor is a city in Maine that is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]] as a place where [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] has been spotted.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Delaware_Bay|984270995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The inlet of the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey and Delaware - in [[/Section161|Section161]] it is mentioned as a place where [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] has been spotted.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Delaware_Bay|984271010
1c1
< The inlet of the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey and Delaware - in [[/Section161|Section161]] it is mentioned as a place where [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] has been spotted.
---
> An inlet of the Atlantic Ocean off New Jersey and Delaware - in [[/Section161|Section161]] it is mentioned as a place where [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] has been spotted.
------
NationalSocialism|984271031
1c1
< National Socialism refers to the political philosophy of the National Socialist (or [[Nazi]]) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as [[Fascism]]. Fascism is a broader abstraction which subsumes not only the specific ideology of the Nazi party, but also the ideologies of, for example, Mussolini.
---
> National Socialism refers to the political philosophy of the National Socialist (or [[Nazi]]) Party, and is often (but incorrectly) used to mean the same thing as [[Fascism]]. Fascism is a broader abstraction which subsumes not only the specific ideology of the Nazi party, but also the ideologies of, for example, [[Benito Mussolini]], the inventor of Fascism.
3c3
< National Socialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a [[Totalitarian]] political agenda.  The most prominent National Socialist was [[Adolf Hitler]], who ruled [[Germany]] from 1933 until 1945, led Germany into [[World War II]], oversaw the murder of over 20 million people and who is held responsible for the [[Holocaust]].  Most people conclude from his example that National Socialism is a bad thing.
---
> National Socialism uses a combination of various racist, nationalist, and socialist arguments in order to justify a [[Totalitarian]] political agenda.  The most prominent National Socialist was [[Adolf Hitler]], who ruled [[Germany]] from 1933 until 1945, led Germany into [[World War II]], oversaw the murder of over 20 million people and who is held responsible for the [[Holocaust]].  Most people conclude from his example that National Socialism is a bad thing.
------
Nazi|984271095
1c1
< A term coined from the German expression ''Nationalsozialismus'' ([[National Socialism]]). The most prominent Nazi political party was the German Workers Party ([[NSDAP]] - '' Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'') led by [[Adolf Hitler]].
---
> A term coined from the German expression ''Nationalsozialismus'' ([[National Socialism]]). The most prominent Nazi political party was the National Socialist German Workers Party ([[NSDAP]] - '' Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'') led by [[Adolf Hitler]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Detroit|984271097
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] knows a contractot in Detroit who is interested in buying [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].
> 
> Detroit is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Colorado|984271122
9a10
>  - [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
World_War_II|984271168
5c5
< Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolph Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolf Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
74,75c74
< *[[Total war]]
< 
---
> *[[Total war]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/England|984271226
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The People's State of England is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].  [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold's]] ship is said to better than any in the English navy.
------
Philosophy|984271239
13c13
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]]
------
Adolf_Hitler|984271289
7c7
< Under Hitler's leadership and vision of a Nordic master race, Germany invaded several of its smaller neighbors, beginning [[World War II]], and an attempt to systematically exterimate other peoples - notably the Jews - called the [[Holocaust]].
---
> Under Hitler's leadership and vision of a Nordic master race, Germany invaded several of its smaller neighbors, beginning [[World War II]], and an attempt to systematically exterminate other peoples - notably the Jews - called the [[Holocaust]].
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
------
Adolf_Hitler|984271320
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Europe|984271387
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In Atlas Shrugged, Europe has declined faster than the [[/United States|United States]] and has become an economic wasteland.  For the most part countries in Europe are mentioned only in the context of a relief ship being sent there, usually one that has been seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].
> 
> Europe is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Europe|984271405
1c1
< In Atlas Shrugged, Europe has declined faster than the [[/United States|United States]] and has become an economic wasteland.  For the most part countries in Europe are mentioned only in the context of a relief ship being sent there, usually one that has been seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].
---
> In Atlas Shrugged, Europe has declined faster than the [[/United States|United States]] and has become an economic wasteland.  For the most part, countries in Europe are mentioned only in the context of a relief ship being sent there, usually one that has been seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/France|984271499
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The People's State of France was to receive a large ship of relief supplies from the [[/United States|United States]], but this ship was seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  This is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/France|984271508
1c1
< The People's State of France was to receive a large ship of relief supplies from the [[/United States|United States]], but this ship was seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  This is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]]
---
> The People's State of France was to receive a large ship of relief supplies from the [[/United States|United States]], but this ship was seized by [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].  This is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
World_War_II|984271524
68a69
> *[[War]]
74c75
< *[[Total war]]
---
> *[[Total war]]
------
MentalEvents|984271549
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mental Event]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lake_Michigan|984271645
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ore is shipped across Lake Michigan.  However the ships used to transport it our growing so old that the shipping lanes are dying.  Paul Larkin cuts a deal with James Taggart to ship his ore by rail, which drives the Lake Michigan shippers out of existence, and makes Larkin dependent on Taggart.
------
Mental_Event|984271650
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT MentalEvent
------
MentalEvents|984271727
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Mental Event]]
---
> #REDIRECT MentalEvent
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Maine|984271851
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Maine in passing in [[/Section161|Section161]].  Someone is complaining about the sense of forebodding she has whenever it is dark, as if the daylight will never return.  Another woman says her cousin in Maine feels the same way.  The conversation then turns to [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], who has been seen off the coast of Maine.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Maine|984271867
1c1
< Maine in passing in [[/Section161|Section161]].  Someone is complaining about the sense of forebodding she has whenever it is dark, as if the daylight will never return.  Another woman says her cousin in Maine feels the same way.  The conversation then turns to [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], who has been seen off the coast of Maine.
---
> Maineis mentioned in passing in [[/Section161|Section161]].  Someone is complaining about the sense of forebodding she has whenever it is dark, as if the daylight will never return.  Another woman says her cousin in Maine feels the same way.  The conversation then turns to [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], who has been seen off the coast of Maine.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Nantucket|984271988
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A coastal city in Massachusetts, [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] has been spotted there.
> 
> Nantucket is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_York|984272014
8a9
>  - [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
CityBerlin|984272080
1c1
< Berlin is the capital of [[Germany]] and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants.
---
> Berlin is the capital of [[Germany]] and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants. 
3c3,17
< During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Cenrury the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of West Germany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
---
> <b>Geography</b>
> Berlin is located at the river Spree, its biggest forest is the Grunewald
> 
> <b>Sights</b>
> *Tiergarten: Berlin's biggest park
> *Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche: stands for Emperor Wilhelm Memorial Church. The church was bombed out in [[World War II]] and its ruin is still standing unchanged.
> *Potsdamer Platz: the center of the new Berlin. It contains the Sony Center and the DaimlerChrysler Quartier, both of which are outstanding eyamples of modern [[Architecture]]. In the 1920s, this was the busiest spot in whole [[Europe]], during the ColdWar, it lay in the middle of the death strip. After that, it was Europe's biggest construction site and now is the place to go if you are into [[Film]]. It has three cinemas with more than fourty screens, a film academy and a film museum.
> *Reichstag: The old and new seat of German parliament, rebuilt by [[Sir Norman Foster]]
> 
> 
> 
> <b>History</b>
> see also: [[History of Germany]]
> 
> During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Century the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of West Germany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
7c21
< [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut.
---
> [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Norway|984272104
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The People's State of Norway was the home of [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] who can no longer return their because they have put a million-dollar price on his head.
------
CityBerlin|984272134
3a4
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Norway|984272147
1a2,3
> 
> It is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Portugal|984272201
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The People's State of Portugal is another country that is offering a reward for the capture of [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].
> 
> It is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Turkey|984272216
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The People's State of Turkey is another country that is offering a reward for the capture of [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]].
> 
> It is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Scotland|984272255
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scotland is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].  Someone reports that [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold's]] ship had been spotted there.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Washington|984272281
7a8
>  - [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984272412
41a42,50
> * People's States
> Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the [[/United States]], is referred to as a People's State.  These include:
>  - The People's State of England
>  - The People's State of France
>  - The People's State of Mexico
>  - The People's State of Norway
>  - The People's State of Portugal
>  - The People's State of Turkey
> 
------
Imaginary_number|984272412
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematicians have defined <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> as the base of a set of numbers isomorphic to the [[real numbers]] but not a subset of the real numbers. The product of <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> times a real number results in a pure imaginary number. Other operations involving imaginary and real numbers result in [[complex numbers]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984272453
44,49c44,49
<  - The People's State of England
<  - The People's State of France
<  - The People's State of Mexico
<  - The People's State of Norway
<  - The People's State of Portugal
<  - The People's State of Turkey
---
>  - The People's State of [[/England|England]]
>  - The People's State of [[/France|France]]
>  - The People's State of [[/Mexico|Mexico]]
>  - The People's State of [[/Norway|Norway]]
>  - The People's State of [[/Portugal|Portugal]]
>  - The People's State of [[/Turkey|Turkey]]
------
Imaginary_number|984272647
1c1,2
< Mathematicians have defined <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> as the base of a set of numbers isomorphic to the [[real numbers]] but not a subset of the real numbers. The product of <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> times a real number results in a pure imaginary number. Other operations involving imaginary and real numbers result in [[complex numbers]].
---
> Mathematicians have defined <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> as the base of a set of numbers isomorphic to the [[real numbers]] but not a subset of the real numbers. The product of <font size=+1><b>i</b></font> times a real number results in a pure imaginary number. The square of a pure imaginary number is  negative. This assures that an imaginary number is not just another real number (since no real number squared is negative). Other operations involving imaginary and real numbers together result in [[complex numbers]].
> 
------
Imaginary_number|984272713
2a3
> *<font size=+1 color=red>i<sup>2</sup> = -1</font>
------
Imaginary_number|984272788
3c3,5
< *<font size=+1 color=red>i<sup>2</sup> = -1</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>i<sup>2</sup> = -1</font>
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>(<b>i</b>x)<sup>2</sup> = -x<sup>2</sup></font> where x is any real number.
------
CityBerlin|984272898
13a14,33
> <b>Culture</b>
> 
> When the city ws still divided, its center was the end of world, as it was the place where you would be closest to the Cold War enemy, so it was pretty abandoned when the Wall came down. The availability of many cheap old houses in the middle of the city became a fertile ground for all sorts of underground and off-culture as well as many nightclubs, like the world-famous Tresor, which is one of the most important [[Techno]] clubs on earth. Berlin has a rich art scene, but it is increasingly coming under pressure, because since the government moved in, the rents went up considerably.
> 
> :Important Theaters:
> *Schaubuehne
> *Volksbuehne
> *Deutsches Theater
> *Berliner Ensemble
> 
> :Large Opera Houses:
> *Deutsche Oper
> *Staatsoper Unter den Linden
> *Komische Oper
> 
> :Large Universities:
> *Freie Universitaet Berlin
> *Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin
> *Technische Universitaet Berlin
> 
22c42,44
< [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
---
> [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
> 
> In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
------
Polynomial|984273152
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''polynomial''' is a [[mathematical function]] from one set of numbers to another. 
------
MentalEvent|984273396
1c1
< ''Mental event'' is a sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say Mary is walking through a park and she <i>sees</i> City Hall.  That instance of seeing City Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in Mary's mind.  That instance of seeing is a mental event.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in someone's mind.  If Mary thinks to herself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if she feels happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mental event]]
------
Mental_events|984273434
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Mental event'' is a sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say Mary is walking through a park and she <i>sees</i> City Hall.  That instance of seeing City Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in Mary's mind.  That instance of seeing is a mental event.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in someone's mind.  If Mary thinks to herself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if she feels happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
------
Polynomial|984273469
1c1,9
< A '''polynomial''' is a [[mathematical function]] from one set of numbers to another. 
---
> A '''polynomial''' is a [[Function]] from one set of numbers to another. The value of the dependent variable is determined by summing terms involving powers of the independent variable as in
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x + a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup> + ... + a<sub>n</sub>x<sup>n</sup></font>
> 
> where x denotes the independent variable and y the dependent varible.
> 
> The {a<sub>i</sub>} are called the coeficients of their corresponding powers of x.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Mental_event|984273465
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Mental event'' is a sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say Mary is walking through a park and she <i>sees</i> City Hall.  That instance of seeing City Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in Mary's mind.  That instance of seeing is a mental event.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in someone's mind.  If Mary thinks to herself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if she feels happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
------
Mental_Event|984273492
1c1
< #REDIRECT MentalEvent
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mental event]]
------
Real_numbers|984273642
32c32
< *[[transcendental numbers]] -- those that are not the roots of any polynomial with integer coefficients.
---
> *[[transcendental numbers]] -- those that are not the roots of any [[polynomial]] with integer coefficients.
------
Mental_events|984273642
1c1
< ''Mental event'' is a sort of catch-all phrase that means <i>a</i> <i>particular</i> <i>occurrence</i> of something going on in the mind.  So say Mary is walking through a park and she <i>sees</i> City Hall.  That instance of seeing City Hall is an instance of <i>perception</i> -- something that is supposed to be going on in Mary's mind.  That instance of seeing is a mental event.  It’s an <i>event</i> because it is something that happens; and it’s <i>mental</i> because it happens in someone's mind.  If Mary thinks to herself, "I am a human being," that thought is a mental event; if she feels happy after doing well on an exam, that’s a mental event.  And so on.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mental event]]
------
Set|984273772
11c11
< #[[Algebraic Numbers]] which can appear as solutions to polynomial equations (with rational coefficients) and may involve [[radical]]s.
---
> #[[Algebraic Numbers]] which can appear as solutions to [[polynomial]] equations (with rational coefficients) and may involve [[radical]]s.
16c16
< [[Statistical Theory]] is built on the base of [[Set Theory]] and [[Probabillity Theory]].
---
> [[Statistical Theory]] is built on the base of [[Set Theory]] and [[Probability Theory]].
19c19
< Wrap you mind around ''the barber who shaves everyone in town and only those who do not shave themselves''. Now, ask yourself, "Who shaves the barber?"
---
> Wrap your mind around ''the barber who shaves everyone in town and only those who do not shave themselves''. Now, ask yourself, "Who shaves the barber?"
------
Real_Numbers|984273837
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[real numbers]]
------
Real_Numbers|984273866
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[real numbers]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Real numbers]]
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|984274377
3c3
< e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
5c5
< where e is the base of the natural logarithms, i is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers), and pi is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle with its diameter.
---
> where '''e''' is the base of the natural logarithms, '''i''' is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers), and '''pi''' is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle to its diameter.
9c9
< Is there a name for the formula?
---
> Is there a name for the formula? (see below)
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). pi is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The e constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e^x. Finally, i is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''pi''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
25c25
<                                  e^(ib) = cos(b) + i * sin(b) where b is a real number.
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(ib)</sup> = cos(b) + i * sin(b) </font>where b is a real number.
28c28
< So, if b = pi, then  e^(i*pi) = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi).
---
> So, if b = pi, then  e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi).
34c34
<                                    e^(i*pi) = - 1, and e^(i*pi) + 1 = 0.
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = - 1, and e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|984274443
34c34
< :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = - 1, and e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = - 1, and e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
------
TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld|984274855
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''pi''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all polynomials of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''pi''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all [[polynomial]]s of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
28c28
< So, if b = pi, then  e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi).
---
> So, if b = pi, then  <font size=+1 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi)</font>.
36c36
< The proof of Euler's Theorem involves the definition of "e," by a TaylorsSeriesExpansion of  e^z, where z is a complex number, DeMoivresFormula, and the Taylor's Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
---
> The proof of Euler's Theorem involves the definition of '''e''', by a TaylorsSeriesExpansion of  <font size=+1 color=red>e<sup>z</sup></font>, where '''z''' is a complex number, DeMoivresFormula, and the Taylor's Series Expansion of the sine and cosine functions.
38,39c38,40
< Despite, this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequence of the extension of the definition of the function '''e''' over the ComplexNumbers.
<        
---
> Despite this last remark, Euler's Theorem is considered a direct consequence of the extension of the definition of the function '''e''' over the ComplexNumbers.
> ----
> '''e''' is also known as the limit of (1 + 1/n)<sup>n</sup> as n increases indefinitely. With any pocket calculator one can experiment with this function for increasing values of n to see the convergence.       
------
Statistics|984274998
2,4c2,4
< #[[planning observations]], 
< #[[summarizing statistical data]], and 
< #[[interpreting statistical data]]. 
---
> #[[Planning Research|planning observations]], 
> #[[Statistics/Descriptive|summarizing statistical data]], and 
> #[[Statistics/Inference|interpreting statistical data]]. 
------
Summarizing_Statistical_Data|984275232
1,17c1
< back to [[Statistics]]
< 
< :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Interpreting Statistical Data]] -- [[Summary Statistics]]
< 
< In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''Units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 
< 
< We have two objectives for our summary:
< 
< #We want to choose a [[Statistic]] that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[Central Tendency]]''.
< #We want to choose another [[Statistic]] that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a ''measure of [[Statistical Variability]]''.
< 
< When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the [[Arithmetic Mean]], the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] called [[Quantiles]].
< 
< The most common measures of variability for [[Quantitative Data]] are the [[Variance]], its square root, the [[Standard Deviation]], the [[Statistical Range]], [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]].
< 
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statistics/Descriptive]]
------
Statistics/Descriptive|984275416
1c1
< back to [[Statistics/Applied]]
---
> back to [[Statistics]]
2a3,4
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Summary Statistics]]
> ----
5a8,19
> #[[Parametric Description]] in which we estimate the values of certain parameters which we assume to complete the description of the set of data.
> 
> In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''Units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each Unit, we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 
> 
> We have two objectives for our summary:
> 
> #We want to choose a [[Statistic]] that shows how different ''Units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[Central Tendency]]''.
> #We want to choose another [[Statistic]] that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a ''measure of [[Statistical Variability]]''.
> 
> When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the [[Arithmetic Mean]], the '''MediaN''', or the '''MoDe'''. Sometimes, we choose specific values from the [[Cumulative Distribution Function]] called [[Quantiles]].
> 
> The most common measures of variability for [[Quantitative Data]] are the [[Variance]], its square root, the [[Standard Deviation]], the [[Statistical Range]], [[Interquartile Range]], and the [[Absolute Deviation]].
------
Real_numbers|984275643
24a25
> * [[Integers]]
29c30
< These are the rational numbers (if you allow 12 = 11.9...  If you don't allow this, the set is base dependent, which is undesirable.)  This may be proved by summing as a [[geometric progression]] e.g
---
> The the rational numbers  are the infinitely repeating decimal expansions (if you allow 12 = 11.9...  If you don't allow this, the set is base dependent, which is undesirable.)  This may be proved by summing as a [[geometric progression]] e.g
31,32c32,35
< * [[irrational numbers]] -- Any number which cannot be represented as the ratio of two integers.  These have infinitely long, non recurring decimal representations.
< *[[transcendental numbers]] -- those that are not the roots of any [[polynomial]] with integer coefficients.
---
> Numbers that are not rational are called irrational.
> 
> *[[algebraic numbers]] -- those that are the roots of a [[polynomial]] with integer coefficients.
> All rational numbers are obviously algebraic.  In fact there are only a countable number of algebraics, so the vast majority of real numbers are not; such numbers are called transcendental, and include e and pi.
------
Real_numbers|984275656
27,29d26
< * [[Whole numbers]]
< * (??? name) - infinitely repeating fractions (include in rational numbers???)
< 
------
Statistical_Variability|984275869
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Statistical Variability''' is the term we use to describe the fact that in ScienCe, we often need to use instruments which are not perfectly precise in our application. The consequence is that repeated measurements often result in data which are not exactly equal, but are similar. When this happens, we usually adopt the attitude that the quantity being measured is stable and that our variation is due to [[Observational Error]].
> 
> This assumption may be false; the risk is that we ignore the possibility that the quantity is indeed dynamic and that the variation we observe is ''intrinsic'' to the phenomenon. Naturally, we prefer the simpler model of a stable quantity when it is tenable, but we must examine the phenomenon to see if it warrants such a simplification.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Variability|984276085
3a4,5
> 
> We may observe distinct members of a population which, ideally, we would like to consider interchangeable. Only in the arena of manufactured products do we approximate such a situation, and even there, the meticulous scientist finds idiosyncracy of sampled items.
------
Statistical_Variability|984276159
5c5
< We may observe distinct members of a population which, ideally, we would like to consider interchangeable. Only in the arena of manufactured products do we approximate such a situation, and even there, the meticulous scientist finds idiosyncracy of sampled items.
---
> We may observe distinct members of a population which, ideally, we would like to consider interchangeable. Only in the arena of manufactured products do we approximate such a situation, and even there, the meticulous scientist finds idiosyncracy of sampled items. Hence, the differences between individual ''units'' becomes part of '''Statistical Variability'''.
------
US|984279294
1c1
< #REDIRECT UnitedStates
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States]]
------
Europa|984280140
5c5
< Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic Languages]] which use the latin aplhabet (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Europa|984280157
5c5
< Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic Languages]] which use the latin aplhabet (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic languages]] which use the latin aplhabet (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Europa|984280245
5c5
< Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic languages]] which use the latin aplhabet (except [[English]]), as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic languages]] which use the latin aplhabet, as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
Europa|984280264
5c5
< Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic languages]] which use the latin aplhabet, as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
---
> Europa is also the spelling of [[Europe]] in all [[Germanic languages]] (except [[English]]), and in all [[Slavic languages]] which use the latin [[alphabet]], as well as [[Greek]] and [[Latin]].  Thus, for instance, its appearance on postage stamps commemorating a "United Europe" first issued in 1956.
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984280359
5c5
< [[Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 1897-1941]]
---
> [[Benjamin Whorf]]
------
Nazi|984280829
1c1,3
< A term coined from the German expression ''Nationalsozialismus'' ([[National Socialism]]). The most prominent Nazi political party was the National Socialist German Workers Party ([[NSDAP]] - '' Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'') led by [[Adolf Hitler]].
---
> A term coined from the German expression ''Nationalsozialismus'' ([[National Socialism]]). The most prominent Nazi political party was the National Socialist German Workers Party ([[NSDAP]] - '' Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'') led by [[Adolf Hitler]].
> 
> In the late 20th century the Neonazi movement has become dangerously popular around the world (especially among youths - [Skinheads]). 
------
Nazi|984280847
3c3
< In the late 20th century the Neonazi movement has become dangerously popular around the world (especially among youths - [Skinheads]). 
---
> In the late 20th century the Neonazi movement has become dangerously popular around the world (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
------
CountriesU|984283716
1c1
< * [[United Kingdom]]
---
> * [[Ukraine]]
3c3
< * [[United States]]
---
> * [[United Arab Emirates]]
5c5,7
< * [[Ukraine]]
---
> * [[United Kingdom]]
> 
> * [[United States]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Bracelet|984294495
1c1
< The very first thing made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  When he gives it to [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
---
> The very first thing made from [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is a bracelet.  The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]].
3c3,5
< Later, at a party, when [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
---
> The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  When he gives it to [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present ([[/Section121|Section121]]) she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
> 
> In [[/Section161|Section161]], [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary.  She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it.
6a9
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984294541
3a4
>  [[/Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Equalization_of_Opportunity_Bill|984294792
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bill designed by the [[/Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one.  It is aimed primarily at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] who owns [[/Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]], which he uses to guarantee [[/Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of copper.  By passing this Bill, the [[/Looters|Looters]] can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the copper he needs to run his steel mills.
> 
> They claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy.
> 
> The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Friends_of_Global_Progress|984294994
1c1,5
< A social organization that [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]] is associated with.  It is mentioned in [[/Section121|Section121]].
---
> Friends of Global Progress is political organization run by [[/Claude Slagenhop|Claude Slagenhop]] and supported by [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].  It is a sponsor of the [[/Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]].
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section121|Section121]]
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984295048
8a9
>  [[/Heavens In Your Backyard|Heaven's In Your Backyard]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Heavens_In_Your_Backyard|984295129
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film.  [[/Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]] wrote the score, using a bastardized version of [[/Halleys Fourth Concerto|Halley's Fourth Concerto]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section161|Section161]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Metal|984295155
11a12
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|984295727
2a3,4
> When [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tells [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[/Section161|Section161]]), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precept that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit - he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees - it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with develping a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work - he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and didn't burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is a more important than ability - he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
> 
9a12
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|984295755
3c3
< When [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tells [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[/Section161|Section161]]), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precept that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit - he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees - it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with develping a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work - he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and didn't burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is a more important than ability - he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
---
> When [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tells [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[/Section161|Section161]]), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit - he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees - it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with develping a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work - he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and didn't burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is a more important than ability - he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|984295778
3c3
< When [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tells [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[/Section161|Section161]]), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit - he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees - it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with develping a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work - he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and didn't burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is a more important than ability - he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
---
> When [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] tells [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[/Section161|Section161]]), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit - he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees - it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work - he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and didn't burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is a more important than ability - he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/San_Sebastian_Mines|984295854
4a5,6
> In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984295941
23a24
>  [[/The Heart Is A Millman|The Heart Is A Millman]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/The_Heart_Is_A_Millman|984296029
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Heart is a Milkman is a novel being written by [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]].  It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration.  Eubank says he will dedicate it to [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]].
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984296061
23a24
>  [[/The Future|The Future]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/The_Future|984296138
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A magazine edited by [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]].  It publishes stories critical of businessmen, and featured an article on [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] called [[/The Octopus|The Octopus]].
> 
> The Future is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|984296167
25a26
>  [[/The Octopus|The Octopus]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/The_Octopus|984296234
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An article written by [/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] for [[/The Future|The Future]].  It is a hatcher job about [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/The_Octopus|984296245
1c1
< An article written by [/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] for [[/The Future|The Future]].  It is a hatcher job about [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
---
> An article written by [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] for [[/The Future|The Future]].  It is a hatcher job about [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil_Fields|984296268
4a5
>  [[/Section161|Section161]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984296492
40a41
> # In [[/Section161|Section161]], [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] tells [[Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that he was the one who invited [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] to the Rearden's anniversary party.  It was actually [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984296510
41c41
< # In [[/Section161|Section161]], [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] tells [[Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that he was the one who invited [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] to the Rearden's anniversary party.  It was actually [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it.
---
> # In [[/Section161|Section161]], [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that he was the one who invited [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] to the Rearden's anniversary party.  It was actually [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984296719
21c21
< [[Atlas Shrugged]] takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures that are mentioned.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged]] takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned.
23a24
> #<b>Dark Ages</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]): [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold's]] piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages.
24a26
> #<b>Middle Ages</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]): It is said that [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.
26a29
> #<b>Vikings</b> ([[/Section161|Section161]]): It is said that [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|984296787
2a3,4
> <b>Canape</b>: In [[/Section161|Section161]], canape is served at the Rearden's anniversary party.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|984296947
8a9,10
> 
> &130;
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Food|984297001
7,10c7
< <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In [[/Section142|Section142]] [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
< 
< 
< &130;
---
> <b>Shish-kabob</b>: In [[/Section142|Section142]] [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] suggests he might take [[/Betty Pope|Betty Pope]] to the Armenian restaurant for shish-kabob.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984297148
36a37,38
> Almost every nation in the world except the United States is refered to as "The People's State of...", and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States.  In conversation, people casually refer to them as "The People's State of..." rather than just, say, France or Norway.  It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation - we don't call Canada 'The Republic of Canada' or Germany 'The Federal Republic of Germany' - so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984297172
33c33
< #In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.
35c35
< #In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
---
>  - In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Topics_of_note|984297183
35c35
<  - In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
---
> In [[/Section152|Section152]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church.  "The church, I think, will stand.  They'll need it," he quips.  Since the other things are things of value - houses, roads, etc. - it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.
------
Enzyme|984303142
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Enzyme
> 
> Literal meaning "in ferment"
> Term used to refer to a [[protein]] that acts as a [[Catalysis|catalyst]] in living organisms, enabling or accelerating the chemical reactions necessary for life. The origin of the name is from the early studies of the action of [[yeast]]s. 
> 
> By common convention, an enzyme's name consists of a description of what it does, with  the word ending "-ase" added; examples are <i>alcohol dehydrogenase</i>, <i>DNA polymerase</i>
> 
> 
------
Polymer|984303251
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Polymer
> 
> 
> A term in [[Chemistry]], used to denote a large [[molecule]] formed by the 
> repeated linking together of a number of smaller molecules. The individual 
> small molecules are known as <i>monomers</i>; a very small polymer, formed 
> from only a few monomers, is sometimes referred to as an <i>oligomer</i>. 
> The process of forming a polymer is called <i>Polymerisation</i>.
> The formation of a polymer frequently requires the presence of another 
> molecule that enables or speeds up the chemical reactions involved; such 
> compounds are referred to as [[Catalyst|catalysts]].  
> 
> Modern synthetic [[plastics]] are polymers.
> 
> Living organisms are constructed of a variety of polymers. The catalysts used 
> in the formation of these polymers are called [[Enzyme|enzymes]]
>  
> * [[Protein|proteins]] are irregular polymers of a variety of [[Amino acid|amino acids]]  
> * [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are polymers of [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]]. The enzymes used in their synthesis are called <i>polymerases</i>
> * [[Carbohydrate]]s are polymers of sugars
> * [[Cellulose]] is a polymer of sugars and [[lignin]]
> 
------
Polymer|984303592
20,21c20
< * [[Carbohydrate]]s are polymers of sugars
< * [[Cellulose]] is a polymer of sugars and [[lignin]]
---
> * [[Polysaccharide]]s are carbohydrate polymers, including [[cellulose]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|984303873
30a31,34
> 
> -----
> 
> Q. How do I edit a page that has been redirected? I made a definition of polymer, and tried toput a link on the organic conductors page, but clicking on edit,  for either "Organic Conductors", or "Organic conductors" gives the redirect commnd
------
Germany/Geography|984309047
1c1,2
< Location: Central Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, between the Netherlands and Poland, south of Denmark
---
> <b>Location:</b> 
> :Central [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], between the [[Netherlands]] and [[Poland]], south of [[Denmark]]
3c4,5
< Geographic coordinates: 51 00 N, 9 00 E
---
> :Geographic coordinates: 51 00 N, 9 00 E
> :Map references: Europe
5c7,10
< Map references: Europe
---
> <b>Area:</b>
> :total: 357,021 sq km
> :land: 349,223 sq km
> :water: 7,798 sq km
7,10c12
< Area:
< total: 357,021 sq km
< land: 349,223 sq km
< water: 7,798 sq km
---
> :comparative: slightly smaller than Montana
12d13
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Montana
14,16c15,16
< Land boundaries:
< total: 3,621 km
< border countries: Austria 784 km, Belgium 167 km, Czech Republic 646 km, Denmark 68 km, France 451 km, Luxembourg 138 km, Netherlands 577 km, Poland 456 km, Switzerland 334 km
---
> <b>Climate:</b> 
> :temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm foehn wind
18c18,19
< Coastline: 2,389 km
---
> <b>Terrain:</b> 
> :lowlands in north, uplands in center, Bavarian Alps in south
20,23c21,23
< Maritime claims:
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
---
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> :lowest point: Freepsum Lake -2 m
> :highest point: Zugspitze 2,963 m
25c25,27
< Climate: temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm foehn wind
---
> <b>Land boundaries:</b>
> :total: 3,621 km
> :border countries: [[Austria]] 784 km, [[Belgium]] 167 km, [[Czech Republic]] 646 km, [[Denmark]] 68 :km, [[France]] 451 km, [[Luxembourg]] 138 km, [[Netherlands]] 577 km, [[Poland]] 456 km, :[[Switzerland]] 334 km
27c29
< Terrain: lowlands in north, uplands in center, Bavarian Alps in south
---
> :Coastline: 2,389 km
29,31c31,34
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Freepsum Lake -2 m
< highest point: Zugspitze 2,963 m
---
> :Maritime claims:
> :continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> :exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> :territorial sea: 12 nm
33c36,41
< Natural resources: iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land
---
> <b>Land use:</b>
> :arable land: 33%
> :permanent crops: 1%
> :permanent pastures: 15%
> :forests and woodland: 31%
> :other: 20% (1993 est.)
35,42c43,45
< Land use:
< arable land: 33%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 15%
< forests and woodland: 31%
< other: 20% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 4,750 sq km (1993 est.)
---
> Natural resources: 
> :iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land
> :Irrigated land: 4,750 sq km (1993 est.)
46c49,52
< Environment - current issues: emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal; government currently attempting to define mechanism for ending the use of nuclear power; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive
---
> <b>Environment</b>
> 
> Current issues: 
> :emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal; government currently attempting to define mechanism for ending the use of nuclear power; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive
48,50c54,56
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
< signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
---
> International Agreements:
> :party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> :signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
52c58
< Geography - note: strategic location on North European Plain and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea
---
> Geography - note: strategic location on North European Plain and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea
------
Europe|984309107
34c34
<     [[Luxemburg]],
---
>     [[Luxembourg]],
59c59
< The term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxemburg]] which are core members of the [[European Union]].
---
> The term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxembourg]] which are core members of the [[European Union]].
------
RecentChanges|984309257
1,4c1
< Addicted yet?  :-)
< 
< Please read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and in particular see [[naming conventions]].  See also [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.
< 
---
> Track the most recent changes to Wikipedia on this page.  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.  You might want to read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and the [[naming conventions]] too.
------
Agriculture|984310737
3c3
< Subdisciplines would include [[Farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], alfalfa, etc.) [[Cattle ranching]], [[Chicken farming]], [[Turkey farming]], [[Ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[Horse ranching]], [[Rabbit farming]], Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, [[Sheepherding]], [[Goatherding]], [[Pig farming]], Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
---
> Kinds of agriculture would include [[Farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], alfalfa, etc.) [[Cattle ranching]], [[Chicken farming]], [[Turkey farming]], [[Ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[Horse ranching]], [[Rabbit farming]], Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, [[Sheepherding]], [[Goatherding]], [[Pig farming]], Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
------
Agriculture|984310901
3c3
< Kinds of agriculture would include [[Farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], alfalfa, etc.) [[Cattle ranching]], [[Chicken farming]], [[Turkey farming]], [[Ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[Horse ranching]], [[Rabbit farming]], Raising of Fur-bearing Animals, [[Sheepherding]], [[Goatherding]], [[Pig farming]], Orchard Keeping, Vinyard Keeping. etc.)
---
> Kinds of agriculture include [[farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], etc.), [[cattle ranching]], [[chicken-raising]], [[turkey-raising]], [[ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[horse ranching]], [[rabbit farming]], [[raising of fur-bearing animals]], [[shepherding]], [[goatherding]], [[pig farming]], [[orchard keeping]], [[vinyard keeping]], etc.
------
Statistics/Descriptive|984311987
21d20
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistics|984312006
9,10c9
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Games_of_Chance|984312099
8,9d7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_Applications|984312122
10,11d9
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Designing_Experiments|984318028
6a7,8
> '''Design of Experiments''' was built on the foundation of the [[Analysis of variance]], a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested. 
> 
------
Designing_Experiments|984318088
9c9
< Developments of the theory of ''Linear Models'' have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[Abstract Algebra]] and [[Combinatorics]].
---
> Developments of the theory of [[Linear Models]] have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[Abstract Algebra]] and [[Combinatorics]].
------
Designing_Experiments|984318801
10,11c10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Analysis_of_variance|984318817
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> back to [[Statistics]] 
> 
> '''Analysis of variance''' is collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts. There are three conceptual classes of such models:
> #[[ANOVA/Fixed|Fixed effects models]] assume that the data come from [[Normal Distribution|normal populations] which differ in their means.
> #[[ANOVA/Random|Random effects models]] assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy.
> #[[ANOVA/Mixed|Mixed models]] describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present.
> 
> The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified model.
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>SS<sub>Total</sub> = SS<sub>Error</sub> + SS<sub>Treatments</sub>
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Analysis_of_variance|984318887
4c4
< #[[ANOVA/Fixed|Fixed effects models]] assume that the data come from [[Normal Distribution|normal populations] which differ in their means.
---
> #[[ANOVA/Fixed|Fixed effects models]] assume that the data come from [[NormalDistribution|normal populations]] which differ in their means.
10c10
< *<font size=+1 color=red>SS<sub>Total</sub> = SS<sub>Error</sub> + SS<sub>Treatments</sub>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>SS<sub>Total</sub> = SS<sub>Error</sub> + SS<sub>Treatments</sub></font>
12c12
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Designing_Experiments|984318942
7c7
< '''Design of Experiments''' was built on the foundation of the [[Analysis of variance]], a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested. 
---
> '''Design of Experiments''' was built on the foundation of the [[ANOVA|Analysis of variance]], a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested. 
------
ANOVA|984318985
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]
------
Analysis_of_variance|984319182
10a11,14
> 
> The number of [[ANOVA|degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated 'df') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[ChiSquare|Chi -squared distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares.
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>df<sub>Total</sub> = df<sub>Error</sub> + df<sub>Treatments</sub></font>
------
ANOVA/Fixed|984319401
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Fixed Effects''' model of [[Analysis of Variance]] applies to situations in which the experimenter has subjected his experimental material to several treatments, each of which affects only the mean of the underlying [[NormalDistribution|normal distribution]] of the ''response variable''.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Analysis_of_variance|984319451
12c12
< The number of [[ANOVA|degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated 'df') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[ChiSquare|Chi -squared distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares.
---
> The number of [[ANOVA/DegreesOfFreedom|degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated 'df') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[ChiSquare|Chi -squared distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares.
------
ANOVA/DegreesOfFreedom|984319569
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Degrees of freedom''' indicates the effective number of observations which contribute to the sum of squares in an ANOVA, the total number of observations minus the number of linear constraints in the data.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ANOVA/Random|984319795
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Random Effects Models''' are used to describe situations in which incomparable differences in experimental material occur. The simplest example is that of estimating the unknown mean of a population whose individuals differ from each other. In this case, the variation between individuals is ''confounded'' with that of the observing instrument.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistics/Assumptions|984319887
9c9
< #exact or approximate normality of observations (see [[Normal Distribution]]
---
> #exact or approximate normality of observations (see [[Normal Distribution]])
------
Greek_language|984319959
17c17
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''arxês'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''archês'') or whatever the derivation is.
21c21,22
< Hmm...doesn't look like they do anything.  They have some other methods of transliteration listed, I just looked at the first one, which seemed the simplest.  Well, the ancient Greeks didn't use accents anyway...since I don't know the tongue, I have no clue how important they are (you can get by without macrons in Latin most of the time).  If they're crucial, then we could either mark them befind the letters (ô^) or give up until we have a real Greek alphabet.
---
> Hmm...doesn't look like they do anything.  They have some other methods of transliteration listed, I just looked at the first one, which seemed the simplest.  Well, the ancient Greeks didn't use accents anyway...since I don't know the tongue, I have no clue how important they are (you can get by without macrons in Latin most of the time).  If they're crucial, then we could either mark them befind the letters (ô^) or give up until we have a real Greek alphabet.----
> Greek stress indicated a rise in pitch, originally, and later a normal stress (loudness, clarity, etc.). I guess I am so used to seeing it that Greek looks strange without it, but if Perseus can do it, I guess we can.
------
Greek_language|984321288
7,10c7,10
< Nominative (subject)          x        x           x          x          x        x
< Genitive (possessive)         x        x           x          x          x        x
< Dative (indirect object+)     x        x           x          x          x        x 
< Accusative (direct object)    x        x           x          x          x        x
---
> Nominative (subject)          o        ê           to         oi         ai       ta
> Genitive (possessive)         tou      tês         tou        tôn        tôn      tôn
> Dative (indirect object+)     tô       tê          tô         tois       tais     tois 
> Accusative (direct object)    ton      tên         to         tous       tas      ta
------
Greek_language|984321444
3c3
< Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told).  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
---
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told). Since Greek words show their grasmmatical functions, explicitly, word order in Greek is hardly necessary.  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
------
Greek_language|984321549
3c3
< Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told). Since Greek words show their grasmmatical functions, explicitly, word order in Greek is hardly necessary.  A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
---
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told). Since Greek words show their grammatical functions, explicitly, word order in Greek is hardly necessary for this purpose. A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
------
Polymer|984322307
19c19
< * [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are polymers of [[Nucleic acid|nucleic acids]]. The enzymes used in their synthesis are called <i>polymerases</i>
---
> * [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are polymers. The enzymes used in their synthesis are called <i>polymerases</i>
------
Alkane|984322423
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alkane
> 
> A term used in [[Organic chemistry|organic chemistry]] to denote a type of [[hydrocarbon]], in which the [[molecule]] has the maximum possible number of [[hydrogen]] atoms, and so has no double bonds. 
> The generic formula for an alkane is C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>; the simplest possible alkane is [[methane]] (CH<sub>4</sub>)
> 
> 
------
Noble_gas|984322639
6a7,8
> They are sometimes referred to as the <i>Inert gases</i>, but this term is not strctly accurate now that some have been shown to take part in chemical reactions.
> 
------
Noble_gas|984322659
7c7
< They are sometimes referred to as the <i>Inert gases</i>, but this term is not strctly accurate now that some have been shown to take part in chemical reactions.
---
> They are sometimes referred to as the <i>Inert gases</i>, but this term is not strictly accurate now that some have been shown to take part in chemical reactions.
------
Politics|984324232
6c6
< AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- TotalitarianisM -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> AnarchisM -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- Totalitarianism -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Crony_capitalism|984324870
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A system, with some capitalistic features, sometimes mistaken for [[Capitalism]], in which business decisions are powerfully influenced by business friendships and family ties.  Many Western businesses have been perplexed and thwarted in attempts to compete in Asian countries by cultural differences which might cause a Japanese firm to deal with another Japanese firm <i>despite a higher cost</i> rather than to deal with an American firm.
> 
> Crony capitalism is generally not true capitalism because the "crony" basis for decision making extends to both government and private industry.  That is, government decisions may be made in the best interests of a particular set of well-connected cronies, rather than the best interests of the market as a whole.
> 
> Defends of crony capitalism would not call it crony capitalism, of course, because the word 'crony' has negative connotations.  In Japan, the system is known as 'kereitsu'.
------
Politics|984324991
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: CitY -- CityState -- CountY -- CountrY -- GovernmenT -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- RepubliC -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]] -- [[Tyranny]]
---
> PoliticalEntities: [[City]] -- CityState -- [[County]] -- CountrY -- [[Governmeny]] -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- [[Republic]] -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]] -- [[Tyranny]]
------
Politics|984325059
30c30
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- AristotlE -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- [[Aristotle]] -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
------
Politics|984325120
30c30
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: PlatO -- [[Aristotle]] -- JohnLocke -- JeanJacquesRousseau -- KarlMarx -- JohnStuartMill -- MichealBakunin
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]]
------
David_Friedman|984325167
2a3
> David Friedman is the son of [[Nobel Prize]] winning economist [[Milton Friedman]].
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|984325237
5c5
< [[Benjamin Whorf]]
---
> [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Edward Sapir]]
------
Benjamin_Whorf|984325287
3c3
< Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with Edward Sapir ([[Sapir, Edward, 1884-1939]]), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
---
> Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with [[Edward Sapir]] (1884-1939), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
5c5
< Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the Hopi language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
---
> Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the [[Hopi]] language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
------
M.I.T.|984325320
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abbreviation for the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], which see.
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actress|984325647
5,76c5,76
< *1999 Hilary Swank - [[Boys Dont Cry|Boys Don't Cry]]
< *1998 Gwyneth Paltrow - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
< *1997 Helen Hunt - [[As Good As It Gets]]
< *1996 Frances McDormand - [[Fargo]]
< *1995 Susan Sarandon - [[Dead Man Walking]]
< *1994 Jessica Lange - [[Blue Sky]]
< *1993 Holly Hunter - [[The Piano]]
< *1992 Emma Thompson - [[Howards End]]
< *1991 Jodie Foster - [[The Silence Of The Lambs]]
< *1990 Kathy Bates - [[Misery]]
< *1989 Jessica Tandy - [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
< *1988 Jodie Foster - [[The Accused]]
< *1987 Cher - [[Moonstruck]]
< *1986 Marlee Matlin - [[Children Of A Lesser God]]
< *1985 Geraldine Page - [[The Trip To Bountiful]]
< *1984 Sally Field - [[Places In The Heart]]
< *1983 Shirley Maclaine - [[Terms Of Endearment]]
< *1982 Meryl Streep - [[Sophies Choice|Sophie's Choice]]
< *1981 Katharine Hepburn - [[On Golden Pond]]
< *1980 Sissy Spacek - [[Coal Miners Daughter|Coal Miner's Daughter]]
< *1979 Sally Field - [[Norma Rae]]
< *1978 Jane Fonda - [[Coming Home]]
< *1977 Diane Keaton - [[Annie Hall]]
< *1976 Faye Dunaway - [[Network]]
< *1975 Louise Fletcher - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
< *1974 Ellen Burstyn - [[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore|Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]
< *1973 Glenda Jackson - [[A Touch of Class]]
< *1972 Liza Minnelli - [[Cabaret]]
< *1971 Jane Fonda - [[Klute]]
< *1970 Glenda Jackson - [[Women In Love]]
< *1969 Maggie Smith - [[The Prime Of Miss Jean Brodie]]
< *1968 Katharine Hepburn - [[The Lion In Winter]], Barbra Streisand - [[Funny Girl]]
< *1967 Katharine Hepburn - [[Guess Who's Coming To Dinner]]
< *1966 Elizabeth Taylor - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
< *1965 Julie Christie - [[Darling]]
< *1964 Julie Andrews - [[Mary Poppins]]
< *1963 Patricia Neal - [[Hud]]
< *1962 Anne Bancroft - [[The Miracle Worker]]
< *1961 Sophia Loren - [[Two Women]]
< *1960 Elizabeth Taylor - [[Butterfield 8]]
< *1959 Simone Signoret - [[Room At The Top]]
< *1958 Susan Hayward - [[I Want To Live|I Want To Live!]]
< *1957 Joanne Woodward - [[The Three Faces of Eve]]
< *1956 Ingrid Bergman - [[Anastasia]]
< *1955 Anna Magnani - [[The Rose Tattoo]]
< *1954 Grace Kelly - [[The Country Girl]]
< *1953 Audrey Hepburn - [[Roman Holiday]]
< *1952 Shirley Booth - [[Come Back Little Sheba|Come Back, Little Sheba]]
< *1951 Vivien Leigh - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
< *1950 Judy Holliday - [[Born Yesterday]]
< *1949 Olivia De Havilland - [[The Heiress]]
< *1948 Jane Wyman - [[Johnny Belinda]]
< *1947 Loretta Young - [[The Farmers Daughter|The Farmer's Daughter]]
< *1946 Olivia De Havilland - [[To Each His Own]]
< *1945 Joan Crawford - [[Mildred Pierce]]
< *1944 Ingrid Bergman - [[Gaslight]]
< *1943 Jennifer Jones - [[The Song Of Bernadette]]
< *1942 Greer Garson - [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
< *1941 Joan Fontaine - [[Suspicion]]
< *1940 Ginger Rogers - [[Kitty Foyle]]
< *1939 Vivien Leigh - [[Gone With The Wind]]
< *1938 Bette Davis - [[Jezebel]]
< *1937 Luise Rainer - [[The Good Earth]]
< *1936 Luise Rainer - [[The Great Ziegfeld]]
< *1935 Bette Davis - [[Dangerous]]
< *1934 Claudette Colbert - [[It Happened One Night]]
< *1933 Katharine Hepburn - [[Morning Glory]]
< *1932 Helen Hayes - [[The Sin of Madelon Claudet]]
< *1931 Marie Dressler - [[Min and Bill]]
< *1930 Norma Shearer - [[The Divorcee]]
< *1929 Mary Pickford - [[Coquette]]
< *1928 Janet Gaynor - [[7th Heaven]], [[Street Angel]] and [[Sunrise]]
---
> *1999 [[Hilary Swank]] - [[Boys Dont Cry|Boys Don't Cry]]
> *1998 [[Gwyneth Paltrow]] - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
> *1997 [[Helen Hunt]] - [[As Good As It Gets]]
> *1996 [[Frances McDormand]] - [[Fargo]]
> *1995 [[Susan Sarandon]] - [[Dead Man Walking]]
> *1994 [[Jessica Lange]] - [[Blue Sky]]
> *1993 [[Holly Hunter]] - [[The Piano]]
> *1992 [[Emma Thompson]] - [[Howards End]]
> *1991 [[Jodie Foster]] - [[The Silence Of The Lambs]]
> *1990 [[Kathy Bates]] - [[Misery]]
> *1989 [[Jessica Tandy]] - [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
> *1988 [[Jodie Foster]] - [[The Accused]]
> *1987 [[Cher]] - [[Moonstruck]]
> *1986 [[Marlee Matlin]] - [[Children Of A Lesser God]]
> *1985 [[Geraldine Page]] - [[The Trip To Bountiful]]
> *1984 [[Sally Field]] - [[Places In The Heart]]
> *1983 [[Shirley Maclaine]] - [[Terms Of Endearment]]
> *1982 [[Meryl Streep]] - [[Sophies Choice|Sophie's Choice]]
> *1981 [[Katharine Hepburn]] - [[On Golden Pond]]
> *1980 [[Sissy Spacek]] - [[Coal Miners Daughter|Coal Miner's Daughter]]
> *1979 [[Sally Field]] - [[Norma Rae]]
> *1978 [[Jane Fonda]] - [[Coming Home]]
> *1977 [[Diane Keaton]] - [[Annie Hall]]
> *1976 [[Faye Dunaway]] - [[Network]]
> *1975 [[Louise Fletcher]] - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
> *1974 [[Ellen Burstyn]] - [[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore|Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]
> *1973 [[Glenda Jackson]] - [[A Touch of Class]]
> *1972 [[Liza Minnelli]] - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 [[Jane Fonda]] - [[Klute]]
> *1970 [[Glenda Jackson]] - [[Women In Love]]
> *1969 [[Maggie Smith]] - [[The Prime Of Miss Jean Brodie]]
> *1968 [[Katharine Hepburn]] - [[The Lion In Winter]], Barbra Streisand - [[Funny Girl]]
> *1967 [[Katharine Hepburn]] - [[Guess Who's Coming To Dinner]]
> *1966 [[Elizabeth Taylor]] - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
> *1965 [[Julie Christie]] - [[Darling]]
> *1964 [[Julie Andrews]] - [[Mary Poppins]]
> *1963 [[Patricia Neal]] - [[Hud]]
> *1962 [[Anne Bancroft]] - [[The Miracle Worker]]
> *1961 [[Sophia Loren]] - [[Two Women]]
> *1960 [[Elizabeth Taylor]] - [[Butterfield 8]]
> *1959 [[Simone Signoret]] - [[Room At The Top]]
> *1958 [[Susan Hayward]] - [[I Want To Live|I Want To Live!]]
> *1957 [[Joanne Woodward]] - [[The Three Faces of Eve]]
> *1956 [[Ingrid Bergman]] - [[Anastasia]]
> *1955 [[Anna Magnani]] - [[The Rose Tattoo]]
> *1954 [[Grace Kelly]] - [[The Country Girl]]
> *1953 [[Audrey Hepburn]] - [[Roman Holiday]]
> *1952 [[Shirley Booth]] - [[Come Back Little Sheba|Come Back, Little Sheba]]
> *1951 [[Vivien Leigh]] - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 [[Judy Holliday]] - [[Born Yesterday]]
> *1949 [[Olivia De Havilland]] - [[The Heiress]]
> *1948 [[Jane Wyman]] - [[Johnny Belinda]]
> *1947 [[Loretta Young]] - [[The Farmers Daughter|The Farmer's Daughter]]
> *1946 [[Olivia De Havilland]] - [[To Each His Own]]
> *1945 [[Joan Crawford]] - [[Mildred Pierce]]
> *1944 [[Ingrid Bergman]] - [[Gaslight]]
> *1943 [[Jennifer Jones]] - [[The Song Of Bernadette]]
> *1942 [[Greer Garson]]- [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
> *1941 [[Joan Fontaine]] - [[Suspicion]]
> *1940 [[Ginger Rogers]] - [[Kitty Foyle]]
> *1939 [[Vivien Leigh]] - [[Gone With The Wind]]
> *1938 [[Bette Davis]] - [[Jezebel]]
> *1937 [[Luise Rainer]] - [[The Good Earth]]
> *1936 [[Luise Rainer]] - [[The Great Ziegfeld]]
> *1935 [[Bette Davis]] - [[Dangerous]]
> *1934 [[Claudette Colbert]] - [[It Happened One Night]]
> *1933 [[Katharine Hepburn]] - [[Morning Glory]]
> *1932 [[Helen Hayes]] - [[The Sin of Madelon Claudet]]
> *1931 [[Marie Dressler]] - [[Min and Bill]]
> *1930 [[Norma Shearer]] - [[The Divorcee]]
> *1929 [[Mary Pickford]] - [[Coquette]]
> *1928 [[Janet Gaynor]] - [[7th Heaven]], [[Street Angel]] and [[Sunrise]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actor|984325890
5,68c5,68
< *1999 Michael Caine - [[The Cider House Rules]]
< *1998 James Coburn - [[Affliction]]
< *1997 Robin Williams - [[Good Will Hunting]]
< *1996 Cuba Gooding, Jr. - [[Jerry Maguire]]
< *1995 Kevin Spacey - [[The Usual Suspects]]
< *1994 Martin Landau - [[Ed Wood]]
< *1993 Tommy Lee Jones - [[The Fugitive]]
< *1992 Gene Hackman - [[Unforgiven]]
< *1991 Jack Palance - [[City Slickers]]
< *1990 Joe Pesci - [[Goodfellas]]
< *1989 Denzel Washington - [[Glory]]
< *1988 Kevin Kline - [[A Fish Called Wanda]]
< *1987 Sean Connery - [[The Untouchables]]
< *1986 Michael Caine - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
< *1985 Don Ameche - [[Cocoon]]
< *1984 Haing S. Ngor - [[The Killing Fields]]
< *1983 Jack Nicholson - [[Terms of Endearment]]
< *1982 Louis Gossett, Jr. - [[An Officer and A Gentleman]]
< *1981 John Gielgud - [[Arthur]]
< *1980 Timothy Hutton - [[Ordinary People]]
< *1979 Melvyn Douglas - [[Being There]]
< *1978 Christopher Walken - [[The Deer Hunter]]
< *1977 Jason Robards - [[Julia]]
< *1976 Jason Robards - [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]]
< *1975 George Burns - [[The Sunshine Boys]]
< *1974 Robert De Niro - [[The Godfather Part II]]
< *1973 John Houseman - [[The Paper Chase]]
< *1972 Joel Grey - [[Cabaret]]
< *1971 Ben Johnson - [[The Last Picture Show]]
< *1970 John Mills - [[Ryans Daughter|Ryan's Daughter]]
< *1969 Gig Young - [[They Shoot Horses Dont They|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]
< *1968 Jack Albertson - [[The Subject Was Roses]]
< *1967 George Kennedy - [[Cool Hand Luke]]
< *1966 Walter Matthau - [[The Fortune Cookie]]
< *1965 Martin Balsam - [[A Thousand Clowns]]
< *1964 Peter Ustinov - [[Topkapi]]
< *1963 Melvyn Douglas - [[Hud]]
< *1962 Ed Begley - [[Sweet Bird of Youth]]
< *1961 George Chakiris - [[West Side Story]]
< *1960 Peter Ustinov - [[Spartacus]]
< *1959 Hugh Griffith - [[Ben-Hur]]
< *1958 Burl Ives - [[The Big Country]]
< *1957 Red Buttons - [[Sayonara]]
< *1956 Anthony Quinn - [[Lust For Life]]
< *1955 Jack Lemmon - [[Mister Roberts]]
< *1954 Edmond O'Brien - [[The Barefoot Contessa]]
< *1953 Frank Sinatra - [[From Here to Eternity]]
< *1952 Anthony Quinn - [[Viva Zapata|Viva Zapata!]]
< *1951 Karl Malden - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
< *1950 George Sanders - [[All About Eve]]
< *1949 Dean Jagger - [[Twelve OClock High|Twelve O'Clock High]]
< *1948 Walter Huston - [[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]
< *1947 Edmund Gwenn - [[Miracle on 34th Street]]
< *1946 Harold Russell - [[The Best Years Of Our Lives]]
< *1945 James Dunn - [[A Tree Grows In Brooklyn]]
< *1944 Barry Fitzgerald - [[Going My Way]]
< *1943 Charles Coburn - [[The More the Merrier]]
< *1942 Van Heflin - [[Johnny Eager]]
< *1941 Donald Crisp - [[How Green Was My Valley]]
< *1940 Walter Brennan - [[The Westerner]]
< *1939 Thomas Mitchell - [[Stagecoach]]
< *1938 Walter Brennan - [[Kentucky]]
< *1937 Joseph Schildkraut - [[The Life of Emile Zola]]
< *1936 Walter Brennan - [[Come and Get It]]
---
> *1999 [[Michael Caine]] - [[The Cider House Rules]]
> *1998 [[James Coburn]] - [[Affliction]]
> *1997 [[Robin Williams]] - [[Good Will Hunting]]
> *1996 [[Cuba Gooding, Jr.]] - [[Jerry Maguire]]
> *1995 [[Kevin Spacey]] - [[The Usual Suspects]]
> *1994 [[Martin Landau]] - [[Ed Wood]]
> *1993 [[Tommy Lee Jones]] - [[The Fugitive]]
> *1992 [[Gene Hackman]] - [[Unforgiven]]
> *1991 [[Jack Palance]] - [[City Slickers]]
> *1990 [[Joe Pesci]] - [[Goodfellas]]
> *1989 [[Denzel Washington]] - [[Glory]]
> *1988 [[Kevin Kline]] - [[A Fish Called Wanda]]
> *1987 [[Sean Connery]] - [[The Untouchables]]
> *1986 [[Michael Caine]] - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
> *1985 [[Don Ameche]] - [[Cocoon]]
> *1984 [[Haing S. Ngor]] - [[The Killing Fields]]
> *1983 [[Jack Nicholson]] - [[Terms of Endearment]]
> *1982 [[Louis Gossett, Jr.]] - [[An Officer and A Gentleman]]
> *1981 [[John Gielgud]] - [[Arthur]]
> *1980 [[Timothy Hutton]] - [[Ordinary People]]
> *1979 [[Melvyn Douglas]] - [[Being There]]
> *1978 [[Christopher Walken]] - [[The Deer Hunter]]
> *1977 [[Jason Robards]] - [[Julia]]
> *1976 [[Jason Robards]] - [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]]
> *1975 [[George Burns]] - [[The Sunshine Boys]]
> *1974 [[Robert De Niro]] - [[The Godfather Part II]]
> *1973 [[John Houseman]] - [[The Paper Chase]]
> *1972 [[Joel Grey]] - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 [[Ben Johnson]] - [[The Last Picture Show]]
> *1970 [[John Mills]] - [[Ryans Daughter|Ryan's Daughter]]
> *1969 [[Gig Young]] - [[They Shoot Horses Dont They|They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]
> *1968 [[Jack Albertson]] - [[The Subject Was Roses]]
> *1967 [[George Kennedy]] - [[Cool Hand Luke]]
> *1966 [[Walter Matthau]] - [[The Fortune Cookie]]
> *1965 [[Martin Balsam]] - [[A Thousand Clowns]]
> *1964 [[Peter Ustinov]] - [[Topkapi]]
> *1963 [[Melvyn Douglas]] - [[Hud]]
> *1962 [[Ed Begley]] - [[Sweet Bird of Youth]]
> *1961 [[George Chakiris]] - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960 [[Peter Ustinov]] - [[Spartacus]]
> *1959 [[Hugh Griffith]] - [[Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 [[Burl Ives]] - [[The Big Country]]
> *1957 [[Red Buttons]] - [[Sayonara]]
> *1956 [[Anthony Quinn]] - [[Lust For Life]]
> *1955 [[Jack Lemmon]] - [[Mister Roberts]]
> *1954 [[Edmond OBrien|Edmond O'Brien]] - [[The Barefoot Contessa]]
> *1953 [[Frank Sinatra]] - [[From Here to Eternity]]
> *1952 [[Anthony Quinn]] - [[Viva Zapata|Viva Zapata!]]
> *1951 [[Karl Malden]] - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 [[George Sanders]] - [[All About Eve]]
> *1949 [[Dean Jagger]] - [[Twelve OClock High|Twelve O'Clock High]]
> *1948 [[Walter Huston]] - [[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]
> *1947 [[Edmund Gwenn]] - [[Miracle on 34th Street]]
> *1946 [[Harold Russell]] - [[The Best Years Of Our Lives]]
> *1945 [[James Dunn]] - [[A Tree Grows In Brooklyn]]
> *1944 [[Barry Fitzgerald]] - [[Going My Way]]
> *1943 [[Charles Coburn]] - [[The More the Merrier]]
> *1942 [[Van Heflin]] - [[Johnny Eager]]
> *1941 [[Donald Crisp]] - [[How Green Was My Valley]]
> *1940 [[Walter Brennan]] - [[The Westerner]]
> *1939 [[Thomas Mitchell]] - [[Stagecoach]]
> *1938 [[Walter Brennan]] - [[Kentucky]]
> *1937 [[Joseph Schildkraut]] - [[The Life of Emile Zola]]
> *1936 [[Walter Brennan]] - [[Come and Get It]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actress|984326100
5,68c5,68
< *1999 Angelina Jolie - [[Girl Interrupted|Girl, Interrupted]]
< *1998 Judi Dench - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
< *1997 Kim Basinger - [[LA Confidential|L.A. Confidential]]
< *1996 Juliette Binoche - [[The English Patient]]
< *1995 Mira Sorvino - [[Mighty Aphrodite]]
< *1994 Dianne Wiest - [[Bullets Over Broadway]]
< *1993 Anna Paquin - [[The Piano]]
< *1992 Marisa Tomei - [[My Cousin Vinny]]
< *1991 Mercedes Ruehl - [[The Fisher King]]
< *1990 Whoopi Goldberg - [[Ghost]]
< *1989 Brenda Fricker - [[My Left Foot]]
< *1988 Geena Davis - [[The Accidental Tourist]]
< *1987 Olympia Dukakis - [[Moonstruck]]
< *1986 Dianne Wiest - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
< *1985 Anjelica Huston - [[Prizzis Honor|Prizzi's Honor]]
< *1984 Peggy Ashcroft - [[A Passage to India]]
< *1983 Linda Hunt - [[The Year of Living Dangerously]]
< *1982 Jessica Lange - [[Tootsie]]
< *1981 Maureen Stapleton - [[Reds]]
< *1980 Mary Steenburgen - [[Melvin and Howard]]
< *1979 Meryl Streep - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
< *1978 Maggie Smith - [[California Suite]]
< *1977 Vanessa Redgrave - [[Julia]]
< *1976 Beatrice Straight - [[Network]]
< *1975 Lee Grant - [[Shampoo]]
< *1974 Ingrid Bergman - [[Murder on the Orient Express]]
< *1973 Tatum O'Neal - [[Paper Moon]]
< *1972 Eileen Heckart - [[Butterflies Are Free]]
< *1971 Cloris Leachman - [[The Last Picture Show]]
< *1970 Helen Hayes - [[Airport]]
< *1969 Goldie Hawn - [[Cactus Flower]]
< *1968 Ruth Gordon - [[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
< *1967 Estelle Parsons - [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
< *1966 Sandy Dennis - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
< *1965 Shelley Winters - [[A Patch of Blue]]
< *1964 Lila Kedrova - [[Zorba the Greek]]
< *1963 Margaret Rutherford - [[The VIPs|The V.I.P.s]]
< *1962 Patty Duke - [[The Miracle Worker]]
< *1961 Rita Moreno - [[West Side Story]]
< *1960 Shirley Jones - [[Elmer Gantry]]
< *1959 Shelley Winters - [[The Diary of Anne Frank]]
< *1958 Wendy Hiller - [[Separate Tables]]
< *1957 Miyoshi Umeki - [[Sayonara]]
< *1956 Dorothy Malone - [[Written on the Wind]]
< *1955 Jo van Fleet - [[East of Eden]]
< *1954 Eva Marie Saint - [[On the Waterfront]]
< *1953 Donna Reed - [[From Here to Eternity]]
< *1952 Gloria Grahame - [[The Bad and the Beautiful]]
< *1951 Kim Hunter - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
< *1950 Josephine Hull - [[Harvey]]
< *1949 Mercedes McCambridge - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
< *1948 Claire Trevor - [[Key Largo]]
< *1947 Celeste Holm - [[Gentlemans Agreement|Gentleman's Agreement]]
< *1946 Anne Baxter - [[The Razors Edge|The Razor's Edge]]
< *1945 Anne Revere - [[National Velvet]]
< *1944 Ethel Barrymore - [[None But the Lonely Heart]]
< *1943 Katina Paxinou - [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]
< *1942 Teresa Wright - [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
< *1941 Mary Astor - [[The Great Lie]]
< *1940 Jane Darwell - [[The Grapes of Wrath]]
< *1939 Hattie McDaniel - [[Gone With the Wind]]
< *1938 Fay Bainter - [[Jezebel]]
< *1937 Alice Brady - [[In Old Chicago]]
< *1936 Gale Sondergaard - [[Anthony Adverse]]
---
> *1999 [[Angelina Jolie]] - [[Girl Interrupted|Girl, Interrupted]]
> *1998 [[Judi Dench]] - [[Shakespeare In Love]]
> *1997 [[Kim Basinger]] - [[LA Confidential|L.A. Confidential]]
> *1996 [[Juliette Binoche]] - [[The English Patient]]
> *1995 [[Mira Sorvino]] - [[Mighty Aphrodite]]
> *1994 [[Dianne Wiest]] - [[Bullets Over Broadway]]
> *1993 [[Anna Paquin]] - [[The Piano]]
> *1992 [[Marisa Tomei]] - [[My Cousin Vinny]]
> *1991 [[Mercedes Ruehl]] - [[The Fisher King]]
> *1990 [[Whoopi Goldberg]] - [[Ghost]]
> *1989 [[Brenda Fricker]] - [[My Left Foot]]
> *1988 [[Geena Davis]] - [[The Accidental Tourist]]
> *1987 [[Olympia Dukakis]] - [[Moonstruck]]
> *1986 [[Dianne Wiest]] - [[Hannah and Her Sisters]]
> *1985 [[Anjelica Huston]] - [[Prizzis Honor|Prizzi's Honor]]
> *1984 [[Peggy Ashcroft]] - [[A Passage to India]]
> *1983 [[Linda Hunt]] - [[The Year of Living Dangerously]]
> *1982 [[Jessica Lange]] - [[Tootsie]]
> *1981 [[Maureen Stapleton]] - [[Reds]]
> *1980 [[Mary Steenburgen]] - [[Melvin and Howard]]
> *1979 [[Meryl Streep]] - [[Kramer Vs Kramer|Kramer Vs. Kramer]]
> *1978 [[Maggie Smith]] - [[California Suite]]
> *1977 [[Vanessa Redgrave]] - [[Julia]]
> *1976 [[Beatrice Straight]] - [[Network]]
> *1975 [[Lee Grant]] - [[Shampoo]]
> *1974 [[Ingrid Bergman]] - [[Murder on the Orient Express]]
> *1973 [[Tatum ONeal|Tatum O'Neal]] - [[Paper Moon]]
> *1972 [[Eileen Heckart]] - [[Butterflies Are Free]]
> *1971 [[Cloris Leachman]] - [[The Last Picture Show]]
> *1970 [[Helen Hayes]] - [[Airport]]
> *1969 [[Goldie Hawn]] - [[Cactus Flower]]
> *1968 [[Ruth Gordon]] - [[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
> *1967 [[Estelle Parsons]] - [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
> *1966 [[Sandy Dennis]] - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
> *1965 [[Shelley Winters]] - [[A Patch of Blue]]
> *1964 [[Lila Kedrova]] - [[Zorba the Greek]]
> *1963 [[Margaret Rutherford]] - [[The VIPs|The V.I.P.s]]
> *1962 [[Patty Duke]] - [[The Miracle Worker]]
> *1961 [[Rita Moreno]] - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960 [[Shirley Jones]] - [[Elmer Gantry]]
> *1959 [[Shelley Winters]] - [[The Diary of Anne Frank]]
> *1958 [[Wendy Hiller]] - [[Separate Tables]]
> *1957 [[Miyoshi Umeki]] - [[Sayonara]]
> *1956 [[Dorothy Malone]] - [[Written on the Wind]]
> *1955 [[Jo van Fleet]] - [[East of Eden]]
> *1954 [[Eva Marie Saint]] - [[On the Waterfront]]
> *1953 [[Donna Reed]] - [[From Here to Eternity]]
> *1952 [[Gloria Grahame]] - [[The Bad and the Beautiful]]
> *1951 [[Kim Hunter]] - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> *1950 [[Josephine Hull]] - [[Harvey]]
> *1949 [[Mercedes McCambridge]] - [[All the Kings Men|All the King's Men]]
> *1948 [[Claire Trevor]] - [[Key Largo]]
> *1947 [[Celeste Holm]] - [[Gentlemans Agreement|Gentleman's Agreement]]
> *1946 [[Anne Baxter]] - [[The Razors Edge|The Razor's Edge]]
> *1945 [[Anne Revere]] - [[National Velvet]]
> *1944 [[Ethel Barrymore]] - [[None But the Lonely Heart]]
> *1943 [[Katina Paxinou]] - [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]
> *1942 [[Teresa Wright]] - [[Mrs Miniver|Mrs. Miniver]]
> *1941 [[Mary Astor]] - [[The Great Lie]]
> *1940 [[Jane Darwell]] - [[The Grapes of Wrath]]
> *1939 [[Hattie McDaniel]] - [[Gone With the Wind]]
> *1938 [[Fay Bainter]] - [[Jezebel]]
> *1937 [[Alice Brady]] - [[In Old Chicago]]
> *1936 [[Gale Sondergaard]] - [[Anthony Adverse]]
------
Crony_capitalism|984326120
5c5
< Defends of crony capitalism would not call it crony capitalism, of course, because the word 'crony' has negative connotations.  In Japan, the system is known as 'kereitsu'.
---
> Defends of crony capitalism would not call it crony capitalism, of course, because the word 'crony' has negative connotations.  In Japan, the system is known as 'kereitsu'. Such systems tend to have the features of an [[oligopoly]].
------
Oligopoly|984326304
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main theories are:
> * [[Stackelberg]]'s [[duopoly]]
> * [[Cournot]]'s [[duopoly]]
> * [[Betrand]]'s olipogoly
> * [[Contestable markets]] by [[Baumol]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|984328562
1c1
< Not really a bug, but...
---
> <b>Renaming subpages</b> <i>(feature request)</i>
6a7,8
> :The wiki admin(s) can use the page-rename commands to move pages.  Unfortunately, each individual subpage needs to be moved by this method.  I'll consider this to be a feature request for renaming all subpages when a page is renamed.  --CliffordAdams
> 
7a10
> <b>Umlauts and other special characters:</b> <i>(site configuration, not a bug)</i>
11,13c14
< [[Malmö]],
< 
< [[Malmo]],
---
> [[Malmö]] (with umlaut) vs. [[Malmo]] (without umlaut),
19,21c20
< ''A temporary solution that fixes the links, but not the page titles, is [[Malmo|Malmö]].
< 
< ----
---
> A solution that fixes the links, but not the page titles, is [[Malmo|Malmö]].
23c22
< I think we will have to wait on this one until CliffordAdams is back from vacation.  I will study the code a bit.
---
> [...] I will study the code a bit.
27c26,28
< ----
---
> :Do you have $NonEnglish set to 1 in your <tt>config</tt> file? As for squashing the fancy letters down to Latin, you can probably use a quick <tt>tr///</tt> table to do that. -- SunirShah
> 
> The Wikipedia admins have (apparently) chosen to to keep the <code>$NonEnglish</code> setting at 0, which does not allow non-English characters in links.  --CliffordAdams
29c30
< Do you have $NonEnglish set to 1 in your <tt>config</tt> file? As for squashing the fancy letters down to Latin, you can probably use a quick <tt>tr///</tt> table to do that. -- SunirShah----
---
> ----
31a33
> '''A.''' Yes.
32a35,37
> <b>Editing redirected pages</b> <i>(documentation)</i>
> 
> <b>Q.</b> How do I edit a page that has been redirected? I made a definition of polymer, and tried toput a link on the organic conductors page, but clicking on edit,  for either "Organic Conductors", or "Organic conductors" gives the redirect command.
34c39,41
< Q. How do I edit a page that has been redirected? I made a definition of polymer, and tried toput a link on the organic conductors page, but clicking on edit,  for either "Organic Conductors", or "Organic conductors" gives the redirect commnd
---
> <b>A.</b> The easiest way to edit the redirected page is to click on its title after being redirected.  For example, if you try to go to the [[BillClinton]] page, you are redirected to the [[William Jefferson Clinton]] page.  At the very top of that page, you will see a message: "(redirected from BillClinton)", and "BillClinton" will be a link.  Click on that link, and you will edit the "BillClinton" page.  (You could then remove the redirect command, and add your own text.)
>  
> [Wikipedia is (probably) moving toward more capital letters in titles, but greater freedom in links.  I'm leaning strongly toward capitalizing all the words in page titles, but allowing links to be lowercase.  This would mean that page titles would be like "Organic Chemistry", but one could link to that page with any of "organic chemistry", "Organic chemistry", "organic Chemistry", or "Organic Chemistry".  --CliffordAdams]
------
Wiki_Canonization|984331918
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wiki Canonization is the algorithm by which the text of a [[Free Link]] is converted to an url.
> 
> The current algorithm, as a wild guess, is
> 
> #convert all spaces to underscores
> #uppercase the first letter 
> 
> 
> A better strategy might be
> #remove all accents, umlauts and other diacriticals
> #convert  all non-alphanumerics to underscores
> #delete all leading and trailing underscores, and replace any consecutive underscores with a single underscore 
> #uppercase the first letter, and any letter that follows an underscore 
> #lowercase all characters that were not explicitly uppercased in #3 
> 
> This keeps coming up, so lets chat.
------
Feature_requests|984331967
11,22c11
< More explicitly, we need an algorithm to convert free link text into the free link address. As far as I can tell, the current code looks like this :
< #covert all spaces to underscores.
< #uppercase the first letter
< 
< A more comprehensive approach might be
< #convert all bad characters (at least spaces perhaps as much as all characters except [a-z A-Z 0-9]) to underscores.
< #delete all leading and trailing underscores, replace any strings of underscores to a single underscore
< #uppercase the first letter, and any letter that follows an underscore
< #lowercase all characters that were not explicitly uppercased in #3
< 
< Can anyone improve upon this approach? Perhaps step four is going too far, I could easily be talked out of it.
< 
---
> More explicitly, we need more comprhensive [[Wiki Canonization]]
------
Naming_conventions|984332171
44a45,46
> This topic needs its own page. Let's all meet at [[Wiki Canonization]]
> 
------
Wiki_Canonization|984332259
16a17,18
> 
> What I would most enjoy hearing is an example of two distinct [[Free Links]] that, by my suggestion, would canonize to the same url, but really shouldn't.
------
Wiki_Canonization|984332284
1c1
< Wiki Canonization is the algorithm by which the text of a [[Free Link]] is converted to an url.
---
> Wiki Canonization is the algorithm by which the text of [[Free Links]] is converted to an url.
------
History_of_Germany|984334418
1c1
< The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the socialist [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]](GDR) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under Polish and Russian control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern Prussia. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the [[communist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
4c4
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the Franconian Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "Reich" (German for empire), with the "Kaiser" (emperor, term is derived from Caesar) as the head of the Holy Roman Empire, which was several hundred years later renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by Napoleon Bonaparte some years later. After Napoleon's defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''Deutscher Bund'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second Reich, with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of Bismarck, but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the British Empire's naval power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the [[Franconian]] Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "[[Reich]]" (German for empire), with the "[[Kaiser]]" (emperor, term is derived from [[Caesar]]) as the head of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which was several hundred years later renamed to [[Holy Roman Empire of German Nations]] which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] some years later. After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''[[Deutscher Bund]]'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the [[Austrian]] empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second [[Reich]], with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of [[Bismarck]], but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the [[British Empire]]'s [[naval]] power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
6c6
< After the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the European balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on [[Serbia]] after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. Germany, which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its allies, the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the October revolution, they reached the Peace of Brest-Litowsk which was later aolished by the Treaty of Versailles after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in Versailles, the same place where the Second Reich had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the Spartacus uprisings), the Weimar Republic was formed. 
---
> After the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the [[European]] balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on [[Serbia]] after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. [[Germany]], which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its [[allies]], the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the [[October]] revolution, they reached the [[Peace of Brest-Litowsk]] which was later abolished by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in [[Versailles]], the same place where the [[Second Reich]] had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the [[Spartacus]] uprisings), the [[Weimar Republic]] was formed. 
8c8
< After some successful years, the Great Depression came and Germans were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) (see [[National Socialism]]) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the First World War was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh racism and antisemitism, he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of monarchists and conservatives like President Hindenburg. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against Jews and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on [[Poland]], after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German SS men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called Axis powers ([[Italy]], Germany, [[Japan]]) were defeated by Allied forces ([[United States]], [[France]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]), and half of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them civilians, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
---
> After some successful years, the [[Great Depression]] came and [[Germans]] were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his [[National Socialist German Worker's Party]] ([[NSDAP]]) (see [[National Socialism]]) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the [[First World War]] was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh [[racism]] and [[antisemitism]], he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of [[monarchist]]s and [[conservative]]s like President [[Hindenburg]]. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against [[Jews]] and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on [[Poland]], after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German [[SS]] men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called [[Axis]] powers ([[Italy]], Germany, [[Japan]]) were defeated by [[Allied]] forces ([[United States]], [[France]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]), and half of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them [[civilian]]s, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
------
Wiki_Canonization|984335545
8d7
< 
18a18,19
> ----
> Please see CliffordAdams' remarks at WikiPediaBugs.
------
Crony_capitalism|984335708
5c5
< Defends of crony capitalism would not call it crony capitalism, of course, because the word 'crony' has negative connotations.  In Japan, the system is known as 'kereitsu'. Such systems tend to have the features of an [[oligopoly]].
---
> Defenders of crony capitalism would not call it crony capitalism, of course, because the word 'crony' has negative connotations.  In Japan, the system is known as 'kereitsu'. Such systems tend to have the features of an [[oligopoly]].
------
CountriesOfTheWorld|984336281
1,13c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
< ----
< :CountriesA  CountriesJ  CountriesS
< :CountriesB  CountriesK  CountriesT
< :CountriesC  CountriesL  CountriesU
< :CountriesD  CountriesM  CountriesV
< :CountriesE  CountriesN  CountriesW
< :CountriesF  CountriesO  CountriesX
< :CountriesG  CountriesP  CountriesY
< :CountriesH  CountriesQ  CountriesZ
< :CountriesI  CountriesR
< ----
< The world is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|984336314
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
> ----
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesA</td>
> <td>CountriesJ</td>
> <td>CountriesS</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesB</td>
> <td>CountriesK</td>
> <td>CountriesT</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesC</td>
> <td>CountriesL</td>
> <td>CountriesU</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesD</td>
> <td>CountriesM</td>
> <td>CountriesV</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesE</td>
> <td>CountriesN</td>
> <td>CountriesW</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesF</td>
> <td>CountriesO</td>
> <td>CountriesX</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesG</td>
> <td>CountriesP</td>
> <td>CountriesY</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesH</td>
> <td>CountriesQ</td>
> <td>CountriesZ</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>CountriesI</td>
> <td>CountriesR</td>
> <td></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> [[Earth]] is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|984336393
2c2
< ----
---
> 
------
HomePage|984336423
9c9
< :CountriesOfTheWorld -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
BusinessAndEconomics|984336599
0a1,2
> ''See [[Business and Industry]] for the (or another) area homepage.''
> 
------
Business_and_Industry|984336747
5c5,17
< BusinessSchools
---
> * [[Business Schools]]
> * [[/Education]]
> * [[electronic commerce]]
> * [[/Ethics]]
> * [[finance and investment]]
> * /History
> * [[intellectual property]]
> * [[industry]]
> * /Law
> * [[management science]]
> * [[marketing and advertising]]
> * /media
> * [[trade]]
7c19
< [[Industry]]
---
> See also: [[Economics]]
------
HomePage|984336799
11c11
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- BusinessAndEconomics -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
TheLaw|984339419
1,4c1
< This may become a category index page.  For now, I will just
< enter some things that I have found.
< 
< UnitedStatesConstitution
---
> #REDIRECT [[Law]]
------
Law|984339487
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This may become a category index page.  For now, I will just
> enter some things that I have found.
> 
> UnitedStatesConstitution
------
Oligopoly|984339720
0a1,2
> The word is derived from the Greek and describes a situation where there are only a few sellers of a commodity or service on a given market, eg. in the [[European Union]] the production of detergent is almost entirely divided between Unilever and Procter & Gamble. Rivalry on the market usually results in lower profits than could be achieved through firms cooperating with one another. Such cooperation to limit competition is known as [[collusion]]. A more formal type of [[collusion]] would be a price fixing ring, known as a [[cartel]] - an illegal arrangement in most countries.
> 
3a6
> * [[Sweezy]]'s oligopoly
5c8
< * [[Contestable markets]] by [[Baumol]]
---
> * [[Contestable markets]] by [[Baumol]]
------
Law|984339775
1,2c1
< This may become a category index page.  For now, I will just
< enter some things that I have found.
---
> We're looking for a few good lawyers (or law mavens) take time out to jot down a few definitions (to begin with).  :-)
4c3,5
< UnitedStatesConstitution
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
> 
> [[United States Constitution]]
------
HomePage|984339787
11c11
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- TheLaw -- [[Agricultural Science]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Economics|984339839
12a13,14
> 
> [[Market forms]]
------
Polynomial|984339932
7c7,8
< The {a<sub>i</sub>} are called the coeficients of their corresponding powers of x.
---
> The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coeficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
> i={1,2,3,...n}. a<sub>0</sub> is called the ''constant term''. 
9c10,25
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]----
> 
> A little precision please. Try...
> 
> Definition: Let a1,a2,a3,...,an be real numbers. Then
>      an*x^n+(an-1)*x^(n-1)+(an-2)*x^(n-2)+...+a1*x^1+a0
> is a '''polynomial''' in ''x'' with real coefficients.
> 
> The ''coefficients'' of a polynomial: The number ar is the coefficient of x^r for r={1,2,3,...,n}
> 
> 
> The ''constant term''of a polynomial is a0.
> 
> The ''degree'' of a polynomial: The largest member of {0,1,2,3,...n} that is not equal to zero.
> 
> This polynomial can be denoted f(x), so that f(x) is a '''polynomial function'''.
------
HomePage|984340135
13c13
< :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
24,25c24,25
< * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the WikiPediaFaq.
< Other questions?  Just ask on the WikiPediaFaq.  See also WikiPediaProcess and WikipediaL.
---
> * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]]and WikipediaL.
------
Market_forms|984340180
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market forms are: number and size of producers and consumers on a market, type of goods and services being traded, the degree to which infromation can flow freely.
> 
> * [[Perfect competition]]
> * [[Monopoly]]
> * [[Oligopoly]]
> * [[Monopolistic competition]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|984340528
1c1,5
< [[Art Conservation]]
---
> Traditional visual arts:
> :[[Painting]]
> :[[Drawing]]
> :[[Sculpture]]
> :[[Photography]]
3,4c7,10
< Definition of Art (should go on higher level page, e.g. [[Art]], [[History of Art]])
<      Changing Definitions of Art
---
> [[Design]]:
> :[[Fashion design]]
> :[[Graphic design]]
> :[[Interior decoration]]
7,8c13,16
<      [[History of Painting]] (see [[Painting]] page)
<      [[History of Design]]
---
> :[[History of painting]]
> :[[History of sculpture]]
> :[[History of photography]]
> :[[History of design]]
10,12c18,20
< New Materials
<      [[Body Fluids in Art]]
<      [[Plastics in Art]]
---
> [[Definition of art]]; [[Aesthetics]]
> 
> [[Art conservation]]
15,22c23,34
<      [[Computer-Generated Art]] / [[Digital Art]]
<      [[Found Art]] ([[Museum of Contemporary Art]], Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
<      [[Installation Art]]
<      [[Interactive Art]]
<      [[Body Art]] (see also [[Performance Art]])
<           [[Body as Canvas]]
<           [[Piercings]]
<           [[Tattoos]]
---
> :[[Computer-generated art]] / [[Digital art]]
> :[[Found art]] ([[Museum of Contemporary Art]], Los Angeles, public relations campaign)
> :[[Installation art]]
> :[[Interactive art]]
> :[[Body art]] (see also [[Performance Art]])
> ::[[Body as canvas]]
> ::[[Body piercing]]
> ::[[Tattoo]]
> 
> New Materials
>      [[Plastics in art]]
>      [[Body fluids in art]]
------
Perfect_competition|984340584
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A market is said to be one with [[perfect competition]] if:
> #None of the parties can influence the price on his own
> #The price is given
> #Goods and services are [[perfect substitutes]]
> #All resources (including information) are perfectly mobile.
> #Transaction costs are naught.
------
Perfect_competition|984340622
6a7,8
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
CategorySchemes|984340750
1,56c1
< Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
< ----
< ----
< '''The NuPedia category scheme'''
< 
< This is one way to carve up the world, not the only way.
< 
< '''FoundationalDisciplines:'''
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics and Statistics]]
< 
< '''NaturalSciences:'''
< :PhysIcs -- ChemIstry -- BiologicalScience''''s -- BioChemistry -- MolecularBiology -- BotAny -- ZooLogy -- EarthSciences -- AstroNomy 
< :''see also ScienCe''
< 
< '''SocialSciences:'''
< :AnthropOlogy -- ArchaeOlogy -- PsychOlogy -- LinguisticS & LanguagEs -- SociOlogy -- PoLitics -- EconOmics -- HiStory -- HistoryOfScienceAndTechnology -- GeoGraphy (see CountriesOfTheWorld and UnitedStates) -- AnomalousPhenomena
< 
< '''AppliedArtsAndSciences:'''
< :HealthSciences -- FamilyAndConsumerScience -- TheLaw -- PublicAffairs -- BusinessAndIndustry -- AgriculturalScience -- EduCation -- EngineerIng -- ArchitecturE -- TransporT -- CommunicAtion -- [[Computing]] -- LibraryAndInformationScience -- 
< :''see also TechnologY''
< 
< '''CulTure:'''
< :ClassIcs -- CriticalTheory -- [[Literary Art]] -- VisualArtsAndDesign -- PaintIng -- SculpTure -- MuSic -- PerformingArts -- TheaterAndDrama -- DanCe -- [[Music]] -- FiLm -- ReLigion -- ReCreation -- SportS -- [[Games]] -- HobbieS -- TourIsm
< :''see also ArtsandEntertainment''
< 
< '''Other:'''
< :QuoteS
< 
< '''WikiWiki:'''
< :[add [[Wikipedia]] and other wiki-related links here]
< ----
< BryceHarrington'''''s three-part category scheme, attributed to Jefferson:
< 
< * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- [[Philosophy]] -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
< * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- [[Music]] -- ReCreation -- SportS
< 
< Not my scheme...  I found this while perusing the Library of Congress website:  http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/
< 
< ''Thomas Jefferson, whose personal library became the core of the Library of Congress, arranged his books into three types of knowledge, corresponding to Francis Bacon's three faculties of the mind: Memory (History), Reason (Philosophy),  and Imagination (Fine Arts).''
<              
< I'm not married to this particular scheme, but thought it'd be fun to use as an intermediary step as we grow.  
< (Btw, thanks for not just deleting this scheme suggestion; it took some time to research and implement it.) 
< ----
< ''(The following is taken from CategorySchemesTalk.  I didn't notice who posted it.)''  Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
< 
< :Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
< :Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
< :Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
< :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
< 
< This one was mine.  Is what you did on the HomePage based on this, Larry? -- JoshuaGrosse
< 
< It's sort of a combination of the Nupedia scheme (see the top of this page) and yours--the only difference between the two schemes, perhaps, is that "Foundational Disciplines" and "Natural Sciences" are mashed together. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia category schemes]]
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|984340780
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
> ----
> The category scheme on the HomePage is only one category scheme; it might not be the best, or the only one possible.
> ----
> A three-part category scheme attributed to Jefferson:
> 
> * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- [[Philosophy]] -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
> * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- [[Music]] -- ReCreation -- SportS
> 
> Found while perusing the Library of Congress website:
> http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/
> 
> ''Thomas Jefferson, whose personal library became the core of the Library of Congress, arranged his books into three types of knowledge, corresponding to Francis Bacon's three faculties of the mind: Memory (History), Reason (Philosophy),  and Imagination (Fine Arts).''
> ----
> JoshuaGrosse says: ''Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system'':
> 
> :Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
> :Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
> :Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
> :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
> ----
> The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
------
HomePage|984341002
15c15
< :::''The above reflects only one of [[Wikipedia]]'s CategorySchemes.''
---
> :::''The above reflects only one of Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia category schemes|category schemes]].''
------
WikipediaL|984341036
1,6c1
< Wikipedia-L is [[Wikipedia]]'s mailing list.
< 
< Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion the importance of which does not seem eternal.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page:
< 
< :[http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l Wikipedia-L]
< :You can also find [http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/wikipedia-l/ a Wikipedia-L archive].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia-L]]
------
HomePage|984341058
25c25
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]]and WikipediaL.
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy] and [[Wikipedia-L]].
------
Wikipedia-L|984341127
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia-L is [[Wikipedia]]'s mailing list.
> 
> Maybe you don't want to clutter up Wikipedia with questions or discussion.  Or maybe, for whatever reason, you'd just like to chat with other WikiPedians without doing so via the wiki format.  Great, then sign up for Wikipedia-L!  Here is a link to the sign-up page:
> 
> :[http://www.nupedia.com/mailman/listinfo/wikipedia-l Wikipedia-L]
> :You can also view [http://www.nupedia.com/pipermail/wikipedia-l/ a Wikipedia-L archive].  Lots of mildly interesting stuff there.
------
HomePage|984341148
25c25
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy] and [[Wikipedia-L]].
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]].
------
Monopoly|984341234
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[monopoly]] is defined by:
> #Lack of competiion
> #No [[substitutes]] to the traded good or service exist
> #Following market entry barriers exist: The monopolist controls a valuable input, [[Natural monopoly]], Patents and Trademarks, State monopolies.
> 
> The monopolist can achieve profits in the long term because there is no competition.
------
Monopoly|984341309
6a7,8
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Market_forms|984341332
6c6,7
< * [[Monopolistic competition]]
---
> * [[Monopolistic competition]]
> * [[Natural monopoly]]
------
Requested_articles|984341369
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Have an article request?  Add it to the list!'''
> 
> If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.
> 
> [[History of wiki]] 
> 
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]]
> 
> <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]]
> 
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]]
> 
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
> 
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
> 
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]]
> 
> <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]]
> 
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
> 
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
> 
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
> 
> <b>[[Dungeons and Dragons]]: </b>[[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Elf]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Troll]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Ogre]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dragon]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Halfling]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Gnome]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Vampire]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Spectre]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Zombie]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Wraith]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Goblin]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Ghoul]]
> 
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
> 
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
RequestedArticles|984341380
1,33c1
< '''Have an article request?  Add it to the list!'''
< 
< If you notice that a requested article has been written (i.e., it becomes a link), could you remove it from this page?  Thanks.
< 
< [[History of wiki]] 
< 
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]]
< 
< <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]]
< 
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]]
< 
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
< 
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
< 
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]]
< 
< <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]]
< 
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
< 
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
< 
< <b>Mythology / ?: </b>[[dwarf]] -- [[elf]] -- [[troll]] -- [[ogre]] -- [[dragon]] -- [[halfling]] -- [[gnome]] -- [[vampire]] -- [[spectre]] -- [[zombie]] -- [[wraith]] -- [[goblin]] -- [[ghoul]] (y'know, a lot of these don't have much significant mythology outside of [[Dungeons and Dragons]]; perhaps there could be such an entry as [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]]) -- not really - many of these creatures are based on older mythology of one form or another.  Wight is based on English mythology.
< 
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
< 
< <b>Parapsychology, etc.:</b> [[ghosts]]
< 
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
< 
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Requested articles]]
------
Natural_monopoly|984341794
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[natural monopoly]] is a specific case of a [[monopoly]]. It's existence is justified by the specific cost structure the monopolist, which barrs other competitors from entering he market by making it impossible for him to produce and sell his goods at a profit. A good practical example is a railway company - a competitor would have to build a second set of tracks in a specific area in order to be able to enter the market. Technically this implicates that the monopolists' '''long term average costs''' ([[LAC]]) and '''long term marginal costs''' ([[LMC]]) decrease when the output '''Q''' increases.
------
SocialSciences|984341800
1c1
< The ''social sciences'' are the scientific study of the human aspects of the world.  For example, PsychOlogy studies the human MinD, SociOlogy studies human society, HiStory studies human history, and so on.  Distinguished from CulTure in that the social sciences make an effort to apply the scientific method or other rigorous standards of evidence to the study of humanity.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Social sciences]]
------
Science|984341865
10c10
< Social Sciences
---
> [[Social sciences]]
------
Natural_monopoly|984341911
1c1,3
< A [[natural monopoly]] is a specific case of a [[monopoly]]. It's existence is justified by the specific cost structure the monopolist, which barrs other competitors from entering he market by making it impossible for him to produce and sell his goods at a profit. A good practical example is a railway company - a competitor would have to build a second set of tracks in a specific area in order to be able to enter the market. Technically this implicates that the monopolists' '''long term average costs''' ([[LAC]]) and '''long term marginal costs''' ([[LMC]]) decrease when the output '''Q''' increases.
---
> A [[natural monopoly]] is a specific case of a [[monopoly]]. It's existence is justified by the specific cost structure the monopolist, which barrs other competitors from entering he market by making it impossible for him to produce and sell his goods at a profit. A good practical example is a railway company - a competitor would have to build a second set of tracks in a specific area in order to be able to enter the market. Technically this implicates that the monopolists' '''long term average costs''' ([[LAC]]) and '''long term marginal costs''' ([[LMC]]) decrease when the output '''Q''' increases.
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology|984341914
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] (a suburb of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]), is one of the premiere research and teaching universities in the [[United States]] and indeed in the world.  MIT excels in [[science]] and [[technology]], but is also strong in [[philosophy]] and a few of the [[social sciences]].
------
Social_sciences|984342033
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''social sciences'' are the scientific study of the human aspects of the world.  For example, [[psychology]] studies the human [[mind]], [[sociology]] studies human society, [[history]] studies human history, and so on.  Distinguished from the [[humanities]] in that the social sciences make an effort to apply the scientific method or other rigorous standards of evidence to the study of humanity.
> 
> * [[Anthropology]]
> * [[Archaeology]]
> * [[History]]
> * [[Psychology]]
> * [[Sociology]]
------
Monopolistic_competition|984342096
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Monopolistic competion]] is given when:
> #There is large number of producers and consumers on a given market.
> #The consumers have clearly defined prefernces - the goods and and services are '''heterogeneous'''
> #There are market entry barriers.
> 
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Isomer|984342107
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Isomer
> 
> A term used in [[Organic Chemistry|organic chemistry]]. It is possible for two [[molecule]]s to have the same formula, but different 
> arrangement of atoms. The different forms are called <i>isomers</i>. 
> 
> A simple example is the alcohol with the formula, C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O, (known as <i>propyl acohol</i>) which has the isomers
> 
>      n-propyl alcohol            isopropyl alcohol
> 
>          H H H                        H H H
>          | | |                        | | |
>        H-C-C-C-O-H                  H-C-C-C-H
>          | | |                        | | |
>          H H H                        H O H
>                                         | 
>                                         H
> 
> 
> Note that the critical difference is the position of the oxygen atom - it is attached to an end carbon in the 
> one isomer, and to the centre carbon in the other isomer. 
> It can be readily shown that the number of possible isomers rapidly increases as the number of atoms increase; for example the next largest alcohol, named butanol (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O), has four different isomers.  
> 
------
Perfect_competition|984342187
1a2
> #There is a large number of small producers and consumers on a given market
4,5c5,6
< #Goods and services are [[perfect substitutes]]
< #All resources (including information) are perfectly mobile.
---
> #Goods and services are [[perfect substitutes]] - they are '''homogeneous'''
> #All resources (including information) are perfectly mobile
8c9
< Other [[market forms]]
---
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Oligopoly|984342227
8a9,11
> 
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Case_law|984342379
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance as to how statutory law is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
> 
> Popularly, case law is understood as being established by the decisions of the [[Supreme Court]] or highest court of the land, or of various [[Courts of Appeals]].
> 
> Factually, case law can rest in the decisions of lower courts as well, especially within the jurisdictions of those lower courts, and when the issue in question has not been decided by a higher court.
> 
> In the United States, the [[United States Supreme Court]] hears cases, decides issues of legal intepretation and establishes precedent through published opinions only on cases related to [[Federal Law]] or the [[Constitution of the United States.]]
> 
> In the individual state judicial systems of the United States, the highest court may be styled [[State Supreme Court]], [[Court of Appeals]] or other titles.  These courts are empowered to render ultimate decisions on issue of [[State Law]]or their respective [[State Constitution]], but lack jurisdiction to interpret issues of [[Civil Rights]], the United States Constitution, or Federal Law.
> 
> Likewise, under the doctrine of [[States' Rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
------
Law|984342498
5c5,7
< [[United States Constitution]]
---
> [[United States Constitution]]
> ----
> I did case law and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
------
Social_sciences|984342534
7c7,8
< * [[Sociology]]
---
> * [[Sociology]]
> * [[Economics]]
------
Science|984342561
14a15
> * [[Economics]]
------
Economics|984342634
1c1
< A social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It is a relatively new academic discipline: the first major book on Economics, [[Adam Smith|Adam Smith's]] ''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776.
---
> A [[Social_sciences|social science]] that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth. It is a relatively new academic discipline: the first major book on Economics, [[Adam Smith|Adam Smith's]] ''The Wealth of Nations'' was published in 1776.
14c14
< [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Market forms]]
------
Education|984342808
1c1,17
< All education is instructional and all instruction is educational( Herbart )
---
> /Reading -- /Math -- /Science -- [[/Foreign language]] -- [[/Teaching morality]]
> 
> /Elementary -- /Secondary -- /College -- /Graduate (maybe /Postgraduate can point to /Graduate :-) )
> 
> [[testing]] -- [[standardized testing]]
> 
> [[literacy]]
> 
> [[educational policy]] -- [[education reform]] -- [[home schooling]] -- [[school choice]] -- [[education vouchers]] -- [[tax credits for education]]
> 
> [[comparative studies of educational systems]]
> 
> [[teaching methods]] -- [[learning theories]] -- [[learning styles]]
> 
> [[John Dewey]] -- [[F. Matthias Alexander]] -- [[Maria Montessori]]
> 
> [[Colleges and universities]]
------
Education|984342822
17c17
< [[Colleges and universities]]
---
> [[colleges and universities]]
------
Colleges_and_universities|984343292
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
> 
> [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
> 
> [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
> 
> [[Ohio State University]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]])
> 
> [[Oxford University]] ([[Oxford, England]])
> 
> [[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
> 
> [[Stanford University]] ([[Stanford, California]])
> 
> [[University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley, California]])
> 
> [[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
------
SupremeCourt|984343366
1,9c1
< Highest court in the [[United States]].
< 
< It has ultimate jucidal authority within the United States.
< 
< 9? justices are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the [[Senate]].
< 
< The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts and over issues involving ? (some high level government people/agencies???).
< 
< It is located within [[Washington DC]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Supreme Court]]
------
Colleges_and_universities|984343482
17c17,20
< [[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
---
> [[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
> ----
> 
> See also [[Business Schools]]
------
Wiki_Canonization|984343958
19c19
< Please see CliffordAdams' remarks at WikiPediaBugs.
---
> Please see CliffordAdams' remarks at WikiPediaBugs; as well as similar discussions on [[Naming conventions]] and [[Feature requests]].
------
Reed_College|984344260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://www.reed.edu Reed College], located in a nice, quiet neighborhood of [[Portland, Oregon]], is a small [[liberal arts college]] well-known for producing Rhodes Scholars and a very high proportion of graduates who go on to earn [[Ph.D.]]'s, particularly in the [[science]]s.  Reed was founded in 1911 by river trade magnate Simeon Gannett Reed and rapidly gained a reputation for academic excellence.  Reed is generally regarded as one of the finest small liberal arts colleges in the United States and certainly among the best on the West coast.  Reed is one of the more unusual institutions of higher learning in the [[United States]]: it features a traditional liberal arts curriculum, requiring freshmen (who might insist on being called "first year students") to take an intensive introduction to ancient Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages, though it does very well in the sciences as well.  It is a haven for intense intellectuals, idealists, and unkempt rich hippies.  Traditionally it has a reputation for making room for students who show promise of one sort or another but who did not do so well in high school; this leads to a lot of blossoming scholars inspired by the extremely intense academic experience, but it also leads to a fair bit of attrition as well.
------
Duopoly|984344352
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A market form very similar to an [[oligopoly]]. However, only two producers are present on a given market.
> ----
> Other [[market forms]]
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984344466
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Highest court in the [[United States]].
> 
> It has ultimate jucidal authority within the United States.
> 
> 9? justices are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the [[Senate]].
> 
> The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts and over issues involving ? (some high level government people/agencies???).
> 
> It is located within [[Washington DC]].
------
Case_law|984344811
1c1
< Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance as to how statutory law is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
---
> Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance as to how [[statutory law]] is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
7c7
< In the United States, the [[United States Supreme Court]] hears cases, decides issues of legal intepretation and establishes precedent through published opinions only on cases related to [[Federal Law]] or the [[Constitution of the United States.]]
---
> In the United States, the [[United States Supreme Court]] hears cases, decides issues of legal intepretation and establishes precedent through published opinions only on cases related to [[federal law]] or the [[United States Constitution]].
9c9
< In the individual state judicial systems of the United States, the highest court may be styled [[State Supreme Court]], [[Court of Appeals]] or other titles.  These courts are empowered to render ultimate decisions on issue of [[State Law]]or their respective [[State Constitution]], but lack jurisdiction to interpret issues of [[Civil Rights]], the United States Constitution, or Federal Law.
---
> In the individual state judicial systems of the United States, the highest court may be styled [[State Supreme Court]], [[Court of Appeals]] or other titles.  These courts are empowered to render ultimate decisions on issue of [[state law]] or their respective [[state constitution]], but lack jurisdiction to interpret issues of [[civil rights]], the United States Constitution, or federal law.
11c11
< Likewise, under the doctrine of [[States' Rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
---
> Likewise, under the doctrine of [[states rights|states' rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
------
Prokaryotae|984344875
1,26c1
< One of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
< 
<  Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
<     Division Mendosicutes
<        Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
<        Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
<  Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
<     Division Tenericutes
<        Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
<     Division Gracilicutes
<        Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
<        Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
<        Phylum [[Anaerobic Phototrophic Bacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Cyanobacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Chloroxybacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Nitrogen-fixing Aerobic Bacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Pseudomonads]]
<        Phylum [[Omnibacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Chemoautotrophic Bacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Myxobacteria]]
<        (8 more)
<     Division Firmicutes
<        Phylum [[Fermenting Bacteria]]
<        Phylum [[Aeroendospora]]
<        Phylum [[Micrococci]]
<        Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Monera]]
------
Monera|984344897
1c1,27
< A term once used for the Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]], and also for the bacteria group in Haeckel's three kingdom scheme.
---
> One of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]], comprising bacteria. It contains the Phyla :
> 
>  Sub-Kingdom Archaebacteria
>     Division Mendosicutes
>        Phylum [[Methanocreatrices]]
>        Phylum [[Halophilic and Thermoacidophilic Bacteria]]
>  Sub-Kingdom Eubacteria
>     Division Tenericutes
>        Phylum [[Aphragmabacteria]]
>     Division Gracilicutes
>        Phylum [[Spirochaetae]]
>        Phylum [[Thiopneutes]]
>        Phylum [[Anaerobic Phototrophic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Cyanobacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Chloroxybacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Nitrogen-fixing Aerobic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Pseudomonads]]
>        Phylum [[Omnibacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Chemoautotrophic Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Myxobacteria]]
>        (8 more)
>     Division Firmicutes
>        Phylum [[Fermenting Bacteria]]
>        Phylum [[Aeroendospora]]
>        Phylum [[Micrococci]]
>        Phylum [[Actinobacteria]]
> 
------
Country|984345086
1c1
< A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people. 
---
> A ''country'' is a geographical area with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
------
Biology|984345113
3c3
< One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including of course the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].
---
> One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including of course the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
5c5
< The classification of living things is called [[taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures. One of the oldest is [[Linnaen taxonomy]]. Others include [[phenetics]], [[cladistics]], or [[evolutionary taxonomy]].
---
> The classification of living things is called [[taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.  The standard system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], where living things are divided into a hierarchy starting with five kingdoms - the [[Monera]], [[Protista]], [[Fungi]], [[Plantae]], and [[Animalia]].
6a7
> The distinction between life and non-life never being a hard and fast one, there are also a series of parasites that are progressively less alive: [[Virus|viri]], [[Virioid|virioids]], and [[Prion|prions]].
------
Linnaen_taxonomy|984345190
1,12c1
< Let's [[/Talk]]
< 
< Established by [[Carolus Linnaeus]], Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
< 
< * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
< * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal protozoa, algae, etc.
< * Kingdom [[Plantae]] - green algae & plants
< * Kingdom [[Fungi]] - chytrids & fungi
< * Kingdom [[Animalia]] - animals
< 
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  Classical Linnaean Taxonomy does not follow [[evolution]] too well, but does pretty well for something devloped a hundred (?) years before [[evolution]], and is continually being reformed as new evidence comes in (for instance: there were originally only two kingdoms, the plants and animals, and in the latter all the invertebrates made up a single class).
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Linnaean taxonomy]]
------
Supreme_court|984345291
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The highest court of a given geographical area.  For example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
------
Linnaean_taxonomy|984345338
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Let's [[/Talk]]
> 
> Linnaean Taxonomy divides living things into five top-level groups, called ''kingdoms'':
> 
> * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
> * Kingdom [[Protista]] - basal protozoa, algae, etc.
> * Kingdom [[Plantae]] - green algae & plants
> * Kingdom [[Fungi]] - chytrids & fungi
> * Kingdom [[Animalia]] - animals
> 
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  This is based closely on the scheme established by [[Carolus Linnaeus]], but over time has changed to reflect different considerations  about the relationships of living things; with the advent of [[evolution]], it is generally encouraged that groups be [[monophyletic]].
------
Constitution|984345361
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''constitution'' of a given [[country]] is, at least ostensibly, a document stating the most basic laws and giving the legal structure and relations of government and people, and is interpreted by the highest controlling legal authority of any [[constitutional government]], the [[supreme court]] of that country.
> 
> Constitutions:
> :[[United States Constitution]]
> :[[JapanConstitution|Japanese Constitution]]
------
Linnaen_taxonomy/Talk|984345378
1,45c1
< Authors include [[Josh Grosse]] and [[Andy Jewell]]
< 
< Links should be <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" rather than "Kingdom [[Animalia]]"</nowiki>
< 
< ''Strongly disagree.  For one, it is annoying to always have to refer to the Kindom Animalia rather than the Animalia when you want to make a link.  For two: some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxon with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
< 
< ''And again, as below, I am going to suggest that for cases where no clear name has developed for the group, we just use common ones.  It might be a bit confusing to have a mix of common and Latin names, but that's what the literature does when no clear consensus has emerged, and it's less confusing than listing each group on five different pages.  Plus some groups don't even have Latin names: Stramenopiles, Opisthokonts, Rosette agents...''
< 
< We need an easy english example by every entry. - ''When one exists, could be difficult for some things. :)''
< 
< ''Andy, I just noticed that you're treating Linnaean taxonomy as something seperate from phenetics, cladistics, and so forth.  It's not supposed to be: most of the time, taxonomy gets changed to reflect evolution.  For instance, the original Linnaean classification for Animalia had all invertebrates grouped into one class (phyla were invented later), and they were seperated out when it became clear they weren't directly related.''
< 
< ''I think what classifications we provide should probably reflect the best we have now, with seperate pages for obsolete taxa explaining what happened to them.  And while a complete classification for everything would be nice, I don't think we should do that.  Especially for the [[Monera]] and [[Protista]], where workers in the fields have actually stopped using ranks for the time being.  There are too many tiny groups without relatives; noone wants to have independent phyla set up for each of ''Sticholonche'', ''Hyperamoeba'', ''Stephanopogon'', etc.''
< 
< ''For the same sort of reason, I'm not sure that it's a good idea to list all the supertaxa of each group.  There are plenty of things out there where the lower taxonomy is stable but the higher is not.  eg Tetras belongs to the Characidae, which is either in the suborder Characiformes of the order Cypriniformes, or in the order Characiformes.  That difference can be explained on Characidae easily enough, but I'm not sure I'd want to repeat it for every genus.''
< 
< ''In short: I don't think we can have tidy categories like you had hoped.  Whenever we can, we should make a nice clean list.  But when such a thing doesn't exist, we'll just have to explain that the system is still a mess, and then provide the reader with subgroups and speculated relationships between them rather than subtaxa. :(''
< 
< ''I don't mean to be too discouraging, though, so please don't take this as such.  The system works especially well for invertebrates, for whom if you are interested I think the standard source is Brusca & Brusca's ''The invertebrates'' (textbooks all have lame titles).  It has a taxonomy for each phylum, usually down to order and sometimes further.  For vertebrates, everything is a mess outside of the mammals and birds, and the higher taxa in plants are kind-of up in the air, so I'm not sure what one should do.  But a good thing to compare to would be the [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].''
< 
< I was just going to use [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life] as an example of why Linnaen and Cladistic are completely differnt things. Cladists don't much use KPCOFGS, and Linneans don't mind (and indeed can't escape) polyphyleticism. Also, for a Cladist tree I would suggest little more than a pointer to [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life]. Furthur, it seems <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" is Linnaen and "Kingdom [[Animalia]]" is Cladist.</nowiki>
< 
< ''Linnaean taxonomy and cladistics aren't contrasting systems.  The former is simply a way of arranging organisms hierarchically, the latter is a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  There are others, like phylogenetic systematics, disagreeing on how to determine these; but except phenetics they all support exclusively monophyletic taxa, and generally Linnaean frameworks are constructed accordingly.  Cladistic taxa are ranked whenever convenient; it's just that for many things, the ranks are heavily variable and so ignored (as happens in other schemes too).''
< 
< ''So, no, Linnaeans aren't happy with polyphyletic groups, and historically they have tended to be split up - eg Invertebrata or the removal of Fungi from Plantae.  The ones we have left are mostly those too ubiquitous to drop easily, like Agnatha.  Virtually everything has turned out to be polyphyletic among the Monera and Protista, which is why workers there tend not to use Linnaean taxonomy - not because they want to use a different system, but because not enough is known for a decent higher-level taxonomy to exist yet.''
< 
< ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.  I guess maybe pages like <nowiki>[[Kingdom Animalia]]</nowiki> are a good way to handle such groups, but in that case we should probably be talking about the various ways the group has been used, rather than presenting it as the way living things are currently sorted.  For instance [[Kingdom Plantae]] could say that in addition to the [[Plantae]] they used to include the [[Fungi]] and [[Algae]].''
< 
< ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera.''
<  --- DOH!
< 
< Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus'' in the family Cyprinidae.''
< ----
< Special concerns:
< 
< [[Prokaryotae]] - you say that this is a new form of [[Monera]] but I don't think that a majority has made the switch.  There doesn't seem to be any reason to, and historically such names have tended to be ignored, at least (Protoctista, Chlorophycophyta, etc).  A lot of workers tend to neglect the name altogether, since it seems to be polyphyletic.  Any reason for choosing this form?
< 
< [[Protista]] - the classification of protista has been changing a lot recently, and I think most people have more or less abandoned higher level Linnaean stuff for the time being.  [[Euglenids]] have variously been grouped as a phylum or class and referred to as the Euglenida, Euglenophyta, Euglenophyceae, etc.  Some of the groups you mention have been dropped entirely, especially the amoeboid ones, due to heavy polyphyly, and I'd been leaving those off and grouping by rough grades (flagellates, amoeboids, algae, etc).  I would love to hear if you have any good ideas on what to do, since the flat list seems wrong and what I was doing seems clunky.
< 
< [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  They're standard, so we should mention them, but wikipedia doesn't have to organize itself on an obsolete and broken system if we don't want it to.
< 
< Misc terms - aren't phyla of plants normally referred to as ''divisions''?  The former is what Linnaeus did, but he himself said he wished he'd done the latter and there's been some effort to change.
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Linnaean taxonomy/Talk]]
------
Linnaean_taxonomy/Talk|984345448
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Authors include [[Josh Grosse]] and [[Andy Jewell]]
> 
> Links should be <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" rather than "Kingdom [[Animalia]]"</nowiki>
> 
> ''Strongly disagree.  For one, it is annoying to always have to refer to the Kindom Animalia rather than the Animalia when you want to make a link.  For two: some of the more prominent taxa, like Animalia or Cyprinidae, have precise rankings.  But there are many whose position varies from scheme to scheme.  I think it would be better to have a single page Rotifera rather than two pages, [Class Rotifera] and [Phylum Rotifera], one of whom merely sends to the other.  And that's even a taxon with a well-defined position - what do you do for things like Bilateria?''
> 
> ''And again, as below, I am going to suggest that for cases where no clear name has developed for the group, we just use common ones.  It might be a bit confusing to have a mix of common and Latin names, but that's what the literature does when no clear consensus has emerged, and it's less confusing than listing each group on five different pages.  Plus some groups don't even have Latin names: Stramenopiles, Opisthokonts, Rosette agents...''
> 
> We need an easy english example by every entry. - ''When one exists, could be difficult for some things. :)''
> 
> ''Andy, I just noticed that you're treating Linnaean taxonomy as something seperate from phenetics, cladistics, and so forth.  It's not supposed to be: most of the time, taxonomy gets changed to reflect evolution.  For instance, the original Linnaean classification for Animalia had all invertebrates grouped into one class (phyla were invented later), and they were seperated out when it became clear they weren't directly related.''
> 
> ''I think what classifications we provide should probably reflect the best we have now, with seperate pages for obsolete taxa explaining what happened to them.  And while a complete classification for everything would be nice, I don't think we should do that.  Especially for the [[Monera]] and [[Protista]], where workers in the fields have actually stopped using ranks for the time being.  There are too many tiny groups without relatives; noone wants to have independent phyla set up for each of ''Sticholonche'', ''Hyperamoeba'', ''Stephanopogon'', etc.''
> 
> ''For the same sort of reason, I'm not sure that it's a good idea to list all the supertaxa of each group.  There are plenty of things out there where the lower taxonomy is stable but the higher is not.  eg Tetras belongs to the Characidae, which is either in the suborder Characiformes of the order Cypriniformes, or in the order Characiformes.  That difference can be explained on Characidae easily enough, but I'm not sure I'd want to repeat it for every genus.''
> 
> ''In short: I don't think we can have tidy categories like you had hoped.  Whenever we can, we should make a nice clean list.  But when such a thing doesn't exist, we'll just have to explain that the system is still a mess, and then provide the reader with subgroups and speculated relationships between them rather than subtaxa. :(''
> 
> ''I don't mean to be too discouraging, though, so please don't take this as such.  The system works especially well for invertebrates, for whom if you are interested I think the standard source is Brusca & Brusca's ''The invertebrates'' (textbooks all have lame titles).  It has a taxonomy for each phylum, usually down to order and sometimes further.  For vertebrates, everything is a mess outside of the mammals and birds, and the higher taxa in plants are kind-of up in the air, so I'm not sure what one should do.  But a good thing to compare to would be the [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life].''
> 
> I was just going to use [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life] as an example of why Linnaen and Cladistic are completely differnt things. Cladists don't much use KPCOFGS, and Linneans don't mind (and indeed can't escape) polyphyleticism. Also, for a Cladist tree I would suggest little more than a pointer to [http://phylogeny.arizona.edu Tree of Life]. Furthur, it seems <nowiki>"[[Kingdom Animalia]]" is Linnaen and "Kingdom [[Animalia]]" is Cladist.</nowiki>
> 
> ''Linnaean taxonomy and cladistics aren't contrasting systems.  The former is simply a way of arranging organisms hierarchically, the latter is a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  There are others, like phylogenetic systematics, disagreeing on how to determine these; but except phenetics they all support exclusively monophyletic taxa, and generally Linnaean frameworks are constructed accordingly.  Cladistic taxa are ranked whenever convenient; it's just that for many things, the ranks are heavily variable and so ignored (as happens in other schemes too).''
> 
> ''So, no, Linnaeans aren't happy with polyphyletic groups, and historically they have tended to be split up - eg Invertebrata or the removal of Fungi from Plantae.  The ones we have left are mostly those too ubiquitous to drop easily, like Agnatha.  Virtually everything has turned out to be polyphyletic among the Monera and Protista, which is why workers there tend not to use Linnaean taxonomy - not because they want to use a different system, but because not enough is known for a decent higher-level taxonomy to exist yet.''
> 
> ''I think obsolete taxa are nice to mention, both as history and as a way to find out where groups got moved to, but I don't think they should be are primary way of sorting.  For instance it should be said the plants used to include brown algae, but to treat their biology there is silly since they have little real in common.  I guess maybe pages like <nowiki>[[Kingdom Animalia]]</nowiki> are a good way to handle such groups, but in that case we should probably be talking about the various ways the group has been used, rather than presenting it as the way living things are currently sorted.  For instance [[Kingdom Plantae]] could say that in addition to the [[Plantae]] they used to include the [[Fungi]] and [[Algae]].''
> 
> ''Btw, as a minor note: genus is a third declension noun, so it's plural is actually genera.''
>  --- DOH!
> 
> Both genus and species names should always be italicized or de-italicized.  As in, guppies belong to the species ''Lebistes reticulatus'' in the family Poecillidae, ''but goldfish belong to the species ''Carassius auratus'' in the family Cyprinidae.''
> ----
> Special concerns:
> 
> [[Prokaryotae]] - you say that this is a new form of [[Monera]] but I don't think that a majority has made the switch.  There doesn't seem to be any reason to, and historically such names have tended to be ignored, at least (Protoctista, Chlorophycophyta, etc).  A lot of workers tend to neglect the name altogether, since it seems to be polyphyletic.  Any reason for choosing this form?
> 
> [[Protista]] - the classification of protista has been changing a lot recently, and I think most people have more or less abandoned higher level Linnaean stuff for the time being.  [[Euglenids]] have variously been grouped as a phylum or class and referred to as the Euglenida, Euglenophyta, Euglenophyceae, etc.  Some of the groups you mention have been dropped entirely, especially the amoeboid ones, due to heavy polyphyly, and I'd been leaving those off and grouping by rough grades (flagellates, amoeboids, algae, etc).  I would love to hear if you have any good ideas on what to do, since the flat list seems wrong and what I was doing seems clunky.
> 
> [[Chordata]] - the current classification is awful and everybody hates it.  The Agnatha, Osteichthyes, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all paraphyletic, and extinct forms are really hard to handle in them.  They're standard, so we should mention them, but wikipedia doesn't have to organize itself on an obsolete and broken system if we don't want it to.
> 
> Misc terms - aren't plants normally grouped into ''divsions'' rather than ''phyla''?
> 
> 
> 
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984345754
1c1
< Highest court in the [[United States]].
---
> The [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html U.S. Supreme Court], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], is the highest court (see [[supreme court]]) in the [[United States]]; i.e., it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States.
3c3
< It has ultimate jucidal authority within the United States.
---
> Nine justices are appointed for life by the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|President]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
5c5
< 9? justices are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the [[Senate]].
---
> The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts.
7,9c7
< The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts and over issues involving ? (some high level government people/agencies???).
< 
< It is located within [[Washington DC]].
---
> See also /History.
------
Biology|984345943
3c3
< One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including of course the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
---
> One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
------
United_States_Supreme_Court/History|984345986
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[United States Supreme Court]] has had a fascinating history that is richly intertwined with [[History of United States|U.S. history]].
------
United_States_Supreme_Court/History|984346007
1c1
< The [[United States Supreme Court]] has had a fascinating history that is richly intertwined with [[History of United States|U.S. history]].
---
> The [[United States Supreme Court]] has had a fascinating history that is richly intertwined with [[History of United States|U.S. history]]... (to be continued, by you :-) )
------
Biology|984346074
1c1
< The study of life and the processes thereof.  Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry]] and [[Genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy]], [[Physiology]], and [[Ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology]].
---
> The study of life and the processes thereof.  Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[Genetics|genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy|anatomy]], [[Physiology|physiology]], and [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology|ecology]].
3c3
< One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|Evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
---
> One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny|phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology|palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
------
Biology|984346100
3c3
< One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Theory of Evolution|evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny|phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology|palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
---
> One of the central concepts in biology is the principle of [[Evolution|evolution]].  The descent of an organism is called its [[Phylogeny|phylogeny]]; these are studied using all sorts of evidence, including the study of ancient life, [[Palaeontology|palaeontology]].  Various methodologies have developed, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]].
------
Carolus_Linnaeus|984347096
1c1,2
< A Swede (1707-1778) who began the modern practice of taxonomy. His style is known as [[Linnaen taxonomy]].
---
> Latin name for Carl von Linné of Sweden (1707-1778) who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of taxonomy.
> As a boy Linnaeus was to be groomed for life as a churchman, as his father and maternal grandfather were, but he showed little enthusiasm for the profession.  His interest in [[Botany]], though, impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at the university of Lund, transferring to Uppsala after a year.
2a4,8
> During this time Linnaeus became convinced that in the stamens and pistils of flowers lay the basis for the classification of plants, and wrote a short work on the subject that earned him the postion of adjunct professor.  In 1732 the Academy of Sciences at Uppsala financed his expedition to explore [[Lapland]], then virtually unknown.  The result of this was the ''Florica Laponica'' published in 1737.
> 
> Thereafter Linnaeus moved to the continent.  While in Holland he met [[Jan Frederik Gronovius]] and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''[[System Naturae]]''.  In it, the unwieldy descriptions used previously - ''physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis'' - were replaced by the concise and now familiar genus-species names - ''Physalid angulata'' - and higher taxa were constructed in a simple and orderly manner.
> 
> In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  Hew ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755.
------
Carolus_Linnaeus|984347128
6c6
< Thereafter Linnaeus moved to the continent.  While in Holland he met [[Jan Frederik Gronovius]] and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''[[System Naturae]]''.  In it, the unwieldy descriptions used previously - ''physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis'' - were replaced by the concise and now familiar genus-species names - ''Physalid angulata'' - and higher taxa were constructed in a simple and orderly manner.
---
> Thereafter Linnaeus moved to the continent.  While in Holland he met [[Jan Frederik Gronovius]] and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''[[System Naturae]]''.  In it, the unwieldy descriptions used previously - ''physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis'' - were replaced by the concise and now familiar genus-species names - ''Physalis angulata'' - and higher taxa were constructed in a simple and orderly manner.
8c8
< In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  Hew ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755.
---
> In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  Hew ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755.
------
Requested_articles|984347254
11c11
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]]
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonomtric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]]
31c31
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
Requested_articles|984347354
11c11,12
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonomtric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]]
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]]-- [[Matrices]] -- [[Determinants]] --
> [[Linear Equations]]
29c30
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] 
------
Linguistics|984347787
1c1,2
< [[Linguistics]] is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." [[Linguistics]] views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this. 
---
> [[Linguistics]] is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." [[Linguistics]] views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this.
> On the other hand, a ''linguist'' may either be a person trained in [[Linguistics]] or a person proficient in many [[Language]]s. This is a source of a lot of confusion and a strange feature of English usage.
6a8
> * [[semantics]]
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984348153
1c1
< The [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html U.S. Supreme Court], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], is the highest court (see [[supreme court]]) in the [[United States]]; i.e., it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States.
---
> The [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html U.S. Supreme Court], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], is the highest court (see [[supreme court]]) in the [[United States]]; i.e., it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States. It is head of the [[Judicial Branch]] of the [[United States Goverment]]. The other two branches of the [[United States Government]] are the [[Excutive Branch]] and the [[Legislative Branch]].
7c7
< See also /History.
---
> See also /History.
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984348185
1c1
< The [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html U.S. Supreme Court], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], is the highest court (see [[supreme court]]) in the [[United States]]; i.e., it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States. It is head of the [[Judicial Branch]] of the [[United States Goverment]]. The other two branches of the [[United States Government]] are the [[Excutive Branch]] and the [[Legislative Branch]].
---
> The [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html U.S. Supreme Court], located in [[Washington, D.C.]], is the highest court (see [[supreme court]]) in the [[United States]]; i.e., it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States. It is head of the [[Judicial Branch]] of the [[United States Goverment]]. The other two branches of the [[United States Government]] are the [[Executive Branch]] and the [[Legislative Branch]].
------
Philosophy_of_Religion|984348238
1,21c1
< Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- BoethiuS
< ----
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< "Philosophy of religion" means "the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental religious claims, particularly about the nature and existence of God."  Philosophy of religion is classically regarded as part of metaphysics, since according to most conceptions of God, if God exists he’s in an important category of being different from the rest of the universe.  Right?  God isn’t a body and he isn’t any ordinary sort mind.  Moreover, remember that metaphysics concerns basic beliefs which underlie many other philosophical beliefs -- and well, religious claims, as we all know, often underlie views about what we can know, how we can get knowledge, and how we should live.  So all that is why philosophy of religion has been, traditionally, regarded as a branch of metaphysics.  But more recently the philosophy of religion has been instead regarded as a subject unto itself.
< 
< Before we get into the subject itself I want to make something clear.  I am <i>not</i> trying to attack your religious beliefs; I think you do have a right to believe, and not to believe, whatever you want.  As I conceive of it, the purpose of the <i>philosophical</i> study of the philosophy of religion is not either to support or to undermine religion, but rather to examine the meaning and justification of belief in God to the best of our ability.  Now some people are very threatened by <i>any</i> sort of clarification of their religious views, whether about the meaning of those views, or about whether those views can be supported by good reasons.  If you are such a person, I implore you to change your attitude, if for no other reason than that some extremely religious people study the very questions we’re going to ask.  For example, all the questions we’re going to ask are studied in depth at prominent Catholic universities, where sections about the philosophy of religion are included in introductory philosophy courses, which courses are taught by priests and other firm believers.
< 
< So to the subject itself.  There are a lot of philosophical questions that can be asked about religious beliefs.  But my view is that there are just two <i>really</i> important questions in this field.  They are: (1) What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  (2) Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist?  Still, there are <i>other</i> questions studied in the philosophy of religion.  For example: What, if anything, would be good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred?  Or: Is it possible for belief in God’s existence to be <i>rational</i> even though one merely has <i>faith</i> that God exists?  Or: What might it mean for God to be "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" as in Christian theology?  But I think the two questions I listed are most <i>fundamental</i>.  In saying they are most fundamental, I mean that the other questions in the field either contribute to answering one or the other or both of these questions, or else they are relatively unimportant.  I mean, <i>surely</i> the most important questions we have to ask about religion are what God <i>is</i>, and whether we have any reason to believe God does or does not <i>exist</i>.
< 
< So let’s examine the two questions in a bit more depth.  To begin with the first: What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  Now, what would count as an answer to this question?  A definition, no doubt; maybe other sorts of answers would be acceptable, but what we would naturally expect is a definition.  Now remember something from our discussion of definitions.  <i>Before</i> we give a definition of a term we want to know what <i>sense</i> of the term we want to define.  I might ask, "What is the definition of ‘bank’?" but until I said that I meant financial institutions rather than edges of rivers you’d be confused about what concept it was that I wanted defined.
< 
< Now, aren’t there different senses of the word "God"?  Surely there are.  The word is used in different ways by different people.  So before we try to answer the question, "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we have to get clear on which conception of "God" we are trying to define!  Some people believe that there is <i>more</i> <i>than</i> <i>one</i> God.  They are called <i>polytheists</i>.  For example, the ancient Greeks were polytheists, officially anyway, polytheists.  We aren’t going to concern ourselves with the merits of polytheism.  Some people believe there is only <i>one</i> God.  That belief is called <i>monotheism</i>.  But there is a <i>huge</i> number of different kinds of monotheism.  Some people have the rather strange view that there is one God but God is simply <i>everything</i> <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>; in other words the whole universe is God.  This view is called <i>pantheism</i>.  Some people believe that only one God exists, but that God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene at all, not even to answer prayers: they are called <i>deists</i>.  The old French Enlightenment <i>philosophes</i>, like Voltaire, were deists.  OK, so where do ordinary Christians fit into this?  They are <i>theists</i> proper.  <i>Theism</i> is the view that exactly one God exists, which is an eternally existent spirit, which exists apart from space and time, and which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful; and usually this being is also thought to be all-knowing and all-loving.
< 
< So let us suppose that we decide we are interested in finding out what the word "God" might refer to, <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>sense</i> <i>in</i> <i>which</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>used</i> <i>by</i> <i>theists</i>.  In other words, we decide we are not interested in any polytheistic sorts of gods, or a pantheistic sort of god, or a deistic sort of god.  What we want to get some grasp on is what the God of Abraham and Jesus is.  And suppose we decide on the definition of "God" that informs the stated definition of theism.  So we say that "God" means "an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  But then there are a lot of questions to be answered <i>about</i> <i>this</i> <i>definition</i>.  For example, what does it mean for a <i>spirit</i> to create anything?  What does "all-powerful" mean?  There is no shortage of questions that philosophers -- both believers and nonbelievers, mind you -- have about the very idea, the very concept, of the God in whose existence theists believe.  We will discuss such questions in a little bit.
< 
< But first let me introduce the second question that I said was so fundamental in the philosophy of religion: Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God does not exist?  Now, what would count as an answer to <i>this</i> question?  Well, of course, the words "Yes, we do" or "No, we don’t"; but then these words should be followed by supporting arguments, and the conclusions of the arguments would be either "God exists" or "God does not exist."  We will discuss several arguments that God exists, and one major argument that God does <i>not</i> exist.
< 
< I’ve already introduced the names of different kinds of belief that God exists.  We can give a general description of someone who does not believe that God exists -- we can say they are <i>nonbelievers</i>.  Nonbelievers come in two varieties.  Those who believe that God does not exist are <i>atheists</i>, and their view is called <i>atheism</i>, whereas those who believe neither that God exists <i>nor</i> that God does not exist are called <i>agnostics</i>, and their position is <i>agnosticism</i>.  Some people who don’t think very much about the philosophy of religion tend to think that all nonbelievers are atheists, thus entirely ignoring a very importantly different position that some people take on the question of whether or not God exists, namely agnosticism.  In its original sense, agnosticism is the view that we, humans, <i>cannot</i> <i>know</i> whether or not God exists.  But there are some other views, which are not as extreme as that, which I am lumping in with agnosticism in that original sense.  For example, if I say that <i>I</i> <i>personally</i> do not know, at present, whether or not God exists, then I am an "agnostic" in a looser sense of that word.  I would even lump in with the agnostics those people who simply have no views about God, haven’t thought very much about it, and don’t care.  I doubt there are very many such people these days, but those people too may be called "agnostics" in a loose sense of that term.
< 
< In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
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> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of religion]]
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Animalia|984348271
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< One of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]. Contains the Phyla :
---
> '''Classification'''
> 
> The Animalia were one of the kingdoms in Linnaeus' original scheme, and were divided into six classes: the [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then, the last five of these have all been grouped into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], and the various invertebrate groups separated out.
> 
> When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were placed as a phylum in this kingdom.  However, many of them show as many plant-like features as animal-like features, and on the whole they predate the animals evolutionarily; thus they were moved to a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], along with the [[alga]]e.
> 
> The list of animal phyla is mostly stable (the discovery of the [[Cycliophora]] a little while ago was a big thing), although the precise grouping into subkingdoms and superphyla is not.  A standard scheme is:
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<        Acoelomatea
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>        Acoelomates
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Philosophy_of_religion|984348311
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< Describe the new page here.
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> Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- BoethiuS
> ----
> <The following is a portion of [[Larrys Text]], wikification is invited.  In fact, if you can do better, you can feel free to replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
> 
> "Philosophy of religion" means "the study of the meaning and justification of fundamental religious claims, particularly about the nature and existence of God."  Philosophy of religion is classically regarded as part of metaphysics, since according to most conceptions of God, if God exists he’s in an important category of being different from the rest of the universe.  Right?  God isn’t a body and he isn’t any ordinary sort mind.  Moreover, remember that metaphysics concerns basic beliefs which underlie many other philosophical beliefs -- and well, religious claims, as we all know, often underlie views about what we can know, how we can get knowledge, and how we should live.  So all that is why philosophy of religion has been, traditionally, regarded as a branch of metaphysics.  But more recently the philosophy of religion has been instead regarded as a subject unto itself.
> 
> Before we get into the subject itself I want to make something clear.  I am <i>not</i> trying to attack your religious beliefs; I think you do have a right to believe, and not to believe, whatever you want.  As I conceive of it, the purpose of the <i>philosophical</i> study of the philosophy of religion is not either to support or to undermine religion, but rather to examine the meaning and justification of belief in God to the best of our ability.  Now some people are very threatened by <i>any</i> sort of clarification of their religious views, whether about the meaning of those views, or about whether those views can be supported by good reasons.  If you are such a person, I implore you to change your attitude, if for no other reason than that some extremely religious people study the very questions we’re going to ask.  For example, all the questions we’re going to ask are studied in depth at prominent Catholic universities, where sections about the philosophy of religion are included in introductory philosophy courses, which courses are taught by priests and other firm believers.
> 
> So to the subject itself.  There are a lot of philosophical questions that can be asked about religious beliefs.  But my view is that there are just two <i>really</i> important questions in this field.  They are: (1) What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  (2) Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God <i>does</i> <i>not</i> exist?  Still, there are <i>other</i> questions studied in the philosophy of religion.  For example: What, if anything, would be good reason to believe that a miracle has occurred?  Or: Is it possible for belief in God’s existence to be <i>rational</i> even though one merely has <i>faith</i> that God exists?  Or: What might it mean for God to be "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost" as in Christian theology?  But I think the two questions I listed are most <i>fundamental</i>.  In saying they are most fundamental, I mean that the other questions in the field either contribute to answering one or the other or both of these questions, or else they are relatively unimportant.  I mean, <i>surely</i> the most important questions we have to ask about religion are what God <i>is</i>, and whether we have any reason to believe God does or does not <i>exist</i>.
> 
> So let’s examine the two questions in a bit more depth.  To begin with the first: What is God, i.e., what is the meaning of the word, "God"?  Now, what would count as an answer to this question?  A definition, no doubt; maybe other sorts of answers would be acceptable, but what we would naturally expect is a definition.  Now remember something from our discussion of definitions.  <i>Before</i> we give a definition of a term we want to know what <i>sense</i> of the term we want to define.  I might ask, "What is the definition of ‘bank’?" but until I said that I meant financial institutions rather than edges of rivers you’d be confused about what concept it was that I wanted defined.
> 
> Now, aren’t there different senses of the word "God"?  Surely there are.  The word is used in different ways by different people.  So before we try to answer the question, "What is God?" by giving a definition, first we have to get clear on which conception of "God" we are trying to define!  Some people believe that there is <i>more</i> <i>than</i> <i>one</i> God.  They are called <i>polytheists</i>.  For example, the ancient Greeks were polytheists, officially anyway, polytheists.  We aren’t going to concern ourselves with the merits of polytheism.  Some people believe there is only <i>one</i> God.  That belief is called <i>monotheism</i>.  But there is a <i>huge</i> number of different kinds of monotheism.  Some people have the rather strange view that there is one God but God is simply <i>everything</i> <i>that</i> <i>exists</i>; in other words the whole universe is God.  This view is called <i>pantheism</i>.  Some people believe that only one God exists, but that God is like a watchmaker who wound up the universe and now does not intervene at all, not even to answer prayers: they are called <i>deists</i>.  The old French Enlightenment <i>philosophes</i>, like Voltaire, were deists.  OK, so where do ordinary Christians fit into this?  They are <i>theists</i> proper.  <i>Theism</i> is the view that exactly one God exists, which is an eternally existent spirit, which exists apart from space and time, and which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful; and usually this being is also thought to be all-knowing and all-loving.
> 
> So let us suppose that we decide we are interested in finding out what the word "God" might refer to, <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>sense</i> <i>in</i> <i>which</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>used</i> <i>by</i> <i>theists</i>.  In other words, we decide we are not interested in any polytheistic sorts of gods, or a pantheistic sort of god, or a deistic sort of god.  What we want to get some grasp on is what the God of Abraham and Jesus is.  And suppose we decide on the definition of "God" that informs the stated definition of theism.  So we say that "God" means "an eternally existent spirit which exists apart from space and time, which is the creator of the world, and is therefore all-powerful, and which is also all-knowing and all-loving."  But then there are a lot of questions to be answered <i>about</i> <i>this</i> <i>definition</i>.  For example, what does it mean for a <i>spirit</i> to create anything?  What does "all-powerful" mean?  There is no shortage of questions that philosophers -- both believers and nonbelievers, mind you -- have about the very idea, the very concept, of the God in whose existence theists believe.  We will discuss such questions in a little bit.
> 
> But first let me introduce the second question that I said was so fundamental in the philosophy of religion: Do we have any good reason to think that God exists, or to think that God does not exist?  Now, what would count as an answer to <i>this</i> question?  Well, of course, the words "Yes, we do" or "No, we don’t"; but then these words should be followed by supporting arguments, and the conclusions of the arguments would be either "God exists" or "God does not exist."  We will discuss several arguments that God exists, and one major argument that God does <i>not</i> exist.
> 
> I’ve already introduced the names of different kinds of belief that God exists.  We can give a general description of someone who does not believe that God exists -- we can say they are <i>nonbelievers</i>.  Nonbelievers come in two varieties.  Those who believe that God does not exist are <i>atheists</i>, and their view is called <i>atheism</i>, whereas those who believe neither that God exists <i>nor</i> that God does not exist are called <i>agnostics</i>, and their position is <i>agnosticism</i>.  Some people who don’t think very much about the philosophy of religion tend to think that all nonbelievers are atheists, thus entirely ignoring a very importantly different position that some people take on the question of whether or not God exists, namely agnosticism.  In its original sense, agnosticism is the view that we, humans, <i>cannot</i> <i>know</i> whether or not God exists.  But there are some other views, which are not as extreme as that, which I am lumping in with agnosticism in that original sense.  For example, if I say that <i>I</i> <i>personally</i> do not know, at present, whether or not God exists, then I am an "agnostic" in a looser sense of that word.  I would even lump in with the agnostics those people who simply have no views about God, haven’t thought very much about it, and don’t care.  I doubt there are very many such people these days, but those people too may be called "agnostics" in a loose sense of that term.
> 
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
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< #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of Religion]]
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> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of religion]]
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EthIcs|984348448
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< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< Today we’re going to start our study of <i>ethics</i>, which is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into four different subjects, including <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>conduct</i>, and <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
< 
< But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>ethical</i> <i>sentence</i>.  Another word for it might be <i>normative</i> <i>statement</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally</i> <i>evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
< 
< So now let’s look at those four different areas of ethics I mentioned.
< 
< <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  If you’ll remember when we talked about philosophy of language, we focused in on the meaning of proper names.  Well, meta-ethics focuses in on the meaning of ethical sentences.  What sort of meaning do they have?  More about that topic in just a bit; meta-ethics is the first topic we’re going to take up today.
< 
< The second topic, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, asks: "What sorts of things, and situations, are good?"  Notice, the goodness we’re talking about here is primarily the goodness, or desirability, or the value, of <i>things</i> -- not of people or actions.  The goodness of people and their actions is studied under the <i>next</i> heading, the heading of the theory of conduct.
< 
< I’m sure you can see the difference I mean here.  Obviously, there <i>is</i> a difference between calling a banana split "good" and calling a human being "good."  The theory of value is more concerned about the sense in which objects like banana splits, or situations like a well-paying job, or mental states like pleasure, are good.  That’s not to say, however, that ultimately, the sense in which we call a human being "good" can’t ultimately be reduced to the sense in which objects and mental states and situations can be good.  I mean, maybe that’s the case -- maybe ultimately we <i>will</i> be able to define what it means to be a good person in terms of that person’s tendency to create good things and situations for himself and other people.  In other words, maybe what we mean by calling someone "a good person" is, very roughly speaking, "a person who creates a lot of good for the world."  We’ll examine such possibilities next time, when we talk about the theory of conduct.
< 
< But now just a little bit by way of introducing the theory of conduct is.  This is the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil.  If you would like a single question that might best encapsulate what the theory of conduct asks, I think the question would be this: How should I act, and why?  So the theory of conduct involves debates over what the ultimate standards of right and wrong are -- standards of morality, or moral rules, if you will.  One familiar moral rule is the so-called "Golden Rule": "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."  So next time we are going to look at some theories of conduct and see whether they actually can give us adequate standards of right action.
< 
< There is a fourth area is called <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>, and this is an area that we will not have time to discuss, although it’s very interesting.  Basically, it’s just as its name suggests: it is the application of ethical theories to particular ethical problems.  Actually, most of the ethical problems you’ll study if you study applied ethics are about ethical questions public policy implications.  Such as: Is getting an abortion ever moral?  Is euthanasia ever moral?  What are the ethical underpinnings of affirmative action policies?  And so forth.
< 
< But not <i>all</i> questions studied in applied ethics have immediate public policy implications.  For example, one such question is: What is lying and is lying always wrong?  If not, when is lying permissible?
< 
< And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
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> #REDIRECT [[Ethics]]
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Animalia|984348477
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< An excellent book by [[Graeme Base]], full of illustration and aliteration.
---
> '''Introduction'''
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< Also a Taxonomy thing.
< 
< ''Introduction'''
---
> Animalia is the name of the animal kingdom in standard taxonomy, coming directly from the Latin ''animalis'', which in turn comes from ''anima''.  Also the title of a book by [[Graeme Base]] full of illustration and aliteration: see [[Graeme Base/Animalia]].
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Ethics|984348543
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of [[Larrys Text]], wikification is invited.  In fact, if you can do better, you can feel free to replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
> 
> <i>Ethics</i> is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into at least four different subjects, including <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>conduct</i>, and <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
> 
> But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>ethical</i> <i>sentence</i>.  Another word for it might be <i>normative</i> <i>statement</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally</i> <i>evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
> 
> So now let’s look at those four different areas of ethics I mentioned.
> 
> <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  If you’ll remember when we talked about philosophy of language, we focused in on the meaning of proper names.  Well, meta-ethics focuses in on the meaning of ethical sentences.  What sort of meaning do they have?  More about that topic in just a bit; meta-ethics is the first topic we’re going to take up today.
> 
> The second topic, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, asks: "What sorts of things, and situations, are good?"  Notice, the goodness we’re talking about here is primarily the goodness, or desirability, or the value, of <i>things</i> -- not of people or actions.  The goodness of people and their actions is studied under the <i>next</i> heading, the heading of the theory of conduct.
> 
> I’m sure you can see the difference I mean here.  Obviously, there <i>is</i> a difference between calling a banana split "good" and calling a human being "good."  The theory of value is more concerned about the sense in which objects like banana splits, or situations like a well-paying job, or mental states like pleasure, are good.  That’s not to say, however, that ultimately, the sense in which we call a human being "good" can’t ultimately be reduced to the sense in which objects and mental states and situations can be good.  I mean, maybe that’s the case -- maybe ultimately we <i>will</i> be able to define what it means to be a good person in terms of that person’s tendency to create good things and situations for himself and other people.  In other words, maybe what we mean by calling someone "a good person" is, very roughly speaking, "a person who creates a lot of good for the world."  We’ll examine such possibilities next time, when we talk about the theory of conduct.
> 
> But now just a little bit by way of introducing the theory of conduct is.  This is the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil.  If you would like a single question that might best encapsulate what the theory of conduct asks, I think the question would be this: How should I act, and why?  So the theory of conduct involves debates over what the ultimate standards of right and wrong are -- standards of morality, or moral rules, if you will.  One familiar moral rule is the so-called "Golden Rule": "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."  So next time we are going to look at some theories of conduct and see whether they actually can give us adequate standards of right action.
> 
> There is a fourth area is called <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>, and this is an area that we will not have time to discuss, although it’s very interesting.  Basically, it’s just as its name suggests: it is the application of ethical theories to particular ethical problems.  Actually, most of the ethical problems you’ll study if you study applied ethics are about ethical questions public policy implications.  Such as: Is getting an abortion ever moral?  Is euthanasia ever moral?  What are the ethical underpinnings of affirmative action policies?  And so forth.
> 
> But not <i>all</i> questions studied in applied ethics have immediate public policy implications.  For example, one such question is: What is lying and is lying always wrong?  If not, when is lying permissible?
> 
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
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Animalia|984348654
9c9
< Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged from the opisthokont flagellates, who also gave rise to fungi and choanoflagellates.  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  In these groups motile cells all have a single posterior flagellum.
---
> Animals are eukaryotes, and diverged from the same group of [[flagellate]] protozoa that gave rise to the [[fungi]] and [[choanoflagellates]].  The last are especially close relatives, with collared cells appearing only among them, the sponges, and rarely in certain other animal forms.  In all these groups motile cells have a single posterior flagellum with similar ultrastructure.
------
Animalia|984349571
15d14
< 
18,53d16
< '''Systematics'''
< 
< The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  
< 
< There are three problematic phyla - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]] - that have an unclear position with respect to other animals.  After these, all animals belong to a monophyletic group called the Metazoa, characterized by a digestive chamber and separate cell layers that differentiate into various tissues, including nerves and muscles.
< 
< The simplest Metazoa are radially symmetric and ''diploblastic'', that is, they have two germ layers.  The outer layer (ectoderm) corresponds to the surface of the blastula and the inner layer (endoderm) is formed by cells that migrate into the interior.  It then invaginates to form a digestive cavity with a single opening.  This form is called a ''gastrula'' or ''planula'' when it is free-swimming.  The [[Cnidaria]] (jellyfish, anenomes, corals, etc) are the main diploblastic phylum; the [[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies) may also belong here.
< 
< The remaining forms comprise a group called the Bilateria, since they are usually bilaterally symmetric, and are ''triploblastic''.  The blastula invaginates without filling in first, so the endoderm is simply its inner lining, and the interior then fills in to become a third layer (mesoderm) between the others.  Like tissues are grouped into organs.  The simplest of such animals are the [[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) which may be paraphyletic to the higher phyla.
< 
< The vast majority of the triploblastic phyla form a group called the Protostomia.  These forms have a one-way digestive cavity, with a second opening developing to pass waste through.  The mesoderm arises as in the flatworms, from a single cell, and then divides to form a mass on each side of the body.  Usually there is a hollow space around the gut, called the ''coelom'', arising from a split within the mesoderm, or at least some reduced version thereof (eg a pseudocoelom, where the split occurs between the mesoderm and endoderm, common in microscopic forms).
< 
< Some of the main protostome phyla are united by the presence of trocophore larva, which are distinguished by a special pattern of flagella, into a group called the Trochozoa.  These include:
< * Phylum [[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms)
< * Phylum [[Mollusca]] (snails, clams, squids, etc)
< * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
< * Phylum [[Echiura]]
< * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
< * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
< * Phylum [[Annelida]] (segmented worms)
< 
< Traditionally the [[Arthropoda]] - the largest animal phylum including insects, spiders, crabs, and kin - and two small phyla related thereto, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], have been held to be close relatives of the annelids on account of their common segmented body plan.  This relationship is now in doubt, and it appears that the arthropods may instead belong with various pseudocoelomate worms - the [[Nematoda]] (roundworms), [[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms), [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Loricifera]], and [[Priapulida]] - that share with them the characteristic of moulting.
< 
< There are various pseudocoelomate protostomes that are hard to classify because of their small size and reduced structure.  The [[Rotifera]] and [[Acanthocephala]] are closely related to each other and probably belong near the Trochozoa.  Other groups include the [[Gastrotricha]], [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Entoprocta]], and [[Cycliophora]].  The last was discovered only recently, and as little investigation has been done into the marine world more will probably turn up.
< 
< The [[Brachiopoda]] (lamp shells), [[Ectoprocta]] (=Bryozoa, moss animals), and [[Phoronida]] form a group called the Lophophorata, thanks to the shared presence of a fan of cilia around the mouth called the lophophore.  The evolutionary relationships of these forms are very unclear, and the group may belong among the Deuterostomes and is possibly paraphyletic.
< 
< The Deuterostomes differ from the Protostomes in various ways.  They also have a one-way digestive tract, but in this case the second opening is the mouth, so it goes the other way, and the mesoderm and coelom do not form in the same way, but rather through evagination of the endoderm called enterocoelic pouching.  And, finally, the embryonic cleavage is different.  All this suggests that the two lines are separate and monophyletic.  The Deuterostomes include:
< 
< * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
< * Phylum [[Echinodermata]] (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc)
< * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
< * Phylum [[Chordata]] (vertebrates and their kin)
< 
< There are also some extinct animal phyla that, not having knowledge of their embryology or structure, are very difficult to place.  These are mostly from the cambrian period, and include [[Archaeocyantha]] (possibly sponges), [[Conulariida]] (possibly cnidarians), and [[Conodonta]] (possibly chordates).
< 
56,58c19
< The Animalia were one of the kingdoms in Linnaeus' original scheme, and were divided into six classes: the [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then, the last five of these have all been grouped into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], and the various invertebrate groups separated out.
< 
< When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were placed as a phylum in this kingdom.  However, many of them show as many plant-like features as animal-like features, and on the whole they predate the animals evolutionarily; thus they were moved to a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], along with the [[alga]]e.
---
> In [[Carolus Linaeus|Linaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
60c21
< The list of animal phyla is mostly stable (the discovery of the [[Cycliophora]] a little while ago was a big thing), although the precise grouping into subkingdoms and superphyla is not.  A standard scheme is:
---
> When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were included as an animal phylum or subkingdom, but as they are generally unrelated and often as similar to plants as animals, a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], was devised to hold them.
64c25
<  Subkingdom Agnotozoa=Mesozoa
---
>  Subkingdom "Agnotozoa" ~ "Mesozoa"
68,69c29,30
<  Subkingdom Eumetazoa
<    Radiata
---
>  Subkingdom Metazoa
>    "Radiata"
74c35
<        Acoelomates
---
>        "Acoelomates"
77c38
<        Pseudocoelomates
---
>        "Pseudocoelomates"
89c50
<        Schizocoelomates
---
>        "Schizocoelomates"
107a69,101
> The sponges ([[Porifera]]) were separated from the other animals early on, and are very different.  Sponges are sessile and usually feed by drawing in water through pores all over the body, which is supported by a skeleton typically divided into spicules - the cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct groups.  
> 
> There are three problematic phyla - the [[Rhombozoa]], [[Orthonectida]], and [[Placozoa]] - that have an unclear position with respect to other animals.  After these, all animals belong to a monophyletic group called the Metazoa, characterized by a digestive chamber and separate cell layers that differentiate into various tissues, including nerves and muscles.
> 
> The simplest Metazoa are radially symmetric and ''diploblastic'', that is, they have two germ layers.  The outer layer (ectoderm) corresponds to the surface of the blastula and the inner layer (endoderm) is formed by cells that migrate into the interior.  It then invaginates to form a digestive cavity with a single opening.  This form is called a ''gastrula'' or ''planula'' when it is free-swimming.  The [[Cnidaria]] (jellyfish, anenomes, corals, etc) are the main diploblastic phylum; the [[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies) may also belong here.
> 
> The remaining forms comprise a group called the Bilateria, since they are usually bilaterally symmetric, and are ''triploblastic''.  The blastula invaginates without filling in first, so the endoderm is simply its inner lining, and the interior then fills in to become a third layer (mesoderm) between the others.  Like tissues are grouped into organs.  The simplest of such animals are the [[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms) which may be paraphyletic to the higher phyla.
> 
> The vast majority of the triploblastic phyla form a group called the Protostomia.  These forms have a one-way digestive cavity, with a second opening developing to pass waste through.  The mesoderm arises as in the flatworms, from a single cell, and then divides to form a mass on each side of the body.  Usually there is a hollow space around the gut, called the ''coelom'', arising from a split within the mesoderm, or at least some reduced version thereof (eg a pseudocoelom, where the split occurs between the mesoderm and endoderm, common in microscopic forms).
> 
> Some of the main protostome phyla are united by the presence of trocophore larva, which are distinguished by a special pattern of flagella, into a group called the Trochozoa.  These include:
> * Phylum [[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms)
> * Phylum [[Mollusca]] (snails, clams, squids, etc)
> * Phylum [[Sipuncula]]
> * Phylum [[Echiura]]
> * Phylum [[Pogonophora]]
> * Phylum [[Vestimentifera]]
> * Phylum [[Annelida]] (segmented worms)
> 
> Traditionally the [[Arthropoda]] - the largest animal phylum including insects, spiders, crabs, and kin - and two small phyla related thereto, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], have been held to be close relatives of the annelids on account of their common segmented body plan.  This relationship is now in doubt, and it appears that the arthropods may instead belong with various pseudocoelomate worms - the [[Nematoda]] (roundworms), [[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms), [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Loricifera]], and [[Priapulida]] - that share with them the characteristic of moulting.
> 
> There are various pseudocoelomate protostomes that are hard to classify because of their small size and reduced structure.  The [[Rotifera]] and [[Acanthocephala]] are closely related to each other and probably belong near the Trochozoa.  Other groups include the [[Gastrotricha]], [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Entoprocta]], and [[Cycliophora]].  The last was discovered only recently, and as little investigation has been done into the marine world more will probably turn up.
> 
> The [[Brachiopoda]] (lamp shells), [[Ectoprocta]] (=Bryozoa, moss animals), and [[Phoronida]] form a group called the Lophophorata, thanks to the shared presence of a fan of cilia around the mouth called the lophophore.  The evolutionary relationships of these forms are very unclear, and the group may belong among the Deuterostomes and is possibly paraphyletic.
> 
> The Deuterostomes differ from the Protostomes in various ways.  They also have a one-way digestive tract, but in this case the second opening is the mouth, so it goes the other way, and the mesoderm and coelom do not form in the same way, but rather through evagination of the endoderm called enterocoelic pouching.  And, finally, the embryonic cleavage is different.  All this suggests that the two lines are separate and monophyletic.  The Deuterostomes include:
> 
> * Phylum [[Chaetognatha]]
> * Phylum [[Echinodermata]] (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc)
> * Phylum [[Hemichordata]]
> * Phylum [[Chordata]] (vertebrates and their kin)
> 
> There are also some extinct animal phyla that, not having knowledge of their embryology or structure, are very difficult to place.  These are mostly from the cambrian period, and include [[Archaeocyantha]] (possibly sponges), [[Conulariida]] (possibly cnidarians), and [[Conodonta]] (possibly chordates).
------
Animalia|984349598
10c10
< 
---
> l
19c19
< In [[Carolus Linaeus|Linaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
---
> In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
------
WhyPhilosophize|984350201
1,43c1
< <The following is a portion of [[Larry's Text]], wikification is invited> 
< 
< I assume you’re signed up for this class because you want to learn about philosophy.  Whether or not that’s the case, the purpose of this class is to introduce you to philosophy.  And the purpose of this first chapter is to give you an idea of what philosophy is, and why anyone should want to study it.  I am going to assume that you have thought a little, but not a <i>lot</i>, about <i>some</i> philosophical topics.
< 
< I could, but will not, simply start by giving a definition of "philosophy."  It will be better instead to start by getting clear on what <i>motivates</i> someone to start doing this activity called "philosophizing" -- what motivates people to start thinking very deeply about life and the universe.  Only when you understand why people take up philosophy will you be able properly to understand what philosophy is.  So let me begin by explaining why people take up philosophy.
< 
< We find ourselves believing things that we don’t understand.  This is perhaps strange to say but it’s true.  There are all kinds of very basic beliefs we have, about God, ourselves, the natural world, human society, and human productions.  But all too often, we don’t understand <i>what</i> it is we believe, and we don’t understand <i>why</i> we believe it.  We have, as I will say, questions about <i>meaning</i> of our beliefs and questions about the <i>justification</i> or <i>rationality</i> of our beliefs.  And we don’t <i>like</i> not understanding.  Let me give you some examples.
< 
< If you are like most Americans then you grow up believing in some sort of God.  Most (but not all) of you would probably assent to the proposition, "God exists."  But how many of you know <i>exactly</i> what it is you mean by the word "God"?  Probably you’ve thought <i>some</i> about it: "Well," you tell yourself, "God is the creator of the universe, and he’s supposed to be all-powerful and all-knowing; and he’s supposed to be some sort of spiritual and personal being."  Suppose you believe all that.  So now are you <i>really</i> persuaded that you <i>know</i> what God is?  Aren’t there a lot of questions you’d have to have answered before you could say you know just exactly what God is?  For example, wouldn’t you have to know what it means for a <i>spiritual</i> being to create anything?  We have experience of bodies building houses and ships, but minds, as far as we know, create nothing but thoughts and decisions -- other mental things -- not <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i> like mountains, streams, and animals!  And wouldn’t you have to know what it <i>means</i> to say that God is all-powerful, or all-knowing?  Does that mean that God can create a rock he can’t lift?  Surely these aren’t simple questions.
< 
< Now these sorts of questions are only questions about what the proposition, "God exists," <i>means</i>.  But very many people don’t understand <i>why</i> they believe this.  They have been taught it; they assume it, and act as though it were true.  Some of you, those of you who <i>do</i> believe that God exists, of course <i>have</i> thought about why you believe this, and perhaps you have reasons, or explanations, such as the following.  I have a simple faith and that is enough; I firmly believe the Bible, my parents, and my clergyman when they all together affirm that God exists; I believe I have had an experience of, and felt the influence of, God in my life; I believe the universe could not have existed, especially not without the great variety of life we see around us, if God had not created and designed it; or perhaps you believe it for a combination of these reasons, or for other reasons.
< 
< But at least in certain moments, when we are being perfectly honest with ourselves, we realize, or most of us do, that we are not <i>quite</i> sure whether this belief in God is <i>perfectly</i> justified.  No doubt there are some sorts of people who are relatively unquestioning -- simple people, probably the salt of the earth and good folk -- and <i>those</i> people manage never, or hardly ever, to question their belief in the existence of God.  But if you’re in this class I think I can assume that you are not that sort of person.  At the very least, I think I can assume that you are interested in getting <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on why belief in God is, or perhaps is not, justified or rational.  You want to see the arguments on both sides.
< 
< When you start asking, "What is God?" and "Is belief in the existence of God rational?" and you’re uncomfortable because you’re not persuaded you know the answers, then you are motivated to do philosophy.  In particular, you are motivated to study one area of philosophy called "philosophy of religion," which we will spend some time studying this quarter.
< 
< Now let me give another example of discomforting puzzlement that might lead you to philosophy.  This time the puzzles are in ethics, the study of right and wrong.  Again, there are puzzles about both meaning <i>and</i> justification.  Do you know what you <i>mean</i> when you say that cheating is wrong?  Don’t simply say, "It’s something that’s bad -- that you shouldn’t do."  Obviously then you’ll have to answer, "What do you mean by ‘bad’ and by ‘should’?"  We use these sorts of words all the time, these and other evaluative words like "good," "bad," "pretty," "ugly," "useful," and "useless."
< 
< Here the questions of meaning and justification are inextricably bound together.  I can’t say <i>why</i> I think cheating is wrong until I know <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say it’s wrong; and very likely, once I have said what it means, I’ll know why I think it.  The same goes with many other moral questions, about killing and letting die, about personal responsibility, about sex, about choice of career, about a million other things we live with every day.  To know <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say they are right, or wrong, is to know <i>why</i> they are right, or wrong.
< 
< And of course nearly everyone finds themselves with beliefs about good and bad, right and wrong, the proper purpose or goal of a human life, and so on.  But hardly anyone really understands these beliefs or knows <i>why</i> they have them, or whether they are really rational to have them.
< 
< You <i>can</i>, and some people do, go through life without answering moral questions.  But I would go so far as to suggest that <i>because</i> some people have not thought certain moral questions through, they end up behaving immorally.  And then they use an easy sort of skepticism, or relativism, according to which each person invents his own morality, to justify whatever behavior he wants to get away with.  That is a profoundly anti-philosophical attitude.
< 
< And even if, as it probably the case with many of you, you believe yourself to be a generally good person but you also think that there is no objectively correct morality, you’re still stuck with a lot of puzzles.  For example, do you really think that if someone were to accuse you of being not just a bad person, but a <i>really</i> bad person -- an <i>evil</i> person -- that your accuser would simply be expressing his opinion, and that it is just true for him and not for you?  Isn’t there <i>some</i> sense in which he is incorrect, period?  Or consider the belief system of a typical Nazi-era German fascist, the sort of person who thought it was acceptable to kill millions of Jews just for being Jews: do you really think that those people <i>simply</i> had a different moral point of view from your own?  Isn’t there <i>some</i> sense in which those people were incorrect, period?
< 
< Questions about God and ethics are only the tip of the philosophical iceberg.  If you find yourself dissatisfied with your fundamental ignorance about God and ethics, believe me, there are <i>many</i> other things about this universe that you are also fundamentally ignorant about.  Philosophers are in the business of investigating <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of those things.  Even things that, perhaps, you had not thought to ask yourself about.
< 
< If you study philosophy very much you will soon discover <i>just</i> <i>how</i> <i>many</i> of your basic concepts you don’t understand.  For instance, do you know what it means to say that one thing <i>causes</i> another?  Do you know what rationality is?  Do you have a firm grasp on what space and time are?  Are you quite sure you know what you mean by the word "beauty"?  And so on, and on, and on.  The number of these most <i>basic</i> questions is breathtakingly huge.
< 
< And those are just the questions about meaning.  Then you have to consider all the questions about justification you might not have thought about.  Do you know why you think the sun will rise tomorrow?  Do you think you’re perfectly justified in believing this?  Perhaps, but try spelling out the reason.  You probably, if you’re like most people, think you have free will -- you’re not determined or fated to do what you do, you have the ability to choose freely.  But are you absolutely sure that this is correct?  We live, by all appearances, in a world governed by strict laws, that scientists describe.  Could your decisions be governed by the same sort of strict laws?  If you think not, then <i>why</i> not?  You probably think that the government should be doing some things and it shouldn’t be doing other things.  But why?  As a philosopher you will not simply list the things you think government should do; you will say <i>why</i> you thinks the government should do those things.  You will explain the purpose of <i>any</i> government, of having any official authority at all.
< 
< If you think carefully about this, you will find that your life is deeply informed by <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of basic assumptions you make.  If you made radically different assumptions, you just wouldn’t be able to go on thinking and living as you have been.  That’s one reason why some people are scared, or angered, by philosophical questions.  These questions are <i>powerful</i>, precisely in the following sense: if you change your mind about one of these really fundamental questions, then you might have to change how you think about the world, and even how you live.  You might have change religions or become entirely unreligious; you might have to act entirely different in order to conform with new ideas of morality you have; you might have to think much more carefully, and rationally, in order to live up to new standards of justified belief you accept; and those are just <i>some</i> of the more dramatic changes.  Other, more subtle effects are too numerous to mention.
< 
< After all that you should understand pretty well, I think, the basic impulses that lead someone to start philosophizing.  So let me list the main points I’ve made so far.
< 
< (1) We find ourselves with some basic, important beliefs, for example about God and morality.
< 
< (2) There are two sources of puzzlement, or discomforting ignorance, that leads people to philosophize about these beliefs: first, not knowing the <i>meaning</i> of the beliefs; and second, not knowing whether the beliefs are really <i>justified</i> or <i>rational</i>.
< 
< (3) No doubt people exist who lack almost all such puzzlement, but even <i>their</i> lives are deeply shaped and informed by their beliefs.
< 
< (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they don’t <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
---
> #REDIRECT [[The motivation to philosophize]]
------
Philosophy|984350236
7c7
< WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
---
> [[the motivation to philosophize]] -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
------
Larrys_Text|984350347
7c7
< ::WhyPhilosophize -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
---
> ::[[The motivation to philosophize]] -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
------
The_motivation_to_philosophize|984350369
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What <i>motivates</i> someone to start doing this activity called "philosophizing"?  What motivates people to start thinking very deeply about life and the universe?  It seems that only when one understands why people take up philosophy can one properly understand what philosophy is.
> 
> We find ourselves believing things that we do not understand.  This is perhaps strange to say, but it is true.  There are many very basic beliefs we have, about [[God]], ourselves, the natural world, human [[society]], and human productions.  But all too often, we fail to understand <i>what</i> it is we believe, and we fail to understand <i>why</i> we believe it.  We have questions about <i>meaning</i> of our beliefs and questions about the <i>justification</i> (or <i>rationality</i>) of our beliefs.  And we--many of us--<i>dislike</i> not understanding.
> 
> Consider some examples.
> 
> '''The belief in God'''
> 
> Very many people grow up being taught to believe that [[God]] (some God) exists.  But how many people know <i>exactly</i> what it is they mean by the word "God"?  Probably they have thought <i>some</i> about it: "Well," they tell themselves, "God is the creator of the universe, and he’s supposed to be all-powerful and all-knowing; and he’s supposed to be some sort of spiritual and personal being."  But is that an adequate account of what God is?  Are there not many questions one would have to have answered before one could say one knew just exactly what God is?  For example, surely one would have to know what it means for a <i>[[spirit]]ual</i> being to create anything.  We have experience of bodies building houses and ships, but [[mind]]s, as far as we know, create nothing but thoughts and decisions--other mental things--not <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i> like mountains, streams, and animals!  And, surely, one would have to know what it <i>means</i> to say that God is [[omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[omniscience|all-knowing]].  Does that mean that God can create a rock he cannot lift?  Surely these are difficult questions.
> 
> These sorts of questions are only questions about what the proposition, "God exists," <i>means</i>.  But very many people do not really understand <i>why</i> they believe this.  They have been taught it; they assume it and act as though it were true.  Of course, many who believe that God exists <i>have</i> thought about why they believe it, and perhaps they have reasons, or explanations, such as the following:
> 
> *I have a simple faith and that is enough.
> *I firmly believe the Bible, my family and society, and my clergyman when they all together affirm that God exists.
> *I believe I have had an experience of, and felt the influence of, God in my life.
> *I believe the universe could not have existed, especially not without the great variety of life we see around us, if God had not created and designed it.
> 
> But at least in certain moments, when they are being perfectly honest with ourselves, many believers realize that they are not <i>quite</i> sure whether this belief in God is <i>perfectly</i> justified.  No doubt there are some sorts of people who are relatively unquestioning and <i>those</i> people manage never, or hardly ever, to question their belief in the existence of God.  But some others, who have an impulse to philosophize, want to get <i>very clear</i> on why belief in God is, or perhaps is not, justified or rational.  They want to see the arguments on both sides.
> 
> When one starts asking, "What is God?" and "Is belief in the existence of God rational?" and one is uncomfortable because one is not persuaded one knows the answers, then one is motivated to do philosophy.  In particular, one is motivated to study an area of philosophy called [[philosophy of religion]].''
> 
> '''What is morality?'''
> 
> Here is another example of discomforting puzzlement that might lead one to philosophy.  This time the puzzles are in [[ethics]], the study of right and wrong.  Again, there are puzzles about both meaning <i>and</i> justification.  What does it <i>mean</i> to say that cheating is wrong?  One shouldn't simply say, "It's something that's bad--that you shouldn't do."  Obviously then one will have to answer, "What do 'bad' and 'should' mean?"  We use these sorts of words all the time, these and other evaluative words like "good," "bad," "pretty," "ugly," "useful," and "useless."
> 
> Here the questions of meaning and justification are inextricably bound together.  It seems one cannot say <i>why</i> one thinks cheating is wrong until one knows <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say it is wrong; and very likely, once one has said what it means, one will know why.  The situation is the same with many other moral questions, about killing and letting die, about personal responsibility, about sex, about choice of career, about a million other things we live with every day.  To know <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>means</i> to say an action is right, or wrong, is to know <i>why</i> it is right, or wrong.
> 
> Of course, nearly everyone finds themselves with beliefs about good and bad, right and wrong, the proper purpose or goal of a human life, and so on.  But hardly anyone really understands these beliefs or knows <i>why</i> they have them or whether they are really rational to have them.
> 
> One <i>can</i>, and some people do, go through life without answering moral questions.  Perhaps, at least in part, it is <i>because</i> some people have not thought certain moral questions through that they end up behaving immorally.  It is possible to use an easy sort of [[moral skepticism|skepticism]], or [[moral relativism|relativism], according to which each person can disregard morality or invent his own and thus justify whatever behavior one wants to get away with.  That is (or can be) a profoundly anti-philosophical attitude.
> 
> Even if, as is the case with very many people, one wishes to be a generally good person but one also thinks that there is no objectively correct morality, one is still stuck with a lot of puzzles.  For example, if one is accused of being not just a bad person, but a <i>really</i> bad person--an <i>[[concept of evil|evil]]</i> person--then that person's accuser would be sympathetically viewed as just expressing an opinion, that this opinion is true for the accuser and not for the accused?  It seems, to many at least, that there is <i>some</i> sense in which the accuser is incorrect, period?  Consider the belief system of a typical [[Nazi]]-era German [[Fascism|fascist]], the sort of person who thought it was acceptable to kill millions of Jews just for being Jews: did those people <i>simply</i> have a different moral point of view from more tolerant, humane, contemporary points of view?  Is there not <i>some</i> sense in which the Nazis were simply incorrect?
> 
> '''The multiplicity of [[philosophical questions]]'''
> 
> Questions about [[God]] and [[ethics]] are only the tip of the philosophical iceberg.  There are <i>many</i> other things about this universe about which we are, most of us, also fundamentally ignorant.  Philosophers are in the business of investigating <i>all sorts</i> of those areas of our ignorance.
> 
> A bewilderingly huge number of basic [[concept]]s are poorly understood.  What does it mean to say that one thing <i>[[causality|causes]]</i> another?  What is [[rationality]]?  What are [[space]] and [[time]] are?  What is [[beauty]], and if it is in the eye of the beholder, then ''what is it'' that is being said to be in the eye of the beholder?  And so on.  The number of these most <i>basic</i> questions is huge.
> 
> Those are just the questions about [[meaning]].  One might also consider some of the many questions about [[epistemic justification|justification]].  Why think the sun will rise tomorrow?  Surely we are justified in believing this, but why?  Most people believe they have [[free will]].  They are not [[determinism|determined]] or [[fate|fated]] to do what they do; they have the ability to choose freely.  But is this certainly true?  We live, by all appearances, in a world governed by strict [[law of nature|law]s that scientists describe.  Could our [[decision]]s be governed by the same sort of strict laws?  If you think not, then <i>why</i> not?  Surely, the [[government]] should be doing some things and it should not be doing other things.  But why?  As a philosopher, one does not simply list the things you think government should do; one says <i>why</i> one thinks the government should do those things.  One explains the purpose of <i>any</i> government, of having any official [[authority]] at all.
> 
> Our lives are deeply informed by <i>all</i> <i>sorts</i> of basic assumptions.  If one made radically different assumptions, one just would not be able to go on thinking and living as one had been.  That is surely a reason why some people are scared, or angered, by philosophical questions.  These questions are <i>powerful</i>: if one changes one's mind about a really fundamental question, then one might have to change how one thinks about the world, and even how one lives.  One might have change religions or become entirely unreligious; one might have to act entirely differently in order to conform with new ideas of morality you have; one might have to think much more carefully, and rationally, in order to live up to new standards of justified belief you accept; and those are just <i>some</i> of the more dramatic changes.  Other, more subtle effects are too numerous to mention.
> 
> '''Summary'''
> 
> (1) We find ourselves with some basic, important beliefs, for example about God and morality.
> 
> (2) There are two sources of puzzlement, or discomforting ignorance, that leads people to philosophize about these beliefs: first, not knowing the <i>meaning</i> of the beliefs; and second, not knowing whether the beliefs are really <i>justified</i> or <i>rational</i>.
> 
> (3) No doubt people exist who lack almost all such puzzlement, but even <i>their</i> lives are deeply shaped and informed by their beliefs.
> 
> (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they do not <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Larrys_Text|984350513
1,3c1
< This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., PhilosophyOfScience and AestheticS are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for [[Wikipedia]].  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
< 
< See all [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?search=LarrysText these pages] to search for all current pages that mention 'LarrysText'.
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., [[philosophy of science]] and [[aesthetics]] are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for [[Wikipedia]].  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
21c19
< ::EthIcs -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
---
> ::[[Ethics]] -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
------
Philosophy|984350838
4,5d3
< [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of LarrysText to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
< 
23c21
< Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others contribute and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
---
> Are you a philosopher or do you know a thing or two about philosophy?  Then add a topic to those listed and give us what you know about the concepts, theories, people, movements, etc., of philosophy.  It's no big deal: dash off a paragraph or two and watch others edit and expand what you've done.  You can edit the above articles, too.
25c23
< I've added several suggested topics.  At your leisure you might start articles on any or all of the above.  Nearly every trained philosopher, and plenty of untrained ones, have ''something'' reasonably useful and accurate to say about many of these topics!
---
> [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of LarrysText to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
------
Philosophy|984350854
23c23
< [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of LarrysText to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
---
> [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of [[Larrys Text]] to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
------
Animalia|984350993
10c10
< l
---
> 
13c13
< What makes animals different?  The answer lies in the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being simply stuck together or held in place by thick walls, animal cells are linked by septate junctions, composed mainly of elastic proteins - collagen is characteristic - that make up the extracellular matrix.  Sometimes this is calcified to form shells, bones, or spicules, but otherwise it's fairly flexible and can serve as a framework, upon which cells can move about and be reorganized.
---
> What makes animals different?  The answer lies in the way the cells are held together.  Instead of being simply stuck together or held in place by thick walls, animal cells are linked by septate junctions, composed mainly of elastic proteins - [[collagen]] is characteristic - that make up the extracellular matrix.  Sometimes this is calcified to form shells, bones, or spicules, but otherwise it's fairly flexible and can serve as a framework, upon which cells can move about and be reorganized.
19,21c19
< In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.
< 
< When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were included as an animal phylum or subkingdom, but as they are generally unrelated and often as similar to plants as animals, a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], was devised to hold them.
---
> In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.  When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were included as an animal phylum or subkingdom, but as they are generally unrelated and often as similar to plants as animals, a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], was devised to hold them.
101c99
< There are also some extinct animal phyla that, not having knowledge of their embryology or structure, are very difficult to place.  These are mostly from the cambrian period, and include [[Archaeocyantha]] (possibly sponges), [[Conulariida]] (possibly cnidarians), and [[Conodonta]] (possibly chordates).
---
> There are also some extinct animal phyla that, not having knowledge of their embryology or structure, are very difficult to place.  These are mostly from the cambrian period, and include [[Archaeocyantha]] (possibly sponges), [[Conulariida]] (possibly cnidarians), and [[Conodonta]] (possibly chordates).
------
Wikipedia|984351567
5,6d4
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
< 
7a6,9
> 
> You might be wondering: [[why Wikipedia is so great|just why is Wikipedia so great, anyway]]?
> 
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
------
Lawyer|984351597
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also, [[Attorney]]:  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
> 
> A graduate of a recognized university who holds the degree of JD may hold himself out the public as a lawyer and may style himself e.g. "Joe Smith, Esq." but may not engage in the business of advising multiple clients or representing them in court for pay without licensing for this purpose by the affected jurisdiction.
> 
> Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present at any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.
> 
> Some states have recognized and admitted to the practice of law any person who can pass the Bar Exam, regardless of education.  Some jurisdictions allow any individual to represent themselves or to represent another "in [[Proper Person]]," with the express permission of the court, for no pay, and only for the case in question.  That is, the individual appearing in proper person must not in any case or at any time be a lawyer for hire without a license.
> 
> In Great Britain, there are generally two kinds of lawyers - [[Solicitor]] and [[Barrister]].  Solicitors may practice before lower courts, and Barristers may practice before lower, superior and high courts.
------
Literary_Art|984351802
1c1
< LiteraTure -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
---
> [[Literature]] -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
------
Literary_Art|984351850
1c1
< [[Literature]] -- PoetrY -- [[Drama]] (see also TheaTer) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
---
> [[Literature]] -- [[Poetry]] -- [[Drama]] (see also [[Theater]]) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
------
Lawyer|984352131
1c1
< Also, [[Attorney]]:  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
---
> Also, [[Attorney]], [[Barrister]] (in the [[United Kingdom]]:  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
9c9
< In Great Britain, there are generally two kinds of lawyers - [[Solicitor]] and [[Barrister]].  Solicitors may practice before lower courts, and Barristers may practice before lower, superior and high courts.
---
> In Great Britain, there are generally two kinds of lawyers - [[Solicitor]] and [[Barrister]].  Solicitors may practice before lower courts, and Barristers may practice before lower, superior and high courts.
------
Lawyer|984352160
1c1
< Also, [[Attorney]], [[Barrister]] (in the [[United Kingdom]]:  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
---
> Also, [[Attorney]], [[Barrister]] (in the [[United Kingdom]]):  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
------
Tort|984352427
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A legal cause of action based in wrongful conduct resulting in injury or other damages, but not arising out of contract.  Torts are legally compensible, preventable or remediable by payment of money damages, amendatory or compensatory action, or by the imposition of specific behavior or retraint from same as ordered by [[injunction]] of a court.
> 
> There ar both civil and criminal torts.  A civil tort is conceived to have occurred when a wrongful act which is not specifically prohibited by criminal law damages a private individual.  If the party acting wrongfully intended for the damage to follow the act, it is called an intentional tort.  Otherwise, it is an ordinary, unintentional, or negligent tort.  This distinction is important because a number of types of insurance will not indemnify an insured for an intentional tort.  A criminal tort involves harm or damage stemming from a violation of criminal law and may damage a private individual or the state.
------
Tort|984352447
3c3
< There ar both civil and criminal torts.  A civil tort is conceived to have occurred when a wrongful act which is not specifically prohibited by criminal law damages a private individual.  If the party acting wrongfully intended for the damage to follow the act, it is called an intentional tort.  Otherwise, it is an ordinary, unintentional, or negligent tort.  This distinction is important because a number of types of insurance will not indemnify an insured for an intentional tort.  A criminal tort involves harm or damage stemming from a violation of criminal law and may damage a private individual or the state.
---
> There are both civil and criminal torts.  A civil tort is conceived to have occurred when a wrongful act which is not specifically prohibited by criminal law damages a private individual.  If the party acting wrongfully intended for the damage to follow the act, it is called an intentional tort.  Otherwise, it is an ordinary, unintentional, or negligent tort.  This distinction is important because a number of types of insurance will not indemnify an insured for an intentional tort.  A criminal tort involves harm or damage stemming from a violation of criminal law and may damage a private individual or the state.
------
Lawyer|984352816
5c5,7
< Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present at any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.
---
> Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted to the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar exam and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.
> 
> Paradoxically, some jurisdictions will allow a non-lawyer to sit as a judge, espcecially in lower courts, even though a non-lawyer may not practice before these same courts.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|984352988
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As you read and idly edit Wikipedia, sooner or later you're bound to ask yourself: "Just why is Wikipedia so great?  What accounts for its overwhelming splendidness?"  For your convenience, we have explained this for you on this page.
> 
> * Wikipedia articles are extremely easy to edit.  Anyone can click the "edit" link and edit an article.  Peer review per se is not necessary and is actually a bit of a pain to deal with.  We prefer that people just go in and make changes they deem necessary.  This is very efficient; our efforts seem more <i>constructive</i> than those on similar projects (not to mention any names).
> 
> * Wikipedia has almost no bureaucracy; one might say it has none at all.  But it isn't just the "Wild West."  There are social pressures and community norms, but perhaps that by itself doesn't constitute bureaucracy, because anybody ''can'' just go in and make any changes they feel like making.  And other people generally like it when they do.  So there aren't bottlenecks; anyone can come in and make progress on the project at any time.  The project is self-policing.  Editorial oversight is more or less continuous with writing, which seems, again, very efficient.  :-)
> 
> * Articles seem to be getting steadily more polished.  Articles seem to have a tendency to get gradually better and better, particularly if there is one person working on an article with reasonable regularity (in that case, others have a tendency to help).  There are some articles we can all point to that started out life mediocre at best and are now at least somewhat better than mediocre.  Now suppose this project lasts for many years and attracts many more people, as seems perfectly reasonable to assume.  Then how could articles ''not'' be burnished into a scintillating luster?
> 
> * Wikipedia is open content, released under the GNU's Free Documentation License.  Knowing this encourages people to contribute; they know it's a public project that everyone can use.
> 
> * Wikipedia is growing at a dizzying rate.  Wikipedia produces articles at about 1,200 per month (at present; if you count only "substantial" articles, it seems to be more like 600-800 per month).  And the word (as of March 11) still hasn't gotten out that widely about Wikipedia.
> 
> * Our likelihood of success seems alarmingly high.  The probability of our getting 10,000 articles is nearly 100%, regardless of whatever else we do.  Depending on the level of resources that end up getting committed to Wikipedia, the probability of our getting 100,000 articles is definitely not out of the question (in the opinion of [[Larry Sanger]]), but very much over 50% seems hard to say.  But to be completely honest, it's also far from impossible that we could have 1,000,000 articles someday; there are, surely, 1,000,000 topics of discussion in existence, and if Wikipedia hits it big, which it might, then they might all be covered...eventually.  It also seems rather likely that there will always be a lot of mediocre stuff.  But it's possible--how likely we'd be able to tell after more months of experience--that articles would just gradually improve until they were polished to a Nupedia polish.  I think we've already seen instances of this (see above).
> 
> * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
------
Common_law|984353992
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The law developed in historical England mainly from judicial decisions which were based in tradition, custom and precedent.  It may be written or unwritten in statutes or codes.  It constitues the basis of the English legal system and of the systems in all of the U.S. except Louisiana, which employs a system of law referred to as [[Napoleonic Code]], in which the law is extremely detailed and codified in every respect.
> 
> Statutes which reflect English common law are understood to always be interpreted in light of the common law tradition, and so may leave a number of things unsaid because they are already understood from pre-existing case law and custom.
> 
> By contrast, some laws are purely statutory, and may create a [[tort]] which is called a "creature of statute."  An example of this would be the tort of [[Wrongful Death]].  There is no such tort in English common law, and so states which do not have a wrongful death statute do not recognize the ability of a survivor to sue someone who wrongfully caused the death of a loved one.  Where a wrongful death statute exists, the damages or compensation available under same are only those specifically enumerated in the statute itself.  As there is no custom or common law for wrongful death in which other damages may lie, the statute must be construed very narrowly. 
> 
> Where a tort is grounded in common law, then all damages traditionally recognized historically for that tort may be sued for, whether mentioned in current statutory law or not.  For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for a variety of damages according to proof including medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and/or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement, and more.  These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984355744
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]].
> 
> ----
> 
> ''The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS''
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984355931
5c5
< ''The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS''
---
> ''The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties (listed on [[requested articles]] to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS''
------
HomePage|984355970
17c17
< Want to learn about something?  Add the topic to our list of RequestedArticles.
---
> Want to learn about something?  Add the topic to our list of [[requested articles]].
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements|984356034
1,27c1
< Got an announcement?  So, make it!
< 
< '''March 7, 2001'''
< 
< We've broken 2,000 articles!  As of this writing, we have 2,144 individual pages.  This enormous jump in production is due to the massive influx of people from the Slashdot.org mention of Wikipedia--contrary to fears, people who seem to understand what's going on here very well and are (it seems) rapidly getting addicted.  :-)
< 
< As impressive as the 2,000 mark sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,323.  Still very impressive.
< 
< [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] and no doubt some others think Wikipedia's going to be huge.
< 
< '''March 6, 2001'''
< 
< Jimbo was wrong!  We have had a massive influx of people writing a lot of interesting, good articles.  Nothing to fear, it seems!  March 5 really was a sort of banner day--probably set a record in terms of number of edits and number of new articles.
< 
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
< 
< '''March 5, 2001'''
< 
< The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot.org, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< '''March 3, 2001'''
< 
< The [[how does one edit a page]] page has been given a thorough overhaul.  Wiki experts, please help edit ''that'' page!
< 
< '''News archive'''
< <br>/February2001
< <br>/January2001
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Announcements]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|984356059
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Got an announcement?  So, make it!
> 
> '''March 7, 2001'''
> 
> We've broken 2,000 articles!  As of this writing, we have 2,144 individual pages.  This enormous jump in production is due to the massive influx of people from the Slashdot.org mention of Wikipedia--contrary to fears, people who seem to understand what's going on here very well and are (it seems) rapidly getting addicted.  :-)
> 
> As impressive as the 2,000 mark sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,323.  Still very impressive.
> 
> [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] and no doubt some others think Wikipedia's going to be huge.
> 
> '''March 6, 2001'''
> 
> Jimbo was wrong!  We have had a massive influx of people writing a lot of interesting, good articles.  Nothing to fear, it seems!  March 5 really was a sort of banner day--probably set a record in terms of number of edits and number of new articles.
> 
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
> 
> '''March 5, 2001'''
> 
> The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot.org, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> '''March 3, 2001'''
> 
> The [[how does one edit a page]] page has been given a thorough overhaul.  Wiki experts, please help edit ''that'' page!
> 
> '''News archive'''
> <br>/February2001
> <br>/January2001
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements/February2001|984356106
1,48c1
< 
< '''February 28, 2001'''
< 
< [[Jimbo Wales]] is being interviewed by Slashdot, and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  He mentioned Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.  If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
< 
< Notice, we've added a little something to the top of the page: "Get involved! Wikipedia is a free community project!"  And also another "Edit text of this page" link, now at the top of the page.  We're hoping to make it clear to visitors unfamiliar with the wiki concept (which is most of them) that this is a community-edited project.
< 
< '''February 19, 2001'''
< 
< We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.  This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
< 
< Also -- Google has found us!  Only a few hits so far..
< 
< '''February 12, 2001'''
< 
< I think we are over 1000 pages now.  If we create 1000 pages a month, we will be able to hit 100,000 pages in only 8 years.  However, I think that as we grow, we will attract more people to work on the pages, and we'll end up growing faster and faster.
< 
< So far, the search engines have not found us. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ''' February 8, 2001'''
< 
< We're up to 900 pages as of this morning!
< 
< There are whispers that the newest version of the software that runs [[Wikipedia]] will soon arrive.  This means no longer will we have to indicate links LikeThis.
< 
< Bomis.com has put up a link to Wikipedia, Nupedia.com has taken theirs down (from the main page) but put up a new one in [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/member.phtml the member area] which supplements the one already on [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml the about page].
< 
< ''' February 6, 2001'''
< 
< Inspired by [[Wikipedia]], I started an similar project for my local Esperanto group.  It uses real html.
< 
< If you are interested in or if you have any suggestions, just give me a hint! -- norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
< 
< ''Please post the address of your wiki, please!''
< 
< ''' February 5, 2001'''
< 
< TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
< 
< We've added some RulesToConsider for you to consider, sign, modify, and add to.  But those of you who don't like rules can go about your business.  Ain't wiki great?  :-)
< 
< '''February 1, 2001'''
< 
< TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
< 
< I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. 
< 
< I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Announcements/February 2001]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements/February_2001|984356181
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''February 28, 2001'''
> 
> [[Jimbo Wales]] is being interviewed by Slashdot, and the interview may appear tomorrow (Thursday) morning.  He mentioned Wikipedia in the interview, and we may experience a substantial surge in traffic.  Based on what has happened to other wikis mentioned on slashdot, we might expect to see some vandalism.  If all the active participants could log in a bit more often tomorrow to keep an eye on things, that would be great.
> 
> Notice, we've added a little something to the top of the page: "Get involved! Wikipedia is a free community project!"  And also another "Edit text of this page" link, now at the top of the page.  We're hoping to make it clear to visitors unfamiliar with the wiki concept (which is most of them) that this is a community-edited project.
> 
> '''February 19, 2001'''
> 
> We have now upgraded to version 0.91 of the UseModWiki Wiki software.  This will allow us to have [[Free Links]]!
> 
> Also -- Google has found us!  Only a few hits so far..
> 
> '''February 12, 2001'''
> 
> I think we are over 1000 pages now.  If we create 1000 pages a month, we will be able to hit 100,000 pages in only 8 years.  However, I think that as we grow, we will attract more people to work on the pages, and we'll end up growing faster and faster.
> 
> So far, the search engines have not found us. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ''' February 8, 2001'''
> 
> We're up to 900 pages as of this morning!
> 
> There are whispers that the newest version of the software that runs [[Wikipedia]] will soon arrive.  This means no longer will we have to indicate links LikeThis.
> 
> Bomis.com has put up a link to Wikipedia, Nupedia.com has taken theirs down (from the main page) but put up a new one in [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/member.phtml the member area] which supplements the one already on [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml the about page].
> 
> ''' February 6, 2001'''
> 
> Inspired by [[Wikipedia]], I started an similar project for my local Esperanto group.  It uses real html.
> 
> If you are interested in or if you have any suggestions, just give me a hint! -- norman.werner@student.uni-magdeburg.de
> 
> ''Please post the address of your wiki, please!''
> 
> ''' February 5, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
> 
> We've added some RulesToConsider for you to consider, sign, modify, and add to.  But those of you who don't like rules can go about your business.  Ain't wiki great?  :-)
> 
> '''February 1, 2001'''
> 
> TimShell found this cool image file: http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
> 
> I uploaded it to the server.  I suspect we should resave it as a different file type. 
> 
> I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
WikiPediaAnnouncements/January2001|984356238
1,33c1
< '''January 31, 2001'''
< 
< I am adding a page called NobelPrize, where we can list all the winners by category, and eventually fill in with short biographies.
< 
< We're up to 617 pages.  Very many of these have substantial and what appears to be reliable information.  I predict 1,000 by February 15.  [[Wikipedia]] is growing steadily in breadth and depth.
< 
< '''January 27, 2001'''
< 
< Some interesting activity has been happening on WikipediaL lately.  RequestedArticles page added.
< 
< '''January 26, 2001'''
< 
< Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, WhichWikiShouldWeUse, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
< 
< '''January 25, 2001'''
< 
< Since this wiki first started, January 10, 2001, we have made 270 pages!  Wow!
< 
< PootPoot.
< 
< '''January 24, 2001'''
< 
< [[Wikipedia]] has definitely taken a life of its own; new people are arriving every day and the project seems to be getting only more popular.  Long live [[Wikipedia]]!
< 
< '''January 22, 2001'''
< 
< GNU people are using [[Wikipedia]] to discuss their stuff, which is very cool.  Go to GNUStufF to partake.
< 
< '''January 21, 2001'''
< 
< Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
< 
< ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Announcements/January 2001]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements/January_2001|984356282
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''January 31, 2001'''
> 
> I am adding a page called NobelPrize, where we can list all the winners by category, and eventually fill in with short biographies.
> 
> We're up to 617 pages.  Very many of these have substantial and what appears to be reliable information.  I predict 1,000 by February 15.  [[Wikipedia]] is growing steadily in breadth and depth.
> 
> '''January 27, 2001'''
> 
> Some interesting activity has been happening on WikipediaL lately.  RequestedArticles page added.
> 
> '''January 26, 2001'''
> 
> Exciting developments are happening on the BritannicaPublicDomain, WhichWikiShouldWeUse, and BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense pages.
> 
> '''January 25, 2001'''
> 
> Since this wiki first started, January 10, 2001, we have made 270 pages!  Wow!
> 
> PootPoot.
> 
> '''January 24, 2001'''
> 
> [[Wikipedia]] has definitely taken a life of its own; new people are arriving every day and the project seems to be getting only more popular.  Long live [[Wikipedia]]!
> 
> '''January 22, 2001'''
> 
> GNU people are using [[Wikipedia]] to discuss their stuff, which is very cool.  Go to GNUStufF to partake.
> 
> '''January 21, 2001'''
> 
> Wikipedia-L (see WikipediaL), a new mailing list for Wikipedia, now exists!
> 
> ''On January 15, 2001, Wikipedia.com "went public."  An earlier version existed briefly on Nupedia.com from Jan. 10-15.''
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984356316
5c5,6
< ''The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties (listed on [[requested articles]] to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS''
---
> The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties (listed on [[requested articles]]) to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this 
> [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|984356350
26,27c26,27
< <br>/February2001
< <br>/January2001
---
> <br>[[/February 2001]]
> <br>[[/January 2001]]
------
HomePage|984356403
27c27
< '''Read WikiPediaAnnouncements to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
---
> '''Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
------
GNUFreeDocumentationLicense|984356632
1c1
< The [[GNU]] FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for OpenContent. The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984356708
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct at that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire.  According to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] this is because Lillian is incapable of experiencing value in herself and can therefore never respond sexually when she experiences value in others.  She tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
------
GNU_Free_Documentation_License|984356710
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[GNU]] FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for [[open content]].  The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].  Cf. the GPL (General Public License) for software.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984356723
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct at that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire.  According to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] this is because Lillian is incapable of experiencing value in herself and can therefore never respond sexually when she experiences value in others.  She tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire.  According to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] this is because Lillian is incapable of experiencing value in herself and can therefore never respond sexually when she experiences value in others.  She tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
------
HomePage|984356803
35c35
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
37c37
< If you are interested in the general concept of HomePage, look here: HomePageDefinition.
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
------
HomePageDefinition|984356839
1c1
< A concept that came to life with the WorldWideWeb, a "Home Page" is the starting point, or root, of a group of pages belonging to the same person, group, business or any other organization. The Home Page usually includes basic information on the theme of the whole WebSite, and links to other related pages. An example of this is the [[Wikipedia]] HomePage.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Homepage definition]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984356885
5c5,7
< Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire.  According to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] this is because Lillian is incapable of experiencing value in herself and can therefore never respond sexually when she experiences value in others.  She tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority.  However, according to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experiencing value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others.
> 
> Lillian tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984356928
5c5
< Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority.  However, according to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experiencing value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others.
---
> Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|Theory of sex]].  She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness.  She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority.  However, according to the [[/Theory of Sex|theory of sex]] Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Lillian_Rearden|984356950
7c7
< Lillian tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his briye instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
---
> Lillian tolerates sex with her [[/Hank Rearden|husband]] only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts.  In [[/Section161|Section161]] she indicates that she abhors [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], because she believes he is a sexual adventurer.
------
Internet|984356955
7c7
< * [[World Wide Web]] -- [[Websites]]
---
> * [[World Wide Web]] -- [[website]]s
------
Homepage_definition|984356990
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A concept that came to life with the [[World Wide Web]], a ''home page'' (or ''homepage'') is the starting point, or root, of a group of pages belonging to the same person, group, business or any other organization.  The home page usually includes basic information on the theme of the whole [[website]], and links to other related pages.  An example of this is the [[Wikipedia]] HomePage.
------
NewTopics|984357158
1,21c1
< You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
< 
< Here are a few more new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in: 
< 
< AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS -- CorinneLightweaver -- [[Watermark]] --
< [[Vector Space]] -- [[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Seal]] -- [[World War I]] -- JavaJini --
< [[Classics]] -- [[Terrestrial planets]] -- [[Sri Lanka]] -- [[Play]] -- [[Walt Disney]] -- [[Indian Music]]
< 
< ----
< It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
< * Newly created within the past week, and...
< * Contains at least 1k worth of text (a dozen lines or so, not just a "stub" entry), and...
< * Has fewer than 12 total edits (else it's already popular, and not really "new")
< -- Bryce
< ----
< Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
< ----
< What you really want is a "Recent Changes" page reformatted in a slightly different way.  All the information you specified is already present in Recent Changes, just perhaps not formatted in the way you like.  The point about fewer than 12 total edits may be a bit misguided though - formatting on the Wiki is not as intuitive as we might like to think, sometimes it takes 4-5 "edits" just to get it right for the first time.  You may want to say something like "4 or more edits by different people" or something like that.
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[New topics]]
------
New_topics|984357252
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
> 
> Here are a few more new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in: 
> 
> AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS -- CorinneLightweaver -- [[Watermark]] --
> [[Vector Space]] -- [[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Seal]] -- [[World War I]] -- JavaJini --
> [[Classics]] -- [[Terrestrial planets]] -- [[Sri Lanka]] -- [[Play]] -- [[Walt Disney]] -- [[Indian Music]]
> 
> ----
> It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
> * Newly created within the past week, and...
> * Contains at least 1k worth of text (a dozen lines or so, not just a "stub" entry), and...
> * Has fewer than 12 total edits (else it's already popular, and not really "new")
> -- Bryce
> ----
> Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
> ----
> What you really want is a "Recent Changes" page reformatted in a slightly different way.  All the information you specified is already present in Recent Changes, just perhaps not formatted in the way you like.  The point about fewer than 12 total edits may be a bit misguided though - formatting on the Wiki is not as intuitive as we might like to think, sometimes it takes 4-5 "edits" just to get it right for the first time.  You may want to say something like "4 or more edits by different people" or something like that.
> ----
> The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about "recent changes."  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page (of course).  It sure would be nice, anyway!
------
HomePage|984357298
23c23
< * What are your NewTopics?
---
> * What are your [[new topics]]?
25,27c25
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]].
< 
< '''Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments!'''
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]].  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
------
New_topics|984357446
1,2d0
< You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
< 
17a16,17
> You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
> ----
20c20
< The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about "recent changes."  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page (of course).  It sure would be nice, anyway!
---
> The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about the new topics being a reformatting of the "recent changes" page.  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page; i.e., we don't just want a recent changes page; we want a new topics page ''too''!  :-)
------
HomePage|984357550
23,25c23,25
< * What are your [[new topics]]?
< * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]].  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
---
> * What are your [[new topics]]?  (The very latest can be found via the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.)
> * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] and the [[Free Links]] page.
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
35c35
< If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|984357950
9a10,14
> 
> Important illustrations of this theory are found in:
> [[/Section151|Section151]] - recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] relationship with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]].
> 
> [[/Section161|Section161]] - recounts [[/Hank Rearden|Hank]] and [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Theory_of_Sex|984357964
11a12
> 
------
Jupiter|984358241
33a34,35
> ----
> I'll bet we could find someone with a good article on Jupiter who wouldn't mind that we use it, no strings attached. --LS
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|984358252
1c1,3
< A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
---
> A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel.  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.
> 
> As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|984358660
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> After the anniversary party, late in the evening, [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] enters his wife's bedroom in order to have sex with her.  He does this reluctantly - he wishes he did not have these feelings, but he cannot resist the urge.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] accedes perfunctorily, and starts talking about the party, because talking is what people are supposed to do before making love.  As she jabbers, Rearden wonders why she married him, and recalls the details of their courtship and early marriage.  He thinks about how unfulfilling his sex with Lillian has been, and how is marriage has been a torture.  By the time she is done talking, Rearden has lost his desire, and returns to his own room.  It is his first glimpse of the premise, from Rand's [[Theory of Sex|sexual theory]], that one's sexual desires are an expression of one's values.
> 
> * Setting
> Lillian Rearden's bedroom.
> 
> * Characters
> [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
> [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
> [[/Mrs. Weston|Mrs. Weston]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]] - Mentioned.
> [[/Simons|Simons]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|984358677
2c2
< After the anniversary party, late in the evening, [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] enters his wife's bedroom in order to have sex with her.  He does this reluctantly - he wishes he did not have these feelings, but he cannot resist the urge.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] accedes perfunctorily, and starts talking about the party, because talking is what people are supposed to do before making love.  As she jabbers, Rearden wonders why she married him, and recalls the details of their courtship and early marriage.  He thinks about how unfulfilling his sex with Lillian has been, and how is marriage has been a torture.  By the time she is done talking, Rearden has lost his desire, and returns to his own room.  It is his first glimpse of the premise, from Rand's [[Theory of Sex|sexual theory]], that one's sexual desires are an expression of one's values.
---
> After the anniversary party, late in the evening, [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] enters his wife's bedroom in order to have sex with her.  He does this reluctantly - he wishes he did not have these feelings, but he cannot resist the urge.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] accedes perfunctorily, and starts talking about the party, because talking is what people are supposed to do before making love.  As she jabbers, Rearden wonders why she married him, and recalls the details of their courtship and early marriage.  He thinks about how unfulfilling his sex with Lillian has been, and how is marriage has been a torture.  By the time she is done talking, Rearden has lost his desire, and returns to his own room.  It is his first glimpse of the premise, from Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|sexual theory]], that one's sexual desires are an expression of one's values.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|984358690
8,16c8,16
< [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
< [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
< [[/Mrs. Weston|Mrs. Weston]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]] - Mentioned.
< [[/Simons|Simons]] - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]]
>  [[/Mrs. Weston|Mrs. Weston]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Dr. Simon Pritchett|Simon Pritchett]] - Mentioned.
>  [[/Simons|Simons]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|984358743
55a56
>  [[/Mrs. Weston|Mrs. Weston]]
65a67
>  [[/Simons|Simons]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mrs._Weston|984358782
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A friend of [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] who attends the Rearden's anniversary party.  She is mentioned in [[/Section162|Section162]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Simons|984358820
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A member of the Rearden household staff.  He is mentioned in [[/Section162|Section162]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Rearden_Steel|984358860
10a11
>  [[/Section162|Section162]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_York|984358886
9a10
>  - [[/Section162|Section162]]
------
Jupiter|984358969
10,12c10
<   Jupiter is about 90% [[hydrogen]] and 10% [[helium]] (by numbers of atoms, 75/25% by mass) with traces of
< [[methane]], [[water]], [[ammonia]] and "rock". This is very close to the composition of the primordial Solar Nebula from
< which the entire [[solar system]] was formed. [[Saturn]] has a similar composition, but [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] have much
---
> Jupiter is about 90% [[hydrogen]] and 10% [[helium]] (by numbers of atoms, 75/25% by mass) with traces of [[methane]], [[water]], [[ammonia]] and "rock". This is very close to the composition of the primordial Solar Nebula from which the entire [[solar system]] was formed. [[Saturn]] has a similar composition, but [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] have much
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984359069
6c6,12
< [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS
---
> [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS
> 
> Actually, the first few - Elf, Dwarf, etc - were listed because Hobbits were, so it seems they were referring to Lord o' the Rings stuff.  I'm planning to put some of that up when I have more time (and, despite your suggestion, I think maybe under [[Lord of the Rings]] since that's the name best associated with the world).  In any case, I think that many of these span from Tolkien through D&D to pretty much the whole fantasy genre, and as such deserve treatment on the toplevel pages along with the folklore.  ''Exempli gratia'':
> 
> Elf - little forest fairies, blah blah blah blah blah.
> In Tolkien elves became blah, which with some minor modifications (pointy ears, sometimes prolonged mortality) has become the standard in the fantasy genre. --JG
> 
------
WarsaW|984359098
1,10c1
< (Polish: ''Warszawa'').
< Capital of PolanD (pop. ca. 2 mil.). The city, which is an autonomous administrative unit, is located in the east-central part of the country.
< 
< 
< WarsaW is notable among EuropE's capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the Swedish and Prussian occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the Russian army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the WarsaW Uprising failed, by AdolfHitler's order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the Germans, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of WarsaW, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
< 
< 
< Since the second half of the 18th century, the emblem of WarsaW (originally a siren) has been a mermaid with sword and shield in hand, representing the creature who in legend led a prince to the site of Warsaw and ordered him to found the city. The city's motto is, appropriately, "Contemnit procellas" ("It defies the storms").
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Warsaw]]
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984359112
9,11c9,10
< 
< Elf - little forest fairies, blah blah blah blah blah.
< In Tolkien elves became blah, which with some minor modifications (pointy ears, sometimes prolonged mortality) has become the standard in the fantasy genre. --JG
---
> :Elf - little forest fairies, blah blah blah ninety thousand pages of blah.  In Tolkien elves became blah, which with some minor modifications (pointy ears, sometimes prolonged mortality) has become the standard in the fantasy genre.
> Or something like that. --JG
------
Bill_Clinton|984359196
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was the forty-first PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1993-2001.
> 
> He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for [[Perjury]] -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
> 
> He ended his presidency granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
> 
> During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Some partisans of this view argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
> 
> In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
> 
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
> <b>Major legislation he signed:</b>
> * Balanced budget 
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time just before [[US Election 1996]] 
> * [[NAFTA]] - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted 
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients 
> * [[Minimum Wage]] increase - signed just before [[US Election 1996]] 
> 
> <b>[[SupremeCourt]] appointments:</b>
> 
> <b>Major legislation he vetoed:</b>
> 
> <b>Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:</b>
> * [[Healthcare Reform]] - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
> 
> <b>Other Initiatives:</b>
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations without ever proposing legislation.
> 
> ----
> 
> /Talk
> 
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
------
Bill_Clinton|984359225
1c1
< William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was the forty-first PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1993-2001.
---
> Bill Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was the forty-first PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1993-2001.  His full name is William Jefferson Clinton.
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton|984359251
1,35c1
< William Jefferson Clinton ([[Democrat]]) was the forty-first PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1993-2001.
< 
< He was impeached in 1999 by the [[House of Representatives]], but not convicted by the [[United States Senate]], mainly? for [[Perjury]] -- lying under oath to a [[Grand Jury]] regarding matters related to his sexual affair with [[Monica Lewinsky]].
< 
< He ended his presidency granting [[presidential pardon]]s which were considered highly controversial due to the nature of the felons pardoned and their alleged financial involvement with both Clinton and the family of his [[first lady]] [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].
< 
< During his time in office, he was one of the most popular Presidents in history, despite the scandals.  Many people viewed the scandals as being merely sexual in nature, and not worthy of political consequences.  Some partisans of this view argue that the impeachment was more about politics than any genuine concern with lying to the [[Grand Jury]].
< 
< In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
< 
< 
< Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
< 
< <b>Major legislation he signed:</b>
< * Balanced budget 
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time just before [[US Election 1996]] 
< * [[NAFTA]] - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted 
< * Tax increase on Social Security recipients 
< * [[Minimum Wage]] increase - signed just before [[US Election 1996]] 
< 
< <b>[[SupremeCourt]] appointments:</b>
< 
< <b>Major legislation he vetoed:</b>
< 
< <b>Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:</b>
< * [[Healthcare Reform]] - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
< 
< <b>Other Initiatives:</b>
< * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations without ever proposing legislation.
< 
< ----
< 
< /Talk
< 
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton]]
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|984359294
1c1
< Vice President of the [[United States]] 1993-2001 during [[William Jefferson Clinton]]'s presidency.
---
> Vice President of the [[United States]] 1993-2001 during [[Bill Clinton]]'s presidency.
------
Healthcare_Reform|984359346
3c3
< An example of healthcare reform was the major government policy initiative of [[William Jefferson Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].  This was a complex proposal that was not enacted into law.
---
> An example of healthcare reform was the major government policy initiative of [[Bill Clinton]] headed up by his wife [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].  This was a complex proposal that was not enacted into law.
6c6
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
United_States/Government|984359427
39a40
> 
40a42
> 
------
New_topics|984359440
1c1
< Here are a few more new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in: 
---
> Here's a non-exhaustive list of new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in:
3,5c3
< AxiomOfChoice -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- PoliticalSpectrum -- JapanConstitution -- CambodianLanguage -- AnnaKournikova -- TestThreePhasePumps -- ActorS -- ActresseS -- CorinneLightweaver -- [[Watermark]] --
< [[Vector Space]] -- [[US Internal Revenue Service]] -- [[Hobbits]] -- [[Seal]] -- [[World War I]] -- JavaJini --
< [[Classics]] -- [[Terrestrial planets]] -- [[Sri Lanka]] -- [[Play]] -- [[Walt Disney]] -- [[Indian Music]]
---
> [[Punctuated Equilibrium|punctuated equilibrium]] -- [[Linear Algebra|linear algebra]] -- [[eigenvectors]] -- [[Quebec]] -- [[watermark]] -- [[Tamil]] -- [[Jupiter]] -- [[BASIC]] -- [[Gradualism]] -- [[classic books]] -- [[seal]] -- [[publicize Wikipedia]] -- AberdeenSouthDakota -- [[GPL]] -- [[Screwball Comedy Film|screwball comedy film]] -- [[IMR]] -- [[Genre Film Theory|genre film theory]] -- [[pulp magazines]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] -- [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] -- [[Classical Mechanics|classical mechanics]]
6a5
> The above hand-generated list covers new topics from about 3.5 days.  There are many even newer topics...
20c19
< The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about the new topics being a reformatting of the "recent changes" page.  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page; i.e., we don't just want a recent changes page; we want a new topics page ''too''!  :-)
---
> The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about the new topics being a reformatting of the "recent changes" page.  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page; i.e., we don't just want a recent changes page; we want a new topics page ''too''!  :-)
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|984359468
1c1,90
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
> * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
> 
> In the 1992 election, the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
> 
> :Maybe there should be a page for each election, e.g. us/Election1992, us/Election1994, etc.
> 
> ::''I agree, but think harder about what to call the pages.  See [[naming conventions]]. --LS''
> ----
> Statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
> ::''I totally agree! -- LS''
> ----
> ::''The following information should be massively and fairly rewikified and refactored and then reinjected into the main page.''
> 
> RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
> 
> The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
> 
> Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
> 
> Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
> 
> Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
> 
> Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
> 
> Major legislation he signed:
> * Balanced budget
> * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
> * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
> * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
> * Minimum wage increase
> 
> SupremeCourt appointments:
> 
> Major legislation he vetoed:
> 
> Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
> * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
> 
> :Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
> 
> * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations.
> 
> : So was legislation ever proposed?
> 
> 
> ----
> Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
> 
> ----
> 
> Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote [[Democrat]] sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
> 
> See also:
> CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | UnitedStates/States | 
> * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
> * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1992
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1994
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1996
> * UnitedStatesGovernment1998
> 
> Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
> --JohnAbbe
> 
> ::''Resist the temptation to write old style links.  They are very annoying. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
> 
> ----
> ----
> 
> Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
> 
> ::''No, I don't think so.  Such standards are too hard to formulate and extremely fallible, as well as being anti-wiki generally.  Just let things develop naturally first, anyway, and see what happens a few months or years down the road. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
> 
> - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link.
> 
> ::''But please don't start in on a "US" page...there's already a [[United States]] page.''
> 
> This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
> 
> ::''Renaming is something that system administrators can do.  We're just exploring it now.  And please, do use [[Free Links]] rather than that ugly old mashed together style of linking, which looks silly. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
> 
> ::''See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984359517
1,90c1
< * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
< * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
< 
< In the 1992 election, the other high-profile candidates were incumbent [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[Republican]]) and [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]). In 1996 it was [[Bob Dole]] ([[Republican]]) and again [[Ross Perot]] ([[Reform]]).
< 
< :Maybe there should be a page for each election, e.g. us/Election1992, us/Election1994, etc.
< 
< ::''I agree, but think harder about what to call the pages.  See [[naming conventions]]. --LS''
< ----
< Statements like "the most controversial [[Presidential Pardon]] in US history" should probably be left till more than 4 weeks after the event. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
< ::''I totally agree! -- LS''
< ----
< ::''The following information should be massively and fairly rewikified and refactored and then reinjected into the main page.''
< 
< RE: Controversial Pardon. Excuse me for being an ignorant European, but what exactly happened?? -- WojPob
< 
< The PresidentOfTheUnitedStates has the power, under the UnitedStatesConstitution, to pardon people for crimes committed.
< 
< Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
< 
< Clinton supporters can no doubt point to many other highly political pardons in history, including for example [[Gerald Ford]]'s pardon of [[Richard Nixon]].  I'm sure that in the entire sordid history of politics, there have been many other cases of apparent pardons for money.
< 
< Clinton was considered by some to be the most [[Machiavellian]] president of the [[United States]] often using presidential powers to decrease the focus on troublesome scandals.  He ordered the bombing of Kosovo the day of the [[Monica Lewinsky]] impeachment vote and bombed an asprin factory in [[Sudan]] to cover up ?  He used whatever was politically expedient to further his policies such as observing [[Confederate]] Day while govenor of [[Arkansas]] and then condeming [[Confederate]] flags while president.
< 
< Bill Clinton was a two (more?) time governor of the state of [[Arkansas]].
< 
< Major legislation he signed:
< * Balanced budget
< * Welfare Reform - vetoed twice - signed the third time
< * NAFTA - the previous president [[George Herbert Walker Bush]], was largely responsible for getting NAFTA enacted
< * Tax increase on Social Security recipients
< * Minimum wage increase
< 
< SupremeCourt appointments:
< 
< Major legislation he vetoed:
< 
< Major legislation he failed to get passed through Congress:
< * Healthcare Reform - socialized/nationalized health care (similar to [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]])
< 
< :Actually, although a significant fraction of Americans wanted a system like that, others, wary of a large complex system did not, and what Hillary Clinton and all the conferences etc. ended up with was a difficult-to-summarize public/private mish-mash.
< 
< * Social Security Reform - He appointed a committee on Social Security Reform and then dismissed their recommendations.
< 
< : So was legislation ever proposed?
< 
< 
< ----
< Didn't he also create (have something to do with creating) the [[AmeriCorps]].  These people do good stuff, imho.  Then there is all the stuff about national health care, nafta, welfare reform, increasing money for student loans ... lots more than the scandal happened.  He was also the governor of Arkansas a few times.  (this page entails lots of hmwk)  --PhillipHankins
< 
< ----
< 
< Clinton's compromises on environmental and social issues were a great disappointment to the more progressive and/or radical types who vote [[Democrat]] sometimes. However, he did promote dialogue on race issues during his presidency, both in speeches and with a small budget.
< 
< See also:
< CountriesOfTheWorld | UnitedStates | UnitedStates/States | 
< * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
< * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1992
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1994
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1996
< * UnitedStatesGovernment1998
< 
< Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
< --JohnAbbe
< 
< ::''Resist the temptation to write old style links.  They are very annoying. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
< 
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
< 
< ----
< ----
< 
< Wouldn't it be nice to have (is there already) a short standard for nations? There's one that's used for internet domains, us = UnitedStates, ca = Canada, etc. Then we could use us/Democrat (then a us/Democrat page redirects to UnitedStates/DemocraticParty i guess).
< 
< ::''No, I don't think so.  Such standards are too hard to formulate and extremely fallible, as well as being anti-wiki generally.  Just let things develop naturally first, anyway, and see what happens a few months or years down the road. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
< 
< :Here's an interesting bug. There's patches at UseMod:UseMod/Bugs that look like they might fix it: The BlueQuestionMark after us/Democrat points to a page to edit [[William Jefferson Clinton/Democrat]] (the SubPage uses this page as the base page instead of "us"). I'm tempted to create a us page and a us/Democrat page to check, but i don't want to mess up the database.
< 
< - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link.
< 
< ::''But please don't start in on a "US" page...there's already a [[United States]] page.''
< 
< This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
< 
< ::''Renaming is something that system administrators can do.  We're just exploring it now.  And please, do use [[Free Links]] rather than that ugly old mashed together style of linking, which looks silly. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
< 
< But i digress. The more pertinent question i have is, where are the WikipediaStandardsDiscussions? --JohnAbbe
< 
< ::''See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Bill Clinton/Talk]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984359531
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Bill Clinton/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton|Talk]]
------
William_Jefferson_Clinton/Talk|984359542
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton|Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton/Talk]]
------
Punctuated_Equilibrium|984359575
7c7
< Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradulaism]], though critics, notably [[Richard Dawkins]], have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
---
> Punctuated equilibrium is usually contrasted with [[phyletic gradualism]], though critics, notably [[Richard Dawkins]], have argued that [[phyletic gradualism]] is merely a strawman.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984359990
11a12
> OK.  Notice, [[hobbits]] does exist (but should be named "[[hobbit]]").  In fact, Tolkien's elves bear very little resemblance to the elves of, e.g., Irish folklore.  The similarity seems to be mainly in the name.  In folklore, elves are typically very magical, very tiny, supernatural beings more like poltergeists than like human beings; they're often very mischievous.  They aren't necessarily little forest fairies.  See [[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/midwife.html this link]] for an interesting data point; notice how these stories often use "elf," "dwarf," "hobgoblin," "fairy," etc., '''interchangeably'''.  There is no neat mapping from LotR/D&D-type mythos to the actual folk myths you find in Europe and America.  Not that this matters--it's all just about words.  I think it's interesting! -- LS
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|984364395
15c15,17
< * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
---
> * Wikipedia has no single topic.  That means that almost anyone can find part of it they wish to look at, and add to.
> 
> * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
------
Wiki_Administrators|984364653
43a44,46
> 
> :I agree that one could easily abuse the admin capabilities to deny service to other users.  In my development copy of the wiki code I've greatly improved the efficiency of the editlinks feature.  It now builds a link index only once at the beginning of the command, and other users can edit while the index is built.  The rename commands use that index so that they only search/replace on pages which mention the link (rather than all pages).  I'm hoping to release this code by the end of March 2001.  --CliffordAdams
> 
47c50
< I think there's a bit of a practical concern in that, possibly, some people might be made admins who fail to understand or agree with whatever community standards there are--and proceeds to rename pages and otherwise wreak havoc, not out of maliciousness but cluelessness, hubris, egotism, and the like.  If you've been online for long enough, and I know you all have, you know that this sort of problem is practically inevitable.  I don't know that we need to ''do'' anything about this potential problem other than what Cliff already proposed, i.e., assign admin responsibilities only to people who have been with us for a month and have created a lot of good articles.  Maybe I'd add the simple caveat that we should state that one shouldn't ''expect'' to get admin privileges after a certain amount of work--in other words, it's not automatic.  Something along those lines, anyway. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I think there's a bit of a practical concern in that, possibly, some people might be made admins who fail to understand or agree with whatever community standards there are--and proceeds to rename pages and otherwise wreak havoc, not out of maliciousness but cluelessness, hubris, egotism, and the like.  If you've been online for long enough, and I know you all have, you know that this sort of problem is practically inevitable.  I don't know that we need to ''do'' anything about this potential problem other than what Cliff already proposed, i.e., assign admin responsibilities only to people who have been with us for a month and have created a lot of good articles.  Maybe I'd add the simple caveat that we should state that one shouldn't ''expect'' to get admin privileges after a certain amount of work--in other words, it's not automatic.  Something along those lines, anyway. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Thomas_Hobbes|984366877
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Hobbes was a great English philosopher, famous for his [[materialism]] and his [[/Political philosophy]].  He was a contemporary of [[Descartes]] and wrote one of the replies to Descartes' ''Meditations.''
------
Precedent|984369920
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.
> 
> There are two kinds of precedent in law; custom and case law.
> 
> Long-held custom which has traditionally been recognized by courts and judges is the first kind of precedent.  There need never have been a specific case decided on the same or similar issues in order for a court to take notice of customary or traditional precedent in its deliberations.
> 
------
Precedent|984370882
1c1
< Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.
---
> Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.  Precedent does not dictate how a new case should be decided, but it can be very important in establishing, by reference, how courts in general have viewed a particlar law or a type of circumstance viewd in a legal setting.
3c3
< There are two kinds of precedent in law; custom and case law.
---
> There are two kinds of precedent in law; custom and [[case law]].
5c5
< Long-held custom which has traditionally been recognized by courts and judges is the first kind of precedent.  There need never have been a specific case decided on the same or similar issues in order for a court to take notice of customary or traditional precedent in its deliberations.
---
> Long-held custom which has traditionally been recognized by courts and judges is the first kind of precedent.  Custom can be so deeply entrenched in the society at large that it gains the force of law.  There need never have been a specific case decided on the same or similar issues in order for a court to take notice of customary or traditional precedent in its deliberations.
6a7,10
> 
> The other type of precedent is [[case law]].  This type of precedent is granted more or less weight in the deliberations of a court according to a number of factors.  Most important is whether the precedent is "on point," that is, does it deal with a circumstance identical or very similar to the circumstance in the instant case?  Second, when and where was the precedent decided?  A recent decision in the same jurisdiction as the instant case will be given great weight.  Next in descending order would be recent precedent in jurisdictions whose law is the same as local law.  Least weight would be given to precedent which stems from dissimilar cirmstances, older cases which have since been contradicted, or cases in jurisdictions which have dissimilar law.  
> 
> Precedents viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in evolving interpetations of the law.  For instance, if women have been enjoying greater and greater equality under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to bring still greater equality.
------
Precedent|984370926
1c1
< Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.  Precedent does not dictate how a new case should be decided, but it can be very important in establishing, by reference, how courts in general have viewed a particlar law or a type of circumstance viewd in a legal setting.
---
> Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.  Precedent does not dictate how a new case should be decided, but it can be very important in establishing, by reference, how courts in general have viewed a particlar law or a type of circumstance viewed in a legal setting.
------
Law|984371026
7c7
< I did case law and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
---
> I did case law, common law, precedent, lawyer and tort and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
------
Case_law|984371185
1c1
< Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance as to how [[statutory law]] is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
---
> Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance, thorugh [[precedent]], as to how [[statutory law]] is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
11c11
< Likewise, under the doctrine of [[states rights|states' rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
---
> Likewise, under the doctrine of [[states rights|states' rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
------
Case_law|984371205
1c1
< Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance, thorugh [[precedent]], as to how [[statutory law]] is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
---
> Case law is is that form of law which provides guidance, through [[precedent]], as to how [[statutory law]] is to be understood, based on the manner in which prior similar cases have been decided.
------
Law|984371278
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
------
Common_law|984371405
1c1
< The law developed in historical England mainly from judicial decisions which were based in tradition, custom and precedent.  It may be written or unwritten in statutes or codes.  It constitues the basis of the English legal system and of the systems in all of the U.S. except Louisiana, which employs a system of law referred to as [[Napoleonic Code]], in which the law is extremely detailed and codified in every respect.
---
> The law developed in historical England mainly from judicial decisions which were based in tradition, custom and [[precedent]].  It may be written or unwritten in statutes or codes.  It constitues the basis of the English legal system and of the systems in all of the U.S. except Louisiana, which employs a system of law referred to as [[Napoleonic Code]], in which the law is extremely detailed and codified in every respect.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|984371839
15c15
< * Wikipedia has no single topic.  That means that almost anyone can find part of it they wish to look at, and add to.
---
> * On Wikipedia, there are no required topics and no one making assignments.  That means that anyone can find part of the encyclopedia they're interested in, and add to it immediately (if they can do better than what's already there).
17c17
< * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
---
> * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
------
Napoleonic_Code|984372824
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term Napoleonic Code stems from the original "Code Napoleon" (law of Napoleon) established at Napoleon's behest in France during his reign.  It applies to a jurisdiction which is ruled by "[[civil law]]" rather than customary law (such as English [[common law]]).  Civil law is law which seeks to deal with all legal issues through statute rather than custom, and where custom remains as a legal standard only where statute has not taken its place.  The statutory scheme is attempted to be developed along wholly rational lines, thereby providing a balance and consistency which may be lacking in some areas of custom.
> 
> Unfortunately, since the background of custom is lacking, civil law must attempt to predict all reasonably foreseeable circumstances and write a rule which will deal with each.  This can result in a vast and intricately configured statutory scheme.
> 
> In the United States, Louisiana alone has a Naopleonic code. 
------
Law|984372889
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
------
Law|984372946
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
------
Civil_law|984373014
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Napoleonic Code]].
------
Law|984373104
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
------
Civil_law|984373318
1c1,3
< See [[Napoleonic Code]].
---
> # See [[Napoleonic Code]].
> 
> #  Also, the branch of law which deals with such issues as contracts, inheritence, property ownership, [[tort]], real estate transactions, and other common societal interactions.  Contrast with [[criminal law]].
------
Law|984373393
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
------
Law|984373632
7c7
< I did case law, common law, precedent, lawyer and tort and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
---
> I did [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- and [[tort]] and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
------
Africa|984374735
3c3
<     [[Burkina Faso]]
---
>     BurkinaFaso
------
Case_law|984377886
11c11
< Likewise, under the doctrine of [[states rights|states' rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whethere such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
---
> Likewise, under the doctrine of [[states rights|states' rights]], the United States Supreme Court is powerless to intervene in issues of State Law except to the extent of deciding whether such law comports with the Constitution of the United States.
------
Film|984391739
1,2d0
< [[Film History]] -- [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Film Theory]] -- [[Film Techniques]] -- [[Film Festivals]] -- [[Academy Awards]] -- [[Top Grossing Movies]]
< 
4,5d1
< ----
< Film people:
7,9c3,12
< [[Actors]] -- [[Actresses]] -- [[Film Directors]]
< ----
< [[Genre Film Theory|Film Genres]]:
---
> :[[Film History]]
> :[[Film Criticism]]
> :[[Film Theory]]
> :[[Film Techniques]]
> :[[Film Festivals]]
> :[[Academy Awards]]
> :[[Top Grossing Movies]]
> :[[Film Genres]]
> 
> Film people:
11,26c14,16
< :[[Action Film]]
< :[[Comedy Film]]
< :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
< :[[Documentary Film]]
< :[[Cult Film]]
< :[[Drama Film]]
< :[[Fantasy Film]]
< :[[Historical Drama Film]]
< :[[Horror Film]]
< :[[Musical Film]]
< :[[Newsreel]]
< :[[Propaganda Film]]
< :[[Short]]
< :[[Science Fiction Film]]
< :[[Thriller Film]]
< :[[Western Film]]
---
> :[[Actors]]
> :[[Actresses]]
> :[[Film Directors]]
------
Film_Genres|984391806
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also: [[Genre Film Theory]]
> 
> :[[Action Film]]
> :[[Comedy Film]]
> :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
> :[[Documentary Film]]
> :[[Cult Film]]
> :[[Drama Film]]
> :[[Fantasy Film]]
> :[[Film Noir]]
> :[[Historical Drama Film]]
> :[[Horror Film]]
> :[[Musical Film]]
> :[[Newsreel]]
> :[[Propaganda Film]]
> :[[Short]]
> :[[Science Fiction Film]]
> :[[Thriller Film]]
> :[[Western Film]]
------
Film_History|984392093
0a1,2
> [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] 
> 
6,7d7
< *  [[Lumiere Brothers]]
< *  [[George Melies]]
55c55
< *  [[Walt Disney]]
---
> *  [[Walt Disney]]
------
Film_History/France|984392112
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *  [[Lumiere Brothers]]
> *  [[George Melies]]
------
Film_History/Russia|984392218
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
------
H.G._Wells|984393884
0a1,2
> Herbert George Wells (1866-1946)
> 
9,19d10
< Novels by H.G. Wells include:
< 
< Kipps
< 
< A Modern Utopia
< 
< Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island
< 
< The World of William Clissold
< 
< Tono-Bungay
21c12
< In the Days of the Comet
---
> A partial listing of his novels, with dates of publication where I know them: 
23c14,29
< The World Set Free
---
> :[[The War of the Worlds]]
> :[[The Time Machine]] (1896)
> :[[The Invisible Man]] (1897)
> :Kipps (1905)
> :Ann Veronica (1909
> :Tono-Bungay (1909)
> :The New Machiavelli (1911)
> :Marriage (1912)
> :[[Things to Come|The Shape of Things to Come]] (1933)
> 
> :The history of Mr Polly
> :A Modern Utopia
> :Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island
> :The World of William Clissold
> :In the Days of the Comet
> :The World Set Free
------
Terraforming|984396845
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The process of modifying a planet to a more Earth-like atmosphere, temperature or ecology. 
> 
> The term was first used in a [[ScienceFiction|science fiction]] novel (title `Seetee Shock'?) by [[Jack Williamson]], but the actual concept is older than that. An example in fiction is <i>`First and Last Men'</i> by [[Olaf Stapledon]] in which [[Venus]] is modified, after a long and destructive war with the originalinhabitants.
> 
> Early fictional accounts of the process are frequently handicapped by the inaccurate contemporary knowledge of the actual conditions, as in the Stapledon example, which had Venus covered in oceans. 
> 
> A more recent example, using the actual conditions on [[Mars]] as revealed by planetary probes, is the Mars trilogy by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]. The three volumes are a lengthy description of the fictional terraforming of Mars, and are very evidently the result of a massive amount of research by the author.
> 
> 
> (this needs a lot more yet, including non-fictional research - and the aspect that the whole problem of greenhouse gases is that we are inadvertantly engaged in the terraforming project of returning atmospheric carbon dioxide to the levels found millions of years ago)
------
Terraforming|984397195
1,3c1
< The process of modifying a planet to a more Earth-like atmosphere, temperature or ecology. 
< 
< The term was first used in a [[ScienceFiction|science fiction]] novel (title `Seetee Shock'?) by [[Jack Williamson]], but the actual concept is older than that. An example in fiction is <i>`First and Last Men'</i> by [[Olaf Stapledon]] in which [[Venus]] is modified, after a long and destructive war with the originalinhabitants.
---
> Literally, "Earth-making": the process of modifying a planet to a more Earth-like atmosphere, temperature or ecology. 
4a3
> The term was first used in a [[ScienceFiction|science fiction]] novel, <i>`Seetee Shock'</i>  (1940?) by [[Jack Williamson]], but the actual concept is older than that. An example in fiction is <i>`First and Last Men'</i> by [[Olaf Stapledon]] in which [[Venus]] is modified, after a long and destructive war with the original inhabitants, who naturally object the the process.
10c9
< (this needs a lot more yet, including non-fictional research - and the aspect that the whole problem of greenhouse gases is that we are inadvertantly engaged in the terraforming project of returning atmospheric carbon dioxide to the levels found millions of years ago)
---
> (this needs a lot more yet, including non-fictional research - and the aspect that the whole problem of greenhouse gases is that we are inadvertantly engaged in the terraforming project of returning atmospheric carbon dioxide to the levels of millions of years ago)
------
Polynomial|984397375
7c7
< The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coeficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
---
> The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coefficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
14,15c14,15
< Definition: Let a1,a2,a3,...,an be real numbers. Then
<      an*x^n+(an-1)*x^(n-1)+(an-2)*x^(n-2)+...+a1*x^1+a0
---
> Definition: Let a<sub>1</sub>,a<sub>2</sub>,a<sub>3</sub>,...,an be [[real numbers]]. Then
>      a<sub>n</sub>*x<sup>n</sup>+(a<sub>n-1</sub>)*x<sup>n-1</sup>+a<sub>n-2</sub>*x<sup>n-2</sup>+...+a<sub>1</sub>*x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>
18c18
< The ''coefficients'' of a polynomial: The number ar is the coefficient of x^r for r={1,2,3,...,n}
---
> The ''coefficients'' of a polynomial: The number a<sub>r</sub> is the coefficient of x<sup>r</sup> for r={1,2,3,...,n}
21c21
< The ''constant term''of a polynomial is a0.
---
> The ''constant term'' of a polynomial is a<sub>0</sub>.
23c23,25
< The ''degree'' of a polynomial: The largest member of {0,1,2,3,...n} that is not equal to zero.
---
> The ''degree'' of a polynomial: The largest value of i such that a<sub>i</sub> is not equal to zero.  e.g.
> : 4 + 2 x<sup>2</sup> + 5 x<sup>3</sup> + 9 x<sup>7</sup>
> is a polynomial of degree 7.
------
Terraforming|984399087
1c1
< Literally, "Earth-making": the process of modifying a planet to a more Earth-like atmosphere, temperature or ecology. 
---
> Literally, "Earth-shaping": the process of modifying a planet to a more Earth-like atmosphere, temperature or ecology. 
------
Statistics|984401069
8c8
< :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]]
---
> :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- ANOVA
------
Statistics|984401113
8c8
< :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- ANOVA
---
> :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]]
------
Statistics/Theory|984401483
3c3,8
< The Theory of Statistics includes a number of topics:
---
> The '''Theory of Statistics''' includes a number of topics:
> 
> Statistical [[Statistics/Models|models]] of the sources of data and typical problem formulation:
> #[[Survey Sampling|Sampling] from a finite population
> #Measuring [[Observational Error]] and refining procedures
> #Studying statistical [[Statisics/Multivariate|relations]] 
------
Statistics/Theory|984401598
10c10
< [[Planning Research]] to achieve the least possible [[Observational Error]]:
---
> [[Planning Research]] to measure and control [[Observational Error]]:
12,13c12,13
< #[[Designing Experiments]]
< #[[Survey Sampling]]
---
> #[[Designing Experiments]] to determine treatment effects
> #[[Survey Sampling]] to describe natural populations
17,18c17,18
< #Choosing [[Summary Statistics]]
< #Fitting [[Probability Distributions]]
---
> #Choosing [[Summary Statistics]] to describe a sample
> #Fitting [[Probability Distributions]] to sample data
22c22
< #[[Statistics/Assumptions]]
---
> #Common [[Statistics/Assumptions|assumptions]] that we make
------
Statistics/Theory|984401624
6c6
< #[[Survey Sampling|Sampling] from a finite population
---
> #[[Survey Sampling|Sampling]] from a finite population
------
Statistics/Theory|984401698
8c8
< #Studying statistical [[Statisics/Multivariate|relations]] 
---
> #Studying statistical [[Statistics/Multivariate|relations]] 
------
Statistics/Multivariate|984402867
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Multivariate Statistical Analysis''' is the name used to describe a collection of procedures which involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time.
> 
> There are many different models, each with its own type of analysis:
> #Correlation analysis simply tries to establish whether or not there are linear relationships among the variables.
> #Regession analysis attempts to determine a linear formula that can describe how some variables respond to changes in others .
> #Principle component analysis attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistics|984402899
8c8
< :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]]
---
> :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]] -- [[/Multivariate]]
------
TheoremProving|984403378
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Mathematical Theorem]] begins with a [[Mathematical Hypothesis]], proceeds thru [[Mathematical Reasoning]] to reach a [[Mathematical Conclusion]].
> 
> Mathematicians seek to establish chains of reasoning that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
> 
> *<font size=+2 color=red>A ''Theorem'' = Hypothesis --->Proof--->Conclusion</font>
------
TheoremProving|984403486
3c3,6
< Mathematicians seek to establish chains of reasoning that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
---
> Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LogiC|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
> 
> *<font size=+2 color=red>Theorem = Hypothesis--->Proof--->Conclusion</font>
> 
5d7
< *<font size=+2 color=red>A ''Theorem'' = Hypothesis --->Proof--->Conclusion</font>
------
TheoremProving|984403534
3c3
< Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LogiC|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
---
> Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
------
TheoremProving|984403849
3c3,5
< Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. We can picture this as:
---
> Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. The main differences between mathematical argument and ordinary logical [[LoGic|argument]] are in the [[Mathematics/Schemes|topics]] of mathematical discourse. 
> 
> The following diagram displays the relations among the terms:
------
NonEmpty|984404244
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The assertion that a set is '''Non-empty''' is frequently found in mathematical hypotheses. The reason is that we can easily make logical errors when we make hypotheses about the [[Empty Set]]. Since it has no members, we cannot verify assertions by contradiction.  
------
Feature_requests|984406674
7c7
< 
---
> # I'd like my cookies and preferences to start working again.  Can anyone explain why they don't?  Did anything get changed over the weekend 10th/11th March? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Country_music|984406927
3,9c3,13
< *[[Pete Seeger]]
< *[[Garth Brooks]
< *[[Peter Paul and Mary]]]
< <br>
< AND
< <br>
< *[[Garth Brooks]]
---
> *[[Dolly Parton]]
> *[[Hank Williams Sr]]
> *[[Johnny Cash]]
> *[[George Jones]]
> *[[Tammi Wynette]]
> *[[Emmylou Harris]]
> *[[Gram Parsons]]
> *[[Lyle Lovett]]
> *[[Charlie Rich]]
> *[[Charlie Pride]] 
> *[[The Judds]]
------
TheoremProving|984409390
9c9,12
< 
---
> There are ? basic ways of proving a theorem correct:
> * Contradiction - Assuming the theorem is always false and proving that the assumption is never true
> * [[Inductance]]
> * ?
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984409486
1c1
< A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]].
---
> A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]] in the early [[1970s]].
12c12
< OK.  Notice, [[hobbits]] does exist (but should be named "[[hobbit]]").  In fact, Tolkien's elves bear very little resemblance to the elves of, e.g., Irish folklore.  The similarity seems to be mainly in the name.  In folklore, elves are typically very magical, very tiny, supernatural beings more like poltergeists than like human beings; they're often very mischievous.  They aren't necessarily little forest fairies.  See [[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/midwife.html this link]] for an interesting data point; notice how these stories often use "elf," "dwarf," "hobgoblin," "fairy," etc., '''interchangeably'''.  There is no neat mapping from LotR/D&D-type mythos to the actual folk myths you find in Europe and America.  Not that this matters--it's all just about words.  I think it's interesting! -- LS
---
> OK.  Notice, [[hobbits]] does exist (but should be named "[[hobbit]]").  In fact, Tolkien's elves bear very little resemblance to the elves of, e.g., Irish folklore.  The similarity seems to be mainly in the name.  In folklore, elves are typically very magical, very tiny, supernatural beings more like poltergeists than like human beings; they're often very mischievous.  They aren't necessarily little forest fairies.  See [[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/midwife.html this link]] for an interesting data point; notice how these stories often use "elf," "dwarf," "hobgoblin," "fairy," etc., '''interchangeably'''.  There is no neat mapping from LotR/D&D-type mythos to the actual folk myths you find in Europe and America.  Not that this matters--it's all just about words.  I think it's interesting! -- LS
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984409682
3c3
< Nine justices are appointed for life by the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|President]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
---
> Nine justices are appointed for life by the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|President]] and confirmed by majority vote by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
7c7,12
< See also /History.
---
> See also:
> /History
> 
> See also:
> *[[Executive Branch]]
> *[[Legislative Branch]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem|984409935
0a1,2
> The Dewey Decimal System is a way of numbering and organizing volumes within a library.
> ----
------
CountriesT|984410103
2a3
> * [[Texas]]
------
Supreme_court|984410203
1c1,3
< The highest court of a given geographical area.  For example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
---
> The highest court of a given geographical area.  
> 
> For example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
------
Requested_articles|984410495
22c22
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] 
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[Postal Service]]
------
Logrolling|984410737
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Trading of votes by legislative members to obtain passage of 
> actions of interest to each legislative member.
> 
------
Games/Cards|984412437
1c1
< The earliest origins of [[playing cards]] are obscure, but it is believed that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  They arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising 4 suits: polo sticks and coins, likely descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg, plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained 10 "spot" cards and 3 "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familar clubs, hearts, diamonds, and spades are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
---
> The earliest origins of [[playing cards]] are obscure, but it is believed that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  They arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising 4 suits: polo sticks and coins, likely descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg, plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained 10 "spot" cards and 3 "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familiar clubs, hearts, diamonds, and spades are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
------
Supreme_court|984415637
1c1
< The highest court of a given geographical area.  
---
> In the United States, the highest court of a given geographical area.  In some states of the United States, the highest court is styled "Supreme Court," in others "Court of Appeals."
3c3,7
< For example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
---
> In Great Britain, whos law forms the basis for American Law, there is no court called Supreme Court.  The highest court in that land is the House of Lords, which hears appeals from The Court of Appeals and the High Court.  The Court of Appeals can also hear some appeals from the High Court.  (Below the High Court are the Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals.)
> 
> The higher courts in an area a those generally regarded to create [[case law]] with their decisions.
> 
> See also [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
------
Law|984415836
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
------
Feature_requests|984417512
7a8
> # In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a "log in" to confirm my id?  Everytime I hit "preferences" otherwise, I get a new user ID
------
Appeal|984417530
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An appeal is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding decision to a higher judicial authority.  Most commonly, this means formally filing a [[notice of appeal]] with a lower court, indicating one's intention to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter, and then actually filing the appeal with the higher court.
> 
> Increasingly in the United States, binding decisions can be issued in civil matters by arbitrators, referees, masters, commissioners and adminstrative law judges in hearings and proceedings generally classed as [[alternative dispute resolution]].  If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all.  If one is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to appeal.  In some cases, the appellate step is not an appeal as such, but is known as a [[trial de novo]].  What the latter term means is that all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restriced to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding.  Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissable as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.
> 
> In an appeal from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower proceeding.  Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result.  [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments.  In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]] that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly.  Some examples of reversible error would be permitting seriously improper argument by an attorned, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc.  The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the dismissal of an appeal on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting.
> 
> In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered.  In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial.  Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is adequacy of counsel.  If one faces severe penalty and can prove that he did not get a fair hearing because of incompetency on the part of his lawyer, a new trial may be forthcoming.
------
Appeal|984417714
5c5
< In an appeal from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower proceeding.  Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result.  [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments.  In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]] that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly.  Some examples of reversible error would be permitting seriously improper argument by an attorned, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc.  The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the dismissal of an appeal on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting.
---
> In an appeal from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower proceeding.  Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result.  [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments.  In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]] that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly.  Some examples of reversible error would be permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc.  The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the dismissal of an appeal on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting.
7c7
< In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered.  In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial.  Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is adequacy of counsel.  If one faces severe penalty and can prove that he did not get a fair hearing because of incompetency on the part of his lawyer, a new trial may be forthcoming.
---
> In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered.  In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial.  Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is adequacy of counsel.  If one faces severe penalty and can prove that he did not get a fair hearing because of incompetency on the part of his lawyer, a new trial may be forthcoming.
------
Supreme_court|984417768
5c5
< The higher courts in an area a those generally regarded to create [[case law]] with their decisions.
---
> The higher courts in an area are those generally regarded to create [[case law]] with their decisions.
------
Civil_law|984417908
2d1
< 
------
Civil_law|984417936
2c2
< #  Also, the branch of law which deals with such issues as contracts, inheritence, property ownership, [[tort]], real estate transactions, and other common societal interactions.  Contrast with [[criminal law]].
---
> #  Also, the branch of law which deals with such issues as contracts, inheritence, property ownership, [[tort]]s, real estate transactions, and other common societal interactions.  Contrast with [[criminal law]].
------
Common_law|984418126
3c3
< Statutes which reflect English common law are understood to always be interpreted in light of the common law tradition, and so may leave a number of things unsaid because they are already understood from pre-existing case law and custom.
---
> Statutes which reflect English common law are understood to always be interpreted in light of the common law tradition, and so may leave a number of things unsaid because they are already understood from pre-existing [[case law]] and custom.
------
Lawyer|984418534
1c1
< Also, [[Attorney]], [[Barrister]] (in the [[United Kingdom]]):  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he dsires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
---
> Also, [[Attorney]], [[Barrister]] (in the [[United Kingdom]]):  An individual, usually specially trained for the task, who advises clients in legal matters and represents them publicly in courts of law relative to legal causes of action.  In the United States, most jurisdictions not only require that a lawyer have the degrees of LLB (bachelor of laws) and JD (Juris Doctorate) but also that the lawyer has taken and passed the relevant [[Bar Exam]] and been admitted to [[The Bar]] of the state in which he desires to practice, before he is permitted to practice before the courts of the state.
5c5
< Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted to the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar exam and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.
---
> Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted to the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar exam and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.  Each state has its own constitution and its own [[statute]]s, sometimes quite dissimilar form other states'.  Unfamiliarity with the constitution, statutes and [[precedent]] of a given state would rencer a lawyer incompetent to properly represent clients before the courts of that state.
------
Lawyer|984418573
5c5
< Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted to the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar exam and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.  Each state has its own constitution and its own [[statute]]s, sometimes quite dissimilar form other states'.  Unfamiliarity with the constitution, statutes and [[precedent]] of a given state would rencer a lawyer incompetent to properly represent clients before the courts of that state.
---
> Some states have reciprocal agreements with each other that a lawyer admitted to the bar of one state may practice in the other.  Other states require that, in order to practice before their courts, a lawyer must have either passed the relevant state bar exam and been admitted to practice, or must (as an admittee of another state) have formally associated himself with a local admittee, who is present any time the visitng lawyer appears in local courts.  Each state has its own constitution and its own [[statute]]s, sometimes quite dissimilar form other states'.  Unfamiliarity with the constitution, statutes and [[precedent]] of a given state would render a lawyer incompetent to properly represent clients before the courts of that state.
------
Lawyer|984418605
7c7
< Paradoxically, some jurisdictions will allow a non-lawyer to sit as a judge, espcecially in lower courts, even though a non-lawyer may not practice before these same courts.
---
> Paradoxically, some jurisdictions will allow a non-lawyer to sit as a judge, especially in lower courts, even though a non-lawyer may not practice before these same courts.
------
Law|984418724
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
------
Statute|984418920
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The formal, written law of a country or state, written and enacted by its legislative authority, ratified by the highest executive in the government and published.  Informally referred to frequently as "[[black letter law]]."
------
Law|984419002
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
------
Black_letter_law|984419027
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[statute]].
------
Statutory_law|984419531
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #See [[statute]].
> 
> Generally, primary written law set down by a governing authority in response to a perceived need to clarify the functioning of government, improve civil order, or answer a public need.  The Statutes, Law or Code of a state or nation form the basis for this law.  Other, lower authorities or municipalities may also write adminstrative or municipal codes which have the force of law.  These writings are the law of their particular agency or area only, and are subordinate to the law of the whole state or nation, but they nonetheless form a part of the body of statutory law.
> 
> Contrast, [[case law]], [[precedent]] and [[common law]].
------
Law|984419754
7c7
< I did [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- and [[tort]] and will do the others as time permits.  Gimme a day or two...
---
> The work continues apace...
------
Feature_requests|984419798
22a23,28
> 
> -------
> 
> On autogenerating [[NewTopics]], I have a Perl script running at the moment to scan the Recent Changes list and check for pages with no edit history. It will also need to check pages with an edit history to see if the first edit was recent, but I think I can work that too. It <i>seems</i> to be working so far. Give me a day or two, and I think I'll have something I can run daily to generate a suitable list  to cut&paste in by hand -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> 
> ----
------
Tort|984420068
3c3
< There are both civil and criminal torts.  A civil tort is conceived to have occurred when a wrongful act which is not specifically prohibited by criminal law damages a private individual.  If the party acting wrongfully intended for the damage to follow the act, it is called an intentional tort.  Otherwise, it is an ordinary, unintentional, or negligent tort.  This distinction is important because a number of types of insurance will not indemnify an insured for an intentional tort.  A criminal tort involves harm or damage stemming from a violation of criminal law and may damage a private individual or the state.
---
> There are both civil and criminal torts.  A civil tort is conceived to have occurred when a wrongful act which is not specifically prohibited by criminal law damages a private individual.  If the party acting wrongfully intended for the damage to follow the act, it is called an intentional tort.  Otherwise, it is an ordinary, unintentional, or negligent tort.  This distinction is important because a number of types of insurance will not indemnify an insured for an intentional tort.  A criminal tort involves harm or damage stemming from a violation of criminal law and may damage a private individual, the public at large, or the state.
------
TheoremProving|984420124
1c1
< A [[Mathematical Theorem]] begins with a [[Mathematical Hypothesis]], proceeds thru [[Mathematical Reasoning]] to reach a [[Mathematical Conclusion]].
---
> A [[mathematical theorem]] begins with a [[mathematical hypothesis]], proceeds through [[mathematical reasoning]] to reach a [[mathematical conclusion]].
11c11
< * [[Inductance]]
---
> * [[Inductance]] (do you mean [[mathematical induction]]?)
------
Law|984420344
7a8,9
> 
> Wow!  If you build it, they will come!  :-)
------
Constitution|984420385
1c1
< The ''constitution'' of a given [[country]] is, at least ostensibly, a document stating the most basic laws and giving the legal structure and relations of government and people, and is interpreted by the highest controlling legal authority of any [[constitutional government]], the [[supreme court]] of that country.
---
> The ''constitution'' of a given [[country]] or state is so named because it ''constitutes'' the form of government and ratifies the existence of a sovereign self-governing people thereby.  It is, at least ostensibly, a document stating the most basic laws and giving the legal structure and relations of government and people, and is interpreted by the highest controlling legal authority of any [[constitutional government]], the [[supreme court]] of that country.
5c5
< :[[JapanConstitution|Japanese Constitution]]
---
> :[[JapanConstitution|Japanese Constitution]]
------
Law|984420447
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- etc.
9c9
< Wow!  If you build it, they will come!  :-)
---
> Wow!  If you build it, they will come!  :-)
------
Country_music|984420583
1,3c1,5
< Performers:
< *[[Garth Brooks]]
< *[[Dolly Parton]]
---
> American popular musical form, with roots in traditional folk music.
> 
> Early Innovators:
> *[[Jimmie Rodgers]]
> *[[The Carter Family]]
4a7,9
> *[[The Grand Old Opry]]
> 
> Popularisers
8d12
< *[[Emmylou Harris]]
10d13
< *[[Lyle Lovett]]
12c15,17
< *[[Charlie Pride]] 
---
> *[[Charley Pride]] 
> 
> Present Performers:
13a19,22
> *[[Emmylou Harris]]
> *[[Lyle Lovett]]
> *[[Dolly Parton]]
> *[[Garth Brooks]]
------
Feature_requests|984420619
28c28
< ----
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
Blue_law|984420673
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[blue law]] prohibits selling of certain type so merchandise on certain days (usually [[Sunday]]) of the week.
> 
> In [[Texas]], the blue law once prohibited selling washing machines on Sunday.
------
MetallicA/Talk|984421026
14d13
< :) material follows:
18c17
< * Youthful energy - usually the best music produce here
---
> * Youthful energy - usually the best music produced here
------
Blue_law|984421175
0a1,2
> Blue Law is thus called because it was written on blue paper when first enacted by Puritan colonies in the 17th century. It originally restricted nearly all types of retailing on Sunday.
> 
3a6,9
> 
> Likely, all blue las stems from the first such statute set down by the Emperor (and pope) Constantine 1300 years before the Puritans:  "Let all judges and all city people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun. But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields; since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain, or the planting of vines; hence, the favorable time should not be allowed to pass, lest the provisions of heaven be lost." -- Given the seventh of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls, each for the second time. 321 A.D. 
> 
>  
------
Blue_law|984421192
7c7
< Likely, all blue las stems from the first such statute set down by the Emperor (and pope) Constantine 1300 years before the Puritans:  "Let all judges and all city people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun. But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields; since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain, or the planting of vines; hence, the favorable time should not be allowed to pass, lest the provisions of heaven be lost." -- Given the seventh of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls, each for the second time. 321 A.D. 
---
> Likely, all blue law stems from the first such statute set down by the Emperor (and pope) Constantine 1300 years before the Puritans:  "Let all judges and all city people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun. But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields; since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain, or the planting of vines; hence, the favorable time should not be allowed to pass, lest the provisions of heaven be lost." -- Given the seventh of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls, each for the second time. 321 A.D. 
9c9
<  
---
>  
------
TheoremProving|984421211
12a13,15
> 
> ''By mathematical hypothesis, are we meaning the result to be proven or [[axioms]]?
> 
------
Mullet|984421221
2c2
< 
---
> ----
4c4
< 
---
> ----
------
Numerology|984421366
31c31
< In 325 A.D., following the Nicene Conference, departures from the beliefs of the state Church were classified as civil violations within the Roman Empire. Numerology had not found favor with the Christian authority of the day.  It was assigned to the field of unapproved beliefs along with astrology and other forms of divination and "magic."  Through this religious purging, the spiritual significance assigned to the heretofore "sacred" numbers began to disappear. In spite of this suppression there were still many devout believers, who kept the secret knowledge locked away.
---
> In 325 A.D., following the Nicene Council, departures from the beliefs of the state Church were classified as civil violations within the Roman Empire. Numerology had not found favor with the Christian authority of the day.  It was assigned to the field of unapproved beliefs along with astrology and other forms of divination and "magic."  Through this religious purging, the spiritual significance assigned to the heretofore "sacred" numbers began to disappear. In spite of this suppression there were still many devout believers, who kept the secret knowledge locked away.
------
Gareth_Owen|984421581
17c17,20
< Well, welcome, Gareth.  Plainly you're into music as you say...me too, but my interests there are unfortunately very limited (see [[Irish traditional music]]). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Well, welcome, Gareth.  Plainly you're into music as you say...me too, but my interests there are unfortunately very limited (see [[Irish traditional music]]). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> 
> My cookie has packed up, so you may know me as rossby.maths.keele.ac.uk
------
Trial_de_novo|984421670
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Literally a "new trial."  A trial de novo may be granted in certain circumstances where justice may only be served by trying the [[cause of action]] newly as though it had never seen the inside of a courtroom before.  Contrast with [[appeal]].
------
Law|984421722
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] --etc.
------
Ada|984421823
1c1,2
< Programming language, named after Ada Lovelace, the first programmer.  Really only used anymore in US Department of Defense stuff.  Oh yeah, and Ada95, the most popular Ada compiler actually translates your code to C, then compiles the C.  I love that.
---
> Ada is a strongly typed language created by and for the [[US Department of Defense]].  It is similar to traditional structured
> programming languages and adds several object based concepts.
3c4
< ----
---
> Ada was named after [[Ada Lovelace]].
5c6,15
< Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
---
> ---
> What about 
> * how Ada tied into formal specification languages?
> * how ada is very stongly typed
> * packages in ada
> * concurrency support
> * real time/embedded system support ???
> * how Ada suffered from design by DOC committee/specifications
> and required super-fast hardware for compilation/debugging.
> * ?? others
6a17,20
> ---
> Really only used anymore in US Department of Defense stuff.  Oh yeah, and Ada95, the most popular Ada compiler actually translates your code to C, then compiles the C.  I love that.
> ----
> Ada95 is ''not'' a compiler, it is a version of Ada, the most recent version, I believe.   I am also skeptical of the idea that Ada is "really only used anymore" in the US DOD.
------
TheoremProving|984421886
9,12c9,12
< There are ? basic ways of proving a theorem correct:
< * Contradiction - Assuming the theorem is always false and proving that the assumption is never true
< * [[Inductance]] (do you mean [[mathematical induction]]?)
< * ?
---
> There are many ways of proving a theorem correct, including:
> * [[reductio ad absurdum|Contradiction]] - If we can show that the assumption that our hypothesis is false leads to a logical contradiction, it follows that the hypothesis must be true.  Also known as [[reductio ad absurdum]].
> * [[mathematical induction]]
> 
------
Cause_of_action|984421975
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Legal terminology for a reson to go to court.  Certain causes of action are specifically recognized in law as being sufficient to get a court to recognize and try them.  Others are recognized in court as a matter of [[common law]].
> 
> If a person runs over another in a car, this would generally constitute a cause of action.  On may, in contrast, seek to file a suit over the fact that one was offended by an obsecene gesture.  The latter fact would not be recognized by a court of law as a cause of action, and the matter would be dismissed as a [[frivolous lawsuit]], possibly resulting in [[sanctions]].
------
Cause_of_action|984421993
1c1
< Legal terminology for a reson to go to court.  Certain causes of action are specifically recognized in law as being sufficient to get a court to recognize and try them.  Others are recognized in court as a matter of [[common law]].
---
> Legal terminology for a reason to go to court.  Certain causes of action are specifically recognized in law as being sufficient to get a court to recognize and try them.  Others are recognized in court as a matter of [[common law]].
------
Cause_of_action|984422038
3c3
< If a person runs over another in a car, this would generally constitute a cause of action.  On may, in contrast, seek to file a suit over the fact that one was offended by an obsecene gesture.  The latter fact would not be recognized by a court of law as a cause of action, and the matter would be dismissed as a [[frivolous lawsuit]], possibly resulting in [[sanctions]].
---
> If a person runs over another in a car, this would generally constitute a cause of action.  One may, in contrast, seek to file a suit over the fact that one was offended by an obscene gesture.  The latter fact would not be recognized by a court of law as a cause of action, and the matter would be dismissed as a [[frivolous lawsuit]], possibly resulting in [[sanctions]].
------
A|984422086
1c1
< The first letter in the Roman alphabet, derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which is pretty much the same in shape and function.  Like other Latin vowels, a came in a long (sounded as in f''a''ther) and a short (sounded as in Din''ah'') variety.  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, notably in English the sound in c''a''t, formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc.
---
> The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which is pretty much the same in shape and function.  Like other Latin vowels, a came in a long (sounded as in f''a''ther) and a short (sounded as in Din''ah'') variety.  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, notably in English the sound in c''a''t, formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc.
3c3
< On computers the uppercase letter is represented with ASCII code 65 and the lowercase letter with code 97. 
---
> On computers the uppercase letter is represented with [[ASCII]] code 65 and the lowercase letter with code 97. 
------
Law|984422116
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] --etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- etc.
------
Ada|984422171
6c6
< ---
---
> ----
17c17
< ---
---
> ----
22a23,24
> ----
> Should there be a section on primary users of a language like ada and how their requirements affected the language?
------
Napoleonic_Code|984422228
1c1
< The term Napoleonic Code stems from the original "Code Napoleon" (law of Napoleon) established at Napoleon's behest in France during his reign.  It applies to a jurisdiction which is ruled by "[[civil law]]" rather than customary law (such as English [[common law]]).  Civil law is law which seeks to deal with all legal issues through statute rather than custom, and where custom remains as a legal standard only where statute has not taken its place.  The statutory scheme is attempted to be developed along wholly rational lines, thereby providing a balance and consistency which may be lacking in some areas of custom.
---
> The term Napoleonic Code stems from the original "Code Napoleon" (law of Napoleon) established at Napoleon's behest in [[France]] during his reign.  It applies to a jurisdiction which is ruled by "[[civil law]]" rather than customary law (such as English [[common law]]).  Civil law is law which seeks to deal with all legal issues through statute rather than custom, and where custom remains as a legal standard only where statute has not taken its place.  The statutory scheme is attempted to be developed along wholly rational lines, thereby providing a balance and consistency which may be lacking in some areas of custom.
5c5
< In the United States, Louisiana alone has a Naopleonic code. 
---
> In the [[United States]], [[Louisiana]] alone has a Naopleonic code. 
------
Frivolous_lawsuit|984422262
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This would be a lawsuit brought in spite of the fact that both the plaintiff and his lawyer knew that it had no merit.  Since it wastes the court's and the people's time and money, it may result in [[sanctions]] being levied by the court.
------
Reductio_ad_absurdum|984422359
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tool of mathematical logic.  
> 
> Say we wish to prove hypothesis A.  The procedure is to show that to assume "not A" (i.e. that A is false) leads to a logical contradiction.  Thus A cannot be false, and must therefore be true.  For an example, see [[Cantors Diagonal argument]]
> 
> Name comes from the [[latin]] for "Reduced to an absurdity."
------
Vexatious_litigation|984422492
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vexatious litigation is that which is brought, regardless of its merits (usually it has none) solely to harrass or subdue an adversary.  It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetetive, burdensome and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]].  It is an abuse of the judicial process and almost always brings down [[sanctions]] on the offender.
------
Vexatious_litigation|984422538
1a2,3
> 
> Repeated and severe instances by a single lawyer can result in his [[disbarment]].
------
Ada_Lovelace|984422616
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Programmer for [[Charles Babbage]]'s machines.
> ----
> She is sometimes mischaracterized as the inventor of the
> computer.
------
Vexatious_litigation|984422669
1c1
< Vexatious litigation is that which is brought, regardless of its merits (usually it has none) solely to harrass or subdue an adversary.  It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetetive, burdensome and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]].  It is an abuse of the judicial process and almost always brings down [[sanctions]] on the offender.
---
> Vexatious litigation is that which is brought, regardless of its merits (usually it has none) solely to harrass or subdue an adversary.  It may take the form of a primary [[frivolous lawsuit]] or may be the repetitive, burdensome and unwarranted filing of meritless motions in a matter which is otherwise a meritorious [[cause of action]].  It is an abuse of the judicial process and almost always brings down [[sanctions]] on the offender.
------
Sanctions|984422908
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Penalties, usually monetary fines, levied against a party to a legal action or his attorney, for violating rules of procedure, or for abusing the judicial process.  The most severe sanction is the involuntary dismissal, [[with prejudice]], of the complaining party's [[cause of action]], or of the responding party's [[answer]].  This has the effect of deciding the entire action against the sanctioned party without recourse, except to the degree that an [[appeal]] or [[trial de novo]] may be allowed because of [[reversible error]].
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|984422910
17c17
< * Wikipedia is very fertile soil.  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
---
> * [[Wiki As Fertile Soil|Wikipedia is very fertile soil]].  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
------
TheoremProving|984422916
8a9,13
> I don't follow this.  In my mind a theorem consists of a statement of the theorem followed by a proof of its truth.  See, for example, the theorems in [[ElementaryGroupTheory]]
> 
> One may seek to prove a new theorem by hypothesis->investigation->conclusion, but that isn't the theorem.
> 
> ----
------
Law|984423012
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[reversible error]] -- etc.
------
With_prejudice|984423160
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a judicial phrase meaning "having been decided."  The effect of dismissing an action "with prejudice" is to render final judgement such that the matter may not be brought before that court again.  This does not prevent an [[appeal]] or a [[trial de novo]] if ordered by a higher court.
------
Wiki_As_Fertile_Soil|984423166
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> I have come to the opinion that Wikis are like highly fertile soil.  Things <i>grow<i/> in a wiki.  But to make a beautiful garden requires a few things.
> 
> First, to make a beautiful garden on a plot of fertile soil requires a vision, a unifying plan of what the garden should be like.  In our case, the unifying vision is the broad concept of an "encyclopedia" -- a distillation of all human knowledge.
> 
> Second, to make a beautiful garden on a plot of fertile soil requires <i>gardeners</i> who tend with loving care to each little corner, pulling weeds, training vines, planting seeds.
> In our case, the pulling of weeds and training of vines means editing some articles to make them constantly better.  The planting of seeds involves making index pages that cry out for new growth to appear.
> 
> And finally -- to push the metaphor a bit too hard -- a wiki needs sunlight, which means that the active participants always talk in an open and sunny pleasant way about changes that are being made, disagreements that need to be resolved, etc.
> 
> 
------
Wiki_As_Fertile_Soil|984423190
1,2c1
< 
< I have come to the opinion that Wikis are like highly fertile soil.  Things <i>grow<i/> in a wiki.  But to make a beautiful garden requires a few things.
---
> I have come to the opinion that Wikis are like highly fertile soil.  Things <i>grow</i> in a wiki.  But to make a beautiful garden requires a few things.
------
Answer|984423414
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
> 
> The answer establishes which issues set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and why, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court.
------
Answer|984423438
1c1
< The first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
---
> IN law, the first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
3c3
< The answer establishes which issues set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and why, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court.
---
> The answer establishes which issues set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and why, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court.
------
United_States_Supreme_Court|984423486
3c3
< Nine justices are appointed for life by the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|President]] and confirmed by majority vote by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
---
> Currently nine justices are appointed for life by the [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|President]] and confirmed by majority vote by the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
5c5
< The Supreme Court only hears cases appealed from lower federal courts.
---
> While the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in a few cases such as suits between states, most of its work consists of reviewing cases from lower federal courts, either by direct appeal or more often by petition for [[Writ of Certiorari]].
------
Rational_numbers|984423495
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The rational numbers are those which may be expressed as the ratio between two [[IntegerNumbers|integers]], where the [[denominator]] is not equal to zero.  They are commonly called `fractions'.
> 
> Mathematically we may define them as an ordered pair of integers (a,b), with b not equal to zero.  We define the following operations:
> :: (a,b) + (c,d) = (a*d + b*c,b*d)
> :: (a,b) * (c,d) = (a*c,b*d)
> To conform to our expectation that 2/4 = 1/2, we consider (a,b) to be equivalent to (c,d) if, and only if, a*d = b*c.
> 
> So defined, the set of rational numbers, Q, forms a [[FielD]].  It may be shown that Q is the smallest field which contains the integers.
------
Logrolling|984423507
1,2c1,3
< Trading of votes by legislative members to obtain passage of 
< actions of interest to each legislative member.
---
> This colorful phrase is often used to describe trading of votes by legislative members to obtain passage of actions of interest to each legislative member.
> 
> The phrase is likely derived from the old custom of neighbors assisting each other with the moving of logs.  If two neighbors had cut a lot of timber which needed to be moved, it made more sense for them to work together to roll the logs -- if you'll help me roll my logs, I'll help you roll mine.  
------
Rational_numbers|984423623
6c6
< To conform to our expectation that 2/4 = 1/2, we consider (a,b) to be equivalent to (c,d) if, and only if, a*d = b*c.
---
> To conform to our expectation that 2/4 = 1/2, we consider (a,b) to be [[equivalence classes|equivalent]] to (c,d) if, and only if, a*d = b*c.
------
Rational_numbers|984423695
6c6
< To conform to our expectation that 2/4 = 1/2, we consider (a,b) to be [[equivalence classes|equivalent]] to (c,d) if, and only if, a*d = b*c.
---
> To conform to our expectation that 2/4 = 1/2, we consider (a,b) to be [[equivalence relation|equivalent]] to (c,d) if, and only if, a*d = b*c.
------
Wiki_Canonization|984424071
17a18,23
> 
> <i>I don't think there are any.  Indeed, canonizing different things to the same thing is often good, even when it leads to ambiguity. The ambiguity can be resolved on the canonical page.
> 
> It is unfortunate but true that we have to be careful to support what has been done in the past.  We only used CrammedTogetherWords links for a month or so, and we still haven't gotten rid of them completely, and I expect to keep finding a few two months from now.</i>
> 
> 
------
Writ_of_Certiorari|984424289
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is an action of a higher court of instructing a lower court to certify and submit an issue as having been decided below, and transmit that issue to the higher court so that the validity of the lower holding may be determined.
> 
> A writ of certiorari is almost always petitioned for during the course of a trial not yet completed, when a decision of the trial court is felt to potentially imminently result in manifest injustice.  If the petition is granted, and the higher court issues a writ, then the lower court must often suspend proceedings until the issue is passed on by the higher court so that the trial can proceed in a fair manner and no prejudice is suffered by the moving party.
> 
> A petition for writ of certiorari will only be granted in cases where the higher court conceives that there is no other reasonable remedy at law, and both justice and judicial economy (as in obviating the need for a new trial) will be served.
------
Equivalence_relation|984424299
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An equivalence relation is a relationship between to or more mathematical entities which satisfies three simple axioms.
> Denoting typical entities by a,b,c and the relationship a ~ b, these are:
> # Reflexivity: a ~ a for all a.
> # Symmetry:  If a ~ b, then b ~ a
> # Transitivity:  If a ~ b and b ~ c, the a ~ c
> 
> Examples:
> #The relationship "=" between [[real numbers]] is an equivalence relation.  Checking the axioms is left as an exercise for the reader.
> # The relationship ">=" between real numbers is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although
> ::a>=a for all a,
> :and
> ::a>=b and b>=c implies a >= c
> :the symmetry axiom is not satisfied.  e.g. 7 >= 5 does not imply that 5 >= 7  !
> 
> Equivalence relations are often used to define [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]].
------
Law|984424358
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[reversible error]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- etc.
------
Equivalence_relation|984424456
12c12
< ::a>=b and b>=c implies a >= c
---
> ::a>=b with b>=c implies a >= c
------
Equivalence_relation|984424479
5c5
< # Transitivity:  If a ~ b and b ~ c, the a ~ c
---
> # Transitivity:  If a ~ b and b ~ c, then a ~ c
------
Reductio_ad_absurdum|984424781
1c1
< Tool of mathematical logic.  
---
> Tool of mathematical logic, also known as "Proof by Contradiction."
------
Reductio_ad_absurdum|984425445
1c1
< Tool of mathematical logic, also known as "Proof by Contradiction."
---
> Tool of logic, also known as "Proof by Contradiction."
5c5
< Name comes from the [[latin]] for "Reduced to an absurdity."
---
> Name comes from the [[Latin]] for "Reduced to an absurdity."
------
Reversible_error|984425582
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An error by the trier of law (judge) or the trier of fact (jury - or again the judge if it is a bench trial) or malfeasance by one of the trying attorneys which results in an unfair trial.
> 
> Technically, attorney misconduct is not reversible error.  Failure of the judge to remedy it during the trial is reversible error.  In cases such as unfairly or illegally concealing evidence, there is no error on the part of the court but the court's decision may still be vacated and the matter returned for a new trial, because there is no other way for justice to be done.
------
Law|984425680
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- etc.
------
TheoremProving|984425715
1c1
< A [[mathematical theorem]] begins with a [[mathematical hypothesis]], proceeds through [[mathematical reasoning]] to reach a [[mathematical conclusion]].
---
> Mathematicians, logicians, and others who prove [[theorem]s seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to others.
3,13d2
< Mathematicians seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to other mathematicians. The main differences between mathematical argument and ordinary logical [[LoGic|argument]] are in the [[Mathematics/Schemes|topics]] of mathematical discourse. 
< 
< The following diagram displays the relations among the terms:
< 
< *<font size=+2 color=red>Theorem = Hypothesis--->Proof--->Conclusion</font>
< 
< I don't follow this.  In my mind a theorem consists of a statement of the theorem followed by a proof of its truth.  See, for example, the theorems in [[ElementaryGroupTheory]]
< 
< One may seek to prove a new theorem by hypothesis->investigation->conclusion, but that isn't the theorem.
< 
< ----
15,19c4,5
< * [[reductio ad absurdum|Contradiction]] - If we can show that the assumption that our hypothesis is false leads to a logical contradiction, it follows that the hypothesis must be true.  Also known as [[reductio ad absurdum]].
< * [[mathematical induction]]
< 
< 
< ''By mathematical hypothesis, are we meaning the result to be proven or [[axioms]]?
---
> * [[Reductio ad absurdum]]: If we can show that the assumption that our hypothesis is false leads to a contradiction, it follows that the hypothesis must be true.
> * [[Mathematical induction]]
20a7
> /Talk
------
Double_jeopardy|984425943
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A legal phrase stemming from the United States constitutional edict that no man may be placed in jeopardy of lfe, limb or liberty for the same offense twice.
> 
> This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for murder once, and found not guilty, then he cannot be tried for the same crime again, even if later evidence comes to light proving his guilt beyond a doubt.
> 
> In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for perjury, but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
------
TheoremProving|984425963
1,7c1
< Mathematicians, logicians, and others who prove [[theorem]s seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to others.
< 
< There are many ways of proving a theorem correct, including:
< * [[Reductio ad absurdum]]: If we can show that the assumption that our hypothesis is false leads to a contradiction, it follows that the hypothesis must be true.
< * [[Mathematical induction]]
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Theorem-proving]]
------
Theorem-proving|984425980
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematicians, logicians, and others who prove [[theorem]s seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to others.
> 
> There are many ways of proving a theorem correct, including:
> * [[Reductio ad absurdum]]: If we can show that the assumption that our hypothesis is false leads to a contradiction, it follows that the hypothesis must be true.
> * [[Mathematical induction]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Bluegrass|984426096
1c1
< Music [[genre]] that was the main precursor to country music.
---
> Music [[genre]] that was the main precursor to [[country music]]. 
2a3,5
> Bluegrass is a relatively unchanged form of Appalachian folk music, with roots in the [[CelticMusic|celtic music]] of immigrants from the British Isles. It was popularised in the first half of the 20th century by [[Bill Monroe]] and the Bluegrass Boys.  Unlike mainstream [[country music]], bluegrass today still tends rely on the traditional stringed instruments (usually [[fiddle]], [[banjo]], [[acoustic guitar]] and [[mandolin]]).
> 
> ----
------
Theorem-proving/Talk|984426273
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Apologies to the original author of TheoremProving, but, having proven a few theorems in my time, but I thought your claims were, basically, false, and it wasn't clear what you were trying to get at anyway...so I deleted them and left a little about what was correct and generally-accepted and -understood on the topic.
------
Theorem-proving|984426328
1c1
< Mathematicians, logicians, and others who prove [[theorem]s seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to others.
---
> Mathematicians, logicians, and others who prove [[theorem]]s seek to establish chains of [[LoGic|reasoning]] that are convincing to others.
3c3
< There are many ways of proving a theorem correct, including:
---
> There are many ways to prove a theorem, including:
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Supreme_court|984427038
1c1
< In the United States, the highest court of a given geographical area.  In some states of the United States, the highest court is styled "Supreme Court," in others "Court of Appeals."
---
> In some countries and provinces, the highest court is called the ''supreme court''; for example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In geographical areas with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets that area's constitution.
3c3
< In Great Britain, whos law forms the basis for American Law, there is no court called Supreme Court.  The highest court in that land is the House of Lords, which hears appeals from The Court of Appeals and the High Court.  The Court of Appeals can also hear some appeals from the High Court.  (Below the High Court are the Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals.)
---
> Generally, the higher courts in an area are those generally regarded to create [[case law]] with their decisions.
5c5
< The higher courts in an area are those generally regarded to create [[case law]] with their decisions.
---
> In some states of the United States, the highest court is styled "Supreme Court"; in others, "Court of Appeals."
7c7,9
< See also [[United States Supreme Court]].  In countries with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets the constitution.
---
> In Great Britain, there is no court called "Supreme Court."  The highest court there is the [[British House of Lords]], which hears appeals from the [[British Court of Appeals]] and the [[British High Court]].  (The Court of Appeals can also hear some appeals from the High Court.  Below the High Court are the Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals.  ''This parenthetical comment should be moved to an appropriate British law page.'')
> 
> See also [[United States Supreme Court]].
------
Theorem-proving/Talk|984427072
1c1,3
< Apologies to the original author of TheoremProving, but, having proven a few theorems in my time, but I thought your claims were, basically, false, and it wasn't clear what you were trying to get at anyway...so I deleted them and left a little about what was correct and generally-accepted and -understood on the topic.
---
> Apologies to the original author of TheoremProving, but, having proven a few theorems in my time, but I thought your claims were, basically, false, and it wasn't clear what you were trying to get at anyway...so I deleted them and left a little about what was correct and generally-accepted and -understood on the topic.
> 
> Please remove this comment when you see it.  :-)
------
Double_jeopardy|984427118
5c5,7
< In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for perjury, but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
---
> In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for perjury, but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
> 
> In another famous case, a man was tried again for murder after having been acquitted.  He had bribed the judge in his first trial, and this corrupt deception was later discovered.  It was ruled by the higher court in that case that a second trial for the same offense did not constitute double jeopardy, as "jeopardy had not attached" in the first trial.  In other words, since acquittal was a foregone conclusion in the first trial after the killer bribed the judge, it was not impermissible to give him a actual, just trial after the foregoing sham.
------
Sanctions|984427149
1c1,3
< Penalties, usually monetary fines, levied against a party to a legal action or his attorney, for violating rules of procedure, or for abusing the judicial process.  The most severe sanction is the involuntary dismissal, [[with prejudice]], of the complaining party's [[cause of action]], or of the responding party's [[answer]].  This has the effect of deciding the entire action against the sanctioned party without recourse, except to the degree that an [[appeal]] or [[trial de novo]] may be allowed because of [[reversible error]].
---
> Penalties, usually monetary fines, levied against a party to a legal action or his attorney, for violating rules of procedure, or for abusing the judicial process.  The most severe sanction is the involuntary dismissal, [[with prejudice]], of the complaining party's [[cause of action]], or of the responding party's [[answer]].  This has the effect of deciding the entire action against the sanctioned party without recourse, except to the degree that an [[appeal]] or [[trial de novo]] may be allowed because of [[reversible error]].
> 
> This is only one sense of the word ''sanctions,'' even in a legal contect--no?
------
Theorem-proving/Talk|984427225
3c3,8
< Please remove this comment when you see it.  :-)
---
> Please remove this comment when you see it.  :-)
> ----
> Can anything be said in generality besides theorem proving has a tendency to go:
> : Theorem:  Statement of thm.
> 
> : Proof:  This, that,the  other, Lemma1, Lemma2, special case, QED.
------
Wiki_As_Fertile_Soil|984427227
9,10c9,10
< 
< 
---
> ----
> Don't forget that some article stubs are remarkably like manure--they don't smell very good but from them, beautiful things grow.
------
Answer|984427328
1c1
< IN law, the first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
---
> In law, the first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
3c3
< The answer establishes which issues set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and why, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court.
---
> The answer establishes which allegations set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and why, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the court.
------
Vexatious_litigation|984427435
3a4,5
> ----
> Is there a specific term for schronized filing of claims in courts throughout the country in order to harass a company?
------
Great_Britain|984427536
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[United Kingdom]]
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] which form the largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with surrounding smaller island groups.  Together with [[Northern Ireland]] they for the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Great_Britain|984427554
1c1
< The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] which form the largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with surrounding smaller island groups.  Together with [[Northern Ireland]] they for the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] which form the largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with surrounding smaller island groups.  Together with [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Answer|984427639
1c1,3
< In law, the first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
---
> A kind of response to a question.
> 
> Also, in law, the first [[pleading]] by a defendant, usually filed within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served.
3a6,7
> ----
> Please see [[naming conventions]].  :-)
------
Disbarment|984427687
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Removal, usually for cause, of the offical privilege of being allowed to practice before the judicial [[bar]] of a jurisdiction where one formerly had that privilege.
------
PhilosophyAndLogic|984427817
1c1
< Let's work on articles on (at least) these famous philosophers:
---
> Famous philosophers:
3,15c3,9
< AristotlE
< 
< PlatO
< 
< EpicuruS
< 
< ReneDescartes
< 
< ImmanuelKant
< 
< Friedrich Nietzsche
< 
< [[Ayn Rand]]
---
> * AristotlE
> * EpicuruS
> * ReneDescartes
> * ImmanuelKant
> * Friedrich Nietzsche
> * PlatO
> * [[Ayn Rand]]
------
Law|984427956
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
------
Great_Britain|984428077
1a2,4
> 
> See also:
> * [[British Commonwealth]]
------
Bar|984428363
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law:
> #a railing in a courtroom that encloses the area around judge where prisoners are made to sit or where the business of the court is conducted in civil cases 
> # a court or tribunal that hands down judgement.
> #figuratively, a particular system of courts or the courts in general "the bar of justice."
> #the barrier in the English Inns of Court that formerly separated the seats of the benchers or readers from the body of the hall occupied by the students, hence, one is officially a lawyer when one crosses the barrier and is "admitted to the bar."
> #the whole community of persons authorized to secure or dispense justice, including the barristers or lawyers qualified to practice in the courts of a jurisdiction, as well as the judges thereof
> #the profession of being a lawyer or barrister.
> 
------
Equivalence_class|984428457
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Subset formed by an [[equivalence relation]].  From the transitivity of an equivalence relation "~", it is clear that for any element a in a [[set]] X, the set:
> :: {x in X, x ~ a}
> is well defined.  Such a set (of mutually equivalent elements in X) a called an equivalence class.
> 
> The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing the rational and real numbers from the integers. 
> 
> See also:
> *[[rational numbers]]
> *[[real numbers]]
------
Rational_numbers|984428489
8c8
< So defined, the set of rational numbers, Q, forms a [[FielD]].  It may be shown that Q is the smallest field which contains the integers.
---
> So defined, the set of rational numbers, Q, forms a [[field]].  It may be shown that Q is the smallest field which contains the integers.
------
Rational_numbers|984428611
8a9,11
> 
> See also:
> * [[real numbers]]
------
Writ_of_Certiorari|984428630
1c1
< This is an action of a higher court of instructing a lower court to certify and submit an issue as having been decided below, and transmit that issue to the higher court so that the validity of the lower holding may be determined.
---
> This is an action of a higher court of instructing a lower court to certify and submit an issue as having been decided below, and transmit that issue to the higher court so that the validity of the lower court holding may be determined.
5c5
< A petition for writ of certiorari will only be granted in cases where the higher court conceives that there is no other reasonable remedy at law, and both justice and judicial economy (as in obviating the need for a new trial) will be served.
---
> A petition for writ of certiorari will only be granted in cases where the higher court conceives that there is no other reasonable remedy at law, and both justice and judicial economy (as in obviating the need for a new trial) will be served.
------
American_Samoa|984428836
322a323,325
> ----
> Curious facts:
> * Made in the USA - Goods manufactured in territories / protectorates of the [[United States]] can be labeled 'Made in the USA'
------
Sabbath|984428934
5a6,7
> ----
> Sabbath is also used to non-religiously refer to the heavy metal band [[Black Sabbath]]
------
PhilosophyAndLogic|984429021
1,11c1
< Famous philosophers:
< 
< * AristotlE
< * EpicuruS
< * ReneDescartes
< * ImmanuelKant
< * Friedrich Nietzsche
< * PlatO
< * [[Ayn Rand]]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy]]
------
Woody_Allen|984429037
11c11
< In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he divorced Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that proved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated mcuh interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the divorce). 
---
> In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he split from long term partner Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that proved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated much interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the split). 
------
Wales|984429509
6a7
> The [[patron saint]] of Wales is [[St David]] and its flag is composed of a red [[dragon]] on a green and white field.
------
Sabbath|984430558
3c3
< Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
---
> Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, following the publication of the first [[blue law]] by Constantine in the 4th centyr A.D., Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
7c7
< Sabbath is also used to non-religiously refer to the heavy metal band [[Black Sabbath]]
---
> Sabbath is also used to non-religiously refer to the heavy metal band [[Black Sabbath]]
------
Sabbath|984430579
3c3
< Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, following the publication of the first [[blue law]] by Constantine in the 4th centyr A.D., Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
---
> Early Christians honored the Sabbath on Saturday, the seventh day, and met again on Sunday (the "eighth" day, see Acts 20:7), to partake of the sacrament and celebrate Christ's resurrection.  Later Paul de-emphasized the need to follow many Jewish laws/traditions.  Eventually, following the publication of the first [[blue law]] by Constantine in the 4th century A.D., Sunday became the Christian Sabbath.
------
BokoNonism|984430713
1c1
< Bokononism is the religion practiced by many of the characters of "Cat's Cradle," one of Kurt Vonnegut's best novels. It is based on living by the untruths that make one happy.  Bokononistic sex is a union of two souls achieved by placing the soles of two people's feet together. 
---
> Bokononism is the religion practiced by many of the characters of "[[Cats Cradle|Cat's Cradle]]," one of [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s best novels. It is based on living by the untruths that make one happy.  Bokononistic sex is a union of two souls achieved by placing the soles of two people's feet together. 
3c3
< See also WamPeters, FoMa, and GranfaloonS.
---
> See also WamPeters, FoMa, and GranfaloonS.
------
Blue_law|984430745
3c3
< A [[blue law]] prohibits selling of certain type so merchandise on certain days (usually [[Sunday]]) of the week.
---
> A [[blue law]] prohibits selling of certain types of merchandise, or retail or business activity of any kind, on certain days (usually [[Sunday]]) of the week.
------
Case_law|984432065
3c3
< Popularly, case law is understood as being established by the decisions of the [[Supreme Court]] or highest court of the land, or of various [[Courts of Appeals]].
---
> Popularly, case law is understood as being established by the decisions of the [[Supreme Court]] or highest court of the land, or of various [[Appellate court]]s.
------
Appellate_court|984432488
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An appellate court is one which only hears matters on which a lower court, or court of first jurisdiction, has already decided, and by which one party to the action or another feels aggrieved.  The appellate court examines the evidence and law under which the lower court decision was found, and declares the decision sound or funds fault with it.  If the appellate court finds a lower court decision defective, it may nullify, or "[[reverse]]" the decision altogether without purther proceedings, or may send the matter back for retrial or other proceedings by the lower court in order to remedy the defect.
> 
> No new substantive proceedings on the issues are had in an appellate court, only review of proceedings in the court below.  
------
Appellate_court|984433199
1c1
< An appellate court is one which only hears matters on which a lower court, or court of first jurisdiction, has already decided, and by which one party to the action or another feels aggrieved.  The appellate court examines the evidence and law under which the lower court decision was found, and declares the decision sound or funds fault with it.  If the appellate court finds a lower court decision defective, it may nullify, or "[[reverse]]" the decision altogether without purther proceedings, or may send the matter back for retrial or other proceedings by the lower court in order to remedy the defect.
---
> An appellate court is one which only hears matters on which a lower court, or court of first jurisdiction, has already decided, and by which one party to the action or another feels aggrieved.  The appellate court examines the evidence and law under which the lower court decision was found, and declares the decision sound or funds fault with it.  If the appellate court finds a lower court decision defective, it may nullify, or "[[reverse]]" the decision altogether without further proceedings, or may send the matter back for retrial or other proceedings by the lower court in order to remedy the defect.
3c3
< No new substantive proceedings on the issues are had in an appellate court, only review of proceedings in the court below.  
---
> No new substantive proceedings on the issues are had in an appellate court, only review of proceedings in the court below.  
------
Appellate_court|984433261
1c1
< An appellate court is one which only hears matters on which a lower court, or court of first jurisdiction, has already decided, and by which one party to the action or another feels aggrieved.  The appellate court examines the evidence and law under which the lower court decision was found, and declares the decision sound or funds fault with it.  If the appellate court finds a lower court decision defective, it may nullify, or "[[reverse]]" the decision altogether without further proceedings, or may send the matter back for retrial or other proceedings by the lower court in order to remedy the defect.
---
> An appellate court is one which only hears matters on which a lower court, or court of first jurisdiction, has already decided, and by which one party to the action or another feels aggrieved.  The appellate court examines the evidence and law under which the lower court decision was found, and declares the decision sound or finds fault with it.  If the appellate court finds a lower court decision defective, it may nullify, or "[[reverse]]" the decision altogether without further proceedings, or may send the matter back for retrial or other proceedings by the lower court in order to remedy the defect.
------
Law|984433941
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court ]] [[Court of Appeals]][[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
------
Law|984433987
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court ]] [[Court of Appeals]][[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]] [[Court of Appeals]][[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
------
Law|984434053
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]] [[Court of Appeals]][[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
------
Court_of_Appeals|984434482
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Formal name of an [[appellate court]] in certain jurisdictions.  In the State of New York, for instance, the Court of Appeals is the highest court in the land.
> 
> In New Mexico, the Court of Appeals is the intermediate appellate court between county jurisdictions and the state's Supreme Court.
> 
> In Nevada, there is no Court of Appeals.  Cases are appealed directly from District (county) Courts to the state's Supreme Court.
> 
> In Great Britain, the Court of Appeals sits above the High Court (also an appellate court) and below the ultimate judicial authority, the House of Lords.
------
British_Court_of_Appeals|984434650
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Court of Appeals]] in Great Britain
------
Supreme_court|984434775
7c7
< In Great Britain, there is no court called "Supreme Court."  The highest court there is the [[British House of Lords]], which hears appeals from the [[British Court of Appeals]] and the [[British High Court]].  (The Court of Appeals can also hear some appeals from the High Court.  Below the High Court are the Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals.  ''This parenthetical comment should be moved to an appropriate British law page.'')
---
> In Great Britain, there is no court called "Supreme Court."  The highest court there is the [[British House of Lords]], which hears appeals from the [[British Court of Appeals]] and the [[British High Court]].  (The [[Court of Appeals]] can also hear some appeals from the High Court.  Below the High Court are the Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Tribunals.  ''This parenthetical comment should be moved to an appropriate British law page.'')
9c9
< See also [[United States Supreme Court]].
---
> See also [[United States Supreme Court]].
------
Supreme_court|984435007
1c1
< In some countries and provinces, the highest court is called the ''supreme court''; for example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In geographical areas with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets that area's constitution.
---
> In some countries, provinces and states, the highest court is called the ''supreme court''; for example, the [[United States Supreme Court]].  In geographical areas with [[constitution]]s, the supreme court interprets that area's constitution.
------
Philosophy|984435581
11c11
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
23c23
< [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of [[Larrys Text]] to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
---
> [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of [[Larrys Text]] to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
------
Games/Cards|984436826
0a1,2
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-size rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
> 
3c5
< Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]] in the 1400s used for [[cartomancy]] (fortune-telling with cards), but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  Although the present internationally-used design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
---
> Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe in the 1400s with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  In most of the world today, they are primarily used for [[cartomancy]].
5c7
< In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
---
> Although the present internationally-used playing card design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
7c9
< For more information:
---
> In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
9c11
< [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
---
> For more information: [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
------
BillClinton|984439801
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bill Clinton]]
------
Central_Processing_Unit|984440003
1c1,2
< see [[CPU]]
---
> Often abbreviated "CPU", This is the part of a computer that interprets and performs the instructions given to it by [[Computer Program|programs]].  In many computers, this is further divided into a [[control unit]] that handles program flow and an [[arithmetic and logic unit]] that performs operations on data.  The term is often used vaguely to include other centrally important parts of a computer such as [[memory]] and [[input/output]] control, especially in computers with modern [[microprocessor]] chips that include several of these functions in one physical chip.
> 
------
CPU|984440045
1,3c1
< Central Processing Unit, a computer's main [[processor]]. The CPU is generally composed of two units: the [[Control Unit]] and the [[Arithmetic and Logic unit]]([[ALU]]). The control unit is repsonsible for exectuting instructions. The ALU is responsible for calculations and logic operations.
< 
< CPU is an acroynm for Central Processing Unit.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Central Processing Unit]]
------
Input/Output_Device|984441064
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To be useful, a computer must have some means of acquiring new data to operate on and of producing results for eventual human consumption.  These functions are called <i>input</i> and <i>output</i>, collectively <i>Input/Output</i> or just <i>I/O</i>.  Many devices facilitate these functions, including <i>I/O Devices</i> such as [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer printer|printers]], <i>Interfaces</i> that connect these devices to the [[central processing unit]], and <i>I/O Controllers</i> that manage the flow of data among them.
------
Input/Output|984441115
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To be useful, a computer must have some means of acquiring new data to operate on and of producing results for eventual human consumption.  These functions are called <i>input</i> and <i>output</i>, collectively <i>Input/Output</i> or just <i>I/O</i>.  Many devices facilitate these functions, including <i>I/O Devices</i> such as [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer printer|printers]], <i>Interfaces</i> that connect these devices to the [[central processing unit]], and <i>I/O Controllers</i> that manage the flow of data among them.
> 
------
Input/Output_Device|984441197
1c1
< To be useful, a computer must have some means of acquiring new data to operate on and of producing results for eventual human consumption.  These functions are called <i>input</i> and <i>output</i>, collectively <i>Input/Output</i> or just <i>I/O</i>.  Many devices facilitate these functions, including <i>I/O Devices</i> such as [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer printer|printers]], <i>Interfaces</i> that connect these devices to the [[central processing unit]], and <i>I/O Controllers</i> that manage the flow of data among them.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Input/Output]]
------
Computing|984441278
10c10
< ** [[Input/Output Device]]
---
> ** [[Input/Output]]
12,13c12,14
< *** [[Keyboard]]
< *** [[Mouse]]
---
> *** [[Computer Keyboard|Keyboard]]
> *** [[Computer Mouse|Mouse]]
> *** [[Computer Monitor|Monitor]]
------
Polynomial|984441329
1,13d0
< A '''polynomial''' is a [[Function]] from one set of numbers to another. The value of the dependent variable is determined by summing terms involving powers of the independent variable as in
< 
< *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x + a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup> + ... + a<sub>n</sub>x<sup>n</sup></font>
< 
< where x denotes the independent variable and y the dependent varible.
< 
< The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coefficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
< i={1,2,3,...n}. a<sub>0</sub> is called the ''constant term''. 
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]----
< 
< A little precision please. Try...
< 
27c14,27
< This polynomial can be denoted f(x), so that f(x) is a '''polynomial function'''.
---
> This polynomial can be denoted f(x), so that f(x) is a '''polynomial function'''.----
> Old Version
> 
> A '''polynomial''' is a [[Function]] from one set of numbers to another. The value of the dependent variable is determined by summing terms involving powers of the independent variable as in
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x + a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup> + ... + a<sub>n</sub>x<sup>n</sup></font>
> 
> where x denotes the independent variable and y the dependent varible.
> 
> The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coefficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
> i={1,2,3,...n}. a<sub>0</sub> is called the ''constant term''. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]----
> 
------
Polynomial|984441417
25,26c25
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]----
---
> by [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Input/Output|984441439
2c2,3
< 
---
> ----
> This is a very cleverly named page.  (If you didn't know that it was cleverly named, please see [[naming conventions]]. :-) )
------
ComputerHardware|984441495
0a1,2
> <i>Hardware</i> is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on.
> 
------
ComputerHardware|984441633
3,8c3,9
< * [[Mainboard]]
< * [[Graphics Board]]
< * [[Sound Card]]
< * [[CPU]]
< * [[Keyboard]]
< * [[Mouse]]
---
> * [[Storage]]
> * [[Motherboard]]
> * [[Graphics Controller]]
> * [[Sound Controller]]
> * [[Central Processing Unit]]
> * [[Computer Keyboard|Keyboard]]
> * [[Computer Mouse|Mouse]]
13c14
< * [[Floppy]]
---
> * [[Floppy Disk]]
18d18
< * [[Storage]]
------
ComputerHardware|984441704
3c3
< * [[Storage]]
---
> * [[Computer Storage|Storage]]
11c11
< * [[Monitor]]
---
> * [[Computer Monitor|Monitor]]
------
Polynomial|984441740
26a27,33
> ----
> 
> Questions (I'd rather not make changes to the page since it's out of my area of expertise):
> #Does the new page have all the useful & correct information that the old page had?  If so, don't be shy about deleting the old page.  I think the fact that Dick Beldin signed the page shouldn't stop you from treating the page just like any other.
> #Can I have more examples please?
> #What are polynomials good for?
> #Maybe an example of a high school textbook problem involving polynomials would help orient me...just a suggestion, feel totally free to ignore it.
------
Input/Output|984441812
3c3
< This is a very cleverly named page.  (If you didn't know that it was cleverly named, please see [[naming conventions]]. :-) )
---
> This is a very cleverly named page.  (If you didn't know that it was cleverly named, please see [[naming conventions]].  Or just click on the "Input" link at the top of this page.  :-) )
------
Wiki_As_Fertile_Soil|984441867
10c10,11
< Don't forget that some article stubs are remarkably like manure--they don't smell very good but from them, beautiful things grow.
---
> Don't forget that some article stubs are remarkably like manure--they don't smell very good but from them, beautiful things grow.----
> This last analogy? is a bit much...:-).Perhaps the ole seed blooming to a flower might be more appropriate.
------
Arithmetic_and_logic_unit|984442315
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Arithmetic Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
------
Central_Processing_Unit|984442365
1c1
< Often abbreviated "CPU", This is the part of a computer that interprets and performs the instructions given to it by [[Computer Program|programs]].  In many computers, this is further divided into a [[control unit]] that handles program flow and an [[arithmetic and logic unit]] that performs operations on data.  The term is often used vaguely to include other centrally important parts of a computer such as [[memory]] and [[input/output]] control, especially in computers with modern [[microprocessor]] chips that include several of these functions in one physical chip.
---
> Often abbreviated "CPU", This is the part of a computer that interprets and performs the instructions given to it by [[Computer Program|programs]].  In many computers, this is further divided into a [[control unit]] that handles program flow and an [[arithmetic and logical unit]] that performs operations on data.  The term is often used vaguely to include other centrally important parts of a computer such as [[memory]] and [[input/output]] control, especially in computers with modern [[microprocessor]] chips that include several of these functions in one physical chip.
------
Arithmetic_and_logical_unit|984442482
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Arithmetic Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
> 
------
Arithmetic_and_logic_unit|984442568
1c1
< The '''Arithmetic Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Arithmetic and Logical Unit]]
------
Equivalence_relation|984442685
0a1,2
> ''This page is a double of EquivalenceRelation, so the two should either be merged or one should be dropped.''
> 
------
Arithmetic_and_logical_unit|984442685
1c1
< The '''Arithmetic Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
---
> The '''Arithmetic and Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
------
RationalNumbers|984442802
1c1
< The RationalNumbers are the unique smallest FielD containing the IntegerNumbers.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rational numbers]]
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|984442839
7,9c7,9
< * '''Memory''' :  CountriesOfTheWorld -- HiStory -- LanguagE -- QuoteS -- ReLigion -- UnitedStates
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- MathematicsAndStatistics -- [[Philosophy]] -- PoLitics -- ScienCe -- TechnologY
< * '''Imagination''' :  ArchitecturE -- ArtsandEntertainment -- DancE -- LiteraryArt -- [[Music]] -- ReCreation -- SportS
---
> * '''Memory''' :  [[Countries of the World]] -- [[History]] -- [[Language]] -- [[Quotes]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[United States]]
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- [[Mathematics and Statistics]] -- [[Philosophy]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Technology]]
> * '''Imagination''' :  [[Architecture]] -- [[Arts and Entertainment]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]]
18,21c18,21
< :Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
< :Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
< :Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
< :Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
---
> :Understanding the way the world works - [[Philosophy]], [[Mathematics and Statistics]], [[Natural Sciences]]
> :Understanding what's actually in it - [[Biological Sciences]], [[History]], [[Geography]]
> :Making stuff for practical use - [[Technology]]
> :Making stuff for its own ends - [[Arts and Entertainment]]
23c23
< The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
---
> The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
------
Periodic_Table|984443025
41a42,45
> 
> ----
> I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com
> 
------
Polynomial|984443548
1,3c1,3
< Definition: Let a<sub>1</sub>,a<sub>2</sub>,a<sub>3</sub>,...,an be [[real numbers]]. Then
<      a<sub>n</sub>*x<sup>n</sup>+(a<sub>n-1</sub>)*x<sup>n-1</sup>+a<sub>n-2</sub>*x<sup>n-2</sup>+...+a<sub>1</sub>*x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>
< is a '''polynomial''' in ''x'' with real coefficients.
---
> Definition: Let a<sub>1</sub>,a<sub>2</sub>,a<sub>3</sub>,...,a<sub>n</sub> be [[real numbers]] (or more generally elements of a [[Ring]]). Then the formal symbol
> :a<sub>n</sub>*x<sup>n</sup>+(a<sub>n-1</sub>)*x<sup>n-1</sup>+a<sub>n-2</sub>*x<sup>n-2</sup>+...+a<sub>1</sub>*x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>
> is called a '''polynomial''' in ''x'' with real coefficients.  Strictly speaking this is to be interpreted as just a string of numbers, with operations of addition and multiplication defined on it to work like normal addition and multiplication do.  The set of all polynomials over a ring R is denoted R[x], and itself forms a ring.
5c5,7
< The ''coefficients'' of a polynomial: The number a<sub>r</sub> is the coefficient of x<sup>r</sup> for r={1,2,3,...,n}
---
> The different elements a<sub>r</sub>*x<sup>r</sup> are called the ''terms'' of the polynomial, and a<sub>r</sub> is called the ''coefficient'' of that term.  The ''constant term'' is a<sub>0</sub> and the leading term is a<sub>n</sub>x<sup>n</sup>, where n is the highest exponential present with non-zero coefficient present, called the ''degree''.  For example:
> :4 + 2*x<sup>2</sup> + 5*x<sup>3</sup> + 9*x<sup>7</sup>
> is a polynomial of degree 7, with terms {4, 2*x<sup>2</sup>, 5*x<sup>3</sup>, 9*x<sup>7</sup>} and coefficients (4,0,2,5,0,0,0,9,0,0,0...)
6a9
> Each polynomial f corresponds to a function f(x), evaluated by substituting values in for x.  Such functions are appropriately enough called '''polynomial function''' and over the reals have a unique set of coefficients.
8,26c11
< The ''constant term'' of a polynomial is a<sub>0</sub>.
< 
< The ''degree'' of a polynomial: The largest value of i such that a<sub>i</sub> is not equal to zero.  e.g.
< : 4 + 2 x<sup>2</sup> + 5 x<sup>3</sup> + 9 x<sup>7</sup>
< is a polynomial of degree 7.
< 
< This polynomial can be denoted f(x), so that f(x) is a '''polynomial function'''.----
< Old Version
< 
< A '''polynomial''' is a [[Function]] from one set of numbers to another. The value of the dependent variable is determined by summing terms involving powers of the independent variable as in
< 
< *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x + a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup> + ... + a<sub>n</sub>x<sup>n</sup></font>
< 
< where x denotes the independent variable and y the dependent varible.
< 
< The {a<sub>i</sub>} is called the ''coefficient'' of x<sup>i</sup>, for
< i={1,2,3,...n}. a<sub>0</sub> is called the ''constant term''. 
< by [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
---
> One also speaks of polynomials in several variables, obtained by taking the ring of polynomials of a ring of polynomials: R[x,y] = (R[x])[y] = (R[y])[x].
28d12
< 
30d13
< #Does the new page have all the useful & correct information that the old page had?  If so, don't be shy about deleting the old page.  I think the fact that Dick Beldin signed the page shouldn't stop you from treating the page just like any other.
33c16
< #Maybe an example of a high school textbook problem involving polynomials would help orient me...just a suggestion, feel totally free to ignore it.
---
> #Maybe an example of a high school textbook problem involving polynomials would help orient me...just a suggestion, feel totally free to ignore it.
------
Computer_Storage|984443592
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a computer that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
> 
> There are many terms for different types of computer storage devices: <i>Volatile</i> memory is memory that loses its contents when it loses power; <i>Non-volatile</i> memory does not.  <i>Removable</i> storage consists of devices in which the physical storage medium itself can be carried from one computer to another (for example, [[floppy disk|floppy disks]] and [[compact disc|compact discs]].  [[RAM]] (for random access memory) is memory that can be accessed in any order, as opposed to <i>serial access</i> memory that must be read sequentially (such as a reel of magnetic tape).  There are many types of RAM, such as NVRAM (non-volatile RAM), and SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, etc., which are all types of volatile RAM that differ in obscure ways not related to their basic function.  [[ROM]] (for read-only memory) cannot be changed once initially programmed by the manufacturer.  [[EPROM]] (erasible programmable read-only memory) memory cannot be overitten in normal use, but can be erased and reprogrammed with special hardware.  [[EEPROM]] (for electrically erasible programmable read-only memory) is a type of EPROM that can be erased with less specialized hardware that is typically included on the computer that hosts it.  [[WORM]] devices (for write once/read many--a term typically used only for removable storage devices) can be initially programmed by the end user but not subsequently overwritten.
> 
> Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.
------
Polynomial|984443610
11c11
< One also speaks of polynomials in several variables, obtained by taking the ring of polynomials of a ring of polynomials: R[x,y] = (R[x])[y] = (R[y])[x].
---
> One also speaks of polynomials in several variables, obtained by taking the ring of polynomials of a ring of polynomials: R[x,y] = (R[x])[y] = (R[y])[x].  Other related object are the [[formal power series]], which are like polynomials but may have infinite degree, and the [[rational functions]], which are polynomial ratios.
------
Computer_Storage|984443634
1c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a computer that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
------
Computing|984443709
9a10
> ** [[Computer Storage|Storage]]
------
Computer_Storage|984443742
1c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[computer hardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
------
Computer_Storage|984443869
1c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[computer hardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[computer program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[Computer Hardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[Computer Program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
------
Computer_Storage|984443887
1c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[Computer Hardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[Computer Program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[Computer Program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
------
Computer_Storage|984443970
1c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[Computer Program|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[ComputerSoftware|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
------
Central_Processing_Unit|984444147
1c1
< Often abbreviated "CPU", This is the part of a computer that interprets and performs the instructions given to it by [[Computer Program|programs]].  In many computers, this is further divided into a [[control unit]] that handles program flow and an [[arithmetic and logical unit]] that performs operations on data.  The term is often used vaguely to include other centrally important parts of a computer such as [[memory]] and [[input/output]] control, especially in computers with modern [[microprocessor]] chips that include several of these functions in one physical chip.
---
> Often abbreviated "CPU", this is the part of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that interprets and performs the instructions given to it by [[ComputerSoftware|software]].  In many computers, this is further divided into a [[control unit]] that handles program flow and an [[arithmetic and logical unit]] that performs operations on data.  The term is often used vaguely to include other centrally important parts of a computer such as [[Computer Storage|storage]] and [[Input/Output|input/output]] control, especially in computers with modern [[microprocessor]] chips that include several of these functions in one physical chip.
------
Arithmetic_and_logical_unit|984444601
1c1,2
< The '''Arithmetic and Logical Unit''' performs the basic for operations of arithmetic (add,sub,mult,div) and evaluates the truth value of [[Boolean Expressions]], like ~(A^B).
---
> The <i>Arithmetic and Logical Unit</i> of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] performs basic operations of arithmetic (such as addition and multiplication) and [[Boolean Logic|boolean logic]] (such as negation and conjuction) on data.  Modern [[Microprocessor|microprocessors]] also perform many more advanced operations such as [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions.
> 
------
Mathematics|984444649
29a30
> 
------
The_Silmarillion|984445144
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''The Silmarillion'' is a collection of [[JRR Tolkien|Tolkien's]] works, standardized and published by his son [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher]] posthumously.  It contains these five pieces:
> 
> ''The Silmarillion'' contains these five works:
> :The [[/Ainulindale|Ainulindalë]] - the music of the Ainur, detailing the creation of the world
> :The [[/Valaquenta|Valaquenta]] - the [[/Valar|Valar]] and [[/Maiar|Maiar]] (roughly angels or gods)
> :The [[/Quenta Silmarillion|Quenta Silmarillion]] - the full history of the first age
> :The [[/Akallabeth|Akallabêth]] - the history of the second age
> :[[/Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age]]
> 
> These were written from various sources of inspiration: the Akallabêth was an [[Atlantis]] story, the Silmarillion proper grew out of a line of [[old english]] poetry.  Together they form a narrative detailing the history of the universe where [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] take place.
------
The_Silmarillion|984445173
2,3d1
< 
< ''The Silmarillion'' contains these five works:
9,10c7
< 
< These were written from various sources of inspiration: the Akallabêth was an [[Atlantis]] story, the Silmarillion proper grew out of a line of [[old english]] poetry.  Together they form a narrative detailing the history of the universe where [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] take place.
---
> These were written from various sources of inspiration: the Akallabêth was an [[Atlantis]] story, the Silmarillion proper grew out of a line of [[old english]] poetry.  Together they form a narrative detailing the history of the universe where [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] take place.
------
Mathematical_induction|984445386
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The standard way of proving a proposition is true for a infinte sequence of cases is '''mathematical induction''', the first, second, third, and so on, without exception.  
> To prove a proposition '''A'''= {ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true, by mathematical induction, we 
> *1. The proposition is true for A1
> *2. If the proposition is true for An, it is true for An+1.
> 
> 
> '''Example:'''
> <pre>
>                                                                       n(n+1)
> Prove that the sum of 1+2+3+...+n of the first n integers is equal to ------.
>                                                                         2
> 1. For n=1, the sum of the first integer = (1*(2))/2=1. 
> 
> 2. Assume that the sum of the first n integers is 
>                  n*(n+1)  
>     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for n+1, that is
>                     2
>     the sum of the first (n+1) integers is
>  
>                        (n+1)*(n+2)
>     1+2+3+...+n+(n+1)= ----------
>                            2                   
>                           
>    Then  add (n+1) to both sides.
> 
>                        n*(n+1)           n*(n+1) + 2*(n+1)     (n+1)*(n+2)
>    1+2+3+...+n+(n+1)= ------- + (n+1)=   -----------------  =  ----------
>                           2                   2                   2 
> 
------
Mathematical_induction|984445491
24c24
<    Then  add (n+1) to both sides.
---
>    If we  add (n+1) to both sides, we get the desired result:
29c29
< 
---
> </pre>
------
Mathematical_induction|984445512
2c2
< To prove a proposition '''A'''= {ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true, by mathematical induction, we 
---
> To prove a proposition '''A'''= {Ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true, by mathematical induction, we 
------
Polynomial|984445715
11c11
< One also speaks of polynomials in several variables, obtained by taking the ring of polynomials of a ring of polynomials: R[x,y] = (R[x])[y] = (R[y])[x].  Other related object are the [[formal power series]], which are like polynomials but may have infinite degree, and the [[rational functions]], which are polynomial ratios.
---
> One also speaks of polynomials in several variables, obtained by taking the ring of polynomials of a ring of polynomials: R[x,y] = (R[x])[y] = (R[y])[x].  Other related objects are the [[formal power series]], which are like polynomials but may have infinite degree, and the [[rational functions]], which are polynomial ratios.
------
Mathematical_induction|984445830
9,11c9,11
<                                                                       n(n+1)
< Prove that the sum of 1+2+3+...+n of the first n integers is equal to ------.
<                                                                         2
---
>                                                                             n(n+1)
> Prove that the sum of the first n, that is 1+2+3+...n, integers is equal to ------.
>                                                                              2
------
Arithmetic_and_logical_unit|984445932
1c1
< The <i>Arithmetic and Logical Unit</i> of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] performs basic operations of arithmetic (such as addition and multiplication) and [[Boolean Logic|boolean logic]] (such as negation and conjuction) on data.  Modern [[Microprocessor|microprocessors]] also perform many more advanced operations such as [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions.
---
> The <i>Arithmetic and Logical Unit</i> of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] performs basic operations of arithmetic (such as addition and multiplication) and [[Boolean Logic|boolean logic]] (such as negation and conjunction) on data.  Modern [[Microprocessor|microprocessors]] also perform many more advanced operations such as [[Trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions.
------
SandBox|984445980
89c89
< Test edit.  Another test edit
---
> Test edit.  Another test edit.  Another test edit.
------
Periodic_Table|984446071
39a40
> I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com.
41,44c42
< ''Very cool!''  (Feel free to delete this when read.)  :-)
< 
< ----
< I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com
---
> ''There's still stuff missing from that page...for instance, with a quick search at least, I couldn't find anything about the neat things that [[Helium]] does at low temperatures.  Not that we have any of that stuff...but if anyone was ever interested, they could add it, and that's what counts. :)''
------
Mathematical_induction|984447710
1,2c1,3
< The standard way of proving a proposition is true for a infinte sequence of cases is '''mathematical induction''', the first, second, third, and so on, without exception.  
< To prove a proposition '''A'''= {Ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true, by mathematical induction, we 
---
> The standard way of proving that a proposition is true for an infinte sequence of cases is '''mathematical induction'''.  
> To prove a proposition '''A'''= {Ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true by mathematical induction, we must prove that
> 
5d5
< 
------
Periodic_Table|984448474
43a44
> ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
------
Ayn_Rand|984449050
1c1
< Ayn Rand was a popular and controversial American philosopher and novelist.  She was born Alyssa (or Alice) Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. Rand emigrated to the UnitedStates in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
---
> Ayn Rand was a popular and controversial American philosopher and novelist.  She was born Alyssa (or Alice) Rosenbaum in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2, 1905. Rand immigrated to the [[United States]] in 1926, changing her name to Ayn Rand.
3,4c3
< After living in Chicago for a short time, Rand moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry.  She met an actor,
< FrankOConnor, by tripping him on purpose and married him in 1929.
---
> After living in Chicago for a short time, Rand moved to Hollywood and began writing for the movie industry.  She met an actor, [[FrankOConnor|Frank O'Connor]], by tripping him on purpose, and married him in 1929.
6,7c5
< Rand released 'The Night of January 16th', a play, in 1934, and
< published two commercially unsuccessful novels, 'WeTheLiving' (1936), and 'AntheM' (1938). 
---
> Rand released ''The Night of January 16th'', a play, in 1934, and published two commercially unsuccessful novels, ''We The Living'' (1936), and ''Anthem'' (1938). 
9c7
< Rand's first major success came with the best selling novel, '[[The Fountainhead]]' (1943). 
---
> Rand's first major success came with the best-selling novel, ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943). 
11c9
< In 1951 Rand met psychology student NathanielBranden, who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
---
> In 1951 Rand met psychology student [[Nathaniel Branden]], who became Rand's first follower, and later a romantic partner. 
13c11
< Rand then wrote philosophical novel '[[Atlas Shrugged]]' (1957), also a best seller. Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ObjectivisM. 
---
> Rand then wrote the philosophical novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957), also a best seller.  Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ''[[Objectivism]]''.
17c15
< Rand broke with Branden in 1968, following certain infidelities on his part. 
---
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.  The [http://www.aynrand.org/ Ayn Rand Institute], which she founded, is now being run by Leonard Peikoff, her partner after Branden and author of ''Objectivism: The Philosopy of Ayn Rand''.
20d17
< 
------
Periodic_Table|984449158
1c1
< A listing of the different elements, arranged by electronic structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
---
> A listing of the different [[Chemical Element|chemical elements]], arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
44c44
< ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
---
> ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
------
Hydrogen|984449865
3c3
< At normal STP-like conditions, hydrogen forms a [[diatomic]] gas, with a boiling point of only 20.28 K and a melting point of 13.81 K.  Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of [[gas giants]], the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal.  Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H<sub>2</sub> form and are associated with star formation.
---
> At normal STP-like conditions, hydrogen forms a [[diatomic]] gas, H<sub>2</sub>, with a boiling point of only 20.28 K and a melting point of 13.81 K.  Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of [[gas giants]], the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal.  Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H<sub>2</sub> form and are associated with star formation.
------
Greek_alphabet|984450031
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[alphabet]] used for writing down [[Greek language|Greek]], developed in classical times (around the 9th century BC) and used down to the present.  Its symbols are nowadays used for a variety of other purposes: as mathematical variables, for naming stars, and so forth.
> 
> The Greek alphabet was derived from the [[north semitic alphabet]], brought to [[Greece]] via [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] traders.  The derivations of the Greek letters are the following:
>  
>  '''North semitic'''   '''Greek'''        '''Numerical value'''
>  Aleph   (')     Alpha   (a)     1
>  Beth    (b)     Beta            2
>  Gimel   (g)     Gamma           3
>  Daleth  (d)     Delta           4
>  He      (h)     Epsilon (e)     5
>  Waw     (w)     Waw             6
>  Zain    (z)     Zeta            7
>  Heth    (h*)    Eta     (ê)     8
>  Thet    (t*)    Theta   (t+h)   9
>  Yodh    (y)     Iota    (i)     10
>  Kaph    (k)     Kappa           20
>  Lamed   (l)     Lambda          30
>  Mem     (m)     Mu              40
>  Nun     (n)     Nu              50
>  Samekh  (s)     Xi      (k+s)   60
>  Ain     ()      Omicron (o)     70
>  Pe      (p)     Pi              80
>  Sade    (s*)    San     (s)     900
>  Qoph    (q)     Qoppa           90
>  Resh    (r)     Rho             100
>  Shin    (sh)    Sigma   (s)     200
>  Tav     (t)     Tau             300
>                  Upsilon (y)     400
>                  Phi     (p+h)   500
>                  Chi     (k+h)   600
>                  Psi     (p+s)   700
>                  Omega   (ô)     800
> 
> The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be intelligable.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o.
> 
> Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  The consonants were to mainly to make up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician.  In west Greek, actually, chi was used for (k+s) and psi for (k+h) - hence the value of our letter x, derived from chi.  Over the middle ages these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for (th), (f), and (kh).
> 
> The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter one out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
> 
> Over the middle ages the miniscule version developed of the Greek alphabet developed, in parallel with the miniscule Roman alphabet (and possibly the Cyrillic one, too).
------
Greek_alphabet|984450056
5c5
<  '''North semitic'''   '''Greek'''        '''Numerical value'''
---
>  '''North semitic'''   '''Greek'''           '''Numerical value'''
------
The_Rock|984450088
1c1
< The Rock is a action movie relased in 1995. The movie starred [[Nicolas Cage]], [[Sean Connery]] and [[Jennifer Lopez]]. 
---
> The Rock is a action movie relased in 1995. The movie starred [[Nicolas Cage]], [[Sean Connery]] and [[Ed Harris]]. 
------
Greek_alphabet|984450436
40c40,42
< Over the middle ages the miniscule version developed of the Greek alphabet developed, in parallel with the miniscule Roman alphabet (and possibly the Cyrillic one, too).
---
> Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly western (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek; the former gave rise to the [[Estruscan alphabet]] and thence to the [[Roman alphabet]].  Athens took the Ionic script to be its standard in 403 BC, and shortly thereafter the other versions disappeared.  By then Greek was always written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way - or, most likely, ''boustrophedon'', so that the lines alternate direction.
> 
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either tongue).
------
Greek_alphabet|984450507
42c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either tongue).
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Games/Cards|984450816
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-size rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-size rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
3c3
< The earliest origins of [[playing cards]] are obscure, but it is believed that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  They arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising 4 suits: polo sticks and coins, likely descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg, plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained 10 "spot" cards and 3 "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familiar clubs, hearts, diamonds, and spades are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
---
> The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four suits: polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards and three "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familiar spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
------
Mathematical_induction|984460085
2c2
< To prove a proposition '''A'''= {Ai:i=1,2,3,...,n} is true by mathematical induction, we must prove that
---
> To prove a proposition '''A'''= {A<sub>i</sub>: i=1,2,3,...,n} is true by mathematical induction, one must prove that
4,5c4,5
< *1. The proposition is true for A1
< *2. If the proposition is true for An, it is true for An+1.
---
> *1. The proposition is true for A<sub>1</sub>
> *2. If the proposition is true for A<sub>n</sub>, it is true for A<sub>n+1</sub>.
9,12c9,14
<                                                                             n(n+1)
< Prove that the sum of the first n, that is 1+2+3+...n, integers is equal to ------.
<                                                                              2
< 1. For n=1, the sum of the first integer = (1*(2))/2=1. 
---
>                                                                            
> Prove that the sum '''S<sub>n</sub>''' of the first n integers, that is 1+2+3+...n, integers is equal to
>          n(n+1)
>          ------.
>            2                                                                            
> 1. For n=1, the sum of the first integer = (1*(2))/2=1, that is A<sub>1</sub> is true. 
14c16
< 2. Assume that the sum of the first n integers is 
---
> 2. Assume that  the sum of the first n integers, '''S<sub>n</sub>''', is 
16,18c18,20
<     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for n+1, that is
<                     2
<     the sum of the first (n+1) integers is
---
>     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for the first n+1 integers, that
>  
>     is '''S<sub>n+1</sub>''', the sum of the first (n+1) integers is equal to
21c23
<     1+2+3+...+n+(n+1)= ----------
---
>     1+2+3+...+n+(n+1)= ---------- .
------
Mathematical_induction|984460222
10c10
< Prove that the sum '''S<sub>n</sub>''' of the first n integers, that is 1+2+3+...n, integers is equal to
---
> Prove that the sum of the first n integers, that is 1+2+3+...n, integers is equal to
14c14
< 1. For n=1, the sum of the first integer = (1*(2))/2=1, that is A<sub>1</sub> is true. 
---
> 1. For n=1, the sum of the first integer = (1*(2))/2=1. 
16c16
< 2. Assume that  the sum of the first n integers, '''S<sub>n</sub>''', is 
---
> 2. Assume that  the sum of the first n integers is 
18,20c18,20
<     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for the first n+1 integers, that
<  
<     is '''S<sub>n+1</sub>''', the sum of the first (n+1) integers is equal to
---
>     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for the first n+1 integers, 
>                     2
>     the sum of the first (n+1) integers is equal to
------
Mathematical_induction|984460285
18c18
<     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for the first n+1 integers, 
---
>     1+2+3+...+n= ------- . Prove that it is true for the first n+1 integers,   that is 
------
Wiki_As_Fertile_Soil|984462564
8,11c8
< And finally -- to push the metaphor a bit too hard -- a wiki needs sunlight, which means that the active participants always talk in an open and sunny pleasant way about changes that are being made, disagreements that need to be resolved, etc.
< ----
< Don't forget that some article stubs are remarkably like manure--they don't smell very good but from them, beautiful things grow.----
< This last analogy? is a bit much...:-).Perhaps the ole seed blooming to a flower might be more appropriate.
---
> And finally -- to push the metaphor a bit too hard -- a wiki needs sunlight, which means that the active participants always talk in an open and sunny pleasant way about changes that are being made, disagreements that need to be resolved, etc.
------
The_Rock/Spoiler|984463089
1c1
< [[Sean Connery]] played the part of  a spy from a foreign country who stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secrts on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. 
---
> [[Sean Connery]] played the part of  a spy from a foreign country who stole a film from a camera that had the JFK shooting and other government secrets on it. He also was the only person to escape from [[Alcatraz]], but they later caught him. After that he was locked in a higher secutity prison were he was marked as dead and everything about him was erased. 
3c3
< Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with a new chemical weapon called V-X gas (which, by the way, is a real weapon in today's milatary). The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was played by Ed Harris. He assembled a team of marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. 
---
> Now years later there is a threat to kill all of San Fransisco with a new chemical weapon called V-X gas (which, by the way, is a real weapon in today's military). The man who threatened to kill San Fransisco was played by [[Ed Harris]]. He assembled a team of Marines and Seals to help him take over Alcatraz. 
5c5
< The assault team was able to overrun Alcatraz very quckly, because it was populated only by a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missles that would launch the gas and set up a satalitte link to talk to the president and other importent people. He then demanded money for the men's familys and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. 
---
> The assault team was able to overrun Alcatraz very quickly, because it was populated only by a few tour guides and tourists. Harris did this because there was no money sent to the men's family that were lost in a war. He set up the missiles that would launch the gas and set up a satellite link to talk to the president and other important people. He then demanded money for the men's families and to pay the men that helped him take over Alcatraz. 
7c7
< Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connery and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents who captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail an runs away. He gets a mans Hummer and drives off. Cage then aquires a Ferrari and chases after him. In a spectaluar car chase scene, he destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. 
---
> Now back to San Fransisco the FBI lets out Connery and informs him of the situation, then takes him to get a hair cut where he then hangs one of the agents who captured him over a balcony by his hand with a cord. He ties the cord to the rail and runs away. He gets a man's Hummer and drives off. Cage then aquires a Ferrari and chases after him. In a spectacular car chase scene, he destroys half the city in the process, one of the ways by making a trolly derail. 
13c13
< They finally get in and enter through the showers an all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connery and Cage are alive.  They disarm all the missles, but right after a air force bombing annihilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connery and told the feds that he was dead, but he really wasn't. 
---
> They finally get in and enter through the showers and all the Seals are killed by a above ambush. Only Connery and Cage are alive.  They disarm all the missiles, but right after a air force bombing annihilates the island, Cage devolped a friendship with Connery and told the Feds that he was dead, but he really wasn't. 
15c15
< Connery told Cage were the film was and on Cages honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
---
> Connery told Cage where the film was and on Cage's honeymoon with Jennifer Lopez they stole it. The funny thing was that it was hidden in a church where they had to break part of it to get the film.
18d17
< 
------
Polynomial|984464511
12a13,37
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * Polynimials in one variable and polynomial equations:
> ''Polynomial Equations'' are polynomial functions set to a constant, '''c'''.
>   A polynomial equation in degree 1 in x, looks like this:
>     a<sub>1</sub>x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>=0 or more familiarly:
>     ax+b+0.
>     This is called a ''[[linear equation]]'' in x.
>     Then, 5x+9=0 is a linear equation.
>   A polynomial equation of degree 2 in x, looks like this:
>     a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup>+a<sub>1</sub>x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>=0 or more      familiarly:
>     ax<sub>2</sub>+bx+c=0.
>     This is called a ''[[quadratic equation]].''
>     Then, 3x<sup>2</sup>-9x+6=0 and 4x<sup>2</sup>+32=0 are quadratic equations.
>   A polynomial equation of degree 3 in x, looks like this:
>     a<sub>3</sub>x<sup>3</sup>+a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup>+
>     a<sub>1</sub>x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>=0 or more familalrly
>     ax<sup>3</sup>+bx<sup>2</sup>+cx+d=0.
>     This is called a ''[[cubic equation]].'' 
>     Then x<sup>3</sup>+6x<sup>2</sup>+15=0 and x<sup>3</sup>-1=0 are cubic equations.----
> *Early usage: For LarrySanger
> At the high school level ''quadratic equations'' are useful in displaying the teacher's facility in proving the ''quadratic formula'', by ''completing the square''. ----
> No thanks necessary.---- 
> 
------
Law|984465367
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]]-- [[inquest]] etc.
------
New_topics|984477244
19a20,43
> 
> ----
> Here's an autogenerated list of new topics from a script I ran to spider the recent changes page. Now I've run it, I can see some changes that need to be made to improve it eg. filter out the very small pages, sort alphabetically, but for now, this is an (incomplete) selection of new topics from the 24 hours previous prior to 10.45 March 12th (Wipipedia server time) -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> 
> [[Logrolling]] -- [[NonEmpty]] -- [[Statistics/Multivariate]] -- [[Terraforming]] -- [[Film History/Russia]] -- [[Film History/France]] -- 
> [[Film Genres]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- 
> [[Homepage definition]] -- [[GNU Free Documentation License]] -- 
> [[Tort]] -- 
> [[The motivation to philosophize]] -- 
> [[Philosophy of religion]] -- 
> [[Constitution]] -- 
> [[Linnaean taxonomy]] -- 
> [[Duopoly]] -- 
> [[Reed College]] -- 
> [[Isomer]] -- 
> [[Monopolistic competition]] -- 
> [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] -- 
> [[Natural monopoly]] -- 
> [[Monopoly]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia-L]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia category schemes]] -- 
> [[Market forms]] -- 
> [[Countries of the world]] 
> 
------
New_topics|984477339
22c22
< Here's an autogenerated list of new topics from a script I ran to spider the recent changes page. Now I've run it, I can see some changes that need to be made to improve it eg. filter out the very small pages, sort alphabetically, but for now, this is an (incomplete) selection of new topics from the 24 hours previous prior to 10.45 March 12th (Wipipedia server time) -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
---
> Here's an autogenerated list of new topics from a script I ran to spider the recent changes page. Now I've run it, I can see some changes that need to be made to improve it eg. filter out the very small pages, sort alphabetically, but for now, this is an (incomplete) selection of new topics from the 24 hours up to  10.45 March 12th (Wikipedia server time) -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
------
ScienceFiction|984478395
5c5
< Hyde (1886) are ScienceFiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
7,8c7,8
< ScienceFiction was made possible only by the rise of modern science itself, notably the revolutions in astronomy and physics. Aside from the age-old genre of fantasy literature, which does not qualify, there were notable precursors: imaginary voyages
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in JonathanSwift's ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and SciencefictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
---
> Science fiction was made possible only by the rise of modern science itself, notably the revolutions in astronomy and physics. Aside from the age-old genre of fantasy literature, which does not qualify, there were notable precursors: imaginary voyages
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
12c12
< The development of ScienceFiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to ScienceFiction stories. Published in
---
> The development of Science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories. Published in
14c14
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, ScienceFiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
---
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
16c16
< A great boom in the popularity of ScienceFiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of ScienceFiction to the reading public. ScienceFiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the ScienceFiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science-fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
---
> A great boom in the popularity of ScienceFiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of ScienceFiction to the reading public. ScienceFiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
18,20c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, ScienceFiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
< 
< Another ScienceFiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime was [[Philip K. Dick]].  Like other more famous ScienceFiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?]] was made into the movie BladeRunner.  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
Philip_K._Dick|984478599
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philip K. Dick
> American ScienceFiction writer
> 
> A science fiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?]] was made into the movie [[Blade Runner]].  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
> 
> 
------
ScienceFiction|984478815
16c16
< A great boom in the popularity of ScienceFiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of ScienceFiction to the reading public. ScienceFiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
---
> A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
------
Philip_K._Dick|984480201
4c4
< A science fiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?]] was made into the movie [[Blade Runner]].  The movie TotalRecall was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> A science fiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]? was made into the movie [[Blade Runner]].  The movie [[Total Recall]] was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
5a6
> Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels.  He also produced a tremdous number of short stories and minor works which were published [[pulp magazines]].
6a8,12
> Recommended Books:
> *[[/Ubik]]
> *[[/Radio Free Albemuth]]
> *[[/Flow My Tears The Policeman Said]]
> *[[/The Man In The High Castle]]
------
Music|984484076
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock And Roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
------
Sarajevo|984496058
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984496694
1a2,6
> ----
> At first a revision of a tabletop wargame simulation it in thirty years time grew to be the escape for all reality weary.
> Anything is possible in RGP! Eat your heart out. Be evil at will, without consequences in the real world.
> 
> 
------
Games/RolePlaying|984496848
12a13,33
> Why RPG's?
> In this age of 3D infotainment and whackotaintment you'd be inclined to despise of old-fashioned board-, card- and paper games, were it not that mostly you have a
> computer for an opponent. And let's be frank about it: computers know how to present games, but not how to play them - they're just too stupid for it. True, some
> computer games allow you to match yourself with human opponents, but they tend to limit you more than support you. While playing within tightly-set limits can be
> great fun in itself, you may want to try something more challenging to your creativity.
> If so, it's time to consider RPG's.
> 
> What is it?
> The idea of a RPG is that you assume the role of an imaginary character, living in an imaginary world. The GameMaster (GM) builds this world for you and your
> character may explore it. You tell the the GM what your character will do, he/she will tell you what effect comes from your words and actions. This way a dialogue
> begins and the game starts rolling.
> 
> Why RPG's?
> RPG's are social games: it's not a game of GM and player, but a whole group of players. This ensures a whole lot of unexpectedness, both for players, and the GM,
> who can never be in full control (not that he/she wants to: that would become boring very quickly).
> The fun of RPG's is that the only limit is your imagination. Anything is possible! Of course, for practical purposes RPG-players use rules to set some limits, for
> instance with the environment. Many RPG's are set in fantasy realms, where magic, monsters, faeries and heroes abound. Seldom you will encounter a game where
> you can play an office-klerk in a late 20th- century supermarket. Of course that's not really interesting, isn't it? And if it would be, why not become a real klerk
> yourself?
> RPG's offer a way to playe something you yourself will never be: a hero, a villain, an explorer, or whatever you like. Combine this with the element of surprise,
> interaction with the bewildering world called fellow human players and you've got yourself a really nice game .
------
Games/Board|984497130
7a8,9
> * [[Colonists of Catan]]
> * [[Diplomacy]]
------
Games/Cards|984497223
19a20
> * [[Macchiavelli]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984497361
13c13
< Why RPG's?
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+2>Why RPG's?</font>
20c20
< What is it?
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+2>What is it?</font>
25c25
< Why RPG's?
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+2>Why RPG's?</font>
33c33
< interaction with the bewildering world called fellow human players and you've got yourself a really nice game .
---
> interaction with the bewildering world called fellow human players and you've got yourself a really nice game .
------
Games/RolePlaying|984497424
13c13
< <font color="#008080" size=+2>Why RPG's?</font>
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why RPG's?</font><BR>
20c20
< <font color="#008080" size=+2>What is it?</font>
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+1>What is it?</font><BR>
25c25
< <font color="#008080" size=+2>Why RPG's?</font>
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why RPG's?</font><BR>
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984497701
0a1,49
> What's AD&D?
>                 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is the
>                 role-playing game previously owned by TSR
>                 and now owned by Wizards of the Coast. It is
>                 a game where you roll the dice to establish
>                 characters, such as mages, fighters, or
>                 thieves, and assume fantasy personas in
>                 magical worlds. Players gather together and
>                 confront problems, solve quests, and battle
>                 evil while a referee, known as a dungeon
>                 master, puts all the behind-the-scene
>                 elements together to craft a story that binds the group of players
>                 together. The game is completely open-ended. There is only a
>                 beginning; there is no end. As long as the dungeon master has more
>                 stories to tell, and the players want to listen and play, the game goes
>                 on. 
> 
>                 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is, naturally, the more advanced
>                 rules set descended from the original Dungeons & Dragons. D&D
>                 was created in 1972 by Dave Arneson and Gary Gygax. Both were
>                 avid board and wargamers who combined their own individual game
>                 designs to come up with this game of fantasy adventure. The game
>                 was revolutionary back then because it didn't involve a board or
>                 minatures. You played as individual heroes who advanced in
>                 experience as they surmounted greater challenges and adventures.
>                 D&D originally began as a medieval battle game with fantasy
>                 elements and a very loose set of rules. It eventually grew into a huge
>                 role-playing game that encompassed dozens of rules supplements,
>                 tomes of spells and monsters, and millions of fans. 
> 
>                 In 1978, Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was created. It was
>                 different from the original D&D in that it had more structure and more
>                 sets of rules. It was AD&D that would eventually be supported by
>                 TSR. From the late '70s to the mid-'80s, AD&D grew in popularity
>                 and profits. In the mid-'80s, AD&D hit a high water mark with the
>                 release of the Dungeons & Dragons Saturday morning cartoon,
>                 which served to further popularize the game. However, during these
>                 same years, TSR encountered major financial trouble, but it
>                 eventually bounced back when in 1988 it unveiled the 2nd Edition
>                 rules for AD&D, a revised AD&D system that would streamline and
>                 better organize the AD&D rules. That year also saw the release of
>                 the very first computer-based role-playing game based in the AD&D
>                 universe. It was called Pool of Radiance and would herald a decade
>                 of strong AD&D-based computer role-playing games (CRPG). For
>                 half a decade, the fortunes of AD&D and AD&D-based RPGs would
>                 continue to rise. It was a golden age for AD&D and a golden age for
>                 SSI's role-playing games. 
> 
> ----
4a54,91
> ----
> Created by Gary
>                 Gygax and Dave Arneson, it grew from
>                 humble roots in Wisconsin and gradually
>                 became the most popular and influential
>                 role-playing system in the world. Nearly
>                 everyone has heard of Dungeons & Dragons,
>                 although not always in a good light. In the mid-'80s it was used as a
>                 scapegoat for very rare incidents of violence (much like computer
>                 games today), and in the mid-90s, it nearly disappeared as TSR, the
>                 company Gygax co-founded, went bankrupt before being bought by
>                 Wizards of the Coast, creator of Magic the Gathering. 
> 
>                 While it has been different things to different people throughout the
>                 years, on the computer, Dungeons & Dragons has been a great
>                 foundation and a holy grail for game designers and the computer
>                 role-playing genre. The setting and atmosphere of Dungeons &
>                 Dragons are things that game designers have been trying to emulate
>                 for more than a decade. The developers of role-playing games are
>                 trying to create fantasies and experiences as compelling as those
>                 told by dungeon masters, the game referees of Dungeons &
>                 Dragons. Gamers all want an experience on the computer that is as
>                 close as possible to the pen-and-paper Dungeons & Dragons
>                 experience. Even after eleven years of D&D computer games, the
>                 industry still can't completely reproduce that real D&D experience,
>                 but that doesn't mean that the D&D license hasn't lent itself to some
>                 great computer role-playing games. 
> 
>                 While trying to re-create the D&D game has sometimes led to failure,
>                 it has also led to some incredible successes. Ever since TSR offered
>                 its Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license to SSI in the late '80s,
>                 we've been treated to more than twenty AD&D computer role-playing
>                 games. These games have created a great role-playing legacy on
>                 the computer. Role players all remember such venerable favorites as
>                 Pool of Radiance and Eye of the Beholder. In the canon of computer
>                 role-playing games, they are almost as important as Ultima and
>                 Might and Magic, and based purely on quantity, the AD&D franchise
>                 has produced more games than those two series combined.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984497946
1,47c1,47
< What's AD&D?
<                 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is the
<                 role-playing game previously owned by TSR
<                 and now owned by Wizards of the Coast. It is
<                 a game where you roll the dice to establish
<                 characters, such as mages, fighters, or
<                 thieves, and assume fantasy personas in
<                 magical worlds. Players gather together and
<                 confront problems, solve quests, and battle
<                 evil while a referee, known as a dungeon
<                 master, puts all the behind-the-scene
<                 elements together to craft a story that binds the group of players
<                 together. The game is completely open-ended. There is only a
<                 beginning; there is no end. As long as the dungeon master has more
<                 stories to tell, and the players want to listen and play, the game goes
<                 on. 
< 
<                 Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is, naturally, the more advanced
<                 rules set descended from the original Dungeons & Dragons. D&D
<                 was created in 1972 by Dave Arneson and Gary Gygax. Both were
<                 avid board and wargamers who combined their own individual game
<                 designs to come up with this game of fantasy adventure. The game
<                 was revolutionary back then because it didn't involve a board or
<                 minatures. You played as individual heroes who advanced in
<                 experience as they surmounted greater challenges and adventures.
<                 D&D originally began as a medieval battle game with fantasy
<                 elements and a very loose set of rules. It eventually grew into a huge
<                 role-playing game that encompassed dozens of rules supplements,
<                 tomes of spells and monsters, and millions of fans. 
< 
<                 In 1978, Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was created. It was
<                 different from the original D&D in that it had more structure and more
<                 sets of rules. It was AD&D that would eventually be supported by
<                 TSR. From the late '70s to the mid-'80s, AD&D grew in popularity
<                 and profits. In the mid-'80s, AD&D hit a high water mark with the
<                 release of the Dungeons & Dragons Saturday morning cartoon,
<                 which served to further popularize the game. However, during these
<                 same years, TSR encountered major financial trouble, but it
<                 eventually bounced back when in 1988 it unveiled the 2nd Edition
<                 rules for AD&D, a revised AD&D system that would streamline and
<                 better organize the AD&D rules. That year also saw the release of
<                 the very first computer-based role-playing game based in the AD&D
<                 universe. It was called Pool of Radiance and would herald a decade
<                 of strong AD&D-based computer role-playing games (CRPG). For
<                 half a decade, the fortunes of AD&D and AD&D-based RPGs would
<                 continue to rise. It was a golden age for AD&D and a golden age for
<                 SSI's role-playing games. 
---
> <P><font color="#008080" size=+1><A NAME="link">What's AD&D?</A></FONT><BR>
>  Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is the
>  role-playing game previously owned by TSR
>  and now owned by Wizards of the Coast. It is
>  a game where you roll the dice to establish
>  characters, such as mages, fighters, or
>  thieves, and assume fantasy personas in
>  magical worlds. Players gather together and
>  confront problems, solve quests, and battle
>  evil while a referee, known as a dungeon
>  master, puts all the behind-the-scene
>  elements together to craft a story that binds the group of players
>  together. The game is completely open-ended. There is only a
>  beginning; there is no end. As long as the dungeon master has more
>  stories to tell, and the players want to listen and play, the game goes
>  on. 
> 
>  <P>Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is, naturally, the more advanced
>  rules set descended from the original Dungeons & Dragons. D&D
>  was created in 1972 by Dave Arneson and Gary Gygax. Both were
>  avid board and wargamers who combined their own individual game
>  designs to come up with this game of fantasy adventure. The game
>  was revolutionary back then because it didn't involve a board or
>  minatures. You played as individual heroes who advanced in
>  experience as they surmounted greater challenges and adventures.
>  D&D originally began as a medieval battle game with fantasy
>  elements and a very loose set of rules. It eventually grew into a huge
>  role-playing game that encompassed dozens of rules supplements,
>  tomes of spells and monsters, and millions of fans. 
> 
>  <P>In 1978, Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was created. It was
>  different from the original D&D in that it had more structure and more
>  sets of rules. It was AD&D that would eventually be supported by
>  TSR. From the late '70s to the mid-'80s, AD&D grew in popularity
>  and profits. In the mid-'80s, AD&D hit a high water mark with the
>  release of the Dungeons & Dragons Saturday morning cartoon,
>  which served to further popularize the game. However, during these
>  same years, TSR encountered major financial trouble, but it
>  eventually bounced back when in 1988 it unveiled the 2nd Edition
>  rules for AD&D, a revised AD&D system that would streamline and
>  better organize the AD&D rules. That year also saw the release of
>  the very first computer-based role-playing game based in the AD&D
>  universe. It was called Pool of Radiance and would herald a decade
>  of strong AD&D-based computer role-playing games (CRPG). For
>  half a decade, the fortunes of AD&D and AD&D-based RPGs would
>  continue to rise. It was a golden age for AD&D and a golden age for
>  SSI's role-playing games. 
55,93c55,90
< Created by Gary
<                 Gygax and Dave Arneson, it grew from
<                 humble roots in Wisconsin and gradually
<                 became the most popular and influential
<                 role-playing system in the world. Nearly
<                 everyone has heard of Dungeons & Dragons,
<                 although not always in a good light. In the mid-'80s it was used as a
<                 scapegoat for very rare incidents of violence (much like computer
<                 games today), and in the mid-90s, it nearly disappeared as TSR, the
<                 company Gygax co-founded, went bankrupt before being bought by
<                 Wizards of the Coast, creator of Magic the Gathering. 
< 
<                 While it has been different things to different people throughout the
<                 years, on the computer, Dungeons & Dragons has been a great
<                 foundation and a holy grail for game designers and the computer
<                 role-playing genre. The setting and atmosphere of Dungeons &
<                 Dragons are things that game designers have been trying to emulate
<                 for more than a decade. The developers of role-playing games are
<                 trying to create fantasies and experiences as compelling as those
<                 told by dungeon masters, the game referees of Dungeons &
<                 Dragons. Gamers all want an experience on the computer that is as
<                 close as possible to the pen-and-paper Dungeons & Dragons
<                 experience. Even after eleven years of D&D computer games, the
<                 industry still can't completely reproduce that real D&D experience,
<                 but that doesn't mean that the D&D license hasn't lent itself to some
<                 great computer role-playing games. 
< 
<                 While trying to re-create the D&D game has sometimes led to failure,
<                 it has also led to some incredible successes. Ever since TSR offered
<                 its Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license to SSI in the late '80s,
<                 we've been treated to more than twenty AD&D computer role-playing
<                 games. These games have created a great role-playing legacy on
<                 the computer. Role players all remember such venerable favorites as
<                 Pool of Radiance and Eye of the Beholder. In the canon of computer
<                 role-playing games, they are almost as important as Ultima and
<                 Might and Magic, and based purely on quantity, the AD&D franchise
<                 has produced more games than those two series combined.
< 
< 
---
> Created by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, it grew from
>  humble roots in Wisconsin and gradually
>  became the most popular and influential
>  role-playing system in the world. Nearly
>  everyone has heard of Dungeons & Dragons,
>  although not always in a good light. In the mid-'80s it was used as a
>  scapegoat for very rare incidents of violence (much like computer
>  games today), and in the mid-90s, it nearly disappeared as TSR, the
>  company Gygax co-founded, went bankrupt before being bought by
>  Wizards of the Coast, creator of Magic the Gathering. 
> 
>  While it has been different things to different people throughout the
>  years, on the computer, Dungeons & Dragons has been a great
>  foundation and a holy grail for game designers and the computer
>  role-playing genre. The setting and atmosphere of Dungeons &
>  Dragons are things that game designers have been trying to emulate
>  for more than a decade. The developers of role-playing games are
>  trying to create fantasies and experiences as compelling as those
>  told by dungeon masters, the game referees of Dungeons &
>  Dragons. Gamers all want an experience on the computer that is as
>  close as possible to the pen-and-paper Dungeons & Dragons
>  experience. Even after eleven years of D&D computer games, the
>  industry still can't completely reproduce that real D&D experience,
>  but that doesn't mean that the D&D license hasn't lent itself to some
>  great computer role-playing games. 
> 
>  While trying to re-create the D&D game has sometimes led to failure,
>  it has also led to some incredible successes. Ever since TSR offered
>  its Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license to SSI in the late '80s,
>  we've been treated to more than twenty AD&D computer role-playing
>  games. These games have created a great role-playing legacy on
>  the computer. Role players all remember such venerable favorites as
>  Pool of Radiance and Eye of the Beholder. In the canon of computer
>  role-playing games, they are almost as important as Ultima and
>  Might and Magic, and based purely on quantity, the AD&D franchise
>  has produced more games than those two series combined.
------
Games/Board|984498094
2,3c2,3
< * [[Abalone]]
< * [[Alquerque]]
---
> 
> Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces and/or make it impossible for the other player to move
7,9d6
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Colonists of Catan]]
< * [[Diplomacy]]
12,13d8
< * [[Mancala]]
< * [[Monopoly]]
15a11,25
> 
> Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by a the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to each some specific location on the board.
> 
> * [[Ludo]]
> * [[Monopoly]]
> * [[Snakes and Ladders]]
> 
> Other:
> * [[Abalone]]
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Chinese Checkers]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Colonists of Catan]]
> * [[Diplomacy]]
> * [[Mancala]]
------
Games/Board|984498122
12c12
< Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by a the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to each some specific location on the board.
---
> Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to reach some specific location on the board.
------
Games/Board|984498162
21d20
< * [[Chinese Checkers]]
------
Games/Board|984498285
3c3,4
< Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces and/or make it impossible for the other player to move
---
> Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces, make it impossible for the other player to move. or to control the largest area at the end of the game.
>  
------
Country_music|984498474
1c1,3
< American popular musical form, with roots in traditional folk music.
---
> American popular musical form, with roots in traditional folk music.  Initially derived from the same Appalachian and [[Celtic music|celtic]] folk tradition as [[bluegrass]], country music is now one of the most popular forms of music in the world, particularly in the southern [[United States]].
> 
> Following its early popularity, country music rapidly became a multi-million industry, centred on [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]].  Perhaps because of this, it never really obtained as great stylistic diversity that one would associate with [[folk music|folk]], [[popular music|popular]] or [[jazz]] music.
------
Wiki_Canonization|984499562
3c3
< The current algorithm, as a wild guess, is
---
> The current algorithm is essentially
6a7
> <i>This is correct as of version 0.91 (March 2001).  The uppercase first letter is not yet strictly enforced.</i>
21c22,29
< It is unfortunate but true that we have to be careful to support what has been done in the past.  We only used CrammedTogetherWords links for a month or so, and we still haven't gotten rid of them completely, and I expect to keep finding a few two months from now.</i>
---
> It is unfortunate but true that we have to be careful to support what has been done in the past.  We only used CrammedTogetherWords links for a month or so, and we still haven't gotten rid of them completely, and I expect to keep finding a few months from now.</i>
> ----
> A reply from the UseModWiki author (CliffordAdams):
> :1. remove all accents, umlauts and other diacriticals
> ::I am not sure this would be best.  The current approach is to either ignore non-English characters (if <code>$NonEnglish = 0</code>), or treat them as letters (if <code>$NonEnglish = 1</code>).  I would rather not try to recognize accented characters just to remove the accents.  Also, some conversions may not be that simple like  "Gödel" where the preferred English version is "Goedel".
> 
> :2. convert  all non-alphanumerics to underscores
> ::Currently, only three URL-safe non-alphanumeric characters are allowed (comma ",", dash "-", and period ".").  I might consider converting other punctuation to underscores in the future.  For now, however, I would rather restrict the range of links.
22a31,38
> :3. delete all leading and trailing underscores, and replace any consecutive underscores with a single underscore 
> ::There are some attempts to do this already in the code, but it should (and will) be stricter.
> 
> :4. uppercase the first letter, and any letter that follows an underscore
> ::This may happen in the next release, at least as a site option.  It will require a conversion script to convert the old mostly-lowercase page names.
> 
> :5. lowercase all characters that were not explicitly uppercased in #3 
> ::This is unlikely, as I want the old-style <code>WikiName</code> links to be allowed in the [[Free Links|Free Link]] format.
------
Country_music|984501232
3c3
< Following its early popularity, country music rapidly became a multi-million industry, centred on [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]].  Perhaps because of this, it never really obtained as great stylistic diversity that one would associate with [[folk music|folk]], [[popular music|popular]] or [[jazz]] music.
---
> Following its early popularity, country music rapidly became a multi-million industry, centred on [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]].  Perhaps because of this, it never really obtained as great stylistic diversity that one would associate with [[folk music|folk]], [[popular Music|popular]] or [[jazz]] music.
------
Derivative|984503832
3c3
< Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(a + dx).  An approximation to the slope is given my (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx, which is to say it is the change in f divided by the change in x.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.
---
> Intuitively, suppose we wish to find the derivate of a suitably smooth [[Function]], f(x) say, at the point x=a.  If we increase x by a small amount, which we'll call dx (or more accurately delta x) we can  calculate f(a + dx).  An approximation to the slope is given by (f(a+dx)-f(a)) / dx, which is to say it is the change in f divided by the change in x.   The smaller the value dx, the better approximation.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984504218
3c3
<  role-playing game previously owned by TSR
---
>  role-playing game previously owned by [[TSR]]
14c14
<  beginning; there is no end. As long as the dungeon master has more
---
>  beginning; there is no end. As long as the [[dungeon master]] has more
18c18
<  <P>Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is, naturally, the more advanced
---
>  <P>[[Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]] is, naturally, the more advanced
------
Games/RolePlaying|984504332
14c14
< In this age of 3D infotainment and whackotaintment you'd be inclined to despise of old-fashioned board-, card- and paper games, were it not that mostly you have a
---
> In this age of [[3D]] infotainment and whackotaintment you'd be inclined to despise of old-fashioned board-, card- and paper games, were it not that mostly you have a
25,26c25,26
< <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why RPG's?</font><BR>
< RPG's are social games: it's not a game of GM and player, but a whole group of players. This ensures a whole lot of unexpectedness, both for players, and the GM,
---
> <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why [[RPG]]'s?</font><BR>
> RPG's are social games: it's not a game of [[GM]] and player, but a whole group of players. This ensures a whole lot of unexpectedness, both for players, and the GM,
------
Games/Cards|984504472
20a21
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
39a41
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
------
Games|984504547
6d5
< *[[/Cards]]
8c7
< *[[/Letter]]
---
> *[[/Cards]]
9a9,10
> *[[/Computer]]
> *[[/Letter]]
11d11
< *[[/TradingCard]]
13c13,14
< *[[/Computer]]
---
> *[[/Tile based]]
> *[[/TradingCard]]
------
Games/Tile_based|984504716
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[tile]] based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
> 
> Some tile based games:
> * Dominoes
> * 42 (Forty Two)
> * Mah Jong
------
Country_music|984504940
24a25,27
> 
> Of note:
> *[[Hee Haw]]
------
Hee_Haw|984505085
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[television]] show featuring [[Country music]] and down home humor that aired from 1969-1992.
> 
------
Linear_Algebra|984505742
1c1
< Linear Algebra has to do with Matrices. Matrices are basically tables of numbers. Surprisingly enough, studying their properties can be very enlightening.
---
> Linear Algebra has to do with [[Matrices]]. Matrices are basically tables of numbers. Surprisingly enough, studying their properties can be very enlightening.
3c3
< Linear Algebra covers such arcane topics as [[Eigenvectors]].
---
> Linear Algebra covers such arcane topics as [[Eigenvectors]].
------
Vector_Space|984505803
1c1
< One of the fundamental concepts in Linear Algebra is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD; a similar object defined over a RinG is called a ModulE.
---
> One of the fundamental concepts in [[Linear Algebra]] is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD; a similar object defined over a RinG is called a ModulE.
------
Vector_Space|984505952
7,11c7,9
< *1.     For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.
< <br>       V is closed under vector addition.
< *2.     For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.
< <br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
< *3   .  For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
---
> #For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.<br>       V is closed under vector addition.
> #For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.<br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
> #For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
13,16c11,12
< *4.     For all v in V, there exists an element -v in V, such that v+(-v)=0.
< <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
< *5.     For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.
< <br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
---
> #For all v in V, there exists an element -v in V, such that v+(-v)=0. <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
> #For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.<br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
18,27c14,18
< *6.     For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.
< <br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
< *7.     For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.
< <br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
< *8.     For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.
< <br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
< *9.     For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.
< <br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
< *10.    For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.
< <br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
---
> #For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.<br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
> #For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.<br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
> #For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.<br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
> #For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
> #For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
------
Vector_Space|984506010
9,10c9
< #For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.
< <br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
---
> #For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.<br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
------
Vector_Space|984506050
12d11
< <br>
------
Wiki_Canonization|984506116
27a28,30
>  <nowiki>I was, indeed, suggesting that we do the wrong thing, and turn [[Gödel]] into [[Godel]].
>  I still believe that doing so would make for fewer user mistakes than not doing so.</nowiki>
> 
39c42,43
< 
---
>  I would assert that <nowiki>WikiName WiKiNaMe [[Wikiname]] and [[WIKINAME]]</nowiki>
>  should all point to the same page.
------
Vector_Space|984506279
76c76
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) matrices, with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
---
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[Matrix|matrices]], with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
------
Vector_Space|984506379
76c76
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[Matrix|matrices]], with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
---
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
------
Matrices|984506701
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Plural form of '''matrix'''. A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities, ie. numbers or numerically valued variables. Each horizontal line is termed a '''row''' while vertical lines are termed '''columns'''. The ''elements'' of a matrix can be identified by their position within the array. For example, 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the '''i'th row''' and '''j'th column''' of the matrix  A.</font>
------
Matrices|984506901
1,2c1,10
< Plural form of '''matrix'''. A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities, ie. numbers or numerically valued variables. Each horizontal line is termed a '''row''' while vertical lines are termed '''columns'''. The ''elements'' of a matrix can be identified by their position within the array. For example, 
< *<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the '''i'th row''' and '''j'th column''' of the matrix  A.</font>
---
> Plural form of '''matrix'''. A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities, ie. numbers or numerically valued variables. Each horizontal line is termed a '''row''' while vertical lines are termed '''columns'''. The ''elements'' of a matrix can be identified by their position within the array.
>  
> *<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example below.</font>
> 
> <table>
> <tr><td>a<sub>11</sub><td>a<sub>12</sub><td>a<sub>13</sub></tr>
> <tr><td>a<sub>21</sub><td>a<sub>22</sub><td>a<sub>23</sub></tr>
> <tr><td>a<sub>31</sub><td>a<sub>32</sub><td>a<sub>33</sub></tr>
> <tr><td>a<sub>41</sub><td>a<sub>42</sub><td>a<sub>43</sub></tr>
> </table>
------
Matrices|984506958
10c10,12
< </table>
---
> </table>
> 
> :[[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Vector Spaces]]
------
Matrices|984507003
12c12
< :[[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Vector Spaces]]
---
> :see also [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Vector Space]]
------
Matrices|984507063
5c5
< <table>
---
> <table width=50% border=1>
------
Matrices|984507118
5c5
< <table width=50% border=1>
---
> <table width=30% border=1 size=+1>
------
Matrices|984507161
5c5
< <table width=30% border=1 size=+1>
---
> <table width=30% border=1><font size=+1>
10c10
< </table>
---
> </font></table>
------
Matrices|984507376
5,10c5,26
< <table width=30% border=1><font size=+1>
< <tr><td>a<sub>11</sub><td>a<sub>12</sub><td>a<sub>13</sub></tr>
< <tr><td>a<sub>21</sub><td>a<sub>22</sub><td>a<sub>23</sub></tr>
< <tr><td>a<sub>31</sub><td>a<sub>32</sub><td>a<sub>33</sub></tr>
< <tr><td>a<sub>41</sub><td>a<sub>42</sub><td>a<sub>43</sub></tr>
< </font></table>
---
> <table width=30% border=1>
>  <tr>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>11</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>12</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>13</sub></font>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>21</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>22</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>23</sub></font>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>31</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>32</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>33</sub></font>
>  </tr>
>  <tr>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>41</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>42</sub></font>
>   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>43</sub></font>
>  </tr>
> </table>
------
Matrices|984507409
3,4c3
< *<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example below.</font>
< 
---
> <font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example below.</font>
------
Matrices|984507469
3d2
< <font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example below.</font>
25a25,26
> <font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example above.</font>
> 
------
Matrices|984507512
2,3c2
<  
< <table width=30% border=1>
---
> *<table width=30% border=1>
25c24,25
< <font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example above.</font>
---
> 
> :<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example above.</font>
------
Matrices|984507590
2,22c2,6
< *<table width=30% border=1>
<  <tr>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>11</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>12</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>13</sub></font>
<  </tr>
<  <tr>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>21</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>22</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>23</sub></font>
<  </tr>
<  <tr>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>31</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>32</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>33</sub></font>
<  </tr>
<  <tr>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>41</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>42</sub></font>
<   <td><font size=+1>a<sub>43</sub></font>
<  </tr>
---
> <table width=30% border=1>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>11</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>12</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>13</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>21</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>22</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>23</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>31</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>32</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>33</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>41</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>42</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>43</sub></font> </tr>
------
Wikipedia_policy|984509973
15a16,18
> 
> Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984510120
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lee Daniel Crocker is computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More information can be found on his [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages]. 
> 
> Welcome, Lee! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
>  
> 
------
LeeDanielCrocker|984510159
1,3c1
< Lee is computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More information can be found on [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ his personal pages].
< 
< Welcome, Lee! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|984511105
7c7,10
< In other words, it is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.
---
> In other words, it is helpful, especially for long articles, to put a short description/definition at the beginning of the article.
> ----
> Note that this practice also facilitates uplinks--i.e., links to the more general topic of which the present page is a subtopic.  For example,  "[[Poker]] is a [[gambling]] [[Games/Cards|card game]] based on..."
> 
------
Games/Board|984511918
16c16
< * [[Monopoly]]
---
> * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
------
Film_Genres|984512840
12a13
> :[[Martial Aarts Film]]
19c20
< :[[Western Film]]
---
> :[[Western Film]]
------
Film_Genres|984512852
13c13
< :[[Martial Aarts Film]]
---
> :[[Martial Arts Film]]
------
Zimbabwe|984513094
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country located in the continent of Africa.
------
MonopolyGame|984513438
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Monopoly</i> is a [[Games/Board|board game]] invented by Charles Darrow and marketed by Parker Brothers.  The game involves using play money to trade real estate (with properties named after locations in Atlantic City, NJ).  It became popular in the [[United States]] during the [[Great Depression]].
> 
------
Computer_Storage|984513475
5c5,7
< Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.
---
> Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.----
> It seems this entry should be titled PC-Memory. What about tape drives, stationary disks,
> mountable disks, and to go back, core. And, PC can have tape drives, too. 
------
Computer_Storage|984513526
7c7
< mountable disks, and to go back, core. And, PC can have tape drives, too. 
---
> mountable disks, and to go back, core. And, PC can have tape drives, too. Or, going forward, organic memory.
------
Great_Depression|984513687
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <i>Great Depression</i> is the period of [[United States|American]] history that followed "Black Thursday", the stock market crash of Thursday, October 24, 1929.
------
Computer_Storage|984514585
5c5,7
< Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.----
---
> Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.
> 
> ----
7a10,40
> 
> ----
> The description above is general and inclusive, as a top-level article should be, and concentrates more on types of memory organized by usage-related properties rather than device specifics.  Perhaps a more organized set of links to specific devices would not be a bad idea to add as well.  Something like:
> 
> * Primary Storage Devices
> ** Magnetic Core
> ** Static RAM
> ** Dynamic RAM
> ** Special-purpose primary storage
> *** VRAM
> *** NVRAM
> *** WRAM
> 
> * Secondary Storage Devices
> ** Internal
> *** Hard disk
> *** ROM
> 
> ** Removable
> *** Magnetic
> **** Magnetic tape
> **** Floppy disks
> *** Optical
> **** CD-ROM
> **** DVD-ROM
> **** Paper tape
> *** Magneto-optical
> *** Semiconductor-based
> **** Compact flash
> **** Smartdisk
> **** Memory stick
------
Film_Genres|984514956
20a21,23
> 
> ----
> I don't know that I'd call "Cult" a genre, but more of a post-hoc description.  The genre of <i>Rocky Horror Picture Show</i> is horror/comedy/musical; the fact that it attracted a loyal following after release, thereby become a "cult" film, doesn't change that.
------
Charlize_Theron|984516344
1c1
< Charlize Theron is a South African actress.  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  She is dating [[Stephan Jenkins]], lead singer for the band [[Third Eye Blind]].
---
> Charlize Theron is a South African [[actress]].  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  She is dating [[Stephan Jenkins]], lead singer for the band [[Third Eye Blind]].
------
Actresses|984516465
8a9
> :[[Penelope Cruz]]
------
Great_Depression|984516620
1a2,6
> 
> It was an extended economic contraction that ended with the
> government induced [[World War II]] spending economic expansion.
> 
> 
------
Computer_Storage|984516718
34a35
> **** Mylar tape
35a37
> **** [[Punch card]]
------
Malcolm_Farmer|984516725
8a9,14
> ----
> Hi Malcolm,
> 
> Very nifty program you've got there.  Perhaps you could just completely replace [[new topics]] with the results of your program?  Take charge, please!  :-)
> 
> Larry
------
ScienceFiction|984516777
1,20c1
< A form of fiction that developed in the 20th century and deals principally with the impact of actual or imagined science upon society or individuals. The term is more generally used to refer to any literary fantasy that includes a scientific factor as an essential orienting component.
< 
< 
< Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and RobertLouisStevenson'''''s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
< Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
< 
< Science fiction was made possible only by the rise of modern science itself, notably the revolutions in astronomy and physics. Aside from the age-old genre of fantasy literature, which does not qualify, there were notable precursors: imaginary voyages
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
< Hawthorne, and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social
< criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
< 
< The development of Science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories. Published in
< this and other [[pulp magazines]] with great and growing success, such stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. With the advent in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., of Astounding Science Fiction (founded in
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
< 
< A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
< 
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
< 
< * [[Science Fiction Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science fiction]]
------
Science_fiction|984516785
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of fiction that developed in the 20th century and deals principally with the impact of actual or imagined science upon society or individuals. The term is more generally used to refer to any literary fantasy that includes a scientific factor as an essential orienting component.
> 
> 
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and RobertLouisStevenson'''''s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
> Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
> 
> Science fiction was made possible only by the rise of modern science itself, notably the revolutions in astronomy and physics. Aside from the age-old genre of fantasy literature, which does not qualify, there were notable precursors: imaginary voyages
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
> Hawthorne, and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social
> criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
> 
> The development of Science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories. Published in
> this and other [[pulp magazines]] with great and growing success, such stories were not viewed as serious literature but as sensationalism. With the advent in 1937 of a demanding editor, John W. Campbell, Jr., of Astounding Science Fiction (founded in
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as IsaacAsimov, ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
> 
> A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the UnitedStates particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
> 
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
> 
> * [[Science Fiction Film]]
------
Penelope_Cruz|984516821
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Penelope Cruz is a Spanish [[actress]].  Born Penelope Cruz Sanchez in [[Madrid]], [[Spain]] on April 28, 1974.  As a child and young teen, Cruz was a dancer, and actually dropped out of high school to pursue dancing.  Her looks and style have been compared favorably with [[Sophia Loren]].
> 
> Cruz's first major films were [[Jamon, Jamon]] and the more widely known (in the [[US]]) [[Belle Epoque]], a film which won an [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Foreign Film|Best Foreign Film]].
> 
> Recently, she appeared with [[Matt Damon]] in [[All The Pretty Horses]].
> 
> /Filmography
------
Actresses|984516854
0a1,2
> An actress is a female that acts in film, [[television]], [[theatre]], or [[radio]].
> 
------
Philip_K._Dick|984516995
1,2c1
< Philip K. Dick
< American ScienceFiction writer
---
> Philip K. Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound affect on the genre.  He was hailed by and friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
4c3
< A science fiction writer who had a rather profound affect on the field (and who happened to be hailed by and be friends with a number of prominent ScienceFiction authors such as RobertHeinlein) yet who recieved little recognition during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel [[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]? was made into the movie [[Blade Runner]].  The movie [[Total Recall]] was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie Screamers, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels.  He also produced a tremendous number of short stories and minor works which were published in [[pulp magazines]].
6,8c5
< Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels.  He also produced a tremdous number of short stories and minor works which were published [[pulp magazines]].
< 
< Recommended Books:
---
> Recommended books:
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984517190
1c1,2
< <P><font color="#008080" size=+1><A NAME="link">What's AD&D?</A></FONT><BR>
---
> Umm...is this a copyrighted article?  It sort of looks like it was cribbed straight from a web page.  If so, it should be removed immediately.
> 
------
Penelope_Cruz/Filmography|984517314
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Most of Penelope Cruz's films are Spanish.
> 
> [[El Laborinto Griego]] (The Greek Labyrinth) (1991)
> [[Belle Epoque]] (1992)
> [[Jamon, Jamon]] (1992)
> [[La Ribelle]] (1993)
> [[Per amore, solo per amore]] (1993)
> [[Alegre ma non troppo]] (1994)
> [[Todo es mentira]] (1994)
> [[Entre Rojas]] (1994)
> [[Brujas]] (1996)
> [[La Celestina]] (1996)
> [[Mas que Amor, frenesi]] (1996)
> [[Framed]] (1996)
> [[El Amor perjudica seriamente la Salud]] (1996)
> [[Et Hjorne af Paradis]] (1997)
> [[Carne Tremula]] (1997)
> [[Abre Los Ojos]] (1997)
> [[Don Juan]] (1998)
> [[Twice Upon A Yesterday]] (1998)
> [[Talk Of Angels]] (1998)
> [[La Nina de tus ojos]] (1998)
> [[The Hi-Lo Country]] (1998)
> [[Todo sobre mi madre]] (1999)
> [[Volaverunt]] (1999)
> [[Woman On Top]] (1999)
> [[All The Pretty Horses]] (1999)
> [[Blow]] (2001)
> [[Captain Corellis Mandolin|Captain Correli's Mandolin]] (2001)
> [[Vanilla Sky]] (2001)
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Penelope_Cruz/Filmography|984517338
3,30c3,30
< [[El Laborinto Griego]] (The Greek Labyrinth) (1991)
< [[Belle Epoque]] (1992)
< [[Jamon, Jamon]] (1992)
< [[La Ribelle]] (1993)
< [[Per amore, solo per amore]] (1993)
< [[Alegre ma non troppo]] (1994)
< [[Todo es mentira]] (1994)
< [[Entre Rojas]] (1994)
< [[Brujas]] (1996)
< [[La Celestina]] (1996)
< [[Mas que Amor, frenesi]] (1996)
< [[Framed]] (1996)
< [[El Amor perjudica seriamente la Salud]] (1996)
< [[Et Hjorne af Paradis]] (1997)
< [[Carne Tremula]] (1997)
< [[Abre Los Ojos]] (1997)
< [[Don Juan]] (1998)
< [[Twice Upon A Yesterday]] (1998)
< [[Talk Of Angels]] (1998)
< [[La Nina de tus ojos]] (1998)
< [[The Hi-Lo Country]] (1998)
< [[Todo sobre mi madre]] (1999)
< [[Volaverunt]] (1999)
< [[Woman On Top]] (1999)
< [[All The Pretty Horses]] (1999)
< [[Blow]] (2001)
< [[Captain Corellis Mandolin|Captain Correli's Mandolin]] (2001)
< [[Vanilla Sky]] (2001)
---
> :[[El Laborinto Griego]] (The Greek Labyrinth) (1991)
> :[[Belle Epoque]] (1992)
> :[[Jamon, Jamon]] (1992)
> :[[La Ribelle]] (1993)
> :[[Per amore, solo per amore]] (1993)
> :[[Alegre ma non troppo]] (1994)
> :[[Todo es mentira]] (1994)
> :[[Entre Rojas]] (1994)
> :[[Brujas]] (1996)
> :[[La Celestina]] (1996)
> :[[Mas que Amor, frenesi]] (1996)
> :[[Framed]] (1996)
> :[[El Amor perjudica seriamente la Salud]] (1996)
> :[[Et Hjorne af Paradis]] (1997)
> :[[Carne Tremula]] (1997)
> :[[Abre Los Ojos]] (1997)
> :[[Don Juan]] (1998)
> :[[Twice Upon A Yesterday]] (1998)
> :[[Talk Of Angels]] (1998)
> :[[La Nina de tus ojos]] (1998)
> :[[The Hi-Lo Country]] (1998)
> :[[Todo sobre mi madre]] (1999)
> :[[Volaverunt]] (1999)
> :[[Woman On Top]] (1999)
> :[[All The Pretty Horses]] (1999)
> :[[Blow]] (2001)
> :[[Captain Corellis Mandolin|Captain Correli's Mandolin]] (2001)
> :[[Vanilla Sky]] (2001)
------
Games/RolePlaying|984517367
12a13,14
> Again, what's the source for the following?  If it's copyrighted, it should be removed IMMEDIATELY.
> 
------
Academy_Award|984517379
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]]
------
Games|984517418
16,17c16
< Many branches of [[mathematics]] are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
< 
---
> Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
------
Aircraft_Carrier|984517611
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <b>aircraft carrier</b> is a [[military]] ship whose main function is to deploy and recover [[aircraft]].
> 
> An aircraft carrier has a flat deck that servers as a take off [[airstrip]] and a [[landing strip]] for [[airplane]]s.
> 
> [[Egune Ely]] piloted the first airplane to launch from a ship 
> in November 1910.  He took off from the US [[Cruiser]] Birmingham
> at Hampton Roads, [[Virginia]].
------
Matrices|984517647
1,12c1
< Plural form of '''matrix'''. A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities, ie. numbers or numerically valued variables. Each horizontal line is termed a '''row''' while vertical lines are termed '''columns'''. The ''elements'' of a matrix can be identified by their position within the array.
< <table width=30% border=1>
<  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>11</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>12</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>13</sub></font> </tr>
<  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>21</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>22</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>23</sub></font> </tr>
<  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>31</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>32</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>33</sub></font> </tr>
<  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>41</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>42</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>43</sub></font> </tr>
< </table>
< 
< :<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example above.</font>
< 
< 
< :see also [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Vector Space]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Matrix]]
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984517647
1,48c1
< Umm...is this a copyrighted article?  It sort of looks like it was cribbed straight from a web page.  If so, it should be removed immediately.
< 
<  Advanced Dungeons & Dragons is the
<  role-playing game previously owned by [[TSR]]
<  and now owned by Wizards of the Coast. It is
<  a game where you roll the dice to establish
<  characters, such as mages, fighters, or
<  thieves, and assume fantasy personas in
<  magical worlds. Players gather together and
<  confront problems, solve quests, and battle
<  evil while a referee, known as a dungeon
<  master, puts all the behind-the-scene
<  elements together to craft a story that binds the group of players
<  together. The game is completely open-ended. There is only a
<  beginning; there is no end. As long as the [[dungeon master]] has more
<  stories to tell, and the players want to listen and play, the game goes
<  on. 
< 
<  <P>[[Advanced Dungeons & Dragons]] is, naturally, the more advanced
<  rules set descended from the original Dungeons & Dragons. D&D
<  was created in 1972 by Dave Arneson and Gary Gygax. Both were
<  avid board and wargamers who combined their own individual game
<  designs to come up with this game of fantasy adventure. The game
<  was revolutionary back then because it didn't involve a board or
<  minatures. You played as individual heroes who advanced in
<  experience as they surmounted greater challenges and adventures.
<  D&D originally began as a medieval battle game with fantasy
<  elements and a very loose set of rules. It eventually grew into a huge
<  role-playing game that encompassed dozens of rules supplements,
<  tomes of spells and monsters, and millions of fans. 
< 
<  <P>In 1978, Advanced Dungeons & Dragons was created. It was
<  different from the original D&D in that it had more structure and more
<  sets of rules. It was AD&D that would eventually be supported by
<  TSR. From the late '70s to the mid-'80s, AD&D grew in popularity
<  and profits. In the mid-'80s, AD&D hit a high water mark with the
<  release of the Dungeons & Dragons Saturday morning cartoon,
<  which served to further popularize the game. However, during these
<  same years, TSR encountered major financial trouble, but it
<  eventually bounced back when in 1988 it unveiled the 2nd Edition
<  rules for AD&D, a revised AD&D system that would streamline and
<  better organize the AD&D rules. That year also saw the release of
<  the very first computer-based role-playing game based in the AD&D
<  universe. It was called Pool of Radiance and would herald a decade
<  of strong AD&D-based computer role-playing games (CRPG). For
<  half a decade, the fortunes of AD&D and AD&D-based RPGs would
<  continue to rise. It was a golden age for AD&D and a golden age for
<  SSI's role-playing games. 
---
> Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)
56,92d8
< Created by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, it grew from
<  humble roots in Wisconsin and gradually
<  became the most popular and influential
<  role-playing system in the world. Nearly
<  everyone has heard of Dungeons & Dragons,
<  although not always in a good light. In the mid-'80s it was used as a
<  scapegoat for very rare incidents of violence (much like computer
<  games today), and in the mid-90s, it nearly disappeared as TSR, the
<  company Gygax co-founded, went bankrupt before being bought by
<  Wizards of the Coast, creator of Magic the Gathering. 
< 
<  While it has been different things to different people throughout the
<  years, on the computer, Dungeons & Dragons has been a great
<  foundation and a holy grail for game designers and the computer
<  role-playing genre. The setting and atmosphere of Dungeons &
<  Dragons are things that game designers have been trying to emulate
<  for more than a decade. The developers of role-playing games are
<  trying to create fantasies and experiences as compelling as those
<  told by dungeon masters, the game referees of Dungeons &
<  Dragons. Gamers all want an experience on the computer that is as
<  close as possible to the pen-and-paper Dungeons & Dragons
<  experience. Even after eleven years of D&D computer games, the
<  industry still can't completely reproduce that real D&D experience,
<  but that doesn't mean that the D&D license hasn't lent itself to some
<  great computer role-playing games. 
< 
<  While trying to re-create the D&D game has sometimes led to failure,
<  it has also led to some incredible successes. Ever since TSR offered
<  its Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license to SSI in the late '80s,
<  we've been treated to more than twenty AD&D computer role-playing
<  games. These games have created a great role-playing legacy on
<  the computer. Role players all remember such venerable favorites as
<  Pool of Radiance and Eye of the Beholder. In the canon of computer
<  role-playing games, they are almost as important as Ultima and
<  Might and Magic, and based purely on quantity, the AD&D franchise
<  has produced more games than those two series combined.
< 
------
Matrix|984517688
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''matrix'' (pl. ''matrices'') is a rectangular array of quantities, i.e., numbers or numerically valued variables. Each horizontal line is termed a '''row''' while vertical lines are termed '''columns'''. The ''elements'' of a matrix can be identified by their position within the array.
> <table width=30% border=1>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>11</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>12</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>13</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>21</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>22</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>23</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>31</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>32</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>33</sub></font> </tr>
>  <tr>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>41</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>42</sub></font>  <td><font size=+1>a<sub>43</sub></font> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> :<font size=+1 color=red>a<sub>ij</sub> designates the element in the i'th row and j'th column of the matrix  A as in the example above.</font>
> 
> 
> :see also [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Vector Space]]
------
Wikipedia_policy|984517779
17,18d16
< Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< 
------
Feature_requests|984517812
8a9
> # Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
28c29
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
Games/RolePlaying|984517850
15,35c15
< <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why RPG's?</font><BR>
< In this age of [[3D]] infotainment and whackotaintment you'd be inclined to despise of old-fashioned board-, card- and paper games, were it not that mostly you have a
< computer for an opponent. And let's be frank about it: computers know how to present games, but not how to play them - they're just too stupid for it. True, some
< computer games allow you to match yourself with human opponents, but they tend to limit you more than support you. While playing within tightly-set limits can be
< great fun in itself, you may want to try something more challenging to your creativity.
< If so, it's time to consider RPG's.
< 
< <font color="#008080" size=+1>What is it?</font><BR>
< The idea of a RPG is that you assume the role of an imaginary character, living in an imaginary world. The GameMaster (GM) builds this world for you and your
< character may explore it. You tell the the GM what your character will do, he/she will tell you what effect comes from your words and actions. This way a dialogue
< begins and the game starts rolling.
< 
< <font color="#008080" size=+1>Why [[RPG]]'s?</font><BR>
< RPG's are social games: it's not a game of [[GM]] and player, but a whole group of players. This ensures a whole lot of unexpectedness, both for players, and the GM,
< who can never be in full control (not that he/she wants to: that would become boring very quickly).
< The fun of RPG's is that the only limit is your imagination. Anything is possible! Of course, for practical purposes RPG-players use rules to set some limits, for
< instance with the environment. Many RPG's are set in fantasy realms, where magic, monsters, faeries and heroes abound. Seldom you will encounter a game where
< you can play an office-klerk in a late 20th- century supermarket. Of course that's not really interesting, isn't it? And if it would be, why not become a real klerk
< yourself?
< RPG's offer a way to playe something you yourself will never be: a hero, a villain, an explorer, or whatever you like. Combine this with the element of surprise,
< interaction with the bewildering world called fellow human players and you've got yourself a really nice game .
---
> (Theft confirmed, text removed.)
------
Genre_Film_Theory|984517927
1c1
< Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new content was foracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.  This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of immitation.  As stories were reworked and re-shot, what becan to emerge by the end of the 1910s and certainly was noticeably present by the mid 20s was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen hundred of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive set up for the showdown.  The convention was created where when two men face each other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited construction of a film sequence.
---
> Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new content was voracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.  This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of immitation.  As stories were reworked and re-shot, what becan to emerge by the end of the 1910s and certainly was noticeably present by the mid 20s was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen hundred of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive set up for the showdown.  The convention was created where when two men face each other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited construction of a film sequence.
9c9
< (All of this barely touches the surface.)
---
> (All of this barely touches the surface.)
------
Dystopia|984518006
15a16
> * [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
------
Leslie_Caron|984518197
1c1
< Leslie Caron is a French film actress and dancer.  She was born July 1, 1931 in Boulogne-Billancourt, France.  She was discovered  by GeneKelly, who chose her to appear opposite him in [[An American in Paris]].
---
> Leslie Caron is a French film actress and dancer.  She was born July 1, 1931 in Boulogne-Billancourt, France.  She was discovered by [[Gene Kelly]], who chose her to appear opposite him in the classic musical ''[[An American in Paris]].''
3c3
< She went on to star in [[Gigi]], [[Lili]], and other classic films set in [[France]].  Some fans believe that she was, after [[Audrey Hepburn]], [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
---
> She went on to star in ''[[Gigi]], [[Lili]],'' and other classic films set in [[France]].  Some fans believe that she was [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/js.robo/scansc/caron/s.htm the most beautiful actress who ever lived].
6d5
< 
------
RecentChanges|984518545
1c1,3
< Track the most recent changes to Wikipedia on this page.  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.  You might want to read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and the [[naming conventions]] too.
---
> Track the most recent changes to Wikipedia on this page.  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.  You might want to read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and the [[naming conventions]] too.
> 
> If you love freedom of information, one of the most important thing you can do is respect copyrights!  You can really hurt this project if you steal.  So please don't do it.
------
Zimbabwe|984518659
1c1,11
< A country located in the continent of Africa.
---
> A country located in the continent of Africa, between South Africa, and Zambia.
> 
> /Introduction
> /Geography
> /People
> /Government
> /Economy
> /Communications
> /Transportation
> /Military
> [[/Transational Issues]]
------
Zimbabwe|984518672
3,11c3,11
< /Introduction
< /Geography
< /People
< /Government
< /Economy
< /Communications
< /Transportation
< /Military
< [[/Transational Issues]]
---
> :/Introduction
> :/Geography
> :/People
> :/Government
> :/Economy
> :/Communications
> :/Transportation
> :/Military
> :[[/Transational Issues]]
------
Zimbabwe/Introduction|984518690
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the South Africa Company in 1923. A 1961 constitution was formulated to
> keep whites in power. In 1965 the government unilaterally declared its independence, but the UK did not recognize the act and
> demanded voting rights for the black African majority in the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla uprising
> finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE, the nation's first prime minister,
> has been the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) and has dominated the country's political system since independence. 
------
Zimbabwe/Geography|984518817
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern [[Africa]], between [[South Africa]] and [[Zambia]]
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 20 00 S, 30 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Africa 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 390,580 sq km 
> land: 386,670 sq km 
> water: 3,910 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than [[Montana]] 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 3,066 km 
> border countries: [[Botswana]] 813 km, [[Mozambique]] 1,231 km, [[South Africa]] 225 km, [[Zambia]] 797 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: tropical; moderated by altitude; rainy season (November to March) 
> 
> Terrain: mostly high plateau with higher central plateau (high veld); mountains in east 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: junction of the [[Runde]] and [[Save]] rivers 162 m 
> highest point: Inyangani 2,592 m 
> 
> Natural resources: [[coal]], [[chromium]] ore, [[asbestos]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[copper]], [[iron ore]], [[vanadium]], [[lithium]], [[tin]], [[platinum]] group metals 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 7% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 13% 
> forests and woodland: 23% 
> other: 57% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,930 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; land degradation; air and water pollution; the black rhinoceros herd -
> once the largest concentration of the species in the world - has been significantly reduced by poaching 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked 
------
Zimbabwe/People|984518906
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 11,342,521 
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life
> expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population
> by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 39.64% (male 2,274,128; female 2,222,277) 
> 15-64 years: 56.82% (male 3,251,860; female 3,192,888) 
> 65 years and over: 3.54% (male 204,028; female 197,340) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 25 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 22.43 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> note: there is a small but steady flow of Zimbabweans into South Africa in search of better paid employment 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 62.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 37.78 years 
> male: 39.18 years 
> female: 36.34 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.34 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Zimbabwean(s) 
> adjective: Zimbabwean 
> 
> Ethnic groups: African 98% ([[Shona]] 71%, [[Ndebele]] 16%, other 11%), white 1%, mixed and Asian 1% 
> 
> Religions: syncretic (part Christian, part indigenous beliefs) 50%, [[Christian]] 25%, indigenous beliefs 24%, [[Muslim]] and other 1% 
> 
> Languages: [[English]] (official), Shona, Sindebele (the language of the Ndebele, sometimes called Ndebele), numerous but minor tribal
> dialects 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write English 
> total population: 85% 
> male: 90% 
> female: 80% (1995 est.) 
> 
------
Zimbabwe/Government|984519225
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Republic of Zimbabwe 
> conventional short form: Zimbabwe 
> former: Southern Rhodesia, [[Rhodesia]] 
> 
> Data code: ZI 
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy 
> 
> Capital: [[Harare]] 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 8 provinces and 2 cities* with provincial status; Bulawayo*, Harare*, Manicaland, Mashonaland Central,
> Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Midlands 
> 
> Independence: 18 April 1980 (from UK) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 18 April (1980) 
> 
> Constitution: 21 December 1979 
> 
> Legal system: mixture of Roman-Dutch and [[English common law]] 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Executive President [[Robert Gabriel Mugabe] (since 31 December 1987); Co-Vice Presidents Simon Vengai
> MUZENDA (since 31 December 1987) and Joseph MSIKA (since 23 December 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state
> and head of government 
> head of government: Executive President Robert Gabriel MUGABE (since 31 December 1987); Co-Vice Presidents Simon Vengai
> MUZENDA (since 31 December 1987) and Joseph MSIKA (since 23 December 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state
> and head of government 
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president; responsible to the House of Assembly 
> elections: president nominated by the House of Assembly for a six-year term (if more than one nomination, an electoral college
> consisting of members of the House of Assembly elects the president); election last held 16-17 March 1996 (next to be held NA
> March 2002); co-vice presidents appointed by the president 
> election results: Robert Gabriel MUGABE reelected president; percent of electoral college vote - Robert Gabriel MUGABE 92.7%,
> Abel MUZOREWA 4.8%; Ndabaningi SITHOLE 2.4% 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral parliament, called House of Assembly (150 seats - 120 elected by popular vote for six-year terms, 12
> nominated by the president, 10 occupied by traditional chiefs chosen by their peers, and 8 occupied by provincial governors) 
> elections: last held 8-9 April 1995 (next to be held 24-25 June 2000) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ZANU-PF 117, ZANU-NDONGA 2, independent 1 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party or DP [Emmanuel MAGOCHE]; Forum Party of Zimbabwe [Enock
> DUMBUTSHENA]; Movement for Democratic Change or MOC [Morgan TSVANGIRAYI]; Popular Democratic Front or PDF
> [Austin CHAKAODZA]; United Parties [Abel MUZOREWA]; Zimbabwe African National Union-NDONGA or
> ZANU-NDONGA [Ndabaningi SITHOLE]; Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front or ZANU-PF [Robert MUGABE];
> Zimbabwe Unity Movement or ZUM [Edgar TEKERE] 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: National Constitutional Assembly or NCA 
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM,
> IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN,
> UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Simbi Veke MUBAKO 
> chancery: 1608 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009 
> telephone: [1] (202) 332-7100 
> FAX: [1] (202) 483-9326 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas McDONALD 
> embassy: 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare 
> mailing address: P. O. Box 3340, Harare 
> telephone: [263] (4) 794521 
> FAX: [263] (4) 796488 
> 
> Flag description: seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white isosceles triangle edged
> in black with its base on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle
------
Zimbabwe/Economy|984519307
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles to consolidate
> earlier progress in developing a market-oriented economy. Its involvement in the war in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], for
> example, has already drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the [[IMF]] suffers delays in
> part because of the country's failure to meet budgetary goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 59% in 1999. The
> economy is being steadily weakened by [[AIDS]]; Zimbabwe has the highest rate of infection in the world. [[Per capita GDP]], which is twice
> the average of the poorer sub-Saharan nations, will increase little if any in the near-term, and Zimbabwe will suffer continued
> frustrations in developing its agricultural and mineral resources. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $26.5 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 0% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,400 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 28% 
> industry: 32% 
> services: 40% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 60% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 1.8% 
> highest 10%: 46.9% (1990) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 59% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 5 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 66%, services 24%, industry 10% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 50% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $2.5 billion 
> expenditures: $2.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $279 million (FY96/97 est.) 
> 
> Industries: mining (coal, gold, copper, nickel, tin, clay, numerous metallic and nonmetallic ores), steel, wood products, cement,
> chemicals, fertilizer, clothing and footwear, foodstuffs, beverages 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA% 
> 
> Electricity - production: 6.97 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 78.19% 
> hydro: 21.81% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 8.403 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 1.921 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, sugarcane, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs 
> 
> Exports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: tobacco 23%, gold 14%, ferroalloys 7%, cotton 6% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Exports - partners: [[South Africa]] 12%, [[UK]] 11%, [[Germany]] 8%, Japan 6%, [[US]] 6% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Imports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment 39%, other manufactures 18%, chemicals 15%, fuels 10% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Imports - partners: South Africa 37%, UK 7%, US 6%, Japan 6%, Germany 5% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Debt - external: $5 billion (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $437.6 million (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 Zimbabwean dollar (Z$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: Zimbabwean dollars (Z$) per US$1 - 38.1679 (January 2000), 38.3142 (1999), 21.4133 (1998), 11.8906 (1997),
> 9.9206 (1996), 8.6580 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June 
------
Zimbabwe/Communications|984519357
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 212,000 (in addition there are about 20,000 fixed telephones in wireless local loop connections)
> (1997) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 70,000 (1999) 
> 
> Telephone system: system was once one of the best in Africa, but now suffers from poor maintenance; more than 100,000
> outstanding requests for connection despite an equally large number of installed but unused main lines 
> domestic: consists of microwave radio relay links, open-wire lines, radiotelephone communication stations, fixed wireless local loop
> installations, and a substantial mobile cellular network; Internet connection is available in [[Harare]] and planned for all major towns
> and for some of the smaller ones 
> international: satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]]; two international digital gateway exchanges (in [[Harare]] and [[Gweru]]) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 20 (plus 17 repeater stations), shortwave 1 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 1.14 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 16 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 370,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 10 (1999) 
------
Zimbabwe/Transportation|984519412
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
> total: 2,759 km (1995) 
> narrow gauge: 2,759 km 1.067-m gauge (313 km electrified; 42 km double track) (1995 est.) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 18,338 km 
> paved: 8,692 km 
> unpaved: 9,646 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: the [[Mazoe]] and [[Zambezi]] rivers are used for transporting chrome ore from [[Harare]] to [[Mozambique]] 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products 212 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: [[Binga]], [[Kariba]] 
> 
> Airports: 459 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 18 
> over 3,047 m: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 9 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 441 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 217 
> under 914 m: 220 (1999 est.) 
> 
------
Zimbabwe/Military|984519437
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Military branches: Zimbabwe National Army, Air Force of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Republic Police (includes Police Support Unit,
> Paramilitary Police) 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 2,924,630 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 1,814,168 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $127 million (FY99/00) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.1% (FY99/00) 
------
Zimbabwe/Transational_Issues|984519480
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Illicit drugs: significant transit point for African [[cannabis]] and South Asian [[heroin]], [[mandrax]], and [[methamphetamines]] destined for
> the [[South Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an markets 
------
Charlize_Theron|984519531
1c1
< Charlize Theron is a South African [[actress]].  She was born August 7, 1975 in Benoni, South Africa.  She currently resides in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  She is dating [[Stephan Jenkins]], lead singer for the band [[Third Eye Blind]].
---
> Charlize Theron is a South African [[actress]].  She was born August 7, 1975 in [[Benoni]], [[South Afric]]a.  She currently resides in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  She is dating [[Stephan Jenkins]], lead singer for the band [[Third Eye Blind]].
------
Actress|984519667
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[actresses]]
------
Actress|984519678
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[actresses]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actresses]]
------
RinG|984519906
0a1,3
> This page describes the mathematical concept of a 'ring'.  You might also be interested in [[web ring]] or [[jewelry ring]].
> 
> 
------
RecentChanges|984519955
3c3,5
< If you love freedom of information, one of the most important thing you can do is respect copyrights!  You can really hurt this project if you steal.  So please don't do it.
---
> If you want to see the Wikipedia succeed, it's very important
> that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
> 
------
Games/RolePlaying|984520852
1c1
< Roleplaying [[Games]]
---
> Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
13,15c13,15
< Again, what's the source for the following?  If it's copyrighted, it should be removed IMMEDIATELY.
< 
< (Theft confirmed, text removed.)
---
> Roleplaying [[video games]]
> * [[Final fantasy]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
------
CopyrightTalk|984521109
22c22,36
< We don't have to be particularly original, we just have to try to be correct, and most importantly of all, we can't give anyone an excuse to try to shut us down.  So we have to put everything in our own words.
---
> We don't have to be particularly original, we just have to try to be correct, and most importantly of all, we can't give anyone an excuse to try to shut us down.  So we have to put everything in our own words.
> 
> ----
> I just changed this text of Jimbo's on the RecentChanges page to a similar statement which takes a more neutral position about the morality of intellectual property law:
> 
> "If you love freedom of information, one of the most important thing you can do is respect copyrights!  You can really hurt this project if you steal.  So please don't do it."
> 
> Personally I feel that infringement is quite different from theft of physical objects.  So while we need to make everyone aware of what the law prevents us from doing, I would prefer not to endorse the law itself as part of the project.  Because after all, the reason I'm so happy to contribute to the 'pedia itself is that I know the world will always have liberty to share and change it - a nice change from the common greedy-feeling atmosphere of authorship.
> 
> Similarly, I'd suggest something a little less loaded than "DO NOT STEAL!" at the bottom of the Edit page.  Perhaps "Remember - no copyright-restricted material!" or somesuch thing.
> 
> But that's just my NSHO.        -J
> 
> ----
> Has anyone considered starting a nonprofit or somesuch similar organization around the wiki so that it's not so legally tied (in either direction) to the folks that so kindly started it?  IANAL, but it seems like it might have good consequences both ways in terms of liability, as well as for tax exemptions and such.
------
Law|984521329
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]]-- [[inquest]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[order to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]]-- [[inquest]] etc.
------
Zimbabwe/Transational_Issues|984521428
2c2,4
< the [[South Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an markets 
---
> the [[South Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an markets 
> 
> ''Transitional or transnational???''
------
Indictment|984521546
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An indictment is a formal charge of having committed a criminal offense, usually a felony.  It may be handed down by a [[grand jury]] or by a court, following [[arraignment]], at a [[preliminary hearing]]. 
------
CopyrightTalk|984521607
34d33
< 
36a36,37
> ----
> J, I totally disagree with your view about copyright.  I think copyright infringement is every bit as serious as stealing and is very aptly considered in the same category.  I am all for our keeping the "do not steal" notice up.  It gets people's attention and makes it very clear how we officially feel about copyright infringement on Wikipedia.  On the other hand, I think your less-strongly-worded notice on the RecentChanges page gets the point across just fine. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Arraignment|984522257
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arraignment is the formal reading of a criminal charge, in the presence of the accused, to inform him of the particulars of the charge.  In response to arraingment, the [[defendant]] is expected to enter a [[plea]] of "guilty," "not guilty," "[[nolo contendere]]," or what is known as an "[[Alford plea]]."
> 
> If the defendant pleads guilty an evidentiary hearing usually follows in order for the judge to assess the severity of the offense, consider any mitigating factors, and evaluate the character of the defendant before passing [[sentence]].
> 
> If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date will be set for a [[preliminary hearing]] during which an [[indictment]] will be considered.
> 
> "Nolo contendere" means that the defendant does not admit the charge, but does no dispute it either.  He agrees that the court may find him guilty criminally without ever admitting to the act.  One of the advantages of a nolo contendere, or "nolo" plea is that for the purposes of possible later [[civil action]], the defendant has not admitted to a [[tort]].
> 
> In an Alford Plea, the defendant does not admit the act, but admits that the prosecution could likely prove the charge.  The court will pronounce the defendant guilty.
------
Games/Board|984522262
23c23
< * [[Colonists of Catan]]
---
> * [[Games/Board/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as The Settlers of Catan]
------
Games/Board|984522294
23c23
< * [[Games/Board/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as The Settlers of Catan]
---
> * [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as The Settlers of Catan]
------
Games/Board|984522438
23c23
< * [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as The Settlers of Catan]
---
> * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as "The Settlers of Catan"]
------
Preliminary_hearing|984522616
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An evidentiary hearing, during which [[motion]]s may also be heard and decided, to determine whether and to what extent a criminal charge or civil [[cause of action]] will be heard by the court, the extent of evidence which will be admitted, and what must occur before the case can proceed.
> 
> In a criminal action, the defendant has pled not guilty, and the court is soliciting evidence only for the purpose and to the extent necessary to decide that likelihood that a criminal act has been committed, and that the defendant is the one who committed it.  If the court decides in the affirmative, a formal charge or indictment is laid, finding that a crime was committed and the defendant is likely the perpetrator.  The defendant is then bound over for trial on the merits of the charge, and a trial date is set.
------
Preliminary_hearing|984522668
3c3
< In a criminal action, the defendant has pled not guilty, and the court is soliciting evidence only for the purpose and to the extent necessary to decide that likelihood that a criminal act has been committed, and that the defendant is the one who committed it.  If the court decides in the affirmative, a formal charge or indictment is laid, finding that a crime was committed and the defendant is likely the perpetrator.  The defendant is then bound over for trial on the merits of the charge, and a trial date is set.
---
> In a criminal action, the defendant has pled not guilty, and the court is soliciting evidence only for the purpose and to the extent necessary to decide that likelihood that a criminal act has been committed, and that the defendant is the one who committed it.  If the court decides in the affirmative, a formal charge or [[indictment]] is laid, finding that a crime was committed and the defendant is likely the perpetrator.  The defendant is then bound over for trial on the merits of the charge, and a trial date is set.
------
Preliminary_hearing|984522717
3c3
< In a criminal action, the defendant has pled not guilty, and the court is soliciting evidence only for the purpose and to the extent necessary to decide that likelihood that a criminal act has been committed, and that the defendant is the one who committed it.  If the court decides in the affirmative, a formal charge or [[indictment]] is laid, finding that a crime was committed and the defendant is likely the perpetrator.  The defendant is then bound over for trial on the merits of the charge, and a trial date is set.
---
> In a criminal action, the defendant has pled not guilty, and the court is soliciting evidence only for the purpose and to the extent necessary to decide the likelihood that a criminal act has been committed, and that the defendant is the one who committed it.  If the court decides in the affirmative, a formal charge or [[indictment]] is laid, finding that a crime was committed and the defendant is likely the perpetrator.  The defendant is then bound over for trial on the merits of the charge, and a trial date is set.
------
Games/Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984523242
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Die Siedler von Catan is a [[German-style board game]], and perhaps one of the first to reach any degree of popularity outside of the European market.  It is marketed as "The Settlers of Catan" in the [[United States]] by [[Mayfair Games]].  [[Kosmos]] originally published the game -- invented by [[Klaus Teuber]] -- in [[Germany]] in 1995.  It features a randomizable board, an emphasis on trading, and a number of (non-collectible) expansions.
> 
> Indeed, it has been said that the original Siedler actually consisted of the game we know as Siedler today and the first expansion set, [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]].  Whatever the case, both the original game and the expansion are available (at a bare minimum) in both [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] -- where [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]] is marketed as "The Seafarers of Catan".
------
Games/Board|984523365
23c23
< * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]] [also known as "The Settlers of Catan"]
---
> * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "The Settlers of Catan".
------
Phil_Bordelon|984523544
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Phil Bordelon (fill bor-D-lahn): proper noun.  Student.  Attempted writer.  First-time Wiki user.  Lurker on Nupedia lists, fascinated by the growth of information on the Internet.
------
Phil_Bordelon|984523569
1c1
< Phil Bordelon (fill bor-D-lahn): proper noun.  Student.  Attempted writer.  First-time Wiki user.  Lurker on Nupedia lists, fascinated by the growth of information on the Internet.
---
> Phil Bordelon (fill bor-duh-lahn): proper noun.  Student.  Attempted writer.  First-time Wiki user.  Lurker on Nupedia lists, fascinated by the growth of information on the Internet.
------
Spirotrichea|984523692
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A class of [[Ciliophora|ciliates]] characterized by the presence of a prominent anterior zone of [[membranelles]], formed by cilia fused together, about the mouth.  They are closely related to the [[Karyorelictea]], united by the presence of dikinetids, simple oral kinetids, and [[postciliodesmata]].
> 
> There are three subclasses of spirotrichs:
> * The [[Heterotrichia]] contains forms with cilia all over the body, like ''Stentor'', ''Spirostomum'', ''Metopus'', ''Nyctotheroides'', and ''Epalxella''.
> 
> * The [[Choreotrichia]] contains forms where the body cilia are fused together into [[cirri]], present in small groups.  They include the oligotrichs, like ''Halteria'' and ''Strombidium'', and the tintinnids, like ''Tintinnidium'' and ''Tintinnopsis''.
> 
> * The [[Stichotrichia]] contains forms with groups of [[cirri]] present on the ventral surface, which they use to crawl along the substrate.  They can be distinguished from the similar looking but unrelated [[Hypotrichia]] (with which they were once grouped) by the presence of the AZM and by having a contractile or flexible body.  Examples include ''Stylonychia'', ''Oxyticha'', ''Urostyla'', ''Uroleptus'', ''Gonostomum'', and ''Holosticha''.
> 
> http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg
> <br>Stichotrich ([[Josh Grosse|JG]]) - I'll take a better one this summer
------
Spirotrichea|984523814
6c6
< * The [[Choreotrichia]] contains forms where the body cilia are fused together into [[cirri]], present in small groups.  They include the oligotrichs, like ''Halteria'' and ''Strombidium'', and the tintinnids, like ''Tintinnidium'' and ''Tintinnopsis''.
---
> * The [[Choreotrichia]] contains forms where the body cilia are fused together into [[cirri]], present in small groups.  They include the oligotrichs, like ''Halteria'' and ''Strombidium'', and the tintinnids, like ''Tintinnidium'' and ''Tintinnopsis''.  The latter are the only ciliates with a fossil record, becoming common in the [[Jurassic]] but dating back to at least the [[Ordovician]].
------
Spirotrichea|984523983
8c8
< * The [[Stichotrichia]] contains forms with groups of [[cirri]] present on the ventral surface, which they use to crawl along the substrate.  They can be distinguished from the similar looking but unrelated [[Hypotrichia]] (with which they were once grouped) by the presence of the AZM and by having a contractile or flexible body.  Examples include ''Stylonychia'', ''Oxyticha'', ''Urostyla'', ''Uroleptus'', ''Gonostomum'', and ''Holosticha''.
---
> * The [[Stichotrichia]] contains forms with groups of [[cirri]] present on the ventral surface, which they use to crawl along the substrate.  They can be distinguished from the similar looking but unrelated [[Hypotricha]] (with which they were once grouped) by the presence of the AZM and by having a contractile or flexible body.  Examples include ''Stylonychia'', ''Oxyticha'', ''Urostyla'', ''Uroleptus'', ''Gonostomum'', and ''Holosticha''.
------
CopyrightTalk|984524903
37c37,41
< J, I totally disagree with your view about copyright.  I think copyright infringement is every bit as serious as stealing and is very aptly considered in the same category.  I am all for our keeping the "do not steal" notice up.  It gets people's attention and makes it very clear how we officially feel about copyright infringement on Wikipedia.  On the other hand, I think your less-strongly-worded notice on the RecentChanges page gets the point across just fine. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> J, I totally disagree with your view about copyright.  I think copyright infringement is every bit as serious as stealing and is very aptly considered in the same category.  I am all for our keeping the "do not steal" notice up.  It gets people's attention and makes it very clear how we officially feel about copyright infringement on Wikipedia.  On the other hand, I think your less-strongly-worded notice on the RecentChanges page gets the point across just fine. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> Sorry, Larry, but I'm strongly with J on this one.  Just because it's the law doesn't mean it <i>should</i> be the law, and there are a great many people (including Supreme Court Justice Breyer) who have expressed quite eloquently and convincingly that copyright law should be drastically curtailed if not eliminated.  Calling it "theft" is an exercise in argument-by-definition, and is very much an expression of bias.  You can achieve the same effect by expressing a fact: Current US law and international treaty prohibits redistribution of copyrighted creative works, and we encourage compliance with these laws.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Charles_Darwin|984525003
1c1
< British Naturalist (1809 -1882). The [[evolution]] guy.
---
> British Naturalist (1809 -1882). Contrary to popular opinion, Darwin did not "discover" [[evolution]] as it was accepted by many since the beginning of the 1800's. Instead, he provided the first really coherent theory of how evolution occurs (via his mechanism of [[natural selection]]). Other important aspects of Darwin's overall theory were; [[common descent]], [[sexual selection]], [[gradualism]], and [[pangenesis]].
------
Common_descent|984525039
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that all life shares a common ancestor.
------
Natural_selection|984525163
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Charles Darwin]]'s mechanism for [[evolution]]. The idea that certain traits are preserved due to the selective advantage they provide to their holder, allowing the individual to leave more offspring that individuals without the trait(s). 
------
Sexual_selection|984525287
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that competition between individuals of a given sex (usually male) influences the development of certain traits. Also the idea that females choose their mates based on certain desirable traits.
------
SandBox|984526946
58a59,60
> Note: the characters above are entered using the non-standard Microsoft Windows 8-bit character set, and will no doubt appear incorrect on Unix and Macintosh machines.  Wiki seems to accept HTML character entities and pass them through unharmed, so these should be used to enter special characters.  For example, <b>&amp;agrave;</b> = <b>&agrave;</b>; <b>&amp;ntilde;</b> = <b>&ntilde;</b>; <b>&amp;Ccedil;</b> = <b>&Ccedil;</b>; <b>&amp;Uuml;</b> = <b>&Uuml;</b>, etc.  For a more complete list, see [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html Character Entity References in HTML 4].  These should display correctly on any system; assuming, of course, that the web browser being used on that system is compliant with the public specification of HTML 4 (most are today).
> 
------
Ciliophora|984527221
3c3,5
< Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different kinds of [[nuclei]]: a large, [[polyploid]] macronucleus responsible for protein synthesis, and one or more small [[diploid]] micronuclei.  In asexual reproduction, which is by fission, the micronuclei undergo closed [[mitosis]] but the macronucleus simply pinches in half.  Sexual reproduction is necessary from time to time and occurs through [[conjugation]] - two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis and some are exchanged, and the macronuclei disintegrate.  The micronuclei then undergo fusion and are used to reform the macronucleus.
---
> The name "ciliate" comes from numerous, short flagella called ''cilia'' that are present at some point in every group.  Each cilium arises from a structure called a kinetosome, which are grouped into distinct rows caled kineties that coordinate their motion.  The outer layer of the cell containing these is separated off by microfilaments and may also contain [[extrusome|extrusomes]] of various kinds, and of course the alveoli, which are packed together to form a [[pellicle]].
> 
> Each ciliate cell has a cytostome (mouth), leading down into a cytopharynx at the end of which food [[vacuoles]] form.  These circulate the cell on a definite path as their contents are digested and absorbed, and finally are discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are often present, and have a unique star shape.  Most ciliates graze on smaller organisms which are swept into the mouth by nearby cilia, which may be modified to form an undulating membrane or membranelles.
5c7,9
< The name "ciliate" comes from numerous, short flagella called ''cilia'' that are present at some point in every group.  Each cilium arises from a structure called a kinetosome, which are grouped into distinctive rows called kineties that coordinate their motion.  Also associated with the cell surface is a flexible [[pellicle]] composed of alveoli, a series of microfilaments that separate these outermost structures from the interior, and various accessories like defensive [[trichocysts]].
---
> In motile ciliates, the cilia are used either for swimming or crawling along the substrate, in which case they tend to be fused into tufts called cirri.  Many ciliates lived attached for part or most of their life, however.  One group of these, the [[Suctoria]], actually lack cilia in the adult stage and are unusual for having multiple cytostomes on the end of tentacles, through which they suck in the [[cytoplasm]] of prey.
> 
> Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different kinds of [[nuclei]]: a large, [[polyploid]] macronucleus responsible for protein synthesis, and one or more small [[diploid]] micronuclei.  In asexual reproduction, which is by fission, the micronuclei undergo closed [[mitosis]] but the macronucleus simply pinches in half.  Sexual reproduction is necessary from time to time and occurs through [[conjugation]] - two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis and some are exchanged, and the macronuclei disintegrate.  The micronuclei then undergo fusion and are used to reform the macronucleus.
7d10
< Many ciliates feed on smaller organisms like bacteria, but a few are predatory.  There is at least one distinct cytostome (mouth), usually surrounded by cilia that draw in food, at the end of which bud off a series of digestive [[vacuoles]] that circulate through the cell on a definite course before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present; these have a distinctive star-shape.
9c12
< Among the [[Suctoria]] adults live attached to the substrate and lack cilia altogether.  Aside from them, cilia are always present on at least part of the body, especially around the mouth, where they may be fused together to form membranelles or undulating membranes.  Elsewhere cilia may be clumped into tufts called ''cirri''.  Ciliates move either by swimming or crawling, although many adults are sessile.
---
> often inset in an oral cavity, leading down into a cytopharynx at the end of which food [[vacuoles]] form.  These circulate through the cell on a definite path, the contents being digested and absorbed, before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present, and have a unique star-shape.  A few ciliates are predatory but most graze on smaller organisms swept into the mouth by nearby cilia, which are often fused to form an undulating membrane or [[membranelles]].  Body cilia may likewise be fused to form tufts called [[cirri]] used for crawling along the substrate; otherwise cilia are used for swimming.
11c14
< Ciliates are mainly classified according to the structure of the kinities.  The various classes are as follows:
---
> The currently accepted classification of ciliates is as follows:
------
Ciliophora|984527313
11,13d10
< 
< often inset in an oral cavity, leading down into a cytopharynx at the end of which food [[vacuoles]] form.  These circulate through the cell on a definite path, the contents being digested and absorbed, before being discharged at a point called the cytoproct.  Usually contractile vacuoles are also present, and have a unique star-shape.  A few ciliates are predatory but most graze on smaller organisms swept into the mouth by nearby cilia, which are often fused to form an undulating membrane or [[membranelles]].  Body cilia may likewise be fused to form tufts called [[cirri]] used for crawling along the substrate; otherwise cilia are used for swimming.
< 
38,40c35
< ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
< 
< 
---
> ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
------
Spirotrichea|984527421
4c4
< * The [[Heterotrichia]] contains forms with cilia all over the body, like ''Stentor'', ''Spirostomum'', ''Metopus'', ''Nyctotheroides'', and ''Epalxella''.
---
> * The [[Heterotrichia]] contains forms with cilia all over the body, like ''Blepharisma'', ''Stentor'', ''Spirostomum'', ''Metopus'', ''Nyctotheroides'', and ''Epalxella''.
------
SandBox|984527839
59c59
< Note: the characters above are entered using the non-standard Microsoft Windows 8-bit character set, and will no doubt appear incorrect on Unix and Macintosh machines.  Wiki seems to accept HTML character entities and pass them through unharmed, so these should be used to enter special characters.  For example, <b>&amp;agrave;</b> = <b>&agrave;</b>; <b>&amp;ntilde;</b> = <b>&ntilde;</b>; <b>&amp;Ccedil;</b> = <b>&Ccedil;</b>; <b>&amp;Uuml;</b> = <b>&Uuml;</b>, etc.  For a more complete list, see [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html Character Entity References in HTML 4].  These should display correctly on any system; assuming, of course, that the web browser being used on that system is compliant with the public specification of HTML 4 (most are today).
---
> Note: the characters above are entered using the non-standard Microsoft Windows 8-bit character set, and will no doubt appear incorrect on Unix and Macintosh machines.  Wiki seems to accept HTML character entities and pass them through unharmed, so these should be used to enter special characters.  For example, <b>&amp;agrave;</b> = <b>&agrave;</b>; <b>&amp;ntilde;</b> = <b>&ntilde;</b>; <b>&amp;Ccedil;</b> = <b>&Ccedil;</b>; <b>&amp;Uuml;</b> = <b>&Uuml;</b>, etc.  For a more complete list, see [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html Character Entity References in HTML 4].  These should display correctly on any system; assuming, of course, that the web browser being used on that system is compliant with the public specification of HTML 4 (most are today). --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Robert_Heinlein|984528089
1c1
< Robert A. Heinlein was an author of ScienceFiction novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors of the ScienceFiction genre.
---
> Robert A. Heinlein was an author of [[Science Fiction]] novels who lived from 1907 until 1988.  He is ranked among the most influential authors of the [[Science Fiction]] genre.
11,12c11,12
< This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '/TimeEnoughForLove',
< '/TheNumberoftheBeast', and '/ToSailBeyondtheSunset'.  We are left to wonder, what
---
> This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '[[/Time Enough For Love]]',
> '[[/The Number of the Beast]]', and '[[/To Sail Beyond the Sunset]]'.  We are left to wonder, what
20,48c20,48
<  /BetweenPlanet
<  /CitizenoftheGalaxy
<  /DoubleStar 
<  /FarmerInTheSky 
<  /FarnhamsFreehold 
<  /Friday 
<  /GloryRoad 
<  /HaveSpaceSuitWillTravel 
<  /IWillFearNoEvil 
<  /JobAComedyofJustice 
<  /PodkayneofMars
<  /RedPlanet 
<  /RocketShipGalileo
<  /SixthColumn 
<  /SpaceCadet 
<  /StarmanJones
<  /StarshipTroopers 
<  /StrangerinaStrangeLand 
<  /TheCatWhoWalksThroughWalls 
<  /TheDoorIntoSummer 
<  /TheMoonisaHarshMistress 
<  /TheNumberoftheBeast 
<  /ThePuppetMasters 
<  /TheRollingStones
<  /TheStarBeast
<  /TunnelintheSky
<  /TimeEnoughForLove 
<  /TimefortheStars
<  /ToSailBeyondtheSunset 
---
>  [[/Between Planet|Between Planet]]
>  [[/Citizen of the Galaxy|Citizen of the Galaxy]]
>  [[/Double Star|Double Star]]
>  [[/Farmer In The Sky|Farmer In The Sky]]
>  [[/Farnhams Freehold|Farnham's Freehold]]
>  [[/Friday|Friday]]
>  [[/Glory Road|Glory Road]]
>  [[/Have Space Suit Will Travel|Have Space Suit Will Travel]]
>  [[/I Will Fear No Evil|I Will Fear No Evil]]
>  [[/Job|Job]]
>  [[/Podkayne of Mars|Podkayne of Mars]]
>  [[/Red Planet|Red Planet]]
>  [[/Rocket Ship Galileo|Rocket Ship Galileo]]
>  [[/Sixth Column|Sixth Column]]
>  [[/Space Cadet|Space Cadet]]
>  [[/Starman Jones|Starman Jones]]
>  [[/Starship Troopers|Starship Troopers]]
>  [[/Stranger in a Strange Land|Stranger in a Strange Land]]
>  [[/The Cat Who Walks Through Walls|The Cat Who Walks Through Walls]]
>  [[/The Door Into Summer|The Door Into Summer]]
>  [[/The Moon is a Harsh Mistress|The Moon is a Harsh Mistress]]
>  [[/The Number of the Beast|The Number of the Beast]]
>  [[/The Puppet Masters|The Puppet Masters]]
>  [[/The Rolling Stones|The Rolling Stones]]
>  [[/The Star Beast|The Star Beast]]
>  [[/Tunnel in the Sky|Tunnel in the Sky]]
>  [[/Time Enough For Love|Time Enough For Love]]
>  [[/Time for the Stars|Time for the Stars]]
>  [[/To Sail Beyond the Sunset|To Sail Beyond the Sunset]]
------
France|984528154
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak FrenchLanguage here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French Language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
France|984528173
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French Language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[FrenchLanguage|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
France|984528191
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[FrenchLanguage|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
France|984528219
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by AmericanRevolution.  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the EiffelTower, a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
PariS|984528245
1c1
< a small town, featured in a few films.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Paris]]
------
France|984528262
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, PariS, is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
ConstitutioN|984528288
1,5c1
< A political constitution, is a fundamental law of a state, establishing the basic principle of the government and the rights of the citizen.
< 
< :UnitedStatesConstitution
< :FrenchConstitution
< :DeclarationOfRights [whose declaration?]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Consitution]]
------
ConstitutioN|984528295
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Consitution]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Constitution]]
------
France|984528310
1c1
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their ConstitutioN, they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their [[Constitution]], they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
Abbeville_France|984528334
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an 
> arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 
> m. from its mouth in the EnglishChannel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
> Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 
> 18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is 
> built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the 
> river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The 
> streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old 
> structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark 
> archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St 
> Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The 
> original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays 
> and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent 
> specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic 
> towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an 
> hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among 
> the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois 
> Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.  
> There is a statue of AdmiralCourbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
> square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
> and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal 
> college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition 
> to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, 
> sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on; 
> there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. 
> 
> Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
> appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time 
> belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards 
> governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county, 
> it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French 
> families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo, 
> from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of 
> England.  French and English were its masters by turns till 
> 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of 
> Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France, 
> and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in 
> the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
AbbevilleFrance|984528364
1,42c1
< ABBEVILLE, a town of northern France, capital of an 
< arrondissement in the department of Somme, on the Somme, 12 
< m. from its mouth in the EnglishChannel, and 28 m.  N,W. of 
< Amiens on the Northern railway.  Pop. (1901) 18,519; (1906) 
< 18,971.  It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is 
< built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the 
< river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The 
< streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old 
< structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark 
< archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St 
< Vulfran, erected in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  The 
< original design was not completed.  The nave has only two bays 
< and the choir is insignificant.  The facade is a magnificent 
< specimen of the flamboyant Gothic style, flanked by two Gothic 
< towers.  Abbeville has several other old churches and an 
< hotel-de-ville, with a belfry of the 13th century.  Among 
< the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de Francois 
< Ie, which is the most remarkable, dates from the 16th century.  
< There is a statue of AdmiralCourbet (d. 1885) in the chief 
< square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance 
< and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal 
< college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition 
< to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, 
< sugar-making, ship-building and locksmiths' work are carried on; 
< there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade. 
< 
< Abbeville, the chief town of the district of Ponthieu, first 
< appears in history during the 9th century.  At that time 
< belonging to the abbey of St Riquier, it was afterwards 
< governed by the counts of Ponthieu.  Together with that county, 
< it came into the possession of the Alencon and other French 
< families, and afterwards into that of the house of Castillo, 
< from whom by marriage it fell in 1272 to Edward I., king of 
< England.  French and English were its masters by turns till 
< 1435 when, by the treaty of Arras, it was ceded to the duke of 
< Burgundy.  In 1477 it was annexed by Louis XI., king of France, 
< and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in 
< the 16th and 17th centuries, being in 1696 reunited to the crown. 
< 
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
< This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
---
> #REDIRECT [[Abbeville France]]
------
France|984528381
3c3
< Cities include AbbevilleFrance, which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
---
> Cities include [[Abbeville France|Abbevile]], which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
------
AtlasShrugged/DagnysFather|984528410
1,5c1
< Dagny's father (who is unnamed in AtlasShrugged) was the President of /TaggartTranscontinental prior to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].  In /SectioN132 we learn he was "astonished and proud" of his daughter, but sad for her as well, and apparently not overly supportive of her desire to work for the railroad, though he did nothing to stop her.
< 
< Dagny's father is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagnys Father]]
------
Paramount|984528591
1c1
< Paramount was founded by W W Hodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with [[Adolph Zukor]]'s [[Famous Players]], [[Jesse Lasky]]'s [[Feature Play]] and with [[Bosworth]], the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see [[Vertical Integration]]). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular Famous Players movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, Adolph Zukor bought Paramount and merged it with Famous Players. 
---
> A moion picture company founded by W W Hodkinson in 1914, as a merger of 11 film rental bureaus. Paramount was the first company that did nationwide distribution, thus gaining a huge efficiency advantage over the old regional States' Rights system. The company did 5-year exclusive contracts with [[Adolph Zukor]]'s [[Famous Players]], [[Jesse Lasky]]'s [[Feature Play]] and with [[Bosworth]], the contracts were expanded to 25 years later (see [[Vertical Integration]]). Paramount also introduced the block-booking system, which meant that an exhibitor who wanted to show a paticular Famous Players movie had to buy an entire package, containing a set of (mostly mediocre) films from all companies that worked together with Paramount. This system was very efficient for the involved production firms and in 1917, Adolph Zukor bought Paramount and merged it with Famous Players. 
3c3
< The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]]). Adolph Zukor also fired W W Hodkinson, who founded [[First National]] to challenge Paramount's power. First National controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, First National and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a provate eye hired by [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[David Griffith]], who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, [[United Artists]], which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the [[Second Oligopoly]] until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
---
> The new firm was called Paramount Pictures Corporation, and was the dominating force in the American market, it had most of the major stars under contract (like [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]]). Adolph Zukor also fired W W Hodkinson, who founded [[First National]] to challenge Paramount's power. First National controlled a large portion of the nation's cinemas and thus Paramount decided to build it's own chain of cinemas and achieved yet greater control of the market (in 1920, it controlled 5000 cinemas, 25% of the market). In 1919, First National and Paramount planned to merge, to gain full control of the market and to cut production cost, because they figured that stars couldn't demand huge sums if there was only one major company to work for. But the plan was uncovered by a private eye hired by [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[David Griffith]], who wanted to know why the major companies didn't prolong their contracts. In reaction to the plan, they decided to found their own distribution company, [[United Artists]], which effectovely ended the efforts to found a monopoly. Nevertheless, Paramount was one of the dominating companies in the [[Second Oligopoly]] until the US Supreme Court split the company in two 1949. 
------
Julian_Simon|984528696
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the UniversityofMaryland and a Senior Fellow at the CatoInstitute. 
> 
> JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /Wager, betting
> on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
> 
> He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by LibertarianS.
> 
> His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
> 
> Many of the writings of Julian Simon are available online at:
> http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
------
JulianSimon|984528710
1,11c1
< Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the UniversityofMaryland and a Senior Fellow at the CatoInstitute. 
< 
< JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /Wager, betting
< on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
< 
< He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by LibertarianS.
< 
< His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
< 
< Many of the writings of Julian Simon are available online at:
< http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
---
> #REDIRECT [[Julian Simon]]
------
Julian_Simon|984528815
1c1
< Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the UniversityofMaryland and a Senior Fellow at the CatoInstitute. 
---
> Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the [[University of Maryland]] and a Senior Fellow at the [[Cato Institute]]. 
3,4c3
< JulianSimon and PaulErlich entered into a famous /Wager, betting
< on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
---
> Julian Simon and [[Paul Erlich]] entered into a famous [[/Wager|wager]], betting on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
6c5
< He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by LibertarianS.
---
> He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by [[Libertarianism|libertarians]].
8c7
< His book 'TheUltimateResource,' later reissued as 'TheUltimateResource2,' is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
---
> His book '[[The Ultimate Resource]]', later reissued as '[[The Ultimate Resource 2]]', is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
11c10
< http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
---
> http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Colleges/BMGT/.Faculty/JSimon/
------
Paul_Ehrlich|984528875
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There have been two famous Dr. Paul Ehrlichs
> 
> ----
> 
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
> 
> ----
> 
> A German, Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), won the 1908 NobelPrize in Physiology and Medicine.  He is noted for his work in hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy.  His life is depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis.  His biography is available at:
> *   [http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html/
> Nobel Museum Site]
> 
------
PaulEhrlich|984528893
1,11c1
< There have been two famous Dr. Paul Ehrlichs
< 
< ----
< 
< An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
< 
< ----
< 
< A German, Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), won the 1908 NobelPrize in Physiology and Medicine.  He is noted for his work in hematology, immunology, and chemotherapy.  His life is depicted in the movie ''The Magic Bullet'', which focused on his cure for syphilis.  His biography is available at:
< *   [http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html/
< Nobel Museum Site]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Paul Ehrlich]]
------
Julian_Simon|984528909
3c3
< Julian Simon and [[Paul Erlich]] entered into a famous [[/Wager|wager]], betting on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
---
> Julian Simon and [[Paul Ehrlich]] entered into a famous [[/Wager|wager]], betting on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
------
Julian_Simon/Wager|984528935
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JulianSimon and PaulEhrlich entered in a famous wager in 1980,
> betting on a mutually agreed upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.
> 
> Simon and Erlich agreed to bet on the price of several commodity metals.  Erlich chose 5 metals: copper, chrome, nickel, tin, and tungsten.
> 
> JulianSimon won handily.
> 
> (More details should be filled in here.
> [http://www.overpopulation.com/simon_bet.html this page] has a lot of detail, and presumably somewhere we could find a pro-Ehrlich page to find out if there are any additional counter-arguments.
------
JulianSimon/Wager|984528955
1,9c1
< JulianSimon and PaulEhrlich entered in a famous wager in 1980,
< betting on a mutually agreed upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.
< 
< Simon and Erlich agreed to bet on the price of several commodity metals.  Erlich chose 5 metals: copper, chrome, nickel, tin, and tungsten.
< 
< JulianSimon won handily.
< 
< (More details should be filled in here.
< [http://www.overpopulation.com/simon_bet.html this page] has a lot of detail, and presumably somewhere we could find a pro-Ehrlich page to find out if there are any additional counter-arguments.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Julian Simon/Wager]]
------
Julian_Simon/Wager|984528988
1,2c1
< JulianSimon and PaulEhrlich entered in a famous wager in 1980,
< betting on a mutually agreed upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.
---
> [[Julian Simon]] and [[Paul Ehrlich]] entered in a famous wager in 1980, betting on a mutually agreed upon measure of resource scarcity over the decade leading up to 1990.
6c5
< JulianSimon won handily.
---
> Julian Simon won handily.
------
CopyrightTalk|984529020
40a41,55
> ----
> 
> I don't have any beef with the changing of the RecentChanges text, and I certainly think that it is within the spirit of the
> wikipedia to change my rant into something more "consensus oriented".
> 
> But <i>here</i>on this talk page, I will gladly express my opinion.  :-)  Neverminding the legal situation, I think that taking someone elses writings without their permission *is* stealing.  Imagine, for example, if Microsoft took the Linux kernel and incorporated it into one of their products without doing the Right Thing and making their changes open and free!
> Wouldn't that be <i>morally</i> wrong, even if the law allowed it?
> 
> I think that free software <i>depends</i> on copyright, because in a public domain system, anyone can take freely offered software and make it proprietary.  I think that's wrong.  If the author sets conditions on the use, those conditions should be respected... even if the conditions are "don't reuse it".  Copyright is <i>really</i> important for the freedom of information!
> 
> We can debate this here, on the CopyrightTalk page, but let me stress again, that my strong opinions about this don't necessarily belong in the wikipedia on anything other than a Talk page.  :-) 
> 
> When I say "DO NOT STEAL", I'm not taking a position on what the law ought to be, but I am taking a position on what is morally right.  Just as it would be morally wrong for Microsoft to steal GNU code by making it proprietary, it is wrong for us to take a proprietary magazine and use it without permission.  The moral issue is *consent*.
> 
> --JimboWales
------
Paul_Ehrlich|984529029
5c5
< An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a StanfordUniversity professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''ThePopulationBomb'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with JulianSimon, see JulianSimon/Wager.
---
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a [[Stanford University]] professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''[[The Population Bomb]]'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with [[Julian Simon]], see [[Julian Simon/Wager]].
------
Paul_Ehrlich|984529055
5c5
< An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a [[Stanford University]] professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in LepidopterA (butterflies).  He is the author of ''[[The Population Bomb]]'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with [[Julian Simon]], see [[Julian Simon/Wager]].
---
> An American, Paul R. Ehrlich (1932-), is a [[Stanford University]] professor and a renowned entomologist specializing in [[Lepidoptera]] (butterflies).  He is the author of ''[[The Population Bomb]]'' and other books which apply the lessons of population zoology to economic issues such as resource use and population growth.  His predicitions of massive global starvation and resource depletion have so far proven wrong.  Participant in a famous wager with [[Julian Simon]], see [[Julian Simon/Wager]].
------
Spirotrichea|984529088
10c10
< http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg
---
> [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg]
------
Spirotrichea|984529103
10c10
< [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg]
---
> [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg image]
------
Zimbabwe|984529138
11c11
< :[[/Transational Issues]]
---
> :[[/Transnational Issues]]
------
Spirotrichea|984529148
10c10,11
< [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg image]
---
> [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg image] - bad link :(
> 
------
Zimbabwe/Transnational_Issues|984529161
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Illicit drugs: significant transit point for African [[cannabis]] and South Asian [[heroin]], [[mandrax]], and [[methamphetamines]] destined for
> the [[South Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an markets 
------
Zimbabwe/Transational_Issues|984529195
1,4c1
< Illicit drugs: significant transit point for African [[cannabis]] and South Asian [[heroin]], [[mandrax]], and [[methamphetamines]] destined for
< the [[South Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an markets 
< 
< ''Transitional or transnational???''
---
> #RELOCATE [[Zimbabwe/Transnational Issues]]
------
Zimbabwe/Transational_Issues|984529207
1c1
< #RELOCATE [[Zimbabwe/Transnational Issues]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Zimbabwe/Transnational Issues]]
------
Games/Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984529252
1c1
< Die Siedler von Catan is a [[German-style board game]], and perhaps one of the first to reach any degree of popularity outside of the European market.  It is marketed as "The Settlers of Catan" in the [[United States]] by [[Mayfair Games]].  [[Kosmos]] originally published the game -- invented by [[Klaus Teuber]] -- in [[Germany]] in 1995.  It features a randomizable board, an emphasis on trading, and a number of (non-collectible) expansions.
---
> Die Siedler von Catan is a [[German-style board game]], and perhaps one of the first to reach any degree of popularity outside of the European market.  It is marketed as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]" in the [[United States]] by [[Mayfair Games]].  [[Kosmos]] originally published the game -- invented by [[Klaus Teuber]] -- in [[Germany]] in 1995.  It features a randomizable board, an emphasis on trading, and a number of (non-collectible) expansions.
3c3
< Indeed, it has been said that the original Siedler actually consisted of the game we know as Siedler today and the first expansion set, [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]].  Whatever the case, both the original game and the expansion are available (at a bare minimum) in both [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] -- where [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]] is marketed as "The Seafarers of Catan".
---
> Indeed, it has been said that the original Siedler actually consisted of the game we know as Siedler today and the first expansion set, [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]].  Whatever the case, both the original game and the expansion are available (at a bare minimum) in both [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] -- where [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]] is marketed as "The Seafarers of Catan".
------
The_Settlers_of_Catan|984529326
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is the [[US]] version of the board game from [[Germany]].
> 
> You can read about it in more detail at:
> 
> [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan]].
------
Games/Board|984529380
23c23
< * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "The Settlers of Catan".
---
> * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
------
Penelope_Cruz/Filmography|984529529
4,5c4,5
< :[[Belle Epoque]] (1992)
< :[[Jamon, Jamon]] (1992)
---
> :[[Belle Epoch|Belle &Eacute;poque]] (1992)
> :[[Jamon, Jamon|Jam&oacute;n, Jam&oacute;n]] (1992)
17c17
< :[[Carne Tremula]] (1997)
---
> :[[Carne Tremula|Carne Tr&eacute;mula]] (1997)
22c22
< :[[La Nina de tus ojos]] (1998)
---
> :[[La Nina de Tus Ojos|La Ni&ntilde;a de Tus Ojos]] (1998)
24c24
< :[[Todo sobre mi madre]] (1999)
---
> :[[Todo Sobre Mi Madre]] (1999)
31,32d30
< 
< 
------
World_War_I|984529585
3c3
< The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the casualties were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like machine guns) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
---
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the casualties were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
------
Spirotrichea|984529597
8,12c8
< * The [[Stichotrichia]] contains forms with groups of [[cirri]] present on the ventral surface, which they use to crawl along the substrate.  They can be distinguished from the similar looking but unrelated [[Hypotricha]] (with which they were once grouped) by the presence of the AZM and by having a contractile or flexible body.  Examples include ''Stylonychia'', ''Oxyticha'', ''Urostyla'', ''Uroleptus'', ''Gonostomum'', and ''Holosticha''.
< 
< [http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/stichotrich.jpg image] - bad link :(
< 
< <br>Stichotrich ([[Josh Grosse|JG]]) - I'll take a better one this summer
---
> * The [[Stichotrichia]] contains forms with groups of [[cirri]] present on the ventral surface, which they use to crawl along the substrate.  They can be distinguished from the similar looking but unrelated [[Hypotricha]] (with which they were once grouped) by the presence of the AZM and by having a contractile or flexible body.  Examples include ''Stylonychia'', ''Oxyticha'', ''Urostyla'', ''Uroleptus'', ''Gonostomum'', and ''Holosticha''.
------
Rotifera|984529730
11,14c11
< The closest relatives to the rotifers are the [[Acanthocephala]] (spiny-headed worms).  Further relationships to other phyla are not so clear, but they are probably related to the Trochozoa, as suggested by the presence of trocophore-like larvae in some groups.
< 
< :http://cyaxares.tripod.com/protozoa/rotifer.jpg
< :Bdelloid [[Josh Grosse|(JG)]]
---
> The closest relatives to the rotifers are the [[Acanthocephala]] (spiny-headed worms).  Further relationships to other phyla are not so clear, but they are probably related to the Trochozoa, as suggested by the presence of trocophore-like larvae in some groups.
------
CopyrightTalk|984532176
55a56,65
> ----
> (WARNING: long, biased, and probably interesting to only 2 or 3 people.  Should probably be moved to its own page on my site as a short essay and linked to).
> 
> Yes, you are taking a moral position, and I don't quarrel with your choice to hold that particular one.  But yes, you <i>are</i> in so doing taking a position on what the law ought to be, because IP is only "property" because the law defines it as such.  The natural, instinctive, universal understanding of "property" refers to physical things which can only be used by one person at a time--if I steal your apple, you no longer have it.  If I eat it, it is gone.  There is, of course, a political debate over whether or not the state should protect an individual's right to sole control of his property; and on that score I am definitely in the capitalist camp.  Stealing a physical thing, and depriving its owner of the use of that thing, I most definitely find immoral.  If I grew the apple on my land, I expect to eat it.  But ideas are fundamentally, objectively different.  If I watch you plant an apple seed and water the sapling, and then I apply that same idea with my own apple seeds on my own land, I do not take away from your use of your things, I have merely used your discovery to my own benefit.
> 
> Now, in a modern marketplace, those with interesting or valuable ideas will naturally find it to their short-term benefit to be the sole user of those ideas.  If you're selling apples, you'd just as soon not have the competition from other people selling their apples.  The question, then, is whether or not it is right for a state to <i>define</i> certain ideas (like inventions, stories, music, etc.) as property, and define my use of someone else's idea (which does not in any way interfere with his use) as theft.  If we do make that definition, then a creator has not only the right to use an idea for his benefit, but to prevent others from using it for theirs, protecting his market for businesses that use the idea.  As expressed in the US Constitution, this is a pragmatic thing: we grant the creator this limited, short-duration monopoly so that he can make money, in order to encourage him and others like him to create other useful ideas, which will eventually become part of the public domain.
> 
> Of course in recent years, this pragmatic approach has come to be seen as a natural right, an end in itself rather than a means to the original goal (the creation of more useful ideas).  The consequence is that the original goal has been subverted beyond recognition.  Walt Disney, for example, is long dead, and presumably has little need of encouragement to create more ideas, yet copyright law still protects his "property" (most of which is based on stories from the public domain) and prevents it from becoming part of shared culture, which was the original goal.  A large number of people favor at the very least returning copyright to its original bargain: a monopoly for a short time, which then expires and releases the ideas to the public.  I personally think we could do without it entirely.  I do not find anything inherently immoral about using someone else's ideas for my own benefit, or with him using my ideas for his.  In fact, I find that to be the very purpose of things like language and society--to grow as beings by exchange and amplification of ideas, which (unlike physical things) are a limitless resource.  In a world without copyright law, obviously traditional methods of making money from certain ideas won't work, and we'll have to be creative about business methods too.  That doesn't scare me.  Nearly all of my income comes from creation of IP (articles and software), but I do not fear the destruction of IP law, because creativity is a commodity that wil always be in demand, and consumers will always find a way to get it, just as they always did before the invention of copyright law (which is fairly recent idea).  I have for years explicitly placed all my work in the public domain (except that which is done for my employer--but I work for a company that uses the software I write only internally, so they get no benefit from IP law).
> 
> I have written volumes on this topic, so I won't rehash all the arguments here, but I just wanted to clarify that support of IP law <i>is</i> a moral position that not everyone holds, and that if you really want to avoid bias as you claim, you should not so blatantly support that position in the very software that runs the system.  And yes, I find even Stallman's use of copyright law to ensure free distribution wrong.  For every article I produce for Wiki/Nupedia, I will place a nearly identical one (with only my own work) on my own website released to the public domain, without restrictions.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984532847
1c1
< Lee Daniel Crocker is computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More information can be found on his [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages]. 
---
> I am a computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].
2a3,5
> I am a skeptic about intellectual property in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me, and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the Wikipedia license, contact me.  I may have a public domain version that contains only my work which I will happily give you.
> 
> ----
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984532938
3c3
< I am a skeptic about intellectual property in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me, and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the Wikipedia license, contact me.  I may have a public domain version that contains only my work which I will happily give you.
---
> I am a skeptic about intellectual property in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me, and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version that contains only my work which I will happily give you.
------
Natural_selection|984533098
1c1
< [[Charles Darwin]]'s mechanism for [[evolution]]. The idea that certain traits are preserved due to the selective advantage they provide to their holder, allowing the individual to leave more offspring that individuals without the trait(s). 
---
> [[Charles Darwin]]'s mechanism for [[evolution]].  The idea that certain traits are preserved due to the selective advantage they provide to their holder, allowing the individual to leave more offspring than individuals without the trait(s).
------
Common_descent|984533834
1c1,3
< The idea that all life shares a common ancestor.
---
> The idea that all life shares a common ancestor.
> 
> /Talk
------
Common_descent/Talk|984533853
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A common <b>type</b> of ancestor, right?  I mean, maybe all life evolved from the same type of single-celled organisms that, it so happens, originated in several different places in the world--not necessarily from the exact same ancestor.  Or does it really mean from the exact same ancestor?
> 
> Good to see you hear, John! --LS
------
Philosophy|984533946
4c4
< '''IntroductoryMaterial:'''
---
> Introductory material:
------
Philosophy|984533960
4c4
< Introductory material:
---
> '''Introductory material:'''
------
PhilosophicalMethod|984534006
1,117c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< So I say that puzzlement about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs leads people into philosophy.  But into only philosophy?  After all, doesn’t the same sort of puzzlement lead people into <i>other</i> subjects as well?  Being puzzled about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs about physical goings-on might lead me to study physics; or about God might get me into religious studies; or about fellow human beings, into psychology, sociology, or anthropology.  So I can’t say that philosophy is just "the study of the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs."  Because other subjects study that too, not just philosophy.
< 
< But after the examples I’ve given, and just considering your own personal experience with philosophy before this class, you may well feel there is <i>something</i> that distinguishes philosophical questions from purely religious, purely mathematical, and purely scientific questions.  There’s something that sets philosophy apart from these other disciplines, that really makes it special.
< 
< If you think this, you’re right.  There is something that makes philosophical questions special: namely, the methods that are used to answer them.  Let me give a definition of "method":
< 
< A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.
< 
< And so a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.  Now right from the start I want to make it very clear that there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.  It’s only after come to grips with those generalizations that we can really understand what makes philosophical questions unique.  And then we might also be able to understand what makes them particularly fascinating, in a way that questions about science and mathematics often are not.  Which is, of course, not to say that science and math may not be interesting in <i>other</i> ways.  I’m saying that there’s something <i>peculiar</i> about the philosophical questions, that inspires a <i>peculiar</i> philosophical curiosity or interest.
< 
< So now I’ll explain some of those general features about all different sorts of philosophical methods.  The first is something we’ve already seen: simple <i>doubts</i> about accepted beliefs.  Philosophy, it has been said, begins in wonder.  We get the initial impulse to philosophize, as I said, from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.  But philosophy absolutely does <i>not</i> end there.  In fact, that wonder by itself hardly constitutes doing philosophy at all.
< 
< The second step is <i>extremely</i> important: we <i>formulate</i> our doubts in questions to be answered, or problems to be solved.  The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to make genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution.
< 
< So it is not enough simply to wonder, for example, "Do I really have free will?"  If you state that problem, the problem of freedom and determinism, in such a simple way, you’ll be apt simply to answer, "Well sure I do," and leave it at that.  And then you aren’t doing philosophy.  So what more do you need, in order to formulate the <i>problem</i> well?  You need to state <i>as</i> <i>clearly</i> <i>as</i> <i>you</i> <i>possibly</i> <i>can</i> exactly what the source of your discomfort is.  So in the case of freedom and determinism, you might say something like the following:
< 
< "Suppose that the universe operates according to deterministic causal laws, that is, that for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened.  So all events are determined.  Suppose also that this general principle applies to our choices.  Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we <i>had</i> to make those choices and no others.  So all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary.  But suppose next that we have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than we did choose.  In short, we think we have free will.  But how is it possible, or <i>is</i> it possible, that our choices might be causally determined <i>and</i> free at the same time?"
< 
< Now that’s the basic problem of freedom and determinism.  It’s an example of the <i>initial</i> statement of a philosophical problem.  It’s enough to let us all see that there really does seem to be a <i>genuine</i> <i>problem</i> that we would like to have solved.  A lot of philosophers and ordinary people are apt, after explaining their puzzlement in this initial way, to dive right in and start trying to solve the problem.  They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
< 
< There is an admirable tendency among a relatively <i>small</i> number of philosophers not to be so quick, but to spend <i>more</i> time trying to get <i>extremely</i> clear on what the problem is all about.  An excellent example of such a philosopher is the Englishman G. E. Moore, who lived and worked in the first half of this century.  When addressing a question such as, "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore almost never simply said, "Yes" or "No" and defended his answer.  In fact, in an article entitled "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore begins this way: "I am not at all clear as to the meaning of this question.  Mr. Kneale says that existence is not a predicate.  But what does he mean by the words ‘Existence is not a predicate’?"   I think Moore’s sort of tendency, to get <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on what philosophical problems amount to, is something all philosophers would do well to emulate.
< 
< So to take our example of freedom vs. determinism: how could our statement of the problem be clarified?  Well, one thing that I said was that "for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened."  But what exactly is the sense of the word "necessary" at work here?  Or in another place, I said "we have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than how we did."  But what is the strength of this "could have"?  The idea appears to be that it is in some sense <i>possible</i> for us to choose otherwise; but in <i>what</i> sense of "possible" is it possible?
< 
< These are not easy questions.  It takes practice to know how to ask and how to deal with them.  But right now I think you can probably agree with me that an enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only <i>benefit</i> from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem mean.  So that’s the second step in any philosophical method: formulation of the philosophical problem to be solved.
< 
< The third step is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a definition, which constitutes an attempt to solve the problem.  Very often, a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly, in just a sentence or two; all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument.
< 
< So now let’s change the example.  I’ll give you an example of a philosophical theory.  This theory is meant to answer the question, "What actions are right?" or perhaps "What principle may we use to tell whether actions are right?"  John Stuart Mill, another English philosopher, offered this answer: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals <i>utility</i>, or the <i>greatest</i> <i>happiness</i> <i>principle</i>, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."   So according to Mill, the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they’re right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they’re wrong.
< 
< Regardless of whether you agree with that, you can see at least that it answers the question; in that it does answer the question, "What actions are right?" it is the sort of <i>perhaps</i>-enlightening answer that we’d like from philosophers.
< 
< One might loosely interpret Mill’s "greatest happiness principle" as a definition of "right action."  In other words, you might regard it as saying what we really mean, or perhaps what we ought to mean, when we say that something is right.  It is often useful to regard philosophers as offering definitions in this way.  I should add though that this way of thinking about what philosophers do is very controversial.  In fact, some philosophers, especially recently (meaning, in the twentieth century), have concluded that it is <i>impossible</i> to formulate good definitions of philosophical terms.  So instead of "definitions" they speak of "theories," or "accounts," or "analyses."  So one might say, with less controversy, that Mill has a theory or an account of right action.  But I personally will tend to talk of "definitions" of different words or concepts.
< 
< Whatever the word, the fact is that philosophers have been and continue to be in the business of making big generalizations about things like right action: saying what <i>all</i> right actions have in common, or saying what characterizes <i>only</i> right actions.  But not all solutions to philosophical problems consist of such definitions or generalizations.  Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of <i>explanation</i>.  Not a <i>causal</i> explanation, but an explanation, for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently.  Call this a <i>philosophical</i> explanation.
< 
< Take the freedom and determinism problem again.  Here what is needed is not, specifically, a definition of "free will" or of "determined action."  No doubt those definitions would really help in offering a solution to the problem.  But the solution itself would consist of <i>one</i> of the three following.  First, an explanation <i>how</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that we might have free will and yet also be determined to choose what we do, in other words an explanation of how freedom and causality are compatible.  Or, second, an explanation of how it is that free choices are an <i>exception</i> to deterministic, scientific laws.  Or, third, an explanation of why it <i>appears</i> that we have free choices, even though we really don’t.  Any of these three sorts of explanations, if you did them right, would be essential parts of a solution to the problem of freedom and determinism.  So there you have a problem, and its solution is not simply a definition of some basic philosophical concept.  As I said, not all philosophical solutions are definitions.
< 
< Here’s another example showing the same thing.  There’s a very difficult problem in philosophy called "the problem of induction."  Induction is a kind of reasoning -- it’s a way we get from reasons to conclusions.  So induction works like this -- to work with an example, we’ll take the sun rising -- we have experience of the sun rising every day.  There’s never been a day in human memory when the sun did <i>not</i> rise.  Therefore, we say, it will rise tomorrow.  Now this is a little argument, a piece of reasoning, and basically we’re arguing like this: if something has been observed over and over to be a certain way, then the next time it is observed, it will be that way again.  This is called <i>inductive</i> <i>reasoning</i>.
< 
< The problem of induction is basically this: <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>the</i> <i>next</i> <i>time</i> <i>you</i> <i>see</i> <i>the</i> <i>thing</i> <i>it</i> <i>won’t</i> <i>be</i> <i>different</i>?  For example, how do you know the sun <i>won’t</i> rise tomorrow?  The obvious first answer here is: the sun has <i>always</i> risen.  But that just begs the next question: how do you know that tomorrow won’t be the first exception?  Bertrand Russell, yet another English philosopher, tells the story of a chicken who is fed every day for its life.  Every day the farmer steps out to the henhouse and scatters chicken feed to the chicken.  So the chicken would be very reasonable to believe that <i>tomorrow</i> the farmer will come and feed the chicken.  But tomorrow, instead, the farmer goes out to the henhouse and wrings the chicken’s neck for dinner.  As Russell concludes, "More refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the chicken." 
< 
< So the basic problem of induction is <i>how</i> we can know that the future will resemble the past.  Notice that this requires perhaps a very complicated sort of explanation.  A mere definition won’t do the job.  Once again, even if a definition, say, of "induction," would be very important in the explanation, the definition would not be all we needed to solve the problem.
< 
< Anyway, that’s the third step in any method of philosophizing: a solution to the problem must be offered; and depending on the problem, the solution can be either a definition or a philosophical explanation.
< 
< We’re not done yet.  Alas, we’re <i>far</i> from being done.  Philosophy consists of much more than simply having doubts, formulating problems, and coming up with solutions.  Remember, after all, what gives rise to the philosophical impulse; remember what motivates us to philosophize.  We have doubts about what our beliefs mean, and whether they’re really rational.  Those same doubts are very likely going to visit us again if we simply stop with the first, or easiest, solution that offers itself to us.  For example, suppose you really liked Mill’s greatest happiness principle.  And you say to yourself, "That’s just dandy -- ‘actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness.’  I hadn’t thought about it, but that’s what right actions <i>are</i>.  Boy I feel a lot better now.  Now I know what right action is!"
< 
< If that’s how you think, you’re really making a mistake, and you’re not doing philosophy.  The reason is that you have to <i>justify</i> your answer -- you have to say <i>why</i> you think this is what right action is.  And your justification, or reasons, had better be good.  Because if they aren’t, you aren’t any better off than when you started having philosophical doubts in the first place.  Those doubts may, and probably should, be visited upon you again!
< 
< [Halfway done]
< 
< So here then is the <i>fourth</i> step of any philosophical method worth its salt: arguments must be offered for the definitions or explanations proposed.  What is an argument?  Here’s a definition:
< 
< An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
< 
< So think of arguments as bundles of reasons -- often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons -- followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
< 
< Philosophers are, or at least they should be, really good at giving arguments.  They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make.  Now what’s the point of all that?  Here’s the point: it’s only a good <i>argument</i>, a clear, organized, and <i>sound</i> statement of <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>something</i>, that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy.  Only good arguments will satisfy our doubts.  If you are willing to be satisfied with an answer without any good arguments, without any good supporting reasons, then (for whatever this is worth), you do not have a philosophical temperament.  You may have the questioning nature and the doubts that lead people to do philosophy, but you do not have the argument-wielding nature that really characterizes the heart of philosophy.
< 
< Let me give you an example of an argument.  Say you have some doubts about religious matters, and you ask the question: "Does God really exist?"  Your answer is, we will say, "Yes."  Now how might you argue for your answer?  Here is a very common, popular argument, called <i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>design</i>.  It goes like this.
< 
< The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial -- from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways.  All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented.  Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer.  Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans (generally speaking), this designer must be very benevolent.  And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful.  So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call <i>God</i>.  Therefore, God exists.
< 
< That’s called "the argument from design."  We will study it again when we study philosophy of religion.  But you can see, I think, that it offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that we call "God."  Now this sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other.  To deserve our consideration, the argument doesn’t have to be <i>perfect</i>.  It might have some problems.  In fact it might be a <i>really</i> <i>bad</i> argument.  But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it.  That gives us something to analyze and talk about.  And that’s what philosophers do quite a bit: they talk about each others’ arguments.
< 
< So we still aren’t done.  There is an important element of philosophical method, the fifth, that we need to explain.  This is the element of <i>criticism</i>.  And this is where other people come in.  We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, devastate those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions.  This exchange and resulting revision of views is called <i>dialectic</i>.  Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.
< 
< Now you can do this sort of harsh criticism on your own.  You don’t <i>absolutely</i> need other people to tell you what might be wrong with your views, especially if you are a very self-critical sort of person.  But others can help greatly, especially if you share many important assumptions with the person offering the criticisms.
< 
< Perhaps this sounds rather obvious to anyone who has gone around the block once arguing about God, morality, free will, and stuff like that.  But this is perhaps the most disconcerting part of philosophy for people just starting to study the subject.  It’s quite different from other subjects that study general aspects of the universe, like natural science and mathematics; in those other disciplines, the experts all agree about the fundamentals.  But in philosophy, which concerns the <i>most</i> fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all <i>disagree</i>.  And in disagreeing they are following this fifth step of philosophical method, to offer and deal with criticisms of proposed solutions.  Or as I said, to engage in dialectic.
< 
< The entire history of philosophy is a long -- <i>millenia</i>-long -- philosophical dialectic.  There is practically no philosophical question which has not been asked; practically every possible solution has been proposed.  And yet philosophers go on arguing with each other.  And it certainly looks like they aren’t going to stop, either.
< 
< This is what makes philosophy so disconcerting for beginners, who aren’t used to the alleged experts disagreeing about everything.  If there is no general agreement, then what’s the point in studying the subject?  If there is no truth to be had, why go to the trouble of coming up with solutions and arguments?
< 
< This is a very common concern and it needs to be directly addressed at the outset.  Suppose you have this concern -- we’ll put it like this, in the form of an argument:
< 
< (1) For almost every problem in philosophy, philosophers throughout history have offered conflicting solutions.
< 
< (2) Moreover, there has been no progress toward general agreement.
< 
< (3) Moreover, there does not appear to be any progress toward general agreement at present.
< 
< (4) Therefore, there is no truth to be found in philosophy; and hence there is no point in studying philosophy.
< 
< First of all, notice that during those thousands of years of philosophical conversations, all of those philosophers did not give up <i>simply</i> on grounds that they disagreed with each other.  In fact, historically, disagreement has been a great motivating impetus to philosophical work.  The fact that Descartes said something different from Locke is often looked on by philosophers not as discouraging but as something to be excited about: both men had such great minds, so if one of them was mistaken it must have been a deep, important, interesting mistake.
< 
< Second, and more importantly, notice that the conclusion of this argument just doesn’t follow from the premises.  In other words, the premises might all be perfectly true, but the conclusion doesn’t necessarily then <i>have</i> to be true.  An example from another academic discipline might help here.  Suppose Tom, Dick, and Harry are all arguing about the origin of Mars’ moon Deimos.  Tom thinks it is a captured asteroid; Dick thinks it formed out of the primordial cloud of dust that formed Mars; and Harry think it broke off from Mars when Mars was struck by a gigantic asteroid.  Now I personally have no idea of the respective plausibility of each of these views.  But one thing I can say is that the mere fact that Tom, Dick, and Harry disagree does <i>not</i> mean there’s no truth to be found about the subject.  If we went back in time to the right moment in planetary history, we could <i>see</i> that Deimos was formed in one way and not the others.  There’s a fact about the matter even if Tom, Dick, and Harry don’t know it yet.
< 
< I want to suggest that the problems of philosophy are like that.  I mean that philosophical problems are, on the one hand, very difficult issues to resolve, and it’s very easy to disagree about them; but, on the other hand, the mere fact that there is disagreement doesn’t, all by itself, mean that there is no philosophical truth to be found.
< 
< But admittedly, philosophical problems are extremely difficult to sort out in a clear-headed way.  Unfortunately, we can’t simply make observations and design experiments to test philosophical definitions and explanations.  Observations and experiments are used by scientists to arrive at a consensus; similarly, rigorous proofs based on axioms and definitions are used by mathematicians to arrive at consensus there.  But, except in the philosophical subdiscipline of <i>logic</i>, philosophers do not have any such consensus-building techniques.  All we have are words -- words that express those same, not-very-well-understood concepts that we are confused about.
< 
< So there are at least two basic reactions to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement.  First, you might simply give up before you start.  Or, second, you might try to increase the degree of clarity and rigor with which you think about philosophical questions.  I think I <i>have</i> observed some very important advances in philosophy, and they are almost always due to applying ever-increasing amounts of clarity and rigor to the subject -- they involve exploring every unexplored avenue, thinking about every unconsidered possibility, understanding all the assumptions that lie behind a view, taking apart arguments in very careful detail, and so on.  I think that many philosophers, throughout history, have shown at least that certain solutions that <i>other</i> philosophers have proposed were wrong.  And it took clear thinking to do that.  That much at least is a kind of philosophical progress.
< 
< However it is that you ultimately react to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement, at least do yourself this favor.  For the space of this quarter, assume that there <i>is</i> some philosophical truth to be found.  Keep your mind open to that possibility.  If you shut yourself off from that possibility you will not be able to keep an interest in philosophy, and you won’t be able to get half out of it what you might.  For the space of this quarter, don’t regard an inquiring philosophical nature as naive.  If it helps, remember this: some of the finest, most brilliant minds in the world have <i>not</i> thought that trust in the existence of philosophical truth was naive.
< 
< Now we’ve gotten a little off track.  I have talked for the past half hour explaining five very general features of all philosophical methods.  Or you might think of these five steps I’ve given as steps in one general philosophical method.  Here then are those steps again:
< 
< Step 1.  Doubt.  Notice doubts that you have about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief you have.
< 
< Step 2.  Formulate problem.  Formulate those doubts in a philosophical problem, or question.  Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.
< 
< Step 3.  Offer solution.  Offer a solution to the problem: either a definition, or a philosophical explanation.
< 
< Step 4.  Argument.  Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution.
< 
< Step 5.  Dialectic.  Present your solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
< 
< Now this little five-step method is, as you might expect, highly simplified and idealized.  No one does, or should, follow these steps in exactly this order.  A lot of times for philosophers it’s not doubt about their own beliefs that gets them thinking; a lot of times it’s doubt about what <i>other</i> people say that does it.  And some philosophers really put the cart before the horse: they examine a solution and arguments for it, and only after doing that, they go back and ask what problem it was they were trying to solve.  And surely there are a lot of people who plunge right into philosophical debates, and by the seat of their dialectical pants figure out what the problem is, what solutions have been offered, and what the arguments on all sides have been.
< 
< All that having been said, in many cases it probably is best to proceed as systematically as possible, and not go to the next step until the prior step is completed.  That may be most <i>efficient</i> way, at least.  It might not be the most fun.  But here the words of the great French philosopher Descartes come to mind: "Like a man who walks alone and in the shadows, I resolved to go so slowly and use so much circumspection in all things that, if I never advanced but slightly, I would at least avoid falling." 
< 
< Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
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> 
> So I say that puzzlement about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs leads people into philosophy.  But into only philosophy?  After all, doesn’t the same sort of puzzlement lead people into <i>other</i> subjects as well?  Being puzzled about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs about physical goings-on might lead me to study physics; or about God might get me into religious studies; or about fellow human beings, into psychology, sociology, or anthropology.  So I can’t say that philosophy is just "the study of the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs."  Because other subjects study that too, not just philosophy.
> 
> But after the examples I’ve given, and just considering your own personal experience with philosophy before this class, you may well feel there is <i>something</i> that distinguishes philosophical questions from purely religious, purely mathematical, and purely scientific questions.  There’s something that sets philosophy apart from these other disciplines, that really makes it special.
> 
> If you think this, you’re right.  There is something that makes philosophical questions special: namely, the methods that are used to answer them.  Let me give a definition of "method":
> 
> A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.
> 
> And so a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.  Now right from the start I want to make it very clear that there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.  It’s only after come to grips with those generalizations that we can really understand what makes philosophical questions unique.  And then we might also be able to understand what makes them particularly fascinating, in a way that questions about science and mathematics often are not.  Which is, of course, not to say that science and math may not be interesting in <i>other</i> ways.  I’m saying that there’s something <i>peculiar</i> about the philosophical questions, that inspires a <i>peculiar</i> philosophical curiosity or interest.
> 
> So now I’ll explain some of those general features about all different sorts of philosophical methods.  The first is something we’ve already seen: simple <i>doubts</i> about accepted beliefs.  Philosophy, it has been said, begins in wonder.  We get the initial impulse to philosophize, as I said, from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.  But philosophy absolutely does <i>not</i> end there.  In fact, that wonder by itself hardly constitutes doing philosophy at all.
> 
> The second step is <i>extremely</i> important: we <i>formulate</i> our doubts in questions to be answered, or problems to be solved.  The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to make genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution.
> 
> So it is not enough simply to wonder, for example, "Do I really have free will?"  If you state that problem, the problem of freedom and determinism, in such a simple way, you’ll be apt simply to answer, "Well sure I do," and leave it at that.  And then you aren’t doing philosophy.  So what more do you need, in order to formulate the <i>problem</i> well?  You need to state <i>as</i> <i>clearly</i> <i>as</i> <i>you</i> <i>possibly</i> <i>can</i> exactly what the source of your discomfort is.  So in the case of freedom and determinism, you might say something like the following:
> 
> "Suppose that the universe operates according to deterministic causal laws, that is, that for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened.  So all events are determined.  Suppose also that this general principle applies to our choices.  Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we <i>had</i> to make those choices and no others.  So all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary.  But suppose next that we have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than we did choose.  In short, we think we have free will.  But how is it possible, or <i>is</i> it possible, that our choices might be causally determined <i>and</i> free at the same time?"
> 
> Now that’s the basic problem of freedom and determinism.  It’s an example of the <i>initial</i> statement of a philosophical problem.  It’s enough to let us all see that there really does seem to be a <i>genuine</i> <i>problem</i> that we would like to have solved.  A lot of philosophers and ordinary people are apt, after explaining their puzzlement in this initial way, to dive right in and start trying to solve the problem.  They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
> 
> There is an admirable tendency among a relatively <i>small</i> number of philosophers not to be so quick, but to spend <i>more</i> time trying to get <i>extremely</i> clear on what the problem is all about.  An excellent example of such a philosopher is the Englishman G. E. Moore, who lived and worked in the first half of this century.  When addressing a question such as, "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore almost never simply said, "Yes" or "No" and defended his answer.  In fact, in an article entitled "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore begins this way: "I am not at all clear as to the meaning of this question.  Mr. Kneale says that existence is not a predicate.  But what does he mean by the words ‘Existence is not a predicate’?"   I think Moore’s sort of tendency, to get <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on what philosophical problems amount to, is something all philosophers would do well to emulate.
> 
> So to take our example of freedom vs. determinism: how could our statement of the problem be clarified?  Well, one thing that I said was that "for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened."  But what exactly is the sense of the word "necessary" at work here?  Or in another place, I said "we have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than how we did."  But what is the strength of this "could have"?  The idea appears to be that it is in some sense <i>possible</i> for us to choose otherwise; but in <i>what</i> sense of "possible" is it possible?
> 
> These are not easy questions.  It takes practice to know how to ask and how to deal with them.  But right now I think you can probably agree with me that an enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only <i>benefit</i> from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem mean.  So that’s the second step in any philosophical method: formulation of the philosophical problem to be solved.
> 
> The third step is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a definition, which constitutes an attempt to solve the problem.  Very often, a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly, in just a sentence or two; all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument.
> 
> So now let’s change the example.  I’ll give you an example of a philosophical theory.  This theory is meant to answer the question, "What actions are right?" or perhaps "What principle may we use to tell whether actions are right?"  John Stuart Mill, another English philosopher, offered this answer: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals <i>utility</i>, or the <i>greatest</i> <i>happiness</i> <i>principle</i>, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."   So according to Mill, the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they’re right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they’re wrong.
> 
> Regardless of whether you agree with that, you can see at least that it answers the question; in that it does answer the question, "What actions are right?" it is the sort of <i>perhaps</i>-enlightening answer that we’d like from philosophers.
> 
> One might loosely interpret Mill’s "greatest happiness principle" as a definition of "right action."  In other words, you might regard it as saying what we really mean, or perhaps what we ought to mean, when we say that something is right.  It is often useful to regard philosophers as offering definitions in this way.  I should add though that this way of thinking about what philosophers do is very controversial.  In fact, some philosophers, especially recently (meaning, in the twentieth century), have concluded that it is <i>impossible</i> to formulate good definitions of philosophical terms.  So instead of "definitions" they speak of "theories," or "accounts," or "analyses."  So one might say, with less controversy, that Mill has a theory or an account of right action.  But I personally will tend to talk of "definitions" of different words or concepts.
> 
> Whatever the word, the fact is that philosophers have been and continue to be in the business of making big generalizations about things like right action: saying what <i>all</i> right actions have in common, or saying what characterizes <i>only</i> right actions.  But not all solutions to philosophical problems consist of such definitions or generalizations.  Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of <i>explanation</i>.  Not a <i>causal</i> explanation, but an explanation, for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently.  Call this a <i>philosophical</i> explanation.
> 
> Take the freedom and determinism problem again.  Here what is needed is not, specifically, a definition of "free will" or of "determined action."  No doubt those definitions would really help in offering a solution to the problem.  But the solution itself would consist of <i>one</i> of the three following.  First, an explanation <i>how</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that we might have free will and yet also be determined to choose what we do, in other words an explanation of how freedom and causality are compatible.  Or, second, an explanation of how it is that free choices are an <i>exception</i> to deterministic, scientific laws.  Or, third, an explanation of why it <i>appears</i> that we have free choices, even though we really don’t.  Any of these three sorts of explanations, if you did them right, would be essential parts of a solution to the problem of freedom and determinism.  So there you have a problem, and its solution is not simply a definition of some basic philosophical concept.  As I said, not all philosophical solutions are definitions.
> 
> Here’s another example showing the same thing.  There’s a very difficult problem in philosophy called "the problem of induction."  Induction is a kind of reasoning -- it’s a way we get from reasons to conclusions.  So induction works like this -- to work with an example, we’ll take the sun rising -- we have experience of the sun rising every day.  There’s never been a day in human memory when the sun did <i>not</i> rise.  Therefore, we say, it will rise tomorrow.  Now this is a little argument, a piece of reasoning, and basically we’re arguing like this: if something has been observed over and over to be a certain way, then the next time it is observed, it will be that way again.  This is called <i>inductive</i> <i>reasoning</i>.
> 
> The problem of induction is basically this: <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>the</i> <i>next</i> <i>time</i> <i>you</i> <i>see</i> <i>the</i> <i>thing</i> <i>it</i> <i>won’t</i> <i>be</i> <i>different</i>?  For example, how do you know the sun <i>won’t</i> rise tomorrow?  The obvious first answer here is: the sun has <i>always</i> risen.  But that just begs the next question: how do you know that tomorrow won’t be the first exception?  Bertrand Russell, yet another English philosopher, tells the story of a chicken who is fed every day for its life.  Every day the farmer steps out to the henhouse and scatters chicken feed to the chicken.  So the chicken would be very reasonable to believe that <i>tomorrow</i> the farmer will come and feed the chicken.  But tomorrow, instead, the farmer goes out to the henhouse and wrings the chicken’s neck for dinner.  As Russell concludes, "More refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the chicken." 
> 
> So the basic problem of induction is <i>how</i> we can know that the future will resemble the past.  Notice that this requires perhaps a very complicated sort of explanation.  A mere definition won’t do the job.  Once again, even if a definition, say, of "induction," would be very important in the explanation, the definition would not be all we needed to solve the problem.
> 
> Anyway, that’s the third step in any method of philosophizing: a solution to the problem must be offered; and depending on the problem, the solution can be either a definition or a philosophical explanation.
> 
> We’re not done yet.  Alas, we’re <i>far</i> from being done.  Philosophy consists of much more than simply having doubts, formulating problems, and coming up with solutions.  Remember, after all, what gives rise to the philosophical impulse; remember what motivates us to philosophize.  We have doubts about what our beliefs mean, and whether they’re really rational.  Those same doubts are very likely going to visit us again if we simply stop with the first, or easiest, solution that offers itself to us.  For example, suppose you really liked Mill’s greatest happiness principle.  And you say to yourself, "That’s just dandy -- ‘actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness.’  I hadn’t thought about it, but that’s what right actions <i>are</i>.  Boy I feel a lot better now.  Now I know what right action is!"
> 
> If that’s how you think, you’re really making a mistake, and you’re not doing philosophy.  The reason is that you have to <i>justify</i> your answer -- you have to say <i>why</i> you think this is what right action is.  And your justification, or reasons, had better be good.  Because if they aren’t, you aren’t any better off than when you started having philosophical doubts in the first place.  Those doubts may, and probably should, be visited upon you again!
> 
> [Halfway done]
> 
> So here then is the <i>fourth</i> step of any philosophical method worth its salt: arguments must be offered for the definitions or explanations proposed.  What is an argument?  Here’s a definition:
> 
> An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
> 
> So think of arguments as bundles of reasons -- often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons -- followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
> 
> Philosophers are, or at least they should be, really good at giving arguments.  They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make.  Now what’s the point of all that?  Here’s the point: it’s only a good <i>argument</i>, a clear, organized, and <i>sound</i> statement of <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>something</i>, that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy.  Only good arguments will satisfy our doubts.  If you are willing to be satisfied with an answer without any good arguments, without any good supporting reasons, then (for whatever this is worth), you do not have a philosophical temperament.  You may have the questioning nature and the doubts that lead people to do philosophy, but you do not have the argument-wielding nature that really characterizes the heart of philosophy.
> 
> Let me give you an example of an argument.  Say you have some doubts about religious matters, and you ask the question: "Does God really exist?"  Your answer is, we will say, "Yes."  Now how might you argue for your answer?  Here is a very common, popular argument, called <i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>design</i>.  It goes like this.
> 
> The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial -- from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways.  All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented.  Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer.  Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans (generally speaking), this designer must be very benevolent.  And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful.  So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call <i>God</i>.  Therefore, God exists.
> 
> That’s called "the argument from design."  We will study it again when we study philosophy of religion.  But you can see, I think, that it offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that we call "God."  Now this sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other.  To deserve our consideration, the argument doesn’t have to be <i>perfect</i>.  It might have some problems.  In fact it might be a <i>really</i> <i>bad</i> argument.  But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it.  That gives us something to analyze and talk about.  And that’s what philosophers do quite a bit: they talk about each others’ arguments.
> 
> So we still aren’t done.  There is an important element of philosophical method, the fifth, that we need to explain.  This is the element of <i>criticism</i>.  And this is where other people come in.  We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, devastate those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions.  This exchange and resulting revision of views is called <i>dialectic</i>.  Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.
> 
> Now you can do this sort of harsh criticism on your own.  You don’t <i>absolutely</i> need other people to tell you what might be wrong with your views, especially if you are a very self-critical sort of person.  But others can help greatly, especially if you share many important assumptions with the person offering the criticisms.
> 
> Perhaps this sounds rather obvious to anyone who has gone around the block once arguing about God, morality, free will, and stuff like that.  But this is perhaps the most disconcerting part of philosophy for people just starting to study the subject.  It’s quite different from other subjects that study general aspects of the universe, like natural science and mathematics; in those other disciplines, the experts all agree about the fundamentals.  But in philosophy, which concerns the <i>most</i> fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all <i>disagree</i>.  And in disagreeing they are following this fifth step of philosophical method, to offer and deal with criticisms of proposed solutions.  Or as I said, to engage in dialectic.
> 
> The entire history of philosophy is a long -- <i>millenia</i>-long -- philosophical dialectic.  There is practically no philosophical question which has not been asked; practically every possible solution has been proposed.  And yet philosophers go on arguing with each other.  And it certainly looks like they aren’t going to stop, either.
> 
> This is what makes philosophy so disconcerting for beginners, who aren’t used to the alleged experts disagreeing about everything.  If there is no general agreement, then what’s the point in studying the subject?  If there is no truth to be had, why go to the trouble of coming up with solutions and arguments?
> 
> This is a very common concern and it needs to be directly addressed at the outset.  Suppose you have this concern -- we’ll put it like this, in the form of an argument:
> 
> (1) For almost every problem in philosophy, philosophers throughout history have offered conflicting solutions.
> 
> (2) Moreover, there has been no progress toward general agreement.
> 
> (3) Moreover, there does not appear to be any progress toward general agreement at present.
> 
> (4) Therefore, there is no truth to be found in philosophy; and hence there is no point in studying philosophy.
> 
> First of all, notice that during those thousands of years of philosophical conversations, all of those philosophers did not give up <i>simply</i> on grounds that they disagreed with each other.  In fact, historically, disagreement has been a great motivating impetus to philosophical work.  The fact that Descartes said something different from Locke is often looked on by philosophers not as discouraging but as something to be excited about: both men had such great minds, so if one of them was mistaken it must have been a deep, important, interesting mistake.
> 
> Second, and more importantly, notice that the conclusion of this argument just doesn’t follow from the premises.  In other words, the premises might all be perfectly true, but the conclusion doesn’t necessarily then <i>have</i> to be true.  An example from another academic discipline might help here.  Suppose Tom, Dick, and Harry are all arguing about the origin of Mars’ moon Deimos.  Tom thinks it is a captured asteroid; Dick thinks it formed out of the primordial cloud of dust that formed Mars; and Harry think it broke off from Mars when Mars was struck by a gigantic asteroid.  Now I personally have no idea of the respective plausibility of each of these views.  But one thing I can say is that the mere fact that Tom, Dick, and Harry disagree does <i>not</i> mean there’s no truth to be found about the subject.  If we went back in time to the right moment in planetary history, we could <i>see</i> that Deimos was formed in one way and not the others.  There’s a fact about the matter even if Tom, Dick, and Harry don’t know it yet.
> 
> I want to suggest that the problems of philosophy are like that.  I mean that philosophical problems are, on the one hand, very difficult issues to resolve, and it’s very easy to disagree about them; but, on the other hand, the mere fact that there is disagreement doesn’t, all by itself, mean that there is no philosophical truth to be found.
> 
> But admittedly, philosophical problems are extremely difficult to sort out in a clear-headed way.  Unfortunately, we can’t simply make observations and design experiments to test philosophical definitions and explanations.  Observations and experiments are used by scientists to arrive at a consensus; similarly, rigorous proofs based on axioms and definitions are used by mathematicians to arrive at consensus there.  But, except in the philosophical subdiscipline of <i>logic</i>, philosophers do not have any such consensus-building techniques.  All we have are words -- words that express those same, not-very-well-understood concepts that we are confused about.
> 
> So there are at least two basic reactions to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement.  First, you might simply give up before you start.  Or, second, you might try to increase the degree of clarity and rigor with which you think about philosophical questions.  I think I <i>have</i> observed some very important advances in philosophy, and they are almost always due to applying ever-increasing amounts of clarity and rigor to the subject -- they involve exploring every unexplored avenue, thinking about every unconsidered possibility, understanding all the assumptions that lie behind a view, taking apart arguments in very careful detail, and so on.  I think that many philosophers, throughout history, have shown at least that certain solutions that <i>other</i> philosophers have proposed were wrong.  And it took clear thinking to do that.  That much at least is a kind of philosophical progress.
> 
> However it is that you ultimately react to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement, at least do yourself this favor.  For the space of this quarter, assume that there <i>is</i> some philosophical truth to be found.  Keep your mind open to that possibility.  If you shut yourself off from that possibility you will not be able to keep an interest in philosophy, and you won’t be able to get half out of it what you might.  For the space of this quarter, don’t regard an inquiring philosophical nature as naive.  If it helps, remember this: some of the finest, most brilliant minds in the world have <i>not</i> thought that trust in the existence of philosophical truth was naive.
> 
> Now we’ve gotten a little off track.  I have talked for the past half hour explaining five very general features of all philosophical methods.  Or you might think of these five steps I’ve given as steps in one general philosophical method.  Here then are those steps again:
> 
> Step 1.  Doubt.  Notice doubts that you have about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief you have.
> 
> Step 2.  Formulate problem.  Formulate those doubts in a philosophical problem, or question.  Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.
> 
> Step 3.  Offer solution.  Offer a solution to the problem: either a definition, or a philosophical explanation.
> 
> Step 4.  Argument.  Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution.
> 
> Step 5.  Dialectic.  Present your solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
> 
> Now this little five-step method is, as you might expect, highly simplified and idealized.  No one does, or should, follow these steps in exactly this order.  A lot of times for philosophers it’s not doubt about their own beliefs that gets them thinking; a lot of times it’s doubt about what <i>other</i> people say that does it.  And some philosophers really put the cart before the horse: they examine a solution and arguments for it, and only after doing that, they go back and ask what problem it was they were trying to solve.  And surely there are a lot of people who plunge right into philosophical debates, and by the seat of their dialectical pants figure out what the problem is, what solutions have been offered, and what the arguments on all sides have been.
> 
> All that having been said, in many cases it probably is best to proceed as systematically as possible, and not go to the next step until the prior step is completed.  That may be most <i>efficient</i> way, at least.  It might not be the most fun.  But here the words of the great French philosopher Descartes come to mind: "Like a man who walks alone and in the shadows, I resolved to go so slowly and use so much circumspection in all things that, if I never advanced but slightly, I would at least avoid falling." 
> 
> Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
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> [[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
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< Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
---
> Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
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> ''Philosophical method'' (or ''philosophical methodology'') is the study of how to do [[philosophy]].
> 
> /Introduction
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> Well, hey, Mr. Crocker - I gotta say that as an author and songwriter (who has made precious little from either occupation) I cannot disagree more strongly with the idea that copyright should be abolished.  Were it so, publishers would have no incentive to honor contracts with creators of entertainment.  I would write a song, Biddle Entertainment would press and sell a load of copies until the pirates drove demand into the ground, and my share of the pie would be but crumbs.  Hence, unable to make a living from the craft, I would abandon it.  People gotta be protected from their ideas being ripped off, or they will quit sharing them.  If I see no direct benefit to me for enlightening another, then I will only do it if moved by the most altruitstic motive.  And we know how much free time and resources there are lying around for everyone to be altruistic.  You can have your "all ideas belong to everyone" world.  For me, it don't fly.
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< 
< I want to begin our discussion of free will and determinism by putting the problem in context.  I am treating this problem, of free will and determinism, as though it were part of the philosophy of mind; and my reason for so doing is that our focus is on the will, or our ability to choose, and that ability is a mental process just as perception is a mental process.
< 
< For the sake of clarity, let me define a few terms for you, as usual, using an example.  Whenever you are confused about some very basic philosophical concept, you will always benefit by considering some clear example.  So suppose it is a Sunday morning and you are deciding what to do with the rest of the day.  You reflect that you’d really like to see a new movie; but on the other hand it is a pretty nice day out, so maybe it would be better to drive to a lake and have a dinner picnic.  So after weighing positives and negatives you decide to go on the picnic, because the movie can be seen anytime soon, but you much more rarely have the time or the nice weather to go on a picnic.  And so you pack up the dinner and head out to the lake and have a great time.
< 
< Now, let’s use this rather mundane example to illustrate what we mean by common terminology.  <i>The</i> <i>will</i> is our ability to decide and choose among different options; it is a cognitive process.  Another name for the same process is <i>volition</i>.  As far as I can tell, "will" and "volition" have the same meaning.  So we can say that you <i>use</i> your will or volition in deciding and choosing to go on the picnic.  But "using" your will just means going through that mental process, however we might eventually describe it.
< 
< The word <i>choice</i> usually means the end result of a decision process.  So to use our example, when after thinking about your options, you chose to go on the picnic.  That act of choice was an important, perhaps the essential, part of your using your will or volition in that case.  If you didn’t make a choice, then you weren’t using your will.  But on the other hand, I don’t think that using your will <i>just</i> involves making that final choice.  The process you go through <i>leading</i> <i>up</i> to the choice is also properly considered the use of the will or volition.  That process is called <i>deciding</i> or <i>deliberating</i>.  So before you chose to go to the lake for the picnic, you were deciding, or deliberating.  And deciding involves some manner of <i>weighing</i> <i>options</i>, even there are only two options to weigh -- as the song says, "Should I stay or should I go?"  It is nonsense to speak of deciding between <i>less</i> <i>than</i> <i>two</i> options.
< 
< So much for the purely terminological points about the will.  Now a little bit about the word "freedom."  This word is highly ambiguous -- we can use it to mean political freedom, or freedom of the will, or simply the lack of something.  As in the phrase, "sugar-free."  And there are other senses, too, of course.  But we are only interested in the sense in which <i>the</i> <i>will</i> is said to be free.  Now if, as I said, the will is our ability to decide and choose among different options, then to say that the will is <i>free</i> is to say that our ability to decide and choose among different options is free.  To speak of free will is to speak of that ability being free.
< 
< So our focus is on only that aspect of the will -- its freedom.  And in particular we have two questions to ask: First, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the freedom of the will?  If we had to define "free will," what would we say?  And second: Does freedom of the will exist?  It does if we can freely decide and choose among different options; so can we?
< 
< But before we answer these two questions, I want to address a different question: Why is free will such an important topic?  The answer is that it is freedom of the will that makes us morally responsible for what we do.  If we had no free will, we could not be morally praised for anything, or blamed for anything.  And correspondingly: if we can indeed be morally praised or blamed, then we do have free will.  Unless we can decide and choose freely, then we do not really have the right to laud anyone for anything good they do, or condemn for anything evil they do: they weren’t responsible for it.  It would be like praising the sun for warming up the day, or censuring a tornado for destroying houses.  Those things don’t have free will, so what would the point be of praising or blaming them?
< 
< There is a related principle that philosophers use about a good deal.  I mean the principle that "ought" implies "can."  In other words, if I <i>ought</i> to do something, that implies that I <i>can</i> do it.  After all, if I <i>cannot</i> do it at all, then surely I am not obligated to do it.  What sense would there be in saying that I ought to do something that I <i>can’t</i> <i>do</i>?  If, for example, I see a child drowning in a rushing river and I can’t swim, then can I be blamed if I don’t jump in and try to save the child?  I <i>can’t</i> do it.  So surely it’s not the case that I <i>should</i> do it.  Now let’s see how free will works in here: if I don’t have free will, then whatever I end up doing, I <i>must</i> do; I just don’t have any choice in the matter.  So then it’s never the case that I <i>should</i> do anything other than what I happen to do.  Doesn’t matter what it is; if Jack murders an old woman, it’s not as though he <i>should</i> <i>not</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>that</i>.  Because he had no choice; if he <i>could</i> held off from killing her, then perhaps he <i>should</i> have.  But his will was unfree.  So he had to murder her, and we can’t say that he ought not to have done so.  Ought implies <i>can</i>.  A moral obligation requires an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do; and an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do requires that you are free to do it.  If you’re not free do otherwise, then you lack the ability to do what you’d be obligated to do; which means that you <i>aren’t</i> obligated to do it.
< 
< So I hope this is enough for you to understand why the issue of whether or not we have free will is very important indeed.  If we lack free will we might as well just give up the whole business of praise and blame that goes along with morality.  Now perhaps some of you -- not many I suspect, but some of you -- are perfectly happy to get rid of this business of moral appraisal.  But are you really quite sure this is the view you want to hold?  I mean, should we never praise you for your accomplishments and good deeds, because you just had no free choice in the matter?  Should we never blame and reproach and revile criminals when they steal, rape, and murder, because they had no choice but to commit their crimes?  If you reflect a little like that I’m sure that the <i>vast</i> majority of you will come to the view that moral evaluation has a very useful function in everyday life.  We should not just do away with it.  But the only way we can take moral evaluation seriously is if we believe we have free will.  So do we have free will?
< 
< Now do you see how I just immediately slipped into asking <i>whether</i> we have free will, without asking <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>would</i> <i>mean</i> to say that the will is free?  That’s the way that most people proceed.  I think this is a great mistake.  I think we really do have to know what free will would be, before we could know whether we have it.  But it will be instructive for us to ignore what we know we should do first, and instead just forge right on ahead, and see whether we can say we have free will, without knowing what free will is.
< 
< 
< 
< A. Determinism.
< 
< So let’s begin with the view that says we have no free will.  An excellent way to present this view is by stating an argument for it, and this is a perfectly valid argument.  This is very similar to the argument presented on p. 100 of the packet.  After I state the argument I’ll go over each premise carefully.  So here goes:
< 
< 1. Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined.
< 
< 2. Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event).
< 
< 3. Thus every act of choosing is causally determined.
< 
< 4. If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free.
< 
< 5. Therefore, no act of choosing is free.  That is, free will does not exist.
< 
< Let me define the term <i>determinism</i> as the view that the above argument is correct.  In other words, here’s the definition:
< 
< <i>Determinism</i> is the doctrine that free will does not exist, because every event, including every act of choosing, is causally determined.
< 
< As nasty as the conclusion might appear, this argument seems extremely solid; each premise is, by itself, very hard to deny.  So let’s go premise-by-premise now.
< 
< Premise (1): "Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined."  You may recall "the Principle of Causality" from our discussion of the cosmological argument; that principle we stated as "Every event has a cause."  Well, if you liked the principle then, consistency requires you to accept it now.  But there is a difference between saying that every event has a cause and that every event is <i>causally</i> <i>determined</i>.  This last statement is stronger.  So what reason is there to believe that stronger claim, that every event is causally determined?
< 
< It’s difficult to give a <i>positive</i> <i>argument</i> for this premise.  The best I think I can do is to point to some examples where we assume it, or presuppose it.  We definitely presuppose it in science -- or most of science anyway.  For example, suppose you want to explain why an eight ball rolled into a pocket.  Definitely we require <i>some</i> explanation.  So suppose we say <i>it</i> <i>was</i> <i>hit</i> <i>by</i> <i>the</i> <i>cue</i> <i>ball</i>.  But that only explains why the eight ball is <i>moving</i>.  There are still <i>aspects</i> of the eight ball’s movement that are unexplained: for example, its direction.  That is explained by the vector and spin of the cue ball when it hits the eight ball.  And so on -- we demand explanations for every aspect of the eight ball’s movement.  That’s the basic premise of scientific inquiry: that there is a causal explanation to be found for every aspect of a thing’s change.
< 
< If you believe in free will, you may want to say that there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality.  We’ll consider such a move in a moment.  But first let’s look at the other premises.
< 
< Premise (2) says: "Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event)."  I don’t think anyone would want to object to that.  If to act is to <i>do</i> something, and events <i>occur</i>, you have to see is that all <i>doings</i> are <i>occurances</i>.  Which is just another way of saying that acts are a kind of event.  Anyway, surely we can’t reject premise (2).
< 
< What about premise (3) then?  "Thus every act of choosing is causally determined."  But this just follows deductively, and validly I might add, from premises (1) and (2).  If (1) and (2) are true, then (3) <i>must</i> be true.  If every event is causally determined, and every act of choosing is an event, then it <i>must</i> be true that every act of choosing is causally determined.   So the only way to reject (3) is to reject (1) or (2).
< 
< Now look at premise (4): "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  This is one of the two premises, along with number (1), which has been attacked by people who don’t want to accept the conclusion.  But before criticizing it, let’s see if we can’t give some basic account of why it’s at least plausible.  We could put it like this: if I was determined by outside forces, by influences totally apart from me and my deliberations, to make my choice, then in sense it seems my choice was not really <i>mine</i> at all.  It was not free because my whole process of deciding and choosing was just like another cog in a machine that produced my action.  I did not play an active role in making the choice, precisely because every aspect of my choice was determined and previously decided by factors that were outside of me and totally beyond my control.  Everything that led up to my ultimate choice was controlled by forces by me; so how on earth is it in the slightest possible that my choice was free?
< 
< So if we accept premise (4), after having accepted premise (3), the conclusion, that no act of choosing is free, follows deductively.  There’s no avoiding that conclusion if you accept (3) and (4).  I want to make a comment now about something our reading says.  It says, on p. 100 of the packet (or p. 203 of the Solomon selection) that if our choices are not <i>free</i>, then we do not make a choice.  As Solomon says, "If our make-up is such that we could not choose any other, then all of our talk about ‘choice’ and ‘decision’ -- and therefore ‘responsibility’ too -- amounts to just so much nonsense."  This is a common sort of thing for philosophers to say, but strictly speaking it’s wrong.  I mean, does Solomon really mean to be saying that we never go through a process of <i>deciding</i>?  Or that we never make any <i>choices</i>?  That would be ridiculous!  No determinist worth his salt would say anything <i>that</i> absurd.  I mean, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> our process of deciding and our choices are totally causally determined, <i>that</i> doesn’t imply that there is no deciding or choosing going <i>on</i>.  The claim is not that choice doesn’t <i>exist</i>; it’s silly to deny that it <i>exists</i>.  No, the claim is rather that choice is not <i>free</i>.  So our decisions and choices <i>exist</i>, but they aren’t <i>free</i>  -- we are the slaves of forces beyond our control.  That, at least, is what the determinist says.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< B. Libertarianism.
< 
< Now if you do not like the determinist’s argument, and you believe we do have free will, then you have two options.  You can reject either premise (1) or premise (4).  Let’s begin with premise (1), which is that every event is causally determined.  So on the view that we’re going to examine now, <i>some</i> events, at least, are <i>not</i> causally determined; in particular, events of <i>willing</i> are not determined; our decision processes and choices are not, not <i>always</i>, determined.  At least <i>sometimes</i> when we choose to do something, the choice is <i>free</i>.  The claim needn’t be that our choices are <i>always</i> free; only that <i>sometimes</i> they are free.  Think of it like this -- what if I flip out and you have to put me in a padded cell, and I very deliberately decide to, I don’t know, pound my head on the walls.  Then I doubt you would want to say that I have <i>freely</i> decided to pound my head on the walls.  I’m in the grip of insanity.  So my decisions aren’t free, and I can’t be blamed if I want to hurt myself or others.  After all, that is why we have an insanity defense.  So the point is that if you believe that free will exists, you don’t have to say that <i>every</i> choice that <i>everyone</i> makes is free.  You only have to maintain that <i>some</i> choices that we make are free.  Having said that, let’s introduce a definition:
< 
< <i>Libertarianism</i> is the view that free will exists, because some acts of choosing, are not causally determined.
< 
< The word "libertarianism" is ambiguous.  It means, in the philosophy of mind, the doctrine that we have free will; but in political philosophy, it indicates strong support of individual liberties and a minimal amount of government in all spheres.  These are two totally independent doctrines, and we obviously aren’t going to talk about the political doctrine right now.
< 
< Libertarianism in the sense we’re talking about it now includes <i>two</i> doctrines, the first that free will exists, and the second that some events (namely, some choices we make) are not causally determined.  This second doctrine is called <i>indeterminism</i>.  Indeterminism is simply the claim that <i>not</i> every event is causally determined.
< 
< In this century, with the advent of quantum mechanics, the branch of physics dealing with subatomic particles, it has become rather common and popular to reject determinism.  Now, in order to make out this criticism of determinism I’m going to have to give you <i>another</i> formulation of what determinism says.  So here’s the alternative formulation:
< 
< <i>Determinism</i> is (alternative definition) the doctrine that, given a <i>complete</i> description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present, together with a <i>complete</i> description of the set of laws that guide those particles, a perfect being could predict with certainty every event that has happened and that will happen in the universe.
< 
< In other words, if you know where everything is, and exactly how it operates, then, if you could do all the necessary calculations, you’d be able to predict <i>everything</i> that happens.  <i>Everything</i> would be predictable.  And after the fact, everything would have its causal explanation.  So you can see the relation between this definition and the earlier one given.  Suppose I state the set of causes that is sufficient to explain why a given event has occurred, and not some other event.  Well, that would be a complete description of the location and momentum of all the bodies that contributed to the event in question, together with a statement of the relevant causal laws.  So I think we can take the two definitions of "determinism" to be pretty much equivalent; if one is true, then the other is true.  They stand and fall together.
< 
< Now I’m going to give a criticism of the second definition of "determinism," which we can take as equally criticizing the first.  One of the basic results of quantum mechanics is the following.  There are certain subatomic particles about which we cannot say what their location and momentum is <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>time</i>.  If you say that the particle is at one specific location, then you can’t say what it’s momentum is; and if you specify its momentum, then you can’t say what its location is.  Well, that means that a "description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present" cannot even be given!  Such a description would be impossible, given what we know from quantum mechanics.  So there are some predictions that we couldn’t make, no matter how powerful our computers were.  It just couldn’t be done.  Therefore, determinism, in the second sense defined above, is false.
< 
< Now if we got very deeply into the issues involved here, it would take us a very long time indeed, and we’d have to know a lot of physics.  So if you are totally baffled by this argument against determinism, let me refer you to p. 101 of the packet, and give you a really simple summary.  Quantum mechanics, a very difficult and technical part of physics, says that there are some very small particles that we can’t make predictions about.  So we can’t say that causal determinism holds for those particles.  That’s the gist of what I’m trying to get you to understand.
< 
< The trouble with this argument is that it doesn’t show that anything <i>other</i> than those subatomic particles is not determined.  I mean, let’s suppose it’s <i>true</i> that certain subatomic particles are "random," or undetermined.  That doesn’t mean that <i>anything</i> <i>else</i> is undetermined.  All this talk of how things work on the <i>subatomic</i> level doesn’t address how things work on the macro level, the level that we all live and operate on.  And in particular, it’s hard to see what the randomness of some subatomic particles might have to do with the process of volition.
< 
< About the <i>most</i> help that quantum mechanics might give to libertarianism is this: there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality, if we are to believe the physicists.  So we might say: maybe free will is another exception to this allegedly general rule, that all events are causally determined.  If it <i>were</i> an exception, it wouldn’t be the <i>only</i> exception.  So that’s something at least.  It makes the libertarian objection to determinism at least a <i>little</i> more plausible.  So much for the libertarian’s objection to determinism.
< 
< What can be said specifically against libertarianism itself?  Let’s suppose that, in fact, our choices are not determined at all.  Now, what’s the claim there?  Apparently, it’s that, when we choose, the event of choosing doesn’t have a cause.  A choice is a causeless event.  Or at least, the causes that it <i>does</i> have don’t <i>determine</i> the choice.  There is still some aspect of the choice that is uncaused.  Or perhaps you’d want to say that <i>I</i> am the cause of my choice; but then, to say that my choice is free, what I’d mean, as a libertarian, is that <i>nothing</i> <i>causes</i> <i>me</i> to choose what I do.  So then there’s an element of <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.  So the libertarian view, that some acts of choosing are not determined, can be spelled out in various ways.  Either a choice has no causes at all; or there are some aspects of the choice that are not caused; or though <i>I</i> entirely cause my choice, nonetheless there is something about <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.
< 
< Those are all different ways of understanding what it means to say that a choice is not determined.  But something they have in common is that there is a <i>randomness</i> involved in my choice.  After all, if your choice is in some sense <i>uncaused</i>, then to that extent what can it be but <i>random</i>?  It’s as though God rolls a die and whoops, there you go do something that has no causal explanation.  So when you were choosing to go on the picnic instead of to the movies, what made that choice <i>free</i> was this <i>random</i> element.  Total unpredictability: that’s what made your choice free.
< 
< But doesn’t that sound strange?  See here, free will is supposed to be what accounts for why we are morally responsible for what we do.  But now, if we’re libertarians, we’re saying that it’s this <i>random</i> <i>element</i> of a choice that makes the choice free -- and which makes us morally responsible for the choice!  But isn’t that strange?  Why should we be morally responsible for something that is totally random?  That doesn’t make any sense!
< 
< So let me explain the criticism of libertarianism here.  Libertarianism says that a choice is free <i>because</i> it is not determined.  And this means, as I said, that the choice is, to some extent, <i>random</i>.  But if the choice is random, why should we be held <i>responsible</i> for making the choice?  Freedom is supposed to be what makes us morally responsible; but why on earth would anyone say that it is causelessness, randomness, which makes us morally responsible?
< 
< I think that the problem here is in the libertarian notion of what free will is.  Free will doesn’t mean <i>random</i> or <i>causeless</i> will.  Well then what <i>is</i> free will?  Remember that we started out by saying that we <i>should</i> have <i>begun</i> by examining what free will is.  I think I have made my point now.  Perhaps if we had done started out by asking what free will is, then we wouldn’t have gotten into this confusion.  So let’s ask what free will is.
< 
< At the same time we ask this question, we are going to be examining premise number (4), which is: "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  Maybe a choice can be determined <i>and</i> free at the same time.  Don’t just assume that that’s a contradiction, before you have figured out what "free will" means.  Maybe when we learn what free will is, we will see that premise (4) is wrong.  Maybe once we have fixed on the right notion of free will, we won’t think that free will is incompatible with the will’s being determined.
< 
< 
< 
< C. Compatibilism and the definition of "free will."
< 
< In fact, we may as well now define a <i>third</i> position about free will and determinism, which combines elements of determinism and libertarianism:
< 
< <i>Compatibilism</i> is the view that free will exists, and that acts of choosing are causally determined.
< 
< This view is called "compatibilism" because it implies that the existence of free will is <i>compatible</i>, or consistent, with causal determinism.  So compatibilists reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument; just because an act of choosing is causally determined, that doesn’t mean it’s not free.  It could still be free, even though it’s determined.  We simply have to have the correct conception of "free will."
< 
< So to support compatibilism, we will have to do as I said, and figure out once and for all what "free" does mean.  Let’s begin with a common formulation due to G. E. Moore.  Moore, the English philosopher writing near the beginning of this century, said that to say one chooses <i>freely</i> is to say that one <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>otherwise</i>.  So if you freely choose to go on the picnic, you <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>gone</i> <i>to</i> <i>the</i> <i>movies</i> <i>instead</i>, or done something else entirely.  If you freely chose to sign up for this course, that means you could have signed up for a different course, or for no course at all.
< 
< Now I don’t think this conception of freedom is very helpful, because it’s not clear enough.  We could interpret "could have done otherwise" too many different ways.  We can always ask: "could have" in what sense?  In one way, even if I’m determined, I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen otherwise; the very fact that I had other options itself means those other options were there before me, and I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen them for all anybody knew.  In another way, if I’m determined, I <i>couldn’t</i> have chosen otherwise, because a choice that is totally determined would be a choice that I <i>must</i> make.  So maybe it’s true that, whenever we choose freely, we could have chosen otherwise; but this can’t work as a definition, because it’s just not clear.
< 
< So let’s look at another definition: to choose freely is to choose without compulsion.  This makes some sense; no one compelled you to go on a picnic; no one compelled you to take this course.  So you chose freely.  A definition like this is give on p. 102 of the packet.  But now consider this problem: if I go insane, and you want to say I no longer have free will, it’s not like there’s any <i>person</i> who is compelling me to choose to things.  At best you might say it’s my <i>insanity</i> which compels me to make my choices.  And in the same way, we want to say that little children can’t be held responsible for everything they do; their wills are not fully free, not yet.  But again, it’s not any <i>person</i> who is compelling them to do what they do.  It’s just that a toddler can’t go through a process of decision and choice that we’d want to call "free."  If we have free will, we <i>grow</i> <i>into</i> it; so freedom has to be something that we can develop.
< 
< Still, there’s <i>something</i> right about the proposal that a free choice is one that isn’t compelled; in other words, the process of volition can’t be <i>constrained</i> in certain ways, if it’s going to be free.  A free will is one that isn’t be constrained in <i>various</i> ways: by force from other people; by insanity; by drugs; or even, in the case of a little child, by immaturity.  But you can’t just say that a free choice is one that is not compelled or constrained, <i>period</i>.  Because that leave open the question: <i>What</i> <i>sorts</i> of things can compel or constrain the will?  Only <i>some</i> of those things make the will unfree.  So here’s the big question: What sorts of things, by constraining our ability to use our will, make the will unfree?
< 
< So here is <i>my</i> proposal -- I’ll just tell you what it is:
< 
< One’s choice is <i>free</i> iff it is the result of a decision process (whether a snap decision or a long deliberation procedure) which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment (as by insanity).
< 
< To understand this definition we need only see how it applies in various cases of free and unfree choices.  When you chose to go to the lake, the reason that was a free choice, I’m saying, is that it was the result of your own decision process, and that process was sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  On the other hand, when they lock me up in the asylum, and I have lost my free will, it’s just because my decision process, my faculty of volition, is sufficiently impaired to make you all say that I lack free will.  Or suppose that someone slips a dangerous drug into your morning coffee, and you decide that it would be a dandy idea to go out on High Street and play in traffic.  Well in that case, you didn’t freely choose to play in traffic, just because your ability to deliberate about what you are doing is impaired by the drug.
< 
< One problem with this definition is that this word "sufficient" is vague.  <i>How</i> <i>much</i> impairment, and <i>of</i> <i>what</i> <i>sorts</i>, would be enough to make my choice unfree?  If I’ve had a couple of beers, is that enough?  Probably not.  What if I am forced to drink a six-pack in a half an hour -- would that be enough?  Probably.  But there are going to be borderline cases, where we don’t know whether we should say I have free will or not, according to this definition.  Still I think that’s OK, because the concept of free will is itself one that has borderline cases.  In some cases, we <i>can’t</i> say for sure whether or not someone choses freely or not.  Think of someone who pleads insanity in a criminal trial.  We say that if he knew the nature of his actions then he was insane; but in some cases it’s just not perfectly clear whether a person knows the nature of his actions.  We can’t say whether his decision processes were sufficiently impaired by his insanity.
< 
< But my claim is that this definition does at least get this right, that the freedom of the will depends on whether our ability to deliberate is sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  And if the word "sufficiently" is vague, which it is, then I will also claim that our concept of free will is vague in just the same way.
< 
< This definition of free will has an enormous advantage over the others that I gave.  The advantage is that I can give a good argument for it.  So let me give you this argument.  Remember now that we are morally responsible for what we do <i>because</i> we have free will; unless we do in fact have free will, we can’t be praised or condemned for what we do.  So it’s free will, if we have it, that makes us morally responsible beings.
< 
< Well in that case, we had better get a definition of "free will" that accounts for the fact that we’re responsible.  Just keep this in mind: if we’re free, then we’re responsible.  So whatever freedom is, it has to be something that makes us responsible for what we do.  The thing that makes us free has to be something that makes us praiseable and blameable, as it were.
< 
< In that light, look again at our definition of "free choice" given above: a free choice is the result of a decision process which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment.  So let me ask you: on <i>this</i> account of freedom, is freedom something that makes us responsible for what we do?  Is having a mature, unimpaired decision process what makes us responsible for what we do?  I think so.  If I am a rational adult, I can be praised and blamed for what I do; and the reason that I can is precisely <i>that</i> I am a rational adult.  So, I think we can infer that free will is a will unimpaired by sufficient immaturity and impairment such as drug-induced states, or brainwashing, or insanity.
< 
< And if this is what free will is, then we can safely reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument.  If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it could still be free; if I am a rational adult, with faculties unimpaired, then I’m free, regardless of whether there is a complete causal explanation for my choices.
< 
< Now just for the fun it look back at the definition of "free will" that the determinist and libertarian seem to agree on.  They seem to agree that the will is free when it is <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i>.  But honestly, is it the fact that it’s <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i> that explains why rational adults are responsible for what they do?  Of course not.  It’s the fact that they have a fully-functioning faculty of deliberation, which they <i>could</i> use, if they wanted to.  We are not free and responsible beings because our will is uncaused; we are free and responsible beings because our will is operational and fully-functioning.  So free will is compatible with determinism.  I will be so bold as to say that this is my own position, but that isn’t to say, of course, that you may not quite reasonably hold some contrary position.
< 
< There is a position opposed to compatibilism, namely <i>incompatibilism</i>.  I will conclude this chapter with a very brief discussion of this view.  Here is a definition:
< 
< <i>Incompatibilism</i> is the view that the existence of free will is incompatible with the claim that all events are causally determined.
< 
< Anyone who accepts premise (4) of the determinist’s argument is an incompatibilist.  So determinists are incompatibilists, and they deny the existence of free will.  And libertarians are incompatibilists as well; but they deny that all events are causally determined.  What these incompatibilists have in common is the assumption that if a choice is free, then at least some aspect of it is uncaused.  And we just got done debunking that assumption.  I doubt there are any good arguments for it.  So I hope you’ll forgive me if I end up on a somewhat dogmatic note, and say that incompatibilism seems to me pretty obviously false.
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> I want to begin our discussion of free will and determinism by putting the problem in context.  I am treating this problem, of free will and determinism, as though it were part of the philosophy of mind; and my reason for so doing is that our focus is on the will, or our ability to choose, and that ability is a mental process just as perception is a mental process.
> 
> For the sake of clarity, let me define a few terms for you, as usual, using an example.  Whenever you are confused about some very basic philosophical concept, you will always benefit by considering some clear example.  So suppose it is a Sunday morning and you are deciding what to do with the rest of the day.  You reflect that you’d really like to see a new movie; but on the other hand it is a pretty nice day out, so maybe it would be better to drive to a lake and have a dinner picnic.  So after weighing positives and negatives you decide to go on the picnic, because the movie can be seen anytime soon, but you much more rarely have the time or the nice weather to go on a picnic.  And so you pack up the dinner and head out to the lake and have a great time.
> 
> Now, let’s use this rather mundane example to illustrate what we mean by common terminology.  <i>The</i> <i>will</i> is our ability to decide and choose among different options; it is a cognitive process.  Another name for the same process is <i>volition</i>.  As far as I can tell, "will" and "volition" have the same meaning.  So we can say that you <i>use</i> your will or volition in deciding and choosing to go on the picnic.  But "using" your will just means going through that mental process, however we might eventually describe it.
> 
> The word <i>choice</i> usually means the end result of a decision process.  So to use our example, when after thinking about your options, you chose to go on the picnic.  That act of choice was an important, perhaps the essential, part of your using your will or volition in that case.  If you didn’t make a choice, then you weren’t using your will.  But on the other hand, I don’t think that using your will <i>just</i> involves making that final choice.  The process you go through <i>leading</i> <i>up</i> to the choice is also properly considered the use of the will or volition.  That process is called <i>deciding</i> or <i>deliberating</i>.  So before you chose to go to the lake for the picnic, you were deciding, or deliberating.  And deciding involves some manner of <i>weighing</i> <i>options</i>, even there are only two options to weigh -- as the song says, "Should I stay or should I go?"  It is nonsense to speak of deciding between <i>less</i> <i>than</i> <i>two</i> options.
> 
> So much for the purely terminological points about the will.  Now a little bit about the word "freedom."  This word is highly ambiguous -- we can use it to mean political freedom, or freedom of the will, or simply the lack of something.  As in the phrase, "sugar-free."  And there are other senses, too, of course.  But we are only interested in the sense in which <i>the</i> <i>will</i> is said to be free.  Now if, as I said, the will is our ability to decide and choose among different options, then to say that the will is <i>free</i> is to say that our ability to decide and choose among different options is free.  To speak of free will is to speak of that ability being free.
> 
> So our focus is on only that aspect of the will -- its freedom.  And in particular we have two questions to ask: First, <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the freedom of the will?  If we had to define "free will," what would we say?  And second: Does freedom of the will exist?  It does if we can freely decide and choose among different options; so can we?
> 
> But before we answer these two questions, I want to address a different question: Why is free will such an important topic?  The answer is that it is freedom of the will that makes us morally responsible for what we do.  If we had no free will, we could not be morally praised for anything, or blamed for anything.  And correspondingly: if we can indeed be morally praised or blamed, then we do have free will.  Unless we can decide and choose freely, then we do not really have the right to laud anyone for anything good they do, or condemn for anything evil they do: they weren’t responsible for it.  It would be like praising the sun for warming up the day, or censuring a tornado for destroying houses.  Those things don’t have free will, so what would the point be of praising or blaming them?
> 
> There is a related principle that philosophers use about a good deal.  I mean the principle that "ought" implies "can."  In other words, if I <i>ought</i> to do something, that implies that I <i>can</i> do it.  After all, if I <i>cannot</i> do it at all, then surely I am not obligated to do it.  What sense would there be in saying that I ought to do something that I <i>can’t</i> <i>do</i>?  If, for example, I see a child drowning in a rushing river and I can’t swim, then can I be blamed if I don’t jump in and try to save the child?  I <i>can’t</i> do it.  So surely it’s not the case that I <i>should</i> do it.  Now let’s see how free will works in here: if I don’t have free will, then whatever I end up doing, I <i>must</i> do; I just don’t have any choice in the matter.  So then it’s never the case that I <i>should</i> do anything other than what I happen to do.  Doesn’t matter what it is; if Jack murders an old woman, it’s not as though he <i>should</i> <i>not</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>that</i>.  Because he had no choice; if he <i>could</i> held off from killing her, then perhaps he <i>should</i> have.  But his will was unfree.  So he had to murder her, and we can’t say that he ought not to have done so.  Ought implies <i>can</i>.  A moral obligation requires an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do; and an ability to do the thing you’re obligated to do requires that you are free to do it.  If you’re not free do otherwise, then you lack the ability to do what you’d be obligated to do; which means that you <i>aren’t</i> obligated to do it.
> 
> So I hope this is enough for you to understand why the issue of whether or not we have free will is very important indeed.  If we lack free will we might as well just give up the whole business of praise and blame that goes along with morality.  Now perhaps some of you -- not many I suspect, but some of you -- are perfectly happy to get rid of this business of moral appraisal.  But are you really quite sure this is the view you want to hold?  I mean, should we never praise you for your accomplishments and good deeds, because you just had no free choice in the matter?  Should we never blame and reproach and revile criminals when they steal, rape, and murder, because they had no choice but to commit their crimes?  If you reflect a little like that I’m sure that the <i>vast</i> majority of you will come to the view that moral evaluation has a very useful function in everyday life.  We should not just do away with it.  But the only way we can take moral evaluation seriously is if we believe we have free will.  So do we have free will?
> 
> Now do you see how I just immediately slipped into asking <i>whether</i> we have free will, without asking <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>would</i> <i>mean</i> to say that the will is free?  That’s the way that most people proceed.  I think this is a great mistake.  I think we really do have to know what free will would be, before we could know whether we have it.  But it will be instructive for us to ignore what we know we should do first, and instead just forge right on ahead, and see whether we can say we have free will, without knowing what free will is.
> 
> 
> 
> A. Determinism.
> 
> So let’s begin with the view that says we have no free will.  An excellent way to present this view is by stating an argument for it, and this is a perfectly valid argument.  This is very similar to the argument presented on p. 100 of the packet.  After I state the argument I’ll go over each premise carefully.  So here goes:
> 
> 1. Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined.
> 
> 2. Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event).
> 
> 3. Thus every act of choosing is causally determined.
> 
> 4. If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free.
> 
> 5. Therefore, no act of choosing is free.  That is, free will does not exist.
> 
> Let me define the term <i>determinism</i> as the view that the above argument is correct.  In other words, here’s the definition:
> 
> <i>Determinism</i> is the doctrine that free will does not exist, because every event, including every act of choosing, is causally determined.
> 
> As nasty as the conclusion might appear, this argument seems extremely solid; each premise is, by itself, very hard to deny.  So let’s go premise-by-premise now.
> 
> Premise (1): "Every event has a set of causes sufficient to explain why it and it not some other event occurred.  In brief: Every event is causally determined."  You may recall "the Principle of Causality" from our discussion of the cosmological argument; that principle we stated as "Every event has a cause."  Well, if you liked the principle then, consistency requires you to accept it now.  But there is a difference between saying that every event has a cause and that every event is <i>causally</i> <i>determined</i>.  This last statement is stronger.  So what reason is there to believe that stronger claim, that every event is causally determined?
> 
> It’s difficult to give a <i>positive</i> <i>argument</i> for this premise.  The best I think I can do is to point to some examples where we assume it, or presuppose it.  We definitely presuppose it in science -- or most of science anyway.  For example, suppose you want to explain why an eight ball rolled into a pocket.  Definitely we require <i>some</i> explanation.  So suppose we say <i>it</i> <i>was</i> <i>hit</i> <i>by</i> <i>the</i> <i>cue</i> <i>ball</i>.  But that only explains why the eight ball is <i>moving</i>.  There are still <i>aspects</i> of the eight ball’s movement that are unexplained: for example, its direction.  That is explained by the vector and spin of the cue ball when it hits the eight ball.  And so on -- we demand explanations for every aspect of the eight ball’s movement.  That’s the basic premise of scientific inquiry: that there is a causal explanation to be found for every aspect of a thing’s change.
> 
> If you believe in free will, you may want to say that there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality.  We’ll consider such a move in a moment.  But first let’s look at the other premises.
> 
> Premise (2) says: "Every act of choosing is an event (a mental event)."  I don’t think anyone would want to object to that.  If to act is to <i>do</i> something, and events <i>occur</i>, you have to see is that all <i>doings</i> are <i>occurances</i>.  Which is just another way of saying that acts are a kind of event.  Anyway, surely we can’t reject premise (2).
> 
> What about premise (3) then?  "Thus every act of choosing is causally determined."  But this just follows deductively, and validly I might add, from premises (1) and (2).  If (1) and (2) are true, then (3) <i>must</i> be true.  If every event is causally determined, and every act of choosing is an event, then it <i>must</i> be true that every act of choosing is causally determined.   So the only way to reject (3) is to reject (1) or (2).
> 
> Now look at premise (4): "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  This is one of the two premises, along with number (1), which has been attacked by people who don’t want to accept the conclusion.  But before criticizing it, let’s see if we can’t give some basic account of why it’s at least plausible.  We could put it like this: if I was determined by outside forces, by influences totally apart from me and my deliberations, to make my choice, then in sense it seems my choice was not really <i>mine</i> at all.  It was not free because my whole process of deciding and choosing was just like another cog in a machine that produced my action.  I did not play an active role in making the choice, precisely because every aspect of my choice was determined and previously decided by factors that were outside of me and totally beyond my control.  Everything that led up to my ultimate choice was controlled by forces by me; so how on earth is it in the slightest possible that my choice was free?
> 
> So if we accept premise (4), after having accepted premise (3), the conclusion, that no act of choosing is free, follows deductively.  There’s no avoiding that conclusion if you accept (3) and (4).  I want to make a comment now about something our reading says.  It says, on p. 100 of the packet (or p. 203 of the Solomon selection) that if our choices are not <i>free</i>, then we do not make a choice.  As Solomon says, "If our make-up is such that we could not choose any other, then all of our talk about ‘choice’ and ‘decision’ -- and therefore ‘responsibility’ too -- amounts to just so much nonsense."  This is a common sort of thing for philosophers to say, but strictly speaking it’s wrong.  I mean, does Solomon really mean to be saying that we never go through a process of <i>deciding</i>?  Or that we never make any <i>choices</i>?  That would be ridiculous!  No determinist worth his salt would say anything <i>that</i> absurd.  I mean, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> our process of deciding and our choices are totally causally determined, <i>that</i> doesn’t imply that there is no deciding or choosing going <i>on</i>.  The claim is not that choice doesn’t <i>exist</i>; it’s silly to deny that it <i>exists</i>.  No, the claim is rather that choice is not <i>free</i>.  So our decisions and choices <i>exist</i>, but they aren’t <i>free</i>  -- we are the slaves of forces beyond our control.  That, at least, is what the determinist says.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> B. Libertarianism.
> 
> Now if you do not like the determinist’s argument, and you believe we do have free will, then you have two options.  You can reject either premise (1) or premise (4).  Let’s begin with premise (1), which is that every event is causally determined.  So on the view that we’re going to examine now, <i>some</i> events, at least, are <i>not</i> causally determined; in particular, events of <i>willing</i> are not determined; our decision processes and choices are not, not <i>always</i>, determined.  At least <i>sometimes</i> when we choose to do something, the choice is <i>free</i>.  The claim needn’t be that our choices are <i>always</i> free; only that <i>sometimes</i> they are free.  Think of it like this -- what if I flip out and you have to put me in a padded cell, and I very deliberately decide to, I don’t know, pound my head on the walls.  Then I doubt you would want to say that I have <i>freely</i> decided to pound my head on the walls.  I’m in the grip of insanity.  So my decisions aren’t free, and I can’t be blamed if I want to hurt myself or others.  After all, that is why we have an insanity defense.  So the point is that if you believe that free will exists, you don’t have to say that <i>every</i> choice that <i>everyone</i> makes is free.  You only have to maintain that <i>some</i> choices that we make are free.  Having said that, let’s introduce a definition:
> 
> <i>Libertarianism</i> is the view that free will exists, because some acts of choosing, are not causally determined.
> 
> The word "libertarianism" is ambiguous.  It means, in the philosophy of mind, the doctrine that we have free will; but in political philosophy, it indicates strong support of individual liberties and a minimal amount of government in all spheres.  These are two totally independent doctrines, and we obviously aren’t going to talk about the political doctrine right now.
> 
> Libertarianism in the sense we’re talking about it now includes <i>two</i> doctrines, the first that free will exists, and the second that some events (namely, some choices we make) are not causally determined.  This second doctrine is called <i>indeterminism</i>.  Indeterminism is simply the claim that <i>not</i> every event is causally determined.
> 
> In this century, with the advent of quantum mechanics, the branch of physics dealing with subatomic particles, it has become rather common and popular to reject determinism.  Now, in order to make out this criticism of determinism I’m going to have to give you <i>another</i> formulation of what determinism says.  So here’s the alternative formulation:
> 
> <i>Determinism</i> is (alternative definition) the doctrine that, given a <i>complete</i> description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present, together with a <i>complete</i> description of the set of laws that guide those particles, a perfect being could predict with certainty every event that has happened and that will happen in the universe.
> 
> In other words, if you know where everything is, and exactly how it operates, then, if you could do all the necessary calculations, you’d be able to predict <i>everything</i> that happens.  <i>Everything</i> would be predictable.  And after the fact, everything would have its causal explanation.  So you can see the relation between this definition and the earlier one given.  Suppose I state the set of causes that is sufficient to explain why a given event has occurred, and not some other event.  Well, that would be a complete description of the location and momentum of all the bodies that contributed to the event in question, together with a statement of the relevant causal laws.  So I think we can take the two definitions of "determinism" to be pretty much equivalent; if one is true, then the other is true.  They stand and fall together.
> 
> Now I’m going to give a criticism of the second definition of "determinism," which we can take as equally criticizing the first.  One of the basic results of quantum mechanics is the following.  There are certain subatomic particles about which we cannot say what their location and momentum is <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>time</i>.  If you say that the particle is at one specific location, then you can’t say what it’s momentum is; and if you specify its momentum, then you can’t say what its location is.  Well, that means that a "description of the location and momentum of every particle in the universe at present" cannot even be given!  Such a description would be impossible, given what we know from quantum mechanics.  So there are some predictions that we couldn’t make, no matter how powerful our computers were.  It just couldn’t be done.  Therefore, determinism, in the second sense defined above, is false.
> 
> Now if we got very deeply into the issues involved here, it would take us a very long time indeed, and we’d have to know a lot of physics.  So if you are totally baffled by this argument against determinism, let me refer you to p. 101 of the packet, and give you a really simple summary.  Quantum mechanics, a very difficult and technical part of physics, says that there are some very small particles that we can’t make predictions about.  So we can’t say that causal determinism holds for those particles.  That’s the gist of what I’m trying to get you to understand.
> 
> The trouble with this argument is that it doesn’t show that anything <i>other</i> than those subatomic particles is not determined.  I mean, let’s suppose it’s <i>true</i> that certain subatomic particles are "random," or undetermined.  That doesn’t mean that <i>anything</i> <i>else</i> is undetermined.  All this talk of how things work on the <i>subatomic</i> level doesn’t address how things work on the macro level, the level that we all live and operate on.  And in particular, it’s hard to see what the randomness of some subatomic particles might have to do with the process of volition.
> 
> About the <i>most</i> help that quantum mechanics might give to libertarianism is this: there are <i>exceptions</i> to the Principle of Causality, if we are to believe the physicists.  So we might say: maybe free will is another exception to this allegedly general rule, that all events are causally determined.  If it <i>were</i> an exception, it wouldn’t be the <i>only</i> exception.  So that’s something at least.  It makes the libertarian objection to determinism at least a <i>little</i> more plausible.  So much for the libertarian’s objection to determinism.
> 
> What can be said specifically against libertarianism itself?  Let’s suppose that, in fact, our choices are not determined at all.  Now, what’s the claim there?  Apparently, it’s that, when we choose, the event of choosing doesn’t have a cause.  A choice is a causeless event.  Or at least, the causes that it <i>does</i> have don’t <i>determine</i> the choice.  There is still some aspect of the choice that is uncaused.  Or perhaps you’d want to say that <i>I</i> am the cause of my choice; but then, to say that my choice is free, what I’d mean, as a libertarian, is that <i>nothing</i> <i>causes</i> <i>me</i> to choose what I do.  So then there’s an element of <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.  So the libertarian view, that some acts of choosing are not determined, can be spelled out in various ways.  Either a choice has no causes at all; or there are some aspects of the choice that are not caused; or though <i>I</i> entirely cause my choice, nonetheless there is something about <i>myself</i> that is uncaused.
> 
> Those are all different ways of understanding what it means to say that a choice is not determined.  But something they have in common is that there is a <i>randomness</i> involved in my choice.  After all, if your choice is in some sense <i>uncaused</i>, then to that extent what can it be but <i>random</i>?  It’s as though God rolls a die and whoops, there you go do something that has no causal explanation.  So when you were choosing to go on the picnic instead of to the movies, what made that choice <i>free</i> was this <i>random</i> element.  Total unpredictability: that’s what made your choice free.
> 
> But doesn’t that sound strange?  See here, free will is supposed to be what accounts for why we are morally responsible for what we do.  But now, if we’re libertarians, we’re saying that it’s this <i>random</i> <i>element</i> of a choice that makes the choice free -- and which makes us morally responsible for the choice!  But isn’t that strange?  Why should we be morally responsible for something that is totally random?  That doesn’t make any sense!
> 
> So let me explain the criticism of libertarianism here.  Libertarianism says that a choice is free <i>because</i> it is not determined.  And this means, as I said, that the choice is, to some extent, <i>random</i>.  But if the choice is random, why should we be held <i>responsible</i> for making the choice?  Freedom is supposed to be what makes us morally responsible; but why on earth would anyone say that it is causelessness, randomness, which makes us morally responsible?
> 
> I think that the problem here is in the libertarian notion of what free will is.  Free will doesn’t mean <i>random</i> or <i>causeless</i> will.  Well then what <i>is</i> free will?  Remember that we started out by saying that we <i>should</i> have <i>begun</i> by examining what free will is.  I think I have made my point now.  Perhaps if we had done started out by asking what free will is, then we wouldn’t have gotten into this confusion.  So let’s ask what free will is.
> 
> At the same time we ask this question, we are going to be examining premise number (4), which is: "If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it is not free."  Maybe a choice can be determined <i>and</i> free at the same time.  Don’t just assume that that’s a contradiction, before you have figured out what "free will" means.  Maybe when we learn what free will is, we will see that premise (4) is wrong.  Maybe once we have fixed on the right notion of free will, we won’t think that free will is incompatible with the will’s being determined.
> 
> 
> 
> C. Compatibilism and the definition of "free will."
> 
> In fact, we may as well now define a <i>third</i> position about free will and determinism, which combines elements of determinism and libertarianism:
> 
> <i>Compatibilism</i> is the view that free will exists, and that acts of choosing are causally determined.
> 
> This view is called "compatibilism" because it implies that the existence of free will is <i>compatible</i>, or consistent, with causal determinism.  So compatibilists reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument; just because an act of choosing is causally determined, that doesn’t mean it’s not free.  It could still be free, even though it’s determined.  We simply have to have the correct conception of "free will."
> 
> So to support compatibilism, we will have to do as I said, and figure out once and for all what "free" does mean.  Let’s begin with a common formulation due to G. E. Moore.  Moore, the English philosopher writing near the beginning of this century, said that to say one chooses <i>freely</i> is to say that one <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>done</i> <i>otherwise</i>.  So if you freely choose to go on the picnic, you <i>could</i> <i>have</i> <i>gone</i> <i>to</i> <i>the</i> <i>movies</i> <i>instead</i>, or done something else entirely.  If you freely chose to sign up for this course, that means you could have signed up for a different course, or for no course at all.
> 
> Now I don’t think this conception of freedom is very helpful, because it’s not clear enough.  We could interpret "could have done otherwise" too many different ways.  We can always ask: "could have" in what sense?  In one way, even if I’m determined, I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen otherwise; the very fact that I had other options itself means those other options were there before me, and I <i>could</i> <i>have</i> chosen them for all anybody knew.  In another way, if I’m determined, I <i>couldn’t</i> have chosen otherwise, because a choice that is totally determined would be a choice that I <i>must</i> make.  So maybe it’s true that, whenever we choose freely, we could have chosen otherwise; but this can’t work as a definition, because it’s just not clear.
> 
> So let’s look at another definition: to choose freely is to choose without compulsion.  This makes some sense; no one compelled you to go on a picnic; no one compelled you to take this course.  So you chose freely.  A definition like this is give on p. 102 of the packet.  But now consider this problem: if I go insane, and you want to say I no longer have free will, it’s not like there’s any <i>person</i> who is compelling me to choose to things.  At best you might say it’s my <i>insanity</i> which compels me to make my choices.  And in the same way, we want to say that little children can’t be held responsible for everything they do; their wills are not fully free, not yet.  But again, it’s not any <i>person</i> who is compelling them to do what they do.  It’s just that a toddler can’t go through a process of decision and choice that we’d want to call "free."  If we have free will, we <i>grow</i> <i>into</i> it; so freedom has to be something that we can develop.
> 
> Still, there’s <i>something</i> right about the proposal that a free choice is one that isn’t compelled; in other words, the process of volition can’t be <i>constrained</i> in certain ways, if it’s going to be free.  A free will is one that isn’t be constrained in <i>various</i> ways: by force from other people; by insanity; by drugs; or even, in the case of a little child, by immaturity.  But you can’t just say that a free choice is one that is not compelled or constrained, <i>period</i>.  Because that leave open the question: <i>What</i> <i>sorts</i> of things can compel or constrain the will?  Only <i>some</i> of those things make the will unfree.  So here’s the big question: What sorts of things, by constraining our ability to use our will, make the will unfree?
> 
> So here is <i>my</i> proposal -- I’ll just tell you what it is:
> 
> One’s choice is <i>free</i> iff it is the result of a decision process (whether a snap decision or a long deliberation procedure) which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment (as by insanity).
> 
> To understand this definition we need only see how it applies in various cases of free and unfree choices.  When you chose to go to the lake, the reason that was a free choice, I’m saying, is that it was the result of your own decision process, and that process was sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  On the other hand, when they lock me up in the asylum, and I have lost my free will, it’s just because my decision process, my faculty of volition, is sufficiently impaired to make you all say that I lack free will.  Or suppose that someone slips a dangerous drug into your morning coffee, and you decide that it would be a dandy idea to go out on High Street and play in traffic.  Well in that case, you didn’t freely choose to play in traffic, just because your ability to deliberate about what you are doing is impaired by the drug.
> 
> One problem with this definition is that this word "sufficient" is vague.  <i>How</i> <i>much</i> impairment, and <i>of</i> <i>what</i> <i>sorts</i>, would be enough to make my choice unfree?  If I’ve had a couple of beers, is that enough?  Probably not.  What if I am forced to drink a six-pack in a half an hour -- would that be enough?  Probably.  But there are going to be borderline cases, where we don’t know whether we should say I have free will or not, according to this definition.  Still I think that’s OK, because the concept of free will is itself one that has borderline cases.  In some cases, we <i>can’t</i> say for sure whether or not someone choses freely or not.  Think of someone who pleads insanity in a criminal trial.  We say that if he knew the nature of his actions then he was insane; but in some cases it’s just not perfectly clear whether a person knows the nature of his actions.  We can’t say whether his decision processes were sufficiently impaired by his insanity.
> 
> But my claim is that this definition does at least get this right, that the freedom of the will depends on whether our ability to deliberate is sufficiently mature and unimpaired.  And if the word "sufficiently" is vague, which it is, then I will also claim that our concept of free will is vague in just the same way.
> 
> This definition of free will has an enormous advantage over the others that I gave.  The advantage is that I can give a good argument for it.  So let me give you this argument.  Remember now that we are morally responsible for what we do <i>because</i> we have free will; unless we do in fact have free will, we can’t be praised or condemned for what we do.  So it’s free will, if we have it, that makes us morally responsible beings.
> 
> Well in that case, we had better get a definition of "free will" that accounts for the fact that we’re responsible.  Just keep this in mind: if we’re free, then we’re responsible.  So whatever freedom is, it has to be something that makes us responsible for what we do.  The thing that makes us free has to be something that makes us praiseable and blameable, as it were.
> 
> In that light, look again at our definition of "free choice" given above: a free choice is the result of a decision process which is not constrained by sufficient immaturity or impairment.  So let me ask you: on <i>this</i> account of freedom, is freedom something that makes us responsible for what we do?  Is having a mature, unimpaired decision process what makes us responsible for what we do?  I think so.  If I am a rational adult, I can be praised and blamed for what I do; and the reason that I can is precisely <i>that</i> I am a rational adult.  So, I think we can infer that free will is a will unimpaired by sufficient immaturity and impairment such as drug-induced states, or brainwashing, or insanity.
> 
> And if this is what free will is, then we can safely reject premise (4) of the determinist’s argument.  If an act of choosing is causally determined, then it could still be free; if I am a rational adult, with faculties unimpaired, then I’m free, regardless of whether there is a complete causal explanation for my choices.
> 
> Now just for the fun it look back at the definition of "free will" that the determinist and libertarian seem to agree on.  They seem to agree that the will is free when it is <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i>.  But honestly, is it the fact that it’s <i>uncaused</i> or <i>random</i> that explains why rational adults are responsible for what they do?  Of course not.  It’s the fact that they have a fully-functioning faculty of deliberation, which they <i>could</i> use, if they wanted to.  We are not free and responsible beings because our will is uncaused; we are free and responsible beings because our will is operational and fully-functioning.  So free will is compatible with determinism.  I will be so bold as to say that this is my own position, but that isn’t to say, of course, that you may not quite reasonably hold some contrary position.
> 
> There is a position opposed to compatibilism, namely <i>incompatibilism</i>.  I will conclude this chapter with a very brief discussion of this view.  Here is a definition:
> 
> <i>Incompatibilism</i> is the view that the existence of free will is incompatible with the claim that all events are causally determined.
> 
> Anyone who accepts premise (4) of the determinist’s argument is an incompatibilist.  So determinists are incompatibilists, and they deny the existence of free will.  And libertarians are incompatibilists as well; but they deny that all events are causally determined.  What these incompatibilists have in common is the assumption that if a choice is free, then at least some aspect of it is uncaused.  And we just got done debunking that assumption.  I doubt there are any good arguments for it.  So I hope you’ll forgive me if I end up on a somewhat dogmatic note, and say that incompatibilism seems to me pretty obviously false.
------
Common_descent/Talk|984535447
3c3,6
< Good to see you hear, John! --LS
---
> Good to see you hear, John! --LS
> ----
> 
> As I have seen the term used, it does indeed mean that all <i>observed</i> life descended from the very same ancestor, which is actually quite likely given the nature of speciation and the brutal pruning of the tree of descent.  I include the weasel-word there because we know so little about what might have started the process in the first place that we can barely even speculate about forms of life earlier than those we have seen.  Since we have not seen any replicator sufficiently simple to have conceivably arisen spontaneously (we only assume there was one), all those we have seen are products of reproduction as we see it now, so they are almost with mathematical certainty descended from a single individual.  Even if similar mutations or chance events had arisen independently early on, it is mathematically likely that only one survived (it is even more likely that none would, but obviously <i>at least</i> one did).
------
Common_descent/Talk|984535467
6c6
< As I have seen the term used, it does indeed mean that all <i>observed</i> life descended from the very same ancestor, which is actually quite likely given the nature of speciation and the brutal pruning of the tree of descent.  I include the weasel-word there because we know so little about what might have started the process in the first place that we can barely even speculate about forms of life earlier than those we have seen.  Since we have not seen any replicator sufficiently simple to have conceivably arisen spontaneously (we only assume there was one), all those we have seen are products of reproduction as we see it now, so they are almost with mathematical certainty descended from a single individual.  Even if similar mutations or chance events had arisen independently early on, it is mathematically likely that only one survived (it is even more likely that none would, but obviously <i>at least</i> one did).
---
> As I have seen the term used, it does indeed mean that all <i>observed</i> life descended from the very same ancestor, which is actually quite likely given the nature of speciation and the brutal pruning of the tree of descent.  I include the weasel-word there because we know so little about what might have started the process in the first place that we can barely even speculate about forms of life earlier than those we have seen.  Since we have not seen any replicator sufficiently simple to have conceivably arisen spontaneously (we only assume there was one), all those we have seen are products of reproduction as we see it now, so they are almost with mathematical certainty descended from a single individual.  Even if similar mutations or chance events had arisen independently early on, it is mathematically likely that only one survived (it is even more likely that none would, but obviously <i>at least</i> one did).  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
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Philosophical_method/Introduction|984536922
1c1
< So I say that puzzlement about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs leads people into philosophy.  But into only philosophy?  After all, doesn’t the same sort of puzzlement lead people into <i>other</i> subjects as well?  Being puzzled about the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs about physical goings-on might lead me to study physics; or about God might get me into religious studies; or about fellow human beings, into psychology, sociology, or anthropology.  So I can’t say that philosophy is just "the study of the <i>meaning</i> and <i>rationality</i> of beliefs."  Because other subjects study that too, not just philosophy.
---
> A common view among philosophers is that [[philosophy]] is distinguished by the ''methods'' that philosophers follow in tackling philosophical questions.  A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.  So a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.
3c3
< But after the examples I’ve given, and just considering your own personal experience with philosophy before this class, you may well feel there is <i>something</i> that distinguishes philosophical questions from purely religious, purely mathematical, and purely scientific questions.  There’s something that sets philosophy apart from these other disciplines, that really makes it special.
---
> Of course, there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.
5c5
< If you think this, you’re right.  There is something that makes philosophical questions special: namely, the methods that are used to answer them.  Let me give a definition of "method":
---
> '''Generate doubt'''
7c7
< A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.
---
> Philosophy, it has been said, begins in wonder.  Philosophy often begins with some simple <i>doubts</i> about accepted beliefs.  We get [[the motivation to philosophize|the initial impulse to philosophize]] from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.  But philosophy absolutely does <i>not</i> end there.  In fact, that wonder by itself hardly constitutes doing philosophy at all.
9c9
< And so a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.  Now right from the start I want to make it very clear that there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.  It’s only after come to grips with those generalizations that we can really understand what makes philosophical questions unique.  And then we might also be able to understand what makes them particularly fascinating, in a way that questions about science and mathematics often are not.  Which is, of course, not to say that science and math may not be interesting in <i>other</i> ways.  I’m saying that there’s something <i>peculiar</i> about the philosophical questions, that inspires a <i>peculiar</i> philosophical curiosity or interest.
---
> '''Formulate questions and problems'''
11c11
< So now I’ll explain some of those general features about all different sorts of philosophical methods.  The first is something we’ve already seen: simple <i>doubts</i> about accepted beliefs.  Philosophy, it has been said, begins in wonder.  We get the initial impulse to philosophize, as I said, from the suspicion that we do not fully understand, and have not fully justified, even our most basic beliefs about the world.  But philosophy absolutely does <i>not</i> end there.  In fact, that wonder by itself hardly constitutes doing philosophy at all.
---
> Another extremely important element of philosophical method is to <i>formulate</i> our doubts in questions to be answered or [[philosophical problem|problems to be solved]].  The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to make genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution.
13c13
< The second step is <i>extremely</i> important: we <i>formulate</i> our doubts in questions to be answered, or problems to be solved.  The more clearly the question or problem is stated, the easier it will be to make genuine progress in coming to some sort of resolution.
---
> So it is not enough simply to wonder, for example, "Do we really have free will?"  If one states that problem, the problem of freedom and determinism, in such a simple way, one might be apt simply to answer, "Well of course," and leave it at that.  Then one fails to do philosophy.  One needs, in addition, to state <i>as</i> <i>clearly</i> <i>as</i> <i>possible</i> exactly what the source of doubt is.  So in the case of freedom and determinism, one might say something like the following:
15c15
< So it is not enough simply to wonder, for example, "Do I really have free will?"  If you state that problem, the problem of freedom and determinism, in such a simple way, you’ll be apt simply to answer, "Well sure I do," and leave it at that.  And then you aren’t doing philosophy.  So what more do you need, in order to formulate the <i>problem</i> well?  You need to state <i>as</i> <i>clearly</i> <i>as</i> <i>you</i> <i>possibly</i> <i>can</i> exactly what the source of your discomfort is.  So in the case of freedom and determinism, you might say something like the following:
---
> :Suppose that the universe operates according to [[determinism|deterministic]] [[law of nature|causal laws]], that is, that for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened.  So all events are determined.  Suppose also that this general principle applies to our choices.  Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we <i>had</i> to make those choices and no others.  So all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary.  Nonetheless, most of us have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than we did choose.  In short, it seems we have free will.  But how is it possible, or <i>is</i> it possible, that our choices might be causally determined <i>and</i> free at the same time?
17c17
< "Suppose that the universe operates according to deterministic causal laws, that is, that for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened.  So all events are determined.  Suppose also that this general principle applies to our choices.  Our choices are events in, parts of, the natural world, and so we should fully expect to find a complete causal explanation of those too, explaining why we <i>had</i> to make those choices and no others.  So all our choices are, on that accounting, determined or necessary.  But suppose next that we have a very keen sense that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than we did choose.  In short, we think we have free will.  But how is it possible, or <i>is</i> it possible, that our choices might be causally determined <i>and</i> free at the same time?"
---
> That is one way of stating the basic problem of [[free will and determinism]].  This is an example of the <i>initial</i> statement of a philosophical problem; it is probably enough to let us confront what seems to be a <i>genuine</i> <i>problem</i> that we would like to have solved.  Some philosophers and ordinary people are apt, after explaining their puzzlement in this initial way, to dive right in and start trying to solve the problem.  They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
19c19
< Now that’s the basic problem of freedom and determinism.  It’s an example of the <i>initial</i> statement of a philosophical problem.  It’s enough to let us all see that there really does seem to be a <i>genuine</i> <i>problem</i> that we would like to have solved.  A lot of philosophers and ordinary people are apt, after explaining their puzzlement in this initial way, to dive right in and start trying to solve the problem.  They immediately start giving arguments, pro and con, on different sides of the issue.
---
> There is an admirable tendency among a relatively <i>small</i> number of philosophers not to be so quick, but to spend <i>more</i> time trying to get <i>extremely</i> clear on what the problem is all about.  An excellent example of such a philosopher is the Englishman [[G. E. Moore]], who lived and worked in the first half of this century.  When addressing a question such as, "Is [[Existence]] a Predicate?" Moore almost never simply said, "Yes" or "No" and defended his answer.  In fact, in an article entitled "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore begins this way: "I am not at all clear as to the meaning of this question.  Mr. Kneale says that existence is not a predicate.  But what does he mean by the words 'Existence is not a predicate'?"
21c21
< There is an admirable tendency among a relatively <i>small</i> number of philosophers not to be so quick, but to spend <i>more</i> time trying to get <i>extremely</i> clear on what the problem is all about.  An excellent example of such a philosopher is the Englishman G. E. Moore, who lived and worked in the first half of this century.  When addressing a question such as, "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore almost never simply said, "Yes" or "No" and defended his answer.  In fact, in an article entitled "Is Existence a Predicate?" Moore begins this way: "I am not at all clear as to the meaning of this question.  Mr. Kneale says that existence is not a predicate.  But what does he mean by the words ‘Existence is not a predicate’?"   I think Moore’s sort of tendency, to get <i>very</i> <i>clear</i> on what philosophical problems amount to, is something all philosophers would do well to emulate.
---
> Consider our example of freedom vs. determinism: how could the statement of the problem be clarified?  According to the statement, "for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it [[necessity|necessary]] that thing, and only that thing happened."  But what exactly is the sense of the word 'necessary' at work here?  Or in another place, the statement reads, "We have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we [[could have chosen otherwise|<i>could</i> have chosen otherwise]] than how we did."  But what is the strength of this phrase 'could have'?  The idea appears to be that it is in some sense <i>[[possibility|possible]]</i> for us to choose otherwise; but in <i>what</i> sense of "possible" is it possible?
23c23
< So to take our example of freedom vs. determinism: how could our statement of the problem be clarified?  Well, one thing that I said was that "for everything that happens, there are some laws which made it necessary that thing, and only that thing happened."  But what exactly is the sense of the word "necessary" at work here?  Or in another place, I said "we have a very distinct impression that what we choose, we choose voluntarily; we <i>could</i> have chosen otherwise than how we did."  But what is the strength of this "could have"?  The idea appears to be that it is in some sense <i>possible</i> for us to choose otherwise; but in <i>what</i> sense of "possible" is it possible?
---
> An enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only <i>benefit</i> from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem mean.
25c25
< These are not easy questions.  It takes practice to know how to ask and how to deal with them.  But right now I think you can probably agree with me that an enquiry into the problem of freedom and determinism, or any philosophical problem, can only <i>benefit</i> from getting very clear about exactly what the problem is, and what the terms used to formulate the problem mean.  So that’s the second step in any philosophical method: formulation of the philosophical problem to be solved.
---
> '''Enunciate a solution'''
27c27
< The third step is to enunciate a theory, or to offer a definition, which constitutes an attempt to solve the problem.  Very often, a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly, in just a sentence or two; all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument.
---
> Another essential part of nearly any philosophical method is to enunciate a [[philosophical theory|theory]], or to offer a [[definition]] or [[philosophical analysis|analysis]], which constitutes an attempt to solve a [[philosophical problem]].  Very often, a philosophical theory by itself can be stated quite briefly, in just a sentence or two; all the surrounding philosophical text is offered by way of hedging, explanation, and argument.
29c29
< So now let’s change the example.  I’ll give you an example of a philosophical theory.  This theory is meant to answer the question, "What actions are right?" or perhaps "What principle may we use to tell whether actions are right?"  John Stuart Mill, another English philosopher, offered this answer: "The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals <i>utility</i>, or the <i>greatest</i> <i>happiness</i> <i>principle</i>, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness."   So according to Mill, the rightness or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they’re right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they’re wrong.
---
> Here is an example of a philosophical theory.  This theory is meant to answer the question, "What actions are right?" or perhaps "What principle may we use to tell whether actions are right?"  [[J. S. Mill|John Stuart Mill]], another English philosopher, offered this answer:
31,33c31
< Regardless of whether you agree with that, you can see at least that it answers the question; in that it does answer the question, "What actions are right?" it is the sort of <i>perhaps</i>-enlightening answer that we’d like from philosophers.
< 
< One might loosely interpret Mill’s "greatest happiness principle" as a definition of "right action."  In other words, you might regard it as saying what we really mean, or perhaps what we ought to mean, when we say that something is right.  It is often useful to regard philosophers as offering definitions in this way.  I should add though that this way of thinking about what philosophers do is very controversial.  In fact, some philosophers, especially recently (meaning, in the twentieth century), have concluded that it is <i>impossible</i> to formulate good definitions of philosophical terms.  So instead of "definitions" they speak of "theories," or "accounts," or "analyses."  So one might say, with less controversy, that Mill has a theory or an account of right action.  But I personally will tend to talk of "definitions" of different words or concepts.
---
> :The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals <i>utility</i>, or the <i>greatest</i> <i>happiness</i> <i>principle</i>, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.
35c33
< Whatever the word, the fact is that philosophers have been and continue to be in the business of making big generalizations about things like right action: saying what <i>all</i> right actions have in common, or saying what characterizes <i>only</i> right actions.  But not all solutions to philosophical problems consist of such definitions or generalizations.  Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of <i>explanation</i>.  Not a <i>causal</i> explanation, but an explanation, for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently.  Call this a <i>philosophical</i> explanation.
---
> So, according to Mill, the [[right action|rightness]] or wrongness of actions depends on their consequences; if they tend to cause happiness they are (morally) right, and if they tend to cause unhappiness they are (morally) wrong.
37c35
< Take the freedom and determinism problem again.  Here what is needed is not, specifically, a definition of "free will" or of "determined action."  No doubt those definitions would really help in offering a solution to the problem.  But the solution itself would consist of <i>one</i> of the three following.  First, an explanation <i>how</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that we might have free will and yet also be determined to choose what we do, in other words an explanation of how freedom and causality are compatible.  Or, second, an explanation of how it is that free choices are an <i>exception</i> to deterministic, scientific laws.  Or, third, an explanation of why it <i>appears</i> that we have free choices, even though we really don’t.  Any of these three sorts of explanations, if you did them right, would be essential parts of a solution to the problem of freedom and determinism.  So there you have a problem, and its solution is not simply a definition of some basic philosophical concept.  As I said, not all philosophical solutions are definitions.
---
> Regardless of whether you agree with that, you can see at least that it answers the question; in that it does answer the question, "What actions are right?" it is the sort of <i>perhaps</i>-enlightening answer that we’d like from philosophers.
39c37
< Here’s another example showing the same thing.  There’s a very difficult problem in philosophy called "the problem of induction."  Induction is a kind of reasoning -- it’s a way we get from reasons to conclusions.  So induction works like this -- to work with an example, we’ll take the sun rising -- we have experience of the sun rising every day.  There’s never been a day in human memory when the sun did <i>not</i> rise.  Therefore, we say, it will rise tomorrow.  Now this is a little argument, a piece of reasoning, and basically we’re arguing like this: if something has been observed over and over to be a certain way, then the next time it is observed, it will be that way again.  This is called <i>inductive</i> <i>reasoning</i>.
---
> One might loosely interpret Mill’s "[[Mills greatest happiness principle|greatest happiness principle]]" as a definition of "right action."  In other words, one might regard it as saying what we really mean, or perhaps what we ought to mean, when we say that something is right.  It is sometimes useful to regard philosophers as offering definitions in this way.  But this is controversial; some philosophers in the twentieth century have concluded that it is [[the impossibility of philosophical analysis|<i>impossible</i> to formulate good definitions (or analyses) of philosophical terms]].  So one might say, with less controversy, that Mill has a ''theory'' or an ''account'' of right action.
41c39
< The problem of induction is basically this: <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>the</i> <i>next</i> <i>time</i> <i>you</i> <i>see</i> <i>the</i> <i>thing</i> <i>it</i> <i>won’t</i> <i>be</i> <i>different</i>?  For example, how do you know the sun <i>won’t</i> rise tomorrow?  The obvious first answer here is: the sun has <i>always</i> risen.  But that just begs the next question: how do you know that tomorrow won’t be the first exception?  Bertrand Russell, yet another English philosopher, tells the story of a chicken who is fed every day for its life.  Every day the farmer steps out to the henhouse and scatters chicken feed to the chicken.  So the chicken would be very reasonable to believe that <i>tomorrow</i> the farmer will come and feed the chicken.  But tomorrow, instead, the farmer goes out to the henhouse and wrings the chicken’s neck for dinner.  As Russell concludes, "More refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the chicken." 
---
> Whatever the word, philosophers have been and continue to be in the business of making big generalizations about things like right action: saying what <i>all</i> right actions have in common, or saying what characterizes <i>only</i> right actions.  But not all solutions to philosophical problems consist of such definitions or generalizations.  Sometimes what is called for is a certain sort of <i>explanation</i>--not a <i>causal</i> explanation, but an explanation for example of how two different views, which seem to be contrary to one another, can be held at the same time, consistently.  Call this a <i>philosophical</i> explanation.
43c41
< So the basic problem of induction is <i>how</i> we can know that the future will resemble the past.  Notice that this requires perhaps a very complicated sort of explanation.  A mere definition won’t do the job.  Once again, even if a definition, say, of "induction," would be very important in the explanation, the definition would not be all we needed to solve the problem.
---
> Take the freedom and determinism problem again.  What is needed is not, specifically, a definition of "free will" or of "determined action."  No doubt those definitions would help in offering a solution to the problem.  But the solution itself would consist of <i>one</i> of the three following.  First, an explanation <i>how</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> that we might have free will and yet also be determined to choose what we do, in other words an explanation of how freedom and causality are compatible.  Or, second, an explanation of how it is that free choices are an <i>exception</i> to deterministic laws.  Or, third, an explanation of why it <i>appears</i> that we have free choices, even though we really do not.  Any of these three sorts of explanations would be essential parts of a solution to the problem of freedom and determinism.
45c43
< Anyway, that’s the third step in any method of philosophizing: a solution to the problem must be offered; and depending on the problem, the solution can be either a definition or a philosophical explanation.
---
> Another example illustrates the same point.  There is a very difficult problem in philosophy called "[[the problem of induction]]."  [[Induction]] is a kind of [[reasoning]]: it is a way we get from reasons to conclusions.  To work with an example, take the rising of the sun.  We have experience of the sun rising every day.  There has never been a day in human memory when the sun did <i>not</i> rise.  Therefore, we say, it will rise tomorrow.  This is a simple piece of reasoning, and basically we are arguing as follows: if something has been observed over and over to be a certain way, then the next time it is observed, it will be that way again.  This is called <i>inductive</i> <i>reasoning</i>.
47c45
< We’re not done yet.  Alas, we’re <i>far</i> from being done.  Philosophy consists of much more than simply having doubts, formulating problems, and coming up with solutions.  Remember, after all, what gives rise to the philosophical impulse; remember what motivates us to philosophize.  We have doubts about what our beliefs mean, and whether they’re really rational.  Those same doubts are very likely going to visit us again if we simply stop with the first, or easiest, solution that offers itself to us.  For example, suppose you really liked Mill’s greatest happiness principle.  And you say to yourself, "That’s just dandy -- ‘actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness.’  I hadn’t thought about it, but that’s what right actions <i>are</i>.  Boy I feel a lot better now.  Now I know what right action is!"
---
> The problem of induction is basically this: <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>we</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>the</i> <i>next</i> <i>time</i> <i>we</i> <i>see</i> <i>the</i> <i>thing</i> <i>it</i> <i>will not</i> <i>be</i> <i>different</i>?  How do we know the sun <i>will not</i> rise tomorrow?  The obvious first answer here is: the sun has <i>always</i> risen.  But that just begs the next question: how do you know that tomorrow will not be the first exception?  [[Bertrand Russell]], yet another English philosopher, tells the story of a chicken who is fed every day for its life.  Every day the farmer steps out to the henhouse and scatters chicken feed to the chicken.  So the chicken would be very reasonable to believe that <i>tomorrow</i> the farmer will come and feed the chicken.  But tomorrow, instead, the farmer goes out to the henhouse and wrings the chicken’s neck for dinner.  As Russell concludes, "More refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the chicken."
49c47
< If that’s how you think, you’re really making a mistake, and you’re not doing philosophy.  The reason is that you have to <i>justify</i> your answer -- you have to say <i>why</i> you think this is what right action is.  And your justification, or reasons, had better be good.  Because if they aren’t, you aren’t any better off than when you started having philosophical doubts in the first place.  Those doubts may, and probably should, be visited upon you again!
---
> The problem of induction is determining <i>how</i> we can know that the future will resemble the past.  Notice that this requires perhaps a very complicated sort of explanation.  A mere definition, it seems, will not do the job.  Even if a definition of 'induction' would be very important in the explanation (as on the view of [[P. F. Strawson]]), the definition would not be all we needed to solve the problem.
51c49
< [Halfway done]
---
> '''Justify the solution'''
53c51
< So here then is the <i>fourth</i> step of any philosophical method worth its salt: arguments must be offered for the definitions or explanations proposed.  What is an argument?  Here’s a definition:
---
> Philosophical justifications, or [[philosophical argument|argument]]s, are another important part of philosophical method.  It is rare to find a philosopher, particularly in the Western philosophical tradition, who lacks many arguments.  An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
55c53
< An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
---
> '''[Note to self: continue wikification from this point!]'''
57c55
< So think of arguments as bundles of reasons -- often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons -- followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
---
> One might think of arguments as bundles of reasons--often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons--followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
117c115
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
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Philosophy|984536992
17c17
< '''MetaPhysics:''' FreeWillAndDeterminism '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''[[Epistemology]]:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''MetaPhysics:''' [[free will and determinism]] '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''[[Epistemology]]:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
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Larrys_Text|984537054
5c5
< ::[[The motivation to philosophize]] -- PhilosophicalMethod -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
---
> ::[[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
13c13
< ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- FreeWillAndDeterminism
---
> ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
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PhilosophyOfMind|984537124
1,2d0
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikified, but please contribute more, improve, etc.  This isn't a sophisticated discussion of the philosophy of mind, it's just a simple introduction.  It can certainly be improved.> 
< 
23a22,23
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
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Philosophical_method/Introduction|984537421
1c1
< A common view among philosophers is that [[philosophy]] is distinguished by the ''methods'' that philosophers follow in tackling philosophical questions.  A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.  So a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.
---
> A <i>method</i> of doing some activity is a systematic or patterned way of doing that activity.  So a method of doing philosophy, or a <i>philosophical</i> <i>method</i>, is a systematic or patterned way of answering philosophical questions.
3c3,5
< Of course, there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods.
---
> A common view among philosophers is that [[philosophy]] is distinguished by the ''methods'' that philosophers follow in tackling philosophical questions.
> 
> Of course, there is not just <i>one</i> method that philosophers use to answer philosophical questions.  But it is possible to draw some valid generalizations about philosophical methods--as follows.
------
StanislawLem|984539032
1c1
< Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. StanislawLem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war PolanD was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the SovietUnion for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies StanislawLem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
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StanislawLem|984539050
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, PolanD in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, [[Poland]] in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
Literature|984539091
13c13
< * StanislawLem
---
> * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
------
Stanislaw_Lem|984539107
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
> 
> StanislawLem was born in Lvov, [[Poland]] in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
Stanislaw_Lem|984539119
1c1
< Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical Science Fiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
3c3
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, [[Poland]] in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
---
> Stanislaw Lem was born in Lvov, [[Poland]] in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
------
Stanislaw_Lem|984539154
1c1
< Polish satirical and philosophical Science Fiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
---
> Polish satirical and philosophical [[Science Fiction]] writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single Science Fiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
------
StanislawLem|984539188
1,4c1
< Polish satirical and philosophical ScienceFiction writer, whose novel [[Solaris]] (1961) was filmed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] in 1971. Stanislaw Lem's books have been translated into some 30 languages and sold over 10 million copies. He is probably the best single ScienceFiction author of the late 20th century not to write in English.
< 
< StanislawLem was born in Lvov, [[Poland]] in 1921 (now [[Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]) as the son of a physician. He studied medicine at Lwów University and at Jagiellonian University in [[Cracow]], but his studies were interrupted by [[World War II]]. During the war and [[Nazi]] occupation Lem worked as a car mechanic and welder, and was a member of the resistance fighting against the Germans. Toward the end of the war [[Poland]] was occupied by the [[Red Army]] and the country was closely controlled by the [[Soviet Union]] for the next 50 years. In 1946 Lem moved to Cracow. After finishing his studies Stanislaw Lem received his MD. He worked a research assistant in a scientific institution and started to write stories on his spare time.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Stanislaw Lem]]
------
SandBox|984540346
114c114,116
< [[My Great pages|My Grate Page's]]
---
> [[My Great pages|My Grate Page's]]----
> <font size=+3><b>&alpha; , &beta; , &gamma; , &delta; , &epsilon; , &zeta; , &eta; , &theta; , &iota; , &kappa; , &lambda; , &mu; , &nu; , &xi; , &omicron; , &pi; , &rho; , 
> &sigma; , &tau; , &upsilon; , &phi; , &chi; , &psi; , &omega; </b></font>
------
SandBox|984540402
116a117
> Eureka..----
------
Josh_Grosse|984540605
46c46,48
< Feel free to email me.
---
> Feel free to email me.----
> 
> Come to the [[Sandbox]]. I put the Greek alphabet there. RoseParks
------
Common_descent|984544326
1c1
< The idea that all life shares a common ancestor.
---
> The biological theory that all life shares a common ancestor.
3c3,5
< /Talk
---
> The theory of common descent was proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1859 in his book [[The Origin of Species]].  More than a century later, discoveries in genetics confirmed this theory.  It is now taken for granted by biologists.
> 
> /Talk
------
Greek_alphabet|984546233
3,32c3,32
< The Greek alphabet was derived from the [[north semitic alphabet]], brought to [[Greece]] via [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] traders.  The derivations of the Greek letters are the following:
<  
<  '''North semitic'''   '''Greek'''           '''Numerical value'''
<  Aleph   (')     Alpha   (a)     1
<  Beth    (b)     Beta            2
<  Gimel   (g)     Gamma           3
<  Daleth  (d)     Delta           4
<  He      (h)     Epsilon (e)     5
<  Waw     (w)     Waw             6
<  Zain    (z)     Zeta            7
<  Heth    (h*)    Eta     (ê)     8
<  Thet    (t*)    Theta   (t+h)   9
<  Yodh    (y)     Iota    (i)     10
<  Kaph    (k)     Kappa           20
<  Lamed   (l)     Lambda          30
<  Mem     (m)     Mu              40
<  Nun     (n)     Nu              50
<  Samekh  (s)     Xi      (k+s)   60
<  Ain     ()      Omicron (o)     70
<  Pe      (p)     Pi              80
<  Sade    (s*)    San     (s)     900
<  Qoph    (q)     Qoppa           90
<  Resh    (r)     Rho             100
<  Shin    (sh)    Sigma   (s)     200
<  Tav     (t)     Tau             300
<                  Upsilon (y)     400
<                  Phi     (p+h)   500
<                  Chi     (k+h)   600
<                  Psi     (p+s)   700
<                  Omega   (ô)     800
---
> The Greek alphabet was derived from the [[north semitic alphabet]], brought to [[Greece]] via [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] traders.  The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows:
> 
>  '''Letter'''   '''Name'''    '''Sound'''   '''Value'''   '''Semitic letter'''
>   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (')
>   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth
>   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel
>   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h)
>   F       Waw       w       6        Waw
>   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain
>   &Eta; &eta;     Eta       ê       8        Heth (h*)
>   &Theta; &theta;     Theta    t+h      9        Thet (t*)
>   &Iota; &iota;     Iota      i       10       Yodh (y)
>   &Kappa; &kappa;     Kappa     k       20       Kaph
>   &Lambda; &lambda;     Lambda    l       30       Lamed
>   &Mu; &mu;     Mu        m       40       Mem
>   &Nu; &nu;     Nu        n       50       Nun
>   &Xi; &xi;     Xi       k+s      60       Samekh (s)
>   &Omicron; &omicron;     Omicron   o       70       Ain ()
>   &Pi; &pi;     Pi        p       80       Pe
>   M       San       s       90       Sade (s*)
>   Q       Qoppa     q       900      Qoph
>   &Rho; &rho;     Rho       r       100      Resh
>   &Sigma; &sigma;     Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
>   &Tau; &tau;     Tau       t       300      Tav
>   &Upsilon; &upsilon;     Upsilon   y       400
>   &Phi; &phi;     Phi      p+h      500
>   &Chi; &chi;     Chi      k+h      600
>   &Psi; &psi;     Psi      p+s      700
>   &Omega; &omega;     Omega     ô       800
------
Greek_alphabet|984546263
23,24c23,24
<   M       San       s       90       Sade (s*)
<   Q       Qoppa     q       900      Qoph
---
>   M       San       s       900      Sade (s*)
>   Q       Qoppa     q       90       Qoph
------
SandBox|984546426
117c117,123
< Eureka..----
---
> Eureka..
> 
> That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words?
> 
> ----
> 
> 
------
SandBox|984546804
119,120c119
< That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words?
< 
---
> That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words? -- hmm, on second glance, it's a bit much to type for words anyways.  It would be neat if we could have an automatic detransliterator, but I guess having stuff in Greek isn't that important - just having the letters is good.
122,124d120
< 
< 
< 
------
Games/Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984547165
1c1
< Die Siedler von Catan is a [[German-style board game]], and perhaps one of the first to reach any degree of popularity outside of the European market.  It is marketed as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]" in the [[United States]] by [[Mayfair Games]].  [[Kosmos]] originally published the game -- invented by [[Klaus Teuber]] -- in [[Germany]] in 1995.  It features a randomizable board, an emphasis on trading, and a number of (non-collectible) expansions.
---
> This page should actually be at [[Die Siedler von Catan]].
3c3,5
< Indeed, it has been said that the original Siedler actually consisted of the game we know as Siedler today and the first expansion set, [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]].  Whatever the case, both the original game and the expansion are available (at a bare minimum) in both [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] -- where [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan Seefahrer Expansion|Seefahrer]] is marketed as "The Seafarers of Catan".
---
> ----
> 
> <I>Apologies, folks -- I thought that slashes could be nested deeper, in more of a hierarchy.  I see the wisdom of the standard namespacing.  As such, this needs to be a redirect. -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
------
Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984547256
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Die Siedler von Catan is a [[German-style board game]], and perhaps one of the first to reach any degree of popularity outside of the European market.  It is marketed as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]" in the [[United States]] by [[Mayfair Games]].  [[Kosmos]] originally published the game -- invented by [[Klaus Teuber]] -- in [[Germany]] in 1995.  It features a randomizable board, an emphasis on trading, and a number of (non-collectible) expansions.
> 
> Indeed, it has been said that the original Siedler actually consisted of the game we know as Siedler today and the first expansion set, [[Die Siedler von Catan/Seefahrer|Seefahrer]].  Whatever the case, both the original game and the expansion are available (at a bare minimum) in both [[Europe]] and the [[United States]] -- where [[Die Siedler von Catan/Seefahrer|Seefahrer]] is marketed as "[[The Seafarers of Catan]]".
------
The_Settlers_of_Catan|984547334
5c5
< [[Games/Die Siedler von Catan]].
---
> [[Die Siedler von Catan]].
------
Games/Board|984547403
23c23
< * [[/Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
---
> * [[Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
------
Games/Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984547446
5c5
< <I>Apologies, folks -- I thought that slashes could be nested deeper, in more of a hierarchy.  I see the wisdom of the standard namespacing.  As such, this needs to be a redirect. -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
---
> Apologies, folks -- I thought that slashes could be nested deeper, in more of a hierarchy.  I see the wisdom of the standard namespacing.  As such, this needs to be a redirect. -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
------
Games/Die_Siedler_von_Catan|984547608
1,5c1
< This page should actually be at [[Die Siedler von Catan]].
< 
< ----
< 
< Apologies, folks -- I thought that slashes could be nested deeper, in more of a hierarchy.  I see the wisdom of the standard namespacing.  As such, this needs to be a redirect. -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Die Siedler von Catan]]
------
SandBox|984547797
119a120,121
> 
> You know, once I have these, I can just copy and paste them in: &#920;.  I doubt that shows up for everyone, though; it's probably ANSI.
------
Games/Board|984547872
27a28,30
> ----
> 
> We definitely need to come up with a better classification here, at some point.  It's a good start, but games like [[Abalone]] and [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]] really defy any coarse classification.  Perhaps nested classification pages, with games existing on multiple pages?  I'm planning on adding entries for a few more games that we play regularly, most of which won't quite fit anywhere in here.  Don't take this as anything other than a random thought. :) -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
------
SandBox|984548020
60a61
> The last two characters are using the non-standard system and won't show up properly, but everthing that uses only a three digit code is using [[ASCII]] and I think should show up properly.  At least, I've tried the ones listed on the [[Wiki ASCII code page]] on several different computers, including an XWindows terminal, and they've always seemed to work.  They have the advantage of being much less cumbersome to type, but the disadvantage of being much less comprehensive.
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|984548423
19a20,25
> 
> ----
> No! No!
> 
> ASCII is a 7-bit code.  Anything above 127 is <b>not</b> ASCII and will display in some system-dependent character set.  The character set above is ISO-8859-1, which will work on most Unix boxes and Windows boxes.  ISO also defines some other characters not listed above that Windows does differently.  Macintosh machines do not use ISO-8859-1 at all, and many foreign machines use different sets.  Wiki passes character entities like <b>&amp;eacute;</b> (<b>&eacute;</b>) through unmolested, and those work in any browser that complies with HTML 4+, including Macintoshes and foreign machines.  These should be used for foreign characters (though not titles as Jimbo points out).  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Phil_Bordelon|984548694
1a2,3
> 
> Not to mention, player of too damned many games.
------
Josh_Grosse|984548914
48a49,53
> 
> ----
> I appreciate the redirect for [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]].  Is that something that's documented and I just don't know about, or what?  I'm pretty new to this Wiki thing.
> 
> Nonetheless, thanks.  -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
------
Wikipedia|984549568
1c1
< [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?  At this rate, quite far!
---
> [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software (UseModWiki) by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?  At this rate, quite far!
9c9
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
------
Josh_Grosse|984549743
51c51
< I appreciate the redirect for [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]].  Is that something that's documented and I just don't know about, or what?  I'm pretty new to this Wiki thing.
---
> I appreciate the redirect for [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]].  Is that something that's documented and I just don't know about, or what?  I'm pretty new to this Wiki thing.  Nonetheless, thanks.  -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
53c53
< Nonetheless, thanks.  -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
---
> It's mentioned near the bottom of [[How does one edit a page]]...I'm not sure if that documents ''everything'', but if not, the rest'll be on the UseModWiki home page.  Wikis are really cool, but they'll sap away your life, so be careful. :)
------
SandBox|984550578
10c10
<                            * ***** *
---
>                            * ***** *        &Theta; = =
12,16c12,16
<                            * �   � *
<                            *       *
<                            *   �   *
<                            *       *
<                            *********
---
>                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
>                            *       *                     /
>                            *   �   *                    /
>                            *       *                   ******
>                            *********                   O    O
120c120
< That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words? -- hmm, on second glance, it's a bit much to type for words anyways.  It would be neat if we could have an automatic detransliterator, but I guess having stuff in Greek isn't that important - just having the letters is good.
---
> That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words? It's a bit much to type for words...it would be neat if we could have an automatic detransliterator, but I guess having stuff in Greek isn't that important - just having the letters is good.
122c122,123
< You know, once I have these, I can just copy and paste them in: &#920;.  I doubt that shows up for everyone, though; it's probably ANSI.
---
> You know, once I have these, I can just copy and paste them in: &#920; ...and it looks like it automatically converts it to one of the HTML special symbols.  Again, very cool.  But not all the symbols that are listed on the page Lee Daniel's gives work on my computer: &thetasym; &upsih; &piv;
> <br>And on the other hand, &sigmaf;, which it says not to use, works just fine.  Hmmm.
------
Games/RolePlaying|984552005
15a16
> * [[Tomb Raiders]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984552086
16c16
< * [[Tomb Raiders]]
---
> * [[Tomb Raiders]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984552283
2,4c2,4
< * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masqerade]]
< * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocaylpse]]
< * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage:The Ascension]]
---
> * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
> * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]]
> * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]]
10c10
< * [[Call of Cthullhu]]
---
> * [[Call of Cthulhu]]
16c16
< * [[Tomb Raiders]]
---
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984552364
16c16
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
---
> * [Tomb Raider]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984552399
16c16
< * [Tomb Raider]
---
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
------
Punch_and_Judy|984567044
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A popular British glove-puppet show for children, featuring Mr. Punch and his wife Judy.
> 
> Mr. Punch wears a jester's motley, is hunchbacked and his hooked nose almost meets his curved jutting chin. He carrries a stick, as large as himself, which he freely uses upon all the other characters in the show. He speaks in a bizarre rasping voice, produced by a contrivance known as a <i>swozzle</i> which the Punch & Judy man holds in his mouth. 
> 
> A transcript of a typical Punch and Judy show in London of the 1840s can be found in [[Henry Mayhew]]'s <i>London Labour and the London Poor</i>.
> 
> Featuring, as it does, a deformed, child-murdering, wife-beating psychopath, who performs appalling acts of violence and cruelty upon all those around him and escapes scot-free, it is greatly enjoyed by small children. 
> 
------
SandBox|984567679
12c12
<                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
14c14
<                            *   �   *                    /
---
>                            *   ?   *                    /
39c39
< � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!
---
> ? I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
123a124,125
> 
> On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &#Theta;, don't.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
------
SandBox|984567705
125c125
< On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &#Theta;, don't.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
---
> On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &Theta;, don't.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
------
SandBox|984567735
125c125
< On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &Theta;, don't.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
---
> On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &Theta;, don't get reinterpreted at all.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
------
New_topics|984568379
1c1,2
< Here's a non-exhaustive list of new topics, or at least, they were new when whoever it was typed them in:
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, 
> as of 2 am 14th March, Wiki server time)
3c4,39
< [[Punctuated Equilibrium|punctuated equilibrium]] -- [[Linear Algebra|linear algebra]] -- [[eigenvectors]] -- [[Quebec]] -- [[watermark]] -- [[Tamil]] -- [[Jupiter]] -- [[BASIC]] -- [[Gradualism]] -- [[classic books]] -- [[seal]] -- [[publicize Wikipedia]] -- AberdeenSouthDakota -- [[GPL]] -- [[Screwball Comedy Film|screwball comedy film]] -- [[IMR]] -- [[Genre Film Theory|genre film theory]] -- [[pulp magazines]] -- [[Dracula]] -- [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] -- [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] -- [[Classical Mechanics|classical mechanics]]
---
> [[Die Siedler von Catan]] -- 
> [[Stanislaw Lem]] -- 
> [[Free will and determinism]] -- 
> [[Philosophical method]] -- 
> [[The Settlers of Catan]] -- 
> [[Zimbabwe/Transnational Issues]] -- 
> [[Sexual selection]] -- 
> [[Natural selection]] -- 
> [[Common descent]] -- 
> [[Phil Bordelon]] -- 
> [[Arraignment]] -- 
> [[Indictment]] -- 
> [[Zimbabwe/Introduction]] -- 
> [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- 
> [[Penelope Cruz]] -- 
> [[MonopolyGame]] -- 
> [[Hee Haw]] -- 
> [[Games/Tile based]] -- 
> [[Greek alphabet]] -- 
> [[The Silmarillion]] -- 
> [[British Court of Appeals]] -- 
> [[Court of Appeals]] -- 
> [[Equivalence class]] -- 
> [[Bar]] -- 
> [[Disbarment]] -- 
> [[Theorem-proving]] -- 
> [[Reversible error]] -- 
> [[With prejudice]] -- 
> [[Ada Lovelace]] -- 
> [[Reductio ad absurdum]] -- 
> [[Frivolous lawsuit]] -- 
> [[Cause of action]] -- 
> [[Trial de novo]] -- 
> [[Statutory law]] -- 
> [[Black letter law]] -- 
> [[Statute]] -- 
5,22d40
< The above hand-generated list covers new topics from about 3.5 days.  There are many even newer topics...
< ----
< It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
< * Newly created within the past week, and...
< * Contains at least 1k worth of text (a dozen lines or so, not just a "stub" entry), and...
< * Has fewer than 12 total edits (else it's already popular, and not really "new")
< -- Bryce
< ----
< Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
< ----
< You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
< ----
< What you really want is a "Recent Changes" page reformatted in a slightly different way.  All the information you specified is already present in Recent Changes, just perhaps not formatted in the way you like.  The point about fewer than 12 total edits may be a bit misguided though - formatting on the Wiki is not as intuitive as we might like to think, sometimes it takes 4-5 "edits" just to get it right for the first time.  You may want to say something like "4 or more edits by different people" or something like that.
< ----
< The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about the new topics being a reformatting of the "recent changes" page.  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page; i.e., we don't just want a recent changes page; we want a new topics page ''too''!  :-)
< 
< ----
< Here's an autogenerated list of new topics from a script I ran to spider the recent changes page. Now I've run it, I can see some changes that need to be made to improve it eg. filter out the very small pages, sort alphabetically, but for now, this is an (incomplete) selection of new topics from the 24 hours up to  10.45 March 12th (Wikipedia server time) -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
42a61,81
> 
> ... this is from a script spidering Recent Changes to find those with no diff history i.e. new.  Some are pages newly converted to a free link, so not necessarily brand new: conversely, new files that were reedited before the script ran don't appear. 
> 
> I have plans, when I have more spare time, for a script that does some smarter analysis of the revision histories, ie. looks for date of first revision, screens by size, as in the comments below, but this should do for now -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> 
> ----
> It'd sure be nice if this page could be autogenerated...  It list topics that fit the following criteria:
> * Newly created within the past week, and...
> * Contains at least 1k worth of text (a dozen lines or so, not just a "stub" entry), and...
> * Has fewer than 12 total edits (else it's already popular, and not really "new")
> -- Bryce
> ----
> Great idea, although I'd favor only the first two criteria myself.
> ----
> You can find new wiki pages by going to "Recent Changes," which is at the top and bottom of every wiki page. 
> ----
> What you really want is a "Recent Changes" page reformatted in a slightly different way.  All the information you specified is already present in Recent Changes, just perhaps not formatted in the way you like.  The point about fewer than 12 total edits may be a bit misguided though - formatting on the Wiki is not as intuitive as we might like to think, sometimes it takes 4-5 "edits" just to get it right for the first time.  You may want to say something like "4 or more edits by different people" or something like that.
> ----
> The latter paragraph sounds completely right, particularly the part about the new topics being a reformatting of the "recent changes" page.  But the recent changes page doesn't really serve the purpose for which we want the new topics page; i.e., we don't just want a recent changes page; we want a new topics page ''too''!  :-)
> 
> ----
------
John_Tenniel|984569459
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English cartoonist
> 
> He drew many topical cartoons and caricatures for [[Punch magazine ]] in the late 19th century, but is best remembered today for his illustrations for [[Lewis Carroll]]'s  <i>[[Alice in Wonderland]]</i> and <i>[[Through the Looking Glass]]</i>
------
SandBox|984573265
12c12
<                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
39c39
< ? I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
---
> � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
118a119,120
> For [[Josh Grosse]]...
> <font size=+3><b>&sigmaf;</b></font>
------
Greek_alphabet|984573514
42c42,44
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
> For Josh Grosse:
> &sigmaf;
------
Josh_Grosse|984573797
53c53,55
< It's mentioned near the bottom of [[How does one edit a page]]...I'm not sure if that documents ''everything'', but if not, the rest'll be on the UseModWiki home page.  Wikis are really cool, but they'll sap away your life, so be careful. :)
---
> It's mentioned near the bottom of [[How does one edit a page]]...I'm not sure if that documents ''everything'', but if not, the rest'll be on the UseModWiki home page.  Wikis are really cool, but they'll sap away your life, so be careful. :)----
> Josh- in SandBox there is a reference to the symbols for foreign characters, see:
> [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html]Wow, that is a link.
------
SandBox|984574619
14c14
<                            *   ?   *                    /
---
>                            *   �   *                    /
129a130
> <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
------
Games/TableTop|984576720
20,21c20
< * [[Settlers of Catan]]
< 
---
> * [[The Settlers of Catan]]
------
Electronic_Music|984577124
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Electronic Music includes many different styles, like
> 
> :[[/Techno]]
> :[[/House]]
> :[[/Drum and Bass]]
> :[[/Trip Hop]] aka [[/Bristol Sound]]
> :[[/Jungle]]
> :[[/Big Beat]]
> :[[/2Step]]
> :[[/Speed Garage]]
> :[[/UK Garage]]
> :[[/Ambient]]
> :[[/Trance]]
> :[[/Goa]]
> :[[/Tech Step]]
------
Rap_music|984577434
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> subcategories:
> :[[/Old School]]
> :[[/New School]]
> :[[/Second Wave]]
> :[[/Gangsta Rap]]
> :[[/South Side]]
> :[[/Hip Hop]]
> 
> some artists:
> :[[Run DMC]]
> :[[Ice Cube]]
> :[[Ice T]]
> :[[Public Enemy]]
> :[[NWA]]
> :[[Cypress Hill]]
> :[[House of Pain]]
> :[[Wu-Tang Clan]]
> :[[Eminem]]
------
Theater|984578243
1c1
< The earliest days of theater has not been definitively identified.  Some theories hold that theatrical and dramatic representations came from the revelry of the ancient Greek celebration of Bacchus.  In any case, little doubt exists about the fact that the modern theater was born in ancient Greece.  Important figures in ancient Greek theater include:
---
> The earliest days of theater has not been definitively identified.  Some theories hold that theatrical and dramatic representations came from the revelry of the ancient Greek celebration of Bacchus, which was a festival in honor of the god Dionysos.  In any case, little doubt exists about the fact that the modern theater was born in ancient Greece.  Important figures in ancient Greek theater include:
8a9,13
> 
> Although the abovementioned playwrights made some of the most renowned dramas, their staging had little or nothing to do with twentieth century theater. First off, their dramas were always part of a series of three performances, where just the middle part was the drama, while the events always ended with dance. The dramas hardly never had more than three actors (all male), which played the different roles using masks. There was a choir on the stage all the time which did songs and spoken word passages. As far as we know, each drama was only played a single time, at the traditional drama contest.
> 
> The importance of acient Greek theater came much in retrospect, because influential playwrights like Johann Wolfgang von [[Goethe]] said their conception of theater was meant to be a recreation of classical theater (which is was not). Another attempt to recreate classical theater argued that Greek actors did speak, but sung instead and thus created the [[Opera]].
> 
17d21
< 
------
Theater|984578321
10c10
< Although the abovementioned playwrights made some of the most renowned dramas, their staging had little or nothing to do with twentieth century theater. First off, their dramas were always part of a series of three performances, where just the middle part was the drama, while the events always ended with dance. The dramas hardly never had more than three actors (all male), which played the different roles using masks. There was a choir on the stage all the time which did songs and spoken word passages. As far as we know, each drama was only played a single time, at the traditional drama contest.
---
> Although the abovementioned playwrights made some of the most renowned dramas, their staging had little or nothing to do with twentieth century theater. First off, their dramas were always part of a series of three performances, where just the middle part was the drama, while the events always ended with dance. The dramas hardly ever had more than three actors (all male), which played the different roles using masks. There was a choir on the stage all the time which did songs and spoken word passages. As far as we know, each drama was only played a single time, at the traditional drama contest.
12c12
< The importance of acient Greek theater came much in retrospect, because influential playwrights like Johann Wolfgang von [[Goethe]] said their conception of theater was meant to be a recreation of classical theater (which is was not). Another attempt to recreate classical theater argued that Greek actors did speak, but sung instead and thus created the [[Opera]].
---
> The importance of acient Greek theater came much in retrospect, because influential playwrights like Johann Wolfgang von [[Goethe]] said their conception of theater was meant to be a recreation of classical theater (which is was not). Another attempt to recreate classical theater argued that Greek actors didn'T speak, but sung instead and thus created the [[Opera]].
21c21
< : [[David Mamet]]
---
> : [[David Mamet]]
------
Netherlands|984578347
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A quaint little country nudged in the northwest corner of Europe. 
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984578601
1a2,5
> OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! >:P<BR>
> Won't ever do it again;<BR>
> But might the RPG-story be placed back?
> - the author of that is a friend of mine
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984578793
1,4c1,6
< Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)
< OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! >:P<BR>
< Won't ever do it again;<BR>
< But might the RPG-story be placed back?
---
> Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)<BR>
> OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! <FONT SIZE=+3>=:P</FONT><BR>
> I won't ever do it again;<BR>
> I'm nice too, don't be sad!
> 
> <P>Might the RPG-story be placed back?
------
Netherlands|984579249
1a2,14
> ----
> Source of U.S.-W.A.S.P.-culture & puritanism<BR>
> See themselves as the conscience of the world<BR>
> Contrary to Anglo-Saxon cultures there is true justice & democracy in the Netherlands<BR>
> (independent judicial system, judges are not voted <BR>
> - not populists who have to score - <BR>
> O.J. Simpson would have been sent to jail in Holland)
> ----
> Better known as Holland
> ----
> Country of Erasmus, Spinoza & Descartes 
> <BR>(All his mayor work was done in Holland)
> ----
------
Requested_articles|984579853
6a7,8
> <b>The Netherlands:</b>[[Culture of the Netherlands]] -- [[history of the Netherlands]] -- [[The Dutch monarchy]] -- [[Dutch cities]] 
> 
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984581013
5a6,7
> <i>You are forgiven, and now no one is sad.  I do thank you for your enthusiasm, but we really need to keep this thing clean.</i> --JimboWales
> 
7a10,11
> 
> <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984581216
7c7,12
<  
---
> 
> ----
> 
> Hi, Lee!  I just visited your homepage, and I got an immediate sense of Deja Vu.  I've been there, recently, and so I now wonder how and why.  I don't think it was in connection with Wikipedia, but maybe I'm mistaken!
> 
> Are you interested in TheSingularity?
------
Texas|984582297
9c9
< It's economy (circa 2000) is largely based on information technology, with Dallas/Fort Worth being the largest [[IT]]
---
> It's economy (circa 2000) is largely based on information technology, with Dallas - Fort Worth being the largest [[IT]]
------
Requested_articles|984592198
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]]-- [[Matrices]] -- [[Determinants]] --
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
26c26
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984592875
12a13
> ----
13a15
> Yep, I'm an active [http://www.extropy.org/ Extropian], so you may have found me through various Extropian/transhumanist/sigularity sites.  You may also have run across me in connection with [http://freenet.sourceforge.net/ Freenet], or perhaps with the [http://www.libpng.org/pub/png/ PNG] graphics file format of which I am a co-inventor.  I'm sure I'm linked in other places as well--I've been on the web as long as there's been a web to be on.
------
Josh_Grosse|984593313
53c53,56
< It's mentioned near the bottom of [[How does one edit a page]]...I'm not sure if that documents ''everything'', but if not, the rest'll be on the UseModWiki home page.  Wikis are really cool, but they'll sap away your life, so be careful. :)----
---
> It's mentioned near the bottom of [[How does one edit a page]]...I'm not sure if that documents ''everything'', but if not, the rest'll be on the UseModWiki home page.  Wikis are really cool, but they'll sap away your life, so be careful. :)
> 
> Thanks for the response.  Now I feel less of a fool.  I can definitely see how this can be terribly, terribly addictive, though. [[Phil Bordelon|pb]]
> ----
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984593379
124a125,126
> ----
> '''Q. How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?'''
126c128
< This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
---
> This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
------
SandBox|984593782
60a61,62
> --
> 
61a64,68
> 
> --
> 
> Nothing over 127 is ASCII--ASCII is only a 7-bit code.  The "safe" characters above are from ISO-8859-1, which is used by most X servers and (with some minor modifications) MS Windows.  The Macintosh is where you'll probably run into problems, and computers sold in foreign markets.  8-bit characters are always ambiguous; entity references are not (though they may be unsupported by early browsers).  I think it's most important that the information be clear and unambiguos, so I think it's better to use the entity references. 
> 
127a135,139
> 
> --
> 
> Try using Mozilla; it does this sort of thing right.  It supports all the HTML4 entity references, and even knows how to fail gracefully when using a character set that doesn't have the character specified.  For example, the em dash and "curly" quotes are not present is ISO-8859-1, and thus not present in most X character sets.  So if you use the <b>&amp;mdash;</b> entity, it will show up as a proper em dash&mdash;like this&mdash;on Windows and Macintosh machines (whose character sets do have it), and it will be translated into two hyphens--like this--on a Linux machine. 
> 
------
Rap_music|984593797
0a1,3
> A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments.
> 
> The [[Sugarhill Gang]] created the first rap song in 1979?
11c14,16
< :[[Run DMC]]
---
> :[[Cypress Hill]]
> :[[Eminem]]
> :[[House of Pain]]
14d18
< :[[Public Enemy]]
16,17c20,22
< :[[Cypress Hill]]
< :[[House of Pain]]
---
> :[[Public Enemy]]
> :[[Run DMC]]
> :[[Sugarhill Gang]]
19d23
< :[[Eminem]]
------
NWA|984593883
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Rap music]] group that originated [[Gangsta rap]] with the groundbreaking [[Straight Outta Compton]] album.
> 
------
Rap_music|984594414
1c1
< A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments.
---
> A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
3c3
< The [[Sugarhill Gang]] created the first rap song in 1979?
---
> The [[Sugarhill Gang]] created "Rappers Delight", usually considered the first rap record in 1979.
9c9
< :[[/Gangsta Rap]]
---
> :[[/Gangsta rap]]
11c11
< :[[/Hip Hop]]
---
> :[[/Hip hop]]
------
Rap_music|984594582
1c1
< A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
---
> A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
23a24
> 
------
Rap_music|984595415
1c1
< A form of [[popular music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
---
> A form of [[Popular Music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
------
NWA|984595688
2a3,9
> 
> Members of the band included:
> 
> :[[Dr. Dre]] (Andre Young)
> :[[Easy E]]   (Eric Wright)
> :[[Ice Cube]]  (O'Shea Jackson)
> :[[MC Ren]]   (Lorenzo Patterson)
------
NWA|984596151
9a10,11
> 
> After the band split Dre had a highly successful career as both a rapper and record producer, for the likes of [[Snoop Doggy Dogg] and [[Eminem]].  Ice Cube was successful as both a rapper and film actor.  Easy E died in 1995 from an AIDS related illness.
------
NWA|984596166
11c11
< After the band split Dre had a highly successful career as both a rapper and record producer, for the likes of [[Snoop Doggy Dogg] and [[Eminem]].  Ice Cube was successful as both a rapper and film actor.  Easy E died in 1995 from an AIDS related illness.
---
> After the band split Dre had a highly successful career as both a rapper and record producer, for the likes of [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] and [[Eminem]].  Ice Cube was successful as both a rapper and film actor.  Easy E died in 1995 from an AIDS related illness.
------
Rap_music|984597192
13a14
> :[[Beastie Boys]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|984598414
112c112
< There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<html><h1>Header</h1></html>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
---
> There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<code><html><h1>Header</h1></html></code>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
114c114,116
< The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, b, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The next release will add a code tag (like tt, but also suppresses wiki formatting) and a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).  I might also add em and strong tags to the next release--there are only a few people who seem to like them, but they ''really'' like them.
---
> The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, em, b, strong, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The "code" tag acts like a combination of the tt and nowiki tags.  The latest release (0.91) adds a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).
> 
> The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams  <i>(Later, the Wikipedia maintainers have added support for several extra tags like h1, font, sub, sup, font, table, and a few others.  Eventually the documentation will be updated.)</i>
116d117
< The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams
126c127,129
< '''Q. How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?'''
---
> <b>Q.</b> How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?
> 
> <b>A1.</b> Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (March 2001) login procedure.
127a131,139
> <b>A2.</b> If you really want to log in, here is the procedure:
> # Go to the Preferences page and write down your "User ID number" (near the top).
> # While you are on the Preferences page, enter a password into the "Set Password" field.  Save your preferences.
> # On your other computer/browser, visit http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=login
> # Type in your "User ID number" and the password you set in step 2, then click the "Login" button.
> # The other computer/browser will then receive a copy of the first computer/browser's cookie.
> 
> Note that you must set a password <i>before</i> trying to login from another system.
> ----
------
H.G._Wells|984601771
23a24
> :The Island of Dr. Moreau
------
Satire|984602018
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some links for starters
> 
> *[[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]] and [[A Modest Proposal]] by [[Jonathan Swift]]
> *[[Candide]] by [[Voltaire]]
> *[[Erewhon]] by [[Samuel Butler]]
> *[[Penguin Island]] by [[Anatole France]]
------
Samuel_Butler|984602219
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are in fact two notable Samuel Butlers
> 
> * The [[Samuel Butler 1|Samuel Butler]] (17th Century) who wrote [[Hudibras]]
> * The [[Samuel Butler 2|Samuel Butler]] (19th Century) who wrote [[Erewhon]] and other novels
------
Satire|984602249
5c5
< *[[Erewhon]] by [[Samuel Butler]]
---
> *[[Erewhon]] by [[Samuel Butler 2]]
------
HomePage|984606408
12a13
> :[[Arts]] and [[Entertainment]]
35c36
< If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
------
Entertainment|984606455
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Some forms of entertainment:
> 
> :[[Television]]
> :[[Film]]
> :[[Sports]]
> 
> What I was really after here was a page for television.
------
Television|984606609
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Television is ...  (what <i>is</i> television, anyway?) ;-)
> 
> 
> Noted programs:
> :[[Seinfeld]]
> :[[MASH]]
> :[[I Love Lucy]]
> :[[Friends]]
> :[[Frasier]]
> 
> Noted Personalities:
> :[[Johnny Carson]]
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]]
> :[[Jay Leno]]
> :[[David Letterman]]
> :[[John Stossel]]
> :[[Ed Sullivan]]
> :[[Oprah Winfrey]]
------
Morton_Downey,_Jr.|984606922
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Controversial [[television]] talk show host of the 1980s.
> Born December 9, 1933. Died March 12, 2001 of [[lung cancer]].
> His parents were also in show business; his father [[Morton Downey]] was a popular singer, and his mother [[Barbara Bennett]] was a singer and dancer.
> 
> Downey was the host of the highly controversial program "The Morton Downey Jr. Show".   He rose to intial fame in 1987 when his program featured screaming matches between Downey, his guests, and his audience members.
> 
> In 1989, Downey was involved in an incident in which he claimed to have been attacked by [[neo-Nazi]]s who painted a [[swastika]] on his face.  Because police could not find evidence that the event actually took place, many did not believe it, feeling that it was just another controversial stunt.
------
Entertainment|984606974
1d0
< 
8c7,11
< What I was really after here was a page for television.
---
> What I was really after here was a page for television.
> 
> You might also find this page to be morbidly fascinating:
> 
> [[Recent celebrity deaths]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984607020
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This is a page where we can keep track of famous people who die.
> 
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]]
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984607067
1d0
< 
4,5c3,4
< :[[Dale Earnhardt]]
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]]
---
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]] (February 18, 2001)
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] (March 12, 2001)
------
Morton_Downey,_Jr.|984607145
7a8,9
> 
> Late in life, Downey, who was sometimes known to blow [[tobacco]] smoke into people's faces on his show, became an anti-tobacco crusader, as a direct response to his own [[lung cancer]].
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984607597
3,4c3,4
< :[[Dale Earnhardt]] (February 18, 2001)
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] (March 12, 2001)
---
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]] [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984607610
3,4c3,4
< :[[Dale Earnhardt]] [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
---
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]] -- [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] 4-- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984607621
4c4
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] 4-- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
---
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] -- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
------
Real_numbers|984608596
7a8,9
> <i>another exemple. Old memories, I may be wrong. let S= all x in Q
> so that x^2 <= 2. You have no y in S so that, for any z in S, z <= y. S has no greatest element (maximum, supremum?). y is sqrt(2), which doesn't belong to Q. Demonstrating is, in fact demonstrating that sqrt(2) is not rational <br> JB </i>
------
Philosophical_method/Introduction|984608714
55c55
< '''[Note to self: continue wikification from this point!]'''
---
> One might think of arguments as bundles of reasons--often not just a list, but logically interconnected statements--followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion; together they make an argument.
57c57
< One might think of arguments as bundles of reasons--often not just a list, but highly interconnected reasons--followed by the claim they are reasons for.  The reasons are the premises, the claim they support is the conclusion, and the whole thing together is an argument.
---
> Philosophers are, or at least they should be, very good at giving arguments.  They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make.  The reason for this is that it is only a good argument--a clear, organized, and <i>sound</i> statement of <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>something</i>--that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that [[the motivation to philosophize|motivated us to take up philosophy]].  If one is willing to be satisfied with an answer without any good arguments, without any good supporting reasons, then--for whatever this is worth--one lacks a Western philosophical temperament.  One might have the questioning nature and the doubts that lead people to do philosophy, but one does not have the argument-wielding nature that really characterizes the heart of most Western philosophy.
59c59
< Philosophers are, or at least they should be, really good at giving arguments.  They are constantly demanding and offering arguments for different claims they make.  Now what’s the point of all that?  Here’s the point: it’s only a good <i>argument</i>, a clear, organized, and <i>sound</i> statement of <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>something</i>, that will ultimately cure us of the original doubts that motivated us to take up philosophy.  Only good arguments will satisfy our doubts.  If you are willing to be satisfied with an answer without any good arguments, without any good supporting reasons, then (for whatever this is worth), you do not have a philosophical temperament.  You may have the questioning nature and the doubts that lead people to do philosophy, but you do not have the argument-wielding nature that really characterizes the heart of philosophy.
---
> Here is an example of an argument.  Say Rita has some doubts about religious matters, and she asks the question: "Does God really exist?"  Rita's answer is, we will say, "Yes."  How might Rita argue for her answer?  Here is a very common, popular argument, called [[TheTeleologicalArgument|<i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>design</i>]]:
61c61
< Let me give you an example of an argument.  Say you have some doubts about religious matters, and you ask the question: "Does God really exist?"  Your answer is, we will say, "Yes."  Now how might you argue for your answer?  Here is a very common, popular argument, called <i>the</i> <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>design</i>.  It goes like this.
---
> :The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial--from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways.  All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented.  Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer.  Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans (generally speaking), this designer must be very benevolent.  And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful.  So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call <i>God</i>.  Therefore, God exists.
63c63
< The universe is made up of a huge variety of things, inanimate and living, natural and artificial -- from the hills and the oceans, to the houses and ships on them, from the stars and planets, to the cities and highways.  All of this huge variety of things is, as scientists well know, operating in a splendid order or harmony, much like a very complicated machine, only much more complicated and well-planned than anything that we humans have ever invented.  Like a machine, this order or harmony could not have just sprung into existence all on its own; like a machine, it must have had a designer.  Moreover, since the universe is so complicated and well-planned, this designer must be incredibly intelligent; and since everything is so well-made for the habitation of humans (generally speaking), this designer must be very benevolent.  And of course, as the creator and planner of the entire universe, this designer must be extremely powerful.  So the universe must have had a designer which is incredibly intelligent, very benevolent, and extremely powerful; and this designer is what we call <i>God</i>.  Therefore, God exists.
---
> That is called "the argument from design" or "the teleological argument" and is studied the [[philosophy of religion]].  It offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that in various religions is called "God."  This sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other.  To deserve our consideration, the argument does not have to be <i>perfect</i>.  It might have some problems.  In fact, it might be a <i>very bad</i> argument.  But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it.  That gives us something to analyze and learn from.  So philosophers do talk quite a bit about each others' arguments.
65c65
< That’s called "the argument from design."  We will study it again when we study philosophy of religion.  But you can see, I think, that it offers a series of interconnected reasons to believe that there does exist the sort of entity that we call "God."  Now this sort of argument is just exactly what philosophers want from each other.  To deserve our consideration, the argument doesn’t have to be <i>perfect</i>.  It might have some problems.  In fact it might be a <i>really</i> <i>bad</i> argument.  But on the face of it, there should be something rather persuasive about it.  That gives us something to analyze and talk about.  And that’s what philosophers do quite a bit: they talk about each others’ arguments.
---
> '''Philosophical criticism'''
67c67
< So we still aren’t done.  There is an important element of philosophical method, the fifth, that we need to explain.  This is the element of <i>criticism</i>.  And this is where other people come in.  We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, devastate those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions.  This exchange and resulting revision of views is called <i>dialectic</i>.  Dialectic is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.
---
> Another element of philosophical method, common in the work of nearly all philosophers, is ''philosophical criticism.''  It is this that makes much philosophizing a social endeavor, and usefully so.
69c69
< Now you can do this sort of harsh criticism on your own.  You don’t <i>absolutely</i> need other people to tell you what might be wrong with your views, especially if you are a very self-critical sort of person.  But others can help greatly, especially if you share many important assumptions with the person offering the criticisms.
---
> We offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems; we argue for those solutions; and then other people come along and, often, devastate those solutions, throw us into doubt again, and force us to come up with better solutions.  This exchange and resulting revision of views is called <i>[[dialectic]]</i>.  Dialectic (in one sense of this history-laden word) is simply philosophical conversation amongst people who do not always agree with each other about everything.
71c71
< Perhaps this sounds rather obvious to anyone who has gone around the block once arguing about God, morality, free will, and stuff like that.  But this is perhaps the most disconcerting part of philosophy for people just starting to study the subject.  It’s quite different from other subjects that study general aspects of the universe, like natural science and mathematics; in those other disciplines, the experts all agree about the fundamentals.  But in philosophy, which concerns the <i>most</i> fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all <i>disagree</i>.  And in disagreeing they are following this fifth step of philosophical method, to offer and deal with criticisms of proposed solutions.  Or as I said, to engage in dialectic.
---
> One can do this sort of harsh criticism on one's own.  One does not <i>absolutely</i> need other people to tell one what might be wrong with one's views, especially if one is a very self-critical sort of person.  But others can help greatly, especially if you share many important assumptions with the person offering the criticisms.  It seems that other people are always able to think of criticisms that one has not been able to discover oneself.
73c73
< The entire history of philosophy is a long -- <i>millenia</i>-long -- philosophical dialectic.  There is practically no philosophical question which has not been asked; practically every possible solution has been proposed.  And yet philosophers go on arguing with each other.  And it certainly looks like they aren’t going to stop, either.
---
> This will sound obvious to anyone who has engaged in much dialectic about ''any'' subject.  But this is perhaps the most disconcerting part of philosophy for young people just starting to study the subject.  It is, or can be, quite different from other subjects that study general aspects of the universe, like natural science and mathematics; in those other disciplines, the experts agree about most of the fundamentals.  But in philosophy, which concerns the <i>most</i> fundamental aspects of the universe, the experts all <i>[[the problem of philosophical disagreement|disagree]]</i>.
75c75
< This is what makes philosophy so disconcerting for beginners, who aren’t used to the alleged experts disagreeing about everything.  If there is no general agreement, then what’s the point in studying the subject?  If there is no truth to be had, why go to the trouble of coming up with solutions and arguments?
---
> '''Summary'''
77c77
< This is a very common concern and it needs to be directly addressed at the outset.  Suppose you have this concern -- we’ll put it like this, in the form of an argument:
---
> Some common features of the methods that philosophers follow (and discuss when discussing philosophical method) include:
79c79
< (1) For almost every problem in philosophy, philosophers throughout history have offered conflicting solutions.
---
> * Doubt.  Notice doubts that one has about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief one has.
81c81
< (2) Moreover, there has been no progress toward general agreement.
---
> * Formulate a problem.  Formulate the doubts in a philosophical problem, or question.  Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.
83c83
< (3) Moreover, there does not appear to be any progress toward general agreement at present.
---
> * Offer a solution.  Offer a solution to the problem: either something like a philosophical analysis or a philosophical explanation.
85c85
< (4) Therefore, there is no truth to be found in philosophy; and hence there is no point in studying philosophy.
---
> * Argument.  Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution.
87c87
< First of all, notice that during those thousands of years of philosophical conversations, all of those philosophers did not give up <i>simply</i> on grounds that they disagreed with each other.  In fact, historically, disagreement has been a great motivating impetus to philosophical work.  The fact that Descartes said something different from Locke is often looked on by philosophers not as discouraging but as something to be excited about: both men had such great minds, so if one of them was mistaken it must have been a deep, important, interesting mistake.
---
> * Dialectic.  Present the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
89,115d88
< Second, and more importantly, notice that the conclusion of this argument just doesn’t follow from the premises.  In other words, the premises might all be perfectly true, but the conclusion doesn’t necessarily then <i>have</i> to be true.  An example from another academic discipline might help here.  Suppose Tom, Dick, and Harry are all arguing about the origin of Mars’ moon Deimos.  Tom thinks it is a captured asteroid; Dick thinks it formed out of the primordial cloud of dust that formed Mars; and Harry think it broke off from Mars when Mars was struck by a gigantic asteroid.  Now I personally have no idea of the respective plausibility of each of these views.  But one thing I can say is that the mere fact that Tom, Dick, and Harry disagree does <i>not</i> mean there’s no truth to be found about the subject.  If we went back in time to the right moment in planetary history, we could <i>see</i> that Deimos was formed in one way and not the others.  There’s a fact about the matter even if Tom, Dick, and Harry don’t know it yet.
< 
< I want to suggest that the problems of philosophy are like that.  I mean that philosophical problems are, on the one hand, very difficult issues to resolve, and it’s very easy to disagree about them; but, on the other hand, the mere fact that there is disagreement doesn’t, all by itself, mean that there is no philosophical truth to be found.
< 
< But admittedly, philosophical problems are extremely difficult to sort out in a clear-headed way.  Unfortunately, we can’t simply make observations and design experiments to test philosophical definitions and explanations.  Observations and experiments are used by scientists to arrive at a consensus; similarly, rigorous proofs based on axioms and definitions are used by mathematicians to arrive at consensus there.  But, except in the philosophical subdiscipline of <i>logic</i>, philosophers do not have any such consensus-building techniques.  All we have are words -- words that express those same, not-very-well-understood concepts that we are confused about.
< 
< So there are at least two basic reactions to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement.  First, you might simply give up before you start.  Or, second, you might try to increase the degree of clarity and rigor with which you think about philosophical questions.  I think I <i>have</i> observed some very important advances in philosophy, and they are almost always due to applying ever-increasing amounts of clarity and rigor to the subject -- they involve exploring every unexplored avenue, thinking about every unconsidered possibility, understanding all the assumptions that lie behind a view, taking apart arguments in very careful detail, and so on.  I think that many philosophers, throughout history, have shown at least that certain solutions that <i>other</i> philosophers have proposed were wrong.  And it took clear thinking to do that.  That much at least is a kind of philosophical progress.
< 
< However it is that you ultimately react to the phenomenon of philosophical disagreement, at least do yourself this favor.  For the space of this quarter, assume that there <i>is</i> some philosophical truth to be found.  Keep your mind open to that possibility.  If you shut yourself off from that possibility you will not be able to keep an interest in philosophy, and you won’t be able to get half out of it what you might.  For the space of this quarter, don’t regard an inquiring philosophical nature as naive.  If it helps, remember this: some of the finest, most brilliant minds in the world have <i>not</i> thought that trust in the existence of philosophical truth was naive.
< 
< Now we’ve gotten a little off track.  I have talked for the past half hour explaining five very general features of all philosophical methods.  Or you might think of these five steps I’ve given as steps in one general philosophical method.  Here then are those steps again:
< 
< Step 1.  Doubt.  Notice doubts that you have about the meaning or justification of some common, everyday belief you have.
< 
< Step 2.  Formulate problem.  Formulate those doubts in a philosophical problem, or question.  Explain the problem very clearly and carefully.
< 
< Step 3.  Offer solution.  Offer a solution to the problem: either a definition, or a philosophical explanation.
< 
< Step 4.  Argument.  Give an argument or several arguments supporting the solution.
< 
< Step 5.  Dialectic.  Present your solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
< 
< Now this little five-step method is, as you might expect, highly simplified and idealized.  No one does, or should, follow these steps in exactly this order.  A lot of times for philosophers it’s not doubt about their own beliefs that gets them thinking; a lot of times it’s doubt about what <i>other</i> people say that does it.  And some philosophers really put the cart before the horse: they examine a solution and arguments for it, and only after doing that, they go back and ask what problem it was they were trying to solve.  And surely there are a lot of people who plunge right into philosophical debates, and by the seat of their dialectical pants figure out what the problem is, what solutions have been offered, and what the arguments on all sides have been.
< 
< All that having been said, in many cases it probably is best to proceed as systematically as possible, and not go to the next step until the prior step is completed.  That may be most <i>efficient</i> way, at least.  It might not be the most fun.  But here the words of the great French philosopher Descartes come to mind: "Like a man who walks alone and in the shadows, I resolved to go so slowly and use so much circumspection in all things that, if I never advanced but slightly, I would at least avoid falling." 
< 
< Now as I said a while ago, what motivates us to take up philosophy is doubts about the meaning and justification of our beliefs.  But then I said that <i>other</i> disciplines, such as the natural sciences, study that as well.  I asked what it is that distinguishes philosophy from other disciplines; and I said they differ in the <i>methods</i> they use.  So now that I have stated some generalizations about philosophical method, I am ready to say how philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines.
------
HomePage|984608937
13,14c13
< :[[Arts]] and [[Entertainment]]
< :[[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Music|984609821
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- IrishTraditionalMusic -- [[Indian Music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]]
------
GladstoneOregon|984609860
3,7c3,24
< Gladstone is a four square mile suburban community twelve miles south of Portland at the confluence of the Clackamas River into the Willamette. It has a population of about 11,000. To the south, across the Clackamas, is Oregon City; across the Willamette is West Linn; to the north lies the city of Milwaukie. In the higher areas one can easily see Mt. Hood in the distance to the northeast, and in some places Mt. Adams and Mt. St. Helens can also be seen. The Portland International Airport is only about 15 minutes north by way of the I-205 freeway.
< 
< While there are still a few building sites in some of the isolated corners, the city is essentially fully developed. There is a grade school, middle school, and high school, numerous churches, two supermarkets, and a number of other small stores scattered throughout.
< 
< The population of Gladstone is approximately 10152 and the approximate number of families is 3745 . The amount of land area in Gladstone is 6.34 sq. kilometers and the amount of surface water is 0.123 sq. kilometers. The distance from Gladstone to Washington DC is 2450 statute miles. The distance to the Oregon state capital is 38 statute miles.  Gladstone is positioned 45.38 degrees north of the equator and 122.59 degrees west of the prime meridian.
---
> Gladstone is a four square mile suburban community twelve miles south of
> Portland at the confluence of the Clackamas River and the Willamette.
> It has a population of about 11,000. To the south, across the Clackamas,
> is Oregon City; across the Willamette is West Linn; to the north lies
> the city of Milwaukie. In the higher areas one can easily see Mt. Hood
> in the distance to the northeast, and in some places Mt. Adams and Mt.
> St. Helens can also be seen. The Portland International Airport is only
> about 15 minutes north by way of the I-205 freeway.
> 
> While there are still a few building sites in some of the isolated
> corners, the city is essentially fully developed. There are a grade
> school, a middle school, and a high school, numerous churches, two
> supermarkets, and a number of other small stores scattered throughout
> the town.
> 
> The population of Gladstone is approximately 10152 and the approximate
> number of families is 3745 . The amount of land area in Gladstone is
> 6.34 sq. kilometers and the amount of surface water is 0.123 sq.
> kilometers. The distance from Gladstone to Washington DC is 2450 statute
> miles. The distance to the Oregon state capital is 38 statute miles.
> Gladstone is positioned 45.38 degrees north of the equator and 122.59
> degrees west of the prime meridian.
13,23c30,44
< There were several indian groups living in the area to become Gladstone. Lewis and Clark did not visit the
< Gladstone-Oregon City region but did have it described to them by the native people. Later explorers and traders
< brought diseases and epidemics that took a very heavy toll on the native population and the size of the tribes dwindled
< to near extinction.
< 
< When Oregon City was founded and people began moving to the area, they complained to their government about the lazy,
< drunk, and theiving indians. The government responded by forcibly rounding up the indians and forcing them to leave
< their lands for a reservation.
< With the natives removed from the scene, the Gladstone area was ripe for settling. Today the only visible remains of
< the native presence is a large tree called "The Pow Wow Tree." An indian burial ground near that area is now covered
< over by a street and a number of houses.
---
> There were several indian groups living in the area that was to become
> Gladstone.  Lewis and Clark did not visit the Gladstone-Oregon City
> region, but did have it described to them by the native people. Later
> explorers and traders brought diseases and epidemics that took a very
> heavy toll on the native population and the tribes dwindled to near
> extinction.
> 
> When Oregon City was founded and people began moving to the area, they
> complained to their government about the lazy, drunk, and thieving
> indians. The government responded by rounding up the indians
> and forcing them to leave their lands for a reservation.  With the
> natives removed from the scene, the Gladstone area was ripe for
> settling. Today the only visible remains of the native presence is a
> large tree called "The Pow Wow Tree." An indian burial ground near that
> area is now covered over by a street and a number of houses.
29,30c50,53
< Rhinearson and Cason each claimed 640 acre lots in the area to be known as Gladstone. The Rhinearson house can still be
< found on a golf course near the Willamette river, and his descendants were still involved with the city in the 1950's.
---
> Rhinearson and Cason, around 18??, each claimed 640 acre lots in the
> area to be known as Gladstone. The Rhinearson house can still be found
> on a golf course near the Willamette river, and his descendants were
> still involved with the city in the 1950's.
34,39c57,66
< Several small towns were established in this period, but only a few remained to become the cities of today. Floods and
< fires were the primary villains, and one can imagine the heart ache these disasters must have evoked.
< 
< Linn City was settled in the 1840's by Robert Moore who built four flour and lumber mills along the bank of the
< Willamette. Warehouses, homes, and mills were added until 1857 when a fire destroyed several of the buildings. Efforts
< at rebuilding the small town ceased when a flood came later that year and wiped out the rest of the buildings.
---
> Several small towns were established in this period, but only a few
> remained to become the cities of today. Floods and fires were the
> primary villains, and one can imagine the heartache these disasters
> must have evoked.
> 
> Linn City was settled in the 1840's by Robert Moore who built four flour
> and lumber mills along the bank of the Willamette. Warehouses, homes,
> and mills were added until 1857 when a fire destroyed several of the
> buildings. Efforts at rebuilding the small town ceased when a flood came
> later that year and wiped out the rest of the buildings.
43c70,74
< Gladstone was founded in by a man named ?? Cross in the late 1800's. He laid out the town's first streets and had his home built in a prominant location. It is now a mortuary, but the building is still very well kept. There is also a small park named after him, ironically located at the same place one of the indian tribes made its camp.
---
> Gladstone was founded in by a man named ?? Cross in the late 1800's. He
> laid out the town's first streets and had his home built in a prominant
> location. It is now a mortuary, but the building is still very well
> kept. There is also a small park named after him, ironically located at
> the same place one of the indian tribes made its camp.
49c80,81
< Gladstone is well known for its excellent school system, low crime rate, and close proximity to Oregon City and Portland.
---
> Gladstone is well known for its excellent school system, low crime rate,
> and close proximity to Oregon City and Portland.
51,52c83,89
< The town can be divided into four catagories. The old section is laid out on a grid of streets bordered by the Clackamas on the south, McGloughlin Blvd. on the west, Webster on the east, and the foothills to the north. The river section of town is the strip of land between McGloughlin and the Willamette. On the east side of town is a large park
< at one time owned by the Seventh Day Adventists. The fourth section of town is the remaining hilly area north of the old section.
---
> The town can be divided into four catagories. The old section is laid
> out on a grid of streets bordered by the Clackamas on the south,
> McGloughlin Boulevard on the west, Webster on the east, and the foothills to
> the north. The river section of town is the strip of land between
> McGloughlin and the Willamette. On the east side of town is a large park
> at one time owned by the Seventh Day Adventists. The fourth section of
> town is the remaining hilly area north of the old section.
56c93,96
< The old section is laid out on a grid of streets running north/south and east/west. North-south streets are named for colleges, while east-west streets are named after universities (Dartmouth, Exeter, Fairfield, Gloucester, and Harvard, for instance).
---
> The old section is laid out on a grid of streets running north/south and
> east/west. North-south streets are named for colleges, while east-west
> streets are named after universities (Dartmouth, Exeter, Fairfield,
> Gloucester, and Harvard, for instance).
60c100,103
< The river area has a number of very nice homes. Earlier in Gladstone's history this was a very "ritzy" area, though the age of the houses makes this less true today. Several parks and a golf course also occupy the area.
---
> The river area has a number of very nice homes. Earlier in Gladstone's
> history this was a very "ritzy" area, though the age of the houses makes
> this less true today. Several parks and a golf course also occupy the
> area.
64,66c107,116
< At some point in the past, this large area came under the ownership of the Seventh Day Adventist religious organization. The campsite would sit virtually empty for nearly 50 weeks. Then for two weeks Gladstone would be invaded by a horde of fanatics in tents, trailers, and moble homes.
< 
< A large chain fence and a dense hedge prevented access to the camp by Gladstonians except for the more brave and venturesome. But in 1990 it all changed when possession of the land changed hands. The camp was left open for anyone to explore freely. Now ownership of the camp is in question, but hopefully it will remain open to all.
---
> At some point in the past, this large area came under the ownership of
> the Seventh Day Adventist religious organization. The campsite would sit
> virtually empty for nearly 50 weeks. Then for two weeks Gladstone would
> be invaded by a horde of Adventists in tents, trailers, and mobile homes.
> 
> A large chain fence and a dense hedge prevented access to the camp by
> Gladstonians except for the more brave and venturesome. But in 1990 it
> all changed when the land changed hands. The camp was left
> open for anyone to explore freely. Now ownership of the camp is in
> question, but hopefully it will remain open to all.
70,71c120,127
< On the north side of town are rocky hills that were virtually uninhabitable until late in this century. In the 1960's and 1970's the area came under development and was laid out with streets and houses. One street running around the base of the easternmost hill is known throughout the state for its beautiful Christmas lights display every year. Several
< churches, the city's middle school, a few convenience stores, and a couple care centers are the only exceptions to the area's all-residential nature.
---
> On the north side of town are rocky hills that were virtually
> uninhabitable until late in this century. In the 1960's and 1970's the
> area came under development and was laid out with streets and houses.
> One street running around the base of the easternmost hill is known
> throughout the state for its beautiful Christmas lights display every
> year. Several churches, the city's middle school, a few convenience
> stores, and a couple of care centers are the only exceptions to the area's
> all-residential nature.
75,79c131,141
< Being borderd by rivers on two sides, there are only two primary thoroughfares to and from the town. The I-205 freeway runs along the eastern edge of the city running south into Historic Oregon City. McGloughlin Blvd. also runs north-south, but through the western side of the city.
< 
< Inside the town the main streets are Portland Avenue, which runs from the high school through the middle of the Old Gladstone, to the river, Webster, which runs along the eastern edge of Old Gladstone from the freeway and the river north into the hills. Oatfield Road winds its way through the hills and drops down into Milwaukie.
< 
< -- Written by BryceHarrington
---
> Being bordered by rivers on two sides, there are only two primary
> thoroughfares to and from the town. The I-205 freeway runs along the
> eastern edge of the city running south into historic Oregon City.
> McGloughlin Boulevard also runs north-south, but through the western side of
> the city.
> 
> Inside the town the main streets are Portland Avenue, which runs from
> the high school, through the middle of Old Gladstone, to the river;
> Webster, which runs along the eastern edge of Old Gladstone from the
> freeway and the river north into the hills; and Oatfield Road, which winds its way
> through the hills and drops down into Milwaukie.
80a143
> -- Written by BryceHarrington
------
Ireland|984610208
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
> 
> Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[George Berkeley]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
------
Irish_traditional_music|984610252
1c1
< The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the Irish diaspora, that is, descendants of Irish emigrants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
---
> The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the [[Irish diaspora]].  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
11c11
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
---
> '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent.
------
Real_numbers|984610303
0a1,2
> The term <i>real number</i> is a [[retronym]] (coined in response to [[imaginary number]]) that denotes the kind of number one might use to represent a continuous quantity (including 0 and negatives).  [[Integer]]s, [[rational number]]s, [[algebraic number]]s, and [[transcendental number]]s are all subsets of real numbers.  [[Imaginary number]]s and [[complex number]]s are not real numbers, nor are things like [[vector]]s and [[tensor]]s.  What follows are more rigorous mathematical descriptions of the concept.
> 
------
Irish_diaspora|984610700
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ''Irish diaspora'' consists of Irish [[emigration|emigrants]] and their descendants in countries such as the [[United States]], [[Great Britain]], and [[Australia]].  By one estimate, the diaspora contains as many as 60 million people.  Over the centuries, political oppression, joblessness, and hunger in a sometimes harsh land have forced the sons and daughters of Irish parents to leave to other shores, particularly the shores of "Amerikay," where a livelihood was (it was hoped) easier.  This experience was immortalized in the words of many songs including the famous Irish [[ballad]], "The Green Fields of America":
> 
> :So pack up your sea-stores, consider no longer, 
> :Ten dollars a week is not very bad pay, 
> :With no taxes or tithes to devour up your wages, 
> :When you're on the green fields of America.
------
Irish_traditional_music|984610757
1c1
< The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the [[Irish diaspora]].  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich dance music and song.  It was formerly played without harmonic accompaniment such as guitar and usually learned "by ear" rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
---
> The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the [[Irish diaspora]].  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich [[dance music]] and song.  It was formerly played without [[harmonic accompaniment]] such as [[guitar]] and usually [[Learning music by ear|learned "by ear"]] rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
------
SandBox|984610905
6c6
<                               * * 
---
>                               * *
12c12
<                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
---
>                            *     *                      &Theta;
14c14
<                            *   �   *                    /
---
>                            *      *                    /
39c39
< � I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
---
>  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
67c67,73
< Nothing over 127 is ASCII--ASCII is only a 7-bit code.  The "safe" characters above are from ISO-8859-1, which is used by most X servers and (with some minor modifications) MS Windows.  The Macintosh is where you'll probably run into problems, and computers sold in foreign markets.  8-bit characters are always ambiguous; entity references are not (though they may be unsupported by early browsers).  I think it's most important that the information be clear and unambiguos, so I think it's better to use the entity references. 
---
> Nothing over 127 is ASCII--ASCII is only a 7-bit code.  The "safe"
> characters above are from ISO-8859-1, which is used by most X servers
> and (with some minor modifications) MS Windows.  The Macintosh is where
> you'll probably run into problems, and computers sold in foreign
> markets.  8-bit characters are always ambiguous; entity references are
> not (though they may be unsupported by early browsers).  I think it's
> most important that the information be clear and unambiguous, so I think it's better to use the entity references.
105c111
< Testing.  Testing.  1-2-3. 
---
> Testing.  Testing.  1-2-3.
123c129
< <font size=+3><b>&alpha; , &beta; , &gamma; , &delta; , &epsilon; , &zeta; , &eta; , &theta; , &iota; , &kappa; , &lambda; , &mu; , &nu; , &xi; , &omicron; , &pi; , &rho; , 
---
> <font size=+3><b>&alpha; , &beta; , &gamma; , &delta; , &epsilon; , &zeta; , &eta; , &theta; , &iota; , &kappa; , &lambda; , &mu; , &nu; , &xi; , &omicron; , &pi; , &rho; ,
138c144
< Try using Mozilla; it does this sort of thing right.  It supports all the HTML4 entity references, and even knows how to fail gracefully when using a character set that doesn't have the character specified.  For example, the em dash and "curly" quotes are not present is ISO-8859-1, and thus not present in most X character sets.  So if you use the <b>&amp;mdash;</b> entity, it will show up as a proper em dash&mdash;like this&mdash;on Windows and Macintosh machines (whose character sets do have it), and it will be translated into two hyphens--like this--on a Linux machine. 
---
> Try using Mozilla; it does this sort of thing right.  It supports all the HTML4 entity references, and even knows how to fail gracefully when using a character set that doesn't have the character specified.  For example, the em dash and "curly" quotes are not present is ISO-8859-1, and thus not present in most X character sets.  So if you use the <b>&amp;mdash;</b> entity, it will show up as a proper em dash&mdash;like this&mdash;on Windows and Macintosh machines (whose character sets do have it), and it will be translated into two hyphens--like this--on a Linux machine.
142,143c148
< <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
< 
---
> <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
------
Dance_music|984611096
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] (e.g., [[disco]]) to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].
> 
> Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
------
Ireland|984611125
3c3,6
< Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[George Berkeley]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
---
> Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[George Berkeley]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
> 
> See also:
> *[[Irish Potato Famine]]
------
Traditional_music|984611274
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Traditional music'' can be used in different, sometimes conflicting ways, but probably the most common meaning is the ethnic music of a place, played in a social context, and [[learning music by ear|passed on by ear]].  The term is sometimes, but not always, used interchangeably with ''[[folk music]],'' although the latter phrase is sometimes restricted to a kind of modern performance music more closely related to the style and ethos of [[rock and roll]] than traditional music.  An example is [[Irish traditional music]].
------
Harmonic_accompaniment|984611399
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Harmonic accompaniment is music played to accompany a [[melody]] line; it is usually played by such instruments as (acoustic or electric) [[guitar]], [[piano]], and [[bass guitar]], but it can also be played by instruments that ordinary play the melody, such as the [[violin]].
------
FidDle|984611435
1,25c1
< http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/geige.gif 
< 
< [http://www.8ung.at/hansjoergbrugger/violinunterricht.html Image borrowed from "Violinunterricht" page]
< 
< A MusicalInstrument with four strings, typically held under the chin, and played with a BoW; the smallest and highest-pitched of a family of four instruments including VioLin, VioLa, CelLo, and BasS.  For more information about the physical instrument itself, see VioLin.
< 
< '''FiddleandViolin.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
< 
< '''FiddleStyles.'''  To a greater extent than classical VioLin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or FolkMusic traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to: IrishFiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the DonegalFiddleTradition), ScottishFiddling, EnglishFiddling, AmericanFiddling (including OldTimeFiddling, NewEnglandStyleFiddling, CajunFiddling, TexasStyleFiddling, ContestFiddling, BlueGrassFiddling, and other related traditions), CanadianFiddling (including CapeBretonFiddling, QuebecoisFiddling, and others), NorwegianFiddling (including HardangerFiddling), SwedishFiddling, FinnishFiddling, and FrenchFiddling (including a rich BretonFiddling tradition).
< 
< Suggested topics to be added later by me or anyone else:
< 
< '''HistoryOfFiddlePlaying.'''
< 
< '''FiddleMusic and FiddleTunes.'''
< 
< '''FiddleTunebooks.'''
< 
< '''FiddlePlayers.'''
< 
< '''FiddleRecordings.'''
< 
< '''HowToLearnTheFiddle.'''
< 
< '''WhereToPlayTheFiddle.'''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Fiddle]]
------
Fiddle|984611442
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A MusicalInstrument with four strings, typically held under the chin, and played with a BoW; the smallest and highest-pitched of a family of four instruments including VioLin, VioLa, CelLo, and BasS.  For more information about the physical instrument itself, see VioLin.
> 
> '''FiddleandViolin.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
> 
> '''FiddleStyles.'''  To a greater extent than classical VioLin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or FolkMusic traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to: IrishFiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the DonegalFiddleTradition), ScottishFiddling, EnglishFiddling, AmericanFiddling (including OldTimeFiddling, NewEnglandStyleFiddling, CajunFiddling, TexasStyleFiddling, ContestFiddling, BlueGrassFiddling, and other related traditions), CanadianFiddling (including CapeBretonFiddling, QuebecoisFiddling, and others), NorwegianFiddling (including HardangerFiddling), SwedishFiddling, FinnishFiddling, and FrenchFiddling (including a rich BretonFiddling tradition).
> 
> Suggested topics to be added later by me or anyone else:
> 
> '''HistoryOfFiddlePlaying.'''
> 
> '''FiddleMusic and FiddleTunes.'''
> 
> '''FiddleTunebooks.'''
> 
> '''FiddlePlayers.'''
> 
> '''FiddleRecordings.'''
> 
> '''HowToLearnTheFiddle.'''
> 
> '''WhereToPlayTheFiddle.'''
------
Irish_traditional_music|984611483
3c3
< While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman (FidDle), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
---
> While once mostly home-made ("kitchen music") by non-professionals for their own entertainment and that of their neighbors and friends, now Irish music can be heard at sessions (informal gatherings of musicians, often in pubs) and in concert halls, not only in Ireland and countries with large Irish immigrant populations, but indeed in many countries around the globe.  It also can be heard on recordings of bands such as The Bothy Band, Altan, and The Chieftains, instrumentalists such as Michael Coleman ([[fiddle]]), Joe Cooley (button accordion), Paddy Keenan (pipes), Matt Molloy (flute), and Mary Bergin (tin whistle), and singers such as Joe Heaney, Tríona Ní Dhomnhaill, and Paddy Tunney.  In recent years, Irish music has enjoyed increasing popularity worldwide, largely as a result of the wildly successful, internationally performed dance-and-music stage extravaganza, Riverdance, as well as the "steerage scene" from the movie Titanic.  Those interested in pursuing the art, if they take it seriously, are warmly welcomed by more experienced traditional musicians.
5c5
< The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); FidDle; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
---
> The music traditionally employs a delightful variety of melody instruments: voice; Uilleann pipes (bellows-blown Irish bagpipes); [[fiddle]]; wooden flute; tin whistle (a simple recorder-like instrument); button accordion and two accordion-like instruments, melodeon and concertina; tenor (four-string) banjo; mandolin; harmonica (also called "mouth organ"); harp; and sometimes others.  The harp, in fact, is the national symbol of Ireland.  Dance tunes are sometimes "lilted" as well, that is, sung with nonsense syllables.  While not always regarded as traditional, chordal and rhythmic accompaniment is often provided by, variously, guitar; three lute-like instruments, including cittern, bouzouki (a Greek instrument adopted and now widely played in Irish circles), and mandola (a larger variety of mandolin); piano; bodhrán (a shallow Irish goatskin drum); bones (animal rib-bones or similarly-shaped pieces of wood held between the fingers); and "Jew's harp" or jaw harp.
------
Learning_music_by_ear|984611550
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Music can be learned by direct imitation of what one hears.  This is typically how [[traditional music]], as distinguished from [[classical music]], is passed on from generation to generation.
------
Learning_music_by_ear|984611565
1c1
< Music can be learned by direct imitation of what one hears.  This is typically how [[traditional music]], as distinguished from [[classical music]], is passed on from generation to generation.
---
> [[Music]] can be learned by direct imitation of what one hears.  This is typically how [[traditional music]], as distinguished from [[classical music]], is passed on from generation to generation.
------
Ireland|984611621
6c6
< *[[Irish Potato Famine]]
---
> *[[Irish potato famine]]
------
Bomfog|984611935
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Bomfog! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Ireland|984612025
6a7
> *[[Irish diaspora]]
------
Music|984612042
10c10
< ** Saxaphone
---
> ** Saxophone
12c12
< *** Trumphet
---
> *** Trumpet
16c16
< * String based
---
> * String-based
18,19c18,19
< ** Chello
< ** FidDle
---
> ** Cello
> ** [[Fiddle]]
41c41
< ** Xzylophone
---
> ** Xylophone
53c53
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> '''Miscellaneous:''' [[learning music by ear]] -- [[traditional music]] -- [[folk music]] -- [[harmonic accompaniment]] -- [[melody]] -- [[dance music]]
55c55
< NOTE: I've left the individual instruments as plain text and not links because the naming scheme may need to be changed.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
CelticMusic|984612143
1,3c1
< The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest FrancE; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern SpaiN. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
< 
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Celtic music]]
------
Celtic_music|984612154
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest FrancE; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern SpaiN. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
> ----
> An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent.
------
Irish_traditional_music|984612172
1c1
< The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the [[Irish diaspora]].  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich [[dance music]] and song.  It was formerly played without [[harmonic accompaniment]] such as [[guitar]] and usually [[Learning music by ear|learned "by ear"]] rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "CelticMusic."
---
> The traditional or folk [[music]] of the [[Ireland|Irish]] people as well as of the [[Irish diaspora]].  Irish traditional music as it is known today is the result of a centuries-old tradition of melodically-rich [[dance music]] and song.  It was formerly played without [[harmonic accompaniment]] such as [[guitar]] and usually [[Learning music by ear|learned "by ear"]] rather than from written music.  Irish dance music is typically lively, and Irish songs are often highly ornamented and complex.  This music is usefully contrasted with the Irish pub ballad tradition (which has made, for example, the song "Whiskey in the Jar" famous) and the modern "folk" tradition, as well as what goes under the name "[[Celtic music]]."
------
Rock_music|984612339
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[rock and roll]].
------
America|984612688
5c5
< (1) [[The Americas]]: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean.  See [[North America]], [[Central America]] (often referred to as such, but strictly speaking a part of [[North America]]), and [[South America]].
---
> (1) [[The Americas]]: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean, namely [[North America]] and [[South America]].  [[Central America]] is often referred to as such, but strictly speaking it is a part of North America.
9,11c9
< In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the UnitedStates (as in the song "[[America the Beautiful]]") rather than to TheAmericas.  In many of the rest of the countries of [[The Americas]], ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
< ----
< ''The above is the former contents of AmericA.  Please look for pages named in the old style before starting one using [[Free Links]]--thanks.''
---
> In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the [[United States]] (as in the song "[[America the Beautiful]]") rather than to [[The Americas]].  In many of the rest of the countries of The Americas, ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
------
The_Americas|984612728
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''The Americas'' are the two continents located between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], namely [[North America]] and [[South America]].  [[Central America]] is often referred to as such, but strictly speaking it is a part of North America.
------
America|984612753
5c5
< (1) [[The Americas]]: the two continents located between the PacificOcean and the AtlanticOcean, namely [[North America]] and [[South America]].  [[Central America]] is often referred to as such, but strictly speaking it is a part of North America.
---
> (1) [[The Americas]]: the two continents located between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], namely [[North America]] and [[South America]].  [[Central America]] is often referred to as such, but strictly speaking it is a part of North America.
9c9
< In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the [[United States]] (as in the song "[[America the Beautiful]]") rather than to [[The Americas]].  In many of the rest of the countries of The Americas, ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
---
> In the United States and other countries, ''America'' usually refers to the [[United States]] (as in the song "[[America the Beautiful]]") rather than to [[The Americas]].  In many of the rest of the countries of The Americas, ''America'' often refers to The Americas.
------
Retronym|984613039
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>retronym</i> is a term coined for a previously-existing object or concept whose original name became confusing because of its association with a new related object or concept that has become more common.  A lot of these are created by advances in technology.  Some examples:
> 
> * <i>Black-and-white television</i>: Once called simply "television", now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly just called by the unadorned term.  Along the same lines: <i>broadcast television</i>, <i>silent movie</i>.
> * <i>Rotary-dial telephone</i>: The kind of telephone in common use before touch-tone telephones.
> * <i>Live poker</i>: What casinos call the kind of poker played with cards by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from video poker, which is far more common in casinos today.
> * <i>Day baseball</i>: Baseball played during the day, when all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
> * <i>Snail mail</i> or <i>Paper mail</i>: Non-electronic mail; the kind printed and delivered to your house.
> * <i>Meatspace</i>: All of physical reality, as distinguished from [[cyberspace]].
> * <i>Natural language</i>: A language used by humans that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer programming languages or constructed languages.
> * <i>Brick-and-mortar store</i>: A store with a building that customers can visit to examine its goods (which others might purchase at an on-line store).
> * <i>Face-to-face conference</i>: A conference, not involving telephones or video cameras.
> 
> Some larger groupings include:
> * <i>Conventional or Traditional X</i>: For example, <i>conventional (non-microwave) oven</i>.
> * <i>Analog X</i>: Non-digital devices: <i>analog clock</i>, <i>analog recording</i>.
> * <i>Acoustic X</i>: A musical instrument that produces human-audible sounds, without amplifier: <i>acoustic guitar</i>, <i>acoustic piano</i>.
------
America_the_Beautiful|984613125
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "America the Beautiful" is an unofficial [[anthem]] of the [[United States]].  With words by Katharine Lee Bates (composed in 1893 with new editions in 1904 and 1913) and music by Parke W. Hewins, both of [[Massachusetts]].
> 
> (The official anthem of the United States is, of course, [[The Battle Hymn of the Republic]].)
> 
> America the Beautiful
> <br>Words by Katharine Lee Bates; Music by Parke W. Hewins  
> 
> O beautiful for spacious skies, 
> <br>For amber waves of grain, 
> <br>For purple mountain majesties 
> <br>Above the fruited plain! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>And crown thy good with brotherhood 
> <br>From sea to shining sea! 
> 
> O beautiful for pilgrim feet 
> <br>Whose stern impassioned stress 
> <br>A thoroughfare for freedom beat 
> <br>Across the wilderness! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God mend thine every flaw, 
> <br>Confirm thy soul in self-control, 
> <br>Thy liberty in law! 
> 
> O beautiful for heroes proved 
> <br>In liberating strife. 
> <br>Who more than self the country loved 
> <br>And mercy more than life! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>May God thy gold refine 
> <br>Till all success be nobleness 
> <br>And every gain divine! 
> 
> O beautiful for patriot dream 
> <br>That sees beyond the years 
> <br>Thine alabaster cities gleam 
> <br>Undimmed by human tears! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>And crown thy good with brotherhood 
> <br>From sea to shining sea! 
> 
> O beautiful for halcyon skies, 
> <br>For amber waves of grain, 
> <br>For purple mountain majesties 
> <br>Above the enameled plain! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>Till souls wax fair as earth and air 
> <br>And music-hearted sea! 
> 
> O beautiful for pilgrims feet, 
> <br>Whose stem impassioned stress 
> <br>A thoroughfare for freedom beat 
> <br>Across the wilderness! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>Till paths be wrought 
> <br>through wilds of thought 
> <br>By pilgrim foot and knee! 
> 
> O beautiful for glory-tale 
> <br>Of liberating strife 
> <br>When once and twice, 
> <br>for man's avail 
> <br>Men lavished precious life! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>Till selfish gain no longer stain 
> <br>The banner of the free! 
> 
> O beautiful for patriot dream 
> <br>That sees beyond the years 
> <br>Thine alabaster cities gleam 
> <br>Undimmed by human tears! 
> <br>America! America! 
> <br>God shed his grace on thee 
> <br>Till nobler men keep once again 
> <br>Thy whiter jubilee! 
------
RecentChanges|984613363
4,5c4
< that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
< 
---
> that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
------
Retronym|984613388
3,7c3,7
< * <i>Black-and-white television</i>: Once called simply "television", now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly just called by the unadorned term.  Along the same lines: <i>broadcast television</i>, <i>silent movie</i>.
< * <i>Rotary-dial telephone</i>: The kind of telephone in common use before touch-tone telephones.
< * <i>Live poker</i>: What casinos call the kind of poker played with cards by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from video poker, which is far more common in casinos today.
< * <i>Day baseball</i>: Baseball played during the day, when all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
< * <i>Snail mail</i> or <i>Paper mail</i>: Non-electronic mail; the kind printed and delivered to your house.
---
> * <i>Black-and-white television</i>: Once called simply [[television]], now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly just called by the unadorned term.  Along the same lines: <i>broadcast television</i>, <i>silent movie</i>.
> * <i>Rotary-dial telephone</i>: The kind of [[telephone]] in common use before touch-tone telephones.
> * <i>Live poker</i>: What [[casino]]s call the kind of [[poker]] played with [[Games/Cards|cards]] by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from [[video poker]], which is far more common in casinos today.
> * <i>Day baseball</i>: [[Baseball]] played during the day, as all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
> * <i>Snail mail</i> or <i>Paper mail</i>: Non-electronic [[mail]]; the kind printed and delivered to your house.
9,10c9,10
< * <i>Natural language</i>: A language used by humans that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer programming languages or constructed languages.
< * <i>Brick-and-mortar store</i>: A store with a building that customers can visit to examine its goods (which others might purchase at an on-line store).
---
> * <i>Natural language</i>: A [[language]], used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer [[programming language]]s or [[constructed language]]s.
> * <i>Brick-and-mortar store</i>: A store with a building that customers can visit to examine its goods (which others might purchase at an online store).
16c16
< * <i>Acoustic X</i>: A musical instrument that produces human-audible sounds, without amplifier: <i>acoustic guitar</i>, <i>acoustic piano</i>.
---
> * <i>Acoustic X</i>: A musical instrument that produces human-audible sounds, without amplifier: <i>acoustic [[guitar]]</i>, <i>acoustic [[piano]]</i>.
------
Casino|984613868
1c1
< A business whose primary business is to allow customers to gamble.
---
> A building designed to accommodate [[gambling]], usually maintained by a business that profits from the gamblers by offering games in which customers must make disadvantageous bets (e.g., [[craps]], [[roulette]]), or by charging a commission on bets customers make against each other (e.g., [[poker]], [[sports betting]]).  Often combined with or near hotels, restaurants and other vacation attractions to encourage long stays.
------
Games/Cards|984616750
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-size rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
3c3
< The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs borrowed from [[Mah Jongg]] tiles.  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four suits: polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the bamboos and circles of Mah Jongg), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards and three "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons.  It was the Europeans who changed the court cards into depictions of persons, and who created many other variations such as different suit systems (the familiar spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs are of [[France|French]] origin) and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
---
> The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs similar to those on modern [[Mah Jongg]] tiles (paper cards came before tiles in China).  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four suits: polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the Chinese bamboos and circles), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards and three "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of miltary officers.  Europeans changed the court cards to represent European figures, and created many other variations such as different suit systems and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
7c7
< Although the present internationally-used playing card design is called the "English" design, it likely originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the game of [[Euchre]] (which probably originated in [[Alsace]]).  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
---
> The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards is called the "English" or "Anglo-American" design, although it originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
11c11,13
< For more information: [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
---
> For more information:
> * [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
> * [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company]
------
Poker|984618721
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Games/Cards|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central "pot" or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
> 
> The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[France|French]] <i>poque</i>, which descended from the [[Germany|German]] <i>pocher</i>, but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persia|Persian]] game of <i>as nas</i>, but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of <i>primero</i> and the French <i>brelan</i>.  The [[Great Britain|English]] game <i>brag</i> clearly decended from <i>brelan</i> and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).  
> 
> It is well accepted that the game's first appearance in the [[United States]] was in [[New Orleans]] in the 1920s, and that from there the game quickly spread and became an important part of American culture.
> 
> (This is an outline...I'm working on it)
> 
> * Equipment
> * Game play and betting
> * Hands
> ** High
> ** Low
> * Variations
> ** Draw games
> ** Stud games
> ** Community card games
> ** Other
> * Strategy
> ** Probability
> ** Bluffing and semi-bluffing
> ** Sandbagging and slow play
> ** Game theory
> ** Psychology
> * Public casinos
> ** Rule variations
> ** Etiquette
> * Tournaments
> ** Organization
> ** Strategy
> * Law
------
Games/Cards|984619226
16,34c16,24
< * [[Canasta]]
< * [[Bridge]]
< **[[Contract Bridge]]
< **[[Duplicate Bridge]]
< * [[Go Fish]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Macchiavelli]]
< * [[Nap|Napolean]]
< * [[Old Maid]]
< * [[Poker]]
< **[[Draw Poker]]
< **[[Stud Poker]]
< * [[Solitaire]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Spit]]
< * [[Gin Rummy]]
< * [[Grass]]
< * [[Pinochle]]
< * [[Blackjack]]
---
> * Trick-taking games
> ** [[Whist]]
> ** [[Bridge]]
> ** [[Euchre]]
> ** [[Skat]]
> ** [[Tarot]]
> ** [[Hearts]]
> ** [[Spades]]
> ** [[Nap|Napolean]]
36,43c26,46
< Trick-taking card games
< * [[Whist]]
< * [[Bridge]]
< **[[Contract Bridge]]
< **[[Duplicate Bridge]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Nap|Napolean]]
---
> * [[Gambling]] games
> ** [[Poker]]
> ** [[Boure]]
> ** [[Blackjack]]
> ** [[Panguingue]]
> ** [[Red Dog]]
> ** [[Pai Gow Poker]]
> 
> * [[Rummy games]]
> ** [[Gin Rummy]]
> ** [[Gin]]
> ** [[Canasta]]
> 
> * Other
> ** [[Old Maid]]
> ** [[Solitaire]]
> ** [[Go Fish]]
> ** [[Macchiavelli]]
> ** [[Spit]]
> ** [[Grass]]
> ** [[Pinochle]]
------
Biology|984620418
1c1,3
< The study of life and the processes thereof.  Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[Genetics|genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy|anatomy]], [[Physiology|physiology]], and [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology|ecology]].
---
> The study of life and the processes thereof.  Term was originally coined in the late 1700's by the French naturalist Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de [[Lamarck]] (who also coined the word 'invertebrate').
> 
> Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[Genetics|genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy|anatomy]], [[Physiology|physiology]], and [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology|ecology]].
8d9
< 
------
Ireland|984620473
3c3
< Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[George Berkeley]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
---
> Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[Guinness]], [[George Berkeley]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
7c7
< *[[Irish diaspora]]
---
> *[[Irish diaspora]]
------
Ireland|984620520
3c3
< Home to [[Irish traditional music]], [[Guinness]], [[George Berkeley]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[James Joyce]], and many other fine things.
---
> Ireland gave us [[Irish traditional music]], [[George Berkeley]], [[James Joyce]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Guinness]] and many other fine things.
------
Netherlands|984621848
1c1
< A quaint little country nudged in the northwest corner of Europe. 
---
> A quaint little monarchy nudged in the northwest corner of [[Europe]]. 
10c10,13
< Better known as Holland
---
> Better known as [[Holland]]
> ----
> Country of [[Erasmus]], Spinoza & Descartes 
> <BR>(All his major work was done in Holland)
12,14d14
< Country of Erasmus, Spinoza & Descartes 
< <BR>(All his mayor work was done in Holland)
< ----
------
The_motivation_to_philosophize|984622621
9c9,10
< Very many people grow up being taught to believe that [[God]] (some God) exists.  But how many people know <i>exactly</i> what it is they mean by the word "God"?  Probably they have thought <i>some</i> about it: "Well," they tell themselves, "God is the creator of the universe, and he’s supposed to be all-powerful and all-knowing; and he’s supposed to be some sort of spiritual and personal being."  But is that an adequate account of what God is?  Are there not many questions one would have to have answered before one could say one knew just exactly what God is?  For example, surely one would have to know what it means for a <i>[[spirit]]ual</i> being to create anything.  We have experience of bodies building houses and ships, but [[mind]]s, as far as we know, create nothing but thoughts and decisions--other mental things--not <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i> like mountains, streams, and animals!  And, surely, one would have to know what it <i>means</i> to say that God is [[omnipotence|all-powerful]] and [[omniscience|all-knowing]].  Does that mean that God can create a rock he cannot lift?  Surely these are difficult questions.
---
> Very many people grow up being taught to believe that [[God]] (some God) exists.  But how many people know <i>exactly</i> what it is they mean by the word "God"?  Probably they have thought <i>some</i> about it: "Well," they tell themselves, "God is the creator of the universe, and hes supposed to be all-powerful and all-knowing; and hes supposed to be some sort of spiritual and personal being."  But is that an adequate account of what God is?  Are there not many questions one would have to have answered before one could say one knew just exactly what God is?  For example, surely one would have to know what it means for a <i>[[spirit]]ual</i> being to create anything.  We have experience of bodies building houses and ships, but [[mind]]s, as far as we know, create nothing but thoughts and decisions--other mental things--not <i>physical</i> <i>objects</i> like mountains, streams, and animals!  And, surely, one would have to know what it <i>means</i> to say that God is [[omnipotence|all-powerful]] and
> [[omniscience|all-knowing]].  Does that mean that God can create a rock he cannot lift?  Surely these are difficult questions.
30c31,38
< One <i>can</i>, and some people do, go through life without answering moral questions.  Perhaps, at least in part, it is <i>because</i> some people have not thought certain moral questions through that they end up behaving immorally.  It is possible to use an easy sort of [[moral skepticism|skepticism]], or [[moral relativism|relativism], according to which each person can disregard morality or invent his own and thus justify whatever behavior one wants to get away with.  That is (or can be) a profoundly anti-philosophical attitude.
---
> One <i>can</i>, and some people do, go through life without answering
> moral questions.  Perhaps, at least in part, it is <i>because</i> some
> people have not thought certain moral questions through that they end up
> behaving immorally.  It is possible to use an easy sort of [[moral
> skepticism|skepticism]], or [[moral relativism|relativism]], according to
> which each person can disregard morality or invent his own and thus
> justify whatever behavior one wants to get away with.  That is (or can
> be) a profoundly anti-philosophical attitude.
------
The_motivation_to_philosophize|984622820
34,35c34,35
< behaving immorally.  It is possible to use an easy sort of [[moral
< skepticism|skepticism]], or [[moral relativism|relativism]], according to
---
> behaving immorally.  It is possible to use an easy sort of [[moral skepticism|skepticism]],
> or [[moral relativism|relativism]], according to
------
Playing_cards|984623267
1c1,13
< #REDIRECT [[Games/Cards]]
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[Games/Cards|games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
> 
> The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs similar to those on modern [[Mah Jongg]] tiles (paper cards came before tiles in China).  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four "suits": polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the bamboo sticks and circles of their Chinese ancestors), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards (cards identified by the number of suit symbols or "pips" they show) and three "court" cards.  The Mameluke court cards showed abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of miltary officers.  Europeans changed the court cards to represent European royalty and attendants, and created many other variations such as different suit systems and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
> 
> Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe in the 1400s with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  In most of the world today, they are primarily used for [[cartomancy]].
> 
> The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].  Although the Joker card often bears the image of a fool, which is one of the images of the Tarot deck, it not believed that there is any relation.  The most common form of cards now in use is a deck comprising the four French suits, each of which has ten spot cards (the one-spot being called an "Ace"), and three court cards of the Rouen design called "King", "Queen", and "Jack" (or less commonly "Knave").  The decks are generally sold with two Jokers (one often of more colorful or intricate design than the other).  It is also common practice now for the Ace of spades to bear special markings that include the manufacturer's name and date of production.  This practice originated with the use of that card to carry a British tax stamp.
> 
> In addition to being used for hundreds of [[Games/Cards|games]], playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
> 
> For more information:
> * [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
> * [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company]
------
Games/Cards|984623449
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing games.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> Many games involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
3c3,34
< The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs similar to those on modern [[Mah Jongg]] tiles (paper cards came before tiles in China).  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four suits: polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the Chinese bamboos and circles), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards and three "court" cards, the latter being abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of miltary officers.  Europeans changed the court cards to represent European figures, and created many other variations such as different suit systems and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
---
> Trick-taking games
> * [[Whist]]
> * [[Bridge]]
> * [[Euchre]]
> * [[Skat]]
> * [[Tarot]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Spades]]
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
> 
> [[Gambling]] games
> * [[Poker]]
> * [[Boure]]
> * [[Blackjack]]
> * [[Panguingue]]
> * [[Red Dog]]
> * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
> 
> [[Rummy games]]
> * [[Gin Rummy]]
> * [[Gin]]
> * [[Canasta]]
> 
> [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
> 
> Other games
> * [[Old Maid]]
> * [[Go Fish]]
> * [[Macchiavelli]]
> * [[Spit]]
> * [[Grass]]
> * [[Pinochle]]
5,46d35
< Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe in the 1400s with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  In most of the world today, they are primarily used for [[cartomancy]].
< 
< The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards is called the "English" or "Anglo-American" design, although it originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].
< 
< In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
< 
< For more information:
< * [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
< * [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company]
< 
< Card [[Games]]
< * Trick-taking games
< ** [[Whist]]
< ** [[Bridge]]
< ** [[Euchre]]
< ** [[Skat]]
< ** [[Tarot]]
< ** [[Hearts]]
< ** [[Spades]]
< ** [[Nap|Napolean]]
< 
< * [[Gambling]] games
< ** [[Poker]]
< ** [[Boure]]
< ** [[Blackjack]]
< ** [[Panguingue]]
< ** [[Red Dog]]
< ** [[Pai Gow Poker]]
< 
< * [[Rummy games]]
< ** [[Gin Rummy]]
< ** [[Gin]]
< ** [[Canasta]]
< 
< * Other
< ** [[Old Maid]]
< ** [[Solitaire]]
< ** [[Go Fish]]
< ** [[Macchiavelli]]
< ** [[Spit]]
< ** [[Grass]]
< ** [[Pinochle]]
------
Games/Cards|984623496
1c1
< Many games involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
---
> Many [[games]] involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
------
Playing_cards|984623615
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[Games/Cards|games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[Games/Cards|games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
9c9,11
< In addition to being used for hundreds of [[Games/Cards|games]], playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
---
> In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
> 
> See also [[Games/Cards]].
------
Poker|984623688
1c1
< The [[Games/Cards|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central "pot" or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
---
> The [[Games/Cards|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central <i>pot</i> or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
------
Retronym|984623914
5c5
< * <i>Live poker</i>: What [[casino]]s call the kind of [[poker]] played with [[Games/Cards|cards]] by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from [[video poker]], which is far more common in casinos today.
---
> * <i>Live poker</i>: What [[casino]]s call the kind of [[poker]] played with [[Playing cards|cards]] by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from [[video poker]], which is far more common in casinos today.
------
Poker|984624137
30a31
> * Jargon
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984624402
39a40,44
> 
> ----
> 
> Is compiled/interpreted really an appropriate way to categorize languages?  After all, that's a function of the implementation, not the language itself.  Where would you put BASIC, for example?  Or FORTH?
> 
------
Programming_language|984624541
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
------
Constructed_language|984625285
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> language describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication or linguistic experimentation.  Some examples:
> 
> * [[Volapuk|Volap&uuml;k]]
> * [[Esperanto]]
> * [[Interlingua]]
> * [[Lojban]]
> 
> External links:
> * [http://personalweb.sierra.net/%7Espynx/FAQ/ Conlang FAQ]
> * [http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]
> 
------
Constructed_language|984625306
1c1
< The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> language describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication or linguistic experimentation.  Some examples:
---
> The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication or linguistic experimentation.  Some examples:
------
Artificial_languages|984625471
5c5,6
< * [[Lojban]] (=Loglan)
---
> * [[Lojban]] (and TLI Loglan)
> * [[Interlingua]]
14c15
< * [[Verlan]]
---
> * [[Verlan]]
------
Constructed_language|984625826
1c1,3
< The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication or linguistic experimentation.  Some examples:
---
> The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication, secrecy, use in fiction, or just linguistic experimentation.
> 
> Languages intended for general-purpose human use:
3d4
< * [[Volapuk|Volap&uuml;k]]
4a6
> * [[Lojban]] (and TLI Loglan)
6c8,19
< * [[Lojban]]
---
> * [[Volapuk|Volap&uuml;k]]
> 
> Languages of fictional worlds and peoples:
> 
> * [[New speak]]
> * [[Sindarin]]
> * [[Klingon]]
> 
> Humorous languages:
> 
> * Pig latin
> * Verlan
8a22
> 
------
Artificial_language|984625913
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term  <i>artificial</i> or <i>constructed</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication, secrecy, use in fiction, or just linguistic experimentation.
> 
> Languages intended for general-purpose human use:
> 
> * [[Esperanto]]
> * [[Lojban]] (and TLI Loglan)
> * [[Interlingua]]
> * [[Volapuk|Volap&uuml;k]]
> 
> Languages of fictional worlds and peoples:
> 
> * [[New speak]]
> * [[Sindarin]]
> * [[Klingon]]
> 
> Humorous languages:
> 
> * Pig latin
> * Verlan
> 
> External links:
> 
> * [http://personalweb.sierra.net/%7Espynx/FAQ/ Conlang FAQ]
> * [http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]
> 
> 
------
Constructed_language|984625982
1,25c1
< The term <i>constructed</i> or <i>artificial</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication, secrecy, use in fiction, or just linguistic experimentation.
< 
< Languages intended for general-purpose human use:
< 
< * [[Esperanto]]
< * [[Lojban]] (and TLI Loglan)
< * [[Interlingua]]
< * [[Volapuk|Volap&uuml;k]]
< 
< Languages of fictional worlds and peoples:
< 
< * [[New speak]]
< * [[Sindarin]]
< * [[Klingon]]
< 
< Humorous languages:
< 
< * Pig latin
< * Verlan
< 
< External links:
< 
< * [http://personalweb.sierra.net/%7Espynx/FAQ/ Conlang FAQ]
< * [http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial language]]
------
Artificial_languages|984626026
1,15c1
< Artifical languages is a rather broad heading that can include several different classes of languages.  The basic thing that distinguishes them is that they were made consciously by someone(s).
< 
< Languages intented for general purposes (communication, exploring concepts, etc)
< * [[Esperanto]]
< * [[Lojban]] (and TLI Loglan)
< * [[Interlingua]]
< 
< Languages of fictional worlds and peoples
< * [[New speak]]
< * [[Sindarin]]
< * [[Klingon]]
< 
< Humorous languages
< * [[Pig latin]]
< * [[Verlan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial language]]
------
Retronym|984626075
9c9
< * <i>Natural language</i>: A [[language]], used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer [[programming language]]s or [[constructed language]]s.
---
> * <i>Natural language</i>: A [[language]], used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer [[programming language]]s or [[artificial language]]s.
------
Language|984626267
35c35
< * [[Artificial languages]] ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
---
> * [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
------
Genre_Film_Theory|984631703
1c1,14
< Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new content was voracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.  This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of immitation.  As stories were reworked and re-shot, what becan to emerge by the end of the 1910s and certainly was noticeably present by the mid 20s was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen hundred of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive set up for the showdown.  The convention was created where when two men face each other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited construction of a film sequence.
---
> Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new
> content was voracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver
> to an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.
> This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of
> imitation.  As stories were reworked and reshot, what began to emerge
> by the end of the 1910s, and certainly was noticeably present by the mid
> 1920s, was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the
> information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen
> hundreds of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive setup for
> the showdown.  The convention was created where, when two men face each
> other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure
> bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy
> in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited
> construction of a film sequence.
3c16
< While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally as complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
---
> While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
7c20
< Much debate continues about what makes a genre and what doesn't as well as the way genres are constructed or deconstructed.
---
> Much debate continues about what makes a genre and what doesn't, as well as the way genres are constructed or deconstructed.
9c22
< (All of this barely touches the surface.)
---
> (All of this barely touches the surface.)
------
Artificial_language|984631743
18,19c18,19
< * Pig latin
< * Verlan
---
> * [[Pig latin]]
> * [[Verlan]]
------
Ethical_egoism|984632508
1c1
< ''Ethical egoism'' is the view that one ''ought'' to be motivated by one's own self-interest.  This can be contrasted with [[altruism]] and [[psychological egoism]].
---
> ''Ethical egoism'' is the view that one ''ought'' to do what is in one's own self-interest, if necessary to the exclusion of what is (or seems to be) in other people's interests.  This can be contrasted with both [[altruism]] and [[psychological egoism]].
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
LojbanLanguage|984633537
1,5c1
< la lojban. po'u le logji bangu
< 
< An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, formerly called Loglan.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.
< 
< A lot more information can be found [http://lojban.org/ here].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Lojban]]
------
Lojban|984633604
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> la lojban. po'u le logji bangu
> <br>An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, formerly called Loglan.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.  A lot more information can be found at http://lojban.org/.
------
Artificial_language|984633702
12,14c12,14
< * [[New speak]]
< * [[Sindarin]]
< * [[Klingon]]
---
> * [[2984/New speak|New speak]]
> * [[The Silmarillion/Sindarin|Sindarin]]
> * [[Star trek/Klingon|Klingon]]
21c21
< External links:
---
> External links (others can be found on language pages):
24d23
< * [http://www.lojban.org/ Lojban]
------
SandBox|984634120
12c12
<                            *     *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * H   H *                      &Theta;
14c14
<                            *      *                    /
---
>                            *   H   *                    /
39c39
<  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!
---
> �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
142,143d141
< --
< 
145a144
> That's not really the point though...the computer isn't mine to change, I was just testing it as a representative other-system of the sort that readers may frequently have.  If many people can't see the new ISO characters, than it could be a problem - saying they need to upgrade is kind of a handwavey gloss.  We need to replace [[Wiki ASCII codes page]] with some new resource explaining all of what to use and what not to use.  The SandBox isn't supposed to be [[How does one edit a page]].
148c147
< <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
---
> <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
------
Greek|984637753
1c1
< Of, or relating to [[Greece]], its people or its culture.
---
> Of, or relating to [[Greece]], its people or its culture.  Some famous Greeks have included [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
3,6c3,8
< Famous Greeks were PlatO, [[Aristotle]], AlexanderTheGreat, and last but not least ZorbasTheGreek.
< ----
< 
< ''See also'':  [[Greek language]], [[Hellenic civilization]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Greece]], [[Greek Mythology]]
---
> * [[Greek language]]
> * [[Greek alphabet]]
> * [[Greek Mythology]]
> * [[Hellenic civilization]]
> * [[Roman Empire]]
> * [[Byzantine Empire]]
------
Cult_Film|984637901
6a7,13
> ----
> 
> :[[Santa Sangre]]
> :[[Meet The Feebles]]
> :[[Eraserhead]]
> :[[Wizard Of Space And Time]]
> :[[Evil Dead]]
------
Greek_language|984638110
3c3,4
< Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has several dozen forms of the definite article (or so I am told). Since Greek words show their grammatical functions, explicitly, word order in Greek is hardly necessary for this purpose. A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Would it be a good idea to list some common root words (oligos, morphos, etc) on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to?----That would be 24 forms in the declension of the definite article. (4 cases)x(3 genders)x(2 numbers)=24
---
> Greek is famous for its ability to precisely specify syntax - for instance, it has a full 24 forms in the declension of the definite article (4 cases, 3 genders, 2 numbers):
> 
13c14,16
< Actually, adjectives have 8 more when you include the vocative (case of direct address), making 36.
---
> A large of number of words in [[English language|English]], [[Latin language|Latin]], and so forth, come from Greek.  Some of the common root words might be listed on a [[/Lexicon]] page for reference to.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''archês'') or whatever the derivation is.
> 
> Greek is written in its own special [[Greek alphabet|alphabet]].  It's a bit cumbersome to type in, though, so we may want to keep transliterating.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.
15c18
< Sorry no way to enter the Greek.
---
> ----
17c20
< We could transliterate until we get an alphabet available to us.  That's what [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Perseus] does, anyway.  Epsilon = e, eta = ê, omicron = o, omega = ô; everything else obvious.  That sort of thing might be useful to include anyways, for people who don't read the letters.  What I was thinking is that, for instance, on [[Oligarchy]] there could be a little note saying ([[Greek language|Gr]] ''oligos''+''archês'') or whatever the derivation is.
---
> ''What do you do about the cicumflex over the "ou" and "ô" in the genitive? Perhaps, the answer is in Perseus. I don't have the time to check right now.''
19c22
< '''Q'''.What do you do about the cicumflex over the "ou" and "ô" in the genitive? Perhaps, the answer is in Perseus. I don't have the time to check right now.
---
> Hmm...doesn't look like they do anything.  They have some other methods of transliteration listed, I just looked at the first one, which seemed the simplest.  Well, the ancient Greeks didn't use accents anyway...since I don't know the tongue, I have no clue how important they are (you can get by without macrons in Latin most of the time).  If they're crucial, then we could either mark them befind the letters (ô^) or give up until we have a real Greek alphabet.
21,22c24
< Hmm...doesn't look like they do anything.  They have some other methods of transliteration listed, I just looked at the first one, which seemed the simplest.  Well, the ancient Greeks didn't use accents anyway...since I don't know the tongue, I have no clue how important they are (you can get by without macrons in Latin most of the time).  If they're crucial, then we could either mark them befind the letters (ô^) or give up until we have a real Greek alphabet.----
< Greek stress indicated a rise in pitch, originally, and later a normal stress (loudness, clarity, etc.). I guess I am so used to seeing it that Greek looks strange without it, but if Perseus can do it, I guess we can.
---
> ''Greek stress indicated a rise in pitch, originally, and later a normal stress (loudness, clarity, etc.). I guess I am so used to seeing it that Greek looks strange without it, but if Perseus can do it, I guess we can.''
------
France|984642985
3c3
< Cities include [[Abbeville France|Abbevile]], which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
---
> Cities include [[Abbeville France|Abbeville]], which seems to be the most important because it starts the earliest in the alphabet.
------
SandBox|984644788
147a148,149
> 
> Wow!  Logicians should be happy!
------
CopyrightTalk|984646112
68a69,72
> ----
> Be sure to consider the flip side of the coin, however.  Biddle Entertainment provides the precious little money you mentioned in exchange for complete control of your work.  If they decide to let it go out of print or stop advertising it, there's nothing you or I can really do about it.  If it is in print and I find that it's a nice piece of authorship, I can tell everyone here on the Wiki about it, but I'm prevented from sharing it with them - the best I can do is suggest that they spend $15 on a CD or mail order a copy of the score/article from one of Biddle's retailers.  And most detrimentally, IMHO, you and I and our children and grandchildren won't ever be able to build on your work without Biddle's permission, even long after you've passed away.  I and others you've never even met may someday have great ideas about how a few tweaks here or there might make your work fit a particular need, or bring it up to date with a new development.  But if Biddle doesn't feel like allowing it, it will go on rotting in their archives (assuming they actually keep your work in an archive) until our great-grandchildren are getting gray (and that's not an exaggeration - copyrights are now well past 70 years, and still growing).  So much for tomorrow's Mendelssohn discovering today's Bach.
> 
> Without IP law, to be sure, companies like Biddle won't have the allure of exclusive exploitation of your work to motivate them to sign contracts with you.  But when they and the pirates you mention press gazillions of copies of your work, they'll only be helping to spread your reputation to gazillions of people.  If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you, I'm free to take my business elsewhere and still be able to enjoy access to your work.  And you as an author will have an audience that's exactly as big as it deserves to be, and an insanely huge wealth of others' work to build on when you sit down with pen in hand. -J
------
Louvre|984647116
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Louvre, in Paris is an old and famous museum in Europe.
> This place become better trought the ages.
> The visitors can see the greatest collection of art objects.
> The attract is archeologic ( Greece, Egypt, Italy...) , historic, pictures, sculptures, architecture of the own mueum that's also build on an old fundation castel of the 13e century.
> With the new museum, you have acces to the entrance of the museum by a glass pyramide.
------
French_revolution|984648241
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Difficult to resume the impact of such story on the old continent.
> This occured during the 18th century, at this time a king, Louis 16th was the leader of France.
> But, his authority was very contested in the farmer population, which represents 90%. By the rise of the taxes rate, this part also called "Tiers-Etat", enter in rebellion, against the king power.
> We note here the big influence of Catholicism, take a very important place. The death sentence of the king was prounouced a few years after the Bastille take, in July 14th 1789, the national day.
> After the shutdown of the "Absolute Monarchie", after some trouble cause by this big new deal, a new kind of power was born, the republic, what can give to the people the rights to decide something themselves.
------
CopyrightTalk|984648992
0a1,9
> Can you be sued for air we breathe?<BR>
> Information should be free!<BR>
> The U.S. is a greedy society<BR>
> In ten years this problem will be over;<BR>
> There's no way to control information<BR>
> - the publishing-industry wil have to face that <B>OR</B><BR>
> we all will have to live in NWO [New World Order]
> [[Mathijs]]
> ----
------
CopyrightTalk|984649051
7,8c7
< we all will have to live in NWO [New World Order]
< [[Mathijs]]
---
> we all will have to live in NWO [[New World Order]]
------
AccessibleComputing|984650053
3,5c3,5
< * AccessibleSoftware
< * AccessibleWeb
< * LegalIssuesInAccessibleComputing
---
> * [[Accessible Software]]
> * [[Accessible Web]]
> * [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]]
------
Assistive_Technology|984650089
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user.---- 
> 
> The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
------
AssistiveTechnology|984650108
1,3c1
< Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user.---- 
< 
< The classic example of an AssistiveTechnology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Assistive Technology]]
------
Accessible_Computing|984650137
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This subject covers
> * [[Assistive Technology]]
> * [[Accessible Software]]
> * [[Accessible Web]]
> * [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]]
------
AccessibleComputing|984650159
1,5c1
< This subject covers
< * AssistiveTechnology
< * [[Accessible Software]]
< * [[Accessible Web]]
< * [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Accessible Computing]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN121|984650222
1,19c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce Rearden Metal, and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a bracelet out of the first Rearden Metal that is poured and gives it to his wife, Lillian.  Lillian cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time.  Also at the Rearden home are his brother Philip, his mother, and a friend, /PaulLarkin, who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in /Washington.  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the /SanctionOfTheVictim, which is a central concept of AtlasShrugged.  The abuse Rearden receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the firs part of the scene.
< ----
< * Setting
< /ReardenSteel mills in /Philadelphia and Rearden's home.
< ----
< * Characters
<  [[/Gwen Ives|Gwen Ives]]: Mentioned.
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
<  /LillianRearden
<  /MrsBeacham: First and only mention.
<  /PassengerNumber3: First and only appearance.
<  /PassengerNumber4: First and only appearance.
<  /PaulLarkin
<  /PhilipRearden
<  /ReardensMother
<  /WorkerNumber1: First and only appearance.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section121]]
------
Anarchism|984650336
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Anarchism'' is the view that [[Anarchy]] is the best state of political affairs.
> 
> All anarchists are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
> 
> ----
> Traditionally, the term ''anarchism'' has been applied to a movement, here named TraditionalAnarchism just for convenience, dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.  Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order.  In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
> 
> Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.
> 
> See TraditionalAnarchism.
> ----
> More recently, the term ''anarchism'' has been used to describe AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
> 
> The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  
> 
> See AnarchoCapitalism.
> ----
> Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper (or not a kind of anarchism at all), or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
> 
> Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and may also claim that many anarchists of the traditional sort are economically illiterate.
> 
> This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
> 
> You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
------
AnarchisM|984650356
1,24c1
< ''Anarchism'' is the view that [[Anarchy]] is the best state of political affairs.
< 
< All anarchists are united in their opposition to the existence of government, but they part company soon after on issues of private property and social institutions generally.
< 
< ----
< Traditionally, the term ''anarchism'' has been applied to a movement, here named TraditionalAnarchism just for convenience, dedicated to the abolition of illegitimate authority and the establishment of a social order without hierarchy.  Proponents of the extent system equate its abolition with the abolition of all social order.  In their time, Monarchists accused Republicans of seeking the destruction of all social order. 
< 
< Prominent anarchists of the traditional sort include EmmaGoldman, MikhailBakunin, and NoamChomsky.
< 
< See TraditionalAnarchism.
< ----
< More recently, the term ''anarchism'' has been used to describe AnarchoCapitalism, which may be loosely defined as the idea that there should not be a single government, but rather that the traditional functions of government might be best handled by private courts and defense agencies.  
< 
< The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  
< 
< See AnarchoCapitalism.
< ----
< Proponents of these two views sometimes view each other with some hostility.  Proponents of TraditionalAnarchism may view AnarchoCapitalism as either a grave misunderstanding of anarchism proper (or not a kind of anarchism at all), or a special case of the rejection of government authority in favor of capitalist authority.  Terms such as "baseless" and "oversimplistic" may be used.
< 
< Advocates of AnarchoCapitalism may contend that TraditionalAnarchism is ill-defined, and most likely will reject the view that there is any such thing as 'capitalist authority'  and may also claim that many anarchists of the traditional sort are economically illiterate.
< 
< This page will not settle any disputes between the two, but hopes instead to acknowledge the facts of the situation (that both use the term, rightly or wrongly), and to point to separate treatments of both.
< 
< You can see a little bit of the lively debate here: /AnarchyTalk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Anarchism]]
------
Anarchism|984650390
14c14
< The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is DavidFriedman, son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  
---
> The most prominent theorist of AnarchoCapitalism is [[David Friedman]], son of NobelPrize/EconomicSciences winner MiltonFriedman.  
------
AtlasShrugged/Louisiana|984651077
1c1
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] finds a wood-burning locomotive in Louisiana which is used to run trains on the /SanSebastianLine.  This is mentioned in /SectioN132.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Louisiana]]
------
SummarizingStatisticalData|984651395
1c1
< see [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Summarizing Statistical Data]]
------
AtlasShrugged/MysteryWorker|984652709
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Mystery Worker]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Mystery Worker]]
------
New_topics|984652764
2c2,14
< as of 2 am 14th March, Wiki server time)
---
> as of about 1.30 am 15th March, Wikipedia server time
> 
> [[French revolution]] -- 
> [[Artificial language]] -- 
> [[Bomfog]] -- 
> [[Learning music by ear]] -- 
> [[Harmonic accompaniment]] -- 
> [[Dance music]] -- 
> [[Television]] -- 
> [[Entertainment]] -- 
> [[Electronic Music]] -- 
> [[John Tenniel]] -- 
> [[Punch and Judy]] -- 
41,60d52
< 
< [[Logrolling]] -- [[NonEmpty]] -- [[Statistics/Multivariate]] -- [[Terraforming]] -- [[Film History/Russia]] -- [[Film History/France]] -- 
< [[Film Genres]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- 
< [[Homepage definition]] -- [[GNU Free Documentation License]] -- 
< [[Tort]] -- 
< [[The motivation to philosophize]] -- 
< [[Philosophy of religion]] -- 
< [[Constitution]] -- 
< [[Linnaean taxonomy]] -- 
< [[Duopoly]] -- 
< [[Reed College]] -- 
< [[Isomer]] -- 
< [[Monopolistic competition]] -- 
< [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] -- 
< [[Natural monopoly]] -- 
< [[Monopoly]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia-L]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia category schemes]] -- 
< [[Market forms]] -- 
< [[Countries of the world]] 
------
The_Time_Machine|984652900
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Title of a book by [[H.G. Wells]], later made into a [[Film]] of the same name
> 
> The Book
> 
> Wells had considered the notion of time travel, having written an (unpublished)  story he had titled `The Chronic Argonauts'. He had thought of using some of this material in a series of articles in the Pall Mall gazette, until the publisher asked him if he could instead do a serial novel on the same theme;  Wells readily agreed, and was paid 100 pounds on its publication in 1896.
> 
> The (unnnamed) time Traveller, having demonstrated to friends that time is a fourth dimension, and that suitable apparatus can move back and forth in this fourth dimension, constructs a larger machine capable of carrying himself. His journey forward in time takes him to an apparently peaceful, pastoral future, filled with happy, simple folk who call themselves the Eloi.
>   
> The flaws in this future are revealed when the Traveller realises that the class structure of his time has persisted until the human race has diverged into two branches. The upper classes have evolved into the ineffectual, not very bright Eloi, and the downtrodden lower classes have evolved into the bestial Morlocks, who toil underground, maintaining the machinery that keep the Eloi in happy leisure. This is not a one-sided exploitation, however, as the Eloi are being maintained as food for the Morlocks. After some adventures, the narrator retuens to his machine, and travels into the far future, seeing the last few living things on a dying Earth, returning to tell his story to friends, before disappearing forever into time.
> 
> 
> 
> The film
> 
> This was released in 1960, and is more of an adventure film, with the division of humanity being the result of a nuclear war centuries earlier - though the story line is otherwise not greatly changed.
> The film is notable for its ingenious [[Stop Motion|stop motion]] effects showing the world around the Time Traveller changing at breakneck speed as he travels through in time.
> 
> 
> (this is mostly from memory, I'll check the details)
------
Public_Enemy|984657717
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> From their form in New York in the mid/late 1980s, Public Enemy were a highly influential rap group.  Over a innovative brand of [[hip hop]] employing samples and scratching by DJ Terminator X, Chuck D's raps were frequently explicitly political, frequently concentrating on black pride and black power and taking a militant stand on many issues.  Their earlier work was also explicitly influence by the teaching of the [[Nation of Islam]].
> 
> Members:
> *[[/Chuck D]]
> *[[/Flava Flav]]
> *[[/Professor Griff]]
> *[[/Terminator X]]
> 
> Recommended records:
> * [[/It Takes A Nation Of Millions To Hold Us Back]]
> * [[/Fear Of A Black Planet]]
> * [[/Apocalypse 91 The Enemy Strikes Back]]
> 
> See also [http://www.publicenemy.com/ www.publicenemy.com]
------
Harmonic_accompaniment|984659709
1c1,3
< Harmonic accompaniment is music played to accompany a [[melody]] line; it is usually played by such instruments as (acoustic or electric) [[guitar]], [[piano]], and [[bass guitar]], but it can also be played by instruments that ordinary play the melody, such as the [[violin]].
---
> Harmonic accompaniment is music played to accompany a [[melody]] line; it is usually played by such instruments as (acoustic or electric) [[guitar]], [[piano]], [[organ]] and [[bass guitar]], but it can also be played by instruments that ordinary play the melody, such as the [[violin]].
> 
> See also [[chiffered bass]].
------
Public_Enemy|984664655
12c12
< * [[/Apocalypse 91 The Enemy Strikes Back]]
---
> * [[/Apocalypse 91 The Enemy Strikes Black]]
14c14
< See also [http://www.publicenemy.com/ www.publicenemy.com]
---
> See also [http://www.publicenemy.com/ www.publicenemy.com]
------
History|984664813
14a15,18
> ** [[History of France]]
> *** [[French revolution]]
> ** [[History of Spain]]
> *** [[Spanish Civil War]]
------
Language|984665111
1c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called FormalLanguages and ProgrammingLanguages, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called Formal Languages and Programming Languages, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
4,5c4,5
< * PhilosophyOfLanguage
< * SapirWhorfHypothesis
---
> * Philosophy of Language
> * Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
------
Mark_Twain|984665938
1,2c1,2
< Mark Twain was a pseudonym of Samuel Langhorn Clemens,
< born in 1835 and died in 1910.  He was best known
---
> Mark Twain, the pseudonym of Samuel Langhorn Clemens, was
> born in 1835 and died in 1910.  He is best known
4c4
< Tom Sawyer.  His classics [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]] are widely read in schools across the U.S.
---
> Tom Sawyer.  His classics [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]] are widely read in schools across the U.S., as well as in many other western countries.
7c7
< various libraries because Twain's use of [[local color]]
---
> various libraries, because Twain's use of [[local color]]
------
Academy_Awards/Art_Direction|984667761
1c1,126
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page should also list nominees for each year, instead of just listing the winners... 
> 
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best art diretcion in 1999. 
> 
> *1999 Rick Heinrichs; Peter Young (Set Decoration) - [[Sleepy Hollow]]
> *1998 Martin Childs; Jill Quertier (Set Decoration) - [[Shakespeare in Love]]
> *1997 Peter Lamont; Michael Ford (Set Decoration) - [[Titanic]]
> *1996 Stuart Craig; Stephenie McMillan (Set Decoration) - [[The English Patient]]
> *1995 Eugenio Zanetti - [[Restoration]]
> *1994 Ken Adam; Carolyn Scott (Set Decoration) - [[The Madness of King George]]
> *1993 Allan Starski; Ewa Braun (Set Decoration) - [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]]
> *1992 Luciana Arrighi; Ian Whittaker (Set Decoration) - [[Howards End]]
> *1991 Dennis Gassner; Nancy Haigh (Set Decoration) - [[Bugsy]]
> *1990 Richard Sylbert; Rick Simpson (Set Decoration) - [[Dick Tracy]]
> *1989 Anton Furst; Peter Young (Set Decoration) - [[Batman]]
> *1988 Stuart Craig; Gerard James (Set Decoration) - [[Dangerous Liaisons]]
> *1987 Ferdinando Scarfiotti; Bruno Cesari, Osvaldo Desideri (Set Decoration) - [[The Last Emperor]]
> *1986 Gianni Quaranta, Brian Ackland-Snow; Brian Savegar, Elio Altamura (Set Decoration) - [[A Room With a View]]
> *1985 Stephen Grimes; Josie Macavin (Set Decoration) - [[Out of Africa]]
> *1984 Patrizia von Brandenstein; Karel Cerny (Set Decoration) - [[Amadeus]]
> *1983 Anna Asp - [[Fanny and Alexander|Fanny & Alexander]]
> *1982 Stuart Craig, Bob Laing; Michael Seirton (Set Decoration) - [[Gandhi]]
> *1981 Norman Reynolds, Leslie Dilley; Michael Ford (Set Decoration) - [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]
> *1980 Pierre Guffroy, Jack Stephens - [[Tess]]
> *1979 Philip Rosenberg, Tony Walton; Edward Stewart, Gary Brink (Set Decoration) - [[All That Jazz]]
> *1978 Paul Sylbert, Edwin O'Donovan; George Gaines (Set Decoration) - [[Heaven Can Wait]]
> *1977 John Barry, Norman Reynolds, Leslie Dilley; Roger Christian (Set Decoration) - [[Star Wars]]
> *1976 George Jenkins; George Gaines (Set Decoration) - [[All the Presidents Men|All the President's Men]]
> *1975 Ken Adam, Roy Walker; Vernon Dixon (Set Decoration) - [[Barry Lyndon]]
> *1974 Dean Tavoularis, Angelo Graham; George R. Nelson (Set Decoration) - [[The Godfather Part II]]
> *1973 Henry Bumstead; James Payne (Set Decoration) - [[The Sting]]
> *1972 Rolf Zehetbauer, Jurgen Kiebach; Herbert Strabel (Set Decoration) - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 John Box, Ernest Archer, Jack Maxsted, Gil Parrondo; Vernon Dixon (Set Decoration) - [[Nicholas and Alexandra]]
> *1970 Urie McCleary, Gil Parrondo; Antonio Mateos, Pierre-Louis Thevenet (Set Decoration)- [[Patton]]
> *1969 John Decuir, Jack Martin Smith, Herman Blumenthal; Walter M. Scott, George Hopkins, Raphael Bretton (Set Decoration) - [[Hello Dolly|Hello, Dolly!]]
> *1968 John Box, Terence Marsh; Vernon Dixon, Ken Muggleston (Set Decoration) - [[Oliver|Oliver!]]
> *1967
> **B/W: John Truscott, Edward Carrere; John W. Brown (Set Decoration) - [[Camelot]]
> *1966
> **B/W: Richard Sylbert; George James Hopkins (Set Decoration) - [[Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]
> **Color: Jack Martin Smith, Dale Hennesy; Walter M. Scott, Stuart A. Reiss (Set Decoration) - [[Fantastic Voyage]]
> *1965 
> **B/W: Robert Clatworthy; Joseph Kish (Set Decoration) - [[Ship of Fools]]
> **Color: John Box, Terry Marsh; Dario Simoni (Set Decoration) - [[Doctor Zhivago]]
> *1964 
> **B/W: Vassilis Fotopoulos - [[Zorba the Greek]]
> **Color: Gene Allen, Cecil Beaton; George James Hopkins (Set Decoration) - [[My Fair Lady]]
> *1963
> **B/W: Gene Callahan - [[America America]]
> **Color: John Decuir, Jack Martin Smith, Hilyard Brown, Herman Blumenthal, Elven Webb, Maurice Pelling, Boris Juraga; Walter M.Scott, Paul S. Fox, Ray Moyer (Set Decoration) - [[Cleopatra]]
> *1962
> **B/W: Alexander Golitzen, Henry Bumstead; Oliver Emert (Set Decoration) - [[To Kill a Mockingbird]]
> **Color: Ohn Box, John Stoll; Dario Simoni (Set Decoration) - [[Lawrence of Arabia]]
> *1961 
> **B/W: Harry Horner; Gene Callahan (Set Decoration) - [[The Hustler]]
> **Color: Boris Leven; Victor A. Gangelin (Set Decoration) - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960
> **B/W: Alexander Trauner; Edward G. Boyle (Set Decoration) - [[The Apartment]]
> **Color: Alexander Golitzen, Eric Orbom; Russell A. Gausman, Julia Heron (Set Decoration) - [[Spartacus]]
> *1959
> **B/W: Lyle R. Wheeler, George W. Davis; Walter M. Scott, Stuart A. Reiss (Set Decoration) - [[The Diary of Anne Frank]]
> **Color: William A. Horning, Edward Carfagno; Hugh Hunt (Set Decoration) - [[Ben Hur|Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 William A. Horning, Preston Ames; Henry Grace, Keogh Gleason (Set Decoration) - [[Gigi]]
> *1957 Ted Haworth; Robert Priestley (Set Decoration) - [[Sayonara]]
> *1956
> **B/W: Cedric Gibbons, Malcolm F. Brown; Edwin B. Willis, F. Keogh Gleason (Set Decoration) - [[Somebody Up There Likes Me]]
> **Color: Lyle R. Wheeler, John Decuir; Walter M. Scott, Paul S. Fox (Set Decoration) - [[The King and I]]
> *1955
> **B/W: Hal Pereira, Tambi Larsen; Sam Comer, Arthur Krams (Set Decoration) - [[The Rose Tattoo]]
> **Color: William Flannery, Jo Mielziner; Robert Priestley (Set Decoration) - [[Picnic]]
> *1954
> **B/W: Richard Day - [[On the Waterfront]]
> **Color: John Meehan; Emile Kuri (Set Decoration) - [[20000 Leagues Under the Sea|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]
> *1953
> **B/W: Cedric Gibbons, Edward Carfagno; Edwin B. Willis, Hugh Hunt (Set Decoration) - [[Julius Caesar]]
> **Color: Lyle Wheeler, George W. Davis; Walter M. Scott, Paul S. Fox (Set Decoration) - [[The Robe]]
> *1952 
> **B/W: Cedric Gibbons, Edward Carfagno; Edwin B. Willis, Keogh Gleason (Set Decoration) - [[The Bad and the Beautiful]]
> **Color: Paul Sheriff; Marcel Vertes (Set Decoration) - [[Moulin Rouge]]
> *1951
> **B/W:Richard Day; George James Hopkins (Set Decoration) - [[A Streetcar Named Desire]]
> **Color: Cedric Gibbons, Preston Ames; Edwin B. Willis, Keogh Gleason (Set Decoration) - [[An American in Paris]]
> *1950 
> **B/W: Hans Dreier, John Meehan; Sam Comer, Ray Moyer (Set Decoration) - [[Sunset Blvd.]]
> **Color: Hans Dreier, Walter Tyler; Sam Comer, Ray Moyer (Set Decoration) - [[Samson And Delilah]]
> *1949 
> **B/W: Harry Horner, John Meehan; Emile Kuri (Set Decoration) - [[The Heiress]]
> **Color:Cedric Gibbons, Paul Groesse; Edwin B. Willis, Jack D. Moore (Set Decoration) - [[Little Women]]
> *1948
> **B/W: Roger K. Furse; Carmen Dillon (Set Decoration) - [[Hamlet]]
> **Color: Hein Heckroth; Arthur Lawson (Set Decoration) - [[The Red Shoes]]
> *1947 
> **B/W: John Bryan; Wilfred Shingleton (Set Decoration) - [[Great Expectations]]
> Alfred Junge - [[Black Narcissus]]
> *1946
> **B/W: William Darling, Lyle Wheeler; Thomas Little, Frank E. Hughes (Interior Decoration) - [[Anna and the King of Siam]]
> **Color: Cedric Gibbons, Paul Groesse; Edwin B. Willis (Interior Decoration) - [[The Yearling]]
> *1945 
> **B/W: Wiard Ihnen; A. Roland Fields (Interior Decoration) - [[Blood on the Sun]]
> **Color: Hans Dreier, Ernst Fegte; Sam Comer (Interior Decoration) - [[Frenchman's Creek]]
> *1944
> **B/W: Cedric Gibbons, William Ferrari; Paul Huldschinsky, Edwin B. Willis (Interior Decoration) - [[Gaslight]]
> **Color: Wiard Ihnen; Thomas Little (Interior Decoration) - [[Wilson]]
> *1943
> **B/W: James Basevi, William Darling; Thomas Little (Interior Decoration) - [[The Song of Bernadette]]
> **Color: Alexander Golitzen, John B. Goodman; Russell A. Gausman, Ira S. Webb (Interior Decoration) - [[Phantom of the Opera]]
> *1942
> **B/W: Richard Day, Joseph Wright; Thomas Little (Interior Decoration) - [[This Above All]]
> **Color: Richard Day, Joseph Wright; Thomas Little (Interior Decoration) - [[My Gal Sal]]
> *1941 
> **B/W: Richard Day, Nathan Juran; Thomas Little (Interior Decoration) - [[How Green Was My Valley]]
> **Color: Cedric Gibbons, Urie McCleary; Edwin B. Willis (Interior Decoration) - [[Blossoms in the Dust]]
> *1940 Cedric Gibbons, Paul Groesse - [[Pride and Prejudice]]
> Vincent Korda - [[The Thief of Bagdad]]
> *1939 Lyle Wheeler - [[Gone With the Wind]]
> *1938 Carl J. Weyl - [[The Adventures of Robin Hood]]
> *1937 Stephen Goosson - [[Lost Horizon]]
> *1936 Richard Day - [[Dodsworth]]
> *1935 Richard Day - [[The Dark Angel]]
> *1934 Cedric Gibbons, Frederic Hope - [[The Merry Widow Night]]
> *1933 William S. Darling - [[Cavalcade]]
> *1932 Gordon Wiles - [[Transatlantic]]
> *1931 Max Ree - [[Cimarron]]
> *1930 Herman Rosse - [[King of Jazz]]
> *1929 Cedric Gibbons - [[The Bridge of San Luis Rey]]
> *1928 William Cameron Menzies - [[The Dove]] and [[Tempest]]
------
Academy_Awards/Art_Direction|984667968
37,38c37
< *1967
< **B/W: John Truscott, Edward Carrere; John W. Brown (Set Decoration) - [[Camelot]]
---
> *1967 John Truscott, Edward Carrere; John W. Brown (Set Decoration) - [[Camelot]]
94c93
< Alfred Junge - [[Black Narcissus]]
---
> ** Color: Alfred Junge - [[Black Narcissus]]
113,114c112,114
< *1940 Cedric Gibbons, Paul Groesse - [[Pride and Prejudice]]
< Vincent Korda - [[The Thief of Bagdad]]
---
> *1940 
> **B/W: Cedric Gibbons, Paul Groesse - [[Pride and Prejudice]]
> ** Color: Vincent Korda - [[The Thief of Bagdad]]
------
Poles|984670141
6a7,56
> '''In detail:'''<BR>
> Population: 38,646,023 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 19% (male 3,767,454; female 3,587,822) 
> 15-64 years: 69% (male 13,201,825; female 13,352,950) 
> 65 years and over: 12% (male 1,809,839; female 2,926,133) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: -0.04% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 10.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 9.99 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.62 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 9.61 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 73.19 years 
> male: 69.01 years 
> female: 77.6 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.38 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Pole(s) 
> adjective: Polish 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Polish 97.6%, German 1.3%, Ukrainian 0.6%, Byelorussian 0.5% (1990 est.) 
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 95% (about 75% practicing), Eastern Orthodox, Protestant, and other 5% 
> 
> Languages: Polish 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 99% 
> male: 99% 
> female: 98% (1978 est.) 
> 
> 
> 
------
Poland|984670248
13a14,19
> [[/Geography]]
> 
> [[/People]]
> 
> [[/Economy]]
> 
------
Poland/People|984670268
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poles]]
------
Poland/Geography|984670417
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Central [[Europe]], east of [[Germany]] 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 52 00 N, 20 00 E 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 312,685 sq km 
> land: 304,465 sq km 
> water: 8,220 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than [[New Mexico]] 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 2,888 km 
> border countries: [[Belarus]] 605 km, [[Czech Republic]] 658 km, [[Germany]] 456 km, [[Lithuania]] 91 km, [[Russia]] (Kaliningrad Oblast) 206 km, [[Slovakia]] 444 km, [[Ukraine]] 428 km 
> 
> Coastline: 491 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> exclusive economic zone: defined by international treaties 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: temperate with cold, cloudy, moderately severe winters with frequent precipitation; mild summers with frequent showers and thundershowers 
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat plain; mountains along southern border 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Raczki Elblaskie -2 m 
> highest point: Rysy 2,499 m 
> 
> Natural resources: coal, sulfur, copper, natural gas, silver, lead, salt, arable land 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 47% 
> permanent crops: 1% 
> permanent pastures: 13% 
> forests and woodland: 29% 
> other: 10% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: NA 
> 
> Environment - current issues: situation has improved since 1989 due to decline in heavy industry and increased environmental concern by postcommunist
> governments; air pollution nonetheless remains serious because of sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants, and the resulting acid rain has caused forest
> damage; water pollution from industrial and municipal sources is also a problem, as is disposal of hazardous wastes 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Air Pollution, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification,
> Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol 
> 
> Geography - note: historically, an area of conflict because of flat terrain and the lack of natural barriers on the [[North European Plain]] 
> 
------
Poles|984670455
6c6,8
< 
---
> ----
> It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII
> ----
------
Poland/Economy|984670526
1c1,79
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: [[Poland]] today stands out as one of the most successful and open transition economies. The privatization of small and medium state-owned
> companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms marked the rapid development of a private sector now responsible for 70% of economic activity. In contrast to
> the vibrant expansion of private non-farm activity, the large agriculture component remains handicapped by structural problems, surplus labor, inefficient small farms,
> and lack of investment. The government's determination to enter the EU as soon as possible affects most aspects of its economic policies. Improving [[Poland]]'s
> worsening current account deficit and tightening monetary policy, now focused on inflation targeting, also are priorities. Warsaw continues to hold the budget deficit
> to around 2% of GDP. Structural reforms advanced in pensions, health care, and public administration in 1999, but resulted in larger than anticipated fiscal
> pressures. Further progress on public finance depends mainly on privatization of Poland's remaining state sector. Restructuring and privatization of "sensitive sectors"
> (e.g., coal and steel) has begun, but work remains to be done. Growth in 2000 should be moderately above 1999. 
> 
> [[GDP]]: purchasing power parity - $276.5 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $7,200 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 5% 
> industry: 35% 
> services: 60% (1998) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 23.8% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: 4% 
> highest 10%: 22.1% (1992) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 8.4% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 15.3 million (1998 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry 25%, agriculture 25%, services 50% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 11% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $31.6 billion 
> expenditures: $34.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) 
> 
> Industries: machine building, iron and steel, coal mining, chemicals, shipbuilding, food processing, glass, beverages, textiles 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 134.879 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 96.47% 
> hydro: 3.18% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0.35% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 121.938 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 8.1 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 4.6 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> [[Agriculture]] - products: potatoes, fruits, vegetables, wheat; poultry, eggs, pork, beef, milk, cheese 
> 
> Exports: $27.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: manufactured goods and chemicals 57%, machinery and equipment 21%, food and live animals 12%, mineral fuels 7% (1997) 
> 
> Exports - partners: Germany 36%, Italy 5.8%, Russia 5.6%, Netherlands 4.7%, France 4.6%, Ukraine 3.8%, UK 3.8 (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $40.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: manufactured goods and chemicals 43%, machinery and equipment 36%, mineral fuels 9%, food and live animals 8% (1997) 
> 
> Imports - partners: Germany 25.8%, Italy 9.4%, France 6.5%, Russia 5.1%, UK 4.9%, US 3.8%, Netherlands 3.8% (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $44 billion (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $4.312 billion (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 zloty (Zl) = 100 groszy 
> 
> Exchange rates: zlotych (Zl) per US$1 - 4.1696 (December 1999), 3.9671 (1999), 3.4754 (1998), 3.2793 (1997), 2.6961 (1996), 2.4250 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
Poland/Economy|984670631
63c63
< Exports - partners: Germany 36%, Italy 5.8%, Russia 5.6%, Netherlands 4.7%, France 4.6%, Ukraine 3.8%, UK 3.8 (1998) 
---
> Exports - partners: [[Germany]] 36%, [[Italy]] 5.8%, [[Russia]] 5.6%, [[Netherlands]] 4.7%, [[France]] 4.6%, [[Ukraine]] 3.8%, [[United Kingdom]] 3.8 (1998) 
69c69
< Imports - partners: Germany 25.8%, Italy 9.4%, France 6.5%, Russia 5.1%, UK 4.9%, US 3.8%, Netherlands 3.8% (1998) 
---
> Imports - partners: [[Germany]] 25.8%, [[Italy]] 9.4%, [[France]] 6.5%, [[Russia]] 5.1%, [[United Kingdom]] 4.9%, [[United States]] 3.8%, [[Netherlands]] 3.8% (1998) 
79c79
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
---
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
------
Poles|984670738
7,8d6
< It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII
< ----
65a64
> /Talk
------
Poles/Talk|984670919
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII
> 
> :''Democracy does prosper - thank you very much! WWII and the following years were very turbulent. Damage surely was done. On the other hand, however, problems that now occur in former Yugoslavia are highly unlikely.'' - WojPob
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|984671835
9c9,11
< I think that once you make a significant change to a page, you can feel free to remove the originator's name.  He will have no grounds for complaint, for just the reasons you state.
---
> I think that once you make a significant change to a page, you can feel free to remove the originator's name.  He will have no grounds for complaint, for just the reasons you state.
> ----
> '''Q.'''Is it possible for some ignorant to "del *.*"?
------
Poles/Talk|984672021
1c1
< It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII
---
> It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII - Mathijs
3a4,5
> 
> 
------
Poles/Talk|984672287
4a5
> And look 'democracy' in Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria
------
Table_of_Integrals|984672900
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Since, unlike [[differentiation]], [[integration]] is non-trivial, tables of known integrals are often useful.
> 
> Here is the beginning of such a table:
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>'''Function'''</td><td>'''Integral'''</td></tr>
> <tr><td>cos(x)</td><td>sin(x)</td></tr>
> <tr><td>sin(x)</td><td>-cos(x)</td></tr>
> <tr><td>x<sup>n</sup> (n not -1) </td>
> <td>x<sup>n+1</sup>/(n+1)</td></tr> 
> <tr><td>x<sup>-1</sup></td><td>log(x)</td></tr>
> <tr><td>log(x)</td><td>x log(x) - x</td></tr>
> 
> </table>
------
Cult_Film|984674482
2a3
> :[[Blues Brothers]]
------
Action_Film|984675280
1c1,7
< *[[Heat Film]]
---
> Action films usually involve a fairly straight story of good guys versus bad guys, where most dispautes are resolved by using physical force. Who exactly the good guys differs from film to film, but usually, they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers. In the 1980ies and before, they were very often [[Communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[Propaganda Film]]s. 
> 
> Action films also constitute very good examples for [[Feminist Film Theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear. Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
> 
> Famous films:
> 
> *[[Heat Film|Heat]]
8c14,25
< *[[Rambo]]
---
> *[[Rambo]]
> *[[Missing in Action]]
> 
> Famous actors:
> 
> *[[Chuck Norris]]
> *[[Sylvester Stallone]]
> *[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
> *[[Bruce Willis]]
> *[[Jean-Claude van Damme]]
> *[[Steven Segal]]
> *[[Michael Dudikoff]]
------
Literary_Art|984675641
1c1
< [[Literature]] -- [[Poetry]] -- [[Drama]] (see also [[Theater]]) -- [[The Novel]] -- ScienceFiction
---
> [[Literature]] -- [[Poetry]] -- [[Drama]] (see also [[Theater]]) -- [[The Novel]] -- [[Science Fiction]]
3c3
< See also LiteraryArtTalk
---
> See also LiteraryArtTalk
------
Requested_articles|984675891
32c32
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]]
34c34
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
Requested_articles|984675988
30c30
< <b>[[Dungeons and Dragons]]: </b>[[Dungeons and Dragons/Dwarf]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Elf]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Troll]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Ogre]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Dragon]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Halfling]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Gnome]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Vampire]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Spectre]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Zombie]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Wraith]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Goblin]] -- [[Dungeons and Dragons/Ghoul]]
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]] -- [[Goblin]] -- [[Ghoul]]
------
Requested_articles|984676056
7c7
< <b>The Netherlands:</b>[[Culture of the Netherlands]] -- [[history of the Netherlands]] -- [[The Dutch monarchy]] -- [[Dutch cities]] 
---
> <b>The Netherlands:</b>[[Netherlands/Culture]] -- [[History of the Netherlands]] -- [[The Dutch monarchy]] -- [[Netherlands/Cities]] 
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|984677479
9a10,11
> 
> :Although there is no clear consensus, the other wikis generally leave names on pages even after editing.  If one is changing the words of other people, however, it may be useful to move the names to a separate "Contributors:" section.
11c13,17
< '''Q.'''Is it possible for some ignorant to "del *.*"?
---
> '''Q.'''Is it possible for some ignorant to "del *.*"?
> 
> '''A1.''' No, because this is not a MS-DOS system.  :-)
> 
> '''A2.''' Not really.  You need to be a wiki administrator (with a special password) to permanently and totally delete pages.  Any other users could remove the text of a page, but any other user could restore the text from the "kept pages" archive (which is kept for at least 2 weeks in the default wiki setup).  If someone did an extensive attack, they could be blocked from further editing by the admins.  (In the future a new feature may also allow an admin to undo all recent edits from a particular user or IP address.)
------
Table_of_Integrals|984678572
13c13
< 
---
> <tr><td>(1-x<sup>2</sup>)<sup>-1/2</sup></td><td>sin<sup>-1</sup>(x)</td></tr>
------
CopyrightTalk|984678612
80a81,82
> ----
> "If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you..."  In the real world, you will not give a hoot in hell whether people who give you my intellectual creations have dealt fairly with me or not.  I have not the resources to publish them for money.  So, I gotta get Biddle to do it.  They won't, unless they can make a buck.  So, the work has to be worthy, and it's gotta be property.  Then they can sell it, and not only do my ideas see the light of day, I don't die of starvation before someone asks me to sign a copy.
------
Requested_articles|984678660
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calulus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
34c34
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
------
Fundamental_Theorem_of_Calculus|984679072
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Expressed most simply this states the integration and differentiation are inverses of one another. i.e. if the [[function]] f(x) is continuous on some interval (a,b) containing the point c, then the function F(x) defined by:
> <pre>
>        x
>        /
> F(x) = | f(s) ds
>        /
>        c
> </pre>
> is differentiable and its [[derivative]] is f(x).
------
Public_Enemy|984679464
1c1
< From their form in New York in the mid/late 1980s, Public Enemy were a highly influential rap group.  Over a innovative brand of [[hip hop]] employing samples and scratching by DJ Terminator X, Chuck D's raps were frequently explicitly political, frequently concentrating on black pride and black power and taking a militant stand on many issues.  Their earlier work was also explicitly influence by the teaching of the [[Nation of Islam]].
---
> From their form in New York in the mid/late 1980s, Public Enemy were a highly influential [[rap music|rap]] group.  Over an innovative brand of [[hip hop]] employing samples and scratching by DJ Terminator X, Chuck D's raps were frequently explicitly political, frequently concentrating on black pride and black power and taking a militant stand on many issues.  Their earlier work was also explicitly influenced by the teachings of the [[Nation of Islam]].
14c14
< See also [http://www.publicenemy.com/ www.publicenemy.com]
---
> See also [http://www.publicenemy.com/ www.publicenemy.com]
------
Language|984679729
1c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called Formal Languages and Programming Languages, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called formal languages and [[programming language]]s, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
------
Action_Film|984680154
1c1
< Action films usually involve a fairly straight story of good guys versus bad guys, where most dispautes are resolved by using physical force. Who exactly the good guys differs from film to film, but usually, they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers. In the 1980ies and before, they were very often [[Communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[Propaganda Film]]s. 
---
> Action [[film]]s usually involve a fairly straightforward story of good guys versus bad guys, where most disputes are resolved by using physical force.  Who exactly the good guys are differs from film to film, but usually they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers.  In the 1980s and before, they were very often [[communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[Propaganda Film]]s. 
3c3
< Action films also constitute very good examples for [[Feminist Film Theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear. Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
---
> Action films also constitute very good examples for [[Feminist Film Theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear.  Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
25c25
< *[[Michael Dudikoff]]
---
> *[[Michael Dudikoff]]
------
Public_Enemy|984680613
1c1
< From their form in New York in the mid/late 1980s, Public Enemy were a highly influential [[rap music|rap]] group.  Over an innovative brand of [[hip hop]] employing samples and scratching by DJ Terminator X, Chuck D's raps were frequently explicitly political, frequently concentrating on black pride and black power and taking a militant stand on many issues.  Their earlier work was also explicitly influenced by the teachings of the [[Nation of Islam]].
---
> From their form in New York in the mid/late 1980s, Public Enemy were a highly influential [[rap music|rap]] group.  Over an innovative brand of [[hip hop]] employing samples and scratching by DJ Terminator X, Chuck D's raps were frequently explicitly political, often concentrating on black pride and black power and taking a militant stand on many issues.  Their earlier work was also explicitly influenced by the teachings of the [[Nation of Islam]].
------
CopyrightTalk|984680845
82a83,86
> 
> --
> 
> That isn't true anymore: the same technology that makes "piracy" cheap and easy also makes distribution and advertisement cheap and easy.  Any artist can publish his work for almost no cost to get a following (such as the the South Park guys did with their Christmas cartoon), then trade upon the popularity it generates in other (non-piratable) ways, like live performances, custom work, time-dependent work, etc.  No big publishing company needed.  Will lack of copyrights put lots of publishers out of business?  Absolutely, and good riddance.  Will it harm the artists themselves?  No, not those who are smart enough to realize they don't need the publishers anymore, and whose work is good enough to create demand among consumers, who will do whatever they have to do--including pay--to get the art they want.
------
Language|984681159
5c5
< * Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
---
> * [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]
------
Poles/Talk|984681690
6a7
> :''Those countries still have a long way to go, any comparisons do not make much sense...'' - WojPob
------
Cult_Film|984683369
14c14,15
< :[[Evil Dead]]
---
> :[[Evil Dead]]
> :[[Apocalypse Now]]
------
Cult_Film|984685244
15c15,16
< :[[Apocalypse Now]]
---
> :[[Apocalypse Now]]
> :[[Mars Attacks]]
------
France|984685460
1c1,5
< A European country, home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their [[Constitution]], they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> A [[country]] located in western [[Europe]].
> 
> The roots of France as a separate entity started with [[Charlemagne]] dividing his empire into the west [[Frank]]s.
> 
> France is the home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their [[Constitution]], they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
4a9,12
> See also:
> *[[Paris]]
> *[[Vichy France]]
> *[[French]]
------
Dog_Tag|984685694
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dog tag is an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.
> 
> The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.
> 
> It helps identify the wounded and dead.
> 
> 
------
Dog_Tag|984685866
1,6c1
< A dog tag is an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.
< 
< The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.
< 
< It helps identify the wounded and dead.
< 
---
> A dog tag is a small flat metal tag worn on chains or collars around the neck by dogs so that their owners can be notified if they are lost.
7a3
> A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
------
Dog_Tag|984685890
1,3c1
< A dog tag is a small flat metal tag worn on chains or collars around the neck by dogs so that their owners can be notified if they are lost.
< 
< A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dog tag]]
------
Dog_tag|984685897
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dog tag is a small flat metal tag worn on chains or collars around the neck by dogs so that their owners can be notified if they are lost.
> 
> A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|984686074
11a12,13
> 
> :But of course, why should Wikipedia be constrained by tradition?  One problem associated with putting names on pages in at all is that it then seems that that person is taking responsibility for the page, which makes other people less likely to change it.
------
Requested_articles|984686372
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus]] --  [[Table of Integrals]] -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
26c26
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]] -- [[Dog Tag]] -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
------
PhilosophyOfLanguage|984686459
1,21c1
< See also TheMeaningOfMeaning; ProperNames; MeaningfulNess; NaiveRelativismAboutTruth; and TheoriesOfTruth.
< ----
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited>
< 
< Today our topic is the philosophy of language, sometimes called <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i>.  This field in particular is difficult to give a clear definition of; but here is a definition anyway:
< 
< The <i>philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>language</i> is the study of philosophical questions about language, especially about meaning and truth (of words, phrases, and sentences) in general.
< 
< I say "in general" at the end of the definition because the philosophy of language doesn’t ask what <i>particular</i> words mean, or whether <i>particular</i> sentences are true.  (Except of course for words and sentences about the language.)  Rather, it asks what meaning and truth <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are.  What are the meanings of the words "meaning" and "truth"?  How are we to understand these concepts?
< 
< Maybe, on first glance, the philosophy of language doesn’t look so interesting.  To talk about the meaning of words sounds like we’re talking about dry boring stuff -- grammar and dictionaries.  But remember, grammar books and dictionaries only <i>codify</i> how we use language.  Codification might indeed be boring.  But language <i>itself</i> is extremely important and of daily interest to us all.  After all, you come to class to listen to me use language for hours on end!  Or of far more interest than that would be the language you use with your girlfriend or boyfriend, or spouse; that’s bound to be of extreme interest to you.
< 
< And of course that’s far from the end of it.  Language, meaning, and truth are important not just because they are used daily with important effects; language has shaped your development, from your earliest childhood and continuing to the present.  You have a whole integrated set of concepts which you have associated with certain words -- words like "object," "love," "good," "God," "masculine," "feminine," "art," "government," and so on.  Some philosophers have even thought that it is impossible to <i>have</i> <i>thoughts</i> without having learned a language.  By learning the <i>meanings</i> of these words, you have shaped an entire view of the universe and your place in it.  I am not saying that your philosophy is <i>only</i> <i>or</i> <i>just</i> your understanding of what important words mean; of course there’s much more to it than that.  What I’m saying is that in arriving at your present philosophical outlook, questions about meaning have played a central, extremely important role.  Accordingly it’s not by accident that in these chapters I typically begin by clarifying terminology, drawing distinctions between different senses of words, and so forth.  My point then is that the philosophy of language is important because language is important, and language is important because it is so useful in our relationships and in our development and education.
< 
< I’m going to assume that you’re convinced that the philosophy of language is, or at least might very well be, important.  Next I want to explain the relationship of the philosophy of language to what we have studied so far.  And then I’ll give some specific examples of questions in the philosophy of language.
< 
< I want you to imagine that we have, up to this point, been building a system of philosophy.  So imagine that we have been trying to describe some of the most basic aspects of everything that there is to describe.  So we began with metaphysics, studying the most basic structure of the universe; to this we added considerations about God, and about the most basic functions of the human mind, and how the mind is connected to the body and the world at large.  So suppose then that we have formulated some fairly sophisticated theory of mind, perception, will, and other cognitive processes; what we are ready to do next is to describe the most basic concepts behind our use of language.  After this, we will have populated our universe with existent physical objects, properties, changes, perhaps God, minds, mental processes like perception and volition, and language-use, meanings, and truth.  What we will be set up to do, then, is to talk about more sophisticated facts and processes characterizing human nature -- what knowledge is, goodness and obligation, then political organization, and finally art.
< 
< So let’s get down to the philosophy of language itself.  I said I would introduce some of the questions the philosophy of language asks.  It is probably an oversimplification, but probably the simplest and clearest way to put it is as follows. The philosophy of language asks a series of variations on <i>two</i> questions: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>meaning</i>?  And: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>truth</i>?  There are no doubt <i>other</i> questions in the field which <i>aren’t</i> variations on these two questions; such as, "What is a language?" and questions about the syntax of a language, which are not in any direct way connected up with meaning or truth.
< 
< But I think there is a good reason why questions about meaning and truth -- <i>those</i> two qualities -- are central to the philosophy of language.  To talk about meaning is to talk about how we, using words, sentences, and so forth, <i>attempt</i> to describe the world; to talk about truth is talk about how those attempts to describe the world might <i>succeed</i>.  I’m saying that <i>meaning</i> is all about how we try to paint a picture of the world using words; and <i>truth</i> is all about how the pictures we paint can accurate, or inaccurately represent the world.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of language]]
------
Philosophy_of_language|984686613
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also TheMeaningOfMeaning; ProperNames; MeaningfulNess; NaiveRelativismAboutTruth; and TheoriesOfTruth.
> ----
> <This is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
> 
> ''Philosophy of language'' is difficult to define clearly; but here is a definition anyway:
> 
> :The <i>philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>language</i> is the study of philosophical questions about language, especially about meaning and truth (of words, phrases, and sentences) in general.
> 
> I say "in general" at the end of the definition because the philosophy of language doesn’t ask what <i>particular</i> words mean, or whether <i>particular</i> sentences are true.  (Except of course for words and sentences about the language.)  Rather, it asks what meaning and truth <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are.  What are the meanings of the words "meaning" and "truth"?  How are we to understand these concepts?
> 
> Maybe, on first glance, the philosophy of language doesn’t look so interesting.  To talk about the meaning of words sounds like we’re talking about dry boring stuff -- grammar and dictionaries.  But remember, grammar books and dictionaries only <i>codify</i> how we use language.  Codification might indeed be boring.  But language <i>itself</i> is extremely important and of daily interest to us all.  After all, you come to class to listen to me use language for hours on end!  Or of far more interest than that would be the language you use with your girlfriend or boyfriend, or spouse; that’s bound to be of extreme interest to you.
> 
> And of course that’s far from the end of it.  Language, meaning, and truth are important not just because they are used daily with important effects; language has shaped your development, from your earliest childhood and continuing to the present.  You have a whole integrated set of concepts which you have associated with certain words -- words like "object," "love," "good," "God," "masculine," "feminine," "art," "government," and so on.  Some philosophers have even thought that it is impossible to <i>have</i> <i>thoughts</i> without having learned a language.  By learning the <i>meanings</i> of these words, you have shaped an entire view of the universe and your place in it.  I am not saying that your philosophy is <i>only</i> <i>or</i> <i>just</i> your understanding of what important words mean; of course there’s much more to it than that.  What I’m saying is that in arriving at your present philosophical outlook, questions about meaning have played a central, extremely important role.  Accordingly it’s not by accident that in these chapters I typically begin by clarifying terminology, drawing distinctions between different senses of words, and so forth.  My point then is that the philosophy of language is important because language is important, and language is important because it is so useful in our relationships and in our development and education.
> 
> I’m going to assume that you’re convinced that the philosophy of language is, or at least might very well be, important.  Next I want to explain the relationship of the philosophy of language to what we have studied so far.  And then I’ll give some specific examples of questions in the philosophy of language.
> 
> I want you to imagine that we have, up to this point, been building a system of philosophy.  So imagine that we have been trying to describe some of the most basic aspects of everything that there is to describe.  So we began with metaphysics, studying the most basic structure of the universe; to this we added considerations about God, and about the most basic functions of the human mind, and how the mind is connected to the body and the world at large.  So suppose then that we have formulated some fairly sophisticated theory of mind, perception, will, and other cognitive processes; what we are ready to do next is to describe the most basic concepts behind our use of language.  After this, we will have populated our universe with existent physical objects, properties, changes, perhaps God, minds, mental processes like perception and volition, and language-use, meanings, and truth.  What we will be set up to do, then, is to talk about more sophisticated facts and processes characterizing human nature -- what knowledge is, goodness and obligation, then political organization, and finally art.
> 
> So let’s get down to the philosophy of language itself.  I said I would introduce some of the questions the philosophy of language asks.  It is probably an oversimplification, but probably the simplest and clearest way to put it is as follows. The philosophy of language asks a series of variations on <i>two</i> questions: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>meaning</i>?  And: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>truth</i>?  There are no doubt <i>other</i> questions in the field which <i>aren’t</i> variations on these two questions; such as, "What is a language?" and questions about the syntax of a language, which are not in any direct way connected up with meaning or truth.
> 
> But I think there is a good reason why questions about meaning and truth -- <i>those</i> two qualities -- are central to the philosophy of language.  To talk about meaning is to talk about how we, using words, sentences, and so forth, <i>attempt</i> to describe the world; to talk about truth is talk about how those attempts to describe the world might <i>succeed</i>.  I’m saying that <i>meaning</i> is all about how we try to paint a picture of the world using words; and <i>truth</i> is all about how the pictures we paint can accurate, or inaccurately represent the world.
------
Larrys_Text|984686634
15c15
< ::PhilosophyOfLanguage -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
---
> ::[[philosophy of language]] -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
------
Philosophy|984686666
8c8
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- PhilosophyOfLanguage -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
------
Science_fiction|984686918
20c20,21
< * [[Science Fiction Film]]
---
> * [[Science Fiction Film]]
> * [[Science Fiction Artists|Science Fiction artists and illustrators]]
------
Language|984687005
4c4
< * Philosophy of Language
---
> * [[philosophy of language|Philosophy of Language]]
------
ASCII|984687059
1c1
< ASCII - AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION INTERCHANGE. It is  a standard data-transmission [[Code]] that is used by computers to represent both text and control characters. Like other coding systems, it converts information into standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store data.
---
> <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.  It is a standard data transmission [[code]], based on the [[Roman alphabet]], used by computers and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[EBCDIC]]), it represents information in a standardized digital format that allows computers to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store that information.
2a3
> Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many additions and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.
------
Science_Fiction_Artists|984687073
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Science Fiction artists and illustrators
> 
> some names:
> * [[Ed Emshwiller]]
> * [[Virgil Finlay]]
> * [[Kelly Freas]]
> * [[Jack Gaughan]]
> * [[John Schoenherr]]
------
DefinitionOfPhilosophy|984689811
1,33c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Consider first how to distinguish philosophy from science -- from disciplines like physics and chemistry.  Well, it’s <i>not</i> part of philosophy to do experiments.  Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of philosophical problems.  Now someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science.  He might say, "But philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of physicists, who do experiments about space and time and quantum mechanics.  And they are often referring to experimental work done in psychology when they discuss philosophy of psychology."
< 
< There’s no doubting that philosophers sometimes <i>interpret</i> and <i>refer</i> <i>to</i> experimental work of various kinds -- especially in the philosophies of the different sciences.  For example, in philosophy of physics, or philosophy of psychology.  But that’s not surprising of course: the purpose of those branches of philosophy, branches like philosophy of physics, is to help interpret the philosophical aspects of experimental work.  But at any rate it’s not the <i>philosophers</i>, in their capacities <i>as</i> philosophers, who do the experiments.
< 
< There is a basic historical reason why philosophy is not experimental.  Originally, "philosophy" meant simply "the love of wisdom."  The "philo-" part comes from the Greek word <i>philein</i>, meaning to love, and the "-sophy" part comes from <i>sophia</i>, or wisdom.  Originally the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> abstract intellectual endeavor.  Even up until early modern times, the people we now call "scientists" were referred to as "natural philosophers," i.e., philosophers who study nature.  Over the years, the scope of philosophy has gotten smaller and smaller, as different sciences have spun off and become independent disciplines in their own right.  Some relatively early "spin-offs" were physics and chemistry; more recently, just within the past 100 years, psychology has spun off.
< 
< So of course one might wonder how thinkers knew or sensed that a new discipline was to be treated as independent from philosophy.  The answer is that the discipline began to be prosecuted using rigorous methods of observation and experimentation.  Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one’s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books that scientists write.  But be careful thinking about this.  I <i>emphatically</i> do not mean that philosophy is totally non-observational, or non-empirical.  Certainly philosophy makes use of, in a really essential way, observations about the world.  But they are, we might say, very <i>general</i> observations -- observations like "It seems to me I make free choices" and "It seems to me that killing another person, if ever necessary, requires a really good excuse."  Observations like this take a great deal of investigation to make; they require careful attention.  But most (not all) philosophical topics require no more <i>specialized</i> knowledge than the average educated person has; except perhaps <i>specialized</i> knowledge about philosophy itself.
< 
< So philosophy is not experimental and its observations are only very general, broad observations.  And that is what makes it different from natural sciences like physics, and social sciences like psychology.  So mind you, some people confuse philosophy and psychology, but they are different.  Philosophy does study the mind (and it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too), just as psychology does.  But the study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is consciousness?  What is the mind itself?"
< 
< All right, then what distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, which also is not experimental?  Some parts of religious studies -- parts of theology, anyway -- clearly <i>are</i> philosophical.  Parts of theology, which ask about what God is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "philosophy of religion."  And that’s not a problem.  Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of Greek philosophy, to that extent.  And that’s not a problem either.  It doesn’t muddy the concepts either of philosophy or of classics.  But what about that other part of religious studies, the <i>empirical</i> part, which often focuses on comparative study of different world religions?  Well, that part of religious studies can be distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy.  Namely, it involves specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices, and philosophy does not.
< 
< So perhaps now you can see how philosophy differs from various of the sciences, psychology, and religious studies.  But how does philosophy differ from mathematics?  <i>It</i> certainly is not experimental.
< 
< Mathematics differs from philosophy for other reasons.  For one thing, it uses some very specific, rigorous methods of proof that philosophy may try to emulate sometimes, but rarely, if ever, succeeds in duplicating.  As a result, mathematicians hardly ever disagree about results.  But philosophers disagree about their methods and their methods are not always nearly as rigorous as the methods mathematicians use.  And dialectic, while surely a part of progress in mathematics, does not play the <i>same</i> <i>sort</i> of prominent role that it plays in philosophy.
< 
< A more straightforward way to distinguish philosophy from mathematics is this.  Math, beyond a certain basic level, requires some <i>extremely</i> specialized knowledge, which can be obtained only by dint of extremely hard labor and concentration.  It is not the sort of discipline that can be pursued with the knowledge that the average educated person has.  Philosophy, to be pursued right, sometimes does require hard labor and concentration, but at least a philosopher can explain his question, with not <i>too</i> much difficulty, to an intelligent nonphilosopher in under ten minutes.
< 
< So I’m suggesting that philosophy is a discipline that draws on knowledge that the average educated person has, and does not make use of experimentation and careful observation; though it may interpret philosophical aspects of experiment and observation.  OK, so this tells you what philosophy is <i>not</i>.  The question now is what philosophy <i>is</i>.
< 
< But I have already suggested an answer to that question.  Namely, it is a discipline that examines the meaning and justification of certain of our most basic, fundamental beliefs, according to a certain general method which I explained at length.  If there’s anything that is unclear about this, it is, I think, what we might mean by these words: "basic, fundamental beliefs."  Is there any way I might make that clearer?
< 
< Well, try this out for size.  A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the universe which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things.  Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>existence</i> <i>itself</i> is.  What could be more universal than that -- than existence itself?  It also studies value -- the goodness of things -- in general.  And surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere.  I don’t mean just moral goodness, though that’s very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable; the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good.  (Well, if there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.")
< 
< Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  And those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward -- which perhaps in the end it will found to be -- but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.  Philosophy just doesn’t work that way.
< 
< With all of what I’ve said so far as background, I’ll offer a definition.  I should make one more remark first, though: as philosophers disagree about everything, one of their points of disagreement is about what philosophy is.  So don’t go around thinking that the following is the generally agreed-upon definition of philosophy, because it isn’t.  What it is, is a well thought out definition which, I am confident, most philosophers would acknowledge as at least a good and plausible attempt.  Anyway, here goes.
< 
< <i>Philosophy</i> is the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things; a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
< 
< I’m not going to tell you that this is a perfect definition, because I’m sure it isn’t.  But I think it should give you a pretty good idea of what "philosophy" means.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Definition of philosophy]]
------
Definition_of_philosophy|984689835
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Philosophy</i> is, approximately, the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
> 
> The following article explains some of the thinking behind this very imperfect, unrigorous, yet platitudinous account of philosophy.
> 
> Originally, "philosophy" meant simply "the love of wisdom."  "Philo-" comes from the Greek word <i>philein</i>, meaning to love, and "-sophy" comes from the Greek <i>sophia</i>, or wisdom.  Originally the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> intellectual endeavor.  It has long since come to mean the study of an especially abstract, nonexperimental intellectual endeavor.  In fact, ''philosophy'' is itself a notoriously difficult word to define; the question "What is philosophy?" is itself, famously, a vexed philosophical question.  It is often observed that philosophers are unique in the extent to which they disagree about what their field even ''is''.
> 
> '''Philosophy vs. natural science'''
> 
> Though on the view of some in the (loosely described) [[Anglo-American philosophy|Anglo-American philosophical tradition]] and the closely-related tradition of the [[Vienna Circle]], philosophy ought to emulate the exact methods of [[science]] and [[mathematics]].  But strictly speaking, philosophy is to be distinguished from science.  It is not, at least, part of philosophy to do [[experiment]]s.  Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of [[philosophical problems]].  Now someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science.  Philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of [[physics|physicists]], who do experiments about [[space and time]] and [[quantum mechanics]] (see [[philosophy of physics]]).  They are often referring to experimental work done in [[psychology]] when they discuss philosophy of psychology (see [[philosophy of psychology]]).  In general, many philosophers who study [[philosophy of science]] are trained scientists.
> 
> There is no doubting that philosophers sometimes <i>interpret</i> and <i>refer</i> <i>to</i> experimental work of various kinds--especially in the philosophies of the so-called "[[special sciences]]," as in philosophy of physics and philosophy of psychology.  But this is not surprising: the purpose of those branches of philosophy, branches like philosophy of physics, is to help interpret the ''philosophical'' aspects of experimental work.  It is not the <i>philosophers</i>, in their capacities <i>as</i> philosophers, who do the experiments and who formulate explanatory theories of experimentally-tabulated facts.
> 
> There is a basic historical reason why philosophy is not experimental.  Originally, the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> abstract intellectual endeavor.  Even up to early modern times, the people we now call "scientists" were referred to as "natural philosophers," i.e., philosophers who study nature.  Over the years--it is very commonly observed--the scope of philosophy has gotten smaller and smaller, as different sciences have spun off and become independent disciplines in their own right.  Some relatively early "spin-offs" were physics and chemistry; more recently, psychology has spun off.
> 
> One might wonder why scholars began to treat various special sciences as independent from philosophy.  The answer is that the branching science began to be prosecuted using rigorous, agreed-upon methods of observation and experimentation.  Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one’s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books and articles that scientists (but certainly other philosophers) write.
> 
> Of course, philosophy is far from being totally non-observational or non-empirical.  Certainly philosophy makes essential use of observations about the world.  But they are, we might say, very <i>general</i> observations, observations like "It seems to me I make free choices" and "It seems to me that killing another person, if ever necessary, requires a really good excuse."  Observations like this ''can'' require careful attention.  But most (not all) philosophical topics require no more <i>specialized</i> knowledge than the average educated person has, except for specialized knowledge about philosophy itself (such as [[philosophical jargon]]).
> 
> Some beginners confuse philosophy and psychology, but these are different fields.  Philosophy does study the [[mind]] (and it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too), just as psychology does.  But the study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; by contrast, philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is consciousness?" and "What is the relation between mind and body?"
> 
> '''Philosophy vs. religious studies and classics'''
> 
> What distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, which also is not experimental?  Parts of theology, which ask about what [[God]] is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "[[philosophy of religion]]."  That is not a problem.  Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of [[Greek philosophy]], to that extent.  That is not a problem either.  Neither of these overlaps muddies the concepts of philosophy, of religious studies, or of classics.
> 
> But consider that other part of religious studies, the <i>empirical</i> part, which often focuses on comparative study of different world religions.  That part of religious studies can be distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy.  Namely, it involves specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices, and philosophy does not.
> 
> '''Philosophy vs. mathematics'''
> 
> [[Mathematics]] differs from philosophy for other reasons.  It uses some very specific, rigorous methods of proof that philosophers sometimes (only rarely) try to emulate, but rarely, if ever, duplicate with the same degree of rigor.  As a result, mathematicians hardly ever disagree about results, while philosophers of course do disagree about theirs.  Besides, most philosophers do not even try to make their work rigorous in a mathematical sense.  Unlike mathematicians, philosophers disagree about their [[philosophical method|methods]], and their methodological differences can often be used account for their different conclusions.
> 
> Another way to distinguish philosophy from mathematics is this.  Math, beyond a certain basic level, requires some <i>extremely</i> specialized knowledge, which can be obtained only by dint of extremely hard labor and concentration.  It is not the sort of discipline that can be pursued with the knowledge that the average educated person has.  Philosophy usually does require hard labor and concentration, but at least a philosopher can often explain his question, with not <i>too</i> much difficulty, to an intelligent nonphilosopher in under ten minutes.
> 
> '''Some tentative generalizations about what philosophy is'''
> 
> So philosophy, it seems, is a discipline that draws on knowledge that the average educated person has, and it does not make use of experimentation and careful observation, though it may interpret philosophical aspects of experiment and observation.
> 
> More positively, one might say that philosophy is a discipline that examines the meaning and justification of certain of our most basic, fundamental beliefs, according to a [[philosophical method/Introduction|loose set of general methods]].  But what we might mean by the words "basic, fundamental beliefs"?
> 
> A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the [[universe]] which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things.  Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>existence</i> <i>itself</i> is.  It also studies [[value]]--the [[good]]ness of things--in general.  Surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere, not just moral goodness, though that might be very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable, the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good.  (If indeed there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.")
> 
> Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.
> 
> The above considerations suggest very imperfect, unrigorous, yet platitudinous account of philosophy:
> 
> :<i>Philosophy</i> is, approximately, the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
> 
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Definition_of_philosophy|984689852
1c1
< <i>Philosophy</i> is, approximately, the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
---
> <i>[[Philosophy]]</i> is, approximately, the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
------
Philosophy|984689890
5c5
< [[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy
---
> [[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- [[definition of philosophy]]
------
Larrys_Text|984689917
5c5
< ::[[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- DefinitionOfPhilosophy -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
---
> ::[[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- [[definition of philosophy]] -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
------
Meta-Philosophy|984689975
1c1
< The study of the methods and aims of [[Philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
---
> The study of the [[philosophical method|methods]] and aims of [[Philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
------
Meta-Philosophy|984690023
1,3c1
< The study of the [[philosophical method|methods]] and aims of [[Philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in EpistemOlogy, PhilosophyOfLanguage, and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
< ----
< Some might say this involves moving to a higher philosophical level, transcending ordinary thought, but others might hesitate to embrace the speculative nature of such efforts.
---
> The study of the [[philosophical method|methods]] and aims of [[philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of language]], and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
------
Meta-Philosophy|984690084
1,3c1
< The study of the [[philosophical method|methods]] and aims of [[philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of language]], and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
< ----
< [[Philosophy]] of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meta-philosophy]]
------
Meta-philosophy|984690091
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of the [[philosophical method|methods]] and aims of [[philosophy]], consisting of a lot of questions that presuppose deeper questions in [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of language]], and other philosophical subdisciplines.  Paradoxically, better done after one has explored a lot of philosophy, rather than before.
> ----
> [[Philosophy]] of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
------
Philosophy|984690184
1,2c1
< '''Some existing articles:'''
< [[William Alston]] -- [[hold come what may]] -- [[Meta-Philosophy]] -- [[common sense]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[direct realism]] -- [[altruism]]
---
> ''As you can see, we are in the process of converting from old-style links LikeThis to new-style [[Free Links]].  Soon (we hope) all the pages will be named in the latter style.''
8c7
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- MetaPhilosophy -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- [[meta-philosophy]] -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
------
LangueFrancaise|984690255
5,18c5
< Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé par des groupes intellectuels (comme le groupe de la Pléiade) ou des institutions (comme l'Académie Française). On estime généralement que le premier texte écrit en (ancien) français est le traité de Strasbourg (847).
< Parmi les premières oeuvres majeures:
< *la chanson de Roland (Roland, Charlemagne, Olivier, Ganelon, )
< *le roman de Renart (Goupil, Ysengrin, )
< *Gargantua (de François Rabelais)
< 
< ----
< 
< Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
< 
< ----
< 
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]].
< 
---
> Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé p
------
LangueFrancaise|984690477
5c5,19
< Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé p
---
> Le français est une langue romane qui a suivi un développement propre, souvent organisé par des groupes intellectuels (comme le groupe de la Pléiade) ou des institutions (comme l'Académie Française). On estime généralement que le premier texte écrit en (ancien) français est le traité de Strasbourg (847).
> Parmi les premières oeuvres majeures:
> *la chanson de Roland (Roland, Charlemagne, Olivier, Ganelon, )
> *le roman de Renart (Goupil, Ysengrin, )
> *Gargantua (de François Rabelais)
> 
> ----
> 
> Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
> 
> ----
> 
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]].
> 
> Et co-oficielle a Andorre!
------
LangueFrancaise|984690555
19c19
< Et co-oficielle a Andorre!
---
> Et co-officiel a Andorre!
------
Cdani|984690716
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hi! I'm, from [[Andorra]], a little country between Spain and France.
> I like to play chess and win you. And I like to contribute to wikipedia!
------
Andorra/Military|984690766
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> No military. Depends on [[Spain]] and [[France]].
------
Dog_tag|984690836
3c3
< A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a ?? and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
---
> A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a metal chain and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
------
Spain|984690999
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country located in the extreme southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders France, from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]].
------
Spain|984691043
1c1
< Country located in the extreme southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders France, from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]].
---
> Country located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders [[France]], from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]].
------
Cdani|984691438
2c2,3
< I like to play chess and win you. And I like to contribute to wikipedia!
---
> I like to play chess and win you. And I like to contribute to wikipedia!
> My homepage is [http://www.geocities.com/siliconvalley/campus/7738].
------
LangueFrancaise|984691945
19c19
< Et co-officiel a Andorre!
---
> Et co-officiel a Andorre! [[cdani]]
------
Andorra/Military|984691990
1c1
< No military. Depends on [[Spain]] and [[France]].
---
> No military. Depends on [[Spain]] and [[France]]. [[cdani]]
------
Spain|984692027
1c1
< Country located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders [[France]], from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]].
---
> Country located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders [[France]], from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]]. [[cdani]]
------
Portugal|984692216
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country located in the extreme southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Spain]]. [[cdani]]
------
ASCII|984692417
3c3
< Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many additions and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.
---
> Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many additions and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-bit code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.
5c5,7
< To use ASCII here:
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called <i>control characters</i>, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that used to control devices that make use of ASCII (such as [[printer]]s).
> 
> To be continued...
------
Abacus|984693017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An abacus is a counting frame with balls sliding on wires. It was first used before the adoption of the ten digit numeric system and is still widely used in [[China]]. [[cdani]]
------
Acid|984693108
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An acid is a chemical compound that reacts with metals to form salts by releasing hydrogen. All acids contain hydrogen, some also contain oxygen and these are called oxy-acids. [[cdani]]
> 
------
Asphalt|984693383
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Asphalt is a material used for road coverings. [[cdani]]
------
Saxophone|984693540
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Oasis|984693666
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An oasis is an isolated good think into a bad think (example: vegetation in a desert region). And is a famous musical group. [[cdani]]
------
Acid|984693682
2a3,4
> -----
> "Acid" is also a slang word referring to [[LSD]]
------
Oboe|984693709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Spain|984693727
1a2,3
> 
> See also: [[History of Spain]]
------
Woodwind|984693802
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woodwind musical instrument is one with which sound is produced by blowing into a tube. [[cdani]]
------
Film_History/Germany|984693922
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some important figures in German Film History:
> 
> *[[Fritz Lang]]
> *[[Friedrich Murnau]]
------
Zodiac|984694021
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Heaven's belt in the ecliptic, with 8 degrees in either side. [[cdani]]
------
Velocity|984694079
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The rate of motion. [[cdani]]
------
Saxophone|984694122
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. [[cdani]]
---
> A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Saxophone|984694132
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family. [[cdani]]
---
> A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family.
------
Cdani|984694271
3c3,5
< My homepage is [http://www.geocities.com/siliconvalley/campus/7738].
---
> My homepage is [http://www.geocities.com/siliconvalley/campus/7738].
> 
> Hi, Cdani!  I've never met anyone from Andorra before.  Welcome to Wikipedia.  I hate to begin with a criticism, but...it's probably not necessary to sign comments you make particularly when they're just a few lines long.
------
Computing|984694311
32a33,34
> ** [[Authoring]]
> *** [[HTML]]
63c65
< ** [[Word]]
---
> ** [[Word]]
------
Oasis|984694428
1c1,3
< An oasis is an isolated good think into a bad think (example: vegetation in a desert region). And is a famous musical group. [[cdani]]
---
> An ''oasis'' is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, typically surrounding a spring.
> 
> "Oasis" is also the name of a [[rock and roll]] group.
------
HTML|984694495
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which is derived from [[SGML]]. The latest version is 4.01, which is available from the [http://www.w3.org World Wide Web Consortium]
------
Computing|984694554
34a35,36
> *** [[XML]]
> *** [[JavaScript]]
------
Chess|984695339
28a29
> */WorldChampions
------
Woodwind|984695413
1c1
< A woodwind musical instrument is one with which sound is produced by blowing into a tube. [[cdani]]
---
> The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[TheRecorder|recorder]], or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
------
Woodwind|984695441
1c1
< The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[TheRecorder|recorder]], or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
---
> The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[The Recorder|recorder]], or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
------
Chess/WorldChampions|984695697
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
>                           win  draw  lost
> 1866 Steinitz-Anderseen    8     0     6
> 1894 Lasker-Steinitz      10     4     5
> 1921 Capablanca-Lasker
> 1927 Alekhine-Capablanca
> 1935 Euwe-Alekhine
> 1937 Alekhine-Euwe
> 1948 Botvinnik
> 1951 Botvinnik-Bronstein
> 1954 Botvinnik-Smyslov
> 1957 Smyslov-Botvinnik
> 1958 Botvinnik-Smyslov
> 1960 Tahl-Botvinnik
> 1961 Botvinnik-Tahl
> 1963 Petrosian-Botvinnik
> 1966 Petrosian-Spassky
> 1969 Spassky-Petrosian
> 1972 Fischer-Spassky
> 1975 Karpov-Fischer
> 1978 Karpov-Korchnoi
> 1981 Karpov-Korchnoi
> 1984 Karpov-Kasparov
> 1985 Kasparov-Karpov
> 1986 Kasparov-Karpov
> 1987 Kasparov-Karpov
> 1990 Kasparov-Karpov
> 1993 Karpov-Timman (FIDE)
> 1993 Kasparov-Short (PCA)
> 1995 Kasparov-Anand (PCA)
> 2000 Kramnik-Kasparov (Braingames)
> 
> [[cdani]]
------
Chess/WorldChampions|984695741
2,11c2,11
< 1866 Steinitz-Anderseen    8     0     6
< 1894 Lasker-Steinitz      10     4     5
< 1921 Capablanca-Lasker
< 1927 Alekhine-Capablanca
< 1935 Euwe-Alekhine
< 1937 Alekhine-Euwe
< 1948 Botvinnik
< 1951 Botvinnik-Bronstein
< 1954 Botvinnik-Smyslov
< 1957 Smyslov-Botvinnik
---
>  1866 Steinitz-Anderseen    8     0     6
>  1894 Lasker-Steinitz      10     4     5
>  1921 Capablanca-Lasker
>  1927 Alekhine-Capablanca
>  1935 Euwe-Alekhine
>  1937 Alekhine-Euwe
>  1948 Botvinnik
>  1951 Botvinnik-Bronstein
>  1954 Botvinnik-Smyslov
>  1957 Smyslov-Botvinnik
32c32
< [[cdani]]
---
> [[cdani]]
------
Chess/WorldChampions|984695768
12,30c12,30
< 1958 Botvinnik-Smyslov
< 1960 Tahl-Botvinnik
< 1961 Botvinnik-Tahl
< 1963 Petrosian-Botvinnik
< 1966 Petrosian-Spassky
< 1969 Spassky-Petrosian
< 1972 Fischer-Spassky
< 1975 Karpov-Fischer
< 1978 Karpov-Korchnoi
< 1981 Karpov-Korchnoi
< 1984 Karpov-Kasparov
< 1985 Kasparov-Karpov
< 1986 Kasparov-Karpov
< 1987 Kasparov-Karpov
< 1990 Kasparov-Karpov
< 1993 Karpov-Timman (FIDE)
< 1993 Kasparov-Short (PCA)
< 1995 Kasparov-Anand (PCA)
< 2000 Kramnik-Kasparov (Braingames)
---
>  1958 Botvinnik-Smyslov
>  1960 Tahl-Botvinnik
>  1961 Botvinnik-Tahl
>  1963 Petrosian-Botvinnik
>  1966 Petrosian-Spassky
>  1969 Spassky-Petrosian
>  1972 Fischer-Spassky
>  1975 Karpov-Fischer
>  1978 Karpov-Korchnoi
>  1981 Karpov-Korchnoi
>  1984 Karpov-Kasparov
>  1985 Kasparov-Karpov
>  1986 Kasparov-Karpov
>  1987 Kasparov-Karpov
>  1990 Kasparov-Karpov
>  1993 Karpov-Timman (FIDE)
>  1993 Kasparov-Short (PCA)
>  1995 Kasparov-Anand (PCA)
>  2000 Kramnik-Kasparov (Braingames)
------
Chess/WorldChampions|984696521
1,3c1,4
<                           win  draw  lost
<  1866 Steinitz-Anderseen    8     0     6
<  1894 Lasker-Steinitz      10     4     5
---
>  First winner:
> 
>  1866 Steinitz-Anderseen  
>  1894 Lasker-Steinitz     
29a31
>  1999 Khalifman (FIDE)
30a33
>  2000 Anand-Shirov (FIDE)
------
Chess/WorldChampions|984696689
1c1
<  First winner:
---
>  The first is the winner of the match:
9c9
<  1948 Botvinnik
---
>  1948 Botvinnik (win tournament)
20c20
<  1975 Karpov-Fischer
---
>  1975 Karpov-Fischer (absence)
35c35
< [[cdani]]
---
>  [[cdani]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|984696761
15a16,19
> 
> ----
> 
> I noticed that you requested a deletion of some pages that you redirected.  In general, we tend not to delete those redirect pages, because it helps to facilitate accidental linking to leave them in.  Just so you know... :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Flute|984696793
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family. 
------
Data|984697051
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Data is information, normally stored in a computer.
> Also is one of the protagonists of [[StarTrek]] . [[cdani]]
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|984697069
46c46
< A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
---
> A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an '9' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
74c74
< The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
---
> The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|984697096
46c46
< A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an '9' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
---
> A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
------
StarTrek|984697125
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is the official web page of StarTrek [http://www.startrek.com/]. [[cdani]]
------
French_revolution|984697459
1,5c1,10
< Difficult to resume the impact of such story on the old continent.
< This occured during the 18th century, at this time a king, Louis 16th was the leader of France.
< But, his authority was very contested in the farmer population, which represents 90%. By the rise of the taxes rate, this part also called "Tiers-Etat", enter in rebellion, against the king power.
< We note here the big influence of Catholicism, take a very important place. The death sentence of the king was prounouced a few years after the Bastille take, in July 14th 1789, the national day.
< After the shutdown of the "Absolute Monarchie", after some trouble cause by this big new deal, a new kind of power was born, the republic, what can give to the people the rights to decide something themselves.
---
> Please note -- this is a very poor article, written by me, [[Jimbo Wales]] only to replace the even worse article that I found here.  :-)  However, I know precious little about the French revolution, and fervently hope for someone to come here and demolish my work in the name of progress.  :-)
> 
> The French Revolution occurred during the years 1789-1792, just a few years after the [[American Revolution]].
> 
> The King of [[France]], [[Louis XVI]] was overthrown in a popular rebellion, caused in part by the rise of a middle class no longer controllable by the old regime, by ideological changes brought about by such authors as [[Voltaire]],  [[Diderot]], [[A R J Turgot]], and others, and most proximately by the financial disarray of the government resulting in sharply higher taxes.
> 
> The storming of the Bastille prison is commemorated today as [[Bastille Day]].
> 
> Unfortunately, unlike the American revolution which bought about a republic, the French revolution resulted in a condition of general civil war known as the [[Reign of Terror]], culminating in the rise to power of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]].
> 
------
LangueFrancaise|984697701
19c19
< Et co-officiel a Andorre! [[cdani]]
---
> Et co-officiel a Andorre!
------
Didjeridu|984697906
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical wind instrument developed by the Australian aborigines. [[cdani]]
------
Flageolet|984698041
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An old musical wind instrument, ancestor of the tin whistle. [[cdani]]
------
ASCII|984698076
3c3
< Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many additions and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-bit code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.
---
> Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many [[extended ASCII|extensions]] and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-bit code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Evan at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for parity checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.
5c5
< The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called <i>control characters</i>, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that used to control devices that make use of ASCII (such as [[printer]]s).
---
> (Link to a nice ASCII chart here...)
7c7,15
< To be continued...
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16) is called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based keyboards have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).
> 
> Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters, representing information.  They include letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of paper tape, a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
> 
> <b>READERS NOTE:</b> Some of what follows describes foreign characters still not available on many computers, and which may not appear correctly to you.  International standards for information exchange are still evolving and still coming into use slowly.
> 
> ASCII does not include characters needed to represent many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard ISO 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It was still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO-646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO-646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 caused fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
> 
> See also [[Extended ASCII]]
9d16
< [[Wiki ASCII codes page]]
------
Flugelhorn|984698103
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The flugelhorn is a [[brass]] musical instrument. [[cdani]]
------
Guitar|984698167
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A stringed musical instrument played with the fingers (or a [[plectrum]]). [[cdani]]
------
Koto|984698254
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A stringed musical instrument from [[Japan]]. [[cdani]]
------
Mandolin|984698295
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a stringed musical instrument. [[cdani]]
------
Piano|984698405
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a musical instrument with keyboard. It has strings wich are stuck by hammers when the keys are depressed. [[cdani]]
------
Sackbut|984698476
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a musical instrument of the [[brass]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Saxhorn|984698556
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a musical instrument of the [[brass]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Tambourine|984698600
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical [[percussion]] instrument. [[cdani]]
------
Drum|984698642
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A musical [[percussion]] instrument. [[cdani]]
------
Data|984698667
1,2c1,3
< Data is information, normally stored in a computer.
< Also is one of the protagonists of [[StarTrek]] . [[cdani]]
---
> The word <i>data</i> is the plural of <i>datum</i>, meaning a piece of information.  It is also commonly used as a mass noun, where it is treated as singular, e.g., "This is all the data from the experiment".  Many consider this usage incorrect, or at least colloquial, and would prefer "These are all the data from the experiment" (each individual measurement or result from the experiment is a single datum).
> 
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>Star Trek: The Next Generation</i>.
------
Trombone|984698719
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is a musical instrument of the [[brass]] family. [[cdani]]
------
Brass|984699481
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An alloy...
------
Flute|984699565
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family. 
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwinds]] family. 
------
Flute|984699587
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwinds]] family. 
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. 
------
StarTrek|984699674
1c1
< This is the official web page of StarTrek [http://www.startrek.com/]. [[cdani]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Star Trek]]
------
Star_Trek|984699697
15a16,17
> 
> Official website: http://www.startrek.com/
------
Cdani|984700044
3a4,6
> ----
> Hi, Cdani!  I've never met anyone from Andorra before.  Welcome to Wikipedia.  I hate to begin with a criticism, but...it's probably not necessary to sign comments you make particularly when they're just a few lines long.
> ----
5c8,10
< Hi, Cdani!  I've never met anyone from Andorra before.  Welcome to Wikipedia.  I hate to begin with a criticism, but...it's probably not necessary to sign comments you make particularly when they're just a few lines long.
---
> Cdani,
> 
> Would you like to spearhead development of a French or Catalan version of Wikipedia?
------
ASCII|984700089
1c1
< <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.  It is a standard data transmission [[code]], based on the [[Roman alphabet]], used by computers and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[EBCDIC]]), it represents information in a standardized digital format that allows computers to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store that information.
---
> <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.  It is a standard data transmission [[code]], based on the [[Roman alphabet]], used by [[computer]]s and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[EBCDIC]]), it represents information in a standardized digital format that allows devices to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store that information.
3c3
< Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968), advances and the international spread of technology have let to many [[extended ASCII|extensions]] and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-bit code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Evan at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for parity checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.
---
> Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968), technological advances and the international spread of technology have led to many [[extended ASCII|extensions]] and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Even at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.
7c7
< The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16) is called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based keyboards have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range, for example "backspace", which produces code 8, and "tab", which produces code 9.
9c9
< Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters, representing information.  They include letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of paper tape, a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
---
> Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing information.  They include letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
13c13
< ASCII does not include characters needed to represent many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard ISO 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It was still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO-646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO-646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 caused fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
---
> ASCII does not include characters needed to represent many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard ISO 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It is still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO-646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO-646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 caused fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
16d15
< 
------
Jimbo_Wales|984700199
25a26,28
> 
> ----
> Yes, catalan better. [[cdani]]
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|984700535
19a20,23
> 
> '''A3.''' Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone write a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
> 
> In this way, accidental linking is maximized.  I think that this plan fits the [[principle of least astonishment]].
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984700673
10c10
< ScriptingLanguages
---
> ScriptingLanguages or interpreted languages
15a16
> * [[Basic]]
26a28
> * [[Delphi]
32a35
> * [[Visual Basic]]
42,43d44
< 
< Is compiled/interpreted really an appropriate way to categorize languages?  After all, that's a function of the implementation, not the language itself.  Where would you put BASIC, for example?  Or FORTH?
------
Television|984700710
18a19,24
> 
> Noted Actors
> :[[Jerry Seinfeld]]
> 
> Noted Actresses
> :[[Pamela Anderson]]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|984700811
28c28
< * [[Delphi]
---
> * [[Delphi]]
35d34
< * [[Visual Basic]]
------
PHP|984700924
2a3,4
> Visit [http://www.php.net] for the source.
> 
------
Star_Trek|984701112
1c1
< Star Trek tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and of their adventures at the "final frontier". Initially, the series didn't have too much success, but when original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans who called themselves Trekkies or Trekkers.
---
> <i>Star Trek</i> is a science fiction [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>Enterprise</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves Trekkies or Trekkers, who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprize</i>.
3c3,13
< Their influence grew stronger all the time, and it is said that the U.S. Space Shuttle "Enterprise" even derived its name from the series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]]. After the original TV series was stopped, a number of movies were shot for the big screen:
---
> In 1987 a new series launched, [[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline.  While in the classic series the captain often used "cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG) the [[Prime Directive]], which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' bussiness, is given greater importance.  This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-off series rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
> 
> Television series:
> 
> :[[/Star Trek TOS|Star Trek]] (the original series)
> :[[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]]
> :[[/Star Trek VOY|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]
> :[[/Star Trek VOY|Star Trek: Voyager]]
> :[[/Star Trek BOF|Star Trek: Birth of the Federation]] (forthcoming)
> 
> Movies based on the original series:
10a21,23
> 
> Movies based on The Next Generation:
> 
15c28
< In the 1980s, a new TV series launched, [[/The Next Generation|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline. While in the classic series the captain often used "Cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG)  the [[Prime Directive]] which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' bussiness, is given greater importance. This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-offs, [[/Deep Space Nine|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]] and [[/Voyager|Star Trek: Voyager]] rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
---
> Official website: http://www.startrek.com/
17d29
< Official website: http://www.startrek.com/
------
Woodwind|984701255
1c1
< The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[The Recorder|recorder]], or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
---
> The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[The Recorder|recorder]]), or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
------
Delphi|984701306
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most populars [[programminglanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]].
------
Delphi|984701375
1c1
< One of the most populars [[programminglanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]].
---
> One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official site is [www.inprise.com].
------
Delphi|984701403
1c1
< One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official site is [www.inprise.com].
---
> One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official website is [http://www.inprise.com].
------
Pamela_Anderson|984701416
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pamela Denise Anderson is a Canadian who works as international [[television]] [[actress]],  [[model]], and [[producer]] known as much for her tumultuous personal life as for her professional accomplishments.
> 
> Anderson was discovered in 1989 when she was wearing a [[Labatt]]'s beer tshirt at a football game.  She was hired by Labatt's to promote their product, and soon after, she appeared in [[Playboy]] magazine.
> 
> Her first major television role was on the hit series [[Home Improvement]].  But her rise to stardom come primarily from her role as C J Parker on [[Baywatch]], which went on to become the most popular television program in the world.
> 
> More recently, she has appeared in a feature film, [[Barb Wire]], and in her own television series, V.I.P.
> 
> ----
> 
> In addition to her fame from modelling and acting, Anderson has gotten a great deal of press attention for her flamboyant personal life.  She married rock start [[Tommy Lee]] of the band [[Motley Crue]] after knowing him for only 96 hours.  Anderson filed for divorce twice and reconciled twice, before finally breaking her relationship with Lee.
> 
> A X-rated home video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee was stolen from their house in 1998, and made a huge stir on the Internet.  Anderson sued an Internet company which was distributing the video, and some media sources reported that she settled the case for $10 million.
------
Delphi|984701440
1c1
< One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official website is [http://www.inprise.com].
---
> One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official website is http://www.inprise.com.
------
Mircrosoft_Windows|984701562
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Actually [2001] the greatest enterprise of [[software]]. His major success is Microsoft Windows, an operative system, wich owns 90% of his segment.
------
Jimbo_Wales|984701608
21c21
< � � � � � � For [[Jimbo Wales]]...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
---
> ? ? ? ? ? ? For [[Jimbo Wales]]...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
28c28,30
< Yes, catalan better. [[cdani]]
---
> Yes, catalan better. [[cdani]]
> 
> Good, because your English is terrible.  (Better than my French or Catalan, though, so I can't say anything. ;-) )
------
Microsoft_Windows|984701721
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Actually [2001] the greatest enterprise of [[software]]. His major success is Microsoft Windows, an operative system, wich owns 90% of his segment.
------
Mircrosoft_Windows|984701757
1c1
< Actually [2001] the greatest enterprise of [[software]]. His major success is Microsoft Windows, an operative system, wich owns 90% of his segment.
---
> Sorry [[Microsoft Windows]] 8-> .
------
Star_Trek|984701802
1c1
< <i>Star Trek</i> is a science fiction [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>Enterprise</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves Trekkies or Trekkers, who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprize</i>.
---
> <i>Star Trek</i> is a science fiction [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>Enterprise</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves Trekkies or Trekkers, who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprise</i>.
3a4,5
> 
> Roddenberry was a proponent of egalitarian politics, and frequently used the shows to showcase his vision of a [[utopia]]n future society based on those principles.  The original series, for example, had a prominent black female crew member (Lt. Uhuru, played by [[Nichelle Nichols]]), one of the first black women to hold any prominent role on American television.  It also had a [[Russia]]n character (Mr. Chekov, played by [[Walter Koenig]]) at a time when the United States was engaged in the [[cold war]] with the [[Soviet Union]].
------
Jimbo_Wales|984702028
30c30,32
< Good, because your English is terrible.  (Better than my French or Catalan, though, so I can't say anything. ;-) )
---
> Good, because your English is terrible.  (Better than my French or Catalan, though, so I can't say anything. ;-) )
> 
> I wait your news about this. I have not much time, but I want to help. Better send me email (cdani@yahoo.com).
------
Computing|984702056
0a1,2
> * ProgrammingLanguages
> 
------
Piano|984702162
1c1,3
< Is a musical instrument with keyboard. It has strings wich are stuck by hammers when the keys are depressed. [[cdani]]
---
> Is a musical instrument with keyboard. It has strings wich are stuck by hammers when the keys are depressed. [[cdani]]
> 
> Many pianos take Prozac to correct this condition. -- AnonymousCoward
------
Computer_Monitor|984702265
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Display device wich produces an image on the screen.
------
Delphi|984702280
1c1,3
< One of the most populars [[ProgrammingLanguages]]. Is for [[Mircrosoft Windows]]. The official website is http://www.inprise.com.
---
> A [[programming language]] and software development environment, based on [[Pascal]] but with [[object-oriented]] extensions, produced by the Borland International company (now [http://www.inprise.com Inprise]).  Its most popular use was development of enterprise applications for [[Microsoft Windows]].  It was one of the first of what came to be called <i>RAD</i> tools, for Rapid Application Development.
> 
> 
------
Acid|984702429
1c1
< An acid is a chemical compound that reacts with metals to form salts by releasing hydrogen. All acids contain hydrogen, some also contain oxygen and these are called oxy-acids. [[cdani]]
---
> An acid is a chemical compound that typically reacts by donating protons (H<sup>+</sup>) to another compound, called a [[base]].  Some compounds, like [[water]], can act either as an acid or a base.  Stronger acids also typically oxidize metals, forming salts and releasing hydrogen.
3,4c3,5
< -----
< "Acid" is also a slang word referring to [[LSD]]
---
> Some of the stronger acids include the hydrohalic acids - HCl, HBr, and HI - and the oxyacids, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen - including HNO<sub>3</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>.
> 
> "Acid" is also a slang word referring to [[LSD]].
------
Scanner|984702484
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Peripheral device used to convert images into digital images (wich computer can understand).
------
Delphi|984702499
1c1,3
< A [[programming language]] and software development environment, based on [[Pascal]] but with [[object-oriented]] extensions, produced by the Borland International company (now [http://www.inprise.com Inprise]).  Its most popular use was development of enterprise applications for [[Microsoft Windows]].  It was one of the first of what came to be called <i>RAD</i> tools, for Rapid Application Development.
---
> A city of ancient [[Greece]], home to the [[oracle]] of [[Apollo]] that was revered throughout the ancient world.
> 
> Also, a [[programming language]] and software development environment, based on [[Pascal]] but with [[object-oriented]] extensions, produced by the Borland International company (now [http://www.inprise.com Inprise]).  Its most popular use was development of enterprise applications for [[Microsoft Windows]].  It was one of the first of what came to be called <i>RAD</i> tools, for Rapid Application Development.
------
Computer_Mouse|984702626
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen.
------
ConStellations|984702673
1,97c1
< iMost of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but people are very good at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into configurations called constellations.  Different cultures have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to appear over and over again - e.g. [[Orion]] and [[Scorpius]].
< 
< The IAU divides the sky into 88 official constellations with precise boundaries, so that every direction belongs to exactly one constellation.  These are mostly based upon the constellations of the ancient Greek tradition, passed down through the Middle Ages.  The zodiac includes the following 12:
< 
< * [[Aries]], the ram
< * [[Taurus]], the bull
< * [[Gemini]], the twins
< * [[Cancer]], the crab
< * [[Leo]], the lion
< * [[Virgo]], the virgin
< * [[Libra]], the scales
< * [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
< * [[Sagittarius]], the archer
< * [[Capricornus]], the sea goat
< * [[Aquarius]], the water carrier
< * [[Pisces]], the fish
< 
< Plus [[Ptolemy]] listed the following additional constellations:
< 
< * [[Andromeda]]
< * [[Aquila]], the eagle
< * [[Ara]], the altar
< * ArgoNavis, the ship of the argonauts, since divided into [[Carina]], [[Puppis]], [[Pyxis]], and [[Vela]]
< * [[Auriga]], the charioteer
< * [[Bootes]], the herdsman
< * CanisMajor, the greater dog
< * CanisMinor, the lesser dog
< * [[Cassiopeia]]
< * [[Centaurus]], the centaur
< * [[Cepheus]]
< * [[Cetus]], the whale
< * CoronaAustralis, the southern crown
< * CoronaBorealis, the northern crown
< * [[Corvus]], the raven
< * [[Crater]], the cup
< * [[Cygnus]], the swan
< * [[Delphinus]], the dolphin
< * [[Draco]], the dragon
< * [[Equuleus]], the little horse
< * [[Eridanus]], the river
< * [[Hercules]]
< * [[Hydra]], the water snake
< * [[Lepus]], the hare
< * [[Lupus]], the wolf
< * [[Lyra]], the lyre
< * [[Ophiucus]], the serpent-bearer
< * [[Orion]], the hunter
< * [[Pegasus]]
< * [[Perseus]]
< * PiscisAustrinus, the southern fish
< * [[Sagitta]], the arrow
< * [[Serpens]], the serpent
< * [[Triangulum]], the triangle
< * UrsaMajor, the greater bear
< * UrsaMinor, the lesser bear
< 
< In more recent times this list has been added to, first to fill gaps between Ptolemy's patterns (the Greeks considered the sky as including both constellations and dim spaces between) and second to fill up the southern sky as explorers sailed where they could see it.  The new constellations are:
< 
< * [[Antlia]], the pump
< * [[Apus]], the bird of paradise
< * [[Caelum]], the chisel
< * [[Camelopardis]], the giraffe
< * CanesVenatici, the hunting dogs
< * [[Chamaeleon]]
< * [[Circinus]], the drawing compasses
< * [[Columba]], the dove
< * ComaBerenices (traditional Asterism), Berenice's hair
< * [[Crux]], the cross
< * [[Dorado]], the swordfish
< * [[Fornax]], the furnace
< * [[Grus]], the crane
< * [[Horologium]], the clock
< * [[Hydrus]], the water snake
< * [[Indus]], the Indian
< * [[Lacerta]], the lizard
< * LeoMinor, the lesser lion
< * [[Lynx]]
< * [[Mensa]] - originally Mons Mensae, table mountain
< * [[Microscopium]], the microscope
< * [[Monoceros]], the unicorn
< * [[Musca]], the fly
< * [[Norma]], the square
< * [[Octans]], the octant
< * [[Pavo]], the peacock
< * [[Phoenix]]
< * [[Pictor]] - originally Equuleus Pictoris, the painter's easel
< * [[Reticulum]], the reticle
< * [[Sculptor]]
< * [[Scutum]], the shield
< * [[Sextans]], the sextant
< * [[Telescopium]], the telescope
< * TriangulumAustrale, the southern triangle
< * [[Tucana]], the toucan
< * [[Volans]] - originally Piscis Volans, the flying fish
< * [[Vulpecula]] - originally Vulpecula Cum Ansere, the fox with the goose
< 
< There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably QuadransMuralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the QuadrantidMeteors are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the BigDipper and LittleDipper.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Constellation]]
------
Computer_Keyboard|984702720
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An input device used to enter data by manual depression of keys.
------
Theater|984702776
7c7
< ...and [[Aristotle]], primarily for his timeless theories on the dramatic arts.
---
> ...and [[Aristotle]], primarily for his timeless theories on the dramatic arts. Please note that his theories, especially the [[Three Unities]] (I don't know if this is the correct term) are not undisputed. Some scholars believe they are meant to be descriptive, not proscriptive.
12c12
< The importance of acient Greek theater came much in retrospect, because influential playwrights like Johann Wolfgang von [[Goethe]] said their conception of theater was meant to be a recreation of classical theater (which is was not). Another attempt to recreate classical theater argued that Greek actors didn'T speak, but sung instead and thus created the [[Opera]].
---
> The importance of acient Greek theater came much in retrospect, because influential playwrights like Johann Wolfgang von [[Goethe]] said their conception of theater was meant to be a recreation of classical theater (which is was not). Another attempt to recreate classical theater argued that Greek actors didn't speak, but sung instead and thus created the [[Opera]].
21c21,32
< : [[David Mamet]]
---
> : [[David Mamet]]
> 
> 
> 20th Century German Language Theater Authors:
> : [[Heiner Mueller]]
> : [[Bertold Brecht]]
> : [[Thomas Bernhardt]]
> 
> 20th Century German Language Theater Directors:
> : [[Frank Castorf]]
> : [[August Everding]]
> : [[Max Reinhardt]]
------
Constellation|984702804
1c1,98
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Most of the stars we see have little relation to one another, but people are very good at finding patterns and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into configurations called constellations.  Different cultures have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to appear over and over again - e.g. [[Orion]] and [[Scorpius]].
> 
> The IAU divides the sky into 88 official constellations with precise boundaries, so that every direction belongs to exactly one constellation.  These are mostly based upon the constellations of the ancient Greek tradition, passed down through the Middle Ages.  The [[zodiac]] includes the following 12:
> 
> * [[Aries]], the ram
> * [[Taurus]], the bull
> * [[Gemini]], the twins
> * [[Cancer]], the crab
> * [[Leo]], the lion
> * [[Virgo]], the virgin
> * [[Libra]], the scales
> * [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
> * [[Sagittarius]], the archer
> * [[Capricornus]], the sea goat
> * [[Aquarius]], the water carrier
> * [[Pisces]], the fish
> 
> Plus [[Ptolemy]] listed the following additional constellations:
> 
> * [[Andromeda]]
> * [[Aquila]], the eagle
> * [[Ara]], the altar
> * [[Argo Navis]], the ship of the argonauts, since divided into [[Carina]], [[Puppis]], [[Pyxis]], and [[Vela]]
> * [[Auriga]], the charioteer
> * [[Bootes]], the herdsman
> * [[Canis Major]], the greater dog
> * [[Canis Minor]], the lesser dog
> * [[Cassiopeia]]
> * [[Centaurus]], the centaur
> * [[Cepheus]]
> * [[Cetus]], the whale
> * [[Corona Australis]], the southern crown
> * [[Corona Borealis]], the northern crown
> * [[Corvus]], the raven
> * [[Crater]], the cup
> * [[Cygnus]], the swan
> * [[Delphinus]], the dolphin
> * [[Draco]], the dragon
> * [[Equuleus]], the little horse
> * [[Eridanus]], the river
> * [[Hercules]]
> * [[Hydra]], the water snake
> * [[Lepus]], the hare
> * [[Lupus]], the wolf
> * [[Lyra]], the lyre
> * [[Ophiucus]], the serpent-bearer - actually intersects the ecliptic
> * [[Orion]], the hunter
> * [[Pegasus]]
> * [[Perseus]]
> * PiscisAustrinus, the southern fish
> * [[Sagitta]], the arrow
> * [[Serpens]], the serpent
> * [[Triangulum]], the triangle
> * [[Ursa Major]], the greater bear
> * [[Ursa Minor]], the lesser bear
> 
> In more recent times this list has been added to, first to fill gaps between Ptolemy's patterns (the Greeks considered the sky as including both constellations and dim spaces between) and second to fill up the southern sky as explorers sailed where they could see it.  The new constellations are:
> 
> * [[Antlia]], the pump
> * [[Apus]], the bird of paradise
> * [[Caelum]], the chisel
> * [[Camelopardis]], the giraffe
> * [[Canes Venatici]], the hunting dogs
> * [[Chamaeleon]]
> * [[Circinus]], the drawing compasses
> * [[Columba]], the dove
> * [[Coma Berenices]] (traditional Asterism), Berenice's hair
> * [[Crux]], the cross
> * [[Dorado]], the swordfish
> * [[Fornax]], the furnace
> * [[Grus]], the crane
> * [[Horologium]], the clock
> * [[Hydrus]], the water snake
> * [[Indus]], the Indian
> * [[Lacerta]], the lizard
> * [[Leo Minor]], the lesser lion
> * [[Lynx]]
> * [[Mensa]] - originally Mons Mensae, table mountain
> * [[Microscopium]], the microscope
> * [[Monoceros]], the unicorn
> * [[Musca]], the fly
> * [[Norma]], the square
> * [[Octans]], the octant
> * [[Pavo]], the peacock
> * [[Phoenix]]
> * [[Pictor]] - originally Equuleus Pictoris, the painter's easel
> * [[Reticulum]], the reticle
> * [[Sculptor]]
> * [[Scutum]], the shield
> * [[Sextans]], the sextant
> * [[Telescopium]], the telescope
> * [[Triangulum Australe]], the southern triangle
> * [[Tucana]], the toucan
> * [[Volans]] - originally Piscis Volans, the flying fish
> * [[Vulpecula]] - originally Vulpecula Cum Ansere, the fox with the goose
> 
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big dipper]] and [[Little dipper]].
> 
------
Sorting_Algorithm|984702879
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An algorithm wich puts elements of information in a given order.
------
Dog_tag|984702934
3c3
< A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by [[United States]] military personnel.  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a metal chain and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.
---
> A dog tag is also an identification tag worn by military personnel in the  [[United States]].  The name, military id number, blood type?, and ??? are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a metal chain and strung around the neck.  It helps identify the wounded and dead.  Dog tags were worn at least as far back as ancient [[Sparta]].
------
Hacking|984703017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Unauthorized access to [[data]]/information.
------
Hacking|984703098
1c1
< Unauthorized access to [[data]]/information.
---
> Unauthorized access to [[data]]/information, to obtain or to modify it.
------
Bit|984703140
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Single basic unit of information ([[computer]]).
------
Byte|984703192
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A unit of information which contains 8 [[bits|bit]]
------
Byte|984703207
1c1
< A unit of information which contains 8 [[bits|bit]]
---
> A unit of information which contains 8 [[bits|Bit]]
------
Byte|984703221
1c1
< A unit of information which contains 8 [[bits|Bit]]
---
> A unit of information which contains 8 [[bit|bits]]
------
Microsoft_Windows|984703315
1c1,2
< Actually [2001] the greatest enterprise of [[software]]. His major success is Microsoft Windows, an operative system, wich owns 90% of his segment.
---
> In 1985, [[Microsoft]] corporation released [[Microsoft Windows 1.0]], an enhanced user interface and set of applications for its [[MS-DOS]] operating system.  This was seen at the time as a response to the popular [[Apple computer|Apple]] [[Macintosh]] computer released in 1984.  The user interfaces of Microsoft Windows and the Macintosh (and Apple's earlier unsuccessful Lisa) were based largely on the work of the [[Xerox]] Palo Alto Research Center ([[PARC]]), who produced the revolutionary but commercially unsuccessful Star and Alto computers.  The Star's user interface introduced a device called a [[computer mouse|mouse]] used to move a pointer on a graphic display, and visual [[icon]]s representing computer resources.
> 
------
Hexadecimal|984703409
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Base 16 number system, which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
------
Computer|984703444
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Machine that processes data.
------
SoniC|984703578
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Who are you?
------
Sorting_Algorithm|984703594
1c1,2
< An algorithm wich puts elements of information in a given order.
---
> An algorithm wich puts elements of information in a given order.
> A known interpretation is [[bubble sort]] in C++.
------
Sorting_Algorithm|984703614
2c2
< A known interpretation is [[bubble sort]] in C++.
---
> A known implementation is [[bubble sort]] in C++.
------
Character|984703655
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[computer|computers]], a symbol that requires a [[byte]] to store in memory.
------
Nibble|984703690
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Half a  [[byte]]
------
Nibble|984703700
1c1
< Half a  [[byte]]
---
> Half a [[byte]]
------
Hex|984703723
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Hexadecimal]].
------
Sorting_Algorithm|984703768
1c1
< An algorithm wich puts elements of information in a given order.
---
> An algorithm which puts elements of information in a given order.
------
Cdani|984703894
10c10,12
< Would you like to spearhead development of a French or Catalan version of Wikipedia?
---
> Would you like to spearhead development of a French or Catalan version of Wikipedia?
> ----
> Good night (here is 1:37).
------
Requested_articles|984704689
34c34
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
Microsoft_Windows|984704881
2a3,4
> Current versions Microsoft Windows are now sold as standalone operating systems, primarily for computers based on [[Intel]] [[microprocessor]]s (though versions have also been produced for other processors such as the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] Alpha and [[MIPS]]).
> 
------
What_Nupedia_Wants|984704886
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are the 30 most popular search terms in the Nupedia search engine, listed in order of <b>increasing</b> popularity.
> 
> [[philosophy]]
> [[rome]]
> [[astronomy]]
> [[love]]
> [[napoleon]]
> [[mathematics]]
> [[berlin]]
> [[cat]]
> [[dna]]
> [[math]]
> [[beethoven]]
> [[java]]
> [[egypt]]
> [[gnu]]
> [[greece]]
> [[physics]]
> [[internet]]
> [[vergil]]
> [[austria]]
> [[hitler]]
> [[car]]
> [[einstein]]
> [[bach]]
> [[mozart]]
> [[germany]]
> [[music]]
> [[bse]]
> [[linux]]
> [[computer]]
> [[sex]]
------
What_Nupedia_Wants|984704910
3,32c3,32
< [[philosophy]]
< [[rome]]
< [[astronomy]]
< [[love]]
< [[napoleon]]
< [[mathematics]]
< [[berlin]]
< [[cat]]
< [[dna]]
< [[math]]
< [[beethoven]]
< [[java]]
< [[egypt]]
< [[gnu]]
< [[greece]]
< [[physics]]
< [[internet]]
< [[vergil]]
< [[austria]]
< [[hitler]]
< [[car]]
< [[einstein]]
< [[bach]]
< [[mozart]]
< [[germany]]
< [[music]]
< [[bse]]
< [[linux]]
< [[computer]]
< [[sex]]
---
> :[[philosophy]]
> :[[rome]]
> :[[astronomy]]
> :[[love]]
> :[[napoleon]]
> :[[mathematics]]
> :[[berlin]]
> :[[cat]]
> :[[dna]]
> :[[math]]
> :[[beethoven]]
> :[[java]]
> :[[egypt]]
> :[[gnu]]
> :[[greece]]
> :[[physics]]
> :[[internet]]
> :[[vergil]]
> :[[austria]]
> :[[hitler]]
> :[[car]]
> :[[einstein]]
> :[[bach]]
> :[[mozart]]
> :[[germany]]
> :[[music]]
> :[[bse]]
> :[[linux]]
> :[[computer]]
> :[[sex]]
------
Love|984705133
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]].
------
Car|984705260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wheeled vehicle, abbreviation of "carriage", to carry people or goods.
------
Waikiki|984705449
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hawaiian : Spurting Water, the southeastern section of [[Honolulu]]. It's beach is one of the best known.
------
Waikiki|984705470
1c1
< Hawaiian : Spurting Water, the southeastern section of [[Honolulu]]. It's beach is one of the best known.
---
> Hawaiian : Spurting Water, the southeastern section of [[Honolulu]]. It's beach is one of the best known in the world.
------
Vergil|984705535
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Virgil. Ancient Roman poet.
------
Hitler|984705669
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adolf Hitler (1889-1945). German leader of Nazis, dictator first elected democraticaly.
> Tried to conquer Europe (World War II).
------
Digital_Equipment_Corporation|984705738
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), now part of [[Compaq]], was a pioneer in the American [[computer]] industry.  The first versions of the [[C programing language]] and [[Unix]] operating system were produced on DEC PDP computers.  DEC also produced the popular Vax line, the Alpha microprocessor (the first commercially available 64-bit microprocessor), and some commercially unsuccessful personal computers including the DEC One, the first [[laptop]] computer and the first MS-DOS computer to use the now standard 3 1/2" floppy disks.  DEC was the first commercial business connected to the [[Internet]], "digital.com" being the first of the now ubiquitous ".com" domains.  The popular [http://www.altavista.com/ AltaVista], created by DEC, was the first comprehensive Internet [[search engine]].
------
Sex|984705852
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some species can be divided into two groups (males and females), each one called a sex. They complement. They copulate to reproduce.
------
Mozart|984706007
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). Austrian composer, one of the greatest in the history of music.
------
Sex|984706829
1c1
< Some species can be divided into two groups (males and females), each one called a sex. They complement. They copulate to reproduce.
---
> Some species can be divided into two groups (males and females), each one called a sex. They complement. They copulate or pollinate or otherwise co-contribute gametes to reproduce.
------
Hex|984707125
1c1,3
< See [[Hexadecimal]].
---
> #Greek root word denoting "six" as in "hexagon," a six-sided figure.
> #A magical spell or curse.
> #Also, see [[Hexadecimal]].
------
WolfgangAmadeusMozart|984707800
1,19c1
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
< composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A.
< Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is
< considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern
< audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written
< tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and
< fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said
< to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling
< piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or
< pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's
< style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote
< CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only
< sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of
< its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
< "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times,
< he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
< Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791. 
< ----
< See also WolfgangAmadeusMozartTalk.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mozart]]
------
Mozart|984707832
1c1,19
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791). Austrian composer, one of the greatest in the history of music.
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
> composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A.
> Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is
> considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern
> audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written
> tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and
> fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said
> to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling
> piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or
> pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's
> style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote
> CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only
> sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of
> its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
> "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times,
> he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
> Beethoven's life span, yet was amazingly prolific from early childhood until his death in 1791. 
> ----
> See also WolfgangAmadeusMozartTalk.
------
MozarT|984707855
1c1
< #REDIRECT WolfgangAmadeusMozart
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mozart]]
------
WolfgangMozart|984707882
1,4c1
< See WolfgangAmadeusMozart
< 
< (His original name was Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart, but he chose to
< translate his middle name to italian, Italy beeing very influetial musically at that time.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mozart]]
------
Hitler|984708127
1,2c1
< Adolf Hitler (1889-1945). German leader of Nazis, dictator first elected democraticaly.
< Tried to conquer Europe (World War II).
---
> @REDIRECT [[Adolph Hitler]]
------
Hitler|984708139
1c1
< @REDIRECT [[Adolph Hitler]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adolph Hitler]]
------
Hitler|984708176
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Adolph Hitler]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]]
------
Star_Trek|984711097
3c3
< In 1987 a new series launched, [[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline.  While in the classic series the captain often used "cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG) the [[Prime Directive]], which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' bussiness, is given greater importance.  This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death. The other spin-off series rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
---
> In 1987 a new series launched, [[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline.  While in the classic series the captain (James Kirk, played by [[William Shatner]]) often used "cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG) the [[Prime Directive]], which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' business, is given greater importance.  This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death.  The other spin-off series rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
5c5
< Roddenberry was a proponent of egalitarian politics, and frequently used the shows to showcase his vision of a [[utopia]]n future society based on those principles.  The original series, for example, had a prominent black female crew member (Lt. Uhuru, played by [[Nichelle Nichols]]), one of the first black women to hold any prominent role on American television.  It also had a [[Russia]]n character (Mr. Chekov, played by [[Walter Koenig]]) at a time when the United States was engaged in the [[cold war]] with the [[Soviet Union]].
---
> Roddenberry was a proponent of egalitarian politics, and frequently used the shows to showcase his vision of a [[utopia]]n future society based on those principles.  The original series, for example, had a prominent black female crew member (Lt. Uhuru, played by [[Nichelle Nichols]]), one of the first black women to hold any major role on American television.  It also had a [[Russia]]n character (Mr. Chekov, played by [[Walter Koenig]]) at a time when the United States was engaged in the [[cold war]] with the [[Soviet Union]].  Viewers of today who watch the old series may find its portrayals of minorities and especially women somewhat backward, but they were actually quite progressive and daring for the time.
11c11
< :[[/Star Trek VOY|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]
---
> :[[/Star Trek DS9|Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]
------
Roman_alphabet|984711793
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[alphabet]] of classical [[Latin]], that is now used (perhaps with some modification) by [[Romance language|Romance]], [[Germanic language|Germanic]], and other languages.
> 
> Compare [[Greek alphabet]], [[Hebrew alphabet]], [[Cyrillic alphabet]].
------
ASCII|984712782
1c1
< <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.  It is a standard data transmission [[code]], based on the [[Roman alphabet]], used by [[computer]]s and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[EBCDIC]]), it represents information in a standardized digital format that allows devices to communicate with each other and to efficiently process and store that information.
---
> <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, introduced as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968.  It is a data transmission and storage [[code]] based on the [[Roman alphabet]] as used in modern [[English language|English]], used by [[computer]]s and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[IBM]]'s [[EBCDIC]]), it specifies a correspondence between [[integer]]s that can be represented digitally and the symbols of a written language, allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process and store information.
3c3
< Since the initial introduction of ASCII (as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968), technological advances and the international spread of technology have led to many [[extended ASCII|extensions]] and enhancements, not all of them compatible with each other or with existing devices.  ASCII is a 7-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the numbers representable in 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Even at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.
---
> ASCII is a 7-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the integers representable with 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Even at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.  Advances in technology and the international spread of that technology produced many variations and [[Extended ASCII|extensions]], not all of them compatible with each other or with existing systems.
7c7
< The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that do not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range, for example "backspace", which produces code 8, and "tab", which produces code 9.
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that may not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range, for example "backspace", which produces code 8, and "tab", which produces code 9.
9c9
< Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing information.  They include letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
---
> Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
13c13
< ASCII does not include characters needed to represent many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard ISO 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It is still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO-646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO-646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 caused fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
---
> ASCII does not include characters needed to encode many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard [[ISO]] 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It is still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused in different variants.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO 646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO 646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 ([[Unicode]]) cause fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
------
Acronym|984713326
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that spells a pronouncible word (though not necessarily a real word from any [[natural language]]).  For example, SAM for surface-to-air missile and NATO for the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization.  The term is also frequently applied (mistakenly in the opinion of some) to non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines), which are called <i>initialisms</i>.
> 
------
ANSI|984713479
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American National Standards Organization: a non-commercial body that produces industrial standards in the [[United States]].
------
ISO|984713642
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> International Organization for Standardization: an independent body that produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards.
------
ISO|984713821
1a2,3
> 
> [http://www.iso.ch/ ISO's official website]
------
ANSI|984713968
1c1,4
< American National Standards Organization: a non-commercial body that produces industrial standards in the [[United States]].
---
> American National Standards Organization: a non-commercial body that produces industrial standards in the [[United States]].  A member of [[ISO]] and [[IEC]].
> 
> [http://www.ansi.org/ ANSI's official site]
> 
------
Integer|984714193
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[IntegerNumbers]]
> 
------
Computer_keyboard|984714316
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Keyboard]]
> 
------
Printer|984714362
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer printer]]
------
Computer_printer|984714593
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>printer</i> is a device that produces <i>hardcopy</i> (permanent human-readable text and/or graphics usually on paper) from data stored in a [[computer]] connected to it.
------
Vergil|984715845
1c1
< Virgil. Ancient Roman poet.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Virgil]]
------
Virgil|984715966
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Virgil, or ''Publius Vergilis Maro''.  Roman poet (70-19 BC) famous for the ''Eclogues'', the ''Goergics'', and above all the great national epic of the ''Aeneid''.
------
AtlasShrugged/Colorado|984721045
1,9c1
< Colorado is the home of /WyattOil and the state with the most vigorous economy in the beginning of AtlasShrugged.  It is served by /TaggartTranscontinental's collapsing /RioNorteLine.
< 
< Mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN145
<  - /SectioN146
<  - /SectioN147
<  - /SectioN148
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Colorado]]
------
Bomfog|984723130
1c1,5
< Welcome, Bomfog! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Welcome, Bomfog! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Thanks. -- [[Bomfog|Me]]
------
Economics|984723787
3c3,4
< There is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of - [[Education]], [[Religion]], [[Politics]], [[Employment]], [[Trasport]], [[Defence]], etc. Economics is, therefore, a pervasive theory of how society works. 
---
> There is an economic aspect to almost any topic one can think of -
> [[Education]], [[Religion]], [[Politics]], [[Employment]], [[Transport]], [[Defence]], etc. Economics is, therefore, a pervasive theory of how society works.
5c6,10
< One of the guiding ideas in Economics is scarcity. Virtually everything is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy humanity. It is not only the poor who feel deprived; even the relatively well-off seem to want more. It is the economists job to evaluate the choices that exist for the use of those resources.
---
> One of the guiding ideas in Economics is scarcity. Virtually everything
> is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy
> humanity. It is not only the poor who feel deprived; even the relatively
> well-off seem to want more. It is the economists' job to evaluate the
> choices that exist for the use of those resources.
14c19
< [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Market forms]]
------
Economics|984724032
4c4
< [[Education]], [[Religion]], [[Politics]], [[Employment]], [[Transport]], [[Defence]], etc. Economics is, therefore, a pervasive theory of how society works.
---
> [[Education]], [[Religion]], [[Politics]], [[Employment]], [[Transport]], [[Defense]], etc. Economics is, therefore, a pervasive theory of how society works.
------
Health_Sciences|984725187
1c1,7
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]], [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other kinds of [[therapy]], like [[therapy/Occupational|occupational therapy]],[[therapy/Recreational|recreational therapy]] as well as [[midwivery]],[[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional medicine]] too.
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but
> also [[dentistry]], [[psychiatry]] and [[counseling]], [[veterinary science]],
> [[nursing]], [[therapy/Physical|physical therapy]] and other
> kinds of [[therapy]], like [[therapy/Occupational|occupational therapy]]
> and [[therapy/Recreational|recreational therapy]], as well as
> [[midwifery]],[[hospice care]], [[home care]] and [[nontraditional
> medicine]].
3c9
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Computer|984729433
1c1
< Machine that processes data.
---
> A programmable machine that processes data.
------
Computer_Mouse|984729784
1c1
< A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen.
---
> A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen. Modern mice usually have three buttons and a scroll wheel, wireless variants exist as well was optical mice.
------
Computer_Monitor|984729852
1c1,4
< Display device wich produces an image on the screen.
---
> Display device wich produces an image on the screen.
> 
> * [[/LCD]]
> * [[/CRT]]
------
Computer_Monitor/LCD|984729929
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> stands for Liquid Crystal Display. 
> 
> Different technologies include:
> 
> [[/TFT]]
> [[/DSTN]]
------
Computer_Monitor/LCD|984729950
5,6c5,6
< [[/TFT]]
< [[/DSTN]]
---
> *[[/TFT]]
> *[[/DSTN]]
------
Computer_Monitor|984729981
4c4,5
< * [[/CRT]]
---
> * [[/CRT]]
> * [[/Plasma]]
------
Computer_Monitor/CRT|984730064
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> stands for [[Cathode Ray Tube]].
> 
> Different technologies include:
> 
> * [[Short Neck]]
------
Computer_Monitor/CRT|984730079
5c5
< * [[Short Neck]]
---
> * [[/Short Neck]]
------
Computer_Monitor/TFT|984730190
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> stands for Thin Film Transistor. Modern TFTs are divided into two subsets, digital and analog displays.
------
Mouse|984730445
1c1
< A mouse is a computer pointing device consisting of one or more buttons.
---
> A small mammal of the order Rodentia.  Also, a [[Computer Mouse]].
------
Computer_Storage|984730463
16,17c16,17
< ** Static RAM
< ** Dynamic RAM
---
> ** [[RAM/Static|Static RAM]]
> ** [[RAM/Dynamic|Dynamic RAM]]
19,21c19,21
< *** VRAM
< *** NVRAM
< *** WRAM
---
> *** [[VRAM]]
> *** [[NVRAM]]
> *** [[WRAM]]
25,26c25,26
< *** Hard disk
< *** ROM
---
> *** [[Hard disk]]
> *** [[ROM]]
31c31
< **** Floppy disks
---
> **** [[Floppy]] disks
33,36c33,36
< **** CD-ROM
< **** DVD-ROM
< **** Mylar tape
< **** Paper tape
---
> **** [[CD-ROM]]
> **** [[DVD-ROM]]
> **** [[Mylar tape]]
> **** [[Paper tape]]
40,42c40,42
< **** Compact flash
< **** Smartdisk
< **** Memory stick
---
> **** [[Compact flash]]
> **** [[Smartdisk]]
> **** [[Memory stick]]
------
RAM|984730561
1,2c1
< Short for [[Random Access Memory]]. It is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. [[RAM]] is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Storage]]. Unlike some other forms of [[Storage]], RAM is typically entirely deleted when the computer is powered down.
< 
---
> Short for [[Random Access Memory]]. It is a form of dynamic storage. Computers use memory to hold the program text and variables during execution. [[RAM]] is a member of the larger class referred to as [[Computer Storage]]. Unlike some other forms of [[Computer Storage]], RAM is typically entirely deleted when the computer is powered down.
------
RAM|984730873
1a2,10
> 
> Common types of RAM:
> 
> :[[/SDRAM]]
> :[[/RDRAM]]
> :[[/DDR-SDRAM]]
> :[[/EDO RAM]]
> :[[/Fast Page RAM]]
> 
------
Games/RolePlaying|984731092
13c13
< Roleplaying [[video games]]
---
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
16c16
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
---
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984731113
13,16c13
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
< * [[Final fantasy]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
---
> Roleplaying [[video games]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984731133
13c13
< Roleplaying [[video games]]
---
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
------
Games/video_games|984731946
1c1,71
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adventure Games:
> 
> traditional:
> 
> : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> : [[Manic Mansion]]
> : [[Zack McCracken]]
> : [[Zork]]
> : [[Sam and Max]]
> : [[Monkey Island]] series
> 
> 3D:
> 
> * [[Final fantasy]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Roleplaying Games:
> 
> * [[Dungeon Master]]
> * [[Hack]]
> * [[Ultima]] series
> * [[Ambermoon]]
> * [[Amberstar]]
> 
> -----
> 
> First Person Shooters (FPS):
> 
> * [[Quake]] series
> * [[Unreal]]
> * [[Half Life]]
> * [[Doom]] series
> * [[Hexen]]
> * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> * [[Rise of the Triad]]
> * [[Duke Nukem]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Strategy:
> 
> turn-based:
> * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
> * [[Battle Isle]] series
> * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
> 
> real time:
> * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
> * [[Command and Conquer]]
> * [[Dark Reign]]
> * [[Populous]] series
> 
> -----
> 
> Arcade:
> 
> * [[Pacman]]
> * [[Space Invaders]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Jump and Run:
> 
> * [[Super Mario]] series
> * [[Sonic]] series
> * [[Lionheart]]
> 
> 
------
Games|984732031
14a15
> *[[/Video games]]
------
Games|984732052
15c15
< *[[/Video games]]
---
> *[[/video games]]
------
Television|984732301
10a11,18
> Animation:
> 
> : [[The Simpsons]]
> : [[Futurama]]
> : [[Peanuts]]
> : [[Animaniacs]]
> : [[Ren and Stimpy]]
> 
------
The_Simpsons|984732354
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> TV series created by [[Matt Groening]]
------
Computer_Storage|984734780
33a34,35
> **** [[CD-R]]
> **** [[CD-RW]]
34a37
> **** [[DVD-RAM]]
42c45
< **** [[Memory stick]]
---
> **** [[Memory stick]]
------
Monopolistic_competition|984735796
1c1
< [[Monopolistic competion]] is given when:
---
> [[Monopolistic competition]] is given when:
7c7
< Other [[market forms]]
---
> Other [[market forms]]
------
Pamela_Anderson|984735822
11c11
< In addition to her fame from modelling and acting, Anderson has gotten a great deal of press attention for her flamboyant personal life.  She married rock start [[Tommy Lee]] of the band [[Motley Crue]] after knowing him for only 96 hours.  Anderson filed for divorce twice and reconciled twice, before finally breaking her relationship with Lee.
---
> In addition to her fame from modelling and acting, Anderson has gotten a great deal of press attention for her flamboyant personal life.  She married rock star [[Tommy Lee]] of the band [[Motley Crue]] after knowing him for only 96 hours.  Anderson filed for divorce twice and reconciled twice, before finally breaking her relationship with Lee.
13c13
< A X-rated home video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee was stolen from their house in 1998, and made a huge stir on the Internet.  Anderson sued an Internet company which was distributing the video, and some media sources reported that she settled the case for $10 million.
---
> A X-rated home video of Pamela Anderson and Tommy Lee was stolen from their house in 1998, and made a huge stir on the Internet.  Anderson sued an Internet company which was distributing the video, and some media sources reported that she settled the case for $10 million.
------
Microeconomics|984735941
3c3
< Microeconomics seeks to analyze the market or other type of mechanism that establishes relative prices among goods and services and allocates society's resources among their many alternative uses.
---
> Microeconomics seeks to analyze the [[market forms|market form]] or other type of mechanism that establishes relative prices among goods and services and allocates society's resources among their many alternative uses.
9c9
< * [[Economics]]
---
> * [[Economics]]
------
Macroeconomics|984736091
5c5
< One of the great challenges of recent economics has been struggles to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models.  [[Rational Expectations]] Theorists such as [[Robert Lucas]] suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional [[Keynesian]] macroeconomic models were questionable in light of what they must implicitly assume about individual behavior.
---
> One of the great challenges of recent economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models.  Theorists such as [[Robert Lucas]] suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional [[Keynesian]] macroeconomic models were questionable in light of what they must implicitly assume about individual behavior.
6a7,9
> [[Rational Expectations]] 
> 
> [[Milton Friedman]] -- [[Milton Keynes]]
------
Macroeconomics|984736129
9c9
< [[Milton Friedman]] -- [[Milton Keynes]]
---
> [[Milton Friedman]] -- [[Maynard Keynes]]
------
Games/Board|984739818
9c9
< * [[Hex]]
---
> * [[Games/Board/Hex]]
------
Games/Board|984739970
9c9
< * [[Games/Board/Hex]]
---
> * [[Games/Hex|Hex]]
------
Hex|984740127
2a3
> #The name of a [[Games/Hex|game]]
------
Ether|984743740
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ether
> 
> 1. The name used in [[Organic Chemistry|organic chemistry]] to describe a type of molecule with a Carbon-Oxygen-Carbon linkage (see [[Chemistry/Ether]])
> 
> 2. A common term for the specific compound <i>diethyl ether</i>, one of the first [[anaesthetic]]s used in [[surgery]]
> 
> 3. The <i>luminiferous ether</i> was the term used for the hypothetical medium in which the [[electromagnetic wave]]s of light propagated. The famous [[Michelson-Morley experiment]] demonstrated that there was no such luminiferous ether, and was one of the experiments that led to the formulation of the theory of [[Relativity]] 
------
New_topics|984746408
2c2
< as of about 1.30 am 15th March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 2 am 16th March, Wikipedia server time
4,14c4
< [[French revolution]] -- 
< [[Artificial language]] -- 
< [[Bomfog]] -- 
< [[Learning music by ear]] -- 
< [[Harmonic accompaniment]] -- 
< [[Dance music]] -- 
< [[Television]] -- 
< [[Entertainment]] -- 
< [[Electronic Music]] -- 
< [[John Tenniel]] -- 
< [[Punch and Judy]] -- 
---
> These are the new topics from (approximately) the previous three days. You lot have been busy!
16,25c6,57
< [[Die Siedler von Catan]] -- 
< [[Stanislaw Lem]] -- 
< [[Free will and determinism]] -- 
< [[Philosophical method]] -- 
< [[The Settlers of Catan]] -- 
< [[Zimbabwe/Transnational Issues]] -- 
< [[Sexual selection]] -- 
< [[Natural selection]] -- 
< [[Common descent]] -- 
< [[Phil Bordelon]] -- 
---
> [[The_Simpsons]] -- 
> [[Television]] -- [[Games/video_games]] -- 
> [[Computer_Monitor/TFT]] -- 
> [[Computer_Monitor/CRT]] -- [[Computer_Monitor]] -- [[Computer_Monitor/LCD]] -- [[Computer_Mouse]] -- [[Bomfog]] -- [[Computer_printer]] -- 
> [[Printer]] -- 
> [[Computer_keyboard]] -- 
> [[Integer]] -- 
> [[ANSI]] -- [[ISO]] -- [[Acronym]] -- 
> [[Roman_alphabet]] -- 
> [[Hitler]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Hex]] -- [[Sex]] -- [[Digital_Equipment_Corporation]] -- 
> [[Vergil]] -- [[Waikiki]] -- [[Car]] -- 
> [[Love]] -- 
> [[What_Nupedia_Wants]] -- [[Microsoft_Windows]] -- [[Cdani]] -- [[Sorting_Algorithm]] -- [[Nibble]] -- [[Character]] --  
> [[Computer]] -- [[Hexadecimal]] -- 
> [[Byte]] -- [[Bit]] -- 
> [[Hacking]] -- [[Computer_Keyboard]] -- 
> [[Scanner]] -- 
> [[Acid]] -- [[Delphi]] -- [[Piano]] -- [[Mircrosoft_Windows]] -- [[Pamela_Anderson]] -- [[StarTrek]] -- [[Brass]] -- 
> [[Trombone]] -- 
> [[Data]] -- [[Drum]] -- 
> [[Tambourine]] -- 
> [[Saxhorn]] -- 
> [[Sackbut]] -- 
> [[Mandolin]] -- 
> [[Koto]] -- 
> [[Guitar]] -- 
> [[Flugelhorn]] -- 
> [[Flageolet]] -- 
> [[Didjeridu]] -- 
> [[French_revolution]] -- [[Flute]] -- [[Chess/WorldChampions]] -- [[Woodwind]] -- [[HTML]] -- 
> [[Oasis]] -- [[Saxophone]] -- [[Velocity]] -- 
> [[Zodiac]] -- 
> [[Film_History/Germany]] -- 
> [[Spain]] -- [[Oboe]] -- 
> [[Asphalt]] -- 
> [[Abacus]] -- 
> [[Portugal]] -- 
> [[Dog_tag]] -- [[Andorra/Military]] -- [[Definition_of_philosophy]] -- [[Science_Fiction_Artists]] -- 
> [[Dog_Tag]] -- [[Poles/Talk]] -- [[Public_Enemy]] -- [[Fundamental_Theorem_of_Calculus]] -- 
> [[Table_of_Integrals]] -- [[Poland/Economy]] -- [[Poland/Geography]] -- 
> [[Poland/People]] -- 
> [[Academy_Awards/Art_Direction]] -- [[Harmonic_accompaniment]] -- [[The_Time_Machine]] -- 
> [[Retronym]] -- [[Constructed_language]] -- [[Artificial_language]] -- [[Programming_language]] -- 
> [[Poker]] -- [[Ireland]] -- [[Learning_music_by_ear]] -- [[Dance_music]] -- 
> [[Morton_Downey,_Jr.]] -- [[Recent_celebrity_deaths]] -- [[Entertainment]] -- [[Rap_music]] -- [[NWA]] -- [[Netherlands]] -- [[Electronic_Music]] -- 
> [[John_Tenniel]] -- 
> [[Punch_and_Judy]] -- 
> [[Die_Siedler_von_Catan]] -- 
> [[Free_will_and_determinism]] -- 
> [[Philosophical_method]] -- 
> [[Zimbabwe/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
> [[Sexual_selection]] -- 
29,30c61,62
< [[Aircraft Carrier]] -- 
< [[Penelope Cruz]] -- 
---
> [[Aircraft_Carrier]] -- 
> [[Penelope_Cruz]] -- 
32,51c64,66
< [[Hee Haw]] -- 
< [[Games/Tile based]] -- 
< [[Greek alphabet]] -- 
< [[The Silmarillion]] -- 
< [[British Court of Appeals]] -- 
< [[Court of Appeals]] -- 
< [[Equivalence class]] -- 
< [[Bar]] -- 
< [[Disbarment]] -- 
< [[Theorem-proving]] -- 
< [[Reversible error]] -- 
< [[With prejudice]] -- 
< [[Ada Lovelace]] -- 
< [[Reductio ad absurdum]] -- 
< [[Frivolous lawsuit]] -- 
< [[Cause of action]] -- 
< [[Trial de novo]] -- 
< [[Statutory law]] -- 
< [[Black letter law]] -- 
< [[Statute]] -- 
---
> [[Hee_Haw]] -- 
> [[Games/Tile_based]] -- 
> [[Sarajevo]]
54d68
< ... this is from a script spidering Recent Changes to find those with no diff history i.e. new.  Some are pages newly converted to a free link, so not necessarily brand new: conversely, new files that were reedited before the script ran don't appear. 
56c70,72
< I have plans, when I have more spare time, for a script that does some smarter analysis of the revision histories, ie. looks for date of first revision, screens by size, as in the comments below, but this should do for now -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
---
> I was prompted to write the the script by the comments listed below. 
> The script in its current form grabs Recent Changes, then checks the version history for each entry listed. If there's no version 1 listed, then the early edits have dropped off the bottom of the list, so it's obviously not a new file. Otherwise, the date of the first edit is read, and checked against the current date. 
> The next version of the script will do some size analysis, so large new entries are distinguished from one-liners. Any other requests? -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
------
Flute|984748516
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. 
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. Is a open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of instrumentalist, when hi wlobs up thru.
------
Virgil|984749285
1c1,4
< Virgil, or ''Publius Vergilis Maro''.  Roman poet (70-19 BC) famous for the ''Eclogues'', the ''Goergics'', and above all the great national epic of the ''Aeneid''.
---
> Virgil, or ''Publius Vergilis Maro''.  Roman poet (70-19 BC) famous for the ''Eclogues'', the ''Goergics'', and above all the great national epic of the ''Aeneid''.
> Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
> In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
> The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live
------
Virgil|984749455
2,4c2,4
< Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
< In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
< The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live
---
>  Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
>  In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
>  The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live, but remained unfinished. Against his wishes, [[Octavius Augustus]] does not destroyed it.
------
Virgil|984749500
2,4c2,7
<  Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
<  In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
<  The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live, but remained unfinished. Against his wishes, [[Octavius Augustus]] does not destroyed it.
---
> 
> Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
> 
> In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
> 
> The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live, but remained unfinished. Against his wishes, [[Octavius Augustus]] does not destroyed it.
------
Poles/Talk|984750618
5c5
< And look 'democracy' in Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria
---
> And look at 'democracy' in Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria - Mathijs
7c7,19
< :''Those countries still have a long way to go, any comparisons do not make much sense...'' - WojPob
---
> :''Those countries still have a long way to go, any comparisons do not make much sense...'' - WojPob
> 
> in consequence of my first statement it does - a lot!<BR>
> As a matter of fact comparisons between mentioned countries and Poland/Czechia/Hungary - in order to understand why democracy can prosper - does make a lot of sense<BR>
> parameters for comparison:<BR>
> * homogenity of culture & ethnicity<BR>
> * development of a middle class<BR>
> * history of a public dialogue<BR>
> Compared to Poland, Hungary and Czechia, Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria & the former Yugoslav-states have an immense way to go.
> ----
> Ethnic cleansing is a terrible, terrible thing. But, apparently, in order to have a true democracy . . . .<BR>
> I don't have an answer, and when I look at mentioned countries and at Africa, I get a bit gloomy.<BR>
> Etnicity apparently is the basis for most peoples self-identity and satisfaction and there still isn't an alternative for the Czarist/Soviet, Austro-Hungarian and Colonizing/Imperialist empires cohezion/suppression - Mathijs
------
CopyrightTalk|984751719
0a1,16
> Leiden, Netherlands, 15-3-01
> 
> Well, hot ***!, I initiated some discussion by my impulsive ctrl-c/ctrl-v_roustabout!
> 
> I wonder what the physical terms of those copyrights are?<BR>
> what are the limits?<BR>
> how could it physically be controlled?<BR>
> To me it still is a (what is 'achterhoedegevecht in English?) of the publishing-industry<BR>
> anything I state might be copied (from whom?)<BR>
> maybe it is time for a judicial revolution in order of the "Habeas Corpus"<BR>
> a "Habeas Sentes"
> 
> Mathijs<BR>
> I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<B>
> <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion<I>
> ----
------
CopyrightTalk|984751787
14,15c14,15
< I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<B>
< <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion<I>
---
> I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<BR>
> <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion</I>
------
Poles/Talk|984752023
19a20,21
> 
> Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. Academic and naive theories just do not apply here... WojPob
------
Virgil|984752276
3c3
< Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic live.
---
> Studied rhetoric in Rome. Showed great fidelity to [[Octavius Augustus]]. At 28 years old begun write ''Eclogues'', an idealization of rustic life.
7c7
< The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his live, but remained unfinished. Against his wishes, [[Octavius Augustus]] does not destroyed it.
---
> The ''Aeneid'' occupies ten years of his life, but remained unfinished. Against his wishes, [[Octavius Augustus]] does not destroy it.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984752505
1,4d0
< Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)<BR>
< OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! <FONT SIZE=+3>=:P</FONT><BR>
< I won't ever do it again;<BR>
< I'm nice too, don't be sad!
6c2
< <i>You are forgiven, and now no one is sad.  I do thank you for your enthusiasm, but we really need to keep this thing clean.</i> --JimboWales
---
> The mother of all table-top RPG's
8,9c4
< <P>Might the RPG-story be placed back?
< - the author of that is a friend of mine
---
> close to a zillion young men (a few women) invested a billion lifespans to time on an another fictional plane.
11c6,10
< <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
---
> This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.<BR>
> Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
> Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
> at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives<BR>
> if you don't get addicted to it ;-}
12a12
> anyone can be an author, experience it!
19d18
< ----
28a28,39
> ----
> Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)<BR>
> OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! <FONT SIZE=+3>=:P</FONT><BR>
> I won't ever do it again;<BR>
> I'm nice too, don't be sad!
> 
> <i>You are forgiven, and now no one is sad.  I do thank you for your enthusiasm, but we really need to keep this thing clean.</i> --JimboWales
> 
> <P>Might the RPG-story be placed back?
> - the author of that is a friend of mine
> 
> <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984752921
1d0
< 
13a13,15
> I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this page. Eventually, this should be moved to a page called [[Munchkins]], [[Powergamers]] or some similar RPG-specific swear word. -SoniC
> 
> ----
39c41
< <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
---
> <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
------
Poles/Talk|984753214
19a20,27
> ----
> Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. Academic and naive theories just do not apply here... WojPob
> ----
> please WojPob, let's take eachother seriously<BR>
> excuse me if I offend you by my statements<BR>
> terms as "naive" and "academic" are derogative & out of order, please!<BR>
> <I>Or would you rather end our dialogue?<BR>
> that would be a pity</I>
21c29,31
< Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. Academic and naive theories just do not apply here... WojPob
---
> In history of democracy and public exchange (of goods and thoughts) a middle class has been indispensible for democracy/stability<BR>
> alternative is a ruler - subjects - state<BR>
> <I>like the Soviet Union</I>
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984753599
14c14,21
< 
---
> ----
> Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?<BR>
> it might be stupid, but it is true, as well<BR>
> I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people<BR>
> so sorry<BR>
> the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted<BR>
> western culture is a moral make believe<BR>
> The U.S. is our high priest
41c48
< <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
---
> <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
------
Mathijs|984753897
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dutch male, 29-10-66<BR>
> dilletant at anything<BR>
> but mostly history & rave'n-rant-philosophy
------
Poles/Talk|984754278
31c31,33
< <I>like the Soviet Union</I>
---
> <I>like the Soviet Union</I>
> 
> In my opinion it is far more important to raise the ''average'' standard of living ''and'' education. Having a middle class doesn't help you very much if they lack the proper education. BTW since when is "academic" a derogative term??? I still believe that naive academic theories exist - see any standard [[economics]] textbook for more. I applied those terms to the theories - not to your views - WojPob
------
Games/RolePlaying|984754632
1a2,11
> Make believe with consentual parameters of reality<BR>
> alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
> <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
> Players present characters according.<BR>
> <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
> Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
> It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
> It's addictive
> ----
> Games:<BR>
5a16,20
> * [[Gamma World]]
> * [[Top Secret]]
> * [[RuneQuest]]
> * [[Champions]]
> * [[Traveller]]
12,13c27,30
< 
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
---
> Zines:<BR>
> * [[White Dwarf]]
> * [[Dragon]]
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
------
Poles/Talk|984755178
19c19
< Etnicity apparently is the basis for most peoples self-identity and satisfaction and there still isn't an alternative for the Czarist/Soviet, Austro-Hungarian and Colonizing/Imperialist empires cohezion/suppression - Mathijs
---
> Etnicity apparently is the basis for most peoples self-identity and satisfaction and there still isn't an alternative for the Czarist/Soviet, Austro-Hungarian and Colonizing/Imperialist empires cohesion/suppression - Mathijs
21c21
< Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. Academic and naive theories just do not apply here... WojPob
---
> Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. WojPob
23,29c23
< please WojPob, let's take eachother seriously<BR>
< excuse me if I offend you by my statements<BR>
< terms as "naive" and "academic" are derogative & out of order, please!<BR>
< <I>Or would you rather end our dialogue?<BR>
< that would be a pity</I>
< 
< In history of democracy and public exchange (of goods and thoughts) a middle class has been indispensible for democracy/stability<BR>
---
> In my view a middle class is indispensible for democracy and public exchange (of goods and thoughts)<BR>
31,33c25,30
< <I>like the Soviet Union</I>
< 
< In my opinion it is far more important to raise the ''average'' standard of living ''and'' education. Having a middle class doesn't help you very much if they lack the proper education. BTW since when is "academic" a derogative term??? I still believe that naive academic theories exist - see any standard [[economics]] textbook for more. I applied those terms to the theories - not to your views - WojPob
---
> <I>like the Soviet Union</I> - Mathijs
> ----
> In my opinion it is far more important to raise the ''average'' standard of living ''and'' education. Having a middle class doesn't help you very much if they lack the proper education. 
> ----
> I think we agree, but use different terms<BR>
> to me a strong middle class is a consequence and prerequisite of a fair standard of living and a common education
------
Games/video_games|984757384
39c39
< * [[Duke Nukem]]
---
> * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
54a55
> * [[StarCraft/Broodwar]]
------
StarCraft/Broodwar|984757469
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> StarCraft is a very variation on Command & Conquer<BR>
> Thousands of people play this on any given moment over the internet
------
Hexadecimal|984758988
1c1,3
< Base 16 number system, which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
---
> Base 16 number system, which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
> ----
> [[Hex]] is an abbreviation of Hexadecimal.
------
Digital_Equipment_Corporation|984759049
1c1,3
< Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), now part of [[Compaq]], was a pioneer in the American [[computer]] industry.  The first versions of the [[C programing language]] and [[Unix]] operating system were produced on DEC PDP computers.  DEC also produced the popular Vax line, the Alpha microprocessor (the first commercially available 64-bit microprocessor), and some commercially unsuccessful personal computers including the DEC One, the first [[laptop]] computer and the first MS-DOS computer to use the now standard 3 1/2" floppy disks.  DEC was the first commercial business connected to the [[Internet]], "digital.com" being the first of the now ubiquitous ".com" domains.  The popular [http://www.altavista.com/ AltaVista], created by DEC, was the first comprehensive Internet [[search engine]].
---
> Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), now part of [[Compaq]], was a pioneer in the American [[computer]] industry.  
> 
> The first versions of the [[C programing language]] and [[Unix]] operating system were produced on DEC PDP computers.  DEC also produced the popular Vax line, the Alpha microprocessor (the first commercially available 64-bit microprocessor), and some commercially unsuccessful personal computers including the DEC One, the first [[laptop]] computer and the first MS-DOS computer to use the now standard 3 1/2" floppy disks.  DEC was the first commercial business connected to the [[Internet]], "digital.com" being the first of the now ubiquitous ".com" domains.  The popular [http://www.altavista.com/ AltaVista], created by DEC, was the first comprehensive Internet [[search engine]].
------
Television|984759447
1c1,3
< Television is ...  (what <i>is</i> television, anyway?) ;-)
---
> Television is sending moving images and sound over radio waves.
> 
> It is a derrivative of [[radio]].
32c34,35
< :[[Pamela Anderson]]
---
> :[[Pamela Anderson]]
> 
------
Radio|984759498
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.
> 
> Notable radio programs:
> 
> *[[Rush Limbaugh]]
------
Rush_Limbaugh|984759660
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rush Limbaugh is a conservative radio talk show host.
> 
> He started out in the early [[1980s]] in [[Sacramento]], [[California]], moved to [[New York City]] in the early [[1990s]] and eventually grew his radio show into the largest listened to program on radio with 25 million listeners in the late 1990s.
> 
> /Talk
------
Rush_Limbaugh|984759689
1c1
< Rush Limbaugh is a conservative radio talk show host.
---
> Rush Limbaugh is a conservative radio [[talk show]] host.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984759889
1,22d0
< The mother of all table-top RPG's
< 
< close to a zillion young men (a few women) invested a billion lifespans to time on an another fictional plane.
< 
< This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.<BR>
< Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
< Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
< at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives<BR>
< if you don't get addicted to it ;-}
< 
< anyone can be an author, experience it!
< ----
< I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this page. Eventually, this should be moved to a page called [[Munchkins]], [[Powergamers]] or some similar RPG-specific swear word. -SoniC
< ----
< Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?<BR>
< it might be stupid, but it is true, as well<BR>
< I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people<BR>
< so sorry<BR>
< the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted<BR>
< western culture is a moral make believe<BR>
< The U.S. is our high priest
< ----
48a27,28
> ----
> /Talk
------
CommunisM|984760139
2,3c2,4
< 
< * MarxisM
---
> * Marxism says: Human History has a structure:
>   alternating between slow development of technology/economy        (and the according philosophy/religion)
>   and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
------
CommunisM|984760260
1,4c1
< 
< * Marxism says: Human History has a structure:
<   alternating between slow development of technology/economy        (and the according philosophy/religion)
<   and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
---
> * Marxism: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
------
CommunisM|984760449
2c2
< * LeninisM
---
> * Leninism: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984760724
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The mother of all table-top RPG's 
> 
> close to a zillion young men (a few women) invested a billion lifespans to time on an another fictional plane. 
> 
> This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.
> Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!
> Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?
> at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives
> if you don't get addicted to it ;-} 
> 
> anyone can be an author, experience it! 
> ----
> I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this
> page. Eventually, this should be moved to a page called Munchkins?, Powergamers? or some similar RPG-specific swear word. -SoniC 
> ----
> Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?
> it might be stupid, but it is true, as well
> I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people
> so sorry
> the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted
> western culture is a moral make believe
> The U.S. is our high priest 
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984760980
5,9c5,9
< This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.
< Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!
< Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?
< at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives
< if you don't get addicted to it ;-} 
---
> This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.<BR>
> Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
> Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
> at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives<BR>
> if you don't get addicted to it ;-} <BR>
11c11
< anyone can be an author, experience it! 
---
> anyone can be an author, experience it!<BR> 
13,14c13,14
< I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this
< page. Eventually, this should be moved to a page called Munchkins?, Powergamers? or some similar RPG-specific swear word. -SoniC 
---
> I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. <BR>The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this
> page. <BR>Eventually, this should be moved to a page called Munchkins?, Powergamers? or some similar RPG-specific swear word.<BR> -SoniC 
16,22c16,27
< Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?
< it might be stupid, but it is true, as well
< I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people
< so sorry
< the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted
< western culture is a moral make believe
< The U.S. is our high priest 
---
> Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?<BR>
> it might be stupid, but it is true, as well<BR>
> I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people<BR>
> so sorry<BR>
> the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted<BR>
> western culture is a moral make believe<BR>
> The U.S. is our high priest
> ----
> There are as many truths about RPG as there are players<BR>
> of course it's not all powergame!<BR>
> what I stated is a very interesting thing<BR>
> but not an absolute definition of AD&D
------
CommunisM|984761127
1,4c1
< * Marxism: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
< * Leninism: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
< * StalinisM
< * MaoisM
---
> #REDIRECT [[communism]]
------
Communism|984761173
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Marxism: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
> * Leninism: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
> * Stalinism
> * Maoism
> 
------
The_Simpsons|984761358
1c1,8
< TV series created by [[Matt Groening]]
---
> An [[cartoon]] [[TV series]] created by [[Matt Groening]].
> 
> The Simpson family members:
> * Homer
> * Marge
> * Bart
> * Lisa
> * ??? (what's the name of the toddler???)
------
Television|984761583
1a2,5
> *[[Terrestial television]]
> *[[Satelite television]]
> *[[Cable television]]
> *New developments: [[Digital television]] -- [[Pay-per-view]] -- [[Web tv]]
------
HTML|984762157
1c1,3
< stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which is derived from [[SGML]]. The latest version is 4.01, which is available from the [http://www.w3.org World Wide Web Consortium]
---
> Stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which is derived from [[SGML]]. The latest version is 4.01, which is available from the [http://www.w3.org World Wide Web Consortium].
> 
> It is mainly used to "program" and design [[web site]]s and [[homepage]s, which are the main components of the [[world wide web]].
------
HTML|984762787
3c3
< It is mainly used to "program" and design [[web site]]s and [[homepage]s, which are the main components of the [[world wide web]].
---
> It is mainly used to "program" and design [[web site]]s and [[Homepage definition|home pages]], which are the main components of the [[world wide web]].
------
Copyright|984763113
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This needs an actual definition while everyone's taking about it
> 
> [[/talk]]
------
CopyrightTalk|984763221
1d0
< Leiden, Netherlands, 15-3-01
3,102d1
< Well, hot ***!, I initiated some discussion by my impulsive ctrl-c/ctrl-v_roustabout!
< 
< I wonder what the physical terms of those copyrights are?<BR>
< what are the limits?<BR>
< how could it physically be controlled?<BR>
< To me it still is a (what is 'achterhoedegevecht in English?) of the publishing-industry<BR>
< anything I state might be copied (from whom?)<BR>
< maybe it is time for a judicial revolution in order of the "Habeas Corpus"<BR>
< a "Habeas Sentes"
< 
< Mathijs<BR>
< I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<BR>
< <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion</I>
< ----
< Can you be sued for air we breathe?<BR>
< Information should be free!<BR>
< The U.S. is a greedy society<BR>
< In ten years this problem will be over;<BR>
< There's no way to control information<BR>
< - the publishing-industry wil have to face that <B>OR</B><BR>
< we all will have to live in NWO [[New World Order]]
< ----
< It is very important that everyone working on Wikipedia respect copyrights.  Since this is a wide-open project with no editorial oversight, this sort of thing will certainly happen again.
< 
< In our role as a provider of internet services, we have a fairly strong defense under the DigitalMilleniumCopyrightAct, and a fairly strong responsibility.  We can't be held financially liable for other people's actions, so long as we follow a reasonable take-down policy.
< 
< Nonetheless, I can tell you that my charitable instincts and love of knowledge will hit the wall if someone sues me.  :-(
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< Notice that I have added some more words at the bottom of the page when you go to submit.  I think that the problem will mostly go away with this.  People just need to understand that we don't want them to cut-and-paste from copyrighted sources!
< 
< There is no way to be 100% safe.  But, hey, risk is a part of life. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< ----
< Hmmmm - The only place I found that article exactly like that in its full length was on Ginger's site, in connection with her Wolf Cam.  The first two paragraphs also appear in the same form in The Dog Owner's Guide, though the rest of that article is quite different.  The author's name (Norma Bennett Woolf - can you believe that?) and copyright information appear at that site, including ways in which they will permit their material to be used.  I donno if Ginger got permission or not.  I did not find it on Nova (Jimbo's link) at all, tho there's alotta junk about wolves there.  Ginger - did you simply contribute the article from your own page and forget that part of it was copyrighted?  AyeSpy
< ----
< Actually I put it together from a few different sites. I was unaware of any copyright problems I was causing. I had never been to the pbs site Jimbo found the article at. I will be more careful in the future you can be sure. It is not my intention to cause problems for anyone and I feel badly about this.
< WcGing
< ----
< 
< No need to feel bad.  I'm all about the future, not the past.  :-)  Some of the paragraphs were exactly from the Nova site.
< 
< I encourage you, WcGing, to write a shorter article based on the knowledge you got from those articles...
< 
< We don't have to be particularly original, we just have to try to be correct, and most importantly of all, we can't give anyone an excuse to try to shut us down.  So we have to put everything in our own words.
< 
< ----
< I just changed this text of Jimbo's on the RecentChanges page to a similar statement which takes a more neutral position about the morality of intellectual property law:
< 
< "If you love freedom of information, one of the most important thing you can do is respect copyrights!  You can really hurt this project if you steal.  So please don't do it."
< 
< Personally I feel that infringement is quite different from theft of physical objects.  So while we need to make everyone aware of what the law prevents us from doing, I would prefer not to endorse the law itself as part of the project.  Because after all, the reason I'm so happy to contribute to the 'pedia itself is that I know the world will always have liberty to share and change it - a nice change from the common greedy-feeling atmosphere of authorship.
< 
< Similarly, I'd suggest something a little less loaded than "DO NOT STEAL!" at the bottom of the Edit page.  Perhaps "Remember - no copyright-restricted material!" or somesuch thing.
< 
< But that's just my NSHO.        -J
< ----
< Has anyone considered starting a nonprofit or somesuch similar organization around the wiki so that it's not so legally tied (in either direction) to the folks that so kindly started it?  IANAL, but it seems like it might have good consequences both ways in terms of liability, as well as for tax exemptions and such.
< ----
< J, I totally disagree with your view about copyright.  I think copyright infringement is every bit as serious as stealing and is very aptly considered in the same category.  I am all for our keeping the "do not steal" notice up.  It gets people's attention and makes it very clear how we officially feel about copyright infringement on Wikipedia.  On the other hand, I think your less-strongly-worded notice on the RecentChanges page gets the point across just fine. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< ----
< Sorry, Larry, but I'm strongly with J on this one.  Just because it's the law doesn't mean it <i>should</i> be the law, and there are a great many people (including Supreme Court Justice Breyer) who have expressed quite eloquently and convincingly that copyright law should be drastically curtailed if not eliminated.  Calling it "theft" is an exercise in argument-by-definition, and is very much an expression of bias.  You can achieve the same effect by expressing a fact: Current US law and international treaty prohibits redistribution of copyrighted creative works, and we encourage compliance with these laws.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< ----
< 
< I don't have any beef with the changing of the RecentChanges text, and I certainly think that it is within the spirit of the
< wikipedia to change my rant into something more "consensus oriented".
< 
< But <i>here</i>on this talk page, I will gladly express my opinion.  :-)  Neverminding the legal situation, I think that taking someone elses writings without their permission *is* stealing.  Imagine, for example, if Microsoft took the Linux kernel and incorporated it into one of their products without doing the Right Thing and making their changes open and free!
< Wouldn't that be <i>morally</i> wrong, even if the law allowed it?
< 
< I think that free software <i>depends</i> on copyright, because in a public domain system, anyone can take freely offered software and make it proprietary.  I think that's wrong.  If the author sets conditions on the use, those conditions should be respected... even if the conditions are "don't reuse it".  Copyright is <i>really</i> important for the freedom of information!
< 
< We can debate this here, on the CopyrightTalk page, but let me stress again, that my strong opinions about this don't necessarily belong in the wikipedia on anything other than a Talk page.  :-) 
< 
< When I say "DO NOT STEAL", I'm not taking a position on what the law ought to be, but I am taking a position on what is morally right.  Just as it would be morally wrong for Microsoft to steal GNU code by making it proprietary, it is wrong for us to take a proprietary magazine and use it without permission.  The moral issue is *consent*.
< 
< --JimboWales
< ----
< (WARNING: long, biased, and probably interesting to only 2 or 3 people.  Should probably be moved to its own page on my site as a short essay and linked to).
< 
< Yes, you are taking a moral position, and I don't quarrel with your choice to hold that particular one.  But yes, you <i>are</i> in so doing taking a position on what the law ought to be, because IP is only "property" because the law defines it as such.  The natural, instinctive, universal understanding of "property" refers to physical things which can only be used by one person at a time--if I steal your apple, you no longer have it.  If I eat it, it is gone.  There is, of course, a political debate over whether or not the state should protect an individual's right to sole control of his property; and on that score I am definitely in the capitalist camp.  Stealing a physical thing, and depriving its owner of the use of that thing, I most definitely find immoral.  If I grew the apple on my land, I expect to eat it.  But ideas are fundamentally, objectively different.  If I watch you plant an apple seed and water the sapling, and then I apply that same idea with my own apple seeds on my own land, I do not take away from your use of your things, I have merely used your discovery to my own benefit.
< 
< Now, in a modern marketplace, those with interesting or valuable ideas will naturally find it to their short-term benefit to be the sole user of those ideas.  If you're selling apples, you'd just as soon not have the competition from other people selling their apples.  The question, then, is whether or not it is right for a state to <i>define</i> certain ideas (like inventions, stories, music, etc.) as property, and define my use of someone else's idea (which does not in any way interfere with his use) as theft.  If we do make that definition, then a creator has not only the right to use an idea for his benefit, but to prevent others from using it for theirs, protecting his market for businesses that use the idea.  As expressed in the US Constitution, this is a pragmatic thing: we grant the creator this limited, short-duration monopoly so that he can make money, in order to encourage him and others like him to create other useful ideas, which will eventually become part of the public domain.
< 
< Of course in recent years, this pragmatic approach has come to be seen as a natural right, an end in itself rather than a means to the original goal (the creation of more useful ideas).  The consequence is that the original goal has been subverted beyond recognition.  Walt Disney, for example, is long dead, and presumably has little need of encouragement to create more ideas, yet copyright law still protects his "property" (most of which is based on stories from the public domain) and prevents it from becoming part of shared culture, which was the original goal.  A large number of people favor at the very least returning copyright to its original bargain: a monopoly for a short time, which then expires and releases the ideas to the public.  I personally think we could do without it entirely.  I do not find anything inherently immoral about using someone else's ideas for my own benefit, or with him using my ideas for his.  In fact, I find that to be the very purpose of things like language and society--to grow as beings by exchange and amplification of ideas, which (unlike physical things) are a limitless resource.  In a world without copyright law, obviously traditional methods of making money from certain ideas won't work, and we'll have to be creative about business methods too.  That doesn't scare me.  Nearly all of my income comes from creation of IP (articles and software), but I do not fear the destruction of IP law, because creativity is a commodity that wil always be in demand, and consumers will always find a way to get it, just as they always did before the invention of copyright law (which is fairly recent idea).  I have for years explicitly placed all my work in the public domain (except that which is done for my employer--but I work for a company that uses the software I write only internally, so they get no benefit from IP law).
< 
< I have written volumes on this topic, so I won't rehash all the arguments here, but I just wanted to clarify that support of IP law <i>is</i> a moral position that not everyone holds, and that if you really want to avoid bias as you claim, you should not so blatantly support that position in the very software that runs the system.  And yes, I find even Stallman's use of copyright law to ensure free distribution wrong.  For every article I produce for Wiki/Nupedia, I will place a nearly identical one (with only my own work) on my own website released to the public domain, without restrictions.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]].
< ----
< Well, hey, Mr. Crocker - I gotta say that as an author and songwriter (who has made precious little from either occupation) I cannot disagree more strongly with the idea that copyright should be abolished.  Were it so, publishers would have no incentive to honor contracts with creators of entertainment.  I would write a song, Biddle Entertainment would press and sell a load of copies until the pirates drove demand into the ground, and my share of the pie would be but crumbs.  Hence, unable to make a living from the craft, I would abandon it.  People gotta be protected from their ideas being ripped off, or they will quit sharing them.  If I see no direct benefit to me for enlightening another, then I will only do it if moved by the most altruitstic motive.  And we know how much free time and resources there are lying around for everyone to be altruistic.  You can have your "all ideas belong to everyone" world.  For me, it don't fly.
< 
< ----
< Be sure to consider the flip side of the coin, however.  Biddle Entertainment provides the precious little money you mentioned in exchange for complete control of your work.  If they decide to let it go out of print or stop advertising it, there's nothing you or I can really do about it.  If it is in print and I find that it's a nice piece of authorship, I can tell everyone here on the Wiki about it, but I'm prevented from sharing it with them - the best I can do is suggest that they spend $15 on a CD or mail order a copy of the score/article from one of Biddle's retailers.  And most detrimentally, IMHO, you and I and our children and grandchildren won't ever be able to build on your work without Biddle's permission, even long after you've passed away.  I and others you've never even met may someday have great ideas about how a few tweaks here or there might make your work fit a particular need, or bring it up to date with a new development.  But if Biddle doesn't feel like allowing it, it will go on rotting in their archives (assuming they actually keep your work in an archive) until our great-grandchildren are getting gray (and that's not an exaggeration - copyrights are now well past 70 years, and still growing).  So much for tomorrow's Mendelssohn discovering today's Bach.
< 
< Without IP law, to be sure, companies like Biddle won't have the allure of exclusive exploitation of your work to motivate them to sign contracts with you.  But when they and the pirates you mention press gazillions of copies of your work, they'll only be helping to spread your reputation to gazillions of people.  If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you, I'm free to take my business elsewhere and still be able to enjoy access to your work.  And you as an author will have an audience that's exactly as big as it deserves to be, and an insanely huge wealth of others' work to build on when you sit down with pen in hand. -J
< ----
< "If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you..."  In the real world, you will not give a hoot in hell whether people who give you my intellectual creations have dealt fairly with me or not.  I have not the resources to publish them for money.  So, I gotta get Biddle to do it.  They won't, unless they can make a buck.  So, the work has to be worthy, and it's gotta be property.  Then they can sell it, and not only do my ideas see the light of day, I don't die of starvation before someone asks me to sign a copy.
< 
< --
< 
< That isn't true anymore: the same technology that makes "piracy" cheap and easy also makes distribution and advertisement cheap and easy.  Any artist can publish his work for almost no cost to get a following (such as the the South Park guys did with their Christmas cartoon), then trade upon the popularity it generates in other (non-piratable) ways, like live performances, custom work, time-dependent work, etc.  No big publishing company needed.  Will lack of copyrights put lots of publishers out of business?  Absolutely, and good riddance.  Will it harm the artists themselves?  No, not those who are smart enough to realize they don't need the publishers anymore, and whose work is good enough to create demand among consumers, who will do whatever they have to do--including pay--to get the art they want.
------
Copyright/talk|984763268
1c1,104
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> Leiden, Netherlands, 15-3-01
> 
> Well, hot ***!, I initiated some discussion by my impulsive ctrl-c/ctrl-v_roustabout!
> 
> I wonder what the physical terms of those copyrights are?<BR>
> what are the limits?<BR>
> how could it physically be controlled?<BR>
> To me it still is a (what is 'achterhoedegevecht in English?) of the publishing-industry<BR>
> anything I state might be copied (from whom?)<BR>
> maybe it is time for a judicial revolution in order of the "Habeas Corpus"<BR>
> a "Habeas Sentes"
> 
> Mathijs<BR>
> I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<BR>
> <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion</I>
> ----
> Can you be sued for air we breathe?<BR>
> Information should be free!<BR>
> The U.S. is a greedy society<BR>
> In ten years this problem will be over;<BR>
> There's no way to control information<BR>
> - the publishing-industry wil have to face that <B>OR</B><BR>
> we all will have to live in NWO [[New World Order]]
> ----
> It is very important that everyone working on Wikipedia respect copyrights.  Since this is a wide-open project with no editorial oversight, this sort of thing will certainly happen again.
> 
> In our role as a provider of internet services, we have a fairly strong defense under the DigitalMilleniumCopyrightAct, and a fairly strong responsibility.  We can't be held financially liable for other people's actions, so long as we follow a reasonable take-down policy.
> 
> Nonetheless, I can tell you that my charitable instincts and love of knowledge will hit the wall if someone sues me.  :-(
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> Notice that I have added some more words at the bottom of the page when you go to submit.  I think that the problem will mostly go away with this.  People just need to understand that we don't want them to cut-and-paste from copyrighted sources!
> 
> There is no way to be 100% safe.  But, hey, risk is a part of life. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> Hmmmm - The only place I found that article exactly like that in its full length was on Ginger's site, in connection with her Wolf Cam.  The first two paragraphs also appear in the same form in The Dog Owner's Guide, though the rest of that article is quite different.  The author's name (Norma Bennett Woolf - can you believe that?) and copyright information appear at that site, including ways in which they will permit their material to be used.  I donno if Ginger got permission or not.  I did not find it on Nova (Jimbo's link) at all, tho there's alotta junk about wolves there.  Ginger - did you simply contribute the article from your own page and forget that part of it was copyrighted?  AyeSpy
> ----
> Actually I put it together from a few different sites. I was unaware of any copyright problems I was causing. I had never been to the pbs site Jimbo found the article at. I will be more careful in the future you can be sure. It is not my intention to cause problems for anyone and I feel badly about this.
> WcGing
> ----
> 
> No need to feel bad.  I'm all about the future, not the past.  :-)  Some of the paragraphs were exactly from the Nova site.
> 
> I encourage you, WcGing, to write a shorter article based on the knowledge you got from those articles...
> 
> We don't have to be particularly original, we just have to try to be correct, and most importantly of all, we can't give anyone an excuse to try to shut us down.  So we have to put everything in our own words.
> 
> ----
> I just changed this text of Jimbo's on the RecentChanges page to a similar statement which takes a more neutral position about the morality of intellectual property law:
> 
> "If you love freedom of information, one of the most important thing you can do is respect copyrights!  You can really hurt this project if you steal.  So please don't do it."
> 
> Personally I feel that infringement is quite different from theft of physical objects.  So while we need to make everyone aware of what the law prevents us from doing, I would prefer not to endorse the law itself as part of the project.  Because after all, the reason I'm so happy to contribute to the 'pedia itself is that I know the world will always have liberty to share and change it - a nice change from the common greedy-feeling atmosphere of authorship.
> 
> Similarly, I'd suggest something a little less loaded than "DO NOT STEAL!" at the bottom of the Edit page.  Perhaps "Remember - no copyright-restricted material!" or somesuch thing.
> 
> But that's just my NSHO.        -J
> ----
> Has anyone considered starting a nonprofit or somesuch similar organization around the wiki so that it's not so legally tied (in either direction) to the folks that so kindly started it?  IANAL, but it seems like it might have good consequences both ways in terms of liability, as well as for tax exemptions and such.
> ----
> J, I totally disagree with your view about copyright.  I think copyright infringement is every bit as serious as stealing and is very aptly considered in the same category.  I am all for our keeping the "do not steal" notice up.  It gets people's attention and makes it very clear how we officially feel about copyright infringement on Wikipedia.  On the other hand, I think your less-strongly-worded notice on the RecentChanges page gets the point across just fine. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> Sorry, Larry, but I'm strongly with J on this one.  Just because it's the law doesn't mean it <i>should</i> be the law, and there are a great many people (including Supreme Court Justice Breyer) who have expressed quite eloquently and convincingly that copyright law should be drastically curtailed if not eliminated.  Calling it "theft" is an exercise in argument-by-definition, and is very much an expression of bias.  You can achieve the same effect by expressing a fact: Current US law and international treaty prohibits redistribution of copyrighted creative works, and we encourage compliance with these laws.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> ----
> 
> I don't have any beef with the changing of the RecentChanges text, and I certainly think that it is within the spirit of the
> wikipedia to change my rant into something more "consensus oriented".
> 
> But <i>here</i>on this talk page, I will gladly express my opinion.  :-)  Neverminding the legal situation, I think that taking someone elses writings without their permission *is* stealing.  Imagine, for example, if Microsoft took the Linux kernel and incorporated it into one of their products without doing the Right Thing and making their changes open and free!
> Wouldn't that be <i>morally</i> wrong, even if the law allowed it?
> 
> I think that free software <i>depends</i> on copyright, because in a public domain system, anyone can take freely offered software and make it proprietary.  I think that's wrong.  If the author sets conditions on the use, those conditions should be respected... even if the conditions are "don't reuse it".  Copyright is <i>really</i> important for the freedom of information!
> 
> We can debate this here, on the CopyrightTalk page, but let me stress again, that my strong opinions about this don't necessarily belong in the wikipedia on anything other than a Talk page.  :-) 
> 
> When I say "DO NOT STEAL", I'm not taking a position on what the law ought to be, but I am taking a position on what is morally right.  Just as it would be morally wrong for Microsoft to steal GNU code by making it proprietary, it is wrong for us to take a proprietary magazine and use it without permission.  The moral issue is *consent*.
> 
> --JimboWales
> ----
> (WARNING: long, biased, and probably interesting to only 2 or 3 people.  Should probably be moved to its own page on my site as a short essay and linked to).
> 
> Yes, you are taking a moral position, and I don't quarrel with your choice to hold that particular one.  But yes, you <i>are</i> in so doing taking a position on what the law ought to be, because IP is only "property" because the law defines it as such.  The natural, instinctive, universal understanding of "property" refers to physical things which can only be used by one person at a time--if I steal your apple, you no longer have it.  If I eat it, it is gone.  There is, of course, a political debate over whether or not the state should protect an individual's right to sole control of his property; and on that score I am definitely in the capitalist camp.  Stealing a physical thing, and depriving its owner of the use of that thing, I most definitely find immoral.  If I grew the apple on my land, I expect to eat it.  But ideas are fundamentally, objectively different.  If I watch you plant an apple seed and water the sapling, and then I apply that same idea with my own apple seeds on my own land, I do not take away from your use of your things, I have merely used your discovery to my own benefit.
> 
> Now, in a modern marketplace, those with interesting or valuable ideas will naturally find it to their short-term benefit to be the sole user of those ideas.  If you're selling apples, you'd just as soon not have the competition from other people selling their apples.  The question, then, is whether or not it is right for a state to <i>define</i> certain ideas (like inventions, stories, music, etc.) as property, and define my use of someone else's idea (which does not in any way interfere with his use) as theft.  If we do make that definition, then a creator has not only the right to use an idea for his benefit, but to prevent others from using it for theirs, protecting his market for businesses that use the idea.  As expressed in the US Constitution, this is a pragmatic thing: we grant the creator this limited, short-duration monopoly so that he can make money, in order to encourage him and others like him to create other useful ideas, which will eventually become part of the public domain.
> 
> Of course in recent years, this pragmatic approach has come to be seen as a natural right, an end in itself rather than a means to the original goal (the creation of more useful ideas).  The consequence is that the original goal has been subverted beyond recognition.  Walt Disney, for example, is long dead, and presumably has little need of encouragement to create more ideas, yet copyright law still protects his "property" (most of which is based on stories from the public domain) and prevents it from becoming part of shared culture, which was the original goal.  A large number of people favor at the very least returning copyright to its original bargain: a monopoly for a short time, which then expires and releases the ideas to the public.  I personally think we could do without it entirely.  I do not find anything inherently immoral about using someone else's ideas for my own benefit, or with him using my ideas for his.  In fact, I find that to be the very purpose of things like language and society--to grow as beings by exchange and amplification of ideas, which (unlike physical things) are a limitless resource.  In a world without copyright law, obviously traditional methods of making money from certain ideas won't work, and we'll have to be creative about business methods too.  That doesn't scare me.  Nearly all of my income comes from creation of IP (articles and software), but I do not fear the destruction of IP law, because creativity is a commodity that wil always be in demand, and consumers will always find a way to get it, just as they always did before the invention of copyright law (which is fairly recent idea).  I have for years explicitly placed all my work in the public domain (except that which is done for my employer--but I work for a company that uses the software I write only internally, so they get no benefit from IP law).
> 
> I have written volumes on this topic, so I won't rehash all the arguments here, but I just wanted to clarify that support of IP law <i>is</i> a moral position that not everyone holds, and that if you really want to avoid bias as you claim, you should not so blatantly support that position in the very software that runs the system.  And yes, I find even Stallman's use of copyright law to ensure free distribution wrong.  For every article I produce for Wiki/Nupedia, I will place a nearly identical one (with only my own work) on my own website released to the public domain, without restrictions.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]].
> ----
> Well, hey, Mr. Crocker - I gotta say that as an author and songwriter (who has made precious little from either occupation) I cannot disagree more strongly with the idea that copyright should be abolished.  Were it so, publishers would have no incentive to honor contracts with creators of entertainment.  I would write a song, Biddle Entertainment would press and sell a load of copies until the pirates drove demand into the ground, and my share of the pie would be but crumbs.  Hence, unable to make a living from the craft, I would abandon it.  People gotta be protected from their ideas being ripped off, or they will quit sharing them.  If I see no direct benefit to me for enlightening another, then I will only do it if moved by the most altruitstic motive.  And we know how much free time and resources there are lying around for everyone to be altruistic.  You can have your "all ideas belong to everyone" world.  For me, it don't fly.
> 
> ----
> Be sure to consider the flip side of the coin, however.  Biddle Entertainment provides the precious little money you mentioned in exchange for complete control of your work.  If they decide to let it go out of print or stop advertising it, there's nothing you or I can really do about it.  If it is in print and I find that it's a nice piece of authorship, I can tell everyone here on the Wiki about it, but I'm prevented from sharing it with them - the best I can do is suggest that they spend $15 on a CD or mail order a copy of the score/article from one of Biddle's retailers.  And most detrimentally, IMHO, you and I and our children and grandchildren won't ever be able to build on your work without Biddle's permission, even long after you've passed away.  I and others you've never even met may someday have great ideas about how a few tweaks here or there might make your work fit a particular need, or bring it up to date with a new development.  But if Biddle doesn't feel like allowing it, it will go on rotting in their archives (assuming they actually keep your work in an archive) until our great-grandchildren are getting gray (and that's not an exaggeration - copyrights are now well past 70 years, and still growing).  So much for tomorrow's Mendelssohn discovering today's Bach.
> 
> Without IP law, to be sure, companies like Biddle won't have the allure of exclusive exploitation of your work to motivate them to sign contracts with you.  But when they and the pirates you mention press gazillions of copies of your work, they'll only be helping to spread your reputation to gazillions of people.  If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you, I'm free to take my business elsewhere and still be able to enjoy access to your work.  And you as an author will have an audience that's exactly as big as it deserves to be, and an insanely huge wealth of others' work to build on when you sit down with pen in hand. -J
> ----
> "If they've somehow dealt unfairly with you..."  In the real world, you will not give a hoot in hell whether people who give you my intellectual creations have dealt fairly with me or not.  I have not the resources to publish them for money.  So, I gotta get Biddle to do it.  They won't, unless they can make a buck.  So, the work has to be worthy, and it's gotta be property.  Then they can sell it, and not only do my ideas see the light of day, I don't die of starvation before someone asks me to sign a copy.
> 
> --
> 
> That isn't true anymore: the same technology that makes "piracy" cheap and easy also makes distribution and advertisement cheap and easy.  Any artist can publish his work for almost no cost to get a following (such as the the South Park guys did with their Christmas cartoon), then trade upon the popularity it generates in other (non-piratable) ways, like live performances, custom work, time-dependent work, etc.  No big publishing company needed.  Will lack of copyrights put lots of publishers out of business?  Absolutely, and good riddance.  Will it harm the artists themselves?  No, not those who are smart enough to realize they don't need the publishers anymore, and whose work is good enough to create demand among consumers, who will do whatever they have to do--including pay--to get the art they want.
------
CopyrightTalk|984763373
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Copyright/talk]]
------
Copyright/talk|984763414
1c1
< 
---
> -- [[Copyright]]
------
Copyright|984763446
1c1,2
< This needs an actual definition while everyone's taking about it
---
> 
> This needs an actual definition while everyone's talking about it
------
Copyright|984763601
0a1,7
> Copyright
> 
> Origins of copyright
> 
> the [[Berne Convention]]
> 
> the [[DMCA]]
2d8
< This needs an actual definition while everyone's talking about it
------
Guitar|984763602
1c1,10
< A stringed musical instrument played with the fingers (or a [[plectrum]]). [[cdani]]
---
> A stringed musical instrument played with the fingers (or a [[plectrum]]).  The guitar is descended from the [[lute]].  Guitars usually have 6 strings tuned (low to high) E-A-D-G-B-e.
> 
> Broadly speaking, guitars can be divided into 3 categories:
> * ''Classical guitars'':  These are strung with nylon and amplification is provided by the resonant hollow body.  They are normally played in a seated position and used to play [[classical music]].  Also falling into this category are the guitars used in [[flamenco]].
> * ''Acoustic guitars'': Ostensibly similar to the above, but with steel strings which produce a louder and brighter town, the acoustic guitar is a staple in [[folk music|folk]], [[traditional music|traditional]] and [[blues]] music.
> * ''Electric guitars'': Electric guitars have a solid body and sound produce little sound without amplification.  Electromagnetic "pickups" convert the vibration of the steel strings into electric signals which are fed to an amplifier through a cable or radio device.  The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices or natural distortion of valves in the amplifier.  The electric guitar is used extensively in [[blues]] and [[rock and roll]], and was invented by [[Les Paul]].
> 
> Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common.
> 
> 12 string guitars, usually with steel strings exist and are widely used in [[folk music]] and [[rock and roll]] Each string is replaced with a pair of strings tuned either in unison (the two highest) or an octave apart (the others).  There are also more exotic varieties.
------
The_Simpsons|984763696
8c8
< * ??? (what's the name of the toddler???)
---
> * Maggie
------
Hacking|984764399
1c1,5
< Unauthorized access to [[data]]/information, to obtain or to modify it.
---
> Recently hacking has come to mean unauthorized access to [[data]]/information, to obtain or to modify it.
> 
> Previously, it referred to many things, usually related to a style of working that is either very good or carried out in a spirit of experimentation.  When [[free software]] authours use the word, they usually mean the old meaning.  See also [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/hack.html The Jargon File]
> 
> A group known as the "Hacker Antidefamation League", wish to restore the old meaning to "hacking", preferring the word "Cracking" to refer to unauthorised access.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984764769
23a24,33
> >Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
> >Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
> 
> First off, no RPG gamer I know is a rapist, murderer or whatever at the core and if you state that "Bosnia is in our genes", you are in fact spreading [[Nazi]] propaganda, nothing else.
> 
> Second, RPGs are not about raping, genocide or whatever, and if you play them that way I suggest you should seek professional help.
> 
> This crap about Western culture and high priest U.S. does not have anything to do with RPGs or with anything for that matter. -SoniC
> 
> ----
------
Love|984764794
1c1,3
< Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]].
---
> Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]].
> 
> Los Angeles based [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s.  See [[Love/Band]].
------
Love/Band|984765318
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Love, led by the enigmatic Arthur Lee, were an influential [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s who are now best remembered for their classic album [[/Forever Changes]].  This featured the songwriting of both Lee and Bryan McLean accompanied with strong horn and string arrangements.
> 
> Band members were:
> * Arthur Lee
> * Bryan McLean
> * John Echols
> * Ken Forssi
> * Michael Stuart
> 
> [[Jim Morrison]] of [[The Doors]] once stated his bands ambition to be "as big as Love".
------
Real_numbers|984767491
11c11
< so that x^2 <= 2. You have no y in S so that, for any z in S, z <= y. S has no greatest element (maximum, supremum?). y is sqrt(2), which doesn't belong to Q. Demonstrating is, in fact demonstrating that sqrt(2) is not rational <br> JB </i>
---
> so that x^2 <= 2. You have no y in Q so that, for any z in S, z <= y and for each epsilon >0, there exists a X in Q, so that y-X < epsilon. S has no upper bound (supremum?). y is sqrt(2), which doesn't belong to Q. <br> JB </i>
------
Mandolin|984767615
1c1,3
< Is a stringed musical instrument. [[cdani]]
---
> A mandolin is a stringed musical instrument. Mandolins have 8 strings, in 4 pairs.  Each pair of strings is tuned in unison, and are a fifth apart from adjacent pairs, giving an identical tuning to a violin (G-D-A-E low-to-high).  Unlike a violin, the neck of a mandolin is fretted and it is typically played with a plectrum.
> 
> Mandolins have a long history and much early music was written for them.  However they are now mainly heard in [[country music|country]], [[bluegrass]] and [[folk music]].
------
Love/Band|984767804
3c3
< Band members were:
---
> Band members (circa Forever Changes) were:
10c10
< [[Jim Morrison]] of [[The Doors]] once stated his bands ambition to be "as big as Love".
---
> [[Jim Morrison]] of [[The Doors]] once stated his bands ambition to be "as big as Love".
------
Love|984768138
1c1
< Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]].
---
> Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]]. Sceptics describe it a chemical reaction in the human brain.
------
Flute|984768300
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. Is a open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of instrumentalist, when hi wlobs up thru.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. Is a open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of instrumentalist.
------
Virgil|984768350
1c1
< Virgil, or ''Publius Vergilis Maro''.  Roman poet (70-19 BC) famous for the ''Eclogues'', the ''Goergics'', and above all the great national epic of the ''Aeneid''.
---
> Virgil, or ''Publius Vergilis Maro''.  Roman poet (70-19 BC) famous for the ''Eclogues'', the ''Georgics'', and above all the great national epic of the ''Aeneid''.
5c5
< In ''Goergics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
---
> In ''Georgics'' (37-30 BC) offers a didáctic poem about agriculture.
7a8,9
> ----
> Why don't you just import the Nupedia article on Virgil to this page?  :-)
------
Television|984768683
1c1
< Television is sending moving images and sound over radio waves.
---
> There are various kinds of television:
3c3
< *[[Satelite television]]
---
> *[[Satellite television]]
7,8c7
< It is a derrivative of [[radio]].
< 
---
> Television in its original and still most popular form involves sending moving images and sound over radio waves, which are received by a receiver (a television).  In this sense, it is a derivative of [[radio]].
18d16
< 
34c32
< Noted Actors
---
> Noted Television [[Actors]]
37c35
< Noted Actresses
---
> Noted Television [[Actresses]]
------
HomePage|984769197
3c3
< Visitors from the Slashdot article may want to read this welcome message:  [[Welcome Newcomers]].
---
> Visitors from the [[Slashdot]] article may want to read this welcome message:  [[Welcome Newcomers]].
35c35
< If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
---
> If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
------
Politics|984769481
4c4
< '''PoliticalIdeologies:'''
---
> '''Political Ideologies:'''
10c10
< '''PoliticalParties:'''
---
> '''Political Parties:'''
12c12
< LeftWingParties:
---
> Left Wing Parties:
14c14
< RightWingParties:
---
> Right Wing Parties:
19c19
< '''PoliticalConcepts:'''
---
> '''Political Concepts:'''
21c21
< IdeologicalConcepts: [[Anarchy]] -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
---
> Ideological Concepts: [[Anarchy]] -- ConservativE -- LeftWing -- LiberaL -- PoliticalSpectrum -- PropagandA -- RightWing
23c23
< PoliticalEntities: [[City]] -- CityState -- [[County]] -- CountrY -- [[Governmeny]] -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- [[Republic]] -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]] -- [[Tyranny]]
---
> Political Entities: [[City]] -- CityState -- [[County]] -- CountrY -- [[Governmeny]] -- [[Individual]] -- NationState -- Province -- WorldState -- [[Republic]] -- [[Organized Group / Special Interest Group]] -- [[Police]] -- [[Bureaucracy]] -- [[Tyranny]]
26c26
< '''PoliticalTheory:'''
---
> '''Political Theory:'''
32c32
< ContemporaryPoliticalTheorists: DavidFriedman -- JohnRawls -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
---
> Contemporary Political Theorists: DavidFriedman -- JohnRawls -- NoamChomsky -- RobertNozick
34c34
< PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
---
> PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
------
The_Simpsons|984771154
1c1
< An [[cartoon]] [[TV series]] created by [[Matt Groening]].
---
> An [[cartoon]] [[TV series]] created by [[Matt Groening]].  Originally created for a short insert on the [[Tracey Ullman]] show, the Simpsons was converted into a series for Fox television in 1990.  Set in the fictional [[United States|US]] town of Springfield and highly satirical of many facets of the American way of life (including beer, fast food, tv and organised religion) "The Simpsons" was a massive hit, generating a huge popular following, and criticism from then President [[George Herbert Walker Bush|George Bush]].  The writers also showed a love for cameo appearances by celebrities and extended pastiches of contemporary and classic movies, as well as subtle visual jokes and a high regard for the sophistication of the audience.
------
Rock_and_roll|984771308
10a11
> *[[Love/Band|Love]]
------
Punk_rock|984772305
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originally used to describe the primitive guitar based [[rock and roll]] of '60s bands such as [[The Troggs]], and later [[The Stooges]], punk rock now tends to be used strictly to mean the anti-establishment musical movement of the period 1976-80, exemplified by [[The Sex Pistols]] and [[The Clash]], and their descendents.
> 
> The roots of punk lie in both the earlier form of "punk" band, [[glam rock]] groups such as [[The New York Dolls]] and early the driving forces of the [[avant garde]] [[new wave music]], such as [[Patti Smith]].  Also of importance was a desire to return to the simplicity of early [[rock and roll]] and a rejection of the excesses, pretension and pomposity which had overtaken [[heavy metal]] and [[progressive rock]] in the 1970s.  By contrast, punk rock emphasised simplicity of music structure -- extolling a "do it yourself" ethic that anyone could form a punk band.  The lyrics introduced a new frankness of expression in matters both political: often dealing with urban boredom and rising unemployment in the UK, and sexual: such as the [[Dead Kennedys]] "Too Drunk to Fuck".
> 
> At least as important as the music, however, was the associated culture, which at the time caused great furore amongst the establishment.  Punk fashion involved around severe haircuts, such as the Mohican, body piercing (often with safety pins) and conversion of items such as bin liners into clothing.
> Sadly, but inevitably, "punk chic" has now been largely absorbed by the mainstream.
> 
> As well as its lasting influence on all [[popular music]], especially [[grunge]], genuine punk rock can still, however, be found in certain subcultures, with a thriving scene on the west coast of the [[United States]], and underwent a brief renaissance in the late 1990s.
> 
> Important Punk bands:
> *[[The Sex Pistols]]
> *[[The Clash]]
> *[[The Buzzcocks]]
> *[[Dead Kennedys]]
> *[[Richard Hell]]
------
Television|984772555
37a38,39
> ----
> * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
------
Television/Band|984772917
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1970s, who were an integral part of the [[new wave music|new wave]] movement.  Their records are noted for sometime poet Tom Verlaine's abstract lyrics and the interplay between the [[guitar]]s of Verlaine and Lloyd.  The band initially made only two studio albums before an acrimonious split, but where stylistically influential and their complicated  music flew in the face of the prevailing mood for [[punk rock]]. They briefly reformed for a self-titled third album in the early 1990s.
> 
> Members:
> * Tom Verlaine
> * Richard Lloyd
> * Fred Smith
> * Billy Ficca
> * Richard Hell (who left to form [[The Voidoids]])
> 
> Recommended record:
> * Marquee Moon
------
Television/Band|984773121
1c1
< American [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1970s, who were an integral part of the [[new wave music|new wave]] movement.  Their records are noted for sometime poet Tom Verlaine's abstract lyrics and the interplay between the [[guitar]]s of Verlaine and Lloyd.  The band initially made only two studio albums before an acrimonious split, but where stylistically influential and their complicated  music flew in the face of the prevailing mood for [[punk rock]]. They briefly reformed for a self-titled third album in the early 1990s.
---
> American [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1970s, who were an integral part of the [[new wave music|new wave]] movement.  Their records are noted for sometime poet Tom Verlaine's abstract lyrics and the interplay between the [[guitar]]s of Verlaine and Lloyd.  The band initially made only two studio albums before an acrimonious split, but they were stylistically influential and their complicated  music flew in the face of the prevailing mood for [[punk rock]]. They briefly reformed for a self-titled third album in the early 1990s.
------
Wikipedia_policy|984773933
10a11
> * [[/Foul Language]]
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984774125
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Q. What ought our policy to be on foul language?
> 
> A few possibilities to kick off the discusion.
> 1.  We must absolutely avoid it at all times.
> 2.  We ought to discourage it in most articles, on the grounds of quality control and <i>encyclopedia</i> style, but in some articles it can be necessary and useful for completeness.  Tact is important.
> 3.  We shouldn't worry about it at all -- any article can contain foul language.
> 4.  We should god damn require it in every article, asshole.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984774145
4,7c4,8
< 1.  We must absolutely avoid it at all times.
< 2.  We ought to discourage it in most articles, on the grounds of quality control and <i>encyclopedia</i> style, but in some articles it can be necessary and useful for completeness.  Tact is important.
< 3.  We shouldn't worry about it at all -- any article can contain foul language.
< 4.  We should god damn require it in every article, asshole.
---
> 
> #We must absolutely avoid it at all times.
> #We ought to discourage it in most articles, on the grounds of quality control and <i>encyclopedia</i> style, but in some articles it can be necessary and useful for completeness.  Tact is important.
> #We shouldn't worry about it at all -- any article can contain foul language.
> #We should god damn require it in every article, asshole.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984774973
8a9,11
> 
> 
> Number 2, for me please.  Mind you, I just used the f*** word in [[punk rock]] (as a direct, justifiable example, mind) so what do I know? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Slashdot|984775024
1c1,3
< Slashdot is a wildly popuplar technology news site.  You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us, a lot.
---
> Slashdot is a technology oriented [[web log]].
> 
> You can visit it [http://www.slashdot.org/ here].  The slashdot crowd is extremely hip to free software, free content, etc.  They will love us, a lot.
3,4d4
< Unfortunately, though, because there are a few bad eggs there,
< anytime a wiki gets mentioned, there is vandalism.
------
British_Commonwealth|984775223
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[British]] Commonwealth refers to all of the territories of Great Britian.
> 
> The British Commonwealth was largely dismantled after [[World War II]].
> 
> Larger members in the British Commonwealth:
> *[[Australia]] - [[Australian Commonwealth]]
> *[[Canada]]
> *[[New Zealand]]
------
Punk_rock|984775319
15a16
> *[[The Ramones]]
------
New_wave_music|984775397
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Movement in American [[popular music]], in the late 1970s, growing out of the [[New York City]] musical scene centred around the CBGB club.  The new wave had many parallels with [[punk rock]] but tended to favour the more literate lyrics with differing musical influences.  Both forms tended to be a reaction to the bluster of much of the music of the 1970s however.
> 
> New Wave bands:
> *[[Television/Band|Television]]
> *[[Blondie]]
> *[[Talking Heads]]
> *[[The Modern Lovers]]
> 
> Influences
> *[[Patti Smith]]
> *[[The Ramones]]
> *[[Punk rock]]
------
Radio|984775518
5a6
> *[[Howard Stern]]
------
Gareth_Owen|984775522
20c20
< My cookie has packed up, so you may know me as rossby.maths.keele.ac.uk
---
> My cookie has packed up, so you may know me as 160.5.82.xxx
------
Poles/Talk|984775781
30c30,34
< to me a strong middle class is a consequence and prerequisite of a fair standard of living and a common education
---
> to me a strong middle class is a consequence and prerequisite of a fair standard of living and a common education
> ----
> I absolutely do not agree that ethnic cleansing is somehow necessary for "true democracy".  The United States is perhaps the strongest counter-example.  We have had a stable government for a long time, despite a very diverse population.  Diverse racially, religiously, and every other way.  The key here is that we have strong institutions of republican democracy and a large middle class with a stake in maintaining those institutions.
> 
> I think it is really a gross error to suppose that an ethnically diverse nation can not also be a peaceful modern republic.
------
Radio|984775842
1c1
< Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.
---
> Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.  The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guillermo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  
3c3
< Notable radio programs:
---
> Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to news, current affairs, sport and especially [[popular music]].
4a5
> Notable radio programs:
6a8
> *[[The Goon Show]]
------
Hexadecimal|984776112
3c3,7
< [[Hex]] is an abbreviation of Hexadecimal.
---
> [[Hex]] is an abbreviation of Hexadecimal.
> ----
> So the counting is as follows: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, 10, 11, .. 19, 1A, 1B, ..., 1F, 20, ..., 9F, A0, ...
> 
> In texts there are several ways to denote hexadecimal numbers. One (derived from [[C]]) is to start with '0x'. Another way (from [[Pascal]] is to end the numbers with a 'h'. So, 20h is the same as 0x20, which equals 32 in [[decimal counting]].
------
The_Goon_Show|984776291
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British [[radio]] programme of the 1950s.  Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
> 
> 
> Regular Characters:
> * Neddy Seagoon (Secombe)
> * Eccles (Milligan)
> * Count Jim Moriarty (Milligan)
> * Major Dennis Bloodnok (Sellers)
> * Hercules Gryptpype-Thynne (Sellers)
> * Minnie Bannister (Sellers)
> * Henry Crun (Milligan)
> * Bluebottle (Milligan)
------
Canada|984776458
1c1,5
< A country in [[North America]], second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a low population density.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily resource-based economy.  As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the francophone majority in [[Quebec]].
---
> Northernmost country in [[North America]].
> 
> Canada is the second largest in the world in terms of land area but with a low population density.  One of the few developed countries with a primarily [[natural resource]] based economy.  
> 
> As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the French speaking majority in [[Quebec]].
5a10,11
> 
> 
------
InterCal|984776609
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [said by the authors to stand for `Compiler Language With No Pronounceable Acronym'] A computer language designed by Don Woods and James Lyons in 1972. INTERCAL is purposely different from all other computer languages in all ways but one; it is purely a written language, being totally unspeakable. An excerpt from the INTERCAL Reference Manual will make the style of the language clear: 
> 
> :It is a well-known and oft-demonstrated fact that a person whose work is incomprehensible is held in high esteem. For example, if one were to state that the simplest way to store a value of 65536 in a 32-bit INTERCAL variable is: 
> 
> ::DO :1 <- #0$#256
> 
> :any sensible programmer would say that that was absurd. Since this is indeed the simplest method, the programmer would be made to look foolish in front of his boss, who would of course have happened to turn up, as bosses are wont to do. The effect would be no less devastating for the programmer having been correct. 
> 
> INTERCAL has many other peculiar features designed to make it even more unspeakable. The Woods-Lyons implementation was actually used by many (well, at least several) people at Princeton.
> The language has been recently reimplemented as C-INTERCAL and is consequently enjoying an unprecedented level of unpopularity; there is even an alt.lang.intercal newsgroup devoted to the study and ... appreciation of the language on Usenet.  
> 
> Inevitably, INTERCAL has a [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/intercal/ home page on the Web]. An extended version, implemented in (what else?) Perl and adding object-oriented features, [http://dd-sh.assurdo.com/INTERCAL is available].
> 
> See also [[Befunge]]. 
> 
> ----
> Wikified from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File].  Public Domain. [[Gareth Owen]]
------
InterCal|984776673
14c14
< See also [[Befunge]]. 
---
> See also: [[Befunge]]. 
17c17
< Wikified from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File].  Public Domain. [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> Wikified from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].  Public Domain. [[Gareth Owen]]
------
HomePage|984776996
1,3c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!
< 
< Visitors from the [[Slashdot]] article may want to read this welcome message:  [[Welcome Newcomers]].
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome Newcomers]]
35c33,36
< If you are interested in the general concept of "homepage," look here: [[homepage definition]].
---
> Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia version written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
> 
> *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com|Deutsch]
> *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com|Catalan]
------
HomePage|984777016
35,36c35,36
< *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com|Deutsch]
< *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com|Catalan]
---
> *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch]
> *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
------
Lindy_Hop|984777500
6c6
< The basic step is called the [[Lindy Circle]].  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers making a complete circle around each other.
---
> The basic step is called the [[Swing Out]].  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers coming together, swinging around, and returning to their original positions.
------
Lindy_Hop|984777880
6c6
< The basic step is called the [[Swing Out]].  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers coming together, swinging around, and returning to their original positions.
---
> The basic step is called the [[Swing Out]].  It takes 8 counts to complete, and involves the dancers coming together, swinging around, and returning to their original positions. It is often combined with a side by side position involving Charleston kicks or other steps.
------
Popular_Music|984778017
8a9
> *[[Punk rock]]
------
Popular_Music|984778071
9d8
< *[[Punk rock]]
10a10,11
> *[[New wave music]]
> *[[Punk rock]]
------
Dead_Kennedys|984778214
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Punk rock band from [[San Francisco]], [[California]].  Stridently political, their leader [[Jello Biafra]] was also responsible for releasing many other punk and alternative bands on his [[Alternative Tentacles]] label.
> 
> An overview of their career may be found on the compilation "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death".
------
Dead_Kennedys|984778229
1c1
< Punk rock band from [[San Francisco]], [[California]].  Stridently political, their leader [[Jello Biafra]] was also responsible for releasing many other punk and alternative bands on his [[Alternative Tentacles]] label.
---
> [[Punk rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], [[California]].  Stridently political, their leader [[Jello Biafra]] was also responsible for releasing many other punk and alternative bands on his [[Alternative Tentacles]] label.
3c3
< An overview of their career may be found on the compilation "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death".
---
> An overview of their career may be found on the compilation "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death".
------
San_Francisco|984778364
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> City and harbour on the west coast of the [[United States]].
------
Cdani|984779386
5,6d4
< Hi, Cdani!  I've never met anyone from Andorra before.  Welcome to Wikipedia.  I hate to begin with a criticism, but...it's probably not necessary to sign comments you make particularly when they're just a few lines long.
< ----
10,12c8,10
< Would you like to spearhead development of a French or Catalan version of Wikipedia?
< ----
< Good night (here is 1:37).
---
> Please review [http://catalan.wikipedia.com/ Catalan Wikipedia] and give me feedback.  We are going to work with CliffordAdams to translate all the messages into other languages, but for the next few weeks, you will have to put up with them being in Catalan.
> 
> Do you know of Catalan-language newsgroups or other places where you might ask for help?
------
Virgil|984779542
9c9,11
< Why don't you just import the Nupedia article on Virgil to this page?  :-)
---
> Why don't you just import the Nupedia article on Virgil to this page?  :-)
> ----
> I thought I would do this myself, but then I found that Nupedia's page formatting is not very 'Cut and paste friendly'.  Can Nupedia have a feature (I think others have requested this) for 'Printer-Friendly Version' which simply prints the article without table-formatting as plain text?
------
HomePage|984779568
36a37,38
> ----
> Why those languages first? Is some of the administrator from Catalonia? --AstroNomer
------
British_Commonwealth|984779760
1c1
< The [[British]] Commonwealth refers to all of the territories of Great Britian.
---
> The [[British]] Commonwealth refers to all of the territories of [[Great Britian]].
8c8
< *[[New Zealand]]
---
> *[[New Zealand]]
------
New_wave_music|984779857
1c1
< Movement in American [[popular music]], in the late 1970s, growing out of the [[New York City]] musical scene centred around the CBGB club.  The new wave had many parallels with [[punk rock]] but tended to favour the more literate lyrics with differing musical influences.  Both forms tended to be a reaction to the bluster of much of the music of the 1970s however.
---
> Movement in American [[Popular Music|popular music]], in the late 1970s, growing out of the [[New York City]] musical scene centred around the CBGB club.  The new wave had many parallels with [[punk rock]] but tended to favour the more literate lyrics with differing musical influences.  Both forms tended to be a reaction to the bluster of much of the music of the 1970s however.
------
GrungE|984779963
1c1
< See [[Grunge Music]]
---
> #REDIRECT[[Grunge Music]]
------
San_Francisco|984780006
1c1,5
< City and harbour on the west coast of the [[United States]].
---
> San Francisco is the fourth largest city in the state of [[California]], situated at the tip of the [[penninsula]] that forms [[San Franciso Bay]].
> 
> A major event in San Francisco history was the [[gold rush]] of 1849, which caused an enormous economic expansion and population growth, including considerable [[immigration]].  The [[Chinatown]] district of the city is still one of the largest in the country.  Another historically important event was the [[earthquake]] and fire of 1906, which devasted the city.  It is immortalized in the movie <i>San Fransisco</i>.
> 
> San Francisco bay is spanned by five bridges: the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] (which was the largest suspension bridge ever built at the time of its construction), the [[Richmod-San Rafael Bridge]], the [[San Fransisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[Hayward-San Mateo Bridge]] and the [[Dumbarton Bridge]].
------
GrungE|984780119
1c1
< #REDIRECT[[Grunge Music]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Grunge Music]]
------
Pamela_Anderson|984780140
9,10d8
< ----
< 
13a12,13
> 
> In March, 2001, a woman ([[Christine Evelyn Roth]]) pled guilty to a misdemeanor charge of trespassing and was deported to her home country, [[France]].  The woman had been arrested while sleeping in a guest room of Anderson's home, but she was only charged with trespassing and not the more serious crime of stalking.
------
Christine_Evelyn_Roth|984780188
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woman from France who was deported from the United States in March, 2001 for trespassing in [[Pamela Anderson]]'s home.
------
Virgil|984780280
11c11,15
< I thought I would do this myself, but then I found that Nupedia's page formatting is not very 'Cut and paste friendly'.  Can Nupedia have a feature (I think others have requested this) for 'Printer-Friendly Version' which simply prints the article without table-formatting as plain text?
---
> I thought I would do this myself, but then I found that Nupedia's page formatting is not very 'Cut and paste friendly'.  Can Nupedia have a feature (I think others have requested this) for 'Printer-Friendly Version' which simply prints the article without table-formatting as plain text?
> 
> ----
> The very idea of cut-and-paste should raise the hair on the neck of any computer nerd.  The obvious solution is to put a like to the Nupedia article prominently here (perhaps in the first introductory sentence), and then let Wikipedians add any additional comments they want in more free-form way.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Grunge_Music|984780289
1c1
< A much more commercially successful offshoot of [[Punk Music]] and [[Hardcore Punk Music]] in the late, late 1980s and early 1990s.
---
> A much more commercially successful offshoot of [[Punk rock]] and [[Hardcore Punk Music]] in the late, late 1980s and early 1990s.
------
Catalan_language|984780571
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Catalan is a language spoken by some 11 million people in France, Andorra, Italy, and Germany.
> 
> We have a wikipedia project written in Catalan,
> [[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia]]
> 
> (Will some Catalan-speaking person please translate the above,
> to be more helpful to Catalan-speaking people?)
> 
> (Also, we need a good English-language article about Catalan langauge here.)
------
Catalan_language|984780584
4c4
< [[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia]]
---
> [http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia]
9c9
< (Also, we need a good English-language article about Catalan langauge here.)
---
> (Also, we need a good English-language article about Catalan langauge here.)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|984780812
4a5
> :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
------
Jimbo_Wales|984780935
32c32,35
< I wait your news about this. I have not much time, but I want to help. Better send me email (cdani@yahoo.com).
---
> I wait your news about this. I have not much time, but I want to help. Better send me email (cdani@yahoo.com).
> ----
> 
> Hey, you just erased Catalonia, Spain, from he list of places where Catalan is spoken!!!
------
Jimbo_Wales|984781947
35c35,37
< Hey, you just erased Catalonia, Spain, from he list of places where Catalan is spoken!!!
---
> Hey, you just erased Catalonia, Spain, from he list of places where Catalan is spoken!!! 
> 
> ''Oh, well, I am lame.  Please fix it.''
------
Jimbo_Wales|984782065
34,37d33
< 
< Hey, you just erased Catalonia, Spain, from he list of places where Catalan is spoken!!! 
< 
< ''Oh, well, I am lame.  Please fix it.''
------
Jazz|984782490
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jazz, a musical form that grew out of roots in the [[blues]] has been called the first American art form.  The urbanisation of previously urban blues musicians in the early part of the 20t led to the beginnings of jazz as a distinct musical form.  Musicians working in nightclubs and brothels were frequently called upon to improvise, and improvisation has remained one of the tenets of jazz ever since.  This early jazz, including briefly popular styles such [[ragtime]] and [[boogie-woogie]] was considerably simpler than the jazz which came later.
> 
> The early development of jazz was racially segregated, reflecting the culture of the [[United States]] at the time, with the innovation of mainly black club musicians being taken onto bandstands by white band leaders, who tended to mould the music more to orthodox rhythms and harmony.  The slow dissolving of this segregation came when guitarist Charlie Christian joined the Benny Goodman sextet.  At this time (1939) the fashion for [[big band music]] was in full swing, making stars of such men as [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Duke Ellington]].
> 
> The next major stylistic turn came with [[bebop]], led by such distinctive stylists as the saxophonist [[Charlie Parker]] (known as "Bird" due to his free flying style).  This marked the first major break for jazz from its roots as a music for dancing and towards and intellectual art form of the first rank.  Later bebop musicians, such as trumpeter [[Miles Davis]] made more stylistic advances with [[modal jazz]] where the harmonic structure of pieces was much more free than previously, and frequently only implied by skeletal piano chords and bass parts.  The instrumentalists would the improvise around a given [[musical mode|mode]] of the scale.
> 
> With the growth of [[rock and roll]] in the 1960s, came the hybrid form [[jazz-rock fusion]], again involving Davis who released the fusion albums "In a Silent Way" and "Bitches Brew".
> 
> Since then the stylistic diversity of jazz has shown no sign of diminishing, absorbing influences from such disparate sources as [[world music]] and [[avant garde]] [[classical music]], including African rhythm and traditional structure, serialism and the extensive use of chromatic scale, by such musicians as [[Ornette Coleman]].
> 
> Early jazz musicians:
> * [[Louis Armstrong]]
> * [[Paul Whiteman]]
> * [[Benny Goodman]]
> * [[Charlie Christian]]
> * [[Count Basie]]
> * [[Bix Beiderbeck]]
> * [[Duke Ellington]]
> 
> Later innovators
> * [[Charlie Parker]]
> * [[Miles Davis]]
> * [[John Coltrane]]
> * [[Charles Mingus]]
>  
------
Jazz|984782507
1c1
< Jazz, a musical form that grew out of roots in the [[blues]] has been called the first American art form.  The urbanisation of previously urban blues musicians in the early part of the 20t led to the beginnings of jazz as a distinct musical form.  Musicians working in nightclubs and brothels were frequently called upon to improvise, and improvisation has remained one of the tenets of jazz ever since.  This early jazz, including briefly popular styles such [[ragtime]] and [[boogie-woogie]] was considerably simpler than the jazz which came later.
---
> Jazz, a musical form that grew out of roots in the [[blues]] has been called the first American art form.  The urbanisation of previously urban blues musicians in the early part of the 20th century led to the beginnings of jazz as a distinct musical form.  Musicians working in nightclubs and brothels were frequently called upon to improvise, and improvisation has remained one of the tenets of jazz ever since.  This early jazz, including briefly popular styles such [[ragtime]] and [[boogie-woogie]] was considerably simpler than the jazz which came later.
------
Jazz|984782677
3c3
< The early development of jazz was racially segregated, reflecting the culture of the [[United States]] at the time, with the innovation of mainly black club musicians being taken onto bandstands by white band leaders, who tended to mould the music more to orthodox rhythms and harmony.  The slow dissolving of this segregation came when guitarist Charlie Christian joined the Benny Goodman sextet.  At this time (1939) the fashion for [[big band music]] was in full swing, making stars of such men as [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Duke Ellington]].
---
> The early development of jazz was racially segregated, reflecting the culture of the [[United States]] at the time, with the innovation of mainly black club musicians being taken onto bandstands by white band leaders, who tended to mould the music more to orthodox rhythms and harmony.  The slow dissolution of this segregation began when guitarist Charlie Christian joined the Benny Goodman sextet.  At this time (1939) the fashion for [[big band music]] was in full swing, making stars of such men as [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Duke Ellington]].
25a26,27
> ----
> Draft #1 by [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Catalan_language|984782933
1c1
< Catalan is a language spoken by some 11 million people in France, Andorra, Italy, and Germany.
---
> Catalan is a language spoken by some 11 million people, mainly in Catalonia, Spain, but also in France, Andorra, Italy, and Germany.
------
ANSI|984783533
1c1
< American National Standards Organization: a non-commercial body that produces industrial standards in the [[United States]].  A member of [[ISO]] and [[IEC]].
---
> American National Standards Institute: a non-commercial body that produces industrial standards in the [[United States]].  A member of [[ISO]] and [[IEC]].
------
Virgil|984783549
9,14c9
< Why don't you just import the Nupedia article on Virgil to this page?  :-)
< ----
< I thought I would do this myself, but then I found that Nupedia's page formatting is not very 'Cut and paste friendly'.  Can Nupedia have a feature (I think others have requested this) for 'Printer-Friendly Version' which simply prints the article without table-formatting as plain text?
< 
< ----
< The very idea of cut-and-paste should raise the hair on the neck of any computer nerd.  The obvious solution is to put a like to the Nupedia article prominently here (perhaps in the first introductory sentence), and then let Wikipedians add any additional comments they want in more free-form way.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> /Talk
------
Virgil|984783556
9,10c9
< /Talk
< 
---
> /Talk
------
British_Commonwealth|984783906
1c1,2
< The [[British]] Commonwealth refers to all of the territories of [[Great Britian]].
---
> The British Commonwealth is an international organization formed
> by [[Great Britain]] and most of its former colonies. The Queen of England is the head of the organization.
3c4
< The British Commonwealth was largely dismantled after [[World War II]].
---
> It is the successor of the [[British Empire]], that was largely dismantled after [[World War II]].
------
AstroNomer|984783979
1c1
< Funny capitalization of [[Astronomer]], referring to one of the contributors to [[Wikipedia]].
---
> Capitalization oldwiki style of [[Astronomer]], referring to one of the contributors to [[Wikipedia]].
------
CountriesC|984784096
15c15
< * Czechoslovakia (now partioned into the [[Czech republic]] and [[Slovakia]])
---
> * [[Czech republic]] 
------
Countries_of_the_world|984784160
49a50
> ----
51c52,53
< [[Earth]] is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
---
> Will we list only currently existing countries, or also [[extint countries]]?
> [[Earth]] is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|984784211
52a53
> ----
------
Television|984784330
14a15,23
> :[[The Honeymooners]]
> :[[All in the Family]]
> :[[Ali McBeal]]
> :[[Father Knows Best]]
> :[[Peyton Place]]
> :[[Marcus Welby, M.D.]]
> :[[E.R.]]
> :[[Columbo]]
> :[[I Spy]]
23a33
> :[[Steve Allen]]
27a38
> :[[Jack Paar]]
29a41
> :[[Barbara Walters]]
30a43,54
> :[[Billy Crystal]]
> :[[Regis Philbin]]
> :[[Bert Parks]]
> :[[Mike Wallace]]
> :[[Jack Benny]]
> :[[Milton Berle]]
> :[[Edwin R. Murrow]]
> :[[Chevy Chase]]
> :[[Maury Povich]]
> :[[Larry King]]
> :[[Alfred Hitchkock]]
> :[[Alistair Cooke]]
33a58,68
> :[[Bill Cosby]]
> :[[Carroll O'Connor]]
> :[[Kelsey Grammer]]
> :[[Alan Alda]]
> :[[Jackie Gleason]]
> :[[Desi Arnez]]
> :[[Ozzie Nelson]]
> :[[Ryan O'Neal]]
> :[[Robert Wagner]]
> :[[Richard Boone]]
> :[[Robert Culp]]
36a72,88
> :[[Calista Flockheart]]
> :[[Whoopie Goldberg]]
> :[[Loretta Swit]]
> :[[Lucille Ball]]
> :[[Audrey Meadows]]
> :[[Harriet Nelson]]
> :[[Patty Duke]]
> :[[Mia Farrow]]
> :[[Cybil Sheppard]]
> :[[Stephanie Zimbalist]]
> :[[Barbara Streisand]]
> 
> Noted Undecidable Television [[Actors]]
> :[[Rosie O'Donnell]]- [[not out]]
> :[[Ellen De Generis]]-[out]
> :[[Ann Heche]]-[out]
> :[[Jim Nabors]]-[not out]
39c91
< * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
---
> * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
------
Extint_countries|984784354
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> 
> [[Czekoslovakia]]
> 
> [[German Democratic Republic]]
------
Virgil|984784443
0a1,16
> October 15, 70 B.C.E. - 19 B.C.E.  Publius Vergilius Maro, commonly known as "Vergil" or "Virgil," Latin poet, is the author of the ''Eclogues,'' the ''Georgics,'' and the ''Aeneid,'' a narrative poem in twelve books that deserves to be called the Roman Empire's national epic.  Born in the village of Andes (modern Pietole?), near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul (Gaul "this side," i.e., south of the Alps, present northern Italy), Vergil received his earliest schooling at Cremona and Milan.  He then went to Rome to study rhetoric, medicine, and astronomy, which he soon abandoned for philosophy.  In this period, while he was in the school of Siro the Epicurean, Vergil began writing poetry.  A group of minor poems attributed to the youthful Vergil survive but most are spurious.  One, the Catalepton (bagatelles?), consists of fourteen little poems, some of which may be Vergil's, and another, a short narrative poem titled the Culex (the mosquito), was attributed to Vergil as early as the first century C.E.
> 
> In 42 B.C.E., after the defeat of Julius Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius, the demobilized soldiers of the victors were settled on expropriated land and Vergil's estate near Mantua was confiscated.  However, the first of the Eclogues, written around 42 B.C.E., is taken as evidence that Octavian restored the estate, for it tells how "Tityrus" recovered his land through Octavian’s intervention and "Tityrus" is usually identified as Vergil himself.  Vergil soon became part of the circle of Maecenas, Octavian's capable agent d'affaires who sought to counter sympathy for Marc Antony among the leading families by rallying Roman literary figures to Octavian's side.  After the Eclogues were completed, Vergil spent the years 37 - 29 B.C.E. on the Georgics ("On Farming"), which was written in honor of Maecenas.  But Octavian, who had defeated Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. and two years later had the title "Augustus" given him by the Roman senate, was already pressing Vergil to write an epic in praise of his regime.
> 
> Vergil responded with the Aeneid, which took up his last ten years.  The first six books of the epic tell how the Trojan hero Aeneas escapes from the sack of Troy and makes his way to Italy.  On the voyage, a storm drives him on to the coast of Carthage where the queen, Dido, welcomes him and before long falls deeply in love.  But Jupiter recalls Aeneas to his duty and he slips away from Carthage, leaving Dido to commit suicide but not before swearing vengeance.  On reaching Cumae, in Italy, Aeneas consults the Cumaean Sibyl, who conducts him through the Underworld and reveals his destiny to him.  Aeneas is reborn as the creator of imperial Rome.
> 
> The first six books are modeled on Homer's Odyssey, but the last six are the Latin answer to the Iliad.  Aeneas is betrothed to Lavinia, daughter of king Latinus, but Lavinia had already been promised to Turnus, the king of the Rutulians who is roused to war by the Fury, Allecto.  The Aeneid ends with a single combat between Aeneas and Turnus, whom Aeneas defeats and kills, spurning his plea for mercy. 
> 
> Vergil died with the epic unfinished.  Augustus ordered Vergil's literary executors, Varius and Tucca, to disregard Vergil's own wish that the poem be destroyed and to publish it with as few editorial changes as possible.  Incomplete or not, the Aeneid was immediately recognized as a masterpiece.  It proclaimed the imperial mission of the Roman Empire but at the same time could pity Rome's victims and feel their grief.  Dido and Turnus, who are both casualties of Rome's destiny, are more attractive figures than Aeneas, whose single-minded devotion to his goal may seem almost repellent to the modern reader.
> 
> In the medieval period, Vergil was considered a wizard and, at the same time, a herald of Christianity, for his Eclogue 4 prophesied the birth of a boy in terms reminiscent of Christ's nativity.  The poem may refer to the pregnancy of Octavian’s wife Scribonia, who in fact gave birth to a girl.  Dante made Vergil his guide in his Divine Comedy.  He is still considered the greatest of the Latin poets.  
> ----
> The article above was originally sourced from [http://www.nupedia.com/ Nupedia] and is [[open content]].
> ----
> ''Older article below; the above might need revision if what is below reports information it doesn't contain.''
> 
------
Virgil/Talk|984784499
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Why don't you just import the Nupedia article on Virgil to this page?  :-)
> ----
> I thought I would do this myself, but then I found that Nupedia's page formatting is not very 'Cut and paste friendly'.  Can Nupedia have a feature (I think others have requested this) for 'Printer-Friendly Version' which simply prints the article without table-formatting as plain text?
> ----
> It's already pretty printer-friendly.  Anyway, what problems would that solve?  Anyone can easily cut and paste it, either from the HTML source or from the web page.
> ----
> The very idea of cut-and-paste should raise the hair on the neck of any computer nerd.  The obvious solution is to put a like to the Nupedia article prominently here (perhaps in the first introductory sentence), and then let Wikipedians add any additional comments they want in more free-form way.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> ----
> We shouldn't assume that the average Wikipedian is a computer nerd; and why should cut-and-paste raise the hair on their neck anyway?  It's a simple and easy way to move the content from there to here.  It is open content, so there should be no objection to doing this.  Anyway, I've already done it.  It took about two minutes to convert unfriendly characters.
> 
> Also, Lee, I disagree with your apparent attitude toward the use of Wikipedia.  Wikipedia should have content here, on the website, not links pointing elsewhere.  Wikipedia is supposed to be an encyclopedia, not a links collection.  It's also not a discussion forum first and foremost, but, again, an encyclopedia.  An ''open content'' encyclopedia, meaning that we can (and should!) make use of public domain and open content stuff. --LS
------
San_Francisco|984784743
5a6,9
> 
> San Francisco has [[micro climate]]s, meaning very small areas where the weather is constant. A typical weather forecast there is about an hour.
> 
> San Francisco boasts a fully accessible [[Public Transportation System]], the [[BART]], that is, the Bay Area Rapid Transit. And, the [[San Francisco Trolley]] as well.
------
Extint_countries|984784969
1,5c1
< [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
< 
< [[Czekoslovakia]]
< 
< [[German Democratic Republic]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries]]
------
Extinct_countries|984785017
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> 
> [[Czekoslovakia]]
> 
> [[German Democratic Republic]]
> 
> [[Zanzibar]]
> 
> [[Prussia]]
> 
> [[Hittite Empire]]
> 
> [[Holy Roman Empire]]
> 
> [[Roman Empire]]
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984785218
11c11,13
< Number 2, for me please.  Mind you, I just used the f*** word in [[punk rock]] (as a direct, justifiable example, mind) so what do I know? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> Number 2, for me please.  Mind you, I just used the f*** word in [[punk rock]] (as a direct, justifiable example, mind) so what do I know? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
> 
> I'd agree, Gareth. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
HomePage|984785534
31,32d30
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
< ----
36a35,36
> 
> If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[Wikipedia-L]].
38c38
< Why those languages first? Is some of the administrator from Catalonia? --AstroNomer
---
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Star|984785536
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A self-gravitating sphere of gas in [[hydrostatic equilibrium]], that generates
> energy in its interior fusing lighter [[elements]] into heavier
> ones. It radiates energy into space as [[electromagnetic radiation]], and [[neutrinos]].
> 
> The prototype of star is the [[Sun]] (not because it is special
> in any way, but because is the closest and most studied star we
> have), and most characteristics of other stars are usually given
> in solar units. For example, the [[mass]] of the sun is 
>   M_sun=1.99 x 10^30 kg
> The masses of all other stars are given in M_sun.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984785655
3c3
< A few possibilities to kick off the discusion.
---
> A few possibilities to kick off the discussion.
9,10c9
< 
< 
---
> #We should allow it when it is warranted. We should not fuss over it.
13c12
< I'd agree, Gareth. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I'd agree, Gareth. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Virgil/Talk|984785762
11c11,13
< Also, Lee, I disagree with your apparent attitude toward the use of Wikipedia.  Wikipedia should have content here, on the website, not links pointing elsewhere.  Wikipedia is supposed to be an encyclopedia, not a links collection.  It's also not a discussion forum first and foremost, but, again, an encyclopedia.  An ''open content'' encyclopedia, meaning that we can (and should!) make use of public domain and open content stuff. --LS
---
> Also, Lee, I disagree with your apparent attitude toward the use of Wikipedia.  Wikipedia should have content here, on the website, not links pointing elsewhere.  Wikipedia is supposed to be an encyclopedia, not a links collection.  It's also not a discussion forum first and foremost, but, again, an encyclopedia.  An ''open content'' encyclopedia, meaning that we can (and should!) make use of public domain and open content stuff. --[[Larry Sangler|LS]]
> ----
> Aargh...should we really be using BCE instead of BC?  The latter is fair and accurate - the calendar is dated from Christ, whatever religion you are - better known and a full symbol shorter (two if you use periods).  Sigh.  The other's probably going to end up convention, but I couldn't let that happen without a whine. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984785764
6a7
> #We should allow it when it is warranted. We should not fuss over it.
9c10
< #We should allow it when it is warranted. We should not fuss over it.
---
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|984785772
51,54c51
< 
< Will we list only currently existing countries, or also [[extint countries]]?
< ----
< [[Earth]] is divided into six or seven [[continents]].
---
> See also [[extinct countries]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|984785797
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
------
AstroNomer|984786241
1a2,9
> ---
> 
> You asked why I set up Catalan and Deutsch wikipedia first.  No special reason.  Someone asked about Catalan.  And there is an active mailing list for Deutsch translation at Nupedia.  So...
> 
> It takes only 10 minutes to go through the basics of setting up
> wiki for another language.  Please tell me which ones you want.
> 
> Of course, to be fun and catch on, we will need to communicate about their existence to people who speak those languages.  I am incompetent to do this.
------
AstroNomer|984786265
2c2
< ---
---
> ----
9c9
< Of course, to be fun and catch on, we will need to communicate about their existence to people who speak those languages.  I am incompetent to do this.
---
> Of course, to be fun and catch on, we will need to communicate about their existence to people who speak those languages.  I am incompetent to do this. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Virgil/Talk|984786444
11a12,15
> 
> Very interesting, Larry.  For me, in Netscape on Linux, the cut and paste was very unhappy.  There were lots of spaces before each line, which would have required me to painstakingly edit each line.  Chalk one up for IE, I guess.  :-) [[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> 
13c17,19
< Aargh...should we really be using BCE instead of BC?  The latter is fair and accurate - the calendar is dated from Christ, whatever religion you are - better known and a full symbol shorter (two if you use periods).  Sigh.  The other's probably going to end up convention, but I couldn't let that happen without a whine. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> Aargh...should we really be using BCE instead of BC?  The latter is fair and accurate - the calendar is dated from Christ, whatever religion you are - better known and a full symbol shorter (two if you use periods).  Sigh.  The other's probably going to end up convention, but I couldn't let that happen without a whine. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> ----
> I'm sure there was some long debate about it (BCE versus BC) when Nupedia adopted it.  Nupedia loves a good debate.  :-)
------
Virgil/Talk|984786540
19c19,23
< I'm sure there was some long debate about it (BCE versus BC) when Nupedia adopted it.  Nupedia loves a good debate.  :-)
---
> You can do want on Wikipedia...  You simply risk someone changing it back.  :-)  (I promise I won't, in this case.)  In that respect, Wikipedia is not unlike [http://www.zombo.com Zombo.com]. --[[Larry Sanger|LS]]
> ----
> I'm sure there was some long debate about it (BCE versus BC) when Nupedia adopted it.  Nupedia loves a good debate.  :-)
> ----
> You is not kiddin'. --[[Larry Sanger|LS]]
------
Extinct_countries|984786704
15c15,17
< [[Roman Empire]]
---
> [[Roman Empire]]
> 
> [[Confederated States of America]]
------
Cryptomonads|984786892
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The cryptomonads (cryptomonadida, cryptophyta) are a group of tiny [[flagellate|flagellates]] including mostly [[alga|algal]] forms.  The cells are only around 10-20 &mu; in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket containg refractile [[ejectosomes]].  There are typically two slightly unequal flagella inserting nearly parallel next to the pocket.  The [[mitochondria|mitochondrion]] has flat cristae.
> 
> Except for a few colorless forms like ''Chilomonas'', most cryptomonads contain a [[chloroplast]].  Instead of being contained directly, though, there is a reduced [[eukaryote]] symbiotic within the cell, which contains a normal [[prokaryote]] chloroplast.  In total, then, the chloroplast is bound by four membranes with a tiny nucleus (nucleomorph) contained between the middle two.  It typically has chlorophylls a and c, much like the [[dinoflagellates]] (with which the cryptomonads were formerly grouped) and [[stramenopiles]].
> 
> A few cryptomonads have reached the palmelloid stage of organization, but the vast majority are free-living flagellates, and are common in nutrient rich water.
------
Cryptomonads|984786902
1c1
< The cryptomonads (cryptomonadida, cryptophyta) are a group of tiny [[flagellate|flagellates]] including mostly [[alga|algal]] forms.  The cells are only around 10-20 &mu; in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket containg refractile [[ejectosomes]].  There are typically two slightly unequal flagella inserting nearly parallel next to the pocket.  The [[mitochondria|mitochondrion]] has flat cristae.
---
> The cryptomonads (cryptomonadida, cryptophyta) are a group of tiny [[flagellate|flagellates]] including mostly [[alga|algal]] forms.  The cells are only around 10-20 &mu;m in size and flattened in shape, with an anterior groove or pocket containg refractile [[ejectosomes]].  There are typically two slightly unequal flagella inserting nearly parallel next to the pocket.  The [[mitochondria|mitochondrion]] has flat cristae.
------
HomePage|984786958
36c36
< If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[Wikipedia-L]].
---
> If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
38c38
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Cryptomonads|984786961
5c5
< A few cryptomonads have reached the palmelloid stage of organization, but the vast majority are free-living flagellates, and are common in nutrient rich water.
---
> A few cryptomonads have reached the palmelloid stage of organization, but the vast majority are free-living flagellates, and are common in nutrient rich water.  Well-known examples include ''Cryptomonas'' and ''Chilomonas''.
------
International_Wikipedia|984787181
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page will eventually be refactored to be a list or presentation of our foreign language versions.  But for now, we can use it as our International Wikipedia 'Talk' page.
> 
> I have set up Catalan and Deutsch (or Deutsche, that's still
> up in the air!), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
> 
> I am going to avoid setting up nihongo.wikipedia.com (japanese.wikipedia.com) until I better understand how well or poorly it might work.  Unless, of coures, RoseParks asks me to hurry up and do it anyway, in which case I just will, but without any promises that it will work well or at all.  :-)
> 
> I think that we should have French and Spanish next, but I don't know how to write 'French' and 'Spanish' correctly.  If someone will tell me, I will set them up.
> 
> And then any other languages can be set up very quickly.
> 
> I would anticipate that a certain amount of "critical mass" is necessary in order for a wiki to "take off".  Without 5-10 people eagerly writing and arguing and playing with each other, it wouldn't be as much fun.  So I encourage anyone who likes to have a wiki in their own language to also go out and announce/recruit for it.  :-)
------
Extinct_countries|984787229
17c17,19
< [[Confederated States of America]]
---
> [[Confederated States of America]]
> 
> [[Texas]]
------
Cdani|984787319
8c8
< Please review [http://catalan.wikipedia.com/ Catalan Wikipedia] and give me feedback.  We are going to work with CliffordAdams to translate all the messages into other languages, but for the next few weeks, you will have to put up with them being in Catalan.
---
> Please review [http://catalan.wikipedia.com/ Catalan Wikipedia] and give me feedback.  We are going to work with CliffordAdams to translate all the messages into other languages, but for the next few weeks, you will have to put up with them being in English.
10c10
< Do you know of Catalan-language newsgroups or other places where you might ask for help?
---
> Do you know of Catalan-language newsgroups or other places where you might ask for help?
------
Jimbo_Wales|984787385
6,16d5
< ----
< 
< <note from=PhillipHankins>  Thanks for the good tidings.  I actually gave a little thought to the benifit of people being able to find me easy.  But then I remembered that people can check the other revisions and find who has been working on a page that way.  And I didn't what to presume any ownership since larry had done some stuff... kinda unwiki, if you will.
< 
< It would be neat if people who wanted to help organize a page signed the bottom so as to spur communication betwixt themselves.  But again, I imagine the revision list is almost as good.  Your point about people finding other stuff I've worked on is the best reason and I hadn't thought of that.  Maybe I'll check around to see what others think of such topics.
< </note>
< ----
< 
< Just a question: could you tell me where the [[Wikipedia]] server is? 
< My timezone is GMT+1 -- the times on the RecentChanges page are about GMT-8, so I'd go for somewhere on the US West Coast. -- WojPob
< ----
18d6
< [[San Diego]], [[California]] is the location of [[Bomis]].  [[Larry Sanger]] lives (for now) in [[Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]].  
20,21d7
< Thanks for the suggestion re: multilanguage access to [http://unumondo.com UnuMondo]. I have enhanced the splash page accordingly! -- JerryMuelver----
< ? ? ? ? ? ? For [[Jimbo Wales]]...hold down ALT and enter, say, 0141 in the keypad. 
23,33c9
< Ah, I wasn't the one asking how to make them, I was asking the person who asked what they meant.
< 
< It seems that what you are calling little boxes will show up as funny characters to some people, if they have some special fonts installed.
< 
< ----
< Yes, catalan better. [[cdani]]
< 
< Good, because your English is terrible.  (Better than my French or Catalan, though, so I can't say anything. ;-) )
< 
< I wait your news about this. I have not much time, but I want to help. Better send me email (cdani@yahoo.com).
< ----
---
> (I just cleaned out all the old notes here, but feel free to leave me new notes.)
------
Extinct_countries|984787429
19c19
< [[Texas]]
---
> [[Republic of Texas]]
------
International_Wikipedia|984787554
12a13,20
> 
> ----
> 
> Spanish has two problems. If you go with Español, you have
> the problem of the letter "ñ" that you can not use in links.
> But not all Spanish speakers will call his language Español,
> but Castellano (Castilian). I do not know what is the current
> consensus. I'll do some research.
------
Extinct_countries|984787588
19a20,24
> ----
> ----
> I don't think this sort of page will work for things like the Hittites, who for much of their history were more a lose confederation of peoples.  Nation-states for the most part developed during the second half of the middle ages, and to treat them on par with earlier systems seems a bit odd.  Was Alexander's empire a country?  Carthage?  Athens?  The Belgae?  That's going to be a lot of countries...I think we should mainly worry about such things under broader headings, like [[History]] or [[Germans]], and leave this page for country-countries like the [[USSR]].
> 
> My usual unasked for negative two cents. :| --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
International_Wikipedia|984787625
18c18
< But not all Spanish speakers will call his language Español,
---
> But not all Spanish speakers will call their language Español,
20c20
< consensus. I'll do some research.
---
> consensus. I'll do some research.
------
Extinct_countries|984787656
21,24c21
< ----
< I don't think this sort of page will work for things like the Hittites, who for much of their history were more a lose confederation of peoples.  Nation-states for the most part developed during the second half of the middle ages, and to treat them on par with earlier systems seems a bit odd.  Was Alexander's empire a country?  Carthage?  Athens?  The Belgae?  That's going to be a lot of countries...I think we should mainly worry about such things under broader headings, like [[History]] or [[Germans]], and leave this page for country-countries like the [[USSR]].
< 
< My usual unasked for negative two cents. :| --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> /Talk
------
Extinct_countries|984787783
1,21c1
< [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
< 
< [[Czekoslovakia]]
< 
< [[German Democratic Republic]]
< 
< [[Zanzibar]]
< 
< [[Prussia]]
< 
< [[Hittite Empire]]
< 
< [[Holy Roman Empire]]
< 
< [[Roman Empire]]
< 
< [[Confederated States of America]]
< 
< [[Republic of Texas]]
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct political countries, empires, etc.]]
------
Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc.|984787794
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> 
> [[Czekoslovakia]]
> 
> [[German Democratic Republic]]
> 
> [[Zanzibar]]
> 
> [[Prussia]]
> 
> [[Hittite Empire]]
> 
> [[Holy Roman Empire]]
> 
> [[Roman Empire]]
> 
> [[Confederated States of America]]
> 
> [[Republic of Texas]]
> ----
> /Talk
------
Countries_of_the_world|984787859
51c51
< See also [[extinct countries]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
---
> See also [[extinct political countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
------
Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk|984787976
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That doesn't sound very encyclopaedic..."etc."?
------
Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc.|984788076
1c1
< [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
---
> '''Ancient'''
3,19c3,28
< [[Czekoslovakia]]
< 
< [[German Democratic Republic]]
< 
< [[Zanzibar]]
< 
< [[Prussia]]
< 
< [[Hittite Empire]]
< 
< [[Holy Roman Empire]]
< 
< [[Roman Empire]]
< 
< [[Confederated States of America]]
< 
< [[Republic of Texas]]
---
> *[[[Ur]]]
> *[[[Old Babylonia]]
> *[[[New Babylonia]]]
> *[[[Hittite Empire]]]
> *[[[Assyria]]]
> *[[[Persian Empire]]]
> *[[[Israel]]]
> *[[[Athens]]]
> *[[[Roman Empire]]]
> *[[[Magadha Empire]]]
> *[[[Tang China]]]
> 
> '''Medieval'''
> 
> *[[[Byzantine Empire]]]
> *[[[Holy Roman Empire]]]
> 
> '''Modern'''
> 
> *[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> *[[Czekoslovakia]]
> *[[German Democratic Republic]]
> *[[Zanzibar]]
> *[[Prussia]]
> *[[Confederated States of America]]
> *[[Republic of Texas]]
21c30
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc.|984788104
1,30c1
< '''Ancient'''
< 
< *[[[Ur]]]
< *[[[Old Babylonia]]
< *[[[New Babylonia]]]
< *[[[Hittite Empire]]]
< *[[[Assyria]]]
< *[[[Persian Empire]]]
< *[[[Israel]]]
< *[[[Athens]]]
< *[[[Roman Empire]]]
< *[[[Magadha Empire]]]
< *[[[Tang China]]]
< 
< '''Medieval'''
< 
< *[[[Byzantine Empire]]]
< *[[[Holy Roman Empire]]]
< 
< '''Modern'''
< 
< *[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
< *[[Czekoslovakia]]
< *[[German Democratic Republic]]
< *[[Zanzibar]]
< *[[Prussia]]
< *[[Confederated States of America]]
< *[[Republic of Texas]]
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984788114
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Ancient'''
> 
> *[[[Ur]]]
> *[[[Old Babylonia]]
> *[[[New Babylonia]]]
> *[[[Hittite Empire]]]
> *[[[Assyria]]]
> *[[[Persian Empire]]]
> *[[[Israel]]]
> *[[[Athens]]]
> *[[[Roman Empire]]]
> *[[[Magadha Empire]]]
> *[[[Tang China]]]
> 
> '''Medieval'''
> 
> *[[[Byzantine Empire]]]
> *[[[Holy Roman Empire]]]
> 
> '''Modern'''
> 
> *[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> *[[Czekoslovakia]]
> *[[German Democratic Republic]]
> *[[Zanzibar]]
> *[[Prussia]]
> *[[Confederated States of America]]
> *[[Republic of Texas]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|984788148
51c51
< See also [[extinct political countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
---
> See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984788170
28c28,30
< *[[Republic of Texas]]
---
> *[[Republic of Texas]]
> ----
> /Talk
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984788263
3,13c3,13
< *[[[Ur]]]
< *[[[Old Babylonia]]
< *[[[New Babylonia]]]
< *[[[Hittite Empire]]]
< *[[[Assyria]]]
< *[[[Persian Empire]]]
< *[[[Israel]]]
< *[[[Athens]]]
< *[[[Roman Empire]]]
< *[[[Magadha Empire]]]
< *[[[Tang China]]]
---
> *[[Ur]]
> *[[Old Babylonia]]
> *[[New Babylonia]]
> *[[Hittite Empire]]
> *[[Assyria]]
> *[[Persian Empire]]
> *[[Israel]]
> *[[Athens]]
> *[[Roman Empire]]
> *[[Magadha Empire]]
> *[[Tang China]]
17,18c17,18
< *[[[Byzantine Empire]]]
< *[[[Holy Roman Empire]]]
---
> *[[Byzantine Empire]]
> *[[Holy Roman Empire]]
30c30
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk|984788379
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If you can think of a better description, have at it.  "Political entity" is too broad.  "State" isn't quite right, it seems (some empires weren't what we ordinarily think of as "states," though strictly I suppose they were).  "Realm" might be used tongue-in-cheek...
------
Extint_countries|984788698
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
------
Welcome_Newcomers|984789042
11c11
< If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls.)-
---
> If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
------
North_America|984789242
18a19
> *[[Aruba]] ([[Netherlands]])
24,25c25,26
< *[[Puerto Rico]] (U.S. territory)
< *[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
---
> *[[Puerto Rico]] (U.S. free associated state)
> *[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
------
Netherlands|984789346
3,9c3
< Source of U.S.-W.A.S.P.-culture & puritanism<BR>
< See themselves as the conscience of the world<BR>
< Contrary to Anglo-Saxon cultures there is true justice & democracy in the Netherlands<BR>
< (independent judicial system, judges are not voted <BR>
< - not populists who have to score - <BR>
< O.J. Simpson would have been sent to jail in Holland)
< ----
---
> 
14a9
> Also see [[/Talk]]
------
Netherlands/Talk|984789365
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Source of U.S.-W.A.S.P.-culture & puritanism<BR>
> See themselves as the conscience of the world<BR>
> Contrary to Anglo-Saxon cultures there is true justice & democracy in the Netherlands<BR>
> (independent judicial system, judges are not voted <BR>
> - not populists who have to score - <BR>
> O.J. Simpson would have been sent to jail in Holland)
> ----
------
DNA|984789432
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule in living things that contains the base information for creating [[protein|proteins]], which in turn control all its reactions and structure.  It is also the molecule of heredity - whenever an organism reproduces, each offspring gets a copy of its parents' DNA.
> 
> Structurally, nucleic acids are giant [[polymer]] contained of units called [[nucleotides]] - each of which consists of a sugar phosphate and a base.  The sugar in DNA is [[deoxyribose]] which is small enough to cause the molecule to twist into a helix.  The four nucleotides are [[adenosine]], [[cytosine]], [[thymidine]], and [[guanosine]] phosphate.  Each can readily form hydrogen bonds to one of the others - A with T, C with G - so that two matching strands of DNA will group together in a double helix.  This form is called B-DNA; there are a few others.
> 
> DNA does not code for any proteins directly.  Instead, matching strands of messenger [[RNA]] (mRNA) are formed by enzymes called [[RNA polymerase]]s - this is called transcription - which are sent off into the cytoplasm for translation.  Other kinds of RNA are also formed to help in the process - tRNA, rRNA, and snRNA.
> 
> In bacteria there is a single main strand of DNA, copied over when the cell replicates.  There may also be small pieces of circular DNA called [[plasmids]] floating in the cytoplasm that can be exchanged between cells.  In [[eukaryote]]s there are typically multiple pieces of DNA contained in a central [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], separated out in cell division by a process called [[mitosis]].  There may be a single copy of the genome (whence the organism is [[haploid]]), two copies ([[diploid]]), or many copies ([[polyploid]]).
> 
> In sexual reproduction, a diploid cell divides without the DNA being replicated, so as to form two haploid cells, which then divide again.  This process is called [[meiosis]].  Eventually some haploid cells unite together to form a new diploid cell ([[syngamy]]) with half its genome from each diploid ancestor.  When there are different versions of the same gene, their effects may be blended or a single version may be dominant.
------
Welcome_Newcomers|984789435
11c11,13
< If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
---
> If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
> ----
> [[\Talk]]
------
Welcome_Newcomers|984789458
13c13
< [[\Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Welcome_Newcomers/Talk|984789509
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Larry, in the number of pages do you count redirections and "\Talk" pages?
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984789605
24c24
< *[[German Democratic Republic]]
---
> *[[EastGermany|German Democratic Republic]]
30c30
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Matt_Groening|984789784
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[cartoon]] artist. His most noteable works include [[The Simpsons]], [[Futurama]], [[Life is Hell]] and [[School is Hell]]
------
Zodiac|984789808
1c1,2
< Heaven's belt in the ecliptic, with 8 degrees in either side. [[cdani]]
---
> 
> Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses. Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
------
International_Wikipedia|984790163
20a21,27
> 
> ''Notice that there I do not need a single answer.  I can point multiple domain names at the same Spanish language site.  So I can use:
> 
> :espanol.wikipedia.com
> :spanish.wikipedia.com
> :castellano.wikipedia.com
> :supaingo.wikipedia.com (Japanese!)
------
International_Wikipedia|984790326
27c27,29
< :supaingo.wikipedia.com (Japanese!)
---
> :supaingo.wikipedia.com (Japanese!)
> 
> That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
------
Welcome_Newcomers/Talk|984790579
1a2,3
> 
> That was Jimbo who wrote it, and I think he was counting redirections.  A more accurate account can be generated by searching for ",".  A page without a comma doesn't deserve the name "article."  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger|LS]]
------
The_Simpsons|984790601
4,8c4,47
< * Homer
< * Marge
< * Bart
< * Lisa
< * Maggie
---
> * [[/Homer]]
> * [[/Marge]]
> * [[/Bart]]
> * [[/Lisa]]
> * [[/Maggie]]
> * [[/Abraham]] (Grandpa)
> * [[/Selma]]
> * [[/Pattie]]
> 
> Other characters:
> 
> Flanders family:
> * [[/Ned Flanders]]
> * [[/Maude Flander]]
> * [[/Rod Flanders]]
> * [[/Todd Flanders]]
> 
> Power Plant Staff:
> * [[/Lenny]]
> * [[/Carl]]
> * [[/C. Montgomery Burns]]
> * [[/Weyland Smithers]]
> 
> Elementary School:
> * [[/Milhouse Van Houten]]
> * [[/Nelson Muntz]]
> * [[/Seymour Skinner]]
> * [[/Miss Krababble]]
> * [[/Ralph Wiggum]]
> 
> Other:
> * [[/Chief Wiggum]]
> * [[/Dr. Hibbard]]
> * [[/Reverend Lovejoy]]
> * [[/Helen Lovejoy]]
> * [[/Apu]]
> * [[/Manjula]]
> * [[/Troy McLure]]
> * [[/Krusty the Clown]]
> * [[/Sideshow Bob]]
> * [[/Sideshow Mel]]
> * [[/Fat Tony]]
> * [[/Kent Brockman]]
> 
------
AnchorageAlaska|984790638
1,15c1
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
< 
< Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in [[Alaska]].  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
< 
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see [[Alaska/TheBush]]--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
< 
< Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].)
< 
< There was a massive, incredibly destructive EarthQuake in 1964 called the GoodFridayEarthquake, and the earthquake danger has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  But the city has an attractive skyline nonetheless, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city).  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
< 
< There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of the flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
< 
< There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("ChinookWinds"); erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others, that have coated the city with ash); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs (and two sizable actual suburbs, EagleRiver and ChugiaK), a downtown skyline, etc.
< 
< For more information, see the website of the [Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau http://www.anchorage.net/] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Anchorage, Alaska]]
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|984790667
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
> 
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in [[Alaska]].  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
> 
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see [[Alaska/TheBush]]--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
> 
> Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to "dress down."  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].)
> 
> There was a massive, incredibly destructive EarthQuake in 1964 called the GoodFridayEarthquake, and the earthquake danger has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  But the city has an attractive skyline nonetheless, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city).  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
> 
> There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of the flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
> 
> There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("ChinookWinds"); erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others, that have coated the city with ash); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs (and two sizable actual suburbs, EagleRiver and ChugiaK), a downtown skyline, etc.
> 
> For more information, see the website of the [http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
------
Alaska|984790737
1c1
< Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, Anchorage (see AnchorageAlaska).  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
---
> Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]].  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
------
Television|984790800
23a24
> :[[Married with Children]]
30a32
> : [[South Park]]
91c93
< * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
---
> * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
------
Punk_rock|984790975
8c8
< As well as its lasting influence on all [[popular music]], especially [[grunge]], genuine punk rock can still, however, be found in certain subcultures, with a thriving scene on the west coast of the [[United States]], and underwent a brief renaissance in the late 1990s.
---
> As well as its lasting influence on all [[popular music]], especially [[grunge]], genuine punk rock can still, however, be found in certain subcultures, with a thriving scene on the west coast of the [[United States]], and underwent a brief renaissance in the late 1990s with bands like [[The Offspring]], [[NOFX]] and others, usually referred to as [[Skate Punk]].
16c16,17
< *[[The Ramones]]
---
> *[[The Ramones]]
> *[[Exploited]]
------
Punk_rock|984791011
17c17,18
< *[[Exploited]]
---
> *[[Exploited]]
> *[[Bad Religion]]
------
United_States/Introduction|984791138
4,5c4,5
< nation's history were the [[United States Civil War]] (1861-65) and the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in [[World War I]] and [World War II] and the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steady
< growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology. 
---
> nation's history were the [[United States Civil War]] (1861-65) and the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. Buoyed by victories in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] and the end of the [[Cold War]] in 1991, the US remains the world's most powerful nation-state. The economy is marked by steady
> growth, low unemployment and inflation, and rapid advances in technology. 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984791171
4c4
< *[[Old Babylonia]]
---
> *[[Old Babylonia]] 
9,10c9,10
< *[[Israel]]
< *[[Athens]]
---
> *[[Israel]] -- umm, that's not extinct.
> *[[Athenian Empire]]
21,26d20
< 
< *[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
< *[[Czekoslovakia]]
< *[[EastGermany|German Democratic Republic]]
< *[[Zanzibar]]
< *[[Prussia]]
27a22,25
> *[[Czechoslovakia]]
> *[[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]
> *[[Ottoman Empire]]
> *[[Prussia]]
28a27,28
> *[[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]]([[USSR]])
> *[[Zanzibar]]
------
United_States|984791266
1c1
< Country in Northern [[America]].
---
> Country in [[North America]].
------
Catalan_language|984791271
1a2,4
> ----
> El Català és un llenguatge parlat per aproximadament 11 milions de persones, principalment a Catalunya, Espanya, peró també a França, Andorra, Italia i Alemanya.
> ----
5,7d7
< 
< (Will some Catalan-speaking person please translate the above,
< to be more helpful to Catalan-speaking people?)
------
International_Wikipedia|984791277
13a14,17
> 
> ----
> How's about using ccTLDs instead (like de, fr, it, jp, tw and so on). This might save some trouble.
> 
29c33
< That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
---
> That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
------
Games/video_games|984791377
14,15d13
< * [[Final fantasy]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
26a25,26
> * [[Final Fantasy]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
55,57c55
< * [[StarCraft/Broodwar]]
< 
< -----
---
> * [[StarCraft]]
59c57
< Arcade:
---
> ----
61,66c59
< * [[Pacman]]
< * [[Space Invaders]]
< 
< -----
< 
< Jump and Run:
---
> Platform:
71a65,69
> -----
> Arcade:
> 
> * [[Pacman]]
> * [[Space Invaders]]
------
Jazz|984791402
25c25,29
<  
---
> 
> Styles:
> 
> * [[Nu Jazz]]
> * [[Free Jazz]] 
------
The_Simpsons|984791656
3,11c3
< The Simpson family members:
< * [[/Homer]]
< * [[/Marge]]
< * [[/Bart]]
< * [[/Lisa]]
< * [[/Maggie]]
< * [[/Abraham]] (Grandpa)
< * [[/Selma]]
< * [[/Pattie]]
---
> :[[/Characters]]
13,46c5
< Other characters:
< 
< Flanders family:
< * [[/Ned Flanders]]
< * [[/Maude Flander]]
< * [[/Rod Flanders]]
< * [[/Todd Flanders]]
< 
< Power Plant Staff:
< * [[/Lenny]]
< * [[/Carl]]
< * [[/C. Montgomery Burns]]
< * [[/Weyland Smithers]]
< 
< Elementary School:
< * [[/Milhouse Van Houten]]
< * [[/Nelson Muntz]]
< * [[/Seymour Skinner]]
< * [[/Miss Krababble]]
< * [[/Ralph Wiggum]]
< 
< Other:
< * [[/Chief Wiggum]]
< * [[/Dr. Hibbard]]
< * [[/Reverend Lovejoy]]
< * [[/Helen Lovejoy]]
< * [[/Apu]]
< * [[/Manjula]]
< * [[/Troy McLure]]
< * [[/Krusty the Clown]]
< * [[/Sideshow Bob]]
< * [[/Sideshow Mel]]
< * [[/Fat Tony]]
< * [[/Kent Brockman]]
---
> :[[/Merchandise]]
------
Hexadecimal|984791687
1c1
< Base 16 number system, which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
---
> Base 16 [[number system]], which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
7c7
< In texts there are several ways to denote hexadecimal numbers. One (derived from [[C]]) is to start with '0x'. Another way (from [[Pascal]] is to end the numbers with a 'h'. So, 20h is the same as 0x20, which equals 32 in [[decimal counting]].
---
> In texts there are several ways to denote hexadecimal numbers. One (derived from [[C]]) is to start with '0x'. Another way (from [[Pascal]] is to end the numbers with a 'h'. So, 20h is the same as 0x20, which equals 32 in [[decimal counting]].
------
PhilosophicalSubdisciplines|984791969
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
---
> [[Philosophy]] has a number of subdisciplines.  A brief gloss of each will be given here.
3c3
< <i>Logic</i>: the study of the standards of correct argumentation and definition.
---
> <i>[[Logic]]</i>: the study of the standards of correct [[argument|argumentation]].
5c5
< <i>Metaphysics</i>: the study of the most basic categories of things, such as existence, objects, properties, and so forth.
---
> <i>[[Metaphysics]]</i>: the study of the most basic [[category|categories]] of things, such as [[existence]], [[object]]s, [[property|properties]], [[causality]], and so forth.
7c7
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Religion</i>: the study of the meaning of the concept of God and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God.
---
> <i>[[Philosophy of religion]]</i>: the study of the meaning of the concept of [[God]] and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God.
9c9
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Mind</i>: the study of the nature of the mind, and its relation to the body and the rest of the world.
---
> <i>[[Philosophy of mind]]</i>: the study of the nature of the [[mind]], and its relation to the [[body]] and the rest of the world.
11c11
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>Language</i>: the study of the concepts of meaning and truth.
---
> <i>[[Philosophy of language]]</i>: the study of the concepts of [[meaning]] and [[truth]].
13c13
< <i>Epistemology</i>: the study of knowledge, its nature, possibility, and justification.
---
> <i>[[Epistemology]]</i>: the study of [[knowledge]], its nature, [[skepticism|possibility]], and [[epistemic justification|justification]].
15c15
< <i>Value</i> <i>Theory</i>: the study of the meaning of "good" and the relation between fact and value.
---
> <i>[[Value theory]]</i>: the study of the meaning of "[[good]]" and the relation between [[fact]] and [[value]].
17c17
< <i>Ethics</i>: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of right action can be applied to special moral problems.
---
> <i>[[Ethics]]</i>: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of [[right action]] can be applied to special moral problems.
19c19,23
< <i>Political</i> <i>Philosophy</i>: the study of basic topics concerning government, including the purpose of the state, political justice, freedom, the nature of law, and the justification of punishment.
---
> <i>[[Political philosophy]]</i>: the study of basic topics concerning [[government]], including the purpose of [[the state]], political [[justice]], [[political freedom]], the nature of law, and [[the justification of punishment]].
> 
> <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about[[art]] and [[beauty]].
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
PhilosophicalSubdisciplines|984791994
1,23c1
< [[Philosophy]] has a number of subdisciplines.  A brief gloss of each will be given here.
< 
< <i>[[Logic]]</i>: the study of the standards of correct [[argument|argumentation]].
< 
< <i>[[Metaphysics]]</i>: the study of the most basic [[category|categories]] of things, such as [[existence]], [[object]]s, [[property|properties]], [[causality]], and so forth.
< 
< <i>[[Philosophy of religion]]</i>: the study of the meaning of the concept of [[God]] and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God.
< 
< <i>[[Philosophy of mind]]</i>: the study of the nature of the [[mind]], and its relation to the [[body]] and the rest of the world.
< 
< <i>[[Philosophy of language]]</i>: the study of the concepts of [[meaning]] and [[truth]].
< 
< <i>[[Epistemology]]</i>: the study of [[knowledge]], its nature, [[skepticism|possibility]], and [[epistemic justification|justification]].
< 
< <i>[[Value theory]]</i>: the study of the meaning of "[[good]]" and the relation between [[fact]] and [[value]].
< 
< <i>[[Ethics]]</i>: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of [[right action]] can be applied to special moral problems.
< 
< <i>[[Political philosophy]]</i>: the study of basic topics concerning [[government]], including the purpose of [[the state]], political [[justice]], [[political freedom]], the nature of law, and [[the justification of punishment]].
< 
< <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about[[art]] and [[beauty]].
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophical subdisciplines]]
------
Philosophical_subdisciplines|984792002
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Philosophy]] has a number of subdisciplines.  A brief gloss of each will be given here.
> 
> <i>[[Logic]]</i>: the study of the standards of correct [[argument|argumentation]].
> 
> <i>[[Metaphysics]]</i>: the study of the most basic [[category|categories]] of things, such as [[existence]], [[object]]s, [[property|properties]], [[causality]], and so forth.
> 
> <i>[[Philosophy of religion]]</i>: the study of the meaning of the concept of [[God]] and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God.
> 
> <i>[[Philosophy of mind]]</i>: the study of the nature of the [[mind]], and its relation to the [[body]] and the rest of the world.
> 
> <i>[[Philosophy of language]]</i>: the study of the concepts of [[meaning]] and [[truth]].
> 
> <i>[[Epistemology]]</i>: the study of [[knowledge]], its nature, [[skepticism|possibility]], and [[epistemic justification|justification]].
> 
> <i>[[Value theory]]</i>: the study of the meaning of "[[good]]" and the relation between [[fact]] and [[value]].
> 
> <i>[[Ethics]]</i>: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of [[right action]] can be applied to special moral problems.
> 
> <i>[[Political philosophy]]</i>: the study of basic topics concerning [[government]], including the purpose of [[the state]], political [[justice]], [[political freedom]], the nature of law, and [[the justification of punishment]].
> 
> <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about[[art]] and [[beauty]].
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
LoGic|984792036
1,15c1
< Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
< Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the
< earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
< 
< Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae 
< by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what 
< makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
< often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better 
< arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The Jesuits emphasized this so 
< highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session 
< with their peers.
< 
< The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
< 
< See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Logic]]
------
Logic|984792044
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
> Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the
> earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
> 
> Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae 
> by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what 
> makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
> often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better 
> arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The Jesuits emphasized this so 
> highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session 
> with their peers.
> 
> The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
> 
> See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
------
MetaPhysics|984792084
1,3c1
< An introduction to metaphysics can be found in SomeMetaphysicalQuestions.  See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
< 
< One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Metaphysics]]
------
Metaphysics|984792098
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An introduction to metaphysics can be found in SomeMetaphysicalQuestions.  See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
> 
> One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
------
Dna|984792131
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[DNA]]
------
PhilosophyOfMind|984792140
1,23c1
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvent''''s, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
< 
< Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  Each of these involve some very hard questions.
< 
< The first question is: What is the mind?  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  When we ask that, we are simply asking what the relation is between the mind and MentalEvents.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
< 
< But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is; we might raise TheMindBodyProblem.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
< 
< Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?
< 
< So far we’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
< 
< We can also ask questions about the different specific CognitiveProcesses, and of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  In that case, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting TheMindBodyProblem.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.
< 
< Take perception as an example.  Philosophers ask what is going on when we perceive something--when we see, hear, taste, touch, and so on.  But philosophers are not interested in the particular mechanisms that allow us to see--for example, they do not study the shape of the eye or how the optical nerve carries information to the brain.  They are interested in even more basic questions.  They ask: Do we perceive physical objects <i>directly</i> with our senses, or do we form mental images of some sort, which we use to <i>represent</i> physical objects and their properties?  These are questions raised by the PhilosophyOfPerception.  The philosophy of perception is all about how our minds come in contact with the world outside our minds.
< 
< Another example the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If Mary decides to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to her; she could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if our will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though Mary didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to her deciding to walk across the room.  So was she free or wasn’t she?  That is a question addressed under the general heading "FreeWillAndDeterminism."
< 
< Finally, consider some questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we are conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.
< 
< But that is only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.  Indeed there are a lot of questions that can be asked about all the <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philosophy of mind]]
------
Philosophy_of_mind|984792147
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvent''''s, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
> 
> Some of questions asked in the philosophy of mind are simply what the mind is, what mental events are, what each type of cognitive process involves, and what consciousness is.  Each of these involve some very hard questions.
> 
> The first question is: What is the mind?  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  When we ask that, we are simply asking what the relation is between the mind and MentalEvents.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
> 
> But of course there are <i>other</i> questions we could ask about what the mind is; we might raise TheMindBodyProblem.  Are our minds something different from our physical bodies?  Suppose we think that the mind is a substance of some sort--a MentalSubstance.  We might still ask: Is there some way to explain what the mind, a mental substance, <i>is</i>, in terms of physical substance?  Or will we maintain that the mind is something <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical bodies, and that we cannot explain what the one is in terms of the other at all?
> 
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?
> 
> So far we’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
> 
> We can also ask questions about the different specific CognitiveProcesses, and of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  In that case, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting TheMindBodyProblem.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.
> 
> Take perception as an example.  Philosophers ask what is going on when we perceive something--when we see, hear, taste, touch, and so on.  But philosophers are not interested in the particular mechanisms that allow us to see--for example, they do not study the shape of the eye or how the optical nerve carries information to the brain.  They are interested in even more basic questions.  They ask: Do we perceive physical objects <i>directly</i> with our senses, or do we form mental images of some sort, which we use to <i>represent</i> physical objects and their properties?  These are questions raised by the PhilosophyOfPerception.  The philosophy of perception is all about how our minds come in contact with the world outside our minds.
> 
> Another example the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If Mary decides to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to her; she could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if our will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though Mary didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to her deciding to walk across the room.  So was she free or wasn’t she?  That is a question addressed under the general heading "FreeWillAndDeterminism."
> 
> Finally, consider some questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we are conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.
> 
> But that is only one question that can be asked about consciousness.  There are other questions.  Indeed there are a lot of questions that can be asked about all the <i>other</i> mental functions, such as memory, forming concepts, reasoning, the emotions, and so on.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
TheoryOfValue|984792198
1,149c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Next we are going to talk about one of the most interesting, and important, areas in all of philosophy.  In fact, arguably, this is the <i>most</i> important area of philosophy: the theory of value.  As I said, the question here is: What sorts of things are good?  Or: What does "good" mean?  Or: If we had to give the most general, catch-all description of good things, then what would that description be?
< 
< First, two important preliminaries.  Remember that I said there’s an important difference between the words "morally good" as applied to <i>persons</i> and <i>actions</i>, as when we say that Mary’s a morally good person and her honesty is good, and "good" in other senses, as when we say that a banana split is good.  A banana split is good, but it’s not <i>morally</i> good.  Well, in fact, "good" has a <i>lot</i> of senses; my dictionary lists <i>twenty</i> different senses of the word.  The word "good" is <i>highly</i> ambiguous.  In what follows, obviously we’re only going to be talking about one, or a limited number, of these senses.
< 
< The sense of "good" we’re talking about is about the same in meaning as another word, namely, "valuable."  So we’re talking about what is good in the sense of what is <i>valuable</i>.  And when we ask, "What things are good?" we can be understood to mean, "What things are valuable?"  But even this is just a little misleading, because we aren’t talking about just <i>monetary</i> value.  Your health and your happiness are <i>valuable</i> in a broad sense of that word, even though you might be able to place a monetary value on your health or your happiness.  Health and happiness are <i>worthwhile</i> or <i>desirable</i> -- those are two more words that mean very roughly what I’m talking about by "good" and "valuable" here.  So what is really worthwhile?  What is really desirable?  That’s the big fish we have to fry now.
< 
< The second preliminary is where things start getting interesting, in my opinion.  I want you to draw a distinction.  (Boy, we’re always drawing distinctions, aren’t we?  Well, that’s what philosophers do).  The distinction is between <i>instrumental</i> and <i>intrinsic</i> goodness.  This is a little hard for some people to understand, but I think most of you will be able to get it.  Something is <i>instrumentally</i> good if it’s <i>good</i> <i>for</i> something else; it is good as a <i>means</i> to getting or having something else that’s good.  On the other hand, something is <i>intrinsically</i> good if it is good all by itself, valuable in and of itself, worthwhile for its own sake.  An intrinsically good thing, even if it doesn’t help you get anything else that’s good, is still worth having for itself.
< 
< Let me give you some plausible examples of both instrumentally and intrinsically good things.  First, some instrumental goods: a hammer, or a radio.  A hammer is good only because it is literally an <i>instrument</i> that can be used to pound nails: that’s what a hammer is good <i>for</i>.  If there weren’t any nails around, or anything else that you could use a hammer to do, then a hammer would be worthless.  It wouldn’t be good for anything; so it wouldn’t be instrumentally good.  A radio is another example of something instrumentally good.  The only thing that makes a radio valuable is that you can turn it on and listen to music or talk or news.  The radio by itself is worthless; the reason it’s a good thing, the reason it’s valuable, is that it lets you listen to stuff.  So hammers and radios, and just about all the stuff we surround ourselves with at home, are all instrumentally good.
< 
< Now here are some plausible examples of <i>intrinsically</i> good things: the pleasure we get from listening to a great piece of music, or understanding philosophy.  The kind of music I like is Irish fiddle music.  I can listen to that stuff all day long.  Now that music isn’t good <i>for</i> anything in particular (except maybe for dancing, or learning how to play it).  But I just enjoy listening to it and getting great pleasure from it.  The pleasure I get is good in itself, valuable all by itself; it’s very worthwhile, and would be worthwhile even if it didn’t help me in any other way than give me pleasure.
< 
< Or take now understanding.  I believe, and I believe many people in academics would agree with me, that understanding is good in itself.  Even if it isn’t good <i>for</i> anything else -- even if the understanding can’t be applied in any obvious way, it is better to be enlightened than to be ignorant.  In fact, understanding is so important in itself that a lot of people will go to a lot of trouble thinking and arguing and researching, some or much of it unpleasant, just so that they can arrive at a better understanding of a topic or a question.  Of course, if you disagree with me and you think that understanding is never good in itself, but only good for what you can do with the understanding, then you won’t like too many "pure" subjects; you’ll tend to like the "applied" subjects, anyway.  You won’t like mathematics, philosophy, or theoretical physics very much.  But the people who do like such subjects will often swear that understanding is something that is worthwhile in itself.
< 
< But it’s not like it’s always an either-or proposition.  Some things are both good in themselves, <i>and</i> good for getting other things that are good.  They are both intrinsically and instrumentally good.  Like understanding.  Some physicists will swear that physics is just really neat all by itself, understanding the principles of physics is worth having just for its own sake; but they will also be quick to point out that it was an understanding of the principles of physics that put men on the moon.  Now as for putting men on the moon -- I don’t know if you’d want to call that an intrinsically good thing.  Surely it’s good <i>for</i> a lot of other things, such as perhaps the self-esteem of Americans.  But maybe it was also good in itself -- the very fact that human beings stood on the surface of the moon was something good in itself.
< 
< Anyway, we don’t have to decide that question, because we’re doing philosophy and we’re talking in generalities.  So to go back to the beginning of the discussion: we’re talking about the theory of value, and the theory of value asks, "What sorts of things are good, or valuable?"  And now that we are armed with a distinction, between intrinsic and instrumental goods, we can make the question more precise.  Because ultimately we want to know what things are <i>intrinsically</i> valuable.  That’s what the theory of value is particularly concerned with: What things are good in themselves?
< 
< Well, I want get us started on the way to an answer, like this.  Pick <i>anything</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i> that you think might be good.  Let’s take the example of the radio.  A radio is good.  Some things are good for getting a radio -- such as money, and radio factories.  Those are both instrumentally good as ways to get radios.  On the other hand, a radio is itself merely instrumentally good.  I doubt that it is good in itself; it’s only good for what you can hear on the radio.  The news is an example of something that is a good that the radio is a means to getting.  But listening to the news is also probably only instrumentally good.  Maybe it’s good in itself, intrinsically good, to <i>some</i> extent; but really, there <i>are</i> reasons why we listen to the news.  We use the news to help plan out our lives.  If for example we think that there is going to be a recession soon, then we may not want to make any big investments.  Listening to the news can be a means to getting information that allows us to take political action.  For example, we might hear on the news that there is going to be a rally for some cause that we support.  Then going to the rally -- that is definitely instrumentally good, in that it is supposed to be good <i>for</i> something.  Namely, the political rally is supposed to be good for achieving some sort of political change that you favor.
< 
< And so on.  You get the idea: what we do in life is try to get, and keep, a bunch of different good things.  We all know very well that we have to pursue some instrumentally good things in order to get the intrinsically good things.  For example, most people pursue money as merely an intrinsically good thing, so that they can afford what they call "the finer things in life," and <i>those</i> things, like concerts, vacations, and of course a happy family, are supposed to be good <i>in</i> <i>themselves</i>, or intrinsically good.  But it’s ultimately, in any case, the things we believe to be intrinsically good that we want.  So up at the top of the heap, the pinnacle of the hierarchy of goods that we aim at, there are the intrinsic goods.  And the question before us now is: What are they?  Which things are intrinsically good?
< 
< 
< 
< A. Values subjectivism.
< 
< In this connection I’m only briefly going to discuss relativism, or subjectivism, about intrinsic goods.  Let’s call this <i>values</i> <i>subjectivism</i>.  Here is what values subjectivism says:
< 
< Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> for a person iff that person desires the thing for itself, or is part of a group of people who desire that thing for itself.
< 
< So you want to know what all intrinsically good things have in common?  Why, it’s the fact that I want it for itself, not as a means to anything else.  That’s what intrinsically good things have in common: I want them.  Or it’s the fact that <i>my</i> <i>group</i> wants a thing for itself that makes it intrinsically good.  So if you want to answer the question, "What things are intrinsically good?" you need only answer a further question, "Well, what do I, or what does my group, want not merely as a means to something else, but for itself?"
< 
< I’ll bet you know what I’m going to say about this theory.  Couldn’t you be <i>wrong</i> about what is good for you?  Let me give you an example.  Say Adolph, an SS officer during World War II, runs a Nazi concentration camp.  Say he takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  In fact, he wants this pleasure not as a means to anything else; Adolph regards this sick pleasure as something that is good in itself.  Now, does that mean that the pleasure he gets from torturing Jews is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>?  Do you really want to say that?  I mean, don’t you rather want to say that Adolph is a vicious criminal, and that the sick pleasure he takes in torturing Jews is not at all valuable or good in any sense?  That, in fact, that pleasure is so bad that it is a very great <i>evil</i>?
< 
< I suppose if you wanted to stick to your guns on this, you’d say, "It’s evil <i>for</i> <i>us</i> to get pleasure from torturing someone.  But it’s good <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>."  If this is your view, then consider carefully what you’re saying.  You really are saying that it is <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adoph</i> that he gets pleasure from torturing Jews.  That <i>really</i> <i>is</i> <i>a</i> <i>valuable</i> <i>thing</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>.  It is worthwhile in itself, for Adolph.  If you ask me, that’s just <i>insane</i>!  I’m not going to dignify that view at all with an argument.  Against my usual practice, I am just going to say that this seems to me to be a very <i>obvious</i> counterexample to values subjectivism, and let it go at that.
< 
< Now, I don’t mean to deny that there may be some considerable variation from person to person, or from culture to culture, about what is intrinsically valuable or good.  I’m not denying <i>that</i>.  Many people find great value in many <i>different</i> sorts of experiences.  And we want to have a theory of value that <i>accounts</i> <i>for</i> <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> that each one of a huge variety of different sorts of experiences are all intrinsically good: and so we can ask, "What do all those various experiences have in common, that makes them <i>all</i> intrinsically good?"  Notice that we can do this, and thus recognize what is good in many different cultures.  Meanwhile we can utter reject and <i>despise</i> any view that says that something like getting pleasure in torturing Jews is good in <i>any</i> sense.  Not even good for Adolph; indeed it is not valuable in any way for Adolph.  He may take pleasure from it; but it is not valuable, or worthwhile, in any way.  His pleasure is utterly lacks value and is worthless -- indeed, far worse than simply worthless.
< 
< I know that values subjectivism is very popular in some other departments, like the English department, and the department of Fine Arts.  But isn’t it interesting that, when you get to the <i>philosophy</i> department, most of the philosophers, people who specialize in thinking about this stuff, will tell you the theory is clearly wrong?  I just think that’s interesting.  I won’t comment any further on <i>that</i> though.
< 
< Next time we are going to finish up talking about the theory of value by considering two leading contenders, <i>hedonism</i> and <i>eudaimonism</i>.  Then it’s on to the theory of conduct.
< 
< Last time we wound up putting values subjectivism through the wringer.  I said I’d give only one objection to that theory, but I lied.  I’m going to give another objection, which will set us up for the rest of our discussion of the theory of value.
< 
< Remember what values subjectivism says.  To put it roughly, it says that whether or not something is good for me depends on whether or not I desire it.  So if I desire it, if I want it, then it’s good.  Now, I think that values subjectivism is pretty obviously false.  I mean, what if I want some cake that happens to contain a lethal amount of arsenic?  Then I want the cake but definitely it’s not a good thing.  But anyway, I am sure that some of you will continue to hold onto this view regardless of what <i>I</i> say; irrational beliefs die hard.
< 
< So I want to ask a question of those of you who think that values subjectivism is true -- those of you who think that if you want something, that makes the thing good for you.  Surely, you do want to pursue good things in life.  So here’s the question: If you don’t know what you should pursue in life, if you don’t have any definite desires, then how can you decide <i>rationally</i> what to pursue?  To put it differently: If you don’t know what’s good, then how can you decide what is?
< 
< Notice that values subjectivism can’t answer this question.  All it says is: if I want it, or if my group wants it, then it’s good for me.  But suppose that at present, neither I or my group desire something, nor are we averse to it.  We don’t take a stand on whether the thing is desireable.  Well then, as a values subjectivist, how can you decide whether the thing should be desired?  If you had a <i>positive</i> <i>account</i> of which sorts of things are intrinsically good, then you might be able to answer this question.  But if you have no such positive account of goodness, if <i>all</i> <i>you</i> <i>say</i> is that the good things are the things you want, then you have no way of deciding whether something you do not yet want is, well, <i>worth</i> <i>wanting</i>.  Something becomes good only after you start wanting it.  So how do you decide whether to want something?  That’s a problem you face constantly if you’re a values subjectivist.
< 
< 
< 
< B. Hedonism.
< 
< But for that matter, it’s a problem for <i>everyone</i> who does not yet have a clearly worked-out account of intrinsic goodness.  Think of it like this.  "Intrinsically good" means, very roughly, "worth wanting for its own sake."  But aren’t there some things that you might be unsure about whether they’re worth wanting for their own sake?  How do you decide?
< 
< For example: children.  I think most parents would agree that their children are desirable for their own sake -- not because as a means to anything else, not even as a means to parental happiness.  Honestly, is the <i>only</i> <i>reason</i> that children are a valuable thing, for example, the fact that they make adults happier?  Is that the <i>only</i> thing that makes children valuable, or worthwhile, or good things?  <i>Surely</i> not.  They are not valuable <i>merely</i> as a means to the parent’s ends.
< 
< But distinguish the children themselves from <i>having</i> children.  Couples have to make the decision as to whether they want to bring children into the world.  Then the question for you, as potential parents, is: Would the addition of <i>more</i> people to the world, being raised by you, be a good thing?  <i>That</i> is a question that a lot of people find very difficult to answer.  I think a complete theory of value should help you to answer it.
< 
< Here’s another example of something you might wonder is worth wanting for its own sake: money, or what money buys.  I guess there are a few people in college, especially business majors, who would say they that money is an intrinsically good thing, and worth wanting for its own sake.  They live for money.  But of course nearly everyone has entertained the thought that money isn’t valuable <i>for</i> <i>itself</i>.  Some people act as though it were; but even most of those people, in their sober moments, will acknowledge that money is good only instrumentally, only as a means, to getting what it can buy.
< 
< Well, look at all the different things that money can buy: houses, cars, clothes, jewelry, vacations, social status, and so forth.  The world today is filled with people who behave as though these things are good in themselves; a big house and a nice new BMW are worth having for their own sake.
< 
< I don’t know even if it’s true, though, that people want these things for their own sake.  Because it seems to a lot of "upwardly-mobile" people want nice houses and cars because such things do, or will, give them pleasure.  Is the reason you want a big house that it is intrinsically good -- worth having for its own sake -- or is it because the big house will give you various sorts of pleasures?  I think it’s probably the pleasure you’re after.  A cynic might say, "No, it’s just social status that these ‘upwardly-mobile’ people want."  But surely thinking that you’re part of the "in" crowd gives you pleasure -- and that’s why you want to be part of the "in" crowd (that is, if you do want that).  Social status -- which for younger people consists of being "hip," or for older people consists of being "respectable" and "distinguished" -- social status is a source of pleasure to some people.
< 
< So some philosophers have gone through this train of thought, or one roughly like it, and come to the conclusion that pleasure is, ultimately, the only intrinsically good thing.  That view is called <i>hedonism</i>.  Hedonists have the following view about what is intrinsically good:
< 
< Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure.
< 
< But let’s not forget old Adolph who takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  We wanted to say that <i>that</i> pleasure was not good in <i>any</i> sense.  So what’s this then?  Have we discovered that some pleasures are <i>not</i> good?  Well, surely some pleasures <i>are</i> totally corrupt.  Suppose that I get great pleasure by being a respected member of the mafia.  Is the pleasure I take from being a respected member of the mafia something desirable at all, let alone desirable for its own sake?  Surely not!  There are all sorts of pleasures which are base and corrupt.  John Stuart Mill, a famous 19th-century English philosopher, drew a distinction between <i>base</i> and <i>higher</i> pleasures.  I’m sure you can see the difference.  After all, you have experience of the difference in your own lives, all the time!  You all know very well that some pleasures are bad, and you’ll regret indulging them; other pleasures are much more worthwhile and wholesome.  Surely we do not want to say that base pleasures are intrinsically good!  They aren’t good at all.  (Although, note, that in our reading Hospers has a hedonist who is rather stubborn about this point.)
< 
< Anyway, one thing we might observe is that Adolph’s torturing pleasure, and the pleasure I get from being an accepted member of the mafia, are both pleasures that result in pain for other people.  The pleasure Adolph takes in torturing others leads him to cause them pain; and the pleasure I take in being part of the mafia leads me to bump off inconvenient people, causing great pain to them, their family and friends.  So we could revise our definition of hedonism like this:
< 
< Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure that does not lead to pain for oneself or for other people.
< 
< According to <i>this</i> account of intrinsic goodness, Adolph’s torturing pleasure and my mafia pleasure are definitely not good.  But even this is probably not quite right; this definition may <i>exclude</i> some pleasures that <i>are</i> intrinsically good.  For example, what if I take great pleasure in running forty miles a week?  But this gives me sore muscles sometimes.  Then the pleasure I take in running is a type of pleasure that <i>does</i> lead to pain for myself; so according to the above definition, that pleasure is not intrinsically good.  Still, I might want to say that the pain of sore muscles is worth it.  So this definition of hedonism would have to be <i>further</i> refined, if we wanted to allow the pleasure of running long distances to be intrinsically good.
< 
< Well, I’m not going to bother refining the definition any further -- I’ll leave that as an exercise for you to do, if you’re interested.  There’s a more important point to be made now.  Basically what we’re trying to do here is to say <i>which</i> pleasures are "higher" pleasures, or simply <i>good</i> pleasures.  Some pleasures are good, some aren’t so good, some are corrupt, and some are just downright <i>evil</i>.  So we might just ask this question: what is it that makes a given pleasure <i>good</i>?  That’s an interesting question, I think.  It <i>could</i> be whether the pleasure itself has pleasurable vs. painful <i>consequences</i>.  And if that’s the case, then we could hold onto hedonism.  We’d just say: there is <i>some</i> refinement of the hedonist’s account of "intrinsically good" which would match up with our ordinary notions of which pleasures are good and which are bad.  Then the hedonist’s point is, to put it roughly: the only intrinsically good things in the world are <i>good</i> <i>pleasures</i>.  Everything else is either instrumentally good -- that is, it is a means to getting good pleasures -- or else it is bad.
< 
< So consider that now: the only intrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures.  But then aren’t we giving a circular account of "good" -- if we saying that the good things are good pleasures, then we’re using the word "good" to define itself.  If you think that, then you aren’t understanding the suggestion I just made.  So let me be clearer about what I was just suggesting.  It’s <i>not</i> <i>simply</i> to say that "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  It is to say, rather: we can identify <i>which</i> pleasures are good by formulating a principle.  We aren’t going to try to formulate it in class -- I’m just saying that perhaps it <i>could</i> be formulated.  And this principle would tell us which pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  In other words, we try to find out which pleasures will result in the most <i>other</i> pleasures.  Then we call <i>those</i> pleasures "intrinsically good," and <i>only</i> <i>then</i> do we say: "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  That allows us to get around the circularity problem.
< 
< Now to make the transition to the next theory of value, I want us to think about something I just said a little more carefully.  I said that there might be some principle, that we might come up with, a principle that would tell us <i>which</i> pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  Which are the pleasures such that, if we indulge them, we will end up with the most <i>other</i> pleasures in the end?  Now notice that in order to explain which pleasures are good, here, I have to use some such words as "in the end."  In other words: in my entire life.  Because that’s what we’re talking about.  The proposal is that whether something is a good pleasure or not depends on its effects on the rest of my life.  We shouldn’t just look at individual pleasures as they occur at particular times, and, considering them in isolation from everything else going on in our lives, pronounce them "intrinsically good," just because they are pleasant.  No, whether a pleasure is worth having depends on its being, as it were, part of a whole <i>series</i> of pleasures that makes up a very pleasant life.  Now, do you see where I’m going with this?  Why don’t we say that it’s not <i>pleasure</i> per se which is intrinsically good, but instead <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>?
< 
< 
< 
< C. Eudaimonism and other theories of value.
< 
< Let’s be clear about the difference between pleasure and happiness.  Pleasure is a mental state or process, and events of pleasure are relatively brief.  When I listen to a great piece of music or eat a delicious meal, I experience a whole series of pleasures, sound and taste sensations -- a series of pleasure-events, as it were.
< 
< And as we all know very well, it is possible to have lots of such individual pleasure events and to be a thoroughly unhappy individual.  Why?  Because happiness is something that occurs over a long time.  You can have a good hour, or even a good day, in the sense that you’re in a good mood and have all sorts of pleasant feelings over that amount of time.  But you could, in spite of that, have an unhappy life.  It’s sad to say, but it’s true.  We might not like to think about it, but it is definitely true.
< 
< Anyway, the suggestion now is that it’s not <i>pleasures</i>, individual events, which are intrinsically good.  Those individual events are themselves only <i>instrumentally</i> good; they are good or worthwhile only as a means to something else.  And what they are worthwhile as a means to, is <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.  A healthy, tasty meal is a good thing.  But it’s not good <i>in</i> <i>itself</i>  -- it’s only good as a means.  To what?  To a happy life.  The suggestion is that <i>no</i> pleasure is intrinsically good, good in itself; any individual pleasure is good <i>only</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>part</i> of a happy life.  The only intrinsically good thing in this case would be <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.
< 
< Now finally I think we have arrived at a view that a lot of you probably hold.  It’s not money, or power, or fame, or individual pleasures that are intrinsically good; those things are good only as means to what we are all ultimately after, namely, happiness.
< 
< And what is happiness?  We’re not going to get into that.  Let’s just say that happiness is the state that your life is in, when you tend to experience a lot of pleasures of various sorts, and relatively few pains, discomforts, and so forth.  And so you could think of a happy life as one that is full of lots of pleasures.  And notice, we aren’t necessarily talking about a dissolute, corrupt, immoral "life of pleasure" here.  Because those people who are dissolute, corrupt, and immoral, and who seek out pleasure from crime, casual sex, drugs, petty power games, and so forth, very often end up very unhappy people indeed.  Just look at the lives of lots of drug dealers, or Hollywood stars, for examples of <i>that</i>.  No, the happy life is one in which one has an excellent chance of having pleasure from the beginning of the life to the end.  And that is going to include not "lower" pleasures like eating, drinking, and sex, it is going to include many "higher" pleasures like understanding, the appreciation of art, deep friendship and love, and so forth.  The experience of <i>all</i> of those pleasures together is what goes to make up a happy life.
< 
< Notice that I am at present skipping over any detailed consideration of <i>pluralism</i>, which is that there are a number of <i>different</i> intrinsically good things.  E.g., you might want to say that understanding and friendship are both intrinsically good, and good as means to pleasure, or happiness, or anything else.  They are good <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i>.  If you think that there are <i>a</i> <i>number</i> <i>of</i> <i>different</i> intrinsic goods or values, then you are a values <i>pluralist</i>.  We are only looking at kinds of values <i>monism</i>, that is, the view that there is only <i>one</i> kind of thing that is intrinsically good.  So far, we have considered the views that <i>pleasure</i> and that <i>happiness</i> are the only things that are intrinsically good.
< 
< Now let’s look at a closely related view -- the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle’s view.  On this ancient Greek view, it was not <i>happiness</i>, which is a mental state over time, which is intrinsically good -- it is, instead, something <i>like</i> happiness, but <i>eudaimonia</i>, for which there is no word in English, except perhaps the word "flourishing" or "well-being."  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is more than simply happiness; it is a happy life that is <i>well</i>-<i>lived</i>.  Happiness is a <i>subjective</i> state.  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is an <i>objective</i> state; literally, it means something like "having a good spirit."
< 
< To explain the difference between happiness and <i>eudaimonia</i>, let’s look at an example where someone is happy, but not <i>eudaimon</i>, as the Greeks would say.  (<i>Eudaimon</i> is the adjective; <i>eudaimonia</i> is the noun.)  Say there is a man, call him Tom, who is in the prime of life.  He has a happy family, he is well-liked by his colleagues, he is making a lot of money, and generally is very happy himself.  Now suppose there is a parallel universe, just exactly like this one, except in the parallel universe, instead of Tom there is Bill.  And Bill is exactly like Tom, just as happy, except for a few basic differences.  In fact, Bill’s family only appears to him to be happy; they’re actually repressed and not very happy at all.  His colleagues <i>pretend</i> to like him, but they say mean things about him behind his back.  And though his job seems very stable, he is about to be divorced and fired.  And then just add to the misery of the situation, let’s say Bill is going to die right after that.
< 
< Now at the moment, Bill is just as happy as Tom.  They both have had happy lives.  In fact, in terms of their <i>mental</i> <i>states</i>, they are both <i>equally</i> happy.  But now let’s evaluate their lives: surely we’d want to say that Tom’s life is <i>better</i> than Bill’s.  In fact, unbeknownst to the hapless Bill, he’s about lose his wife, his job, and his life.  And for a long time poor Bill has been living a lie.  He doesn’t know it, but he has.  On the other hand, Tom’s happiness is totally solid, built on honesty, strong relationships, and so forth.  From an objective point of view, from a view informed by all the facts, we’d greatly prefer Tom’s life over Bill’s.
< 
< Aristotle and the Greeks would say that Tom is both <i>eudaimon</i> and happy.  But they deny that Bill is <i>eudaimon</i>, however happy he might be.  And they would insist that the important thing in any case is <i>eudaimonia</i>.  So let’s give a name to this ancient Greek view -- <i>eudaimonism</i>.  It says:
< 
< The only intrinsically good thing is a person’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, i.e., a state of happiness, measured in an entire life, that is grounded upon solid, relatively unchangeable facts and not deception and mere luck.
< 
< I’m sorry I can’t make this definition any tighter or clearer.  The point is that there is a kind of solid happiness that <i>preferable</i> to a flimsy happiness; and that only that solid happiness, only <i>eudaimonia</i>, is really worthwhile.
< 
< I’d also suggest that this is why some thoughtful people go to such lengths to be honest with themselves and with their loved ones.  They do not want to find out, somewhere down the road, that they have been made happy by lies and deception, even if it’s self-deception.  Deep down those people know that it is <i>eudaimonia</i>, a life well-lived, and not merely happiness, that is the important thing.
< 
< Now, I’ve explained that someone <i>might</i> say that individual pleasures are only instrumentally valuable, as parts of or means to <i>eudaimonia</i>, or flourishing, or a life well-lived -- however you want to describe that.  But then mightn’t you want to go one step further, and say that <i>an</i> <i>individual</i> <i>person’s</i> flourishing is valuable only as a means to the flourishing of society as a whole?  In other words, here is the suggestion: a single person’s life is, ultimately, not important or worthwhile in itself, but only as a means to the success of society as a whole?
< 
< I am quite sure that a lot of people will find this suggestion odious.  <i>They</i> certainly find their <i>own</i> lives intrinsically good -- worth having for their own sake -- and not <i>merely</i> as means to the success of society, meaning all the other people in some given group.  But if you have studied much socialist political theory, you will find them saying just this: an individual’s life is not important, or valuable, in itself; it is valuable only as a means of, and as a part of, the flourishing of society as a whole.  I’m sure you can see that, indeed, this is <i>one</i> (only one) of the main bones of contention between statists of all stripes and classical liberals, meaning the people who want the state to keep its hands off of people as much as possible.
< 
< So the question at issue now is: Is an individual’s life intrinsically good, or is it merely instrumentally good?  Is an individual’s life, well-lived, something that is desirable for its own sake, or is it desirable, ultimately, only as a means to having a happy society?
< 
< This is one way, but not the traditional way, to state the dispute between <i>egoism</i> and <i>utilitarianism</i>.  But usually, egoism and utilitarianism are regarded as theories of conduct, and right now we’re doing the theory of value.  So let’s instead use the terms "values individualism" and "values collectivism" to mark the dispute.  Here are some definitions:
< 
< <i>Values</i> <i>individualism</i> is the view that only individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are intrinsically valuable; and so they are valuable not merely as a means to the flourishing of society.
< 
< <i>Values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is the view that individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are only instrumentally valuable, i.e., good only as a means to the flourishing of society; the flourishing of society (whatever this might be) is the only intrinsically good thing.
< 
< I personally think the dispute between values individualism and values collectivism is just fascinating.  But we don’t have the time to get into it properly.  If we wanted to get into this dispute properly, we’d have to take another class or two, at least.
< 
< But just for the sake of completeness, let me mention one more view, which is held by some environmentalists.  It shouldn’t come as any surprise to you that <i>some</i> people want to take matters one step <i>further</i>.  It’s not merely the flourishing of society that is the only intrinsically good thing.  It’s the flourishing of <i>all</i> <i>sentient</i> <i>life</i>.  Or perhaps <i>all</i> <i>life</i>, <i>period</i>.  If you want a name for that view:
< 
< <i>Radical</i> <i>values</i> <i>environmentalism</i> is the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a flourishing ecosystem; individuals and societies are merely instrumentally valuable, good only as means to having a flourishing ecosystem.
< 
< Once again, I am just going to <i>mention</i> this view.  We don’t have time to get into a proper evaluation of it.
< 
< Notice now the succession of things that we have considered as <i>the</i> kind of thing which is intrinsically good: we’ve gone from particular events of pleasure, to an individual’s happiness, to an individual’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, to the flourishing of a society, to the flourishing of an entire ecosystem.  So I think that you can see that there is a rather difficult problem about the <i>scope</i> of the theory of value.  Where do you stop, in this succession of items, in your account of what is valuable for its own sake?  If you say that an individual pleasure is valuable for its own sake, then why don’t you say that an individual’s entire happiness is valuable for its own sake?  And so forth.
< 
< Well, let me remind you of one thing: if you are a <i>values</i> <i>pluralist</i>, then you will maintain that <i>many</i> different kinds of things can be intrinsically good.  As a values pluralist, you might say: <i>every</i> <i>item</i> in this succession of items is intrinsically good.  The goodness of a particular experience, of an individual’s whole life, of society, and of an ecosystem, are <i>all</i> worth having for their own sake, and not <i>merely</i> as a means to something else.  So as a values pluralist you would say: I <i>don’t</i> <i>have</i> to decide which of these things is intrinsically good, because they are <i>all</i> intrinsically good.
< 
< I’m sure many of you would like to be values pluralists now.  That would be a nice position to be able to hold, but I’m not sure it will stand up to careful scrutiny.  Why?  Well, notice that sometimes, there is a <i>conflict</i> between different levels of goods.  Let me explain.  Sometimes we have a <i>choice</i>, for example, to sacrifice our own pleasure, or happiness, or even our own lives, for the sake of many other people.  This <i>appears</i> to be what happens when soldiers go off to a bloody and desperate war, for example, or whenever anyone gives up any large amount of time to some very difficult, painfully difficult, charitable cause.  In cases like that, you’re weighing two things: your own individual happiness, and the more general happiness of a lot of other people.  And if you conclude that you should sacrifice your own happiness, in one of these ways, what does that amount to?
< 
< Honestly, it looks to me as though you’re assuming that your own happiness is not as important as that of many other people.  If you’re a soldier, voluntarily marching off to a bloody war, you have weighed the two things, and have concluded that you are willing to make your life a <i>means</i> to the happiness of other people.  And if in the end, you are willing to make your life a means to the happiness of other people, then aren’t you saying that your life is <i>merely</i> instrumentally good?  That it is <i>only</i> good as a means to the happiness of others?
< 
< Well, I don’t think you have to say <i>that</i>.  It seems to me that you could say that your own life <i>is</i> worthwhile in and of itself, <i>and</i> that it is worthwhile as a means to the happiness of others.  Remember, the same thing can be both instrumentally <i>and</i> intrinsically good: I gave <i>understanding</i>, or knowledge, as one possible example.  I’m saying now that a human life might be another.  So that’s a way you might hold onto values pluralism.  Two different things, your life and the good of society, can <i>both</i> be intrinsically good, <i>even</i> <i>though</i>  you might sacrifice the first for the second.  There’s no contradiction in saying that.
< 
< This leaves an issue unresolved, though: the issue of the <i>relative</i> importance of intrinsic values.  The issue of <i>more</i> <i>versus</i> <i>less</i> valuable, of figuring out which of different things is more or less important.  That is, if you are looking at a number of different things that you say are <i>all</i> intrinsically valuable, you still have to ask: Which of these things is <i>most</i> valuable?  If I had to rank these things in order of importance, how would the ranking go?  So you could be a values pluralist and still be an individualist, or a collectivist, or a radical environmentalist.  You would just have to say: the most important thing, the most valuable thing, is <i>my</i> <i>own</i> flourishing; or, instead, the flourishing of society; or, perhaps, the flourishing of the environment.  As a values pluralist, you would admit that other things are intrinsically valuable.  It’s just that they aren’t <i>as</i> valuable as that most-valuable thing.
< 
< I hope, after all this, you can see why I say that the theory of value has an excellent claim on being the most important area of philosophy.  So much else in life rests on the theory of value that we accept.  Crucial life decisions you make, and the habits you develop, and your deepest political convictions all ultimately rest on the theory of value you adopt.
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> The theory of value is, arguably, the <i>most</i> important area of philosophy.  The question here is: What sorts of things are good?  Or: What does "good" mean?  Or: If we had to give the most general, catch-all description of good things, then what would that description be?
> 
> First, two important preliminaries.  Remember that I said there’s an important difference between the words "morally good" as applied to <i>persons</i> and <i>actions</i>, as when we say that Mary’s a morally good person and her honesty is good, and "good" in other senses, as when we say that a banana split is good.  A banana split is good, but it’s not <i>morally</i> good.  Well, in fact, "good" has a <i>lot</i> of senses; my dictionary lists <i>twenty</i> different senses of the word.  The word "good" is <i>highly</i> ambiguous.  In what follows, obviously we’re only going to be talking about one, or a limited number, of these senses.
> 
> The sense of "good" we’re talking about is about the same in meaning as another word, namely, "valuable."  So we’re talking about what is good in the sense of what is <i>valuable</i>.  And when we ask, "What things are good?" we can be understood to mean, "What things are valuable?"  But even this is just a little misleading, because we aren’t talking about just <i>monetary</i> value.  Your health and your happiness are <i>valuable</i> in a broad sense of that word, even though you might be able to place a monetary value on your health or your happiness.  Health and happiness are <i>worthwhile</i> or <i>desirable</i> -- those are two more words that mean very roughly what I’m talking about by "good" and "valuable" here.  So what is really worthwhile?  What is really desirable?  That’s the big fish we have to fry now.
> 
> The second preliminary is where things start getting interesting, in my opinion.  I want you to draw a distinction.  (Boy, we’re always drawing distinctions, aren’t we?  Well, that’s what philosophers do).  The distinction is between <i>instrumental</i> and <i>intrinsic</i> goodness.  This is a little hard for some people to understand, but I think most of you will be able to get it.  Something is <i>instrumentally</i> good if it’s <i>good</i> <i>for</i> something else; it is good as a <i>means</i> to getting or having something else that’s good.  On the other hand, something is <i>intrinsically</i> good if it is good all by itself, valuable in and of itself, worthwhile for its own sake.  An intrinsically good thing, even if it doesn’t help you get anything else that’s good, is still worth having for itself.
> 
> Let me give you some plausible examples of both instrumentally and intrinsically good things.  First, some instrumental goods: a hammer, or a radio.  A hammer is good only because it is literally an <i>instrument</i> that can be used to pound nails: that’s what a hammer is good <i>for</i>.  If there weren’t any nails around, or anything else that you could use a hammer to do, then a hammer would be worthless.  It wouldn’t be good for anything; so it wouldn’t be instrumentally good.  A radio is another example of something instrumentally good.  The only thing that makes a radio valuable is that you can turn it on and listen to music or talk or news.  The radio by itself is worthless; the reason it’s a good thing, the reason it’s valuable, is that it lets you listen to stuff.  So hammers and radios, and just about all the stuff we surround ourselves with at home, are all instrumentally good.
> 
> Now here are some plausible examples of <i>intrinsically</i> good things: the pleasure we get from listening to a great piece of music, or understanding philosophy.  The kind of music I like is Irish fiddle music.  I can listen to that stuff all day long.  Now that music isn’t good <i>for</i> anything in particular (except maybe for dancing, or learning how to play it).  But I just enjoy listening to it and getting great pleasure from it.  The pleasure I get is good in itself, valuable all by itself; it’s very worthwhile, and would be worthwhile even if it didn’t help me in any other way than give me pleasure.
> 
> Or take now understanding.  I believe, and I believe many people in academics would agree with me, that understanding is good in itself.  Even if it isn’t good <i>for</i> anything else -- even if the understanding can’t be applied in any obvious way, it is better to be enlightened than to be ignorant.  In fact, understanding is so important in itself that a lot of people will go to a lot of trouble thinking and arguing and researching, some or much of it unpleasant, just so that they can arrive at a better understanding of a topic or a question.  Of course, if you disagree with me and you think that understanding is never good in itself, but only good for what you can do with the understanding, then you won’t like too many "pure" subjects; you’ll tend to like the "applied" subjects, anyway.  You won’t like mathematics, philosophy, or theoretical physics very much.  But the people who do like such subjects will often swear that understanding is something that is worthwhile in itself.
> 
> But it’s not like it’s always an either-or proposition.  Some things are both good in themselves, <i>and</i> good for getting other things that are good.  They are both intrinsically and instrumentally good.  Like understanding.  Some physicists will swear that physics is just really neat all by itself, understanding the principles of physics is worth having just for its own sake; but they will also be quick to point out that it was an understanding of the principles of physics that put men on the moon.  Now as for putting men on the moon -- I don’t know if you’d want to call that an intrinsically good thing.  Surely it’s good <i>for</i> a lot of other things, such as perhaps the self-esteem of Americans.  But maybe it was also good in itself -- the very fact that human beings stood on the surface of the moon was something good in itself.
> 
> Anyway, we don’t have to decide that question, because we’re doing philosophy and we’re talking in generalities.  So to go back to the beginning of the discussion: we’re talking about the theory of value, and the theory of value asks, "What sorts of things are good, or valuable?"  And now that we are armed with a distinction, between intrinsic and instrumental goods, we can make the question more precise.  Because ultimately we want to know what things are <i>intrinsically</i> valuable.  That’s what the theory of value is particularly concerned with: What things are good in themselves?
> 
> Well, I want get us started on the way to an answer, like this.  Pick <i>anything</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i> that you think might be good.  Let’s take the example of the radio.  A radio is good.  Some things are good for getting a radio -- such as money, and radio factories.  Those are both instrumentally good as ways to get radios.  On the other hand, a radio is itself merely instrumentally good.  I doubt that it is good in itself; it’s only good for what you can hear on the radio.  The news is an example of something that is a good that the radio is a means to getting.  But listening to the news is also probably only instrumentally good.  Maybe it’s good in itself, intrinsically good, to <i>some</i> extent; but really, there <i>are</i> reasons why we listen to the news.  We use the news to help plan out our lives.  If for example we think that there is going to be a recession soon, then we may not want to make any big investments.  Listening to the news can be a means to getting information that allows us to take political action.  For example, we might hear on the news that there is going to be a rally for some cause that we support.  Then going to the rally -- that is definitely instrumentally good, in that it is supposed to be good <i>for</i> something.  Namely, the political rally is supposed to be good for achieving some sort of political change that you favor.
> 
> And so on.  You get the idea: what we do in life is try to get, and keep, a bunch of different good things.  We all know very well that we have to pursue some instrumentally good things in order to get the intrinsically good things.  For example, most people pursue money as merely an intrinsically good thing, so that they can afford what they call "the finer things in life," and <i>those</i> things, like concerts, vacations, and of course a happy family, are supposed to be good <i>in</i> <i>themselves</i>, or intrinsically good.  But it’s ultimately, in any case, the things we believe to be intrinsically good that we want.  So up at the top of the heap, the pinnacle of the hierarchy of goods that we aim at, there are the intrinsic goods.  And the question before us now is: What are they?  Which things are intrinsically good?
> 
> 
> 
> A. Values subjectivism.
> 
> In this connection I’m only briefly going to discuss relativism, or subjectivism, about intrinsic goods.  Let’s call this <i>values</i> <i>subjectivism</i>.  Here is what values subjectivism says:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> for a person iff that person desires the thing for itself, or is part of a group of people who desire that thing for itself.
> 
> So you want to know what all intrinsically good things have in common?  Why, it’s the fact that I want it for itself, not as a means to anything else.  That’s what intrinsically good things have in common: I want them.  Or it’s the fact that <i>my</i> <i>group</i> wants a thing for itself that makes it intrinsically good.  So if you want to answer the question, "What things are intrinsically good?" you need only answer a further question, "Well, what do I, or what does my group, want not merely as a means to something else, but for itself?"
> 
> I’ll bet you know what I’m going to say about this theory.  Couldn’t you be <i>wrong</i> about what is good for you?  Let me give you an example.  Say Adolph, an SS officer during World War II, runs a Nazi concentration camp.  Say he takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  In fact, he wants this pleasure not as a means to anything else; Adolph regards this sick pleasure as something that is good in itself.  Now, does that mean that the pleasure he gets from torturing Jews is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>?  Do you really want to say that?  I mean, don’t you rather want to say that Adolph is a vicious criminal, and that the sick pleasure he takes in torturing Jews is not at all valuable or good in any sense?  That, in fact, that pleasure is so bad that it is a very great <i>evil</i>?
> 
> I suppose if you wanted to stick to your guns on this, you’d say, "It’s evil <i>for</i> <i>us</i> to get pleasure from torturing someone.  But it’s good <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>."  If this is your view, then consider carefully what you’re saying.  You really are saying that it is <i>good</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adoph</i> that he gets pleasure from torturing Jews.  That <i>really</i> <i>is</i> <i>a</i> <i>valuable</i> <i>thing</i> <i>for</i> <i>Adolph</i>.  It is worthwhile in itself, for Adolph.  If you ask me, that’s just <i>insane</i>!  I’m not going to dignify that view at all with an argument.  Against my usual practice, I am just going to say that this seems to me to be a very <i>obvious</i> counterexample to values subjectivism, and let it go at that.
> 
> Now, I don’t mean to deny that there may be some considerable variation from person to person, or from culture to culture, about what is intrinsically valuable or good.  I’m not denying <i>that</i>.  Many people find great value in many <i>different</i> sorts of experiences.  And we want to have a theory of value that <i>accounts</i> <i>for</i> <i>the</i> <i>fact</i> that each one of a huge variety of different sorts of experiences are all intrinsically good: and so we can ask, "What do all those various experiences have in common, that makes them <i>all</i> intrinsically good?"  Notice that we can do this, and thus recognize what is good in many different cultures.  Meanwhile we can utter reject and <i>despise</i> any view that says that something like getting pleasure in torturing Jews is good in <i>any</i> sense.  Not even good for Adolph; indeed it is not valuable in any way for Adolph.  He may take pleasure from it; but it is not valuable, or worthwhile, in any way.  His pleasure is utterly lacks value and is worthless -- indeed, far worse than simply worthless.
> 
> I know that values subjectivism is very popular in some other departments, like the English department, and the department of Fine Arts.  But isn’t it interesting that, when you get to the <i>philosophy</i> department, most of the philosophers, people who specialize in thinking about this stuff, will tell you the theory is clearly wrong?  I just think that’s interesting.  I won’t comment any further on <i>that</i> though.
> 
> Next time we are going to finish up talking about the theory of value by considering two leading contenders, <i>hedonism</i> and <i>eudaimonism</i>.  Then it’s on to the theory of conduct.
> 
> Last time we wound up putting values subjectivism through the wringer.  I said I’d give only one objection to that theory, but I lied.  I’m going to give another objection, which will set us up for the rest of our discussion of the theory of value.
> 
> Remember what values subjectivism says.  To put it roughly, it says that whether or not something is good for me depends on whether or not I desire it.  So if I desire it, if I want it, then it’s good.  Now, I think that values subjectivism is pretty obviously false.  I mean, what if I want some cake that happens to contain a lethal amount of arsenic?  Then I want the cake but definitely it’s not a good thing.  But anyway, I am sure that some of you will continue to hold onto this view regardless of what <i>I</i> say; irrational beliefs die hard.
> 
> So I want to ask a question of those of you who think that values subjectivism is true -- those of you who think that if you want something, that makes the thing good for you.  Surely, you do want to pursue good things in life.  So here’s the question: If you don’t know what you should pursue in life, if you don’t have any definite desires, then how can you decide <i>rationally</i> what to pursue?  To put it differently: If you don’t know what’s good, then how can you decide what is?
> 
> Notice that values subjectivism can’t answer this question.  All it says is: if I want it, or if my group wants it, then it’s good for me.  But suppose that at present, neither I or my group desire something, nor are we averse to it.  We don’t take a stand on whether the thing is desireable.  Well then, as a values subjectivist, how can you decide whether the thing should be desired?  If you had a <i>positive</i> <i>account</i> of which sorts of things are intrinsically good, then you might be able to answer this question.  But if you have no such positive account of goodness, if <i>all</i> <i>you</i> <i>say</i> is that the good things are the things you want, then you have no way of deciding whether something you do not yet want is, well, <i>worth</i> <i>wanting</i>.  Something becomes good only after you start wanting it.  So how do you decide whether to want something?  That’s a problem you face constantly if you’re a values subjectivist.
> 
> 
> 
> B. Hedonism.
> 
> But for that matter, it’s a problem for <i>everyone</i> who does not yet have a clearly worked-out account of intrinsic goodness.  Think of it like this.  "Intrinsically good" means, very roughly, "worth wanting for its own sake."  But aren’t there some things that you might be unsure about whether they’re worth wanting for their own sake?  How do you decide?
> 
> For example: children.  I think most parents would agree that their children are desirable for their own sake -- not because as a means to anything else, not even as a means to parental happiness.  Honestly, is the <i>only</i> <i>reason</i> that children are a valuable thing, for example, the fact that they make adults happier?  Is that the <i>only</i> thing that makes children valuable, or worthwhile, or good things?  <i>Surely</i> not.  They are not valuable <i>merely</i> as a means to the parent’s ends.
> 
> But distinguish the children themselves from <i>having</i> children.  Couples have to make the decision as to whether they want to bring children into the world.  Then the question for you, as potential parents, is: Would the addition of <i>more</i> people to the world, being raised by you, be a good thing?  <i>That</i> is a question that a lot of people find very difficult to answer.  I think a complete theory of value should help you to answer it.
> 
> Here’s another example of something you might wonder is worth wanting for its own sake: money, or what money buys.  I guess there are a few people in college, especially business majors, who would say they that money is an intrinsically good thing, and worth wanting for its own sake.  They live for money.  But of course nearly everyone has entertained the thought that money isn’t valuable <i>for</i> <i>itself</i>.  Some people act as though it were; but even most of those people, in their sober moments, will acknowledge that money is good only instrumentally, only as a means, to getting what it can buy.
> 
> Well, look at all the different things that money can buy: houses, cars, clothes, jewelry, vacations, social status, and so forth.  The world today is filled with people who behave as though these things are good in themselves; a big house and a nice new BMW are worth having for their own sake.
> 
> I don’t know even if it’s true, though, that people want these things for their own sake.  Because it seems to a lot of "upwardly-mobile" people want nice houses and cars because such things do, or will, give them pleasure.  Is the reason you want a big house that it is intrinsically good -- worth having for its own sake -- or is it because the big house will give you various sorts of pleasures?  I think it’s probably the pleasure you’re after.  A cynic might say, "No, it’s just social status that these ‘upwardly-mobile’ people want."  But surely thinking that you’re part of the "in" crowd gives you pleasure -- and that’s why you want to be part of the "in" crowd (that is, if you do want that).  Social status -- which for younger people consists of being "hip," or for older people consists of being "respectable" and "distinguished" -- social status is a source of pleasure to some people.
> 
> So some philosophers have gone through this train of thought, or one roughly like it, and come to the conclusion that pleasure is, ultimately, the only intrinsically good thing.  That view is called <i>hedonism</i>.  Hedonists have the following view about what is intrinsically good:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure.
> 
> But let’s not forget old Adolph who takes great pleasure in torturing Jews.  We wanted to say that <i>that</i> pleasure was not good in <i>any</i> sense.  So what’s this then?  Have we discovered that some pleasures are <i>not</i> good?  Well, surely some pleasures <i>are</i> totally corrupt.  Suppose that I get great pleasure by being a respected member of the mafia.  Is the pleasure I take from being a respected member of the mafia something desirable at all, let alone desirable for its own sake?  Surely not!  There are all sorts of pleasures which are base and corrupt.  John Stuart Mill, a famous 19th-century English philosopher, drew a distinction between <i>base</i> and <i>higher</i> pleasures.  I’m sure you can see the difference.  After all, you have experience of the difference in your own lives, all the time!  You all know very well that some pleasures are bad, and you’ll regret indulging them; other pleasures are much more worthwhile and wholesome.  Surely we do not want to say that base pleasures are intrinsically good!  They aren’t good at all.  (Although, note, that in our reading Hospers has a hedonist who is rather stubborn about this point.)
> 
> Anyway, one thing we might observe is that Adolph’s torturing pleasure, and the pleasure I get from being an accepted member of the mafia, are both pleasures that result in pain for other people.  The pleasure Adolph takes in torturing others leads him to cause them pain; and the pleasure I take in being part of the mafia leads me to bump off inconvenient people, causing great pain to them, their family and friends.  So we could revise our definition of hedonism like this:
> 
> Something is <i>intrinsically</i> <i>good</i> iff it is a type of pleasure that does not lead to pain for oneself or for other people.
> 
> According to <i>this</i> account of intrinsic goodness, Adolph’s torturing pleasure and my mafia pleasure are definitely not good.  But even this is probably not quite right; this definition may <i>exclude</i> some pleasures that <i>are</i> intrinsically good.  For example, what if I take great pleasure in running forty miles a week?  But this gives me sore muscles sometimes.  Then the pleasure I take in running is a type of pleasure that <i>does</i> lead to pain for myself; so according to the above definition, that pleasure is not intrinsically good.  Still, I might want to say that the pain of sore muscles is worth it.  So this definition of hedonism would have to be <i>further</i> refined, if we wanted to allow the pleasure of running long distances to be intrinsically good.
> 
> Well, I’m not going to bother refining the definition any further -- I’ll leave that as an exercise for you to do, if you’re interested.  There’s a more important point to be made now.  Basically what we’re trying to do here is to say <i>which</i> pleasures are "higher" pleasures, or simply <i>good</i> pleasures.  Some pleasures are good, some aren’t so good, some are corrupt, and some are just downright <i>evil</i>.  So we might just ask this question: what is it that makes a given pleasure <i>good</i>?  That’s an interesting question, I think.  It <i>could</i> be whether the pleasure itself has pleasurable vs. painful <i>consequences</i>.  And if that’s the case, then we could hold onto hedonism.  We’d just say: there is <i>some</i> refinement of the hedonist’s account of "intrinsically good" which would match up with our ordinary notions of which pleasures are good and which are bad.  Then the hedonist’s point is, to put it roughly: the only intrinsically good things in the world are <i>good</i> <i>pleasures</i>.  Everything else is either instrumentally good -- that is, it is a means to getting good pleasures -- or else it is bad.
> 
> So consider that now: the only intrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures.  But then aren’t we giving a circular account of "good" -- if we saying that the good things are good pleasures, then we’re using the word "good" to define itself.  If you think that, then you aren’t understanding the suggestion I just made.  So let me be clearer about what I was just suggesting.  It’s <i>not</i> <i>simply</i> to say that "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  It is to say, rather: we can identify <i>which</i> pleasures are good by formulating a principle.  We aren’t going to try to formulate it in class -- I’m just saying that perhaps it <i>could</i> be formulated.  And this principle would tell us which pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  In other words, we try to find out which pleasures will result in the most <i>other</i> pleasures.  Then we call <i>those</i> pleasures "intrinsically good," and <i>only</i> <i>then</i> do we say: "the only instrinsically good things in the world are good pleasures."  That allows us to get around the circularity problem.
> 
> Now to make the transition to the next theory of value, I want us to think about something I just said a little more carefully.  I said that there might be some principle, that we might come up with, a principle that would tell us <i>which</i> pleasures have the most pleasant consequences.  Which are the pleasures such that, if we indulge them, we will end up with the most <i>other</i> pleasures in the end?  Now notice that in order to explain which pleasures are good, here, I have to use some such words as "in the end."  In other words: in my entire life.  Because that’s what we’re talking about.  The proposal is that whether something is a good pleasure or not depends on its effects on the rest of my life.  We shouldn’t just look at individual pleasures as they occur at particular times, and, considering them in isolation from everything else going on in our lives, pronounce them "intrinsically good," just because they are pleasant.  No, whether a pleasure is worth having depends on its being, as it were, part of a whole <i>series</i> of pleasures that makes up a very pleasant life.  Now, do you see where I’m going with this?  Why don’t we say that it’s not <i>pleasure</i> per se which is intrinsically good, but instead <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>?
> 
> 
> 
> C. Eudaimonism and other theories of value.
> 
> Let’s be clear about the difference between pleasure and happiness.  Pleasure is a mental state or process, and events of pleasure are relatively brief.  When I listen to a great piece of music or eat a delicious meal, I experience a whole series of pleasures, sound and taste sensations -- a series of pleasure-events, as it were.
> 
> And as we all know very well, it is possible to have lots of such individual pleasure events and to be a thoroughly unhappy individual.  Why?  Because happiness is something that occurs over a long time.  You can have a good hour, or even a good day, in the sense that you’re in a good mood and have all sorts of pleasant feelings over that amount of time.  But you could, in spite of that, have an unhappy life.  It’s sad to say, but it’s true.  We might not like to think about it, but it is definitely true.
> 
> Anyway, the suggestion now is that it’s not <i>pleasures</i>, individual events, which are intrinsically good.  Those individual events are themselves only <i>instrumentally</i> good; they are good or worthwhile only as a means to something else.  And what they are worthwhile as a means to, is <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.  A healthy, tasty meal is a good thing.  But it’s not good <i>in</i> <i>itself</i>  -- it’s only good as a means.  To what?  To a happy life.  The suggestion is that <i>no</i> pleasure is intrinsically good, good in itself; any individual pleasure is good <i>only</i> <i>as</i> <i>a</i> <i>part</i> of a happy life.  The only intrinsically good thing in this case would be <i>a</i> <i>happy</i> <i>life</i>.
> 
> Now finally I think we have arrived at a view that a lot of you probably hold.  It’s not money, or power, or fame, or individual pleasures that are intrinsically good; those things are good only as means to what we are all ultimately after, namely, happiness.
> 
> And what is happiness?  We’re not going to get into that.  Let’s just say that happiness is the state that your life is in, when you tend to experience a lot of pleasures of various sorts, and relatively few pains, discomforts, and so forth.  And so you could think of a happy life as one that is full of lots of pleasures.  And notice, we aren’t necessarily talking about a dissolute, corrupt, immoral "life of pleasure" here.  Because those people who are dissolute, corrupt, and immoral, and who seek out pleasure from crime, casual sex, drugs, petty power games, and so forth, very often end up very unhappy people indeed.  Just look at the lives of lots of drug dealers, or Hollywood stars, for examples of <i>that</i>.  No, the happy life is one in which one has an excellent chance of having pleasure from the beginning of the life to the end.  And that is going to include not "lower" pleasures like eating, drinking, and sex, it is going to include many "higher" pleasures like understanding, the appreciation of art, deep friendship and love, and so forth.  The experience of <i>all</i> of those pleasures together is what goes to make up a happy life.
> 
> Notice that I am at present skipping over any detailed consideration of <i>pluralism</i>, which is that there are a number of <i>different</i> intrinsically good things.  E.g., you might want to say that understanding and friendship are both intrinsically good, and good as means to pleasure, or happiness, or anything else.  They are good <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>themselves</i>.  If you think that there are <i>a</i> <i>number</i> <i>of</i> <i>different</i> intrinsic goods or values, then you are a values <i>pluralist</i>.  We are only looking at kinds of values <i>monism</i>, that is, the view that there is only <i>one</i> kind of thing that is intrinsically good.  So far, we have considered the views that <i>pleasure</i> and that <i>happiness</i> are the only things that are intrinsically good.
> 
> Now let’s look at a closely related view -- the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle’s view.  On this ancient Greek view, it was not <i>happiness</i>, which is a mental state over time, which is intrinsically good -- it is, instead, something <i>like</i> happiness, but <i>eudaimonia</i>, for which there is no word in English, except perhaps the word "flourishing" or "well-being."  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is more than simply happiness; it is a happy life that is <i>well</i>-<i>lived</i>.  Happiness is a <i>subjective</i> state.  <i>Eudaimonia</i> is an <i>objective</i> state; literally, it means something like "having a good spirit."
> 
> To explain the difference between happiness and <i>eudaimonia</i>, let’s look at an example where someone is happy, but not <i>eudaimon</i>, as the Greeks would say.  (<i>Eudaimon</i> is the adjective; <i>eudaimonia</i> is the noun.)  Say there is a man, call him Tom, who is in the prime of life.  He has a happy family, he is well-liked by his colleagues, he is making a lot of money, and generally is very happy himself.  Now suppose there is a parallel universe, just exactly like this one, except in the parallel universe, instead of Tom there is Bill.  And Bill is exactly like Tom, just as happy, except for a few basic differences.  In fact, Bill’s family only appears to him to be happy; they’re actually repressed and not very happy at all.  His colleagues <i>pretend</i> to like him, but they say mean things about him behind his back.  And though his job seems very stable, he is about to be divorced and fired.  And then just add to the misery of the situation, let’s say Bill is going to die right after that.
> 
> Now at the moment, Bill is just as happy as Tom.  They both have had happy lives.  In fact, in terms of their <i>mental</i> <i>states</i>, they are both <i>equally</i> happy.  But now let’s evaluate their lives: surely we’d want to say that Tom’s life is <i>better</i> than Bill’s.  In fact, unbeknownst to the hapless Bill, he’s about lose his wife, his job, and his life.  And for a long time poor Bill has been living a lie.  He doesn’t know it, but he has.  On the other hand, Tom’s happiness is totally solid, built on honesty, strong relationships, and so forth.  From an objective point of view, from a view informed by all the facts, we’d greatly prefer Tom’s life over Bill’s.
> 
> Aristotle and the Greeks would say that Tom is both <i>eudaimon</i> and happy.  But they deny that Bill is <i>eudaimon</i>, however happy he might be.  And they would insist that the important thing in any case is <i>eudaimonia</i>.  So let’s give a name to this ancient Greek view -- <i>eudaimonism</i>.  It says:
> 
> The only intrinsically good thing is a person’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, i.e., a state of happiness, measured in an entire life, that is grounded upon solid, relatively unchangeable facts and not deception and mere luck.
> 
> I’m sorry I can’t make this definition any tighter or clearer.  The point is that there is a kind of solid happiness that <i>preferable</i> to a flimsy happiness; and that only that solid happiness, only <i>eudaimonia</i>, is really worthwhile.
> 
> I’d also suggest that this is why some thoughtful people go to such lengths to be honest with themselves and with their loved ones.  They do not want to find out, somewhere down the road, that they have been made happy by lies and deception, even if it’s self-deception.  Deep down those people know that it is <i>eudaimonia</i>, a life well-lived, and not merely happiness, that is the important thing.
> 
> Now, I’ve explained that someone <i>might</i> say that individual pleasures are only instrumentally valuable, as parts of or means to <i>eudaimonia</i>, or flourishing, or a life well-lived -- however you want to describe that.  But then mightn’t you want to go one step further, and say that <i>an</i> <i>individual</i> <i>person’s</i> flourishing is valuable only as a means to the flourishing of society as a whole?  In other words, here is the suggestion: a single person’s life is, ultimately, not important or worthwhile in itself, but only as a means to the success of society as a whole?
> 
> I am quite sure that a lot of people will find this suggestion odious.  <i>They</i> certainly find their <i>own</i> lives intrinsically good -- worth having for their own sake -- and not <i>merely</i> as means to the success of society, meaning all the other people in some given group.  But if you have studied much socialist political theory, you will find them saying just this: an individual’s life is not important, or valuable, in itself; it is valuable only as a means of, and as a part of, the flourishing of society as a whole.  I’m sure you can see that, indeed, this is <i>one</i> (only one) of the main bones of contention between statists of all stripes and classical liberals, meaning the people who want the state to keep its hands off of people as much as possible.
> 
> So the question at issue now is: Is an individual’s life intrinsically good, or is it merely instrumentally good?  Is an individual’s life, well-lived, something that is desirable for its own sake, or is it desirable, ultimately, only as a means to having a happy society?
> 
> This is one way, but not the traditional way, to state the dispute between <i>egoism</i> and <i>utilitarianism</i>.  But usually, egoism and utilitarianism are regarded as theories of conduct, and right now we’re doing the theory of value.  So let’s instead use the terms "values individualism" and "values collectivism" to mark the dispute.  Here are some definitions:
> 
> <i>Values</i> <i>individualism</i> is the view that only individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are intrinsically valuable; and so they are valuable not merely as a means to the flourishing of society.
> 
> <i>Values</i> <i>collectivism</i> is the view that individual lives (or their <i>eudaimonia</i>) are only instrumentally valuable, i.e., good only as a means to the flourishing of society; the flourishing of society (whatever this might be) is the only intrinsically good thing.
> 
> I personally think the dispute between values individualism and values collectivism is just fascinating.  But we don’t have the time to get into it properly.  If we wanted to get into this dispute properly, we’d have to take another class or two, at least.
> 
> But just for the sake of completeness, let me mention one more view, which is held by some environmentalists.  It shouldn’t come as any surprise to you that <i>some</i> people want to take matters one step <i>further</i>.  It’s not merely the flourishing of society that is the only intrinsically good thing.  It’s the flourishing of <i>all</i> <i>sentient</i> <i>life</i>.  Or perhaps <i>all</i> <i>life</i>, <i>period</i>.  If you want a name for that view:
> 
> <i>Radical</i> <i>values</i> <i>environmentalism</i> is the view that the only intrinsically good thing is a flourishing ecosystem; individuals and societies are merely instrumentally valuable, good only as means to having a flourishing ecosystem.
> 
> Once again, I am just going to <i>mention</i> this view.  We don’t have time to get into a proper evaluation of it.
> 
> Notice now the succession of things that we have considered as <i>the</i> kind of thing which is intrinsically good: we’ve gone from particular events of pleasure, to an individual’s happiness, to an individual’s <i>eudaimonia</i>, to the flourishing of a society, to the flourishing of an entire ecosystem.  So I think that you can see that there is a rather difficult problem about the <i>scope</i> of the theory of value.  Where do you stop, in this succession of items, in your account of what is valuable for its own sake?  If you say that an individual pleasure is valuable for its own sake, then why don’t you say that an individual’s entire happiness is valuable for its own sake?  And so forth.
> 
> Well, let me remind you of one thing: if you are a <i>values</i> <i>pluralist</i>, then you will maintain that <i>many</i> different kinds of things can be intrinsically good.  As a values pluralist, you might say: <i>every</i> <i>item</i> in this succession of items is intrinsically good.  The goodness of a particular experience, of an individual’s whole life, of society, and of an ecosystem, are <i>all</i> worth having for their own sake, and not <i>merely</i> as a means to something else.  So as a values pluralist you would say: I <i>don’t</i> <i>have</i> to decide which of these things is intrinsically good, because they are <i>all</i> intrinsically good.
> 
> I’m sure many of you would like to be values pluralists now.  That would be a nice position to be able to hold, but I’m not sure it will stand up to careful scrutiny.  Why?  Well, notice that sometimes, there is a <i>conflict</i> between different levels of goods.  Let me explain.  Sometimes we have a <i>choice</i>, for example, to sacrifice our own pleasure, or happiness, or even our own lives, for the sake of many other people.  This <i>appears</i> to be what happens when soldiers go off to a bloody and desperate war, for example, or whenever anyone gives up any large amount of time to some very difficult, painfully difficult, charitable cause.  In cases like that, you’re weighing two things: your own individual happiness, and the more general happiness of a lot of other people.  And if you conclude that you should sacrifice your own happiness, in one of these ways, what does that amount to?
> 
> Honestly, it looks to me as though you’re assuming that your own happiness is not as important as that of many other people.  If you’re a soldier, voluntarily marching off to a bloody war, you have weighed the two things, and have concluded that you are willing to make your life a <i>means</i> to the happiness of other people.  And if in the end, you are willing to make your life a means to the happiness of other people, then aren’t you saying that your life is <i>merely</i> instrumentally good?  That it is <i>only</i> good as a means to the happiness of others?
> 
> Well, I don’t think you have to say <i>that</i>.  It seems to me that you could say that your own life <i>is</i> worthwhile in and of itself, <i>and</i> that it is worthwhile as a means to the happiness of others.  Remember, the same thing can be both instrumentally <i>and</i> intrinsically good: I gave <i>understanding</i>, or knowledge, as one possible example.  I’m saying now that a human life might be another.  So that’s a way you might hold onto values pluralism.  Two different things, your life and the good of society, can <i>both</i> be intrinsically good, <i>even</i> <i>though</i>  you might sacrifice the first for the second.  There’s no contradiction in saying that.
> 
> This leaves an issue unresolved, though: the issue of the <i>relative</i> importance of intrinsic values.  The issue of <i>more</i> <i>versus</i> <i>less</i> valuable, of figuring out which of different things is more or less important.  That is, if you are looking at a number of different things that you say are <i>all</i> intrinsically valuable, you still have to ask: Which of these things is <i>most</i> valuable?  If I had to rank these things in order of importance, how would the ranking go?  So you could be a values pluralist and still be an individualist, or a collectivist, or a radical environmentalist.  You would just have to say: the most important thing, the most valuable thing, is <i>my</i> <i>own</i> flourishing; or, instead, the flourishing of society; or, perhaps, the flourishing of the environment.  As a values pluralist, you would admit that other things are intrinsically valuable.  It’s just that they aren’t <i>as</i> valuable as that most-valuable thing.
> 
> I hope, after all this, you can see why I say that the theory of value has an excellent claim on being the most important area of philosophy.  So much else in life rests on the theory of value that we accept.  Crucial life decisions you make, and the habits you develop, and your deepest political convictions all ultimately rest on the theory of value you adopt.
------
PoliticalPhilosophy|984792279
1,25c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; SocialContractTheories; ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState; ThePurposeOfGovernment
< 
< In order to introduce what political philosophy is, I want to <i>start</i> by giving you a definition of the word "government":
< 
< A <i>government</i> is an institution, consisting of a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area.
< 
< This is a fairly standard sort of definition of the term "government."  You might find it a little bit surprising though.  When you think of government, you may think of large white buildings, well-groomed people in business suits, and eloquent but vapid speechmaking.  What does all that have to do with the <i>initiation</i> <i>of</i> <i>force</i>?  I’ll tell you -- it has <i>everything</i> to do with the initiation of force.  The whole point of having a government around at all, as we will see, is to make the power of individuals to act aggressively toward other individuals legitimate for government alone.  The power to initiate force is allegedly, and indeed it <i>can</i> be, <i>safer</i> in the hands of a relatively powerful government, that can control its unruly citizens, than it would be in the hands of each individual person.  All the other programs that you see governments enacting are ultimately based on their widely accepted, or legitimate, ability to compel individuals to do things like pay taxes, to appear in court when subpoenaed, to vacate an area when ordered, and so forth.
< 
< Consider this.  Why <i>don’t</i> we call a gang, that makes a certain neighborhood its turf, the <i>government</i> of that neighborhood?  Don’t just say, "Well, it’s obvious that the gang isn’t the <i>government</i>."  I’m asking you to explain <i>why</i> it’s not the government.  I know it’s <i>obvious</i> that the gang isn’t the government; the question is <i>why</i> it’s not.  Here’s <i>my</i> answer: the gang <i>doesn’t</i> have a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within the neighborhood.  It’s the <i>police</i>, and the broader government that the police represent, that have the monopoly on the <i>legitimate</i> use of force.  As long as the police have things relatively under control, the gang isn’t top dog; it’s the city, state, and federal government of that neighborhood.
< 
< Now to see this a little more clearly, change the example.  Fast forward fifty years in the future.  For some reason, maybe due to war, the police will absolutely <i>not</i> go into that neighborhood at all.  Neither will government tax collectors, or dog catchers, or any other agent of the city, state, or federal government.  Nope, within that neighborhood, the gang members have grown up, their numbers have multiplied, and they have set up walls all around the neighborhood; they control who comes in and who goes out; the leader of the gang is the ultimate judge of all the fights that break out in the neighborhood streets; they decide who gets guns and who doesn’t; and so forth.
< 
< <i>Now</i> would you say that the gang members are members of a government?  For all intents and purposes, they are.  And according to the definition I gave you, they are.  Maybe not a <i>good</i> government, but a government.  The gangsters and their stuff -- weapons, cars, houses, drugs, and so forth -- are "a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area," namely their neighborhood.  That group has become the government of the neighborhood.
< 
< Now you might want to object and say, "Look, that’s not a <i>government</i>.  That’s just a gang of <i>hoodlums</i>."  But if you say this, I think you’re forgetting your history.  <i>Most</i> governments in the world began with gangs of hoodlums!  It’s just that eventually, they became <i>respectable</i>.  The United States is one of the few nations in the world that <i>didn’t</i> begin that way; of course, I suppose that Washington and Jefferson might have looked like hoodlums to the English.  And of course, there are even now what we call "rogue nations," that are run, as most of us think, by what amounts to a gang of hoodlums.  The fact that they are a gang of hoodlums <i>doesn’t</i> mean that they’re not the government!  Because unfortunately, plainly, they <i>are</i> the government in those localities!  And they will be until someone with more sense and morality steps up and takes power away from them.  That’s the way of the world.  Government is a really nasty business.  Or at least it can be.
< 
< So, if that’s what government is, we’ve got another sort of question to answer: When is a government <i>legitimate</i>?  When is it a <i>good</i> government?  How can we distinguish the upright and decent governments from the governments of mere "rogue nations"?
< 
< Those are a few of the central questions of political philosophy.  This is another very complex area, difficult to define, but I’ll attempt a definition now anyway:
< 
< <i>Political</i> <i>philosophy</i> is the study of the fundamental questions about government: what it is, why it is needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.
< 
< As you can see, just from reading this definition, this area of philosophy is positively <i>enormous</i>.  It is probably the area of philosophy that you knew most about already, on account of its being taught to some extent in civics classes.  Next we are going to have to focus in on only one of the many questions that make up political philosophy.  The question we will focus on is the one that is discussed in our reading: why is government needed at all, and what, if anything, makes any particular government legitimate.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Political philosophy]]
------
Political_philosophy|984792286
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
> 
> See also TheJustificationOfTheState; AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory; SocialContractTheories; ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState; ThePurposeOfGovernment
> 
> In order to introduce what political philosophy is, I want to <i>start</i> by giving you a definition of the word "government":
> 
> A <i>government</i> is an institution, consisting of a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area.
> 
> This is a fairly standard sort of definition of the term "government."  You might find it a little bit surprising though.  When you think of government, you may think of large white buildings, well-groomed people in business suits, and eloquent but vapid speechmaking.  What does all that have to do with the <i>initiation</i> <i>of</i> <i>force</i>?  I’ll tell you -- it has <i>everything</i> to do with the initiation of force.  The whole point of having a government around at all, as we will see, is to make the power of individuals to act aggressively toward other individuals legitimate for government alone.  The power to initiate force is allegedly, and indeed it <i>can</i> be, <i>safer</i> in the hands of a relatively powerful government, that can control its unruly citizens, than it would be in the hands of each individual person.  All the other programs that you see governments enacting are ultimately based on their widely accepted, or legitimate, ability to compel individuals to do things like pay taxes, to appear in court when subpoenaed, to vacate an area when ordered, and so forth.
> 
> Consider this.  Why <i>don’t</i> we call a gang, that makes a certain neighborhood its turf, the <i>government</i> of that neighborhood?  Don’t just say, "Well, it’s obvious that the gang isn’t the <i>government</i>."  I’m asking you to explain <i>why</i> it’s not the government.  I know it’s <i>obvious</i> that the gang isn’t the government; the question is <i>why</i> it’s not.  Here’s <i>my</i> answer: the gang <i>doesn’t</i> have a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within the neighborhood.  It’s the <i>police</i>, and the broader government that the police represent, that have the monopoly on the <i>legitimate</i> use of force.  As long as the police have things relatively under control, the gang isn’t top dog; it’s the city, state, and federal government of that neighborhood.
> 
> Now to see this a little more clearly, change the example.  Fast forward fifty years in the future.  For some reason, maybe due to war, the police will absolutely <i>not</i> go into that neighborhood at all.  Neither will government tax collectors, or dog catchers, or any other agent of the city, state, or federal government.  Nope, within that neighborhood, the gang members have grown up, their numbers have multiplied, and they have set up walls all around the neighborhood; they control who comes in and who goes out; the leader of the gang is the ultimate judge of all the fights that break out in the neighborhood streets; they decide who gets guns and who doesn’t; and so forth.
> 
> <i>Now</i> would you say that the gang members are members of a government?  For all intents and purposes, they are.  And according to the definition I gave you, they are.  Maybe not a <i>good</i> government, but a government.  The gangsters and their stuff -- weapons, cars, houses, drugs, and so forth -- are "a group of people and some items at their disposal, which has a monopoly on the legitimate, or at least widely accepted, initiation of force within a given geographical area," namely their neighborhood.  That group has become the government of the neighborhood.
> 
> Now you might want to object and say, "Look, that’s not a <i>government</i>.  That’s just a gang of <i>hoodlums</i>."  But if you say this, I think you’re forgetting your history.  <i>Most</i> governments in the world began with gangs of hoodlums!  It’s just that eventually, they became <i>respectable</i>.  The United States is one of the few nations in the world that <i>didn’t</i> begin that way; of course, I suppose that Washington and Jefferson might have looked like hoodlums to the English.  And of course, there are even now what we call "rogue nations," that are run, as most of us think, by what amounts to a gang of hoodlums.  The fact that they are a gang of hoodlums <i>doesn’t</i> mean that they’re not the government!  Because unfortunately, plainly, they <i>are</i> the government in those localities!  And they will be until someone with more sense and morality steps up and takes power away from them.  That’s the way of the world.  Government is a really nasty business.  Or at least it can be.
> 
> So, if that’s what government is, we’ve got another sort of question to answer: When is a government <i>legitimate</i>?  When is it a <i>good</i> government?  How can we distinguish the upright and decent governments from the governments of mere "rogue nations"?
> 
> Those are a few of the central questions of political philosophy.  This is another very complex area, difficult to define, but I’ll attempt a definition now anyway:
> 
> <i>Political</i> <i>philosophy</i> is the study of the fundamental questions about government: what it is, why it is needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form it should take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.
> 
> As you can see, just from reading this definition, this area of philosophy is positively <i>enormous</i>.  It is probably the area of philosophy that you knew most about already, on account of its being taught to some extent in civics classes.  Next we are going to have to focus in on only one of the many questions that make up political philosophy.  The question we will focus on is the one that is discussed in our reading: why is government needed at all, and what, if anything, makes any particular government legitimate.
------
Number_system|984792335
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> In a Number system of base N, there are N basic symbols that
> correspond to zero and the first N-1 [[natural numbers]].
> To generate the rest of the numbers, the position of the symbol
> in the figure is used. The symbol in the last position has its
> own value, and as it moves to the left its value is multiplied
> by N.
> 
> The most basic system is the [[binary system]], N=2, so there
> is two symbols, 0 and 1.
> 
> The number 10110 means
>  1 x 2^4 + 0 x 2^3 + 1 x 2^2 + 1 x 2^1 + 0 x 2^0 = 22 (in decimal).
> 
> The system that humans use has base 10 probably because we have
> ten fingers in our hands.
> 
> With the advents of electronic devices that have two possible
> states, open or closed, (first [[vacuum tubes]], then [[transistors]]), binary became the natural number system for [[electronic computers]].
------
Hexadecimal|984792447
1c1
< Base 16 [[number system]], which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every byte as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
---
> Base 16 [[number system]], which consists of symbols 0-9 and A-F. Is a useful system in [[computer|computers]] because can represent every [[byte]] as a two consecutive hexadecimal digits.
------
Philosophy|984792527
6,7c6,7
< '''PhilosophicalSubdisciplines:'''
< LoGic -- OntOlogy -- MetaPhysics -- PhilosophyOfReligion -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- PhilosophyOfMind -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- [[meta-philosophy]] -- EthIcs -- MetaEthics -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- PoliticalPhilosophy -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> '''[[Philosophical subdisciplines]]:'''
> [[logic]] -- OntOlogy -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[philosophy of religion]] -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- [[philosophy of mind]] -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- [[meta-philosophy]] -- [[ethics]] -- MetaEthics -- [[value theory]] -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- [[political philosophy]] -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
13c13
< '''MetaPhysics:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''EthIcs:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism [etc. continue the list please]
16c16
< '''MetaPhysics:''' [[free will and determinism]] '''PhilosophyOfReligion:''' FaithAndRationality '''EthIcs:''' '''[[Epistemology]]:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
---
> '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[free will and determinism]] '''[[Philosophy of religion]]:''' FaithAndRationality '''[[Ethics]]:''' '''[[Epistemology]]:''' TheProblemOfOtherMinds
------
StarCraft/Broodwar|984792549
1,2c1
< StarCraft is a very variation on Command & Conquer<BR>
< Thousands of people play this on any given moment over the internet
---
> Blah, blah, blah.
------
Philosophical_subdisciplines|984792589
21c21
< <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about[[art]] and [[beauty]].
---
> <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about [[art]] and [[beauty]].
23c23
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
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StarCraft|984792630
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.
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Larrys_Text|984792749
5c5
< ::[[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- [[definition of philosophy]] -- PhilosophicalSubdisciplines
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> ::[[the motivation to philosophize]] -- [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]] -- [[definition of philosophy]] -- [[philosophical subdisciplines]]
11c11
< ::PhilosophyOfReligion -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
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> ::[[philosophy of religion]] -- WhatIsGod -- FaithAndRationality -- ObviouslyBadArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TraditionallyRespectableArgumentsForTheExistenceOfGod -- TheOntologicalArgument -- TheCosmologicalArgument -- TheTeleologicalArgument -- TheProblemOfEvil -- TheRationalityOfAtheism -- TheoDicy
13c13
< ::PhilosophyOfMind -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
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> ::[[philosophy of mind]] -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
17c17
< ::[[Epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- [[Scepticism]] -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
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> ::[[epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- [[Scepticism]] -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
19c19
< ::[[Ethics]] -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
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> ::[[ethics]] -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
21c21
< ::PoliticalPhilosophy -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- [[Libertarianism]] -- SocialisM
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> ::[[political philosophy]] -- TheJustificationOfTheState -- AnarchismAndNaturalLawTheory -- SocialContractTheories -- ConsequentialistJustificationsOfTheState -- ThePurposeOfGovernment -- [[Libertarianism]] -- SocialisM
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Scepticism|984792794
1,77c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We're going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
< 
< First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don't</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge.  There?s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don't, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don't have it yet.  (Or they didn't back in ancient Greece anyway!)
< 
< It's quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn't</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we'll be investigating in a little bit.
< 
< Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can't possibly, or at least don't, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won't venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I'm not going to get into that.
< 
< Now if I say deny that we do or can have knowledge of a particular area, then my view is <i>local</i> skepticism.  And I say that I am a skeptic <i>about</i> the area that I have doubts about.  Of course there are different kinds of local skepticism, depending on the area.  Areas like: the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.  Take for example the external world.  If I say that no one can know anything about the external world, the world that exists apart from my own mind, then I am a local skeptic, and I espouse <i>skepticism</i> <i>about</i> the external world.  Or even more briefly, external world skepticism.
< 
< So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we'll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that's a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I?ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
< 
< Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we'll say the skeptic claims:
< 
< We <i>can</i> <i>never</i> <i>be</i> justified in believing something <i>about</i> <i>area</i> <i>X</i>, or at least not enough to give us knowledge about that area.
< 
< You're probably wondering what "areas" I'm talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
< 
< Now remember some things we talked about last time, about justification.  At one point we were talking about foundationalism, and I gave an argument for foundationalism.  If foundationalism is true, then there have to be some basic beliefs; and basic beliefs, remember, are beliefs that are justified, but not justified by other <i>beliefs</i>.  So what could justify basic beliefs?  I said: mental events, like an instance of perception, or an instance of memory.
< 
< Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I'm looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
< 
< This is an important point to understand so I'll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That's all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
< 
< This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what's being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we?ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn?t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can't think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
< 
< But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it's there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn't say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
< 
< You'll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
< 
< Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can't is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we're approaching it from a different angle.
< 
< You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I've already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume's argument basically says that we can't know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
< 
< Now I'm going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume's.  Namely, Descartes' famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn't that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I'm dreaming; I don't have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I'm dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven't I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn?t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn?t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I'm awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I'm awake -- but in fact, I'm <i>asleep</i>?
< 
< Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren't</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I'm asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn't</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don't really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That's Descartes' dreaming doubt.
< 
< Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn't know he's awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn't really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn't</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can't rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
< 
< If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I'm not dreaming": that's what you want to say.  Here is Descartes? reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you're just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you're awake!  And so you're begging the question against the skeptic!
< 
< Or maybe you?ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here's how I can show that it's reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I've had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it's generally reliable.
< 
< Well, I'm sure you can guess how Descartes' skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I'm not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you're not dreaming!  And that's impossible!  So you can't know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
< 
< And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren't you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it's not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren't you begging the question again?  Don't you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshape?
< 
< Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you're arguing in a circle, you're begging the question.  So what?s the upshot?  That you <i>can't</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn't allowed.
< 
< Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume's and Descartes', although it is related to both.  Hume said you can't prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can't even prove that you're not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can't prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
< 
< This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you're assuming that those memories are reliable: and that's what you're trying to prove, so you can't assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn't</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
< 
< Now let's see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
< 
< First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume's, Descartes', and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can't</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can't prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can't prove that we're not dreaming.  We can't prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don't <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren't justified in believing it?  Take Descartes? dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you're convinced that you can't prove that you're not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you're even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can't prove, to Descartes? skeptic, that I'm not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I'm dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
< 
< Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don't really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don't <i>know</i> I'm standing up right now.
< 
< So this forces us to ask ourselves: Do we have to have <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i>, lacking any doubt whatsoever, in order to have knowledge?  That would be the absolutely strongest grade of justification possible.  And then we would be saying that knowledge is not just <i>sufficiently</i> <i>justified</i> true belief, but <i>certainly</i> true belief.
< 
< Now I personally don't think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we're wrong; but if we're right then we have knowledge.  So I'm not particularly worried if I can't prove that I'm not dreaming.  I think it's extremely unlikely that I'm dreaming, and I think I'm perfectly well justified in thinking I'm awake.  And I don't have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I'm awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I'm awake.
< 
< You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn't allow the possibility that I'm asleep when by every indication I'm awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn't make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
< 
< Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won't get into their reasons why.
< 
< Here's a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn't it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can't know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn?t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That's not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
< 
< A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic's argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
< 
< Do you recognize the form of Reid's argument?  It's a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can't trust our ability our reason and so can't trust the skeptic's conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can't trust the skeptic's conclusion.  In either case we don't have to worry about skepticism!
< 
< Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It's very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I've only given you a basic sampling.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Skepticism]]
------
Skepticism|984792801
1c1,77
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
> In its broadest sense, <i>skepticism</i> is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We're going to have to narrow our investigation; but first let me explain the different kinds of skepticism.
> 
> First, skepticism can be either the claim that we <i>don't</i> have knowledge, or that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge.  There?s a difference -- the second is a stronger claim, and harder to prove.  I mean, it really is one thing to say that we <i>could</i>, but unfortunately don't, have knowledge.  I think Socrates might have held that view.  He basically seemed to think that if we continue to ask questions we might eventually come to have knowledge; but we don't have it yet.  (Or they didn't back in ancient Greece anyway!)
> 
> It's quite a different thing to say that we <i>couldn't</i> <i>ever</i> <i>possibly</i> have knowledge -- to say that knowledge is impossible.  I think this has been, believe it or not, a more common opinion among skeptics.  They really did, and a very few still do, think that we just cannot know anything.  This is the variety we'll be investigating in a little bit.
> 
> Now remember that I said that skepticism can be either about <i>everything</i>, or about some <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  If knowledge of anything at all is impossible, then my view is <i>global</i> <i>skepticism</i>.  Whatever in the world you pick, I will say that you can't possibly, or at least don't, know it.  There have been very few global skeptics in the history of philosophy.  Hardly anybody has been <i>that</i> bold.  Global skepticism really <i>is</i> bold -- because look at what it denies.  It denies I know my own name.  It denies that I know that I have a mind, or a body.  It denies that I know I have been alive for longer than ten minutes.  And so forth!  How anyone might rationally support global skepticism, I won't venture to say.  I seriously doubt there are <i>any</i> even <i>minimally</i> <i>plausible</i> arguments for global skepticism, at least of the variety that says: "We cannot know anything at all."  Maybe the weaker versions, that say, "We <i>do</i> not know anything at all" could have some support.  But I'm not going to get into that.
> 
> Now if I say deny that we do or can have knowledge of a particular area, then my view is <i>local</i> skepticism.  And I say that I am a skeptic <i>about</i> the area that I have doubts about.  Of course there are different kinds of local skepticism, depending on the area.  Areas like: the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.  Take for example the external world.  If I say that no one can know anything about the external world, the world that exists apart from my own mind, then I am a local skeptic, and I espouse <i>skepticism</i> <i>about</i> the external world.  Or even more briefly, external world skepticism.
> 
> So let me summarize this dry introductory material about skepticism, and then we'll get into the meatier stuff.  Skepticism is the view that either we <i>do</i> not have any knowledge, or that we <i>cannot</i> have any propositional knowledge -- knowledge either about <i>everything</i>, or about <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>area</i>.  We are going to talk about the sort of skepticism that claims we <i>cannot</i> have propositional knowledge.  Skepticism about <i>everything</i> is global skepticism, but that's a very implausible view.  We are instead going to talk about some different kinds of <i>local</i> skepticism.  So we are going to look at some skepticisms that say: We <i>cannot</i> have knowledge about some particular area, X, or Y, or Z.  (I?ll say what X,  Y, and Z might be in a bit.)
> 
> Now remember, just before we started talking about skepticism, I said we would ask: "Is knowledge possible?"  I said we could rephrase that by asking: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  I said the skeptic says "No."  So the skeptic says I am never sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge of it.  But we just learned that this is a little vague, and we are narrowing down what the skeptic claims.  So more precisely we'll say the skeptic claims:
> 
> We <i>can</i> <i>never</i> <i>be</i> justified in believing something <i>about</i> <i>area</i> <i>X</i>, or at least not enough to give us knowledge about that area.
> 
> You're probably wondering what "areas" I'm talking about, exactly.  Once again the areas are, for example, the external world; other minds; the past and the future; and so forth.
> 
> Now remember some things we talked about last time, about justification.  At one point we were talking about foundationalism, and I gave an argument for foundationalism.  If foundationalism is true, then there have to be some basic beliefs; and basic beliefs, remember, are beliefs that are justified, but not justified by other <i>beliefs</i>.  So what could justify basic beliefs?  I said: mental events, like an instance of perception, or an instance of memory.
> 
> Let me put that point in a more concrete way.  Say I'm looking across a field of daisies and I see a cow.  So I believe there is a cow across the field of daisies.  And surely this belief is justified.  How is it justified?  What justifies the belief?  Why, the mere fact that I see the cow.  Or more technically: it is the event of my seeing the cow that justifies my belief that the cow is there peacefully grazing on daisies.
> 
> This is an important point to understand so I'll give you another example.  Suppose I am reminiscing about my high school days and I vividly recall a very nasty gym teacher -- very loud and rude.  So I believe I had a nasty gym teacher; and again this belief is justified.  How?  By the fact that I remember it.  That's all.  Again, more technically: it is the event of my remembering my nasty gym teacher that justifies my belief that I had that teacher.
> 
> This is all actually very straightforward, once you understand what's being said.  If we assume that foundationalism is true, then we?ve got basic beliefs; and our basic beliefs, to be basic, have to be justified by something that isn?t a belief; so what justifies them?  The operation of ordinary cognitive processes, like seeing, remembering, feeling, introspecting, and so forth.  When I remember something, that gives me excellent reason to believe what I remember.  Not always of course, but usually, especially if the memory is vivid and I can't think of any reason to think that this particular memory is wrong.
> 
> But in any case, if I do get justified beliefs from the use of memory, then my memory has to be reliable.  Similarly with perception: if my seeming to see something makes me justified in believing it's there, then I have to assume that perception is reliable.  If it were unreliable -- if it were often giving me false information -- then I couldn't say I was justified just based on the use of perception.
> 
> You'll remember that I said that local skepticism is skepticism <i>about</i> <i>particular</i> <i>areas</i>.  Now I can tell you what the areas are: they are matched up, not exactly but fairly closely, with different cognitive processes.  What the skeptic doubts is that our cognitive processes are reliable.  The skeptic says, for example: perception is not reliable; therefore, you are not justified in your beliefs about what you perceive.
> 
> Since what you perceive is the external world, this sort of skeptic says: you are not justified in your beliefs about <i>the</i> <i>external</i> <i>world</i>.  So one kind of skepticism is called <i>external</i> <i>world</i> <i>skepticism</i>: that is the view that we cannot know anything about an external world, even that such an external world exists!  The reason we can't is that our faculty of perception is not reliable.  We have already seen this view in action, when we talked about the theory of perception.  Now we're approaching it from a different angle.
> 
> You might be wondering, of course, why anyone would want to say that perception is not reliable.  I've already given you one argument, which was due to David Hume.  To review that very quickly, Hume's argument basically says that we can't know anything about the external world, because to know that we would have to know that there is a connection between our sense-data and the external world that they are supposed to represent.  But the only thing we have contact with are our sense-data; we can never know anything in the external world except by first knowing our sense-data.  But then we have no way to prove the connection between our sense-data and the external world.  So we have no way to prove that our sense-data do represent any external world -- and <i>that</i> is to say that we have no way to prove that perception is reliable.
> 
> Now I'm going to give you <i>another</i> argument for external world skepticism, which is more famous than Hume's.  Namely, Descartes' famous dreaming doubt, and it goes like this.  Descartes was writing one evening in his room, and he thought to himself (I paraphrase very loosely): What if I am asleep in bed right now, and only <i>dreaming</i> that I am awake, and writing?  Isn't that at least possible?  Then he said, well surely, I can tell when I am awake and when I am asleep.  I can tell the difference between wakefulness and a dream.  All sorts of strange things happen in dreams; I pass unaccountably from scene to scene when I'm dreaming; I don't have any long memory of what happened in a day, when I'm dreaming; and so forth.  Then Descartes said: Haven't I had those very thoughts in some of my dreams?  Sometimes, when I was dreaming, I was convinced that I was awake!  I even tried to test that I was awake, when I was dreaming, and the tests convinced me that I was awake!  But I was wrong; I <i>was</i> dreaming.  Isn?t it quite possible that the same thing is happening to me <i>right</i> <i>now</i>?  Isn?t it possible that I am dreaming that I can test whether I'm awake or asleep -- and of course, in my dream, I pass the test?  So it seems really vivid to me right now that I'm awake -- but in fact, I'm <i>asleep</i>?
> 
> Well, Descartes said to him, I guess there <i>aren't</i> any definite signs, or tests, that I could use to tell whether I'm asleep or dreaming.  I could, after all, be dreaming those very tests.  I have experience of doing that, thinking that I passed the test for being awake, when really I was only dreaming.  So there <i>isn't</i> <i>any</i> <i>way</i> to tell that I am awake now.  I cannot possibly prove that I am awake.  So, Descartes said to himself, I don't really know that I am awake now and writing in the evening.  For all I really <i>know</i>, I could be asleep.  That's Descartes' dreaming doubt.
> 
> Now we can go on and give this argument some more detail.  For one thing, why does Descartes think that he doesn't know he's awake and writing?  Well, he might be asleep.  But what difference does that make?  The difference that it makes is that <i>his</i> <i>faculty</i> <i>of</i> <i>sense</i>-<i>perception</i> <i>would</i> <i>not</i> <i>be</i> <i>reliable</i> if he were asleep.  In other words, if he were asleep, it would seem to him that he is seeing, feeling, and hearing various things; but he wouldn't really be.  In that case, of course, his faculty of perception <i>wouldn't</i> be reliable.  But Descartes appears to go farther than that: he appears to be saying that since he <i>might</i> be dreaming, since he can't rule out the hypothesis that he is dreaming right now, that also means that his faculty of perception is not reliable.
> 
> If you follow what Descartes is saying, you very well might find it exasperating, or silly.  "I mean, of <i>course</i> I can tell that I'm not dreaming": that's what you want to say.  Here is Descartes? reply: maybe you can, but <i>maybe</i> you're just <i>dreaming</i> that you can tell.  If you say you <i>can</i> tell the difference between being awake and being asleep, then you are assuming that you're awake!  And so you're begging the question against the skeptic!
> 
> Or maybe you?ll say this.  I can tell that my sense-perception is reliable.  Here's how I can show that it's reliable.  When I see something, like that cow chewing on daisies, I can go over to the cow, touch it, hear it, lean on it, and so forth.  That confirms that really am seeing the cow.  In the same way, when I hear something, like a marching band outside, I can step outside, and look at the marching band, talk to the members of the band, and so forth.  That confirms that I heard the band outside.  Throughout my life I've had so many experiences like this that I am practically certain that, in the more obvious cases anyway, my faculty of perception works -- it's generally reliable.
> 
> Well, I'm sure you can guess how Descartes' skeptic will reply to this.  You might just be <i>dreaming</i> that you are touching, hearing, and leaning on the cow.  That marching band might just be part of a dream.  For that matter you might only be <i>dreaming</i> that your faculty of perception has been generally reliable.  If you argue: I'm not dreaming, because my faculty of perception is reliable, then you are begging the question!  First, you have to establish that you're not dreaming!  And that's impossible!  So you can't know that your faculty of perception is reliable.
> 
> And a sharper skeptic might make another remark about seeing the cow and hearing the marching band.  Because, after all, weren't you <i>using</i> sense-perception in order to try to argue that your faculty of perception is generally reliable?  Think about that: in order to show that your sense of sight works, you use your sense of sight and other senses; in order to show that your sense of hearing works, you use your sense of hearing and other senses.  And it's not like you can avoid that.  It would be really bizarre (though some philosophers have actually tried it) to try to argue that your senses are reliable, without making use of your senses.  But if you make use of your senses, aren't you begging the question again?  Don't you have to assume, or presuppose, that your senses are generally shipshape before you start using them to prove <i>anything</i>, including whether your senses are generally shipshape?
> 
> Do you see the general problem?  How can you prove that perception is reliable <i>without</i> <i>using</i> <i>your</i> <i>senses</i>?  That seems impossible.  But how can you use senses without assuming that perception is reliable?  If you do that then you're arguing in a circle, you're begging the question.  So what?s the upshot?  That you <i>can't</i> prove that perception is reliable.  If you try, you beg the question, and question-begging just isn't allowed.
> 
> Notice that this is actually a <i>third</i> skeptical argument, different from Hume's and Descartes', although it is related to both.  Hume said you can't prove that your sense-data represent the external world; Descartes said that you can't even prove that you're not dreaming; and this third argument says that you can't prove that perception is reliable, without assuming that your senses are reliable and thereby begging the question at issue.
> 
> This third argument is also very serious because it can be used to generate skepticism about other of our cognitive processes.  Such as memory.  Do you think it would be possible to prove that your faculty of memory is reliable?  Well, how would you do it?  Could you even possibly do it <i>without</i> relying on <i>any</i> <i>memories</i> <i>at</i> <i>all</i>?  Because if you do rely on any memories, then you're assuming that those memories are reliable: and that's what you're trying to prove, so you can't assume that.  But how could you possibly show that your memories really do represent the past, <i>just</i> by the use of your other cognitive processes, such as perception, introspection, and so forth?  Seems to me that you <i>couldn't</i> prove that.  Not without begging the question.
> 
> Now let's see how we can answer skepticism.  I am very confident that we can, and that skepticism does not really pose a threat to our knowledge-claims.  Let me point out a few very important objections to skepticism, that show that it may not be nearly as serious as you might think.
> 
> First of all, in all three arguments -- Hume's, Descartes', and the circularity argument -- the claim is made that <i>we</i> <i>can't</i> <i>prove</i> something or other.  We can't prove that sense-data represent an external reality.  We can't prove that we're not dreaming.  We can't prove that perception, or memory, is reliable.  But now ask yourself: just because you can prove something, does that mean that you don't <i>know</i> it?  Or that you aren't justified in believing it?  Take Descartes? dreaming doubt as an example.  Suppose you're convinced that you can't prove that you're not dreaming, not without begging the question.  And you're even willing to admit that <i>mere</i> <i>very</i> <i>slight</i> possibility that you are dreaming right now.  However, you might reply, who cares?  So what if I can't prove, to Descartes? skeptic, that I'm not dreaming?  Who cares if there is a very, very slight possibility that I'm dreaming right now?  Does that really matter to my knowledge-claims?
> 
> Now, <i>Descartes</i> <i>himself</i> thought it definitely did matter.  Descartes wanted absolutely certain knowledge -- knowledge beyond any doubt.  And so he thought that if you can raise the smallest doubt about something, then you don't really know it.  For example, the dreaming doubt raises the very small possibility that I am not standing up right now, talking to you; I <i>might</i> be dreaming; and so Descartes would say (at that point -- later he thought he refuted this skepticism) that I don't <i>know</i> I'm standing up right now.
> 
> So this forces us to ask ourselves: Do we have to have <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i>, lacking any doubt whatsoever, in order to have knowledge?  That would be the absolutely strongest grade of justification possible.  And then we would be saying that knowledge is not just <i>sufficiently</i> <i>justified</i> true belief, but <i>certainly</i> true belief.
> 
> Now I personally don't think that such a strong degree of justification is necessary for knowledge.  After all, I think we can know what the weather is going to be like, just by reading the morning forecast!  Sometimes we're wrong; but if we're right then we have knowledge.  So I'm not particularly worried if I can't prove that I'm not dreaming.  I think it's extremely unlikely that I'm dreaming, and I think I'm perfectly well justified in thinking I'm awake.  And I don't have to <i>know</i> <i>with</i> <i>absolute</i> <i>certainty</i> that I'm awake, of course, to be <i>well</i> <i>justified</i> in believing I'm awake.
> 
> You should know this, that Descartes himself rejected his skeptical doubts in the end.  But he thought he <i>could</i> prove that his life is not just a long dream.  His procedure was first to prove that God exists, and then to say: well, God is not a deceiver, he is a good God.  So he wouldn't allow the possibility that I'm asleep when by every indication I'm awake.  And besides, he gave me a faculty of sense-perception, and certainly God wouldn't make this faculty <i>so</i> faulty that it is unreliable.  So my faculty of sense-perception is reliable.  So Descartes made God the guarantee of his being awake, and of the reliability of his cognitive processes.
> 
> Of course, a lot of people have disagreed with Descartes on these points.  I won't get into their reasons why.
> 
> Here's a second thing you might observe about skepticism: the skeptic makes absolute certainty a requirement for knowledge, then you could reply.  So apply that observation to skepticism itself.  Is skepticism itself entirely beyond doubt?  Isn't it possible to raise various kinds of objection to skepticism?  So it would appear; but then no one can know that <i>skepticism</i> is true.  So then the skeptic can't know that skepticism is true.  But this is actually a bit of a weak reply, because it doesn?t really <i>refute</i> skepticism.  The skeptic, after all, may be perfectly happy to admit that no one knows that skepticism is true.  The skeptic might rest content saying that skepticism is <i>very</i> <i>probably</i> true.  That's not the kind of claim that we non-skeptics will be happy to allow.
> 
> A third objection, which especially applies to the circularity argument, comes from that common-sense Scotsman, Thomas Reid.  Reid argued as follows.  Suppose the skeptic is right, and perception is not reliable.  But perception is just another one of my cognitive processes; and if <i>it</i> is not reliable, then my <i>others</i> are also bound not to be reliable.  All of my faculties came out of the same shop, he said; so if one is faulty the others are bound to be as well.  But that means that the faculty of <i>reasoning</i>, which the skeptic uses, is also bound to be unreliable too.  In other words, when we reason, we are bound to make errors, and so we can never trust the arguments we give for any claim.  But then that applies to the skeptic's argument for skepticism!  So if the skeptic is right, we should not pay attention to skepticism, since the skeptic arrives at the skeptical conclusion by reasoning.  And if the skeptic is wrong, then of course we need not pay attention to skepticism.  In either case, we need not take skepticism about the reliability of our faculties seriously.
> 
> Do you recognize the form of Reid's argument?  It's a dilemma, like this: if P, then Q; if not-P, then Q; either P or not-P; therefore, in either case, Q.  Either the skeptic is right, in which case we can't trust our ability our reason and so can't trust the skeptic's conclusion; or the skeptic is wrong, in which case again we can't trust the skeptic's conclusion.  In either case we don't have to worry about skepticism!
> 
> Well, as you know we could go on nearly endlessly about this topic.  It's very interesting and has received a lot of discussion in philosophy, so there are a lot of arguments on both sides.  I've only given you a basic sampling.
------
Larrys_Text|984792817
17c17
< ::[[epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- [[Scepticism]] -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
---
> ::[[epistemology]] -- TheoryOfJustification -- TheRegressArgumentInEpistemology -- APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge -- KnowLedge -- [[Skepticism]] -- CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus 
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Natural_numbers|984792873
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Numbers 1,2,3.....
> 
> Though even a small child will understand what we mean by natural numbers, its definition has not been easy. A possible definition is given by the followinf axioms.
> 
> 
> There is a first natural number (usually 1, but some consider 0).
> 
> If N is a natural number, N+1 is a natural number.
> 
> (I'm sure I'm missing one).
------
Natural_numbers|984792904
1d0
< 
4c3
< Though even a small child will understand what we mean by natural numbers, its definition has not been easy. A possible definition is given by the followinf axioms.
---
> Though even a small child will understand what we mean by natural numbers, its definition has not been easy. A possible definition is given by the following axioms.
11c10
< (I'm sure I'm missing one).
---
> (I'm sure I'm missing one).
------
Number_system|984792914
1d0
< 
13c12,14
<  1 x 2^4 + 0 x 2^3 + 1 x 2^2 + 1 x 2^1 + 0 x 2^0 = 22 (in decimal).
---
>  1 x 2^4 + 0 x 2^3 + 1 x 2^2 + 1 x 2^1 + 0 x 2^0 = 22 (in binary).
> 
> Non-integers can be represented by using negative powers, which are set off from the other digits by means of a ''radix point'' (called a ''decimal point'' in base 10).  The number 11.01 thus means 1 x 2^1 + 1 x 2^0 + 0 x 2^-1 + 1 x 2^-2 in binary; pi would be 11.001001000011111... - numbers have terminating or repeating expansions if and only if they are [[rational numbers]].
15,16c16,17
< The system that humans use has base 10 probably because we have
< ten fingers in our hands.
---
> The system that humans use has base 10 because we have
> ten fingers in our hands.  Base 60 has also appeared from time to time.
------
The_Simpsons/Characters|984793159
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Simpson family members:
> * [[/Homer]]
> * [[/Marge]]
> * [[/Bart]]
> * [[/Lisa]]
> * [[/Maggie]]
> * [[/Snowball]]
> * [[/Snowball 2]]
> * [[/Santa's Little Helper]]
> * [[/Abraham]] (Grandpa)
> * [[/Mona]] (Homer's Mum]
> * [[/Selma]]
> * [[/Patty]]
> * [[/Jackie]] (Marge's Mum)
> 
> 
> Other characters:
> 
> Flanders family:
> * [[/Ned Flanders]]
> * [[/Maude Flander]]
> * [[/Rod Flanders]]
> * [[/Todd Flanders]]
> 
> Power Plant Staff:
> * [[/Lenny]]
> * [[/Carl]]
> * [[/Charles Montgomery Burns]]
> * [[/Waylon Smithers]]
> 
> Elementary School:
> 
> Adults:
> * [[/Seymour Skinner]]
> * [[/Edna Krabappel]]
> * [[/Elizabeth Hoover]]
> * [[/Otto Mann]]
> * [[/Groundskeeper Willy]]
> * [[/Lunchlady Doris]]
> * [[/Superintendent Chalmers]]
> * [[/Leopold]]
> 
> Kids:
> * [[/Milhouse Van Houten]]
> * [[/Nelson Muntz]]
> * [[/Ralph Wiggum]]
> * [[/Martin Prince]]
> * [[/Sherrie and Terrie]]
> * [[/Jimbo Jones]]
> 
> 
> Other:
> * [[/Chief Clancy Wiggum]]
> * [[/Dr. Julius Hibbert]]
> * [[/Reverend Timothy Lovejoy]]
> * [[/Helen Lovejoy]]
> * [[/Apu Nahasapeemapetilon]]
> * [[/Sanjay Nahasapeemapetilon]]
> * [[/Manjula]]
> * [[/Troy McClure]]
> * [[/Krusty the Clown]]
> * [[/Sideshow Bob]]
> * [[/Sideshow Mel]]
> * [[/Fat Tony]]
> * [[/Kent Brockman]]
> * [[/Bleeding Gums Murphy]]
> * [[/Barney Gumble]]
> * [[/Jasper]] (the one with the long grey beard)
> * [[/Hans Moleman]]
> * [[/Kirk Van Houten]]
> * [[/Luann Van Houten]]
> * [[/Cletus]]
> * [[/Joe Quimby]] (mayor)
> * [[/Moe Szyslak]]
> * [[/Lionel Hutz]]
> * [[/Dr. Nick Riviera]]
> * [[/Dr. Marvin Monroe]]
> 
> 
> 
------
DefinitionOfLogic|984793206
1,39c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Today we're going to study a subdiscipline of philosophy called <i>logic</i>.  This is basically the study of argument -- by which we mean, not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.  So recall from last time the definition of "argument":
< 
< An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
< 
< It's extremely important in this class that you understand what arguments are, and that you distinguish them from other things.  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  You can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
< 
< Now, there are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, or not primarily, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose I offer an explanation for why there are tides: I talk about the gravitational effect of the moon and the sun on the oceans, and so on.  Now, <i>that</i> isn't an argument.  It is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, I'm explaining why there are tides.  I'm not trying to convince you <i>that</i> there are tides.  We have already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
< 
< On the other hand, suppose I argue for the following claim: "God exists."  In other words, "God exists" is the conclusion of an argument I make.  In that case I am <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If I tried to explain why there is a God, I would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what I'm doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then I'm not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, I'm trying to <i>convince</i> you, or a skeptic anyway, that God exists.
< 
< So I think you can see the difference between an argument and an explanation.  On the one hand, the function or purpose of an argument is to convince people who might be doubting the conclusion.  On the other hand, the function or purpose of an explanation is to give the cause of some phenomenon which we observe, or are willing to assume actually occurs.  To put it even more briefly, the purpose of an argument is to <i>persuade</i>, while the purpose of an explanation is to <i>explain</i>.
< 
< Just as a hammer is the tool of the carpenter's trade, an <i>argument</i> is the tool of the philosopher's trade.  And, as I said last time, it shouldn't be too hard to see why philosophers work so much with arguments: philosophers carry to heroic lengths the human tendency to doubt sometimes the deepest, most fundamental of our beliefs.  Because they want to overcome all of these doubts, they offer and examine arguments for various claims: the arguments are supposed to be what will rid us of the doubts.  If we accept what we know is an excellent argument for a conclusion, and we've refuted all the plausible arguments <i>against</i> that conclusion, then we're very well-positioned to say that we <i>know</i> that the conclusion is true.  Arguments, then, have the potential to give us  <i>knowledge</i> and to rid us of doubts; that's why arguments are so important.
< 
< But just as there are good and bad hammers, there are good and bad arguments.  In fact, I imagine that there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than there are bad hammers.  Let me give you an example of a bad argument.  Suppose I wanted to argue for the claim that <i>all</i> <i>killing</i> <i>is</i> <i>wrong</i>.  And suppose I was giving this argument to a bunch of people who supported the death penalty: they think that <i>some</i> killing is fine, as punishment of the worst murderers, say.  So I argue as follows:
< 
< If one should never do X, all X is wrong.  (X can be any action.)
< 
< One should absolutely never kill.
< 
< Therefore, all killing is wrong.
< 
< Would the supporters of the death penalty be impressed by this argument?  Of course they wouldn't.  They would say, "You're begging the question.  In your argument, you say that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i> you'd have to prove that all killing is wrong -- which is what you're trying to argue for.  We disagree with your conclusion: we think that <i>some</i> killing is <i>not</i> wrong.  And so of <i>course</i> we are going to disagree with your premise, that one should absolutely never kill.  No indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it's our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of justice."
< 
< So you can see that my argument just isn't going to work against those people.  In it, I presuppose the conclusion: in other words, one of the premises <i>assumes</i> that the conclusion is true.  This is an error in arguing.  The <i>kind</i> of error has a name: <i>begging</i> <i>the</i> <i>question</i>.  If my argument begs the question then in my argument I assume the very thing that I'm trying to argue <i>for</i>.  Of course an argument that begs the question won't, or shouldn't, convince anyone: if I assume what I'm arguing for, anyone who assumes differently will be unimpressed.
< 
< Begging the question is one of the ways that arguments can go wrong.  There are many, many other ways; and those most common ways that arguments can go wrong are called <i>fallacies</i>.  So begging the question is one kind of fallacy.  You should make sure that you are not committing any fallacies yourself, when you argue.
< 
< Let me give you another example of a fallacy.  Suppose I argue like this:
< 
< Ted is a good tennis player.
< 
< Therefore, Ted is good -- a morally good person.
< 
< Here the problem is that the word "good" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, we say that Ted is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  But in the conclusion we say that Ted is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  And so of course the premise might be true, while the conclusion would still be false: Ted might be the best tennis player in the world, but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>fallacy</i> <i>of</i> <i>ambiguity</i>.
< 
< Now you're just going to have to trust me that there are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloging fallacies -- all the different kinds of ways that arguments can go wrong.  Today we're going to be less ambitious: we're going to outline, in broad generalities, how arguments can <i>go</i> <i>right</i>.  In other words, I'm going to introduce you to the study of <i>good</i> arguments, non-fallacious arguments -- which is to say that I'm going to introduce you to <i>logic</i>.
---
> <i>Logic</i> is basically the study of [[argument]]--not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.
------
The_Simpsons|984793296
5c5,9
< :[[/Merchandise]]
---
> Series within The Simpsons:
> 
> :[[/Itchy and Scratchy]]
> :[[/McBain]]
> :[[/Radioactive Man]]
6a11
> :[[/Merchandise]]
------
Larrys_Text|984793316
7c7
< ::DefinitionOfLogic -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[definition of logic]] -- [[argument]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
Natural_numbers|984793387
1c1,2
< Numbers 1,2,3.....
---
> The numbers 0,1,2,3..... that can be used to measure the size of finite sets.
> <br>Many authors exclude zero, which is the historical standard, but I think most axiomatizations include it now.
3c4
< Though even a small child will understand what we mean by natural numbers, its definition has not been easy. A possible definition is given by the following axioms.
---
> Though even a small child will understand what we mean by natural numbers, its definition has not been easy.  A set contains a subset isomorphic to the naturals if and only if it satisfies these five axioms, called the [[Peano postulates]]:
5,10c6,9
< 
< There is a first natural number (usually 1, but some consider 0).
< 
< If N is a natural number, N+1 is a natural number.
< 
< (I'm sure I'm missing one).
---
> * Every natural number a has a successor, denoted Sa or a+1
> * There is a natural number which is not the successor of any other (0, sometimes 1)
> * Distinct natural numbers have distinct successors: if a <> b, then a+1 <> b+1
> * A property that is possessed by 0 and if possessed by any given natural number is possessed by its successor, is possessed by all natural numbers.  That is, [[mathematical induction]] works.
------
DefinitionOfLogic|984793590
1,15c1
< <i>Logic</i> is basically the study of [[argument]]--not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.
< 
< Here is a definition of "logic":
< 
< <i>Logic</i> is the study of good arguments and definitions; in particular, it is the study of (1) forms of arguments and their parts, (2) the qualities (of arguments) of validity, cogency, and soundness, (3) how to construct, identify, interpret, and evaluate various kinds of arguments, and (4) how to construct and evaluate definitions.
< 
< Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of definitions, as well.  And the way I'll present it, logic will include discussion of <i>both</i> arguments <i>and</i> definitions.
< 
< I want to introduce you to some of the most fundamental logical concepts, for two reasons.  The first is that logic is one of the basic branches of philosophy, and so if I'm going to introduce you to all, or almost all, of the basic branches of philosophy, I'd better introduce you to logic.  The second reason is practical: namely, logic will help you understand better the rest of philosophy.  So it also has practical value.
< 
< There is a good reason why logic will help you understand the rest of philosophy.  I said last time that it is doubt about the meaning and justification of certain fundamental beliefs that motivates us to do philosophy.  Well, very often to extricate us from these doubts what are needed are <i>definitions</i> that explain the meaning of our basic concepts, and <i>arguments</i> to justify, or give reasons for, various beliefs that we're not quite sure about.  Logic states the standards of good definitions and good arguments: it gives us the tools to see whether various proposed definitions, or arguments, are any good or not.  It helps us to avoid fallacies.
< 
< So let's go back to the definition of "logic" I gave, and examine its various parts, leaving aside part (4), about definitions, for now.
< 
< Logic, like mathematics and physics, has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  And just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other things), you have to do quite a bit of <i>practice</i> if you want to gain any facility in using logic.  Logic is a bit unlike other parts of philosophy in that way: in studying books in <i>other</i> areas of philosophy, such as ethics and metaphysics, you'll rarely see <i>problems</i> at the end of the chapter.  But you might very well do problems in logic, in order to learn how to use logic.  (Of course, that's not to say that practice, of various sorts, would not help one to learn other areas of philosophy better.  It's just that the practice would be practice thinking the problems through.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[college logic]]
------
Larrys_Text|984793707
7c7
< ::[[definition of logic]] -- [[argument]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
Natural_numbers|984793803
5a6
> * There is a natural number 0 (or 1, if you don't accept 0)
7c8
< * There is a natural number which is not the successor of any other (0, sometimes 1)
---
> * There is no natural number whose successor is 0 (or, again, 1)
9c10,14
< * A property that is possessed by 0 and if possessed by any given natural number is possessed by its successor, is possessed by all natural numbers.  That is, [[mathematical induction]] works.
---
> * A property that is possessed by 0 and if possessed by any given natural number is possessed by its successor, is possessed by all natural numbers.  That is, [[mathematical induction]] works.
> 
> A standard construction in terms of set theory is to define each natural number as the set of natural numbers less than it, so that 0={}, 1={{}}, 2={{},{{}}}...  These are precisely the finite [[ordinals]] and represent each finite cardinality class; when you see a natural number used as a set this is typically what is meant.
> 
> The standard ordering for the natural numbers is given by a<a+1, a<b => a<b+1.  The order isomorphisms of the set turn out to be isomorphic to the set itself, so their compositions define an addition on the natural numbers with a+0=a.  The smallest [[group]] containing this is the [[integers]].
------
Jimbo_Wales|984793814
9c9,18
< (I just cleaned out all the old notes here, but feel free to leave me new notes.)
---
> (I just cleaned out all the old notes here, but feel free to leave me new notes.)
> 
> ----
> Hi, I'm cdani. I reviewed catalan.w... and it seems good. Solely problem I found, I login but my name is not saved with the revisions of pages, instead of this, it saves the ip.
> 
> I'm searching people to contribute in Catalan.
> 
> Do you want I do a homepage for catalan like English homepage? If you want, no problem. Also translate something other to Catalan? Just indicate.
> 
> ----
------
College_logic|984793829
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>[[Logic]]</i> is basically the study of [[argument]]--not angry disagreements or fisticuffs, but instead <i>the</i> <i>giving</i> <i>of</i> <i>reasons</i> <i>to</i> <i>believe</i> <i>things</i>.
> 
> As it is studied in a traditional first logic course in college (based on [[traditional logic]]), logic is the study of (1) forms of arguments and their parts, (2) the qualities (of arguments) of [[validity]], [[cogency]], and [[soundness]], and (3) how to construct, identify, interpret, and evaluate various kinds of arguments.  Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of [[definition]]s, as well.
> 
> Logic, like [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], has a theoretical part and an applied part.  Parts (1) and (2) of the above-described definition together describe the theoretical part of logic, and (3) describes the applied part.  Just as a nonmathematician learning physics should study mathematics in order to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> mathematics well, a nonlogician in <i>any</i> task that requires reasoning, such as confirming rational beliefs, should study logic to learn how to <i>use</i> or <i>apply</i> logic well.  Moreover, like mathematics and physics (and many other subjects), one has to <i>practice</i> quite a bit if one wants to gain any facility in using logic.
> 
> See also [[traditional logic]] and [[Aristotle/Logic]].
------
College_logic|984793860
7c7,9
< See also [[traditional logic]] and [[Aristotle/Logic]].
---
> See also [[traditional logic]] and [[Aristotle/Logic]].
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Catalan_language|984793915
3c3
< El Català és un llenguatge parlat per aproximadament 11 milions de persones, principalment a Catalunya, Espanya, peró també a França, Andorra, Italia i Alemanya.
---
> El Català és una llengua parlada per aproximadament 11 milions de persones, principalment a Catalunya, Espanya, peró també a França, Andorra i Italia.
------
Logic|984793922
15c15
< See also DefinitionOfLogic; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> See also [[college logic]]; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
------
Argument|984794495
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  One can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
> 
> There are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, except in its applications, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose James offer an explanation for why there are [[tide]]s: he talks about the gravitational effect of the [[moon]] and the [[sun]] on the [[ocean]]s, and so on.  <i>That</i> is not an argument; it is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, James explains why there are tides.  He is not trying to convince anyone <i>that</i> there are tides.  It is already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
> 
> On the other hand, suppose James argue for the following claim: "[[God]] exists."  In that case James is <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If he tried to explain why there is a God, he would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what he is doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then he is not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, he is trying to <i>convince</i> someone that God exists.
> 
> The difference between an argument and an explanation should be clear.  On the one hand, the function or purpose of an argument is to convince people who might be doubting the conclusion.  On the other hand, the function or purpose of an explanation is to give the cause of some phenomenon which we observe, or are willing to assume actually occurs.  To put it even more briefly, the purpose of an argument is to <i>persuade</i>, while the purpose of an explanation is to <i>explain</i>.
> 
> There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than good ones.  The ways in which arguments go wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacies]].
------
Larrys_Text|984794527
7c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
Argument|984794547
9c9
< There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than good ones.  The ways in which arguments go wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacies]].
---
> There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than good ones.  The ways in which arguments go wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
------
Logical_fallacy|984795106
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''fallacy'' is a way that an ''argument'' can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  This page should eventually list various types of fallacy--a popular sport of debaters and logic text authors--but just to introduce the notion of a logical fallacy, a few examples should suffice.  There are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloguing fallacies, and [[traditional logic]] texts typically list a few dozen.
> 
> Here is an example of a bad argument.  Suppose James wanted to argue for the claim that <i>all</i> <i>killing</i> <i>is</i> <i>wrong</i>.  Suppose he was giving this argument to a bunch of people who supported the death penalty: they think that <i>some</i> killing is fine, as punishment of the worst murderers.  So James argues as follows:
> 
> :If one should never do X, all X is wrong.  (X can be any action.)
> :One should absolutely never kill.
> :Therefore, all killing is wrong.
> 
> The supporters of the death penalty would not be impressed by this argument.  It commits the [[logical fallacy]] of [[begging the question]].  In the argument, James says that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i>, he would have to prove that all killing is wrong--which is what he is trying to argue for.  Anyone who disagrees with the conclusion will disagree with the premise that one should absolutely never kill.  One might maintain to the contrary that, indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it is our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of [[justice]].
> 
> The argument [[presupposition|presupposes]] its conclusion: one of the premises <i>assumes</i> that the conclusion is true.  This is an error in arguing.  The <i>kind</i> of error has a name: <i>begging</i> <i>the</i> <i>question</i>.  If James' argument begs the question then in his argument he assumes the very thing that he is trying to argue <i>for</i>.  Of course an argument that begs the question will not, or should not, convince anyone.
> 
> Here is another example of a fallacy.  Suppose Barbara argues like this:
> 
> :Andre is a good tennis player.
> :Therefore, Andre is good--a morally good person.
> 
> Here the problem is that the word "[[good]]" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, Barbara says that Andre is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  So, of course, the premise might be true while the conclusion would still be false: Andre might be the best tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>[[fallacy of ambiguity]]</i>.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Logic|984795264
1,3c1
< Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning, was pioneered by Aristotle.
< Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the
< earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.
---
> Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning or good [[argument]], was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
5,13c3
< Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae 
< by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what 
< makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of classical logic were 
< often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better 
< arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The Jesuits emphasized this so 
< highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session 
< with their peers.
< 
< The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is valid argumentation (see ValidIty).
---
> Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of [[traditional logic]] were often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The [[Jesuit]]s emphasized this so highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session with their peers.
------
Argument|984795311
9a10,11
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
History_of_United_States|984795424
2a3,23
> During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new
> states were added to the union. Two importants events were the
> [[Louissiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
> France all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
> the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained
> [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]), and [[Texas]].
> 
> Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Licoln]], 
> several states from the south secceded from the union forming
> the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued,
> that ended with the political reunification of the country.
> 
> During the 20th century US was involved in two World Wars.
> It entered in  [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, one of its
> ships, was sunken by the germans. With its help, Great Britain,
> France and Italy won the war, an imposed severe penalties on
> Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]]
> 
> ...
> 
>  
7c28
< * [[History Of United States Talk]]
---
> * [[History Of United States Talk]]
------
History_Of_United_States_Discussion|984795531
70a71,75
> ----
> 
> I began with the history again. I'm not from the US, so I think
> I can be a bit more impartial...I haven't written anything that
> should cause controversy, yet.
------
DefinitionOfLogic|984795746
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[college logic]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[College logic]]
------
Logical_fallacy|984795770
18a19
> 
20c21,24
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> 
> [[Other Logical Fallacies]] (do you mind?)
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Logical_fallacy|984795812
1c1
< A ''fallacy'' is a way that an ''argument'' can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  This page should eventually list various types of fallacy--a popular sport of debaters and logic text authors--but just to introduce the notion of a logical fallacy, a few examples should suffice.  There are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloguing fallacies, and [[traditional logic]] texts typically list a few dozen.
---
> A ''fallacy'' is a way that an [[argument]] can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  This page should eventually list various types of fallacy--a popular sport of debaters and logic text authors--but just to introduce the notion of a logical fallacy, a few examples should suffice.  There are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloguing fallacies, and [[traditional logic]] texts typically list a few dozen.
------
Logical_fallacy|984795891
22c22
< [[Other Logical Fallacies]] (do you mind?)
---
> [[Other Logical Fallacies]] (do you mind?)  (I don't mind, just go ahead and list them right here, or after the first paragraph perhaps!)
------
Logical_fallacy|984795933
19d18
< 
21,22c20
< 
< [[Other Logical Fallacies]] (do you mind?)  (I don't mind, just go ahead and list them right here, or after the first paragraph perhaps!)
---
> Just go ahead and list the fallacies right here, or after the first paragraph perhaps!
------
Other_Logical_Fallacies|984796037
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics, for example,
> the "Argumentum ad hominem", the argument by the authority of
> a person. Every time a politician says another "You don't have
> moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it. In the opposite direction is the use of "Celebrity Speakerpersons": that product
> is good because (put your favorite celebrity here) endorses it.
------
Other_Logical_Fallacies|984796316
1d0
< 
6c5,6
< is good because (put your favorite celebrity here) endorses it.
---
> is good because (put your favorite celebrity here) endorses it.
> ----Actually, I think this should just be added to [[logical fallacy]] (maybe).  On the [[logical fallacy]] page you could make a subpage, like <nowiki>/List of fallacies</a>, if you didn't want to list the fallacies right there on the page.
------
Other_Logical_Fallacies|984796334
6c6
< ----Actually, I think this should just be added to [[logical fallacy]] (maybe).  On the [[logical fallacy]] page you could make a subpage, like <nowiki>/List of fallacies</a>, if you didn't want to list the fallacies right there on the page.
---
> ----Actually, I think this should just be added to [[logical fallacy]] (maybe).  On the [[logical fallacy]] page you could make a subpage, like <nowiki>/List of fallacies</nowiki>, if you didn't want to list the fallacies right there on the page.
------
Slashdot|984796513
4a5,6
> 
> Slashdot was originally created in September 1997 by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda. Today it is owned by Andover.net. Slashdot is run primarily by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda, Jeff "Hemos" Bates who posts stories, sells advertising, and handles the book reviews and Robin "Roblimo" Miller who has recently come on board to help handle some of the more managerial sides of the site, as well as posting stories. Bandwidth comes from Exodus.Net 
------
Ecliptic|984796523
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The plane that contains the orbit of the earth. Most planets
> orbits lay very close to it. Seen from the earth, this is the
> [[great circle]] in the sky that contains the different positions on the [[Sun]] along the year, and most [[planets]] can be seen close this circle.
------
Logical_fallacy|984796785
19,20c19,27
< ----
< Just go ahead and list the fallacies right here, or after the first paragraph perhaps!
---
> 
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics, for example, the "Argumentum
> ad hominem", the argument by the authority of a person. 
> Every time a politician says another "You
> don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the
> person who uses it. In the opposite direction is the use of "Celebrity Spokepersons": that product is
> good because (put your favorite celebrity here) endorses it.
>  
> 
------
Argument|984797950
1c1,9
< An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  One can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
---
> An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the
> <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the
> <i>premises</i>).  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then
> draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something,
> and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to
> the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The
> thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  One can
> think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or
> premises, and the conclusion.
3c11,20
< There are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments, such as explanations.  Logic does not, except in its applications, concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose James offer an explanation for why there are [[tide]]s: he talks about the gravitational effect of the [[moon]] and the [[sun]] on the [[ocean]]s, and so on.  <i>That</i> is not an argument; it is an <i>explanation</i>.  In <i>that</i> case, James explains why there are tides.  He is not trying to convince anyone <i>that</i> there are tides.  It is already agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is <i>why</i> there are.
---
> There are <i>other</i> kinds of sets of statements besides arguments,
> such as explanations.  Logic does not, except in its applications,
> concern itself with explanations.  For example, suppose James offers an
> explanation for why there are [[tide]]s: he talks about the
> gravitational effect of the [[moon]] and the [[sun]] on the [[ocean]]s,
> and so on.  <i>That</i> is not an argument; it is an <i>explanation</i>.
> In <i>that</i> case, James explains why there are tides.  He is not
> trying to convince anyone <i>that</i> there are tides.  It is already
> agreed that there are tides.  The question the explanation answers is
> <i>why</i> there are.
5c22,28
< On the other hand, suppose James argue for the following claim: "[[God]] exists."  In that case James is <i>not</i> explaining why there is a God.  If he tried to explain why there is a God, he would be <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what he is doing is <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then he is not <i>assuming</i> that he exists; rather, he is trying to <i>convince</i> someone that God exists.
---
> On the other hand, suppose James argue for the following claim: "[[God]]
> exists."  In that case James is <i>not</i> explaining why there is a
> God.  If he tried to explain why there is a God, he would be
> <i>assuming</i> that there is a God.  But if what he is doing is
> <i>arguing</i> for the existence of God, then he is not <i>assuming</i>
> that he exists; rather, he is trying to <i>convince</i> someone that God
> exists.
7c30,37
< The difference between an argument and an explanation should be clear.  On the one hand, the function or purpose of an argument is to convince people who might be doubting the conclusion.  On the other hand, the function or purpose of an explanation is to give the cause of some phenomenon which we observe, or are willing to assume actually occurs.  To put it even more briefly, the purpose of an argument is to <i>persuade</i>, while the purpose of an explanation is to <i>explain</i>.
---
> The difference between an argument and an explanation should be clear.
> On the one hand, the function or purpose of an argument is to convince
> people who might be doubting the conclusion.  On the other hand, the
> function or purpose of an explanation is to give the cause of some
> phenomenon which we observe, or are willing to assume actually occurs.
> To put it even more briefly, the purpose of an argument is to
> <i>persuade</i>, while the purpose of an explanation is to
> <i>explain</i>.
9c39,41
< There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad arguments in the world than good ones.  The ways in which arguments go wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
---
> There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad
> arguments in the world than good ones.  The ways in which arguments go
> wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
------
Astronomy|984799122
5,6c5,6
< Astronomy is probably the oldest of the NaturalSciences.
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the Sun and the stars where correlated with the seasons, and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and PlaneTs, that move between stars.
---
> Astronomy is probably the oldest of the [[Natural Sciences]].
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the [[Sun]] and the stars where correlated with the [[seasons]], and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and [[planets]], that move between stars.
8c8
< CopernicuS proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
---
> [[Copernicus]] proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous supporters were [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
10c10
< Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by TychoBrahe, discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published then mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
---
> Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
12c12
< Galilei was apparently the first one to use the TeleScope to observe the sky, discovering the moons of JupiTer and the SunSpots, but he is most famous by his problems with the CatholicChurch (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
---
> Galilei was apparently the first one to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky, discovering the moons of [[Jupiter]] and the [[Sunspots]], but he is most famous by his problems with the [[Catholic Church]] (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
14,15c14,15
< IsaacNewton was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
< earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the LawsOfKepler are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
---
> [[Isaac Newton]] was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the [[Laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
21c21
< decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of SpectralLines
---
> decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of [[spectral lines]]
25c25
< to unique elements. It was proved that the ElementS found on the
---
> to unique elements. It was proved that the [[elements]] found in the
28c28
< During the 20th century SpectroMetry (the study of these lines)
---
> During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines)
34,35c34,35
< With the help of the use of PhotoGraphy, fainter objects were 
< observed. Our sun was found to be part of a Galaxy made by more
---
> With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were 
> observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[Galaxy]] made by more
------
Natural_Sciences|984799156
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT NaturalSciences
------
NaturalSciences|984799199
1c1
< The ''natural sciences'' study the physical, nonhuman aspects of the world.  As a group, the natural sciences are distinguished from the ''SocialSciences,'' on the one hand, as well as from ''CulTure'' (the arts and humanities) on the other.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Natural Sciences]]
------
Natural_Sciences|984799265
1c1
< #REDIRECT NaturalSciences
---
> The ''natural sciences'' study the physical, nonhuman aspects of the world.  As a group, the natural sciences are distinguished from the ''[[Social Sciences]],'' on the one hand, as well as from the arts and humanities on the other.
------
Social_Sciences|984799331
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Social sciences]]
------
CulTure|984799478
2a3,7
> 
> We separate ''Culture'' from Sciences? I consider Science to
> be a part of the Culture.
> 
> ----
------
LawsOfKepler|984799611
1,7c1
< The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
< 
< Kepler's First Law:  Planets move in ellipses, with the sun located on one focus of the ellipse.
< 
< Kepler's Second Law: A line between a planet and the sun will sweep out equal areas over equals times. 
< 
< Kepler's Third Law:  The square of a planet's radius of orbit is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Laws of Kepler]]
------
Laws_of_Kepler|984799736
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
> 
> Kepler's First Law:  Planets move in ellipses, with the sun located on one focus of the ellipse.
> 
> Kepler's Second Law: A line between a planet and the sun will sweep out equal areas over equals times. 
> 
> Kepler's Third Law:  The square of the semimajor axis of the orbit of a [[planet]] is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun (its period).
------
Logical_fallacy|984800627
20,21c20,22
< Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics, for example, the "Argumentum
< ad hominem", the argument by the authority of a person. 
---
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the argument
> "ad hominem" is used when instead of refuting an statement, the
> person who made the statement is attacked.
24c25,30
< person who uses it. In the opposite direction is the use of "Celebrity Spokepersons": that product is
---
> person who uses it. 
> 
> In the opposite direction is the fallacy of authority. Classical
> example of this is the "Master dixit" , the master said it, used
> through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].
> A modern use of this is "Celebrity Spokepersons": that product is
27d32
< 
------
Bit|984800842
1c1,4
< Single basic unit of information ([[computer]]).
---
> Single basic unit of information([[computer]]).
> It can have only two values, corresponding to closed or open, or 0 or 1.
> 
> (Is it an acronym for Binary Information T....something???)
------
Poles/Talk|984801413
34c34,36
< I think it is really a gross error to suppose that an ethnically diverse nation can not also be a peaceful modern republic.
---
> I think it is really a gross error to suppose that an ethnically diverse nation can not also be a peaceful modern republic.
> ---- 
> The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eatern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants  in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he has done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob
------
Poles/Talk|984801534
36c36
< The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eatern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants  in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he has done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob
---
> The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eatern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants  in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he and his family have done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984801944
13a14,15
> 
> Same here - WojPob
------
Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc.|984802170
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
> 
> a double redirect does not seem to work....
------
Radio|984802286
3c3
< Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to news, current affairs, sport and especially [[popular music]].
---
> Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to news, current affairs, sport and especially [[popular music]]. A recent development is [[web radio]].
8c8
< *[[The Goon Show]]
---
> *[[The Goon Show]]
------
Punk_rock|984802490
18c18,19
< *[[Bad Religion]]
---
> *[[Bad Religion]]
> *[[UK Subs]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984807004
9c9
< *[[Israel]] -- umm, that's not extinct.
---
> *[[Ancient Israel]]
30c30
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Extinct_countries|984807030
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Extinct political countries, empires, etc.]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
------
Bit|984807403
1,4c1
< Single basic unit of information([[computer]]).
< It can have only two values, corresponding to closed or open, or 0 or 1.
< 
< (Is it an acronym for Binary Information T....something???)
---
> Single basic unit of information ([[computer]]).  It can have only two values, corresponding to closed or open, or 0 or 1.  Short for ''B''inary dig''it''.
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|984808369
24a25,26
> ----
> Is anyone taking into consideration that "not everyone" keeps their character map (charmap) set to the default?  I for one, don't even remember what the default was/is.
------
Games/video_games|984809546
70c70,72
< 
---
> * [[Asteroids]]
> * [[Joust]]
> * [[Yars Revenge]]
------
Data|984810489
3c3
< Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>Star Trek: The Next Generation</i>.
---
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
------
Data|984810559
3c3
< Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
---
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]</i>.
------
Data|984810592
3c3
< Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]</i>.
---
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
------
PerCapitaIncome|984810780
14a15
> # Swaziland $200
18c19
< See also PerCapitaIncomeTalk.
---
> See also PerCapitaIncomeTalk.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984810972
15c15,17
< Same here - WojPob
---
> Same here - WojPob
> 
> A wise man once told me, "Profanity demonstrates a lack of intelligence, as well as ignorance of the language."
------
Computer_Monitor|984811237
5c5,8
< * [[/Plasma]]
---
> * [[/Plasma]]
> 
> ----
> Is Flat Panel Display FPD?
------
Wiki_special_characters|984811311
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How does one do special characters on wiki?
> 
> Up until recently we've been using the extended ASCII characters, listed on [[Wiki ASCII codes page]].  Unfortunately, these turn out not to be universal.  They work fine for windows and unix, but on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly.  And, of course, they are fairly incomplete - missing, among other things, a [[Greek alphabet]] and mathematical symbols.
> 
> The current suggestion is that we use the HTML4 character entry system.  These characters don't show up on older systems, and in fact not all of them show up for me, but it's beautiful as far as it goes.  A full list of codes are available at http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html.
> 
------
Computer_printer|984811376
1a2,8
> 
> ----
> * [[laser jet]]
> * [[color laser jet]]
> * [[bubble jet]]
> * [[ink jet]]
> * [[dot matrix]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984811600
153,163c153,154
< '''A few special characters''' (see also [[Wiki ASCII codes page]])
< <table width=30% border=2>
< <tr><td>129<td>ü</tr>
< <tr><td>130<td>é</tr>
< <tr><td>160<td>á</tr>
< <tr><td>161<td>í</tr>
< <tr><td>162<td>ó</tr>
< <tr><td>163<td>ú</tr>
< <tr><td>164<td>ñ</tr>
< <tr><td>165<td>Ñ</tr>
< </table>
---
> Very often you might need to use special characters, like these: ü � &alpha;
> <br>See [[Wiki special characters]] for what you should and shouldn't do.
------
Wiki_special_characters|984811967
5c5,14
< The current suggestion is that we use the HTML4 character entry system.  These characters don't show up on older systems, and in fact not all of them show up for me, but it's beautiful as far as it goes.  A full list of codes are available at http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html.
---
> The current suggestion is that we use the HTML4 character entry system.  These characters don't show up on older systems, and in fact not all of them show up for me, but it's beautiful as far as it goes.  A full list of codes are available at http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html.  Some examples:
> 
>  &amp;amp;       &amp;
>  &amp;agrave;    &agrave;
>  &amp;ntilde;    &ntilde;
>  &amp;Ccedil;    &Ccedil;
>  &amp;Uuml;      &Uuml;
>  &amp;Theta;     &Theta;
>  &amp;sigmaf;    &sigmaf;
>  &amp;mdash;     &mdash;
------
Wiki_special_characters|984812103
7a8
>  &amp;mdash;     &mdash;
14,15c15,19
<  &amp;mdash;     &mdash;
< 
---
>  &amp;forall;    &forall;
>  &amp;exist;     &exist;
>  &amp;ang;       &ang;
>  &amp;sum;       &sum;
>  &amp;there4;    &there4;
------
German_language|984819691
1c1
< Language spoken in [[GermanY, AustriA, and part of SwitzerlanD.  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
---
> Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]].  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
9a10
> Does this page do any justice whatsoever to this very fine language?  No, it's just here so that Austrian and Luxembourgain have homes.  It's sad, really, but it won't be this way forever.  And there is a German version of [[wikipedia]] starting up, yes, at http://deutsche.wikipedia.com!
------
Zodiac|984825701
0a1
> Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses. Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
2c3
< Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses. Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
---
> [[/signs]]
------
Zodiac/signs|984825847
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A topic related to [[astrology]]???
> 
> [[Zodiac]] signs: Libra -- Scorpio -- ????
> 
> ----
> Could someone please complete this, 'coz I don't have a clue -- WojPob (scorpio;-)
------
Computer_printer|984829403
4,8c4,7
< * [[laser jet]]
< * [[color laser jet]]
< * [[bubble jet]]
< * [[ink jet]]
< * [[dot matrix]]
---
> * [[/laser]] printer
> * [[/color laser]] printer
> * [[/ink] printer
> * [[/dot matrix]] printer
------
Computer_printer|984829431
6c6
< * [[/ink] printer
---
> * [[/ink]] printer
------
Requested_articles|984829550
32c32
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]]
34c34
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
Vampire|984829665
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mythical undead being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Fanous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
------
Requested_articles|984829725
30c30
< <b>[[Folklore]]: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]] -- [[Goblin]] -- [[Ghoul]]
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Werewolf]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]] -- [[Goblin]] -- [[Ghoul]]
------
Requested_articles|984829902
26,34c26
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
< 
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
< 
< <b>[[Folklore]]: </b>[[Dwarf]] -- [[Elf]] -- [[Troll]] -- [[Ogre]] -- [[Dragon]] -- [[Halfling]] -- [[Gnome]] -- [[Werewolf]] -- [[Spectre]] -- [[Zombie]] -- [[Wraith]] -- [[Goblin]] -- [[Ghoul]]
< 
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]]
< 
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive
------
Vampire|984829930
1c1
< Mythical undead being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Fanous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
---
> Mythical undead being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
------
Vampire|984830432
1a2,9
> 
> Although undead, a vamipre may be "killed" using several methods:
> *Ramming a stake (use [[silver]] for best results) through a vampires heart
> *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist
> *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]] and crosses keep vampires away
> 
> Vampire films and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosfreratu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]]
> 
------
Jimbo_Wales|984830957
16a17
> ----
18c19
< ----
---
> hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - WojPob
------
Jimbo_Wales|984833676
19c19,21
< hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - WojPob
---
> hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - WojPob
> 
> Gee that rings a bell....
------
Puerto_Rico|984834402
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Puerto Rico''' is a small island about 100x35 miles. It was acquired by the [[UnitedStates|USA]] in the [[Spanish American War]]. Its local government is based on a constitution adopted in 1952 after approval by the US Congress which maintains ultimate sovreignty. 
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Polymer|984836061
19c19
< * [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are polymers. The enzymes used in their synthesis are called <i>polymerases</i>
---
> * [[DNA]] and [[RNA]] are polymers of [[nucleotide]]s. The enzymes used in their synthesis are called <i>polymerases</i>
------
DNA|984836115
3c3
< Structurally, nucleic acids are giant [[polymer]] contained of units called [[nucleotides]] - each of which consists of a sugar phosphate and a base.  The sugar in DNA is [[deoxyribose]] which is small enough to cause the molecule to twist into a helix.  The four nucleotides are [[adenosine]], [[cytosine]], [[thymidine]], and [[guanosine]] phosphate.  Each can readily form hydrogen bonds to one of the others - A with T, C with G - so that two matching strands of DNA will group together in a double helix.  This form is called B-DNA; there are a few others.
---
> Structurally, nucleic acids are giant [[polymer]]s composed of units called [[nucleotide]]s - each of which consists of a sugar phosphate and a base.  The sugar in DNA is [[deoxyribose]] which is small enough to cause the molecule to twist into a helix.  The four nucleotides are [[adenosine]], [[cytosine]], [[thymidine]], and [[guanosine]] phosphate.  Each can readily form hydrogen bonds to one of the others - A with T, C with G - so that two matching strands of DNA will group together in a double helix.  This form is called B-DNA; there are a few others.
------
Jimbo_Wales|984839452
12c12
< Hi, I'm cdani. I reviewed catalan.w... and it seems good. Solely problem I found, I login but my name is not saved with the revisions of pages, instead of this, it saves the ip.
---
> Hi, I'm cdani. I reviewed catalan.w... and it seems good.
------
Zodiac/signs|984841912
3,6c3,4
< [[Zodiac]] signs: Libra -- Scorpio -- ????
< 
< ----
< Could someone please complete this, 'coz I don't have a clue -- WojPob (scorpio;-)
---
> [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpius]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricornus]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
> <br>See also [[constellation]].
------
Constellation|984841952
12c12
< * [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
---
> * [[Scorpius]] - formerly Scorpio, the scorpion
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984842447
32c32,56
< 
---
> ----
> Mr. Sonic! can you read at all?<BR>
> did I at any place mention an absolute fact?<BR>
> be happy you don't know any ACTUAL rapist, murderer or whatever<BR>
> Luckily, I don't either<BR>
> what I tried to state thate there is violence in all of us;<BR>
> with RPG this can be evident<BR>
> why do you think schoolchildren spread mayhem?<BR>
> how come U.S. media and politicians can't look at the root of this violence?<BR>
> In my experience of RPG (with scores of players, DM's & storytellers) is that very often the game is used to roleplay all this violence and fear<BR>
> I did not write that you and I are, were or will ever be an actual murderer or whatever!<BR>  
> maybe you could look at what you fear yourself, mr. Sonic!<BR>
> maybe it would be wise to read some closer<BR>
> before you judge and use terms you apparently don't understand<BR>
> do you really know what a 'nazi' is?<P>
> I'm very sorry if I offended you in my statements<BR>
> be sure it was never my intention<BR>
> I still wonder why you think it all stupid, beyond an apparent loathing of it<BR>
> if it really where that stupid, why care?<P>
> We've watched the violence on TV long enough dismissing the horrible fact that it's really all about us<BR>
> better face it, to prevent it happening<BR>
> not accepting it is making all high-schools into prisons & all american boys into prisoners<BR>
> you have one off the biggest population of jailed men in the world!<BR>
> maybe the U.S. community better change something<BR>
> - Mathijs
------
Poles/Talk|984843048
36a37,38
> ----
> 'necessary' perhaps is to absolute a term; no-one can look in the future. In history there can be no such thing as Boolean logic.  - Mathijs
------
Vampire|984843203
8c8
< Vampire films and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosfreratu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]]
---
> Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosfreratu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
------
Vampire|984843257
8c8
< Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosfreratu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
---
> Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosferatu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
------
Vampire|984843422
9a10,13
> Vampires can be roleplayed too:
> *[Vampire: The Masquerade]? 
> *[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]? 
> *[Mage: The Ascension]? 
------
Vampire|984843465
11,13c11,13
< *[Vampire: The Masquerade]? 
< *[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]? 
< *[Mage: The Ascension]? 
---
> *[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]
> *[[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]] 
> *[[Mage: The Ascension]] 
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984843995
17c17,24
< A wise man once told me, "Profanity demonstrates a lack of intelligence, as well as ignorance of the language."
---
> A wise man once told me, "Profanity demonstrates a lack of intelligence, as well as ignorance of the language."
> ----
> Somehow I don't seem to need any 'foul' language to offend allmost anyone<BR>
> wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas (as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
> Some crazy wiseman said:<BR>
> <I>I can only hate by caring<BR>
> neglect is true offense</I><BR>
> I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984844110
20,21c20,21
< wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas (as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
< Some crazy wiseman said:<BR>
---
> wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas<BR>(as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
> Some crazy gurutype said:<BR>
24c24,25
< I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .
---
> I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .<BR>
> thanks for another opportunity to rave - Mathijs
------
SoniC|984844326
1c1,6
< Who are you?
---
> Who are you?
> ----
> nice to meet people with common interests<BR>
> no need to agree - would be boring<BR>
> <FONT SIZE =+3>;-}</FONT>
> - Mathijs
------
WojPob|984844408
17c17,21
< 
---
> ----
> nice to meet people with common interests<BR>
> no need to agree - would be boring<BR>
> <FONT SIZE =+3>;-}</FONT>
> - Mathijs
------
WojPob|984844455
21a22
> ----
------
WojPob/Sandbox|984844490
4c4,6
< Schmuck!
---
> Schmuck!
> 
> Schmuckele to you!
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984844916
57a58,65
> I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which inreality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle an eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reason but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.
> 
> The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more reasonable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is a) not suitable for an encyclopedia b) not really an explanation for anything, but rather a (quite political) statement that c) sounds like advertising which makes it d) stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
> 
> To paraphrase it, your initial article says: "You want be kill everybody in sight but are afraid you could get caught? Play RPGs and get rewarded for the most heinous deeds you ever dreamed of. Come on, you know you want to. Everybody does."
> 
> Which is clearly not the point of roleplaying. Maybe you are better off with playing Quake if you really think like that. I mean, I regularly play some adults only RPGs like SLA Industries, Kult or Call of Cthullhu, but even there killing everyone you want to is not the point and the game would be pretty lame if it were.  -SoniC
> ----
61c69
< but not an absolute definition of AD&D
---
> but not an absolute definition of AD&D
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984845008
58c58
< I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which inreality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle an eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reason but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.
---
> I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which in reality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle and eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reasons but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.
60c60
< The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more reasonable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is a) not suitable for an encyclopedia b) not really an explanation for anything, but rather a (quite political) statement that c) sounds like advertising which makes it d) stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
---
> The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more acceptable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is a) not suitable for an encyclopedia b) not really an explanation for anything, but rather a (quite political) statement that c) sounds like advertising which makes it d) stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
------
SoniC|984845189
6a7,15
> 
> ----
> Definitely :)
> 
> -SoniC
> 
> ----
> 
> BTW: [[Sonic]] the Hedgehog (Jump n Run video game) is over [[Sonic|here]]
------
Space_Exploration|984850315
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Space Exploration is the exploration of the solar system (and, theoretically, beyond) that involves actually going into space.  Space Exploration began with the launch of Sputnik, and unmanned space exploration began with the orbital flight of Yuri Gagarin in April, 1961.
> 
>  [[Manned space missions]]
>  [[Unmanned space missions]]
>  [[Astronauts]]
------
Manned_space_missions|984850800
1c1,99
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Apollo Missions]]
> [[Apollo 1]]
> [[Apollo 2]]
> [[Apollo 3]]
> [[Apollo 4]]
> [[Apollo 5]]
> [[Apollo 6]]
> [[Apollo 7]]
> [[Apollo 8]]
> [[Apollo 9]]
> [[Apollo 10]]
> [[Apollo 11]]
> [[Apollo 12]]
> [[Apollo 13]]
> [[Apollo 14]]
> [[Apollo 15]]
> [[Apollo 16]]
> [[Apollo 17]]
> 
> [[Gemini Missions]]
> [[Gemini 1]]
> [[Gemini 2]]
> [[Gemini 3]]
> [[Gemini 4]]
> [[Gemini 5]]
> [[Gemini 6]]
> [[Gemini 7]]
> [[Gemini 8]]
> [[Gemini 9]]
> [[Gemini 10]]
> [[Gemini 11]]
> [[Gemini 12]]
> 
> [[Skylab Missions]]
> [[Skylab 1]]
> [[Skylab 2]]
> [[Skylab 3]]
> 
> [[Soyuz Missions]]
> [[Soyuz 1]]
> [[Soyuz 2]]
> [[Soyuz 3]]
> [[Soyuz 4]]
> [[Soyuz 5]]
> [[Soyuz 6]]
> [[Soyuz 7]]
> [[Soyuz 8]]
> [[Soyuz 9]]
> [[Soyuz 10]]
> [[Soyuz 11]]
> [[Soyuz 12]]
> [[Soyuz 13]]
> [[Soyuz 14]]
> [[Soyuz 15]]
> [[Soyuz 16]]
> [[Soyuz 17]]
> [[Soyuz 18]]
> [[Soyuz 19]]
> [[Soyuz 20]]
> [[Soyuz 21]]
> [[Soyuz 22]]
> [[Soyuz T-1]]
> [[Soyuz T-2]]
> [[Soyuz T-3]]
> [[Soyuz T-4]]
> [[Soyuz T-5]]
> [[Soyuz T-6]]
> [[Soyuz T-7]]
> [[Soyuz T-8]]
> [[Soyuz T-9]]
> [[Soyuz TM-1]]
> [[Soyuz TM-2]]
> [[Soyuz TM-3]]
> 
> [[Space Shuttle Missions]]
> [[Atlantis 1]]
> [[Challenger 1]]
> [[Challenger 2]]
> [[Challenger 3]]
> [[Challenger 4]]
> [[Challenger 5]]
> [[Challenger 6]]
> [[Challenger 7]]
> [[Challenger 8]]
> [[Challenger 9]]
> [[Columbia 1]]
> [[Columbia 2]]
> [[Columbia 3]]
> [[Columbia 4]]
> [[Columbia 5]]
> [[Discovery 1]]
> [[Discovery 2]]
> [[Discovery 3]]
> [[Discovery 4]]
> [[Discovery 5]]
> 
> [[Voshkod Missions]]
> [[Voshkod 1]]
> [[Voshkod 2]]
------
Manned_space_missions|984850947
2,18c2,18
< [[Apollo 1]]
< [[Apollo 2]]
< [[Apollo 3]]
< [[Apollo 4]]
< [[Apollo 5]]
< [[Apollo 6]]
< [[Apollo 7]]
< [[Apollo 8]]
< [[Apollo 9]]
< [[Apollo 10]]
< [[Apollo 11]]
< [[Apollo 12]]
< [[Apollo 13]]
< [[Apollo 14]]
< [[Apollo 15]]
< [[Apollo 16]]
< [[Apollo 17]]
---
>  [[Apollo 1]]
>  [[Apollo 2]]
>  [[Apollo 3]]
>  [[Apollo 4]]
>  [[Apollo 5]]
>  [[Apollo 6]]
>  [[Apollo 7]]
>  [[Apollo 8]]
>  [[Apollo 9]]
>  [[Apollo 10]]
>  [[Apollo 11]]
>  [[Apollo 12]]
>  [[Apollo 13]]
>  [[Apollo 14]]
>  [[Apollo 15]]
>  [[Apollo 16]]
>  [[Apollo 17]]
21,32c21,32
< [[Gemini 1]]
< [[Gemini 2]]
< [[Gemini 3]]
< [[Gemini 4]]
< [[Gemini 5]]
< [[Gemini 6]]
< [[Gemini 7]]
< [[Gemini 8]]
< [[Gemini 9]]
< [[Gemini 10]]
< [[Gemini 11]]
< [[Gemini 12]]
---
>  [[Gemini 1]]
>  [[Gemini 2]]
>  [[Gemini 3]]
>  [[Gemini 4]]
>  [[Gemini 5]]
>  [[Gemini 6]]
>  [[Gemini 7]]
>  [[Gemini 8]]
>  [[Gemini 9]]
>  [[Gemini 10]]
>  [[Gemini 11]]
>  [[Gemini 12]]
35,37c35,37
< [[Skylab 1]]
< [[Skylab 2]]
< [[Skylab 3]]
---
>  [[Skylab 1]]
>  [[Skylab 2]]
>  [[Skylab 3]]
40,73c40,73
< [[Soyuz 1]]
< [[Soyuz 2]]
< [[Soyuz 3]]
< [[Soyuz 4]]
< [[Soyuz 5]]
< [[Soyuz 6]]
< [[Soyuz 7]]
< [[Soyuz 8]]
< [[Soyuz 9]]
< [[Soyuz 10]]
< [[Soyuz 11]]
< [[Soyuz 12]]
< [[Soyuz 13]]
< [[Soyuz 14]]
< [[Soyuz 15]]
< [[Soyuz 16]]
< [[Soyuz 17]]
< [[Soyuz 18]]
< [[Soyuz 19]]
< [[Soyuz 20]]
< [[Soyuz 21]]
< [[Soyuz 22]]
< [[Soyuz T-1]]
< [[Soyuz T-2]]
< [[Soyuz T-3]]
< [[Soyuz T-4]]
< [[Soyuz T-5]]
< [[Soyuz T-6]]
< [[Soyuz T-7]]
< [[Soyuz T-8]]
< [[Soyuz T-9]]
< [[Soyuz TM-1]]
< [[Soyuz TM-2]]
< [[Soyuz TM-3]]
---
>  [[Soyuz 1]]
>  [[Soyuz 2]]
>  [[Soyuz 3]]
>  [[Soyuz 4]]
>  [[Soyuz 5]]
>  [[Soyuz 6]]
>  [[Soyuz 7]]
>  [[Soyuz 8]]
>  [[Soyuz 9]]
>  [[Soyuz 10]]
>  [[Soyuz 11]]
>  [[Soyuz 12]]
>  [[Soyuz 13]]
>  [[Soyuz 14]]
>  [[Soyuz 15]]
>  [[Soyuz 16]]
>  [[Soyuz 17]]
>  [[Soyuz 18]]
>  [[Soyuz 19]]
>  [[Soyuz 20]]
>  [[Soyuz 21]]
>  [[Soyuz 22]]
>  [[Soyuz T-1]]
>  [[Soyuz T-2]]
>  [[Soyuz T-3]]
>  [[Soyuz T-4]]
>  [[Soyuz T-5]]
>  [[Soyuz T-6]]
>  [[Soyuz T-7]]
>  [[Soyuz T-8]]
>  [[Soyuz T-9]]
>  [[Soyuz TM-1]]
>  [[Soyuz TM-2]]
>  [[Soyuz TM-3]]
76,95c76,95
< [[Atlantis 1]]
< [[Challenger 1]]
< [[Challenger 2]]
< [[Challenger 3]]
< [[Challenger 4]]
< [[Challenger 5]]
< [[Challenger 6]]
< [[Challenger 7]]
< [[Challenger 8]]
< [[Challenger 9]]
< [[Columbia 1]]
< [[Columbia 2]]
< [[Columbia 3]]
< [[Columbia 4]]
< [[Columbia 5]]
< [[Discovery 1]]
< [[Discovery 2]]
< [[Discovery 3]]
< [[Discovery 4]]
< [[Discovery 5]]
---
>  [[Atlantis 1]]
>  [[Challenger 1]]
>  [[Challenger 2]]
>  [[Challenger 3]]
>  [[Challenger 4]]
>  [[Challenger 5]]
>  [[Challenger 6]]
>  [[Challenger 7]]
>  [[Challenger 8]]
>  [[Challenger 9]]
>  [[Columbia 1]]
>  [[Columbia 2]]
>  [[Columbia 3]]
>  [[Columbia 4]]
>  [[Columbia 5]]
>  [[Discovery 1]]
>  [[Discovery 2]]
>  [[Discovery 3]]
>  [[Discovery 4]]
>  [[Discovery 5]]
98,99c98,99
< [[Voshkod 1]]
< [[Voshkod 2]]
---
>  [[Voshkod 1]]
>  [[Voshkod 2]]
------
Manned_space_missions|984851267
1c1
< [[Apollo Missions]]
---
> [[Apollo program|Apollo Missions]]
18a19
>  [[Apollo-Soyuz]]
20c21
< [[Gemini Missions]]
---
> [[Gemini program|Gemini Missions]]
33a35,45
> [[Mercury program|Mercury Missions]]
>  [[Mercury 1]]
>  [[Mercury 2]]
>  [[Mercury 3]]
>  [[Mercury 4]]
>  [[Mercury 5]]
>  [[Mercury 6]]
>  [[Mercury 7]]
>  [[Mercury 8]]
>  [[Mercury 9]]
> 
37a50
>  [[Skylab 4]]
61a75,83
>  [[Soyuz 23]]
>  [[Soyuz 24]]
>  [[Soyuz 25]]
>  [[Soyuz 26]]
>  [[Soyuz 27]]
>  [[Soyuz 28]]
>  [[Soyuz 29]]
>  [[Soyuz 30]]
>  [[Soyuz 31]]
70a93,96
>  [[Soyuz T-10]]
>  [[Soyuz T-11]]
>  [[Soyuz T-12]]
>  [[Soyuz T-13]]
73a100
>  [[Apollo-Soyuz]]
75c102
< [[Space Shuttle Missions]]
---
> [[Space Shuttle|Space Shuttle Missions]]
90a118,119
>  [[Columbia 6]]
>  [[Columbia 7]]
------
Manned_space_missions|984851391
83a84,88
>  [[Soyuz 32]]
>  [[Soyuz 33]]
>  [[Soyuz 34]]
>  [[Soyuz 35]]
>  [[Soyuz 36]]
96a102
>  [[Soyuz T-14]]
------
Challenger_8|984851677
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Space Shuttle mission launched July, 1985.  Crew included [[Loren W. Acton]], [[John-David F. Bartoe]], [[Roy D. Bridges, Jr.]], [[Anthony W. England]], [[C. Gordon Fullerton]], [[Karl G. Henize]], [[Story Musgrave|F. Story Musgrave]].
------
Apollo_11|984851941
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Apollo 11 mission was the first manned lunar landing.  The mission launched in July of 1969.  The crew consisted of [[Buzz Aldrin]], [[Neil Armstrong]], and [[Michael Collins]].  On this mission, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon, followed by Aldrin.  Collins remained in orbit above the moon.
------
Manned_space_missions|984852020
134c134,137
<  [[Voshkod 2]]
---
>  [[Voshkod 2]]
> 
> [[Vostok Missions]]
>  [[Vostok 1]]
------
Vostok_1|984852215
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first manned space flight.  In April of 1961, Vostok 1 took Russian [[astronaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] into space, the first time this had ever happened.  Gagarin orbited the earth and returned safely.
> 
> There have been rumors that other astronauts preceded Gagarin but died in flight, and that these missions were never reported by the Soviet military.
------
Apollo_8|984852440
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A manned mission of the [[Apollo program|Apollo space program]].  Apollo 8 launched in December, 1968 and was the first mission that took men to the moon, and marks the first time anyone was closer to another celestial body than they were to the earth.  The spacecraft orbited the moon and returned safely.
> 
> The crew of Apollo 8 consisted of [[William A. Anders]], [[Frank Borman]], and [[Jim Lovell]].
------
Apollo_8|984852465
1c1
< A manned mission of the [[Apollo program|Apollo space program]].  Apollo 8 launched in December, 1968 and was the first mission that took men to the moon, and marks the first time anyone was closer to another celestial body than they were to the earth.  The spacecraft orbited the moon and returned safely.
---
> A manned mission of the [[Apollo program|Apollo space program]].  Apollo 8 launched in December, 1968 and was the first mission that took men to the moon, the first time anyone was closer to another celestial body than they were to the earth.  The spacecraft orbited the moon and returned safely.
------
Space_Exploration|984852532
5c5
<  [[Astronauts]]
---
>  [[Astronaut|Astronauts]]
------
SandBox|984852884
0a1,2
> &smiley;
> 
149c151
< Wow!  Logicians should be happy!
---
> Wow!  Logicians should be happy!
------
SandBox|984852893
1c1
< &smiley;
---
> &smile;
------
SandBox|984852901
1,2d0
< &smile;
< 
------
Wiki_special_characters|984853000
19c19,21
<  &amp;there4;    &there4;
---
>  &amp;there4;    &there4;
> ----
> The above says "on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly."  May we have some confirmation of this from a few sources, please?
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984853331
11c11,13
< #Type the name of the *old* page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.
---
> #Type the URL of the ''new'' page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.
> For example, in the URL above, you would replace
> <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with the new URL <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that, ''in the URL,'' ''spaces'' in the title of the page are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in the URL, it won't work.  Also, be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!  (If you're still confused, see "Naming pages," below.)
13,16c15
< Good example of [[Recursion]]. Try it!!!----
< For example, in the URL above, you would replace ----
< <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that *spaces* (what spaces?) in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.  Be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!----
< Say, someone want to run this item about underscores past me again.----
---
> Good example of [[recursion]]. Try it!!!----
23,24c22,23
< * On pages themselves, a page title can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a page that has the first letter uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki seems to be converging to a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
---
> * On pages themselves, a page title can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a URL that has the first letter of the page title uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki is converging on a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
27,37d25
< Good URLs: 
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My_new_page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Bacteria</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/JimboWales</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Platos_Republic</code>
< Bad URLs:
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My new page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/my_new_page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/bacteria</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/jimbowales</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Plato's_Republic</code>
48a37,47
> Good URLs: 
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My_new_page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Bacteria</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/JimboWales</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Platos_Republic</code>
> Bad URLs:
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My new page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/my_new_page</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/bacteria</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/jimbowales</code>
> :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Plato's_Republic</code>
69,71c68,70
<  at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  
<  In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that 
<  line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
---
>    at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  
>   In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that 
>       line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
82a82
> <br>Consider not capitalizing your page names: [[definition of philosophy]]; see [[naming conventions]]
90c90
< You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s.  In the old system you'd do it like this: [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage (using "").
---
> You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s.  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see.
154a155
> <br>It seems the suggestions on [[Wiki ASCII codes page]] may not work for Mac users, but we're waiting for confirmation of this.
156c157
< You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font size and color!
---
> You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font <font size=+1>size</font and <font color=blue>color</font>!
162c163
< If you want to redirect traffic going to one page to another page (with a better title, for example), then use the command <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> at the top of the page.  See LarrysText for an example.  We are planning to automate the conversion of links from the old style, LikeThis, to the new style, [[like this]].  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> function.
---
> If you want to redirect traffic going to one page to another page (with a better title, for example), then use the command <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> at the top of the page.  See LarrysText for an example.  We are planning to automate the conversion of links from the old style, LikeThis, to the new style, [[like this]].  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> function.  To look at the history of the old page, click on the "<code>(redirected from OldPageName)</code>" link at the top of the new page.
164c165
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
Astronaut|984853400
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An astronaut is a person who travels into space, or who makes a career of doing so.  The first astronaut was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched into space in April, 1961 aboard [[Vostok 1]].  The first woman astronaut was [[Valentina Tereshkova]], who was launched into space in June, 1963 aboard [[Vostok 6]].
> 
> By convention, an astronaut is an astronaut unless employed by the Russian government, in which case he or she is a cosmonaut.
> 
> Astronauts include:
>  [[Loren W. Acton]]
>  [[Buzz Aldrin]]
>  [[William A. Anders]]
>  [[Neil Armstrong]]
>  [[Alan L. Bean]]
>  [[Frank Borman]]
>  [[Scott Carpenter]]
>  [[Gene Cernan]]
>  [[Michael Collins]]
>  [[Pete Conrad]]
>  [[Gordon Cooper]]
>  [[Robert L. Crippen]]
>  [[Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov]]
>  [[Yuri Gagarin]]
>  [[John Glenn]]
>  [[Viktor Gorbatko]]
>  [[Gus Grissom]]
>  [[James Lovell]]
>  [[Oleg G. Makarov]]
>  [[Story Musgrave]]
>  [[Wubbo J. Ockels]]
>  [[Leonid Popov]]
>  [[Sally Ride]]
>  [[Wally Schirra]]
>  [[Alan Shepard]]
>  [[Thomas P. Stafford]]
>  [[Guennadi M. Strekalov]]
>  [[John Young]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984853517
90c90
< You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s.  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see.
---
> You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  [[Plato's]] wouldn't work anyway.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s or (more cleverly) [[Plato|Plato's]].  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see.
165c165
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984853610
90c90
< You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  [[Plato's]] wouldn't work anyway.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s or (more cleverly) [[Plato|Plato's]].  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see.
---
> You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  [[Plato's]] wouldn't work anyway.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s or (more cleverly) [[Plato|Plato's]].  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales""'s homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see, although if you want to type a bit more you can cleverly create [[Platos Republic|Plato's Republic]].
------
Platos_Republic|984853812
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''The Republic'' is perhaps Plato's best-known [[the dialogues of Plato|dialogue]] and one of his most influential.  In it he explains, through the character of [[Socrates]], the fundamentals of his [[political philosophy]] (presented via the conceit of a [[Utopia]]), his [[ethics]], and his theory of [[universals]]--among other things.
------
Like_this|984853895
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Like, this does not look wonky LikeThis does.
------
Gene_Cernan|984853923
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Eugene A. Cernan was an [[Astronaut|astronaut]] who flew in the [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] space programs.  Cernan is one of only two men to voyage to the moon on two different occasions (the other being [[Jim Lovell]]), and one of only twelve men to walk on the moon.  Cernan orbited the moon on [[Apollo 10]], and landed on the moon on the [[Apollo 17]].  He also flew on [[Gemini 9]].
------
Gene_Cernan|984853964
1c1
< Eugene A. Cernan was an [[Astronaut|astronaut]] who flew in the [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] space programs.  Cernan is one of only two men to voyage to the moon on two different occasions (the other being [[Jim Lovell]]), and one of only twelve men to walk on the moon.  Cernan orbited the moon on [[Apollo 10]], and landed on the moon on the [[Apollo 17]].  He also flew on [[Gemini 9]].
---
> Eugene A. Cernan was an [[Astronaut|astronaut]] who flew in the [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] space programs.  Cernan is one of only two men to voyage to the moon on two different occasions (the other being [[Jim Lovell]]), and one of only twelve men to walk on the moon.  Cernan orbited the moon on [[Apollo 10]], and landed on the moon on [[Apollo 17]].  He also flew on [[Gemini 9]].
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|984854384
1c1
< Ah, but what is the ranking of ''median'' incomes, which is probably more meaningful to the ordinary person than ''mean'' incomes? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Ah, but what is the ranking of ''median'' incomes, which is probably more meaningful to the ordinary person than ''mean'' incomes?  And how about a ranking (and simply quantification!) in terms of ''purchasing power of ordinary nonluxury goods''?  (This will help explain the strangeness of Swaziland's average $200 per year.  I wouldn't be able to live on $200 per year in the U.S., but if I brought $200 with me to Swaziland, I could make it stretch so that I could live adequately, given that I have modest requirements, albeit not to average U.S. standards.  E.g., a rouble these days costs about $0.035.  But the purchasing power of a rouble in Russian society, when purchasing stuff like groceries and clothes and rent, is more like $0.50. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Vostok_1|984854391
1c1
< The first manned space flight.  In April of 1961, Vostok 1 took Russian [[astronaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] into space, the first time this had ever happened.  Gagarin orbited the earth and returned safely.
---
> The first manned space flight.  In April of 1961, Vostok 1 took Russian [[astronaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] into space, the first time anyone had ever journeyed beyond the earth's atmosphere.  Gagarin orbited the earth and returned safely.
3c3
< There have been rumors that other astronauts preceded Gagarin but died in flight, and that these missions were never reported by the Soviet military.
---
> There have been rumors that other astronauts preceded Gagarin but died in flight, and that these missions were never reported by the Soviet military.
------
Requested_articles|984854697
26c26,34
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero (Airplane)]] -- [[Dive
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
> 
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
> 
> <b>[[Folklore]] (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.)
> 
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]]
> 
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
Requested_articles|984854719
30c30
< <b>[[Folklore]] (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.)
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]</b> (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.)
------
Vampire|984854861
3c3
< Although undead, a vamipre may be "killed" using several methods:
---
> A vampire (despite already being dead in one sense) may be "killed" (for good) using several methods:
13a14,15
> 
> /Talk
------
Vampire/Talk|984854929
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did.
------
Vampire|984854974
1c1
< Mythical undead being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
---
> Mythical being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
15c15
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Vampire/Talk|984855017
1c1
< IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did.
---
> IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits with respecting that fact.
------
Vampire/Talk|984855036
1c1
< IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits with respecting that fact.
---
> IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits this article while respecting that fact.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984855144
17,25c17
< A wise man once told me, "Profanity demonstrates a lack of intelligence, as well as ignorance of the language."
< ----
< Somehow I don't seem to need any 'foul' language to offend allmost anyone<BR>
< wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas<BR>(as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
< Some crazy gurutype said:<BR>
< <I>I can only hate by caring<BR>
< neglect is true offense</I><BR>
< I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .<BR>
< thanks for another opportunity to rave - Mathijs
---
> /ProfanityTalk
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984855165
17c17
< /ProfanityTalk
---
> ProfanityTalk
------
ProfanityTalk|984855415
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wise man once told me, "Profanity demonstrates a lack of intelligence, as well as ignorance of the language."
> ----
> Somehow I don't seem to need any 'foul' language to offend allmost anyone<BR>
> wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas<BR>(as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
> Some crazy gurutype said:<BR>
> <I>I can only hate by caring<BR>
> neglect is true offense</I><BR>
> I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .<BR>
> thanks for another opportunity to rave - Mathijs
> ----
> Some people are offended by warped people who rave; go figure.  :-)
------
Vostok_1|984858934
3a4,5
> 
> ''The Russians probably would have tried a cover-up, but do we have any reason to believe they did?  After all, they had done a series of tests with dogs, and the American first attempt went fine.  There are a million rumors about the Russian military and a milion conspiracy theories besides, and they are mostly false.''
------
Space_Exploration|984861046
5a6
>  [[Space stations]]
------
Space_stations|984861086
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Skylab]]
> *[[Mir]]
> *[[ISS]]
------
Vampire/Talk|984862190
1c1,4
< IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits this article while respecting that fact.
---
> IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits this article while respecting that fact.
> ---
> 
> I tend to agree that this article need not be about role-playing games or teenage goths.  But are you sure about the term "undead"?  Of course, I don't think of 'undead' as having as much to do with vampires, as zombies.
------
Jimbo_Wales|984862434
19c19,25
< hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - WojPob
---
> hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - 
> 
> WojPob
> 
> Yes.  That's my mom and dad's pharmacy.  I made a website for her.  It's on the same machine as wikipedia.  That will probably change soon, as we are rearranging things.
> 
> I have many websites.
------
Jimbo_Wales|984862457
23c23
< Yes.  That's my mom and dad's pharmacy.  I made a website for her.  It's on the same machine as wikipedia.  That will probably change soon, as we are rearranging things.
---
> '''Yes.  That's my mom and dad's pharmacy.  I made a website for her.  It's on the same machine as wikipedia.  That will probably change soon, as we are rearranging things.'''
25c25
< I have many websites.
---
> '''I have many websites.'''
------
Jimbo_Wales|984862528
16a17,19
> 
> '''Yes, I imagine that could become a translation of the existing Wikipedia site, in parts, and also specialized to the needs and interests of Catalan-speakers.'''
> 
------
Vampire/Talk|984862725
2c2
< ---
---
> ----
4c4,8
< I tend to agree that this article need not be about role-playing games or teenage goths.  But are you sure about the term "undead"?  Of course, I don't think of 'undead' as having as much to do with vampires, as zombies.
---
> I tend to agree that this article need not be about role-playing games or teenage goths.  But are you sure about the term "undead"?  Of course, I don't think of 'undead' as having as much to do with vampires, as zombies.
> ----
> Because it's solely in RPG-terminology that a grouping-term as 'undead' is used, does not mean it's invalid. You must certainly be a vampire, yourself, to reject that!<BR>
> They want it fresh 'n juicy.<BR>
> =:P
------
Vampire/Talk|984864634
8c8,10
< =:P
---
> =:P
> ----
> Well, it's a valid concept, sure.  It's just not an English word (outside gaming)!  :-)
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|984865205
1c1,3
< Ah, but what is the ranking of ''median'' incomes, which is probably more meaningful to the ordinary person than ''mean'' incomes?  And how about a ranking (and simply quantification!) in terms of ''purchasing power of ordinary nonluxury goods''?  (This will help explain the strangeness of Swaziland's average $200 per year.  I wouldn't be able to live on $200 per year in the U.S., but if I brought $200 with me to Swaziland, I could make it stretch so that I could live adequately, given that I have modest requirements, albeit not to average U.S. standards.  E.g., a rouble these days costs about $0.035.  But the purchasing power of a rouble in Russian society, when purchasing stuff like groceries and clothes and rent, is more like $0.50. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Ah, but what is the ranking of ''median'' incomes, which is probably more meaningful to the ordinary person than ''mean'' incomes?
> 
> And how about a ranking (and simply quantification!) in terms of ''purchasing power of ordinary nonluxury goods''?  (This will help explain the strangeness of Swaziland's average $200 per year.  I wouldn't be able to live on $200 per year in the U.S., but if I brought $200 with me to Swaziland, I could make it stretch so that I could live adequately, given that I have modest requirements, albeit not to average U.S. standards.  E.g., a rouble these days costs about $0.035.  But the purchasing power of a rouble in Russian society, when purchasing stuff like groceries and clothes and rent, is more like $0.50.  So, for example, (see [http://www.interbaltic.com/country/russia.htm this page]) an average Russian these days makes a rather paltry 24,000 roubles per year; that's just $840 by the exchange rate, but in purchasing power to the Russian, it's more along the lines of $12,000. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|984865234
3c3
< And how about a ranking (and simply quantification!) in terms of ''purchasing power of ordinary nonluxury goods''?  (This will help explain the strangeness of Swaziland's average $200 per year.  I wouldn't be able to live on $200 per year in the U.S., but if I brought $200 with me to Swaziland, I could make it stretch so that I could live adequately, given that I have modest requirements, albeit not to average U.S. standards.  E.g., a rouble these days costs about $0.035.  But the purchasing power of a rouble in Russian society, when purchasing stuff like groceries and clothes and rent, is more like $0.50.  So, for example, (see [http://www.interbaltic.com/country/russia.htm this page]) an average Russian these days makes a rather paltry 24,000 roubles per year; that's just $840 by the exchange rate, but in purchasing power to the Russian, it's more along the lines of $12,000. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> And how about a ranking (and simply quantification!) in terms of ''purchasing power of ordinary nonluxury goods''?  This will help explain the strangeness of Swaziland's average $200 per year.  I wouldn't be able to live on $200 per year in the U.S., but if I brought $200 with me to Swaziland, I could make it stretch so that I could live adequately, given that I have modest requirements, albeit not to average U.S. standards.  E.g., a rouble these days costs about $0.035.  But the purchasing power of a rouble in Russian society, when purchasing stuff like groceries and clothes and rent, is more like $0.50.  So, for example, (see [http://www.interbaltic.com/country/russia.htm this page]) an average Russian these days makes a rather paltry 24,000 roubles per year; that's just $840 by the exchange rate, but in purchasing power to the Russian, it's more along the lines of $12,000. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|984865680
157c157
< You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font <font size=+1>size</font and <font color=blue>color</font>!
---
> You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font <font size=+1>size</font> and <font color=blue>color</font>!
------
Vampire/Talk|984866107
10c10,12
< Well, it's a valid concept, sure.  It's just not an English word (outside gaming)!  :-)
---
> Well, it's a valid concept, sure.  It's just not an English word (outside gaming)!  :-)
> 
> Merriam-Webster gives the date for the first known use of "undead" as 1897.  ''Somebody'' thought it applied outside the world of gaming.
------
CountriesP|984871537
17a18,19
> 
> * [[Puerto Rico]]
------
Puerto_Rico|984872100
1c1,5
< '''Puerto Rico''' is a small island about 100x35 miles. It was acquired by the [[UnitedStates|USA]] in the [[Spanish American War]]. Its local government is based on a constitution adopted in 1952 after approval by the US Congress which maintains ultimate sovreignty. 
---
> '''Puerto Rico''' is a small island about 100x35 miles. It was acquired by the [[UnitedStates|USA]] in the [[Spanish American War]]. Its local government is based on a constitution adopted in 1952 after approval by the US Congress which maintains ultimate sovreignty. It is the smallest and easternmost of the [[Greater Antilles]] which also includes [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], and [[Jamaica]].
> 
> The economic conditions in Puerto Rico have improved dramatically since the [[Great Depression]] due to external investment in capital intensive industry such as petrochemicals and computers. Once the beneficiary of special tax treatment from the US Internal Revenue service, today local industries must compete with those in more economically depressed parts of the world where wages are not subject to US Minimum Wage legislation.
> 
> The people of Puerto Rico have many diverse national origins. The most obvious are those descended from the families established by the colonizing Spaniards with Taino and Negro strains, but Irish and Russian sailors, Corsican farmers, and North American business managers have contributed to the culture.
------
Statistical_Model|984872292
6,8c6
< #Our interest may be focused on a [[Statistical Assembly]] where we examine functional subunits of the [[Statistical Unit]]. [[Physiology]] is an example in which we probe the organs which compose the unit.
< 
< 
---
> #Our interest may be focused on a [[Statistical Assembly]] where we examine functional subunits of the [[Statistical Unit]]. [[Physiology]] is an example in which we probe the organs which compose the unit. A common model for this type of research is the [[Stimulus Response Model]].
------
Statistical_Assembly|984872708
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The decision to study a '''Statistical Assembly''' presumes that the [[Statistical Unit]] we observe has components (like organs or machine parts) whose interactions we understand partially and which engage our attention. The focus of our attention is on the relationships among the components. Much of the observation requires special preparation of the unit. This demands that we establish that our intervention does not prejudice our observations. A simple version of this kind of research uses the [[Stimulus Response Model]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Stimulus_Response_Model|984873180
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Stimulus Response Model''' describes a [[Stistical Unit]] as making a quantitative response to a quantitative stimulus administered by the researcher. The object of this kind of research is to establish a mathematical function that describes the relation.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Response = function(Stimulus)</font>
> The most common form assumed for such functions is linear, thus we expect to see a relationship like
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Response = alpha + beta * Stimulus</font>
> [[[Statistical Theory]] for [[Linear Model]]s has been well developed for more than fifty years and a standard form of analysis called [[Linear Regression]] has been developed.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Linear_Models|984873553
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Linear Models''' are mathematical models based on extensions to the [[Stimulus Response Model]] to deal with more than one stimulus and preserving the linearity of the relationship.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Response = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>*Stimulus<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>*Stimulus<sub>2</sub> + ... +
> a<sub>m</sub>*Stimulus<sub>m</sub></font>
> [[Linear Regression]] analysis has been extended to accomodate such models and is commonly known as [[Multiple Regression]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]] 
------
Linear_Models|984873613
2,3c2,3
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Response = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>*Stimulus<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>*Stimulus<sub>2</sub> + ... +
< a<sub>m</sub>*Stimulus<sub>m</sub></font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Response = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>*Stimulus<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>*Stimulus<sub>2</sub> + ... + a<sub>m</sub>*Stimulus<sub>m</sub></font>.
> 
------
Stimulus_Response_Model|984873681
5c5
< [[[Statistical Theory]] for [[Linear Model]]s has been well developed for more than fifty years and a standard form of analysis called [[Linear Regression]] has been developed.
---
> [[[Statistical Theory]] for [[Linear Models]] has been well developed for more than fifty years and a standard form of analysis called [[Linear Regression]] has been developed.
------
Linear_Regression|984874378
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Linear Regression''' is a method of data analysis intended to be used with a set of paired observations on two variables on the same set of [[Statistical Units]]. Conventionally, we refer to one of the variables as ''independent'' (usually labeled X) and the other as ''dependent'' (labeled Y). The notion of an ''independent variable'' often (but not always) implies the ability to choose the levels of the independent variable and that the dependent variable will respond naturally as in the [[Stimulus Response Model]].
> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Y = a + b*X</font>
> 
> The analysis has several steps:
> #Estimate the parameters, first <font size=+1 color=red>b</font> and then <font size=+1 color=red>a</font>.
> #Calculate and display the residuals between the equation using the estimated parameters and the observed values of X and Y, <font size=+1 color=red>{Y - A - B*X}</font>.
> #Calculate several ancillary statistics which permit evaluation of the success of the experiment.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Linear_Regression|984874697
3c3
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Y = a + b*X</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Y = alpha + beta*X</font>
6,7c6,7
< #Estimate the parameters, first <font size=+1 color=red>b</font> and then <font size=+1 color=red>a</font>.
< #Calculate and display the residuals between the equation using the estimated parameters and the observed values of X and Y, <font size=+1 color=red>{Y - A - B*X}</font>.
---
> #Estimate the parameters, first <font size=+1 color=red>b, the estimate of beta</font> and then <font size=+1 color=red>a, the estimate of alpha</font>.
> #Calculate and display the residuals between the equation using the estimated parameters and the observations, <font size=+1 color=red>{Y - a - b*X}</font>.
8a9,14
> ----
> :'''Estimating beta'''
> ::We sum the observations, the squares of the Y's and X's and the products of X*Y to obtain the following quantities.
> **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>X</sub> and S<sub>Y</sub></font>
> **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>XX</sub> and S<sub>YY</sub></font>
> **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>XY</sub>
------
Linear_Regression|984877422
12,14c12,14
< **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>X</sub> and S<sub>Y</sub></font>
< **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>XX</sub> and S<sub>YY</sub></font>
< **<font size=+1 colore=red>S<sub>XY</sub>
---
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>X</sub> and S<sub>Y</sub></font>
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XX</sub> and S<sub>YY</sub></font>
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XY</sub></font>
------
Vampire|984878780
6c6
< *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]] and crosses keep vampires away
---
> *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]], running water and crosses keep vampires away
11,13c11,13
< *[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]
< *[[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]] 
< *[[Mage: The Ascension]] 
---
> *[[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
> *[[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]] 
> *[[Mage: The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]] 
15c15
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Vampire/Talk|984878835
12a13,14
> ----
> I always thought silver was good against Werewolfs, not vampires? Can anyone explain that?
------
Vampire|984878860
13c13
< *[[Mage: The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]] 
---
> *[[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]] 
------
The_Simpsons/Homer|984879405
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Homer Jay Simpson
> 
> son of [[/Mona]] and [[/Abraham]] Simpson
> 
> married to [[/Marge]]
> 
> father of [[/Bart]], [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]]
> 
> Homer is the series' main character. He is 38 years old and works in [[Charles Montgomery Burns]]'s Nuclear Power Plant, if you can call it "working" at all. While he is not the brightest guy, he can get very emotional, especially when it comes to his neighbor, [[/Ned Flanders]] or to troubles related to Bart. He spends most of his time at Moe's Bar (see [[Moe Szyslak]]) with his friends [[/Carl]], [[/Lenny]] and [[/Barney Gumble]]. His hobbies include heavy drinking (esp. Duff Beer), television and whatever can create a good storyline for the episode.
------
Charles_Montgomery_Burns|984879751
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> originally, the character was simply called Montgomery Burns, but in one episode, he yelled "You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Montgomery Burns!", which is a quote from [[Orson Welles]]' [[Citizen Kane]] ("You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Foster Kane!"
> 
> The owner of Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant. He is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [[/Waylon Smithers]].
------
Charles_Montgomery_Burns|984879798
1c1
< originally, the character was simply called Montgomery Burns, but in one episode, he yelled "You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Montgomery Burns!", which is a quote from [[Orson Welles]]' [[Citizen Kane]] ("You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Foster Kane!"
---
> originally, the character was simply called Montgomery Burns, but in one episode, he yelled "You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Montgomery Burns!", which is a quote from [[Orson Welles]]' [[Citizen Kane]] ("You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Foster Kane!")
3c3
< The owner of Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant. He is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [[/Waylon Smithers]].
---
> He owns Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant and is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [[/Waylon Smithers]].
------
Vampire/Talk|984892117
12c12,13
< Merriam-Webster gives the date for the first known use of "undead" as 1897.  ''Somebody'' thought it applied outside the world of gaming.
---
> Merriam-Webster gives the date for the first known use of "undead" as 1897.  From the novel ''Dracula'', by [[Bram Stoker]].  So ''somebody'' thought it applied outside the world of gaming.
> 
14c15,17
< I always thought silver was good against Werewolfs, not vampires? Can anyone explain that?
---
> I always thought silver was good against Werewolfs, not vampires? Can anyone explain that?
> 
> I think that both this and the daywalker stuff come next to exclusively from the movie Blade, which wasn't a particularly traditional view on vampires.  Searching for ''any'' classical references to these at the moment...back soon.
------
SandBox|984892628
149a150,151
> ----
> first:  does four dashes give a break?
------
SandBox|984892700
151c151,153
< first:  does four dashes give a break?
---
> four dashes gives a break
> <b>bold</b>
> 
------
SandBox|984892824
151a152
> 
------
SandBox|984892853
152d151
< 
------
SandBox|984892994
152c152
< <b>bold</b>
---
> :<b>bold</b>
------
SandBox|984893019
152c152
< :<b>bold</b>
---
>  <b>bold</b>
------
Vampire/Talk|984893245
17c17,18
< I think that both this and the daywalker stuff come next to exclusively from the movie Blade, which wasn't a particularly traditional view on vampires.  Searching for ''any'' classical references to these at the moment...back soon.
---
> I think that both this and the daywalker stuff come next to exclusively from the movie Blade, which wasn't a particularly traditional view on vampires, or something close to it.  I tried some searching to find any references...''vampire'' with anything like ''"silver kills"'' reveals nothing classical, although I might have missed some combination (just ''silver'' gives to many false hits to cut down).  Definitely ''daywalker'' got nothing other than RPGs and movies.  Neither of these are listed on Britannica's page or any of the kid's books I can remember.
> 
------
Mitochondria|984896676
1c1
< Mitochondria are [[organelle]]s present in most eukaryotic cells that are responsible for electron transport, ie the utilization of oxygen in burning food.  They contain DNA and are generally considered to be highly modified symbiotic bacteria, possibly related to the purple bacteria, and are believed to have been incorporated only once - compare [[chloroplasts]].  Each mitochondrion each have two membranes, the outer one corresponding roughly to a [[vacuole]], and the inner one (of different composition) corresponding to the ancestral bacterial membrane.  In order to increase surface area the inner membrane is full of folds called cristae.  Mitochondria replicate by fission.
---
> Mitochondria are [[organelle|organelles]] present in most eukaryotic cells that are responsible for electron transport, ie the utilization of oxygen in burning food.  They contain DNA and are generally considered to be highly modified symbiotic bacteria, possibly related to the purple bacteria, and are believed to have been incorporated only once - compare [[chloroplasts]].  Each mitochondrion each have two membranes, the outer one corresponding roughly to a [[vacuole]], and the inner one (of different composition) corresponding to the ancestral bacterial membrane.  In order to increase surface area the inner membrane is full of folds called cristae.  Mitochondria replicate by fission.
------
Suzanne_Elsasser|984902248
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just wanted to be the first to welcome you, Suzanne! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Film_History/Russia|984902345
1c1,13
< *[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
---
> While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[D. W. Griffith]]'s [[Intolerence]] and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
> 
> Initially, it was believed that film would be the ideal artform for communist Russia because of it's populist potential and facility in propaganda.  However, the party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.  Consequently, film in Russia waned in the 1930s.
> 
> Early personalities in the development of the Russian cinema:
> *[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
> *[[Vsevold I. Pudovkin]]
> *[[Alexander Dovzhenko]]
> *[[Dziga Vertov]]
> *[[Lev Kuleshov]]
> 
> Later personalities:
> *[[Andre Tarkovsky]]
------
Film_History/Russia|984902391
1c1
< While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[D. W. Griffith]]'s [[Intolerence]] and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
---
> While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s [[Intolerence]] and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
------
Film_History/Russia|984902457
1c1
< While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s [[Intolerence]] and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
---
> While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s "Intolerance" and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
------
Film_History/France|984902959
0a1,3
> France was as influential in the development of film as a mass medium and as an art form as any nation.  
> 
> Early personalities:
2c5,14
< *  [[George Melies]]
---
> *  [[George Melies]]
> 
> Post WWII period.
> 
> At the [[Cahiers du cinema]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked.  Modern film theory was born there.  Additionally, many of the theorticians went on to make films themselves.
> 
> Personalities from 1950-1960 period:
> *[[Andre Bazin]]
> *[[Francois Truffaut]]
> *[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
------
Film_History|984903036
1c1
< [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] 
---
> [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] 
55c55
< *  [[Walt Disney]]
---
> *  [[Walt Disney]]
------
Film_History/Italy|984903372
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Michelangelo Antonioni]]
> *[[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
> *[[Robert Bresson]]
> *[[Vitorio De Sica]]
> *[[Federico Fellini]]
> *[[Max Ophuls]]
> *[[Roberto Rossellini]]
> *[[Jacques Tati]]
------
Film_History|984903606
1c1,3
< [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] 
---
> [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese Film History]] -- [[/China|Chinese Film History]] -- [[/India|Indian Film History]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian Film History]]
> 
> (There probably ought to be a page called "National Film Histories" that then name the nations because film has had some national impact on even the smallest nations.  This approach might also allow us to make a United States section so that we are not America-centric.)
------
Martial_Arts_Film|984903805
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Bruce Lee]]
> *[[Jackie Chan]]
------
Vampire/Talk|984905565
8c8
< =:P
---
> <FONT SIZE=+2>=:P</FONT>
13c13
< 
---
> <BR><I>Can you see it know? Vampires rule it all!</I>
------
Astronaut|984907088
33c33,36
<  [[John Young]]
---
>  [[John Young]]
> 
> ----
> One could reasonably argue that "cosmonaut" is simply the Russian language word for "astronaut", which the media on both sides have chosen not to translate this way for political reasons.
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984907742
17c17,19
< ProfanityTalk
---
> 2/3 Sounds about right to me--I'd go a little further and recommend that (1) If an article needs them, use them; mark the page with RSAC to make censorware work, and add a warning so we can truthfully claim we're doing our part to keep the page away from the kiddies--maybe some checkboxes on the submit form could automate this? (2) In an article for general comsumption when it is necessary to refer to such a word (say when using a politician's exact quote), we should render it in such a way that the adults can figure out what's really being said, e.g., "f***" rather than simply "****" or "<expletive>".  Accuracy is important. -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> ProfanityTalk
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984908696
58c58
< I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which in reality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle and eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reasons but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.
---
> I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. 
60c60,61
< The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more acceptable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is a) not suitable for an encyclopedia b) not really an explanation for anything, but rather a (quite political) statement that c) sounds like advertising which makes it d) stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
---
> Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which in reality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle and eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reasons but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.<BR>
> <I>You would be right if I had specified an ethnic group, but I didn't. I wrote that somehow <U>all men</U> are prone to violence. 'Bosnia' is the metaphor I used for this. I live in the Netherlands; my grandfather was a political refugee from Germany in 1933. During the last ten years I've come to the conclusion that we're fooling ourselves to think that we wont ever be violent, criminal or whatever. I don't say it is a nessecity or must (like the nazis & fascists did). I say it is an important issue to study <B>in order to cope with it</B>. Here in the Netherlands all kinds of 'silent marches' & outrages have been, because of 'unnessecary violence'. There are statistical analyses that in the Netherlands 1 out of 5 women have been sexually assaulted at one time or another. All this is still being treated as something incidental; they try to shove it under the carpet. I say the violence is a deeply enrooted thing in the masculine system. If we deny it, we might lose control. If we face it, we can keep it under our thumb. I'm not a rapist. I'm not a mass murderer. I don't want to be a rapist. I don't want to be a mass murderer. But, when I look closely into the mirror, I know I might be one, I suspect any men <B>could</B> be one. With the Nazi's the saying is "never again", but will the violence, rape and murder be stopped? not by denying it!</I>
62c63,82
< To paraphrase it, your initial article says: "You want be kill everybody in sight but are afraid you could get caught? Play RPGs and get rewarded for the most heinous deeds you ever dreamed of. Come on, you know you want to. Everybody does."
---
> The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more acceptable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is <BR>
> a) not suitable for an encyclopedia <BR>
> b) not really an explanation for anything, but  <BR>
> c) rather a (quite political) statement that sounds like advertising which <BR>
> d) makes it stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
> 
> <I>I still think violence is an virulent aspect of roleplaying. I've played a lot of mysteries & quests in wich it played a minor part. Violence is taboo to discuss it's evidence, but it is a part of our lives, so . . .
> 
> I'm not a very good administrator or controller of structures (like an encyclopia). My contribution to this perhaps would be more appropriate in another lemma or in a minor paragraph of this subject
> 
> I hope you will believe now that I'm not a nazi or a propagandist of violence</I>
> 
> To paraphrase it (<I>very freely</I>), your initial article says: "You want be kill everybody in sight but are afraid you could get caught? Play RPGs and get rewarded for the most heinous deeds you ever dreamed of. Come on, you know you want to. Everybody does."
> 
> <I>RPG is fantasy. What do men dream of?<BR>
> RPG is the better plane to commit these dreams<BR>
> media-industry won't agree<BR>
> they make too much money visualising our violent dreams<BR>
> politians won't agree<BR>
> they can use the incidents to control us</I>
64a85,90
> 
> <I>as a contribution to the 'Dungeons & Dragons'- and 'RPG'-subjects I would now very much like to know your definition of this. Some of our dialogue might be usefull for sub-paragraphs.
> 
> Call of Ctulhu & Mage are the planes were my favorite characters dwell:
> * Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Guenther Gneissenschaft, parapsy, momentarily recuperating in Boston.
> * Gustave Antoine Maria Riel, Jezuit priest, somewhere in Arctic Canada looking for an artefact stolen in the Congo.</I>
69c95
< but not an absolute definition of AD&D
---
> but not an absolute definition of AD&D
------
Vampire|984909985
6c6
< *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]], running water and crosses keep vampires away
---
> *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]], running water, crosses and bibles keep vampires away
15c15
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Vampire/Talk|984910389
18a19
> I found an interesting article on themestream.com [[http://www.themestream.com/articles/221971.html]]
------
Yuri_Gagarin|984910804
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin (1934-1968).
> 
> A Soviet [[autronaut]]/cosmonaut who in 1961 became the first man to travel into space (see [[Vostok 1]]). From 1962 he served as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. He was killed in a crash of a jet aircraft on a routine training flight in 1968.
------
Yuri_Gagarin|984910834
3c3
< A Soviet [[autronaut]]/cosmonaut who in 1961 became the first man to travel into space (see [[Vostok 1]]). From 1962 he served as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. He was killed in a crash of a jet aircraft on a routine training flight in 1968.
---
> A Soviet [[austronaut]]/cosmonaut, who in 1961 became the first man to travel into space (see [[Vostok 1]]). From 1962 he served as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. He was killed in a crash of a jet aircraft on a routine training flight in 1968.
------
Space_Exploration|984910874
1c1
< Space Exploration is the exploration of the solar system (and, theoretically, beyond) that involves actually going into space.  Space Exploration began with the launch of Sputnik, and unmanned space exploration began with the orbital flight of Yuri Gagarin in April, 1961.
---
> Space Exploration is the exploration of the solar system (and, theoretically, beyond) that involves actually going into space.  Space Exploration began with the launch of Sputnik, and unmanned space exploration began with the orbital flight of [[Yuri Gagarin]] in April, 1961.
------
Yuri_Gagarin|984910917
3c3
< A Soviet [[austronaut]]/cosmonaut, who in 1961 became the first man to travel into space (see [[Vostok 1]]). From 1962 he served as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. He was killed in a crash of a jet aircraft on a routine training flight in 1968.
---
> A Soviet [[astronaut]]/cosmonaut, who in 1961 became the first man to travel into space (see [[Vostok 1]]). From 1962 he served as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. He was killed in a crash of a jet aircraft on a routine training flight in 1968.
------
Film_History/Russia|984911281
13c13
< *[[Andre Tarkovsky]]
---
> *[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
------
The_Simpsons/Charles_Montgomery_Burns|984911531
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Charles Montgomery Burns]]
------
Great_Depression|984918119
1c1
< The <i>Great Depression</i> is the period of [[United States|American]] history that followed "Black Thursday", the stock market crash of Thursday, October 24, 1929.
---
> The <i>Great Depression</i> is the period of [[United States|American]] history that followed "Black Thursday", the stock market crash of Thursday, October 24, 1929. The events in the [[United States]] triggered a world-wide depression, which led to [[hyperinflation]] and a great increase in unemployment.
------
Inflation|984918421
1c1,7
< A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of purchasing power and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
---
> A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of [[purchasing power]] and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
> 
> Types of inflation:
> *[[/Demand pull]] inflation
> *[[/Cost pull] inflation
> *inflation induced by [[adaptive expectations]]
> *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as '''seignorage'''
------
Inflation|984918571
5c5
< *[[/Cost pull] inflation
---
> *[[/Cost push]] inflation
7c7,11
< *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as '''seignorage'''
---
> *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as ''seignorage''
> 
> An extreme type of inlation is known as [[hyperinflation]].
> 
> The relationship (trade off) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
------
Inflation|984918604
11c11
< The relationship (trade off) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
---
> The relationship (trade-off) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|984918745
19a20,21
> *[[States in Medieval Britain]]
> 
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|984918832
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Mercia]]
> [[Northumbria]]
> [[Rheged]]
> [[Wessex]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|984918867
1,4c1,4
< [[Mercia]]
< [[Northumbria]]
< [[Rheged]]
< [[Wessex]]
---
> *[[Mercia]]
> *[[Northumbria]]
> *[[Rheged]]
> *[[Wessex]]
------
Film_History/Italy|984920196
8a9
> *[[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
------
Jonathan_Swift|984921273
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 - 19 October 1745)
> 
> Irish writer and satirist: notable works by him are
> * A Tale of a Tub (1704)
> * An Argument against Abolishing Christianity (1711)
> * [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]] (1726)
> * [[A Modest Proposal]] (1729)
------
Jonathan_Swift|984921339
3c3
< Irish writer and satirist: notable works by him are
---
> Irish writer and [[Satire|satirist]]: notable works by him are
------
A_Modest_Proposal|984921412
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Modest Proposal (1729)
> 
> A classic [[satire]] written by [[Jonathan Swift]] - the full title is <i>A modest Proposal for preventing the Children of Poor People from being a Burthen to their Parents, or the Country, and for making them Beneficial to the Publick</i>
> 
> The proposal in question was for the poor to sell their children to be slaughtered for meat, thereby bringing in valuable income for the family. 
> 
> Written as an attack on the indifference of landlords to the state of their tenants, and the political economists with their calculations on the schemes to raise income, the entire piece is written in a deeply ironic tone, with scathing comments about the state of the poor and their landlords such as: 
> "I grant this food may be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for Landlords, who as they have already devoured most of the Parents, seem to have the best Title to the Children" 
> 
> 
------
Alkali_metal|984921540
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alkali metal
> 
> The term used for the elements in Group IA of the [[Periodic Table]] - [[Lithium]], [[Sodium]], [[Potassium]], [[Rubidium]], [[Caesium]]. 
> 
> The alkali metals are silvery coloured, soft, low density metals, which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts, and with [[water]] to form strongly alkaline hydroxides. These elements all have one electron in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive [[ion]].  
> 
> [[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, nominally belongs in the alkali metals group. However, removal of that single electron requires considerably more energy than for the other alkali metals.  Like the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can be regarded in some respects as behaving like a halogen; its elemental form is a [[diatomic]] gas, and it can even form salts (called <i>hydrides</i>) with the alkali metals, where the metal has donated an electron to the hydrogen, almost as if hydrogen were actually a halogen.
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|984921846
10c10
< For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption. The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to (New Jersey?), and the story presented as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
---
> For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption.  The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to Grover's Mill, New Jersye, and the plan was to present the story in a documentary style. To this end, Welles even played recordings of the radio reports of the famous [[Hindenberg disaster]] to the cast to demonstrate the mood he wanted. The play started as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|984921880
10c10
< For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption.  The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to Grover's Mill, New Jersye, and the plan was to present the story in a documentary style. To this end, Welles even played recordings of the radio reports of the famous [[Hindenberg disaster]] to the cast to demonstrate the mood he wanted. The play started as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
---
> For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption.  The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to Grover's Mill, New Jersey, and the plan was to present the story in a documentary style. To this end, Welles even played recordings of the radio reports of the famous [[Hindenberg disaster]] to the cast to demonstrate the mood he wanted. The play started as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
------
Utopia|984922070
18a19
> ----
20c21,24
< Do the [[Shakers]] count as a utopian community? And wasn't there  one called something like  "New Harmony" founded by Robert Owen?)
---
> Do the [[Shakers]] count as a utopian community? 
>  Robert Owen's New Lanark?
> And all those millenial cults of the middle ages?
> )
------
Math|984937160
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mathematics]]
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984938242
95a96,97
> 
> The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind.
------
International_Wikipedia|984939262
33c33,35
< That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
---
> That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)----
> 
> RoseParks asks that you to hurry up and do it anyway, without any promises that it will work well or at all. Doozo... 
------
SandBox|984939519
12c12
<                            * H   H *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
146d145
< /Talk
153c152,153
< 
---
> ----
> /Talk
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984939683
60a61
> 
62a64,67
> ----
> But Bosnia was unfortunate nevertheless, because Bosnia <b>is</b> about ethnic groups. And tying the (undeniable) violence to RPGs isn't so fortunate either. What you are writing is more of a general philosophy.
> ----
> 
90a96,97
> ----
> I have no time now, but I will write something later today, promised :) -SoniC
------
Requested_articles|984940667
13,14c13,18
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolice Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] --
< [[Linear Equations]]
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
> [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric Identities]] -- {Inverse Trigonometric Functions]] -- 
> [[Linear Equations]] -- [[Exponential Function]] -- [[Natural Logarithm]]  -- 
> [[Quadratic Equations]] -- [[Conic Sections]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Combinations and Permutations]] -- [[Truth Tables]] -- 
> [[Non-Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Analytic Geometry]] -- [[Ellipse]] -- [[Parabola]] --
> [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface Area]] -- [[Perimeter]]
34c38
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
Dead_Kennedys|984940819
3c3,4
< An overview of their career may be found on the compilation "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death".
---
> An overview of their career may be found on the compilation "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death".---
> [[Dead Kennedy Family Members]]
------
Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members|984941111
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Joseph Kennedy Sr.]]
> :[[Joe Kennedy Jr,]]
> :[[John Fitzgerald Kennedy]]
> :[[Robert Kennedy Jr.]]
> :[[John Kennedy Jr.]]
> 
------
Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members|984941155
4c4
< :[[Robert Kennedy Jr.]]
---
> :[[Robert Kennedy ]]
------
International_Wikipedia|984941181
24c24
< consensus. I'll do some research.
---
> consensus. I'll do some research. (Every Spanish speaker will recognize Castellano and it has standards. -- DickBeldin)
------
Martial_Arts_Film|984941427
0a1,2
> Actors:
> 
2c4,9
< *[[Jackie Chan]]
---
> *[[Jackie Chan]]
> *[[Jean Claude Van Damme]]
> 
> Films:
> 
> ???
------
Film_History|984941537
1c1
< [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese Film History]] -- [[/China|Chinese Film History]] -- [[/India|Indian Film History]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian Film History]]
---
> [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese Film History]] -- [[/China|Chinese Film History]] -- [[/India|Indian Film History]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian Film History]] -- [[/Poland|Polish Film History]]
------
New_Zealand|984941547
17c17,18
< Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.
---
> Rice, Geoffrey W (Ed), "The Oxford History of New Zealand, Second Edition", Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1992.----
> Wouldn't it be better to post this either during Open Review or after publication, rather during copy edit. I am assuming someone want this here because it is a good article on New Zealand- then wait for publication- or to seek improvements - then during open review.
------
Film_History/Poland|984941604
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Roman Polanski]]
> *[[Krzysztof Kieslowski]]
> *[[Andrzej Wajda]]
------
Film_History/Poland|984941639
0a1,2
> Directors:
> 
3a6,9
> 
> Actrors:
> 
> *[[Izabella Scorupco]]
------
New_Zealand|984941669
18c18,20
< Wouldn't it be better to post this either during Open Review or after publication, rather during copy edit. I am assuming someone want this here because it is a good article on New Zealand- then wait for publication- or to seek improvements - then during open review.
---
> Wouldn't it be better to post this either during Open Review or after publication, rather during copy edit. I am assuming someone wants this here because it is a good article on New Zealand- then wait for publication- or to seek improvements - then during open review.
> Unlles, you are seeking elaboration on of links - still wait for publication, I think.
> Confused.
------
International_Wikipedia|984941672
24c24
< consensus. I'll do some research. (Every Spanish speaker will recognize Castellano and it has standards. -- DickBeldin)
---
> consensus. I'll do some research. (Every Spanish speaker will recognize Castellano and it has standards. It seems that every Spanish speaking American community has its own local variations. -- DickBeldin)
------
Poland|984941751
19a20,21
> [[Film history/Poland|Film History]]
> 
------
Poland|984941797
20c20
< [[Film history/Poland|Film History]]
---
> [[Film History/Poland|Film History]]
------
Digital_Equipment_Corporation|984941979
3a4,5
> ----
> On a personal note, I want to express my appreciation for the generous severance packages we received when the [[Puerto Rico]] subsidiary was closed down in 1993. [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Roman_Polanski|984946265
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Was married to actress [[Sharon Tate]], who was killed by [[Charles Manson]] later
> 
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Rosemary's Baby]]
> :[[Macbeth/Polansky|Macbeth]]
------
Roman_Polanski|984946289
5c5
< :[[Rosemary's Baby]]
---
> :[[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
------
Macbeth|984946356
5c5
< :[[/Roman Polansky|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polansky]] 
---
> :[[/Roman Polanski|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polanski]] 
------
Roman_Polanski|984946378
6c6
< :[[Macbeth/Polansky|Macbeth]]
---
> :[[Macbeth/Polanski|Macbeth]]
------
Martial_Arts_Film|984946425
5c5
< *[[Jean Claude Van Damme]]
---
> *[[Jean-Claude Van Damme]]
------
Roman_Polanski|984947510
6c6,7
< :[[Macbeth/Polanski|Macbeth]]
---
> :[[Macbeth/Polanski|Macbeth]]
> :[[The Ninth Gate]]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984948229
10a11,19
> Participants play characters which consist of different numerical attributes describing their abilities, skills and various other parts of their personality and guide them through a world described by the system's setting and the system's rules, which form the game mechanics. One person is responsible for telling the story, presenting plotlines to the characters and who interacts with them in the roles of various in-game figures called Non-Player Characters (NPCs). He has the final say about all game matters and reacts to the players' actions (or rather to the actions of their characters). Usually, this person is called "Game Master" (GM), but in some RPGs it's Dungeon Master (DM) or Storyteller. Play is completely freeform, i.e. the players describe their characters' actions and roleplay conversations and then the GM decides which effect these actions have on the story, which is often called the Adventure. Think of it as a moderated theatrical play with an open end. 
> 
> Physical combat and other actions that can't be roleplayed are usually decided with a dice system based on the characters' attributes, although there are some diceless system, too.
> 
> Game systems usually consist of a set of rules and a description of the setting, i.e. of the game world and the different peoples. In most RPGs, Player Charcters (PCs) can be of different races (depending on the setting [[Elf]]s, Humans, [[Dwarf]]s or all sorts of aliens]]) and of different Character Classes (in fantasy settings these might be [[Barbarian]]s, [[Druid]]s, rogues etc. while in Science Fiction settings they might be Space Craft Pilots, Street Samurai or Hackers, etc.). 
> 
> Apart from commercial systems there are countless homemade systems written by gamers for them and their friends. 
> 
> ----
11a21,45
> 
> Fantasy settings:
> 
> * [[RuneQuest]]
> * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
> * [[Midgard]]
> * [[Harnmaster]]
> * [[Earthdawn]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings/RPG|Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Ars Magica]]
> * [[Rolemaster]]
> 
> Science Fiction settings:
> 
> * [[Gamma World]]
> * [[Shadowrun]]
> * [[Cyberpunk]]
> * [[Traveller]]
> * [[Paranoia]]
> * [[Star Wars/RPG|Star Wars]]
> * [[Star Trek/RPG|Star Trek]]
> * [[Tales from the Floating Vagabound]]
> 
> Contemporary settings:
> 
16d49
< * [[Gamma World]]
18d50
< * [[RuneQuest]]
20,24d51
< * [[Traveller]]
< * [[Midgard]]
< * [[Shadowrun]]
< * [[Cyberpunk]]
< * [[Paranoia]]
26,27c53,65
< * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
< Zines:<BR>
---
> * [[Hong Kong Action Theater]]
> 
> Steam Punk/Steam Fantasy:
> 
> * [[Space 1889]]
> 
> Generic games with multiple settings:
> 
> * [[GURPS]]
> * [[TWERPS]]
> 
> Zines:
> 
30c68,74
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
---
> 
> Comics:
> 
> * [[Knights of the Dinner Table]]
> * [[Dork Towers]]
> 
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
------
Vampire/Talk|984950236
13a14,16
> 
> <i>I think that's pretty authoritative, then.  It <b>is</b> an English word, and it <b>does</b> apply to vampires. -- [[Jimbo Wales]]</i>
> 
19c22
< I found an interesting article on themestream.com [[http://www.themestream.com/articles/221971.html]]
---
> I found an interesting article on themestream.com [[http://www.themestream.com/articles/221971.html]]
------
International_Wikipedia|984950454
17a18,19
> ''Not a bad idea, but some of those are difficult for Americans to get. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
> 
------
Vampire/Talk|984950516
15c15
< <i>I think that's pretty authoritative, then.  It <b>is</b> an English word, and it <b>does</b> apply to vampires. -- [[Jimbo Wales]]</i>
---
> <i>I think that's pretty authoritative, then.  It <b>is</b> an English word, and it <b>does</b> apply to vampires. Wouldn't Bram Stoker's novel be pretty much the starting point of modern vampire fiction? -- [[Jimbo Wales]]</i>
------
Games/RolePlaying|984950623
18a19,20
> ''I'd like to add to this with a history (being researched...still need more stuff on PC RPGs), but I don't know where to put it.  This page is woefully overcrowded, but I can't subpage from here it doesn't seem right to make it a subpage of [[Games]].  Permission to move this, and the other things on [[Games]] to top-level categories?  Noone is ever going to accidentally link to [[Games/RolePlaying]] anyways.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> 
74c76
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
---
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
------
Wikipedia_policy/Foul_Language|984950734
18a19,22
> ----
> <i>Is this the emerging consensus?  Profanity should be used only where appropriate, meaning primarily where it is necessary and useful for completeness and accuracy, and we should not fuss over it too much.  This is essentially (2) and (3) above.  Another way to look at it is that the Wikipedia ought not to swear, but it can quote the swearing of others, when historically or otherwise important.</i>
> 
> 
------
Film_History/Canada|984950758
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> *[[John Grierson]]
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|984950929
1c1
< A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]] in the early [[1970s]].
---
> A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]] and [[David Arneson]] in the early [[1970s]].
------
Classical_Music|984951119
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Commonly denotes the musical traditions of Western Europe.  Styles have developed by era which are characteristic of the time for instrument use, predominant musicality, etc.
> 
> *[[Baroque Music]]
> *[[Classical Music Era]]
> *[[Romantic Music]]
> *[[Impressionist Music]]
> *[[Modern Classical Music]]
> 
> Some musical terms that come from the study and history of Western Classical music include:
> *[[Polyphony]]
> *[[Tonality]]
> *[[Atonality]]
> *[[Counterpoint]]
> *[[Melody]]
> *[[Harmony]]
> *[[Musical Voices]]
> *[[Musical Color]]
------
Martial_Arts_Film|984951179
9c9
< ???
---
> [[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]
------
Baroque_Music|984951187
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> *[[Johanne Sabastian Bach]]
> *[[Carl Immanuel Christian Bach]]
------
Baroque_Music|984951250
2c2
< *[[Johanne Sabastian Bach]]
---
> *JohannSebastianBach
------
Classical_Music_Era|984951325
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Mozart]]
------
Romantic_Music|984951374
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Beethoven]]
------
Impressionist_Music|984951393
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Claude Debussy]]
------
Modern_Classical_Music|984951462
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Mahler]]
------
Sculpture|984952161
1c1,9
< ''Sculpture'' is the art of shaping stone, metal, wood, and other materials in a particular way, for a particular purpose, but we have a hard time distinguishing it from architecture and other arts like ceramics.  We hope someone will come and enlighten us...
---
> Sculpture is traditionally three-dimensional artistic expression.  Some of the forms of sculpture are:
> *[[Freize]] - (I'm not sure I spelled that right.)
> *[[Mobile]] (See also Calder's Stabiles.)
> *[[Bust]]
> 
> ''Sculpture'' is the art of shaping stone, metal, wood, and other materials in a particular way, for a particular purpose, but we have a hard time distinguishing it from architecture and other arts like ceramics.  We hope someone will come and enlighten us...
> 
> I would say that the distinguishing characteristic about "sculpture" and other forms of three-dimensional artistic expression would be in the functionality of the object constructed.  Sculpture is more of a "pure art" who's functionality is in its mere existence.  This definition works only if we are not too rigid with it.  The lines separating them is blurred.  But architecture is only good (I would argue) when it is functional as well as beautiful.  When something moves away from the functionality, I think it moves away from the architecture and more towards the pure art of sculpture.
> 
------
Romantic_Music|984952225
1c1
< *[[Beethoven]]
---
> *[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]
------
History|984952289
0a1,2
> [[Histiography]]
> -----
32c34
< When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
---
> When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|984952395
10a11
> :[[Industrial design]]
34c35
<      [[Body fluids in art]]
---
>      [[Body fluids in art]]
------
LiteraryArtTalk|984952609
8c8,15
< Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
---
> Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
> 
> Here's a suggestion...
> Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
> 
> Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
> 
> Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
------
LiteraryArtTalk|984952630
11,15c11,13
< Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
< 
< Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
< 
< Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
---
> *Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
> *Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
> *Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
------
LiteraryArtTalk|984952690
13a14
> (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
------
Classics|984952818
3a4,6
> [[Greek Literature]]
> [[Roman Mythology]]
> [[Roman Literature]]
------
Classics|984952841
3c3
< [[Greek Mythology]]
---
> [[Greek Mythology]]--
5c5,6
< [[Roman Mythology]]
---
> 
> [[Roman Mythology]]--
------
JohannSebastianBach|984957499
1,5c1
< Johann Sebastian Bach was a classical composer who lived from 1685 thru 1750.  He is generally ranked among history's greatest composers.
< 
< */Biography
< */Compositions
< */Recordings
---
> #REDIRECT [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
------
Johann_Sebastian_Bach|984957520
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Johann Sebastian Bach was a classical composer who lived from 1685 thru 1750.  He is generally ranked among history's greatest composers.
> 
> */Biography
> */Compositions
> */Recordings
> 
------
Baroque_Music|984957566
1,3c1,2
< 
< *JohannSebastianBach
< *[[Carl Immanuel Christian Bach]]
---
> *[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
> *[[Carl Immanuel Christian Bach]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|984957846
34,35c34,35
<      [[Plastics in art]]
<      [[Body fluids in art]]
---
> ::[[Plastics in art]]
> ::[[Body fluids in art]]
------
WojPob|984958920
5c5
< [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn.com]
---
> [pobratyn_heavy_industries|http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn.com]
21c21
< - Mathijs
---
> - [[Mathijs]]
------
WojPob|984959063
5c5
< [pobratyn_heavy_industries|http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn.com]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn_heavy_industries]
------
Games/RolePlaying|984959301
20a21,22
> Why not. Make [[Roleplaying Games]] copy the text form here, make a redirect and change the link on the [[Games]] page, then everything should be ok. -SoniC
> 
76c78
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
---
> Roleplaying [[/video games]]
------
Bugly|984984745
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (adj): big and ugly. "Look at that bugly house!"
> 
> (noun): a bugly car. "I passed three buglies on the highway today."
------
Tourism|984984946
1c1
< ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's countries, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc.
---
> ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's locales, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc.
------
StarCraft|984985481
1c1
< Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.
---
> Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play. See also [[Command And Conquer]] and [[Red Alert]].
------
Games/video_games|984985530
52a53
> * [[Red Alert]]
72c73
< * [[Yars Revenge]]
---
> * [[Yars Revenge]]
------
Delphi|984985743
3c3
< Also, a [[programming language]] and software development environment, based on [[Pascal]] but with [[object-oriented]] extensions, produced by the Borland International company (now [http://www.inprise.com Inprise]).  Its most popular use was development of enterprise applications for [[Microsoft Windows]].  It was one of the first of what came to be called <i>RAD</i> tools, for Rapid Application Development.
---
> Also, a [[programming language]] and software development environment, based on [[Pascal]] but with [[object-oriented]] extensions, produced by the Borland International company (which went by the name of [http://www.inprise.com Inprise] for a certain time).  Its most popular use was development of enterprise applications for [[Microsoft Windows]].  It was one of the first of what came to be called <i>RAD</i> tools, for Rapid Application Development.
------
StarCraft|984985836
1a2,3
> 
> ''What does StarCraft have to do with C&C, other than the fact that they are both real-time strategy games?  As well to add a reference to Dune II, which they all are in debt to.''
------
Games/RolePlaying|984986044
1,78c1
< Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
< Make believe with consentual parameters of reality<BR>
< alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
< <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
< Players present characters according.<BR>
< <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
< Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
< It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
< It's addictive
< ----
< Participants play characters which consist of different numerical attributes describing their abilities, skills and various other parts of their personality and guide them through a world described by the system's setting and the system's rules, which form the game mechanics. One person is responsible for telling the story, presenting plotlines to the characters and who interacts with them in the roles of various in-game figures called Non-Player Characters (NPCs). He has the final say about all game matters and reacts to the players' actions (or rather to the actions of their characters). Usually, this person is called "Game Master" (GM), but in some RPGs it's Dungeon Master (DM) or Storyteller. Play is completely freeform, i.e. the players describe their characters' actions and roleplay conversations and then the GM decides which effect these actions have on the story, which is often called the Adventure. Think of it as a moderated theatrical play with an open end. 
< 
< Physical combat and other actions that can't be roleplayed are usually decided with a dice system based on the characters' attributes, although there are some diceless system, too.
< 
< Game systems usually consist of a set of rules and a description of the setting, i.e. of the game world and the different peoples. In most RPGs, Player Charcters (PCs) can be of different races (depending on the setting [[Elf]]s, Humans, [[Dwarf]]s or all sorts of aliens]]) and of different Character Classes (in fantasy settings these might be [[Barbarian]]s, [[Druid]]s, rogues etc. while in Science Fiction settings they might be Space Craft Pilots, Street Samurai or Hackers, etc.). 
< 
< Apart from commercial systems there are countless homemade systems written by gamers for them and their friends. 
< 
< ''I'd like to add to this with a history (being researched...still need more stuff on PC RPGs), but I don't know where to put it.  This page is woefully overcrowded, but I can't subpage from here it doesn't seem right to make it a subpage of [[Games]].  Permission to move this, and the other things on [[Games]] to top-level categories?  Noone is ever going to accidentally link to [[Games/RolePlaying]] anyways.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
< 
< Why not. Make [[Roleplaying Games]] copy the text form here, make a redirect and change the link on the [[Games]] page, then everything should be ok. -SoniC
< 
< ----
< Games:<BR>
< 
< Fantasy settings:
< 
< * [[RuneQuest]]
< * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
< * [[Midgard]]
< * [[Harnmaster]]
< * [[Earthdawn]]
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings/RPG|Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Ars Magica]]
< * [[Rolemaster]]
< 
< Science Fiction settings:
< 
< * [[Gamma World]]
< * [[Shadowrun]]
< * [[Cyberpunk]]
< * [[Traveller]]
< * [[Paranoia]]
< * [[Star Wars/RPG|Star Wars]]
< * [[Star Trek/RPG|Star Trek]]
< * [[Tales from the Floating Vagabound]]
< 
< Contemporary settings:
< 
< * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
< * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]]
< * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]]
< * [[Kult]]
< * [[Top Secret]]
< * [[Champions]]
< * [[Call of Cthulhu]]
< * [[Hong Kong Action Theater]]
< 
< Steam Punk/Steam Fantasy:
< 
< * [[Space 1889]]
< 
< Generic games with multiple settings:
< 
< * [[GURPS]]
< * [[TWERPS]]
< 
< Zines:
< 
< * [[White Dwarf]]
< * [[Dragon]]
< 
< Comics:
< 
< * [[Knights of the Dinner Table]]
< * [[Dork Towers]]
< 
< Roleplaying [[/video games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Role playing games]]
------
Role_playing_games|984986080
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
> Make believe with consentual parameters of reality<BR>
> alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
> <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
> Players present characters according.<BR>
> <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
> Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
> It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
> It's addictive
> ----
> Participants play characters which consist of different numerical attributes describing their abilities, skills and various other parts of their personality and guide them through a world described by the system's setting and the system's rules, which form the game mechanics. One person is responsible for telling the story, presenting plotlines to the characters and who interacts with them in the roles of various in-game figures called Non-Player Characters (NPCs). He has the final say about all game matters and reacts to the players' actions (or rather to the actions of their characters). Usually, this person is called "Game Master" (GM), but in some RPGs it's Dungeon Master (DM) or Storyteller. Play is completely freeform, i.e. the players describe their characters' actions and roleplay conversations and then the GM decides which effect these actions have on the story, which is often called the Adventure. Think of it as a moderated theatrical play with an open end. 
> 
> Physical combat and other actions that can't be roleplayed are usually decided with a dice system based on the characters' attributes, although there are some diceless system, too.
> 
> Game systems usually consist of a set of rules and a description of the setting, i.e. of the game world and the different peoples. In most RPGs, Player Charcters (PCs) can be of different races (depending on the setting [[Elf]]s, Humans, [[Dwarf]]s or all sorts of aliens]]) and of different Character Classes (in fantasy settings these might be [[Barbarian]]s, [[Druid]]s, rogues etc. while in Science Fiction settings they might be Space Craft Pilots, Street Samurai or Hackers, etc.). 
> 
> Apart from commercial systems there are countless homemade systems written by gamers for them and their friends. 
> ----
> Games:<BR>
> 
> Fantasy settings:
> 
> * [[RuneQuest]]
> * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
> * [[Midgard]]
> * [[Harnmaster]]
> * [[Earthdawn]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings/RPG|Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Ars Magica]]
> * [[Rolemaster]]
> 
> Science Fiction settings:
> 
> * [[Gamma World]]
> * [[Shadowrun]]
> * [[Cyberpunk]]
> * [[Traveller]]
> * [[Paranoia]]
> * [[Star Wars/RPG|Star Wars]]
> * [[Star Trek/RPG|Star Trek]]
> * [[Tales from the Floating Vagabound]]
> 
> Contemporary settings:
> 
> * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
> * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]]
> * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]]
> * [[Kult]]
> * [[Top Secret]]
> * [[Champions]]
> * [[Call of Cthulhu]]
> * [[Hong Kong Action Theater]]
> 
> Steam Punk/Steam Fantasy:
> 
> * [[Space 1889]]
> 
> Generic games with multiple settings:
> 
> * [[GURPS]]
> * [[TWERPS]]
> 
> Zines:
> 
> * [[White Dwarf]]
> * [[Dragon]]
> 
> Comics:
> 
> * [[Knights of the Dinner Table]]
> * [[Dork Towers]]
> 
> Roleplaying [[Video games]]
> 
------
Games/Board|984986132
1,31c1
< Board [[Games]]
< 
< Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces, make it impossible for the other player to move. or to control the largest area at the end of the game.
<  
< * [[Checkers]]
< * [[Chess]]
< * [[Chinese Checkers]]
< * [[Go]]
< * [[Games/Hex|Hex]]
< * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
< * [[Othello - Reversi]]
< 
< Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to reach some specific location on the board.
< 
< * [[Ludo]]
< * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
< * [[Snakes and Ladders]]
< 
< Other:
< * [[Abalone]]
< * [[Alquerque]]
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
< * [[Diplomacy]]
< * [[Mancala]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< 
< ----
< 
< We definitely need to come up with a better classification here, at some point.  It's a good start, but games like [[Abalone]] and [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]] really defy any coarse classification.  Perhaps nested classification pages, with games existing on multiple pages?  I'm planning on adding entries for a few more games that we play regularly, most of which won't quite fit anywhere in here.  Don't take this as anything other than a random thought. :) -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Board games]]
------
Board_games|984986164
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Board [[Games]]
> 
> Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces, make it impossible for the other player to move. or to control the largest area at the end of the game.
>  
> * [[Checkers]]
> * [[Chess]]
> * [[Chinese Checkers]]
> * [[Go]]
> * [[Games/Hex|Hex]]
> * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
> * [[Othello - Reversi]]
> 
> Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to reach some specific location on the board.
> 
> * [[Ludo]]
> * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
> * [[Snakes and Ladders]]
> 
> Other:
> * [[Abalone]]
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
> * [[Diplomacy]]
> * [[Mancala]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> 
> ----
> 
> We definitely need to come up with a better classification here, at some point.  It's a good start, but games like [[Abalone]] and [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]] really defy any coarse classification.  Perhaps nested classification pages, with games existing on multiple pages?  I'm planning on adding entries for a few more games that we play regularly, most of which won't quite fit anywhere in here.  Don't take this as anything other than a random thought. :) -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
> 
> 
------
Games/Cards|984986199
1,35c1
< Many [[games]] involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
< 
< Trick-taking games
< * [[Whist]]
< * [[Bridge]]
< * [[Euchre]]
< * [[Skat]]
< * [[Tarot]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Nap|Napolean]]
< 
< [[Gambling]] games
< * [[Poker]]
< * [[Boure]]
< * [[Blackjack]]
< * [[Panguingue]]
< * [[Red Dog]]
< * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
< 
< [[Rummy games]]
< * [[Gin Rummy]]
< * [[Gin]]
< * [[Canasta]]
< 
< [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
< 
< Other games
< * [[Old Maid]]
< * [[Go Fish]]
< * [[Macchiavelli]]
< * [[Spit]]
< * [[Grass]]
< * [[Pinochle]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Card games]]
------
Card_games|984986218
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many [[games]] involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
> 
> Trick-taking games
> * [[Whist]]
> * [[Bridge]]
> * [[Euchre]]
> * [[Skat]]
> * [[Tarot]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Spades]]
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
> 
> [[Gambling]] games
> * [[Poker]]
> * [[Boure]]
> * [[Blackjack]]
> * [[Panguingue]]
> * [[Red Dog]]
> * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
> 
> [[Rummy games]]
> * [[Gin Rummy]]
> * [[Gin]]
> * [[Canasta]]
> 
> [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
> 
> Other games
> * [[Old Maid]]
> * [[Go Fish]]
> * [[Macchiavelli]]
> * [[Spit]]
> * [[Grass]]
> * [[Pinochle]]
> 
> 
------
Games/Casino|984986261
1,6c1
< Casino [[Games]]
< * [[Craps]]
< * [[Roulette]]
< * [[Games of Chance]]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Casino games]]
------
Casino_games|984986278
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Casino [[Games]]
> * [[Craps]]
> * [[Roulette]]
> * [[Games of Chance]]
------
Games/Computer|984986326
1,26c1
< [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
< 
< Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
< 
< * [[Turn based game]]
< * [[Continuous game]]
< 
< * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
< ** Fixed screen
< ** Scrolling screen
< *** Horizontal scrolling
< **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
< *** Vertical scrolling
< * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
< 
< * [[First person]]
< ** [[First person shooter]]
< * [[Third person]]
< 
< <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
< 
< ----
< 
< ''Most references you will find separate out video games, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no, but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
< 
< ''Do we want this to be a subcategory of Games?  I can see many things wanting to go here, like history of computer games, and it seems odd that they would either be independent subcategories of a subpage or direct subpages of games.  I'm voting again that this becomes a top-level category.''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer games]]
------
Computer_games|984986343
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
> 
> Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
> 
> * [[Turn based game]]
> * [[Continuous game]]
> 
> * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
> ** Fixed screen
> ** Scrolling screen
> *** Horizontal scrolling
> **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
> *** Vertical scrolling
> * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
> 
> * [[First person]]
> ** [[First person shooter]]
> * [[Third person]]
> 
> <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
> 
> ----
> 
> ''Most references you will find separate out video games, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no, but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
> 
------
Games/Letter|984986407
1,5c1
< Letter [[Games]]
< * [[Crosswords]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< * UpWords
< * [[Hangman]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Letter games]]
------
Letter_games|984986437
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Letter [[Games]]
> * [[Crosswords]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Up words]]
> * [[Hangman]]
------
Games/TableTop|984986529
1,20c1
< Tabletop [[Games]]
< * [[Mah Jongg]]
< * [[Minature Wargaming]]
< ** [[Warhammer]]
< ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
< ** [[Flintloque]]
< * [[CoSims]]
< ** [[Axis and Allies]]
< ** [[Samurai Swords]]
< ** [[World in Flames]]
< ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
< * [[Blood Bowl]]
< * [[Monopoly]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Robo Rally]]
< * [[Civilization]]
< * [[Merchant of Venus]]
< * [[Outpost]]
< * [[The Settlers of Catan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Table top games]]
------
Table_top_games|984986541
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tabletop [[Games]]
> * [[Mah Jongg]]
> * [[Minature Wargaming]]
> ** [[Warhammer]]
> ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
> ** [[Flintloque]]
> * [[CoSims]]
> ** [[Axis and Allies]]
> ** [[Samurai Swords]]
> ** [[World in Flames]]
> ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
> * [[Blood Bowl]]
> * [[Monopoly]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Robo Rally]]
> * [[Civilization]]
> * [[Merchant of Venus]]
> * [[Outpost]]
> * [[The Settlers of Catan]]
> 
------
Games/Tile_based|984986590
1,6c1
< A [[tile]] based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
< 
< Some tile based games:
< * Dominoes
< * 42 (Forty Two)
< * Mah Jong
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tile based games]]
------
Tile_based_games|984986658
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[tile]] based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
> 
> Some tile based games:
> * Dominoes
> * 42 (Forty Two)
> * Mah Jong
> 
------
Games/TradingCard|984986709
1,6c1
< Trading Card [[Games]]
< * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Collectable card games]]
------
Collectable_card_games|984986727
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Collectable Card [[Games]]
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
> 
------
Games/video_games|984986774
1,73c1
< Adventure Games:
< 
< traditional:
< 
< : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< : [[Manic Mansion]]
< : [[Zack McCracken]]
< : [[Zork]]
< : [[Sam and Max]]
< : [[Monkey Island]] series
< 
< 3D:
< 
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
< 
< -----
< 
< Roleplaying Games:
< 
< * [[Dungeon Master]]
< * [[Hack]]
< * [[Ultima]] series
< * [[Ambermoon]]
< * [[Amberstar]]
< * [[Final Fantasy]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< 
< -----
< 
< First Person Shooters (FPS):
< 
< * [[Quake]] series
< * [[Unreal]]
< * [[Half Life]]
< * [[Doom]] series
< * [[Hexen]]
< * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< * [[Rise of the Triad]]
< * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
< 
< -----
< 
< Strategy:
< 
< turn-based:
< * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
< * [[Battle Isle]] series
< * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
< 
< real time:
< * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
< * [[Command and Conquer]]
< * [[Red Alert]]
< * [[Dark Reign]]
< * [[Populous]] series
< * [[StarCraft]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Platform:
< 
< * [[Super Mario]] series
< * [[Sonic]] series
< * [[Lionheart]]
< 
< -----
< Arcade:
< 
< * [[Pacman]]
< * [[Space Invaders]]
< * [[Asteroids]]
< * [[Joust]]
< * [[Yars Revenge]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Video games]]
------
Video_games|984986845
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adventure Games:
> 
> traditional:
> 
> : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> : [[Manic Mansion]]
> : [[Zack McCracken]]
> : [[Zork]]
> : [[Sam and Max]]
> : [[Monkey Island]] series
> 
> 3D:
> 
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Roleplaying Games:
> 
> * [[Dungeon Master]]
> * [[Hack]]
> * [[Ultima]] series
> * [[Ambermoon]]
> * [[Amberstar]]
> * [[Final Fantasy]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Legend of Zelda]]
> 
> -----
> 
> First Person Shooters (FPS):
> 
> * [[Quake]] series
> * [[Unreal]]
> * [[Half Life]]
> * [[Doom]] series
> * [[Hexen]]
> * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> * [[Rise of the Triad]]
> * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Strategy:
> 
> turn-based:
> * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
> * [[Battle Isle]] series
> * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
> 
> real time:
> * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
> * [[Command and Conquer]]
> * [[Red Alert]]
> * [[Dark Reign]]
> * [[Populous]] series
> * [[StarCraft]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Platform:
> 
> * [[Super Mario]] series
> * [[Sonic]] series
> * [[Lionheart]]
> 
> -----
> Arcade
> 
> * [[Pacman]]
> * [[Space Invaders]]
> * [[Asteroids]]
> * [[Joust]]
> * [[Yars Revenge]]
> 
------
Games|984986944
6,15c6,15
< *[[/Board]]
< *[[/Cards]]
< *[[/Casino]]
< *[[/Computer]]
< *[[/Letter]]
< *[[/RolePlaying]]
< *[[/TableTop]]
< *[[/Tile based]]
< *[[/TradingCard]]
< *[[/video games]]
---
> *[[Board games]]
> *[[Card games]]
> *[[Collectable card games]]
> *[[Casino games]]
> *[[Computer games]]
> *[[Letter games]]
> *[[Role playing games]]
> *[[Table top games]]
> *[[Tile based games]]
> *[[Video games]]
17c17
< Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
---
> Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
------
MonopolyGame|984987015
1c1
< <i>Monopoly</i> is a [[Games/Board|board game]] invented by Charles Darrow and marketed by Parker Brothers.  The game involves using play money to trade real estate (with properties named after locations in Atlantic City, NJ).  It became popular in the [[United States]] during the [[Great Depression]].
---
> <i>Monopoly</i> is a [[Board Games|board game]] invented by Charles Darrow and marketed by Parker Brothers.  The game involves using play money to trade real estate (with properties named after locations in Atlantic City, NJ).  It became popular in the [[United States]] during the [[Great Depression]].
------
Playing_cards|984987052
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[Games/Cards|games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[card games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
11c11
< See also [[Games/Cards]].
---
> See also [[Card games]].
------
Poker|984987093
1c1
< The [[Games/Cards|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central <i>pot</i> or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
---
> The [[card games|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central <i>pot</i> or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|984987336
10a11
> Disagreeing with this...as I sorta put into practice before noticing this line...but I put warnings and had no complaints and some encouragement.  Doing this gives us uplinks, but it prevents us from making subpages when they really matter, and forces us to use the alternate brackets thing, destroying much hope of accidental linking ([[Daffodil]] vs [[Flower/Daffodil]], [[Anthophyta/Daffodil]], etc)
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|984987649
11c11,13
< Disagreeing with this...as I sorta put into practice before noticing this line...but I put warnings and had no complaints and some encouragement.  Doing this gives us uplinks, but it prevents us from making subpages when they really matter, and forces us to use the alternate brackets thing, destroying much hope of accidental linking ([[Daffodil]] vs [[Flower/Daffodil]], [[Anthophyta/Daffodil]], etc)
---
> Disagreeing with this...as I sorta put into practice before noticing this line...but I put warnings and had no complaints and some encouragement.  Doing this gives us uplinks, but it prevents us from making subpages when they really matter, and forces us to use the alternate brackets thing, destroying much hope of accidental linking ([[Daffodil]] vs [[Flower/Daffodil]], [[Anthophyta/Daffodil]], etc)
> 
> Elaborate, please, Josh, I don't understand.  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members|984990408
2a3
> :[[Katherine Kennedy]]
4c5
< :[[Robert Kennedy ]]
---
> :[[Robert Kennedy, Jr.]]
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984991835
0a1,2
> This page is a dialogue on violence in RPG between Mathijs and Sonic; recently some (NN) joined our interesting quest
> ----
11a14
> - Mathijs
22c25,26
< The U.S. is our high priest
---
> The U.S. is our high priest<BR> 
> - Mathijs
62c66,67
< <I>You would be right if I had specified an ethnic group, but I didn't. I wrote that somehow <U>all men</U> are prone to violence. 'Bosnia' is the metaphor I used for this. I live in the Netherlands; my grandfather was a political refugee from Germany in 1933. During the last ten years I've come to the conclusion that we're fooling ourselves to think that we wont ever be violent, criminal or whatever. I don't say it is a nessecity or must (like the nazis & fascists did). I say it is an important issue to study <B>in order to cope with it</B>. Here in the Netherlands all kinds of 'silent marches' & outrages have been, because of 'unnessecary violence'. There are statistical analyses that in the Netherlands 1 out of 5 women have been sexually assaulted at one time or another. All this is still being treated as something incidental; they try to shove it under the carpet. I say the violence is a deeply enrooted thing in the masculine system. If we deny it, we might lose control. If we face it, we can keep it under our thumb. I'm not a rapist. I'm not a mass murderer. I don't want to be a rapist. I don't want to be a mass murderer. But, when I look closely into the mirror, I know I might be one, I suspect any men <B>could</B> be one. With the Nazi's the saying is "never again", but will the violence, rape and murder be stopped? not by denying it!</I>
---
> <I>You would be right if I had specified an ethnic group, but I didn't. I wrote that somehow <U>all men</U> are prone to violence. 'Bosnia' is the metaphor I used for this. I live in the Netherlands; my grandfather was a political refugee from Germany in 1933. During the last ten years I've come to the conclusion that we're fooling ourselves to think that we wont ever be violent, criminal or whatever. I don't say it is a nessecity or must (like the nazis & fascists did). I say it is an important issue to study <B>in order to cope with it</B>. Here in the Netherlands all kinds of 'silent marches' & outrages have been, because of 'unnessecary violence'. There are statistical analyses that in the Netherlands 1 out of 5 women have been sexually assaulted at one time or another. All this is still being treated as something incidental; they try to shove it under the carpet. I say the violence is a deeply enrooted thing in the masculine system. If we deny it, we might lose control. If we face it, we can keep it under our thumb. I'm not a rapist. I'm not a mass murderer. I don't want to be a rapist. I don't want to be a mass murderer. But, when I look closely into the mirror, I know I might be one, I suspect any men <B>could</B> be one. With the Nazi's the saying is "never again", but will the violence, rape and murder be stopped? not by denying it!</I><BR> 
> - Mathijs
67c72
< 
---
> (normal font = Sonic, Indented font = Mathijs)
95c100,101
< * Gustave Antoine Maria Riel, Jezuit priest, somewhere in Arctic Canada looking for an artefact stolen in the Congo.</I>
---
> * Gustave Antoine Maria Riel, Jezuit priest, somewhere in Arctic Canada looking for an artefact stolen in the Congo.</I><BR> 
> - Mathijs
102,104c108,118
< but not an absolute definition of AD&D
< 
< The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind.
---
> but not an absolute definition of AD&D<BR> 
> - Mathijs
> ----
> The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind. - NN
> ----
> Thanks for your contribution, NN<BR>
> sure, if you kill a fiend, you're a hero, a violent hero<BR>
> you should be put on trial! <BR>
> <FONT SIZE=+1>=;P</FONT><BR>
> I don't know any RPGamer who hasn't at some stage played a truly evil character. I even know of a group in England who solely play NWO-technocracy-characters!<BR> 
> - Mathijs
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|984992034
1c1
< This page is a dialogue on violence in RPG between Mathijs and Sonic; recently some (NN) joined our interesting quest
---
> This page is a dialogue on violence in RPG,<BR> between Mathijs and Sonic; <BR>recently Josh Grosse joined in
111c111
< The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind. - NN
---
> The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind. - Josh Grosse
113c113
< Thanks for your contribution, NN<BR>
---
> Thanks for your contribution, Josh<BR>
------
Poles/Talk|984992790
36c36,37
< The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eatern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants  in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he and his family have done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob
---
> The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eastern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he and his family have done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob<BR>
> <I>More-over, in light of recent events and the evident frustration of american youngsters, you might question the democracy of the U.S. To top it up, the U.S. is the country of ghetto's, prison-cities and closed compounds. It is a state of paradoxes! Hard to use as a reference in this.</I> - Mathijs 
38c39
< 'necessary' perhaps is to absolute a term; no-one can look in the future. In history there can be no such thing as Boolean logic.  - Mathijs
---
> 'necessary' perhaps is to absolute a term; no-one can look in the future. In history there is no such thing as Boolean logic.  - Mathijs
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|984993537
0a1,9
> Celtic states
> *[[Rheged]]
> *[[Cornwall]]
> *[[Devon]]
> *[[something unpronouncable & with a lot of 'l'-s]]
> *[[Camelot]]
> *[[Gwynned]]
> *[[Daldriada]]
> *[[Galloway]]
1a11,12
> 
> Angle, Saxon & Jute states
3d13
< *[[Rheged]]
4a15,30
> *[[Essex]]
> *[[Kent]]
> *[[Suffolk]]
> 
> Scottish, Pict & Caledonian states
> *[[Scotland]]
> *[[some concoction of rugged islands]]
> 
> Dane, Norsemen & Dubliner states
> *[[Danelaw]]
> *[[Gaelgadil-something]]
> *[[Yorkshire]]
> ----
> I made some blatant mistakes in this<BR>
> I'm sure someone will amend it properly<BR>
> - Mathijs
------
Copyright/talk|984993885
10c10
< To me it still is a (what is 'achterhoedegevecht in English?) of the publishing-industry<BR>
---
> <A NAME="1"><B>To me it still is a rear guard action of the publishing-industry</B></A><BR>
104c104,105
< That isn't true anymore: the same technology that makes "piracy" cheap and easy also makes distribution and advertisement cheap and easy.  Any artist can publish his work for almost no cost to get a following (such as the the South Park guys did with their Christmas cartoon), then trade upon the popularity it generates in other (non-piratable) ways, like live performances, custom work, time-dependent work, etc.  No big publishing company needed.  Will lack of copyrights put lots of publishers out of business?  Absolutely, and good riddance.  Will it harm the artists themselves?  No, not those who are smart enough to realize they don't need the publishers anymore, and whose work is good enough to create demand among consumers, who will do whatever they have to do--including pay--to get the art they want.
---
> That isn't true anymore: the same technology that makes "piracy" cheap and easy also makes distribution and advertisement cheap and easy.  Any artist can publish his work for almost no cost to get a following (such as the the South Park guys did with their Christmas cartoon), then trade upon the popularity it generates in other (non-piratable) ways, like live performances, custom work, time-dependent work, etc.  No big publishing company needed.  Will lack of copyrights put lots of publishers out of business?  Absolutely, and good riddance.  Will it harm the artists themselves?  No, not those who are smart enough to realize they don't need the publishers anymore, and whose work is good enough to create demand among consumers, who will do whatever they have to do--including pay--to get the art they want.<BR>
> I agree: <A HREF="#1">internal link</A> - Mathijs
------
LangueFrancaise|984995940
10c10
< 
---
> *Le cycle, le premier des romans, de Chrétien de Troyes http://www.generation.net/~bzh/culture/arthur.htm
17c17
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]].
---
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]], la [[Côte d'Ivoire]].
------
Pguiral|984996162
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Si vous voulez en savoir plus : http://pguiral.free.fr.
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|984998297
30c30,37
< - Mathijs
---
> - Mathijs
> 
> ----
> 
> Are these <b>medieval</b> britain?  They sound more like those around, say, 6-9th century. After 1066, the existence of separate states in england at least would be dubious, and I thought medieval referred to a time more like 11th -15th century?  
> Would Dark Ages Britain be more accurate?  
> And I don't think there ever was anywhere actually <i>called</i> Camelot, whatever Malory says!  -- Malcolm Farmer
>  
------
Gypsy|984999950
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name used for a group of nomadic people found throughout Europe. 
> 
> When the first ones arrived in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], it was believed that they came from Egypt, and they were referred to as `Egyptians' , from which the term `gypsy' is derived.  They have their own language, called <i>Romany</i> (this word is also sometimes used as another term for a gypsy), and analysis of that language has shown that it is very closely related to those spoken in northern [[India]], which is believed to be an indicator of their true geographical origins.
> 
> Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered huge numbers of gypsies.
> 
------
New_topics|985002011
2c2
< as of about 2 am 16th March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 1 am 19th March, Wikipedia server time
4c4
< These are the new topics from (approximately) the previous three days. You lot have been busy!
---
> These are some new topics from the previous few days. You people have been busy!
6,66c6,31
< [[The_Simpsons]] -- 
< [[Television]] -- [[Games/video_games]] -- 
< [[Computer_Monitor/TFT]] -- 
< [[Computer_Monitor/CRT]] -- [[Computer_Monitor]] -- [[Computer_Monitor/LCD]] -- [[Computer_Mouse]] -- [[Bomfog]] -- [[Computer_printer]] -- 
< [[Printer]] -- 
< [[Computer_keyboard]] -- 
< [[Integer]] -- 
< [[ANSI]] -- [[ISO]] -- [[Acronym]] -- 
< [[Roman_alphabet]] -- 
< [[Hitler]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Hex]] -- [[Sex]] -- [[Digital_Equipment_Corporation]] -- 
< [[Vergil]] -- [[Waikiki]] -- [[Car]] -- 
< [[Love]] -- 
< [[What_Nupedia_Wants]] -- [[Microsoft_Windows]] -- [[Cdani]] -- [[Sorting_Algorithm]] -- [[Nibble]] -- [[Character]] --  
< [[Computer]] -- [[Hexadecimal]] -- 
< [[Byte]] -- [[Bit]] -- 
< [[Hacking]] -- [[Computer_Keyboard]] -- 
< [[Scanner]] -- 
< [[Acid]] -- [[Delphi]] -- [[Piano]] -- [[Mircrosoft_Windows]] -- [[Pamela_Anderson]] -- [[StarTrek]] -- [[Brass]] -- 
< [[Trombone]] -- 
< [[Data]] -- [[Drum]] -- 
< [[Tambourine]] -- 
< [[Saxhorn]] -- 
< [[Sackbut]] -- 
< [[Mandolin]] -- 
< [[Koto]] -- 
< [[Guitar]] -- 
< [[Flugelhorn]] -- 
< [[Flageolet]] -- 
< [[Didjeridu]] -- 
< [[French_revolution]] -- [[Flute]] -- [[Chess/WorldChampions]] -- [[Woodwind]] -- [[HTML]] -- 
< [[Oasis]] -- [[Saxophone]] -- [[Velocity]] -- 
< [[Zodiac]] -- 
< [[Film_History/Germany]] -- 
< [[Spain]] -- [[Oboe]] -- 
< [[Asphalt]] -- 
< [[Abacus]] -- 
< [[Portugal]] -- 
< [[Dog_tag]] -- [[Andorra/Military]] -- [[Definition_of_philosophy]] -- [[Science_Fiction_Artists]] -- 
< [[Dog_Tag]] -- [[Poles/Talk]] -- [[Public_Enemy]] -- [[Fundamental_Theorem_of_Calculus]] -- 
< [[Table_of_Integrals]] -- [[Poland/Economy]] -- [[Poland/Geography]] -- 
< [[Poland/People]] -- 
< [[Academy_Awards/Art_Direction]] -- [[Harmonic_accompaniment]] -- [[The_Time_Machine]] -- 
< [[Retronym]] -- [[Constructed_language]] -- [[Artificial_language]] -- [[Programming_language]] -- 
< [[Poker]] -- [[Ireland]] -- [[Learning_music_by_ear]] -- [[Dance_music]] -- 
< [[Morton_Downey,_Jr.]] -- [[Recent_celebrity_deaths]] -- [[Entertainment]] -- [[Rap_music]] -- [[NWA]] -- [[Netherlands]] -- [[Electronic_Music]] -- 
< [[John_Tenniel]] -- 
< [[Punch_and_Judy]] -- 
< [[Die_Siedler_von_Catan]] -- 
< [[Free_will_and_determinism]] -- 
< [[Philosophical_method]] -- 
< [[Zimbabwe/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
< [[Sexual_selection]] -- 
< [[Arraignment]] -- 
< [[Indictment]] -- 
< [[Zimbabwe/Introduction]] -- 
< [[Aircraft_Carrier]] -- 
< [[Penelope_Cruz]] -- 
< [[MonopolyGame]] -- 
< [[Hee_Haw]] -- 
< [[Games/Tile_based]] -- 
< [[Sarajevo]]
---
> [[States_in_Medieval_Britain]] -- [[Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members]] -- [[Bugly]] -- 
> [[Baroque_Music]] -- [[Johann_Sebastian_Bach]] -- 
> [[Romantic_Music]] -- [[Modern_Classical_Music]] -- 
> [[Impressionist_Music]] -- [[Classical_Music_Era]] -- 
> [[Martial_Arts_Film]] -- [[Classical_Music]] -- 
> [[Film_History/Canada]] -- 
> [[Vampire/Talk]] -- [[Roman_Polanski]] -- [[Film_History/Poland]] -- [[Alkali_metal]] -- [[A_Modest_Proposal]] -- 
> [[Jonathan_Swift]] -- [[Film_History/Italy]] -- [[The_Simpsons/Charles_Montgomery_Burns]] -- 
> [[Yuri_Gagarin]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Astronaut]] --
> [[Charles_Montgomery_Burns]] -- [[The_Simpsons/Homer]] -- 
> [[Linear_Regression]] -- [[Stimulus_Response_Model]] -- [[Linear_Models]] -- [[Statistical_Assembly]] -- [[Puerto_Rico]] -- [[Space_stations]] -- 
> [[Space_Exploration]] -- [[Vostok_1]] -- [[Gene_Cernan]] -- [[Like_this]] -- 
> [[Platos_Republic]] -- [[Apollo_8]] -- [[Apollo_11]] -- 
> [[Challenger_8]] -- [[Manned_space_missions]] -- [[Zodiac/signs]] -- [[Laws_of_Kepler]] -- [[Social_Sciences]] -- 
> [[NaturalSciences]] -- 
> [[Ecliptic]] -- 
> [[The_Simpsons/Characters]] -- 
> [[Matt_Groening]] -- 
> [[Netherlands/Talk]] -- 
> [[Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk]] -- 
> [[Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk]] -- 
> [[Star]] -- 
> [[Christine_Evelyn_Roth]] -- 
> [[The_Goon_Show]] -- 
> [[Communism]] -- 
> [[Ether]]
68a34
> --- 
71c37
< The script in its current form grabs Recent Changes, then checks the version history for each entry listed. If there's no version 1 listed, then the early edits have dropped off the bottom of the list, so it's obviously not a new file. Otherwise, the date of the first edit is read, and checked against the current date. 
---
> Whether a file is new is judged by the date of its first version, so a page that'd been redirected is likely to appear here as a new page.
89d54
< ----
------
Computer_printer/dot_matrix|985004805
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Religion|985005970
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
---
> Comparative Sacred Reading -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
------
A_Modest_Proposal|985006721
10c10,11
< 
---
> ----
> The full text of "A Modest Proposal..." is in the public domain available from [[/Text]] or  [http://promo.net/cgi-promo/pg/t9.cgi?entry=1080&full=yes Project Gutenberg]
------
Religion|985007014
8c8
< Comparative Sacred Reading -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
---
> [[Comparative Sacred Reading]] -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
------
A_Modest_Proposal/Text|985007671
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Modest Proposal for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland, frombeing a burden on their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the publick.
> 
> by Dr. Jonathan Swift. 1729
> 
> It is a melancholy object to those, who walk through this great town, or travel in the country, when they see the streets, the roads and cabbin-doors crowded with beggars of the female sex, followed by three, four, or six children, all in rags, and importuning every passenger for an alms. These mothers instead of being able to work for their honest livelihood, are forced to employ all their time in stroling to beg sustenance for their helpless infants who, as they grow up, either turn thieves for want of work, or leave their dear native country, to fight for the Pretender in Spain, or sell themselves to the Barbadoes.
> 
> I think it is agreed by all parties, that this prodigious number of children in the arms, or on the backs, or at the heels of their mothers, and frequently of their fathers, is in the present deplorable state of the kingdom, a very great additional grievance; and therefore whoever could  find out a fair, cheap and easy method of making these children sound and useful members of the common-wealth, would deserve so well of the publick, as to have his statue setup for a preserver of the nation.
> 
> But my intention is very far from being confined to provide only for the children of professed beggars: it is of a much greater extent, and shall takein the whole number of infants at a certain age, who are born of parents ineffect as little able to support them, as those who demand our charity in thestreets.
> 
> As to my own part, having turned my thoughts for many years, upon this important subject, and maturely weighed the several schemes of our projectors,I have always found them grossly mistaken in their computation. It is true, a child just dropt from its dam, may be supported by her milk, for a solar year, with little other nourishment: at most not above the value of two shillings,which the mother may certainly get, or the value in scraps, by her lawful occupation of begging; and it is exactly at one year old that I propose toprovide for them in such a manner, as, instead of being a charge  upon their parents, or the parish, or wanting food and raiment for the rest of their lives, they shall, on the contrary, contribute to the feeding, and partly to the cloathing of many thousands.
> 
> There is likewise another great advantage in my scheme, that it will prevent those voluntary abortions, and that horrid practice of women murdering their bastard children, alas! too frequent among us, sacrificing the poor innocent babes, I doubt, more to avoid the expence than the shame, which would move tears and pity in the most savage and inhuman breast.
> 
> The number of souls in this kingdom being usually reckoned one million and a half, of these I calculate there may be about two hundred thousand couple whose wives are breeders; from which number I subtract thirty thousand couple,who are able to maintain their own children, (although I apprehend there cannot be so many, under the present distresses of the kingdom) but this beinggranted, there will remain an hundred and seventy thousand breeders. I again subtract fifty thousand, for those women who miscarry, or whose children die by accident or disease within the year. There only remain an hundred and twenty thousand children of poor parents annually born. The question therefore is, How this number shall be reared, and provided for? which, as I have already said, under the present situation of affairs, is utterly impossible by all the methods hitherto proposed. For we can neither employ them in handicraft or agriculture; we neither build houses, (I mean in the country) nor cultivate land: they can very seldom pick up a livelihood by stealing till they arrive at six years old; except where they are of towardly parts, although I confess they learn the rudiments much earlier; during which time they can however be properly looked upon only as probationers: As I have been informed by a principal gentleman in the county of Cavan, who protested to me,that he never knew above one or two instances under the age of six, even in apart of the kingdom so renowned for the quickest proficiency in that art.
> 
> I am assured by our merchants, that a boy or a girl before twelve years old,is no saleable commodity, and even when they come to this age, they will not yield above three pounds, or three pounds and half a crown at most, on the exchange; which cannot turn to account either to the parents or kingdom, the charge of nutriments and rags having been at least four times that value.
> 
> I shall now therefore humbly propose my own thoughts, which I hope will not beliable to the least objection.
> 
> I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London,that a young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; andI make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie, or a ragoust.
> 
> I do therefore humbly offer it to publick consideration, that of the hundred and twenty thousand children, already computed, twenty thousand may be reserved for breed, whereof only one fourth part to be males; which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle, or swine, and my reason is, that these children are seldom the fruits of marriage, a circumstance not much regarded by our savages, therefore, one male will be sufficient to serve four females. That the remaining hundred thousand may, at a year old, be offered insale to the persons of quality and fortune, through the kingdom, always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as torender them plump, and fat for a good table. A child will make two dishes atan entertainment for friends, and when the family dines alone, the fore orhind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt, will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter.
> 
> I have reckoned upon a medium, that a child just born will weigh 12 pounds,and in a solar year, if tolerably nursed, encreaseth to 28 pounds.
> 
> I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents, seem to have the best title to the children.
> 
> Infant's flesh will be in season throughout the year, but more plentiful in March, and a little before and after; for we are told by a grave author, an eminent French physician, that fish being a prolifick dyet, there are more children born in Roman Catholick countries about nine months after Lent, the markets will be more glutted than usual, because the number of Popish infants, is at least three to one in this kingdom, and therefore it will have one other collateral advantage, by lessening the number of Papists among us.
> 
> I have already computed the charge of nursing a beggar's child (in which listI reckon all cottagers, labourers, and four-fifths of the farmers) to be about two shillings per annum, rags included; and I believe no gentleman would repine to give ten shillings for the carcass of a good fat child, which, as Ihave said, will make four dishes of excellent nutritive meat, when he hathonly some particular friend, or his own family to dine with him. Thus the squire will learn to be a good landlord, and grow popular among his tenants,the mother will have eight shillings neat profit, and be fit for work till she produces another child.
> 
> Those who are more thrifty (as I must confess the times require) may flea the carcass; the skin of which, artificially dressed, will make admirable gloves for ladies, and summer boots for fine gentlemen.
> 
> As to our City of Dublin, shambles may be appointed for this purpose, in themost convenient parts of it, and butchers we may be assured will not be wanting; although I rather recommend buying the children alive, and dressing them hot from the knife, as we do roasting pigs.
> 
> A very worthy person, a true lover of his country, and whose virtues I highly esteem, was lately pleased, in discoursing on this matter, to offer a refinement upon my scheme. He said, that many gentlemen of this kingdom, having of late destroyed their deer, he conceived that the want of venison might be well supply'd by the bodies of young lads and maidens, not exceeding fourteen years of age, nor under twelve; so great a number of both sexes in every country being now ready to starve for want of work and service: And these to be disposed of by their parents if alive, or otherwise by their nearest relations. But with due deference to so excellent a friend, and so deserving a patriot, I cannot be altogether in his sentiments; for as to the males, my American acquaintance assured me from frequent experience, that their flesh was generally tough and lean, like that of our school-boys, by continual exercise, and their taste disagreeable, and to fatten them would not answer the charge. Then as to the females, it would, I think, with humble submission, be a loss to the publick, because they soon would become breeders themselves: And besides, it is not improbable that some scrupulous people might be apt to censure such a practice, (although indeed very unjustly) as a little bordering upon cruelty, which, I confess, hath always been with me the strongest objection against any project, how well soever intended.
> 
> But in order to justify my friend, he confessed, that this expedient was put into his head by the famous Salmanaazor, a native of the island Formosa, who came from thence to London, above twenty years ago, and in conversation told my friend, that in his country, when any young person happened to be put to death, the executioner sold the carcass to persons of quality, as a prime dainty; and that, in his time, the body of a plump girl of fifteen, who was crucified for an attempt to poison the Emperor, was sold to his imperial majesty's prime minister of state, and other great mandarins of the court injoints from the gibbet, at four hundred crowns. Neither indeed can I deny,that if the same use were made of several plump young girls in this town, who without one single groat to their fortunes, cannot stir abroad without achair, and appear at a play-house and assemblies in foreign fineries which they never will pay for; the kingdom would not be the worse.
> 
> Some persons of a desponding spirit are in great concern about that vast number of poor people, who are aged, diseased, or maimed; and I have been desired to employ my thoughts what course may be taken, to ease the nation of so grievous an incumbrance.  But I am not in the least pain upon that matter,because it is very well known, that they are every day dying, and rotting, by cold and famine, and filth, and vermin, as fast as can be reasonably expected. And as to the young labourers, they are now in almost as hopeful a condition. They cannot get work, and consequently pine away from want of nourishment, to a degree, that if at any time they are accidentally hired to common labour, they have not strength to perform it, and thus the country and themselves are happily delivered from the evils to come.
> 
> I have too long digressed, and therefore shall return to my subject. I think the advantages by the proposal which I have made are obvious and many, as wellas of the highest importance.
> 
> For first, as I have already observed, it would greatly lessen the number of Papists, with whom we are yearly over-run, being the principal breeders of the nation, as well as our most dangerous enemies, and who stay at home on purpose with a design to deliver the kingdom to the Pretender, hoping to take their advantage by the absence of so many good Protestants, who have chosen rather to leave their country, than stay at home and pay tithes against their conscience to an episcopal curate.
> 
> Secondly, The poorer tenants will have something valuable of their own, which by law may be made liable to a distress, and help to pay their landlord's rent, their corn and cattle being already seized, and money a thing unknown.
> 
> Thirdly, Whereas the maintainance of an hundred thousand children, from two years old, and upwards, cannot be computed at less than ten shillings a piece per annum, the nation's stock will be thereby encreased fifty thousand pounds per annum, besides the profit of a new dish, introduced to the tables of all gentlemen of fortune in the kingdom, who have any refinement in taste. And the money will circulate among our selves, the goods being entirely of our own growth and manufacture.
> 
> Fourthly, The constant breeders, besides the gain of eight shillings sterling per annum by the sale of their children, will be rid of the charge of maintaining them after the first year.
> 
> Fifthly, This food would likewise bring great custom to taverns, where the vintners will certainly be so prudent as to procure the best receipts for dressing it to perfection; and consequently have their houses frequented by all the fine gentlemen, who justly value themselves upon their knowledge in good eating; and a skilful cook, who understands how to oblige his guests,will contrive to make it as expensive as they please.
> 
> Sixthly, This would be a great inducement to marriage, which all wise nations have either encouraged by rewards, or enforced by laws and penalties. It would encrease the care and tenderness of mothers towards their children, when they were sure of a settlement for life to the poor babes, provided in some sort by the publick, to their annual profit instead of expence. We should soon see an honest emulation among the married women, which of them could bring the fattest child to the market. Men would become as fond of their wives, during the time of their pregnancy, as they are now of their mares in foal, their cows in calf, or sow when they are ready to farrow; nor offer to beat or kick them (as is too frequent a practice) for fear of a miscarriage.
> 
> Many other advantages might be enumerated. For instance, the addition of some thousand carcasses in our exportation of barrel'd beef: the propagation of swine's flesh, and improvement in the art of making good bacon, so much wanted among us by the great destruction of pigs, too frequent at our tables; which are no way comparable in taste or magnificence to a well grown, fat yearly child, which roasted whole will make a considerable figure at a Lord Mayor's feast, or any other publick entertainment. But this, and many others, I omit, being studious of brevity.
> 
> Supposing that one thousand families in this city, would be constant customers for infants flesh, besides others who might have it at merry meetings, particularly at weddings and christenings, I compute that Dublin would take off annually about twenty thousand carcasses; and the rest of the kingdom (where probably they will be sold somewhat cheaper) the remaining eighty thousand.
> 
> I can think of no one objection, that will possibly be raised against this proposal, unless it should be urged, that the number of people will be thereby much lessened in the kingdom. This I freely own, and 'twas indeed one principal design in offering it to the world. I desire the reader willobserve, that I calculate my remedy for this one individual Kingdom of Ireland, and for no other that ever was, is, or, I think, ever can be upon Earth.  Therefore let no man talk to me of other expedients: Of taxing our absentees at five shillings a pound: Of using neither cloaths, nor houshold furniture, except what is of our own growth and manufacture: Of utterly rejecting the materials and instruments that promote foreign luxury: Of curing the expensiveness of pride, vanity, idleness, and gaming in our women: Of introducing a vein of parsimony, prudence and temperance: Of learning to love our country, wherein we differ even from Laplanders, and the inhabitants of Topinamboo: Of quitting our animosities and factions, nor acting any longer like the Jews, who were murdering one another at the very moment their city was taken: Of being a little cautious not to sell our country and consciences for nothing: Of teaching landlords to have at least one degree of mercy towards their tenants. Lastly, of putting a spirit of honesty, industry, and skill into our shop-keepers, who, if a resolution could now be taken to buy only our native goods, would immediately unite to cheat and exact upon us in the price, the measure, and the goodness, nor could ever yet be brought to make one fair proposal of just dealing, though often and earnestly invited to it.
> 
> Therefore I repeat, let no man talk to me of these and the like expedients, 'till he hath at least some glympse of hope, that there will ever be some hearty and sincere attempt to put them into practice.
> 
> But, as to my self, having been wearied out for many years with offering vain,idle, visionary thoughts, and at length utterly despairing of success, I fortunately fell upon this proposal, which, as it is wholly new, so it hath something solid and real, of no expence and little trouble, full in our ownpower, and whereby we can incur no danger in disobliging England. For this kind of commodity will not bear exportation, and flesh being of too tender a consistence, to admit a long continuance in salt, although perhaps I could name a country, which would be glad to eat up our whole nation without it.
> 
> After all, I am not so violently bent upon my own opinion, as to reject any offer, proposed by wise men, which shall be found equally innocent, cheap,easy, and effectual. But before something of that kind shall be advanced in contradiction to my scheme, and offering a better, I desire the author or authors will be pleased maturely to consider two points. First, As things now stand, how they will be able to find food and raiment for a hundred thousand useless mouths and backs. And secondly, There being a round million of creatures in humane figure throughout this kingdom, whose whole subsistence put into a common stock, would leave them in debt two million of pounds sterling, adding those who are beggars by profession, to the bulk of farmers, cottagers and labourers, with their wives and children, who are beggars ineffect; I desire those politicians who dislike my overture, and may perhaps beso bold to attempt an answer, that they will first ask the parents of these mortals, whether they would not at this day think it a great happiness to have been sold for food at a year old, in the manner I prescribe, and thereby have avoided such a perpetual scene of misfortunes, as they have since gonethrough, by the oppression of landlords, the impossibility of paying rent without money or trade, the want of common sustenance, with neither house nor cloaths to cover them from the inclemencies of the weather, and the most inevitable prospect of intailing the like, or greater miseries, upon their breed for ever.
> 
> I profess, in the sincerity of my heart, that I have not the least personal interest in endeavouring to promote this necessary work, having no other motive than the publick good of my country, by advancing our trade, providing for infants, relieving the poor, and giving some pleasure to the rich. I have no children, by which I can propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing.
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985007710
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
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> Henks Comparative Sacred Reading
> about the possibility of systematic mutual interreligious Reading
> in the worshipping reunions of different religions,
> in my case to start with comaparative sacred reading in christian
> liturgy.
> 
> Henk van Waveren
> Kievitlaan 23
> NL 5613 BJ Eindhoven
> 
> Homepage  Henk's Comparative Sacred Reading:
> http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/HolyScriptures
> Uitgebreid en aangevuld op 10-03-01
> 
> Homepage  Remonstrantse  Gemeente Eindhoven:
> http://www.remonstranten.org/eindhoven/index.html
> 
> 
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985008309
13c13
< Uitgebreid en aangevuld op 10-03-01
---
> Updated 10-03-01
15c15
< Homepage  Remonstrantse  Gemeente Eindhoven:
---
> Homepage  Remonstrant Congregation Eindhoven:
17a18
> Homepage  Remonstrant Brotherhood (NL) http://www.remonstranten.org
------
Netherlands/Talk|985008345
4,5c4,5
< (independent judicial system, judges are not voted <BR>
< - not populists who have to score - <BR>
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> (independent judicial system, judges are not elected for office<BR>
> - not populists who have to score public esteem- <BR>
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< ----
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> ----
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WikiBiblion|985008377
6a7
> * [[A Modest Proposal/Text|A Modest Proposal...]] by Swift (1729)
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985008527
19a20,128
> 1A INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
> 
>            Two phenomena, the globalising of our world village and the nowadays wide spread religious
>            shopping, motivated me to spend my sabbatical to the question if in Christian worship comparative
>            sacred reading could be acceptable or even a must. 
> 
>            Two observations
>            The first observation is the more obvious one. Like it or not, our society is a multicultural one both for
>            those who travel around and for the inhabitants of our cities and villages. And to overcome at least the
>            idea that religions could lend themselves to fuel animosity or even hostility, becoming familiar with our
>            mutual religious sources will be helpful and important. However will it bring grist to the mill, it should
>            not happen by chance but systematically. Not just hap hazard by an enthusiastic preacher or
>            conversational group leader but in relation to the (common) lectionaries of our churches and hopefully
>            synagogues, mosques and temples. 
> 
>            The second observation is a more complicated one. It concerns us. Since the churches lost their
>            religious monopoly people are gathering in the supermarket of faith their own beliefs. Even church
>            members are more and more susceptible to various alternative forms of spiritual counseling and
>            healing: energy treatments, aura reading, mediumistic therapy by people who hear voices or otherwise
>            become information be it from the spiritual world or from the stars and experiences from former lives
>            to be dealt with in regression therapy. Ignoring that all seems me to be unwise. What are we
>            unmistakably missing in our traditional congregations? In a responsible church people should be
>            encouraged making their own choices but not left alone. For the discerning of spirits is not that easy.
>            In the modern liberal church to which I belong (the Remonstrant Brotherhood) on the one hand we
>            foster individual autonomy and on the other we do utmost our best to combine faith and reason trying
>            to prevent spiritual humbug and hotch-potch in our minds. 
> 
>            Is comparative reading in a biblical frame acceptable?
>            If both observations are true we may suppose that like all shopping religious shopping happens to
>            gather courses and dishes from all over our global village. And there we are in the very heart of my
>            problem: how to get a reading system that respects the different sources in their own right? In that
>            respect there are already lots of lessons to be drawn from the way many Christian Lectionaries did
>            and do manipulate the OT readings as reference and prediction of Christian dogma. The Worship
>            Committee of the Netherlands Council of Churches, which I'm chair of, is responsible for the
>            Ecumenical Lectionary of the Dutch churches. Generally we follow the (re-)Revised Common
>            Lectionary. Although it (like already the New Roman Lectionary) "opens much more lavishly the
>            treasures of the Bible" than the Tridentine Mass Book ever did, even now the OT-lessons are
>            always chosen to confirm the NT ones. For that reason we replace sometimes several months the OT
>            cuts by continuous or current reading of a whole book. For the typological criterion causes them
>            mostly to ventriloquize and prevents them to speak in their own right and to voice their own message.
>            How to avoid the same mistake in Comparative Sacred Reading? 
> 
>            Is comparative reading in the frame of a theme acceptable?
>            More or less the same we felt by (ab-)using bible texts for our own preselected themes. Once the
>            theme selected your mind is not free any more to detect the surprising message the text may keep for
>            you in reserve. Who selects a lesson in function of a theme has already decided in advance where the
>            reading is about. 
> 
>            New Age
>            Still one observation is to be made. The above mentioned tendency of many people to seek their
>            salvation in alternative forms of spirituality is often summarised under the name New Age. Until
>            recently New Age was generally estimated to be a collective noun for all the richness collected from
>            Far East Spirituality. But 1996 at the Utrecht University a thesis has been defended by W.
>            Hanegraaff, that clearly demonstrates that the most of New Age happens to root in the own western
>            gnostic or esoteric tradition. So from a pastoral point of view it can certainly be argued that perhaps
>            the now widely available gnostic literature deserves primarily to be considered as suitable for
>            comparative reading in Christian liturgy. Perhaps that can be helpful to detect as well the very old
>            roots of New Age in our western culture as the reasons why the gnostic scriptures were not canonised
>            (rather than rejected) by the early Church. 
> 
>            Some questions you possibly can answer?
>            I should be very pleased if those experienced in comparative sacred reading could help me to answer
>            the next questions? 
> 
>                                                  1
> 
>            Do Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist or other traditions have reading systems similar to the Jewish Thora
>            portion or the Christian Lectionaries? And if so, where can I find them? And by the way: do you feel
>            that reading of Holy Scriptures has in all traditions the same function? Are they mainly meant to
>            mediate knowledge, wisdom, divine presence or a beneficial mixture of the three? 
> 
>                                                  2
> 
>            And are there still other reading systems in gnostic circles than those published on the website of the
>            Ecclesia Gnostica? 
> 
>                                                  3
> 
>            Is it really possible respectfully to avoid in Comparative Sacred Reading the typological mistakes of
>            those Christian Lectionaries that did use the OT exclusively for their own purposes? Continuous
>            reading of not biblical sources in their own right in the context of Christian worship does not seem that
>            easy. My own parishioners, as liberal as they are, were presumably right to reject my more or less
>            naughty proposal to read in our Sunday Services the first week of each month from the Bible, the
>            second week from the Koran, the third week from the Bhagavad Gita and the last week from another
>            source at choice. Our ecclesiastical mission statement declares not just as a principle but also as
>            matter of fact, that we are rooted in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. In spite of all possible objections to
>            be made yet it will be important enough for Christians to give the Sacred Readings of other religions a
>            well ordered place in their own worship, even when it happens from a biblical point of view. May
>            others feel invited to do it the other way round. Do you feel that is an acceptable point of view to
>            begin with? 
> 
>                                                  4
> 
>            I have got the impression that Bahai and Sufi find their readings from various traditions often around a
>            preselected theme? Is that right? And do you sometimes feel the disadvantage it does the reading
>            ventriloquize on behalf of that theme? 
> 
>                                                  5
> 
>            What do Christians in your midst feel about the christological implica tions of Comparative Sacred
>            Reading in Christian worship? What does it mean for your answer to Jesus' question: "Who do you
>            say I am?" 
> 
>            Though questionable my first objective is constructing a register of comparative readings of other
>            religions on biblical pericopes. I will be very grateful to anyone who could help me with information
>            and suggestions, even when they want to criticize my undertaking. Underneath you can find the first
>            draft of the chapters I think about. Mainly for chapter 5 I badly need your cooperation. But any other
>            suggestions are also much appreciated. 
> 
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985008722
20c20
< 1A INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
---
> GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
127a128,129
> If you like to read more about this subject see my website:
> http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/HolyScriptures
------
Gypsy|985009630
3c3
< When the first ones arrived in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], it was believed that they came from Egypt, and they were referred to as `Egyptians' , from which the term `gypsy' is derived.  They have their own language, called <i>Romany</i> (this word is also sometimes used as another term for a gypsy), and analysis of that language has shown that it is very closely related to those spoken in northern [[India]], which is believed to be an indicator of their true geographical origins.
---
> When they first arrived in Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], their (relatively) dark skins caused many europeans to believe that they were natives of Egypt - the only hot foreign country most had heard of. Hence they they were referred to as `Egyptians' , from which the term `gypsy' is derived.  They have their own language, called <i>Romany</i>  (this word is also used as another term for a gypsy). Analysis of the Romany language has shown that it is related to those spoken in northern [[India]], which is believed to indicate  their true geographical origin.
5c5,7
< Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered huge numbers of gypsies.
---
> Gypsies were widely belived to have psychic powers (see the popular stereotype of the Gypsy fortune-teller), and some romantics attribute the invention of the [[Tarot]] cards to gypsies. This may reflect the belief that the gypsies, being of Egyptian origin, had knowledge of lost arts and sciences of the ancient  Egyptians. 
> 
> Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies.
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985010077
20,65c20,96
< GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
< 
<            Two phenomena, the globalising of our world village and the nowadays wide spread religious
<            shopping, motivated me to spend my sabbatical to the question if in Christian worship comparative
<            sacred reading could be acceptable or even a must. 
< 
<            Two observations
<            The first observation is the more obvious one. Like it or not, our society is a multicultural one both for
<            those who travel around and for the inhabitants of our cities and villages. And to overcome at least the
<            idea that religions could lend themselves to fuel animosity or even hostility, becoming familiar with our
<            mutual religious sources will be helpful and important. However will it bring grist to the mill, it should
<            not happen by chance but systematically. Not just hap hazard by an enthusiastic preacher or
<            conversational group leader but in relation to the (common) lectionaries of our churches and hopefully
<            synagogues, mosques and temples. 
< 
<            The second observation is a more complicated one. It concerns us. Since the churches lost their
<            religious monopoly people are gathering in the supermarket of faith their own beliefs. Even church
<            members are more and more susceptible to various alternative forms of spiritual counseling and
<            healing: energy treatments, aura reading, mediumistic therapy by people who hear voices or otherwise
<            become information be it from the spiritual world or from the stars and experiences from former lives
<            to be dealt with in regression therapy. Ignoring that all seems me to be unwise. What are we
<            unmistakably missing in our traditional congregations? In a responsible church people should be
<            encouraged making their own choices but not left alone. For the discerning of spirits is not that easy.
<            In the modern liberal church to which I belong (the Remonstrant Brotherhood) on the one hand we
<            foster individual autonomy and on the other we do utmost our best to combine faith and reason trying
<            to prevent spiritual humbug and hotch-potch in our minds. 
< 
<            Is comparative reading in a biblical frame acceptable?
<            If both observations are true we may suppose that like all shopping religious shopping happens to
<            gather courses and dishes from all over our global village. And there we are in the very heart of my
<            problem: how to get a reading system that respects the different sources in their own right? In that
<            respect there are already lots of lessons to be drawn from the way many Christian Lectionaries did
<            and do manipulate the OT readings as reference and prediction of Christian dogma. The Worship
<            Committee of the Netherlands Council of Churches, which I'm chair of, is responsible for the
<            Ecumenical Lectionary of the Dutch churches. Generally we follow the (re-)Revised Common
<            Lectionary. Although it (like already the New Roman Lectionary) "opens much more lavishly the
<            treasures of the Bible" than the Tridentine Mass Book ever did, even now the OT-lessons are
<            always chosen to confirm the NT ones. For that reason we replace sometimes several months the OT
<            cuts by continuous or current reading of a whole book. For the typological criterion causes them
<            mostly to ventriloquize and prevents them to speak in their own right and to voice their own message.
<            How to avoid the same mistake in Comparative Sacred Reading? 
< 
<            Is comparative reading in the frame of a theme acceptable?
<            More or less the same we felt by (ab-)using bible texts for our own preselected themes. Once the
<            theme selected your mind is not free any more to detect the surprising message the text may keep for
<            you in reserve. Who selects a lesson in function of a theme has already decided in advance where the
---
> COMPARATIVE SACRED READING OF WORLD SCRIPTURES
>                     A TRY OUT
> To all who cherish the hope of a significant dialogue between the world religions.
> Please pay attention to the underneath introduction of my sabbatical project.
> I should like very much to welcome both your critical and  instructive remarks.
> 
>                                          Henk van Waveren
> 
> CONTENTS (updated 10-03-2001!!!)   
> 
> 01  INTRODUCTION:Slightly different approaches in English (1A)                                          German (1B), Dutch (1C) 
>                        and two sermons as case studies (1D+1E) 
>     1A   INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
>         (for the time being with 1B-E the only real content of my          website;the following chapters are underconstruction) 
>     1B   NUR JESUS UND DIE BIBEL? (... JUST JESUS AND THE BIBLE?) 
>           (Brandenburger partner congregation visiting Eindhoven)     1C   INTERRELIGIEUS LEZEN IN BIJBELSE CONTEXT? (dutch)
>          (om Dirk Monshouwer te gedenken)
>     1D Link to SERMON ABOUT THE PAGAN ROOTS OF CHRISTMAS (dutch)
>     1E Link to INVOCABIT SERMOn(temptat. stories of Jesus&Buddha)
>     1F Link to REMINISCERE SERMON (Daedalus/Icarus & Lucas 12)
> 02 MAPPING OF WORLD RELIGIONS AND SCRIPTURES                                                       1. Baha'í
>                                   2. Buddhism
>                                   3. China
>                                   4. Celts
>                                   5. Christianity
>                                   6. Confucianism
>                                   7. Freemasons
>                                   8. German, Nordic and Pagan 
>                                   9. Gnosticism
>                                  10. Gnosticism/New Age
>                                  11. Hellenism
>                                  12. Jainism 
>                                  13. Mormons
>                                  14. Shintoism
>                                  15. Sikhism
>                                  16. South American Religions 
>                                  17. Sufism
>                                  18. Taoism 
>                                  19. Zoroastrianism and others   
> 
> 03   MAPPING OF THE WORLD MYTHS, LEGENDS AND FAIRY TALES        04   COMPARATIVE RELIGION / INTERFAITH
> 05   COMPARATIVE SACRED READING IN BIBLICAL AND OTHER SEQUENCES 
> 06   BIBLE AND LITERATURE
> 07   CHRISTOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
> 08   IMPLICATIONS FOR SPIRITUALITY AND PRAYER 
> 09   REFERENCE (books, articles, clippings and websites)                  
>                  
> 1A GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
> Two phenomena, the globalising of our world village and the nowadays wide spread religious shopping, motivated me to spend 
> my sabbatical to the question if in Christian worship comparative sacred reading could be acceptable or even a must. 
> 
> Two observations
> The first observation is the more obvious one. Like it or not, our society is a multicultural one both for those who travel around and for the inhabitants of our cities and villages. And to overcome at least the idea that religions could lend themselves to fuel animosity or even hostility, becoming familiar with our
> mutual religious sources will be helpful and important. However will it bring grist to the mill, it should not happen by chance but systematically. Not just hap hazard by an enthusiastic preacher or conversational group leader but in relation to the (common) lectionaries of our churches and hopefully synagogues, mosques and temples. 
> 
> The second observation is a more complicated one. It concerns us. Since the churches lost their religious monopoly people are gathering in the supermarket of faith their own beliefs. Even church members are more and more susceptible to various  alternative forms of spiritual counseling and healing: energy treatments, aura reading, mediumistic therapy by people who hear voices or otherwise become information be it from the spiritual world or from the stars and experiences from former lives
> to be dealt with in regression therapy. Ignoring that all seems me to be unwise. What are we unmistakably missing in our traditional congregations? In a responsible church people should be encouraged making their own choices but not left alone. For the discerning of spirits is not that easy. In the modern liberal church to which I belong (the Remonstrant Brotherhood) on the one hand we foster individual autonomy and on the other we do utmost our best to combine faith and reason trying to prevent spiritual humbug and hotch-potch in our minds. 
> 
> Is comparative reading in a biblical frame acceptable?
>            If both observations are true we may suppose that like            all shopping religious shopping happens to
>            gather courses and dishes from all over our global            village. And there we are in the very heart of my
>            problem: how to get a reading system that respects the            different sources in their own right? In that
>            respect there are already lots of lessons to be drawn            from the way many Christian Lectionaries did
>            and do manipulate the OT readings as reference and            prediction of Christian dogma. The Worship
>            Committee of the Netherlands Council of Churches,            which I'm chair of, is responsible for the
>            Ecumenical Lectionary of the Dutch churches. Generally            we follow the (re-)Revised Common
>            Lectionary. Although it (like already the New Roman            Lectionary) "opens much more lavishly the
>            treasures of the Bible" than the Tridentine Mass Book            ever did, even now the OT-lessons are
>            always chosen to confirm the NT ones. For that reason            we replace sometimes several months the OT
>            cuts by continuous or current reading of a whole book.            For the typological criterion causes them
>            mostly to ventriloquize and prevents them to speak in            their own right and to voice their own message.
>            How to avoid the same mistake in Comparative Sacred            Reading? 
> 
> Is comparative reading in the frame of a theme acceptable?
>            More or less the same we felt by (ab-)using bible            texts for our own preselected themes. Once the
>            theme selected your mind is not free any more to            detect the surprising message the text may keep for
>            you in reserve. Who selects a lesson in function of a            theme has already decided in advance where the
68,127c99,124
<            New Age
<            Still one observation is to be made. The above mentioned tendency of many people to seek their
<            salvation in alternative forms of spirituality is often summarised under the name New Age. Until
<            recently New Age was generally estimated to be a collective noun for all the richness collected from
<            Far East Spirituality. But 1996 at the Utrecht University a thesis has been defended by W.
<            Hanegraaff, that clearly demonstrates that the most of New Age happens to root in the own western
<            gnostic or esoteric tradition. So from a pastoral point of view it can certainly be argued that perhaps
<            the now widely available gnostic literature deserves primarily to be considered as suitable for
<            comparative reading in Christian liturgy. Perhaps that can be helpful to detect as well the very old
<            roots of New Age in our western culture as the reasons why the gnostic scriptures were not canonised
<            (rather than rejected) by the early Church. 
< 
<            Some questions you possibly can answer?
<            I should be very pleased if those experienced in comparative sacred reading could help me to answer
<            the next questions? 
< 
<                                                  1
< 
<            Do Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist or other traditions have reading systems similar to the Jewish Thora
<            portion or the Christian Lectionaries? And if so, where can I find them? And by the way: do you feel
<            that reading of Holy Scriptures has in all traditions the same function? Are they mainly meant to
<            mediate knowledge, wisdom, divine presence or a beneficial mixture of the three? 
< 
<                                                  2
< 
<            And are there still other reading systems in gnostic circles than those published on the website of the
<            Ecclesia Gnostica? 
< 
<                                                  3
< 
<            Is it really possible respectfully to avoid in Comparative Sacred Reading the typological mistakes of
<            those Christian Lectionaries that did use the OT exclusively for their own purposes? Continuous
<            reading of not biblical sources in their own right in the context of Christian worship does not seem that
<            easy. My own parishioners, as liberal as they are, were presumably right to reject my more or less
<            naughty proposal to read in our Sunday Services the first week of each month from the Bible, the
<            second week from the Koran, the third week from the Bhagavad Gita and the last week from another
<            source at choice. Our ecclesiastical mission statement declares not just as a principle but also as
<            matter of fact, that we are rooted in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. In spite of all possible objections to
<            be made yet it will be important enough for Christians to give the Sacred Readings of other religions a
<            well ordered place in their own worship, even when it happens from a biblical point of view. May
<            others feel invited to do it the other way round. Do you feel that is an acceptable point of view to
<            begin with? 
< 
<                                                  4
< 
<            I have got the impression that Bahai and Sufi find their readings from various traditions often around a
<            preselected theme? Is that right? And do you sometimes feel the disadvantage it does the reading
<            ventriloquize on behalf of that theme? 
< 
<                                                  5
< 
<            What do Christians in your midst feel about the christological implica tions of Comparative Sacred
<            Reading in Christian worship? What does it mean for your answer to Jesus' question: "Who do you
<            say I am?" 
< 
<            Though questionable my first objective is constructing a register of comparative readings of other
<            religions on biblical pericopes. I will be very grateful to anyone who could help me with information
<            and suggestions, even when they want to criticize my undertaking. Underneath you can find the first
<            draft of the chapters I think about. Mainly for chapter 5 I badly need your cooperation. But any other
<            suggestions are also much appreciated. 
---
> New Age
> Still one observation is to be made. The above mentioned tendency of many people to seek their salvation in alternative forms of spirituality is often summarised under the name New Age. Until
> recently New Age was generally estimated to be a collective noun for all the richness collected from Far East Spirituality. But 1996 at the Utrecht University a thesis has been defended by W.
> Hanegraaff, that clearly demonstrates that the most of New Age happens to root in the own western gnostic or esoteric tradition. So from a pastoral point of view it can certainly be argued that perhaps the now widely available gnostic literature deserves primarily to be considered as suitable for comparative reading in Christian liturgy. Perhaps that can be helpful to detect as well the very old roots of New Age in our western culture as the reasons why the gnostic scriptures were not canonised (rather than rejected) by the early Church. 
> 
> Some questions you possibly can answer?
> I should be very pleased if those experienced in comparative sacred reading could help me to answer the next questions? 
> 
> 1
> Do Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist or other traditions have reading systems similar to the Jewish Thora portion or the Christian Lectionaries? And if so, where can I find them? And by the way: do you feel that reading of Holy Scriptures has in all traditions the same function? Are they mainly meant to mediate knowledge, wisdom, divine presence or a beneficial mixture of the three? 
> 
> 2
> And are there still other reading systems in gnostic circles than those published on the website of the Ecclesia Gnostica? 
> 
> 3
> Is it really possible respectfully to avoid in Comparative Sacred Reading the typological mistakes of those Christian Lectionaries that did use the OT exclusively for their own purposes? Continuous reading of not biblical sources in their own right in the context of Christian worship does not seem that easy. My own parishioners, as liberal as they are, were presumably right to reject my more or less naughty proposal to read in our Sunday Services the first week of each month from the Bible, the second week from the Koran, the third week from the Bhagavad Gita and the last week from another source at choice. Our ecclesiastical mission statement declares not just as a principle but also as
> matter of fact, that we are rooted in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. In spite of all possible objections to be made yet it will be important enough for Christians to give the Sacred Readings of other religions a well ordered place in their own worship, even when it happens from a biblical point of view. May others feel invited to do it the other way round. Do you feel that is an acceptable point of view to begin with? 
> 
> 4
> I have got the impression that Bahai and Sufi find their readings from various traditions often around a preselected theme? Is that right? And do you sometimes feel the disadvantage it does the reading ventriloquize on behalf of that theme? 
> 
> 5
> What do Christians in your midst feel about the christological implica tions of Comparative Sacred Reading in Christian worship? What does it mean for your answer to Jesus' question: "Who do you
> say I am?" 
> 
> Though questionable my first objective is constructing a register of comparative readings of other religions on biblical pericopes. I will be very grateful to anyone who could help me with information and suggestions, even when they want to criticize my undertaking. In my website you can find the first draft of the chapters I think about. Mainly for chapter 5 I badly need your cooperation. But any other suggestions are also much appreciated. 
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985010320
20,24d19
< COMPARATIVE SACRED READING OF WORLD SCRIPTURES
<                     A TRY OUT
< To all who cherish the hope of a significant dialogue between the world religions.
< Please pay attention to the underneath introduction of my sabbatical project.
< I should like very much to welcome both your critical and  instructive remarks.
26,126d20
<                                          Henk van Waveren
< 
< CONTENTS (updated 10-03-2001!!!)   
< 
< 01  INTRODUCTION:Slightly different approaches in English (1A)                                          German (1B), Dutch (1C) 
<                        and two sermons as case studies (1D+1E) 
<     1A   INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
<         (for the time being with 1B-E the only real content of my          website;the following chapters are underconstruction) 
<     1B   NUR JESUS UND DIE BIBEL? (... JUST JESUS AND THE BIBLE?) 
<           (Brandenburger partner congregation visiting Eindhoven)     1C   INTERRELIGIEUS LEZEN IN BIJBELSE CONTEXT? (dutch)
<          (om Dirk Monshouwer te gedenken)
<     1D Link to SERMON ABOUT THE PAGAN ROOTS OF CHRISTMAS (dutch)
<     1E Link to INVOCABIT SERMOn(temptat. stories of Jesus&Buddha)
<     1F Link to REMINISCERE SERMON (Daedalus/Icarus & Lucas 12)
< 02 MAPPING OF WORLD RELIGIONS AND SCRIPTURES                                                       1. Baha'í
<                                   2. Buddhism
<                                   3. China
<                                   4. Celts
<                                   5. Christianity
<                                   6. Confucianism
<                                   7. Freemasons
<                                   8. German, Nordic and Pagan 
<                                   9. Gnosticism
<                                  10. Gnosticism/New Age
<                                  11. Hellenism
<                                  12. Jainism 
<                                  13. Mormons
<                                  14. Shintoism
<                                  15. Sikhism
<                                  16. South American Religions 
<                                  17. Sufism
<                                  18. Taoism 
<                                  19. Zoroastrianism and others   
< 
< 03   MAPPING OF THE WORLD MYTHS, LEGENDS AND FAIRY TALES        04   COMPARATIVE RELIGION / INTERFAITH
< 05   COMPARATIVE SACRED READING IN BIBLICAL AND OTHER SEQUENCES 
< 06   BIBLE AND LITERATURE
< 07   CHRISTOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
< 08   IMPLICATIONS FOR SPIRITUALITY AND PRAYER 
< 09   REFERENCE (books, articles, clippings and websites)                  
<                  
< 1A GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
< Two phenomena, the globalising of our world village and the nowadays wide spread religious shopping, motivated me to spend 
< my sabbatical to the question if in Christian worship comparative sacred reading could be acceptable or even a must. 
< 
< Two observations
< The first observation is the more obvious one. Like it or not, our society is a multicultural one both for those who travel around and for the inhabitants of our cities and villages. And to overcome at least the idea that religions could lend themselves to fuel animosity or even hostility, becoming familiar with our
< mutual religious sources will be helpful and important. However will it bring grist to the mill, it should not happen by chance but systematically. Not just hap hazard by an enthusiastic preacher or conversational group leader but in relation to the (common) lectionaries of our churches and hopefully synagogues, mosques and temples. 
< 
< The second observation is a more complicated one. It concerns us. Since the churches lost their religious monopoly people are gathering in the supermarket of faith their own beliefs. Even church members are more and more susceptible to various  alternative forms of spiritual counseling and healing: energy treatments, aura reading, mediumistic therapy by people who hear voices or otherwise become information be it from the spiritual world or from the stars and experiences from former lives
< to be dealt with in regression therapy. Ignoring that all seems me to be unwise. What are we unmistakably missing in our traditional congregations? In a responsible church people should be encouraged making their own choices but not left alone. For the discerning of spirits is not that easy. In the modern liberal church to which I belong (the Remonstrant Brotherhood) on the one hand we foster individual autonomy and on the other we do utmost our best to combine faith and reason trying to prevent spiritual humbug and hotch-potch in our minds. 
< 
< Is comparative reading in a biblical frame acceptable?
<            If both observations are true we may suppose that like            all shopping religious shopping happens to
<            gather courses and dishes from all over our global            village. And there we are in the very heart of my
<            problem: how to get a reading system that respects the            different sources in their own right? In that
<            respect there are already lots of lessons to be drawn            from the way many Christian Lectionaries did
<            and do manipulate the OT readings as reference and            prediction of Christian dogma. The Worship
<            Committee of the Netherlands Council of Churches,            which I'm chair of, is responsible for the
<            Ecumenical Lectionary of the Dutch churches. Generally            we follow the (re-)Revised Common
<            Lectionary. Although it (like already the New Roman            Lectionary) "opens much more lavishly the
<            treasures of the Bible" than the Tridentine Mass Book            ever did, even now the OT-lessons are
<            always chosen to confirm the NT ones. For that reason            we replace sometimes several months the OT
<            cuts by continuous or current reading of a whole book.            For the typological criterion causes them
<            mostly to ventriloquize and prevents them to speak in            their own right and to voice their own message.
<            How to avoid the same mistake in Comparative Sacred            Reading? 
< 
< Is comparative reading in the frame of a theme acceptable?
<            More or less the same we felt by (ab-)using bible            texts for our own preselected themes. Once the
<            theme selected your mind is not free any more to            detect the surprising message the text may keep for
<            you in reserve. Who selects a lesson in function of a            theme has already decided in advance where the
<            reading is about. 
< 
< New Age
< Still one observation is to be made. The above mentioned tendency of many people to seek their salvation in alternative forms of spirituality is often summarised under the name New Age. Until
< recently New Age was generally estimated to be a collective noun for all the richness collected from Far East Spirituality. But 1996 at the Utrecht University a thesis has been defended by W.
< Hanegraaff, that clearly demonstrates that the most of New Age happens to root in the own western gnostic or esoteric tradition. So from a pastoral point of view it can certainly be argued that perhaps the now widely available gnostic literature deserves primarily to be considered as suitable for comparative reading in Christian liturgy. Perhaps that can be helpful to detect as well the very old roots of New Age in our western culture as the reasons why the gnostic scriptures were not canonised (rather than rejected) by the early Church. 
< 
< Some questions you possibly can answer?
< I should be very pleased if those experienced in comparative sacred reading could help me to answer the next questions? 
< 
< 1
< Do Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist or other traditions have reading systems similar to the Jewish Thora portion or the Christian Lectionaries? And if so, where can I find them? And by the way: do you feel that reading of Holy Scriptures has in all traditions the same function? Are they mainly meant to mediate knowledge, wisdom, divine presence or a beneficial mixture of the three? 
< 
< 2
< And are there still other reading systems in gnostic circles than those published on the website of the Ecclesia Gnostica? 
< 
< 3
< Is it really possible respectfully to avoid in Comparative Sacred Reading the typological mistakes of those Christian Lectionaries that did use the OT exclusively for their own purposes? Continuous reading of not biblical sources in their own right in the context of Christian worship does not seem that easy. My own parishioners, as liberal as they are, were presumably right to reject my more or less naughty proposal to read in our Sunday Services the first week of each month from the Bible, the second week from the Koran, the third week from the Bhagavad Gita and the last week from another source at choice. Our ecclesiastical mission statement declares not just as a principle but also as
< matter of fact, that we are rooted in the Gospel of Jesus Christ. In spite of all possible objections to be made yet it will be important enough for Christians to give the Sacred Readings of other religions a well ordered place in their own worship, even when it happens from a biblical point of view. May others feel invited to do it the other way round. Do you feel that is an acceptable point of view to begin with? 
< 
< 4
< I have got the impression that Bahai and Sufi find their readings from various traditions often around a preselected theme? Is that right? And do you sometimes feel the disadvantage it does the reading ventriloquize on behalf of that theme? 
< 
< 5
< What do Christians in your midst feel about the christological implica tions of Comparative Sacred Reading in Christian worship? What does it mean for your answer to Jesus' question: "Who do you
< say I am?" 
< 
< Though questionable my first objective is constructing a register of comparative readings of other religions on biblical pericopes. I will be very grateful to anyone who could help me with information and suggestions, even when they want to criticize my undertaking. In my website you can find the first draft of the chapters I think about. Mainly for chapter 5 I badly need your cooperation. But any other suggestions are also much appreciated. 
< If you like to read more about this subject see my website:
< http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/HolyScriptures
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985010448
20a21,235
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> <CENTER>OF</CENTER>
> <CENTER>WORLD SCRIPTURES</CENTER>                                                                                                                                    
> <CENTER>A TRY OUT</CENTER>
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> <align="justify">
>    To all who cherish the hope of a significant dialogue between the world religions.
>    Please pay attention to the underneath introduction of my sabbatical project.
>    I should like very much to welcome both your critical and  instructive remarks.
> </align="justify">
> <CENTER>Henk van Waveren</CENTER>
> <align="justify">           
>       <b>CONTENTS (updated 10-03-2001!!!)</b>   
>        01  INTRODUCTION:Slightly different approaches 
>                  in English (1A), German (1B), Dutch (1C) 
>                  and two sermons as case studies (1D+1E) 
>              1A   INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
>                       <i>(for the time being with 1B-E the only real content of my 
>                        website;the following chapters are under construction)</i> 
>              1B   NUR JESUS UND DIE BIBEL? (... JUST JESUS AND THE BIBLE?) 
>                       <i>(Brandenburger partner congregation visiting Eindhoven)</i>  
>              1C   INTERRELIGIEUS LEZEN IN BIJBELSE CONTEXT? (dutch)
>                                    <i>(om Dirk Monshouwer te gedenken)</i><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/Christmas-eve-sermon">
>              1D Link to SERMON ABOUT THE PAGAN ROOTS OF CHRISTMAS (dutch)</A><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/40-1-Invocabit">
>              1E Link to INVOCABIT SERMON (temptation stories of Jesus & Buddha)</A><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/~HenksCompReading/40-2-Reminiscere">
>              1F Link to REMINISCERE SERMON (Daedalus/Icarus & Lucas 12,22-31)</A>
> <i>                  Pictures of chapter 1
>                             1. website owner
>                             2. Remonstrant Church Eindhoven ext. & interior
>                             3. Austin Friars, Dutch Church in the City of London
>                             4. with Pfarrer Christiane Markert Berlin/Brandenburg
>                             5. Schildow Evangelical Church (Brandenburg)
>                             6. Mühlenbeck Evangelical Church (Brandenburg)
>                             7. Bell of the Remonstrant Church of Eindhoven  
>                             8. Mithras kills the bull
>                             9. Window at the Eindhoven Church</i>
> 
>        02 MAPPING OF WORLD RELIGIONS AND SCRIPTURES                                 
> <i>           Under construction: 
>                  for the time being just links to other websites about 
>                             1. Baha'í
>                             2. Buddhism
>                             3. China
>                             4. Celts
>                             5. Christianity
>                             6. Confucianism
>                             7. Freemasons
>                             8. German, Nordic and Pagan Religion
>                             9. Gnosticism
>                            10. Gnosticism/New Age
>                            11. Hellenism
>                            12. Jainism 
>                            13. Mormons
>                            14. Shintoism
>                            15. Sikhism
>                            16. South American Religions 
>                            17. Sufism
>                            18. Taoism 
>                            19. Zoroastrianism and others </i>  
> 
>        03   MAPPING OF THE WORLD MYTHS,  LEGENDS AND FAIRY TALES 
>        04   COMPARATIVE RELIGION / INTERFAITH
>        05   COMPARATIVE SACRED READING 
>               IN BIBLICAL AND OTHER SEQUENCES 
>        06   BIBLE AND LITERATURE
>        07   CHRISTOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
>        08   IMPLICATIONS FOR SPIRITUALITY AND PRAYER 
>        09   REFERENCE (books, articles, clippings and websites)
> </align="justify">           
> </PRE>
> </FONT>
>                         
> 
> 
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985010497
20,236d19
< 
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< function TripodShowPopup() 
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<   // open the popup window
<   var popupURL = "/adm/popup/roadmap.shtml";
<     var popup = window.open(popupURL,"TripodPopup",'toolbar=0,location=0,directories=0,status=0,menubar=0,scrollbars=0,resizable=0,width=560,height=110');
<   // set the opener if it's not already set.  it's set automatically
<   // in netscape 3.0+ and ie 3.0+.
<   if( navigator.appName.substring(0,8) == "Netscape" ) {
<     popup.location = popupURL;
<         popup.focus();
<   }
< }
< 
< TripodShowPopup();
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< 
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< 
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< <TITLE>HOLY SCRIPTURES      COMPARATIVE SACRED READING         A TRY OUT</TITLE>
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< <BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#003399" LINK="#CC0000" VLINK="#009900">
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<   // set the opener if it's not already set.  it's set automatically
<   // in netscape 3.0+ and ie 3.0+.
<   if( navigator.appName.substring(0,8) == "Netscape" ) {
<     popup.location = popupURL;
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<             <TD WIDTH=5% ALIGN="justify"></TD>
<            <TD WIDTH=95% ALIGN="justify">
< <basefont size=3>
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<         
< 
< 
< 
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< </HEAD>
< 
< <FONT SIZE="1 verdana, times new roman">
< 
< <BODY BGCOLOR="#FFFFFF" TEXT="#003399" LINK="#FF3333" VLINK="#00FF00">
< 
< <FONT SIZE="+3">
< <CENTER>COMPARATIVE SACRED READING</CENTER>
< <CENTER>OF</CENTER>
< <CENTER>WORLD SCRIPTURES</CENTER>                                                                                                                                    
< <CENTER>A TRY OUT</CENTER>
< </FONT>
< <P>
< <FONT SIZE=3>
< <PRE>
< <align="justify">
<    To all who cherish the hope of a significant dialogue between the world religions.
<    Please pay attention to the underneath introduction of my sabbatical project.
<    I should like very much to welcome both your critical and  instructive remarks.
< </align="justify">
< <CENTER>Henk van Waveren</CENTER>
< <align="justify">           
<       <b>CONTENTS (updated 10-03-2001!!!)</b>   
<        01  INTRODUCTION:Slightly different approaches 
<                  in English (1A), German (1B), Dutch (1C) 
<                  and two sermons as case studies (1D+1E) 
<              1A   INTRODUCTION: GLOBALISING AND RELIGIOUS SHOPPING
<                       <i>(for the time being with 1B-E the only real content of my 
<                        website;the following chapters are under construction)</i> 
<              1B   NUR JESUS UND DIE BIBEL? (... JUST JESUS AND THE BIBLE?) 
<                       <i>(Brandenburger partner congregation visiting Eindhoven)</i>  
<              1C   INTERRELIGIEUS LEZEN IN BIJBELSE CONTEXT? (dutch)
<                                    <i>(om Dirk Monshouwer te gedenken)</i><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/Christmas-eve-sermon">
<              1D Link to SERMON ABOUT THE PAGAN ROOTS OF CHRISTMAS (dutch)</A><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/40-1-Invocabit">
<              1E Link to INVOCABIT SERMON (temptation stories of Jesus & Buddha)</A><A HREF="http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/~HenksCompReading/40-2-Reminiscere">
<              1F Link to REMINISCERE SERMON (Daedalus/Icarus & Lucas 12,22-31)</A>
< <i>                  Pictures of chapter 1
<                             1. website owner
<                             2. Remonstrant Church Eindhoven ext. & interior
<                             3. Austin Friars, Dutch Church in the City of London
<                             4. with Pfarrer Christiane Markert Berlin/Brandenburg
<                             5. Schildow Evangelical Church (Brandenburg)
<                             6. Mühlenbeck Evangelical Church (Brandenburg)
<                             7. Bell of the Remonstrant Church of Eindhoven  
<                             8. Mithras kills the bull
<                             9. Window at the Eindhoven Church</i>
< 
<        02 MAPPING OF WORLD RELIGIONS AND SCRIPTURES                                 
< <i>           Under construction: 
<                  for the time being just links to other websites about 
<                             1. Baha'í
<                             2. Buddhism
<                             3. China
<                             4. Celts
<                             5. Christianity
<                             6. Confucianism
<                             7. Freemasons
<                             8. German, Nordic and Pagan Religion
<                             9. Gnosticism
<                            10. Gnosticism/New Age
<                            11. Hellenism
<                            12. Jainism 
<                            13. Mormons
<                            14. Shintoism
<                            15. Sikhism
<                            16. South American Religions 
<                            17. Sufism
<                            18. Taoism 
<                            19. Zoroastrianism and others </i>  
< 
<        03   MAPPING OF THE WORLD MYTHS,  LEGENDS AND FAIRY TALES 
<        04   COMPARATIVE RELIGION / INTERFAITH
<        05   COMPARATIVE SACRED READING 
<               IN BIBLICAL AND OTHER SEQUENCES 
<        06   BIBLE AND LITERATURE
<        07   CHRISTOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
<        08   IMPLICATIONS FOR SPIRITUALITY AND PRAYER 
<        09   REFERENCE (books, articles, clippings and websites)
< </align="justify">           
< </PRE>
< </FONT>
<                         
< 
< 
< 
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985011277
13c13
< Updated 10-03-01
---
>     Updated 10-03-01
15c15
< Homepage  Remonstrant Congregation Eindhoven:
---
> Homepage  Remonstrant Congregation Eindhoven (NL):
18c18
< Homepage  Remonstrant Brotherhood (NL) http://www.remonstranten.org
---
> Homepage  Remonstrant Brotherhood (NL): http://www.remonstranten.org
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985011347
11c11
< Homepage  Henk's Comparative Sacred Reading:
---
> Henk's Comparative Sacred Reading: Updated 10-03-01
13c13
<     Updated 10-03-01
---
>     
------
Netherlands/Talk|985013388
5c5,6
< - not populists who have to score public esteem- <BR>
---
> ----
> not populists who have to score public esteem- <BR>
7a9,11
> Well, gee, do with have a winner in our "Statement Least Supportable by Fact" yet?
> 
> Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that.
------
Netherlands/Talk|985014986
9c9
< Well, gee, do with have a winner in our "Statement Least Supportable by Fact" yet?
---
> Well, gee, do we have a winner in our "Statement Least Supportable by Fact" yet?
11c11,13
< Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that.
---
> Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that.
> ----
> o, yeah, sure, England doesn't need all that, it has the Sunday Papers to take care of it. No judicial changes in positive sense over there since Magna Carta & Habeas Corpus. England is the 'civilized' country next to the U.S. where you can be jailed for decennia & never know how they fixed you. England is the country where politicians can prosecute in parliament. England is the country where they fix independent inqueries. England is the closest to '1984' as it gets.
------
Netherlands/Talk|985015207
13c13,37
< o, yeah, sure, England doesn't need all that, it has the Sunday Papers to take care of it. No judicial changes in positive sense over there since Magna Carta & Habeas Corpus. England is the 'civilized' country next to the U.S. where you can be jailed for decennia & never know how they fixed you. England is the country where politicians can prosecute in parliament. England is the country where they fix independent inqueries. England is the closest to '1984' as it gets.
---
> o, yeah, sure, England doesn't need all that, it has the Sunday Papers to take care of it.
> 
> - Meaningless
> 
> No judicial changes in positive sense over there since Magna Carta & Habeas Corpus. 
> 
> - Subjective and unsupported.
> 
> England is the 'civilized' country next to the U.S. where you can be jailed for decennia & never know how they fixed you.
> 
> - Unsupported
> 
> England is the country where politicians can prosecute in parliament. 
> 
> - Simply false.
> 
> England is the country where they fix independent inqueries.
> 
> - Unsupported
> 
> England is the closest to '1984' as it gets.
> 
> - Unsupported.
> ----
> Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.  Congratulations.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|985017962
23a24,29
> 
> ----
> 
> Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
> 
> 
------
Library_of_Congress_catalogue_scheme|985018253
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :A -- GENERAL WORKS
> :B -- PHILOSOPHY. PSYCHOLOGY. RELIGION
> :C -- AUXILIARY SCIENCES OF HISTORY
> :D -- HISTORY: GENERAL AND OLD WORLD
> :E -- HISTORY: AMERICA
> :F -- HISTORY: AMERICA
> :G -- GEOGRAPHY. ANTHROPOLOGY. RECREATION
> :H -- SOCIAL SCIENCES
> :J -- POLITICAL SCIENCE
> :K -- LAW
> :L -- EDUCATION
> :M -- [[Music|MUSIC AND BOOKS ON MUSIC]]
> :N -- FINE ARTS
> :P -- LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
> :Q -- SCIENCE
> :R -- MEDICINE
> :S -- AGRICULTURE
> :T -- TECHNOLOGY
> :U -- MILITARY SCIENCE
> :V -- NAVAL SCIENCE
> :Z -- LIBRARY SCIENCE 
------
Netherlands/Talk|985018631
15c15
< - Meaningless
---
> - Meaningless to me
24a25,26
> <I>Like you never heard of the Birmingham three (or is it five, or seven?)</I>
> 
28a31,35
> <I>you can watch it on TV, if you care to. In England there just isn't independence of the judicial system
> 
> Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
> 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty. Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</I>
> 
32a40,41
> Magnificent reading material: <A HREF="http://www.rlcinquiry.org.uk/">example of a nice fix by UK government & the NHS</A>
> 
35a45,46
> 
> <I>England was the typemodel for the (British!) author; visionary man!</I>
37a49,52
> ----
> Well, thank you. Perhaps you could state some facts, too. I'm lazy & sloppy with details (yes, I must admit that), but you're even worse.<BR>
> It's just too easy to cut it all down without ANY argumentation.<BR>
> Are <B>you</B> sure of the facts?
------
Library_of_Congress_catalogue_scheme|985018686
10,11c10,11
< :K -- LAW
< :L -- EDUCATION
---
> :K -- [[Law|LAW]]
> :L -- [[Education|EDUCATION]]
15c15
< :Q -- SCIENCE
---
> :Q -- [[Science|SCIENCE]]
17,18c17,18
< :S -- AGRICULTURE
< :T -- TECHNOLOGY
---
> :S -- [[Agriculture|AGRICULTURE]]
> :T -- [[Technology|TECHNOLOGY]]
21c21
< :Z -- LIBRARY SCIENCE 
---
> :Z -- [[Library_and_Information_Science|LIBRARY SCIENCE]] 
------
CategorySchemesTalk|985018936
7c7
< On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme.  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme|LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme]].  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
36c36
< --OprgaG
---
> --OprgaG
------
Linear_Regression|985021430
14a15
> **<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub)X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
------
Linear_Regression|985021590
15c15,18
< **<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub)X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
---
> **<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
> :'''Estimating alpha'''
> ::We use the estimate of beta and the other statistics to estimate alpha by:
> **<font size=+1 color=red>a = (S<sub>Y</sub> - b*S<sub>X</sub>)/n
------
Linear_Regression|985021622
18c18
< **<font size=+1 color=red>a = (S<sub>Y</sub> - b*S<sub>X</sub>)/n
---
> **<font size=+1 color=red>a = (S<sub>Y</sub> - b*S<sub>X</sub>)/n</font>
------
Linear_Regression|985021869
12,14c12,14
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>X</sub> and S<sub>Y</sub></font>
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XX</sub> and S<sub>YY</sub></font>
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XY</sub></font>
---
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>X</sub> = X<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>  and S<sub>Y</sub> similarly</font> 
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XX</sub> = X<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + X<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> +...+ X<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup> and S<sub>YY</sub> similarly</font>
> **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XY</sub> =  X<sub>1</sub>Y<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub>Y<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>Y<sub>n</sub> </font>
------
Linear_Regression|985022051
5a6
> #Summarize the data by summing the data, their squares, and cross products
9a11,15
> :'''Summarizing the data
> :We sum the observations, the squares of the Y's and X's and the products of X*Y to obtain the following quantities.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>X</sub> = X<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>  and S<sub>Y</sub> similarly</font> 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XX</sub> = X<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + X<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> +...+ X<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup> and S<sub>YY</sub> similarly</font>
> *<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XY</sub> =  X<sub>1</sub>Y<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub>Y<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>Y<sub>n</sub> </font>
11,15c17,18
< ::We sum the observations, the squares of the Y's and X's and the products of X*Y to obtain the following quantities.
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>X</sub> = X<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>  and S<sub>Y</sub> similarly</font> 
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XX</sub> = X<sub>1</sub><sup>2</sup> + X<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> +...+ X<sub>n</sub><sup>2</sup> and S<sub>YY</sub> similarly</font>
< **<font size=+1 color=red>S<sub>XY</sub> =  X<sub>1</sub>Y<sub>1</sub> + X<sub>2</sub>Y<sub>2</sub> +...+ X<sub>n</sub>Y<sub>n</sub> </font>
< **<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
---
> :We use the summary statistics above to calculate b, the estimate of beta.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
17,18c20,21
< ::We use the estimate of beta and the other statistics to estimate alpha by:
< **<font size=+1 color=red>a = (S<sub>Y</sub> - b*S<sub>X</sub>)/n</font>
---
> :We use the estimate of beta and the other statistics to estimate alpha by:
> *<font size=+1 color=red>a = (S<sub>Y</sub> - b*S<sub>X</sub>)/n</font>
------
Linear_Regression|985022079
11c11
< :'''Summarizing the data
---
> :'''Summarizing the data'''
------
Linear_Regression|985022123
18c18
< *<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub></font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>b = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>)/(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>X</sub>)</font>
------
Netherlands/Talk|985022133
31c31,33
< <I>you can watch it on TV, if you care to. In England there just isn't independence of the judicial system
---
> <I>you can watch it on TV, if you care to.
> In England there just isn't independence of the judicial system
> </i>
33,34c35
< Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
< 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty. Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</I>
---
> This is not true.  The final court of appeal in the UK is the House of Lords where decisions are made by the law lords, who are not elected, and not politicians.  These sessions are not (or very very rarely) televised.  Please check your facts.
41a43,44
> ''What evidence do you have that the "RLC" inquiry is not a fair and accurate representation of the facts?''
> 
46a50,51
>  
> I know that, but that isn't what you said.  Do you really think England is closer to a fascist superstate than, say, North Korea, or China?
48c53
< Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.  Congratulations.
---
> Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.  
50c55,62
< Well, thank you. Perhaps you could state some facts, too. I'm lazy & sloppy with details (yes, I must admit that), but you're even worse.<BR>
---
> Well, thank you. Perhaps you could state some facts, too. I'm lazy & sloppy with details 
> 
> ''Have you considered a hobby outside encyclopedia work?''
> 
> (yes, I must admit that), but you're even worse.<BR>
> 
> ''I haven't stated anything as fact, except that judges aren't elected, which is demonstrably true.''
> 
52a65,66
> 
> Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it.
------
Linear_Regression|985022653
22a23,28
> :'''Displaying the residuals'''
> :We plot the residuals, <font size=+1 color=red>(Y-a-bX)</font> against the independent variable, <font size=+1 color=red>X</font>. There should be no discernible trend or pattern if the model is satisfactory for this data. Some of the possible problems are:
> *Residuals increase (or decrease) as the independent variable increases -- indicates mistakes in the calculations -- find the mistakes and correct them.
> *Residuals first rise and then fall (or first fall and then rise) -- indicates that the appropriate model is (at least) quadratic. See [[Polynomial Regression]].
> *One residual is much larger than the others and opposite in sign -- suggests that there is one unusual observation which is distorting the fit -- verify its value before publishing <font color=red>or</font> eliminate it, document your decision to do so, and recalculate the statistics.
> ----
------
Tourism|985023426
1c1,3
< ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's locales, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc.
---
> ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's locales, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc. 
> 
> Organised tourism has become a major [[industry]] around the world. Many countries rely on the income that tourism generates in order to improve their [[balance of payments]].
------
A_Modest_Proposal/Text|985023451
1c1
< A Modest Proposal for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland, frombeing a burden on their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the publick.
---
> A Modest Proposal for preventing the children of poor people in Ireland, from being a burden on their parents or country, and for making them beneficial to the publick.
------
Industry/Tertiary_Sector|985023521
1c1
< The term Tertiary Sector is used to describe the service providing [[Industry|industry]]. It includes all types of services ranging from lawyers and consultants to your local hairdresser. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two [[Industry|industry]] sectors to the Tertiary Sector in industrialised countries.
---
> The term Tertiary Sector is used to describe the service providing [[Industry|industry]]. It includes all types of services ranging from lawyers and consultants to your local hairdresser ([[tourism]] is also a major branch).For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two [[Industry|industry]] sectors to the Tertiary Sector in industrialised countries.
------
Tourism|985023612
3c3
< Organised tourism has become a major [[industry]] around the world. Many countries rely on the income that tourism generates in order to improve their [[balance of payments]].
---
> Organised tourism has become a major [[Industry/Tertiary_Sector|industry]] around the world. Many countries rely on the income that tourism generates in order to improve their [[balance of payments]].
------
Linear_Regression|985023682
27c27,35
< *One residual is much larger than the others and opposite in sign -- suggests that there is one unusual observation which is distorting the fit -- verify its value before publishing <font color=red>or</font> eliminate it, document your decision to do so, and recalculate the statistics.
---
> *One residual is much larger than the others and opposite in sign -- suggests that there is one unusual observation which is distorting the fit -- 
> **Verify its value before publishing <font color=red>or</font> 
> **Eliminate it, document your decision to do so, and recalculate the statistics.
> ----
> :'''Ancillary statistics'''
> :The sum of squared deviations can be partitioned as in [[ANOVA]] to indicate what part of the dispersion of the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable.
> :The '''correlation coefficient''', r, can be calculated by
> *<font size=+1 color=red>r = (n*S<sub>XY</sub>-S<sub>X</sub>S<sub>Y</sub>) / sqrt[(n*S<sub>XX</sub>-S<sub>X</sub><sup>2</sup>) * (n*S<sub>YY</sub>-S<sub>Y</sub><sup>2</sup>)]</font>
> :This statistic is a measure of how well a straight line describes the data. Values near zero suggest that the model is ineffective.
------
Linear_Regression|985023789
32a33
> 
------
Linear_Regression|985023869
36c36
< :This statistic is a measure of how well a straight line describes the data. Values near zero suggest that the model is ineffective.
---
> :This statistic is a measure of how well a straight line describes the data. Values near zero suggest that the model is ineffective. r<sup>2</sup> is frequently interpreted as the fraction of the variability explained by the independent variable, X.
------
Linear_Regression|985024066
23a24
> :The first method of displaying the residuals use the [[Histogram]] to depeict the similarity (or lack thereof) to a [[Normal distribution]. Non-normality suggests that the model may not be a good summary description of the data.
------
Linear_Regression|985024114
24a25
> 
------
Tourism|985024119
3a4,9
> 
> *[[Popular tourist regions]]
> *[[History of tourism]]
> *[[Hotels]]
> *[[Types of tourism]]
> *[[Travelling]]
------
Linear_Regression|985024153
24c24
< :The first method of displaying the residuals use the [[Histogram]] to depeict the similarity (or lack thereof) to a [[Normal distribution]. Non-normality suggests that the model may not be a good summary description of the data.
---
> :The first method of displaying the residuals use the [[Histogram]] to depict the similarity (or lack thereof) to a [[Normal distribution]. Non-normality suggests that the model may not be a good summary description of the data.
------
Histogram|985024542
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''Histogram''' is a graphical display of the data in a table of frequencies. For example, we might have a collection of data for which the frequency table is as follows:
> <table width=30% border=1>
> <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td>Frequency</tr>
> <tr><td>0<td>9<td>2</tr>
> <tr><td>10<td>19<td>3</tr>
> <tr><td>20<td>29<td>5</tr>
> <tr><td>30<td>39<td>8</tr>
> <tr><td>40<td>49<td>6</tr>
> <tr><td>50<td>59<td>3</tr>
> <tr><td>60<td>69<td>1</tr>
> </table>
------
Histogram|985024854
3c3
< <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td>Frequency</tr>
---
> <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency<b></tr>
11c11,26
< </table>
---
> </table>
> 
> The histogram corresponding to these data would look like:
> <pre>
>   8                #####
>   7                #####
>   6                ##########
>   5           ###############
>   4           ###############
>   3      #########################
>   2 ##############################
>   1 ###################################
>     0---10---20---30---40---50---60---70
> </pre>
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Histogram|985024878
3c3
< <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency<b></tr>
---
> <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency</b></tr>
------
Communism|985025221
1,4c1,4
< * Marxism: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
< * Leninism: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
< * Stalinism
< * Maoism
---
> * [[Marxism]]: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
> * [[Leninism]]: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
> * [[Stalinism]]
> * [[Maoism]]
------
Education/Math|985025295
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many mathematicians would agree that 
> *Students don't learn math by 
> **reading textbooks, 
> **listening to lectures, or  
> **watching mathematicians write on chalkboards. 
> *Students learn math by 
> **trying to solve problems,  
> **working homework exercises, 
> **checking their work over and over, 
> **searching for novel proofs to theorems,
> **asking questions in class.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Education/Math|985025334
0a1
> 
------
Gypsy|985025420
7c7
< Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies.
---
> Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies - the were one of the major groups (along with homosexuals, prostitutes, etc.) that automatically got sentenced to inprisonment in a [[concentration camp]].
------
Education|985025435
0a1,2
> :'''Education''' is not guaranteed by ''teaching'' but is evidenced by ''learning''.
> 
17c19
< [[colleges and universities]]
---
> [[colleges and universities]]
------
Computing|985025729
45a46
> ** [[ASCII]]
69c70
< ** [[Word]]
---
> ** [[Word]]
------
University_of_Michigan|985025963
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[http://www.umich.edu|University of Michigan], often called ''the Harvard of the west'', was established in 1817 by the Michigan legislature. It has provided a diverse student population with a diverse set of educational opportunities including academic and professional programs, intermural and NCAA sports programs, and more cultural activities than most residents of [[Ann Arbor]] can exploit.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]] A.B., M.P.H., Ph.D. 
------
University_of_Michigan|985026007
3c3
< [[Dick Beldin]] A.B., M.P.H., Ph.D. 
---
> [[Dick Beldin]] A.B.(1961), M.P.H.(1965), Ph.D.(1967) 
------
University_of_Michigan|985026049
1c1
< The [[http://www.umich.edu|University of Michigan], often called ''the Harvard of the west'', was established in 1817 by the Michigan legislature. It has provided a diverse student population with a diverse set of educational opportunities including academic and professional programs, intermural and NCAA sports programs, and more cultural activities than most residents of [[Ann Arbor]] can exploit.
---
> The [http://www.umich.edu/| University of Michigan], often called ''the Harvard of the west'', was established in 1817 by the Michigan legislature. It has provided a diverse student population with a diverse set of educational opportunities including academic and professional programs, intermural and NCAA sports programs, and more cultural activities than most residents of [[Ann Arbor]] can exploit.
------
University_of_Michigan|985026158
1c1
< The [http://www.umich.edu/| University of Michigan], often called ''the Harvard of the west'', was established in 1817 by the Michigan legislature. It has provided a diverse student population with a diverse set of educational opportunities including academic and professional programs, intermural and NCAA sports programs, and more cultural activities than most residents of [[Ann Arbor]] can exploit.
---
> The [http://www.umich.edu/| University of Michigan], often called ''the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] of the west'', was established in 1817 by the Michigan legislature. It has provided a diverse student population with a diverse set of educational opportunities including academic and professional programs, intermural and NCAA sports programs, and more cultural activities than most residents of [[Ann Arbor]] can exploit.
------
Baroque_Music|985026799
2c2
< *[[Carl Immanuel Christian Bach]]
---
> *[[Carl Philip Emmanuel Bach]]
------
Gypsy|985027703
7c7,9
< Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies - the were one of the major groups (along with homosexuals, prostitutes, etc.) that automatically got sentenced to inprisonment in a [[concentration camp]].
---
> Because of their nomadic life-style, there has always been a great deal of mutual distrust between the Gypsies and their less mobile neighbours: gypsies were, and frequently still are, popularly believed to be thieves, resulting in a great deal of persecution. This belief is the etymological source of the term 'gyp', meaning 'cheat', as in "I got gypped by a con man."
> 
> This distrust reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies - the were one of the major groups (along with homosexuals, prostitutes, etc.) that automatically got sentenced to inprisonment in a [[concentration camp]].
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985027982
0a1,41
> The following counties are listed in the [[Domesday book]], compiled under the order of [[William the Conqueror]] between 1066 and 1086,
> * Bedfordshire
> * Berkshire
> * Buckinghamshire
> * Cambridgeshire
> * Cheshire
> * Cornwall
> * Derbyshire
> * Devon
> * Dorsetshire
> * Essex
> * Gloucestershire
> * Hampshire
> * Herefordshire
> * Hertfordshire
> * Huntingdonshire
> * Kent
> * Lancashire 
> * Leicestershire
> * Lincolnshire
> * Middlesex
> * Nottinghamshire
> * Norfolk
> * Northants
> * Oxfordshire
> * Rutland
> * Shropshire
> * Somerset 
> * Staffordshire
> * Suffolk
> * Surrey
> * Sussex
> * Warwickshire
> * Worcestershire
> * Wiltshire 
> 
> 
> 
> ----
> These are states prior to Medieval period...
> 
37c78,79
<  
---
> ----
> Most English historians consider Medieval England to be 1066 (Norman Conquest) to 1485 (War of the Roses and beginning of Tudor period).  By this earlier date many of the still extant counties of England were formed (naturally including the protagonists, Lancashire and Yorkshire).  Data from the UK Public Record Office, and in the public domain.
------
Argument|985028014
43c43,49
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> An argument is a variable or value passed into a [[function]], 
> [[subroutine]], or an [[application program]].
> 
> An argument passed to an application program is referred to as
> a [[command line argument]].
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985028018
13c13,15
< Elaborate, please, Josh, I don't understand.  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Elaborate, please, Josh, I don't understand.  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> I'm not sure I understand either, but I do very much agree with Joshua that we should watch out for excessive sub-paging making for difficult accidental linking.  Of course, one answer is to very simply have lots and lots of REDIRECT pages.  [[Daffodil]] can redirect to [[Flower/Daffodil]], so that accidental links work out o.k. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
PerCapitaIncome|985028093
1c1
< The "per capita income" for an area may be defined as the total personal income in an area, divided by the number of people in that area.
---
> The "[[per capita]] income" for an area may be defined as the total personal income in an area, divided by the number of people in that area.
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985028204
3a4,15
> ----
> Another point: Should per capita income include all sources
> of income?
> 
> For example:
> * wages earned
> * government subsidies
> ** housing
> ** food
> ** medical
> * royalty payments (Alaska, oil royalty payments)
> 
------
Inflation|985028301
11a12,14
> 
> See also:
> * [[deflation]]
------
Jello_Biafra|985028400
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lead singer for the [[Dead Kennedys]].
> 
> Of note: [[Biafra]] was the name of a short lived
> revolutionary movement in ? Africa during the [[1960s]].
------
Russian_language|985028777
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language primarily spoke in [Russia], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukrania]].
------
Russian_language|985028793
1c1
< Language primarily spoke in [Russia], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukrania]].
---
> Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukrania]].
------
Russian_language|985028817
1c1
< Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukrania]].
---
> Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukranian]].
------
Inflation|985028824
11c11
< The relationship (trade-off) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
---
> The relationship ([[trade off]]) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
------
Russian_language|985028832
1c1
< Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and the [[Ukranian]].
---
> Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and [[Ukrania]].
------
Deflation|985028901
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Deflation is a decrease in the cost of goods and services.
> 
> See also:
> * [[inflation]]
> * [[stagflation]]
> * [[hyperinflation]]
------
Stagflation|985029039
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stagflation is high [[inflation]] and high [[unemployment]].
> 
> Kenesian? [[economics]] holds that stagflation is impossible 
> because high unemployment lowers demand for goods and services
> which lowers prices.  This results in low or no inflation.
> 
> See also:
> * [[inflation]]
> * [[hyperinflation]]
------
Inflation|985029074
14a15,17
> * [[[hyperinflation]]
> * [[[stagflation]]
> 
------
Inflation|985029085
16c16
< * [[[stagflation]]
---
> * [[stagflation]]
------
Unemployment|985029183
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Unemployment measures the percentage of [[able bodied]] workers
> that are not employed.
> 
> Able bodied workers does not usually include:
> * children
> * elderly
> * injured people
> 
------
Extended_ASCII|985029230
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Because the number of graphical symbols used in common [[natural language]]s far exceeds the limited range of the [[ASCII]] code, many extensions to it have been used to facilitate handling of those languages.  Foreign markets for computers and communication equipment were historically open long before standards bodies had time to deliberate upon the best way to accommodate them, so there are many incompatible proprietary extensions to ASCII.
> 
> Since ASCII was a 7-bit code, and most computers manipulate data in 8-bit [[byte]]s, many extensions use the additional 128 codes available by using all 8 bits of each byte.  This helps include many languages otherwise not easily representable in ASCII, but still not enough to cover all languages of countries in wich computers are sold, so even these 8-bit extensions had to have local variants.  Among the first popular set of 8-bit extended ASCII codes were the [[Microsoft]] <i>code pages</i>, the system used by the popular [[MS-DOS]] operating system.  In the code page system, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters.  MS-DOS computers built for the American market, for example, used code page 437, which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters.  This code page was based on the similar ASCII extension used by the [[DEC]] VT-220 terminal.  The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as English and French, but not, for example, in English and Greek (which required code page 737).
> 
> Eventually, the [[ISO]] created international standard ISO 8859 describing its own set of 8-bit ASCII extensions.  The most popular was ISO 8859-1, also called ISO Latin1, which contained characters sufficient for the most popular Western European languages.  Variations were standardized for other languages as well: ISO 8859-2 for Eastern European languages and ISO 8859-5 for Cyrillic languages, for example.  One notable way in which ISO character sets differ from code pages is that the character positions 128 to 159, corresponding to ASCII "control" characters with the high order bit set, are specifically unused and undefined in the ISO standards, while they are often used for printable characters in code pages. Microsoft later created code page 1252, a compatible superset of ISO 8859-1 with extra characters in the ISO unused range.  Code page 1252 is the standard character encoding of English versions of [[Microsoft Windows]].  ISO 8859-1 is the common characer encoding used by the X window system, and most Internet standards.  The [[Apple Macintosh]] uses its own proprietary encodings.
> 
> One problem with 8-bit codes is that [[computer keyboard]]s were originally designed for 7-bit ASCII, and users became accustomed to them.  Different manufacturers have solved this problem in diferent ways, sometimes by using additional shift-type keys labelled "Alt" or "Meta", and sometimes by interpreting multi-keystroke sequences.  MS-DOS, for example, allowed the user to enter any character by typing its 3-digit numeric value while holding down the Alt key.  While it did allow users to take advantage of the full MS-DOS code page 437 character set, it was difficult to remember and caused problems when users switched to other character sets (including Microsoft's switch to code page 1252).  On a Microsoft Windows machine now, typing a 4-digit number (beginning with 0) with the Alt key down will enter that code; typing a 3-digit number will actually enter the new page 1252 code for whatever character was in the page 437 position indicated.  For example, code page 437 used code 151 for the lowercase "u" with grave accent.  Typing Alt-151 on a Windows machine will actually produce code 249, which is where code page 1252 puts that character, so you'll get a lowercase "u" with grave accent.  If you want the character that is now in position 151 of code page 1252 (which is the em dash), you must type Alt-0151.
> 
> Because these ASCII extensions have so many variants, it is necessary to indentify which set is being used for a particular text for it to be interpreted correctly.  However, because the most-used characters (those in the original 7-bit ASCII) are common to all sets--even most proprietary ones like the Macintosh--failure to correctly identify a character set often suffers no adverse consequences.  Further, because many [[Internet]] standards use ISO 8859-1, and because Microsoft Windows (using the code page 1252 superset of ISO 8859-1) is the dominant operating system for personal computers today, unannounced use of ISO-8859 is quite commonplace, and should generally be assumed without evidence to the contrary.
------
Computing|985029241
0a1,2
> Computing is anything related to and involving [[computer]]s.
> 
------
Computing|985029304
10a11,12
> ** [[Artificial Intelligence]] Algorithm
> *** [[Genetic Algorithm]]
------
Stagflation|985029573
6a7,8
> A counterexample to this theory was provided by the economy of the [[United States]] in the late 1970s, at which time the term was first coined.
> 
------
Jello_Biafra|985029695
3,4c3
< Of note: [[Biafra]] was the name of a short lived
< revolutionary movement in ? Africa during the [[1960s]].
---
> Of note: [[Biafra]] was the name of a country which attempted to secede from [[Nigeria]] in 1966.  After 4 years of fighting, Nigeria regained control of the nascent Biafran state.
------
Extended_ASCII|985030099
3c3
< Since ASCII was a 7-bit code, and most computers manipulate data in 8-bit [[byte]]s, many extensions use the additional 128 codes available by using all 8 bits of each byte.  This helps include many languages otherwise not easily representable in ASCII, but still not enough to cover all languages of countries in wich computers are sold, so even these 8-bit extensions had to have local variants.  Among the first popular set of 8-bit extended ASCII codes were the [[Microsoft]] <i>code pages</i>, the system used by the popular [[MS-DOS]] operating system.  In the code page system, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters.  MS-DOS computers built for the American market, for example, used code page 437, which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters.  This code page was based on the similar ASCII extension used by the [[DEC]] VT-220 terminal.  The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as English and French, but not, for example, in English and Greek (which required code page 737).
---
> Since ASCII was a 7-bit code, and most computers manipulate data in 8-bit [[byte]]s, many extensions use the additional 128 codes available by using all 8 bits of each byte.  This helps include many languages otherwise not easily representable in ASCII, but still not enough to cover all languages of countries in wich computers are sold, so even these 8-bit extensions had to have local variants.  Among the first popular set of 8-bit extended ASCII codes were the [[Microsoft]] <i>code pages</i>, the system used by the popular [[MS-DOS]] operating system.  In the code page system, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters.  MS-DOS computers built for the American market, for example, used code page 437, which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters.  This code page was based on the similar ASCII extension used by the [[Digital Equipment Coporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]].  The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as English and French, but not, for example, in English and Greek (which required code page 737).
9a10,11
> 
> A proposal called [[Unicode]] was made to address many of these problems, and is now becoming widely accepted.  First formally standardized as ISO 10646, Unicode is a 16-bit code, meaning that it can represent 65,536 characters instead of the 128 of ASCII or 256 of extended ASCII.  The first 256 codes in Unicode are identical to ISO 8859-1.
------
Russian_language|985031119
1c1
< Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], BeloRus (White Russia), and [[Ukrania]].
---
> Language primarily spoke in [[Russia]], [[Belarus]] (White Russia), and [[Ukraine]].
------
Computing|985031324
7c7
< ** [[Encryption / Decryption Algorithm]]
---
> ** [[Cryptography|Encryption / Decryption Algorithm]]
------
Histogram|985031365
1c1
< A '''Histogram''' is a graphical display of the data in a table of frequencies. For example, we might have a collection of data for which the frequency table is as follows:
---
> A '''Histogram''' is a graphical display of the data in a table of frequencies. What should be plotted is the [[frequency density]].  For example, we might have a collection of data for which the frequency table is as follows:
3,10c3,10
< <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency</b></tr>
< <tr><td>0<td>9<td>2</tr>
< <tr><td>10<td>19<td>3</tr>
< <tr><td>20<td>29<td>5</tr>
< <tr><td>30<td>39<td>8</tr>
< <tr><td>40<td>49<td>6</tr>
< <tr><td>50<td>59<td>3</tr>
< <tr><td>60<td>69<td>1</tr>
---
> <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency</b></td><td>'''Density'''</tr>
> <tr><td>0<td>9<td>2</td><td>0.2</tr>
> <tr><td>10<td>19<td>3</td><td>0.3</tr>
> <tr><td>20<td>29<td>5</td><td>0.5</tr>
> <tr><td>30<td>39<td>8</td><td>0.8</tr>
> <tr><td>40<td>49<td>6</td><td>0.6</tr>
> <tr><td>50<td>59<td>1</td><td>0.1</tr>
> <tr><td>60<td>69<td>3</td><td>0.3</tr>
15,22c15,47
<   8                #####
<   7                #####
<   6                ##########
<   5           ###############
<   4           ###############
<   3      #########################
<   2 ##############################
<   1 ###################################
---
> 0.8                #####
> 0.7                #####
> 0.6                ##########
> 0.5           ###############
> 0.4           ###############
> 0.3      ####################     #####
> 0.2 #########################     #####
> 0.1 ###################################
>     0---10---20---30---40---50---60---70
> </pre>
> 
> The distinction between a histogram and a [[bar graph]] is that if we wish to find the total frequency of a range of values, we must consider the area under the graph (so between 30-39, we have a range of 10, and a frequency density of 0.8, giving the total frequency of 8)
> 
> Suppose we group the above data differently:
> <table width=30% border=1>
> <tr><td><b>From</b><td><b>To</b><td><b>Frequency</b></td><td>'''Density'''</tr>
> <tr><td>0<td>9<td>2</td><td>0.2</tr>
> <tr><td>10<td>19<td>3</td><td>0.3</tr>
> <tr><td>20<td>59<td>20</td><td>0.5</tr>
> <tr><td>60<td>69<td>3</td><td>0.3</tr>
> </table>
> our histogram would look like this:
> <pre>
> 0.5           ####################
>               ####################
> 0.4           ####################
>               ####################
> 0.3      ##############################
>          ##############################
> 0.2 ###################################
>     ###################################
> 0.1 ###################################
>     ###################################
------
Stagflation|985031586
3c3
< Kenesian? [[economics]] holds that stagflation is impossible 
---
> [[Kenesian economics]] holds that stagflation is impossible 
------
Stagflation|985031598
11a12
> * [[economics]]
------
Recession|985031654
1c1
< A recession is defined by a fall of a country's [[Gross National Product]] in two successive quarters. Combined with [[Inflation]] this process is known as [[Stagflation]].
---
> A recession is defined by a fall of a country's [[Gross National Product]] in two successive quarters. Combined with [[inflation]] this process is known as [[stagflation]].
3c3
< Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide Recession that humanity has ever experienced was the [[Great Depression]] (late 1920s and 1930s); other notable recessions include the [[Oil Crisis]] in the 1970s.
---
> Recessions are mostly caused by economic shocks. The greatest, worldwide recession that humanity has ever experienced was the [[Great Depression]] (late 1920s and 1930s); other notable recessions include the [[Oil Crisis]] in the 1970s.
------
Trade|985031819
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[/organisations]]
> *[[International trade]]
> *[[/history]]
> *[[Globalisation]]
> *[[/agreements]]
------
WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia|985033332
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I want to start off a discussion here about how Wiki differs from older media, and what that implies about how we should use or modify traditions from those other media.  Please add your own thoughts to this page.
> 
> * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
> 
> * Style differences:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
> 
> * Ease of editing: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
> 
> * Opinions: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
> 
> Please add to this list and comment.
> ----
> 
> 
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985035755
79a80,81
> ----
> [[what are the middle ages?/talk]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985035808
81c81
< [[what are the middle ages?/talk]]
---
> [[what are the middle ages?]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985035840
81c81
< [[what are the middle ages?]]
---
> [[/talk]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985036124
40c40,42
< These are states prior to Medieval period...
---
> Here follow (mostly) states prior to 1066<BR>
> <I>on this there is some discussion in the Talk-section:<BR>
> "What are the middle ages?"</I>
42c44
< Celtic states
---
> <U>Celtic states</U>
53c55
< Angle, Saxon & Jute states
---
> <U>Angle, Saxon & Jute states</U>
60c62
< Scottish, Pict & Caledonian states
---
> <U>Scottish, Pict & Caledonian states</U>
64c66
< Dane, Norsemen & Dubliner states
---
> <U>Dane, Norsemen & Dubliner states</U>
73,80d74
< ----
< 
< Are these <b>medieval</b> britain?  They sound more like those around, say, 6-9th century. After 1066, the existence of separate states in england at least would be dubious, and I thought medieval referred to a time more like 11th -15th century?  
< Would Dark Ages Britain be more accurate?  
< And I don't think there ever was anywhere actually <i>called</i> Camelot, whatever Malory says!  -- Malcolm Farmer
< ----
< Most English historians consider Medieval England to be 1066 (Norman Conquest) to 1485 (War of the Roses and beginning of Tudor period).  By this earlier date many of the still extant counties of England were formed (naturally including the protagonists, Lancashire and Yorkshire).  Data from the UK Public Record Office, and in the public domain.
< ----
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain/talk|985036419
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <FONT SIZE=+1>Discussion on the timespan of the middle ages in Britain</FONT>
> ----
> Are these <b>medieval</b> britain?  They sound more like those around, say, 6-9th century. After 1066, the existence of separate states in england at least would be dubious, and I thought medieval referred to a time more like 11th -15th century?  
> Would Dark Ages Britain be more accurate?  
> And I don't think there ever was anywhere actually <i>called</i> Camelot, whatever Malory says!  -- Malcolm Farmer
> ----
> Most English historians consider Medieval England to be 1066 (Norman Conquest) to 1485 (War of the Roses and beginning of Tudor period).  By this earlier date many of the still extant counties of England were formed (naturally including the protagonists, Lancashire and Yorkshire).  Data from the UK Public Record Office, and in the public domain.
> ----
> * As I can recall the Middle Ages started in Britain with the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century A.D.
> * Isn't Britain the whole island? Including Wales & Scotland?
------
Netherlands/Talk|985036983
44c44
< 
---
> <B>read it & see how biassed one can get</B>
51c51
< I know that, but that isn't what you said.  Do you really think England is closer to a fascist superstate than, say, North Korea, or China?
---
> I know that, but that isn't what you said.  Do you really think England is closer to a fascist superstate than, say, North Korea, or China? <I>Of course not! Silly man! How could you ever presume such a thought</I> 
59c59
< (yes, I must admit that), but you're even worse.<BR>
---
> got no time left; this is addictive
66a67,69
> 
> ''I would love to believe it & see for myself, but . . .<BR>
> wat is your ID/name?''
------
WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia|985037641
3c3
< * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
---
> * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
13d12
< 
------
Netherlands/Talk|985037784
16c16
< 
---
> ----
20c20
< 
---
> ----
26c26
< 
---
> ----
33d32
< </i>
35c34,36
< This is not true.  The final court of appeal in the UK is the House of Lords where decisions are made by the law lords, who are not elected, and not politicians.  These sessions are not (or very very rarely) televised.  Please check your facts.
---
> Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
> 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty.
> Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</i>
36a38,39
> This is not true.  The final court of appeal in the UK is the House of Lords where decisions are made by the law lords, who are not elected, and not politicians.  These sessions are not (or very very rarely) televised.  Please check your facts.
> ----
41c44
< Magnificent reading material: <A HREF="http://www.rlcinquiry.org.uk/">example of a nice fix by UK government & the NHS</A>
---
> As an example of a nice fix by UK government & the NHS some magnificent reading material: http://www.rlcinquiry.org.uk/
44c47,48
< <B>read it & see how biassed one can get</B>
---
> <B>read it</B>
> ----
68,69c72,77
< ''I would love to believe it & see for myself, but . . .<BR>
< wat is your ID/name?''
---
> ''That's OK, but . . .<BR>
> wat is your ID/name? &<BR>
> what entries?''
> 
> I'll call you in the /Talk-section; this whole fact-business is not quite my cup of tea, hark, hark, <FONT SIZE=+1>=;P</FONT><BR>
> for you might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities, it doesn't change my opinion on the way UK government & politicians are inclined to meddle with justice (they do! believe me!) - Mathijs - p.s. don't edit away Montesquie
------
WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia|985038318
0a1,4
> '''The title of this page is entirely wrong.  Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  If it were to become yet another discussion forum, I would just shut it down.  The vision of yet another discussion forum doesn't motivate me in the least.'''
> 
> -----
> 
4a9,10
> '''I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
6a13,14
> '''I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
8a17,19
> '''I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
> 
9a21,23
> 
> '''I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985039033
2a3,4
> ''That would be interesting, but of course it would not be PER CAPITA INCOME (which is a technical term with a precise meaning) it would be MEDIAN INCOME.''
> 
------
HomePage|985040275
1,38c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome Newcomers]]
< 
< Some questions you might have are answered below, but why not first explore a few links?
< 
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
< 
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
< 
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
< 
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
< 
< :::''The above reflects only one of Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia category schemes|category schemes]].''
< 
< Want to learn about something?  Add the topic to our list of [[requested articles]].
< 
< You're wondering:
< * [[What is a wiki]]?
< * [[How does one edit a page]]?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
< * [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia|How is Wikipedia related to Nupedia]]?
< * What are your [[new topics]]?  (The very latest can be found via the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.)
< * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] and the [[Free Links]] page.
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
< ----
< Techie links:
< * GNUStufF
< * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
< * PublicDomainResources
< * [[Feature requests]]
< ----
< Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia version written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
< 
< *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch]
< *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
< 
< If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
< ----
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> 
------
RecentChanges|985040324
1,4c1
< Track the most recent changes to Wikipedia on this page.  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.  You might want to read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and the [[naming conventions]] too.
< 
< If you want to see the Wikipedia succeed, it's very important
< that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
---
> 
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|985040670
1,29c1
< Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
< ----
< The category scheme on the HomePage is only one category scheme; it might not be the best, or the only one possible.
< ----
< A three-part category scheme attributed to Jefferson:
< 
< * '''Memory''' :  [[Countries of the World]] -- [[History]] -- [[Language]] -- [[Quotes]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[United States]]
< * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- [[Mathematics and Statistics]] -- [[Philosophy]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Technology]]
< * '''Imagination''' :  [[Architecture]] -- [[Arts and Entertainment]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]]
< 
< Found while perusing the Library of Congress website:
< http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/
< 
< ''Thomas Jefferson, whose personal library became the core of the Library of Congress, arranged his books into three types of knowledge, corresponding to Francis Bacon's three faculties of the mind: Memory (History), Reason (Philosophy),  and Imagination (Fine Arts).''
< ----
< JoshuaGrosse says: ''Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system'':
< 
< :Understanding the way the world works - [[Philosophy]], [[Mathematics and Statistics]], [[Natural Sciences]]
< :Understanding what's actually in it - [[Biological Sciences]], [[History]], [[Geography]]
< :Making stuff for practical use - [[Technology]]
< :Making stuff for its own ends - [[Arts and Entertainment]]
< ----
< The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
< 
< ----
< 
< Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
< 
< 
---
> 
------
HomePage|985040793
1c1,38
< 
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome Newcomers]]
> 
> Some questions you might have are answered below, but why not first explore a few links?
> 
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
> 
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
> 
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
> 
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
> 
> :::''The above reflects only one of Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia category schemes|category schemes]].''
> 
> Want to learn about something?  Add the topic to our list of [[requested articles]].
> 
> You're wondering:
> * [[What is a wiki]]?
> * [[How does one edit a page]]?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
> * [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia|How is Wikipedia related to Nupedia]]?
> * What are your [[new topics]]?  (The very latest can be found via the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.)
> * Why do some of the links look funny, LikeThis, while other of the links don't?  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] and the [[Free Links]] page.
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
> ----
> Techie links:
> * GNUStufF
> * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
> * PublicDomainResources
> * [[Feature requests]]
> ----
> Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia version written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
> 
> *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch]
> *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
> 
> If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
> ----
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
HomePage|985040919
33c33
< *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch]
---
> *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch] (German)
34a35
> *[http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo] (Japanese)
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985040923
3,4c3,4
< in the worshipping reunions of different religions,
< in my case to start with comaparative sacred reading in christian
---
> in the worshiping reunions of different religions,
> in my case to start with comparative sacred reading in Christian
------
International_Wikipedia|985041180
3,6c3
< I have set up Catalan and Deutsch (or Deutsche, that's still
< up in the air!), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
< 
< I am going to avoid setting up nihongo.wikipedia.com (japanese.wikipedia.com) until I better understand how well or poorly it might work.  Unless, of coures, RoseParks asks me to hurry up and do it anyway, in which case I just will, but without any promises that it will work well or at all.  :-)
---
> I have set up [catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia] and [deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsche Wikipedia] (German) and [nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo no Wikpedia] (Japanese), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
35c32,33
< That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)----
---
> That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
> ----
37d34
< RoseParks asks that you to hurry up and do it anyway, without any promises that it will work well or at all. Doozo... 
------
International_Wikipedia|985041293
16a17
> But the alternative language wikis aren't for Americans.  All Germans, Austrians, etc. will instantly recognize de.wikipedia.com. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985041337
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Upon the enlightening comments by Jimbo, I must agree with him that the title of this original page is entirely wrong.  Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  I share his desire that it not become [[Yet Another]] discussion forum.  But is definitely <i>is</i> something different from a paper encyclopedia, and I think we should think more about how to take advantage of that fact.  Perhaps a separate discussion forum would be the appropriate place to do this, but I think doing it here is just as viable and useful.'''
> 
> -----
> * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
> 
> '''I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
> * Style differences:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
> 
> '''I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
> * Ease of editing: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
> 
> '''I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
> 
> * Opinions: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
> 
> '''I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
> That's sort of what I had in mind, but I may not have been very clear about it.  I certainly didn't mean to imply that Wikipedia should ever hold a controversial opinion, only that when I look up a subject here, I should find factual essays about that subject, a well as pointers (i.e., links, perhaps with brief descriptions) of relevant opinions on the subject.  And maybe the physical storage and mechanism of the Wiki is useful for keeping those essays as well.  For some subjects, that's quite possibly all there can be--a summary of the relevant opinions in the field with pointers to them.  Certainly they must be prominently labelled as such, maybe even something like differently-colored pages?
> 
> Please add to this list and comment.
> ----
> 
> 
------
WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia|985041375
1,27c1
< '''The title of this page is entirely wrong.  Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  If it were to become yet another discussion forum, I would just shut it down.  The vision of yet another discussion forum doesn't motivate me in the least.'''
< 
< -----
< 
< I want to start off a discussion here about how Wiki differs from older media, and what that implies about how we should use or modify traditions from those other media.  Please add your own thoughts to this page.
< 
< * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
< 
< '''I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
< 
< * Style differences:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
< 
< '''I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
< 
< * Ease of editing: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
< 
< '''I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
< 
< 
< * Opinions: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
< 
< '''I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
< 
< 
< Please add to this list and comment.
< ----
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[WikiIsNotPaper]]
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985041515
17a18,22
> 
> You ar talking about household incomes here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
> 
> 
> 
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985041568
19c19
< You ar talking about household incomes here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
---
> You are talking about household income here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income, however, is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
------
Zodiac/signs|985041586
1c1,29
< A topic related to [[astrology]]???
---
> Even people that doesn't know anuthing about constellations, has
> heard about the constellations of the Zodiac in an [[astrology|astrological]] context.
> 
> The astronomers/astrologers (when there was no difference between
> those words), tried to used the movements of the night sky with
> adivinatory purposes. Some of this applications where funded (for
> example, where is the sun between the stars depends on the season,that has practical implications for agriculture), some
> others completely unfunded.
> 
> The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend
> on the position of the sun on his/her birthdate. But because of
> the [[precession of the Equinox]], the "signs" are out of phase
> with the real position of the sun by about a month.
> 
> 
> The idea is that the person would have some characteristics
> of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with
> a group of starts, so, for example, a "Libra" will be equilibrated, (or inestable).Also, as it was mentioned on the main article, the planets are
> found near the ecliptic, and in consequence on the zodiac. The
> position of a planet on a particular constellation would have
> a consecuence on the life of a person born under that "sign",
> an more so on one beeing born on that time.
> 
> One of the first great modern astronomers, [[Kepler]], was also
> an astrologer, if he was it because or conviction or simply to have a supplementary income, is still debated.
> 
> Modern astrology tries to dress itself with the garments of
> real science, using computers and in same cases adding more
> recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an art), one that is followed by millions of people worlwide.
------
Zodiac/signs|985041661
1c1
< Even people that doesn't know anuthing about constellations, has
---
> Even people that doesn't know anything about constellations, has
------
Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985041792
1,19c1
< Henks Comparative Sacred Reading
< about the possibility of systematic mutual interreligious Reading
< in the worshiping reunions of different religions,
< in my case to start with comparative sacred reading in Christian
< liturgy.
< 
< Henk van Waveren
< Kievitlaan 23
< NL 5613 BJ Eindhoven
< 
< Henk's Comparative Sacred Reading: Updated 10-03-01
< http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/HolyScriptures
<     
< 
< Homepage  Remonstrant Congregation Eindhoven (NL):
< http://www.remonstranten.org/eindhoven/index.html
< 
< Homepage  Remonstrant Brotherhood (NL): http://www.remonstranten.org
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Henks Comparative Sacred Reading]]
------
Henks_Comparative_Sacred_Reading|985041805
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Henks Comparative Sacred Reading
> about the possibility of systematic mutual interreligious Reading
> in the worshiping reunions of different religions,
> in my case to start with comparative sacred reading in Christian
> liturgy.
> 
> Henk van Waveren
> Kievitlaan 23
> NL 5613 BJ Eindhoven
> 
> Henk's Comparative Sacred Reading: Updated 10-03-01
> http://members.tripod.lycos.nl/HenksCompReading/HolyScriptures
>     
> 
> Homepage  Remonstrant Congregation Eindhoven (NL):
> http://www.remonstranten.org/eindhoven/index.html
> 
> Homepage  Remonstrant Brotherhood (NL): http://www.remonstranten.org
------
Religion|985041873
8c8,11
< [[Comparative Sacred Reading]] -- TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
> 
> Religious scholarship:
> [[Henks Comparative Sacred Reading]]
------
Zodiac/signs|985042143
1c1
< Even people that doesn't know anything about constellations, has
---
> Even people that doesn't know anything about constellations, have
7c7
< example, where is the sun between the stars depends on the season,that has practical implications for agriculture), some
---
> example, where is the sun between the stars depends on the season, that has practical implications for agriculture), some
15,20c15,18
< 
< The idea is that the person would have some characteristics
< of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with
< a group of starts, so, for example, a "Libra" will be equilibrated, (or inestable).Also, as it was mentioned on the main article, the planets are
< found near the ecliptic, and in consequence on the zodiac. The
< position of a planet on a particular constellation would have
---
> The idea is that the person would have some characteristics 
> of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with a group of starts, so, for example, a "Libra" will be equilibrated, (or inestable).Also, as it was mentioned on the main article, the planets are
> found near the ecliptic, and in consequence on the [[zodiac]]. The
> position of a [[planet]] on a particular constellation would have
27,29c25,27
< Modern astrology tries to dress itself with the garments of
< real science, using computers and in same cases adding more
< recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an art), one that is followed by millions of people worlwide.
---
> Modern [[astrology]] tries to dress itself with the garments of
> real [[science]], using computers and in same cases adding more
> recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an [[art]]), one that is followed by millions of people worldwide.
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985042174
25c25
< 
---
> ''For my part, I agree with most of this and I agree 100% with Jimbo's reactions. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
------
Planet|985042259
1c1
< A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the SolarSystem). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
---
> A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the [[Solar System]]). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
13c13,15
< * [[Pluto]]
---
> * [[Pluto]]
> 
> All of the planets in the [[solar system]] (except [[earth]]) are named after greek and roman gods. 
------
RecentChanges|985042373
1c1,3
< 
---
> Track the most recent changes to Wikipedia on this page.  See the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for frequently-asked questions.  You might want to read through [[Wikipedia policy]] and the [[naming conventions]] too.
> 
> If you want to see the Wikipedia succeed, it's very important that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
------
SurveySampling|985042419
1c1
< see [[Survey Sampling]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Survey Sampling]]
------
Planet|985042516
1,2c1
< A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the [[Solar System]]). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 
< are known.
---
> A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the [[Solar System]]). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 are known.
7c6
< * [[Earth]]
---
> * [[Earth]] -- with its [[Moon]], sometimes considered a "[[double planet]]."
13c12
< * [[Pluto]]
---
> * [[Pluto]] -- with its moon [[Charon]] sometimes considered a [[double planet]], and also sometimes not considered a planet at all.
15c14
< All of the planets in the [[solar system]] (except [[earth]]) are named after greek and roman gods. 
---
> All of the planets in the [[solar system]] (except [[Earth]]) are named after Greek and Roman gods.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|985042616
1c1,27
< 
---
> Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
> ----
> The category scheme on the HomePage is only one category scheme; it might not be the best, or the only one possible.
> ----
> A three-part category scheme attributed to Jefferson:
> 
> * '''Memory''' :  [[Countries of the World]] -- [[History]] -- [[Language]] -- [[Quotes]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[United States]]
> * '''Reason''' :  HumanComputerInteraction -- [[Mathematics and Statistics]] -- [[Philosophy]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Technology]]
> * '''Imagination''' :  [[Architecture]] -- [[Arts and Entertainment]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]]
> 
> Found while perusing the Library of Congress website:
> http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/
> 
> ''Thomas Jefferson, whose personal library became the core of the Library of Congress, arranged his books into three types of knowledge, corresponding to Francis Bacon's three faculties of the mind: Memory (History), Reason (Philosophy),  and Imagination (Fine Arts).''
> ----
> JoshuaGrosse says: ''Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system'':
> 
> :Understanding the way the world works - [[Philosophy]], [[Mathematics and Statistics]], [[Natural Sciences]]
> :Understanding what's actually in it - [[Biological Sciences]], [[History]], [[Geography]]
> :Making stuff for practical use - [[Technology]]
> :Making stuff for its own ends - [[Arts and Entertainment]]
> ----
> The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
> 
> ----
> 
> Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
------
Christianity|985043223
24c24
< Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
---
> Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [Jehova's Witnesses]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
------
Argument|985043256
1,9c1,8
< An <i>argument</i> is a set of statements, one of which (the
< <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the
< <i>premises</i>).  To give an argument is to give evidence, and then
< draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something,
< and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to
< the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The
< thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  One can
< think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or
< premises, and the conclusion.
---
> The word ''argument'' has a number of senses.  Here are two:
> 
> #(Logic) An ''argument'' is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
> #(Mathematics and computer science) An ''argument'' is a variable or value passed into a [[function]], [[subroutine]], or an [[application program]].  An argument passed to an application program is referred to as a [[command line argument]].
> 
> The rest of this article concerns "argument" in the first sense.
> 
> To give an argument is to give evidence, and then draw a conclusion from it; it is to give reasons to believe something, and then to state the belief.  The statements that give expression to the evidence, or the reasons, are all called the <i>premises</i>.  The thing one argues <i>for</i> is called the <i>conclusion</i>.  One can think of a whole argument as a set of statements, comprising premise or premises, and the conclusion.
42,47d40
< ----
< An argument is a variable or value passed into a [[function]], 
< [[subroutine]], or an [[application program]].
< 
< An argument passed to an application program is referred to as
< a [[command line argument]].
------
PseudoScience|985043749
3a4,5
> 
> PseudoScience is also known as [[junk science]].
------
Literature|985043765
0a1,3
> Genres
> :[[Satire]]
> 
21a25
> * [[Jonathan Swift]]
------
PseudoScience|985044217
1c1
< A theory is PseudoScience when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
---
> A theory is Pseudo Science when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
5c5,7
< PseudoScience is also known as [[junk science]].
---
> Pseudo Science is also known as [[junk science]].
> 
> Would [[astrology]] be considered a pseudo science?
------
PseudoScience|985044260
1,7c1
< A theory is Pseudo Science when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
< 
< Some pseudo-scientific facts even make their way into school textbooks. Several people are actively fighting pseudoscience; a web search (for example http://www.google.com/search?q=pseudoscience) can reveal several such pages.
< 
< Pseudo Science is also known as [[junk science]].
< 
< Would [[astrology]] be considered a pseudo science?
---
> #REDIRECT [[pseudo science]]
------
Pseudo_science|985044285
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A theory is pseudo science when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
> 
> Some pseudo-scientific facts even make their way into school textbooks. Several people are actively fighting pseudoscience; a web search (for example http://www.google.com/search?q=pseudoscience) can reveal several such pages.
> 
> Pseudo Science is also known as [[junk science]].
> 
> Would [[astrology]] be considered a pseudo science?
> 
------
PseudoScience|985044519
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[pseudo science]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pseudo science]]
------
International_Wikipedia|985045123
33a34
> 
35a37,48
> There are already lots of standards in place here, folks: ISO 639-1 contains two-letter codes for languages (these are not the same as country codes for the obvious reason that languages aren't countries and vice versa), and ISO 639-2/B is a more comprehensive list of 3-letter codes.  All use no special characters, and are commonly used in bibliographic databases.  The standard 2- and 3-letter codes we might use are:
> 
> :English: en, eng
> :French: fr, fre
> :German: de, ger
> :Spanish (Castellano): es, spa
> :Catalan: ca, cat
> :Japanese: ja (not the country code jp), jpn
> 
> This particular list of codes deliberately makes no distinction between what it considers dialects of the same language, no matter how much native speakers might protest for political reasons.  I.e., Americans have to settle for "en", Austrians who vocally claim to speak Austrian must settle for "de", and Mexicans, Cubans, Colombians, and Spaniards all have to share "es" (though other languages spoken in Spain, e.g. Catalan, are different enough to merit their own code).  The 3-letter codes are far more comprehensive than the 2-letter ones.  This is a rational approach: someone from Madrid may have trouble speaking face-to-face with, say, a Venezuelan, but they both read books written in "es" in college.
> 
> HTML 4 already deals (correctly IMHO) with character set issues, and we should follow that spec, but how the Wiki software deals with special characters in titles is an open issue.
------
Pseudo_science|985046137
7,8c7
< Would [[astrology]] be considered a pseudo science?
< 
---
> Popular examples of pseudo science are [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[cartomancy]], and many other fortune-telling methods; [[dowsing]], [[channeling]], and other [[psychic]] claims; and many unscientific medical practices such as [[accupuncture]], [[chelation]], and [[iridology]].  Many of these things have been studied scientifically as well, but without success.  Pseudo scientific medical practices often become quite popular, because they often work well because of the [[placebo effect]].
------
Placebo_effect|985047571
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is a remarkable property of the human body that a person's <i>belief</i> in the effectiveness of a [[Medicine|medical]] treatment can itself influence symptoms.  For example, patients complaining of back pain may be given "medicines" that are known to have no active ingredients--such as colored water or sugar--and told that they are effective drugs, and a significant number of them will genuinely improve and report that the treatment was successful.  Because of this effect, scientific testing of drugs must establish not only that patients respond to them, but that they respond more to them than they do a placebo.  Such a study is called a <i>placebo-controlled</i> study.  Recently, it has even been shown that "mock" surgery can have similar effects, and so some surgical techniques must be studied with placebo controls.
------
International_Wikipedia|985048319
17a18,20
> 
> ''I meant -- hard for me (an American) to procure and use.  So yes, de.wikipedia.com sounds good to me.  I'm just explaining why I don't rush out and get wikipedia.de. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
> 
------
Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members|985048804
3c3
< :[[Katherine Kennedy]]
---
> :[[Kathleen Kennedy]]
------
International_Wikipedia|985048963
20a21,22
> 
> 
45c47
< :Spanish (Castellano): es, spa
---
> :Spanish (Castellano): es, spa  
49a52,59
> ----
> It was said that the answer doesn't have to be unique.
> A name with code and one (or more) with names. For spanish
> could be
> es.wikipedia.com
> castellano.wikipedia.com
> espanol.wikipedia.com
> ----
------
Pguiral|985049732
1c1,3
< Si vous voulez en savoir plus : http://pguiral.free.fr.
---
> Si vous voulez en savoir plus : http://pguiral.free.fr.
> 
> Bienvenu a wikipedia. Merci pour la premiere page en francias...RoseParks
------
Requested_articles|985050287
36a37
> -- [[astrology]]
------
Text_encoding|985051311
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>Text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of [[natural language]] text as a sequence of [[code]]s for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication.  While [[Character encoding]]s like ASCII represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text.
------
Unemployment|985051574
4c4
< Able bodied workers does not usually include:
---
> The category <i>able bodied workers</i> does not usually include:
7c7,15
< * injured people
---
> * disabled people - this includes both mentallly and physically diasbled people.
> ----
> 
> This is a little strange because employment is usally defined by converting into a percentaage the ratio of: (people who are employed)/(able-bodied persons). Then for
> the set of {people who are employed} we include the disabled but employed. But for
> the set of [[able bodied]], we exclude them. In an ideal world where the majority of disabled people have the necessary accomodations and health care to work, this ratio could
> conceivably be over 100%.
> 
> '''Q.''' Is this a formal definition from somewhere and a current one?
------
Natural_language|985051596
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[language]] is considered <i>natural</i> if it evolved along with a culture of human native speakers who use the language for general-purpose communication.  Languages like [[English]] and [[Mandarin]] are natural languages, while [[Esperanto]] is an [[artificial language]], having been deliberately constructed and having no native speakers.  Also in contrast to natural languages are special-purpose languages like [[programming language]]s.
> 
------
English_language|985051729
1c1
< The language spoken in the U.K., Ireland, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
---
> The primary [[language]] spoken in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded Britain at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.
------
Modern_Classical_Music|985051748
1c1
< *[[Mahler]]
---
> *[[Gustav Mahler]]
------
Zodiac/signs|985051766
1,2c1
< Even people that doesn't know anything about constellations, have
< heard about the constellations of the Zodiac in an [[astrology|astrological]] context.
---
> Even people who don't know anything about constellations have heard about the constellations of the Zodiac in an [[astrology|astrological]] context.
4,8c3,4
< The astronomers/astrologers (when there was no difference between
< those words), tried to used the movements of the night sky with
< adivinatory purposes. Some of this applications where funded (for
< example, where is the sun between the stars depends on the season, that has practical implications for agriculture), some
< others completely unfunded.
---
> The astronomers/astrologers (originally in history, there was no meanigful difference between
> these words), tried to use the movements of the night sky with a divinatory purpose. Some of these applications where founded on correspondence between practical knowledge and celestial observations (for example, the relationship between solar position and stellar positions in the evening depends on the season, which has practical implications for agriculture), some others completely unfounded.
10,13c6
< The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend
< on the position of the sun on his/her birthdate. But because of
< the [[precession of the Equinox]], the "signs" are out of phase
< with the real position of the sun by about a month.
---
> The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend on the position of the sun realtive to the celestial position of the [[houses of the Zodia]] on his/her birthdate. But because of the [[precession of the Equinox]] over the last three thousand years or so, the "signs" are out of phase with the real position of the sun by about a month.  Some modern astrologers attempt to take this into account in drawing [[astrological chart]]s.
15,20c8
< The idea is that the person would have some characteristics 
< of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with a group of starts, so, for example, a "Libra" will be equilibrated, (or inestable).Also, as it was mentioned on the main article, the planets are
< found near the ecliptic, and in consequence on the [[zodiac]]. The
< position of a [[planet]] on a particular constellation would have
< a consecuence on the life of a person born under that "sign",
< an more so on one beeing born on that time.
---
> The idea of astrological birth sign is that the person would have some characteristics of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with a group of stars; so, for example, a "Libra" (the scales) will be balanced and stable.  Also, as mentioned in the main article, the planets are found near the ecliptic, and by consequence, in the [[zodiac]]. The position of a [[planet]] relative to a particular constellation would have a consequence on the life of a person born under not only under that "sign", but also on one with a different birth sign.  For example:  A person may be born on, say, June 1st.  This is near the center of the sign of Gemini, and so Gemini would be his birth sign.  Any planets also observed to be within the 30 degrees of sky occupied at its center by Gemini, would be said to have a particularly strong affect on the destiny and personality of the person.  If, at the same time, other planets are seen to be within other signs of the zodiac, then their effects would be felt on the portions of a person's life "ruled" by that sign.  Significance is also imputed to the angular positions of planets and signs relative to each other at the moment of a birth or other significant event.
22,23c10
< One of the first great modern astronomers, [[Kepler]], was also
< an astrologer, if he was it because or conviction or simply to have a supplementary income, is still debated.
---
> One of the first great modern astronomers, [[Kepler]], was also an astrologer. Whether he was both because or conviction or simply to have a supplementary income, is still debated.
25,27c12
< Modern [[astrology]] tries to dress itself with the garments of
< real [[science]], using computers and in same cases adding more
< recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an [[art]]), one that is followed by millions of people worldwide.
---
> Modern [[astrology]] tries to dress itself with the garments of real [[science]], using computers and in same cases adding more recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an [[art]]), one that is followed by millions of people worldwide.
------
Natural_language|985051795
1c1
< A [[language]] is considered <i>natural</i> if it evolved along with a culture of human native speakers who use the language for general-purpose communication.  Languages like [[English]] and [[Mandarin]] are natural languages, while [[Esperanto]] is an [[artificial language]], having been deliberately constructed and having no native speakers.  Also in contrast to natural languages are special-purpose languages like [[programming language]]s.
---
> A [[language]] is considered <i>natural</i> if it evolved along with a culture of human native speakers who use the language for general-purpose communication.  Languages like [[English language|English]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] are natural languages, while [[Esperanto]] is an [[artificial language]], having been deliberately constructed and having no native speakers.  Also in contrast to natural languages are special-purpose languages like [[programming language]]s.
------
Zodiac/signs|985051810
6c6
< The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend on the position of the sun realtive to the celestial position of the [[houses of the Zodia]] on his/her birthdate. But because of the [[precession of the Equinox]] over the last three thousand years or so, the "signs" are out of phase with the real position of the sun by about a month.  Some modern astrologers attempt to take this into account in drawing [[astrological chart]]s.
---
> The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend on the position of the sun realtive to the celestial position of the [[houses of the Zodiac]] on his/her birthdate. But because of the [[precession of the Equinox]] over the last three thousand years or so, the "signs" are out of phase with the real position of the sun by about a month.  Some modern astrologers attempt to take this into account in drawing [[astrological chart]]s.
------
Zodiac/signs|985052072
3,4c3
< The astronomers/astrologers (originally in history, there was no meanigful difference between
< these words), tried to use the movements of the night sky with a divinatory purpose. Some of these applications where founded on correspondence between practical knowledge and celestial observations (for example, the relationship between solar position and stellar positions in the evening depends on the season, which has practical implications for agriculture), some others completely unfounded.
---
> The astronomers/astrologers (originally in history, there was no meaningful difference between these words), tried to use the movements of the night sky with a divinatory purpose. Some of these applications where founded on correspondence between practical knowledge and celestial observations (for example, the relationship between solar position and stellar positions in the evening depends on the season, which has practical implications for agriculture), some others completely unfounded.
8c7
< The idea of astrological birth sign is that the person would have some characteristics of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with a group of stars; so, for example, a "Libra" (the scales) will be balanced and stable.  Also, as mentioned in the main article, the planets are found near the ecliptic, and by consequence, in the [[zodiac]]. The position of a [[planet]] relative to a particular constellation would have a consequence on the life of a person born under not only under that "sign", but also on one with a different birth sign.  For example:  A person may be born on, say, June 1st.  This is near the center of the sign of Gemini, and so Gemini would be his birth sign.  Any planets also observed to be within the 30 degrees of sky occupied at its center by Gemini, would be said to have a particularly strong affect on the destiny and personality of the person.  If, at the same time, other planets are seen to be within other signs of the zodiac, then their effects would be felt on the portions of a person's life "ruled" by that sign.  Significance is also imputed to the angular positions of planets and signs relative to each other at the moment of a birth or other significant event.
---
> The idea of astrological birth sign is that the person would have some characteristics of the arbitrary shape that the ancients identified with a group of stars; so, for example, a "Libra" (the scales) will be balanced and stable.  Also, as mentioned in the main article, the planets are found near the ecliptic, and by consequence, in the [[zodiac]]. The position of a [[planet]] relative to a particular constellation would have a consequence on the life of a person born under not only under that "sign", but also on one with a different birth sign.  For example:  A person may be born on, say, June 1st.  This is near the center of the sign of Gemini, and so Gemini would be his birth sign.  Any planets also observed to be within the 30 degrees of sky occupied at its center by Gemini, would be said to have a particularly strong effect on the destiny and personality of the person.  If, at the same time, other planets are seen to be within other signs of the zodiac, then their effects would be felt on the portions of a person's life "ruled" by that sign.  Significance is also imputed to the angular positions of planets and signs relative to each other at the moment of a birth or other significant event.
------
San_Francisco|985052217
9a10,11
> 
> And, is the home of Ghiardelli Chocolate- for all you {Chocaholic]]s.
------
CodE|985052396
1,2c1
< A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort. Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange [[ASCII]]. Employed in all personal computers and terminals, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In [[ASCII]] a lowercase a is always 1100001, an uppercase A always 1000001, and so on. In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify). Acronyms are also widely known and used codes, as, for example, RSVP and WASP. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word--e.g., SNAFU.----
< I thought that SNAFU came from "Situation Normal All F*cked Up." AnonymousCoward
---
> A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., a letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort.  Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is [[ASCII]].  Employed by nearly all personal [[computer]]s and [[computer terminal|terminal]]s, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s.  In [[ASCII]] a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on.  In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify).  [[Acronym]]s are also widely known and used codes, for example, RSVP and WASP.  Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word.  E.g., <i>snafu</i>, originally coined by the [[United States]] military as an acronym for "situation normal, all f****d up", is used today as an ordinary noun describing such a situation.
------
ASCII|985052506
1c1
< <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, introduced as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968.  It is a data transmission and storage [[code]] based on the [[Roman alphabet]] as used in modern [[English language|English]], used by [[computer]]s and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[IBM]]'s [[EBCDIC]]), it specifies a correspondence between [[integer]]s that can be represented digitally and the symbols of a written language, allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process and store information.
---
> <i>ASCII</i> is an [[acronym]] for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, introduced as [[ANSI]] Standard X3.4 in 1968.  It is a [[character encoding]] based on the [[Roman alphabet]] as used in modern [[English language|English]], used by [[computer]]s and other communication equipment to represent text, and to control devices using text.  Like other coding systems (e.g., [[IBM]]'s [[EBCDIC]]), it specifies a correspondence between [[integer]]s that can be represented digitally and the symbols of a written language, allowing digital devices to communicate with each other and to process and store information.
15c15
< See also [[Extended ASCII]]
---
> See also [[Extended ASCII]], [[Unicode]].
------
Vampire|985052665
1c1
< Mythical being that is said to sustain on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
---
> Mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
3,6c3,5
< A vampire (despite already being dead in one sense) may be "killed" (for good) using several methods:
< *Ramming a stake (use [[silver]] for best results) through a vampires heart
< *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist
< *[[Garlic]], holy water, [[silver]], running water, crosses and bibles keep vampires away
---
> A vampire (despite not being alive in the classical sense, and therefore referred to as [[undea]])) may be "killed" (for good) using several methods:
> *Ramming a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist
> *[[Garlic]], holy water, running water, crosses and bibles keep vampires away
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|985052690
17a18,19
> 
> See also WikiIsNotPaper.
------
Character_encoding|985052854
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>character encoding</i> is a [[code]] that pairs a set of set of [[natural language]] [[grapheme]]s (such as an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]]) with a set of something else, such as numbers or electrical pulses.  Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Roman alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a telegraph key; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols as [[integer]]s.
> 
> See also [[Text encoding]].
------
International_Wikipedia|985052891
21,22c21
< 
< 
---
> I thought de.wikipedia.com is just a standard way of pointing to www.wikipedia.com/de/ .  Do you have to get permission from German authorities to use de.wikipedia.com?  I know you'd have to for wikipedia.de, of course. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Vampire/Talk|985053160
22a23,28
> ----
> Classic vampires are killed by a ''wooden'' stake through the heart.  Silver as being efficacious against vampires (and in Blade, it was not silver but a concoction of mercury, garlic, blood with vampirism antibodies, etc which was supposed to do the trick) is very recent and poorly supported - hardly part of traditional vampire myth yet.
> 
> Bram Stoker introduced us to "undead," of course, contemporaneously with the modernized legend of Vlad Drakul - aka "Vlad the Impaler" who was a quite real old-time prince who terrorized local peasants by hanging the heads and bodies of those who displeased him from stakes outside the "castle" or manor house.
> 
> Silver bullets are supposed to kill werewolves.  Until a movie was made on the subject, I wonder if there was any substantial literary classic to which we can refer, or if oral tradition is all there is to fall back on.  Oral tradition does go back hundreds of years, at least.
------
Vampire|985053242
3c3
< A vampire (despite not being alive in the classical sense, and therefore referred to as [[undea]])) may be "killed" (for good) using several methods:
---
> A vampire (despite not being alive in the classical sense, and therefore referred to as [[undead]])) may be "killed" (for good) using several methods:
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|985053243
13c13
< * Our likelihood of success seems alarmingly high.  The probability of our getting 10,000 articles is nearly 100%, regardless of whatever else we do.  Depending on the level of resources that end up getting committed to Wikipedia, the probability of our getting 100,000 articles is definitely not out of the question (in the opinion of [[Larry Sanger]]), but very much over 50% seems hard to say.  But to be completely honest, it's also far from impossible that we could have 1,000,000 articles someday; there are, surely, 1,000,000 topics of discussion in existence, and if Wikipedia hits it big, which it might, then they might all be covered...eventually.  It also seems rather likely that there will always be a lot of mediocre stuff.  But it's possible--how likely we'd be able to tell after more months of experience--that articles would just gradually improve until they were polished to a Nupedia polish.  I think we've already seen instances of this (see above).
---
> * Our likelihood of success seems alarmingly high.  The probability of our getting 10,000 articles is nearly 100%, regardless of whatever else we do.  Depending on the level of resources that end up getting committed to Wikipedia, our getting 100,000 articles is definitely not out of the question (in the opinion of [[Larry Sanger]]), but very much over 50% seems hard to say.  But to be completely honest, it's also far from impossible that we could have 1,000,000 articles someday; there are, surely, 1,000,000 topics of discussion in existence, and if Wikipedia hits it big, which it might, then they might all be covered...eventually.  It also seems rather likely that there will always be a lot of mediocre stuff.  But it's possible--how likely we'd be able to tell after more months of experience--that articles would just gradually improve until they were polished to a Nupedia polish.  I think we've already seen instances of this (see above).
15c15
< * On Wikipedia, there are no required topics and no one making assignments.  That means that anyone can find part of the encyclopedia they're interested in, and add to it immediately (if they can do better than what's already there).
---
> * On Wikipedia, there are no required topics and no one making assignments.  That means that anyone can find part of the encyclopedia they're interested in, and add to it immediately (if they can do better than what's already there--but at this stage, there are necessarily very many gaps in our coverage of the universe!).
19c19
< See also WikiIsNotPaper.
---
> * See [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wiki is not paper]] for another page along the same lines as the above.
------
Text_encoding|985053404
1c1
< A <i>Text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of [[natural language]] text as a sequence of [[code]]s for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication.  While [[Character encoding]]s like ASCII represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text.
---
> A <i>text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of text as a sequence of [[code]]s (from a [[character encoding]]) for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication.  While character encodings like [[ASCII]] represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text, and perhaps information about the text.  Common examples are [[HTML]] and [[RTF]] which represent texts in [[natural language]]s, and [[XML]], which can represent many kinds of text not necessarily intended to be human-readable (the contents of a [[database]], for example).
------
Vampire/Talk|985053821
28c28
< Silver bullets are supposed to kill werewolves.  Until a movie was made on the subject, I wonder if there was any substantial literary classic to which we can refer, or if oral tradition is all there is to fall back on.  Oral tradition does go back hundreds of years, at least.
---
> Silver bullets are supposed to kill werewolves.  Until a movie was made on the subject, I wonder if there was any substantial literary classic involving lycanthropy (people turning into wolves) to which we can refer, or if oral tradition is all there is to fall back on.  Oral tradition does go back hundreds of years, at least.
------
San_Francisco|985053941
3c3
< A major event in San Francisco history was the [[gold rush]] of 1849, which caused an enormous economic expansion and population growth, including considerable [[immigration]].  The [[Chinatown]] district of the city is still one of the largest in the country.  Another historically important event was the [[earthquake]] and fire of 1906, which devasted the city.  It is immortalized in the movie <i>San Fransisco</i>.
---
> A major event in San Francisco history was the [[gold rush]] of 1849, which caused an enormous economic expansion and population growth, including considerable [[immigration]].  The [[Chinatown]] district of the city is still one of the largest in the country.  Many businesses started at that time to service the growing population are still present today, notably [[Levi Strauss]] clothing, [[Ghirardelli]] chocolate, and [[Wells Fargo]] bank.
5c5
< San Francisco bay is spanned by five bridges: the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] (which was the largest suspension bridge ever built at the time of its construction), the [[Richmod-San Rafael Bridge]], the [[San Fransisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[Hayward-San Mateo Bridge]] and the [[Dumbarton Bridge]].
---
> The [[earthquake]] and fire of 1906 devasted the city, as immortalized in the movie <i>San Fransisco</i>, but by that time it was such an important port and population center, that it was quickly rebuilt and continued to grow.
7c7
< San Francisco has [[micro climate]]s, meaning very small areas where the weather is constant. A typical weather forecast there is about an hour.
---
> San Francisco bay is spanned by five bridges: the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] (which was the largest suspension bridge ever built at the time of its construction), the [[Richmod-San Rafael Bridge]], the [[San Fransisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[Hayward-San Mateo Bridge]] and the [[Dumbarton Bridge]].
9c9
< San Francisco boasts a fully accessible [[Public Transportation System]], the [[BART]], that is, the Bay Area Rapid Transit. And, the [[San Francisco Trolley]] as well.
---
> While famous for [[fog]] that often envelops the city, San Francisco has many different [[micro climate]]s, meaning very small areas where the weather is constant.  A typical weather forecast there is about an hour.
11c11
< And, is the home of Ghiardelli Chocolate- for all you {Chocaholic]]s.
---
> San Francisco boasts a fully accessible [[Public Transportation System]], the [[BART]], that is, the Bay Area Rapid Transit.  And, the [[San Francisco Trolley]] as well.
------
Placebo_effect|985054124
1c1
< It is a remarkable property of the human body that a person's <i>belief</i> in the effectiveness of a [[Medicine|medical]] treatment can itself influence symptoms.  For example, patients complaining of back pain may be given "medicines" that are known to have no active ingredients--such as colored water or sugar--and told that they are effective drugs, and a significant number of them will genuinely improve and report that the treatment was successful.  Because of this effect, scientific testing of drugs must establish not only that patients respond to them, but that they respond more to them than they do a placebo.  Such a study is called a <i>placebo-controlled</i> study.  Recently, it has even been shown that "mock" surgery can have similar effects, and so some surgical techniques must be studied with placebo controls.
---
> It is a remarkable property of the human body that a person's <i>belief</i> in the effectiveness of a [[Medicine|medical]] treatment can itself influence symptoms.  For example, if patients complaining of back pain are given "medicines" known to have no active ingredients--such as colored water or sugar--and told that these are effective drugs, a significant number of them will genuinely improve and report that the treatment was successful.  Because of this effect, scientific testing of drugs must establish not only that patients respond to them, but that they respond more to them than they do to a placebo.  Such a test is called a <i>placebo-controlled</i> study.  Recently, it has even been shown that "mock" surgery can have similar effects, and so some surgical techniques must be studied with placebo controls.
------
Placebo_effect|985054219
1a2,4
> 
> The reverse effect, that patients who believe that they <i>should</i> be ill can exhibit genuine symptoms, is known as [[sociogenic illness]].
> 
------
Vampire|985054776
4c4
< *Ramming a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist
---
> *Ramming a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist, removing internal organs and burning them.
5a6,21
> 
> Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, avoid sunlight and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called porphyria.
> 
> People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn on a day with heavy cloud cover.
> 
> In its very rare, most severe form, the teeth and bones of sufferers actually become fluorescent,  shining pink or possibly red.
> 
> Some porphyria sufferers are also quite sickened by garlic.
> 
> The disease disrupts production of hemoglobin. For some reason, arlic makes it much worse. 
> 
> Lacking hemoglobin, victims might crave the hematin (critical precursor to hemoglobin) in human blood.  
> 
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel Dracula was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning ``son of a dragon,'') or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea,
> 
> Incidentally, Britain's King George III may have had porphyria, which poisoned his nervous system, attacked his brain and caused delirium and mental disturbances.
------
Vampire|985054919
9c9
< People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn on a day with heavy cloud cover.
---
> People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn through heavy cloud cover.
15c15
< The disease disrupts production of hemoglobin. For some reason, arlic makes it much worse. 
---
> The disease disrupts production of hemoglobin. For some reason, garlic makes it much worse. 
19c19
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel Dracula was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning ``son of a dragon,'') or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea,
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel Dracula was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Vampire|985055017
4c4
< *Ramming a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight - vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist, removing internal organs and burning them.
---
> *Ram a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight (vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist), or *remove internal organs and burn them.
------
Vampire|985055066
19c19
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel Dracula was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''Dracula'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Planet|985058408
14c14
< All of the planets in the [[solar system]] (except [[Earth]]) are named after Greek and Roman gods.
---
> All of the planets in the [[solar system]] (except [[Earth]]) are named after Roman gods.
------
HomePage|985060636
26,27d25
< * GNUStufF
< * WhichWikiShouldWeUse
------
Text_encoding|985064001
1c1,3
< A <i>text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of text as a sequence of [[code]]s (from a [[character encoding]]) for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication.  While character encodings like [[ASCII]] represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text, and perhaps information about the text.  Common examples are [[HTML]] and [[RTF]] which represent texts in [[natural language]]s, and [[XML]], which can represent many kinds of text not necessarily intended to be human-readable (the contents of a [[database]], for example).
---
> A <i>text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of text as a sequence of [[code]]s (from a [[character encoding]]) for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication of that text.  While character encodings like [[ASCII]] represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text, and perhaps information about the text or its appearance.  Common examples are [[HTML]] and [[RTF]] which represent texts in [[natural language]]s, and [[XML]], which can represent many kinds of text not necessarily intended to be human-readable (the contents of a [[database]], for example).
> 
> Though [[ASCII]] is not, strictly speaking, a text encoding method, by far the most common text encoding now in use is what might informally be called "Plain ASCII", which involves simply encoding a text as a stream of ASCII characters.   The specifics of how this is done vary greatly: for example, the end of a text line might be encoded as ASCII code 10 ("line feed" or "new line") as is common practice on Unix machines, or as ASCII code 13 ("carriage return") as is common on [[Apple computer|Apple]] machines, or as both (the sequence <13, 10> is used to end lines on MS-DOS based machines and many others, while the rather rare sequence <10, 13> was used by some [[Acorn]] machines.  Some texts also use this line-end sequence inside paragraphs (with a blank line between paragraphs) while some do not.  Also, various texts in this form interpret code 9 ("tab") and other control characters differently.  None of these methods specify how to identify text structure like headings and tables, or special text like italics.  Text in this format is bascially readable by any computer though some work might be needed to accommodate local variations, and all information besides the actual words of the text will be lost.
------
Vampire|985073298
4c4,5
< *Ram a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight (vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist), or *remove internal organs and burn them.
---
> *Ram a stake (use wood for best results) through a vampire's heart 
> *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight (vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist), or  *remove internal organs and burn them
15c16
< The disease disrupts production of hemoglobin. For some reason, garlic makes it much worse. 
---
> The disease disrupts production of [[hemoglobin]]. For some reason, garlic makes it much worse. 
19c20
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''Dracula'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late Middle Ages in what is now Romania.  Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing  peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house.  He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Vampire|985073342
5c5,6
< *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight (vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist), or  *remove internal organs and burn them
---
> *Subject a vampire to direct sunlight (vampires are "nightwalkers" although it is said that "daywalkers" do exist)
> *remove internal organs and burn them
------
Vampire|985073383
21c21
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad DraKul (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad Drakul (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Literature|985082909
2a3
> :[[Science fiction]]
18d18
< * [[Mark Twain]]
27a28
> * [[Mark Twain]]
------
Gypsy|985083270
2a3
> Thier principal occupations over the centuries have been as itinerant peddlars, metal workers and horse dealers.
5c6
< Gypsies were widely belived to have psychic powers (see the popular stereotype of the Gypsy fortune-teller), and some romantics attribute the invention of the [[Tarot]] cards to gypsies. This may reflect the belief that the gypsies, being of Egyptian origin, had knowledge of lost arts and sciences of the ancient  Egyptians. 
---
> Gypsies were widely believed to have psychic powers (see the popular stereotype of the Gypsy fortune-teller), and some romantics attribute the invention of the [[Tarot]] cards to gypsies. This may reflect the belief that the gypsies, being of Egyptian origin, had knowledge of lost arts and sciences of the ancient  Egyptians. 
9c10
< This distrust reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies - the were one of the major groups (along with homosexuals, prostitutes, etc.) that automatically got sentenced to inprisonment in a [[concentration camp]].
---
> This distrust reached a peak in [[World War II]] when the [[Nazi]]s murdered large numbers of gypsies - they were one of the major groups (along with homosexuals, prostitutes, etc.) that automatically got sentenced to imprisonment in a [[concentration camp]].
------
Dystopia|985084201
8,10c8
< Dystopias are frequently written as warnings, or as [[Satire|satires]]; 
< showing the results of current trends carried on to their conclusion. There is a considerable number of [[ScienceFiction|science fiction]] stories using a 
< dystopian setting, usually set in the near future.
---
> Dystopias are frequently written as warnings, or as [[Satire|satires]], showing current trends carried on to their conclusion. In this, they frequently differ from utopias; utopias have no roots in todays's society, being in some other place or time, or after some major discontinuity in history (e.g. see [[H.G. Wells]]' utopias, such as <i>The World Set Free</i>). A dystopia is all too closely connected to current-day society. Naturally, there is a considerable number of near-future [[science fiction]] stories using a dystopian setting.
13a12
> * [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
16c15
< * [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
---
> * [[The Shockwave Rider]] and [[The Sheep Look Up]] by [[John Brunner]]
------
Netherlands/Talk|985084955
77c77,82
< for you might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities, it doesn't change my opinion on the way UK government & politicians are inclined to meddle with justice (they do! believe me!) - Mathijs - p.s. don't edit away Montesquie
---
> for you might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities,
> ----
> it doesn't change my opinion on the way UK government & politicians are inclined to meddle with justice (they do! believe me!) - Mathijs - p.s. don't edit away Montesquie
> ----
> ''Aaah, now you've gone from "England is the closest to 1984 there is" to "English politicians are politicians are inclined to meddle with justice", i.e. from a massive unsupportable exaggeration  to a true statement.  That wasn't hard, was it?''
> Oh, and I'm [[Gareth Owen]], but my cookie doesn't work.
------
HomePage|985092640
23c23
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments. Hola mundo [a]
35,37c35
< If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
< ----
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on %
------
Gareth_Owen|985094966
20a21,27
> ----
> You rave!<B>
> Here's an opinion just for you:
> 
> Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
> 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty.
> Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</i> - Mathijs
------
Netherlands/Talk|985094974
4,6c4,5
< (independent judicial system, judges are not elected for office<BR>
< ----
< not populists who have to score public esteem- <BR>
---
> (independent judicial system, the officials (<B>not the judges</B>) are not elected for office<BR>
> - not populists who have to score public esteem- <BR>
11,12c10,11
< Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that.
< ----
---
> Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that. - [[Gareth Owen]]
> ---- 
57c56
< Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.  
---
> Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.   - [[Gareth Owen]]
70,74c69
< Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it.
< 
< ''That's OK, but . . .<BR>
< wat is your ID/name? &<BR>
< what entries?''
---
> Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it. - [[Gareth Owen]]
82a78,79
> ----
> ''"England is the closest to 1984 there is"'' was rethoric, can't you see that! <BR>I'm still very curious about the replacement of all your 'unsupported'-statements by true facts; your 'beargumenteerde' opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
------
HomePage|985096844
23c23
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments. Hola mundo [a]
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
35c35,37
< If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on %
---
> If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
> ----
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Netherlands/Talk|985098784
54a55,56
> 
> Because you just said: "England is the closest to '1984' as it gets".  Thats what I meant by unsupported.  Its ill informed, and its wrong.
60,63d61
< ''Have you considered a hobby outside encyclopedia work?''
< 
< got no time left; this is addictive
< 
72a71,72
> 
> ''But that was all you said.  That wasn't a minor point in your argument, it was the whole thing.''
79c79,87
< ''"England is the closest to 1984 there is"'' was rethoric, can't you see that! <BR>I'm still very curious about the replacement of all your 'unsupported'-statements by true facts; your 'beargumenteerde' opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
---
> ''"England is the closest to 1984 there is"'' was rhetoric, can't you see that!
> 
> Nice dodge.
> ----
> your 'beargumenteerde' opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
> 
> ''I don't understand a word of that, I'm afraid.''
> ----
> As to the Birmingham 6, yes Britain has miscarriages of justice.  Duh.  Would you like to name me somewhere that doesn't?
------
Gareth_Owen|985098814
21,27d20
< ----
< You rave!<B>
< Here's an opinion just for you:
< 
< Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
< 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty.
< Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</i> - Mathijs
------
Unemployment|985101549
16c16,17
< 
---
> ----
> In the [[United States]], the number is complicated because it does not count able bodied workers that are no longer looking for work.
------
Netherlands/Talk|985101670
24c24
< <I>Like you never heard of the Birmingham three (or is it five, or seven?)</I>
---
> <I>Like you never heard of the "Birmingham six"</I>
67c67
< Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it. - [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> ''Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it. - [[Gareth Owen]]''
81c81,85
< Nice dodge.
---
> Nice dodge. 
> ''You can say that, but then you must either be
> * a man with a very warped perception of your own sweet England (the idea! how can you!)<B>OR </B>
> * disreceptive to anything I state <B>OR</B>
> * in for some more word-throwing (yeah!)''
83c87
< your 'beargumenteerde' opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
---
> your opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
85a90,93
> 
> retry: 
> * plain denial of my arguments is not sufficient if you care to show me that I'm wrong (which I may be, but please be so nice to prove it)
> * apparently you care enough about the subject to counter my opinions with bare (unsupported) denial. I am very interested to see your views & knowledge about this.
87c95,97
< As to the Birmingham 6, yes Britain has miscarriages of justice.  Duh.  Would you like to name me somewhere that doesn't?
---
> As to the Birmingham 6, yes Britain has miscarriages of justice.  Duh.  Would you like to name me somewhere that doesn't?
> 
> ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''
------
Netherlands/Talk|985102802
93a94,95
> 
> ''No.  If you're going to make blanket sweeping statements about a country the burden of proof is with you, otherwise its just prejudice''
97c99,113
< ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''
---
> ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow''
> 
> <b>Somehow ... SOMEHOW?</b>  I ask you to provide details or evidence to support your accusations and you say <b>SOMEHOW?</b>  
> 
> Why not just say "Look, it just is ... Nyaah ..."
> 
> ''it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''
> 
> Structural miscarriages of justice:
> i)  The Guildford Four
> ii) The Birmingham Six
> iii) Err
> iv) Thats it...
> 
> Two twenty-five year old cases to do "structural injustice" make.  Your going to have to do better than that.
------
Netherlands/Talk|985104099
113c113,115
< Two twenty-five year old cases to do "structural injustice" make.  Your going to have to do better than that.
---
> Two twenty-five year old cases to do "structural injustice" make.  Your going to have to do better than that.
> ----
> OK, it's the two of us won't get much better of each other. <BR>You've corrected some misconception of mine. Thanks for that. <BR>To me my first statements will stand (except for the facts I haven't seen any argument from you, too bad). <B>FINAL</B>
------
Gareth_Owen|985104528
0a1,3
> If you don't like it, deny it!<BR>
> will that change anything?
> ----
------
Gareth_Owen|985105919
1,3d0
< If you don't like it, deny it!<BR>
< will that change anything?
< ----
------
Vampire|985106842
9c9
< Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, avoid sunlight and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called porphyria.
---
> Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called porphyria.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985110590
1c1
< I am a computer programmer, semi-pro poker player, and amateur philosopher.  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].
---
> I am a [[computer]] programmer, semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].
19c19
< I noticed that you requested a deletion of some pages that you redirected.  In general, we tend not to delete those redirect pages, because it helps to facilitate accidental linking to leave them in.  Just so you know... :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> I noticed that you requested a deletion of some pages that you redirected.  In general, we tend not to delete those redirect pages, because it helps to facilitate accidental linking to leave them in.  Just so you know... :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Mathijs|985110849
3a4,17
> ----
> 
> Mathjis,
> 
> It seems we are very nearly the same age, as I was born August 7, 1966.
> 
> Please stop ranting on the wikipedia -- this isn't a discussion forum, but an encyclopedia.  What we hope to achieve, and I don't think this is too hopelessly idealistic, is an atmosphere where people of <i>widely different</i> ideological opinions can come together to work for a <i>quality</i> presentation of the facts.
> 
> Rather than writing inflammatory comments about England, for example, you might write a detailed account of one of the particular injustices that you mentioned.
> 
> A good writer doesn't state conclusions, but states facts and permits the reader to draw the obvious conclusions.  It takes a nobody to say "England is unjust" -- but a master will tell us about England, and let us draw the natural conclusion -- and if
> the conclusion is that "England is unjust" then so be it.
> 
> -- [[Jimbo Wales]]
------
WojPob|985111784
3a4,5
> He has now started to work on his masters thesis: "Critera of dynamic development of Austrian companies in Eastern Europe".
> 
------
WojPob|985111815
4c4
< He has now started to work on his masters thesis: "Critera of dynamic development of Austrian companies in Eastern Europe".
---
> He has now started to work on his masters thesis: "Critera required for the dynamic development of Austrian companies in Eastern Europe".
------
WojPob|985112057
7c7
< [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn_heavy_industries]
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn_heavy_industries] -- inktomi is now spidering my site, it got there from wikipedia ;-)
------
Rock_and_roll|985113095
18a19
> *[[RushBand|Rush]]
------
International_trade|985113414
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> International trade is defined as trade between two or more partners (an exporter and importer) from different countries. New developments include: [[globalisation]] and the integration of countries into [[trade blocks]] (eg. [[European Union]], [[NAFTA]], [[EFTA]], [[CEFTA]]).
> 
> International trade is subject to various [[International Trade/Risks|risks]].
------
Trade_blocks|985113494
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the first trade blocks was the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'') intiated by [[Bismarck]] in the 19th century.
------
Trade_blocks|985113508
1c1
< One of the first trade blocks was the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'') intiated by [[Bismarck]] in the 19th century.
---
> One of the first trade blocks was the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'') initiated by [[Bismarck]] in the 19th century.
------
International_Trade/Risks|985113940
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The risks that exist in International trade can be divided into two major groups:
> 
> :1. '''Commercial risks'''
> *Risk of insolvency of the buyer
> *Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date
> *Risk of non-acceptance
> 
> :2. '''Political risks'''
> *Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
> *War risks
> *Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
> *Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
> *Trabsfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
------
RushBand|985114383
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rush is a rock band composed of Canadiens GeddyLee, AlexLifeson, and NeilPeart that has produced albums since 1975.  JohnRutsey played drums for Rush on the first album.
> 
> Discography
> 
> *Rush (March 1974)
> *Fly by Night (February 1975)
> *Caress of Steel (September 1975)
> *2112 (February 1976)
> *All The World's a Stage - Live (September 1976)
> *A Farewell To Kings (September 1977)
> *Archives (April 1978)
> *Hemispheres (October 1978)
> *Permanent Waves (January 1980)
> *Moving Pictures (January 1981)
> *Exit...Stage Left - Live (October 1981)
> *Signals (Septemebr 1982)
> *Grace Under Pressure (April 1984)
> *Power Windows (October 1985)
> *Hold Your Fire (September 1987)
> *A Show Of Hands - Live (December 1988)
> *Presto (November 1989)
> *Chronicles (September 1990)
> *Roll The Bones (September 1991)
> *Story of Kings -Interview (1992)
> *Counterparts (October 1993)
> *Interview - Vol 2 (1995)
> *Test For Echo (September 1996)
> *Retrospective I 1974-80 (1997)
> *Retrospective II 1981-87 (1997)
> *Different Stages (November 1998)
------
Invictus|985114905
3c3
< Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole]].  
---
> Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole|Invictus]].  
7a8,12
> 
> ----
> 
> Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[Brazos|BrazosCounty]] and [[Brazoria|BrazoriaCounty]] Counties in the [[LoneStarState|Texas]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Grant Cole]]
> 
------
Invictus|985114926
3c3
< Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole|Invictus]].  
---
> Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole]].  
------
Invictus|985114962
11c11
< Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[Brazos|BrazosCounty]] and [[Brazoria|BrazoriaCounty]] Counties in the [[LoneStarState|Texas]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Grant Cole]]
---
> Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[BrazosCounty|Brazos]] and [[BrazoriaCounty|Brazoria]] Counties in the [[Texas|LoneStarState]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Grant Cole]]
------
Metallica/Discography|985115360
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT MetallicA/Discography
------
Vampire/Talk|985115755
1,16c1
< IMNSHP, "undead" is not a word outside role-playing games.  An article about vampires should not discuss vampires in the context of role-playing games, though it can mention role-playing games in the article.  Vampires as a cultural phenomenon existed for a long time before role-playing games did and long before modern-day teenage "goths" started acting like they existed or something.  This article will be greatly improved when someone edits this article while respecting that fact.
< ----
< 
< I tend to agree that this article need not be about role-playing games or teenage goths.  But are you sure about the term "undead"?  Of course, I don't think of 'undead' as having as much to do with vampires, as zombies.
< ----
< Because it's solely in RPG-terminology that a grouping-term as 'undead' is used, does not mean it's invalid. You must certainly be a vampire, yourself, to reject that!<BR>
< They want it fresh 'n juicy.<BR>
< <FONT SIZE=+2>=:P</FONT>
< ----
< Well, it's a valid concept, sure.  It's just not an English word (outside gaming)!  :-)
< 
< Merriam-Webster gives the date for the first known use of "undead" as 1897.  From the novel ''Dracula'', by [[Bram Stoker]].  So ''somebody'' thought it applied outside the world of gaming.
< <BR><I>Can you see it know? Vampires rule it all!</I>
< 
< <i>I think that's pretty authoritative, then.  It <b>is</b> an English word, and it <b>does</b> apply to vampires. Wouldn't Bram Stoker's novel be pretty much the starting point of modern vampire fiction? -- [[Jimbo Wales]]</i>
< 
---
> I think we've made good progress on this page, but now it needs to be refactored (I am referring to [[Vampire]], not this /Talk page).
------
Naming_conventions|985116079
27c27
< # ''<b>More precise titles.</b>''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.
---
> # ''<b>More precise titles.</b>''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.  For discussion of how to do this, see /Disambiguating .
------
PowersthatBe|985116192
7a8,11
> 
> Curiosity more than anything. I happen to know there are at least 2 others who read what you and others have wrote. Me being one. 
> 
> ----
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985116360
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The creation of a new topic, RushBand (about Canadian rock band Rush), prompts some new questions about how to disambiguate ambiguous names.  To my knowledge, "Rush" is the name of a person (several people), a drug, and a band.  Consider these points:
> * RushBand looks ugly and unprofessional.  It simply will not do.
> * We don't want to have all these things discussed on the ''same page.''
> * We don't want to make ''subpages'' for each of these things.  (E.g., it will be [[Rush Limbaugh]], not [[Rush/Limbaugh]], which would be silly.)
> * The way that encyclopedias usually handle this problem makes sense here: add parentheses to names: [[Rush (rock band)]].  The same thing could be achieved by writing [[Rush--band]], but this will be confusing to many people.
> I think that this is one instance where disambiguating titles almost ''requires'' that we have a new feature.  What do you think? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Feature_requests|985116545
9c9
< # Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> # Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]] and [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Naming conventions/Disambiguating]])
13c13
< More explicitly, we need more comprhensive [[Wiki Canonization]]
---
> More explicitly, we need more comprehensive [[Wiki Canonization]]
------
MentalFunctions|985116983
1,3c1
< ''Mental functions'' and ''cognitive processes'' can be used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  The event of perceiving City Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception--one's ability to perceive things.  In other words, in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible.
< 
< Whenever one engage in one a cognitive processes, a MentalEvent occurs.
---
> ''Mental functions'' and ''cognitive processes'' can be used interchangeably to mean such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion--in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.  A specific instance of engaging in a cognitive process is a MentalEvent.  The event of perceiving City Hall is, of course, different from the entire process, or faculty, of perception--one's ability to perceive things.  In other words, in instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes it possible.
------
Feature_requests|985117118
9a10
> # How's about a automatically gernerated Wikipedia Contributers page that lists contributers and the number of pages they creatd or changed? --SoniC
29c30
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
RushBand|985117917
30c30,32
< *Different Stages (November 1998)
---
> *Different Stages (November 1998)
> ----
> Which of these albums are repackages of earlier songs and/or interview albums?
------
InsertPagesIntoOtherPages|985118048
0a1,3
> Allowing a single page to include another page is a great feature.  It would not be a good idea to allow more than one
> level of inclusion (too much cpu).
> ----
------
Hobbies|985119676
14c14,15
< * [[MuSic]]
---
> * [[Genealogy]]
> * [[Music]]
------
Science_Fiction_Film|985120249
3d2
< In approximate chronological order: (can anyone supply the missing year?)
4a4
> * [[Metropolis]] (1926)
10,11c10
< * [[Forbidden Planet]]
< * [[Day of the Triffids]] 
---
> * [[Forbidden Planet]] (1956)
13,14c12,14
< * [[2001 A Space Odyssey]]
< * [[Dark Star]]
---
> * [[Day of the Triffids]] (1963)
> * [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] (1968)
> * [[Dark Star]] (1974)
16c16
< * [[Star Trek]]
---
> * [[Star Trek]] (1979- }
18,21c18,21
< * [[Outland]] 
< * [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]]
< * [[Blade Runner]]
< * [[Dune]] 
---
> * [[Outland]]  (1981)
> * [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] (1982)
> * [[Blade Runner]] (1982)
> * [[Film/Dune|Dune]] (1984)
------
Science_Fiction_Film|985120392
1c1
< A lot of [[Science Fiction]] films were low-budget productions (eg. [[Day of the Triffids]]), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
---
> A lot of [[science fiction]] films were low-budget productions (eg. [[Day of the Triffids]]), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
------
Science_fiction|985120645
5c5
< Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ''DraculA'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ``[[Dracula]]'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
8c8
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fictioN elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
---
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
18c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, HarlanEllison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
Science_fiction|985120717
18c18
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, RayBradbury, Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and IsaacAsimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, [[Ray Bradbury]], Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
Feature_requests|985120796
2,10c2,22
< # Automate making old-style links into [[Free Links]]
< # Automatically-generated NewTopics page
< # Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
< # InsertPagesIntoOtherPages
< # The wiki software could be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>.  In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>).  But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words.  (For discussion, see [[naming conventions]].) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< # I'd like my cookies and preferences to start working again.  Can anyone explain why they don't?  Did anything get changed over the weekend 10th/11th March? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
< # In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a "log in" to confirm my id?  Everytime I hit "preferences" otherwise, I get a new user ID
< # Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]] and [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Naming conventions/Disambiguating]])
< # How's about a automatically gernerated Wikipedia Contributers page that lists contributers and the number of pages they creatd or changed? --SoniC
---
> 
> <b>Misc:</b>
> * Automate making old-style links into [[Free Links]]
> ** This will probably happen soon after the 0.92 release.  The wiki code to rename pages is already present, although it is available to wiki administrator(s) only.
> * InsertPagesIntoOtherPages
> ** Not likely to happen soon.  Opens too many new issues for minimal gain.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> <b>Reports:</b>
> * Automatically-generated NewTopics page
> ** Still considering this, but not for version 0.92.  --CliffordAdams
> * Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
> ** A good idea.  The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function.
> * How's about a automatically generated Wikipedia Contributers page that lists contributers and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC
> ** Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login.  Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
> <b>Naming Conventions:</b>
> * The wiki software could be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>.  In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>).  But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words.  (For discussion, see [[naming conventions]].) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ** This is almost certain to be in version 0.92.  The canonical form of a page will have all words capitalized, and links can have arbitrary words capitalized.  This will be a little strange sometimes, but it seems to be the best solution for now.
> * Now that we have [[Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]?  The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]] and [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Naming conventions/Disambiguating]])
> ** This may go into version 0.92.  I was surprised to see that parentheses <i>are</i> allowed in URIs/URLs according to RFC 2396, so it shouldn't be hard to add them.  --CliffordAdams
> 
11a24,32
> <b>Cookies and Logins:</b>
> * I'd like my cookies and preferences to start working again.  Can anyone explain why they don't?  Did anything get changed over the weekend 10th/11th March? -- [[Gareth Owen]]
> * In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a "log in" to confirm my id?  Everytime I hit "preferences" otherwise, I get a new user ID.
> 
> No relevant changes occurred over that weekend as far as I (CliffordAdams) know.  Since the user-ids use cookies, the login feature wouldn't help your problem.  (There is a mostly-undocumented/unsupported login function.  It will be announced more widely when it is documented and better supported.)
> ----
> ----
> <b>Other Comments:</b>
> 
30c51
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
Telescope|985121869
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> TeleScope
------
TeleScope|985121906
1,3c1
< Instrument composed of at least two LenS es or two MirroR s that increases the observed angular size of objects, as well as their BrightNess.
< Used mainly on AstroNomy since GalileoGalilei.
< The current generation of telescopes beeing constructed have a PrimaryMirror of between 6 and 8 meters of diameter (for GroundBasedTelescopes).
---
> #REDIRECT [[telescope]]
------
Telescope|985122033
1,2c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
< TeleScope
---
> 
> Instrument composed of at least two [[lens]]es or two [[mirror]]s that increases the observed angular size of objects, as well as their [[brightness]].
> Used mainly on [[astronomy]] since [[Galileo]].
> The current generation of telescopes beeing constructed have a [[primary mirror]] of between 6 and 8 meters of diameter (for [[ground based telescope]]s).
------
RushBand|985122304
22c22
< *Chronicles (September 1990)
---
> *Chronicles (September 1990) - Repacking of "Greatest Hits"
24c24
< *Story of Kings -Interview (1992)
---
> *Story of Kings -Interview (1992) - Interview
26c26
< *Interview - Vol 2 (1995)
---
> *Interview - Vol 2 (1995) - Interview with GeddyLee
28,29c28,29
< *Retrospective I 1974-80 (1997)
< *Retrospective II 1981-87 (1997)
---
> *Retrospective I 1974-80 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the First Decade.
> *Retrospective II 1981-87 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the Second Decade.
32c32
< Which of these albums are repackages of earlier songs and/or interview albums?
---
> Which of these albums are repackages of earlier songs and/or interview albums?  Satisfactory answer?
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985122502
6c6,10
< I think that this is one instance where disambiguating titles almost ''requires'' that we have a new feature.  What do you think? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I think that this is one instance where disambiguating titles almost ''requires'' that we have a new feature.  What do you think? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Somehow, I knew that name (RushBand) would invoke remark.  I just copied it from the the entry above it (NirvanaBand).  However, I concur with your suggestion and will immediately make the changes. -- [[Invictus]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985122567
19c19
< *[[RushBand|Rush]]
---
> *[[Rush (rock band)]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985122578
19c19
< *[[Rush (rock band)]]
---
> *[Rush (rock band)]
------
Rock_and_roll|985122645
19c19
< *[Rush (rock band)]
---
> *[[Rush (rock band)]]
------
Galileo|985122661
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Galileo Galilei.
> 
> Italian scientist. Apparently the first person to construct and use a [[telescope]] to observe the night (and day)
> sky. His fervient defense of [[Copernicus]] model, which at that
> time was still unperfect, made him run into trouble with the [[Catolic Church]].
> 
> He discovered the four lagest [[satellite]]s of [[Jupiter]],
> and he was the first westerner to observe [[sunspot]]s (there is
> indication that chinese astronomers had already observed them).
> 
> His experimental work in [[dynamics]] paved the way for [[Isaac Newton]]'s laws of motion. 
> 	
------
Rock_and_roll|985122713
19c19
< *[[Rush (rock band)]]
---
> *[[RushBand|Rush]]
------
TeleScope|985122730
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[telescope]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Telescope]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985122752
18,19c18,19
< *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
< *[[RushBand|Rush]]
---
> *[[Nirvana (rock band)|Nirvana]]
> *[[Rush (rock band)|Rush]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985122773
18,19c18,19
< *[[Nirvana (rock band)|Nirvana]]
< *[[Rush (rock band)|Rush]]
---
> *[[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
> *[[RushBand|Rush]]
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985122877
10c10
< Somehow, I knew that name (RushBand) would invoke remark.  I just copied it from the the entry above it (NirvanaBand).  However, I concur with your suggestion and will immediately make the changes. -- [[Invictus]]
---
> Somehow, I knew that name (RushBand) would invoke remark.  I just copied it from the the entry above it (NirvanaBand).  However, I concur with your suggestion and will make the changes when I take the time to learn how (soon, I promise). -- [[Invictus]]
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985122949
10c10
< Somehow, I knew that name (RushBand) would invoke remark.  I just copied it from the the entry above it (NirvanaBand).  However, I concur with your suggestion and will make the changes when I take the time to learn how (soon, I promise). -- [[Invictus]]
---
> Somehow, I knew that name (RushBand) would invoke remark.  I just copied it from the the entry above it (NirvanaBand).  However, I concur with your suggestion and will make the changes when I take the time to learn how (soon, I promise).  By the way, any reason why something with parenthesis' around it cannot be wiki'd? -- [[Invictus]]
------
Galileo_Galilei|985122994
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Galileo]]
------
RushBand|985124061
1c1
< Rush is a rock band composed of Canadiens GeddyLee, AlexLifeson, and NeilPeart that has produced albums since 1975.  JohnRutsey played drums for Rush on the first album.
---
> Rush is a rock band composed of Canadiens [[Geddy Lee]], [[Alex Lifeson]], and [[Neil Peart]] that has produced albums since 1975.  [[John Rutsey]] played drums for Rush on the first album.
5,30c5,30
< *Rush (March 1974)
< *Fly by Night (February 1975)
< *Caress of Steel (September 1975)
< *2112 (February 1976)
< *All The World's a Stage - Live (September 1976)
< *A Farewell To Kings (September 1977)
< *Archives (April 1978)
< *Hemispheres (October 1978)
< *Permanent Waves (January 1980)
< *Moving Pictures (January 1981)
< *Exit...Stage Left - Live (October 1981)
< *Signals (Septemebr 1982)
< *Grace Under Pressure (April 1984)
< *Power Windows (October 1985)
< *Hold Your Fire (September 1987)
< *A Show Of Hands - Live (December 1988)
< *Presto (November 1989)
< *Chronicles (September 1990) - Repacking of "Greatest Hits"
< *Roll The Bones (September 1991)
< *Story of Kings -Interview (1992) - Interview
< *Counterparts (October 1993)
< *Interview - Vol 2 (1995) - Interview with GeddyLee
< *Test For Echo (September 1996)
< *Retrospective I 1974-80 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the First Decade.
< *Retrospective II 1981-87 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the Second Decade.
< *Different Stages (November 1998)
---
> *[[Rush]] (March 1974)
> *[[Fly by Night]] (February 1975)
> *[[Caress of Steel]] (September 1975)
> *[[2112]] (February 1976)
> *[[All The Worlds a State|All The World's a Stage]] - Live (September 1976)
> *[[A Farewell To Kings]] (September 1977)
> *[[Archives]] (April 1978)
> *[[Hemispheres]] (October 1978)
> *[[Permanent Waves]] (January 1980)
> *[[Moving Pictures]] (January 1981)
> *[[Exit...Stage Left]] - Live (October 1981)
> *[[Signals]] (Septemebr 1982)
> *[[Grace Under Pressure]] (April 1984)
> *[[Power Windows]] (October 1985)
> *[[Hold Your Fire]] (September 1987)
> *[[A Show Of Hands]] - Live (December 1988)
> *[[Presto]] (November 1989)
> *[[Chronicles]] (September 1990) - Repacking of "Greatest Hits"
> *[[Roll The Bones]] (September 1991)
> *[[Story of Kings -Interview]] (1992) - Interview
> *[[Counterparts]] (October 1993)
> *[[Interview - Vol 2]] (1995) - Interview with GeddyLee
> *[[Test For Echo]] (September 1996)
> *[[Retrospective I]] 1974-80 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the First Decade.
> *[[Retrospective II]] 1981-87 (1997) - Repackaging of best songs from the Second Decade.
> *[[Different Stages]] (November 1998)
32c32
< Which of these albums are repackages of earlier songs and/or interview albums?  Satisfactory answer?
---
> Which of these albums are repackages of earlier songs and/or interview albums?  Satisfactory answer?
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985124188
7a8,9
> '''I don't know what the new feature might be. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
> 
10a13,18
> 
> ----
> 
> I advocate the use of disambiguating jump pages.  For example, the page [[Rush]] will simply list the alternatives that someone might be looking for.  In this way, accidental linking is preserved for the most part.  But authors who are aware of where they really want to send people can just send them directly to RushBand, say.
> 
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
International_Wikipedia|985124974
3c3
< I have set up [catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia] and [deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsche Wikipedia] (German) and [nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo no Wikpedia] (Japanese), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
---
> I have set up [http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia] and [http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsche Wikipedia] (German) and [http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo no Wikpedia] (Japanese), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
------
International_Wikipedia|985125159
41c41
< There are already lots of standards in place here, folks: ISO 639-1 contains two-letter codes for languages (these are not the same as country codes for the obvious reason that languages aren't countries and vice versa), and ISO 639-2/B is a more comprehensive list of 3-letter codes.  All use no special characters, and are commonly used in bibliographic databases.  The standard 2- and 3-letter codes we might use are:
---
> There are already lots of standards in place here, folks: [http://lcweb.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/bibcodes.html] ISO 639-1 contains two-letter codes for languages (these are not the same as country codes for the obvious reason that languages aren't countries and vice versa), and ISO 639-2/B is a more comprehensive list of 3-letter codes.  All use no special characters, and are commonly used in bibliographic databases.  The standard 2- and 3-letter codes we might use are:
------
International_Wikipedia|985125610
5,6d4
< I think that we should have French and Spanish next, but I don't know how to write 'French' and 'Spanish' correctly.  If someone will tell me, I will set them up.
< 
11d8
< 
13,15d9
< How's about using ccTLDs instead (like de, fr, it, jp, tw and so on). This might save some trouble.
< 
< ''Not a bad idea, but some of those are difficult for Americans to get. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
17c11
< But the alternative language wikis aren't for Americans.  All Germans, Austrians, etc. will instantly recognize de.wikipedia.com. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Based on some very excellent recommendations and a little research on my part, I am thinking now of using these [[http://www.egt.ie/standards.iso639/iso639-1-en.html ISO 639-1]] codes for the 'canonical' names of the International Wikis.  'www' will be for the English language wiki, because it was first and largest, and because I speak English.  :-)
19c13,15
< ''I meant -- hard for me (an American) to procure and use.  So yes, de.wikipedia.com sounds good to me.  I'm just explaining why I don't rush out and get wikipedia.de. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
---
> I will additionally attempt to support as many variations such as
> german.wikipedia.com, deutsche.wikipedia.com, etc.
> espanol.wikipedia.com, castellano.wikipedia.com, etc.
21c17,18
< I thought de.wikipedia.com is just a standard way of pointing to www.wikipedia.com/de/ .  Do you have to get permission from German authorities to use de.wikipedia.com?  I know you'd have to for wikipedia.de, of course. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> ...if you take a wild guess at one of those, then you will end up
> at the right place after all.
24,58c21
< Spanish has two problems. If you go with Español, you have
< the problem of the letter "ñ" that you can not use in links.
< But not all Spanish speakers will call their language Español,
< but Castellano (Castilian). I do not know what is the current
< consensus. I'll do some research. (Every Spanish speaker will recognize Castellano and it has standards. It seems that every Spanish speaking American community has its own local variations. -- DickBeldin)
< 
< ''Notice that there I do not need a single answer.  I can point multiple domain names at the same Spanish language site.  So I can use:
< 
< :espanol.wikipedia.com
< :spanish.wikipedia.com
< :castellano.wikipedia.com
< :supaingo.wikipedia.com (Japanese!)
< 
< That sounds good, though I doubt of the usefulness of supaingo :)
< 
< ----
< 
< There are already lots of standards in place here, folks: [http://lcweb.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/bibcodes.html] ISO 639-1 contains two-letter codes for languages (these are not the same as country codes for the obvious reason that languages aren't countries and vice versa), and ISO 639-2/B is a more comprehensive list of 3-letter codes.  All use no special characters, and are commonly used in bibliographic databases.  The standard 2- and 3-letter codes we might use are:
< 
< :English: en, eng
< :French: fr, fre
< :German: de, ger
< :Spanish (Castellano): es, spa  
< :Catalan: ca, cat
< :Japanese: ja (not the country code jp), jpn
< 
< This particular list of codes deliberately makes no distinction between what it considers dialects of the same language, no matter how much native speakers might protest for political reasons.  I.e., Americans have to settle for "en", Austrians who vocally claim to speak Austrian must settle for "de", and Mexicans, Cubans, Colombians, and Spaniards all have to share "es" (though other languages spoken in Spain, e.g. Catalan, are different enough to merit their own code).  The 3-letter codes are far more comprehensive than the 2-letter ones.  This is a rational approach: someone from Madrid may have trouble speaking face-to-face with, say, a Venezuelan, but they both read books written in "es" in college.
< ----
< It was said that the answer doesn't have to be unique.
< A name with code and one (or more) with names. For spanish
< could be
< es.wikipedia.com
< castellano.wikipedia.com
< espanol.wikipedia.com
< ----
---
> I've deleted the discussion, all of which was excellent, to make room for more discussion, if necessary.	
60c23
< HTML 4 already deals (correctly IMHO) with character set issues, and we should follow that spec, but how the Wiki software deals with special characters in titles is an open issue.
---
> At the present time, I plan to create new wikis for each langauge only "upon request" -- but it only takes me 10 minutes to do it, so don't hesitate to request.
------
International_Wikipedia|985125704
11c11
< Based on some very excellent recommendations and a little research on my part, I am thinking now of using these [[http://www.egt.ie/standards.iso639/iso639-1-en.html ISO 639-1]] codes for the 'canonical' names of the International Wikis.  'www' will be for the English language wiki, because it was first and largest, and because I speak English.  :-)
---
> Based on some very excellent recommendations and a little research on my part, I am thinking now of using these [http://www.egt.ie/standards/iso639/iso639-1-en.html ISO 639-1] codes for the 'canonical' names of the International Wikis.  'www' will be for the English language wiki, because it was first and largest, and because I speak English.  :-)
23c23
< At the present time, I plan to create new wikis for each langauge only "upon request" -- but it only takes me 10 minutes to do it, so don't hesitate to request.
---
> At the present time, I plan to create new wikis for each langauge only "upon request" -- but it only takes me 10 minutes to do it, so don't hesitate to request.
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985126497
5c5,6
< :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
---
> :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
> :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[popular music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985126666
6c6
< :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[popular music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]]
---
> :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[popular music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985126748
6c6
< :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[popular music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
---
> :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
------
Folk_music|985126842
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> Prominent performers:
> [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (folk rock)
------
Folk_music|985126855
2d1
< 
4c3,4
< [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (folk rock)
---
> 
> :[[The Mamas and the Papas]] (folk rock)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985127072
5a6
> :[[Ann Sothern]] -- [[actress]] (March 15, 2001)
------
Actresses|985127094
42a43
> :[[Ann Sothern]]
------
Zodiac/signs|985128137
3c3
< The astronomers/astrologers (originally in history, there was no meaningful difference between these words), tried to use the movements of the night sky with a divinatory purpose. Some of these applications where founded on correspondence between practical knowledge and celestial observations (for example, the relationship between solar position and stellar positions in the evening depends on the season, which has practical implications for agriculture), some others completely unfounded.
---
> The astronomers/astrologers (originally the observations and magic/religious applications were made by the same people), tried to use the movements of the night sky with divinatory purposes. Some of these applications where founded on correspondence between practical knowledge and celestial observations (for example, the relationship between solar position and stellar positions depends on the season, which has practical implications for agriculture), some others completely unfounded.
5c5
< The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend on the position of the sun realtive to the celestial position of the [[houses of the Zodiac]] on his/her birthdate. But because of the [[precession of the Equinox]] over the last three thousand years or so, the "signs" are out of phase with the real position of the sun by about a month.  Some modern astrologers attempt to take this into account in drawing [[astrological chart]]s.
---
> The "sign" under which a person is born, used to depend on the apparent position of the sun relative to the position of the [[houses of the Zodiac]], the constellations on the ecliptic, on his/her birthdate. But because of the [[precession of the Equinox]] over the last three thousand years or so, the "signs" are out of phase with the real position of the sun by about a month.  Some modern astrologers attempt to take this into account in drawing [[astrological chart]]s.
------
DemocracY|985128490
1,9c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe RepubliCs, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of PoliticalTheory this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''DirectDemocracy'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
< 
< The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the [[United States]] was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."  A cynic would point out that DemagoguerY and PopulisM are two sides of the same coin.  Demagogues appeal to people's baser instincts; populists allegedly appeal to their enlightened interests.
< 
< At least some arguments against democracy amount more to a complaint that the outcome of democracy is different from what the critic desired.  Support for democracy may, then, sometimes not be support for the principle or theory of democracy, but rather a hopeful confidence that democracy will yield the kind of society that the supporter hopes for on independent grounds.
< 
< See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; PopulisM; ThePeople.
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Democracy]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985128534
16c16
< *[[Metallica]]
---
> *[[MetallicA]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985128554
16c16
< *[[MetallicA]]
---
> *[[Metallica]]
------
US_Election_2000|985128572
13a14,21
> 
> ----
> 
> Please feel free to use material from CreationMatters:
> 
> http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?UsElection2000
> 
> --JohnAbbe
------
Democracy|985128577
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe [[republic]]s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of [[Political theory]] this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''[[Direct democracy]]'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
> 
> The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the [[United States]] was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."  A cynic would point out that DemagoguerY and PopulisM are two sides of the same coin.  Demagogues appeal to people's baser instincts; populists allegedly appeal to their enlightened interests.
> 
> At least some arguments against democracy amount more to a complaint that the outcome of democracy is different from what the critic desired.  Support for democracy may, then, sometimes not be support for the principle or theory of democracy, but rather a hopeful confidence that democracy will yield the kind of society that the supporter hopes for on independent grounds.
> 
> See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; PopulisM; ThePeople.
> 
> /Talk
------
Democracy|985128788
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe [[republic]]s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of [[Political theory]] this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''[[Direct democracy]]'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see NoTrueScotsmanFallacy).
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe [[republic]]s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of [[Political theory]] this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''[[Direct democracy]]'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see [[No true scotsman fallacy]]).
3c3
< The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to DemagoguerY.  It is (famously) for this reason that the [[United States]] was established, strictly speaking, as a RepubliC rather than a DemocracY.  Thus BenjaminFranklin's famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government TheFoundingFathers had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."  A cynic would point out that DemagoguerY and PopulisM are two sides of the same coin.  Demagogues appeal to people's baser instincts; populists allegedly appeal to their enlightened interests.
---
> The traditional, and to many still compelling, objection to democracy as a form of government is that it is open to [[demagoguery]].  It is (famously) for this reason that the [[United States]] was established, strictly speaking, as a [[republic]] rather than a [[democracy]].  Thus [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s famous answer, to the question as to what sort of government [[The Founding Fathers]] had established, was: "A Republic, if you can keep it."  A cynic would point out that [[demagoguery]] and [[populism]] are two sides of the same coin.  Demagogues appeal to people's baser instincts; populists allegedly appeal to their enlightened interests.
7c7
< See DirectDemocracy; TechnoDemocracy; RepubliC; DemocraticRepublic; RepublicanisM; DemagoguerY; PopulisM; ThePeople.
---
> See [[Direct democracy]]; [[Techno democracy]]; [[Republic]]; [[Democratic republic]]; [[Republicanism]]; [[Demagoguery]]; [[Populism]]; ThePeople.
------
JohnAbbe|985128821
1c1
< Test:
---
> I've been wiki-ing for a little while, even have one running on my web site. I look forward to seeing (and contributing to) WikiPedia growing.
3c3,7
< [[us]]
---
> Other Wiki homepages:
> 
> Wiki:JohnAbbe (is InterWiki on?)
> 
> http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?JohnAbbe
------
Tamil|985129001
1c1
< Language spoken mainly in south indian state of [[Tamilnadu]].  It is one of the classical languages of the world, with rich [[Tamil Literature|literature]] spanning over 2000 years.  
---
> Language spoken mainly in south Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].  It is one of the classical languages of the world, with rich [[Tamil Literature|literature]] spanning over 2000 years, making it arguably the oldest living language.
------
JohnAbbe|985129149
7c7,12
< http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?JohnAbbe
---
> http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?JohnAbbe
> 
> ----
> You could use preferences to set your user name...then we'll
> know what you are doing, and not only someone from 209.xxx.xxx
> wrote something.... 
------
Pseudo_science|985129472
1,7c1
< A theory is pseudo science when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
< 
< Some pseudo-scientific facts even make their way into school textbooks. Several people are actively fighting pseudoscience; a web search (for example http://www.google.com/search?q=pseudoscience) can reveal several such pages.
< 
< Pseudo Science is also known as [[junk science]].
< 
< Popular examples of pseudo science are [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[cartomancy]], and many other fortune-telling methods; [[dowsing]], [[channeling]], and other [[psychic]] claims; and many unscientific medical practices such as [[accupuncture]], [[chelation]], and [[iridology]].  Many of these things have been studied scientifically as well, but without success.  Pseudo scientific medical practices often become quite popular, because they often work well because of the [[placebo effect]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pseudoscience]]
------
Pseudoscience|985129519
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A theory is pseudoscience when it claims to be scientific but is not, for example because it does not follow the [[Scientific Method]].
> 
> Some pseudoscientific facts even make their way into school textbooks. Several people are actively fighting pseudoscience; a web search (for example http://www.google.com/search?q=pseudoscience) can reveal several such pages.
> 
> Pseudo Science is also known as [[junk science]].
> 
> Popular examples of pseudoscience are [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[cartomancy]], and many other fortune-telling methods; [[dowsing]], [[channeling]], and other [[psychic]] claims; and many unscientific medical practices such as [[accupuncture]], [[chelation]], and [[iridology]].  Many of these things have been studied scientifically as well, but without success.  Pseudoscientific medical practices often become quite popular, because they often work well because of the [[placebo effect]].
> 
------
PseudoScience|985129549
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Pseudo science]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pseudoscience]]
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985129640
18a19,21
> 
> ----
> Yes, I think we all agree that disambiguating pointer pages are good (especially when they are unexpected!), but that's not the question.  The question is whether we want to (A) continue using the same short phrase as both a title and an "address" (as well as usually the text of the link), or whether we might want to have some method of providing articles with better titles, either by (B) adding a separate title in something like HTML TITLE tags and somehow displaying that more prominently than the address, or (C) allowing addresses to be more flexible about what they allow and/or match, so that full titles can be used as addresses.
------
Argument_form|985130622
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The basic notion of ''argument form'' can be introduced with an example.  Here is an example of an argument:
> 
> <b>A</b> All humans are mortal.  Socrates is human.  <i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
> 
> We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line:
> 
> <b>B</b>
> :All humans are mortal.
> :Socrates is human.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
> 
> To demonstrate the important notion of the <i>form</i> of an argument, substitute letters for similar items throughout <b>B</b>:
> 
> <b>C</b>
> :All S is P.
> :<i>a</i> is S.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, <i>a</i> is P.
> 
> All we have done in <b>C</b> is to put 'S' for 'human' and 'humans', 'P' for 'mortal', and '<i>a</i>' for 'Socrates'; what results, <b>C</b>, is the <i>form</i> of the original argument in <b>A</b>.  So argument form <b>C</b> is the form of argument <b>A</b>.  Moreover, each individual sentence of <b>C</b> is the <i>sentence</i> <i>form</i> of its respective sentence in <b>A</b>.
> 
> We can give a general definition of 'argument form' (though this is not exactly a rigorous definition):
> 
> :The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>[[variable]]s</i>.
> 
> Just as variables can stand for various numbers in [[mathematics]], variables can stand for various words, or sentences, in [[logic]].  Argument forms like <b>C</b> are very important in the study of logic.  The <i>parts</i> of argument forms--sentence forms such as the first line, 'All S is P'--are equally important.  In a [[college logic|logic course]] one would learn how to determine what the forms of various sentences and arguments are.
> 
> There is a good reason why attention to argument and sentence forms is important.  The reason is this: <i>form</i> <i>is</i> <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> <i>an</i> <i>argument</i> <i>[[validity|valid]]</i> <i>or</i> <i>[[cogency|cogent]]</i>.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
ValidIty|985130907
1,9c1
< In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises make the conclusion ''have to be'' true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
< 
< Validity is not to be confused with SoundNess; a sound argument is not only valid, its premises are true as well.  Not all valid arguments are "valid" in the LooseAndPopularSense of this word, meaning "good": not all valid arguments (valid, as this term is used in logic) are good, or successful.  Here is an example of a valid but very bad argument:
< 
< :1. If Jimbo is wrong, then I'm a monkey's uncle.
< :2. Jimbo is wrong.
< :3. Therefore, I am a monkey's uncle.
< 
< This follows one of the most common valid ArgumentForm''''s, ModusPonens: if it's the case that P implies Q, and P is the case, then we can infer that Q.  Whenever P implies Q and P is the case, then Q ''must'' be the case.  So, if it ''really were true'' that Jimbo's wrongness implied my having simian relations (which of course it's not), ''and'' it were true that Jimbo is wrong (plausible), then it would ''have to be'' the case that I am a monkey's uncle.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Validity]]
------
Galileo|985131157
1c1
< Galileo Galilei.
---
> Galileo Galilei, Italian philosopher and scientist, was born in Pisa on February 15, 1564.  Died January 8, 1642.
3,5c3
< Italian scientist. Apparently the first person to construct and use a [[telescope]] to observe the night (and day)
< sky. His fervient defense of [[Copernicus]] model, which at that
< time was still unperfect, made him run into trouble with the [[Catolic Church]].
---
> Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe, one scientifically superior to the church-approved [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] model, gave him trouble with the chrurch, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
7,9c5
< He discovered the four lagest [[satellite]]s of [[Jupiter]],
< and he was the first westerner to observe [[sunspot]]s (there is
< indication that chinese astronomers had already observed them).
---
> He discovered the four lagest [[satellite]]s of [[Jupiter]], and he was the first westerner to observe [[sunspot]]s (there is indication that chinese astronomers had already observed them).
12c8
< 	
---
> 	
------
Galileo|985131296
3c3
< Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe, one scientifically superior to the church-approved [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] model, gave him trouble with the chrurch, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
---
> Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe, one scientifically superior to the church-approved [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] model, gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
8a9
> /Talk
------
Galileo/Talk|985131527
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> When Galileo was defending the copernican model, it was not
> scientifically superior to the Ptolemaic system. Copernicus
> still tried to use circular orbits, and as they failed, had to 
> use epicycles and other resources of Ptolemaic kinematics.
> Only after Kepler's work (that was largely ignored by Galilei)
> was incorporated in the theory, and Newton's law of gravity
> gave a sound physical basis to the whole system, was the heliocentric model undoubtedly superior.
------
Galileo/Talk|985131674
1d0
< 
8c7,12
< gave a sound physical basis to the whole system, was the heliocentric model undoubtedly superior.
---
> gave a sound physical basis to the whole system, was the heliocentric model undoubtedly superior.
> 
> Also, despite what is said, the Church did not approve the
> Ptolemaic system as real. It simply stated that both were simply
> devices to predict positions. It was Galileo who tried to force
> an acceptance of the Corpernican system as "real"
------
Galileo|985131820
3c3
< Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe, one scientifically superior to the church-approved [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] model, gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
---
> Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe,  gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
5c5
< He discovered the four lagest [[satellite]]s of [[Jupiter]], and he was the first westerner to observe [[sunspot]]s (there is indication that chinese astronomers had already observed them).
---
> He discovered the four largest [[satellite]]s of [[Jupiter]], and he was the first westerner to observe [[sunspot]]s (there is indication that chinese astronomers had already observed them).
9c9
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Validity|985131911
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, then the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises ''make'' the conclusion true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
> 
> Validity is a conditional notion.  A close examination of the definition of 'valid' should make a few things clear about validity.  The definition says neither that the premises have to be true nor that that the conclusion has to be true.  What it says is that <i>if</i> the premises happen to be true, <i>then</i> the conclusion has to be true.  As far as validity is concerned the premises might be completely and obviously false.  Consider an example of a valid argument:
> 
> :All dogs have eight legs.
> :The President is a dog.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, the President has eight legs.
> 
> Bear in mind that 'valid' is a technical term in logic: this is a perfectly valid argument.  What does that mean, in this example?  Something like this: suppose it were <i>true</i> that all dogs had eight legs; and suppose, just suppose, that the President really were a dog; well, in that absurd imaginary world, the President would have to have eight legs.  The conclusion <i>has</i> to be true, if the premises are true.  So the argument is valid, even though it has false premises, not to mention a false conclusion.
> 
> Validity is not to be confused with [[soundness]]; a sound argument is not only valid, its premises are true as well.  Not all valid arguments are valid in the [[loose and popular sense]] of this word, meaning 'good': not all valid arguments (valid, as this term is used in logic) are good, or successful, as the above example should show.
> 
> <i>[[argument form|Form]]</i> is what makes an argument valid.  But a valid argument is one where, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true (and here is a way to put it more briefly: the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>).  Now put these two propositions together and draw a conclusion: 
> 
> :Form makes an argument valid.
> :If an argument is valid, then the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
> :Form makes an argument such that the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
> 
> One can see whether the premises make the conclusion necessary <i>just</i> <i>by</i> <i>looking</i> <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>form</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>argument</i>.  That is why [[argument form]] is so important.  Look, for example, at the following argument form.  In fact, <i>any</i> argument that follows this form is valid.  You can see that just by reading it:
> 
> :All S is P.
> :<i>a</i> is S.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, <i>a</i> is P.
> 
> Now examine the following argument.  It fits that form and is (therefore) valid:
> 
> :All dogs are canines.
> :Fido is a dog.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, Fido is a canine.
> 
> Validity is a basic, essential notion in [[logic]], since it is a basic requirement for an argument to be good.  But validity by itself is not enough to make an argument good.  True premises are needed in addition.  So suppose we have a valid argument with true premises.  Then, we will say, we have a <i>[[soundness|sound]]</i> argument.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Argument_form|985132072
0a1,4
> The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>[[variable]]s</i>.
> 
> Just as variables can stand for various numbers in [[mathematics]], variables can stand for various words, or sentences, in [[logic]].  Argument forms are very important in the study of logic.  The <i>parts</i> of argument forms--''sentence forms'' (see below)--are equally important.  In a [[college logic|logic course]] one would learn how to determine what the forms of various sentences and arguments are.
> 
21,26d24
< We can give a general definition of 'argument form' (though this is not exactly a rigorous definition):
< 
< :The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>[[variable]]s</i>.
< 
< Just as variables can stand for various numbers in [[mathematics]], variables can stand for various words, or sentences, in [[logic]].  Argument forms like <b>C</b> are very important in the study of logic.  The <i>parts</i> of argument forms--sentence forms such as the first line, 'All S is P'--are equally important.  In a [[college logic|logic course]] one would learn how to determine what the forms of various sentences and arguments are.
< 
29c27
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Galileo/Talk|985132105
12a13,14
> 
> Wasn't the church was in definite favor of a geocentric universe, though?  At least, there were many religious arguments put forth for it, and Copernicus undoubtedly published posthumously for some reason or another.  Also the church had just finished some council or another where they decided there absolute and final stance on all sorts of issues, which I vaguely recall Galileo was opposing somehow...maybe the non-Aristotelian physics.  In any case, I agree that the church was being fairly nice until Galileo got out of hand. --[[Josh Grosse]]
------
Soundness|985132304
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[argument]] is <i>sound</i> if, and only if, (1) the argument is [[validity|valid]] and (2) all of its premises are [[truth|true]].
> 
> So suppose we have a sound argument:
> 
> :All men are mortal.
> :Socrates is a man.
> :Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
> 
> In this case we have an argument where, first, if the premises are all true, then the conclusion must be true (i.e., the argument is [[validity|valid]]); <i>and</i>, second, it so happens that the premises <i>are</i> all true.  It follows that the conclusion must be true.  That is the nice thing about soundness: if you ''know'' an argument is sound, then you <i>know</i> that the conclusion of the argument is true.  By definition, all sound arguments have true conclusions.  So soundness is a very good quality for an argument to have.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Validity|985132485
1c1
< In logic, an argument is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, then the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises ''make'' the conclusion true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises entail the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
---
> In [[logic]], an [[argument]] is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, then the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises ''make'' the conclusion true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises [[entailment|entail]] the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
3c3
< Validity is a conditional notion.  A close examination of the definition of 'valid' should make a few things clear about validity.  The definition says neither that the premises have to be true nor that that the conclusion has to be true.  What it says is that <i>if</i> the premises happen to be true, <i>then</i> the conclusion has to be true.  As far as validity is concerned the premises might be completely and obviously false.  Consider an example of a valid argument:
---
> A close examination of the definition of 'valid' should make a few things clear about validity.  The definition says neither that the premises have to be true nor that that the conclusion has to be true.  Validity is a conditional notion: what it says is that <i>if</i> the premises happen to be true, <i>then</i> the conclusion has to be true.  As far as validity is concerned the premises might be completely and obviously false.  Consider an example of a valid argument:
33c33
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985133145
15c15,19
< I'm not sure I understand either, but I do very much agree with Joshua that we should watch out for excessive sub-paging making for difficult accidental linking.  Of course, one answer is to very simply have lots and lots of REDIRECT pages.  [[Daffodil]] can redirect to [[Flower/Daffodil]], so that accidental links work out o.k. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> I'm not sure I understand either, but I do very much agree with Joshua that we should watch out for excessive sub-paging making for difficult accidental linking.  Of course, one answer is to very simply have lots and lots of REDIRECT pages.  [[Daffodil]] can redirect to [[Flower/Daffodil]], so that accidental links work out o.k. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> Redirect pages are nice to have ([[daffodils]] to [[daffodil]]) -- but I think that they shouldn't be made necessary.  Since pages would always want to use the word "daffodil", then everyone would either have to go through the needless redirect from [[daffodil]] to [[flower/Daffodil]] or change the referring page to [[flower/Daffodil|daffodil]].  That's what I meant about "alternate bracketing", btw; it's amazing how English just disintegrates as one gets tired.
> 
> Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth.
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985133185
19c19
< Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth.
---
> Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Tamil_Nadu|985133302
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The southeasternmost state of [[India]], Tamil Nadu was created from the old Madras State in the 1950s, when India re-drew some state lines according to language. The bordering states/territories are [[Pondicherry]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Andra Pradesh]]. The nation of Sri Lanka, which has a significant Tamil minority, lies off the southeast coast.
> 
> [[Tamil]] is the official language of Tamil Nadu (as well as one of the official languages of India). State politics continue to have a lot to do with protecting and celebrating the Tamil (and [[Dravidian]] in general) language and culture.
> 
> Major cities include Chennai (formerly Madras), Madurai, and Coimbatore.
------
Tamil_Nadu|985133338
1c1
< The southeasternmost state of [[India]], Tamil Nadu was created from the old Madras State in the 1950s, when India re-drew some state lines according to language. The bordering states/territories are [[Pondicherry]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Andra Pradesh]]. The nation of Sri Lanka, which has a significant Tamil minority, lies off the southeast coast.
---
> The southeasternmost state of [[India]], Tamil Nadu was created from the old Madras State in the 1950s, when India re-drew some state lines according to language. The bordering states/territories are [[Pondicherry]], [[Kerala]], [[Karnataka]] and [[Andra Pradesh]]. The nation of [[Sri Lanka]], which has a significant Tamil minority, lies off the southeast coast.
5c5
< Major cities include Chennai (formerly Madras), Madurai, and Coimbatore.
---
> Major cities include Chennai (formerly Madras), Madurai, and Coimbatore.
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985133359
17c17
< Redirect pages are nice to have ([[daffodils]] to [[daffodil]]) -- but I think that they shouldn't be made necessary.  Since pages would always want to use the word "daffodil", then everyone would either have to go through the needless redirect from [[daffodil]] to [[flower/Daffodil]] or change the referring page to [[flower/Daffodil|daffodil]].  That's what I meant about "alternate bracketing", btw; it's amazing how English just disintegrates as one gets tired.
---
> Redirect pages are nice to have ([[daffodils]] to [[daffodil]]) -- but I think that they shouldn't be made necessary.  Since pages would always want to use the word "daffodil", then everyone would either have to go through the needless redirect from [[daffodil]] to [[flower/Daffodil]] or change the referring page to use the name with a different link, as [[flower/Daffodil|daffodil]] (what I somehow meant by alternate bracket thing).
19c19
< Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
---
> Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Galileo/Talk|985133403
14c14,19
< Wasn't the church was in definite favor of a geocentric universe, though?  At least, there were many religious arguments put forth for it, and Copernicus undoubtedly published posthumously for some reason or another.  Also the church had just finished some council or another where they decided there absolute and final stance on all sorts of issues, which I vaguely recall Galileo was opposing somehow...maybe the non-Aristotelian physics.  In any case, I agree that the church was being fairly nice until Galileo got out of hand. --[[Josh Grosse]]
---
> Wasn't the church was in definite favor of a geocentric universe, though?  At least, there were many religious arguments put forth for it, and Copernicus undoubtedly published posthumously for some reason or another.  Also the church had just finished some council or another where they decided there absolute and final stance on all sorts of issues, which I vaguely recall Galileo was opposing somehow...maybe the non-Aristotelian physics.  In any case, I agree that the church was being fairly nice until Galileo got out of hand. --[[Josh Grosse]]
> 
> ----
> Even in its early form, though, the Compernican system was clearly superior to Ptolemy in that the model of a tilted Earth rotating around the sun explained the oddly-inclined motion of sunspots in a simple way that Ptolemy could not, for example.  Yes, Copernicus got a few things wrong like circular orbits, and Galileo himself was mistaken about his threory of tides being caused directly by the rotation of the Earth, but overall, his threories were still far superior to Ptolemy.
> 
> The church might not have accepted Ptolemy as "real" (and I don't think my text claims that), but at no point did Galileo ever claim that Copernicus' model was real either.  The churuch's main concern was with scripture that claimed the Earth was stationary.  The generally-accepted Ptolemaic system fit with that; the Copernican system (even in its early less-than perfect form) did not.  Galileo pointed out that by _assuming_ a Copernican model, you could more easily calculate and predict certain things, but at no point in his life did he ever claim (at least publicly) that the system was "real"; he firmly backed away from such claims at every opportunity.
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985133406
17c17
< Redirect pages are nice to have ([[daffodils]] to [[daffodil]]) -- but I think that they shouldn't be made necessary.  Since pages would always want to use the word "daffodil", then everyone would either have to go through the needless redirect from [[daffodil]] to [[flower/Daffodil]] or change the referring page to use the name with a different link, as [[flower/Daffodil|daffodil]] (what I somehow meant by alternate bracket thing).
---
> Redirect pages are nice to have ([[daffodils]] to [[daffodil]]) -- but I think that they shouldn't be made necessary.  Since pages would always want to use the word "daffodil", then everyone would either have to go through the needless redirect from [[daffodil]] to [[flower/Daffodil]] or change the referring page to use the name with a different link, as [[flower/Daffodil|daffodil]] (what I somehow meant by alternate bracket thing).  That's a lot of wasteful typing, if you ask me (which you did, this time at least :). 
------
Galileo|985133451
3c3
< Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe,  gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
---
> Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
------
Galileo/Talk|985133601
19c19,20
< The church might not have accepted Ptolemy as "real" (and I don't think my text claims that), but at no point did Galileo ever claim that Copernicus' model was real either.  The churuch's main concern was with scripture that claimed the Earth was stationary.  The generally-accepted Ptolemaic system fit with that; the Copernican system (even in its early less-than perfect form) did not.  Galileo pointed out that by _assuming_ a Copernican model, you could more easily calculate and predict certain things, but at no point in his life did he ever claim (at least publicly) that the system was "real"; he firmly backed away from such claims at every opportunity.
---
> The church might not have accepted Ptolemy as "real" (and I don't think my text claims that), but at no point did Galileo ever claim that Copernicus' model was real either.  The churuch's main concern was with scripture that claimed the Earth was stationary.  The generally-accepted Ptolemaic system fit with that; the Copernican system (even in its early less-than perfect form) did not.  Galileo pointed out that by _assuming_ a Copernican model, you could more easily calculate and predict certain things, but at no point in his life did he ever claim (at least publicly) that the system was "real"; he firmly backed away from such claims at every opportunity.  <i>De Revolutionibus</i> itself is a masterpiece of weaseling and backpedaling.
> 
------
Sri_Lanka|985133749
5c5
< Population about 19 million. It is a [[democracy]], with a strong central government. The formal education system is very strong by globo-institutional standards.
---
> Population about 19 million. It is a [[democracy]], with a strong central government. The formal education system is strong by globo-institutional standards, for a relatively poor country.
9c9
< Since independence (from the [[British Empire]] in 1948), struggles between majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life (left-over divide and conquer from the British?). Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the [[LTTE]] -- the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Tens of thousands have died, and perhaps as many in struggles among Tamil militant groups, and in two brief uprisings by Sinhalese disaffected with their government.
---
> Since independence (from the [[British Empire]] in 1948), struggles between majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life (left-over divide and conquer from the British?). Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the LTTE -- the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]]. Tens of thousands have died, and perhaps as many in struggles among Tamil militant groups, and in two brief uprisings by Sinhalese disaffected with their government (JVP). Hundreds of thousands of refugees are displaced internally or have fled to Tamil Nadu and around the world.
------
Galileo/Talk|985133872
20a21
> Did Galileo claim the universe was ''heliocentric'', though?  I can't imagine why he wouldn't have - after all, he defied the church to publish material on it, and it seems more likely that he would do so if he though it was genuinely valid.
------
Galileo/Talk|985133953
21c21
< Did Galileo claim the universe was ''heliocentric'', though?  I can't imagine why he wouldn't have - after all, he defied the church to publish material on it, and it seems more likely that he would do so if he though it was genuinely valid.
---
> Did Galileo claim the universe was ''heliocentric'', though?  I can't imagine why he wouldn't have - after all, he defied the church to publish material on it (assuming the Dialogues mention the topic), and it seems more likely that he would do so if he though it was genuinely valid.
------
Cogency|985133954
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[argument]] is <i>cogent</i> if, and only if, supposing the premises all to be[[truth|true]], then the conclusion is <i>probably</i> (but not <i>[[necessity|necessarily]]</i>) true.  (Exactly what "[[probability|probably]]" means is a matter of considerable debate.)
> 
> Suppose you have an argument in which the premises make the conclusion very <i>probably</i> true, but not ''necessarily'' true; it might still be a good argument.  Such an argument we call <i>cogent</i>; ''cogency'' (that is the noun) is of central importance to [[inductive logic]].  Here, for example, is a cogent argument:
> 
> :There is a barrel jammed full of ordinary marbles, of different colors.
> :Without looking, Jill pulled out 100 marbles from various holes in the lid; 95 of the marbles Jill pulled out were red.
> :Therefore, the next marble Jill pulls out, without looking, from another hole in the lid, will be red.
> 
> This appears to be a cogent argument.  That means that <i>if</i> the two premises are true, then <i>probably</i> the conclusion is true; for all we know, the next marble ''might not'' be red, but it probably will be.  Notice this: maybe there is no barrel, or maybe all of the marbles were blue; in that case, both premises of the above argument would be false.  But that would not matter to the claim that this argument is cogent.  If the argument is cogent, then <i>supposing</i> the premises to be true, the conclusion is probably true.  Like [[validity]], cogency is a <i>conditional</i> property.
> 
> Also like validity, the cogency of an argument can be assessed by examining the [[argument form|form]] of the argument.  Consider, for example, the form of the above argument.  We might say it basically follows something like this pattern:
> 
> :95% of observed F's were G.
> :<i>Therefore</i>, probably, the next F observed will also be G.
> 
> Nearly any argument that follows the above will be cogent.  There are some complications that we are ignoring here; for example, suppose we were working with a deck containing 100 cards, and we know in advance that five of them are special cards called "jesters."  All the other cards are called "royalty."  Then, suppose it is true that 95% of drawn cards were royalty; in that case, the five cards that are left are jesters.  In that case, the premise would lead one conclude that the next observed card will <i>not</i> be royalty--<i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>opposite</i> of what the argument form would explain.  Exactly what sort of complications are necessary are studied by [[inductive logic]].  We would need to mention [[background assumptions]], [[random sample]], having a large enough [[sample size]], and so forth.  So bear in mind that the argument form above is a simplification for purposes of illustration.
> 
> Just as one adds [[truth|true]] premises to a [[validity|valid]] argument to get [[soundness]], you can add true premises to a cogent argument to get a <i>strong</i> argument.  We can define strength, for arguments, as follows:
> 
> An argument is <i>strong</i> if, and only if, the argument is cogent and all of its premises are true.
> 
> Similar things to what one says about soundness can be said about strength.  If one knows an argument is strong, then one knows that, if the premises are true, then its conclusion is ''probably'' true.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Sri_Lanka|985133985
25c25,29
< http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/cds/countries/srilanka.html
---
> http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/cds/countries/srilanka.html
> 
> ----
> 
> See CountriesS
------
Tamil|985134144
1,8c1
< Language spoken mainly in south Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].  It is one of the classical languages of the world, with rich [[Tamil Literature|literature]] spanning over 2000 years, making it arguably the oldest living language.
< 
< It is an official language in the following countries:
< * [[India]]
< * [[Sri Lanka]]
< * [[Malaysia]]
< * [[Singapore]]
< 
---
> A culture of southern [[India]].  Also the [[Tamil language]] which they speak.  I unfortunately know nothing about them, save that they are related to the [[Dravidian]] peoples who have been in [[India]] since the [[Indus valley]] civilizations.
------
Tamil_language|985134159
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Language spoken mainly in south Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].  It is one of the classical languages of the world, with rich [[Tamil Literature|literature]] spanning over 2000 years, making it arguably the oldest living language.
> 
> It is an official language in the following countries:
> * [[India]]
> * [[Sri Lanka]]
> * [[Malaysia]]
> * [[Singapore]]
> 
> 
------
Sri_Lanka|985134210
9c9
< Since independence (from the [[British Empire]] in 1948), struggles between majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and minority Tamils (mostly Hindu) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life (left-over divide and conquer from the British?). Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the LTTE -- the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]]. Tens of thousands have died, and perhaps as many in struggles among Tamil militant groups, and in two brief uprisings by Sinhalese disaffected with their government (JVP). Hundreds of thousands of refugees are displaced internally or have fled to Tamil Nadu and around the world.
---
> Since independence (from the [[British Empire]] in 1948), struggles between majority Sinhala-speaking Buddhists and minority [[Tamil]]s (mostly [[Hindu]]) have been a regular feature of Sri Lanka's political life (left-over divide and conquer from the British?). Since 1983 there has been on-and-off civil war, mostly between the government and the LTTE -- the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]]. Tens of thousands have died, and perhaps as many in struggles among Tamil militant groups, and in two brief uprisings by Sinhalese disaffected with their government (JVP). Hundreds of thousands of refugees are displaced internally or have fled to [[Tamil Nadu]] and around the world.
29c29
< See CountriesS
---
> See CountriesS
------
Good_argument|985134214
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophy|remove doubts]] about it.
------
Tamil_Nadu|985134254
3c3
< [[Tamil]] is the official language of Tamil Nadu (as well as one of the official languages of India). State politics continue to have a lot to do with protecting and celebrating the Tamil (and [[Dravidian]] in general) language and culture.
---
> [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is the official language of Tamil Nadu (as well as one of the official languages of India). State politics continue to have a lot to do with protecting and celebrating the [[Tamil]] (and [[Dravidian]] in general) language and culture.
------
Probability|985134270
6a7
> ''Probability is not a mathematical theory.  Probability theory is a theory, but probability is something else.''
------
Good_argument|985134301
1c1
< ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophy|remove doubts]] about it.
---
> ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
------
Dravidian_languages|985134302
3c3
< * [[Tamil]]
---
> * [[Tamil language]]
9,10d8
< 
< ''Doesn't Tamil also refer to the land and peoples of southern India, at least historically?  If so, that page should probably be moved to [[Tamil language]].''
------
Language|985134341
30c30
< * [[Niger-Congo languages ([[Bantu languages|Bantu]], etc.)
---
> * [[Niger-Congo languages]] ([[Bantu languages|Bantu]], etc.)
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985134401
1,3d0
< * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
< * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
< 
64,70d60
< Hmm, i get tired of typing all those brackets!
< --JohnAbbe
< 
< ::''Resist the temptation to write old style links.  They are very annoying. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
< 
< DeleteMe: And it seems like the media doesn't want to let him go :-) Hmm, isn't it providing news cover for part of Dubya's first 100 days?
< 
76c66,68
< ::''No, I don't think so.  Such standards are too hard to formulate and extremely fallible, as well as being anti-wiki generally.  Just let things develop naturally first, anyway, and see what happens a few months or years down the road. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
---
> :''No, I don't think so.  Such standards are too hard to formulate and extremely fallible, as well as being anti-wiki generally.  Just let things develop naturally first, anyway, and see what happens a few months or years down the road. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
> 
> ::The standard already exists, it's an ISO thing, the internet country TLDs use it.
80c72
< - us/Democrat is not regognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link.
---
> :us/Democrat is not recognized as a link; /Democrat is.  You can use square brackets to make [[us/Democrat]] a link.
84c76,78
< This would focus on parties as organizations in separet nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
---
> ::If i did it would get redirected :-) --JohnAbbe
> 
> This would focus on parties as organizations in separate nations, although there are *sometimes* transnational commonalities in purpose between same-named parties. I guess there could then be a separate DemocraticParty or [[Democratic Party]] page (we need easier ways to create redirect pages -- is anyone coding a Wiki:WikiBrowser yet? I'll pay real $$ for a GPL'd one that runs on OS X.)
86c80
< ::''Renaming is something that system administrators can do.  We're just exploring it now.  And please, do use [[Free Links]] rather than that ugly old mashed together style of linking, which looks silly. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
---
> :''Renaming is something that system administrators can do.  We're just exploring it now.  And please, do use [[Free Links]] rather than that ugly old mashed together style of linking, which looks silly. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
90c84,86
< ::''See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
---
> :''See [[Wikipedia policy]].  We've been discussing all this stuff a lot...don't reinvent the wheel.  :-)''
> 
> Thanks! --JohnAbbe
------
Bill_Clinton|985134447
35a36,40
> 
> ----
> 
> * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
> * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985134497
53,55c53
< CountriesOfTheWorld | [[United States]] | UnitedStates/States | 
< * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
< * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
---
> 
86c84
< Thanks! --JohnAbbe
---
> Thanks! --JohnAbbe
------
DeductionAndInduction|985134561
1,133c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< First, logic is the study of <b>the</b> <b>forms</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b> <b>and</b> <b>of</b> <b>the</b> <b>parts</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b>.  What exactly do I mean by the phrase <i>form</i> <i>of</i> <i>argument</i>?  The basic notion can be introduced with an example.  Here’s an example of an argument:
< 
< <b>A</b>	All humans are mortal.  Socrates is human.  <i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
< 
< We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>B</b>	All humans are mortal.
< 
< 	Socrates is human.
< 
< 	<i>Therefore</i>, Socrates is mortal.
< 
< Now, to demonstrate the important notion of the <i>form</i> of an argument, I will substitute letters for similar items throughout <b>B</b>, like this:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>C</b>	All S is P.
< 
< 	<i>a</i> is S.
< 
< 	<i>Therefore</i>, <i>a</i> is P.
< 
< All I have done in <b>C</b> is to put "S" for "human" and "humans," "P" for "mortal," and "<i>a</i>" for "Socrates"; and there we have the <i>form</i> of the original argument in <b>A</b>.  So argument form <b>C</b> is the form of argument <b>A</b>.  And each individual sentence of <b>C</b> is the <i>sentence</i> <i>form</i> of its respective sentence in <b>A</b>.  So if you want a definition of "form," you can use this (though it’s not exactly a rigorous definition): The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>variables</i>.  Just like variables can stand for various numbers in math, variables can stand for various words, or sentences, in logic.  All right, now argument forms like <b>C</b> are very important in the study of logic.  And the <i>parts</i> of argument forms -- by which I mean such sentence forms as the first line -- "All S is P," are equally important.  In a logic class you would learn how to determine what the forms of various sentences and arguments are; we do not have time for that, but I think you can at least understand the basic concept of logical form.  That’s all I want you to understand right now: what logical form is.
< 
< There is a very good reason why attention to argument and sentence forms is important.  The reason is this: <i>Form</i> <i>is</i> <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> <i>an</i> <i>argument</i> <i>valid</i> <i>or</i> <i>cogent</i>.  That’s very important and it bears repeating: form is important because it determines whether an argument is valid or not, or cogent or not.  So next let’s look at part (2) of our definition of "logic," which concerns validity and cogency.
< 
< Part (2) says this: logic is the study of <b>the</b> <b>qualities</b> <b>of</b> <b>validity</b>, <b>cogency</b>, <b>and</b> <b>soundness</b>, <b>and</b> <b>strength</b>.  Roughly, if an argument is valid or cogent, then the conclusion really does follow from the premises; in other words, <i>if</i> the premises are true, <i>then</i>, it follows that, the conclusion is true; in yet other words, the premises (if true) actually give one good reason for believing the conclusion.
< 
< Now, there are two different ways that the conclusion can follow from the premises: the argument can be <i>valid</i> or it can be <i>cogent</i>.  Those are the two ways.  These are different, and mutually exclusive properties; an argument cannot be both valid and cogent.  But if an argument <i>is</i> one or the other, then the conclusion does follow from the premises.
< 
< Here then is what "valid" means.  I will define and discuss "cogent" later.
< 
< An argument is <i>valid</i> if, and only if, when the premises are all true, then the conclusion <i>must</i> be true.
< 
< And validity is the property of being valid.  Now, validity is a conditional notion.  Look at the definition of "valid": it does not say that the premises have to be true.  It doesn’t say that the conclusion has to be true.  But it <i>does</i> say that <i>if</i> the premises are true, <i>then</i> the conclusion has to be true.  As far as validity is concerned the premises might be completely and obviously false!  So let me show you an argument that is valid, but which has totally false premises:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>D</b>	All dogs have eight legs.
< 
< 	The President is a dog.
< 
< 	<i>Therefore</i>, the President has eight legs.
< 
< This is, strange to say, a perfectly valid argument.  Remember, in logic, "valid" doesn’t mean anything more than what we define to mean.  So the fact that an argument is valid, in logic, does <i>not</i> necessarily mean that it is a <i>good</i> argument.  In fact, it might be a really <i>bad</i> argument, just like argument <b>D</b>.  But argument <b>D</b> is, at least, <i>valid</i>.  What does that mean, in this case?  Something like this: suppose it were <i>true</i> that all dogs had eight legs; and suppose, just suppose, that the President really were a dog; well, in that absurd imaginary world, the President would have to have eight legs.  The conclusion <i>has</i> to be true, if the premises are true.  So the argument is valid, even though it has false premises.  Not to mention a false conclusion.
< 
< But just a bit ago I said that <i>form</i> is what makes an argument valid.  But I also said that a valid argument is one where, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true -- or here’s a way to put it more briefly: the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.  Now put these two propositions together: 
< 
< Form makes an argument valid.
< 
< If an argument is valid, then the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
< 
< Putting these two claims together, you can see that
< 
< Form makes an argument such that the premises make the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.
< 
< Another way of putting this thought is by saying that you can see whether the premises make the conclusion necessary <i>just</i> <i>by</i> <i>looking</i> <i>at</i> <i>the</i> <i>form</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>argument</i>.  That’s why form is so important.  Look, for example, at form <b>C</b>.  In fact, <i>any</i> argument that follows the form <b>C</b> is valid: you can see that just by reading <b>C</b>.  Now look at <b>D</b> -- it fits that form and is valid.  Or to take another example, look at this argument:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>E</b>	All dogs are canines.
< 
< 	Fido is a dog.
< 
< 	<i>Therefore</i>, Fido is a canine.
< 
< And since <b>E</b> follows form <b>C</b>, it’s a valid argument.  Its conclusion <i>must</i> be true if its premises are true.
< 
< All right, that is enough, I hope, to introduce you to the notion of <i>validity</i>.  Validity is a really basic, essential notion in logic, since it is a basic requirement for an argument to be good.  But validity by itself isn’t enough to make an argument good.
< 
< What more is needed?  True premises.  So suppose we have a valid argument with true premises.  Then, we will say, we have a <i>sound</i> argument.  Here’s a definition:
< 
< An argument is <i>sound</i> if, and only if, (1) the argument is valid and (2) all of its premises are true.
< 
< So suppose we have a sound argument.  An excellent example is <b>B</b>.  In this case we have an argument where, first, if the premises are all true, then the conclusion must be true; <i>and</i>, second, it so happens that the premises <i>are</i> all true.  What follows?  That the conclusion must be true.  That’s the dandy thing about soundness: if you know an argument is sound, then you <i>know</i> that the conclusion of the argument is true.  By definition, all sound arguments have true conclusions.  So soundness is a very good quality for an argument to have.
< 
< Now, the premises of an argument can give you reason to believe its conclusion, without making the conclusion <i>necessary</i>.  Suppose you have an argument in which the premises make the conclusion <i>probably</i> true.  That might still be a good argument.  Such an argument we call <i>cogent</i>.  So here’s a definition of "cogent":
< 
< An argument is <i>cogent</i> if, and only if, supposing the premises are all true, then the conclusion is <i>probably</i> (but not <i>necessarily</i>) true.
< 
< And cogency is the property of being cogent.  Now, exactly what "probably" means is a matter of considerable debate in philosophy.  And we simply do not have time to examine that debate right now.  Still, you can understand what I mean reasonably well.  Here, for example, is a cogent argument:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>F</b>	There is a barrel jammed full of ordinary marbles, of different 	colors.
< 
< 	Without looking, I pulled out 100 marbles from various holes in 	the lid; 95 of the marbles I pulled out were red.
< 
< 	Therefore, the next marble I pull out, without looking, from 	another hole in the lid, will be red.
< 
< This is, I claim, a cogent argument.  That means that <i>if</i> the two premises are true, then <i>probably</i> the conclusion is true; for all I know it doesn’t <i>have</i> to be true.  And notice this: maybe I’m lying and there is no barrel, or maybe all of the marbles were blue.  But that wouldn’t matter to my claim that the argument is <i>cogent</i>.  If the argument is cogent, then <i>supposing</i> the premises to be true, the conclusion is probably true.  Like validity, cogency is a <i>conditional</i> property.
< 
< And also like validity, the cogency of an argument can be assessed by examining the form of the argument.  Consider, for example, the form of argument <b>F</b> -- we might say it basically follows something like this pattern:
< 
< 
< 
< <b>G</b>	95% of observed F’s were G.
< 
< 	<i>Therefore</i>, probably, the next F observed will also be G.
< 
< I’m saying that practically any argument that follows form <b>G</b> will be cogent.  Now, there are some complications that I am ignoring here; for example, suppose we’re working with a deck containing 100 cards, and we know in advance that five of them are special cards called "jesters."  All the other cards cards are called "royalty."  Then, suppose it’s true that 95% of drawn cards were royalty; well in that case, the five cards that are left are jesters!  So in that case the premise would lead you conclude that the next observed card will <i>not</i> be royalty -- <i>exactly</i> <i>the</i> <i>opposite</i> of what argument <b>G</b> would say.  If we were studying inductive logic (as you would in Philosophy 150), then we would go into this in more detail.  We would talk about background assumptions, about a random sample, having a large enough sample size, and so forth.  But for now let’s stick with the simpler story.  For simplicity we can say that any argument that follows form <b>G</b> is cogent.  Just bear in mind that <b>G</b> is a simplification.
< 
< Now just as you added true premises to a valid argument to get soundness, you can add true premises to a cogent argument to get a <i>strong</i> argument.  So we can define strength, for arguments, as follows:
< 
< An argument is <i>strong</i> if, and only if, the argument is cogent and all of its premises are true.
< 
< Similar things to what I said about soundness can be said about strength.  If you know an argument is strong, then you know that, if the premises are true, then its conclusion is probably true; and since you <i>do</i> know that its premises are true, then you know that its conclusion <i>is</i> probably true.
< 
< Basically, what we mean <i>by</i> "good argument" is simply "sound or strong argument."  If you have offered a sound or strong argument in defense of your view -- a philosophical conclusion -- then you have stated a <i>true</i> view, or at least a <i>probably</i> true view.  And the premises of your argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>justify</i> your belief in the conclusion.  So that’s why good argument are so important: in philosophy, a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If you’re armed with a good argument you have helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and remove doubts about it.
< 
< Now we’re ready to understand a very important distinction in philosophy.  Namely, the difference between <i>deduction</i>, or <i>deductive</i> <i>logic</i>, and <i>induction</i>, or <i>inductive</i> <i>logic</i>.  Here are some definitions:
< 
< <i>Deductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, valid.
< 
< <i>Induction</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, cogent.
< 
< The reason I have these in terms of what the arguments "aspire" to be is that an argument can be properly the subject of deductive logic even though it’s <i>not</i> valid or cogent; it can be studied by logic even though it fails to be what it aspires to be.  Anyway, then, deduction is concerned with validity; induction is concerned with cogency.  So in deductive logic you’ll study forms of arguments such that the conclusion <i>must</i> be true if the premises are true; and in inductive logic you’ll study forms of arguments such that the conclusion is <i>probably</i> true if the premises are true.  That’s the difference between deduction and induction, and deductive logic and inductive logic.
< 
< Now remember that we started this excursion into validity and so forth by way of explaining the definition of "logic" I gave.  So let’s get back to that.  Logic is the study of <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> something a good argument; but it is also the study of <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether or not an argument is any good.  Studying logic is a little like studying medicine.  In medical school one studies <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> a person healthy, as well as <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether a person is healthy.  In logic and medicine (and many other fields generally), one learns the <i>standards</i> something (such as good arguments and healthy people) must meet, as well as <i>how</i> <i>to</i> <i>tell</i> whether those standards are met in particular cases (of arguments and people, for example).
< 
< So now here’s the third part of the definition of "logic": logic is the study of <b>how</b> <b>to</b> <b>construct</b>, <b>identify</b>, <b>interpret</b>, <b>and</b> <b>evaluate</b> <b>various</b> <b>kinds</b> <b>of</b> <b>arguments</b>.  Let me just take up each one of these words, "construct," "identify," "interpret," and "evaluate" in turn.
< 
< To begin with the <i>construction</i> of arguments.  We do all, or at least should, construct arguments for our beliefs.  We back up what we say, with reasons.  We marshall evidence, state our grounds for belief, and give justifications.  Someone who <i>never</i> does these things would be, I think, just irrational and unthinking, but I doubt there is any person here who is so irrational and unthinking that he, or she, <i>never</i> does these things.  However that may be, logic is, in part, the study of how to <i>construct</i> one’s own arguments well, so that they display the aforementioned virtues of validity or cogency, and soundness or strength.  So logic will help you do what you do already -- only better.
< 
< Logic is also the study of how to <i>identify</i> arguments, about a <i>huge</i> variety of different subject matters.  This is very important for being able to <i>use</i> logic in everyday life; the first step in assessing the arguments of others is to <i>identify</i> when and where others have made arguments.  After all, not all nonfiction writing you come across does contain arguments.  So to evaluate a passage from a logical point of view, first you’ve got to learn how to distinguish argumentative prose -- writing containing arguments -- from mere rhetoric, explanations, the giving of examples, and other kinds of nonargumentative prose.  
< 
< Logic is, finally, the study of how to <i>interpret</i> and <i>evaluate</i> actual, real-life arguments -- arguments of various kinds.  In other words, to study logic is, in part, to study how to restate arguments you find in their real-life contexts (once you <i>have</i> found them) in a very clear manner, and then to judge whether those arguments are valid or cogent, first of all, and if so, whether they are also sound or strong.
< 
< Learning the construction, identification, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments are all important parts of learning logic, and well worth practicing, but in this course we won’t have time to do that.  We will, as is the case with a lot of philosophy, have learn those things by <i>doing</i>.  But there is, after all, a <i>great</i> deal that one can learn about logic by doing it.
---
> See [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[good argument]] [[deduction and induction]]
------
Deduction_and_induction|985134570
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The difference between <i>deduction</i>, or <i>[[deductive logic]]</i>, and <i>induction</i>, or <i>[[inductive logic]]</i>, is one of the most important in the [[college logic|elementary study of logic]].  Here are some definitions:
> 
> <i>Deductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of [[argument]]s that aspire to be, at least, [[validity|valid]].
> 
> <i>Induction</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, [[cogency|cogent]].
> 
> The reason these rough definitions are phrased in terms of what the arguments "aspire" to be is that an argument can be properly the subject of deductive logic even though it is <i>not</i> valid or cogent; it can be studied by logic even though it fails to be what it aspires to be.  So deduction is concerned with validity; induction is concerned with cogency.  So in deductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion <i>must</i> be true if the premises are true; and in inductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion is <i>probably</i> true if the premises are true.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Bill_Clinton|985134617
39,40c39,44
< * Last President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
< * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
---
> See also:
> * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] ([[first lady]])
> * [[Albert Arnold Gore]] ([[vice president]])
> 
> * Previous President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
> * Next President: [[George W. Bush]]
------
DeductionAndInduction|985134621
1c1
< See [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[good argument]] [[deduction and induction]]
---
> See [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[good argument]]; and[[deduction and induction]]
------
DeductionAndInduction|985134630
1c1
< See [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[good argument]]; and[[deduction and induction]]
---
> See [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[good argument]]; and [[deduction and induction]]
------
Larrys_Text|985134685
7c7,8
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- DeductionAndInduction -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]]
> -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
Cogency|985134724
1c1
< An [[argument]] is <i>cogent</i> if, and only if, supposing the premises all to be[[truth|true]], then the conclusion is <i>probably</i> (but not <i>[[necessity|necessarily]]</i>) true.  (Exactly what "[[probability|probably]]" means is a matter of considerable debate.)
---
> An [[argument]] is <i>cogent</i> if, and only if, supposing the premises all to be [[truth|true]], then the conclusion is <i>probably</i> (but not <i>[[necessity|necessarily]]</i>) true.  (Exactly what "[[probability|probably]]" means is a matter of considerable debate.)
3c3
< Suppose you have an argument in which the premises make the conclusion very <i>probably</i> true, but not ''necessarily'' true; it might still be a good argument.  Such an argument we call <i>cogent</i>; ''cogency'' (that is the noun) is of central importance to [[inductive logic]].  Here, for example, is a cogent argument:
---
> Suppose you have an argument in which the premises make the conclusion very <i>probably</i> true, but not ''necessarily'' true; it might still be a [[good argument]].  Such an argument we call <i>cogent</i>; ''cogency'' (that is the noun) is of central importance to [[inductive logic]].  Here, for example, is a cogent argument:
24c24
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
George_W._Bush|985134731
20a21,22
> * BushTalk
> 
24a27
> 
27c30,32
< * BushTalk
---
> 
> * Previous President: [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
> * Next President: ?
------
Logic|985134872
1c1
< Logic, or the study of the principles of proper reasoning or good [[argument]], was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
---
> ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
5c5
< See also [[college logic]]; DeductionAndInduction; ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> See also [[college logic]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985134888
1c1
< He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, director of the CIA, and vice president during the Reagan administration.  
---
> He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).  
3c3,10
< He flew ? during [[World War II]].
---
> He flew ? during [[World War II]].
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * [[Barbara Bush]] ([[first lady]])
> * [[Danforth Quayle]] ([[vice president]])
> 
> * Previous President: [[Ronald Reagan]]
> * Next President: [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
------
Larrys_Text|985134921
7,8c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]]
< -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
TheoriesOfTruth|985134953
1,63c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< What is truth?  We’ll look at a number of answers to this question that philosophers have given.
< 
< The first is called the <i>correspondence</i> <i>theory</i>, and we can define it as follows:
< 
< It is <i>true</i> that P ("P" stands for a proposition) iff P corresponds with the facts.
< 
< So "truth" means "correspondence with the facts."  That’s a traditional formulation of the theory.  So let me try to explain what it says.  For example, it’s true that some dogs bark if the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the facts.  Which facts?  Actually, just one: the fact that some dogs bark.  So suppose that it <i>is</i> a fact that some dogs bark (that’s not hard to suppose).  Then we can improve our example.  We could say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the fact that some dogs bark.  Or we could say: it’s true that God exists if, and only if, the proposition, "God exists," corresponds with the fact that God exists.
< 
< The most commonly cited problem for the correspondence theory is this question: what is correspondence?  <i>When</i> does a proposition correspond with the facts?  Well, you can think of correspondence as a sort of matching-up relation -- if a proposition can be matched up with a fact, then it corresponds to that fact.  But that’s <i>still</i> puzzling, isn’t it?  I mean, when does a proposition "match up" with a fact?  To say that "correspondence" means "matching up" doesn’t really shed a whole lot of light on the subject.
< 
< Well, one thing we might observe in any case is that, in order for a proposition to be true, according to the correspondence theory, there must <i>be</i> some fact to which it corresponds.  So a fact has to <i>exist</i> in order to be matched up a proposition.  And remember, we’ve already decided <i>which</i> fact that a proposition has to correspond with: the proposition that P has to correspond with the fact that P, if the proposition that P is true.
< 
< So here is a suggestion that can help get us around the objection about correspondence.  We can say that it is true that P if, and only if, there exists a fact that P.  If we put it like that, then we don’t have to talk about correspondence at all.  We just say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, there exists a fact, that some dogs bark.  And we could put it even simpler than that:
< 
< It is <i>true</i> that P iff it is a fact that P.
< 
< So consider that the <i>revised</i> <i>version</i> of the correspondence theory: P is true when it is a fact that P.  It’s true that dogs bark if it’s a fact that some dogs bark.  It’s true that God exists if it’s a fact that God exists.  It’s true that snow is white if it’s a fact that snow is white.  And so on.  We can regard that as explaining what it means for a proposition to correspond with a fact: basically, if <i>there</i> <i>is</i> a fact that P, then that fact corresponds with the proposition that P.
< 
< But this reformulation of the theory faces now a different problem.  Namely what are facts, and what does it mean to say that facts <i>exist</i>, or that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> some alleged fact?  Look at the problem like this.  Our reformulation basically says that "true proposition" means "factual proposition."  So then we have to ask ourselves: "Have we really <i>explained</i> anything about truth, about true propositions, if we merely said that they are factual?  Because then aren’t we just letting this <i>other</i> word, ‘fact’, do all the work of the word we’re confused about, ‘true’?  And then wouldn’t we have to give some account of what facts are?"
< 
< There are at least two different ways to reply to this objection.  The first way to reply is to actually offer a theory of what facts are.  This is something that philosophers, this century, have actually tried to do.  They say things like this: some facts are basically combinations of objects together with their properties or relations; so the fact that Fido barks is the combination of an object, Fido, with one of Fido’s properties, that he barks.  But of course that is only one kind of fact; there would be other kinds of facts, about <i>all</i> dogs; or about the relation between dogs and cats; and so on.  But the idea is that it is possible, anyway, to specify and categorize all those different kinds of facts.  And then you’ve got an answer to the question, "What are facts?"  You say: it’s one of these sorts of things (pointing to your theory of facts).  And when it is asked, "What does it mean for a fact to exist?" you can answer: well, it’s for each part of a fact to exist.  So if Fido exists, and Fido’s barking exists, then the fact that Fido bark exists.  And that’s what makes it true to say that Fido barks.
< 
< I personally think that’s a very appealing way to answer the objection.  But there is another way, which has been perhaps even more popular.  And this is to offer an <i>even</i> <i>further</i> stripped-down theory.  First, observe that if I say that it’s a fact that P, I might as well have just said, "P."  If I say, for example, that it’s a fact that some dogs bark, then why don’t I just say, "Some dogs bark"?  Why do I have to declare that it’s a fact?  If I’m saying it, then I’m implying that it’s a fact, am I not?  Sure.  Well notice that, in the previous theory of truth, these words occur: "it is a fact that P."  So then why don’t we just say "P" in place of "it is a fact that P"?  I mean, suppose I’m right, and when I say "It’s a fact that P," I really mean nothing more than when I say "P."  Then why not just substitute "P" in for "it is a fact that P" in our previous, revised correspondence theory?  Then we don’t talk about facts at all.  So here’s the new, even further stripped-down theory:
< 
< It is <i>true</i> that P iff P.
< 
< That’s it.  And some people say that that’s basically all there is to say about truth.  This bare-bones theory is called "the redundancy theory of truth," and it is due to F. P. Ramsey, an English philosopher who lived about the same time as Moore and Russell.  It’s called "the redundancy theory" because it basically implies that saying that something is true is always redundant.  This is very similar to the "performative theory of truth" mentioned in our reading on p. 116.  The idea is that, instead of saying, "It is true that some dogs bark," you could, without loss of meaning, say simply, "Some dogs bark."  In principle we could always eliminate talk of truth, in favor of simply forthrightly asserting whatever it is that we say is true.
< 
< Now there’s one simple objection to the theory that might occur to you.  You might say: "Well, if I claim, ‘Pigs fly,’ then the redundancy theory says that <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that pigs fly!  If I claim that philosophy is simple, then <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that philosophy is simple!"  This is a bad objection.  It’s bad because it has the redundancy theory wrong.  The redundancy theory doesn’t say: "It’s true that P iff I claim that P."  It says: "It’s true that P iff P."  So, if pigs fly, if pigs do indeed fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  Nothing wrong with saying that: that’s correct.  If pigs did fly, then it would be true that pigs fly.  But that’s quite different from saying that, if <i>I</i> <i>claim</i> that pigs fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  So the redundancy theory doesn’t say that whatever anyone says is true.  What it does say is that, if I say something, then I’m committed to saying that what I said <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
< 
< And this makes some sense.  Suppose, on the one hand, I say, "God exists!  There is a supreme being!"  Then suppose on the other hand that I say, "It’s <i>true</i> that God exists!  It’s <i>true</i> that there is a supreme being!"  Have I added anything to my original claim when I say that it’s <i>true</i>?  I mean, have I added anything other than <i>emphasis</i> and a declaration that I really do believe what I’m saying?  The redundancy theory thinks not; saying that something is true is only adding emphasis.
< 
< But some people disagree.  They think that there is something that the redundancy theory is missing.  They think there’s got to be <i>some</i> reason why we came up with this word "true."  The redundancy theory says basically that it’s only a term of emphasis.  But is that really all it is?  Isn’t the idea, rather, that one specifically wishes to point to the fact that a proposition bears some relation to reality -- correpondence, describing the facts, something like that.  Well, we’re not going to resolve that dispute now.  The dispute quickly becomes very technical and draws a lot on results and problems in logic.
< 
< So instead let’s take a quick look at another theory of truth, that differs quite a bit both from the correspondence theory and the redundancy theory.  This is called the <i>coherence</i> <i>theory</i>.  The coherence theory offers another definition of "truth."   It says that truth depends on coherence, as follows:
< 
< It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is part of a coherent system of propositions.
< 
< Roughly, P is true if it coheres with a system of propositions that it’s part of.  Typically a "system of propositions" is understood as a group of propositions that some one person believes.  So if you like, you can think of "system of propositions" as meaning a belief system.  Then the idea is that if your belief system is coherent, then your beliefs are true.  And if you come across a belief that <i>doesn’t</i> cohere with the others, then you can toss it out as incoherent and thus false.
< 
< I am not going to try to give an example of a coherent system or a belief that is true because it is part of the system.  The reason I’m not isn’t that I think the coherence theoryis obviously wrong, but because the coherence theory is better regarded, in my opinion, as a theory about <i>justified</i> <i>belief</i>, that is, <i>when</i> <i>beliefs</i> <i>are</i> <i>justified</i> <i>or</i> <i>rational</i>, which is something we are going to study when we study epistemology.  The coherence theory is better regarded as a theory about when beliefs are <i>justified</i> than as a theory about when beliefs are <i>true</i>.  That’s my claim, anyway -- I’m telling you this only so you can understand why we’re not examining the theory in any depth right now.  But when we look at the coherence theory of <i>justification</i>, I will give examples and criticisms that apply to coherence theories generally -- whether of truth or of justification.
< 
< I’ll conclude our discussion of theories of truth by presenting a theory which was introduced and made by American philosophers, Charles Pierce (pronounced "purse") and William James, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Their theory is called <i>pragmatism</i>, or the <i>pragmatic</i> <i>theory</i> of truth.  Pragmatism has been regarded as an American theory of truth, although I would suggest that the correspondence theory probably more closely reflects the commonsense realism that most Americans share.  Anyway, "pragmatism" is one of those neat words that philosophers like so much that they want to appropriate it for themselves, without regard to how it has been used before.  As a result, the term "pragmatism" means a lot of different things to a lot of different people; there are lots of versions of pragmatism.  So let me talk anyway about one very important, influential version, that is due to Peirce, and which has received some renewed interest from some philosophers today, like Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam.
< 
< Here is Peirce’s version, roughly stated:
< 
< It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is agreed upon in the consensus achieved at the ideal limit of inquiry.
< 
< Peirce invites us to imagine what science will be like a few hundred, or perhaps a few thousand years from now.  He predicted that human inquiry and truth-seeking would, or at the very least could, at some point come to an end, a limit; there would, he thought, be basically no questions left to be answered, and the state of human knowledge could not be improved upon.  At that point there would be, he thought, some very general consensus, firmly agreed-upon, by all inquirers.  And if some proposition <i>now</i> being considered <i>would</i> be something that everyone would agree on, in that ideal limit of inquiry, then that proposition is true.  And that’s what it <i>means</i> to say that a proposition is true: that it is part of the consensus that would exist in the ideal limit of inquiry.
< 
< I think you might be able to see some reason for accepting pragmatism.  Much of the motivation behind it comes from the thought that the truth is <i>knowable</i>.  I mean, suppose you thought that: if something is true, then it can be <i>known</i> to be true.  Then what, really, is knowability?  Well, something would be knowable if it <i>could</i> be known -- if not now, then by someone, somewhere down the road.  So something is knowable if we could, after long hard careful inquiry, discover it.  In yet other words, something is knowable if we <i>would</i> know it in the ideal limit of inquiry.
< 
< Now, suppose you thought that all truth is knowable in <i>this</i> sense.  In that case, everything that <i>could</i> be known, <i>would</i> be known in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In the perfect science all truths would be known.  There wouldn’t be any truths left over.  So then why not say that there is no more <i>to</i> truth than that what that perfect science would tell us?  That would simplify matters.  There would be no need to look for any sort of correspondence between propositions and the world, or between propositions and a coherent system of propositions.  Truth, since it is knowable, is whatever the perfect science would tell us in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In that way pragmatism is very optimistic.
< 
< I’ll raise, rather briefly, two basic objections that can be made to pragmatism.  First, you can say: maybe there are some truths that <i>aren’t</i> knowable.  Why think that every proposition must be knowable?  Why <i>not</i> say there are some true propositions that we can’t ever know, not even in some ideal limit of inquiry?  Let me give you an example.  There are probably complex processes going on inside of black holes; but black holes are so gravitationally powerful that not even <i>light</i> can escape from them.  So we could not possibly get knowledge of some specific events going on, right now, inside some black hole.  Nonetheless there would seem to be some <i>facts</i> there; scientists might even know enough to be able to describe what <i>might</i> be going on; the point, though, is that they can’t confirm <i>that</i> it is going on, even if they can describe, in generalities, what might be going on.  So the first problem for pragmatism is that it certainly appears that there are some truths that would not appear in the perfected science in the ideal limit of inquiry -- because they cannot be known at all.  You can probably think of more examples yourself; maybe truths about what went on in the minds of people long dead, or facts about very distant events.  Perhaps there are facts about subatomic particles which we cannot, in principle, ever know.
< 
< Here’s a second objection.  Basically, what pragmatism describes an <i>indicator</i> or a <i>sign</i> of truth.  It really cannot be regarded as a theory of the <i>meaning</i> of the word "true."  Do you see the difference?  There’s a difference between <i>stating</i> <i>an</i> <i>indicator</i> and <i>giving</i> <i>the</i> <i>meaning</i>.  For example, when the streetlights turn at the end of a day, that’s an indicator, a sign, that evening is coming on.  It would be an obvious mistake to say that the word "evening" just means "the time that the streetlights turn on."  In the same way, while it might be an <i>indicator</i> of truth, that a proposition is part of that perfect science at the ideal limit of inquiry, that just isn’t what "truth" <i>means</i>.
< 
< This present objection isn’t so much an argument against pragmatism, so much as it is a request -- that we make sure that we aren’t confusing an <i>indicator</i> of truth with the <i>meaning</i> of the concept truth.  There is a difference between the two and it seems to me that pragmatism confuses them.  Anyway, I think a more powerful objection is lurking about here.  But we don’t have time to go into it in any further detail.
< 
< I think that after this very brief discussion of theories of truth, the revised correspondence theory looks most plausible; but we just haven’t discussed them in enough depth for me to be able to say that with any certainty.  But as usual you have been introduced to the terrain: among different theories of truth there are the correspondence theory, the redundancy theory, the coherence theory, and pragmatism.  With such a variety to choose from at the very least you should be convinced that you don’t have to rest content with any sort of relativism that says that truth is just the same as belief.  You can do a heck of a lot better than that.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Truth]]
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985134959
1c1
< He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).  
---
> He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
10c10
< * Next President: [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
---
> * Next President: [[William Jefferson Clinton]]
------
Truth|985135005
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What is truth?  We’ll look at a number of answers to this question that philosophers have given.
> 
> The first is called the <i>correspondence</i> <i>theory</i>, and we can define it as follows:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P ("P" stands for a proposition) iff P corresponds with the facts.
> 
> So "truth" means "correspondence with the facts."  That’s a traditional formulation of the theory.  So let me try to explain what it says.  For example, it’s true that some dogs bark if the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the facts.  Which facts?  Actually, just one: the fact that some dogs bark.  So suppose that it <i>is</i> a fact that some dogs bark (that’s not hard to suppose).  Then we can improve our example.  We could say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, the proposition, "Some dogs bark," corresponds with the fact that some dogs bark.  Or we could say: it’s true that God exists if, and only if, the proposition, "God exists," corresponds with the fact that God exists.
> 
> The most commonly cited problem for the correspondence theory is this question: what is correspondence?  <i>When</i> does a proposition correspond with the facts?  Well, you can think of correspondence as a sort of matching-up relation -- if a proposition can be matched up with a fact, then it corresponds to that fact.  But that’s <i>still</i> puzzling, isn’t it?  I mean, when does a proposition "match up" with a fact?  To say that "correspondence" means "matching up" doesn’t really shed a whole lot of light on the subject.
> 
> Well, one thing we might observe in any case is that, in order for a proposition to be true, according to the correspondence theory, there must <i>be</i> some fact to which it corresponds.  So a fact has to <i>exist</i> in order to be matched up a proposition.  And remember, we’ve already decided <i>which</i> fact that a proposition has to correspond with: the proposition that P has to correspond with the fact that P, if the proposition that P is true.
> 
> So here is a suggestion that can help get us around the objection about correspondence.  We can say that it is true that P if, and only if, there exists a fact that P.  If we put it like that, then we don’t have to talk about correspondence at all.  We just say: it’s true that some dogs bark if, and only if, there exists a fact, that some dogs bark.  And we could put it even simpler than that:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff it is a fact that P.
> 
> So consider that the <i>revised</i> <i>version</i> of the correspondence theory: P is true when it is a fact that P.  It’s true that dogs bark if it’s a fact that some dogs bark.  It’s true that God exists if it’s a fact that God exists.  It’s true that snow is white if it’s a fact that snow is white.  And so on.  We can regard that as explaining what it means for a proposition to correspond with a fact: basically, if <i>there</i> <i>is</i> a fact that P, then that fact corresponds with the proposition that P.
> 
> But this reformulation of the theory faces now a different problem.  Namely what are facts, and what does it mean to say that facts <i>exist</i>, or that <i>there</i> <i>is</i> some alleged fact?  Look at the problem like this.  Our reformulation basically says that "true proposition" means "factual proposition."  So then we have to ask ourselves: "Have we really <i>explained</i> anything about truth, about true propositions, if we merely said that they are factual?  Because then aren’t we just letting this <i>other</i> word, ‘fact’, do all the work of the word we’re confused about, ‘true’?  And then wouldn’t we have to give some account of what facts are?"
> 
> There are at least two different ways to reply to this objection.  The first way to reply is to actually offer a theory of what facts are.  This is something that philosophers, this century, have actually tried to do.  They say things like this: some facts are basically combinations of objects together with their properties or relations; so the fact that Fido barks is the combination of an object, Fido, with one of Fido’s properties, that he barks.  But of course that is only one kind of fact; there would be other kinds of facts, about <i>all</i> dogs; or about the relation between dogs and cats; and so on.  But the idea is that it is possible, anyway, to specify and categorize all those different kinds of facts.  And then you’ve got an answer to the question, "What are facts?"  You say: it’s one of these sorts of things (pointing to your theory of facts).  And when it is asked, "What does it mean for a fact to exist?" you can answer: well, it’s for each part of a fact to exist.  So if Fido exists, and Fido’s barking exists, then the fact that Fido bark exists.  And that’s what makes it true to say that Fido barks.
> 
> I personally think that’s a very appealing way to answer the objection.  But there is another way, which has been perhaps even more popular.  And this is to offer an <i>even</i> <i>further</i> stripped-down theory.  First, observe that if I say that it’s a fact that P, I might as well have just said, "P."  If I say, for example, that it’s a fact that some dogs bark, then why don’t I just say, "Some dogs bark"?  Why do I have to declare that it’s a fact?  If I’m saying it, then I’m implying that it’s a fact, am I not?  Sure.  Well notice that, in the previous theory of truth, these words occur: "it is a fact that P."  So then why don’t we just say "P" in place of "it is a fact that P"?  I mean, suppose I’m right, and when I say "It’s a fact that P," I really mean nothing more than when I say "P."  Then why not just substitute "P" in for "it is a fact that P" in our previous, revised correspondence theory?  Then we don’t talk about facts at all.  So here’s the new, even further stripped-down theory:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P.
> 
> That’s it.  And some people say that that’s basically all there is to say about truth.  This bare-bones theory is called "the redundancy theory of truth," and it is due to F. P. Ramsey, an English philosopher who lived about the same time as Moore and Russell.  It’s called "the redundancy theory" because it basically implies that saying that something is true is always redundant.  This is very similar to the "performative theory of truth" mentioned in our reading on p. 116.  The idea is that, instead of saying, "It is true that some dogs bark," you could, without loss of meaning, say simply, "Some dogs bark."  In principle we could always eliminate talk of truth, in favor of simply forthrightly asserting whatever it is that we say is true.
> 
> Now there’s one simple objection to the theory that might occur to you.  You might say: "Well, if I claim, ‘Pigs fly,’ then the redundancy theory says that <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that pigs fly!  If I claim that philosophy is simple, then <i>it’s</i> <i>true</i> that philosophy is simple!"  This is a bad objection.  It’s bad because it has the redundancy theory wrong.  The redundancy theory doesn’t say: "It’s true that P iff I claim that P."  It says: "It’s true that P iff P."  So, if pigs fly, if pigs do indeed fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  Nothing wrong with saying that: that’s correct.  If pigs did fly, then it would be true that pigs fly.  But that’s quite different from saying that, if <i>I</i> <i>claim</i> that pigs fly, then it’s true that pigs fly.  So the redundancy theory doesn’t say that whatever anyone says is true.  What it does say is that, if I say something, then I’m committed to saying that what I said <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> And this makes some sense.  Suppose, on the one hand, I say, "God exists!  There is a supreme being!"  Then suppose on the other hand that I say, "It’s <i>true</i> that God exists!  It’s <i>true</i> that there is a supreme being!"  Have I added anything to my original claim when I say that it’s <i>true</i>?  I mean, have I added anything other than <i>emphasis</i> and a declaration that I really do believe what I’m saying?  The redundancy theory thinks not; saying that something is true is only adding emphasis.
> 
> But some people disagree.  They think that there is something that the redundancy theory is missing.  They think there’s got to be <i>some</i> reason why we came up with this word "true."  The redundancy theory says basically that it’s only a term of emphasis.  But is that really all it is?  Isn’t the idea, rather, that one specifically wishes to point to the fact that a proposition bears some relation to reality -- correpondence, describing the facts, something like that.  Well, we’re not going to resolve that dispute now.  The dispute quickly becomes very technical and draws a lot on results and problems in logic.
> 
> So instead let’s take a quick look at another theory of truth, that differs quite a bit both from the correspondence theory and the redundancy theory.  This is called the <i>coherence</i> <i>theory</i>.  The coherence theory offers another definition of "truth."   It says that truth depends on coherence, as follows:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is part of a coherent system of propositions.
> 
> Roughly, P is true if it coheres with a system of propositions that it’s part of.  Typically a "system of propositions" is understood as a group of propositions that some one person believes.  So if you like, you can think of "system of propositions" as meaning a belief system.  Then the idea is that if your belief system is coherent, then your beliefs are true.  And if you come across a belief that <i>doesn’t</i> cohere with the others, then you can toss it out as incoherent and thus false.
> 
> I am not going to try to give an example of a coherent system or a belief that is true because it is part of the system.  The reason I’m not isn’t that I think the coherence theoryis obviously wrong, but because the coherence theory is better regarded, in my opinion, as a theory about <i>justified</i> <i>belief</i>, that is, <i>when</i> <i>beliefs</i> <i>are</i> <i>justified</i> <i>or</i> <i>rational</i>, which is something we are going to study when we study epistemology.  The coherence theory is better regarded as a theory about when beliefs are <i>justified</i> than as a theory about when beliefs are <i>true</i>.  That’s my claim, anyway -- I’m telling you this only so you can understand why we’re not examining the theory in any depth right now.  But when we look at the coherence theory of <i>justification</i>, I will give examples and criticisms that apply to coherence theories generally -- whether of truth or of justification.
> 
> I’ll conclude our discussion of theories of truth by presenting a theory which was introduced and made by American philosophers, Charles Pierce (pronounced "purse") and William James, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Their theory is called <i>pragmatism</i>, or the <i>pragmatic</i> <i>theory</i> of truth.  Pragmatism has been regarded as an American theory of truth, although I would suggest that the correspondence theory probably more closely reflects the commonsense realism that most Americans share.  Anyway, "pragmatism" is one of those neat words that philosophers like so much that they want to appropriate it for themselves, without regard to how it has been used before.  As a result, the term "pragmatism" means a lot of different things to a lot of different people; there are lots of versions of pragmatism.  So let me talk anyway about one very important, influential version, that is due to Peirce, and which has received some renewed interest from some philosophers today, like Richard Rorty and Hilary Putnam.
> 
> Here is Peirce’s version, roughly stated:
> 
> It is <i>true</i> that P iff P is agreed upon in the consensus achieved at the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> Peirce invites us to imagine what science will be like a few hundred, or perhaps a few thousand years from now.  He predicted that human inquiry and truth-seeking would, or at the very least could, at some point come to an end, a limit; there would, he thought, be basically no questions left to be answered, and the state of human knowledge could not be improved upon.  At that point there would be, he thought, some very general consensus, firmly agreed-upon, by all inquirers.  And if some proposition <i>now</i> being considered <i>would</i> be something that everyone would agree on, in that ideal limit of inquiry, then that proposition is true.  And that’s what it <i>means</i> to say that a proposition is true: that it is part of the consensus that would exist in the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> I think you might be able to see some reason for accepting pragmatism.  Much of the motivation behind it comes from the thought that the truth is <i>knowable</i>.  I mean, suppose you thought that: if something is true, then it can be <i>known</i> to be true.  Then what, really, is knowability?  Well, something would be knowable if it <i>could</i> be known -- if not now, then by someone, somewhere down the road.  So something is knowable if we could, after long hard careful inquiry, discover it.  In yet other words, something is knowable if we <i>would</i> know it in the ideal limit of inquiry.
> 
> Now, suppose you thought that all truth is knowable in <i>this</i> sense.  In that case, everything that <i>could</i> be known, <i>would</i> be known in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In the perfect science all truths would be known.  There wouldn’t be any truths left over.  So then why not say that there is no more <i>to</i> truth than that what that perfect science would tell us?  That would simplify matters.  There would be no need to look for any sort of correspondence between propositions and the world, or between propositions and a coherent system of propositions.  Truth, since it is knowable, is whatever the perfect science would tell us in the ideal limit of inquiry.  In that way pragmatism is very optimistic.
> 
> I’ll raise, rather briefly, two basic objections that can be made to pragmatism.  First, you can say: maybe there are some truths that <i>aren’t</i> knowable.  Why think that every proposition must be knowable?  Why <i>not</i> say there are some true propositions that we can’t ever know, not even in some ideal limit of inquiry?  Let me give you an example.  There are probably complex processes going on inside of black holes; but black holes are so gravitationally powerful that not even <i>light</i> can escape from them.  So we could not possibly get knowledge of some specific events going on, right now, inside some black hole.  Nonetheless there would seem to be some <i>facts</i> there; scientists might even know enough to be able to describe what <i>might</i> be going on; the point, though, is that they can’t confirm <i>that</i> it is going on, even if they can describe, in generalities, what might be going on.  So the first problem for pragmatism is that it certainly appears that there are some truths that would not appear in the perfected science in the ideal limit of inquiry -- because they cannot be known at all.  You can probably think of more examples yourself; maybe truths about what went on in the minds of people long dead, or facts about very distant events.  Perhaps there are facts about subatomic particles which we cannot, in principle, ever know.
> 
> Here’s a second objection.  Basically, what pragmatism describes an <i>indicator</i> or a <i>sign</i> of truth.  It really cannot be regarded as a theory of the <i>meaning</i> of the word "true."  Do you see the difference?  There’s a difference between <i>stating</i> <i>an</i> <i>indicator</i> and <i>giving</i> <i>the</i> <i>meaning</i>.  For example, when the streetlights turn at the end of a day, that’s an indicator, a sign, that evening is coming on.  It would be an obvious mistake to say that the word "evening" just means "the time that the streetlights turn on."  In the same way, while it might be an <i>indicator</i> of truth, that a proposition is part of that perfect science at the ideal limit of inquiry, that just isn’t what "truth" <i>means</i>.
> 
> This present objection isn’t so much an argument against pragmatism, so much as it is a request -- that we make sure that we aren’t confusing an <i>indicator</i> of truth with the <i>meaning</i> of the concept truth.  There is a difference between the two and it seems to me that pragmatism confuses them.  Anyway, I think a more powerful objection is lurking about here.  But we don’t have time to go into it in any further detail.
> 
> I think that after this very brief discussion of theories of truth, the revised correspondence theory looks most plausible; but we just haven’t discussed them in enough depth for me to be able to say that with any certainty.  But as usual you have been introduced to the terrain: among different theories of truth there are the correspondence theory, the redundancy theory, the coherence theory, and pragmatism.  With such a variety to choose from at the very least you should be convinced that you don’t have to rest content with any sort of relativism that says that truth is just the same as belief.  You can do a heck of a lot better than that.
> ----
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
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George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985135023
1c1
< He was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
---
> George Herbert Walker Bush ([[Republican | Republican party]]) was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
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Larrys_Text|985135042
15c15
< ::[[philosophy of language]] -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- TheoriesOfTruth
---
> ::[[philosophy of language]] -- TheMeaningOfMeaning -- ProperNames -- MeaningfulNess -- NaiveRelativismAboutTruth -- [[truth]]
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George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985135051
1c1
< George Herbert Walker Bush ([[Republican | Republican party]]) was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
---
> George Herbert Walker Bush ([[Republican party | Republican]]) was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
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Validity|985135068
1c1
< In [[logic]], an [[argument]] is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are true, then the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises ''make'' the conclusion true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises [[entailment|entail]] the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
---
> In [[logic]], an [[argument]] is said to be ''valid'' (noun: ''validity'') if, and only if, it is the case that, if the premises of the argument are [[truth|true]], then the conclusion ''must'' be true.  In other words, a valid argument is one where the premises ''make'' the conclusion true.  There are many other ways to formulate this basic definition: the premises [[entailment|entail]] the conclusion; it cannot be the case both that the premises are true and the conclusion false; the falsehood of the conclusion entails the falsehood of at least one premise; etc.
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Probability/Axioms|985135097
1,2d0
< back to [[Probability]]
< 
5c3
< (These axioms are just the most elementary way to define probabilities. Other axiom schema are used with non-discrete points.)
---
> Probability is usually defined as a measure P on the subsets of a given set S, where S is called the '''universe''' or '''[[Sample Space]]''' and its subsets are called '''[[events]]'''.  That way P satisfies these three axioms:
7,12c5,7
< #Let '''U''' be a [[set]] of discrete points, '''e1''','''e2''','''e3'''...,  called '''elementary events'''. We call this set, the '''universe''' or [[Sample Space]].
< #Let every elementary event, '''e''' in '''U''', have a non-negative ''weight'', w('''e'''), assigned to it.
< #Let '''composite events''', Y1,Y2,Y3,... be represented by [[Subset]]s of '''U'''.
< #Define the '''probability''' of an event '''X''' (any subset of '''U'''), as the sum of the weights, w('''e'''), for every ''elementary event'' contained in '''X''' divided by the sum of the weights of every element of '''U'''.
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> # For any set E, 0 &le; P(E) &ge; 1
> # P(S) = 1
> # Any sequence of mutually disjoint events E<sub>1</sub>, E<sub>2</sub>, ... satisfies P(E<sub>1</sub> &cup; E<sub>2</sub> &cup; ...) = &sum; E<sub>i</sub>.  This is called &sigma;-additivity.
13a9
> In the event that the sample space is finite or countably infinite, a probability function can also be defined by its values on the elementary events {e<sub>1</sub>}, {e<sub>2</sub>}, ... where S = {e<sub>1</sub>, e<sub>2</sub>, ...}
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Probability/Axioms|985135125
5c5
< # For any set E, 0 &le; P(E) &ge; 1
---
> # For any set E, 0 &le; P(E) &le; 1
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BushTalk|985135172
1,23c1
< 
< 
< '''Discussion'''
< ----
< ----
< '''Election controversy:'''
< 
< [[George W. Bush]] is alleged by Democrats to be the first president of the [[United States]] who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
< 
< :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY and to provide more political representation to less populated states.
< 
< :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
< 
< :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
< 
< :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many people have claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
< 
< :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
< 
< ----
< '''Controversy over issues:'''
< 
< Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
---
> #REDIRECT George W. Bush/Talk
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BushTalk|985135245
1c1
< #REDIRECT George W. Bush/Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[George W. Bush/Talk]]
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George_W._Bush/Talk|985135262
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> '''Discussion'''
> ----
> ----
> '''Election controversy:'''
> 
> [[George W. Bush]] is alleged by Democrats to be the first president of the [[United States]] who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
> 
> :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY and to provide more political representation to less populated states.
> 
> :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
> 
> :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
> 
> :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many peoplehave claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
> 
> :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
> 
> ----
> '''Controversy over issues:'''
> 
> Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985135308
1,23c1
< 
< 
< '''Discussion'''
< ----
< ----
< '''Election controversy:'''
< 
< [[George W. Bush]] is alleged by Democrats to be the first president of the [[United States]] who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
< 
< :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY and to provide more political representation to less populated states.
< 
< :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
< 
< :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
< 
< :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many peoplehave claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "states rights" in other contexts.)
< 
< :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
< 
< ----
< '''Controversy over issues:'''
< 
< Recently elected president of the United States who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
---
> Recently elected president of the [[United States]] who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985135411
1c1,3
< '''Upon the enlightening comments by Jimbo, I must agree with him that the title of this original page is entirely wrong.  Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  I share his desire that it not become [[Yet Another]] discussion forum.  But is definitely <i>is</i> something different from a paper encyclopedia, and I think we should think more about how to take advantage of that fact.  Perhaps a separate discussion forum would be the appropriate place to do this, but I think doing it here is just as viable and useful.'''
---
> <b>Subtitled: Wikipedia Unbound</b>
> 
> Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  I share [[Jimbo Wales]]'s desire that it not become [[Yet Another]] discussion forum.  But it definitely <i>is</i> something different from a paper encyclopedia, and I think we should think more about how to take advantage of that fact.  Perhaps a separate discussion forum would be the appropriate place to do this, but I think doing it here is just as viable and useful.  I also don't want it to become yet another big dead collection of facts.
4d5
< * Size limits: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
6c7,13
< '''I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
---
> * <b>No size limits</b>: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
> 
> I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Style differences</b>:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
8c15
< * Style differences:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
---
> I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
10c17
< '''I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
---
> ----
14c21,29
< '''I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
---
> I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Timeliness</b>: The pages of an encyclopedia are all compiled and printed at roughly the same time, and old sets are generally replaced by new whole sets.  Wikipedia pages cannot assume that the reader will have any clue to the historical context in which the article is written, or the state of any article to which it refers.  It is quite likely that some Wikipedia page will refer to "the most common/popular X...", then point to a page with an entirely different "most common/popular X...", each of which was correct when written.  We must be careful, then, to imagine how our article might appear to someone reading it at some other time, some other place, and without the support of articles to which we refer.  This is a rare instance, I think, of something that's actually more difficult in a Wiki than on paper.  Perhaps the software could be modified to improve the visibility of the date an article was written (and each of its edits)?
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Collaborative authorship</b>: A Wikipedia article need not have a "author", in the sense of some person or group who created all the text and who is responsible for it.  I think it is good that most authors don't identify themselves, and I think it is good for the project that all authors feel free to edit, re-arrange, and build on others' work.  I think perhaps that some might actually not feel free enough, and should do more.  While we cannot use copyrighted work from non-free sources, and we cannot modify work from otherwise-free sources that forbid derivative work, we <i>can</i> (and I think should) use, modify, edit, and rework free texts (in particular other Wikipedia pages, public domain sources, and other open content) when doing so will result in a better final product.  Some otherwise-free sources will want credit, so we should have a method for noting collaborative credit on a page when necessary.  For instance, "This page is based on <link to free source> and work by various unknown authors."
15a31
> ----
17c33
< * Opinions: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
---
> * <b>Opinions</b>: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
19c35
< '''I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
---
> I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
23d38
< Please add to this list and comment.
25c40,42
< ''For my part, I agree with most of this and I agree 100% with Jimbo's reactions. -- [[Larry Sanger]]''
---
> Please add to this list and comment.
> 
> For my part, I agree with most of this and I agree 100% with Jimbo's reactions. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Democracy|985135648
1c1
< ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to ThePeople via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe [[republic]]s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of [[Political theory]] this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''[[Direct democracy]]'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see [[No true scotsman fallacy]]).
---
> ''Democracy'' describes a system of government in which the power to make important political decisions is given directly to [[the people]] via direct vote.  Exactly what "democracy" means depends on what one means by "the People," by "important political decisions," and by "direct vote."  Sometimes "democracy" is used more loosely to describe [[republic]]s, as in the phrase "Western democracies" and "making the world safe for Democracy," but in careful discussions of [[Political theory]] this usage is incorrect.  Sometimes, in order to distinguish democracies from republics, the term ''[[Direct democracy]]'' is used.  Depending on what, exactly, one means, one can accurately say that there has never been a "true" democracy of any considerable size (but see [[No true scotsman fallacy]]).
7c7
< See [[Direct democracy]]; [[Techno democracy]]; [[Republic]]; [[Democratic republic]]; [[Republicanism]]; [[Demagoguery]]; [[Populism]]; ThePeople.
---
> See [[Direct democracy]]; [[Techno democracy]]; [[Republic]]; [[Democratic republic]]; [[Republicanism]]; [[Demagoguery]]; [[Populism]]; [[the people]].
------
US_Election_2000|985135727
4,5c4
< -----
< Can anyone give some details on the effect of election fraud on the outcome in states that were close to going to either candidate?  Flordia, Montana, and ??? were extremely close.
---
> Can anyone give some details on the effect of election fraud on the outcome in states that were close to going to either candidate?  [[Florida]], Montana, and ??? were extremely close.
9a9
> 
21c21,37
< --JohnAbbe
---
> --JohnAbbe
> 
> ----
> 
> Moved From [[Bush Talk]]:
> 
> [[George W. Bush]] is alleged by Democrats to be the first president of the [[United States]] who has not been elected by the voters but by courts. It not political (I am german), but a fact : He did gather less votes than Al Gore.
> 
> :The US 2000 Presidential election was very controversial, but the statement above oversimplifies the controversy.  The UnitedStatesConstitution explicitly describes the procedure for electing the president.  The people do not elect a president directly, but instead elect people to the ElectoralCollege (which selects the president).  The ElectoralCollege system was originally seen as a means to prevent the excesses of a pure DemocracY and to provide more political representation to less populated states.
> 
> :The 2000 election was ''not'' the first time that the US popular vote was different than the result of the ElectoralCollege.  Since states give all of their electoral votes to the winner of the state election, small majorities in highly-populated states can beat larger majorities in less-populated states.
> 
> :The biggest election controversy was over the results from the state of FloridA, which was determined by less than 1000 votes out of over 6,000,000 votes cast.  The results were challenged, and a series of recounts, attempted recounts, and court cases began.  In some of the important legal cases the local courts ruled against recounts, but were overruled by the Florida Supreme Court.
> 
> :The US Supreme Court avoided ruling on the legal issues at first, but finally issued a ruling that overruled the Florida Supreme Court and effectively prohibited further recounts in Florida.  The final vote was 5-4, and was split by the apparent political alignment of the court.  Many people have claimed that the court's move was more political than legal.  (For instance, some who voted to overturn the Florida court have been strong advocates of "state's rights" in other contexts.)
> 
> :Shortly after the Supreme Court's final ruling, Al Gore conceded the 2000 presidential election.
------
US_Election_2000|985135808
10,11c10
< I've added this item to be a catch-all for 
< things related to election 2000.
---
> I've added this item to be a catch-all for things related to election 2000.
25c24
< Moved From [[Bush Talk]]:
---
> Moved From [[George W. Bush/Talk]]:
------
Bill_Clinton|985135927
31c31
< ----
---
> There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
33c33
< /Talk
---
> ----
35c35
< There's a great deal more to be said about him -- let's try to keep it non-partisan and encyclopedic?
---
> /Talk (go ahead and be partisan there)
------
George_W._Bush|985135937
21c21,23
< * BushTalk
---
> * /Talk
> 
> ----
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985135997
6,8c6
< I think that this is one instance where disambiguating titles almost ''requires'' that we have a new feature.  What do you think? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< '''I don't know what the new feature might be. --[[Jimbo Wales]]'''
---
> I think that this is one instance where disambiguating titles almost ''requires'' that we have a new feature: parentheses in page titles.  Then we could write "<code>[[Rush (rock band)]]</code>" and many of our disambiguation problems would be solved.  What do you think? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
13a12,13
> It's not your fault and there's nothing you can do at this point, because the feature hasn't been programmed yet.  But [[CliffordAdams]] is on record (see [[feature requests]]) saying the next version might support the feature. --LS
> 
19a20,21
> Well, jump pages are good, but it still doesn't solve the problem of what to call the pages one jumps off ''to.''  RushBand as a name just sucks.  --LS
> 
21c23,25
< Yes, I think we all agree that disambiguating pointer pages are good (especially when they are unexpected!), but that's not the question.  The question is whether we want to (A) continue using the same short phrase as both a title and an "address" (as well as usually the text of the link), or whether we might want to have some method of providing articles with better titles, either by (B) adding a separate title in something like HTML TITLE tags and somehow displaying that more prominently than the address, or (C) allowing addresses to be more flexible about what they allow and/or match, so that full titles can be used as addresses.
---
> Yes, I think we all agree that disambiguating pointer pages are good (especially when they are unexpected!), but that's not the question.  The question is whether we want to (A) continue using the same short phrase as both a title and an "address" (as well as usually the text of the link), or whether we might want to have some method of providing articles with better titles, either by (B) adding a separate title in something like HTML TITLE tags and somehow displaying that more prominently than the address, or (C) allowing addresses to be more flexible about what they allow and/or match, so that full titles can be used as addresses. --Someone; Lee Crocker, maybe
> 
> What he said. --LS
------
Ronald_Reagan|985136055
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ronald Wildson Reagan]]
------
Ronald_Reagan|985136068
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Ronald Wildson Reagan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]]
------
Naming_conventions|985136256
57c57
< As to names of persons, there are two schools of thought and we should try to make a community decision about this as soon as possible.
---
> As to names of persons, there are two schools of thought: use the most commonly used name, or use the person's full name.  After a vote among those interested, we've come down in favor of the former.
59,66c59,60
< Option 1.  Names should be full formal names and have all of the common ones link to them.  Reasoning: 
< * It differentiates between people with same common name.
< * Redirects from common names are easy to do.
< * There is no question on alphabetizing a full name.
< ::''How often are we going to be alphabetizing names on Wikipedia, though?''
< 
< Option 2.  Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
< * We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines, thereby attracting more people to Wikipedia.
---
> Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
> * We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines, thereby attracting more people to Wikipedia.  Also, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
69,80c63
< * Discussion of this option follows:
< ::We should have the main entry for the Jimmy Carter page, for example, at [[Jimmy Carter]] rather than [[James Earl Carter]].  In any other article where Carter is mentioned, he will almost certainly be refered to as Jimmy Carter.  Thus when a link is made on that article, it will point to the correct article page.  Of course, we can easily let [[James Earl Carter]] point to [[Jimmy Carter]].
< 
< ::Additionally, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
< 
< ::Other examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
< 
< Please vote on these options by voting below.  After a few days I ([[Larry Sanger]]) will tally the votes and delete the less popular option.
< 
< Supporters of option 1: me:)
< 
< Supporters of option 2: TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]], [[Jimbo Wales]] [[Jpmartin]]
---
> Examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
------
This_(way)|985136384
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How about that.
------
SandBox|985136408
152a153,154
> Goll dang it, I want to [[use (parentheses in titles)]]!  If not that way, then [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) This (way)]!
> ----
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985136477
25c25,27
< What he said. --LS
---
> What he said. --LS
> ----
> You can always do it [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) This (way)].  Idn't that cool. --LS
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985136490
27c27
< You can always do it [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) This (way)].  Idn't that cool. --LS
---
> You can always do it [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) this (way)].  Idn't that cool. --LS
------
This_(way)|985136534
1c1
< How about that.
---
> How about that.  You can't ''link'' to parentheses pages but you can create them and then link to them in the way that you used in order to get here.  :-)
------
This_(way)|985136549
1c1
< How about that.  You can't ''link'' to parentheses pages but you can create them and then link to them in the way that you used in order to get here.  :-)
---
> How about that.  You can't ''link'' to parentheses pages but you can create them and then link to them in the way that we used in order to get here.  :-)
------
Feature_requests|985136677
7a8
> * Remove '[' and ']' from the way that links [[http://www.nupedia.com like this]] are displayed.  That's kind of annoying, frankly.  :-)
------
Feature_requests|985136696
8c8
< * Remove '[' and ']' from the way that links [[http://www.nupedia.com like this]] are displayed.  That's kind of annoying, frankly.  :-)
---
> * Remove '[' and ']' from the way that links [http://www.nupedia.com like this] are displayed.  That's kind of annoying, frankly.  :-)
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|985136749
13c13
< * defeating the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries
---
> * building up the military
16c16,17
< * rebuilding the military - this caused the Soviet Union to go bankrupt trying to keep up its military
---
> * multiplying the deficit to several trillion dollars
> * closing many public mental health institutions
20,21d20
< He is married to [[Nancy Reagan]].
< 
22a22,37
> 
> ----
> 
> * /Talk
> 
> ----
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * [[Nancy Reagan]] ([[first lady]])
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[vice president]])
> 
> * [[US Election 1984]]
> * [[US Election 1988]]
> 
> * Previous President: [[Jimmy Carter]]
> * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Talk|985136774
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> He is credited with:
> 
> * defeating the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries
> * rebuilding the military - this caused the [[Soviet Union]] to go bankrupt trying to keep up its military
> 
> :This was done based on [[CIA]] numbers for Soviet nuclear weapons that turned out to be drastically overestimated, and many believe that they would have fallen apart anyway.
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985136791
27c27,29
< You can always do it [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) this (way)].  Idn't that cool. --LS
---
> You can always do it [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) this (way)].  Isn't that cool. --LS
> 
> :Well, strictly speaking that URL is only allowed because of a bug in the 0.91 version (which didn't strictly check the page names, so almost anything works).  The next release will be stricter, but parentheses will be allowed.  (RFC 2396 allows parentheses in URIs and URLs.)  --CliffordAdams
------
US_Election_2000|985136931
36a37,39
> 
> Yes, the claim is false on many counts.  As you correctly point out, no president has ever been elected by the people.  Most were elected by the electoral college, which frequently matches the popular vote, but which has failed to do so before, as with [[Benjamin Harrison]].  [[Thomas Jefferson]] was elected by the house of representatives after he tied in the electoral college with Aaron Burr.  [[Gerald R. Ford]] was never elected by anyone, but was appointed vice president by [[Richard M. Nixon]], who then resigned.  Fraud has been alleged in every election ever held, and often credited with changing results, such as with [[John F. Kennedy]], who narrowly defeated Nixon by fewer votes than were alleged to have been cast by dead residents of Illinois.  American politics has always been interesting.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|985136934
1c1
< 3?st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates.  Longest lived president at age 90 in 2001.  
---
> Ronald Reagan ([[Republican party | R]]) was the 40th PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1981-1989. Longest lived president at age 90 (as of 2001).  
37c37
< * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
---
> * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
------
This_(way)|985137043
1c1,4
< How about that.  You can't ''link'' to parentheses pages but you can create them and then link to them in the way that we used in order to get here.  :-)
---
> How about that.  You can't ''link'' to parentheses pages but you can create them and then link to them in the way that we used in order to get here.  :-)
> 
> Cool.  Apparently you can edit them too.
> 
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985137180
29a30,31
> 
> How about using SubPages? e.g. [[Bands/Rush]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|985137198
17a18
> * greatly escalating the "war on drugs"
------
JoshuaANorton|985137361
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Was this guy emperor of the United States]] or just [[San Francisco]]? I remember hearing about him at the [[Worldcon]] in San Francisco in 1993.
> --JohnAbbe
------
ThomasJefferson|985137740
1,3c1
< Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was primary author of the Declaration of Independence and
< the third president of the United States (1801-1809), as well as a vast number of other
< contributions and achievements.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Thomas Jefferson]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan|985137748
1,38c1
< Ronald Reagan ([[Republican party | R]]) was the 40th PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1981-1989. Longest lived president at age 90 (as of 2001).  
< 
< Ronald Reagan began his political life as a staunch [[New Deal]] / [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] supportor.  He gradually became a staunch anti-communist.  He was elected governor of California and  elected president in 1980 and 1984.
< 
< He was:
< * anti-communist
< * in favor of tax cuts
< * in favor of smaller government
< * supportive of small business
< * supportive of individual liberties
< 
< He is credited with:
< * building up the military
< * lowering taxes
< * creating the [[Earned Income Credit]] - so that his tax cut would be passed
< * multiplying the deficit to several trillion dollars
< * closing many public mental health institutions
< * greatly escalating the "war on drugs"
< 
< He was the first divorced person to be elected president.
< 
< There's more to add here...
< 
< ----
< 
< * /Talk
< 
< ----
< 
< '''See also:'''
< * [[Nancy Reagan]] ([[first lady]])
< * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[vice president]])
< 
< * [[US Election 1984]]
< * [[US Election 1988]]
< 
< * Previous President: [[Jimmy Carter]]
< * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ronald Reagan]]
------
Ronald_Reagan|985137768
1c1,38
< #REDIRECT [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]]
---
> Ronald Reagan ([[Republican party|R]]) was the 40th PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1981-1989. Longest lived president at age 90 (as of 2001).  
> 
> Ronald Reagan began his political life as a staunch [[New Deal]] / [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] supportor.  He gradually became a staunch anti-communist.  He was elected governor of California and  elected president in 1980 and 1984.
> 
> He was:
> * anti-communist
> * in favor of tax cuts
> * in favor of smaller government
> * supportive of small business
> * supportive of individual liberties
> 
> He is credited with:
> * building up the military
> * lowering taxes
> * creating the [[Earned Income Credit]] - so that his tax cut would be passed
> * multiplying the deficit to several trillion dollars
> * closing many public mental health institutions
> * greatly escalating the "war on drugs"
> 
> He was the first divorced person to be elected president.
> 
> There's more to add here...
> 
> ----
> 
> * /Talk
> 
> ----
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * [[Nancy Reagan]] ([[first lady]])
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] ([[vice president]])
> 
> * [[US Election 1984]]
> * [[US Election 1988]]
> 
> * Previous President: [[Jimmy Carter]]
> * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
------
Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Talk|985137823
1,6c1
< He is credited with:
< 
< * defeating the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries
< * rebuilding the military - this caused the [[Soviet Union]] to go bankrupt trying to keep up its military
< 
< :This was done based on [[CIA]] numbers for Soviet nuclear weapons that turned out to be drastically overestimated, and many believe that they would have fallen apart anyway.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ronald Reagan/Talk]]
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985137830
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> He is credited with:
> 
> * defeating the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries
> * rebuilding the military - this caused the [[Soviet Union]] to go bankrupt trying to keep up its military
> 
> :This was done based on [[CIA]] numbers for Soviet nuclear weapons that turned out to be drastically overestimated, and many believe that they would have fallen apart anyway.
------
Ronald_Reagan|985137861
1c1
< Ronald Reagan ([[Republican party|R]]) was the 40th PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1981-1989. Longest lived president at age 90 (as of 2001).  
---
> Ronald Wilson Reagan ([[Republican party|R]]) was the 40th PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1981-1989. Longest lived president at age 90 (as of 2001).  
38c38
< * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
---
> * Next President: [[George Herbert Walker Bush]]
------
JoshuaANorton|985137924
1,2c1
< Was this guy emperor of the United States]] or just [[San Francisco]]? I remember hearing about him at the [[Worldcon]] in San Francisco in 1993.
< --JohnAbbe
---
> #REDIRECT [[Joshua A. Norton]]
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|985137928
3c3
< * ThomasJefferson (1801-1809)
---
> * Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
35c35
< * JohnFKennedy (1961-1963)
---
> * John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
52c52
< An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
---
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
------
Joshua_A._Norton|985137933
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Was this guy emperor of the United States]] or just [[San Francisco]]? I remember hearing about him at the [[Worldcon]] in San Francisco in 1993.
> --JohnAbbe
------
Kinetics|985137959
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kinetics is the study of the rate at which compounds react.  This depends on several factors, including the area of contact between the materials, their concentrations, and the temperature at which the reaction takes place.  For a reaction ''k'' A + ''m'' B --> C + D, the rate is typically something of the form
> 
> :d[C]/dt = ''K(T)''[A]<sup><i>k'</i></sup>[B]<sup><i>m'</i></sup>
> 
> Here [X] denotes, for a reaction between liquids, gases, or solutes, the concentration of X; for a reaction taking place at a boundary it would denote something like moles per area of X.  K(T) is a rate constant that depends on temperature.  The exponents <i>k'</i> and <i>m'</i> depend on the reaction mechanism, ie the sequence of steps (collisions) that the reaction takes place by.  For a single-step reaction we would have
> 
> :d[C]/dt = ''Ke<sup>-Ea/RT</sup''[A]<sup><i>k</i></sup>[B]<sup><i>m</i></sup>
> 
> Here Ea is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature T the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>.  K has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
> 
> For most multi-step reactions the rate is determined primarily by a single slow step, with preceding steps proceedingly quickly to a state of rough equilibrium.  In general, concentrations of species are never determined solely by a single process, and as reactions occur the products begin to undergo the reverse reaction to some extent.  Thus reactions never proceed to 100% completion but rather to a state of [[chemical equilibrium]] where every step occurs at the same rate as its reverse.
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985137966
5a6,8
> 
> :Also, Perot was certainly "high-profile" in 1992, but in the 1996 election, he was no more so than Ralph Nader (Green), and received fewer votes and less press coverage. --LDC
> 
8a12,14
> 
> :And it can't ever be true anyway; Ford's pardon of Nixon caused much more of a stir.   You young folks just don't remember that far back. :) --LDC
> 
16c22,24
< Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
---
> :...or even crimes they haven't committed!  --LDC
> 
> Clinton critics argue that Clinton's many last-minute pardons were more political than those of the past, and in some cases are baffling except in light of large donations to Clinton campaigns.
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|985138021
35,39c35,39
< * John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
< * LyndonBJohnson (1963-1969)
< * Richard Millhouse Nixon (1969-1974)
< * GeraldRFord (1974-1977)
< * JimmyCarter (1977-1981)
---
> * [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
> * [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963-1969)
> * [[Richard Millhouse Nixon]] (1969-1974)
> * [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
> * [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
42,43c42,43
< * BillClinton (1993-2001)
< * GeorgeWBush (2001-2005)
---
> * [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
> * [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2005)
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|985138059
1,3c1,3
< * GeorgeWashington (1789-1797)
< * JohnAdams (1797-1801)
< * Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
---
> * [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
> * [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
> * [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
52c52
< An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
---
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985138225
31c31,33
< How about using SubPages? e.g. [[Bands/Rush]]
---
> How about using SubPages? e.g. [[Bands/Rush]]
> 
> See [[naming conventions]] for discussion.  The main problem with subpages is that it's messy.  "The Rolling Stones" and "The Beatles" will never be listed as "Bands/The Rolling Stones" and "Bands/The Beatles"; but because "Rush" is an ambiguous word (name), we will make them a subpage of Bands/ ?  Nahh... --LS
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985138342
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Jefferson was the third President OfTheUnitedStates, from 1801-1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions and achievements. (b. 1743 d. 1826)
> 
> Did he do the Louisiana Puchase?
> 
> * /Talk
> 
> ----
> 
> '''See also:'''
> * ? ([[first lady]])
> * ? ([[vice president]])
> 
> * [[US Election 1800]]
> * [[US Election 1804]]
> 
> * Previous President: [[John Adams]]
> * Next President: [[James Madison]]
------
Kinetics|985138359
9c9
< Here Ea is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature T the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>.  K has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
---
> Here Ea is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature T the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''.  K has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
------
Naming_conventions|985138389
29c29
< # ''<b>Central pages with subpages.</b>''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  Another point to consider is simply the length of the entries.  One could, for example, give an entire classification of a species in the title of the article about the species, from Kingdom to Species, making sub- and sub-sub- and etc. pages for each level in the hierarchy.  This would, however, make it particularly cumbersome to refer to species individually.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
---
> # ''<b>Central pages with subpages.</b>''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
------
Joshua_A._Norton|985138408
1,2c1,2
< Was this guy emperor of the United States]] or just [[San Francisco]]? I remember hearing about him at the [[Worldcon]] in San Francisco in 1993.
< --JohnAbbe
---
> Was this guy emperor of the [[United States]] or just [[San Francisco]]? I remember hearing about him at the [[Worldcon]] in San Francisco in 1993.
> --JohnAbbe
------
Kinetics|985138408
9c9
< Here Ea is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature T the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''.  K has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
---
> Here ''Ea'' is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature ''T'' the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''.  ''K'' has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
------
Kinetics|985138447
7c7
< :d[C]/dt = ''Ke<sup>-Ea/RT</sup''[A]<sup><i>k</i></sup>[B]<sup><i>m</i></sup>
---
> :d[C]/dt = ''Ke<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''[A]<sup><i>k</i></sup>[B]<sup><i>m</i></sup>
------
Kinetics|985138543
5c5
< Here [X] denotes, for a reaction between liquids, gases, or solutes, the concentration of X; for a reaction taking place at a boundary it would denote something like moles per area of X.  K(T) is a rate constant that depends on temperature.  The exponents <i>k'</i> and <i>m'</i> depend on the reaction mechanism, ie the sequence of steps (collisions) that the reaction takes place by.  For a single-step reaction we would have
---
> Here [X] denotes, for a reaction between liquids, gases, or solutes, the concentration of X; for a reaction taking place at a boundary it would denote something like moles per area of X.  K(T) is a rate constant that depends on temperature.  The exponents <i>k'</i> and <i>m'</i> depend on the [[reaction mechanism]], ie the sequence of steps (collisions) that the reaction takes place by, and in fact kinetics is one of the main ways of studying these.  For a single-step reaction we would have
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985138620
3a4,5
> :At some point he must have chased poo in Louisiana, in some sense, as part of those raucous Mardi Gras celebrations, but in the interests of good taste that poo incident has been covered up by history (not unlike the way a cat buries its excrement).  He also did the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
> :OK, delete this after you have laughed.
17c19
< * Next President: [[James Madison]]
---
> * Next President: [[James Madison]]
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985138976
23c23
< Yes, I think we all agree that disambiguating pointer pages are good (especially when they are unexpected!), but that's not the question.  The question is whether we want to (A) continue using the same short phrase as both a title and an "address" (as well as usually the text of the link), or whether we might want to have some method of providing articles with better titles, either by (B) adding a separate title in something like HTML TITLE tags and somehow displaying that more prominently than the address, or (C) allowing addresses to be more flexible about what they allow and/or match, so that full titles can be used as addresses. --Someone; Lee Crocker, maybe
---
> Yes, I think we all agree that disambiguating pointer pages are good (especially when they are unexpected!), but that's not the question.  The question is whether we want to (A) continue using the same short phrase as both a title and an "address" (as well as usually the text of the link), or whether we might want to have some method of providing articles with better titles, either by (B) adding a separate title in something like HTML TITLE tags and somehow displaying that more prominently than the address, or (C) allowing addresses to be more flexible about what they allow and/or match, so that full titles can be used as addresses. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
25a26,28
> 
> The problem of international titles argues in favor of (C), so that authors won't have to know weird canonization rules or do extra typing to link to "Kurt G&ouml;del", for example.  But that brings up some other nasty issues requiring groundwork that I haven't finished yet (soon!)
> 
33c36
< See [[naming conventions]] for discussion.  The main problem with subpages is that it's messy.  "The Rolling Stones" and "The Beatles" will never be listed as "Bands/The Rolling Stones" and "Bands/The Beatles"; but because "Rush" is an ambiguous word (name), we will make them a subpage of Bands/ ?  Nahh... --LS
---
> See [[naming conventions]] for discussion.  The main problem with subpages is that it's messy.  "The Rolling Stones" and "The Beatles" will never be listed as "Bands/The Rolling Stones" and "Bands/The Beatles"; but because "Rush" is an ambiguous word (name), we will make them a subpage of Bands/ ?  Nahh... --LS
------
Argument_form|985139274
1c1
< The <i>form</i> of an argument is what you get after you replace different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>[[variable]]s</i>.
---
> The <i>form</i> of an argument is what results from replacing different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters; the letters are called <i>[[variable]]s</i>.
------
College_logic|985139412
3c3
< As it is studied in a traditional first logic course in college (based on [[traditional logic]]), logic is the study of (1) forms of arguments and their parts, (2) the qualities (of arguments) of [[validity]], [[cogency]], and [[soundness]], and (3) how to construct, identify, interpret, and evaluate various kinds of arguments.  Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of [[definition]]s, as well.
---
> As it is studied in a traditional first logic course in college (based on [[traditional logic]]), logic is the study of (1) [[argument form]], (2) the qualities (of arguments) of [[validity]], [[cogency]], and [[soundness]], and (3) how to construct, identify, interpret, and evaluate various kinds of arguments.  Traditional treatments of logic have included discussion of not just arguments, but the varieties and standards of [[definition]]s, as well.
9c9
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Deduction_and_induction|985139459
3c3
< <i>Deductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of [[argument]]s that aspire to be, at least, [[validity|valid]].
---
> :<i>Deductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of [[argument]]s that aspire to be, at least, [[validity|valid]].
5c5
< <i>Induction</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, [[cogency|cogent]].
---
> :<i>Inductive</i> <i>logic</i> is the study of arguments that aspire to be, at least, [[cogency|cogent]].
9c9
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985139507
1,5c1
< Thomas Jefferson was the third President OfTheUnitedStates, from 1801-1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions and achievements. (b. 1743 d. 1826)
< 
< Did he do the Louisiana Puchase?
< :At some point he must have chased poo in Louisiana, in some sense, as part of those raucous Mardi Gras celebrations, but in the interests of good taste that poo incident has been covered up by history (not unlike the way a cat buries its excrement).  He also did the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
< :OK, delete this after you have laughed.
---
> Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark]] expedition and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
12,13c8,9
< * ? ([[first lady]])
< * ? ([[vice president]])
---
> * [[First lady]] Martha Skelton Jefferson
> * [[Vice president]]s [[Aaron Burr]], [[George Clinton]]
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985139732
19c19
< * Ease of editing: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
---
> * <i>Ease of editing</i>: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
42a43,44
> 
> A note on timeliness: the text above has changed since Larry wrote the statement above. :)
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985140050
13c13
< :And it can't ever be true anyway; Ford's pardon of Nixon caused much more of a stir.   You young folks just don't remember that far back. :) --LDC
---
> :And it can't ever be true anyway; Ford's pardon of Nixon caused much more of a stir.  And "...one of the most popular presidents in history..."?  Please.  I don't think his approval polls ever got much above 70%.  That's not something that's really possible to ever quantify, but certainly he was never anywhere near FDR or JFK on that scale.  You young folks just don't remember that far back. :) --LDC
------
RulesToConsider/Establish_Context|985142117
19c19
< Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], and so forth. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
---
> Another problem, of course, is that many subjects have more than one potential top-level category -- do [[Card game]]s belong under games, or cards?  And conversely, every subject has at least one heading it belongs to, but it would be awful to have all of [[wikipedia]] as subpages of the categories listed on the main page, with billions of redirects to send links to them.  So I would avoid subpages for subcategories altogether, and use them for items that have no meaning outside of a context (like characters in a novel), and things like [[/Talk]], [[/Examples]], [[/Notes]], [[/History]], [[/Bibliography]], and so forth. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Unicode|985142761
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[California]]-based [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode Consortium] first published "The Unicode Standard" in 1991, and continues to develop standards based on that original work.  The term <i>Unicode</i> is primarily used to refer to the [[character encoding]] specified by that document and its later versions, but the consortium develops other standards as well, such as [[text encoding]]s and [[computer programming]] standards and tools.  A version of the character encoding became international standard [[ISO]] 10646 in 1993.
> 
> As a character encoding, the intent of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Special encodings of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages), and can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
------
Character|985143112
1c1,6
< In [[computer|computers]], a symbol that requires a [[byte]] to store in memory.
---
> The word <i>character</i> has several senses:
> 
> * A [[Fictional character|fictional person]] from a book, play, or other fictional work.
> * A [[Computer character|unit of information]] in computer storage or communications.
> * A person's [[Moral character|moral predisposition]]s or attitudes.
> 
------
Unicode|985143156
3c3
< As a character encoding, the intent of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Special encodings of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages), and can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
---
> As a character encoding, the intent of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[computer character|character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Special encodings of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages), and can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
------
Character_encoding|985143221
1c1
< A <i>character encoding</i> is a [[code]] that pairs a set of set of [[natural language]] [[grapheme]]s (such as an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]]) with a set of something else, such as numbers or electrical pulses.  Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Roman alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a telegraph key; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols as [[integer]]s.
---
> A <i>character encoding</i> is a [[code]] that pairs a set of set of [[natural language]] [[computer character|character]]s (such as an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]]) with a set of something else, such as numbers or electrical pulses.  Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Roman alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a telegraph key; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols as [[integer]]s.
------
Computer_character|985144051
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In computer terminology, a <i>character</i> is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a [[grapheme]] of a [[natural language]], such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.  The concept also includes [[control character]]s, which do not correspond to natural language graphemes but to other bits of information used to process texts of the language, such as instructions to [[computer printer|printer]]s or other devices that display such texts.  It is important to make the distinction that a character is a unit of <i>information</i>, and does not imply any particular physical appearance.  For example, the character "A" represents a letter of the [[Roman alphabet]], which might be displayed or printed in a number of different sizes, [[typeface]]s, colors, and so forth; but all of those are different manifetation of the same character "A".  The term [[glyph]] is used to describe a particular physical appearance of a character.
> 
> Computers and communication equipment represent characters using a [[character encoding]] that matches each character with an integer that can be stored and manipulated.  The most common such encoding is [[ASCII]], though [[Unicode]] is quickly becoming popular.
> 
> See also [[Text encoding]].
------
Control_character|985144668
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Computers represent language using [[computer character|character]]s that represent the [[grapheme]]s, or written symbols, of that language.  It is often useful, however, to include along with those traditional characters additional <i>control characters</i> that do not themselves represent language symbols, but that are convenient to help process them.  For example, a [[computer printer|printer]] connected to a computer receives instructions to print characters on paper, and must also receive instructions to do things like control where the characters are placed on a page, to eject a page, signal the beginning or end of the transmission, or other functions.  It is convenient to send these instructions along the same communication path as the ordinary characters, and control characters serve this purpose.
> 
> A single [[character encoding]] thus typically encodes both <i>printable</i> characters and control characters.  The most popular of these, called [[ASCII]], defines the following control characters:
> 
------
Computer_character|985144733
1c1
< In computer terminology, a <i>character</i> is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a [[grapheme]] of a [[natural language]], such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.  The concept also includes [[control character]]s, which do not correspond to natural language graphemes but to other bits of information used to process texts of the language, such as instructions to [[computer printer|printer]]s or other devices that display such texts.  It is important to make the distinction that a character is a unit of <i>information</i>, and does not imply any particular physical appearance.  For example, the character "A" represents a letter of the [[Roman alphabet]], which might be displayed or printed in a number of different sizes, [[typeface]]s, colors, and so forth; but all of those are different manifetation of the same character "A".  The term [[glyph]] is used to describe a particular physical appearance of a character.
---
> In computer terminology, a <i>character</i> is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a [[grapheme]], or written symbol, of a [[natural language]], such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.  The concept also includes [[control character]]s, which do not correspond to natural language symbols but to other bits of information used to process texts of the language, such as instructions to [[computer printer|printer]]s or other devices that display such texts.  It is important to make the distinction that a character is a unit of <i>information</i>, and does not imply any particular physical appearance.  For example, the character "A" represents a letter of the [[Roman alphabet]], which might be displayed or printed in a number of different sizes, [[typeface]]s, colors, and so forth; but all of those are different manifetation of the same character "A".  The term [[glyph]] is used to describe a particular physical appearance of a character.
------
Text_encoding|985144909
1c1
< A <i>text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of text as a sequence of [[code]]s (from a [[character encoding]]) for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication of that text.  While character encodings like [[ASCII]] represent indivual [[grapheme]]s of language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text, and perhaps information about the text or its appearance.  Common examples are [[HTML]] and [[RTF]] which represent texts in [[natural language]]s, and [[XML]], which can represent many kinds of text not necessarily intended to be human-readable (the contents of a [[database]], for example).
---
> A <i>text encoding</i> is a method of representing a piece of text as a sequence of [[code]]s (from a [[character encoding]]) for the purpose of computer [[storage]] or electronic communication of that text.  While character encodings like [[ASCII]] represent indivual [[character]]s of a language, a text encoding has to represent much larger things like articles and books, and must represent not only the characters they contain but the structure and organization of the text, and perhaps information about the text or its appearance.  Common examples are [[HTML]] and [[RTF]] which represent texts in [[natural language]]s, and [[XML]], which can represent many kinds of text not necessarily intended to be human-readable (the contents of a [[database]], for example).
3c3
< Though [[ASCII]] is not, strictly speaking, a text encoding method, by far the most common text encoding now in use is what might informally be called "Plain ASCII", which involves simply encoding a text as a stream of ASCII characters.   The specifics of how this is done vary greatly: for example, the end of a text line might be encoded as ASCII code 10 ("line feed" or "new line") as is common practice on Unix machines, or as ASCII code 13 ("carriage return") as is common on [[Apple computer|Apple]] machines, or as both (the sequence <13, 10> is used to end lines on MS-DOS based machines and many others, while the rather rare sequence <10, 13> was used by some [[Acorn]] machines.  Some texts also use this line-end sequence inside paragraphs (with a blank line between paragraphs) while some do not.  Also, various texts in this form interpret code 9 ("tab") and other control characters differently.  None of these methods specify how to identify text structure like headings and tables, or special text like italics.  Text in this format is bascially readable by any computer though some work might be needed to accommodate local variations, and all information besides the actual words of the text will be lost.
---
> Though [[ASCII]] is not, strictly speaking, a text encoding method, by far the most common text encoding now in use is what might informally be called "Plain ASCII", which involves simply encoding a text as a stream of ASCII characters.   The specifics of how this is done vary greatly: for example, the end of a text line might be encoded as ASCII code 10 ("line feed" or "new line") as is common practice on Unix machines, or as ASCII code 13 ("carriage return") as is common on [[Apple computer|Apple]] machines, or as both (the sequence <13, 10> is used to end lines on MS-DOS based machines and many others, while the rather rare sequence <10, 13> was used by some [[Acorn]] machines).  Some texts also use this line-end sequence inside paragraphs (with a blank line between paragraphs) while some do not.  Also, various texts in this form interpret code 9 ("tab") and other [[control character]]s differently.  None of these methods specify how to identify text structure like headings and tables, or special text forms like italics.  Text in this format is bascially readable by any computer though some work might be needed to accommodate local variations, and all information besides the actual words of the text will be lost.
------
Unicode|985145069
3c3
< As a character encoding, the intent of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[computer character|character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Special encodings of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages), and can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
---
> As a character encoding, the goal of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[computer character|character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Various [[text encoding]]s of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages).  This encoding can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
------
Carbon|985146292
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Element 6 on the [[Periodic Table]].  Blah, abundance, blah, physical properties, blah, nucleosynthesis, blah blah.
> 
> '''Chemistry'''
> 
> Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell, and except in a few reaction intermediates, is tetravalent.  It has great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and thanks to its small size is capable of forming multiple bonds.  Thanks to these there is an unrivaled diversity of carbon compounds, studied in [[Organic Chemistry]].
> 
> The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2</sub>.  This is a minor component of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere.  In water it is a weak acid, reacting via the unstable intermediate H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> to form carbonate ions, CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>, which are stabilized by resonance (carbon rarely single-bonds to multiple oxygens).  Some important minerals, including [[calcite]], are carbonates.
> 
> The next oxide is carbon monoxide, CO, formed by incomplete combustion.  This is isoelectronic to N<sub>2</sub> and fairly polar; it has a nasty habit of binding permanently to hemoglobin in the way that [[oxygen]] does temporarily, and so is poisonous.  Carbon suboxide, C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, is also known.
> 
> The smallest hydrogen-carbon compound is [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>, and there are any number of larger ones.  In these the carbon atoms are bonded into long chains, branches, or rings, often with double and/or triple bonds.  Of particular note are the [[aromatic]] hydrocarbons, in which the carbon atoms form rings supported by pi bonding.
> 
> '''[[Allotropes]]'''
> 
> At normal pressures carbon takes the form of [[graphite]], in which each atom is bonded to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in [[aromatic]] hydrocarbons.  Thanks to the delocalization of the pi-cloud graphite conducts electricity.  The material is soft and the sheets, frequently separated by other atoms, are held together only by van der waals forces, so easily slip past one another.
> 
> At very high pressures carbon has a second allotrope called [[diamond]], in which each atom is bonded to four others.  Diamond has the same cubic structure as [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, is together with [[boron nitride|BN]] the hardest substance in terms of resistance ot scratching.  The transition to graphite at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable.
> 
> Carbon sublimes at 4100 K.  In gaseous form it usually consists of short atomic strings called [[carbynes]].  Unless cooled very slowly these coalesce to form irregular, warped graphitic sheets that compose [[soot]].  Of particular note among these are forms where the sheets are bent into a stable self-enclosed form (eg a sphere), called [[fullerenes]] or "buckyballs", with an interesting chemistry.
------
Periodic_Table|985146329
33c33
<        [[Carbon|C]]  [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
---
>        [[Carbon|C]]   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
------
Boron_nitride|985146807
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Boron nitride is a chemical with composition BN.  Structurally, it is isoelectronic to carbon and has the same sort of allotropes: a [[graphite]]-like one, and a [[diamond]]-like one.  The latter is the only material as hard as diamond.
------
Boron_nitride|985146821
1c1
< Boron nitride is a chemical with composition BN.  Structurally, it is isoelectronic to carbon and has the same sort of allotropes: a [[graphite]]-like one, and a [[diamond]]-like one.  The latter is the only material as hard as diamond.
---
> Boron nitride is a chemical with composition BN.  Structurally, it is isoelectronic to [[carbon]] and has the same sort of allotropes: a [[graphite]]-like one, and a [[diamond]]-like one.  The latter is the only material as hard as diamond.
------
Allotrope|985147088
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When a single substance exists in more than one form, these forms are called allotropes, and the substance is said to exhibit allotropy.  This is especially applied to crystal forms.  Some classic examples of solids showing allotropy are [[sulphur]], [[carbon]], [[ice]], and [[silicon dioxide]].
------
Carbon|985147119
13c13
< '''[[Allotropes]]'''
---
> '''[[Allotrope|Allotropes]]'''
------
Carbon|985147127
17c17
< At very high pressures carbon has a second allotrope called [[diamond]], in which each atom is bonded to four others.  Diamond has the same cubic structure as [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, is together with [[boron nitride|BN]] the hardest substance in terms of resistance ot scratching.  The transition to graphite at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable.
---
> At very high pressures carbon has a second allotrope called [[diamond]], in which each atom is bonded to four others.  Diamond has the same cubic structure as [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, is together with the isoelectronic [[boron nitride|BN]] the hardest substance in terms of resistance ot scratching.  The transition to graphite at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable.
------
ASCII|985147929
5c5,12
< (Link to a nice ASCII chart here...)
---
>   32     40 (   48 0   56 8   64 @   72 H   80 P   88 X   96 `  104 h  112 p  120 x
>   33 !   41 )   49 1   57 9   65 A   73 I   81 Q   89 Y   97 a  105 i  113 q  121 y
>   34 "   42 *   50 2   58 :   66 B   74 J   82 R   90 Z   98 b  106 j  114 r  122 z
>   35 #   43 +   51 3   59 ;   67 C   75 K   83 S   91 [   99 c  107 k  115 s  123 {
>   36 $   44 ,   52 4   60 <   68 D   76 L   84 T   92 \  100 d  108 l  116 t  124 |
>   37 %   45 -   53 5   61 =   69 E   77 M   85 U   93 ]  101 e  109 m  117 u  125 }
>   38 &   46 .   54 6   62 >   70 F   78 N   86 V   94 ^  102 f  110 n  118 v  126 ~
>   39 '   47 /   55 7   63 ?   71 G   79 O   87 W   95 _  103 g  111 o  119 w
7c14
< The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that may not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range, for example "backspace", which produces code 8, and "tab", which produces code 9.
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that may not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range: "backspace", which produces code 8, "tab", which produces code 9, "enter", which produces code 13, and "escape", which produces code 27.
------
Character|985148220
4c4
< * A [[Computer character|unit of information]] in computer storage or communications.
---
> * A [[letter]], [[numeral]], or punctuation mark, and thence a [[Computer character|unit of information]] in computer storage or communications.
------
Worldcon|985148461
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> aka the World Science Fiction Convention, held every year somewhere on the planet (so far), usually in the [[United States]], but they have taken place in a few other countries. Members of Worldcon (attending or not) vote on which [[speculative fiction]] works (written and performance) of the past year will receive a [[Hugo Award]].
> 
> The name is owned by the [[World Science Fiction Society]], but the convention is run by local fan organizations, which organize "bids" to host Worldcon. Every year a vote determines where the Worldcon three years later shall be.
> 
> Activities at a Worldcon include (but are not limited to):
> 
> * panels
> * parties
> * gaming ([[role-playing games]] (live-action and table), board games, card games)
> * [[filking]]
> * costuming -- a competition, and whatever people are wearing in the halls
> * shopping--there is generally a large hall full
------
Greek_alphabet|985148595
26c26
<   &Sigma; &sigma;     Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
---
>   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;     Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
42c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet.  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written :sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
------
Greek_alphabet|985148603
42c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written :sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
------
Greek_alphabet|985148630
42,44c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.----
< For Josh Grosse:
< &sigmaf;
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Greek_alphabet|985148653
26c26
<   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;     Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
---
>   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;   Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
42c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Greek_alphabet|985148724
38c38
< The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter one out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
---
> The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter one out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
------
Role-playing_games|985148868
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Role playing games]]
------
Worldcon|985149161
12c12,14
< * shopping--there is generally a large hall full
---
> * shopping--there is generally a large hall full of folks selling books, movies, jewelery, costumes (including weapons), games, comic books, etc.
> 
> For more source info, see http://www.wsfs.com/
------
ASCII|985150078
5,12c5,15
<   32     40 (   48 0   56 8   64 @   72 H   80 P   88 X   96 `  104 h  112 p  120 x
<   33 !   41 )   49 1   57 9   65 A   73 I   81 Q   89 Y   97 a  105 i  113 q  121 y
<   34 "   42 *   50 2   58 :   66 B   74 J   82 R   90 Z   98 b  106 j  114 r  122 z
<   35 #   43 +   51 3   59 ;   67 C   75 K   83 S   91 [   99 c  107 k  115 s  123 {
<   36 $   44 ,   52 4   60 <   68 D   76 L   84 T   92 \  100 d  108 l  116 t  124 |
<   37 %   45 -   53 5   61 =   69 E   77 M   85 U   93 ]  101 e  109 m  117 u  125 }
<   38 &   46 .   54 6   62 >   70 F   78 N   86 V   94 ^  102 f  110 n  118 v  126 ~
<   39 '   47 /   55 7   63 ?   71 G   79 O   87 W   95 _  103 g  111 o  119 w
---
> <pre>
>   32      40 (    48 0    56 8    64 @    72 H    80 P    88 X    96 `   104 h   112 p   120 x
>   33 !    41 )    49 1    57 9    65 A    73 I    81 Q    89 Y    97 a   105 i   113 q   121 y
>   34 "    42 *    50 2    58 :    66 B    74 J    82 R    90 Z    98 b   106 j   114 r   122 z
>   35 #    43 +    51 3    59 ;    67 C    75 K    83 S    91 [    99 c   107 k   115 s   123 {
>   36 $    44 ,    52 4    60 <    68 D    76 L    84 T    92 \   100 d   108 l   116 t   124 |
>   37 %    45 -    53 5    61 =    69 E    77 M    85 U    93 ]   101 e   109 m   117 u   125 }
>   38 &    46 .    54 6    62 >    70 F    78 N    86 V    94 ^   102 f   110 n   118 v   126 ~
>   39 '    47 /    55 7    63 ?    71 G    79 O    87 W    95 _   103 g   111 o   119 w
> </pre>
> ::Table 1: The printable ASCII characters
14,16c17,18
< The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called "control" characters, codes that may not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.  Some of these were designed for devices of the time and may not be used today, or are used for other purposes.  For example, code 22 (hex 16), called "synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 ("bell"--a code that would instruct a teletype machine to ring its user-alert bell).  These keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range: "backspace", which produces code 8, "tab", which produces code 9, "enter", which produces code 13, and "escape", which produces code 27.
< 
< Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing letters, digits, and punctuation.  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is also a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
---
> The first 32 codes in ASCII are reserved for what are called [[control character]]s, codes that may not themselves represent information, but that are used to control devices (such as [[printer]]s) that make use of ASCII.
> Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing letters, digits, and punctuation (see Table 1).  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
20a23,24
> 
> ASCII also does not specify any way to represent information about the structure or appearance of a piece of text.  That requires the use of a [[text encoding]].
------
WikiPedians|985150810
1c1
< The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on [[Wikipedia]].
---
> The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on [[Wikipedia]].  Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
3c3,27
< Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
---
> On [[feature requests]] someone requested the feature of keeping track of all contributors, and how much they've done.  It seems this would be impossible to do properly.  If someone wants that, though, then it probably won't hurt to have a manual list, would it?  These are all the people who have signed their names this last week:
> 
> * [[Josh Grosse]]
> * [[Phil Bordelon]]
> * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of [[wikipedia]] and editor-in-chief of [[nupedia]]
> * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> * RoseParks
> * SoniC
> * [[Mathijs]]
> * [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> * [[Jimbo Wales]], the other cofounder of this great project
> * WojPob
> * CliffordAdams
> * [[Bomfog]]
> * [[Jmlynch]]
> * TimShell, to whom we owe the 13% of wikipedia devoted to [[Atlas Shrugged]]
> * [[Cdani]]
> * AstroNomer
> * [[Suzanne Elsasser]]
> * [[Pguiral]]
> * [[Dick Beldin]], to whom we owe most of the [[Statistics]] pages
> * [[Invictus]]
> * [[John Abbe]]
> 
> Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
------
WikiPedians|985150909
15c15
< * CliffordAdams
---
> * CliffordAdams, author of [[UseModWiki]]
------
Role_playing_games|985151803
10a11,14
> On-line role-playing games (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
> ----
> There's also [[live-action roleplaying games]].
> ----
------
Live-action_roleplaying_games|985151852
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> These typically involve a group of people getting individual folders with background on their characters, and cards explaining their abilities and possessions. Players then play that character in the situation set out for them by the [[gamemaster]](s), who introduces new situations and determines results as necessary. Dice are rarely used. The [[Society for Interactive Literature]] was one early organization to explore this in depth.
> 
> Also see [[Role playing games]]
------
Lithium|985152420
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Third element of the periodic table. Li7 is one of the primordial
> elements (produced in [[big bang nucleosysthesis]]). 
------
Carbon|985152653
2a3,10
> '''Nucleosynthesis'''
> 
> Carbon is not created in the big bang due to the fact that it
> needs a triple collision of [[alpha particles]] ([[Helio]] nuclei) to be produced. The universe expands and cools too fast
> for that to be possible. It is produced, however, in the interior
> of stars in the [[horizontal branch]], where stars transform
> a helium core into carbon by means of the [[triple alpha chain]].
> 
------
Control_character|985152678
1c1
< Computers represent language using [[computer character|character]]s that represent the [[grapheme]]s, or written symbols, of that language.  It is often useful, however, to include along with those traditional characters additional <i>control characters</i> that do not themselves represent language symbols, but that are convenient to help process them.  For example, a [[computer printer|printer]] connected to a computer receives instructions to print characters on paper, and must also receive instructions to do things like control where the characters are placed on a page, to eject a page, signal the beginning or end of the transmission, or other functions.  It is convenient to send these instructions along the same communication path as the ordinary characters, and control characters serve this purpose.
---
> [[computer character|Character]]s generally represent the [[grapheme]]s, or written symbols, of a language in [[computer storage]] or electronic communications.  It is often useful, however, to include along with those characters additional controlling information convenient to help process the characters.  For example, a [[computer printer|printer]] connected to a computer receives instructions to print characters on paper, and must also receive instructions to do things like control where the characters are placed on a page, to eject a page, signal the beginning or end of the transmission, or other functions.  It is convenient to send these instructions along the same communication path as the ordinary characters, and <i>control characters</i> serve this purpose.  A [[character encoding]] thus typically encodes both <i>printable</i> characters and control characters.  [[ASCII]], for example, reserves codes 0 through 31 and code 127 as control characters (see Table 1).
3c3,22
< A single [[character encoding]] thus typically encodes both <i>printable</i> characters and control characters.  The most popular of these, called [[ASCII]], defines the following control characters:
---
> <pre>
>     0   Null                      17   Device control 1
>     1   Start of heading          18   Device control 2
>     2   Start of text             19   Device control 3
>     3   End of text               20   Device control 4
>     4   End of transmission       21   Negative acknowledge
>     5   Enquiry                   22   Synchronous idle
>     6   Acknowledge               23   End of transmission block
>     7   Bell                      24   Cancel
>     8   Backspace                 25   End of medium
>     9   Horizontal tab            26   Substitute
>    10   Line feed                 27   Escape
>    11   Vertical tab              28   File Separator
>    12   Form feed                 29   Group Separator
>    13   Carriage return           30   Record Separator
>    14   Shift out                 31   Unit Separator
>    15   Shift in
>    16   Data link escape         127   Delete
> </pre>
> :Table 1: ASCII control characters
4a24,28
> Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not used today.  For example, code 22, "Synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  The codes still in common use include codes 7 (Bell, which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning noise of some kind), 8 (Backspace, used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it), 9 (Horizontal tab), 10 (Line feed), 12 (Form feed, to cause a printer to eject a page), 13 (Carriage return, used to end lines of text in many [[text encodings]]), and 27 (Escape).  Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes such as code 4 (End of transmission) used to end a [[Unix shell]] session or [[PostScript]] printer transmission.
> 
> Code 27 (Escape) is a case worth elaborating.  Even though many of these control characters are never used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions.  Specifically, they used a series of multiple characters called an <i>control sequence</i> or <i>escape sequence</i>.  Typically code 27 was first sent to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow specifying some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally.  For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters "[2;10H", would cause a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-102 terminal to move its [[computer cursor|cursor]] to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen.
> 
> ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 (Bell).  Keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range.  For example, the key labelled "Backspace" typically produces code 8, "Tab" code 9, "Enter" or "Return" code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for "Enter").
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|985153119
28a29,30
> ----
> See [[Role playing games]]
------
Computer_Storage|985153138
1,45c1
< <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[ComputerSoftware|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
< 
< There are many terms for different types of computer storage devices: <i>Volatile</i> memory is memory that loses its contents when it loses power; <i>Non-volatile</i> memory does not.  <i>Removable</i> storage consists of devices in which the physical storage medium itself can be carried from one computer to another (for example, [[floppy disk|floppy disks]] and [[compact disc|compact discs]].  [[RAM]] (for random access memory) is memory that can be accessed in any order, as opposed to <i>serial access</i> memory that must be read sequentially (such as a reel of magnetic tape).  There are many types of RAM, such as NVRAM (non-volatile RAM), and SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, etc., which are all types of volatile RAM that differ in obscure ways not related to their basic function.  [[ROM]] (for read-only memory) cannot be changed once initially programmed by the manufacturer.  [[EPROM]] (erasible programmable read-only memory) memory cannot be overitten in normal use, but can be erased and reprogrammed with special hardware.  [[EEPROM]] (for electrically erasible programmable read-only memory) is a type of EPROM that can be erased with less specialized hardware that is typically included on the computer that hosts it.  [[WORM]] devices (for write once/read many--a term typically used only for removable storage devices) can be initially programmed by the end user but not subsequently overwritten.
< 
< Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.
< 
< ----
< It seems this entry should be titled PC-Memory. What about tape drives, stationary disks,
< mountable disks, and to go back, core. And, PC can have tape drives, too. Or, going forward, organic memory.
< 
< ----
< The description above is general and inclusive, as a top-level article should be, and concentrates more on types of memory organized by usage-related properties rather than device specifics.  Perhaps a more organized set of links to specific devices would not be a bad idea to add as well.  Something like:
< 
< * Primary Storage Devices
< ** Magnetic Core
< ** [[RAM/Static|Static RAM]]
< ** [[RAM/Dynamic|Dynamic RAM]]
< ** Special-purpose primary storage
< *** [[VRAM]]
< *** [[NVRAM]]
< *** [[WRAM]]
< 
< * Secondary Storage Devices
< ** Internal
< *** [[Hard disk]]
< *** [[ROM]]
< 
< ** Removable
< *** Magnetic
< **** Magnetic tape
< **** [[Floppy]] disks
< *** Optical
< **** [[CD-ROM]]
< **** [[CD-R]]
< **** [[CD-RW]]
< **** [[DVD-ROM]]
< **** [[DVD-RAM]]
< **** [[Mylar tape]]
< **** [[Paper tape]]
< **** [[Punch card]]
< *** Magneto-optical
< *** Semiconductor-based
< **** [[Compact flash]]
< **** [[Smartdisk]]
< **** [[Memory stick]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer storage]]
------
Computer_storage|985153165
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Storage</i> or <i>Memory</i> refers to those parts of a [[ComputerHardware|computer]] that retain information for some period of time.  <i>Primary Storage</i> is typically high-speed memory where the computer keeps information that is actively being used (for example, the [[ComputerSoftware|programs]] currently being run and the data they are operating on).  <i>Secondary Storage</i> is where the computer stores information that is not necessarily in current use.
> 
> There are many terms for different types of computer storage devices: <i>Volatile</i> memory is memory that loses its contents when it loses power; <i>Non-volatile</i> memory does not.  <i>Removable</i> storage consists of devices in which the physical storage medium itself can be carried from one computer to another (for example, [[floppy disk|floppy disks]] and [[compact disc|compact discs]].  [[RAM]] (for random access memory) is memory that can be accessed in any order, as opposed to <i>serial access</i> memory that must be read sequentially (such as a reel of magnetic tape).  There are many types of RAM, such as NVRAM (non-volatile RAM), and SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, etc., which are all types of volatile RAM that differ in obscure ways not related to their basic function.  [[ROM]] (for read-only memory) cannot be changed once initially programmed by the manufacturer.  [[EPROM]] (erasible programmable read-only memory) memory cannot be overitten in normal use, but can be erased and reprogrammed with special hardware.  [[EEPROM]] (for electrically erasible programmable read-only memory) is a type of EPROM that can be erased with less specialized hardware that is typically included on the computer that hosts it.  [[WORM]] devices (for write once/read many--a term typically used only for removable storage devices) can be initially programmed by the end user but not subsequently overwritten.
> 
> Each type of storage is suited for different purposes, and all computers contain several types.
> 
> ----
> It seems this entry should be titled PC-Memory. What about tape drives, stationary disks,
> mountable disks, and to go back, core. And, PC can have tape drives, too. Or, going forward, organic memory.
> 
> ----
> The description above is general and inclusive, as a top-level article should be, and concentrates more on types of memory organized by usage-related properties rather than device specifics.  Perhaps a more organized set of links to specific devices would not be a bad idea to add as well.  Something like:
> 
> * Primary Storage Devices
> ** Magnetic Core
> ** [[RAM/Static|Static RAM]]
> ** [[RAM/Dynamic|Dynamic RAM]]
> ** Special-purpose primary storage
> *** [[VRAM]]
> *** [[NVRAM]]
> *** [[WRAM]]
> 
> * Secondary Storage Devices
> ** Internal
> *** [[Hard disk]]
> *** [[ROM]]
> 
> ** Removable
> *** Magnetic
> **** Magnetic tape
> **** [[Floppy]] disks
> *** Optical
> **** [[CD-ROM]]
> **** [[CD-R]]
> **** [[CD-RW]]
> **** [[DVD-ROM]]
> **** [[DVD-RAM]]
> **** [[Mylar tape]]
> **** [[Paper tape]]
> **** [[Punch card]]
> *** Magneto-optical
> *** Semiconductor-based
> **** [[Compact flash]]
> **** [[Smartdisk]]
> **** [[Memory stick]]
> 
------
Uranium|985153245
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Radioctive element (it doesn't have stable [[isotope]]s).
> U235 was the first element that was found to be fissionable (fissible? not sure of the word), i.e. upon bombardment with
> slow neutrons, it becomes the very short lived U236, that immediately divides into two smaller nuclei, liberating energy
> and more neutrons. If these neutron are absorbed by other U235
> nuclei, a chain reaction occurs, and if there isn't anything to
> absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]].
------
Role_playing_games|985154484
0a1,12
> In role-playing [[games]], or RPGs, players take the role of characters in a world that is otherwise run by the [[gamemaster]], usually with the support of rules, simple or complex.
> 
> Originally, RPGs were usually played on a tabletop, because they involved paper, dice, and maybe [[/Miniatures | miniatures]]. The first and probably best-known of these types of games is [[Dungeons and Dragons]], which evolved from [[wargaming]] roots in the 1970s.
> 
> The rest of this page is about tabletop RPGs, but they also quickly became available in a variety of other "media":
> 
> * [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
> * [[Live-action roleplaying games]]
> * Roleplaying [[Video games]]
> 
> ----
> 
2c14
< Make believe with consentual parameters of reality<BR>
---
> Make believe with consensual parameters of reality<BR>
11,14d22
< On-line role-playing games (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
< ----
< There's also [[live-action roleplaying games]].
< ----
45a54
> * [[Teenagers From Outer Space]]
71a81,83
> Old magazines:
> * [[The Space Gamer]]
> 
77,78c89
< Roleplaying [[Video games]]
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Role_playing_games/Talk|985154601
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In search of a canonical name for this page, i'm thinking roleplaying or role-playing. It's role-playing in my head, which i take as a transitional phase (which some words get stuck in) on the way to roleplaying, so i'm happy with either. Role playing struck me as odd. --JohnAbbe
> 
> Thoughts?
------
Uranium|985154768
1c1
< Radioctive element (it doesn't have stable [[isotope]]s).
---
> Radioactive element (it doesn't have stable [[isotope]]s).
6c6
< absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]].
---
> absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]].
------
Role_playing_games|985154789
7d6
< * [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
9c8,10
< * Roleplaying [[Video games]]
---
> * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]]
> ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
> * [[Console role playing games]]
89c90
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Uranium|985154844
6a7,8
> 
> Well, the fission bomb. The fusion bomb (see [[Helium]]) is also an atomic bomb, so it's kind of an ambiguous word, hm?
------
Role_playing_games|985154878
7,10c7,10
< * [[Live-action roleplaying games]]
< * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]]
< ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUDs]], Multiple User Dimensions) go back to the 70s, and graphical ones to the 80s (the [[Commodore 64]]  did one by modem).
< * [[Console role playing games]]
---
> * [[Live-action roleplaying games|Live-action RPGs]]
> * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]] - closely related to adventure games
> ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUD]]s)
> * [[Console role playing games|Console RPGS]]
------
Role_playing_games/Talk|985155019
3c3,5
< Thoughts?
---
> Thoughts?
> 
> ''I'm the one who changed it from MixedCase, and I didn't really think as to the proper version of the term, just opened it up canonically.  So feel free to change it however you think is best. :)''
------
Control_character|985155025
24c24
< Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not used today.  For example, code 22, "Synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  The codes still in common use include codes 7 (Bell, which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning noise of some kind), 8 (Backspace, used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it), 9 (Horizontal tab), 10 (Line feed), 12 (Form feed, to cause a printer to eject a page), 13 (Carriage return, used to end lines of text in many [[text encodings]]), and 27 (Escape).  Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes such as code 4 (End of transmission) used to end a [[Unix shell]] session or [[PostScript]] printer transmission.
---
> Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not used today.  For example, code 22, "Synchronous idle", was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send.  Code 127 is a special case.  Its code is all-bits-on in binary, which made it easy to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a common storage medium of the day, by punching all the holes.  Paper tape became obsolete quickly, so this feature was almost never used.  But because its code is in the range occupied by other printable characters, many computers used it as an additional printable character (often an all-black "box" character useful for erasing text by overprinting).  The codes still in common use include codes 7 (Bell, which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning noise of some kind), 8 (Backspace, used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it), 9 (Horizontal tab), 10 (Line feed), 12 (Form feed, to cause a printer to eject a page), 13 (Carriage return, used to end lines of text in many [[text encoding]]s), and 27 (Escape).  Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes such as code 4 (End of transmission) used to end a [[Unix shell]] session or [[PostScript]] printer transmission.
26c26
< Code 27 (Escape) is a case worth elaborating.  Even though many of these control characters are never used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions.  Specifically, they used a series of multiple characters called an <i>control sequence</i> or <i>escape sequence</i>.  Typically code 27 was first sent to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow specifying some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally.  For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters "[2;10H", would cause a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-102 terminal to move its [[computer cursor|cursor]] to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen.
---
> Code 27 (Escape) is a case worth elaborating.  Even though many of these control characters are never used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions.  Specifically, they used a series of multiple characters called an <i>control sequence</i> or <i>escape sequence</i>.  Typically code 27 was first sent to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow specifying some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally.  For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters "[2;10H", would cause a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-102 terminal to move its [[computer cursor|cursor]] to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen.  Some standards exist for these sequences, notably [[ANSI]] X3.64 (1979).  But the number of non-standard variations in use is large, especially among printers, where technology has advanced far faster than any standards body can possibly follow.
28c28,30
< ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "control", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 (Bell).  Keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range.  For example, the key labelled "Backspace" typically produces code 8, "Tab" code 9, "Enter" or "Return" code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for "Enter").
---
> ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled "Control" or "Ctrl", which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key to cause the keyboard to generate one of these 32 control codes.  The keyboard produces the code 64 places below the code for the uppercase letter pressed.  Pressing "control" and the letter "G" (code 71), for example, would produce the code 7 (Bell).  Keyboards also have single keys that produce codes in this range.  For example, the key labelled "Backspace" typically produces code 8, "Tab" code 9, "Enter" or "Return" code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for "Enter").
> 
> Modern keyboards have many keys that do not correspond to ASCII characters or control characters, for example cursor control arrows and [[word processing]] functions.  These keyboards communicate these keys to the attached computer by one of three methods: appropriating some otherwise unused control character for the new use, using some encoding other than ASCII, or using multi-character control sequences.  Keyboards attached to stand-alone [[personal computer]]s typically use one (or both) of the first two methods.  "Dumb" [[computer terminal]]s typically use control sequences.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|985155132
1c1
< A fantasy role-playing game designed by [[Gary Gygax]] and [[David Arneson]] in the early [[1970s]].
---
> A fantasy [[role playing games|role-playing game]] designed by [[Gary Gygax]] and [[David Arneson]] in the early [[1970s]].
29,30d28
< ----
< See [[Role playing games]]
------
Role_playing_games/Talk|985155178
5c5
< ''I'm the one who changed it from MixedCase, and I didn't really think as to the proper version of the term, just opened it up canonically.  So feel free to change it however you think is best. :)''
---
> ''I'm the one who changed it from MixedCase, and I didn't really think as to the proper version of the term, just opened it up canonically.  And actually, it should probably made singular for easier linking: D&D is an RPG...  So feel free to change it however you think is best. :)''
------
Lithium|985155322
2c2,4
< elements (produced in [[big bang nucleosysthesis]]). 
---
> elements (produced in [[big bang nucleosysthesis]]).
> 
> ?? Doesn't most Lithium come from the same neutron-capture process that gives rise to [[Beryllium]] and [[Boron]]?
------
Alphabet|985155351
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.
> 
> For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].
> 
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
------
Periodic_Table|985155387
6c6
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]  [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
------
Syllabary|985155525
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A single letter in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound (optional) and a vowel sound, and may be made up of multiple symbols.
> 
> One language that uses a syllabary is [[Tamil]].
> 
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[alphabet]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
------
Syllabary|985155619
3c3
< One language that uses a syllabary is [[Tamil]].
---
> One language that uses a syllabary is [[Tamil language | Tamil]].
------
Alphabet|985155708
1c1
< A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
3,5c3
< For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].
< 
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
---
> The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
------
John_Abbe|985155866
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome to [[Wikipedia]], John!  Not meaning to dog your steps, it's just that everything you've been editing has been interesting. :)
------
Japanese_language|985158131
208a209,212
> '''Additional resources'''
> 
> Soon there will be a Japanese version of wikipedia at http://nihongo.wikipedia.com/.
> 
------
Syllabary|985159076
1c1
< A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A single letter in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound (optional) and a vowel sound, and may be made up of multiple symbols.
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A single letter or symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound (optional) and a vowel sound.
5c5,7
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[alphabet]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
---
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s.
> 
> Some languages use a syllabary in commbination with [[ideogram]]s, like the [[JapaneseLanguage]].
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985159690
112c112
< ----
---
> 
118a119,120
> 
> I know a few who haven't.  And while I've played a truly evil character once or twice, it was mainly so the good guys would have something to do - and though I enjoyed the brilliance of their schemes, I still felt bad when the one blew up some civilians, and other than that never harmed bystanders.  On the other end, RPG enemies tend to be spiritless agents of evil, like machines, simply so that killing them might be guiltless - Tolkien had some decent 'theology' here - and whether you treat them as fellow man or treat them as a disease is your choice, not built into the game whatsoever.  All in all, I'd say that how people play RPGs varies with their own temperment; the game offers them the opportunity to try being evil, the opportunity to try being heroic, the opportunity to try whatever they feel like.
------
Alphabet|985159815
1c1
< A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and the [hrm, what's the word for the pictographic languages like Chinese?].
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and [[ideogram]]s.
3c3,4
< The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
---
> The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.----
> I would find it hard to support the statement that the letters of the alphabet represent (or approximate) [[phoneme]]s. In English, due to its historical development, this is hardly the case. There are, supposedly, at least seven phonemes represented by "gh." In Italian, this statement has more validity.
------
Syllabary|985159819
5,7c5
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s.
< 
< Some languages use a syllabary in commbination with [[ideogram]]s, like the [[JapaneseLanguage]].
---
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms + syllabary) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
------
Alphabet|985160097
4a5,6
> 
> The language ends up being very far from phonetic, but it's evidently organized on such principles.  The letters generally have one or two primary sounds associated with them, so that when we see a new word we can usually guess about how it sounds, or transcribe foreign words into English.  There are exceptions a lot of the time, but they are still the exceptions rather than the rule, I'd say.  Maybe the best way to sum it up is: English is written with the Roman alphabet. ;)
------
Computer_storage|985160160
45c45,46
< **** [[Memory stick]]
---
> **** [[Memory stick]]----
> What I still don't see are the exrenal stationary and removable disks, like on mainframes.
------
Computer_storage|985160221
45c45,46
< **** [[Memory stick]]----
---
> **** [[Memory stick]]
> ----
------
Computer_storage|985160288
47c47
< What I still don't see are the exrenal stationary and removable disks, like on mainframes.
---
> What I still don't see are the external stationary and removable disks, used with mainframes.
------
Kinetics|985160481
9c9
< Here ''Ea'' is the activation energy, the energy it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature ''T'' the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''.  ''K'' has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
---
> Here ''Ea'' is the activation energy, the energy per mole it is necessary for the molecules to have to react.  Since at temperature ''T'' the molecules have energies according to a [[Boltzmann distribution]], one can expect the proportion of collisions with energy greater than Ea to vary with ''e<sup>-Ea/RT</sup>''.  ''K'' has to do with stuff like the probability that molecules are in the right orientation, and of course dimensions.
------
Mathijs|985161746
4,17d3
< ----
< 
< Mathjis,
< 
< It seems we are very nearly the same age, as I was born August 7, 1966.
< 
< Please stop ranting on the wikipedia -- this isn't a discussion forum, but an encyclopedia.  What we hope to achieve, and I don't think this is too hopelessly idealistic, is an atmosphere where people of <i>widely different</i> ideological opinions can come together to work for a <i>quality</i> presentation of the facts.
< 
< Rather than writing inflammatory comments about England, for example, you might write a detailed account of one of the particular injustices that you mentioned.
< 
< A good writer doesn't state conclusions, but states facts and permits the reader to draw the obvious conclusions.  It takes a nobody to say "England is unjust" -- but a master will tell us about England, and let us draw the natural conclusion -- and if
< the conclusion is that "England is unjust" then so be it.
< 
< -- [[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Jimbo_Wales|985161834
30a31,32
> ----
> Thanks for your feedback; I'll take care - Mathijs
------
Mathijs|985161921
3a4,5
> ----
> perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise
------
Alphabet|985161936
6a7,8
> 
> PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley, /ng/ as in gingham, plus the composite forms, /gh/ as in doghouse or sometimes part of /ngh/, and finally sometimes just // as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
------
Alphabet|985162048
8c8
< PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley, /ng/ as in gingham, plus the composite forms, /gh/ as in doghouse or sometimes part of /ngh/, and finally sometimes just // as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
---
> PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /gh/ as in doghouse, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley.  Also it can show up as part of /ng/ or /ngh/ or as //, as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
------
Mathijs|985162182
5c5,7
< perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise
---
> perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise
> 
> Just take care, though - please don't think you should leave.  Short rants can always be cleaned up.
------
Requested_articles|985163757
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Napoleon]]
11c11
< <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]]
---
> <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
13,18c13,18
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean Geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable Spaces]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
< [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions]] -- [[Function Operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric Identities]] -- {Inverse Trigonometric Functions]] -- 
< [[Linear Equations]] -- [[Exponential Function]] -- [[Natural Logarithm]]  -- 
< [[Quadratic Equations]] -- [[Conic Sections]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Combinations and Permutations]] -- [[Truth Tables]] -- 
< [[Non-Euclidean Geometry]] -- [[Analytic Geometry]] -- [[Ellipse]] -- [[Parabola]] --
< [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface Area]] -- [[Perimeter]]
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
> [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- 
> [[Linear equations]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  -- 
> [[Quadratic equations]] -- [[Conic sections]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Permuations]] -- [[Combinations]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
> [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Ellipse]] -- [[Parabola]] --
> [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]]
26c26
< <b>Music: </b> [[Rock music]] -- [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]] -- [[Bach]]
28c28
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Logrolling]] -- [[Postal Service]]
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Postal Service]]
30c30
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
36,37c36
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[Mythology]] -- [[ghosts]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[British Commonwealth]]-- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]]
< -- [[astrology]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[GNU]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]]
------
Requested_articles|985163781
36c36
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[GNU]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]]
------
Mathijs|985164844
7c7,14
< Just take care, though - please don't think you should leave.  Short rants can always be cleaned up.
---
> ''Just take care, though - please don't think you should leave.  Short rants can always be cleaned up.''
> 
> Don't worry, I enjoy this!<BR>
> It mostly depends on the reaction; up to now I've had only one pityfull clash - some people think reality is a mathematical model. I'm into opinion; if people take that as absolute fact, I'll have to take care to disclaim my statements as if being absolute truth. England is a lovely country with a lot of frustration; I shouldn't poke sticks into the wound.
> 
> I don't believe any such thing as fact & truth exist at all, but most peoples philosophy (apparently) still linger in dialectics & 19-th century illusions of total control over reality. Perception & concensus is a nice start, but still only a tool . . .
> 
> I don't mind being rebuffed; it's a clear reality check. Mistakes are an opportunity to learn new things, so . . .
------
Electronic_Music/Goa|985165523
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Goa is not a kind of music.
> Goa is a district in India at the sea which is very popular all over the world, because alot of young people travel there, do drugs, make parties and have fun. Because for some months some special kind of Trance was very popular there, some people tend to call that music "Goa". But at the beaches of Goa people listen to all styles of electronic music, so the term Goa means nothing at all.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985165773
120c120,122
< I know a few who haven't.  And while I've played a truly evil character once or twice, it was mainly so the good guys would have something to do - and though I enjoyed the brilliance of their schemes, I still felt bad when the one blew up some civilians, and other than that never harmed bystanders.  On the other end, RPG enemies tend to be spiritless agents of evil, like machines, simply so that killing them might be guiltless - Tolkien had some decent 'theology' here - and whether you treat them as fellow man or treat them as a disease is your choice, not built into the game whatsoever.  All in all, I'd say that how people play RPGs varies with their own temperment; the game offers them the opportunity to try being evil, the opportunity to try being heroic, the opportunity to try whatever they feel like.
---
> I know a few who haven't.  And while I've played a truly evil character once or twice, it was mainly so the good guys would have something to do - and though I enjoyed the brilliance of their schemes, I still felt bad when the one blew up some civilians, and other than that never harmed bystanders.  On the other end, RPG enemies tend to be spiritless agents of evil, like machines, simply so that killing them might be guiltless - Tolkien had some decent 'theology' here - and whether you treat them as fellow man or treat them as a disease is your choice, not built into the game whatsoever.  All in all, I'd say that how people play RPGs varies with their own temperment; the game offers them the opportunity to try being evil, the opportunity to try being heroic, the opportunity to try whatever they feel like.
> ----
> mass murder is boring in RPG; less boring than playing an A-team campaign. IMHO playing Paladin & other sweet hero-types is something for Americans (unsupported opinion: they have to prove something to their fathers <B>=;P</B>). Good vs. Evil is getting a bit outdated; if it were that simple! Most fun is to give characters flesh and bone in their motives. A good storyteller uses that too. What's the thrill of a quest without mystery & true character commitment?
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985165855
122c122
< mass murder is boring in RPG; less boring than playing an A-team campaign. IMHO playing Paladin & other sweet hero-types is something for Americans (unsupported opinion: they have to prove something to their fathers <B>=;P</B>). Good vs. Evil is getting a bit outdated; if it were that simple! Most fun is to give characters flesh and bone in their motives. A good storyteller uses that too. What's the thrill of a quest without mystery & true character commitment?
---
> mass murder is boring in RPG; worse than playing an A-team campaign. IMHO playing Paladin & other sweet hero-types is something for Americans (unsupported opinion: they have to prove something to their fathers <B>=;P</B>). Good vs. Evil is getting a bit outdated; if it were that simple! Most fun is to give characters flesh and bone in their motives. A good storyteller uses that too. What's the thrill of a quest without mystery & true character commitment?
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985168256
7c7
< :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mammas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
---
> :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
------
Joshua_A._Norton|985173453
2a3,7
> 
> He lived in San Francisco, but he was indeed Emperor Norton I of the United States. He issued his own money, which was accepted as real money by shopkeepers in the city. Thousands lined the streets to pay their respects at his funeral.
> 
> He never imprisoned anyone, executed anyone or declared war on any other country. In this, he did a better job than most kings and emperors.
> ( - to paraphrase the remrks of a judge who refused to jail him as a vagrant or have him committed as insane)
------
Religion|985174700
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- TheBookofMormon
---
> TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- [[The Book of Mormon]]
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985175319
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as <i>Mormons</i>
> 
> 
> The text of the book is available from their web page, at:  http://scriptures.lds.org/bm/contents
------
Ether|985175510
7a8,9
> 
> 4. The <i>Book of Ether</i> is one of the sections of [[the Book of Mormon]]
------
Netherlands/Talk|985175543
14c14
< - Meaningless to me
---
> - Meaningless to [[Gareth Owen]]
69,70c69
< I'll call you in the /Talk-section; this whole fact-business is not quite my cup of tea, hark, hark, <FONT SIZE=+1>=;P</FONT><BR>
< for you might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities,
---
> You might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities,
99,100c98
< ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow''
< 
---
> ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''<BR>
102d99
< 
104,106d100
< 
< ''it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''
< 
115c109
< OK, it's the two of us won't get much better of each other. <BR>You've corrected some misconception of mine. Thanks for that. <BR>To me my first statements will stand (except for the facts I haven't seen any argument from you, too bad). <B>FINAL</B>
---
> OK, it's clear the two of us won't get any better of each other. <BR>You've corrected some misconception of mine. Thanks for that. <BR>To me my first statements will stand (except for the facts I haven't seen any argument from you, too bad). <B>FINAL</B>
------
Netherlands/Talk|985175616
58c58
< Congratulations, you've just [[racism|made a case against a country without using a single fact]] just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.   - [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> Congratulations, you've just made a case against a country without using a single fact just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.   - [[Gareth Owen]]
------
France|985179988
7a8,10
> 
> Others cities: [[Bordeaux]], [[Toulouse]], [[Lyon]], [[Marseille]], [[Lille]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Rennes]], [[Perpignan]], [[Montpellier]], [[Deauville]], [[Brest]], [[Quimper]], [[La-Baule]], [[Rochefort]], [[Caen]], [[Le-Havre]], [[Dieppe]], [[Dunkerque]], [[Roubaix]], [[Tourcoing]], [[Metz]], [[Charlesville-Mezieres]], [[Amiens]], [[Reims]], [[Colmar]], [[Belfort]], [[Albertville]], [[Dole]], [[Tavaux]], [[Paux]], [[Bayonne]], [[Foix]], [[Tarbes]], [[Saint-Gaudens]], [[Saint-Giron]], [[Sete]], [[Nimes]], [[Valence]], [[Albi]], [[Mont-de-Marsan]], [[Poitiers]], [[Aurillac]], [[Brive]], [[Saint-Etienne]], [[Firmini]], [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Cannes]], [[Saint-Tropez]], [[Saint-Raphael]], [[Monaco]], [[Nice]], [[Dignes-les-Bains]], [[Barcelonnette]], [[Grenoble]], [[Chamonix]], [[Geneve]], [[Dijon]], [[Orleans]], [[Saint-Nazaire]], [[Nantes]], [[Ajaccio]], [[Bastia]], [[Dreux]], [[Evreux]],
> [[Rodez]], [[Cahors]], [[Montauban]], [[Perigueux]], [[Mende]], [[Toulon]], [[Carcassonne]] ...
12c15
< *[[French]]
---
> *[[French]]
------
New_topics|985180137
2c2
< as of about 1 am 19th March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 2 am 21st March, Wikipedia server time
4c4
< These are some new topics from the previous few days. You people have been busy!
---
> These are some new topics from the previous few days. 
6,10c6,19
< [[States_in_Medieval_Britain]] -- [[Dead_Kennedy_Family_Members]] -- [[Bugly]] -- 
< [[Baroque_Music]] -- [[Johann_Sebastian_Bach]] -- 
< [[Romantic_Music]] -- [[Modern_Classical_Music]] -- 
< [[Impressionist_Music]] -- [[Classical_Music_Era]] -- 
< [[Martial_Arts_Film]] -- [[Classical_Music]] -- 
---
> [[Electronic_Music/Goa]] -- [[Computer_storage]] -- [[Alphabet]] -- [[Syllabary]] -- [[John_Abbe]] -- [[Control_character]] -- [[Role_playing_games/Talk]] -- [[Uranium]] -- [[Carbon]] -- [[Lithium]] -- [[Live-action_roleplaying_games]] --  [[Worldcon]] -- [[Unicode]] -- [[Text_encoding]] -- [[Computer_character]] -- [[Character_encoding]] -- [[WikiIsNotPaper]] -- [[Thomas_Jefferson]] -- [[Naming_conventions/Disambiguating]] -- [[Kinetics]] -- [[JoshuaANorton]] --  -- [[Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Talk]] -- [[Ronald_Reagan]] -- [[George_W._Bush/Talk]] -- [[Truth]] -- 
> [[Deduction_and_induction]] -- [[Good_argument]] -- [[Cogency]] -- [[Galileo/Talk]] -- [[Tamil_Nadu]] -- [[Validity]] -- [[Galileo]] -- [[Argument_form]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Folk_music]] -- [[RushBand]] -- [[Galileo_Galilei]] -- 
> [[Telescope]] -- [[Metallica/Discography]] -- 
> [[International_Trade/Risks]] -- 
> [[Trade_blocks]] -- [[International_trade]] -- 
> [[Unemployment]] -- [[Placebo_effect]] -- [[Natural_language]] -- [[Pguiral]] -- [[Pseudo_science]] -- [[WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia]] -- [[Comparative_Sacred_Reading]] -- [[States_in_Medieval_Britain/talk]] -- 
> [[Trade]] -- 
> [[Stagflation]] -- [[Histogram]] -- [[Extended_ASCII]] -- [[Jello_Biafra]] -- [[Deflation]] -- 
> [[Russian_language]] -- [[Gypsy]] -- [[University_of_Michigan]] -- [[Education/Math]] -- [[Library_of_Congress_catalogue_scheme]] -- [[A_Modest_Proposal/Text]] -- [[Computer_printer/dot_matrix]] -- 
> [[Bugly]] -- 
> [[Johann_Sebastian_Bach]] -- 
> [[Impressionist_Music]] -- 
> [[Classical_Music_Era]] -- 
> [[Classical_Music]] -- 
12,31c21
< [[Vampire/Talk]] -- [[Roman_Polanski]] -- [[Film_History/Poland]] -- [[Alkali_metal]] -- [[A_Modest_Proposal]] -- 
< [[Jonathan_Swift]] -- [[Film_History/Italy]] -- [[The_Simpsons/Charles_Montgomery_Burns]] -- 
< [[Yuri_Gagarin]] -- [[Vampire]] -- [[Astronaut]] --
< [[Charles_Montgomery_Burns]] -- [[The_Simpsons/Homer]] -- 
< [[Linear_Regression]] -- [[Stimulus_Response_Model]] -- [[Linear_Models]] -- [[Statistical_Assembly]] -- [[Puerto_Rico]] -- [[Space_stations]] -- 
< [[Space_Exploration]] -- [[Vostok_1]] -- [[Gene_Cernan]] -- [[Like_this]] -- 
< [[Platos_Republic]] -- [[Apollo_8]] -- [[Apollo_11]] -- 
< [[Challenger_8]] -- [[Manned_space_missions]] -- [[Zodiac/signs]] -- [[Laws_of_Kepler]] -- [[Social_Sciences]] -- 
< [[NaturalSciences]] -- 
< [[Ecliptic]] -- 
< [[The_Simpsons/Characters]] -- 
< [[Matt_Groening]] -- 
< [[Netherlands/Talk]] -- 
< [[Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk]] -- 
< [[Extinct_political_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk]] -- 
< [[Star]] -- 
< [[Christine_Evelyn_Roth]] -- 
< [[The_Goon_Show]] -- 
< [[Communism]] -- 
< [[Ether]]
---
> [[Alkali_metal]] 
36c26
< I was prompted to write the the script by the comments listed below. 
---
> I was prompted to write the script by the comments listed below. 
38c28
< The next version of the script will do some size analysis, so large new entries are distinguished from one-liners. Any other requests? -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
---
> The next version of the script will do some size analysis, so large new entries are distinguished from one-liners. Any other suggestions? -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
------
Arc_de_Triomphe/Arc_de_Triumph|985180717
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Situation: 
> Sur l'avenue des [[Champs-Elysees]] à Paris, (plus belle avenue du monde selon les parisiens), Ce monument fut érigé au 19 eme siécle, inspiré de l'architecture romaine, haut d'un cinquantaine de mètre, situé sur la place de l'Etoile, il est en fait le carrefour de nombreuses avenues, notamment l'avenue de la Grande Armée, et les Champs Elysées.
> 
> Histoire:
> Il fait partie maintenant des monuments nationaux qui ont une forte charge historique. Tombeau du [[Soldat Inconnu]] de la [[Premiere guerrre mondiale]], la flamme qu'il abrite commémore se souvenir ne s'éteind jamais, elle est ravivée tous les 11 novembre, jour du souvenir de l'armistice signée entre la France et l'Allemagne en 1918.
------
Mendelevium|985183292
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mendelevium
> 
> 
> One of the synthetic [[transuranic]] [[chemical element]]s.
> 
> Named after the Russian chemist [[Mendeleev]], who invented the [[Periodic Table|Periodic table]]
------
Transuranic|985183663
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Transuranic
> 
> A term used to describe the [[chemical element]]s with [[atomic number]]s greater than that of [[Uranium]]. They are all radioactive, with a [[half-life]] much shorter than the age of the Earth, so any atoms of these elements, if they ever were present at the earth's formation, have long since vanished.   
> 
> Those that can be found on earth now are artificially generated, via nuclear reactors or particle acclerators. 
> 
> 
------
Worldcon|985184707
1c1
< aka the World Science Fiction Convention, held every year somewhere on the planet (so far), usually in the [[United States]], but they have taken place in a few other countries. Members of Worldcon (attending or not) vote on which [[speculative fiction]] works (written and performance) of the past year will receive a [[Hugo Award]].
---
> aka the World [[Science Fiction]] Convention, held every year somewhere on the planet (so far), usually in the [[United States]], but they have taken place in a few other countries. Members of Worldcon (attending or not) vote on which [[speculative fiction]] works (written and performance) of the past year will receive a [[Hugo Award]].
14c14
< For more source info, see http://www.wsfs.com/
---
> For more source info and [[Hugo Award]] winners, see http://www.wsfs.com/
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985184766
1c1
< The holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as <i>Mormons</i>
---
> The holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''
------
Atomic_number|985185593
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atomic number
> 
> A term used in [[chemistry]] and [[physics]] , that represents the number of [[proton]]s found in the nucleus of an atom. 
> 
> The atomic number originally meant the number of an element's place in the [[Periodic Table|Periodic table]]. When [[Mendeleev]] arranged the known [[chemical element]]s grouped by their similarities in chemistry, it was noticeable that
> placing them in strict order of atomic mass resulted in some mismatches. [[Iodine]] and [[Tellurium]], if listed by atomic mass, appeared to be in the wrong order, and would fit better if their places in the table were swapped. Placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely, their number in the table was their atomic number. This number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom, but, as the mass/chemistry discrepancy showed, reflected some other property than mass.
>   
> With the discovery of atomic structure, this anomaly was resolved; the mass being the sum of the protons and [[neutrons]] in the atomic nucleus, while the chemical properties derive from the number of electrons in the atom, which matched the number of protons. 
> 
> 
------
Worldcon|985191151
14a15,16
> ----
> sounds like: 'world' - 'con'<BR>
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985191468
1c1
< Recently elected president of the [[United States]] who broke records for the number of prisoners put to death during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
---
> Recently elected president of the [[United States]] who broke records for the number of prisoners legally executed during his tenure as Govenor of Texas.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985191509
1a2,3
> 
> Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985191648
6c6,8
< :This was done based on [[CIA]] numbers for Soviet nuclear weapons that turned out to be drastically overestimated, and many believe that they would have fallen apart anyway.
---
> :This was done based on [[CIA]] numbers for Soviet nuclear weapons that turned out to be drastically overestimated, and many believe that they would have fallen apart anyway.
> ----
> He should be credited with defeating the Soviet Union.
------
Bach|985194643
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Johann Sebastian Bach]].
> 
> (Other sundry Bachs to be added to this page.)
------
Telekinesis|985196888
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telekinesis (literally 'distant-movement') is now more often referred to as Psychokinesis (literally 'mind-movement') or PK. It refers to 
> the apparent ability to influence the influence by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. Parapsychologists usually make a distinction between macroscopic PK (large-scale effects observable by the naked eye or by a single measurement) and microscopic PK(small-scale effects only observable by statistical analysis of multiple measurements). Numerous studies appear to show a correlation between mental activity and the state of certain physical systems (e.g. electronic noise generators, radioactive decay, biological processes) but the lack of any detailed theory as to a mechanism means that the existence of PK is extremely controversial.
------
Biology|985197047
3c3
< Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[Genetics|genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy|anatomy]], [[Physiology|physiology]], and [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology|ecology]].
---
> Some general principles as to how living things work are studied in [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]] and [[Genetics|genetics]].  To find out more about specific organisms we investigate their [[Anatomy|anatomy]], [[Physiology|physiology]], [[Behavior|behavior]] and [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]].  To find out about how organisms relate we investigate their [[Ecology|ecology]].
------
Biology|985197117
0a1
> <table><tr><td>
8c9
< 
---
> </td><td>
9a11
> </td></tr></table>
------
Telepathy|985197209
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telepathy (literally 'distant perception/feeling') is the supposed ability to communicate information from one mind to another. This information is generally reported as being 'received' in the same form as that from the conventional 5 senses. Parapsychologists tend to use the more general term Extra-Sensory Perception.
------
Biology|985197356
9c9
< </td><td>
---
> 
10a11,32
> 
> </td><td>
> 
> Branches
>  [[Anatomy|anatomy]]
>  [[Behavior|behavior]]
>  [[Biochemistry|biochemistry]]
>  [[Cladistics|cladistics]]
>  [[Ecology|ecology]]
>  [[Ethology]]
>  [[Evolution|evolution]]
>  [[Genetics|genetics]]
>  [[Ontogeny|ontogeny]]
>  [[Palaeontology|palaeontology]]
>  [[Phylogeny|phylogeny]]
>  [[Physiology|physiology]]
>  [[taxonomy]]
> 
> People
> 
> [[Lamarck]]
> 
------
Mendelevium|985197431
6c6
< Named after the Russian chemist [[Mendeleev]], who invented the [[Periodic Table|Periodic table]]
---
> Named after the Russian chemist [[Mendeleev]], who devised the [[Periodic Table|Periodic table]]
------
Biology|985197613
29a30,32
>  [[Aristotle]]
>  [[Charles Darwin]]
>  [[Lamarck]]
31,33c34
< [[Lamarck]]
< 
< </td></tr></table>
---
> </td></tr></table>
------
Biology|985197652
27c27
<  [[taxonomy]]
---
>  [[Linnaean taxonomy|taxonomy]]
------
Biology|985197671
20c20
<  [[Ethology]]
---
>  [[Ethology|ethology]]
------
Anatomy|985197862
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The branch of [[biology]] that deals with the structure and organization of living bodies.  Major branches of anatomy include [[comparative anatomy]] and [[human anatomy]].
------
Human_anatomy|985198041
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The human body, like the bodies of all animals, is comprised of systems, that are comprised of organs, that are comprised of tissues, that are comprised of cells.  Human anatomy tends to study organs and organ systems, leaving the study of tissues to [[histology]] and cells to [[cytology]].
------
Biology|985198095
14c14
< Branches
---
> Major Branches
18a19
>  [[Cytology|cytology]]
------
Mathijs|985198121
12c12
< I don't believe any such thing as fact & truth exist at all, but most peoples philosophy (apparently) still linger in dialectics & 19-th century illusions of total control over reality. Perception & concensus is a nice start, but still only a tool . . .
---
> I don't believe any such thing as fact & truth exist at all, but most peoples philosophy (apparently) still linger in dialectics & 19-th century illusions of total control over reality. 
14c14,18
< I don't mind being rebuffed; it's a clear reality check. Mistakes are an opportunity to learn new things, so . . .
---
> ''"The facts are those things that are the case'' -- Wittgenstein, 20th Century - [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]].  Please do stick around.
> 
> Perception & concensus is a nice start, but still only a tool . . .
> 
> I don't mind being rebuffed; it's a clear reality check. Mistakes are an opportunity to learn new things, so . . .
------
Interpolation|985198280
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Interpolation''' is used to approximate a function for which we only know values for a discrete set of values of the independent variable. For example, suppose we have a table like
> <table width=30% border=1>
> <tr><td><b>X</b><td>f(X)</tr>
> <tr><td>1<td>1</tr>
> <tr><td>2<td>4</tr>
> <tr><td>3<td>9</tr>
> <tr><td>4<td>16</tr>
> <tr><td>5<td>25</tr>
> </table>
> We immediately recognize that <font size=+2 color=red>f(X)</font> can be fitted by the function <font size=+2 color=red>X<sup>2</sup></font> but in general this is not the case when we want to interpolate. Suppose we would like the value of f(X) which corresponds to <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1.7</font>. The following formula demonstrates how we would interpolate (linearly) between the values for <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1</font> and <font size=+2 color=red>X = 2</font>.
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(1.7) = f(1) +  [(2-1.7)/(2-1)]*(f(2)-f(1)) = 1 + 0.3*(4-1) = 1 + .3*3 = 1.9</font>
------
Interpolation|985198380
10,11c10,11
< We immediately recognize that <font size=+2 color=red>f(X)</font> can be fitted by the function <font size=+2 color=red>X<sup>2</sup></font> but in general this is not the case when we want to interpolate. Suppose we would like the value of f(X) which corresponds to <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1.7</font>. The following formula demonstrates how we would interpolate (linearly) between the values for <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1</font> and <font size=+2 color=red>X = 2</font>.
< *<font size=+2 color=red>f(1.7) = f(1) +  [(2-1.7)/(2-1)]*(f(2)-f(1)) = 1 + 0.3*(4-1) = 1 + .3*3 = 1.9</font>
---
> We immediately recognize that <font size=+2 color=red>f(X)</font> can be fitted by the function <font size=+2 color=red>X<sup>2</sup></font> but in general this is not the case when we want to interpolate. Suppose we would like the value of <font size=+2 color=red>f(X)</font> which corresponds to <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1.7</font>. The following formula demonstrates how we would interpolate (linearly) between the values for <font size=+2 color=red>X = 1</font> and <font size=+2 color=red>X = 2</font>.
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(1.7) = f(1) +  [(1.7-1)/(2-1)]*(f(2)-f(1)) = 1 + 0.7*(4-1) = 1 + .7*3 = 3.1</font>
------
Human_anatomy|985198425
1c1,14
< The human body, like the bodies of all animals, is comprised of systems, that are comprised of organs, that are comprised of tissues, that are comprised of cells.  Human anatomy tends to study organs and organ systems, leaving the study of tissues to [[histology]] and cells to [[cytology]].
---
> The human body, like the bodies of all animals, is comprised of systems, that are comprised of organs, that are comprised of tissues, that are comprised of cells.  Human anatomy tends to study organs and organ systems, leaving the study of tissues to [[histology]] and cells to [[cytology]].
> 
> Major systems of the human body:
>  [[/Cardiovascular system]]
>  [[/Digestive system]]
>  [[/Endocrine system]]
>  [[/Excretory system]]
>  [[/Immune system]]
>  [[/Integumentary system]]
>  [[/Muscle system]]
>  [[/Nervous system]]
>  [[/Reproductive system]]
>  [[/Respiratory system]]
>  [[/Skeletal system]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985198490
3c3,7
< Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.
---
> Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.
> 
> ----
> Including the mentally retarded Oliver Cruz; Jesse DeWayne Jacobs, whom the state called to testify against the man who actually committed the murder for which Jacobs was nevertheless executed; several prisoners whose defense attorneys were later disbarred or suspended, or who called no defense witnesses...
> 
------
Mathijs|985199060
18a19,20
> ----
> Yes, by all means, do stick around.  I think my remarks were perhaps too harsh.  
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985199107
6c6
< Including the mentally retarded Oliver Cruz; Jesse DeWayne Jacobs, whom the state called to testify against the man who actually committed the murder for which Jacobs was nevertheless executed; several prisoners whose defense attorneys were later disbarred or suspended, or who called no defense witnesses...
---
> Including the mentally retarded [[Oliver Cruz]]; [[Jesse DeWayne Jacobs]], whom the state called to testify against the man who actually committed the murder for which Jacobs was nevertheless executed; several prisoners whose defense attorneys were later disbarred or suspended, or who called no defense witnesses...
------
Bach|985199229
1c1
< See [[Johann Sebastian Bach]].
---
> Perhaps you are looking for...
3c3,6
< (Other sundry Bachs to be added to this page.)
---
> :[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] ([[composer]])
> :[[Barbara Bach]] ([[actress]])
> 
> (Other sundry Bachs to be added to this page.)
------
Actresses|985199255
3a4
> :[[Barbara Bach]]
------
Ronald_Reagan|985199613
21a22,23
> During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
> 
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985199713
8a9,11
> ----
> 
> The main page is very nice, but it tends to focus only on the positive things about Reagan.  I think that there is a need on the page for a _non-partisan_ (of course!) presentation of some criticisms.  I just added a line about Iran-Contra, which I unfortunately know too little about to say much of value.
------
Telekinesis|985200008
1,2c1,4
< Telekinesis (literally 'distant-movement') is now more often referred to as Psychokinesis (literally 'mind-movement') or PK. It refers to 
< the apparent ability to influence the influence by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. Parapsychologists usually make a distinction between macroscopic PK (large-scale effects observable by the naked eye or by a single measurement) and microscopic PK(small-scale effects only observable by statistical analysis of multiple measurements). Numerous studies appear to show a correlation between mental activity and the state of certain physical systems (e.g. electronic noise generators, radioactive decay, biological processes) but the lack of any detailed theory as to a mechanism means that the existence of PK is extremely controversial.
---
> Telekinesis (literally 'distant-movement') is now more often referred to as Psychokinesis (literally 'mind-movement') or PK. It refers to 
> the apparent ability to influence the influence by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. Parapsychologists usually make a distinction between macroscopic PK (large-scale effects observable by the naked eye or by a single measurement) and microscopic PK(small-scale effects only observable by statistical analysis of multiple measurements). Numerous studies appear to show a correlation between mental activity and the state of certain physical systems (e.g. electronic noise generators, radioactive decay, biological processes) but the lack of any detailed theory as to a mechanism means that the existence of PK is extremely controversial.
> 
> One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explains successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relatively.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
------
Telekinesis|985200026
4c4
< One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explains successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relatively.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
---
> One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relatively.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
------
Telekinesis|985200076
4c4
< One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relatively.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
---
> One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
------
Biology|985200321
1c1
< <table><tr><td>
---
> <table width=80%><tr><td>
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985200541
3c3,5
< He flew ? during [[World War II]].
---
> He flew ? during [[World War II]]. 
> 
> The [[George H. Bush Library]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas A&M University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985200566
5c5
< The [[George H. Bush Library]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas A&M University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
---
> The [[George H. Bush Library]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
------
Naming_conventions/Disambiguating|985200702
36a37,38
> ----
> At this time, there is also [[Television/Band]] in existence...
------
Uranium|985200940
6c6
< absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]].
---
> absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]]. 
8c8,11
< Well, the fission bomb. The fusion bomb (see [[Helium]]) is also an atomic bomb, so it's kind of an ambiguous word, hm?
---
> Well, the fission bomb. The fusion bomb (see [[Helium]]) is also an atomic bomb, so it's kind of an ambiguous word, hm?
> 
> I'm just using historic language. The first "A-bomb" was a fission one. Nuclear is more accurate for both, anyway (the
> rest of the atom doesn't participate at all).
------
SandBox|985201769
12c12
<                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
39c39
< �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
131a132
> &alpha;
------
This_(way)|985202087
2a3,4
> (see SandBox)
> 
------
WikiPedians|985202235
25a26
> * [[JStoddW]]
------
JStoddW|985202284
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I actually have spent most of my time in the Arts and Entertainment section.
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985202359
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Better known as Texas A&M University, this [[land-grant]], [[sea-grant]] and [[space-grant]] institution located in [[College Station]], [[Texas]]. The [[university]] is centrally located, approximately equidistant from three of the 10 largest cities in the [[United States]] ([[Houston]], [[Dallas]] and [[San Antonio]]) and the state capital ([[Austin]]). The [[university]]’s enrollment includes approximately 44,000 students studying for degrees in 10 academic colleges. 
> 
> Texas A&M, the state’s first public institution of higher education, was opened on Oct. 4, 1876 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. The [[school]] owes its origin to the [[Morrill Act of 1862]], which established the nation’s [[land-grant]] [[college]] system.
> 
> In 1963, the name of the institution was changed to Texas A&M University to more accurately reflect its expanding role as a leader in teaching, research, and public service for the state, nation and world. The initials "A" and "M" are a link to the university’s past; they no longer represent any specific words as the school’s curriculum has grown to include not only [[agriculture]] and [[engineering]], but [[architecture]], [[business]], [[education]], [[geosciences]], [[liberal arts]], [[medicine]], [[science]], and [[veterinary medicine]].
> 
> The Texas A&M campus is home to the [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]].
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985202397
5c5
< The [[George H. Bush Library]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
---
> The [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
------
This_(way)|985202672
6a7
> :In the next release (April 2001?) you should be able to use parentheses in ordinary links.
------
Documentary_Film|985203067
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Documentary Film is an incredibly broad category of cinematic expression.  Traditionally, the only common characteristic to all documentary films is that it is meant to be non-fiction.
> 
> The earliest "moving pictures" were by definition documentary.  They were single shot, moments that were captures on film.  Whether it be a train entering a station, a boat docking, or a factory of people getting off work, early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event.  These short films were called "actualities."  Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century.
> 
> However, it wasn't until [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s [[Nanook of the North]] in the 1920s that documentary filmmaking had matured.
> 
> * [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> * [[John Grierson]]
------
Nanook_of_the_North|985203344
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Documentary by [[Robert J. Flaherty]] which is considered the first feature-length documentary.  It can be said that Flaherty made the film twice.  The first time, the film and the original footage was destroyed in a fire.  The film now in existence was released in New York in 1922. 
> 
> In the tradition that would emerge of salvage enography, Flaherty captured the struggling life of the Inuit Nanook and his family.  However, often Flaherty would encourage Nanook to hunt in the method of his ancestors (without the use of a gun) in order to capture what was believed to be the way the Inuit lived before European influence.
------
Robert_J._Flaherty|985203459
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Filmmaker who directed and produced the first feature length documentary ([[Nanook of the North]]) in 1922.
> 
> Filmography:
> * [[Nanook of the North]]
> * [[Moana]]
------
Documentary_Film|985203862
6a7
> 1922-1927 (Silent Era)
7a9,12
> * [[Merian C. Cooper]] and [[Ernest B. Schoedsack]]
> * [[Dziga Vertov]]
> 
> 1927-  (Early Sound Era)
8a14,15
> * [[Leni Riefenstahl]]
> * [[The March of Time]]
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|985204067
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Leni Riefenstahl was an actress and documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hilter's Third Reich.  Her best-known film is the glorification of Hilter in [[Triumph of the Will]].
> 
> Filmography:
> * [[Triumph of the Will]] (1935)
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
John_Grierson|985204274
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Grierson (1898-1972)
> 
> Grierson was one of the most influential early documentary filmmakers.  He is probably most influential in his supporting, training, and "father of a school" role.  He was the creative organizer who formed and ran the Empire Marketing Board Film Unit (better known as the [[EMB Film Unit]]).
> 
> Filmography:
> * [[Drifters]]
------
Documentary_Film|985204323
13a14
> * [[EMB Film Unit]]
15c16
< * [[The March of Time]]
---
> * [[The March of Time]]
------
Film_History|985204520
19a20
> *  [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
42a44
> *  [[John Grierson]]
------
Film_Theory|985204639
1c1
< All about how to interpret films.  (Needs expansion...)
---
> All about how to interpret films.  See also [[Film Criticism]]. (Needs expansion...)
10c10
< No. It is similar to it but focuses on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
---
> No. It is similar to it but focuses on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
------
Film_Directors|985204696
13a14
> :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
------
Cecil_B._Demille|985205097
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most successful filmmakers during the first have of the 20th century.  He Directed hundreds of silent shorts before coming into huge popularity during the 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as "Don't Change Your Husband" (1919), "The Ten Commandments" (1923), and "The King of Kings" (1927).  While he condintued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film "The Ten Commandments" (very different from his 1923 film by the same title).
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985205821
1c1
< The holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''
---
> The main holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''
------
Gnu|985205973
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The gnu is an African hoofed mammal related to the [[antelope]].
> 
> (I have no idea if the details in the above are true.)
> 
> See also [[GNU]] (the software project).
------
Frank|985207184
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> FRANCS
> peuple germanique originaire peut-etre des pays Baltes, qui donna son nom a la Gaule romaine apres l'avoir conquise au Ve et VIe siecle.
------
Gnu|985207217
1c1
< The gnu is an African hoofed mammal related to the [[antelope]].
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large [[ungulate]] mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  All species (the most common being C. gnou and C. taurinus) are native to Africa.
3,5c3
< (I have no idea if the details in the above are true.)
< 
< See also [[GNU]] (the software project).
---
> See also [[GNU]] (the software project).
------
Gnu|985207438
1c1
< The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large [[ungulate]] mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  All species (the most common being C. gnou and C. taurinus) are native to Africa.
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large [[ungulate]] mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
------
LangueFrancaise|985207613
17c17
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]], la [[Côte d'Ivoire]].
---
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]], la [[Cote d Ivoire]].
------
Mathijs|985208035
5c5
< perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise
---
> perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise; <I>maybe a agent provocateur of truth? nice thought! lazy self-righteous thought! hark!</I>
15a16,20
> <I> Thank you, [[Gareth Owen|Gareth]]; 
> <BR>[[Wittgenstein]] = [[beta-philosophy]] = not quite my cup of tea; <BR>[[fact]] = [[thing]] = [[case]]; 
> <BR>ponder, ponder, ponder, 
> <BR>fill it up, have a bath.</I><BR>
> 
20c25,53
< Yes, by all means, do stick around.  I think my remarks were perhaps too harsh.  
---
> Yes, by all means, do stick around.  I think my remarks were perhaps too harsh.:
>   
> ''Mathijs,
> 
> It seems we are very nearly the same age, as I was born August 7, 1966.
> 
> Please stop ranting on the wikipedia -- this isn't a discussion forum, but an encyclopedia.  What we hope to achieve, and I don't think this is too hopelessly idealistic, is an atmosphere where people of <b>widely different</b> ideological opinions can come together to work for a <b>quality</b> presentation of the facts.
> 
> Rather than writing inflammatory comments about England, for example, you might write a detailed account of one of the particular injustices that you mentioned.
> 
> A good writer doesn't state conclusions, but states facts and permits the reader to draw the obvious conclusions.  It takes a nobody to say "England is unjust" -- but a master will tell us about England, and let us draw the natural conclusion -- and if
> the conclusion is that "England is unjust" then so be it.
> 
> -- [[Jimbo Wales]]''
> 
> <I>Don't worry<BR>
> there's a Dutch saying:<BR>
> "Zachte heelmeesters maken stinkende wonden"<BR>
> (like: "soft/sloppy/lazy physicians make gory/smelly/festering wounds")</I>
> 
> I think I'm not good author in your sense, anyway<BR>
> I'm more of an opinion slinger<BR>
> very often in consequence of the reaction and following debate quite interesting notions are realized<BR>
> sometimes I do get rebuffed or called silly things (like nazi or racist) that are mostly way off the mark<BR>
> I've got a simple equasion for this<BR>
> (be happy, you matematicians!)<BR>
> <FONT SIZE=+2 COLOR=#FF0000>If it hurts, it's true</FONT><BR>
> so, <BR>in my own crazy, lazy, pondering, wondering way, <BR>I'm it it for the facts just as all of us wikipedians are<BR>
> (as if I am a Terminus-encyclopedist, hark, hark!)
------
Mathijs|985208404
53c53
< (as if I am a Terminus-encyclopedist, hark, hark!)
---
> (as if I am a Terminus-encyclopedist ([[Isaac Asimov]]), hark, hark!)
------
Mathijs|985208799
23a24,26
> 
> I always liked Philip K. Dick's deinfition: Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.  If you stop believing in Leprechauns, for example, they'll never bother you again.  If you stop believing in gravity, though, those stubborn cups still break when you drop them.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Frank|985208969
2c2,23
< peuple germanique originaire peut-etre des pays Baltes, qui donna son nom a la Gaule romaine apres l'avoir conquise au Ve et VIe siecle.
---
> peuple germanique originaire peut-etre des pays Baltes, qui donna son nom a la Gaule romaine apres l'avoir conquise au Ve et VIe siecle.
> ----
> were allowed to to enter as foederati by the Romans.
> ----
> * [[Merovingians]]
> * [[Carolingians]]
> * [[Pippin the great]]
> * [[Charlemagne]]
> * [[Holy Roman Empire]]
> * [[Charles the Bald]]
> * [[Lotharius]]
> * [[Ludwig the German]]
> * [[Fall of the Roman Empire]]
> * [[Christening of Northern Europe]]
> * [[Religion as a political tool]]
> * [[Bonifatius]]
> * [[Gregory]]
> * [[Willibrord]]
> * [[Frisians]]
> * [[Clovis]]
> * [[Vikings]]
> *  
------
Mathijs|985209326
25c25,28
< I always liked Philip K. Dick's deinfition: Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.  If you stop believing in Leprechauns, for example, they'll never bother you again.  If you stop believing in gravity, though, those stubborn cups still break when you drop them.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> I always liked Philip K. Dick's definition: <BR>''Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.''  <BR>If you stop believing in Leprechauns, for example, they'll never bother you again.  <BR>If you stop believing in gravity, though, those stubborn cups still break when you drop them.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> Perhaps I'd rather believe in Leprechauns than in gravity;<BR>
> Way too heavy for this escapist -- Mathijs
------
LangueFrancaise|985209749
14a15,18
> s'ti ysae, enoyreve nac od ti!<BR>
> tub ym niarb t'now epoc<BR>
> ti t'sah tog ghuone MAR ni ym metsys<BR>
> won I evah a ehcadaeh, wao!
19a24,25
> ----
> If you know English you should be able to communicate in French, and vise versa (they love you if you just try it!)
------
LangueFrancaise|985210021
14c14,20
< 
---
> ----
> inverse language!<BR>
> it's jolly fun<BR>
> it's addictive<BR>
> like placing all the accents at the end of your words<BR>
> ZapiekinKe likUu mistuRr KloezauWwa
> ----
25c31
< If you know English you should be able to communicate in French, and vise versa (they love you if you just try it!)
---
> If you know English you should be able to communicate in French, and vise versa (they love you if you just try it!)
------
LangueFrancaise|985211209
11d10
< ----
13,31c12
< Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
< ----
< inverse language!<BR>
< it's jolly fun<BR>
< it's addictive<BR>
< like placing all the accents at the end of your words<BR>
< ZapiekinKe likUu mistuRr KloezauWwa
< ----
< s'ti ysae, enoyreve nac od ti!<BR>
< tub ym niarb t'now epoc<BR>
< ti t'sah tog ghuone MAR ni ym metsys<BR>
< won I evah a ehcadaeh, wao!
< ----
< 
< Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]], la [[Cote d Ivoire]].
< 
< Et co-officiel a Andorre!
< ----
< If you know English you should be able to communicate in French, and vise versa (they love you if you just try it!)
---
> /Talk
------
LangueFrancaise/Talk|985211247
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Le VerlaN, zyva, c'est cilfa !
> ----
> inverse language!<BR>
> it's jolly fun<BR>
> it's addictive<BR>
> like placing all the accents at the end of your words<BR>
> ZapiekinKe likUu mistuRr KloezauWwa
> ----
> s'ti ysae, enoyreve nac od ti!<BR>
> tub ym niarb t'now epoc<BR>
> ti t'sah tog ghuone MAR ni ym metsys<BR>
> won I evah a ehcadaeh, wao!
> ----
> If you know English you should be able to communicate in French, and vise versa (they love you if you just try it!)
------
LangueFrancaise|985211263
12c12,16
< /Talk
---
> Concrètement le français est une langue officielle dans plusieurs pays autre que la [[France]], dont la [[Belgique]], la [[Suisse]], le [[Luxembourg]], le [[Quebec]], la [[Cote d Ivoire]].
> 
> Et co-officiel a Andorre!
> 
> /Talk
------
Gnu|985211317
3a4,5
> 
> /Talk
------
Gnu/Talk|985211362
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You mean they don't have hooves?
> 
> What does [[ungulate]] mean?
> 
> I liked my entry better.  It may have been wrong and unscientific, but I could understand it!  :-)))
------
Romantic_Music|985211369
1a2,5
> *[[Frederic Chopin]]
> *[[Robert Schumann]]
> *[[Hector Berlioz]]
> *[[Franz Schubert]]
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|985211581
1c1
< The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them PseudoScience.
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
3c3
< Perhaps [[numerology]] falls in the purview of "anomalous phenomena."
---
> Perhaps [[numerology]] falls in the purview of "anomalous phenomena."
------
Gnu/Talk|985211898
5c5,9
< I liked my entry better.  It may have been wrong and unscientific, but I could understand it!  :-)))
---
> I liked my entry better.  It may have been wrong and unscientific, but I could understand it!  :-)))
> 
> ----
> "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".  Yes, this text is a little less colloquial, but when all the links have ends on them, it will be more useful and educational.  I don't know if we have a template yet for living things, but we probably should at some point.
> 
------
Argument_form|985211994
2a3,4
> Some examples of [[validity|valid]] arguments forms are [[modus ponens]], [[modus tollens]], and [[disjunctive syllogism]].  One invalid argument form is [[affirming the consequent]].
> 
------
Modus_ponens|985212122
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Modus ponens'' is a simple [[argument form]]:
> 
> :If P, then Q.
> :P.
> :Therefore, Q.
> 
> Here is an example of an argument that fits the form <i>modus</i> <i>ponens</i>:
> 
> :If love conquers all, then love conquers Attila the Hun.
> :Love conquers all.
> :Therefore, love conquers Attila the Hun.
> 
> Another example:
> 
> :If democracy is the best system of government, then everyone should vote.
> :Democracy is the best system of government.
> :Therefore, everyone should vote.
> 
> Basically the idea is to make an "if-then" claim--these are called <i>conditional</i> claims--and then affirm the "if" part, or the <i>antecedent</i>, and then conclude with the "then" part, or the <i>consequent</i>.
------
Biology|985212159
10c10
< The distinction between life and non-life never being a hard and fast one, there are also a series of parasites that are progressively less alive: [[Virus|viri]], [[Virioid|virioids]], and [[Prion|prions]].
---
> The distinction between life and non-life never being a hard and fast one, there are also a series of parasites that are progressively less alive: [[virus]]es, [[viroid]]s, and [[prion]]s.
------
Modus_tollens|985212561
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Modus</i> <i>tollens</i> is a common, simple [[argument form]]:
> :If P, then Q.
> :Not Q.
> :Therefore, not P.
> 
> Consider an example:
> :If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.
> :There is no oxygen here.
> :Therefore, there is no fire here.
> 
> This argument form is [[validity|valid]]: indeed, if there is no oxygen here, then we <i>can</i> conclude validly that there is no fire here.
> 
> Another example:
> :If Lizzy was the murderer, then she owns an axe.
> :Lizzy does not own an axe.
> :Therefore, Lizzy was not the murderer.
> 
> Just suppose that the premises are both true.  If Lizzy was the murderer, then she really must have owned an axe; and it is a fact that Lizzy does not own an axe.  What follows?  That she was not the murderer.
> 
> Suppose one wants to say: the first premise is false.  If Lizzy was the murderer, then she would not necessarily have to have owned an axe; maybe she borrowed someone's.  That might be a legitimate criticism of the argument, but notice that it does not mean the argument is <i>invalid</i>.  An argument can be valid even though it has a false premise; remember to distinguish [[validity]] and [[soundness]].
------
Modus_ponens|985212605
1c1
< ''Modus ponens'' is a simple [[argument form]]:
---
> ''Modus ponens'' is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]]:
19c19
< Basically the idea is to make an "if-then" claim--these are called <i>conditional</i> claims--and then affirm the "if" part, or the <i>antecedent</i>, and then conclude with the "then" part, or the <i>consequent</i>.
---
> Basically the idea is to make an "if-then" claim--these are called <i>conditional</i> claims--and then affirm the "if" part, or the <i>antecedent</i>, and then conclude with the "then" part, or the <i>consequent</i>.
------
Argument|985212666
38c38
< There are good and bad arguments.  No doubt there are a lot more bad
---
> There are [[good argument]]s and bad.  No doubt there are a lot more bad
------
Disjunction|985212892
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''disjunction'' is an "or statement."  'Either P or Q' is a disjunction; 'P' and 'Q' are each called the statement's <i>disjuncts</i>.  'John skis or Sally swims' is another disjunction; 'John skis' is one disjunct, and 'Sally skis' is another.
------
Disjunction|985212905
1c1
< A ''disjunction'' is an "or statement."  'Either P or Q' is a disjunction; 'P' and 'Q' are each called the statement's <i>disjuncts</i>.  'John skis or Sally swims' is another disjunction; 'John skis' is one disjunct, and 'Sally skis' is another.
---
> A ''disjunction'' is an "or statement."  'Either P or Q' is a disjunction; 'P' and 'Q' are each called the statement's <i>disjuncts</i>.  'John skis or Sally swims' is another disjunction; 'John skis' is one disjunct, and 'Sally swims' is another.
------
Virus|985212939
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Derived from the [[Latin]] <i>virus</i> (which referred to several unpleasant things like snake venom and pond slime) the word was first used to describe [[Biological virus]]es when these were first discovered to be infectious disease-causing agents smaller than bacteria that reproduce with the help of a host cell.  It is also used metaphorically to refer to other parasitically-reproducing things like ideas.  The term [[computer virus]], once metaphorical, is now another well-defined sense of the word.
> 
> Despite frequent claims to the contrary, the only correct English plural of the word used in any of these senses is <i>viruses</i>.
> 
> See [[Biological virus]], [[Computer virus]].
------
Disjunctive_syllogism|985213029
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Disjunctive syllogism</i> is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]]:
> :Either P or Q.
> :Not P.
> :Therefore, Q.
> Roughly, we are told that it has to be one or the other that is true; then we are told that it is not the one that is true; so we infer that it has to be the other that is true.  The reason this is called "disjunctive syllogism" is that, first, it is a [[syllogism]]--a three-step argument--and second, it contains a [[disjunction]], which means simply an "or" statement.  "Either P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement's <i>disjuncts</i>.
> 
> Here is an example:
> :Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
> :I will not choose soup.
> :Therefore, I will choose salad.
> 
> Here is another example:
> :Either the Browns win or the Bengals win.
> :The Browns do not win.
> :Therefore, the Bengals win.
------
Affirming_the_consequent|985213294
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Suppose in an [[argument]] one were to affirm the "then" part of a [[conditional]] (the consequent) first, and conclude with the "if" part (the antecedent).  This [[argument form]] has a name ''affirming the consequent'':
> :If P, then Q.
> :Q.
> :Therefore, P.
> This is called "affirming the consequent" because in arguing this way one does indeed affirm the consequent in the second premise ("Q" is the consequent of the conditional claim, "If P, then Q").  This is a [[logical fallacy]].  If we argue this way, we make a mistake.  One can see this with an example:
> :If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.  (Since oxygen is required for fire.)
> :There is oxygen here.
> :Therefore, there is fire here.
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|985213883
1c1
< Leni Riefenstahl was an actress and documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hilter's Third Reich.  Her best-known film is the glorification of Hilter in [[Triumph of the Will]].
---
> Leni Riefenstahl has an actress and later a documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hitler's Third Reich. Her best-known film is the glorification of Hilter in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
5c5
< * [[Olympia]] (1938)
---
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
Logical_fallacy|985213911
20,25c20
< Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the argument
< "ad hominem" is used when instead of refuting an statement, the
< person who made the statement is attacked.
< Every time a politician says another "You
< don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the
< person who uses it. 
---
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
27,31c22,24
< In the opposite direction is the fallacy of authority. Classical
< example of this is the "Master dixit" , the master said it, used
< through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].
< A modern use of this is "Celebrity Spokepersons": that product is
< good because (put your favorite celebrity here) endorses it.
---
> In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
> 
> Sometimes, however, an appeal to an authority is best construed not as a fallacy but as an appeal to [[expert testimony]]--a type of [[inductive argument]].  This is another example of the difficulty of identifying fallacies as such.
33,34c26,28
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> Typically, logical fallacies are [[validity|invalid]], but they can often be written or rewritten so that they follow a valid [[argument form]]; and in that case, the challenge is to discover the false premise, which makes the argument [[soundness|unsound]].
> 
> There are some argument forms that are themselves invalid, however.  One of the best-known examples is [[affirming the consequent]].
------
Larrys_Text|985213997
7c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- ArgumentForms -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] --[[affirming the consequent]] -- MeaningAndDefinitions
------
The_motivation_to_philosophize|985214012
60,62c60
< (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they do not <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they do not <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
------
Philosophical_method/Introduction|985214037
87,90c87
< * Dialectic.  Present the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
< 
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> * Dialectic.  Present the solution and arguments for criticism by other philosophers, and help them judge their own.
------
Definition_of_philosophy|985214074
41,47c41
< Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.
< 
< The above considerations suggest very imperfect, unrigorous, yet platitudinous account of philosophy:
< 
< :<i>Philosophy</i> is, approximately, the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in dialectic about all of the above.
< 
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.
------
Philosophical_subdisciplines|985214107
21,23c21
< <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about [[art]] and [[beauty]].
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <i>[[Aesthetics]]</i>: the study of basic philosophical questions about [[art]] and [[beauty]].
------
College_logic|985214126
8,9d7
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Argument|985214143
40,42c40
< wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
------
Argument_form|985214173
27,29c27
< There is a good reason why attention to argument and sentence forms is important.  The reason is this: <i>form</i> <i>is</i> <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> <i>an</i> <i>argument</i> <i>[[validity|valid]]</i> <i>or</i> <i>[[cogency|cogent]]</i>.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> There is a good reason why attention to argument and sentence forms is important.  The reason is this: <i>form</i> <i>is</i> <i>what</i> <i>makes</i> <i>an</i> <i>argument</i> <i>[[validity|valid]]</i> <i>or</i> <i>[[cogency|cogent]]</i>.
------
Validity|985214187
31,33c31
< Validity is a basic, essential notion in [[logic]], since it is a basic requirement for an argument to be good.  But validity by itself is not enough to make an argument good.  True premises are needed in addition.  So suppose we have a valid argument with true premises.  Then, we will say, we have a <i>[[soundness|sound]]</i> argument.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> Validity is a basic, essential notion in [[logic]], since it is a basic requirement for an argument to be good.  But validity by itself is not enough to make an argument good.  True premises are needed in addition.  So suppose we have a valid argument with true premises.  Then, we will say, we have a <i>[[soundness|sound]]</i> argument.
------
Soundness|985214201
10,11d9
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
Cogency|985214214
22,24c22
< Similar things to what one says about soundness can be said about strength.  If one knows an argument is strong, then one knows that, if the premises are true, then its conclusion is ''probably'' true.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> Similar things to what one says about soundness can be said about strength.  If one knows an argument is strong, then one knows that, if the premises are true, then its conclusion is ''probably'' true.
------
Deduction_and_induction|985214233
7,9c7
< The reason these rough definitions are phrased in terms of what the arguments "aspire" to be is that an argument can be properly the subject of deductive logic even though it is <i>not</i> valid or cogent; it can be studied by logic even though it fails to be what it aspires to be.  So deduction is concerned with validity; induction is concerned with cogency.  So in deductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion <i>must</i> be true if the premises are true; and in inductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion is <i>probably</i> true if the premises are true.
< ----
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> The reason these rough definitions are phrased in terms of what the arguments "aspire" to be is that an argument can be properly the subject of deductive logic even though it is <i>not</i> valid or cogent; it can be studied by logic even though it fails to be what it aspires to be.  So deduction is concerned with validity; induction is concerned with cogency.  So in deductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion <i>must</i> be true if the premises are true; and in inductive logic one studies forms of arguments such that the conclusion is <i>probably</i> true if the premises are true.
------
Conditional|985214402
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''conditional'' statement, or simply a ''conditional'' for short, is an "in-then" statement, written in the form: 'if P, then Q'.  Here, 'P' is the ''antecedent'' (the "if" part of the statement) and 'Q' is the ''consequent'' (the "then" part).  For example, in "If you give me ten dollars, then I will be your best friend," the claim "you give me ten dollars" is the antecedent of the conditional, and "I will be your best friend" is the consequent.
------
Ungulate|985214577
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".
------
Gnu/Talk|985214749
9c9,10
< 
---
> ----
> You're right, it will be better.  But I do think entries should be as useful as possible to nonspecialists, and that means introducing jargon with nonjargon whenever possible.  E.g., you could say: "...are hooved animals ([[ungulates]])..." and that would be a distinct improvement.
------
Gnu|985214774
1c1
< The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large [[ungulate]] mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
5c5
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Gnu|985214841
1c1
< The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], of the family [[Bovidae]].  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], which includes (examples of Connochaetes), of the family [[Bovidae]], which includes (examples of Bovidae).  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
------
Biology|985214954
35a36,37
> ----
> /Talk
------
Gnu|985215023
1c1
< The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus [[Connochaetes]], which includes (examples of Connochaetes), of the family [[Bovidae]], which includes (examples of Bovidae).  The two species (C. gnou, the "black" wildebeest, and C. taurinus, the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus ''[[Connochaetes]]'', which includes (examples of ''Connochaetes''), of the family [[Bovidae]], which includes (examples of Bovidae).  The two species (''C. gnou'', the "black" wildebeest, and ''C. taurinus'', the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
------
Biology/Talk|985215069
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The table looks nice, but I don't know if we want to "go there."  The main argument against it is that the fancy-schmancier you make the appearance of the page, the harder it will be for ordinary non-coder types to edit.  That is a ''bad'' thing.  Part of the beauty of wiki is that it is simple to use and edit.
------
Gnu/Talk|985215205
10c10,13
< You're right, it will be better.  But I do think entries should be as useful as possible to nonspecialists, and that means introducing jargon with nonjargon whenever possible.  E.g., you could say: "...are hooved animals ([[ungulates]])..." and that would be a distinct improvement.
---
> You're right, it will be better.  But I do think entries should be as useful as possible to nonspecialists, and that means introducing jargon with nonjargon whenever possible.  E.g., you could say: "...are hooved animals ([[ungulates]])..." and that would be a distinct improvement.
> 
> ----
> As I pointed out in [[WikiIsNotPaper]], I think links are far better than short glosses when there's something to link to.  But in this case I think you may be right that both together work well (mainly because the gloss is very short and nonetheless complete and useful).  Since you didn't make the cahnge, I will.
------
Gnu/Talk|985215235
13c13
< As I pointed out in [[WikiIsNotPaper]], I think links are far better than short glosses when there's something to link to.  But in this case I think you may be right that both together work well (mainly because the gloss is very short and nonetheless complete and useful).  Since you didn't make the cahnge, I will.
---
> As I pointed out in [[WikiIsNotPaper]], I think links are far better than short glosses when there's something to link to.  But in this case I think you may be right that both together work well (mainly because the gloss is very short and nonetheless complete and useful).
------
Biology/Talk|985215251
1c1,3
< The table looks nice, but I don't know if we want to "go there."  The main argument against it is that the fancy-schmancier you make the appearance of the page, the harder it will be for ordinary non-coder types to edit.  That is a ''bad'' thing.  Part of the beauty of wiki is that it is simple to use and edit.
---
> The table looks nice, but I don't know if we want to "go there."  The main argument against it is that the fancy-schmancier you make the appearance of the page, the harder it will be for ordinary non-coder types to edit.  That is a ''bad'' thing.  Part of the beauty of wiki is that it is simple to use and edit.
> 
> Also, there is the danger of the contents of the table outstripping those of the main page, resulting in a weird looking organization.  Btw, since when is ''viruses'' the plural of the Latin word ''virus''?
------
ArgumentForms|985215414
1,121c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< I said that whether an argument is valid or not depends on the <i>form</i> of the argument.  Now, for that reason, in logic, what one studies a <i>lot</i> is different valid argument forms.  So let me give you some examples of valid argument forms.
< 
< The first is called by a Latin name: <i>modus</i> <i>ponens</i>.  That makes the argument form sound a lot more daunting than it really is.  Modus ponens is really simple -- perhaps the simplest sort of argument:
< 
< <i>Modus</i> <i>Ponens</i>
< 
< If P, then Q.
< 
< P.
< 
< Therefore, Q.
< 
< Here’s an example of an argument that fits the form <i>modus</i> <i>ponens</i>:
< 
< 
< 
< If love conquers all, then love conquers Attila the Hun.
< 
< Love conquers all.
< 
< Therefore, love conquers Attila the Hun.
< 
< Or here’s another example:
< 
< 
< 
< If democracy is the best system of government, then everyone should vote.
< 
< Democracy is the best system of government.
< 
< Therefore, everyone should vote.
< 
< So basically the idea is to make an "if-then" claim -- these are called <i>conditional</i> claims -- and then affirm the "if" part, or the <i>antecedent</i>, and then conclude with the "then" part, or the <i>consequent</i>.
< 
< Suppose that we tried instead to affirm the "then" part of the conditional, the consequent, first, and conclude with the "if" part, the antecedent.  Believe it or not, this argument has a name:
< 
< <i>Affirming</i> <i>the</i> <i>consequent</i>.
< 
< If P, then Q.
< 
< Q.
< 
< Therefore, P.
< 
< It’s called "affirming the consequent" because in arguing this way one does indeed affirm the consequent in the second premise ("Q" is the consequent of the conditional claim, "If P, then Q").  This is a fallacy.  If you argue this way you will be making a mistake.  You should be able to see that with an example.  You know that oxygen is required for fire.  So suppose we argue like this:
< 
< 
< 
< If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.  (Since oxygen is required for fire.)
< 
< There is oxygen here.
< 
< Therefore, there is fire here.
< 
< You can see that that way of arguing doesn’t work.  But now consider a slightly different argument:
< 
< 
< 
< If there is fire here, then there is oxygen here.
< 
< There is no oxygen here.
< 
< Therefore, there is no fire here.
< 
< Now, that argument <i>does</i> work.  It is perfectly valid: indeed, if there is no oxygen here, then we <i>can</i> conclude validly that there’s no fire here.  This argument has a different form, which is complementary to modus ponens; it too has a Latin name:
< 
< <i>Modus</i> <i>Tollens</i>
< 
< If P, then Q.
< 
< Not Q.
< 
< Therefore, not P.
< 
< We’ve already given one example of modus tollens; here’s another example: 
< 
< 
< 
< If Lizzy was the murderer, then she owns an axe.
< 
< Lizzy does not own an axe.
< 
< Therefore, Lizzy was not the murderer.
< 
< Let’s just suppose that the premises are both true.  All right, if Lizzy was the murderer, then she really must have owned an axe.  And it’s a fact that Lizzy does not own an axe.  What follows?  That she wasn’t the murderer.
< 
< Suppose you want to say: well, the first premise is false!  If Lizzy was the murderer, then she wouldn’t necessarily have to have owned an axe; maybe she borrowed someone’s.  Now, that might be a legitimate criticism of the argument, but notice that it doesn’t mean the argument is <i>invalid</i>.  An argument can be valid even though it has a false premise!  Remember, we are distinguishing an argument’s <i>validity</i> from its <i>soundness</i>.  To be sound, an argument has to be both valid <i>and</i> <i>have</i> <i>true</i> <i>premises</i>.  Our Lizzy argument is unsound, because it has a false premise; but it is perfectly valid, because, even though they’re not, <i>if</i> both premises were true, then the conclusion <i>would</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>be</i> true.  You see, a lot of beginning logic students get confused about validity, and don’t see how an argument with false premises can be valid.  But they are confusing validity with soundness.  An argument with false premises can be <i>valid</i>, but it cannot be <i>sound</i>.
< 
< All right, let’s get back to argument forms.  Here’s another argument form:
< 
< <i>Disjunctive</i> <i>syllogism</i>
< 
< Either P or Q.
< 
< Not P.
< 
< Therefore, Q.
< 
< The reason this is called "disjunctive syllogism" is that, first, it is a syllogism -- a three-step argument, and second, it contains a disjunction, which means simply an "or" statement.  "Either P or Q" is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement’s <i>disjuncts</i>.
< 
< 
< 
< Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
< 
< I will not choose soup.
< 
< Therefore, I will choose salad.
< 
< And here’s another example:
< 
< 
< 
< Either the Browns win or the Bengals win.
< 
< The Browns don’t win.
< 
< Therefore, the Bengals win.
< 
< Basically we’re told that it has to be one or the other that’s true; then we’re told that it’s not the one; so we infer that it has to be the other that’s true.
---
> See [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]]
------
Biology/Talk|985215426
3c3
< Also, there is the danger of the contents of the table outstripping those of the main page, resulting in a weird looking organization.  Btw, since when is ''viruses'' the plural of the Latin word ''virus''?
---
> Also, there is the danger of the contents of the table outstripping those of the main page, resulting in a weird looking organization.  Btw, since when is ''viruses'' the plural of the Latin word ''virus''?  It might be right, but it's lame nonetheless. :(
------
Ungulate|985215660
1c1
< "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".
---
> "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".  Ungulates make up two orders of [[mammalia|mammals]], not particularly closely related to one another: the [[Artiodactyla]], even-toed ungulates, and the [[Perissodactyla]], odd-toed ungulates.
------
Gnu|985215767
1c1
< The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus ''[[Connochaetes]]'', which includes (examples of ''Connochaetes''), of the family [[Bovidae]], which includes (examples of Bovidae).  The two species (''C. gnou'', the "black" wildebeest, and ''C. taurinus'', the "blue" wildebeest) are native to Africa.
---
> The <i>gnu</i>, also called <i>wildebeest</i>, is a large hooved ([[ungulate]]) mammal of the genus ''[[Connochaetes]]'', which includes two species, both native to Africa: ''C. gnou'', the "black" wildebeest, and ''C. taurinus'', the "blue" wildebeest.  The genus belongs to the family [[Bovidae]], which includes antelopes, cattle, goats, and other even-toed horned ungulates.
------
Gnu/Talk|985215879
13a14,15
> ----
> Well, it depends on how short a gloss we're talking about.  If it's a brief gloss, why not include it?  It will help the reader, who can follow the link in order to learn more.  It isn't easy to get through an article by "looking up" what one doesn't understand by clicking through to all jargon.  Of course, you don't want to reproduce the contents of every related article in any given article; but you do want to explain at least roughly what needs to be explained in order to get through the material at hand without trouble.  For another example, see [[affirming the consequent]] and its link to [[conditional]].
------
Biology/Talk|985216042
3a4,7
> 
> ----
> I made that change, because that's <i>always</i> been the only correct plural.  See, for example, [http://language.perl.com/misc/virus.html]. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Carbon|985216483
15c15
< The most prominent oxide of carbon is carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2</sub>.  This is a minor component of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere.  In water it is a weak acid, reacting via the unstable intermediate H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> to form carbonate ions, CO<sub>3</sub><sup>2-</sup>, which are stabilized by resonance (carbon rarely single-bonds to multiple oxygens).  Some important minerals, including [[calcite]], are carbonates.
---
> The most prominent oxide of carbon is [[carbon dioxide]], CO<sub>2</sub>.  This is a minor component of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere, produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere.  In water it forms trace amounts of [[carbonic acid]], H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.  Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized [[carbonate]] ions are produced.  Some important minerals are carbonates, notably [[calcite]].  [[Carbon disulfide]], CS<sub>2</sub>, is similar.
17c17
< The next oxide is carbon monoxide, CO, formed by incomplete combustion.  This is isoelectronic to N<sub>2</sub> and fairly polar; it has a nasty habit of binding permanently to hemoglobin in the way that [[oxygen]] does temporarily, and so is poisonous.  Carbon suboxide, C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, is also known.
---
> The other oxides are carbon monoxide, CO, and the uncommon carbon suboxide, C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.  [[Carbon monoxide]] is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas.  The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in a nasty habit of binding permanently to [[hemoglobin]], so that the gas is poisonous.  [[Cyanide]], CN<sup>-</sup>, has a similar structure and behaves a lot like a halide ion; the nitride [[cyanogen]], (CN)<sub>2</sub>, is related.
19c19,21
< The smallest hydrogen-carbon compound is [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>, and there are any number of larger ones.  In these the carbon atoms are bonded into long chains, branches, or rings, often with double and/or triple bonds.  Of particular note are the [[aromatic]] hydrocarbons, in which the carbon atoms form rings supported by pi bonding.
---
> There is an unbelievable diversity of [[hydrocarbons]], starting with [[methane]], CH<sub>4</sub>.  In these the carbon atoms are bonded into long chains, branches, or rings, often with double and/or triple bonds.  Of particular note are the [[aromatic]] hydrocarbons, in which the carbon atoms form rings stabilized by pi bonding.  In the limit these blend into the various forms of pure carbon.  There are even more hydrocarbon derivatives, including things like halides, alcohols, and acids.
> 
> With strong metals carbon forms either carbides, C<sup>-</sup>, or acetylides, C<sub>2</sub><sup>2-</sup>; these are associated with methane and [[acetylene]], both incredibly pathetic acids.  All in all, with an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form covalent bonds.  A few carbides are covalent lattices, like [[carborundum]], SiC, which resembles [[diamond]].
------
Biology/Talk|985216789
5d4
< ----
6a6,7
> 
> As I said, it's still lame.  I see the point about the latin, but ''viruses'' is just an ugly word.  Curse this useless tongue of ours, that isn't content to steal words, but must make them ugly to boot.
------
Biology/Talk|985216826
7c7
< As I said, it's still lame.  I see the point about the latin, but ''viruses'' is just an ugly word.  Curse this useless tongue of ours, that isn't content to steal words, but must make them ugly to boot.
---
> Ok.  As I said, it's still lame.  I see the point about the latin, but ''viruses'' is just an ugly word.  Curse this useless tongue of ours, that isn't content to steal words, but must make them ugly to boot.  But I guess I'll have to live with it, or learn more of another language and move to ''its'' wikipedia.
------
Virus|985216986
1c1
< Derived from the [[Latin]] <i>virus</i> (which referred to several unpleasant things like snake venom and pond slime) the word was first used to describe [[Biological virus]]es when these were first discovered to be infectious disease-causing agents smaller than bacteria that reproduce with the help of a host cell.  It is also used metaphorically to refer to other parasitically-reproducing things like ideas.  The term [[computer virus]], once metaphorical, is now another well-defined sense of the word.
---
> Derived from the [[Latin]] <i>virus</i> (meaning roughly "poison") the word was used to describe [[Biological virus]]es when these were first discovered to be infectious disease-causing agents smaller than bacteria that reproduce with the help of a host cell.  It is also used metaphorically to refer to other parasitically-reproducing things like ideas.  The term [[computer virus]], once metaphorical, is now another well-defined sense of the word.
3c3
< Despite frequent claims to the contrary, the only correct English plural of the word used in any of these senses is <i>viruses</i>.
---
> Despite frequent claims to the contrary, the only correct English plural of the word used in any of these senses is <i>viruses</i>.  See, for example, [http://language.perl.com/misc/virus.html].
------
Telekinesis|985217973
2c2
< the apparent ability to influence the influence by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. Parapsychologists usually make a distinction between macroscopic PK (large-scale effects observable by the naked eye or by a single measurement) and microscopic PK(small-scale effects only observable by statistical analysis of multiple measurements). Numerous studies appear to show a correlation between mental activity and the state of certain physical systems (e.g. electronic noise generators, radioactive decay, biological processes) but the lack of any detailed theory as to a mechanism means that the existence of PK is extremely controversial.
---
> the apparent ability to influence the behavior of matter by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. Parapsychologists usually make a distinction between macroscopic PK (large-scale effects observable by the naked eye or by a single measurement) and microscopic PK (small-scale effects only observable by statistical analysis of multiple measurements). Numerous studies appear to show a correlation between mental activity and the state of certain physical systems (e.g. electronic noise generators, radioactive decay, biological processes) but the lack of any detailed theory as to a mechanism means that the existence of PK is extremely controversial.
4c4
< One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws or relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
---
> One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws of relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
------
Telekinesis|985218110
4c4,6
< One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws of relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
---
> One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws of relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
> 
> /Talk
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985218459
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Assuming spooky action at a distance has to do with EPR and Bell, then the explanation given is common but wrong.  The result has to do with the observation-determines-reality stuff built into quantum mechanics: an observation on one particle collapses the wave functions for both.  It has nothing to do with the ability to actually exert forces on particles far away.  Any page on Bell's inequality would have to deal with this...I'd edit this but I'm not sure if the telekinesis explanation relies on the mistaken notion or not.
------
Prion|985218727
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
> 
> 
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985219190
1c1,3
< Assuming spooky action at a distance has to do with EPR and Bell, then the explanation given is common but wrong.  The result has to do with the observation-determines-reality stuff built into quantum mechanics: an observation on one particle collapses the wave functions for both.  It has nothing to do with the ability to actually exert forces on particles far away.  Any page on Bell's inequality would have to deal with this...I'd edit this but I'm not sure if the telekinesis explanation relies on the mistaken notion or not.
---
> Assuming spooky action at a distance has to do with EPR and Bell, then the explanation given is common but wrong.  The result has to do with the observation-determines-reality stuff built into quantum mechanics: an observation on one particle collapses the wave functions for both.  It has nothing to do with the ability to actually exert forces on particles far away.  Any page on Bell's inequality would have to deal with this...I'd edit this but I'm not sure if the telekinesis explanation relies on the mistaken notion or not.
> 
> The "explanation" is meaningless pseudo-scientific hogwash.  EPR no more "explains" a possible mechanism of telekinesis than does magnetism or gravity or any other action-at-a-distance physical phenomenon.  It's just a convenient hard-to-understand thing to point to to make people think you know something they don't.  Aspect's experimental confirmation of Bell's inequality implies one of two things: either (1) Some measurable physical properties of entangled particles do not have objective existence until measured, or (2) entangled particles really do act upon each other from a distance at greater than the speed of light.  Which one you choose to believe is "real" is a matter of personal preference. --LDC
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985219510
3c3
< The "explanation" is meaningless pseudo-scientific hogwash.  EPR no more "explains" a possible mechanism of telekinesis than does magnetism or gravity or any other action-at-a-distance physical phenomenon.  It's just a convenient hard-to-understand thing to point to to make people think you know something they don't.  Aspect's experimental confirmation of Bell's inequality implies one of two things: either (1) Some measurable physical properties of entangled particles do not have objective existence until measured, or (2) entangled particles really do act upon each other from a distance at greater than the speed of light.  Which one you choose to believe is "real" is a matter of personal preference. --LDC
---
> The "explanation" is meaningless pseudo-scientific hogwash.  EPR no more "explains" a possible mechanism of telekinesis than does magnetism or gravity or any other action-at-a-distance physical phenomenon.  It's just a convenient hard-to-understand thing to point to to make people think you know something they don't.  Aspect's experimental confirmation of Bell's inequality implies one of two things: either (1) Some measurable physical properties of entangled particles do not have objective existence until measured, or (2) entangled particles really do act upon each other from a distance at greater than the speed of light.  Which one you choose to believe is "real" is a matter of personal preference.  In any case, physical location--the property purportedly affected by telekinesis--is not an entanglable quantum state.  --LDC
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985219772
3a4,6
> ----
> 
> It would make me happy to see some of this edited and place on the main page.  I personally don't think that skepticism about telekinesis requires us to debate very much -- we can simply explain the scientific consensus and indicate exactly what LDC indicated above -- that just because some explanation uses scientific jargon that most people don't understand, doesn't mean that it is correct or even plausible.
------
Biology/Talk|985219957
7a8
> ---
8a10,14
> About the table, I concur.  It's very pretty, and very cute, but may make things difficult for non-coders, and we don't want that.  A more wiki-style way of doing it would be better.
> 
> Also, at least in theory, other people can take the data generated by the wikipedia and use it elsewhere.  Like, in a book!  So keeping things fairly simple is probably a good idea.
> 
> I'm the one who made the table smaller, so it would look nicer on my screen, so I'm partly guilty of condoning it.  It *is* cute, after all.  :-)  But, now I vote with those who say it should go away. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985220051
3a4,5
> 
> My concern is mostly just that people don't walk away misunderstanding EPR, I'm not actually that worried about telekinesis.  I don't think version 2 is really all that tenable, or at least it has to have the strong caveat that particles can only communicate their state collapses to each other.  No info can be sent by EPR, and I would hate to have people think that it could just because the couldn't find the knife between truth and pseudoscience.
6c8,9
< It would make me happy to see some of this edited and place on the main page.  I personally don't think that skepticism about telekinesis requires us to debate very much -- we can simply explain the scientific consensus and indicate exactly what LDC indicated above -- that just because some explanation uses scientific jargon that most people don't understand, doesn't mean that it is correct or even plausible.
---
> It would make me happy to see some of this edited and place on the main page.  I personally don't think that skepticism about telekinesis requires us to debate very much -- we can simply explain the scientific consensus and indicate exactly what LDC indicated above -- that just because some explanation uses scientific jargon that most people don't understand, doesn't mean that it is correct or even plausible.
> 
------
Frank|985220101
0a1,3
> I think someone might want to ask me to setup a French-Language wikipedia?  In the meantime, I can't really figure what this page is, so...
> 
> 
23c26
< *  
---
> *  
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|985220150
1c1
< Leni Riefenstahl has an actress and later a documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hitler's Third Reich. Her best-known film is the glorification of Hilter in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
---
> Leni Riefenstahl has an actress and later a documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hilter]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
5c5
< * [[Olympia]] (1938)
---
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
Hilter|985220223
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You are probably looking for [[Adolph Hitler]].
> 
> If not, then edit this page and leave a request here, and the [[Wikipedians]] will surely leap to your rescue.  :-)
------
Hilter|985220239
3c3
< If not, then edit this page and leave a request here, and the [[Wikipedians]] will surely leap to your rescue.  :-)
---
> If not, then edit this page and leave a request here, and the [[WikiPedians]] will surely leap to your rescue.  :-)
------
Telekinesis|985220266
4c4
< One explanation which has been offered for a mechanism whereby psychokinesis might operate (as well as to explain successful prayer and other "intended events") has been the scientifically verified and well-documented phenomeon of "[[spooky action at a distance]]."  This is a phenomenon whereby certain quantum particles which are considered "entangled" are observed to change spin simultanesouly when either one of them is acted upon, each particle "knowing" what happened to the other particle, even across a great distance.  Observations verifying this effect have measured entangled photons at opposite sides of the globe, with positive results.  Recent experiments in Europe tend to indicate that "spooky action at a distance" does not follow the laws of relativity.  That is, the effect seems to operate independent of subjective time.
---
> Various mechanisms have been suggested whereby psychokinesis might operate (and likewise telepathy, succesful prayer, and other "intended events").  Mainly these rely on results that are poorly understood and easily confused by most people, such as [[Bells inequality|Bell's inequality]], which can be construed as implying action at a distance but does not actually provide a mechanism for transmitting information or affecting positions.
------
Frank|985220480
1c1
< I think someone might want to ask me to setup a French-Language wikipedia?  In the meantime, I can't really figure what this page is, so...
---
> The Franks were one of the west Germanic tribes who entered the decaying [[Roman Empire]] and established a lasting realm.  Under the [[Merovingians]] this became the most stable of the successor states and laid the foundations for further development, being reformed under the [[Carolingians]] into the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
2a3
> ''I made this English, but I definitely think that you should set up a French Wikipedia asap.  This is not the first article here which has been written in French, so I definitely think there would be contributors waiting.''
4,8d4
< FRANCS
< peuple germanique originaire peut-etre des pays Baltes, qui donna son nom a la Gaule romaine apres l'avoir conquise au Ve et VIe siecle.
< ----
< were allowed to to enter as foederati by the Romans.
< ----
11c7
< * [[Pippin the great]]
---
> * [[Pepin the short]]
26d21
< *  
------
Telekinesis/Talk|985220581
5a6
> <br>...And actually, I'd like to call ''numerous studies'' into question, too.
------
Cecil_B._Demille|985220797
1c1
< One of the most successful filmmakers during the first have of the 20th century.  He Directed hundreds of silent shorts before coming into huge popularity during the 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as "Don't Change Your Husband" (1919), "The Ten Commandments" (1923), and "The King of Kings" (1927).  While he condintued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film "The Ten Commandments" (very different from his 1923 film by the same title).
---
> One of the most successful filmmakers during the first half of the 20th century.  He Directed hundreds of silent shorts before coming into huge popularity during the 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as "Don't Change Your Husband" (1919), "The Ten Commandments" (1923), and "The King of Kings" (1927).  While he condintued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film "The Ten Commandments" (very different from his 1923 film by the same title).
------
Biology/Talk|985221287
14a15,16
> 
> Well, what is a better way of doing this?  A topic like biology deserves a discussion, but it is also a supercategory that has many subcategories.  We could list the 'related topics' at the bottom or the top, but that lacks the emphasis of the table. - TimShell
------
Ungulate|985221329
1a2,3
> ----
> more precise than what?
------
Hilter|985221416
1c1
< You are probably looking for [[Adolph Hitler]].
---
> You are probably looking for [[Adolf Hitler]].
------
PartialOrderedSet|985221507
1c1
< deleted in favor of PartialOrder
---
> #REDIRECT [[PartialOrder]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Ohio|985221556
1,5c1
< In /SectioN112 [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] decides to appoint /OwenKellogg the new head of /TaggartTranscontinental's Ohio Division.
< 
< Ohio is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN112
<  - /SectioN114
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Ohio]]
------
Biology/Talk|985221650
16a17,19
> 
> Subheadings would be good.  That way we could maintain the simple serial format and still mark big sections clearly.  
> 
------
Ungulate|985221969
3a4,7
> 
> Sorry, that was a turn of phrase I used to respond to Larry's question ("what's an ungulate").  What I meant was that "ungulate" is a specific biologist's term that all agree upon, while "hoofed" is a more colloquial one.  For example, some people might not consider elephants to have "hooves", but they <i>are</i> ungulates.  If you can think of a better way to say that before I do, by all means do.
> 
> 
------
Psychology|985221977
3a4
> * [[Jennifer Melfi]]
------
Land-grant|985223438
1c1,83
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A land-grant [[college]] or [[university]] is an [[institution]] that has been designated by its [[state]] [[legislature]] or [[Congress]] to receive the benefits of the [[Morrill Act]]s of 1862 and 1890. The original mission of these [[institution]]s, as set forth in the first [[Morrill Act]], was to teach [[agriculture]], [[military tactics]], and the [[mechanic arts]] as well as [[classical studies]] so that members of the working classes could obtain a liberal, practical [[education]]. 
> 
> Land-grant [[college]]s are governed in the [[United States]] and its territories by the following:
> 
> *The First [[Morrill Act]] of 1862 
> *The [[Hatch Act of 1887]]
> *The Second [[Morrill Act]] of 1890
> *The [[Smith-Lever Act of 1914]]
> *[[Chapter 79]] - May 8, 1914
> *The [[Bankhead-Jones Act of 1935]] 
> *[[1994 Native Indian Legislation]]
> 
> Land Grant Institutions include:
> *[[Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
> *[[Alcorn State University]]
> *[[Auburn University]]
> *[[Clemson University]]
> *[[Colorado State University]]
> *[[Cornell University]]
> *[[Delaware State College]]
> *[[Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
> *[[Fort Valley State College]]
> *[[Iowa State University]]
> *[[Kansas State University]]
> *[[Kentucky State University]]
> *[[Langston University]]
> *[[Lincoln University]]
> *[[Louisanna State University]]
> *[[Michigan State University]]
> *[[Mississippi State University]]
> *[[New Mexico State University]]
> *[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technological State University]]
> *[[North Carolina State University]]
> *[[North Dakota State University]]
> *[[Ohio State University]]
> *[[Oklahoma State University]]
> *[[Oregon State University]]
> *[[Pennsylvania State University]]
> *[[Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
> *[[Purdue University]]
> *[[South Carolina State University]]
> *[[South Dakota State University]]
> *[[Southern University]]
> *[[Tennessee State University]]
> *[[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
> *[[Tuskegee University]]
> *[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
> *[[University of Arizona]]
> *[[University of Arkansas]]
> *[[University of Arkansas Pine Bluff]]
> *[[University of California]]
> *[[University of Connecticut]]
> *[[University of Delaware]]
> *[[University of the District of Columbia]]
> *[[University of Florida]]
> *[[University of Georgia]]
> *[[University of Guam]]
> *[[University of Hawaii]]
> *[[University of Idaho]]
> *[[University of Illinois]]
> *[[University of Kentucky]]
> *[[University of Maine]]
> *[[University of Maryland]]
> *[[University of Maryland College Park]]
> *[[University of Massachusetts]]
> *[[University of Minnesota]] 
> *[[University of Missouri]]
> *[[University of Nebraska]]
> *[[University of Nevada Reno]]
> *[[University of New Hampshire]]
> *[[University of New Jersey]]
> *[[University of Puerto Rico]]
> *[[University of Rhode Island]]
> *[[University of Tennessee]]
> *[[University of Vermont]]
> *[[University of the Virgin Islands]]
> *[[University of Wisconsin Madison]]
> *[[University of Wyoming]]
> *[[Utah State University]]
> *[[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]]
> *[[Virginia State University]]
> *[[Washington State University]]
> *[[West Virginia University]]
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985223532
3c3
< Texas A&M, the state’s first public institution of higher education, was opened on Oct. 4, 1876 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. The [[school]] owes its origin to the [[Morrill Act of 1862]], which established the nation’s [[land-grant]] [[college]] system.
---
> Texas A&M, the state’s first public institution of higher education, was opened on Oct. 4, 1876 as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. The [[school]] owes its origin to the [[Morrill Act]] of 1862, which established the nation’s [[land-grant]] [[college]] system.
7c7
< The Texas A&M campus is home to the [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]].
---
> The Texas A&M campus is home to the [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]].
------
Land-grant|985223835
7a8,9
> *The [[Adams Act]] - 1906 
> *The [[Nelson Act]] - 1907 
10c12,30
< *The [[Bankhead-Jones Act of 1935]] 
---
> *The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] - 1917 
> *The [[Parnell Act]] - 1925 
> *The [[Copper-Ketcham Act]] - 1928 
> *The [[Bankhead-Jones Act of 1935]]
> *The [[Bankhead-Flannegan Act]] - 1945 
> *The [[Research Marketing Act]] - 1946 
> *Amendment to [[Smith-Lever Act]] - 1953, 1955, 1961, 1962, 1968 
> *Amended [[Hatch Act]] - 1955 
> *The [[McIntire-Stennis Act]] - 1962 
> *The [[Research Facilities Act]] - 1965 
> *[[Public Law 89-106]] - 1965 
> *The [[National Sea Grant College and Program Act]] - 1966 
> *The [[Rural Development Act]] - 1972 
> *The [[Food and Agriculture Act]] - 1977 
> *The [[National Agricultural Research Extension and Teaching Act]] - Title XIV - 1977 
> *The [[Resource Extension Act]] - 1978 
> *Amendment to [[Title XIV]] - 1981 
> *The [[Agriculture and Food Act]] - 1981 
> *Amendment to [[Title XIV of Food Security Act]] - 1985  
83c103
< *[[West Virginia University]]
---
> *[[West Virginia University]]
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985223946
1c1
< The main holy book of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, more commonly referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''.
2a3,4
> The text of the book is available at the
> Church's web site: http://scriptures.lds.org/bm/contents
4c6,26
< The text of the book is available from their web page, at:  http://scriptures.lds.org/bm/contents
---
> The Book of Mormon is composed of the following books which are divided into chapters and verses similar to the [[Bible]]:
> 
> 1 Nephi -- 2 Nephi -- Jacob -- Enos -- Jarom -- Omni -- Words of Mormon -- Mosiah -- Alma -- Helaman -- 3 Nephi -- 4 Nephi -- Mormon -- Ether -- Moroni
> 
> 1 Nephi begins in ancient Jerusalem around 600BC, at roughly the same time as the book of Jeremiah in the [[Bible]].  It tells the story of Lehi, his family and several others as they are led by God to travel from Jerusalem to the Americas.  1 Nephi - Omni recount the group's dealings from around 600BC to around 130BC, in which they grow to a sizeable number, and eventually split into two groups, the Nephites and the Lamanites. 
> 
> The Words of Mormon is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, 3 Nephi and 4 Nephi, written in 385AD.  Mormon compiled The Book of Mormon (thus the name).  He included the original records comprising 1 Nephi - Omni, then abridged a large quantity of collected records detailing the national history from the end of Omni until his own time.
> 
> Ether is another abridgement by Mormon, this time of the records of a much earlier civilization beginning at the time of the tower of Babel. In this account, a man named Jared, his family and others were led by God before the languages were confounded at the tower of Babel (
> 
> ........... placeholder - I'll finish later.
> 
> This is the nature of The Book of Mormon, according to the Church:
> 
> 
> 
> Various alternate explanations for the origin of The Book of Mormon exist for those who don't believe this account.  These include:
> 
> * Joseph Smith wrote the book himself
> * Someone else (often Sidney Rigdon, a close friend of Smith) wrote the book and allowed him to take credit for it
> * The manuscript of another book relating to early american inhabitants was stolen and altered
------
Conic_sections|985224328
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[conic | cone]] surface and a plane. If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]]. An special case of
> ellipse is a circumference. If the plane is parallel to the
> axis of the cone, the section is called [[parabola]]. Finally,
> if the intersection is an open curve, and the plane is not
> parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbole]].
------
Conic_sections|985224371
1c1
< Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[conic | cone]] surface and a plane. If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]]. An special case of
---
> Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[cone | conic]] surface and a plane. If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]]. An special case of
5c5
< parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbole]].
---
> parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbole]].
------
Land-grant|985224437
103a104,105
> ----
> ''Shouldn't this be renamed [[land-grant university]]?  "Land-grant" by itself doesn't mean "land-grant university," does it?  (I don't know, maybe it does.)''
------
Cone|985224717
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Surface generated when a [[rect]] is rotated around a fixed point, at a fixed angle from another rect, the axis, that passes
> through that point.
> 
> It also can be said the it is the [[geometric place]] of all the
> points belonging to all the rects that pass through a given point, and intersect at that point at the same angle another
> rect, called the axis.
------
Conic_sections|985224959
1,5c1,3
< Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[cone | conic]] surface and a plane. If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]]. An special case of
< ellipse is a circumference. If the plane is parallel to the
< axis of the cone, the section is called [[parabola]]. Finally,
< if the intersection is an open curve, and the plane is not
< parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbole]].
---
> Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[cone|conic]] surface and a plane.  If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]] (of which the [[circle]] is a special case in which the plane is exactly perpendicular to the axis of the cone).  If the plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, the section is called [[parabola]].  Finally, if the intersection is an open curve, and the plane is not parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbola]].
> 
> The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.
------
Conic_section|985224977
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[cone|conic]] surface and a plane.  If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]] (of which the [[circle]] is a special case in which the plane is exactly perpendicular to the axis of the cone).  If the plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, the section is called [[parabola]].  Finally, if the intersection is an open curve, and the plane is not parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbola]].
> 
> The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.
> 
------
Conic_sections|985224999
1,3c1
< Lines that form at the intersection of an infinite [[cone|conic]] surface and a plane.  If the intersection is a [[closed curve]], the section is called [[ellipse]] (of which the [[circle]] is a special case in which the plane is exactly perpendicular to the axis of the cone).  If the plane is parallel to the axis of the cone, the section is called [[parabola]].  Finally, if the intersection is an open curve, and the plane is not parallel to the axis of the cone, the figure is an [[hyperbola]].
< 
< The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Conic section]]
------
Ellipse|985225007
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Geometric place of all the point whose sum of its distance to 
> two fixed points (called [[foci|focus]]) is a constant.
> 
> It can also be defined by the equation
> 
>   x^2  +  y^2   =   1
>   ---     ---
>   a^2     b^2
> 
> (see [[Analytic geometry]]
------
Ellipse|985225047
10c10
< (see [[Analytic geometry]]
---
> (see [[Analytic geometry]])
------
Hilter|985225320
1,3c1
< You are probably looking for [[Adolf Hitler]].
< 
< If not, then edit this page and leave a request here, and the [[WikiPedians]] will surely leap to your rescue.  :-)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]]
------
Cone|985225384
1,2c1
< Surface generated when a [[rect]] is rotated around a fixed point, at a fixed angle from another rect, the axis, that passes
< through that point.
---
> In mathematical terms, a <i>cone</i> is the surface generated when a [[line]] is rotated around a fixed point, at a fixed angle from another line (called the axis), both lines passing through that fixed point.  It also can be said that it is the locus of all the points belonging to all the lines that pass through a given point, and that intersect at that point at a fixed angle to the axis line.
4,6c3
< It also can be said the it is the [[geometric place]] of all the
< points belonging to all the rects that pass through a given point, and intersect at that point at the same angle another
< rect, called the axis.
---
> The shape called "cone" in more colloquial usage is <i>half</i> of a mathematical cone, being divided at the fixed point.
------
MathematicianS|985225421
1,24c1
< Intended to be a list of famous Mathematicians.
< 
< : PythagoraS, EucliD, EudoxusOfCnidus, ArchimedeS, AppoloniusOfPerga, DiophantusOfAlexandria
< : FibonnacI, KhwarizmI 
< : PierreDeFermat, MarinMersenne, ReneDescartes, BlaisePascal, AbrahamDeMoivre
< : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz, LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
< : BarroW, StirlinG, IsaacNewtoN, ColinMacLaurin, ChristopherWren
< : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky, JanosBolyai
< : Joseph/LouisLaGrange, NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
< : Augustin/LouisCauchy, Simeon/DenisPoisson
< : Adrien/MarieLegendre, CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
< : BernhardRiemann, CamilleJordan, FelixKlein, SophusLie, HenriPoincare
< : WilliamRowanHamilton, HermannGunterGrassmann, ArthurCayley, SilvesteR
< : LeopoldKroneckeR, KarlWeierstrass 
< : GeorgCantor, ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
< : AndreiAndreevichMarkov, PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
< : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, [[Kurt Goedel]] 
< 
< '''Living Mathematicians'''
< 
< A few are already listed in FieldsMedal.
< 
< JohnConway, Dinkyn, NeilSloane, DoronZeilberger, AdrienDouady, HenriCartan, SaundersMcLane, PierreCartier, JacquesTits ...
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mathematician]]
------
Mathematician|985225492
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scientist whose area of study is [[Mathematics]]
> 
> Some famous Mathematicians:
> 
> : PythagoraS, EucliD, EudoxusOfCnidus, ArchimedeS, AppoloniusOfPerga, DiophantusOfAlexandria
> : FibonnacI, KhwarizmI 
> : PierreDeFermat, MarinMersenne, ReneDescartes, BlaisePascal, AbrahamDeMoivre
> : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz, LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
> : BarroW, StirlinG, IsaacNewtoN, ColinMacLaurin, ChristopherWren
> : NikolaiIvanovichLobachevsky, JanosBolyai
> : Joseph/LouisLaGrange, NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
> : Augustin/LouisCauchy, Simeon/DenisPoisson
> : Adrien/MarieLegendre, CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
> : BernhardRiemann, CamilleJordan, FelixKlein, SophusLie, HenriPoincare
> : WilliamRowanHamilton, HermannGunterGrassmann, ArthurCayley, SilvesteR
> : LeopoldKroneckeR, KarlWeierstrass 
> : GeorgCantor, ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
> : AndreiAndreevichMarkov, PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
> : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, [[Kurt Goedel]] 
> 
> '''Living Mathematicians'''
> 
> A few are already listed in FieldsMedal.
> 
> JohnConway, Dinkyn, NeilSloane, DoronZeilberger, AdrienDouady, HenriCartan, SaundersMcLane, PierreCartier, JacquesTits ...
> 
------
Mathematics|985225546
21c21
< :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] 
---
> :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] 
------
Mathematics|985225582
18c18
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
---
> :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
21c21
< :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] 
---
> :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] 
------
Ellipse|985225620
1,2c1
< Geometric place of all the point whose sum of its distance to 
< two fixed points (called [[foci|focus]]) is a constant.
---
> Mathematically, an <i>ellipse</i> is the locus of all points on a plane that share a fixed sum of distances from two given fixed points (called [[focus|foci]]).
------
Geometry|985225710
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Branch of mathematics that study relations among [[point]]s in
> [[space]].
> (I'm sure someone can do better that this)
> 
> Topics:
> 
> [[Conic sections]]
> 
> 
> 
------
SurrealNumbers|985225812
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I found these listed in [[Mathematics]]. I guess is a joke, but
> I leave it to the mathematician to erase or send to [[PatentNonsense]]
------
FieldsMedal|985225861
1c1
< A prize awarded to up to four MathematicianS (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the iniative of the Canadian mathematican Fields. [http://elib.zib.de/IMU/medals/ IMU Fields Medal pages]
---
> A prize awarded to up to four [[mathematician]]s (under forty) at each InternationalCongressOfMathematics since 1936 and regularly since 1948 at the initiative of the Canadian mathematican Fields.  [http://elib.zib.de/IMU/medals/ IMU Fields Medal pages]
9c9
< * 1986 ([[Berkeley]], CA)[[Simon Donaldson]], [[Gerd Faltings]], [[Michael Freedman]]
---
> * 1986 ([[Berkeley]], CA): [[Simon Donaldson]], [[Gerd Faltings]], [[Michael Freedman]]
25a26
> 
------
FieldsMedal|985226053
24c24
< ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold.
---
> ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold, [[Andrew Wiles]].
------
SurrealNumbers|985226860
1,2c1
< I found these listed in [[Mathematics]]. I guess is a joke, but
< I leave it to the mathematician to erase or send to [[PatentNonsense]]
---
> While not itself really a class of numbers, <i>surreal numbers</i> are a method of generating and studying classes of numbers first proposed by [[John Horton Conway]] and detailed by [[Donald Knuth]] in his 1974 book <i>Surreal Numbers: How Two Ex-Students Turned on to Pure Mathematics and Found Total Happiness</i>.  Conway also covered the idea in his 1976 book <i>On Numbers and Games</i>.
------
FieldsMedal|985226959
24c24,25
< ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold, [[Andrew Wiles]].
---
> ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold, [[Andrew Wiles]], [[John Horton Conway]], [[Donald Knuth]], [[Scott Kim]].
> 
------
Laser|985227069
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Acronim meaning "Light Amplificated by Stimulated Emission Radiation".
> 
> It uses a quantum mechanical effect, [[stimulated emission]],
> to generate a very [[collimated]], [[monochromatic]] and [[coherent]] beam of light.
> 
> [[Maser]] is the same, but with [[microwave]] radiation instead
> of visible light.
------
Labatt|985227122
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> junky
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|985227220
21c21
< :Making stuff for its own ends - [[Arts and Entertainment]]
---
> :Making stuff for its own ends - [[Arts and Entertainment]],[[Mathematics]]
27c27
< Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
---
> Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
------
Mathematics|985227423
3a4,5
> I would disagree here, but then you'd make me fill in the P&S stuff I thought was missing (like more detail about the Bayesians, the Doomsday paradox, more history of gambling and statistics-as-rhetoric, resampling...  Damn, I guess I just volunteered.  --LDC
> 
------
FermatsLastTheorem|985227565
9c9
< Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician AndrewWiles, with help from his former student, RichardTaylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal AnnalsofMathematics.
---
> Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]], with help from his former student, RichardTaylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal AnnalsofMathematics.
------
Laser|985227695
1c1
< Acronim meaning "Light Amplificated by Stimulated Emission Radiation".
---
> Originally an [[acronym]] for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", a <i>laser</i> uses a quantum mechanical effect, [[stimulated emission]], to generate a very [[collimated]], [[monochromatic]] and [[coherent]] beam of light.
3,7c3
< It uses a quantum mechanical effect, [[stimulated emission]],
< to generate a very [[collimated]], [[monochromatic]] and [[coherent]] beam of light.
< 
< [[Maser]] is the same, but with [[microwave]] radiation instead
< of visible light.
---
> [[Maser]] is similar, but with [[microwave]] radiation instead of visible light.
------
Pythagorean_Theorem|985228537
1c1
< The PythagoreanTheorem is attributed to the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras who lived in the 6th century B.C. The theorem states a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says:
---
> The PythagoreanTheorem is named for and attributed to the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras who lived in the 6th century B.C., but was known before that time.  The theorem states a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says:
2a3
> :The sum of the squares of the length of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse.
4,6c5
< The sum of the squares of the length the sides of a right triangle is equal to the square 
< of the length of the hypotenuse.
< 
---
> (A right triangle is one with a right angle; the legs are the two sides that make up the right angle; the hypotenuse is the third side opposite the right angle).
9,11c8
< 
< 
< Given a right triangle, with sides a and b and hypotenuse c, (Figure 1)
---
> Given a right triangle, with legs a and b and hypotenuse c, (Figure 1)
41,43d37
< the hypotenuse is the side opposite the right (90 degree) angle in a right triangle.
< 
< 
46,49c40
< 
< Certain sets of 3 integers are useful to remember as being Pythagorean triples, that is,
< they are possible lengths of the sides of a right triangle. For example:
< 
---
> A set of three integers is called <i>Pythagorean triple</i> when lines with lengths specified by those integers would form a right triangle.  For example:
53d43
< 
55,56d44
< 
< 
59,61c47
< 
< 
< The PythagoreanTheorem is an important tool in the study of TrigonometricFunctions. 
---
> The Pythagorean Theorem is an important tool in the study of TrigonometricFunctions. 
------
Pythagorean_Theorem|985229869
58c58
< Now form a square from four of the triangles by placing the a side of one triangle in line with the b side of another, so that all four sides of the figure are (a+b).  Note that within the large square is a square of side c.  From this diagram, the area of the large square is '''(a+b)'''^'''2''' = 4(.5ab) + '''c'''^'''2'''.
---
> Now form a square from four of the triangles by placing the a side of one triangle in line with the b side of another, so that all four sides of the figure are (a+b).  Note that within the large square is a square of side c.  From this diagram, the area of the large square is '''(a+b)'''^'''2''' = 4(.5'''ab''') + '''c'''^'''2'''.
60c60
< Since '''(a+b)'''^'''2'''=itself, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' + 4(.5ab) = 4(.5ab) + '''c'''^'''2'''.
---
> Since '''(a+b)'''^'''2'''=itself, '''a'''^'''2''' + '''b'''^'''2''' + 4(.5'''ab''') = 4(.5'''ab''') + '''c'''^'''2'''.
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985230183
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the Bible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
9a10,13
> ----
> 
> Summary
> 
12c16,24
< The Words of Mormon is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, 3 Nephi and 4 Nephi, written in 385AD.  Mormon compiled The Book of Mormon (thus the name).  He included the original records comprising 1 Nephi - Omni, then abridged a large quantity of collected records detailing the national history from the end of Omni until his own time.
---
> The Words of Mormon, written in AD 385, is a short introduction to the books of Mosiah, Alma, 3 Nephi and 4 Nephi.  Mormon compiled The Book of Mormon (thus the name).  He included the original records comprising 1 Nephi - Omni, then abridged a large quantity of collected records detailing the national history from the end of Omni until his own time.
> 
> 3 Nephi contains an account of the visit of the glorified, resurrected Jesus Christ to the Americas after his ministry in Jerusalem.  Here he gives much of the same instruction given in the Gospels of the Bible, and establishes an enlightened, peaceful society which endures several generations.
> 
> Mormon is an account of the events which occurred during Mormon's life, after the enlightened society of 3 and 4 Nephi had deteriorated yet again into warring groups.
> 
> Ether is another abridgement by Mormon, this time of the records of a much earlier civilization beginning at the time of the tower of Babel. In this account, a man named Jared, his family and others were led by God to the Americas before the languages were confounded and formed a civilization long before Lehi's family arrived.  Mormon placed this account after the end of his own work, before turning over the record to his son Moroni.
> 
> Moroni witnesses the final destruction of his people and the idolatrous state of the remaining society.  He adds a few spiritual insights and mentions some important doctrinal teachings, and ends the book with an invitation to pray to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account.
14c26
< Ether is another abridgement by Mormon, this time of the records of a much earlier civilization beginning at the time of the tower of Babel. In this account, a man named Jared, his family and others were led by God before the languages were confounded at the tower of Babel (
---
> ----
16c28
< ........... placeholder - I'll finish later.
---
> Origins
18c30
< This is the nature of The Book of Mormon, according to the Church:
---
> According to the Church, this is how the records comprising The Book of Mormon were found and translated:
19a32
> The original record was engraved on thin sheets of gold and bound with rings at one edge, much like a modern book.  At the end of Moroni's ministry (around AD 421), he hid these gold plates along with several other artifacts in a stone box.  
20a34
> In 1823, Joseph Smith was directed by God to the place where the plates were stored.  He was not immediately allowed to take them, but was eventually entrusted with them.  With God's help he was able to translate the characters (described in The Book of Mormon as being a variant of Egyptian) into English.
22c36,44
< Various alternate explanations for the origin of The Book of Mormon exist for those who don't believe this account.  These include:
---
> The gold plates were quite heavy, and were consequently much sought-after by those monetarily inclined.  Church history records many attempts by others to find and take the plates from Joseph Smith.
> 
> Joseph was allowed to show the plates to several people, and these accounts are recorded in the front of The Book of Mormon as "The Testimony of Three Witnesses" and "The Testimony of Eight Witnesses".
> 
> After translation was complete, an angel received the plates from Joseph Smith, and no public account of their whereabouts has been made since.
> 
> ----
> 
> Various alternate explanations for the origin of The Book of Mormon exist for those who don't believe the Church's account (and believe that the book itself is a fabrication).  These include:
26a49
> 
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985230204
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the Bible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the [[Bible]], The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985230255
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the [[Bible]], The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
------
Mathematics|985230866
7a8,10
> Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probaility and Staistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up.
> Now for my *opinion* - I feel that the other Math pages have been both a more co operative efforts and attempts to single out interesting material rather than an attempt at writing a text book by one author. This will naturally result in occassional failure to link and some incomplete entries, so far. Further certain areas of math are almost impossible to explain here, due to the lack of symbols, ability to show diagrams and graphs, etc. How does one properly explain the Integral without being able to draw a graph, Limits with no proper notation, classic functions without the ability to show graphs (trig, exponential, natural logarithm, conic sections- need I go on.) Submitting graphs and symbol images to wikipedia to upload for every entry is a little much. Within the constraints of this media I think the Abstact Algebra is fine as far as it goes, and the Analysis nearly impossilbe.)-RP
> 
------
Ungulate|985230990
1c1,2
< "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".  Ungulates make up two orders of [[mammalia|mammals]], not particularly closely related to one another: the [[Artiodactyla]], even-toed ungulates, and the [[Perissodactyla]], odd-toed ungulates.
---
> "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".  Ungulates make up several orders of mammals, of which four are alive: the [[Artiodactyla]] (even-toed ungulates), [[Perissodactyla]] (odd-toed ungulates), [[Proboscidea]] (elephants), and [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes).  Most large land mammals are ungulates.
> 
------
Mathematics|985231706
8,9c8,9
< Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probaility and Staistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up.
< Now for my *opinion* - I feel that the other Math pages have been both a more co operative efforts and attempts to single out interesting material rather than an attempt at writing a text book by one author. This will naturally result in occassional failure to link and some incomplete entries, so far. Further certain areas of math are almost impossible to explain here, due to the lack of symbols, ability to show diagrams and graphs, etc. How does one properly explain the Integral without being able to draw a graph, Limits with no proper notation, classic functions without the ability to show graphs (trig, exponential, natural logarithm, conic sections- need I go on.) Submitting graphs and symbol images to wikipedia to upload for every entry is a little much. Within the constraints of this media I think the Abstact Algebra is fine as far as it goes, and the Analysis nearly impossilbe.)-RP
---
> Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probability and Statistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up. Further, the author has glued *his name* to them and I resent correcting what he appears to think is *his* pages- further *his name* link is linked to an educational/commercial site of his, and I see this as advertising and most inappropriate.
> Now for my *opinion* - I feel that the other Math pages have been both a more co operative efforts and attempts to single out interesting and fundamental material rather than an attempt at writing a text book by one author. This will naturally result in occassional failure to link and some incomplete entries, so far. I do think that eventually these will be corrected. Most impotantly, in these pages <b> the math is correct</b>. Further certain areas of math are almost impossible to explain here, due to the lack of symbols, ability to show diagrams and graphs, etc. How does one properly explain the Integral without being able to draw a graph, Limits with no proper notation, classic functions without the ability to show graphs (trig, exponential, natural logarithm, conic sections- need I go on.) Submitting graphs and symbol images to wikipedia to upload for every entry is a little much. Within the constraints of this media I think the Abstact Algebra is fine as far as it goes, and the Analysis nearly impossible.) Finally, I think <b>it is very hard for a non-Math person to assess the value of the higher level math pages</b>.-RP
------
Geometry|985232087
1,3c1,5
< Branch of mathematics that study relations among [[point]]s in
< [[space]].
< (I'm sure someone can do better that this)
---
> Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning spaces together with some sort of symmetry relations defined on it.  Objects are said to be congruent if there is a symmetry mapping one to the other, and quantities unaffected by all symmetries are called invariants.  The study of invariants is the main part of geometry.
> 
> The most familiar geometry is [[Euclidean geometry]], which consists of some Euclidean space R^n with symmetries of the form &phi;(x) = Ax + b, b any vector and A a matrix of determinant 1 or -1.  The symmetries can be shown to be reflections and their compositions, including rotations and translations, and form a group called O(n).
> 
> [[Affine geometry]] uses the same space but has more symmetries: any linear transformation &phi;(x) = Ax + b is okay so long as A has non-zero determinant (ie the transformation is invertible).  In general, more symmetry means weaker invariants.  The culmination of this would be [[topology]], where any invertible continuous function is a symmetry.
------
Geometry|985232107
3c3
< The most familiar geometry is [[Euclidean geometry]], which consists of some Euclidean space R^n with symmetries of the form &phi;(x) = Ax + b, b any vector and A a matrix of determinant 1 or -1.  The symmetries can be shown to be reflections and their compositions, including rotations and translations, and form a group called O(n).
---
> The most familiar geometry is [[Euclidean geometry]], which consists of some Euclidean space R<sup>n</sup> with symmetries of the form &phi;(x) = Ax + b, b any vector and A a matrix of determinant 1 or -1.  The symmetries can be shown to be reflections and their compositions, including rotations and translations, and form a group called O(n).
------
Pig_latin|985232476
23c23
< But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Rezu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu san)
---
> But, yes, Japanese is '''SyllableCentric'''...ouch!!! For JimmyWales (Mi-Jitsu Rezu-watsu san)-- from RoseParks (se-rotsu ruzu-patsu)
------
Geometry|985234391
11c11
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Geometry/Talk|985234450
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This doesn't strike me as a very good way to introduce geometry to a general audience: "Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning spaces together with some sort of symmetry relations defined on it.  Objects are said to be congruent if there is a symmetry mapping one to the other, and quantities unaffected by all symmetries are called invariants.  The study of invariants is the main part of geometry."  Those sentences should come about eight paragraphs into the article, I think. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Mathematics|985234530
1,9c1
< Mathematics is one of the strongest areas in the [[Wikipedia]],
< but we obviously still have a ways to go.  Of particular strength is the [[Probability and Statistics]] area.
< 
< I would disagree here, but then you'd make me fill in the P&S stuff I thought was missing (like more detail about the Bayesians, the Doomsday paradox, more history of gambling and statistics-as-rhetoric, resampling...  Damn, I guess I just volunteered.  --LDC
< 
< ----
< 
< Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probability and Statistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up. Further, the author has glued *his name* to them and I resent correcting what he appears to think is *his* pages- further *his name* link is linked to an educational/commercial site of his, and I see this as advertising and most inappropriate.
< Now for my *opinion* - I feel that the other Math pages have been both a more co operative efforts and attempts to single out interesting and fundamental material rather than an attempt at writing a text book by one author. This will naturally result in occassional failure to link and some incomplete entries, so far. I do think that eventually these will be corrected. Most impotantly, in these pages <b> the math is correct</b>. Further certain areas of math are almost impossible to explain here, due to the lack of symbols, ability to show diagrams and graphs, etc. How does one properly explain the Integral without being able to draw a graph, Limits with no proper notation, classic functions without the ability to show graphs (trig, exponential, natural logarithm, conic sections- need I go on.) Submitting graphs and symbol images to wikipedia to upload for every entry is a little much. Within the constraints of this media I think the Abstact Algebra is fine as far as it goes, and the Analysis nearly impossible.) Finally, I think <b>it is very hard for a non-Math person to assess the value of the higher level math pages</b>.-RP
---
> Mathematics is the study of some abstract properties of quantity, structure, and space.
35a28
> /Talk
------
Geometry/Talk|985234639
1c1,3
< This doesn't strike me as a very good way to introduce geometry to a general audience: "Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning spaces together with some sort of symmetry relations defined on it.  Objects are said to be congruent if there is a symmetry mapping one to the other, and quantities unaffected by all symmetries are called invariants.  The study of invariants is the main part of geometry."  Those sentences should come about eight paragraphs into the article, I think. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> This doesn't strike me as a very good way to introduce geometry to a general audience: "Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning spaces together with some sort of symmetry relations defined on it.  Objects are said to be congruent if there is a symmetry mapping one to the other, and quantities unaffected by all symmetries are called invariants.  The study of invariants is the main part of geometry."  Those sentences should come about eight paragraphs into the article, I think. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> Really meant as a stop until something better comes along...
------
Mathematics/Talk|985234924
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mathematics is one of the strongest areas in the [[Wikipedia]],
> but we obviously still have a ways to go.  Of particular strength is the [[Probability and Statistics]] area.
> 
> I would disagree here, but then you'd make me fill in the P&S stuff I thought was missing (like more detail about the Bayesians, the Doomsday paradox, more history of gambling and statistics-as-rhetoric, resampling...  Damn, I guess I just volunteered.  --LDC
> ----
> Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probability and Statistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up. Further, the author has glued *his name* to them and I resent correcting what he appears to think is *his* pages- further *his name* link is linked to an educational/commercial site of his, and I see this as advertising and most inappropriate.
> Now for my *opinion* - I feel that the other Math pages have been both a more co operative efforts and attempts to single out interesting and fundamental material rather than an attempt at writing a text book by one author. This will naturally result in occassional failure to link and some incomplete entries, so far. I do think that eventually these will be corrected. Most impotantly, in these pages <b> the math is correct</b>. Further certain areas of math are almost impossible to explain here, due to the lack of symbols, ability to show diagrams and graphs, etc. How does one properly explain the Integral without being able to draw a graph, Limits with no proper notation, classic functions without the ability to show graphs (trig, exponential, natural logarithm, conic sections- need I go on.) Submitting graphs and symbol images to wikipedia to upload for every entry is a little much. Within the constraints of this media I think the Abstact Algebra is fine as far as it goes, and the Analysis nearly impossible.) Finally, I think <b>it is very hard for a non-Math person to assess the value of the higher level math pages</b>.-RP
> ----
> RP, what I, seriously, suggest that you do is simply go in and remove every instance of the offending name, or, if you don't want to do this, ask the person bearing the name to remove them.  I very much suspect that he won't do it without being asked.  If you don't, I might myself, or someone else might.
> 
> My own philosophy pages are pasted with [[Larrys Text]], but at least I invite people to change them; and today I decided to remove the [[Larrys Text]] pointer from pages that I've wikified.
> 
> I totally agree with the assessment of the accessibility of the higher-level math pages.  I have the impression that the mathematicians are simply showing off :-) which is just fine, and actually great because so much has been done, but it sure would be nice (and actually, even more impressive) if they would make an effort ''also'' to explain the concepts, insofar as this can be done, in a way that intelligent nonmathematicians can understand, or start to understand.  This won't be easy, but in many cases it can be done.  The simpler explanations needn't ''replace'' the more precise formulations, of course! --LS
------
Chemical_equilibrium|985235405
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chemical equilibrium is a state where all chemical reactions proceed at the same rate as their reverses, so there is no change in the proportions of the various compounds.  Without energy input chemical reactions always proceed towards equilibrium.  For a reaction ''k'' A + ''m'' B <-> ''n'' C + ''p'' D, equilibrium occurs when
> 
> : [A]<sup>''k''</sup>[B]<sup>''m''</sup> / [C]<sup>''n''</sup>[D]<sup>p</sup> = K
> 
> where K is a constant called the equilibrium constant.  For a single-step reaction, this can easily be derived just by considering the [[kinetics]] involved.  Unlike rate equations, though, it still holds for multi-step reactions since the expressions for each step just multiply together.
> 
> Some more should be said here about the relationship between equilibria, temperature, and energy, but I don't have any notes at the moment and I want to avoid the common evil of taking logs of dimensioned quantities.
> 
> 
------
Definition_of_philosophy|985235825
9c9
< Though on the view of some in the (loosely described) [[Anglo-American philosophy|Anglo-American philosophical tradition]] and the closely-related tradition of the [[Vienna Circle]], philosophy ought to emulate the exact methods of [[science]] and [[mathematics]].  But strictly speaking, philosophy is to be distinguished from science.  It is not, at least, part of philosophy to do [[experiment]]s.  Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of [[philosophical problems]].  Now someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science.  Philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of [[physics|physicists]], who do experiments about [[space and time]] and [[quantum mechanics]] (see [[philosophy of physics]]).  They are often referring to experimental work done in [[psychology]] when they discuss philosophy of psychology (see [[philosophy of psychology]]).  In general, many philosophers who study [[philosophy of science]] are trained scientists.
---
> On the view of some in the (loosely described) [[Anglo-American philosophy|Anglo-American philosophical tradition]] and the closely-related tradition of the [[Vienna Circle]], philosophy ought to emulate the exact methods of [[science]] and [[mathematics]].  But strictly speaking, philosophy is to be distinguished from science.  It is not, at least, part of philosophy to do [[experiment]]s.  Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of [[philosophical problems]].  Someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science.  Philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of [[physics|physicists]], who do experiments about [[space and time]] and [[quantum mechanics]] (see [[philosophy of physics]]).  They are often referring to experimental work done in [[psychology]] when they discuss philosophy of psychology (see [[philosophy of psychology]]).  In general, many philosophers who study [[philosophy of science]] are trained scientists.
15c15
< One might wonder why scholars began to treat various special sciences as independent from philosophy.  The answer is that the branching science began to be prosecuted using rigorous, agreed-upon methods of observation and experimentation.  Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one’s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books and articles that scientists (but certainly other philosophers) write.
---
> One might wonder why scholars began to treat various special sciences as independent from philosophy.  The answer for any given branched-off science is that it began to be prosecuted using rigorous, agreed-upon methods of observation and experimentation.  Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one’s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books and articles that scientists (but certainly other philosophers) write.
19c19
< Some beginners confuse philosophy and psychology, but these are different fields.  Philosophy does study the [[mind]] (and it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too), just as psychology does.  But the study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; by contrast, philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is consciousness?" and "What is the relation between mind and body?"
---
> Some beginners confuse philosophy and [[psychology]], but these are different fields.  Philosophy does study the [[mind]] (and it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too), just as psychology does.  But the study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; by contrast, philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is [[consciousness]]?" and "What is the relation between mind and body?"
23c23
< What distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, which also is not experimental?  Parts of theology, which ask about what [[God]] is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "[[philosophy of religion]]."  That is not a problem.  Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of [[Greek philosophy]], to that extent.  That is not a problem either.  Neither of these overlaps muddies the concepts of philosophy, of religious studies, or of classics.
---
> What distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, most of which also is not experimental?  Parts of theology, those which ask about what [[God]] is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "[[philosophy of religion]]."  That is not a problem.  Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of [[Greek philosophy]], to that extent.  That is not a problem either.  Neither of these overlaps muddies the concepts of philosophy, of religious studies, or of classics.
------
Geometry|985236358
1c1
< Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning spaces together with some sort of symmetry relations defined on it.  Objects are said to be congruent if there is a symmetry mapping one to the other, and quantities unaffected by all symmetries are called invariants.  The study of invariants is the main part of geometry.
---
> Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning shapes and their relationships to one another.  Because of its immediate practical applications it was one of the first to be developed, and was likewise the first field to be put on an axiomatic basis, by [[Euclid]].  The next most significant development had to wait until a millenium later, and that was [[analytic geometry]], in which points are represented by as ordered pairs or triples of numbers.  This sort of representation has since then allowed us to construct new geometries other than the standard Euclidean version.
3c3
< The most familiar geometry is [[Euclidean geometry]], which consists of some Euclidean space R<sup>n</sup> with symmetries of the form &phi;(x) = Ax + b, b any vector and A a matrix of determinant 1 or -1.  The symmetries can be shown to be reflections and their compositions, including rotations and translations, and form a group called O(n).
---
> The central notion in geometry is that of ''congruence''.  In Euclidean geometry, two figures are said to be congruent if they are related by a series of reflections, rotations, and translations.  For instance:
5c5,13
< [[Affine geometry]] uses the same space but has more symmetries: any linear transformation &phi;(x) = Ax + b is okay so long as A has non-zero determinant (ie the transformation is invertible).  In general, more symmetry means weaker invariants.  The culmination of this would be [[topology]], where any invertible continuous function is a symmetry.
---
>    *                *                   *
>    *                *         *        * *
>    *****        *****         ***      ***
>    *                *         *
>    *                *
> 
> The first two figures are congruent to each other.  The third is a different size, and so is similar but not congruent to the others; the fourth is different altogether.  Note that congruences alter some properties, such as location and orientation, but leave others unchanged, like [[distance|distances]] and [[angle|angles]].  The latter sort of properties are called ''invariants'' and studying them is the essence of geometry.
> 
> Other geometries can be constructed by choosing a new underlying space to work with (Euclidean geometry uses Euclidean space, R<sup>n</sup>) or by choosing a new [[group]] of transformations to work with (Euclidean geometry uses the special orthogonal transformations, SO(n)).  In general, the more congruences we have, the fewer invariants there are.  As an example, in [[affine geometry]] any linear transformation is allowed, and so the first three figures are all congruent; distances and angles are no longer invariants, but linearity is.
------
Geometry|985239904
1c1
< Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning shapes and their relationships to one another.  Because of its immediate practical applications it was one of the first to be developed, and was likewise the first field to be put on an axiomatic basis, by [[Euclid]].  The next most significant development had to wait until a millenium later, and that was [[analytic geometry]], in which points are represented by as ordered pairs or triples of numbers.  This sort of representation has since then allowed us to construct new geometries other than the standard Euclidean version.
---
> Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerning shapes and their relationships to one another.  Because of its immediate practical applications it was one of the first to be developed, and was likewise the first field to be put on an [[axiomatization|axiomatic]] basis, by [[Euclid]].  The next most significant development had to wait until a millenium later, and that was [[analytic geometry]], in which points are represented by as ordered pairs or triples of numbers.  This sort of representation has since then allowed us to construct new geometries other than the standard Euclidean version.
20d19
< 
------
Nitrogen|985243586
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Element 7 of the periodic table.
> 
> '''Chemistry'''
> 
> Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.0.  It has five electrons in its outer shell, so is usually trivalent.  Pure nitrogen is an unreactive colorless [[diatomic]] gas at room temperature, and comprises about 2/3 of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere.  It condenses at 77 K and freezes at 63 K.  Liquid nitrogen is a common [[cryogen]].
> 
> The main hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) although hydrazine (N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also well known.  Ammonia is somewhat more basic than water, and in solution forms ammonium ions (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).  Liquid ammonia in fact undergoes a slight dissociation into ammonium and amide ions (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>); both amides and nitride (N<sup>3-</sup>) salts are known, but decompose in water.
> 
> Azides (N<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) also occur.  The ion is linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide.  Another of the same structure is dinitrogen monoxide (N<sub>2</sub>O), or laughing gas.  This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), which both contain an unpaired electron.  The latter shows some tendency to [[dimerize]] and is an important component of smog.
> 
> The more standard oxides, dinitrogen trioxide (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and dinitrogen pentoxide (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), are actually fairly unstable and explosive.  The corresponding acids are nitrous (HNO<sub>2</sub>) and nitric acid (HNO<sub>3</sub>), with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates.  Nitric acid is one of the few acids stronger than hydronium and its salts including some important minerals, like [[salt peter]].
> 
------
Periodic_Table|985243667
20c20
<                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]    :
---
>                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
34c34
<        [[Nitrogen|N]]   [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
---
>        [[Nitrogen|N]]    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
------
Nitrogen|985244106
1c1,5
< Element 7 of the periodic table.
---
> Element 7 of the [[Periodic Table]].
> 
> '''Physical properties'''
> 
> By far the most common isotope of nitrogen is <sup>14</sup>N, which is produced in the [[CNO cycle]] in stars.  Others undoubtedly include <sup>15</sup>N and maybe even <sup>13</sup>N...help.
5c9
< Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.0.  It has five electrons in its outer shell, so is usually trivalent.  Pure nitrogen is an unreactive colorless [[diatomic]] gas at room temperature, and comprises about 2/3 of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere.  It condenses at 77 K and freezes at 63 K.  Liquid nitrogen is a common [[cryogen]].
---
> Nitrogen is a [[non-metal]], with an [[electronegativity]] of 3.0.  It has [[five electrons]] in its outer shell, so is trivalent in most compounds.  Pure nitrogen is an unreactive colorless [[diatomic]] gas at room temperature, and comprises about 2/3 of the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere.  It condenses at 77 K and freezes at 63 K.  Liquid nitrogen is a common [[cryogen]].
9c13
< Azides (N<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) also occur.  The ion is linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide.  Another of the same structure is dinitrogen monoxide (N<sub>2</sub>O), or laughing gas.  This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2</sub>), which both contain an unpaired electron.  The latter shows some tendency to [[dimerize]] and is an important component of smog.
---
> Another kind of nitrogen anions are azides (N<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide.  Another molecule of the same structure is [[dinitrogen monoxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O), or laughing gas.  This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are [[nitrogen monoxide]] (NO) and [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>), which both contain an unpaired [[electron]].  The latter shows some tendency to [[dimerize]] and is an important component of smog.
11c15
< The more standard oxides, dinitrogen trioxide (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and dinitrogen pentoxide (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), are actually fairly unstable and explosive.  The corresponding acids are nitrous (HNO<sub>2</sub>) and nitric acid (HNO<sub>3</sub>), with the corresponding salts called nitrites and nitrates.  Nitric acid is one of the few acids stronger than hydronium and its salts including some important minerals, like [[salt peter]].
---
> The more standard oxides, [[dinitrogen trioxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) and [[dinitrogen pentoxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>), are actually fairly unstable and explosive.  The corresponding acids are [[nitrous acid|nitrous]] (HNO<sub>2</sub>) and [[nitric acid]] (HNO<sub>3</sub>), with the corresponding salts called [[nitrites]] and [[nitrates]].  Nitric acid is one of the few acids stronger than [[hydronium]] and its salts including some important minerals, like [[salt peter]].
------
Nitrogen|985244350
5c5
< By far the most common isotope of nitrogen is <sup>14</sup>N, which is produced in the [[CNO cycle]] in stars.  Others undoubtedly include <sup>15</sup>N and maybe even <sup>13</sup>N...help.
---
> By far the most common [[isotope]] of nitrogen is <sup>14</sup>N, which is produced in the [[CNO cycle]] in stars.  Others undoubtedly include <sup>15</sup>N and maybe even <sup>13</sup>N...help.
11c11
< The main hydride of nitrogen is ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>) although hydrazine (N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also well known.  Ammonia is somewhat more basic than water, and in solution forms ammonium ions (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).  Liquid ammonia in fact undergoes a slight dissociation into ammonium and amide ions (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>); both amides and nitride (N<sup>3-</sup>) salts are known, but decompose in water.
---
> The main hydride of nitrogen is [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) although [[hydrazine]] (N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also well known.  Ammonia is somewhat more basic than [[water]], and in solution forms [[ammonium]] [[ion|ions]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).  Liquid ammonia in fact undergoes a slight dissociation into ammonium and [[amide]] ions (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>); both amides and [[nitride]] (N<sup>3-</sup>) salts are known, but decompose in water.
13c13
< Another kind of nitrogen anions are azides (N<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>), which are linear and isoelectronic to carbon dioxide.  Another molecule of the same structure is [[dinitrogen monoxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O), or laughing gas.  This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are [[nitrogen monoxide]] (NO) and [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>), which both contain an unpaired [[electron]].  The latter shows some tendency to [[dimerize]] and is an important component of smog.
---
> Another kind of nitrogen [[anion|anions]] are [[azide|azides]] (N<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>), which are linear and isoelectronic to [[carbon dioxide]].  Another [[molecule]] of the same structure is [[dinitrogen monoxide]] (N<sub>2</sub>O), or laughing gas.  This is one of a variety of oxides, the most prominent of which are [[nitrogen monoxide]] (NO) and [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>), which both contain an unpaired [[electron]].  The latter shows some tendency to [[dimerize]] and is an important component of smog.
------
Frank|985248537
1c1
< The Franks were one of the west Germanic tribes who entered the decaying [[Roman Empire]] and established a lasting realm.  Under the [[Merovingians]] this became the most stable of the successor states and laid the foundations for further development, being reformed under the [[Carolingians]] into the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
---
> The Franks were one of the west Germanic tribes who entered the decaying [[Roman Empire]] as [[foederatii]] and established a lasting realm.  Under the [[Merovingians]] this became the most stable of the successor states and laid the foundations for further development, being reformed under the [[Carolingians]] into the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
3a4,5
> ----
> The Franks were the first Gemanic tribe to be christened, according to the local branch (wich one?). Due to this they assimilated better with the local population (compared to the [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]]). 
4a7,8
> The christening of [[Clovis]]
> ----
------
Verlan|985248928
18,25c18,25
< laisse béton - laisse tomber (drop it, stop it)
< keum - mec (slang for man)
< meuf - femme (girl, woman)
< reum - mère (mother)
< reubeu - beur (slang for french people of maghrebian origin)
< zyva - vas-y (go for it)
< fais ièche - fais chier (slang for it's boring)
< 
---
> laisse béton - laisse tomber (drop it, stop it)<BR>
> keum - mec (slang for man)<BR>
> meuf - femme (girl, woman)<BR>
> reum - mère (mother)<BR>
> reubeu - beur (slang for french people of maghrebian origin)<BR>
> zyva - vas-y (go for it)<BR>
> fais ièche - fais chier (slang for it's boring)<BR>
> les cesjnarf sont ne elpup ullord - some novice at this think the french can be a crazy lot
28a29
> [[/Talk]]
------
Verlan/Talk|985248999
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> inverse language!<BR>
> it's jolly fun<BR>
> it's addictive<BR>
> like placing all the accents at the end of your words<BR>
> ZapiekinKe likUu mistuRr KloezauWwa
> ----
> s'ti ysae, enoyreve nac od ti!<BR>
> tub ym niarb t'now epoc<BR>
> ti t'sah tog ghuone MAR ni ym metsys<BR>
> won I evah a ehcadaeh, wao!
------
Frank|985249341
1c1,3
< The Franks were one of the west Germanic tribes who entered the decaying [[Roman Empire]] as [[foederatii]] and established a lasting realm.  Under the [[Merovingians]] this became the most stable of the successor states and laid the foundations for further development, being reformed under the [[Carolingians]] into the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
---
> The Franks were one of the west Germanic tribes who entered the decaying [[Roman Empire]] as [[foederatii]] and established a lasting realm.  They were the first Gemanic tribe to be converted to Catholicism, while all the other branches were converted to Arianism, which was condemned as heretical by the Roman church.  Due to this they assimilated better with the local population (as compared with the [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]]), and under the [[Merovingians]] built the most stable of the successors in the west.
> 
> The Merovingians stuck to the practice of dividing their lands among their sons, and soon the kingship dissolved into petty squabling.  In the end the mayors of the palace, blessed by a new alliance with the Pope against the [[Lombards]], took over the kingdom.  Most notably of these was [[Charlemagne]], who was crowned new emperor of the west in 800 and added Italy to the realm.  After his successor, though, the empire was divided into France, Germany, and Italy.  In 962 [[Otto the Great]] of Germany reconquered Italy, founding the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
5d6
< The Franks were the first Gemanic tribe to be christened, according to the local branch (wich one?). Due to this they assimilated better with the local population (compared to the [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]]). 
------
Frank|985249460
16,17c16,17
< * [[Lotharius]]
< * [[Ludwig the German]]
---
> * [[Lothair]]
> * [[Louis the German]]
------
Electronic_Music|985258793
1c1,5
< Electronic Music includes many different styles, like
---
> Electronic music is a generic term for music created using electronic equipment, typically synthesisers, computers and drum machines, but which can theoretically include any of an array of other "instruments".  The earliest electronic music was created by [[avant garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]] and [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]].  The latter has worked for many years as part of [[Berlin]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] and working combining electronically generated sounds with conventional orchestras.
> 
> In the latter part of the 20th century the falling price of suitable equipment has meant that [[popular music]] has increasingly been made electronically.  In the 1970s, this style was mainly popularised by [[Kraftwerk]], who used electronics and robotics to symbolise the alienation of the modern world.  More recently, electronic instruments have been used to create [[dance music]] with rhythms faster and more precise than previously possible with ordinary [[percussion]], and the sound of this music has often featured electronically altered sounds and samples of traditional instruments.
> 
> This electronic dance music includes many different styles, like
------
FermatsLastTheorem|985258883
1c1
< FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no natural numbers x, y, and z such that
---
> FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no [[natural numbers]] x, y, and z such that
9c9
< Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]], with help from his former student, RichardTaylor, devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal AnnalsofMathematics.
---
> Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]], with help from his former student, [[Richard Taylor]], devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal [[Annals of Mathematics]].
------
Nanook_of_the_North|985263631
3c3
< In the tradition that would emerge of salvage enography, Flaherty captured the struggling life of the Inuit Nanook and his family.  However, often Flaherty would encourage Nanook to hunt in the method of his ancestors (without the use of a gun) in order to capture what was believed to be the way the Inuit lived before European influence.
---
> In the tradition that would emerge of salvage [[ethnography]], Flaherty captured the struggling life of the Inuit Nanook and his family.  However, often Flaherty would encourage Nanook to hunt in the method of his ancestors (without the use of a gun) in order to capture what was believed to be the way the Inuit lived before European influence.
------
Labatt|985264089
1c1
< junky
---
> 
------
Electronic_Music|985265085
1c1
< Electronic music is a generic term for music created using electronic equipment, typically synthesisers, computers and drum machines, but which can theoretically include any of an array of other "instruments".  The earliest electronic music was created by [[avant garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]] and [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]].  The latter has worked for many years as part of [[Berlin]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] and working combining electronically generated sounds with conventional orchestras.
---
> Electronic music is a generic term for music created using electronic equipment, typically synthesisers, computers and drum machines, but which can theoretically include any of an array of other "instruments".  The earliest electronic music was created by [[avant garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]], [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] and [[Steve Reich]].  The latter has worked for many years as part of [[Berlin]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] and working combining electronically generated sounds with conventional orchestras.
19c19
< :[[/Tech Step]]
---
> :[[/Tech Step]]
------
Stanley_Kubrick|985265262
3c3,5
< :[[Full Metal Jacket]]
---
> :[[Full Metal Jacket]]
> :[[Clockwork Orange]]
> :[[Eyes Wide Shut]]
------
Martin_Scorcese|985265330
6c6,8
< :[[Taxi Driver]]
---
> :[[Taxi Driver]]
> :[[Breakfast of Champions]]
> :[[King of Comedy]]
------
Francis_Ford_Coppola|985265358
4c4,5
< :[[The Godfather]]
---
> :[[The Godfather]]
> :[[The Conversation]]
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985265472
6a7
> :[[Killing Zoe]]
------
Oliver_Stone|985265533
8a9
> :[[Wall Street]]
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|985266451
1c1,8
< Leni Riefenstahl has an actress and later a documentary filmmaker best known for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hilter]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
---
> Berta Helene Amalie Riefenstahl, born 22 August 1902,
>  Berlin, Germany 
> 
> She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a documentary filmmaker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hilter]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
> 
> After the war, she spent four years in a French detention camp, but in spite of her controversial role in the Third Reich, there was no evidence for crimes commited by her. There were accusations of her using [[concentration camp]] inmates on her film sets, but those claims couldn't be proved in court. Lacking the resources, she dropped fillmaking after the war and became a photographer, although she recently made some new documentary films.
> 
> Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the propaganda in her films rebukes many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
3a11,15
> 
> as an actress:
> * [[The White Hell of Pitz Palu]]
> 
> as a director:
5c17
< * [[Olympia]] (1938)
---
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|985266505
1,2c1
< Berta Helene Amalie Riefenstahl, born 22 August 1902,
<  Berlin, Germany 
---
> Berta Helene Amalie Riefenstahl, born 22 August 1902, [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] 
------
Electronic_Music|985266652
1c1
< Electronic music is a generic term for music created using electronic equipment, typically synthesisers, computers and drum machines, but which can theoretically include any of an array of other "instruments".  The earliest electronic music was created by [[avant garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]], [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] and [[Steve Reich]].  The latter has worked for many years as part of [[Berlin]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] and working combining electronically generated sounds with conventional orchestras.
---
> Electronic music is a generic term for music created using electronic equipment, typically synthesisers, computers and drum machines, but which can theoretically include any of an array of other "instruments".  The earliest electronic music was created by [[avant garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]], [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] and [[Steve Reich]].  Stockhausen has worked for many years as part of [[Berlin]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] and working combining electronically generated sounds with conventional orchestras.
19c19
< :[[/Tech Step]]
---
> :[[/Tech Step]]
------
Land-grant|985269592
105c105,107
< ''Shouldn't this be renamed [[land-grant university]]?  "Land-grant" by itself doesn't mean "land-grant university," does it?  (I don't know, maybe it does.)''
---
> ''Shouldn't this be renamed [[land-grant university]]?  "Land-grant" by itself doesn't mean "land-grant university," does it?  (I don't know, maybe it does.)''
> ----
> I wrestled with that myself, LS.  I settled on land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant because both colleges and universities were involved and because I knew that if that didn't seem correct, you or Jimbo would make a more appropro suggestion.  As far as I can tell (I performed a few searches on Google to double check myself and then read through the relevant Acts on Thomas), land-grant, sea-grant and space-grant issues refer to colleges and universities.  However, my encyclopedic knowledge is limited and [[Wikipedia]] is my adventure in learning about a different style of writing and editing.  So, if you've a better suggestion, I'll defer. :-)  -[[Invictus]]
------
Land-grant|985270117
107c107
< I wrestled with that myself, LS.  I settled on land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant because both colleges and universities were involved and because I knew that if that didn't seem correct, you or Jimbo would make a more appropro suggestion.  As far as I can tell (I performed a few searches on Google to double check myself and then read through the relevant Acts on Thomas), land-grant, sea-grant and space-grant issues refer to colleges and universities.  However, my encyclopedic knowledge is limited and [[Wikipedia]] is my adventure in learning about a different style of writing and editing.  So, if you've a better suggestion, I'll defer. :-)  -[[Invictus]]
---
> I wrestled with that myself, LS.  I settled on land-grant, [[sea-grant]], and [[space-grant]] because both [[college]]s and universities were involved and because I knew that if that didn't seem correct, you or Jimbo would make a more appropro suggestion.  As far as I can tell (I performed a few searches on [[Google]] to double check myself and then read through the relevant Acts on [[Thomas]]), land-grant, [[sea-grant]] and [[space-grant]] issues refer to [[college]]s and universities.  However, my encyclopedic knowledge is limited and [[Wikipedia]] is my adventure in learning about a different style of writing and editing.  So, if you've a better suggestion, I'll defer. :-)  -[[Invictus]]
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985270142
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Quantum Mechanics has its origin in the discovery of the quantification of the light energy.
> 
------
Psychology|985270273
3c3
< * [[Carl Jung]]
---
> * [[Carl Jung][www.cmt.es] ]
------
Steve_Reich|985270288
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most famous living composers.
> 
> You can find his homepage at [http://www.stevereich.com/ www.stevereich.com] 
------
Psychology|985270412
3c3
< * [[Carl Jung][www.cmt.es] ]
---
> * [[Carl Jung]]
------
Feature_requests|985270493
8a9
> * Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like [[Actresses]] and you know why this would be helpful...
52c53
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
Invictus|985270817
3c3
< Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Grant Cole]].  
---
> Long time nickname of a dumb [[redneck]] [[geek]] named  [[Invictus|Grant Cole]].  
11c11
< Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[BrazosCounty|Brazos]] and [[BrazoriaCounty|Brazoria]] Counties in the [[Texas|LoneStarState]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Grant Cole]]
---
> Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[Brazos County|Brazos]] and [[Brazoria County|Brazoria]] Counties in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Invictus|Grant Cole]]
12a13
> ''P.S. My misfortune graduated me from [[Texas Agriculture and Mechanical University|Texas A&M University]] with two B.A.s ([[History]] and [[Philosophy]]) after a 6-year stint as a [[Russian]] [[Crypto-Linguist]] for the [[United States Marine Corps]].  However, I am now trying to improve upon my writing skills, thus I have latched on here.''
------
Mathematics/Talk|985270848
13c13,15
< I totally agree with the assessment of the accessibility of the higher-level math pages.  I have the impression that the mathematicians are simply showing off :-) which is just fine, and actually great because so much has been done, but it sure would be nice (and actually, even more impressive) if they would make an effort ''also'' to explain the concepts, insofar as this can be done, in a way that intelligent nonmathematicians can understand, or start to understand.  This won't be easy, but in many cases it can be done.  The simpler explanations needn't ''replace'' the more precise formulations, of course! --LS
---
> I totally agree with the assessment of the accessibility of the higher-level math pages.  I have the impression that the mathematicians are simply showing off :-) which is just fine, and actually great because so much has been done, but it sure would be nice (and actually, even more impressive) if they would make an effort ''also'' to explain the concepts, insofar as this can be done, in a way that intelligent nonmathematicians can understand, or start to understand.  This won't be easy, but in many cases it can be done.  The simpler explanations needn't ''replace'' the more precise formulations, of course! --LS
> ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours.
> RoseParks
------
Land-grant|985270965
34c34
< *[[Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
---
> *[[Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical University|Alabama A&M University]]
41c41
< *[[Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
---
> *[[Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University|Florida A&M University]]
52c52
< *[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technological State University]]
---
> *[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technological State University|North Carolina A&T University]]
59c59
< *[[Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
---
> *[[Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical University|Prairie View A&M University]]
65c65
< *[[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]]
---
> *[[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University|Texas A&M University]]
67c67
< *[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
---
> *[[University of Alaska - Fairbanks]]
70c70
< *[[University of Arkansas Pine Bluff]]
---
> *[[University of Arkansas - Pine Bluff]]
84c84
< *[[University of Maryland College Park]]
---
> *[[University of Maryland - College Park]]
97c97
< *[[University of Wisconsin Madison]]
---
> *[[University of Wisconsin - Madison]]
------
George_Herbert_Walker_Bush|985271028
5c5
< The [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
---
> The [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] is located on the Southwest corner of the [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University|Texas A&M University]] campus in [[College Station]], TX.  
------
Mathematics/Talk|985271267
14c14
< ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours.
---
> ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ supedscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-).
------
Mathematics/Talk|985271806
14c14
< ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ supedscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-).
---
> ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ superscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-). But more math talk would help and that I will try to add. Math is a subject, that after a certain level, you '''do not''' read, but you rework it through, and try examples. This makes math somewhat different than other subjects. "Reading" a math text can take literally hours per page. Knowing math involves a unique set of skills, because you can not progress until you have integrated the material you are studying into your brain to the extent that you can "use" it in the next development. This is really hard to explain and I am in a hurry. I will return and try to do better. I am not saying here that math requires higher level skills than another subject, just different ones.
------
Francis_Ford_Coppola|985271937
0a1,4
> American motion picture director, born 1939.  After learning his craft at [[UCLA]] and making numerous short films, Coppola made his name in the 1970s as the director of [[The Godfather]] and [[The Godfather Part II]], which both won the "Best Picture" [[oscar]], the latter being the first (only?) sequel to do so.  Following their success he set about filming an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Heart Of Darkness]], set during the [[Vietnam war]].  The resulting film, titled [[Apocalypse Now]] when it finally appeared, was equally lauded and hated by critics, but the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[Zoetrope]].  After a lengthy layoff he returned to directing, with some commercial and critical success.  A third installment in [[The Godfather]] saga appeared in 1990.
> 
> He also produced [[George Lucas]]' breakthrough film, [[American Grafitti]]
> 
5c9,10
< :[[The Conversation]]
---
> :[[The Conversation]]
> :[[Dracula]]
------
Vector_Space|985273611
35,36c35,36
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]. But for all vi, wi, where
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, vi+wi is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
---
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]. But for all v<sub>i</sub>, w<sub>i</sub>, where
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub> is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
38,40c38,40
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u1,u2,u3,...,un]+ [v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]=
<          [u1+(v1+w1),u2+(v2+w2),u3+(v3+w3),...,un+(vn+wn)]. But for all ui,vi,wi, where 
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, ui+(vi+wi)=(ui+vi)+wi, since ui,vi,wi in R and R is a field.
---
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u<sub>1</sub>,u<sub>2</sub>,u<sub>3</sub>,...,u<sub>n</sub>]+ [v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [u<sub>1</sub>+(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),u<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),u<sub>3</sub>+(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,u<sub>n</sub>+(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]. But for all u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub>, where 
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, u<sub>i</sub>+(v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>)=(u<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>)+w<sub>i</sub>, since u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub> in R and R is a field.
44,46c44,46
<           [v1+0,v2+0,v3+0,...,vn+0]=
<           [v1,v2,v3,...,vn] since vi in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+vi=vi for all 
<           vi where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
---
>           [v<sub>1</sub>+0,v<sub>2</sub>+0,v<sub>3</sub>+0,...,v<sub>n</sub>+0]=
>           [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] since v<sub>i</sub> in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+v<sub>i</sub>=v<sub>i</sub> for all 
>           v<sub>i</sub> where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
48,50c48,50
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v1,v2,v3,...,vn],  Consider -v=[-v1,-v2,-v3,...,-vn].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v1+(-v1),v2+(v2),v3+v3+(-v3),...,v+(-vn)]=0, since
<          vi+(-vi)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
---
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>],  Consider -v=[-v<sub>1</sub>,-v<sub>2</sub>,-v<sub>3</sub>,...,-v<sub>n</sub>].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v<sub>1</sub>+(-v<sub>1</sub>),v<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>),v<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>+(-v<sub>3</sub>),...,v+(-v<sub>n</sub>)]=0, since
>          v<sub>i</sub>+(-v<sub>i</sub>)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
52,55c52,55
<          v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]= [w1+v1,w2+v2,w3+v3,...,wn+vn]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} vi+wi=wi+vi, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn].
<          Then a*vi for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
---
>          v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]= [w<sub>1</sub>+v<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>+v<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>,...,w<sub>n</sub>+v<sub>n</sub>]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>=w<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
>          Then a*v<sub>i</sub> for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
57,58c57,58
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v1,1*v2,1*v3,...,1*vn]=
<          [v1,v2,v3,...,vn]=v, since vi, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*vi=a*vi.
---
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v<sub>1</sub>,1*v<sub>2</sub>,1*v<sub>3</sub>,...,1*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
60,63c60,63
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn]=
<          [a*(v1+w1),a*(v2+w2),a*(v3+w3),...,a*(vn+wn)]=
<          [a*v1+aw1,a*v2+a*w2,a*v3+a*w3,...,a*vn+a*wn]=
<          a*[v1,v2,v3,...,vn]+a*[w1,w2,w3,...,,wn]=a*v+a*w.
---
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),a*(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),a*(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,a*(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]=
>          [a*v<sub>1</sub>+aw<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*w<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+a*w<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+a*w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          a*[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]+a*[w<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>,...,,w<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+a*w.
65,66c65,66
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v1,b*v2,b*v3,...,b*vn]=
<          [(a*b)v1,(a*b)v2,(a*b)v3,...,(a*b)vn]=(a*b)*v.
---
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [(a*b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a*b)v<sub>n</sub>]=(a*b)*v.
68,70c68,70
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v1,v2,v3,...,vn]=[(a+b)v1,(a+b)v2,(a+b)v3,...,(a+b)vn]=
<          [a*v+b*v1,a*v2+a*v2,a*v3+b*v3,...,a*vn+b*n]=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn]+
<          [b*v1,b*v2,b*3,...,b*vn]=a*v+b*v.
---
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=[(a+b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a+b)v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*v+b*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+b*n]=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>]+
>          [b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+b*v.
76c76
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], with complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
---
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
------
Vector_Space|985273707
28c28
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v1,v2,v3,...,vn] where vi, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
---
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] where v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
30c30
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3,...,vn+wn].
---
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>].
32c32
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v1,a*v2,a*v3,...,a*vn].
---
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
------
Mathematics/Talk|985273907
14c14,20
< ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ superscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-). But more math talk would help and that I will try to add. Math is a subject, that after a certain level, you '''do not''' read, but you rework it through, and try examples. This makes math somewhat different than other subjects. "Reading" a math text can take literally hours per page. Knowing math involves a unique set of skills, because you can not progress until you have integrated the material you are studying into your brain to the extent that you can "use" it in the next development. This is really hard to explain and I am in a hurry. I will return and try to do better. I am not saying here that math requires higher level skills than another subject, just different ones.
---
> ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ superscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-).
> ----
> ''[[emacs]] regular expressions are you friends... [[Gareth Owen]]''<br>
> ''Don't know what to do with the &lt;pre&gt; matrices though..''
> ----
> 
> But more math talk would help and that I will try to add. Math is a subject, that after a certain level, you '''do not''' read, but you rework it through, and try examples. This makes math somewhat different than other subjects. "Reading" a math text can take literally hours per page. Knowing math involves a unique set of skills, because you can not progress until you have integrated the material you are studying into your brain to the extent that you can "use" it in the next development. This is really hard to explain and I am in a hurry. I will return and try to do better. I am not saying here that math requires higher level skills than another subject, just different ones.
------
Mathematics/Talk|985274033
16,17c16,17
< ''[[emacs]] regular expressions are you friends... [[Gareth Owen]]''<br>
< ''Don't know what to do with the &lt;pre&gt; matrices though..''
---
> ''[[emacs]] regular expressions are your friends... ''<br>
> ''Don't know what to do with the &lt;pre&gt; matrices though...[[Gareth Owen]]''
------
Stanley_Kubrick|985274272
1a2
> :[[Doctor Strangelove]] (or How I Learnt to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb
5c6
< :[[Eyes Wide Shut]]
---
> :[[Eyes Wide Shut]]
------
Requested_articles|985277778
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[interpolation]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
16,17c16,17
< [[Quadratic equations]] -- [[Conic sections]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Permuations]] -- [[Combinations]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
< [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Ellipse]] -- [[Parabola]] --
---
> [[Quadratic equations]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Permuations]] -- [[Combinations]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
> [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Parabola]] --
26c26
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]] -- [[Bach]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]] 
32c32
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[laser]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
------
Frank|985277978
3,5c3
< The Merovingians stuck to the practice of dividing their lands among their sons, and soon the kingship dissolved into petty squabling.  In the end the mayors of the palace, blessed by a new alliance with the Pope against the [[Lombards]], took over the kingdom.  Most notably of these was [[Charlemagne]], who was crowned new emperor of the west in 800 and added Italy to the realm.  After his successor, though, the empire was divided into France, Germany, and Italy.  In 962 [[Otto the Great]] of Germany reconquered Italy, founding the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
< 
< ''I made this English, but I definitely think that you should set up a French Wikipedia asap.  This is not the first article here which has been written in French, so I definitely think there would be contributors waiting.''
---
> The Merovingians stuck to the practice of dividing their lands among their sons, and soon the kingship dissolved into petty squabling.  In the end the mayors of the palace, blessed by a new alliance with the Pope against the [[Lombards]], took over the kingdom.  Most notably of these was [[Charlemagne]], who was crowned new emperor of the west in 800 and added Italy to the realm.  After his successor, though, in 843 at verdun the empire was divided into a west, a middle and an eastern part; roughly France for [[Charles the Bald]], a combination of the Low Countries, Burgundy & Italy for Lotharius, and finally Germany for [[Louis the German]].  In 962 [[Otto the Great]] of Germany reconquered Italy, founding the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
8c6,8
< The christening of [[Clovis]]
---
> * The christening of [[Clovis]]
> * First nationbuilding
> * very much more
26a27,29
> ----
> 
> ''I made this English, but I definitely think that you should set up a French Wikipedia asap.  This is not the first article here which has been written in French, so I definitely think there would be contributors waiting.''
------
Francis_Ford_Coppola|985279648
1c1
< American motion picture director, born 1939.  After learning his craft at [[UCLA]] and making numerous short films, Coppola made his name in the 1970s as the director of [[The Godfather]] and [[The Godfather Part II]], which both won the "Best Picture" [[oscar]], the latter being the first (only?) sequel to do so.  Following their success he set about filming an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Heart Of Darkness]], set during the [[Vietnam war]].  The resulting film, titled [[Apocalypse Now]] when it finally appeared, was equally lauded and hated by critics, but the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[Zoetrope]].  After a lengthy layoff he returned to directing, with some commercial and critical success.  A third installment in [[The Godfather]] saga appeared in 1990.
---
> American motion picture director, born 1939.  After learning his craft at [[UCLA]] and making numerous short films, Coppola made his name in the 1970s as the director of [[The Godfather]] and [[The Godfather Part II]], which both won the "Best Picture" [[Academy Award]], the latter being the first (only?) sequel to do so.  Following their success he set about filming an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Heart Of Darkness]], set during the [[Vietnam war]].  The resulting film, titled [[Apocalypse Now]] when it finally appeared, was equally lauded and hated by critics, but the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[Zoetrope]].  After a lengthy layoff he returned to directing, with some commercial and critical success.  A third installment in [[The Godfather]] saga appeared in 1990.
10c10
< :[[Dracula]]
---
> :Bram Stoker's [[Dracula]]
------
Film_Directors|985279759
27c27
< :[[Andre Tarkovsky]]
---
> :[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
31c31
< :[[John Woo]]
---
> :[[John Woo]]
------
Good_argument|985279759
1c1
< ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify your belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
---
> ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
------
Good_argument|985279769
1c1
< ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
---
> ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and to [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|985279782
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Solaris]]
------
The_motivation_to_philosophize|985279887
46c46
< A bewilderingly huge number of basic [[concept]]s are poorly understood.  What does it mean to say that one thing <i>[[causality|causes]]</i> another?  What is [[rationality]]?  What are [[space]] and [[time]] are?  What is [[beauty]], and if it is in the eye of the beholder, then ''what is it'' that is being said to be in the eye of the beholder?  And so on.  The number of these most <i>basic</i> questions is huge.
---
> A bewilderingly huge number of basic [[concept]]s are poorly understood.  What does it mean to say that one thing <i>[[causality|causes]]</i> another?  What is [[rationality]]?  What are [[space]] and [[time]]?  What is [[beauty]], and if it is in the eye of the beholder, then ''what is it'' that is being said to be in the eye of the beholder?  And so on.  The number of these most <i>basic</i> questions is huge.
60c60
< (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they do not <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
---
> (4) But those people who are attracted to philosophy through the more dramatic topics like God and morality soon realize that the number and variety of beliefs that they do not <i>really</i> understand is breathtakingly enormous.
------
Mary_Pickford|985279963
5c5
< Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was [[Charlie Chaplin]].
---
> Mary Pickford, also known as "Little Mary" was early Hollywood's biggest female star, and the first female actor to receive more than a million dollars a year and one of the few who were successful in both the silent film era and the sound film era (she won an [[Academy Award]] as Best Actress 1929. The first male actor who made a million dollar deal was [[Charlie Chaplin]].
28d27
< 
------
Wim_Wenders|985280485
5c5,7
< :[[The Million Dollar Hotel]]
---
> :[[The Million Dollar Hotel]]
> :[[Wings of Desire]]
> :[[Until the End of the World]]
------
Stanley_Kubrick|985280579
2c2,3
< :[[Doctor Strangelove]] (or How I Learnt to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb
---
> :[[Paths of Glory]]
> :[[Doctor Strangelove]] (or How I Learnt to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb)
4d4
< :[[Full Metal Jacket]]
5a6,7
> :[[The Shining]]
> :[[Full Metal Jacket]]
------
David_Cronenberg|985280787
2a3
> : [[Videodrome]]
5c6
< :[[ExistenZ]]
---
> :[[ExistenZ]]
------
James_Cameron|985280982
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> : [[The Terminator]]
> : [[Aliens]]
> : [[The Abyss]]
> : [[True LIes]]
> : [[Titanic]]
------
David_Lynch|985281375
0a1,2
> American film-maker. His love of surrealism is particularly notable in the disturbing but strangely incomprehensible film [[Eraserhead]], and the televison series [[Twin Peaks]].
> 
5a8
> :[[Blue Velvet]]
7c10
< :[[The Straight Story]]
---
> :[[The Straight Story]]
------
George_Lucas|985281466
2a3,4
> :[[THX1138]]
> :[[American Graffiti]]
5c7
< :[[American Graffiti]]
---
> 
------
James_Cameron|985281572
6c6
< : [[True LIes]]
---
> : [[True Lies]]
------
Film_Directors|985281618
24a25
> :[[Ridley Scott]]
31c32
< :[[John Woo]]
---
> :[[John Woo]]
------
Folk_music|985281954
0a1
> ''Folk music'' is a vexed term.  Very broadly, one might say it means ''either'' [[traditional music]] ''or'' popularizations of traditional music.  Originally it meant much the same thing as what is now meant by "traditional music," i.e., the traditional music of particular ethnic groups learned [[Learning music by ear|by ear]] and played on [[acoustic instrument]]s.  But when rock and roll stars and singer-songwriters began to sing the traditional songs and play traditional tunes, thois music, and the leading characteristics of the ''performance'' genre in which the music was made, were changed.  For example, bass guitar and drum kit were often added to satisfy popular tastes; traditional melody and song was placed into arrangements that would be scarcely recognizable to its source.  The ordinary music consumer, not knowing any better, was happy to follow marketers and the musicians themselves in accepting the description of the new [[musical fusion]] as "folk music."  But this situation makes it very difficult to give a general definition of what is now called "folk music" or to understand what the term implies, except in certain contexts.
2,4c3
< Prominent performers:
< 
< :[[The Mamas and the Papas]] (folk rock)
---
> Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkle]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|985282117
3c3,4
< :[[Solaris]]
---
> * [[Solaris]]  - based on the novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * Stalker   -based <i>very</i> loosely on the novel `<i>A Roadside Picnic'</i> by [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]
------
Land-grant|985282267
107a108,109
> ----
> Well, it's up to whoever can convince the others that he knows what he's talking about.  :-) --LS
------
Psychology|985282510
6,11c6,14
< Divisions of Psychology
< * [[Social Psychology]]
< * [[Evolutionary Psychology]]
< * [[Child Psychology]]
< * [[Group Psychology]]
< * [[Medicinal Psychology]]
---
> Divisions of Psychology (these might be overlapping, of course)
> * [[child psychology]]
> * [[cognitive psychology]]
> * [[developmental psychology]]
> * [[evolutionary psychology]]
> * [[group psychology]]
> * [[medicinal psychology]]
> * [[psychotherapy]]
> * [[social psychology]]
------
Mathematics/Talk|985282812
21a22,23
> ----
> Just notice that I ''did'' say "insofar as this can be done."  :-) --LS
------
DefinitioN|985283602
1,10c1
< An account of the meaning of a word.
< 
< ''(To be greatly expanded.)''
< 
< def-i-ni-tion:  (de-f&-'ni-sh&n)  noun,  [etymology: middle english diffinicioun, from middle french definition, from latin definition-, definitio, from definire]
< 1 : an act of determining
< 2 a : a statement expressing the essential nature of something b : a statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol <dictionary definitions> c : a product of defining
< 3 : the action or process of defining
< 4 a : the action or the power of describing, explaining, or making definite and clear <the definition of a telescope> <her comic genius is beyond definition> b (1) : clarity of visual presentation : distinctness of outline or detail <improve the definition of an image> (2) : clarity especially of musical sound in reproduction c : sharp demarcation of outlines or limits <a jacket with distinct waist definition>
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Definition]]
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|985284089
1,15c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Now we're going to switch gears rather abruptly and look at the two closely related topics of <i>meaning</i> and <i>definitions</i>.  I especially want us to consider definitions in their philosophical context, because philosophers are constantly asking for definitions, or accounts, or analyses -- at this point it matters little what to call them -- of various philosophical concepts such as existence, causality, meaning, knowledge, goodness, justice, beauty, art, and so on.  In fact, you might regard it as the <i>essential</i> task of philosophy, to clarify the most pervasive concepts descriptive of the universe and human life.
< 
< Now, just as arguments can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  So we will spend some time thinking about what makes a good definition good, and what makes a bad definition bad.  But before that we should discuss a little the topic of meaning, a topic we will return to later this quarter.  A definition is, after all, supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so naturally there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until we understand a few things about meaning.
< 
< Let?s begin by drawing a distinction, between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a distinction you might already be familiar with -- between a word?s <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.  But for clarity let?s stick with "extension" and "intension."
< 
< The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger?s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let?s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger?s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn?t include his thumbs, we?ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
< 
< You can think of a word?s, or a phrase?s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word?s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it?s not too difficult of a concept.  Here?s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
< 
< I?m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word?s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn?t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
< 
< All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
---
> [[definition]]
------
Lexical_definition_of_definition|985284137
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> def-i-ni-tion:  (de-f&-'ni-sh&n)  noun,  [etymology: middle english diffinicioun, from middle french definition, from latin definition-, definitio, from definire]
> 1 : an act of determining
> 2 a : a statement expressing the essential nature of something b : a statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol <dictionary definitions> c : a product of defining
> 3 : the action or process of defining
> 4 a : the action or the power of describing, explaining, or making definite and clear <the definition of a telescope> <her comic genius is beyond definition> b (1) : clarity of visual presentation : distinctness of outline or detail <improve the definition of an image> (2) : clarity especially of musical sound in reproduction c : sharp demarcation of outlines or limits <a jacket with distinct waist definition>
------
Sigmund_Freud|985284506
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's brain into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [[Id]] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's mind into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [[Id]] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Definition|985284508
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the meaning of a word or phrase, and it is in this sense that philosophers discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definitions: dictionary or [[lexical definition]]s (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
> 
> Philosophers are constantly asking for definitions, or [[philosophical account|account]]s, or [[philosophical analysis|analyses]], of various philosophical concepts such as [[existence]], [[causality]], [[meaning]], [[knowledge]], [[goodness]], [[justice]], [[beauty]], [[art]], and so on.  It is surely one <i>essential</i> task of philosophy to clarify in some manner the most pervasive concepts descriptive of the universe and human life.
> 
> Just as [[argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition is supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so, naturally, there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until one reviews a few features of meaning.  Begin with the distinction between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a familiar distinction-- between a word's <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.
> 
> The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger?s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let?s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger?s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn?t include his thumbs, we?ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
> 
> You can think of a word?s, or a phrase?s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word?s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it?s not too difficult of a concept.  Here?s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
> 
> I?m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word?s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn?t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
> 
> All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
------
Definition|985284559
1c1
< Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the meaning of a word or phrase, and it is in this sense that philosophers discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definitions: dictionary or [[lexical definition]]s (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
---
> Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definitions: dictionary or [[lexical definition]]s (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
13c13
< All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
---
> All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
------
Definition|985284594
1c1
< Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definitions: dictionary or [[lexical definition]]s (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
---
> Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
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Definition|985284629
5c5
< Just as [[argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition is supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so, naturally, there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until one reviews a few features of meaning.  Begin with the distinction between the <i>extension</i> and the <i>intension</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a familiar distinction-- between a word's <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.
---
> Just as [[argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition is supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so, naturally, there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until one reviews a few features of meaning.  Begin with the distinction between the <i>[[extension]]</i> and the <i>[[intension]]</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a familiar distinction-- between a word's <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.
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The_Book_of_Mormon|985284681
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the King James version of TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
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Extension|985284778
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word 'dog' includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase 'Wikipedia readers' includes each person who has ever read Wikipedia, including the person reading these words right now.
> 
> 'Extension' is one of the meanings of '[[meaning]]'.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.
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Folk_music|985284876
3c3
< Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkle]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
---
> Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
------
Intension|985285415
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A word's, or a phrase's, <i>intension</i> may be regarded as a [[description]], or set of [[property|properties]] (if one can indulge talk of properties at all), which applies to each member of the word's [[extension]], and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.
> 
> This is a rather complicated definition, but it is not a difficult concept.  What, for example, would be the intension of the phrase 'Wikipedia readers'?  Simply the property of having read any part of Wikipedia at any time.  Anything that has that property is part of the extension of the phrase 'Wikipedia reader'.  For example, Jimbo Wales has been reading Wikipedia; so the intention of the phrase 'Wikipedia reader' applies to Jimbo Wales; and so Jimbo Wales is part of the extension of 'Wikipedia reader'.  Moreover, anything that has not read any part of Wikipedia at any time is for that reason not part of the extension of the phrase 'Wikipedia reader'.
> 
> The above account is provided just in order to offer some basic understanding of what 'intension' amounts to; in fact, what intensions are is a matter of some of the most difficult and extensive debate, going to the heart of questions about [[meaning]] and [[content]].
------
MeaningAndDefinitions|985285970
3,64d2
< Now I come to a different topic about meaning: namely, two different ways in which the meanings of words can be <i>unclear</i>.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being <i>ambiguous</i>, or in the sense of being <i>vague</i> (or, it so happens, in <i>both</i> senses).
< 
< So let?s begin with ambiguity.  One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  We?ve just encountered some great examples of an ambigious words, the word "meaning" itself can mean "extension" or "intension."  The word "unclear" can mean "ambiguous" or "vague."  But let?s get a more ordinary example of an ambiguous word.  Try this for size.  "Bank": as a noun, this can mean either a financial institution where you put your money, or the edge of a river where you might go fishing; and it can mean other things still when used as a verb.  Now, the different meanings that a word can have are its <i>senses</i>.  So "financial institution" is one of the <i>senses</i> of the word "bank," and "edge of the river" is another <i>sense</i>.  So you can see that if a word is ambiguous, then it has more than one sense.  Sometimes there are some rather fine distinctions that can be drawn between different senses of the same word.  For example, take the word "good"; this can mean "useful," as in "That?s a good hammer," or "exemplary," as in "She is a good student," or "moral," as in "They are good people."  No doubt "good" has other senses as well.
< 
< Now, in philosophy, it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, I might ask, "What does ?good? mean?" but I can?t even begin to answer until I have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of "good" I mean.  So discussions of philosophical concepts, especially in the past eighty years or so, have often begun by talking about the different senses in which a word may be used.
< 
< So much, then, for ambiguity.  That?s one way in which meanings can be unclear.  There is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  Here the stock example is "bald."  Some men are definitely bald, and there?s no debating the matter; for example, Patrick Stewart (Captain Picard of <i>Star</i> <i>Trek</i>: <i>The</i> <i>Next</i> <i>Generation</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, President Clinton.  And then there are a bunch of men, you know, the sort of men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we don?t know whether to say they?re bald or not.  There just isn?t any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.  Another good example of a vague concept is the concept of a <i>heap</i> -- two or three grains of sand is not a heap, but a thousand is.  So how many grains of sand does it take to make a heap?  There isn?t any clear line.
< 
< Now, when you look at a man with thinning hair, or a small pile of sand, and you don?t know whether to call the man "bald," or the sand a "heap," then you have found a <i>borderline</i> <i>case</i>.  So we can make a general principle, which in fact might work as a definition of the word "vague."  Here it is: to say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.  Consider those animals in Alaska that are the result of breeding Huskies and wolves: are they dogs, or aren?t they?  It?s not clear: so we can say that they are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of dogs.  This isn?t to say they <i>are</i> dogs, and it?s not to say that they <i>aren?t</i> dogs.  It?s to say that our concept of doghood isn?t clear enough to let us rule conclusively in this case.
< 
< It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of "right" in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right, and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that aren?t clearly right and aren?t clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear, on just those cases that are borderline cases.   Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow.  Well, having mentioned that issue, I?m just going to sidestep it.  You should just be aware that some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
< 
< Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn?t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
< 
< Now let?s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we?re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don?t we just define "definition" that way? --
< 
< The <i>definition</i> of a concept, or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a description of its intention -- that is, the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
< 
< Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
< 
< Now if you go and look at some introductory logic textbooks, you might see a list of <i>kinds</i> of definitions, such as "lexical" definitions, "stipulative" definitions, "ostensive" definitions, and so on.  But we have little reason to consider all of those different categories of definitions; we are primarily interested in one sort, what might be called a <i>intensional</i> (again, spelled with an "s") definitions.
< 
< So now about intensional definitions specifically.  Now I just gave you a definition of "definition."  Well, really that was a definition of "intensional definition."  That is the sense of the word "definition" that we defined; so you already know what an intensional definition is because I just told you.  What I want to do is to give you some idea about how you might go about formulating an intensional definition.  And since this is a class about philosophy we will use an example from philosophy -- in particular our example is from the field of metaphysics.
< 
< Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon?s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth?s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you?re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
< 
< Well, we can begin by taking a clue from the ancient Greeks, who treated concepts to be defined as <i>species</i>, or a specific category, of a <i>genus</i>, or a general category.  So we begin by asking: what is the <i>genus</i> of causality, the general category into which it falls?  In other words, what <i>sort</i> of thing is causality?  That might sound like an impossibly abstract and difficult question, that nobody can answer -- what sort of thing is causality?  Who knows?
< 
< Well, here?s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
< 
< So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  But we are not even close to being done in giving a definition of "causality," because obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are lots of different kinds of relations out there -- similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on -- and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
< 
< Now suppose we did come up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
< 
< This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don?t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it?s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don?t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
< 
< So if we?re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I?ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I?m sure it isn?t.  But it?s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
< 
< <i>Causality</i> is a relation that holds between events, where the first event (called the <i>cause</i>) precedes the second (called the <i>effect</i>), and where events <i>like</i> the first are <i>consistently</i> <i>followed</i> by events like the second.
< 
< So when we say there?s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it?s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
< 
< This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we?re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
< 
< All right, we now have one last topic to discuss, and that is the way that definitions can go wrong.  Just as arguments can go wrong in various ways (remember, we called those <i>fallacies</i>), definitions too can go wrong in various ways.  So I am simply going to list five ways that definitions in philosophy can be inadequate.  Bear in mind I am saying this is how definitions can go wrong <i>in</i> <i>philosophy</i>.  For <i>other</i> purposes the following definitions may be fine.
< 
< First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn?t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don?t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ?excellence? mean?"  Surely, if you?ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you?ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you?re confused about one then you?re confused about the other; so it won?t do to define one simply by stating the other!
< 
< The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I?m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here?s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won?t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we?re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what?s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
< 
< There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we?re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
< 
< Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren?t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
< 
< The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don?t describe some members of the word?s extension.  Here?s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
< 
< Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren?t <i>causal</i> relations.
< 
< Now here?s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don?t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
< 
< That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
< 
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Simon_and_Garfunkel|985286258
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Popular music]] duo comprising Paul Simon and Arthur 'Art' Garfunkel.  Formed while both were in college and originally called [[Tom and Jerry]], Simon and Garfunkel were amongst the most popular recording artists of the 1960s.
> 
> They first found prominence as part of the same [[New York City]] [[folk music]] scene as [[Bob Dylan]], with close harmony singing inspire by the [[Everly Brothers]], married to Simon's acoustic [[guitar]] playing.  Their first album for [[Columbia records]] was a minor hit, but shortly after [[Simon]] moved to [[England]] for a while, where he recorded the solo "[[/Paul Simon songbook]]".  Whilst Simon was in England, the duo's US producer Tom Wilson, who had heard [[The Byrds]]' early folk-rock records, added an electric backing band to the track [[/Sounds of Silence]].  The resulting single was a massive hit, and Simon returned to record more tracks in a similar style.
> 
> The result was a sequence of folk-rock records, which have dated as well as any in the genre.  Simon's lyrics were occasionally naive or twee, but leavened by a consistent dry humour.  Further hit singles came, including "Scarborough Fair", based on a traditional English ballad with an original counter-melody and "Mrs Robinson", from the soundtrack to the film [[The Graduate]]. Their albums became progressively more adventurous, dealing with increasingly complex themes of old age and loss on 1968's classic [[Bookends]].
> 
> Their final album  [[/Bridge Over Troubled Water]](1970), whose title track featuring Garfunkel's soaring vocals was a massive hit, was one of the best selling records of the decade.  After the group split Simon went on to a very succesful solo music career and Garfunkel split his time between acting and occasional musical releases.  The duo reformed for a free concert in New York's [[Central Park]] in 1981, which supposedly attracted a crowd in excess of 500,000 people.
> 
> Records:
> *[[/Wednesday Morning 3am]]
> *[[/The Sounds of Silence]]
> *[[/Parsley Sage Rosemary and Thyme]]
> *[[The Graduate]](Original Soundtrack)
> *[[/Bookends]]
> *[[/Bridge Over Troubled Water]]
> *[[/The Concert in Central Park]]
> * Anthologies and compilations too numerous to mention
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Popular_music|985286307
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Popular music]]
------
Popular_music|985286324
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Popular music]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Popular Music]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985286390
17a18
> *[[Love/Band|Love]]
19a21,22
> *[[Simon and Garfunkel]]
> *[[Television/Band|Love]]
------
Rock_and_roll|985286425
22c22
< *[[Television/Band|Love]]
---
> *[[Television/Band|Television]]
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Ambiguity|985286460
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  The word '[[meaning]]' itself can mean '[[extension]]' or '[[intension]]'.  The word 'unclear' can mean 'ambiguous' or '[[vagueness|vague]]'.
> 
> Here is a more ordinary example of an ambiguous work: 'bank'.  As a noun, this can mean either a financial institution where one deposits money or the edge of a river; it can mean other things still when used as a verb.  The different meanings that a word can have are its <i>senses</i>.  So 'financial institution' is one of the senses of the word 'bank', and 'edge of a river' is another sense.  So if a word is ambiguous, then it has more than one sense.  Sometimes there are some rather fine distinctions that can be drawn between different senses of the same word.  For example, take the word 'good'; this can mean 'useful' or 'functional', as in "That's a good hammer," or 'exemplary', as in "She is a good student," or 'moral', as in "She is a good person."  No doubt 'good' has other senses as well.
> 
> In [[philosophy]], it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, we might ask, "What does 'good' mean?"--but we cannot even begin to answer until we have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of 'good' we mean.  So, discussions of philosophical concepts, in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition at least, and especially since the first decades of the twentieth century, have often begun with discussions about the different senses in which a word may be used.  This was a notable feature especially of the philosophy of [[J. L. Austin]].
------
Ambiguity|985286581
5c5
< In [[philosophy]], it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical term, that one specify just exactly <i>what</i> sense of the term one is examining.  For example, we might ask, "What does 'good' mean?"--but we cannot even begin to answer until we have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of 'good' we mean.  So, discussions of philosophical concepts, in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition at least, and especially since the first decades of the twentieth century, have often begun with discussions about the different senses in which a word may be used.  This was a notable feature especially of the philosophy of [[J. L. Austin]].
---
> In [[philosophy]], it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical [[concept]], that one pin down the sense of the word one uses to describe the concept.  For example, in a discussion of the concept of goodness, we might ask, "What does 'good' mean?"--but we cannot even begin to answer until we have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of 'good' we mean.  So, discussions of philosophical concepts, in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition at least, and especially since the first decades of the twentieth century, have often begun with discussions about the different senses in which a word may be used.  This was a notable feature especially of the philosophy of [[J. L. Austin]].
------
Simon_and_Garfunkel|985286905
7c7
< Their final album  [[/Bridge Over Troubled Water]](1970), whose title track featuring Garfunkel's soaring vocals was a massive hit, was one of the best selling records of the decade.  After the group split Simon went on to a very succesful solo music career and Garfunkel split his time between acting and occasional musical releases.  The duo reformed for a free concert in New York's [[Central Park]] in 1981, which supposedly attracted a crowd in excess of 500,000 people.
---
> Their final album  [[/Bridge Over Troubled Water]](1970), whose title track featuring Garfunkel's soaring vocals was a massive hit, was one of the best selling records of the decade.  After the group split Simon went on to a very succesful solo music career and Garfunkel split his time between acting and occasional musical releases, neither to much acclaim.  The duo reformed for a free concert in New York's [[Central Park]] in 1981, which supposedly attracted a crowd in excess of 500,000 people.
------
Vagueness|985287148
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Ambiguity]] is one way in which meanings can be unclear, but there is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  This is best explained by the use of a stock example: 'bald'.  Some men are definitely bald, and there is no debating the matter; for example, [[Patrick Stewart]] (Captain Picard of <i>[[Star Trek]]</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, [[Bill Clinton]].  Then there are quite a few men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we are not sure whether to say they are bald or not.  There just is not any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.
> 
> Another good example of a vague concept is the concept of a <i>heap</i>--two or three grains of sand is not a heap, but a thousand is.  So how many grains of sand does it take to make a heap?  There is no clear line.  (See the [[paradox of the heap]].)
> 
> When we look at a man with thinning hair or a small pile of sand, and we do not know whether to call the man 'bald', or the sand a 'heap', then we have found a <i>borderline</i> <i>case</i>.  So we can make a general principle, which in fact might work as a definition of the word 'vague':
> :To say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.
> Consider those animals in [[Alaska]] that are the result of breeding [[Husky|Huskies]] and [[wolf|wolves]]: are they [[dog]]s?  It is not clear: so we can say that they are <i>borderline</i> <i>cases</i> of dogs.  This is not to say they <i>are</i> dogs, and it is not to say that they <i>are not</i> dogs.  It is to say that our ordinary concept of doghood is not clear enough to let us rule conclusively in this case.
> 
> It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of 'right' in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that are neither clearly right nor clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear on just those cases that are borderline cases.  Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow; they recommend that we advance so-called [[precising definition]]s.  So some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
------
Definition|985287318
5c5
< Just as [[argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition is supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so, naturally, there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until one reviews a few features of meaning.  Begin with the distinction between the <i>[[extension]]</i> and the <i>[[intension]]</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a familiar distinction-- between a word's <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.
---
> Just as [[argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition is supposed to give us the <i>meaning</i> of a word; so, naturally, there are certain aspects of the topic of definition that cannot be understood until one reviews a few features of meaning.  We will therefore review the topics of extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness.
7c7
< The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word "dog" includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase "people in Sanger?s class this evening" includes all the people sitting in this class right now.  Now, that this is a sense of the word "meaning" should be understandable.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.  So let?s get a nice example on the table.  The phrase "Sanger?s fingers" picks out exactly eight objects (doesn?t include his thumbs, we?ll say).  All right?  So these objects right here are the <i>extension</i> of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
---
> Begin with the distinction between the <i>[[extension]]</i> and the <i>[[intension]]</i> (both spelled with an "s") of a word.  This is very similar to a familiar distinction--between a word's <i>denotation</i> and <i>connotation</i>.  Take the word 'bachelor'.  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include several hundreds of millions of men.  The <i>intension</i> of this word can be stated relatively briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men, and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
9c9
< You can think of a word?s, or a phrase?s, <i>intension</i> as a description, or set of properties, which applies to each member of the word?s extension, and which distinguishes those things from everything <i>not</i> in the extension.  This is a rather complicated definition, but it?s not too difficult of a concept.  Here?s an example: what would be the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"?  Well, two properties: first, the property of being a finger; second, the property of being possessed by Sanger.  Those two properties together make up the intension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Anything that has both of those properties is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers"; so for example as I hold up my left pointer finger, I can observe that it has the property of being a finger, and that it is possessed by Sanger; so the intention of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers" applies to my left pointer finger; and so my left pointer finger is part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."  Moreover, anything that is not a finger, or not possessed by Sanger, is <i>not</i> part of the extension of the phrase "Sanger?s fingers."
---
> The sort of definition that philosophers are interested in, insofar as they are interested in ''definitions'' at all, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word 'bachelor' is 'unmarried man'.  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we are looking for.  After all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call 'bachelors' have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
11c11
< I?m saying all this now simply to help you understand better the difference between a word?s extension and its intension.  To help drive the point home, let me give you another example.  Take the word "bachelor."  The extension of this word is <i>all</i> <i>and</i> <i>only</i> <i>the</i> <i>bachelors</i> <i>in</i> <i>the</i> <i>world</i>.  The extension of this word would include, I imagine, several hundreds of millions of men.  Kind of sad if you think about it.  Anyway, the <i>intension</i> of this word isn?t <i>nearly</i> so large; in fact, it can be stated very briefly, because it includes just two properties: the property of being a <i>man</i>, and the property of being <i>unmarried</i>.  So all bachelors are unmarried men; and <i>only</i> bachelors are unmarried men.
---
> Notice now that there are two different ways in which the meanings of words can be <i>unclear</i>.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being <i>[[ambiguity|ambiguous]]</i>, or in the sense of being <i>[[vagueness|vague]]</i> (or, it so happens, in <i>both</i> senses).
13c13,61
< All right, now remember that I said that a definition of a word is an attempt to state the <i>meaning</i> of the word.  With this background, I think you can see that the sort of definition that we?re interested in, in philosophy, is one that identifies the <i>intension</i>, not the <i>extension</i> of the word.  An excellent definition of the word "bachelor" is "unmarried man."  A less-than-excellent definition of the same word would be a list of names of all of the men in the world who are bachelors.  Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is just not what we?re looking for.  Because, after all, what we are interested in is a description of what all those things we call "bachelors" have in common, which distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.
---
> Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn?t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
> 
> Now let?s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we?re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don?t we just define "definition" that way? --
> 
> The <i>definition</i> of a concept, or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a description of its intention -- that is, the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
> 
> Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
> 
> Now if you go and look at some introductory logic textbooks, you might see a list of <i>kinds</i> of definitions, such as "lexical" definitions, "stipulative" definitions, "ostensive" definitions, and so on.  But we have little reason to consider all of those different categories of definitions; we are primarily interested in one sort, what might be called a <i>intensional</i> (again, spelled with an "s") definitions.
> 
> So now about intensional definitions specifically.  Now I just gave you a definition of "definition."  Well, really that was a definition of "intensional definition."  That is the sense of the word "definition" that we defined; so you already know what an intensional definition is because I just told you.  What I want to do is to give you some idea about how you might go about formulating an intensional definition.  And since this is a class about philosophy we will use an example from philosophy -- in particular our example is from the field of metaphysics.
> 
> Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon?s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth?s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you?re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
> 
> Well, we can begin by taking a clue from the ancient Greeks, who treated concepts to be defined as <i>species</i>, or a specific category, of a <i>genus</i>, or a general category.  So we begin by asking: what is the <i>genus</i> of causality, the general category into which it falls?  In other words, what <i>sort</i> of thing is causality?  That might sound like an impossibly abstract and difficult question, that nobody can answer -- what sort of thing is causality?  Who knows?
> 
> Well, here?s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
> 
> So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  But we are not even close to being done in giving a definition of "causality," because obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are lots of different kinds of relations out there -- similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on -- and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
> 
> Now suppose we did come up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
> 
> This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don?t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it?s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don?t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
> 
> So if we?re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I?ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I?m sure it isn?t.  But it?s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
> 
> <i>Causality</i> is a relation that holds between events, where the first event (called the <i>cause</i>) precedes the second (called the <i>effect</i>), and where events <i>like</i> the first are <i>consistently</i> <i>followed</i> by events like the second.
> 
> So when we say there?s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it?s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
> 
> This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we?re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
> 
> All right, we now have one last topic to discuss, and that is the way that definitions can go wrong.  Just as arguments can go wrong in various ways (remember, we called those <i>fallacies</i>), definitions too can go wrong in various ways.  So I am simply going to list five ways that definitions in philosophy can be inadequate.  Bear in mind I am saying this is how definitions can go wrong <i>in</i> <i>philosophy</i>.  For <i>other</i> purposes the following definitions may be fine.
> 
> First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn?t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don?t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ?excellence? mean?"  Surely, if you?ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you?ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you?re confused about one then you?re confused about the other; so it won?t do to define one simply by stating the other!
> 
> The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I?m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here?s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won?t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we?re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what?s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
> 
> There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we?re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
> 
> Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren?t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
> 
> The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don?t describe some members of the word?s extension.  Here?s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
> 
> Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren?t <i>causal</i> relations.
> 
> Now here?s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don?t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
> 
> That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
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Bob_Dylan/Blood_On_The_Tracks|985287537
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1974 album by [[Bob Dylan]].  After a few artistically weak albums Dylan entered the studio with a clutch of new songs inspired, if that is the word, by his recent estrangement from his wife of over 7 years.  Each song is from the slow [[blues]]  "Meet Me In The Morning" to the lengthy "Idiot Wind" shine an intriguing light into his relationship, and Dylan's talent is to stretch the personal until it appears universal and use the universal to elucidate the intensely personal.  The writing is extremely strong, Dylan was by then a master of the popular form and the band, who although lacking the edge of Dylan's mid-1960's bands are tight and proficient, work hard to show the strengths of each song.
> 
> Note: The original recordings were deemed unsatisfactory, the sessions were scrapped and most of the songs re-recorded with a new group of 
> 
> Tracks:
> #Tangled Up In Blue
> #Simple Twist Of Fate
> #You're A Big Girl Now
> #Idiot Wind
> #You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go
> #Meet Me In The Morning
> #Lily, Rosemary And The Jack Of Hearts
> #If You See Her, Say Hello
> #Shelter From The Storm
> #Buckets Of Rain
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MeaningAndDefinitions|985287568
1c1
< [[definition]]
---
> For the old content of this article, see [[definition]], [[extension]], [[intension]], [[ambiguity]], and [[vagueness]].
3,4c3
< ----
< : ImpreciseLanguage
---
> See also ImpreciseLanguage.
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Bob_Dylan|985287606
3c3
< Initially he made his name as a [[folk singer]], specialising in [[protest songs]] in the style of [[Woody Guthrie]].  However, his artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind.  In 1965 (influenced by the [[folk rock]] of [[The Byrds]]) he angered [[folk music]] purists by performing with an electric [[rock and roll]] band and his new style of poetic, impressionistic lyrics were to have a lasting effect on the industry.
---
> Initially he made his name as a [[folk music|folk singer]], specialising in [[protest songs]] in the style of [[Woody Guthrie]].  However, his artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind.  In 1965 (influenced by the [[folk rock]] of [[The Byrds]]) he angered [[folk music]] purists by performing with an electric [[rock and roll]] band and his new style of poetic, impressionistic lyrics were to have a lasting effect on the industry.
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985287625
8c8
< 1 Nephi -- 2 Nephi -- Jacob -- Enos -- Jarom -- Omni -- Words of Mormon -- Mosiah -- Alma -- Helaman -- 3 Nephi -- 4 Nephi -- Mormon -- Ether -- Moroni
---
> [[1 Nephi]] -- [[2 Nephi]] -- [[Jacob]] -- [[Enos]] -- [[Jarom]] -- [[Omni]] -- [[Words of Mormon]] -- [[Mosiah]] -- [[Alma]] -- [[Helaman]] -- [[3 Nephi]] -- [[4 Nephi]] -- [[Mormon]] -- [[Ether]] -- [[Moroni]]
------
Definition|985287795
4a5,6
> '''A bit of background: extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness'''
> 
11,15c13
< Notice now that there are two different ways in which the meanings of words can be <i>unclear</i>.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being <i>[[ambiguity|ambiguous]]</i>, or in the sense of being <i>[[vagueness|vague]]</i> (or, it so happens, in <i>both</i> senses).
< 
< Now I have introduced the notions of ambiguity and vagueness.  These are not dangerous, difficult, or skeptical notions; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or doesn?t apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have loads of meaning.
< 
< Now let?s discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we?re interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. But in fact, why don?t we just define "definition" that way? --
---
> Notice now that there are two different ways in which the meanings of words can be <i>unclear</i>.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being <i>[[ambiguity|ambiguous]]</i>, or in the sense of being <i>[[vagueness|vague]]</i> (or, it so happens, in <i>both</i> senses).  Most words are, in fact, both ambiguous and vague.  This is not a skeptical or even a controversial claim; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous <i>and</i> vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words <i>many</i> <i>distinct</i> senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not <i>so</i> precise as to be able to allow us to rule that the word does or does not apply in every case.  So certainly, a word that is both ambiguous and vague can have a rich fund of meaning.
17c15
< The <i>definition</i> of a concept, or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a description of its intention -- that is, the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
---
> '''A rough account of the meaning of 'definition''''
19c17,19
< Now, some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
---
> With this background, it will be easier to discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we are interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension.  In that case, it seems the following is a servicable account of the meaning of 'definition':
> :The <i>definition</i> of a [[concept]], or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a [[description]] of its [[intension]]--that is, the set of [[property|properties]] that characterizes all and only members of the [[extension]] of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
> Some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
61c61
< That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
---
> That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
------
SemanticDispute|985287859
1c1
< A DisAgreement is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
---
> A disagreement is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
7c7
< As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the [[United States]] has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose Joshua maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.  In this case, Tim and Joshua have (suffer, are engaging in) a semantic dispute.
---
> As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the [[United States]] has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose Joshua maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.  In this case, Tim and Joshua have (suffer, are engaging in) a semantic dispute.
------
SemanticDispute|985287902
1c1
< A disagreement is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the DisAgreement disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
---
> A [[disagreement]] is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the [[disagreement]] disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
------
Abel|985287960
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain 
> by Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16).  The narrative 
> in Genesis which tells us that ``the Lord had respect unto 
> Abel and to his offering, but unto Cain and to his offering 
> he had not respect,'' is supplemented by the statement of the 
> New Testament, that ``by faith Abel offered unto God a more 
> excellent sacrifice than Cain'' (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain 
> slew Abel ``because his own works were evil and his brother's 
> righteous'' (1 John iii. 12). See further under CAIN.  The 
> name has been identified with the Assyrian ablu, ``son,'' but 
> this is far from certain.  It more probably means ``herdsman'' 
> (cf. the name Jabal), and a distinction is drawn between the 
> pastoral Abel and the agriculturist Cain.  If Cain is the eponym 
> of the Kenites it is quite possible that Abel was originally 
> a South Judaean demigod or hero; on this, see Winckler, 
> Gesch.  Israels, ii. p. 189; E. Meyer, Israelitein, p. 
> 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to have lived in North 
> Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De Haeresibus, lxxxvi.). 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
> 
------
AbeL|985287980
1,22c1
< ABEL (Hebrew for breath), the second son of Adam, slain 
< by Cain, his elder brother (Gen. iv. 1-16).  The narrative 
< in Genesis which tells us that ``the Lord had respect unto 
< Abel and to his offering, but unto Cain and to his offering 
< he had not respect,'' is supplemented by the statement of the 
< New Testament, that ``by faith Abel offered unto God a more 
< excellent sacrifice than Cain'' (Heb. xi. 4), and that Cain 
< slew Abel ``because his own works were evil and his brother's 
< righteous'' (1 John iii. 12). See further under CAIN.  The 
< name has been identified with the Assyrian ablu, ``son,'' but 
< this is far from certain.  It more probably means ``herdsman'' 
< (cf. the name Jabal), and a distinction is drawn between the 
< pastoral Abel and the agriculturist Cain.  If Cain is the eponym 
< of the Kenites it is quite possible that Abel was originally 
< a South Judaean demigod or hero; on this, see Winckler, 
< Gesch.  Israels, ii. p. 189; E. Meyer, Israelitein, p. 
< 395. A sect of Abelitae, who seem to have lived in North 
< Africa, is mentioned by Augustine (De Haeresibus, lxxxvi.). 
< 
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Abel]]
------
State_Street_Corporation|985288097
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> State Street Corporation is a bank holding company and is one of the world's leading specialists in serving institutional investors. State Street provides a full range of products and services for portfolios of investment assets. State Street focuses its services on institutional investors and investment management. Its customers include mutual funds and other collective investment funds, corporate and public pension funds, corporations, unions and not-for-profit organizations.
> 
> State Street employs over 17,000 people worldwide, more than one third of whom work in IT.  State Street's GlobalLink intranet is used by financial institutions all over the world to transfer funds and track capital flows.
> 
> State Street Corporation has been in business since 1792 and is one of the oldest companies in the United States.
> 
>  Resources:
> 
>  [http://www.statestreet.com/ State Street home page]
>  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html An article from Wired Magazine]
------
StateStreetCorporation|985288118
1,10c1
< State Street Corporation is a bank holding company and is one of the world's leading specialists in serving institutional investors. State Street provides a full range of products and services for portfolios of investment assets. State Street focuses its services on institutional investors and investment management. Its customers include mutual funds and other collective investment funds, corporate and public pension funds, corporations, unions and not-for-profit organizations.
< 
< State Street employs over 17,000 people worldwide, more than one third of whom work in IT.  State Street's GlobalLink intranet is used by financial institutions all over the world to transfer funds and track capital flows.
< 
< State Street Corporation has been in business since 1792 and is one of the oldest companies in the United States.
< 
<  Resources:
< 
<  [http://www.statestreet.com/ State Street home page]
<  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.06/statestreet.html An article from Wired Magazine]
---
> #REDIRECT [[State Street Corporation]]
------
The_Iliad|985288150
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Great Greek epic about the wrath of AchillEus.  Will say more later.
------
TheIliad|985288181
1c1
< Great Greek epic about the wrath of AchillEus.  Will say more later.
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Iliad]]
------
Sex|985288257
1a2,15
> 
> You may also be interested in:
> :[[Human sexuality]]
> 
> :[[Sex education]]
> ::[[Birth control]]
> ::[[Abortion]]
> 
> :[[Sexually transmitted diseases]]
> ::[[Aids]]
> ::[[Herpes]]
> 
> :[[Pornography]]
> :[[Religious views on sex]]
------
Matrix_Algebra|985288381
1,2d0
< Describe the new page here.
< 
------
Rolling_Stone_magazine|985288456
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A music and music industry magazine started in the early [[1970s]].
> 
> Rolling Stone magazine embraced the hippie/free love/drug [[counterculture]] during the early 1970s.
> 
> In the [[1980s]], Rolling Stone had become institutionalized and adopted ideas (e.g., employment drug testing) shunned by the early Rolling Stone magazine.
> ----
> Who owns Rolling Stone?
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental|985288458
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Board of Directors]]
------
Oliver_Stone|985288468
0a1,2
> American [[film director]]
> 
14c16
< We've got to rename these pages (perhaps /JFK, /Nixon, etc., or [[JFK the film]], etc.), because the names of the movies overlap with subjects of encyclopedia articles...
---
> We've got to rename these pages (perhaps /JFK, /Nixon, etc., or [[JFK the film]], etc.), because the names of the movies overlap with subjects of encyclopedia articles...
------
Film_director|985288486
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontiental|985288487
1,2c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/BoardOfDirectorsOfTaggartTranscontinental
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Board of Directors]]
------
Film_director|985288499
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film Directors]]
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985288526
0a1,2
> American [[film director]]
> 
------
Definition|985288560
1c1
< Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], and others.
---
> Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
15c15
< '''A rough account of the meaning of 'definition''''
---
> <b>The meaning of 'definition'</b>
17c17
< With this background, it will be easier to discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we are interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension.  In that case, it seems the following is a servicable account of the meaning of 'definition':
---
> With this background, it will be easier to discuss definitions.  Suppose we have decided on some word, or concept associated with the word, to define.  Suppose also that we have identified <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of the word we are interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  So we ask: how can this word be defined?  We already know that we want a description of the <i>intension</i> of the word: that is, we want an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension.  In that case, it seems the following is a servicable account of the meaning of '(intensional) definition':
19c19
< Some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word "definition"; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  We don?t have time, or the conceptual resources, to explore these criticisms.  And even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.  So for our purposes, in just getting introduced to philosophy, it will do just fine.  So a definition is, to put it very briefly, a description of the intension of a word.  When you have stated the intension of a word, you have defined it.
---
> Some philosophers have some criticisms of this sort of definition of the word 'definition'; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, <i>impossible</i> to give definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  Two prominent examples are [[Wittgenstein]] and [[Quine]].  Even if those philosophers are right, they will, most of them, still acknowledge that in philosophy we should do <i>something</i> <i>like</i> give definitions of important philosophical concepts.
21c21
< Now if you go and look at some introductory logic textbooks, you might see a list of <i>kinds</i> of definitions, such as "lexical" definitions, "stipulative" definitions, "ostensive" definitions, and so on.  But we have little reason to consider all of those different categories of definitions; we are primarily interested in one sort, what might be called a <i>intensional</i> (again, spelled with an "s") definitions.
---
> '''Formulating intentional definitions: causality as an example'''
23c23
< So now about intensional definitions specifically.  Now I just gave you a definition of "definition."  Well, really that was a definition of "intensional definition."  That is the sense of the word "definition" that we defined; so you already know what an intensional definition is because I just told you.  What I want to do is to give you some idea about how you might go about formulating an intensional definition.  And since this is a class about philosophy we will use an example from philosophy -- in particular our example is from the field of metaphysics.
---
> The above is a rough definition of 'intensional definition'.  How might one go about formulating an intensional definition?  Consider an example from [[philosophy]]--in particular our example is from the field of [[metaphysics]].
25c25
< Suppose you wanted to give a definition of <i>causality</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  You want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the moon?s gravity <i>causes</i> the earth?s tides, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of "causes" mean?  You have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term "causality": namely, you?re familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  I just listed a bunch for you.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term "causality."  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
---
> Suppose we want to give a definition of <i>[[causality]]</i>, or <i>causation</i>.  We want to know what it means to say that the white ball <i>causes</i> the eight ball to roll into pocket, or that heat <i>causes</i> water to boil, or that the [[moon]]'s gravity <i>causes</i> the [[Earth]]'s [[tide]]s, or that a hard blow to the arm <i>causes</i> a bruise.  What does all this talk of 'causes' mean?  We all have some rough idea of the <i>extension</i> of the term 'causality': we are familiar with all sorts of particular cause-and-effect relations.  The set of all those particular cause-and-effect relations is the extension of the term 'causality' (or of 'causal relation').  But what properties do all these particular cause-and-effect relations have in common?  We say heat causes boiling, and punching causes bruising; so what do these two relations have in common, that we can both call them <i>causal</i> relations?
27c27
< Well, we can begin by taking a clue from the ancient Greeks, who treated concepts to be defined as <i>species</i>, or a specific category, of a <i>genus</i>, or a general category.  So we begin by asking: what is the <i>genus</i> of causality, the general category into which it falls?  In other words, what <i>sort</i> of thing is causality?  That might sound like an impossibly abstract and difficult question, that nobody can answer -- what sort of thing is causality?  Who knows?
---
> We can begin by taking a clue from the ancient Greeks, who treated concepts to be defined as <i>species</i>, or a specific category, of a <i>genus</i>, or a general category.  Beginning with [[Socrates]], and codified by [[Aristotle]], the ancient Greeks sought so-called [[genus-species definitions]].  So we begin by asking: what is the <i>genus</i> of causality, the general category into which it falls?  In other words, what <i>sort</i> of thing is causality?
29c29,31
< Well, here?s an answer: causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>relation</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a "cause" and what we call an "effect."  So causality is a relationship, a relation, just as (to take another example) similarity is a relation.  You know, suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.  So similarity is one kind of relation; and causality is another kind of relation.
---
> Causality is a <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>relationship</i>, or simply <i>[[relation]]</i> for short.  We do, after all, speak of causal <i>relations</i> between things.  The causality relation is the relation that holds between what we call a 'cause' and what we call an 'effect'.  Another example of a relation is ''similarity.''  Suppose we say Jack and Jill are similar in appearance; then we say there is a certain relationship, the relation of <i>similarity</i> between them.
> 
> BEGIN WIKIFICATION HERE
------
Bob_Dylan|985288578
1c1
< Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music.  
---
> Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music with his work firmly entrenched in the [[1960s]] political and musical time-frame.
------
Stephen_Spielberg|985288581
0a1,2
> American [[Film Directors|film director]]
> 
6c8
< :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
---
> :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
------
World_War_II|985288619
1c1
< The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb.  The conflict was wrought on civilizan populations to a greater extent than in previous wars of the modern era, and served as a backdrop for [[Genocide|genocidal killings]] by Germany, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Japan]].
---
> The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb.  The conflict was wrought on civilizan populations to a greater extent than in previous wars of the modern era, and served as a backdrop for [[Genocide|genocidal killings]] by [[Germany]], the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Japan]].
------
Stephen_Spielberg|985288740
1c1
< American [[Film Directors|film director]]
---
> Stephen Spielberg is an [[American]] [[Film Directors|film director]].
4a5,6
> :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
> :[[ET]]
5a8,9
> :[[1941]]
> :[[Saving Private Ryan]]
7,8d10
< :[[ET]]
< :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
------
World_War_II|985288748
55c55
<  [[Adolph Hitler]]
---
>  [[Adolf Hitler]]
------
Bob_Dylan|985288857
1c1
< Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music with his work firmly entrenched in the [[1960s]] political and musical time-frame.
---
> Bob Dylan, (born [[Robert Allen Zimmerman]] in Hibbing, [[Minnesota]]) is amongst the greatest influences on the history of popular music, the majority of his best work is entrenched in the [[1960s]] political and musical time-frame, much of which he helped create.
------
Definition|985288879
0a1,2
> Definition is the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[idea]].
> ----
------
United_States|985288921
3c3
< * TheStates
---
> * /States
------
United_States/States|985288932
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Collectively refers to the states in the [[United States]].
> 
> The states are:
> * [[Alabama]]
> * [[Alaska]]
> * [[Arizona]]
> * [[Arkansas]]
> 
> * [[California]]
> * [[Colorado]]
> * [[Connecticut]]
> 
> * [[Delaware]]
> 
> * [[Florida]]
> 
> * [[Hawaii]]
> 
> * [[Idaho]]
> * [[Illinois]]
> * [[Indiana]]
> * [[Iowa]]
> 
> * [[Kansas]]
> * [[Kentucky]]
> 
> * [[Louisiana]]
> 
> * [[Maine]]
> * [[Maryland]]
> * [[Massachusetts]]
> * [[Michigan]]
> * [[Minnesota]]
> * [[Mississippi]]
> * [[Missouri]]
> * [[Montana]]
> 
> * [[Nebraska]]
> * [[Nevada]]
> * [[New Hampshire]]
> * [[New Jersey]]
> * [[New Mexico]]
> * [[New York]]
> * [[North Carolina]]
> * [[North Dakota]]
> 
> * [[Ohio]]
> * [[Oklahoma]]
> * [[Oregon]]
> 
> * [[Pennsylvania]]
> 
> * [[Rhode Island]]
> 
> * [[South Carolina]]
> * [[South Dakota]]
> 
> * [[Tennessee]]
> 
> * [[Texas]]
> 
> * [[Utah]]
> 
> * [[Vermont]]
> * [[Virginia]]
> 
> * [[Washington]]
> * [[West Virginia]]
> * [[Wisconsin]]
> * [[Wyoming]]
> ----
> This could be usefully rendered in [[how does one edit a page|table form]].
------
TheStates|985289011
1,72c1
< Collectively refers to the states in the [[United States]].
< 
< The states are:
< * [[Alabama]]
< * [[Alaska]]
< * [[Arizona]]
< * [[Arkansas]]
< 
< * [[California]]
< * [[Colorado]]
< * [[Connecticut]]
< 
< * [[Delaware]]
< 
< * [[Florida]]
< 
< * [[Hawaii]]
< 
< * [[Idaho]]
< * [[Illinois]]
< * [[Indiana]]
< * [[Iowa]]
< 
< * [[Kansas]]
< * [[Kentucky]]
< 
< * [[Louisiana]]
< 
< * [[Maine]]
< * [[Maryland]]
< * [[Massachusetts]]
< * [[Michigan]]
< * [[Minnesota]]
< * [[Mississippi]]
< * [[Missouri]]
< * [[Montana]]
< 
< * [[Nebraska]]
< * [[Nevada]]
< * [[New Hampshire]]
< * [[New Jersey]]
< * [[New Mexico]]
< * [[New York]]
< * [[North Carolina]]
< * [[North Dakota]]
< 
< * [[Ohio]]
< * [[Oklahoma]]
< * [[Oregon]]
< 
< * [[Pennsylvania]]
< 
< * [[Rhode Island]]
< 
< * [[South Carolina]]
< * [[South Dakota]]
< 
< * [[Tennessee]]
< 
< * [[Texas]]
< 
< * [[Utah]]
< 
< * [[Vermont]]
< * [[Virginia]]
< 
< * [[Washington]]
< * [[West Virginia]]
< * [[Wisconsin]]
< * [[Wyoming]]
< ----
< This could be usefully rendered in [[how does one edit a page|table form]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/States]]
------
United_States|985289074
3c3
< * /States
---
> * [[/States|States]]
------
United_States|985289174
4c4
< * PresidentOfTheUnitedStates
---
> * [[/Presidents]]
------
Feature_requests|985289176
17a18
> * It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages.  There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to.  It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no other links, or only one other link, or only two other links. --[[Larry Sanger]]
53c54
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
------
United_States/Presidents|985289193
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
> * [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
> * [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
> * JamesMadison (1809-1817)
> * JamesMonroe (1817-1825)
> * JohnQuincyAdams (1825-1829)
> * AndrewJackson (1829-1837)
> * MartinVanBuren (1837-1841)
> * WilliamHenryHarrison (1841)
> * JohnTyler (1841-1845)
> * JamesPolk (1845-1849)
> * ZacharyTaylor (1849-1850)
> * MillardFillmore (1850-1853)
> * FranklinPierce (1853-1857)
> * JamesBuchanan (1857-1861)
> * AbrahamLincoln (1861-1865)
> * AndrewJohnson (1865-1869)
> * UlyssesSGrant (1869-1877)
> * RutherfordBHayes (1877-1881)
> * JamesAGarfield (1881)
> * ChesterAArthur (1881-1885)
> * GroverCleveland (1885-1889)
> * BenjaminHarrison (1889-1893)
> * GroverCleveland (1893-1897)
> * WilliamMcKinley (1897-1901)
> * TheodoreRoosevelt (1901-1909)
> * WilliamHTaft (1909-1913)
> * WoodrowWilson (1913-1921)
> * WarrenHarding (1921-1923)
> * CalvinCoolidge (1923-1929)
> * HerbertHoover (1929-1933)
> * FranklinDRoosevelt (1933-1945)
> * HarrySTruman (1945-1953)
> * DwightDEisenhower (1953-1961)
> * [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
> * [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963-1969)
> * [[Richard Millhouse Nixon]] (1969-1974)
> * [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
> * [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
> * [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]] (1981-1989)
> * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (1989-1993)
> * [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
> * [[George W. Bush]] (2001-)
> 
> Also of note,
> * Emperor JoshuaANorton I (1849-1880)
> 
> ------
> Sorry for the poor formatting; I got the list from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/.
> Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
> ----
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
> 
------
United_States/Presidents|985289230
4,8c4,8
< * JamesMadison (1809-1817)
< * JamesMonroe (1817-1825)
< * JohnQuincyAdams (1825-1829)
< * AndrewJackson (1829-1837)
< * MartinVanBuren (1837-1841)
---
> * [[James Madison]] (1809-1817)
> * [[James Monroe]] (1817-1825)
> * [[John QuincyAdams]] (1825-1829)
> * [[Andrew Jackson]] (1829-1837)
> * [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837-1841)
------
Beverly_Hillbillies|985289268
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[1960s]] television show about a [[hillbilly]] who strikes oil, becomes rich, and moves his entire family to [[Beverly Hills]], [[California]].
> 
> Most Beverly Hillbillies storylines revolve around the differences between hillbilly culture and modern [[American]] culture.
> 
> See also:
> *[[Flat and Scruggs]]
> 
> ----
> Q: Are there any copycat shows shown on competing networks during this time?  (e.g., Bewitched and I Dream of Jeanie or 
> The Addams Family and The Musters)
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985289282
7a8,10
> ----
> 
> And we must not forget [[Carla Faye Tucker]] executed in 1998 while [[George W. Bush|Bush]] held the gubernatorial office in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].
------
Beverly_Hillbillies|985289292
6c6
< *[[Flat and Scruggs]]
---
> *[[Flatt and Scruggs]]
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|985289310
1,52c1
< * [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
< * [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
< * [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
< * JamesMadison (1809-1817)
< * JamesMonroe (1817-1825)
< * JohnQuincyAdams (1825-1829)
< * AndrewJackson (1829-1837)
< * MartinVanBuren (1837-1841)
< * WilliamHenryHarrison (1841)
< * JohnTyler (1841-1845)
< * JamesPolk (1845-1849)
< * ZacharyTaylor (1849-1850)
< * MillardFillmore (1850-1853)
< * FranklinPierce (1853-1857)
< * JamesBuchanan (1857-1861)
< * AbrahamLincoln (1861-1865)
< * AndrewJohnson (1865-1869)
< * UlyssesSGrant (1869-1877)
< * RutherfordBHayes (1877-1881)
< * JamesAGarfield (1881)
< * ChesterAArthur (1881-1885)
< * GroverCleveland (1885-1889)
< * BenjaminHarrison (1889-1893)
< * GroverCleveland (1893-1897)
< * WilliamMcKinley (1897-1901)
< * TheodoreRoosevelt (1901-1909)
< * WilliamHTaft (1909-1913)
< * WoodrowWilson (1913-1921)
< * WarrenHarding (1921-1923)
< * CalvinCoolidge (1923-1929)
< * HerbertHoover (1929-1933)
< * FranklinDRoosevelt (1933-1945)
< * HarrySTruman (1945-1953)
< * DwightDEisenhower (1953-1961)
< * [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
< * [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963-1969)
< * [[Richard Millhouse Nixon]] (1969-1974)
< * [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
< * [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
< * [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]] (1981-1989)
< * [[George Herbert Walker Bush]] (1989-1993)
< * [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
< * [[George W. Bush]] (2001-2005)
< 
< Also of note,
< * Emperor JoshuaANorton I (1849-1880)
< 
< ------
< Sorry for the poor formatting; I got the list from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/.
< Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
< ----
< An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/Presidents]]
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985289379
4a5,6
> ''Yeah, so?  :-)  Take this as a criticism of the usefulness of per capita income as a measure of [[standard of living]].''
> 
19,22c21
< You are talking about household income here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income, however, is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
< 
< 
< 
---
> You are talking about household income here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income, however, is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
------
Rolling_Stone_magazine|985289388
1c1,2
< A music and music industry magazine started in the early [[1970s]].
---
> A music and music industry magazine started in [[San Francisco]] in 1967 by journalist and editor [[Jann Wenner]]
> Rolling Stone magazine embraced the hippie/free love/drug [[counterculture]] during the early 1960s an 70s and was pivotal in the rise to fame of such bands as [[The Grateful Dead]].
3,5c4
< Rolling Stone magazine embraced the hippie/free love/drug [[counterculture]] during the early 1970s.
< 
< In the [[1980s]], Rolling Stone had become institutionalized and adopted ideas (e.g., employment drug testing) shunned by the early Rolling Stone magazine.
---
> By the [[1980s]], despite still nominally employing such people as [[Hunter S Thompson]], Rolling Stone had become institutionalized and adopted ideas (e.g., employment drug testing) shunned by the early Rolling Stone magazine.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985289500
10c10,13
< And we must not forget [[Carla Faye Tucker]] executed in 1998 while [[George W. Bush|Bush]] held the gubernatorial office in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].
---
> And we must not forget [[Carla Faye Tucker]] executed in 1998 while [[George W. Bush|Bush]] held the gubernatorial office in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].
> ----
> 
> And we must not forget [[Bill Clinton]] who presided over executions whilst govenor of [[Arkansas]].
------
Definition|985289515
1,3c1,3
< Definition is the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[idea]].
< ----
< Though highly ambiguous, like most words, ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]] or [[phrase]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
---
> Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.
> 
> Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
------
Sex|985289516
1c1
< Some species can be divided into two groups (males and females), each one called a sex. They complement. They copulate or pollinate or otherwise co-contribute gametes to reproduce.
---
> Many species of living things exist in two or more forms that combine genetic material in order to reproduce.  This is called <i>sexual reproduction</i>.  Typically, a species will have two forms, called <i>male</i> and <i>female</i> (the female being the one that produces the larger [[gamete]]).  [[Fungi]] and some other organisms exist in more than two sexes, but still reproduce in pairs (any two differing sexes may reproduce).  The word <i>sex</i> is also used to refer to the physical acts related to sexual reproduction.  Some species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985289597
0a1,2
> I suggest moving this to [[Death Peanalty/Talk]].
> ----
13c15
< And we must not forget [[Bill Clinton]] who presided over executions whilst govenor of [[Arkansas]].
---
> And we must not forget [[Bill Clinton]] who presided over executions whilst govenor of [[Arkansas]].
------
Definition|985289611
1c1
< Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' in its most usual sense is an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]], and it is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.
---
> Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].
3c3
< Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
---
> It is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
------
World_War_II|985289687
12,13c12
< Germany's power was eventually broken by the disastrous Russian campaign, the successful invasion of France by the Western allies, and incessant bombing of its infrastructure.
< Hitler commited suicide, the Russians took Berlin, and the country was partitioned by the Allies.  Japan had become severely weakened as well, and finally surrendered after two of its cities ([[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]) were destroyed by nuclear weapons.  The war ended in 1945.
---
> Germany's power was eventually broken by the disastrous Russian campaign, while the successful invasion of France by the Western allies opened up a second front, and incessant bombing of its infrastructure and cities caused great casualties and disruption.  Hitler commited suicide, the Russians took Berlin, and the country was partitioned by the Allies.  Japan had become severely weakened as well, and finally surrendered after the cities [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]], both civilian targets, were destroyed by nuclear weapons.  The war ended in 1945.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985289722
12a13,15
> 
> She brutally commited murder.  Feminists everywhere should be proud that she was treated equally with murderers that are men. 
>  "Equal Protection Under The Law" - The Constitution -- read it -- understand it
------
United_States|985289726
8c8
< * UnitedStatesConstitution
---
> * [[United States Constitution]]
------
Francis_Ford_Coppola|985289740
1c1
< American motion picture director, born 1939.  After learning his craft at [[UCLA]] and making numerous short films, Coppola made his name in the 1970s as the director of [[The Godfather]] and [[The Godfather Part II]], which both won the "Best Picture" [[Academy Award]], the latter being the first (only?) sequel to do so.  Following their success he set about filming an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Heart Of Darkness]], set during the [[Vietnam war]].  The resulting film, titled [[Apocalypse Now]] when it finally appeared, was equally lauded and hated by critics, but the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[Zoetrope]].  After a lengthy layoff he returned to directing, with some commercial and critical success.  A third installment in [[The Godfather]] saga appeared in 1990.
---
> American [[film director]], born 1939.  After learning his craft at [[UCLA]] and making numerous short films, Coppola made his name in the 1970s as the director of [[The Godfather]] and [[The Godfather Part II]], which both won the "Best Picture" [[Academy Award]], the latter being the first (only?) sequel to do so.  Following their success he set about filming an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Heart Of Darkness]], set during the [[Vietnam war]].  The resulting film, titled [[Apocalypse Now]] when it finally appeared, was equally lauded and hated by critics, but the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[Zoetrope]].  After a lengthy layoff he returned to directing, with some commercial and critical success.  A third installment in [[The Godfather]] saga appeared in 1990.
10c10
< :Bram Stoker's [[Dracula]]
---
> :Bram Stoker's [[Dracula]]
------
United_States|985289778
7c7
< * HistoryOfUnitedStates
---
> * [[/History|History]]
------
United_States/History|985289792
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
> 
> During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new
> states were added to the union. Two importants events were the
> [[Louissiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
> France all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
> the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained
> [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]), and [[Texas]].
> 
> Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Licoln]], 
> several states from the south secceded from the union forming
> the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued,
> that ended with the political reunification of the country.
> 
> During the 20th century US was involved in two World Wars.
> It entered in  [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, one of its
> ships, was sunken by the germans. With its help, Great Britain,
> France and Italy won the war, an imposed severe penalties on
> Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]]
> 
> ...
> 
>  
> America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
> 
> See also:
> * [[History Of United States Discussion]]
> * [[History Of United States Talk]]
> 
------
PerCapitaIncomeTalk|985289830
8a9,10
> That is one of the main sticking points with these numerical measurements.  They measure only one side of the equation.
> ----
21c23
< You are talking about household income here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income, however, is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
---
> You are talking about household income here. It inludes: income derived from work (ie wages, salaries), income derived from capital (ie interest, dividends, capital gains), and ''net'' transfers [transfers received (ie pensions, welfare, etc) - transfers contributed (ie government health insurance, pension schemes)]. Per Capita Income, however, is normaly the GDP divided by the number of citizens. WojPob
------
Sex|985289839
15a16,21
> 
> :[[Fetish]]
> 
> :[[Sex crime]]
> 
> 
------
United_States/History|985289842
27c27
< * [[History Of United States Discussion]]
---
> * [[/HistoryDiscussion]]
------
United_States/History_Discussion|985289868
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Note from [[Jimbo Wales]]: I really like the way the following discussion is going.  What I'm interested to see is whether
> and to what extent we might be able to achieve some consensus
> on a basic 3-screen history of the [[United States]].
> 
> Anyhow, it will be very interesting to see what we might
> hammer out as mutually acceptable to reasonable people who
> disagree.  So far, things don't look good.  :-)  BryceHarrington is citing NoamChomsky, who I regard as a lunatic.  And TimShell
> is posting highly inflammatory pictures of genocide.
> 
> Will it break down into a flame war?  Or does the ability of
> others to come in and "tone down" the discussion at will mean
> that flame wars can be avoided?
> 
> It sure is fun and addictive to watch to find out!
> 
> ----
> We don't want the HistoryOfUnitedStates to be a large pile of pro-American propaganda, like virtually all histories of that country are.  However, we also don't want it to be a large pile of ''anti''-American propaganda.  So I think we should carefully discuss each controversial point that comes up before writing about it.
> 
> '''The American civil war'''
> 
> Bryce stated that this was not so much about racial issues as economic issues, and Tim disagreed therewith.  Which of these points, exactly, are you disagreeing with?  If it's the racial one - wasn't the north willing to reverse it's stance on that particular issue?  Not being American, I don't really know...
> 
> The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here. - TimShell
> 
> 
> '''WWII'''
> 
> I'm not sure why it's so important to mention the SovietUnion invading PolanD, since that had nothing to with the causes of the war.  Inasmuchas the allies never went to war with them.
> 
> The invasion might be worth mentioning as it was a direct consequence of the secret Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which Hitler kept until invading the SovietUnion in 1942 (OperationBarbarossa) - WojPob (GermanY invaded on Sept. 1st and the SovietUnion on Sept. 17th 1939 - ''BTW'')
> 
> ...Please note I'm not saying it's not worth mentioning altogether.  For a discussion of WWII, one could scarce leave it out.  I just don't think that the details of how the war started are particularly relevant to the history of the US, except in so far as to give them a just ''casus belli''.
> 
> '''Attitude towards NativeAmericans'''
> 
> Someone wrote that the Nazi FinalSolution was perhaps modelled
> on U.S policy towards NativeAmerican''''s.  I think this is
> ludicrous on many levels.  Even if it were true that some Nazi's
> viewed it as the same thing (something I don't really know about), that view is itself ludicrous.  We're talking about a
> serious estimate of 6,000 dead in a variety of unfortunate incidents, versus a serious estimate of how many millions dead as the result of a deliberate genocide? -- [[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> For the record, there ''were'' deliberate attempts to annihilate the native americans.  I can give you two incidents in particular.  One, which happened hortly before the American revolution, was the deliberate spreading of smallpox among the Pontiac.  The second is the deliberate annihilation of the Six Nations, to quote Washington:
> 
> :"The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex, as possible...that the country not be merely overrun but destroyed."
> 
> This took place as punishment for their alliance with the British.  But certainly it's not how they would have treated the Canadiens, and the Oneida and Tuscora were not spared for their neutrality.  In short, it might not have been the coordinated and causeless hatred of the nazis, but certainly it was far from a series of incidents that devastated the natives.  Please don't consider this as a specifically anti-American sentiment, since as you can see above it was a continuation of the British attitude, and common to imperialist powers in general.
> 
> ''I agree, the treatment of the NativeAmericans was ugly, but comparing it to the NaziHolocaust is really pushing it.  We are talking about a total of 6,000 dead (according to TimShell over on IndianMassacres, anyway) versus millions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
> 
> Ok, I'm not trying to say that they're tragedies of equal magnitudes.  But remember North America was populated fairly sparsely at the time, except for the Aztecs and Mayans down in Mexico, whose blood goes on the hands of the conquistadors.  I'm merely saying that though the nazis were dealing with a ''lot'' more people, so many that they had to develop all sorts of horrifyingly ingenious methods of doing so, the underlying motivations seem comparable.
> 
> There's a tendency to think of the holocaust as a singularly awful point in history.  The sad thing is, it's not.  It's just that the Nazis were better at what they were doing then most others who have tried, and have received a lot more publicity.  But most countries that have ever been powerful, have some sort of deliberate genocide on their hands.
> 
> ----
> There is also some stuff left on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?UnitedStatesOfAmerica Ward's wiki] that probably wouldn't hurt to consider.
> 
> ----
> Chomsky seems to be applying Lenin's theory of imperialism.  The competing theory, that nations grow wealthy by increasing the productivity of thier labor, has the advantage over Lenin's of being supported by the evidence.
> 
> R.J. Rummel has done history's most exhaustive study on the issue of governmental mass murder.  He has calculated the total number of deaths by studying each reported instance of murder and adding them all up, for all of the most destructive regimes of the 20th century (the total for the century came in around 170 million).  For perspective, he has done similar research on pre-20th century political mass murder.  He was able to document an estimated 6000 deaths of Native Americans at the hands of the United States government.  If you wish to argue that there were more than this, please indicate when and where each incident occured and how many people were killed in each incident.  This is recent history in an area with a free press and a literate population - if these events occured, they would have been documented.  Where are the bodies?  If the evidence was destroyed, where is the powerful centralized organization that systematically disposed of the evidence over thousands of miles (a powerful centralized oganization would be necessary for a task of that scale).  Where are the directives from Washington (there is official documentation of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?  Where are the eye-witness accounts (there are eye-witness accounts of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?
> 
> A collaborative project like this one could be a valuable tool for this kind of research.  We can start of page for IndianMassacres and begin compiling an exhaustive list of incidents.
> 
> (curiously, Rummel just sent me this illustration:)
> 
> http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg
> 
> - TimShell
> 
> ''Okay, okay, I don't wish to be thought of as a lunatic, or be punching bag filler, so I'll depart.''
> ----
> 
> I began with the history again. I'm not from the US, so I think
> I can be a bit more impartial...I haven't written anything that
> should cause controversy, yet.
------
United_States/History|985289891
27c27
< * [[/HistoryDiscussion]]
---
> * [[/History_Discussion]]
------
Sex|985289893
13a14,15
> :[[Artistic depictions of sex]]
> :[[Erotica]]
14a17
> 
20,21d22
< 
< 
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985289925
15a16,17
> 
> I'm the one who added the note about about Cruz, Jacobs, et al.  I agree--I din't find anything out of place orunusual about Tucker's execution.  If one believes in the penalty at all, she was an exemplary case.
------
United_States/History|985289946
28c28
< * [[History Of United States Talk]]
---
> * [[/History_Talk]]
------
United_States/History_Talk|985289955
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in [[United States]] history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the [[United States]] role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ''I think the article is being remarkably fair.  What you mention above are all great theoretical traits, but have been fairly inconsistent in application.  In particular I think you will find that when times are difficult, ideologies are neglected.  America's record in dealing with other nations is especially poor - one of genocide and imperialism.  Their involvement in WWII is praiseworthy, but like everyone else their tactics were Draconian.''
> 
> ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary.''
> 
> ''Meanwhile, instead of going ahead and adding good and deleting bad and deleting good and adding bad, and so forth, I suggest we have a separate discussion on what is an appropriate take here on [[History Of United States Discussion]].  Leave this as is for now, and know that it is controversial.  --JoshuaGrosse''
> 
> ----
> 
> Joshua, here is my view: I think we shouldn't aim for objectivity; we should aim for lack of bias.  The way to achieve lack of bias is to ''explicitly acknowledge'' within the article itself points on which there is disagreement, and make sure that the body of the article does not betray any particular position on these disagreements.  Thus, lack of bias is not achieved by striking a middle position between the views that the U.S. had a glorious wonderful history and that it was dark and evil.  It is achieved by relating what objective facts everyone can agree on, and then making explicit what points people disagree about.
> 
> By the way, anyone is free to change this article at any time, you know.  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ''My bad, what I meant was a treatment which is accurate rather than opinionated, not completely detached.  Of course anyone can edit the article at any time, but rather than have it completely rewritten whenever some pro/anti zealot comes along, or have it completely filled with the reasons for every position, I figured the latter could be collected on a separate page.  Only now we have two of those....''
> 
> -----
> Perhaps the sensible thing to do here would be to create an outline covering major historical periods and topics, creating links to each subcategory, and then allowing the subcategories to be filled in over time.
> 
> ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.  So, in short, I think the page should be kept as summary first, and sub and related topics second.''
> 
> ''As to my second comment, please neglect it - apparently I missed out on how the slashes work.  That's pretty cool.'' --JG
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't disagree with all of the assertions Bryce made.  Some of them I do, and overall, I think the initial summary was very biased and ignored many of the essential facts of US history.  Also, I do not concede that "we've" been very naughty or that "we've" done many bad things.  It is certainly true that the government of the United States has done many bad things - it has, in a word, acted like every other government that has ever existed.  But I did not consent to or willingly participate in these things, so I refuse to consider them in the first person.  A society, and the government that rules (I might say, oppresses) it, are two very different things.  This theoretical point has significance here - a history of the United States should not be merely a history of the actions of the government of the United States.  It should be a history of the society as well - a history of what people do when they are free of governmental interference: invent, create, produce, experiment with different belief systems, and pursue happiness according to their own lights. - TimShell
> 
> ----
> 
> Tim has excellent points.  I second them.  The bit about not focusing exclusively on the government is gold.  I also think that you needn't feel responsible for the actions done many years before your birth by a government which you now have <<1/280,000,000th of a say in.  Simplifications need to be proven helpful before they are adopted.  I hold up your guilt as an example of the harm they can do.  If you feel bad that some things happened in history (and are still happening), I would think anger at the perpetrators and sympathy for the victims more appropriate responses.  These can motivate one to help make things better without being such a burden.  Don't you show, by your recognition of the wrong, some distance from it?  Sorry, I just don't think you deserve the burden of guilt, so I rambled on trying to fix your psychie or something.  I appologize.
> 
> That having been said, this is a wiki.  The obvious answer, and likely among the best, has been given:  write a middle way account and people can link off to pessimistic (or optimistic) interpretations & elaborations as they see fit.  Writing the middle way shouldn't be that hard.  Let anyone add what they want, and if someone objects to something, off to another page it goes.  --PhillipHankins
------
History_Of_United_States_Discussion|985290030
1,75c1
< Note from [[Jimbo Wales]]: I really like the way the following discussion is going.  What I'm interested to see is whether
< and to what extent we might be able to achieve some consensus
< on a basic 3-screen history of the [[United States]].
< 
< Anyhow, it will be very interesting to see what we might
< hammer out as mutually acceptable to reasonable people who
< disagree.  So far, things don't look good.  :-)  BryceHarrington is citing NoamChomsky, who I regard as a lunatic.  And TimShell
< is posting highly inflammatory pictures of genocide.
< 
< Will it break down into a flame war?  Or does the ability of
< others to come in and "tone down" the discussion at will mean
< that flame wars can be avoided?
< 
< It sure is fun and addictive to watch to find out!
< 
< ----
< We don't want the HistoryOfUnitedStates to be a large pile of pro-American propaganda, like virtually all histories of that country are.  However, we also don't want it to be a large pile of ''anti''-American propaganda.  So I think we should carefully discuss each controversial point that comes up before writing about it.
< 
< '''The American civil war'''
< 
< Bryce stated that this was not so much about racial issues as economic issues, and Tim disagreed therewith.  Which of these points, exactly, are you disagreeing with?  If it's the racial one - wasn't the north willing to reverse it's stance on that particular issue?  Not being American, I don't really know...
< 
< The claim that emanicpation was an attempt to destroy the Southern economy is certainly false.  The emancipation took effect after the war, when the Southern economy was already ruined.  So I have to challenge that point.  Of course, ask 10 American historians about the Civil War, and you will get 10 different theories, so it's hard to say what should be included here. - TimShell
< 
< 
< '''WWII'''
< 
< I'm not sure why it's so important to mention the SovietUnion invading PolanD, since that had nothing to with the causes of the war.  Inasmuchas the allies never went to war with them.
< 
< The invasion might be worth mentioning as it was a direct consequence of the secret Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which Hitler kept until invading the SovietUnion in 1942 (OperationBarbarossa) - WojPob (GermanY invaded on Sept. 1st and the SovietUnion on Sept. 17th 1939 - ''BTW'')
< 
< ...Please note I'm not saying it's not worth mentioning altogether.  For a discussion of WWII, one could scarce leave it out.  I just don't think that the details of how the war started are particularly relevant to the history of the US, except in so far as to give them a just ''casus belli''.
< 
< '''Attitude towards NativeAmericans'''
< 
< Someone wrote that the Nazi FinalSolution was perhaps modelled
< on U.S policy towards NativeAmerican''''s.  I think this is
< ludicrous on many levels.  Even if it were true that some Nazi's
< viewed it as the same thing (something I don't really know about), that view is itself ludicrous.  We're talking about a
< serious estimate of 6,000 dead in a variety of unfortunate incidents, versus a serious estimate of how many millions dead as the result of a deliberate genocide? -- [[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< For the record, there ''were'' deliberate attempts to annihilate the native americans.  I can give you two incidents in particular.  One, which happened hortly before the American revolution, was the deliberate spreading of smallpox among the Pontiac.  The second is the deliberate annihilation of the Six Nations, to quote Washington:
< 
< :"The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex, as possible...that the country not be merely overrun but destroyed."
< 
< This took place as punishment for their alliance with the British.  But certainly it's not how they would have treated the Canadiens, and the Oneida and Tuscora were not spared for their neutrality.  In short, it might not have been the coordinated and causeless hatred of the nazis, but certainly it was far from a series of incidents that devastated the natives.  Please don't consider this as a specifically anti-American sentiment, since as you can see above it was a continuation of the British attitude, and common to imperialist powers in general.
< 
< ''I agree, the treatment of the NativeAmericans was ugly, but comparing it to the NaziHolocaust is really pushing it.  We are talking about a total of 6,000 dead (according to TimShell over on IndianMassacres, anyway) versus millions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]''
< 
< Ok, I'm not trying to say that they're tragedies of equal magnitudes.  But remember North America was populated fairly sparsely at the time, except for the Aztecs and Mayans down in Mexico, whose blood goes on the hands of the conquistadors.  I'm merely saying that though the nazis were dealing with a ''lot'' more people, so many that they had to develop all sorts of horrifyingly ingenious methods of doing so, the underlying motivations seem comparable.
< 
< There's a tendency to think of the holocaust as a singularly awful point in history.  The sad thing is, it's not.  It's just that the Nazis were better at what they were doing then most others who have tried, and have received a lot more publicity.  But most countries that have ever been powerful, have some sort of deliberate genocide on their hands.
< 
< ----
< There is also some stuff left on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?UnitedStatesOfAmerica Ward's wiki] that probably wouldn't hurt to consider.
< 
< ----
< Chomsky seems to be applying Lenin's theory of imperialism.  The competing theory, that nations grow wealthy by increasing the productivity of thier labor, has the advantage over Lenin's of being supported by the evidence.
< 
< R.J. Rummel has done history's most exhaustive study on the issue of governmental mass murder.  He has calculated the total number of deaths by studying each reported instance of murder and adding them all up, for all of the most destructive regimes of the 20th century (the total for the century came in around 170 million).  For perspective, he has done similar research on pre-20th century political mass murder.  He was able to document an estimated 6000 deaths of Native Americans at the hands of the United States government.  If you wish to argue that there were more than this, please indicate when and where each incident occured and how many people were killed in each incident.  This is recent history in an area with a free press and a literate population - if these events occured, they would have been documented.  Where are the bodies?  If the evidence was destroyed, where is the powerful centralized organization that systematically disposed of the evidence over thousands of miles (a powerful centralized oganization would be necessary for a task of that scale).  Where are the directives from Washington (there is official documentation of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?  Where are the eye-witness accounts (there are eye-witness accounts of all the modern genocides - why not this one)?
< 
< A collaborative project like this one could be a valuable tool for this kind of research.  We can start of page for IndianMassacres and begin compiling an exhaustive list of incidents.
< 
< (curiously, Rummel just sent me this illustration:)
< 
< http://aristotle.bomis.com/~tshell/Bodies-Everywhere4.jpg
< 
< - TimShell
< 
< ''Okay, okay, I don't wish to be thought of as a lunatic, or be punching bag filler, so I'll depart.''
< ----
< 
< I began with the history again. I'm not from the US, so I think
< I can be a bit more impartial...I haven't written anything that
< should cause controversy, yet.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/History Discussion]]
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985290049
6a7,10
> Texas A&M is known for:
> * Engineering Graduates
> * Military (the corp)
> 
7a12,14
> 
> [[Aggie]] and [[Aggies]] are used to describe Texas A&M students/graduates.
> 
------
Mathijs|985290059
59a60,61
> 
> ''I'm sorry but "If it hurts its true" sounds like a lazy self justifying reason to be rude and insensitive to those around you, not a logical axiom'' -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
------
History_Of_United_States_Talk|985290064
1,32c1
< I think that this article, and presumably the source upon which it is based, is very biased and anti-American.  Of course, there have been dark moments in [[United States]] history, but what about the rest?  What about freedom? What about a nation of ideas and laws, not of men?  How about the incredible wealth generated by freedom?  How about the [[United States]] role in saving the world from fascist/socialist tyranny in WorldWarII?  Surely these deserve some positive treatment here... --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ''I think the article is being remarkably fair.  What you mention above are all great theoretical traits, but have been fairly inconsistent in application.  In particular I think you will find that when times are difficult, ideologies are neglected.  America's record in dealing with other nations is especially poor - one of genocide and imperialism.  Their involvement in WWII is praiseworthy, but like everyone else their tactics were Draconian.''
< 
< ''This isn't to say America isn't a good country; I would say it's running on the better side of par.  But I think this is fairly close to what a real, objective summary (maybe a little bit of negative propaganda but nothing compared to the positive stuff you normally get) would look like.  Leaves out good things, but also bad things, being a summary.''
< 
< ''Meanwhile, instead of going ahead and adding good and deleting bad and deleting good and adding bad, and so forth, I suggest we have a separate discussion on what is an appropriate take here on [[History Of United States Discussion]].  Leave this as is for now, and know that it is controversial.  --JoshuaGrosse''
< 
< ----
< 
< Joshua, here is my view: I think we shouldn't aim for objectivity; we should aim for lack of bias.  The way to achieve lack of bias is to ''explicitly acknowledge'' within the article itself points on which there is disagreement, and make sure that the body of the article does not betray any particular position on these disagreements.  Thus, lack of bias is not achieved by striking a middle position between the views that the U.S. had a glorious wonderful history and that it was dark and evil.  It is achieved by relating what objective facts everyone can agree on, and then making explicit what points people disagree about.
< 
< By the way, anyone is free to change this article at any time, you know.  :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< ''My bad, what I meant was a treatment which is accurate rather than opinionated, not completely detached.  Of course anyone can edit the article at any time, but rather than have it completely rewritten whenever some pro/anti zealot comes along, or have it completely filled with the reasons for every position, I figured the latter could be collected on a separate page.  Only now we have two of those....''
< 
< -----
< Perhaps the sensible thing to do here would be to create an outline covering major historical periods and topics, creating links to each subcategory, and then allowing the subcategories to be filled in over time.
< 
< ''I agree this should be done, but not at the expense of a decent over-view.  Especially not when the eras are so event oriented.  For instance, the Spanish-American war is of great importance to American history.  But where does it fit into the categorization scheme - the industrial age?  That topic sounds like, by default, it should be about trains and factories, not wars.  So, in short, I think the page should be kept as summary first, and sub and related topics second.''
< 
< ''As to my second comment, please neglect it - apparently I missed out on how the slashes work.  That's pretty cool.'' --JG
< 
< ----
< 
< I don't disagree with all of the assertions Bryce made.  Some of them I do, and overall, I think the initial summary was very biased and ignored many of the essential facts of US history.  Also, I do not concede that "we've" been very naughty or that "we've" done many bad things.  It is certainly true that the government of the United States has done many bad things - it has, in a word, acted like every other government that has ever existed.  But I did not consent to or willingly participate in these things, so I refuse to consider them in the first person.  A society, and the government that rules (I might say, oppresses) it, are two very different things.  This theoretical point has significance here - a history of the United States should not be merely a history of the actions of the government of the United States.  It should be a history of the society as well - a history of what people do when they are free of governmental interference: invent, create, produce, experiment with different belief systems, and pursue happiness according to their own lights. - TimShell
< 
< ----
< 
< Tim has excellent points.  I second them.  The bit about not focusing exclusively on the government is gold.  I also think that you needn't feel responsible for the actions done many years before your birth by a government which you now have <<1/280,000,000th of a say in.  Simplifications need to be proven helpful before they are adopted.  I hold up your guilt as an example of the harm they can do.  If you feel bad that some things happened in history (and are still happening), I would think anger at the perpetrators and sympathy for the victims more appropriate responses.  These can motivate one to help make things better without being such a burden.  Don't you show, by your recognition of the wrong, some distance from it?  Sorry, I just don't think you deserve the burden of guilt, so I rambled on trying to fix your psychie or something.  I appologize.
< 
< That having been said, this is a wiki.  The obvious answer, and likely among the best, has been given:  write a middle way account and people can link off to pessimistic (or optimistic) interpretations & elaborations as they see fit.  Writing the middle way shouldn't be that hard.  Let anyone add what they want, and if someone objects to something, off to another page it goes.  --PhillipHankins
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/History Talk]]
------
History_of_United_States|985290092
1,28c1
< The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
< 
< During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new
< states were added to the union. Two importants events were the
< [[Louissiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
< France all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
< the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained
< [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]), and [[Texas]].
< 
< Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Licoln]], 
< several states from the south secceded from the union forming
< the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued,
< that ended with the political reunification of the country.
< 
< During the 20th century US was involved in two World Wars.
< It entered in  [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, one of its
< ships, was sunken by the germans. With its help, Great Britain,
< France and Italy won the war, an imposed severe penalties on
< Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]]
< 
< ...
< 
<  
< America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
< 
< See also:
< * [[History Of United States Discussion]]
< * [[History Of United States Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/History]]
------
United_States|985290117
9c9
< * [[/Standard Of Living]]
---
> * [[/Standard Of Living|Standard Of Living]]
------
Vagueness|985290165
1c1
< [[Ambiguity]] is one way in which meanings can be unclear, but there is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  This is best explained by the use of a stock example: 'bald'.  Some men are definitely bald, and there is no debating the matter; for example, [[Patrick Stewart]] (Captain Picard of <i>[[Star Trek]]</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, [[Bill Clinton]].  Then there are quite a few men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we are not sure whether to say they are bald or not.  There just is not any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.
---
> [[Ambiguity]] is one way in which the meanings of words and phrases can be unclear, but there is another way, which is <i>different</i> from ambiguity, namely <i>vagueness</i>.  This is best explained by the use of a stock example: 'bald'.  Some men are definitely bald, and there is no debating the matter; for example, [[Patrick Stewart]] (Captain Picard of <i>[[Star Trek]]</i>).  Other men are definitely <i>not</i> bald; for example, [[Bill Clinton]].  Then there are quite a few men who carefully comb a scanty amount of hair over their scalps, about whom we are not sure whether to say they are bald or not.  There just is not any clear <i>line</i> between being bald and not being bald.
9c9
< It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of 'right' in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that are neither clearly right nor clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear on just those cases that are borderline cases.  Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow; they recommend that we advance so-called [[precising definition]]s.  So some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
---
> It turns out that vagueness is important philosophically.  Suppose we want to come up with a definition of 'right' in a <i>moral</i> sense of this term.  Generally, we can say that we want a definition to cover actions that are <i>clearly</i> right and exclude actions who are <i>clearly</i> wrong; but then what do we do with the borderline cases of actions that are neither clearly right nor clearly wrong?  Surely there <i>are</i> such cases.  What philosophers often say is that we should try to come up with a definition that is itself unclear on just those cases that are borderline cases.  Others say that we have an interest in making our definitions <i>more</i> precise than ordinary language, or our ordinary concepts, would by themselves allow; they recommend that we advance so-called [[precising definition]]s.  So some philosophers want their definitions to be unclear in precisely those areas in which the ordinary concept to be defined is unclear; while other philosophers want their definitions to be <i>more</i> <i>precise</i> than the ordinary concepts.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985290221
1c1
< I suggest moving this to [[Death Peanalty/Talk]].
---
> I suggest moving this to [[Death Penalty/Talk]].
------
United_States/Presidents|985290293
9,34c9,34
< * WilliamHenryHarrison (1841)
< * JohnTyler (1841-1845)
< * JamesPolk (1845-1849)
< * ZacharyTaylor (1849-1850)
< * MillardFillmore (1850-1853)
< * FranklinPierce (1853-1857)
< * JamesBuchanan (1857-1861)
< * AbrahamLincoln (1861-1865)
< * AndrewJohnson (1865-1869)
< * UlyssesSGrant (1869-1877)
< * RutherfordBHayes (1877-1881)
< * JamesAGarfield (1881)
< * ChesterAArthur (1881-1885)
< * GroverCleveland (1885-1889)
< * BenjaminHarrison (1889-1893)
< * GroverCleveland (1893-1897)
< * WilliamMcKinley (1897-1901)
< * TheodoreRoosevelt (1901-1909)
< * WilliamHTaft (1909-1913)
< * WoodrowWilson (1913-1921)
< * WarrenHarding (1921-1923)
< * CalvinCoolidge (1923-1929)
< * HerbertHoover (1929-1933)
< * FranklinDRoosevelt (1933-1945)
< * HarrySTruman (1945-1953)
< * DwightDEisenhower (1953-1961)
---
> * [[William Henry Harrison]] (1841)
> * [[John Tyler]] (1841-1845)
> * [[James Polk]] (1845-1849)
> * [[Zachary Taylor]] (1849-1850)
> * [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850-1853)
> * [[Franklin Pierce]] (1853-1857)
> * [[James Buchanan]] (1857-1861)
> * [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1861-1865)
> * [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865-1869)
> * [[Ulysses S Grant]] (1869-1877)
> * [[Rutherford B Hayes]] (1877-1881)
> * [[James Garfield]] (1881)
> * [[Chester Arthur]] (1881-1885)
> * [[Grover Cleveland]] (1885-1889)
> * [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893)
> * [[Grover Cleveland]] (1893-1897)
> * [[William McKinley]] (1897-1901)
> * [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909)
> * [[William Howard Taft]] (1909-1913)
> * [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1913-1921)
> * [[Warren Harding]] (1921-1923)
> * [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923-1929)
> * [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929-1933)
> * [[Franklin Roosevelt]] (1933-1945)
> * [[Harry Truman]] (1945-1953)
> * [[Dwight Eisenhower]] (1953-1961)
------
Beverly_Hillbillies|985290300
1c1
< A [[1960s]] television show about a [[hillbilly]] who strikes oil, becomes rich, and moves his entire family to [[Beverly Hills]], [[California]].
---
> A [[1960s]] [[television]] show about a [[hillbilly]] who strikes oil, becomes rich, and moves his entire family to [[Beverly Hills]], [[California]].
9,10c9,10
< Q: Are there any copycat shows shown on competing networks during this time?  (e.g., Bewitched and I Dream of Jeanie or 
< The Addams Family and The Musters)
---
> Q: Are there any copycat shows shown on competing networks during this time?  (e.g., [[Bewitched]] and [[I Dream of Jeanie]] or 
> [[The Addams Family]] and [[The Munsters]])
------
United_States/Presidents|985290325
40c40
< * [[Ronald Wilson Reagan]] (1981-1989)
---
> * [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981-1989)
------
Star_Wars|985290606
1c1
< An epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the Empire to dominate the [Galaxy].
---
> [[Futuristic]] epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the [[Empire]] to dominate the [Galaxy].
3c3
< # [[/The Phantom Menace]]
---
> # [[/The Phantom Menace]] - movie released 1999?
6,8c6,11
< # [[/A New Hope]]
< # [[/The Empire Strikes Back]]
< # [[/The Return of The Jedi]]
---
> # [[/A New Hope]] - movie title was "Star Wars" - movie released 1977
> # [[/The Empire Strikes Back]] - movied released 198?
> # [[/The Return of The Jedi]] - movie released 1983
> # book 7 - not yet scheduled to be in film
> # book 8 - not yet scheduled to be in film
> # book 9 - not yet scheduled to be in film
------
Flatt_and_Scruggs|985290640
1c1
< [[Lester Flatt]] and [[Earl Scruggs]] were influential bluegrass musicans during the 1950s and 1960s.
---
> [[Lester Flatt]] and [[Earl Scruggs]] were influential [[bluegrass]] musicans during the 1950s and 1960s.
4c4
< * [[Foggy Mountain Breakdown]] - used in many rural car chase movie sequences
---
> * [[Foggy Mountain Breakdown]] - used in many rural car chase movie sequences, notably [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
------
Folk_music|985290670
1c1
< ''Folk music'' is a vexed term.  Very broadly, one might say it means ''either'' [[traditional music]] ''or'' popularizations of traditional music.  Originally it meant much the same thing as what is now meant by "traditional music," i.e., the traditional music of particular ethnic groups learned [[Learning music by ear|by ear]] and played on [[acoustic instrument]]s.  But when rock and roll stars and singer-songwriters began to sing the traditional songs and play traditional tunes, thois music, and the leading characteristics of the ''performance'' genre in which the music was made, were changed.  For example, bass guitar and drum kit were often added to satisfy popular tastes; traditional melody and song was placed into arrangements that would be scarcely recognizable to its source.  The ordinary music consumer, not knowing any better, was happy to follow marketers and the musicians themselves in accepting the description of the new [[musical fusion]] as "folk music."  But this situation makes it very difficult to give a general definition of what is now called "folk music" or to understand what the term implies, except in certain contexts.
---
> ''Folk music'' is a vexed term.  Very broadly, one might say it means ''either'' [[traditional music]] ''or'' popularizations of traditional music.  Originally it meant much the same thing as what is now meant by "traditional music," i.e., the traditional music of particular ethnic groups learned [[Learning music by ear|by ear]] and played on [[acoustic instrument]]s.  But when rock and roll stars and singer-songwriters began to sing traditional songs and play traditional tunes, this music, and the leading characteristics of the ''performance'' genre in which the music was made, were changed.  For example, bass guitar and drum kit were often added to satisfy popular tastes; traditional melody and song was placed into arrangements that would be scarcely recognizable to its source.  The ordinary music consumer, not knowing any better, was happy to follow marketers and the musicians themselves in accepting the description of the new [[musical fusion]] as "folk music."  But this situation makes it very difficult to give a general definition of what is now called "folk music" or to understand what the term implies, except in certain contexts.
3c3
< Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
---
> Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
------
Bluegrass|985290682
3c3
< Bluegrass is a relatively unchanged form of Appalachian folk music, with roots in the [[CelticMusic|celtic music]] of immigrants from the British Isles. It was popularised in the first half of the 20th century by [[Bill Monroe]] and the Bluegrass Boys.  Unlike mainstream [[country music]], bluegrass today still tends rely on the traditional stringed instruments (usually [[fiddle]], [[banjo]], [[acoustic guitar]] and [[mandolin]]).
---
> Bluegrass is a relatively unchanged form of Appalachian folk music, with roots in the [[CelticMusic|celtic music]] of immigrants from the British Isles. It was popularised in the first half of the 20th century by [[Bill Monroe]] and the Bluegrass Boys.  Unlike mainstream [[country music]], bluegrass today still tends rely on the traditional stringed instruments (usually [[fiddle]], [[banjo]], acoustic [[guitar]] and [[mandolin]]).
------
Rolling_Stone_magazine|985290715
6c6
< Who owns Rolling Stone?
---
> Who owns Rolling Stone? Is it now just a corporate entity owned by Time Magazine?  It would explain the disinfected content.
------
Rolling_Stone_magazine|985290749
2c2
< Rolling Stone magazine embraced the hippie/free love/drug [[counterculture]] during the early 1960s an 70s and was pivotal in the rise to fame of such bands as [[The Grateful Dead]].
---
> Rolling Stone magazine embraced the hippie/free love/drug [[counterculture]] during the early [[1960s]] an [[1970s]] and was pivotal in the rise to fame of such bands as [[The Grateful Dead]].
------
Star_Wars|985290759
11a12,13
> ----
> The name "Star Wars" was also used colloquially to refer to [[Ronald Reagan]]'s [[Strategic Defence Initiative]], a [[laser]] based anti [[ballistic missile]] scheme.
------
George_Bush|985290858
9a10
> * [[George W. Bush]] (son, current president)
------
Rolling_Stone_magazine|985290977
6a7,8
> 
> No, Rolling Stone is still owned by "Wenner Media", the company set up by the magazine's founder.  I don't know if its publicly listed, or who owns shares.
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985291090
42,43d41
< ----
< 
------
Hawaii|985291257
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of islands in the northern [[Pacific Ocean]] and a [[United States/States|state]] in the [[United States]].
> 
> Hawaii is the only island state, and is the southernmost state in the U.S.  It was also the last state to join the Union, becoming a state on August 21, 1959.
> 
> Hawaii consists of eight main islands, and numerous smaller islands.  The main Hawaiian islands are;
>  [[/Hawaii]]
>  [[/Kahoolawe]]
>  [[/Kauai]]
>  [[/Lanai]]
>  [[/Maui]]
>  [[/Molokai]]
>  [[/Niihau]]
>  [[/Oahu]]
> 
> The population of Hawaii is approximately 1.2 million, while the de facto population is over 1.3 million due to the constant presence of tourists.  The largest city is [[Honolulu]].
------
Sex|985291259
4a5,6
> ::[[Heterosexuality]]
> ::[[Homosexuality]]
8a11
> ::[[Contraception]]
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985291325
1c1
< American [[film director]]
---
> American [[film director]] who rapidly rose to fame in 199x on the back of his directorial debut, [[Reservoir Dogs]], in which he also acted.  A stylish, witty yet bloody heist movie, this set the tone for his later films.  The follow up [[Pulp Fiction]], which won the [[Palme Dor|Palme D'or]] at the [[Cannes film festival]], was a complexly plotted portmanteau film with a similarly brutal wit and many excellent performances. It was noted for reviving the career of [[John Travolta]].
------
Bluegrass|985291781
3c3
< Bluegrass is a relatively unchanged form of Appalachian folk music, with roots in the [[CelticMusic|celtic music]] of immigrants from the British Isles. It was popularised in the first half of the 20th century by [[Bill Monroe]] and the Bluegrass Boys.  Unlike mainstream [[country music]], bluegrass today still tends rely on the traditional stringed instruments (usually [[fiddle]], [[banjo]], acoustic [[guitar]] and [[mandolin]]).
---
> Bluegrass is a relatively new form of [[folk music]], with direct roots in the much older tradition of [[American old-time music]], which in turn has roots in the [[Irish traditional music]] and [[Scottish traditional music]] of immigrants from the British Isles (particularly the [[Scotch-Irish immigrants]] of Appalachia).  Bluegrass songs are played with each melody instrument switching off playing the melody each time through, while the others revert to backup; this is in contrast to old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together, when they are playing together rather than solo.
4a5
> The bluegrass style was invented in the first half of the 20th century by [[Bill Monroe]] and more specifically by [[Bill Monroe and His Bluegrass Boys]], formed 1939; the bluegrass sound wasn't defined until Monroe's 1945-47 band.  Unlike mainstream [[country music]], bluegrass today still tends rely on the traditional stringed instruments (usually [[fiddle]], [[banjo]], acoustic [[guitar]], [[mandolin]], and [[upright bass]]).
8c9
< * [[Bill Monroe]]
---
> * [[Bill Monroe]]
------
Hawaii|985291908
15c15,19
< The population of Hawaii is approximately 1.2 million, while the de facto population is over 1.3 million due to the constant presence of tourists.  The largest city is [[Honolulu]].
---
> The population of Hawaii is approximately 1.2 million, while the de facto population is over 1.3 million due to the constant presence of tourists.  The largest city is [[Honolulu]].
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm impressed...it's not "Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii" ;)
------
George_Bush|985292019
3c3
< He flew ? during [[World War II]]. 
---
> He was a naval aviator during [[World War II]], the youngest ever at that time, and earned the [[Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his service in the Pacific Theatre.
------
Bluegrass|985292119
3c3
< Bluegrass is a relatively new form of [[folk music]], with direct roots in the much older tradition of [[American old-time music]], which in turn has roots in the [[Irish traditional music]] and [[Scottish traditional music]] of immigrants from the British Isles (particularly the [[Scotch-Irish immigrants]] of Appalachia).  Bluegrass songs are played with each melody instrument switching off playing the melody each time through, while the others revert to backup; this is in contrast to old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together, when they are playing together rather than solo.
---
> Bluegrass is a relatively new form of [[folk music]], with direct roots in the much older tradition of [[American old-time music]], which in turn has roots in the [[Irish traditional music]] and [[Scottish traditional music]] of immigrants from the British Isles (particularly the [[Scotch-Irish immigrants]] of Appalachia).  Bluegrass songs are played with each melody instrument switching off playing the melody each time through, while the others revert to backup; this is in contrast to old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together, when indeed they are playing together rather than solo.
9c9
< * [[Bill Monroe]]
---
> * [[Bill Monroe]]
------
Larry_Sanger|985292123
48a49,50
> ----
> Nice job refactoring my vagueness about [[bluegrass]]. -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
------
Hawaii/Maui|985292293
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Maui is the second largest Hawaiian island.  It has a population just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles large.  The major industries are agriculture and tourism.  Major cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], and [[Wailea]].
> 
> [[Haleakala]], a dormant volcano stretching above 10,000 feet, dominates south-eastern Maui.
------
Hawaii|985292314
10c10
<  [[/Maui]]
---
>  [[/Maui|Maui]]
19c19
< I'm impressed...it's not "Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii" ;)
---
> I'm impressed...it's not "Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii" ;)
------
George_Bush|985292534
1c1
< George Herbert Walker Bush ([[Republican party | Republican]]) was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
---
> George Herbert Walker Bush ([[Republican party | Republican]]) was the 41st PresidentOfTheUnitedStates from 1989 to 1993. Before that he was the director of the [[CIA]] in 1976, and [[vice president]] during the Reagan administration (1981-1989).
3c3
< He was a naval aviator during [[World War II]], the youngest ever at that time, and earned the [[Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his service in the Pacific Theatre.
---
> He was a naval aviator during [[World War II]], the youngest ever at that time, and earned the [[Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his service in the Pacific Theater.
10c10
< * [[George W. Bush]] (son, current president)
---
> * [[George W. Bush]] (son, 43rd president of the US)
------
Simon_and_Garfunkel|985292692
1c1
< [[Popular music]] duo comprising Paul Simon and Arthur 'Art' Garfunkel.  Formed while both were in college and originally called [[Tom and Jerry]], Simon and Garfunkel were amongst the most popular recording artists of the 1960s.
---
> [[Popular music]] duo comprising Paul Simon and Arthur 'Art' Garfunkel.  Formed while both were in high school and originally called [[Tom and Jerry]], Simon and Garfunkel were amongst the most popular recording artists of the 1960s.
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985292911
28c28,31
< Afraid not. The basic structural unit depends on how you construct the AI. It can be neurons in a network or frames or whatever.
---
> Afraid not. The basic structural unit depends on how you construct the AI. It can be neurons in a network or frames or whatever.
> ----
> ''If, as seems true, technological progress has been following an exponential curve for a very long time, then there will come a point at which technological progress accelerates essentially to infinity. This is known as TheSingularity.''<br>
> I don't follow the logic in this.  The first two clauses (either side of the comma) are written as if the former implies the latter, which it does not.  Can someone explain please? [[Gareth Owen]]
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985292953
30c30
< ''If, as seems true, technological progress has been following an exponential curve for a very long time, then there will come a point at which technological progress accelerates essentially to infinity. This is known as TheSingularity.''<br>
---
> ''If technological progress has been following an exponential curve for a very long time, then there will come a point at which technological progress accelerates essentially to infinity.''<br>
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985292988
31c31
< I don't follow the logic in this.  The first two clauses (either side of the comma) are written as if the former implies the latter, which it does not.  Can someone explain please? [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> I don't follow the logic in this.  The two clauses (either side of the comma) are written as if the former implies the latter, which it does not.  Can someone explain please? [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Simon_and_Garfunkel|985293084
5c5
< The result was a sequence of folk-rock records, which have dated as well as any in the genre.  Simon's lyrics were occasionally naive or twee, but leavened by a consistent dry humour.  Further hit singles came, including "Scarborough Fair", based on a traditional English ballad with an original counter-melody and "Mrs Robinson", from the soundtrack to the film [[The Graduate]]. Their albums became progressively more adventurous, dealing with increasingly complex themes of old age and loss on 1968's classic [[Bookends]].
---
> The result was a sequence of folk-rock records, which have dated as well as any in the genre.  Simon's lyrics were occasionally naive or twee, but leavened by a consistent dry humour.  Further hit singles came, including "Scarborough Fair", based on a traditional English ballad with an original counter-melody and "Mrs Robinson", from the soundtrack to the film [[The Graduate]]. Their albums became progressively more adventurous, dealing with increasingly complex themes of old age and loss on 1968's classic [[/Bookends]].
------
Larry_Sanger|985293114
50c50,52
< Nice job refactoring my vagueness about [[bluegrass]]. -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
---
> Nice job refactoring my vagueness about [[bluegrass]]. -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
> 
> Thanks! --LS
------
Definition|985293553
1c1
< Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) an account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].
---
> Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) a brief account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].
------
George_Bush|985293587
10a11
> * [[Jeb Bush]] (son, govenor of [[Florida]])
------
Definition|985293623
3c3
< It is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as this [[lexical definition of definition|lexical definition of the word 'definition']]), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
---
> It is in this sense that [[philosophy|philosophers]] discuss the meaning, function, and possibility of offering definitions.  Moreover, within this sense it is typical (e.g., in [[college logic]] texts) to distinguish a number of different kinds of definition: dictionary or [[lexical definition]] (such as [[lexical definition of definition|this lexical definition]] of the word 'definition'), [[intensional definition]], [[extensional definition]], [[ostensive definition]], [[stipulative definition]], and others.
------
Larry_Sanger|985294195
52c52,65
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
> ----
> Congradulations on wiki growth during the last two months.
> Many of the entries are now encyclopedia quality entries. 
> Others are fast approaching.
> 
> It fun to try to define topics such as [[hate crime]] without
> [[parroting]] media lines.  It's amazing how much information is quoted directly without verification from the Associated Press guidelines and storybook.  
> 
> It is also fun to try to define these topics without relying on 
> press release journalism - (my term for news articles that almost directly rewrite a press release without any critical examination of the things stated in the press release).  Probabally, the number one reason why the current media fails to objectively report the news.  Low admission/graduation criteria for journalism schools contributes also.
> 
> :)
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|985294296
58c58
< It fun to try to define topics such as [[hate crime]] without
---
> It fun to try to define topics such as [[Hate Crime]] without
------
Animals|985295717
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Taxonomy
>  [[Animalia]]
------
Aardvark|985295752
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
> the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to AfricA (see 
> EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them 
> is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from 
> SouthAfrica, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
> of north-eastern Africa, extending into EgypT.  In form 
> these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout, 
> with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with 
> strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and 
> the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The 
> greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at 
> the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils 
> open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long 
> extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the 
> flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large 
> individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the 
> Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
> and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
> a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the 
> shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of 
> nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near 
> ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the 
> ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile 
> tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the 
> flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
> This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  Not entirely true, since aardvarks eat termites, not ants.
> 
> 
> 
------
AardvarK|985295774
1,31c1
< AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
< the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to AfricA (see 
< EDEN-TATAI. Several species have been named.  Among them 
< is the typical form, O. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from 
< SouthAfrica, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
< of north-eastern Africa, extending into EgypT.  In form 
< these animals are somewhat pig-like; the body is stout, 
< with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with 
< strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long; and 
< the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually.  The 
< greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at 
< the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils 
< open.  The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long 
< extensile tongue.  The measurements of a female taken in the 
< flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 17 1/2 in.; but a large 
< individual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all.  In colour the 
< Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
< and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
< a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the 
< shorter tail and longer head and ears.  These animals are of 
< nocturnal and burrowing habits, and generally to be found near 
< ant-hills.  The strong claws make a hole in the side of the 
< ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile 
< tongue.  Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the 
< flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. 
< 
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.
< This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  Not entirely true, since aardvarks eat termites, not ants.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Aardvark]]
------
Aardwolf|985295808
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small animal from South AfricA.  Related to the HyenA.  Lives in the ground.  Nocturnal hunter.
> 
------
AardwolF|985295827
1c1
< Small animal from South AfricA.  Related to the HyenA.  Lives in the ground.  Nocturnal hunter.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Aardwolf]]
------
Animals|985295836
2a3,6
> 
> *Mammals
>  [[Aardvark]]
>  [[Aardwolf]]
------
Animals|985295844
4c4
< *Mammals
---
>  *Mammals
------
Elephant|985295901
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A large greyish animal with large ears and a trunk, found in Africa and India.
> ----
> See /Talk.
> 
------
Elephant/Talk|985295929
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chat about elephants on this page.
> 
> Chat about the KingCrimson song on ElephantTalk.
------
Welcome_Newcomers|985295944
1,13c1
< Hi!
< 
< Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Monday, March 5th, 11:45 AM Pacific Time), we have 1,867 pages in this wikipedia.  With your help, we will be over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
< 
< Please bookmark the site, and drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) BeBoldInUpdatingPages.  And above all, play nice.
< 
< One of the most important things you should know is that we (the existing community) have established some cultural norms that you should respect.  First, we try not to argue.  Everyone tries to reach a consensus about what entries should say.  Second, we try to make the entries as unbiased as we can, which means that the articles, even on controversial topics, are not meant to be platforms for preaching of any kind.
< 
< Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  BUT, this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
< 
< If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
< ----
< [[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Welcome, newcomers]]
------
ElephanT/Talk|985295966
1,3c1
< Chat about elephants on this page.
< 
< Chat about the KingCrimson song on ElephantTalk.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Elephant/Talk]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985295968
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hi!
> 
> Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Thursdy, March 22, 12:57 PM Pacific Time), we have 2,953 pages in Wikipedia.  Of these, 1,816 are relatively substantial articles.  We started in January, 2001, so we've made incredible progress--even we are surprised.  We'd love to see the number over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
> 
> Please drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) [[BeBoldInUpdatingPages|be bold in updating pages]].  And above all, play nice.
> 
> One of the most important things you should know is that we (the existing community) have established some cultural norms that you should respect.  First, we try not to argue.  Everyone tries to reach a consensus about what entries should say.  Second, we try to make the entries as unbiased as we can, which means that the articles, even on controversial topics, are not meant to be platforms for preaching of any kind.  There are also some other community norms codified via some links listed below, particularly [[Wikipedia policy]].
> 
> Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  BUT, this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
> 
> If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
> 
> There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
ElephanT|985295980
1,3c1
< A large greyish animal with large ears and a trunk, found in Africa and India.
< ----
< See /Talk.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Elephant]]
------
HomePage|985296011
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome Newcomers]]
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
Animals|985296017
1c1
< * Taxonomy
---
> *Taxonomy
4c4
<  *Mammals
---
> *Mammals
6a7
>  [[Elephant]]
------
Elephant|985296123
0a1
> 
3c4,6
< See /Talk.
---
> See also:
> [[Proboscidea]]
> [[/Talk|Talk]]
------
Elephant|985296131
5a6
> 
------
Animals|985296257
6a7
>  [[Cattle]]
------
Cattle|985296511
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[Artiodactlya]].
> 
> Cattle are domesticated ungulates that are raised for beef and dairy products.  Male cattle are called bulls, and female cattle are called cows.
> 
> *Breeds of cattle:
>  Angus
>  Afrikaner
>  Ankole
>  Beefalo
>  Beefmaster
>  [[Belgian Blue]]
>  [[Belted Galloway]]
>  [[Blonde d'Aqui]]
>  Braford
>  Brahman
>  Brangus
>  Braunvieh
>  [[British White]]
>  BueLingo
>  Charolais
>  Chiangus
>  Chianina
>  Commercial
>  Corriente
>  Devon
>  Dexter
>  Galloway
>  Gelbvieh
>  Hereford
>  Hybridmaster
>  Highland
>  Limousin
>  [[Maine Anjou]]
>  Miniature
>  [[Murray Grey]]
>  Normande
>  Piedmontese
>  Pinzgauer
>  [[Polled Hereford]]
>  [[Red Angus]]
>  [[Red Brangus]]
>  [[Red Poll]]
>  Romagnola
>  Salers
>  [[Santa Gertrudis]]
>  Senepol
>  Shorthorn
>  Simbrah
>  Simmental
>  [[South Devon]]
>  Tarentaise
>  [[Texas Longhorn]]
>  Tuli
>  Wagyu
>  Watusi
>  Zebu
------
Cattle|985296555
3c3
< Cattle are domesticated ungulates that are raised for beef and dairy products.  Male cattle are called bulls, and female cattle are called cows.
---
> Cattle are domesticated [[Ungulate|ungulates]] that are raised for beef and dairy products.  Male cattle are called bulls, and female cattle are called cows.
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985296635
5c5
< Please drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) [[BeBoldInUpdatingPages|be bold in updating pages]].  And above all, play nice.
---
> Ordinary smart people are building this project very actively; probably as you are reading this, someone is editing an article.  You don't have to be logged in to contribute.  You can just dive right in and work on any page you like.  Please drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) [[BeBoldInUpdatingPages|be bold in updating pages]].  And above all, play nice.
9c9
< Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  BUT, this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
---
> Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  '''But''' this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
11c11,13
< If you think this is all too wild-and-wooly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
---
> Maybe you think that Wikipedia would end up being a rather low-quality product, since it's open to everyone.  But perhaps it's the fact that it ''is'' open to everyone that makes a lot of these articles pretty good, and ever-improving.  To alter a now-famous catchphrase: "Given enough eyeballs, all errors are shallow."  We tend to cater to the ''highest'' common denominator--"lower denominators" tend politely not to touch articles they know nothing about!  There are got a lot of Ph.D.'s and graduate students and other very smart and knowledgeable people at work here--but everyone is welcome.
> 
> Still, if you think this is all too wild-and-woolly, then a more serious project will probably be better for you.  Try [[Nupedia]], which is of course much more rigorous and serious.  (Many or most Wikipedians are Nupedians who are having fun with a neat side project that moves faster, but has no quality controls--apart from the fact that anyone can immediately correct your mistakes.)
------
Quentin_Tarrantino|985297772
1,3c1
< Films directed by Quentin Tarrantino:
< 
< [[Reservoir Dogs]] -- [[Four Rooms]] -- [[Pulp Fiction]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Jackie Brown]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Quentin Tarantino]]
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985298220
31a32,35
> 
> ----
> I and Robin Hansen are two of the somewhat rare [[Extropian]]s who are skeptical about the Singularity.  My personal belief is that while we <i>will</i> create machine intelligence soon, and it will certainly surpass human intelligence at some point and begin creating new intelligent machines, I don't believe this will cause a positive-feedback loop because I don't believe that intelligent beings by themselves invent and create things--only whole economies invent things, often aided by individual beings, who certainly deserve some accolades, but whose contributions are actually quite small in the big picture.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985298246
1c1
< American [[film director]] who rapidly rose to fame in 199x on the back of his directorial debut, [[Reservoir Dogs]], in which he also acted.  A stylish, witty yet bloody heist movie, this set the tone for his later films.  The follow up [[Pulp Fiction]], which won the [[Palme Dor|Palme D'or]] at the [[Cannes film festival]], was a complexly plotted portmanteau film with a similarly brutal wit and many excellent performances. It was noted for reviving the career of [[John Travolta]].
---
> American [[film director]] who rapidly rose to fame in 199x on the back of his directorial debut, [[Reservoir Dogs]], in which he also acted.  A stylish, witty yet bloody heist movie, this set the tone for his later films.  The follow up [[Pulp Fiction]], which won the [[Palme Dor|Palme D'or]] at the [[Cannes film festival]], was a complexly plotted [[portmanteau]] film with a similarly brutal wit and many excellent performances. It was noted for reviving the career of [[John Travolta]].
------
Combinations|985298381
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Combinations''' refer to [[Subset|subsets]] of a given set.  Since the order of listing of elements is not important in combinations, two lists with the same elements in different orders are considered the same combination. Our method of counting combinations of '''x''' elements from a set of '''n ''' elements proceeds as follows:
> #We count the number of ways in which we can make a list of '''x''' elements from the set of '''n'''. This is equivalent to calculating the number of [[Permutations]].
> #Recognizing that we have listed every subset many times, we correct the calculation by dividing by the number of different lists containing the same '''x''' elements.
> *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>C<sub>x</sub> = <sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> / <sub>x</sub>P<sub>x</sub></font>
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985298540
32a33,34
> '''I think the only sense that can be made of it is to take the phrasing <i>essentially to infinity</i> metaphorically.'''
> 
35a38
> I suppose the question is, looking at it from an economics point of view, how cheap is machine intelligence compared to human intelligence?  Right now, human intelligence is far cheaper by almost any measure.  But suppose Intel could have the equivalent of 1 Einstein for $1,000.  Wouldn't it make sense for them to quickly whip out 1 million of them, for $1 billion?  What could 1 million Einstein's do?  Even if the individuals among them only contributed incremental gains, the total would be stupendous.
------
Combinations|985298598
4a5,9
> Since <sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> = n!/(n-x)!, we find
> *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>C<sub>x</sub> = n!/[x!(n-x)!)</font>
> It is useful to note that <b><sub>n</sub>C<sub>x</sub></b> can be found using the [[Pascal Triangle]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Combinations|985298648
5c5
< Since <sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> = n!/(n-x)!, we find
---
> Since <b><sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> = n!/(n-x)!</b>, we find
------
Permutations|985299598
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Permutations''' refer to lists of elements selected from a given set. The number of permutations of '''x''' elements selected from a set of '''n''' elements is the number of such lists. We can imagine a sheet of paper with '''x''' blank lines and a set of '''n''' names. As we fill in the blank lines with names not yet used, we are generating one of the lists. Our problem is to determine how many possible lists there are.
> #We can select the first member of the list in '''n''' ways because there are '''n''' distinct elements.
> #The second line of the list can be filled in '''(n-1)''' ways since we have used one of the '''n''' names.
> #The third line can be filled in '''(n-2)''' ways since 2 have been used already.
> #This pattern continues until there are '''x''' names on the list. This means that the last line can be filled in '''(n-x+1)''' ways.
> Summarizing, we find that 
> *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> = n*(n-1)*(n-2)*...*(n-x+1)</font>
> or using the ''factorial''' notation, 
> *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>P<sub>x</sub> = n!/(n-x)!</font>
> :See also [[Combinations]].
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Requested_articles|985299737
16c16
< [[Quadratic equations]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Permuations]] -- [[Combinations]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> [[Quadratic equations]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
------
TheSingularity/Talk|985299901
38c38,41
< I suppose the question is, looking at it from an economics point of view, how cheap is machine intelligence compared to human intelligence?  Right now, human intelligence is far cheaper by almost any measure.  But suppose Intel could have the equivalent of 1 Einstein for $1,000.  Wouldn't it make sense for them to quickly whip out 1 million of them, for $1 billion?  What could 1 million Einstein's do?  Even if the individuals among them only contributed incremental gains, the total would be stupendous.
---
> I suppose the question is, looking at it from an economics point of view, how cheap is machine intelligence compared to human intelligence?  Right now, human intelligence is far cheaper by almost any measure.  But suppose Intel could have the equivalent of 1 Einstein for $1,000.  Wouldn't it make sense for them to quickly whip out 1 million of them, for $1 billion?  What could 1 million Einstein's do?  Even if the individuals among them only contributed incremental gains, the total would be stupendous.
> 
> But my contention is that there are only so many incremental improvements that can be made to the current state of technology, and even if we had enough Einsteins to find all of them, they only consititute progress when they build on each other, and that requires communication and organization--and that takes time.  I don't argue that the growth will not happen, I argue that a technological economy has an ideal size, much like a business does, beyond which it becomes inefficient, and that the <i>rate</i> of growth will level off before it reaches a singularity.
> 
------
Dick_Beldin|985299951
17a18,19
> By the way, I'm signing the articles I create just to make it easier to locate them later. If signatures should be removed, so be it.
> ----
------
Reed_College|985300133
1c1
< [http://www.reed.edu Reed College], located in a nice, quiet neighborhood of [[Portland, Oregon]], is a small [[liberal arts college]] well-known for producing Rhodes Scholars and a very high proportion of graduates who go on to earn [[Ph.D.]]'s, particularly in the [[science]]s.  Reed was founded in 1911 by river trade magnate Simeon Gannett Reed and rapidly gained a reputation for academic excellence.  Reed is generally regarded as one of the finest small liberal arts colleges in the United States and certainly among the best on the West coast.  Reed is one of the more unusual institutions of higher learning in the [[United States]]: it features a traditional liberal arts curriculum, requiring freshmen (who might insist on being called "first year students") to take an intensive introduction to ancient Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages, though it does very well in the sciences as well.  It is a haven for intense intellectuals, idealists, and unkempt rich hippies.  Traditionally it has a reputation for making room for students who show promise of one sort or another but who did not do so well in high school; this leads to a lot of blossoming scholars inspired by the extremely intense academic experience, but it also leads to a fair bit of attrition as well.
---
> [http://www.reed.edu Reed College], located in a nice, quiet neighborhood of [[Portland, Oregon]], is a small [[liberal arts college]] well-known for producing [[Rhodes scholar]]s and a very high proportion of graduates who go on to earn [[Ph.D.]]'s, particularly in the [[science]]s.  Reed was founded in 1911 by river trade magnate [[Simeon Gannett Reed]] and rapidly gained a reputation for academic excellence.  Reed is generally regarded as one of the finest small liberal arts colleges in the United States and certainly among the best on the west coast.  Reed is one of the more unusual institutions of higher learning in the [[United States]]: it features a traditional liberal arts curriculum, requiring freshmen (who might insist on being called "first year students") to take an intensive introduction to ancient Greece, Rome, and the Middle Ages, though it does very well in the sciences as well.  It is a haven for intense intellectuals, idealists, and unkempt rich hippies.  Traditionally it has a reputation for making room for students who show promise of one sort or another but who did not do so well in high school; this leads to a lot of blossoming scholars inspired by the extremely intense academic experience, but it also leads to a fair bit of attrition as well.
------
Spanish_language|985300480
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Spanish''' language developed (from mostly Latin origins) in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and ultimately came to mean the language spoken in [[Spain]]. 
> Actually, there are regional variations among the various regions of Spain and Spanish America. [[Castellano]], the variation spoken in [[Castilla]], the region around the capital, Madrid, is commonly taken as an international standard. [[Catalan]] is a distinct language spoken in [[Cataluña]], the region around Barcelona.
> In the Americas, the first Spaniards to settle brought some of their regionalisms with them. Today you can find distinct accents in different nations of Spanish speaking America.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Film_Festivals|985300532
9c9
< North America:
---
> North American:
12c12
< :[[Torronto Film Festival]]
---
> :[[Toronto Film Festival]]
14c14
< :[[New York Film Festival]]
---
> :[[New York Film Festival]]
------
Spanish_language|985300536
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
5c7
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985301012
1c1
< I am a [[computer]] programmer, semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].
---
> I am a [[computer]] programmer, semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
17,19d16
< ----
< 
< I noticed that you requested a deletion of some pages that you redirected.  In general, we tend not to delete those redirect pages, because it helps to facilitate accidental linking to leave them in.  Just so you know... :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985301044
15,17c15
< There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
< ----
< [[/Talk]]
---
> There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
------
Scientific_Method|985301108
12c12,16
< Note that claims that cannot be disproved, such as "there exist something outside of the world that we cannot see nor interact with" are not scientific because they fail the third criterion. Also, note that theories determined by the scientific method are not necessarily true. Later experiments may prove that the theory in fact wrong, and replace it with a newer theory. 
---
> Note that claims that cannot be disproved, such as "there exist something outside of the world that we cannot see nor interact with" are not scientific because they fail the third criterion. Also, note that theories determined by the scientific method are not necessarily true. Later experiments may prove that the theory in fact wrong, and replace it with a newer theory.
> 
> Scientific methods assure that our hypotheses are tested for consistency with our real world experience. The most extreme claim that scientists make is that their theories are ''useful''. Non-scientists frequently assume that science claims to find ''truth'' and use that as a strawman in their anti-science rhetoric. 
> 
> :see PostModernism
------
HomePage|985301187
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
------
Marine_Sciences|985301302
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Marine Sciences''' include [[Oceanography]], [[Marine Geology]] and [[Marine Biology]].
------
Computing|985301601
3,13d2
< * ProgrammingLanguages
< 
< * AlgorithmS
< ** [[Compression Algorithm]]
< ** [[Cryptography|Encryption / Decryption Algorithm]]
< ** [[Numerical Algorithm]]
< ** [[Searching Algorithm]]
< ** [[Sorting Algorithm]]
< ** [[Artificial Intelligence]] Algorithm
< *** [[Genetic Algorithm]]
< 
14a4
> ** [[Computer Architecture]]
27,30c17,20
< ** [[Monolithic]]
< 
< * SoftwareDevelopmentProcess
< * [[Computer Architecture]]
---
> ** [[Computer programming]]
> *** ProgrammingLanguages
> *** AlgorithmS
> *** SoftwareDevelopmentProcess
------
Computer_software|985301657
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * ProgrammingLanguages
> * SoftwarePackages
> ** CollaborativeSoftware
> *** WikiWiki
> *** SlashCode
> *** NupeCode
> ** CryptographY
> *** PrettyGoodPrivacy
> ** PootPoot
> * [[Operating system]]s
> ** [[Microsoft]]
> *** [[MS-DOS]]
> *** [[Windows 3xx]]
> *** [[Windows 9x]]
> *** [[Windows NTx]]
> *** [[Windows 2000]]
> *** [[Windows CE]]
> ** [[Unix]]
> *** [[BSD]]
> **** [[FreeBSD]]
> **** [[OpenBSD]]
> *** [[Linux]]
> *** [[Hurd]]
> *** [[AIX]]
> *** [[HPUX]]
> *** [[Digital Unix]]
> *** [[IRIX]]
> ** Other
> *** [[Be]]
> **** [[BeOS]]
> **** [[BeIA]]
> *** [[OS2]]
> *** [[PC-DOS]]
> *** [[DR-DOS]]
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|985301671
51a52,53
> ----
> :See [[http://www.mapplanet.com/|maps of the world]].
------
ComputerSoftware|985301684
1,34c1
< * ProgrammingLanguages
< * SoftwarePackages
< ** CollaborativeSoftware
< *** WikiWiki
< *** SlashCode
< *** NupeCode
< ** CryptographY
< *** PrettyGoodPrivacy
< ** PootPoot
< * [[Operating system]]s
< ** [[Microsoft]]
< *** [[MS-DOS]]
< *** [[Windows 3xx]]
< *** [[Windows 9x]]
< *** [[Windows NTx]]
< *** [[Windows 2000]]
< *** [[Windows CE]]
< ** [[Unix]]
< *** [[BSD]]
< **** [[FreeBSD]]
< **** [[OpenBSD]]
< *** [[Linux]]
< *** [[Hurd]]
< *** [[AIX]]
< *** [[HPUX]]
< *** [[Digital Unix]]
< *** [[IRIX]]
< ** Other
< *** [[Be]]
< **** [[BeOS]]
< **** [[BeIA]]
< *** [[OS2]]
< *** [[PC-DOS]]
< *** [[DR-DOS]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer software]]
------
Computing|985301719
3c3
< * ComputerHardware
---
> * [[Computer hardware]]
16c16
< * ComputerSoftware
---
> * [[Computer software]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985301724
53c53
< :See [[http://www.mapplanet.com/|maps of the world]].
---
> :See [[http://www.mapplanet.com|maps of the world]].
------
ComputerHardware|985301754
1,18c1
< <i>Hardware</i> is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on.
< 
< * [[Computer Storage|Storage]]
< * [[Motherboard]]
< * [[Graphics Controller]]
< * [[Sound Controller]]
< * [[Central Processing Unit]]
< * [[Computer Keyboard|Keyboard]]
< * [[Computer Mouse|Mouse]]
< * [[Joystick]]
< * [[Computer Monitor|Monitor]]
< * [[Hard Disk]]
< * [[CD-ROM]]
< * [[Floppy Disk]]
< * [[Tape Drive]]
< * [[Scanner]]
< * [[RAM]]
< * [[DVD-ROM]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer hardware]]
------
Computer_hardware|985301770
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Hardware</i> is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on.
> 
> * [[Computer Storage|Storage]]
> * [[Motherboard]]
> * [[Graphics Controller]]
> * [[Sound Controller]]
> * [[Central Processing Unit]]
> * [[Computer Keyboard|Keyboard]]
> * [[Computer Mouse|Mouse]]
> * [[Joystick]]
> * [[Computer Monitor|Monitor]]
> * [[Hard Disk]]
> * [[CD-ROM]]
> * [[Floppy Disk]]
> * [[Tape Drive]]
> * [[Scanner]]
> * [[RAM]]
> * [[DVD-ROM]]
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|985301789
53c53
< :See [[http://www.mapplanet.com|maps of the world]].
---
> :See <a href="http://www.mapplanet.com">maps of the world</a>.
------
Computer_programming|985301840
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Programming</i> is the art and/or science of creating [[computer software]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|985301860
53c53
< :See <a href="http://www.mapplanet.com">maps of the world</a>.
---
> :See [http://www.mapplanet.com |MapPlanet] for maps of the world.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985301877
1c1
< I am a [[computer]] programmer, semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
---
> I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
------
Larrys_Text|985301943
7c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] --[[affirming the consequent]] -- MeaningAndDefinitions
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] --[[affirming the consequent]] -- [[definition]] -- [[extension]] -- [[intension]] -- [[ambiguity]] -- [[vagueness]]
------
Larrys_Text|985301958
7c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] --[[affirming the consequent]] -- [[definition]] -- [[extension]] -- [[intension]] -- [[ambiguity]] -- [[vagueness]]
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] -- [[affirming the consequent]] -- [[definition]] -- [[extension]] -- [[intension]] -- [[ambiguity]] -- [[vagueness]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985301974
53c53
< :See [http://www.mapplanet.com |MapPlanet] for maps of the world.
---
> :See [http://www.mapplanet.com |MapPlanet] for a [[Java Applet]] that shows maps of the world.
------
Animals|985301982
3a4,5
> ''Very little of what's on that page is taxonomy - it's mostly an overview of the group, a discussion of what distinguishes them, and some notes about their origin.  I know it's a little technical but that's mainly because I wrote it in excitement over finding out what unites sponges and metazoa; I'm not sure what the purpose of dividing pages like this would be.''
> 
------
Extension|985302018
1c1
< The <i>extension</i> of a word is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word 'dog' includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase 'Wikipedia readers' includes each person who has ever read Wikipedia, including the person reading these words right now.
---
> The <i>extension</i> of a word, phrase, or concept is the set of things it extends to, or applies to.  So the extension of the word 'dog' includes all the dogs in the world: Fido, Rover, Lassie, Rex, and so on.  The extension of the phrase 'Wikipedia readers' includes each person who has ever read Wikipedia, including the person reading these words right now.
3c3
< 'Extension' is one of the meanings of '[[meaning]]'.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.
---
> 'Extension' is one of the meanings of '[[meaning]]'.  The meaning of a word is, sometimes, just the things that the word picks out, or applies to.
------
Longword|985302178
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A longword is a unit of computer memory or storage that
> is two [[word]]s long
> 
> See also:
> * [[word]]
> * [[byte]]
> * [[quadword]]
------
Quadword|985302223
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A quadword is a unit of computer memory or storage that
> is four [[word]]s long
> 
> See also:
> * [[byte]]
> * [[longword]]
> * [[word]]
------
MeaningfulNess|985302274
9c9
< By contrast, take the converse of the principle stated above: If each word in a sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  Do you think that’s right?  Well, consider the following string of word: "Had computer sky flatly in cat over."  Each word in that "sentence," if you want to call it a sentence, is meaningful.  But it certainly is not meaningful.  So maybe you could amend the principle, like this: If each word in a <i>grammatical</i> sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  But even this principle is incorrect.  Here’s a counterexample: "The evil kitten used green songs to grate cheese."  That’s perfectly grammatical, but I don’t think we want to dignify that sentence as <i>meaningful</i>.
---
> By contrast, take the converse of the principle stated above: If each word in a sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  Do you think that’s right?  Well, consider the following string of word: "Had computer sky flatly in cat over."  Each word in that "sentence," if you want to call it a sentence, is meaningful.  But it certainly is not meaningful.  So maybe you could amend the principle, like this: If each word in a <i>grammatical</i> sentence has a meaning, then the whole sentence is meaningful.  But even this principle is incorrect.  Here’s a counterexample: "The [http://home.mlode.com/~angel66/evil.htm evil kitten] used green songs to grate cheese."  That’s perfectly grammatical, but I don’t think we want to dignify that sentence as <i>meaningful</i>.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985302331
25a26
> *[[British South Africa Company]] - became [[South Africa]]
------
AtlasShrugged132|985302472
1c1
< #REDIRECT AtlasShrugged/SectioN132
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section132]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN132|985302516
1,24c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
< 
< * Plot summary
< Recounts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] childhood decision to run /TaggartTranscontinental and her rise in the company.  Recounts the history of the /SanSebastianLine: Millionaire playboy [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] invested money in developing the /SanSebastianMines, and [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the Board of Directors assumed they could trust [[/Francisco dAnconia|d'Anconia]] to deliver a winner.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] opposed this project and almost quit when it was approved.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] confronts [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] and demands to know what she has done to the San Sebastian Line.  She explains that she has moved anything of value out of /Mexico so the "looters" would not get it when they nationalized the line.  [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] is scandalized by this but cannot muster the courage to countermand her actions.  After leaving the office, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has a conversation with the owner of a newstand about his cigarette collection.  He says there are no new brands anymore, and only a few brands still being made.  He talks of the cigarette as a symbol of man controlling nature, holding fire in his hands.
< ----
< * Setting
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental and the Taggart Terminal.
< ----
< * Characters
<  /BoardofDirectors
<  /DagnysFather
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]: Mentioned.
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]: Mentioned.
<  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /MrsNathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
<  /NathanielTaggart: Mentioned.
<  /NewsstandOwner
<  /OrrenBoyle: Mentioned.
< ----
< * Symbolism
< The /NewsstandOwner explicitly explains the symbolism of cigarettes: "I like to think of fire held in man's hand.  Fire, a dangerous force, tamed at his fingertips.  I often wonder about the hours when a man sits alone, watching the smoke of a cigarette, thinking.  I wonder what great things have come from such hours.  When a man thinks, there is a spot of fire alive in his mind - and it is proper that he should have the burning point of a cigarette as his one expression."  This is a character explaining what cigarettes symbolize to him - it is not a use of literary symbolism.  The literary symbolism of this passage is established when the /NewsstandOwner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind.  In Greek mythology, it was this gift of fire that raised men up.  In AtlasShrugged, it is the achievements of the mind that raise men up.  So the disappearance of most of the old brands of cigarettes, which the /NewsstandOwner bemoans, is symbolic of the disappearance of the men of the mind.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section132]]
------
EclecticProbability|985302535
1c1
< see [[Eclectic Probability]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eclectic Probability]]
------
The_Iliad|985302593
1c1
< Great Greek epic about the wrath of AchillEus.  Will say more later.
---
> Great Greek epic about the wrath of [[Achilles]].  Will say more later.
------
MetaPhilosophy|985302615
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Meta-Philosophy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meta-philosophy]]
------
HelenOfTroy|985302632
5c5
< Helen's unsurpassed beauty attracted a lot of attention, and she had suitors from all over Greece.  In fact, these are essentially the same as the Greek champions at Troy - with the notable exceptions of AgaMemnon and AchillEus - for fearing they would come to blows Tyndareus required each to take an oath to protect her marriage.  With that done, she was married to Menelaus, and on the deaths of her brothers (the DioScuri) they succeeded to the Spartan throne.
---
> Helen's unsurpassed beauty attracted a lot of attention, and she had suitors from all over Greece.  In fact, these are essentially the same as the Greek champions at Troy - with the notable exceptions of AgaMemnon and [[Achilles]] - for fearing they would come to blows Tyndareus required each to take an oath to protect her marriage.  With that done, she was married to Menelaus, and on the deaths of her brothers (the DioScuri) they succeeded to the Spartan throne.
7c7
< In TheIliad, Helen is described as god-like, and this refers not just to her looks but also to her disregard for other people.  So it came to pass that when Paris arrived at Sparta and was received kindly by Menelaus as a guest, she fell in love with him - he had been promised her hand by Aphrodite - and willingly escaped with him to Troy, abandoning her husband and nine-year-old daughter Hermione.
---
> In [[The Iliad]], Helen is described as god-like, and this refers not just to her looks but also to her disregard for other people.  So it came to pass that when Paris arrived at Sparta and was received kindly by Menelaus as a guest, she fell in love with him - he had been promised her hand by Aphrodite - and willingly escaped with him to Troy, abandoning her husband and nine-year-old daughter Hermione.
------
Vector_Space|985302635
1,158c1
< One of the fundamental concepts in [[Linear Algebra]] is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD; a similar object defined over a RinG is called a ModulE.
< 
< 
< Definition:  A SeT '''V''' is a '''vector space''' over a FielD '''F''', if given the operation ''vector addition'' defined in '''V''', denoted '''v+w''' for all v,w in '''V''', and the operation ''scalar multiplication'' in '''V''', denoted '''a*(v)''' for all v in '''V''' and a in '''F''', the following 10 properties hold:
< 
< 
< #For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.<br>       V is closed under vector addition.
< #For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.<br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
< #For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.<br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
< #For all v in V, there exists an element -v in V, such that v+(-v)=0. <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
< #For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.<br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
< #For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.<br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
< #For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.<br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
< #For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.<br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
< #For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
< #For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
< 
< 
< <br> Properties 1 through 5 indicate that V is a ''commutative'' group under vector addition. Properties 6 through 10 apply to scalar multiplication of a vector v in V by a scalar a in F.----
< The members of a Vector Space are called ''vectors''.
< The concept of a Vector Space is entirely abstract like the concepts of a Group, Ring, and Field. To determine if a set V is a vector space one must specify the set V, a field F and define vector addition and scalar multiplication in V. Then if V satisfies the above 10 properties it is a Vector Space over the field F.----
< ''''Terminology:'''
< <br>If the field F=R={real numbers}, then a vector space over R is called a Real Vector Space.
< <br>If the field F=C={complex numbers}, then a vector space over C is called a Complex Vector Space.
< <br>
< '''Example I:'''
< <br>
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] where v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
< <br>Define Vector Addition:
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>].
< <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
< Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
< <br> Proof:
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]. But for all v<sub>i</sub>, w<sub>i</sub>, where
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub> is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
<          in V.
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u<sub>1</sub>,u<sub>2</sub>,u<sub>3</sub>,...,u<sub>n</sub>]+ [v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [u<sub>1</sub>+(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),u<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),u<sub>3</sub>+(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,u<sub>n</sub>+(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]. But for all u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub>, where 
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, u<sub>i</sub>+(v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>)=(u<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>)+w<sub>i</sub>, since u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub> in R and R is a field.
<          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
< *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider
<           [0,0,0,...,0]. Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v= 
<           [v<sub>1</sub>+0,v<sub>2</sub>+0,v<sub>3</sub>+0,...,v<sub>n</sub>+0]=
<           [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] since v<sub>i</sub> in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+v<sub>i</sub>=v<sub>i</sub> for all 
<           v<sub>i</sub> where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
< *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element -a in R such that
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>],  Consider -v=[-v<sub>1</sub>,-v<sub>2</sub>,-v<sub>3</sub>,...,-v<sub>n</sub>].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v<sub>1</sub>+(-v<sub>1</sub>),v<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>),v<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>+(-v<sub>3</sub>),...,v+(-v<sub>n</sub>)]=0, since
<          v<sub>i</sub>+(-v<sub>i</sub>)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
< *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
<          v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]= [w<sub>1</sub>+v<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>+v<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>,...,w<sub>n</sub>+v<sub>n</sub>]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>=w<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
<          Then a*v<sub>i</sub> for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
< *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v<sub>1</sub>,1*v<sub>2</sub>,1*v<sub>3</sub>,...,1*v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
< *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [a*(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),a*(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),a*(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,a*(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]=
<          [a*v<sub>1</sub>+aw<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*w<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+a*w<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+a*w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          a*[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]+a*[w<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>,...,,w<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+a*w.
< *9.    Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [(a*b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a*b)v<sub>n</sub>]=(a*b)*v.
< *10.  Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=[(a+b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a+b)v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [a*v+b*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+b*n]=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>]+
<          [b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+b*v.
< 
< <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
< <br>
< '''Example II:'''
< <br>
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
< <pre>
<    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
<                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
<                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
< </pre>
< *        where pij is in C.
< <br>Define vector addition in M:
< 
< 
< <pre>
<    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
<                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
<                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
<                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
<                | .                     |                  | .                     |
<                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
< 
< 
<                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
<                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
<                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
<                        |.                                      |
<                        |.                                      |      
<                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
< </pre>
< <br>
< Define scalar multiplication:
< 
< 
< <pre>
<           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
<           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
<     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
<           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
<           | .                     |              |                               |
<           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
< </pre>
< 
< <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
< 
< So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
<  
< <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
< <br>
< '''Example III:'''
< 
< 
< Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
< <br>Define vector addition:
< <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
< <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
< <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
< <br>
< <br>Proof
< *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
< *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
< <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
< *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
< <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
< <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
< *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider -f in F,
< <br>        defined by -f(c)=-(f(c)). -f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
< <br>        since if f(c) in R then -(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
< *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
< *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
< <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
< *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
< <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
< <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
< *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
< <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
< *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
< *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
<             
<          
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vector space]]
------
Quadword|985302666
7a8,9
> ----
> I think this probably isn't adequate.  I mean, I know what "unit," "computer memory or storage," "four," and "word" all mean, but I still don't know what "quadword" means (at least, I don't think I do).  Isn't that interesting? --LS
------
Vector_space|985302667
1c1,157
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the fundamental concepts in [[Linear Algebra]] is that of a Vector Space. For simplicity, we define a Vector Space over a FielD; a similar object defined over a RinG is called a ModulE.
> 
> Definition:  A SeT '''V''' is a '''vector space''' over a FielD '''F''', if given the operation ''vector addition'' defined in '''V''', denoted '''v+w''' for all v,w in '''V''', and the operation ''scalar multiplication'' in '''V''', denoted '''a*(v)''' for all v in '''V''' and a in '''F''', the following 10 properties hold:
> 
> #For all v,w in V, v+w belongs to V.<br>       V is closed under vector addition.
> #For all u,v,w in V, u+(v+w)= (u+v)+w.<br>       Associativity of vector addition in V.
> #For all v in V, there exists an element 0 in V, such that 0+v=v.<br>       Existence of an additive identity element in V.
> #For all v in V, there exists an element -v in V, such that v+(-v)=0. <br>       Existence of an additive inverse in V.
> #For all v,w in V, v+w=w+v.<br>       Commutativity of vector addition in V.
> #For all a in F and v in V, a*v belongs to V.<br>        V is closed under scalar multiplication.
> #For all a,b in F and v in V, a*(b*v)=(a*b)*v.<br>        Associativity of scalar multiplication in V.
> #For all v in V, there exists and element 1 in F, such that 1*v=v.<br>        Existence of an identity element for scalar multiplication in V.
> #For all v,w in V and a in F, a*(v+w)=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect ot vector addition.
> #For all a,b in F and v in V, (a+b)*v=a*v+a*w.<br>        Distributivity with respect to field addition.
> 
> 
> <br> Properties 1 through 5 indicate that V is a ''commutative'' group under vector addition. Properties 6 through 10 apply to scalar multiplication of a vector v in V by a scalar a in F.----
> The members of a Vector Space are called ''vectors''.
> The concept of a Vector Space is entirely abstract like the concepts of a Group, Ring, and Field. To determine if a set V is a vector space one must specify the set V, a field F and define vector addition and scalar multiplication in V. Then if V satisfies the above 10 properties it is a Vector Space over the field F.----
> ''''Terminology:'''
> <br>If the field F=R={real numbers}, then a vector space over R is called a Real Vector Space.
> <br>If the field F=C={complex numbers}, then a vector space over C is called a Complex Vector Space.
> <br>
> '''Example I:'''
> <br>
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] where v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
> <br>Define Vector Addition:
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>].
> <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
> Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
> <br> Proof:
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]. But for all v<sub>i</sub>, w<sub>i</sub>, where
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub> is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
>          in V.
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u<sub>1</sub>,u<sub>2</sub>,u<sub>3</sub>,...,u<sub>n</sub>]+ [v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [u<sub>1</sub>+(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),u<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),u<sub>3</sub>+(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,u<sub>n</sub>+(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]. But for all u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub>, where 
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, u<sub>i</sub>+(v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>)=(u<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>)+w<sub>i</sub>, since u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub> in R and R is a field.
>          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider
>           [0,0,0,...,0]. Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v= 
>           [v<sub>1</sub>+0,v<sub>2</sub>+0,v<sub>3</sub>+0,...,v<sub>n</sub>+0]=
>           [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] since v<sub>i</sub> in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+v<sub>i</sub>=v<sub>i</sub> for all 
>           v<sub>i</sub> where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
> *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element -a in R such that
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>],  Consider -v=[-v<sub>1</sub>,-v<sub>2</sub>,-v<sub>3</sub>,...,-v<sub>n</sub>].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v<sub>1</sub>+(-v<sub>1</sub>),v<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>),v<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>+(-v<sub>3</sub>),...,v+(-v<sub>n</sub>)]=0, since
>          v<sub>i</sub>+(-v<sub>i</sub>)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
> *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
>          v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]= [w<sub>1</sub>+v<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>+v<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>,...,w<sub>n</sub>+v<sub>n</sub>]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>=w<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
>          Then a*v<sub>i</sub> for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
> *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v<sub>1</sub>,1*v<sub>2</sub>,1*v<sub>3</sub>,...,1*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
> *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),a*(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),a*(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,a*(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]=
>          [a*v<sub>1</sub>+aw<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*w<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+a*w<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+a*w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          a*[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]+a*[w<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>,...,,w<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+a*w.
> *9.    Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [(a*b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a*b)v<sub>n</sub>]=(a*b)*v.
> *10.  Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=[(a+b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a+b)v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*v+b*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+b*n]=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>]+
>          [b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+b*v.
> 
> <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
> <br>
> '''Example II:'''
> <br>
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
> <pre>
>    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
>                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
>                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
> </pre>
> *        where pij is in C.
> <br>Define vector addition in M:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
>                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
>                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
>                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
>                | .                     |                  | .                     |
>                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
> 
> 
>                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
>                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
>                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
>                        |.                                      |
>                        |.                                      |      
>                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
> </pre>
> <br>
> Define scalar multiplication:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
>           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
>     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
>           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
>           | .                     |              |                               |
>           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
> </pre>
> 
> <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
> 
> So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
>  
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
> <br>
> '''Example III:'''
> 
> 
> Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
> <br>Define vector addition:
> <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
> <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
> <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
> <br>
> <br>Proof
> *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
> *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
> <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
> *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
> <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
> <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
> *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider -f in F,
> <br>        defined by -f(c)=-(f(c)). -f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
> <br>        since if f(c) in R then -(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
> *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
> *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
> <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
> *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
> <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
> <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
> *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
> <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
> *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
> *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
>             
>          
> 
------
Vector_space|985302772
24,72c24,25
< '''Example I:'''
< <br>
< Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] where v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
< <br>Define Vector Addition:
< <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>].
< <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
< <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
< Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
< <br> Proof:
< *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]. But for all v<sub>i</sub>, w<sub>i</sub>, where
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub> is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
<          in V.
< *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u<sub>1</sub>,u<sub>2</sub>,u<sub>3</sub>,...,u<sub>n</sub>]+ [v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [u<sub>1</sub>+(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),u<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),u<sub>3</sub>+(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,u<sub>n</sub>+(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]. But for all u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub>, where 
<          i={1,2,3,...,n}, u<sub>i</sub>+(v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>)=(u<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>)+w<sub>i</sub>, since u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub> in R and R is a field.
<          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
< *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider
<           [0,0,0,...,0]. Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v= 
<           [v<sub>1</sub>+0,v<sub>2</sub>+0,v<sub>3</sub>+0,...,v<sub>n</sub>+0]=
<           [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] since v<sub>i</sub> in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+v<sub>i</sub>=v<sub>i</sub> for all 
<           v<sub>i</sub> where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
< *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element -a in R such that
<          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>],  Consider -v=[-v<sub>1</sub>,-v<sub>2</sub>,-v<sub>3</sub>,...,-v<sub>n</sub>].
<          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v<sub>1</sub>+(-v<sub>1</sub>),v<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>),v<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>+(-v<sub>3</sub>),...,v+(-v<sub>n</sub>)]=0, since
<          v<sub>i</sub>+(-v<sub>i</sub>)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
< *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
<          v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]= [w<sub>1</sub>+v<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>+v<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>,...,w<sub>n</sub>+v<sub>n</sub>]
<          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>=w<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>, since R is a field.
< *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
<          Then a*v<sub>i</sub> for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
< *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
<          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v<sub>1</sub>,1*v<sub>2</sub>,1*v<sub>3</sub>,...,1*v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
< *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
<          a*(v+w)=a*[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [a*(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),a*(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),a*(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,a*(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]=
<          [a*v<sub>1</sub>+aw<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*w<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+a*w<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+a*w<sub>n</sub>]=
<          a*[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]+a*[w<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>,...,,w<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+a*w.
< *9.    Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
<          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [(a*b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a*b)v<sub>n</sub>]=(a*b)*v.
< *10.  Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
<          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=[(a+b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a+b)v<sub>n</sub>]=
<          [a*v+b*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+b*n]=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>]+
<          [b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+b*v.
< 
< <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
< <br>
< '''Example II:'''
---
> [[/Example I]]: The vector space '''R'''<sup>n</sup>, with component-wise operations
> <br>'''Example II:'''
------
Vector_space/Example_I|985302802
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Example I:'''
> <br>
> Let '''V''' be the set of all n-tuples, [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] where v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...n} is a member of '''R'''={real numbers}. Let the field be '''R''', as well.
> <br>Define Vector Addition:
> <br> For all v, w, in '''V''', define v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>].
> <br>Define Scalar Multiplication:
> <br> For all a in '''F''' and v in '''V''', a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
> Then '''V''' is a Vector Space over '''R'''.
> <br> Proof:
> *1.     If v,w, in V then v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]. But for all v<sub>i</sub>, w<sub>i</sub>, where
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub> is in R, since R is a field.  Therefore, for all u,v in V, v+w is    
>          in V.
> *2.     If u,v,w in V then u+(v+w)= [u<sub>1</sub>,u<sub>2</sub>,u<sub>3</sub>,...,u<sub>n</sub>]+ [v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [u<sub>1</sub>+(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),u<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),u<sub>3</sub>+(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,u<sub>n</sub>+(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]. But for all u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub>, where 
>          i={1,2,3,...,n}, u<sub>i</sub>+(v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>)=(u<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>)+w<sub>i</sub>, since u<sub>i</sub>,v<sub>i</sub>,w<sub>i</sub> in R and R is a field.
>          Therefore, u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w, for all u,v,w in V.
> *3.    Since R is a field there exists an additive identity in R, say, 0. Consider
>           [0,0,0,...,0]. Then 0 is in V. But then for all v in V, 0+v= 
>           [v<sub>1</sub>+0,v<sub>2</sub>+0,v<sub>3</sub>+0,...,v<sub>n</sub>+0]=
>           [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>] since v<sub>i</sub> in R for all i={1,2,3,...,n}, and 0+v<sub>i</sub>=v<sub>i</sub> for all 
>           v<sub>i</sub> where i={1,2,3,...,n}, since R is a field.
> *4.    Since R is a field, there exists for every a in R and element -a in R such that
>          a+(-a)=0. For  v in V=[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>],  Consider -v=[-v<sub>1</sub>,-v<sub>2</sub>,-v<sub>3</sub>,...,-v<sub>n</sub>].
>          -v is in R and v+(-v)=[v<sub>1</sub>+(-v<sub>1</sub>),v<sub>2</sub>+(v<sub>2</sub>),v<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>+(-v<sub>3</sub>),...,v+(-v<sub>n</sub>)]=0, since
>          v<sub>i</sub>+(-v<sub>i</sub>)=0 for all i={1,2,3,..,n} since R is a field.
> *5.    Since R is a field, for a,b in R a+b=b+a. Then      
>          v+w=[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]= [w<sub>1</sub>+v<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>+v<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>+v<sub>3</sub>,...,w<sub>n</sub>+v<sub>n</sub>]
>          =w+v, since for each i={1,2,3,...,n} v<sub>i</sub>+w<sub>i</sub>=w<sub>i</sub>+v<sub>i</sub>, since R is a field.
> *6.    Since R is a field, if a,b in R a*b in R. Then a*v=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>].
>          Then a*v<sub>i</sub> for i={1,2,3,...,n} is in R. Therefore, a*v in V.
> *7.    Since R is a field, R has a multiplicative identity 1, such that 1*a=a for all
>          a in R.  Then for v in V, 1*v=[1*v<sub>1</sub>,1*v<sub>2</sub>,1*v<sub>3</sub>,...,1*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
> *8.    Since R is a field for a,b,c in R a*(b+c)=a*b+a*c. Then for v in V
>          a*(v+w)=a*[v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*(v<sub>1</sub>+w<sub>1</sub>),a*(v<sub>2</sub>+w<sub>2</sub>),a*(v<sub>3</sub>+w<sub>3</sub>),...,a*(v<sub>n</sub>+w<sub>n</sub>)]=
>          [a*v<sub>1</sub>+aw<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*w<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+a*w<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+a*w<sub>n</sub>]=
>          a*[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]+a*[w<sub>1</sub>,w<sub>2</sub>,w<sub>3</sub>,...,,w<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+a*w.
> *9.    Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c.
>          Then a*(b*v)=a*[b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [(a*b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a*b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a*b)v<sub>n</sub>]=(a*b)*v.
> *10.  Since R is a field, for a,b,c in R,  (a+b)*c=a*b+a*c.
>          Then (a+b)v=(a+b)[v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=[(a+b)v<sub>1</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>2</sub>,(a+b)v<sub>3</sub>,...,(a+b)v<sub>n</sub>]=
>          [a*v+b*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>+a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>+b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>+b*n]=[a*v<sub>1</sub>,a*v<sub>2</sub>,a*v<sub>3</sub>,...,a*v<sub>n</sub>]+
>          [b*v<sub>1</sub>,b*v<sub>2</sub>,b*v<sub>3</sub>,...,b*v<sub>n</sub>]=a*v+b*v.
> 
> <br>This vector space is denoted <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
> <br>
> 
------
Vector_space|985302878
23,37d22
< <br>
< [[/Example I]]: The vector space '''R'''<sup>n</sup>, with component-wise operations
< <br>'''Example II:'''
< <br>
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
< <pre>
<    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
<                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
<                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |.......................|
<                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
< </pre>
< *        where pij is in C.
< <br>Define vector addition in M:
39,73c24,25
< 
< <pre>
<    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
<                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
<                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
<                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
<                | .                     |                  | .                     |
<                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
< 
< 
<                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
<                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
<                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
<                        |.                                      |
<                        |.                                      |      
<                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
< </pre>
< <br>
< Define scalar multiplication:
< 
< 
< <pre>
<           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
<           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
<     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
<           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
<           | .                     |              |                               |
<           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
< </pre>
< 
< <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
< 
< So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
<  
< <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
---
> '''[[/Example I]]''': The vector space '''R'''<sup>n</sup>, with component-wise operations
> <br>'''[[/Example II]]: The set of (mxn) [[matrices]] with complex elements'''
------
Vector_space/Example_II|985302898
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Example II''':
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
> <pre>
>    P is in '''M''', P=   |p11    p12    p13...p1n|
>                          |p21    p22    p23...p2n|
>                          |p31    p32    p33...p3n|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |.......................|
>                          |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|
> </pre>
> *        where pij is in C.
> <br>Define vector addition in M:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>    P+Q=        |p11    p12    p13...p1n|                  |q11    q12    q13...q1n|
>                |p21    p22    p23...p2n|                  |q21    q22    q23...q2n|
>                |p31    p32    p33...p3n|                  |q31    q32    q33...q3n| =
>                | .                     |       +          | .                     |      
>                | .                     |                  | .                     |
>                |pm1    pm2    pm23  pmn|                  |qm1    qm2    qm3...qmn|
> 
> 
>                        |p11+q11    p12+q12    p13+q13...p1n+q1n|
>                        |p21+q21    p22+q22    p23+q23...p2n+q2n|
>                        |p31+q31    p32+q32    p33+q33...p3n+q3n|
>                        |.                                      |
>                        |.                                      |      
>                        |pm1+qm1    pm2+qm2    pm3+qm3...pmn+qmn|
> </pre>
> <br>
> Define scalar multiplication:
> 
> 
> <pre>
>           |p11    p12    p13...p1n|              |c*p11    c*p12    c*p13...c*p1n|
>           |p21    p22    p23...p2n|              |c*p21    c*p22    c*p23...c*p2n|
>     c*    |p31    p32    p33...p3n|              |c*p31    c*p32    c*p33...c*p3n|
>           | .                     |      =       |                               |      
>           | .                     |              |                               |
>           |pm1    pm2    pm3...pmn|              |c*pm1    c*pm2    c*pm3...c*pmn|
> </pre>
> 
> <br>Then M is a vector space over C and we denote this as <b>C<sup>mxn</sup></b>.
> 
> So Example I would be denoted <b>R<sup>1xn</sup></b>, or more simply, <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
>  
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space.
> <br>
> 
------
Vector_space|985302960
25,62c25,26
< <br>'''[[/Example II]]: The set of (mxn) [[matrices]] with complex elements'''
< <br>
< '''Example III:'''
< 
< 
< Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
< <br>Define vector addition:
< <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
< <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
< <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
< <br>
< <br>Proof
< *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
< *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
< <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
< *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
< <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
< <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
< *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider -f in F,
< <br>        defined by -f(c)=-(f(c)). -f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
< <br>        since if f(c) in R then -(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
< *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
< <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
< *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
< <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
< *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
< <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
< <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
< *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
< <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
< *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
< *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
< <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
<             
<          
< 
---
> <br>'''[[/Example II]]''': The set of (mxn) [[matrices]] with complex elements
> <br>'''[[/Example III]]''': The set of all real-valued functions on a closed interval
------
Vector_space/Example_III|985302979
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Example III:'''
> 
> Let the set F[a,b]={all functions f defined on the closed interval [a,b]->R}.
> <br>Define vector addition:
> <br>     (f+g)(x)=f(x)+g(x).
> <br>Define scalar multiplication: If a in R={real numbers} and F in F, then <br>(a*f)(x)=a*f(x).
> <br>Then F is a vector space over the field R.
> <br>
> <br>Proof
> *1.   Since R is a field, if r,s, in R, then r+s in R.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and cin [a,b], f(c)+g(c) in R.
> *2.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, then r+(s+t)=(r+s)+t.
> <br>        Then for f,g,h, in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+(g(c)+h(c))=((f(c)+g(c))+h(c). 
> *3.   Since R is a field, consider the function 0, where for c in [a,b], 0(c)=0.
> <br>        0 is in F, since for all c in [a,b], 0(c) is in R. But, for f in F and c in [a,b],
> <br>        0(c)+(f(c)=0+f(c)=f(c).
> *4.   Since F is the set of all functions from [a,b] to R, for f in F, consider -f in F,
> <br>        defined by -f(c)=-(f(c)). -f is in F since it is defined from [a,b] to R.
> <br>        since if f(c) in R then -(f(c)) in R since R is a field.
> *5.   Since R is a field, for r,s in R, r+s=s+r.
> <br>        Then for f,g in F and c in [a,b], f(c)+g(c)=g(c)+f(c).
> *6.   Since R is a field, if r,s in R r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t. Then for f,g, inF,
> <br>        r in R, and c in [a,b], r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*(f(c)+r*(g(c).
> *7.   Since R is a field, consider the function 1, defined by, for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c.
> <br>        Then 1 is in F since for all c in [a,b], 1(c)=c in R.
> <br>        But (1*f)(c)= 1*f(c)=f(c).
> *8.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R, r*(s+t)=r*s+r*t.
> <br>        Then if f,g in F and r in R, for c in [a,b], (r*(f(c)+g(c)))=r*f(c)+r*g(c).
> *9.   Since R is a field, if r,s,t in R then r*(s*t)=(r*s)*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F, and c in [a,b],  r*(s*f(c))= (r*s)(f(c)).
> *10.  Since R is a field, is r,s,t in R, then (r+s)*t=r*t+s*t.
> <br>        Then for r,s in R, f in F and c in [a,b], then (r+s)f(c)=r*f(c)+s*f(c).
>             
>          
> 
> 
------
Pascal|985303180
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Actually, '''Pascal''' began as a hybrid language, aimed at being machine independent by having a common syntax interpreted into machine-dependent pseudocode which could then be executed by the final machine. As hardware became standardized on the IBM-Intel designs, the necessity for machine independence became less prominent. Although there are still Pascal interpreters available, there are compilers as well for many machines. These compilers frequently use today's large memories to accomplish both the first and second stage of processing.
> ----
> In the PC community, an early inexpensive Pascal compiler was distributed by the [[Borland]] software company. This earned Pascal many hobbyist users during the 1980's.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Star_Wars|985303370
1c1
< [[Futuristic]] epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the [[Empire]] to dominate the [Galaxy].
---
> [[Mythology|Mythology]] conceived by [[George Lucas]] that tells of the struggle between good and evil, told among an epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the [[Empire]] to dominate the [Galaxy].  The story is set 'A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away' (i.e., once upon a time).  The story has been presented in a series of Hollywood movies, which spawned dozens of books.  Star Wars is also the basis of countless toys and games.
3c3,6
< # [[/The Phantom Menace]] - movie released 1999?
---
> The name "Star Wars" was also used colloquially to refer to [[Ronald Reagan]]'s [[Strategic Defence Initiative]], a [[laser]] based anti-[[ballistic missile]] scheme.
> 
> * Star Wars movies:
> # [[/The Phantom Menace]] - movie released 1999.
7c10
< # [[/The Empire Strikes Back]] - movied released 198?
---
> # [[/The Empire Strikes Back]] - movied released 1980
9,13c12,69
< # book 7 - not yet scheduled to be in film
< # book 8 - not yet scheduled to be in film
< # book 9 - not yet scheduled to be in film
< ----
< The name "Star Wars" was also used colloquially to refer to [[Ronald Reagan]]'s [[Strategic Defence Initiative]], a [[laser]] based anti [[ballistic missile]] scheme.
---
> 
> * Star Wars characters:
>  [[/4-LOM]]
>  [[/Adi Gallia]]
>  [[/Admiral Ackbar]]
>  [[/Admiral Daala]]
>  [[/Admiral Piett]]
>  [[/Anakin Skywalker]]
>  [[/Aurra Sing]]
>  [[/Barada]]
>  [[/Bib Fortuna]]
>  [[/Biggs Darklighter]]
>  [[/Boba Fett]]
>  [[/Boss Nass]]
>  [[/Bossk]]
>  [[/C-3PO]]
>  [[/Callista]]
>  [[/Captain Panaka]]
>  [[/Chewbacca]]
>  [[/Crix Madine]]
>  [[/Darth Maul]]
>  [[/Darth Sidious]]
>  [[/Darth Vader]]
>  [[/Dengar]]
>  [[/Droids]]
>  [[/General Veers]]
>  [[/Grand Admiral Thrawn]]
>  [[/Grand Moff Tarkin]]
>  [[/Greedo]]
>  [[/Han Solo]]
>  [[/IG-88]]
>  [[/Jabba the Hutt]]
>  [[/Jar Jar Binks]]
>  [[/Jek Porkins]]
>  [[/Lando Calrissian]]
>  [[/Lobot]]
>  [[/Luke Skywalker]]
>  [[/Mace Windu]]
>  [[/Mara Jade]]
>  [[/Mon Mothma]]
>  [[/Nute Gunray]]
>  [[/Obi-Wan Kenobi]]
>  [[/Oola]]
>  [[/Palpatine]]
>  [[/Plo Koon]]
>  [[/Princess Leia]]
>  [[/Queen Amidala]]
>  [[/Qui-Gon Jinn]]
>  [[/R2D2]]
>  [[/Salacious Crumb]]
>  [[/Sebulba]]
>  [[/Shmi Skywalker]]
>  [[/Stormtroopers]]
>  [[/Watto]]
>  [[/Wedge Antilles]]
>  [[/Wicket W. Warrick]]
>  [[/Yoda]]
>  [[/Zuckuss]]
------
Vagueness|985303438
6c6
< :To say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has borderline cases; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.
---
> :To say a term, or a concept, is <i>vague</i> is to say it has, in addition to clear cases where it does and does not apply, borderline cases as well; in other words, cases where there is no clear fact of the matter whether the concept applies or not.
------
Star_Wars|985303446
7,8c7,8
< # To be released...
< # To be released...
---
> # [[/Episode 2]] - scheduled release 2002
> # [[/Episode 3]] - scheduled release 2005
69c69
<  [[/Zuckuss]]
---
>  [[/Zuckuss]]
------
Star_Wars|985303524
1c1
< [[Mythology|Mythology]] conceived by [[George Lucas]] that tells of the struggle between good and evil, told among an epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the [[Empire]] to dominate the [Galaxy].  The story is set 'A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away' (i.e., once upon a time).  The story has been presented in a series of Hollywood movies, which spawned dozens of books.  Star Wars is also the basis of countless toys and games.
---
> [[Mythology|Mythology]] conceived by [[George Lucas]] that tells of the struggle between good and evil, told among an epic story about the fight between the Rebels and the [[Empire]] to dominate the [[Galaxy]].  The story is set 'A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away' (i.e., once upon a time).  The story has been presented in a series of [[Hollywood]] [[Film]]s, which spawned dozens of books.  Star Wars is also the basis of countless toys and games.
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985303617
9a10,12
> 
> Contibuted to;
> :[[Four rooms]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985303864
18a19
> *[[Ottoman Empire]]
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985303932
10a11,12
> This might make it very difficult to use the search function of Wikipedia, because any simple search would return a vast number of results.  If there were a way to meta-tag articles with keywords, this would help, but there is currently no way to do that.
> 
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985303950
11c11
< This might make it very difficult to use the search function of Wikipedia, because any simple search would return a vast number of results.  If there were a way to meta-tag articles with keywords, this would help, but there is currently no way to do that.
---
> This might make it very difficult to use the search function of Wikipedia, because any simple search would return a vast number of results.  If there were a way to meta-tag articles with keywords, this would help, but there is currently no way to do that.  - TimShell
------
Aardwolf|985304017
1c1
< Small animal from South AfricA.  Related to the HyenA.  Lives in the ground.  Nocturnal hunter.
---
> Small animal from [[South Africa]].  Related to the [[Hyena]].  Lives in the ground.  Nocturnal hunter.
------
Horror_Film|985304048
9a10
> *[[It]]
------
Literature|985304142
3a4
> :[[Horror]]
16a18
> * [[Stephen King]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|985304170
9a10
> *[[why Wikipedia is so great|Just why is Wikipedia so great, anyway]]?
11c12
< See also WikiWiki.
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
Mammalia|985304194
19c19
<    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
---
>    Order [[Primata]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
------
Primata|985304223
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class Mammalia, Order Primata 
> 
>  Suborder Strepsirhini
>     Family Lemuridae
>     Family Cheirogaleidae
>     Family Indridae
>     Family Daubentoniidae
>     Family Galagonidae
>     Family Lorisidae
>     Family Megaladapidae
>  Suborder Haplorhini
>     Family Tarsiidae
>     Family Cebidae
>     Family Cercopithecidae
>     Family Callitrichidae
>     Family Hylobatidae
>     Family Hominidae or Pongidae
> 
------
Primata|985304289
1c1
< Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata, Class Mammalia, Order Primata 
---
> Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primata]]
3,17c3,17
<  Suborder Strepsirhini
<     Family Lemuridae
<     Family Cheirogaleidae
<     Family Indridae
<     Family Daubentoniidae
<     Family Galagonidae
<     Family Lorisidae
<     Family Megaladapidae
<  Suborder Haplorhini
<     Family Tarsiidae
<     Family Cebidae
<     Family Cercopithecidae
<     Family Callitrichidae
<     Family Hylobatidae
<     Family Hominidae or Pongidae
---
>  Suborder [[Strepsirhini]]
>     Family [[Lemuridae]]
>     Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
>     Family [[Indridae]]
>     Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
>     Family [[Galagonidae]]
>     Family [[Lorisidae]]
>     Family [[Megaladapidae]]
>  Suborder [[Haplorhini]]
>     Family [[Tarsiidae]]
>     Family [[Cebidae]]
>     Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
>     Family [[Callitrichidae]]
>     Family [[Hylobatidae]]
>     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]]
------
Why_on_Earth_would_I_want_to_contribute_to_a_wiki|985304420
1c1,8
< Because it's fun, educational, and social all in one! Besides, you can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
---
> There are many good reasons to be involved in [[Wikipedia]]:
> *It's fun.
> *It's educational.
> *It's social
> *You can correct other people on the spot without asking their permission!
> *It's exciting.  [[Wikipedia]] has created literally ''thousands'' of pages in the mere months since its inception.
> *It's interesting to share your knowledge with other people, particularly knowing that others can instantly edit or react to what you've written.
> See also [[why Wikipedia is so great]].
------
Why_on_Earth_would_I_want_to_contribute_to_a_wiki|985304434
4c4
< *It's social
---
> *It's social.
------
Primates|985304501
1c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primates]]
---
> An order of mammals sometimes called [[Primata]].
3,17c3
<  Suborder Strepsirhini
<     Family [[Lemuridae]]
<     Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
<     Family [[Indridae]]
<     Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
<     Family [[Galagonidae]]
<     Family [[Lorisidae]]
<     Family [[Megaladapidae]]
<  Suborder Haplorhini]]
<     Family [[Tarsiidae]]
<     Family [[Cebidae]]
<     Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
<     Family [[Callitrichidae]]
<     Family [[Hylobatidae]]
<     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]]
---
> Primates consist of the monkeys and the apes, as well as lemurs, gibbons, humans, and various others.
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985304507
15c15
< There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
---
> There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[why Wikipedia is so great]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|985304609
9c9
< * Wikipedia is open content, released under the GNU's Free Documentation License.  Knowing this encourages people to contribute; they know it's a public project that everyone can use.
---
> * Wikipedia is open content, released under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].  Knowing this encourages people to contribute; they know it's a public project that everyone can use.
19c19
< * See [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wiki is not paper]] for another page along the same lines as the above.
---
> * See [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wiki is not paper]] for another page along the same lines as the above.
------
Poetry|985304615
3a4,6
> 
> Some famous poets:
> :[[Udo of Aachen]]
------
Painters|985304660
58c58
< 
---
>      [[Udo of Aachen]]
------
HomoSapiens|985304665
1c1
< In TaxonOmY, the name used for the HumaN SpecieS.  Latin for "thinking man."  People belong to the KingdomAnimalia, and it really is possible to classify them a lot more precisely, but for now this should be good enough.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Homo sapiens]]
------
Primates|985304770
4a5,14
> * [[Apes]]
>  [[Bonobo]]
>  [[Chimpanzee]]
>  [[Gorilla]]
>  [[Human]]
> 
> * [[Monkeys]]
> 
> 
> 
------
Primates|985304805
12c12
< 
---
>  [[Goeldi's Monkey]]
------
Primates|985304829
12c12
<  [[Goeldi's Monkey]]
---
>  [[Goeldis monkey|Goeldi's monkey]]
------
Mammalia|985304930
19c19
<    Order [[Primata]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
---
>    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|985304937
1c1
< Who is responsible for these pages?  Everyone!  This is a collaborative endeavor.  Dozens of people have contributed to different parts of this website, and anyone ''can'' do so.  All you need to know is HowDoesOneEditaPage.
---
> Who is responsible for these pages?  Everyone!  This is a collaborative endeavor.  Scores of people have contributed to different parts of this website, and anyone ''can'' do so.  All you need to know is [[How does one edit a page|how to edit a page]].
3,23c3
< You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.----'''Q.''' Then why does at least one originator of many pages on a particular subject have a link to his wikipedia page on all the pages he began? And further that page has a link to his consulting services? And why do I have to remove his link from pages I wrote on this topic? AnonymousCoward
< 
< '''A.''' I believe you'll have to ask that person.  That person should also understand that others are quite free to go in and make whatever changes they deem necessary.----
< But by putting your name on an entry, as a link to your wiki page, on all the pages you began, you are in a sense declaring authorship. This to me, defeats the purpose of a Wiki, which is a collaborative effort. So I make corrections and leave his name-link on the pages. Same AnonymousCoward.
< But I am not happy!!!
< ----
< I think that once you make a significant change to a page, you can feel free to remove the originator's name.  He will have no grounds for complaint, for just the reasons you state.
< 
< :Although there is no clear consensus, the other wikis generally leave names on pages even after editing.  If one is changing the words of other people, however, it may be useful to move the names to a separate "Contributors:" section.
< 
< :But of course, why should Wikipedia be constrained by tradition?  One problem associated with putting names on pages in at all is that it then seems that that person is taking responsibility for the page, which makes other people less likely to change it.
< ----
< '''Q.'''Is it possible for some ignorant to "del *.*"?
< 
< '''A1.''' No, because this is not a MS-DOS system.  :-)
< 
< '''A2.''' Not really.  You need to be a wiki administrator (with a special password) to permanently and totally delete pages.  Any other users could remove the text of a page, but any other user could restore the text from the "kept pages" archive (which is kept for at least 2 weeks in the default wiki setup).  If someone did an extensive attack, they could be blocked from further editing by the admins.  (In the future a new feature may also allow an admin to undo all recent edits from a particular user or IP address.)
< 
< '''A3.''' Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone write a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
< 
< In this way, accidental linking is maximized.  I think that this plan fits the [[principle of least astonishment]].
---
> You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.
------
Primates|985305106
1,13c1
< An order of mammals sometimes called [[Primata]].
< 
< Primates consist of the monkeys and the apes, as well as lemurs, gibbons, humans, and various others.
< 
< * [[Apes]]
<  [[Bonobo]]
<  [[Chimpanzee]]
<  [[Gorilla]]
<  [[Human]]
< 
< * [[Monkeys]]
<  [[Goeldis monkey|Goeldi's monkey]]
< 
---
> An order of the mammals (class [[Mammalia]]).  These include lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans.
14a3,17
>  Suborder [[Strepsirhini]]
>     Family [[Lemuridae]]
>     Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
>     Family [[Indridae]]
>     Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
>     Family [[Galagonidae]]
>     Family [[Lorisidae]]
>     Family [[Megaladapidae]]
>  Suborder [[Haplorhini]]
>     Family [[Tarsiidae]]
>     Family [[Cebidae]]
>     Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
>     Family [[Callitrichidae]]
>     Family [[Hylobatidae]]
>     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]] (apes, including humans)
------
Primata|985305131
1,18c1
< Kingdom [[Animalia]], Phylum [[Chordata]], Class [[Mammalia]], Order [[Primata]]
< 
<  Suborder [[Strepsirhini]]
<     Family [[Lemuridae]]
<     Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]
<     Family [[Indridae]]
<     Family [[Daubentoniidae]]
<     Family [[Galagonidae]]
<     Family [[Lorisidae]]
<     Family [[Megaladapidae]]
<  Suborder [[Haplorhini]]
<     Family [[Tarsiidae]]
<     Family [[Cebidae]]
<     Family [[Cercopithecidae]]
<     Family [[Callitrichidae]]
<     Family [[Hylobatidae]]
<     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Primates]]
------
Goeldis_monkey|985305338
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Goeldi's monkey ([[Callimico Goeldi]]) is a small, [[South America|South American]] monkey that lives in the upper [[Amazon]] region of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Columbia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]].  They are blackish or blackish-brown in color.
> 
> The Geoldi's monkey was first described in 1904, making it one of the last species to be described.  Its features are intermediate to those of [[Callitrichidae]] and [[Cebidae]], and are sufficiently different to warrant its own family, [[Callimiconidae]].
> 
> Life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years.
> 
> Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months.  The gestation period lasts from 140 to 180 days.  The mother carries a single baby monkey per pregnancy.  The baby monkey is weaned after about 65 days.
> 
> In the wild, Goeldi's monkeys live in groups of around 6 individuals that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via shrill noises.
------
Goeldis_monkey|985305451
3c3
< The Geoldi's monkey was first described in 1904, making it one of the last species to be described.  Its features are intermediate to those of [[Callitrichidae]] and [[Cebidae]], and are sufficiently different to warrant its own family, [[Callimiconidae]].
---
> The Geoldi's monkey was first described in 1904, making it one of the last species to be described.  Its features are intermediate to those of [[Callitrichidae]] and [[Cebidae]].  It is sometimes placed in its own family [[Callimiconidae]] and sometimes in [[Callitrichidae]].
9c9
< In the wild, Goeldi's monkeys live in groups of around 6 individuals that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via shrill noises.
---
> In the wild, Goeldi's monkeys live in groups of around 6 individuals that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via shrill noises.
------
Primates|985305578
17c17,21
<     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]] (apes, including humans)
---
>     Family [[Hominidae]] or [[Pongidae]] (apes, including humans)
> 
> ----
> 
> Why is this the only order that does not end in 'a'?
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985305794
21,24d20
< '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
< 
< A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
< ----
27,28c23
< A. From a technical point of view, wiki doesn't care what language the page is in.  But since English is the language we started with, if you start writing in other languages, there are apt to be competing versions of the same content in different languages.  But, for example, perhaps at the bottom of my [[Thomas Reid]] page you could put a link to ThomasReidDe, and include a German translation of the page.  Just a thought.  (Might not be worth it!)  There are already a few French pages such as LangueFrancaise.
< 
---
> A. On Wikipedia, English.  But we can set up wikis in any language.  Please ask (or look to see if one has been created in your language) on [[international Wikipedia]].
32c27,29
< A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...
---
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...and you can make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
> 
> A2. Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone write a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
34c31
< And make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
---
> In this way, accidental linking is maximized.  I think that this plan fits the [[principle of least astonishment]].
40c37
< '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
---
> '''Q.  Is it possible for a vandal to delete all Wikipedia pages?'''
42c39
< A. CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki?  Sure.
---
> A. Not really.  You need to be a wiki administrator (with a special password) to permanently and totally delete pages.  Any other users could remove the text of a page, but any other user could restore the text from the "kept pages" archive (which is kept for at least 2 weeks in the default wiki setup).  If someone did an extensive attack, they could be blocked from further editing by the admins.  (In the future a new feature may also allow an admin to undo all recent edits from a particular user or IP address.)  Moreover, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
44c41
< '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
---
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
46c43
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
---
> A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
48c45
< '''Q. Is someone keeping regular backups of this site? What if I write a great article and some clod shows up and nukes it? I'd like some assurance that my efforts aren't going to waste.'''
---
> '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
50,54c47
< A. Well, you probably shouldn't post to this site! Contribute to [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] instead!  Here, there's nothing to stop clods from nuking great articles... but the site does keep previous versions of pages (see the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of this page).  Feel free to reinstate previous master works if the current version of a page disappoints you (but who knows - you might even be a clod and not know it!).  And yes, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
< ----
< '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
< 
< A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
---
> A. [[CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|Sure]].
60c53
< '''Q. Is the words/articles/items OpenContent? What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
---
> '''Q. Are Wikipedia articles [[open content]]?  What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
62c55,59
< A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
> ----
> '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
> 
> A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
70,88c67
< A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.
< ----
< '''Q. This is very weird.  On OntOlogy, when using the name "AristotlE" as a possessive, in the first paragraph I wrote "AristotlE", followed by five single quote marks, followed by "s".  This produced "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e").  In the ''next'' paragraph, when I wanted to produce the same effect, I wrote the ''exact same thing,'' and instead of producing "Aristotle's" (with an upper case "e"), WikiWiki emboldened the whole paragraph after that point.  Instead, what I found I had to do was write "AristotlE", followed by ''just one'' single quote mark, followed by "s".  So why didn't what worked in the first paragraph also work in the second paragraph?'''
< 
< A. Use [ [Aristotle]]'s You need never mess with multiple quotes again.
< 
< A.  The single-quote forms of bold and italic formatting do not always do what you'd expect when they are nested.  If you are doing special forms of formatting, you may want to use the <nowiki><i> and <b></nowiki> tags like <tt><nowiki><i>this will be italic</i></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki><b>this will be bold</b></nowiki></tt>.  These tag-based forms are much easier to use than trying to remember whether to use 4, 5, or 6 single-quotes.  You can also use the tag-based forms over multiple lines of text, although this should be used sparingly.
< 
< :Could you reproduce the problem in the SandBox page?  I'll take a closer look to see if there was a bug or simply an unexpected rendering in this case.  --CliffordAdams
< 
< :''Done!  By the way, I thought <i>HTML italic</i> and <b>bold</b> tags didn't work on this wiki software.  At least, I seem to remember them being displayed a week or two ago.  Also, another example can be found in the first paragraph of SemanticDispute.  One can't use two sets of four single quote marks in the same paragraph, it seems.'' -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< Bold and italic tags work, along with the <nowiki><tt></nowiki> and <nowiki><pre></nowiki> tags.  Most other tags don't work in the wiki--many of them are unnecessary (like paragraph or list tags) or difficult to allow safely.  (Many tags can be misused with Javascript.)  Some tags will be added in future versions.  (I've already added em, strong, and code tags.) 
< 
< The problem in the page you quoted is that the five single-quotes after AristotlE were matched by the five single-quotes after SeT (at the end of the paragraph).  The single-quote formatting was never really meant to be used for separating page names from trailing letters.  (It was a recently-discovered quirk of wiki formatting.)
< 
< This wiki has a special feature for separating wiki page links (or any other kind of link) from trailing letters.  You can type <tt><nowiki>SeT""s</nowiki></tt> to get SeTs, <tt><nowiki>LoGic""s</nowiki></tt> for LoGics, etc.  Just add two double-quote characters immediately after the link and it will be removed in the output.  (The two-double-quote convention was chosen since it is easy to type, but is unlikely to be used accidentally.)  Note that the two double-quotes are only special if they immediately follow a link--simply typing "" in ordinary text will display two double-quotes.
< 
< I hope that the need for these conventions will disappear soon, as I'm working on new ways to form wiki links.  (See WhichWikiShouldWeUse for details.)  --CliffordAdams
---
> A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.  See the [[feature requests]] page.
90c69
< '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT. Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
---
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT.  Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
92,96c71
< A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.
< ----
< '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
< 
< A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
---
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.  You could always make a request on the [[feature requests]] page.
101,104d75
< 
< A2. You can send to jasonr at aristotle.bomis.com any tiny image you would like uploaded to the Wikipedia server.  You could then use that tiny image in your articles!
< 
< '''Q.  Is there any reason why we can't do what is described just above under A2?  Or any reason to think this is a bad idea?  Also, what will the code look like-- simply <nowiki>/likethis.gif</nowiki>, or what?'''
108c79
< :Good question.  They do use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
---
> A. Good question.  Wiki software does use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
117,125d87
< 
< ----
< '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
< 
< A. Surely both.
< ----
< '''Q. How can I help publicize Wikipedia?'''
< 
< A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
127c89
< <b>Q.</b> How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?
---
> <b>Q. How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?</b>
129c91
< <b>A1.</b> Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (March 2001) login procedure.
---
> A1. Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (March 2001) login procedure.
131c93
< <b>A2.</b> If you really want to log in, here is the procedure:
---
> A2. If you really want to log in, here is the procedure:
140c102,116
< This page needs refactoring...  :-) --LS
---
> '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
> 
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
> ----
> '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
> 
> A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
> ----
> '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
> 
> A. Surely both.
> ----
> '''Q. How can I help publicize Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
------
Udo_of_Aachen|985305830
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Udo of Aachen was a monk who lived from around 1200AD - 1270AD.
> He is most known for being the poet whose poem was set to music by [[Carl Orff]] with the haunting [[O Fortuna]] in [[Carmina Burana]].
> 
> Udo was also an illustrator and theologian, and something truly remarkable has recently come to light... Udo discovered the [[Mandelbrot set]], some 700 years before [[Benoit Mandelbrot]].
> This was discovered when [[Bob Schipke]], a mathematician, saw a picture of the Mandelbrot set in an illumination for a 13th century carol.
> 
> [http://www.freezone.co.uk/rgirvan/udo.htm This page] has the details.
> 
> Please flesh out more details about Udo, preferably compiling from multiple sources and NOT plagiarizing the linked webpage.
> :-)
> 
> I think this is the neatest thing I've seen this millenium.
------
Udo_of_Aachen|985305856
4c4
< Udo was also an illustrator and theologian, and something truly remarkable has recently come to light... Udo discovered the [[Mandelbrot set]], some 700 years before [[Benoit Mandelbrot]].
---
> Udo was also an illustrator and theologian, and something <i>truly remarkable</i> has recently come to light... Udo discovered the [[Mandelbrot set]], some 700 years before [[Benoit Mandelbrot]].
12c12
< I think this is the neatest thing I've seen this millenium.
---
> I think this is the neatest thing I've seen this millenium.
------
Udo_of_Aachen|985305870
10d9
< :-)
------
Udo_of_Aachen|985305914
11a12,13
> 
> AUGH, it turned out to be an April Fool's joke, and I got caught!
------
Goeldis_monkey|985305961
1c1
< Goeldi's monkey ([[Callimico Goeldi]]) is a small, [[South America|South American]] monkey that lives in the upper [[Amazon]] region of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Columbia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]].  They are blackish or blackish-brown in color.
---
> Goeldi's monkey ([[Callimico Goeldi]]) is a small, [[South America|South American]] monkey that lives in the upper [[Amazon]] region of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Columbia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]].  They are blackish or blackish-brown in color.  Their bodies are around 8 to 9 inches long (about 22 cm), and their tails are 10-12 inches long (25-30 cm).
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985306000
9c9
< A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with BenKovitz on the evening of January 2.
---
> A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with Ben Kovitz on the evening of January 2.
116c116
< A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
---
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
------
Hawaii|985306125
19c19
< I'm impressed...it's not "Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii" ;)
---
> I'm impressed...it's not "[[Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii]]" ;)
------
Feature_requests|985306230
18a19
> * Clicking the name of the article at the top of the page searches for the link, but it would be possibly more useful for that to point to a list of all the pages that ''link to'' the page in question.  There doesn't seem to be any way to do that at present. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Mammalia|985306365
6c6
<  Subclass Metatheria (marsupials)
---
>  Subclass Metatheria ([[Marsupial|marsupials]])
------
Primates|985306562
19a20
> Why is this the only order that does not end in 'a'?
21c22
< Why is this the only order that does not end in 'a'?
---
> Latin has a couple different declensions, with different ways of forming plurals.  Most orders are second declension, but a few - like this one - are third.  It's the only one among the mammals, but there are others - most orders of fish, for instance, have names like [[Cypriniformes]] and [[Perciformes]].
------
Callitrichidae|985306687
9c9
<  Genus ''[[Callimico]]''
---
>  Genus ''[[Callimico]]'' - the [[Goeldis monkey]]
------
Marsupial|985307117
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Marsupials are mammals in which the female typically has a pouch in which it rears its young through early infancy.  They belong to the subclass of [[Mammalia]] known as [[Metatheria]].
> 
> Marsupials differ from placental mammals [[Eutheria]] in there reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis to corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
> 
> There are between 260 and 280 species of marsupials.  They are commonly found in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].  There are also many extant species in [[South America]] and one species, the Virginia opossum, native to [[North America]].
> 
> 
------
Marsupial|985307248
6a7,11
> * Marsupials include:
>  [[Kangaroo]]
>  [[Wombat]]
>  [[Koala]]
>  [[Sugar glider]]
------
Marsupial|985307472
3c3
< Marsupials differ from placental mammals [[Eutheria]] in there reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis to corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
---
> Marsupials differ from placental mammals ([[Eutheria]]) in their reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis to corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
------
Marsupial|985307491
3c3
< Marsupials differ from placental mammals ([[Eutheria]]) in their reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis to corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
---
> Marsupials differ from placental mammals ([[Eutheria]]) in their reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis which corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
------
Marsupial|985307502
3c3
< Marsupials differ from placental mammals ([[Eutheria]]) in their reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis which corresponds with the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
---
> Marsupials differ from placental mammals ([[Eutheria]]) in their reproductive traits.  The female has two vaginas, each of which leads to a different compartment in the uterus.  Males usually have a two-pronged penis which corresponds to the females two vaginas.  The pregnant female develops a kind of yolk sack in her placenta which delivers nutrients to the embryo.  The embryo is born at a very early stage of development (at about 4-5 weeks), upon which it crawls into the mother's pouch and attaches itself to a nipple.  It remains attached to the nipple for a number of weeks.  The offspring later passes through a stage where it temporarily leaves the pouch, returning for food and nourishment.
------
Goeldis_monkey|985307561
3c3
< The Geoldi's monkey was first described in 1904, making it one of the last species to be described.  Its features are intermediate to those of [[Callitrichidae]] and [[Cebidae]].  It is sometimes placed in its own family [[Callimiconidae]] and sometimes in [[Callitrichidae]].
---
> The Geoldi's monkey was first described in 1904, making it one of the last monkey genus to be described.  Its features are intermediate to those of [[Callitrichidae]] and [[Cebidae]].  It is sometimes placed in its own family [[Callimiconidae]] and sometimes in [[Callitrichidae]].
------
PaGe|985307908
1c1
< 
---
> page
------
SandBox|985308321
155a156,172
> 
> HTML heading tags:
> 
> <h1>Level 1 Heading</h1>
> Body text.
> <h2>Level 2 Heading</h2>
> Body text.
> <h3>Level 3 Heading</h3>
> Body text.
> <h4>Level 4 Heading</h4>
> Body text.
> <h5>Level 5 Heading</h5>
> Body text.
> <h6>Level 6 Heading</h6>
> Body text.
> 
> 
------
Cattle|985308329
13c13
<  [[Blonde d'Aqui]]
---
>  [[Blonde dAqui|Blonde d'Aqui]]
------
Mammalia|985308508
28c28
<    Order [[Artiodactlya]] (pigs, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, etc)
---
>    Order [[Artiodactyla]] (pigs, deer, [[cattle]], goats, sheep, etc)
------
Cattle|985308527
1c1
< see [[Artiodactlya]].
---
> see [[Artiodactyla]].
------
Josh_Grosse|985308812
58a59,60
> ----
> I beg to differ, Josh--you don't suck.  :-)  You're demonstrating remarkable versatility and you're a good hand. --LS
------
Josh_Grosse|985309127
60c60,62
< I beg to differ, Josh--you don't suck.  :-)  You're demonstrating remarkable versatility and you're a good hand. --LS
---
> I beg to differ, Josh--you don't suck.  :-)  You're demonstrating remarkable versatility and you're a good hand. --LS
> 
> Thanks very much!  Actually, though, I was just referring to a typo - [[Artiodactlya]] - of the sort that has a remarkable habit of spreading. :)
------
PaGe|985309356
1c1
< page
---
> #REDIRECT [[Page]]
------
Linguistics|985309473
17a18
> * [[evolutionary linguistics]]
------
Evolutionary_linguistics|985309668
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The scientific study of the history of the origins of language and its development - difficult, because language leaves only vicarious traces in the fossil record.
> 
> Nevertheless, a worthwhile subject of study - too long ignored.
> (see also Evolutionary Psychology)
------
CodE|985310494
1,2c1
< A CodE is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., a letter, word, or phrase) with another object, but not necessarily of the same sort.  Probably the most widely known CodE in use today is [[ASCII]].  Employed by nearly all personal [[computer]]s and [[computer terminal|terminal]]s, it represents 128 characters (and operations such as back space and carriage return) in the form of seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s.  In [[ASCII]] a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on.  In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO (Are you trying to crawl out of it?), LIOUY (Why do you not answer my question[s]?), AYYLU (not clearly coded, repeat more clearly), or AZQUL (recheck coding and verify).  [[Acronym]]s are also widely known and used codes, for example, RSVP and WASP.  Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word.  E.g., <i>snafu</i>, originally coined by the [[United States]] military as an acronym for "situation normal, all f****d up", is used today as an ordinary noun describing such a situation.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Code]]
------
Code|985310519
1c1,8
< #REDIRECT CodE
---
> A <i>code</i> is simply an unvarying rule for replacing a piece of information (e.g., a letter, word, or phrase) with another object or action, not necessarily of the same sort.  One reason this is done is to enable communication in places where normal methods of language use aren't possible.  For example, the code of [[semaphore flags]] replaces each letter of the alphabet with a configuration of flags held by a signaller.  Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the letters, enabling the signaller to communicate with someone too far away to hear ordinary speech.  [[Morse code]] is another such code that allows communication over telegraph wires, flashing lights, or other channels that cannot carry speech or text.  In the first quarter of this century, before the telegraph was supplanted by radio communications, elaborate commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single words (five-letter groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to crawl out of it?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), and AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly.").
> 
> Another use of codes is [[cryptography]], whereby a code known to the "trusted" communicating parties but unknown to anyone else is used to prevent eavesdropping.  This kind of code is also called a <i>cipher</i>.
> 
> Probably the most widely known code in use today is [[ASCII]].  It is employed by nearly all personal [[computer]]s, [[computer terminal|terminal]]s, [[computer printer|printer]]s, and other communication equipment.  It represents 128 [[character]]s with seven-bit binary numbers--i.e., as a string of seven 1s and 0s.  In ASCII a lowercase "a" is always 1100001, an uppercase "A" always 1000001, and so on.
> 
> [[Acronym]]s and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense all [[language]]s and writing systems are codes for human thoughts.  Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word.  For example, the number "86" was once used as a code word in restaurants meaning "We're out of the requested item".  It is now commonly used to mean the removal or destruction of something.
> 
------
ASCII|985310898
3c3
< ASCII is a 7-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the integers representable with 7 binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Even at that time, most computers dealt with 8-bit words; the 8th bit was commonly used for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.  Advances in technology and the international spread of that technology produced many variations and [[Extended ASCII|extensions]], not all of them compatible with each other or with existing systems.
---
> ASCII is a seven-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the integers representable with seven binary digits (0 to 127) to represent information.  Even at that time, most computers dealt with eight-bit words; the eighth bit was commonly used for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions.  Advances in technology and the international spread of that technology produced many variations and [[Extended ASCII|extensions]], not all of them compatible with each other or with existing systems.
18c18
< Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing letters, digits, and punctuation (see Table 1).  Code 127 (all 7 bits on) is a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
---
> Code 32 is the "space" character, denoting the space between words, produced by the large space bar of a keyboard.  Codes 33 to 126 are the "printable" characters representing letters, digits, and punctuation (see Table 1).  Code 127 (all seven bits on) is a special character known as "delete" or "rubout".  Though its function is similar to that of other control characters, it was placed at this position so that it could be used to erase a section of [[paper tape]], a popular storage medium at the time, by punching out all its holes.
20,22c20
< <b>READERS NOTE:</b> Some of what follows describes foreign characters still not available on many computers, and which may not appear correctly to you.  International standards for information exchange are still evolving and still coming into use slowly.
< 
< ASCII does not include characters needed to encode many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard [[ISO]] 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It is still a 7-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused in different variants.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO 646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO 646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and ISO 10646 ([[Unicode]]) cause fewer problems, so these 7-bit variants have fallen out of use.
---
> ASCII does not include characters needed to encode many common languages that also use Roman-based alphabets.  International standard [[ISO]] 646 (1972) was the first attempt to remedy the problem, although it regrettably created compatibility problems as well.  It is still a seven-bit code, and since no additional codes were available, some were reused in different variants.  For example, the ASCII code 93 for the right square bracket (<b>]</b>) is used in the [[Germany|German]] variant ISO 646-DE for the uppercase letter U with umlaut (<b>&Uuml;</b>), and in the [[Denmark|Danish]] variant ISO 646-DK for the uppercase letter A with ring (<b>&Aring;</b>).  Later standards such as ISO 8859 and particularly [[Unicode]]-based ones such as ISO 10646 cause fewer problems, so these seven-bit variants have fallen out of use.
------
Code|985310978
3c3
< Another use of codes is [[cryptography]], whereby a code known to the "trusted" communicating parties but unknown to anyone else is used to prevent eavesdropping.  This kind of code is also called a <i>cipher</i>.
---
> Another use of codes is [[cryptography]], whereby a code known to the "trusted" communicating parties but unknown to anyone else is used to prevent eavesdropping.  This kind of code is also called a <i>[[cipher]]</i>.
------
GPS|985311224
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Global Positioning System" is a system of determining one's
> position using the time signals of a network of US military
> satellites. 
------
GPS|985311243
1c1
< "Global Positioning System" is a system of determining one's
---
> 'Global Positioning System' is a system of determining one's
3c3
< satellites. 
---
> satellites. 
------
GPS|985311263
1c1
< 'Global Positioning System' is a system of determining one's
---
> ''Global Positioning System'' is a system of determining one's
------
Unicode|985311765
1c1,3
< The [[California]]-based [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode Consortium] first published "The Unicode Standard" in 1991, and continues to develop standards based on that original work.  The term <i>Unicode</i> is primarily used to refer to the [[character encoding]] specified by that document and its later versions, but the consortium develops other standards as well, such as [[text encoding]]s and [[computer programming]] standards and tools.  A version of the character encoding became international standard [[ISO]] 10646 in 1993.
---
> The [[California]]-based [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode Consortium] first published "The Unicode Standard" in 1991, and continues to develop standards based on that original work.  The goal of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[computer character|character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  This can be used to create [[character encoding]]s and facilitate translation among other encodings.  One of these encodings, called [[UCS-16]], is a 16-bit encoding standardized as [[ISO]] 10646, and is what most people mean when they use the word "Unicode" without further qualification.  Various [[text encoding]]s of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages).  The consortium also produces these, as well as [[computer programming]] standards and tools.
> 
> The first 256 codes of UCS-16 precisely match those of ISO 8859-1, the most popular 8-bit character encoding.
3d4
< As a character encoding, the goal of Unicode is to specify a [[code]] matching every [[computer character|character]] needed by every human language to a single unique integer.  Various [[text encoding]]s of these can be used to represent text in any language (or any set of multiple languages).  This encoding can further be used to precisely define other more limited character encodings, facilitating translation among them.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985312087
3c3
< I am a skeptic about intellectual property in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me, and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version that contains only my work which I will happily give you.
---
> I am skeptical of the value of intellectual property law in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]] and related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
------
Linguistics|985312422
1c1
< [[Linguistics]] is the study of LanguagE with a capital "L." [[Linguistics]] views LanguagE as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this.
---
> [[Linguistics]] is the study of [[Language]] with a capital "L." [[Linguistics]] views [[Language]] as a means of communication and studies how particular languages accomplish this.
21c21
< SouthEastAsianLanguages----
---
> ----SouthEastAsianLanguages
------
Periodic_Table|985312583
1,44c1
< A listing of the different [[Chemical Element|chemical elements]], arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
< 
<               Period
<   1    2    3    4    5    6    7
<                                       Group
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                           [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                           [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                           [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                           [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                           [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                           [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                           [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                           [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                           [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                           [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                           [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                           [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                           [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
<                 [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                 [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                  [[Vanadium|V]]  [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                 [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                 [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                 [[Iron|Fe]]  [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Copper|Cu]]  [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]        12 (IIB)
<        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<        [[Carbon|C]]   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<        [[Nitrogen|N]]    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
< 
< ----
< I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com.
< 
< ''There's still stuff missing from that page...for instance, with a quick search at least, I couldn't find anything about the neat things that [[Helium]] does at low temperatures.  Not that we have any of that stuff...but if anyone was ever interested, they could add it, and that's what counts. :)''
< 
< ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Periodic table]]
------
Periodic_table|985312660
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A listing of the different [[Chemical Element|chemical elements]], arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
> 
>               Period
>   1    2    3    4    5    6    7
>                                       Group
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                           [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                           [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                           [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                           [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                           [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                           [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                           [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                           [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                           [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                           [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                           [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                           [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                           [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
>                 [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                 [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                  [[Vanadium|V]]  [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                 [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                 [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                 [[Iron|Fe]]  [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                 [[Copper|Cu]]  [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]        12 (IIB)
>        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>        [[Carbon|C]]   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>        [[Nitrogen|N]]    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
> 
> ----
> I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com.
> 
> ''There's still stuff missing from that page...for instance, with a quick search at least, I couldn't find anything about the neat things that [[Helium]] does at low temperatures.  Not that we have any of that stuff...but if anyone was ever interested, they could add it, and that's what counts. :)''
> 
> ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
> 
> We now officially have material that webelements doesn't - we know that [[carbon]] has a nitride.  Ok, so it's not much, but there's nowhere to go but up.
> 
------
Chemistry|985312777
1c1,7
< The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.  For a listing of the different elements, see the [[Periodic Table]]; for principles see:
---
> The study of the basic atomic building-blocks of nature and how they combine to form the solids, liquids, and gases that make up life and everything else with which we're familiar.  For the many different elements and compounds, see:
> 
> * The [[Periodic table]]
> * [[Inorganic chemistry]], which ties into [[minerology]]
> * [[Organic chemistry]], which ties into [[biochemistry]]
> 
> For some basic concepts see:
5d10
< * [[Organic Chemistry]]
7d11
< 
------
Organic_Chemistry|985312864
1,5c1
< The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>[[organic compound]]s</i>.
< 
< For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Wohler in 1828.
< 
< The specific study of the molecules made by living things, and their effects on living things, is called [[biochemistry]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Organic chemistry]]
------
Organic_chemistry|985312936
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the production and study of [[Molecule|molecules]] containing [[carbon]], known as <i>[[organic compound]]s</i>.
> 
> For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Wohler in 1828.
> 
> The specific study of the molecules made by living things, and their effects on living things, is called [[biochemistry]].
------
United_States_Constitution|985314150
1,8c1
< */Preamble
< *[[/Article One]]
< *[[/Article Two]]
< *[[/Article Three]]
< *[[/Article Four]]
< *[[/Article Five]]
< *[[/Article Six]]
< *[[/Article Seven]]
---
> Completed on September 12, 1787, and later ratified by the legislatures of the original thirteen American colonies, the Constitution represents the supreme law of the [[United States]].  It created a more unified government in place of what was then a group of independent states operating under the [[Articles of Confederation]].
9a3,19
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
> 
> */Preamble Introduces the document and its purpose.
> 
> We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
> 
> *[[/Article One]] describes Congress (the legislative branch) and outlines its powers and limits.
> *[[/Article Two]] describes the presidency (the executive branch).
> *[[/Article Three]] describes the court system (the judicial branch), including the Supreme Court.
> *[[/Article Four]] describes the powers and limitations of the states, and how new states are added.
> *[[/Article Five]] describes the process of amendment.
> *[[/Article Six]] establishes the Constitution (and treaties made in accordance with it) as the supreme law of the land.
> *[[/Article Seven]] describes the method of ratification.
> 
> <h2>Bill of Rights</h2>
> 
> The presence of a bill of rights, detailing exactly what rights are guaranteed to Americans by the Constitution, was a point of contention in the original debates.  As a compromise, the Constitution was passed without it, and it was agreed that they would later be passed as amendments.  Twelve such amendments were proposed; ten passed on December 15, 1791 to become what is now known as the <i>Bill of Rights</i>.  One of the two amendments not passed was ratified over 200 years later to become [[Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment XXVII]].
20a31,33
> 
> <h2>Later Amendments</h2>
> 
------
FermatsLastTheorem|985314393
1,11c1
< FermatsLastTheorem (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no [[natural numbers]] x, y, and z such that
< 
< : x<sup>n</sup> + y<sup>n</sup> = z<sup>n</sup>
< 
< 
< in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician PierreDeFermat wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
< were baffled by the statement, for they were unable either to prove or to disprove it, although the statement had been proved for many specific values of n.
< 
< Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]], with help from his former student, [[Richard Taylor]], devised a proof of FermatsLastTheorem that was published in 1995 in the journal [[Annals of Mathematics]].
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Fermats Last Theorem]]
------
Fermats_Last_Theorem|985314505
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Fermat's Last Theorem'' (also called Fermat' Great Theorem)states that there are no [[natural numbers]] x, y, and z such that
> 
> : x<sup>n</sup> + y<sup>n</sup> = z<sup>n</sup>
> 
> 
> in which n is a natural number greater than  2. About this the 17th-century mathematician [[Pierre de Fermat]] wrote in 1637 in his copy of Claude-Gaspar Bachet's translation of Diophantus' Arithmetica, "I have discovered a  truly remarkable proof but this margin is too small to contain it." Mathematicians long
> were baffled by the statement, for they were unable either to prove or to disprove it, although the statement had been proved for many specific values of n.
> 
> Using sophisticated tools from algebraic geometry, the English mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]], with help from his former student, [[Richard Taylor]], devised a proof of ''Fermat's Last Theorem'' that was published in 1995 in the journal [[Annals of Mathematics]].
> 
------
United_States_Constitution|985314545
21,30c21,30
< *[[/Amendment One|Amendment One]]
< *[[/Amendment Two|Amendment Two]]
< *[[/Amendment Three|Amendment Three]]
< *[[/Amendment Four|Amendment Four]]
< *[[/Amendment Five|Amendment Five]]
< *[[/Amendment Six|Amendment Six]]
< *[[/Amendment Seven|Amendment Seven]]
< *[[/Amendment Eight|Amendment Eight]]
< *[[/Amendment Nine|Amendment Nine]]
< *[[/Amendment Ten|Amendment Ten]]
---
> *[[/Amendment One|Amendment One]] Freedom of speech, religion, assembly.
> *[[/Amendment Two|Amendment Two]] Right to keep and bear arms.
> *[[/Amendment Three|Amendment Three]] Protection from quartering of troops.
> *[[/Amendment Four|Amendment Four]] Protection from unreasonable search and seizure.
> *[[/Amendment Five|Amendment Five]] Due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination, takings.
> *[[/Amendment Six|Amendment Six]] Trial by jury and other rights of the accused.
> *[[/Amendment Seven|Amendment Seven]] Civil trial by jury.
> *[[/Amendment Eight|Amendment Eight]] Prohibition of excessive bail, cruel or unusal punishment.
> *[[/Amendment Nine|Amendment Nine]] Declares that other rights not listed may be protected.
> *[[/Amendment Ten|Amendment Ten]] Grants residual power to the states and to the people.
------
PierreDeFermat|985314582
1,3c1
< PierreDeFermat is often called the founder of the modern theory of numbers. Together with ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century. Independently of ReneDescartes, PierreDeFermat discovered the fundamental principle of analytic geometry. His methods for finding tangents to curves and their maximum and minimum points led him to be regarded as the inventor of the differential calculus. Through his correspondence with BlaisePascal he was a co-founder of the theory of probability.
< 
< ''See'' FermatsLastTheorem
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pierre de Fermat]]
------
Pierre_de_Fermat|985314717
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Pierre de Fermat'' is often called the founder of the modern [[theory of numbers]]. Together with [[Rene Descartes]], Pierre de Fermat was one of the two leading mathematicians of the first half of the 17th century. Independently of Rene Descartes, Pierre de Fermat discovered the fundamental principle of [[analytic geometry]]. His methods for finding tangents to curves and their maximum and minimum points led him to be regarded as the inventor of the [[differential calculus]]. Through his correspondence with [[Blaise Pascal]] he was a co-founder of the [[theory of probability]].
> 
> ''See'' [[Fermats Last Theorem]]
------
United_States_Constitution|985314973
34,50c34,50
< *[[/Amendment Eleven|Amendment Eleven]]
< *[[/Amendment Twelve|Amendment Twelve]]
< *[[/Amendment Thirteen|Amendment Thirteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Fourteen|Amendment Fourteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Fifteen|Amendment Fifteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Sixteen|Amendment Sixteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Seventeen|Amendment Seventeen]]
< *[[/Amendment Eighteen|Amendment Eighteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Nineteen|Amendment Nineteen]]
< *[[/Amendment Twenty|Amendment Twenty]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentyone|Amendment Twentyone]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|Amendment Twentytwo]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentythree|Amendment Twentythree]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|Amendment Twentyfour]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|Amendment Twentyfive]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentysix|Amendment Twentysix]]
< *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment Twentyseven]]
---
> *[[/Amendment Eleven|Amendment Eleven]] Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals.
> *[[/Amendment Twelve|Amendment Twelve]] Canges the method of presidential elections.
> *[[/Amendment Thirteen|Amendment Thirteen]] Abolishes slavery.
> *[[/Amendment Fourteen|Amendment Fourteen]] "Equal protection", congressional elections.
> *[[/Amendment Fifteen|Amendment Fifteen]] Ensures right to vote for former slaves.
> *[[/Amendment Sixteen|Amendment Sixteen]] Creates the income tax.
> *[[/Amendment Seventeen|Amendment Seventeen]] Method for filling Senate vacancies.
> *[[/Amendment Eighteen|Amendment Eighteen]] Prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Nineteen|Amendment Nineteen]] Women's right to vote.
> *[[/Amendment Twenty|Amendment Twenty]] Details of presidential succession.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyone|Amendment Twentyone]] Repeals prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|Amendment Twentytwo]] Limits president to two terms.
> *[[/Amendment Twentythree|Amendment Twentythree]] Creates [[District of Columbia]] 
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|Amendment Twentyfour]] Abolishes poll tax.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|Amendment Twentyfive]] More presidential succession rules.
> *[[/Amendment Twentysix|Amendment Twentysix]] Eighteen-year-olds' right to vote.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment Twentyseven]] Limits congressional pay raises.
------
United_States_Constitution|985315299
21,30c21,30
< *[[/Amendment One|Amendment One]] Freedom of speech, religion, assembly.
< *[[/Amendment Two|Amendment Two]] Right to keep and bear arms.
< *[[/Amendment Three|Amendment Three]] Protection from quartering of troops.
< *[[/Amendment Four|Amendment Four]] Protection from unreasonable search and seizure.
< *[[/Amendment Five|Amendment Five]] Due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination, takings.
< *[[/Amendment Six|Amendment Six]] Trial by jury and other rights of the accused.
< *[[/Amendment Seven|Amendment Seven]] Civil trial by jury.
< *[[/Amendment Eight|Amendment Eight]] Prohibition of excessive bail, cruel or unusal punishment.
< *[[/Amendment Nine|Amendment Nine]] Declares that other rights not listed may be protected.
< *[[/Amendment Ten|Amendment Ten]] Grants residual power to the states and to the people.
---
> *[[/Amendment One]] Freedom of speech, religion, assembly.
> *[[/Amendment Two]] Right to keep and bear arms.
> *[[/Amendment Three]] Protection from quartering of troops.
> *[[/Amendment Four]] Protection from unreasonable search and seizure.
> *[[/Amendment Five]] Due process, double jeopardy, self-incrimination, takings.
> *[[/Amendment Six]] Trial by jury and other rights of the accused.
> *[[/Amendment Seven]] Civil trial by jury.
> *[[/Amendment Eight]] Prohibition of excessive bail, cruel or unusal punishment.
> *[[/Amendment Nine]] Declares that other rights not listed may be protected.
> *[[/Amendment Ten]] Grants residual power to the states and to the people.
34,50c34,50
< *[[/Amendment Eleven|Amendment Eleven]] Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals.
< *[[/Amendment Twelve|Amendment Twelve]] Canges the method of presidential elections.
< *[[/Amendment Thirteen|Amendment Thirteen]] Abolishes slavery.
< *[[/Amendment Fourteen|Amendment Fourteen]] "Equal protection", congressional elections.
< *[[/Amendment Fifteen|Amendment Fifteen]] Ensures right to vote for former slaves.
< *[[/Amendment Sixteen|Amendment Sixteen]] Creates the income tax.
< *[[/Amendment Seventeen|Amendment Seventeen]] Method for filling Senate vacancies.
< *[[/Amendment Eighteen|Amendment Eighteen]] Prohibition of alcohol.
< *[[/Amendment Nineteen|Amendment Nineteen]] Women's right to vote.
< *[[/Amendment Twenty|Amendment Twenty]] Details of presidential succession.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyone|Amendment Twentyone]] Repeals prohibition of alcohol.
< *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|Amendment Twentytwo]] Limits president to two terms.
< *[[/Amendment Twentythree|Amendment Twentythree]] Creates [[District of Columbia]] 
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|Amendment Twentyfour]] Abolishes poll tax.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|Amendment Twentyfive]] More presidential succession rules.
< *[[/Amendment Twentysix|Amendment Twentysix]] Eighteen-year-olds' right to vote.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment Twentyseven]] Limits congressional pay raises.
---
> *[[/Amendment Eleven]] Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals.
> *[[/Amendment Twelve]] Canges the method of presidential elections.
> *[[/Amendment Thirteen]] Abolishes slavery.
> *[[/Amendment Fourteen]] "Equal protection", congressional elections.
> *[[/Amendment Fifteen]] Ensures right to vote for former slaves.
> *[[/Amendment Sixteen]] Creates the income tax.
> *[[/Amendment Seventeen]] Method for filling Senate vacancies.
> *[[/Amendment Eighteen]] Prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Nineteen]] Women's right to vote.
> *[[/Amendment Twenty]] Details of presidential succession.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyone|/Amendment Twenty-one]] Repeals prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|/Amendment Twenty-two]] Limits president to two terms.
> *[[/Amendment Twentythree|/Amendment Twenty-three]] Creates [[District of Columbia]] 
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|/Amendment Twenty-four]] Abolishes poll tax.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|/Amendment Twenty-five]] More presidential succession rules.
> *[[/Amendment Twentysix|/Amendment Twenty-six]] Eighteen-year-olds' right to vote.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|/Amendment Twenty-seven]] Limits congressional pay raises.
------
United_States_Constitution|985315382
7c7
< We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
---
> :We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985315855
15a16,17
> ----
> Your work on the [[United States Constitution]] page is stunning.  Wow. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Primates|985316034
19,22d18
< ----
< Why is this the only order that does not end in 'a'?
< 
< Latin has a couple different declensions, with different ways of forming plurals.  Most orders are second declension, but a few - like this one - are third.  It's the only one among the mammals, but there are others - most orders of fish, for instance, have names like [[Cypriniformes]] and [[Perciformes]].
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985316192
28a29,32
> <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[top grossing movies]], but that
> page should (as it does) explain when and how it was constructed, and it should invite updates.  I have been keeping a list of [[recent celebrity deaths]]that will obviously need to be refactored once those deaths aren't recent anymore.</i>
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985316224
29c29
< <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[top grossing movies]], but that
---
> <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[Top Grossing Movies]], but that
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985316318
30c30,33
< page should (as it does) explain when and how it was constructed, and it should invite updates.  I have been keeping a list of [[recent celebrity deaths]]that will obviously need to be refactored once those deaths aren't recent anymore.</i>
---
> page should (as it does) explain when and how it was constructed, and it should invite updates.  I have been keeping a list of [[recent celebrity deaths]]that will obviously need to be refactored once those deaths aren't recent anymore.
> 
> Another interesting take on the issue of timeliness is that we can very quickly have a page on any hot topic that people may suddenly find interesting.  Perhaps I should write a page about the high school where the shootings took place today.  Or, if something big happens in the news, let's say, in East Timor, then we rush there.</i>
> 
------
Technology|985316620
8a9
> * [[Microfluidics]]
------
Nitrogen|985317293
11c11
< The main hydride of nitrogen is [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) although [[hydrazine]] (N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also well known.  Ammonia is somewhat more basic than [[water]], and in solution forms [[ammonium]] [[ion|ions]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).  Liquid ammonia in fact undergoes a slight dissociation into ammonium and [[amide]] ions (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>); both amides and [[nitride]] (N<sup>3-</sup>) salts are known, but decompose in water.
---
> The main hydride of nitrogen is [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) although [[hydrazine]] (N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) is also well known.  Ammonia is somewhat more basic than [[water]], and in solution forms [[ammonium]] [[ion|ions]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).  Liquid ammonia in fact slightly amphiprotic and forms ammonium and [[amide]] ions (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>); both amides and [[nitride]] (N<sup>3-</sup>) salts are known, but decompose in water.
------
Technology|985317473
2,3d1
< * [[Computing]]
< * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
5,8c3,9
< * TransporT
< * SpacecraftPropulsion
< * EcheloN
< * TheSingularity
---
> * [[Transport]]
> * [[Electronics]]
> * [[Computing]]
> * [[Military]]
> * Some sort of heading involving spies and stuff
> * * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
> * * EcheloN
9a11,12
> * TheSingularity
> 
------
Technology|985317490
8,9c8,9
< * * [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
< * * EcheloN
---
> ** [[Cryptology]] and [[Cryptography]]
> ** EcheloN
------
Military|985317586
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An organization devoted to the fine art of killing people and taking their stuff.
------
Sex|985318962
4a5
> ::[[Bisexuality]]
14c15
< ::[[Aids]]
---
> ::[[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] -- commonly referred to as AIDS
------
United_States_Constitution|985321021
1c1
< Completed on September 12, 1787, and later ratified by the legislatures of the original thirteen American colonies, the Constitution represents the supreme law of the [[United States]].  It created a more unified government in place of what was then a group of independent states operating under the [[Articles of Confederation]].
---
> Completed on September 12, 1787, and later ratified by the legislatures of the original thirteen American [[Colonial America|colonies]], the Constitution represents the supreme [[law]] of the [[United States]].  It created a more unified [[government]] in place of what was then a group of independent states operating under the [[Articles of Confederation]].
5c5
< */Preamble Introduces the document and its purpose.
---
> *The [[/Preamble]] is a single sentence that introduces the document and its purpose:
9,11c9,11
< *[[/Article One]] describes Congress (the legislative branch) and outlines its powers and limits.
< *[[/Article Two]] describes the presidency (the executive branch).
< *[[/Article Three]] describes the court system (the judicial branch), including the Supreme Court.
---
> *[[/Article One]] describes Congress (the [[legislative branch]]) and outlines its powers and limits.
> *[[/Article Two]] describes the presidency (the [[executive branch]]).
> *[[/Article Three]] describes the court system (the [[judicial branch]]), including the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]].
19c19
< The presence of a bill of rights, detailing exactly what rights are guaranteed to Americans by the Constitution, was a point of contention in the original debates.  As a compromise, the Constitution was passed without it, and it was agreed that they would later be passed as amendments.  Twelve such amendments were proposed; ten passed on December 15, 1791 to become what is now known as the <i>Bill of Rights</i>.  One of the two amendments not passed was ratified over 200 years later to become [[Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment XXVII]].
---
> The presence of a "bill of rights", a list of exactly what rights are guaranteed to Americans by the Constitution, was a point of contention in the original debates.  As a compromise, the delegates passed the Constitution, and agreed that they would later pass such as bill as a collection of amendments.  Twelve such amendments were proposed; ten passed on December 15, 1791 to become what is now known as the <i>Bill of Rights</i>.  One of the two amendments not passed was ratified over 200 years later to become [[/Amendment Twentyseven|Amendment Twenty-seven]].
28c28
< *[[/Amendment Eight]] Prohibition of excessive bail, cruel or unusal punishment.
---
> *[[/Amendment Eight]] Prohibition of excessive bail, cruel punishment.
34,50c34,50
< *[[/Amendment Eleven]] Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals.
< *[[/Amendment Twelve]] Canges the method of presidential elections.
< *[[/Amendment Thirteen]] Abolishes slavery.
< *[[/Amendment Fourteen]] "Equal protection", congressional elections.
< *[[/Amendment Fifteen]] Ensures right to vote for former slaves.
< *[[/Amendment Sixteen]] Creates the income tax.
< *[[/Amendment Seventeen]] Method for filling Senate vacancies.
< *[[/Amendment Eighteen]] Prohibition of alcohol.
< *[[/Amendment Nineteen]] Women's right to vote.
< *[[/Amendment Twenty]] Details of presidential succession.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyone|/Amendment Twenty-one]] Repeals prohibition of alcohol.
< *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|/Amendment Twenty-two]] Limits president to two terms.
< *[[/Amendment Twentythree|/Amendment Twenty-three]] Creates [[District of Columbia]] 
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|/Amendment Twenty-four]] Abolishes poll tax.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|/Amendment Twenty-five]] More presidential succession rules.
< *[[/Amendment Twentysix|/Amendment Twenty-six]] Eighteen-year-olds' right to vote.
< *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|/Amendment Twenty-seven]] Limits congressional pay raises.
---
> *[[/Amendment Eleven]] (1795) Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals.
> *[[/Amendment Twelve]] (1804) Changes the method of presidential elections.
> *[[/Amendment Thirteen]] (1865) Abolishes slavery.
> *[[/Amendment Fourteen]] (1868) "Equal protection", congressional elections.
> *[[/Amendment Fifteen]] (1870) Ensures right to vote for former slaves.
> *[[/Amendment Sixteen]] (1913) Creates the income tax.
> *[[/Amendment Seventeen]] (1913) Method for filling Senate vacancies.
> *[[/Amendment Eighteen]] (1919) Prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Nineteen]] (1920) Women's right to vote.
> *[[/Amendment Twenty]] (1933) Details of presidential succession.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyone|/Amendment Twenty-one]] (1933) Repeals prohibition of alcohol.
> *[[/Amendment Twentytwo|/Amendment Twenty-two]] (1951) Limits president to two terms.
> *[[/Amendment Twentythree|/Amendment Twenty-three]] (1961) Grants electors to [[District of Columbia]] 
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfour|/Amendment Twenty-four]] (1964) Abolishes poll tax.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyfive|/Amendment Twenty-five]] (1967) More presidential succession rules.
> *[[/Amendment Twentysix|/Amendment Twenty-six]] (1971) Right to vote for eighteen-year-olds.
> *[[/Amendment Twentyseven|/Amendment Twenty-seven]] (1992) Limits congressional pay raises.
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_One|985321336
0a1,4
> Article One of the [[United States Constitution]] creates the [[Legislative branch]] of the [[United States Government|government]], comprising a [[United States Senate|Senate]] and [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].
> 
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
> 
177c181
< imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
---
> imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_One|985322164
5c5
< Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a SenatE and HouseofRepresentatives. 
---
> Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
7,21c7
< Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several
< states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state
< legislature. 
< 
< No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of
< the [[United States]], and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
< 
< Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according
< to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
< service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be
< made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years,
< in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each
< state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled
< to chuse three, MassachusettS eight, RhodeIsland and ProvidencePlantations one, ConnecticuT five, New York six, New Jersey
< four, PennsylvaniA eight, DelawarE one, Maryland six, VirginiA ten, NorthCarolina five, SouthCarolina five, and Georgia three. 
---
> Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 
23,24c9,13
< When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill
< such vacancies. 
---
> No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.  The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct.  The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
> 
> When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
28,29c17,39
< Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof
< , for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
---
> Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
> 
> Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes.  The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
> 
> No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
> 
> The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
> 
> The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
> 
> The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.  When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.  When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
> 
> Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
> 
> Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 
> 
> The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 
> 
> Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
> 
> Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 
> 
> Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
31,103c41,54
< Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
< classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the
< expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second
< year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof
< may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
< 
< No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United
< States and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
< 
< The VicePresidentoftheUnited States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
< 
< The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he
< shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
< 
< The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
< When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the
< concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
< 
< Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
< office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to
< indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
< 
< Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by
< the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
< Senators. 
< 
< The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
< shall by law appoint a different day. 
< 
< Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each
< shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
< attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
< 
< Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of
< two thirds, expel a member. 
< 
< Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
< judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
< those present, be entered on the journal. 
< 
< Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
< other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
< 
< Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
< of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from
< arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any
< speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
< 
< No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority
< of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no
< person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
< 
< Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
< amendments as on other Bills. 
< 
< Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
< President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which
< it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
< reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other
< House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all
< such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the
< bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days
< (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless
< the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
< 
< Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on
< a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be
< approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives,
< according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
< 
< Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
< common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the
< United States; 
---
> Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
> 
> Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States.  They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
> 
> No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
> 
> Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills. 
> 
> Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it.  If after such reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law.  But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively.  If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days
> (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
> 
> Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
> 
> Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 
117,118c68
< To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
< their respective writings and discoveries; 
---
> To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 
134,148c84
< To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
< service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
< militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
< 
< To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
< particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like
< authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts,
< magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And 
< 
< To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
< vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
< 
< Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
< prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such
< importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
---
> To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
150,151c86,92
< The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety
< may require it. 
---
> To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And 
> 
> To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
> 
> Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
> 
> The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 
155,156c96
< No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be
< taken. 
---
> No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
160,161c100
< No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall
< vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 
---
> No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 
166,181c105,111
< No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall,
< without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king,
< prince, or foreign state. 
< 
< Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
< bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or
< law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
< 
< No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely
< necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
< shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the
< Congress. 
< 
< No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into
< any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such
< imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
---
> No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 
> 
> Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
> 
> No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
------
United_States_Constitution|985322353
51a52,55
> 
> <h2>Other Resoources</h2>
> 
> * [http://www.nara.gov/exhall/charters/constitution/ National Archives]
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Two|985322753
1,2c1
< Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and
< House of Representatives. 
---
> Article Two of the [[United States Constitution]] creates the [[Executive branch]] of the [[United States Government|government]], comprising the [[President of the United States]] and the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]].
4,5c3
< Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states,
< and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 
---
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
7,8c5
< No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
< United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
---
> <h3>Section 1</h3>
10,17c7
< Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to
< their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service
< for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within
< three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such
< manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall
< have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse
< three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four,
< Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
---
> The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.
19,20c9
< When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such
< vacancies. 
---
> The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.
22c11
< The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
---
> The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.
24c13
< Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof
---
> No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.
26c15
< , for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
---
> In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.
28,32c17
< Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three
< classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the
< expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year;
< and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make
< temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
---
> The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.
34,35c19
< No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States
< and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
---
> Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."
37c21
< The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
---
> <h3>Section 2</h3>
39,40c23
< The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall
< exercise the office of President of the United States. 
---
> The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.
42,44c25
< The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
< When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the
< concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 
---
> He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
46,48c27
< Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
< office of honor, trust or profit under the United States: but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment,
< trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
---
> The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.
50,52c29
< Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by
< the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing
< Senators. 
---
> <h3>Section 3</h3>
54,55c31
< The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall
< by law appoint a different day. 
---
> He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.
57,59c33
< Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
< constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the
< attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
---
> <h3>Section 4</h3>
61,62c35
< Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two
< thirds, expel a member. 
---
> The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.
64,66d36
< Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
< judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
< those present, be entered on the journal. 
68,69d37
< Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
< other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 
71,176d38
< Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of
< the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
< during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or
< debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
< 
< No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of
< the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time: and no
< person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
< 
< Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with
< amendments as on other Bills. 
< 
< Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
< President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that House in which it
< shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
< reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House,
< by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the
< votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be
< entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays
< excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress
< by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 
< 
< Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a
< question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be
< approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according
< to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
< 
< Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the
< common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United
< States; 
< 
< To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
< 
< To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; 
< 
< To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 
< 
< To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
< 
< To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 
< 
< To establish post offices and post roads; 
< 
< To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their
< respective writings and discoveries; 
< 
< To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
< 
< To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 
< 
< To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 
< 
< To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 
< 
< To provide and maintain a navy; 
< 
< To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 
< 
< To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 
< 
< To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
< service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
< militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
< 
< To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of
< particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like
< authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts,
< magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings;--And 
< 
< To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by
< this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
< 
< Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be
< prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such
< importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
< 
< The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may
< require it. 
< 
< No bill of attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 
< 
< No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
< 
< No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 
< 
< No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall
< vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 
< 
< No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account
< of receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 
< 
< No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without
< the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign
< state. 
< 
< Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills
< of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
< impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
< 
< No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely
< necessary for executing it's inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports,
< shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
< 
< No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any
< agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent
< danger as will not admit of delay. 
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_One|985322929
5c5
< Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
---
> <h3>Section 1</h3>
7c7,11
< Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 
---
> All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
> 
> <h3>Section 2</h3>
> 
> The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 
17c21,23
< Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
---
> <h3>Section 3</h3>
> 
> The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
31c37,39
< Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 
---
> <h3>Section 4</h3>
> 
> The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 
35c43,45
< Section 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
---
> <h3>Section 5</h3>
> 
> Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
43c53,55
< Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States.  They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
---
> <h3>Section 6</h3>
> 
> The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States.  They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
47c59,61
< Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills. 
---
> <h3>Section 7</h3>
> 
> All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other Bills. 
54c68,70
< Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 
---
> <h3>Section 8</h3>
> 
> The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 
90c106,108
< Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
---
> <h3>Section 9</h3>
> 
> The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
107c125,127
< Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
---
> <h3>Section 10</h3>
> 
> No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Three|985323232
1c1
< Section 1. The judicial power of the [[United States]], shall be vested in one [[Supreme Court]], and in such inferior courts as the [[Congress]] may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
---
> Article Three of the [[United States Constitution]] creates the [[Judicial branch]] of the [[United States Government|government]], comprising the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] and inferior courts created by [[United States Congress|Congress]].
3,4c3
< Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and
< consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
---
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
6,8c5
< In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court
< shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
< to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 
---
> <h3>Section 1</h3>
10,12c7
< The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes
< shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by
< law have directed. 
---
> The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.  The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
14,16c9
< Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving
< them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on
< confession in open court. 
---
> <h3>Section 2</h3>
18,19c11,21
< The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or
< forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
---
> The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority;--to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;--to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;--to controversies to which the United States shall be a party;--to controversies between two or more states;--between a state and citizens of another state;--between citizens of different states;--between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
> 
> In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 
> 
> The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 
> 
> <h3>Section 3</h3>
> 
> Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 
> 
> The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Four|985323432
1,25c1,26
< Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state.
< And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the
< effect thereof. 
< 
< Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 
< 
< A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on
< demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of
< the crime. 
< 
< No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or
< regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or
< labor may be due. 
< 
< Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the
< jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of
< the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 
< 
< The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
< belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States,
< or of any particular state. 
< 
< Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of
< them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against
< domestic violence. 
---
> Article Four of the [[United States Constitution]] describes the relationship between the federal government and states.
> 
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
> 
> <h3>Section 1</h3>
> 
> Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
> 
> <h3>Section 2</h3>
> 
> The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 
> 
> A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 
> 
> No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 
> 
> <h3>Section 3</h3>
> 
> New states may be admitted by the Congress into this union; but no new states shall be formed or erected within the
> jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 
> 
> The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. 
> 
> <h3>Section 4</h3>
> 
> The United States shall guarantee to every state in this union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. 
------
United_States_Constitution|985323483
12c12
< *[[/Article Four]] describes the powers and limitations of the states, and how new states are added.
---
> *[[/Article Four]] describes the relationship between the states and the federal government.
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Five|985323600
1,7c1,5
< The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the
< application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either
< case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the
< several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the
< Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any
< manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be
< deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
---
> Article Five of the [[United States Constitution]] describes how to amend the document.
> 
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
> 
> The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Six|985323733
1,2c1
< All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United
< States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 
---
> Article Six of the [[United States Constitution]] establishes the document, and treaties made in accordance with it, as the supreme law of the land.
4,6c3
< This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall
< be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound
< thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
---
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
8,10c5,9
< The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial
< officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no
< religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 
---
> All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 
> 
> This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
> 
> The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 
------
United_States_Constitution/Article_Seven|985323896
0a1,4
> Article Seven of the [[United States Constitution]] outlines its method of ratification, and contains the signatures of the delegates.
> 
> <h2>Complete Text</h2>
> 
71c75
< Attest William Jackson Secretary 
---
> Attest William Jackson Secretary 
------
Sex|985324045
15c15
< ::[[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] -- commonly referred to as AIDS
---
> ::[[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] -- commonly referred to as [[AIDS]]
------
Microfluidics|985324099
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Microfluidics is a branch of phsyics and biotechnology that studies the behavior of fluids at the microscale and mesoscale, that is, fluids at volumes thousands of times smaller than a common droplet.  It also concerns the design of systems in which such small volumes of fluids will be used.
> 
> The behavior of fluids at the microscale can differ from 'macrofluidic' behavior in that factors such as surface tension, energy dissipation, and electrokinetics start to dominate the system.  Microfluidics studies how these behaviors change, and how they can be worked around, or exploited for new uses.
> 
> It is a new science, having emerged only in the 1990s, so the number of applications for this technology is currently small.  However, it is potentially significant in a wide range of technologies.  Microfluidics is used in the development of [[gene chip]] technology, as well as in micro-thermal and micro-propulsion technologies.
------
Microfluidics|985324120
1c1
< Microfluidics is a branch of phsyics and biotechnology that studies the behavior of fluids at the microscale and mesoscale, that is, fluids at volumes thousands of times smaller than a common droplet.  It also concerns the design of systems in which such small volumes of fluids will be used.
---
> Microfluidics is a branch of physics and biotechnology that studies the behavior of fluids at the microscale and mesoscale, that is, fluids at volumes thousands of times smaller than a common droplet.  It also concerns the design of systems in which such small volumes of fluids will be used.
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985324395
35a36,37
> Why not indeed supply basic background information (of the sort you find in an encyclopedia) about current events, as a sort of news magazine.  Often, the background info is much more important than the current events.  If entries like this could be distributed automatically via a mailing list, it could end up being a very useful resource.  Just a thought. --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
------
WikiIsNotPaper|985324937
56a57,59
> see also:
>  WikiIsNotRock
>  WikiIsNotScissors
------
Boethius|985325205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Boethius was a very early Christian philosopher and his most recognized work was the ConsolationOfPhilosophy.
------
BoethiuS|985325221
1c1
< Boethius was a very early Christian philosopher and his most recognized work was the ConsolationOfPhilosophy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Boethius]]
------
Consolation_Of_Philosophy|985325251
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This thin work depicts Socratic dialogues between an imprisoned Boethius (imprisoned because he was a Christian) and the woman Philosphy to help him come to terms with his suffering.  It tackles significant Christian questions about the foreknowledge of God as potential determinism as well as the purpose or place of suffering.
------
ConsolationOfPhilosophy|985325270
1c1
< This thin work depicts Socratic dialogues between an imprisoned Boethius (imprisoned because he was a Christian) and the woman Philosphy to help him come to terms with his suffering.  It tackles significant Christian questions about the foreknowledge of God as potential determinism as well as the purpose or place of suffering.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Consolation Of Philosophy]]
------
Philosophy_of_religion|985325292
1c1
< Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- BoethiuS
---
> Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Boethius]]
21c21
< In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
---
> In the second part of our examination of the philosophy of religion, we are going to be considering the merits of <i>theism</i>, insofar we are going to evaluate some arguments for the existence of God, and of <i>atheism</i>, insofar as we are going to examine one important argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  But we are <i>not</i> going to be considering the merits of <i>agnosticism</i>.  This is simply due to time constraints.  But I can at least tell you what it would mean to consider the merits of agnosticism.  Agnostics claim that the existence of God <i>cannot</i> be known; so to examine the merits of agnosticism would involve examining whether that claim have any good arguments in its favor.  It might also involve examining whether one can be, in some sense, justified in <i>not</i> <i>thinking</i> <i>about</i> whether or not God exists.  In other words, might we be justified in simply ignoring the issue of whether or not God exists?  No doubt some theists would want to take some agnostics to task for not even <i>thinking</i> about whether or not God exists.  And I’m sure you can imagine a debate, then, between them, where the theists on one side are saying that the agnostics really ought for the sake of their souls to be thinking about whether or not God really does exist, and the agnostics on the other side are saying that they are perfectly well justified in holding that thinking about it is a total waste of time.  Well anyway, <i>we</i> are not going to listen in on that debate, however interesting it might be, because we have bigger philosophical fish to fry.  And the first item on our menu, as I said, is the question of what God is.
------
Idiosyncratic|985325334
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Peculiar or particular to an individual.  Possibly eccentric.  This is not to say PatentNonsense.  
> 
> ----
> 
> We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently do as well.
------
IdiosyncratiC|985325360
1,5c1
< Peculiar or particular to an individual.  Possibly eccentric.  This is not to say PatentNonsense.  
< 
< ----
< 
< We would be remiss to mention that not only brilliant geniuses have idiosyncracies; blithering idiots quite frequently do as well.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Idiosyncratic]]
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|985325406
37c37
< From IdiosyncratiC:
---
> From [[Idiosyncratic]]:
------
Christianity|985325457
17c17
< Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating IdiosyncratiC views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
---
> Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating [[Idiosyncratic]] views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
------
Ang_Lee|985325537
3c3
< :[[Hidden Tiger Crouching Dragon]]
---
> :[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]
5c5
< :[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]
---
> :[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]
------
Word|985325848
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A unit of computer memory or storage that is 4 bytes = 32 bits long..
------
Word|985326712
1c1,3
< A unit of computer memory or storage that is 4 bytes = 32 bits long..
---
> A unit of computer memory or storage that is 4 bytes = 32 bits long.
> 
> I don't think this is right.  Everything I have dealt with has had two byte words - registers, variables, etc.  Four bytes make a double word.  (And of course, this isn't the primary meaning of word :)
------
Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon|985326865
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Martial Arts Film|Martial Arts]] and [[Fantasy Film|Fantasy]] film released in year 2000.  It was directed by [[Ang Lee]] and starred [[Chow Yun-Fat]], [[Michelle Yeoh]], and [[Ziyi Zhang]].
> 
> Made on a mere $15 million budget, with dialogue in Mandarin, <b>Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon</b> became a huge international success.  It grossed on the order of $100 million dollars in the [[United States]] alone - where foreign language films are very rarely embraced by the public.  It was nominated for numerous awards around the world, including The [[Academey Award|Academey Award's]] Best Picture.  It was filmed in Anhui Province, China.  It's Mandarin title is [[Wo hu zang long]].
> 
> Set in feudal [[China]], the story follows two experienced and legendary warriors, Li Mu Bai ([[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Shu Lien ([[Michelle Yeoh]]).  Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their love.  Meanwhile Jen [[Ziyi Zhang]], who has tasted adventure, yearns for more, and as a secret apprentice to the evil warrior Jade Fox (whom Li has sworn to kill) she has the skills to match any warrior she meets, except Li, who refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice.  But Jen is headstrong in her powers and maddened by her forbidden to desert bandit Lo, and she will not accept Li as a master.
> 
------
Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon|985326899
3c3
< Made on a mere $15 million budget, with dialogue in Mandarin, <b>Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon</b> became a huge international success.  It grossed on the order of $100 million dollars in the [[United States]] alone - where foreign language films are very rarely embraced by the public.  It was nominated for numerous awards around the world, including The [[Academey Award|Academey Award's]] Best Picture.  It was filmed in Anhui Province, China.  It's Mandarin title is [[Wo hu zang long]].
---
> Made on a mere $15 million budget, with dialogue in Mandarin, <b>Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon</b> became a huge international success.  It grossed on the order of $100 million dollars in the [[United States]] alone - where foreign language films are very rarely embraced by the public.  It was nominated for numerous awards around the world, including The [[Academy Award|Academy Award's]] Best Picture.  It was filmed in Anhui Province, China.  It's Mandarin title is [[Wo hu zang long]].
------
Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon|985326937
5c5
< Set in feudal [[China]], the story follows two experienced and legendary warriors, Li Mu Bai ([[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Shu Lien ([[Michelle Yeoh]]).  Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their love.  Meanwhile Jen [[Ziyi Zhang]], who has tasted adventure, yearns for more, and as a secret apprentice to the evil warrior Jade Fox (whom Li has sworn to kill) she has the skills to match any warrior she meets, except Li, who refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice.  But Jen is headstrong in her powers and maddened by her forbidden to desert bandit Lo, and she will not accept Li as a master.
---
> Set in feudal [[China]], the story follows two experienced and legendary warriors, Li Mu Bai ([[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Shu Lien ([[Michelle Yeoh]]).  Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their love.  Meanwhile Jen [[Ziyi Zhang]], who has tasted adventure, yearns for more, and as a secret apprentice to the evil warrior Jade Fox (whom Li has sworn to kill) she has the skills to match any warrior she meets, except Li, who refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice.  But Jen is headstrong in her powers and maddened by her forbidden love to desert bandit Lo, and she will not accept Li as a master.
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartComet|985327130
1,6c1
< The Taggart Comet is /TaggartTranscontinental's flagship train.  It runs from /NewYork to /SanFrancisco and has never been late.
< 
< The Taggart Comet appears in:
<  /SectioN112
<  /SectioN113
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Taggart Comet]]
------
Politics|985327669
1c1,5
< Politics comes from the root word poly meaning many and tics meaning bloodsucking insects. 
---
> A social science that, in its most general, addresses the question of how to improve the state of society.
> 
> Political divisions arise over disagreements on two fundamental questions: 1) what changes to society are desirable, and 2) what actions will lead to the desired results, which is to say over: 1) ends, and 2) means.
> 
> Those who have political power get to answer these questions as they see fit, and impose their answers on society.  Much of what politics is in practice, is the wrangling for power in order to do just that.
34c38
< PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
---
> PunDits: WilliamFBuckleyJr
------
Politics|985327733
8c8
< '''Political Ideologies:'''
---
> '''Political Systems and Ideologies:'''
------
Politics|985327766
1c1
< A social science that, in its most general, addresses the question of how to improve the state of society.
---
> A social science that, in its most general, addresses the question of how to improve society.
------
Politics|985327832
10c10
< [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- Totalitarianism -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- Totalitarianism -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Wikipedia_policy|985328471
15a16,23
> Add new comments at the top, not the bottom, so the fresh stuff is easy to find.
> 
> ----
> 
> Never use the phrase 'of course' in an article.  'Of course' assumes the reader shares the author's context and perspetive and reaches the same obvious and intuitive conclusions.  This is not always the case.  Do not assume what the reader knows.
> 
> ----
> 
------
Minuscule|985328842
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Minuscule, or lowercase, refers to the smaller form of letters: a,b,c.  Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule (capital) letters which was spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds.  When written quickly with a pen, these tended to rounder and simpler forms, like [[uncials]].  It is from these that the first miniscule hands developed, the [[half-uncials]] and cursive miniscule, which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines.
> 
> These in turn formed the foundations for [[carolingian miniscule]], developed by [[Alcuin]] for use in the court of [[Charlemagne]], which quickly spread across Europe.  Here for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text.  Traditionally more important letters - those beginning sentences or nouns - were made larger; now they were written in a different script, although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early 18th century (and even then all nouns were capitalized, a system still followed in [[German]] but not in [[English]]).
> 
> There is a lot more to say about minuscule, and most of the above only pertains to the [[Roman alphabet]] - the [[Greek alphabet]] and probably others were undergoing parallel developments I can only guess at.  But the precise origin of mixed case was very hard to find, so I figured I'd put it here.
------
Greek_alphabet|985329463
42c42
< The miniscule Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some Byzantine monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The [[miniscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Greek_alphabet|985329517
40c40
< Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly western (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek; the former gave rise to the [[Estruscan alphabet]] and thence to the [[Roman alphabet]].  Athens took the Ionic script to be its standard in 403 BC, and shortly thereafter the other versions disappeared.  By then Greek was always written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way - or, most likely, ''boustrophedon'', so that the lines alternate direction.
---
> Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly western (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek; the former gave rise to the [[Estruscan alphabet]] and thence to the [[Roman alphabet]].  Athens took the Ionic script to be its standard in 403 BC, and shortly thereafter the other versions disappeared.  By then Greek was always written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way - or, most likely, ''[[boustrophedon]]'', so that the lines alternate direction.
42c42
< The [[miniscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The [[minuscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Word|985330248
1,3c1
< A unit of computer memory or storage that is 4 bytes = 32 bits long.
< 
< I don't think this is right.  Everything I have dealt with has had two byte words - registers, variables, etc.  Four bytes make a double word.  (And of course, this isn't the primary meaning of word :)
---
> 
------
Writing|985330292
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Symbols for the recording of [[language]].  The first writing system was [[cuneiform]], which emerged among the [[Sumerians]] towards the end of the 4th millenium BC; however it was followed closely by the appearance of writing in [[Egypt]] and the [[Indus valley]], and since then writing has appeared independently a number of times, associated with various civilizations.
> 
> * Kinds of writing
> ** [[Ideogram]]
> ** [[Syllabary]]
> ** [[Alphabet]]
> * [[Calligraphy]]
> ** [[Minuscule]]
> * [[Spelling]]
------
Language|985330399
3c3
< The study of languages makes up [[linguistics]] and [[philology]].  Other important theoretical concepts:
---
> The study of languages makes up [[linguistics]] and [[philology]].  Other important concepts:
5a6
> * [[Writing]]
------
Quadword|985330698
9c9,10
< I think this probably isn't adequate.  I mean, I know what "unit," "computer memory or storage," "four," and "word" all mean, but I still don't know what "quadword" means (at least, I don't think I do).  Isn't that interesting? --LS
---
> I think this probably isn't adequate.  I mean, I know what "unit," "computer memory or storage," "four," and "word" all mean, but I still don't know what "quadword" means (at least, I don't think I do).  Isn't that interesting? --LS----
> That is because no one has explained how many bytes are in a word. In IBM/370 Assembler a word has 32 bits or 4 bytes. A doubleword is the length of 2 words, thus 64 bits or 8 bytes. I was entering something about this under word with a one word instruction as an example and found someone disagreeing with me---I give up. Rose Parks 
------
Word|985330908
1c1,3
< 
---
> A basic unit of language...
> 
> On computers, a word refers to a small collection of bytes.  Different standards have different numbers of bytes per word; two and four are typical.
------
Josh_Grosse|985331039
1c1,3
< Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], LanguagE, [[Greek Mythology]], and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
---
> Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], [[Language]], [[Greek Mythology]], [[Chemistry]], and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
> 
> Things I am happy about, not because they are necessarily BrilliantProse, but because they contain things that are often glossed over or hard to find: [[Animalia]], [[Euglenozoa]] and especially [[Ramicristates]], [[Minuscule]].  I would also be happy with [[Rotifera]] if tripod would let me show off my picture.
62c64
< Thanks very much!  Actually, though, I was just referring to a typo - [[Artiodactlya]] - of the sort that has a remarkable habit of spreading. :)
---
> Thanks very much!  Actually, though, I was just referring to a typo - [[Artiodactlya]] - of the sort that has a remarkable habit of spreading. :)
------
Writing|985331155
7a8
> * [[Penmanship]]
9c10,11
< * [[Spelling]]
---
> * [[Spelling]]----
> And where does <b>Orthography</b> as opposed to that vague term "writing" fit in here???
------
Mathematics/Talk|985332228
14c14
< ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot expalin the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will no do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, maybe 100+ superscripts, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-).
---
> ----My pages all have conctrete examples and diagrams as much as posible, in this medium and so do a number of others, as well as an attmept ot explain the importance or place of the material within the field of math. See {{Ptyhagorean Theorem]], [[Vector Space]], [[Mathematical Group]], [[Field]]and more. I am a teacher in this field and realize that pure high level theory will not do. But, say, in [[Vector Space]] adding the matrices took hours, and now I suppose I should mark-up, the maybe 100+ subscripts in this entry, which became available after this was wriiten. Well not today...friends...:-).
17c17,18
< ''Don't know what to do with the &lt;pre&gt; matrices though...[[Gareth Owen]]''
---
> ''Don't know what to do with the &lt;pre&gt; matrices though...[[Gareth Owen]]''----
> I don't either because if you remove them you lose the alignment. If you leave them you can't put in subscripts. Just another little obstacle.RoseParks
23c24
< Just notice that I ''did'' say "insofar as this can be done."  :-) --LS
---
> Just notice that I ''did'' say "insofar as this can be done."  :-) --LS
------
Combinations|985332552
6c6
< *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>C<sub>x</sub> = n!/[x!(n-x)!)</font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red><sub>n</sub>C<sub>x</sub> = n!/(x!*(n-x)!)</font>
------
United_States_Constitution/Preamble|985333038
1c1,7
< We the people of the [[United States]], in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
---
> The preamble the the [[Constitution of the United States]] is a single sentence that introduces the document and its goals.  American children are often given the task to memorize this as they begin learning about the [[United States Government|government]], and many of its phrases are easily recognized as bits of American culture 200 years later.
> 
> <h2>Text of the Preamble</h2>
> 
> We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
> 
> 
------
Vector_space/Example_I|985333465
33c33
<          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, a*v<sub>i</sub>=a*v<sub>i</sub>.
---
>          [v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,...,v<sub>n</sub>]=v, since for all v<sub>i</sub>, for i={1,2,3,...,n}, 1*v<sub>i</sub>=*v<sub>i</sub>.
------
Vector_space/Example_II|985333653
2c2
< Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], w<sub>i</sub>th complex elements. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
---
> Let '''M''' be the set of all (mxn) [[matrices]], with complex numbers as entries. Let '''C''' be the field of complex numbers. Then if
------
Vector_space/Example_III|985333912
2a3,5
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space. This third example is one such [[Vector Space]] based on a set of functions, and therefore, a Linear Space, as well.
> <br>
> 
------
Vector_space/Example_III|985333977
3c3
< <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, a Vector Space is called a Linear Space. This third example is one such [[Vector Space]] based on a set of functions, and therefore, a Linear Space, as well.
---
> <br>In Analysis, many function sets have the structure of a Vector Space. In Analysis, though such a Vector Space is called a Linear Space. This third example is one such [[Vector Space]] based on a set of functions, and therefore, a Linear Space, as well.
------
Vector_space/Example_III|985334028
1,2d0
< '''Example III:'''
< 
4a3,4
> 
> '''Example III:'''
------
George_W._Bush|985334406
21a22
> * /Lexicon
------
Writing|985334608
1c1
< Symbols for the recording of [[language]].  The first writing system was [[cuneiform]], which emerged among the [[Sumerians]] towards the end of the 4th millenium BC; however it was followed closely by the appearance of writing in [[Egypt]] and the [[Indus valley]], and since then writing has appeared independently a number of times, associated with various civilizations.
---
> Symbols for the recording of [[language]] in a visible form.  The first writing system was [[cuneiform]], which emerged among the [[Sumerians]] towards the end of the 4th millenium BC; however it was followed closely by the appearance of writing in [[Egypt]] and the [[Indus valley]], and since then writing has appeared independently a number of times, associated with various civilizations.
------
Writing|985334618
10c10,11
< * [[Spelling]]----
---
> * [[Spelling]]
> ----
------
Wikipedia_policy|985334863
20a21,22
> ----
> This is just wrong.  ;-)  The reason why this phrase is sometimes useful is that, in order to keep a line of reasoning flowing, one must sometimes say something that is totally uncontroversial.  (Yes, some things are totally uncontroversial.)  The point of saying them is to explain the context, and one doesn't want to lead the reader to think that the context-setting is at all controversial.  So you say "of course" to alert the reader that, yes, indeed, the point you're making just now really is as obvious as it appears to be.
21a24
> Of course, this ''can'' be overused.
------
Minuscule|985334961
0a1,2
> http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule
> 
------
Minuscule|985335035
1a2
> <br>http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule+lowercase&hl=en&lr=&safe=off
------
George_W._Bush/Lexicon|985335122
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> With the change in administrations, the White House and diplomatic corps have a whole new lexicon. George W. Bush will be bringing with him many friends from Texas; and for anyone not born in the Lone Star State, the Texan accent and the cowboy colloquialisms may seem a bit strange. Here then is a guide to a few of the more colorful expressions you might encounter:
> *1.      The engine's arunnin' but ain't nobody driving
> *            = Not overly-intelligent
> *2.      As welcome as a skunk at a lawn party
> *             (self-explanatory)
> *3.      Tighter than bark on a tree
> *            = Not very generous
> *4.      Big hat, no cattle
> *            = All talk and no action
> *5.      We've howdied but we ain't shook yet
> *             = We've made a brief acquaintance, but we've not been formally introduced
> *6.      He thinks the sun came up just to hear him crow
> *             = He has a pretty high opinion of himself
> *7.      She's got tongue enough for 10 rows of teeth
> *             = That woman can talk
> *8.      It's so dry the trees are bribin' the dogs
> *             = We really could use a little rain around here
> *9.      Just because a chicken has wings doesn't mean it can fly 
> *             =  Appearances can be deceptive.
> *10.     This ain't my first rodeo
> *             = I've been around awhile.
> *11.     He looks like the dog's been keepin' him under the porch
> *             = Not the most handsome of men
> *12.     They ate supper before they said grace
> *             = Living in sin
> *13.     Time to paint your butt white and run with the antelope
> *             = Stop arguing and do as you're told
> *14.     As full of wind as a corn-eating horse
> *             = Rather prone to boasting
> *15.     You can put your boots in the oven, but that doesn't make them biscuits 
> *              = You can say whatever you want about something, but that doesn't *                change what it is
> 
> Source: my internet joke exchange - no one will own up.
> 
------
George_W._Bush/Lexicon|985335607
3c3,5
< *            = Not overly-intelligent
---
> 
> *             = Not overly-intelligent
> 
4a7
> 
5a9
> 
6a11
> 
7a13
> 
8a15
> 
9a17
> 
10a19
> 
11a21
> 
12a23
> 
13a25
> 
14a27
> 
15a29
> 
16a31
> 
18c33,35
< *9.      Just because a chicken has wings doesn't mean it can fly 
---
> 
> *9.      Just because a chicken has wings doesn't mean it can fly
>  
19a37
> 
20a39
> 
21a41
> 
22a43
> 
23a45
> 
24a47
> 
25a49
> 
26a51
> 
27a53
> 
28a55
> 
29a57
> 
31d58
< *              = You can say whatever you want about something, but that doesn't *                change what it is
33c60,64
< Source: my internet joke exchange - no one will own up.
---
> *              = You can say whatever you want about something, but that doesn't change what it is
> 
> 
> 
> Source:  internet joke exchange - no one will own up.
------
Orthography|985337965
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Symbols for the recording of [[language]] in a visible form.  The first writing system was [[cuneiform]], which emerged among the [[Sumerians]] towards the end of the 4th millenium BC; however it was followed closely by the appearance of writing in [[Egypt]] and the [[Indus valley]], and since then writing has appeared independently a number of times, associated with various civilizations.
> 
> * Kinds of writing
> ** [[Ideogram]]
> ** [[Syllabary]]
> ** [[Alphabet]]
> * [[Calligraphy]]
> * [[Penmanship]]
> ** [[Minuscule]]
> * [[Spelling]]
> ----
------
Writing|985338014
1,12c1,2
< Symbols for the recording of [[language]] in a visible form.  The first writing system was [[cuneiform]], which emerged among the [[Sumerians]] towards the end of the 4th millenium BC; however it was followed closely by the appearance of writing in [[Egypt]] and the [[Indus valley]], and since then writing has appeared independently a number of times, associated with various civilizations.
< 
< * Kinds of writing
< ** [[Ideogram]]
< ** [[Syllabary]]
< ** [[Alphabet]]
< * [[Calligraphy]]
< * [[Penmanship]]
< ** [[Minuscule]]
< * [[Spelling]]
< ----
< And where does <b>Orthography</b> as opposed to that vague term "writing" fit in here???
---
> And where does <b>[[Orthography]]</b> as opposed to that vague term "writing" fit in here???
> <br>''Why, it's the term that I completely failed to remember when I created this page, of course. :)''
------
Language|985338045
6c6
< * [[Writing]]
---
> * [[Orthography]]
------
Writing|985338094
1,2c1
< And where does <b>[[Orthography]]</b> as opposed to that vague term "writing" fit in here???
< <br>''Why, it's the term that I completely failed to remember when I created this page, of course. :)''
---
> [[Orthography]] or perhaps [[Literature]]...
------
Minuscule|985338419
8a9,11
> 
> ----
> ''Hmm...the searches are something new, I've never seen those added to a page before.  Are you giving people an option to find more info, acting in defense of the spelling miniscule, or claiming that 'hard to find' was a lie?  If the last, I should point out I only meant the origin of capitalization was hard to find, if the second, feel free to do whatever you think is best, and if the first - well, I'm not sure what to make of the first. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Minuscule|985338453
11c11
< ''Hmm...the searches are something new, I've never seen those added to a page before.  Are you giving people an option to find more info, acting in defense of the spelling miniscule, or claiming that 'hard to find' was a lie?  If the last, I should point out I only meant the origin of capitalization was hard to find, if the second, feel free to do whatever you think is best, and if the first - well, I'm not sure what to make of the first. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> ''Hmm...the searches are something new, I've never seen those added to a page before.  Are you giving people an option to find more info, acting in defense of the spelling miniscule, or claiming that 'hard to find' was a lie?  If the last, I should point out I only meant the origin of capitalization was hard to find, if the second, feel free to do whatever you think is best, and if the first - well, I'm not sure what to make of the first. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]''
------
Ronald_Reagan|985338726
22c22
< During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
---
> During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].  This scandal, which caused much damage to his presidency led from his decision to sell arms (contrary to [[United Nations]] [[sanctions]] and without approval from Congress) to [[Iran]] who were engaged in a bloody war with neighbours [[Iraq]].  There was also an implication that the arms deals acted as sweeteners to Iran's leaders to release their western hostages.  The money was then diverted, via Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to the [[National Security Adviser]] [[John Poindexter]], to provide arms for [[contra]] rebel groups fighting to overthrow the [[communist]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]].  The clandestine operation was discovered only after an airlift of the guns was downed over [[Nicaragua]].  Reagan claimed he had not been informed of the operation and a [[Presidential Commision]], which indicted North and Poindexter amongst others, could not determine the degree of his involvement.
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985339165
8a9,10
> 
> I don't think that's an uncontroversial opinion.  The USSR fell apart during his term, but because it (foolishly) tried to keep up with his arms spending, not because he did anything to it.  Probably the best way to put it would be that he radically increased military spending (and violated a few treaties) to the point where the Soviet Union wore itself out trying to keep up.
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985339264
10c10
< I don't think that's an uncontroversial opinion.  The USSR fell apart during his term, but because it (foolishly) tried to keep up with his arms spending, not because he did anything to it.  Probably the best way to put it would be that he radically increased military spending (and violated a few treaties) to the point where the Soviet Union wore itself out trying to keep up.
---
> I don't think that's an uncontroversial opinion.  The USSR fell apart during his term, but because it (foolishly) tried to keep up with his arms spending, not because he did anything to it.  Probably the best way to put it would be that he "radically increased military spending (and violated a few treaties) to the point where the Soviet Union was unable to keep up, and collapsed soon thereafter."
------
Quentin_Tarantino|985339931
11,12c11,12
< Contibuted to;
< :[[Four rooms]]
---
> Contributed to;
> :[[Four rooms]]
------
George_W._Bush|985340158
3c3
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the USSupremeCourt. 
---
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the [[United States Supreme Court]]. 
9c9
< Among his cabinet members/appointees are ColinPowell, USSecretaryOfState; SpencerAbraham, USSecretaryOfEnergy; GaleNorton, USSecretaryOfInterior; and TommyThompson, USSecretaryOfHealthAndHumanServices.  His controversial appointee for the important USAttorneyGeneral post is JohnAshcroft, and CondoleezaRice is his USNationalSecurityAdvisor.
---
> Among his cabinet members/appointees are [[Colin Powell]], [[US Secretary Of State]]; [[Spencer Abraham]], [[US Secretary Of Energy]]; [[Gale Norton]], [[US Secretary Of Interior]]; and [[Tommy Thompson]], [[US Secretary Of Health And Human Services]].  His controversial appointee for the important [[US Attorney General post]] is [[John Ashcroft]], and [[Condoleeza Rice]] is his [[US National Security Advisor]].
------
Ronald_Reagan|985340214
22c22
< During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].  This scandal, which caused much damage to his presidency led from his decision to sell arms (contrary to [[United Nations]] [[sanctions]] and without approval from Congress) to [[Iran]] who were engaged in a bloody war with neighbours [[Iraq]].  There was also an implication that the arms deals acted as sweeteners to Iran's leaders to release their western hostages.  The money was then diverted, via Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to the [[National Security Adviser]] [[John Poindexter]], to provide arms for [[contra]] rebel groups fighting to overthrow the [[communist]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]].  The clandestine operation was discovered only after an airlift of the guns was downed over [[Nicaragua]].  Reagan claimed he had not been informed of the operation and a [[Presidential Commision]], which indicted North and Poindexter amongst others, could not determine the degree of his involvement.
---
> During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].  This scandal, which caused much damage to his presidency led from his decision to sell arms (contrary to [[United Nations]] [[sanctions]] and without approval from Congress) to [[Iran]] who were engaged in a bloody war with neighbours [[Iraq]].  There was also an implication that the arms deals acted as sweeteners to Iran's leaders to release their western hostages.  The money was then diverted, via Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to the [[US National Security Adviser]] [[John Poindexter]], to provide arms for [[contra]] rebel groups fighting to overthrow the [[communist]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]].  The clandestine operation was discovered only after an airlift of the guns was downed over [[Nicaragua]].  Reagan claimed he had not been informed of the operation and a [[Presidential Commision]], which indicted North and Poindexter amongst others, could not determine the degree of his involvement.
------
Mersenne_prime|985345522
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Named after [[Marin Mersenne]], a Mersenne prime is a [[prime number]] of the form 2<sup>p</sup>-1, where p is itself a prime.
> 
> 
> Only 38 of such primes are known (as of March 2001). The last four of these were discovered by a [[distributed computing]] project on the Internet, known as the <i>Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search</i>. See the project home page at  [http://www.mersenne.org/prime.html http://www.mersenne.org/prime.html] for much, much more information on the properties of Mersenne primes, biographical information about Marin Mersenne, and the current status of the search for new primes.
> 
> 
------
Word|985346049
3c3,5
< On computers, a word refers to a small collection of bytes.  Different standards have different numbers of bytes per word; two and four are typical.
---
> On computers, a word refers to a small collection of bytes.  Different standards have different numbers of bytes per word; two and four are typical.
> ----
> Also, a word processing software by [[Microsoft]]
------
Word|985348337
2a3,4
> a written word consists of letters forming syllables.
> 
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352548
8,9c8,14
< * Engineering Graduates
< * Military (the corp)
---
> * [[Leadership in Agriculture|TAMU College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]]
> * The College of [[Veterinary Medicine]]
> * The [[Dwight Look College of Engineering]]
> * The [[George Bush School of Government and Public Service]]
> * The [[Lowry Mays College & Graduate School of Business|Lowry Mays College and Graduate School of Business]]
> * Military Leadership ([[Texas A&M Corps of Cadets|TAMU Corps of Cadets]])
> * The [[Texas A&M University System|TAMU System]]
13c18
< [[Aggie]] and [[Aggies]] are used to describe Texas A&M students/graduates.
---
> [[Aggie|Texas Aggie]] and [[Aggies|Texas Aggie]] are used to describe Texas A&M students and [[former students|Aggie Former Students]] (Texas A&M does not call these alumni, nor graduates).
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352650
8c8
< * [[Leadership in Agriculture|TAMU College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]]
---
> * [[TAMU College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|Leadership in Agriculture]]
12,14c12,14
< * The [[Lowry Mays College & Graduate School of Business|Lowry Mays College and Graduate School of Business]]
< * Military Leadership ([[Texas A&M Corps of Cadets|TAMU Corps of Cadets]])
< * The [[Texas A&M University System|TAMU System]]
---
> * The [[Lowry Mays College and Graduate School of BusinessLowry Mays College & Graduate School of Business]]
> * Military Leadership ([[TAMU Corps of Cadets|Texas A&M Corps of Cadets]])
> * The [[TAMU System|Texas A&M University System]]
18c18
< [[Aggie|Texas Aggie]] and [[Aggies|Texas Aggie]] are used to describe Texas A&M students and [[former students|Aggie Former Students]] (Texas A&M does not call these alumni, nor graduates).
---
> [[Texas Aggie|Aggie]] and [[Texas Aggie|Aggies]] are used to describe Texas A&M students and [[Aggie Former Students|former students]] (Texas A&M does not call these alumni, nor graduates).
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352668
12c12
< * The [[Lowry Mays College and Graduate School of BusinessLowry Mays College & Graduate School of Business]]
---
> * The [[Lowry Mays College and Graduate School of Business|Lowry Mays College & Graduate School of Business]]
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352784
8c8
< * [[TAMU College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|Leadership in Agriculture]]
---
> * [[Texas A and M University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|Leadership in Agriculture]]
13,14c13,14
< * Military Leadership ([[TAMU Corps of Cadets|Texas A&M Corps of Cadets]])
< * The [[TAMU System|Texas A&M University System]]
---
> * Military Leadership ([[Texas A and M University Corps of Cadets|Texas A&M Corps of Cadets]])
> * The [[The Texas A and M University System|Texas A&M University System]]
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352877
19a20,21
> ----
> ''I'm not great at these naming conventions just yet.  Give me time and I'll get it.  - [[Invictus]]
------
Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University|985352891
21c21
< ''I'm not great at these naming conventions just yet.  Give me time and I'll get it.  - [[Invictus]]
---
> ''I'm not great at these naming conventions just yet.  Give me time and I'll get it.  - [[Invictus]]''
------
New_topics|985354355
2c2
< as of about 2 am 21st March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 1.36 am 23rd March, Wikipedia server time
4c4
< These are some new topics from the previous few days. 
---
> These are some new topics from the previous few days:
6,8c6,51
< [[Electronic_Music/Goa]] -- [[Computer_storage]] -- [[Alphabet]] -- [[Syllabary]] -- [[John_Abbe]] -- [[Control_character]] -- [[Role_playing_games/Talk]] -- [[Uranium]] -- [[Carbon]] -- [[Lithium]] -- [[Live-action_roleplaying_games]] --  [[Worldcon]] -- [[Unicode]] -- [[Text_encoding]] -- [[Computer_character]] -- [[Character_encoding]] -- [[WikiIsNotPaper]] -- [[Thomas_Jefferson]] -- [[Naming_conventions/Disambiguating]] -- [[Kinetics]] -- [[JoshuaANorton]] --  -- [[Ronald_Wilson_Reagan/Talk]] -- [[Ronald_Reagan]] -- [[George_W._Bush/Talk]] -- [[Truth]] -- 
< [[Deduction_and_induction]] -- [[Good_argument]] -- [[Cogency]] -- [[Galileo/Talk]] -- [[Tamil_Nadu]] -- [[Validity]] -- [[Galileo]] -- [[Argument_form]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Folk_music]] -- [[RushBand]] -- [[Galileo_Galilei]] -- 
< [[Telescope]] -- [[Metallica/Discography]] -- 
---
> [[Affirming_the_consequent]] -- 
> [[Ambiguity]] -- 
> [[Anatomy]] -- 
> [[Andrei_Tarkovsky]] -- 
> [[Animals]] -- 
> [[Arc_de_Triomphe/Arc_de_Triumph]] -- 
> [[Atomic_number]] -- 
> [[Bach]] -- 
> [[Beverly_Hillbillies]] -- 
> [[Biology/Talk]] -- 
> [[Bob_Dylan/Blood_On_The_Tracks]] -- 
> [[Cecil_B._Demille]] -- 
> [[Chemical_equilibrium]] -- 
> [[Combinations]] -- 
> [[Computer_hardware]] -- 
> [[Computer_programming]] -- 
> [[Computer_software]] -- 
> [[Conditional]] -- 
> [[Cone]] -- 
> [[Conic_section]] -- 
> [[Conic_sections]] -- 
> [[Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon]] -- 
> [[Definition]] -- 
> [[Disjunction]] -- 
> [[Disjunctive_syllogism]] -- 
> [[Documentary_Film]] -- 
> [[Electronic_Music/Goa]] -- 
> [[Ellipse]] -- 
> [[Evolutionary_linguistics]] -- 
> [[Extension]] -- 
> [[Fermats_Last_Theorem]] -- 
> [[Film_director]] -- 
> [[Frank]] -- 
> [[GPS]] -- 
> [[Galileo_Galilei]] -- 
> [[Geometry/Talk]] -- 
> [[Geometry]] -- 
> [[George_W._Bush/Lexicon]] -- 
> [[Gnu/Talk]] -- 
> [[Gnu]] -- 
> [[Goeldis_monkey]] -- 
> [[Hawaii/Maui]] -- 
> [[Hawaii]] -- 
> [[Hilter]] -- 
> [[Human_anatomy]] -- 
> [[Intension]] -- 
10,21c53,107
< [[Trade_blocks]] -- [[International_trade]] -- 
< [[Unemployment]] -- [[Placebo_effect]] -- [[Natural_language]] -- [[Pguiral]] -- [[Pseudo_science]] -- [[WikiIsNotAnEncyclopedia]] -- [[Comparative_Sacred_Reading]] -- [[States_in_Medieval_Britain/talk]] -- 
< [[Trade]] -- 
< [[Stagflation]] -- [[Histogram]] -- [[Extended_ASCII]] -- [[Jello_Biafra]] -- [[Deflation]] -- 
< [[Russian_language]] -- [[Gypsy]] -- [[University_of_Michigan]] -- [[Education/Math]] -- [[Library_of_Congress_catalogue_scheme]] -- [[A_Modest_Proposal/Text]] -- [[Computer_printer/dot_matrix]] -- 
< [[Bugly]] -- 
< [[Johann_Sebastian_Bach]] -- 
< [[Impressionist_Music]] -- 
< [[Classical_Music_Era]] -- 
< [[Classical_Music]] -- 
< [[Film_History/Canada]] -- 
< [[Alkali_metal]] 
---
> [[International_trade]] -- 
> [[Interpolation]] -- 
> [[John_Abbe]] -- 
> [[John_Grierson]] -- 
> [[Land-grant]] -- 
> [[LangueFrancaise/Talk]] -- 
> [[Laser]] -- 
> [[Leni_Riefenstahl]] -- 
> [[Lexical_definition_of_definition]] -- 
> [[Live-action_roleplaying_games]] -- 
> [[Longword]] -- 
> [[Marine_Sciences]] -- 
> [[Marsupial]] -- 
> [[Mathematician]] -- 
> [[Mathematics/Talk]] -- 
> [[Mendelevium]] -- 
> [[Metallica/Discography]] -- 
> [[Microfluidics]] -- 
> [[Minuscule]] -- 
> [[Modus_ponens]] -- 
> [[Modus_tollens]] -- 
> [[Nanook_of_the_North]] -- 
> [[Nitrogen]] -- 
> [[Pascal]] -- 
> [[Permutations]] -- 
> [[Pierre_de_Fermat]] -- 
> [[Popular_music]] -- 
> [[Prion]] -- 
> [[Quadword]] -- 
> [[Quantum_Mechanics]] -- 
> [[Robert_J._Flaherty]] -- 
> [[Rolling_Stone_magazine]] -- 
> [[Simon_and_Garfunkel]] -- 
> [[Spanish_language]] -- 
> [[Steve_Reich]] -- 
> [[SurrealNumbers]] -- 
> [[Telekinesis/Talk]] -- 
> [[Telekinesis]] -- 
> [[Telepathy]] -- 
> [[Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University]] -- 
> [[The_Book_of_Mormon]] -- 
> [[Transuranic]] -- 
> [[Truth]] -- 
> [[Udo_of_Aachen]] -- 
> [[Ungulate]] -- 
> [[Vagueness]] -- 
> [[Vector_space/Example_III]] -- 
> [[Vector_space/Example_II]] -- 
> [[Vector_space/Example_I]] -- 
> [[Vector_space]] -- 
> [[Verlan/Talk]] -- 
> [[Virus]] -- 
> [[Welcome,_newcomers]] -- 
> [[Word]] -- 
> [[Writing]]
24d109
< --- 
------
Mathijs|985355214
61c61,76
< ''I'm sorry but "If it hurts its true" sounds like a lazy self justifying reason to be rude and insensitive to those around you, not a logical axiom'' -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
---
> ''I'm sorry but "If it hurts its true" sounds like a lazy self justifying reason to be rude and insensitive to those around you, not a logical axiom'' -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
> ----
> Thank you, Gareth. What you state is an interesting notion, being a typical British irritation at typical Dutch 'rudeness'. What you call 'rude', I call 'direct, open contact'. 
> 
> Blatant nonsense can be a nuisance in a public discourse, but in a place like Wikipedia easily contradicted & corrected. <BR>Moreover (IMHO) the statement (whatever it's factual Quality,  purpose & emotional effect) can be an opportunity to investigate, discover & formulate the truth.
> <BR>This can only be done if someone cares enough to put his energy into that; like you did in reaction to my statements on [[Netherlands/Talk]]
> 
> Perhaps I really am a lazy, self-righteous, rude & insensitive man! Perhaps I'm using this wikipedia for my personal investigation into truth & pain. Perhaps I'm using you all for this (Gareth, you might be more cooperative!)
> 
> Bottom line of all to me is the fact that I just don't know, that I'm ambiguous in accepting this & wondering, wondering, wondering.
> 
> Gareth, how come my statement "England is the closest to '1984' as it gets." has inspired such a heated reaction from you? 
> 
> There's no reason why I should justify my beliefs & conclusions. I don't think I can prove anything outside fysical reality and the QED-reality is not my field of operation. So . . .
> 
> Don't be sorry, Gareth, I'm happy with your comment. It's an opportunity to me. You're "I'm sorry but" even complies with my theory for you speculate my fear for receiving your comment; it would be painfull if it is right. Perhaps it is.
------
Mathijs|985357587
73c73,75
< 
---
> ----
> ''Because even you admit that its not true (you later called it "rhetoric"), so the only reason you could have said it is to elicit a reaction.  And because racism annoys me.  Next.''
> ----
------
Mersenne_prime|985358579
4c4
< Only 38 of such primes are known (as of March 2001). The last four of these were discovered by a [[distributed computing]] project on the Internet, known as the <i>Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search</i>. See the project home page at  [http://www.mersenne.org/prime.html http://www.mersenne.org/prime.html] for much, much more information on the properties of Mersenne primes, biographical information about Marin Mersenne, and the current status of the search for new primes.
---
> Only 38 of such primes are known (as of March 2001). The last four of these were discovered by a [[distributed computing]] project on the Internet, known as the <i>Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search</i>. See the project home page at  [http://www.mersenne.org/prime.htm http://www.mersenne.org/prime.htm] for much, much more information on the properties of Mersenne primes, biographical information about Marin Mersenne, and the current status of the search for new primes.
------
CryptographY|985359699
9c9
< :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- CipheR -- CodE
---
> :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- [[Cipher]] -- [[Code]]
14a15,18
> ----
> Related topics:
> 
> [[Echelon]]
------
EcheloN|985359752
1,23c1
< Echelon is a name for one of the largest spy networks in history. 
< It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. There are estimates that EcheloN intercepts up to 3 billion communications everyday.
< Participating countries: [[United States]], UK, CanadA, AustraliA, and NewZealand.
< 
< 
< Originally devoted solely to monitoring the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its East Bloc allies, today Echelon searches for hints of terrorist plots, drug-dealer's plans and political and diplomatic intelligence. But critics claim the system is also being used for crass commercial theft and a brutal invasion of privacy on a staggering scale. 
< 
< 
< The Echelon system is simple in design. All members of the English-speaking alliance are part of the UKUSA intelligence alliance that has maintained ties since the Second World War.
< These states have positioned electronic-intercept stations and deep-space satellites to capture all satellite, microwave, cellular and fibre-optic communications traffic. The captured signals are then processed through a series of supercomputers, known as dictionaries, that are programmed to search each communication for targeted addresses, words, phrases or even individual voices. 
< 
< 
< Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern ChinA. NewZealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
< 
< Experts stress that Echelon is simply a method of sorting captured signals and is just one of the many new arrows in the intelligence community's quiver, along with increasingly sophisticated bugging and interception techniques, satellite tracking, through-clothing scanning, automatic fingerprinting and recognition systems that can recognize genes, odours or retina patterns. 
< 
< The Americans dominate the UKUSA alliance, providing most of the computer expertise and frequently much of the personnel for global interception bases. The U.S. National Security Agency, headquartered in Fort Meade, Md., just outside Washington, has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than $3.6-billion (all dollar figures US unless otherwise specified). That's more than the FBI and the CIA combined. 
< 
< 
< By comparison, Canada's communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), a branch of the National Defence Department. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters, nicknamed "The Farm," is the Sir Leonard Tilley Building on Heron Road in Ottawa, and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in Leitrim, just south of Ottawa. 
< 
< 
< The governments of AustraliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Echelon]]
------
Echelon|985359773
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Echelon is a name for one of the largest spy networks in history. 
> It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. There are estimates that EcheloN intercepts up to 3 billion communications everyday.
> Participating countries: [[United States]], UK, CanadA, AustraliA, and NewZealand.
> 
> 
> Originally devoted solely to monitoring the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its East Bloc allies, today Echelon searches for hints of terrorist plots, drug-dealer's plans and political and diplomatic intelligence. But critics claim the system is also being used for crass commercial theft and a brutal invasion of privacy on a staggering scale. 
> 
> 
> The Echelon system is simple in design. All members of the English-speaking alliance are part of the UKUSA intelligence alliance that has maintained ties since the Second World War.
> These states have positioned electronic-intercept stations and deep-space satellites to capture all satellite, microwave, cellular and fibre-optic communications traffic. The captured signals are then processed through a series of supercomputers, known as dictionaries, that are programmed to search each communication for targeted addresses, words, phrases or even individual voices. 
> 
> 
> Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern ChinA. NewZealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
> 
> Experts stress that Echelon is simply a method of sorting captured signals and is just one of the many new arrows in the intelligence community's quiver, along with increasingly sophisticated bugging and interception techniques, satellite tracking, through-clothing scanning, automatic fingerprinting and recognition systems that can recognize genes, odours or retina patterns. 
> 
> The Americans dominate the UKUSA alliance, providing most of the computer expertise and frequently much of the personnel for global interception bases. The U.S. National Security Agency, headquartered in Fort Meade, Md., just outside Washington, has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than $3.6-billion (all dollar figures US unless otherwise specified). That's more than the FBI and the CIA combined. 
> 
> 
> By comparison, Canada's communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), a branch of the National Defence Department. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters, nicknamed "The Farm," is the Sir Leonard Tilley Building on Heron Road in Ottawa, and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in Leitrim, just south of Ottawa. 
> 
> 
> The governments of AustraliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
> 
------
Technology|985359863
9c9
< ** EcheloN
---
> ** [[Echelon]]
------
GPS|985360085
2,3c2
< position using the time signals of a network of US military
< satellites. 
---
> position using the time signals of a network of (22???) US military [[satellites]]. For civillian use, the systems accuracy is limited to approx. 20 metres, because of security reasons.
------
GPS|985360189
1,2c1
< ''Global Positioning System'' is a system of determining one's
< position using the time signals of a network of (22???) US military [[satellites]]. For civillian use, the systems accuracy is limited to approx. 20 metres, because of security reasons.
---
> Short for [[Global Positioning System]]
------
Echelon|985360859
3c3
< Participating countries: [[United States]], UK, CanadA, AustraliA, and NewZealand.
---
> Participating countries: [[United States]], [[UK]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].
9c9
< The Echelon system is simple in design. All members of the English-speaking alliance are part of the UKUSA intelligence alliance that has maintained ties since the Second World War.
---
> The Echelon system is simple in design. All members of the English-speaking alliance are part of the UKUSA intelligence alliance that has maintained ties since the [[World War II]].
13c13
< Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of Latin America, Asia, Asiatic RussiA and northern China. Britain listens in on EuropE and RussiA west of the Urals as well as AfricA. AustraliA hunts for communications originating in Indochina, Indonesia and southern ChinA. NewZealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
---
> Individual states in the UKUSA alliance are assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. Canada's main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former Soviet Union and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from embassies around the world. In the post-Cold War era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite and radio and cellphone traffic originating from Central and South America, primarily in an effort to track drugs and thugs in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of [[Latin America]], [[Asia]], Asiatic Russia and northern [[China]]. Britain listens in on [[Europe]] and [[Russia]] west of the Urals as well as [[Africa]]. Australia hunts for communications originating in Indochina, [[Indonesia]] and southern China. New Zealand sweeps the western Pacific. 
17c17
< The Americans dominate the UKUSA alliance, providing most of the computer expertise and frequently much of the personnel for global interception bases. The U.S. National Security Agency, headquartered in Fort Meade, Md., just outside Washington, has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than $3.6-billion (all dollar figures US unless otherwise specified). That's more than the FBI and the CIA combined. 
---
> The Americans dominate the UKUSA alliance, providing most of the computer expertise and frequently much of the personnel for global interception bases. The U.S. [[National Security Agency]], headquartered in Fort Meade, Md., just outside Washington, has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than $3.6-billion (all dollar figures US unless otherwise specified). That's more than the FBI and the CIA combined. 
20c20
< By comparison, Canada's communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), a branch of the National Defence Department. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters, nicknamed "The Farm," is the Sir Leonard Tilley Building on Heron Road in Ottawa, and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in Leitrim, just south of Ottawa. 
---
> By comparison, [[Canada]]'s communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), a branch of the National Defence Department. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters, nicknamed "The Farm," is the Sir Leonard Tilley Building on Heron Road in Ottawa, and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in Leitrim, just south of Ottawa. 
23c23
< The governments of AustraliA and the Netherlands have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
---
> The governments of Australia and the [[Netherlands]] have already confirmed that Echelon exists. Furthermore, Former CIA Director R. James Woosley has admitted using the system information about foreign companies using bribes to win foreign contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes.
------
Word|985361017
1c1
< A basic unit of language...
---
> A basic unit of written and spoken [[language]]...
7c7
< Also, a word processing software by [[Microsoft]]
---
> Also, a word processing software by [[Microsoft]]
------
Echelon|985361025
2c2
< It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. There are estimates that EcheloN intercepts up to 3 billion communications everyday.
---
> It can capture nearly every telephone call, fax and e-mail message sent anywhere in the world. There are estimates that [[Echelon]] intercepts up to 3 billion communications everyday.
------
Word|985361034
7c7
< Also, a word processing software by [[Microsoft]]
---
> Also, a word processing [[software]] by [[Microsoft]]
------
Software|985361063
1c1
< short form of [[ComputerSoftware]].
---
> short form of [[Computer software]].
------
PHP|985361212
1c1
< Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages. [[PHP]] is [[Free software]], which is one of the main advantages it has over [[Microsoft]]'s Active Server Pages.
---
> Hypertext Prepocessor - a powerful scripting language to develop dynamic webpages. [[PHP]] is [[Free software]], which is one of the main advantages it has over [[Microsoft]]'s Active Server Pages. It is often used in combination with [[mySQL]] databases.
------
Beryllium|985361442
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Be 
> 
> Name: Beryllium<Br>
> Symbol: Be<BR>
> Group: Alkali Earth<BR>
> Crystal Structure: Hexagonal<Br>
> Atomic number: 4<BR>
> Atomic weight: 9.01218<BR>
> Shells: 2,2<BR>
> Filling orbital: 2s2<BR>
> Melt: 1278°C<BR>
> Boil: 2970°C<BR>
> Electronegativity: 1.57<BR>
> Covalent radius: 0.90 Å<BR>
> Atomic radius: 1.40 Å<BR>
> Atomic volume: 5.0 cm/mol<BR>
> First ionization potential: 9.322 V<BR>
> 2nd ionization potential: 18.211 V<BR>
> 3rd ionization potential: 153.893 V<BR>
> Oxidation states: 2<BR>
> Density @ 293 K: 1.848 g/cm<BR>
> Specific heat: 1.82 J/gK<BR>
> Heat of vaporization: 292.40 kJ/mol<BR>
> Heat of fusion: 12.20 kJ/mol<BR>
> Electrical conductivity: 0.313 10^6/cm ohm<BR>
> Thermal conductivity: 2.00 W/cmK<BR>
------
Beryllium|985361521
7,8c7,8
< Atomic number: 4<BR>
< Atomic weight: 9.01218<BR>
---
> [[Atomic number]]: 4<BR>
> [[Atomic weight]]: 9.01218<BR>
------
Sodium|985361759
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Na
> 
> Name: Sodium<Br>
> Symbol: Na<Br>
> Group: Alkali Met.<Br>
> Crystal Structure: Cubicbody centered<Br>
> Atomic number: 11<Br>
> Atomic weight: 22.98977<Br>
> Shells: 2,8,1<Br>
> Filling orbital: 3s1<Br>
> Melt: 97.8°C<Br>
> Boil: 882.9°C <Br>
> Electronegativity: 0.93<Br>
> Covalent radius: 1.54 Å <Br>
> Atomic radius: 2.23 Å <Br>
> Atomic volume: 23.7 cm/mol <Br>
> First ionization potential: 5.139 V <Br>
> 2nd ionization potential: 47.286 V <Br>
> 3rd ionization potential: 71.641 V <Br>
> Oxidation states: 1 <Br>
> Density @ 293 K: 0.971 g/cm <Br>
> Specific heat: 1.23 J/gK <Br>
> Heat of vaporization: 96.960 kJ/mol <Br>
> Heat of fusion: 2.598 kJ/mol <Br>
> Electrical conductivity: 0.139 10^6/cm ohm <Br>
> Thermal conductivity: 1.41 W/cmK<Br>
------
Magnesium|985361852
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mg
> 
> Name: Magnesium<Br>
> Symbol: Mg <Br>
> Group: Alkali Earth <Br>
> Crystal Structure: Hexagonal <Br>
> Atomic number: 12 <Br>
> Atomic weight: 24.305<Br>
> Shells: 2,8,2 <Br>
> Filling orbital: 3s2 <Br>
> Melt: 638.8°C<Br>
> Boil: 1090°C <Br>
> Electronegativity: 1.31<Br>
> Covalent radius: 1.36 Å <Br>
> Atomic radius: 1.72 Å <Br>
> Atomic volume: 13.97 cm/mol <Br>
> First ionization potential: 7.646 V <Br>
> 2nd ionization potential: 15.035 V <Br>
> 3rd ionization potential: 80.143 V <Br>
> Oxidation states: 2 <Br>
> Density @ 293 K: 1.738 g/cm <Br>
> Specific heat: 1.02 J/gK <Br>
> Heat of vaporization: 127.40 kJ/mol <Br>
> Heat of fusion: 8.954 kJ/mol <Br>
> Electrical conductivity: 0.226 10^6/cm ohm <Br>
> Thermal conductivity: 1.56 W/cmK <Br>
------
Periodic_table|985361914
7c7
<       [[Beryllium|Be]]  [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
---
>       [[Beryllium|Be]]   [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
------
Potassium|985361970
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> K 
> 
> Name: Potassium<Br>
> Symbol: K <Br>
> Group: Alkali Met. <Br>
> Crystal Structure: Cubicbody centered <Br>
> Atomic number: 19 <Br>
> Atomic weight: 39.0983<Br>
> Shells: 2,8,8,1 <Br>
> Filling orbital: 4s1 <Br>
> Melt: 63.65°C<Br>
> Boil: 774°C <Br>
> Electronegativity: 0.82<Br>
> Covalent radius: 2.03 Å <Br>
> Atomic radius: 2.77 Å <Br>
> Atomic volume: 45.46 cm/mol <Br>
> First ionization potential: 4.341 V <Br>
> 2nd ionization potential: 31.625 V <Br>
> 3rd ionization potential: 45.72 V <Br>
> Oxidation states: 1 <Br>
> Density @ 293 K: 0.862 g/cm <Br>
> Specific heat: 0.75 J/gK <Br>
> Heat of vaporization: 79.870 kJ/mol <Br>
> Heat of fusion: 2.334 kJ/mol <Br>
> Electrical conductivity: 0.139 10^6/cm ohm <Br>
> Thermal conductivity: 1.024 W/cmK <Br>
------
Local_color|985362660
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Local Color is a type of writing that was popular in the late 19th century.  This style relied heavily on using words, phrases,
> and slang that were native to the particular region the
> story took place in.
> 
> A well-known local color author was Mark Twain with his
> books [Tom Sawyer] and [The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn].
------
Local_color|985362736
6c6
< books [Tom Sawyer] and [The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn].
---
> books [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]].
------
Technology|985363316
2a3,9
> ** [[Clock]]
> *** [[Pendulum clock]]
> *** [[Atomic clock]] 
> **[[Steam engine]]
> **[[Pumps]]
> ***[[Archimedes screw]]
> ***[[Hydraulic Ram]]
3a11,17
> * [[Telecommunications]] (this doesn't fit well under the electronics heading, telephones and telegraphs originally didn't use what we now call `electronics')
> ** [[Telegraph]]
> ** [[Telephone]]
> ** [[Radio]]
> ** [[Television]]
> * [[Photography]]
> * [[Printing]]
4a19
> * [[Sound recording]] - again, purely mechanical at first
12a28,30
> 
> (we need some way to cover for example, both the <i>technology</i> of television and the 
> <i>content</i> of television, which are greatly different topics with the same name)
------
Transport|985363400
2d1
< * [[Rail Transport]]
3a3,4
> * [[Canal]]
> * [[Rail Transport]]
------
Local_color|985363497
5c5
< A well-known local color author was Mark Twain with his
---
> A well-known local color author was [[Mark Twain]] with his
------
Periodic_table|985364320
6,7c6,7
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]   [[Potassium|K]]  [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<       [[Beryllium|Be]]   [[Magnesium|Mg]]  [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>       [[Beryllium|Be]]   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
------
Mersenne_prime|985364633
6a7
> Mersenne primes have a deep connection to [[perfect number|perfect numbers]]: a number is an even perfect number if and only if it has the form 2<sup>p-1</sup>(2<sup>p</sup>-1), where 2<sup>p</sup>-1 is a Mersenne prime.  There are no odd perfect numbers known.
------
Technology|985365404
6a7,10
> **[[Internal combustion engine]]
> *** [[Diesel engine]]
> *** [[Four-stroke engine]]
> *** [[Two-stroke engine]]
15a20,21
> ** [[Submarine cables]]
> ** [[Communication satellite]]
17a24,26
> * [[Electricity]]
> ** [[Electricity generation]]
> ** [[Power transmission]]
------
Architecture|985365710
6a7,10
> 
> ----
> 
> [[Adobe]] is a type of material used in architecture.
------
Adobe|985365756
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ADOBE (pronounced a-do-be; also corrupted to dobie; 
> from the Span. adobar, to plaster, traceable through 
> Arabic to an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning ``brick''), a 
> Spanish-American word for the sun-dried clay used by the 
> Indians for building in some of the south-western states of 
> the American Union, this method having been imported in the 
> 16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction 
> is made between the smaller ``adobes,'' which are about the 
> size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ``adobines,'' 
> some of which are as much as from one to two yards long. 
> 
> Source: Project Guetenberg Encyclopedia Vol 1.
------
Minuscule|985365821
1,3d0
< http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule
< <br>http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule+lowercase&hl=en&lr=&safe=off
< 
10a8,9
> http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule
> <br>http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule+lowercase&hl=en&lr=&safe=off
11a11,12
> ----
> I should have explained; I added them as the quickest way I could say, "This sense of 'minuscule' is not exactly the first sense that leaps to mind."
------
Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon|985365965
5c5
< Set in feudal [[China]], the story follows two experienced and legendary warriors, Li Mu Bai ([[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Shu Lien ([[Michelle Yeoh]]).  Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their love.  Meanwhile Jen [[Ziyi Zhang]], who has tasted adventure, yearns for more, and as a secret apprentice to the evil warrior Jade Fox (whom Li has sworn to kill) she has the skills to match any warrior she meets, except Li, who refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice.  But Jen is headstrong in her powers and maddened by her forbidden love to desert bandit Lo, and she will not accept Li as a master.
---
> Set in feudal [[China]], the story follows two experienced and legendary warriors, Li Mu Bai ([[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Shu Lien ([[Michelle Yeoh]]).  Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their love.  Meanwhile Jen [[Ziyi Zhang]], who has tasted [[adventure]], yearns for more, and as a secret apprentice to the evil warrior Jade Fox (whom Li has sworn to kill) she has the skills to match any warrior she meets, except Li, who refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice.  But Jen is headstrong in her powers and maddened by her forbidden love to desert bandit Lo, and she will not accept Li as a master.
------
Adventure|985365999
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to 
> happen), chance, and especially chance of danger; so a hazardous 
> enterprise or remarkable incident.  Thus an ``adventurer,'' 
> from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course 
> of action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a 
> person of no character.  The word is also used in certain 
> restricted legal connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, 
> may be distinguished from partnership (q.v.). A bill 
> of adventure in maritime law (now apparently obsolete) 
> is a writing signed by the shipmaster declaring that goods 
> shipped in his name really belong to another, to whom he is 
> responsible.  The bill of gross adventure in French maritime 
> law is an instrument making a loan on maritime security. 
------
Arc_de_Triomphe/Arc_de_Triumph|985366052
5a6,7
> ----
> You know, I don't think anyone is going to stoop to actually ''requesting'' a French Wikipedia.  Maybe we should just set one up!
------
Christianity|985366224
7c7
< Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the Pope has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
---
> Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the [[Pope]] has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
------
Pope|985366404
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The supreme spiritual leader of the Catholic church.
> 
> Various Popes:
> * [[Agatho]]
> * [[John Paul]]
> * [[John Paul II]]
------
Agatho|985366437
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily.  He is 
> noteworthy as the pope who ordered St Wilfrid to be restored 
> to his bishopric at York in 679, and as the first to cease 
> payment of the tribute hitherto paid on election to the 
> emperor at Constantinople.  It was during his pontificate 
> that the 6th oecumenical council was held at Constantinople, 
> to which he sent his legates and those from a Roman council 
> held in 679. Agatho died on the 10th of January 681. 
------
Beer|985366521
12c12
< Beers made from raw materials other than barley include hundreds of local African drinks made from millet, sorghum, and other available starch crops; Russian kvass, made from fermented rye bread; Chinese samshu, Korean suk, and Japanese sake, all brewed from rice; and pulque, an indigenous Mexican beer made from the fermented sap of the agave plant. The Mexicans and the Japanese also brew and export several brands of Western-style beer.
---
> Beers made from raw materials other than barley include hundreds of local African drinks made from millet, sorghum, and other available starch crops; Russian kvass, made from fermented rye bread; Chinese samshu, Korean suk, and Japanese sake, all brewed from rice; and pulque, an indigenous Mexican beer made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant. The Mexicans and the Japanese also brew and export several brands of Western-style beer.
------
Agave|985366614
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> AGAVE, a large botanical genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, 
> chiefly Mexican, but occurring also in the southern and western 
> United States and in central and tropical South America.  The 
> plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally 
> ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout 
> stem is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the 
> root.  They grow slowly and flower but once after a number of 
> years, when a tall stem or ``mast'' grows from the centre of 
> the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular 
> flowers.  After development of fruit the plant dies down, 
> but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the 
> stem which become new plants.  The most familiar species is 
> Agave americana (see fig.), a native of tropical America, 
> the so-called century plant or American aloe (the maguey of 
> Mexico).  The number of years before flowering occurs depends 
> on the vigour of the individual, the richness of the soil 
> and the climate; during these years the plant is storing in 
> its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of 
> flowering.  During the development of the inflorescence there 
> is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk.  In 
> the case of A. americana and other species this is used by 
> the Mexicans to make their national beverage, pulque; the 
> flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently 
> fermented.  By distillation a spirit called mescal is 
> prepared.  The leaves of several species yield fibre, as for 
> instance, A. rigida var. sisalana, sisal hemp (q.v.), 
> A. decipiens, false sisal hemp; A. americana is the 
> source of pita fibre, and is used as a fibre plant in 
> Mexico, the West Indies and southern Europe.  The flowering 
> stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms 
------
Quadword|985366720
10a11,12
> ----
> problem is that different machines have different word sizes
------
Minuscule|985366773
12c12,15
< I should have explained; I added them as the quickest way I could say, "This sense of 'minuscule' is not exactly the first sense that leaps to mind."
---
> I should have explained; I added them as the quickest way I could say, "This sense of 'minuscule' is not exactly the first sense that leaps to mind."
> -----
> Larry, did you notice the spelling.  Apparently 'minuscule' (note the 'u') is something about letters, versus 'miniscule', which means very small in size (or something like that).
> 
------
Minuscule|985366813
0a1,2
> Not to be confused with [[miniscule]]
> 
------
Ronald_Reagan|985366895
16c16
< * multiplying the deficit to several trillion dollars
---
> * multiplying the deficit to several trillion dollars (The [[democrat]] congress did the actual spending)
------
Zeus|985366973
7a8,9
> 
> Zeus' foster-mother was [[Amaltheia]]
------
Mathijs|985367066
74a75,76
> 
> I just don't see any racism in the remark, so please enlighten me about the connection '1984' - 'racism'
------
Amaltheia|985367096
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AMALTHEIA, in Greek mythology, the foster-mother of [[Zeus]]. 
> She is sometimes represented as the goat which suckled 
> the infant-god in a cave in [[Crete]], sometimes as a nymph of 
> uncertain parentage (daughter of Oceanus, Haemonius, Olen, 
> Melisseus), who brought him up on the milk of a goat.  This 
> goat having broken off one of its horns, Amaltheia filled it 
> with flowers and fruits and presented it to Zeus, who placed 
> it together with the goat amongst the stars.  According to 
> another story, Zeus himself broke off the horn and gave it to 
> Amaltheia, promising that it would supply whatever she desired 
> in abundance. Amaltheia gave it to [[Acholous]] (her reputed 
> brother), who exchanged it for his own horn which had been 
> broken off in his contest with [[Heracles]] for the possession of 
> [[Deianeira]].  According to ancient mythology, the owners of 
> the horn were many and various.  Speaking generally, it was 
> regarded as the symbol of inexhaustible riches and plenty, 
> and became the attribute of various divinities ([[Hades]], 
> [[Gaea]], [[Demeter]], [[Cybele]], [[Hermes]]), and of rivers (the [[Nile]]) as 
> fertilizers of the land.  The term ``horn of Amaltheia'' is 
> applied to a fertile district, and an estate belonging to 
> Titus Pomponius Atticus was called Amaltheum.  Cretan coins 
> represent the infant Zeus being suckled by the goat; other 
> Greek coins exhibit him suspended from its teats or carried in 
> the arms of a nymph (Ovid, Fasti, v. 115; Metam. ix. 87). 
------
Ronald_Reagan|985367499
22c22,33
< During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].  This scandal, which caused much damage to his presidency led from his decision to sell arms (contrary to [[United Nations]] [[sanctions]] and without approval from Congress) to [[Iran]] who were engaged in a bloody war with neighbours [[Iraq]].  There was also an implication that the arms deals acted as sweeteners to Iran's leaders to release their western hostages.  The money was then diverted, via Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to the [[US National Security Adviser]] [[John Poindexter]], to provide arms for [[contra]] rebel groups fighting to overthrow the [[communist]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]].  The clandestine operation was discovered only after an airlift of the guns was downed over [[Nicaragua]].  Reagan claimed he had not been informed of the operation and a [[Presidential Commision]], which indicted North and Poindexter amongst others, could not determine the degree of his involvement.
---
> During his administration, there was a major scandal and investigation of what came to be known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].  
> 
> The Iran-Contra Affair is significant because it brought many [[constitutional]] questions into [[public view]]:
> *Does the president have unconditional authority to conduct foreign policy?  (Can the president approve selling arms to a foreign nation without [[congressional]] approval?)
> *What information does the president have to provide to congress and when should that information be supplied? (Does the president have to tell congress about foreign policy initiatives?
> *What authority, if any, does congress have to oversee functions of the executive branch?  (Does funding for foreign policy initiatives have to be approved by congress? More larger, who defines the entire spending budget and regulates it?)
> *What role the [[Supreme Court]] has in deciding conflicts between the [[legislative branch]] and [[executive branch]]?
> 
> Most, if not all, of the constitutional questions are still unresolved.  It appears that if either the legislative branch or the executive branch do not wish to work together, there are no legal remedies.   These are transitive issues in that each of the executive and legislative branches change every few years.
> 
> This scandal, which caused much damage to his presidency led from his decision to sell arms (contrary to [[United Nations]] [[sanctions]] and without approval from Congress) to [[Iran]] who were engaged in a bloody war with neighbours [[Iraq]].  There was also an implication that the arms deals acted as sweeteners to Iran's leaders to release their western hostages.  The money was then diverted, via Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to the [[US National Security Adviser]] [[John Poindexter]], to provide arms for [[contra]] rebel groups fighting to overthrow the [[communist]] [[government]] of [[Nicaragua]].  The clandestine operation was discovered only after an airlift of the guns was downed over [[Nicaragua]].  Reagan claimed he had not been informed of the operation and a [[Presidential Commision]], which indicted North and Poindexter amongst others, could not determine the degree of his involvement.
> 
------
Christianity|985367712
7c7
< Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus, and that the [[Pope]] has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
---
> Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus.  The Roman Catholics also believe that the [[Pope]] has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
------
Pope|985367758
1c1
< The supreme spiritual leader of the Catholic church.
---
> The archbishop of [[Rome]], supreme spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic]] church.
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985368097
13a14,30
> ----
> 
> The talk page is the place to hash out controversial issues.
> 
> For example, many people believe that Reagan did not care for low income people.  That is not true.  He believed that the individual can take care of himself better than a Washington bureacrat.  
> Evidence for:
> * earned income credit - government subsidy to low income working people (and definitely anti-right wing)
> * derregulation of air fares - opened air travel to many more low income people
> * 1986 tax reduction - greatly lowered the tax desirability of owning real estate - this reduced the value of real estate and led to increased liquidity in the real estate market - this led to a greatly increased availability of lower priced homes and a much higher home ownership rate -  no one credits Reagan with this because it has taken 15 years
> * 1986 tax reduction - second major effect - freed up the allocation of money invested in real estate to fund new businesses which created many new jobs and many new middle class people - increased liquidity of capital/business translates into innovation and more jobs - translates into increases in productivity - translates into improvments in the standard of living
> 
> Many new media stories portrayed Reagan as one who only helped the rich.  
> 
> Fundamentaly, it comes to a question of:
> *Did Reagan's actions trigger events that caused an increase in the standard of living?
> 
> 
------
WikiPedians|985368127
1,28c1
< The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on [[Wikipedia]].  Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
< 
< On [[feature requests]] someone requested the feature of keeping track of all contributors, and how much they've done.  It seems this would be impossible to do properly.  If someone wants that, though, then it probably won't hurt to have a manual list, would it?  These are all the people who have signed their names this last week:
< 
< * [[Josh Grosse]]
< * [[Phil Bordelon]]
< * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of [[wikipedia]] and editor-in-chief of [[nupedia]]
< * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
< * RoseParks
< * SoniC
< * [[Mathijs]]
< * [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< * [[Jimbo Wales]], the other cofounder of this great project
< * WojPob
< * CliffordAdams, author of [[UseModWiki]]
< * [[Bomfog]]
< * [[Jmlynch]]
< * TimShell, to whom we owe the 13% of wikipedia devoted to [[Atlas Shrugged]]
< * [[Cdani]]
< * AstroNomer
< * [[Suzanne Elsasser]]
< * [[Pguiral]]
< * [[Dick Beldin]], to whom we owe most of the [[Statistics]] pages
< * [[Invictus]]
< * [[John Abbe]]
< * [[JStoddW]]
< 
< Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedians]]
------
Wikipedians|985368139
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on [[Wikipedia]].  Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
> 
> On [[feature requests]] someone requested the feature of keeping track of all contributors, and how much they've done.  It seems this would be impossible to do properly.  If someone wants that, though, then it probably won't hurt to have a manual list, would it?  These are all the people who have signed their names this last week:
> 
> * [[Josh Grosse]]
> * [[Phil Bordelon]]
> * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of [[wikipedia]] and editor-in-chief of [[nupedia]]
> * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> * RoseParks
> * SoniC
> * [[Mathijs]]
> * [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> * [[Jimbo Wales]], the other cofounder of this great project
> * WojPob
> * CliffordAdams, author of [[UseModWiki]]
> * [[Bomfog]]
> * [[Jmlynch]]
> * TimShell, to whom we owe the 13% of wikipedia devoted to [[Atlas Shrugged]]
> * [[Cdani]]
> * AstroNomer
> * [[Suzanne Elsasser]]
> * [[Pguiral]]
> * [[Dick Beldin]], to whom we owe most of the [[Statistics]] pages
> * [[Invictus]]
> * [[John Abbe]]
> * [[JStoddW]]
> 
> Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
------
DisRuption|985368158
1,7c1
< Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  It hasn't happened too much on [[Wikipedia]].
< 
< How can this be?  Simple.  Anyone can edit a page, and all the recent edits are saved.  So if some irresponsible individual ruins a valuable page, it can be quickly restored by anyone who knows how (it's not hard; click on the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of the page).  Moreover, the irresponsible individuals know this.  So they have little incentive to try to wreak havoc.
< 
< We might end up with people posting silly quotes, but that's to be expected...
< 
< "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
---
> #REDIRECT [[Disruption]]
------
Disruption|985368166
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anybody can edit a wiki page.  Doesn't that mean wikis will be disrupted by assorted spammers, idiots, nuts, etc.?  Not necessarily.  In the original wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki, this hasn't really happened.  It hasn't happened too much on [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> How can this be?  Simple.  Anyone can edit a page, and all the recent edits are saved.  So if some irresponsible individual ruins a valuable page, it can be quickly restored by anyone who knows how (it's not hard; click on the "View other revisions" link at the bottom of the page).  Moreover, the irresponsible individuals know this.  So they have little incentive to try to wreak havoc.
> 
> We might end up with people posting silly quotes, but that's to be expected...
> 
> "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
------
BrilliantProse|985368224
1,11c1
< ''Somebody'' thinks the following [[Wikipedia]] pages are "brilliant prose" or at least pretty damn good:
< 
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY
< 
< And the following are looking very promising:
< 
< BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
< 
< Well, whatever these articles are, they sure aren't PatentNonsense!
< ----
< Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Brilliant prose]]
------
Brilliant_prose|985368231
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This page hasn't been updated in months!''
> 
> ''Somebody'' thinks the following [[Wikipedia]] pages are "brilliant prose" or at least pretty good:
> 
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY
> 
> And the following are looking very promising:
> 
> BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
> 
> Well, whatever these articles are, they sure aren't PatentNonsense!
> ----
> Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
PatentNonsense|985368267
1,12c1
< Patent nonsense (to be carefully distinguished from BrilliantProse as well as PrivateNonsense), particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
< 
< * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity. (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
< * Stuff that, while apparently meaningful after a fashion, is so completely and irremediably confused that no intelligent person can be expected to try to make heads or tails of it.  (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
< This should be sent to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
< 
< The following, while often regrettable, is not patent nonsense, and therefore according to a proposed rule on the WikiPediaProcess page, should not for ''that'' reason be deleted (but some suggestions for improvement are included):
< * Really badly-written stuff.  (So correct it.)
< * Partisan screed.  (Make it hedged or add qualifications in order to make it less biased.)
< * Religious excogitations.  (Make it factual.  Yes, there are ways of doing this; e.g., add phrases like "Followers of X hold that...")
< * Mere opinion, masquerading as fact.  (Remove it to an appropriately-named page, or reword in order to make it fact-stating.)
< * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Patent nonsense]]
------
Patent_nonsense|985368274
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Patent nonsense (to be carefully distinguished from BrilliantProse as well as PrivateNonsense), particularly on a wiki, falls into a just few general categories:
> 
> * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity. (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
> * Stuff that, while apparently meaningful after a fashion, is so completely and irremediably confused that no intelligent person can be expected to try to make heads or tails of it.  (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
> This should be sent to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense.
> 
> The following, while often regrettable, is not patent nonsense, and therefore according to a proposed rule on the WikiPediaProcess page, should not for ''that'' reason be deleted (but some suggestions for improvement are included):
> * Really badly-written stuff.  (So correct it.)
> * Partisan screed.  (Make it hedged or add qualifications in order to make it less biased.)
> * Religious excogitations.  (Make it factual.  Yes, there are ways of doing this; e.g., add phrases like "Followers of X hold that...")
> * Mere opinion, masquerading as fact.  (Remove it to an appropriately-named page, or reword in order to make it fact-stating.)
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
------
WikiWatcher|985368300
1,7c1
< An intelligent person who surfs the "[[Wikipedia]]" and finds valuable information. 
< ----
<  And what about us not so intelligent people?
< ----
< We can work on movie star biographies for relaxation, and let the really smart people enter stuff about AbstractAlgebra.  :-)
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wiki-watcher]]
------
Wiki-watcher|985368309
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An intelligent person who surfs the "[[Wikipedia]]" and finds valuable information. 
> ----
>  And what about us not so intelligent people?
> ----
> We can work on movie star biographies for relaxation, and let the really smart people enter stuff about AbstractAlgebra.  :-)
------
Wikipedians|985368439
1c1
< The curiously brave people, who, in the face of the dire threat of DisRuption, nonetheless post BrilliantProse (and, sometimes, PatentNonsense) on [[Wikipedia]].  Sufficient but not necessary condition for being a WikiWatcher.
---
> The people who post on [[Wikipedia]].  Wikipedians now number in the dozens.
28c28
< Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
---
> Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
------
Minuscule|985368471
1,2d0
< Not to be confused with [[miniscule]]
< 
13c11
< ----
---
> 
14a13,14
> 
> ''Ah, well that's easy to fix!  Take your pick: [[Lowercase]], [[Minuscule letter]], [[Minuscule letters]], [[Minuscule hand]], [[Minuscule script]], [[Minuscule (orthography)]]...  A strange thing, though, is that this is the primary sense in the m-w dictionary.''
17a18
> Nope.  'Minuscule' is the standard spelling in all cases, and 'miniscule' is a variant thereof.  Admittedly the latter is probably used more for small things than letters, but it would be very confusing to separate things out on that basis.
------
Wikipedia|985368536
1c1
< [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software (UseModWiki) by WikiPedians for WikiWatcher''''s.  Who knows where it will go?  At this rate, quite far!
---
> [[Wikipedia]] is an encyclopedia project built using WikiWiki software (UseModWiki) by [[Wikipedians]].  Who knows where it will go?  At this rate, quite far!
9c9
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
------
Christianity|985368790
7c7
< Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus.  The Roman Catholics also believe that the [[Pope]] has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.
---
> Catholics believe that their faith is a continuation of the original Christian church established in the time of Jesus.  The Roman Catholics also believe that the [[Pope]] has authority which can be traced directly to the apostle Peter.  Originally the Eastern Orthodox church was headed by the [[patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]], but as first among equals and under imperial control; the destruction of the [[Byzantine Empire]] has sort of changed that.
------
Patent_nonsense|985369149
8c8
< * Really badly-written stuff.  (So correct it.)
---
> * Really badly-written stuff.  (So correct it.) - like this list item - it should be <b>Very poorly written stuff</b>
12c12
< * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
---
> * Incompetent and/or immature stuff.  (Well, it's not nonsense, but perhaps it does deserve to be greatly improved.  So improve it.)
------
Brilliant_prose|985369222
5c5
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY
---
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]]
13c13
< Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Say, I can't keep this page updated by myself.  Will others please add links to this page? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Word|985369481
3a4,9
> ----
> On [[computer]]s, a word refers to a small collection of [[bit]]s.  
> 
> Modern computers use 2, 4, or 8 [[byte]]s per word (16, 32, or 64 bits per word).  Older computers sometimes used 36 bit words and words other than 16, 32, or 64 bits per word.
> 
> Also of note, the earliest computers did not use [[binary]] representation.  They used [[base 10]] representation.
5d10
< On computers, a word refers to a small collection of bytes.  Different standards have different numbers of bytes per word; two and four are typical.
------
Patent_nonsense|985369572
12a13
> * Flame bait entries
------
Mathijs|985369592
76a77,80
> 
> ''Its an unsupported, untrue, prejudiced statement directed at a group of people categorised only by their nationality.  Find me a better word for it.''
> 
> ''You have also stated a belief (on [[Poles/Talk]]) that democracy is not possible without ethnic cleansing.''
------
Affirming_the_consequent|985369952
1c1
< Suppose in an [[argument]] one were to affirm the "then" part of a [[conditional]] (the consequent) first, and conclude with the "if" part (the antecedent).  This [[argument form]] has a name ''affirming the consequent'':
---
> Suppose in an [[argument]] one were to affirm the "then" part of a [[conditional]] (the consequent) first, and conclude with the "if" part (the antecedent).  This [[argument form]] has the name ''affirming the consequent'':
8c8
< :Therefore, there is fire here.
---
> :Therefore, there is fire here.
------
Affirming_the_consequent|985369997
1c1
< Suppose in an [[argument]] one were to affirm the "then" part of a [[conditional]] (the consequent) first, and conclude with the "if" part (the antecedent).  This [[argument form]] has the name ''affirming the consequent'':
---
> Suppose in an [[argument]] one were to affirm the "then" part of a [[conditional]] (the consequent) first, and conclude with the "if" part (the antecedent).
5c5
< This is called "affirming the consequent" because in arguing this way one does indeed affirm the consequent in the second premise ("Q" is the consequent of the conditional claim, "If P, then Q").  This is a [[logical fallacy]].  If we argue this way, we make a mistake.  One can see this with an example:
---
> This [[argument form]] has the name ''affirming the consequent,'' because in arguing this way one does indeed affirm the consequent in the second premise ("Q" is the consequent of the conditional claim, "If P, then Q").  This is a [[logical fallacy]].  If we argue this way, we make a mistake.  One can see this with an example:
------
Disruption|985370060
0a1,3
> A disruption is something that temporarily or permanantly interrupts, delays, or prevents delays an event, task, or operation from completing.
> 
> ----
7c10
< "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
---
> "Share your knowledge. It is a way to achieve immortality." -The Dalai Lama
------
Julian_Simon|985370366
1c1
< Julian Simon was professor of Business Administration at the [[University of Maryland]] and a Senior Fellow at the [[Cato Institute]]. 
---
> Julian Simon (1932 - 1998) was professor of Business Administration at the [[University of Maryland]] and a Senior Fellow at the [[Cato Institute]].  He wrote many books and articles, mostly on economic subjects.  He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by [[Libertarianism|libertarians]].
3,5c3
< Julian Simon and [[Paul Ehrlich]] entered into a famous [[/Wager|wager]], betting on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
< 
< He authored of many books and quite a few articles, mostly on economic subjects. He is best known for his work on population, natural resources, and immigration.  His works are often quoted by [[Libertarianism|libertarians]].
---
> His book '[[The Ultimate Resource]]', later reissued as '[[The Ultimate Resource 2]]', is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption.  In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
7c5
< His book '[[The Ultimate Resource]]', later reissued as '[[The Ultimate Resource 2]]', is a massive assault on the conventional wisdom of population growth and resource consumption. In it, Simon challenged the neo-Malthusian notion that an increase in population has negative economic consequences, that population is a drain on natural resources, and that we stand at risk of running out of resources through over-consumption. 
---
> Julian Simon and [[Paul Ehrlich]] entered into a famous [[/Wager|wager]], betting on a mutually agreed upon metric of resource scarcity.
------
Larry_Sanger|985370449
1c1
< EditorInChief of NuPedia and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. PhiloSophy, 2000, OhioState.  Home town is AnchorageAlaska.
---
> Editor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
3c3
< Inflicted LarrysText first on Ohio State students, and now on [[Wikipedia]].
---
> Inflicted [[Larrys Text|a series of philosophy lectures]] first on Ohio State students, and now on Wikipedia.
5c5
< Presently living in LasVegas for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because [[Larry Sanger]] works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because [[Larry Sanger]] works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
65c65,66
< 
---
> ----
> Thanks! --LS
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|985370502
0a1,2
> (This article obviously needs to be changed to [[Free Links]] format.)
> 
15c17
< For more information, see the website of the [http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
---
> For more information, see the website of the [http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau] or the [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/Anchorage/ Municipality of Anchorage].
------
Patent_nonsense|985370962
3c3
< * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that, usually intentionally, has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity. (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
---
> * Literal nonsense, i.e., text that has no assignable meaning at all.  This tends to be created after the consumption of too much adult beverage, for example, or under the influence of immaturity and/or stupidity. (The writings of James Joyce being the obvious exception.)
------
Minuscule|985371329
14a15,16
> 
> :The m-w dictionary obviously puts the original sense of a term first, which is cool.  But the first sense of a term needn't be the one mainly discussed in an enyclopedia article.  Otherwise, what will we attach to the term [[hearse]]?  :-)  Anyway, if "minuscule" means something different (more subtle?) from "lowercase," then I would suggest "minuscule letter" or "minuscule script" (gee, I don't know!).  If the same, then "lowercase," pointing out as an interesting bit of trivia that "minuscule" originally meant "lowercase." --LS, MHO.
18c20
< Nope.  'Minuscule' is the standard spelling in all cases, and 'miniscule' is a variant thereof.  Admittedly the latter is probably used more for small things than letters, but it would be very confusing to separate things out on that basis.
---
> Nope.  'Minuscule' is the standard spelling in all cases, and 'miniscule' is a variant thereof.  Admittedly the latter is probably used more for small things than letters, but it would be very confusing to separate things out on that basis.
------
Hearse|985371538
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Typically a conveyance for the casket from a church to a burial site.
> 
> Why not go here 
>    http://www.google.com/search?q=hearse
> and research an article for this fascinating topic?  :-)
------
Beryllium|985372002
26a27,28
> ----
> /Talk
------
Beryllium/Talk|985372035
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What's the source for this information?  Obviously, the information ''itself'' isn't copyrighted.  But does that mean that entire factbooks can be copied wholesale?  An interesting question.
------
HTML|985372200
1c1,3
< Stands for Hypertext Markup Language, which is derived from [[SGML]]. The latest version is 4.01, which is available from the [http://www.w3.org World Wide Web Consortium].
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] derived from [[SGML]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
> 
> 
3d4
< It is mainly used to "program" and design [[web site]]s and [[Homepage definition|home pages]], which are the main components of the [[world wide web]].
------
Analysis_of_variance|985372285
8c8
< The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified model.
---
> The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. (If the treatment levels are quantitative and the effects are linear, a [[Linear Regression]] analysis may be appropriate.)
------
Analysis_of_Variance|985372368
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]
------
HTML|985372440
1,4c1
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] derived from [[SGML]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
< 
< 
< 
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including ''tags'' such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, plain text transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
------
HTML|985372495
1c1
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including ''tags'' such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, plain text transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including [[markup tag]]s such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, plain text transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
------
HTML|985372544
1c1
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including [[markup tag]]s such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, plain text transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including [[markup tag]]s such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, [[plain text]] transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|985372713
3a4,5
> ----
> Perhaps ''anomalous phenomena'' is a misnomer. The advocates assert that ''natural explanations'' in terms of observer error, unusual optical reflections, etc. are inadmissable. In their stead, theories which run counter to conventional science are asserted with little evidence.
------
Quadword|985372748
9,12c9
< I think this probably isn't adequate.  I mean, I know what "unit," "computer memory or storage," "four," and "word" all mean, but I still don't know what "quadword" means (at least, I don't think I do).  Isn't that interesting? --LS----
< That is because no one has explained how many bytes are in a word. In IBM/370 Assembler a word has 32 bits or 4 bytes. A doubleword is the length of 2 words, thus 64 bits or 8 bytes. I was entering something about this under word with a one word instruction as an example and found someone disagreeing with me---I give up. Rose Parks 
< ----
< problem is that different machines have different word sizes
---
> /Talk
------
Quadword/Talk|985372829
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think this probably isn't adequate.  I mean, I know what "unit," "computer memory or storage," "four," and "word" all mean, but I still don't know what "quadword" means (at least, I don't think I do).  Isn't that interesting? --LS----
> That is because no one has explained how many bytes are in a word. In IBM/370 Assembler a word has 32 bits or 4 bytes. A doubleword is the length of 2 words, thus 64 bits or 8 bytes. I was entering something about this under word with a one word instruction as an example and found someone disagreeing with me---I give up. Rose Parks 
> ----
> problem is that different machines have different word sizes
> ----
> OK, different problem: if you use "word" without further ado, ''many'' people reading the article won't know that you mean something different from what is ordinarily meant by "word."
------
Adobe|985372989
1d0
< 
8c7
< 16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction 
---
> 16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c.  A distinction 
13c12,14
< Source: Project Guetenberg Encyclopedia Vol 1.
---
> ''Adobe'' has come to mean a style of architecture popular in the dry, warm climes of North America.  Cf. [[stucco]].
> 
> Source: Project Guetenberg Encyclopedia Vol 1.  Thereafter edited on Wikipedia.
------
Architecture|985373331
1,2c1
< Architecture is the root of all arts.----
< And provided the context to define the [[Ediface Complex]]...
---
> Architecture is the [[art]] of [[design]]ing [[building]]s; as well as the buildings themselves: "The architecture of Chicago has been created by a fantastic roll-call of famous [[architect]]s"; and perhaps the artistic aspects of the buildings: "That [[cathedral]] has the most interesting architecture."
4c3
< ----
---
> Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]].
6c5
< Some great architects are Rem Koolhaas, Alvar Aalto and Mies van der Rohe.
---
> See [[Ediface Complex]].
8,10c7
< ----
< 
< [[Adobe]] is a type of material used in architecture.
---
> [[Adobe]] is a type of material used in architecture, as well as the name of a type of architecture, related to [[stucco]].
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|985373455
5c5
< Perhaps ''anomalous phenomena'' is a misnomer. The advocates assert that ''natural explanations'' in terms of observer error, unusual optical reflections, etc. are inadmissable. In their stead, theories which run counter to conventional science are asserted with little evidence.
---
> /Talk
------
Minuscule|985373485
20a21,22
> 
> <i>I see.  I had no idea what I was talking about.  Probably we could get rid of this discussion now and just rename the page. --[[Jimbo Wales]] :-)</i>
------
Mathijs|985373504
80a81,82
> 
> <I>Well, Gareth, here it ends again for us two. <BR>I don't think you know what 'nationality', 'racism' & 'ethnicity' are, at all. <BR>Race & racism is no subject of the book '1984' whatsoever. <BR>'nationality' is not a synonym of 'race'. <BR>What I stated in [[Poles/Talk]] is a painfull fact & not a belief. <BR>You either are very misguided or making a very nasty joke. <BR>I've had it with you. <BR>Bye!</I><B>FINAL</B>
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985373597
29a30
> ----
30a32
> In another forum, I wrote that [[Ronald Reagan]] would be the best president to have a beer with.  [[Bill Clinton]] would be the best president to go to a strip club with.
------
Mathijs|985373622
82c82
< <I>Well, Gareth, here it ends again for us two. <BR>I don't think you know what 'nationality', 'racism' & 'ethnicity' are, at all. <BR>Race & racism is no subject of the book '1984' whatsoever. <BR>'nationality' is not a synonym of 'race'. <BR>What I stated in [[Poles/Talk]] is a painfull fact & not a belief. <BR>You either are very misguided or making a very nasty joke. <BR>I've had it with you. <BR>Bye!</I><B>FINAL</B>
---
> Well, Gareth, here it ends again for us two. <BR>I don't think you know what 'nationality', 'racism' & 'ethnicity' are, at all. <BR>Race & racism is no subject of the book '1984' whatsoever. <BR>'nationality' is not a synonym of 'race'. <BR>What I stated in [[Poles/Talk]] is a painfull fact & not a belief. <BR>You either are very misguided or making a very nasty joke. <BR>I've had it with you. <BR>Bye!<BR><B>FINAL</B>
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985373902
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Perhaps ''anomalous phenomena'' is a misnomer. The advocates assert that ''natural explanations'' in terms of observer error, unusual optical reflections, etc. are inadmissable. In their stead, theories which run counter to conventional science are asserted with little evidence.
> ----
> IMHO, the above is unclear, but could and should be re-moved to the main page after it's expanded.  I can't tell whether it's a meta-comment (about the choice of the name of the article) or a comment about, e.g., parapsychologists.  Who are the "advocates" here (what do they advocate for)?  Also "theories" about what, and who is asserting them?  In short, is this what you mean?--
> 
> Some skeptics hold that ''anomalous phenomena'' is a misnomer, because this implies that there are real phenomena under study.  Those who believe there are real phenomena to study--parapsychologists, for example--are said to assert that ''natural explanations'' of alleged "paranormal" phenomena cannot be explained in terms of observer error, unusual optical reflections, etc.  Instead of these natural explanations, the parapsychologists (and others) advance theories that, skeptics maintain, run counter to conventional science and are supported by little evidence.
> 
> If ''that's'' what you mean, there must be a simpler way to say it.  :-)
------
Markup_language|985374221
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>markup language</i> is a kind of [[text encoding]] that represents text as well as details about the structure and appearance of the text.  The name is derived from the traditional publishing practice of "marking up" a manuscript, that is, adding printer's instructions in the margins of a paper manuscript.  Markup languages are used, for example, by the publishing industry to communicate printed works among authors, editors, and printers.
> 
> The most common markup languages in use today are [[SGML]] and its derivatives, such as [[HTML]] and [[DocBook]].  These languages intermix the text of a document with markup instructions in the same data stream or file.  Here, for example, is a small section of text marked up in HTML:
> 
> <pre>
>    &lt;h1&gt; Anatidae &lt;/h1&gt;
>    &lt;p&gt; The family &lt;i&gt;Anatidae&lt;/i&gt; includes ducks, geese, and swans,
>    but &lt;em&gt;not&lt;/em&gt; the closely-related screamers.
> </pre>
> 
> The codes enclosed in angle-brackets &lt;like this&gt; are markup instructions, while the text between these instructions is the actual text of the document.  The codes "h1" and "em" are examples of <i>structural</i> markup, in that they describe the intended purpose or meaning of the text they include (specifically, "h1" means "this is a first-level heading" and "em" means "this is an emphasized word").  A device reading such structural markup may apply its own rules or styles for presenting it, using larger type, boldface, indentation, or whatever style it prefers.  The "i" instruction is an example of <i>presentational</i> markup.  It specifies the exact appearance of the text (in this case, the use of an italic typeface) without specifying its purpose.
> 
------
Mathijs|985374232
82a83,85
> 
> ''No, the racist element is that you described England (and the English implicitly) as a fascist superstate (and its prole subjects).  You are an idiot and a bigot, and considerably less smart than you clearly think you are.  Quoting philosophers at random is no substitute for clear thought.  Puerile little axioms like  "if it hurts its true" can not guide you in life.  Whilst I accept that english is may not be your first language, you have failed to understand a single one of the objections to your crass generalisations raised by myself and others.  And if you want to troll, I suggest you pick either slashdot or UseNet.''
> 
83a87
> 
------
India|985374245
3c3,6
< See [http://goidirectory.nic.in/ Directory of official websites of Government of India]
---
> See [http://goidirectory.nic.in/ Directory of official websites of Government of India].
> 
> Like the rest of [[South Asia]], India has stagnated economically since independence in 1947, while countries in nearby [[South-East Asia]] and [[East Asia]] have made remarkable strides in wealth creation.
> 
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985374367
7c7,11
< If ''that's'' what you mean, there must be a simpler way to say it.  :-)
---
> If ''that's'' what you mean, there must be a simpler way to say it.  :-)
> ----
> Was not [[Quantum Physics]], and even The [[Chaos Theory]], during initial postulation rejected by mainstream scientists as a sort of "[[pseudoscience]]?"  It would seem to me that a discussion on [[Anomalous Phenomena]] and [[pseudoscience]], any articles that expand upon these, might not be complete without inclusion of fields previously included in these categories, but is no longer labeled such.   -[[Invictus]]
> 
> ''Written before Larry's save''
------
South_Asia|985374386
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> South Asia is a geo-cultural region comprising the modern states of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.
> 
> It contains well over a fifth of the world's population and, after Sub-Saharan Africa, is also one of the world's poorest regions.
> 
> 
------
Asia|985374420
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Asia
------
Ronald_Reagan/Talk|985374490
32c32
< In another forum, I wrote that [[Ronald Reagan]] would be the best president to have a beer with.  [[Bill Clinton]] would be the best president to go to a strip club with.
---
> In another forum, I wrote that [[Ronald Reagan]] would be [[the best president to have a beer with]].  [[Bill Clinton]] would be the best president to go to a strip club with.
------
Mathijs|985374577
71a72,73
> ::''For my part, I want to register my amusement at your publicly displaying and admitting your laziness, self-righteousness, rudeness, and insensitivity.  You should be ashamed of yourself--and if you're incapable of shame, you need professional, psychological help.  You're engaging in what on the Internet, as you surely know, is called "trolling."  If you <b>don't</b> realize or agree that that's what you're doing, that's too bad; but it's a fact, and I can say confidently that it's how nearly all reasonable people on Wikipedia see your activity.  If you <b>do</b> realize that it's what you're doing, go to hell.  Anyway, please take yourself and your unpleasantness elsewhere, unless you want to change your ways and write encyclopedia articles.  Wikipedia is emphatically <b>NOT</b> the place for your silly excogitations. --[[Larry Sanger]], an American who hates rudeness from everyone regardless of nationality''
> 
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985374672
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Wikified from [[RonaldReagan/Talk]]''
> 
> Somebody thinks [[ronald Reagan]] would be the best president to have a beer with and [[Bill Clinton]] the best to go to a strip club with.  
> 
> I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985374720
1c1
< ''Wikified from [[RonaldReagan/Talk]]''
---
> ''Wikified from [[Ronald Reagan/Talk]]''
3c3
< Somebody thinks [[ronald Reagan]] would be the best president to have a beer with and [[Bill Clinton]] the best to go to a strip club with.  
---
> Somebody thinks [[Ronald Reagan]] would be the best president to have a beer with and [[Bill Clinton]] the best to go to a strip club with.  
5c5
< I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
---
> I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
------
HTML|985375154
1c1,4
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  By including [[markup tag]]s such as <code><b></code> and <code><i></code>, [[plain text]] transmitted via the Internet is interpreted by a [[web browser]] as, for example, <b>bold</b> or <i>italicized</i> text (to pick two simple features allowed by HTML).  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
> 
> HTML includes some <i>structural</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
> 
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985375406
5c5,7
< I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
---
> [[Theodore Roosevelt]] would be a great drinking-partner; think of the stories!  [[Andrew Jackson]] would have been a lot of fun, too.  [[Thomas Jefferson]] could play fiddle, so it's safe to say he would have been a good drinking-partner.
> 
> I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
------
Echelon|985375411
24a25
> /Talk
------
URL|985375579
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>Uniform Resource Locator</i>, or URL, is a standardized address for some resource (such as a document or image) on the Internet.  First created by [[Tim Berners Lee]] for use on the [[World Wide Web]], the currently used forms are detailed by [[IETF]] standard [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt RFC 2396] (1998).
------
Echelon/Talk|985375624
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This article contains what sounds to me like some very fantastical claims.  How, exactly, is this supposed to work?
> 
> I don't doubt the existence of Echelon, mind you.  I'm just questioning whether it is really possible for it to be intercepting <i>everything</i> in the way that is claimed.  The sheer bandwidth required inside the system would be staggering.  
> 
> And how, exactly, are these deep space satellites supposed to be sniffing fiber optic packets?
> 
> How much of this article is actually confirmed, and how much is just sheer slashdot-style fear mongering?
> 
> <i>Note well!</i> <b>I am opposed to the existence of anything even remotely like this.  I'm just asking in my role as an encyclopedist whether or not this information has been validated!  I'm not advocating on behalf of echelon</b>  I just thought I'd say that. --[[Jimbo Wales]] 
------
IETF|985375684
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <i>Internet Engineering Task Force</i> is charged with developing and promoting [[Internet]] standards.
> 
> [http://www.ietf.org/ Official IETF Site].
> 
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985375704
7c7,9
< I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
---
> I am thinking [[Warren Harding]] had to be the best to do both with...and he'd never have to leave the [[White House]] to do such! -[[Invictus]]
> 
> Of course [[George Washington]] grew hemp and [[Bill Clinton]] didn't even inhale, so those who occasionally partake of a jazz woodbine should lean towards George.  Plus, I'd imagine the conversation would be better.
------
Pseudoscience|985375905
7c7
< Popular examples of pseudoscience are [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[cartomancy]], and many other fortune-telling methods; [[dowsing]], [[channeling]], and other [[psychic]] claims; and many unscientific medical practices such as [[accupuncture]], [[chelation]], and [[iridology]].  Many of these things have been studied scientifically as well, but without success.  Pseudoscientific medical practices often become quite popular, because they often work well because of the [[placebo effect]].
---
> Popular examples of pseudoscience are [[astrology]], [[numerology]], [[cartomancy]], and many other fortune-telling methods; [[dowsing]], [[channeling]], and other [[psychic]] claims; and many unscientific medical practices such as [[accupuncture]], [[applied kinesiology]], and [[iridology]].  Many of these things have been studied scientifically as well, but without success.  Pseudoscientific medical practices often become quite popular, because they often work well because of the [[placebo effect]].
------
Mathijs|985375907
4,5d3
< ----
< perhaps I'm not very well suited for the encyclopedia-bit factwise; <I>maybe a agent provocateur of truth? nice thought! lazy self-righteous thought! hark!</I>
7,92d4
< ''Just take care, though - please don't think you should leave.  Short rants can always be cleaned up.''
< 
< Don't worry, I enjoy this!<BR>
< It mostly depends on the reaction; up to now I've had only one pityfull clash - some people think reality is a mathematical model. I'm into opinion; if people take that as absolute fact, I'll have to take care to disclaim my statements as if being absolute truth. England is a lovely country with a lot of frustration; I shouldn't poke sticks into the wound.
< 
< I don't believe any such thing as fact & truth exist at all, but most peoples philosophy (apparently) still linger in dialectics & 19-th century illusions of total control over reality. 
< 
< ''"The facts are those things that are the case'' -- Wittgenstein, 20th Century - [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]].  Please do stick around.
< 
< <I> Thank you, [[Gareth Owen|Gareth]]; 
< <BR>[[Wittgenstein]] = [[beta-philosophy]] = not quite my cup of tea; <BR>[[fact]] = [[thing]] = [[case]]; 
< <BR>ponder, ponder, ponder, 
< <BR>fill it up, have a bath.</I><BR>
< 
< Perception & concensus is a nice start, but still only a tool . . .
< 
< I don't mind being rebuffed; it's a clear reality check. Mistakes are an opportunity to learn new things, so . . .
< 
< I always liked Philip K. Dick's definition: <BR>''Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.''  <BR>If you stop believing in Leprechauns, for example, they'll never bother you again.  <BR>If you stop believing in gravity, though, those stubborn cups still break when you drop them.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< 
< Perhaps I'd rather believe in Leprechauns than in gravity;<BR>
< Way too heavy for this escapist -- Mathijs
< 
< ----
< Yes, by all means, do stick around.  I think my remarks were perhaps too harsh.:
<   
< ''Mathijs,
< 
< It seems we are very nearly the same age, as I was born August 7, 1966.
< 
< Please stop ranting on the wikipedia -- this isn't a discussion forum, but an encyclopedia.  What we hope to achieve, and I don't think this is too hopelessly idealistic, is an atmosphere where people of <b>widely different</b> ideological opinions can come together to work for a <b>quality</b> presentation of the facts.
< 
< Rather than writing inflammatory comments about England, for example, you might write a detailed account of one of the particular injustices that you mentioned.
< 
< A good writer doesn't state conclusions, but states facts and permits the reader to draw the obvious conclusions.  It takes a nobody to say "England is unjust" -- but a master will tell us about England, and let us draw the natural conclusion -- and if
< the conclusion is that "England is unjust" then so be it.
< 
< -- [[Jimbo Wales]]''
< 
< <I>Don't worry<BR>
< there's a Dutch saying:<BR>
< "Zachte heelmeesters maken stinkende wonden"<BR>
< (like: "soft/sloppy/lazy physicians make gory/smelly/festering wounds")</I>
< 
< I think I'm not good author in your sense, anyway<BR>
< I'm more of an opinion slinger<BR>
< very often in consequence of the reaction and following debate quite interesting notions are realized<BR>
< sometimes I do get rebuffed or called silly things (like nazi or racist) that are mostly way off the mark<BR>
< I've got a simple equasion for this<BR>
< (be happy, you matematicians!)<BR>
< <FONT SIZE=+2 COLOR=#FF0000>If it hurts, it's true</FONT><BR>
< so, <BR>in my own crazy, lazy, pondering, wondering way, <BR>I'm it it for the facts just as all of us wikipedians are<BR>
< (as if I am a Terminus-encyclopedist ([[Isaac Asimov]]), hark, hark!)
< 
< ''I'm sorry but "If it hurts its true" sounds like a lazy self justifying reason to be rude and insensitive to those around you, not a logical axiom'' -- [[Gareth Owen|Gaz]]
< ----
< Thank you, Gareth. What you state is an interesting notion, being a typical British irritation at typical Dutch 'rudeness'. What you call 'rude', I call 'direct, open contact'. 
< 
< Blatant nonsense can be a nuisance in a public discourse, but in a place like Wikipedia easily contradicted & corrected. <BR>Moreover (IMHO) the statement (whatever it's factual Quality,  purpose & emotional effect) can be an opportunity to investigate, discover & formulate the truth.
< <BR>This can only be done if someone cares enough to put his energy into that; like you did in reaction to my statements on [[Netherlands/Talk]]
< 
< Perhaps I really am a lazy, self-righteous, rude & insensitive man! Perhaps I'm using this wikipedia for my personal investigation into truth & pain. Perhaps I'm using you all for this (Gareth, you might be more cooperative!)
< 
< Bottom line of all to me is the fact that I just don't know, that I'm ambiguous in accepting this & wondering, wondering, wondering.
< 
< ::''For my part, I want to register my amusement at your publicly displaying and admitting your laziness, self-righteousness, rudeness, and insensitivity.  You should be ashamed of yourself--and if you're incapable of shame, you need professional, psychological help.  You're engaging in what on the Internet, as you surely know, is called "trolling."  If you <b>don't</b> realize or agree that that's what you're doing, that's too bad; but it's a fact, and I can say confidently that it's how nearly all reasonable people on Wikipedia see your activity.  If you <b>do</b> realize that it's what you're doing, go to hell.  Anyway, please take yourself and your unpleasantness elsewhere, unless you want to change your ways and write encyclopedia articles.  Wikipedia is emphatically <b>NOT</b> the place for your silly excogitations. --[[Larry Sanger]], an American who hates rudeness from everyone regardless of nationality''
< 
< Gareth, how come my statement "England is the closest to '1984' as it gets." has inspired such a heated reaction from you? 
< ----
< ''Because even you admit that its not true (you later called it "rhetoric"), so the only reason you could have said it is to elicit a reaction.  And because racism annoys me.  Next.''
< 
< I just don't see any racism in the remark, so please enlighten me about the connection '1984' - 'racism'
< 
< ''Its an unsupported, untrue, prejudiced statement directed at a group of people categorised only by their nationality.  Find me a better word for it.''
< 
< ''You have also stated a belief (on [[Poles/Talk]]) that democracy is not possible without ethnic cleansing.''
< 
< Well, Gareth, here it ends again for us two. <BR>I don't think you know what 'nationality', 'racism' & 'ethnicity' are, at all. <BR>Race & racism is no subject of the book '1984' whatsoever. <BR>'nationality' is not a synonym of 'race'. <BR>What I stated in [[Poles/Talk]] is a painfull fact & not a belief. <BR>You either are very misguided or making a very nasty joke. <BR>I've had it with you. <BR>Bye!<BR><B>FINAL</B>
< 
< ''No, the racist element is that you described England (and the English implicitly) as a fascist superstate (and its prole subjects).  You are an idiot and a bigot, and considerably less smart than you clearly think you are.  Quoting philosophers at random is no substitute for clear thought.  Puerile little axioms like  "if it hurts its true" can not guide you in life.  Whilst I accept that english is may not be your first language, you have failed to understand a single one of the objections to your crass generalisations raised by myself and others.  And if you want to troll, I suggest you pick either slashdot or UseNet.''
< 
< ----
< 
< There's no reason why I should justify my beliefs & conclusions. I don't think I can prove anything outside fysical reality and the QED-reality is not my field of operation. So . . .
< 
< Don't be sorry, Gareth, I'm happy with your comment. It's an opportunity to me. You're "I'm sorry but" even complies with my theory for you speculate my fear for receiving your comment; it would be painfull if it is right. Perhaps it is.
------
HTML|985375968
1,3c1
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting infromation on the [[World Wide Web]].  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
< 
< HTML includes some <i>structural</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
---
> Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting [[web page]]s--i.e., information on the [[World Wide Web]].  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
4a3
> HTML is a standard for interpreting [[file (computers)|file]]s (called "HTML files," though they can be written using [[plain text]]) that contain different kinds of [[markup]].  There are three kinds in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
------
HTML|985375999
3c3
< HTML is a standard for interpreting [[file (computers)|file]]s (called "HTML files," though they can be written using [[plain text]]) that contain different kinds of [[markup]].  There are three kinds in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
---
> HTML is a standard for interpreting [[data file]]s (called "HTML files," though they can be written using [[plain text]]) that contain different kinds of [[markup]].  There are three kinds in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985376000
9c9
< Of course [[George Washington]] grew hemp and [[Bill Clinton]] didn't even inhale, so those who occasionally partake of a jazz woodbine should lean towards George.  Plus, I'd imagine the conversation would be better.
---
> Of course [[George Washington]] grew hemp and [[Bill Clinton]] didn't even inhale, so those who occasionally partake of a [[jazz woodbine]] should lean towards George.  Plus, I'd imagine the conversation would be better.
------
Carolus_Linnaeus|985376048
1c1
< Latin name for Carl von Linné of Sweden (1707-1778) who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of taxonomy.
---
> Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) was a Swedish scientist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of taxonomy.
8c8
< In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  Hew ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755.
---
> In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  He ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755, with his name changing to Swedish form as Carl von Linné.
------
Politics|985376178
1c1
< A social science that, in its most general, addresses the question of how to improve society.
---
> A social science that, at its most general, addresses the question of what is the best structure for a society -- if there should be change, what change should take place ?
3,5c3
< Political divisions arise over disagreements on two fundamental questions: 1) what changes to society are desirable, and 2) what actions will lead to the desired results, which is to say over: 1) ends, and 2) means.
< 
< Those who have political power get to answer these questions as they see fit, and impose their answers on society.  Much of what politics is in practice, is the wrangling for power in order to do just that.
---
> Political divisions arise over disagreements on two fundamental questions: 1) what changes to society -- if any -- are desirable, and 2) what actions will lead to the desired results, which is to say over: 1) ends, and 2) means.
6a5
> Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  Politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the journalistic sub-class, pressure-groups, and the sub-class of educationalists, who have the power to pussh some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985376348
10,11c10,11
< 
< ''Written before Larry's save''
---
> ----
> I'd say so, ''if'' what you say is true. --LS
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985376370
11c11
< I'd say so, ''if'' what you say is true. --LS
---
> I'd say so, ''if'' what you say is true.  What better person to make the change than you? --LS  :-)
------
Carolus_Linnaeus|985376576
8c8
< In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  He ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755, with his name changing to Swedish form as Carl von Linné.
---
> In 1739 Linnaeus married Sasa Morea, daughter of a physician.  He ascended the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany.  He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals.  The last strikes us as somewhat odd, but [[evolution]] was still a long time away - and indeed, the Catholic Linnaeus would have been horrified by it - and so Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the natural world.  He was was knighted in 1755, under his Swedish name, Carl von Linné.
------
Wikipedia_policy|985376759
20c20,21
< Never use the phrase 'of course' in an article.  'Of course' assumes the reader shares the author's context and perspetive and reaches the same obvious and intuitive conclusions.  This is not always the case.  Do not assume what the reader knows.
---
> Never use the phrase 'of course' in an article.  'Of course' assumes the reader shares the author's context and perspetive and reaches the same obvious and intuitive conclusions.  This is not always the case.  Do not assume what the reader knows.  Additionally, 'of course' is authoritarian and brooks no dissent, and is used when one wants to tell and assert rather than show and explain.  This is not the attitude we should aim for in Wikipedia.
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|985376792
1c1,11
< Editor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
---
> I do <B>NOT</B> know what 'trolling' is<BR>
> I <B>do know</B> what shame is<BR>
> I've been as honest as can be<BR>
> I've taken too big a risk at that<BR>
> I've never ever had the intention to offend<BR>
> I've allways taken the reaction seriously<BR>
> apparently that has been a mistake<BR>
> <B>'1984'</B is pretty much enbedded in our system <BR>
> [[Mathijs]]
> ----
> tooEditor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
66c76
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
------
Larry_Sanger|985376859
1,11c1
< I do <B>NOT</B> know what 'trolling' is<BR>
< I <B>do know</B> what shame is<BR>
< I've been as honest as can be<BR>
< I've taken too big a risk at that<BR>
< I've never ever had the intention to offend<BR>
< I've allways taken the reaction seriously<BR>
< apparently that has been a mistake<BR>
< <B>'1984'</B is pretty much enbedded in our system <BR>
< [[Mathijs]]
< ----
< tooEditor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
---
> Editor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
76c66
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
------
HTML|985376955
1c1
< Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a [[markup language]] designed for presenting [[web page]]s--i.e., information on the [[World Wide Web]].  Derived from [[SGML]], it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
---
> <i>Hypertext Markup Language</i> is a [[markup language]] designed for creating [[web page]]s, i.e., information presented on the [[World Wide Web]].  Derived from [[SGML]], which was used by the publishing industry, it is now an [[Internet]] standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ W3C], the World Wide Web Consortium.  The [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ specification] for version 4.01 is available there.
3c3,5
< HTML is a standard for interpreting [[data file]]s (called "HTML files," though they can be written using [[plain text]]) that contain different kinds of [[markup]].  There are three kinds in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup, which links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
---
> HTML generally appears in [[text file]]s stored on computers connected to the World Wide Web.  These files contain information in plain text mixed with <i>markup</i>, i.e., instructions for a [[web browser]] or other program on how to process the text.  There are three kinds of markup in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] that descibes the purpose of text (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup that describes the appearance of text (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup that links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
> 
> As with many Internet standards, the popularity and technological advancement of the World Wide Web grew much faster than standards bodies could track, so there are some incompatible proprietary versions of HTML still in use, though stadards are improving.
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985377190
9a10,11
> 
> ''I wouldn't say so.  Quantum physics met with a lot of resistance, but because the theory itself is unusual - the effects it explains were well-known at the time.  Chaos theory is mathematics, so the question was whether the theory applied to the real world.  In this case, it's not clear that there are effects or a theory to work with.''
11c13
< I'd say so, ''if'' what you say is true.  What better person to make the change than you? --LS  :-)
---
> I'd say so, ''if'' what you say is true.  What better person to make the change than you? --LS  :-)
------
HTML|985377250
3c3
< HTML generally appears in [[text file]]s stored on computers connected to the World Wide Web.  These files contain information in plain text mixed with <i>markup</i>, i.e., instructions for a [[web browser]] or other program on how to process the text.  There are three kinds of markup in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] that descibes the purpose of text (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup that describes the appearance of text (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup that links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link the specified [[URL]].
---
> HTML generally appears in [[text file]]s stored on computers connected to the World Wide Web.  These files contain information in plain text mixed with <i>markup</i>, i.e., instructions for a [[web browser]] or other program on how to process the text.  There are three kinds of markup in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] that descibes the purpose of text (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup that describes the appearance of text (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup that links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link to the specified [[URL]].
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985377342
7a8,9
> :[[William Hanna]] -- cofounder (with [[Joseph Barbera]]) of famous [[Hanna-Barbera]] animation studio (March 22, 2001)
> :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985377366
7a8
> :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
9d9
< :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
------
Television|985377463
27c27,28
< : [[The Simpsons]]
---
> : [[Animaniacs]]
> : [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]]
30d30
< : [[Animaniacs]]
31a32
> : [[The Simpsons]]
93c94
< * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
---
> * Band: see [[Television/Band]]
------
Linguistics|985377517
23c23
< We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by thier origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
---
> We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by their origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
------
South_Asia|985377687
1c1
< South Asia is a geo-cultural region comprising the modern states of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.
---
> South [[Asia]] is a geo-cultural region comprising the modern states of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], and the [[Maldives]].  It is sometimes called a, or the, [[subcontinent]].
3c3
< It contains well over a fifth of the world's population and, after Sub-Saharan Africa, is also one of the world's poorest regions.
---
> It contains well over a fifth of the [[Earth|world]]'s [[population]] and, after Sub-Saharan [[Africa]], is also one of the world's [[poverty|poorest]] regions.
------
Population|985377845
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Statistical Population]]
---
> ''Population'' in its most common sense means the number of people, or life forms, who live in a given area.  Human population is studied by [[sociology]] and [[geography]].  Animal population is studied by [[biology]] and in particular, [[population biology]], a branch of [[ecology]].
> 
> The word ''population'' is also used in statistics; see [[Statistical Population|statistical population]].
------
Aruba|985378115
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Geography
> 
> Aruba is an 193 sq km island nation in located in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela at 12 30 N, 69 58 W.   It has a tropical marine climate with little seasonal temperature variation.  It is flat with few hills, and little vegetation.  It's highest point is Mt. Jamonota at 188 m.
> 
> People
> 
> Aruba has 68,000 people (1998 estimate).  The ethnic groups consist of mixed white/Caribbean Amerindian 80%.  82% of the population is Roman Catholic, 8% are Protestant, Hindu, Muslim, Confucian, Jewish.  Dutch is the official language, with Papiamento (a Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, English dialect), English, and Spanish in wide use.
> 
> Government
> Aruba is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full autonomy in internal affairs obtained in 1986 upon separation from the Netherlands Antilles.  The Government type is parliamentary.   The national capital is Oranjestad.  The chief of state is Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands (since 30 April 1980), she is represented by Governor General Olindo KOOLMAN (since 1 January 1992).  The head of government is Prime Minister Jan (Henny) H. EMAN (since 29 July 1994) and Deputy Prime Minister Glenbert F. CROES.
> 
> History
> 
> Aruba was discovered in 1499 by the Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda. In 1636 near the culmination of the 80 Year War between Spain and Holland, the Dutch took possession. From 1805 to 1816 during the Napoleonic Wars the English assumed control. In 1816 the Dutch returned. 
> 
> In 1924 two oil refineries were built; the Eagle Oil Refinery on the west side of the island, and the Lago Oil & Transport Company on the east side of the island. 
> 
> In 1959 when the first luxury hotel was opened. Over the years 28 additional hotels were the backbone of the island's economy. 
> 
> During the 1950's, the Eagle Oil Company was dismantled and ceased to exist. On March 31, 1985 Exxon closed the refinery due to reduced world-wide demand for oil and oversupply of refining capacity. 
> 
> On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
> 
> A variety of attractive fiscal incentives are offered to encourage the establishment of new industrial enterprises, tourism projects and off-shore companies.
------
Aruba|985378153
3c3
< Aruba is an 193 sq km island nation in located in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela at 12 30 N, 69 58 W.   It has a tropical marine climate with little seasonal temperature variation.  It is flat with few hills, and little vegetation.  It's highest point is Mt. Jamonota at 188 m.
---
> Aruba is an 193 sq km island nation in located in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela at 12 30 N, 69 58 W.   It has a tropical marine climate with little seasonal temperature variation.  It is flat with few hills and little vegetation.  It's highest point is Mt. Jamonota at 188 m.
24c24
< A variety of attractive fiscal incentives are offered to encourage the establishment of new industrial enterprises, tourism projects and off-shore companies.
---
> A variety of attractive fiscal incentives are offered to encourage the establishment of new industrial enterprises, tourism projects and off-shore companies.
------
Aruba|985378247
18c18
< In 1959 when the first luxury hotel was opened. Over the years 28 additional hotels were the backbone of the island's economy. 
---
> In 1959 the first luxury hotel was opened. Over the years 28 additional hotels became the backbone of the island's economy. 
22,24c22
< On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
< 
< A variety of attractive fiscal incentives are offered to encourage the establishment of new industrial enterprises, tourism projects and off-shore companies.
---
> On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
------
Politics|985378277
12a13,18
> '''Sector-Based Ideologies:'''
> 
> These are ideologies which are based on the interests or world-view of a sector of society.
> 
> [[Women's Rights]] [[Men's Rights]] [[Indigenous Rights]]
> ----
------
Politics|985378374
17c17
< [[Women's Rights]] [[Men's Rights]] [[Indigenous Rights]]
---
> [[Women's Rights]] -- [[Men's Rights]] -- [[Indigenous Rights]]
------
Politics|985378476
17c17
< [[Women's Rights]] -- [[Men's Rights]] -- [[Indigenous Rights]]
---
> [[Men's Rights]]
------
Politics|985378662
17c17
< [[Men's Rights]]
---
> [[Indigenous Rights]]
------
Politics|985378748
17c17
< [[Indigenous Rights]]
---
> [[Men's Rights]]
------
Politics|985378823
17c17
< [[Men's Rights]]
---
> [[Masculism]]
------
Charlemagne|985378836
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Charlemagne (742?-814), Carolus Magnus (latin - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of the Romans (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
------
Charlemagne|985378864
1c1
< Charlemagne (742?-814), Carolus Magnus (latin - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of the Romans (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
---
> Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of the Romans (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
------
OneTimePads|985378983
1c1
< OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented in the early 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure algorithm available.
---
> OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented in the early 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure encryption algorithm available.
4c4
< It is also quite useless. The key has to be as long as the message. Mordern CryptographY encrypts large things (eg. Digital Movies, Internet Connections, Telephone Conversations, etc.) - dealing with OneTimePads of such a size is simply impracticable.
---
> It is also quite useless for large messages or when many people have to converse in secret. The key has to be as long as the message. Mordern CryptographY encrypts large things (eg. Digital Movies, Internet Connections, Telephone Conversations, etc.) - dealing with OneTimePads of such a size is simply impracticable.
7c7,10
< OneTimePads have been used in specialised circumstances. KGB spies used pencil and paper OneTimePads to communicate. The NSA broke the system because the spies used the OneTimePads more than once[sic!].
---
> OneTimePads have been used in specialised circumstances. KGB spies used pencil and paper OneTimePads to communicate. In the 1950s, the United States broke the system because the spies used the OneTimePads more than once[sic!]. You can find this history of this project, code named Vinona, at the NSA's web site, www.nsa.gov.
> 
> 
> If you want to make a one time pad, you must have way of selecting letters that is very random. The "random number generators" that come with most computer programming languages are nowhere near random enough. One good way is to select scrabble letters out of a paper bag, or a box of alphabet soup. Make sure there are equal numbers of each letter to start with and return the selectd letter and shake the bag well each time.
------
Masculism|985379054
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Masculism (Men's Rights) is the ideology according to which men have intrinsic rights that are often denied them in contemporary Western culture -- indeed, according to this view, society does not usually recognize that men, as men, even have rights.  Feminists in western countries have, over about 200 years (since Wollstonecraft), established as a given the thesis that society is male-dominated and oppresses women.  This is the meta-issue that Men's Rights activists raise, as a logical (but not necessarily practical) precondition to  the raising of various specific issues.  
> 
> Men's Rights proponents consider that Feminists have argued for "equality" in respect of self-selected issues only, -- using ad hoc (and seldom explicit) definitions of "equality" that they developed themselves, rather than (for example) calling a conference of all interested parties for the purpose of clarifying the issues.  It is argued that Feminists have not sought gender equality on issues such as child custody, the decision to abort one's unborn child, compulsory military service, unsegregated professional sports, law enforcement relating to domestic violence, funding for men's and women's groups, Men's Studies vs Women's Studies, ministries of Men's Affairs to complement ministries of Women's Affairs, and health research funding.   
> 
> Many Men's Rights activists also criticise Feminism for relying on a restricted view of political power, whereby a count of the relative numbers of men and women in important decision-making positions suffices to determine whether men or women are the more powerful.  Men's Rights proponents point out that there are many other sorts of political power - e.g. control over the information and stereotypes that decision-makers rely on as the basis of their decisions.  This information and these stereotypes, in the West, are largely under the control of Hollywood, the mass media, the education sector, and the bureaucracies - which are all strongly influenced by Feminist ideology, if not actually female-dominated.
> 
> The term "Masculism" (aka "Masculinism" or "Virism") may be used interchangeably with "Men's Rights", but conservatives in the Men's Rights scene often reserve the term "Masculism" for the liberal branch of the Men's Rights movement (as epitomised by ex-Feminist author Warren Farrell).  Liberal Masculists (such as Farrell or Rod van Mechelen) take the position that Feminist aspirations to gender equality should be taken at face value, and men made equal to women in those areas where women are over-privileged.  Conservatives (such as Richard Doyle, and religious individuals and organisations such as the Promise Keepers) would prefer to return to a traditional division of labour between the sexes.  A third way is espoused in Peter Zohrab's book "Sex, Lies & Feminism", which demands that Society either abolish female privilege or revert to a traditional division of labour between the sexes, as a fall-back position.
> 
> The response of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have either ignored this movement, publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women could plausibly be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights activists access to the media and publishers and influence in education systems and bureaucracies.  
------
Aruba|985379099
22c22
< On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
---
> On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
------
DataEncryptionStandard|985379348
2a3,4
> Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many formenr DES users now use tripple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each bleck three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to replace DES.
> 
------
DataEncryptionStandard|985379403
3c3
< Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many formenr DES users now use tripple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each bleck three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to replace DES.
---
> Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to replace DES.
------
Computing|985379583
63a64
> ** [[Unicode]]
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985380289
13a14,19
> ----
> Apparently, either there are phenomena, or there is merely coincidence.  A large enough body of regularly observed coincidence (as the case of "Audie Murphy," or the family relative whom each of us has who can always tell you when the phone is about to ring) will be finally expressed by the casual observer as a discrete phenomenon.  If we are to take the position that there are no anomalous phenomena, then we should replace the page with "coincincidences, misperceptions and frauds."  Otherwise "phenomena" is as good a tag as anything.
> 
> Let us take for example the practice of johrei, as practiced by the Johrei Fellowship, AKA Church of World Messianity.  Here a practicioner, according to the tenets of the faith, wears a Chinese character in a pouch about his neck which serves to help attract a universal divine light.  In an effort to alleviate the suffering of an afflicted person, he assumes a meditative mindset and holds his hand near the affected portion of that person's body, palm-facing, and "channels divine light" toward the area.  Persons so ministered to frequently go through episodes of coughing or shivering, speak of warmth, tingling in the area, etc., and walk away (subjectively, at least) improved.
> 
> Skeptics will say "hogwash" or "placebo effect" or "fraud" (never mind that there is no financial incentive to perpetrate such a fraud) or whatever.  But there will be a body of people who say - "This is a part of my life experience."  That much, at least, I think qualifies the obervation as a "phenomenon."  Certainly, there is no scientific physical explanation for what these people experience.  That would probably qualify it as "anomalous."  So, perhaps the page, category, or whatever is aptly named.
------
Netherlands/Talk|985380304
7,8d6
< ----
< Well, gee, do we have a winner in our "Statement Least Supportable by Fact" yet?
10,109d7
< Oh and in England, judges aren't elected and you can't get more Anglo-* than that. - [[Gareth Owen]]
< ---- 
< o, yeah, sure, England doesn't need all that, it has the Sunday Papers to take care of it.
< 
< - Meaningless to [[Gareth Owen]]
< ----
< No judicial changes in positive sense over there since Magna Carta & Habeas Corpus. 
< 
< - Subjective and unsupported.
< ----
< England is the 'civilized' country next to the U.S. where you can be jailed for decennia & never know how they fixed you.
< 
< - Unsupported
< 
< <I>Like you never heard of the "Birmingham six"</I>
< ----
< England is the country where politicians can prosecute in parliament. 
< 
< - Simply false.
< 
< <I>you can watch it on TV, if you care to.
< In England there just isn't independence of the judicial system
< 
< Montesquie, L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
< 'When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty.
< Again there is no liberty if the judicial power is not separated from the legislature and executive."</i>
< 
< This is not true.  The final court of appeal in the UK is the House of Lords where decisions are made by the law lords, who are not elected, and not politicians.  These sessions are not (or very very rarely) televised.  Please check your facts.
< ----
< England is the country where they fix independent inqueries.
< 
< - Unsupported
< 
< As an example of a nice fix by UK government & the NHS some magnificent reading material: http://www.rlcinquiry.org.uk/
< 
< ''What evidence do you have that the "RLC" inquiry is not a fair and accurate representation of the facts?''
< <B>read it</B>
< ----
< England is the closest to '1984' as it gets.
< 
< - Unsupported.
< 
< <I>England was the typemodel for the (British!) author; visionary man!</I>
<  
< I know that, but that isn't what you said.  Do you really think England is closer to a fascist superstate than, say, North Korea, or China? <I>Of course not! Silly man! How could you ever presume such a thought</I> 
< 
< Because you just said: "England is the closest to '1984' as it gets".  Thats what I meant by unsupported.  Its ill informed, and its wrong.
< ----
< Congratulations, you've just made a case against a country without using a single fact just innuendo and unsupported subjective statements.   - [[Gareth Owen]]
< ----
< Well, thank you. Perhaps you could state some facts, too. I'm lazy & sloppy with details 
< 
< ''I haven't stated anything as fact, except that judges aren't elected, which is demonstrably true.''
< 
< It's just too easy to cut it all down without ANY argumentation.<BR>
< Are <B>you</B> sure of the facts?
< 
< ''Yes.  If you can find a single wikipedia entry made by me which is not factually accurate, please call me on it. - [[Gareth Owen]]''
< 
< You might be correct fact-wise about the judges not being elected (ow, sloppy me) & the House of Lords-formalities,
< 
< ''But that was all you said.  That wasn't a minor point in your argument, it was the whole thing.''
< ----
< it doesn't change my opinion on the way UK government & politicians are inclined to meddle with justice (they do! believe me!) - Mathijs - p.s. don't edit away Montesquie
< ----
< ''Aaah, now you've gone from "England is the closest to 1984 there is" to "English politicians are politicians are inclined to meddle with justice", i.e. from a massive unsupportable exaggeration  to a true statement.  That wasn't hard, was it?''
< Oh, and I'm [[Gareth Owen]], but my cookie doesn't work.
< ----
< ''"England is the closest to 1984 there is"'' was rhetoric, can't you see that!
< 
< Nice dodge. 
< ''You can say that, but then you must either be
< * a man with a very warped perception of your own sweet England (the idea! how can you!)<B>OR </B>
< * disreceptive to anything I state <B>OR</B>
< * in for some more word-throwing (yeah!)''
< ----
< your opinion would be fine as well. Noblesse oblige, my friend! You bring the facts if you care (& you do, otherwise I would never have aggrevated you this way) - Mathijs
< 
< ''I don't understand a word of that, I'm afraid.''
< 
< retry: 
< * plain denial of my arguments is not sufficient if you care to show me that I'm wrong (which I may be, but please be so nice to prove it)
< * apparently you care enough about the subject to counter my opinions with bare (unsupported) denial. I am very interested to see your views & knowledge about this.
< 
< ''No.  If you're going to make blanket sweeping statements about a country the burden of proof is with you, otherwise its just prejudice''
< ----
< As to the Birmingham 6, yes Britain has miscarriages of justice.  Duh.  Would you like to name me somewhere that doesn't?
< 
< ''No, I can't take that risk. Moreover hard to prove if it's hidden. <BR>somehow it's seems that where these "miscarriages of justice" in most countries are incidents, in England these "miscarriages of justice" are more structural; like the shambles the NHS is in''<BR>
< <b>Somehow ... SOMEHOW?</b>  I ask you to provide details or evidence to support your accusations and you say <b>SOMEHOW?</b>  
< Why not just say "Look, it just is ... Nyaah ..."
< Structural miscarriages of justice:
< i)  The Guildford Four
< ii) The Birmingham Six
< iii) Err
< iv) Thats it...
< 
< Two twenty-five year old cases to do "structural injustice" make.  Your going to have to do better than that.
< ----
< OK, it's clear the two of us won't get any better of each other. <BR>You've corrected some misconception of mine. Thanks for that. <BR>To me my first statements will stand (except for the facts I haven't seen any argument from you, too bad). <B>FINAL</B>
------
DataEncryptionStandard|985380373
3c3
< Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) to replace DES.
---
> Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) to replace DES.
------
CryptographY|985380419
7c7
< :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symmetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] - [[IDEA]]
---
> :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symmetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] -- [[IDEA]]-- [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]
18c18
< [[Echelon]]
---
> [[Echelon]]
------
Charlemagne|985380440
1c1
< Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of the Romans (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
---
> Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of [[The Holy Roman Empire]] (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
------
Anomalous_Phenomena/Talk|985380588
19a20,21
> ----
> And there are, to be sure, any number of claimed experiences or observations for which there is no reliable evidence that they ever even happened.  Do these rise to the level of "phenomena?"  Perhaps not.  To be on the safe side, our discussions of phenomena might do well to start out with things for which there is at least some credible corroboration that at least ''some'' event really occured.
------
Echelon/Talk|985381032
1d0
< 
10a10,17
> ----
> 
> I know that the information seems controversial. Here are some links on the subject:
> 
> [http://www.statewatch.org/eufbi/news4.htm]
> [http://jya.com/]
> 
> WojPob
------
Echelon/Talk|985381217
17c17
< WojPob
---
> WojPob (BTW: if you don't like it - delete it! you're the boss)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985381744
9a10
> :[[Charles Schultz]] -- Creator of Peanuts
------
Computer|985381789
1c1,3
< A programmable machine that processes data.
---
> A programmable machine that processes data.
> ----
> Is my thermostat a computer?  :-)
------
Aruba|985381951
1,22c1,3
< Geography
< 
< Aruba is an 193 sq km island nation in located in the Caribbean Sea, north of Venezuela at 12 30 N, 69 58 W.   It has a tropical marine climate with little seasonal temperature variation.  It is flat with few hills and little vegetation.  It's highest point is Mt. Jamonota at 188 m.
< 
< People
< 
< Aruba has 68,000 people (1998 estimate).  The ethnic groups consist of mixed white/Caribbean Amerindian 80%.  82% of the population is Roman Catholic, 8% are Protestant, Hindu, Muslim, Confucian, Jewish.  Dutch is the official language, with Papiamento (a Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, English dialect), English, and Spanish in wide use.
< 
< Government
< Aruba is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with full autonomy in internal affairs obtained in 1986 upon separation from the Netherlands Antilles.  The Government type is parliamentary.   The national capital is Oranjestad.  The chief of state is Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands (since 30 April 1980), she is represented by Governor General Olindo KOOLMAN (since 1 January 1992).  The head of government is Prime Minister Jan (Henny) H. EMAN (since 29 July 1994) and Deputy Prime Minister Glenbert F. CROES.
< 
< History
< 
< Aruba was discovered in 1499 by the Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda. In 1636 near the culmination of the 80 Year War between Spain and Holland, the Dutch took possession. From 1805 to 1816 during the Napoleonic Wars the English assumed control. In 1816 the Dutch returned. 
< 
< In 1924 two oil refineries were built; the Eagle Oil Refinery on the west side of the island, and the Lago Oil & Transport Company on the east side of the island. 
< 
< In 1959 the first luxury hotel was opened. Over the years 28 additional hotels became the backbone of the island's economy. 
< 
< During the 1950's, the Eagle Oil Company was dismantled and ceased to exist. On March 31, 1985 Exxon closed the refinery due to reduced world-wide demand for oil and oversupply of refining capacity. 
< 
< On April 20, 1991, the Coastal Oil Company reopened the refinery. Coupled with the booming tourism industry, it provides Aruba with one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean. 
---
> The article that originally appeared on this page too closely resembles
> http://www.aruba-tours.com/info/history.html
> which is proprietary information.  Please, do not simply cut and paste articles from other sources.  Many of us regard this as stealing, and it can land Wikipedia in serious legal hot water.
------
Aruba|985381977
0a1,2
> An island in the [[Caribbean Sea]].
> 
3c5
< which is proprietary information.  Please, do not simply cut and paste articles from other sources.  Many of us regard this as stealing, and it can land Wikipedia in serious legal hot water.
---
> which is proprietary information.  Please, do not simply cut and paste articles from other sources.  Many of us regard this as stealing, and it can land Wikipedia in serious legal hot water. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985382232
2a3,4
> /2000
> 
10c12
< :[[Charles Schultz]] -- Creator of Peanuts
---
> 
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985382242
3c3
< /2000
---
> [[/2000]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths/2000|985382277
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Charles Schultz (creator of Peanuts cartoon strip) (February 12, 2000)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|985382314
4a5
> <b>February, 2001</b>
5a7,8
> 
> <b>March, 2001</b>
------
Agatho|985382419
1c1
< AGATHO, pope from 678 to 681, was born in Sicily.  He is 
---
> AGATHO, [[pope]] from 678 to 681, was born in [[Sicily]].  He is 
5c5
< emperor at Constantinople.  It was during his pontificate 
---
> emperor at [[Constantinople]].  It was during his pontificate 
------
Echelon/Talk|985382433
17a18,21
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm only the boss in a very limited sense.  This is wikipedia, everyone is the boss.  :-)  I may do some research and tone it down a bit.  The ACLU has a site about it, with more reserved claims.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Sodium|985382540
7c7
< Atomic number: 11<Br>
---
> [[Atomic number]]: 11<Br>
------
Actresses|985382943
1c1
< An actress is a female that acts in film, [[television]], [[theatre]], or [[radio]].
---
> An actress is a female that acts in film, [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]].
------
Actresses|985382954
1c1
< An actress is a female that acts in film, [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]].
---
> An actress is a female that acts in [[film]], [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]].
------
FieldsMedal|985383165
24c24
< ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold, [[Andrew Wiles]], [[John Horton Conway]], [[Donald Knuth]], [[Scott Kim]].
---
> ErdösPal (which could have shared Selberg medal for instance), VladimirArnold, [[Andrew Wiles]], [[John Horton Conway]], [[Donald Knuth]].
------
Computing|985383266
32a33,35
> ** [[Protocols]]
> *** [[TCP-IP]]
> *** [[POP3]]
------
Wikipedians|985383282
26a27
> * OprgaG
------
Charlemagne|985383417
1c1
< Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the Franks (768-814) and emperor of [[The Holy Roman Empire]] (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central Europe. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became France, and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the Germany. 
---
> Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the [[Frank]]s (768-814) and emperor of [[The Holy Roman Empire]] (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central [[Europe]]. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became [[France]], and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the [[Germany]]. 
------
Adobe|985383573
14c14,15
< Source: Project Guetenberg Encyclopedia Vol 1.  Thereafter edited on Wikipedia.
---
> Source: Project Guetenberg Encyclopedia Vol 1.  Thereafter edited on Wikipedia.----
> '''Q''' Is this the author's own pronunciaton symbol scheme or one borrowed from the source encylopedia. In any case, I think if you use a pronunciation guide you should reference it. As it is, this pronunciation could be construed as a number of things, and therefore, close to useless...:-).. Our usual would be /a-doh'-bee/ I believe. [[Your worst nightmare]]
------
Christianity|985383694
24c24
< Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [Jehova's Witnesses]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
---
> Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [[Jehovas Witnesses]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
------
Local_color|985383790
1,3c1
< Local Color is a type of writing that was popular in the late 19th century.  This style relied heavily on using words, phrases,
< and slang that were native to the particular region the
< story took place in.
---
> Local Color is a type of writing that was popular in the late 19th century.  This style relied heavily on using [[word]]s, phrases, and slang that were native to the particular region the story took place in.
5,6c3
< A well-known local color author was [[Mark Twain]] with his
< books [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]].
---
> A well-known local color author was [[Mark Twain]] with his books [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]].
------
Character_encodings_in_HTML|985383988
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[HTML]] has been in use since 1991, but the first standardized version with a reasonably complete treatment of international characters was version 4.0, not published until 1997.  Considerable care must be exercised when creating HTML pages with special characters outside the range of normal [[ASCII]] to ensure two goals: the integrity of the information stored in the HTML document, and proper display of the document by the largest possible variety of browsers.
> 
> more to come...
------
Your_worst_nightmare|985384017
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Colloguialism]]:
> '''Definition:''' The worst thing that can happen to you, or the person whose mere presence puts you in fear of the worst thing that can happen to you, because they have the potential to make this happen.
> 
> 
> Fell free to enter your own understanding of this expression.
------
Your_worst_nightmare|985384039
1c1
< [[Colloguialism]]:
---
> [[Colloquialism]]:
------
OneTimePads|985384075
1,10c1
< OneTimePads are the simplest of all algorithms, and were invented in the early 20th century. The basic idea is that you have a pad of key letters. You then add one key letter to one plain text letter, and never repeat the key letters (eg. T(20) to L(12) in order to get F(6) - 20 + 12 = 6 mod 26). The system works with any given alphabet, including the binary one. It is probably the only provably secure encryption algorithm available.
< 
< 
< It is also quite useless for large messages or when many people have to converse in secret. The key has to be as long as the message. Mordern CryptographY encrypts large things (eg. Digital Movies, Internet Connections, Telephone Conversations, etc.) - dealing with OneTimePads of such a size is simply impracticable.
< 
< 
< OneTimePads have been used in specialised circumstances. KGB spies used pencil and paper OneTimePads to communicate. In the 1950s, the United States broke the system because the spies used the OneTimePads more than once[sic!]. You can find this history of this project, code named Vinona, at the NSA's web site, www.nsa.gov.
< 
< 
< If you want to make a one time pad, you must have way of selecting letters that is very random. The "random number generators" that come with most computer programming languages are nowhere near random enough. One good way is to select scrabble letters out of a paper bag, or a box of alphabet soup. Make sure there are equal numbers of each letter to start with and return the selectd letter and shake the bag well each time.
---
> #REDIRECT [[One-time pad]]
------
Quadword/Talk|985384167
6c6,7
< OK, different problem: if you use "word" without further ado, ''many'' people reading the article won't know that you mean something different from what is ordinarily meant by "word."
---
> OK, different problem: if you use "word" without further ado, ''many'' people reading the article won't know that you mean something different from what is ordinarily meant by "word."----
> I found this link on a page with bit and byte...what was I to think? RoseParks
------
SandBox|985384676
12c12
<                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
14c14
<                            *   H   *                    /
---
>                            *   �   *                    /
39c39
< ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
42c42
< ??? I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
------
Dick_Beldin|985385543
18c18
< By the way, I'm signing the articles I create just to make it easier to locate them later. If signatures should be removed, so be it.
---
> By the way, I'm signing the articles I create just to make it easier to locate them later. If signatures should be removed, so be it.----This is a co operative effort. Many people, and I am one of them, feel that signing one's name to a page is not appropriate to this medium. It makes them reluctant to alter these pages and they  resent making corrections and additions that will be identified as your material, whille it is theirs. Furthermore, your signature links to your homepage which is partially commercial. This again is more like advertising and has no place here. I am politlely asking you to remove your signature from all pages. You seem to have provided enough clues to identifying material on Probability and Statistics without using a signature. 
------
Quadword/Talk|985385665
7c7
< I found this link on a page with bit and byte...what was I to think? RoseParks
---
> I found this link on a page with byte...what was I to think? RoseParks
------
Hearse|985385770
5c5
< and research an article for this fascinating topic?  :-)
---
> and research an article for this fascinating topic?  :-)----I prefer to write on [[Embalming]] if you don't mind?
------
One-time_pad|985385944
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>one-time pad</i> is one of the simplest of all [[cryptography]] methods, and was known in antiquity.  The fundamental features are that the sender and receiver each have a copy of an [[encryption key]], which is a sequence of codes at least as long as the message to be encrypted, and each key is used for only one message and then discarded.  For example, two identical pads of paper with random letters can be exchanged between sender and receiver.  Later, when they wish to send a message, the sender uses the random key on the first page of his pad to encrypt a message, say by using a simple [[letter-substitution cipher]].  He then sends the encoded message to the receiver, who decrypts it with his copy of the first page of the pad.  Both now discard the used key page.
> 
> One-time pads are <i>provably secure</i>, in that if all the conditions are met properly (i.e., the keys are chosen randomly, are at least as long as the message, and are never reused) it is mathematically impossible to distinguish an encrypted message from random letters.  The disavantages of the method are that it requires very large keys, requires that they be exchanged in advance and kept synchronized, and requires the keys to be guarded.  It is therefore not useful for large messages or when many people have to converse in secret. 
> 
> One-time pads have been used in specialized circumstances, especially in the early-to-mid 1900s.  [[KGB]] spies used pencil and paper one-time pads to communicate.  In the 1950s, the [[United States]] broke the system because the spies used the pads more than once.  You can find this history of this project, code named Vinona, at the [http://www.nsa.gov/ NSA web site].
> 
> The safety of one-time pads is dependent upon the randomness of the keys.  The random number generating algorithms that come with most computer programming languages are often flawed, and introduce patterns that can be exploited by [[cryptanalysis]].  Hardware-based random number generators, or more advanced algorithms called <i>cryptographically secure</i> generators, can be found for most computers.
------
Aruba|985385986
1c1
< An island in the [[Caribbean Sea]].
---
> Aruba is an island nation in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a few miles north of the [[Venezuela]]'s Paraguaná Peninsula.  Aruba has a population of 69,000 who live on its 190 sq km.  It is very dry, with little tropical vegetation that is expected in the Caribbean.
3,5c3,5
< The article that originally appeared on this page too closely resembles
< http://www.aruba-tours.com/info/history.html
< which is proprietary information.  Please, do not simply cut and paste articles from other sources.  Many of us regard this as stealing, and it can land Wikipedia in serious legal hot water. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Until the mid 1980's, Aruba's primary industry was oil refineries.  In the mid 80's the refineries shut down, and the island's economy shifted to one based on tourism.
> 
> In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the Dutch monarch, who has a appoints a governor.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
------
Computer|985386027
1a2,4
> 
> See [[Computing]].
> 
3c6,7
< Is my thermostat a computer?  :-)
---
> Is my thermostat a computer?  :-)
> 
------
Aruba|985386093
5c5
< In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the Dutch monarch, who has a appoints a governor.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
---
> In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the Dutch monarch, who has a appoints governor.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
------
Aruba|985386134
5c5
< In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the Dutch monarch, who has a appoints governor.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
---
> In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the [[Dutch monarch]], who appoints a governor to represent her.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
------
Aruba|985386182
3c3
< Until the mid 1980's, Aruba's primary industry was oil refineries.  In the mid 80's the refineries shut down, and the island's economy shifted to one based on tourism.
---
> Until the mid 1980's, Aruba's primary industry was oil refineries.  In the mid 80's the refineries were closed, and the island's economy shifted to one based on tourism.  Aruba is now host to over 600,000 tourists a year.
------
Conic_section|985386220
3c3,4
< The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.
---
> The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.----
> Again this page really needs a visual and should be written in a way accessible to all readers. This is not complex material. And a revision should be fairly easy...before this whole topic becomes esoteric.
------
Computer|985386300
7a8,10
> 
> No it is simple feedback device unless it is programable thermostat.
> 
------
Netherlands|985386341
6c6
< Country of [[Erasmus]], Spinoza & Descartes 
---
> Country of [[Erasmus]], [[Spinoza]] & [[Descartes]] 
9c9
< Also see [[/Talk]]
---
> Also see [[/Talk]]
------
Venezuela|985386405
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Venezuela is a country on the north coast of [[South America]].  It borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] on the north, [[Guyana]] on the east, [[Brazil]] on the south, and [[Columbia]] on the west.
------
Mathijs|985386688
1,4c1
< Dutch male, 29-10-66<BR>
< dilletant at anything<BR>
< but mostly history & rave'n-rant-philosophy
< 
---
> 
------
Rob_Salzman|985387270
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A new Wikipedian.
> 
> Welcome, Rob (Mr. Salzman)!  Thanks for changing the [[Aruba]] article.
------
SandBox|985387397
171a172
> &lt;i&gt;This should not be italicized!&lt;/i&gt;
------
Computer|985387496
6,10c6
< Is my thermostat a computer?  :-)
< 
< 
< No it is simple feedback device unless it is programable thermostat.
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Computer/Talk|985387503
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is my thermostat a computer?  :-)
> 
> No it is simple feedback device unless it is programable thermostat.
> 
> Suppose it's programmable.
------
Television|985387650
26c26
< Animation:
---
> Animation (alphabetical order):
35c35
< Noted Personalities:
---
> Noted Personalities (alphabetical order):
36a37,38
> :[[Jack Benny]]
> :[[Milton Berle]]
37a40,42
> :[[Chevy Chase]]
> :[[Alistair Cooke]]
> :[[Billy Crystal]]
38a44
> :[[Alfred Hitchkock]]
40a47
> :[[Edwin R. Murrow]]
41a49,50
> :[[Bert Parks]]
> :[[Regis Philbin]]
46,48d54
< :[[Billy Crystal]]
< :[[Regis Philbin]]
< :[[Bert Parks]]
50,53d55
< :[[Jack Benny]]
< :[[Milton Berle]]
< :[[Edwin R. Murrow]]
< :[[Chevy Chase]]
56,57d57
< :[[Alfred Hitchkock]]
< :[[Alistair Cooke]]
60,63d59
< :[[Jerry Seinfeld]]
< :[[Bill Cosby]]
< :[[Carroll O'Connor]]
< :[[Kelsey Grammer]]
65d60
< :[[Jackie Gleason]]
66a62,66
> :[[Richard Boone]]
> :[[Bill Cosby]]
> :[[Robert Culp]]
> :[[Jackie Gleason]]
> :[[Kelsey Grammer]]
67a68
> :[[Carroll O'Connor]]
68a70
> :[[Jerry Seinfeld]]
70,71d71
< :[[Richard Boone]]
< :[[Robert Culp]]
74a75,77
> :[[Lucille Ball]]
> :[[Patty Duke]]
> :[[Mia Farrow]]
77,78d79
< :[[Loretta Swit]]
< :[[Lucille Ball]]
81,82d81
< :[[Patty Duke]]
< :[[Mia Farrow]]
84d82
< :[[Stephanie Zimbalist]]
85a84,85
> :[[Loretta Swit]]
> :[[Stephanie Zimbalist]]
------
Television|985387685
38a39
> :[[Brooke Burke]]
------
Brooke_Burke|985388264
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Brooke Burke is an American [[television]] personality and [[model]].  She is the host of [[Wild On]], a popular travel series on the [[E!]] cable channel.
> 
> Burke is a native of [[Tucson]], [[Arizona]], with [[French]], [[Irish]], and [[Portugese]] heritage.   She is the 4th of 7 children.
> 
> She studied broadcast journalism at [[UCLA]], but was quickly signed to top agencies, including the renowned Ford.  She did some prominent television commercials for Ballys Fitness clubs, Coca-Cola, and Discover Card.
> 
> [[E!]] network was looking for a replacement for popular host [[Jules Asner]] and found Brooke to be perfect for the role.  She has travelled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations worldwide.
------
Brooke_Burke|985388320
1c1
< Brooke Burke is an American [[television]] personality and [[model]].  She is the host of [[Wild On]], a popular travel series on the [[E!]] cable channel.
---
> Brooke Burke is an American [[television]] personality and [[model]].  She is the host of [[Wild On]], a popular travel series on the [[E Networks|E!]] cable channel.
7c7
< [[E!]] network was looking for a replacement for popular host [[Jules Asner]] and found Brooke to be perfect for the role.  She has travelled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations worldwide.
---
> [[E Networks|E!]] network was looking for a replacement for popular host [[Jules Asner]] and found Brooke to be perfect for the role.  She has travelled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations worldwide.
------
BritneySpears|985388562
1,2c1
< Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of DisneY's MickeyMouseClub in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
< Castmates included JustinTimberlake and JoshuaChasez, who later became members of the pop band NSynC, and ChristinaAguilera, also a pop singer.
---
> Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of [[Disney]]'s [[Mickey Mouse Club]] in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
4c3,5
< Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the BillboardCharts in early 1999.  Her followup album, OopsIDidItAgain was a similarly huge success.
---
> Castmates included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]], who later became members of the pop band [[N Sync]], and [[Christina Aguilera]], also a pop singer. 
> 
> Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early 1999.  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
------
Paris|985388608
4,6c4,6
< * [[Arc de Triomphe / Arc de Triumph]] - war? monument
< * Disneyland Paris - amusement park
< * [[Eiffel Tower]] - ? monument
---
> * [[Arc de Triomphe / Arc de Triumph]] - war monument
> * [[Disneyland Paris]] - amusement park
> * [[Eiffel Tower]] - monument
------
SandBox|985388701
157c157
< HTML heading tags:
---
> Testing various HTML structural markup:
159,160d158
< <h1>Level 1 Heading</h1>
< Body text.
164,170d161
< Body text.
< <h4>Level 4 Heading</h4>
< Body text.
< <h5>Level 5 Heading</h5>
< Body text.
< <h6>Level 6 Heading</h6>
< Body text.
172a164,170
> 
> <q>Tagged quotes?  No.</q>
> 
> <samp>SAMP</samp>, <kbd>KBD</kbd>, <var>VAR</var>, <dfn>DFN</dfn>
> 
> <blockquote>Inset quotes?  Yes!</blockquote>
> <cite>Citations?  Yes!</cite>
------
Britney_Spears|985388703
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of [[Disney]]'s [[Mickey Mouse Club]] in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
> 
> Castmates included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]], who later became members of the pop band [[N Sync]], and [[Christina Aguilera]], also a pop singer. 
> 
> Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early 1999.  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
> 
------
BritneySpears|985388719
1,7c1
< Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of [[Disney]]'s [[Mickey Mouse Club]] in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
< 
< Castmates included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]], who later became members of the pop band [[N Sync]], and [[Christina Aguilera]], also a pop singer. 
< 
< Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early 1999.  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Britney Spears]]
------
Computer/Talk|985388860
5c5,7
< Suppose it's programmable.
---
> Suppose it's programmable.
> 
> Then yes, it is a computer.  I think a more natural way of speaking would be to say that it has a computer in it.
------
Mathijs|985389805
1c1
< 
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Character_encodings_in_HTML|985391007
1c1
< [[HTML]] has been in use since 1991, but the first standardized version with a reasonably complete treatment of international characters was version 4.0, not published until 1997.  Considerable care must be exercised when creating HTML pages with special characters outside the range of normal [[ASCII]] to ensure two goals: the integrity of the information stored in the HTML document, and proper display of the document by the largest possible variety of browsers.
---
> [[HTML]] has been in use since 1991, but the first standardized version with a reasonably complete treatment of international characters was version 4.0, not published until 1997.  Considerable care must be exercised when creating HTML pages with special characters outside the range of normal [[ASCII]] to ensure two goals: the integrity of the information stored in the HTML document, and proper display of the document by the largest possible variety of browsers.  
3c3,25
< more to come...
---
> <h2>The Document Character Set</h2>
> 
> When HTML documents are served to the viewer, there are two ways to tell the browser what specific character encoding is used.  First, [[HTTP]] headers can be sent by the server along with each page.  A typical header looks like this:
> 
> <blockquote><code>
> Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1
> </code></blockquote>
> 
> The other method is for the HTML document to include this information at its top, inside the HEAD element.
> 
> <blockquote><code>
> &lt;meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII"&gt;
> </code></blockquote>
> 
> Either method advises the receiver that the file being sent uses the character set specified.  Of course, it would be a very bad idea to send incorrect information.  For example, a server where multiple users may place files created on different machines cannot promise that all the files it sends will conform (some users may have machines with different character sets).  For this reason, many servers simply do not send the information at all, to avoid making any false promises.
> 
> Browsers receiving a file with no character set information must make a blind assumption.  The safest is probably to assume ISO-8859-1, but it is also common for browsers to assume the character set native to the machine on which they are running.  The consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range (32 to 126) may appear incorrectly.  This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but European users require characters outside that range for everyday use.
> 
> It is important to point out that successful viewing of a page is not necessarilty an indication that it is encoded correctly.  If the creator of a page and the reader are both assuming some machine-specific character set, and the server does not send any identifying information, then the reader will nonetheless see the page as the creator intended, but other readers with different native sets will not.
> 
> <h2>Character Entity References</h2>
> 
> to be continued...
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths/2000|985392618
1c1
< :Charles Schultz (creator of Peanuts cartoon strip) (February 12, 2000)
---
> :[[Charles Schultz]] (creator of [[Peanuts]] cartoon strip) (February 12, 2000)
------
Rob_Salzman|985392972
3c3,5
< Welcome, Rob (Mr. Salzman)!  Thanks for changing the [[Aruba]] article.
---
> Welcome, Rob (Mr. Salzman)!  Thanks for changing the [[Aruba]] article.
> 
> No problem.  Sorry about the initial misunderstanding.  I'll try to contribute what I can, in my own words. :)
------
Aruba|985393109
1c1
< Aruba is an island nation in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a few miles north of the [[Venezuela]]'s Paraguaná Peninsula.  Aruba has a population of 69,000 who live on its 190 sq km.  It is very dry, with little tropical vegetation that is expected in the Caribbean.
---
> Aruba is an island nation in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a few miles north of the [[Venezuela]]'s Paraguaná Peninsula.  Aruba has a population of 69,000 who live on its 190 sq km.  It is very dry, with little of the tropical vegetation that is expected in the Caribbean.
------
HomePage|985393470
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]][[Blades and/or Knives, Not Limited to Sowrds, Knives and Axes]]
------
Abacus|985393526
1c1,4
< An abacus is a counting frame with balls sliding on wires. It was first used before the adoption of the ten digit numeric system and is still widely used in [[China]]. [[cdani]]
---
> An abacus is a counting frame with balls sliding on wires. It was first used before the adoption of the ten digit numeric system and is still widely used in [[China]]. [[cdani]]
> 
> ------
> Also see AbacuS
------
HomePage|985393892
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]][[Blades and/or Knives, Not Limited to Sowrds, Knives and Axes]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Archaeology|985394006
1c1,4
< Archaeology is the study of what can be learned about human cultures, often extinct human cultures, from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).
---
> Archaeology is the study of what can be learned about human cultures, often extinct human cultures, from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).
> 
> Ammendment by guerilla1138: I hate to correct others so I will just add this. I dont see Archaeology as being the study of what we can learn about human cultures as much as the study of human cultures, and I would also say that in archaeology those studies are only limited to pre-cultures, meaning those cultures before this one. Where as the study of todays cultures and also older cultures I would classify as cultural anthropology.
> But I am not an expert nor am I trained in either of these fields, just stating my opinion based on limited experiance of working in the Maxwell Museum on the University of New Mexico campus and attending a few archaeology and anthropology classes with friends at said university.
------
Venezuela|985394321
1c1
< Venezuela is a country on the north coast of [[South America]].  It borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] on the north, [[Guyana]] on the east, [[Brazil]] on the south, and [[Columbia]] on the west.
---
> Venezuela is a country on the north coast of [[South America]].  It borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] on the north, [[Guyana]] on the east, [[Brazil]] on the south, and [[Colombia]] on the west.
------
Brazil|985394390
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Portuguese]] speaking country in South America. 
> [[Brasilia]] is its capital city. 
> 
------
Guyana|985394678
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country in Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]]. 
> 
> Guyana totals 214970 sq km, which is slightly smaller then Idaho.  It shares borders with [[Brazil]], [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]]. 
> 
> It has a climate which is tropical; hot, humid, moderated by northeast trade winds, with two rainy seasons (May to mid-August, mid-November to mid-January).
> 
> Information source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gy.html
------
Suriname|985394894
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Independence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
> 
> Location: Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between French Guiana and Guyana 
> 
> Information Source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html
------
Suriname|985394943
1c1
< Independence from the Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
---
> Independence from the [[Netherlands]] was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
3c3
< Location: Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between French Guiana and Guyana 
---
> Location: Northern [[South America]], bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between [[French Guiana]] and [[Guyana]] 
------
Articles_of_Confederation|985395701
1c1,83
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting. 
> 
> Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts-bay Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 
> 
> I.
> The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 
> 
> "The United States of America".
> II.
> Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. 
> 
> III.
> The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. 
> 
> IV.
> The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them. 
> 
> If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense. 
> 
> Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. 
> 
> V.
> For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a powerreserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year. 
> 
> No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. 
> 
> Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States. 
> 
> In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote. 
> 
> Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. 
> 
> VI.
> No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. 
> 
> No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. 
> 
> No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain. 
> 
> No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage. 
> 
> No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. 
> 
> VII.
> When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. 
> 
> VIII.
> All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint. 
> 
> The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. 
> 
> IX.
> The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article -- of sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace -- appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies commited on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. 
> 
> The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. 
> 
> All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States. 
> 
> The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers -- appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. 
> 
> The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judeg can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. 
> 
> The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled. 
> 
> The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. 
> 
> X.
> The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite. 
> 
> XI.
> Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States. 
> 
> XII.
> All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pleged. 
> 
> XIII.
> Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. 
> 
> And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. 
> 
> In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America. 
> 
> Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781 
------
Articles_of_Confederation|985395718
8a9
> 
83c84
< Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781 
---
> Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781 
------
Articles_of_Confederation|985395906
84c84,172
< Agreed to by Congress 15 November 1777 In force after ratification by Maryland, 1 March 1781 
---
> The aforefaid articles of confederation were finally ratified on the first day of March 1781; the state of Maryland having, by their Members in Congress, on that day acceded thereto, and completed the fame. 
> 
> New Hampshire:
> JOSIAH BARTLETT
> JOHN WENTWORTH, jun. 
> 
> 
> Massachusetts Bay:
> JOHN HANCOCK
> SAMUEL ADAMS
> ELBRIDGE GERRY
> FRANCIS DANA
> JAMES LOVELL
> SAMUEL HOLTEN 
> 
> 
> Rhode Island and Providence Plantations:
> WILLIAM ELLERY
> HENRY MARCHANT
> JOHN COLLINS 
> 
> 
> Connecticut:
> ROGER SHERMAN
> SAMUEL HUNTINGTON
> OLIVER WOLCOTT
> TITUS HOSMER 
> ANDREW ADAMS 
> 
> 
> New York :
> JAMES DUANE
> FRANCIS LEWIS
> WILLIAM DUER
> GOVERNEUR MORRIS 
> 
> 
> New Jersey:
> JOHN WITHERSPOON
> NATHANIEL SCUDDER 
> 
> 
> Pennsylvania:
> ROBERT MORRIS
> DANIEL ROBERDEAU
> JOHN BAYARD SMITH.
> WILLIAM CLINGAN
> JOSEPH REED
> 
> 
> Delaware:
> THOMAS M'KEAN
> JOHN DICKINSON
> NICHOLAS VAN DYKE, 
> 
> 
> Maryland:
> JOHN HANSON 
> DANIEL CARROLL 
> 
> 
> Virginia:
> RICHARD HENRY LEE
> JOHN BANISTER
> THOMAS ADAMS
> JOHN HARVIE
> FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE 
> 
> 
> N. Carolina:
> JOHN PENN
> CORNELIUS HARNETT
> JOHN WILLIAMS 
> 
> 
> S. Carolina:
> HENRY LAURENS
> WILL HENRY DRAYTON
> JOHN MATHEWS
> RICHARD HUTSON
> THOMAS HEYWARD jun.
> 
> 
> Georgia: 
> JOHN WALTON
> EDWARD TELFAIR
> EDWARD LONGWORTHY 
> 
> 
------
Brazil|985395931
1,2c1,2
< [[Portuguese]] speaking country in South America. 
< [[Brasilia]] is its capital city. 
---
> [[Portuguese]] speaking country in [[South America]]. 
> [[Brasilia]] is its [[capital]] city. 
------
Articles_of_Confederation|985395976
172a173
> Information Source: http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html
------
Beryllium/Talk|985396194
1c1,5
< What's the source for this information?  Obviously, the information ''itself'' isn't copyrighted.  But does that mean that entire factbooks can be copied wholesale?  An interesting question.
---
> What's the source for this information?  Obviously, the information ''itself'' isn't copyrighted.  But does that mean that entire factbooks can be copied wholesale?  An interesting question.
> 
> (Not a legal opinion): To date, facts or collections of facts can't be copyrighted, although there are pernicious efforts to change this. However, the presentation of the facts can be. A particular list of the properties of Beryllium, in a particular order, might well be copyrighted.  People have copyrighted facsimile copies of out of copyright books, on the basis of the slight changes that reprinting introduces, but I don't know how successful such attempts are.
> 
> 
------
NominaliIsm|985397264
1c1
< Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no UniversalS outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental UniversalS.
---
> Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no Universals outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental Universals.
3c3
< The ProblemOfUniversals is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats--, or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of _what_ are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of _what_ is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
---
> The Problem Of Universals is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats -- or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of _what_ are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of _what_ is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
5c5
< The realist answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the existence of a universal -- a single abstract thing (greenness, in this case), that is a part (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that manifests itself wherever there are green things. 
---
> The realist's answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the existence of a universal -- a single abstract thing (greenness, in this case), that is a part (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that manifests itself wherever there are green things. 
11c11
< Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down ontologies populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as Quine put it). Since everyone has to include particulars like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like catness into the mix.
---
> Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down ontologies populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as Quine put it). Since everyone has to include particulars like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like "catness" into the mix?
17c17,18
< One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich," because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- WillWilkinson
---
> One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich" because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- Will Wilkinson
> 
19d19
< /Talk
------
Rob_Salzman|985397680
5a6,7
> ----
> Hot damn, Rob!!  It's me, AyeSpy!  Wotthehellerya doin around these digs?!?
------
Slashdot|985397798
1c1
< Slashdot is a technology oriented [[web log]].
---
> Slashdot is a technology oriented [web log].
6c6
< Slashdot was originally created in September 1997 by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda. Today it is owned by Andover.net. Slashdot is run primarily by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda, Jeff "Hemos" Bates who posts stories, sells advertising, and handles the book reviews and Robin "Roblimo" Miller who has recently come on board to help handle some of the more managerial sides of the site, as well as posting stories. Bandwidth comes from Exodus.Net 
---
> Slashdot was originally created in September 1997 by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda. Today it is owned by Andover.net. Slashdot is run primarily by Rob "CmdrTaco" Malda, Jeff "Hemos" Bates who posts stories, sells advertising, and handles the book reviews and Robin "Roblimo" Miller who has recently come on board to help handle some of the more managerial sides of the site, as well as posting stories. Bandwidth comes from Exodus.Net 
------
Slashdot|985397827
1c1
< Slashdot is a technology oriented [web log].
---
> Slashdot is a technology oriented [weblog].
------
Rob_Salzman|985397849
7c7
< Hot damn, Rob!!  It's me, AyeSpy!  Wotthehellerya doin around these digs?!?
---
> Hot damn, Rob!!  It's me, AyeSpy!  Wotthehellerya doin around these digs?!?  In fact, just because you are here, I may put some of my pages back up...
------
Wiki_special_characters|985399186
21c21,127
< The above says "on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly."  May we have some confirmation of this from a few sources, please?
---
> The above says "on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly."  May we have some confirmation of this from a few sources, please?
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm working on redoing this, and the Wiki ASCII codes page, into document that tells the whole story and gives concrete suggestions for usable characters.  For the moment I'm just using this comment to be able to store the ISO-8859-1 table below, which I will eventually explain.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> (In short, these is the ISO-8859-1 characters with hex and decimal values and names.  All of these should be available to MS Windows users and Unix/X.  An "m" in the first column indicates that the character exists in the standard Macintosh Roman character set (though at a diferent code); a "d" in the second column indicates that the character exists in the old MSDOS code page 437 set.  Note that many things like greek letters, math symbols, and punctuation that may be available on Windows (in the ISO unused 0x80..0x9F range) and/or Mac are not present, and therefore are unlikely to be available on X machines that don't have modern Unicode fonts.
> 
> <pre>
> 
> md A0 0160   no-break space
> md A1 0161 ¡ inverted exclamation
> md A2 0162 ¢ cent sign
> md A3 0163 £ pound sign
> m  A4 0164 ¤ intl. currency sign
> md A5 0165 ¥ yen sign
>    A6 0166 ¦ broken bar
> m  A7 0167 § section sign
> m  A8 0168 ¨ diaeresis
> m  A9 0169 © copyright sign
> md AA 0170 ª feminine ordinal
> md AB 0171 « left double-angle quote
> md AC 0172 ¬ not sign
>    AD 0173 ­ soft hyphen
> m  AE 0174 ® registered sign
> m  AF 0175 ¯ macron
> md B0 0176 ° degree sign
> md B1 0177 ± plus-minus sign
>  d B2 0178 ² superscript two
>    B3 0179  superscript three
> m  B4 0180 ´ acute accent
> m  B5 0181 µ micro sign
> m  B6 0182 ¶ pilcrow sign
> md B7 0183 · middle dot
> m  B8 0184 ¸ cedilla
>    B9 0185 ¹ superscript one
> md BA 0186 º masculine ordinal
> md BB 0187 » right double-angle quote
>  d BC 0188 ¼ one quarter
>  d BD 0189 ½ one half
>    BE 0190 ¾ three quarters
> md BF 0191 ¿ inverted question
> m  C0 0192 À A grave
> m  C1 0193 Á A acute
> m  C2 0194 Â A circumflex
> m  C3 0195 Ã A tilde
> md C4 0196 Ä A diaeresis
> md C5 0197 Å A ring
> md C6 0198 Æ AE
> md C7 0199 Ç C cedilla
> m  C8 0200 È E grave
> md C9 0201 É E acute
> m  CA 0202 Ê E circumflex
> m  CB 0203 Ë E diaeresis
> m  CC 0204 Ì I grave
> m  CD 0205 Í I acute
> m  CE 0206 Î I circumflex
> m  CF 0207 Ï I diaeresis
>    D0 0208 Ð Eth
> md D1 0209 Ñ N tilde
> m  D2 0210 Ò O grave
> m  D3 0211 Ó O acute
> m  D4 0212 Ô O circumflex
> m  D5 0213 Õ O tilde
> md D6 0214 Ö O diaeresis
>    D7 0215 × multiply sign
> m  D8 0216 Ø O stroke
> m  D9 0217 Ù U grave
> m  DA 0218 Ú U acute
> m  DB 0219 Û U circumflex
> md DC 0220 Ü U diaeresis
>    DD 0221 Ý Y acute
>    DE 0222 Þ Thorn
> m  DF 0223 ß sharp s
> md E0 0224 à a grave
> md E1 0225 á a acute
> md E2 0226 â a circumflex
> m  E3 0227 ã a tilde
> md E4 0228 ä a diaeresis
> md E5 0229 å a ring
> md E6 0230 æ ae
> md E7 0231 ç c cedilla
> md E8 0232 è e grave
> md E9 0233 é e acute
> md EA 0234 ê e circumflex
> md EB 0235 ë e diaeresis
> md EC 0236 ì i grave
> md ED 0237 í i acute
> md EE 0238 î i circumflex
> md EF 0239 ï i diaeresis
>    F0 0240 ð eth
> md F1 0241 ñ n tilde
> md F2 0242 ò o grave
> md F3 0243 ó o acute
> md F4 0244 ô o circumflex
> m  F5 0245 õ o tilde
> md F6 0246 ö o diaeresis
> md F7 0247 ÷ divide sign
> m  F8 0248 ø o stroke
> md F9 0249 ù u grave
> md FA 0250 ú u acute
> md FB 0251 û u circumflex
> md FC 0252 ü u diaeresis
>    FD 0253 ý y acute
>    FE 0254 þ thorn
> md FF 0255 ÿ y diaeresis
> </pre>
------
Jews|985399789
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as Judaism. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
> 
> Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of Israel. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
> 
> Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, India, Yemen, and China. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
> 
> The main divisions of Jews in modern times are: Ashkenazim (Central and East European Jews), Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews), Mizrakhim (Oriental Jews from Asia from countries like Kurdistan and Persia), Gruzim (Georgian Jews from the Caucasus), Juhurim (Mountain Jews from Daghestan and Azerbaijan in the eastern Caucasus), Teimanim (Yemenite Jews from southern Arabia), Judeo-Berbers (North African Jews), and Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews). Out of these communities, the largest are the Ashkenazim, whose ancestors lived in countries like Germany, Russia, and Poland.
> 
> Sects of Jews that survive into modern times include the Rabbinical Jews (followers of the Talmud, a component of the Oral Law), the Karaite Jews (who reject the authority of Rabbinical Oral Law), and the Samaritans (whose temple is located at Mount Gerizim rather than at Jerusalem). Rabbinical Jewish communities are led by rabbis (spiritual leaders) and cantors (singers), whereas the spiritual leader of a Karaite community is often called a hakham.
> 
> Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, Canada, Hungary, Ukraine, France, Russia, and other countries.
------
Disco|985401684
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disco is an up-tempo style of dance music that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979.
> 
> Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm guitar, bass, strings, string synth (a type of organ), trumpet, saxophone, trombone, piano, and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
> 
> Among the most popular disco artists of the 1970s were Chic, Sister Sledge, Michael Jackson, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, the Village People, K.C. and the Sunshine Band, Voyage, the Salsoul Orchestra, the Trammps, and Barry White. Many rock artists, from the Eagles to the Rolling Stones, discofied some of their songs.
> 
> In the early 1980s George Benson, Patrice Rushen, the Brothers Johnson, Quincy Jones, Roberta Flack, the S.O.S. Band, and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including house and Hi-NRG, and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
> 
> In the 1990s a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by Jamiroquai's 1996 release "Cosmic Girl" and a number of attempts by artists like Cher and the Spice Girls.
------
Jews|985402266
1c1
< Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as Judaism. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
---
> Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as Judaism<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Judaism">?</a>. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
3c3,4
< Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of Israel. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
---
> Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of Israel<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Israel">?</a>. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Jerusalem">?</a>
>  (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
5c6
< Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, India, Yemen, and China. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
---
> Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, <a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/India">India</a>, Yemen, and China. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
11c12
< Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, Canada, Hungary, Ukraine, France, Russia, and other countries.
---
> Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, <a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Canada">Canada</a>, Hungary, Ukraine, France, Russia, and other countries.
------
Beryllium/Talk|985402523
4,5c4,5
< 
< 
---
> ----
> "A particular list of the properties of Beryllium, in a particular order, might well be copyrighted."  In that case, I have a concern that the present [[Beryllium]] and other similar-formatted articles are copyrighted.
------
Jews|985402621
1c1
< Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as Judaism<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Judaism">?</a>. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
---
> Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as [[Judaism]]. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
3,4c3
< Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of Israel<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Israel">?</a>. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered Jerusalem<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=edit&id=Jerusalem">?</a>
<  (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
---
> Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of [[Israel]]. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered [[Jerusalem]] (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
6c5
< Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, <a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/India">India</a>, Yemen, and China. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
---
> Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, [[India]], [[Yemen]], and [[China]]. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
12c11
< Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, <a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Canada">Canada</a>, Hungary, Ukraine, France, Russia, and other countries.
---
> Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, [[Canada]], [[Hungary]], [[Ukraine]], [[France]], [[Russia]], and other countries.
------
History|985402817
1c1
< [[Histiography]]
---
> [[Historiography]]
3c3
< Our records of the past.
---
> Our records of the past:
12a13
> * [[History of Khazaria]]
17a19
> ** [[History of Russia]]
23c25
< Intellectual history.
---
> Intellectual history:
32c34
< Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosphy, or other cross sections of human history? -- [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosophy, or other cross sections of human history? -- [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Copyright/talk|985402929
3,26d2
< Leiden, Netherlands, 15-3-01
< 
< Well, hot ***!, I initiated some discussion by my impulsive ctrl-c/ctrl-v_roustabout!
< 
< I wonder what the physical terms of those copyrights are?<BR>
< what are the limits?<BR>
< how could it physically be controlled?<BR>
< <A NAME="1"><B>To me it still is a rear guard action of the publishing-industry</B></A><BR>
< anything I state might be copied (from whom?)<BR>
< maybe it is time for a judicial revolution in order of the "Habeas Corpus"<BR>
< a "Habeas Sentes"
< 
< Mathijs<BR>
< I thank you all for an opportunity to rave 'n rant<BR>
< <I>perhaps a date with our contributions would be appropriate to get a chronology of the discussion</I>
< ----
< Can you be sued for air we breathe?<BR>
< Information should be free!<BR>
< The U.S. is a greedy society<BR>
< In ten years this problem will be over;<BR>
< There's no way to control information<BR>
< - the publishing-industry wil have to face that <B>OR</B><BR>
< we all will have to live in NWO [[New World Order]]
< ----
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985403019
1,122c1
< This page is a dialogue on violence in RPG,<BR> between Mathijs and Sonic; <BR>recently Josh Grosse joined in
< ----
< The mother of all table-top RPG's 
< 
< close to a zillion young men (a few women) invested a billion lifespans to time on an another fictional plane. 
< 
< This is an experience of the dreamed self no 'moral majority' and american populist, self-righteous publican can ever cope with.<BR>
< Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
< Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
< at least stories and fantasy don't destroy lives<BR>
< if you don't get addicted to it ;-} <BR>
< 
< anyone can be an author, experience it!<BR> 
< - Mathijs
< ----
< I'm sorry, but as a roleplaying gamer myself, I think the above text is just utterly stupid. <BR>The reason I didn't delete it is that others can write similar statements on this
< page. <BR>Eventually, this should be moved to a page called Munchkins?, Powergamers? or some similar RPG-specific swear word.<BR> -SoniC 
< ----
< Mr. Sonic, can you please state why this is stupid?<BR>
< it might be stupid, but it is true, as well<BR>
< I know this is pretty hard to digest to many people<BR>
< so sorry<BR>
< the closer you come to truth the more you are confronted<BR>
< western culture is a moral make believe<BR>
< The U.S. is our high priest<BR> 
< - Mathijs
< ----
< >Pity but in fact all boys are at the core murderers, megalomaniacs, rapists, mysogyn, greedy fiends. Face it!<BR>
< >Bosnia is all over our genes; what would the use of fairytales would have been, otherwise?<BR>
< 
< First off, no RPG gamer I know is a rapist, murderer or whatever at the core and if you state that "Bosnia is in our genes", you are in fact spreading [[Nazi]] propaganda, nothing else.
< 
< Second, RPGs are not about raping, genocide or whatever, and if you play them that way I suggest you should seek professional help.
< 
< This crap about Western culture and high priest U.S. does not have anything to do with RPGs or with anything for that matter. -SoniC
< ----
< Mr. Sonic! can you read at all?<BR>
< did I at any place mention an absolute fact?<BR>
< be happy you don't know any ACTUAL rapist, murderer or whatever<BR>
< Luckily, I don't either<BR>
< what I tried to state thate there is violence in all of us;<BR>
< with RPG this can be evident<BR>
< why do you think schoolchildren spread mayhem?<BR>
< how come U.S. media and politicians can't look at the root of this violence?<BR>
< In my experience of RPG (with scores of players, DM's & storytellers) is that very often the game is used to roleplay all this violence and fear<BR>
< I did not write that you and I are, were or will ever be an actual murderer or whatever!<BR>  
< maybe you could look at what you fear yourself, mr. Sonic!<BR>
< maybe it would be wise to read some closer<BR>
< before you judge and use terms you apparently don't understand<BR>
< do you really know what a 'nazi' is?<P>
< I'm very sorry if I offended you in my statements<BR>
< be sure it was never my intention<BR>
< I still wonder why you think it all stupid, beyond an apparent loathing of it<BR>
< if it really where that stupid, why care?<P>
< We've watched the violence on TV long enough dismissing the horrible fact that it's really all about us<BR>
< better face it, to prevent it happening<BR>
< not accepting it is making all high-schools into prisons & all american boys into prisoners<BR>
< you have one off the biggest population of jailed men in the world!<BR>
< maybe the U.S. community better change something<BR>
< - Mathijs
< ----
< I'm from Germany, so I don't know too much of the situation in US highschools, and yes, I know what a nazi is and I know nazi ideology fairly well. 
< 
< Bosnia is in our genes is nothing more than a transliteration of nazi racial ideology which states that the Aryan race and the Jewish race (which in reality doesn't even exist) are locked in an eternal battle and eventually one side will be wiped out. This is not due to historical reasons but "within the race's blood", so it is, as in your sentence a genetical explanation/justification for genocide.<BR>
< 
< <I>You would be right if I had specified an ethnic group, but I didn't. I wrote that somehow <U>all men</U> are prone to violence. 'Bosnia' is the metaphor I used for this. I live in the Netherlands; my grandfather was a political refugee from Germany in 1933. During the last ten years I've come to the conclusion that we're fooling ourselves to think that we wont ever be violent, criminal or whatever. I don't say it is a nessecity or must (like the nazis & fascists did). I say it is an important issue to study <B>in order to cope with it</B>. Here in the Netherlands all kinds of 'silent marches' & outrages have been, because of 'unnessecary violence'. There are statistical analyses that in the Netherlands 1 out of 5 women have been sexually assaulted at one time or another. All this is still being treated as something incidental; they try to shove it under the carpet. I say the violence is a deeply enrooted thing in the masculine system. If we deny it, we might lose control. If we face it, we can keep it under our thumb. I'm not a rapist. I'm not a mass murderer. I don't want to be a rapist. I don't want to be a mass murderer. But, when I look closely into the mirror, I know I might be one, I suspect any men <B>could</B> be one. With the Nazi's the saying is "never again", but will the violence, rape and murder be stopped? not by denying it!</I><BR> 
< - Mathijs
< 
< ----
< But Bosnia was unfortunate nevertheless, because Bosnia <b>is</b> about ethnic groups. And tying the (undeniable) violence to RPGs isn't so fortunate either. What you are writing is more of a general philosophy.
< ----
< (normal font = Sonic, Indented font = Mathijs)
< The stuff you wrote now sounds different, and is clearly more acceptable. I still can't agree with it, but maybe it is true for the US. However it sounds like an explanation for the kind of roleplaying used in psychotherapy, not for roleplaying games. I still think your first article is stupid (or dumb), because even apart from the mentioned references to nazi ideology, it is <BR>
< a) not suitable for an encyclopedia <BR>
< b) not really an explanation for anything, but  <BR>
< c) rather a (quite political) statement that sounds like advertising which <BR>
< d) makes it stupid because due to the poor explanation you offer it sounds like advertising all sorts of violence. 
< 
< <I>I still think violence is an virulent aspect of roleplaying. I've played a lot of mysteries & quests in wich it played a minor part. Violence is taboo to discuss it's evidence, but it is a part of our lives, so . . .
< 
< I'm not a very good administrator or controller of structures (like an encyclopia). My contribution to this perhaps would be more appropriate in another lemma or in a minor paragraph of this subject
< 
< I hope you will believe now that I'm not a nazi or a propagandist of violence</I>
< 
< To paraphrase it (<I>very freely</I>), your initial article says: "You want be kill everybody in sight but are afraid you could get caught? Play RPGs and get rewarded for the most heinous deeds you ever dreamed of. Come on, you know you want to. Everybody does."
< 
< <I>RPG is fantasy. What do men dream of?<BR>
< RPG is the better plane to commit these dreams<BR>
< media-industry won't agree<BR>
< they make too much money visualising our violent dreams<BR>
< politians won't agree<BR>
< they can use the incidents to control us</I>
< 
< Which is clearly not the point of roleplaying. Maybe you are better off with playing Quake if you really think like that. I mean, I regularly play some adults only RPGs like SLA Industries, Kult or Call of Cthullhu, but even there killing everyone you want to is not the point and the game would be pretty lame if it were.  -SoniC
< 
< <I>as a contribution to the 'Dungeons & Dragons'- and 'RPG'-subjects I would now very much like to know your definition of this. Some of our dialogue might be usefull for sub-paragraphs.
< 
< Call of Ctulhu & Mage are the planes were my favorite characters dwell:
< * Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Guenther Gneissenschaft, parapsy, momentarily recuperating in Boston.
< * Gustave Antoine Maria Riel, Jezuit priest, somewhere in Arctic Canada looking for an artefact stolen in the Congo.</I><BR> 
< - Mathijs
< ----
< I have no time now, but I will write something later today, promised :) -SoniC
< ----
< There are as many truths about RPG as there are players<BR>
< of course it's not all powergame!<BR>
< what I stated is a very interesting thing<BR>
< but not an absolute definition of AD&D<BR> 
< - Mathijs
< ----
< The reality's probably a strong compromise between what you two are saying.  Almost all RPGs have violence at their center, and I've seen people I would guess roleplay for that reason; but it is generally directed against antagonistic and truly evil forces.  In short, it is not so much an outlet for kill-and-rape-random-people violence so much as the desire to do epic things.  D&D itself is modelled after [[The Lord of the Rings]]; few people would identify in Aragorn what's wrong with mankind. - Josh Grosse
< 
< Thanks for your contribution, Josh<BR>
< sure, if you kill a fiend, you're a hero, a violent hero<BR>
< you should be put on trial! <BR>
< <FONT SIZE=+1>=;P</FONT><BR>
< I don't know any RPGamer who hasn't at some stage played a truly evil character. I even know of a group in England who solely play NWO-technocracy-characters!<BR> 
< - Mathijs
< 
< I know a few who haven't.  And while I've played a truly evil character once or twice, it was mainly so the good guys would have something to do - and though I enjoyed the brilliance of their schemes, I still felt bad when the one blew up some civilians, and other than that never harmed bystanders.  On the other end, RPG enemies tend to be spiritless agents of evil, like machines, simply so that killing them might be guiltless - Tolkien had some decent 'theology' here - and whether you treat them as fellow man or treat them as a disease is your choice, not built into the game whatsoever.  All in all, I'd say that how people play RPGs varies with their own temperment; the game offers them the opportunity to try being evil, the opportunity to try being heroic, the opportunity to try whatever they feel like.
< ----
< mass murder is boring in RPG; worse than playing an A-team campaign. IMHO playing Paladin & other sweet hero-types is something for Americans (unsupported opinion: they have to prove something to their fathers <B>=;P</B>). Good vs. Evil is getting a bit outdated; if it were that simple! Most fun is to give characters flesh and bone in their motives. A good storyteller uses that too. What's the thrill of a quest without mystery & true character commitment?
---
> 
------
Judaism|985403053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Judaism is the religion practiced by [[Jews]]. It is the theological foundation of many other religions including [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Karaism]].
------
Poles/Talk|985403076
1d0
< It is a very ironic fact that in Poland democracy can prosper because of the 'ethnic cleansing' during and after WWII - Mathijs
3,39d1
< :''Democracy does prosper - thank you very much! WWII and the following years were very turbulent. Damage surely was done. On the other hand, however, problems that now occur in former Yugoslavia are highly unlikely.'' - WojPob
< 
< And look at 'democracy' in Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria - Mathijs
< 
< :''Those countries still have a long way to go, any comparisons do not make much sense...'' - WojPob
< 
< in consequence of my first statement it does - a lot!<BR>
< As a matter of fact comparisons between mentioned countries and Poland/Czechia/Hungary - in order to understand why democracy can prosper - does make a lot of sense<BR>
< parameters for comparison:<BR>
< * homogenity of culture & ethnicity<BR>
< * development of a middle class<BR>
< * history of a public dialogue<BR>
< Compared to Poland, Hungary and Czechia, Russia, the Ukraine, Slowakia, Rumania, Bulgaria & the former Yugoslav-states have an immense way to go.
< ----
< Ethnic cleansing is a terrible, terrible thing. But, apparently, in order to have a true democracy . . . .<BR>
< I don't have an answer, and when I look at mentioned countries and at Africa, I get a bit gloomy.<BR>
< Etnicity apparently is the basis for most peoples self-identity and satisfaction and there still isn't an alternative for the Czarist/Soviet, Austro-Hungarian and Colonizing/Imperialist empires cohesion/suppression - Mathijs
< ----
< Eastern Europe is a very specific region with a complicated history. For over 1,000 the people living there have witnessed conflicts and times of stability. The development of a middle class has got nothing to do with democracy/stability. WojPob
< ----
< In my view a middle class is indispensible for democracy and public exchange (of goods and thoughts)<BR>
< alternative is a ruler - subjects - state<BR>
< <I>like the Soviet Union</I> - Mathijs
< ----
< In my opinion it is far more important to raise the ''average'' standard of living ''and'' education. Having a middle class doesn't help you very much if they lack the proper education. 
< ----
< I think we agree, but use different terms<BR>
< to me a strong middle class is a consequence and prerequisite of a fair standard of living and a common education
< ----
< I absolutely do not agree that ethnic cleansing is somehow necessary for "true democracy".  The United States is perhaps the strongest counter-example.  We have had a stable government for a long time, despite a very diverse population.  Diverse racially, religiously, and every other way.  The key here is that we have strong institutions of republican democracy and a large middle class with a stake in maintaining those institutions.
< 
< I think it is really a gross error to suppose that an ethnically diverse nation can not also be a peaceful modern republic.
< ---- 
< The US is ethnically diverse but it also lacks a history of conflicts comparable to  Eastern Europe. A large number of different cultures have been living on a territory much smaller than the US for a significantly longer period of time. If one does not originate from the region then one just not have the understanding for the complexity of the problem - the conflicts between Eastern European immigrants in the US might be a good example for how emotionally this subject is viewed. Ethnic cleansing is surely not a solution, but if you have a look at what is now happening in former Yugoslavia, it is much better to separate the different cultures from each other, than to have them mutually slaughter themselves. "Institutions of republican democracy" do not mean much to you if your neighbour has raped and killed your 13 year old daughter just because you worship God in a different way than he and his family have done for the past 1,000 years... - WojPob<BR>
< <I>More-over, in light of recent events and the evident frustration of american youngsters, you might question the democracy of the U.S. To top it up, the U.S. is the country of ghetto's, prison-cities and closed compounds. It is a state of paradoxes! Hard to use as a reference in this.</I> - Mathijs 
< ----
< 'necessary' perhaps is to absolute a term; no-one can look in the future. In history there is no such thing as Boolean logic.  - Mathijs
------
ProfanityTalk|985403111
2,11c2
< ----
< Somehow I don't seem to need any 'foul' language to offend allmost anyone<BR>
< wich often offsets the most interesting exchanges of views & ideas<BR>(as I see it, but I'm warped in the synapses)<P>
< Some crazy gurutype said:<BR>
< <I>I can only hate by caring<BR>
< neglect is true offense</I><BR>
< I can't really dig it, but it sounds sensible, so . . .<BR>
< thanks for another opportunity to rave - Mathijs
< ----
< Some people are offended by warped people who rave; go figure.  :-)
---
> 
------
NominaliIsm|985403253
1c1
< Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no Universals outside of the mind. It can be understood as AntiRealism about extramental Universals.
---
> Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no [[universal]]s outside of the mind. It can be understood as [[anti-realism]] about extramental universals.
3c3
< The Problem Of Universals is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats -- or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of _what_ are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of _what_ is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
---
> The [[problem of universals]] is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats--or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of ''what'' are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of ''what'' is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
5c5
< The realist's answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the existence of a universal -- a single abstract thing (greenness, in this case), that is a part (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that manifests itself wherever there are green things. 
---
> The [[realism|realist]]'s answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the [[existence]] of a universal--a single [[abstract]] thing (greenness, in this case), that is a [[part]] (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that [[exemplification|manifests]] itself wherever there are green things. 
7c7
< Nominalism denies that there are such things as universals. The motivation to deny universals flows from several concerns. First, where are they? Plato famously held that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the natural world of particulars we see with our own eyes. Particular real-world objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal up in universal heaven. But _where_ is universal heaven? Is it outside of space and time? But nothing is outside of space and time. And in any case, what is the nature of the instantiation or exemplification relation? It seems mysterious. 
---
> Nominalism denies that there are such things as universals. The motivation to deny universals flows from several concerns.  First, where are they?  [[Plato]] famously held that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the natural world of particulars we see with our own eyes.  Particular real-world objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal up in universal heaven. But ''where'' is universal heaven?  Is it outside of space and time?  But nothing is outside of space and time.  And in any case, what is the nature of the instantiation or [[exemplification]] [[relation]]?  It seems mysterious. 
11c11
< Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down ontologies populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as Quine put it). Since everyone has to include particulars like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like "catness" into the mix?
---
> Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down [[ontology|ontologies]] populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as [[Quine]] put it). Since everyone has to include [[particular]]s like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like "catness" into the mix?
15,18c15
< The resemblance nominalist will reply that 'cat' applies to both cats in virtue of either the fact that Fluffy and Kitzler resemble a exemplar cat closely enough to be classed together with it as members of its kind, or that they differ from each other (and other cats)quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only one you need. This betrays the spirit of nominalism. Other argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many agree that it is not vicious. 
< 
< One way to be a nominalist without being an "ostrich nominalist" like the predicate nominalists("ostrich" because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem -- the phrase is Armstrong's)is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of TroPes. A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a primitive, objective resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary. Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete physics. Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal indiscernibility. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporaty realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- Will Wilkinson
< 
---
> The [[resemblance nominalism|resemblance nominalist]] will reply that 'cat' applies to both cats in virtue of either the fact that Fluffy and Kitzler resemble a [[exemplar]] cat closely enough to be classed together with it as [[member]]s of its [[natural kind|kind]], or that they differ from each other (and other cats)quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only one you need. This betrays the spirit of nominalism. Other argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many agree that it is not vicious. 
19a17
> One way to be a nominalist without being an "[[ostrich nominalism|ostrich nominalist]]" like the predicate nominalists ("ostrich" because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem--the phrase is [[D. M. Armstrong|Armstrong]]'s) is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of [[trope]]s.  A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a [[primitive]], [[objective]] resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary.  Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete [[physics]].  Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal [[indiscernibility]]. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporary realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- Will Wilkinson
------
NominaliIsm|985403266
1,17c1
< Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no [[universal]]s outside of the mind. It can be understood as [[anti-realism]] about extramental universals.
< 
< The [[problem of universals]] is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats--or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of ''what'' are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of ''what'' is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
< 
< The [[realism|realist]]'s answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the [[existence]] of a universal--a single [[abstract]] thing (greenness, in this case), that is a [[part]] (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that [[exemplification|manifests]] itself wherever there are green things. 
< 
< Nominalism denies that there are such things as universals. The motivation to deny universals flows from several concerns.  First, where are they?  [[Plato]] famously held that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the natural world of particulars we see with our own eyes.  Particular real-world objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal up in universal heaven. But ''where'' is universal heaven?  Is it outside of space and time?  But nothing is outside of space and time.  And in any case, what is the nature of the instantiation or [[exemplification]] [[relation]]?  It seems mysterious. 
< 
< Some realists about universals, the moderate realists, hold that there is no heaven in which universals live, but rather universals are located in space and time wherever they are manifest. Now, recall that a universal, like greenness, is supposed to be a single thing. Nominalists find it weird that there could be a single thing that exists in a bunch of places all at once. The realist maintains that all the instances of greenness are held together by the exemplification relation, but, again, this relation seems mysterious. 
< 
< Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down [[ontology|ontologies]] populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as [[Quine]] put it). Since everyone has to include [[particular]]s like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like "catness" into the mix?
< 
< There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. On the extreme end is "predicate" nominalism. Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats simply in virtue of the fact that the predicate 'cat' applies to both of them. That's all there is to it. However, the realist will object in frustration that we haven't been told in virtue of what the predicate applies. 
< 
< The [[resemblance nominalism|resemblance nominalist]] will reply that 'cat' applies to both cats in virtue of either the fact that Fluffy and Kitzler resemble a [[exemplar]] cat closely enough to be classed together with it as [[member]]s of its [[natural kind|kind]], or that they differ from each other (and other cats)quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only one you need. This betrays the spirit of nominalism. Other argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many agree that it is not vicious. 
< 
< One way to be a nominalist without being an "[[ostrich nominalism|ostrich nominalist]]" like the predicate nominalists ("ostrich" because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem--the phrase is [[D. M. Armstrong|Armstrong]]'s) is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of [[trope]]s.  A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a [[primitive]], [[objective]] resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary.  Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete [[physics]].  Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal [[indiscernibility]]. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporary realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- Will Wilkinson
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nominalism]]
------
Nominalism|985403274
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nominalism is the position in metaphysics that there exist no [[universal]]s outside of the mind. It can be understood as [[anti-realism]] about extramental universals.
> 
> The [[problem of universals]] is the problem of accounting for the fact that some thing are of the same type--e.g., Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats--or, to put it another way, the fact that certain properties are repeatable--e.g., the grass is green, my shirt is green, Kermit is green, etc. One wants to know in virtue of ''what'' are Fluffy and Kitzler both cats; in virtue of ''what'' is the grass, my shirt and Kermit all green. 
> 
> The [[realism|realist]]'s answer is that all the green things are green in virtue of the [[existence]] of a universal--a single [[abstract]] thing (greenness, in this case), that is a [[part]] (in some sense of 'part') of all the green things. That is to say, with respect to color the grass, my shirt and Kermit have one of their parts, their greenness, literally in common. In this respect, they are all literally one. Greenness is repeatable because there is one thing, the universal, that [[exemplification|manifests]] itself wherever there are green things. 
> 
> Nominalism denies that there are such things as universals. The motivation to deny universals flows from several concerns.  First, where are they?  [[Plato]] famously held that there is a realm of abstract forms or universals apart from the natural world of particulars we see with our own eyes.  Particular real-world objects merely exemplify or instantiate the universal up in universal heaven. But ''where'' is universal heaven?  Is it outside of space and time?  But nothing is outside of space and time.  And in any case, what is the nature of the instantiation or [[exemplification]] [[relation]]?  It seems mysterious. 
> 
> Some realists about universals, the moderate realists, hold that there is no heaven in which universals live, but rather universals are located in space and time wherever they are manifest. Now, recall that a universal, like greenness, is supposed to be a single thing. Nominalists find it weird that there could be a single thing that exists in a bunch of places all at once. The realist maintains that all the instances of greenness are held together by the exemplification relation, but, again, this relation seems mysterious. 
> 
> Finally, many philosophers prefer stripped down [[ontology|ontologies]] populated with only the bare minimum of kinds of entities (they have a taste for "desert landscapes," as [[Quine]] put it). Since everyone has to include [[particular]]s like cats in their inventory of being anyway, wouldn't it be nice if we could explain everything we want to explain without adding univerals like "catness" into the mix?
> 
> There are various forms of nominalism ranging from extreme to almost-realist. On the extreme end is "predicate" nominalism. Fluffy and Kitzler are both cats simply in virtue of the fact that the predicate 'cat' applies to both of them. That's all there is to it. However, the realist will object in frustration that we haven't been told in virtue of what the predicate applies. 
> 
> The [[resemblance nominalism|resemblance nominalist]] will reply that 'cat' applies to both cats in virtue of either the fact that Fluffy and Kitzler resemble a [[exemplar]] cat closely enough to be classed together with it as [[member]]s of its [[natural kind|kind]], or that they differ from each other (and other cats)quite less than they differ from other things, and this warrants classing them together. Some resemblance nominalists will concede that the resemblance relation is itself a universal, but is the only one you need. This betrays the spirit of nominalism. Other argue that each resemblance relation is a particular, and is a resemblance relation simply in virtue of its resemblance to other resemblance relations. This generates an infinite regress, but many agree that it is not vicious. 
> 
> One way to be a nominalist without being an "[[ostrich nominalism|ostrich nominalist]]" like the predicate nominalists ("ostrich" because they seem to simply stick their heads in the sand and pretend there isn't a problem--the phrase is [[D. M. Armstrong|Armstrong]]'s) is to build a theory of resemblance nominalism on a theory of [[trope]]s.  A trope is a particular instance of a property, like the specific greenness of this here shirt, or the singular coyness of Gwyneth's smile. One might argue that there is a [[primitive]], [[objective]] resemblance relation that holds among like tropes. But that seems arbitrary.  Another route is to argue that all apparent tropes are constructed out of more primitive tropes and that the most primitive tropes are the entities of a complete [[physics]].  Primitive trope resemblance may thus be accounted for in terms of causal [[indiscernibility]]. Two tropes are exactly resembling if switching them would make no difference to the events in which they are taking part. Varying degrees of resemblance at the macro level can be explained at by varying degrees of resemblance at the micro level, and micro-level resemblance is explained in terms of something no less robustly physical than causal power. Armstrong, perhaps the most prominent contemporary realist, argues that such a trope-based resemblance nominalism has promise, but holds that it is unable to account for the laws of nature in the way his theory of universals can. -- Will Wilkinson
------
History|985403395
13d12
< * [[History of Khazaria]]
17c16
< ** [[History of Germany]]
---
> ** [[History of England]]
19d17
< ** [[History of Russia]]
20a19,23
> ** [[History of Germany]]
> ** [[History of Hungary]]
> ** [[History of Poland]]
> ** [[History of Russia]]
> *** [[History of Khazaria]]
------
Archaeology|985403428
3,4c3
< Ammendment by guerilla1138: I hate to correct others so I will just add this. I dont see Archaeology as being the study of what we can learn about human cultures as much as the study of human cultures, and I would also say that in archaeology those studies are only limited to pre-cultures, meaning those cultures before this one. Where as the study of todays cultures and also older cultures I would classify as cultural anthropology.
< But I am not an expert nor am I trained in either of these fields, just stating my opinion based on limited experiance of working in the Maxwell Museum on the University of New Mexico campus and attending a few archaeology and anthropology classes with friends at said university.
---
> /Talk
------
Archaeology/Talk|985403468
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ammendment by guerilla1138: I hate to correct others so I will just add this. I dont see Archaeology as being the study of what we can learn about human cultures as much as the study of human cultures, and I would also say that in archaeology those studies are only limited to pre-cultures, meaning those cultures before this one. Where as the study of todays cultures and also older cultures I would classify as cultural anthropology.
> But I am not an expert nor am I trained in either of these fields, just stating my opinion based on limited experiance of working in the Maxwell Museum on the University of New Mexico campus and attending a few archaeology and anthropology classes with friends at said university.
> 
> ''The above sort of comment belongs on a /Talk page, not the main page.  See [[Wikipedia policy]] and keep exploring...''
------
Computer/Talk|985403570
7c7,9
< Then yes, it is a computer.  I think a more natural way of speaking would be to say that it has a computer in it.
---
> Then yes, it is a computer.  I think a more natural way of speaking would be to say that it has a computer in it.
> 
> Well, no; it has an embedded chip...that doesn't make it a computer, does it?
------
History|985403740
5,8c5,20
< * [[History of Levant]]
< * [[History of Egypt]]
< * [[History of India]]
< * [[History of China]]
---
> * [[History of Africa]]
> ** [[History of Egypt]]
> ** [[History of Ethiopia]]
> 
> * [[History of Asia]]
> ** [[History of Levant]]
> *** [[History of Syria]]
> *** [[History of Lebanon]]
> *** [[History of Jordan]]
> *** [[History of Israel]]
> ** [[History of India]]
> ** [[History of China]]
> ** [[History of Persia]]
> ** [[History of Korea]]
> ** [[History of Mongolia]]
> 
13a26
> 
39a53,55
> 
> ----
> Related themes: [[Archaeology]]
------
History|985403873
3a4
> ----
21a23
> * [[History of United States]]
23c25
< * [[History of Mediterranean]]
---
> * [[History of Mediterranean]] (This term may be too broad)
25d26
< * [[History of Islam]]
31c32
< *** [[French revolution]]
---
> *** [[French Revolution]]
39c40
< * [[History of United States]]
---
> 
48a50,51
> 
> * [[History of Islam]]
55c58
< Related themes: [[Archaeology]]
---
> Related themes: [[Archaeology]]
------
Hungary|985404336
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hungary was founded in 896 by the Magyars. The name Hungary derives from "On-Ogur" which means "Ten Arrows" in Turkic. The capital of Hungary is Budapest.
> 
> The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric language, were forced out of Khazaria in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
> 
> Peoples that comprise the population of modern Hungary include Hungarians, Kuns (descendants of Kipchak Turks), Gypsies, Ashkenazim, and others.
------
Historiography|985404880
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Historiography refers both to the process of writing [[history]] as well as to the products derived from that writing (articles, books, monographs, conference papers, etc.)
> 
> Historians examine primary and secondary documentary sources to attempt to determine the authenticity, age, accuracy, and importance of the materials.
------
Disco|985405406
1c1
< Disco is an up-tempo style of dance music that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979.
---
> Disco is an up-tempo style of [[dance music]] that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979, driven in part by the late-1977 film "Saturday Night Fever".
3c3
< Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm guitar, bass, strings, string synth (a type of organ), trumpet, saxophone, trombone, piano, and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
---
> Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm guitar, bass, strings, string synth (a type of organ), trumpet, saxophone, trombone, [[piano]], and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
7c7,9
< In the early 1980s George Benson, Patrice Rushen, the Brothers Johnson, Quincy Jones, Roberta Flack, the S.O.S. Band, and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including house and Hi-NRG, and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
---
> Top disco music producers included Patrick Adams, Alec Costandinos, Nile Rodgers, Bernard Edwards, Quincy Jones, François Kevorkian, Meco Monardo, Vincent Montana, Greg Diamond, Giorgio Moroder, Tom Moulton, and Vincent Montana Jr.
> 
> In the early 1980s George Benson, Patrice Rushen, Brothers Johnson, Roberta Flack, the S.O.S. Band, and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including house and Hi-NRG, and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
------
Suriname|985405512
1c1
< Independence from the [[Netherlands]] was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a socialist republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
---
> Independence from the [[Netherlands]] was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a [[Socialism|socialist]] republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
5c5
< Information Source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html
---
> Information Source: [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html CIA World Fact Book]
------
Language|985406123
16a17
> * [[Hindi language]]
20a22
> * [[Portuguese language]]
28,29c30,32
< * [[Altaic languages]]
< * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], etc.)
---
> * [[Altaic languages]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolian languages|Mongolic]], [[Tunguzic languages|Tunguzic]])
> * [[Caucasian languages]] ([[Abkhazo-Adyghian languages]], [[Nakho-Dagestanian languages]], [[Kartvelian languages]])
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tai languages]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages]])
33d35
< * [[Tai languages]]
39a42
> ** [[Basque language]]
------
Language|985406337
29c29
< * [[Uralic languages]]
---
> * [[Uralic languages]] (([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]])
31,32c31,32
< * [[Caucasian languages]] ([[Abkhazo-Adyghian languages]], [[Nakho-Dagestanian languages]], [[Kartvelian languages]])
< * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tai languages]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages]])
---
> * [[Caucasian languages]] ([[Abkhazo-Adyghian languages|Abkhazo-Adyghian]], [[Nakho-Dagestanian languages|Nakho-Dagestanian]], [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]])
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tai languages|Tai]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
------
FiddleandViolin|985410349
1c1
< The FidDle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
---
> The Fiddle is the same musical instrument as the violin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a Folk Music (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a Jazz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., Bluegrass and Oldtime music) fiddling: the violin bridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play doublestops.
------
SandBox|985412881
172a173,176
> 
> /Talk back
> 
> 
------
Anthropology|985413507
3c3,8
< (The above was not written by an anthropologist.  We need an anthropologist to improve this area.)
---
> (The above was not written by an anthropologist.  We need an anthropologist to improve this area.)
> 
> (Ask, and ye shall receive.)
> 
> Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; Linguistics, which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. 
> 
------
Linguistics|985413741
19c19
< *...
---
> * [[anthropology]]
------
Anthropology|985413797
7c7
< Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; Linguistics, which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. 
---
> Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; [[Linguistics]], which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. 
------
Anthropology|985414009
7c7
< Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; [[Linguistics]], which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. 
---
> Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; [[Linguistics]], which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems.
8a9,11
> -----
> 
> Whomever is editing this can/should log into preference and choose a user name; that way everyone can see on the RecentChanges page and on the 'View other revisions' page who is doing the editing.  This is part of the community aspect of Wikipedia. - TimShell
------
Anthropology|985414305
11c11
< Whomever is editing this can/should log into preference and choose a user name; that way everyone can see on the RecentChanges page and on the 'View other revisions' page who is doing the editing.  This is part of the community aspect of Wikipedia. - TimShell
---
> Whomever is editing this can/should log into Preferences and choose a user name; that way everyone can see on the RecentChanges page and on the 'View other revisions' page who is doing the editing.  This is part of the community aspect of Wikipedia. - TimShell
------
RulesToConsider|985414493
4a5,6
> Rules are established according to the vigor of their enforcement.
> 
21c23
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]]
27c29
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, and AyeSpy (fervently)
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, TimShell, and AyeSpy (fervently)
43c45
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] and JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell and JerryMuelver
51c53
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy and JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy TimShell and JerryMuelver
57c59
< [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
------
Archaeology|985415104
3c3,12
< /Talk
---
> 
> <ahem>
> 
> Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In the Americas, archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
> 
> Being an archaeologist can be fun (you get to drink quite a lot, for instance) - and easy, as evidenced by Oxley and Morton: http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/arch/yccweb/aids/buzz.htm
> 
> On the other hand, archaeologists have to deal with these sorts of things:
> http://www.usd.edu/anth/cultarch/cultindex.html
> 
------
FiddleandViolin|985415997
1c1
< The Fiddle is the same musical instrument as the violin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a Folk Music (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a Jazz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., Bluegrass and Oldtime music) fiddling: the violin bridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play doublestops.
---
> The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
------
DoubleStops|985416020
1,7c1
< Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.
< 
< This technique is used to play chords in ClassicalMusic, and is used, to varying degrees, in FidDle playing.
< 
< American OldTime fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in NorthernIreland, which is where many of the ScotchIrish ancestors of current OldTime players originated.
< 
< In IrishTraditionalMusic, double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) DonegalFiddleTradition--and DoneGal is in northwest Ireland (not to say NorthernIreland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Double stops]]
------
Double_stops|985416130
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Playing "double stops," on a bowed instrument, means playing on two strings at once.
> 
> This technique is used to play chords in [[classical music]], and is used, to varying degrees, in [fiddle]] playing.
> 
> [[American old-time music|American old-time]] fiddling, for example, is famous for using copious double stops; according to one hypothesis, this tendency might have its roots a similar tendency found in [[Northern Ireland]], which is where many of the [[Scotch-Irish]] ancestors of current old-time players originated.
> 
> In [[Irish traditional music]], double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) [[DonegalFiddleTradition|Donegal fiddle tradition]]--and [[Donegal]] is in northwest Ireland (not to say Northern Ireland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
------
FiddleandViolin|985416163
1c1
< The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Fiddle and violin]]
------
Fiddle_and_violin|985416170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
------
Fiddle|985416193
3c3
< '''FiddleandViolin.''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
---
> '''[[Fiddle and violin]].''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
21c21
< '''WhereToPlayTheFiddle.'''
---
> '''WhereToPlayTheFiddle.'''
------
Archaeology|985416345
1,6c1
< Archaeology is the study of what can be learned about human cultures, often extinct human cultures, from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).
< 
< 
< <ahem>
< 
< Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In the Americas, archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
---
> Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems, typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).  In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
11,12c6
< http://www.usd.edu/anth/cultarch/cultindex.html
< 
---
> http://www.usd.edu/anth/cultarch/cultindex.html
------
Anthropology|985416435
1,7c1
< Anthropology is the study of human beings.  There are two main branches: [[Physical Anthropology]], which is the study of the human body and its evolution, and [[Cultural Anthropology]], which is the study of human cultures (often non-technologically developed cultures).
< 
< (The above was not written by an anthropologist.  We need an anthropologist to improve this area.)
< 
< (Ask, and ye shall receive.)
< 
< Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: Physical Anthropology, which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; Cultural Anthropology, which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; [[Linguistics]], which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and Archaeology, which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems.
---
> Anthropology is the study of human beings as biological and cultural entities.  It is traditionally divided into four subdisciplines: [[physical anthropology]], which studies the evolution and biology of genus Homo and its predecessors; [[cultural anthropology]], which studies the cultural mechanisms that humans have used to adapt to a variety of environments through time; [[linguistics]], which studies the communication systems used in human cultures; and [[archaeology]], which studies past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems.
------
Linguistics|985416567
23,27c23
< We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by their origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
< 
< Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
< 
< I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
---
> /Talk
------
Linguistics/Talk|985416576
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We are going to have a problem here. On the LanguagE page, languages are being categorized by their origin. This entry, SouthEastAsianLanguages, is a classification by geographical area. Both are possible and should be on separate pages. I am not at all sure this entry belongs directly on the LinguistcS page. Perhaps a LanguagesByGeography page should be added to the LanguagE page?
> 
> Do you think it's necessary to separate out geography of languages like that?  As far as national languages go, there's nothing wrong with just linking to them from the appropriate country pages.  I think what we probably need is some higher level geographical categories, like SouthEastAsia, which can handle languages, countries, and a lot more besides.
> 
> I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
------
Linguistics|985416598
21,22c21
< ----SouthEastAsianLanguages
< 
---
> ----
------
Language|985416651
38c38,42
< * [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
---
> 
> Grouped by geographical area:
> * [[SouthEastAsianLanguages|Southeast Asian languages]]
> 
> [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
------
Anthropology|985417083
3,5d2
< -----
< 
< Whomever is editing this can/should log into Preferences and choose a user name; that way everyone can see on the RecentChanges page and on the 'View other revisions' page who is doing the editing.  This is part of the community aspect of Wikipedia. - TimShell
------
Archaeology|985417174
1c1
< Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems, typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).  In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
---
> Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
3,6d2
< Being an archaeologist can be fun (you get to drink quite a lot, for instance) - and easy, as evidenced by Oxley and Morton: http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/arch/yccweb/aids/buzz.htm
< 
< On the other hand, archaeologists have to deal with these sorts of things:
< http://www.usd.edu/anth/cultarch/cultindex.html
------
Minuscule|985417649
1,22c1
< Minuscule, or lowercase, refers to the smaller form of letters: a,b,c.  Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule (capital) letters which was spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds.  When written quickly with a pen, these tended to rounder and simpler forms, like [[uncials]].  It is from these that the first miniscule hands developed, the [[half-uncials]] and cursive miniscule, which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines.
< 
< These in turn formed the foundations for [[carolingian miniscule]], developed by [[Alcuin]] for use in the court of [[Charlemagne]], which quickly spread across Europe.  Here for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text.  Traditionally more important letters - those beginning sentences or nouns - were made larger; now they were written in a different script, although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early 18th century (and even then all nouns were capitalized, a system still followed in [[German]] but not in [[English]]).
< 
< There is a lot more to say about minuscule, and most of the above only pertains to the [[Roman alphabet]] - the [[Greek alphabet]] and probably others were undergoing parallel developments I can only guess at.  But the precise origin of mixed case was very hard to find, so I figured I'd put it here.
< 
< ----
< http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule
< <br>http://www.google.com/search?q=miniscule+lowercase&hl=en&lr=&safe=off
< ''Hmm...the searches are something new, I've never seen those added to a page before.  Are you giving people an option to find more info, acting in defense of the spelling miniscule, or claiming that 'hard to find' was a lie?  If the last, I should point out I only meant the origin of capitalization was hard to find, if the second, feel free to do whatever you think is best, and if the first - well, I'm not sure what to make of the first. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]''
< 
< I should have explained; I added them as the quickest way I could say, "This sense of 'minuscule' is not exactly the first sense that leaps to mind."
< 
< ''Ah, well that's easy to fix!  Take your pick: [[Lowercase]], [[Minuscule letter]], [[Minuscule letters]], [[Minuscule hand]], [[Minuscule script]], [[Minuscule (orthography)]]...  A strange thing, though, is that this is the primary sense in the m-w dictionary.''
< 
< :The m-w dictionary obviously puts the original sense of a term first, which is cool.  But the first sense of a term needn't be the one mainly discussed in an enyclopedia article.  Otherwise, what will we attach to the term [[hearse]]?  :-)  Anyway, if "minuscule" means something different (more subtle?) from "lowercase," then I would suggest "minuscule letter" or "minuscule script" (gee, I don't know!).  If the same, then "lowercase," pointing out as an interesting bit of trivia that "minuscule" originally meant "lowercase." --LS, MHO.
< -----
< Larry, did you notice the spelling.  Apparently 'minuscule' (note the 'u') is something about letters, versus 'miniscule', which means very small in size (or something like that).
< 
< Nope.  'Minuscule' is the standard spelling in all cases, and 'miniscule' is a variant thereof.  Admittedly the latter is probably used more for small things than letters, but it would be very confusing to separate things out on that basis.
< 
< <i>I see.  I had no idea what I was talking about.  Probably we could get rid of this discussion now and just rename the page. --[[Jimbo Wales]] :-)</i>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Minuscule letter]]
------
Pemerson|985417674
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A new Wikipedian who appears to know a thing or two about [[anthropology]].
> 
> Welcome! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Minuscule_letter|985417712
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Minuscule, or lowercase, refers to the smaller form of letters: a,b,c.  Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule (capital) letters which was spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds.  When written quickly with a pen, these tended to rounder and simpler forms, like [[uncials]].  It is from these that the first miniscule hands developed, the [[half-uncials]] and cursive miniscule, which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines.
> 
> These in turn formed the foundations for [[carolingian miniscule]], developed by [[Alcuin]] for use in the court of [[Charlemagne]], which quickly spread across Europe.  Here for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text.  Traditionally more important letters - those beginning sentences or nouns - were made larger; now they were written in a different script, although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early 18th century (and even then all nouns were capitalized, a system still followed in [[German]] but not in [[English]]).
> 
> There is a lot more to say about minuscule, and most of the above only pertains to the [[Roman alphabet]] - the [[Greek alphabet]] and probably others were undergoing parallel developments I can only guess at.  But the precise origin of mixed case was very hard to find, so I figured I'd put it here.
------
Greek_alphabet|985417771
42c42
< The [[minuscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The Greek [[minuscule letter]]s developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Greek_alphabet|985417809
42c42
< The Greek [[minuscule letter]]s developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> The [[minuscule letter|miniscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
------
Orthography|985417840
9c9
< ** [[Minuscule]]
---
> ** [[Minuscule letter]]
------
Minuscule_letter|985417897
1c1
< Minuscule, or lowercase, refers to the smaller form of letters: a,b,c.  Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule (capital) letters which was spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds.  When written quickly with a pen, these tended to rounder and simpler forms, like [[uncials]].  It is from these that the first miniscule hands developed, the [[half-uncials]] and cursive miniscule, which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines.
---
> Minuscule, or lowercase, refers to the smaller form of letters: a,b,c.  Originally alphabets were written entirely in majuscule (capital) letters which was spaced between well-defined upper and lower bounds.  When written quickly with a pen, these tended to rounder and simpler forms, like [[uncials]].  It is from these that the first minuscule hands developed, the [[half-uncials]] and cursive minuscule, which no longer stay bound between a pair of lines.
3c3
< These in turn formed the foundations for [[carolingian miniscule]], developed by [[Alcuin]] for use in the court of [[Charlemagne]], which quickly spread across Europe.  Here for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text.  Traditionally more important letters - those beginning sentences or nouns - were made larger; now they were written in a different script, although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early 18th century (and even then all nouns were capitalized, a system still followed in [[German]] but not in [[English]]).
---
> These in turn formed the foundations for [[carolingian minuscule]], developed by [[Alcuin]] for use in the court of [[Charlemagne]], which quickly spread across Europe.  Here for the first time it became common to mix both majuscule and minuscule letters in a single text.  Traditionally more important letters - those beginning sentences or nouns - were made larger; now they were written in a different script, although there was no fixed capitalization system until the early 18th century (and even then all nouns were capitalized, a system still followed in [[German]] but not in [[English]]).
------
History|985418373
25c25
< * [[History of Mediterranean]] (This term may be too broad)
---
> * [[History of Mediterranean]] (This term may be too broad - ''And history of Asia isn't?  The Mediterranean, not all of Europe or Africa, was home to Rome and its predecessors.)
------
History|985418446
25c25,26
< * [[History of Mediterranean]] (This term may be too broad - ''And history of Asia isn't?  The Mediterranean, not all of Europe or Africa, was home to Rome and its predecessors.)
---
> * [[History of Mediterranean]]
> <br>(This term may be too broad - ''And history of Asia isn't?  The Mediterranean is probably the best place to put histories of the Greek colonists, Carthaginians, and Romans; Europe, Africa, and Asia are bad fits for these.'')
------
Double_stops|985418570
7c7,9
< In [[Irish traditional music]], double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) [[DonegalFiddleTradition|Donegal fiddle tradition]]--and [[Donegal]] is in northwest Ireland (not to say Northern Ireland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
---
> In [[Irish traditional music]], double stops are most commonly used in the (very old) [[DonegalFiddleTradition|Donegal fiddle tradition]]--and [[Donegal]] is in northwest Ireland (not to say Northern Ireland, the political region partly controlled by the UK, however).
> 
> Double stops can also be played on guitar by fretting two strings at the same time. It is a technique that , at it's simplest , is used by every beginning guitarist to instantly sound somewhat competent. Possibly the most famous use of the double stop sound in early rock and roll was the sound popularized by Chuck Berry.
------
History|985418650
5a6,7
> Ok, in terms of top-level organization here.  There seems to be a desire to shift to continents, but the categories I originally put up were mainly chosen as the centres of civilization.  Thus, Mediterranean was here because ''that's'' where the Greek colonies, Carthaginians, and Roman Empire were - splitting these between Europe, Africa and Asia is a fairly inappropriate anachronism.  It seems, though, that this may not fly and Wikipedia will have to use the traditional scheme?  Thoughts?
> 
26d27
< <br>(This term may be too broad - ''And history of Asia isn't?  The Mediterranean is probably the best place to put histories of the Greek colonists, Carthaginians, and Romans; Europe, Africa, and Asia are bad fits for these.'')
------
Double_stops|985418828
9c9
< Double stops can also be played on guitar by fretting two strings at the same time. It is a technique that , at it's simplest , is used by every beginning guitarist to instantly sound somewhat competent. Possibly the most famous use of the double stop sound in early rock and roll was the sound popularized by Chuck Berry.
---
> Double stops can also be played on guitar by fretting two strings at the same time. It is a technique that , at it's simplest , is used by every beginning guitarist to instantly sound somewhat competent. Possibly the most famous use of the double stop sound in early rock and roll was the sound popularized by Chuck Berry. An example would be his recording of Johnny B. Good.
------
Archaeology|985418947
1c1,2
< Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]]. 
---
> Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]].  Archaeology often interacts with [[history]] to provide a broad view of the human experience.
> 
------
Microphotonics|985419734
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Microphotonics is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale.  It is used in [[optical networking]].
> 
> Microphotonics employs [[photonic crystals]], non-conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly.  Such a crystal can be referred to as a [[perfect mirror]].  Other devices employed in microphotonics include [[micromirrors]] and [[silicon waveguides]].  These tools are used to 'mold the flow of light', a famous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics.
> 
> Currently microphotonics technology is being developed to replace electronics in devices such as network routers and switches.  Electronic routers create a bottleneck on optical networks, because information must be converted from photons to electrons to pass through the router.  An optical router would eliminate this bottleneck, speeding up the network.  [[Perfect mirrors]] are being developed for use in fiber optic cables.
------
Double_stops|985420051
9a10,11
> 
> /Talk
------
Double_stops/Talk|985420085
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I've never heard of double stops being used on a ''guitar.''  Is that term used?  Isn't just "chord" used?
------
Double_stops/Talk|985420171
1c1,3
< I've never heard of double stops being used on a ''guitar.''  Is that term used?  Isn't just "chord" used?
---
> I've never heard of double stops being used on a ''guitar.''  Is that term used?  Isn't just "chord" used?
> 
> Huh, I just did a little Google search, and the first entry referred to playing double stops on the dobro!  Learn something new every day!
------
Pemerson|985420211
1,3c1
< A new Wikipedian who appears to know a thing or two about [[anthropology]].
< 
< Welcome! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Trained in the tradition of New World [[anthropology]]. Knows no one important.
------
Mojo|985420224
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mojo refers to black magic.  The word traces its origins to Africa and entered English in the early 20th century through usage by Afican-Americans.  It reflects the belief, common in many cultures, that some people have the ability to influence others to their own advantage, by casting spells or hexes.
> 
> In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
------
Archaeology|985420233
3c3
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Archaeology/Talk|985420307
0a1,2
> Please don't take down the link to the /Talk page.
> 
4c6,8
< ''The above sort of comment belongs on a /Talk page, not the main page.  See [[Wikipedia policy]] and keep exploring...''
---
> ''The above sort of comment belongs on a /Talk page, not the main page.  See [[Wikipedia policy]] and keep exploring...''
> ----
> I notice that you've removed the text "typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like)" twice.  This must mean that you think there's something wrong with this.  I'm not an archaeologist, but I always thought that this was really quite essential to archaeology.  Am I wrong? --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Technology|985420356
34a35
> * [[Microphotonics]]
------
Mojo|985420400
3c3
< In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
---
> In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me|Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
------
Mojo|985420451
3a4,5
> <br>''We sure that isn't just British slang?  I can see the transition from one to the next being pretty easy...''
> 
------
Archaeology/Talk|985420667
8c8,11
< I notice that you've removed the text "typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like)" twice.  This must mean that you think there's something wrong with this.  I'm not an archaeologist, but I always thought that this was really quite essential to archaeology.  Am I wrong? --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I notice that you've removed the text "typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like)" twice.  This must mean that you think there's something wrong with this.  I'm not an archaeologist, but I always thought that this was really quite essential to archaeology.  Am I wrong? --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> Actually, I'm quite sure I'm right.  Have a look at this article:
> http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/9/0,5716,9369+1+9259,00.html?query=archaeology
------
Archaeology|985420758
1c1
< Archaeology is the study of past human activity through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems. In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]].  Archaeology often interacts with [[history]] to provide a broad view of the human experience.
---
> Archaeology is the study of past human activity, through reconstruction of environmental settings and cultural systems, typically from their physical remains (such as masonry, pottery, coins, engravings, and the like).  In [[the Americas]], archaeology is generally considered a subdiscipline of [[Anthropology]].  Archaeology often interacts with [[history]] to provide a broad view of the human experience.
3c3
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mojo_Jojo|985421196
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mojo Jojo is an evil genius monkey and a nemesis of the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He lives in his lab in the middle of [[Townsville]] and his goal is to take over the world.  In order to do this he must first defeat the [[Power Puff Girls]], so he spends much of his time ploting and inventing new weapons technology.
> 
> Ironically, Mojo Jojo is responsible for creating the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He was a lab assistant named Jojo, working for Professor Utonium when he caused the professor to accidently add [[ingredient X]] to his formula of sugar and spice and everything nice.  This accident created the [[Power Puff Girls]], but it also caused Jojo's brain to grow huge, turning him into the evil Mojo Jojo.  He must where a special reinforced glass dome hat over his gigantic brain.
> 
> Mojo Jojo speaks English with a Japanese accent.
> 
> He is disliked by other monkeys, who think he gives monkeys a bad name.
------
Mojo_Jojo|985421223
1c1
< Mojo Jojo is an evil genius monkey and a nemesis of the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He lives in his lab in the middle of [[Townsville]] and his goal is to take over the world.  In order to do this he must first defeat the [[Power Puff Girls]], so he spends much of his time ploting and inventing new weapons technology.
---
> Mojo Jojo is an evil genius monkey and a nemesis of the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He lives in his lab in the middle of [[Townsville]] and his goal is to take over the world.  In order to do this he must first defeat the [[Power Puff Girls]], so he spends much of his time plotting and inventing new weapons technology.
------
Mojo_Jojo|985421251
3c3
< Ironically, Mojo Jojo is responsible for creating the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He was a lab assistant named Jojo, working for Professor Utonium when he caused the professor to accidently add [[ingredient X]] to his formula of sugar and spice and everything nice.  This accident created the [[Power Puff Girls]], but it also caused Jojo's brain to grow huge, turning him into the evil Mojo Jojo.  He must where a special reinforced glass dome hat over his gigantic brain.
---
> Ironically, Mojo Jojo is responsible for creating the [[Power Puff Girls]].  He was a lab assistant named Jojo, working for [[Professor Utonium]] when he caused the professor to accidently add [[ingredient X]] to his formula of sugar and spice and everything nice.  This accident created the [[Power Puff Girls]], but it also caused Jojo's brain to grow huge, turning him into the evil Mojo Jojo.  He must where a special reinforced glass dome hat over his gigantic brain.
------
Pope|985421300
1c1
< The archbishop of [[Rome]], supreme spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic]] church.
---
> The patriarch of [[Rome]], supreme spiritual leader of the [[Roman Catholic]] church.
3a4,20
> * ...
> * [[Boniface IX]] (1389-1404)
> * [[Benedict XIII]] (1394-1423)
> * [[Innocent VII]] (1404-6)
> * [[Gregory XII]] (1406-15)
> * [[Alexander V]] (1409-10)
> * [[John XXIII]] (1410-5)
> * [[Martin V]] (1417-31)
> * [[Eugenius IV]] (1431-47)
> * [[Nicholas V]] (1447-55)
> * [[Callixtus III]] (1455-58)
> * [[Pius II]] (1458-64)
> * [[Paul II]] (1464-71)
> * [[Sixtus IV]] (1471-84)
> * [[Innocent VIII]] (1484-92)
> * [[Alexander VI]] (1492-1503)
> * ...
------
Charlemagne|985421942
1c1,3
< Charlemagne (742?-814), (in latin Carolus Magnus - translated: Charles the Great), king of the [[Frank]]s (768-814) and emperor of [[The Holy Roman Empire]] (800-814). During his reign, Charlemagne built a kingdom that included most of western and central [[Europe]]. His empire disintegrated after his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became the major parts of two important European countries: West Francia became [[France]], and East Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the [[Germany]]. 
---
> Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in [[Latin language|Latin]]), king of the [[Frank]]s at the height of their power.  Charlemagne was the son of [[Pepin the short]], and ascended to the throne in 768.  He did all sorts of stuff, including the conquest of north [[Lombardy]].
> 
> In 800 at mass on Chistmas day, the pope crowned Charlemagne the emperor of the west, a title that had remained vacant since the death of [[Romulus Augustus]] in 476.  He was succeeded by his son [[Louis the Pious]], after whom his empire disintegrated and feudalized.  Much of it would later be reconstructed as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], however.
------
Frank|985422015
3a4,5
> 
> [[/Rulers]]
29c31
< ''I made this English, but I definitely think that you should set up a French Wikipedia asap.  This is not the first article here which has been written in French, so I definitely think there would be contributors waiting.''
---
> ''I made this English, but I definitely think that you should set up a French Wikipedia asap.  This is not the first article here which has been written in French, so I definitely think there would be contributors waiting.''
------
Beryllium/Talk|985422143
5c5,9
< "A particular list of the properties of Beryllium, in a particular order, might well be copyrighted."  In that case, I have a concern that the present [[Beryllium]] and other similar-formatted articles are copyrighted.
---
> "A particular list of the properties of Beryllium, in a particular order, might well be copyrighted."  In that case, I have a concern that the present [[Beryllium]] and other similar-formatted articles are copyrighted.
> 
> ----
> A more educated legal opinion: the governing authority is USSC <i>Feist v. Rural</i>, a case of one phone directory copying numbers from another.  In that case, the court affirmed the doctrine that data itself is beyond copyright and dismissed the case.  What copyright covers, they said, is the act of creativity, which can be expressed in terms of selecting which data to express, organizing the data a certain way, or wording it a certain way.  In the case of phone book entries, it was ruled that an alphabetical list was about as uncreative as it gets, and so no copyright applied.  But in the instant case here, I think we may want to come up with a format of our own (which can't be any worse than the one there any way) and just plug the data into it.  This could be done programmatically, though, from the existing text.  It's OK to *use* copyrighted material to produce non-infringing material.
> 
------
Language|985423273
38,42c38,39
< 
< Grouped by geographical area:
< * [[SouthEastAsianLanguages|Southeast Asian languages]]
< 
< [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
---
> * Unique languages
> ** [[Basque language]]
46c43,46
< ** [[Basque language]]
---
> * [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
> 
> Grouped by geographical area:
> * [[SouthEastAsianLanguages|Southeast Asian languages]]
------
Rob_Salzman|985423659
7a8,10
> ----
> Hey Spy!  I got an email inviting me here ... and you know me - always looking for ways to waste what little spare time I've got...  Hope to read you here!
> ----
------
Rob_Salzman|985423735
10a11
> Question:  I quite like my writeup of [[Charlemagne]], and don't particularly care for the changes.  Is it kosher to recorrect someone's correction of my writing?
------
Language|985423784
32c32
< * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tai languages|Tai]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
---
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
35a36
> * [[Tai languages|Tai]]
------
Rob_Salzman|985423817
11c11
< Question:  I quite like my writeup of [[Charlemagne]], and don't particularly care for the changes.  Is it kosher to recorrect someone's correction of my writing?
---
> Question:  I quite like my writeup of [[Charlemagne]], and don't particularly care for the changes.  Is it kosher to recorrect someone's correction of my writing?  I certainly understand that in this environment, we don't own our own words... <grin>
------
Language|985423832
36d35
< * [[Tai languages|Tai]]
38c37
< * ...
---
> * [[Tai languages]]
------
Rob_Salzman|985423833
4c4
< 
---
> ----
------
Tai_languages|985423956
0a1,2
> Britannica claims this language family was formerly considered to be part of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], but that most of the similarities are incidental and that the relationship appears to be false.  It also mentions suggestions that the Tai are closer to the [[Austronesian languages]].  At least, I think they should be kept separate until something more definite appears.
> 
------
Carbon_Nanotubes|985424157
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Carbon nanotubes are tiny carbon structures that have properties that make them potentially useful in nanotechnology.  They exhibit unusual strength and unique electrical properties, and are extremely efficient conductors of heat.
> 
> A nanotube is comprised of carbon atoms rolled into a cylander and capped with half a [[fullerene]] molecule.  They are only one nanometer wide (on the order of one ten-thousandth the width of a human hair), and their length can be millions of times greater than their width..
> 
> Nanotubes were first discovered in 1991 by [[Sumio Iijima]].  It has since been discovered how nanotubes can be produced in large quantities.
> 
> Nanotubes can be opened and filled with materials such as biological molecules, raising the possibility of applications in biotechnology.  They can be used to dissipate heat from tiny computer chips.  The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in nanoengineering.
------
Rob_Salzman|985424286
11a12,15
> 
> Please, go ahead!  Usually in the event that something goes back and forth we start a talk page to clear up what's happening.  I'm the one who changed your write up, and you're welcome to change it back, except I found a few things misleading: the kingdom didn't collapse after Charlemagne, but after his successor, and it didn't break into two pieces, but four, of which I would say Italy is pretty significant, if often neglected.  I should mention, though, that any quick gloss is doomed to be overwritten sooner or later, by something more thorough.
> 
> -[[Josh Grosse]] :)
------
Alaska|985424431
1c1,3
< Capital, Juneau.  Largest city, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]].  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
---
> On January 3, 1959, Alaska was admitted to the [[United States]] as the 49th state.
> 
> Capital, [[Juneau]].  Largest city, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]].  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
5c7
< Largest state in the United States in terms of land area.
---
> Largest state in the United States in terms of land area (615,230 sq mi).
------
Fullerene|985424638
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fullerenes, of "buckyballs", are molecules composed entirely of [[carbon]], taking the form of a hollow sphere or ellipsoid.  Fullerenes are similar in structure to [[graphite]], which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar.  The smallest fullerene which does not contain any bordering pentagons (which is destabilizing - see [[pentalene]]) is C<sub>60</sub>, and it is also the best known.
> 
> Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recently evidence for the meteor impact at the end of the [[Permian]] was found in analyzing noble gases so preserved.  Another neat thing is that fullerenes may be drawn out to form cylinders, called buckytubes or [[nanotubes]].
------
Fullerene|985424684
3c3
< Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recently evidence for the meteor impact at the end of the [[Permian]] was found in analyzing noble gases so preserved.  Another neat thing is that fullerenes may be drawn out to form cylinders, called buckytubes or [[nanotubes]].
---
> Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recently evidence for the meteor impact at the end of the [[Permian]] was found in analyzing noble gases so preserved.  Another neat thing is that fullerenes may be drawn out to form cylinders, called buckytubes or [[Carbon Nanotubes|nanotubes]].
------
Carbon_Nanotubes|985424855
3c3
< A nanotube is comprised of carbon atoms rolled into a cylander and capped with half a [[fullerene]] molecule.  They are only one nanometer wide (on the order of one ten-thousandth the width of a human hair), and their length can be millions of times greater than their width..
---
> A nanotube is a structure similar to a [[fullerene]], only the carbon atoms are rolled into a cylinder instead of a sphere; each end is capped with half a [[fullerene]] molecule.  They are only one nanometer wide (on the order of one ten-thousandth the width of a human hair), and their length can be millions of times greater than their width..
7a8,9
> 
> One use for nanotubes that has already been developed is as extremely fine emitters, which could be used to produce high-brightness low-energy low-weight screens.
------
Carbon|985424914
29c29
< Carbon sublimes at 4100 K.  In gaseous form it usually consists of short atomic strings called [[carbynes]].  Unless cooled very slowly these coalesce to form irregular, warped graphitic sheets that compose [[soot]].  Of particular note among these are forms where the sheets are bent into a stable self-enclosed form (eg a sphere), called [[fullerenes]] or "buckyballs", with an interesting chemistry.
---
> Carbon sublimes at 4100 K.  In gaseous form it usually consists of short atomic strings called [[carbynes]].  Unless cooled very slowly these coalesce to form irregular, warped graphitic sheets that compose [[soot]].  Of particular note among these are forms where the sheets are bent into a stable self-enclosed form (eg a sphere), called [[fullerene|fullerenes]] or "buckyballs", with an interesting chemistry.
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985424926
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by Charlemagne around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis]] II in 1806. 
> 
> At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], eastern [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Italy]]. 
> 
> When the last Holy Roman emperor (Francis II) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
------
Voltaire|985425001
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French writer and philosopher.
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985425106
1c1
< A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by Charlemagne around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis]] II in 1806. 
---
> A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by Charlemagne around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis II]] in 1806. 
------
Francis_II|985425136
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806).  He was also Francis I, first emperor of Austria (1804-1835). 
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985425164
1c1
< A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by Charlemagne around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis II]] in 1806. 
---
> A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by [[Charlemagne]] around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis II]] in 1806. 
------
Jews|985425301
7c7
< The main divisions of Jews in modern times are: Ashkenazim (Central and East European Jews), Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews), Mizrakhim (Oriental Jews from Asia from countries like Kurdistan and Persia), Gruzim (Georgian Jews from the Caucasus), Juhurim (Mountain Jews from Daghestan and Azerbaijan in the eastern Caucasus), Teimanim (Yemenite Jews from southern Arabia), Judeo-Berbers (North African Jews), and Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews). Out of these communities, the largest are the Ashkenazim, whose ancestors lived in countries like Germany, Russia, and Poland.
---
> The main divisions of Jews in modern times are: Ashkenazim (Central and East European Jews), Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews), Mizrakhim (Oriental Jews from Asia from countries like Kurdistan and Persia), Gruzim (Georgian Jews from the Caucasus), Juhurim (Mountain Jews from Daghestan and Azerbaijan in the eastern Caucasus), Teimanim (Yemenite Jews from southern Arabia), Judeo-Berbers (North African Jews), and Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews). Out of these communities, the largest are the Ashkenazim, whose ancestors lived in countries like [[Germany]], [[Russia]], and [[Poland]].
11c11
< Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew. Jews form significant minorities in the United States, [[Canada]], [[Hungary]], [[Ukraine]], [[France]], [[Russia]], and other countries.
---
> Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew). Jews form significant minorities in the United States, [[Canada]], [[Hungary]], [[Ukraine]], [[France]], [[Russia]], and other countries.
------
Nibble|985426467
1c1
< Half a [[byte]]
---
> Sometimes spelled nybble, a [[nibble]] is half a [[byte]].
------
Pope|985426967
4a5,26
> * [[Gregory the Great|Gregory I the Great]] (590-604)
> * [[Sabinianus]] (604-606)
> * [[Boniface III]] (607)
> * [[Boniface IV]] (608-15)
> * [[Deusdedit]] (615-8)
> * [[Boniface V]] (619-25)
> * [[Honorius I]] (625-38)
> * [[Severinus]] (640)
> * [[John IV]] (640-2)
> * [[Theodore I]] (642-9)
> * [[Martin I]] (649-55)
> * [[Eugenius I]] (654-7)
> * [[Vitalian]] (657-72)
> * [[Adeodatus]] (672-6)
> * [[Donus]] (676-8)
> * [[Agatho]] (678-81)
> * [[Leo II]] (682-3)
> * [[Benedict II]] (684-5)
> * [[John V]] (685-6)
> * [[Conon]] (686-7)
> * [[Sergius I]] (687-701)
> * ...
21d42
< * [[Agatho]]
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985430691
3c3
< At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], eastern [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Italy]]. 
---
> At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], eastern [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Italy]].
5c5,7
< When the last Holy Roman emperor (Francis II) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
---
> After it lost much of it's territors, it was renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations. 
> 
> When the last Holy Roman emperor (Francis II) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
------
Teaching_methods|985432335
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Oelde|985432635
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province (dt. "Bundesland") North-Rhine-Westfalia.  
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985434951
51a52,53
> 
> Visit the [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=editprefs Preferences] page to create your "user number"
116c118
< A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
---
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985435799
118c118,120
< A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
---
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
> ----
> '''Q. Why is wikipedia.org redirected to wikipedia.com and not the other way around?'''
------
Japanese_language|985443469
211c211,212
< Soon there will be a Japanese version of wikipedia at http://nihongo.wikipedia.com/.
---
> Soon there will be a Japanese version of wikipedia at http://nihongo.wikipedia.com/.----
> In fact, it is there already. All those with any ability to speak Japanese or to see the written language are encouraged to go there. RoseParks
------
Linear_equations|985443773
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''Linear equation''' is first of all, an equation, that is, it asserts that two mathematical expressions are equal as in:
> *<font size=+1 color=red>left-hand-side = right-hand-side</font>
> The equality can be justified because 
> #the statement is a [[Mathematical identity]] or 
> #the statement describes the relationship between two or more variables.
> The equation
> *<font size=+1 color=red>a + b = b + a</font>
> is justified because the addition operation is ''commutative''. This equation is the symbolic equivalent of that property.
> On the other hand, the equation
> *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a + b x</font>
> is an assertion about the symbols it mentions.
> #Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like <font color=red>a, b, ...</font> are convenctionally considered as constants in the context of the discussion at hand.
> #Letters from end of the alphabet, <font color=red>x,y,z</font> are usually considered ''variables'', that is, their values may change within the discussion.
> The (linear) equation given above asserts that a value of <font color=red>y</font> can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding value of <font color=red>x</font> by the (constant)
>  b and adding the constant a. We call this a linear equation because the highest exponent of the ''independent variable'', x, is one. By contrast, in a [[Quadratic equation]], the highest exponent would be two.
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Linear_equations|985443822
14,15c14
< The (linear) equation given above asserts that a value of <font color=red>y</font> can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding value of <font color=red>x</font> by the (constant)
<  b and adding the constant a. We call this a linear equation because the highest exponent of the ''independent variable'', x, is one. By contrast, in a [[Quadratic equation]], the highest exponent would be two.
---
> The (linear) equation given above asserts that a value of <font color=red>y</font> can be obtained by multiplying the corresponding value of <font color=red>x</font> by the (constant) b and adding the constant a. We call this a linear equation because the highest exponent of the ''independent variable'', x, is one. By contrast, in a [[Quadratic equation]], the highest exponent would be two.
17c16
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Quadratic_equation|985444043
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''Quadratic equation''' is an equation (see [[Linear equations]]) in which the ''independent variable'' appears with an exponent of two and no higher exponent. For example, 
> *<font size=+1 color=red>y = 2 + 3x + 5x<sup>2</sup></font>
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|985444109
5c5
< A quadratic equation looks like this:
---
> A [[quadratic equation]] looks like this:
14c14
< [[Dick Beldin]] (who would be lost if everything had to be linear)
---
> [[Dick Beldin]] (who would be lost if everything had to be linear)
------
SandBox|985444477
170c170,195
< <cite>Citations?  Yes!</cite>
---
> <cite>Citations?  Yes!</cite>----
> Teletype: Yes
> 
> 
> <tt>teletype</tt>
> 
> 
> Comment: No
> 
> 
> <!--Comment here-->
> 
> 
> Format for a Reference List:Yes!!!
> 
> 
> <h3><b>For Further Reading</b></h3>
> 
> Math Symbols:
> 
> Infinity: Yes- Eureka.
> 
> "as <b>x</b> approaches &infin;..."
> 
> 
> 
------
Conic_section|985444646
5a6
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html|conic sections].
------
Conic_section|985444711
6c6
< I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html|conic sections].
---
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html | conics].
------
Conic_section|985444755
6c6
< I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html | conics].
---
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html|conics].
------
Conic_section|985444772
6c6
< I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html|conics].
---
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html| conics].
------
Conic_section|985444802
6c6
< I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html| conics].
---
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html |conics].
------
Conic_section|985444823
6c6
< I recommend the following link for graphics on [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html |conics].
---
> I recommend the following link for graphics on [[http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html |conics]].
------
Conic_section|985444867
6a7,8
> ----
> [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Linear_equation|985444990
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Linear equations]]
------
Judaism|985445006
1c1,13
< Judaism is the religion practiced by [[Jews]]. It is the theological foundation of many other religions including [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Karaism]].
---
> Judaism is the religion practiced by [[Jews]]. It is the theological foundation of many other religions including [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Karaism]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
> :/[[Levels of Orthodoxy]]
> :/[[Dietary Rules]]
> :/[[Holidays]]
> :/[[Womens Place in Judiasm]]
> :/[[Role of a Rabbi]]
> :/[[The Temple]]
> :/[[Services]]
> :/[[Role of the Cantor]]
------
Holidays|985445192
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Yom Kippur]]
> :[[Passover]]
> :[[Rosh Hashanah]]
> :[[Purim]]
> :[[Sukkot]]
> :[[Hannukah]]
------
Polynomial|985445230
35c35
< At the high school level ''quadratic equations'' are useful in displaying the teacher's facility in proving the ''quadratic formula'', by ''completing the square''. ----
---
> At the high school level [[quadratic equations]] are useful in displaying the teacher's facility in proving the ''quadratic formula'', by ''completing the square''. ----
------
Judaism|985445277
8a9
> :/[[The Sabbath]]
------
Polynomial|985445687
20,21c20,21
<     ax+b+0.
<     This is called a ''[[linear equation]]'' in x.
---
>     ax+b=0.
>     This is called a [[linear equation]] in x.
24c24
<     a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup>+a<sub>1</sub>x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>=0 or more      familiarly:
---
>     a<sub>2</sub>x<sup>2</sup>+a<sub>1</sub>x<sup>1</sup>+a<sub>0</sub>=0 or more familiarly:
26c26
<     This is called a ''[[quadratic equation]].''
---
>     This is called a [[quadratic equation]].
39,40c39,40
< #Can I have more examples please?
< #What are polynomials good for?
---
> #Can I have more examples please? See below.
> #What are polynomials good for? Describing some kinds of relations between variables. Like much of math, we present definitions and techniques and leave the applications to others.
41a42,45
> ----
> 
> Further examples of polynomials:
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a circle = 3.14159... times radius<sup>2</sup></font>
------
Polynomial|985446013
16c16
< * Polynimials in one variable and polynomial equations:
---
> * Polynomials in one variable and polynomial equations:
45c45,46
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a circle = 3.14159... times radius<sup>2</sup></font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a square = side<sup>2</sup></font>
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Volume of a cube = side<sup>3</sup></font>
------
Polynomial|985446478
44c44
< Further examples of polynomials:
---
> Further examples of polynomials (some are ''monomials'' which form a special case with only one term):
46c46,48
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Volume of a cube = side<sup>3</sup></font>
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Volume of a cube = side<sup>3</sup></font>.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a square with its lower left corner at the point (a,a)  and its upper right corner at (b,b) = (b-a)<sup>2</sup> = b<sup>2</sup>-2ab+b<sup>2</sup></font>.
> This is a polynomial in two variables.
------
Polynomial|985446594
47,48c47,48
< *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a square with its lower left corner at the point (a,a)  and its upper right corner at (b,b) = (b-a)<sup>2</sup> = b<sup>2</sup>-2ab+b<sup>2</sup></font>.
< This is a polynomial in two variables.
---
> *<font size=+1 color=red>Area of a square with its lower left corner at the point (x,x)  and its upper right corner at (y,y) = (y-x)<sup>2</sup> = y<sup>2</sup>-2xy+x<sup>2</sup></font>.
> ::This is a polynomial in the two variables, x and y.
------
Quadratic_equations|985446649
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Quadratic equation]]
------
Passover|985446653
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Passover is an eight day holiday that commemorates the flight and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt, during the reign of the Pharaoh Ramses II. Because the Jews were travelling ,
> they had no time to prepare and bake bread. Instead, they ate unleavened bread baked in the sun during their journey. For this reason, observant Jews eat no food that is leavened during Passover, but rather eat matzoh and other specially prepared breads, cakes, desserts etc.
> Before the holiday begins a traditional Jewish woman/wife will remove and discard all food with leavening from her household, doing a thorough job, to assure not so much of a crumb remains.
> Passover is a family holiday and a happy one. The first night is the most imporant, followed by the second night. It is traditional for a Jewish family to gather on both these nights for a special dinner called a [[Seder]].----   
> 
> Passover begins in the Roman Calendar at sundown, Saturday, April 7, this year, 2001. Passover will end at sundown, Sunday, April 15.   
> 
------
Quadratic_equation|985446706
1c1
< A '''Quadratic equation''' is an equation (see [[Linear equations]]) in which the ''independent variable'' appears with an exponent of two and no higher exponent. For example, 
---
> A '''Quadratic equation''' is an [[equation]]  in which an ''independent variable'' appears with an exponent of two and no higher exponent. For example, 
------
Equation|985446791
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An '''equation''' is an assertion that two mathematical expressions are equal.
> 
> :See [[Linear equations]], [[Quadratic equation]]
------
Linear_equations|985446860
1,13c1,2
< A '''Linear equation''' is first of all, an equation, that is, it asserts that two mathematical expressions are equal as in:
< *<font size=+1 color=red>left-hand-side = right-hand-side</font>
< The equality can be justified because 
< #the statement is a [[Mathematical identity]] or 
< #the statement describes the relationship between two or more variables.
< The equation
< *<font size=+1 color=red>a + b = b + a</font>
< is justified because the addition operation is ''commutative''. This equation is the symbolic equivalent of that property.
< On the other hand, the equation
< *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a + b x</font>
< is an assertion about the symbols it mentions.
< #Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like <font color=red>a, b, ...</font> are convenctionally considered as constants in the context of the discussion at hand.
< #Letters from end of the alphabet, <font color=red>x,y,z</font> are usually considered ''variables'', that is, their values may change within the discussion.
---
> A '''Linear equation''' is first of all, an [[equation]].
> 
------
Passover|985446907
1c1
< Passover is an eight day holiday that commemorates the flight and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt, during the reign of the Pharaoh Ramses II. Because the Jews were travelling ,
---
> Passover, <i.Pesach</i>, is an eight day holiday that commemorates the flight and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt, during the reign of the Pharaoh Ramses II. Because the Jews were travelling ,
4c4
< Passover is a family holiday and a happy one. The first night is the most imporant, followed by the second night. It is traditional for a Jewish family to gather on both these nights for a special dinner called a [[Seder]].----   
---
> Passover is a family holiday and a happy one. The first night is the most imporant, followed by the second night. It is traditional for a Jewish family to gather on both these nights for a special dinner called a [[Seder]] where the story of the Israelite exodus from Egypt is retold by the reading of "The Book of the Exodus," the <i>Haggadah.</i>.----   
------
George_Berkeley|985446929
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Since I live in Berkeley, California, which was named for Bishop Berkeley (pronounced "Barkly"), I'll get the ball rolling. 
> 
> You see a redwood tree. Ha! It's only there while you're looking at it. It was only an image in the mind of God, which the Almighty let you hallucinate on. 
> 
> In response to the old riddle, "If a tree falls in the forest and no one heard it, did it make a sound?," Berkeley would reply that if no one were there, the tree wouldn't be there.
> 
> This is eerily similar to recent theoretical physics notion that mass does not exist. 
> 
> As Bob Dylan sang about dreams, "It's all in your head."
------
Equation|985446976
1,3c1,15
< An '''equation''' is an assertion that two mathematical expressions are equal.
< 
< :See [[Linear equations]], [[Quadratic equation]]
---
> An '''equation''' is an assertion that two [[mathematical expression]]s are equal as in:
> *<font size=+1 color=red>left-hand-side = right-hand-side</font>
> The equality can be justified because 
> #the statement is a [[Mathematical identity]] or 
> #the statement is a [[Mathematical definition]] or
> #the statement describes the relationship between two or more expressions.
> The equation
> *<font size=+1 color=red>a + b = b + a</font>
> is justified because the addition operation is ''commutative''. This equation is the symbolic equivalent of that property.
> On the other hand, the equation
> *<font size=+1 color=red>y = a + b x</font>
> is an assertion about the symbols it mentions.
> #Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like <font color=red>a, b, ...</font> are convenctionally considered as constants in the context of the discussion at hand.
> #Letters from end of the alphabet, <font color=red>x,y,z</font> are usually considered ''variables'', that is, their values may change within the discussion.
> :See [[Linear equations]], [[Quadratic equation]]
------
Passover|985446999
1c1
< Passover, <i.Pesach</i>, is an eight day holiday that commemorates the flight and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt, during the reign of the Pharaoh Ramses II. Because the Jews were travelling ,
---
> Passover, <i>Pesach</i>, is an eight day holiday that commemorates the flight and freedom of the Israelites from Egypt, during the reign of the Pharaoh Ramses II. Because the Jews were travelling ,
------
Linear_equations|985447181
5c5,7
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> [[Dick Beldin]]----
> This material is already available at:
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Polynomial See Linear Equation, Qudaratic Equation, Cubic Equations. Duplicate material.
------
Conic_section|985447503
6a7
> [[Dick Beldin]]
8c9,10
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> Very good visuals, thank you. RoseParks
> 
------
Mathematical_expression|985447625
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''mathematical expression''' is a string of symbols which describes (or ''expresses'') a (potential or actual) computation using [[operator]]s and [[operand]]s. 
> 
> For example,
> *<font size=+1 color=red>3+5*6/10</font> describes a computation in which we add 3 and the subexpression<font size=+1 color=red>5*6/10</font>.
> *<font size=+1 color=red>5*6/10</font> describes a computation in which we multiply 5 times 6 and then divide the result by 10.
------
Brilliant_prose|985447725
5c5
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]]
---
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- [[Japanese Language]]
------
Brilliant_prose|985447768
5c5,6
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- [[Japanese Language]]
---
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- 
> [[Japanese Language]]
------
Brilliant_prose|985447832
6c6
< [[Japanese Language]]
---
> [[Japanese language]]
------
Operator|985447932
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Mathematics]], a symbol indicating an operation to be performed on an [[operand]]. 
> 
> Different branches of mathematics may define operators idiosyncratically although the elementary arithmetic operators 
> #addition symbolized by <font size=+1 color=red>+</font>
> #subtraction symbolized by <font size=+1 color=red>-</font>
> #multiplication symbolized by <font size=+1 color=red>* or by simple juxtaposition</font>
> #division symbolized by <font size=+1 color=red>/ or a horizontal line separating numerator from denominator</font>
>  are quite standard.
------
Operator|985448527
3c3
< Different branches of mathematics may define operators idiosyncratically although the elementary arithmetic operators 
---
> The elementary arithmetic operators 
8c8,12
<  are quite standard.
---
> #exponentiation (repeated multiplication) by elevation of the number of factors above the base line
> are quite standard.
> 
> Different branches of mathematics may extend the definitions of operators to represent analogous operations. 
> #<font size=+1 color=red>+</font> has been extended to cover addition of [[sets]], [[vector]]s and [[matrices]].
------
Sets|985448578
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT SeT
------
Sets|985448610
1c1
< #REDIRECT SeT
---
> #REDIRECT [[set]]
------
Sets|985448635
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[set]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Set]]
------
Sets|985448679
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Set]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Set]]
------
Mojo|985449149
5c5,6
< 
---
> <p>
> ''Its nothing this Briton has ever heard''
------
Mathematics/Talk|985449154
6c6,7
< Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probability and Statistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up. Further, the author has glued *his name* to them and I resent correcting what he appears to think is *his* pages- further *his name* link is linked to an educational/commercial site of his, and I see this as advertising and most inappropriate.
---
> Agreeing with LDC...there are strange errors and lapses in clarity in [[Probability and Statistics]] that I began to correct, but there is so much material I gave up. Further, the author has glued *his name* to them and I resent correcting what he appears to think is *his* pages- further *his name* link is linked to an educational/commercial site of his, and I see this as advertising and most inappropriate.----
> (Note from the author mentioned: The ''signature'' is designed to allow me to quickly find the material that I consider unfinished. When I am done with my editing, I will remove the signatures if they are offensive. [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Mathematics/Talk|985449190
7c7
< (Note from the author mentioned: The ''signature'' is designed to allow me to quickly find the material that I consider unfinished. When I am done with my editing, I will remove the signatures if they are offensive. [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> (Note from the author mentioned: The ''signature'' is designed to allow me to quickly find the material that I consider unfinished. When I am done with my editing, I will remove the signatures if they are offensive. [[Dick Beldin]])----
------
ANOVA/DegreesOfFreedom|985449343
2,3d1
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ANOVA/Fixed|985449373
2,3d1
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
ANOVA/Random|985449406
2,3d1
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Analysis_of_variance|985449471
15,16c15
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Arithmetic_Mean|985449716
11,12c11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
BioStatistics|985449831
11,12d10
< ---- 
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Business_Statistics|985449861
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Calculus|985449899
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Cartesian_Product|985449940
7,8d6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Central_Tendency|985449971
10,11c10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Cluster_Sampling|985450006
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Combinations|985450042
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Combinatorics|985450090
11,12c11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Cumulative_Distribution_Function|985450122
12,14d11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
------
Demographic_Statistics|985450183
10,11d9
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Eclectic_Probability|985450241
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Education/Math|985450279
1d0
< 
13,14c12
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Empirical_Research|985450313
2,3c2
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Engineering_Statistics|985450380
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Estimating_Parameters|985450413
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Expectation_Operator|985450461
10,11c10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Finite_Mathematics|985450492
13,14d12
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Frequency_Probability|985450532
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Function|985450571
20,21c20
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Histogram|985450626
50,51d49
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Interpreting_Statistical_Data|985450711
11,12c11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Interquartile_Range|985450747
25,26c25
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Likelihood_Principle|985450809
13,14d12
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Likelihood_Principle|985450890
7,10c7
< <pre>
<              X     n-X
<      L(p) ~ p (1-p)      ie, proportional to the product.
< </pre>
---
> *L(p) ~ p<sup>X</sup> (1-p)<sup>n-X</sup> ie, proportional to the product.
------
Linear_Models|985450932
5,6c5
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]] 
---
>  
------
Linear_Regression|985450975
39,40c39
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Linear_equations|985451046
5d4
< [[Dick Beldin]]----
7c6
< http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Polynomial See Linear Equation, Qudaratic Equation, Cubic Equations. Duplicate material.
---
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Polynomial See Linear Equation, Qudaratic Equation, Cubic Equations. Duplicate material.
------
Location_parameter|985451076
4,5d3
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Median|985451129
5,6c5
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Normal_Distribution|985451168
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Numerical_parameter|985451203
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Observational_Error|985451235
12,13d11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Pascal|985451277
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Permutations|985451310
11,12d10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Personal_Probability|985451344
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Planning_Research|985451385
18,19d17
< ---- 
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Proability/Axioms|985451433
11,12d10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability|985451509
5c5
< Probability is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
---
> Probability refers to the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Probability_Distributions|985451642
43,44c43
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Probability_Theory|985451688
16,17c16
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Probability_and_Statistics|985451727
27,28d26
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Psychological_Statistics|985451783
10,12c10
< .
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Puerto_Rico|985451825
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Quartiles|985451859
19,20d18
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Random_Variable|985451893
8,9d7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Research_Subjects|985451921
4,5c4
< ---- 
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Revising_Opinions|985451954
7,8d6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Sample_Space|985452004
11,12c11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Probability_and_Statistics|985452017
27c27,28
< 
---
> ----
> /Talk
------
Spanish_language|985452041
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Probability_and_Statistics/Talk|985452072
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Again: I'm no expert in probability theory, but I can very confidently say that probability is not a mathematical theory.  Probability theory is a theory, but probability is something else.  I'd prefer not to be the one to make the change, though. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Standard_Deviation|985452075
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistic|985452107
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Assembly|985452146
2,3d1
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Dispersion|985452183
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Ensemble|985452219
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Independence|985452271
16,17d15
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Model|985452319
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Populations|985452358
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Range|985452388
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Regularity|985452432
10,11c10
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Sample|985452464
4,5c4
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistical_Sample|985452494
3c3
< A '''sample''' is that part of a [[population]] which we actually observe. In normal scientific practice, we demand that it be selected in such a way as to avoid presenting a biased view of the population. If [[Statistical Inference]] is to be used, there must be a way of assigning know probabilities of selection to each sample, preferably equal. This method is called [[Simple Random Sampling]].
---
> A '''sample''' is that part of a [[population]] which we actually observe. In normal scientific practice, we demand that it be selected in such a way as to avoid presenting a biased view of the population. If [[Statistical Inference]] is to be used, there must be a way of assigning known probabilities of selection to each sample, preferably equal. This latter method is called [[Simple Random Sampling]].
------
Statistical_Unit|985452533
8,9d7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Statistical_Variability|985452591
6,7c6
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistics/Applied|985452620
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistics/Assumptions|985452678
12,13d11
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
George_Berkeley|985452688
1c1,3
< Since I live in Berkeley, California, which was named for Bishop Berkeley (pronounced "Barkly"), I'll get the ball rolling. 
---
> George Berkeley \bark'-lee\ (1685-1753) was an influential Irish philosopher whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his catchphrase, "To be is to be perceived."  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' (1710) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' (1713) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind," representing Berkley himself.
> 
> Discussion (to be rendered into tighter prose?):
------
Statistics/Inference|985452740
15,16d14
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Czech_Republic|985452742
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A central European republic. The republic borders [[Poland]] to the north, [[Germany]] to the northwest and west, [[Austria]] to the south, and [[Slovakia]] to the east. [[Prague]] is its capital and largest city.
> 
> It was founded in January 1993 when [[Czechoslovakia]] was replaced by two independent states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
> 
> 
------
George_Berkeley|985452751
1c1
< George Berkeley \bark'-lee\ (1685-1753) was an influential Irish philosopher whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his catchphrase, "To be is to be perceived."  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' (1710) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' (1713) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind," representing Berkley himself.
---
> George Berkeley \bark'-lee\ (1685-1753) was an influential Irish philosopher whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his catchphrase, "To be is to be perceived."  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' (1710) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' (1713) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind," representing Berkley himself).
------
Statistics/Multivariate|985452784
7,8c7
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Statistics/Theory|985452823
28,29d27
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Czechoslovakia|985452841
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A former country in [[Central Europe]], in existence from 1918 until 1993, when it split into the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]].
------
Stimulus_Response_Model|985452858
6,7d5
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Stimulus_Response_Model|985452882
1c1
< The '''Stimulus Response Model''' describes a [[Stistical Unit]] as making a quantitative response to a quantitative stimulus administered by the researcher. The object of this kind of research is to establish a mathematical function that describes the relation.
---
> The '''Stimulus Response Model''' describes a [[Statistical Unit]] as making a quantitative response to a quantitative stimulus administered by the researcher. The object of this kind of research is to establish a mathematical function that describes the relation.
------
Slovakia|985452906
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country in [[Central Europe]], bounded on the northwest by the [[Czech Republic]], on the north by [[Poland]], on the east by [[Ukraine]], on the south by [[Hungary]], and on the southwest by [[Austria]]. 
> 
> [[Bratislava]] is its capital and largest city.
------
Stratified_Sampling|985452929
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Holidays|985452943
1,6c1
< :[[Yom Kippur]]
< :[[Passover]]
< :[[Rosh Hashanah]]
< :[[Purim]]
< :[[Sukkot]]
< :[[Hannukah]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Holiday]]
------
Holiday|985452949
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A day set aside by a nation or culture (in some cases, multiple nations and cultures) typically for celebration but sometimes for some other kind of special culture-wide (or national) observation or activity.
> 
> Jewish holidays:
> :[[Yom Kippur]]
> :[[Passover]]
> :[[Rosh Hashanah]]
> :[[Purim]]
> :[[Sukkot]]
> :[[Hannukah]]
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|985452975
13,14d12
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]] (who would be lost if everything had to be linear)
------
Summary_Statistics|985453018
12,13c12
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Survey_Sampling|985453071
9,10c9
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Bratislava|985453078
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bratislava is the capital and largest city in [[Slovakia]], sited on the [[Danube River]], near [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. 
> 
> The population is approximatly 450,000.
------
Testing_Hypotheses|985453127
20,21d19
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985453147
120c120,122
< '''Q. Why is wikipedia.org redirected to wikipedia.com and not the other way around?'''
---
> '''Q. Why is wikipedia.org redirected to wikipedia.com and not the other way around?'''
> 
> A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least, by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Variance|985453172
14,15c14
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Vienna|985453188
1c1
< Vienna (lat. ''Vindobona'', German ''Wien'') is the capital of [[Austria]]. It is situated on the river Danube. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of Austria. The [[United Nations]]' agency UNIDO is situated there.
---
> Vienna (lat. ''Vindobona'', German ''Wien'') is the capital of [[Austria]]. It is situated on the [[Danube River]]. With a population of about 1.8 million, it is the largest city and the cultural and political centre of Austria. The [[United Nations]]' agency UNIDO is situated there.
------
Variance/Algorithm|985453229
39,40c39
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Danube_River|985453300
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The second longest river in [[Europe]]. It is the only major [[European]] river to flow from west to east. It rises in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Germany]] and flows in a east for a distance of about 2850 km (1770 mi), to the [[Black Sea]] in [[Romania]].
------
Black_Forest|985453333
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a wooded mountain region in southwestern [[Germany]]. 
------
Oelde|985453353
1c1
< Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province (dt. "Bundesland") North-Rhine-Westfalia.  
---
> #REDIRECT [[Oelde, Germany]]
------
Oelde,_Germany|985453362
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province (dt. "Bundesland") North-Rhine-Westfalia.
------
Politics|985453409
5c5
< Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  Politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the journalistic sub-class, pressure-groups, and the sub-class of educationalists, who have the power to pussh some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.
---
> Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  Politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the journalistic sub-class, pressure-groups, and the sub-class of educationalists, who have the power to push some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.
------
Mojo|985453604
3,6c3
< In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me|Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
< <br>''We sure that isn't just British slang?  I can see the transition from one to the next being pretty easy...''
< <p>
< ''Its nothing this Briton has ever heard''
---
> /Talk
------
Mojo/Talk|985453653
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me|Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
> <br>''We sure that isn't just British slang?  I can see the transition from one to the next being pretty easy...''
> <p>
> ''Its nothing this Briton has ever heard''
> 
> He must have gotten it from [[The Doors]]' song that has the line "Mr. Mojo rising..."  Well, that's what it sounds like he's saying, anyway! --LS
------
Black_Sea|985453831
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An inland sea between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]].
------
Archaeology|985453836
2a3,8
> A brief history of archaeology and archaeological discoveries:
> 
> Famous archaeological discoveries (listed):
> 
> Famous archaeologists:
> 
------
Variance/Algorithm|985453853
16c16,20
< 
---
> ----
> :''comment: The problem may occur 
> #when the deviations are very small relative to the mean or 
> #when they are small relative to the representational capacity of the arithmetic instrument (floating point computer, fixed point calculator, paper and pencil). 
> To be precise we have to specify the instrument and the nature of the data. -- DickBeldin''
------
Asia_Minor|985453901
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A geographic region roughly corresponding to present Asian [[Turkey]].
------
Weighted_Mean|985453918
8,9c8
< ----
< [[Dick Beldin]]
---
> 
------
Bratislava|985453919
3c3
< The population is approximatly 450,000.
---
> The population is approximately 450,000.
------
Bratislava|985453951
1c1
< Bratislava is the capital and largest city in [[Slovakia]], sited on the [[Danube River]], near [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. 
---
> Bratislava is the capital and largest city in [[Slovakia]], situated on the [[Danube River]], near [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. 
------
Turkey|985453957
1c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between Europe and Middle East. Spoken language is Turkish. Capital city is Ankara (2.6m). Other important cities are Izmir (1.7m), Istanbul (6.6m), Bursa (0.835m)
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]]. Spoken language is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
5c5
< Religious background: SunniMuslims 99%, OrthodoxChristians 0.34%.
---
> Religious background: [[Sunni Muslims]] 99%, [[OrthodoxChristians]] 0.34%.
------
Turkey|985453975
5c5
< Religious background: [[Sunni Muslims]] 99%, [[OrthodoxChristians]] 0.34%.
---
> Religious background: [[Sunni Muslims]] 99%, [[Orthodox Christians]] 0.34%.
------
Romania|985454162
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country in southeastern Europe. Romania has long been one of [[Europe]]'s poorest and least developed nations. For most of its history foreign powers (including the [[Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires) controlled the country. [[Bucharest]] is its capital and largest city.
------
Romania|985454193
1c1,3
< A country in southeastern Europe. Romania has long been one of [[Europe]]'s poorest and least developed nations. For most of its history foreign powers (including the [[Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires) controlled the country. [[Bucharest]] is its capital and largest city.
---
> A country in southeastern Europe. Romania has always been one of [[Europe]]'s poorest and least developed nations. For most of its history foreign powers (including the [[Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires) controlled the country. 
> 
> [[Bucharest]] is its capital and largest city.
------
Mojo/Talk|985454597
6c6,8
< He must have gotten it from [[The Doors]]' song that has the line "Mr. Mojo rising..."  Well, that's what it sounds like he's saying, anyway! --LS
---
> He must have gotten it from [[The Doors]]' song that has the line "Mr. Mojo rising..."  Well, that's what it sounds like he's saying, anyway! --LS
> 
> "Mr Mojo Risin'" being an anagram of "Jim Morrison"
------
Mammalia|985454603
19c19
<    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, HomoSapiens)
---
>    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, Homo sapiens)
26c26
<    Order [[Carnivora]] (dogs, WolVes, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
---
>    Order [[Carnivora]] (dogs, wolves, cats, bears, weasels, seals, walruses)
30c30
<    Order [[Tubulidentata]] (AardvarK)
---
>    Order [[Tubulidentata]] (aardvark)
------
Statistics/Multivariate|985455505
6,7c6,7
< #Principle component analysis attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set.
< 
---
> #Principal component analysis attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set.
> #Discriminant Function or Canonical Variate Analyses attempt to establish whether a set of variables can be used to distinguish between two or more groups.
------
George_Berkeley|985455664
1c1
< George Berkeley \bark'-lee\ (1685-1753) was an influential Irish philosopher whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his catchphrase, "To be is to be perceived."  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' (1710) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' (1713) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind," representing Berkley himself).
---
> George Berkeley \bark'-lee\ (1685-1753) was an influential Irish philosopher whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his catchphrase, "To be is to be perceived."  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' (1710) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' (1713) (Philonous, the "lover of the mind," representing Berkeley himself).
------
Jmlynch|985455971
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John M. Lynch
> 
> Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]] (PhD, University College Dublin, 1993), he has shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
> 
> He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to Natural Selection, 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology", 1817 - 1857 (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
> 
> He is also editor for [[History of Science and Technology]] and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the Nupedia Project.
------
Jmlynch|985456034
3c3
< Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]] (PhD, University College Dublin, 1993), he has shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
---
> Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], he has shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
5c5
< He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to Natural Selection, 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology", 1817 - 1857 (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
---
> He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology", 1817 - 1857 (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
------
Natural_Selection|985456137
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Natural selection]]
------
Darwin|985456174
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Charles Darwin]]
------
Zoology|985456259
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That area of [[biology]] which studies animal life.
------
Jmlynch|985456303
5c5
< He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology", 1817 - 1857 (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
---
> He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
------
Adam_Sedgwick|985456348
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British geologist and opponent of evolutionary thinking.
> 
> More to come!
------
Robert_Chambers|985456395
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scottish publisher and author of "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation", a pre-Darwinian evolutionary work.
> 
> More to come!
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985456727
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Seminal work in evolutionary biology, published by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1859. 
> 
> The text is freely available online so I intend to wikki-fy it in the near future.
> 
> Preface 
> Introduction 
> Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication 
> Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature 
> Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence 
> Chapter 4 - Natural Selection 
> Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation 
> Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory 
> Chapter 7 - Instinct 
> Chapter 8 - Hybridism 
> Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record 
> Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings 
> Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution 
> Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued 
> Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs  
> Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion 
> Glossary 
> 
> More to come!
> 
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985456768
5,21c5,21
< Preface 
< Introduction 
< Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication 
< Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature 
< Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence 
< Chapter 4 - Natural Selection 
< Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation 
< Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory 
< Chapter 7 - Instinct 
< Chapter 8 - Hybridism 
< Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record 
< Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings 
< Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution 
< Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued 
< Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs  
< Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion 
< Glossary 
---
> #Preface 
> #Introduction 
> #Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication 
> #Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature 
> #Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence 
> #Chapter 4 - Natural Selection 
> #Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation 
> #Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory 
> #Chapter 7 - Instinct 
> #Chapter 8 - Hybridism 
> #Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record 
> #Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings 
> #Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution 
> #Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued 
> #Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs  
> #Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion 
> #Glossary 
24d23
< 
------
Evolution|985456962
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
---
> The observed fact that the genetic characteristics of a population change over time.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985457779
4a5,6
> ''Fantastic!  Cf. WikiBiblion.''
> 
------
WikiBiblion|985457891
12,24c12
< Btw, we need a way of distinguishing pages on something from pages that are the things themselves - for instance, a summary of how the US constitution works versus its text.
< ----
< If I had to venture an opinion, I guess we should restrict ourselves to texts that might be commonly cited and useful for immediate reference.  For example, a discussion of the US constitution is probably much enhanced by being able to link directly to the relevant amendment.  For example, in an article on GunControl, someone surely might find it useful to link to [[United States Constitution/Amendment Two]].
< 
< The same goes for the Bible, as many articles on aspects of JudeoChristian culture might usefully link to a chapter here and there.
< 
< But MobyDick, for example, isn't so usefully quoted, and so sticking it all in here just to be doing it seems more pointless.
< 
< But, like you said, it really just depends on what people bother to type (or cut and paste) in.  :-)
< ----
< Larry, I like your text but I think it belongs among the articles rather than the source texts, since I would read it to understand philosophy rather than to understand it.  Similarly for the essay.  TimShell's notes might not be ideal either, but I put them in because they are close to having a copy of AtlasShrugged.  The idea was, though, that the things listed are special by necessary correctness and immutability, and we are studying them rather than reading them to understand something else, so they are sort of exempt from wikipedianess.
< ----
< I see, but the usefulness of this page is increased by expanding its scope so as to keep a record of where massive amounts of new data are added to the wiki.  This would encourage others to do the same. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> /Talk
------
WikiBiblion/Talk|985457900
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Btw, we need a way of distinguishing pages on something from pages that are the things themselves - for instance, a summary of how the US constitution works versus its text.
> ----
> If I had to venture an opinion, I guess we should restrict ourselves to texts that might be commonly cited and useful for immediate reference.  For example, a discussion of the US constitution is probably much enhanced by being able to link directly to the relevant amendment.  For example, in an article on GunControl, someone surely might find it useful to link to [[United States Constitution/Amendment Two]].
> 
> The same goes for the Bible, as many articles on aspects of JudeoChristian culture might usefully link to a chapter here and there.
> 
> But MobyDick, for example, isn't so usefully quoted, and so sticking it all in here just to be doing it seems more pointless.
> 
> But, like you said, it really just depends on what people bother to type (or cut and paste) in.  :-)
> ----
> Larry, I like your text but I think it belongs among the articles rather than the source texts, since I would read it to understand philosophy rather than to understand it.  Similarly for the essay.  TimShell's notes might not be ideal either, but I put them in because they are close to having a copy of AtlasShrugged.  The idea was, though, that the things listed are special by necessary correctness and immutability, and we are studying them rather than reading them to understand something else, so they are sort of exempt from wikipedianess.
> ----
> I see, but the usefulness of this page is increased by expanding its scope so as to keep a record of where massive amounts of new data are added to the wiki.  This would encourage others to do the same. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Philosophical_argument|985458603
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The sorts of [[argument]]s used in philosophy are of a very interesting character, studied in many various ways by many philosophers in their writings about [[meta-philosophy]].
> 
> In recent decades one of the more influential discussions of philosophical arguments is that by the prolific University of Pittsburgh philosophy professor [[Nicholas Rescher]] in his book ''[[The Strife of Systems]].''  Rescher models [[philosophical problem]]s on what he calls [[aporia]] or an [[aporetic cluster]]: a set of statement, each of which has initial plausibility but which are jointly inconsistent.  The only way to solve the problem, then, is to reject one of the statements.  If this is correct, it constrains how philosophical arguments are formulated.
------
Philosophical_argument|985458618
3c3,5
< In recent decades one of the more influential discussions of philosophical arguments is that by the prolific University of Pittsburgh philosophy professor [[Nicholas Rescher]] in his book ''[[The Strife of Systems]].''  Rescher models [[philosophical problem]]s on what he calls [[aporia]] or an [[aporetic cluster]]: a set of statement, each of which has initial plausibility but which are jointly inconsistent.  The only way to solve the problem, then, is to reject one of the statements.  If this is correct, it constrains how philosophical arguments are formulated.
---
> In recent decades one of the more influential discussions of philosophical arguments is that by the prolific University of Pittsburgh philosophy professor [[Nicholas Rescher]] in his book ''[[The Strife of Systems]].''  Rescher models [[philosophical problem]]s on what he calls [[aporia]] or an [[aporetic cluster]]: a set of statement, each of which has initial plausibility but which are jointly inconsistent.  The only way to solve the problem, then, is to reject one of the statements.  If this is correct, it constrains how philosophical arguments are formulated.
> 
> (This clearly needs expansion...)
------
Argument|985458688
3,4c3,4
< #(Logic) An ''argument'' is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
< #(Mathematics and computer science) An ''argument'' is a variable or value passed into a [[function]], [[subroutine]], or an [[application program]].  An argument passed to an application program is referred to as a [[command line argument]].
---
> #([[Logic]]) An ''argument'' is a set of statements, one of which (the <i>conclusion</i>), it is said or implied, follows from the others (the <i>premises</i>).
> #([[Mathematics]] and [[computer science]]) An ''argument'' is a variable or value passed into a [[function]], [[subroutine]], or an [[application program]].  An argument passed to an application program is referred to as a [[command line argument]].
11c11
< such as explanations.  Logic does not, except in its applications,
---
> such as [[explanation]]s.  Logic does not, except in its applications,
40c40
< wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
---
> wrong fall into certain patterns, called [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].
------
Computer_science|985458733
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of [[computer]]s.  See [[computing]].
> 
> (This obviously needs expansion!)
------
Function|985458801
1c1
< In [[Mathematics]], a means of associating two (or more) quantities (or variables). Each variable has a disinctive role.
---
> In [[Mathematics]], a means of associating two (or more) [[quantity|quantities]] (or [[variable]]s). Each variable has a disinctive role.
------
Good_argument|985458917
1c1,3
< ''Good argument,'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] [[argument]].  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then you have stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> your belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and to [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
---
> ''Good [[argument]],'' as one sees it used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or else a [[cogency|strong]] argument.  If one has offered a sound or strong argument in defense of one's conclusion, then one has stated a <i>[[truth|true]]</i> view, or at least a <i>[[probability|probably]]</i> true view.  The premises of one's argument <i>support</i>, or, with some sophisticated complications aside, <i>[[epistemic justification|justify]]</i> one's belief in the conclusion.  That is why good arguments are so important: a good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true.  If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and to [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.
> 
> See also [[validity]]; [[cogency]]; [[soundness]].
------
Ambiguity|985459037
1c1,3
< One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.  The word '[[meaning]]' itself can mean '[[extension]]' or '[[intension]]'.  The word 'unclear' can mean 'ambiguous' or '[[vagueness|vague]]'.
---
> One and the same word can have many distinct meanings; so the word is, as we say, <i>ambiguous</i>.
> 
> For example, the word '[[meaning]]' itself can mean '[[extension]]' or '[[intension]]'.  The word 'unclear' can mean 'ambiguous' or '[[vagueness|vague]]'.
5c7
< In [[philosophy]], it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical [[concept]], that one pin down the sense of the word one uses to describe the concept.  For example, in a discussion of the concept of goodness, we might ask, "What does 'good' mean?"--but we cannot even begin to answer until we have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of 'good' we mean.  So, discussions of philosophical concepts, in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition at least, and especially since the first decades of the twentieth century, have often begun with discussions about the different senses in which a word may be used.  This was a notable feature especially of the philosophy of [[J. L. Austin]].
---
> In [[philosophy]], it is <i>extremely</i> important, <i>before</i> one starts trying to come to grips with some deep, important philosophical [[concept]], that one pin down the sense of the word one uses to describe the concept.  For example, in a discussion of the concept of goodness, we might ask, "What does 'good' mean?"--but we cannot even begin to answer until we have said <i>which</i> <i>sense</i> of 'good' we mean.  So, discussions of philosophical concepts, in the Anglo-American philosophical tradition at least, and especially since the first decades of the twentieth century, have often begun with discussions about the different senses in which a word may be used.  This was a notable feature especially of the philosophy of [[J. L. Austin]].
------
Meaning|985459151
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Meaning'' is one of the most difficult and complex concepts we have, studied by [[semantics]] (a branch of [[linguistics]]) and, in its more theoretical aspects, by the [[philosophy of language]] (the [[theory of meaning]] in particular--branches of [[philosophy]]).
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|985459475
2a3,8
> '''March 24, 2001'''
> 
> [[Nupedia]] finally announced to its members the existence of Wikipedia; as a result, we have had a nice, modest influx of traffic.
> 
> In related events, recently a discussion was started on Advisory-L and Nupedia-L, two Nupedia mailing lists, pointing to the fact that Wikipedia had made fantastic progress while Nupedia seemed relatively inefficient.  It has been suggested that Nupedia might take a clue, somehow, from Wikipedia's progress, in redesigning its own system.  This, too, accounts for the recent influx of traffic on Wikipedia.
> 
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|985459690
1c1
< Got an announcement?  So, make it!
---
> Got an announcement?  Make it!
4a5,8
> We have broken 3,000 pages!  As impressive as this sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,910--we can expect to break the 2,000 level of "comma" articles within the next few days.
> 
> '''March 23, 2001'''
> 
33c37
< <br>[[/January 2001]]
---
> <br>[[/January 2001]]
------
Meta-philosophy|985459900
2,3c2,3
< ----
< [[Philosophy]] of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk".  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.  --PhillipHankins
---
> 
> [[Philosophy]] of the 20th Century was characterized as being "talk about talk"--reflecting the [[natural language philosophy]] movement that received its main inspiration from the writings of [[G. E. Moore]], [[Wittgenstein]], and [[J. L. Austin]].  Taking that perspective, metaphilosophy would be "talk about talk about talk."  But this really just collapses back to "talk about (a certain type of) talk."  So the regression wouldn't get very far, metaphilosophy would be seen as a subdomain of philosophy.  Which is not to say that the term would have no potiential for use.  Only that it references a subset, not a superset; not moving to "a higher philosophical level", just turning the ordinary level on itself.
------
G._E._Moore|985460524
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> G. E. Moore (1873-1958) was a distinguished and hugely influential English philosopher who was educated and taught at [[Cambridge University]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Frege]], one of the primary inspirations of the [[analytic philosophy]] tradition that now predominates in the English-speaking world.  Moore was best known for his advocacy of [[common sense]], his meta-ethical non-naturalism, and his very clear, circumspect writing style.  He was very much a "philosopher's philosopher"--influential among and greatly respected by other philosophers, but relatively unknown to nonphilosophers (unlike his friend and colleague Russell).
> 
> Moore's most famous essays are "A Defence of Common Sense" and "A Proof of the External World," both of which can be found in his collection of papers, ''Philosophical Papers.''
> 
> Moore is also well-known for the so-called "open question argument," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ''naturalism'' and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
------
MetaEthics/Naturalism|985460604
1,43c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
< 
< Now here is how I described meta-ethics just a little while ago: <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
< 
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is fnord explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
< 
< The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
< 
< Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
< 
< (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
< 
< (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
< 
< (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
< 
< Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
< 
< I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
< 
< The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical fnord sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
< 
< <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
< 
< First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
< 
< To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
< 
< So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
< 
< That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
< 
< And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
< 
< OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
< 
< But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human fnord beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
< 
< Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
< ----
< Will you please remove "fnord" from the above?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ethical naturalism]]
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Ethical_naturalism|985460661
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
> 
> <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
> The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
> 
> <i>Naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> Notice that this definition has two parts, the part that comes before the "and" and the part that comes after the "and."  Let’s take a closer look at each part.
> 
> First, there’s the notion that ethical sentences <i>express</i> <i>propositions</i>.  Well, what exactly does that mean?  I’ve already told you what propositions are; they are, roughly, what meaningful sentences are supposed to be <i>about</i>.  So if an ethical sentence does express a proposition, then there is indeed something that the sentence is <i>about</i>.  It’s not like the claim, "Mary is a good person," is about <i>nothing</i>.  It’s about Mary, and it’s identifying her goodness.
> 
> To get a better idea of what it means to express a proposition, compare this to something that <i>doesn’t</i> express a proposition.  Say I’m minding a convenience store, and I see a thief pick up a candy bar and run.  I just manage to exclaim, "Hey!"  When I say, "Hey!" I’m not expressing a proposition.  I’m <i>not</i> saying, "That’s a thief there"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief is getting away"; I’m <i>not</i> saying, "that thief really annoys me."  I’m not saying anything at all, really.  And that’s the point: it’s not a <i>proposition</i> that I’m expressing.  Rather, it’s an <i>emotional</i> <i>state</i> that I’m expressing.  I am surprised and angered and I express my surprise and anger to the thief by saying "Hey!"
> 
> So what the first part of the definition of "naturalism" says is that ethical sentences <i>do</i> express propositions.  They aren’t just emotional outbursts, as though I were saying, "Hey!" or "Yay for Mary!"  They are actually expressing propositions that can be true or false.  And derivatively, you can say that ethical sentences themselves are either true or false.
> 
> That’s another important way to explain what it means for ethical sentences to express propositions; if they express propositions, they’re either true or false.  So if you’re a naturalist then you think ethical sentences are either true or false.  So for example, it can be true or false that Mary is a good person.  It can be true or false that stealing and lying are always wrong.  On the other hand, if you think the sentence, "Mary is a good person" can’t be either true or false -- if you say that, then you’re not a naturalist.  To be a naturalist, you have to think that ethical sentences are either true or false.
> 
> And notice, if I say that ethical sentences merely express emotions, as though they they were just exclamations like "Hey!" and "Yay for Mary!" then I don’t think ethical sentences are true or false.  Consider this: "It’s true that ‘Hey!’"  Or this: "It’s false that ‘Yay for Mary!’"  Well that doesn’t make any sense.  Mere expressions of emotion, mere outbursts, aren’t true or false.  They can be appropriate or inappropriate.  If Mary happens to be an ax murderess, then it’s totally inappropriate for me to say, "Yay for Mary!"  But it’s not <i>false</i> to say that, because mere emotional expressions aren’t true or false: only sentences that express propositions can be true or false.
> 
> OK, this has been all by way of getting you to understand the <i>first</i> part of the definition of "naturalism," and that part reads, "the view that ethical sentences express propositions."  Let’s give that view a name: call it <i>cognitivism</i>.  So cognitivism will be the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Having explained this view, it’s going to make it easier later on to understand so-called noncognitivism, because noncognitivism specifically denies this view.
> 
> But now what about the second part of the definition of "naturalism"?  The second part says that ethical sentences "can be reduced to nonethical sentences."  Now you’re going to have to remember this notion of reduction from our discussion of the mind-body problem.  I told you that philosophy is interconnected and interdependent -- well, it really is!  Anyway, so what does it mean to say that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences?  It just means that you can state the meaning of ethical sentences in other words, in sentences that don’t include any ethical terms like "good" and "right."  All this talk of good and bad, right and wrong, moral and immoral, and so forth -- that’s all just <i>shorthand</i> for some complex propositions about what human beings need, or desire, or what gives them pleasure, or what secures their long-term happiness, and so forth.  So this notion that ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences really amounts to saying that ethical sentences are a kind of shorthand, a kind of very useful abbreviation, for claims about nonethical facts about human needs, desires, and so forth.
> 
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
------
MetaEthics/NonNaturalism|985460691
1,57c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
< 
< <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
< 
< So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
< 
< To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
< 
< Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
< 
< Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
< 
< So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
< 
< OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
< 
< The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
< 
< But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
< 
< Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
< 
< But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
< 
< If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
< 
< One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
< 
< Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
< 
< We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
< 
< So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
< 
< Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
< 
< Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
< 
< Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
< 
< So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
< 
< That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
< 
< (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
< 
< (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
< 
< What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
< 
< Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
< 
< Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
< 
< So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
< 
< So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ethical non-naturalism]]
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Ethical_non-naturalism|985460702
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>naturalism</i> is the view that ethical sentences express propositions, and that they <i>cannot</i> be reduced to nonethical sentences.
> 
> So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
> 
> To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
> 
> Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
> 
> Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
> 
> So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
> 
> OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
> 
> The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
> 
> But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
> 
> Anyway, I think a lot of people find this line of thinking fairly plausible.  There <i>does</i> seem to be something inherently fallacious about thinking of goodness as a natural property.
> 
> But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
> 
> If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
> 
> One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
> 
> Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
> 
> We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
> 
> So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
> 
> Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
> 
> Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
> 
> Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
> 
> So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
> 
> That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
> 
> (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
> 
> (2) "Good" cannot be defined.
> 
> What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
> 
> Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
> 
> Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
> 
> So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
> 
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
------
MetaEthics/NonCognitivism|985460725
1,29c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged> 
< 
< We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
< 
< <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
< 
< So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
< 
< Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
< 
< Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
< 
< I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
< 
< The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
< 
< Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
< 
< I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
< 
< Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
< 
< It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
< 
< Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
< 
< So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
< 
< Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Non-cognitivism]]
------
Non-cognitivism|985460735
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
> 
> We have spent a long time discussing non-naturalism, and it’s time now to look at the third meta-ethical theory, called "non-cognitivism."  We won’t spend as long on this.  Remember that cognitivism is just the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  Well then you know what non-cognitivism is:
> 
> <i>Non</i>-<i>cognitivism</i> is the view that ethical sentences <i>do</i> <i>not</i> express propositions; instead they express something <i>else</i>, such as emotions or recommendations.
> 
> So the idea is that when we say that something is "good," or "right," or "moral," then we aren’t actually making a statement that can be true or false; <i>all</i> that we’re doing is expressing a certain kind of emotion we feel, or trying to evoke or cause a certain kind of emotion in others, or we’re implicitly <i>commanding</i> or <i>recommending</i> that people behave in certain ways.  Different kinds of non-cognitivism differ in <i>what</i> ethical sentences are said to do.  <i>Emotivists</i>, for example, say that ethical sentences express and evoke certain kinds of emotion.  <i>Prescriptivists</i>, on the other hand, say that ethical sentences are implicit commands or recommendations.  You aren’t going to need to know the differences between these views really; the point is that it’s not as though ethical sentences are totally meaningless.  It’s just that they don’t have <i>cognitive</i> meaning -- which is to say that they don’t express propositions.  Their meaning is a little like the meaning of outbursts like "Hurray for kindness!" and "Murder -- boo, hiss!"
> 
> Another way to think of non-cognitive meaning is like this.  Suppose I say, "If you steal money from your employer, you’re doing something wrong."  Then the idea is I could simply say, in a tone of shock or revulsion, "Stealing money from your employer!!" and <i>that</i> outburst would have about the same meaning as saying that stealing money is wrong.  Saying that an action is wrong just expresses how you feel about the action.
> 
> Non-cognitivism was fairly widely advocated in the middle of this century.  It isn’t as popular as it once was, but it still has quite a few proponents.  So you might wonder why anyone would advocate this theory.  <i>I</i> certainly am puzzled as to why so many philosophers have advocated it.
> 
> I can think of two reasons, anyway.  The first is basically the first "argument," or as we were calling it the "line of thought," behind non-naturalism.  Again, the basic idea there was that we can’t perceive or bump into goodness or rightness.  Now, Moore concluded from that, that "good" must be indefinable, standing for basic property; perhaps we know it by a faculty of moral intuition.  But the non-cognitivists draw a different conclusion.  They say that goodness and rightness aren’t anything in the world at all.  They aren’t really properties of anything.  When we use words like "good" and "right," all we’re doing is expressing our emotions, or issuing commands.  We aren’t describing any sort of mysterious properties in the world.  So what I’m saying is that non-cognitivism gets its motivation from the view that goodness and rightness, if they were something in the world, would appear to be rather mysterious or strange properties; and so non-cognitivism concludes that they really <i>aren’t</i> in the world at all.
> 
> The second reason or motivation behind non-cognitivism is a perfectly legitimate observation.  Namely, the observation that when we use moral sentences -- when we morally praise or blame people and their actions -- we are, in any case, doing <i>more</i> than <i>merely</i> making factual statements.  Even if we <i>are</i> making statements about moral facts, we are <i>also</i> expressing our attitudes, or trying to shape other peoples’ attitudes.  Just look at an example and you’ll see this right away.  An example like, "Mary is a good person."  You can imagine Mary’s friend saying this, and if we all know Mary, then we’ll know why Mary’s friend says it: for example, Mary never lies, she is a very responsible person, she is always nice, and so forth.  Saying that she’s a good person expresses approval of those good habits that we know Mary practices.  It’s as though Mary is saying, "Mary is good -- go thou and do likewise."  So here’s the point then: ethical sentences, regardless of whether they express propositions or not, do <i>definitely</i> have the function of expressing our attitudes and our recommendations.  It’s just that the non-cognitivist goes one step further than most of us, and says that that is <i>all</i> that ethical sentences.  <i>All</i> they do is express attitudes, or make recommendations.
> 
> Now, I don’t know what you’ll think of non-cognitivism.  I suspect many of you will find it strange, and I think that some number of you might actually like it quite a bit, because it allows you to hold onto a sort of sophisticated moral relativism.  And indeed you’ll find this view underlying some educational theories.  I mean that some theories about teaching kids ethics in the schools seem to assume that non-cognitivism is true; when we talk about "good," "bad," "right," and "wrong," all we’re doing is expressing how we feel.  So you will find some modern educationists having schoolchildren "clarifying" their values by asking them how they <i>feel</i> about different situations.  You probably did this when you were in school; you probably know what I’m talking about, and so non-cognitivism probably seems familiar, and even obvious, to some of you.
> 
> I’m just going to make one criticism of non-cognitivism.  We could go on all day explaining objections to it, I think, but one objection is particularly powerful.  Before I explain it, remember how we criticized the definition of "meaningfulness" as "understandability."   The proposal was that a sentence is meaningful if it’s understandable.   Our criticism of that proposal was: that might be true, doesn’t give the <i>meaning</i> of the word "meaningful."  Why?  Because it doesn’t explain <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>meaningful</i> <i>sentences</i>, <i>that</i> <i>makes</i> <i>them</i> <i>meaningful</i>.  It certainly seems that there is something about <i>those</i> <i>sentences</i> that makes them meaningful -- and which, incidentally, makes us able to understand them.
> 
> Now we can make a similar sort of criticism of non-cognitivism.  Non-cognitivism claims that the meaning of ethical sentences consists <i>entirely</i> in how we feel about the person, or thing, or situation described; or what our recommendations are with regard to the item in question.  But this just raises a question: <i>what</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>item</i> <i>in</i> <i>question</i> that makes us feel the way we do, or that makes us recommend what we do?  Take the case of the good Mary again.  The question in this case is: What is it <i>about</i> <i>Mary</i> that <i>makes</i> us say that she is a good person -- that makes us express moral approval of her, and that makes us recommend to others that they emulate her?  Surely there’s <i>something</i> about her that makes us say she’s good.  It’s not like she is just some nonentity with no properties at all, and we just arbitrarily say of a nonentity that we approve of it!  No, Mary is a complex human being about which (in our example) we know a lot.  And the question is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>it</i> <i>about</i> <i>her</i>, out of all the things we know (or believe) about her, that makes us say that she’s good?
> 
> It’s not like the answer to that question is any big puzzle or anything.  It’s rather obvious to anyone who knows Mary: she has a number of habits, like telling the truth, taking care of her responsibilities, treating others kindly and fairly, and so forth.  And it’s seeing all of those habits together which make us say that she’s a good person.
> 
> Now I wonder if you can see what’s coming next in this criticism of non-cognitivism.  Just think about it.  If it’s Mary’s habits that make us say that she’s a good person, well then, why don’t we just say that we <i>can</i> translate the ethical sentence, "Mary is a good person," into a sentence about Mary’s habits?  Why not say that "Mary is a good person" means "Mary tells the truth, takes care of her responsibilities faithfully, treats others kindly, and so forth"?  Notice, the latter sentence doesn’t contain any ethical terms.  It just describes her habits.  So the point is that if it’s Mary’s habits that make us call her good, then we can just say that her goodness consists in her having all those habits.  By "Mary’s goodness" we just mean "Mary’s habits X, Y, and Z."  And if Mary has habits like that then she’s good; and if she doesn’t, or if she has other habits like the unfortunate tendency to kill people and eat their livers with fava beans, then she’s bad.
> 
> So to generalize now, we can criticize non-cognitivism by saying that it seems to ignore the perfectly legitimate possibility, that we can reduce ethical sentences to sentences <i>about</i> <i>whatever</i> <i>it</i> <i>is</i> <i>about</i> <i>the</i> <i>items</i> <i>that</i> <i>make</i> <i>us</i> <i>state</i> <i>those</i> <i>ethical</i> <i>sentences</i>.  We can reduce a claim about the wrongness of stealing, or about the goodness of banana splits, to claims about what it is <i>about</i> <i>stealing</i> <i>or</i> <i>banana</i> <i>splits</i> that makes us state the ethical sentences in question.
> 
> Now as I said, there’s a lot more we could say about non-cognitivism.  For example, how do we distinguish <i>moral</i> feelings from <i>other</i> sorts of feelings.
------
Ethical_naturalism|985460860
3,21c3
< <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
< 
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
< 
< The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
< 
< Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
< 
< (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
< 
< (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
< 
< (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
< 
< Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
< 
< I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
< 
< The first theory we’ll consider is called <i>naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, because it holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
---
> <i>Naturalism</i>, sometimes also called <i>definism</i>, holds that ethical terms can be defined; the meaning of ethical sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to question (1), "Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?" the naturalist answers, "Definitely."  Why?  Because ultimately, goodness and right are natural properties; they are ultimately properties of things that can be located in the natural world.  So then here’s a definition of "naturalism":
41c23
< Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
---
> Now, when we discuss the theory of value, I’m going to give you some theories of what "good" means.  So I’ll be giving you a few examples of how you could reduce talk of goodness to talk about other things -- like pleasure, or happiness.  So really you could look at the theory of value as a way of thinking naturalism through; the theory of value can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties; and for that matter, the theory of conduct, as we’ll see, can be regarded as an attempt to figure out how to reduce moral obligations and permissions to nonethical properties as well.  So if you are wondering how on earth we could ever reduce ethical sentences to nonethical sentences, just wait, because we’ll be looking at some examples of such reductions.
------
MetaEthics|985460880
0a1,20
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
> 
> <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
2,4c22,24
< * /Naturalism
< * /NonNaturalism
< * /NonCognitivism
---
> * [[ethical naturalism]]
> * [[ethical non-naturalism]]
> * [[non-cognitivism]]
------
G._E._Moore|985460941
1c1
< G. E. Moore (1873-1958) was a distinguished and hugely influential English philosopher who was educated and taught at [[Cambridge University]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Frege]], one of the primary inspirations of the [[analytic philosophy]] tradition that now predominates in the English-speaking world.  Moore was best known for his advocacy of [[common sense]], his meta-ethical non-naturalism, and his very clear, circumspect writing style.  He was very much a "philosopher's philosopher"--influential among and greatly respected by other philosophers, but relatively unknown to nonphilosophers (unlike his friend and colleague Russell).
---
> G. E. Moore (1873-1958) was a distinguished and hugely influential English philosopher who was educated and taught at [[Cambridge University]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Frege]], one of the primary inspirations of the [[analytic philosophy]] tradition that now predominates in the English-speaking world.  Moore was best known for his advocacy of [[common sense]], his [[ethical non-naturalism]], and his very clear, circumspect writing style.  He was very much a "philosopher's philosopher"--influential among and greatly respected by other philosophers, but relatively unknown to nonphilosophers (unlike his friend and colleague Russell).
5c5
< Moore is also well-known for the so-called "open question argument," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ''naturalism'' and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
---
> Moore is also well-known for the so-called "open question argument," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ''naturalism'' and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
------
G._E._Moore|985461119
5c5
< Moore is also well-known for the so-called "open question argument," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ''naturalism'' and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
---
> Moore is also well-known for the so-called "[[open question argument]]," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against [[ethical naturalism]] and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
------
MetaEthics|985461252
1,24c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
< 
< <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
< 
< Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
< 
< The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
< 
< Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
< 
< (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
< 
< (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
< 
< (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
< 
< Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
< 
< I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
< 
< See:
< * [[ethical naturalism]]
< * [[ethical non-naturalism]]
< * [[non-cognitivism]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meta-ethics]]
------
Meta-ethics|985461258
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged.  This notice will be removed when it is wikified...> 
> 
> <i>Meta</i>-<i>ethics</i> is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have.  That way of putting it is a little misleading, so let me clarify.  Here’s an ethical sentence: "Pleasure is good."  If I tell you, "Meta-ethics studies what sort of meaning ethical sentences have," then you might think to yourself, "I guess he means that meta-ethics studies what I mean by ‘good’ when I say that pleasure is good."
> 
> Well, that’s really not quite right.  That question, about what "good" means, would be better regarded as a topic under the theory of value.  That’s really just my opinion; other philosophers, like Hospers in our reading, would say that the meaning of the word "good" is definitely a topic in meta-ethics, not the theory of value.  They would say that the theory of value investigates <i>which</i> <i>sorts</i> <i>of</i> <i>things</i> <i>are</i> <i>good</i>, once the meaning of "good" is explained.  But as far as <i>I’m</i> concerned, we may as well consider these two questions, about what "good" means and about which things, in general, <i>are</i> good, as being at bottom the same.  And they are both questions answered in the theory of value.  But in that case, if meta-ethics isn’t in the business of defining "good," then how is it concerned with the meaning of ethical sentences at all?  How are we to understand this claim that meta-ethics is the study of what sort of meaning ethical sentences have?
> 
> The emphasis is on the words <i>what</i> <i>sort</i>.  In other words: meta-ethics asks which of <i>various</i> <i>kinds</i> <i>of</i> <i>meanings</i> ethical sentences might have.  But now your natural question is going to be: "What do you mean ‘various kinds of meaning’ of ethical sentences?  What ‘kinds of meaning’ do you have in mind?  What are my choices?"
> 
> Well, let me explain your choices, using our sentence about Mary as an example.  After presenting all three, I’ll explain each choice in more depth.
> 
> (1) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" can be explained using another sentence that does not use the word "good."  For example: "Mary, on the whole, has made people in the world happier than they would have been without her."  Or: "Mary has a number of habits like telling the truth, discharging her responsibilities regularly, being nice to people, and so on."
> 
> (2) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because, although the sentence does express a proposition, the word "good" is <i>primitive</i>, which means that its meaning cannot be stated in other words at all.
> 
> (3) The meaning of "Mary is a good person" <i>cannot</i> be explained using another sentence, because this sentence merely <i>expresses</i> <i>or</i> <i>evokes</i> <i>a</i> <i>certain</i> <i>kind</i> <i>of</i> <i>emotional</i> <i>reaction</i>, or involves a certain kind of <i>command</i> or recommendation.  It’s as though we were saying "Yay for Mary!"  Or: "Look at Mary!  Be like her!"  But in any case, this third option <i>denies</i> that "Mary is a good person" expresses a <i>proposition</i>.  All it does is express an attitude or a feeling.
> 
> Now remember, what I’m trying to do is to explain to you what meta-ethics is.  I said it is the study of <i>what</i> <i>sort</i> <i>of</i> <i>meaning</i> ethical sentences have; but now we can say something much more specific, because now we have some rough idea of three <i>options</i> that we’re talking about when we talk about "sorts of meaning."  Here’s how we could put the central question of meta-ethics; it’s a three-part question.  "(1) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use normative concepts like ‘good’ and ‘right’?  (2) Do ethical sentences express propositions?  (3) Can the meaning of ethical sentences be explained <i>entirely</i> in terms of the emotions they express, or are meant to cause in other people, or in some other way that doesn’t involve expressing a proposition?"  The different meta-ethical theories differ just in how they answer each of these questions.
> 
> I’ll admit that this is rather complicated, so I don’t expect you to understand it fully yet.  Let’s go over the different main meta-ethical theories.  I think once we’ve gone over the different theories, you’ll have a better idea of of what these three questions mean.  So let’s dive right into the first main meta-ethical theory.
> 
> See:
> * [[ethical naturalism]]
> * [[ethical non-naturalism]]
> * [[non-cognitivism]]
------
Fullerene|985462627
1c1
< Fullerenes, of "buckyballs", are molecules composed entirely of [[carbon]], taking the form of a hollow sphere or ellipsoid.  Fullerenes are similar in structure to [[graphite]], which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar.  The smallest fullerene which does not contain any bordering pentagons (which is destabilizing - see [[pentalene]]) is C<sub>60</sub>, and it is also the best known.
---
> Fullerenes, or "buckyballs", are molecules composed entirely of [[carbon]], taking the form of a hollow sphere or ellipsoid.  Fullerenes are similar in structure to [[graphite]], which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar.  The smallest fullerene which does not contain any bordering pentagons (which is destabilizing - see [[pentalene]]) is C<sub>60</sub>, and it is also the best known.
------
Mojo|985462854
3c3,5
< /Talk
---
> In 1999, the film [Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]? incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]]. 
> 
> /Talk
------
Mojo/Talk|985462874
1,2c1,2
< In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me|Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]] incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]].
< <br>''We sure that isn't just British slang?  I can see the transition from one to the next being pretty easy...''
---
> 
> ''We sure that isn't just British slang?  I can see the transition from one to the next being pretty easy...''
8c8
< "Mr Mojo Risin'" being an anagram of "Jim Morrison"
---
> "Mr Mojo Risin'" being an anagram of "Jim Morrison"
------
Evolution|985463413
1c1
< The observed fact that the genetic characteristics of a population change over time.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mojo/Talk|985463953
1d0
< 
8a8,9
> ----
> Tim, explain to me why a mention of the word in a stupid movie merits a mention on the page about the topic.  :-)
------
Evolution|985464145
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
---
> ''Evolution'' refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
------
Evolution|985464333
1c1
< ''Evolution'' refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
------
Evolution/Talk|985464422
1,5c1
< Tim, I don't believe the statement that organisms ''need'' to evolve is true.  A lot of environments are sufficiently close to being static, or at least sufficiently widespread, that something decently adapted thereto would be fine for an unbelievably long time.  Case in point, any of the living fossils, which have undergone some evolution but obviously nothing too forced.  Unfortunately I don't know what to replace the line with.
< ----
< 
< Maybe the comment could be qualified: since most environments change...
< 
---
> If we are refering to the biological concept of evolution, and not some other kind of evolution (such as cultural evolution) then we have to state that we are discussing the biological concept. Then we state the referent.
------
Evolution|985464444
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population]] over time.
------
Evolution|985464473
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population]] over time.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
------
Evolution/Talk|985464493
2a3,4
> 
> Clearly don't need the word 'biological' as 'genetic' implies this
------
Evolution|985464554
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
---
> A concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
3c3
< Evolutionary changes allow populations of organisms to adapt to their environments.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution is therefore necessary for life to persist over time.
---
> Evolutionary changes result in populations of organisms which are adapted to their environments.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution is therefore necessary for life to persist over time.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mojo/Talk|985464699
9c9,11
< Tim, explain to me why a mention of the word in a stupid movie merits a mention on the page about the topic.  :-)
---
> Tim, explain to me why a mention of the word in a stupid movie merits a mention on the page about the topic.  :-)
> ----
> Because it is how the word is used by people.
------
Evolution|985464748
1c1
< A concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
---
> A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Evolution/Talk|985464773
4c4,6
< Clearly don't need the word 'biological' as 'genetic' implies this
---
> Clearly don't need the word 'biological' as 'genetic' implies this
> 
> An encyclopedia article aims at clarity.  Clarity states, it does not imply.
------
Evolution/Talk|985464804
6c6
< An encyclopedia article aims at clarity.  Clarity states, it does not imply.
---
> An encyclopedia article aims at clarity.  Clarity states, it does not imply.  We state what we are discussing, then we stare the referent.
------
Evolution/Talk|985464816
6c6
< An encyclopedia article aims at clarity.  Clarity states, it does not imply.  We state what we are discussing, then we stare the referent.
---
> An encyclopedia article aims at clarity.  Clarity states, it does not imply.  We state what we are discussing, then we state the referent.
------
Evolution/Talk|985464896
6a7,8
> 
> Redundant none the less - it is meaningless to talk about non-biological genetic change. Also removed telological language in statement about adaptation.
------
Evolution/Talk|985465084
8c8,10
< Redundant none the less - it is meaningless to talk about non-biological genetic change. Also removed telological language in statement about adaptation.
---
> Redundant none the less - it is meaningless to talk about non-biological genetic change. Clarity may indeed state, but this means true clarity never implies, and thus there can be no truely clear encyclopedias. 
> 
> Also removed telological language in statement about adaptation.
------
Mozart|985467954
1,16c1,2
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began
< composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A.
< Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is
< considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern
< audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written
< tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and
< fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said
< to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling
< piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or
< pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's
< style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote
< CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only
< sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of
< its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
< "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times,
< he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
> "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
18,19d3
< ----
< See also WolfgangAmadeusMozartTalk.
------
Isaac_Asimov/Robot_Books|985468727
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * /IRoboT
> * /TheRestOfTheRobots
> * /TheCompleteRobot
> * /TheCavesOfSteel
> * /TheNakedSun
> * /TheRobotsOfDawn
> * /RobotsAndEmpire
------
IsaacAsimov/RobotBooks|985468750
1,7c1
< * /IRoboT
< * /TheRestOfTheRobots
< * /TheCompleteRobot
< * /TheCavesOfSteel
< * /TheNakedSun
< * /TheRobotsOfDawn
< * /RobotsAndEmpire
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Robot Books]]
------
Isaac_Asimov|985468769
17c17
< * /RobotBooks
---
> * [[/Robot Books]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Foundation_And_Earth|985468811
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Councilman Golan Trevize and Prof. Janov Pelorat of Terminus, a historian, set out on a journey to find humanity's ancestral planet - EartH.
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationAndEarth|985468833
1c1
< Councilman Golan Trevize and Prof. Janov Pelorat of Terminus, a historian, set out on a journey to find humanity's ancestral planet - EartH.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Foundation And Earth]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/TheFoundationSeries|985468882
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Over the span of forty two years [[Isaac Asimov]] created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven volumes (about 800,000 words), which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
> 
> /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
> 
> /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
> 
> /Foundation (1951)
> 
> /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
> 
> /SecondFoundation (1953)
> 
> /FoundationsEdge (1982)
> 
> [[/Foundation And Earth]] (1983)
> ----
> * /TrantoR
> 
> 
> ----
> ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
> 
------
Isaac_Asimov|985468959
1c1
< [[Isaac Asimov]] (Jan. 2, 1920, Petrovichi, Russia - April 6, 1992, New York) - an American author and biochemist, a highly successful and prolific writer of ScienceFiction and of science books for the layperson. He published about 500 volumes.
---
> [[Isaac Asimov]] (Jan. 2, 1920, Petrovichi, Russia - April 6, 1992, New York) - an American author and biochemist, a highly successful and prolific writer of [[Science fiction]] and of science books for the layperson. He published about 500 volumes.
3,4c3
< 
< [[Isaac Asimov]] was brought to the [[United States]] at the age of three. He grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., graduating from ColumbiaUniversity in 1939 and taking a Ph.D. there in 1948. He then joined the faculty of BostonUniversity, with which he remained associated
---
> Asimov was brought to the [[United States]] at the age of three. He grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., graduating from ColumbiaUniversity in 1939 and taking a Ph.D. there in 1948. He then joined the faculty of BostonUniversity, with which he remained associated
7,8c6
< 
< [[Isaac Asimov]] began contributing stories to ScienceFiction magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, Pebble in the Sky. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
---
> Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
16c14
< * /TheFoundationSeries
---
> * [[/The Foundation Series]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/The_Foundation_Series|985469039
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Over the span of forty two years [[Isaac Asimov]] created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven volumes (about 800,000 words), which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
> 
> /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
> 
> /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
> 
> /Foundation (1951)
> 
> /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
> 
> /SecondFoundation (1953)
> 
> /FoundationsEdge (1982)
> 
> /FoundationAndEarth (1983)
> ----
> * /TrantoR
> 
> 
> ----
> ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
------
IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries|985469063
1,21c1
< Over the span of forty two years [[Isaac Asimov]] created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven volumes (about 800,000 words), which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
< 
< /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
< 
< /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
< 
< /Foundation (1951)
< 
< /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
< 
< /SecondFoundation (1953)
< 
< /FoundationsEdge (1982)
< 
< /FoundationAndEarth (1983)
< ----
< * /TrantoR
< 
< 
< ----
< ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/The_Foundation_Series|985469148
3c3
< /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
---
> [[/Prelude To Foundation]] (1988)
5c5
< /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
---
> [[/Forward The Foundation]] (1991)
9c9
< /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
---
> [[/Foundation And Empire]] (1952)
11c11
< /SecondFoundation (1953)
---
> [[/Second Foundation]] (1953)
13c13
< /FoundationsEdge (1982)
---
> [[/Foundations Edge|Foundation's Edge]] (1982)
15c15
< /FoundationAndEarth (1983)
---
> [[/Foundation And Earth]] (1983)
17c17
< * /TrantoR
---
> * [[/TrantoR]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Prelude_To_Foundation|985469171
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on /TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation|985469222
1c1
< Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on /TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Prelude To Foundation]]
------
Foundation_Trilogy|985469296
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first three novels of [[Isaac Asimov]]'s Foundation Series. The were published as short stories in the 1940's, to be later released as separate novels:
> 
> * Foundation (1951)
> * Foundation and Empire (1952)
> * Second Foundation (1953)
> 
> These are the only books, which have been awarded the HugoPrize for the best ScienceFiction Series ever.
> 
> [[Isaac Asimov]] returned to the series in 1982 and wrote four new volumes before he passed away ten years later.
> 
> 
> ''See'' IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries
------
FoundationTrilogy|985469317
1,12c1
< The first three novels of [[Isaac Asimov]]'s Foundation Series. The were published as short stories in the 1940's, to be later released as separate novels:
< 
< * Foundation (1951)
< * Foundation and Empire (1952)
< * Second Foundation (1953)
< 
< These are the only books, which have been awarded the HugoPrize for the best ScienceFiction Series ever.
< 
< [[Isaac Asimov]] returned to the series in 1982 and wrote four new volumes before he passed away ten years later.
< 
< 
< ''See'' IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries
---
> #REDIRECT [[Foundation Trilogy]]
------
Foundation_Trilogy|985469337
12c12
< ''See'' IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries
---
> ''See'' [[Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series]]
------
Foundation_Trilogy|985469362
7c7
< These are the only books, which have been awarded the HugoPrize for the best ScienceFiction Series ever.
---
> These are the only books, which have been awarded the HugoPrize for the best [[science fiction]] Series ever.
12c12
< ''See'' [[Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series]]
---
> ''See'' [[Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Trantor|985469404
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The planet Trantor was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
------
IsaacAsimov/TrantoR|985469424
1c1
< The planet /TrantoR was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Trantor]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Trantor|985469473
1c1
< The planet Trantor was the capital of the /FirstGalacticEmpire. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous MegalopoliS that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
---
> The planet Trantor was the capital of the [[/First Galactic Empire]]. Its land surface of 200 million sq. km. was -- with exception of the Imperial Palace area -- entirely domed. It consisted of an enourmous megalopolis that stretched deep underground and was a home to 40,000,000,000 (40 bil.) inhabitants.
------
WikiBiblion|985469501
1c1
< In addition to the articles, various source texts have been entered in whole or in part into [[Wikipedia]].  Nobody's sure yet how far we want to go with this - whether we should only include some small pages for direct referencing, or include a wikized version of Project Gutenburg.  Whatever people feel like typing in, I guess - though please don't add any copyright material.  Here's what we have in the WikiBiblion so far:
---
> In addition to the articles, various source texts have been entered in whole or in part into [[Wikipedia]].  Nobody's sure yet how far we want to go with this - whether we should only include some small pages for direct referencing, or include a wikized version of Project Gutenberg.  Whatever people feel like typing in, I guess - though please don't add any copyright material.  Here's what we have in the WikiBiblion so far:
12c12
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Isaac_Asimov/The_Foundation_Series|985469508
17c17
< * [[/TrantoR]]
---
> * [[/Trantor]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Prelude_To_Foundation|985469530
1c1
< Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on /TrantoR during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
---
> Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on [[/Trantor]] during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
Isaac_Asimov/TheFoundationSeries|985469566
1,22c1
< Over the span of forty two years [[Isaac Asimov]] created an epic of Galactic proportions: he showed us the rise and fall of the largest human Empire ever. It consists of seven volumes (about 800,000 words), which although they can be read separately, are closely linked to one another.
< 
< /PreludeToFoundation (1988)
< 
< /ForwardTheFoundation (1991)
< 
< /Foundation (1951)
< 
< /FoundationAndEmpire (1952)
< 
< /SecondFoundation (1953)
< 
< /FoundationsEdge (1982)
< 
< [[/Foundation And Earth]] (1983)
< ----
< * /TrantoR
< 
< 
< ----
< ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/The_Foundation_Series|985469599
19d18
< 
21c20
< ''see'' FoundationTrilogy
---
> ''see'' [[Foundation Trilogy]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Foundations_Edge|985469668
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The sixth novel in the [[/The Foundation Series]].
> 
> The Mayor of Terminus fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location . 
> 
------
IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge|985469707
1,4c1
< The sixth novel in the /TheFoundationSeries.
< 
< The Mayor of Terminus fears that the mysterious Second Foundation, which is thought to be extinct, will bid for power once the new Galactic Empire is established. Councilman Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat, Professor of Ancient History at the University of Terminus are sent on a mission to discover its location . 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Foundations Edge]]
------
Danube_River|985469709
1c1,9
< The second longest river in [[Europe]]. It is the only major [[European]] river to flow from west to east. It rises in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Germany]] and flows in a east for a distance of about 2850 km (1770 mi), to the [[Black Sea]] in [[Romania]].
---
> The second longest river in [[Europe]]. It is the only major [[European]] river to flow from west to east. It rises in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Germany]] and flows in a east for a distance of about 2850 km (1770 mi), to the [[Black Sea]] in [[Romania]].
> 
> The river flows through the following large cities:
> 
> *[[Vienna]] - [[Austria]]
> *[[Bratislava]] - [[Slovakia]]
> *[[Budapest]] - [[Hungary]]
> *[[Belgrade]] - [[Yugoslavia]]
> ...
------
Isaac_Asimov/Talk|985469750
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After writing the original [[Foundation Trilogy]], Asimov abandoned the story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a future history of humanity.
------
IsaacAsimov/Talk|985469767
1c1
< After writing the original FoundationTrilogy, Asimov abandoned the story, and didn't come back until the 80's, where a considerable monetary offer from the publishing house was his main incentive (or at least so he tells in the Preface to the book). In this and later books, Asimov tries to bind together in a coherent whole a great deal of his fiction output, creating a future history of humanity.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Talk]]
------
Isaac_Asimov|985469821
1c1
< [[Isaac Asimov]] (Jan. 2, 1920, Petrovichi, Russia - April 6, 1992, New York) - an American author and biochemist, a highly successful and prolific writer of [[Science fiction]] and of science books for the layperson. He published about 500 volumes.
---
> [[Isaac Asimov]] (Jan. 2, 1920, Petrovichi, Russia - April 6, 1992, New York) - an American author and biochemist, a highly successful and prolific writer of [[Science fiction|science fiction]] and of science books for the layperson. He published about 500 volumes.
6c6
< Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
---
> Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction|science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
------
Black_Sea|985469821
1c1
< An inland sea between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]].
---
> An inland sea between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] by the [[Bosphorus Straits]]. 
------
Mojo/Talk|985469902
11a12,13
> ----
> Well, the movie mention does (I'll stipulate) illustrate how the word is used by people.  But how does the movie merit a mention for ''that'' reason?
------
Hungary|985470006
1c1
< Hungary was founded in 896 by the Magyars. The name Hungary derives from "On-Ogur" which means "Ten Arrows" in Turkic. The capital of Hungary is Budapest.
---
> Hungary was founded in 896 by the Magyars. The name Hungary derives from "On-Ogur" which means "Ten Arrows" in Turkic. The [[capital]] of Hungary is [[Budapest]].
3c3
< The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric language, were forced out of Khazaria in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
---
> The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric [[language]], were forced out of Khazaria in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
5c5
< Peoples that comprise the population of modern Hungary include Hungarians, Kuns (descendants of Kipchak Turks), Gypsies, Ashkenazim, and others.
---
> Peoples that comprise the population of modern Hungary include Hungarians, Kuns (descendants of Kipchak Turks), Gypsies, Ashkenazim, and others.
------
Isaac_Asimov|985470036
3c3
< Asimov was brought to the [[United States]] at the age of three. He grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., graduating from ColumbiaUniversity in 1939 and taking a Ph.D. there in 1948. He then joined the faculty of BostonUniversity, with which he remained associated
---
> Asimov was brought to the [[United States]] at the age of three. He grew up in Brooklyn, N.Y., graduating from [[Columbia University]] in 1939 and taking a Ph.D. there in 1948. He then joined the faculty of [[Boston University]], with which he remained associated
6c6
< Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction|science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection I, Robot (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included /TheStarsLikeDust (1951), /TheCurrentsOfSpace (1952), /TheCavesOfSteel (1954), /TheNakedSun (1957), /EarthIsRoomEnough (1957), /FoundationsEdge (1982), and /TheRobotsOfDawn (1983). His "/Nightfall" (1941) is thought by many to be the finest ScienceFiction short story ever written. 
---
> Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction|science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection [[I, Robot]] (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included [[/The Stars Like Dust]] (1951), [[/The Currents Of Space]] (1952), [[/The Caves Of Steel]] (1954), [[/The Naked Sun]] (1957), [[/Earth Is Room Enough]] (1957), [[/Foundations Edge]] (1982), and [[/The Robots Of Dawn]] (1983). His [[/Nightfall] (1941) is thought by many to be the finest [[Science fiction|science fiction]] short story ever written. 
8,9c8
< 
< Among [[Isaac Asimov]]'s books on various topics in science, written with lucidity and humour, are The Chemicals of Life (1954), Inside the Atom (1956), The World of Nitrogen (1958), Life and Energy (1962), The Human Brain (1964), The Neutrino (1966), Science, Numbers and I (1968), Our World in Space (1974), and Views of the Universe (1981). He also published two volumes of autobiography.
---
> Among Asimov's books on various topics in science, written with lucidity and humour, are [[/The Chemicals of Life]] (1954), [[/Inside the Atom]] (1956), [[/The World of Nitrogen]] (1958), [[/Life and Energy]] (1962), [[/The Human Brain]] (1964), [[/The Neutrino]] (1966), [[/Science, Numbers and I]] (1968), [[/Our World in Space]] (1974), and [[/Views of the Universe]] (1981). He also published two volumes of autobiography.
12c11,12
< Please note that the book <b>Prelude to Foundation</b> contains Isaac Asimov's suggested reading order/chronology for his science fiction books.
---
> 
> Please note that the book [[/Prelude to Foundation]] contains Asimov's suggested reading order/chronology for his science fiction books.
16c16
< * /GalacticEmpireBooks
---
> * [[/Galactic Empire Books]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/Galactic_Empire_Books|985470091
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[/The Currents Of Space]]
> * [[/Pebble In The Sky]]
------
IsaacAsimov/GalacticEmpireBooks|985470114
1,2c1
< * /TheCurrentsOfSpace
< * /PebbleInTheSky
---
> #REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov/Galactic Empire Books]]
------
Isaac_Asimov|985470192
12c12
< Please note that the book [[/Prelude to Foundation]] contains Asimov's suggested reading order/chronology for his science fiction books.
---
> Please note that the book [[/Prelude To Foundation]] contains Asimov's suggested reading order/chronology for his science fiction books.
------
Isaac_Asimov/Prelude_To_Foundation|985470213
1c1
< Being the first volume of /TheFoundationSeries, it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on [[/Trantor]] during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
---
> Being the first volume of [[/The Foundation Series]], it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on [[/Trantor]] during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
Isaac_Asimov/Prelude_To_Foundation|985470249
1c1
< Being the first volume of [[/The Foundation Series]], it is also one of two prequels to the FoundationTrilogy. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on [[/Trantor]] during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
---
> Being the first volume of [[/The Foundation Series]], it is also one of two prequels to the [[Foundation Trilogy]]. For the first time [[Isaac Asimov]] chronicles the life of Hari Seldon, the man who laid the framework for the grandest project humanity has ever attempted. The story takes place on [[/Trantor]] during the reign of Emperor Cleon I. Hari is pursued by powerful enemies and the future of PsychohistorY is at risk. 
------
WikiBiblion|985470352
4c4
< * UnitedStatesConstitution
---
> * [[United States Constitution]]
------
WikiBiblion|985470368
10c10
< * TimShell's notes on AtlasShrugged by [[Ayn Rand]]
---
> * TimShell's notes on [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
------
Mojo/Talk|985470424
13c13,16
< Well, the movie mention does (I'll stipulate) illustrate how the word is used by people.  But how does the movie merit a mention for ''that'' reason?
---
> Well, the movie mention does (I'll stipulate) illustrate how the word is used by people.  But how does the movie merit a mention for ''that'' reason?
> ----
> 
> It is the second most relevent fact about the subject. -TS
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985470435
7c7
< When the last Holy Roman emperor (Francis II) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
---
> When the last Holy Roman emperor ([[Francis II]]) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
------
Evolution/Talk|985470505
10c10,14
< Also removed telological language in statement about adaptation.
---
> Also removed telological language in statement about adaptation.
> ----
> Guys, I find this a bizarre debate.  Evolution is a process; one can also speak of the concept of evolution.  You can reasonably say that the subject of an encyclopedia article titled "evolution" is either the process of evolution or the concept of the process of evolution.  It doesn't matter.
> 
> For my part, I think "A biological concept that refers to" is poor strictly on copyediting grounds.  I suppose that whenever we mention anything of which we have a concept, we should begin the article in this format? -- "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X".  So: "Validity is a logical concept that refers to..."  "Animal is a biological concept that refers to..."  Etc.  Jeez.  Why not just say "Validity is.." or "An argument is valid iff..." and "An animal is..."?  I don't see what the "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X" gains you.
------
Evolution/Talk|985470557
14c14
< For my part, I think "A biological concept that refers to" is poor strictly on copyediting grounds.  I suppose that whenever we mention anything of which we have a concept, we should begin the article in this format? -- "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X".  So: "Validity is a logical concept that refers to..."  "Animal is a biological concept that refers to..."  Etc.  Jeez.  Why not just say "Validity is.." or "An argument is valid iff..." and "An animal is..."?  I don't see what the "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X" gains you.
---
> For my part, I think "A biological concept that refers to" is poor strictly on copyediting grounds.  I suppose that whenever we mention anything of which we have a concept, we should begin the article in this format? -- "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X".  So: "Validity is a logical concept that refers to..."  "Animal is a biological concept that refers to..."  Etc.  Jeez.  Why not just say "Validity is.." or "An argument is valid iff..." and "An animal is..."?  I don't see what the "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X" construction gains you.
------
Feature_requests|985470734
9a10
> * Plagiarism-bot.  A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized.
------
Mojo/Talk|985470789
15d14
< 
16a16,17
> ----
> Uh, OK.  :-)
------
Holiday|985470805
9c9,15
< :[[Hannukah]]
---
> :[[Hannukah]]
> 
> [[Christian]] holidays:
> :[[Christmas]]
> :[[Easter]]
> :[[All Saints]]
> ...
------
Evolution|985470887
1c1
< A biological concept that refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time.
---
> Generally speaking, any process of growth or development in a certain direction. The word stems from the [[Latin]] 'evolutio' meaning 'unfolding' and prior to the late 1800's was confined to referring to goal-directed, pre-programmed processes such as embryological development. Prior to this period, biological evolution was termed 'transmutation'. While one can now speak of [[stellar evolution]], [[cultural evolution]] or the evolution of an [[idea]], the concept largely is used in the sense of this biological evolution, and refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time. 
3c3
< Evolutionary changes result in populations of organisms which are adapted to their environments.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations could not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution is therefore necessary for life to persist over time.
---
> Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environments than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations did not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
5c5
< An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]].
---
> An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]], and while biological evolution was accepted by a large number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s "Origin of Species" which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur - his mechanism of [[Natural selection]].
7c7,11
< /Talk
---
> See also:
> #[[Microevolution]]
> #[[Macroevolution]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Holy_Roman_Empire|985470920
1c1
< A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by [[Charlemagne]] around AD 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis II]] in 1806. 
---
> A political association of lands in western and central Europe, founded by [[Charlemagne]] around A.D. 800 and dissolved by Emperor [[Francis II]] in 1806. 
3c3
< At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], eastern [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Italy]].
---
> At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory of [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], eastern [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Italy]].
5c5
< After it lost much of it's territors, it was renamed to Holy Roman Empire of German Nations. 
---
> After it lost much of its territory, it was renamed "Holy Roman Empire of German Nations."
7c7
< When the last Holy Roman emperor ([[Francis II]]) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
---
> When the last Holy Roman emperor ([[Francis II]]) resigned in 1806, the realm had long matched [[Voltaire]]'s famous description of it as "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire."
------
Statistical_Population|985470956
3c3
< A '''statistical population''' is a set of units which engages our interest as a set. For example, if we were interested in generalizations about crows, then we would describe the set of crows that is of interest. Notice that if we choose a population like '''all crows''', we will be limited to observing crows that exist now or will exist in the future. Probably geography will also consitute a limitation in that our resources for studying crows are also limited.
---
> A '''statistical population''' is a set of entities which engages our interest as a set. For example, if we were interested in generalizations about crows, then we would describe the set of crows that is of interest. Notice that if we choose a population like '''all crows''', we will be limited to observing crows that exist now or will exist in the future. Probably geography will also constitute a limitation in that our resources for studying crows are also limited.
4a5
> "Population" is also used to refer to a set of measurements, or values.  Suppose, for example, we are interested in the set of all adult crows now alive in the county of Kent, and we want to know the mean weight of these birds.  For each bird in the population of crows there is a weight, and the set of these weights is called the "population of weights".  
5a7
> In ordinary speech, "population" usually refers to a set of entities; in statistical writing, it usually refers to a set of values.  In an expression such as "the mean of the population" it is obvious that the second sense is intended.
------
Evolution/Talk|985470957
14c14,16
< For my part, I think "A biological concept that refers to" is poor strictly on copyediting grounds.  I suppose that whenever we mention anything of which we have a concept, we should begin the article in this format? -- "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X".  So: "Validity is a logical concept that refers to..."  "Animal is a biological concept that refers to..."  Etc.  Jeez.  Why not just say "Validity is.." or "An argument is valid iff..." and "An animal is..."?  I don't see what the "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X" construction gains you.
---
> For my part, I think "A biological concept that refers to" is poor strictly on copyediting grounds.  I suppose that whenever we mention anything of which we have a concept, we should begin the article in this format? -- "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X".  So: "Validity is a logical concept that refers to..."  "Animal is a biological concept that refers to..."  Etc.  Jeez.  Why not just say "Validity is.." or "An argument is valid iff..." and "An animal is..."?  I don't see what the "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X" construction gains you.
> ----
> It clarifies which concept of evolution we are refering to, the biological one.  The text flows from the general to the specific.  That is proper.  That maxmizes clarity.  There is no other way to unambigously show what we are talking about without using more words.  There is a reason why this principle is used by every other encyclopedia.
------
Suriname|985470991
1,2d0
< Independence from the [[Netherlands]] was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a [[Socialism|socialist]] republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
< 
3a2,3
> 
> A former [[Dutch]] colony. Independence from the [[Netherlands]] was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a [[Socialism|socialist]] republic. It continued to rule through a succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when international pressure finally brought about a democratic election. 
------
Evolution|985471048
5c5
< An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]], and while biological evolution was accepted by a large number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s "Origin of Species" which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur - his mechanism of [[Natural selection]].
---
> An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]], and while biological evolution was accepted by a large number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s "[[Origin of Species]]" which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur - his mechanism of [[Natural selection]].
------
Evolution|985471103
5c5
< An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]], and while biological evolution was accepted by a large number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s "[[Origin of Species]]" which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur - his mechanism of [[Natural selection]].
---
> An explanation as to how evolution occurs is referred to as a [[Theory of Evolution|theory of evolution]], and while biological evolution was accepted by a large number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s "[[The Origin of Species]]" which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur - his mechanism of [[Natural selection]].
------
Francis_II|985471153
1c1
< last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806).  He was also Francis I, first emperor of Austria (1804-1835). 
---
> (''Franz II'')last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806).  He was also Francis I, first emperor of [[Austria]] (1804-1835). 
------
Francis_II|985471241
1c1
< (''Franz II'')last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806).  He was also Francis I, first emperor of [[Austria]] (1804-1835). 
---
> (''Franz II'') last [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman]] emperor (1792-1806).  He was also Francis I, first emperor of [[Austria]] (1804-1835). 
------
Evolution/Talk|985471252
16a17,20
> ----
> It is not the case that every other encyclopedia begins articles about things of which we have concepts with the words, "A [field that studies X] concept that refers to X"--or anything like those words, either.  Yes, text ought to give something like genus and species when defining a thing.  That does not entail that we need to refer to the concept in describing the thing carefully.
> 
> I notice the new first sentence and paragraph.  A distinct improvement. --LS
------
Evolution|985471433
3c3
< Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environments than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if populations did not adapt to environmental changes, they would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
---
> Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develope adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
------
Evolution|985471494
3,4d2
< Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develope adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
< 
5a4,5
> 
> Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develop adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
------
Evolution/Talk|985471603
2c2
< 
---
> ----
20c20,23
< I notice the new first sentence and paragraph.  A distinct improvement. --LS
---
> I notice the new first sentence and paragraph.  A distinct improvement. --LS
> 
> ----
> Rearranged some text and clarified some issues. This should suffice as a first attempt. I aggree with Larry regarding the start of articles. --jml
------
POP3|985471781
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for '''P'''ost '''O'''ffice '''P'''rotocol. It is used to retrieve [[email]]s to a local machine from remote [[server]]s.
------
CountriesT|985471817
3a4
> * [[Togo]]
8a10
> 
------
Computer/Talk|985471826
9c9,11
< Well, no; it has an embedded chip...that doesn't make it a computer, does it?
---
> Well, no; it has an embedded chip...that doesn't make it a computer, does it?
> 
> We have to start with definition. To most people 'computer' means personal computer and even if thet think about supercomputer they see more powerful pc. If we however stick to the definition 'device that process data' than computer will have much broader meaning. ENIAC was a computer but it did not resemble present computers. Computer computes data therefore any device that does can be called computer. Programable thermostat has small computer inside and one of the more sophisticated ones can be more powerful than ENIAC.
------
Computer/Talk|985471913
11c11
< We have to start with definition. To most people 'computer' means personal computer and even if thet think about supercomputer they see more powerful pc. If we however stick to the definition 'device that process data' than computer will have much broader meaning. ENIAC was a computer but it did not resemble present computers. Computer computes data therefore any device that does can be called computer. Programable thermostat has small computer inside and one of the more sophisticated ones can be more powerful than ENIAC.
---
> We have to start with definition. To most people 'computer' means personal computer and even if thet think about supercomputer they see more powerful pc. If we however stick to the definition 'device that process data' than computer will have much broader meaning. ENIAC was a computer but it did not resemble present computers. Computer computes data therefore any device that does it can be called computer. Programable thermostat has small computer inside and one of the more sophisticated might be more powerful than ENIAC.
------
Market_forms|985472525
1c1
< The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market forms are: number and size of producers and consumers on a market, type of goods and services being traded, the degree to which infromation can flow freely.
---
> The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market forms are: number and size of producers and consumers on a market, type of goods and services being traded, the degree to which information can flow freely.
7c7
< * [[Natural monopoly]]
---
> * [[Natural monopoly]]
------
Catalan|985473160
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See catalan.wikipedia.com
------
Catalan|985473185
1c1
< See catalan.wikipedia.com
---
> See http://catalan.wikipedia.com
------
Kajtek|985474337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Andrzej Kajetanowicz. Neonatologist in Canada. Born in Poland
------
Kajtek|985474504
1c1,3
< Andrzej Kajetanowicz. Neonatologist in Canada. Born in Poland
---
> Andrzej Kajetanowicz. Neonatologist in Canada. Born in Poland
> 
> ''O! Witam;-)'' - WojPob
------
Catalan|985476915
1c1
< See http://catalan.wikipedia.com
---
> #REDIRECT [[Catalan language]]
------
Computer/Talk|985477122
11c11,13
< We have to start with definition. To most people 'computer' means personal computer and even if thet think about supercomputer they see more powerful pc. If we however stick to the definition 'device that process data' than computer will have much broader meaning. ENIAC was a computer but it did not resemble present computers. Computer computes data therefore any device that does it can be called computer. Programable thermostat has small computer inside and one of the more sophisticated might be more powerful than ENIAC.
---
> We have to start with definition. To most people 'computer' means personal computer and even if thet think about supercomputer they see more powerful pc. If we however stick to the definition 'device that process data' than computer will have much broader meaning. ENIAC was a computer but it did not resemble present computers. Computer computes data therefore any device that does it can be called computer. Programable thermostat has small computer inside and one of the more sophisticated might be more powerful than ENIAC.
> ----
> I think a ''strong'' connotation of computer nowadays is that it is universal, ie can perform any computational task.  A thermostat can be incredibly sophisticated but it will still only tell you when to turn on the heater.  A pac-man machine will only play pac-man.  But a computer can do either of those things, or much more, so long as you give it instructions on how to do so.
------
Linnaean_taxonomy|985477646
5c5
< * Kingdom [[Prokaryotae]] - bacteria, etc. Formerly called [[Monera]]
---
> * Kingdom [[Monera]] - bacteria, blue-green algae, etc.
11c11
< and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  This is based closely on the scheme established by [[Carolus Linnaeus]], but over time has changed to reflect different considerations  about the relationships of living things; with the advent of [[evolution]], it is generally encouraged that groups be [[monophyletic]].
---
> and then further into phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. One way to remember the ordering is "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".  This is based closely on the scheme established by [[Carolus Linnaeus]], but over time has changed to reflect different considerations  about the relationships of living things; with the advent of [[evolution]], it is generally encouraged that groups be [[monophyletic]].
------
Jmlynch|985478274
3c3
< Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], he has shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
---
> Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], I have shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
5c5
< He is the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). He authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which he also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. He is currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
---
> I am the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). I also authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which I also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. I am currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
7c7
< He is also editor for [[History of Science and Technology]] and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the Nupedia Project.
---
> I also edit the [[History of Science and Technology]] section and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the [[Nupedia]] Project.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478326
3c3,5
< One of the most important inventors that has ever lived was [[Thomas Edison]].
---
> One of the most important inventors that has ever lived was [[Thomas Edison]].
> 
> /Talk
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk|985478406
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As Nupedia HST editor, I'd like to have people perhaps use this to outline the major areas that we might want to include in the encyclopedia. How should we categorize entries? What are our priorities? [[jmlynch]]
> ----
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478621
4a5,23
> ----
> 
> Major areas/Sub-fields
> 
> #[Historiography]]
> #Science
> ##Life Sciences
> ###Biology
> ####Evolution
> ####Genetics
> ###Paleontology
> ###Biochemistry
> ##Bio-Medical Sciences
> ##Psychology and Allied Sciences
> ##Natural Sciences
> ###Chemistry
> ###Physics
> #Technology
> 
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478667
9c9
< #[Historiography]]
---
> #[[Historiography]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478684
9c9
< #[[Historiography]]
---
> #[Historiography]] of Science
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478747
9c9
< #[Historiography]] of Science
---
> #[Historiography]]
13c13,14
< ####Evolution
---
> ####[[Evolution]]
> #####[[Charles Darwin]] / [[Theory of evolution]]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985478869
10c10
< #Science
---
> #[[Science]]
12c12
< ###Biology
---
> ###[[Biology]]
14,17c14,18
< #####[[Charles Darwin]] / [[Theory of evolution]]]
< ####Genetics
< ###Paleontology
< ###Biochemistry
---
> #####[[Charles Darwin]]
> ####[[Genetics]]
> #####Discovery of [[DNA]] 
> ###[[Paleontology]]
> ###[[Biochemistry]]
19,23c20,24
< ##Psychology and Allied Sciences
< ##Natural Sciences
< ###Chemistry
< ###Physics
< #Technology
---
> ##[[Psychology]] and Allied Sciences
> ##[[Natural Sciences]]
> ###[[Chemistry]]
> ###[[Physics]]
> #[[Technology]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479539
1,3c1
< The history of science and technology is fascinating and an integral part of human history.  It is the story of inventors, scientists, geniuses--their repression--and the often reluctant adaptation of the world to their innovations.
< 
< One of the most important inventors that has ever lived was [[Thomas Edison]].
---
> The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[religious|religion]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479577
1c1
< The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[religious|religion]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
---
> The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[rreligion|religious]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479615
1c1
< The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[rreligion|religious]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
---
> The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[religion|religious]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479720
10,11c10,11
< ###[[Biology]]
< ####[[Evolution]]
---
> ###[[History of Biology]]
> ####[[History of Evolutionary Thought]]
13c13
< ####[[Genetics]]
---
> ####[[History of Genetics]]
15,16c15,16
< ###[[Paleontology]]
< ###[[Biochemistry]]
---
> ###[[History of Paleontology]]
> ###[[History of Biochemistry]]
20,22c20,22
< ###[[Chemistry]]
< ###[[Physics]]
< #[[Technology]]
---
> ###[[History of Chemistry]]
> ###[[History of Physics]]
> #[[History of Technology]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479752
22c22,23
< #[[History of Technology]]
---
> #[[Technology]]
> ##need more!
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479773
7c7
< #[Historiography]]
---
> #[[Historiography]]
22,23c22
< #[[Technology]]
< ##need more!
---
> #[[History of Technology]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985479829
14c14
< #####Discovery of [[DNA]] 
---
> #####[[Discovery of DNA]] 
------
Romania|985480022
1c1
< A country in southeastern Europe. Romania has always been one of [[Europe]]'s poorest and least developed nations. For most of its history foreign powers (including the [[Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires) controlled the country. 
---
> A country in southeastern [[Europe]]. Romania has always been one of [[Europe]]'s poorest and least developed nations. For most of its history foreign powers (including the [[Ottoman]] and [[Austro-Hungarian]] empires) controlled the country. 
3c3
< [[Bucharest]] is its capital and largest city.
---
> [[Bucharest]] is its [[capital]] and largest city.
------
Black_Forest|985480108
1c1
< a wooded mountain region in southwestern [[Germany]]. 
---
> (''Schwarzwald''). A wooded mountain region in southwestern [[Germany]]. 
------
Turkey|985480194
1c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]]. Spoken language is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
---
> Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]] (''see [[Asia Minor]]''). Spoken [[language]] is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
------
Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics|985480525
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Soviet Union]]
------
USSR|985480549
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Soviet Union]]
------
CountriesS|985480660
10a11,12
> * [[South Africa]]
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985480752
23a24
> *[[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]
------
Business_and_Industry|985480992
16c16
< * /media
---
> * [[/media]]
------
Entertainment|985481266
5a6,7
> :[[music]]
> :[[Show business]]
7c9
< What I was really after here was a page for television.
---
> What I was really after here was a page for [[television]].
11c13
< [[Recent celebrity deaths]]
---
> [[Recent celebrity deaths]]
------
Science_Fiction|985481521
1c1
< #REDIRECT ScienceFiction
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science fiction]]
------
Sociology|985481580
3a4,5
> 
> [[Milgram experiment]]
------
HomePage|985481907
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
Geography|985481960
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]]
------
Oceans|985481989
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ocean]]
------
Ocean|985482071
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Three quarters of [[earth]]'s surface are covered by water.
> 
> *[[Atlantic ocean]]
> *[[Indian Ocean]]
> *[[Pacific Ocean]]
------
Geography|985482147
1c1,3
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]]
---
> [[Earth]]
> 
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]]
------
Sea|985482188
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]]
------
Sea|985482451
1c1,5
< [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]]
---
> Open seas:
> [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]]
> 
> Landlocked seas:
> [[Caspian Sea]] -- [[Aral Sea]]
------
Geography|985482507
3c3
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]]
------
Soviet_Union|985483063
5a6,9
> 
> Satellite countries of the Soviet Block:
> [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[German Democratic Republic]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
> 
------
Soviet_Union|985483124
8c8
< [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[German Democratic Republic]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
---
> [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[German Democratic Republic|East Germany]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
------
Soviet_Union|985483192
8c8
< [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[German Democratic Republic|East Germany]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
---
> [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
------
Soviet_Union|985483225
7c7
< Satellite countries of the Soviet Block:
---
> Former satellite countries of the Soviet Block:
------
Ocean|985484292
3c3
< *[[Atlantic ocean]]
---
> *[[Atlantic Ocean]]
5c5,6
< *[[Pacific Ocean]]
---
> *[[Pacific Ocean]]
> *[[Arctic Ocean]]
------
Soviet_Union|985484712
6a7,8
> Former members of the Soviet Union: [[Russia]] -- [[Khazakstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belorussia]] -- ...
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985487932
7a8
> *[[Adiabene]]
16c17,23
< 
---
> *[[States in Medieval Britain]]
> **[[Deira]]
> **[[Bernicia]]
> **[[Wessex]]
> **[[East Anglia]]
> **[[Gwynedd]]
> **[[Powys]]
17a25,26
> *[[Kievan Rus]]
> *[[Khazar Empire|Khazaria]]
21,22d29
< *[[States in Medieval Britain]]
< 
23a31
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985488142
18,23d17
< **[[Deira]]
< **[[Bernicia]]
< **[[Wessex]]
< **[[East Anglia]]
< **[[Gwynedd]]
< **[[Powys]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985488192
20c20
< *[[Khazar Empire|Khazaria]]
---
> *[[Khazaria|Khazar Empire]]
------
Soviet_Union|985488323
3c3
< The first leader of the Soviet Union was [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]], who led the [[Communists|Communists]] (then called [[Bolsheviks|Bolsheviks]]) to power in the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], who led the Soviet Union until his death in 1953.  Later Soviet leaders such as [[Nikita Kruschev|Nikita Kruschev]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mikhail Gorbachev]] became head of the Soviet Union in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing [[Communist|Communist]] regime by reducing tensions with the [[United States|United States]] and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core Communist tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the [[Collapse Of The Soviet Union]] occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the Soviet Union was [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]], who led the [[Communists|Communists]] (then called [[Bolsheviks|Bolsheviks]]) to power in the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], who led the Soviet Union until his death in 1953.  Later Soviet leaders such as [[Nikita Khrushchev|Nikita Khrushchev]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mikhail Gorbachev]] became head of the Soviet Union in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing [[Communist|Communist]] regime by reducing tensions with the [[United States|United States]] and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core Communist tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the [[Collapse Of The Soviet Union]] occured in 1991.
7c7
< Former members of the Soviet Union: [[Russia]] -- [[Khazakstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belorussia]] -- ...
---
> Former members of the Soviet Union: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]]
11d10
< 
------
Russia|985488808
1c1
< Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both Europe and Asia. The land and seas contain a wealth of natural resources. Though, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
---
> GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
3c3
< Thickiest population is in European part of Russia, in Urals mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea. The land and [[seas|sea]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
5c5,19
< There is quite a lot of different ethnical groups in Russia. Though Russians are still most numerous, and Russian language is understood ubiquitously enough.
---
> The capital of Russia is [[Moscow]].  Other important cities include [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Astrakhan]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Cheboksary]], [[Penza]], [[Ryazan]], and [[Khabarovsk]].
> 
> POPULATION
> 
> Thickest population is in European part of Russia, in Ural Mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
> 
> There are quite a lot of different ethnic groups in Russia ([[Russians]], [[Chuvashes]], [[Yakuts]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Mordvins]], [[Tatars]], [[Jews]], [[Kalmyks]], [[Koreans]], and others), though Russians are still most numerous, and the Russian language is understood ubiquitously enough.
> 
> HISTORY
> 
> *[[Kievan Rus]]
> *[[Khazaria]]
> *Golden Horde
> *Russian Empire
> *[[Soviet Union]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985488876
48,51c48,52
< *[[something unpronouncable & with a lot of 'l'-s]]
< *[[Camelot]]
< *[[Gwynned]]
< *[[Daldriada]]
---
> *[[Seisyllwg]]
> *[[Camelot]] = fictional
> *[[Gwynedd]]
> *[[Powys]]
> *[[Dalriada]]
53d53
< *[[Mercia]]
55a56
> *[[Mercia]]
56a58,59
> **[[Bernicia]]
> **[[Deira]]
73a77,79
> 
> I fixed some of the errors. This is a nice list to start with<BR>
> - Kevin
------
Caspian_Sea|985489216
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Caspian Sea is bordered in the present time by [[Russia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Kazakhstan]]. Old names for the Caspian include the "Khazar Sea" and the "Khvalissian Sea".
> 
> The Caspian holds a great amount of sturgeon, which yield eggs that are processed into [[caviar]]. Overfishing threatens the sturgeon population.
> 
> The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians claim that a medieval rising of the Caspian caused the coastal towns of [[Khazaria]], such as [[Atil]], to flood.
------
Russia|985489289
3c3
< Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea. The land and [[seas|sea]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea. The land and [[sea|seas]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|985489849
0a1,3
> Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkowski born on April 4 in Russia,  1932, died december 28, 1986 in France.
> Director, Writer, Actor
> 
3,4c6,11
< * [[Solaris]]  - based on the novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
< * Stalker   -based <i>very</i> loosely on the novel `<i>A Roadside Picnic'</i> by [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]
---
> * [[Solaris]] 1972 - based on the novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * Stalker 1979  -based <i>very</i> loosely on the novel `<i>A Roadside Picnic'</i> by [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]]
> * Zerkalo 1975
> * Nostalghia 1983
> * Offret 1986
> * Andrei Rublev 1969
------
Puerto_Rico|985490346
1c1
< '''Puerto Rico''' is a small island about 100x35 miles. It was acquired by the [[UnitedStates|USA]] in the [[Spanish American War]]. Its local government is based on a constitution adopted in 1952 after approval by the US Congress which maintains ultimate sovreignty. It is the smallest and easternmost of the [[Greater Antilles]] which also includes [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], and [[Jamaica]].
---
> '''Puerto Rico''' is a small island about 100x35 miles. It was acquired by the [[United States|USA]] in the [[Spanish American War]]. Its local government is based on a constitution adopted in 1952 after approval by the US Congress which maintains ultimate sovreignty. It is the smallest and easternmost of the [[Greater Antilles]] which also includes [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], and [[Jamaica]].
------
Puerto_Rico|985490441
5c5
< The people of Puerto Rico have many diverse national origins. The most obvious are those descended from the families established by the colonizing Spaniards with Taino and Negro strains, but Irish and Russian sailors, Corsican farmers, and North American business managers have contributed to the culture.
---
> The people of Puerto Rico have many diverse national origins. The most obvious are those descended from the families established by the colonizing Spaniards with Taino and Negro strains, while Irish and Russian sailors, Corsican farmers, and North American business managers have also contributed to the culture.
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|985490469
1,11c1
< Cleveland is the home of /PatrickHenryUniversity.
< 
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] got off her train at Cleveland while returning from an inspection of the /RioNorteLine in /SectioN112.  She phoned [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] and placed the first order of /ReardenMetal.
< 
< /McNamara's offices are located in Cleveland.
< 
< Cleveland is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN111
<  - /SectioN114
<  - /SectioN133
<  - /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Cleveland]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|985490480
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Cleveland]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged|Cleveland]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|985490489
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged|Cleveland]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged|Cleveland]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Cleveland|985490499
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged|Cleveland]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Cleveland]]
------
Mencken|985490599
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> H.L. (Henry Louis) Mencken was a twentieth century journalist and social critic, a cynic and a freethinker. He was an outspoken defender of freedom of conscience and civil rights, an opponent of persecution and injustice, and of the puritanism and self-righteousness that masks the oppressive impulse. As a nationally syndicated columnists and author of numerous books he played an important role in ending America's preoccupation with fundamentalist Christianity, and opened the way for a secularist revival. 
------
HLMenckeN|985490626
1c1
< H.L. (Henry Louis) Mencken was a twentieth century journalist and social critic, a cynic and a freethinker. He was an outspoken defender of freedom of conscience and civil rights, an opponent of persecution and injustice, and of the puritanism and self-righteousness that masks the oppressive impulse. As a nationally syndicated columnists and author of numerous books he played an important role in ending America's preoccupation with fundamentalist Christianity, and opened the way for a secularist revival. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mencken]]
------
Arthur_Koestler|985490726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arthur Koestler. Born 1905 in Budapest, [[Hungary]]. Died 1983 in England.  Koestler was the author of many popular books including "Darkness at Noon" (about the evils of Communism) and "The Thirteenth Tribe" (about the [[Khazars]]). Koestler was fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]], and knew some rusty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. During the 1940s he lived for a short time in [[Israel]].
------
Creationism|985490805
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian literalism.
------
Science_fiction|985490825
8,10c8
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, Nathaniel
< Hawthorne, and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social
< criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
---
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
12c10
< The development of Science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories. Published in
---
> The development of science fiction as a self-conscious genre dates from 1926 when Hugo Gernsback, who coined the portmanteau word scientifiction, founded ''Amazing Stories'' magazine, which was devoted exclusively to science fiction stories. Published in
14c12
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as [[Isaac Asimov]], ArthurCClarke, and RobertHeinlein, science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
---
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as [[Isaac Asimov]], ArthurCClarke, and [[Robert Heinlein]], science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
------
Literature|985490897
18a19
> * [[Arthur Koestler]]
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985491072
7,8c7,8
< #Preface 
< #Introduction 
---
> #[[Preface of Origin]]
> #[[Introduction to Origin]]
25c25
< More to come!
---
> More to come!
------
Introduction_to_Origin|985491118
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WHEN on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species ? that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision. 
> 
> My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr Wallace, who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir Charles Lyell, who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr Hooker, who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
> 
> This Abstract, which I now publish, must necessarily be imperfect. I cannot here give references and authorities for my several statements; and I must trust to the reader reposing some confidence in my accuracy. No doubt errors will have crept in, though I hope I have always been cautious in trusting to good authorities alone. I can here give only the general conclusions at which I have arrived, with a few facts in illustration, but which, I hope, in most cases will suffice. No one can feel more sensible than I do of the necessity of hereafter publishing in detail all the facts, with references, on which my conclusions have been grounded; and I hope in a future work to do this. For I am well aware that scarcely a single point is discussed in this volume on which facts cannot be adduced, often apparently leading to conclusions directly opposite to those at which I have arrived. A fair result can be obtained only by fully stating and balancing the facts and arguments on both sides of each question; and this cannot possibly be here done. 
> 
> I much regret that want of space prevents my having the satisfaction of acknowledging the generous assistance which I have received from very many naturalists, some of them personally unknown to me. I cannot, however, let this opportunity pass without expressing my deep obligations to Dr Hooker, who for the last fifteen years has aided me in every possible way by his large stores of knowledge and his excellent judgement. 
> 
> In considering the Origin of Species, it is quite conceivable that a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geographical distribution, geological succession, and other such facts, might come to the conclusion that each species had not been independently created, but had descended, like varieties, from other species. Nevertheless, such a conclusion, even if well founded, would be unsatisfactory, until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been modified so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co-adaptation which most justly excites our admiration. Naturalists continually refer to external conditions, such as climate, food, &c., as the only possible cause of variation. In one very limited sense, as we shall hereafter see, this may be true; but it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions, the structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees. In the case of the misseltoe, which draws its nourishment from certain trees, which has seeds that must be transported by certain birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to the other, it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of this parasite, with its relations to several distinct organic beings, by the effects of external conditions, or of habit, or of the volition of the plant itself. 
> 
> The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
> 
> It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariably found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under domestication, afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists. 
> 
> From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
> 
> This fundamental subject of Natural Selection will be treated at some length in the fourth chapter; and we shall then see how Natural Selection almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character. In the next chapter I shall discuss the complex and little known laws of variation and of correlation of growth. In the four succeeding chapters, the most apparent and gravest difficulties on the theory will be given: namely, first, the difficulties of transitions, or understanding how a simple being or a simple organ can be changed and perfected into a highly developed being or elaborately constructed organ; secondly the subject of Instinct, or the mental powers of animals, thirdly, Hybridism, or the infertility of species and the fertility of varieties when intercrossed; and fourthly, the imperfection of the Geological Record. In the next chapter I shall consider the geological succession of organic beings throughout time; in the eleventh and twelfth, their geographical distribution throughout space; in the thirteenth, their classification or mutual affinities, both when mature and in an embryonic condition. In the last chapter I shall give a brief recapitulation of the whole work, and a few concluding remarks.) 
> 
> No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgement of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained ? namely, that each species has been independently created ? is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.
------
Arthur_Koestler|985491144
1c1
< Arthur Koestler. Born 1905 in Budapest, [[Hungary]]. Died 1983 in England.  Koestler was the author of many popular books including "Darkness at Noon" (about the evils of Communism) and "The Thirteenth Tribe" (about the [[Khazars]]). Koestler was fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]], and knew some rusty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. During the 1940s he lived for a short time in [[Israel]].
---
> Arthur Koestler. Born 1905 in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]. Died 1983 in England.  Koestler was educated at the University of [[Vienna]]. Koestler was the author of many popular books including "Darkness at Noon" (about the evils of [[Communism]]), "The Yogi and the Commissar" (another book about Communism), "The Sleepwalkers", "The Act of Creation", and "The Thirteenth Tribe" (about the [[Khazars]]). Koestler was fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]], and knew some rusty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. During the 1940s he lived for a short time in [[Israel]].
------
Arthur_Koestler|985491174
1c1
< Arthur Koestler. Born 1905 in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]. Died 1983 in England.  Koestler was educated at the University of [[Vienna]]. Koestler was the author of many popular books including "Darkness at Noon" (about the evils of [[Communism]]), "The Yogi and the Commissar" (another book about Communism), "The Sleepwalkers", "The Act of Creation", and "The Thirteenth Tribe" (about the [[Khazars]]). Koestler was fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]], and knew some rusty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. During the 1940s he lived for a short time in [[Israel]].
---
> Arthur Koestler. Born 1905 in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]. Died 1983 in England.  Koestler was educated at the University of [[Vienna]]. Koestler was the author of many popular books including "Darkness at Noon" (a novel about the evils of [[Communism]]), "The Yogi and the Commissar" (another book about Communism), "The Sleepwalkers", "The Act of Creation", and "The Thirteenth Tribe" (about the [[Khazars]]). Koestler was fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]], and knew some rusty [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. During the 1940s he lived for a short time in [[Israel]].
------
WojPob|985491225
5a6
> [[/contact]]
------
Preface_of_Origin|985491228
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF OPINION ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES PREVIOUSLY TO THE PUBLICATION OF THE FIRST EDITION OF THIS WORK 
> 
> I WILL here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great majority of naturalists believed that species were immutable productions, and had been separately created. This view has been ably maintained by many authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have believed that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life are the descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms. Passing over allusions to the subject in the classical writers,* the first author who in modern times has treated it in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes * Aristotle, in his 'Physicae Auscultationes' (lib. 2, cap. 8, s. 2), after remarking that rain does not fall in order to make the corn grow, any more than it falls to spoil the farmer's corn when threshed out of doors, applies the same argument to organization: and adds (as translated by Mr Clair Grece, who first pointed out the passage to me), 'So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.  or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details. 
> 
> Lamarck was the first man whose conclusions on the subject excited much attention. This justly-celebrated naturalist first published his views in 1801; he much enlarged them in 1809 in his "Philosophie Zoologique,' and subsequently, in 1815, in the Introduction to his "Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertébres.' In these works he upholds the doctrine that species, including man, are descended from other species. He first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic, as well as in the inorganic world, being the result of law, and not of miraculous interposition. Lamarck seems to have been chiefly led to his conclusion on the gradual change of species, by the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, by the almost perfect gradation of forms in certain groups, and by the analogy of domestic productions. With respect to the means of modification, he attributed something to the direct action of the physical conditions of life, something to the crossing of already existing forms, and much to use and disuse, that is, to the effects of habit. To this latter agency he seemed to attribute all the beautiful adaptations in nature; ? such as the long neck of the giraffe for browsing on the branches of trees. But he likewise believed in a law of progressive development; and as all the forms of life thus tend to progress, in order to account for the existence at the present day of simple productions, he maintains that such forms are now spontaneously generated.* 
> 
>  We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth. *I have taken the date of the first publication of Lamarck from Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's ('Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. ii. p. 405, 1859) excellent history of opinion on this subject. In this work a full account is given of Buffon's conclusions on the same subject. It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr Erasmus Darwin, anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinion of Lamarck in his 'Zoonomia' (vol. i. pp. 500-510), published in 1794. According to Isid. Geoffroy there is no doubt that Goethe was an extreme partisan of similar views, as shown in the Introduction to a work written in 1794 and 1795, but not published till long afterwards: he has pointedly remarked ('Goethe als Naturforscher,' von Dr Karl Medinge s. 34) that the future question for naturalists will be how, for instance, cattle got their horns, and not for what they are used. It is rather a singular instance of the manner in which similar views arise at about the same time, that Goethe in Germany, Dr Darwin in England, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (as we shall immediately see) in France; came to the same conclusion on the origin of species, in the years 1794-5. 
> 
> Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, as is stated in his 'Life,' written by his son, suspected, as early as 1795, that what we call species are various degenerations of the same type. It was not until 1828 that he published his conviction that the same forms have not been perpetuated since the origin of all things. Geoffroy seems to have relied chiefly on the conditions of life, or the 'monde ambiant' as the cause of change. He was cautious in drawing conclusions, and did not believe that existing species are now undergoing modification; and, as his son adds, "C'est donc un problème à réserver entièrement à l'avenir, supposé meme que l'avenir doive avoir prise sur lui.' 
> 
> In 1813, Dr W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society 'An Account of a White female, part of whose skin resembled that of a Negro'; but his paper was not published until his famous 'Two Essays upon Dew and Single Vision' appeared in 1818. In this paper he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observes, firstly, that all animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that agriculturists improve their domesticated animals by selection; and then, he adds, but what is done in this latter case 'by art, seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind, fitted for the country which they inhabit. Of the accidental varieties of man, which would occur among the first few and scattered inhabitants of the middle regions of Africa, some one would be better fitted than the others to bear the diseases of the country. This race would consequently multiply, while the others would decrease; not only from their inability to sustain the attacks of disease, but from their incapacity of contending with their more vigorous neighbours. The colour of this vigorous race I take for granted, from what has been already said, would be dark. But the same disposition to form varieties still existing, a darker and a darker race would in the course of time occur: and as the darkest would be the best fitted for the climate, this would at length become the most prevalent; if not the only race, in the particular country in which it had originated.' He then extends these same views to the white inhabitants of colder climates. I am indebted to Mr Rowley, of the United States, for having called my attention, through Mr Brace, to the above passage in Dr Wells' work. 
> 
> The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, afterwards Dean of Manchester, in the fourth volume of the 'Horticultural Transactions,' 1822, and in his work on the 'Amaryllidaceae' (1837, pp. 19, 339), declares that 'horticultural experiments have established, beyond the possibility of refutation, that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent class of varieties.' He extends the same view to animals. The Dean believes that single species of each genus were created in an originally highly plastic condition, and that these have produced, chiefly by intercrossing, but likewise by variation, all our existing species. 
> 
> In 1826 Professor Grant, in the concluding paragraph in his well-known paper ('Edinburgh philosophical journal,' vol. xiv. p. 283) on the Spongilla, clearly declares his belief that species are descended from other species, and that they become improved in the course of modification. This same view was given in his 55th Lecture, published in the 'Lancet' in 1834. 
> 
> In 1831 Mr Patrick Matthew published his work on 'Naval Timber and Arboriculture,' in which he gives precisely the same view on the origin of species as that (presently to be alluded to) propounded by Mr Wallace and myself in the 'Linnean journal,' and as that enlarged in the present volume. Unfortunately the view was given by Mr Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject, so that it remained unnoticed until Mr Matthew himself drew attention to it in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,' on April 7th, 1860. The differences of Mr Matthew's view from mine are not of much importance; he seems to consider that the world was nearly depopulated at successive periods, and then re-stocked; and he gives as an alternative, that new forms may be generated ' without the presence of any mould or germ of former aggregates.' I am not sure that I understand some passages; but it seems that he attributes much influence to the direct action of the conditions of life. He clearly saw, however, the full force of the principle of natural selection. 
> 
> The celebrated geologist and naturalist, Von Buch, in his excellent 'Description physique des Isles Canaries' (1836, p. 147), clearly expresses his belief that varieties slowly become changed into permanent species, which are no longer capable of intercrossing. 
> 
> Rafinesque, in his 'New Flora of North America,' published in 1836, wrote (p. 6) as follows:- 'All species might have been varieties once, and many varieties are gradually becoming species by assuming constant and peculiar characters'; but farther on (p. 18) he adds, 'except the original types or ancestors of the genus.' 
> 
> In 1843-44 Professor Haldeman ('Boston journal of Nat. Hist. U. States, vol. iv. p. 468) has ably given the arguments for and against the hypothesis of the development and modification of species: he seems to lean towards the side of change. 
> 
> The 'Vestiges of Creation' appeared in 1844. In the tenth and much improved edition (1853) the anonymous author says (p. 155):- 'The proposition determined on after much consideration is, that the several series of animated beings, from the simplest and oldest up to the highest and most recent, are, under the providence of God, the results, first, of an impulse which has been imparted to the forms of life, advancing them, in definite times, by generation, through grades of organisation terminating in the highest dicotyledons- and vertebrata, these grades being few in number, and generally marked by intervals of organic character, which we find to be a practical difficulty in ascertaining affinities; second, of another impulse connected with the vital forces, tending, in the course of generations, to modify organic structures in accordance with external circumstances, as food, the nature of the habitat, and the meteoric agencies, these being the ''adaptations'' of the natural theologian.' The author apparently believes that organisation progresses by sudden leaps, but that the effects produced by the conditions of life are gradual. He argues with much force on general grounds that species are not immutable productions. But I cannot see how the two supposed 'impulses' account in a scientific sense for the numerous and beautiful co-adaptations which we see throughout nature; I cannot see that we thus gain any insight how, for instance, a woodpecker has become adapted to its peculiar habits of Life. The work, from its powerful and brilliant style, though displaying in the earlier editions little accurate knowledge and a great want of scientific caution, immediately had a very wide circulation. In my opinion it has done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views. 
> 
> In 1846 the veteran geologist N. J. d'Omalius d'Halloy published in an excellent though short paper ("Bulletins de l'Acad. Roy Bruxelles,' tom. xiii. p. 581) his opinion that it is more probable that new species have been produced by descent with modification than that they have been separately created: the author first promulgated this opinion in 1831. 
> 
> Professor Owen, in 1849 ('Nature of Limbs,' p. 86), wrote as follows:- "The archetypal idea was manifested in the flesh under diverse such modifications, upon this planet, long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it. To what natural laws or secondary causes the orderly succession and progression of such organic phenomena may have been committed, we, as yet, are ignorant.' In his Address to the British Association, in 1858, he speaks (p. li.) of "the axiom of the continuous operation of creative power, or of the ordained becoming of living things.' Farther on (p. xc.), after referring to geographical distribution, he adds, 'These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx of New Zealand and the Red Grouse of England were distinct creations in and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in mind that by the word ''creation'' the zoologist means '"a process he knows not what.'' He amplifies this idea by adding that when such cases as that of the Red Grouse are enumerated by the zoologists as evidence of distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses that he knows not how the Red Grouse came to be there, and there exclusively; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative Cause.' If we interpret these sentences given in the same Address, one by the other, it appears that this eminent philosopher felt in 1858 his confidence shaken that the Apteryx and the Red Grouse first appeared in their respective homes, 'he knew not how,' or by some process 'he knew not what.' 
> 
> This Address was delivered after the papers by Mr Wallace and myself on the Origin of Species, presently to be referred to, had been read before the Linnean Society. When the first edition of this work was published, I was so completely deceived, as were many others, by such expressions as 'the continuous operation of creative power,' that I included Professor Owen with other palaeontologists as being firmly convinced of the immutability of species; but it appears ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 796) that this was on my part a preposterous error. In the last edition of this work I inferred, and the inference still seems to me perfectly just, from a passage beginning with the words 'no doubt the type-form,' &c. (Ibid. vol. i. p. xxxv.), that Professor Owen admitted that natural selection may have done something in the formation of a new species; but this it appears (Ibid. vol. nl. p. 798) is inaccurate and without evidence. I also gave some extracts from a correspondence between Professor Owen and the Editor of the 'London Review,' from which it appeared manifest to the Editor as well as to myself, that Professor Owen claimed to have promulgated the theory of natural selection before I had done so; and I expressed my surprise and satisfaction at this announcement; but as far as it is possible to understand certain recently published passages (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 798) I have either partially or wholly again fallen into error. It is consolatory to me that others find Professor Owen's controversial writings as difficult to understand and to reconcile with each other, as I do. As far as the mere enunciation of the principle of natural selection is concerned, it is quite immaterial whether or not Professor Owen preceded me, for both of us, as shown in this historical sketch, were long ago preceded by Dr Wells and Mr Matthews. 
> 
> M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in his lectures delivered in 1850 (of which a Résumé appeared in the 'Revue et Nag. de Zoolog.,' Jan. 1851), briefly gives his reason for believing that specific characters "sont fixés, pour chaque espèce, tant qu'elle se perpétue au milieu des mèmes circonstances: ils se modifient, si les circonstances ambiantes viennent à changer.' 'En résumé, l'observation des animaux sauvages démontre déjà la variabilité limité des espèces. Les expériences sur les animaux sauvages devenus domestiques, et sur les animaux domestiques redevenus sauvages, la démontrent plus clairement encore. Ces memes expériences prouvent, de plus, que les différences produites peuvent etre de valeur générique.' In his 'Hist. Nat. Généralé (tom. ii. p. 430, 1859) he amplifies analogous conclusions. 
> 
> From a circular lately issued it appears that Dr Freke, in 1851 ("Dublin Medical Press,' p. 322), propounded the doctrine that all organic beings have descended from one primordial form. His grounds of belief and treatment of the subject are wholly different from mine; but as Dr Freke has now (1861) published his Essay on the 'Origin of Species by means of Organic Affinity,' the difficult attempt to give any idea of his views would be superfluous on my part. 
> 
> Mr Herbert Spencer, in an Essay (originally published in the 'Leader,' March, 1852, and republished in his 'Essays,' in 1858), has contrasted the theories of the Creation and the Development of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He argues from the analogy of domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been modified; and he attributes the modification to the change of circumstances. The author (1855) has also treated psychology on the principle of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. 
> 
> In 1852 M. Naudin, a distinguished botanist, expressly stated, in an admirable paper on the Origin of Species ('Revue Horticole, p. 102; since partly republished in the 'Nouvelles Archives  du Muséum,' tom. i. p. 171), his belief that species are formed in an analogous manner as varieties are under cultivation; and the latter process he attributes to man's power of selection. But he does not show how selection acts under nature. He believes, like Dean Herbert, that species, when nascent, were more plastic than at present. He lays weight on what he calls the principle of finality, 'puissance mystérieuse, indéterminée; fatalité pour les uns; pour les autres volonté providentielle, dont l'action incessante sur les ètres vivants détermine, à toutes les époques de l'existence du monde, la forme, le volume, et la durée de chacun d'eux, en raison de sa destinée dans l'ordre de choses dont il fait partie. C'est cette puissance qui harmonise chaque membre à l'ensemble, en l'appropriant à la fonction qu'il doit remplir dans l'organisme général de la nature, fonction qui est pour lui sa raison d'ètre.'* 
> 
> * From references in Bronn's 'Untersuchungen über die Entwickenlungs-Gesetze,' it appears that the celebrated botanist and palaeontologist Unger published, in 1852, his belief that species undergo development and modification. Dalton, likewise, in Pander and Dalton's work on Fossil Sloths, expressed, in 1821 a similar belief. Similar views have, as is well known, been maintained by Oken in his mystical 'Natur-philosophie.' From other references in Godron's work 'Sur l'Espéce,' it seems that Bory St Vincent, Burdach, Poiret, and Fries, have all admitted that new species are continually being produced. 
> 
> In 1853 a celebrated geologist, Count Keyserling ("Bulletin de la Soc. Gèolog.,' 2nd Ser., tom. x. p. 357), suggested that as new diseases, supposed to have been caused by some miasma, have arisen and spread over the world, so at certain periods the germs of existing species may have been chemically affected by circumambient molecules of a particular nature, and thus have given rise to new forms. 
> 
> In this same year, 1853, Dr Schaaffhausen published an excellent pamphlet ('Verhand. des Naturhist. Vereins der preuss. Rheinlands,' &c.), in which he maintains the development of organic forms on the earth. He infers that many species have kept true for long periods, whereas a few have become modified. The distinction of species he explains by the destruction of intermediate graduated forms. 'Thus living plants and animals are not separated from the extinct by new creations, but are to be regarded as their descendants through continued reproduction.' 
> 
>  I may add, that of the thirty-four authors named in this Historical Sketch, who believe in the modification of species, or at least disbelieve in separate acts of creation, twenty-seven have written on special branches of natural history or geology. 
> 
> A well-known French botanist, M. Lecoq, writes in 1854 ('Etudes sur Géograph. Bot.,' tom. i. p. 250), 'On voit que nos recherches sur la fixité ou la variation de l'espèce, nous conduisent directement aux idées émises, par deux hommes justement célèbres, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire et Goethe.' Some other passages scattered through M. Lecoq's large work, make it a little doubtful how far he extends his views on the modification of species. 
> 
> The 'Philosophy of Creation' has been treated in a masterly manner by the Rev. Baden Powell, in his "Essays on the Unity of Worlds,' 1855. Nothing can be more striking than the manner in which he shows that the introduction of new species is "a regular, not a casual phenomenon,' or, as Sir John Herschel expresses it, 'a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous, process.' 
> 
> The third volume of the "Journal of the Linnean Society' contains papers, read July 1st, 1858, by Mr Wallace and myself, in which, as stated in the introductory remarks to this volume, the theory of Natural Selection is promulgated by Mr Wallace with admirable force and clearness. 
> 
> Von Baer, towards whom all zoologists feel so profound a respect, expressed about the year 1859 (see Prof. Rudolph Wagner, a "Zoologisch-Anthropologische Untersuchungen,' 1861, s. 51) his conviction, chiefly grounded on the laws of geographical distribution, that forms now perfectly distinct have descended from a single parent-form. 
> 
> In June, 1859, Professor Huxley gave a lecture before the Royal Institution on the 'Persistent Types of Animal Life.' Referring to such cases, he remarks, "It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of organisation, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of nature. If, on the other hand, we view 'Persistent Types' in relation to that hypothesis which supposes the species living at any time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing species a hypothesis which, though unproven, and sadly damaged by some of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any countenance; their existence would seem to show that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have suffered.' 
> 
> In December, 1859, Dr Hooker published his 'Introduction to the Australian Flora.' In the first part of this great work he admits the truth of the descent and modification of species, and supports this doctrine by many original observations. 
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------
WojPob/contact|985491269
0a1
> <pre>
------
WojPob/contact|985491306
1,116c1
< <pre>
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---
> http://www.pobratyn.com/pk.php3
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985491389
1c1
< Seminal work in evolutionary biology, published by [[Charles Darwin]] in 1859. 
---
> ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.''
3c3
< The text is freely available online so I intend to wikki-fy it in the near future.
---
> Charles Darwin, M.A.,
5c5,7
< ''Fantastic!  Cf. WikiBiblion.''
---
> Fellow of the Royal, Geological, Linnæan, etc. societies; Author of Journal of researches during H. M. S. Beagle's Voyage round the world. 
> 
> London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1859
9,23c11,25
< #Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication 
< #Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature 
< #Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence 
< #Chapter 4 - Natural Selection 
< #Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation 
< #Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory 
< #Chapter 7 - Instinct 
< #Chapter 8 - Hybridism 
< #Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record 
< #Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings 
< #Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution 
< #Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued 
< #Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs  
< #Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion 
< #Glossary 
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> #[[Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication]] 
> #[[Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature]]
> #[[Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence]]
> #[[Chapter 4 - Natural Selection]]
> #[[Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation]] 
> #[[Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory]] 
> #[[Chapter 7 - Instinct]] 
> #[[Chapter 8 - Hybridism]]
> #[[Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record]] 
> #[[Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings]] 
> #[[Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution]] 
> #[[Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued]] 
> #[[Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs]] 
> #[[Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion]] 
> #[[Glossary for Origin]]
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< More to come!
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> /Talk
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The_Origin_of_Species|985491432
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> (I still need to wikkify the individual chapters [[jmlynch]])
> 
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Chapter_1_-_Variation_Under_Domestication|985491622
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< Describe the new page here.
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> WHEN we look to the individuals of the same variety or sub-variety of our older cultivated plants and animals, one of the first points which strikes us, is, that they generally differ much more from each other, than do the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature. When we reflect on the vast diversity of the plants and animals which have been cultivated, and which have varied during all ages under the most different climates and treatment, I think we are driven to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to which the parent-species have been exposed under nature. There is, also, I think, some probability in the view propounded by Andrew Knight, that this variability may be partly connected with excess of food. It seems pretty clear that organic beings must be exposed during several generations to the new conditions of life to cause any appreciable amount of variation; and that when the organisation has once begun to vary, it generally continues to vary for many generations. No case is on record of a variable being ceasing to be variable under cultivation. Our oldest cultivated plants, such as wheat, still often yield new varieties: our oldest domesticated animals are still capable of rapid improvement or modification. 
> 
> It has been disputed at what period of time the causes of variability, whatever they may be, generally act; whether during the early or late period of development of the embryo, or at the instant of conception. Geoffroy St Hilaire's experiments show that unnatural treatment of the embryo causes monstrosities; and monstrosities cannot be separated by any clear line of distinction from mere variations. But I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception. Several reasons make me believe in this; but the chief one is the remarkable effect which confinement or cultivation has on the functions of the reproductive system; this system appearing to be far more susceptible than any other part of the organization, to the action of any change in the conditions of life. Nothing is more easy than to tame an animal, and few things more difficult than to get it to breed freely under confinement, even in the many cases when the male and female unite. How many animals there are which will not breed, though living long under not very close confinement in their native country! This is generally attributed to vitiated instincts; but how many cultivated plants display the utmost vigour, and yet rarely or never seed! In some few such cases it has been found out that very trifling changes, such as a little more or less water at some particular period of growth, will determine whether or not the plant sets a seed. I cannot here enter on the copious details which I have collected on this curious subject; but to show how singular the laws are which determine the reproduction of animals under confinement, I may just mention that carnivorous animals, even from the tropics, breed in this country pretty freely under confinement, with the exception of the plantigrades or bear family; whereas, carnivorous birds, with the rarest exceptions, hardly ever lay fertile eggs. Many exotic plants have pollen utterly worthless, in the same exact condition as in the most sterile hybrids. When, on the one hand, we see domesticated animals and plants, though often weak and sickly, yet breeding quite freely under confinement; and when, on the other hand, we see individuals, though taken young from a state of nature, perfectly tamed, long-lived, and healthy (of which I could give numerous instances), yet having their reproductive system so seriously affected by unperceived causes as to fail in acting, we need not be surprised at this system, when it does act under confinement, acting not quite regularly, and producing offspring not perfectly like their parents or variable. 
> 
> Sterility has been said to be the bane of horticulture; but on this view we owe variability to the same cause which produces sterility; and variability is the source of all the choicest productions of the garden. I may add, that as some organisms will breed most freely under the most unnatural conditions (for instance, the rabbit and ferret kept in hutches), showing that their reproductive system has not been thus affected; so will some animals and plants withstand domestication or cultivation, and vary very slightly perhaps hardly more than in a state of nature. 
> 
> A long list could easily be given of 'sporting plants;' by this term gardeners mean a single bud or offset, which suddenly assumes a new and sometimes very different character from that of the rest of the plant. Such buds can be propagated by grafting, &c., and sometimes by seed. These 'sports' are extremely rare under nature, but far from rare under cultivation; and in this case we see that the treatment of the parent has affected a bud or offset, and not the ovules or pollen. But it is the opinion of most physiologists that there is no essential difference between a bud and an ovule in their earliest stages of formation; so that, in fact,'sports' support my view, that variability may be largely attributed to the ovules or pollen, or to both, having been affected by the treatment of the parent prior to the act of conception. These cases anyhow show that variation is not necessarily connected, as some authors have supposed, with the act of generation. 
> 
> Seedlings from the same fruit, and the young of the same litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the young and the parents, as Muller has remarked, have apparently been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life; and this shows how unimportant the direct effects of the conditions of life are in comparison with the laws of reproduction, and of growth, and of inheritance; for had the action of the conditions been direct, if any of the young had varied, all would probably have varied in the same manner. To judge how much, in the case of any variation, we should attribute to the direct action of heat, moisture, light, food, &c., is most difficult: my impression is, that with animals such agencies have produced very little direct effect, though apparently more in the case of plants. Under this point of view, Mr Buckman's recent experiments on plants seem extremely valuable. When all or nearly all the individuals exposed to certain conditions are affected in the same way, the change at first appears to be directly due to such conditions; but in some cases it can be shown that quite opposite conditions produce similar changes of structure. Nevertheless some slight amount of change may, I think, be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life as, in some cases, increased size from amount of food, colour from particular kinds of food and from light, and perhaps the thickness of fur from climate. 
> 
> Habit also has a deciding influence, as in the period of flowering with plants when transported from one climate to another. In animals it has a more marked effect; for instance, I find in the domestic duck that the bones of the wing weigh less and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bones in the wild-duck; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, and walking more, than its wild parent. The great and inherited development of the udders in cows and goats in countries where they are habitually milked, in comparison with the state of these organs in other countries, is another instance of the effect of use. Not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears; and the view suggested by some authors, that the drooping is due to the disuse of the muscles of the ear, from the animals not being much alarmed by danger, seems probable. 
> 
> There are many laws regulating variation, some few of which can be dimly seen, and will be hereafter briefly mentioned. I will here only allude to what may be called correlation of growth. Any change in the embryo or larva will almost certainly entail changes in the mature animal. In monstrosities, the correlations between quite distinct parts are very curious; and many instances are given in Isidore Geoffroy St Hilaire's great work on this subject. Breeders believe that long limbs are almost always accompanied by an elongated head. Some instances of correlation are quite whimsical; thus cats with blue eyes are invariably deaf; colour and constitutional peculiarities go together, of which many remarkable cases could be given amongst animals and plants. From the facts collected by Heusinger, it appears that white sheep and pigs are differently affected from coloured individuals by certain vegetable poisons. Hairless dogs have imperfect teeth; long-haired and coarse-haired animals are apt to have, as is asserted, long or many horns; pigeons with feathered feet have skin between their outer toes; pigeons with short beaks have small feet, and those with long beaks large feet. Hence, if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting, any peculiarity, he will almost certainly unconsciously modify other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws of the correlation of growth. 
> 
> The result of the various, quite unknown, or dimly seen laws of variation is infinitely complex and diversified. It is well worth while carefully to study the several treatises published on some of our old cultivated plants, as on the hyacinth, potato, even the dahlia, &c.; and it is really surprising to note the endless points in structure and constitution in which the varieties and sub varieties differ slightly from each other. The whole organization seems to have become plastic, and tends to depart in some small degree from that of the parental type. 
> 
> Any variation which is not inherited is unimportant for us. But the number and diversity of inheritable deviations of structure, both those of slight and those of considerable physiological importance, is endless. Dr Prosper Lucas's treatise, in two large volumes, is the fullest and the best on this subject. No breeder doubts how strong is the tendency to inheritance: like produces like is his fundamental belief: doubts have been thrown on this principle by theoretical writers alone. When a deviation appears not unfrequently, and we see it in the father and child, we cannot tell whether it may not be due to the same original cause acting on both; but when amongst individuals, apparently exposed to the same conditions, any very rare deviation, due to some extraordinary combination of circumstances, appears in the parent say, once amongst several million individuals and it reappears in the child, the mere doctrine of chances almost compels us to attribute its reappearance to inheritance. Every one must have heard of cases of albinism, prickly skin, hairy bodies, &c. appearing in several members of the same family. If strange and rare deviations of structure are truly inherited, less strange and commoner deviations may be freely admitted to be inheritable. Perhaps the correct way of viewing the whole subject, would be, to look at the inheritance of every character whatever as the rule, and non-inheritance as the anomaly. 
> 
> The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown; no one can say why the same peculiarity in different individuals of the same species, and in individuals of different species, is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so; why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother or other much more remote ancestor; why a peculiarity is often transmitted from one sex to both sexes or to one sex alone, more commonly but not exclusively to the like sex. It is a fact of some little importance to us, that peculiarities appearing in the males of our domestic breeds are often transmitted either exclusively, or in a much greater degree, to males alone. A much more important rule, which I think may be trusted, is that, at whatever period of life a peculiarity first appears, it tends to appear in the offspring at a corresponding age, though sometimes earlier. In many cases this could not be otherwise: thus the inherited peculiarities in the horns of cattle could appear only in the offspring when nearly mature; peculiarities in the silkworm are known to appear at the corresponding caterpillar or cocoon stage. But hereditary diseases and some other facts make me believe that the rule has a wider extension, and that when there is no apparent reason why a peculiarity should appear at any particular age, yet that it does tend to appear in the offspring at the same period at which it first appeared in the parent. I believe this rule to be of the highest importance in explaining the laws of embryology. These remarks are of course confined to the first appearance of the peculiarity, and not to its primary cause, which may have acted on the ovules or male element; in nearly the same manner as in the crossed offspring from a short-horned cow by a long-horned bull, the greater length of horn, though appearing late in life, is clearly due to the male element. 
> 
> Having alluded to the subject of reversion, I may here refer to a statement often made by naturalists namely, that our domestic varieties, when run wild, gradually but certainly revert in character to their aboriginal stocks. Hence it has been argued that no deductions can be drawn from domestic races to species in a state of nature. I have in vain endeavoured to discover on what decisive facts the above statement has so often and so boldly been made. There would be great difficulty in proving its truth: we may safely conclude that very many of the most strongly-marked domestic varieties could not possibly live in a wild state. In many cases we do not know what the aboriginal stock was, and so could not tell whether or not nearly perfect reversion had ensued. It would be quite necessary, in order to prevent the effects of intercrossing, that only a single variety should be turned loose in its new home. Nevertheless, as our varieties certainly do occasionally revert in some of their characters to ancestral forms, it seems to me not improbable, that if we could succeed in naturalising, or were to cultivate, during many generations, the several races, for instance, of the cabbage, in very poor soil (in which case, however, some effect would have to be attributed to the direct action of the poor soil), that they would to a large extent, or even wholly, revert to the wild aboriginal stock. Whether or not the experiment would succeed, is not of great importance for our line of argument; for by the experiment itself the conditions of life are changed. If it could be shown that our domestic varieties manifested a strong tendency to reversion, that is, to lose their acquired characters, whilst kept under unchanged conditions, and whilst kept in a considerable body, so that free intercrossing might check, by blending together, any slight deviations of structure, in such case, I grant that we could deduce nothing from domestic varieties in regard to species. But there is not a shadow of evidence in favour of this view: to assert that we could not breed our cart and race-horses, long and short-horned cattle and poultry of various breeds, and esculent vegetables, for an almost infinite number of generations, would be opposed to all experience. I may add, that when under nature the conditions of life do change, variations and reversions of character probably do occur; but natural selection, as will hereafter be explained, will determine how far the new characters thus arising shall be preserved. 
> 
> When we look to the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants, and compare them with species closely allied together, we generally perceive in each domestic race, as already remarked, less uniformity of character than in true species. Domestic races of the same species, also, often have a somewhat monstrous character; by which I mean, that, although differing from each other, and from the other species of the same genus, in several trifling respects, they often differ in an extreme degree in some one part, both when compared one with another, and more especially when compared with all the species in nature to which they are nearest allied. With these exceptions (and with that of the perfect fertility of varieties when crossed, a subject hereafter to be discussed), domestic races of the same species differ from each other in the same manner as, only in most cases in a lesser degree than, do closely-allied species of the same genus in a state of nature. I think this must be admitted, when we find that there are hardly any domestic races, either amongst animals or plants, which have not been ranked by some competent judges as mere varieties, and by other competent judges as the descendants of aboriginally distinct species. If any marked distinction existed between domestic races and species, this source of doubt could not so perpetually recur. It has often been stated that domestic races do not differ from each other in characters of generic value. I think it could be shown that this statement is hardly correct; but naturalists differ most widely in determining what characters are of generic value; all such valuations being at present empirical. Moreover, on the view of the origin of genera which I shall presently give, we have no right to expect often to meet with generic differences in our domesticated productions. 
> 
> When we attempt to estimate the amount of structural difference between the domestic races of the same species, we are soon involved in doubt, from not knowing whether they have descended from one or several parent-species. This point, if could be cleared up, would be interesting; if, for instance, it could be shown that the greyhound, bloodhound, terrier, spaniel, and bull-dog, which we all know propagate their kind so truly, were the offspring of any single species, then such facts would have great weight in making us doubt about the immutability of the many very closely allied and natural species for instance, of the many foxes inhabiting different quarters of the world. I do not believe, as we shall presently see, that all our dogs have descended from any one wild species; but, in the case of some other domestic races, there is presumptive, or even strong, evidence in favour of this view. 
> 
> It has often been assumed that man has chosen for domestication animals and plants having an extraordinary inherent tendency to vary, and likewise to withstand diverse climates. I do not dispute that these capacities have added largely to the value of most of our domesticated productions; but how could a savage possibly know, when he first tamed an animal, whether it would vary in succeeding generations, and whether it would endure other climates? Has the little variability of the ass or guinea-fowl, or the small power of endurance of warmth by the reindeer, or of cold by the common camel, prevented their domestication? I cannot doubt that if other animals and plants, equal in number to our domesticated productions, and belonging to equally diverse classes and countries, were taken from a state of nature, and could be made to breed for an equal number of generations under domestication, they would vary on an average as largely as the parent species of our existing domesticated productions have varied. 
> 
> In the case of most of our anciently domesticated animals and plants, I do not think it is possible to come to any definite conclusion, whether they have descended from one or several species. The argument mainly relied on by those who believe in the multiple origin of our domestic animals is, that we find in the most ancient records, more especially on the monuments of Egypt, much diversity in the breeds; and that some of the breeds closely resemble, perhaps are identical with, those still existing. Even if this latter fact were found more strictly and generally true than seems to me to be the case, what does it show, but that some of our breeds originated there, four or five thousand years ago? But Mr Horner's researches have rendered it in some degree probable that man sufficiently civilized to have manufactured pottery existed in the valley of the Nile thirteen or fourteen thousand years ago; and who will pretend to say how long before these ancient periods, savages, like those of Tierra del Fuego or Australia, who possess a semi-domestic dog, may not have existed in Egypt? 
> 
> The whole subject must, I think, remain vague; nevertheless, I may, without here entering on any details, state that, from geographical and other considerations, I think it highly probable that our domestic dogs have descended from several wild species. In regard to sheep and goats I can form no opinion. I should think, from facts communicated to me by Mr Blyth, on the habits, voice, and constitution, &c., of the humped Indian cattle, that these had descended from a different aboriginal stock from our European cattle; and several competent judges believe that these latter have had more than one wild parent. With respect to horses, from reasons which I cannot give here, I am doubtfully inclined to believe, in opposition to several authors, that all the races have descended from one wild stock. Mr Blyth, whose opinion, from his large and varied stores of knowledge, I should value more than that of almost any one, thinks that all the breeds of poultry have proceeded from the common wild Indian fowl (Gallus bankiva). In regard to ducks and rabbits, the breeds of which differ considerably from each other in structure, I do not doubt that they all have descended from the common wild duck and rabbit. 
> 
> The doctrine of the origin of our several domestic races from several aboriginal stocks, has been carried to an absurd extreme by some authors. They believe that every race which breeds true, let the distinctive characters be ever so slight, has had its wild prototype. At this rate there must have existed at least a score of species of wild cattle, as many sheep, and several goats in Europe alone, and several even within Great Britain. One author believes that there formerly existed in Great Britain eleven wild species of sheep peculiar to it! When we bear in mind that Britain has now hardly one peculiar mammal, and France but few distinct from those of Germany and conversely, and so with Hungary, Spain, &c., but that each of these kingdoms possesses several peculiar breeds of cattle, sheep, &c., we must admit that many domestic breeds have originated in Europe; for whence could they have been derived, as these several countries do not possess a number of peculiar species as distinct parent-stocks? So it is in India. Even in the case of the domestic dogs of the whole world, which I fully admit have probably descended from several wild species, I cannot doubt that there has been an immense amount of inherited variation. Who can believe that animals closely resembling the Italian greyhound, the bloodhound, the bull-dog, or Blenheim spaniel, &c. so unlike all wild Canidae ever existed freely in a state of nature? It has often been loosely said that all our races of dogs have been produced by the crossing of a few aboriginal species; but by crossing we can get only forms in some degree intermediate between their parents; and if we account for our several domestic races by this process, we must admit the former existence of the most extreme forms, as the Italian greyhound, bloodhound, bull-dog, &c., in the wild state. Moreover, the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated. There can be no doubt that a race may be modified by occasional crosses, if aided by the careful selection of those individual mongrels, which present any desired character; but that a race could be obtained nearly intermediate between two extremely different races or species, I can hardly believe. Sir J. Sebright expressly experimentised for this object, and failed. The offspring from the first cross between two pure breeds is tolerably and sometimes (as I have found with pigeons) extremely uniform, and everything seems simple enough; but when these mongrels are crossed one with another for several generations, hardly two of them will be alike, and then the extreme difficulty, or rather utter hopelessness, of the task becomes apparent. Certainly, a breed intermediate between two very distinct breeds could not be got without extreme care and long-continued selection; nor can I find a single case on record of a permanent race having been thus formed. 
> 
> On the Breeds of the Domestic pigeon.
> 
> Believing that it is always best to study some special group, I have, after deliberation, taken up domestic pigeons. I have kept every breed which I could purchase or obtain, and have been most kindly favoured with skins from several quarters of the world, more especially by the Hon. W. Elliot from India, and by the Hon. C. Murray from Persia. Many treatises in different languages have been published on pigeons, and some of them are very important, as being of considerably antiquity. I have associated with several eminent fanciers, and have been permitted to join two of the London Pigeon Clubs. The diversity of the breeds is something astonishing. Compare the English carrier and the short-faced tumbler, and see the wonderful difference in their beaks, entailing corresponding differences in their skulls. The carrier, more especially the male bird, is also remarkable from the wonderful development of the carunculated skin about the head, and this is accompanied by greatly elongated eyelids, very large external orifices to the nostrils, and a wide gape of mouth. The short-faced tumbler has a beak in outline almost like that of a finch; and the common tumbler has the singular and strictly inherited habit of flying at a great height in a compact flock, and tumbling in the air head over heels. The runt is a bird of great size, with long, massive beak and large feet; some of the sub-breeds of runts have very long necks, others very long wings and tails, others singularly short tails. The barb is allied to the carrier, but, instead of a very long beak, has a very short and very broad one. The pouter has a much elongated body, wings, and legs; and its enormously developed crop, which it glories in inflating, may well excite astonishment and even laughter. The turbit has a very short and conical beak, with a line of reversed feathers down the breast; and it has the habit of continually expanding slightly the upper part of the oesophagus. The Jacobin has the feathers so much reversed along the back of the neck that they form a hood, and it has, proportionally to its size, much elongated wing and tail feathers. The trumpeter and laugher, as their names express, utter a very different coo from the other breeds. The fantail has thirty or even forty tail-feathers, instead of twelve or fourteen, the normal number in all members of the great pigeon family; and these feathers are kept expanded, and are carried so erect that in good birds the head and tail touch; the oil-gland is quite aborted. Several other less distinct breeds might have been specified. 
> 
> In the skeletons of the several breeds, the development of the bones of the face in length and breadth and curvature differs enormously. The shape, as well as the breadth and length of the ramus of the lower jaw, varies in a highly remarkable manner. The number of the caudal and sacral vertebrae vary; as does the number of the ribs, together with their relative breadth and the presence of processes. The size and shape of the apertures in the sternum are highly variable; so is the degree of divergence and relative size of the two arms of the furcula. The proportional width of the gape of mouth, the proportional length of the eyelids, of the orifice of the nostrils, of the tongue (not always in strict correlation with the length of beak), the size of the crop and of the upper part of the oesophagus; the development and abortion of the oil-gland; the number of the primary wing and caudal feathers; the relative length of wing and tail to each other and to the body; the relative length of leg and of the feet; the number of scutellae on the toes, the development of skin between the toes, are all points of structure which are variable. The period at which the perfect plumage is acquired varies, as does the state of the down with which the nestling birds are clothed when hatched. The shape and size of the eggs vary. The manner of flight differs remarkably; as does in some breeds the voice and disposition. Lastly, in certain breeds, the males and females have come to differ to a slight degree from each other. 
> 
> Altogether at least a score of pigeons might be chosen, which if shown to an ornithologist, and he were told that they were wild birds, would certainly, I think, be ranked by him as well-defined species. Moreover, I do not believe that any ornithologist would place the English carrier, the short-faced tumbler, the runt, the barb, pouter, and fantail in the same genus; more especially as in each of these breeds several truly-inherited sub-breeds, or species as he might have called them, could be shown him. 
> 
> Great as the differences are between the breeds of pigeons, I am fully convinced that the common opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all have descended from the rock-pigeon (Columba livia), including under this term several geographical races or sub-species, which differ from each other in the most trifling respects. As several of the reasons which have led me to this belief are in some degree applicable in other cases, I will here briefly give them. If the several breeds are not varieties, and have not proceeded from the rock-pigeon, they must have descended from at least seven or eight aboriginal stocks; for it is impossible to make the present domestic breeds by the crossing of any lesser number: how, for instance, could a pouter be produced by crossing two breeds unless one of the parent-stocks possessed the characteristic enormous crop? The supposed aboriginal stocks must all have been rock-pigeons, that is, not breeding or willingly perching on trees. But besides C. livia, with its geographical sub-species, only two or three other species of rock-pigeons are known; and these have not any of the characters of the domestic breeds. Hence the supposed aboriginal stocks must either still exist in the countries where they were originally domesticated, and yet be unknown to ornithologists; and this, considering their size, habits, and remarkable characters, seems very improbable; or they must have become extinct in the wild state. But birds breeding on precipices, and good fliers, are unlikely to be exterminated; and the common rock-pigeon, which has the same habits with the domestic breeds, has not been exterminated even on several of the smaller British islets, or on the shores of the Mediterranean. Hence the supposed extermination of so many species having similar habits with the rock-pigeon seems to me a very rash assumption. Moreover, the several above-named domesticated breeds have been transported to all parts of the world, and, therefore, some of them must have been carried back again into their native country; but not one has ever become wild or feral, though the dovecot-pigeon, which is the rock-pigeon in a very slightly altered state, has become feral in several places. Again, all recent experience shows that it is most difficult to get any wild animal to breed freely under domestication; yet on the hypothesis of the multiple origin of our pigeons, it must be assumed that at least seven or eight species were so thoroughly domesticated in ancient times by half-civilized man, as to be quite prolific under confinement. 
> 
> An argument, as it seems to me, of great weight, and applicable in several other cases, is, that the above-specified breeds, though agreeing generally in constitution, habits, voice, colouring, and in most parts of their structure, with the wild rock-pigeon, yet are certainly highly abnormal in other parts of their structure: we may look in vain throughout the whole great family of Columbidae for a beak like that of the English carrier, or that of the short-faced tumbler, or barb; for reversed feathers like those of the jacobin; for a crop like that of the pouter; for tail-feathers like those of the fantail. Hence it must be assumed not only that half-civilized man succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several species, but that he intentionally or by chance picked out extraordinarily abnormal species; and further, that these very species have since all become extinct or unknown. So many strange contingencies seem to me improbable in the highest degree. 
> 
> Some facts in regard to the colouring of pigeons well deserve consideration. The rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue, and has a white rump (the Indian sub-species, C. intermedia of Strickland, having it bluish); the tail has a terminal dark bar, with the bases of the outer feathers externally edged with white; the wings have two black bars: some semi-domestic breeds and some apparently truly wild breeds have, besides the two black bars, the wings chequered with black. These several marks do not occur together in any other species of the whole family. Now, in every one of the domestic breeds, taking thoroughly well-bred birds, all the above marks, even to the white edging of the outer tail-feathers, sometimes concur perfectly developed. Moreover, when two birds belonging to two distinct breeds are crossed, neither of which is blue or has any of the above-specified marks, the mongrel offspring are very apt suddenly to acquire these characters; for instance, I crossed some uniformly white fantails with some uniformly black barbs, and they produced mottled brown and black birds; these I again crossed together, and one grandchild of the pure white fantail and pure black barb was of as beautiful a blue colour, with the white rump, double black wing-bar, and barred and white-edged tail-feathers, as any wild rock-pigeon! We can understand these facts, on the well-known principle of reversion to ancestral characters, if all the domestic breeds have descended from the rock-pigeon. But if we deny this, we must make one of the two following highly improbable suppositions. Either, firstly, that all the several imagined aboriginal stocks were coloured and marked like the rock-pigeon, although no other existing species is thus coloured and marked, so that in each separate breed there might be a tendency to revert to the very same colours and markings. Or, secondly, that each breed, even the purest, has within a dozen or, at most, within a score of generations, been crossed by the rock-pigeon: I say within a dozen or twenty generations, for we know of no fact countenancing the belief that the child ever reverts to some one ancestor, removed by a greater number of generations. In a breed which has been crossed only once with some distinct breed, the tendency to reversion to any character derived from such cross will naturally become less and less, as in each succeeding generation there will be less of the foreign blood; but when there has been no cross with a distinct breed, and there is a tendency in both parents to revert to a character, which has been lost during some former generation, this tendency, for all that we can see to the contrary, may be transmitted undiminished for an indefinite number of generations. These two distinct cases are often confounded in treatises on inheritance. 
> 
> Lastly, the hybrids or mongrels from between all the domestic breeds of pigeons are perfectly fertile. I can state this from my own observations, purposely made on the most distinct breeds. Now, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to bring forward one case of the hybrid offspring of two animals clearly distinct being themselves perfectly fertile. Some authors believe that long-continued domestication eliminates this strong tendency to sterility: from the history of the dog I think there is some probability in this hypothesis, if applied to species closely related together, though it is unsupported by a single experiment. But to extend the hypothesis so far as to suppose that species, aboriginally as distinct as carriers, tumblers, pouters, and fantails now are, should yield offspring perfectly fertile, inter se, seems to me rash in the extreme. 
> 
> From these several reasons, namely, the improbability of man having formerly got seven or eight supposed species of pigeons to breed freely under domestication; these supposed species being quite unknown in a wild state, and their becoming nowhere feral; these species having very abnormal characters in certain respects, as compared with all other Columbidae, though so like in most other respects to the rock-pigeon; the blue colour and various marks occasionally appearing in all the breeds, both when kept pure and when crossed; the mongrel offspring being perfectly fertile; from these several reasons, taken together, I can feel no doubt that all our domestic breeds have descended from the Columba livia with its geographical sub-species. 
> 
> In favour of this view, I may add, firstly, that C. livia, or the rock-pigeon, has been found capable of domestication in Europe and in India; and that it agrees in habits and in a great number of points of structure with all the domestic breeds. Secondly, although an English carrier or short-faced tumbler differs immensely in certain characters from the rock-pigeon, yet by comparing the several sub-breeds of these breeds, more especially those brought from distant countries, we can make an almost perfect series between the extremes of structure. Thirdly, those characters which are mainly distinctive of each breed, for instance the wattle and length of beak of the carrier, the shortness of that of the tumbler, and the number of tail-feathers in the fantail, are in each breed eminently variable; and the explanation of this fact will be obvious when we come to treat of selection. Fourthly, pigeons have been watched, and tended with the utmost care, and loved by many people. They have been domesticated for thousands of years in several quarters of the world; the earliest known record of pigeons is in the fifth Aegyptian dynasty, about 3000 B.C., as was pointed out to me by Professor Lepsius; but Mr Birch informs me that pigeons are given in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty. In the time of the Romans, as we hear from Pliny, immense prices were given for pigeons; 'nay, they are come to this pass, that they can reckon up their pedigree and race.' Pigeons were much valued by Akber Khan in India, about the year 1600; never less than 20,000 pigeons were taken with the court. 'The monarchs of Iran and Turan sent him some very rare birds;' and, continues the courtly historian, 'His Majesty by crossing the breeds, which method was never practised before, has improved them astonishingly.' About this same period the Dutch were as eager about pigeons as were the old Romans. The paramount importance of these considerations in explaining the immense amount of variation which pigeons have undergone, will be obvious when we treat of Selection. We shall then, also, see how it is that the breeds so often have a somewhat monstrous character. It is also a most favourable circumstance for the production of distinct breeds, that male and female pigeons can be easily mated for life; and thus different breeds can be kept together in the same aviary. 
> 
> I have discussed the probable origin of domestic pigeons at some, yet quite insufficient, length; because when I first kept pigeons and watched the several kinds, knowing well how true they bred, I felt fully as much difficulty in believing that they could ever have descended from a common parent, as any naturalist could in coming to a similar conclusion in regard to the many species of finches, or other large groups of birds, in nature. One circumstance has struck me much; namely, that all the breeders of the various domestic animals and the cultivators of plants, with whom I have ever conversed, or whose treatises I have read, are firmly convinced that the several breeds to which each has attended, are descended from so many aboriginally distinct species. Ask, as I have asked, a celebrated raiser of Hereford cattle, whether his cattle might not have descended from long horns, and he will laugh you to scorn. I have never met a pigeon, or poultry, or duck, or rabbit fancier, who was not fully convinced that each main breed was descended from a distinct species. Van Mons, in his treatise on pears and apples, shows how utterly he disbelieves that the several sorts, for instance a Ribston-pippin or Codlin-apple, could ever have proceeded from the seeds of the same tree. Innumerable other examples could be given. The explanation, I think, is simple: from long-continued study they are strongly impressed with the differences between the several races; and though they well know that each race varies slightly, for they win their prizes by selecting such slight differences, yet they ignore all general arguments, and refuse to sum up in their minds slight differences accumulated during many successive generations. May not those naturalists who, knowing far less of the laws of inheritance than does the breeder, and knowing no more than he does of the intermediate links in the long lines of descent, yet admit that many of our domestic races have descended from the same parents may they not learn a lesson of caution, when they deride the idea of species in a state of nature being lineal descendants of other species? 
> 
> Selection
> 
> Let us now briefly consider the steps by which domestic races have been produced, either from one or from several allied species. Some little effect may, perhaps, be attributed to the direct action of the external conditions of life, and some little to habit; but he would be a bold man who would account by such agencies for the differences of a dray and race horse, a greyhound and bloodhound, a carrier and tumbler pigeon. One of the most remarkable features in our domesticated races is that we see in them adaptation, not indeed to the animal's or plant's own good, but to man's use or fancy. Some variations useful to him have probably arisen suddenly, or by one step; many botanists, for instance, believe that the fuller's teazle, with its hooks, which cannot be rivalled by any mechanical contrivance, is only a variety of the wild Dipsacus; and this amount of change may have suddenly arisen in a seedling. So it has probably been with the turnspit dog; and this is known to have been the case with the ancon sheep. But when we compare the dray-horse and race-horse, the dromedary and camel, the various breeds of sheep fitted either for cultivated land or mountain pasture, with the wool of one breed good for one purpose, and that of another breed for another purpose; when we compare the many breeds of dogs, each good for man in very different ways; when we compare the gamecock, so pertinacious in battle, with other breeds so little quarrelsome, with 'everlasting layers' which never desire to sit, and with the bantam so small and elegant; when we compare the host of agricultural, culinary, orchard, and flower-garden races of plants, most useful to man at different seasons and for different purposes, or so beautiful in his eyes, we must, I think, look further than to mere variability. We cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfect and as useful as we now see them; indeed, in several cases, we know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power of accumulative selection: nature gives successive variations; man adds them up in certain directions useful to him. In this sense he may be said to make for himself useful breeds. 
> 
> The great power of this principle of selection is not hypothetical. It is certain that several of our eminent breeders have, even within a single lifetime, modified to a large extent some breeds of cattle and sheep. In order fully to realise what they have done, it is almost necessary to read several of the many treatises devoted to this subject, and to inspect the animals. Breeders habitually speak of an animal's organisation as something quite plastic, which they can model almost as they please. If I had space I could quote numerous passages to this effect from highly competent authorities. Youatt, who was probably better acquainted with the works of agriculturalists than almost any other individual, and who was himself a very good judge of an animal, speaks of the principle of selection as 'that which enables the agriculturist, not only to modify the character of his flock, but to change it altogether. It is the magician's wand, by means of which he may summon into life whatever form and mould he pleases.' Lord Somerville, speaking of what breeders have done for sheep, says: 'It would seem as if they had chalked out upon a wall a form perfect in itself, and then had given it existence.' That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.' In Saxony the importance of the principle of selection in regard to merino sheep is so fully recognised, that men follow it as a trade: the sheep are placed on a table and are studied, like a picture by a connoisseur; this is done three times at intervals of months, and the sheep are each time marked and classed, so that the very best may ultimately be selected for breeding. 
> 
> What English breeders have actually effected is proved by the enormous prices given for animals with a good pedigree; and these have now been exported to almost every quarter of the world. The improvement is by no means generally due to crossing different breeds; all the best breeders are strongly opposed to this practice, except sometimes amongst closely allied sub-breeds. And when a cross has been made, the closest selection is far more indispensable even than in ordinary cases. If selection consisted merely in separating some very distinct variety, and breeding from it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth notice; but its importance consists in the great effect produced by the accumulation in one direction, during successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable by an uneducated eye differences which I for one have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgement sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed, and may make great improvements; if he wants any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail. Few would readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice requisite to become even a skilful pigeon-fancier. 
> 
> The same principles are followed by horticulturists; but the variations are here often more abrupt. No one supposes that our choicest productions have been produced by a single variation from the aboriginal stock. We have proofs that this is not so in some cases, in which exact records have been kept; thus, to give a very trifling instance, the steadily-increasing size of the common gooseberry may be quoted. We see an astonishing improvement in many florists' flowers, when the flowers of the present day are compared with drawings made only twenty or thirty years ago. When a race of plants is once pretty well established, the seed-raisers do not pick out the best plants, but merely go over their seed-beds, and pull up the 'rogues,' as they call the plants that deviate from the proper standard. With animals this kind of selection is, in fact, also followed; for hardly any one is so careless as to allow his worst animals to breed. 
> 
> In regard to plants, there is another means of observing the accumulated effects of selection namely, by comparing the diversity of flowers in the different varieties of the same species in the flower-garden; the diversity of leaves, pods, or tubers, or whatever part is valued, in the kitchen-garden, in comparison with the flowers of the same varieties; and the diversity of fruit of the same species in the orchard, in comparison with the leaves and flowers of the same set of varieties. See how different the leaves of the cabbage are, and how extremely alike the flowers; how unlike the flowers of the heartsease are, and how alike the leaves; how much the fruit of the different kinds of gooseberries differ in size, colour, shape, and hairiness, and yet the flowers present very slight differences. It is not that the varieties which differ largely in some one point do not differ at all in other points; this is hardly ever, perhaps never, the case. The laws of correlation of growth, the importance of which should never be overlooked, will ensure some differences; but, as a general rule, I cannot doubt that the continued selection of slight variations, either in the leaves, the flowers, or the fruit, will produce races differing from each other chiefly in these characters. 
> 
> It may be objected that the principle of selection has been reduced to methodical practice for scarcely more than three-quarters of a century; it has certainly been more attended to of late years, and many treatises have been published on the subject; and the result, I may add, has been, in a corresponding degree, rapid and important. But it is very far from true that the principle is a modern discovery. I could give several references to the full acknowledgement of the importance of the principle in works of high antiquity. In rude and barbarous periods of English history choice animals were often imported, and laws were passed to prevent their exportation: the destruction of horses under a certain size was ordered, and this may be compared to the 'roguing' of plants by nurserymen. The principle of selection I find distinctly given in an ancient Chinese encyclopaedia. Explicit rules are laid down by some of the Roman classical writers. From passages in Genesis, it is clear that the colour of domestic animals was at that early period attended to. Savages now sometimes cross their dogs with wild canine animals, to improve the breed, and they formerly did so, as is attested by passages in Pliny. The savages in South Africa match their draught cattle by colour, as do some of the Esquimaux their teams of dogs. Livingstone shows how much good domestic breeds are valued by the negroes of the interior of Africa who have not associated with Europeans. Some of these facts do not show actual selection, but they show that the breeding of domestic animals was carefully attended to in ancient times, and is now attended to by the lowest savages. It would, indeed, have been a strange fact, had attention not been paid to breeding, for the inheritance of good and bad qualities is so obvious. 
> 
> At the present time, eminent breeders try by methodical selection, with a distinct object in view, to make a new strain or sub-breed, superior to anything existing in the country. But, for our purpose, a kind of Selection, which may be called Unconscious, and which results from every one trying to possess and breed from the best individual animals, is more important. Thus, a man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterwards breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless I cannot doubt that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, &c., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their own lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle. Slow and insensible changes of this kind could never be recognised unless actual measurements or careful drawings of the breeds in question had been made long ago, which might serve for comparison. In some cases, however, unchanged or but little changed individuals of the same breed may be found in less civilised districts, where the breed has been less improved. There is reason to believe that King Charles's spaniel has been unconsciously modified to a large extent since the time of that monarch. Some highly competent authorities are convinced that the setter is directly derived from the spaniel, and has probably been slowly altered from it. It is known that the English pointer has been greatly changed within the last century, and in this case the change has, it is believed, been chiefly effected by crosses with the fox-hound; but what concerns us is, that the change has been effected unconsciously and gradually, and yet so effectually, that, though the old Spanish pointer certainly came from Spain, Mr Barrow has not seen, as I am informed by him, any native dog in Spain like our pointer. 
> 
> By a similar process of selection, and by careful training, the whole body of English racehorses have come to surpass in fleetness and size the parent Arab stock, so that the latter, by the regulations for the Goodwood Races, are favoured in the weights they carry. Lord Spencer and others have shown how the cattle of England have increased in weight and in early maturity, compared with the stock formerly kept in this country. By comparing the accounts given in old pigeon treatises of carriers and tumblers with these breeds as now existing in Britain, India, and Persia, we can, I think, clearly trace the stages through which they have insensibly passed, and come to differ so greatly from the rock-pigeon. 
> 
> Youatt gives an excellent illustration of the effects of a course of selection, which may be considered as unconsciously followed, in so far that the breeders could never have expected or even have wished to have produced the result which ensued namely, the production of two distinct strains. The two flocks of Leicester sheep kept by Mr Buckley and Mr Burgess, as Mr Youatt remarks, 'have been purely bred from the original stock of Mr Bakewell for upwards of fifty years. There is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either of them has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of Mr Bakewell's flock, and yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties.' 
> 
> If there exist savages so barbarous as never to think of the inherited character of the offspring of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly useful to them, for any special purpose, would be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, to which savages are so liable, and such choice animals would thus generally leave more offspring than the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs. 
> 
> In plants the same gradual process of improvement, through the occasional preservation of the best individuals, whether or not sufficiently distinct to be ranked at their first appearance as distinct varieties, and whether or not two or more species or races have become blended together by crossing, may plainly be recognised in the increased size and beauty which we now see in the varieties of the heartsease, rose, pelargonium, dahlia, and other plants, when compared with the older varieties or with their parent-stocks. No one would ever expect to get a first-rate heartsease or dahlia from the seed of a wild plant. No one would expect to raise a first-rate melting pear from the seed of a wild pear, though he might succeed from a poor seedling growing wild, if it had come from a garden-stock. The pear, though cultivated in classical times, appears, from Pliny's description, to have been a fruit of very inferior quality. I have seen great surprise expressed in horticultural works at the wonderful skill of gardeners, in having produced such splendid results from such poor materials; but the art, I cannot doubt, has been simple, and, as far as the final result is concerned, has been followed almost unconsciously. It has consisted in always cultivating the best known variety, sowing its seeds, and, when a slightly better variety has chanced to appear, selecting it, and so onwards. But the gardeners of the classical period, who cultivated the best pear they could procure, never thought what splendid fruit we should eat; though we owe our excellent fruit, in some small degree, to their having naturally chosen and preserved the best varieties they could anywhere find. 
> 
> A large amount of change in our cultivated plants, thus slowly and unconsciously accumulated, explains, as I believe, the well-known fact, that in a vast number of cases we cannot recognise, and therefore do not know, the wild parent-stocks of the plants which have been longest cultivated in our flower and kitchen gardens. If it has taken centuries or thousands of years to improve or modify most of our plants up to their present standard of usefulness to man, we can understand how it is that neither Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any other region inhabited by quite uncivilised man, has afforded us a single plant worth culture. It is not that these countries, so rich in species, do not by a strange chance possess the aboriginal stocks of any useful plants, but that the native plants have not been improved by continued selection up to a standard of perfection comparable with that given to the plants in countries anciently civilised. 
> 
> In regard to the domestic animals kept by uncivilised man, it should not be overlooked that they almost always have to struggle for their own food, at least during certain seasons. And in two countries very differently circumstanced, individuals of the same species, having slightly different constitutions or structure, would often succeed better in the one country than in the other, and thus by a process of 'natural selection,' as will hereafter be more fully explained, two sub-breeds might be formed. This, perhaps, partly explains what has been remarked by some authors, namely, that the varieties kept by savages have more of the character of species than the varieties kept in civilised countries. 
> 
> On the view here given of the all-important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious, how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man's wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much difficulty, any deviation of structure excepting such as is externally visible; and indeed he rarely cares for what is internal. He can never act by selection, excepting on variations which are first given to him in some slight degree by nature. No man would ever try to make a fantail, till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter till he saw a pigeon with a crop of somewhat unusual size; and the more abnormal or unusual any character was when it first appeared, the more likely it would be to catch his attention. But to use such an expression as trying to make a fantail, is, I have no doubt, in most cases, utterly incorrect. The man who first selected a pigeon with a slightly larger tail, never dreamed what the descendants of that pigeon would become through long-continued, partly unconscious and partly methodical selection. Perhaps the parent bird of all fantails had only fourteen tail-feathers somewhat expanded, like the present Java fantail, or like individuals of other and distinct breeds, in which as many as seventeen tail-feathers have been counted. Perhaps the first pouter-pigeon did not inflate its crop much more than the turbit now does the upper part of its oesophagus, a habit which is disregarded by all fanciers, as it is not one of the points of the breed. 
> 
> Nor let it be thought that some great deviation of structure would be necessary to catch the fancier's eye: he perceives extremely small differences, and it is in human nature to value any novelty, however slight, in one's own possession. Nor must the value which would formerly be set on any slight differences in the individuals of the same species, be judged of by the value which would now be set on them, after several breeds have once fairly been established. Many slight differences might, and indeed do now, arise amongst pigeons, which are rejected as faults or deviations from the standard of perfection of each breed. The common goose has not given rise to any marked varieties; hence the Thoulouse and the common breed, which differ only in colour, that most fleeting of characters, have lately been exhibited as distinct at our poultry-shows. 
> 
> I think these views further explain what has sometimes been noticed namely that we know nothing about the origin or history of any of our domestic breeds. But, in fact, a breed, like a dialect of a language, can hardly be said to have had a definite origin. A man preserves and breeds from an individual with some slight deviation of structure, or takes more care than usual in matching his best animals and thus improves them, and the improved individuals slowly spread in the immediate neighbourhood. But as yet they will hardly have a distinct name, and from being only slightly valued, their history will be disregarded. When further improved by the same slow and gradual process, they will spread more widely, and will get recognised as something distinct and valuable, and will then probably first receive a provincial name. In semi-civilised countries, with little free communication, the spreading and knowledge of any new sub-breed will be a slow process. As soon as the points of value of the new sub-breed are once fully acknowledged, the principle, as I have called it, of unconscious selection will always tend, perhaps more at one period than at another, as the breed rises or falls in fashion, perhaps more in one district than in another, according to the state of civilisation of the inhabitants slowly to add to the characteristic features of the breed, whatever they may be. But the chance will be infinitely small of any record having been preserved of such slow, varying, and insensible changes. 
> 
> I must now say a few words on the circumstances, favourable, or the reverse, to man's power of selection. A high degree of variability is obviously favourable, as freely giving the materials for selection to work on; not that mere individual differences are not amply sufficient, with extreme care, to allow of the accumulation of a large amount of modification in almost any desired direction. But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success. On this principle Marshall has remarked, with respect to the sheep of parts of Yorkshire, that 'as they generally belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, they never can be improved.' On the other hand, nurserymen, from raising large stocks of the same plants, are generally far more successful than amateurs in getting new and valuable varieties. The keeping of a large number of individuals of a species in any country requires that the species should be placed under favourable conditions of life, so as to breed freely in that country. When the individuals of any species are scanty, all the individuals, whatever their quality may be, will generally be allowed to breed, and this will effectually prevent selection. But probably the most important point of all, is, that the animal or plant should be so highly useful to man, or so much valued by him, that the closest attention should be paid to even the slightest deviation in the qualities or structure of each individual. Unless such attention be paid nothing can be effected. I have seen it gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected. As soon, however, as gardeners picked out individual plants with slightly larger, earlier, or better fruit, and raised seedlings from them, and again picked out the best seedlings and bred from them, then, there appeared (aided by some crossing with distinct species) those many admirable varieties of the strawberry which have been raised during the last thirty or forty years. 
> 
> In the case of animals with separate sexes, facility in preventing crosses is an important element of success in the formation of new races, at least, in a country which is already stocked with other races. In this respect enclosure of the land plays a part. Wandering savages or the inhabitants of open plains rarely possess more than one breed of the same species. Pigeons can be mated for life, and this is a great convenience to the fancier, for thus many races may be kept true, though mingled in the same aviary; and this circumstance must have largely favoured the improvement and formation of new breeds. Pigeons, I may add, can be propagated in great numbers and at a very quick rate, and inferior birds may be freely rejected, as when killed they serve for food. On the other hand, cats, from their nocturnal rambling habits, cannot be matched, and, although so much valued by women and children, we hardly ever see a distinct breed kept up; such breeds as we do sometimes see are almost always imported from some other country, often from islands. Although I do not doubt that some domestic animals vary less than others, yet the rarity or absence of distinct breeds of the cat, the donkey, peacock, goose, &c., may be attributed in main part to selection not having been brought into play: in cats, from the difficulty in pairing them; in donkeys, from only a few being kept by poor people, and little attention paid to their breeding; in peacocks, from not being very easily reared and a large stock not kept; in geese, from being valuable only for two purposes, food and feathers, and more especially from no pleasure having been felt in the display of distinct breeds. 
> 
> To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant power.
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> BEFORE applying the principles arrived at in the last chapter to organic beings in a state of nature, we must briefly discuss whether these latter are subject to any variation. To treat this subject at all properly, a long catalogue of dry facts should be given; but these I shall reserve for my future work. Nor shall I here discuss the various definitions which have been given of the term species. No one definition has as yet satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. The term 'variety' is almost equally difficult to define; but here community of descent is almost universally implied, though it can rarely be proved. We have also what are called monstrosities; but they graduate into varieties. By a monstrosity I presume is meant some considerable deviation of structure in one part, either injurious to or not useful to the species, and not generally propagated. Some authors use the term 'variation' in a technical sense, as implying a modification directly due to the physical conditions of life; and 'variations' in this sense are supposed not to be inherited: but who can say that the dwarfed condition of shells in the brackish waters of the Baltic, or dwarfed plants on Alpine summits, or the thicker fur of an animal from far northwards, would not in some cases be inherited for at least some few generations? and in this case I presume that the form would be called a variety. 
> 
> Again, we have many slight differences which may be called individual differences, such as are known frequently to appear in the offspring from the same parents, or which may be presumed to have thus arisen, from being frequently observed in the individuals of the same species inhabiting the same confined locality. No one supposes that all the individuals of the same species are cast in the very same mould. These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions. These individual differences generally affect what naturalists consider unimportant parts; but I could show by a long catalogue of facts, that parts which must be called important, whether viewed under a physiological or classificatory point of view, sometimes vary in the individuals of the same species. I am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of variability, even in important parts of structure, which he could collect on good authority, as I have collected, during a course of years. It should be remembered that systematists are far from pleased at finding variability in important characters, and that there are not many men who will laboriously examine internal and important organs, and compare them in many specimens of the same species. I should never have expected that the branching of the main nerves close to the great central ganglion of an insect would have been variable in the same species; I should have expected that changes of this nature could have been effected only by slow degrees: yet quite recently Mr Lubbock has shown a degree of variability in these main nerves in Coccus, which may almost be compared to the irregular branching of the stem of a tree. This philosophical naturalist, I may add, has also quite recently shown that the muscles in the larvae of certain insects are very far from uniform. Authors sometimes argue in a circle when they state that important organs never vary; for these same authors practically rank that character as important (as some few naturalists have honestly confessed) which does not vary; and, under this point of view, no instance of any important part varying will ever be found: but under any other point of view many instances assuredly can be given. 
> 
> There is one point connected with individual differences, which seems to me extremely perplexing: I refer to those genera which have sometimes been called 'protean' or 'polymorphic,' in which the species present an inordinate amount of variation; and hardly two naturalists can agree which forms to rank as species and which as varieties. We may instance Rubus, Rosa, and Hieracium amongst plants, several genera of insects, and several genera of Brachiopod shells. In most polymorphic genera some of the species have fixed and definite characters. Genera which are polymorphic in one country seem to be, with some few exceptions, polymorphic in other countries, and likewise, judging from Brachiopod shells, at former periods of time. These facts seem to be very perplexing, for they seem to show that this kind of variability is independent of the conditions of life. I am inclined to suspect that we see in these polymorphic genera variations in points of structure which are of no service or disservice to the species, and which consequently have not been seized on and rendered definite by natural selection, as hereafter will be explained. 
> 
> Those forms which possess in some considerable degree the character of species, but which are so closely similar to some other forms, or are so closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, are in several respects the most important for us. We have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful and closely-allied forms have permanently retained their characters in their own country for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, as have good and true species. practically, when a naturalist can unite two forms together by others having intermediate characters, he treats the one as a variety of the other, ranking the most common, but sometimes the one first described, as the species, and the other as the variety. But cases of great difficulty, which I will not here enumerate, sometimes occur in deciding whether or not to rank one form as a variety of another, even when they are closely connected by intermediate links; nor will the commonly-assumed hybrid nature of the intermediate links always remove the difficulty. In very many cases, however, one form is ranked as a variety of another, not because the intermediate links have actually been found, but because analogy leads the observer to suppose either that they do now somewhere exist, or may formerly have existed; and here a wide door for the entry of doubt and conjecture is opened. 
> 
> Hence, in determining whether a form should be ranked as a species or a variety, the opinion of naturalists having sound judgement and wide experience seems the only guide to follow. We must, however, in many cases, decide by a majority of naturalists, for few well-marked and well-known varieties can be named which have not been ranked as species by at least some competent judges. 
> 
> That varieties of this doubtful nature are far from uncommon cannot be disputed. Compare the several floras of Great Britain, of France or of the United States, drawn up by different botanists, and see what a surprising number of forms have been ranked by one botanist as good species, and by another as mere varieties. Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I lie under deep obligation for assistance of all kinds, has marked for me 182 British plants, which are generally considered as varieties, but which have all been ranked by botanists as species; and in making this list he has omitted many trifling varieties, but which nevertheless have been ranked by some botanists as species, and he has entirely omitted several highly polymorphic genera. Under genera, including the most polymorphic forms, Mr Babington gives 251 species, whereas Mr Bentham gives only 112, a difference of 139 doubtful forms! Amongst animals which unite for each birth, and which are highly locomotive, doubtful forms, ranked by one zoologist as a species and by another as a variety, can rarely be found within the same country, but are common in separated areas. How many of those birds and insects in North America and Europe, which differ very slightly from each other, have been ranked by one eminent naturalist as undoubted species, and by another as varieties, or, as they are often called, as geographical races! Many years ago, when comparing, and seeing others compare, the birds from the separate islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, both one with another, and with those from the American mainland, I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. On the islets of the little Madeira group there are many insects which are characterized as varieties in Mr Wollaston's admirable work, but which it cannot be doubted would be ranked as distinct species by many entomologists. Even Ireland has a few animals, now generally regarded as varieties, but which have been ranked as species by some zoologists. Several most experienced ornithologists consider our British red grouse as only a strongly-marked race of a Norwegian species, whereas the greater number rank it as an undoubted species peculiar to Great Britain. A wide distance between the homes of two doubtful forms leads many naturalists to rank both as distinct species; but what distance, it has been well asked, will suffice? if that between America and Europe is ample, will that between the Continent and the Azores, or Madeira, or the Canaries, or Ireland, be sufficient? It must be admitted that many forms, considered by highly-competent judges as varieties, have so perfectly the character of species that they are ranked by other highly-competent judges as good and true species. But to discuss whether they are rightly called species or varieties, before any definition of these terms has been generally accepted, is vainly to beat the air. 
> 
> Many of the cases of strongly-marked varieties or doubtful species well deserve consideration; for several interesting lines of argument, from geographical distribution, analogical variation, hybridism, &c., have been brought to bear on the attempt to determine their rank. I will here give only a single instance, the well-known one of the primrose and cowslip, or Primula veris and elatior. These plants differ considerably in appearance; they have a different flavour and emit a different odour; they flower at slightly different periods; they grow in somewhat different stations; they ascend mountains to different heights; they have different geographical ranges; and lastly, according to very numerous experiments made during several years by that most careful observer Gärtner, they can be crossed only with much difficulty. We could hardly wish for better evidence of the two forms being specifically distinct. On the other hand, they are united by many intermediate links, and it is very doubtful whether these links are hybrids; and there is, as it seems to me, an overwhelming amount of experimental evidence, showing that they descend from common parents, and consequently must be ranked as varieties. 
> 
> Close investigation, in most cases, will bring naturalists to an agreement how to rank doubtful forms. Yet it must be confessed, that it is in the best-known countries that we find the greatest number of forms of doubtful value. I have been struck with the fact, that if any animal or plant in a state of nature be highly useful to man, or from any cause closely attract his attention, varieties of it will almost universally be found recorded. These varieties, moreover, will be often ranked by some authors as species. Look at the common oak, how closely it has been studied; yet a German author makes more than a dozen species out of forms, which are very generally considered as varieties; and in this country the highest botanical authorities and practical men can be quoted to show that the sessile and pedunculated oaks are either good and distinct species or mere varieties. 
> 
> When a young naturalist commences the study of a group of organisms quite unknown to him, he is at first much perplexed to determine what differences to consider as specific, and what as varieties; for he knows nothing of the amount and kind of variation to which the group is subject; and this shows, at least, how very generally there is some variation. But if he confine his attention to one class within one country, he will soon make up his mind how to rank most of the doubtful forms. His general tendency will be to make many species, for he will become impressed, just like the pigeon or poultry-fancier before alluded to, with the amount of difference in the forms which he is continually studying; and he has little general knowledge of analogical variation in other groups and in other countries, by which to correct his first impressions. As he extends the range of his observations, he will meet with more cases of difficulty; for he will encounter a greater number of closely-allied forms. But if his observations be widely extended, he will in the end generally be enabled to make up his own mind which to call varieties and which species; but he will succeed in this at the expense of admitting much variation, and the truth of this admission will often be disputed by other naturalists. When, moreover, he comes to study allied forms brought from countries not now continuous, in which case he can hardly hope to find the intermediate links between his doubtful forms, he will have to trust almost entirely to analogy, and his difficulties will rise to a climax. 
> 
> Certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences. These differences blend into each other in an insensible series; and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage. 
> 
> Hence I look at individual differences, though of small interest to the systematist, as of high importance for us, as being the first step towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth recording in works on natural history. And I look at varieties which are in any degree more distinct and permanent, as steps leading to more strongly marked and more permanent varieties; and at these latter, as leading to sub-species, and to species. The passage from one stage of difference to another and higher stage may be, in some cases, due merely to the long-continued action of different physical conditions in two different regions; but I have not much faith in this view; and I attribute the passage of a variety, from a state in which it differs very slightly from its parent to one in which it differs more, to the action of natural selection in accumulating (as will hereafter be more fully explained) differences of structure in certain definite directions. Hence I believe a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species; but whether this belief be justifiable must be judged of by the general weight of the several facts and views given throughout this work. 
> 
> It need not be supposed that all varieties or incipient species necessarily attain the rank of species. They may whilst in this incipient state become extinct, or they may endure as varieties for very long periods, as has been shown to be the case by Mr Wollaston with the varieties of certain fossil land-shells in Madeira. If a variety were to flourish so as to exceed in numbers the parent species, it would then rank as the species, and the species as the variety; or it might come to supplant and exterminate the parent species; or both might co-exist, and both rank as independent species. But we shall hereafter have to return to this subject. 
> 
> From these remarks it will be seen that I look at the term species, as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for mere convenience sake. 
> 
> Guided by theoretical considerations, I thought that some interesting results might be obtained in regard to the nature and relations of the species which vary most, by tabulating all the varieties in several well-worked floras. At first this seemed a simple task; but Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I am much indebted for valuable advice and assistance on this subject, soon convinced me that there were many difficulties, as did subsequently Dr Hooker, even in stronger terms. I shall reserve for my future work the discussion of these difficulties, and the tables themselves of the proportional numbers of the varying species. Dr Hooker permits me to add, that after having carefully read my manuscript, and examined the tables, he thinks that the following statements are fairly well established. The whole subject, however, treated as it necessarily here is with much brevity, is rather perplexing, and allusions cannot be avoided to the 'struggle for existence,' 'divergence of character,' and other questions, hereafter to be discussed. 
> 
> Alph. De Candolle and others have shown that plants which have very wide ranges generally present varieties; and this might have been expected, as they become exposed to diverse physical conditions, and as they come into competition (which, as we shall hereafter see, is a far more important circumstance) with different sets of organic beings. But my tables further show that, in any limited country, the species which are most common, that is abound most in individuals, and the species which are most widely diffused within their own country (and this is a different consideration from wide range, and to a certain extent from commonness), often give rise to varieties sufficiently well-marked to have been recorded in botanical works. Hence it is the most flourishing, or, as they may be called, the dominant species, those which range widely over the world, are the most diffused in their own country, and are the most numerous in individuals, which oftenest produce well-marked varieties, or, as I consider them, incipient species. And this, perhaps, might have been anticipated; for, as varieties, in order to become in any degree permanent, necessarily have to struggle with the other inhabitants of the country, the species which are already dominant will be the most likely to yield offspring which, though in some slight degree modified, will still inherit those advantages that enabled their parents to become dominant over their compatriots. 
> 
> If the plants inhabiting a country and described in any Flora be divided into two equal masses, all those in the larger genera being placed on one side, and all those in the smaller genera on the other side, a somewhat larger number of the very common and much diffused or dominant species will be found on the side of the larger genera. This, again, might have been anticipated; for the mere fact of many species of the same genus inhabiting any country, shows that there is something in the organic or inorganic conditions of that country favourable to the genus; and, consequently, we might have expected to have found in the larger genera, or those including many species, a large proportional number of dominant species. But so many causes tend to obscure this result, that I am surprised that my tables show even a small majority on the side of the larger genera. I will here allude to only two causes of obscurity. Fresh-water and salt-loving plants have generally very wide ranges and are much diffused, but this seems to be connected with the nature of the stations inhabited by them, and has little or no relation to the size of the genera to which the species belong. Again, plants low in the scale of organisation are generally much more widely diffused than plants higher in the scale; and here again there is no close relation to the size of the genera. The cause of lowly-organised plants ranging widely will be discussed in our chapter on geographical distribution. 
> 
> From looking at species as only strongly-marked and well-defined varieties, I was led to anticipate that the species of the larger genera in each country would oftener present varieties, than the species of the smaller genera; for wherever many closely related species (i.e. species of the same genus) have been formed, many varieties or incipient species ought, as a general rule, to be now forming. Where many large trees grow, we expect to find saplings. Where many species of a genus have been formed through variation, circumstances have been favourable for variation; and hence we might expect that the circumstances would generally be still favourable to variation. On the other hand, if we look at each species as a special act of creation, there is no apparent reason why more varieties should occur in a group having many species, than in one having few. 
> 
> To test the truth of this anticipation I have arranged the plants of twelve countries, and the coleopterous insects of two districts, into two nearly equal masses, the species of the larger genera on one side, and those of the smaller genera on the other side, and it has invariably proved to be the case that a larger proportion of the species on the side of the larger genera present varieties, than on the side of the smaller genera. Moreover, the species of the large genera which present any varieties, invariably present a larger average number of varieties than do the species of the small genera. Both these results follow when another division is made, and when all the smallest genera, with from only one to four species, are absolutely excluded from the tables. These facts are of plain signification on the view that species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties; for whenever many species of the same genus have been formed, or where, if we may use the expression, the manufactory of species has been active, we ought generally to find the manufactory still in action, more especially as we have every reason to believe the process of manufacturing new species to be a slow one. And this certainly is the case, if varieties be looked at as incipient species; for my tables clearly show as a general rule that, wherever many species of a genus have been formed, the species of that genus present a number of varieties, that is of incipient species, beyond the average. It is not that all large genera are now varying much, and are thus increasing in the number of their species, or that no small genera are now varying and increasing; for if this had been so, it would have been fatal to my theory; inasmuch as geology plainly tells us that small genera have in the lapse of time often increased greatly in size; and that large genera have often come to their maxima, declined, and disappeared. All that we want to show is, that where many species of a genus have been formed, on an average many are still forming; and this holds good. 
> 
> There are other relations between the species of large genera and their recorded varieties which deserve notice. We have seen that there is no infallible criterion by which to distinguish species and well-marked varieties; and in those cases in which intermediate links have not been found between doubtful forms, naturalists are compelled to come to a determination by the amount of difference between them, judging by analogy whether or not the amount suffices to raise one or both to the rank of species. Hence the amount of difference is one very important criterion in settling whether two forms should be ranked as species or varieties. Now Fries has remarked in regard to plants, and Westwood in regard to insects, that in large genera the amount of difference between the species is often exceedingly small. I have endeavoured to test this numerically by averages, and, as far as my imperfect results go, they always confirm the view. I have also consulted some sagacious and most experienced observers, and, after deliberation, they concur in this view. In this respect, therefore, the species of the larger genera resemble varieties, more than do the species of the smaller genera. Or the case may be put in another way, and it may be said, that in the larger genera, in which a number of varieties or incipient species greater than the average are now manufacturing, many of the species already manufactured still to a certain extent resemble varieties, for they differ from each other by a less than usual amount of difference. 
> 
> Moreover, the species of the large genera are related to each other, in the same manner as the varieties of any one species are related to each other. No naturalist pretends that all the species of a genus are equally distinct from each other; they may generally be divided into sub-genera, or sections, or lesser groups. As Fries has well remarked, little groups of species are generally clustered like satellites around certain other species. And what are varieties but groups of forms, unequally related to each other, and clustered round certain forms that is, round their parent-species? Undoubtedly there is one most important point of difference between varieties and species; namely, that the amount of difference between varieties, when compared with each other or with their parent-species, is much less than that between the species of the same genus. But when we come to discuss the principle, as I call it, of Divergence of Character, we shall see how this may be explained, and how the lesser differences between varieties will tend to increase into the greater differences between species. 
> 
> There is one other point which seems to me worth notice. Varieties generally have much restricted ranges: this statement is indeed scarcely more than a truism, for if a variety were found to have a wider range than that of its supposed parent-species, their denominations ought to be reversed. But there is also reason to believe, that those species which are very closely allied to other species, and in so far resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges. For instance, Mr H. C. Watson has marked for me in the well-sifted London Catalogue of plants (4th edition) 63 plants which are therein ranked as species, but which he considers as so closely allied to other species as to be of doubtful value: these 63 reputed species range on an average over 6.9 of the provinces into which Mr Watson has divided Great Britain. Now, in this same catalogue, 53 acknowledged varieties are recorded, and these range over 7.7 provinces; whereas, the species to which these varieties belong range over 14.3 provinces. So that the acknowledged varieties have very nearly the same restricted average range, as have those very closely allied forms, marked for me by Mr Watson as doubtful species, but which are almost universally ranked by British botanists as good and true species. 
> 
> Finally, then, varieties have the same general characters as species, for they cannot be distinguished from species, except, firstly, by the discovery of intermediate linking forms, and the occurrence of such links cannot affect the actual characters of the forms which they connect; and except, secondly, by a certain amount of difference, for two forms, if differing very little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding that intermediate linking forms have not been discovered; but the amount of difference considered necessary to give to two forms the rank of species is quite indefinite. In genera having more than the average number of species in any country, the species of these genera have more than the average number of varieties. In large genera the species are apt to be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters round certain species. Species very closely allied to other species apparently have restricted ranges. In all these several respects the species of large genera present a strong analogy with varieties. And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated: whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created. 
> 
> We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing and dominant species of the larger genera which on an average vary most; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to become converted into new and distinct species. The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants. But by steps hereafter to be explained, the larger genera also tend to break up into smaller genera. And thus, the forms of life throughout the universe become divided into groups subordinate to groups.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Talk|985491872
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> Should these be put in subcategories, as:
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>  [[The Origin of Species/Chapter 1]]
>  [[The Origin of Species/Chapter 2]]
>  etc.?
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Chapter_3_-_Struggle_for_Existence|985491912
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> BEF0RE entering on the subject of this chapter, I must make a few preliminary remarks, to show how the struggle for existence bears on Natural Selection. It has been seen in the last chapter that amongst organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability; indeed I am not aware that this has ever been disputed. It is immaterial for us whether a multitude of doubtful forms be called species or sub-species or varieties; what rank, for instance, the two or three hundred doubtful forms of British plants are entitled to hold, if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted. But the mere existence of individual variability and of some few well-marked varieties, though necessary as the foundation for the work, helps us but little in understanding how species arise in nature. How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organisation to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected? We see these beautiful co-adaptations most plainly in the woodpecker and missletoe; and only a little less plainly in the humblest parasite which clings to the hairs of a quadruped or feathers of a bird; in the structure of the beetle which dives through the water; in the plumed seed which is wafted by the gentlest breeze; in short, we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world. 
> 
> Again, it may be asked, how is it that varieties, which I have called incipient species, become ultimately converted into good and distinct species, which in most cases obviously differ from each other far more than do the varieties of the same species? How do those groups of species, which constitute what are called distinct genera, and which differ from each other more than do the species of the same genus, arise? All these results, as we shall more fully see in the next chapter, follow inevitably from the struggle for life. Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring. The offspring, also, will thus have a better chance of surviving, for, of the many individuals of any species which are periodically born, but a small number can survive. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. We have seen that man by selection can certainly produce great results, and can adapt organic beings to his own uses, through the accumulation of slight but useful variations, given to him by the hand of Nature. But Natural Selection, as we shall hereafter see, is a power incessantly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble efforts, as the works of Nature are to those of Art. 
> 
> We will now discuss in a little more detail the struggle for existence. In my future work this subject shall be treated, as it well deserves, at much greater length. The elder De Candolle and Lyell have largely and philosophically shown that all organic beings are exposed to severe competition. In regard to plants, no one has treated this subject with more spirit and ability than W. Herbert, Dean of Manchester, evidently the result of his great horticultural knowledge. Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult at least I have found it so than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, I am convinced that the whole economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood. We behold the face of nature bright with gladness, we often see superabundance of food; we do not see, or we forget, that the birds which are idly singing round us mostly live on insects or seeds, and are thus constantly destroying life; or we forget how largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings are destroyed by birds and beasts of prey; we do not always bear in mind, that though food may be now superabundant, it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year. 
> 
> I should premise that I use the term Struggle for Existence in a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another, and including (which is more important) not only the life of the individual, but success in leaving progeny. Two canine animals in a time of dearth, may be truly said to struggle with each other which shall get food and live. But a plant on the edge of a desert is said to struggle for life against the drought, though more properly it should be said to be dependent on the moisture. A plant which annually produces a thousand seeds, of which on an average only one comes to maturity, may be more truly said to struggle with the plants of the same and other kinds which already clothe the ground. The missletoe is dependent on the apple and a few other trees, but can only in a far-fetched sense be said to struggle with these trees, for if too many of these parasites grow on the same tree, it will languish and die. But several seedling missletoes, growing close together on the same branch, may more truly be said to struggle with each other. As the missletoe is disseminated by birds, its existence depends on birds; and it may metaphorically be said to struggle with other fruit-bearing plants, in order to tempt birds to devour and thus disseminate its seeds rather than those of other plants. In these several senses, which pass into each other, I use for convenience sake the general term of struggle for existence. 
> 
> A struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase. Every being, which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, must suffer destruction during some period of its life, and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product. Hence, as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage. Although some species may be now increasing, more or less rapidly, in numbers, all cannot do so, for the world would not hold them. 
> 
> There is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate, that if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years, and at this rate, in a few thousand years, there would literally not be standing room for his progeny. Linnaeus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds and there is no plant so unproductive as this and their seedlings next year produced two, and so on, then in twenty years there would be a million plants. The elephant is reckoned to be the slowest breeder of all known animals, and I have taken some pains to estimate its probable minimum rate of natural increase: it will be under the mark to assume that it breeds when thirty years old, and goes on breeding till ninety years old, bringing forth three pairs of young in this interval; if this be so, at the end of the fifth century there would be alive fifteen million elephants, descended from the first pair. 
> 
> But we have better evidence on this subject than mere theoretical calculations, namely, the numerous recorded cases of the astonishingly rapid increase of various animals in a state of nature, when circumstances have been favourable to them during two or three following seasons. Still more striking is the evidence from our domestic animals of many kinds which have run wild in several parts of the world: if the statements of the rate of increase of slow-breeding cattle and horses in South America, and latterly in Australia, had not been well authenticated, they would have been quite incredible. So it is with plants: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years, Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been introduced from Europe; and there are plants which now range in India, as I hear from Dr Falconer, from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya, which have been imported from America since its discovery. In such cases, and endless instances could be given, no one supposes that the fertility of these animals or plants has been suddenly and temporarily increased in any sensible degree. The obvious explanation is that the conditions of life have been very favourable, and that there has consequently been less destruction of the old and young, and that nearly all the young have been enabled to breed. In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalised productions in their new homes. 
> 
> In a state of nature almost every plant produces seed, and amongst animals there are very few which do not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert, that all plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio, that all would most rapidly stock every station in which they could any how exist, and that the geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals tends, I think, to mislead us: we see no great destruction falling on them, and we forget that thousands are annually slaughtered for food, and that in a state of nature an equal number would have somehow to be disposed of. 
> 
> The only difference between organisms which annually produce eggs or seeds by the thousand, and those which produce extremely few, is, that the slow-breeders would require a few more years to people, under favourable conditions, a whole district, let it be ever so large. The condor lays a couple of eggs and the ostrich a score, and yet in the same country the condor may be the more numerous of the two: the Fulmar petrel lays but one egg, yet it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world. One fly deposits hundreds of eggs, and another, like the hippobosca, a single one; but this difference does not determine how many individuals of the two species can be supported in a district. A large number of eggs is of some importance to those species, which depend on a rapidly fluctuating amount of food, for it allows them rapidly to increase in number. But the real importance of a large number of eggs or seeds is to make up for much destruction at some period of life; and this period in the great majority of cases is an early one. If an animal can in any way protect its own eggs or young, a small number may be produced, and yet the average stock be fully kept up; but if many eggs or young are destroyed, many must be produced, or the species will become extinct. It would suffice to keep up the full number of a tree, which lived on an average for a thousand years, if a single seed were produced once in a thousand years, supposing that this seed were never destroyed, and could be ensured to germinate in a fitting place. So that in all cases, the average number of any animal or plant depends only indirectly on the number of its eggs or seeds. 
> 
> In looking at Nature, it is most necessary to keep the foregoing considerations always in mind never to forget that every single organic being around us may be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction inevitably falls either on the young or old, during each generation or at recurrent intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so little, and the number of the species will almost instantaneously increase to any amount. The face of Nature may be compared to a yielding surface, with ten thousand sharp wedges packed close together and driven inwards by incessant blows, sometimes one wedge being struck, and then another with greater force. 
> 
> What checks the natural tendency of each species to increase in number is most obscure. Look at the most vigorous species; by as much as it swarms in numbers, by so much will its tendency to increase be still further increased. We know not exactly what the checks are in even one single instance. Nor will this surprise any one who reflects how ignorant we are on this head, even in regard to mankind, so incomparably better known than any other animal. This subject has been ably treated by several authors, and I shall, in my future work, discuss some of the checks at considerable length, more especially in regard to the feral animals of South America. Here I will make only a few remarks, just to recall to the reader's mind some of the chief points. Eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer most, but this is not invariably the case. With plants there is a vast destruction of seeds, but, from some observations which I have made, I believe that it is the seedlings which suffer most from germinating in ground already thickly stocked with other plants. Seedlings, also, are destroyed in vast numbers by various enemies; for instance, on a piece of ground three feet long and two wide, dug and cleared, and where there could be no choking from other plants, I marked all the seedlings of our native weeds as they came up, and out of the 357 no less than 295 were destroyed, chiefly by slugs and insects. If turf which has long been mown, and the case would be the same with turf closely browsed by quadrupeds, be let to grow, the more vigorous plants gradually kill the less vigorous, though fully grown, plants: thus out of twenty species growing on a little plot of turf (three feet by four) nine species perished from the other species being allowed to grow up freely. 
> 
> The amount of food for each species of course gives the extreme limit to which each can increase; but very frequently it is not the obtaining food, but the serving as prey to other animals, which determines the average numbers of a species. Thus, there seems to be little doubt that the stock of partridges, grouse, and hares on any large estate depends chiefly on the destruction of vermin. If not one head of game were shot during the next twenty years in England, and, at the same time, if no vermin were destroyed, there would, in all probability, be less game than at present, although hundreds of thousands of game animals are now annually killed. On the other hand, in some cases, as with the elephant and rhinoceros, none are destroyed by beasts of prey: even the tiger in India most rarely dares to attack a young elephant protected by its dam. 
> 
> Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought, I believe to be the most effective of all checks. I estimated that the winter of 1854-55 destroyed four-fifths of the birds in my own grounds; and this is a tremendous destruction, when we remember that ten per cent. is an extraordinarily severe mortality from epidemics with man. The action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent of the struggle for existence; but in so far as climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same kind of food. Even when climate, for instance extreme cold, acts directly, it will be the least vigorous, or those which have got least food through the advancing winter, which will suffer most. When we travel from south to north, or from a damp region to a dry, we invariably see some species gradually getting rarer and rarer, and finally disappearing; and the change of climate being conspicuous, we are tempted to attribute the whole effect to its direct action. But this is a very false view: we forget that each species, even where it most abounds, is constantly suffering enormous destruction at some period of its life, from enemies or from competitors for the same place and food; and if these enemies or competitors be in the least degree favoured by any slight change of climate, they will increase in numbers, and, as each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants, the other species will decrease. When we travel southward and see a species decreasing in numbers, we may feel sure that the cause lies quite as much in other species being favoured, as in this one being hurt. So it is when we travel northward, but in a somewhat lesser degree, for the number of species of all kinds, and therefore of competitors, decreases northwards; hence in going northward, or in ascending a mountain, we far oftener meet with stunted forms, due to the directly injurious action of climate, than we do in proceeding southwards or in descending a mountain. When we reach the Arctic regions, or snow-capped summits, or absolute deserts, the struggle for life is almost exclusively with the elements. 
> 
> That climate acts in main part indirectly by favouring other species, we may clearly see in the prodigious number of plants in our gardens which can perfectly well endure our climate, but which never become naturalised, for they cannot compete with our native plants, nor resist destruction by our native animals. 
> 
> When a species, owing to highly favourable circumstances, increases inordinately in numbers in a small tract, epidemics at least, this seems generally to occur with our game animals often ensue: and here we have a limiting check independent of the struggle for life. But even some of these so-called epidemics appear to be due to parasitic worms, which have from some cause, possibly in part through facility of diffusion amongst the crowded animals, been disproportionably favoured: and here comes in a sort of struggle between the parasite and its prey. 
> 
> On the other hand, in many cases, a large stock of individuals of the same species, relatively to the numbers of its enemies, is absolutely necessary for its preservation. Thus we can easily raise plenty of corn and rape-seed, &c., in our fields, because the seeds are in great excess compared with the number of birds which feed on them; nor can the birds, though having a superabundance of food at this one season, increase in number proportionally to the supply of seed, as their numbers are checked during winter: but any one who has tried, knows how troublesome it is to get seed from a few wheat or other such plants in a garden; I have in this case lost every single seed. This view of the necessity of a large stock of the same species for its preservation, explains, I believe, some singular facts in nature, such as that of very rare plants being sometimes extremely abundant in the few spots where they do occur; and that of some social plants being social, that is, abounding in individuals, even on the extreme confines of their range. For in such cases, we may believe, that a plant could exist only where the conditions of its life were so favourable that many could exist together, and thus save each other from utter destruction. I should add that the good effects of frequent intercrossing, and the ill effects of close interbreeding, probably come into play in some of these cases; but on this intricate subject I will not here enlarge. 
> 
> Many cases are on record showing how complex and unexpected are the checks and relations between organic beings, which have to struggle together in the same country. I will give only a single instance, which, though a simple one, has interested me. In Staffordshire, on the estate of a relation where I had ample means of investigation, there was a large and extremely barren heath, which had never been touched by the hand of man; but several hundred acres of exactly the same nature had been enclosed twenty-five years previously and planted with Scotch fir. The change in the native vegetation of the planted part of the heath was most remarkable, more than is generally seen in passing from one quite different soil to another: not only the proportional numbers of the heath-plants were wholly changed, but twelve species of plants (not counting grasses and carices) flourished in the plantations, which could not be found on the heath. The effect on the insects must have been still greater, for six insectivorous birds were very common in the plantations, which were not to be seen on the heath; and the heath was frequented by two or three distinct insectivorous birds. Here we see how potent has been the effect of the introduction of a single tree, nothing whatever else having been done, with the exception that the land had been enclosed, so that cattle could not enter. But how important an element enclosure is, I plainly saw near Farnham, in Surrey. Here there are extensive heaths, with a few clumps of old Scotch firs on the distant hill-tops: within the last ten years large spaces have been enclosed, and self-sown firs are now springing up in multitudes, so close together that all cannot live. When I ascertained that these young trees had not been sown or planted, I was so much surprised at their numbers that I went to several points of view, whence I could examine hundreds of acres of the unenclosed heath, and literally I could not see a single Scotch fir, except the old planted clumps. But on looking closely between the stems of the heath, I found a multitude of seedlings and little trees, which had been perpetually browsed down by the cattle. In one square yard, at a point some hundreds yards distant from one of the old clumps, I counted thirty-two little trees; and one of them, judging from the rings of growth, had during twenty-six years tried to raise its head above the stems of the heath, and had failed. No wonder that, as soon as the land was enclosed, it became thickly clothed with vigorously growing young firs. Yet the heath was so extremely barren and so extensive that no one would ever have imagined that cattle would have so closely and effectually searched it for food. 
> 
> Here we see that cattle absolutely determine the existence of the Scotch fir; but in several parts of the world insects determine the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually checked by some means, probably by birds. Hence, if certain insectivorous birds (whose numbers are probably regulated by hawks or beasts of prey) were to increase in Paraguay, the flies would decrease then cattle and horses would become feral, and this would certainly greatly alter (as indeed I have observed in parts of South America) the vegetation: this again would largely affect the insects; and this, as we just have seen in Staffordshire, the insectivorous birds, and so onwards in ever-increasing circles of complexity. We began this series by insectivorous birds, and we have ended with them. Not that in nature the relations can ever be as simple as this. Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another. Nevertheless so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life! 
> 
> I am tempted to give one more instance showing how plants and animals, most remote in the scale of nature, are bound together by a web of complex relations. I shall hereafter have occasion to show that the exotic Lobelia fulgens, in this part of England, is never visited by insects, and consequently, from its peculiar structure, never can set a seed. Many of our orchidaceous plants absolutely require the visits of moths to remove their pollen-masses and thus to fertilise them. I have, also, reason to believe that humble-bees are indispensable to the fertilisation of the heartsease (Viola tricolor), for other bees do not visit this flower. From experiments which I have tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are at least highly beneficial to the fertilisation of our clovers; but humble-bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot reach the nectar. Hence I have very little doubt, that if the whole genus of humble-bees became extinct or very rare in England, the heartsease and red clover would become very rare, or wholly disappear. The number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great degree on the number of field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and Mr H. Newman, who has long attended to the habits of humble-bees, believes that 'more than two thirds of them are thus destroyed all over England.' Now the number of mice is largely dependent, as every one knows, on the number of cats; and Mr Newman says, 'Near villages and small towns I have found the nests of humble-bees more numerous than elsewhere, which I attribute to the number of cats that destroy the mice.' Hence it is quite credible that the presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district might determine, through the intervention first of mice and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in that district! 
> 
> In the case of every species, many different checks, acting at different periods of life, and during different seasons or years, probably come into play; some one check or some few being generally the most potent, but all concurring in determining the average number or even the existence of the species. In some cases it can be shown that widely-different checks act on the same species in different districts. When we look at the plants and bushes clothing an entangled bank, we are tempted to attribute their proportional numbers and kinds to what we call chance. But how false a view is this! Every one has heard that when an American forest is cut down, a very different vegetation springs up; but it has been observed that the trees now growing on the ancient Indian mounds, in the Southern United States, display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding virgin forests. What a struggle between the several kinds of trees must here have gone on during long centuries, each annually scattering its seeds by the thousand; what war between insect and insect between insects, snails, and other animals with birds and beasts of prey all striving to increase, and all feeding on each other or on the trees or their seeds and seedlings, or on the other plants which first clothed the ground and thus checked the growth of the trees! Throw up a handful of feathers, and all must fall to the ground according to definite laws; but how simple is this problem compared to the action and reaction of the innumerable plants and animals which have determined, in the course of centuries, the proportional numbers and kinds of trees now growing on the old Indian ruins! 
> 
> The dependency of one organic being on another, as of a parasite on its prey, lies generally between beings remote in the scale of nature. This is often the case with those which may strictly be said to struggle with each other for existence, as in the case of locusts and grass-feeding quadrupeds. But the struggle almost invariably will be most severe between the individuals of the same species, for they frequent the same districts, require the same food, and are exposed to the same dangers. In the case of varieties of the same species, the struggle will generally be almost equally severe, and we sometimes see the contest soon decided: for instance, if several varieties of wheat be sown together, and the mixed seed be resown, some of the varieties which best suit the soil or climate, or are naturally the most fertile, will beat the others and so yield more seed, and will consequently in a few years quite supplant the other varieties. To keep up a mixed stock of even such extremely close varieties as the variously coloured sweet-peas, they must be each year harvested separately, and the seed then mixed in due proportion, otherwise the weaker kinds will steadily decrease in numbers and disappear. So again with the varieties of sheep: it has been asserted that certain mountain-varieties will starve out other mountain-varieties, so that they cannot be kept together. The same result has followed from keeping together different varieties of the medicinal leech. It may even be doubted whether the varieties of any one of our domestic plants or animals have so exactly the same strength, habits, and constitution, that the original proportions of a mixed stock could be kept up for half a dozen generations, if they were allowed to struggle together, like beings in a state of nature, and if the seed or young were not annually sorted. 
> 
> As species of the same genus have usually, though by no means invariably, some similarity in habits and constitution, and always in structure, the struggle will generally be more severe between species of the same genus, when they come into competition with each other, than between species of distinct genera. We see this in the recent extension over parts of the United States of one species of swallow having caused the decrease of another species. The recent increase of the missel-thrush in parts of Scotland has caused the decrease of the song-thrush. How frequently we hear of one species of rat taking the place of another species under the most different climates! In Russia the small Asiatic cockroach has everywhere driven before it its great congener. One species of charlock will supplant another, and so in other cases. We can dimly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms, which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature; but probably in no one case could we precisely say why one species has been victorious over another in the great battle of life. 
> 
> A corollary of the highest importance may be deduced from the foregoing remarks, namely, that the structure of every organic being is related, in the most essential yet often hidden manner, to that of all other organic beings, with which it comes into competition for food or residence, or from which it has to escape, or on which it preys. This is obvious in the structure of the teeth and talons of the tiger; and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite which clings to the hair on the tiger's body. But in the beautifully plumed seed of the dandelion, and in the flattened and fringed legs of the water-beetle, the relation seems at first confined to the elements of air and water. Yet the advantage of plumed seeds no doubt stands in the closest relation to the land being already thickly clothed by other plants; so that the seeds may be widely distributed and fall on unoccupied ground. In the water-beetle, the structure of its legs, so well adapted for diving, allows it to compete with other aquatic insects, to hunt for its own prey, and to escape serving as prey to other animals. 
> 
> The store of nutriment laid up within the seeds of many plants seems at first sight to have no sort of relation to other plants. But from the strong growth of young plants produced from such seeds (as peas and beans), when sown in the midst of long grass, I suspect that the chief use of the nutriment in the seed is to favour the growth of the young seedling, whilst struggling with other plants growing vigorously all around. 
> 
> Look at a plant in the midst of its range, why does it not double or quadruple its numbers? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold, dampness or dryness, for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder, damper or drier districts. In this case we can clearly see that if we wished in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number, we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors, or over the animals which preyed on it. On the confines of its geographical range, a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant; but we have reason to believe that only a few plants or animals range so far, that they are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone. Not until we reach the extreme confines of life, in the arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert, will competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yet there will be competition between some few species, or between the individuals of the same species, for the warmest or dampest spots. 
> 
> Hence, also, we can see that when a plant or animal is placed in a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. If we wished to increase its average numbers in its new home, we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have done in its native country; for we should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies. 
> 
> It is good thus to try in our imagination to give any form some advantage over another. Probably in no single instance should we know what to do, so as to succeed. It will convince us of our ignorance on the mutual relations of all organic beings; a conviction as necessary, as it seems to be difficult to acquire. All that we can do, is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ratio; that each at some period of its life, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.
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< #[[Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation]] 
< #[[Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory]] 
< #[[Chapter 7 - Instinct]] 
< #[[Chapter 8 - Hybridism]]
< #[[Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record]] 
< #[[Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings]] 
< #[[Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution]] 
< #[[Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued]] 
< #[[Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs]] 
< #[[Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion]] 
< #[[Glossary for Origin]]
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> #[[/Chapter 4 - Natural Selection]]
> #[[/Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation]] 
> #[[/Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory]] 
> #[[/Chapter 7 - Instinct]] 
> #[[/Chapter 8 - Hybridism]]
> #[[/Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record]] 
> #[[/Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings]] 
> #[[/Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution]] 
> #[[/Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued]] 
> #[[/Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs]] 
> #[[/Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion]] 
> #[[/Glossary for Origin]]
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> * Notes on [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
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> #[[/Chapter 4]] - Natural Selection
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< #[[/Chapter 5 - Laws of Variation]] 
< #[[/Chapter 6 - Difficulties on Theory]] 
< #[[/Chapter 7 - Instinct]] 
< #[[/Chapter 8 - Hybridism]]
< #[[/Chapter 9 - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record]] 
< #[[/Chapter 10 - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings]] 
< #[[/Chapter 11 - Geographical Distribution]] 
< #[[/Chapter 12 - Geographical Distribution continued]] 
< #[[/Chapter 13 - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs]] 
< #[[/Chapter 14 - Recapitulation and Conclusion]] 
< #[[/Glossary for Origin]]
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> #[[/Chapter 5]] - Laws of Variation 
> #[[/Chapter 6]] - Difficulties on Theory 
> #[[/Chapter 7]] - Instinct 
> #[[/Chapter 8]] - Hybridism
> #[[/Chapter 9]] - On the Imperfection of the Geological Record 
> #[[/Chapter 10]] - On The Geological Succession of Organic Beings 
> #[[/Chapter 11]] - Geographical Distribution 
> #[[/Chapter 12]] - Geographical Distribution continued
> #[[/Chapter 13]] - Mutual Affinities of Organic Beings: Morphology: Embryology: Rudimentary Organs 
> #[[/Chapter 14]] - Recapitulation and Conclusion 
> #[[/Glossary]]
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The_Origin_of_Species/Talk|985492240
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> Implimenting as I type ... [[jmlynch]]
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_4|985492510
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> ''Need to scan darwin's figure''
> 
> How will the struggle for existence, discussed too briefly in the last chapter, act in regard to variation? Can the principle of selection, which we have seen is so potent in the hands of man, apply in nature? I think we shall see that it can act most effectually. Let it be borne in mind in what an endless number of strange peculiarities our domestic productions, and, in a lesser degree, those under nature, vary; and how strong the hereditary tendency is. Under domestication, it may be truly said that the, whole organisation becomes in some degree plastic. Let it be borne in mind how infinitely complex and close-fitting are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life. Can it, then, be thought improbable, seeing that variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred, that other variations useful in some way to each being in the great and complex battle of life, should sometimes occur in the course of thousands of generations? If such do occur, can we doubt (remembering that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive) that individuals having any advantage, however slight, over others, would have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind? On the other hand, we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed. This preservation of favourable variations and the rejection of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection. Variations neither useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection, and would be left a fluctuating element, as perhaps we see in the species called polymorphic. 
> 
> We shall best understand the probable course of natural selection by taking the case of a country undergoing some physical change, for instance, of climate. The proportional numbers of its inhabitants would almost immediately undergo a change, and some species might become extinct. We may conclude, from what we have seen of the intimate and complex manner in which the inhabitants of each country are bound together, that any change in the numerical proportions of some of the inhabitants, independently of the change of climate itself, would most seriously affect many of the others. If the country were open on its borders, new forms would certainly immigrate, and this also would seriously disturb the relations of some of the former inhabitants. Let it be remembered how powerful the influence of a single introduced tree or mammal has been shown to be. But in the case of an island, or of a country partly surrounded by barriers, into which new and better adapted forms could not freely enter, we should then have places in the economy of nature which would assuredly be better filled up, if some of the original inhabitants were in some manner modified; for, had the area been open to immigration, these same places would have been seized on by intruders. In such case, every slight modification, which in the course of ages chanced to arise, and which in any way favoured the individuals of any of the species, by better adapting them to their altered conditions, would tend to be preserved; and natural selection would thus have free scope for the work of improvement. 
> 
> We have reason to believe, as stated in the first chapter, that a change in the conditions of life, by specially acting on the reproductive system, causes or increases variability; and in the foregoing case the conditions of life are supposed to have undergone a change, and this would manifestly be favourable to natural selection, by giving a better chance of profitable variations occurring; and unless profitable variations do occur, natural selection can do nothing. Not that, as I believe, any extreme amount of variability is necessary; as man can certainly produce great results by adding up in any given direction mere individual differences, so could Nature, but far more easily, from having incomparably longer time at her disposal. Nor do I believe that any great physical change, as of climate, or any unusual degree of isolation to check immigration, is actually necessary to produce new and unoccupied places for natural selection to fill up by modifying and improving some of the varying inhabitants. For as all the inhabitants of each country are struggling together with nicely balanced forces, extremely slight modifications in the structure or habits of one inhabitant would often give it an advantage over others; and still further modifications of the same kind would often still further increase the advantage. No country can be named in which all the native inhabitants are now so perfectly adapted to each other and to the physical conditions under which they live, that none of them could anyhow be improved; for in all countries, the natives have been so far conquered by naturalised productions, that they have allowed foreigners to take firm possession of the land. And as foreigners have thus everywhere beaten some of the natives, we may safely conclude that the natives might have been modified with advantage, so as to have better resisted such intruders. 
> 
> As man can produce and certainly has produced a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of selection, what may not nature effect? Man can act only on external and visible characters: nature cares nothing for appearances, except in so far as they may be useful to any being. She can act on every internal organ, on every shade of constitutional difference, on the whole machinery of life. Man selects only for his own good; Nature only for that of the being which she tends. Every selected character is fully exercised by her; and the being is placed under well-suited conditions of life. Man keeps the natives of many climates in the same country; he seldom exercises each selected character in some peculiar and fitting manner; he feeds a long and a short beaked pigeon on the same food; he does not exercise a long-backed or long-legged quadruped in any peculiar manner; he exposes sheep with long and short wool to the same climate. He does not allow the most vigorous males to struggle for the females. He does not rigidly destroy all inferior animals, but protects during each varying season, as far as lies in his power, all his productions. He often begins his selection by some half-monstrous form; or at least by some modification prominent enough to catch his eye, or to be plainly useful to him. Under nature, the slightest difference of structure or constitution may well turn the nicely-balanced scale in the struggle for life, and so be preserved. How fleeting are the wishes and efforts of man! how short his time! and consequently how poor will his products be, compared with those accumulated by nature during whole geological periods. Can we wonder, then, that nature's productions should be far 'truer' in character than man's productions; that they should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life, and should plainly bear the stamp of far higher workmanship? 
> 
> It may be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinising, throughout the world, every variation, even the slightest; rejecting that which is bad, preserving and adding up all that is good; silently and insensibly working, whenever and wherever opportunity offers, at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life. We see nothing of these slow changes in progress, until the hand of time has marked the long lapses of ages, and then so imperfect is our view into long past geological ages, that we only see that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were. 
> 
> Although natural selection can act only through and for the good of each being, yet characters and structures, which we are apt to consider as of very trifling importance, may thus be acted on. When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the red-grouse the colour of heather, and the black-grouse that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey, so much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant. Nor ought we to think that the occasional destruction of an animal of any particular colour would produce little effect: we should remember how essential it is in a flock of white sheep to destroy every lamb with the faintest trace of black. In plants the down on the fruit and the colour of the flesh are considered by botanists as characters of the most trifling importance: yet we hear from an excellent horticulturist, Downing, that in the United States smooth-skinned fruits suffer far more from a beetle, a curculio, than those with down; that purple plums suffer far more from a certain disease than yellow plums; whereas another disease attacks yellow-fleshed peaches far more than those with other coloured flesh. If, with all the aids of art, these slight differences make a great difference in cultivating the several varieties, assuredly, in a state of nature, where the trees would have to struggle with other trees and with a host of enemies, such differences would effectually settle which variety, whether a smooth or downy, a yellow or purple fleshed fruit, should succeed. 
> 
> In looking at many small points of difference between species, which, as far as our ignorance permits us to judge, seem to be quite unimportant, we must not forget that climate, food, &c., probably produce some slight and direct effect. It is, however, far more necessary to bear in mind that there are many unknown laws of correlation of growth, which, when one part of the organisation is modified through variation, and the modifications are accumulated by natural selection for the good of the being, will cause other modifications, often of the most unexpected nature. 
> 
> As we see that those variations which under domestication appear at any particular period of life, tend to reappear in the offspring at the same period; for instance, in the seeds of the many varieties of our culinary and agricultural plants; in the caterpillar and cocoon stages of the varieties of the silkworm; in the eggs of poultry, and in the colour of the down of their chickens; in the horns of our sheep and cattle when nearly adult; so in a state of nature, natural selection will be enabled to act on and modify organic beings at any age, by the accumulation of profitable variations at that age, and by their inheritance at a corresponding age. If it profit a plant to have its seeds more and more widely disseminated by the wind, I can see no greater difficulty in this being effected through natural selection, than in the cotton-planter increasing and improving by selection the down in the pods on his cotton-trees. Natural selection may modify and adapt the larva of an insect to a score of contingencies, wholly different from those which concern the mature insect. These modifications will no doubt affect, through the laws of correlation, the structure of the adult; and probably in the case of those insects which live only for a few hours, and which never feed, a large part of their structure is merely the correlated result of successive changes in the structure of their larvae. So, conversely, modifications in the adult will probably often affect the structure of the larva; but in all cases natural selection will ensure that modifications consequent on other modifications at a different period of life, shall not be in the least degree injurious: for if they became so, they would cause the extinction of the species. 
> 
> Natural selection will modify the structure of the young in relation to the parent, and of the parent in relation to the young. In social animals it will adapt the structure of each individual for the benefit of the community; if each in consequence profits by the selected change. What natural selection cannot do, is to modify the structure of one species, without giving it any advantage, for the good of another species; and though statements to this effect may be found in works of natural history, I cannot find one case which will bear investigation. A structure used only once in an animal's whole life, if of high importance to it, might be modified to any extent by natural selection; for instance, the great jaws possessed by certain insects, and used exclusively for opening the cocoon or the hard tip to the beak of nestling birds, used for breaking the egg. It has been asserted, that of the best short-beaked tumbler-pigeons more perish in the egg than are able to get out of it; so that fanciers assist in the act of hatching. Now, if nature had to make the beak of a full-grown pigeon very short for the bird's own advantage, the process of modification would be very slow, and there would be simultaneously the most rigorous selection of the young birds within the egg, which had the most powerful and hardest beaks, for all with weak beaks would inevitably perish: or, more delicate and more easily broken shells might be selected, the thickness of the shell being known to vary like every other structure. 
> 
> Sexual Selection
> 
> Inasmuch as peculiarities often appear under domestication in one sex and become hereditarily attached to that sex, the same fact probably occurs under nature, and if so, natural selection will be able to modify one sex in its functional relations to the other sex, or in relation to wholly different habits of life in the two sexes, as is sometimes the case with insects. And this leads me to say a few words on what I call Sexual Selection. This depends, not on a struggle for existence, but on a struggle between the males for possession of the females; the result is not death to the unsuccessful competitor, but few or no offspring. Sexual selection is, therefore, less rigorous than natural selection. Generally, the most vigorous males, those which are best fitted for their places in nature, will leave most progeny. But in many cases, victory will depend not on general vigour, but on having special weapons, confined to the male sex. A hornless stag or spurless cock would have a poor chance of leaving offspring. Sexual selection by always allowing the victor to breed might surely give indomitable courage, length to the spur, and strength to the wing to strike in the spurred leg, as well as the brutal cock-fighter, who knows well that he can improve his breed by careful selection of the best cocks. How low in the scale of nature this law of battle descends, I know not; male alligators have been described as fighting, bellowing, and whirling round, like Indians in a war-dance, for the possession of the females; male salmons have been seen fighting all day long; male stag-beetles often bear wounds from the huge mandibles of other males. The war is, perhaps, severest between the males of polygamous animals, and these seem oftenest provided with special weapons. The males of carnivorous animals are already well armed; though to them and to others, special means of defence may be given through means of sexual selection, as the mane to the lion, the shoulder-pad to the boar, and the hooked jaw to the male salmon; for the shield may be as important for victory, as the sword or spear. 
> 
> Amongst birds, the contest is often of a more peaceful character. All those who have attended to the subject, believe that there is the severest rivalry between the males of many species to attract by singing the females. The rock-thrush of Guiana, birds of paradise, and some others, congregate; and successive males display their gorgeous plumage and perform strange antics before the females, which standing by as spectators, at last choose the most attractive partner. Those who have closely attended to birds in confinement well know that they often take individual preferences and dislikes: thus Sir R. Heron has described how one pied peacock was eminently attractive to all his hen birds. It may appear childish to attribute any effect to such apparently weak means: I cannot here enter on the details necessary to support this view; but if man can in a short time give elegant carriage and beauty to his bantams, according to his standard of beauty, I can see no good reason to doubt that female birds, by selecting, during thousands of generations, the most melodious or beautiful males, according to their standard of beauty, might produce a marked effect. I strongly suspect that some well-known laws with respect to the plumage of male and female birds, in comparison with the plumage of the young, can be explained on the view of plumage having been chiefly modified by sexual selection, acting when the birds have come to the breeding age or during the breeding season; the modifications thus produced being inherited at corresponding ages or seasons, either by the males alone, or by the males and females; but I have not space here to enter on this subject. 
> 
> Thus it is, as I believe, that when the males and females of any animal have the same general habits of life, but differ in structure, colour, or ornament, such differences have been mainly caused by sexual selection; that is, individual males have had, in successive generations, some slight advantage over other males, in their weapons, means of defence, or charms; and have transmitted these advantages to their male offspring. Yet, I would not wish to attribute all such sexual differences to this agency: for we see peculiarities arising and becoming attached to the male sex in our domestic animals (as the wattle in male carriers, horn-like protuberances in the cocks of certain fowls, &c.), which we cannot believe to be either useful to the males in battle, or attractive to the females. We see analogous cases under nature, for instance, the tuft of hair on the breast of the turkey-cock, which can hardly be either useful or ornamental to this bird; indeed, had the tuft appeared under domestication, it would have been called a monstrosity. 
> 
> Illustrations of the action of Natural Selection
> 
> In order to make it clear how, as I believe, natural selection acts, I must beg permission to give one or two imaginary illustrations. Let us take the case of a wolf, which preys on various animals, securing some by craft, some by strength, and some by fleetness; and let us suppose that the fleetest prey, a deer for instance, had from any change in the country increased in numbers, or that other prey had decreased in numbers, during that season of the year when the wolf is hardest pressed for food. I can under such circumstances see no reason to doubt that the swiftest and slimmest wolves would have the best chance of surviving, and so be preserved or selected, provided always that they retained strength to master their prey at this or at some other period of the year, when they might be compelled to prey on other animals. I can see no more reason to doubt this, than that man can improve the fleetness of his greyhounds by careful and methodical selection, or by that unconscious selection which results from each man trying to keep the best dogs without any thought of modifying the breed. 
> 
> Even without any change in the proportional numbers of the animals on which our wolf preyed, a cub might be born with an innate tendency to pursue certain kinds of prey. Nor can this be thought very improbable; for we often observe great differences in the natural tendencies of our domestic animals; one cat, for instance, taking to catch rats, another mice; one cat, according to Mr. St. John, bringing home winged game, another hares or rabbits, and another hunting on marshy ground and almost nightly catching woodcocks or snipes. The tendency to catch rats rather than mice is known to be inherited. Now, if any slight innate change of habit or of structure benefited an individual wolf, it would have the best chance of surviving and of leaving offspring. Some of its young would probably inherit the same habits or structure, and by the repetition of this process, a new variety might be formed which would either supplant or coexist with the parent-form of wolf. Or, again, the wolves inhabiting a mountainous district, and those frequenting the lowlands, would naturally be forced to hunt different prey; and from the continued preservation of the individuals best fitted for the two sites, two varieties might slowly be formed. These varieties would cross and blend where they met; but to this subject of intercrossing we shall soon have to return. I may add, that, according to Mr. Pierce, there are two varieties of the wolf inhabiting the Catskill Mountains in the United States, one with a light greyhound-like form, which pursues deer, and the other more bulky, with shorter legs, which more frequently attacks the shepherd's flocks. 
> 
> Let us now take a more complex case. Certain plants excrete a sweet juice, apparently for the sake of eliminating something injurious from their sap: this is effected by glands at the base of the stipules in some Leguminosae, and at the back of the leaf of the common laurel. This juice, though small in quantity, is greedily sought by insects. Let us now suppose a little sweet juice or nectar to be excreted by the inner bases of the petals of a flower. In this case insects in seeking the nectar would get dusted with pollen, and would certainly often transport the pollen from one flower to the stigma of another flower. The flowers of two distinct individuals of the same species would thus get crossed; and the act of crossing, we have good reason to believe (as will hereafter be more fully alluded to), would produce very vigorous seedlings, which consequently would have the best chance of flourishing and surviving. Some of these seedlings would probably inherit the nectar-excreting power. Those in individual flowers which had the largest glands or nectaries, and which excreted most nectar, would be oftenest visited by insects, and would be oftenest crossed; and so in the long-run would gain the upper hand. Those flowers, also, which had their stamens and pistils placed, in relation to the size and habits of the particular insects which visited them, so as to favour in any degree the transportal of their pollen from flower to flower, would likewise be favoured or selected. We might have taken the case of insects visiting flowers for the sake of collecting pollen instead of nectar; and as pollen is formed for the sole object of fertilisation, its destruction appears a simple loss to the plant; yet if a little pollen were carried, at first occasionally and then habitually, by the pollen-devouring insects from flower to flower, and a cross thus effected, although nine-tenths of the pollen were destroyed, it might still be a great gain to the plant; and those individuals which produced more and more pollen, and had larger and larger anthers, would be selected. 
> 
> When our plant, by this process of the continued preservation or natural selection of more and more attractive flowers, had been rendered highly attractive to insects, they would, unintentionally on their part, regularly carry pollen from flower to flower; and that they can most effectually do this, I could easily show by many striking instances. I will give only one not as a very striking case, but as likewise illustrating one step in the separation of the sexes of plants, presently to be alluded to. Some holly-trees bear only male flowers, which have four stamens producing rather a small quantity of pollen, and a rudimentary pistil; other holly-trees bear only female flowers; these have a full-sized pistil, and four stamens with shrivelled anthers, in which not a grain of pollen can be detected. Having found a female tree exactly sixty yards from a male tree, I put the stigmas of twenty flowers, taken from different branches, under the microscope, and on all, without exception, there were pollen-grains, and on some a profusion of pollen. As the wind had set for several days from the female to the male tree, the pollen could not thus have been carried. The weather had been cold and boisterous, and therefore not favourable to bees, nevertheless every female flower which I examined had been effectually fertilised by the bees, accidentally dusted with pollen, having flown from tree to tree in search of nectar. But to return to our imaginary case: as soon as the plant had been rendered so highly attractive to insects that pollen was regularly carried from flower to flower, another process might commence. No naturalist doubts the advantage of what has been called the 'physiological division of labour;' hence we may believe that it would be advantageous to a plant to produce stamens alone in one flower or on one whole plant, and pistils alone in another flower or on another plant. In plants under culture and placed under new conditions of life, sometimes the male organs and sometimes the female organs become more or less impotent; now if we suppose this to occur in ever so slight a degree under nature, then as pollen is already carried regularly from flower to flower, and as a more complete separation of the sexes of our plant would be advantageous on the principle of the division of labour, individuals with this tendency more and more increased, would be continually favoured or selected, until at last a complete separation of the sexes would be effected. 
> 
> Let us now turn to the nectar-feeding insects in our imaginary case: we may suppose the plant of which we have been slowly increasing the nectar by continued selection, to be a common plant; and that certain insects depended in main part on its nectar for food. I could give many facts, showing how anxious bees are to save time; for instance, their habit of cutting holes and sucking the nectar at the bases of certain flowers, which they can, with a very little more trouble, enter by the mouth. Bearing such facts in mind, I can see no reason to doubt that an accidental deviation in the size and form of the body, or in the curvature and length of the proboscis, &c., far too slight to be appreciated by us, might profit a bee or other insect, so that an individual so characterised would be able to obtain its food more quickly, and so have a better chance of living and leaving descendants. Its descendants would probably inherit a tendency to a similar slight deviation of structure. The tubes of the corollas of the common red and incarnate clovers (Trifolium pratense and incarnatum) do not on a hasty glance appear to differ in length; yet the hive-bee can easily suck the nectar out of the incarnate clover, but not out of the common red clover, which is visited by humble-bees alone; so that whole fields of the red clover offer in vain an abundant supply of precious nectar to the hive-bee. Thus it might be a great advantage to the hive-bee to have a slightly longer or differently constructed proboscis. On the other hand, I have found by experiment that the fertility of clover greatly depends on bees visiting and moving parts of the corolla, so as to push the pollen on to the stigmatic surface. Hence, again, if humble-bees were to become rare in any country, it might be a great advantage to the red clover to have a shorter or more deeply divided tube to its corolla, so that the hive-bee could visit its flowers. Thus I can understand how a flower and a bee might slowly become, either simultaneously or one after the other, modified and adapted in the most perfect manner to each other, by the continued preservation of individuals presenting mutual and slightly favourable deviations of structure. 
> 
> I am well aware that this doctrine of natural selection, exemplified in the above imaginary instances, is open to the same objections which were at first urged against Sir Charles Lyell's noble views on 'the modern changes of the earth, as illustrative of geology;' but we now very seldom hear the action, for instance, of the coast-waves, called a trifling and insignificant cause, when applied to the excavation of gigantic valleys or to the formation of the longest lines of inland cliffs. Natural selection can act only by the preservation and accumulation of infinitesimally small inherited modifications, each profitable to the preserved being; and as modern geology has almost banished such views as the excavation of a great valley by a single diluvial wave, so will natural selection, if it be a true principle, banish the belief of the continued creation of new organic beings, or of any great and sudden modification in their structure. 
> 
> On the Intercrossing of Individuals
> 
>  I must here introduce a short digression. In the case of animals and plants with separated sexes, it is of course obvious that two individuals must always unite for each birth; but in the case of hermaphrodites this is far from obvious. Nevertheless I am strongly inclined to believe that with all hermaphrodites two individuals, either occasionally or habitually, concur for the reproduction of their kind. This view, I may add, was first suggested by Andrew Knight. We shall presently see its importance; but I must here treat the subject with extreme brevity, though I have the materials prepared for an ample discussion. All vertebrate animals, all insects, and some other large groups of animals, pair for each birth. Modern research has much diminished the number of supposed hermaphrodites, and of real hermaphrodites a large number pair; that is, two individuals regularly unite for reproduction, which is all that concerns us. But still there are many hermaphrodite animals which certainly do not habitually pair, and a vast majority of plants are hermaphrodites. What reason, it may be asked, is there for supposing in these cases that two individuals ever concur in reproduction? As it is impossible here to enter on details, I must trust to some general considerations alone. 
> 
> In the first place, I have collected so large a body of facts, showing, in accordance with the almost universal belief of breeders, that with animals and plants a cross between different varieties, or between individuals of the same variety but of another strain, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring; and on the other hand, that close interbreeding diminishes vigour and fertility; that these facts alone incline me to believe that it is a general law of nature (utterly ignorant though we be of the meaning of the law) that no organic being self-fertilises itself for an eternity of generations; but that a cross with another individual is occasionally perhaps at very long intervals -- indispensable. 
> 
> On the belief that this is a law of nature, we can, I think, understand several large classes of facts, such as the following, which on any other view are inexplicable. Every hybridizer knows how unfavourable exposure to wet is to the fertilisation of a flower, yet what a multitude of flowers have their anthers and stigmas fully exposed to the weather! but if an occasional cross be indispensable, the fullest freedom for the entrance of pollen from another individual will explain this state of exposure, more especially as the plant's own anthers and pistil generally stand so close together that self-fertilisation seems almost inevitable. Many flowers, on the other hand, have their organs of fructification closely enclosed, as in the great papilionaceous or pea-family; but in several, perhaps in all, such flowers, there is a very curious adaptation between the structure of the flower and the manner in which bees suck the nectar; for, in doing this, they either push the flower's own pollen on the stigma, or bring pollen from another flower. So necessary are the visits of bees to papilionaceous flowers, that I have found, by experiments published elsewhere, that their fertility is greatly diminished if these visits be prevented. Now, it is scarcely possible that bees should fly from flower to flower, and not carry pollen from one to the other, to the great good, as I believe, of the plant. Bees will act like a camel-hair pencil, and it is quite sufficient just to touch the anthers of one flower and then the stigma of another with the same brush to ensure fertilisation; but it must not be supposed that bees would thus produce a multitude of hybrids between distinct species; for if you bring on the same brush a plant's own pollen and pollen from another species, the former will have such a prepotent effect, that it will invariably and completely destroy, as has been shown by Gärtner, any influence from the foreign pollen. 
> 
> When the stamens of a flower suddenly spring towards the pistil, or slowly move one after the other towards it, the contrivance seems adapted solely to ensure self-fertilisation; and no doubt it is useful for this end: but, the agency of insects is often required to cause the stamens to spring forward, as Kölreuter has shown to be the case with the barberry; and curiously in this very genus, which seems to have a special contrivance for self-fertilisation, it is well known that if very closely-allied forms or varieties are planted near each other, it is hardly possible to raise pure seedlings, so largely do they naturally cross. In many other cases, far from there being any aids for self-fertilisation, there are special contrivances, as I could show from the writings of C. C. Sprengel and from my own observations, which effectually prevent the stigma receiving pollen from its own flower: for instance, in Lobelia fulgens, there is a really beautiful and elaborate contrivance by which every one of the infinitely numerous pollen-granules are swept out of the conjoined anthers of each flower, before the stigma of that individual flower is ready to receive them; and as this flower is never visited, at least in my garden, by insects, it never sets a seed, though by placing pollen from one flower on the stigma of another, I raised plenty of seedlings; and whilst another species of Lobelia growing close by, which is visited by bees, seeds freely. In very many other cases, though there be no special mechanical contrivance to prevent the stigma of a flower receiving its own pollen, yet, as C. C. Sprengel has shown, and as I can confirm, either the anthers burst before the stigma is ready for fertilisation, or the stigma is ready before the pollen of that flower is ready, so that these plants have in fact separated sexes, and must habitually be crossed. How strange are these facts! How strange that the pollen and stigmatic surface of the same flower, though placed so close together, as if for the very purpose of self-fertilisation, should in so many cases be mutually useless to each other! How simply are these facts explained on the view of an occasional cross with a distinct individual being advantageous or indispensable! 
> 
> If several varieties of the cabbage, radish, onion, and of some other plants, be allowed to seed near each other, a large majority, as I have found, of the seedlings thus raised will turn out mongrels: for instance, I raised 233 seedling cabbages from some plants of different varieties growing near each other, and of these only 78 were true to their kind, and some even of these were not perfectly true. Yet the pistil of each cabbage-flower is surrounded not only by its own six stamens, but by those of the many other flowers on the same plant. How, then, comes it that such a vast number of the seedlings are mongrelised? I suspect that it must arise from the pollen of a distinct variety having a prepotent effect over a flower's own pollen; and that this is part of the general law of good being derived from the intercrossing of distinct individuals of the same species. When distinct species are crossed the case is directly the reverse, for a plant's own pollen is always prepotent over foreign pollen; but to this subject we shall return in a future chapter. 
> 
> In the case of a gigantic tree covered with innumerable flowers, it may be objected that pollen could seldom be carried from tree to tree, and at most only from flower to flower on the same tree, and that flowers on the same tree can be considered as distinct individuals only in a limited sense. I believe this objection to be valid, but that nature has largely provided against it by giving to trees a strong tendency to bear flowers with separated sexes. When the sexes are separated, although the male and female flowers may be produced on the same tree, we can see that pollen must be regularly carried from flower to flower; and this will give a better chance of pollen being occasionally carried from tree to tree. That trees belonging to all Orders have their sexes more often separated than other plants, I find to be the case in this country; and at my request Dr Hooker tabulated the trees of New Zealand, and Dr Asa Gray those of the United States, and the result was as I anticipated. On the other hand, Dr Hooker has recently informed me that he finds that the rule does not hold in Australia; and I have made these few remarks on the sexes of trees simply to call attention to the subject. 
> 
> Turning for a very brief space to animals: on the land there are some hermaphrodites, as land-mollusca and earth-worms; but these all pair. As yet I have not found a single case of a terrestrial animal which fertilises itself. We can understand this remarkable fact, which offers so strong a contrast with terrestrial plants, on the view of an occasional cross being indispensable, by considering the medium in which terrestrial animals live, and the nature of the fertilising element; for we know of no means, analogous to the action of insects and of the wind in the case of plants, by which an occasional cross could be effected with terrestrial animals without the concurrence of two individuals. Of aquatic animals, there are many self-fertilising hermaphrodites; but here currents in the water offer an obvious means for an occasional cross. And, as in the case of flowers, I have as yet failed, after consultation with one of the highest authorities, namely, Professor Huxley, to discover a single case of an hermaphrodite animal with the organs of reproduction so perfectly enclosed within the body, that access from without and the occasional influence of a distinct individual can be shown to be physically impossible. Cirripedes long appeared to me to present a case of very great difficulty under this point of view; but I have been enabled, by a fortunate chance, elsewhere to prove that two individuals, though both are self-fertilising hermaphrodites, do sometimes cross. 
> 
> It must have struck most naturalists as a strange anomaly that, in the case of both animals and plants, species of the same family and even of the same genus, though agreeing closely with each other in almost their whole organisation, yet are not rarely, some of them hermaphrodites, and some of them unisexual. But if, in fact, all hermaphrodites do occasionally intercross with other individuals, the difference between hermaphrodites and unisexual species, as far as function is concerned, becomes very small. 
> 
> From these several considerations and from the many special facts which I have collected, but which I am not here able to give, I am strongly inclined to suspect that, both in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, an occasional intercross with a distinct individual is a law of nature. I am well aware that there are, on this view, many cases of difficulty, some of which I am trying to investigate. Finally then, we may conclude that in many organic beings, a cross between two individuals is an obvious necessity for each birth; in many others it occurs perhaps only at long intervals; but in none, as I suspect, can self-fertilisation go on for perpetuity. 
> 
> Circumstances favourable to Natural Selection
> 
> This is an extremely intricate subject. A large amount of inheritable and diversified variability is favourable, but I believe mere individual differences suffice for the work. A large number of individuals, by giving a better chance for the appearance within any given period of profitable variations, will compensate for a lesser amount of variability in each individual, and is, I believe, an extremely important element of success. Though nature grants vast periods of time for the work of natural selection, she does not grant an indefinite period; for as all organic beings are striving, it may be said, to seize on each place in the economy of nature, if any one species does not become modified and improved in a corresponding degree with its competitors, it will soon be exterminated. 
> 
> In man's methodical selection, a breeder selects for some definite object, and free intercrossing will wholly stop his work. But when many men, without intending to alter the breed, have a nearly common standard of perfection, and all try to get and breed from the best animals, much improvement and modification surely but slowly follow from this unconscious process of selection, notwithstanding a large amount of crossing with inferior animals. Thus it will be in nature; for within a confined area, with some place in its polity not so perfectly occupied as might be, natural selection will always tend to preserve all the individuals varying in the right direction, though in different degrees, so as better to fill up the unoccupied place. But if the area be large, its several districts will almost certainly present different conditions of life; and then if natural selection be modifying and improving a species in the several districts, there will be intercrossing with the other individuals of the same species on the confines of each. And in this case the effects of intercrossing can hardly be counterbalanced by natural selection always tending to modify all the individuals in each district in exactly the same manner to the conditions of each; for in a continuous area, the conditions will generally graduate away insensibly from one district to another. The intercrossing will most affect those animals which unite for each birth, which wander much, and which do not breed at a very quick rate. Hence in animals of this nature, for instance in birds, varieties will generally be confined to separated countries; and this I believe to be the case. In hermaphrodite organisms which cross only occasionally, and likewise in animals which unite for each birth, but which wander little and which can increase at a very rapid rate, a new and improved variety might be quickly formed on any one spot, and might there maintain itself in a body, so that whatever intercrossing took place would be chiefly between the individuals of the same new variety. A local variety when once thus formed might subsequently slowly spread to other districts. On the above principle, nurserymen always prefer getting seed from a large body of plants of the same variety, as the chance of intercrossing with other varieties is thus lessened. 
> 
> Even in the case of slow-breeding animals, which unite for each birth, we must not overrate the effects of intercrosses in retarding natural selection; for I can bring a considerable catalogue of facts, showing that within the same area, varieties of the same animal can long remain distinct, from haunting different stations, from breeding at slightly different seasons, or from varieties of the same kind preferring to pair together. 
> 
> Intercrossing plays a very important part in nature in keeping the individuals of the same species, or of the same variety, true and uniform in character. It will obviously thus act far more efficiently with those animals which unite for each birth; but I have already attempted to show that we have reason to believe that occasional intercrosses take place with all animals and with all plants. Even if these take place only at long intervals, I am convinced that the young thus produced will gain so much in vigour and fertility over the offspring from long-continued self-fertilisation, that they will have a better chance of surviving and propagating their kind; and thus, in the long run, the influence of intercrosses, even at rare intervals, will be great. If there exist organic beings which never intercross, uniformity of character can be retained amongst them, as long as their conditions of life remain the same, only through the principle of inheritance, and through natural selection destroying any which depart from the proper type; but if their conditions of life change and they undergo modification, uniformity of character can be given to their modified offspring, solely by natural selection preserving the same favourable variations. 
> 
> Isolation, also, is an important element in the process of natural selection. In a confined or isolated area, if not very large, the organic and inorganic conditions of life will generally be in a great degree uniform; so that natural selection will tend to modify all the individuals of a varying species throughout the area in the same manner in relation to the same conditions. Intercrosses, also, with the individuals of the same species, which otherwise would have inhabited the surrounding and differently circumstanced districts, will be prevented. But isolation probably acts more efficiently in checking the immigration of better adapted organisms, after any physical change, such as of climate or elevation of the land, &c.; and thus new places in the natural economy of the country are left open for the old inhabitants to struggle for, and become adapted to, through modifications in their structure and constitution. Lastly, isolation, by checking immigration and consequently competition, will give time for any new variety to be slowly improved; and this may sometimes be of importance in the production of new species. If, however, an isolated area be very small, either from being surrounded by barriers, or from having very peculiar physical conditions, the total number of the individuals supported on it will necessarily be very small; and fewness of individuals will greatly retard the production of new species through natural selection, by decreasing the chance of the appearance of favourable variations. 
> 
> If we turn to nature to test the truth of these remarks, and look at any small isolated area, such as an oceanic island, although the total number of the species inhabiting it, will be found to be small, as we shall see in our chapter on geographical distribution; yet of these species a very large proportion are endemic, that is, have been produced there, and nowhere else. Hence an oceanic island at first sight seems to have been highly favourable for the production of new species. But we may thus greatly deceive ourselves, for to ascertain whether a small isolated area, or a large open area like a continent, has been most favourable for the production of new organic forms, we ought to make the comparison within equal times; and this we are incapable of doing. 
> 
> Although I do not doubt that isolation is of considerable importance in the production of new species, on the whole I am inclined to believe that largeness of area is of more importance, more especially in the production of species, which will prove capable of enduring for a long period, and of spreading widely. Throughout a great and open area, not only will there be a better chance of favourable variations arising from the large number of individuals of the same species there supported, but the conditions of life are infinitely complex from the large number of already existing species; and if some of these many species become modified and improved, others will have to be improved in a corresponding degree or they will be exterminated. Each new form, also, as soon as it has been much improved, will be able to spread over the open and continuous area, and will thus come into competition with many others. Hence more new places will be formed, and the competition to fill them will be more severe, on a large than on a small and isolated area. Moreover, great areas, though now continuous, owing to oscillations of level, will often have recently existed in a broken condition, so that the good effects of isolation will generally, to a certain extent, have concurred. Finally, I conclude that, although small isolated areas probably have been in some respects highly favourable for the production of new species, yet that the course of modification will generally have been more rapid on large areas; and what is more important, that the new forms produced on large areas, which already have been victorious over many competitors, will be those that will spread most widely, will give rise to most new varieties and species, and will thus play an important part in the changing history of the organic world. 
> 
> We can, perhaps, on these views, understand some facts which will be again alluded to in our chapter on geographical distribution; for instance, that the productions of the smaller continent of Australia have formerly yielded, and apparently are now yielding, before those of the larger Europaeo-Asiatic area. Thus, also, it is that continental productions have everywhere become so largely naturalised on islands. On a small island, the race for life will have been less severe, and there will have been less modification and less extermination. Hence, perhaps, it comes that the flora of Madeira, according to Oswald Heer, resembles the extinct tertiary flora of Europe. All fresh-water basins, taken together, make a small area compared with that of the sea or of the land; and, consequently, the competition between fresh-water productions will have been less severe than elsewhere; new forms will have been more slowly formed, and old forms more slowly exterminated. And it is in fresh water that we find seven genera of Ganoid fishes, remnants of a once preponderant order: and in fresh water we find some of the most anomalous forms now known in the world, as the Ornithorhynchus and Lepidosiren, which, like fossils, connect to a certain extent orders now widely separated in the natural scale. These anomalous forms may almost be called living fossils; they have endured to the present day, from having inhabited a confined area, and from having thus been exposed to less severe competition. 
> 
> To sum up the circumstances favourable and unfavourable to natural selection, as far as the extreme intricacy of the subject permits. I conclude, looking to the future, that for terrestrial productions a large continental area, which will probably undergo many oscillations of level, and which consequently will exist for long periods in a broken condition, will be the most favourable for the production of many new forms of life, likely to endure long and to spread widely. For the area will first have existed as a continent, and the inhabitants, at this period numerous in individuals and kinds, will have been subjected to very severe competition. When converted by subsidence into large separate islands, there will still exist many individuals of the same species on each island: intercrossing on the confines of the range of each species will thus be checked: after physical changes of any kind, immigration will be prevented, so that new places in the polity of each island will have to be filled up by modifications of the old inhabitants; and time will be allowed for the varieties in each to become well modified and perfected. When, by renewed elevation, the islands shall be re-converted into a continental area, there will again be severe competition: the most favoured or improved varieties will be enabled to spread: there will be much extinction of the less improved forms, and the relative proportional numbers of the various inhabitants of the renewed continent will again be changed; and again there will be a fair field for natural selection to improve still further the inhabitants, and thus produce new species. 
> 
> That natural selection will always act with extreme slowness, I fully admit. Its action depends on there being places in the polity of nature, which can be better occupied by some of the inhabitants of the country undergoing modification of some kind. The existence of such places will often depend on physical changes, which are generally very slow, and on the immigration of better adapted forms having been checked. But the action of natural selection will probably still oftener depend on some of the inhabitants becoming slowly modified; the mutual relations of many of the other inhabitants being thus disturbed. Nothing can be effected, unless favourable variations occur, and variation itself is apparently always a very slow process. The process will often be greatly retarded by free intercrossing. Many will exclaim that these several causes are amply sufficient wholly to stop the action of natural selection. I do not believe so. On the other hand, I do believe that natural selection will always act very slowly, often only at long intervals of time, and generally on only a very few of the inhabitants of the same region at the same time. I further believe, that this very slow, intermittent action of natural selection accords perfectly well with what geology tells us of the rate and manner at which the inhabitants of this world have changed. 
> 
> Slow though the process of selection may be, if feeble man can do much by his powers of artificial selection, I can see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature's power of selection. 
> 
> Extinction
> 
> This subject will be more fully discussed in our chapter on Geology; but it must be here alluded to from being intimately connected with natural selection. Natural selection acts solely through the preservation of variations in some way advantageous, which consequently endure. But as from the high geometrical powers of increase of all organic beings, each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants, it follows that as each selected and favoured form increases in number, so will the less favoured forms decrease and become rare. Rarity, as geology tells us, is the precursor to extinction. We can, also, see that any form represented by few individuals will, during fluctuations in the seasons or in the number of its enemies, run a good chance of utter extinction. But we may go further than this; for as new forms are continually and slowly being produced, unless we believe that the number of specific forms goes on perpetually and almost indefinitely increasing, numbers inevitably must become extinct. That the number of specific forms has not indefinitely increased, geology shows us plainly; and indeed we can see reason why they should not have thus increased, for the number of places in the polity of nature is not indefinitely great, not that we have any means of knowing that any one region has as yet got its maximum of species. probably no region is as yet fully stocked, for at the Cape of Good Hope, where more species of plants are crowded together than in any other quarter of the world, some foreign plants have become naturalised, without causing, as far as we know, the extinction of any natives. 
> 
> Furthermore, the species which are most numerous in individuals will have the best chance of producing within any given period favourable variations. We have evidence of this, in the facts given in the second chapter, showing that it is the common species which afford the greatest number of recorded varieties, or incipient species. Hence, rare species will be less quickly modified or improved within any given period, and they will consequently be beaten in the race for life by the modified descendants of the commoner species. 
> 
> From these several considerations I think it inevitably follows, that as new species in the course of time are formed through natural selection, others will become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct. The forms which stand in closest competition with those undergoing modification and improvement, will naturally suffer most. And we have seen in the chapter on the Struggle for Existence that it is the most closely-allied forms, varieties of the same species, and species of the same genus or of related genera, which, from having nearly the same structure, constitution, and habits, generally come into the severest competition with each other. Consequently, each new variety or species, during the progress of its formation, will generally press hardest on its nearest kindred, and tend to exterminate them. We see the same process of extermination amongst our domesticated productions, through the selection of improved forms by man. Many curious instances could be given showing how quickly new breeds of cattle, sheep, and other animals, and varieties of flowers, take the place of older and inferior kinds. In Yorkshire, it is historically known that the ancient black cattle were displaced by the long-horns, and that these 'were swept away by the short-horns' (I quote the words of an agricultural writer) 'as if by some murderous pestilence.' 
> 
> Divergence of Character
> 
> The principle, which I have designated by this term, is of high importance on my theory, and explains, as I believe, several important facts. In the first place, varieties, even strongly-marked ones, though having somewhat of the character of species as is shown by the hopeless doubts in many cases how to rank them yet certainly differ from each other far less than do good and distinct species. Nevertheless, according to my view, varieties are species in the process of formation, or are, as I have called them, incipient species. How, then, does the lesser difference between varieties become augmented into the greater difference between species? That this does habitually happen, we must infer from most of the innumerable species throughout nature presenting well-marked differences; whereas varieties, the supposed prototypes and parents of future well-marked species, present slight and ill-defined differences. Mere chance, as we may call it, might cause one variety to differ in some character from its parents, and the offspring of this variety again to differ from its parent in the very same character and in a greater degree; but this alone would never account for so habitual and large an amount of difference as that between varieties of the same species and species of the same genus. 
> 
> As has always been my practice, let us seek light on this head from our domestic productions. We shall here find something analogous. A fancier is struck by a pigeon having a slightly shorter beak; another fancier is struck by a pigeon having a rather longer beak; and on the acknowledged principle that 'fanciers do not and will not admire a medium standard, but like extremes,' they both go on (as has actually occurred with tumbler-pigeons) choosing and breeding from birds with longer and longer beaks, or with shorter and shorter beaks. Again, we may suppose that at an early period one man preferred swifter horses; another stronger and more bulky horses. The early differences would be very slight; in the course of time, from the continued selection of swifter horses by some breeders, and of stronger ones by others, the differences would become greater, and would be noted as forming two sub-breeds; finally, after the lapse of centuries, the sub-breeds would become converted into two well-established and distinct breeds. As the differences slowly become greater, the inferior animals with intermediate characters, being neither very swift nor very strong, will have been neglected, and will have tended to disappear. Here, then, we see in man's productions the action of what may be called the principle of divergence, causing differences, at first barely appreciable, steadily to increase, and the breeds to diverge in character both from each other and from their common parent. 
> 
>  But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle apply in nature? I believe it can and does apply most efficiently, from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure, constitution, and habits, by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to increase in numbers. 
> 
>  We can clearly see this in the case of animals with simple habits. Take the case of a carnivorous quadruped, of which the number that can be supported in any country has long ago arrived at its full average. If its natural powers of increase be allowed to act, it can succeed in increasing (the country not undergoing any change in its conditions) only by its varying descendants seizing on places at present occupied by other animals: some of them, for instance, being enabled to feed on new kinds of prey, either dead or alive; some inhabiting new stations, climbing trees, frequenting water, and some perhaps becoming less carnivorous. The more diversified in habits and structure the descendants of our carnivorous animal became, the more places they would be enabled to occupy. What applies to one animal will apply throughout all time to all animals that is, if they vary for otherwise natural selection can do nothing. So it will be with plants. It has been experimentally proved, that if a plot of ground be sown with several distinct genera of grasses, a greater number of plants and a greater weight of dry herbage can thus be raised. The same has been found to hold good when first one variety and then several mixed varieties of wheat have been sown on equal spaces of ground. Hence, if any one species of grass were to go on varying, and those varieties were continually selected which differed from each other in at all the same manner as distinct species and genera of grasses differ from each other, a greater number of individual plants of this species of grass, including its modified descendants, would succeed in living on the same piece of ground. And we well know that each species and each variety of grass is annually sowing almost countless seeds; and thus, as it may be said, is striving its utmost to increase its numbers. Consequently, I cannot doubt that in the course of many thousands of generations, the most distinct varieties of any one species of grass would always have the best chance of succeeding and of increasing in numbers, and thus of supplanting the less distinct varieties; and varieties, when rendered very distinct from each other, take the rank of species. 
> 
> The truth of the principle, that the greatest amount of life can be supported by great diversification of structure, is seen under many natural circumstances. In an extremely small area, especially if freely open to immigration, and where the contest between individual and individual must be severe, we always find great diversity in its inhabitants. For instance, I found that a piece of turf, three feet by four in size, which had been exposed for many years to exactly the same conditions, supported twenty species of plants, and these belonged to eighteen genera and to eight orders, which shows how much these plants differed from each other. So it is with the plants and insects on small and uniform islets; and so in small ponds of fresh water. Farmers find that they can raise most food by a rotation of plants belonging to the most different orders: nature follows what may be called a simultaneous rotation. Most of the animals and plants which live close round any small piece of ground, could live on it (supposing it not to be in any way peculiar in its nature), and may be said to be striving to the utmost to live there; but, it is seen, that where they come into the closest competition with each other, the advantages of diversification of structure, with the accompanying differences of habit and constitution, determine that the inhabitants, which thus jostle each other most closely, shall, as a general rule, belong to what we call different genera and orders. 
> 
> The same principle is seen in the naturalisation of plants through man's agency in foreign lands. It might have been expected that the plants which have succeeded in becoming naturalised in any land would generally have been closely allied to the indigenes; for these are commonly looked at as specially created and adapted for their own country. It might, also, perhaps have been expected that naturalised plants would have belonged to a few groups more especially adapted to certain stations in their new homes. But the case is very different; and Alph. De Candolle has well remarked in his great and admirable work, that floras gain by naturalisation, proportionally with the number of the native genera and species, far more in new genera than in new species. To give a single instance: in the last edition of Dr Asa Gray's 'Manual of the Flora of the Northern United States,' 260 naturalised plants are enumerated, and these belong to 162 genera. We thus see that these naturalised plants are of a highly diversified nature. They differ, moreover, to a large extent from the indigenes, for out of the 162 genera, no less than 100 genera are not there indigenous, and thus a large proportional addition is made to the genera of these States. 
> 
> By considering the nature of the plants or animals which have struggled successfully with the indigenes of any country, and have there become naturalised, we can gain some crude idea in what manner some of the natives would have had to be modified, in order to have gained an advantage over the other natives; and we may, I think, at least safely infer that diversification of structure, amounting to new generic differences, would have been profitable to them. 
> 
> The advantage of diversification in the inhabitants of the same region is, in fact, the same as that of the physiological division of labour in the organs of the same individual body a subject so well elucidated by Milne Edwards. No physiologist doubts that a stomach by being adapted to digest vegetable matter alone, or flesh alone, draws most nutriment from these substances. So in the general economy of any land, the more widely and perfectly the animals and plants are diversified for different habits of life, so will a greater number of individuals be capable of there supporting themselves. A set of animals, with their organisation but little diversified, could hardly compete with a set more perfectly diversified in structure. It may be doubted, for instance, whether the Australian marsupials, which are divided into groups differing but little from each other, and feebly representing, as Mr Waterhouse and others have remarked, our carnivorous, ruminant, and rodent mammals, could successfully compete with these well-pronounced orders. In the Australian mammals, we see the process of diversification in an early and incomplete stage of development. 
> 
> After the foregoing discussion, which ought to have been much amplified, we may, I think, assume that the modified descendants of any one species will succeed by so much the better as they become more diversified in structure, and are thus enabled to encroach on places occupied by other beings. Now let us see how this principle of great benefit being derived from divergence of character, combined with the principles of natural selection and of extinction, will tend to act. 
> 
> The accompanying diagram will aid us in understanding this rather perplexing subject. Let A to L represent the species of a genus large in its own country; these species are supposed to resemble each other in unequal degrees, as is so generally the case in nature, and as is represented in the diagram by the letters standing at unequal distances. I have said a large genus, because we have seen in the second chapter, that on an average more of the species of large genera vary than of small genera; and the varying species of the large genera present a greater number of varieties. We have, also, seen that the species, which are the commonest and the most widely-diffused, vary more than rare species with restricted ranges. Let (A) be a common, widely-diffused, and varying species, belonging to a genus large in its own country. The little fan of diverging dotted lines of unequal lengths proceeding from (A), may represent its varying offspring. The variations are supposed to be extremely slight, but of the most diversified nature; they are not supposed all to appear simultaneously, but often after long intervals of time; nor are they all supposed to endure for equal periods. Only those variations which are in some way profitable will be preserved or naturally selected. And here the importance of the principle of benefit being derived from divergence of character comes in; for this will generally lead to the most different or divergent variations (represented by the outer dotted lines) being preserved and accumulated by natural selection. When a dotted line reaches one of the horizontal lines, and is there marked by a small numbered letter, a sufficient amount of variation is supposed to have been accumulated to have formed a fairly well-marked variety, such as would be thought worthy of record in a systematic work. 
> 
> The intervals between the horizontal lines in the diagram, may represent each a thousand generations; but it would have been better if each had represented ten thousand generations. After a thousand generations, species (A) is supposed to have produced two fairly well-marked varieties, namely a1 and m1. These two varieties will generally continue to be exposed to the same conditions which made their parents variable, and the tendency to variability is in itself hereditary, consequently they will tend to vary, and generally to vary in nearly the same manner as their parents varied. Moreover, these two varieties, being only slightly modified forms, will tend to inherit those advantages which made their common parent (A) more numerous than most of the other inhabitants of the same country; they will likewise partake of those more general advantages which made the genus to which the parent-species belonged, a large genus in its own country. And these circumstances we know to be favourable to the production of new varieties. 
> 
> If, then, these two varieties be variable, the most divergent of their variations will generally be preserved during the next thousand generations. And after this interval, variety a1 is supposed in the diagram to have produced variety a2, which will, owing to the principle of divergence, differ more from (A) than did variety a1. Variety m1 is supposed to have produced two varieties, namely m 2 and s2, differing from each other, and more considerably from their common parent (A). We may continue the process by similar steps for any length of time; some of the varieties, after each thousand generations, producing only a single variety, but in a more and more modified condition, some producing two or three varieties, and some failing to produce any. Thus the varieties or modified descendants, proceeding from the common parent (A), will generally go on increasing in number and diverging in character. In the diagram the process is represented up to the ten-thousandth generation, and under a condensed and simplified form up to the fourteen-thousandth generation. 
> 
> But I must here remark that I do not suppose that the process ever goes on so regularly as is represented in the diagram, though in itself made somewhat irregular. I am far from thinking that the most divergent varieties will invariably prevail and multiply: a medium form may often long endure, and may or may not produce more than one modified descendant; for natural selection will always act according to the nature of the places which are either unoccupied or not perfectly occupied by other beings; and this will depend on infinitely complex relations. But as a general rule, the more diversified in structure the descendants from any one species can be rendered, the more places they will be enabled to seize on, and the more their modified progeny will be increased. In our diagram the line of succession is broken at regular intervals by small numbered letters marking the successive forms which have become sufficiently distinct to be recorded as varieties. But these breaks are imaginary, and might have been inserted anywhere, after intervals long enough to have allowed the accumulation of a considerable amount of divergent variation. 
> 
> As all the modified descendants from a common and widely-diffused species, belonging to a large genus, will tend to partake of the same advantages which made their parent successful in life, they will generally go on multiplying in number as well as diverging in character: this is represented in the diagram by the several divergent branches proceeding from (A). The modified offspring from the later and more highly improved branches in the lines of descent, will, it is probable, often take the place of, and so destroy, the earlier and less improved branches: this is represented in the diagram by some of the lower branches not reaching to the upper horizontal lines. In some cases I do not doubt that the process of modification will be confined to a single line of descent, and the number of the descendants will not be increased; although the amount of divergent modification may have been increased in the successive generations. This case would be represented in the diagram, if all the lines proceeding from (A) were removed, excepting that from a1 to a10 In the same way, for instance, the English race-horse and English pointer have apparently both gone on slowly diverging in character from their original stocks, without either having given off any fresh branches or races. 
> 
> After ten thousand generations, species (A) is supposed to have produced three forms, a10, f10, and m10, which, from having diverged in character during the successive generations, will have come to differ largely, but perhaps unequally, from each other and from their common parent. If we suppose the amount of change between each horizontal line in our diagram to be excessively small, these three forms may still be only well-marked varieties; or they may have arrived at the doubtful category of sub-species; but we have only to suppose the steps in the process of modification to be more numerous or greater in amount, to convert these three forms into well-defined species: thus the diagram illustrates the steps by which the small differences distinguishing varieties are increased into the larger differences distinguishing species. By continuing the same process for a greater number of generations (as shown in the diagram in a condensed and simplified manner), we get eight species, marked by the letters between a14 and m14, all descended from (A). Thus, as I believe, species are multiplied and genera are formed. 
> 
> In a large genus it is probable that more than one species would vary. In the diagram I have assumed that a second species (I) has produced, by analogous steps, after ten thousand generations, either two well-marked varieties (w10 and z10) or two species, according to the amount of change supposed to be represented between the horizontal lines. After fourteen thousand generations, six new species, marked by the letters n14 to z14, are supposed to have been produced. In each genus, the species, which are already extremely different in character, will generally tend to produce the greatest number of modified descendants; for these will have the best chance of filling new and widely different places in the polity of nature: hence in the diagram I have chosen the extreme species (A), and the nearly extreme species (I), as those which have largely varied, and have given rise to new varieties and species. The other nine species (marked by capital letters) of our original genus, may for a long period continue transmitting unaltered descendants; and this is shown in the diagram by the dotted lines not prolonged far upwards from want of space. 
> 
> But during the process of modification, represented in the diagram, another of our principles, namely that of extinction, will have played an important part. As in each fully stocked country natural selection necessarily acts by the selected form having some advantage in the struggle for life over other forms, there will be a constant tendency in the improved descendants of any one species to supplant and exterminate in each stage of descent their predecessors and their original parent. For it should be remembered that the competition will generally be most severe between those forms which are most nearly related to each other in habits, constitution, and structure. Hence all the intermediate forms between the earlier and later states, that is between the less and more improved state of a species, as well as the original parent-species itself, will generally tend to become extinct. So it probably will be with many whole collateral lines of descent, which will be conquered by later and improved lines of descent. If, however, the modified offspring of a species get into some distinct country, or become quickly adapted to some quite new station, in which child and parent do not come into competition, both may continue to exist. 
> 
> If then our diagram be assumed to represent a considerable amount of modification, species (A) and all the earlier varieties will have become extinct, having been replaced by eight new species (a14 to m14); and (I) will have been replaced by six (n14 to z14) new species. 
> 
> But we may go further than this. The original species of our genus were supposed to resemble each other in unequal degrees, as is so generally the case in nature; species (A) being more nearly related to B, C, and D, than to the other species; and species (I) more to G, H, K, L, than to the others. These two species (A) and (I), were also supposed to be very common and widely diffused species, so that they must originally have had some advantage over most of the other species of the genus. Their modified descendants, fourteen in number at the fourteen-thousandth generation, will probably have inherited some of the same advantages: they have also been modified and improved in a diversified manner at each stage of descent, so as to have become adapted to many related places in the natural economy of their country. It seems, therefore, to me extremely probable that they will have taken the places of, and thus exterminated, not only their parents (A) and (I), but likewise some of the original species which were most nearly related to their parents. Hence very few of the original species will have transmitted offspring to the fourteen-thousandth generation. We may suppose that only one (F), of the two species which were least closely related to the other nine original species, has transmitted descendants to this late stage of descent. 
> 
> The new species in our diagram descended from the original eleven species, will now be fifteen in number. Owing to the divergent tendency of natural selection, the extreme amount of difference in character between species a14 and z14 will be much greater than that between the most different of the original eleven species. The new species, moreover, will be allied to each other in a widely different manner. Of the eight descendants from (A) the three marked a14, q14, p14, will be nearly related from having recently branched off from a14; b14 and f14, from having diverged at an earlier period from a5, will be in some degree distinct from the three first-named species; and lastly, o14, e14, and m14, will be nearly related one to the other, but from having diverged at the first commencement of the process of modification, will be widely different from the other five species, and may constitute a sub-genus or even a distinct genus. The six descendants from (I) will form two sub-genera or even genera. But as the original species (I) differed largely from (A), standing nearly at the extreme points of the original genus, the six descendants from (I) will, owing to inheritance, differ considerably from the eight descendants from (A); the two groups, moreover, are supposed to have gone on diverging in different directions. The intermediate species, also (and this is a very important consideration), which connected the original species (A) and (I), have all become, excepting (F), extinct, and have left no descendants. Hence the six new species descended from (I), and the eight descended from (A), will have to be ranked as very distinct genera, or even as distinct sub-families. 
> 
> Thus it is, as I believe, that two or more genera are produced by descent, with modification, from two or more species of the same genus. And the two or more parent-species are supposed to have descended from some one species of an earlier genus. In our diagram, this is indicated by the broken lines, beneath the capital letters, converging in sub-branches downwards towards a single point; this point representing a single species, the supposed single parent of our several new sub-genera and genera. 
> 
> It is worth while to reflect for a moment on the character of the new species F14, which is supposed not to have diverged much in character, but to have retained the form of (F), either unaltered or altered only in a slight degree. In this case, its affinities to the other fourteen new species will be of a curious and circuitous nature. Having descended from a form which stood between the two parent-species (A) and (I), now supposed to be extinct and unknown, it will be in some degree intermediate in character between the two groups descended from these species. But as these two groups have gone on diverging in character from the type of their parents, the new species (F14) will not be directly intermediate between them, but rather between types of the two groups; and every naturalist will be able to bring some such case before his mind. 
> 
> In the diagram, each horizontal line has hitherto been supposed to represent a thousand generations, but each may represent a million or hundred million generations, and likewise a section of the successive strata of the earth's crust including extinct remains. We shall, when we come to our chapter on Geology, have to refer again to this subject, and I think we shall then see that the diagram throws light on the affinities of extinct beings, which, though generally belonging to the same orders, or families, or genera, with those now living, yet are often, in some degree, intermediate in character between existing groups; and we can understand this fact, for the extinct species lived at very ancient epochs when the branching lines of descent had diverged less. 
> 
> I see no reason to limit the process of modification, as now explained, to the formation of genera alone. If, in our diagram, we suppose the amount of change represented by each successive group of diverging dotted lines to be very great, the forms marked a214 to p14, those marked b14 and f14, and those marked o14 to m14, will form three very distinct genera. We shall also have two very distinct genera descended from (I) and as these latter two genera, both from continued divergence of character and from inheritance from a different parent, will differ widely from the three genera descended from (A), the two little groups of genera will form two distinct families, or even orders, according to the amount of divergent modification supposed to be represented in the diagram. And the two new families, or orders, will have descended from two species of the original genus; and these two species are supposed to have descended from one species of a still more ancient and unknown genus. 
> 
> We have seen that in each country it is the species of the larger genera which oftenest present varieties or incipient species. This, indeed, might have been expected; for as natural selection acts through one form having some advantage over other forms in the struggle for existence, it will chiefly act on those which already have some advantage; and the largeness of any group shows that its species have inherited from a common ancestor some advantage in common. Hence, the struggle for the production of new and modified descendants, will mainly lie between the larger groups, which are all trying to increase in number. One large group will slowly conquer another large group, reduce its numbers, and thus lessen its chance of further variation and improvement. Within the same large group, the later and more highly perfected sub-groups, from branching out and seizing on many new places in the polity of Nature, will constantly tend to supplant and destroy the earlier and less improved sub-groups. Small and broken groups and sub-groups will finally tend to disappear. Looking to the future, we can predict that the groups of organic beings which are now large and triumphant, and which are least broken up, that is, which as yet have suffered least extinction, will for a long period continue to increase. But which groups will ultimately prevail, no man can predict; for we well know that many groups, formerly most extensively developed, have now become extinct. Looking still more remotely to the future, we may predict that, owing to the continued and steady increase of the larger groups, a multitude of smaller groups will become utterly extinct, and leave no modified descendants; and consequently that of the species living at any one period, extremely few will transmit descendants to a remote futurity. I shall have to return to this subject in the chapter on Classification, but I may add that on this view of extremely few of the more ancient species having transmitted descendants, and on the view of all the descendants of the same species making a class, we can understand how it is that there exist but very few classes in each main division of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Although extremely few of the most ancient species may now have living and modified descendants, yet at the most remote geological period, the earth may have been as well peopled with many species of many genera, families, orders, and classes, as at the present day. 
> 
> Summary of Chapter
> 
>  If during the long course of ages and under varying conditions of life, organic beings vary at all in the several parts of their organisation, and I think this cannot be disputed; if there be, owing to the high geometrical powers of increase of each species, at some age, season, or year, a severe struggle for life, and this certainly cannot be disputed; then, considering the infinite complexity of the relations of all organic beings to each other and to their conditions of existence, causing an infinite diversity in structure, constitution, and habits, to be advantageous to them, I think it would be a most extraordinary fact if no variation ever had occurred useful to each being's own welfare, in the same way as so many variations have occurred useful to man. But if variations useful to any organic being do occur, assuredly individuals thus characterised will have the best chance of being preserved in the struggle for life; and from the strong principle of inheritance they will tend to produce offspring similarly characterised. This principle of preservation, I have called, for the sake of brevity, Natural Selection. Natural selection, on the principle of qualities being inherited at corresponding ages, can modify the egg, seed, or young, as easily as the adult. Amongst many animals, sexual selection will give its aid to ordinary selection, by assuring to the most vigorous and best adapted males the greatest number of offspring. Sexual selection will also give characters useful to the males alone, in their struggles with other males. 
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> Whether natural selection has really thus acted in nature, in modifying and adapting the various forms of life to their several conditions and stations, must be judged of by the general tenour and balance of evidence given in the following chapters. But we already see how it entails extinction; and how largely extinction has acted in the world's history, geology plainly declares. Natural selection, also, leads to divergence of character; for more living beings can be supported on the same area the more they diverge in structure, habits, and constitution, of which we see proof by looking at the inhabitants of any small spot or at naturalised productions. Therefore during the modification of the descendants of any one species, and during the incessant struggle of all species to increase in numbers, the more diversified these descendants become, the better will be their chance of succeeding in the battle of life. Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera. 
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> We have seen that it is the common, the widely-diffused, and widely-ranging species, belonging to the larger genera, which vary most; and these will tend to transmit to their modified offspring that superiority which now makes them dominant in their own countries. Natural selection, as has just been remarked, leads to divergence of character and to much extinction of the less improved and intermediate forms of life. On these principles, I believe, the nature of the affinities of all organic beings may be explained. It is a truly wonderful fact the wonder of which we are apt to overlook from familiarity that all animals and all plants throughout all time and space should be related to each other in group subordinate to group, in the manner which we everywhere behold namely, varieties of the same species most closely related together, species of the same genus less closely and unequally related together, forming sections and sub-genera, species of distinct genera much less closely related, and genera related in different degrees, forming sub-families, families, orders, sub-classes, and classes. The several subordinate groups in any class cannot be ranked in a single file, but seem rather to be clustered round points, and these round other points, and so on in almost endless cycles. On the view that each species has been independently created, I can see no explanation of this great fact in the classification of all organic beings; but, to the best of my judgment, it is explained through inheritance and the complex action of natural selection, entailing extinction and divergence of character, as we have seen illustrated in the diagram. 
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> The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent existing species; and those produced during each former year may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other species in the great battle for life. The limbs divided into great branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the former and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few now have living and modified descendants. From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a thin straggling branch springing from a fork low down in a tree, and which by some chance has been favoured and is still alive on its summit, so we occasionally see an animal like the Ornithorhynchus or Lepidosiren, which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches of life, and which has apparently been saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a protected station. As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Talk|985492574
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< Implimenting as I type ... [[jmlynch]]
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> Implementing as I type ... [[jmlynch]]
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Natural_selection|985492691
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> Darwin first outlined his theory in two unpublished manuscripts written in 1838 and 1844 and more fully developed it for publication in [[The Origin of Species]], especially [[chapter 4|he Origin of Species/Chapter 4]].
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Natural_selection|985492715
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< Darwin first outlined his theory in two unpublished manuscripts written in 1838 and 1844 and more fully developed it for publication in [[The Origin of Species]], especially [[chapter 4|he Origin of Species/Chapter 4]].
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> Darwin first outlined his theory in two unpublished manuscripts written in 1838 and 1844 and more fully developed it for publication in [[The Origin of Species]], especially [[The Origin of Species/Chapter 4|Chapter 4]].
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Chapter_3_-_Struggle_for_Existence|985492762
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< BEF0RE entering on the subject of this chapter, I must make a few preliminary remarks, to show how the struggle for existence bears on Natural Selection. It has been seen in the last chapter that amongst organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability; indeed I am not aware that this has ever been disputed. It is immaterial for us whether a multitude of doubtful forms be called species or sub-species or varieties; what rank, for instance, the two or three hundred doubtful forms of British plants are entitled to hold, if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted. But the mere existence of individual variability and of some few well-marked varieties, though necessary as the foundation for the work, helps us but little in understanding how species arise in nature. How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organisation to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected? We see these beautiful co-adaptations most plainly in the woodpecker and missletoe; and only a little less plainly in the humblest parasite which clings to the hairs of a quadruped or feathers of a bird; in the structure of the beetle which dives through the water; in the plumed seed which is wafted by the gentlest breeze; in short, we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world. 
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< Again, it may be asked, how is it that varieties, which I have called incipient species, become ultimately converted into good and distinct species, which in most cases obviously differ from each other far more than do the varieties of the same species? How do those groups of species, which constitute what are called distinct genera, and which differ from each other more than do the species of the same genus, arise? All these results, as we shall more fully see in the next chapter, follow inevitably from the struggle for life. Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring. The offspring, also, will thus have a better chance of surviving, for, of the many individuals of any species which are periodically born, but a small number can survive. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. We have seen that man by selection can certainly produce great results, and can adapt organic beings to his own uses, through the accumulation of slight but useful variations, given to him by the hand of Nature. But Natural Selection, as we shall hereafter see, is a power incessantly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble efforts, as the works of Nature are to those of Art. 
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< We will now discuss in a little more detail the struggle for existence. In my future work this subject shall be treated, as it well deserves, at much greater length. The elder De Candolle and Lyell have largely and philosophically shown that all organic beings are exposed to severe competition. In regard to plants, no one has treated this subject with more spirit and ability than W. Herbert, Dean of Manchester, evidently the result of his great horticultural knowledge. Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult at least I have found it so than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, I am convinced that the whole economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood. We behold the face of nature bright with gladness, we often see superabundance of food; we do not see, or we forget, that the birds which are idly singing round us mostly live on insects or seeds, and are thus constantly destroying life; or we forget how largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings are destroyed by birds and beasts of prey; we do not always bear in mind, that though food may be now superabundant, it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year. 
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< I should premise that I use the term Struggle for Existence in a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another, and including (which is more important) not only the life of the individual, but success in leaving progeny. Two canine animals in a time of dearth, may be truly said to struggle with each other which shall get food and live. But a plant on the edge of a desert is said to struggle for life against the drought, though more properly it should be said to be dependent on the moisture. A plant which annually produces a thousand seeds, of which on an average only one comes to maturity, may be more truly said to struggle with the plants of the same and other kinds which already clothe the ground. The missletoe is dependent on the apple and a few other trees, but can only in a far-fetched sense be said to struggle with these trees, for if too many of these parasites grow on the same tree, it will languish and die. But several seedling missletoes, growing close together on the same branch, may more truly be said to struggle with each other. As the missletoe is disseminated by birds, its existence depends on birds; and it may metaphorically be said to struggle with other fruit-bearing plants, in order to tempt birds to devour and thus disseminate its seeds rather than those of other plants. In these several senses, which pass into each other, I use for convenience sake the general term of struggle for existence. 
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< A struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase. Every being, which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, must suffer destruction during some period of its life, and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product. Hence, as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage. Although some species may be now increasing, more or less rapidly, in numbers, all cannot do so, for the world would not hold them. 
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< There is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate, that if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years, and at this rate, in a few thousand years, there would literally not be standing room for his progeny. Linnaeus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds and there is no plant so unproductive as this and their seedlings next year produced two, and so on, then in twenty years there would be a million plants. The elephant is reckoned to be the slowest breeder of all known animals, and I have taken some pains to estimate its probable minimum rate of natural increase: it will be under the mark to assume that it breeds when thirty years old, and goes on breeding till ninety years old, bringing forth three pairs of young in this interval; if this be so, at the end of the fifth century there would be alive fifteen million elephants, descended from the first pair. 
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< But we have better evidence on this subject than mere theoretical calculations, namely, the numerous recorded cases of the astonishingly rapid increase of various animals in a state of nature, when circumstances have been favourable to them during two or three following seasons. Still more striking is the evidence from our domestic animals of many kinds which have run wild in several parts of the world: if the statements of the rate of increase of slow-breeding cattle and horses in South America, and latterly in Australia, had not been well authenticated, they would have been quite incredible. So it is with plants: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years, Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been introduced from Europe; and there are plants which now range in India, as I hear from Dr Falconer, from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya, which have been imported from America since its discovery. In such cases, and endless instances could be given, no one supposes that the fertility of these animals or plants has been suddenly and temporarily increased in any sensible degree. The obvious explanation is that the conditions of life have been very favourable, and that there has consequently been less destruction of the old and young, and that nearly all the young have been enabled to breed. In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalised productions in their new homes. 
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< In a state of nature almost every plant produces seed, and amongst animals there are very few which do not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert, that all plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio, that all would most rapidly stock every station in which they could any how exist, and that the geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals tends, I think, to mislead us: we see no great destruction falling on them, and we forget that thousands are annually slaughtered for food, and that in a state of nature an equal number would have somehow to be disposed of. 
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< The only difference between organisms which annually produce eggs or seeds by the thousand, and those which produce extremely few, is, that the slow-breeders would require a few more years to people, under favourable conditions, a whole district, let it be ever so large. The condor lays a couple of eggs and the ostrich a score, and yet in the same country the condor may be the more numerous of the two: the Fulmar petrel lays but one egg, yet it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world. One fly deposits hundreds of eggs, and another, like the hippobosca, a single one; but this difference does not determine how many individuals of the two species can be supported in a district. A large number of eggs is of some importance to those species, which depend on a rapidly fluctuating amount of food, for it allows them rapidly to increase in number. But the real importance of a large number of eggs or seeds is to make up for much destruction at some period of life; and this period in the great majority of cases is an early one. If an animal can in any way protect its own eggs or young, a small number may be produced, and yet the average stock be fully kept up; but if many eggs or young are destroyed, many must be produced, or the species will become extinct. It would suffice to keep up the full number of a tree, which lived on an average for a thousand years, if a single seed were produced once in a thousand years, supposing that this seed were never destroyed, and could be ensured to germinate in a fitting place. So that in all cases, the average number of any animal or plant depends only indirectly on the number of its eggs or seeds. 
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< In looking at Nature, it is most necessary to keep the foregoing considerations always in mind never to forget that every single organic being around us may be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction inevitably falls either on the young or old, during each generation or at recurrent intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so little, and the number of the species will almost instantaneously increase to any amount. The face of Nature may be compared to a yielding surface, with ten thousand sharp wedges packed close together and driven inwards by incessant blows, sometimes one wedge being struck, and then another with greater force. 
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< What checks the natural tendency of each species to increase in number is most obscure. Look at the most vigorous species; by as much as it swarms in numbers, by so much will its tendency to increase be still further increased. We know not exactly what the checks are in even one single instance. Nor will this surprise any one who reflects how ignorant we are on this head, even in regard to mankind, so incomparably better known than any other animal. This subject has been ably treated by several authors, and I shall, in my future work, discuss some of the checks at considerable length, more especially in regard to the feral animals of South America. Here I will make only a few remarks, just to recall to the reader's mind some of the chief points. Eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer most, but this is not invariably the case. With plants there is a vast destruction of seeds, but, from some observations which I have made, I believe that it is the seedlings which suffer most from germinating in ground already thickly stocked with other plants. Seedlings, also, are destroyed in vast numbers by various enemies; for instance, on a piece of ground three feet long and two wide, dug and cleared, and where there could be no choking from other plants, I marked all the seedlings of our native weeds as they came up, and out of the 357 no less than 295 were destroyed, chiefly by slugs and insects. If turf which has long been mown, and the case would be the same with turf closely browsed by quadrupeds, be let to grow, the more vigorous plants gradually kill the less vigorous, though fully grown, plants: thus out of twenty species growing on a little plot of turf (three feet by four) nine species perished from the other species being allowed to grow up freely. 
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< The amount of food for each species of course gives the extreme limit to which each can increase; but very frequently it is not the obtaining food, but the serving as prey to other animals, which determines the average numbers of a species. Thus, there seems to be little doubt that the stock of partridges, grouse, and hares on any large estate depends chiefly on the destruction of vermin. If not one head of game were shot during the next twenty years in England, and, at the same time, if no vermin were destroyed, there would, in all probability, be less game than at present, although hundreds of thousands of game animals are now annually killed. On the other hand, in some cases, as with the elephant and rhinoceros, none are destroyed by beasts of prey: even the tiger in India most rarely dares to attack a young elephant protected by its dam. 
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< Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought, I believe to be the most effective of all checks. I estimated that the winter of 1854-55 destroyed four-fifths of the birds in my own grounds; and this is a tremendous destruction, when we remember that ten per cent. is an extraordinarily severe mortality from epidemics with man. The action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent of the struggle for existence; but in so far as climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same kind of food. Even when climate, for instance extreme cold, acts directly, it will be the least vigorous, or those which have got least food through the advancing winter, which will suffer most. When we travel from south to north, or from a damp region to a dry, we invariably see some species gradually getting rarer and rarer, and finally disappearing; and the change of climate being conspicuous, we are tempted to attribute the whole effect to its direct action. But this is a very false view: we forget that each species, even where it most abounds, is constantly suffering enormous destruction at some period of its life, from enemies or from competitors for the same place and food; and if these enemies or competitors be in the least degree favoured by any slight change of climate, they will increase in numbers, and, as each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants, the other species will decrease. When we travel southward and see a species decreasing in numbers, we may feel sure that the cause lies quite as much in other species being favoured, as in this one being hurt. So it is when we travel northward, but in a somewhat lesser degree, for the number of species of all kinds, and therefore of competitors, decreases northwards; hence in going northward, or in ascending a mountain, we far oftener meet with stunted forms, due to the directly injurious action of climate, than we do in proceeding southwards or in descending a mountain. When we reach the Arctic regions, or snow-capped summits, or absolute deserts, the struggle for life is almost exclusively with the elements. 
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< That climate acts in main part indirectly by favouring other species, we may clearly see in the prodigious number of plants in our gardens which can perfectly well endure our climate, but which never become naturalised, for they cannot compete with our native plants, nor resist destruction by our native animals. 
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< When a species, owing to highly favourable circumstances, increases inordinately in numbers in a small tract, epidemics at least, this seems generally to occur with our game animals often ensue: and here we have a limiting check independent of the struggle for life. But even some of these so-called epidemics appear to be due to parasitic worms, which have from some cause, possibly in part through facility of diffusion amongst the crowded animals, been disproportionably favoured: and here comes in a sort of struggle between the parasite and its prey. 
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< On the other hand, in many cases, a large stock of individuals of the same species, relatively to the numbers of its enemies, is absolutely necessary for its preservation. Thus we can easily raise plenty of corn and rape-seed, &c., in our fields, because the seeds are in great excess compared with the number of birds which feed on them; nor can the birds, though having a superabundance of food at this one season, increase in number proportionally to the supply of seed, as their numbers are checked during winter: but any one who has tried, knows how troublesome it is to get seed from a few wheat or other such plants in a garden; I have in this case lost every single seed. This view of the necessity of a large stock of the same species for its preservation, explains, I believe, some singular facts in nature, such as that of very rare plants being sometimes extremely abundant in the few spots where they do occur; and that of some social plants being social, that is, abounding in individuals, even on the extreme confines of their range. For in such cases, we may believe, that a plant could exist only where the conditions of its life were so favourable that many could exist together, and thus save each other from utter destruction. I should add that the good effects of frequent intercrossing, and the ill effects of close interbreeding, probably come into play in some of these cases; but on this intricate subject I will not here enlarge. 
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< Many cases are on record showing how complex and unexpected are the checks and relations between organic beings, which have to struggle together in the same country. I will give only a single instance, which, though a simple one, has interested me. In Staffordshire, on the estate of a relation where I had ample means of investigation, there was a large and extremely barren heath, which had never been touched by the hand of man; but several hundred acres of exactly the same nature had been enclosed twenty-five years previously and planted with Scotch fir. The change in the native vegetation of the planted part of the heath was most remarkable, more than is generally seen in passing from one quite different soil to another: not only the proportional numbers of the heath-plants were wholly changed, but twelve species of plants (not counting grasses and carices) flourished in the plantations, which could not be found on the heath. The effect on the insects must have been still greater, for six insectivorous birds were very common in the plantations, which were not to be seen on the heath; and the heath was frequented by two or three distinct insectivorous birds. Here we see how potent has been the effect of the introduction of a single tree, nothing whatever else having been done, with the exception that the land had been enclosed, so that cattle could not enter. But how important an element enclosure is, I plainly saw near Farnham, in Surrey. Here there are extensive heaths, with a few clumps of old Scotch firs on the distant hill-tops: within the last ten years large spaces have been enclosed, and self-sown firs are now springing up in multitudes, so close together that all cannot live. When I ascertained that these young trees had not been sown or planted, I was so much surprised at their numbers that I went to several points of view, whence I could examine hundreds of acres of the unenclosed heath, and literally I could not see a single Scotch fir, except the old planted clumps. But on looking closely between the stems of the heath, I found a multitude of seedlings and little trees, which had been perpetually browsed down by the cattle. In one square yard, at a point some hundreds yards distant from one of the old clumps, I counted thirty-two little trees; and one of them, judging from the rings of growth, had during twenty-six years tried to raise its head above the stems of the heath, and had failed. No wonder that, as soon as the land was enclosed, it became thickly clothed with vigorously growing young firs. Yet the heath was so extremely barren and so extensive that no one would ever have imagined that cattle would have so closely and effectually searched it for food. 
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< Here we see that cattle absolutely determine the existence of the Scotch fir; but in several parts of the world insects determine the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually checked by some means, probably by birds. Hence, if certain insectivorous birds (whose numbers are probably regulated by hawks or beasts of prey) were to increase in Paraguay, the flies would decrease then cattle and horses would become feral, and this would certainly greatly alter (as indeed I have observed in parts of South America) the vegetation: this again would largely affect the insects; and this, as we just have seen in Staffordshire, the insectivorous birds, and so onwards in ever-increasing circles of complexity. We began this series by insectivorous birds, and we have ended with them. Not that in nature the relations can ever be as simple as this. Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another. Nevertheless so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life! 
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< I am tempted to give one more instance showing how plants and animals, most remote in the scale of nature, are bound together by a web of complex relations. I shall hereafter have occasion to show that the exotic Lobelia fulgens, in this part of England, is never visited by insects, and consequently, from its peculiar structure, never can set a seed. Many of our orchidaceous plants absolutely require the visits of moths to remove their pollen-masses and thus to fertilise them. I have, also, reason to believe that humble-bees are indispensable to the fertilisation of the heartsease (Viola tricolor), for other bees do not visit this flower. From experiments which I have tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are at least highly beneficial to the fertilisation of our clovers; but humble-bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot reach the nectar. Hence I have very little doubt, that if the whole genus of humble-bees became extinct or very rare in England, the heartsease and red clover would become very rare, or wholly disappear. The number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great degree on the number of field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and Mr H. Newman, who has long attended to the habits of humble-bees, believes that 'more than two thirds of them are thus destroyed all over England.' Now the number of mice is largely dependent, as every one knows, on the number of cats; and Mr Newman says, 'Near villages and small towns I have found the nests of humble-bees more numerous than elsewhere, which I attribute to the number of cats that destroy the mice.' Hence it is quite credible that the presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district might determine, through the intervention first of mice and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in that district! 
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< In the case of every species, many different checks, acting at different periods of life, and during different seasons or years, probably come into play; some one check or some few being generally the most potent, but all concurring in determining the average number or even the existence of the species. In some cases it can be shown that widely-different checks act on the same species in different districts. When we look at the plants and bushes clothing an entangled bank, we are tempted to attribute their proportional numbers and kinds to what we call chance. But how false a view is this! Every one has heard that when an American forest is cut down, a very different vegetation springs up; but it has been observed that the trees now growing on the ancient Indian mounds, in the Southern United States, display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding virgin forests. What a struggle between the several kinds of trees must here have gone on during long centuries, each annually scattering its seeds by the thousand; what war between insect and insect between insects, snails, and other animals with birds and beasts of prey all striving to increase, and all feeding on each other or on the trees or their seeds and seedlings, or on the other plants which first clothed the ground and thus checked the growth of the trees! Throw up a handful of feathers, and all must fall to the ground according to definite laws; but how simple is this problem compared to the action and reaction of the innumerable plants and animals which have determined, in the course of centuries, the proportional numbers and kinds of trees now growing on the old Indian ruins! 
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< The dependency of one organic being on another, as of a parasite on its prey, lies generally between beings remote in the scale of nature. This is often the case with those which may strictly be said to struggle with each other for existence, as in the case of locusts and grass-feeding quadrupeds. But the struggle almost invariably will be most severe between the individuals of the same species, for they frequent the same districts, require the same food, and are exposed to the same dangers. In the case of varieties of the same species, the struggle will generally be almost equally severe, and we sometimes see the contest soon decided: for instance, if several varieties of wheat be sown together, and the mixed seed be resown, some of the varieties which best suit the soil or climate, or are naturally the most fertile, will beat the others and so yield more seed, and will consequently in a few years quite supplant the other varieties. To keep up a mixed stock of even such extremely close varieties as the variously coloured sweet-peas, they must be each year harvested separately, and the seed then mixed in due proportion, otherwise the weaker kinds will steadily decrease in numbers and disappear. So again with the varieties of sheep: it has been asserted that certain mountain-varieties will starve out other mountain-varieties, so that they cannot be kept together. The same result has followed from keeping together different varieties of the medicinal leech. It may even be doubted whether the varieties of any one of our domestic plants or animals have so exactly the same strength, habits, and constitution, that the original proportions of a mixed stock could be kept up for half a dozen generations, if they were allowed to struggle together, like beings in a state of nature, and if the seed or young were not annually sorted. 
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< As species of the same genus have usually, though by no means invariably, some similarity in habits and constitution, and always in structure, the struggle will generally be more severe between species of the same genus, when they come into competition with each other, than between species of distinct genera. We see this in the recent extension over parts of the United States of one species of swallow having caused the decrease of another species. The recent increase of the missel-thrush in parts of Scotland has caused the decrease of the song-thrush. How frequently we hear of one species of rat taking the place of another species under the most different climates! In Russia the small Asiatic cockroach has everywhere driven before it its great congener. One species of charlock will supplant another, and so in other cases. We can dimly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms, which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature; but probably in no one case could we precisely say why one species has been victorious over another in the great battle of life. 
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< A corollary of the highest importance may be deduced from the foregoing remarks, namely, that the structure of every organic being is related, in the most essential yet often hidden manner, to that of all other organic beings, with which it comes into competition for food or residence, or from which it has to escape, or on which it preys. This is obvious in the structure of the teeth and talons of the tiger; and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite which clings to the hair on the tiger's body. But in the beautifully plumed seed of the dandelion, and in the flattened and fringed legs of the water-beetle, the relation seems at first confined to the elements of air and water. Yet the advantage of plumed seeds no doubt stands in the closest relation to the land being already thickly clothed by other plants; so that the seeds may be widely distributed and fall on unoccupied ground. In the water-beetle, the structure of its legs, so well adapted for diving, allows it to compete with other aquatic insects, to hunt for its own prey, and to escape serving as prey to other animals. 
< 
< The store of nutriment laid up within the seeds of many plants seems at first sight to have no sort of relation to other plants. But from the strong growth of young plants produced from such seeds (as peas and beans), when sown in the midst of long grass, I suspect that the chief use of the nutriment in the seed is to favour the growth of the young seedling, whilst struggling with other plants growing vigorously all around. 
< 
< Look at a plant in the midst of its range, why does it not double or quadruple its numbers? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold, dampness or dryness, for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder, damper or drier districts. In this case we can clearly see that if we wished in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number, we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors, or over the animals which preyed on it. On the confines of its geographical range, a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant; but we have reason to believe that only a few plants or animals range so far, that they are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone. Not until we reach the extreme confines of life, in the arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert, will competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yet there will be competition between some few species, or between the individuals of the same species, for the warmest or dampest spots. 
< 
< Hence, also, we can see that when a plant or animal is placed in a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. If we wished to increase its average numbers in its new home, we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have done in its native country; for we should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies. 
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< It is good thus to try in our imagination to give any form some advantage over another. Probably in no single instance should we know what to do, so as to succeed. It will convince us of our ignorance on the mutual relations of all organic beings; a conviction as necessary, as it seems to be difficult to acquire. All that we can do, is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ratio; that each at some period of its life, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.
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> BEF0RE entering on the subject of this chapter, I must make a few preliminary remarks, to show how the struggle for existence bears on Natural Selection. It has been seen in the last chapter that amongst organic beings in a state of nature there is some individual variability; indeed I am not aware that this has ever been disputed. It is immaterial for us whether a multitude of doubtful forms be called species or sub-species or varieties; what rank, for instance, the two or three hundred doubtful forms of British plants are entitled to hold, if the existence of any well-marked varieties be admitted. But the mere existence of individual variability and of some few well-marked varieties, though necessary as the foundation for the work, helps us but little in understanding how species arise in nature. How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organisation to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected? We see these beautiful co-adaptations most plainly in the woodpecker and missletoe; and only a little less plainly in the humblest parasite which clings to the hairs of a quadruped or feathers of a bird; in the structure of the beetle which dives through the water; in the plumed seed which is wafted by the gentlest breeze; in short, we see beautiful adaptations everywhere and in every part of the organic world. 
> 
> Again, it may be asked, how is it that varieties, which I have called incipient species, become ultimately converted into good and distinct species, which in most cases obviously differ from each other far more than do the varieties of the same species? How do those groups of species, which constitute what are called distinct genera, and which differ from each other more than do the species of the same genus, arise? All these results, as we shall more fully see in the next chapter, follow inevitably from the struggle for life. Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring. The offspring, also, will thus have a better chance of surviving, for, of the many individuals of any species which are periodically born, but a small number can survive. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. We have seen that man by selection can certainly produce great results, and can adapt organic beings to his own uses, through the accumulation of slight but useful variations, given to him by the hand of Nature. But Natural Selection, as we shall hereafter see, is a power incessantly ready for action, and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble efforts, as the works of Nature are to those of Art. 
> 
> We will now discuss in a little more detail the struggle for existence. In my future work this subject shall be treated, as it well deserves, at much greater length. The elder De Candolle and Lyell have largely and philosophically shown that all organic beings are exposed to severe competition. In regard to plants, no one has treated this subject with more spirit and ability than W. Herbert, Dean of Manchester, evidently the result of his great horticultural knowledge. Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult at least I have found it so than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, I am convinced that the whole economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood. We behold the face of nature bright with gladness, we often see superabundance of food; we do not see, or we forget, that the birds which are idly singing round us mostly live on insects or seeds, and are thus constantly destroying life; or we forget how largely these songsters, or their eggs, or their nestlings are destroyed by birds and beasts of prey; we do not always bear in mind, that though food may be now superabundant, it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year. 
> 
> I should premise that I use the term Struggle for Existence in a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another, and including (which is more important) not only the life of the individual, but success in leaving progeny. Two canine animals in a time of dearth, may be truly said to struggle with each other which shall get food and live. But a plant on the edge of a desert is said to struggle for life against the drought, though more properly it should be said to be dependent on the moisture. A plant which annually produces a thousand seeds, of which on an average only one comes to maturity, may be more truly said to struggle with the plants of the same and other kinds which already clothe the ground. The missletoe is dependent on the apple and a few other trees, but can only in a far-fetched sense be said to struggle with these trees, for if too many of these parasites grow on the same tree, it will languish and die. But several seedling missletoes, growing close together on the same branch, may more truly be said to struggle with each other. As the missletoe is disseminated by birds, its existence depends on birds; and it may metaphorically be said to struggle with other fruit-bearing plants, in order to tempt birds to devour and thus disseminate its seeds rather than those of other plants. In these several senses, which pass into each other, I use for convenience sake the general term of struggle for existence. 
> 
> A struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase. Every being, which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds, must suffer destruction during some period of its life, and during some season or occasional year, otherwise, on the principle of geometrical increase, its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product. Hence, as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life. It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms; for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food, and no prudential restraint from marriage. Although some species may be now increasing, more or less rapidly, in numbers, all cannot do so, for the world would not hold them. 
> 
> There is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate, that if not destroyed, the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair. Even slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years, and at this rate, in a few thousand years, there would literally not be standing room for his progeny. Linnaeus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds and there is no plant so unproductive as this and their seedlings next year produced two, and so on, then in twenty years there would be a million plants. The elephant is reckoned to be the slowest breeder of all known animals, and I have taken some pains to estimate its probable minimum rate of natural increase: it will be under the mark to assume that it breeds when thirty years old, and goes on breeding till ninety years old, bringing forth three pairs of young in this interval; if this be so, at the end of the fifth century there would be alive fifteen million elephants, descended from the first pair. 
> 
> But we have better evidence on this subject than mere theoretical calculations, namely, the numerous recorded cases of the astonishingly rapid increase of various animals in a state of nature, when circumstances have been favourable to them during two or three following seasons. Still more striking is the evidence from our domestic animals of many kinds which have run wild in several parts of the world: if the statements of the rate of increase of slow-breeding cattle and horses in South America, and latterly in Australia, had not been well authenticated, they would have been quite incredible. So it is with plants: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years, Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been introduced from Europe; and there are plants which now range in India, as I hear from Dr Falconer, from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya, which have been imported from America since its discovery. In such cases, and endless instances could be given, no one supposes that the fertility of these animals or plants has been suddenly and temporarily increased in any sensible degree. The obvious explanation is that the conditions of life have been very favourable, and that there has consequently been less destruction of the old and young, and that nearly all the young have been enabled to breed. In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalised productions in their new homes. 
> 
> In a state of nature almost every plant produces seed, and amongst animals there are very few which do not annually pair. Hence we may confidently assert, that all plants and animals are tending to increase at a geometrical ratio, that all would most rapidly stock every station in which they could any how exist, and that the geometrical tendency to increase must be checked by destruction at some period of life. Our familiarity with the larger domestic animals tends, I think, to mislead us: we see no great destruction falling on them, and we forget that thousands are annually slaughtered for food, and that in a state of nature an equal number would have somehow to be disposed of. 
> 
> The only difference between organisms which annually produce eggs or seeds by the thousand, and those which produce extremely few, is, that the slow-breeders would require a few more years to people, under favourable conditions, a whole district, let it be ever so large. The condor lays a couple of eggs and the ostrich a score, and yet in the same country the condor may be the more numerous of the two: the Fulmar petrel lays but one egg, yet it is believed to be the most numerous bird in the world. One fly deposits hundreds of eggs, and another, like the hippobosca, a single one; but this difference does not determine how many individuals of the two species can be supported in a district. A large number of eggs is of some importance to those species, which depend on a rapidly fluctuating amount of food, for it allows them rapidly to increase in number. But the real importance of a large number of eggs or seeds is to make up for much destruction at some period of life; and this period in the great majority of cases is an early one. If an animal can in any way protect its own eggs or young, a small number may be produced, and yet the average stock be fully kept up; but if many eggs or young are destroyed, many must be produced, or the species will become extinct. It would suffice to keep up the full number of a tree, which lived on an average for a thousand years, if a single seed were produced once in a thousand years, supposing that this seed were never destroyed, and could be ensured to germinate in a fitting place. So that in all cases, the average number of any animal or plant depends only indirectly on the number of its eggs or seeds. 
> 
> In looking at Nature, it is most necessary to keep the foregoing considerations always in mind never to forget that every single organic being around us may be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction inevitably falls either on the young or old, during each generation or at recurrent intervals. Lighten any check, mitigate the destruction ever so little, and the number of the species will almost instantaneously increase to any amount. The face of Nature may be compared to a yielding surface, with ten thousand sharp wedges packed close together and driven inwards by incessant blows, sometimes one wedge being struck, and then another with greater force. 
> 
> What checks the natural tendency of each species to increase in number is most obscure. Look at the most vigorous species; by as much as it swarms in numbers, by so much will its tendency to increase be still further increased. We know not exactly what the checks are in even one single instance. Nor will this surprise any one who reflects how ignorant we are on this head, even in regard to mankind, so incomparably better known than any other animal. This subject has been ably treated by several authors, and I shall, in my future work, discuss some of the checks at considerable length, more especially in regard to the feral animals of South America. Here I will make only a few remarks, just to recall to the reader's mind some of the chief points. Eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer most, but this is not invariably the case. With plants there is a vast destruction of seeds, but, from some observations which I have made, I believe that it is the seedlings which suffer most from germinating in ground already thickly stocked with other plants. Seedlings, also, are destroyed in vast numbers by various enemies; for instance, on a piece of ground three feet long and two wide, dug and cleared, and where there could be no choking from other plants, I marked all the seedlings of our native weeds as they came up, and out of the 357 no less than 295 were destroyed, chiefly by slugs and insects. If turf which has long been mown, and the case would be the same with turf closely browsed by quadrupeds, be let to grow, the more vigorous plants gradually kill the less vigorous, though fully grown, plants: thus out of twenty species growing on a little plot of turf (three feet by four) nine species perished from the other species being allowed to grow up freely. 
> 
> The amount of food for each species of course gives the extreme limit to which each can increase; but very frequently it is not the obtaining food, but the serving as prey to other animals, which determines the average numbers of a species. Thus, there seems to be little doubt that the stock of partridges, grouse, and hares on any large estate depends chiefly on the destruction of vermin. If not one head of game were shot during the next twenty years in England, and, at the same time, if no vermin were destroyed, there would, in all probability, be less game than at present, although hundreds of thousands of game animals are now annually killed. On the other hand, in some cases, as with the elephant and rhinoceros, none are destroyed by beasts of prey: even the tiger in India most rarely dares to attack a young elephant protected by its dam. 
> 
> Climate plays an important part in determining the average numbers of a species, and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought, I believe to be the most effective of all checks. I estimated that the winter of 1854-55 destroyed four-fifths of the birds in my own grounds; and this is a tremendous destruction, when we remember that ten per cent. is an extraordinarily severe mortality from epidemics with man. The action of climate seems at first sight to be quite independent of the struggle for existence; but in so far as climate chiefly acts in reducing food, it brings on the most severe struggle between the individuals, whether of the same or of distinct species, which subsist on the same kind of food. Even when climate, for instance extreme cold, acts directly, it will be the least vigorous, or those which have got least food through the advancing winter, which will suffer most. When we travel from south to north, or from a damp region to a dry, we invariably see some species gradually getting rarer and rarer, and finally disappearing; and the change of climate being conspicuous, we are tempted to attribute the whole effect to its direct action. But this is a very false view: we forget that each species, even where it most abounds, is constantly suffering enormous destruction at some period of its life, from enemies or from competitors for the same place and food; and if these enemies or competitors be in the least degree favoured by any slight change of climate, they will increase in numbers, and, as each area is already fully stocked with inhabitants, the other species will decrease. When we travel southward and see a species decreasing in numbers, we may feel sure that the cause lies quite as much in other species being favoured, as in this one being hurt. So it is when we travel northward, but in a somewhat lesser degree, for the number of species of all kinds, and therefore of competitors, decreases northwards; hence in going northward, or in ascending a mountain, we far oftener meet with stunted forms, due to the directly injurious action of climate, than we do in proceeding southwards or in descending a mountain. When we reach the Arctic regions, or snow-capped summits, or absolute deserts, the struggle for life is almost exclusively with the elements. 
> 
> That climate acts in main part indirectly by favouring other species, we may clearly see in the prodigious number of plants in our gardens which can perfectly well endure our climate, but which never become naturalised, for they cannot compete with our native plants, nor resist destruction by our native animals. 
> 
> When a species, owing to highly favourable circumstances, increases inordinately in numbers in a small tract, epidemics at least, this seems generally to occur with our game animals often ensue: and here we have a limiting check independent of the struggle for life. But even some of these so-called epidemics appear to be due to parasitic worms, which have from some cause, possibly in part through facility of diffusion amongst the crowded animals, been disproportionably favoured: and here comes in a sort of struggle between the parasite and its prey. 
> 
> On the other hand, in many cases, a large stock of individuals of the same species, relatively to the numbers of its enemies, is absolutely necessary for its preservation. Thus we can easily raise plenty of corn and rape-seed, &c., in our fields, because the seeds are in great excess compared with the number of birds which feed on them; nor can the birds, though having a superabundance of food at this one season, increase in number proportionally to the supply of seed, as their numbers are checked during winter: but any one who has tried, knows how troublesome it is to get seed from a few wheat or other such plants in a garden; I have in this case lost every single seed. This view of the necessity of a large stock of the same species for its preservation, explains, I believe, some singular facts in nature, such as that of very rare plants being sometimes extremely abundant in the few spots where they do occur; and that of some social plants being social, that is, abounding in individuals, even on the extreme confines of their range. For in such cases, we may believe, that a plant could exist only where the conditions of its life were so favourable that many could exist together, and thus save each other from utter destruction. I should add that the good effects of frequent intercrossing, and the ill effects of close interbreeding, probably come into play in some of these cases; but on this intricate subject I will not here enlarge. 
> 
> Many cases are on record showing how complex and unexpected are the checks and relations between organic beings, which have to struggle together in the same country. I will give only a single instance, which, though a simple one, has interested me. In Staffordshire, on the estate of a relation where I had ample means of investigation, there was a large and extremely barren heath, which had never been touched by the hand of man; but several hundred acres of exactly the same nature had been enclosed twenty-five years previously and planted with Scotch fir. The change in the native vegetation of the planted part of the heath was most remarkable, more than is generally seen in passing from one quite different soil to another: not only the proportional numbers of the heath-plants were wholly changed, but twelve species of plants (not counting grasses and carices) flourished in the plantations, which could not be found on the heath. The effect on the insects must have been still greater, for six insectivorous birds were very common in the plantations, which were not to be seen on the heath; and the heath was frequented by two or three distinct insectivorous birds. Here we see how potent has been the effect of the introduction of a single tree, nothing whatever else having been done, with the exception that the land had been enclosed, so that cattle could not enter. But how important an element enclosure is, I plainly saw near Farnham, in Surrey. Here there are extensive heaths, with a few clumps of old Scotch firs on the distant hill-tops: within the last ten years large spaces have been enclosed, and self-sown firs are now springing up in multitudes, so close together that all cannot live. When I ascertained that these young trees had not been sown or planted, I was so much surprised at their numbers that I went to several points of view, whence I could examine hundreds of acres of the unenclosed heath, and literally I could not see a single Scotch fir, except the old planted clumps. But on looking closely between the stems of the heath, I found a multitude of seedlings and little trees, which had been perpetually browsed down by the cattle. In one square yard, at a point some hundreds yards distant from one of the old clumps, I counted thirty-two little trees; and one of them, judging from the rings of growth, had during twenty-six years tried to raise its head above the stems of the heath, and had failed. No wonder that, as soon as the land was enclosed, it became thickly clothed with vigorously growing young firs. Yet the heath was so extremely barren and so extensive that no one would ever have imagined that cattle would have so closely and effectually searched it for food. 
> 
> Here we see that cattle absolutely determine the existence of the Scotch fir; but in several parts of the world insects determine the existence of cattle. Perhaps Paraguay offers the most curious instance of this; for here neither cattle nor horses nor dogs have ever run wild, though they swarm southward and northward in a feral state; and Azara and Rengger have shown that this is caused by the greater number in Paraguay of a certain fly, which lays its eggs in the navels of these animals when first born. The increase of these flies, numerous as they are, must be habitually checked by some means, probably by birds. Hence, if certain insectivorous birds (whose numbers are probably regulated by hawks or beasts of prey) were to increase in Paraguay, the flies would decrease then cattle and horses would become feral, and this would certainly greatly alter (as indeed I have observed in parts of South America) the vegetation: this again would largely affect the insects; and this, as we just have seen in Staffordshire, the insectivorous birds, and so onwards in ever-increasing circles of complexity. We began this series by insectivorous birds, and we have ended with them. Not that in nature the relations can ever be as simple as this. Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another. Nevertheless so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life! 
> 
> I am tempted to give one more instance showing how plants and animals, most remote in the scale of nature, are bound together by a web of complex relations. I shall hereafter have occasion to show that the exotic Lobelia fulgens, in this part of England, is never visited by insects, and consequently, from its peculiar structure, never can set a seed. Many of our orchidaceous plants absolutely require the visits of moths to remove their pollen-masses and thus to fertilise them. I have, also, reason to believe that humble-bees are indispensable to the fertilisation of the heartsease (Viola tricolor), for other bees do not visit this flower. From experiments which I have tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are at least highly beneficial to the fertilisation of our clovers; but humble-bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as other bees cannot reach the nectar. Hence I have very little doubt, that if the whole genus of humble-bees became extinct or very rare in England, the heartsease and red clover would become very rare, or wholly disappear. The number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great degree on the number of field-mice, which destroy their combs and nests; and Mr H. Newman, who has long attended to the habits of humble-bees, believes that 'more than two thirds of them are thus destroyed all over England.' Now the number of mice is largely dependent, as every one knows, on the number of cats; and Mr Newman says, 'Near villages and small towns I have found the nests of humble-bees more numerous than elsewhere, which I attribute to the number of cats that destroy the mice.' Hence it is quite credible that the presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district might determine, through the intervention first of mice and then of bees, the frequency of certain flowers in that district! 
> 
> In the case of every species, many different checks, acting at different periods of life, and during different seasons or years, probably come into play; some one check or some few being generally the most potent, but all concurring in determining the average number or even the existence of the species. In some cases it can be shown that widely-different checks act on the same species in different districts. When we look at the plants and bushes clothing an entangled bank, we are tempted to attribute their proportional numbers and kinds to what we call chance. But how false a view is this! Every one has heard that when an American forest is cut down, a very different vegetation springs up; but it has been observed that the trees now growing on the ancient Indian mounds, in the Southern United States, display the same beautiful diversity and proportion of kinds as in the surrounding virgin forests. What a struggle between the several kinds of trees must here have gone on during long centuries, each annually scattering its seeds by the thousand; what war between insect and insect between insects, snails, and other animals with birds and beasts of prey all striving to increase, and all feeding on each other or on the trees or their seeds and seedlings, or on the other plants which first clothed the ground and thus checked the growth of the trees! Throw up a handful of feathers, and all must fall to the ground according to definite laws; but how simple is this problem compared to the action and reaction of the innumerable plants and animals which have determined, in the course of centuries, the proportional numbers and kinds of trees now growing on the old Indian ruins! 
> 
> The dependency of one organic being on another, as of a parasite on its prey, lies generally between beings remote in the scale of nature. This is often the case with those which may strictly be said to struggle with each other for existence, as in the case of locusts and grass-feeding quadrupeds. But the struggle almost invariably will be most severe between the individuals of the same species, for they frequent the same districts, require the same food, and are exposed to the same dangers. In the case of varieties of the same species, the struggle will generally be almost equally severe, and we sometimes see the contest soon decided: for instance, if several varieties of wheat be sown together, and the mixed seed be resown, some of the varieties which best suit the soil or climate, or are naturally the most fertile, will beat the others and so yield more seed, and will consequently in a few years quite supplant the other varieties. To keep up a mixed stock of even such extremely close varieties as the variously coloured sweet-peas, they must be each year harvested separately, and the seed then mixed in due proportion, otherwise the weaker kinds will steadily decrease in numbers and disappear. So again with the varieties of sheep: it has been asserted that certain mountain-varieties will starve out other mountain-varieties, so that they cannot be kept together. The same result has followed from keeping together different varieties of the medicinal leech. It may even be doubted whether the varieties of any one of our domestic plants or animals have so exactly the same strength, habits, and constitution, that the original proportions of a mixed stock could be kept up for half a dozen generations, if they were allowed to struggle together, like beings in a state of nature, and if the seed or young were not annually sorted. 
> 
> As species of the same genus have usually, though by no means invariably, some similarity in habits and constitution, and always in structure, the struggle will generally be more severe between species of the same genus, when they come into competition with each other, than between species of distinct genera. We see this in the recent extension over parts of the United States of one species of swallow having caused the decrease of another species. The recent increase of the missel-thrush in parts of Scotland has caused the decrease of the song-thrush. How frequently we hear of one species of rat taking the place of another species under the most different climates! In Russia the small Asiatic cockroach has everywhere driven before it its great congener. One species of charlock will supplant another, and so in other cases. We can dimly see why the competition should be most severe between allied forms, which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature; but probably in no one case could we precisely say why one species has been victorious over another in the great battle of life. 
> 
> A corollary of the highest importance may be deduced from the foregoing remarks, namely, that the structure of every organic being is related, in the most essential yet often hidden manner, to that of all other organic beings, with which it comes into competition for food or residence, or from which it has to escape, or on which it preys. This is obvious in the structure of the teeth and talons of the tiger; and in that of the legs and claws of the parasite which clings to the hair on the tiger's body. But in the beautifully plumed seed of the dandelion, and in the flattened and fringed legs of the water-beetle, the relation seems at first confined to the elements of air and water. Yet the advantage of plumed seeds no doubt stands in the closest relation to the land being already thickly clothed by other plants; so that the seeds may be widely distributed and fall on unoccupied ground. In the water-beetle, the structure of its legs, so well adapted for diving, allows it to compete with other aquatic insects, to hunt for its own prey, and to escape serving as prey to other animals. 
> 
> The store of nutriment laid up within the seeds of many plants seems at first sight to have no sort of relation to other plants. But from the strong growth of young plants produced from such seeds (as peas and beans), when sown in the midst of long grass, I suspect that the chief use of the nutriment in the seed is to favour the growth of the young seedling, whilst struggling with other plants growing vigorously all around. 
> 
> Look at a plant in the midst of its range, why does it not double or quadruple its numbers? We know that it can perfectly well withstand a little more heat or cold, dampness or dryness, for elsewhere it ranges into slightly hotter or colder, damper or drier districts. In this case we can clearly see that if we wished in imagination to give the plant the power of increasing in number, we should have to give it some advantage over its competitors, or over the animals which preyed on it. On the confines of its geographical range, a change of constitution with respect to climate would clearly be an advantage to our plant; but we have reason to believe that only a few plants or animals range so far, that they are destroyed by the rigour of the climate alone. Not until we reach the extreme confines of life, in the arctic regions or on the borders of an utter desert, will competition cease. The land may be extremely cold or dry, yet there will be competition between some few species, or between the individuals of the same species, for the warmest or dampest spots. 
> 
> Hence, also, we can see that when a plant or animal is placed in a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. If we wished to increase its average numbers in its new home, we should have to modify it in a different way to what we should have done in its native country; for we should have to give it some advantage over a different set of competitors or enemies. 
> 
> It is good thus to try in our imagination to give any form some advantage over another. Probably in no single instance should we know what to do, so as to succeed. It will convince us of our ignorance on the mutual relations of all organic beings; a conviction as necessary, as it seems to be difficult to acquire. All that we can do, is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ratio; that each at some period of its life, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.
> 
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The_Origin_of_Species|985492826
11,15c11,15
< #[[Preface of Origin]]
< #[[Introduction to Origin]]
< #[[Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication]] 
< #[[Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature]]
< #[[Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence]]
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> #[[/Preface]]
> #[[/Introduction]]
> #[[/Chapter 1]] - Variation Under Domestication 
> #[[/Chapter 2]] - Variation Under Nature
> #[[/Chapter 3]] - Struggle for Existence
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Chapter_2_-_Variation_Under_Nature|985492852
1,45c1
< BEFORE applying the principles arrived at in the last chapter to organic beings in a state of nature, we must briefly discuss whether these latter are subject to any variation. To treat this subject at all properly, a long catalogue of dry facts should be given; but these I shall reserve for my future work. Nor shall I here discuss the various definitions which have been given of the term species. No one definition has as yet satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. The term 'variety' is almost equally difficult to define; but here community of descent is almost universally implied, though it can rarely be proved. We have also what are called monstrosities; but they graduate into varieties. By a monstrosity I presume is meant some considerable deviation of structure in one part, either injurious to or not useful to the species, and not generally propagated. Some authors use the term 'variation' in a technical sense, as implying a modification directly due to the physical conditions of life; and 'variations' in this sense are supposed not to be inherited: but who can say that the dwarfed condition of shells in the brackish waters of the Baltic, or dwarfed plants on Alpine summits, or the thicker fur of an animal from far northwards, would not in some cases be inherited for at least some few generations? and in this case I presume that the form would be called a variety. 
< 
< Again, we have many slight differences which may be called individual differences, such as are known frequently to appear in the offspring from the same parents, or which may be presumed to have thus arisen, from being frequently observed in the individuals of the same species inhabiting the same confined locality. No one supposes that all the individuals of the same species are cast in the very same mould. These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions. These individual differences generally affect what naturalists consider unimportant parts; but I could show by a long catalogue of facts, that parts which must be called important, whether viewed under a physiological or classificatory point of view, sometimes vary in the individuals of the same species. I am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of variability, even in important parts of structure, which he could collect on good authority, as I have collected, during a course of years. It should be remembered that systematists are far from pleased at finding variability in important characters, and that there are not many men who will laboriously examine internal and important organs, and compare them in many specimens of the same species. I should never have expected that the branching of the main nerves close to the great central ganglion of an insect would have been variable in the same species; I should have expected that changes of this nature could have been effected only by slow degrees: yet quite recently Mr Lubbock has shown a degree of variability in these main nerves in Coccus, which may almost be compared to the irregular branching of the stem of a tree. This philosophical naturalist, I may add, has also quite recently shown that the muscles in the larvae of certain insects are very far from uniform. Authors sometimes argue in a circle when they state that important organs never vary; for these same authors practically rank that character as important (as some few naturalists have honestly confessed) which does not vary; and, under this point of view, no instance of any important part varying will ever be found: but under any other point of view many instances assuredly can be given. 
< 
< There is one point connected with individual differences, which seems to me extremely perplexing: I refer to those genera which have sometimes been called 'protean' or 'polymorphic,' in which the species present an inordinate amount of variation; and hardly two naturalists can agree which forms to rank as species and which as varieties. We may instance Rubus, Rosa, and Hieracium amongst plants, several genera of insects, and several genera of Brachiopod shells. In most polymorphic genera some of the species have fixed and definite characters. Genera which are polymorphic in one country seem to be, with some few exceptions, polymorphic in other countries, and likewise, judging from Brachiopod shells, at former periods of time. These facts seem to be very perplexing, for they seem to show that this kind of variability is independent of the conditions of life. I am inclined to suspect that we see in these polymorphic genera variations in points of structure which are of no service or disservice to the species, and which consequently have not been seized on and rendered definite by natural selection, as hereafter will be explained. 
< 
< Those forms which possess in some considerable degree the character of species, but which are so closely similar to some other forms, or are so closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, are in several respects the most important for us. We have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful and closely-allied forms have permanently retained their characters in their own country for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, as have good and true species. practically, when a naturalist can unite two forms together by others having intermediate characters, he treats the one as a variety of the other, ranking the most common, but sometimes the one first described, as the species, and the other as the variety. But cases of great difficulty, which I will not here enumerate, sometimes occur in deciding whether or not to rank one form as a variety of another, even when they are closely connected by intermediate links; nor will the commonly-assumed hybrid nature of the intermediate links always remove the difficulty. In very many cases, however, one form is ranked as a variety of another, not because the intermediate links have actually been found, but because analogy leads the observer to suppose either that they do now somewhere exist, or may formerly have existed; and here a wide door for the entry of doubt and conjecture is opened. 
< 
< Hence, in determining whether a form should be ranked as a species or a variety, the opinion of naturalists having sound judgement and wide experience seems the only guide to follow. We must, however, in many cases, decide by a majority of naturalists, for few well-marked and well-known varieties can be named which have not been ranked as species by at least some competent judges. 
< 
< That varieties of this doubtful nature are far from uncommon cannot be disputed. Compare the several floras of Great Britain, of France or of the United States, drawn up by different botanists, and see what a surprising number of forms have been ranked by one botanist as good species, and by another as mere varieties. Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I lie under deep obligation for assistance of all kinds, has marked for me 182 British plants, which are generally considered as varieties, but which have all been ranked by botanists as species; and in making this list he has omitted many trifling varieties, but which nevertheless have been ranked by some botanists as species, and he has entirely omitted several highly polymorphic genera. Under genera, including the most polymorphic forms, Mr Babington gives 251 species, whereas Mr Bentham gives only 112, a difference of 139 doubtful forms! Amongst animals which unite for each birth, and which are highly locomotive, doubtful forms, ranked by one zoologist as a species and by another as a variety, can rarely be found within the same country, but are common in separated areas. How many of those birds and insects in North America and Europe, which differ very slightly from each other, have been ranked by one eminent naturalist as undoubted species, and by another as varieties, or, as they are often called, as geographical races! Many years ago, when comparing, and seeing others compare, the birds from the separate islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, both one with another, and with those from the American mainland, I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. On the islets of the little Madeira group there are many insects which are characterized as varieties in Mr Wollaston's admirable work, but which it cannot be doubted would be ranked as distinct species by many entomologists. Even Ireland has a few animals, now generally regarded as varieties, but which have been ranked as species by some zoologists. Several most experienced ornithologists consider our British red grouse as only a strongly-marked race of a Norwegian species, whereas the greater number rank it as an undoubted species peculiar to Great Britain. A wide distance between the homes of two doubtful forms leads many naturalists to rank both as distinct species; but what distance, it has been well asked, will suffice? if that between America and Europe is ample, will that between the Continent and the Azores, or Madeira, or the Canaries, or Ireland, be sufficient? It must be admitted that many forms, considered by highly-competent judges as varieties, have so perfectly the character of species that they are ranked by other highly-competent judges as good and true species. But to discuss whether they are rightly called species or varieties, before any definition of these terms has been generally accepted, is vainly to beat the air. 
< 
< Many of the cases of strongly-marked varieties or doubtful species well deserve consideration; for several interesting lines of argument, from geographical distribution, analogical variation, hybridism, &c., have been brought to bear on the attempt to determine their rank. I will here give only a single instance, the well-known one of the primrose and cowslip, or Primula veris and elatior. These plants differ considerably in appearance; they have a different flavour and emit a different odour; they flower at slightly different periods; they grow in somewhat different stations; they ascend mountains to different heights; they have different geographical ranges; and lastly, according to very numerous experiments made during several years by that most careful observer Gärtner, they can be crossed only with much difficulty. We could hardly wish for better evidence of the two forms being specifically distinct. On the other hand, they are united by many intermediate links, and it is very doubtful whether these links are hybrids; and there is, as it seems to me, an overwhelming amount of experimental evidence, showing that they descend from common parents, and consequently must be ranked as varieties. 
< 
< Close investigation, in most cases, will bring naturalists to an agreement how to rank doubtful forms. Yet it must be confessed, that it is in the best-known countries that we find the greatest number of forms of doubtful value. I have been struck with the fact, that if any animal or plant in a state of nature be highly useful to man, or from any cause closely attract his attention, varieties of it will almost universally be found recorded. These varieties, moreover, will be often ranked by some authors as species. Look at the common oak, how closely it has been studied; yet a German author makes more than a dozen species out of forms, which are very generally considered as varieties; and in this country the highest botanical authorities and practical men can be quoted to show that the sessile and pedunculated oaks are either good and distinct species or mere varieties. 
< 
< When a young naturalist commences the study of a group of organisms quite unknown to him, he is at first much perplexed to determine what differences to consider as specific, and what as varieties; for he knows nothing of the amount and kind of variation to which the group is subject; and this shows, at least, how very generally there is some variation. But if he confine his attention to one class within one country, he will soon make up his mind how to rank most of the doubtful forms. His general tendency will be to make many species, for he will become impressed, just like the pigeon or poultry-fancier before alluded to, with the amount of difference in the forms which he is continually studying; and he has little general knowledge of analogical variation in other groups and in other countries, by which to correct his first impressions. As he extends the range of his observations, he will meet with more cases of difficulty; for he will encounter a greater number of closely-allied forms. But if his observations be widely extended, he will in the end generally be enabled to make up his own mind which to call varieties and which species; but he will succeed in this at the expense of admitting much variation, and the truth of this admission will often be disputed by other naturalists. When, moreover, he comes to study allied forms brought from countries not now continuous, in which case he can hardly hope to find the intermediate links between his doubtful forms, he will have to trust almost entirely to analogy, and his difficulties will rise to a climax. 
< 
< Certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences. These differences blend into each other in an insensible series; and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage. 
< 
< Hence I look at individual differences, though of small interest to the systematist, as of high importance for us, as being the first step towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth recording in works on natural history. And I look at varieties which are in any degree more distinct and permanent, as steps leading to more strongly marked and more permanent varieties; and at these latter, as leading to sub-species, and to species. The passage from one stage of difference to another and higher stage may be, in some cases, due merely to the long-continued action of different physical conditions in two different regions; but I have not much faith in this view; and I attribute the passage of a variety, from a state in which it differs very slightly from its parent to one in which it differs more, to the action of natural selection in accumulating (as will hereafter be more fully explained) differences of structure in certain definite directions. Hence I believe a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species; but whether this belief be justifiable must be judged of by the general weight of the several facts and views given throughout this work. 
< 
< It need not be supposed that all varieties or incipient species necessarily attain the rank of species. They may whilst in this incipient state become extinct, or they may endure as varieties for very long periods, as has been shown to be the case by Mr Wollaston with the varieties of certain fossil land-shells in Madeira. If a variety were to flourish so as to exceed in numbers the parent species, it would then rank as the species, and the species as the variety; or it might come to supplant and exterminate the parent species; or both might co-exist, and both rank as independent species. But we shall hereafter have to return to this subject. 
< 
< From these remarks it will be seen that I look at the term species, as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for mere convenience sake. 
< 
< Guided by theoretical considerations, I thought that some interesting results might be obtained in regard to the nature and relations of the species which vary most, by tabulating all the varieties in several well-worked floras. At first this seemed a simple task; but Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I am much indebted for valuable advice and assistance on this subject, soon convinced me that there were many difficulties, as did subsequently Dr Hooker, even in stronger terms. I shall reserve for my future work the discussion of these difficulties, and the tables themselves of the proportional numbers of the varying species. Dr Hooker permits me to add, that after having carefully read my manuscript, and examined the tables, he thinks that the following statements are fairly well established. The whole subject, however, treated as it necessarily here is with much brevity, is rather perplexing, and allusions cannot be avoided to the 'struggle for existence,' 'divergence of character,' and other questions, hereafter to be discussed. 
< 
< Alph. De Candolle and others have shown that plants which have very wide ranges generally present varieties; and this might have been expected, as they become exposed to diverse physical conditions, and as they come into competition (which, as we shall hereafter see, is a far more important circumstance) with different sets of organic beings. But my tables further show that, in any limited country, the species which are most common, that is abound most in individuals, and the species which are most widely diffused within their own country (and this is a different consideration from wide range, and to a certain extent from commonness), often give rise to varieties sufficiently well-marked to have been recorded in botanical works. Hence it is the most flourishing, or, as they may be called, the dominant species, those which range widely over the world, are the most diffused in their own country, and are the most numerous in individuals, which oftenest produce well-marked varieties, or, as I consider them, incipient species. And this, perhaps, might have been anticipated; for, as varieties, in order to become in any degree permanent, necessarily have to struggle with the other inhabitants of the country, the species which are already dominant will be the most likely to yield offspring which, though in some slight degree modified, will still inherit those advantages that enabled their parents to become dominant over their compatriots. 
< 
< If the plants inhabiting a country and described in any Flora be divided into two equal masses, all those in the larger genera being placed on one side, and all those in the smaller genera on the other side, a somewhat larger number of the very common and much diffused or dominant species will be found on the side of the larger genera. This, again, might have been anticipated; for the mere fact of many species of the same genus inhabiting any country, shows that there is something in the organic or inorganic conditions of that country favourable to the genus; and, consequently, we might have expected to have found in the larger genera, or those including many species, a large proportional number of dominant species. But so many causes tend to obscure this result, that I am surprised that my tables show even a small majority on the side of the larger genera. I will here allude to only two causes of obscurity. Fresh-water and salt-loving plants have generally very wide ranges and are much diffused, but this seems to be connected with the nature of the stations inhabited by them, and has little or no relation to the size of the genera to which the species belong. Again, plants low in the scale of organisation are generally much more widely diffused than plants higher in the scale; and here again there is no close relation to the size of the genera. The cause of lowly-organised plants ranging widely will be discussed in our chapter on geographical distribution. 
< 
< From looking at species as only strongly-marked and well-defined varieties, I was led to anticipate that the species of the larger genera in each country would oftener present varieties, than the species of the smaller genera; for wherever many closely related species (i.e. species of the same genus) have been formed, many varieties or incipient species ought, as a general rule, to be now forming. Where many large trees grow, we expect to find saplings. Where many species of a genus have been formed through variation, circumstances have been favourable for variation; and hence we might expect that the circumstances would generally be still favourable to variation. On the other hand, if we look at each species as a special act of creation, there is no apparent reason why more varieties should occur in a group having many species, than in one having few. 
< 
< To test the truth of this anticipation I have arranged the plants of twelve countries, and the coleopterous insects of two districts, into two nearly equal masses, the species of the larger genera on one side, and those of the smaller genera on the other side, and it has invariably proved to be the case that a larger proportion of the species on the side of the larger genera present varieties, than on the side of the smaller genera. Moreover, the species of the large genera which present any varieties, invariably present a larger average number of varieties than do the species of the small genera. Both these results follow when another division is made, and when all the smallest genera, with from only one to four species, are absolutely excluded from the tables. These facts are of plain signification on the view that species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties; for whenever many species of the same genus have been formed, or where, if we may use the expression, the manufactory of species has been active, we ought generally to find the manufactory still in action, more especially as we have every reason to believe the process of manufacturing new species to be a slow one. And this certainly is the case, if varieties be looked at as incipient species; for my tables clearly show as a general rule that, wherever many species of a genus have been formed, the species of that genus present a number of varieties, that is of incipient species, beyond the average. It is not that all large genera are now varying much, and are thus increasing in the number of their species, or that no small genera are now varying and increasing; for if this had been so, it would have been fatal to my theory; inasmuch as geology plainly tells us that small genera have in the lapse of time often increased greatly in size; and that large genera have often come to their maxima, declined, and disappeared. All that we want to show is, that where many species of a genus have been formed, on an average many are still forming; and this holds good. 
< 
< There are other relations between the species of large genera and their recorded varieties which deserve notice. We have seen that there is no infallible criterion by which to distinguish species and well-marked varieties; and in those cases in which intermediate links have not been found between doubtful forms, naturalists are compelled to come to a determination by the amount of difference between them, judging by analogy whether or not the amount suffices to raise one or both to the rank of species. Hence the amount of difference is one very important criterion in settling whether two forms should be ranked as species or varieties. Now Fries has remarked in regard to plants, and Westwood in regard to insects, that in large genera the amount of difference between the species is often exceedingly small. I have endeavoured to test this numerically by averages, and, as far as my imperfect results go, they always confirm the view. I have also consulted some sagacious and most experienced observers, and, after deliberation, they concur in this view. In this respect, therefore, the species of the larger genera resemble varieties, more than do the species of the smaller genera. Or the case may be put in another way, and it may be said, that in the larger genera, in which a number of varieties or incipient species greater than the average are now manufacturing, many of the species already manufactured still to a certain extent resemble varieties, for they differ from each other by a less than usual amount of difference. 
< 
< Moreover, the species of the large genera are related to each other, in the same manner as the varieties of any one species are related to each other. No naturalist pretends that all the species of a genus are equally distinct from each other; they may generally be divided into sub-genera, or sections, or lesser groups. As Fries has well remarked, little groups of species are generally clustered like satellites around certain other species. And what are varieties but groups of forms, unequally related to each other, and clustered round certain forms that is, round their parent-species? Undoubtedly there is one most important point of difference between varieties and species; namely, that the amount of difference between varieties, when compared with each other or with their parent-species, is much less than that between the species of the same genus. But when we come to discuss the principle, as I call it, of Divergence of Character, we shall see how this may be explained, and how the lesser differences between varieties will tend to increase into the greater differences between species. 
< 
< There is one other point which seems to me worth notice. Varieties generally have much restricted ranges: this statement is indeed scarcely more than a truism, for if a variety were found to have a wider range than that of its supposed parent-species, their denominations ought to be reversed. But there is also reason to believe, that those species which are very closely allied to other species, and in so far resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges. For instance, Mr H. C. Watson has marked for me in the well-sifted London Catalogue of plants (4th edition) 63 plants which are therein ranked as species, but which he considers as so closely allied to other species as to be of doubtful value: these 63 reputed species range on an average over 6.9 of the provinces into which Mr Watson has divided Great Britain. Now, in this same catalogue, 53 acknowledged varieties are recorded, and these range over 7.7 provinces; whereas, the species to which these varieties belong range over 14.3 provinces. So that the acknowledged varieties have very nearly the same restricted average range, as have those very closely allied forms, marked for me by Mr Watson as doubtful species, but which are almost universally ranked by British botanists as good and true species. 
< 
< Finally, then, varieties have the same general characters as species, for they cannot be distinguished from species, except, firstly, by the discovery of intermediate linking forms, and the occurrence of such links cannot affect the actual characters of the forms which they connect; and except, secondly, by a certain amount of difference, for two forms, if differing very little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding that intermediate linking forms have not been discovered; but the amount of difference considered necessary to give to two forms the rank of species is quite indefinite. In genera having more than the average number of species in any country, the species of these genera have more than the average number of varieties. In large genera the species are apt to be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters round certain species. Species very closely allied to other species apparently have restricted ranges. In all these several respects the species of large genera present a strong analogy with varieties. And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated: whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created. 
< 
< We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing and dominant species of the larger genera which on an average vary most; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to become converted into new and distinct species. The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants. But by steps hereafter to be explained, the larger genera also tend to break up into smaller genera. And thus, the forms of life throughout the universe become divided into groups subordinate to groups.
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> #REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species/Chapter 2]]
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_2|985492872
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
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> BEFORE applying the principles arrived at in the last chapter to organic beings in a state of nature, we must briefly discuss whether these latter are subject to any variation. To treat this subject at all properly, a long catalogue of dry facts should be given; but these I shall reserve for my future work. Nor shall I here discuss the various definitions which have been given of the term species. No one definition has as yet satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation. The term 'variety' is almost equally difficult to define; but here community of descent is almost universally implied, though it can rarely be proved. We have also what are called monstrosities; but they graduate into varieties. By a monstrosity I presume is meant some considerable deviation of structure in one part, either injurious to or not useful to the species, and not generally propagated. Some authors use the term 'variation' in a technical sense, as implying a modification directly due to the physical conditions of life; and 'variations' in this sense are supposed not to be inherited: but who can say that the dwarfed condition of shells in the brackish waters of the Baltic, or dwarfed plants on Alpine summits, or the thicker fur of an animal from far northwards, would not in some cases be inherited for at least some few generations? and in this case I presume that the form would be called a variety. 
> 
> Again, we have many slight differences which may be called individual differences, such as are known frequently to appear in the offspring from the same parents, or which may be presumed to have thus arisen, from being frequently observed in the individuals of the same species inhabiting the same confined locality. No one supposes that all the individuals of the same species are cast in the very same mould. These individual differences are highly important for us, as they afford materials for natural selection to accumulate, in the same manner as man can accumulate in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions. These individual differences generally affect what naturalists consider unimportant parts; but I could show by a long catalogue of facts, that parts which must be called important, whether viewed under a physiological or classificatory point of view, sometimes vary in the individuals of the same species. I am convinced that the most experienced naturalist would be surprised at the number of the cases of variability, even in important parts of structure, which he could collect on good authority, as I have collected, during a course of years. It should be remembered that systematists are far from pleased at finding variability in important characters, and that there are not many men who will laboriously examine internal and important organs, and compare them in many specimens of the same species. I should never have expected that the branching of the main nerves close to the great central ganglion of an insect would have been variable in the same species; I should have expected that changes of this nature could have been effected only by slow degrees: yet quite recently Mr Lubbock has shown a degree of variability in these main nerves in Coccus, which may almost be compared to the irregular branching of the stem of a tree. This philosophical naturalist, I may add, has also quite recently shown that the muscles in the larvae of certain insects are very far from uniform. Authors sometimes argue in a circle when they state that important organs never vary; for these same authors practically rank that character as important (as some few naturalists have honestly confessed) which does not vary; and, under this point of view, no instance of any important part varying will ever be found: but under any other point of view many instances assuredly can be given. 
> 
> There is one point connected with individual differences, which seems to me extremely perplexing: I refer to those genera which have sometimes been called 'protean' or 'polymorphic,' in which the species present an inordinate amount of variation; and hardly two naturalists can agree which forms to rank as species and which as varieties. We may instance Rubus, Rosa, and Hieracium amongst plants, several genera of insects, and several genera of Brachiopod shells. In most polymorphic genera some of the species have fixed and definite characters. Genera which are polymorphic in one country seem to be, with some few exceptions, polymorphic in other countries, and likewise, judging from Brachiopod shells, at former periods of time. These facts seem to be very perplexing, for they seem to show that this kind of variability is independent of the conditions of life. I am inclined to suspect that we see in these polymorphic genera variations in points of structure which are of no service or disservice to the species, and which consequently have not been seized on and rendered definite by natural selection, as hereafter will be explained. 
> 
> Those forms which possess in some considerable degree the character of species, but which are so closely similar to some other forms, or are so closely linked to them by intermediate gradations, that naturalists do not like to rank them as distinct species, are in several respects the most important for us. We have every reason to believe that many of these doubtful and closely-allied forms have permanently retained their characters in their own country for a long time; for as long, as far as we know, as have good and true species. practically, when a naturalist can unite two forms together by others having intermediate characters, he treats the one as a variety of the other, ranking the most common, but sometimes the one first described, as the species, and the other as the variety. But cases of great difficulty, which I will not here enumerate, sometimes occur in deciding whether or not to rank one form as a variety of another, even when they are closely connected by intermediate links; nor will the commonly-assumed hybrid nature of the intermediate links always remove the difficulty. In very many cases, however, one form is ranked as a variety of another, not because the intermediate links have actually been found, but because analogy leads the observer to suppose either that they do now somewhere exist, or may formerly have existed; and here a wide door for the entry of doubt and conjecture is opened. 
> 
> Hence, in determining whether a form should be ranked as a species or a variety, the opinion of naturalists having sound judgement and wide experience seems the only guide to follow. We must, however, in many cases, decide by a majority of naturalists, for few well-marked and well-known varieties can be named which have not been ranked as species by at least some competent judges. 
> 
> That varieties of this doubtful nature are far from uncommon cannot be disputed. Compare the several floras of Great Britain, of France or of the United States, drawn up by different botanists, and see what a surprising number of forms have been ranked by one botanist as good species, and by another as mere varieties. Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I lie under deep obligation for assistance of all kinds, has marked for me 182 British plants, which are generally considered as varieties, but which have all been ranked by botanists as species; and in making this list he has omitted many trifling varieties, but which nevertheless have been ranked by some botanists as species, and he has entirely omitted several highly polymorphic genera. Under genera, including the most polymorphic forms, Mr Babington gives 251 species, whereas Mr Bentham gives only 112, a difference of 139 doubtful forms! Amongst animals which unite for each birth, and which are highly locomotive, doubtful forms, ranked by one zoologist as a species and by another as a variety, can rarely be found within the same country, but are common in separated areas. How many of those birds and insects in North America and Europe, which differ very slightly from each other, have been ranked by one eminent naturalist as undoubted species, and by another as varieties, or, as they are often called, as geographical races! Many years ago, when comparing, and seeing others compare, the birds from the separate islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, both one with another, and with those from the American mainland, I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties. On the islets of the little Madeira group there are many insects which are characterized as varieties in Mr Wollaston's admirable work, but which it cannot be doubted would be ranked as distinct species by many entomologists. Even Ireland has a few animals, now generally regarded as varieties, but which have been ranked as species by some zoologists. Several most experienced ornithologists consider our British red grouse as only a strongly-marked race of a Norwegian species, whereas the greater number rank it as an undoubted species peculiar to Great Britain. A wide distance between the homes of two doubtful forms leads many naturalists to rank both as distinct species; but what distance, it has been well asked, will suffice? if that between America and Europe is ample, will that between the Continent and the Azores, or Madeira, or the Canaries, or Ireland, be sufficient? It must be admitted that many forms, considered by highly-competent judges as varieties, have so perfectly the character of species that they are ranked by other highly-competent judges as good and true species. But to discuss whether they are rightly called species or varieties, before any definition of these terms has been generally accepted, is vainly to beat the air. 
> 
> Many of the cases of strongly-marked varieties or doubtful species well deserve consideration; for several interesting lines of argument, from geographical distribution, analogical variation, hybridism, &c., have been brought to bear on the attempt to determine their rank. I will here give only a single instance, the well-known one of the primrose and cowslip, or Primula veris and elatior. These plants differ considerably in appearance; they have a different flavour and emit a different odour; they flower at slightly different periods; they grow in somewhat different stations; they ascend mountains to different heights; they have different geographical ranges; and lastly, according to very numerous experiments made during several years by that most careful observer Gärtner, they can be crossed only with much difficulty. We could hardly wish for better evidence of the two forms being specifically distinct. On the other hand, they are united by many intermediate links, and it is very doubtful whether these links are hybrids; and there is, as it seems to me, an overwhelming amount of experimental evidence, showing that they descend from common parents, and consequently must be ranked as varieties. 
> 
> Close investigation, in most cases, will bring naturalists to an agreement how to rank doubtful forms. Yet it must be confessed, that it is in the best-known countries that we find the greatest number of forms of doubtful value. I have been struck with the fact, that if any animal or plant in a state of nature be highly useful to man, or from any cause closely attract his attention, varieties of it will almost universally be found recorded. These varieties, moreover, will be often ranked by some authors as species. Look at the common oak, how closely it has been studied; yet a German author makes more than a dozen species out of forms, which are very generally considered as varieties; and in this country the highest botanical authorities and practical men can be quoted to show that the sessile and pedunculated oaks are either good and distinct species or mere varieties. 
> 
> When a young naturalist commences the study of a group of organisms quite unknown to him, he is at first much perplexed to determine what differences to consider as specific, and what as varieties; for he knows nothing of the amount and kind of variation to which the group is subject; and this shows, at least, how very generally there is some variation. But if he confine his attention to one class within one country, he will soon make up his mind how to rank most of the doubtful forms. His general tendency will be to make many species, for he will become impressed, just like the pigeon or poultry-fancier before alluded to, with the amount of difference in the forms which he is continually studying; and he has little general knowledge of analogical variation in other groups and in other countries, by which to correct his first impressions. As he extends the range of his observations, he will meet with more cases of difficulty; for he will encounter a greater number of closely-allied forms. But if his observations be widely extended, he will in the end generally be enabled to make up his own mind which to call varieties and which species; but he will succeed in this at the expense of admitting much variation, and the truth of this admission will often be disputed by other naturalists. When, moreover, he comes to study allied forms brought from countries not now continuous, in which case he can hardly hope to find the intermediate links between his doubtful forms, he will have to trust almost entirely to analogy, and his difficulties will rise to a climax. 
> 
> Certainly no clear line of demarcation has as yet been drawn between species and sub-species that is, the forms which in the opinion of some naturalists come very near to, but do not quite arrive at the rank of species; or, again, between sub-species and well-marked varieties, or between lesser varieties and individual differences. These differences blend into each other in an insensible series; and a series impresses the mind with the idea of an actual passage. 
> 
> Hence I look at individual differences, though of small interest to the systematist, as of high importance for us, as being the first step towards such slight varieties as are barely thought worth recording in works on natural history. And I look at varieties which are in any degree more distinct and permanent, as steps leading to more strongly marked and more permanent varieties; and at these latter, as leading to sub-species, and to species. The passage from one stage of difference to another and higher stage may be, in some cases, due merely to the long-continued action of different physical conditions in two different regions; but I have not much faith in this view; and I attribute the passage of a variety, from a state in which it differs very slightly from its parent to one in which it differs more, to the action of natural selection in accumulating (as will hereafter be more fully explained) differences of structure in certain definite directions. Hence I believe a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species; but whether this belief be justifiable must be judged of by the general weight of the several facts and views given throughout this work. 
> 
> It need not be supposed that all varieties or incipient species necessarily attain the rank of species. They may whilst in this incipient state become extinct, or they may endure as varieties for very long periods, as has been shown to be the case by Mr Wollaston with the varieties of certain fossil land-shells in Madeira. If a variety were to flourish so as to exceed in numbers the parent species, it would then rank as the species, and the species as the variety; or it might come to supplant and exterminate the parent species; or both might co-exist, and both rank as independent species. But we shall hereafter have to return to this subject. 
> 
> From these remarks it will be seen that I look at the term species, as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other, and that it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for mere convenience sake. 
> 
> Guided by theoretical considerations, I thought that some interesting results might be obtained in regard to the nature and relations of the species which vary most, by tabulating all the varieties in several well-worked floras. At first this seemed a simple task; but Mr H. C. Watson, to whom I am much indebted for valuable advice and assistance on this subject, soon convinced me that there were many difficulties, as did subsequently Dr Hooker, even in stronger terms. I shall reserve for my future work the discussion of these difficulties, and the tables themselves of the proportional numbers of the varying species. Dr Hooker permits me to add, that after having carefully read my manuscript, and examined the tables, he thinks that the following statements are fairly well established. The whole subject, however, treated as it necessarily here is with much brevity, is rather perplexing, and allusions cannot be avoided to the 'struggle for existence,' 'divergence of character,' and other questions, hereafter to be discussed. 
> 
> Alph. De Candolle and others have shown that plants which have very wide ranges generally present varieties; and this might have been expected, as they become exposed to diverse physical conditions, and as they come into competition (which, as we shall hereafter see, is a far more important circumstance) with different sets of organic beings. But my tables further show that, in any limited country, the species which are most common, that is abound most in individuals, and the species which are most widely diffused within their own country (and this is a different consideration from wide range, and to a certain extent from commonness), often give rise to varieties sufficiently well-marked to have been recorded in botanical works. Hence it is the most flourishing, or, as they may be called, the dominant species, those which range widely over the world, are the most diffused in their own country, and are the most numerous in individuals, which oftenest produce well-marked varieties, or, as I consider them, incipient species. And this, perhaps, might have been anticipated; for, as varieties, in order to become in any degree permanent, necessarily have to struggle with the other inhabitants of the country, the species which are already dominant will be the most likely to yield offspring which, though in some slight degree modified, will still inherit those advantages that enabled their parents to become dominant over their compatriots. 
> 
> If the plants inhabiting a country and described in any Flora be divided into two equal masses, all those in the larger genera being placed on one side, and all those in the smaller genera on the other side, a somewhat larger number of the very common and much diffused or dominant species will be found on the side of the larger genera. This, again, might have been anticipated; for the mere fact of many species of the same genus inhabiting any country, shows that there is something in the organic or inorganic conditions of that country favourable to the genus; and, consequently, we might have expected to have found in the larger genera, or those including many species, a large proportional number of dominant species. But so many causes tend to obscure this result, that I am surprised that my tables show even a small majority on the side of the larger genera. I will here allude to only two causes of obscurity. Fresh-water and salt-loving plants have generally very wide ranges and are much diffused, but this seems to be connected with the nature of the stations inhabited by them, and has little or no relation to the size of the genera to which the species belong. Again, plants low in the scale of organisation are generally much more widely diffused than plants higher in the scale; and here again there is no close relation to the size of the genera. The cause of lowly-organised plants ranging widely will be discussed in our chapter on geographical distribution. 
> 
> From looking at species as only strongly-marked and well-defined varieties, I was led to anticipate that the species of the larger genera in each country would oftener present varieties, than the species of the smaller genera; for wherever many closely related species (i.e. species of the same genus) have been formed, many varieties or incipient species ought, as a general rule, to be now forming. Where many large trees grow, we expect to find saplings. Where many species of a genus have been formed through variation, circumstances have been favourable for variation; and hence we might expect that the circumstances would generally be still favourable to variation. On the other hand, if we look at each species as a special act of creation, there is no apparent reason why more varieties should occur in a group having many species, than in one having few. 
> 
> To test the truth of this anticipation I have arranged the plants of twelve countries, and the coleopterous insects of two districts, into two nearly equal masses, the species of the larger genera on one side, and those of the smaller genera on the other side, and it has invariably proved to be the case that a larger proportion of the species on the side of the larger genera present varieties, than on the side of the smaller genera. Moreover, the species of the large genera which present any varieties, invariably present a larger average number of varieties than do the species of the small genera. Both these results follow when another division is made, and when all the smallest genera, with from only one to four species, are absolutely excluded from the tables. These facts are of plain signification on the view that species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties; for whenever many species of the same genus have been formed, or where, if we may use the expression, the manufactory of species has been active, we ought generally to find the manufactory still in action, more especially as we have every reason to believe the process of manufacturing new species to be a slow one. And this certainly is the case, if varieties be looked at as incipient species; for my tables clearly show as a general rule that, wherever many species of a genus have been formed, the species of that genus present a number of varieties, that is of incipient species, beyond the average. It is not that all large genera are now varying much, and are thus increasing in the number of their species, or that no small genera are now varying and increasing; for if this had been so, it would have been fatal to my theory; inasmuch as geology plainly tells us that small genera have in the lapse of time often increased greatly in size; and that large genera have often come to their maxima, declined, and disappeared. All that we want to show is, that where many species of a genus have been formed, on an average many are still forming; and this holds good. 
> 
> There are other relations between the species of large genera and their recorded varieties which deserve notice. We have seen that there is no infallible criterion by which to distinguish species and well-marked varieties; and in those cases in which intermediate links have not been found between doubtful forms, naturalists are compelled to come to a determination by the amount of difference between them, judging by analogy whether or not the amount suffices to raise one or both to the rank of species. Hence the amount of difference is one very important criterion in settling whether two forms should be ranked as species or varieties. Now Fries has remarked in regard to plants, and Westwood in regard to insects, that in large genera the amount of difference between the species is often exceedingly small. I have endeavoured to test this numerically by averages, and, as far as my imperfect results go, they always confirm the view. I have also consulted some sagacious and most experienced observers, and, after deliberation, they concur in this view. In this respect, therefore, the species of the larger genera resemble varieties, more than do the species of the smaller genera. Or the case may be put in another way, and it may be said, that in the larger genera, in which a number of varieties or incipient species greater than the average are now manufacturing, many of the species already manufactured still to a certain extent resemble varieties, for they differ from each other by a less than usual amount of difference. 
> 
> Moreover, the species of the large genera are related to each other, in the same manner as the varieties of any one species are related to each other. No naturalist pretends that all the species of a genus are equally distinct from each other; they may generally be divided into sub-genera, or sections, or lesser groups. As Fries has well remarked, little groups of species are generally clustered like satellites around certain other species. And what are varieties but groups of forms, unequally related to each other, and clustered round certain forms that is, round their parent-species? Undoubtedly there is one most important point of difference between varieties and species; namely, that the amount of difference between varieties, when compared with each other or with their parent-species, is much less than that between the species of the same genus. But when we come to discuss the principle, as I call it, of Divergence of Character, we shall see how this may be explained, and how the lesser differences between varieties will tend to increase into the greater differences between species. 
> 
> There is one other point which seems to me worth notice. Varieties generally have much restricted ranges: this statement is indeed scarcely more than a truism, for if a variety were found to have a wider range than that of its supposed parent-species, their denominations ought to be reversed. But there is also reason to believe, that those species which are very closely allied to other species, and in so far resemble varieties, often have much restricted ranges. For instance, Mr H. C. Watson has marked for me in the well-sifted London Catalogue of plants (4th edition) 63 plants which are therein ranked as species, but which he considers as so closely allied to other species as to be of doubtful value: these 63 reputed species range on an average over 6.9 of the provinces into which Mr Watson has divided Great Britain. Now, in this same catalogue, 53 acknowledged varieties are recorded, and these range over 7.7 provinces; whereas, the species to which these varieties belong range over 14.3 provinces. So that the acknowledged varieties have very nearly the same restricted average range, as have those very closely allied forms, marked for me by Mr Watson as doubtful species, but which are almost universally ranked by British botanists as good and true species. 
> 
> Finally, then, varieties have the same general characters as species, for they cannot be distinguished from species, except, firstly, by the discovery of intermediate linking forms, and the occurrence of such links cannot affect the actual characters of the forms which they connect; and except, secondly, by a certain amount of difference, for two forms, if differing very little, are generally ranked as varieties, notwithstanding that intermediate linking forms have not been discovered; but the amount of difference considered necessary to give to two forms the rank of species is quite indefinite. In genera having more than the average number of species in any country, the species of these genera have more than the average number of varieties. In large genera the species are apt to be closely, but unequally, allied together, forming little clusters round certain species. Species very closely allied to other species apparently have restricted ranges. In all these several respects the species of large genera present a strong analogy with varieties. And we can clearly understand these analogies, if species have once existed as varieties, and have thus originated: whereas, these analogies are utterly inexplicable if each species has been independently created. 
> 
> We have, also, seen that it is the most flourishing and dominant species of the larger genera which on an average vary most; and varieties, as we shall hereafter see, tend to become converted into new and distinct species. The larger genera thus tend to become larger; and throughout nature the forms of life which are now dominant tend to become still more dominant by leaving many modified and dominant descendants. But by steps hereafter to be explained, the larger genera also tend to break up into smaller genera. And thus, the forms of life throughout the universe become divided into groups subordinate to groups.
> 
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The_Origin_of_Species/Preface|985492878
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> AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF OPINION ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES PREVIOUSLY TO THE PUBLICATION OF THE FIRST EDITION OF THIS WORK 
> 
> I WILL here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great majority of naturalists believed that species were immutable productions, and had been separately created. This view has been ably maintained by many authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have believed that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life are the descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms. Passing over allusions to the subject in the classical writers,* the first author who in modern times has treated it in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes * Aristotle, in his 'Physicae Auscultationes' (lib. 2, cap. 8, s. 2), after remarking that rain does not fall in order to make the corn grow, any more than it falls to spoil the farmer's corn when threshed out of doors, applies the same argument to organization: and adds (as translated by Mr Clair Grece, who first pointed out the passage to me), 'So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.  or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details. 
> 
> Lamarck was the first man whose conclusions on the subject excited much attention. This justly-celebrated naturalist first published his views in 1801; he much enlarged them in 1809 in his "Philosophie Zoologique,' and subsequently, in 1815, in the Introduction to his "Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertébres.' In these works he upholds the doctrine that species, including man, are descended from other species. He first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic, as well as in the inorganic world, being the result of law, and not of miraculous interposition. Lamarck seems to have been chiefly led to his conclusion on the gradual change of species, by the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, by the almost perfect gradation of forms in certain groups, and by the analogy of domestic productions. With respect to the means of modification, he attributed something to the direct action of the physical conditions of life, something to the crossing of already existing forms, and much to use and disuse, that is, to the effects of habit. To this latter agency he seemed to attribute all the beautiful adaptations in nature; ? such as the long neck of the giraffe for browsing on the branches of trees. But he likewise believed in a law of progressive development; and as all the forms of life thus tend to progress, in order to account for the existence at the present day of simple productions, he maintains that such forms are now spontaneously generated.* 
> 
>  We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth. *I have taken the date of the first publication of Lamarck from Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's ('Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. ii. p. 405, 1859) excellent history of opinion on this subject. In this work a full account is given of Buffon's conclusions on the same subject. It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr Erasmus Darwin, anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinion of Lamarck in his 'Zoonomia' (vol. i. pp. 500-510), published in 1794. According to Isid. Geoffroy there is no doubt that Goethe was an extreme partisan of similar views, as shown in the Introduction to a work written in 1794 and 1795, but not published till long afterwards: he has pointedly remarked ('Goethe als Naturforscher,' von Dr Karl Medinge s. 34) that the future question for naturalists will be how, for instance, cattle got their horns, and not for what they are used. It is rather a singular instance of the manner in which similar views arise at about the same time, that Goethe in Germany, Dr Darwin in England, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (as we shall immediately see) in France; came to the same conclusion on the origin of species, in the years 1794-5. 
> 
> Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, as is stated in his 'Life,' written by his son, suspected, as early as 1795, that what we call species are various degenerations of the same type. It was not until 1828 that he published his conviction that the same forms have not been perpetuated since the origin of all things. Geoffroy seems to have relied chiefly on the conditions of life, or the 'monde ambiant' as the cause of change. He was cautious in drawing conclusions, and did not believe that existing species are now undergoing modification; and, as his son adds, "C'est donc un problème à réserver entièrement à l'avenir, supposé meme que l'avenir doive avoir prise sur lui.' 
> 
> In 1813, Dr W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society 'An Account of a White female, part of whose skin resembled that of a Negro'; but his paper was not published until his famous 'Two Essays upon Dew and Single Vision' appeared in 1818. In this paper he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observes, firstly, that all animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that agriculturists improve their domesticated animals by selection; and then, he adds, but what is done in this latter case 'by art, seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind, fitted for the country which they inhabit. Of the accidental varieties of man, which would occur among the first few and scattered inhabitants of the middle regions of Africa, some one would be better fitted than the others to bear the diseases of the country. This race would consequently multiply, while the others would decrease; not only from their inability to sustain the attacks of disease, but from their incapacity of contending with their more vigorous neighbours. The colour of this vigorous race I take for granted, from what has been already said, would be dark. But the same disposition to form varieties still existing, a darker and a darker race would in the course of time occur: and as the darkest would be the best fitted for the climate, this would at length become the most prevalent; if not the only race, in the particular country in which it had originated.' He then extends these same views to the white inhabitants of colder climates. I am indebted to Mr Rowley, of the United States, for having called my attention, through Mr Brace, to the above passage in Dr Wells' work. 
> 
> The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, afterwards Dean of Manchester, in the fourth volume of the 'Horticultural Transactions,' 1822, and in his work on the 'Amaryllidaceae' (1837, pp. 19, 339), declares that 'horticultural experiments have established, beyond the possibility of refutation, that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent class of varieties.' He extends the same view to animals. The Dean believes that single species of each genus were created in an originally highly plastic condition, and that these have produced, chiefly by intercrossing, but likewise by variation, all our existing species. 
> 
> In 1826 Professor Grant, in the concluding paragraph in his well-known paper ('Edinburgh philosophical journal,' vol. xiv. p. 283) on the Spongilla, clearly declares his belief that species are descended from other species, and that they become improved in the course of modification. This same view was given in his 55th Lecture, published in the 'Lancet' in 1834. 
> 
> In 1831 Mr Patrick Matthew published his work on 'Naval Timber and Arboriculture,' in which he gives precisely the same view on the origin of species as that (presently to be alluded to) propounded by Mr Wallace and myself in the 'Linnean journal,' and as that enlarged in the present volume. Unfortunately the view was given by Mr Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject, so that it remained unnoticed until Mr Matthew himself drew attention to it in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,' on April 7th, 1860. The differences of Mr Matthew's view from mine are not of much importance; he seems to consider that the world was nearly depopulated at successive periods, and then re-stocked; and he gives as an alternative, that new forms may be generated ' without the presence of any mould or germ of former aggregates.' I am not sure that I understand some passages; but it seems that he attributes much influence to the direct action of the conditions of life. He clearly saw, however, the full force of the principle of natural selection. 
> 
> The celebrated geologist and naturalist, Von Buch, in his excellent 'Description physique des Isles Canaries' (1836, p. 147), clearly expresses his belief that varieties slowly become changed into permanent species, which are no longer capable of intercrossing. 
> 
> Rafinesque, in his 'New Flora of North America,' published in 1836, wrote (p. 6) as follows:- 'All species might have been varieties once, and many varieties are gradually becoming species by assuming constant and peculiar characters'; but farther on (p. 18) he adds, 'except the original types or ancestors of the genus.' 
> 
> In 1843-44 Professor Haldeman ('Boston journal of Nat. Hist. U. States, vol. iv. p. 468) has ably given the arguments for and against the hypothesis of the development and modification of species: he seems to lean towards the side of change. 
> 
> The 'Vestiges of Creation' appeared in 1844. In the tenth and much improved edition (1853) the anonymous author says (p. 155):- 'The proposition determined on after much consideration is, that the several series of animated beings, from the simplest and oldest up to the highest and most recent, are, under the providence of God, the results, first, of an impulse which has been imparted to the forms of life, advancing them, in definite times, by generation, through grades of organisation terminating in the highest dicotyledons- and vertebrata, these grades being few in number, and generally marked by intervals of organic character, which we find to be a practical difficulty in ascertaining affinities; second, of another impulse connected with the vital forces, tending, in the course of generations, to modify organic structures in accordance with external circumstances, as food, the nature of the habitat, and the meteoric agencies, these being the ''adaptations'' of the natural theologian.' The author apparently believes that organisation progresses by sudden leaps, but that the effects produced by the conditions of life are gradual. He argues with much force on general grounds that species are not immutable productions. But I cannot see how the two supposed 'impulses' account in a scientific sense for the numerous and beautiful co-adaptations which we see throughout nature; I cannot see that we thus gain any insight how, for instance, a woodpecker has become adapted to its peculiar habits of Life. The work, from its powerful and brilliant style, though displaying in the earlier editions little accurate knowledge and a great want of scientific caution, immediately had a very wide circulation. In my opinion it has done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views. 
> 
> In 1846 the veteran geologist N. J. d'Omalius d'Halloy published in an excellent though short paper ("Bulletins de l'Acad. Roy Bruxelles,' tom. xiii. p. 581) his opinion that it is more probable that new species have been produced by descent with modification than that they have been separately created: the author first promulgated this opinion in 1831. 
> 
> Professor Owen, in 1849 ('Nature of Limbs,' p. 86), wrote as follows:- "The archetypal idea was manifested in the flesh under diverse such modifications, upon this planet, long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it. To what natural laws or secondary causes the orderly succession and progression of such organic phenomena may have been committed, we, as yet, are ignorant.' In his Address to the British Association, in 1858, he speaks (p. li.) of "the axiom of the continuous operation of creative power, or of the ordained becoming of living things.' Farther on (p. xc.), after referring to geographical distribution, he adds, 'These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx of New Zealand and the Red Grouse of England were distinct creations in and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in mind that by the word ''creation'' the zoologist means '"a process he knows not what.'' He amplifies this idea by adding that when such cases as that of the Red Grouse are enumerated by the zoologists as evidence of distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses that he knows not how the Red Grouse came to be there, and there exclusively; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative Cause.' If we interpret these sentences given in the same Address, one by the other, it appears that this eminent philosopher felt in 1858 his confidence shaken that the Apteryx and the Red Grouse first appeared in their respective homes, 'he knew not how,' or by some process 'he knew not what.' 
> 
> This Address was delivered after the papers by Mr Wallace and myself on the Origin of Species, presently to be referred to, had been read before the Linnean Society. When the first edition of this work was published, I was so completely deceived, as were many others, by such expressions as 'the continuous operation of creative power,' that I included Professor Owen with other palaeontologists as being firmly convinced of the immutability of species; but it appears ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 796) that this was on my part a preposterous error. In the last edition of this work I inferred, and the inference still seems to me perfectly just, from a passage beginning with the words 'no doubt the type-form,' &c. (Ibid. vol. i. p. xxxv.), that Professor Owen admitted that natural selection may have done something in the formation of a new species; but this it appears (Ibid. vol. nl. p. 798) is inaccurate and without evidence. I also gave some extracts from a correspondence between Professor Owen and the Editor of the 'London Review,' from which it appeared manifest to the Editor as well as to myself, that Professor Owen claimed to have promulgated the theory of natural selection before I had done so; and I expressed my surprise and satisfaction at this announcement; but as far as it is possible to understand certain recently published passages (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 798) I have either partially or wholly again fallen into error. It is consolatory to me that others find Professor Owen's controversial writings as difficult to understand and to reconcile with each other, as I do. As far as the mere enunciation of the principle of natural selection is concerned, it is quite immaterial whether or not Professor Owen preceded me, for both of us, as shown in this historical sketch, were long ago preceded by Dr Wells and Mr Matthews. 
> 
> M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in his lectures delivered in 1850 (of which a Résumé appeared in the 'Revue et Nag. de Zoolog.,' Jan. 1851), briefly gives his reason for believing that specific characters "sont fixés, pour chaque espèce, tant qu'elle se perpétue au milieu des mèmes circonstances: ils se modifient, si les circonstances ambiantes viennent à changer.' 'En résumé, l'observation des animaux sauvages démontre déjà la variabilité limité des espèces. Les expériences sur les animaux sauvages devenus domestiques, et sur les animaux domestiques redevenus sauvages, la démontrent plus clairement encore. Ces memes expériences prouvent, de plus, que les différences produites peuvent etre de valeur générique.' In his 'Hist. Nat. Généralé (tom. ii. p. 430, 1859) he amplifies analogous conclusions. 
> 
> From a circular lately issued it appears that Dr Freke, in 1851 ("Dublin Medical Press,' p. 322), propounded the doctrine that all organic beings have descended from one primordial form. His grounds of belief and treatment of the subject are wholly different from mine; but as Dr Freke has now (1861) published his Essay on the 'Origin of Species by means of Organic Affinity,' the difficult attempt to give any idea of his views would be superfluous on my part. 
> 
> Mr Herbert Spencer, in an Essay (originally published in the 'Leader,' March, 1852, and republished in his 'Essays,' in 1858), has contrasted the theories of the Creation and the Development of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He argues from the analogy of domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been modified; and he attributes the modification to the change of circumstances. The author (1855) has also treated psychology on the principle of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. 
> 
> In 1852 M. Naudin, a distinguished botanist, expressly stated, in an admirable paper on the Origin of Species ('Revue Horticole, p. 102; since partly republished in the 'Nouvelles Archives  du Muséum,' tom. i. p. 171), his belief that species are formed in an analogous manner as varieties are under cultivation; and the latter process he attributes to man's power of selection. But he does not show how selection acts under nature. He believes, like Dean Herbert, that species, when nascent, were more plastic than at present. He lays weight on what he calls the principle of finality, 'puissance mystérieuse, indéterminée; fatalité pour les uns; pour les autres volonté providentielle, dont l'action incessante sur les ètres vivants détermine, à toutes les époques de l'existence du monde, la forme, le volume, et la durée de chacun d'eux, en raison de sa destinée dans l'ordre de choses dont il fait partie. C'est cette puissance qui harmonise chaque membre à l'ensemble, en l'appropriant à la fonction qu'il doit remplir dans l'organisme général de la nature, fonction qui est pour lui sa raison d'ètre.'* 
> 
> * From references in Bronn's 'Untersuchungen über die Entwickenlungs-Gesetze,' it appears that the celebrated botanist and palaeontologist Unger published, in 1852, his belief that species undergo development and modification. Dalton, likewise, in Pander and Dalton's work on Fossil Sloths, expressed, in 1821 a similar belief. Similar views have, as is well known, been maintained by Oken in his mystical 'Natur-philosophie.' From other references in Godron's work 'Sur l'Espéce,' it seems that Bory St Vincent, Burdach, Poiret, and Fries, have all admitted that new species are continually being produced. 
> 
> In 1853 a celebrated geologist, Count Keyserling ("Bulletin de la Soc. Gèolog.,' 2nd Ser., tom. x. p. 357), suggested that as new diseases, supposed to have been caused by some miasma, have arisen and spread over the world, so at certain periods the germs of existing species may have been chemically affected by circumambient molecules of a particular nature, and thus have given rise to new forms. 
> 
> In this same year, 1853, Dr Schaaffhausen published an excellent pamphlet ('Verhand. des Naturhist. Vereins der preuss. Rheinlands,' &c.), in which he maintains the development of organic forms on the earth. He infers that many species have kept true for long periods, whereas a few have become modified. The distinction of species he explains by the destruction of intermediate graduated forms. 'Thus living plants and animals are not separated from the extinct by new creations, but are to be regarded as their descendants through continued reproduction.' 
> 
>  I may add, that of the thirty-four authors named in this Historical Sketch, who believe in the modification of species, or at least disbelieve in separate acts of creation, twenty-seven have written on special branches of natural history or geology. 
> 
> A well-known French botanist, M. Lecoq, writes in 1854 ('Etudes sur Géograph. Bot.,' tom. i. p. 250), 'On voit que nos recherches sur la fixité ou la variation de l'espèce, nous conduisent directement aux idées émises, par deux hommes justement célèbres, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire et Goethe.' Some other passages scattered through M. Lecoq's large work, make it a little doubtful how far he extends his views on the modification of species. 
> 
> The 'Philosophy of Creation' has been treated in a masterly manner by the Rev. Baden Powell, in his "Essays on the Unity of Worlds,' 1855. Nothing can be more striking than the manner in which he shows that the introduction of new species is "a regular, not a casual phenomenon,' or, as Sir John Herschel expresses it, 'a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous, process.' 
> 
> The third volume of the "Journal of the Linnean Society' contains papers, read July 1st, 1858, by Mr Wallace and myself, in which, as stated in the introductory remarks to this volume, the theory of Natural Selection is promulgated by Mr Wallace with admirable force and clearness. 
> 
> Von Baer, towards whom all zoologists feel so profound a respect, expressed about the year 1859 (see Prof. Rudolph Wagner, a "Zoologisch-Anthropologische Untersuchungen,' 1861, s. 51) his conviction, chiefly grounded on the laws of geographical distribution, that forms now perfectly distinct have descended from a single parent-form. 
> 
> In June, 1859, Professor Huxley gave a lecture before the Royal Institution on the 'Persistent Types of Animal Life.' Referring to such cases, he remarks, "It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of organisation, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of nature. If, on the other hand, we view 'Persistent Types' in relation to that hypothesis which supposes the species living at any time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing species a hypothesis which, though unproven, and sadly damaged by some of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any countenance; their existence would seem to show that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have suffered.' 
> 
> In December, 1859, Dr Hooker published his 'Introduction to the Australian Flora.' In the first part of this great work he admits the truth of the descent and modification of species, and supports this doctrine by many original observations. 
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The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction|985492936
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> WHEN on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species ? that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision. 
> 
> My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr Wallace, who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir Charles Lyell, who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr Hooker, who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
> 
> This Abstract, which I now publish, must necessarily be imperfect. I cannot here give references and authorities for my several statements; and I must trust to the reader reposing some confidence in my accuracy. No doubt errors will have crept in, though I hope I have always been cautious in trusting to good authorities alone. I can here give only the general conclusions at which I have arrived, with a few facts in illustration, but which, I hope, in most cases will suffice. No one can feel more sensible than I do of the necessity of hereafter publishing in detail all the facts, with references, on which my conclusions have been grounded; and I hope in a future work to do this. For I am well aware that scarcely a single point is discussed in this volume on which facts cannot be adduced, often apparently leading to conclusions directly opposite to those at which I have arrived. A fair result can be obtained only by fully stating and balancing the facts and arguments on both sides of each question; and this cannot possibly be here done. 
> 
> I much regret that want of space prevents my having the satisfaction of acknowledging the generous assistance which I have received from very many naturalists, some of them personally unknown to me. I cannot, however, let this opportunity pass without expressing my deep obligations to Dr Hooker, who for the last fifteen years has aided me in every possible way by his large stores of knowledge and his excellent judgement. 
> 
> In considering the Origin of Species, it is quite conceivable that a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geographical distribution, geological succession, and other such facts, might come to the conclusion that each species had not been independently created, but had descended, like varieties, from other species. Nevertheless, such a conclusion, even if well founded, would be unsatisfactory, until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been modified so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co-adaptation which most justly excites our admiration. Naturalists continually refer to external conditions, such as climate, food, &c., as the only possible cause of variation. In one very limited sense, as we shall hereafter see, this may be true; but it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions, the structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees. In the case of the misseltoe, which draws its nourishment from certain trees, which has seeds that must be transported by certain birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to the other, it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of this parasite, with its relations to several distinct organic beings, by the effects of external conditions, or of habit, or of the volition of the plant itself. 
> 
> The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
> 
> It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariably found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under domestication, afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists. 
> 
> From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
> 
> This fundamental subject of Natural Selection will be treated at some length in the fourth chapter; and we shall then see how Natural Selection almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character. In the next chapter I shall discuss the complex and little known laws of variation and of correlation of growth. In the four succeeding chapters, the most apparent and gravest difficulties on the theory will be given: namely, first, the difficulties of transitions, or understanding how a simple being or a simple organ can be changed and perfected into a highly developed being or elaborately constructed organ; secondly the subject of Instinct, or the mental powers of animals, thirdly, Hybridism, or the infertility of species and the fertility of varieties when intercrossed; and fourthly, the imperfection of the Geological Record. In the next chapter I shall consider the geological succession of organic beings throughout time; in the eleventh and twelfth, their geographical distribution throughout space; in the thirteenth, their classification or mutual affinities, both when mature and in an embryonic condition. In the last chapter I shall give a brief recapitulation of the whole work, and a few concluding remarks.) 
> 
> No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgement of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained ? namely, that each species has been independently created ? is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.
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Chapter_1_-_Variation_Under_Domestication|985492994
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< WHEN we look to the individuals of the same variety or sub-variety of our older cultivated plants and animals, one of the first points which strikes us, is, that they generally differ much more from each other, than do the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature. When we reflect on the vast diversity of the plants and animals which have been cultivated, and which have varied during all ages under the most different climates and treatment, I think we are driven to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to which the parent-species have been exposed under nature. There is, also, I think, some probability in the view propounded by Andrew Knight, that this variability may be partly connected with excess of food. It seems pretty clear that organic beings must be exposed during several generations to the new conditions of life to cause any appreciable amount of variation; and that when the organisation has once begun to vary, it generally continues to vary for many generations. No case is on record of a variable being ceasing to be variable under cultivation. Our oldest cultivated plants, such as wheat, still often yield new varieties: our oldest domesticated animals are still capable of rapid improvement or modification. 
< 
< It has been disputed at what period of time the causes of variability, whatever they may be, generally act; whether during the early or late period of development of the embryo, or at the instant of conception. Geoffroy St Hilaire's experiments show that unnatural treatment of the embryo causes monstrosities; and monstrosities cannot be separated by any clear line of distinction from mere variations. But I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception. Several reasons make me believe in this; but the chief one is the remarkable effect which confinement or cultivation has on the functions of the reproductive system; this system appearing to be far more susceptible than any other part of the organization, to the action of any change in the conditions of life. Nothing is more easy than to tame an animal, and few things more difficult than to get it to breed freely under confinement, even in the many cases when the male and female unite. How many animals there are which will not breed, though living long under not very close confinement in their native country! This is generally attributed to vitiated instincts; but how many cultivated plants display the utmost vigour, and yet rarely or never seed! In some few such cases it has been found out that very trifling changes, such as a little more or less water at some particular period of growth, will determine whether or not the plant sets a seed. I cannot here enter on the copious details which I have collected on this curious subject; but to show how singular the laws are which determine the reproduction of animals under confinement, I may just mention that carnivorous animals, even from the tropics, breed in this country pretty freely under confinement, with the exception of the plantigrades or bear family; whereas, carnivorous birds, with the rarest exceptions, hardly ever lay fertile eggs. Many exotic plants have pollen utterly worthless, in the same exact condition as in the most sterile hybrids. When, on the one hand, we see domesticated animals and plants, though often weak and sickly, yet breeding quite freely under confinement; and when, on the other hand, we see individuals, though taken young from a state of nature, perfectly tamed, long-lived, and healthy (of which I could give numerous instances), yet having their reproductive system so seriously affected by unperceived causes as to fail in acting, we need not be surprised at this system, when it does act under confinement, acting not quite regularly, and producing offspring not perfectly like their parents or variable. 
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< Sterility has been said to be the bane of horticulture; but on this view we owe variability to the same cause which produces sterility; and variability is the source of all the choicest productions of the garden. I may add, that as some organisms will breed most freely under the most unnatural conditions (for instance, the rabbit and ferret kept in hutches), showing that their reproductive system has not been thus affected; so will some animals and plants withstand domestication or cultivation, and vary very slightly perhaps hardly more than in a state of nature. 
< 
< A long list could easily be given of 'sporting plants;' by this term gardeners mean a single bud or offset, which suddenly assumes a new and sometimes very different character from that of the rest of the plant. Such buds can be propagated by grafting, &c., and sometimes by seed. These 'sports' are extremely rare under nature, but far from rare under cultivation; and in this case we see that the treatment of the parent has affected a bud or offset, and not the ovules or pollen. But it is the opinion of most physiologists that there is no essential difference between a bud and an ovule in their earliest stages of formation; so that, in fact,'sports' support my view, that variability may be largely attributed to the ovules or pollen, or to both, having been affected by the treatment of the parent prior to the act of conception. These cases anyhow show that variation is not necessarily connected, as some authors have supposed, with the act of generation. 
< 
< Seedlings from the same fruit, and the young of the same litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the young and the parents, as Muller has remarked, have apparently been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life; and this shows how unimportant the direct effects of the conditions of life are in comparison with the laws of reproduction, and of growth, and of inheritance; for had the action of the conditions been direct, if any of the young had varied, all would probably have varied in the same manner. To judge how much, in the case of any variation, we should attribute to the direct action of heat, moisture, light, food, &c., is most difficult: my impression is, that with animals such agencies have produced very little direct effect, though apparently more in the case of plants. Under this point of view, Mr Buckman's recent experiments on plants seem extremely valuable. When all or nearly all the individuals exposed to certain conditions are affected in the same way, the change at first appears to be directly due to such conditions; but in some cases it can be shown that quite opposite conditions produce similar changes of structure. Nevertheless some slight amount of change may, I think, be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life as, in some cases, increased size from amount of food, colour from particular kinds of food and from light, and perhaps the thickness of fur from climate. 
< 
< Habit also has a deciding influence, as in the period of flowering with plants when transported from one climate to another. In animals it has a more marked effect; for instance, I find in the domestic duck that the bones of the wing weigh less and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bones in the wild-duck; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, and walking more, than its wild parent. The great and inherited development of the udders in cows and goats in countries where they are habitually milked, in comparison with the state of these organs in other countries, is another instance of the effect of use. Not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears; and the view suggested by some authors, that the drooping is due to the disuse of the muscles of the ear, from the animals not being much alarmed by danger, seems probable. 
< 
< There are many laws regulating variation, some few of which can be dimly seen, and will be hereafter briefly mentioned. I will here only allude to what may be called correlation of growth. Any change in the embryo or larva will almost certainly entail changes in the mature animal. In monstrosities, the correlations between quite distinct parts are very curious; and many instances are given in Isidore Geoffroy St Hilaire's great work on this subject. Breeders believe that long limbs are almost always accompanied by an elongated head. Some instances of correlation are quite whimsical; thus cats with blue eyes are invariably deaf; colour and constitutional peculiarities go together, of which many remarkable cases could be given amongst animals and plants. From the facts collected by Heusinger, it appears that white sheep and pigs are differently affected from coloured individuals by certain vegetable poisons. Hairless dogs have imperfect teeth; long-haired and coarse-haired animals are apt to have, as is asserted, long or many horns; pigeons with feathered feet have skin between their outer toes; pigeons with short beaks have small feet, and those with long beaks large feet. Hence, if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting, any peculiarity, he will almost certainly unconsciously modify other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws of the correlation of growth. 
< 
< The result of the various, quite unknown, or dimly seen laws of variation is infinitely complex and diversified. It is well worth while carefully to study the several treatises published on some of our old cultivated plants, as on the hyacinth, potato, even the dahlia, &c.; and it is really surprising to note the endless points in structure and constitution in which the varieties and sub varieties differ slightly from each other. The whole organization seems to have become plastic, and tends to depart in some small degree from that of the parental type. 
< 
< Any variation which is not inherited is unimportant for us. But the number and diversity of inheritable deviations of structure, both those of slight and those of considerable physiological importance, is endless. Dr Prosper Lucas's treatise, in two large volumes, is the fullest and the best on this subject. No breeder doubts how strong is the tendency to inheritance: like produces like is his fundamental belief: doubts have been thrown on this principle by theoretical writers alone. When a deviation appears not unfrequently, and we see it in the father and child, we cannot tell whether it may not be due to the same original cause acting on both; but when amongst individuals, apparently exposed to the same conditions, any very rare deviation, due to some extraordinary combination of circumstances, appears in the parent say, once amongst several million individuals and it reappears in the child, the mere doctrine of chances almost compels us to attribute its reappearance to inheritance. Every one must have heard of cases of albinism, prickly skin, hairy bodies, &c. appearing in several members of the same family. If strange and rare deviations of structure are truly inherited, less strange and commoner deviations may be freely admitted to be inheritable. Perhaps the correct way of viewing the whole subject, would be, to look at the inheritance of every character whatever as the rule, and non-inheritance as the anomaly. 
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< The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown; no one can say why the same peculiarity in different individuals of the same species, and in individuals of different species, is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so; why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother or other much more remote ancestor; why a peculiarity is often transmitted from one sex to both sexes or to one sex alone, more commonly but not exclusively to the like sex. It is a fact of some little importance to us, that peculiarities appearing in the males of our domestic breeds are often transmitted either exclusively, or in a much greater degree, to males alone. A much more important rule, which I think may be trusted, is that, at whatever period of life a peculiarity first appears, it tends to appear in the offspring at a corresponding age, though sometimes earlier. In many cases this could not be otherwise: thus the inherited peculiarities in the horns of cattle could appear only in the offspring when nearly mature; peculiarities in the silkworm are known to appear at the corresponding caterpillar or cocoon stage. But hereditary diseases and some other facts make me believe that the rule has a wider extension, and that when there is no apparent reason why a peculiarity should appear at any particular age, yet that it does tend to appear in the offspring at the same period at which it first appeared in the parent. I believe this rule to be of the highest importance in explaining the laws of embryology. These remarks are of course confined to the first appearance of the peculiarity, and not to its primary cause, which may have acted on the ovules or male element; in nearly the same manner as in the crossed offspring from a short-horned cow by a long-horned bull, the greater length of horn, though appearing late in life, is clearly due to the male element. 
< 
< Having alluded to the subject of reversion, I may here refer to a statement often made by naturalists namely, that our domestic varieties, when run wild, gradually but certainly revert in character to their aboriginal stocks. Hence it has been argued that no deductions can be drawn from domestic races to species in a state of nature. I have in vain endeavoured to discover on what decisive facts the above statement has so often and so boldly been made. There would be great difficulty in proving its truth: we may safely conclude that very many of the most strongly-marked domestic varieties could not possibly live in a wild state. In many cases we do not know what the aboriginal stock was, and so could not tell whether or not nearly perfect reversion had ensued. It would be quite necessary, in order to prevent the effects of intercrossing, that only a single variety should be turned loose in its new home. Nevertheless, as our varieties certainly do occasionally revert in some of their characters to ancestral forms, it seems to me not improbable, that if we could succeed in naturalising, or were to cultivate, during many generations, the several races, for instance, of the cabbage, in very poor soil (in which case, however, some effect would have to be attributed to the direct action of the poor soil), that they would to a large extent, or even wholly, revert to the wild aboriginal stock. Whether or not the experiment would succeed, is not of great importance for our line of argument; for by the experiment itself the conditions of life are changed. If it could be shown that our domestic varieties manifested a strong tendency to reversion, that is, to lose their acquired characters, whilst kept under unchanged conditions, and whilst kept in a considerable body, so that free intercrossing might check, by blending together, any slight deviations of structure, in such case, I grant that we could deduce nothing from domestic varieties in regard to species. But there is not a shadow of evidence in favour of this view: to assert that we could not breed our cart and race-horses, long and short-horned cattle and poultry of various breeds, and esculent vegetables, for an almost infinite number of generations, would be opposed to all experience. I may add, that when under nature the conditions of life do change, variations and reversions of character probably do occur; but natural selection, as will hereafter be explained, will determine how far the new characters thus arising shall be preserved. 
< 
< When we look to the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants, and compare them with species closely allied together, we generally perceive in each domestic race, as already remarked, less uniformity of character than in true species. Domestic races of the same species, also, often have a somewhat monstrous character; by which I mean, that, although differing from each other, and from the other species of the same genus, in several trifling respects, they often differ in an extreme degree in some one part, both when compared one with another, and more especially when compared with all the species in nature to which they are nearest allied. With these exceptions (and with that of the perfect fertility of varieties when crossed, a subject hereafter to be discussed), domestic races of the same species differ from each other in the same manner as, only in most cases in a lesser degree than, do closely-allied species of the same genus in a state of nature. I think this must be admitted, when we find that there are hardly any domestic races, either amongst animals or plants, which have not been ranked by some competent judges as mere varieties, and by other competent judges as the descendants of aboriginally distinct species. If any marked distinction existed between domestic races and species, this source of doubt could not so perpetually recur. It has often been stated that domestic races do not differ from each other in characters of generic value. I think it could be shown that this statement is hardly correct; but naturalists differ most widely in determining what characters are of generic value; all such valuations being at present empirical. Moreover, on the view of the origin of genera which I shall presently give, we have no right to expect often to meet with generic differences in our domesticated productions. 
< 
< When we attempt to estimate the amount of structural difference between the domestic races of the same species, we are soon involved in doubt, from not knowing whether they have descended from one or several parent-species. This point, if could be cleared up, would be interesting; if, for instance, it could be shown that the greyhound, bloodhound, terrier, spaniel, and bull-dog, which we all know propagate their kind so truly, were the offspring of any single species, then such facts would have great weight in making us doubt about the immutability of the many very closely allied and natural species for instance, of the many foxes inhabiting different quarters of the world. I do not believe, as we shall presently see, that all our dogs have descended from any one wild species; but, in the case of some other domestic races, there is presumptive, or even strong, evidence in favour of this view. 
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< It has often been assumed that man has chosen for domestication animals and plants having an extraordinary inherent tendency to vary, and likewise to withstand diverse climates. I do not dispute that these capacities have added largely to the value of most of our domesticated productions; but how could a savage possibly know, when he first tamed an animal, whether it would vary in succeeding generations, and whether it would endure other climates? Has the little variability of the ass or guinea-fowl, or the small power of endurance of warmth by the reindeer, or of cold by the common camel, prevented their domestication? I cannot doubt that if other animals and plants, equal in number to our domesticated productions, and belonging to equally diverse classes and countries, were taken from a state of nature, and could be made to breed for an equal number of generations under domestication, they would vary on an average as largely as the parent species of our existing domesticated productions have varied. 
< 
< In the case of most of our anciently domesticated animals and plants, I do not think it is possible to come to any definite conclusion, whether they have descended from one or several species. The argument mainly relied on by those who believe in the multiple origin of our domestic animals is, that we find in the most ancient records, more especially on the monuments of Egypt, much diversity in the breeds; and that some of the breeds closely resemble, perhaps are identical with, those still existing. Even if this latter fact were found more strictly and generally true than seems to me to be the case, what does it show, but that some of our breeds originated there, four or five thousand years ago? But Mr Horner's researches have rendered it in some degree probable that man sufficiently civilized to have manufactured pottery existed in the valley of the Nile thirteen or fourteen thousand years ago; and who will pretend to say how long before these ancient periods, savages, like those of Tierra del Fuego or Australia, who possess a semi-domestic dog, may not have existed in Egypt? 
< 
< The whole subject must, I think, remain vague; nevertheless, I may, without here entering on any details, state that, from geographical and other considerations, I think it highly probable that our domestic dogs have descended from several wild species. In regard to sheep and goats I can form no opinion. I should think, from facts communicated to me by Mr Blyth, on the habits, voice, and constitution, &c., of the humped Indian cattle, that these had descended from a different aboriginal stock from our European cattle; and several competent judges believe that these latter have had more than one wild parent. With respect to horses, from reasons which I cannot give here, I am doubtfully inclined to believe, in opposition to several authors, that all the races have descended from one wild stock. Mr Blyth, whose opinion, from his large and varied stores of knowledge, I should value more than that of almost any one, thinks that all the breeds of poultry have proceeded from the common wild Indian fowl (Gallus bankiva). In regard to ducks and rabbits, the breeds of which differ considerably from each other in structure, I do not doubt that they all have descended from the common wild duck and rabbit. 
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< The doctrine of the origin of our several domestic races from several aboriginal stocks, has been carried to an absurd extreme by some authors. They believe that every race which breeds true, let the distinctive characters be ever so slight, has had its wild prototype. At this rate there must have existed at least a score of species of wild cattle, as many sheep, and several goats in Europe alone, and several even within Great Britain. One author believes that there formerly existed in Great Britain eleven wild species of sheep peculiar to it! When we bear in mind that Britain has now hardly one peculiar mammal, and France but few distinct from those of Germany and conversely, and so with Hungary, Spain, &c., but that each of these kingdoms possesses several peculiar breeds of cattle, sheep, &c., we must admit that many domestic breeds have originated in Europe; for whence could they have been derived, as these several countries do not possess a number of peculiar species as distinct parent-stocks? So it is in India. Even in the case of the domestic dogs of the whole world, which I fully admit have probably descended from several wild species, I cannot doubt that there has been an immense amount of inherited variation. Who can believe that animals closely resembling the Italian greyhound, the bloodhound, the bull-dog, or Blenheim spaniel, &c. so unlike all wild Canidae ever existed freely in a state of nature? It has often been loosely said that all our races of dogs have been produced by the crossing of a few aboriginal species; but by crossing we can get only forms in some degree intermediate between their parents; and if we account for our several domestic races by this process, we must admit the former existence of the most extreme forms, as the Italian greyhound, bloodhound, bull-dog, &c., in the wild state. Moreover, the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated. There can be no doubt that a race may be modified by occasional crosses, if aided by the careful selection of those individual mongrels, which present any desired character; but that a race could be obtained nearly intermediate between two extremely different races or species, I can hardly believe. Sir J. Sebright expressly experimentised for this object, and failed. The offspring from the first cross between two pure breeds is tolerably and sometimes (as I have found with pigeons) extremely uniform, and everything seems simple enough; but when these mongrels are crossed one with another for several generations, hardly two of them will be alike, and then the extreme difficulty, or rather utter hopelessness, of the task becomes apparent. Certainly, a breed intermediate between two very distinct breeds could not be got without extreme care and long-continued selection; nor can I find a single case on record of a permanent race having been thus formed. 
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< On the Breeds of the Domestic pigeon.
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< Believing that it is always best to study some special group, I have, after deliberation, taken up domestic pigeons. I have kept every breed which I could purchase or obtain, and have been most kindly favoured with skins from several quarters of the world, more especially by the Hon. W. Elliot from India, and by the Hon. C. Murray from Persia. Many treatises in different languages have been published on pigeons, and some of them are very important, as being of considerably antiquity. I have associated with several eminent fanciers, and have been permitted to join two of the London Pigeon Clubs. The diversity of the breeds is something astonishing. Compare the English carrier and the short-faced tumbler, and see the wonderful difference in their beaks, entailing corresponding differences in their skulls. The carrier, more especially the male bird, is also remarkable from the wonderful development of the carunculated skin about the head, and this is accompanied by greatly elongated eyelids, very large external orifices to the nostrils, and a wide gape of mouth. The short-faced tumbler has a beak in outline almost like that of a finch; and the common tumbler has the singular and strictly inherited habit of flying at a great height in a compact flock, and tumbling in the air head over heels. The runt is a bird of great size, with long, massive beak and large feet; some of the sub-breeds of runts have very long necks, others very long wings and tails, others singularly short tails. The barb is allied to the carrier, but, instead of a very long beak, has a very short and very broad one. The pouter has a much elongated body, wings, and legs; and its enormously developed crop, which it glories in inflating, may well excite astonishment and even laughter. The turbit has a very short and conical beak, with a line of reversed feathers down the breast; and it has the habit of continually expanding slightly the upper part of the oesophagus. The Jacobin has the feathers so much reversed along the back of the neck that they form a hood, and it has, proportionally to its size, much elongated wing and tail feathers. The trumpeter and laugher, as their names express, utter a very different coo from the other breeds. The fantail has thirty or even forty tail-feathers, instead of twelve or fourteen, the normal number in all members of the great pigeon family; and these feathers are kept expanded, and are carried so erect that in good birds the head and tail touch; the oil-gland is quite aborted. Several other less distinct breeds might have been specified. 
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< In the skeletons of the several breeds, the development of the bones of the face in length and breadth and curvature differs enormously. The shape, as well as the breadth and length of the ramus of the lower jaw, varies in a highly remarkable manner. The number of the caudal and sacral vertebrae vary; as does the number of the ribs, together with their relative breadth and the presence of processes. The size and shape of the apertures in the sternum are highly variable; so is the degree of divergence and relative size of the two arms of the furcula. The proportional width of the gape of mouth, the proportional length of the eyelids, of the orifice of the nostrils, of the tongue (not always in strict correlation with the length of beak), the size of the crop and of the upper part of the oesophagus; the development and abortion of the oil-gland; the number of the primary wing and caudal feathers; the relative length of wing and tail to each other and to the body; the relative length of leg and of the feet; the number of scutellae on the toes, the development of skin between the toes, are all points of structure which are variable. The period at which the perfect plumage is acquired varies, as does the state of the down with which the nestling birds are clothed when hatched. The shape and size of the eggs vary. The manner of flight differs remarkably; as does in some breeds the voice and disposition. Lastly, in certain breeds, the males and females have come to differ to a slight degree from each other. 
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< Altogether at least a score of pigeons might be chosen, which if shown to an ornithologist, and he were told that they were wild birds, would certainly, I think, be ranked by him as well-defined species. Moreover, I do not believe that any ornithologist would place the English carrier, the short-faced tumbler, the runt, the barb, pouter, and fantail in the same genus; more especially as in each of these breeds several truly-inherited sub-breeds, or species as he might have called them, could be shown him. 
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< Great as the differences are between the breeds of pigeons, I am fully convinced that the common opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all have descended from the rock-pigeon (Columba livia), including under this term several geographical races or sub-species, which differ from each other in the most trifling respects. As several of the reasons which have led me to this belief are in some degree applicable in other cases, I will here briefly give them. If the several breeds are not varieties, and have not proceeded from the rock-pigeon, they must have descended from at least seven or eight aboriginal stocks; for it is impossible to make the present domestic breeds by the crossing of any lesser number: how, for instance, could a pouter be produced by crossing two breeds unless one of the parent-stocks possessed the characteristic enormous crop? The supposed aboriginal stocks must all have been rock-pigeons, that is, not breeding or willingly perching on trees. But besides C. livia, with its geographical sub-species, only two or three other species of rock-pigeons are known; and these have not any of the characters of the domestic breeds. Hence the supposed aboriginal stocks must either still exist in the countries where they were originally domesticated, and yet be unknown to ornithologists; and this, considering their size, habits, and remarkable characters, seems very improbable; or they must have become extinct in the wild state. But birds breeding on precipices, and good fliers, are unlikely to be exterminated; and the common rock-pigeon, which has the same habits with the domestic breeds, has not been exterminated even on several of the smaller British islets, or on the shores of the Mediterranean. Hence the supposed extermination of so many species having similar habits with the rock-pigeon seems to me a very rash assumption. Moreover, the several above-named domesticated breeds have been transported to all parts of the world, and, therefore, some of them must have been carried back again into their native country; but not one has ever become wild or feral, though the dovecot-pigeon, which is the rock-pigeon in a very slightly altered state, has become feral in several places. Again, all recent experience shows that it is most difficult to get any wild animal to breed freely under domestication; yet on the hypothesis of the multiple origin of our pigeons, it must be assumed that at least seven or eight species were so thoroughly domesticated in ancient times by half-civilized man, as to be quite prolific under confinement. 
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< An argument, as it seems to me, of great weight, and applicable in several other cases, is, that the above-specified breeds, though agreeing generally in constitution, habits, voice, colouring, and in most parts of their structure, with the wild rock-pigeon, yet are certainly highly abnormal in other parts of their structure: we may look in vain throughout the whole great family of Columbidae for a beak like that of the English carrier, or that of the short-faced tumbler, or barb; for reversed feathers like those of the jacobin; for a crop like that of the pouter; for tail-feathers like those of the fantail. Hence it must be assumed not only that half-civilized man succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several species, but that he intentionally or by chance picked out extraordinarily abnormal species; and further, that these very species have since all become extinct or unknown. So many strange contingencies seem to me improbable in the highest degree. 
< 
< Some facts in regard to the colouring of pigeons well deserve consideration. The rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue, and has a white rump (the Indian sub-species, C. intermedia of Strickland, having it bluish); the tail has a terminal dark bar, with the bases of the outer feathers externally edged with white; the wings have two black bars: some semi-domestic breeds and some apparently truly wild breeds have, besides the two black bars, the wings chequered with black. These several marks do not occur together in any other species of the whole family. Now, in every one of the domestic breeds, taking thoroughly well-bred birds, all the above marks, even to the white edging of the outer tail-feathers, sometimes concur perfectly developed. Moreover, when two birds belonging to two distinct breeds are crossed, neither of which is blue or has any of the above-specified marks, the mongrel offspring are very apt suddenly to acquire these characters; for instance, I crossed some uniformly white fantails with some uniformly black barbs, and they produced mottled brown and black birds; these I again crossed together, and one grandchild of the pure white fantail and pure black barb was of as beautiful a blue colour, with the white rump, double black wing-bar, and barred and white-edged tail-feathers, as any wild rock-pigeon! We can understand these facts, on the well-known principle of reversion to ancestral characters, if all the domestic breeds have descended from the rock-pigeon. But if we deny this, we must make one of the two following highly improbable suppositions. Either, firstly, that all the several imagined aboriginal stocks were coloured and marked like the rock-pigeon, although no other existing species is thus coloured and marked, so that in each separate breed there might be a tendency to revert to the very same colours and markings. Or, secondly, that each breed, even the purest, has within a dozen or, at most, within a score of generations, been crossed by the rock-pigeon: I say within a dozen or twenty generations, for we know of no fact countenancing the belief that the child ever reverts to some one ancestor, removed by a greater number of generations. In a breed which has been crossed only once with some distinct breed, the tendency to reversion to any character derived from such cross will naturally become less and less, as in each succeeding generation there will be less of the foreign blood; but when there has been no cross with a distinct breed, and there is a tendency in both parents to revert to a character, which has been lost during some former generation, this tendency, for all that we can see to the contrary, may be transmitted undiminished for an indefinite number of generations. These two distinct cases are often confounded in treatises on inheritance. 
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< Lastly, the hybrids or mongrels from between all the domestic breeds of pigeons are perfectly fertile. I can state this from my own observations, purposely made on the most distinct breeds. Now, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to bring forward one case of the hybrid offspring of two animals clearly distinct being themselves perfectly fertile. Some authors believe that long-continued domestication eliminates this strong tendency to sterility: from the history of the dog I think there is some probability in this hypothesis, if applied to species closely related together, though it is unsupported by a single experiment. But to extend the hypothesis so far as to suppose that species, aboriginally as distinct as carriers, tumblers, pouters, and fantails now are, should yield offspring perfectly fertile, inter se, seems to me rash in the extreme. 
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< From these several reasons, namely, the improbability of man having formerly got seven or eight supposed species of pigeons to breed freely under domestication; these supposed species being quite unknown in a wild state, and their becoming nowhere feral; these species having very abnormal characters in certain respects, as compared with all other Columbidae, though so like in most other respects to the rock-pigeon; the blue colour and various marks occasionally appearing in all the breeds, both when kept pure and when crossed; the mongrel offspring being perfectly fertile; from these several reasons, taken together, I can feel no doubt that all our domestic breeds have descended from the Columba livia with its geographical sub-species. 
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< In favour of this view, I may add, firstly, that C. livia, or the rock-pigeon, has been found capable of domestication in Europe and in India; and that it agrees in habits and in a great number of points of structure with all the domestic breeds. Secondly, although an English carrier or short-faced tumbler differs immensely in certain characters from the rock-pigeon, yet by comparing the several sub-breeds of these breeds, more especially those brought from distant countries, we can make an almost perfect series between the extremes of structure. Thirdly, those characters which are mainly distinctive of each breed, for instance the wattle and length of beak of the carrier, the shortness of that of the tumbler, and the number of tail-feathers in the fantail, are in each breed eminently variable; and the explanation of this fact will be obvious when we come to treat of selection. Fourthly, pigeons have been watched, and tended with the utmost care, and loved by many people. They have been domesticated for thousands of years in several quarters of the world; the earliest known record of pigeons is in the fifth Aegyptian dynasty, about 3000 B.C., as was pointed out to me by Professor Lepsius; but Mr Birch informs me that pigeons are given in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty. In the time of the Romans, as we hear from Pliny, immense prices were given for pigeons; 'nay, they are come to this pass, that they can reckon up their pedigree and race.' Pigeons were much valued by Akber Khan in India, about the year 1600; never less than 20,000 pigeons were taken with the court. 'The monarchs of Iran and Turan sent him some very rare birds;' and, continues the courtly historian, 'His Majesty by crossing the breeds, which method was never practised before, has improved them astonishingly.' About this same period the Dutch were as eager about pigeons as were the old Romans. The paramount importance of these considerations in explaining the immense amount of variation which pigeons have undergone, will be obvious when we treat of Selection. We shall then, also, see how it is that the breeds so often have a somewhat monstrous character. It is also a most favourable circumstance for the production of distinct breeds, that male and female pigeons can be easily mated for life; and thus different breeds can be kept together in the same aviary. 
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< I have discussed the probable origin of domestic pigeons at some, yet quite insufficient, length; because when I first kept pigeons and watched the several kinds, knowing well how true they bred, I felt fully as much difficulty in believing that they could ever have descended from a common parent, as any naturalist could in coming to a similar conclusion in regard to the many species of finches, or other large groups of birds, in nature. One circumstance has struck me much; namely, that all the breeders of the various domestic animals and the cultivators of plants, with whom I have ever conversed, or whose treatises I have read, are firmly convinced that the several breeds to which each has attended, are descended from so many aboriginally distinct species. Ask, as I have asked, a celebrated raiser of Hereford cattle, whether his cattle might not have descended from long horns, and he will laugh you to scorn. I have never met a pigeon, or poultry, or duck, or rabbit fancier, who was not fully convinced that each main breed was descended from a distinct species. Van Mons, in his treatise on pears and apples, shows how utterly he disbelieves that the several sorts, for instance a Ribston-pippin or Codlin-apple, could ever have proceeded from the seeds of the same tree. Innumerable other examples could be given. The explanation, I think, is simple: from long-continued study they are strongly impressed with the differences between the several races; and though they well know that each race varies slightly, for they win their prizes by selecting such slight differences, yet they ignore all general arguments, and refuse to sum up in their minds slight differences accumulated during many successive generations. May not those naturalists who, knowing far less of the laws of inheritance than does the breeder, and knowing no more than he does of the intermediate links in the long lines of descent, yet admit that many of our domestic races have descended from the same parents may they not learn a lesson of caution, when they deride the idea of species in a state of nature being lineal descendants of other species? 
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< Selection
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< Let us now briefly consider the steps by which domestic races have been produced, either from one or from several allied species. Some little effect may, perhaps, be attributed to the direct action of the external conditions of life, and some little to habit; but he would be a bold man who would account by such agencies for the differences of a dray and race horse, a greyhound and bloodhound, a carrier and tumbler pigeon. One of the most remarkable features in our domesticated races is that we see in them adaptation, not indeed to the animal's or plant's own good, but to man's use or fancy. Some variations useful to him have probably arisen suddenly, or by one step; many botanists, for instance, believe that the fuller's teazle, with its hooks, which cannot be rivalled by any mechanical contrivance, is only a variety of the wild Dipsacus; and this amount of change may have suddenly arisen in a seedling. So it has probably been with the turnspit dog; and this is known to have been the case with the ancon sheep. But when we compare the dray-horse and race-horse, the dromedary and camel, the various breeds of sheep fitted either for cultivated land or mountain pasture, with the wool of one breed good for one purpose, and that of another breed for another purpose; when we compare the many breeds of dogs, each good for man in very different ways; when we compare the gamecock, so pertinacious in battle, with other breeds so little quarrelsome, with 'everlasting layers' which never desire to sit, and with the bantam so small and elegant; when we compare the host of agricultural, culinary, orchard, and flower-garden races of plants, most useful to man at different seasons and for different purposes, or so beautiful in his eyes, we must, I think, look further than to mere variability. We cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfect and as useful as we now see them; indeed, in several cases, we know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power of accumulative selection: nature gives successive variations; man adds them up in certain directions useful to him. In this sense he may be said to make for himself useful breeds. 
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< The great power of this principle of selection is not hypothetical. It is certain that several of our eminent breeders have, even within a single lifetime, modified to a large extent some breeds of cattle and sheep. In order fully to realise what they have done, it is almost necessary to read several of the many treatises devoted to this subject, and to inspect the animals. Breeders habitually speak of an animal's organisation as something quite plastic, which they can model almost as they please. If I had space I could quote numerous passages to this effect from highly competent authorities. Youatt, who was probably better acquainted with the works of agriculturalists than almost any other individual, and who was himself a very good judge of an animal, speaks of the principle of selection as 'that which enables the agriculturist, not only to modify the character of his flock, but to change it altogether. It is the magician's wand, by means of which he may summon into life whatever form and mould he pleases.' Lord Somerville, speaking of what breeders have done for sheep, says: 'It would seem as if they had chalked out upon a wall a form perfect in itself, and then had given it existence.' That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.' In Saxony the importance of the principle of selection in regard to merino sheep is so fully recognised, that men follow it as a trade: the sheep are placed on a table and are studied, like a picture by a connoisseur; this is done three times at intervals of months, and the sheep are each time marked and classed, so that the very best may ultimately be selected for breeding. 
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< What English breeders have actually effected is proved by the enormous prices given for animals with a good pedigree; and these have now been exported to almost every quarter of the world. The improvement is by no means generally due to crossing different breeds; all the best breeders are strongly opposed to this practice, except sometimes amongst closely allied sub-breeds. And when a cross has been made, the closest selection is far more indispensable even than in ordinary cases. If selection consisted merely in separating some very distinct variety, and breeding from it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth notice; but its importance consists in the great effect produced by the accumulation in one direction, during successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable by an uneducated eye differences which I for one have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgement sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed, and may make great improvements; if he wants any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail. Few would readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice requisite to become even a skilful pigeon-fancier. 
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< The same principles are followed by horticulturists; but the variations are here often more abrupt. No one supposes that our choicest productions have been produced by a single variation from the aboriginal stock. We have proofs that this is not so in some cases, in which exact records have been kept; thus, to give a very trifling instance, the steadily-increasing size of the common gooseberry may be quoted. We see an astonishing improvement in many florists' flowers, when the flowers of the present day are compared with drawings made only twenty or thirty years ago. When a race of plants is once pretty well established, the seed-raisers do not pick out the best plants, but merely go over their seed-beds, and pull up the 'rogues,' as they call the plants that deviate from the proper standard. With animals this kind of selection is, in fact, also followed; for hardly any one is so careless as to allow his worst animals to breed. 
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< In regard to plants, there is another means of observing the accumulated effects of selection namely, by comparing the diversity of flowers in the different varieties of the same species in the flower-garden; the diversity of leaves, pods, or tubers, or whatever part is valued, in the kitchen-garden, in comparison with the flowers of the same varieties; and the diversity of fruit of the same species in the orchard, in comparison with the leaves and flowers of the same set of varieties. See how different the leaves of the cabbage are, and how extremely alike the flowers; how unlike the flowers of the heartsease are, and how alike the leaves; how much the fruit of the different kinds of gooseberries differ in size, colour, shape, and hairiness, and yet the flowers present very slight differences. It is not that the varieties which differ largely in some one point do not differ at all in other points; this is hardly ever, perhaps never, the case. The laws of correlation of growth, the importance of which should never be overlooked, will ensure some differences; but, as a general rule, I cannot doubt that the continued selection of slight variations, either in the leaves, the flowers, or the fruit, will produce races differing from each other chiefly in these characters. 
< 
< It may be objected that the principle of selection has been reduced to methodical practice for scarcely more than three-quarters of a century; it has certainly been more attended to of late years, and many treatises have been published on the subject; and the result, I may add, has been, in a corresponding degree, rapid and important. But it is very far from true that the principle is a modern discovery. I could give several references to the full acknowledgement of the importance of the principle in works of high antiquity. In rude and barbarous periods of English history choice animals were often imported, and laws were passed to prevent their exportation: the destruction of horses under a certain size was ordered, and this may be compared to the 'roguing' of plants by nurserymen. The principle of selection I find distinctly given in an ancient Chinese encyclopaedia. Explicit rules are laid down by some of the Roman classical writers. From passages in Genesis, it is clear that the colour of domestic animals was at that early period attended to. Savages now sometimes cross their dogs with wild canine animals, to improve the breed, and they formerly did so, as is attested by passages in Pliny. The savages in South Africa match their draught cattle by colour, as do some of the Esquimaux their teams of dogs. Livingstone shows how much good domestic breeds are valued by the negroes of the interior of Africa who have not associated with Europeans. Some of these facts do not show actual selection, but they show that the breeding of domestic animals was carefully attended to in ancient times, and is now attended to by the lowest savages. It would, indeed, have been a strange fact, had attention not been paid to breeding, for the inheritance of good and bad qualities is so obvious. 
< 
< At the present time, eminent breeders try by methodical selection, with a distinct object in view, to make a new strain or sub-breed, superior to anything existing in the country. But, for our purpose, a kind of Selection, which may be called Unconscious, and which results from every one trying to possess and breed from the best individual animals, is more important. Thus, a man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterwards breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless I cannot doubt that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, &c., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their own lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle. Slow and insensible changes of this kind could never be recognised unless actual measurements or careful drawings of the breeds in question had been made long ago, which might serve for comparison. In some cases, however, unchanged or but little changed individuals of the same breed may be found in less civilised districts, where the breed has been less improved. There is reason to believe that King Charles's spaniel has been unconsciously modified to a large extent since the time of that monarch. Some highly competent authorities are convinced that the setter is directly derived from the spaniel, and has probably been slowly altered from it. It is known that the English pointer has been greatly changed within the last century, and in this case the change has, it is believed, been chiefly effected by crosses with the fox-hound; but what concerns us is, that the change has been effected unconsciously and gradually, and yet so effectually, that, though the old Spanish pointer certainly came from Spain, Mr Barrow has not seen, as I am informed by him, any native dog in Spain like our pointer. 
< 
< By a similar process of selection, and by careful training, the whole body of English racehorses have come to surpass in fleetness and size the parent Arab stock, so that the latter, by the regulations for the Goodwood Races, are favoured in the weights they carry. Lord Spencer and others have shown how the cattle of England have increased in weight and in early maturity, compared with the stock formerly kept in this country. By comparing the accounts given in old pigeon treatises of carriers and tumblers with these breeds as now existing in Britain, India, and Persia, we can, I think, clearly trace the stages through which they have insensibly passed, and come to differ so greatly from the rock-pigeon. 
< 
< Youatt gives an excellent illustration of the effects of a course of selection, which may be considered as unconsciously followed, in so far that the breeders could never have expected or even have wished to have produced the result which ensued namely, the production of two distinct strains. The two flocks of Leicester sheep kept by Mr Buckley and Mr Burgess, as Mr Youatt remarks, 'have been purely bred from the original stock of Mr Bakewell for upwards of fifty years. There is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either of them has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of Mr Bakewell's flock, and yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties.' 
< 
< If there exist savages so barbarous as never to think of the inherited character of the offspring of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly useful to them, for any special purpose, would be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, to which savages are so liable, and such choice animals would thus generally leave more offspring than the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs. 
< 
< In plants the same gradual process of improvement, through the occasional preservation of the best individuals, whether or not sufficiently distinct to be ranked at their first appearance as distinct varieties, and whether or not two or more species or races have become blended together by crossing, may plainly be recognised in the increased size and beauty which we now see in the varieties of the heartsease, rose, pelargonium, dahlia, and other plants, when compared with the older varieties or with their parent-stocks. No one would ever expect to get a first-rate heartsease or dahlia from the seed of a wild plant. No one would expect to raise a first-rate melting pear from the seed of a wild pear, though he might succeed from a poor seedling growing wild, if it had come from a garden-stock. The pear, though cultivated in classical times, appears, from Pliny's description, to have been a fruit of very inferior quality. I have seen great surprise expressed in horticultural works at the wonderful skill of gardeners, in having produced such splendid results from such poor materials; but the art, I cannot doubt, has been simple, and, as far as the final result is concerned, has been followed almost unconsciously. It has consisted in always cultivating the best known variety, sowing its seeds, and, when a slightly better variety has chanced to appear, selecting it, and so onwards. But the gardeners of the classical period, who cultivated the best pear they could procure, never thought what splendid fruit we should eat; though we owe our excellent fruit, in some small degree, to their having naturally chosen and preserved the best varieties they could anywhere find. 
< 
< A large amount of change in our cultivated plants, thus slowly and unconsciously accumulated, explains, as I believe, the well-known fact, that in a vast number of cases we cannot recognise, and therefore do not know, the wild parent-stocks of the plants which have been longest cultivated in our flower and kitchen gardens. If it has taken centuries or thousands of years to improve or modify most of our plants up to their present standard of usefulness to man, we can understand how it is that neither Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any other region inhabited by quite uncivilised man, has afforded us a single plant worth culture. It is not that these countries, so rich in species, do not by a strange chance possess the aboriginal stocks of any useful plants, but that the native plants have not been improved by continued selection up to a standard of perfection comparable with that given to the plants in countries anciently civilised. 
< 
< In regard to the domestic animals kept by uncivilised man, it should not be overlooked that they almost always have to struggle for their own food, at least during certain seasons. And in two countries very differently circumstanced, individuals of the same species, having slightly different constitutions or structure, would often succeed better in the one country than in the other, and thus by a process of 'natural selection,' as will hereafter be more fully explained, two sub-breeds might be formed. This, perhaps, partly explains what has been remarked by some authors, namely, that the varieties kept by savages have more of the character of species than the varieties kept in civilised countries. 
< 
< On the view here given of the all-important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious, how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man's wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much difficulty, any deviation of structure excepting such as is externally visible; and indeed he rarely cares for what is internal. He can never act by selection, excepting on variations which are first given to him in some slight degree by nature. No man would ever try to make a fantail, till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter till he saw a pigeon with a crop of somewhat unusual size; and the more abnormal or unusual any character was when it first appeared, the more likely it would be to catch his attention. But to use such an expression as trying to make a fantail, is, I have no doubt, in most cases, utterly incorrect. The man who first selected a pigeon with a slightly larger tail, never dreamed what the descendants of that pigeon would become through long-continued, partly unconscious and partly methodical selection. Perhaps the parent bird of all fantails had only fourteen tail-feathers somewhat expanded, like the present Java fantail, or like individuals of other and distinct breeds, in which as many as seventeen tail-feathers have been counted. Perhaps the first pouter-pigeon did not inflate its crop much more than the turbit now does the upper part of its oesophagus, a habit which is disregarded by all fanciers, as it is not one of the points of the breed. 
< 
< Nor let it be thought that some great deviation of structure would be necessary to catch the fancier's eye: he perceives extremely small differences, and it is in human nature to value any novelty, however slight, in one's own possession. Nor must the value which would formerly be set on any slight differences in the individuals of the same species, be judged of by the value which would now be set on them, after several breeds have once fairly been established. Many slight differences might, and indeed do now, arise amongst pigeons, which are rejected as faults or deviations from the standard of perfection of each breed. The common goose has not given rise to any marked varieties; hence the Thoulouse and the common breed, which differ only in colour, that most fleeting of characters, have lately been exhibited as distinct at our poultry-shows. 
< 
< I think these views further explain what has sometimes been noticed namely that we know nothing about the origin or history of any of our domestic breeds. But, in fact, a breed, like a dialect of a language, can hardly be said to have had a definite origin. A man preserves and breeds from an individual with some slight deviation of structure, or takes more care than usual in matching his best animals and thus improves them, and the improved individuals slowly spread in the immediate neighbourhood. But as yet they will hardly have a distinct name, and from being only slightly valued, their history will be disregarded. When further improved by the same slow and gradual process, they will spread more widely, and will get recognised as something distinct and valuable, and will then probably first receive a provincial name. In semi-civilised countries, with little free communication, the spreading and knowledge of any new sub-breed will be a slow process. As soon as the points of value of the new sub-breed are once fully acknowledged, the principle, as I have called it, of unconscious selection will always tend, perhaps more at one period than at another, as the breed rises or falls in fashion, perhaps more in one district than in another, according to the state of civilisation of the inhabitants slowly to add to the characteristic features of the breed, whatever they may be. But the chance will be infinitely small of any record having been preserved of such slow, varying, and insensible changes. 
< 
< I must now say a few words on the circumstances, favourable, or the reverse, to man's power of selection. A high degree of variability is obviously favourable, as freely giving the materials for selection to work on; not that mere individual differences are not amply sufficient, with extreme care, to allow of the accumulation of a large amount of modification in almost any desired direction. But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success. On this principle Marshall has remarked, with respect to the sheep of parts of Yorkshire, that 'as they generally belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, they never can be improved.' On the other hand, nurserymen, from raising large stocks of the same plants, are generally far more successful than amateurs in getting new and valuable varieties. The keeping of a large number of individuals of a species in any country requires that the species should be placed under favourable conditions of life, so as to breed freely in that country. When the individuals of any species are scanty, all the individuals, whatever their quality may be, will generally be allowed to breed, and this will effectually prevent selection. But probably the most important point of all, is, that the animal or plant should be so highly useful to man, or so much valued by him, that the closest attention should be paid to even the slightest deviation in the qualities or structure of each individual. Unless such attention be paid nothing can be effected. I have seen it gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected. As soon, however, as gardeners picked out individual plants with slightly larger, earlier, or better fruit, and raised seedlings from them, and again picked out the best seedlings and bred from them, then, there appeared (aided by some crossing with distinct species) those many admirable varieties of the strawberry which have been raised during the last thirty or forty years. 
< 
< In the case of animals with separate sexes, facility in preventing crosses is an important element of success in the formation of new races, at least, in a country which is already stocked with other races. In this respect enclosure of the land plays a part. Wandering savages or the inhabitants of open plains rarely possess more than one breed of the same species. Pigeons can be mated for life, and this is a great convenience to the fancier, for thus many races may be kept true, though mingled in the same aviary; and this circumstance must have largely favoured the improvement and formation of new breeds. Pigeons, I may add, can be propagated in great numbers and at a very quick rate, and inferior birds may be freely rejected, as when killed they serve for food. On the other hand, cats, from their nocturnal rambling habits, cannot be matched, and, although so much valued by women and children, we hardly ever see a distinct breed kept up; such breeds as we do sometimes see are almost always imported from some other country, often from islands. Although I do not doubt that some domestic animals vary less than others, yet the rarity or absence of distinct breeds of the cat, the donkey, peacock, goose, &c., may be attributed in main part to selection not having been brought into play: in cats, from the difficulty in pairing them; in donkeys, from only a few being kept by poor people, and little attention paid to their breeding; in peacocks, from not being very easily reared and a large stock not kept; in geese, from being valuable only for two purposes, food and feathers, and more especially from no pleasure having been felt in the display of distinct breeds. 
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< To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant power.
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> WHEN we look to the individuals of the same variety or sub-variety of our older cultivated plants and animals, one of the first points which strikes us, is, that they generally differ much more from each other, than do the individuals of any one species or variety in a state of nature. When we reflect on the vast diversity of the plants and animals which have been cultivated, and which have varied during all ages under the most different climates and treatment, I think we are driven to conclude that this greater variability is simply due to our domestic productions having been raised under conditions of life not so uniform as, and somewhat different from, those to which the parent-species have been exposed under nature. There is, also, I think, some probability in the view propounded by Andrew Knight, that this variability may be partly connected with excess of food. It seems pretty clear that organic beings must be exposed during several generations to the new conditions of life to cause any appreciable amount of variation; and that when the organisation has once begun to vary, it generally continues to vary for many generations. No case is on record of a variable being ceasing to be variable under cultivation. Our oldest cultivated plants, such as wheat, still often yield new varieties: our oldest domesticated animals are still capable of rapid improvement or modification. 
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> It has been disputed at what period of time the causes of variability, whatever they may be, generally act; whether during the early or late period of development of the embryo, or at the instant of conception. Geoffroy St Hilaire's experiments show that unnatural treatment of the embryo causes monstrosities; and monstrosities cannot be separated by any clear line of distinction from mere variations. But I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception. Several reasons make me believe in this; but the chief one is the remarkable effect which confinement or cultivation has on the functions of the reproductive system; this system appearing to be far more susceptible than any other part of the organization, to the action of any change in the conditions of life. Nothing is more easy than to tame an animal, and few things more difficult than to get it to breed freely under confinement, even in the many cases when the male and female unite. How many animals there are which will not breed, though living long under not very close confinement in their native country! This is generally attributed to vitiated instincts; but how many cultivated plants display the utmost vigour, and yet rarely or never seed! In some few such cases it has been found out that very trifling changes, such as a little more or less water at some particular period of growth, will determine whether or not the plant sets a seed. I cannot here enter on the copious details which I have collected on this curious subject; but to show how singular the laws are which determine the reproduction of animals under confinement, I may just mention that carnivorous animals, even from the tropics, breed in this country pretty freely under confinement, with the exception of the plantigrades or bear family; whereas, carnivorous birds, with the rarest exceptions, hardly ever lay fertile eggs. Many exotic plants have pollen utterly worthless, in the same exact condition as in the most sterile hybrids. When, on the one hand, we see domesticated animals and plants, though often weak and sickly, yet breeding quite freely under confinement; and when, on the other hand, we see individuals, though taken young from a state of nature, perfectly tamed, long-lived, and healthy (of which I could give numerous instances), yet having their reproductive system so seriously affected by unperceived causes as to fail in acting, we need not be surprised at this system, when it does act under confinement, acting not quite regularly, and producing offspring not perfectly like their parents or variable. 
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> Sterility has been said to be the bane of horticulture; but on this view we owe variability to the same cause which produces sterility; and variability is the source of all the choicest productions of the garden. I may add, that as some organisms will breed most freely under the most unnatural conditions (for instance, the rabbit and ferret kept in hutches), showing that their reproductive system has not been thus affected; so will some animals and plants withstand domestication or cultivation, and vary very slightly perhaps hardly more than in a state of nature. 
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> A long list could easily be given of 'sporting plants;' by this term gardeners mean a single bud or offset, which suddenly assumes a new and sometimes very different character from that of the rest of the plant. Such buds can be propagated by grafting, &c., and sometimes by seed. These 'sports' are extremely rare under nature, but far from rare under cultivation; and in this case we see that the treatment of the parent has affected a bud or offset, and not the ovules or pollen. But it is the opinion of most physiologists that there is no essential difference between a bud and an ovule in their earliest stages of formation; so that, in fact,'sports' support my view, that variability may be largely attributed to the ovules or pollen, or to both, having been affected by the treatment of the parent prior to the act of conception. These cases anyhow show that variation is not necessarily connected, as some authors have supposed, with the act of generation. 
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> Seedlings from the same fruit, and the young of the same litter, sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the young and the parents, as Muller has remarked, have apparently been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life; and this shows how unimportant the direct effects of the conditions of life are in comparison with the laws of reproduction, and of growth, and of inheritance; for had the action of the conditions been direct, if any of the young had varied, all would probably have varied in the same manner. To judge how much, in the case of any variation, we should attribute to the direct action of heat, moisture, light, food, &c., is most difficult: my impression is, that with animals such agencies have produced very little direct effect, though apparently more in the case of plants. Under this point of view, Mr Buckman's recent experiments on plants seem extremely valuable. When all or nearly all the individuals exposed to certain conditions are affected in the same way, the change at first appears to be directly due to such conditions; but in some cases it can be shown that quite opposite conditions produce similar changes of structure. Nevertheless some slight amount of change may, I think, be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life as, in some cases, increased size from amount of food, colour from particular kinds of food and from light, and perhaps the thickness of fur from climate. 
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> Habit also has a deciding influence, as in the period of flowering with plants when transported from one climate to another. In animals it has a more marked effect; for instance, I find in the domestic duck that the bones of the wing weigh less and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bones in the wild-duck; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less, and walking more, than its wild parent. The great and inherited development of the udders in cows and goats in countries where they are habitually milked, in comparison with the state of these organs in other countries, is another instance of the effect of use. Not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears; and the view suggested by some authors, that the drooping is due to the disuse of the muscles of the ear, from the animals not being much alarmed by danger, seems probable. 
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> There are many laws regulating variation, some few of which can be dimly seen, and will be hereafter briefly mentioned. I will here only allude to what may be called correlation of growth. Any change in the embryo or larva will almost certainly entail changes in the mature animal. In monstrosities, the correlations between quite distinct parts are very curious; and many instances are given in Isidore Geoffroy St Hilaire's great work on this subject. Breeders believe that long limbs are almost always accompanied by an elongated head. Some instances of correlation are quite whimsical; thus cats with blue eyes are invariably deaf; colour and constitutional peculiarities go together, of which many remarkable cases could be given amongst animals and plants. From the facts collected by Heusinger, it appears that white sheep and pigs are differently affected from coloured individuals by certain vegetable poisons. Hairless dogs have imperfect teeth; long-haired and coarse-haired animals are apt to have, as is asserted, long or many horns; pigeons with feathered feet have skin between their outer toes; pigeons with short beaks have small feet, and those with long beaks large feet. Hence, if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting, any peculiarity, he will almost certainly unconsciously modify other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws of the correlation of growth. 
> 
> The result of the various, quite unknown, or dimly seen laws of variation is infinitely complex and diversified. It is well worth while carefully to study the several treatises published on some of our old cultivated plants, as on the hyacinth, potato, even the dahlia, &c.; and it is really surprising to note the endless points in structure and constitution in which the varieties and sub varieties differ slightly from each other. The whole organization seems to have become plastic, and tends to depart in some small degree from that of the parental type. 
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> Any variation which is not inherited is unimportant for us. But the number and diversity of inheritable deviations of structure, both those of slight and those of considerable physiological importance, is endless. Dr Prosper Lucas's treatise, in two large volumes, is the fullest and the best on this subject. No breeder doubts how strong is the tendency to inheritance: like produces like is his fundamental belief: doubts have been thrown on this principle by theoretical writers alone. When a deviation appears not unfrequently, and we see it in the father and child, we cannot tell whether it may not be due to the same original cause acting on both; but when amongst individuals, apparently exposed to the same conditions, any very rare deviation, due to some extraordinary combination of circumstances, appears in the parent say, once amongst several million individuals and it reappears in the child, the mere doctrine of chances almost compels us to attribute its reappearance to inheritance. Every one must have heard of cases of albinism, prickly skin, hairy bodies, &c. appearing in several members of the same family. If strange and rare deviations of structure are truly inherited, less strange and commoner deviations may be freely admitted to be inheritable. Perhaps the correct way of viewing the whole subject, would be, to look at the inheritance of every character whatever as the rule, and non-inheritance as the anomaly. 
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> The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown; no one can say why the same peculiarity in different individuals of the same species, and in individuals of different species, is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so; why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother or other much more remote ancestor; why a peculiarity is often transmitted from one sex to both sexes or to one sex alone, more commonly but not exclusively to the like sex. It is a fact of some little importance to us, that peculiarities appearing in the males of our domestic breeds are often transmitted either exclusively, or in a much greater degree, to males alone. A much more important rule, which I think may be trusted, is that, at whatever period of life a peculiarity first appears, it tends to appear in the offspring at a corresponding age, though sometimes earlier. In many cases this could not be otherwise: thus the inherited peculiarities in the horns of cattle could appear only in the offspring when nearly mature; peculiarities in the silkworm are known to appear at the corresponding caterpillar or cocoon stage. But hereditary diseases and some other facts make me believe that the rule has a wider extension, and that when there is no apparent reason why a peculiarity should appear at any particular age, yet that it does tend to appear in the offspring at the same period at which it first appeared in the parent. I believe this rule to be of the highest importance in explaining the laws of embryology. These remarks are of course confined to the first appearance of the peculiarity, and not to its primary cause, which may have acted on the ovules or male element; in nearly the same manner as in the crossed offspring from a short-horned cow by a long-horned bull, the greater length of horn, though appearing late in life, is clearly due to the male element. 
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> Having alluded to the subject of reversion, I may here refer to a statement often made by naturalists namely, that our domestic varieties, when run wild, gradually but certainly revert in character to their aboriginal stocks. Hence it has been argued that no deductions can be drawn from domestic races to species in a state of nature. I have in vain endeavoured to discover on what decisive facts the above statement has so often and so boldly been made. There would be great difficulty in proving its truth: we may safely conclude that very many of the most strongly-marked domestic varieties could not possibly live in a wild state. In many cases we do not know what the aboriginal stock was, and so could not tell whether or not nearly perfect reversion had ensued. It would be quite necessary, in order to prevent the effects of intercrossing, that only a single variety should be turned loose in its new home. Nevertheless, as our varieties certainly do occasionally revert in some of their characters to ancestral forms, it seems to me not improbable, that if we could succeed in naturalising, or were to cultivate, during many generations, the several races, for instance, of the cabbage, in very poor soil (in which case, however, some effect would have to be attributed to the direct action of the poor soil), that they would to a large extent, or even wholly, revert to the wild aboriginal stock. Whether or not the experiment would succeed, is not of great importance for our line of argument; for by the experiment itself the conditions of life are changed. If it could be shown that our domestic varieties manifested a strong tendency to reversion, that is, to lose their acquired characters, whilst kept under unchanged conditions, and whilst kept in a considerable body, so that free intercrossing might check, by blending together, any slight deviations of structure, in such case, I grant that we could deduce nothing from domestic varieties in regard to species. But there is not a shadow of evidence in favour of this view: to assert that we could not breed our cart and race-horses, long and short-horned cattle and poultry of various breeds, and esculent vegetables, for an almost infinite number of generations, would be opposed to all experience. I may add, that when under nature the conditions of life do change, variations and reversions of character probably do occur; but natural selection, as will hereafter be explained, will determine how far the new characters thus arising shall be preserved. 
> 
> When we look to the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants, and compare them with species closely allied together, we generally perceive in each domestic race, as already remarked, less uniformity of character than in true species. Domestic races of the same species, also, often have a somewhat monstrous character; by which I mean, that, although differing from each other, and from the other species of the same genus, in several trifling respects, they often differ in an extreme degree in some one part, both when compared one with another, and more especially when compared with all the species in nature to which they are nearest allied. With these exceptions (and with that of the perfect fertility of varieties when crossed, a subject hereafter to be discussed), domestic races of the same species differ from each other in the same manner as, only in most cases in a lesser degree than, do closely-allied species of the same genus in a state of nature. I think this must be admitted, when we find that there are hardly any domestic races, either amongst animals or plants, which have not been ranked by some competent judges as mere varieties, and by other competent judges as the descendants of aboriginally distinct species. If any marked distinction existed between domestic races and species, this source of doubt could not so perpetually recur. It has often been stated that domestic races do not differ from each other in characters of generic value. I think it could be shown that this statement is hardly correct; but naturalists differ most widely in determining what characters are of generic value; all such valuations being at present empirical. Moreover, on the view of the origin of genera which I shall presently give, we have no right to expect often to meet with generic differences in our domesticated productions. 
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> When we attempt to estimate the amount of structural difference between the domestic races of the same species, we are soon involved in doubt, from not knowing whether they have descended from one or several parent-species. This point, if could be cleared up, would be interesting; if, for instance, it could be shown that the greyhound, bloodhound, terrier, spaniel, and bull-dog, which we all know propagate their kind so truly, were the offspring of any single species, then such facts would have great weight in making us doubt about the immutability of the many very closely allied and natural species for instance, of the many foxes inhabiting different quarters of the world. I do not believe, as we shall presently see, that all our dogs have descended from any one wild species; but, in the case of some other domestic races, there is presumptive, or even strong, evidence in favour of this view. 
> 
> It has often been assumed that man has chosen for domestication animals and plants having an extraordinary inherent tendency to vary, and likewise to withstand diverse climates. I do not dispute that these capacities have added largely to the value of most of our domesticated productions; but how could a savage possibly know, when he first tamed an animal, whether it would vary in succeeding generations, and whether it would endure other climates? Has the little variability of the ass or guinea-fowl, or the small power of endurance of warmth by the reindeer, or of cold by the common camel, prevented their domestication? I cannot doubt that if other animals and plants, equal in number to our domesticated productions, and belonging to equally diverse classes and countries, were taken from a state of nature, and could be made to breed for an equal number of generations under domestication, they would vary on an average as largely as the parent species of our existing domesticated productions have varied. 
> 
> In the case of most of our anciently domesticated animals and plants, I do not think it is possible to come to any definite conclusion, whether they have descended from one or several species. The argument mainly relied on by those who believe in the multiple origin of our domestic animals is, that we find in the most ancient records, more especially on the monuments of Egypt, much diversity in the breeds; and that some of the breeds closely resemble, perhaps are identical with, those still existing. Even if this latter fact were found more strictly and generally true than seems to me to be the case, what does it show, but that some of our breeds originated there, four or five thousand years ago? But Mr Horner's researches have rendered it in some degree probable that man sufficiently civilized to have manufactured pottery existed in the valley of the Nile thirteen or fourteen thousand years ago; and who will pretend to say how long before these ancient periods, savages, like those of Tierra del Fuego or Australia, who possess a semi-domestic dog, may not have existed in Egypt? 
> 
> The whole subject must, I think, remain vague; nevertheless, I may, without here entering on any details, state that, from geographical and other considerations, I think it highly probable that our domestic dogs have descended from several wild species. In regard to sheep and goats I can form no opinion. I should think, from facts communicated to me by Mr Blyth, on the habits, voice, and constitution, &c., of the humped Indian cattle, that these had descended from a different aboriginal stock from our European cattle; and several competent judges believe that these latter have had more than one wild parent. With respect to horses, from reasons which I cannot give here, I am doubtfully inclined to believe, in opposition to several authors, that all the races have descended from one wild stock. Mr Blyth, whose opinion, from his large and varied stores of knowledge, I should value more than that of almost any one, thinks that all the breeds of poultry have proceeded from the common wild Indian fowl (Gallus bankiva). In regard to ducks and rabbits, the breeds of which differ considerably from each other in structure, I do not doubt that they all have descended from the common wild duck and rabbit. 
> 
> The doctrine of the origin of our several domestic races from several aboriginal stocks, has been carried to an absurd extreme by some authors. They believe that every race which breeds true, let the distinctive characters be ever so slight, has had its wild prototype. At this rate there must have existed at least a score of species of wild cattle, as many sheep, and several goats in Europe alone, and several even within Great Britain. One author believes that there formerly existed in Great Britain eleven wild species of sheep peculiar to it! When we bear in mind that Britain has now hardly one peculiar mammal, and France but few distinct from those of Germany and conversely, and so with Hungary, Spain, &c., but that each of these kingdoms possesses several peculiar breeds of cattle, sheep, &c., we must admit that many domestic breeds have originated in Europe; for whence could they have been derived, as these several countries do not possess a number of peculiar species as distinct parent-stocks? So it is in India. Even in the case of the domestic dogs of the whole world, which I fully admit have probably descended from several wild species, I cannot doubt that there has been an immense amount of inherited variation. Who can believe that animals closely resembling the Italian greyhound, the bloodhound, the bull-dog, or Blenheim spaniel, &c. so unlike all wild Canidae ever existed freely in a state of nature? It has often been loosely said that all our races of dogs have been produced by the crossing of a few aboriginal species; but by crossing we can get only forms in some degree intermediate between their parents; and if we account for our several domestic races by this process, we must admit the former existence of the most extreme forms, as the Italian greyhound, bloodhound, bull-dog, &c., in the wild state. Moreover, the possibility of making distinct races by crossing has been greatly exaggerated. There can be no doubt that a race may be modified by occasional crosses, if aided by the careful selection of those individual mongrels, which present any desired character; but that a race could be obtained nearly intermediate between two extremely different races or species, I can hardly believe. Sir J. Sebright expressly experimentised for this object, and failed. The offspring from the first cross between two pure breeds is tolerably and sometimes (as I have found with pigeons) extremely uniform, and everything seems simple enough; but when these mongrels are crossed one with another for several generations, hardly two of them will be alike, and then the extreme difficulty, or rather utter hopelessness, of the task becomes apparent. Certainly, a breed intermediate between two very distinct breeds could not be got without extreme care and long-continued selection; nor can I find a single case on record of a permanent race having been thus formed. 
> 
> On the Breeds of the Domestic pigeon.
> 
> Believing that it is always best to study some special group, I have, after deliberation, taken up domestic pigeons. I have kept every breed which I could purchase or obtain, and have been most kindly favoured with skins from several quarters of the world, more especially by the Hon. W. Elliot from India, and by the Hon. C. Murray from Persia. Many treatises in different languages have been published on pigeons, and some of them are very important, as being of considerably antiquity. I have associated with several eminent fanciers, and have been permitted to join two of the London Pigeon Clubs. The diversity of the breeds is something astonishing. Compare the English carrier and the short-faced tumbler, and see the wonderful difference in their beaks, entailing corresponding differences in their skulls. The carrier, more especially the male bird, is also remarkable from the wonderful development of the carunculated skin about the head, and this is accompanied by greatly elongated eyelids, very large external orifices to the nostrils, and a wide gape of mouth. The short-faced tumbler has a beak in outline almost like that of a finch; and the common tumbler has the singular and strictly inherited habit of flying at a great height in a compact flock, and tumbling in the air head over heels. The runt is a bird of great size, with long, massive beak and large feet; some of the sub-breeds of runts have very long necks, others very long wings and tails, others singularly short tails. The barb is allied to the carrier, but, instead of a very long beak, has a very short and very broad one. The pouter has a much elongated body, wings, and legs; and its enormously developed crop, which it glories in inflating, may well excite astonishment and even laughter. The turbit has a very short and conical beak, with a line of reversed feathers down the breast; and it has the habit of continually expanding slightly the upper part of the oesophagus. The Jacobin has the feathers so much reversed along the back of the neck that they form a hood, and it has, proportionally to its size, much elongated wing and tail feathers. The trumpeter and laugher, as their names express, utter a very different coo from the other breeds. The fantail has thirty or even forty tail-feathers, instead of twelve or fourteen, the normal number in all members of the great pigeon family; and these feathers are kept expanded, and are carried so erect that in good birds the head and tail touch; the oil-gland is quite aborted. Several other less distinct breeds might have been specified. 
> 
> In the skeletons of the several breeds, the development of the bones of the face in length and breadth and curvature differs enormously. The shape, as well as the breadth and length of the ramus of the lower jaw, varies in a highly remarkable manner. The number of the caudal and sacral vertebrae vary; as does the number of the ribs, together with their relative breadth and the presence of processes. The size and shape of the apertures in the sternum are highly variable; so is the degree of divergence and relative size of the two arms of the furcula. The proportional width of the gape of mouth, the proportional length of the eyelids, of the orifice of the nostrils, of the tongue (not always in strict correlation with the length of beak), the size of the crop and of the upper part of the oesophagus; the development and abortion of the oil-gland; the number of the primary wing and caudal feathers; the relative length of wing and tail to each other and to the body; the relative length of leg and of the feet; the number of scutellae on the toes, the development of skin between the toes, are all points of structure which are variable. The period at which the perfect plumage is acquired varies, as does the state of the down with which the nestling birds are clothed when hatched. The shape and size of the eggs vary. The manner of flight differs remarkably; as does in some breeds the voice and disposition. Lastly, in certain breeds, the males and females have come to differ to a slight degree from each other. 
> 
> Altogether at least a score of pigeons might be chosen, which if shown to an ornithologist, and he were told that they were wild birds, would certainly, I think, be ranked by him as well-defined species. Moreover, I do not believe that any ornithologist would place the English carrier, the short-faced tumbler, the runt, the barb, pouter, and fantail in the same genus; more especially as in each of these breeds several truly-inherited sub-breeds, or species as he might have called them, could be shown him. 
> 
> Great as the differences are between the breeds of pigeons, I am fully convinced that the common opinion of naturalists is correct, namely, that all have descended from the rock-pigeon (Columba livia), including under this term several geographical races or sub-species, which differ from each other in the most trifling respects. As several of the reasons which have led me to this belief are in some degree applicable in other cases, I will here briefly give them. If the several breeds are not varieties, and have not proceeded from the rock-pigeon, they must have descended from at least seven or eight aboriginal stocks; for it is impossible to make the present domestic breeds by the crossing of any lesser number: how, for instance, could a pouter be produced by crossing two breeds unless one of the parent-stocks possessed the characteristic enormous crop? The supposed aboriginal stocks must all have been rock-pigeons, that is, not breeding or willingly perching on trees. But besides C. livia, with its geographical sub-species, only two or three other species of rock-pigeons are known; and these have not any of the characters of the domestic breeds. Hence the supposed aboriginal stocks must either still exist in the countries where they were originally domesticated, and yet be unknown to ornithologists; and this, considering their size, habits, and remarkable characters, seems very improbable; or they must have become extinct in the wild state. But birds breeding on precipices, and good fliers, are unlikely to be exterminated; and the common rock-pigeon, which has the same habits with the domestic breeds, has not been exterminated even on several of the smaller British islets, or on the shores of the Mediterranean. Hence the supposed extermination of so many species having similar habits with the rock-pigeon seems to me a very rash assumption. Moreover, the several above-named domesticated breeds have been transported to all parts of the world, and, therefore, some of them must have been carried back again into their native country; but not one has ever become wild or feral, though the dovecot-pigeon, which is the rock-pigeon in a very slightly altered state, has become feral in several places. Again, all recent experience shows that it is most difficult to get any wild animal to breed freely under domestication; yet on the hypothesis of the multiple origin of our pigeons, it must be assumed that at least seven or eight species were so thoroughly domesticated in ancient times by half-civilized man, as to be quite prolific under confinement. 
> 
> An argument, as it seems to me, of great weight, and applicable in several other cases, is, that the above-specified breeds, though agreeing generally in constitution, habits, voice, colouring, and in most parts of their structure, with the wild rock-pigeon, yet are certainly highly abnormal in other parts of their structure: we may look in vain throughout the whole great family of Columbidae for a beak like that of the English carrier, or that of the short-faced tumbler, or barb; for reversed feathers like those of the jacobin; for a crop like that of the pouter; for tail-feathers like those of the fantail. Hence it must be assumed not only that half-civilized man succeeded in thoroughly domesticating several species, but that he intentionally or by chance picked out extraordinarily abnormal species; and further, that these very species have since all become extinct or unknown. So many strange contingencies seem to me improbable in the highest degree. 
> 
> Some facts in regard to the colouring of pigeons well deserve consideration. The rock-pigeon is of a slaty-blue, and has a white rump (the Indian sub-species, C. intermedia of Strickland, having it bluish); the tail has a terminal dark bar, with the bases of the outer feathers externally edged with white; the wings have two black bars: some semi-domestic breeds and some apparently truly wild breeds have, besides the two black bars, the wings chequered with black. These several marks do not occur together in any other species of the whole family. Now, in every one of the domestic breeds, taking thoroughly well-bred birds, all the above marks, even to the white edging of the outer tail-feathers, sometimes concur perfectly developed. Moreover, when two birds belonging to two distinct breeds are crossed, neither of which is blue or has any of the above-specified marks, the mongrel offspring are very apt suddenly to acquire these characters; for instance, I crossed some uniformly white fantails with some uniformly black barbs, and they produced mottled brown and black birds; these I again crossed together, and one grandchild of the pure white fantail and pure black barb was of as beautiful a blue colour, with the white rump, double black wing-bar, and barred and white-edged tail-feathers, as any wild rock-pigeon! We can understand these facts, on the well-known principle of reversion to ancestral characters, if all the domestic breeds have descended from the rock-pigeon. But if we deny this, we must make one of the two following highly improbable suppositions. Either, firstly, that all the several imagined aboriginal stocks were coloured and marked like the rock-pigeon, although no other existing species is thus coloured and marked, so that in each separate breed there might be a tendency to revert to the very same colours and markings. Or, secondly, that each breed, even the purest, has within a dozen or, at most, within a score of generations, been crossed by the rock-pigeon: I say within a dozen or twenty generations, for we know of no fact countenancing the belief that the child ever reverts to some one ancestor, removed by a greater number of generations. In a breed which has been crossed only once with some distinct breed, the tendency to reversion to any character derived from such cross will naturally become less and less, as in each succeeding generation there will be less of the foreign blood; but when there has been no cross with a distinct breed, and there is a tendency in both parents to revert to a character, which has been lost during some former generation, this tendency, for all that we can see to the contrary, may be transmitted undiminished for an indefinite number of generations. These two distinct cases are often confounded in treatises on inheritance. 
> 
> Lastly, the hybrids or mongrels from between all the domestic breeds of pigeons are perfectly fertile. I can state this from my own observations, purposely made on the most distinct breeds. Now, it is difficult, perhaps impossible, to bring forward one case of the hybrid offspring of two animals clearly distinct being themselves perfectly fertile. Some authors believe that long-continued domestication eliminates this strong tendency to sterility: from the history of the dog I think there is some probability in this hypothesis, if applied to species closely related together, though it is unsupported by a single experiment. But to extend the hypothesis so far as to suppose that species, aboriginally as distinct as carriers, tumblers, pouters, and fantails now are, should yield offspring perfectly fertile, inter se, seems to me rash in the extreme. 
> 
> From these several reasons, namely, the improbability of man having formerly got seven or eight supposed species of pigeons to breed freely under domestication; these supposed species being quite unknown in a wild state, and their becoming nowhere feral; these species having very abnormal characters in certain respects, as compared with all other Columbidae, though so like in most other respects to the rock-pigeon; the blue colour and various marks occasionally appearing in all the breeds, both when kept pure and when crossed; the mongrel offspring being perfectly fertile; from these several reasons, taken together, I can feel no doubt that all our domestic breeds have descended from the Columba livia with its geographical sub-species. 
> 
> In favour of this view, I may add, firstly, that C. livia, or the rock-pigeon, has been found capable of domestication in Europe and in India; and that it agrees in habits and in a great number of points of structure with all the domestic breeds. Secondly, although an English carrier or short-faced tumbler differs immensely in certain characters from the rock-pigeon, yet by comparing the several sub-breeds of these breeds, more especially those brought from distant countries, we can make an almost perfect series between the extremes of structure. Thirdly, those characters which are mainly distinctive of each breed, for instance the wattle and length of beak of the carrier, the shortness of that of the tumbler, and the number of tail-feathers in the fantail, are in each breed eminently variable; and the explanation of this fact will be obvious when we come to treat of selection. Fourthly, pigeons have been watched, and tended with the utmost care, and loved by many people. They have been domesticated for thousands of years in several quarters of the world; the earliest known record of pigeons is in the fifth Aegyptian dynasty, about 3000 B.C., as was pointed out to me by Professor Lepsius; but Mr Birch informs me that pigeons are given in a bill of fare in the previous dynasty. In the time of the Romans, as we hear from Pliny, immense prices were given for pigeons; 'nay, they are come to this pass, that they can reckon up their pedigree and race.' Pigeons were much valued by Akber Khan in India, about the year 1600; never less than 20,000 pigeons were taken with the court. 'The monarchs of Iran and Turan sent him some very rare birds;' and, continues the courtly historian, 'His Majesty by crossing the breeds, which method was never practised before, has improved them astonishingly.' About this same period the Dutch were as eager about pigeons as were the old Romans. The paramount importance of these considerations in explaining the immense amount of variation which pigeons have undergone, will be obvious when we treat of Selection. We shall then, also, see how it is that the breeds so often have a somewhat monstrous character. It is also a most favourable circumstance for the production of distinct breeds, that male and female pigeons can be easily mated for life; and thus different breeds can be kept together in the same aviary. 
> 
> I have discussed the probable origin of domestic pigeons at some, yet quite insufficient, length; because when I first kept pigeons and watched the several kinds, knowing well how true they bred, I felt fully as much difficulty in believing that they could ever have descended from a common parent, as any naturalist could in coming to a similar conclusion in regard to the many species of finches, or other large groups of birds, in nature. One circumstance has struck me much; namely, that all the breeders of the various domestic animals and the cultivators of plants, with whom I have ever conversed, or whose treatises I have read, are firmly convinced that the several breeds to which each has attended, are descended from so many aboriginally distinct species. Ask, as I have asked, a celebrated raiser of Hereford cattle, whether his cattle might not have descended from long horns, and he will laugh you to scorn. I have never met a pigeon, or poultry, or duck, or rabbit fancier, who was not fully convinced that each main breed was descended from a distinct species. Van Mons, in his treatise on pears and apples, shows how utterly he disbelieves that the several sorts, for instance a Ribston-pippin or Codlin-apple, could ever have proceeded from the seeds of the same tree. Innumerable other examples could be given. The explanation, I think, is simple: from long-continued study they are strongly impressed with the differences between the several races; and though they well know that each race varies slightly, for they win their prizes by selecting such slight differences, yet they ignore all general arguments, and refuse to sum up in their minds slight differences accumulated during many successive generations. May not those naturalists who, knowing far less of the laws of inheritance than does the breeder, and knowing no more than he does of the intermediate links in the long lines of descent, yet admit that many of our domestic races have descended from the same parents may they not learn a lesson of caution, when they deride the idea of species in a state of nature being lineal descendants of other species? 
> 
> Selection
> 
> Let us now briefly consider the steps by which domestic races have been produced, either from one or from several allied species. Some little effect may, perhaps, be attributed to the direct action of the external conditions of life, and some little to habit; but he would be a bold man who would account by such agencies for the differences of a dray and race horse, a greyhound and bloodhound, a carrier and tumbler pigeon. One of the most remarkable features in our domesticated races is that we see in them adaptation, not indeed to the animal's or plant's own good, but to man's use or fancy. Some variations useful to him have probably arisen suddenly, or by one step; many botanists, for instance, believe that the fuller's teazle, with its hooks, which cannot be rivalled by any mechanical contrivance, is only a variety of the wild Dipsacus; and this amount of change may have suddenly arisen in a seedling. So it has probably been with the turnspit dog; and this is known to have been the case with the ancon sheep. But when we compare the dray-horse and race-horse, the dromedary and camel, the various breeds of sheep fitted either for cultivated land or mountain pasture, with the wool of one breed good for one purpose, and that of another breed for another purpose; when we compare the many breeds of dogs, each good for man in very different ways; when we compare the gamecock, so pertinacious in battle, with other breeds so little quarrelsome, with 'everlasting layers' which never desire to sit, and with the bantam so small and elegant; when we compare the host of agricultural, culinary, orchard, and flower-garden races of plants, most useful to man at different seasons and for different purposes, or so beautiful in his eyes, we must, I think, look further than to mere variability. We cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfect and as useful as we now see them; indeed, in several cases, we know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power of accumulative selection: nature gives successive variations; man adds them up in certain directions useful to him. In this sense he may be said to make for himself useful breeds. 
> 
> The great power of this principle of selection is not hypothetical. It is certain that several of our eminent breeders have, even within a single lifetime, modified to a large extent some breeds of cattle and sheep. In order fully to realise what they have done, it is almost necessary to read several of the many treatises devoted to this subject, and to inspect the animals. Breeders habitually speak of an animal's organisation as something quite plastic, which they can model almost as they please. If I had space I could quote numerous passages to this effect from highly competent authorities. Youatt, who was probably better acquainted with the works of agriculturalists than almost any other individual, and who was himself a very good judge of an animal, speaks of the principle of selection as 'that which enables the agriculturist, not only to modify the character of his flock, but to change it altogether. It is the magician's wand, by means of which he may summon into life whatever form and mould he pleases.' Lord Somerville, speaking of what breeders have done for sheep, says: 'It would seem as if they had chalked out upon a wall a form perfect in itself, and then had given it existence.' That most skilful breeder, Sir John Sebright, used to say, with respect to pigeons, that 'he would produce any given feather in three years, but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak.' In Saxony the importance of the principle of selection in regard to merino sheep is so fully recognised, that men follow it as a trade: the sheep are placed on a table and are studied, like a picture by a connoisseur; this is done three times at intervals of months, and the sheep are each time marked and classed, so that the very best may ultimately be selected for breeding. 
> 
> What English breeders have actually effected is proved by the enormous prices given for animals with a good pedigree; and these have now been exported to almost every quarter of the world. The improvement is by no means generally due to crossing different breeds; all the best breeders are strongly opposed to this practice, except sometimes amongst closely allied sub-breeds. And when a cross has been made, the closest selection is far more indispensable even than in ordinary cases. If selection consisted merely in separating some very distinct variety, and breeding from it, the principle would be so obvious as hardly to be worth notice; but its importance consists in the great effect produced by the accumulation in one direction, during successive generations, of differences absolutely inappreciable by an uneducated eye differences which I for one have vainly attempted to appreciate. Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgement sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies his subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed, and may make great improvements; if he wants any of these qualities, he will assuredly fail. Few would readily believe in the natural capacity and years of practice requisite to become even a skilful pigeon-fancier. 
> 
> The same principles are followed by horticulturists; but the variations are here often more abrupt. No one supposes that our choicest productions have been produced by a single variation from the aboriginal stock. We have proofs that this is not so in some cases, in which exact records have been kept; thus, to give a very trifling instance, the steadily-increasing size of the common gooseberry may be quoted. We see an astonishing improvement in many florists' flowers, when the flowers of the present day are compared with drawings made only twenty or thirty years ago. When a race of plants is once pretty well established, the seed-raisers do not pick out the best plants, but merely go over their seed-beds, and pull up the 'rogues,' as they call the plants that deviate from the proper standard. With animals this kind of selection is, in fact, also followed; for hardly any one is so careless as to allow his worst animals to breed. 
> 
> In regard to plants, there is another means of observing the accumulated effects of selection namely, by comparing the diversity of flowers in the different varieties of the same species in the flower-garden; the diversity of leaves, pods, or tubers, or whatever part is valued, in the kitchen-garden, in comparison with the flowers of the same varieties; and the diversity of fruit of the same species in the orchard, in comparison with the leaves and flowers of the same set of varieties. See how different the leaves of the cabbage are, and how extremely alike the flowers; how unlike the flowers of the heartsease are, and how alike the leaves; how much the fruit of the different kinds of gooseberries differ in size, colour, shape, and hairiness, and yet the flowers present very slight differences. It is not that the varieties which differ largely in some one point do not differ at all in other points; this is hardly ever, perhaps never, the case. The laws of correlation of growth, the importance of which should never be overlooked, will ensure some differences; but, as a general rule, I cannot doubt that the continued selection of slight variations, either in the leaves, the flowers, or the fruit, will produce races differing from each other chiefly in these characters. 
> 
> It may be objected that the principle of selection has been reduced to methodical practice for scarcely more than three-quarters of a century; it has certainly been more attended to of late years, and many treatises have been published on the subject; and the result, I may add, has been, in a corresponding degree, rapid and important. But it is very far from true that the principle is a modern discovery. I could give several references to the full acknowledgement of the importance of the principle in works of high antiquity. In rude and barbarous periods of English history choice animals were often imported, and laws were passed to prevent their exportation: the destruction of horses under a certain size was ordered, and this may be compared to the 'roguing' of plants by nurserymen. The principle of selection I find distinctly given in an ancient Chinese encyclopaedia. Explicit rules are laid down by some of the Roman classical writers. From passages in Genesis, it is clear that the colour of domestic animals was at that early period attended to. Savages now sometimes cross their dogs with wild canine animals, to improve the breed, and they formerly did so, as is attested by passages in Pliny. The savages in South Africa match their draught cattle by colour, as do some of the Esquimaux their teams of dogs. Livingstone shows how much good domestic breeds are valued by the negroes of the interior of Africa who have not associated with Europeans. Some of these facts do not show actual selection, but they show that the breeding of domestic animals was carefully attended to in ancient times, and is now attended to by the lowest savages. It would, indeed, have been a strange fact, had attention not been paid to breeding, for the inheritance of good and bad qualities is so obvious. 
> 
> At the present time, eminent breeders try by methodical selection, with a distinct object in view, to make a new strain or sub-breed, superior to anything existing in the country. But, for our purpose, a kind of Selection, which may be called Unconscious, and which results from every one trying to possess and breed from the best individual animals, is more important. Thus, a man who intends keeping pointers naturally tries to get as good dogs as he can, and afterwards breeds from his own best dogs, but he has no wish or expectation of permanently altering the breed. Nevertheless I cannot doubt that this process, continued during centuries, would improve and modify any breed, in the same way as Bakewell, Collins, &c., by this very same process, only carried on more methodically, did greatly modify, even during their own lifetimes, the forms and qualities of their cattle. Slow and insensible changes of this kind could never be recognised unless actual measurements or careful drawings of the breeds in question had been made long ago, which might serve for comparison. In some cases, however, unchanged or but little changed individuals of the same breed may be found in less civilised districts, where the breed has been less improved. There is reason to believe that King Charles's spaniel has been unconsciously modified to a large extent since the time of that monarch. Some highly competent authorities are convinced that the setter is directly derived from the spaniel, and has probably been slowly altered from it. It is known that the English pointer has been greatly changed within the last century, and in this case the change has, it is believed, been chiefly effected by crosses with the fox-hound; but what concerns us is, that the change has been effected unconsciously and gradually, and yet so effectually, that, though the old Spanish pointer certainly came from Spain, Mr Barrow has not seen, as I am informed by him, any native dog in Spain like our pointer. 
> 
> By a similar process of selection, and by careful training, the whole body of English racehorses have come to surpass in fleetness and size the parent Arab stock, so that the latter, by the regulations for the Goodwood Races, are favoured in the weights they carry. Lord Spencer and others have shown how the cattle of England have increased in weight and in early maturity, compared with the stock formerly kept in this country. By comparing the accounts given in old pigeon treatises of carriers and tumblers with these breeds as now existing in Britain, India, and Persia, we can, I think, clearly trace the stages through which they have insensibly passed, and come to differ so greatly from the rock-pigeon. 
> 
> Youatt gives an excellent illustration of the effects of a course of selection, which may be considered as unconsciously followed, in so far that the breeders could never have expected or even have wished to have produced the result which ensued namely, the production of two distinct strains. The two flocks of Leicester sheep kept by Mr Buckley and Mr Burgess, as Mr Youatt remarks, 'have been purely bred from the original stock of Mr Bakewell for upwards of fifty years. There is not a suspicion existing in the mind of any one at all acquainted with the subject that the owner of either of them has deviated in any one instance from the pure blood of Mr Bakewell's flock, and yet the difference between the sheep possessed by these two gentlemen is so great that they have the appearance of being quite different varieties.' 
> 
> If there exist savages so barbarous as never to think of the inherited character of the offspring of their domestic animals, yet any one animal particularly useful to them, for any special purpose, would be carefully preserved during famines and other accidents, to which savages are so liable, and such choice animals would thus generally leave more offspring than the inferior ones; so that in this case there would be a kind of unconscious selection going on. We see the value set on animals even by the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, by their killing and devouring their old women, in times of dearth, as of less value than their dogs. 
> 
> In plants the same gradual process of improvement, through the occasional preservation of the best individuals, whether or not sufficiently distinct to be ranked at their first appearance as distinct varieties, and whether or not two or more species or races have become blended together by crossing, may plainly be recognised in the increased size and beauty which we now see in the varieties of the heartsease, rose, pelargonium, dahlia, and other plants, when compared with the older varieties or with their parent-stocks. No one would ever expect to get a first-rate heartsease or dahlia from the seed of a wild plant. No one would expect to raise a first-rate melting pear from the seed of a wild pear, though he might succeed from a poor seedling growing wild, if it had come from a garden-stock. The pear, though cultivated in classical times, appears, from Pliny's description, to have been a fruit of very inferior quality. I have seen great surprise expressed in horticultural works at the wonderful skill of gardeners, in having produced such splendid results from such poor materials; but the art, I cannot doubt, has been simple, and, as far as the final result is concerned, has been followed almost unconsciously. It has consisted in always cultivating the best known variety, sowing its seeds, and, when a slightly better variety has chanced to appear, selecting it, and so onwards. But the gardeners of the classical period, who cultivated the best pear they could procure, never thought what splendid fruit we should eat; though we owe our excellent fruit, in some small degree, to their having naturally chosen and preserved the best varieties they could anywhere find. 
> 
> A large amount of change in our cultivated plants, thus slowly and unconsciously accumulated, explains, as I believe, the well-known fact, that in a vast number of cases we cannot recognise, and therefore do not know, the wild parent-stocks of the plants which have been longest cultivated in our flower and kitchen gardens. If it has taken centuries or thousands of years to improve or modify most of our plants up to their present standard of usefulness to man, we can understand how it is that neither Australia, the Cape of Good Hope, nor any other region inhabited by quite uncivilised man, has afforded us a single plant worth culture. It is not that these countries, so rich in species, do not by a strange chance possess the aboriginal stocks of any useful plants, but that the native plants have not been improved by continued selection up to a standard of perfection comparable with that given to the plants in countries anciently civilised. 
> 
> In regard to the domestic animals kept by uncivilised man, it should not be overlooked that they almost always have to struggle for their own food, at least during certain seasons. And in two countries very differently circumstanced, individuals of the same species, having slightly different constitutions or structure, would often succeed better in the one country than in the other, and thus by a process of 'natural selection,' as will hereafter be more fully explained, two sub-breeds might be formed. This, perhaps, partly explains what has been remarked by some authors, namely, that the varieties kept by savages have more of the character of species than the varieties kept in civilised countries. 
> 
> On the view here given of the all-important part which selection by man has played, it becomes at once obvious, how it is that our domestic races show adaptation in their structure or in their habits to man's wants or fancies. We can, I think, further understand the frequently abnormal character of our domestic races, and likewise their differences being so great in external characters and relatively so slight in internal parts or organs. Man can hardly select, or only with much difficulty, any deviation of structure excepting such as is externally visible; and indeed he rarely cares for what is internal. He can never act by selection, excepting on variations which are first given to him in some slight degree by nature. No man would ever try to make a fantail, till he saw a pigeon with a tail developed in some slight degree in an unusual manner, or a pouter till he saw a pigeon with a crop of somewhat unusual size; and the more abnormal or unusual any character was when it first appeared, the more likely it would be to catch his attention. But to use such an expression as trying to make a fantail, is, I have no doubt, in most cases, utterly incorrect. The man who first selected a pigeon with a slightly larger tail, never dreamed what the descendants of that pigeon would become through long-continued, partly unconscious and partly methodical selection. Perhaps the parent bird of all fantails had only fourteen tail-feathers somewhat expanded, like the present Java fantail, or like individuals of other and distinct breeds, in which as many as seventeen tail-feathers have been counted. Perhaps the first pouter-pigeon did not inflate its crop much more than the turbit now does the upper part of its oesophagus, a habit which is disregarded by all fanciers, as it is not one of the points of the breed. 
> 
> Nor let it be thought that some great deviation of structure would be necessary to catch the fancier's eye: he perceives extremely small differences, and it is in human nature to value any novelty, however slight, in one's own possession. Nor must the value which would formerly be set on any slight differences in the individuals of the same species, be judged of by the value which would now be set on them, after several breeds have once fairly been established. Many slight differences might, and indeed do now, arise amongst pigeons, which are rejected as faults or deviations from the standard of perfection of each breed. The common goose has not given rise to any marked varieties; hence the Thoulouse and the common breed, which differ only in colour, that most fleeting of characters, have lately been exhibited as distinct at our poultry-shows. 
> 
> I think these views further explain what has sometimes been noticed namely that we know nothing about the origin or history of any of our domestic breeds. But, in fact, a breed, like a dialect of a language, can hardly be said to have had a definite origin. A man preserves and breeds from an individual with some slight deviation of structure, or takes more care than usual in matching his best animals and thus improves them, and the improved individuals slowly spread in the immediate neighbourhood. But as yet they will hardly have a distinct name, and from being only slightly valued, their history will be disregarded. When further improved by the same slow and gradual process, they will spread more widely, and will get recognised as something distinct and valuable, and will then probably first receive a provincial name. In semi-civilised countries, with little free communication, the spreading and knowledge of any new sub-breed will be a slow process. As soon as the points of value of the new sub-breed are once fully acknowledged, the principle, as I have called it, of unconscious selection will always tend, perhaps more at one period than at another, as the breed rises or falls in fashion, perhaps more in one district than in another, according to the state of civilisation of the inhabitants slowly to add to the characteristic features of the breed, whatever they may be. But the chance will be infinitely small of any record having been preserved of such slow, varying, and insensible changes. 
> 
> I must now say a few words on the circumstances, favourable, or the reverse, to man's power of selection. A high degree of variability is obviously favourable, as freely giving the materials for selection to work on; not that mere individual differences are not amply sufficient, with extreme care, to allow of the accumulation of a large amount of modification in almost any desired direction. But as variations manifestly useful or pleasing to man appear only occasionally, the chance of their appearance will be much increased by a large number of individuals being kept; and hence this comes to be of the highest importance to success. On this principle Marshall has remarked, with respect to the sheep of parts of Yorkshire, that 'as they generally belong to poor people, and are mostly in small lots, they never can be improved.' On the other hand, nurserymen, from raising large stocks of the same plants, are generally far more successful than amateurs in getting new and valuable varieties. The keeping of a large number of individuals of a species in any country requires that the species should be placed under favourable conditions of life, so as to breed freely in that country. When the individuals of any species are scanty, all the individuals, whatever their quality may be, will generally be allowed to breed, and this will effectually prevent selection. But probably the most important point of all, is, that the animal or plant should be so highly useful to man, or so much valued by him, that the closest attention should be paid to even the slightest deviation in the qualities or structure of each individual. Unless such attention be paid nothing can be effected. I have seen it gravely remarked, that it was most fortunate that the strawberry began to vary just when gardeners began to attend closely to this plant. No doubt the strawberry had always varied since it was cultivated, but the slight varieties had been neglected. As soon, however, as gardeners picked out individual plants with slightly larger, earlier, or better fruit, and raised seedlings from them, and again picked out the best seedlings and bred from them, then, there appeared (aided by some crossing with distinct species) those many admirable varieties of the strawberry which have been raised during the last thirty or forty years. 
> 
> In the case of animals with separate sexes, facility in preventing crosses is an important element of success in the formation of new races, at least, in a country which is already stocked with other races. In this respect enclosure of the land plays a part. Wandering savages or the inhabitants of open plains rarely possess more than one breed of the same species. Pigeons can be mated for life, and this is a great convenience to the fancier, for thus many races may be kept true, though mingled in the same aviary; and this circumstance must have largely favoured the improvement and formation of new breeds. Pigeons, I may add, can be propagated in great numbers and at a very quick rate, and inferior birds may be freely rejected, as when killed they serve for food. On the other hand, cats, from their nocturnal rambling habits, cannot be matched, and, although so much valued by women and children, we hardly ever see a distinct breed kept up; such breeds as we do sometimes see are almost always imported from some other country, often from islands. Although I do not doubt that some domestic animals vary less than others, yet the rarity or absence of distinct breeds of the cat, the donkey, peacock, goose, &c., may be attributed in main part to selection not having been brought into play: in cats, from the difficulty in pairing them; in donkeys, from only a few being kept by poor people, and little attention paid to their breeding; in peacocks, from not being very easily reared and a large stock not kept; in geese, from being valuable only for two purposes, food and feathers, and more especially from no pleasure having been felt in the display of distinct breeds. 
> 
> To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant power.
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WikiBiblion|985493096
7a8
> * [[The Origin of Species]], by Darwin
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Introduction_to_Origin|985493381
1,19c1
< WHEN on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species ? that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision. 
< 
< My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr Wallace, who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir Charles Lyell, who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr Hooker, who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
< 
< This Abstract, which I now publish, must necessarily be imperfect. I cannot here give references and authorities for my several statements; and I must trust to the reader reposing some confidence in my accuracy. No doubt errors will have crept in, though I hope I have always been cautious in trusting to good authorities alone. I can here give only the general conclusions at which I have arrived, with a few facts in illustration, but which, I hope, in most cases will suffice. No one can feel more sensible than I do of the necessity of hereafter publishing in detail all the facts, with references, on which my conclusions have been grounded; and I hope in a future work to do this. For I am well aware that scarcely a single point is discussed in this volume on which facts cannot be adduced, often apparently leading to conclusions directly opposite to those at which I have arrived. A fair result can be obtained only by fully stating and balancing the facts and arguments on both sides of each question; and this cannot possibly be here done. 
< 
< I much regret that want of space prevents my having the satisfaction of acknowledging the generous assistance which I have received from very many naturalists, some of them personally unknown to me. I cannot, however, let this opportunity pass without expressing my deep obligations to Dr Hooker, who for the last fifteen years has aided me in every possible way by his large stores of knowledge and his excellent judgement. 
< 
< In considering the Origin of Species, it is quite conceivable that a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geographical distribution, geological succession, and other such facts, might come to the conclusion that each species had not been independently created, but had descended, like varieties, from other species. Nevertheless, such a conclusion, even if well founded, would be unsatisfactory, until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been modified so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co-adaptation which most justly excites our admiration. Naturalists continually refer to external conditions, such as climate, food, &c., as the only possible cause of variation. In one very limited sense, as we shall hereafter see, this may be true; but it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions, the structure, for instance, of the woodpecker, with its feet, tail, beak, and tongue, so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees. In the case of the misseltoe, which draws its nourishment from certain trees, which has seeds that must be transported by certain birds, and which has flowers with separate sexes absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to the other, it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of this parasite, with its relations to several distinct organic beings, by the effects of external conditions, or of habit, or of the volition of the plant itself. 
< 
< The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
< 
< It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariably found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under domestication, afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists. 
< 
< From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
< 
< This fundamental subject of Natural Selection will be treated at some length in the fourth chapter; and we shall then see how Natural Selection almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character. In the next chapter I shall discuss the complex and little known laws of variation and of correlation of growth. In the four succeeding chapters, the most apparent and gravest difficulties on the theory will be given: namely, first, the difficulties of transitions, or understanding how a simple being or a simple organ can be changed and perfected into a highly developed being or elaborately constructed organ; secondly the subject of Instinct, or the mental powers of animals, thirdly, Hybridism, or the infertility of species and the fertility of varieties when intercrossed; and fourthly, the imperfection of the Geological Record. In the next chapter I shall consider the geological succession of organic beings throughout time; in the eleventh and twelfth, their geographical distribution throughout space; in the thirteenth, their classification or mutual affinities, both when mature and in an embryonic condition. In the last chapter I shall give a brief recapitulation of the whole work, and a few concluding remarks.) 
< 
< No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgement of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained ? namely, that each species has been independently created ? is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.
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> #REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species/Introduction]]
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_1|985493384
95c95
< To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant power.
---
> To sum up on the origin of our Domestic Races of animals and plants. I believe that the conditions of life, from their action on the reproductive system, are so far of the highest importance as causing variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency, under all circumstances, with all organic beings, as some authors have thought. The effects of variability are modified by various degrees of inheritance and of reversion. Variability is governed by many unknown laws, more especially by that of correlation of growth. Something may be attributed to the direct action of the conditions of life. Something must be attributed to use and disuse. The final result is thus rendered infinitely complex. In some cases, I do not doubt that the intercrossing of species, aboriginally distinct, has played an important part in the origin of our domestic productions. When in any country several domestic breeds have once been established, their occasional intercrossing, with the aid of selection, has, no doubt, largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds; but the importance of the crossing of varieties has, I believe, been greatly exaggerated, both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed. In plants which are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, &c., the importance of the crossing both of distinct species and of varieties is immense; for the cultivator here quite disregards the extreme variability both of hybrids and mongrels, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little importance to us, for their endurance is only temporary. Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant power.
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Preface_of_Origin|985493436
1,59c1
< AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF OPINION ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES PREVIOUSLY TO THE PUBLICATION OF THE FIRST EDITION OF THIS WORK 
< 
< I WILL here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great majority of naturalists believed that species were immutable productions, and had been separately created. This view has been ably maintained by many authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have believed that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life are the descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms. Passing over allusions to the subject in the classical writers,* the first author who in modern times has treated it in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes * Aristotle, in his 'Physicae Auscultationes' (lib. 2, cap. 8, s. 2), after remarking that rain does not fall in order to make the corn grow, any more than it falls to spoil the farmer's corn when threshed out of doors, applies the same argument to organization: and adds (as translated by Mr Clair Grece, who first pointed out the passage to me), 'So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.  or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details. 
< 
< Lamarck was the first man whose conclusions on the subject excited much attention. This justly-celebrated naturalist first published his views in 1801; he much enlarged them in 1809 in his "Philosophie Zoologique,' and subsequently, in 1815, in the Introduction to his "Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans Vertébres.' In these works he upholds the doctrine that species, including man, are descended from other species. He first did the eminent service of arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic, as well as in the inorganic world, being the result of law, and not of miraculous interposition. Lamarck seems to have been chiefly led to his conclusion on the gradual change of species, by the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, by the almost perfect gradation of forms in certain groups, and by the analogy of domestic productions. With respect to the means of modification, he attributed something to the direct action of the physical conditions of life, something to the crossing of already existing forms, and much to use and disuse, that is, to the effects of habit. To this latter agency he seemed to attribute all the beautiful adaptations in nature; ? such as the long neck of the giraffe for browsing on the branches of trees. But he likewise believed in a law of progressive development; and as all the forms of life thus tend to progress, in order to account for the existence at the present day of simple productions, he maintains that such forms are now spontaneously generated.* 
< 
<  We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth. *I have taken the date of the first publication of Lamarck from Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's ('Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. ii. p. 405, 1859) excellent history of opinion on this subject. In this work a full account is given of Buffon's conclusions on the same subject. It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr Erasmus Darwin, anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinion of Lamarck in his 'Zoonomia' (vol. i. pp. 500-510), published in 1794. According to Isid. Geoffroy there is no doubt that Goethe was an extreme partisan of similar views, as shown in the Introduction to a work written in 1794 and 1795, but not published till long afterwards: he has pointedly remarked ('Goethe als Naturforscher,' von Dr Karl Medinge s. 34) that the future question for naturalists will be how, for instance, cattle got their horns, and not for what they are used. It is rather a singular instance of the manner in which similar views arise at about the same time, that Goethe in Germany, Dr Darwin in England, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (as we shall immediately see) in France; came to the same conclusion on the origin of species, in the years 1794-5. 
< 
< Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, as is stated in his 'Life,' written by his son, suspected, as early as 1795, that what we call species are various degenerations of the same type. It was not until 1828 that he published his conviction that the same forms have not been perpetuated since the origin of all things. Geoffroy seems to have relied chiefly on the conditions of life, or the 'monde ambiant' as the cause of change. He was cautious in drawing conclusions, and did not believe that existing species are now undergoing modification; and, as his son adds, "C'est donc un problème à réserver entièrement à l'avenir, supposé meme que l'avenir doive avoir prise sur lui.' 
< 
< In 1813, Dr W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society 'An Account of a White female, part of whose skin resembled that of a Negro'; but his paper was not published until his famous 'Two Essays upon Dew and Single Vision' appeared in 1818. In this paper he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observes, firstly, that all animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that agriculturists improve their domesticated animals by selection; and then, he adds, but what is done in this latter case 'by art, seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind, fitted for the country which they inhabit. Of the accidental varieties of man, which would occur among the first few and scattered inhabitants of the middle regions of Africa, some one would be better fitted than the others to bear the diseases of the country. This race would consequently multiply, while the others would decrease; not only from their inability to sustain the attacks of disease, but from their incapacity of contending with their more vigorous neighbours. The colour of this vigorous race I take for granted, from what has been already said, would be dark. But the same disposition to form varieties still existing, a darker and a darker race would in the course of time occur: and as the darkest would be the best fitted for the climate, this would at length become the most prevalent; if not the only race, in the particular country in which it had originated.' He then extends these same views to the white inhabitants of colder climates. I am indebted to Mr Rowley, of the United States, for having called my attention, through Mr Brace, to the above passage in Dr Wells' work. 
< 
< The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert, afterwards Dean of Manchester, in the fourth volume of the 'Horticultural Transactions,' 1822, and in his work on the 'Amaryllidaceae' (1837, pp. 19, 339), declares that 'horticultural experiments have established, beyond the possibility of refutation, that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent class of varieties.' He extends the same view to animals. The Dean believes that single species of each genus were created in an originally highly plastic condition, and that these have produced, chiefly by intercrossing, but likewise by variation, all our existing species. 
< 
< In 1826 Professor Grant, in the concluding paragraph in his well-known paper ('Edinburgh philosophical journal,' vol. xiv. p. 283) on the Spongilla, clearly declares his belief that species are descended from other species, and that they become improved in the course of modification. This same view was given in his 55th Lecture, published in the 'Lancet' in 1834. 
< 
< In 1831 Mr Patrick Matthew published his work on 'Naval Timber and Arboriculture,' in which he gives precisely the same view on the origin of species as that (presently to be alluded to) propounded by Mr Wallace and myself in the 'Linnean journal,' and as that enlarged in the present volume. Unfortunately the view was given by Mr Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject, so that it remained unnoticed until Mr Matthew himself drew attention to it in the 'Gardener's Chronicle,' on April 7th, 1860. The differences of Mr Matthew's view from mine are not of much importance; he seems to consider that the world was nearly depopulated at successive periods, and then re-stocked; and he gives as an alternative, that new forms may be generated ' without the presence of any mould or germ of former aggregates.' I am not sure that I understand some passages; but it seems that he attributes much influence to the direct action of the conditions of life. He clearly saw, however, the full force of the principle of natural selection. 
< 
< The celebrated geologist and naturalist, Von Buch, in his excellent 'Description physique des Isles Canaries' (1836, p. 147), clearly expresses his belief that varieties slowly become changed into permanent species, which are no longer capable of intercrossing. 
< 
< Rafinesque, in his 'New Flora of North America,' published in 1836, wrote (p. 6) as follows:- 'All species might have been varieties once, and many varieties are gradually becoming species by assuming constant and peculiar characters'; but farther on (p. 18) he adds, 'except the original types or ancestors of the genus.' 
< 
< In 1843-44 Professor Haldeman ('Boston journal of Nat. Hist. U. States, vol. iv. p. 468) has ably given the arguments for and against the hypothesis of the development and modification of species: he seems to lean towards the side of change. 
< 
< The 'Vestiges of Creation' appeared in 1844. In the tenth and much improved edition (1853) the anonymous author says (p. 155):- 'The proposition determined on after much consideration is, that the several series of animated beings, from the simplest and oldest up to the highest and most recent, are, under the providence of God, the results, first, of an impulse which has been imparted to the forms of life, advancing them, in definite times, by generation, through grades of organisation terminating in the highest dicotyledons- and vertebrata, these grades being few in number, and generally marked by intervals of organic character, which we find to be a practical difficulty in ascertaining affinities; second, of another impulse connected with the vital forces, tending, in the course of generations, to modify organic structures in accordance with external circumstances, as food, the nature of the habitat, and the meteoric agencies, these being the ''adaptations'' of the natural theologian.' The author apparently believes that organisation progresses by sudden leaps, but that the effects produced by the conditions of life are gradual. He argues with much force on general grounds that species are not immutable productions. But I cannot see how the two supposed 'impulses' account in a scientific sense for the numerous and beautiful co-adaptations which we see throughout nature; I cannot see that we thus gain any insight how, for instance, a woodpecker has become adapted to its peculiar habits of Life. The work, from its powerful and brilliant style, though displaying in the earlier editions little accurate knowledge and a great want of scientific caution, immediately had a very wide circulation. In my opinion it has done excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject, in removing prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views. 
< 
< In 1846 the veteran geologist N. J. d'Omalius d'Halloy published in an excellent though short paper ("Bulletins de l'Acad. Roy Bruxelles,' tom. xiii. p. 581) his opinion that it is more probable that new species have been produced by descent with modification than that they have been separately created: the author first promulgated this opinion in 1831. 
< 
< Professor Owen, in 1849 ('Nature of Limbs,' p. 86), wrote as follows:- "The archetypal idea was manifested in the flesh under diverse such modifications, upon this planet, long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it. To what natural laws or secondary causes the orderly succession and progression of such organic phenomena may have been committed, we, as yet, are ignorant.' In his Address to the British Association, in 1858, he speaks (p. li.) of "the axiom of the continuous operation of creative power, or of the ordained becoming of living things.' Farther on (p. xc.), after referring to geographical distribution, he adds, 'These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx of New Zealand and the Red Grouse of England were distinct creations in and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in mind that by the word ''creation'' the zoologist means '"a process he knows not what.'' He amplifies this idea by adding that when such cases as that of the Red Grouse are enumerated by the zoologists as evidence of distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses that he knows not how the Red Grouse came to be there, and there exclusively; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative Cause.' If we interpret these sentences given in the same Address, one by the other, it appears that this eminent philosopher felt in 1858 his confidence shaken that the Apteryx and the Red Grouse first appeared in their respective homes, 'he knew not how,' or by some process 'he knew not what.' 
< 
< This Address was delivered after the papers by Mr Wallace and myself on the Origin of Species, presently to be referred to, had been read before the Linnean Society. When the first edition of this work was published, I was so completely deceived, as were many others, by such expressions as 'the continuous operation of creative power,' that I included Professor Owen with other palaeontologists as being firmly convinced of the immutability of species; but it appears ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 796) that this was on my part a preposterous error. In the last edition of this work I inferred, and the inference still seems to me perfectly just, from a passage beginning with the words 'no doubt the type-form,' &c. (Ibid. vol. i. p. xxxv.), that Professor Owen admitted that natural selection may have done something in the formation of a new species; but this it appears (Ibid. vol. nl. p. 798) is inaccurate and without evidence. I also gave some extracts from a correspondence between Professor Owen and the Editor of the 'London Review,' from which it appeared manifest to the Editor as well as to myself, that Professor Owen claimed to have promulgated the theory of natural selection before I had done so; and I expressed my surprise and satisfaction at this announcement; but as far as it is possible to understand certain recently published passages (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 798) I have either partially or wholly again fallen into error. It is consolatory to me that others find Professor Owen's controversial writings as difficult to understand and to reconcile with each other, as I do. As far as the mere enunciation of the principle of natural selection is concerned, it is quite immaterial whether or not Professor Owen preceded me, for both of us, as shown in this historical sketch, were long ago preceded by Dr Wells and Mr Matthews. 
< 
< M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in his lectures delivered in 1850 (of which a Résumé appeared in the 'Revue et Nag. de Zoolog.,' Jan. 1851), briefly gives his reason for believing that specific characters "sont fixés, pour chaque espèce, tant qu'elle se perpétue au milieu des mèmes circonstances: ils se modifient, si les circonstances ambiantes viennent à changer.' 'En résumé, l'observation des animaux sauvages démontre déjà la variabilité limité des espèces. Les expériences sur les animaux sauvages devenus domestiques, et sur les animaux domestiques redevenus sauvages, la démontrent plus clairement encore. Ces memes expériences prouvent, de plus, que les différences produites peuvent etre de valeur générique.' In his 'Hist. Nat. Généralé (tom. ii. p. 430, 1859) he amplifies analogous conclusions. 
< 
< From a circular lately issued it appears that Dr Freke, in 1851 ("Dublin Medical Press,' p. 322), propounded the doctrine that all organic beings have descended from one primordial form. His grounds of belief and treatment of the subject are wholly different from mine; but as Dr Freke has now (1861) published his Essay on the 'Origin of Species by means of Organic Affinity,' the difficult attempt to give any idea of his views would be superfluous on my part. 
< 
< Mr Herbert Spencer, in an Essay (originally published in the 'Leader,' March, 1852, and republished in his 'Essays,' in 1858), has contrasted the theories of the Creation and the Development of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He argues from the analogy of domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been modified; and he attributes the modification to the change of circumstances. The author (1855) has also treated psychology on the principle of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. 
< 
< In 1852 M. Naudin, a distinguished botanist, expressly stated, in an admirable paper on the Origin of Species ('Revue Horticole, p. 102; since partly republished in the 'Nouvelles Archives  du Muséum,' tom. i. p. 171), his belief that species are formed in an analogous manner as varieties are under cultivation; and the latter process he attributes to man's power of selection. But he does not show how selection acts under nature. He believes, like Dean Herbert, that species, when nascent, were more plastic than at present. He lays weight on what he calls the principle of finality, 'puissance mystérieuse, indéterminée; fatalité pour les uns; pour les autres volonté providentielle, dont l'action incessante sur les ètres vivants détermine, à toutes les époques de l'existence du monde, la forme, le volume, et la durée de chacun d'eux, en raison de sa destinée dans l'ordre de choses dont il fait partie. C'est cette puissance qui harmonise chaque membre à l'ensemble, en l'appropriant à la fonction qu'il doit remplir dans l'organisme général de la nature, fonction qui est pour lui sa raison d'ètre.'* 
< 
< * From references in Bronn's 'Untersuchungen über die Entwickenlungs-Gesetze,' it appears that the celebrated botanist and palaeontologist Unger published, in 1852, his belief that species undergo development and modification. Dalton, likewise, in Pander and Dalton's work on Fossil Sloths, expressed, in 1821 a similar belief. Similar views have, as is well known, been maintained by Oken in his mystical 'Natur-philosophie.' From other references in Godron's work 'Sur l'Espéce,' it seems that Bory St Vincent, Burdach, Poiret, and Fries, have all admitted that new species are continually being produced. 
< 
< In 1853 a celebrated geologist, Count Keyserling ("Bulletin de la Soc. Gèolog.,' 2nd Ser., tom. x. p. 357), suggested that as new diseases, supposed to have been caused by some miasma, have arisen and spread over the world, so at certain periods the germs of existing species may have been chemically affected by circumambient molecules of a particular nature, and thus have given rise to new forms. 
< 
< In this same year, 1853, Dr Schaaffhausen published an excellent pamphlet ('Verhand. des Naturhist. Vereins der preuss. Rheinlands,' &c.), in which he maintains the development of organic forms on the earth. He infers that many species have kept true for long periods, whereas a few have become modified. The distinction of species he explains by the destruction of intermediate graduated forms. 'Thus living plants and animals are not separated from the extinct by new creations, but are to be regarded as their descendants through continued reproduction.' 
< 
<  I may add, that of the thirty-four authors named in this Historical Sketch, who believe in the modification of species, or at least disbelieve in separate acts of creation, twenty-seven have written on special branches of natural history or geology. 
< 
< A well-known French botanist, M. Lecoq, writes in 1854 ('Etudes sur Géograph. Bot.,' tom. i. p. 250), 'On voit que nos recherches sur la fixité ou la variation de l'espèce, nous conduisent directement aux idées émises, par deux hommes justement célèbres, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire et Goethe.' Some other passages scattered through M. Lecoq's large work, make it a little doubtful how far he extends his views on the modification of species. 
< 
< The 'Philosophy of Creation' has been treated in a masterly manner by the Rev. Baden Powell, in his "Essays on the Unity of Worlds,' 1855. Nothing can be more striking than the manner in which he shows that the introduction of new species is "a regular, not a casual phenomenon,' or, as Sir John Herschel expresses it, 'a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous, process.' 
< 
< The third volume of the "Journal of the Linnean Society' contains papers, read July 1st, 1858, by Mr Wallace and myself, in which, as stated in the introductory remarks to this volume, the theory of Natural Selection is promulgated by Mr Wallace with admirable force and clearness. 
< 
< Von Baer, towards whom all zoologists feel so profound a respect, expressed about the year 1859 (see Prof. Rudolph Wagner, a "Zoologisch-Anthropologische Untersuchungen,' 1861, s. 51) his conviction, chiefly grounded on the laws of geographical distribution, that forms now perfectly distinct have descended from a single parent-form. 
< 
< In June, 1859, Professor Huxley gave a lecture before the Royal Institution on the 'Persistent Types of Animal Life.' Referring to such cases, he remarks, "It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of organisation, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of nature. If, on the other hand, we view 'Persistent Types' in relation to that hypothesis which supposes the species living at any time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing species a hypothesis which, though unproven, and sadly damaged by some of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any countenance; their existence would seem to show that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have suffered.' 
< 
< In December, 1859, Dr Hooker published his 'Introduction to the Australian Flora.' In the first part of this great work he admits the truth of the descent and modification of species, and supports this doctrine by many original observations. 
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> I HAVE hitherto sometimes spoken as if the variations so common and multiform in organic beings under domestication, and in a lesser degree in those in a state of nature had been due to chance. This, of course, is a wholly incorrect expression, but it serves to acknowledge plainly our ignorance of the cause of each particular variation. Some authors believe it to be as much the function of the reproductive system to produce individual differences, or very slight deviations of structure, as to make the child like its parents. But the much greater variability, as well as the greater frequency of monstrosities, under domestication or cultivation, than under nature, leads me to believe that deviations of structure are in some way due to the nature of the conditions of life, to which the parents and their more remote ancestors have been exposed during several generations. I have remarked in the first chapter but a long catalogue of facts which cannot be here given would be necessary to show the truth of the remark that the reproductive system is eminently susceptible to changes in the conditions of life; and to this system being functionally disturbed in the parents, I chiefly attribute the varying or plastic condition of the offspring. The male and female sexual elements seem to be affected before that union takes place which is to form a new being. In the case of 'sporting' plants, the bud, which in its earliest condition does not apparently differ essentially from an ovule, is alone affected. But why, because the reproductive system is disturbed, this or that part should vary more or less, we are profoundly ignorant. Nevertheless, we can here and there dimly catch a faint ray of light, and we may feel sure that there must be some cause for each deviation of structure, however slight. 
> 
> How much direct effect difference of climate, food, &c., produces on any being is extremely doubtful. My impression is, that the effect is extremely small in the case of animals, but perhaps rather more in that of plants. We may, at least, safely conclude that such influences cannot have produced the many striking and complex co-adaptations of structure between one organic being and another, which we see everywhere throughout nature. Some little influence may be attributed to climate, food, &c.: thus, E. Forbes speaks confidently that shells at their southern limit, and when living in shallow water, are more brightly coloured than those of the same species further north or from greater depths. Gould believes that birds of the same species are more brightly coloured under a clear atmosphere, than when living on islands or near the coast. So with insects, Wollaston is convinced that residence near the sea affects their colours. Moquin-Tandon gives a list of plants which when growing near the sea-shore have their leaves in some degree fleshy, though not elsewhere fleshy. Several other such cases could be given. 
> 
> The fact of varieties of one species, when they range into the zone of habitation of other species, often acquiring in a very slight degree some of the characters of such species, accords with our view that species of all kinds are only well-marked and permanent varieties. Thus the species of shells which are confined to tropical and shallow seas are generally brighter-coloured than those confined to cold and deeper seas. The birds which are confined to continents are, according to Mr Gould, brighter-coloured than those of islands. The insect-species confined to sea-coasts, as every collector knows, are often brassy or lurid. Plants which live exclusively on the sea-side are very apt to have fleshy leaves. He who believes in the creation of each species, will have to say that this shell, for instance, was created with bright colours for a warm sea; but that this other shell became bright-coloured by variation when it ranged into warmer or shallower waters. 
> 
> When a variation is of the slightest use to a being, we cannot tell how much of it to attribute to the accumulative action of natural selection, and how much to the conditions of life. Thus, it is well known to furriers that animals of the same species have thicker and better fur the more severe the climate is under which they have lived; but who can tell how much of this difference may be due to the warmest-clad individuals having been favoured and preserved during many generations, and how much to the direct action of the severe climate? for it would appear that climate has some direct action on the hair of our domestic quadrupeds. 
> 
> Instances could be given of the same variety being produced under conditions of life as different as can well be conceived; and, on the other hand, of different varieties being produced from the same species under the same conditions. Such facts show how indirectly the conditions of life must act. Again, innumerable instances are known to every naturalist of species keeping true, or not varying at all, although living under the most opposite climates. Such considerations as these incline me to lay very little weight on the direct action of the conditions of life. Indirectly, as already remarked, they seem to play an important part in affecting the reproductive system, and in thus inducing variability; and natural selection will then accumulate all profitable variations, however slight, until they become plainly developed and appreciable by us. 
> 
> Effects of Use and Disuse
> 
> From the facts alluded to in the first chapter, I think there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited. Under free nature, we can have no standard of comparison, by which to judge of the effects of long-continued use or disuse, for we know not the parent-forms; but many animals have structures which can be explained by the effects of disuse. As Professor Owen has remarked, there is no greater anomaly in nature than a bird that cannot fly; yet there are several in this state. The logger-headed duck of South America can only flap along the surface of the water, and has its wings in nearly the same condition as the domestic Aylesbury duck. As the larger ground-feeding birds seldom take flight except to escape danger, I believe that the nearly wingless condition of several birds, which now inhabit or have lately inhabited several oceanic islands, tenanted by no beast of prey, has been caused by disuse. The ostrich indeed inhabits continents and is exposed to danger from which it cannot escape by flight, but by kicking it can defend itself from enemies, as well as any of the smaller quadrupeds. We may imagine that the early progenitor of the ostrich had habits like those of a bustard, and that as natural selection increased in successive generations the size and weight of its body, its legs were used more, and its wings less, until they became incapable of flight. 
> 
> Kirby has remarked (and I have observed the same fact) that the anterior tarsi, or feet, of many male dung-feeding beetles are very often broken off; he examined seventeen specimens in his own collection, and not one had even a relic left. In the Onites apelles the tarsi are so habitually lost, that the insect has been described as not having them. In some other genera they are present, but in a rudimentary condition. In the Ateuchus or sacred beetle of the Egyptians, they are totally deficient. There is not sufficient evidence to induce us to believe that mutilations are ever inherited; and I should prefer explaining the entire absence of the anterior tarsi in Ateuchus, and their rudimentary condition in some other genera, by the long-continued effects of disuse in their progenitors; for as the tarsi are almost always lost in many dung-feeding beetles, they must be lost early in life, and therefore cannot be much used by these insects. 
> 
> In some cases we might easily put down to disuse modifications of structure which are wholly, or mainly, due to natural selection. Mr. Wollaston has discovered the remarkable fact that 200 beetles, out of the 550 species inhabiting Madeira, are so far deficient in wings that they cannot fly; and that of the twenty-nine endemic genera, no less than twenty-three genera have all their species in this condition! Several facts, namely, that beetles in many parts of the world are very frequently blown to sea and perish; that the beetles in Madeira, as observed by Mr Wollaston, lie much concealed, until the wind lulls and the sun shines; that the proportion of wingless beetles is larger on the exposed Dezertas than in Madeira itself; and especially the extraordinary fact, so strongly insisted on by Mr. Wollaston, of the almost entire absence of certain large groups of beetles, elsewhere excessively numerous, and which groups have habits of life almost necessitating frequent flight; these several considerations have made me believe that the wingless condition of so many Madeira beetles is mainly due to the action of natural selection, but combined probably with disuse. For during thousands of successive generations each individual beetle which flew least, either from its wings having been ever so little less perfectly developed or from indolent habit, will have had the best chance of surviving from not being blown out to sea; and, on the other hand, those beetles which most readily took to flight will oftenest have been blown to sea and thus have been destroyed. 
> 
> The insects in Madeira which are not ground-feeders, and which, as the flower-feeding coleoptera and lepidoptera, must habitually use their wings to gain their subsistence, have, as Mr. Wollaston suspects, their wings not at all reduced, but even enlarged. This is quite compatible with the action of natural selection. For when a new insect first arrived on the island, the tendency of natural selection to enlarge or to reduce the wings, would depend on whether a greater number of individuals were saved by successfully battling with the winds, or by giving up the attempt and rarely or never flying. As with mariners ship-wrecked near a coast, it would have been better for the good swimmers if they had been able to swim still further, whereas it would have been better for the bad swimmers if they had not been able to swim at all and had stuck to the wreck. 
> 
> The eyes of moles and of some burrowing rodents are rudimentary in size, and in some cases are quite covered up by skin and fur. This state of the eyes is probably due to gradual reduction from disuse, but aided perhaps by natural selection. In South America, a burrowing rodent, the tuco-tuco, or Ctenomys, is even more subterranean in its habits than the mole; and I was assured by a Spaniard, who had often caught them, that they were frequently blind; one which I kept alive was certainly in this condition, the cause, as appeared on dissection, having been inflammation of the nictitating membrane. As frequent inflammation of the eyes must be injurious to any animal, and as eyes are certainly not indispensable to animals with subterranean habits, a reduction in their size with the adhesion of the eyelids and growth of fur over them, might in such case be an advantage; and if so, natural selection would constantly aid the effects of disuse. 
> 
> It is well known that several animals, belonging to the most different classes, which inhabit the caves of Styria and of Kentucky, are blind. In some of the crabs the foot-stalk for the eye remains, though the eye is gone; the stand for the telescope is there, though the telescope with its glasses has been lost. As it is difficult to imagine that eyes, though useless, could be in any way injurious to animals living in darkness, I attribute their loss wholly to disuse. In one of the blind animals, namely, the cave-rat, the eyes are of immense size; and Professor Silliman thought that it regained, after living some days in the light, some slight power of vision. In the same manner as in Madeira the wings of some of the insects have been enlarged, and the wings of others have been reduced by natural selection aided by use and disuse, so in the case of the cave-rat natural selection seems to have struggled with the loss of light and to have increased the size of the eyes; whereas with all the other inhabitants of the caves, disuse by itself seems to have done its work. 
> 
> It is difficult to imagine conditions of life more similar than deep limestone caverns under a nearly similar climate; so that on the common view of the blind animals having been separately created for the American and European caverns, close similarity in their organisation and affinities might have been expected; but, as Schiödte and others have remarked, this is not the case, and the cave-insects of the two continents are not more closely allied than might have been anticipated from the general resemblance of the other inhabitants of North America and Europe. On my view we must suppose that American animals, having ordinary powers of vision, slowly migrated by successive generations from the outer world into the deeper and deeper recesses of the Kentucky caves, as did European animals into the caves of Europe. We have some evidence of this gradation of habit; for, as Schiödte remarks, 'animals not far remote from ordinary forms, prepare the transition from light to darkness. Next follow those that are constructed for twilight; and, last of all, those destined for total darkness.' By the time that an animal had reached, after numberless generations, the deepest recesses, disuse will on this view have more or less perfectly obliterated its eyes, and natural selection will often have effected other changes, such as an increase in the length of the antennae or palpi, as a compensation for blindness. Notwithstanding such modifications, we might expect still to see in the cave-animals of America, affinities to the other inhabitants of that continent, and in those of Europe, to the inhabitants of the European continent. And this is the case with some of the American cave-animals, as I hear from Professor Dana; and some of the European cave-insects are very closely allied to those of the surrounding country. It would be most difficult to give any rational explanation of the affinities of the blind cave-animals to the other inhabitants of the two continents on the ordinary view of their independent creation. That several of the inhabitants of the caves of the Old and New Worlds should be closely related, we might expect from the well-known relationship of most of their other productions. Far from feeling any surprise that some of the cave-animals should be very anomalous, as Agassiz has remarked in regard to the blind fish, the Amblyopsis, and as is the case with the blind Proteus with reference to the reptiles of Europe, I am only surprised that more wrecks of ancient life have not been preserved, owing to the less severe competition to which the inhabitants of these dark abodes will probably have been exposed. 
> 
> Acclimatisation
> 
>  Habit is hereditary with plants, as in the period of flowering, in the amount of rain requisite for seeds to germinate, in the time of sleep, &c., and this leads me to say a few words on acclimatisation. As it is extremely common for species of the same genus to inhabit very hot and very cold countries, and as I believe that all the species of the same genus have descended from a single parent, if this view be correct, acclimatisation must be readily effected during long-continued descent. It is notorious that each species is adapted to the climate of its own home: species from an arctic or even from a temperate region cannot endure a tropical climate, or conversely. So again, many succulent plants cannot endure a damp climate. But the degree of adaptation of species to the climates under which they live is often overrated. We may infer this from our frequent inability to predict whether or not an imported plant will endure our climate, and from the number of plants and animals brought from warmer countries which here enjoy good health. We have reason to believe that species in a state of nature are limited in their ranges by the competition of other organic beings quite as much as, or more than, by adaptation to particular climates. But whether or not the adaptation be generally very close, we have evidence, in the case of some few plants, of their becoming, to a certain extent, naturally habituated to different temperatures, or becoming acclimatised: thus the pines and rhododendrons, raised from seed collected by Dr Hooker from trees growing at different heights on the Himalaya were found in this country to possess different constitutional powers of resisting cold. Mr Thwaites informs me that he has observed similar facts in Ceylon, and analogous observations have been made by Mr H. C. Watson on European species of plants brought from the Azores to England. In regard to animals, several authentic cases could be given of species within historical times having largely extended their range from warmer to cooler latitudes, and conversely; but we do not positively know that these animals were strictly adapted to their native climate, but in all ordinary cases we assume such to be the case; nor do we know that they have subsequently become acclimatised to their new homes. 
> 
> As I believe that our domestic animals were originally chosen by uncivilised man because they were useful and bred readily under confinement, and not because they were subsequently found capable of far-extended transportation, I think the common and extraordinary capacity in our domestic animals of not only withstanding the most different climates but of being perfectly fertile (a far severer test) under them, may be used as an argument that a large proportion of other animals, now in a state of nature, could easily be brought to bear widely different climates. We must not, however, push the foregoing argument too far, on account of the probable origin of some of our domestic animals from several wild stocks: the blood, for instance, of a tropical and arctic wolf or wild dog may perhaps be mingled in our domestic breeds. The rat and mouse cannot be considered as domestic animals, but they have been transported by man to many parts of the world, and now have a far wider range than any other rodent, living free under the cold climate of Faroe in the north and of the Falklands in the south, and on many islands in the torrid zones. Hence I am inclined to look at adaptation to any special climate as a quality readily grafted on an innate wide flexibility of constitution, which is common to most animals. On this view, the capacity of enduring the most different climates by man himself and by his domestic animals, and such facts as that former species of the elephant and rhinoceros were capable of enduring a glacial climate, whereas the living species are now all tropical or sub-tropical in their habits, ought not to be looked at as anomalies, but merely as examples of a very common flexibility of constitution, brought, under peculiar circumstances, into play. 
> 
> How much of the acclimatisation of species to any peculiar climate is due to mere habit, and how much to the natural selection of varieties having different innate constitutions, and how much to means combined, is a very obscure question. That habit or custom has some influence I must believe, both from analogy, and from the incessant advice given in agricultural works, even in the ancient Encyclopaedias of China, to be very cautious in transposing animals from one district to another; for it is not likely that man should have succeeded in selecting so many breeds and sub-breeds with constitutions specially fitted for their own districts: the result must, I think, be due to habit. On the other hand, I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection will continually tend to preserve those individuals which are born with constitutions best adapted to their native countries. In treatises on many kinds of cultivated plants, certain varieties are said to withstand certain climates better than others: this is very strikingly shown in works on fruit trees published in the United States, in which certain varieties are habitually recommended for the northern, and others for the southern States; and as most of these varieties are of recent origin, they cannot owe their constitutional differences to habit. The case of the Jerusalem artichoke, which is never propagated by seed, and of which consequently new varieties have not been produced, has even been advanced for it is now as tender as ever it was -- as proving that acclimatisation cannot be effected! The case, also, of the kidney-bean has been often cited for a similar purpose, and with much greater weight; but until some one will sow, during a score of generations, his kidney-beans so early that a very large proportion are destroyed by frost, and then collect seed from the few survivors, with care to prevent accidental crosses, and then again get seed from these seedlings, with the same precautions, the experiment cannot be said to have been even tried. Nor let it be supposed that no differences in the constitution of seedling kidney-beans ever appear, for an account has been published how much more hardy some seedlings appeared to be than others. 
> 
> On the whole, I think we may conclude that habit, use, and disuse, have, in some cases, played a considerable part in the modification of the constitution, and of the structure of various organs; but that the effects of use and disuse have often been largely combined with, and sometimes overmastered by, the natural selection of innate differences. 
> 
> Correlation of Growth
> 
>  I mean by this expression that the whole organisation is so tied together during its growth and development, that when slight variations in any one part occur, and are accumulated through natural selection, other parts become modified. This is a very important subject, most imperfectly understood. The most obvious case is, that modifications accumulated solely for the good of the young or larva, will, it may safely be concluded, affect the structure of the adult; in the same manner as any malconformation affecting the early embryo, seriously affects the whole organisation of the adult. The several parts of the body which are homologous, and which, at an early embryonic period, are alike, seem liable to vary in an allied manner: we see this in the right and left sides of the body varying in the same manner; in the front and hind legs, and even in the jaws and limbs, varying together, for the lower jaw is believed to be homologous with the limbs. These tendencies, I do not doubt, may be mastered more or less completely by natural selection: thus a family of stags once existed with an antler only on one side; and if this had been of any great use to the breed it might probably have been rendered permanent by natural selection. 
> 
> Homologous parts, as has been remarked by some authors, tend to cohere; this is often seen in monstrous plants; and nothing is more common than the union of homologous parts in normal structures, as the union of the petals of the corolla into a tube. Hard parts seem to affect the form of adjoining soft parts; it is believed by some authors that the diversity in the shape of the pelvis in birds causes the remarkable diversity in the shape of their kidneys. Others believe that the shape of the pelvis in the human mother influences by pressure the shape of the head of the child. In snakes, according to Schlegel, the shape of the body and the manner of swallowing determine the position of several of the most important viscera. 
> 
> The nature of the bond of correlation is very frequently quite obscure. M. Is. Geoffroy St Hilaire has forcibly remarked, that certain malconformations very frequently, and that others rarely coexist, without our being able to assign any reason. What can be more singular than the relation between blue eyes and deafness in cats, and the tortoise-shell colour with the female sex; the feathered feet and skin between the outer toes in pigeons, and the presence of more or less down on the young birds when first hatched, with the future colour of their plumage; or, again, the relation between the hair and teeth in the naked Turkish dog, though here probably homology comes into play? With respect to this latter case of correlation, I think it can hardly be accidental, that if we pick out the two orders of mammalia which are most abnormal in their dermal coverings, viz. Cetacea (whales) and Edentata (armadilloes, scaly ant-eaters, &c.), that these are likewise the most abnormal in their teeth. 
> 
> I know of no case better adapted to show the importance of the laws of correlation in modifying important structures, independently of utility and, therefore, of natural selection, than that of the difference between the outer and inner flowers in some Compositous and Umbelliferous plants. Every one knows the difference in the ray and central florets of, for instance, the daisy, and this difference is often accompanied with the abortion of parts of the flower. But, in some Compositous plants, the seeds also differ in shape and sculpture; and even the ovary itself, with its accessory parts, differs, as has been described by Cassini. These differences have been attributed by some authors to pressure, and the shape of the seeds in the ray-florets in some Compositae countenances this idea; but, in the case of the corolla of the Umbelliferae, it is by no means, as Dr Hooker informs me, in species with the densest heads that the inner and outer flowers most frequently differ. It might have been thought that the development of the ray-petals by drawing nourishment from certain other parts of the flower had caused their abortion; but in some Compositae there is a difference in the seeds of the outer and inner florets without any difference in the corolla. Possibly, these several differences may be connected with some difference in the flow of nutriment towards the central and external flowers: we know, at least, that in irregular flowers, those nearest to the axis are oftenest subject to peloria, and become regular. I may add, as an instance of this, and of a striking case of correlation, that I have recently observed in some garden pelargoniums, that the central flower of the truss often loses the patches of darker colour in the two upper petals; and that when this occurs, the adherent nectary is quite aborted; when the colour is absent from only one of the two upper petals, the nectary is only much shortened. 
> 
> With respect to the difference in the corolla of the central and exterior flowers of a head or umbel, I do not feel at all sure that C. C. Sprengel's idea that the ray-florets serve to attract insects, whose agency is highly advantageous in the fertilisation of plants of these two orders, is so far-fetched, as it may at first appear: and if it be advantageous, natural selection may have come into play. But in regard to the differences both in the internal and external structure of the seeds, which are not always correlated with any differences in the flowers, it seems impossible that they can be in any way advantageous to the plant: yet in the Umbelliferae these differences are of such apparent importance the seeds being in some cases, according to Tausch, orthospermous in the exterior flowers and coelospermous in the central flowers, that the elder De Candolle founded his main divisions of the order on analogous differences. Hence we see that modifications of structure, viewed by systematists as of high value, may be wholly due to unknown laws of correlated growth, and without being, as far as we can see, of the slightest service to the species. 
> 
> We may often falsely attribute to correlation of growth, structures which are common to whole groups of species, and which in truth are simply due to inheritance; for an ancient progenitor may have acquired through natural selection some one modification in structure, and, after thousands of generations, some other and independent modification; and these two modifications, having been transmitted to a whole group of descendants with diverse habits, would naturally be thought to be correlated in some necessary manner. So, again, I do not doubt that some apparent correlations, occurring throughout whole orders, are entirely due to the manner alone in which natural selection can act. For instance, Alph. De Candolle has remarked that winged seeds are never found in fruits which do not open: I should explain the rule by the fact that seeds could not gradually become winged through natural selection, except in fruits which opened; so that the individual plants producing seeds which were a little better fitted to be wafted further, might get an advantage over those producing seed less fitted for dispersal; and this process could not possibly go on in fruit which did not open. 
> 
> The elder Geoffroy and Goethe propounded, at about the same period, their law of compensation or balancement of growth; or, as Goethe expressed it, 'in order to spend on one side, nature is forced to economise on the other side.' I think this holds true to a certain extent with our domestic productions: if nourishment flows to one part or organ in excess, it rarely flows, at least in excess, to another part; thus it is difficult to get a cow to give much milk and to fatten readily. The same varieties of the cabbage do not yield abundant and nutritious foliage and a copious supply of oil-bearing seeds. When the seeds in our fruits become atrophied, the fruit itself gains largely in size and quality. In our poultry, a large tuft of feathers on the head is generally accompanied by a diminished comb, and a large beard by diminished wattles. With species in a state of nature it can hardly be maintained that the law is of universal application; but many good observers, more especially botanists, believe in its truth. I will not, however, here give any instances, for I see hardly any way of distinguishing between the effects, on the one hand, of a part being largely developed through natural selection and another and adjoining part being reduced by this same process or by disuse, and, on the other hand, the actual withdrawal of nutriment from one part owing to the excess of growth in another and adjoining part. 
> 
> I suspect, also, that some of the cases of compensation which have been advanced, and likewise some other facts, may be merged under a more general principle, namely, that natural selection is continually trying to economise in every part of the organisation. If under changed conditions of life a structure before useful becomes less useful, any diminution, however slight, in its development, will be seized on by natural selection, for it will profit the individual not to have its nutriment wasted in building up an useless structure. I can thus only understand a fact with which I was much struck when examining cirripedes, and of which many other instances could be given: namely, that when a cirripede is parasitic within another and is thus protected, it loses more or less completely its own shell or carapace. This is the case with the male Ibla, and in a truly extraordinary manner with the Proteolepas: for the carapace in all other cirripedes consists of the three highly-important anterior segments of the head enormously developed, and furnished with great nerves and muscles; but in the parasitic and protected Proteolepas, the whole anterior part of the head is reduced to the merest rudiment attached to the bases of the prehensile antennae. Now the saving of a large and complex structure, when rendered superfluous by the parasitic habits of the Proteolepas, though effected by slow steps, would be a decided advantage to each successive individual of the species; for in the struggle for life to which every animal is exposed, each individual Proteolepas would have a better chance of supporting itself, by less nutriment being wasted in developing a structure now become useless. 
> 
> Thus, as I believe, natural selection will always succeed in the long run in reducing and saving every part of the organisation, as soon as it is rendered superfluous, without by any means causing some other part to be largely developed in a corresponding degree. And, conversely, that natural selection may perfectly well succeed in largely developing any organ, without requiring as a necessary compensation the reduction of some adjoining part. 
> 
> It seems to be a rule, as remarked by Is. Geoffroy St Hilaire, both in varieties and in species, that when any part or organ is repeated many times in the structure of the same individual (as the vertebrae in snakes, and the stamens in polyandrous flowers) the number is variable; whereas the number of the same part or organ, when it occurs in lesser numbers, is constant. The same author and some botanists have further remarked that multiple parts are also very liable to variation in structure. Inasmuch as this 'vegetative repetition,' to use Prof. Owen's expression, seems to be a sign of low organisation; the foregoing remark seems connected with the very general opinion of naturalists, that beings low in the scale of nature are more variable than those which are higher. I presume that lowness in this case means that the several parts of the organisation have been but little specialised for particular functions; and as long as the same part has to perform diversified work, we can perhaps see why it should remain variable, that is, why natural selection should have preserved or rejected each little deviation of form less carefully than when the part has to serve for one special purpose alone. In the same way that a knife which has to cut all sorts of things may be of almost any shape; whilst a tool for some particular object had better be of some particular shape. Natural selection, it should never be forgotten, can act on each part of each being, solely through and for its advantage. 
> 
> Rudimentary parts, it has been stated by some authors, and I believe with truth, are apt to be highly variable. We shall have to recur to the general subject of rudimentary and aborted organs; and I will here only add that their variability seems to be owing to their uselessness, and therefore to natural selection having no power to check deviations in their structure. Thus rudimentary parts are left to the free play of the various laws of growth, to the effects of long-continued disuse, and to the tendency to reversion. 
> 
> A part developed in any species in an extraordinary degree or manner, in comparison with the same part in allied species, tends to be highly variable.
> 
>  Several years ago I was much struck with a remark, nearly to the above effect, published by Mr Waterhouse. I infer also from an observation made by Professor Owen, with respect to the length of the arms of the ourang-outang, that he has come to a nearly similar conclusion. It is hopeless to attempt to convince any one of the truth of this proposition without giving the long array of facts which I have collected, and which cannot possibly be here introduced. I can only state my conviction that it is a rule of high generality. I am aware of several causes of error, but I hope that I have made due allowance for them. It should be understood that the rule by no means applies to any part, however unusually developed, unless it be unusually developed in comparison with the same part in closely allied species. Thus, the bat's wing is a most abnormal structure in the class mammalia; but the rule would not here apply, because there is a whole group of bats having wings; it would apply only if some one species of bat had its wings developed in some remarkable manner in comparison with the other species of the same genus. The rule applies very strongly in the case of secondary sexual characters, when displayed in any unusual manner. The term, secondary sexual characters, used by Hunter, applies to characters which are attached to one sex, but are not directly connected with the act of reproduction. The rule applies to males and females; but as females more rarely offer remarkable secondary sexual characters, it applies more rarely to them. The rule being so plainly applicable in the case of secondary sexual characters, may be due to the great variability of these characters, whether or not displayed in any unusual manner of which fact I think there can be little doubt. But that our rule is not confined to secondary sexual characters is clearly shown in the case of hermaphrodite cirripedes; and I may here add, that I particularly attended to Mr. Waterhouse's remark, whilst investigating this Order, and I am fully convinced that the rule almost invariably holds good with cirripedes. I shall, in my future work, give a list of the more remarkable cases; I will here only briefly give one, as it illustrates the rule in its largest application. The opercular valves of sessile cirripedes (rock barnacles) are, in every sense of the word, very important structures, and they differ extremely little even in different genera; but in the several species of one genus, Pyrgoma, these valves present a marvellous amount of diversification: the homologous valves in the different species being sometimes wholly unlike in shape; and the amount of variation in the individuals of several of the species is so great, that it is no exaggeration to state that the varieties differ more from each other in the characters of these important valves than do other species of distinct genera. 
> 
> As birds within the same country vary in a remarkably small degree, I have particularly attended to them, and the rule seems to me certainly to hold good in this class. I cannot make out that it applies to plants, and this would seriously have shaken my belief in its truth, had not the great variability in plants made it particularly difficult to compare their relative degrees of variability. 
> 
> When we see any part or organ developed in a remarkable degree or manner in any species, the fair presumption is that it is of high importance to that species; nevertheless the part in this case is eminently liable to variation. Why should this be so? On the view that each species has been independently created, with all its parts as we now see them, I can see no explanation. But on the view that groups of species have descended from other species, and have been modified through natural selection, I think we can obtain some light. In our domestic animals, if any part, or the whole animal, be neglected and no selection be applied, that part (for instance, the comb in the Dorking fowl) or the whole breed will cease to have a nearly uniform character. The breed will then be said to have degenerated. In rudimentary organs, and in those which have been but little specialized for any particular purpose, and perhaps in polymorphic groups, we see a nearly parallel natural case; for in such cases natural selection either has not or cannot come into full play, and thus the organisation is left in a fluctuating condition. But what here more especially concerns us is, that in our domestic animals those points, which at the present time are undergoing rapid change by continued selection, are also eminently liable to variation. Look at the breeds of the pigeon; see what a prodigious amount of difference there is in the beak of the different tumblers, in the beak and wattle of the different carriers, in the carriage and tail of our fantails, &c., these being the points now mainly attended to by English fanciers. Even in the sub-breeds, as in the short-faced tumbler, it is notoriously difficult to breed them nearly to perfection, and frequently individuals are born which depart widely from the standard. There may be truly said to be a constant struggle going on between, on the one hand, the tendency to reversion to a less modified state, as well as an innate tendency to further variability of all kinds, and, on the other hand, the power of steady selection to keep the breed true. In the long run selection gains the day, and we do not expect to fail so far as to breed a bird as coarse as a common tumbler from a good short-faced strain. But as long as selection is rapidly going on, there may always be expected to be much variability in the structure undergoing modification. It further deserves notice that these variable characters, produced by man's selection, sometimes become attached, from causes quite unknown to us, more to one sex than to the other, generally to the male sex, as with the wattle of carriers and the enlarged crop of pouters. 
> 
> Now let us turn to nature. When a part has been developed in an extraordinary manner in any one species, compared with the other species of the same genus, we may conclude that this part has undergone an extraordinary amount of modification, since the period when the species branched off from the common progenitor of the genus. This period will seldom be remote in any extreme degree, as species very rarely endure for more than one geological period. An extraordinary amount of modification implies an unusually large and long-continued amount of variability, which has continually been accumulated by natural selection for the benefit of the species. But as the variability of the extraordinarily-developed part or organ has been so great and long-continued within a period not excessively remote, we might, as a general rule, expect still to find more variability in such parts than in other parts of the organisation, which have remained for a much longer period nearly constant. And this, I am convinced, is the case. That the struggle between natural selection on the one hand, and the tendency to reversion and variability on the other hand, will in the course of time cease; and that the most abnormally developed organs may be made constant, I can see no reason to doubt. Hence when an organ, however abnormal it may be, has been transmitted in approximately the same condition to many modified descendants, as in the case of the wing of the bat, it must have existed, according to my theory, for an immense period in nearly the same state; and thus it comes to be no more variable than any other structure. It is only in those cases in which the modification has been comparatively recent and extraordinarily great that we ought to find the generative variability, as it may be called, still present in a high degree. For in this case the variability will seldom as yet have been fixed by the continued selection of the individuals varying in the required manner and degree, and by the continued rejection of those tending to revert to a former and less modified condition. 
> 
> The principle included in these remarks may be extended. It is notorious that specific characters are more variable than generic. To explain by a simple example what is meant. If some species in a large genus of plants had blue flowers and some had red, the colour would be only a specific character, and no one would be surprised at one of the blue species varying into red, or conversely; but if all the species had blue flowers, the colour would become a generic character, and its variation would be a more unusual circumstance. I have chosen this example because an explanation is not in this case applicable, which most naturalists would advance, namely, that specific characters are more variable than generic, because they are taken from parts of less physiological importance than those commonly used for classing genera. I believe this explanation is partly, yet only indirectly, true; I shall, however, have to return to this subject in our chapter on Classification. It would be almost superfluous to adduce evidence in support of the above statement, that specific characters are more variable than generic; but I have repeatedly noticed in works on natural history, that when an author has remarked with surprise that some important organ or part, which is generally very constant throughout large groups of species, has differed considerably in closely-allied species, that it has, also, been variable in the individuals of some of the species. And this fact shows that a character, which is generally of generic value, when it sinks in value and becomes only of specific value, often becomes variable, though its physiological importance may remain the same. Something of the same kind applies to monstrosities: at least Is. Geoffroy St. Hilaire seems to entertain no doubt, that the more an organ normally differs in the different species of the same group, the more subject it is to individual anomalies. 
> 
> On the ordinary view of each species having been independently created, why should that part of the structure, which differs from the same part in other independently-created species of the same genus, be more variable than those parts which are closely alike in the several species? I do not see that any explanation can be given. But on the view of species being only strongly marked and fixed varieties, we might surely expect to find them still often continuing to vary in those parts of their structure which have varied within a moderately recent period, and which have thus come to differ. Or to state the case in another manner: the points in which all the species of a genus resemble each other, and in which they differ from the species of some other genus, are called generic characters; and these characters in common I attribute to inheritance from a common progenitor, for it can rarely have happened that natural selection will have modified several species, fitted to more or less widely-different habits, in exactly the same manner: and as these so-called generic characters have been inherited from a remote period, since that period when the species first branched off from their common progenitor, and subsequently have not varied or come to differ in any degree, or only in a slight degree, it is not probable that they should vary at the present day. On the other hand, the points in which species differ from other species of the same genus, are called specific characters; and as these specific characters have varied and come to differ within the period of the branching off of the species from a common progenitor, it is probable that they should still often be in some degree variable, at least more variable than those parts of the organisation which have for a very long period remained constant. 
> 
> In connexion with the present subject, I will make only two other remarks. I think it will be admitted, without my entering on details, that secondary sexual characters are very variable; I think it also will be admitted that species of the same group differ from each other more widely in their secondary sexual characters, than in other parts of their organisation; compare, for instance, the amount of difference between the males of gallinaceous birds, in which secondary sexual characters are strongly displayed, with the amount of difference between their females; and the truth of this proposition will be granted. The cause of the original variability of secondary sexual characters is not manifest; but we can see why these characters should not have been rendered as constant and uniform as other parts of the organisation; for secondary sexual characters have been accumulated by sexual selection, which is less rigid in its action than ordinary selection, as it does not entail death, but only gives fewer offspring to the less favoured males. Whatever the cause may be of the variability of secondary sexual characters, as they are highly variable, sexual selection will have had a wide scope for action, and may thus readily have succeeded in giving to the species of the same group a greater amount of difference in their sexual characters, than in other parts of their structure. 
> 
> It is a remarkable fact, that the secondary sexual differences between the two sexes of the same species are generally displayed in the very same parts of the organisation in which the different species of the same genus differ from each other. Of this fact I will give in illustration two instances, the first which happen to stand on my list; and as the differences in these cases are of a very unusual nature, the relation can hardly be accidental. The same number of joints in the tarsi is a character generally common to very large groups of beetles, but in the Engidae, as Westwood has remarked, the number varies greatly; and the number likewise differs in the two sexes of the same species: again in fossorial hymenoptera, the manner of neuration of the wings is a character of the highest importance, because common to large groups; but in certain genera the neuration differs in the different species, and likewise in the two sexes of the same species. This relation has a clear meaning on my view of the subject: I look at all the species of the same genus as having as certainly descended from the same progenitor, as have the two sexes of any one of the species. Consequently, whatever part of the structure of the common progenitor, or of its early descendants, became variable; variations of this part would it is highly probable, be taken advantage of by natural and sexual selection, in order to fit the several species to their several places in the economy of nature, and likewise to fit the two sexes of the same species to each other, or to fit the males and females to different habits of life, or the males to struggle with other males for the possession of the females. 
> 
> Finally, then, I conclude that the greater variability of specific characters, or those which distinguish species from species, than of generic characters, or those which the species possess in common; that the frequent extreme variability of any part which is developed in a species in an extraordinary manner in comparison with the same part in its congeners; and the not great degree of variability in a part, however extraordinarily it may be developed, if it be common to a whole group of species; that the great variability of secondary sexual characters, and the great amount of difference in these same characters between closely allied species; that secondary sexual and ordinary specific differences are generally displayed in the same parts of the organisation, are all principles closely connected together. All being mainly due to the species of the same group having descended from a common progenitor, from whom they have inherited much in common, to parts which have recently and largely varied being more likely still to go on varying than parts which have long been inherited and have not varied, to natural selection having more or less completely, according to the lapse of time, overmastered the tendency to reversion and to further variability, to sexual selection being less rigid than ordinary selection, and to variations in the same parts having been accumulated by natural and sexual selection, and thus adapted for secondary sexual, and for ordinary specific purposes. 
> 
> Distinct species present analogous variations; and a variety of one species often assumes some of the characters of an allied species, or reverts to some of the characters of an early progenitor.
> 
> These propositions will be most readily understood by looking to our domestic races. The most distinct breeds of pigeons, in countries most widely apart, present sub-varieties with reversed feathers on the head and feathers on the feet, characters not possessed by the aboriginal rock-pigeon; these then are analogous variations in two or more distinct races. The frequent presence of fourteen or even sixteen tail-feathers in the pouter, may be considered as a variation representing the normal structure of another race, the fantail. I presume that no one will doubt that all such analogous variations are due to the several races of the pigeon having inherited from a common parent the same constitution and tendency to variation, when acted on by similar unknown influences. In the vegetable kingdom we have a case of analogous variation, in the enlarged stems, or roots as commonly called, of the Swedish turnip and Ruta baga, plants which several botanists rank as varieties produced by cultivation from a common parent: if this be not so, the case will then be one of analogous variation in two so-called distinct species; and to these a third may be added, namely, the common turnip. According to the ordinary view of each species having been independently created, we should have to attribute this similarity in the enlarged stems of these three plants, not to the vera causa of community of descent, and a consequent tendency to vary in a like manner, but to three separate yet closely related acts of creation. 
> 
> With pigeons, however, we have another case, namely, the occasional appearance in all the breeds, of slaty-blue birds with two black bars on the wings, a white rump, a bar at the end of the tail, with the outer feathers externally edged near their bases with white. As all these marks are characteristic of the parent rock-pigeon, I presume that no one will doubt that this is a case of reversion, and not of a new yet analogous variation appearing in the several breeds. We may I think confidently come to this conclusion, because, as we have seen, these coloured marks are eminently liable to appear in the crossed offspring of two distinct and differently coloured breeds; and in this case there is nothing in the external conditions of life to cause the reappearance of the slaty-blue, with the several marks, beyond the influence of the mere act of crossing on the laws of inheritance. 
> 
> No doubt it is a very surprising fact that characters should reappear after having been lost for many, perhaps for hundreds of generations. But when a breed has been crossed only once by some other breed, the offspring occasionally show a tendency to revert in character to the foreign breed for many generations some say, for a dozen or even a score of generations. After twelve generations, the proportion of blood, to use a common expression, of any one ancestor, is only 1 in 2048; and yet, as we see, it is generally believed that a tendency to reversion is retained by this very small proportion of foreign blood. In a breed which has not been crossed, but in which both parents have lost some character which their progenitor possessed, the tendency, whether strong or weak, to reproduce the lost character might be, as was formerly remarked, for all that we can see to the contrary, transmitted for almost any number of generations. When a character which has been lost in a breed, reappears after a great number of generations, the most probable hypothesis is, not that the offspring suddenly takes after an ancestor some hundred generations distant, but that in each successive generation there has been a tendency to reproduce the character in question, which at last, under unknown favourable conditions, gains an ascendancy. For instance, it is probable that in each generation of the barb-pigeon, which produces most rarely a blue and black-barred bird, there has been a tendency in each generation in the plumage to assume this colour. This view is hypothetical, but could be supported by some facts; and I can see no more abstract improbability in a tendency to produce any character being inherited for an endless number of generations, than in quite useless or rudimentary organs being, as we all know them to be, thus inherited. Indeed, we may sometimes observe a mere tendency to produce a rudiment inherited: for instance, in the common snapdragon (Antirrhinum) a rudiment of a fifth stamen so often appears, that this plant must have an inherited tendency to produce it. 
> 
> As all the species of the same genus are supposed, on my theory, to have descended from a common parent, it might be expected that they would occasionally vary in an analogous manner; so that a variety of one species would resemble in some of its characters another species; this other species being on my view only a well-marked and permanent variety. But characters thus gained would probably be of an unimportant nature, for the presence of all important characters will be governed by natural selection, in accordance with the diverse habits of the species, and will not be left to the mutual action of the conditions of life and of a similar inherited constitution. It might further be expected that the species of the same genus would occasionally exhibit reversions to lost ancestral characters. As, however, we never know the exact character of the common ancestor of a group, we could not distinguish these two cases: if, for instance, we did not know that the rock-pigeon was not feather-footed or turn-crowned, we could not have told, whether these characters in our domestic breeds were reversions or only analogous variations; but we might have inferred that the blueness was a case of reversion, from the number of the markings, which are correlated with the blue tint, and which it does not appear probable would all appear together from simple variation. More especially we might have inferred this, from the blue colour and marks so often appearing when distinct breeds of diverse colours are crossed. Hence, though under nature it must generally be left doubtful, what cases are reversions to an anciently existing character, and what are new but analogous variations, yet we ought, on my theory, sometimes to find the varying offspring of a species assuming characters (either from reversion or from analogous variation) which already occur in some members of the same group. And this undoubtedly is the case in nature. 
> 
> A considerable part of the difficulty in recognising a variable species in our systematic works, is due to its varieties mocking, as it were, come of the other species of the same genus. A considerable catalogue, also, could be given of forms intermediate between two other forms, which themselves must be doubtfully ranked as either varieties or species, that the one in varying has assumed some of the characters of the other, so as to produce the intermediate form. But the best evidence is afforded by parts or organs of an important and uniform nature occasionally varying so as to acquire, in some degree, the character of the same part or organ in an allied species. I have collected a long list of such cases; but here, as before, I lie under a great disadvantage in not being able to give them. I can only repeat that such cases certainly do occur, and seem to me very remarkable. 
> 
> I will, however, give one curious and complex case, not indeed as affecting any important character, but from occurring in several species of the same genus, partly under domestication and partly under nature. It is a case apparently of reversion. The ass not rarely has very distinct transverse bars on its legs, like those of a zebra: it has been asserted that these are plainest in the foal, and from inquiries which I have made, I believe this to be true. It has also been asserted that the stripe on each shoulder is sometimes double. The shoulder-stripe is certainly very variable in length and outline. A white ass, but not an albino, has been described without either spinal or shoulder-stripe; and these stripes are sometimes very obscure, or actually quite lost, in dark-coloured asses. The koulan of Pallas is said to have been seen with a double shoulder-stripe; but traces of it, as stated by Mr Blyth and others, occasionally appear: and I have been informed by Colonel Poole that foals of this species are generally striped on the legs, and faintly on the shoulder. The quagga, though so plainly barred like a zebra over the body, is without bars on the legs; but Dr Gray has figured one specimen with very distinct zebra-like bars on the hocks. 
> 
> With respect to the horse, I have collected cases in England of the spinal stripe in horses of the most distinct breeds, and of all colours; transverse bars on the legs are not rare in duns, mouse-duns, and in one instance in a chestnut: a faint shoulder-stripe may sometimes be seen in duns, and I have seen a trace in a bay horse. My son made a careful examination and sketch for me of a dun Belgian cart-horse with a double stripe on each shoulder and with leg-stripes; and a man, whom I can implicitly trust, has examined for me a small dun Welch pony with three short parallel stripes on each shoulder. 
> 
> In the north-west part of India the Kattywar breed of horses is so generally striped, that, as I hear from Colonel Poole, who examined the breed for the Indian Government, a horse without stripes is not considered as purely-bred. The spine is always striped; the legs are generally barred; and the shoulder-stripe, which is sometimes double and sometimes treble, is common; the side of the face, moreover, is sometimes striped. The stripes are plainest in the foal; and sometimes quite disappear in old horses. Colonel Poole has seen both gray and bay Kattywar horses striped when first foaled. I have, also, reason to suspect, from information given me by Mr. W. W. Edwards, that with the English race-horse the spinal stripe is much commoner in the foal than in the full-grown animal. Without here entering on further details, I may state that I have collected cases of leg and shoulder stripes in horses of very different breeds, in various countries from Britain to Eastern China; and from Norway in the north to the Malay Archipelago in the south. In all parts of the world these stripes occur far oftenest in duns and mouse-duns; by the term dun a large range of colour is included, from one between brown and black to a close approach to cream-colour. 
> 
> I am aware that Colonel Hamilton Smith, who has written on this subject, believes that the several breeds of the horse have descended from several aboriginal species one of which, the dun, was striped; and that the above-described appearances are all due to ancient crosses with the dun stock. But I am not at all satisfied with this theory, and should be loth to apply it to breeds so distinct as the heavy Belgian cart-horse, Welch ponies, cobs, the lanky Kattywar race, &c., inhabiting the most distant parts of the world. 
> 
> Now let us turn to the effects of crossing the several species of the horse-genus. Rollin asserts, that the common mule from the ass and horse is particularly apt to have bars on its legs. I once saw a mule with its legs so much striped that any one at first would have thought that it must have been the product of a zebra; and Mr. W. C. Martin, in his excellent treatise on the horse, has given a figure of a similar mule. In four coloured drawings, which I have seen, of hybrids between the ass and zebra, the legs were much more plainly barred than the rest of the body; and in one of them there was a double shoulder-stripe. In Lord Moreton's famous hybrid from a chestnut mare and male quagga, the hybrid, and even the pure offspring subsequently produced from the mare by a black Arabian sire, were much more plainly barred across the legs than is even the pure quagga. Lastly, and this is another most remarkable case, a hybrid has been figured by Dr Gray (and he informs me that he knows of a second case) from the ass and the hemionus; and this hybrid, though the ass seldom has stripes on its legs and the hemionus has none and has not even a shoulder-stripe, nevertheless had all four legs barred, and had three short shoulder-stripes, like those on the dun Welch pony, and even had some zebra-like stripes on the sides of its face. With respect to this last fact, I was so convinced that not even a stripe of colour appears from what would commonly be called an accident, that I was led solely from the occurrence of the face-stripes on this hybrid from the ass and hemionus, to ask Colonel Poole whether such face-stripes ever occur in the eminently striped Kattywar breed of horses, and was, as we have seen, answered in the affirmative. 
> 
> What now are we to say to these several facts? We see several very distinct species of the horse-genus becoming, by simple variation, striped on the legs like a zebra, or striped on the shoulders like an ass. In the horse we see this tendency strong whenever a dun tint appears a tint which approaches to that of the general colouring of the other species of the genus. The appearance of the stripes is not accompanied by any change of form or by any other new character. We see this tendency to become striped most strongly displayed in hybrids from between several of the most distinct species. Now observe the case of the several breeds of pigeons: they are descended from a pigeon (including two or three sub-species or geographical races) of a bluish colour, with certain bars and other marks; and when any breed assumes by simple variation a bluish tint, these bars and other marks invariably reappear; but without any other change of form or character. When the oldest and truest breeds of various colours are crossed, we see a strong tendency for the blue tint and bars and marks to reappear in the mongrels. I have stated that the most probable hypothesis to account for the reappearance of very ancient characters, is that there is a tendency in the young of each successive generation to produce the long-lost character, and that this tendency, from unknown causes, sometimes prevails. And we have just seen that in several species of the horse-genus the stripes are either plainer or appear more commonly in the young than in the old. Call the breeds of pigeons, some of which have bred true for centuries, species; and how exactly parallel is the case with that of the species of the horse-genus! For myself, I venture confidently to look back thousands on thousands of generations, and I see an animal striped like a zebra, but perhaps otherwise very differently constructed, the common parent of our domestic horse, whether or not it be descended from one or more wild stocks, of the ass, the hemionus, quagga, and zebra. 
> 
> He who believes that each equine species was independently created, will, I presume, assert that each species has been created with a tendency to vary, both under nature and under domestication, in this particular manner, so as often to become striped like other species of the genus; and that each has been created with a strong tendency, when crossed with species inhabiting distant quarters of the world, to produce hybrids resembling in their stripes, not their own parents, but other species of the genus. To admit this view is, as it seems to me, to reject a real for an unreal, or at least for an unknown, cause. It makes the works of God a mere mockery and deception; I would almost as soon believe with the old and ignorant cosmogonists, that fossil shells had never lived, but had been created in stone so as to mock the shells now living on the sea-shore. 
> 
> Summary
> 
> Our ignorance of the laws of variation is profound. Not in one case out of a hundred can we pretend to assign any reason why this or that part differs, more or less, from the same part in the parents. But whenever we have the means of instituting a comparison, the same laws appear to have acted in producing the lesser differences between varieties of the same species, and the greater differences between species of the same genus. The external conditions of life, as climate and food, &c., seem to have induced some slight modifications. Habit in producing constitutional differences, and use in strengthening, and disuse in weakening and diminishing organs, seem to have been more potent in their effects. Homologous parts tend to vary in the same way, and homologous parts tend to cohere. Modifications in hard parts and in external parts sometimes affect softer and internal parts. When one part is largely developed, perhaps it tends to draw nourishment from the adjoining parts; and every part of the structure which can be saved without detriment to the individual, will be saved. Changes of structure at an early age will generally affect parts subsequently developed; and there are very many other correlations of growth, the nature of which we are utterly unable to understand. Multiple parts are variable in number and in structure, perhaps arising from such parts not having been closely specialized to any particular function, so that their modifications have not been closely checked by natural selection. It is probably from this same cause that organic beings low in the scale of nature are more variable than those which have their whole organisation more specialized, and are higher in the scale. Rudimentary organs, from being useless, will be disregarded by natural selection, and hence probably are variable. Specific characters that is, the characters which have come to differ since the several species of the same genus branched off from a common parent are more variable than generic characters, or those which have long been inherited, and have not differed within this same period. In these remarks we have referred to special parts or organs being still variable, because they have recently varied and thus come to differ; but we have also seen in the second Chapter that the same principle applies to the whole individual; for in a district where many species of any genus are found that is, where there has been much former variation and differentiation, or where the manufactory of new specific forms has been actively at work there, on an average, we now find most varieties or incipient species. Secondary sexual characters are highly variable, and such characters differ much in the species of the same group. Variability in the same parts of the organisation has generally been taken advantage of in giving secondary sexual differences to the sexes of the same species, and specific differences to the several species of the same genus. Any part or organ developed to an extraordinary size or in an extraordinary manner, in comparison with the same part or organ in the allied species, must have gone through an extraordinary amount of modification since the genus arose; and thus we can understand why it should often still be variable in a much higher degree than other parts; for variation is a long-continued and slow process, and natural selection will in such cases not as yet have had time to overcome the tendency to further variability and to reversion to a less modified state. But when a species with any extraordinarily-developed organ has become the parent of many modified descendants which on my view must be a very slow process, requiring a long lapse of time in this case, natural selection may readily have succeeded in giving a fixed character to the organ, in however extraordinary a manner it may be developed. Species inheriting nearly the same constitution from a common parent and exposed to similar influences will naturally tend to present analogous variations, and these same species may occasionally revert to some of the characters of their ancient progenitors. Although new and important modifications may not arise from reversion and analogous variation, such modifications will add to the beautiful and harmonious diversity of nature. 
> 
> Whatever the cause may be of each slight difference in the offspring from their parents and a cause for each must exist it is the steady accumulation, through natural selection, of such differences, when beneficial to the individual, that gives rise to all the more important modifications of structure, by which the innumerable beings on the face of this earth are enabled to struggle with each other, and the best adapted to survive.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_6|985494161
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> LONG before having arrived at this part of my work, a crowd of difficulties will have occurred to the reader. Some of them are so grave that to this day I can never reflect on them without being staggered; but, to the best of my judgment, the greater number are only apparent, and those that are real are not, I think, fatal to my theory. 
> 
> These difficulties and objections may be classed under the following heads:-Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined? 
> 
> Secondly, is it possible that an animal having, for instance, the structure and habits of a bat, could have been formed by the modification of some animal with wholly different habits? Can we believe that natural selection could produce, on the one hand, organs of trifling importance, such as the tail of a giraffe, which serves as a fly-flapper, and, on the other hand, organs of such wonderful structure, as the eye, of which we hardly as yet fully understand the inimitable perfection? 
> 
> Thirdly, can instincts be acquired and modified through natural selection? What shall we say to so marvellous an instinct as that which leads the bee to make cells, which have practically anticipated the discoveries of profound mathematicians? 
> 
> Fourthly, how can we account for species, when crossed, being sterile and producing sterile offspring, whereas, when varieties are crossed, their fertility is unimpaired? 
> 
> The two first heads shall be here discussed Instinct and Hybridism in separate chapters. 
> 
> On the absence or rarity of transitional varieties. As natural selection acts solely by the preservation of profitable modifications, each new form will tend in a fully-stocked country to take the place of, and finally to exterminate, its own less improved parent or other less-favoured forms with which it comes into competition. Thus extinction and natural selection will, as we have seen, go hand in hand. Hence, if we look at each species as descended from some other unknown form, both the parent and all the transitional varieties will generally have been exterminated by the very process of formation and perfection of the new form. 
> 
> But, as by this theory innumerable transitional forms must have existed, why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the earth? It will be much more convenient to discuss this question in the chapter on the Imperfection of the geological record; and I will here only state that I believe the answer mainly lies in the record being incomparably less perfect than is generally supposed; the imperfection of the record being chiefly due to organic beings not inhabiting profound depths of the sea, and to their remains being embedded and preserved to a future age only in masses of sediment sufficiently thick and extensive to withstand an enormous amount of future degradation; and such fossiliferous masses can be accumulated only where much sediment is deposited on the shallow bed of the sea, whilst it slowly subsides. These contingencies will concur only rarely, and after enormously long intervals. Whilst the bed of the sea is stationary or is rising, or when very little sediment is being deposited, there will be blanks in our geological history. The crust of the earth is a vast museum; but the natural collections have been made only at intervals of time immensely remote. 
> 
> But it may be urged that when several closely-allied species inhabit the same territory we surely ought to find at the present time many transitional forms. Let us take a simple case: in travelling from north to south over a continent, we generally meet at successive intervals with closely allied or representative species, evidently filling nearly the same place in the natural economy of the land. These representative species often meet and interlock; and as the one becomes rarer and rarer, the other becomes more and more frequent, till the one replaces the other. But if we compare these species where they intermingle, they are generally as absolutely distinct from each other in every detail of structure as are specimens taken from the metropolis inhabited by each. By my theory these allied species have descended from a common parent; and during the process of modification, each has become adapted to the conditions of life of its own region, and has supplanted and exterminated its original parent and all the transitional varieties between its past and present states. Hence we ought not to expect at the present time to meet with numerous transitional varieties in each region, though they must have existed there, and may be embedded there in a fossil condition. But in the intermediate region, having intermediate conditions of life, why do we not now find closely-linking intermediate varieties? This difficulty for a long time quite confounded me. But I think it can be in large part explained. 
> 
> In the first place we should be extremely cautious in inferring, because an area is now continuous, that it has been continuous during a long period. Geology would lead us to believe that almost every continent has been broken up into islands even during the later tertiary periods; and in such islands distinct species might have been separately formed without the possibility of intermediate varieties existing in the intermediate zones. By changes in the form of the land and of climate, marine areas now continuous must often have existed within recent times in a far less continuous and uniform condition than at present. But I will pass over this way of escaping from the difficulty; for I believe that many perfectly defined species have been formed on strictly continuous areas; though I do not doubt that the formerly broken condition of areas now continuous has played an important part in the formation of new species, more especially with freely-crossing and wandering animals. 
> 
> In looking at species as they are now distributed over a wide area, we generally find them tolerably numerous over a large territory, then becoming somewhat abruptly rarer and rarer on the confines, and finally disappearing. Hence the neutral territory between two representative species is generally narrow in comparison with the territory proper to each. We see the same fact in ascending mountains, and sometimes it is quite remarkable how abruptly, as Alph. De Candolle has observed, a common alpine species disappears. The same fact has been noticed by Forbes in sounding the depths of the sea with the dredge. To those who look at climate and the physical conditions of life as the all-important elements of distribution, these facts ought to cause surprise, as climate and height or depth graduate away insensibly. But when we bear in mind that almost every species, even in its metropolis, would increase immensely in numbers, were it not for other competing species; that nearly all either prey on or serve as prey for others; in short, that each organic being is either directly or indirectly related in the most important manner to other organic beings, we must see that the range of the inhabitants of any country by no means exclusively depends on insensibly changing physical conditions, but in large part on the presence of other species, on which it depends, or by which it is destroyed, or with which it comes into competition; and as these species are already defined objects (however they may have become so), not blending one into another by insensible gradations, the range of any one species, depending as it does on the range of others, will tend to be sharply defined. Moreover, each species on the confines of its range, where it exists in lessened numbers, will, during fluctuations in the number of its enemies or of its prey, or in the seasons, be extremely liable to utter extermination; and thus its geographical range will come to be still more sharply defined. 
> 
> If I am right in believing that allied or representative species, when inhabiting a continuous area, are generally so distributed that each has a wide range, with a comparatively narrow neutral territory between them, in which they become rather suddenly rarer and rarer; then, as varieties do not essentially differ from species, the same rule will probably apply to both; and if we in imagination adapt a varying species to a very large area, we shall have to adapt two varieties to two large areas, and a third variety to a narrow intermediate zone. The intermediate variety, consequently, will exist in lesser numbers from inhabiting a narrow and lesser area; and practically, as far as I can make out, this rule holds good with varieties in a state of nature. I have met with striking instances of the rule in the case of varieties intermediate between well-marked varieties in the genus Balanus. And it would appear from information given me by Mr Watson, Dr Asa Gray, and Mr Wollaston, that generally when varieties intermediate between two other forms occur, they are much rarer numerically than the forms which they connect. Now, if we may trust these facts and inferences, and therefore conclude that varieties linking two other varieties together have generally existed in lesser numbers than the forms which they connect, then, I think, we can understand why intermediate varieties should not endure for very long periods; why as a general rule they should be exterminated and disappear, sooner than the forms which they originally linked together. 
> 
> For any form existing in lesser numbers would, as already remarked, run a greater chance of being exterminated than one existing in large numbers; and in this particular case the intermediate form would be eminently liable to the inroads of closely allied forms existing on both sides of it. But a far more important consideration, as I believe, is that, during the process of further modification, by which two varieties are supposed on my theory to be converted and perfected into two distinct species, the two which exist in larger numbers from inhabiting larger areas, will have a great advantage over the intermediate variety, which exists in smaller numbers in a narrow and intermediate zone. For forms existing in larger numbers will always have a better chance, within any given period, of presenting further favourable variations for natural selection to seize on, than will the rarer forms which exist in lesser numbers. Hence, the more common forms, in the race for life, will tend to beat and supplant the less common forms, for these will be more slowly modified and improved. It is the same principle which, as I believe, accounts for the common species in each country, as shown in the second chapter, presenting on an average a greater number of well-marked varieties than do the rarer species. I may illustrate what I mean by supposing three varieties of sheep to be kept, one adapted to an extensive mountainous region; a second to a comparatively narrow, hilly tract; and a third to wide plains at the base; and that the inhabitants are all trying with equal steadiness and skill to improve their stocks by selection; the chances in this case will be strongly in favour of the great holders on the mountains or on the plains improving their breeds more quickly than the small holders on the intermediate narrow, hilly tract; and consequently the improved mountain or plain breed will soon take the place of the less improved hill breed; and thus the two breeds, which originally existed in greater numbers, will come into close contact with each other, without the interposition of the supplanted, intermediate hill-variety. 
> 
> To sum up, I believe that species come to be tolerably well-defined objects, and do not at any one period present an inextricable chaos of varying and intermediate links: firstly, because new varieties are very slowly formed, for variation is a very slow process, and natural selection can do nothing until favourable variations chance to occur, and until a place in the natural polity of the country can be better filled by some modification of some one or more of its inhabitants. And such new places will depend on slow changes of climate, or on the occasional immigration of new inhabitants, and, probably, in a still more important degree, on some of the old inhabitants becoming slowly modified, with the new forms thus produced and the old ones acting and reacting on each other. So that, in any one region and at any one time, we ought only to see a few species presenting slight modifications of structure in some degree permanent; and this assuredly we do see. 
> 
>  Secondly, areas now continuous must often have existed within the recent period in isolated portions, in which many forms, more especially amongst the classes which unite for each birth and wander much, may have separately been rendered sufficiently distinct to rank as representative species. In this case, intermediate varieties between the several representative species and their common parent, must formerly have existed in each broken portion of the land, but these links will have been supplanted and exterminated during the process of natural selection, so that they will no longer exist in a living state. 
> 
> Thirdly, when two or more varieties have been formed in different portions of a strictly continuous area, intermediate varieties will, it is probable, at first have been formed in the intermediate zones, but they will generally have had a short duration. For these intermediate varieties will, from reasons already assigned (namely from what we know of the actual distribution of closely allied or representative species, and likewise of acknowledged varieties), exist in the intermediate zones in lesser numbers than the varieties which they tend to connect. From this cause alone the intermediate varieties will be liable to accidental extermination; and during the process of further modification through natural selection, they will almost certainly be beaten and supplanted by the forms which they connect; for these from existing in greater numbers will, in the aggregate, present more variation, and thus be further improved through natural selection and gain further advantages. 
> 
> Lastly, looking not to any one time, but to all time, if my theory be true, numberless intermediate varieties, linking most closely all the species of the same group together, must assuredly have existed; but the very process of natural selection constantly tends, as has been so often remarked, to exterminate the parent forms and the intermediate links. Consequently evidence of their former existence could be found only amongst fossil remains, which are preserved, as we shall in a future chapter attempt to show, in an extremely imperfect and intermittent record. 
> 
> On the origin and transitions of organic beings with peculiar habits and structure. It has been asked by the opponents of such views as I hold, how, for instance, a land carnivorous animal could have been converted into one with aquatic habits; for how could the animal in its transitional state have subsisted? It would be easy to show that within the same group carnivorous animals exist having every intermediate grade between truly aquatic and strictly terrestrial habits; and as each exists by a struggle for life, it is clear that each is well adapted in its habits to its place in nature. Look at the Mustela vison of North America, which has webbed feet and which resembles an otter in its fur, short legs, and form of tail; during summer this animal dives for and preys on fish, but during the long winter it leaves the frozen waters, and preys like other polecats on mice and land animals. If a different case had been taken, and it had been asked how an insectivorous quadruped could possibly have been converted into a flying bat, the question would have been far more difficult, and I could have given no answer. Yet I think such difficulties have very little weight. 
> 
> Here, as on other occasions, I lie under a heavy disadvantage, for out of the many striking cases which I have collected, I can give only one or two instances of transitional habits and structures in closely allied species of the same genus; and of diversified habits, either constant or occasional, in the same species. And it seems to me that nothing less than a long list of such cases is sufficient to lessen the difficulty in any particular case like that of the bat. 
> 
> Look at the family of squirrels; here we have the finest gradation from animals with their tails only slightly flattened, and from others, as Sir J. Richardson has remarked, with the posterior part of their bodies rather wide and with the skin on their flanks rather full, to the so-called flying squirrels; and flying squirrels have their limbs and even the base of the tail united by a broad expanse of skin, which serves as a parachute and allows them to glide through the air to an astonishing distance from tree to tree. We cannot doubt that each structure is of use to each kind of squirrel in its own country, by enabling it to escape birds or beasts of prey, or to collect food more quickly, or, as there is reason to believe, by lessening the danger from occasional falls. But it does not follow from this fact that the structure of each squirrel is the best that it is possible to conceive under all natural conditions. Let the climate and vegetation change, let other competing rodents or new beasts of prey immigrate, or old ones become modified, and all analogy would lead us to believe that some at least of the squirrels would decrease in numbers or become exterminated, unless they also became modified and improved in structure in a corresponding manner. Therefore, I can see no difficulty, more especially under changing conditions of life, in the continued preservation of individuals with fuller and fuller flank-membranes, each modification being useful, each being propagated, until by the accumulated effects of this process of natural selection, a perfect so-called flying squirrel was produced. 
> 
> Now look at the Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which formerly was falsely ranked amongst bats. It has an extremely wide flank-membrane, stretching from the corners of the jaw to the tail, and including the limbs and the elongated fingers: the flank membrane is, also, furnished with an extensor muscle. Although no graduated links of structure, fitted for gliding through the air, now connect the Galeopithecus with the other Lemuridae, yet I can see no difficulty in supposing that such links formerly existed, and that each had been formed by the same steps as in the case of the less perfectly gliding squirrels; and that each grade of structure had been useful to its possessor. Nor can I see any insuperable difficulty in further believing it possible that the membrane-connected fingers and fore-arm of the Galeopithecus might be greatly lengthened by natural selection; and this, as far as the organs of flight are concerned, would convert it into a bat. In bats which have the wing-membrane extended from the top of the shoulder to the tail, including the hind-legs, we perhaps see traces of an apparatus originally constructed for gliding through the air rather than for flight. 
> 
> If about a dozen genera of birds had become extinct or were unknown, who would have ventured to have surmised that birds might have existed which used their wings solely as flappers, like the logger-headed duck (Micropterus of Eyton); as fins in the water and front legs on the land, like the penguin; as sails, like the ostrich; and functionally for no purpose, like the Apteryx. Yet the structure of each of these birds is good for it, under the conditions of life to which it is exposed, for each has to live by a struggle; but it is not necessarily the best possible under all possible conditions. It must not be inferred from these remarks that any of the grades of wing-structure here alluded to, which perhaps may all have resulted from disuse, indicate the natural steps by which birds have acquired their perfect power of flight; but they serve, at least, to show what diversified means of transition are possible. 
> 
> Seeing that a few members of such water-breathing classes as the Crustacea and Mollusca are adapted to live on the land, and seeing that we have flying birds and mammals, flying insects of the most diversified types, and formerly had flying reptiles, it is conceivable that flying-fish, which now glide far through the air, slightly rising and turning by the aid of their fluttering fins, might have been modified into perfectly winged animals. If early transitional state they had been inhabitants of the open ocean, and had used their incipient organs of flight exclusively, as far as we know, to escape being devoured by other fish? 
> 
> When we see any structure highly perfected for any particular habit, as the wings of a bird for flight, we should bear in mind that animals displaying early transitional grades of the structure will seldom continue to exist to the present day, for they will have been supplanted by the very process of perfection through natural selection. Furthermore, we may conclude that transitional grades between structures fitted for very different habits of life will rarely have been developed at an early period in great numbers and under many subordinate forms. Thus, to return to our imaginary illustration of the flying-fish, it does not seem probable that fishes capable of true flight would have been developed under many subordinate forms, for taking prey of many kinds in many ways, on the land and in the water, until their organs of flight had come to a high stage of perfection, so as to have given them a decided advantage over other animals in the battle for life. Hence the chance of discovering species with transitional grades of structure in a fossil condition will always be less, from their having existed in lesser numbers, than in the case of species with fully developed structures. 
> 
> I will now give two or three instances of diversified and of changed habits in the individuals of the same species. When either case occurs, it would be easy for natural selection to fit the animal, by some modification of its structure, for its changed habits, or exclusively for one of its several different habits. But it is difficult to tell, and immaterial for us, whether habits generally change first and structure afterwards; or whether slight modifications of structure lead to changed habits; both probably often change almost simultaneously. Of cases of changed habits it will suffice merely to allude to that of the many British insects which now feed on exotic plants, or exclusively on artificial substances. Of diversified habits innumerable instances could be given: I have often watched a tyrant flycatcher (Saurophagus sulphuratus) in South America, hovering over one spot and then proceeding to another, like a kestrel, and at other times standing stationary on the margin of water, and then dashing like a kingfisher at a fish. In our own country the larger titmouse (Parus major) may be seen climbing branches, almost like a creeper; it often, like a shrike, kills small birds by blows on the head; and I have many times seen and heard it hammering the seeds of the yew on a branch, and thus breaking them like a nuthatch. In North America the black bear was seen by Hearne swimming for hours with widely open mouth, thus catching, like a whale, insects in the water. Even in so extreme a case as this, if the supply of insects were constant, and if better adapted competitors did not already exist in the country, I can see no difficulty in a race of bears being rendered, by natural selection, more and more aquatic in their structure and habits, with larger and larger mouths, till a creature was produced as monstrous as a whale. 
> 
> As we sometimes see individuals of a species following habits widely different from those both of their own species and of the other species of the same genus, we might expect, on my theory, that such individuals would occasionally have given rise to new species, having anomalous habits, and with their structure either slightly or considerably modified from that of their proper type. And such instances do occur in nature. Can a more striking instance of adaptation be given than that of a woodpecker for climbing trees and for seizing insects in the chinks of the bark? Yet in North America there are woodpeckers which feed largely on fruit, and others with elongated wings which chase insects on the wing; and on the plains of La Plata, where not a tree grows, there is a woodpecker, which in every essential part of its organisation, even in its colouring, in the harsh tone of its voice, and undulatory flight, told me plainly of its close blood-relationship to our common species; yet it is a woodpecker which never climbs a tree! 
> 
> Petrels are the most aërial and oceanic of birds, yet in the quiet Sounds of Tierra del Fuego, the Puffinuria berardi, in its general habits, in its astonishing power of diving, its manner of swimming, and of flying when unwillingly it takes flight, would be mistaken by any one for an auk or grebe; nevertheless, it is essentially a petrel, but with many parts of its organisation profoundly modified. On the other hand, the acutest observer by examining the dead body of the water-ouzel would never have suspected its sub-aquatic habits; yet this anomalous member of the strictly terrestrial thrush family wholly subsists by diving, grasping the stones with its feet and using its wings under water. 
> 
> He who believes that each being has been created as we now see it, must occasionally have felt surprise when he has met with an animal having habits and structure not at all in agreement. What can be plainer than that the webbed feet of ducks and geese are formed for swimming; yet there are upland geese with webbed feet which rarely or never go near the water; and no one except Audubon has seen the frigate-bird, which has all its four toes webbed, alight on the surface of the sea. On the other hand, grebes and coots are eminently aquatic, although their toes are only bordered by membrane. What seems plainer than that the long toes of grallatores are formed for walking over swamps and floating plants, yet the water-hen is nearly as aquatic as the coot; and the landrail nearly as terrestrial as the quail or partridge. In such cases, and many others could be given, habits have changed without a corresponding change of structure. The webbed feet of the upland goose may be said to have become rudimentary in function, though not in structure. In the frigate-bird, the deeply-scooped membrane between the toes shows that structure has begun to change. 
> 
> He who believes in separate and innumerable acts of creation will say, that in these cases it has pleased the Creator to cause a being of one type to take the place of one of another type; but this seems to me only restating the fact in dignified language. He who believes in the struggle for existence and in the principle of natural selection, will acknowledge that every organic being is constantly endeavouring to increase in numbers; and that if any one being vary ever so little, either in habits or structure, and thus gain an advantage over some other inhabitant of the country, it will seize on the place of that inhabitant, however different it may be from its own place. Hence it will cause him no surprise that there should be geese and frigate-birds with webbed feet, either living on the dry land or most rarely alighting on the water; that there should be long-toed corncrakes living in meadows instead of in swamps; that there should be woodpeckers where not a tree grows; that there should be diving thrushes, and petrels with the habits of auks. 
> 
> Organs of extreme perfection and complication. To suppose that the eye, with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest possible degree. Yet reason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real. How a nerve comes to be sensitive to light, hardly concerns us more than how life itself first originated; but I may remark that several facts make me suspect that any sensitive nerve may be rendered sensitive to light, and likewise to those coarser vibrations of the air which produce sound. 
> 
> In looking for the gradations by which an organ in any species has been perfected, we ought to look exclusively to its lineal ancestors; but this is scarcely ever possible, and we are forced in each case to look to species of the same group, that is to the collateral descendants from the same original parent-form, in order to see what gradations are possible, and for the chance of some gradations having been transmitted from the earlier stages of descent, in an unaltered or little altered condition. Amongst existing Vertebrata, we find but a small amount of gradation in the structure of the eye, and from fossil species we can learn nothing on this head. In this great class we should probably have to descend far beneath the lowest known fossiliferous stratum to discover the earlier stages, by which the eye has been perfected. 
> 
> In the Articulata we can commence a series with an optic nerve merely coated with pigment, and without any other mechanism; and from this low stage, numerous gradations of structure, branching off in two fundamentally different lines, can be shown to exist, until we reach a moderately high stage of perfection. In certain crustaceans, for instance, there is a double cornea, the inner one divided into facets, within each of which there is a lens shaped swelling. In other crustaceans the transparent cones which are coated by pigment, and which properly act only by excluding lateral pencils of light, are convex at their upper ends and must act by convergence; and at their lower ends there seems to be an imperfect vitreous substance. With these facts, here far too briefly and imperfectly given, which show that there is much graduated diversity in the eyes of living crustaceans, and bearing in mind how small the number of living animals is in proportion to those which have become extinct, I can see no very great difficulty (not more than in the case of many other structures) in believing that natural selection has converted the simple apparatus of an optic nerve merely coated with pigment and invested by transparent membrane, into an optical instrument as perfect as is possessed by any member of the great Articulate class. 
> 
> He who will go thus far, if he find on finishing this treatise that large bodies of facts, otherwise inexplicable, can be explained by the theory of descent, ought not to hesitate to go further, and to admit that a structure even as perfect as the eye of an eagle might be formed by natural selection, although in this case he does not know any of the transitional grades. His reason ought to conquer his imagination; though I have felt the difficulty far too keenly to be surprised at any degree of hesitation in extending the principle of natural selection to such startling lengths. 
> 
> It is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye to a telescope. We know that this instrument has been perfected by the long-continued efforts of the highest human intellects; and we naturally infer that the eye has been formed by a somewhat analogous process. But may not this inference be presumptuous? Have we any right to assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like those of man? If we must compare the eye to an optical instrument, we ought in imagination to take a thick layer of transparent tissue, with a nerve sensitive to light beneath, and then suppose every part of this layer to be continually changing slowly in density, so as to separate into layers of different densities and thicknesses, placed at different distances from each other, and with the surfaces of each layer slowly changing in form. Further we must suppose that there is a power always intently watching each slight accidental alteration in the transparent layers; and carefully selecting each alteration which, under varied circumstances, may in any way, or in any degree, tend to produce a distincter image. We must suppose each new state of the instrument to be multiplied by the million; and each to be preserved till a better be produced, and then the old ones to be destroyed. In living bodies, variation will cause the slight alterations, generation will multiply them almost infinitely, and natural selection will pick out with unerring skill each improvement. Let this process go on for millions on millions of years; and during each year on millions of individuals of many kinds; and may we not believe that a living optical instrument might thus be formed as superior to one of glass, as the works of the Creator are to those of man? 
> 
> If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case. No doubt many organs exist of which we do not know the transitional grades, more especially if we look to much-isolated species, round which, according to my theory, there has been much extinction. Or again, if we look to an organ common to all the members of a large class, for in this latter case the organ must have been first formed at an extremely remote period, since which all the many members of the class have been developed; and in order to discover the early transitional grades through which the organ has passed, we should have to look to very ancient ancestral forms, long since become extinct. 
> 
> We should be extremely cautious in concluding that an organ could not have been formed by transitional gradations of some kind. Numerous cases could be given amongst the lower animals of the same organ performing at the same time wholly distinct functions; thus the alimentary canal respires, digests, and excretes in the larva of the dragon-fly and in the fish Cobites. In the Hydra, the animal may be turned inside out, and the exterior surface will then digest and the stomach respire. In such cases natural selection might easily specialise, if any advantage were thus gained, a part or organ, which had performed two functions, for one function alone, and thus wholly change its nature by insensible steps. Two distinct organs sometimes perform simultaneously the same function in the same individual; to give one instance, there are fish with gills or branchiae that breathe the air dissolved in the water, at the same time that they breathe free air in their swimbladders, this latter organ having a ductus pneumaticus for its supply, and being divided by highly vascular partitions. In these cases, one of the two organs might with ease be modified and perfected so as to perform all the work by itself, being aided during the process of modification by the other organ; and then this other organ might be modified for some other and quite distinct purpose, or be quite obliterated. 
> 
> The illustration of the swimbladder in fishes is a good one, because it shows us clearly the highly important fact that an organ originally constructed for one purpose, namely flotation, may be converted into one for a wholly different purpose, namely respiration. The swimbladder has, also, been worked in as an accessory to the auditory organs of certain fish, or, for I do not know which view is now generally held, a part of the auditory apparatus has been worked in as a complement to the swimbladder. All physiologists admit that the swimbladder is homologous, or 'ideally similar,' in position and structure with the lungs of the higher vertebrate animals: hence there seems to me to be no great difficulty in believing that natural selection has actually converted a swimbladder into a lung, or organ used exclusively for respiration. 
> 
> I can, indeed, hardly doubt that all vertebrate animals having true lungs have descended by ordinary generation from an ancient prototype, of which we know nothing, furnished with a floating apparatus or swimbladder. We can thus, as I infer from Professor Owen's interesting description of these parts, understand the strange fact that every particle of food and drink which we swallow has to pass over the orifice of the trachea, with some risk of falling into the lungs, notwithstanding the beautiful contrivance by which the glottis is closed. In the higher Vertebrata the branchiae have wholly disappeared the slits on the sides of the neck and the loop-like course of the arteries still marking in the embryo their former position. But it is conceivable that the now utterly lost branchiae might have been gradually worked in by natural selection for some quite distinct purpose: in the same manner as, on the view entertained by some naturalists that the branchiae and dorsal scales of Annelids are homologous with the wings and wing-covers of insects, it is probable that organs which at a very ancient period served for respiration have been actually converted into organs of flight. 
> 
> In considering transitions of organs, it is so important to bear in mind the probability of conversion from one function to another, that I will give one more instance. Pedunculated cirripedes have two minute folds of skin, called by me the ovigerous frena, which serve, through the means of a sticky secretion, to retain the eggs until they are hatched within the sack. These cirripedes have no branchiae, the whole surface of the body and sack, including the small frena, serving for respiration. The Balanidae or sessile cirripedes, on the other hand, have no ovigerous frena, the eggs lying loose at the bottom of the sack, in the well-enclosed shell; but they have large folded branchiae. Now I think no one will dispute that the ovigerous frena in the one family are strictly homologous with the branchiae of the other family; indeed, they graduate into each other. Therefore I do not doubt that little folds of skin, which originally served as ovigerous frena, but which, likewise, very slightly aided the act of respiration, have been gradually converted by natural selection into branchiae, simply through an increase in their size and the obliteration of their adhesive glands. If all pedunculated cirripedes had become extinct, and they have already suffered far more extinction than have sessile cirripedes, who would ever have imagined that the branchiae in this latter family had originally existed as organs for preventing the ova from being washed out of the sack? 
> 
> Although we must be extremely cautious in concluding that any organ could not possibly have been produced by successive transitional gradations, yet, undoubtedly, grave cases of difficulty occur, some of which will be discussed in my future work. 
> 
> One of the gravest is that of neuter insects, which are often very differently constructed from either the males or fertile females; but this case will be treated of in the next chapter. The electric organs of fishes offer another case of special difficulty; it is impossible to conceive by what steps these wondrous organs have been produced; but, as Owen and others have remarked, their intimate structure closely resembles that of common muscle; and as it has lately been shown that Rays have an organ closely analogous to the electric apparatus, and yet do not, as Matteuchi asserts, discharge any electricity, we must own that we are far too ignorant to argue that no transition of any kind is possible. 
> 
> The electric organs offer another and even more serious difficulty; for they occur in only about a dozen fishes, of which several are widely remote in their affinities. Generally when the same organ appears in several members of the same class, especially if in members having very different habits of life, we may attribute its presence to inheritance from a common ancestor; and its absence in some of the members to its loss through disuse or natural selection. But if the electric organs had been inherited from one ancient progenitor thus provided, we might have expected that all electric fishes would have been specially related to each other. Nor does geology at all lead to the belief that formerly most fishes had electric organs, which most of their modified descendants have lost. The presence of luminous organs in a few insects, belonging to different families and orders, offers a parallel case of difficulty. Other cases could be given; for instance in plants, the very curious contrivance of a mass of pollen-grains, borne on a foot-stalk with a sticky gland at the end, is the same in Orchis and Asclepias, genera almost as remote as possible amongst flowering plants. In all these cases of two very distinct species furnished with apparently the same anomalous organ, it should be observed that, although the general appearance and function of the organ may be the same, yet some fundamental difference can generally be detected. I am inclined to believe that in nearly the same way as two men have sometimes independently hit on the very same invention, so natural selection, working for the good of each being and taking advantage of analogous variations, has sometimes modified in very nearly the same manner two parts in two organic beings, which owe but little of their structure in common to inheritance from the same ancestor. 
> 
> Although in many cases it is most difficult to conjecture by what transitions an organ could have arrived at its present state; yet, considering that the proportion of living and known forms to the extinct and unknown is very small, I have been astonished how rarely an organ can be named, towards which no transitional grade is known to lead. The truth of this remark is indeed shown by that old canon in natural history of 'Natura non facit saltum.' We meet with this admission in the writings of almost every experienced naturalist; or, as Milne Edwards has well expressed it, nature is prodigal in variety, but niggard in innovation. Why, on the theory of Creation, should this be so? Why should all the parts and organs of many independent beings, each supposed to have been separately created for its proper place in nature, be so invariably linked together by graduated steps? Why should not Nature have taken a leap from structure to structure? On the theory of natural selection, we can clearly understand why she should not; for natural selection can act only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a leap, but must advance by the shortest and slowest steps. 
> 
> Organs of little apparent importance. As natural selection acts by life and death, by the preservation of individuals with any favourable variation, and by the destruction of those with any unfavourable deviation of structure, I have sometimes felt much difficulty in understanding the origin of simple parts, of which the importance does not seem sufficient to cause the preservation of successively varying individuals. I have sometimes felt as much difficulty, though of a very different kind, on this head, as in the case of an organ as perfect and complex as the eye. 
> 
> In the first place, we are much too ignorant in regard to the whole economy of any one organic being, to say what slight modifications would be of importance or not. In a former chapter I have given instances of most trifling characters, such as the down on fruit and the colour of the flesh, which, from determining the attacks of insects or from being correlated with constitutional differences, might assuredly be acted on by natural selection. The tail of the giraffe looks like an artificially constructed fly-flapper; and it seems at first incredible that this could have been adapted for its present purpose by successive slight modifications, each better and better, for so trifling an object as driving away flies; yet we should pause before being too positive even in this case, for we know that the distribution and existence of cattle and other animals in South America absolutely depends on their power of resisting the attacks of insects: so that individuals which could by any means defend themselves from these small enemies, would be able to range into new pastures and thus gain a great advantage. It is not that the larger quadrupeds are actually destroyed (except in some rare cases) by the flies, but they are incessantly harassed and their strength reduced, so that they are more subject to disease, or not so well enabled in a coming dearth to search for food, or to escape from beasts of prey. 
> 
> Organs now of trifling importance have probably in some cases been of high importance to an early progenitor, and, after having been slowly perfected at a former period, have been transmitted in nearly the same state, although now become of very slight use; and any actually injurious deviations in their structure will always have been checked by natural selection. Seeing how important an organ of locomotion the tail is in most aquatic animals, its general presence and use for many purposes in so many land animals, which in their lungs or modified swim-bladders betray their aquatic origin, may perhaps be thus accounted for. A well-developed tail having been formed in an aquatic animal, it might subsequently come to be worked in for all sorts of purposes, as a fly-flapper, an organ of prehension, or as an aid in turning, as with the dog, though the aid must be slight, for the hare, with hardly any tail, can double quickly enough. 
> 
> In the second place, we may sometimes attribute importance to characters which are really of very little importance, and which have originated from quite secondary causes, independently of natural selection. We should remember that climate, food, &c., probably have some little direct influence on the organisation; that characters reappear from the law of reversion;, that correlation of growth will have had a most important influence in modifying various structures; and finally, that sexual selection will often have largely modified the external characters of animals having a will, to give one male an advantage in fighting with another or in charming the females. Moreover when a modification of structure has primarily arisen from the above or other unknown causes, it may at first have been of no advantage to the species, but may subsequently have been taken advantage of by the descendants of the species under new conditions of life and with newly acquired habits. 
> 
> To give a few instances to illustrate these latter remarks. If green woodpeckers alone had existed, and we did not know that there were many black and pied kinds, I dare say that we should have thought that the green colour was a beautiful adaptation to hide this tree-frequenting bird from its enemies; and consequently that it was a character of importance and might have been acquired through natural selection; as it is, I have no doubt that the colour is due to some quite distinct cause, probably to sexual selection. A trailing bamboo in the Malay Archipelago climbs the loftiest trees by the aid of exquisitely constructed hooks clustered around the ends of the branches, and this contrivance, no doubt, is of the highest service to the plant; but as we see nearly similar hooks on many trees which are not climbers the hooks on the bamboo may have arisen from unknown laws of growth, and have been subsequently taken advantage of by the plant undergoing further modification and becoming a climber. The naked skin on the head of a vulture is generally looked at as a direct adaptation for wallowing in putridity; and so it may be, or it may possibly be due to the direct action of putrid matter; but we should be very cautious in drawing any such inference, when we see that the skin on the head of the clean-feeding male turkey is likewise naked. The sutures in the skulls of young mammals have been advanced as a beautiful adaptation for aiding parturition, and no doubt they facilitate, or may be indispensable for this act; but as sutures occur in the skulls of young birds and reptiles, which have only to escape from a broken egg, we may infer that this structure has arisen from the laws of growth, and has been taken advantage of in the parturition of the higher animals. 
> 
> We are profoundly ignorant of the causes producing slight and unimportant variations; and we are immediately made conscious of this by reflecting on the differences in the breeds of our domesticated animals in different countries, more especially in the less civilized countries where there has been but little artificial selection. Careful observers are convinced that a damp climate affects the growth of the hair, and that with the hair the horns are correlated. Mountain breeds always differ from lowland breeds; and a mountainous country would probably affect the hind limbs from exercising them more, and possibly even the form of the pelvis; and then by the law of homologous variation, the front limbs and even the head would probably be affected. The shape, also, of the pelvis might affect by pressure the shape of the head of the young in the womb. The laborious breathing necessary in high regions would, we have some reason to believe, increase the size of the chest; and again correlation would come into play. Animals kept by savages in different countries often have to struggle for their own subsistence, and would be exposed to a certain extent to natural selection, and individuals with slightly different constitutions would succeed best under different climates; and there is reason to believe that constitution and colour are correlated. A good observer, also, states that in cattle susceptibility to the attacks of flies is correlated with colour, as is the liability to be poisoned by certain plants; so that colour would be thus subjected to the action of natural selection. But we are far too ignorant to speculate on the relative importance of the several known and unknown laws of variation; and I have here alluded to them only to show that, if we are unable to account for the characteristic differences of our domestic breeds, which nevertheless we generally admit to have arisen through ordinary generation, we ought not to lay too much stress on our ignorance of the precise cause of the slight analogous differences between species. I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous. 
> 
> The foregoing remarks lead me to say a few words on the protest lately made by some naturalists, against the utilitarian doctrine that every detail of structure has been produced for the good of its possessor. They believe that very many structures have been created for beauty in the eyes of man, or for mere variety. This doctrine, if true, would be absolutely fatal to my theory. Yet I fully admit that many structures are of no direct use to their possessors. Physical conditions probably have had some little effect on structure, quite independently of any good thus gained. Correlation of growth has no doubt played a most important part, and a useful modification of one part will often have entailed on other parts diversified changes of no direct use. So again characters which formerly were useful, or which formerly had arisen from correlation of growth, or from other unknown cause, may reappear from the law of reversion, though now of no direct use. The effects of sexual selection, when displayed in beauty to charm the females, can be called useful only in rather a forced sense. But by far the most important consideration is that the chief part of the organisation of every being is simply due to inheritance; and consequently, though each being assuredly is well fitted for its place in nature, many structures now have no direct relation to the habits of life of each species. Thus, we can hardly believe that the webbed feet of the upland goose or of the frigate-bird are of special use to these birds; we cannot believe that the same bones in the arm of the monkey, in the fore leg of the horse, in the wing of the bat, and in the flipper of the seal, are of special use to these animals. We may safely attribute these structures to inheritance. But to the progenitor of the upland goose and of the frigate-bird, webbed feet no doubt were as useful as they now are to the most aquatic of existing birds. So we may believe that the progenitor of the seal had not a flipper, but a foot with five toes fitted for walking or grasping; and we may further venture to believe that the several bones in the limbs of the monkey, horse, and bat, which have been inherited from a common progenitor, were formerly of more special use to that progenitor, or its progenitors, than they now are to these animals having such widely diversified habits. Therefore we may infer that these several bones might have been acquired through natural selection, subjected formerly, as now, to the several laws of inheritance, reversion, correlation of growth, &c. Hence every detail of structure in every living creature (making some little allowance for the direct action of physical conditions) may be viewed, either as having been of special use to some ancestral form, or as being now of special use to the descendants of this form either directly, or indirectly through the complex laws of growth. 
> 
> Natural selection cannot possibly produce any modification in any one species exclusively for the good of another species; though throughout nature one species incessantly takes advantage of, and profits by, the structure of another. But natural selection can and does often produce structures for the direct injury of other species, as we see in the fang of the adder, and in the ovipositor of the ichneumon, by which its eggs are deposited in the living bodies of other insects. If it could be proved that any part of the structure of any one species had been formed for the exclusive good of another species, it would annihilate my theory, for such could not have been produced through natural selection. Although many statements may be found in works on natural history to this effect, I cannot find even one which seems to me of any weight. It is admitted that the rattlesnake has a poison-fang for its own defence and for the destruction of its prey; but some authors suppose that at the same time this snake is furnished with a rattle for its own injury, namely, to warn its prey to escape. I would almost as soon believe that the cat curls the end of its tail when preparing to spring, in order to warn the doomed mouse. But I have not space here to enter on this and other such cases. 
> 
> Natural selection will never produce in a being anything injurious to itself, for natural selection acts solely by and for the good of each. No organ will be formed, as Paley has remarked, for the purpose of causing pain or for doing an injury to its possessor. If a fair balance be struck between the good and evil caused by each part, each will be found on the whole advantageous. After the lapse of time, under changing conditions of life, if any part comes to be injurious, it will be modified; or if it be not so, the being will become extinct, as myriads have become extinct. 
> 
> Natural selection tends only to make each organic being as perfect as, or slightly more perfect than, the other inhabitants of the same country with which it has to struggle for existence. And we see that this is the degree of perfection attained under nature. The endemic productions of New Zealand, for instance, are perfect one compared with another; but they are now rapidly yielding before the advancing legions of plants and animals introduced from Europe. Natural selection will not produce absolute perfection, nor do we always meet, as far as we can judge, with this high standard under nature. The correction for the aberration of light is said, on high authority, not to be perfect even in that most perfect organ, the eye. If our reason leads us to admire with enthusiasm a multitude of inimitable contrivances in nature, this same reason tells us, though we may easily err on both sides, that some other contrivances are less perfect. Can we consider the sting of the wasp or of the bee as perfect, which, when used against many attacking animals, cannot be withdrawn, owing to the backward serratures, and so inevitably causes the death of the insect by tearing out its viscera? 
> 
> If we look at the sting of the bee, as having originally existed in a remote progenitor as a boring and serrated instrument, like that in so many members of the same great order, and which has been modified but not perfected for its present purpose, with the poison originally adapted to cause galls subsequently intensified, we can perhaps understand how it is that the use of the sting should so often cause the insect's own death: for if on the whole the power of stinging be useful to the community, it will fulfil all the requirements of natural selection, though it may cause the death of some few members. If we admire the truly wonderful power of scent by which the males of many insects find their females, can we admire the production for this single purpose of thousands of drones, which are utterly useless to the community for any other end, and which are ultimately slaughtered by their industrious and sterile sisters? It may be difficult, but we ought to admire the savage instinctive hatred of the queen-bee, which urges her instantly to destroy the young queens her daughters as soon as born, or to perish herself in the combat; for undoubtedly this is for the good of the community; and maternal love or maternal hatred, though the latter fortunately is most rare, is all the same to the inexorable principle of natural selection. If we admire the several ingenious contrivances, by which the flowers of the orchis and of many other plants are fertilised through insect agency, can we consider as equally perfect the elaboration by our fir-trees of dense clouds of pollen, in order that a few granules may be wafted by a chance breeze on to the ovules? 
> 
> Summary of Chapter. We have in this chapter discussed some of the difficulties and objections which may be urged against my theory. Many of them are very grave; but I think that in the discussion light has been thrown on several facts, which on the theory of independent acts of creation are utterly obscure. We have seen that species at any one period are not indefinitely variable, and are not linked together by a multitude of intermediate gradations, partly because the process of natural selection will always be very slow, and will act, at any one time, only on a very few forms; and partly because the very process of natural selection almost implies the continual supplanting and extinction of preceding and intermediate gradations. Closely allied species, now living on a continuous area, must often have been formed when the area was not continuous, and when the conditions of life did not insensibly graduate away from one part to another. When two varieties are formed in two districts of a continuous area, an intermediate variety will often be formed, fitted for an intermediate zone; but from reasons assigned, the intermediate variety will usually exist in lesser numbers than the two forms which it connects; consequently the two latter, during the course of further modification, from existing in greater numbers, will have a great advantage over the less numerous intermediate variety, and will thus generally succeed in supplanting and exterminating it. 
> 
> We have seen in this chapter how cautious we should be in concluding that the most different habits of life could not graduate into each other; that a bat, for instance, could not have been formed by natural selection from an animal which at first could only glide through the air. 
> 
> We have seen that a species may under new conditions of life change its habits, or have diversified habits, with some habits very unlike those of its nearest congeners. Hence we can understand bearing in mind that each organic being is trying to live wherever it can live, how it has arisen that there are upland geese with webbed feet, ground woodpeckers, diving thrushes, and petrels with the habits of auks. 
> 
> Although the belief that an organ so perfect as the eye could have been formed by natural selection, is more than enough to stagger any one; yet in the case of any organ, if we know of a long series of gradations in complexity, each good for its possessor, then, under changing conditions of life, there is no logical impossibility in the acquirement of any conceivable degree of perfection through natural selection. In the cases in which we know of no intermediate or transitional states, we should be very cautious in concluding that none could have existed, for the homologies of many organs and their intermediate states show that wonderful metamorphoses in function are at least possible. For instance, a swim-bladder has apparently been converted into an air-breathing lung. The same organ having performed simultaneously very different functions, and then having been specialised for one function; and two very distinct organs having performed at the same time the same function, the one having been perfected whilst aided by the other, must often have largely facilitated transitions. 
> 
> We are far too ignorant, in almost every case, to be enabled to assert that any part or organ is so unimportant for the welfare of a species, that modifications in its structure could not have been slowly accumulated by means of natural selection. But we may confidently believe that many modifications, wholly due to the laws of growth, and at first in no way advantageous to a species, have been subsequently taken advantage of by the still further modified descendants of this species. We may, also, believe that a part formerly of high importance has often been retained (as the tail of an aquatic animal by its terrestrial descendants), though it has become of such small importance that it could not, in its present state, have been acquired by natural selection, a power which acts solely by the preservation of profitable variations in the struggle for life. 
> 
> Natural selection will produce nothing in one species for the exclusive good or injury of another; though it may well produce parts, organs, and excretions highly useful or even indispensable, or highly injurious to another species, but in all cases at the same time useful to the owner. Natural selection in each well-stocked country, must act chiefly through the competition of the inhabitants one with another, and consequently will produce perfection, or strength in the battle for life, only according to the standard of that country. Hence the inhabitants of one country, generally the smaller one, will often yield, as we see they do yield, to the inhabitants of another and generally larger country. For in the larger country there will have existed more individuals, and more diversified forms, and the competition will have been severer, and thus the standard of perfection will have been rendered higher. Natural selection will not necessarily produce absolute perfection; nor, as far as we can judge by our limited faculties, can absolute perfection be everywhere found. 
> 
> On the theory of natural selection we can clearly understand the full meaning of that old canon in natural history, 'Natura non facit saltum.' This canon, if we look only to the present inhabitants of the world, is not strictly correct, but if we include all those of past times, it must by my theory be strictly true. 
> 
> It is generally acknowledged that all organic beings have been formed on two great laws Unity of Type, and the Conditions of Existence. By unity of type is meant that fundamental agreement in structure, which we see in organic beings of the same class, and which is quite independent of their habits of life. On my theory, unity of type is explained by unity of descent. The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection. For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by use and disuse, being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type.
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Ukraine|985494207
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> An [[Eastern European]] country, the Ukraine borders the [[Black Sea]], [[Poland]] and [[Russia]].
> 
> The Ukraine has been fought over and subjugated for centuries; its 20th-century struggle for liberty is not yet complete. A short-lived independence from [[Russia]] (1917-1920) was followed by brutal [[Soviet]] rule that engineered two artificial famines (1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died, and [[World War II]], in which [[German]] and [[Soviet]] armies were responsible for some 7 million more deaths. Although independence was attained in 1991 with the dissolution of the [[USSR]], true freedom remains elusive as many of the former [[Soviet]] elite remain entrenched, stalling efforts at economic reform, privatization, and civic liberties. 
> 
> The capital is [[Kiev]] (Kyyiv).
> 
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Ukraine|985494434
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< An [[Eastern European]] country, the Ukraine borders the [[Black Sea]], [[Poland]] and [[Russia]].
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> An [[Eastern European]] country, the Ukraine borders the [[Black Sea]], [[Moldova]] [[Romania]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovakia]], [[Poland]] [[Belarus]] and [[Russia]].
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_7|985494463
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> THE subject of instinct might have been worked into the previous chapters; but I have thought that it would be more convenient to treat the subject separately, especially as so wonderful an instinct as that of the hive-bee making its cells will probably have occurred to many readers, as a difficulty sufficient to overthrow my whole theory. I must premise, that I have nothing to do with the origin of the primary mental powers, any more than I have with that of life itself. We are concerned only with the diversities of instinct and of the other mental qualities of animals within the same class. 
> 
> I will not attempt any definition of instinct. It would be easy to show that several distinct mental actions are commonly embraced by this term; but every one understands what is meant, when it is said that instinct impels the cuckoo to migrate and to lay her eggs in other birds' nests. An action, which we ourselves should require experience to enable us to perform, when performed by an animal, more especially by a very young one, without any experience, and when performed by many individuals in the same way, without their knowing for what purpose it is performed, is usually said to be instinctive. But I could show that none of these characters of instinct are universal. A little dose, as Pierre Huber expresses it, of judgment or reason, often comes into play, even in animals very low in the scale of nature. 
> 
> Frederick Cuvier and several of the older metaphysicians have compared instinct with habit. This comparison gives, I think, a remarkably accurate notion of the frame of mind under which an instinctive action is performed, but not of its origin. How unconsciously many habitual actions are performed, indeed not rarely in direct opposition to our conscious will! yet they may be modified by the will or reason. Habits easily become associated with other habits, and with certain periods of time and states of the body. When once acquired, they often remain constant throughout life. Several other points of resemblance between instincts and habits could be pointed out. As in repeating a well-known song, so in instincts, one action follows another by a sort of rhythm; if a person be interrupted in a song, or in repeating anything by rote, he is generally forced to go back to recover the habitual train of thought: so P. Huber found it was with a caterpillar, which makes a very complicated hammock; for if he took a caterpillar which had completed its hammock up to, say, the sixth stage of construction, and put it into a hammock completed up only to the third stage, the caterpillar simply re-performed the fourth, fifth, and sixth stages of construction. If, however, a caterpillar were taken out of a hammock made up, for instance, to the third stage, and were put into one finished up to the sixth stage, so that much of its work was already done for it, far from feeling the benefit of this, it was much embarrassed, and, in order to complete its hammock, seemed forced to start from the third stage, where it had left off, and thus tried to complete the already finished work. 
> 
> If we suppose any habitual action to become inherited and I think it can be shown that this does sometimes happen then the resemblance between what originally was a habit and an instinct becomes so close as not to be distinguished. If Mozart, instead of playing the pianoforte at three years old with wonderfully little practice, had played a tune with no practice at all, be might truly be said to have done so instinctively. But it would be the most serious error to suppose that the greater number of instincts have been acquired by habit in one generation, and then transmitted by inheritance to succeeding generations. It can be clearly shown that the most wonderful instincts with which we are acquainted, namely, those of the hive-bee and of many ants, could not possibly have been thus acquired. 
> 
> It will be universally admitted that instincts are as important as corporeal structure for the welfare of each species, under its present conditions of life. Under changed conditions of life, it is at least possible that slight modifications of instinct might be profitable to a species; and if it can be shown that instincts do vary ever so little, then I can see no difficulty in natural selection preserving and continually accumulating variations of instinct to any extent that may be profitable. It is thus, as I believe, that all the most complex and wonderful instincts have originated. As modifications of corporeal structure arise from, and are increased by, use or habit, and are diminished or lost by disuse, so I do not doubt it has been with instincts. But I believe that the effects of habit are of quite subordinate importance to the effects of the natural selection of what may be called accidental variations of instincts; that is of variations produced by the same unknown causes which produce slight deviations of bodily structure. 
> 
> No complex instinct can possibly be produced through natural selection, except by the slow and gradual accumulation of numerous, slight, yet profitable, variations. Hence, as in the case of corporeal structures, we ought to find in nature, not the actual transitional gradations by which each complex instinct has been acquired for these could be found only in the lineal ancestors of each species but we ought to find in the collateral lines of descent some evidence of such gradations; or we ought at least to be able to show that gradations of some kind are possible; and this we certainly can do. I have been surprised to find, making allowance for the instincts of animals having been but little observed except in Europe and North America, and for no instinct being known amongst extinct species, how very generally gradations, leading to the most complex instincts, can be discovered. The canon of 'Natura non facit saltum' applies with almost equal force to instincts as to bodily organs. Changes of instinct may sometimes be facilitated by the same species having different instincts at different periods of life, or at different seasons of the year, or when placed under different circumstances, &c.; in which case either one or the other instinct might be preserved by natural selection. And such instances of diversity of instinct in the same species can be shown to occur in nature. 
> 
> Again as in the case of corporeal structure, and conformably with my theory, the instinct of each species is good for itself, but has never, as far as we can judge, been produced for the exclusive good of others. One of the strongest instances of an animal apparently performing an action for the sole good of another, with which I am acquainted, is that of aphides voluntarily yielding their sweet excretion to ants: that they do so voluntarily, the following facts show. I removed all the ants from a group of about a dozen aphides on a dock-plant, and prevented their attendance during several hours. After this interval, I felt sure that the aphides would want to excrete. I watched them for some time through a lens, but not one excreted; I then tickled and stroked them with a hair in the same manner, as well as I could, as the ants do with their antennae; but not one excreted. Afterwards I allowed an ant to visit them, and it immediately seemed, by its eager way of running about, to be well aware what a rich flock it had discovered; it then began to play with its antennae on the abdomen first of one aphis and then of another; and each aphis, as soon as it felt the antennae, immediately lifted up its abdomen and excreted a limpid drop of sweet juice, which was eagerly devoured by the ant. Even the quite young aphides behaved in this manner, showing that the action was instinctive, and not the result of experience. But as the excretion is extremely viscid, it is probably a convenience to the aphides to have it removed; and therefore probably the aphides do not instinctively excrete for the sole good of the ants. Although I do not believe that any animal in the world performs an action for the exclusive good of another of a distinct species, yet each species tries to take advantage of the instincts of others, as each takes advantage of the weaker bodily structure of others. So again, in some few cases, certain instincts cannot be considered as absolutely perfect; but as details on this and other such points are not indispensable, they may be here passed over. 
> 
> As some degree of variation in instincts under a state of nature, and the inheritance of such variations, are indispensable for the action of natural selection, as many instances as possible ought to have been here given; but want of space prevents me. I can only assert, that instincts certainly do vary for instance, the migratory instinct, both in extent and direction, and in its total loss. So it is with the nests of birds, which vary partly in dependence on the situations chosen, and on the nature and temperature of the country inhabited, but often from causes wholly unknown to us: Audubon has given several remarkable cases of differences in nests of the same species in the northern and southern United States. Fear of any particular enemy is certainly an instinctive quality, as may be seen in nestling birds, though it is strengthened by experience, and by the sight of fear of the same enemy in other animals. But fear of man is slowly acquired, as I have elsewhere shown, by various animals inhabiting desert islands; and we may see an instance of this, even in England, in the greater wildness of all our large birds than of our small birds; for the large birds have been most persecuted by man. We may safely attribute the greater wildness of our large birds to this cause; for in uninhabited islands large birds are not more fearful than small; and the magpie, so wary in England, is tame in Norway, as is the hooded crow in Egypt. 
> 
> That the general disposition of individuals of the same species, born in a state of nature, is extremely diversified, can be shown by a multitude of facts. Several cases also, could be given, of occasional and strange habits in certain species, which might, if advantageous to the species, give rise, through natural selection, to quite new instincts. But I am well aware that these general statements, without facts given in detail, can produce but a feeble effect on the reader's mind. I can only repeat my assurance, that I do not speak without good evidence. 
> 
> The possibility, or even probability, of inherited variations of instinct in a state of nature will be strengthened by briefly considering a few cases under domestication. We shall thus also be enabled to see the respective parts which habit and the selection of so-called accidental variations have played in modifying the mental qualities of our domestic animals. A number of curious and authentic instances could be given of the inheritance of all shades of disposition and tastes, and likewise of the oddest tricks, associated with certain frames of mind or periods of time. But let us look to the familiar case of the several breeds of dogs: it cannot be doubted that young pointers (I have myself seen a striking instance) will sometimes point and even back other dogs the very first time that they are taken out; retrieving is certainly in some degree inherited by retrievers; and a tendency to run round, instead of at, a flock of sheep, by shepherd-dogs. I cannot see that these actions, performed without experience by the young, and in nearly the same manner by each individual, performed with eager delight by each breed, and without the end being known, for the young pointer can no more know that he points to aid his master, than the white butterfly knows why she lays her eggs on the leaf of the cabbage, I cannot see that these actions differ essentially from true instincts. If we were to see one kind of wolf, when young and without any training, as soon as it scented its prey, stand motionless like a statue, and then slowly crawl forward with a peculiar gait; and another kind of wolf rushing round, instead of at, a herd of deer, and driving them to a distant point, we should assuredly call these actions instinctive. Domestic instincts, as they may be called, are certify far less fixed or invariable than natural instincts; but they have been acted on by far less rigorous selection, and have been transmitted for an incomparably shorter period, under less fixed conditions of life. 
> 
> How strongly these domestic instincts, habits, and dispositions are inherited, and how curiously they become mingled, is well shown when different breeds of dogs are crossed. Thus it is known that a cross with a bull-dog has affected for many generations the courage and obstinacy of greyhounds; and a cross with a greyhound has given to a whole family of shepherd-dogs a tendency to hunt hares. These domestic instincts, when thus tested by crossing, resemble natural instincts, which in a like manner become curiously blended together, and for a long period exhibit traces of the instincts of either parent: for example, Le Roy describes a dog, whose great-grandfather was a wolf, and this dog showed a trace of its wild parentage only in one way, by not coming in a straight line to his master when called. 
> 
> Domestic instincts are sometimes spoken of as actions which have become inherited solely from long-continued and compulsory habit, but this, I think, is not true. No one would ever have thought of teaching, or probably could have taught, the tumbler-pigeon to tumble, an action which, as I have witnessed, is performed by young birds, that have never seen a pigeon tumble. We may believe that some one pigeon showed a slight tendency to this strange habit, and that the long-continued selection of the best individuals in successive generations made tumblers what they now are; and near Glasgow there are house-tumblers, as I hear from Mr Brent, which cannot fly eighteen inches high without going head over heels. It may be doubted whether any one would have thought of training a dog to point, had not some one dog naturally shown a tendency in this line; and this is known occasionally to happen, as I once saw in a pure terrier. When the first tendency was once displayed, methodical selection and the inherited effects of compulsory training in each successive generation would soon complete the work; and unconscious selection is still at work, as each man tries to procure, without intending to improve the breed, dogs which will stand and hunt best. On the other hand, habit alone in some cases has sufficed; no animal is more difficult to tame than the young of the wild rabbit; scarcely any animal is tamer than the young of the tame rabbit; but I do not suppose that domestic rabbits have ever been selected for tameness; and I presume that we must attribute the whole of the inherited change from extreme wildness to extreme tameness, simply to habit and long-continued close confinement. 
> 
> Natural instincts are lost under domestication: a remarkable instance of this is seen in those breeds of fowls which very rarely or never become 'broody,' that is, never wish to sit on their eggs. Familiarity alone prevents our seeing how universally and largely the minds of our domestic animals have been modified by domestication. It is scarcely possible to doubt that the love of man has become instinctive in the dog. All wolves, foxes, jackals, and species of the cat genus, when kept tame, are most eager to attack poultry, sheep, and pigs; and this tendency has been found incurable in dogs which have been brought home as puppies from countries, such as Tierra del Fuego and Australia, where the savages do not keep these domestic animals. How rarely, on the other hand, do our civilised dogs, even when quite young, require to be taught not to attack poultry, sheep, and pigs! No doubt they occasionally do make an attack, and are then beaten; and if not cured, they are destroyed; so that habit, with some degree of selection, has probably concurred in civilising by inheritance our dogs. On the other hand, young chickens have lost, wholly by habit, that fear of the dog and cat which no doubt was originally instinctive in them, in the same way as it is so plainly instinctive in young pheasants, though reared under a hen. It is not that chickens have lost all fear, but fear only of dogs and cats, for if the hen gives the danger-chuckle, they will run (more especially young turkeys) from under her, and conceal themselves in the surrounding grass or thickets; and this is evidently done for the instinctive purpose of allowing, as we see in wild ground-birds, their mother to fly away. But this instinct retained by our chickens has become useless under domestication, for the mother-hen has almost lost by disuse the power of flight. 
> 
> Hence, we may conclude, that domestic instincts have been acquired and natural instincts have been lost partly by habit, and partly by man selecting and accumulating during successive generations, peculiar mental habits and actions, which at first appeared from what we must in our ignorance call an accident. In some cases compulsory habit alone has sufficed to produce such inherited mental changes; in other cases compulsory habit has done nothing, and all has been the result of selection, pursued both methodically and unconsciously; but in most cases, probably, habit and selection have acted together. 
> 
> We shall, perhaps, best understand how instincts in a state of nature have become modified by selection, by considering a few cases. I will select only three, out of the several which I shall have to discuss in my future work, namely, the instinct which leads the cuckoo to lay her eggs in other birds' nests; the slave-making instinct of certain ants; and the comb-making power of the hive-bee: these two latter instincts have generally, and most justly, been ranked by naturalists as the most wonderful of all known instincts. 
> 
> It is now commonly admitted that the more immediate and final cause of the cuckoo's instinct is, that she lays her eggs, not daily, but at intervals of two or three days; so that, if she were to make her own nest and sit on her own eggs, those first laid would have to be left for some time unincubated, or there would be eggs and young birds of different ages in the same nest. If this were the case, the process of laying and hatching might be inconveniently long, more especially as she has to migrate at a very early period; and the first hatched young would probably have to be fed by the male alone. But the American cuckoo is in this predicament; for she makes her own nest and has eggs and young successively hatched, all at the same time. It has been asserted that the American cuckoo occasionally lays her eggs in other birds' nests; but I hear on the high authority of Dr. Brewer, that this is a mistake. Nevertheless, I could give several instances of various birds which have been known occasionally to lay their eggs in other birds' nests. Now let us suppose that the ancient progenitor of our European cuckoo had the habits of the American cuckoo; but that occasionally she laid an egg in another bird's nest. If the old bird profited by this occasional habit, or if the young were made more vigorous by advantage having been taken of the mistaken maternal instinct of another bird, than by their own mother's care, encumbered as she can hardly fail to be by having eggs and young of different ages at the same time; then the old birds or the fostered young would gain an advantage. And analogy would lead me to believe, that the young thus reared would be apt to follow by inheritance the occasional and aberrant habit of their mother, and in their turn would be apt to lay their eggs in other birds' nests, and thus be successful in rearing their young. By a continued process of this nature, I believe that the strange instinct of our cuckoo could be, and has been, generated. I may add that, according to Dr. Gray and to some other observers, the European cuckoo has not utterly lost all maternal love and care for her own offspring. 
> 
> The occasional habit of birds laying their eggs in other birds' nests, either of the same or of a distinct species, is not very uncommon with the Gallinaceae; and this perhaps explains the origin of a singular instinct in the allied group of ostriches. For several hen ostriches, at least in the case of the American species, unite and lay first a few eggs in one nest and then in another; and these are hatched by the males. This instinct may probably be accounted for by the fact of the hens laying a large number of eggs; but, as in the case of the cuckoo, at intervals of two or three days. This instinct, however, of the American ostrich has not as yet been perfected; for a surprising number of eggs lie strewed over the plains, so that in one day's hunting I picked up no less than twenty lost and wasted eggs. 
> 
> Many bees are parasitic, and always lay their eggs in the nests of bees of other kinds. This case is more remarkable than that of the cuckoo; for these bees have not only their instincts but their structure modified in accordance with their parasitic habits; for they do not possess the pollen-collecting apparatus which would be necessary if they had to store food for their own young. Some species, likewise, of Sphegidae (wasp-like insects) are parasitic on other species; and M. Fabre has lately shown good reason for believing that although the Tachytes nigra generally makes its own burrow and stores it with paralysed prey for its own larvae to feed on, yet that when this insect finds a burrow already made and stored by another sphex, it takes advantage of the prize, and becomes for the occasion parasitic. In this case, as with the supposed case of the cuckoo, I can see no difficulty in natural selection making an occasional habit permanent, if of advantage to the species, and if the insect whose nest and stored food are thus feloniously appropriated, be not thus exterminated. 
> 
> Slave-making instinct. This remarkable instinct was first discovered in the Formica (Polyerges) rufescens by Pierre Huber, a better observer even than his celebrated father. This ant is absolutely dependent on its slaves; without their aid, the species would certainly become extinct in a single year. The males and fertile females do no work. The workers or sterile females, though most energetic and courageous in capturing slaves, do no other work. They are incapable of making their own nests, or of feeding their own larvae. When the old nest is found inconvenient, and they have to migrate, it is the slaves which determine the migration, and actually carry their masters in their jaws. So utterly helpless are the masters, that when Huber shut up thirty of them without a slave, but with plenty of the food which they like best, and with their larvae and pupae to stimulate them to work, they did nothing; they could not even feed themselves, and many perished of hunger. Huber then introduced a single slave (F. fusca), and she instantly set to work, fed and saved the survivors; made some cells and tended the larvae, and put all to rights. What can be more extraordinary than these well-ascertained facts? If we had not known of any other slave-making ant, it would have been hopeless to have speculated how so wonderful an instinct could have been perfected. 
> 
> Formica sanguinea was likewise first discovered by P. Huber to be a slave-making ant. This species is found in the southern parts of England, and its habits have been attended to by Mr. F. Smith, of the British Museum, to whom I am much indebted for information on this and other subjects. Although fully trusting to the statements of Huber and Mr. Smith, I tried to approach the subject in a sceptical frame of mind, as any one may well be excused for doubting the truth of so extraordinary and odious an instinct as that of making slaves. Hence I will give the observations which I have made myself made, in some little detail. I opened fourteen nests of F. sanguinea, and found a few slaves in all. Males and fertile females of the slave-species are found only in their own proper communities, and have never been observed in the nests of F. sanguinea. The slaves are black and not above half the size of their red masters, so that the contrast in their appearance is very great. When the nest is slightly disturbed, the slaves occasionally come out, and like their masters are much agitated and defend their nest: when the nest is much disturbed and the larvae and pupae are exposed, the slaves work energetically with their masters in carrying them away to a place of safety. Hence, it is clear, that the slaves feel quite at home. During the months of June and July, on three successive years, I have watched for many hours several nests in Surrey and Sussex, and never saw a slave either leave or enter a nest. As, during these months, the slaves are very few in number, I thought that they might behave differently when more numerous; but Mr. Smith informs me that he has watched the nests at various hours during May, June and August, both in Surrey and Hampshire, and has never seen the slaves, though present in large numbers in August, either leave or enter the nest. Hence he considers them as strictly household slaves. The masters, on the other hand, may be constantly seen bringing in materials for the nest, and food of all kinds. During the present year, however, in the month of July, I came across a community with an unusually large stock of slaves, and I observed a few slaves mingled with their masters leaving the nest, and marching along the same road to a tall Scotch-fir-tree, twenty-five yards distant, which they ascended together, probably in search of aphides or cocci. According to Huber, who had ample opportunities for observation, in Switzerland the slaves habitually work with their masters in making the nest, and they alone open and close the doors in the morning and evening; and, as Huber expressly states, their principal office is to search for aphides. This difference in the usual habits of the masters and slaves in the two countries, probably depends merely on the slaves being captured in greater numbers in Switzerland than in England. 
> 
> One day I fortunately chanced to witness a migration from one nest to another, and it was a most interesting spectacle to behold the masters carefully carrying, as Huber has described, their slaves in their jaws. Another day my attention was struck by about a score of the slave-makers haunting the same spot, and evidently not in search of food; they approached and were vigorously repulsed by an independent community of the slave species (F. fusca); sometimes as many as three of these ants clinging to the legs of the slave-making F. sanguinea. The latter ruthlessly killed their small opponents, and carried their dead bodies as food to their nest, twenty-nine yards distant; but they were prevented from getting any pupae to rear as slaves. I then dug up a small parcel of the pupae of F. fusca from another nest, and put them down on a bare spot near the place of combat; they were eagerly seized, and carried off by the tyrants, who perhaps fancied that, after all, they had been victorious in their late combat. 
> 
> At the same time I laid on the same place a small parcel of the pupae of another species, F. flava, with a few of these little yellow ants still clinging to the fragments of the nest. This species is sometimes, though rarely, made into slaves, as has been described by Mr Smith. Although so small a species, it is very courageous, and I have seen it ferociously attack other ants. In one instance I found to my surprise an independent community of F. flava under a stone beneath a nest of the slave-making F. sanguinea; and when I had accidentally disturbed both nests, the little ants attacked their big neighbours with surprising courage. Now I was curious to ascertain whether F. sanguinea could distinguish the pupae of F. fusca, which they habitually make into slaves, from those of the little and furious F. flava, which they rarely capture, and it was evident that they did at once distinguish them: for we have seen that they eagerly and instantly seized the pupae of F. fusca, whereas they were much terrified when they came across the pupae, or even the earth from the nest of F. flava, and quickly ran away; but in about a quarter of an hour, shortly after all the little yellow ants had crawled away, they took heart and carried off the pupae. 
> 
> One evening I visited another community of F. sanguinea, and found a number of these ants entering their nest, carrying the dead bodies of F. fusca (showing that it was not a migration) and numerous pupae. I traced the returning file burthened with booty, for about forty yards, to a very thick clump of heath. whence I saw the last individual of F. sanguinea emerge, carrying a pupa; but I was not able to find the desolated nest in the thick heath. The nest, however, must have been close at hand, for two or three individuals of F. fusca were rushing about in the greatest agitation, and one was perched motionless with its own pupa in its mouth on the top of a spray of heath over its ravaged home. 
> 
> Such are the facts, though they did not need confirmation by me, in regard to the wonderful instinct of making slaves. Let it be observed what a contrast the instinctive habits of F. sanguinea present with those of the F. rufescens. The latter does not build its own nest, does not determine its own migrations, does not collect food for itself or its young, and cannot even feed itself: it is absolutely dependent on its numerous slaves. Formica sanguinea, on the other hand, possesses much fewer slaves, and in the early part of the summer extremely few. The masters determine when and where a new nest shall be formed, and when they migrate, the masters carry the slaves. Both in Switzerland and England the slaves seem to have the exclusive care of the larvae, and the masters alone go on slave-making expeditions. In Switzerland the slaves and masters work together, making and bringing materials for the nest: both, but chiefly the slaves, tend, and milk as it may be called, their aphides; and thus both collect food for the community. In England the masters alone usually leave the nest to collect building materials and food for themselves, their slaves and larvae. So that the masters in this country receive much less service from their slaves than they do in Switzerland. 
> 
> By what steps the instinct of F. sanguinea originated I will not pretend to conjecture. But as ants, which are not slave-makers, will, as I have seen, carry off pupae of other species, if scattered near their nests, it is possible that pupae originally stored as food might become developed; and the ants thus unintentionally reared would then follow their proper instincts, and do what work they could. If their presence proved useful to the species which had seized them if it were more advantageous to this species to capture workers than to procreate them the habit of collecting pupae originally for food might by natural selection be strengthened and rendered permanent for the very different purpose of raising slaves. When the instinct was once acquired, if carried out to a much less extent even than in our British F. sanguinea, which, as we have seen, is less aided by its slaves than the same species in Switzerland, I can see no difficulty in natural selection increasing and modifying the instinct always supposing each modification to be of use to the species until an ant was formed as abjectly dependent on its slaves as is the Formica rufescens. 
> 
> Cell-making instinct of the Hive-Bee. I will not here enter on minute details on this subject, but will merely give an outline of the conclusions at which I have arrived. He must be a dull man who can examine the exquisite structure of a comb, so beautifully adapted to its end, without enthusiastic admiration. We hear from mathematicians that bees have practically solved a recondite problem, and have made their cells of the proper shape to hold the greatest possible amount of honey, with the least possible consumption of previous wax in their construction. It has been remarked that a skilful workman, with fitting tools and measures, would find it very difficult to make cells of wax of the true form, though this is perfectly effected by a crowd of bees working in a dark hive. Grant whatever instincts you please, and it seems at first quite inconceivable how they can make all the necessary angles and planes, or even perceive when they are correctly made. But the difficulty is not nearly so great as it at first appears: all this beautiful work can be shown, I think, to follow from a few very simple instincts. 
> 
>  I was led to investigate this subject by Mr. Waterhouse, who has shown that the form of the cell stands in close relation to the presence of adjoining cells; and the following view may, perhaps, be considered only as a modification of this theory. Let us look to the great principle of gradation, and see whether Nature does not reveal to us her method of work. At one end of a short series we have humble-bees, which use their old cocoons to hold honey, sometimes adding to them short tubes of wax, and likewise making separate and very irregular rounded cells of wax. At the other end of the series we have the cells of the hive-bee, placed in a double layer: each cell, as is well know, is an hexagonal prism, with the basal edges of its six sides bevelled so as to join on to a pyramid, formed of three rhombs. These rhombs have certain angles, and the three which form the pyramidal base of a single cell on one side of the comb, enter into the composition of the bases of three adjoining cells on the opposite side. In the series between the extreme perfection of the cells of the hive-bee and the simplicity of those of the humble-bee, we have the cells of the Mexican Melipona domestica, carefully described and figured by Pierre Huber. The Melipona itself is intermediate in structure between the hive and humble bee, but more nearly related to the latter: it forms a nearly regular waxen comb of cylindrical cells, in which the young are hatched, and, in addition, some large cells of wax for holding honey. These latter cells are nearly spherical and of nearly equal sizes, and are aggregated into an irregular mass. But the important point to notice, is that these cells are always made at that degree of nearness to each other, that they would have intersected or broken into each other, if the spheres had been completed; but this is never permitted, the bees building perfectly flat walls of wax between the spheres which thus tend to intersect. Hence each cell consists of an outer spherical portion and of two, three, or more perfectly flat surfaces, according as the cell adjoins two, three or more other cells. When one cell comes into contact with three other cells, which, from the spheres being nearly of the same size, is very frequently and necessarily the case, the three flat surfaces are united into a pyramid; and this pyramid, as Huber has remarked, is manifestly a gross imitation of the three-sided pyramidal basis of the cell of the hive-bee. As in the cells of the hive-bee, so here, the three plane surfaces in any one cell necessarily enter into the construction of three adjoining cells. It is obvious that the Melipona saves wax by this manner of building; for the flat walls between the adjoining cells are not double, but are of the same thickness as the outer spherical portions, and yet each flat portion forms a part of two cells. 
> 
> Reflecting on this case, it occurred to me that if the Melipona had made its spheres at some given distance from each other, and had made them of equal sizes and had arranged them symmetrically in a double layer, the resulting structure would probably have been as perfect as the comb of the hive-bee. Accordingly I wrote to Professor Miller, of Cambridge, and this geometer has kindly read over the following statement, drawn up from his information, and tells me that it is strictly correct:- 
> 
> If a number of equal spheres be described with their centres placed in two parallel layers; with the centre of each sphere at the distance of radius X /sqrt[2] or radius X 1.41421 (or at some lesser distance), from the centres of the six surrounding spheres in the same layer; and at the same distance from the centres of the adjoining spheres in the other and parallel layer; then, if planes of intersection between the several spheres in both layers be formed, there will result a double layer of hexagonal prisms united together by pyramidal bases formed of three rhombs; and the rhombs and the sides of the hexagonal prisms will have every angle identically the same with the best measurements which have been made of the cells of the hive-bee. 
> 
> Hence we may safely conclude that if we could slightly modify the instincts already possessed by the Melipona, and in themselves not very wonderful, this bee would make a structure as wonderfully perfect as that of the hive-bee. We must suppose the Melipona to make her cells truly spherical, and of equal sizes; and this would not be very surprising, seeing that she already does so to a certain extent, and seeing what perfectly cylindrical burrows in wood many insects can make, apparently by turning round on a fixed point. We must suppose the Melipona to arrange her cells in level layers, as she already does her cylindrical cells; and we must further suppose, and this is the greatest difficulty, that she can somehow judge accurately at what distance to stand from her fellow-labourers when several are making their spheres; but she is already so far enabled to judge of distance, that she always describes her spheres so as to intersect largely; and then she unites the points of intersection by perfectly flat surfaces. We have further to suppose, but this is no difficulty, that after hexagonal prisms have been formed by the intersection of adjoining spheres in the same layer, she can prolong the hexagon to any length requisite to hold the stock of honey; in the same way as the rude humble-bee adds cylinders of wax to the circular mouths of her old cocoons. By such modifications of instincts in themselves not very wonderful, hardly more wonderful than those which guide a bird to make its nest, I believe that the hive-bee has acquired, through natural selection, her inimitable architectural powers. 
> 
> But this theory can be tested by experiment. Following the example of Mr Tegetmeier, I separated two combs, and put between them a long, thick, square strip of wax: the bees instantly began to excavate minute circular pits in it; and as they deepened these little pits, they made them wider and wider until they were converted into shallow basins, appearing to the eye perfectly true or parts of a sphere, and of about the diameter of a cell. It was most interesting to me to observe that wherever several bees had begun to excavate these basins near together, they had begun their work at such a distance from each other, that by the time the basins had acquired the above stated width (i.e. about the width of an ordinary cell), and were in depth about one sixth of the diameter of the sphere of which they formed a part, the rims of the basins intersected or broke into each other. As soon as this occurred, the bees ceased to excavate, and began to build up flat walls of wax on the lines of intersection between the basins, so that each hexagonal prism was built upon the festooned edge of a smooth basin, instead of on the straight edges of a three-sided pyramid as in the case of ordinary cells. 
> 
> I then put into the hive, instead of a thick, square piece of wax, a thin and narrow, knife-edged ridge, coloured with vermilion. The bees instantly began on both sides to excavate little basins near to each other, in the same way as before; but the ridge of wax was so thin, that the bottoms of the basins, if they had been excavated to the same depth as in the former experiment, would have broken into each other from the opposite sides. The bees, however, did not suffer this to happen, and they stopped their excavations in due time; so that the basins, as soon as they had been a little deepened, came to have flat bottoms; and these flat bottoms, formed by thin little plates of the vermilion wax having been left ungnawed, were situated, as far as the eye could judge, exactly along the planes of imaginary intersection between the basins on the opposite sides of the ridge of wax. In parts, only little bits, in other parts, large portions of a rhombic plate had been left between the opposed basins, but the work, from the unnatural state of things, had not been neatly performed. The bees must have worked at very nearly the same rate on the opposite side of the ridge of vermilion wax, as they circularly gnawed away and deepened the basins on both sides, in order to have succeeded in thus leaving flat plates between the basins, by stopping work along the intermediate planes or planes of intersection. 
> 
> Considering how flexible thin wax is, I do not see that there is any difficulty in the bees, whilst at work on the two sides of a strip of wax, perceiving when they have gnawed the wax away to the proper thinness, and then stopping their work. In ordinary combs it has appeared to me that the bees do not always succeed in working at exactly the same rate from the opposite sides; for I have noticed half-completed rhombs at the base of a just-commenced cell, which were slightly concave on one side, where I suppose that the bees had excavated too quickly, and convex on the opposed side, where the bees had worked less quickly. In one well-marked instance, I put the comb back into the hive and allowed the bees to go on working for a short time and again examined the cell, and I found that the rhombic plate had been completed, and had become perfectly flat: it was absolutely impossible, from the extreme thinness of the little rhombic plate, that they could have affected this by gnawing away the convex side; and I suspect that the bees in such cases stand in the opposed cells and push and bend the ductile and warm wax (which as I have tried is easily done) into its proper intermediate plane, and thus flatten it. 
> 
> From the experiment of the ridge of vermilion wax, we can clearly see that if the bees were to build for themselves a thin wall of wax, they could make their cells of the proper shape, by standing at the proper distance from each other, by excavating at the same rate, and by endeavouring to make equal spherical hollows, but never allowing the spheres to break into each other. Now bees, as may be clearly seen by examining the edge of a growing comb, do make a rough, circumferential wall or rim all round the comb; and they gnaw into this from the opposite sides, always working circularly as they deepen each cell. They do not make the whole three-sided pyramidal base of any one cell at the same time, but only the one rhombic plate which stands on the extreme growing margin, or the two plates, as the case may be; and they never complete the upper edges of the rhombic plates, until the hexagonal walls are commenced. Some of these statements differ from those made by the justly celebrated elder Huber, but I am convinced of their accuracy; and if I had space, I could show that they are conformable with my theory. 
> 
> Huber's statement that the very first cell is excavated out of a little parallel-sided wall of wax, is not, as far as I have seen, strictly correct; the first commencement having always been a little hood of wax; but I will not here enter on these details. We see how important a part excavation plays in the construction of the cells; but it would be a great error to suppose that the bees cannot build up a rough wall of wax in the proper position that is, along the plane of intersection between two adjoining spheres. I have several specimens showing clearly that they can do this. Even in the rude circumferential rim or wall of wax round a growing comb, flexures may sometimes be observed, corresponding in position to the planes of the rhombic basal plates of future cells. But the rough wall of wax has in every case to be finished off, by being largely gnawed away on both sides. The manner in which the bees build is curious; they always make the first rough wall from ten to twenty times thicker than the excessively thin finished wall of the cell, which will ultimately be left. We shall understand how they work, by supposing masons first to pile up a broad ridge of cement, and then to begin cutting it away equally on both sides near the ground, till a smooth, very thin wall is left in the middle; the masons always piling up the cut-away cement, and adding fresh cement, on the summit of the ridge. We shall thus have a thin wall steadily growing upward; but always crowned by a gigantic coping. From all the cells, both those just commenced and those completed, being thus crowned by a strong coping of wax, the bees can cluster and crawl over the comb without injuring the delicate hexagonal walls, which are only about one four-hundredth of an inch in thickness; the plates of the pyramidal basis being about twice as thick. By this singular manner of building, strength is continually given to the comb, with the utmost ultimate economy of wax. 
> 
> It seems at first to add to the difficulty of understanding how the cells are made, that a multitude of bees all work together; one bee after working a short time at one cell going to another, so that, as Huber has stated, a score of individuals work even at the commencement of the first cell. I was able practically to show this fact, by covering the edges of the hexagonal walls of a single cell, or the extreme margin of the circumferential rim of a growing comb, with an extremely thin layer of melted vermilion wax; and I invariably found that the colour was most delicately diffused by the bees as delicately as a painter could have done with his brush by atoms of the coloured wax having been taken from the spot on which it had been placed, and worked into the growing edges of the cells all round. The work of construction seems to be a sort of balance struck between many bees, all instinctively standing at the same relative distance from each other, all trying to sweep equal spheres, and then building up, or leaving ungnawed, the planes of intersection between these spheres. It was really curious to note in cases of difficulty, as when two pieces of comb met at an angle, how often the bees would entirely pull down and rebuild in different ways the same cell, sometimes recurring to a shape which they had at first rejected. 
> 
> When bees have a place on which they can stand in their proper positions for working, for instance, on a slip of wood, placed directly under the middle of a comb growing downwards so that the comb has to be built over one face of the slip in this case the bees can lay the foundations of one wall of a new hexagon, in its strictly proper place, projecting beyond the other completed cells. It suffices that the bees should be enabled to stand at their proper relative distances from each other and from the walls of the last completed cells, and then, by striking imaginary spheres, they can build up a wall intermediate between two adjoining spheres; but, as far as I have seen, they never gnaw away and finish off the angles of a cell till a large part both of that cell and of the adjoining cells has been built. This capacity in bees of laying down under certain circumstances a rough wall in its proper place between two just-commenced cells, is important, as it bears on a fact, which seems at first quite subversive of the foregoing theory; namely, that the cells on the extreme margin of wasp-combs are sometimes strictly hexagonal; but I have not space here to enter on this subject. Nor does there seem to me any great difficulty in a single insect (as in the case of a queen-wasp) making hexagonal cells, if she work alternately on the inside and outside of two or three cells commenced at the same time, always standing at the proper relative distance from the parts of the cells just begun, sweeping spheres or cylinders, and building up intermediate planes. It is even conceivable that an insect might, by fixing on a point at which to commence a cell, and then moving outside, first to one point, and then to five other points, at the proper relative distances from the central point and from each other, strike the planes of intersection, and so make an isolated hexagon: but I am not aware that any such case has been observed; nor would any good be derived from a single hexagon being built, as in its construction more materials would be required than for a cylinder. 
> 
> As natural selection acts only by the accumulation of slight modifications of structure or instinct, each profitable to the individual under its conditions of life, it may reasonably be asked, how a long and graduated succession of modified architectural instincts, all tending towards the present perfect plan of construction, could have profited the progenitors of the hive-bee? I think the answer is not difficult: it is known that bees are often hard pressed to get sufficient nectar; and I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier that it has been experimentally found that no less than from twelve to fifteen pounds of dry sugar are consumed by a hive of bees for the secretion of each pound of wax; so that a prodigious quantity of fluid nectar must be collected and consumed by the bees in a hive for the secretion of the wax necessary for the construction of their combs. Moreover, many bees have to remain idle for many days during the process of secretion. A large store of honey is indispensable to support a large stock of bees during the winter; and the security of the hive is known mainly to depend on a large number of bees being supported. Hence the saving of wax by largely saving honey must be a most important element of success in any family of bees. Of course the success of any species of bee may be dependent on the number of its parasites or other enemies, or on quite distinct causes, and so be altogether independent of the quantity of honey which the bees could collect. But let us suppose that this latter circumstance determined, as it probably often does determine, the numbers of a humble-bee which could exist in a country; and let us further suppose that the community lived throughout the winter, and consequently required a store of honey: there can in this case be no doubt that it would be an advantage to our humble-bee, if a slight modification of her instinct led her to make her waxen cells near together, so as to intersect a little; for a wall in common even to two adjoining cells, would save some little wax. Hence it would continually be more and more advantageous to our humble-bee, if she were to make her cells more and more regular, nearer together, and aggregated into a mass, like the cells of the Melipona; for in this case a large part of the bounding surface of each cell would serve to bound other cells, and much wax would be saved. Again, from the same cause, it would be advantageous to the Melipona, if she were to make her cells closer together, and more regular in every way than at present; for then, as we have seen, the spherical surfaces would wholly disappear, and would all be replaced by plane surfaces; and the Melipona would make a comb as perfect as that of the hive-bee. Beyond this stage of perfection in architecture, natural selection could not lead; for the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely perfect in economising wax. 
> 
> Thus, as I believe, the most wonderful of all known instincts, that of the hive-bee, can be explained by natural selection having taken advantage of numerous, successive, slight modifications of simpler instincts; natural selection having by slow degrees, more and more perfectly, led the bees to sweep equal spheres at a given distance from each other in a double layer, and to build up and excavate the wax along the planes of intersection. The bees, of course, no more knowing that they swept their spheres at one particular distance from each other, than they know what are the several angles of the hexagonal prisms and of the basal rhombic plates. The motive power of the process of natural selection having been economy of wax; that individual swarm which wasted least honey in the secretion of wax, having succeeded best, and having transmitted by inheritance its newly acquired economical instinct to new swarms, which in their turn will have had the best chance of succeeding in the struggle for existence. 
> 
> No doubt many instincts of very difficult explanation could be opposed to the theory of natural selection, cases, in which we cannot see how an instinct could possibly have originated; cases, in which no intermediate gradations are known to exist; cases of instinct of apparently such trifling importance, that they could hardly have been acted on by natural selection; cases of instincts almost identically the same in animals so remote in the scale of nature, that we cannot account for their similarity by inheritance from a common parent, and must therefore believe that they have been acquired by independent acts of natural selection. I will not here enter on these several cases, but will confine myself to one special difficulty, which at first appeared to me insuperable, and actually fatal to my whole theory. I allude to the neuters or sterile females in insect-communities: for these neuters often differ widely in instinct and in structure from both the males and fertile females, and yet, from being sterile, they cannot propagate their kind. 
> 
> The subject well deserves to be discussed at great length, but I will here take only a single case, that of working or sterile ants. How the workers have been rendered sterile is a difficulty; but not much greater than that of any other striking modification of structure; for it can be shown that some insects and other articulate animals in a state of nature occasionally become sterile; and if such insects had been social, and it had been profitable to the community that a number should have been annually born capable of work, but incapable of procreation, I can see no very great difficulty in this being effected by natural selection. But I must pass over this preliminary difficulty. The great difficulty lies in the working ants differing widely from both the males and the fertile females in structure, as in the shape of the thorax and in being destitute of wings and sometimes of eyes, and in instinct. As far as instinct alone is concerned, the prodigious difference in this respect between the workers and the perfect females, would have been far better exemplified by the hive-bee. If a working ant or other neuter insect had been an animal in the ordinary state, I should have unhesitatingly assumed that all its characters had been slowly acquired through natural selection; namely, by an individual having been born with some slight profitable modification of structure, this being inherited by its offspring, which again varied and were again selected, and so onwards. But with the working ant we have an insect differing greatly from its parents, yet absolutely sterile; so that it could never have transmitted successively acquired modifications of structure or instinct to its progeny. It may well be asked how is it possible to reconcile this case with the theory of natural selection? 
> 
> First, let it be remembered that we have innumerable instances, both in our domestic productions and in those in a state of nature, of all sorts of differences of structure which have become correlated to certain ages, and to either sex. We have differences correlated not only to one sex, but to that short period alone when the reproductive system is active, as in the nuptial plumage of many birds, and in the hooked jaws of the male salmon. We have even slight differences in the horns of different breeds of cattle in relation to an artificially imperfect state of the male sex; for oxen of certain breeds have longer horns than in other breeds, in comparison with the horns of the bulls or cows of these same breeds. Hence I can see no real difficulty in any character having become correlated with the sterile condition of certain members of insect-communities: the difficulty lies in understanding how such correlated modifications of structure could have been slowly accumulated by natural selection. 
> 
> This difficulty, though appearing insuperable, is lessened, or, as I believe, disappears, when it is remembered that selection may be applied to the family, as well as to the individual, and may thus gain the desired end. Thus, a well-flavoured vegetable is cooked, and the individual is destroyed; but the horticulturist sows seeds of the same stock, and confidently expects to get nearly the same variety; breeders of cattle wish the flesh and fat to be well marbled together; the animal has been slaughtered, but the breeder goes with confidence to the same family. I have such faith in the powers of selection, that I do not doubt that a breed of cattle, always yielding oxen with extraordinarily long horns, could be slowly formed by carefully watching which individual bulls and cows, when matched, produced oxen with the longest horns; and yet no one ox could ever have propagated its kind. Thus I believe it has been with social insects: a slight modification of structure, or instinct, correlated with the sterile condition of certain members of the community, has been advantageous to the community: consequently the fertile males and females of the same community flourished, and transmitted to their fertile offspring a tendency to produce sterile members having the same modification. And I believe that this process has been repeated, until that prodigious amount of difference between the fertile and sterile females of the same species has been produced, which we see in many social insects. 
> 
> But we have not as yet touched on the climax of the difficulty; namely, the fact that the neuters of several ants differ, not only from the fertile females and males, but from each other, sometimes to an almost incredible degree, and are thus divided into two or even three castes. The castes, moreover, do not generally graduate into each other, but are perfectly well defined; being as distinct from each other, as are any two species of the same genus, or rather as any two genera of the same family. Thus in Eciton, there are working and soldier neuters, with jaws and instincts extraordinarily different: in Cryptocerus, the workers of one caste alone carry a wonderful sort of shield on their heads, the use of which is quite unknown: in the Mexican Myrmecocystus, the workers of one caste never leave the nest; they are fed by the workers of another caste, and they have an enormously developed abdomen which secretes a sort of honey, supplying the place of that excreted by the aphides, or the domestic cattle as they may be called, which our European ants guard or imprison. 
> 
> It will indeed be thought that I have an overweening confidence in the principle of natural selection, when I do not admit that such wonderful and well-established facts at once annihilate my theory. In the simpler case of neuter insects all of one caste or of the same kind, which have been rendered by natural selection, as I believe to be quite possible, different from the fertile males and females, in this case, we may safely conclude from the analogy of ordinary variations, that each successive, slight, profitable modification did not probably at first appear in all the individual neuters in the same nest, but in a few alone; and that by the long-continued selection of the fertile parents which produced most neuters with the profitable modification, all the neuters ultimately came to have the desired character. On this view we ought occasionally to find neuter-insects of the same species, in the same nest, presenting gradations of structure; and this we do find, even often, considering how few neuter-insects out of Europe have been carefully examined. Mr F. Smith has shown how surprisingly the neuters of several British ants differ from each other in size and sometimes in colour; and that the extreme forms can sometimes be perfectly linked together by individuals taken out of the same nest: I have myself compared perfect gradations of this kind. It often happens that the larger or the smaller sized workers are the most numerous; or that both large and small are numerous, with those of an intermediate size scanty in numbers. Formica flava has larger and smaller workers, with some of intermediate size; and, in this species, as Mr F. Smith has observed, the larger workers have simple eyes (ocelli), which though small can be plainly distinguished, whereas the smaller workers have their ocelli rudimentary. Having carefully dissected several specimens of these workers, I can affirm that the eyes are far more rudimentary in the smaller workers than can be accounted for merely by their proportionally lesser size; and I fully believe, though I dare not assert so positively, that the workers of intermediate size have their ocelli in an exactly intermediate condition. So that we here have two bodies of sterile workers in the same nest, differing not only in size, but in their organs of vision, yet connected by some few members in an intermediate condition. I may digress by adding, that if the smaller workers had been the most useful to the community, and those males and females had been continually selected, which produced more and more of the smaller workers, until all the workers had come to be in this condition; we should then have had a species of ant with neuters very nearly in the same condition with those of Myrmica. For the workers of Myrmica have not even rudiments of ocelli, though the male and female ants of this genus have well-developed ocelli. 
> 
> I may give one other case: so confidently did I expect to find gradations in important points of structure between the different castes of neuters in the same species, that I gladly availed myself of Mr F. Smith's offer of numerous specimens from the same nest of the driver ant (Anomma) of West Africa. The reader will perhaps best appreciate the amount of difference in these workers, by my giving not the actual measurements, but a strictly accurate illustration: the difference was the same as if we were to see a set of workmen building a house of whom many were five feet four inches high, and many sixteen feet high; but we must suppose that the larger workmen had heads four instead of three times as big as those of the smaller men, and jaws nearly five times as big. The jaws, moreover, of the working ants of the several sizes differed wonderfully in shape, and in the form and number of the teeth. But the important fact for us is, that though the workers can be grouped into castes of different sizes, yet they graduate insensibly into each other, as does the widely-different structure of their jaws. I speak confidently on this latter point, as Mr Lubbock made drawings for me with the camera lucida of the jaws which I had dissected from the workers of the several sizes. 
> 
> With these facts before me, I believe that natural selection, by acting on the fertile parents, could form a species which should regularly produce neuters, either all of large size with one form of jaw, or all of small size with jaws having a widely different structure; or lastly, and this is our climax of difficulty, one set of workers of one size and structure, and simultaneously another set of workers of a different size and structure; a graduated series having been first formed, as in the case of the driver ant, and then the extreme forms, from being the most useful to the community, having been produced in greater and greater numbers through the natural selection of the parents which generated them; until none with an intermediate structure were produced. 
> 
> Thus, as I believe, the wonderful fact of two distinctly defined castes of sterile workers existing in the same nest, both widely different from each other and from their parents, has originated. We can see how useful their production may have been to a social community of insects, on the same principle that the division of labour is useful to civilised man. As ants work by inherited instincts and by inherited tools or weapons, and not by acquired knowledge and manufactured instruments, a perfect division of labour could be effected with them only by the workers being sterile; for had they been fertile, they would have intercrossed, and their instincts and structure would have become blended. And nature has, as I believe, effected this admirable division of labour in the communities of ants, by the means of natural selection. But I am bound to confess, that, with all my faith in this principle, I should never have anticipated that natural selection could have been efficient in so high a degree, had not the case of these neuter insects convinced me of the fact. I have, therefore, discussed this case, at some little but wholly insufficient length, in order to show the power of natural selection, and likewise because this is by far the most serious special difficulty, which my theory has encountered. The case, also, is very interesting, as it proves that with animals, as with plants, any amount of modification in structure can be effected by the accumulation of numerous, slight, and as we must call them accidental, variations, which are in any manner profitable, without exercise or habit having come into play. For no amount of exercise, or habit, or volition, in the utterly sterile members of a community could possibly have affected the structure or instincts of the fertile members, which alone leave descendants. I am surprised that no one has advanced this demonstrative case of neuter insects, against the well-known doctrine of Lamarck. 
> 
> Summary. I have endeavoured briefly in this chapter to show that the mental qualities of our domestic animals vary, and that the variations are inherited. Still more briefly I have attempted to show that instincts vary slightly in a state of nature. No one will dispute that instincts are of the highest importance to each animal. Therefore I can see no difficulty, under changing conditions of life, in natural selection accumulating slight modifications of instinct to any extent, in any useful direction. In some cases habit or use and disuse have probably come into play. I do not pretend that the facts given in this chapter strengthen in any great degree my theory; but none of the cases of difficulty, to the best of my judgment, annihilate it. On the other hand, the fact that instincts are not always absolutely perfect and are liable to mistakes; that no instinct has been produced for the exclusive good of other animals, but that each animal takes advantage of the instincts of others; that the canon in natural history, of 'natura non facit saltum' is applicable to instincts as well as to corporeal structure, and is plainly explicable on the foregoing views, but is otherwise inexplicable, all tend to corroborate the theory of natural selection. 
> 
> This theory is, also, strengthened by some few other facts in regard to instincts; as by that common case of closely allied, but certainly distinct, species, when inhabiting distant parts of the world and living under considerably different conditions of life, yet often retaining nearly the same instincts. For instance, we can understand on the principle of inheritance, how it is that the thrush of South America lines its nest with mud, in the same peculiar manner as does our British thrush: how it is that the male wrens (Troglodytes) of North America, build 'cock-nests,' to roost in, like the males of our distinct Kitty-wrens, a habit wholly unlike that of any other known bird. Finally, it may not be a logical deduction, but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, -- the larvae of ichneumonidae feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars, not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_8|985494767
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> THE view generally entertained by naturalists is that species, when intercrossed, have been specially endowed with the quality of sterility, in order to prevent the confusion of all organic forms. This view certainly seems at first probable, for species within the same country could hardly have kept distinct had they been capable of crossing freely. The importance of the fact that hybrids are very generally sterile, has, I think, been much underrated by some late writers. On the theory of natural selection the case is especially important, inasmuch as the sterility of hybrids could not possibly be of any advantage to them, and therefore could not have been acquired by the continued preservation of successive profitable degrees of sterility. I hope, however, to be able to show that sterility is not a specially acquired or endowed quality, but is incidental on other acquired differences. 
> 
> In treating this subject, two classes of facts, to a large extent fundamentally different, have generally been confounded together; namely, the sterility of two species when first crossed, and the sterility of the hybrids produced from them. 
> 
> Pure species have of course their organs of reproduction in a perfect condition, yet when intercrossed they produce either few or no offspring. Hybrids, on the other hand, have their reproductive organs functionally impotent, as may be clearly seen in the state of the male element in both plants and animals; though the organs themselves are perfect in structure, as far as the microscope reveals. In the first case the two sexual elements which go to form the embryo are perfect; in the second case they are either not at all developed, or are imperfectly developed. This distinction is important, when the cause of the sterility, which is common to the two cases, has to be considered. The distinction has probably been slurred over, owing to the sterility in both cases being looked on as a special endowment, beyond the province of our reasoning powers. 
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> The fertility of varieties, that is of the forms known or believed to have descended from common parents, when intercrossed, and likewise the fertility of their mongrel offspring, is, on my theory, of equal importance with the sterility of species; for it seems to make a broad and clear distinction between varieties and species. 
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> First, for the sterility of species when crossed and of their hybrid offspring. It is impossible to study the several memoirs and works of those two conscientious and admirable observers, Kölreuter and Gärtner, who almost devoted their lives to this subject, without being deeply impressed with the high generality of some degree of sterility. Kölreuter makes the rule universal; but then he cuts the knot, for in ten cases in which he found two forms, considered by most authors as distinct species, quite fertile together, he unhesitatingly ranks them as varieties. Gärtner, also, makes the rule equally universal; and he disputes the entire fertility of Kölreuter's ten cases. But in these and in many other cases, Gärtner is obliged carefully to count the seeds, in order to show that there is any degree of sterility. He always compares the maximum number of seeds produced by two species when crossed and by their hybrid offspring, with the average number produced by both pure parent-species in a state of nature. But a serious cause of error seems to me to be here introduced: a plant to be hybridised must be castrated, and, what is often more important, must be secluded in order to prevent pollen being brought to it by insects from other plants. Nearly all the plants experimentised on by Gärtner were potted, and apparently were kept in a chamber in his house. That these processes are often injurious to the fertility of a plant cannot be doubted; for Gärtner gives in his table about a score of cases of plants which he castrated, and artificially fertilised with their own pollen, and (excluding all cases such as the Leguminosae, in which there is an acknowledged difficulty in the manipulation) half of these twenty plants had their fertility in some degree impaired. Moreover, as Gärtner during several years repeatedly crossed the primrose and cowslip, which we have such good reason to believe to be varieties, and only once or twice succeeded in getting fertile seed; as he found the common red and blue pimpernels (Anagallis arvensis and coerulea), which the best botanists rank as varieties, absolutely sterile together; and as he came to the same conclusion in several other analogous cases; it seems to me that we may well be permitted to doubt whether many other species are really so sterile, when intercrossed, as Gärtner believes. 
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> It is certain, on the one hand, that the sterility of various species when crossed is so different in degree and graduates away so insensibly, and, on the other hand, that the fertility of pure species is so easily affected by various circumstances, that for all practical purposes it is most difficult to say where perfect fertility ends and sterility begins. I think no better evidence of this can be required than that the two most experienced observers who have ever lived, namely, Kölreuter and Gärtner, should have arrived at diametrically opposite conclusions in regard to the very same species. It is also most instructive to compare but I have not space here to enter on details the evidence advanced by our best botanists on the question whether certain doubtful forms should be ranked as species or varieties, with the evidence from fertility adduced by different hybridisers, or by the same author, from experiments made during different years. It can thus be shown that neither sterility nor fertility affords any clear distinction between species and varieties; but that the evidence from this source graduates away, and is doubtful in the same degree as is the evidence derived from other constitutional and structural differences. 
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> In regard to the sterility of hybrids in successive generations; though Gärtner was enabled to rear some hybrids, carefully guarding them from a cross with either pure parent, for six or seven, and in one case for ten generations, yet he asserts positively that their fertility never increased, but generally greatly decreased. I do not doubt that this is usually the case, and that the fertility often suddenly decreases in the first few generations. Nevertheless I believe that in all these experiments the fertility has been diminished by an independent cause, namely, from close interbreeding. I have collected so large a body of facts, showing that close interbreeding lessens fertility, and, on the other hand, that an occasional cross with a distinct individual or variety increases fertility, that I cannot doubt the correctness of this almost universal belief amongst breeders. Hybrids are seldom raised by experimentalists in great numbers; and as the parent-species, or other allied hybrids, generally grow in the same garden, the visits of insects must be carefully prevented during the flowering season: hence hybrids will generally be fertilised during each generation by their own individual pollen; and I am convinced that this would be injurious to their fertility, already lessened by their hybrid origin. I am strengthened in this conviction by a remarkable statement repeatedly made by Gärtner, namely, that if even the less fertile hybrids be artificially fertilised with hybrid pollen of the same kind, their fertility, notwithstanding the frequent ill effects of manipulation, sometimes decidedly increases, and goes on increasing. Now, in artificial fertilisation pollen is as often taken by chance (as I know from my own experience) from the anthers of another flower, as from the anthers of the flower itself which is to be fertilised; so that a cross between two flowers, though probably on the same plant, would be thus effected. Moreover, whenever complicated experiments are in progress, so careful an observer as Gärtner would have castrated his hybrids, and this would have insured in each generation a cross with the pollen from a distinct flower, either from the same plant or from another plant of the same hybrid nature. And thus, the strange fact of the increase of fertility in the successive generations of artificially fertilised hybrids may, I believe, be accounted for by close interbreeding having been avoided. 
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> Now let us turn to the results arrived at by the third most experienced hybridiser, namely, the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert. He is as emphatic in his conclusion that some hybrids are perfectly fertile as fertile as the pure parent-species as are Kölreuter and Gärtner that some degree of sterility between distinct species is a universal law of nature. He experimentised on some of the very same species as did Gärtner. The difference in their results may, I think, be in part accounted for by Herbert's great horticultural skill, and by his having hothouses at his command. Of his many important statements I will here give only a single one as an example, namely, that 'every ovule in a pod of Crinum capense fertilised by C. revolutum produced a plant, which (he says) I never saw to occur in a case of its natural fecundation.' So that we here have perfect, or even more than commonly perfect, fertility in a first cross between two distinct species. 
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> This case of the Crinum leads me to refer to a most singular fact, namely, that there are individual plants, as with certain species of Lobelia, and with all the species of the genus Hippeastrum, which can be far more easily fertilised by the pollen of another and distinct species, than by their own pollen. For these plants have been found to yield seed to the pollen of a distinct species, though quite sterile with their own pollen, notwithstanding that their own pollen was found to be perfectly good, for it fertilised distinct species. So that certain individual plants and all the individuals of certain species can actually be hybridised much more readily than they can be self-fertilised! For instance, a bulb of Hippeastrum aulicum produced four flowers; three were fertilised by Herbert with their own pollen, and the fourth was subsequently fertilised by the pollen of a compound hybrid descended from three other and distinct species: the result was that 'the ovaries of the three first flowers soon ceased to grow, and after a few days perished entirely, whereas the pod impregnated by the pollen of the hybrid made vigorous growth and rapid progress to maturity, and bore good seed, which vegetated freely.' In a letter to me, in 1839, Mr Herbert told me that he had then tried the experiment during five years, and he continued to try it during several subsequent years, and always with the same result. This result has, also, been confirmed by other observers in the case of Hippeastrum with its sub-genera, and in the case of some other genera, as Lobelia, Passiflora and Verbascum. Although the plants in these experiments appeared perfectly healthy, and although both the ovules and pollen of the same flower were perfectly good with respect to other species, yet as they were functionally imperfect in their mutual self-action, we must infer that the plants were in an unnatural state. Nevertheless these facts show on what slight and mysterious causes the lesser or greater fertility of species when crossed, in comparison with the same species when self-fertilised, sometimes depends. 
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> The practical experiments of horticulturists, though not made with scientific precision, deserve some notice. It is notorious in how complicated a manner the species of Pelargonium, Fuchsia, Calceolaria, Petunia, Rhododendron, &c., have been crossed, yet many of these hybrids seed freely. For instance, Herbert asserts that a hybrid from Calceolaria integrifolia and plantaginea, species most widely dissimilar in general habit, 'reproduced itself as perfectly as if it had been a natural species from the mountains of Chile.' I have taken some pains to ascertain the degree of fertility of some of the complex crosses of Rhododendrons, and I am assured that many of them are perfectly fertile. Mr C. Noble, for instance, informs me that he raises stocks for grafting from a hybrid between Rhod. Ponticum and Catawbiense, and that this hybrid 'seeds as freely as it is possible to imagine.' Had hybrids, when fairly treated, gone on decreasing in fertility in each successive generation, as Gärtner believes to be the case, the fact would have been notorious to nurserymen. Horticulturists raise large beds of the same hybrids, and such alone are fairly treated, for by insect agency the several individuals of the same hybrid variety are allowed to freely cross with each other, and the injurious influence of close interbreeding is thus prevented. Any one may readily convince himself of the efficiency of insect-agency by examining the flowers of the more sterile kinds of hybrid rhododendrons, which produce no pollen, for he will find on their stigmas plenty of pollen brought from other flowers. 
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> In regard to animals, much fewer experiments have been carefully tried than with plants. If our systematic arrangements can be trusted, that is if the genera of animals are as distinct from each other, as are the genera of plants, then we may infer that animals more widely separated in the scale of nature can be more easily crossed than in the case of plants; but the hybrids themselves are, I think, more sterile. I doubt whether any case of a perfectly fertile hybrid animal can be considered as thoroughly well authenticated. It should, however, be borne in mind that, owing to few animals breeding freely under confinement, few experiments have been fairly tried: for instance, the canary-bird has been crossed with nine other finches, but as not one of these nine species breeds freely in confinement, we have no right to expect that the first crosses between them and the canary, or that their hybrids, should be perfectly fertile. Again, with respect to the fertility in successive generations of the more fertile hybrid animals, I hardly know of an instance in which two families of the same hybrid have been raised at the same time from different parents, so as to avoid the ill effects of close interbreeding. On the contrary, brothers and sisters have usually been crossed in each successive generation, in opposition to the constantly repeated admonition of every breeder. And in this case, it is not at all surprising that the inherent sterility in the hybrids should have gone on increasing. If we were to act thus, and pair brothers and sisters in the case of any pure animal, which from any cause had the least tendency to sterility, the breed would assuredly be lost in a very few generations. 
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> Although I do not know of any thoroughly well-authenticated cases of perfectly fertile hybrid animals, I have some reason to believe that the hybrids from Cervulus vaginalis and Reevesii, and from Phasianus colchicus with p. torquatus and with p. versicolor are perfectly fertile. The hybrids from the common and Chinese geese (A. cygnoides), species which are so different that they are generally ranked in distinct genera, have often bred in this country with either pure parent, and in one single instance they have bred inter se. This was effected by Mr Eyton, who raised two hybrids from the same parents but from different hatches; and from these two birds he raised no less than eight hybrids (grandchildren of the pure geese) from one nest. In India, however, these cross-bred geese must be far more fertile; for I am assured by two eminently capable judges, namely Mr Blyth and Capt. Hutton, that whole flocks of these crossed geese are kept in various parts of the country; and as they are kept for profit, where neither pure parent-species exists, they must certainly be highly fertile. 
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> A doctrine which originated with Pallas, has been largely accepted by modern naturalists; namely, that most of our domestic animals have descended from two or more aboriginal species, since commingled by intercrossing. On this view, the aboriginal species must either at first have produced quite fertile hybrids, or the hybrids must have become in subsequent generations quite fertile under domestication. This latter alternative seems to me the most probable, and I am inclined to believe in its truth, although its rests on no direct evidence. I believe, for instance, that our dogs have descended from several wild stocks; yet, with perhaps the exception of certain indigenous domestic dogs of South America, all are quite fertile together; and analogy makes me greatly doubt, whether the several aboriginal species would at first have freely bred together and have produced quite fertile hybrids. So again there is reason to believe that our European and the humped Indian cattle are quite fertile together; but from facts communicated to me by Mr Blyth, I think they must be considered as distinct species. On this view of the origin of many of our domestic animals, we must either give up the belief of the almost universal sterility of distinct species of animals when crossed; or we must look at sterility, not as an indelible characteristic, but as one capable of being removed by domestication. 
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> Finally, looking to all the ascertained facts on the intercrossing of plants and animals, it may be concluded that some degree of sterility, both in first crosses and in hybrids, is an extremely general result; but that it cannot, under our present state of knowledge, be considered as absolutely universal. 
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> Laws governing the Sterility of first Crosses and of Hybrids. We will now consider a little more in detail the circumstances and rules governing the sterility of first crosses and of hybrids. Our chief object will be to see whether or not the rules indicate that species have specially been endowed with this quality, in order to prevent their crossing and blending together in utter confusion. The following rules and conclusions are chiefly drawn up from Gärtner's admirable work on the hybridisation of plants. I have taken much pains to ascertain how far the rules apply to animals, and considering how scanty our knowledge is in regard to hybrid animals, I have been surprised to find how generally the same rules apply to both kingdoms. 
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> It has been already remarked, that the degree of fertility, both of first crosses and of hybrids, graduates from zero to perfect fertility. It is surprising in how many curious ways this gradation can be shown to exist; but only the barest outline of the facts can here be given. When pollen from a plant of one family is placed on the stigma of a plant of a distinct family, it exerts no more influence than so much inorganic dust. From this absolute zero of fertility, the pollen of different species of the same genus applied to the stigma of some one species, yields a perfect gradation in the number of seeds produced, up to nearly complete or even quite complete fertility; and, as we have seen, in certain abnormal cases, even to an excess of fertility, beyond that which the plant's own pollen will produce. So in hybrids themselves, there are some which never have produced, and probably never would produce, even with the pollen of either pure parent, a single fertile seed: but in some of these cases a first trace of fertility may be detected, by the pollen of one of the pure parent-species causing the flower of the hybrid to wither earlier than it otherwise would have done; and the early withering of the flower is well known to be a sign of incipient fertilisation. From this extreme degree of sterility we have self-fertilised hybrids producing a greater and greater number of seeds up to perfect fertility. 
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> Hybrids from two species which are very difficult to cross, and which rarely produce any offspring, are generally very sterile; but the parallelism between the difficulty of making a first cross, and the sterility of the hybrids thus produced two classes of facts which are generally confounded together is by no means strict. There are many cases, in which two pure species can be united with unusual facility, and produce numerous hybrid-offspring, yet these hybrids are remarkably sterile. On the other hand, there are species which can be crossed very rarely, or with extreme difficulty, but the hybrids, when at last produced, are very fertile. Even within the limits of the same genus, for instance in Dianthus, these two opposite cases occur. 
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> The fertility, both of first crosses and of hybrids, is more easily affected by unfavourable conditions, than is the fertility of pure species. But the degree of fertility is likewise innately variable; for it is not always the same when the same two species are crossed under the same circumstances, but depends in part upon the constitution of the individuals which happen to have been chosen for the experiment. So it is with hybrids, for their degree of fertility is often found to differ greatly in the several individuals raised from seed out of the same capsule and exposed to exactly the same conditions. 
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> By the term systematic affinity is meant, the resemblance between species in structure and in constitution, more especially in the structure of parts which are of high physiological importance and which differ little in the allied species. Now the fertility of first crosses between species, and of the hybrids produced from them, is largely governed by their systematic affinity. This is clearly shown by hybrids never having been raised between species ranked by systematists in distinct families; and on the other hand, by very closely allied species generally uniting with facility. But the correspondence between systematic affinity and the facility of crossing is by no means strict. A multitude of cases could be given of very closely allied species which will not unite, or only with extreme difficulty; and on the other hand of very distinct species which unite with the utmost facility. In the same family there may be a genus, as Dianthus, in which very many species can most readily be crossed; and another genus, as Silene, in which the most persevering efforts have failed to produce between extremely close species a single hybrid. Even within the limits of the same genus, we meet with this same difference; for instance, the many species of Nicotiana have been more largely crossed than the species of almost any other genus; but Gärtner found that N. acuminata, which is not a particularly distinct species, obstinately failed to fertilise, or to be fertilised by, no less than eight other species of Nicotiana. Very many analogous facts could be given. 
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> No one has been able to point out what kind, or what amount, of difference in any recognisable character is sufficient to prevent two species crossing. It can be shown that plants most widely different in habit and general appearance, and having strongly marked differences in every part of the flower, even in the pollen, in the fruit, and in the cotyledons, can be crossed. Annual and perennial plants, deciduous and evergreen trees, plants inhabiting different stations and fitted for extremely different climates, can often be crossed with ease. 
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> By a reciprocal cross between two species, I mean the case, for instance, of a stallion-horse being first crossed with a female-ass, and then a male-ass with a mare: these two species may then be said to have been reciprocally crossed. There is often the widest possible difference in the facility of making reciprocal crosses. Such cases are highly important, for they prove that the capacity in any two species to cross is often completely independent of their systematic affinity, or of any recognisable difference in their whole organisation. On the other hand, these cases clearly show that the capacity for crossing is connected with constitutional differences imperceptible by us, and confined to the reproductive system. This difference in the result of reciprocal crosses between the same two species was long ago observed by Kölreuter. To give an instance: Mirabilis jalappa can easily be fertilised by the pollen of M. longiflora, and the hybrids thus produced are sufficiently fertile; but Kölreuter tried more than two hundred times, during eight following years, to fertilise reciprocally M. longiflora with the pollen of M. jalappa, and utterly failed. Several other equally striking cases could be given. Thuret has observed the same fact with certain sea-weeds or Fuci. Gärtner, moreover, found that this difference of facility in making reciprocal crosses is extremely common in a lesser degree. He has observed it even between forms so closely related (as Matthiola annua and glabra) that many botanists rank them only as varieties. It is also a remarkable fact, that hybrids raised from reciprocal crosses, though of course compounded of the very same two species, the one species having first been used as the father and then as the mother, generally differ in fertility in a small, and occasionally in a high degree. 
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> Several other singular rules could be given from Gärtner: for instance, some species have a remarkable power of crossing with other species; other species of the same genus have a remarkable power of impressing their likeness on their hybrid offspring; but these two powers do not at all necessarily go together. There are certain hybrids which instead of having, as is usual, an intermediate character between their two parents, always closely resemble one of them; and such hybrids, though externally so like one of their pure parent-species, are with rare exceptions extremely sterile. So again amongst hybrids which are usually intermediate in structure between their parents, exceptional and abnormal individuals sometimes are born, which closely resemble one of their pure parents; and these hybrids are almost always utterly sterile, even when the other hybrids raised from seed from the same capsule have a considerable degree of fertility. These facts show how completely fertility in the hybrid is independent of its external resemblance to either pure parent. 
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> Considering the several rules now given, which govern the fertility of first crosses and of hybrids, we see that when forms, which must be considered as good and distinct species, are united, their fertility graduates from zero to perfect fertility, or even to fertility under certain conditions in excess. That their fertility, besides being eminently susceptible to favourable and unfavourable conditions, is innately variable. That it is by no means always the same in degree in the first cross and in the hybrids produced from this cross. That the fertility of hybrids is not related to the degree in which they resemble in external appearance either parent. And lastly, that the facility of making a first cross between any two species is not always governed by their systematic affinity or degree of resemblance to each other. This latter statement is clearly proved by reciprocal crosses between the same two species, for according as the one species or the other is used as the father or the mother, there is generally some difference, and occasionally the widest possible difference, in the facility of effecting an union. The hybrids, moreover, produced from reciprocal crosses often differ in fertility. 
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> Now do these complex and singular rules indicate that species have been endowed with sterility simply to prevent their becoming confounded in nature? I think not. For why should the sterility be so extremely different in degree, when various species are crossed, all of which we must suppose it would be equally important to keep from blending together? Why should the degree of sterility be innately variable in the individuals of the same species? Why should some species cross with facility, and yet produce very sterile hybrids; and other species cross with extreme difficulty, and yet produce fairly fertile hybrids? Why should there often be so great a difference in the result of a reciprocal cross between the same two species? Why, it may even be asked, has the production of hybrids been permitted? To grant to species the special power of producing hybrids, and then to stop their further propagation by different degrees of sterility, not strictly related to the facility of the first union between their parents, seems to be a strange arrangement. 
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> The foregoing rules and facts, on the other hand, appear to me clearly to indicate that the sterility both of first crosses and of hybrids is simply incidental or dependent on unknown differences, chiefly in the reproductive systems, of the species which are crossed. The differences being of so peculiar and limited a nature, that, in reciprocal crosses between two species the male sexual element of the one will often freely act on the female sexual element of the other, but not in a reversed direction. It will be advisable to explain a little more fully by an example what I mean by sterility being incidental on other differences, and not a specially endowed quality. As the capacity of one plant to be grafted or budded on another is so entirely unimportant for its welfare in a state of nature, I presume that no one will suppose that this capacity is a specially endowed quality, but will admit that it is incidental on differences in the laws of growth of the two plants. We can sometimes see the reason why one tree will not take on another, from differences in their rate of growth, in the hardness of their wood, in the period of the flow or nature of their sap, &c.; but in a multitude of cases we can assign no reason whatever. Great diversity in the size of two plants, one being woody and the other herbaceous, one being evergreen and the other deciduous, and adaptation to widely different climates, does not always prevent the two grafting together. As in hybridisation, so with grafting, the capacity is limited by systematic affinity, for no one has been able to graft trees together belonging to quite distinct families; and, on the other hand, closely allied species, and varieties of the same species, can usually, but not invariably, be grafted with ease. But this capacity, as in hybridisation, is by no means absolutely governed by systematic affinity. Although many distinct genera within the same family have been grafted together, in other cases species of the same genus will not take on each other. The pear can be grafted far more readily on the quince, which is ranked as a distinct genus, than on the apple, which is a member of the same genus. Even different varieties of the pear take with different degrees of facility on the quince; so do different varieties of the apricot and peach on certain varieties of the plum. 
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> As Gärtner found that there was sometimes an innate difference in different individuals of the same two species in crossing; so Sagaret believes this to be the case with different individuals of the same two species in being grafted together. As in reciprocal crosses, the facility of effecting an union is often very far from equal, so it sometimes is in grafting; the common gooseberry, for instance, cannot be grafted on the currant, whereas the currant will take, though with difficulty, on the gooseberry. 
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> We have seen that the sterility of hybrids, which have their reproductive organs in an imperfect condition, is a very different case from the difficulty of uniting two pure species, which have their reproductive organs perfect; yet these two distinct cases run to a certain extent parallel. Something analogous occurs in grafting; for Thouin found that three species of Robinia, which seeded freely on their own roots, and which could be grafted with no great difficulty on another species, when thus grafted were rendered barren. On the other hand, certain species of Sorbus, when grafted on other species, yielded twice as much fruit as when on their own roots. We are reminded by this latter fact of the extraordinary case of Hippeastrum, Lobelia, &c., which seeded much more freely when fertilised with the pollen of distinct species, than when self-fertilised with their own pollen. 
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> We thus see, that although there is a clear and fundamental difference between the mere adhesion of grafted stocks, and the union of the male and female elements in the act of reproduction, yet that there is a rude degree of parallelism in the results of grafting and of crossing distinct species. And as we must look at the curious and complex laws governing the facility with which trees can be grafted on each other as incidental on unknown differences in their vegetative systems, so I believe that the still more complex laws governing the facility of first crosses, are incidental on unknown differences, chiefly in their reproductive systems. These differences, in both cases, follow to a certain extent, as might have been expected, systematic affinity, by which every kind of resemblance and dissimilarity between organic beings is attempted to be expressed. The facts by no means seem to me to indicate that the greater or lesser difficulty of either grafting or crossing together various species has been a special endowment; although in the case of crossing, the difficulty is as important for the endurance and stability of specific forms, as in the case of grafting it is unimportant for their welfare. 
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> Causes of the Sterility of first Crosses and of Hybrids. We may now look a little closer at the probable causes of the sterility of first crosses and of hybrids. These two cases are fundamentally different, for, as just remarked, in the union of two pure species the male and female sexual elements are perfect, whereas in hybrids they are imperfect. Even in first crosses, the greater or lesser difficulty in effecting a union apparently depends on several distinct causes. There must sometimes be a physical impossibility in the male element reaching the ovule, as would be the case with a plant having a pistil too long for the pollen-tubes to reach the ovarium. It has also been observed that when pollen of one species is placed on the stigma of a distantly allied species, though the pollen-tubes protrude, they do not penetrate the stigmatic surface. Again, the male element may reach the female element, but be incapable of causing an embryo to be developed, as seems to have been the case with some of Thuret's experiments on Fuci. No explanation can be given of these facts, any more than why certain trees cannot be grafted on others. Lastly, an embryo may be developed, and then perish at an early period. This latter alternative has not been sufficiently attended to; but I believe, from observations communicated to me by Mr. Hewitt, who has had great experience in hybridising gallinaceous birds, that the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses. I was at first very unwilling to believe in this view; as hybrids, when once born, are generally healthy and long-lived, as we see in the case of the common mule. Hybrids, however, are differently circumstanced before and after birth: when born and living in a country where their two parents can live, they are generally placed under suitable conditions of life. But a hybrid partakes of only half of the nature and constitution of its mother, and therefore before birth, as long as it is nourished within its mother's womb or within the egg or seed produced by the mother, it may be exposed to conditions in some degree unsuitable, and consequently be liable to perish at an early period; more especially as all very young beings seem eminently sensitive to injurious or unnatural conditions of life. 
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> In regard to the sterility of hybrids, in which the sexual elements are imperfectly developed, the case is very different. I have more than once alluded to a large body of facts, which I have collected, showing that when animals and plants are removed from their natural conditions, they are extremely liable to have their reproductive systems seriously affected. This, in fact, is the great bar to the domestication of animals. Between the sterility thus superinduced and that of hybrids, there are many points of similarity. In both cases the sterility is independent of general health, and is often accompanied by excess of size or great luxuriance. In both cases, the sterility occurs in various degrees; in both, the male element is the most liable to be affected; but sometimes the female more than the male. In both, the tendency goes to a certain extent with systematic affinity, or whole groups of animals and plants are rendered impotent by the same unnatural conditions; and whole groups of species tend to produce sterile hybrids. On the other hand, one species in a group will sometimes resist great changes of conditions with unimpaired fertility; and certain species in a group will produce unusually fertile hybrids. No one can tell, till he tries, whether any particular animal will breed under confinement or any plant seed freely under culture; nor can he tell, till he tries, whether any two species of a genus will produce more or less sterile hybrids. Lastly, when organic beings are placed during several generations under conditions not natural to them, they are extremely liable to vary, which is due, as I believe, to their reproductive systems having been specially affected, though in a lesser degree than when sterility ensues. So it is with hybrids, for hybrids in successive generations are eminently liable to vary, as every experimentalist has observed. 
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> Thus we see that when organic beings are placed under new and unnatural conditions, and when hybrids are produced by the unnatural crossing of two species, the reproductive system, independently of the general state of health, is affected by sterility in a very similar manner. In the one case, the conditions of life have been disturbed, though often in so slight a degree as to be inappreciable by us; in the other case, or that of hybrids,the external conditions have remained the same, but the organisation has been disturbed by two different structures and constitutions having been blended into one. For it is scarcely possible that two organisations should be compounded into one, without some disturbance occurring in the development, or periodical action, or mutual relation of the different parts and organs one to another, or to the conditions of life. When hybrids are able to breed inter se, they transmit to their offspring from generation to generation the same compounded organisation, and hence we need not be surprised that their sterility, though in some degree variable, rarely diminishes. 
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> It must, however, be confessed that we cannot understand, excepting on vague hypotheses, several facts with respect to the sterility of hybrids; for instance, the unequal fertility of hybrids produced from reciprocal crosses; or the increased sterility in those hybrids which occasionally and exceptionally resemble closely either pure parent. Nor do I pretend that the foregoing remarks go to the root of the matter: no explanation is offered why an organism, when placed under unnatural conditions, is rendered sterile. All that I have attempted to show, is that in two cases, in some respects allied, sterility is the common result, in the one case from the conditions of life having been disturbed, in the other case from the organisation having been disturbed by two organisations having been compounded into one. 
> 
> It may seem fanciful, but I suspect that a similar parallelism extends to an allied yet very different class of facts. It is an old and almost universal belief, founded, I think, on a considerable body of evidence, that slight changes in the conditions of life are beneficial to all living things. We see this acted on by farmers and gardeners in their frequent exchanges of seed, tubers, &c., from one soil or climate to another, and back again. During the convalescence of animals, we plainly see that great benefit is derived from almost any change in the habits of life. Again, both with plants and animals, there is abundant evidence, that a cross between very distinct individuals of the same species, that is between members of different strains or sub-breeds, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring. I believe, indeed, from the facts alluded to in our fourth chapter, that a certain amount of crossing is indispensable even with hermaphrodites; and that close interbreeding continued during several generations between the nearest relations, especially if these be kept under the same conditions of life, always induces weakness and sterility in the progeny. 
> 
> Hence it seems that, on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life benefit all organic beings, and on the other hand, that slight crosses, that is crosses between the males and females of the same species which have varied and become slightly different, give vigour and fertility to the offspring. But we have seen that greater changes, or changes of a particular nature, often render organic beings in some degree sterile; and that greater crosses, that is crosses between males and females which have become widely or specifically different, produce hybrids which are generally sterile in some degree. I cannot persuade myself that this parallelism is an accident or an illusion. Both series of facts seem to be connected together by some common but unknown bond, which is essentially related to the principle of life. 
> 
> Fertility of Varieties when crossed, and of their Mongrel off-spring. It may be urged, as a most forcible argument, that there must be some essential distinction between species and varieties, and that there must be some error in all the foregoing remarks, inasmuch as varieties, however much they may differ from each other in external appearance, cross with perfect facility, and yield perfectly fertile offspring. I fully admit that this is almost invariably the case. But if we look to varieties produced under nature, we are immediately involved in hopeless difficulties; for if two hitherto reputed varieties be found in any degree sterile together, they are at once ranked by most naturalists as species. For instance, the blue and red pimpernel, the primrose and cowslip, which are considered by many of our best botanists as varieties, are said by Gärtner not to be quite fertile when crossed, and he consequently ranks them as undoubted species. If we thus argue in a circle, the fertility of all varieties produced under nature will assuredly have to be granted. 
> 
> If we turn to varieties, produced, or supposed to have been produced, under domestication, we are still involved in doubt. For when it is stated, for instance, that the German Spitz dog unites more easily than other dogs with foxes, or that certain South American indigenous domestic dogs do not readily cross with European dogs, the explanation which will occur to everyone, and probably the true one, is that these dogs have descended from several aboriginally distinct species. Nevertheless the perfect fertility of so many domestic varieties, differing widely from each other in appearance, for instance of the pigeon or of the cabbage, is a remarkable fact; more especially when we reflect how many species there are, which, though resembling each other most closely, are utterly sterile when intercrossed. Several considerations, however, render the fertility of domestic varieties less remarkable than at first appears. It can, in the first place, be clearly shown that mere external dissimilarity between two species does not determine their greater or lesser degree of sterility when crossed; and we may apply the same rule to domestic varieties. In the second place, some eminent naturalists believe that a long course of domestication tends to eliminate sterility in the successive generations of hybrids, which were at first only slightly sterile; and if this be so, we surely ought not to expect to find sterility both appearing and disappearing under nearly the same conditions of life. Lastly, and this seems to me by far the most important consideration, new races of animals and plants are produced under domestication by man's methodical and unconscious power of selection, for his own use and pleasure: he neither wishes to select, nor could select, slight differences in the reproductive system, or other constitutional difference correlated with the reproductive system. He supplies his several varieties with the same food; treats them in nearly the same manner, and does not wish to alter their general habits of life. Nature acts uniformly and slowly during vast periods of time on the whole organization, in any way which may be for each creature's own good; and thus she may, either directly, or more probably indirectly, through correlation, modify the reproductive system in the several descendants from any one species. Seeing this difference in the process of selection, as carried on by man and nature, we need not be surprised at some difference in the result. 
> 
> I have as yet spoken as if the varieties of the same species were invariably fertile when intercrossed. But it seems to me impossible to resist the evidence of the existence of a certain amount of sterility in the few following cases, which I will briefly abstract. The evidence is at least as good as that from which we believe in the sterility of a multitude of species. The evidence is, also, derived from hostile witnesses, who in all other cases consider fertility and sterility as safe criterions of specific distinction. Gärtner kept during several years a dwarf kind of maize with yellow seeds, and a tall variety with red seeds, growing near each other in his garden; and although these plants have separated sexes, they never naturally crossed. He then fertilized thirteen flowers of the one with the pollen of the other; but only a single head produced any seed, and this one head produced only five grains. Manipulation in this case could not have been injurious, as the plants have separated sexes. No one, I believe, has suspected that these varieties of maize are distinct species; and it is important to notice that the hybrid plants thus raised were themselves perfectly fertile; so that even Gärtner did not venture to consider the two varieties as specifically distinct. 
> 
> Girou de Buzareingues crossed three varieties of gourd, which like the maize has separated sexes, and he asserts that their mutual fertilization is by so much the less easy as their differences are greater. How far these experiments may be trusted, I know not; but the forms experimentised on, are ranked by Sagaret, who mainly founds his classification by the test of infertility, as varieties. 
> 
> The following case is far more remarkable, and seems at first quite incredible; but it is the result of an astonishing number of experiments made during many years on nine species of Verbascum, by so good an observer and so hostile a witness, as Gärtner: namely, that yellow and white varieties of the same species of Verbascum when intercrossed produce less seed, than do either coloured varieties when fertilized with pollen from their own coloured flowers. Moreover, he asserts that when yellow and white varieties of one species are crossed with yellow and white varieties of a distinct species, more seed is produced by the crosses between the same coloured flowers, than between those which are differently coloured. Yet these varieties of Verbascum present no other difference besides the mere colour of the flower; and one variety can sometimes be raised from the seed of the other. 
> 
> From observations which I have made on certain varieties of hollyhock, I am inclined to suspect that they present analogous facts. 
> 
> Kölreuter, whose accuracy has been confirmed by every subsequent observer, has proved the remarkable fact, that one variety of the common tobacco is more fertile, when crossed with a widely distinct species, than are the other varieties. He experimentised on five forms, which are commonly reputed to be varieties, and which he tested by the severest trial, namely, by reciprocal crosses, and he found their mongrel offspring perfectly fertile. But one of these five varieties, when used either as father or mother, and crossed with the Nicotiana glutinosa, always yielded hybrids not so sterile as those which were produced from the four other varieties when crossed with N. glutinosa. Hence the reproductive system of this one variety must have been in some manner and in some degree modified. 
> 
> From these facts; from the great difficulty of ascertaining the infertility of varieties in a state of nature, for a supposed variety if infertile in any degree would generally be ranked as species; from man selecting only external characters in the production of the most distinct domestic varieties, and from not wishing or being able to produce recondite and functional differences in the reproductive system; from these several considerations and facts, I do not think that the very general fertility of varieties can be proved to be of universal occurrence, or to form a fundamental distinction between varieties and species. The general fertility of varieties does not seem to me sufficient to overthrow the view which I have taken with respect to the very general, but not invariable, sterility of first crosses and of hybrids, namely, that it is not a special endowment, but is incidental on slowly acquired modifications, more especially in the reproductive systems of the forms which are crossed. 
> 
> Hybrids and Mongrels compared, independently of their fertility. Independently of the question of fertility, the offspring of species when crossed and of varieties when crossed may be compared in several other respects. Gärtner, whose strong wish was to draw a marked line of distinction between species and varieties, could find very few and, as it seems to me, quite unimportant differences between the so-called hybrid offspring of species, and the so-called mongrel offspring of varieties. And, on the other hand, they agree most closely in very many important respects. 
> 
> I shall here discuss this subject with extreme brevity. The most important distinction is, that in the first generation mongrels are more variable than hybrids; but Gärtner admits that hybrids from species which have long been cultivated are often variable in the first generation; and I have myself seen striking instances of this fact. Gärtner further admits that hybrids between very closely allied species are more variable than those from very distinct species; and this shows that the difference in the degree of variability graduates away. When mongrels and the more fertile hybrids are propagated for several generations an extreme amount of variability in their offspring is notorious; but some few cases both of hybrids and mongrels long retaining uniformity of character could be given. The variability, however, in the successive generations of mongrels is, perhaps, greater than in hybrids. 
> 
> This greater variability of mongrels than of hybrids does not seem to me at all surprising. For the parents of mongrels are varieties, and mostly domestic varieties (very few experiments having been tried on natural varieties), and this implies in most cases that there has been recent variability; and therefore we might expect that such variability would often continue and be super-added to that arising from the mere act of crossing. The slight degree of variability in hybrids from the first cross or in the first generation, in contrast with their extreme variability in the succeeding generations, is a curious fact and deserves attention. For it bears on and corroborates the view which I have taken on the cause of ordinary variability; namely, that it is due to the reproductive system being eminently sensitive to any change in the conditions of life, being thus often rendered either impotent or at least incapable of its proper function of producing offspring identical with the parent-form. Now hybrids in the first generation are descended from species (excluding those long cultivated) which have not had their reproductive systems in any way affected, and they are not variable; but hybrids themselves have their reproductive systems seriously affected, and their descendants are highly variable. 
> 
> But to return to our comparison of mongrels and hybrids: Gärtner states that mongrels are more liable than hybrids to revert to either parent-form; but this, if it be true, is certainly only a difference in degree. Gärtner further insists that when any two species, although most closely allied to each other, are crossed with a third species, the hybrids are widely different from each other; whereas if two very distinct varieties of one species are crossed with another species, the hybrids do not differ much. But this conclusion, as far as I can make out, is founded on a single experiment; and seems directly opposed to the results of several experiments made by Kölreuter. 
> 
> These alone are the unimportant differences, which Gärtner is able to point out, between hybrid and mongrel plants. On the other hand, the resemblance in mongrels and in hybrids to their respective parents, more especially in hybrids produced from nearly related species, follows according to Gärtner the same laws. When two species are crossed, one has sometimes a prepotent power of impressing its likeness on the hybrid; and so I believe it to be with varieties of plants. With animals one variety certainly often has this prepotent power over another variety. Hybrid plants produced from a reciprocal cross, generally resemble each other closely; and so it is with mongrels from a reciprocal cross. Both hybrids and mongrels can be reduced to either pure parent-form, by repeated crosses in successive generations with either parent. 
> 
> These several remarks are apparently applicable to animals; but the subject is here excessively complicated, partly owing to the existence of secondary sexual characters; but more especially owing to prepotency in transmitting likeness running more strongly in one sex than in the other, both when one species is crossed with another, and when one variety is crossed with another variety. For instance, I think those authors are right, who maintain that the ass has a prepotent power over the horse, so that both the mule and the hinny more resemble the ass than the horse; but that the prepotency runs more strongly in the male-ass than in the female, so that the mule, which is the offspring of the male-ass and mare, is more like an ass, than is the hinny, which is the offspring of the female-ass and stallion. 
> 
> Much stress has been laid by some authors on the supposed fact, that mongrel animals alone are born closely like one of their parents; but it can be shown that this does sometimes occur with hybrids; yet I grant much less frequently with hybrids than with mongrels. Looking to the cases which I have collected of cross-bred animals closely resembling one parent, the resemblances seem chiefly confined to characters almost monstrous in their nature, and which have suddenly appeared such as albinism, melanism, deficiency of tail or horns, or additional fingers and toes; and do not relate to characters which have been slowly acquired by selection. Consequently, sudden reversions to the perfect character of either parent would be more likely to occur with mongrels, which are descended from varieties often suddenly produced and semi-monstrous in character, than with hybrids, which are descended from species slowly and naturally produced. On the whole I entirely agree with Dr Prosper Lucas, who, after arranging an enormous body of facts with respect to animals, comes to the conclusion, that the laws of resemblance of the child to its parents are the same, whether the two parents differ much or little from each other, namely in the union of individuals of the same variety, or of different varieties, or of distinct species. 
> 
> Laying aside the question of fertility and sterility, in all other respects there seems to be a general and close similarity in the offspring of crossed species, and of crossed varieties. If we look at species as having been specially created, and at varieties as having been produced by secondary laws, this similarity would be an astonishing fact. But it harmonizes perfectly with the view that there is no essential distinction between species and varieties. 
> 
> Summary of Chapter. First crosses between forms sufficiently distinct to be ranked as species, and their hybrids, are very generally, but not universally, sterile. The sterility is of all degrees, and is often so slight that the two most careful experimentalists who have ever lived, have come to diametrically opposite conclusions in ranking forms by this test. The sterility is innately variable in individuals of the same species, and is eminently susceptible of favourable and unfavourable conditions. The degree of sterility does not strictly follow systematic affinity, but is governed by several curious and complex laws. It is generally different, and sometimes widely different, in reciprocal crosses between the same two species. It is not always equal in degree in a first cross and in the hybrid produced from this cross. 
> 
> In the same manner as in grafting trees, the capacity of one species or variety to take on another, is incidental on generally unknown differences in their vegetative systems, so in crossing, the greater or less facility of one species to unite with another, is incidental on unknown differences in their reproductive systems. There is no more reason to think that species have been specially endowed with various degrees of sterility to prevent them crossing and blending in nature, than to think that trees have been specially endowed with various and somewhat analogous degrees of difficulty in being grafted together in order to prevent them becoming inarched in our forests. 
> 
> The sterility of first crosses between pure species, which have their reproductive systems perfect, seems to depend on several circumstances; in some cases largely on the early death of the embryo. The sterility of hybrids, which have their reproductive systems imperfect, and which have had this system and their whole organisation disturbed by being compounded of two distinct species, seems closely allied to that sterility which so frequently affects pure species, when their natural conditions of life have been disturbed. This view is supported by a parallelism of another kind; namely, that the crossing of forms only slightly different is favourable to the vigour and fertility of their offspring; and that slight changes in the conditions of life are apparently favourable to the vigour and fertility of all organic beings. It is not surprising that the degree of difficulty in uniting two species, and the degree of sterility of their hybrid-offspring should generally correspond, though due to distinct causes; for both depend on the amount of difference of some kind between the species which are crossed. Nor is it surprising that the facility of effecting a first cross, the fertility of the hybrids produced, and the capacity of being grafted together though this latter capacity evidently depends on widely different circumstances should all run, to a certain extent, parallel with the systematic affinity of the forms which are subjected to experiment; for systematic affinity attempts to express all kinds of resemblance between all species. 
> 
> First crosses between forms known to be varieties, or sufficiently alike to be considered as varieties, and their mongrel offspring, are very generally, but not quite universally, fertile. Nor is this nearly general and perfect fertility surprising, when we remember how liable we are to argue in a circle with respect to varieties in a state of nature; and when we remember that the greater number of varieties have been produced under domestication by the selection of mere external differences, and not of differences in the reproductive system. In all other respects, excluding fertility, there is a close general resemblance between hybrids and mongrels. Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985495022
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> Glossary 
> 
> I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. W. S. Dallas for this Glossary, which has been given because several readers have complained to me that some of the terms used were unintelligible to them. Mr. Dallas has endeavoured to give the explanations of the terms in as popular a form as possible. 
> 
> ABERRANT  Forms or groups of animals or plants which deviate in important characters from their nearest allies, so as not to be easily included in the same group with them, are said to be aberrant. 
> 
> ABERRATION (in Optics)  In the refraction of light by a convex lens the rays passing through different parts of the lens are brought to a focus at slightly different distances, this is called spherical aberration; at the same time the coloured rays are separated by the prismatic action of the lens and likewise brought to a focus at different distances, this is chromatic aberration. 
> 
> ABNORMAL  Contrary to the general rule. 
> 
> ABORTED  An organ is said to be aborted, when its development has been arrested at a very early stage. 
> 
> ALBINISM  Albinos are animals in which the usual colouring matters characteristic of the species have not been produced in the skin and its appendages. Albinism is the state of being an albino. 
> 
> ALGAE  A class of plants including the ordinary sea-weeds and the filamentous fresh-water weeds. 
> 
> ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS  This term is applied to a peculiar mode of reproduction which prevails among many of the lower animals, in which the egg produces a living form quite different from its parent, but from which the parent-form is reproduced by a process of budding, or by the division of the substance of the first product of the egg. 
> 
> AMMONITES  A group of fossil, spiral, chambered shells, allied to the existing pearly Nautilus, but having the partitions between the chambers waved in complicated patterns at their junction with the outer wall of the shell. 
> 
> ANALOGY  That resemblance of structures which depends upon similarity of function, as in the wings of insects and birds. Such structures are said to be analogous, and to be analogues of each other. 
> 
> ANIMALCULE  A minute animal: generally applied to those visible only by the microscope. 
> 
> ANNELIDS  A class of worms in which the surface of the body exhibits a more or less distinct division into rings or segments, generally provided with appendages for locomotion and with gills. It includes the ordinary marine worms, the earthworms, and the leeches. 
> 
> ANTENNÆ  Jointed organs appended to the head in Insects, Crustacea and Centipedes, and not belonging to the mouth. 
> 
> ANTHERS  The summits of the stamens of flowers, in which the pollen or fertilising dust is produced. 
> 
> APLACENTALIA, APLACENTATA or Aplacental Mammals  See Mammalia. 
> 
> ARCHETYPAL  Of or belonging to the Archetype, or ideal primitive form upon which all the beings of a group seem to be organised. 
> 
> ARTICULATA  A great division of the Animal Kingdom characterised generally by having the surface of the body divided into rings called segments, a greater or less number of which are furnished with jointed legs (such as Insects, Crustaceans and Centipedes). ASYMMETRICAL  Having the two sides unlike. ATROPHIED  Arrested in development at a very early stage. BALANUS  The genus including the common Acorn-shells which live in abundance on the rocks of the sea-coast. BATRACHIANS  A class of animals allied to the Reptiles, but undergoing a peculiar metamorphosis, in which the young animal is generally aquatic and breathes by gills. (Examples, Frogs, Toads, and Newts.) BOULDERS  Large transported blocks of stone generally imbedded in clays or gravels. BRACHIOPODA  A class of marine Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, furnished with a bivalve shell, attached to submarine objects by a stalk which passes through an aperture in one of the valves, and furnished with fringed arms, by the action of which food is carried to the mouth. BRANCHIÆ  Gills or organs for respiration in water. BRANCHIAL  Pertaining to gills or branchiæ. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM  A Series of very ancient Palæozoic rocks, between the Laurentian and the Silurian. Until recently these were regarded as the oldest fossiliferous rocks. CANIDÆ  The Dog-family, including the Dog, Wolf, Fox, Jackal, &c. CARAPACE  The shell enveloping the anterior part of the body in Crustaceans generally; applied also to the hard shelly pieces of the Cirripedes. CARBONIFEROUS  This term is applied to the great formation which includes, among other rocks, the coal-measures. It belongs to the oldest, or Palæozoic, system of formations. CAUDAL  Of or belonging to the tail. CEPHALOPODS  The highest class of the Mollusca, or Soft-bodied animals, characterised by having the mouth surrounded by a greater or less number of fleshy arms or tentacles, which, in most living species, are furnished with sucking-cups. (Examples, Cuttle-fish, Nautilus.) CETACEA  An order of Mammalia, including the Whales, Dolphins, &c., having the form of the body fish-like, the skin naked, and only the fore-limbs developed. CHELONIA  An order of Reptiles including the Turtles, Tortoises, &c. CIRRIPEDES  An order of Crustaceans including the Barnacles and Acorn-shells. Their young resemble those of many other Crustaceans in form; but when mature they are always attached to other objects, either directly or by means of a stalk, and their bodies are enclosed by a calcareous shell composed of several pieces, two of which can open to give issue to a bunch of curled, jointed tentacles, which represent the limbs. COCCUS  The genus of Insects including the Cochineal. In these the male is a minute, winged fly, and the female generally a motionless, berry-like mass. COCOON  A case usually of silky material, in which insects are frequently enveloped during the second or resting-stage (pupa) of their existence. The term `cocoon-stage' is here used as equivalent to `pupa-stage.' COELOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed hollowed on the inner face. COLEOPTERA  Beetles, an order of Insects, having a biting mouth and the first pair of wings more or less horny, forming sheaths for the second pair, and usually meeting in a straight line down the middle of the back. COLUMN  A peculiar organ in the flowers of Orchids, in which the stamens, style and stigma (or the reproductive parts) are united. COMPOSITÆ or COMPOSITOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the inflorescence consists of numerous small flowers (florets) brought together into a dense head, the base of which is enclosed by a common envelope. (Examples, the Daisy, Dandelion, &c.) CONFERVÆ  The filamentous weeds of fresh water. CONGLOMERATE  A rock made up of fragments of rock or pebbles, cemented together by some other material. COROLLA  The second envelope of a flower usually composed of coloured, leaf-like organs (petals), which may be united by their edges either in the basal part or throughout. CORRELATION  The normal coincidence of one phenomenon, character, &c., with another. CORYMB  A bunch of flowers in which those springing from the lower part of the flower stalk are supported on long stalks so as to be nearly on a level with the upper ones. COTYLEDONS  The first or seed-leaves of plants. CRUSTACEANS  A class of articulated animals, having the skin of the body generally more or less hardened by the deposition of calcareous matter, breathing by means of gills. (Examples, Crab, Lobster, Shrimp, &c.) CURCULIO  The old generic term for the Beetles known as Weevils, characterised by their four-jointed feet, and by the head being produced into a sort of beak, upon the sides of which the antennæ are inserted. CUTANEOUS  Of or belonging to the skin. DEGRADATION  The wearing down of land by the action of the sea or of meteoric agencies. DENUDATION  The wearing away of the surface of the land by water. DEVONIAN SYSTEM or formation  A series of Palæozoic rocks, including the Old Red Sandstone. DICOTYLEDONS or DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  A class of plants characterised by having two seed-leaves, by the formation of new wood between the bark and the old wood (exogenous growth) and by the reticulation of the veins of the leaves. The parts of the flowers are generally in multiples of five. DIFFERENTIATION  The separation or discrimination of parts or organs which in simpler forms of life are more or less united. DIMORPHIC  Having two distinct forms. Dimorphism is the condition of the appearance of the same species under two dissimilar forms. DIOECIOUS  Having the organs of the sexes upon distinct individuals. DIORITE  A peculiar form of Greenstone. DORSAL  Of or belonging to the back. EDENTATA  A peculiar order of Quadrupeds, characterised by the absence of at least the middle incisor (front) teeth in both jaws. (Examples, the Sloths and Armadillos.) ELYTRA  The hardened fore-wings of Beetles, serving as sheaths for the membranous hind-wings, which constitute the true organs of flight. EMBRYO  The young animal undergoing development within the egg or womb. EMBRYOLOGY  The study of the development of the embryo. ENDEMIC  Peculiar to a given locality. ENTOMOSTRACA  A division of the class Crustacea, having all the segments of the body usually distinct, gills attached to the feet or organs of the mouth, and the feet fringed with fine hairs. They are generally of small size. EOCENE  The earliest of the three divisions of the Tertiary epoch of geologists. Rocks of this age contain a small proportion of shells identical with species now living. EPHEMEROUS INSECTS  Insects allied to the May-fly. FAUNA  The totality of the animals naturally inhabiting a certain country or region, or which have lived during a given geological period. FELIDÆ  The Cat-family. FERAL  Having become wild from a state of cultivation or domestication. FLORA  The totality of the plants growing naturally in a country, or during a given geological period. FLORETS  Flowers imperfectly developed in some respects, and collected into a dense spike or head, as in the Grasses, the Dandelion, &c. FOETAL  Of or belonging to the foetus, or embryo in course of development. FORAMINIFERA  A class of animals of very low organisation, and generally of small size, having a jelly-like body, from the Surface of which delicate filaments can be given off and retracted for the prehension of external objects, and having a calcareous or sandy shell, usually divided into chambers, and perforated with small apertures. FOSSILIFEROUS  Containing fossils. FOSSORIAL  Having a faculty of digging. The Fossorial Hymenoptera are a group of Wasp-like Insects, which burrow in sandy soil to make nests for their young. FRENUM (pl  FRENA). A small band or fold of skin. FUNGI (Sing  FUNGUS). A class of cellular plants, of which Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Moulds, are familiar examples. FURCULA  The forked bone formed by the union of the collarbones in many birds, such as the common Fowl. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS  An order of Birds of which the common Fowl, Turkey, and Pheasant, are well-known examples. GALLUS  The genus of birds which includes the common Fowl. GANGLION  A swelling or knot from which nerves are given off as from a centre. GANOID FISHES  Fishes covered with peculiar enamelled bony scales. Most of them are extinct. GERMINAL VESICLE  A minute vesicle in the eggs of animals, from which development of the embryo proceeds. GLACIAL PERIOD  A period of great cold and of enormous extension of ice upon the surface of the earth. It is believed that glacial periods have occurred repeatedly during the geological history of the earth, but the term is generally applied to the close of the Tertiary epoch, when nearly the whole of Europe was subjected to an arctic climate. GLAND  An organ which secretes or separates some peculiar product from the blood or sap of animals or plants. GLOTTIS  The opening of the windpipe into the oesophagus or gullet. GNEISS  A rock approaching granite in composition, but more or less laminated, and really produced by the alteration of a sedimentary deposit after its consolidation. GRALLATORES  The so-called Wading-birds (Storks, Cranes, Snipes, &c.), which are generally furnished with long legs, bare of feathers above the heel, and have no membranes between the toes. GRANITE  A rock consisting essentially of crystal of felspar and mica in a mass of quarts. HABITAT  The locality in which a plant or animal naturally lives. HEMIPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a jointed beak or rostrum, and by having the fore-wings horny in the basal portion and membranous at the extremity, where they cross each other. This group includes the various species of Bugs. HERMAPHRODITE  Possessing the organs of both sexes. HOMOLOGY  That relation between parts which results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts, either in different animals, as in the case of the arm of man, the foreleg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird; or in the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind legs in quadrupeds, and the segments or rings and their appendages of which the body of a worm, a centipede, &c., is composed. The latter is called serial homology. The parts which stand in such a relation to each other are said to be homologous, and one such part or organ is called the homologue of the other. In different plants the parts of the flower are homologous, and in general these parts are regarded as homologous with leaves. HOMOPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects having (like the Hemiptera) a jointed beak, but in which the fore-wings are either wholly membranous or wholly leathery. The Cicadoe, Frog-hoppers, and Aphides, are well-known examples. HYBRID  The offspring of the union of two distinct species. HYMENOPTERA  An order of insects possessing biting jaws and usually four membranous wings in which there are a few veins. Bees and Wasps are familiar examples of this group. HYPERTROPHIED  Excessively developed. ICHNEUMONIDÆ  A family of Hymenopterous insects, the members of which lay their eggs in the bodies or eggs of other insects. IMAGO  The perfect (generally winged) reproductive state of an insect. INDIGENS  The aboriginal animal or vegetable inhabitants of a country or region. INFLORESCENCE  The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants. INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth. INSECTIVOROUS  Feeding on Insects. INVERTEBRATA, or INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS  Those animals which do not possess a backbone or spinal column. LACUNÆ  Spaces left among the tissues in some of the lower animals, and serving in place of vessels for the circulation of the fluids of the body. LAMELLATED  Furnished with lamellæ or little plates. LARVA (pl LARVÆ). The first condition of an insect at its issuing from the egg, when it is usually in the form of a grub, caterpillar, or maggot. LARYNX  The upper part of the windpipe opening into the gullet. LAURENTIAN  A group of greatly altered and very ancient rocks, which is greatly developed along the course of the St. Laurence, whence the name. It is in these that the earliest known traces of organic bodies have been found. LEGUMINOSÆ  An order of plants represented by the common Peas and Beans, having an irregular flower in which one petal stands up like a wing, and the stamens and pistil are enclosed in a sheath formed by two other petals. The fruit is a pod (or legume).  LEMURIDÆ  A group of four-handed animals, distinct from the Monkeys and approaching the Insectivorous Quadrupeds in some of their characters and habits. Its members have the nostrils curved or twisted, and a claw instead of a nail upon the first finger of the hind hands. LEPIDOPTERA  An order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a spiral proboscis, and of four large more or less scaly wings. It includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths. LITTORAL  Inhabiting the seashore. LOESS  A marly deposit of recent (Post-Tertiary) date, which occupies a great part of the valley of the Rhine. MALACOSTRACA  The higher division of the Crustacea, including the ordinary Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c., together with the Woodlice and Sand-hoppers. MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus). MAMMIFEROUS  Having mammæ; or teats (See MAMMALIA). MANDIBLES, in Insects  The first or uppermost pair of jaws, which are generally solid, horny, biting organs. In Birds the term is applied to both jaws with their horny coverings. In Quadrupeds the mandible is properly the lower jaw. MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA). MAXILLÆ, in Insects  The second or lower pair of jaws, which are composed of several joints and furnished with peculiar jointed appendages called palpi, or feelers. MELANISM  The opposite of albinism; an undue development of colouring material in the skin and its appendages. METAMORPHIC ROCKS  Sedimentary rocks which have undergone alteration, generally by the action of heat, subsequently to their deposition and consolidation. MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them. MONOCOTYLEDONS, or MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the seed sends up only a single seed-leaf (or cotyledon); characterised by the absence of consecutive layers of wood in the stem (endogenous growth), by the veins of the leaves being generally straight, and by the parts of the flowers being generally in multiples of three. (Examples, Grasses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, &c.) MORAINES  The accumulations of fragments of rock brought down by glaciers. MORPHOLOGY  The law of form or structure independent of function. MYSIS-STAGE  A stage in the development of certain Crustaceans (Prawns), in which they closely resemble the adults of a genus (Mysis) belonging to a slightly lower group. NASCENT  Commencing development. NATATORY  Adapted for the purpose of swimming. NAUPLIUS-FORM  The earliest stage in the development of many Crustacea, especially belonging to the lower groups. In this stage the animal has a short body, with indistinct indications of a division into segments, and three pairs of fringed limbs. This form of the common fresh-water Cyclops was described as a distinct genus under the name of Nauplius. NEURATION  The arrangement of the veins or nervures in the wings of Insects. NEUTERS  Imperfectly developed females of certain social insects (such as Ants and Bees), which perform all the labours of the community. Hence they are also called workers. NICTITATING MEMBRANE  A semi-transparent membrane, which can be drawn across the eye in Birds and Reptiles, either to moderate the effects of a strong light or to sweep particles of dust, &c., from the surface of the eye. OCELLI  The simple eyes or stemmata of Insects, usually situated on the crown of the head between the great compound eyes. OESOPHAGUS  The gullet. OOLITIC  A great series of secondary rocks, so called from the texture of some of its members, which appear to be made up of a mass of small egg-like calcareous bodies. OPERCULUM  A calcareous plate employed by many Mollusca to close the aperture of their shell. The opercular valves of Cirripedes are those which close the aperture of the shell. ORBIT  The bony cavity for the reception of the eye. ORGANISM  An organised being, whether plant or animal. ORTHOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed straight. OSCULANT  Forms or groups apparently intermediate between and connecting other groups are said to be osculant. OVA  Eggs. OVARIUM or OVARY (in plants)  The lower part of the pistil or female organ of the flower, containing the ovules or incipient seeds; by growth after the other organs of the flower have fallen, it usually becomes converted into the fruit. OVIGEROUS  Egg-bearing. OVULES (of plants)  The seeds in the earliest condition. PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_14|985495263
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> As this whole volume is one long argument, it may be convenient to the reader to have the leading facts and inferences briefly recapitulated. 
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> That many and grave objections may be advanced against the theory of descent with modification through natural selection, I do not deny. I have endeavoured to give to them their full force. Nothing at first can appear more difficult to believe than that the more complex organs and instincts should have been perfected not by means superior to, though analogous with, human reason, but by the accumulation of innumerable slight variations, each good for the individual possessor. Nevertheless, this difficulty, though appearing to our imagination insuperably great, cannot be considered real if we admit the following propositions, namely, -- that gradations in the perfection of any organ or instinct, which we may consider, either do now exist or could have existed, each good of its kind, -- that all organs and instincts are, in ever so slight a degree, variable, -- and, lastly, that there is a struggle for existence leading to the preservation of each profitable deviation of structure or instinct. The truth of these propositions cannot, I think, be disputed. 
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> It is, no doubt, extremely difficult even to conjecture by what gradations many structures have been perfected, more especially amongst broken and failing groups of organic beings; but we see so many strange gradations in nature, as is proclaimed by the canon, `Natura non facit saltum,' that we ought to be extremely cautious in saying that any organ or instinct, or any whole being, could not have arrived at its present state by many graduated steps. There are, it must be admitted, cases of special difficulty on the theory of natural selection; and one of the most curious of these is the existence of two or three defined castes of workers or sterile females in the same community of ants but I have attempted to show how this difficulty can be mastered. With respect to the almost universal sterility of species when first crossed, which forms so remarkable a contrast with the almost universal fertility of varieties when crossed, I must refer the reader to the recapitulation of the facts given at the end of the eighth chapter, which seem to me conclusively to show that this sterility is no more a special endowment than is the incapacity of two trees to be grafted together, but that it is incidental on constitutional differences in the reproductive systems of the intercrossed species. We see the truth of this conclusion in the vast difference in the result, when the same two species are crossed reciprocally; that is, when one species is first used as the father and then as the mother. 
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>  The fertility of varieties when intercrossed and of their mongrel offspring cannot be considered as universal; nor is their very general fertility surprising when we remember that it is not likely that either their constitutions or their reproductive systems should have been profoundly modified. Moreover, most of the varieties which have been experimentised on have been produced under domestication; and as domestication apparently tends to eliminate sterility, we ought not to expect it also to produce sterility. 
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>  The sterility of hybrids is a very different case from that of first crosses, for their reproductive organs are more or less functionally impotent; whereas in first crosses the organs on both sides are in a perfect condition. As we continually see that organisms of all kinds are rendered in some degree sterile from their constitutions having been disturbed by slightly different and new conditions of life, we need not feel surprise at hybrids being in some degree sterile, for their constitutions can hardly fail to have been disturbed from being compounded of two distinct organisations. This parallelism is supported by another parallel, but directly opposite, class of facts; namely, that the vigour and fertility of all organic beings are increased by slight changes in their conditions of life, and that the offspring of slightly modified forms or varieties acquire from being crossed increased vigour and fertility. So that, on the one hand, considerable changes in the conditions of life and crosses between greatly modified forms, lessen fertility; and on the other hand, lesser changes in the conditions of life and crosses between less modified forms, increase fertility. 
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>  Turning to geographical distribution, the difficulties encountered on the theory of descent with modification are grave enough. All the individuals of the same species, and all the species of the same genus, or even higher group, must have descended from common parents; and therefore, in however distant and isolated parts of the world they are now found, they must in the course of successive generations have passed from some one part to the others. We are often wholly unable even to conjecture how this could have been effected. Yet, as we have reason to believe that some species have retained the same specific form for very long periods, enormously long as measured by years, too much stress ought not to be laid on the occasional wide diffusion of the same species; for during very long periods of time there will always be a good chance for wide migration by many means. A broken or interrupted range may often be accounted for by the extinction of the species in the intermediate regions. It cannot be denied that we are as yet very ignorant of the full extent of the various climatal and geographical changes which have affected the earth during modern periods; and such changes will obviously have greatly facilitated migration. As an example, I have attempted to show how potent has been the influence of the Glacial period on the distribution both of the same and of representative species throughout the world. We are as yet profoundly ignorant of the many occasional means of transport. With respect to distinct species of the same genus inhabiting very distant and isolated regions, as the process of modification has necessarily been slow, all the means of migration will have been possible during a very long period; and consequently the difficulty of the wide diffusion of species of the same genus is in some degree lessened. 
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>  As on the theory of natural selection an interminable number of intermediate forms must have existed, linking together all the species in each group by gradations as fine as our present varieties, it may be asked, Why do we not see these linking forms all around us? Why are not all organic beings blended together in an inextricable chaos? With respect to existing forms, we should remember that we have no right to expect (excepting in rare cases) to discover directly connecting links between them, but only between each and some extinct and supplanted form. Even on a wide area, which has during a long period remained continuous, and of which the climate and other conditions of life change insensibly in going from a district occupied by one species into another district occupied by a closely allied species, we have no just right to expect often to find intermediate varieties in the intermediate zone. For we have reason to believe that only a few species are undergoing change at any one period; and all changes are slowly effected. I have also shown that the intermediate varieties which will at first probably exist in the intermediate zones, will be liable to be supplanted by the allied forms on either hand; and the latter, from existing in greater numbers, will generally be modified and improved at a quicker rate than the intermediate varieties, which exist in lesser numbers; so that the intermediate varieties will, in the long run, be supplanted and exterminated. 
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>  On this doctrine of the extermination of an infinitude of connecting links, between the living and extinct inhabitants of the world, and at each successive period between the extinct and still older species, why is not every geological formation charged with such links? Why does not every collection of fossil remains afford plain evidence of the gradation and mutation of the forms of life? We meet with no such evidence, and this is the most obvious and forcible of the many objections which may be urged against my theory. Why, again, do whole groups of allied species appear, though certainly they often falsely appear, to have come in suddenly on the several geological stages? Why do we not find great piles of strata beneath the Silurian system, stored with the remains of the progenitors of the Silurian groups of fossils? For certainly on my theory such strata must somewhere have been deposited at these ancient and utterly unknown epochs in the world's history. 
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>  I can answer these questions and grave objections only on the supposition that the geological record is far more imperfect than most geologists believe. It cannot be objected that there has not been time sufficient for any amount of organic change; for the lapse of time has been so great as to be utterly inappreciable by the human intellect. The number of specimens in all our museums is absolutely as nothing compared with the countless generations of countless species which certainly have existed. We should not be able to recognise a species as the parent of any one or more species if we were to examine them ever so closely, unless we likewise possessed many of the intermediate links between their past or parent and present states; and these many links we could hardly ever expect to discover, owing to the imperfection of the geological record. Numerous existing doubtful forms could be named which are probably varieties; but who will pretend that in future ages so many fossil links will be discovered, that naturalists will be able to decide, on the common view, whether or not these doubtful forms are varieties? As long as most of the links between any two species are unknown, if any one link or intermediate variety be discovered, it will simply be classed as another and distinct species. Only a small portion of the world has been geologically explored. Only organic beings of certain classes can be preserved in a fossil condition, at least in any great number. Widely ranging species vary most, and varieties are often at first local, -- both causes rendering the discovery of intermediate links less likely. Local varieties will not spread into other and distant regions until they are considerably modified and improved; and when they do spread, if discovered in a geological formation, they will appear as if suddenly created there, and will be simply classed as new species. Most formations have been intermittent in their accumulation; and their duration, I am inclined to believe, has been shorter than the average duration of specific forms. Successive formations are separated from each other by enormous blank intervals of time; for fossiliferous formations, thick enough to resist future degradation, can be accumulated only where much sediment is deposited on the subsiding bed of the sea. During the alternate periods of elevation and of stationary level the record will be blank. During these latter periods there will probably be more variability in the forms of life; during periods of subsidence, more extinction. 
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>  With respect to the absence of fossiliferous formations beneath the lowest Silurian strata, I can only recur to the hypothesis given in the ninth chapter. That the geological record is imperfect all will admit; but that it is imperfect to the degree which I require, few will be inclined to admit. If we look to long enough intervals of time, geology plainly declares that all species have changed; and they have changed in the manner which my theory requires, for they have changed slowly and in a graduated manner. We clearly see this in the fossil remains from consecutive formations invariably being much more closely related to each other, than are the fossils from formations distant from each other in time. 
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>  Such is the sum of the several chief objections and difficulties which may justly be urged against my theory; and I have now briefly recapitulated the answers and explanations which can be given to them. I have felt these difficulties far too heavily during many years to doubt their weight. But it deserves especial notice that the more important objections relate to questions on which we are confessedly ignorant; nor do we know how ignorant we are. We do not know all the possible transitional gradations between the simplest and the most perfect organs; it cannot be pretended that we know all the varied means of Distribution during the long lapse of years, or that we know how imperfect the Geological Record is. Grave as these several difficulties are, in my judgement they do not overthrow the theory of descent with modification. 
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> Now let us turn to the other side of the argument. Under domestication we see much variability. This seems to be mainly due to the reproductive system being eminently susceptible to changes in the conditions of life so that this system, when not rendered impotent, fails to reproduce offspring exactly like the parent-form. Variability is governed by many complex laws, -- by correlation of growth, by use and disuse, and by the direct action of the physical conditions of life. There is much difficulty in ascertaining how much modification our domestic productions have undergone; but we may safely infer that the amount has been large, and that modifications can be inherited for long periods. As long as the conditions of life remain the same, we have reason to believe that a modification, which has already been inherited for many generations, may continue to be inherited for an almost infinite number of generations. On the other hand we have evidence that variability, when it has once come into play, does not wholly cease; for new varieties are still occasionally produced by our most anciently domesticated productions. 
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>  Man does not actually produce variability; he only unintentionally exposes organic beings to new conditions of life, and then nature acts on the organisation, and causes variability. But man can and does select the variations given to him by nature, and thus accumulate them in any desired manner. He thus adapts animals and plants for his own benefit or pleasure. He may do this methodically, or he may do it unconsciously by preserving the individuals most useful to him at the time, without any thought of altering the breed. It is certain that he can largely influence the character of a breed by selecting, in each successive generation, individual differences so slight as to be quite inappreciable by an uneducated eye. This process of selection has been the great agency in the production of the most distinct and useful domestic breeds. That many of the breeds produced by man have to a large extent the character of natural species, is shown by the inextricable doubts whether very many of them are varieties or aboriginal species. 
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>  There is no obvious reason why the principles which have acted so efficiently under domestication should not have acted under nature. In the preservation of favoured individuals and races, during the constantly-recurrent Struggle for Existence, we see the most powerful and ever-acting means of selection. The struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high geometrical ratio of increase which is common to all organic beings. This high rate of increase is proved by calculation, by the effects of a succession of peculiar seasons, and by the results of naturalisation, as explained in the third chapter. More individuals are born than can possibly survive. A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall live and which shall die, -- which variety or species shall increase in number, and which shall decrease, or finally become extinct. As the individuals of the same species come in all respects into the closest competition with each other, the struggle will generally be most severe between them; it will be almost equally severe between the varieties of the same species, and next in severity between the species of the same genus. But the struggle will often be very severe between beings most remote in the scale of nature. The slightest advantage in one being, at any age or during any season, over those with which it comes into competition, or better adaptation in however slight a degree to the surrounding physical conditions, will turn the balance. 
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> With animals having separated sexes there will in most cases be a struggle between the males for possession of the females. The most vigorous individuals, or those which have most successfully struggled with their conditions of life, will generally leave most progeny. But success will often depend on having special weapons or means of defence, or on the charms of the males; and the slightest advantage will lead to victory. 
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> As geology plainly proclaims that each land has undergone great physical changes, we might have expected that organic beings would have varied under nature, in the same way as they generally have varied under the changed conditions of domestication. And if there be any variability under nature, it would be an unaccountable fact if natural selection had not come into play. It has often been asserted, but the assertion is quite incapable of proof, that the amount of variation under nature is a strictly limited quantity. Man, though acting on external characters alone and often capriciously, can produce within a short period a great result by adding up mere individual differences in his domestic productions; and every one admits that there are at least individual differences in species under nature. But, besides such differences, all naturalists have admitted the existence of varieties, which they think sufficiently distinct to be worthy of record in systematic works. No one can draw any clear distinction between individual differences and slight varieties; or between more plainly marked varieties and subspecies, and species. Let it be observed how naturalists differ in the rank which they assign to the many representative forms in Europe and North America. 
> 
> If then we have under nature variability and a powerful agent always ready to act and select, why should we doubt that variations in any way useful to beings, under their excessively complex relations of life, would be preserved, accumulated, and inherited? Why, if man can by patience select variations most useful to himself, should nature fail in selecting variations useful, under changing conditions of life, to her living products? What limit can be put to this power, acting during long ages and rigidly scrutinising the whole constitution, structure, and habits of each creature, ? favouring the good and rejecting the bad? I can see no limit to this power, in slowly and beautifully adapting each form to the most complex relations of life. The theory of natural selection, even if we looked no further than this, seems to me to be in itself probable. I have already recapitulated, as fairly as I could, the opposed difficulties and objections: now let us turn to the special facts and arguments in favour of the theory. 
> 
> On the view that species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties, and that each species first existed as a variety, we can see why it is that no line of demarcation can be drawn between species, commonly supposed to have been produced by special acts of creation, and varieties which are acknowledged to have been produced by secondary laws. On this same view we can understand how it is that in each region where many species of a genus have been produced, and where they now flourish, these same species should present many varieties; for where the manufactory of species has been active, we might expect, as a general rule, to find it still in action; and this is the case if varieties be incipient species. Moreover, the species of the large genera, which afford the greater number of varieties or incipient species, retain to a certain degree the character of varieties; for they differ from each other by a less amount of difference than do the species of smaller genera. The closely allied species also of the larger genera apparently have restricted ranges, and they are clustered in little groups round other species -- in which respects they resemble varieties. These are strange relations on the view of each species having been independently created, but are intelligible if all species first existed as varieties. 
> 
> As each species tends by its geometrical ratio of reproduction to increase inordinately in number; and as the modified descendants of each species will be enabled to increase by so much the more as they become more diversified in habits and structure, so as to be enabled to seize on many and widely different places in the economy of nature, there will be a constant tendency in natural selection to preserve the most divergent offspring of any one species. Hence during a long-continued course of modification, the slight differences, characteristic of varieties of the same species, tend to be augmented into the greater differences characteristic of species of the same genus. New and improved varieties will inevitably supplant and exterminate the older, less improved and intermediate varieties; and thus species are rendered to a large extent defined and distinct objects. Dominant species belonging to the larger groups tend to give birth to new and dominant forms; so that each large group tends to become still larger, and at the same time more divergent in character. But as all groups cannot thus succeed in increasing in size, for the world would not hold them, the more dominant groups beat the less dominant. This tendency in the large groups to go on increasing in size and diverging in character, together with the almost inevitable contingency of much extinction, explains the arrangement of all the forms of life, in groups subordinate to groups, all within a few great classes, which we now see everywhere around us, and which has prevailed throughout all time. This grand fact of the grouping of all organic beings seems to me utterly inexplicable on the theory of creation. 
> 
> As natural selection acts solely by accumulating slight, successive, favourable variations, it can produce no great or sudden modification; it can act only by very short and slow steps. Hence the canon of `Natura non facit saltum,' which every fresh addition to our knowledge tends to make more strictly correct, is on this theory simply intelligible. We can plainly see why nature is prodigal in variety, though niggard in innovation. But why this should be a law of nature if each species has been independently created, no man can explain. 
> 
> Many other facts are, as it seems to me, explicable on this theory. How strange it is that a bird, under the form of woodpecker, should have been created to prey on insects on the ground; that upland geese, which never or rarely swim, should have been created with webbed feet; that a thrush should have been created to dive and feed on sub-aquatic insects; and that a petrel should have been created with habits and structure fitting it for the life of an auk or grebe! and so on in endless other cases. But on the view of each species constantly trying to increase in number, with natural selection always ready to adapt the slowly varying descendants of each to any unoccupied or ill-occupied place in nature, these facts cease to be strange, or perhaps might even have been anticipated. 
> 
> As natural selection acts by competition, it adapts the inhabitants of each country only in relation to the degree of perfection of their associates; so that we need feel no surprise at the inhabitants of any one country, although on the ordinary view supposed to have been specially created and adapted for that country, being beaten and supplanted by the naturalised productions from another land. Nor ought we to marvel if all the contrivances in nature be not, as far as we can judge, absolutely perfect; and if some of them be abhorrent to our ideas of fitness. We need not marvel at the sting of the bee causing the bee's own death; at drones being produced in such vast numbers for one single act, and being then slaughtered by their sterile sisters; at the astonishing waste of pollen by our fir-trees; at the instinctive hatred of the queen bee for her own fertile daughters; at ichneumonidae feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars; and at other such cases. The wonder indeed is, on the theory of natural selection, that more cases of the want of absolute perfection have not been observed. 
> 
> The complex and little known laws governing variation are the same, as far as we can see, with the laws which have governed the production of so-called specific forms. In both cases physical conditions seem to have produced but little direct effect; yet when varieties enter any zone, they occasionally assume some of the characters of the species proper to that zone. In both varieties and species, use and disuse seem to have produced some effect; for it is difficult to resist this conclusion when we look, for instance, at the logger-headed duck, which has wings incapable of flight, in nearly the same condition as in the domestic duck; or when we look at the burrowing tucutucu, which is occasionally blind, and then at certain moles, which are habitually blind and have their eyes covered with skin; or when we look at the blind animals inhabiting the dark caves of America and Europe. In both varieties and species correction of growth seems to have played a most important part, so that when one part has been modified other parts are necessarily modified. In both varieties and species reversions to long-lost characters occur. How inexplicable on the theory of creation is the occasional appearance of stripes on the shoulder and legs of the several species of the horse-genus and in their hybrids! How simply is this fact explained if we believe that these species have descended from a striped progenitor, in the same manner as the several domestic breeds of pigeon have descended from the blue and barred rock-pigeon! 
> 
> On the ordinary view of each species having been independently created, why should the specific characters, or those by which the species of the same genus differ from each other, be more variable than the generic characters in which they all agree? Why, for instance, should the colour of a flower be more likely to vary in any one species of a genus, if the other species, supposed to have been created independently, have differently coloured flowers, than if all the species of the genus have the same coloured flowers? If species are only well-marked varieties, of which the characters have become in a high degree permanent, we can understand this fact; for they have already varied since they branched off from a common progenitor in certain characters, by which they have come to be specifically distinct from each other; and therefore these same characters would be more likely still to be variable than the generic characters which have been inherited without change for an enormous period. It is inexplicable on the theory of creation why a part developed in a very unusual manner in any one species of a genus, and therefore, as we may naturally infer, of great importance to the species, should be eminently liable to variation; but, on my view, this part has undergone, since the several species branched off from a common progenitor, an unusual amount of variability and modification, and therefore we might expect this part generally to be still variable. But a part may be developed in the most unusual manner, like the wing of a bat, and yet not be more variable than any other structure, if the part be common to many subordinate forms, that is, if it has been inherited for a very long period; for in this case it will have been rendered constant by long-continued natural selection. 
> 
> Glancing at instincts, marvellous as some are, they offer no greater difficulty than does corporeal structure on the theory of the natural selection of successive, slight, but profitable modifications. We can thus understand why nature moves by graduated steps in endowing different animals of the same class with their several instincts. I have attempted to show how much light the principle of gradation throws on the admirable architectural powers of the hive-bee. Habit no doubt sometimes comes into play in modifying instincts; but it certainly is not indispensable, as we see, in the case of neuter insects, which leave no progeny to inherit the effects of long-continued habit. On the view of all the species of the same genus having descended from a common parent, and having inherited much in common, we can understand how it is that allied species, when placed under considerably different conditions of life, yet should follow nearly the same instincts; why the thrush of South America, for instance, lines her nest with mud like our British species. On the view of instincts having been slowly acquired through natural selection we need not marvel at some instincts being apparently not perfect and liable to mistakes, and at many instincts causing other animals to suffer. 
> 
> If species be only well-marked and permanent varieties, we can at once see why their crossed offspring should follow the same complex laws in their degrees and kinds of resemblance to their parents, -- in being absorbed into each other by successive crosses, and in other such points, -- as do the crossed offspring of acknowledged varieties. On the other hand, these would be strange facts if species have been independently created, and varieties have been produced by secondary laws. 
> 
> If we admit that the geological record is imperfect in an extreme degree, then such facts as the record gives, support the theory of descent with modification. New species have come on the stage slowly and at successive intervals; and the amount of change, after equal intervals of time, is widely different in different groups. The extinction of species and of whole groups of species, which has played so conspicuous a part in the history of the organic world, almost inevitably follows on the principle of natural selection; for old forms will be supplanted by new and improved forms. Neither single species nor groups of species reappear when the chain of ordinary generation has once been broken. The gradual diffusion of dominant forms, with the slow modification of their descendants, causes the forms of life, after long intervals of time, to appear as if they had changed simultaneously throughout the world. The fact of the fossil remains of each formation being in some degree intermediate in character between the fossils in the formations above and below, is simply explained by their intermediate position in the chain of descent. The grand fact that all extinct organic beings belong to the same system with recent beings, falling either into the same or into intermediate groups, follows from the living and the extinct being the offspring of common parents. As the groups which have descended from an ancient progenitor have generally diverged in character, the progenitor with its early descendants will often be intermediate in character in comparison with its later descendants; and thus we can see why the more ancient a fossil is, the oftener it stands in some degree intermediate between existing and allied groups. Recent forms are generally looked at as being, in some vague sense, higher than ancient and extinct forms; and they are in so far higher as the later and more improved forms have conquered the older and less improved organic beings in the struggle for life. Lastly, the law of the n='448'> long endurance of allied forms on the same continent, ? of marsupials in Australia, of edentata in America, and other such cases, -- is intelligible, for within a confined country, the recent and the extinct will naturally be allied by descent. 
> 
> Looking to geographical distribution, if we admit that there has been during the long course of ages much migration from one part of the world to another, owing to former climatal and geographical changes and to the many occasional and unknown means of dispersal, then we can understand, on the theory of descent with modification, most of the great leading facts in Distribution. We can see why there should be so striking a parallelism in the distribution of organic beings throughout space, and in their geological succession throughout time; for in both cases the beings have been connected by the bond of ordinary generation, and the means of modification have been the same. We see the full meaning of the wonderful fact, which must have struck every traveller, namely, that on the same continent, under the most diverse conditions, under heat and cold, on mountain and lowland, on deserts and marshes, most of the inhabitants within each great class are plainly related; for they will generally be descendants of the same progenitors and early colonists. On this same principle of former migration, combined in most cases with modification, we can understand, by the aid of the Glacial period, the identity of some few plants, and the close alliance of many others, on the most distant mountains, under the most different climates; and likewise the close alliance of some of the inhabitants of the sea in the northern and southern temperate zones, though separated by the whole intertropical ocean. Although two areas may present the same physical conditions of life, we need feel no surprise at their inhabitants being widely different, if they have been for a long period completely separated from each other; for as the relation of organism to organism is the most important of all relations, and as the two areas will have received colonists from some third source or from each other, at various periods and in different proportions, the course of modification in the two areas will inevitably be different. 
> 
> On this view of migration, with subsequent modification, we can see why oceanic islands should be inhabited by few species, but of these, that many should be peculiar. We can clearly see why those animals which cannot cross wide spaces of ocean, as frogs and terrestrial mammals, should not inhabit oceanic islands; and why, on the other hand, new and peculiar species of bats, which can traverse the ocean, should so often be found on islands far distant from any continent. Such facts as the presence of peculiar species of bats, and the absence of all other mammals, on oceanic islands, are utterly inexplicable on the theory of independent acts of creation. 
> 
> The existence of closely allied or representative species in any two areas, implies, on the theory of descent with modification, that the same parents formerly inhabited both areas; and we almost invariably find that wherever many closely allied species inhabit two areas, some identical species common to both still exist. Wherever many closely allied yet distinct species occur, many doubtful forms and varieties of the same species likewise occur. It is a rule of high generality that the inhabitants of each area are related to the inhabitants of the nearest source whence immigrants might have been derived. We see this in nearly all the plants and animals of the Galapagos archipelago, of Juan Fernandez, and of the other American islands being related in the most striking manner to the plants and animals of the neighbouring American mainland; and those of the Cape de Verde archipelago and other African islands to the African mainland. It must be admitted that these facts receive no explanation on the theory of creation. 
> 
> The fact, as we have seen, that all past and present organic beings constitute one grand natural system, with group subordinate to group, and with extinct groups often falling in between recent groups, is intelligible on the theory of natural selection with its contingencies of extinction and divergence of character. On these same principles we see how it is, that the mutual affinities of the species and genera within each class are so complex and circuitous. We see why certain characters are far more serviceable than others for classification; -- why adaptive characters, though of paramount importance to the being, are of hardly any importance in classification; why characters derived from rudimentary parts, though of no service to the being, are often of high classificatory value; and why embryological characters are the most valuable of all. The real affinities of all organic beings are due to inheritance or community of descent. The natural system is a genealogical arrangement, in which we have to discover the lines of descent by the most permanent characters, however slight their vital importance may be. 
> 
> The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse, -- the same number of vertebrae forming the neck of the giraffe and of the elephant, -- and innumerable other such facts, at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications. The similarity of pattern in the wing and leg of a bat, though used for such different purposes, -- in the jaws and legs of a crab, -- in the petals, stamens, and pistils of a flower, is likewise intelligible on the view of the gradual modification of parts or organs, which were alike in the early progenitor of each class. On the principle of successive variations not always supervening at an early age, and being inherited at a corresponding not early period of life, we can clearly see why the embryos of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes should be so closely alike, and should be so unlike the adult forms. We may cease marvelling at the embryo of an air-breathing mammal or bird having branchial slits and arteries running in loops, like those in a fish which has to breathe the air dissolved in water, by the aid of well-developed branchiae. 
> 
> Disuse, aided sometimes by natural selection, will often tend to reduce an organ, when it has become useless by changed habits or under changed conditions of life; and we can clearly understand on this view the meaning of rudimentary organs. But disuse and selection will generally act on each creature, when it has come to maturity and has to play its full part in the struggle for existence, and will thus have little power of acting on an organ during early life; hence the organ will not be much reduced or rendered rudimentary at this early age. The calf, for instance, has inherited teeth, which never cut through the gums of the upper jaw, from an early progenitor having well-developed teeth; and we may believe, that the teeth in the mature animal were reduced, during successive generations, by disuse or by the tongue and palate having been fitted by natural selection to browse without their aid; whereas in the calf, the teeth have been left untouched by selection or disuse, and on the principle of inheritance at corresponding ages have been inherited from a remote period to the present day. On the view of each organic being and each separate organ having been specially created, how utterly inexplicable it is that parts, like the teeth in the embryonic calf or like the shrivelled wings under the soldered wing-covers of some beetles, should thus so frequently bear the plain stamp of inutility! Nature may be said to have taken pains to reveal, by rudimentary organs and by homologous structures, her scheme of modification, which it seems that we wilfully will not understand. 
> 
> I have now recapitulated the chief facts and considerations which have thoroughly convinced me that species have changed, and are still slowly changing by the preservation and accumulation of successive slight favourable variations. Why, it may be asked, have all the most eminent living naturalists and geologists rejected this view of the mutability of species? It cannot be asserted that organic beings in a state of nature are subject to no variation; it cannot be proved that the amount of variation in the course of long ages is a limited quantity; no clear distinction has been, or can be, drawn between species and well-marked varieties. It cannot be maintained that species when intercrossed are invariably sterile, and varieties invariably fertile; or that sterility is a special endowment and sign of creation. The belief that species were immutable productions was almost unavoidable as long as the history of the world was thought to be of short duration; and now that we have acquired some idea of the lapse of time, we are too apt to assume, without proof, that the geological record is so perfect that it would have afforded us plain evidence of the mutation of species, if they had undergone mutation. 
> 
> But the chief cause of our natural unwillingness to admit that one species has given birth to other and distinct species, is that we are always slow in admitting any great change of which we do not see the intermediate steps. The difficulty is the same as that felt by so many geologists, when Lyell first insisted that long lines of inland cliffs had been formed, and great valleys excavated, by the slow action of the coast-waves. The mind cannot possibly grasp the full meaning of the term of a hundred million years; it cannot add up and perceive the full effects of many slight variations, accumulated during an almost infinite number of generations. 
> 
> Although I am fully convinced of the truth of the views given in this volume under the form of an abstract, I by no means expect to convince experienced naturalists whose minds are stocked with a multitude of facts all viewed, during a long course of years, from a point of view directly opposite to mine. It is so easy to hide our ignorance under such expressions as the `plan of creation,' `unity of design,' &c., and to think that we give an explanation when we only restate a fact. Any one whose disposition leads him to attach more weight to unexplained difficulties than to the explanation of a certain number of facts will certainly reject my theory. A few naturalists, endowed with much flexibility of mind, and who have already begun to doubt on the immutability of species, may be influenced by this volume; but I look with confidence to the future, to young and rising naturalists, who will be able to view both sides of the question with impartiality. Whoever is led to believe that species are mutable will do good service by conscientiously expressing his conviction; for only thus can the load of prejudice by which this subject is overwhelmed be removed. 
> 
> Several eminent naturalists have of late published their belief that a multitude of reputed species in each genus are not real species; but that other species are real, that is, have been independently created. This seems to me a strange conclusion to arrive at. They admit that a multitude of forms, which till lately they themselves thought were special creations, and which are still thus looked at by the majority of naturalists, and which consequently have every external characteristic feature of true species, -- they admit that these have been produced by variation, but they refuse to extend the same view to other and very slightly different forms. Nevertheless they do not pretend that they can define, or even conjecture, which are the created forms of life, and which are those produced by secondary laws. They admit variation as a vera causa in one case, they arbitrarily reject it in another, without assigning any distinction in the two cases. The day will come when this will be given as a curious illustration of the blindness of preconceived opinion. These authors seem no more startled at a miraculous act of creation than at an ordinary birth. But do they really believe that at innumerable periods in the earth's history certain elemental atoms have been commanded suddenly to flash into living tissues? Do they believe that at each supposed act of creation one individual or many were produced? Were all the infinitely numerous kinds of animals and plants created as eggs or seed, or as full grown? and in the case of mammals, were they created bearing the false marks of nourishment from the mother's womb? Although naturalists very properly demand a full explanation of every difficulty from those who believe in the mutability of species, on their own side they ignore the whole subject of the first appearance of species in what they consider reverent silence. 
> 
> It may be asked how far I extend the doctrine of the modification of species. The question is difficult to answer, because the more distinct the forms are which we may consider, by so much the arguments fall away in force. But some arguments of the greatest weight extend very far. All the members of whole classes can be connected together by chains of affinities, and all can be classified on the same principle, in groups subordinate to groups. Fossil remains sometimes tend to fill up very wide intervals between existing orders. Organs in a rudimentary condition plainly show that an early progenitor had the organ in a fully developed state; and this in some instances necessarily implies an enormous amount of modification in the descendants. Throughout whole classes various structures are formed on the same pattern, and at an embryonic age the species closely resemble each other. Therefore I cannot doubt that the theory of descent with modification embraces all the members of the same class. I believe that animals have descended from at most only four or five progenitors, and plants from an equal or lesser number. 
> 
> Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype. But analogy may be a deceitful guide. Nevertheless all living things have much in common, in their chemical composition, their germinal vesicles, their cellular structure, and their laws of growth and reproduction. We see this even in so trifling a circumstance as that the same poison often similarly affects plants and animals; or that the poison secreted by the gall-fly produces monstrous growths on the wild rose or oak-tree. Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed. 
> 
> When the views entertained in this volume on the origin of species, or when analogous views are generally admitted, we can dimly foresee that there will be a considerable revolution in natural history. Systematists will be able to pursue their labours as at present; but they will not be incessantly haunted by the shadowy doubt whether this or that form be in essence a species. This I feel sure, and I speak after experience, will be no slight relief. The endless disputes whether or not some fifty species of British brambles are true species will cease. Systematists will have only to decide (not that this will be easy) whether any form be sufficiently constant and distinct from other forms, to be capable of definition; and if definable, whether the differences be sufficiently important to deserve a specific name. This latter point will become a far more essential consideration than it is at present; for differences, however slight, between any two forms, if not blended by intermediate gradations, are looked at by most naturalists as sufficient to raise both forms to the rank of species. Hereafter we shall be compelled to acknowledge that the only distinction between species and well-marked varieties is, that the latter are known, or believed, to be connected at the present day by intermediate gradations, whereas species were formerly thus connected. Hence, without quite rejecting the consideration of the present existence of intermediate gradations between any two forms, we shall be led to weigh more carefully and to value higher the actual amount of difference between them. It is quite possible that forms now generally acknowledged to be merely varieties may hereafter be thought worthy of specific names, as with the primrose and cowslip; and in this case scientific and common language will come into accordance. In short, we shall have to treat species in the same manner as those naturalists treat genera, who admit that genera are merely artificial combinations made for convenience. This may not be a cheering prospect; but we shall at least be freed from the vain search for the undiscovered and undiscoverable essence of the term species. 
> 
> The other and more general departments of natural history will rise greatly in interest. The terms used by naturalists of affinity, relationship, community of type, paternity, morphology, adaptive characters, rudimentary and aborted organs, &c., will cease to be metaphorical, and will have a plain signification. When we no longer look at an organic being as a savage looks at a ship, as at something wholly beyond his comprehension; when we regard every production of nature as one which has had a history; when we contemplate every complex structure and instinct as the summing up of many contrivances, each useful to the possessor, nearly in the same way as when we look at any great mechanical invention as the summing up of the labour, the experience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous workmen; when we thus view each organic being, how far more interesting, I speak from experience, will the study of natural history become! 
> 
> A grand and almost untrodden field of inquiry will be opened, on the causes and laws of variation, on correlation of growth, on the effects of use and disuse, on the direct action of external conditions, and so forth. The study of domestic productions will rise immensely in value. A new variety raised by man will be a far more important and interesting subject for study than one more species added to the infinitude of already recorded species. Our classifications will come to be, as far as they can be so made, genealogies; and will then truly give what may be called the plan of creation. The rules for classifying will no doubt become simpler when we have a definite object in view. We possess no pedigrees or armorial bearings; and we have to discover and trace the many diverging lines of descent in our natural genealogies, by characters of any kind which have long been inherited. Rudimentary organs will speak infallibly with respect to the nature of long-lost structures. Species and groups of species, which are called aberrant, and which may fancifully be called living fossils, will aid us in forming a picture of the ancient forms of life. Embryology will reveal to us the structure, in some degree obscured, of the prototypes of each great class. 
> 
> When we can feel assured that all the individuals of the same species, and all the closely allied species of most genera, have within a not very remote period descended from one parent, and have migrated from some one birthplace; and when we better know the many means of migration, then, by the light which geology now throws, and will continue to throw, on former changes of climate and of the level of the land, we shall surely be enabled to trace in an admirable manner the former migrations of the inhabitants of the whole world. Even at present, by comparing the differences of the inhabitants of the sea on the opposite sides of a continent, and the nature of the various inhabitants of that continent in relation to their apparent means of immigration, some light can be thrown on ancient geography. 
> 
> The noble science of Geology loses glory from the extreme imperfection of the record. The crust of the earth with its embedded remains must not be looked at as a well-filled museum, but as a poor collection made at hazard and at rare intervals. The accumulation of each great fossiliferous formation will be recognised as having depended on an unusual concurrence of circumstances, and the blank intervals between the successive stages as having been of vast duration. But we shall be able to gauge with some security the duration of these intervals by a comparison of the preceding and succeeding organic forms. We must be cautious in attempting to correlate as strictly contemporaneous two formations, which include few identical species, by the general succession of their forms of life. As species are produced and exterminated by slowly acting and still existing causes, and not by miraculous acts of creation and by catastrophes; and as the most important of all causes of organic change is one which is almost independent of altered and perhaps suddenly altered physical conditions, namely, the mutual relation of organism to organism, -- the improvement of one being entailing the improvement or the extermination of others; it follows, that the amount of organic change in the fossils of consecutive formations probably serves as a fair measure of the lapse of actual time. A number of species, however, keeping in a body might remain for a long period unchanged, whilst within this same period, several of these species, by migrating into new countries and coming into competition with foreign associates, might become modified; so that we must not overrate the accuracy of organic change as a measure of time. During early periods of the earth's history, when the forms of life were probably fewer and simpler, the rate of change was probably slower; and at the first dawn of life, when very few forms of the simplest structure existed, the rate of change may have been slow in an extreme degree. The whole history of the world, as at present known, although of a length quite incomprehensible by us, will hereafter be recognised as a mere fragment of time, compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, was created. 
> 
> In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history. 
> 
> Authors of the highest eminence seem to be fully satisfied with the view that each species has been independently created. To my mind it accords better with what we know of the laws impressed on matter by the Creator, that the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have been due to secondary causes, like those determining the birth and death of the individual. When I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited, they seem to me to become ennobled. Judging from the past, we may safely infer that not one living species will transmit its unaltered likeness to a distant futurity. And of the species now living very few will transmit progeny of any kind to a far distant futurity; for the manner in which all organic beings are grouped, shows that the greater number of species of each genus, and all the species of many genera, have left no descendants, but have become utterly extinct. We can so far take a prophetic glance into futurity as to foretel that it will be the common and widely-spread species, belonging to the larger and dominant groups, which will ultimately prevail and procreate new and dominant species. As all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the Silurian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world. Hence we may look with some confidence to a secure future of equally inappreciable length. And as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection. 
> 
> It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.
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> P.S.  As of 11:20pm EST there were 2056 pages with at least 150 characters.  Of those pages, 796 had at least 1,000 characters and 159 pages had 5,000 or more characters.  (To search by minimum length, search for <code>(.|\n){150}</code> and replace 150 with the desired number of characters.)  There were also 634 redirection pages (search for <code>^#REDIRECT\s</code> for a list).
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< <br>[[/January 2001]]
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> <br>[[/January 2001]]
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AtlasShrugged/AssociatedSteel|985496176
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< Associated Steel is the company owned by /OrrenBoyle.  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.
< 
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Associated Steel]]
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AtlasShrugged/AyersMusicPublishingCompany|985496379
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< Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of /RichardHalley.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of /HalleysFifthConcerto.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4 (/SectioN114)
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Ayers Music Publishing Company]]
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AtlasShrugged/BartendeR|985496406
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< A character mentioned in /SectioN131.  /BartendeR works in the most expensive barroom in New York, frequented by [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and the /Looters.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Bartender]]
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AtlasShrugged/Betty_Pope|985496434
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< Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having an meaningless sexual affair with [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life.  She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day.  She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position.
< 
< Betty Pope appears in:
<  /SectioN142
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Betty Pope]]
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AtlasShrugged/BoardofDirectors|985496462
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< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental are a group of men mostly loyal to [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]].
< 
< The Board represents the other people whose approval is neccesary for people who are incapable of making decisions on their own, most notably [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]], who treats approval of the Board as a scientific test of truth.
< 
< In /SectioN132 we learn the Board approved the development of the /SanSebastianLine and that numerous Board members quit in protest.
< 
< The Board of Directors of Taggart Transcontinental is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN145
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Board of Directors]]
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AtlasShrugged/Bracelet|985496491
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< The very first thing made from /ReardenMetal is a bracelet.  The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent /ReardenMetal.  When he gives it to /LillianRearden as a present she says "It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails."  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift - her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.
< 
< Later, at a party, when Lillian wears the bracelet as a joke and makes fun of it, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] offers to buy it from her.
< 
< The bracelet appears in:
<  /SectioN121
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Bracelet]]
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AtlasShrugged/Brakeman|985496517
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< An unnamed brakeman working on the /TaggartComet.  (His name may be revealed later in the book).
< 
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears /Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto.  Whe she asks him what piece it's from, he says /HalleysFifthConcerto.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] points out /RichardHalley only wrote four concertos, /Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.
< 
< Later, after [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs /TaggartTranscontinental.
< 
< * Appearances in AtlasShrugged
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2 (/SectioN112)
<    Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3 (/SectioN113)
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Brakeman]]
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AtlasShrugged/BumNumber1|985496589
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< The character who opens the book with the question, "Who is John Galt?"  He chats momentarily with [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], helping establish (for the reader) Eddie's sense of unease.
< 
< /BumNumber1 appears in /SectioN111.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Bum Number 1]]
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AtlasShrugged/California|985496612
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< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has business concerns on California.  In /SectioN121 /LillianRearden asks [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] to promise he won't be in California on the night of December 10.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/California]]
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AtlasShrugged/ChiefEngineer|985496643
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< In /SectioN141, /McNamara's /ChiefEngineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that McNamara has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation is given.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Chief Engineer]]
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AtlasShrugged/ConductoR|985496670
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< /ConductoR works on the /TaggartComet.  In /SectioN112 he explains to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] that he is waiting for a broken light to change.  He represents the type of incompetent, initiativeless worker who is concerned only with following the rules so no one can blame hime for anything.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Conductor]]
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AtlasShrugged/CubClub|985496700
1c1
< A night club in /NewYork.  When [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in /SectioN141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessan on Third Avenue.
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> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Cub Club]]
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_14|985498357
7c7
<  The fertility of varieties when intercrossed and of their mongrel offspring cannot be considered as universal; nor is their very general fertility surprising when we remember that it is not likely that either their constitutions or their reproductive systems should have been profoundly modified. Moreover, most of the varieties which have been experimentised on have been produced under domestication; and as domestication apparently tends to eliminate sterility, we ought not to expect it also to produce sterility. 
---
> The fertility of varieties when intercrossed and of their mongrel offspring cannot be considered as universal; nor is their very general fertility surprising when we remember that it is not likely that either their constitutions or their reproductive systems should have been profoundly modified. Moreover, most of the varieties which have been experimentised on have been produced under domestication; and as domestication apparently tends to eliminate sterility, we ought not to expect it also to produce sterility. 
9c9
<  The sterility of hybrids is a very different case from that of first crosses, for their reproductive organs are more or less functionally impotent; whereas in first crosses the organs on both sides are in a perfect condition. As we continually see that organisms of all kinds are rendered in some degree sterile from their constitutions having been disturbed by slightly different and new conditions of life, we need not feel surprise at hybrids being in some degree sterile, for their constitutions can hardly fail to have been disturbed from being compounded of two distinct organisations. This parallelism is supported by another parallel, but directly opposite, class of facts; namely, that the vigour and fertility of all organic beings are increased by slight changes in their conditions of life, and that the offspring of slightly modified forms or varieties acquire from being crossed increased vigour and fertility. So that, on the one hand, considerable changes in the conditions of life and crosses between greatly modified forms, lessen fertility; and on the other hand, lesser changes in the conditions of life and crosses between less modified forms, increase fertility. 
---
> The sterility of hybrids is a very different case from that of first crosses, for their reproductive organs are more or less functionally impotent; whereas in first crosses the organs on both sides are in a perfect condition. As we continually see that organisms of all kinds are rendered in some degree sterile from their constitutions having been disturbed by slightly different and new conditions of life, we need not feel surprise at hybrids being in some degree sterile, for their constitutions can hardly fail to have been disturbed from being compounded of two distinct organisations. This parallelism is supported by another parallel, but directly opposite, class of facts; namely, that the vigour and fertility of all organic beings are increased by slight changes in their conditions of life, and that the offspring of slightly modified forms or varieties acquire from being crossed increased vigour and fertility. So that, on the one hand, considerable changes in the conditions of life and crosses between greatly modified forms, lessen fertility; and on the other hand, lesser changes in the conditions of life and crosses between less modified forms, increase fertility. 
11c11
<  Turning to geographical distribution, the difficulties encountered on the theory of descent with modification are grave enough. All the individuals of the same species, and all the species of the same genus, or even higher group, must have descended from common parents; and therefore, in however distant and isolated parts of the world they are now found, they must in the course of successive generations have passed from some one part to the others. We are often wholly unable even to conjecture how this could have been effected. Yet, as we have reason to believe that some species have retained the same specific form for very long periods, enormously long as measured by years, too much stress ought not to be laid on the occasional wide diffusion of the same species; for during very long periods of time there will always be a good chance for wide migration by many means. A broken or interrupted range may often be accounted for by the extinction of the species in the intermediate regions. It cannot be denied that we are as yet very ignorant of the full extent of the various climatal and geographical changes which have affected the earth during modern periods; and such changes will obviously have greatly facilitated migration. As an example, I have attempted to show how potent has been the influence of the Glacial period on the distribution both of the same and of representative species throughout the world. We are as yet profoundly ignorant of the many occasional means of transport. With respect to distinct species of the same genus inhabiting very distant and isolated regions, as the process of modification has necessarily been slow, all the means of migration will have been possible during a very long period; and consequently the difficulty of the wide diffusion of species of the same genus is in some degree lessened. 
---
> Turning to geographical distribution, the difficulties encountered on the theory of descent with modification are grave enough. All the individuals of the same species, and all the species of the same genus, or even higher group, must have descended from common parents; and therefore, in however distant and isolated parts of the world they are now found, they must in the course of successive generations have passed from some one part to the others. We are often wholly unable even to conjecture how this could have been effected. Yet, as we have reason to believe that some species have retained the same specific form for very long periods, enormously long as measured by years, too much stress ought not to be laid on the occasional wide diffusion of the same species; for during very long periods of time there will always be a good chance for wide migration by many means. A broken or interrupted range may often be accounted for by the extinction of the species in the intermediate regions. It cannot be denied that we are as yet very ignorant of the full extent of the various climatal and geographical changes which have affected the earth during modern periods; and such changes will obviously have greatly facilitated migration. As an example, I have attempted to show how potent has been the influence of the Glacial period on the distribution both of the same and of representative species throughout the world. We are as yet profoundly ignorant of the many occasional means of transport. With respect to distinct species of the same genus inhabiting very distant and isolated regions, as the process of modification has necessarily been slow, all the means of migration will have been possible during a very long period; and consequently the difficulty of the wide diffusion of species of the same genus is in some degree lessened. 
13c13
<  As on the theory of natural selection an interminable number of intermediate forms must have existed, linking together all the species in each group by gradations as fine as our present varieties, it may be asked, Why do we not see these linking forms all around us? Why are not all organic beings blended together in an inextricable chaos? With respect to existing forms, we should remember that we have no right to expect (excepting in rare cases) to discover directly connecting links between them, but only between each and some extinct and supplanted form. Even on a wide area, which has during a long period remained continuous, and of which the climate and other conditions of life change insensibly in going from a district occupied by one species into another district occupied by a closely allied species, we have no just right to expect often to find intermediate varieties in the intermediate zone. For we have reason to believe that only a few species are undergoing change at any one period; and all changes are slowly effected. I have also shown that the intermediate varieties which will at first probably exist in the intermediate zones, will be liable to be supplanted by the allied forms on either hand; and the latter, from existing in greater numbers, will generally be modified and improved at a quicker rate than the intermediate varieties, which exist in lesser numbers; so that the intermediate varieties will, in the long run, be supplanted and exterminated. 
---
> As on the theory of natural selection an interminable number of intermediate forms must have existed, linking together all the species in each group by gradations as fine as our present varieties, it may be asked, Why do we not see these linking forms all around us? Why are not all organic beings blended together in an inextricable chaos? With respect to existing forms, we should remember that we have no right to expect (excepting in rare cases) to discover directly connecting links between them, but only between each and some extinct and supplanted form. Even on a wide area, which has during a long period remained continuous, and of which the climate and other conditions of life change insensibly in going from a district occupied by one species into another district occupied by a closely allied species, we have no just right to expect often to find intermediate varieties in the intermediate zone. For we have reason to believe that only a few species are undergoing change at any one period; and all changes are slowly effected. I have also shown that the intermediate varieties which will at first probably exist in the intermediate zones, will be liable to be supplanted by the allied forms on either hand; and the latter, from existing in greater numbers, will generally be modified and improved at a quicker rate than the intermediate varieties, which exist in lesser numbers; so that the intermediate varieties will, in the long run, be supplanted and exterminated. 
15c15
<  On this doctrine of the extermination of an infinitude of connecting links, between the living and extinct inhabitants of the world, and at each successive period between the extinct and still older species, why is not every geological formation charged with such links? Why does not every collection of fossil remains afford plain evidence of the gradation and mutation of the forms of life? We meet with no such evidence, and this is the most obvious and forcible of the many objections which may be urged against my theory. Why, again, do whole groups of allied species appear, though certainly they often falsely appear, to have come in suddenly on the several geological stages? Why do we not find great piles of strata beneath the Silurian system, stored with the remains of the progenitors of the Silurian groups of fossils? For certainly on my theory such strata must somewhere have been deposited at these ancient and utterly unknown epochs in the world's history. 
---
> On this doctrine of the extermination of an infinitude of connecting links, between the living and extinct inhabitants of the world, and at each successive period between the extinct and still older species, why is not every geological formation charged with such links? Why does not every collection of fossil remains afford plain evidence of the gradation and mutation of the forms of life? We meet with no such evidence, and this is the most obvious and forcible of the many objections which may be urged against my theory. Why, again, do whole groups of allied species appear, though certainly they often falsely appear, to have come in suddenly on the several geological stages? Why do we not find great piles of strata beneath the Silurian system, stored with the remains of the progenitors of the Silurian groups of fossils? For certainly on my theory such strata must somewhere have been deposited at these ancient and utterly unknown epochs in the world's history. 
17c17
<  I can answer these questions and grave objections only on the supposition that the geological record is far more imperfect than most geologists believe. It cannot be objected that there has not been time sufficient for any amount of organic change; for the lapse of time has been so great as to be utterly inappreciable by the human intellect. The number of specimens in all our museums is absolutely as nothing compared with the countless generations of countless species which certainly have existed. We should not be able to recognise a species as the parent of any one or more species if we were to examine them ever so closely, unless we likewise possessed many of the intermediate links between their past or parent and present states; and these many links we could hardly ever expect to discover, owing to the imperfection of the geological record. Numerous existing doubtful forms could be named which are probably varieties; but who will pretend that in future ages so many fossil links will be discovered, that naturalists will be able to decide, on the common view, whether or not these doubtful forms are varieties? As long as most of the links between any two species are unknown, if any one link or intermediate variety be discovered, it will simply be classed as another and distinct species. Only a small portion of the world has been geologically explored. Only organic beings of certain classes can be preserved in a fossil condition, at least in any great number. Widely ranging species vary most, and varieties are often at first local, -- both causes rendering the discovery of intermediate links less likely. Local varieties will not spread into other and distant regions until they are considerably modified and improved; and when they do spread, if discovered in a geological formation, they will appear as if suddenly created there, and will be simply classed as new species. Most formations have been intermittent in their accumulation; and their duration, I am inclined to believe, has been shorter than the average duration of specific forms. Successive formations are separated from each other by enormous blank intervals of time; for fossiliferous formations, thick enough to resist future degradation, can be accumulated only where much sediment is deposited on the subsiding bed of the sea. During the alternate periods of elevation and of stationary level the record will be blank. During these latter periods there will probably be more variability in the forms of life; during periods of subsidence, more extinction. 
---
> I can answer these questions and grave objections only on the supposition that the geological record is far more imperfect than most geologists believe. It cannot be objected that there has not been time sufficient for any amount of organic change; for the lapse of time has been so great as to be utterly inappreciable by the human intellect. The number of specimens in all our museums is absolutely as nothing compared with the countless generations of countless species which certainly have existed. We should not be able to recognise a species as the parent of any one or more species if we were to examine them ever so closely, unless we likewise possessed many of the intermediate links between their past or parent and present states; and these many links we could hardly ever expect to discover, owing to the imperfection of the geological record. Numerous existing doubtful forms could be named which are probably varieties; but who will pretend that in future ages so many fossil links will be discovered, that naturalists will be able to decide, on the common view, whether or not these doubtful forms are varieties? As long as most of the links between any two species are unknown, if any one link or intermediate variety be discovered, it will simply be classed as another and distinct species. Only a small portion of the world has been geologically explored. Only organic beings of certain classes can be preserved in a fossil condition, at least in any great number. Widely ranging species vary most, and varieties are often at first local, -- both causes rendering the discovery of intermediate links less likely. Local varieties will not spread into other and distant regions until they are considerably modified and improved; and when they do spread, if discovered in a geological formation, they will appear as if suddenly created there, and will be simply classed as new species. Most formations have been intermittent in their accumulation; and their duration, I am inclined to believe, has been shorter than the average duration of specific forms. Successive formations are separated from each other by enormous blank intervals of time; for fossiliferous formations, thick enough to resist future degradation, can be accumulated only where much sediment is deposited on the subsiding bed of the sea. During the alternate periods of elevation and of stationary level the record will be blank. During these latter periods there will probably be more variability in the forms of life; during periods of subsidence, more extinction. 
19c19
<  With respect to the absence of fossiliferous formations beneath the lowest Silurian strata, I can only recur to the hypothesis given in the ninth chapter. That the geological record is imperfect all will admit; but that it is imperfect to the degree which I require, few will be inclined to admit. If we look to long enough intervals of time, geology plainly declares that all species have changed; and they have changed in the manner which my theory requires, for they have changed slowly and in a graduated manner. We clearly see this in the fossil remains from consecutive formations invariably being much more closely related to each other, than are the fossils from formations distant from each other in time. 
---
> With respect to the absence of fossiliferous formations beneath the lowest Silurian strata, I can only recur to the hypothesis given in the ninth chapter. That the geological record is imperfect all will admit; but that it is imperfect to the degree which I require, few will be inclined to admit. If we look to long enough intervals of time, geology plainly declares that all species have changed; and they have changed in the manner which my theory requires, for they have changed slowly and in a graduated manner. We clearly see this in the fossil remains from consecutive formations invariably being much more closely related to each other, than are the fossils from formations distant from each other in time. 
21c21
<  Such is the sum of the several chief objections and difficulties which may justly be urged against my theory; and I have now briefly recapitulated the answers and explanations which can be given to them. I have felt these difficulties far too heavily during many years to doubt their weight. But it deserves especial notice that the more important objections relate to questions on which we are confessedly ignorant; nor do we know how ignorant we are. We do not know all the possible transitional gradations between the simplest and the most perfect organs; it cannot be pretended that we know all the varied means of Distribution during the long lapse of years, or that we know how imperfect the Geological Record is. Grave as these several difficulties are, in my judgement they do not overthrow the theory of descent with modification. 
---
> Such is the sum of the several chief objections and difficulties which may justly be urged against my theory; and I have now briefly recapitulated the answers and explanations which can be given to them. I have felt these difficulties far too heavily during many years to doubt their weight. But it deserves especial notice that the more important objections relate to questions on which we are confessedly ignorant; nor do we know how ignorant we are. We do not know all the possible transitional gradations between the simplest and the most perfect organs; it cannot be pretended that we know all the varied means of Distribution during the long lapse of years, or that we know how imperfect the Geological Record is. Grave as these several difficulties are, in my judgement they do not overthrow the theory of descent with modification. 
25c25
<  Man does not actually produce variability; he only unintentionally exposes organic beings to new conditions of life, and then nature acts on the organisation, and causes variability. But man can and does select the variations given to him by nature, and thus accumulate them in any desired manner. He thus adapts animals and plants for his own benefit or pleasure. He may do this methodically, or he may do it unconsciously by preserving the individuals most useful to him at the time, without any thought of altering the breed. It is certain that he can largely influence the character of a breed by selecting, in each successive generation, individual differences so slight as to be quite inappreciable by an uneducated eye. This process of selection has been the great agency in the production of the most distinct and useful domestic breeds. That many of the breeds produced by man have to a large extent the character of natural species, is shown by the inextricable doubts whether very many of them are varieties or aboriginal species. 
---
> Man does not actually produce variability; he only unintentionally exposes organic beings to new conditions of life, and then nature acts on the organisation, and causes variability. But man can and does select the variations given to him by nature, and thus accumulate them in any desired manner. He thus adapts animals and plants for his own benefit or pleasure. He may do this methodically, or he may do it unconsciously by preserving the individuals most useful to him at the time, without any thought of altering the breed. It is certain that he can largely influence the character of a breed by selecting, in each successive generation, individual differences so slight as to be quite inappreciable by an uneducated eye. This process of selection has been the great agency in the production of the most distinct and useful domestic breeds. That many of the breeds produced by man have to a large extent the character of natural species, is shown by the inextricable doubts whether very many of them are varieties or aboriginal species. 
27c27
<  There is no obvious reason why the principles which have acted so efficiently under domestication should not have acted under nature. In the preservation of favoured individuals and races, during the constantly-recurrent Struggle for Existence, we see the most powerful and ever-acting means of selection. The struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high geometrical ratio of increase which is common to all organic beings. This high rate of increase is proved by calculation, by the effects of a succession of peculiar seasons, and by the results of naturalisation, as explained in the third chapter. More individuals are born than can possibly survive. A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall live and which shall die, -- which variety or species shall increase in number, and which shall decrease, or finally become extinct. As the individuals of the same species come in all respects into the closest competition with each other, the struggle will generally be most severe between them; it will be almost equally severe between the varieties of the same species, and next in severity between the species of the same genus. But the struggle will often be very severe between beings most remote in the scale of nature. The slightest advantage in one being, at any age or during any season, over those with which it comes into competition, or better adaptation in however slight a degree to the surrounding physical conditions, will turn the balance. 
---
> There is no obvious reason why the principles which have acted so efficiently under domestication should not have acted under nature. In the preservation of favoured individuals and races, during the constantly-recurrent Struggle for Existence, we see the most powerful and ever-acting means of selection. The struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high geometrical ratio of increase which is common to all organic beings. This high rate of increase is proved by calculation, by the effects of a succession of peculiar seasons, and by the results of naturalisation, as explained in the third chapter. More individuals are born than can possibly survive. A grain in the balance will determine which individual shall live and which shall die, -- which variety or species shall increase in number, and which shall decrease, or finally become extinct. As the individuals of the same species come in all respects into the closest competition with each other, the struggle will generally be most severe between them; it will be almost equally severe between the varieties of the same species, and next in severity between the species of the same genus. But the struggle will often be very severe between beings most remote in the scale of nature. The slightest advantage in one being, at any age or during any season, over those with which it comes into competition, or better adaptation in however slight a degree to the surrounding physical conditions, will turn the balance. 
93c93
< It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.
---
> It is interesting to contemplate an entangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent on each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the external conditions of life, and from use and disuse; a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_9|985502468
1c1,107
< Describe the new page here.
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> IN the sixth chapter I enumerated the chief objections which might be justly urged against the views maintained in this volume. Most of them have now been discussed. One, namely the distinctness of specific forms, and their not being blended together by innumerable transitional links, is a very obvious difficulty. I assigned reasons why such links do not commonly occur at the present day, under the circumstances apparently most favourable for their presence, namely on an extensive and continuous area with graduated physical conditions. I endeavoured to show, that the life of each species depends in a more important manner on the presence of other already defined organic forms, than on climate; and, therefore, that the really governing conditions of life do not graduate away quite insensibly like heat or moisture. I endeavoured, also, to show that intermediate varieties, from existing in lesser numbers than the forms which they connect, will generally be beaten out and exterminated during the course of further modification and improvement. The main cause, however, of innumerable intermediate links not now occurring everywhere throughout nature depends on the very process of natural selection, through which new varieties continually take the places of and exterminate their parent-forms. But just in proportion as this process of extermination has acted on an enormous scale, so must the number of intermediate varieties, which have formerly existed on the earth, be truly enormous. Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain; and this, perhaps, is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory. The explanation lies, as I believe, in the extreme imperfection of the geological record. 
> 
> In the first place it should always be borne in mind what sort of intermediate forms must, on my theory, have formerly existed. I have found it difficult, when looking at any two species, to avoid picturing to myself, forms directly intermediate between them. But this is a wholly false view; we should always look for forms intermediate between each species and a common but unknown progenitor; and the progenitor will generally have differed in some respects from all its modified descendants. To give a simple illustration: the fantail and pouter pigeons have both descended from the rock-pigeon; if we possessed all the intermediate varieties which have ever existed, we should have an extremely close series between both and the rock-pigeon; but we should have no varieties directly intermediate between the fantail and pouter; none, for instance, combining a tail somewhat expanded with a crop somewhat enlarged, the characteristic features of these two breeds. These two breeds, moreover, have become so much modified, that if we had no historical or indirect evidence regarding their origin, it would not have been possible to have determined from a mere comparison of their structure with that of the rock-pigeon, whether they had descended from this species or from some other allied species, such as C. oenas. 
> 
> So with natural species, if we look to forms very distinct, for instance to the horse and tapir, we have no reason to suppose that links ever existed directly intermediate between them, but between each and an unknown common parent. The common parent will have had in its whole organisation much general resemblance to the tapir and to the horse; but in some points of structure may have differed considerably from both, even perhaps more than they differ from each other. Hence in all such cases, we should be unable to recognise the parent-form of any two or more species, even if we closely compared the structure of the parent with that of its modified descendants, unless at the same time we had a nearly perfect chain of the intermediate links. 
> 
> It is just possible by my theory, that one of two living forms might have descended from the other; for instance, a horse from a tapir; and in this case direct intermediate links will have existed between them. But such a case would imply that one form had remained for a very long period unaltered, whilst its descendants had undergone a vast amount of change; and the principle of competition between organism and organism, between child and parent, will render this a very rare event; for in all cases the new and improved forms of life will tend to supplant the old and unimproved. 
> 
> By the theory of natural selection all living species have been connected with the parent-species of each genus, by differences not greater than we see between the varieties of the same species at the present day; and these parent-species, now generally extinct, have in their turn been similarly connected with more ancient species; and so on backwards, always converging to the common ancestor of each great class. So that the number of intermediate and transitional links, between all living and extinct species, must have been inconceivably great. But assuredly, if this theory be true, such have lived upon this earth. 
> 
> On the lapse of Time. Independently of our not finding fossil remains of such infinitely numerous connecting links, it may be objected, that time will not have sufficed for so great an amount of organic change, all changes having been effected very slowly through natural selection. It is hardly possible for me even to recall to the reader, who may not be a practical geologist, the facts leading the mind feebly to comprehend the lapse of time. He who can read Sir Charles Lyell's grand work on the Principles of Geology, which the future historian will recognise as having produced a revolution in natural science, yet does not admit how incomprehensibly vast have been the past periods of time, may at once close this volume. Not that it suffices to study the Principles of Geology, or to read special treatises by different observers on separate formations, and to mark how each author attempts to give an inadequate idea of the duration of each formation or even each stratum. A man must for years examine for himself great piles of superimposed strata, and watch the sea at work grinding down old rocks and making fresh sediment, before he can hope to comprehend anything of the lapse of time, the monuments of which we see around us. 
> 
> It is good to wander along lines of sea-coast, when formed of moderately hard rocks, and mark the process of degradation. The tides in most cases reach the cliffs only for a short time twice a day, and the waves eat into them only when they are charged with sand or pebbles; for there is reason to believe that pure water can effect little or nothing in wearing away rock. At last the base of the cliff is undermined, huge fragments fall down, and these remaining fixed, have to be worn away, atom by atom, until reduced in size they can be rolled about by the waves, and then are more quickly ground into pebbles, sand, or mud. But how often do we see along the bases of retreating cliffs rounded boulders, all thickly clothed by marine productions, showing how little they are abraded and how seldom they are rolled about! Moreover, if we follow for a few miles any line of rocky cliff, which is undergoing degradation, we find that it is only here and there, along a short length or round a promontory, that the cliffs are at the present time suffering. The appearance of the surface and the vegetation show that elsewhere years have elapsed since the waters washed their base. 
> 
> He who most closely studies the action of the sea on our shores, will, I believe, be most deeply impressed with the slowness with which rocky coasts are worn away. The observations on this head by Hugh Miller, and by that excellent observer Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, are most impressive. With the mind thus impressed, let any one examine beds of conglomerate many thousand feet in thickness, which, though probably formed at a quicker rate than many other deposits, yet, from being formed of worn and rounded pebbles, each of which bears the stamp of time, are good to show how slowly the mass has been accumulated. Let him remember Lyell's profound remark, that the thickness and extent of sedimentary formations are the result and measure of the degradation which the earth's crust has elsewhere suffered. And what an amount of degradation is implied by the sedimentary deposits of many countries! Professor Ramsay has given me the maximum thickness, in most cases from actual measurement, in a few cases from estimate, of each formation in different parts of Great Britain; and this is the result:- 
> 
> Feet 
> 
> Palaeozoic strata (not including igneous beds) 57,154 
> 
> Secondary strata 13,190 
> 
> Tertiary strata 2,240 
> 
>  making altogether 72,584 feet; that is, very nearly thirteen and three-quarters British miles. Some of these formations, which are represented in England by thin beds, are thousands of feet in thickness on the Continent. Moreover, between each successive formation, we have, in the opinion of most geologists, enormously long blank periods. So that the lofty pile of sedimentary rocks in Britain, gives but an inadequate idea of the time which has elapsed during their accumulation; yet what time this must have consumed! Good observers have estimated that sediment is deposited by the great Mississippi river at the rate of only 600 feet in a hundred thousand years. This estimate may be quite erroneous; yet, considering over what wide spaces very fine sediment is transported by the currents of the sea, the process of accumulation in any one area must be extremely slow. 
> 
> But the amount of denudation which the strata have in many places suffered, independently of the rate of accumulation of the degraded matter, probably offers the best evidence of the lapse of time. I remember having been much struck with the evidence of denudation, when viewing volcanic islands, which have been worn by the waves and pared all round into perpendicular cliffs of one or two thousand feet in height; for the gentle slope of the lava-streams, due to their formerly liquid state, showed at a glance how far the hard, rocky beds had once extended into the open ocean. The same story is still more plainly told by faults, those great cracks along which the strata have been upheaved on one side, or thrown down on the other, to the height or depth of thousands of feet; for since the crust cracked, the surface of the land has been so completely planed down by the action of the sea, that no trace of these vast dislocations is externally visible. 
> 
> The Craven fault, for instance, extends for upwards of 30 miles, and along this line the vertical displacement of the strata has varied from 600 to 3000 feet. Prof. Ramsay has published an account of a downthrow in Anglesea of 2300 feet; and he informs me that he fully believes there is one in Merionethshire of 12,000 feet; yet in these cases there is nothing on the surface to show such prodigious movements; the pile of rocks on the one or other side having been smoothly swept away. The consideration of these facts impresses my mind almost in the same manner as does the vain endeavour to grapple with the idea of eternity. 
> 
> I am tempted to give one other case, the well-known one of the denudation of the Weald. Though it must be admitted that the denudation of the Weald has been a mere trifle, in comparison with that which has removed masses of our Palaeozoic strata, in parts ten thousand feet in thickness, as shown in Prof. Ramsay's masterly memoir on this subject. Yet it is an admirable lesson to stand on the North Downs and to look at the distant South Downs; for, remembering that at no great distance to the west the northern and southern escarpments meet and close, one can safely picture to oneself the great dome of rocks which must have covered up the Weald within so limited a period as since the latter part of the Chalk formation. The distance from the northern to the southern Downs is about 22 miles, and the thickness of the several formations is on an average about 1100 feet, as I am informed by Prof. Ramsay. But if, as some geologists suppose, a range of older rocks underlies the Weald, on the flanks of which the overlying sedimentary deposits might have accumulated in thinner masses than elsewhere, the above estimate would be erroneous; but this source of doubt probably would not greatly affect the estimate as applied to the western extremity of the district. If, then, we knew the rate at which the sea commonly wears away a line of cliff of any given height, we could measure the time requisite to have denuded the Weald. This, of course, cannot be done; but we may, in order to form some crude notion on the subject, assume that the sea would eat into cliffs 500 feet in height at the rate of one inch in a century. This will at first appear much too small an allowance; but it is the same as if we were to assume a cliff one yard in height to be eaten back along a whole line of coast at the rate of one yard in nearly every twenty-two years. I doubt whether any rock, even as soft as chalk, would yield at this rate excepting on the most exposed coasts; though no doubt the degradation of a lofty cliff would be more rapid from the breakage of the fallen fragments. On the other hand, I do not believe that any line of coast, ten or twenty miles in length, ever suffers degradation at the same time along its whole indented length; and we must remember that almost all strata contain harder layers or nodules, which from long resisting attrition form a breakwater at the base. Hence, under ordinary circumstances, I conclude that for a cliff 500 feet in height, a denudation of one inch per century for the whole length would be an ample allowance. At this rate, on the above data, the denudation of the Weald must have required 306,662,400 years; or say three hundred million years. 
> 
> The action of fresh water on the gently inclined Wealden district, when upraised, could hardly have been great, but it would somewhat reduce the above estimate. On the other hand, during oscillations of level, which we know this area has undergone, the surface may have existed for millions of years as land, and thus have escaped the action of the sea: when deeply submerged for perhaps equally long periods, it would, likewise, have escaped the action of the coast-waves. So that in all probability a far longer period than 300 million years has elapsed since the latter part of the Secondary period. 
> 
> I have made these few remarks because it is highly important for us to gain some notion, however imperfect, of the lapse of years. During each of these years, over the whole world, the land and the water has been peopled by hosts of living forms. What an infinite number of generations, which the mind cannot grasp, must have succeeded each other in the long roll of years! Now turn to our richest geological museums, and what a paltry display we behold! 
> 
> On the poorness of our Palaeontological collections. That our Palaeontological collections are very imperfect, is admitted by every one. The remark of that admirable Palaeontologist, the late Edward Forbes, should not be forgotten, namely, that numbers of our fossil species are known and named from single and often broken specimens, or from a few specimens collected on some one spot. Only a small portion of the surface of the earth has been geologically explored, and no part with sufficient care, as the important discoveries made every year in Europe prove. No organism wholly soft can be preserved. Shells and bones will decay and disappear when left on the bottom of the sea, where sediment is not accumulating. I believe we are continually taking a most erroneous view, when we tacitly admit to ourselves that sediment is being deposited over nearly the whole bed of the sea, at a rate sufficiently quick to embed and preserve fossil remains. Throughout an enormously large proportion of the ocean, the bright blue tint of the water bespeaks its purity. The many cases on record of a formation conformably covered, after an enormous interval of time, by another and later formation, without the underlying bed having suffered in the interval any wear and tear, seem explicable only on the view of the bottom of the sea not rarely lying for ages in an unaltered condition. The remains which do become embedded, if in sand or gravel, will when the beds are upraised generally be dissolved by the percolation of rain-water. I suspect that but few of the very many animals which live on the beach between high and low watermark are preserved. For instance, the several species of the Chthamalinae (a sub-family of sessile cirripedes) coat the rocks all over the world in infinite numbers: they are all strictly littoral, with the exception of a single Mediterranean species, which inhabits deep water and has been found fossil in Sicily, whereas not one other species has hitherto been found in any tertiary formation: yet it is now known that the genus Chthamalus existed during the chalk period. The molluscan genus Chiton offers a partially analogous case. 
> 
> With respect to the terrestrial productions which lived during the Secondary and Palaeozoic periods, it is superfluous to state that our evidence from fossil remains is fragmentary in an extreme degree. For instance, not a land shell is known belonging to either of these vast periods, with one exception discovered by Sir C. Lyell in the carboniferous strata of North America. I n regard to mammiferous remains, a single glance at the historical table published in the Supplement to Lyell's Manual, will bring home the truth, how accidental and rare is their preservation, far better than pages of detail. Nor is their rarity surprising, when we remember how large a proportion of the bones of tertiary mammals have been discovered either in caves or in lacustrine deposits; and that not a cave or true lacustrine bed is known belonging to the age of our secondary or palaeozoic formations. 
> 
> But the imperfection in the geological record mainly results from another and more important cause than any of the foregoing; namely, from the several formations being separated from each other by wide intervals of time. When we see the formations tabulated in written works, or when we follow them in nature, it is difficult to avoid believing that they are closely consecutive. But we know, for instance, from Sir R. Murchison's great work on Russia, what wide gaps there are in that country between the superimposed formations; so it is in North America, and in many other parts of the world. The most skilful geologist, if his attention had been exclusively confined to these large territories, would never have suspected that during the periods which were blank and barren in his own country, great piles of sediment, charged with new and peculiar forms of life, had elsewhere been accumulated. And if in each separate territory, hardly any idea can be formed of the length of time which has elapsed between the consecutive formations, we may infer that this could nowhere be ascertained. The frequent and great changes in the mineralogical composition of consecutive formations, generally implying great changes in the geography of the surrounding lands, whence the sediment has been derived, accords with the belief of vast intervals of time having elapsed between each formation. 
> 
> But we can, I think, see why the geological formations of each region are almost invariably intermittent; that is, have not followed each other in close sequence. Scarcely any fact struck me more when examining many hundred miles of the South American coasts, which have been upraised several hundred feet within the recent period, than the absence of any recent deposits sufficiently extensive to last for even a short geological period. Along the whole west coast, which is inhabited by a peculiar marine fauna, tertiary beds are so scantily developed, that no record of several successive and peculiar marine faunas will probably be preserved to a distant age. A little reflection will explain why along the rising coast of the western side of South America, no extensive formations with recent or tertiary remains can anywhere be found, though the supply of sediment must for ages have been great, from the enormous degradation of the coast-rocks and from muddy streams entering the sea. The explanation, no doubt, is, that the littoral and sub-littoral deposits are continually worn away, as soon as they are brought up by the slow and gradual rising of the land within the grinding action of the coast-waves. 
> 
> We may, I think, safely conclude that sediment must be accumulated in extremely thick, solid, or extensive masses, in order to withstand the incessant action of the waves, when first upraised and during subsequent oscillations of level. Such thick and extensive accumulations of sediment may be formed in two ways; either, in profound depths of the sea, in which case, judging from the researches of E. Forbes, we may conclude that the bottom will be inhabited by extremely few animals, and the mass when upraised will give a most imperfect record of the forms of life which then existed; or, sediment may be accumulated to any thickness and extent over a shallow bottom, if it continue slowly to subside. In this latter case, as long as the rate of subsidence and supply of sediment nearly balance each other, the sea will remain shallow and favourable for life, and thus a fossiliferous formation thick enough, when upraised, to resist any amount of degradation, may be formed. 
> 
> I am convinced that all our ancient formations, which are rich in fossils, have thus been formed during subsidence. Since publishing my views on this subject in 1845, I have watched the progress of Geology, and have been surprised to note how author after author, in treating of this or that great formation, has come to the conclusion that it was accumulated during subsidence. I may add, that the only ancient tertiary formation on the west coast of South America, which has been bulky enough to resist such degradation as it has as yet suffered, but which will hardly last to a distant geological age, was certainly deposited during a downward oscillation of level, and thus gained considerable thickness. 
> 
> All geological facts tell us plainly that each area has undergone numerous slow oscillations of level, and apparently these oscillations have affected wide spaces. Consequently formations rich in fossils and sufficiently thick and extensive to resist subsequent degradation, may have been formed over wide spaces during periods of subsidence, but only where the supply of sediment was sufficient to keep the sea shallow and to embed and preserve the remains before they had time to decay. On the other hand, as long as the bed of the sea remained stationary, thick deposits could not have been accumulated in the shallow parts, which are the most favourable to life. Still less could this have happened during the alternate periods of elevation; or, to speak more accurately, the beds which were then accumulated will have been destroyed by being upraised and brought within the limits of the coast-action. 
> 
> Thus the geological record will almost necessarily be rendered intermittent. I feel much confidence in the truth of these views, for they are in strict accordance with the general principles inculcated by Sir C. Lyell; and E. Forbes independently arrived at a similar conclusion. 
> 
> One remark is here worth a passing notice. During periods of elevation the area of the land and of the adjoining shoal parts of the sea will be increased, and new stations will often be formed; all circumstances most favourable, as previously explained, for the formation of new varieties and species; but during such periods there will generally be a blank in the geological record. On the other hand, during subsidence, the inhabited area and number of inhabitants will decrease (excepting the productions on the shores of a continent when first broken up into an archipelago), and consequently during subsidence, though there will be much extinction, fewer new varieties or species will be formed; and it is during these very periods of subsidence, that our great deposits rich in fossils have been accumulated. Nature may almost be said to have guarded against the frequent discovery of her transitional or linking forms. 
> 
> From the foregoing considerations it cannot be doubted that the geological record, viewed as a whole, is extremely imperfect; but if we confine our attention to any one formation, it becomes more difficult to understand, why we do not therein find closely graduated varieties between the allied species which lived at its commencement and at its close. Some cases are on record of the same species presenting distinct varieties in the upper and lower parts of the same formation, but, as they are rare, they may be here passed over. Although each formation has indisputably required a vast number of years for its deposition, I can see several reasons why each should not include a graduated series of links between the species which then lived; but I can by no means pretend to assign due proportional weight to the following considerations. 
> 
> Although each formation may mark a very long lapse of years, each perhaps is short compared with the period requisite to change one species into another. I am aware that two palaeontologists, whose opinions are worthy of much deference, namely Bronn and Woodward, have concluded that the average duration of each formation is twice or thrice as long as the average duration of specific forms. But insuperable difficulties, as it seems to me, prevent us coming to any just conclusion on this head. When we see a species first appearing in the middle of any formation, it would be rash in the extreme to infer that it had not elsewhere previously existed. So again when we find a species disappearing before the uppermost layers have been deposited, it would be equally rash to suppose that it then became wholly extinct. We forget how small the area of Europe is compared with the rest of the world; nor have the several stages of the same formation throughout Europe been correlated with perfect accuracy. 
> 
>  With marine animals of all kinds, we may safely infer a large amount of migration during climatal and other changes; and when we see a species first appearing in any formation, the probability is that it only then first immigrated into that area. It is well known, for instance, that several species appeared somewhat earlier in the palaeozoic beds of North America than in those of Europe; time having apparently been required for their migration from the American to the European seas. In examining the latest deposits of various quarters of the world, it has everywhere been noted, that some few still existing species are common in the deposit, but have become extinct in the immediately surrounding sea; or, conversely, that some are now abundant in the neighbouring sea, but are rare or absent in this particular deposit. It is an excellent lesson to reflect on the ascertained amount of migration of the inhabitants of Europe during the Glacial period, which forms only a part of one whole geological period; and likewise to reflect on the great changes of level, on the inordinately great change of climate, on the prodigious lapse of time, all included within this same glacial period. Yet it may be doubted whether in any quarter of the world, sedimentary deposits, including fossil remains, have gone on accumulating within the same area during the whole of this period. It is not, for instance, probable that sediment was deposited during the whole of the glacial period near the mouth of the Mississippi, within that limit of depth at which marine animals can flourish; for we know what vast geographical changes occurred in other parts of America during this space of time. When such beds as were deposited in shallow water near the mouth of the Mississippi during some part of the glacial period shall have been upraised, organic remains will probably first appear and disappear at different levels, owing to the migration of species and to geographical changes. And in the distant future, a geologist examining these beds, might be tempted to conclude that the average duration of life of the embedded fossils had been less than that of the glacial period, instead of having been really far greater, that is extending from before the glacial epoch to the present day. 
> 
> In order to get a perfect gradation between two forms in the upper and lower parts of the same formation, the deposit must have gone on accumulating for a very long period, in order to have given sufficient time for the slow process of variation; hence the deposit will generally have to be a very thick one; and the species undergoing modification will have had to live on the same area throughout this whole time. But we have seen that a thick fossiliferous formation can only be accumulated during a period of subsidence; and to keep the depth approximately the same, which is necessary in order to enable the same species to live on the same space, the supply of sediment must nearly have counterbalanced the amount of subsidence. But this same movement of subsidence will often tend to sink the area whence the sediment is derived, and thus diminish the supply whilst the downward movement continues. In fact, this nearly exact balancing between the supply of sediment and the amount of subsidence is probably a rare contingency; for it has been observed by more than one palaeontologist, that very thick deposits are usually barren of organic remains, except near their upper or lower limits. 
> 
> It would seem that each separate formation, like the whole pile of formations in any country, has generally been intermittent in its accumulation. When we see, as is so often the case, a formation composed of beds of different mineralogical composition, we may reasonably suspect that the process of deposition has been much interrupted, as a change in the currents of the sea and a supply of sediment of a different nature will generally have been due to geographical changes requiring much time. Nor will the closest inspection of a formation give any idea of the time which its deposition has consumed. Many instances could be given of beds only a few feet in thickness, representing formations, elsewhere thousands of feet in thickness, and which must have required an enormous period for their accumulation; yet no one ignorant of this fact would have suspected the vast lapse of time represented by the thinner formation. Many cases could be given of the lower beds of a formation having been upraised, denuded, submerged, and then re-covered by the upper beds of the same formation, facts, showing what wide, yet easily overlooked, intervals have occurred in its accumulation. In other cases we have the plainest evidence in great fossilised trees, still standing upright as they grew, of many long intervals of time and changes of level during the process of deposition, which would never even have been suspected, had not the trees chanced to have been preserved: thus, Messrs Lyell and Dawson found carboniferous beds 1400 feet thick in Nova Scotia, with ancient root-bearing strata, one above the other, at no less than sixty-eight different levels. Hence, when the same species occur at the bottom, middle, and top of a formation, the probability is that they have not lived on the same spot during the whole period of deposition, but have disappeared and reappeared, perhaps many times, during the same geological period. So that if such species were to undergo a considerable amount of modification during any one geological period, a section would not probably include all the fine intermediate gradations which must on my theory have existed between them, but abrupt, though perhaps very slight, changes of form. 
> 
> It is all-important to remember that naturalists have no golden rule by which to distinguish species and varieties; they grant some little variability to each species, but when they meet with a somewhat greater amount of difference between any two forms, they rank both as species, unless they are enabled to connect them together by close intermediate gradations. And this from the reasons just assigned we can seldom hope to effect in any one geological section. Supposing B and C to be two species, and a third, A, to be found in an underlying bed; even if A were strictly intermediate between B and C, it would simply be ranked as a third and distinct species, unless at the same time it could be most closely connected with either one or both forms by intermediate varieties. Nor should it be forgotten, as before explained, that A might be the actual progenitor of B and C, and yet might not at all necessarily be strictly intermediate between them in all points of structure. So that we might obtain the parent-species and its several modified descendants from the lower and upper beds of a formation, and unless we obtained numerous transitional gradations, we should not recognise their relationship, and should consequently be compelled to rank them all as distinct species. 
> 
> It is notorious on what excessively slight differences many palaeontologists have founded their species; and they do this the more readily if the specimens come from different sub-stages of the same formation. Some experienced conchologists are now sinking many of the very fine species of D'Orbigny and others into the rank of varieties; and on this view we do find the kind of evidence of change which on my theory we ought to find. Moreover, if we look to rather wider intervals, namely, to distinct but consecutive stages of the same great formation, we find that the embedded fossils, though almost universally ranked as specifically different, yet are far more closely allied to each other than are the species found in more widely separated formations; but to this subject I shall have to return in the following chapter. 
> 
> One other consideration is worth notice: with animals and plants that can propagate rapidly and are not highly locomotive, there is reason to suspect, as we have formerly seen, that their varieties are generally at first local; and that such local varieties do not spread widely and supplant their parent-forms until they have been modified and perfected in some considerable degree. According to this view, the chance of discovering in a formation in any one country all the early stages of transition between any two forms, is small, for the successive changes are supposed to have been local or confined to some one spot. Most marine animals have a wide range; and we have seen that with plants it is those which have the widest range, that oftenest present varieties; so that with shells and other marine animals, it is probably those which have had the widest range, far exceeding the limits of the known geological formations of Europe, which have oftenest given rise, first to local varieties and ultimately to new species; and this again would greatly lessen the chance of our being able to trace the stages of transition in any one geological formation. 
> 
> It should not be forgotten, that at the present day, with perfect specimens for examination, two forms can seldom be connected by intermediate varieties and thus proved to be the same species, until many specimens have been collected from many places; and in the case of fossil species this could rarely be effected by palaeontologists. We shall, perhaps, best perceive the improbability of our being enabled to connect species by numerous, fine, intermediate, fossil links, by asking ourselves whether, for instance, geologists at some future period will be able to prove, that our different breeds of cattle, sheep, horses, and dogs have descended from a single stock or from several aboriginal stocks; or, again, whether certain sea-shells inhabiting the shores of North America, which are ranked by some conchologists as distinct species from their European representatives, and by other conchologists as only varieties, are really varieties or are, as it is called, specifically distinct. This could be effected only by the future geologist discovering in a fossil state numerous intermediate gradations; and such success seems to me improbable in the highest degree. 
> 
> Geological research, though it has added numerous species to existing and extinct genera, and has made the intervals between some few groups less wide than they otherwise would have been, yet has done scarcely anything in breaking down the distinction between species, by connecting them together by numerous, fine, intermediate varieties; and this not having been effected, is probably the gravest and most obvious of all the many objections which may be urged against my views. Hence it will be worth while to sum up the foregoing remarks, under an imaginary illustration. The Malay Archipelago is of about the size of Europe from the North Cape to the Mediterranean, and from Britain to Russia; and therefore equals all the geological formations which have been examined with any accuracy, excepting those of the United States of America. I fully agree with Mr Godwin-Austen, that the present condition of the Malay Archipelago, with its numerous large islands separated by wide and shallow seas, probably represents the former state of Europe, when most of our formations were accumulating. The Malay Archipelago is one of the richest regions of the whole world in organic beings; yet if all the species were to be collected which have ever lived there, how imperfectly would they represent the natural history of the world! 
> 
> But we have every reason to believe that the terrestrial productions of the archipelago would be preserved in an excessively imperfect manner in the formations which we suppose to be there accumulating. I suspect that not many of the strictly littoral animals, or of those which lived on naked submarine rocks, would be embedded; and those embedded in gravel or sand, would not endure to a distant epoch. Wherever sediment did not accumulate on the bed of the sea, or where it did not accumulate at a sufficient rate to protect organic bodies from decay, no remains could be preserved. 
> 
> In our archipelago, I believe that fossiliferous formations could be formed of sufficient thickness to last to an age, as distant in futurity as the secondary formations lie in the past, only during periods of subsidence. These periods of subsidence would be separated from each other by enormous intervals, during which the area would be either stationary or rising; whilst rising, each fossiliferous formation would be destroyed, almost as soon as accumulated, by the incessant coast-action, as we now see on the shores of South America. During the periods of subsidence there would probably be much extinction of life; during the periods of elevation, there would be much variation, but the geological record would then be least perfect. 
> 
> It may be doubted whether the duration of any one great period of subsidence over the whole or part of the archipelago, together with a contemporaneous accumulation of sediment, would exceed the average duration of the same specific forms; and these contingencies are indispensable for the preservation of all the transitional gradations between any two or more species. If such gradations were not fully preserved, transitional varieties would merely appear as so many distinct species. It is, also, probable that each great period of subsidence would be interrupted by oscillations of level, and that slight climatal changes would intervene during such lengthy periods; and in these cases the inhabitants of the archipelago would have to migrate, and no closely consecutive record of their modifications could be preserved in any one formation. 
> 
> Very many of the marine inhabitants of the archipelago now range thousands of miles beyond its confines; and analogy leads me to believe that it would be chiefly these far-ranging species which would oftenest produce new varieties; and the varieties would at first generally be local or confined to one place, but if possessed of any decided advantage, or when further modified and improved, they would slowly spread and supplant their parent-forms. When such varieties returned to their ancient homes, as they would differ from their former state, in a nearly uniform, though perhaps extremely slight degree, they would, according to the principles followed by many palaeontologists, be ranked as new and distinct species. 
> 
> If then, there be some degree of truth in these remarks, we have no right to expect to find in our geological formations, an infinite number of those fine transitional forms, which on my theory assuredly have connected all the past and present species of the same group into one long and branching chain of life. We ought only to look for a few links, some more closely, some more distantly related to each other; and these links, let them be ever so close, if found in different stages of the same formation, would, by most palaeontologists, be ranked as distinct species. But I do not pretend that I should ever have suspected how poor a record of the mutations of life, the best preserved geological section presented, had not the difficulty of our not discovering innumerable transitional links between the species which appeared at the commencement and close of each formation, pressed so hardly on my theory. 
> 
> On the sudden appearance of whole groups of Allied Species. The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations, has been urged by several palaeontologists, for instance, by Agassiz, Pictet, and by none more forcibly than by Professor Sedgwick, as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species. If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life all at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of descent with slow modification through natural selection. For the development of a group of forms, all of which have descended from some one progenitor, must have been an extremely slow process; and the progenitors must have lived long ages before their modified descendants. But we continually over-rate the perfection of the geological record, and falsely infer, because certain genera or families have not been found beneath a certain stage, that they did not exist before that stage. We continually forget how large the world is, compared with the area over which our geological formations have been carefully examined; we forget that groups of species may elsewhere have long existed and have slowly multiplied before they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of Europe and of the United States. We do not make due allowance for the enormous intervals of time, which have probably elapsed between our consecutive formations, longer perhaps in some cases than the time required for the accumulation of each formation. These intervals will have given time for the multiplication of species from some one or some few parent-forms; and in the succeeding formation such species will appear as if suddenly created. 
> 
> I may here recall a remark formerly made, namely that it might require a long succession of ages to adapt an organism to some new and peculiar line of life, for instance to fly through the air; but that when this had been effected, and a few species had thus acquired a great advantage over other organisms, a comparatively short time would be necessary to produce many divergent forms, which would be able to spread rapidly and widely throughout the world. 
> 
> I will now give a few examples to illustrate these remarks; and to show how liable we are to error in supposing that whole groups of species have suddenly been produced. I may recall the well-known fact that in geological treatises, published not many years ago, the great class of mammals was always spoken of as having abruptly come in at the commencement of the tertiary series. And now one of the richest known accumulations of fossil mammals belongs to the middle of the secondary series; and one true mammal has been discovered in the new red sandstone at nearly the commencement of this great series. Cuvier used to urge that no monkey occurred in any tertiary stratum; but now extinct species have been discovered in India, South America, and in Europe even as far back as the eocene stage. The most striking case, however, is that of the Whale family; as these animals have huge bones, are marine, and range over the world, the fact of not a single bone of a whale having been discovered in any secondary formation, seemed fully to justify the belief that this great and distinct order had been suddenly produced in the interval between the latest secondary and earliest tertiary formation. But now we may read in the Supplement to Lyell's 'Manual,' published in 1858, clear evidence of the existence of whales in the upper greensand, some time before the close of the secondary period. 
> 
> I may give another instance, which from having passed under my own eyes has much struck me. In a memoir on Fossil Sessile Cirripedes, I have stated that, from the number of existing and extinct tertiary species; from the extraordinary abundance of the individuals of many species all over the world, from the Arctic regions to the equator, inhabiting various zones of depths from the upper tidal limits to 50 fathoms; from the perfect manner in which specimens are preserved in the oldest tertiary beds; from the ease with which even a fragment of a valve can be recognised; from all these circumstances, I inferred that had sessile cirripedes existed during the secondary periods, they would certainly have been preserved and discovered; and as not one species had been discovered in beds of this age, I concluded that this great group had been suddenly developed at the commencement of the tertiary series. This was a sore trouble to me, adding as I thought one more instance of the abrupt appearance of a great group of species. But my work had hardly been published, when a skilful palaeontologist, M. Bosquet, sent me a drawing of a perfect specimen of an unmistakeable sessile cirripede, which he had himself extracted from the chalk of Belgium. And, as if to make the case as striking as possible, this sessile cirripede was a Chthamalus, a very common, large, and ubiquitous genus, of which not one specimen has as yet been found even in any tertiary stratum. Hence we now positively know that sessile cirripedes existed during the secondary period; and these cirripedes might have been the progenitors of our many tertiary and existing species. 
> 
> The case most frequently insisted on by palaeontologists of the apparently sudden appearance of a whole group of species, is that of the teleostean fishes, low down in the Chalk period. This group includes the large majority of existing species. Lately, Professor Pictet has carried their existence one sub-stage further back; and some palaeontologists believe that certain much older fishes, of which the affinities are as yet imperfectly known, are really teleostean. Assuming, however, that the whole of them did appear, as Agassiz believes, at the commencement of the chalk formation, the fact would certainly be highly remarkable; but I cannot see that it would be an insuperable difficulty on my theory, unless it could likewise be shown that the species of this group appeared suddenly and simultaneously throughout the world at this same period. It is almost superfluous to remark that hardly any fossil-fish are known from south of the equator; and by running through Pictet's palaeontology it will be seen that very few species are known from several formations in Europe. Some few families of fish now have a confined range; the teleostean fish might formerly have had a similarly confined range, and after having been largely developed in some one sea, might have spread widely. Nor have we any right to suppose that the seas of the world have always been so freely open from south to north as they are at present. Even at this day, if the Malay Archipelago were converted into land, the tropical parts of the Indian Ocean would form a large and perfectly enclosed basin, in which any great group of marine animals might be multiplied; and here they would remain confined, until some of the species became adapted to a cooler climate, and were enabled to double the southern capes of Africa or Australia, and thus reach other and distant seas. 
> 
> From these and similar considerations, but chiefly from our ignorance of the geology of other countries beyond the confines of Europe and the United States; and from the revolution in our palaeontological ideas on many points, which the discoveries of even the last dozen years have effected, it seems to me to be about as rash in us to dogmatize on the succession of organic beings throughout the world, as it would be for a naturalist to land for five minutes on some one barren point in Australia, and then to discuss the number and range of its productions. 
> 
> On the sudden appearance of groups of Allied Species in the lowest known fossiliferous strata. There is another and allied difficulty, which is much graver. I allude to the manner in which numbers of species of the same group, suddenly appear in the lowest known fossiliferous rocks. Most of the arguments which have convinced me that all the existing species of the same group have descended from one progenitor, apply with nearly equal force to the earliest known species. For instance, I cannot doubt that all the Silurian trilobites have descended from some one crustacean, which must have lived long before the Silurian age, and which probably differed greatly from any known animal. Some of the most ancient Silurian animals, as the Nautilus, Lingula, &c., do not differ much from living species; and it cannot on my theory be supposed, that these old species were the progenitors of all the species of the orders to which they belong, for they do not present characters in any degree intermediate between them. If, moreover, they had been the progenitors of these orders, they would almost certainly have been long ago supplanted and exterminated by their numerous and improved descendants. 
> 
> Consequently, if my theory be true, it is indisputable that before the lowest Silurian stratum was deposited, long periods elapsed, as long as, or probably far longer than, the whole interval from the Silurian age to the present day; and that during these vast, yet quite unknown, periods of time, the world swarmed with living creatures. 
> 
> To the question why we do not find records of these vast primordial periods, I can give no satisfactory answer. Several of the most eminent geologists, with Sir R. Murchison at their head, are convinced that we see in the organic remains of the lowest Silurian stratum the dawn of life on this planet. Other highly competent judges, as Lyell and the late E. Forbes, dispute this conclusion. We should not forget that only a small portion of the world is known with accuracy. M. Barrande has lately added another and lower stage to the Silurian system, abounding with new and peculiar species. Traces of life have been detected in the Longmynd beds beneath Barrande's so-called primordial zone. The presence of phosphatic nodules and bituminous matter in some of the lowest azoic rocks, probably indicates the former existence of life at these periods. But the difficulty of understanding the absence of vast piles of fossiliferous strata, which on my theory no doubt were somewhere accumulated before the Silurian epoch, is very great. If these most ancient beds had been wholly worn away by denudation, or obliterated by metamorphic action, we ought to find only small remnants of the formations next succeeding them in age, and these ought to be very generally in a metamorphosed condition. But the descriptions which we now possess of the Silurian deposits over immense territories in Russia and in North America, do not support the view, that the older a formation is, the more it has suffered the extremity of denudation and metamorphism. 
> 
> The case at present must remain inexplicable; and may be truly urged as a valid argument against the views here entertained. To show that it may hereafter receive some explanation, I will give the following hypothesis. From the nature of the organic remains, which do not appear to have inhabited profound depths, in the several formations of Europe and of the United States; and from the amount of sediment, miles in thickness, of which the formations are composed, we may infer that from first to last large islands or tracts of land, whence the sediment was derived, occurred in the neighbourhood of the existing continents of Europe and North America. But we do not know what was the state of things in the intervals between the successive formations; whether Europe and the United States during these intervals existed as dry land, or as a submarine surface near land, on which sediment was not deposited, or again as the bed of an open and unfathomable sea. 
> 
> Looking to the existing oceans, which are thrice as extensive as the land, we see them studded with many islands; but not one oceanic island is as yet known to afford even a remnant of any palaeozoic or secondary formation. Hence we may perhaps infer, that during the palaeozoic and secondary periods, neither continents nor continental islands existed where our oceans now extend; for had they existed there, palaeozoic and secondary formations would in all probability have been accumulated from sediment derived from their wear and tear; and would have been at least partially upheaved by the oscillations of level, which we may fairly conclude must have intervened during these enormously long periods. If then we may infer anything from these facts, we may infer that where our oceans now extend, oceans have extended from the remotest period of which we have any record; and on the other hand, that where continents now exist, large tracts of land have existed, subjected no doubt to great oscillations of level, since the earliest silurian period. The coloured map appended to my volume on Coral Reefs, led me to conclude that the great oceans are still mainly areas of subsidence, the great archipelagoes still areas of oscillations of level, and the continents areas of elevation. But have we any right to assume that things have thus remained from eternity? Our continents seem to have been formed by a preponderance, during many oscillations of level, of the force of elevation; but may not the areas of preponderant movement have changed in the lapse of ages? At a period immeasurably antecedent to the silurian epoch, continents may have existed where oceans are now spread out; and clear and open oceans may have existed where our continents now stand. Nor should we be justified in assuming that if, for instance, the bed of the Pacific Ocean were now converted into a continent, we should there find formations older than the silurian strata, supposing such to have been formerly deposited; for it might well happen that strata which had subsided some miles nearer to the centre of the earth, and which had been pressed on by an enormous weight of superincumbent water, might have undergone far more metamorphic action than strata which have always remained nearer to the surface. The immense areas in some parts of the world, for instance in South America, of bare metamorphic rocks, which must have been heated under great pressure, have always seemed to me to require some special explanation; and we may perhaps believe that we see in these large areas, the many formations long anterior to the silurian epoch in a completely metamorphosed condition. 
> 
> The several difficulties here discussed, namely our not finding in the successive formations infinitely numerous transitional links between the many species which now exist or have existed; the sudden manner in which whole groups of species appear in our European formations; the almost entire absence, as at present known, of fossiliferous formations beneath the Silurian strata, are all undoubtedly of the gravest nature. We see this in the plainest manner by the fact that all the most eminent palaeontologists, namely Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, Barrande, Falconer, E. Forbes, &c., and all our greatest geologists, as Lyell, Murchison, Sedgwick, &c., have unanimously, often vehemently, maintained the immutability of species. But I have reason to believe that one great authority, Sir Charles Lyell, from further reflexion entertains grave doubts on this subject. I feel how rash it is to differ from these great authorities, to whom, with others, we owe all our knowledge. Those who think the natural geological record in any degree perfect, and who do not attach much weight to the facts and arguments of other kinds even in this volume, will undoubtedly at once reject my theory. For my part, following out Lyell's metaphor, I look at the natural geological record, as a history of the world imperfectly kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess the last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. Of this volume, only here and there a short chapter has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there a few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, in which the history is supposed to be written, being more or less different in the interrupted succession of chapters, may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life, entombed in our consecutive, but widely separated formations. On this view, the difficulties above discussed are greatly diminished, or even disappear.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_10|985502678
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>  Let us now see whether the several facts and rules relating to the geological succession of organic beings, better accord with the common view of the immutability of species, or with that of their slow and gradual modification, through descent and natural selection. 
> 
> New species have appeared very slowly, one after another, both on the land and in the waters. Lyell has shown that it is hardly possible to resist the evidence on this head in the case of the several tertiary stages; and every year tends to fill up the blanks between them, and to make the percentage system of lost and new forms more gradual. In some of the most recent beds, though undoubtedly of high antiquity if measured by years, only one or two species are lost forms, and only one or two are new forms, having here appeared for the first time, either locally, or, as far as we know, on the face of the earth. If we may trust the observations of Philippi in Sicily, the successive changes in the marine inhabitants of that island have been many and most gradual. The secondary formations are more broken; but, as Bronn has remarked, neither the appearance nor disappearance of their many now extinct species has been simultaneous in each separate formation. 
> 
> Species of different genera and classes have not changed at the same rate, or in the same degree. In the oldest tertiary beds a few living shells may still be found in the midst of a multitude of extinct forms. Falconer has given a striking instance of a similar fact, in an existing crocodile associated with many strange and lost mammals and reptiles in the sub-Himalayan deposits. The Silurian Lingula differs but little from the living species of this genus; whereas most of the other Silurian Molluscs and all the Crustaceans have changed greatly. The productions of the land seem to change at a quicker rate than those of the sea, of which a striking instance has lately been observed in Switzerland. There is some reason to believe that organisms, considered high in the scale of nature, change more quickly than those that are low: though there are exceptions to this rule. The amount of organic change, as Pictet has remarked, does not strictly correspond with the succession of our geological formations; so that between each two consecutive formations, the forms of life have seldom changed in exactly the same degree. Yet if we compare any but the most closely related formations, all the species will be found to have undergone some change. When a species has once disappeared from the face of the earth, we have reason to believe that the same identical form never reappears. The strongest apparent exception to this latter rule, is that of the so-called `colonies' of M. Barrande, which intrude for a period in the midst of an older formation, and then allow the pre-existing fauna to reappear; but Lyell's explanation, namely, that it is a case of temporary migration from a distinct geographical province, seems to me satisfactory. 
> 
> These several facts accord well with my theory. I believe in no fixed law of development, causing all the inhabitants of a country to change abruptly, or simultaneously, or to an equal degree. The process of modification must be extremely slow. The variability of each species is quite independent of that of all others. Whether such variability be taken advantage of by natural selection, and whether the variations be accumulated to a greater or lesser amount, thus causing a greater or lesser amount of modification in the varying species, depends on many complex contingencies, on the variability being of a beneficial nature, on the power of intercrossing, on the rate of breeding, on the slowly changing physical conditions of the country, and more especially on the nature of the other inhabitants with which the varying species comes into competition. Hence it is by no means surprising that one species should retain the same identical form much longer than others; or, if changing, that it should change less. We see the same fact in geographical distribution; for instance, in the land-shells and coleopterous insects of Madeira having come to differ considerably from their nearest allies on the continent of Europe, whereas the marine shells and birds have remained unaltered. We can perhaps understand the apparently quicker rate of change in terrestrial and in more highly organised productions compared with marine and lower productions, by the more complex relations of the higher beings to their organic and inorganic conditions of life, as explained in a former chapter. When many of the inhabitants of a country have become modified and improved, we can understand, on the principle of competition, and on that of the many all-important relations of organism to organism, that any form which does not become in some degree modified and improved, will be liable to be exterminated. Hence we can see why all the species in the same region do at last, if we look to wide enough intervals of time, become modified; for those which do not change will become extinct. 
> 
> In members of the same class the average amount of change, during long and equal periods of time, may, perhaps, be nearly the same; but as the accumulation of long-enduring fossiliferous formations depends on great masses of sediment having been deposited on areas whilst subsiding, our formations have been almost necessarily accumulated at wide and irregularly intermittent intervals; consequently the amount of organic change exhibited by the fossils embedded in consecutive formations is not equal. Each formation, on this view, does not mark a new and complete act of creation, but only an occasional scene, taken almost at hazard, in a slowly changing drama. 
> 
> We can clearly understand why a species when once lost should never reappear, even if the very same conditions of life, organic and inorganic, should recur. For though the offspring of one species might be adapted (and no doubt this has occurred in innumerable instances) to fill the exact place of another species in the economy of nature, and thus supplant it; yet the two forms the old and the new would not be identically the same; for both would almost certainly inherit different characters from their distinct progenitors. For instance, it is just possible, if our fantail-pigeons were all destroyed, that fanciers, by striving during long ages for the same object, might make a new breed hardly distinguishable from our present fantail; but if the parent rock-pigeon were also destroyed, and in nature we have every reason to believe that the parent-form will generally be supplanted and exterminated by its improved offspring, it is quite incredible that a fantail, identical with the existing breed, could be raised from any other species of pigeon, or even from the other well-established races of the domestic pigeon, for the newly-formed fantail would be almost sure to inherit from its new progenitor some slight characteristic differences. 
> 
> Groups of species, that is, genera and families, follow the same general rules in their appearance and disappearance as do single species, changing more or less quickly, and in a greater or lesser degree. A group does not reappear after it has once disappeared; or its existence, as long as it lasts, is continuous. I am aware that there are some apparent exceptions to this rule, but the exceptions are surprisingly few, so few, that E. Forbes, Pictet, and Woodward (though all strongly opposed to such views as I maintain) admit its truth; and the rule strictly accords with my theory. For as all the species of the same group have descended from some one species, it is clear that as long as any species of the group have appeared in the long succession of ages, so long must its members have continuously existed, in order to have generated either new and modified or the same old and unmodified forms. Species of the genus Lingula, for instance, must have continuously existed by an unbroken succession of generations, from the lowest Silurian stratum to the present day. 
> 
> We have seen in the last chapter that the species of a group sometimes falsely appear to have come in abruptly; and I have attempted to give an explanation of this fact, which if true would have been fatal to my views. But such cases are certainly exceptional; the general rule being a gradual increase in number, till the group reaches its maximum, and then, sooner or later, it gradually decreases. If the number of the species of a genus, or the number of the genera of a family, be represented by a vertical line of varying thickness, crossing the successive geological formations in which the species are found, the line will sometimes falsely appear to begin at its lower end, not in a sharp point, but abruptly; it then gradually thickens upwards, sometimes keeping for a space of equal thickness, and ultimately thins out in the upper beds, marking the decrease and final extinction of the species. This gradual increase in number of the species of a group is strictly conformable with my theory; as the species of the same genus, and the genera of the same family, can increase only slowly and progressively; for the process of modification and the production of a number of allied forms must be slow and gradual, one species giving rise first to two or three varieties, these being slowly converted into species, which in their turn produce by equally slow steps other species, and so on, like the branching of a great tree from a single stem, till the group becomes large. 
> 
> On Extinction
> 
> We have as yet spoken only incidentally of the disappearance of species and of groups of species. On the theory of natural selection the extinction of old forms and the production of new and improved forms are intimately connected together. The old notion of all the inhabitants of the earth having been swept away at successive periods by catastrophes, is very generally given up, even by those geologists, as Elie de Beaumont, Murchison, Barrande, &c., whose general views would naturally lead them to this conclusion. On the contrary, we have every reason to believe, from the study of the tertiary formations, that species and groups of species gradually disappear, one after another, first from one spot, then from another, and finally from the world. Both single species and whole groups of species last for very unequal periods; some groups, as we have seen, having endured from the earliest known dawn of life to the present day; some having disappeared before the close of the palaeozoic period. No fixed law seems to determine the length of time during which any single species or any single genus endures. There is reason to believe that the complete extinction of the species of a group is generally a slower process than their production: if the appearance and disappearance of a group of species be represented, as before, by a vertical line of varying thickness, the line is found to taper more gradually at its upper end, which marks the progress of extermination, than at its lower end, which marks the first appearance and increase in numbers of the species. In some cases, however, the extermination of whole groups of beings, as of ammonites towards the close of the secondary period, has been wonderfully sudden. 
> 
> The whole subject of the extinction of species has been involved in the most gratuitous mystery. Some authors have even supposed that as the individual has a definite length of life, so have species a definite duration. No one I think can have marvelled more at the extinction of species, than I have done. When I found in La Plata the tooth of a horse embedded with the remains of Mastodon, Megatherium, Toxodon, and other extinct monsters, which all co-existed with still living shells at a very late geological period, I was filled with astonishment; for seeing that the horse, since its introduction by the Spaniards into South America, has run wild over the whole country and has increased in numbers at an unparalleled rate, I asked myself what could so recently have exterminated the former horse under conditions of life apparently so favourable. But how utterly groundless was my astonishment! Professor Owen soon perceived that the tooth, though so like that of the existing horse, belonged to an extinct species. Had this horse been still living, but in some degree rare, no naturalist would have felt the least surprise at its rarity; for rarity is the attribute of a vast number of species of all classes, in all countries. If we ask ourselves why this or that species is rare, we answer that something is unfavourable in its conditions of life; but what that something is, we can hardly ever tell. On the supposition of the fossil horse still existing as a rare species, we might have felt certain from the analogy of all other mammals, even of the slow-breeding elephant, and from the history of the naturalisation of the domestic horse in South America, that under more favourable conditions it would in a very few years have stocked the whole continent. But we could not have told what the unfavourable conditions were which checked its increase, whether some one or several contingencies, and at what period of the horse's life, and in what degree, they severally acted. If the conditions had gone on, however slowly, becoming less and less favourable, we assuredly should not have perceived the fact, yet the fossil horse would certainly have become rarer and rarer, and finally extinct; its place being seized on by some more successful competitor. 
> 
> It is most difficult always to remember that the increase of every living being is constantly being checked by unperceived injurious agencies; and that these same unperceived agencies are amply sufficient to cause rarity, and finally extinction. We see in many cases in the more recent tertiary formations, that rarity precedes extinction; and we know that this has been the progress of events with those animals which have been exterminated, either locally or wholly, through man's agency. I may repeat what I published in 1845, namely, that to admit that species generally become rare before they become extinct to feel no surprise at the rarity of a species, and yet to marvel greatly when it ceases to exist, is much the same as to admit that sickness in the individual is the forerunner of death to feel no surprise at sickness, but when the sick man dies, to wonder and to suspect that he died by some unknown deed of violence. 
> 
> The theory of natural selection is grounded on the belief that each new variety, and ultimately each new species, is produced and maintained by having some advantage over those with which it comes into competition; and the consequent extinction of less-favoured forms almost inevitably follows. It is the same with our domestic productions: when a new and slightly improved variety has been raised, it at first supplants the less improved varieties in the same neighbourhood; when much improved it is transported far and near, like our short-horn cattle, and takes the place of other breeds in other countries. Thus the appearance of new forms and the disappearance of old forms, both natural and artificial, are bound together. In certain flourishing groups, the number of new specific forms which have been produced within a given time is probably greater than that of the old forms which have been exterminated; but we know that the number of species has not gone on indefinitely increasing, at least during the later geological periods, so that looking to later times we may believe that the production of new forms has caused the extinction of about the same number of old forms. 
> 
> The competition will generally be most severe, as formerly explained and illustrated by examples, between the forms which are most like each other in all respects. Hence the improved and modified descendants of a species will generally cause the extermination of the parent-species; and if many new forms have been developed from any one species, the nearest allies of that species, i.e. the species of the same genus, will be the most liable to extermination. Thus, as I believe, a number of new species descended from one species, that is a new genus, comes to supplant an old genus, belonging to the same family. But it must often have happened that a new species belonging to some one group will have seized on the place occupied by a species belonging to a distinct group, and thus caused its extermination; and if many allied forms be developed from the successful intruder, many will have to yield their places; and it will generally be allied forms, which will suffer from some inherited inferiority in common. But whether it be species belonging to the same or to a distinct class, which yield their places to other species which have been modified and improved, a few of the sufferers may often long be preserved, from being fitted to some peculiar line of life, or from inhabiting some distant and isolated station, where they have escaped severe competition. For instance, a single species of Trigonia, a great genus of shells in the secondary formations, survives in the Australian seas; and a few members of the great and almost extinct group of Ganoid fishes still inhabit our fresh waters. Therefore the utter extinction of a group is generally, as we have seen, a slower process than its production. 
> 
> With respect to the apparently sudden extermination of whole families or orders, as of Trilobites at the close of the palaeozoic period and of Ammonites at the close of the secondary period, we must remember what has been already said on the probable wide intervals of time between our consecutive formations; and in these intervals there may have been much slow extermination. Moreover, when by sudden immigration or by unusually rapid development, many species of a new group have taken possession of a new area, they will have exterminated in a correspondingly rapid manner many of the old inhabitants; and the forms which thus yield their places will commonly be allied, for they will partake of some inferiority in common. 
> 
> Thus, as it seems to me, the manner in which single species and whole groups of species become extinct, accords well with the theory of natural selection. We need not marvel at extinction; if we must marvel, let it be at our presumption in imagining for a moment that we understand the many complex contingencies, on which the existence of each species depends. If we forget for an instant, that each species tends to increase inordinately, and that some check is always in action, yet seldom perceived by us, the whole economy of nature will be utterly obscured. Whenever we can precisely say why this species is more abundant in individuals than that; why this species and not another can be naturalised in a given country; then, and not till then, we may justly feel surprise why we cannot account for the extinction of this particular species or group of species. 
> 
> On the Forms of Life changing almost simultaneously throughout the World
> 
> Scarcely any palaeontological discovery is more striking than the fact, that the forms of life change almost simultaneously throughout the world. Thus our European Chalk formation can be recognised in many distant parts of the world, under the most different climates, where not a fragment of the mineral chalk itself can be found; namely, in North America, in equatorial South America, in Tierra del Fuego, at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the peninsula of India. For at these distant points, the organic remains in certain beds present an unmistakeable degree of resemblance to those of the Chalk. It is not that the same species are met with; for in some cases not one species is identically the same, but they belong to the same families, genera, and sections of genera, and sometimes are similarly characterised in such trifling points as mere superficial sculpture. Moreover other forms, which are not found in the Chalk of Europe, but which occur in the formations either above or below, are similarly absent at these distant points of the world. In the several successive palaeozoic formations of Russia, Western Europe and North America, a similar parallelism in the forms of life has been observed by several authors: so it is, according to Lyell, with the several European and North American tertiary deposits. Even if the few fossil species which are common to the Old and New Worlds be kept wholly out of view, the general parallelism in the successive forms of life, in the stages of the widely separated palaeozoic and tertiary periods, would still be manifest, and the several formations could be easily correlated. 
> 
> These observations, however, relate to the marine inhabitants of distant parts of the world: we have not sufficient data to judge whether the productions of the land and of fresh water change at distant points in the same parallel manner. We may doubt whether they have thus changed: if the Megatherium, Mylodon, Macrauchenia, and Toxodon had been brought to Europe from La Plata, without any information in regard to their geological position, no one would have suspected that they had coexisted with still living sea-shells; but as these anomalous monsters coexisted with the Mastodon and Horse, it might at least have been inferred that they had lived during one of the latter tertiary stages. 
> 
> When the marine forms of life are spoken of as having changed simultaneously throughout the world, it must not be supposed that this expression relates to the same thousandth or hundred-thousandth year, or even that it has a very strict geological sense; for if all the marine animals which live at the present day in Europe, and all those that lived in Europe during the pleistocene period (an enormously remote period as measured by years, including the whole glacial epoch), were to be compared with those now living in South America or in Australia, the most skilful naturalist would hardly be able to say whether the existing or the pleistocene inhabitants of Europe resembled most closely those of the southern hemisphere. So, again, several highly competent observers believe that the existing productions of the United States are more closely related to those which lived in Europe during certain later tertiary stages, than to those which now live here; and if this be so, it is evident that fossiliferous beds deposited at the present day on the shores of North America would hereafter be liable to be classed with somewhat older European beds. Nevertheless, looking to a remotely future epoch, there can, I think, be little doubt that all the more modern marine formations, namely, the upper pliocene, the pleistocene and strictly modern beds, of Europe, North and South America, and Australia, from containing fossil remains in some degree allied, and from not including those forms which are only found in the older underlying deposits, would be correctly ranked as simultaneous in a geological sense. 
> 
> The fact of the forms of life changing simultaneously, in the above large sense, at distant parts of the world, has greatly struck those admirable observers, MM. de Verneuil and d'Archiac. After referring to the parallelism of the palaeozoic forms of life in various parts of Europe, they add, `If struck by this strange sequence, we turn our attention to North America, and there discover a series of analogous phenomena, it will appear certain that all these modifications of species, their extinction, and the introduction of new ones, cannot be owing to mere changes in marine currents or other causes more or less local and temporary, but depend on general laws which govern the whole animal kingdom.' M. Barrande has made forcible remarks to precisely the same effect. It is, indeed, quite futile to look to changes of currents, climate, or other physical conditions, as the cause of these great mutations in the forms of life throughout the world, under the most different climates. We must, as Barrande has remarked, look to some special law. We shall see this more clearly when we treat of the present distribution of organic beings, and find how slight is the relation between the physical conditions of various countries, and the nature of their inhabitants. 
> 
> This great fact of the parallel succession of the forms of life throughout the world, is explicable on the theory of natural selection. New species are formed by new varieties arising, which have some advantage over older forms; and those forms, which are already dominant, or have some advantage over the other forms in their own country, would naturally oftenest give rise to new varieties or incipient species; for these latter must be victorious in a still higher degree in order to be preserved and to survive. We have distinct evidence on this head, in the plants which are dominant, that is, which are commonest in their own homes, and are most widely diffused, having produced the greatest number of new varieties. It is also natural that the dominant, varying, and far-spreading species, which already have invaded to a certain extent the territories of other species, should be those which would have the best chance of spreading still further, and of giving rise in new countries to new varieties and species. The process of diffusion may often be very slow, being dependent on climatal and geographical changes, or on strange accidents, but in the long run the dominant forms will generally succeed in spreading. The diffusion would, it is probable, be slower with the terrestrial inhabitants of distinct continents than with the marine inhabitants of the continuous sea. We might therefore expect to find, as we apparently do find, a less strict degree of parallel succession in the productions of the land than of the sea. 
> 
> Dominant species spreading from any region might encounter still more dominant species, and then their triumphant course, or even their existence, would cease. We know not at all precisely what are all the conditions most favourable for the multiplication of new and dominant species; but we can, I think, clearly see that a number of individuals, from giving a better chance of the appearance of favourable variations, and that severe competition with many already existing forms, would be highly favourable, as would be the power of spreading into new territories. A certain amount of isolation, recurring at long intervals of time, would probably be also favourable, as before explained. One quarter of the world may have been most favourable for the production of new and dominant species on the land, and another for those in the waters of the sea. If two great regions had been for a long period favourably circumstanced in an equal degree, whenever their inhabitants met, the battle would be prolonged and severe; and some from one birthplace and some from the other might be victorious. But in the course of time, the forms dominant in the highest degree, wherever produced, would tend everywhere to prevail. As they prevailed, they would cause the extinction of other and inferior forms; and as these inferior forms would be allied in groups by inheritance, whole groups would tend slowly to disappear; though here and there a single member might long be enabled to survive. 
> 
> Thus, as it seems to me, the parallel, and, taken in a large sense, simultaneous, succession of the same forms of life throughout the world, accords well with the principle of new species having been formed by dominant species spreading widely and varying; the new species thus produced being themselves dominant owing to inheritance, and to having already had some advantage over their parents or over other species; these again spreading, varying, and producing new species. The forms which are beaten and which yield their places to the new and victorious forms, will generally be allied in groups, from inheriting some inferiority in common; and therefore as new and improved groups spread throughout the world, old groups will disappear from the world; and the succession of forms in both ways will everywhere tend to correspond. 
> 
> There is one other remark connected with this subject worth making. I have given my reasons for believing that all our greater fossiliferous formations were deposited during periods of subsidence; and that blank intervals of vast duration occurred during the periods when the bed of the sea was either stationary or rising, and likewise when sediment was not thrown down quickly enough to embed and preserve organic remains. During these long and blank intervals I suppose that the inhabitants of each region underwent a considerable amount of modification and extinction, and that there was much migration from other parts of the world. As we have reason to believe that large areas are affected by the same movement, it is probable that strictly contemporaneous formations have often been accumulated over very wide spaces in the same quarter of the world; but we are far from having any right to conclude that this has invariably been the case, and that large areas have invariably been affected by the same movements. When two formations have been deposited in two regions during nearly, but not exactly the same period, we should find in both, from the causes explained in the foregoing paragraphs, the same general succession in the forms of life; but the species would not exactly correspond; for there will have been a little more time in the one region than in the other for modification, extinction, and immigration. 
> 
> I suspect that cases of this nature have occurred in Europe. Mr. Prestwich, in his admirable Memoirs on the eocene deposits of England and France, is able to draw a close general parallelism between the successive stages in the two countries; but when he compares certain stages in England with those in France, although he finds in both a curious accordance in the numbers of the species belonging to the same genera, yet the species themselves differ in a manner very difficult to account for, considering the proximity of the two areas, unless, indeed, it be assumed that an isthmus separated two seas inhabited by distinct, but contemporaneous, faunas. Lyell has made similar observations on some of the later tertiary formations. Barrande, also, shows that there is a striking general parallelism in the successive Silurian deposits of Bohemia and Scandinavia; nevertheless he finds a surprising amount of difference in the species. If the several formations in these regions have not been deposited during the same exact periods, a formation in one region often corresponding with a blank interval in the other, and if in both regions the species have gone on slowly changing during the accumulation of the several formations and during the long intervals of time between them; in this case, the several formations in the two regions could be arranged in the same order, in accordance with the general succession of the form of life, and the order would falsely appear to be strictly parallel; nevertheless the species would not all be the same in the apparently corresponding stages in the two regions. 
> 
> On the Affinities of extinct Species to each other, and to living forms
> 
> Let us now look to the mutual affinities of extinct and living species. They all fall into one grand natural system; and this fact is at once explained on the principle of descent. The more ancient any form is, the more, as a general rule, it differs from living forms. But, as Buckland long ago remarked, all fossils can be classed either in still existing groups, or between them. That the extinct forms of life help to fill up the wide intervals between existing genera, families, and orders, cannot be disputed. For if we confine our attention either to the living or to the extinct alone, the series is far less perfect than if we combine both into one general system. With respect to the Vertebrata, whole pages could be filled with striking illustrations from our great palaeontologist, Owen, showing how extinct animals fall in between existing groups. Cuvier ranked the Ruminants and Pachyderms, as the two most distinct orders of mammals; but Owen has discovered so many fossil links, that he has had to alter the whole classification of these two orders; and has placed certain pachyderms in the same sub-order with ruminants: for example, he dissolves by fine gradations the apparently wide difference between the pig and the camel. In regard to the Invertebrata, Barrande, and a higher authority could not be named, asserts that he is every day taught that palaeozoic animals, though belonging to the same orders, families, or genera with those living at the present day, were not at this early epoch limited in such distinct groups as they now are. 
> 
> Some writers have objected to any extinct species or group of species being considered as intermediate between living species or groups. If by this term it is meant that an extinct form is directly intermediate in all its characters between two living forms, the objection is probably valid. But I apprehend that in a perfectly natural classification many fossil species would have to stand between living species, and some extinct genera between living genera, even between genera belonging to distinct families. The most common case, especially with respect to very distinct groups, such as fish and reptiles, seems to be, that supposing them to be distinguished at the present day from each other by a dozen characters, the ancient members of the same two groups would be distinguished by a somewhat lesser number of characters, so that the two groups, though formerly quite distinct, at that period made some small approach to each other. 
> 
> It is a common belief that the more ancient a form is, by so much the more it tends to connect by some of its characters groups now widely separated from each other. This remark no doubt must be restricted to those groups which have undergone much change in the course of geological ages; and it would be difficult to prove the truth of the proposition, for every now and then even a living animal, as the Lepidosiren, is discovered having affinities directed towards very distinct groups. Yet if we compare the older Reptiles and Batrachians, the older Fish, the older Cephalopods, and the eocene Mammals, with the more recent members of the same classes, we must admit that there is some truth in the remark. 
> 
> Let us see how far these several facts and inferences accord with the theory of descent with modification. As the subject is somewhat complex, I must request the reader to turn to the diagram in the fourth chapter. We may suppose that the numbered letters represent genera, and the dotted lines diverging from them the species in each genus. The diagram is much too simple, too few genera and too few species being given, but this is unimportant for us. The horizontal lines may represent successive geological formations, and all the forms beneath the uppermost line may be considered as extinct. The three existing genera, a14, q14, p14, will form a small family; b14 and f14 a closely allied family or sub-family; and o14, e14, m14, a third family. These three families, together with the many extinct genera on the several lines of descent diverging from the parent-form A, will form an order; for all will have inherited something in common from their ancient and common progenitor. On the principle of the continued tendency to divergence of character, which was formerly illustrated by this diagram, the more recent any form is, the more it will generally differ from its ancient progenitor. Hence we can understand the rule that the most ancient fossils differ most from existing forms. We must not, however, assume that divergence of character is a necessary contingency; it depends solely on the descendants from a species being thus enabled to seize on many and different places in the economy of nature. Therefore it is quite possible, as we have seen in the case of some Silurian forms, that a species might go on being slightly modified in relation to its slightly altered conditions of life, and yet retain throughout a vast period the same general characteristics. This is represented in the diagram by the letter F14. 
> 
> All the many forms, extinct and recent, descended from A, make, as before remarked, one order; and this order, from the continued effects of extinction and divergence of character, has become divided into several sub-families and families, some of which are supposed to have perished at different periods, and some to have endured to the present day. 
> 
> By looking at the diagram we can see that if many of the extinct forms, supposed to be embedded in the successive formations, were discovered at several points low down in the series, the three existing families on the uppermost line would be rendered less distinct from each other. If, for instance, the genera a1, a5, a10, m3, m6, m9 were disinterred, these three families would be so closely linked together that they probably would have to be united into one great family, in nearly the same manner as has occurred with ruminants and pachyderms. Yet he who objected to call the extinct genera, which thus linked the living genera of three families together, intermediate in character, would be justified, as they are intermediate, not directly, but only by a long and circuitous course through many widely different forms. If many extinct forms were to be discovered above one of the middle horizontal lines or geological formations for instance, above No. VI. but none from beneath this line, then only the two families on the left hand (namely, a14, &c., and b14, &c.) would have to be united into one family; and the two other families (namely, a14 to f14 now including five genera, and o14 to m14) would yet remain distinct. These two families, however, would be less distinct from each other than they were before the discovery of the fossils. If, for instance, we suppose the existing genera of the two families to differ from each other by a dozen characters, in this case the genera, at the early period marked VI., would differ by a lesser number of characters; for at this early stage of descent they have not diverged in character from the common progenitor of the order, nearly so much as they subsequently diverged. Thus it comes that ancient and extinct genera are often in some slight degree intermediate in character between their modified descendants, or between their collateral relations. 
> 
> In nature the case will be far more complicated than is represented in the diagram; for the groups will have been more numerous, they will have endured for extremely unequal lengths of time, and will have been modified in various degrees. As we possess only the last volume of the geological record, and that in a very broken condition, we have no right to expect, except in very rare cases, to fill up wide intervals in the natural system, and thus unite distinct families or orders. All that we have a right to expect, is that those groups, which have within known geological periods undergone much modification, should in the older formations make some slight approach to each other; so that the older members should differ less from each other in some of their characters than do the existing members of the same groups; and this by the concurrent evidence of our best palaeontologists seems frequently to be the case. 
> 
> Thus, on the theory of descent with modification, the main facts with respect to the mutual affinities of the extinct forms of life to each other and to living forms, seem to me explained in a satisfactory manner. And they are wholly inexplicable on any other view. 
> 
> On this same theory, it is evident that the fauna of any great period in the earth's history will be intermediate in general character between that which preceded and that which succeeded it. Thus, the species which lived at the sixth great stage of descent in the diagram are the modified offspring of those which lived at the fifth stage, and are the parents of those which became still more modified at the seventh stage; hence they could hardly fail to be nearly intermediate in character between the forms of life above and below. We must, however, allow for the entire extinction of some preceding forms, and for the coming in of quite new forms by immigration, and for a large amount of modification, during the long and blank intervals between the successive formations. Subject to these allowances, the fauna of each geological period undoubtedly is intermediate in character, between the preceding and succeeding faunas. I need give only one instance, namely, the manner in which the fossils of the Devonian system, when this system was first discovered, were at once recognised by palaeontologists as intermediate in character between those of the overlying carboniferous, and underlying Silurian system. But each fauna is not necessarily exactly intermediate, as unequal intervals of time have elapsed between consecutive formations. 
> 
> It is no real objection to the truth of the statement, that the fauna of each period as a whole is nearly intermediate in character between the preceding and succeeding faunas, that certain genera offer exceptions to the rule. For instance, mastodons and elephants, when arranged by Dr Falconer in two series, first according to their mutual affinities and then according to their periods of existence, do not accord in arrangement. The species extreme in character are not the oldest, or the most recent; nor are those which are intermediate in character, intermediate in age. But supposing for an instant, in this and other such cases, that the record of the first appearance and disappearance of the species was perfect, we have no reason to believe that forms successively produced necessarily endure for corresponding lengths of time: a very ancient form might occasionally last much longer than a form elsewhere subsequently produced, especially in the case of terrestrial productions inhabiting separated districts. To compare small things with great: if the principal living and extinct races of the domestic pigeon were arranged as well as they could be in serial affinity, this arrangement would not closely accord with the order in time of their production, and still less with the order of their disappearance; for the parent rock-pigeon now lives; and many varieties between the rock-pigeon and the carrier have become extinct; and carriers which are extreme in the important character of length of beak originated earlier than short-beaked tumblers, which are at the opposite end of the series in this same respect. 
> 
> Closely connected with the statement, that the organic remains from an intermediate formation are in some degree intermediate in character, is the fact, insisted on by all palaeontologists, that fossils from two consecutive formations are far more closely related to each other, than are the fossils from two remote formations. Pictet gives as a well-known instance, the general resemblance of the organic remains from the several stages of the chalk formation, though the species are distinct in each stage. This fact alone, from its generality, seems to have shaken Professor Pictet in his firm belief in the immutability of species. He who is acquainted with the distribution of existing species over the globe, will not attempt to account for the close resemblance of the distinct species in closely consecutive formations, by the physical conditions of the ancient areas having remained nearly the same. Let it be remembered that the forms of life, at least those inhabiting the sea, have changed almost simultaneously throughout the world, and therefore under the most different climates and conditions. Consider the prodigious vicissitudes of climate during the pleistocene period, which includes the whole glacial period, and note how little the specific forms of the inhabitants of the sea have been affected. 
> 
> On the theory of descent, the full meaning of the fact of fossil remains from closely consecutive formations, though ranked as distinct species, being closely related, is obvious. As the accumulation of each formation has often been interrupted, and as long blank intervals have intervened between successive formations, we ought not to expect to find, as I attempted to show in the last chapter, in any one or two formations all the intermediate varieties between the species which appeared at the commencement and close of these periods; but we ought to find after intervals, very long as measured by years, but only moderately long as measured geologically, closely allied forms, or, as they have been called by some authors, representative species; and these we assuredly do find. We find, in short, such evidence of the slow and scarcely sensible mutation of specific forms, as we have a just right to expect to find. 
> 
> On the state of Development of Ancient Forms
> 
> There has been much discussion whether recent forms are more highly developed than ancient. I will not here enter on this subject, for naturalists have not as yet defined to each other's satisfaction what is meant by high and low forms. But in one particular sense the more recent forms must, on my theory, be higher than the more ancient; for each new species is formed by having had some advantage in the struggle for life over other and preceding forms. If under a nearly similar climate, the eocene inhabitants of one quarter of the world were put into competition with the existing inhabitants of the same or some other quarter, the eocene fauna or flora would certainly be beaten and exterminated; as would a secondary fauna by an eocene, and a palaeozoic fauna by a secondary fauna. I do not doubt that this process of improvement has affected in a marked and sensible manner the organisation of the more recent and victorious forms of life, in comparison with the ancient and beaten forms; but I can see no way of testing this sort of progress. Crustaceans, for instance, not the highest in their own class, may have beaten the highest molluscs. From the extraordinary manner in which European productions have recently spread over New Zealand, and have seized on places which must have been previously occupied, we may believe, if all the animals and plants of Great Britain were set free in New Zealand, that in the course of time a multitude of British forms would become thoroughly naturalized there, and would exterminate many of the natives. On the other hand, from what we see now occurring in New Zealand, and from hardly a single inhabitant of the southern hemisphere having become wild in any part of Europe, we may doubt, if all the productions of New Zealand were set free in Great Britain, whether any considerable number would be enabled to seize on places now occupied by our native plants and animals. Under this point of view, the productions of Great Britain, may be said to be higher than those of New Zealand. Yet the most skilful naturalist from an examination of the species of the two countries could not have foreseen this result. 
> 
> Agassiz insists that ancient animals resemble to a certain extent the embryos of recent animals of the same classes; or that the geological succession of extinct forms is in some degree parallel to the embryological development of recent forms. I must follow Pictet and Huxley in thinking that the truth of this doctrine is very far from proved. Yet I fully expect to see it hereafter confirmed, at least in regard to subordinate groups, which have branched off from each other within comparatively recent times. For this doctrine of Agassiz accords well with the theory of natural selection. In a future chapter I shall attempt to show that the adult differs from its embryo, owing to variations supervening at a not early age, and being inherited at a corresponding age. This process, whilst it leaves the embryo almost unaltered, continually adds, in the course of successive generations, more and more difference to the adult. 
> 
> Thus the embryo comes to be left as a sort of picture, preserved by nature, of the ancient and less modified condition of each animal. This view may be true, and yet it may never be capable of full proof. Seeing, for instance, that the oldest known mammals, reptiles, and fish strictly belong to their own proper classes, though some of these old forms are in a slight degree less distinct from each other than are the typical members of the same groups at the present day, it would be vain to look for animals having the common embryological character of the Vertebrata, until beds far beneath the lowest Silurian strata are discovered a discovery of which the chance is very small.On the Succession of the same Types within the same areas, during the later tertiary periods
> 
> Mr Clift many years ago showed that the fossil mammals from the Australian caves were closely allied to the living marsupials of that continent. In South America, a similar relationship is manifest, even to an uneducated eye, in the gigantic pieces of armour like those of the armadillo, found in several parts of La Plata; and Professor Owen has shown in the most striking manner that most of the fossil mammals, buried there in such numbers, are related to South American types. This relationship is even more clearly seen in the wonderful collection of fossil bones made by MM. Lund and Clausen in the caves of Brazil. I was so much impressed with these facts that I strongly insisted, in 1839 and 1845, on this `law of the succession of types,' on `this wonderful relationship in the same continent between the dead and the living.' Professor Owen has subsequently extended the same generalisation to the mammals of the Old World. We see the same law in this author's restorations of the extinct and gigantic birds of New Zealand. We see it also in the birds of the caves of Brazil. Mr Woodward has shown that the same law holds good with sea-shells, but from the wide distribution of most genera of molluscs, it is not well displayed by them. Other cases could be added, as the relation between the extinct and living land-shells of Madeira; and between the extinct and living brackish-water shells of the Aralo-Caspian Sea. 
> 
> Now what does this remarkable law of the succession of the same types within the same areas mean? He would be a bold man, who after comparing the present climate of Australia and of parts of South America under the same latitude, would attempt to account, on the one hand, by dissimilar physical conditions for the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of these two continents, and, on the other hand, by similarity of conditions, for the uniformity of the same types in each during the later tertiary periods. Nor can it be pretended that it is an immutable law that marsupials should have been chiefly or solely produced in Australia; or that Edentata and other American types should have been solely produced in South America. For we know that Europe in ancient times was peopled by numerous marsupials; and I have shown in the publications above alluded to, that in America the law of distribution of terrestrial mammals was formerly different from what it now is. North America formerly partook strongly of the present character of the southern half of the continent; and the southern half was formerly more closely allied, than it is at present, to the northern half. In a similar manner we know from Falconer and Cautley's discoveries, that northern India was formerly more closely related in its mammals to Africa than it is at the present time. Analogous facts could be given in relation to the distribution of marine animals. 
> 
> On the theory of descent with modification, the great law of the long enduring, but not immutable, succession of the same types within the same areas, is at once explained; for the inhabitants of each quarter of the world will obviously tend to leave in that quarter, during the next succeeding period of time, closely allied though in some degree modified descendants. If the inhabitants of one continent formerly differed greatly from those of another continent, so will their modified descendants still differ in nearly the same manner and degree. But after very long intervals of time and after great geographical changes, permitting much inter-migration, the feebler will yield to the more dominant forms, and there will be nothing immutable in the laws of past and present distribution. 
> 
> It may be asked in ridicule, whether I suppose that the megatherium and other allied huge monsters have left behind them in South America the sloth, armadillo, and anteater, as their degenerate descendants. This cannot for an instant be admitted. These huge animals have become wholly extinct, and have left no progeny. But in the caves of Brazil, there are many extinct species which are closely allied in size and in other characters to the species still living in South America; and some of these fossils may be the actual progenitors of living species. It must not be forgotten that, on my theory, all the species of the same genus have descended from some one species; so that if six genera, each having eight species, be found in one geological formation, and in the next succeeding formation there be six other allied or representative genera with the same number of species, then we may conclude that only one species of each of the six older genera has left modified descendants, constituting the six new genera. The other seven species of the old genera have all died out and have left no progeny. Or, which would probably be a far commoner case, two or three species of two or three alone of the six older genera will have been the parents of the six new genera; the other old species and the other whole genera having become utterly extinct. In failing orders, with the genera and species decreasing in numbers, as apparently is the case of the Edentata of South America, still fewer genera and species will have left modified blood-descendants.Summary of the preceding and present Chapters
> 
> I have attempted to show that the geological record is extremely imperfect; that only a small portion of the globe has been geologically explored with care; that only certain classes of organic beings have been largely preserved in a fossil state; that the number both of specimens and of species, preserved in our museums, is absolutely as nothing compared with the incalculable number of generations which must have passed away even during a single formation; that, owing to subsidence being necessary for the accumulation of fossiliferous deposits thick enough to resist future degradation, enormous intervals of time have elapsed between the successive formations; that there has probably been more extinction during the periods of subsidence, and more variation during the periods of elevation, and during the latter the record will have been least perfectly kept; that each single formation has not been continuously deposited; that the duration of each formation is, perhaps, short compared with the average duration of specific forms; that migration has played an important part in the first appearance of new forms in any one area and formation; that widely ranging species are those which have varied most, and have oftenest given rise to new species; and that varieties have at first often been local. All these causes taken conjointly, must have tended to make the geological record extremely imperfect, and will to a large extent explain why we do not find interminable varieties, connecting together all the extinct and existing forms of life by the finest graduated steps. 
> 
> He who rejects these views on the nature of the geological record, will rightly reject my whole theory. For he may ask in vain where are the numberless transitional links which must formerly have connected the closely allied or representative species, found in the several stages of the same great formation. He may disbelieve in the enormous intervals of time which have elapsed between our consecutive formations; he may overlook how important a part migration must have played, when the formations of any one great region alone, as that of Europe, are considered; he may urge the apparent, but often falsely apparent, sudden coming in of whole groups of species. He may ask where are the remains of those infinitely numerous organisms which must have existed long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited: I can answer this latter question only hypothetically, by saying that as far as we can see, where our oceans now extend they have for an enormous period extended, and where our oscillating continents now stand they have stood ever since the Silurian epoch; but that long before that period, the world may have presented a wholly different aspect; and that the older continents, formed of formations older than any known to us, may now all be in a metamorphosed condition, or may lie buried under the ocean. 
> 
> Passing from these difficulties, all the other great leading facts in palaeontology seem to me simply to follow on the theory of descent with modification through natural selection. We can thus understand how it is that new species come in slowly and successively; how species of different classes do not necessarily change together, or at the same rate, or in the same degree; yet in the long run that all undergo modification to some extent. The extinction of old forms is the almost inevitable consequence of the production of new forms. We can understand why when a species has once disappeared it never reappears. Groups of species increase in numbers slowly, and endure for unequal periods of time; for the process of modification is necessarily slow, and depends on many complex contingencies. The dominant species of the larger dominant groups tend to leave many modified descendants, and thus new sub-groups and groups are formed. As these are formed, the species of the less vigorous groups, from their inferiority inherited from a common progenitor, tend to become extinct together, and to leave no modified offspring on the face of the earth. But the utter extinction of a whole group of species may often be a very slow process, from the survival of a few descendants, lingering in protected and isolated situations. When a group has once wholly disappeared, it does not reappear; for the link of generation has been broken. 
> 
> We can understand how the spreading of the dominant forms of life, which are those that oftenest vary, will in the long run tend to people the world with allied, but modified, descendants; and these will generally succeed in taking the places of those groups of species which are their inferiors in the struggle for existence. Hence, after long intervals of time, the productions of the world will appear to have changed simultaneously. 
> 
> We can understand how it is that all the forms of life, ancient and recent, make together one grand system; for all are connected by generation. We can understand, from the continued tendency to divergence of character, why the more ancient a form is, the more it generally differs from those now living. Why ancient and extinct forms often tend to fill up gaps between existing forms, sometimes blending two groups previously classed as distinct into one; but more commonly only bringing them a little closer together. The more ancient a form is, the more often, apparently, it displays characters in some degree intermediate between groups now distinct; for the more ancient a form is, the more nearly it will be related to, and consequently resemble, the common progenitor of groups, since become widely divergent. Extinct forms are seldom directly intermediate between existing forms; but are intermediate only by a long and circuitous course through many extinct and very different forms. We can clearly see why the organic remains of closely consecutive formations are more closely allied to each other, than are those of remote formations; for the forms are more closely linked together by generation: we can clearly see why the remains of an intermediate formation are intermediate in character. 
> 
> The inhabitants of each successive period in the world's history have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, in so far, higher in the scale of nature; and this may account for that vague yet ill-defined sentiment, felt by many palaeontologists, that organisation on the whole has progressed. If it should hereafter be proved that ancient animals resemble to a certain extent the embryos of more recent animals of the same class, the fact will be intelligible. The succession of the same types of structure within the same areas during the later geological periods ceases to be mysterious, and is simply explained by inheritance. 
> 
> If then the geological record be as imperfect as I believe it to be, and it may at least be asserted that the record cannot be proved to be much more perfect, the main objections to the theory of natural selection are greatly diminished or disappear. On the other hand, all the chief laws of palaeontology plainly proclaim, as it seems to me, that species have been produced by ordinary generation: old forms having been supplanted by new and improved forms of life, produced by the laws of variation still acting round us, and preserved by Natural Selection.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_11|985502951
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>  In considering the distribution of organic beings over the face of the globe, the first great fact which strikes us is, that neither the similarity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of various regions can be accounted for by their climatal and other physical conditions. Of late, almost every author who has studied the subject has come to this conclusion. The case of America alone would almost suffice to prove its truth: for if we exclude the northern parts where the circumpolar land is almost continuous, all authors agree that one of the most fundamental divisions in geographical distribution is that between the New and Old Worlds; yet if we travel over the vast American continent, from the central parts of the United States to its extreme southern point, we meet with the most diversified conditions; the most humid districts, arid deserts, lofty mountains, grassy plains, forests, marshes, lakes, and great rivers, under almost every temperature. There is hardly a climate or condition in the Old World which cannot be paralleled in the New at least as closely as the same species generally require; for it is a most rare case to find a group of organisms confined to any small spot, having conditions peculiar in only a slight degree; for instance, small areas in the Old World could be pointed out hotter than any in the New World, yet these are not inhabited by a peculiar fauna or flora. Notwithstanding this parallelism in the conditions of the Old and New Worlds, how widely different are their living productions! 
> 
> In the southern hemisphere, if we compare large tracts of land in Australia, South Africa, and western South America, between latitudes 25° and 35°, we shall find parts extremely similar in all their conditions, yet it would not be possible to point out three faunas and floras more utterly dissimilar. Or again we may compare the productions of South America south of lat. 35° with those north of 25°, which consequently inhabit a considerably different climate, and they will be found incomparably more closely related to each other, than they are to the productions of Australia or Africa under nearly the same climate. Analogous facts could be given with respect to the inhabitants of the sea. 
> 
> A second great fact which strikes us in our general review is, that barriers of any kind, or obstacles to free migration, are related in a close and important manner to the differences between the productions of various regions. We see this in the great difference of nearly all the terrestrial productions of the New and Old Worlds, excepting in the northern parts, where the land almost joins, and where, under a slightly different climate, there might have been free migration for the northern temperate forms, as there now is for the strictly arctic productions. We see the same fact in the great difference between the inhabitants of Australia, Africa, and South America under the same latitude: for these countries are almost as much isolated from each other as is possible. On each continent, also, we see the same fact; for on the opposite sides of lofty and continuous mountain-ranges, and of great deserts, and sometimes even of large rivers, we find different productions; though as mountain chains, deserts, &c., are not as impassable, or likely to have endured so long as the oceans separating continents, the differences are very inferior in degree to those characteristic of distinct continents. 
> 
> Turning to the sea, we find the same law. No two marine faunas are more distinct, with hardly a fish, shell, or crab in common, than those of the eastern and western shores of South and Central America; yet these great faunas are separated only by the narrow, but impassable, isthmus of panama. Westward of the shores of America, a wide space of open ocean extends, with not an island as a halting-place for emigrants; here we have a barrier of another kind, and as soon as this is passed we meet in the eastern islands of the Pacific, with another and totally distinct fauna. So that here three marine faunas range far northward and southward, in parallel lines not far from each other, under corresponding climates; but from being separated from each other by impassable barriers, either of land or open sea, they are wholly distinct. On the other hand, proceeding still further westward from the eastern islands of the tropical parts of the Pacific, we encounter no impassable barriers, and we have innumerable islands as halting-places, until after travelling over a hemisphere we come to the shores of Africa; and over this vast space we meet with no well-defined and distinct marine faunas. Although hardly one shell, crab or fish is common to the above-named three approximate faunas of Eastern and Western America and the eastern Pacific islands, yet many fish range from the Pacific into the Indian Ocean, and many shells are common to the eastern islands of the Pacific and the eastern shores of Africa, on almost exactly opposite meridians of longitude. 
> 
> A third great fact, partly included in the foregoing statements, is the affinity of the productions of the same continent or sea, though the species themselves are distinct at different points and stations. It is a law of the widest generality, and every continent offers innumerable instances. Nevertheless the naturalist in travelling, for instance, from north to south never fails to be struck by the manner in which successive groups of beings, specifically distinct, yet clearly related, replace each other. He hears from closely allied, yet distinct kinds of birds, notes nearly similar, and sees their nests similarly constructed, but not quite alike, with eggs coloured in nearly the same manner. The plains near the Straits of Magellan are inhabited by one species of Rhea (American ostrich), and northward the plains of La Plata by another species of the same genus; and not by a true ostrich or emeu, like those found in Africa and Australia under the same latitude. On these same plains of La Plata, we see the agouti and bizcacha, animals having nearly the same habits as our hares and rabbits and belonging to the same order of Rodents, but they plainly display an American type of structure. We ascend the lofty peaks of the Cordillera and we find an alpine species of bizcacha; we look to the waters, and we do not find the beaver or musk-rat, but the coypu and capybara, rodents of the American type. Innumerable other instances could be given. If we look to the islands off the American shore, however much they may differ in geological structure, the inhabitants, though they may be all peculiar species, are essentially American. We may look back to past ages, as shown in the last chapter, and we find American types then prevalent on the American continent and in the American seas. We see in these facts some deep organic bond, prevailing throughout space and time, over the same areas of land and water, and independent of their physical conditions. The naturalist must feel little curiosity, who is not led to inquire what this bond is. 
> 
> This bond, on my theory, is simply inheritance, that cause which alone, as far as we positively know, produces organisms quite like, or, as we see in the case of varieties nearly like each other. The dissimilarity of the inhabitants of different regions may be attributed to modification through natural selection, and in a quite subordinate degree to the direct influence of different physical conditions. The degree of dissimilarity will depend on the migration of the more dominant forms of life from one region into another having been effected with more or less ease, at periods more or less remote; on the nature and number of the former immigrants; -- and on their action and reaction, in their mutual struggles for life; the relation of organism to organism being, as I have already often remarked, the most important of all relations. Thus the high importance of barriers comes into play by checking migration; as does time for the slow process of modification through natural selection. Widely-ranging species, abounding in individuals, which have already triumphed over many competitors in their own widely-extended homes will have the best chance of seizing on new places, when they spread into new countries. In their new homes they will be exposed to new conditions, and will frequently undergo further modification and improvement; and thus they will become still further victorious, and will produce groups of modified descendants. On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case. 
> 
> I believe, as was remarked in the last chapter, in no law of necessary development. As the variability of each species is an independent property, and will be taken advantage of by natural selection, only so far as it profits the individual in its complex struggle for life, so the degree of modification in different species will be no uniform quantity. If, for instance, a number of species, which stand in direct competition with each other, migrate in a body into a new and afterwards isolated country, they will be little liable to modification; for neither migration nor isolation in themselves can do anything. These principles come into play only by bringing organisms into new relations with each other, and in a lesser degree with the surrounding physical conditions. As we have seen in the last chapter that some forms have retained nearly the same character from an enormously remote geological period, so certain species have migrated over vast spaces, and have not become greatly modified. 
> 
> On these views, it is obvious, that the several species of the same genus, though inhabiting the most distant quarters of the world, must originally have proceeded from the same source, as they have descended from the same progenitor. In the case of those species, which have undergone during whole geological periods but little modification, there is not much difficulty in believing that they may have migrated from the same region; for during the vast geographical and climatal changes which will have supervened since ancient times, almost any amount of migration is possible. But in many other cases, in which we have reason to believe that the species of a genus have been produced within comparatively recent times, there is great difficulty on this head. It is also obvious that the individuals of the same species, though now inhabiting distant and isolated regions, must have proceeded from one spot, where their parents were first produced: for, as explained in the last chapter, it is incredible that individuals identically the same should ever have been produced through natural selection from parents specifically distinct. 
> 
> We are thus brought to the question which has been largely discussed by naturalists, namely, whether species have been created at one or more points of the earth's surface. Undoubtedly there are very many cases of extreme difficulty, in understanding how the same species could possibly have migrated from some one point to the several distant and isolated points, where now found. Nevertheless the simplicity of the view that each species was first produced within a single region captivates the mind. He who rejects it, rejects the vera causa of ordinary generation with subsequent migration, and calls in the agency of a miracle. It is universally admitted, that in most cases the area inhabited by a species is continuous; and when a plant or animal inhabits two points so distant from each other, or with an interval of such a nature, that the space could not be easily passed over by migration, the fact is given as something remarkable and exceptional. The capacity of migrating across the sea is more distinctly limited in terrestrial mammals, than perhaps in any other organic beings; and, accordingly, we find no inexplicable cases of the same mammal inhabiting distant points of the world. No geologist will feel any difficulty in such cases as Great Britain having been formerly united to Europe, and consequently possessing the same quadrupeds. But if the same species can be produced at two separate points, why do we not find a single mammal common to Europe and Australia or South America? The conditions of life are nearly the same, so that a multitude of European animals and plants have become naturalised in America and Australia; and some of the aboriginal plants are identically the same at these distant points of the northern and southern hemispheres? The answer, as I believe, is, that mammals have not been able to migrate, whereas some plants, from their varied means of dispersal, have migrated across the vast and broken interspace. The great and striking influence which barriers of every kind have had on distribution, is intelligible only on the view that the great majority of species have been produced on one side alone, and have not been able to migrate to the other side. Some few families, many sub-families, very many genera, and a still greater number of sections of genera are confined to a single region; and it has been observed by several naturalists, that the most natural genera, or those genera in which the species are most closely related to each other, are generally local, or confined to one area. What a strange anomaly it would be, if, when coming one step lower in the series, to the individuals of the same species, a directly opposite rule prevailed; and species were not local, but had been produced in two or more distinct areas! 
> 
> Hence it seems to me, as it has to many other naturalists, that the view of each species having been produced in one area alone, and having subsequently migrated from that area as far as its powers of migration and subsistence under past and present conditions permitted, is the most probable. Undoubtedly many cases occur, in which we cannot explain how the same species could have passed from one point to the other. But the geographical and climatal changes, which have certainly occurred within recent geological times, must have interrupted or rendered discontinuous the formerly continuous range of many species. So that we are reduced to consider whether the exceptions to continuity of range are so numerous and of so grave a nature, that we ought to give up the belief, rendered probable by general considerations, that each species has been produced within one area, and has migrated thence as far as it could. It would be hopelessly tedious to discuss all the exceptional cases of the same species, now living at distant and separated points; nor do I for a moment pretend that any explanation could be offered of many such cases. But after some preliminary remarks, I will discuss a few of the most striking classes of facts; namely, the existence of the same species on the summits of distant mountain-ranges, and at distant points in the arctic and antarctic regions; and secondly (in the following chapter), the wide distribution of freshwater productions; and thirdly, the occurrence of the same terrestrial species on islands and on the mainland, though separated by hundreds of miles of open sea. If the existence of the same species at distant and isolated points of the earth's surface, can in many instances be explained on the view of each species having migrated from a single birthplace; then, considering our ignorance with respect to former climatal and geographical changes and various occasional means of transport, the belief that this has been the universal law, seems to me incomparably the safest. 
> 
> In discussing this subject, we shall be enabled at the same time to consider a point equally important for us, namely, whether the several distinct species of a genus, which on my theory have all descended from a common progenitor, can have migrated (undergoing modification during some part of their migration) from the area inhabited by their progenitor. If it can be shown to be almost invariably the case, that a region, of which most of its inhabitants are closely related to, or belong to the same genera with the species of a second region, has probably received at some former period immigrants from this other region, my theory will be strengthened; for we can clearly understand, on the principle of modification, why the inhabitants of a region should be related to those of another region, whence it has been stocked. A volcanic island, for instance, upheaved and formed at the distance of a few hundreds of miles from a continent, would probably receive from it in the course of time a few colonists, and their descendants, though modified, would still be plainly related by inheritance to the inhabitants of the continent. Cases of this nature are common, and are, as we shall hereafter more fully see, inexplicable on the theory of independent creation. This view of the relation of species in one region to those in another, does not differ much (by substituting the word variety for species) from that lately advanced in an ingenious paper by Mr Wallace, in which he concludes, that `every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a pre-existing closely allied species.' And I now know from correspondence, that this coincidence he attributes to generation with modification. 
> 
> The previous remarks on `single and multiple centres of creation' do not directly bear on another allied question, namely whether all the individuals of the same species have descended from a single pair, or single hermaphrodite, or whether, as some authors suppose, from many individuals simultaneously created. With those organic beings which never intercross (if such exist), the species, on my theory, must have descended from a succession of improved varieties, which will never have blended with other individuals or varieties, but will have supplanted each other; so that, at each successive stage of modification and improvement, all the individuals of each variety will have descended from a single parent. But in the majority of cases, namely, with all organisms which habitually unite for each birth, or which often intercross, I believe that during the slow process of modification the individuals of the species will have been kept nearly uniform by intercrossing; so that many individuals will have gone on simultaneously changing, and the whole amount of modification will not have been due, at each stage, to descent from a single parent. To illustrate what I mean: our English racehorses differ slightly from the horses of every other breed; but they do not owe their difference and superiority to descent from any single pair, but to continued care in selecting and training many individuals during many generations. 
> 
> Before discussing the three classes of facts, which I have selected as presenting the greatest amount of difficulty on the theory of `single centres of creation,' I must say a few words on the means of dispersal. 
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> Means of Dispersal
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> Sir C. Lyell and other authors have ably treated this subject. I can give here only the briefest abstract of the more important facts. Change of climate must have had a powerful influence on migration: a region when its climate was different may have been a high road for migration, but now be impassable; I shall, however, presently have to discuss this branch of the subject in some detail. Changes of level in the land must also have been highly influential: a narrow isthmus now separates two marine faunas; submerge it, or let it formerly have been submerged, and the two faunas will now blend or may formerly have blended: where the sea now extends, land may at a former period have connected islands or possibly even continents together, and thus have allowed terrestrial productions to pass from one to the other. No geologist will dispute that great mutations of level have occurred within the period of existing organisms. Edward Forbes insisted that all the islands in the Atlantic must recently have been connected with Europe or Africa, and Europe likewise with America. Other authors have thus hypothetically bridged over every ocean, and have united almost every island to some mainland. If indeed the arguments used by Forbes are to be trusted, it must be admitted that scarcely a single island exists which has not recently been united to some continent. This view cuts the Gordian knot of the dispersal of the same species to the most distant points, and removes many a difficulty: but to the best of any judgement we are not authorised in admitting such enormous geographical changes within the period of existing species. It seems to me that we have abundant evidence of great oscillations of level in our continents; but not of such vast changes in their position and extension, as to have united them within the recent period to each other and to the several intervening oceanic islands. I freely admit the former existence of many islands, now buried beneath the sea, which may have served as halting places for plants and for many animals during their migration. In the coral-producing oceans such sunken islands are now marked, as I believe, by rings of coral or atolls standing over them. Whenever it is fully admitted, as I believe it will some day be, that each species has proceeded from a single birthplace, and when in the course of time we know something definite about the means of distribution, we shall be enabled to speculate with security on the former extension of the land. But I do not believe that it will ever be proved that within the recent period continents which are now quite separate, have been continuously, or almost continuously, united with each other, and with the many existing oceanic islands. Several facts in distribution, such as the great difference in the marine faunas on the opposite sides of almost every continent, the close relation of the tertiary inhabitants of several lands and even seas to their present inhabitants, a certain degree of relation (as we shall hereafter see) between the distribution of mammals and the depth of the sea, these and other such facts seem to me opposed to the admission of such prodigious geographical revolutions within the recent period, as are necessitated in the view advanced by Forbes and admitted by his many followers. The nature and relative proportions of the inhabitants of oceanic islands likewise seem to me opposed to the belief of their former continuity with continents. Nor does their almost universally volcanic composition favour the admission that they are the wrecks of sunken continents; if they had originally existed as mountain-ranges on the land, some at least of the islands would have been formed, like other mountain-summits, of granite, metamorphic schists, old fossiliferous or other such rocks, instead of consisting of mere piles of volcanic matter. 
> 
> I must now say a few words on what are called accidental means, but which more properly might be called occasional means of distribution. I shall here confine myself to plants. In botanical works, this or that plant is stated to be ill adapted for wide dissemination; but for transport across the sea, the greater or less facilities may be said to be almost wholly unknown. Until I tried, with Mr Berkeley's aid, a few experiments, it was not even known how far seeds could resist the injurious action of sea-water. To my surprise I found that out of 87 kinds, 64 germinated after an immersion of 28 days, and a few survived an immersion of 137 days. For convenience sake I chiefly tried small seeds, without the capsule or fruit; and as all of these sank in a few days, they could not be floated across wide spaces of the sea, whether or not they were injured by the salt-water. Afterwards I tried some larger fruits, capsules, &c., and some of these floated for a long time. It is well known what a difference there is in the buoyancy of green and seasoned timber; and it occurred to me that floods might wash down plants or branches, and that these might be dried on the banks, and then by a fresh rise in the stream be washed into the sea. Hence I was led to dry stems and branches of 94 plants with ripe fruit, and to place them on sea water. The majority sank quickly, but some which whilst green floated for a very short time, when dried floated much longer; for instance, ripe hazel-nuts sank immediately, but when dried, they floated for 90 days and afterwards when planted they germinated; an asparagus plant with ripe berries floated for 23 days, when dried it floated for 85 days, and the seeds afterwards germinated: the ripe seeds of Helosciadium sank in two days, when dried they floated for above 90 days, and afterwards germinated. Altogether out of the 94 dried plants, 18 floated for above 28 days, and some of the 18 floated for a very much longer period. So that as 64/87 seeds germinated after an immersion of 28 days; and as 18/94 plants with ripe fruit (but not all the same species as in the foregoing experiment) floated, after being dried, for above 28 days, as far as we may infer anything from these scanty facts, we may conclude that the seeds of 14/100 plants of any country might be floated by sea-currents during 28 days, and would retain their power of germination. In Johnston's physical Atlas, the average rate of the several Atlantic currents is 33 miles per diem (some currents running at the rate of 60 miles per diem); on this average, the seeds of 14/100 plants belonging to one country might be floated across 924 miles of sea to another country; and when stranded, if blown to a favourable spot by an inland gale, they would germinate. 
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> Subsequently to my experiments, M. Martens tried similar ones, but in a much better manner, for he placed the seeds in a box in the actual sea, so that they were alternately wet and exposed to the air like really floating plants. He tried 98 seeds, mostly different from mine; but he chose many large fruits and likewise seeds from plants which live near the sea; and this would have favoured the average length of their flotation and of their resistance to the injurious action of the salt-water. On the other hand he did not previously dry the plants or branches with the fruit; and this, as we have seen, would have caused some of them to have floated much longer. The result was that 18/98 of his seeds floated for 42 days, and were then capable of germination. But I do not doubt that plants exposed to the waves would float for a less time than those protected from violent movement as in our experiments. Therefore it would perhaps be safer to assume that the seeds of about 10/100 plants of a flora, after having been dried, could be floated across a space of sea 900 miles in width, and would then germinate. The fact of the larger fruits often floating longer than the small, is interesting; as plants with large seeds or fruit could hardly be transported by any other means; and Alph. de Candolle has shown that such plants generally have restricted ranges. 
> 
> But seeds may be occasionally transported in another manner. Drift timber is thrown up on most islands, even on those in the midst of the widest oceans; and the natives of the coral-islands in the Pacific, procure stones for their tools, solely from the roots of drifted trees, these stones being a valuable royal tax. I find on examination, that when irregularly shaped stones are embedded in the roots of trees, small parcels of earth are very frequently enclosed in their interstices and behind them, so perfectly that not a particle could be washed away in the longest transport: out of one small portion of earth thus completely enclosed by wood in an oak about 50 years old, three dicotyledonous plants germinated: I am certain of the accuracy of this observation. Again, I can show that the carcasses of birds, when floating on the sea, sometimes escape being immediately devoured; and seeds of many kinds in the crops of floating birds long retain their vitality: peas and vetches, for instance, are killed by even a few days' immersion in sea-water; but some taken out of the crop of a pigeon, which had floated on artificial salt-water for 30 days, to my surprise nearly all germinated. 
> 
> Living birds can hardly fail to be highly effective agents in the transportation of seeds. I could give many facts showing how frequently birds of many kinds are blown by gales to vast distances across the ocean. We may I think safely assume that under such circumstances their rate of flight would often be 35 miles an hour; and some authors have given a far higher estimate. I have never seen an instance of nutritious seeds passing through the intestines of a bird; but hard seeds of fruit will pass uninjured through even the digestive organs of a turkey. In the course of two months, I picked up in my garden 12 kinds of seeds, out of the excrement of small birds, and these seemed perfect, and some of them, which I tried, germinated. But the following fact is more important: the crops of birds do not secrete gastric juice, and do not in the least injure, as I know by trial, the germination of seeds; now after a bird has found and devoured a large supply of food, it is positively asserted that all the grains do not pass into the gizzard for 12 or even 18 hours. A bird in this interval might easily be blown to the distance of 500 miles, and hawks are known to look out for tired birds, and the contents of their torn crops might thus readily get scattered. Mr Brent informs me that a friend of his had to give up flying carrier-pigeons from France to England, as the hawks on the English coast destroyed so many on their arrival. Some hawks and owls bolt their prey whole, and after an interval of from twelve to twenty hours, disgorge pellets, which, as I know from experiments made in the Zoological Gardens, include seeds capable of germination. Some seeds of the oat, wheat, millet, canary, hemp, clover, and beet germinated after having been from twelve to twenty-one hours in the stomachs of different birds of prey; and two seeds of beet grew after having been thus retained for two days and fourteen hours. Freshwater fish, I find, eat seeds of many land and water plants: fish are frequently devoured by birds, and thus the seeds might be transported from place to place. I forced many kinds of seeds into the stomachs of dead fish, and then gave their bodies to fishing-eagles, storks, and pelicans; these birds after an interval of many hours, either rejected the seeds in pellets or passed them in their excrement; and several of these seeds retained their power of germination. Certain seeds, however, were always killed by this process. 
> 
> Although the beaks and feet of birds are generally quite clean, I can show that earth sometimes adheres to them: in one instance I removed twenty-two grains of dry argillaceous earth from one foot of a partridge, and in this earth there was a pebble quite as large as the seed of a vetch. Thus seeds might occasionally be transported to great distances; for many facts could be given showing that soil almost everywhere is charged with seeds. Reflect for a moment on the millions of quails which annually cross the Mediterranean; and can we doubt that the earth adhering to their feet would sometimes include a few minute seeds? But I shall presently have to recur to this subject. 
> 
> As icebergs are known to be sometimes loaded with earth and stones, and have even carried brushwood, bones, and the nest of a land-bird, I can hardly doubt that they must occasionally have transported seeds from one part to another of the arctic and antarctic regions, as suggested by Lyell; and during the Glacial period from one part of the now temperate regions to another. In the Azores, from the large number of the species of plants common to Europe, in comparison with the plants of other oceanic islands nearer to the mainland, and (as remarked by Mr H. C. Watson) from the somewhat northern character of the flora in comparison with the latitude, I suspected that these islands had been partly stocked by ice-borne seeds, during the Glacial epoch. At my request Sir C. Lyell wrote to M. Hartung to inquire whether he had observed erratic boulders on these islands, and he answered that he had found large fragments of granite and other rocks, which do not occur in the archipelago. Hence we may safely infer that icebergs formerly landed their rocky burthens on the shores of these mid-ocean islands, and it is at least possible that they may have brought thither the seeds of northern plants. 
> 
> Considering that the several above means of transport, and that several other means, which without doubt remain to be discovered, have been in action year after year, for centuries and tens of thousands of years, it would I think be a marvellous fact if many plants had not thus become widely transported. These means of transport are sometimes called accidental, but this is not strictly correct: the currents of the sea are not accidental, nor is the direction of prevalent gales of wind. It should be observed that scarcely any means of transport would carry seeds for very great distances; for seeds do not retain their vitality when exposed for a great length of time to the action of seawater; nor could they be long carried in the crops or intestines of birds. These means, however, would suffice for occasional transport across tracts of sea some hundred miles in breadth, or from island to island, or from a continent to a neighbouring island, but not from one distant continent to another. The floras of distant continents would not by such means become mingled in any great degree; but would remain as distinct as we now see them to be. The currents, from their course, would never bring seeds from North America to Britain, though they might and do bring seeds from the West Indies to our western shores, where, if not killed by so long an immersion in salt-water, they could not endure our climate. Almost every year, one or two land-birds are blown across the whole Atlantic Ocean, from North America to the western shores of Ireland and England; but seeds could be transported by these wanderers only by one means, namely, in dirt sticking to their feet, which is in itself a rare accident. Even in this case, how small would the chance be of a seed falling on favourable soil, and coming to maturity! But it would be a great error to argue that because a well-stocked island, like Great Britain, has not, as far as is known (and it would be very difficult to prove this), received within the last few centuries, through occasional means of transport, immigrants from Europe or any other continent, that a poorly-stocked island, though standing more remote from the mainland, would not receive colonists by similar means. I do not doubt that out of twenty seeds or animals transported to an island, even if far less well-stocked than Britain, scarcely more than one would be so well fitted to its new home, as to become naturalised. But this, as it seems to me, is no valid argument against what would be effected by occasional means of transport, during the long lapse of geological time, whilst an island was being upheaved and formed, and before it had become fully stocked with inhabitants. On almost bare land, with few or no destructive insects or birds living there, nearly every seed, which chanced to arrive, would be sure to germinate and survive.Dispersal during the Glacial period
> 
> The identity of many plants and animals, on mountain-summits, separated from each other by hundreds of miles of lowlands, where the Alpine species could not possibly exist, is one of the most striking cases known of the same species living at distant points, without the apparent possibility of their having migrated from one to the other. It is indeed a remarkable fact to see so many of the same plants living on the snowy regions of the Alps or Pyrenees, and in the extreme northern parts of Europe; but it is far more remarkable, that the plants on the White Mountains, in the United States of America, are all the same with those of Labrador, and nearly all the same, as we hear from Asa Gray, with those on the loftiest mountains of Europe. Even as long ago as 1747, such facts led Gmelin to conclude that the same species must have been independently created at several distinct points; and we might have remained in this same belief, had not Agassiz and others called vivid attention to the Glacial period, which, as we shall immediately see, affords a simple explanation of these facts. We have evidence of almost every conceivable kind, organic and inorganic, that within a very recent geological period, central Europe and North America suffered under an Arctic climate. The ruins of a house burnt by fire do not tell their tale more plainly, than do the mountains of Scotland and Wales, with their scored flanks, polished surfaces, and perched boulders, of the icy streams with which their valleys were lately filled. So greatly has the climate of Europe changed, that in Northern Italy, gigantic moraines, left by old glaciers, are now clothed by the vine and maize. Throughout a large part of the United States, erratic boulders, and rocks scored by drifted icebergs and coast-ice, plainly reveal a former cold period. 
> 
> The former influence of the glacial climate on the distribution of the inhabitants of Europe, as explained with remarkable clearness by Edward Forbes, is substantially as follows. But we shall follow the changes more readily, by supposing a new glacial period to come slowly on, and then pass away, as formerly occurred. As the cold came on, and as each more southern zone became fitted for arctic beings and ill-fitted for their former more temperate inhabitants, the latter would be supplanted and arctic productions would take their places. The inhabitants of the more temperate regions would at the same time travel southward, unless they were stopped by barriers, in which case they would perish. The mountains would become covered with snow and ice, and their former Alpine inhabitants would descend to the plains. By the time that the cold had reached its maximum, we should have a uniform arctic fauna and flora, covering the central parts of Europe, as far south as the Alps and Pyrenees, and even stretching into Spain. The now temperate regions of the United States would likewise be covered by arctic plants and animals, and these would be nearly the same with those of Europe; for the present circumpolar inhabitants, which we suppose to have everywhere travelled southward, are remarkably uniform round the world. We may suppose that the Glacial period came on a little earlier or later in North America than in Europe, so will the southern migration there have been a little earlier or later; but this will make no difference in the final result. 
> 
> As the warmth returned, the arctic forms would retreat northward, closely followed up in their retreat by the productions of the more temperate regions. And as the snow melted from the bases of the mountains, the arctic forms would seize on the cleared and thawed ground, always ascending higher and higher, as the warmth increased, whilst their brethren were pursuing their northern journey. Hence, when the warmth had fully returned, the same arctic species, which had lately lived in a body together on the lowlands of the Old and New Worlds, would be left isolated on distant mountain-summits (having been exterminated on all lesser heights) and in the arctic regions of both hemispheres. 
> 
> Thus we can understand the identity of many plants at points so immensely remote as on the mountains of the United States and of Europe. We can thus also understand the fact that the Alpine plants of each mountain-range are more especially related to the arctic forms living due north or nearly due north of them: for the migration as the cold came on, and the re-migration on the returning warmth, will generally have been due south and north. The Alpine plants, for example, of Scotland, as remarked by Mr H. C. Watson, and those of the Pyrenees, as remarked by Ramond, are more especially allied to the plants of northern Scandinavia; those of the United States to Labrador; those of the mountains of Siberia to the arctic regions of that country. These views, grounded as they are on the perfectly well-ascertained occurrence of a former Glacial period, seem to me to explain in so satisfactory a manner the present distribution of the Alpine and Arctic productions of Europe and America, that when in other regions we find the same species on distant mountain-summits, we may almost conclude without other evidence, that a colder climate permitted their former migration across the low intervening tracts, since become too warm for their existence. 
> 
> If the climate, since the Glacial period, has ever been in any degree warmer than at present (as some geologists in the United States believe to have been the case, chiefly from the distribution of the fossil Gnathodon), then the arctic and temperate productions will at a very late period have marched a little further north, and subsequently have retreated to their present homes; but I have met with no satisfactory evidence with respect to this intercalated slightly warmer period, since the Glacial period. 
> 
> The arctic forms, during their long southern migration and re-migration northward, will have been exposed to nearly the same climate, and, as is especially to be noticed, they will have kept in a body together; consequently their mutual relations will not have been much disturbed, and, in accordance with the principles inculcated in this volume, they will not have been liable to much modification. But with our Alpine productions, left isolated from the moment of the returning warmth, first at the bases and ultimately on the summits of the mountains, the case will have been somewhat different; for it is not likely that all the same arctic species will have been left on mountain ranges distant from each other, and have survived there ever since; they will, also, in all probability have become mingled with ancient Alpine species, which must have existed on the mountains before the commencement of the Glacial epoch, and which during its coldest period will have been temporarily driven down to the plains; they will, also, have been exposed to somewhat different climatal influences. Their mutual relations will thus have been in some degree disturbed; consequently they will have been liable to modification; and this we find has been the case; for if we compare the present Alpine plants and animals of the several great European mountain-ranges, though very many of the species are identically the same, some present varieties, some are ranked as doubtful forms, and some few are distinct yet closely allied or representative species. 
> 
> In illustrating what, as I believe, actually took place during the Glacial period, I assumed that at its commencement the arctic productions were as uniform round the polar regions as they are at the present day. But the foregoing remarks on distribution apply not only to strictly arctic forms, but also to many sub-arctic and to some few northern temperate forms, for some of these are the same on the lower mountains and on the plains of North America and Europe; and it may be reasonably asked how I account for the necessary degree of uniformity of the sub-arctic and northern temperate forms round the world, at the commencement of the Glacial period. At the present day, the sub-arctic and northern temperate productions of the Old and New Worlds are separated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean and by the extreme northern part of the Pacific. During the Glacial period, when the inhabitants of the Old and New Worlds lived further southwards than at present, they must have been still more completely separated by wider spaces of ocean. I believe the above difficulty may be surmounted by looking to still earlier changes of climate of an opposite nature. We have good reason to believe that during the newer Pliocene period, before the Glacial epoch, and whilst the majority of the inhabitants of the world were specifically the same as now, the climate was warmer than at the present day. Hence we may suppose that the organisms now living under the climate of latitude 60°, during the Pliocene period lived further north under the Polar Circle, in latitude 66°-67°; and that the strictly arctic productions then lived on the broken land still nearer to the pole. Now if we look at a globe, we shall see that under the Polar Circle there is almost continuous land from western Europe, through Siberia, to eastern America. And to this continuity of the circumpolar land, and to the consequent freedom for intermigration under a more favourable climate, I attribute the necessary amount of uniformity in the sub-arctic and northern temperate productions of the Old and New Worlds, at a period anterior to the Glacial epoch. 
> 
> Believing, from reasons before alluded to, that our continents have long remained in nearly the same relative position, though subjected to large, but partial oscillations of level, I am strongly inclined to extend the above view, and to infer that during some earlier and still warmer period, such as the older Pliocene period, a large number of the same plants and animals inhabited the almost continuous circumpolar land; and that these plants and animals, both in the Old and New Worlds, began slowly to migrate southwards as the climate became less warm, long before the commencement of the Glacial period. We now see, as I believe, their descendants, mostly in a modified condition, in the central parts of Europe and the United States. On this view we can understand the relationship, with very little identity, between the productions of North America and Europe, a relationship which is most remarkable, considering the distance of the two areas, and their separation by the Atlantic Ocean. We can further understand the singular fact remarked on by several observers, that the productions of Europe and America during the later tertiary stages were more closely related to each other than they are at the present time; for during these warmer periods the northern parts of the Old and New Worlds will have been almost continuously united by land, serving as a bridge, since rendered impassable by cold, for the inter-migration of their inhabitants. 
> 
> During the slowly decreasing warmth of the Pliocene period, as soon as the species in common, which inhabited the New and Old Worlds, migrated south of the Polar Circle, they must have been completely cut off from each other. This separation, as far as the more temperate productions are concerned, took place long ages ago. And as the plants and animals migrated southward, they will have become mingled in the one great region with the native American productions, and have had to compete with them; and in the other great region, with those of the Old World. Consequently we have here everything favourable for much modification, for far more modification than with the Alpine productions, left isolated, within a much more recent period, on the several mountain-ranges and on the arctic lands of the two Worlds. Hence it has come, that when we compare the now living productions of the temperate regions of the New and Old Worlds, we find very few identical species (though Asa Gray has lately shown that more plants are identical than was formerly supposed), but we find in every great class many forms, which some naturalists rank as geographical races, and others as distinct species; and a host of closely allied or representative forms which are ranked by all naturalists as specifically distinct. 
> 
>  As on the land, so in the waters of the sea, a slow southern migration of a marine fauna, which during the Pliocene or even a somewhat earlier period, was nearly uniform along the continuous shores of the Polar Circle, will account, on the theory of modification, for many closely allied forms now living in areas completely sundered. Thus, I think, we can understand the presence of many existing and tertiary representative forms on the eastern and western shores of temperate North America; and the still more striking case of many closely allied crustaceans (as described in Dana's admirable work), of some fish and other marine animals, in the Mediterranean and in the seas of Japan, areas now separated by a continent and by nearly a hemisphere of equatorial ocean. 
> 
> These cases of relationship, without identity, of the inhabitants of seas now disjoined, and likewise of the past and present inhabitants of the temperate lands of North America and Europe, are inexplicable on the theory of creation. We cannot say that they have been created alike, in correspondence with the nearly similar physical conditions of the areas; for if we compare, for instance, certain parts of South America with the southern continents of the Old World, we see countries closely corresponding in all their physical conditions, but with their inhabitants utterly dissimilar. 
> 
> But we must return to our more immediate subject, the Glacial period. I am convinced that Forbes's view may be largely extended. In Europe we have the plainest evidence of the cold period, from the western shores of Britain to the Oural range, and southward to the Pyrenees. We may infer, from the frozen mammals and nature of the mountain vegetation, that Siberia was similarly affected. Along the Himalaya, at points 900 miles apart, glaciers have left the marks of their former low descent; and in Sikkim, Dr Hooker saw maize growing on gigantic ancient moraines. South of the equator, we have some direct evidence of former glacial action in New Zealand; and the same plants, found on widely separated mountains in this island, tell the same story. If one account which has been published can be trusted, we have direct evidence of glacial action in the southeastern corner of Australia. 
> 
> Looking to America; in the northern half, ice-borne fragments of rock have been observed on the eastern side as far south as lat. 36°-37°, and on the shores of the Pacific, where the climate is now so different, as far south as lat. 46°; erratic boulders have, also, been noticed on the Rocky Mountains. In the Cordillera of Equatorial South America, glaciers once extended far below their present level. In central Chile I was astonished at the structure of a vast mound of detritus, about 800 feet in height, crossing a valley of the Andes; and this I now feel convinced was a gigantic moraine, left far below any existing glacier. Further south on both sides of the continent, from lat. 41° to the southernmost extremity, we have the clearest evidence of former glacial action, in huge boulders transported far from their parent source. 
> 
> We do not know that the Glacial epoch was strictly simultaneous at these several far distant points on opposite sides of the world. But we have good evidence in almost every case, that the epoch was included within the latest geological period. We have, also, excellent evidence, that it endured for an enormous time, as measured by years, at each point. The cold may have come on, or have ceased, earlier at one point of the globe than at another, but seeing that it endured for long at each, and that it was contemporaneous in a geological sense, it seems to me probable that it was, during a part at least of the period, actually simultaneous throughout the world. Without some distinct evidence to the contrary, we may at least admit as probable that the glacial action was simultaneous on the eastern and western sides of North America, in the Cordillera under the equator and under the warmer temperate zones, and on both sides of the southern extremity of the continent. If this be admitted, it is difficult to avoid believing that the temperature of the whole world was at this period simultaneously cooler. But it would suffice for my purpose, if the temperature was at the same time lower along certain broad belts of longitude. 
> 
> On this view of the whole world, or at least of broad longitudinal belts, having been simultaneously colder from pole to pole, much light can be thrown on the present distribution of identical and allied species. In America, Dr Hooker has shown that between forty and fifty of the flowering plants of Tierra del Fuego, forming no inconsiderable part of its scanty flora, are common to Europe, enormously remote as these two points are; and there are many closely allied species. On the lofty mountains of equatorial America a host of peculiar species belonging to European genera occur. On the highest mountains of Brazil, some few European genera were found by Gardner, which do not exist in the wide intervening hot countries. So on the Silla of Caraccas the illustrious Humboldt long ago found species belonging to genera characteristic of the Cordillera. On the mountains of Abyssinia, several European forms and some few representatives of the peculiar flora of the Cape of Good Hope occur. At the Cape of Good Hope a very few European species, believed not to have been introduced by man, and on the mountains, some few representative European forms are found, which have not been discovered in the intertropical parts of Africa. On the Himalaya, and on the isolated mountain-ranges of the peninsula of India, on the heights of Ceylon, and on the volcanic cones of Java, many plants occur, either identically the same or representing each other, and at the same time representing plants of Europe, not found in the intervening hot lowlands. A list of the genera collected on the loftier peaks of Java raises a picture of a collection made on a hill in Europe! Still more striking is the fact that southern Australian forms are clearly represented by plants growing on the summits of the mountains of Borneo. Some of these Australian forms, as I hear from Dr. Hooker, extend along the heights of the peninsula of Malacca, and are thinly scattered, on the one hand over India and on the other as far as Japan. 
> 
> On the southern mountains of Australia, Dr. F. Müller has discovered several European species; other species, not introduced by man, occur on the lowlands; and a long list can be given, as I am informed by Dr. Hooker, of European genera, found in Australia, but not in the intermediate torrid regions. In the admirable `Introduction to the Flora of New Zealand,' by Dr. Hooker, analogous and striking facts are given in regard to the plants of that large island. Hence we see that throughout the world, the plants growing on the more lofty mountains, and on the temperate lowlands of the northern and southern hemispheres, are sometimes identically the same; but they are much oftener specifically distinct, though related to each other in a most remarkable manner. 
> 
> This brief abstract applies to plants alone: some strictly analogous facts could be given on the distribution of terrestrial animals. In marine productions, similar cases occur; as an example, I may quote a remark by the highest authority, Prof. Dana, that `it is certainly a wonderful fact that New Zealand should have a closer resemblance in its crustacea to Great Britain, its antipode, than to any other part of the world.' Sir J. Richardson, also, speaks of the reappearance on the shores of New Zealand, Tasmania, &c., of northern forms of fish. Dr Hooker informs me that twenty-five species of Algae are common to New Zealand and to Europe, but have not been found in the intermediate tropical seas. 
> 
> It should be observed that the northern species and forms found in the southern parts of the southern hemisphere, and on the mountain-ranges of the intertropical regions, are not arctic, but belong to the northern temperate zones. As Mr. H. C. Watson has recently remarked, `In receding from polar towards equatorial latitudes, the Alpine or mountain floras really become less and less arctic.' Many of the forms living on the mountains of the warmer regions of the earth and in the southern hemisphere are of doubtful value, being ranked by some naturalists as specifically distinct, by others as varieties; but some are certainly identical, and many, though closely related to northern forms, must be ranked as distinct species. 
> 
> Now let us see what light can be thrown on the foregoing facts, on the belief, supported as it is by a large body of geological evidence, that the whole world, or a large part of it, was during the Glacial period simultaneously much colder than at present. The Glacial period, as measured by years, must have been very long; and when we remember over what vast spaces some naturalised plants and animals have spread within a few centuries, this period will have been ample for any amount of migration. As the cold came slowly on, all the tropical plants and other productions will have retreated from both sides towards the equator, followed in the rear by the temperate productions, and these by the arctic; but with the latter we are not now concerned. The tropical plants probably suffered much extinction; how much no one can say; perhaps formerly the tropics supported as many species as we see at the present day crowded together at the Cape of Good Hope, and in parts of temperate Australia. As we know that many tropical plants and animals can withstand a considerable amount of cold, many might have escaped extermination during a moderate fall of temperature, more especially by escaping into the warmest spots. But the great fact to bear in mind is, that all tropical productions will have suffered to a certain extent. On the other hand, the temperate productions, after migrating nearer to the equator, though they will have been placed under somewhat new conditions, will have suffered less. And it is certain that many temperate plants, if protected from the inroads of competitors, can withstand a much warmer climate than their own. Hence, it seems to me possible, bearing in mind that the tropical productions were in a suffering state and could not have presented a firm front against intruders, that a certain number of the more vigorous and dominant temperate forms might have penetrated the native ranks and have reached or even crossed the equator. The invasion would, of course, have been greatly favoured by high land, and perhaps by a dry climate; for Dr. Falconer informs me that it is the damp with the heat of the tropics which is so destructive to perennial plants from a temperate climate. On the other hand, the most humid and hottest districts will have afforded an asylum to the tropical natives. The mountain-ranges north-west of the Himalaya, and the long line of the Cordillera, seem to have afforded two great lines of invasion: and it is a striking fact, lately communicated to me by Dr. Hooker, that all the flowering plants, about forty-six in number, common to Tierra del Fuego and to Europe still exist in North America, which must have lain on the line of march. But I do not doubt that some temperate productions entered and crossed even the lowlands of the tropics at the period when the cold was most intense, when arctic forms had migrated some twenty-five degrees of latitude from their native country and covered the land at the foot of the Pyrenees. At this period of extreme cold, I believe that the climate under the equator at the level of the sea was about the same with that now felt there at the height of six or seven thousand feet. During this the coldest period, I suppose that large spaces of the tropical lowlands were clothed with a mingled tropical and temperate vegetation, like that now growing with strange luxuriance at the base of the Himalaya, as graphically described by Hooker. 
> 
> Thus, as I believe, a considerable number of plants, a few terrestrial animals, and some marine productions, migrated during the Glacial period from the northern and southern temperate zones into the intertropical regions, and some even crossed the equator. As the warmth returned, these temperate forms would naturally ascend the higher mountains, being exterminated on the lowlands; those which had not reached the equator, would re-migrate northward or southward towards their former homes; but the forms, chiefly northern, which had crossed the equator, would travel still further from their homes into the more temperate latitudes of the opposite hemisphere. Although we have reason to believe from geological evidence that the whole body of arctic shells underwent scarcely any modification during their long southern migration and re-migration northward, the case may have been wholly different with those intruding forms which settled themselves on the intertropical mountains, and in the southern hemisphere. These being surrounded by strangers will have had to compete with many new forms of life; and it is probable that selected modifications in their structure, habits, and constitutions will have profited them. Thus many of these wanderers, though still plainly related by inheritance to their brethren of the northern or southern hemispheres, now exist in their new homes as well-marked varieties or as distinct species. 
> 
> It is a remarkable fact, strongly insisted on by Hooker in regard to America, and by Alph. de Candolle in regard to Australia, that many more identical plants and allied forms have apparently migrated from the north to the south, than in a reversed direction. We see, however, a few southern vegetable forms on the mountains of Borneo and Abyssinia. I suspect that this preponderant migration from north to south is due to the greater extent of land in the north, and to the northern forms having existed in their own homes in greater numbers, and having consequently been advanced through natural selection and competition to a higher stage of perfection or dominating power, than the southern forms. And thus, when they became commingled during the Glacial period, the northern forms were enabled to beat the less powerful southern forms. Just in the same manner as we see at the present day, that very many European productions cover the ground in La Plata, and in a lesser degree in Australia, and have to a certain extent beaten the natives; whereas extremely few southern forms have become naturalised in any part of Europe, though hides, wool, and other objects likely to carry seeds have been largely imported into Europe during the last two or three centuries from La Plata, and during the last thirty or forty years from Australia. Something of the same kind must have occurred on the intertropical mountains: no doubt before the Glacial period they were stocked with endemic Alpine forms; but these have almost everywhere largely yielded to the more dominant forms, generated in the larger areas and more efficient workshops of the north. In many islands the native productions are nearly equalled or even outnumbered by the naturalised; and if the natives have not been actually exterminated, their numbers have been greatly reduced, and this is the first stage towards extinction. A mountain is an island on the land; and the intertropical mountains before the Glacial period must have been completely isolated; and I believe that the productions of these islands on the land yielded to those produced within the larger areas of the north, just in the same way as the productions of real islands have everywhere lately yielded to continental forms, naturalised by man's agency. 
> 
> I am far from supposing that all difficulties are removed on the view here given in regard to the range and affinities of the allied species which live in the northern and southern temperate zones and on the mountains of the intertropical regions. Very many difficulties remain to be solved. I do not pretend to indicate the exact lines and means of migration, or the reason why certain species and not others have migrated; why certain species have been modified and have given rise to new groups of forms, and others have remained unaltered. We cannot hope to explain such facts, until we can say why one species and not another becomes naturalised by man's agency in a foreign land; why one ranges twice or thrice as far, and is twice or thrice as common, as another species within their own homes. 
> 
> I have said that many difficulties remain to be solved: some of the most remarkable are stated with admirable clearness by Dr. Hooker in his botanical works on the antarctic regions. These cannot be here discussed. I will only say that as far as regards the occurrence of identical species at points so enormously remote as Kerguelen Land, New Zealand, and Fuegia, I believe that towards the close of the Glacial period, icebergs, as suggested by Lyell, have been largely concerned in their dispersal. But the existence of several quite distinct species, belonging to genera exclusively confined to the south, at these and other distant points of the southern hemisphere, is, on my theory of descent with modification, a far more remarkable case of difficulty. For some of these species are so distinct, that we cannot suppose that there has been time since the commencement of the Glacial period for their migration, and for their subsequent modification to the necessary degree. The facts seem to me to indicate that peculiar and very distinct species have migrated in radiating lines from some common centre; and I am inclined to look in the southern, as in the northern hemisphere, to a former and warmer period, before the commencement of the Glacial period, when the antarctic lands, now covered with ice, supported a highly peculiar and isolated flora. I suspect that before this flora was exterminated by the Glacial epoch, a few forms were widely dispersed to various points of the southern hemisphere by occasional means of transport, and by the aid, as halting-places, of existing and now sunken islands, and perhaps at the commencement of the Glacial period, by icebergs. By these means, as I believe, the southern shores of America, Australia, New Zealand have become slightly tinted by the same peculiar forms of vegetable life. 
> 
> Sir C. Lyell in a striking passage has speculated, in language almost identical with mine, on the effects of great alterations of climate on geographical distribution. I believe that the world has recently felt one of his great cycles of change; and that on this view, combined with modification through natural selection, a multitude of facts in the present distribution both of the same and of allied forms of life can be explained. The living waters may be said to have flowed during one short period from the north and from the south, and to have crossed at the equator; but to have flowed with greater force from the north so as to have freely inundated the south. As the tide leaves its drift in horizontal lines, though rising higher on the shores where the tide rises highest, so have the living waters left their living drift on our mountain-summits, in a line gently rising from the arctic lowlands to a great height under the equator. The various beings thus left stranded may be compared with savage races of man, driven up and surviving in the mountain-fastnesses of almost every land, which serve as a record, full of interest to us, of the former inhabitants of the surrounding lowlands.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_12|985503179
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> As lakes and river-systems are separated from each other by barriers of land, it might have been thought that fresh-water productions would not have ranged widely within the same country, and as the sea is apparently a still more impassable barrier, that they never would have extended to distant countries. But the case is exactly the reverse. Not only have many fresh-water species, belonging to quite different classes, an enormous range, but allied species prevail in a remarkable manner throughout the world. I well remember, when first collecting in the fresh waters of Brazil, feeling much surprise at the similarity of the fresh-water insects, shells, &c., and at the dissimilarity of the surrounding terrestrial beings, compared with those of Britain. 
> 
> But this power in fresh-water productions of ranging widely, though so unexpected, can, I think, in most cases be explained by their having become fitted, in a manner highly useful to them, for short and frequent migrations from pond to pond, or from stream to stream; and liability to wide dispersal would follow from this capacity as an almost necessary consequence. We can here consider only a few cases. In regard to fish, I believe that the same species never occur in the fresh waters of distant continents. But on the same continent the species often range widely and almost capriciously; for two river-systems will have some fish in common and some different. A few facts seem to favour the possibility of their occasional transport by accidental means; like that of the live fish not rarely dropped by whirlwinds in India, and the vitality of their ova when removed from the water. But I am inclined to attribute the dispersal of fresh-water fish mainly to slight changes within the recent period in the level of the land, having caused rivers to flow into each other. Instances, also, could be given of this having occurred during floods, without any change of level. We have evidence in the loess of the Rhine of considerable changes of level in the land within a very recent geological period, and when the surface was peopled by existing land and fresh-water shells. The wide difference of the fish on opposite sides of continuous mountain-ranges, which from an early period must have parted river-systems and completely prevented their inosculation, seems to lead to this same conclusion. With respect to allied fresh-water fish occurring at very distant points of the world, no doubt there are many cases which cannot at present be explained: but some fresh-water fish belong to very ancient forms, and in such cases there will have been ample time for great geographical changes, and consequently time and means for much migration. In the second place, salt-water fish can with care be slowly accustomed to live in fresh water; and, according to Valenciennes, there is hardly a single group of fishes confined exclusively to fresh water, so that we may imagine that a marine member of a fresh-water group might travel far along the shores of the sea, and subsequently become modified and adapted to the fresh waters of a distant land. 
> 
> Some species of fresh-water shells have a very wide range, and allied species, which, on my theory, are descended from a common parent and must have proceeded from a single source, prevail throughout the world. Their distribution at first perplexed me much, as their ova are not likely to be transported by birds, and they are immediately killed by sea water, as are the adults. I could not even understand how some naturalised species have rapidly spread throughout the same country. But two facts, which I have observed and no doubt many others remain to be observed throw some light on this subject. When a duck suddenly emerges from a pond covered with duck-weed, I have twice seen these little plants adhering to its back; and it has happened to me, in removing a little duck-weed from one aquarium to another, that I have quite unintentionally stocked the one with fresh-water shells from the other. But another agency is perhaps more effectual: I suspended a duck's feet, which might represent those of a bird sleeping in a natural pond, in an aquarium, where many ova of fresh-water shells were hatching; and I found that numbers of the extremely minute and just hatched shells crawled on the feet, and clung to them so firmly that when taken out of the water they could not be jarred off, though at a somewhat more advanced age they would voluntarily drop off. These just hatched molluscs, though aquatic in their nature, survived on the duck's feet, in damp air, from twelve to twenty hours; and in this length of time a duck or heron might fly at least six or seven hundred miles, and would be sure to alight on a pool or rivulet, if blown across sea to an oceanic island or to any other distant point. Sir Charles Lyell also informs me that a Dyticus has been caught with an Ancylus (a fresh-water shell like a limpet) firmly adhering to it; and a water-beetle of the same family, a Colymbetes, once flew on board the `Beagle,' when forty-five miles distant from the nearest land: how much farther it might have flown with a favouring gale no one can tell. 
> 
> With respect to plants, it has long been known what enormous ranges many fresh-water and even marsh-species have, both over continents and to the most remote oceanic islands. This is strikingly shown, as remarked by Alph. de Candolle, in large groups of terrestrial plants, which have only a very few aquatic members; for these latter seem immediately to acquire, as if in consequence, a very wide range. I think favourable means of dispersal explain this fact. I have before mentioned that earth occasionally, though rarely, adheres in some quantity to the feet and beaks of birds. Wading birds, which frequent the muddy edges of ponds, if suddenly flushed, would be the most likely to have muddy feet. Birds of this order I can show are the greatest wanderers, and are occasionally found on the most remote and barren islands in the open ocean; they would not be likely to alight on the surface of the sea, so that the dirt would not be washed off their feet; when making land, they would be sure to fly to their natural fresh-water haunts. I do not believe that botanists are aware how charged the mud of ponds is with seeds: I have tried several little experiments, but will here give only the most striking case: I took in February three table-spoonfuls of mud from three different points, beneath water, on the edge of a little pond; this mud when dry weighed only 6 3/4 ounces; I kept it covered up in my study for six months, pulling up and counting each plant as it grew; the plants were of many kinds, and were altogether 537 in number; and yet the viscid mud was all contained in a breakfast cup! Considering these facts, I think it would be an inexplicable circumstance if water-birds did not transport the seeds of fresh-water plants to vast distances, and if consequently the range of these plants was not very great. The same agency may have come into play with the eggs of some of the smaller fresh-water animals. 
> 
> Other and unknown agencies probably have also played a part. I have stated that fresh-water fish eat some kinds of seeds, though they reject many other kinds after having swallowed them; even small fish swallow seeds of moderate size, as of the yellow water-lily and Potamogeton. Herons and other birds, century after century, have gone on daily devouring fish; they then take flight and go to other waters, or are blown across the sea; and we have seen that seeds retain their power of germination, when rejected in pellets or in excrement, many hours afterwards. When I saw the great size of the seeds of that fine water-lily, the Nelumbium, and remembered Alph. de Candolle's remarks on this plant, I thought that its distribution must remain quite inexplicable; but Audubon states that he found the seeds of the great southern water-lily (probably, according to Dr Hooker, the Nelumbium luteum) in a heron's stomach; although I do not know the fact, yet analogy makes me believe that a heron flying to another pond and getting a hearty meal of fish, would probably reject from its stomach a pellet containing the seeds of the Nelumbium undigested; or the seeds might be dropped by the bird whilst feeding its young, in the same way as fish are known sometimes to be dropped. 
> 
> In considering these several means of distribution, it should be remembered that when a pond or stream is first formed, for instance, on a rising islet, it will be unoccupied; and a single seed or egg will have a good chance of succeeding. Although there will always be a struggle for life between the individuals of the species, however few, already occupying any pond, yet as the number of kinds is small, compared with those on the land, the competition will probably be less severe between aquatic than between terrestrial species; consequently an intruder from the waters of a foreign country, would have a better chance of seizing on a place, than in the case of terrestrial colonists. We should, also, remember that some, perhaps many, fresh-water productions are low in the scale of nature, and that we have reason to believe that such low beings change or become modified less quickly than the high; and this will give longer time than the average for the migration of the same aquatic species. We should not forget the probability of many species having formerly ranged as continuously as fresh-water productions ever can range, over immense areas, and having subsequently become extinct in intermediate regions. But the wide distribution of fresh-water plants and of the lower animals, whether retaining the same identical form or in some degree modified, I believe mainly depends on the wide dispersal of their seeds and eggs by animals, more especially by fresh-water birds, which have large powers of flight, and naturally travel from one to another and often distant piece of water. Nature, like a careful gardener, thus takes her seeds from a bed of a particular nature, and drops them in another equally well fitted for them. 
> 
> On the Inhabitants of Oceanic Islands
> 
> We now come to the last of the three classes of facts, which I have selected as presenting the greatest amount of difficulty, on the view that all the individuals both of the same and of allied species have descended from a single parent; and therefore have all proceeded from a common birthplace, notwithstanding that in the course of time they have come to inhabit distant points of the globe. I have already stated that I cannot honestly admit Forbes's view on continental extensions, which, if legitimately followed out, would lead to the belief that within the recent period all existing islands have been nearly or quite joined to some continent. This view would remove many difficulties, but it would not, I think, explain all the facts in regard to insular productions. In the following remarks I shall not confine myself to the mere question of dispersal; but shall consider some other facts, which bear on the truth of the two theories of independent creation and of descent with modification. 
> 
> The species of all kinds which inhabit oceanic islands are few in number compared with those on equal continental areas: Alph. de Candolle admits this for plants, and Wollaston for insects. If we look to the large size and varied stations of New Zealand, extending over 780 miles of latitude, and compare its flowering plants, only 750 in number, with those on an equal area at the Cape of Good Hope or in Australia, we must, I think, admit that something quite independently of any difference in physical conditions has caused so great a difference in number. Even the uniform county of Cambridge has 847 plants, and the little island of Anglesea 764, but a few ferns and a few introduced plants are included in these numbers, and the comparison in some other respects is not quite fair. We have evidence that the barren island of Ascension aboriginally possessed under half-a-dozen flowering plants; yet many have become naturalised on it, as they have on New Zealand and on every other oceanic island which can be named. In St. Helena there is reason to believe that the naturalised plants and animals have nearly or quite exterminated many native productions. He who admits the doctrine of the creation of each separate species, will have to admit, that a sufficient number of the best adapted plants and animals have not been created on oceanic islands; for man has unintentionally stocked them from various sources far more fully and perfectly than has nature. 
> 
> Although in oceanic islands the number of kinds of inhabitants is scanty, the proportion of endemic species (i.e. those found nowhere else in the world) is often extremely large. If we compare, for instance, the number of the endemic land-shells in Madeira, or of the endemic birds in the Galapagos Archipelago, with the number found on any continent, and then compare the area of the islands with that of the continent, we shall see that this is true. This fact might have been expected on my theory for, as already explained, species occasionally arriving after long intervals in a new and isolated district, and having to compete with new associates, will be eminently liable to modification, and will often produce groups of modified descendants. But it by no means follows, that, because in an island nearly all the species of one class are peculiar, those of another class, or of another section of the same class, are peculiar; and this difference seems to depend on the species which do not become modified having immigrated with facility and in a body, so that their mutual relations have not been much disturbed. Thus in the Galapagos Islands nearly every land-bird, but only two out of the eleven marine birds, are peculiar; and it is obvious that marine birds could arrive at these islands more easily than land-birds. Bermuda, on the other hand, which lies at about the same distance from North America as the Galapagos Islands do from South America, and which has a very peculiar soil, does not possess one endemic land bird; and we know from Mr. J. M. Jones's admirable account of Bermuda, that very many North American birds, during their great annual migrations, visit either periodically or occasionally this island. Madeira does not possess one peculiar bird, and many European and African birds are almost every year blown there, as I am informed by Mr. E. V. Harcourt. So that these two islands of Bermuda and Madeira have been stocked by birds, which for long ages have struggled together in their former homes, and have become mutually adapted to each other; and when settled in their new homes, each kind will have been kept by the others to their proper places and habits, and will consequently have been little liable to modification. Madeira, again, is inhabited by a wonderful number of peculiar land-shells, whereas not one species of sea-shell is confined to its shores: now, though we do not know how seashells are dispersed, yet we can see that their eggs or larvae, perhaps attached to seaweed or floating timber, or to the feet of wading-birds, might be transported far more easily than land-shells, across three or four hundred miles of open sea. The different orders of insects in Madeira apparently present analogous facts. 
> 
> Oceanic islands are sometimes deficient in certain classes, and their places are apparently occupied by the other inhabitants; in the Galapagos Islands reptiles, and in New Zealand gigantic wingless birds, take the place of mammals. In the plants of the Galapagos Islands, Dr. Hooker has shown that the proportional numbers of the different orders are very different from what they are elsewhere. Such cases are generally accounted for by the physical conditions of the islands; but this explanation seems to me not a little doubtful. Facility of immigration, I believe, has been at least as important as the nature of the conditions. 
> 
> Many remarkable little facts could be given with respect to the inhabitants of remote islands. For instance, in certain islands not tenanted by mammals, some of the endemic plants have beautifully hooked seeds; yet few relations are more striking than the adaptation of hooked seeds for transportal by the wool and fur of quadrupeds. This case presents no difficulty on my view, for a hooked seed might be transported to an island by some other means; and the plant then becoming slightly modified, but still retaining its hooked seeds, would form an endemic species, having as useless an appendage as any rudimentary organ, for instance, as the shrivelled wings under the soldered elytra of many insular beetles. Again, islands often possess trees or bushes belonging to orders which elsewhere include only herbaceous species; now trees, as Alph. de Candolle has shown, generally have, whatever the cause may be, confined ranges. Hence trees would be little likely to reach distant oceanic islands; and an herbaceous plant, though it would have no chance of successfully competing in stature with a fully developed tree, when established on an island and having to compete with herbaceous plants alone, might readily gain an advantage by growing taller and taller and overtopping the other plants. If so, natural selection would often tend to add to the stature of herbaceous plants when growing on an island, to whatever order they belonged, and thus convert them first into bushes and ultimately into trees. 
> 
> With respect to the absence of whole orders on oceanic islands, Bory St. Vincent long ago remarked that Batrachians (frogs, toads, newts) have never been found on any of the many islands with which the great oceans are studded. I have taken pains to verify this assertion, and I have found it strictly true. I have, however, been assured that a frog exists on the mountains of the great island of New Zealand; but I suspect that this exception (if the information be correct) may be explained through glacial agency. This general absence of frogs, toads, and newts on so many oceanic islands cannot be accounted for by their physical conditions; indeed it seems that islands are peculiarly well fitted for these animals; for frogs have been introduced into Madeira, the Azores, and Mauritius, and have multiplied so as to become a nuisance. But as these animals and their spawn are known to be immediately killed by sea-water, on my view we can see that there would be great difficulty in their transportal across the sea, and therefore why they do not exist on any oceanic island. But why, on the theory of creation, they should not have been created there, it would be very difficult to explain. 
> 
> Mammals offer another and similar case. I have carefully searched the oldest voyages, but have not finished my search; as yet I have not found a single instance, free from doubt, of a terrestrial mammal (excluding domesticated animals kept by the natives) inhabiting an island situated above 300 miles from a continent or great continental island; and many islands situated at a much less distance are equally barren. The Falkland Islands, which are inhabited by a wolf-like fox, come nearest to an exception; but this group cannot be considered as oceanic, as it lies on a bank connected with the mainland; moreover, icebergs formerly brought boulders to its western shores, and they may have formerly transported foxes, as so frequently now happens in the arctic regions. Yet it cannot be said that small islands will not support small mammals, for they occur in many parts of the world on very small islands, if close to a continent; and hardly an island can be named on which our smaller quadrupeds have not become naturalised and greatly multiplied. It cannot be said, on the ordinary view of creation, that there has not been time for the creation of mammals; many volcanic islands are sufficiently ancient, as shown by the stupendous degradation which they have suffered and by their tertiary strata: there has also been time for the production of endemic species belonging to other classes; and on continents it is thought that mammals appear and disappear at a quicker rate than other and lower animals. Though terrestrial mammals do not occur on oceanic islands, aërial mammals do occur on almost every island. New Zealand possesses two bats found nowhere else in the world: Norfolk Island, the Viti Archipelago, the Bonin Islands, the Caroline and Marianne Archipelagoes, and Mauritius, all possess their peculiar bats. Why, it may be asked, has the supposed creative force produced bats and no other mammals on remote islands? On my view this question can easily be answered; for no terrestrial mammal can be transported across a wide space of sea, but bats can fly across. Bats have been seen wandering by day far over the Atlantic Ocean; and two North American species either regularly or occasionally visit Bermuda, at the distance of 600 miles from the mainland. I hear from Mr. Tomes, who has specially studied this family, that many of the same species have enormous ranges, and are found on continents and on far distant islands. Hence we have only to suppose that such wandering species have been modified through natural selection in their new homes in relation to their new position, and we can understand the presence of endemic bats on islands, with the absence of all terrestrial mammals. 
> 
> Besides the absence of terrestrial mammals in relation to the remoteness of islands from continents, there is also a relation, to a certain extent independent of distance, between the depth of the sea separating an island from the neighbouring mainland, and the presence in both of the same mammiferous species or of allied species in a more or less modified condition. Mr. Windsor Earl has made some striking observations on this head in regard to the great Malay Archipelago, which is traversed near Celebes by a space of deep ocean; and this space separates two widely distinct mammalian faunas. On either side the islands are situated on moderately deep submarine banks, and they are inhabited by closely allied or identical quadrupeds. No doubt some few anomalies occur in this great archipelago, and there is much difficulty in forming a judgment in some cases owing to the probable naturalisation of certain mammals through man's agency; but we shall soon have much light thrown on the natural history of this archipelago by the admirable zeal and researches of Mr Wallace. I have not as yet had time to follow up this subject in all other quarters of the world; but as far as I have gone, the relation generally holds good. We see Britain separated by a shallow channel from Europe, and the mammals are the same on both sides; we meet with analogous facts on many islands separated by similar channels from Australia. The West Indian Islands stand on a deeply submerged bank, nearly 1000 fathoms in depth, and here we find American forms, but the species and even the genera are distinct. As the amount of modification in all cases depends to a certain degree on the lapse of time, and as during changes of level it is obvious that islands separated by shallow channels are more likely to have been continuously united within a recent period to the mainland than islands separated by deeper channels, we can understand the frequent relation between the depth of the sea and the degree of affinity of the mammalian inhabitants of islands with those of a neighbouring continent, an explicable relation on the view of independent acts of creation. 
> 
> All the foregoing remarks on the inhabitants of oceanic islands, namely, the scarcity of kinds -- the richness in endemic forms in particular classes or sections of classes, the absence of whole groups, as of batrachians, and of terrestrial mammals notwithstanding the presence of aërial bats, the singular proportions of certain orders of plants, herbaceous forms having been developed into trees, &c., seem to me to accord better with the view of occasional means of transport having been largely efficient in the long course of time, than with the view of all our oceanic islands having been formerly connected by continuous land with the nearest continent; for on this latter view the migration would probably have been more complete; and if modification be admitted, all the forms of life would have been more equally modified, in accordance with the paramount importance of the relation of organism to organism. 
> 
> I do not deny that there are many and grave difficulties in understanding how several of the inhabitants of the more remote islands, whether still retaining the same specific form or modified since their arrival, could have reached their present homes. But the probability of many islands having existed as halting-places, of which not a wreck now remains, must not be overlooked. I will here give a single instance of one of the cases of difficulty. Almost all oceanic islands, even the most isolated and smallest, are inhabited by land-shells, generally by endemic species, but sometimes by species found elsewhere. Dr. Aug. A. Gould has given several interesting cases in regard to the land-shells of the islands of the Pacific. Now it is notorious that land-shells are very easily killed by salt; their eggs, at least such as I have tried, sink in sea-water and are killed by it. Yet there must be, on my view, some unknown, but highly efficient means for their transportal. Would the just-hatched young occasionally crawl on and adhere to the feet of birds roosting on the ground, and thus get transported? It occurred to me that land-shells, when hybernating and having a membranous diaphragm over the mouth of the shell, might be floated in chinks of drifted timber across moderately wide arms of the sea. And I found that several species did in this state withstand uninjured an immersion in sea-water during seven days: one of these shells was the Helix pomatia, and after it had again hybernated I put it in sea-water for twenty days, and it perfectly recovered. As this species has a thick calcareous operculum, I removed it, and when it had formed a new membranous one, I immersed it for fourteen days in sea-water, and it recovered and crawled away: but more experiments are wanted on this head. 
> 
> The most striking and important fact for us in regard to the inhabitants of islands, is their affinity to those of the nearest mainland, without being actually the same species. Numerous instances could be given of this fact. I will give only one, that of the Galapagos Archipelago, situated under the equator, between 500 and 600 miles from the shores of South America. Here almost every product of the land and water bears the unmistakeable stamp of the American continent. There are twenty-six land birds, and twenty-five of those are ranked by Mr Gould as distinct species, supposed to have been created here; yet the close affinity of most of these birds to American species in every character, in their habits, gestures, and tones of voice, was manifest. So it is with the other animals, and with nearly all the plants, as shown by Dr. Hooker in his admirable memoir on the Flora of this archipelago. The naturalist, looking at the inhabitants of these volcanic islands in the Pacific, distant several hundred miles from the continent, yet feels that he is standing on American land. Why should this be so? why should the species which are supposed to have been created in the Galapagos Archipelago, and nowhere else, bear so plain a stamp of affinity to those created in America? There is nothing in the conditions of life, in the geological nature of the islands, in their height or climate, or in the proportions in which the several classes are associated together, which resembles closely the conditions of the South American coast: in fact there is a considerable dissimilarity in all these respects. On the other hand, there is a considerable degree of resemblance in the volcanic nature of the soil, in climate, height, and size of the islands, between the Galapagos and Cape de Verde Archipelagos: but what an entire and absolute difference in their inhabitants! The inhabitants of the Cape de Verde Islands are related to those of Africa, like those of the Galapagos to America. I believe this grand fact can receive no sort of explanation on the ordinary view of independent creation; whereas on the view here maintained, it is obvious that the Galapagos Islands would be likely to receive colonists, whether by occasional means of transport or by formerly continuous land, from America; and the Cape de Verde Islands from Africa; and that such colonists would be liable to modifications; the principle of inheritance still betraying their original birthplace. 
> 
> Many analogous facts could be given: indeed it is an almost universal rule that the endemic productions of islands are related to those of the nearest continent, or of other near islands. The exceptions are few, and most of them can be explained. Thus the plants of Kerguelen Land, though standing nearer to Africa than to America, are related, and that very closely, as we know from Dr. Hooker's account, to those of America: but on the view that this island has been mainly stocked by seeds brought with earth and stones on icebergs, drifted by the prevailing currents, this anomaly disappears. New Zealand in its endemic plants is much more closely related to Australia, the nearest mainland, than to any other region: and this is what might have been expected; but it is also plainly related to South America, which, although the next nearest continent, is so enormously remote, that the fact becomes an anomaly. But this difficulty almost disappears on the view that both New Zealand, South America, and other southern lands were long ago partially stocked from a nearly intermediate though distant point, namely from the antarctic islands, when they were clothed with vegetation, before the commencement of the Glacial period. The affinity, which, though feeble, I am assured by Dr. Hooker is real, between the flora of the south-western corner of Australia and of the Cape of Good Hope, is a far more remarkable case, and is at present inexplicable: but this affinity is confined to the plants, and will, I do not doubt, be some day explained. 
> 
> The law which causes the inhabitants of an archipelago, though specifically distinct, to be closely allied to those of the nearest continent, we sometimes see displayed on a small scale, yet in a most interesting manner, within the limits of the same archipelago. Thus the several islands of the Galapagos Archipelago are tenanted, as I have elsewhere shown, in a quite marvellous manner, by very closely related species; so that the inhabitants of each separate island, though mostly distinct, are related in an incomparably closer degree to each other than to the inhabitants of any other part of the world. And this is just what might have been expected on my view, for the islands are situated so near each other that they would almost certainly receive immigrants from the same original source, or from each other. But this dissimilarity between the endemic inhabitants of the islands may be used as an argument against my views; for it may be asked, how has it happened in the several islands situated within sight of each other, having the same geological nature, the same height, climate, &c., that many of the immigrants should have been differently modified, though only in a small degree. This long appeared to me a great difficulty: but it arises in chief part from the deeply-seated error of considering the physical conditions of a country as the most important for its inhabitants; whereas it cannot, I think, be disputed that the nature of the other inhabitants, with which each has to compete, is at least as important, and generally a far more important element of success. Now if we look to those inhabitants of the Galapagos Archipelago which are found in other parts of the world (having on one side for the moment the endemic species, which cannot be here fairly included, as we are considering how they have come to be modified since their arrival), we find a considerable amount of difference in the several islands. This difference might indeed have been expected on the view of the islands having been stocked by occasional means of transport a seed, for instance, of one plant having been brought to one island, and that of another plant to another island. Hence when in former times an immigrant settled on any one or more of the islands, or when it subsequently spread from one island to another, it would undoubtedly be exposed to different conditions of life in the different islands, for it would have to compete with different sets of organisms: a plant, for instance, would find the best-fitted ground more perfectly occupied by distinct plants in one island than in another, and it would be exposed to the attacks of somewhat different enemies. If then it varied, natural selection would probably favour different varieties in the different islands. Some species, however, might spread and yet retain the same character throughout the group, just as we see on continents some species' spreading widely and remaining the same. 
> 
> The really surprising fact in this case of the Galapagos Archipelago, and in a lesser degree in some analogous instances, is that the new species formed in the separate islands have not quickly spread to the other islands. But the islands, though in sight of each other, are separated by deep arms of the sea, in most cases wider than the British Channel, and there is no reason to suppose that they have at any former period been continuously united. The currents of the sea are rapid and sweep across the archipelago, and gales of wind are extraordinarily rare; so that the islands are far more effectually separated from each other than they appear to be on a map. Nevertheless a good many species, both those found in other parts of the world and those confined to the archipelago, are common to the several islands, and we may infer from certain facts that these have probably spread from some one island to the others. But we often take, I think, an erroneous view of the probability of closely allied species invading each other's territory, when put into free intercommunication. Undoubtedly if one species has any advantage whatever over another, it will in a very brief time wholly or in part supplant it; but if both are equally well fitted for their own places in nature, both probably will hold their own places and keep separate for almost any length of time. Being familiar with the fact that many species, naturalised through man's agency, have spread with astonishing rapidity over new countries, we are apt to infer that most species would thus spread; but we should remember that the forms which become naturalised in new countries are not generally closely allied to the aboriginal inhabitants, but are very distinct species, belonging in a large proportion of cases, as shown by Alph. de Candolle, to distinct genera. In the Galapagos Archipelago, many even of the birds, though so well adapted for flying from island to island, are distinct on each; thus there are three closely-allied species of mocking-thrush, each confined to its own island. Now let us suppose the mocking-thrush of Chatham Island to be blown to Charles Island, which has its own mocking-thrush: why should it succeed in establishing itself there? We may safely infer that Charles Island is well stocked with its own species, for annually more eggs are laid there than can possibly be reared; and we may infer that the mocking-thrush peculiar to Charles Island is at least as well fitted for its home as is the species peculiar to Chatham Island. Sir C. Lyell and Mr. Wollaston have communicated to me a remarkable fact bearing on this subject; namely, that Madeira and the adjoining islet of Porto Santo possess many distinct but representative land-shells, some of which live in crevices of stone; and although large quantities of stone are annually transported from Porto Santo to Madeira, yet this latter island has not become colonised by the Porto Santo species: nevertheless both islands have been colonised by some European land-shells, which no doubt had some advantage over the indigenous species. From these considerations I think we need not greatly marvel at the endemic and representative species, which inhabit the several islands of the Galapagos Archipelago, not having universally spread from island to island. In many other instances, as in the several districts of the same continent, pre-occupation has probably played an important part in checking the commingling of species under the same conditions of life. Thus, the south-east and south-west corners of Australia have nearly the same physical conditions, and are united by continuous land, yet they are inhabited by a vast number of distinct mammals, birds, and plants. 
> 
> The principle which determines the general character of the fauna and flora of oceanic islands, namely, that the inhabitants, when not identically the same, yet are plainly related to the inhabitants of that region whence colonists could most readily have been derived, the colonists having been subsequently modified and better fitted to their new homes, is of the widest application throughout nature. We see this on every mountain, in every lake and marsh. For Alpine species, excepting in so far as the same forms, chiefly of plants, have spread widely throughout the world during the recent Glacial epoch, are related to those of the surrounding lowlands; thus we have in South America, Alpine humming-birds, Alpine rodents, Alpine plants, &c., all of strictly American forms, and it is obvious that a mountain, as it became slowly upheaved, would naturally be colonised from the surrounding lowlands. So it is with the inhabitants of lakes and marshes, excepting in so far as great facility of transport has given the same general forms to the whole world. We see this same principle in the blind animals inhabiting the caves of America and of Europe. Other analogous facts could be given. And it will, I believe, be universally found to be true, that wherever in two regions, let them be ever so distant, many closely allied or representative species occur, there will likewise be found some identical species, showing, in accordance with the foregoing view, that at some former period there has been intercommunication or migration between the two regions. And wherever many closely-allied species occur, there will be found many forms which some naturalists rank as distinct species, and some as varieties; these doubtful forms showing us the steps in the process of modification. 
> 
> This relation between the power and extent of migration of a species, either at the present time or at some former period under different physical conditions, and the existence at remote points of the world of other species allied to it, is shown in another and more general way. Mr. Gould remarked to me long ago, that in those genera of birds which range over the world, many of the species have very wide ranges. I can hardly doubt that this rule is generally true, though it would be difficult to prove it. Amongst mammals, we see it strikingly displayed in Bats, and in a lesser degree in the Felidae and Canidae. We see it, if we compare the distribution of butterflies and beetles. So it is with most fresh-water productions, in which so many genera range over the world, and many individual species have enormous ranges. It is not meant that in world-ranging genera all the species have a wide range, or even that they have on an average a wide range; but only that some of the species range very widely; for the facility with which widely-ranging species vary and give rise to new forms will largely determine their average range. For instance, two varieties of the same species inhabit America and Europe, and the species thus has an immense range; but, if the variation had been a little greater, the two varieties would have been ranked as distinct species, and the common range would have been greatly reduced. Still less is it meant, that a species which apparently has the capacity of crossing barriers and ranging widely, as in the case of certain powerfully-winged birds, will necessarily range widely; for we should never forget that to range widely implies not only the power of crossing barriers, but the more important power of being victorious in distant lands in the struggle for life with foreign associates. But on the view of all the species of a genus having descended from a single parent, though now distributed to the most remote points of the world, we ought to find, and I believe as a general rule we do find, that some at least of the species range very widely; for it is necessary that the unmodified parent should range widely, undergoing modification during its diffusion, and should place itself under diverse conditions favourable for the conversion of its offspring, firstly into new varieties and ultimately into new species. 
> 
> In considering the wide distribution of certain genera, we should bear in mind that some are extremely ancient, and must have branched off from a common parent at a remote epoch; so that in such cases there will have been ample time for great climatal and geographical changes and for accidents of transport; and consequently for the migration of some of the species into all quarters of the world, where they may have become slightly modified in relation to their new conditions. There is, also, some reason to believe from geological evidence that organisms low in the scale within each great class, generally change at a slower rate than the higher forms; and consequently the lower forms will have had a better chance of ranging widely and of still retaining the same specific character. This fact, together with the seeds and eggs of many low forms being very minute and better fitted for distant transportation, probably accounts for a law which has long been observed, and which has lately been admirably discussed by Alph. de Candolle in regard to plants, namely, that the lower any group of organisms is, the more widely it is apt to range. 
> 
> The relations just discussed, namely, low and slowly-changing organisms ranging more widely than the high, some of the species of widely-ranging genera themselves ranging widely, such facts, as alpine, lacustrine, and marsh productions being related (with the exceptions before specified) to those on the surrounding low lands and dry lands, though these stations are so different the very close relation of the distinct species which inhabit the islets of the same archipelago, and especially the striking relation of the inhabitants of each whole archipelago or island to those of the nearest mainland, are, I think, utterly inexplicable on the ordinary view of the independent creation of each species, but are explicable on the view of colonisation from the nearest and readiest source, together with the subsequent modification and better adaptation of the colonists to their new homes.Summary of last and present Chapters
> 
> In these chapters I have endeavoured to show, that if we make due allowance for our ignorance of the full effects of all the changes of climate and of the level of the land, which have certainly occurred within the recent period, and of other similar changes which may have occurred within the same period; if we remember how profoundly ignorant we are with respect to the many and curious means of occasional transport, a subject which has hardly ever been properly experimentised on; if we bear in mind how often a species may have ranged continuously over a wide area, and then have become extinct in the intermediate tracts, I think the difficulties in believing that all the individuals of the same species, wherever located, have descended from the same parents, are not insuperable. And we are led to this conclusion, which has been arrived at by many naturalists under the designation of single centres of creation, by some general considerations, more especially from the importance of barriers and from the analogical distribution of sub-genera, genera, and families. 
> 
> With respect to the distinct species of the same genus, which on my theory must have spread from one parent-source; if we make the same allowances as before for our ignorance, and remember that some forms of life change most slowly, enormous periods of time being thus granted for their migration, I do not think that the difficulties are insuperable; though they often are in this case, and in that of the individuals of the same species, extremely grave. 
> 
> As exemplifying the effects of climatal changes on distribution, I have attempted to show how important has been the influence of the modern Glacial period, which I am fully convinced simultaneously affected the whole world, or at least great meridional belts. As showing how diversified are the means of occasional transport, I have discussed at some little length the means of dispersal of fresh-water productions. 
> 
> If the difficulties be not insuperable in admitting that in the long course of time the individuals of the same species, and likewise of allied species, have proceeded from some one source; then I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration (generally of the more dominant forms of life), together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms. We can thus understand the high importance of barriers, whether of land or water, which separate our several zoological and botanical provinces. We can thus understand the localisation of sub-genera, genera, and families; and how it is that under different latitudes, for instance in South America, the inhabitants of the plains and mountains, of the forests, marshes, and deserts, are in so mysterious a manner linked together by affinity, and are likewise linked to the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same continent. Bearing in mind that the mutual relations of organism to organism are of the highest importance, we can see why two areas having nearly the same physical conditions should often be inhabited by very different forms of life; for according to the length of time which has elapsed since new inhabitants entered one region; according to the nature of the communication which allowed certain forms and not others to enter, either in greater or lesser numbers; according or not, as those which entered happened to come in more or less direct competition with each other and with the aborigines; and according as the immigrants were capable of varying more or less rapidly, there would ensue in different regions, independently of their physical conditions, infinitely diversified conditions of life, there would be an almost endless amount of organic action and reaction, and we should find, as we do find, some groups of beings greatly, and some only slightly modified, some developed in great force, some existing in scanty numbers in the different great geographical provinces of the world. 
> 
> On these same principles, we can understand, as I have endeavoured to show, why oceanic islands should have few inhabitants, but of these a great number should be endemic or peculiar; and why, in relation to the means of migration, one group of beings, even within the same class, should have all its species endemic, and another group should have all its species common to other quarters of the world. We can see why whole groups of organisms, as batrachians and terrestrial mammals, should be absent from oceanic islands, whilst the most isolated islands possess their own peculiar species of aërial mammals or bats. We can see why there should be some relation between the presence of mammals, in a more or less modified condition, and the depth of the sea between an island and the mainland. We can clearly see why all the inhabitants of an archipelago, though specifically distinct on the several islets, should be closely related to each other, and likewise be related, but less closely, to those of the nearest continent or other source whence immigrants were probably derived. We can see why in two areas, however distant from each other, there should be a correlation, in the presence of identical species, of varieties, of doubtful species, and of distinct but representative species. 
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> As the late Edward Forbes often insisted, there is a striking parallelism in the laws of life throughout time and space: the laws governing the succession of forms in past times being nearly the same with those governing at the present time the differences in different areas. We see this in many facts. The endurance of each species and group of species is continuous in time; for the exceptions to the rule are so few, that they may fairly be attributed to our not having as yet discovered in an intermediate deposit the forms which are therein absent, but which occur above and below: so in space, it certainly is the general rule that the area inhabited by a single species, or by a group of species, is continuous; and the exceptions, which are not rare, may, as I have attempted to show, be accounted for by migration at some former period under different conditions or by occasional means of transport, and by the species having become extinct in the intermediate tracts. Both in time and space, species and groups of species have their points of maximum development. Groups of species, belonging either to a certain period of time, or to a certain area, are often characterised by trifling characters in common, as of sculpture or colour. In looking to the long succession of ages, as in now looking to distant provinces throughout the world, we find that some organisms differ little, whilst others belonging to a different class, or to a different order, or even only to a different family of the same order, differ greatly. In both time and space the lower members of each class generally change less than the higher; but there are in both cases marked exceptions to the rule. On my theory these several relations throughout time and space are intelligible; for whether we look to the forms of life which have changed during successive ages within the same quarter of the world, or to those which have changed after having migrated into distant quarters, in both cases the forms within each class have been connected by the same bond of ordinary generation; and the more nearly any two forms are related in blood, the nearer they will generally stand to each other in time and space; in both cases the laws of variation have been the same, and modifications have been accumulated by the same power of natural selection.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_13|985503633
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> From the first dawn of life, all organic beings are found to resemble each other in descending degrees, so that they can be classed in groups under groups. This classification is evidently not arbitrary like the grouping of the stars in constellations. The existence of groups would have been of simple signification, if one group had been exclusively fitted to inhabit the land, and another the water; one to feed on flesh, another on vegetable matter, and so on; but the case is widely different in nature; for it is notorious how commonly members of even the same subgroup have different habits. In our second and fourth chapters, on Variation and on Natural Selection, I have attempted to show that it is the widely ranging, the much diffused and common, that is the dominant species belonging to the larger genera, which vary most. The varieties, or incipient species, thus produced ultimately become converted, as I believe, into new and distinct species; and these, on the principle of inheritance, tend to produce other new and dominant species. Consequently the groups which are now large, and which generally include many dominant species, tend to go on increasing indefinitely in size. I further attempted to show that from the varying descendants of each species trying to occupy as many and as different places as possible in the economy of nature, there is a constant tendency in their characters to diverge. This conclusion was supported by looking at the great diversity of the forms of life which, in any small area, come into the closest competition, and by looking to certain facts in naturalisation. 
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> I attempted also to show that there is a constant tendency in the forms which are increasing in number and diverging in character, to supplant and exterminate the less divergent, the less improved, and preceding forms. I request the reader to turn to the diagram illustrating the action, as formerly explained, of these several principles; and he will see that the inevitable result is that the modified descendants proceeding from one progenitor become broken up into groups subordinate to groups. In the diagram each letter on the uppermost line may represent a genus including several species; and all the genera on this line form together one class, for all have descended from one ancient but unseen parent, and, consequently, have inherited something in common. But the three genera on the left hand have, on this same principle, much in common, and form a sub-family, distinct from that including the next two genera on the right hand, which diverged from a common parent at the fifth stage of descent. These five genera have also much, though less, in common; and they form a family distinct from that including the three genera still further to the right hand, which diverged at a still earlier period. And all these genera, descended from (A), form an order distinct from the genera descended from (I). So that we here have many species descended from a single progenitor grouped into genera; and the genera are included in, or subordinate to, sub-families, families, and orders, all united into one class. Thus, the grand fact in natural history of the subordination of group under group, which, from its familiarity, does not always sufficiently strike us, is in my judgement fully explained. 
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> Naturalists try to arrange the species, genera, and families in each class, on what is called the Natural System. But what is meant by this system? Some authors look at it merely as a scheme for arranging together those living objects which are most alike, and for separating those which are most unlike; or as an artificial means for enunciating, as briefly as possible, general propositions, that is, by one sentence to give the characters common, for instance, to all mammals, by another those common to all carnivora, by another those common to the dog-genus, and then by adding a single sentence, a full description is given of each kind of dog. The ingenuity and utility of this system are indisputable. But many naturalists think that something more is meant by the Natural System; they believe that it reveals the plan of the Creator; but unless it be specified whether order in time or space, or what else is meant by the plan of the Creator, it seems to me that nothing is thus added to our knowledge. Such expressions as that famous one of Linnaeus, and which we often meet with in a more or less concealed form, that the characters do not make the genus, but that the genus gives the characters, seem to imply that something more is included in our classification, than mere resemblance. I believe that something more is included; and that propinquity of descent, the only known cause of the similarity of organic beings, is the bond, hidden as it is by various degrees of modification, which is partially revealed to us by our classifications. 
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> Let us now consider the rules followed in classification, and the difficulties which are encountered on the view that classification either gives some unknown plan of creation, or is simply a scheme for enunciating general propositions and of placing together the forms most like each other. It might have been thought (and was in ancient times thought) that those parts of the structure which determined the habits of life, and the general place of each being in the economy of nature, would be of very high importance in classification. Nothing can be more false. No one regards the external similarity of a mouse to a shrew, of a dugong to a whale, of a whale to a fish, as of any importance. These resemblances, though so intimately connected with the whole life of the being, are ranked as merely `adaptive or analogical characters;' but to the consideration of these resemblances we shall have to recur. It may even be given as a general rule, that the less any part of the organisation is concerned with special habits, the more important it becomes for classification. As an instance: Owen, in speaking of the dugong, says, `The generative organs being those which are most remotely related to the habits and food of an animal, I have always regarded as affording very clear indications of its true affinities. We are least likely in the modifications of these organs to mistake a merely adaptive for an essential character.' So with plants, how remarkable it is that the organs of vegetation, on which their whole life depends, are of little signification, excepting in the first main divisions; whereas the organs of reproduction, with their product the seed, are of paramount importance! 
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> We must not, therefore, in classifying, trust to resemblances in parts of the organisation, however important they may be for the welfare of the being in relation to the outer world. Perhaps from this cause it has partly arisen, that almost all naturalists lay the greatest stress on resemblances in organs of high vital or physiological importance. No doubt this view of the classificatory importance of organs which are important is generally, but by no means always, true. But their importance for classification, I believe, depends on their greater constancy throughout large groups of species; and this constancy depends on such organs having generally been subjected to less change in the adaptation of the species to their conditions of life. That the mere physiological importance of an organ does not determine the classificatory value, is almost shown by the one fact, that in allied groups, in which the same organ, as we have every reason to suppose, has nearly the same physiological value, its classificatory value is widely different. No naturalist can have worked at any group without being struck with this fact; and it has been most fully acknowledged in the writings of almost every author. It will suffice to quote the highest authority, Robert Brown, who in speaking of certain organs in the Proteaceae, says their generic importance, `like that of all their parts, not only in this but, as I apprehend, in every natural family, is very unequal, and in some cases seems to be entirely lost.' Again in another work he says, the genera of the Connaraceae `differ in having one or more ovaria, in the existence or absence of albumen, in the imbricate or valvular aestivation. Any one of these characters singly is frequently of more than generic importance, though here even when all taken together they appear insufficient to separate Cnestis from Connarus.' To give an example amongst insects, in one great division of the Hymenoptera, the antennae, as Westwood has remarked, are most constant in structure; in another division they differ much, and the differences are of quite subordinate value in classification; yet no one probably will say that the antennae in these two divisions of the same order are of unequal physiological importance. Any number of instances could be given of the varying importance for classification of the same important organ within the same group of beings. 
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> Again, no one will say that rudimentary or atrophied organs are of high physiological or vital importance; yet, undoubtedly, organs in this condition are often of high value in classification. No one will dispute that the rudimentary teeth in the upper jaws of young ruminants, and certain rudimentary bones of the leg, are highly serviceable in exhibiting the close affinity between Ruminants and Pachyderms. Robert Brown has strongly insisted on the fact that the rudimentary florets are of the highest importance in the classification of the Grasses. 
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> Numerous instances could be given of characters derived from parts which must be considered of very trifling physiological importance, but which are universally admitted as highly serviceable in the definition of whole groups. For instance, whether or not there is an open passage from the nostrils to the mouth, the only character, according to Owen, which absolutely distinguishes fishes and reptiles the inflection of the angle of the jaws in Marsupials -- the manner in which the wings of insects are folded mere colour in certain Algae mere pubescence on parts of the flower in grasses the nature of the dermal covering, as hair or feathers, in the Vertebrata. If the Ornithorhynchus had been covered with feathers instead of hair, this external and trifling character would, I think, have been considered by naturalists as important an aid in determining the degree of affinity of this strange creature to birds and reptiles, as an approach in structure in any one internal and important organ. 
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> The importance, for classification, of trifling characters, mainly depends on their being correlated with several other characters of more or less importance. The value indeed of an aggregate of characters is very evident in natural history. Hence, as has often been remarked, a species may depart from its allies in several characters, both of high physiological importance and of almost universal prevalence, and yet leave us in no doubt where it should be ranked. Hence, also, it has been found, that a classification founded on any single character, however important that may be, has always failed; for no part of the organisation is universally constant. The importance of an aggregate of characters, even when none are important, alone explains, I think, that saying of Linnaeus, that the characters do not give the genus, but the genus gives the characters; for this saying seems founded on an appreciation of many trifling points of resemblance, too slight to be defined. Certain plants, belonging to the Malpighiaceae, bear perfect and degraded flowers; in the latter, as A. de Jussieu has remarked, `the greater number of the characters proper to the species, to the genus, to the family, to the class, disappear, and thus laugh at our classification.' But when Aspicarpa produced in France, during several years, only degraded flowers, departing so wonderfully in a number of the most important points of structure from the proper type of the order, yet M. Richard sagaciously saw, as Jussieu observes, that this genus should still be retained amongst the Malpighiaceae. This case seems to me well to illustrate the spirit with which our classifications are sometimes necessarily founded. 
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> Practically when naturalists are at work, they do not trouble themselves about the physiological value of the characters which they use in defining a group, or in allocating any particular species. If they find a character nearly uniform, and common to a great number of forms, and not common to others, they use it as one of high value; if common to some lesser number, they use it as of subordinate value. This principle has been broadly confessed by some naturalists to be the true one; and by none more clearly than by that excellent botanist, Aug. St. Hilaire. If certain characters are always found correlated with others, though no apparent bond of connexion can be discovered between them, especial value is set on them. As in most groups of animals, important organs, such as those for propelling the blood, or for aërating it, or those for propagating the race, are found nearly uniform, they are considered as highly serviceable in classification; but in some groups of animals all these, the most important vital organs, are found to offer characters of quite subordinate value. 
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> We can see why characters derived from the embryo should be of equal importance with those derived from the adult, for our classifications of course include all ages of each species. But it is by no means obvious, on the ordinary view, why the structure of the embryo should be more important for this purpose than that of the adult, which alone plays its full part in the economy of nature. Yet it has been strongly urged by those great naturalists, Milne Edwards and Agassiz, that embryonic characters are the most important of any in the classification of animals; and this doctrine has very generally been admitted as true. The same fact holds good with flowering plants, of which the two main divisions have been founded on characters derived from the embryo, on the number and position of the embryonic leaves or cotyledons, and on the mode of development of the plumule and radicle. In our discussion on embryology, we shall see why such characters are so valuable, on the view of classification tacitly including the idea of descent. 
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> Our classifications are often plainly influenced by chains of affinities. Nothing can be easier than to define a number of characters common to all birds; but in the case of crustaceans, such definition has hitherto been found impossible. There are crustaceans at the opposite ends of the series, which have hardly a character in common; yet the species at both ends, from being plainly allied to others, and these to others, and so onwards, can be recognised as unequivocally belonging to this, and to no other class of the Articulata. 
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> Geographical distribution has often been used, though perhaps not quite logically, in classification, more especially in very large groups of closely allied forms. Temminck insists on the utility or even necessity of this practice in certain groups of birds; and it has been followed by several entomologists and botanists. 
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> Finally, with respect to the comparative value of the various groups of species, such as orders, sub-orders, families, sub-families, and genera, they seem to be, at least at present, almost arbitrary. Several of the best botanists, such as Mr Bentham and others, have strongly insisted on their arbitrary value. Instances could be given amongst plants and insects, of a group of forms, first ranked by practised naturalists as only a genus, and then raised to the rank of a sub-family or family; and this has been done, not because further research has detected important structural differences, at first overlooked, but because numerous allied species, with slightly different grades of difference, have been subsequently discovered. 
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> All the foregoing rules and aids and difficulties in classification are explained, if I do not greatly deceive myself, on the view that the natural system is founded on descent with modification; that the characters which naturalists consider as showing true affinity between any two or more species, are those which have been inherited from a common parent, and, in so far, all true classification is genealogical; that community of descent is the hidden bond which naturalists have been unconsciously seeking, and not some unknown plan of creation, or the enunciation of general propositions, and the mere putting together and separating objects more or less alike. 
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> But I must explain my meaning more fully. I believe that the arrangement of the groups within each class, in due subordination and relation to the other groups, must be strictly genealogical in order to be natural; but that the amount of difference in the several branches or groups, though allied in the same degree in blood to their common progenitor, may differ greatly, being due to the different degrees of modification which they have undergone; and this is expressed by the forms being ranked under different genera, families, sections, or orders. The reader will best understand what is meant, if he will take the trouble of referring to the diagram in the fourth chapter. We will suppose the letters A to L to represent allied genera, which lived during the Silurian epoch, and these have descended from a species which existed at an unknown anterior period. Species of three of these genera (A, F, and I) have transmitted modified descendants to the present day, represented by the fifteen genera (a14 to z14) on the uppermost horizontal line. Now all these modified descendants from a single species, are represented as related in blood or descent to the same degree; they may metaphorically be called cousins to the same millionth degree; yet they differ widely and in different degrees from each other. The forms descended from A, now broken up into two or three families, constitute a distinct order from those descended from I, also broken up into two families. Nor can the existing species, descended from A, be ranked in the same genus with the parent A; or those from I, with the parent I. But the existing genus F14 may be supposed to have been but slightly modified; and it will then rank with the parent-genus F; just as some few still living organic beings belong to Silurian genera. So that the amount or value of the differences between organic beings all related to each other in the same degree in blood, has come to be widely different. Nevertheless their genealogical arrangement remains strictly true, not only at the present time, but at each successive period of descent. All the modified descendants from A will have inherited something in common from their common parent, as will all the descendants from I; so will it be with each subordinate branch of descendants, at each successive period. If, however, we choose to suppose that any of the descendants of A or of I have been so much modified as to have more or less completely lost traces of their parentage, in this case, their places in a natural classification will have been more or less completely lost, as sometimes seems to have occurred with existing organisms. All the descendants of the genus F, along its whole line of descent, are supposed to have been but little modified, and they yet form a single genus. But this genus, though much isolated, will still occupy its proper intermediate position; for F originally was intermediate in character between A and I, and the several genera descended from these two genera will have inherited to a certain extent their characters. This natural arrangement is shown, as far as is possible on paper, in the diagram, but in much too simple a manner. If a branching diagram had not been used, and only the names of the groups had been written in a linear series, it would have been still less possible to have given a natural arrangement; and it is notoriously not possible to represent in a series, on a flat surface, the affinities which we discover in nature amongst the beings of the same group. Thus, on the view which I hold, the natural system is genealogical in its arrangement, like a pedigree; but the degrees of modification which the different groups have undergone, have to be expressed by ranking them under different so-called genera, sub-families, families, sections, orders, and classes. 
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> It may be worth while to illustrate this view of classification, by taking the case of languages. If we possessed a perfect pedigree of mankind, a genealogical arrangement of the races of man would afford the best classification of the various languages now spoken throughout the world; and if all extinct languages, and all intermediate and slowly changing dialects, had to be included, such an arrangement would, I think, be the only possible one. Yet it might be that some very ancient language had altered little, and had given rise to few new languages, whilst others (owing to the spreading and subsequent isolation and states of civilisation of the several races, descended from a common race) had altered much, and had given rise to many new languages and dialects. The various degrees of difference in the languages from the same stock, would have to be expressed by groups subordinate to groups; but the proper or even only possible arrangement would still be genealogical; and this would be strictly natural, as it would connect together all languages, extinct and modern, by the closest affinities, and would give the filiation and origin of each tongue. 
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> In confirmation of this view, let us glance at the classification of varieties, which are believed or known to have descended from one species. These are grouped under species, with sub-varieties under varieties; and with our domestic productions, several other grades of difference are requisite, as we have seen with pigeons. The origin of the existence of groups subordinate to groups, is the same with varieties as with species, namely, closeness of descent with various degrees of modification. Nearly the same rules are followed in classifying varieties, as with species. Authors have insisted on the necessity of classing varieties on a natural instead of an artificial system; we are cautioned, for instance, not to class two varieties of the pine-apple together, merely because their fruit, though the most important part, happens to be nearly identical; no one puts the swedish and common turnips together, though the esculent and thickened stems are so similar. Whatever part is found to be most constant, is used in classing varieties: thus the great agriculturist Marshall says the horns are very useful for this purpose with cattle, because they are less variable than the shape or colour of the body, &c.; whereas with sheep the horns are much less serviceable, because less constant. In classing varieties, I apprehend if we had a real pedigree, a genealogical classification would be universally preferred; and it has been attempted by some authors. For we might feel sure, whether there had been more or less modification, the principle of inheritance would keep the forms together which were allied in the greatest number of points. In tumbler pigeons, though some sub-varieties differ from the others in the important character of having a longer beak, yet all are kept together from having the common habit of tumbling; but the short-faced breed has nearly or quite lost this habit; nevertheless, without any reasoning or thinking on the subject, these tumblers are kept in the same group, because allied in blood and alike in some other respects. If it could be proved that the Hottentot had descended from the Negro, I think he would be classed under the Negro group, however much he might differ in colour and other important characters from negroes. 
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> With species in a state of nature, every naturalist has in fact brought descent into his classification; for he includes in his lowest grade, or that of a species, the two sexes; and how enormously these sometimes differ in the most important characters, is known to every naturalist: scarcely a single fact can be predicated in common of the males and hermaphrodites of certain cirripedes, when adult, and yet no one dreams of separating them. The naturalist includes as one species the several larval stages of the same individual, however much they may differ from each other and from the adult; as he likewise includes the so-called alternate generations of Steenstrup, which can only in a technical sense be considered as the same individual. He includes monsters; he includes varieties, not solely because they closely resemble the parent-form, but because they are descended from it. He who believes that the cowslip is descended from the primrose, or conversely, ranks them together as a single species, and gives a single definition. As soon as three Orchidean forms (Monochanthus, Myanthus, and Catasetum), which had previously been ranked as three distinct genera, were known to be sometimes produced on the same spike, they were immediately included as a single species. But it may be asked, what ought we to do, if it could be proved that one species of kangaroo had been produced, by a long course of modification, from a bear? Ought we to rank this one species with bears, and what should we do with the other species? The supposition is of course preposterous; and I might answer by the argumentum ad hominem, and ask what should be done if a perfect kangaroo were seen to come out of the womb of a bear? According to all analogy, it would be ranked with bears; but then assuredly all the other species of the kangaroo family would have to be classed under the bear genus. The whole case is preposterous; for where there has been close descent in common, there will certainly be close resemblance or affinity. 
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> As descent has universally been used in classing together the individuals of the same species, though the males and females and larvae are sometimes extremely different; and as it has been used in classing varieties which have undergone a certain, and sometimes a considerable amount of modification, may not this same element of descent have been unconsciously used in grouping species under genera, and genera under higher groups, though in these cases the modification has been greater in degree, and has taken a longer time to complete? I believe it has thus been unconsciously used; and only thus can I understand the several rules and guides which have been followed by our best systematists. We have no written pedigrees; we have to make out community of descent by resemblances of any kind. Therefore we choose those characters which, as far as we can judge, are the least likely to have been modified in relation to the conditions of life to which each species has been recently exposed. Rudimentary structures on this view are as good as, or even sometimes better than, other parts of the organisation. We care not how trifling a character may be let it be the mere inflection of the angle of the jaw, the manner in which an insect's wing is folded, whether the skin be covered by hair or feathers if it prevail throughout many and different species, especially those having very different habits of life, it assumes high value; for we can account for its presence in so many forms with such different habits, only by its inheritance from a common parent. We may err in this respect in regard to single points of structure, but when several characters, let them be ever so trifling, occur together throughout a large group of beings having different habits, we may feel almost sure, on the theory of descent, that these characters have been inherited from a common ancestor. And we know that such correlated or aggregated characters have especial value in classification. 
> 
> We can understand why a species or a group of species may depart, in several of its most important characteristics, from its allies, and yet be safely classed with them. This may be safely done, and is often done, as long as a sufficient number of characters, let them be ever so unimportant, betrays the hidden bond of community of descent. Let two forms have not a single character in common, yet if these extreme forms are connected together by a chain of intermediate groups, we may at once infer their community of descent, and we put them all into the same class. As we find organs of high physiological importance those which serve to preserve life under the most diverse conditions of existence are generally the most constant, we attach especial value to them; but if these same organs, in another group or section of a group, are found to differ much, we at once value them less in our classification. We shall hereafter, I think, clearly see why embryological characters are of such high classificatory importance. Geographical distribution may sometimes be brought usefully into play in classing large and widely-distributed genera, because all the species of the same genus, inhabiting any distinct and isolated region, have in all probability descended from the same parents. 
> 
> We can understand, on these views, the very important distinction between real affinities and analogical or adaptive resemblances. Lamarck first called attention to this distinction, and he has been ably followed by Macleay and others. The resemblance, in the shape of the body and in the fin-like anterior limbs, between the dugong, which is a pachydermatous animal, and the whale, and between both these mammals and fishes, is analogical. Amongst insects there are innumerable instances: thus Linnaeus, misled by external appearances, actually classed an homopterous insect as a moth. We see something of the same kind even in our domestic varieties, as in the thickened stems of the common and swedish turnip. The resemblance of the greyhound and racehorse is hardly more fanciful than the analogies which have been drawn by some authors between very distinct animals. On my view of characters being of real importance for classification, only in so far as they reveal descent, we can clearly understand why analogical or adaptive character, although of the utmost importance to the welfare of the being, are almost valueless to the systematist. For animals, belonging to two most distinct lines of descent, may readily become adapted to similar conditions, and thus assume a close external resemblance; but such resemblances will not reveal will rather tend to conceal their blood-relationship to their proper lines of descent. We can also understand the apparent paradox, that the very same characters are analogical when one class or order is compared with another, but give true affinities when the members of the same class or order are compared one with another: thus the shape of the body and fin-like limbs are only analogical when whales are compared with fishes, being adaptations in both classes for swimming through the water; but the shape of the body and fin-like limbs serve as characters exhibiting true affinity between the several members of the whale family; for these cetaceans agree in so many characters, great and small, that we cannot doubt that they have inherited their general shape of body and structure of limbs from a common ancestor. So it is with fishes. 
> 
> As members of distinct classes have often been adapted by successive slight modifications to live under nearly similar circumstances, to inhabit for instance the three elements of land, air, and water, we can perhaps understand how it is that a numerical parallelism has sometimes been observed between the sub-groups in distinct classes. A naturalist, struck by a parallelism of this nature in any one class, by arbitrarily raising or sinking the value of the groups in other classes (and all our experience shows that this valuation has hitherto been arbitrary), could easily extend the parallelism over a wide range; and thus the septenary, quinary, quaternary, and ternary classifications have probably arisen. 
> 
> As the modified descendants of dominant species, belonging to the larger genera, tend to inherit the advantages, which made the groups to which they belong large and their parents dominant, they are almost sure to spread widely, and to seize on more and more places in the economy of nature. The larger and more dominant groups thus tend to go on increasing in size; and they consequently supplant many smaller and feebler groups. Thus we can account for the fact that all organisms, recent and extinct, are included under a few great orders, under still fewer classes, and all in one great natural system. As showing how few the higher groups are in number, and how widely spread they are throughout the world, the fact is striking, that the discovery of Australia has not added a single insect belonging to a new order; and that in the vegetable kingdom, as I learn from Dr. Hooker, it has added only two or three orders of small size. 
> 
> In the chapter on geological succession I attempted to show, on the principle of each group having generally diverged much in character during the long-continued process of modification, how it is that the more ancient forms of life often present characters in some slight degree intermediate between existing groups. A few old and intermediate parent-forms having occasionally transmitted to the present day descendants but little modified, will give to us our so-called osculant or aberrant groups. The more aberrant any form is, the greater must be the number of connecting forms which on my theory have been exterminated and utterly lost. And we have some evidence of aberrant forms having suffered severely from extinction, for they are generally represented by extremely few species; and such species as do occur are generally very distinct from each other, which again implies extinction. The genera Ornithorhynchus and Lepidosiren, for example, would not have been less aberrant had each been represented by a dozen species instead of by a single one; but such richness in species, as I find after some investigation, does not commonly fall to the lot of aberrant genera. We can, I think, account for this fact only by looking at aberrant forms as failing groups conquered by more successful competitors, with a few members preserved by some unusual coincidence of favourable circumstances. 
> 
> Mr. Waterhouse has remarked that, when a member belonging to one group of animals exhibits an affinity to a quite distinct group, this affinity in most cases is general and not special: thus, according to Mr. Waterhouse, of all Rodents, the bizcacha is most nearly related to Marsupials; but in the points in which it approaches this order, its relations are general, and not to any one marsupial species more than to another. As the points of affinity of the bizcacha to Marsupials are believed to be real and not merely adaptive, they are due on my theory to inheritance in common. Therefore we must suppose either that all Rodents, including the bizcacha, branched off from some very ancient Marsupial, which will have had a character in some degree intermediate with respect to all existing Marsupials; or that both Rodents and Marsupials branched off from a common progenitor, and that both groups have since undergone much modification in divergent directions. On either view we may suppose that the bizcacha has retained, by inheritance, more of the character of its ancient progenitor than have other Rodents; and therefore it will not be specially related to any one existing Marsupial, but indirectly to all or nearly all Marsupials, from having partially retained the character of their common progenitor, or of an early member of the group. On the other hand, of all Marsupials, as Mr. Waterhouse has remarked, the phascolomys resembles most nearly, not any one species, but the general order of Rodents. In this case, however, it may be strongly suspected that the resemblance is only analogical, owing to the phascolomys having become adapted to habits like those of a Rodent. The elder De Candolle has made nearly similar observations on the general nature of the affinities of distinct orders of plants. 
> 
> On the principle of the multiplication and gradual divergence in character of the species descended from a common parent, together with their retention by inheritance of some characters in common, we can understand the excessively complex and radiating affinities by which all the members of the same family or higher group are connected together. For the common parent of a whole family of species, now broken up by extinction into distinct groups and sub-groups, will have transmitted some of its characters, modified in various ways and degrees, to all; and the several species will consequently be related to each other by circuitous lines of affinity of various lengths (as may be seen in the diagram so often referred to), mounting up through many predecessors. As it is difficult to show the blood-relationship between the numerous kindred of any ancient and noble family, even by the aid of a genealogical tree, and almost impossible to do this without this aid, we can understand the extraordinary difficulty which naturalists have experienced in describing, without the aid of a diagram, the various affinities which they perceive between the many living and extinct members of the same great natural class. 
> 
> Extinction, as we have seen in the fourth chapter, has played an important part in defining and widening the intervals between the several groups in each class. We may thus account even for the distinctness of whole classes from each other for instance, of birds from all other vertebrate animals by the belief that many ancient forms of life have been utterly lost, through which the early progenitors of birds were formerly connected with the early progenitors of the other vertebrate classes. There has been less entire extinction of the forms of life which once connected fishes with batrachians. There has been still less in some other classes, as in that of the Crustacea, for here the most wonderfully diverse forms are still tied together by a long, but broken, chain of affinities. Extinction has only separated groups: it has by no means made them; for if every form which has ever lived on this earth were suddenly to reappear, though it would be quite impossible to give definitions by which each group could be distinguished from other groups, as all would blend together by steps as fine as those between the finest existing varieties, nevertheless a natural classification, or at least a natural arrangement, would be possible. We shall see this by turning to the diagram: the letters, A to L, may represent eleven Silurian genera, some of which have produced large groups of modified descendants. Every intermediate link between these eleven genera and their primordial parent, and every intermediate link in each branch and sub-branch of their descendants, may be supposed to be still alive; and the links to be as fine as those between the finest varieties. In this case it would be quite impossible to give any definition by which the several members of the several groups could be distinguished from their more immediate parents; or these parents from their ancient and unknown progenitor. Yet the natural arrangement in the diagram would still hold good; and, on the principle of inheritance, all the forms descended from A, or from I, would have something in common. In a tree we can specify this or that branch, though at the actual fork the two unite and blend together. We could not, as I have said, define the several groups; but we could pick out types, or forms, representing most of the characters of each group, whether large or small, and thus give a general idea of the value of the differences between them. This is what we should be driven to, if we were ever to succeed in collecting all the forms in any class which have lived throughout all time and space. We shall certainly never succeed in making so perfect a collection: nevertheless, in certain classes, we are tending in this direction; and Milne Edwards has lately insisted, in an able paper, on the high importance of looking to types, whether or not we can separate and define the groups to which such types belong. 
> 
> Finally, we have seen that natural selection, which results from the struggle for existence, and which almost inevitably induces extinction and divergence of character in the many descendants from one dominant parent-species, explains that great and universal feature in the affinities of all organic beings, namely, their subordination in group under group. We use the element of descent in classing the individuals of both sexes and of all ages, although having few characters in common, under one species; we use descent in classing acknowledged varieties, however different they may be from their parent; and I believe this element of descent is the hidden bond of connexion which naturalists have sought under the term of the Natural System. On this idea of the natural system being, in so far as it has been perfected, genealogical in its arrangement, with the grades of difference between the descendants from a common parent, expressed by the terms genera, families, orders, &c., we can understand the rules which we are compelled to follow in our classification. We can understand why we value certain resemblances far more than others; why we are permitted to use rudimentary and useless organs, or others of trifling physiological importance; why, in comparing one group with a distinct group, we summarily reject analogical or adaptive characters, and yet use these same characters within the limits of the same group. We can clearly see how it is that all living and extinct forms can be grouped together in one great system; and how the several members of each class are connected together by the most complex and radiating lines of affinities. We shall never, probably, disentangle the inextricable web of affinities between the members of any one class; but when we have a distinct object in view, and do not look to some unknown plan of creation, we may hope to make sure but slow progress. 
> 
> Morphology
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> We have seen that the members of the same class, independently of their habits of life, resemble each other in the general plan of their organisation. This resemblance is often expressed by the term `unity of type;' or by saying that the several parts and organs in the different species of the class are homologous. The whole subject is included under the general name of Morphology. This is the most interesting department of natural history, and may be said to be its very soul. What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions? Geoffroy St Hilaire has insisted strongly on the high importance of relative connexion in homologous organs: the parts may change to almost any extent in form and size, and yet they always remain connected together in the same order. We never find, for instance, the bones of the arm and forearm, or of the thigh and leg, transposed. Hence the same names can be given to the homologous bones in widely different animals. We see the same great law in the construction of the mouths of insects: what can be more different than the immensely long spiral proboscis of a sphinx-moth, the curious folded one of a bee or bug, and the great jaws of a beetle? yet all these organs, serving for such different purposes, are formed by infinitely numerous modifications of an upper lip, mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae. Analogous laws govern the construction of the mouths and limbs of crustaceans. So it is with the flowers of plants. 
> 
> Nothing can be more hopeless than to attempt to explain this similarity of pattern in members of the same class, by utility or by the doctrine of final causes. The hopelessness of the attempt has been expressly admitted by Owen in his most interesting work on the `Nature of Limbs.' On the ordinary view of the independent creation of each being, we can only say that so it is; that it has so pleased the Creator to construct each animal and plant. 
> 
> The explanation is manifest on the theory of the natural selection of successive slight modifications, each modification being profitable in some way to the modified form, but often affecting by correlation of growth other parts of the organisation. In changes of this nature, there will be little or no tendency to modify the original pattern, or to transpose parts. The bones of a limb might be shortened and widened to any extent, and become gradually enveloped in thick membrane, so as to serve as a fin; or a webbed foot might have all its bones, or certain bones, lengthened to any extent, and the membrane connecting them increased to any extent, so as to serve as a wing: yet in all this great amount of modification there will be no tendency to alter the framework of bones or the relative connexion of the several parts. If we suppose that the ancient progenitor, the archetype as it may be called, of all mammals, had its limbs constructed on the existing general pattern, for whatever purpose they served, we can at once perceive the plain signification of the homologous construction of the limbs throughout the whole class. So with the mouths of insects, we have only to suppose that their common progenitor had an upper lip, mandibles, and two pair of maxillae, these parts being perhaps very simple in form; and then natural selection will account for the infinite diversity in structure and function of the mouths of insects. Nevertheless, it is conceivable that the general pattern of an organ might become so much obscured as to be finally lost, by the atrophy and ultimately by the complete abortion of certain parts, by the soldering together of other parts, and by the doubling or multiplication of others, variations which we know to be within the limits of possibility. In the paddles of the extinct gigantic sea-lizards, and in the mouths of certain suctorial crustaceans, the general pattern seems to have been thus to a certain extent obscured. 
> 
> There is another and equally curious branch of the present subject; namely, the comparison not of the same part in different members of a class, but of the different parts or organs in the same individual. Most physiologists believe that the bones of the skull are homologous with that is correspond in number and in relative connexion with the elemental parts of a certain number of vertebrae. The anterior and posterior limbs in each member of the vertebrate and articulate classes are plainly homologous. We see the same law in comparing the wonderfully complex jaws and legs in crustaceans. It is familiar to almost every one, that in a flower the relative position of the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils, as well as their intimate structure, are intelligible in the view that they consist of metamorphosed leaves, arranged in a spire. In monstrous plants, we often get direct evidence of the possibility of one organ being transformed into another; and we can actually see in embryonic crustaceans and in many other animals, and in flowers, that organs which when mature become extremely different, are at an early stage of growth exactly alike. 
> 
> How inexplicable are these facts on the ordinary view of creation! Why should the brain be enclosed in a box composed of such numerous and such extraordinarily shaped pieces of bone? As Owen has remarked, the benefit derived from the yielding of the separate pieces in the act of parturition of mammals, will by no means explain the same construction in the skulls of birds. Why should similar bones have been created in the formation of the wing and leg of a bat, used as they are for such totally different purposes? Why should one crustacean, which has an extremely complex mouth formed of many parts, consequently always have fewer legs; or conversely, those with many legs have simpler mouths? Why should the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils in any individual flower, though fitted for such widely different purposes, be all constructed on the same pattern ? 
> 
> On the theory of natural selection, we can satisfactorily answer these questions. In the vertebrata, we see a series of internal vertebrae bearing certain processes and appendages; in the articulata, we see the body divided into a series of segments, bearing external appendages; and in flowering plants, we see a series of successive spiral whorls of leaves. An indefinite repetition of the same part or organ is the common characteristic (as Owen has observed) of all low or little-modified forms; therefore we may readily believe that the unknown progenitor of the vertebrata possessed many vertebrae; the unknown progenitor of the articulata, many segments; and the unknown progenitor of flowering plants, many spiral whorls of leaves. We have formerly seen that parts many times repeated are eminently liable to vary in number and structure; consequently it is quite probable that natural selection, during a long-continued course of modification, should have seized on a certain number of the primordially similar elements, many times repeated, and have adapted them to the most diverse purposes. And as the whole amount of modification will have been effected by slight successive steps, we need not wonder at discovering in such parts or organs, a certain degree of fundamental resemblance, retained by the strong principle of inheritance. 
> 
> In the great class of molluscs, though we can homologise the parts of one species with those of another and distinct species, we can indicate but few serial homologies; that is, we are seldom enabled to say that one part or organ is homologous with another in the same individual. And we can understand this fact; for in molluscs, even in the lowest members of the class, we do not find nearly so much indefinite repetition of any one part, as we find in the other great classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. 
> 
> Naturalists frequently speak of the skull as formed of metamorphosed vertebrae: the jaws of crabs as metamorphosed legs; the stamens and pistils of flowers as metamorphosed leaves; but it would in these cases probably be more correct, as Professor Huxley has remarked, to speak of both skull and vertebrae, both jaws and legs, &c., as having been metamorphosed, not one from the other, but from some common element. Naturalists, however, use such language only in a metaphorical sense: they are far from meaning that during a long course of descent, primordial organs of any kind vertebrae in the one case and legs in the other have actually been modified into skulls or jaws. Yet so strong is the appearance of a modification of this nature having occurred, that naturalists can hardly avoid employing language having this plain signification. On my view these terms may be used literally; and the wonderful fact of the jaws, for instance, of a crab retaining numerous characters, which they would probably have retained through inheritance, if they had really been metamorphosed during a long course of descent from true legs, or from some simple appendage, is explained.Embryology
> 
> It has already been casually remarked that certain organs in the individual, which when mature become widely different and serve for different purposes, are in the embryo exactly alike. The embryos, also, of distinct animals within the same class are often strikingly similar: a better proof of this cannot be given, than a circumstance mentioned by Agassiz, namely, that having forgotten to ticket the embryo of some vertebrate animal, he cannot now tell whether it be that of a mammal, bird, or reptile. The vermiform larvae of moths, flies, beetles, &c., resemble each other much more closely than do the mature insects; but in the case of larvae, the embryos are active, and have been adapted for special lines of life. A trace of the law of embryonic resemblance, sometimes lasts till a rather late age: thus birds of the same genus, and of closely allied genera, often resemble each other in their first and second plumage; as we see in the spotted feathers in the thrush group. In the cat tribe, most of the species are striped or spotted in lines; and stripes can be plainly distinguished in the whelp of the lion. We occasionally though rarely see something of this kind in plants: thus the embryonic leaves of the ulex or furze, and the first leaves of the phyllodineous acaceas, are pinnate or divided like the ordinary leaves of the leguminosae. 
> 
> The points of structure, in which the embryos of widely different animals of the same class resemble each other, often have no direct relation to their conditions of existence. We cannot, for instance, suppose that in the embryos of the vertebrata the peculiar loop-like course of the arteries near the branchial slits are related to similar conditions, in the young mammal which is nourished in the womb of its mother, in the egg of the bird which is hatched in a nest, and in the spawn of a frog under water. We have no more reason to believe in such a relation, than we have to believe that the same bones in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, and fin of a porpoise, are related to similar conditions of life. No one will suppose that the stripes on the whelp of a lion, or the spots on the young blackbird, are of any use to these animals, or are related to the conditions to which they are exposed. 
> 
> The case, however, is different when an animal during any part of its embryonic career is active, and has to provide for itself. The period of activity may come on earlier or later in life; but whenever it comes on, the adaptation of the larva to its conditions of life is just as perfect and as beautiful as in the adult animal. From such special adaptations, the similarity of the larvae or active embryos of allied animals is sometimes much obscured; and cases could be given of the larvae of two species, or of two groups of species, differing quite as much, or even more, from each other than do their adult parents. In most cases, however, the larvae, though active, still obey more or less closely the law of common embryonic resemblance. Cirripedes afford a good instance of this: even the illustrious Cuvier did not perceive that a barnacle was, as it certainly is, a crustacean; but a glance at the larva shows this to be the case in an unmistakeable manner. So again the two main divisions of cirripedes, the pedunculated and sessile, which differ widely in external appearance, have larvae in all their several stages barely distinguishable. 
> 
> The embryo in the course of development generally rises in organisation: I use this expression, though I am aware that it is hardly possible to define clearly what is meant by the organisation being higher or lower. But no one probably will dispute that the butterfly is higher than the caterpillar. In some cases, however, the mature animal is generally considered as lower in the scale than the larva, as with certain parasitic crustaceans. To refer once again to cirripedes: the larvae in the first stage have three pairs of legs, a very simple single eye, and a probosciformed mouth, with which they feed largely, for they increase much in size. In the second stage, answering to the chrysalis stage of butterflies, they have six pairs of beautifully constructed natatory legs, a pair of magnificent compound eyes, and extremely complex antennae; but they have a closed and imperfect mouth, and cannot feed: their function at this stage is, to search by their well-developed organs of sense, and to reach by their active powers of swimming, a proper place on which to become attached and to undergo their final metamorphosis. When this is completed they are fixed for life: their legs are now converted into prehensile organs; they again obtain a well-constructed mouth; but they have no antennae, and their two eyes are now reconverted into a minute, single, and very simple eye-spot. In this last and complete state, cirripedes may be considered as either more highly or more lowly organised than they were in the larval condition. But in some genera the larvae become developed either into hermaphrodites having the ordinary structure, or into what I have called complemental males: and in the latter, the development has assuredly been retrograde; for the male is a mere sack, which lives for a short time, and is destitute of mouth, stomach, or other organ of importance, excepting for reproduction. 
> 
> We are so much accustomed to see differences in structure between the embryo and the adult, and likewise a close similarity in the embryos of widely different animals within the same class, that we might be led to look at these facts as necessarily contingent in some manner on growth. But there is no obvious reason why, for instance, the wing of a bat, or the fin of a porpoise, should not have been sketched out with all the parts in proper proportion, as soon as any structure became visible in the embryo. And in some whole groups of animals and in certain members of other groups, the embryo does not at any period differ widely from the adult: thus Owen has remarked in regard to cuttle-fish, `there is no metamorphosis; the cephalopodic character is manifested long before the parts of the embryo are completed;' and again in spiders, `there is nothing worthy to be called a metamorphosis.' The larvae of insects, whether adapted to the most diverse and active habits, or quite inactive, being fed by their parents or placed in the midst of proper nutriment, yet nearly all pass through a similar worm-like stage of development; but in some few cases, as in that of Aphis, if we look to the admirable drawings by Professor Huxley of the development of this insect, we see no trace of the vermiform stage. 
> 
> How, then, can we explain these several facts in embryology, namely the very general, but not universal difference in structure between the embryo and the adult; of parts in the same individual embryo, which ultimately become very unlike and serve for diverse purposes, being at this early period of growth alike; of embryos of different species within the same class, generally, but not universally, resembling each other; of the structure of the embryo not being closely related to its conditions of existence, except when the embryo becomes at any period of life active and has to provide for itself; of the embryo apparently having sometimes a higher organisation than the mature animal, into which it is developed. I believe that all these facts can be explained, as follows, on the view of descent with modification. 
> 
> It is commonly assumed, perhaps from monstrosities often affecting the embryo at a very early period, that slight variations necessarily appear at an equally early period. But we have little evidence on this head indeed the evidence rather points the other way; for it is notorious that breeders of cattle, horses, and various fancy animals, cannot positively tell, until some time after the animal has been born, what its merits or form will ultimately turn out. We see this plainly in our own children; we cannot always tell whether the child will be tall or short, or what its precise features will be. The question is not, at what period of life any variation has been caused, but at what period it is fully displayed. The cause may have acted, and I believe generally has acted, even before the embryo is formed; and the variation may be due to the male and female sexual elements having been affected by the conditions to which either parent, or their ancestors, have been exposed. Nevertheless an effect thus caused at a very early period, even before the formation of the embryo, may appear late in life; as when an hereditary disease, which appears in old age alone, has been communicated to the offspring from the reproductive element of one parent. Or again, as when the horns of cross-bred cattle have been affected by the shape of the horns of either parent. For the welfare of a very young animal, as long as it remains in its mother's womb, or in the egg, or as long as it is nourished and protected by its parent, it must be quite unimportant whether most of its characters are fully acquired a little earlier or later in life. It would not signify, for instance, to a bird which obtained its food best by having a long beak, whether or not it assumed a beak of this particular length, as long as it was fed by its parents. Hence, I conclude, that it is quite possible, that each of the many successive modifications, by which each species has acquired its present structure, may have supervened at a not very early period of life; and some direct evidence from our domestic animals supports this view. But in other cases it is quite possible that each successive modification, or most of them, may have appeared at an extremely early period. 
> 
> I have stated in the first chapter, that there is some evidence to render it probable, that at whatever age any variation first appears in the parent, it tends to reappear at a corresponding age in the offspring. Certain variations can only appear at corresponding ages, for instance, peculiarities in the caterpillar, cocoon, or imago states of the silk-moth; or, again, in the horns of almost full-grown cattle. But further than this, variations which, for all that we can see, might have appeared earlier or later in life, tend to appear at a corresponding age in the offspring and parent. I am far from meaning that this is invariably the case; and I could give a good many cases of variations (taking the word in the largest sense) which have supervened at an earlier age in the child than in the parent. 
> 
> These two principles, if their truth be admitted, will, I believe, explain all the above specified leading facts in embryology. But first let us look at a few analogous cases in domestic varieties. Some authors who have written on Dogs, maintain that the greyhound and bulldog, though appearing so different, are really varieties most closely allied, and have probably descended from the same wild stock; hence I was curious to see how far their puppies differed from each other: I was told by breeders that they differed just as much as their parents, and this, judging by the eye, seemed almost to be the case; but on actually measuring the old dogs and their six-days old puppies, I found that the puppies had not nearly acquired their full amount of proportional difference. So, again, I was told that the foals of cart and race-horses differed as much as the full-grown animals; and this surprised me greatly, as I think it probable that the difference between these two breeds has been wholly caused by selection under domestication; but having had careful measurements made of the dam and of a three-days old colt of a race and heavy cart-horse, I find that the colts have by no means acquired their full amount of proportional difference. 
> 
> As the evidence appears to me conclusive, that the several domestic breeds of pigeon have descended from one wild species, I compared young pigeons of various breeds, within twelve hours after being hatched; I carefully measured the proportions (but will not here give details) of the beak, width of mouth, length of nostril and of eyelid, size of feet and length of leg, in the wild stock, in pouters, fantails, runts, barbs, dragons, carriers, and tumblers. Now some of these birds, when mature, differ so extraordinarily in length and form of beak, that they would, I cannot doubt, be ranked in distinct genera, had they been natural productions. But when the nestling birds of these several breeds were placed in a row, though most of them could be distinguished from each other, yet their proportional differences in the above specified several points were incomparably less than in the full-grown birds. Some characteristic points of difference for instance, that of the width of mouth -- could hardly be detected in the young. But there was one remarkable exception to this rule, for the young of the short-faced tumbler differed from the young of the wild rock-pigeon and of the other breeds, in all its proportions, almost exactly as much as in the adult state. 
> 
> The two principles above given seem to me to explain these facts in regard to the later embryonic stages of our domestic varieties. Fanciers select their horses, dogs, and pigeons, for breeding, when they are nearly grown up: they are indifferent whether the desired qualities and structures have been acquired earlier or later in life, if the full-grown animal possesses them. And the cases just given, more especially that of pigeons, seem to show that the characteristic differences which give value to each breed, and which have been accumulated by man's selection, have not generally first appeared at an early period of life, and have been inherited by the offspring at a corresponding not early period. But the case of the short-faced tumbler, which when twelve hours old had acquired its proper proportions, proves that this is not the universal rule; for here the characteristic differences must either have appeared at an earlier period than usual, or, if not so, the differences must have been inherited, not at the corresponding, but at an earlier age. 
> 
> Now let us apply these facts and the above two principles which latter, though not proved true, can be shown to be in some degree probable to species in a state of nature. Let us take a genus of birds, descended on my theory from some one parent-species, and of which the several new species have become modified through natural selection in accordance with their diverse habits. Then, from the many slight successive steps of variation having supervened at a rather late age, and having been inherited at a corresponding age, the young of the new species of our supposed genus will manifestly tend to resemble each other much more closely than do the adults, just as we have seen in the case of pigeons. We may extend this view to whole families or even classes. The fore-limbs, for instance, which served as legs in the parent-species, may become, by a long course of modification, adapted in one descendant to act as hands, in another as paddles, in another as wings; and on the above two principles namely of each successive modification supervening at a rather late age, and being inherited at a corresponding late age the fore-limbs in the embryos of the several descendants of the parent-species will still resemble each other closely, for they will not have been modified. But in each individual new species, the embryonic fore-limbs will differ greatly from the fore-limbs in the mature animal; the limbs in the latter having undergone much modification at a rather late period of life, and having thus been converted into hands, or paddles, or wings. Whatever influence long-continued exercise or use on the one hand, and disuse on the other, may have in modifying an organ, such influence will mainly affect the mature animal, which has come to its full powers of activity and has to gain its own living; and the effects thus produced will be inherited at a corresponding mature age. Whereas the young will remain unmodified, or be modified in a lesser degree, by the effects of use and disuse. 
> 
> In certain cases the successive steps of variation might supervene, from causes of which we are wholly ignorant, at a very early period of life, or each step might be inherited at an earlier period than that at which it first appeared. In either case (as with the short-faced tumbler) the young or embryo would closely resemble the mature parent-form. We have seen that this is the rule of development in certain whole groups of animals, as with cuttle-fish and spiders, and with a few members of the great class of insects, as with Aphis. With respect to the final cause of the young in these cases not undergoing any metamorphosis, or closely resembling their parents from their earliest age, we can see that this would result from the two following contingencies; firstly, from the young, during a course of modification carried on for many generations, having to provide for their own wants at a very early stage of development, and secondly, from their following exactly the same habits of life with their parents; for in this case, it would be indispensable for the existence of the species, that the child should be modified at a very early age in the same manner with its parents, in accordance with their similar habits. Some further explanation, however, of the embryo not undergoing any metamorphosis is perhaps requisite. If, on the other hand, it profited the young to follow habits of life in any degree different from those of their parent, and consequently to be constructed in a slightly different manner, then, on the principle of inheritance at corresponding ages, the active young or larvae might easily be rendered by natural selection different to any conceivable extent from their parents. Such differences might, also, become correlated with successive stages of development; so that the larvae, in the first stage, might differ greatly from the larvae in the second stage, as we have seen to be the case with cirripedes. The adult might become fitted for sites or habits, in which organs of locomotion or of the senses, &c., would be useless; and in this case the final metamorphosis would be said to be retrograde. 
> 
> As all the organic beings, extinct and recent, which have ever lived on this earth have to be classed together, and as all have been connected by the finest gradations, the best, or indeed, if our collections were nearly perfect, the only possible arrangement, would be genealogical. Descent being on my view the hidden bond of connexion which naturalists have been seeking under the term of the natural system. On this view we can understand how it is that, in the eyes of most naturalists, the structure of the embryo is even more important for classification than that of the adult. For the embryo is the animal in its less modified state; and in so far it reveals the structure of its progenitor. In two groups of animal, however much they may at present differ from each other in structure and habits, if they pass through the same or similar embryonic stages, we may feel assured that they have both descended from the same or nearly similar parents, and are therefore in that degree closely related. Thus, community in embryonic structure reveals community of descent. It will reveal this community of descent, however much the structure of the adult may have been modified and obscured; we have seen, for instance, that cirripedes can at once be recognised by their larvae as belonging to the great class of crustaceans. As the embryonic state of each species and group of species partially shows us the structure of their less modified ancient progenitors, we can clearly see why ancient and extinct forms of life should resemble the embryos of their descendants, our existing species. Agassiz believes this to be a law of nature; but I am bound to confess that I only hope to see the law hereafter proved true. It can be proved true in those cases alone in which the ancient state, now supposed to be represented in many embryos, has not been obliterated, either by the successive variations in a long course of modification having supervened at a very early age, or by the variations having been inherited at an earlier period than that at which they first appeared. It should also be borne in mind, that the supposed law of resemblance of ancient forms of life to the embryonic stages of recent forms, may be true, but yet, owing to the geological record not extending far enough back in time, may remain for a long period, or for ever, incapable of demonstration. 
> 
> Thus, as it seems to me, the leading facts in embryology, which are second in importance to none in natural history, are explained on the principle of slight modifications not appearing, in the many descendants from some one ancient progenitor, at a very early period in the life of each, though perhaps caused at the earliest, and being inherited at a corresponding not early period. Embryology rises greatly in interest, when we thus look at the embryo as a picture, more or less obscured, of the common parent-form of each great class of animals.Rudimentary, atrophied, or aborted organs
> 
> Organs or parts in this strange condition, bearing the stamp of inutility, are extremely common throughout nature. For instance, rudimentary mammae are very general in the males of mammals: I presume that the `bastard-wing' in birds may be safely considered as a digit in a rudimentary state: in very many snakes one lobe of the lungs is rudimentary; in other snakes there are rudiments of the pelvis and hind limbs. Some of the cases of rudimentary organs are extremely curious; for instance, the presence of teeth in foetal whales, which when grown up have not a tooth in their heads; and the presence of teeth, which never cut through the gums, in the upper jaws of our unborn calves. It has even been stated on good authority that rudiments of teeth can be detected in the beaks of certain embryonic birds. Nothing can be plainer than that wings are formed for flight, yet in how many insects do we see wings so reduced in size as to be utterly incapable of flight, and not rarely lying under wing-cases, firmly soldered together! 
> 
> The meaning of rudimentary organs is often quite unmistakeable: for instance there are beetles of the same genus (and even of the same species) resembling each other most closely in all respects, one of which will have full-sized wings, and another mere rudiments of membrane; and here it is impossible to doubt, that the rudiments represent wings. Rudimentary organs sometimes retain their potentiality, and are merely not developed: this seems to be the case with the mammae of male mammals, for many instances are on record of these organs having become well developed in full-grown males, and having secreted milk. So again there are normally four developed and two rudimentary teats in the udders of the genus Bos, but in our domestic cows the two sometimes become developed and give milk. In individual plants of the same species the petals sometimes occur as mere rudiments, and sometimes in a well-developed state. In plants with separated sexes, the male flowers often have a rudiment of a pistil; and Kölreuter found that by crossing such male plants with an hermaphrodite species, the rudiment of the pistil in the hybrid offspring was much increased in size; and this shows that the rudiment and the perfect pistil are essentially alike in nature. 
> 
> An organ serving for two purposes, may become rudimentary or utterly aborted for one, even the more important purpose;, and remain perfectly efficient for the other. Thus in plants, the office of the pistil is to allow the pollen-tubes to reach the ovules protected in the ovarium at its base. The pistil consists of a stigma supported on the style; but in some Compositae, the male florets, which of course cannot be fecundated, have a pistil, which is in a rudimentary state, for it is not crowned with a stigma; but the style remains well developed, and is clothed with hairs as in other compositae, for the purpose of brushing the pollen out of the surrounding anthers. Again, an organ may become rudimentary for its proper purpose, and be used for a distinct object: in certain fish the swim-bladder seems to be rudimentary for its proper function of giving buoyancy, but has become converted into a nascent breathing organ or lung. Other similar instances could be given. 
> 
> Rudimentary organs in the individuals of the same species are very liable to vary in degree of development and in other respects. Moreover, in closely allied species, the degree to which the same organ has been rendered rudimentary occasionally differs much. This latter fact is well exemplified in the state of the wings of the female moths in certain groups. Rudimentary organs may be utterly aborted; and this implies, that we find in an animal or plant no trace of an organ, which analogy would lead us to expect to find, and which is occasionally found in monstrous individuals of the species. Thus in the snapdragon (antirrhinum) we generally do not find a rudiment of a fifth stamen; but this may sometimes be seen. In tracing the homologies of the same part in different members of a class, nothing is more common, or more necessary, than the use and discovery of rudiments. This is well shown in the drawings given by Owen of the bones of the leg of the horse, ox, and rhinoceros. 
> 
> It is an important fact that rudimentary organs, such as teeth in the upper jaws of whales and ruminants, can often be detected in the embryo, but afterwards wholly disappear. It is also, I believe, a universal rule, that a rudimentary part or organ is of greater size relatively to the adjoining parts in the embryo, than in the adult; so that the organ at this early age is less rudimentary, or even cannot be said to be in any degree rudimentary. Hence, also, a rudimentary organ in the adult, is often said to have retained its embryonic condition. 
> 
> I have now given the leading facts with respect to rudimentary organs. In reflecting on them, every one must be struck with astonishment: for the same reasoning power which tells us plainly that most parts and organs are exquisitely adapted for certain purposes, tells us with equal plainness that these rudimentary or atrophied organs, are imperfect and useless. In works on natural history rudimentary organs are generally said to have been created `for the sake of symmetry,' or in order `to complete the scheme of nature;' but this seems to me no explanation, merely a restatement of the fact. Would it be thought sufficient to say that because planets revolve in elliptic courses round the sun, satellites follow the same course round the planets, for the sake of symmetry, and to complete the scheme of nature? An eminent physiologist accounts for the presence of rudimentary organs, by supposing that they serve to excrete matter in excess, or injurious to the system; but can we suppose that the minute papilla, which often represents the pistil in male flowers, and which is formed merely of cellular tissue, can thus act? Can we suppose that the formation of rudimentary teeth which are subsequently absorbed, can be of any service to the rapidly growing embryonic calf by the excretion of precious phosphate of lime? When a man's fingers have been amputated, imperfect nails sometimes appear on the stumps: I could as soon believe that these vestiges of nails have appeared, not from unknown laws of growth, but in order to excrete horny matter, as that the rudimentary nails on the fin of the manatee were formed for this purpose. 
> 
> On my view of descent with modification, the origin of rudimentary organs is simple. We have plenty of cases of rudimentary organs in our domestic productions, as the stump of a tail in tailless breeds, the vestige of an ear in earless breeds, -- the reappearance of minute dangling horns in hornless breeds of cattle, more especially, according to Youatt, in young animals, and the state of the whole flower in the cauliflower. We often see rudiments of various parts in monsters. But I doubt whether any of these cases throw light on the origin of rudimentary organs in a state of nature, further than by showing that rudiments can be produced; for I doubt whether species under nature ever undergo abrupt changes. I believe that disuse has been the main agency; that it has led in successive generations to the gradual reduction of various organs, until they have become rudimentary, as in the case of the eyes of animals inhabiting dark caverns, and of the wings of birds inhabiting oceanic islands, which have seldom been forced to take flight, and have ultimately lost the power of flying. Again, an organ useful under certain conditions, might become injurious under others, as with the wings of beetles living on small and exposed islands; and in this case natural selection would continue slowly to reduce the organ, until it was rendered harmless and rudimentary. 
> 
> Any change in function, which can be effected by insensibly small steps, is within the power of natural selection; so that an organ rendered, during changed habits of life, useless or injurious for one purpose, might easily be modified and used for another purpose. Or an organ might be retained for one alone of its former functions. An organ, when rendered useless, may well be variable, for its variations cannot be checked by natural selection. At whatever period of life disuse or selection reduces an organ, and this will generally be when the being has come to maturity and to its full powers of action, the principle of inheritance at corresponding ages will reproduce the organ in its reduced state at the same age, and consequently will seldom affect or reduce it in the embryo. Thus we can understand the greater relative size of rudimentary organs in the embryo, and their lesser relative size in the adult. But if each step of the process of reduction were to be inherited, not at the corresponding age, but at an extremely early period of life (as we have good reason to believe to be possible) the rudimentary part would tend to be wholly lost, and we should have a case of complete abortion. The principle, also, of economy, explained in a former chapter, by which the materials forming any part or structure, if not useful to the possessor, will be saved as far as is possible, will probably often come into play; and this will tend to cause the entire obliteration of a rudimentary organ. 
> 
> As the presence of rudimentary organs is thus due to the tendency in every part of the organisation, which has long existed, to be inherited we can understand, on the genealogical view of classification, how it is that systematists have found rudimentary parts as useful as, or even sometimes more useful than, parts of high physiological importance. Rudimentary organs may be compared with the letters in a word, still retained in the spelling, but become useless in the pronunciation, but which serve as a clue in seeking for its derivation. On the view of descent with modification, we may conclude that the existence of organs in a rudimentary, imperfect, and useless condition, or quite aborted, far from presenting a strange difficulty, as they assuredly do on the ordinary doctrine of creation, might even have been anticipated, and can be accounted for by the laws of inheritance.Summary
> 
> In this chapter I have attempted to show, that the subordination of group to group in all organisms throughout all time; that the nature of the relationship, by which all living and extinct beings are united by complex, radiating, and circuitous lines of affinities into one grand system; the rules followed and the difficulties encountered by naturalists in their classifications; the value set upon characters, if constant and prevalent, whether of high vital importance, or of the most trifling importance, or, as in rudimentary organs, of no importance; the wide opposition in value between analogical or adaptive characters, and characters of true affinity; and other such rules; all naturally follow on the view of the common parentage of those forms which are considered by naturalists as allied, together with their modification through natural selection, with its contingencies of extinction and divergence of character. In considering this view of classification, it should be borne in mind that the element of descent has been universally used in ranking together the sexes, ages, and acknowledged varieties of the same species, however different they may be in structure. If we extend the use of this element of descent, the only certainly known cause of similarity in organic beings, we shall understand what is meant by the natural system: it is genealogical in its attempted arrangement, with the grades of acquired difference marked by the terms varieties, species, genera, families, orders, and classes. 
> 
> On this same view of descent with modification, all the great facts in Morphology become intelligible, whether we look to the same pattern displayed in the homologous organs, to whatever purpose applied, of the different species of a class; or to the homologous parts constructed on the same pattern in each individual animal and plant. 
> 
> On the principle of successive slight variations, not necessarily or generally supervening at a very early period of life, and being inherited at a corresponding period, we can understand the great leading facts in Embryology; namely, the resemblance in an individual embryo of the homologous parts, which when matured will become widely different from each other in structure and function; and the resemblance in different species of a class of the homologous parts or organs, though fitted in the adult members for purposes as different as possible. Larvae are active embryos, which have become specially modified in relation to their habits of life, through the principle of modifications being inherited at corresponding ages. On this same principle and bearing in mind, that when organs are reduced in size, either from disuse or selection, it will generally be at that period of life when the being has to provide for its own wants, and bearing in mind how strong is the principle of inheritance the occurrence of rudimentary organs and their final abortion, present to us no inexplicable difficulties; on the contrary, their presence might have been even anticipated. The importance of embryological characters and of rudimentary organs in classification is intelligible, on the view that an arrangement is only so far natural as it is genealogical. 
> 
> Finally, the several classes of facts which have been considered in this chapter, seem to me to proclaim so plainly, that the innumerable species, genera, and families of organic beings, with which this world is peopled, have all descended, each within its own class or group, from common parents, and have all been modified in the course of descent, that I should without hesitation adopt this view, even if it were unsupported by other facts or arguments.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985504661
35c35,171
< ARTICULATA  A great division of the Animal Kingdom characterised generally by having the surface of the body divided into rings called segments, a greater or less number of which are furnished with jointed legs (such as Insects, Crustaceans and Centipedes). ASYMMETRICAL  Having the two sides unlike. ATROPHIED  Arrested in development at a very early stage. BALANUS  The genus including the common Acorn-shells which live in abundance on the rocks of the sea-coast. BATRACHIANS  A class of animals allied to the Reptiles, but undergoing a peculiar metamorphosis, in which the young animal is generally aquatic and breathes by gills. (Examples, Frogs, Toads, and Newts.) BOULDERS  Large transported blocks of stone generally imbedded in clays or gravels. BRACHIOPODA  A class of marine Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, furnished with a bivalve shell, attached to submarine objects by a stalk which passes through an aperture in one of the valves, and furnished with fringed arms, by the action of which food is carried to the mouth. BRANCHIÆ  Gills or organs for respiration in water. BRANCHIAL  Pertaining to gills or branchiæ. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM  A Series of very ancient Palæozoic rocks, between the Laurentian and the Silurian. Until recently these were regarded as the oldest fossiliferous rocks. CANIDÆ  The Dog-family, including the Dog, Wolf, Fox, Jackal, &c. CARAPACE  The shell enveloping the anterior part of the body in Crustaceans generally; applied also to the hard shelly pieces of the Cirripedes. CARBONIFEROUS  This term is applied to the great formation which includes, among other rocks, the coal-measures. It belongs to the oldest, or Palæozoic, system of formations. CAUDAL  Of or belonging to the tail. CEPHALOPODS  The highest class of the Mollusca, or Soft-bodied animals, characterised by having the mouth surrounded by a greater or less number of fleshy arms or tentacles, which, in most living species, are furnished with sucking-cups. (Examples, Cuttle-fish, Nautilus.) CETACEA  An order of Mammalia, including the Whales, Dolphins, &c., having the form of the body fish-like, the skin naked, and only the fore-limbs developed. CHELONIA  An order of Reptiles including the Turtles, Tortoises, &c. CIRRIPEDES  An order of Crustaceans including the Barnacles and Acorn-shells. Their young resemble those of many other Crustaceans in form; but when mature they are always attached to other objects, either directly or by means of a stalk, and their bodies are enclosed by a calcareous shell composed of several pieces, two of which can open to give issue to a bunch of curled, jointed tentacles, which represent the limbs. COCCUS  The genus of Insects including the Cochineal. In these the male is a minute, winged fly, and the female generally a motionless, berry-like mass. COCOON  A case usually of silky material, in which insects are frequently enveloped during the second or resting-stage (pupa) of their existence. The term `cocoon-stage' is here used as equivalent to `pupa-stage.' COELOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed hollowed on the inner face. COLEOPTERA  Beetles, an order of Insects, having a biting mouth and the first pair of wings more or less horny, forming sheaths for the second pair, and usually meeting in a straight line down the middle of the back. COLUMN  A peculiar organ in the flowers of Orchids, in which the stamens, style and stigma (or the reproductive parts) are united. COMPOSITÆ or COMPOSITOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the inflorescence consists of numerous small flowers (florets) brought together into a dense head, the base of which is enclosed by a common envelope. (Examples, the Daisy, Dandelion, &c.) CONFERVÆ  The filamentous weeds of fresh water. CONGLOMERATE  A rock made up of fragments of rock or pebbles, cemented together by some other material. COROLLA  The second envelope of a flower usually composed of coloured, leaf-like organs (petals), which may be united by their edges either in the basal part or throughout. CORRELATION  The normal coincidence of one phenomenon, character, &c., with another. CORYMB  A bunch of flowers in which those springing from the lower part of the flower stalk are supported on long stalks so as to be nearly on a level with the upper ones. COTYLEDONS  The first or seed-leaves of plants. CRUSTACEANS  A class of articulated animals, having the skin of the body generally more or less hardened by the deposition of calcareous matter, breathing by means of gills. (Examples, Crab, Lobster, Shrimp, &c.) CURCULIO  The old generic term for the Beetles known as Weevils, characterised by their four-jointed feet, and by the head being produced into a sort of beak, upon the sides of which the antennæ are inserted. CUTANEOUS  Of or belonging to the skin. DEGRADATION  The wearing down of land by the action of the sea or of meteoric agencies. DENUDATION  The wearing away of the surface of the land by water. DEVONIAN SYSTEM or formation  A series of Palæozoic rocks, including the Old Red Sandstone. DICOTYLEDONS or DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  A class of plants characterised by having two seed-leaves, by the formation of new wood between the bark and the old wood (exogenous growth) and by the reticulation of the veins of the leaves. The parts of the flowers are generally in multiples of five. DIFFERENTIATION  The separation or discrimination of parts or organs which in simpler forms of life are more or less united. DIMORPHIC  Having two distinct forms. Dimorphism is the condition of the appearance of the same species under two dissimilar forms. DIOECIOUS  Having the organs of the sexes upon distinct individuals. DIORITE  A peculiar form of Greenstone. DORSAL  Of or belonging to the back. EDENTATA  A peculiar order of Quadrupeds, characterised by the absence of at least the middle incisor (front) teeth in both jaws. (Examples, the Sloths and Armadillos.) ELYTRA  The hardened fore-wings of Beetles, serving as sheaths for the membranous hind-wings, which constitute the true organs of flight. EMBRYO  The young animal undergoing development within the egg or womb. EMBRYOLOGY  The study of the development of the embryo. ENDEMIC  Peculiar to a given locality. ENTOMOSTRACA  A division of the class Crustacea, having all the segments of the body usually distinct, gills attached to the feet or organs of the mouth, and the feet fringed with fine hairs. They are generally of small size. EOCENE  The earliest of the three divisions of the Tertiary epoch of geologists. Rocks of this age contain a small proportion of shells identical with species now living. EPHEMEROUS INSECTS  Insects allied to the May-fly. FAUNA  The totality of the animals naturally inhabiting a certain country or region, or which have lived during a given geological period. FELIDÆ  The Cat-family. FERAL  Having become wild from a state of cultivation or domestication. FLORA  The totality of the plants growing naturally in a country, or during a given geological period. FLORETS  Flowers imperfectly developed in some respects, and collected into a dense spike or head, as in the Grasses, the Dandelion, &c. FOETAL  Of or belonging to the foetus, or embryo in course of development. FORAMINIFERA  A class of animals of very low organisation, and generally of small size, having a jelly-like body, from the Surface of which delicate filaments can be given off and retracted for the prehension of external objects, and having a calcareous or sandy shell, usually divided into chambers, and perforated with small apertures. FOSSILIFEROUS  Containing fossils. FOSSORIAL  Having a faculty of digging. The Fossorial Hymenoptera are a group of Wasp-like Insects, which burrow in sandy soil to make nests for their young. FRENUM (pl  FRENA). A small band or fold of skin. FUNGI (Sing  FUNGUS). A class of cellular plants, of which Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Moulds, are familiar examples. FURCULA  The forked bone formed by the union of the collarbones in many birds, such as the common Fowl. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS  An order of Birds of which the common Fowl, Turkey, and Pheasant, are well-known examples. GALLUS  The genus of birds which includes the common Fowl. GANGLION  A swelling or knot from which nerves are given off as from a centre. GANOID FISHES  Fishes covered with peculiar enamelled bony scales. Most of them are extinct. GERMINAL VESICLE  A minute vesicle in the eggs of animals, from which development of the embryo proceeds. GLACIAL PERIOD  A period of great cold and of enormous extension of ice upon the surface of the earth. It is believed that glacial periods have occurred repeatedly during the geological history of the earth, but the term is generally applied to the close of the Tertiary epoch, when nearly the whole of Europe was subjected to an arctic climate. GLAND  An organ which secretes or separates some peculiar product from the blood or sap of animals or plants. GLOTTIS  The opening of the windpipe into the oesophagus or gullet. GNEISS  A rock approaching granite in composition, but more or less laminated, and really produced by the alteration of a sedimentary deposit after its consolidation. GRALLATORES  The so-called Wading-birds (Storks, Cranes, Snipes, &c.), which are generally furnished with long legs, bare of feathers above the heel, and have no membranes between the toes. GRANITE  A rock consisting essentially of crystal of felspar and mica in a mass of quarts. HABITAT  The locality in which a plant or animal naturally lives. HEMIPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a jointed beak or rostrum, and by having the fore-wings horny in the basal portion and membranous at the extremity, where they cross each other. This group includes the various species of Bugs. HERMAPHRODITE  Possessing the organs of both sexes. HOMOLOGY  That relation between parts which results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts, either in different animals, as in the case of the arm of man, the foreleg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird; or in the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind legs in quadrupeds, and the segments or rings and their appendages of which the body of a worm, a centipede, &c., is composed. The latter is called serial homology. The parts which stand in such a relation to each other are said to be homologous, and one such part or organ is called the homologue of the other. In different plants the parts of the flower are homologous, and in general these parts are regarded as homologous with leaves. HOMOPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects having (like the Hemiptera) a jointed beak, but in which the fore-wings are either wholly membranous or wholly leathery. The Cicadoe, Frog-hoppers, and Aphides, are well-known examples. HYBRID  The offspring of the union of two distinct species. HYMENOPTERA  An order of insects possessing biting jaws and usually four membranous wings in which there are a few veins. Bees and Wasps are familiar examples of this group. HYPERTROPHIED  Excessively developed. ICHNEUMONIDÆ  A family of Hymenopterous insects, the members of which lay their eggs in the bodies or eggs of other insects. IMAGO  The perfect (generally winged) reproductive state of an insect. INDIGENS  The aboriginal animal or vegetable inhabitants of a country or region. INFLORESCENCE  The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants. INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth. INSECTIVOROUS  Feeding on Insects. INVERTEBRATA, or INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS  Those animals which do not possess a backbone or spinal column. LACUNÆ  Spaces left among the tissues in some of the lower animals, and serving in place of vessels for the circulation of the fluids of the body. LAMELLATED  Furnished with lamellæ or little plates. LARVA (pl LARVÆ). The first condition of an insect at its issuing from the egg, when it is usually in the form of a grub, caterpillar, or maggot. LARYNX  The upper part of the windpipe opening into the gullet. LAURENTIAN  A group of greatly altered and very ancient rocks, which is greatly developed along the course of the St. Laurence, whence the name. It is in these that the earliest known traces of organic bodies have been found. LEGUMINOSÆ  An order of plants represented by the common Peas and Beans, having an irregular flower in which one petal stands up like a wing, and the stamens and pistil are enclosed in a sheath formed by two other petals. The fruit is a pod (or legume).  LEMURIDÆ  A group of four-handed animals, distinct from the Monkeys and approaching the Insectivorous Quadrupeds in some of their characters and habits. Its members have the nostrils curved or twisted, and a claw instead of a nail upon the first finger of the hind hands. LEPIDOPTERA  An order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a spiral proboscis, and of four large more or less scaly wings. It includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths. LITTORAL  Inhabiting the seashore. LOESS  A marly deposit of recent (Post-Tertiary) date, which occupies a great part of the valley of the Rhine. MALACOSTRACA  The higher division of the Crustacea, including the ordinary Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c., together with the Woodlice and Sand-hoppers. MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus). MAMMIFEROUS  Having mammæ; or teats (See MAMMALIA). MANDIBLES, in Insects  The first or uppermost pair of jaws, which are generally solid, horny, biting organs. In Birds the term is applied to both jaws with their horny coverings. In Quadrupeds the mandible is properly the lower jaw. MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA). MAXILLÆ, in Insects  The second or lower pair of jaws, which are composed of several joints and furnished with peculiar jointed appendages called palpi, or feelers. MELANISM  The opposite of albinism; an undue development of colouring material in the skin and its appendages. METAMORPHIC ROCKS  Sedimentary rocks which have undergone alteration, generally by the action of heat, subsequently to their deposition and consolidation. MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them. MONOCOTYLEDONS, or MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the seed sends up only a single seed-leaf (or cotyledon); characterised by the absence of consecutive layers of wood in the stem (endogenous growth), by the veins of the leaves being generally straight, and by the parts of the flowers being generally in multiples of three. (Examples, Grasses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, &c.) MORAINES  The accumulations of fragments of rock brought down by glaciers. MORPHOLOGY  The law of form or structure independent of function. MYSIS-STAGE  A stage in the development of certain Crustaceans (Prawns), in which they closely resemble the adults of a genus (Mysis) belonging to a slightly lower group. NASCENT  Commencing development. NATATORY  Adapted for the purpose of swimming. NAUPLIUS-FORM  The earliest stage in the development of many Crustacea, especially belonging to the lower groups. In this stage the animal has a short body, with indistinct indications of a division into segments, and three pairs of fringed limbs. This form of the common fresh-water Cyclops was described as a distinct genus under the name of Nauplius. NEURATION  The arrangement of the veins or nervures in the wings of Insects. NEUTERS  Imperfectly developed females of certain social insects (such as Ants and Bees), which perform all the labours of the community. Hence they are also called workers. NICTITATING MEMBRANE  A semi-transparent membrane, which can be drawn across the eye in Birds and Reptiles, either to moderate the effects of a strong light or to sweep particles of dust, &c., from the surface of the eye. OCELLI  The simple eyes or stemmata of Insects, usually situated on the crown of the head between the great compound eyes. OESOPHAGUS  The gullet. OOLITIC  A great series of secondary rocks, so called from the texture of some of its members, which appear to be made up of a mass of small egg-like calcareous bodies. OPERCULUM  A calcareous plate employed by many Mollusca to close the aperture of their shell. The opercular valves of Cirripedes are those which close the aperture of the shell. ORBIT  The bony cavity for the reception of the eye. ORGANISM  An organised being, whether plant or animal. ORTHOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed straight. OSCULANT  Forms or groups apparently intermediate between and connecting other groups are said to be osculant. OVA  Eggs. OVARIUM or OVARY (in plants)  The lower part of the pistil or female organ of the flower, containing the ovules or incipient seeds; by growth after the other organs of the flower have fallen, it usually becomes converted into the fruit. OVIGEROUS  Egg-bearing. OVULES (of plants)  The seeds in the earliest condition. PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
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> ARTICULATA  A great division of the Animal Kingdom characterised generally by having the surface of the body divided into rings called segments, a greater or less number of which are furnished with jointed legs (such as Insects, Crustaceans and Centipedes).
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> ASYMMETRICAL  Having the two sides unlike.
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> ATROPHIED  Arrested in development at a very early stage.
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> BALANUS  The genus including the common Acorn-shells which live in abundance on the rocks of the sea-coast. 
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> BATRACHIANS  A class of animals allied to the Reptiles, but undergoing a peculiar metamorphosis, in which the young animal is generally aquatic and breathes by gills. (Examples, Frogs, Toads, and Newts.)
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> BOULDERS  Large transported blocks of stone generally imbedded in clays or gravels.
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> BRACHIOPODA  A class of marine Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, furnished with a bivalve shell, attached to submarine objects by a stalk which passes through an aperture in one of the valves, and furnished with fringed arms, by the action of which food is carried to the mouth.
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> BRANCHIÆ  Gills or organs for respiration in water.
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> BRANCHIAL  Pertaining to gills or branchiæ. CAMBRIAN SYSTEM  A Series of very ancient Palæozoic rocks, between the Laurentian and the Silurian. Until recently these were regarded as the oldest fossiliferous rocks.
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> CANIDÆ  The Dog-family, including the Dog, Wolf, Fox, Jackal, &c.
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> CARAPACE  The shell enveloping the anterior part of the body in Crustaceans generally; applied also to the hard shelly pieces of the Cirripedes.
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> CARBONIFEROUS  This term is applied to the great formation which includes, among other rocks, the coal-measures. It belongs to the oldest, or Palæozoic, system of formations. CAUDAL  Of or belonging to the tail.
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> CEPHALOPODS  The highest class of the Mollusca, or Soft-bodied animals, characterised by having the mouth surrounded by a greater or less number of fleshy arms or tentacles, which, in most living species, are furnished with sucking-cups. (Examples, Cuttle-fish, Nautilus.)
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> CETACEA  An order of Mammalia, including the Whales, Dolphins, &c., having the form of the body fish-like, the skin naked, and only the fore-limbs developed.
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> CHELONIA  An order of Reptiles including the Turtles, Tortoises, &c.
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> CIRRIPEDES  An order of Crustaceans including the Barnacles and Acorn-shells. Their young resemble those of many other Crustaceans in form; but when mature they are always attached to other objects, either directly or by means of a stalk, and their bodies are enclosed by a calcareous shell composed of several pieces, two of which can open to give issue to a bunch of curled, jointed tentacles, which represent the limbs.
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> COCCUS  The genus of Insects including the Cochineal. In these the male is a minute, winged fly, and the female generally a motionless, berry-like mass.
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> COCOON  A case usually of silky material, in which insects are frequently enveloped during the second or resting-stage (pupa) of their existence. The term `cocoon-stage' is here used as equivalent to `pupa-stage.'
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> COELOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed hollowed on the inner face. 
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> COLEOPTERA  Beetles, an order of Insects, having a biting mouth and the first pair of wings more or less horny, forming sheaths for the second pair, and usually meeting in a straight line down the middle of the back.
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> COLUMN  A peculiar organ in the flowers of Orchids, in which the stamens, style and stigma (or the reproductive parts) are united.
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> COMPOSITÆ or COMPOSITOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the inflorescence consists of numerous small flowers (florets) brought together into a dense head, the base of which is enclosed by a common envelope. (Examples, the Daisy, Dandelion, &c.) 
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> CONFERVÆ  The filamentous weeds of fresh water.
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> CONGLOMERATE  A rock made up of fragments of rock or pebbles, cemented together by some other material. COROLLA  The second envelope of a flower usually composed of coloured, leaf-like organs (petals), which may be united by their edges either in the basal part or throughout.
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> CORRELATION  The normal coincidence of one phenomenon, character, &c., with another.
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> CORYMB  A bunch of flowers in which those springing from the lower part of the flower stalk are supported on long stalks so as to be nearly on a level with the upper ones.
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> COTYLEDONS  The first or seed-leaves of plants.
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> CRUSTACEANS  A class of articulated animals, having the skin of the body generally more or less hardened by the deposition of calcareous matter, breathing by means of gills. (Examples, Crab, Lobster, Shrimp, &c.) CURCULIO  The old generic term for the Beetles known as Weevils, characterised by their four-jointed feet, and by the head being produced into a sort of beak, upon the sides of which the antennæ are inserted.
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> CUTANEOUS  Of or belonging to the skin.
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> DEGRADATION  The wearing down of land by the action of the sea or of meteoric agencies.
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> DENUDATION  The wearing away of the surface of the land by water.
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> DEVONIAN SYSTEM or formation  A series of Palæozoic rocks, including the Old Red Sandstone. DICOTYLEDONS or 
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> DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  A class of plants characterised by having two seed-leaves, by the formation of new wood between the bark and the old wood (exogenous growth) and by the reticulation of the veins of the leaves. The parts of the flowers are generally in multiples of five.
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> DIFFERENTIATION  The separation or discrimination of parts or organs which in simpler forms of life are more or less united.
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> DIMORPHIC  Having two distinct forms. Dimorphism is the condition of the appearance of the same species under two dissimilar forms.
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> DIOECIOUS  Having the organs of the sexes upon distinct individuals.
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> DIORITE  A peculiar form of Greenstone.
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> DORSAL  Of or belonging to the back.
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> EDENTATA  A peculiar order of Quadrupeds, characterised by the absence of at least the middle incisor (front) teeth in both jaws. (Examples, the Sloths and Armadillos.)
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> ELYTRA  The hardened fore-wings of Beetles, serving as sheaths for the membranous hind-wings, which constitute the true organs of flight.
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> EMBRYO  The young animal undergoing development within the egg or womb.
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> EMBRYOLOGY  The study of the development of the embryo.
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> ENDEMIC  Peculiar to a given locality.
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> ENTOMOSTRACA  A division of the class Crustacea, having all the segments of the body usually distinct, gills attached to the feet or organs of the mouth, and the feet fringed with fine hairs. They are generally of small size.
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> EOCENE  The earliest of the three divisions of the Tertiary epoch of geologists. Rocks of this age contain a small proportion of shells identical with species now living.
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> EPHEMEROUS INSECTS  Insects allied to the May-fly.
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> FAUNA  The totality of the animals naturally inhabiting a certain country or region, or which have lived during a given geological period.
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> FELIDÆ  The Cat-family.
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> FERAL  Having become wild from a state of cultivation or domestication.
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> FLORA  The totality of the plants growing naturally in a country, or during a given geological period.
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> FLORETS  Flowers imperfectly developed in some respects, and collected into a dense spike or head, as in the Grasses, the Dandelion, &c.
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> FOETAL  Of or belonging to the foetus, or embryo in course of development.
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> FORAMINIFERA  A class of animals of very low organisation, and generally of small size, having a jelly-like body, from the Surface of which delicate filaments can be given off and retracted for the prehension of external objects, and having a calcareous or sandy shell, usually divided into chambers, and perforated with small apertures. FOSSILIFEROUS  Containing fossils.
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> FOSSORIAL  Having a faculty of digging. The Fossorial Hymenoptera are a group of Wasp-like Insects, which burrow in sandy soil to make nests for their young.
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> FRENUM (pl  FRENA). A small band or fold of skin.
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> FUNGI (Sing  FUNGUS). A class of cellular plants, of which Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Moulds, are familiar examples. 
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> FURCULA  The forked bone formed by the union of the collarbones in many birds, such as the common Fowl.
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> GALLINACEOUS BIRDS  An order of Birds of which the common Fowl, Turkey, and Pheasant, are well-known examples.
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> GALLUS  The genus of birds which includes the common Fowl.
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> GANGLION  A swelling or knot from which nerves are given off as from a centre.
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> GANOID FISHES  Fishes covered with peculiar enamelled bony scales. Most of them are extinct.
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> GERMINAL VESICLE  A minute vesicle in the eggs of animals, from which development of the embryo proceeds.
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> GLACIAL PERIOD  A period of great cold and of enormous extension of ice upon the surface of the earth. It is believed that glacial periods have occurred repeatedly during the geological history of the earth, but the term is generally applied to the close of the Tertiary epoch, when nearly the whole of Europe was subjected to an arctic climate.
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> GLAND  An organ which secretes or separates some peculiar product from the blood or sap of animals or plants.
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> GLOTTIS  The opening of the windpipe into the oesophagus or gullet.
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> GNEISS  A rock approaching granite in composition, but more or less laminated, and really produced by the alteration of a sedimentary deposit after its consolidation.
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> GRALLATORES  The so-called Wading-birds (Storks, Cranes, Snipes, &c.), which are generally furnished with long legs, bare of feathers above the heel, and have no membranes between the toes.
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> GRANITE  A rock consisting essentially of crystal of felspar and mica in a mass of quarts.
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> HABITAT  The locality in which a plant or animal naturally lives. HEMIPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a jointed beak or rostrum, and by having the fore-wings horny in the basal portion and membranous at the extremity, where they cross each other. This group includes the various species of Bugs. HERMAPHRODITE  Possessing the organs of both sexes. HOMOLOGY  That relation between parts which results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts, either in different animals, as in the case of the arm of man, the foreleg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird; or in the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind legs in quadrupeds, and the segments or rings and their appendages of which the body of a worm, a centipede, &c., is composed. The latter is called serial homology. The parts which stand in such a relation to each other are said to be homologous, and one such part or organ is called the homologue of the other. In different plants the parts of the flower are homologous, and in general these parts are regarded as homologous with leaves. HOMOPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects having (like the Hemiptera) a jointed beak, but in which the fore-wings are either wholly membranous or wholly leathery. The Cicadoe, Frog-hoppers, and Aphides, are well-known examples. HYBRID  The offspring of the union of two distinct species. HYMENOPTERA  An order of insects possessing biting jaws and usually four membranous wings in which there are a few veins. Bees and Wasps are familiar examples of this group. HYPERTROPHIED  Excessively developed. ICHNEUMONIDÆ  A family of Hymenopterous insects, the members of which lay their eggs in the bodies or eggs of other insects. IMAGO  The perfect (generally winged) reproductive state of an insect. INDIGENS  The aboriginal animal or vegetable inhabitants of a country or region. INFLORESCENCE  The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants. INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth. INSECTIVOROUS  Feeding on Insects. INVERTEBRATA, or INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS  Those animals which do not possess a backbone or spinal column. LACUNÆ  Spaces left among the tissues in some of the lower animals, and serving in place of vessels for the circulation of the fluids of the body. LAMELLATED  Furnished with lamellæ or little plates. LARVA (pl LARVÆ). The first condition of an insect at its issuing from the egg, when it is usually in the form of a grub, caterpillar, or maggot. LARYNX  The upper part of the windpipe opening into the gullet. LAURENTIAN  A group of greatly altered and very ancient rocks, which is greatly developed along the course of the St. Laurence, whence the name. It is in these that the earliest known traces of organic bodies have been found. LEGUMINOSÆ  An order of plants represented by the common Peas and Beans, having an irregular flower in which one petal stands up like a wing, and the stamens and pistil are enclosed in a sheath formed by two other petals. The fruit is a pod (or legume).  LEMURIDÆ  A group of four-handed animals, distinct from the Monkeys and approaching the Insectivorous Quadrupeds in some of their characters and habits. Its members have the nostrils curved or twisted, and a claw instead of a nail upon the first finger of the hind hands. LEPIDOPTERA  An order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a spiral proboscis, and of four large more or less scaly wings. It includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths. LITTORAL  Inhabiting the seashore. LOESS  A marly deposit of recent (Post-Tertiary) date, which occupies a great part of the valley of the Rhine. MALACOSTRACA  The higher division of the Crustacea, including the ordinary Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c., together with the Woodlice and Sand-hoppers. MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus). MAMMIFEROUS  Having mammæ; or teats (See MAMMALIA). MANDIBLES, in Insects  The first or uppermost pair of jaws, which are generally solid, horny, biting organs. In Birds the term is applied to both jaws with their horny coverings. In Quadrupeds the mandible is properly the lower jaw. MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA). MAXILLÆ, in Insects  The second or lower pair of jaws, which are composed of several joints and furnished with peculiar jointed appendages called palpi, or feelers. MELANISM  The opposite of albinism; an undue development of colouring material in the skin and its appendages. METAMORPHIC ROCKS  Sedimentary rocks which have undergone alteration, generally by the action of heat, subsequently to their deposition and consolidation. MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them. MONOCOTYLEDONS, or MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the seed sends up only a single seed-leaf (or cotyledon); characterised by the absence of consecutive layers of wood in the stem (endogenous growth), by the veins of the leaves being generally straight, and by the parts of the flowers being generally in multiples of three. (Examples, Grasses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, &c.) MORAINES  The accumulations of fragments of rock brought down by glaciers. MORPHOLOGY  The law of form or structure independent of function. MYSIS-STAGE  A stage in the development of certain Crustaceans (Prawns), in which they closely resemble the adults of a genus (Mysis) belonging to a slightly lower group. NASCENT  Commencing development. NATATORY  Adapted for the purpose of swimming. NAUPLIUS-FORM  The earliest stage in the development of many Crustacea, especially belonging to the lower groups. In this stage the animal has a short body, with indistinct indications of a division into segments, and three pairs of fringed limbs. This form of the common fresh-water Cyclops was described as a distinct genus under the name of Nauplius. NEURATION  The arrangement of the veins or nervures in the wings of Insects. NEUTERS  Imperfectly developed females of certain social insects (such as Ants and Bees), which perform all the labours of the community. Hence they are also called workers. NICTITATING MEMBRANE  A semi-transparent membrane, which can be drawn across the eye in Birds and Reptiles, either to moderate the effects of a strong light or to sweep particles of dust, &c., from the surface of the eye. OCELLI  The simple eyes or stemmata of Insects, usually situated on the crown of the head between the great compound eyes. OESOPHAGUS  The gullet. OOLITIC  A great series of secondary rocks, so called from the texture of some of its members, which appear to be made up of a mass of small egg-like calcareous bodies. OPERCULUM  A calcareous plate employed by many Mollusca to close the aperture of their shell. The opercular valves of Cirripedes are those which close the aperture of the shell. ORBIT  The bony cavity for the reception of the eye. ORGANISM  An organised being, whether plant or animal. ORTHOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed straight. OSCULANT  Forms or groups apparently intermediate between and connecting other groups are said to be osculant. OVA  Eggs. OVARIUM or OVARY (in plants)  The lower part of the pistil or female organ of the flower, containing the ovules or incipient seeds; by growth after the other organs of the flower have fallen, it usually becomes converted into the fruit. OVIGEROUS  Egg-bearing. OVULES (of plants)  The seeds in the earliest condition. PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985505455
171c171,277
< HABITAT  The locality in which a plant or animal naturally lives. HEMIPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a jointed beak or rostrum, and by having the fore-wings horny in the basal portion and membranous at the extremity, where they cross each other. This group includes the various species of Bugs. HERMAPHRODITE  Possessing the organs of both sexes. HOMOLOGY  That relation between parts which results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts, either in different animals, as in the case of the arm of man, the foreleg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird; or in the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind legs in quadrupeds, and the segments or rings and their appendages of which the body of a worm, a centipede, &c., is composed. The latter is called serial homology. The parts which stand in such a relation to each other are said to be homologous, and one such part or organ is called the homologue of the other. In different plants the parts of the flower are homologous, and in general these parts are regarded as homologous with leaves. HOMOPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects having (like the Hemiptera) a jointed beak, but in which the fore-wings are either wholly membranous or wholly leathery. The Cicadoe, Frog-hoppers, and Aphides, are well-known examples. HYBRID  The offspring of the union of two distinct species. HYMENOPTERA  An order of insects possessing biting jaws and usually four membranous wings in which there are a few veins. Bees and Wasps are familiar examples of this group. HYPERTROPHIED  Excessively developed. ICHNEUMONIDÆ  A family of Hymenopterous insects, the members of which lay their eggs in the bodies or eggs of other insects. IMAGO  The perfect (generally winged) reproductive state of an insect. INDIGENS  The aboriginal animal or vegetable inhabitants of a country or region. INFLORESCENCE  The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants. INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth. INSECTIVOROUS  Feeding on Insects. INVERTEBRATA, or INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS  Those animals which do not possess a backbone or spinal column. LACUNÆ  Spaces left among the tissues in some of the lower animals, and serving in place of vessels for the circulation of the fluids of the body. LAMELLATED  Furnished with lamellæ or little plates. LARVA (pl LARVÆ). The first condition of an insect at its issuing from the egg, when it is usually in the form of a grub, caterpillar, or maggot. LARYNX  The upper part of the windpipe opening into the gullet. LAURENTIAN  A group of greatly altered and very ancient rocks, which is greatly developed along the course of the St. Laurence, whence the name. It is in these that the earliest known traces of organic bodies have been found. LEGUMINOSÆ  An order of plants represented by the common Peas and Beans, having an irregular flower in which one petal stands up like a wing, and the stamens and pistil are enclosed in a sheath formed by two other petals. The fruit is a pod (or legume).  LEMURIDÆ  A group of four-handed animals, distinct from the Monkeys and approaching the Insectivorous Quadrupeds in some of their characters and habits. Its members have the nostrils curved or twisted, and a claw instead of a nail upon the first finger of the hind hands. LEPIDOPTERA  An order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a spiral proboscis, and of four large more or less scaly wings. It includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths. LITTORAL  Inhabiting the seashore. LOESS  A marly deposit of recent (Post-Tertiary) date, which occupies a great part of the valley of the Rhine. MALACOSTRACA  The higher division of the Crustacea, including the ordinary Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c., together with the Woodlice and Sand-hoppers. MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus). MAMMIFEROUS  Having mammæ; or teats (See MAMMALIA). MANDIBLES, in Insects  The first or uppermost pair of jaws, which are generally solid, horny, biting organs. In Birds the term is applied to both jaws with their horny coverings. In Quadrupeds the mandible is properly the lower jaw. MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA). MAXILLÆ, in Insects  The second or lower pair of jaws, which are composed of several joints and furnished with peculiar jointed appendages called palpi, or feelers. MELANISM  The opposite of albinism; an undue development of colouring material in the skin and its appendages. METAMORPHIC ROCKS  Sedimentary rocks which have undergone alteration, generally by the action of heat, subsequently to their deposition and consolidation. MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them. MONOCOTYLEDONS, or MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the seed sends up only a single seed-leaf (or cotyledon); characterised by the absence of consecutive layers of wood in the stem (endogenous growth), by the veins of the leaves being generally straight, and by the parts of the flowers being generally in multiples of three. (Examples, Grasses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, &c.) MORAINES  The accumulations of fragments of rock brought down by glaciers. MORPHOLOGY  The law of form or structure independent of function. MYSIS-STAGE  A stage in the development of certain Crustaceans (Prawns), in which they closely resemble the adults of a genus (Mysis) belonging to a slightly lower group. NASCENT  Commencing development. NATATORY  Adapted for the purpose of swimming. NAUPLIUS-FORM  The earliest stage in the development of many Crustacea, especially belonging to the lower groups. In this stage the animal has a short body, with indistinct indications of a division into segments, and three pairs of fringed limbs. This form of the common fresh-water Cyclops was described as a distinct genus under the name of Nauplius. NEURATION  The arrangement of the veins or nervures in the wings of Insects. NEUTERS  Imperfectly developed females of certain social insects (such as Ants and Bees), which perform all the labours of the community. Hence they are also called workers. NICTITATING MEMBRANE  A semi-transparent membrane, which can be drawn across the eye in Birds and Reptiles, either to moderate the effects of a strong light or to sweep particles of dust, &c., from the surface of the eye. OCELLI  The simple eyes or stemmata of Insects, usually situated on the crown of the head between the great compound eyes. OESOPHAGUS  The gullet. OOLITIC  A great series of secondary rocks, so called from the texture of some of its members, which appear to be made up of a mass of small egg-like calcareous bodies. OPERCULUM  A calcareous plate employed by many Mollusca to close the aperture of their shell. The opercular valves of Cirripedes are those which close the aperture of the shell. ORBIT  The bony cavity for the reception of the eye. ORGANISM  An organised being, whether plant or animal. ORTHOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed straight. OSCULANT  Forms or groups apparently intermediate between and connecting other groups are said to be osculant. OVA  Eggs. OVARIUM or OVARY (in plants)  The lower part of the pistil or female organ of the flower, containing the ovules or incipient seeds; by growth after the other organs of the flower have fallen, it usually becomes converted into the fruit. OVIGEROUS  Egg-bearing. OVULES (of plants)  The seeds in the earliest condition. PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
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> HABITAT  The locality in which a plant or animal naturally lives.
> 
> HEMIPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a jointed beak or rostrum, and by having the fore-wings horny in the basal portion and membranous at the extremity, where they cross each other. This group includes the various species of Bugs.
> 
> HERMAPHRODITE  Possessing the organs of both sexes.
> 
> HOMOLOGY  That relation between parts which results from their development from corresponding embryonic parts, either in different animals, as in the case of the arm of man, the foreleg of a quadruped, and the wing of a bird; or in the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind legs in quadrupeds, and the segments or rings and their appendages of which the body of a worm, a centipede, &c., is composed. The latter is called serial homology. The parts which stand in such a relation to each other are said to be homologous, and one such part or organ is called the homologue of the other. In different plants the parts of the flower are homologous, and in general these parts are regarded as homologous with leaves.
> 
> HOMOPTERA  An order or sub-order of Insects having (like the Hemiptera) a jointed beak, but in which the fore-wings are either wholly membranous or wholly leathery. The Cicadoe, Frog-hoppers, and Aphides, are well-known examples. HYBRID  The offspring of the union of two distinct species.
> 
> HYMENOPTERA  An order of insects possessing biting jaws and usually four membranous wings in which there are a few veins. Bees and Wasps are familiar examples of this group.
> 
> HYPERTROPHIED  Excessively developed.
> 
> ICHNEUMONIDÆ  A family of Hymenopterous insects, the members of which lay their eggs in the bodies or eggs of other insects.
> 
> IMAGO  The perfect (generally winged) reproductive state of an insect.
> 
> INDIGENS  The aboriginal animal or vegetable inhabitants of a country or region. INFLORESCENCE  The mode of arrangement of the flowers of plants.
> 
> INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth.
> 
> INSECTIVOROUS  Feeding on Insects.
> 
> INVERTEBRATA, or INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS  Those animals which do not possess a backbone or spinal column. LACUNÆ  Spaces left among the tissues in some of the lower animals, and serving in place of vessels for the circulation of the fluids of the body.
> 
> LAMELLATED  Furnished with lamellæ or little plates.
> 
> LARVA (pl LARVÆ). The first condition of an insect at its issuing from the egg, when it is usually in the form of a grub, caterpillar, or maggot.
> 
> LARYNX  The upper part of the windpipe opening into the gullet.
> 
> LAURENTIAN  A group of greatly altered and very ancient rocks, which is greatly developed along the course of the St. Laurence, whence the name. It is in these that the earliest known traces of organic bodies have been found.
> 
> LEGUMINOSÆ  An order of plants represented by the common Peas and Beans, having an irregular flower in which one petal stands up like a wing, and the stamens and pistil are enclosed in a sheath formed by two other petals. The fruit is a pod (or legume).
> 
> LEMURIDÆ  A group of four-handed animals, distinct from the Monkeys and approaching the Insectivorous Quadrupeds in some of their characters and habits. Its members have the nostrils curved or twisted, and a claw instead of a nail upon the first finger of the hind hands.
> 
> LEPIDOPTERA  An order of Insects, characterised by the possession of a spiral proboscis, and of four large more or less scaly wings. It includes the well-known Butterflies and Moths.
> 
> LITTORAL  Inhabiting the seashore.
> 
> LOESS  A marly deposit of recent (Post-Tertiary) date, which occupies a great part of the valley of the Rhine.
> 
> MALACOSTRACA  The higher division of the Crustacea, including the ordinary Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, &c., together with the Woodlice and Sand-hoppers.
> 
> MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus).
> 
> MAMMIFEROUS  Having mammæ; or teats (See MAMMALIA).
> 
> MANDIBLES, in Insects  The first or uppermost pair of jaws, which are generally solid, horny, biting organs. In Birds the term is applied to both jaws with their horny coverings. In Quadrupeds the mandible is properly the lower jaw.
> 
> MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA).
> 
> MAXILLÆ, in Insects  The second or lower pair of jaws, which are composed of several joints and furnished with peculiar jointed appendages called palpi, or feelers.
> 
> MELANISM  The opposite of albinism; an undue development of colouring material in the skin and its appendages.
> 
> METAMORPHIC ROCKS  Sedimentary rocks which have undergone alteration, generally by the action of heat, subsequently to their deposition and consolidation.
> 
> MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them.
> 
> MONOCOTYLEDONS, or MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  Plants in which the seed sends up only a single seed-leaf (or cotyledon); characterised by the absence of consecutive layers of wood in the stem (endogenous growth), by the veins of the leaves being generally straight, and by the parts of the flowers being generally in multiples of three. (Examples, Grasses, Lilies, Orchids, Palms, &c.)
> 
> MORAINES  The accumulations of fragments of rock brought down by glaciers.
> 
> MORPHOLOGY  The law of form or structure independent of function.
> 
> MYSIS-STAGE  A stage in the development of certain Crustaceans (Prawns), in which they closely resemble the adults of a genus (Mysis) belonging to a slightly lower group.
> 
> NASCENT  Commencing development.
> 
> NATATORY  Adapted for the purpose of swimming.
> 
> NAUPLIUS-FORM  The earliest stage in the development of many Crustacea, especially belonging to the lower groups. In this stage the animal has a short body, with indistinct indications of a division into segments, and three pairs of fringed limbs. This form of the common fresh-water Cyclops was described as a distinct genus under the name of Nauplius.
> 
> NEURATION  The arrangement of the veins or nervures in the wings of Insects.
> 
> NEUTERS  Imperfectly developed females of certain social insects (such as Ants and Bees), which perform all the labours of the community. Hence they are also called workers.
> 
> NICTITATING MEMBRANE  A semi-transparent membrane, which can be drawn across the eye in Birds and Reptiles, either to moderate the effects of a strong light or to sweep particles of dust, &c., from the surface of the eye.
> 
> OCELLI  The simple eyes or stemmata of Insects, usually situated on the crown of the head between the great compound eyes.
> 
> OESOPHAGUS  The gullet.
> 
> OOLITIC  A great series of secondary rocks, so called from the texture of some of its members, which appear to be made up of a mass of small egg-like calcareous bodies.
> 
> OPERCULUM  A calcareous plate employed by many Mollusca to close the aperture of their shell. The opercular valves of Cirripedes are those which close the aperture of the shell.
> 
> ORBIT  The bony cavity for the reception of the eye.
> 
> ORGANISM  An organised being, whether plant or animal.
> 
> ORTHOSPERMOUS  A term applied to those fruits of the Umbelliferæ which have the seed straight.
> 
> OSCULANT  Forms or groups apparently intermediate between and connecting other groups are said to be osculant.
> 
> OVA  Eggs.
> 
> OVARIUM or OVARY (in plants)  The lower part of the pistil or female organ of the flower, containing the ovules or incipient seeds; by growth after the other organs of the flower have fallen, it usually becomes converted into the fruit.
> 
> OVIGEROUS  Egg-bearing.
> 
> OVULES (of plants)  The seeds in the earliest condition.
> 
> PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
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The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985505770
277c277,431
< PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c. PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks. PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea. PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism. PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds. PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk. PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers. PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated. PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured. PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves. PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells. PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk. PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma. PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA. PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears. PLASTIC  Readily capable of change. PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch. PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants. PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth. POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary. POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens. POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants. POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms. POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats. PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping. PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power. PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man. PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c. PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees. PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable. PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division. PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies. RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant. RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus. RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust. RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light. RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis. RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera. RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap. RUBUS  The Bramble Genus. RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed. RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw. SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached. SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed. SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water. SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed. SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured. SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw. SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk. SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series. SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function. SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body. STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed. STERNUM  The breast-bone. STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants. STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants. STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit. SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin. SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking. SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed. TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects. TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny. TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals. TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things. TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs. TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base. TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age. TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms. UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds. UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell. VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels VERMIFORM  Like a worm. VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth. WORKERS  See neuters. ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus. ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
---
> PACHYDERMS  A group of Mammalia, so called from their thick skins, and including the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, &c.
> 
> PALÆOZOIC  The oldest system of fossiliferous rocks.
> 
> PALPI  Jointed appendages to some of the organs of the mouth in Insects and Crustacea.
> 
> PAPILIONACEÆ  An order of Plants (see LEGUMINOSÆ). The flowers of these plants are called papilionaceous, or butterfly-like, from the fancied resemblance of the expanded superior petals to the wings of a butterfly. PARASITE  An animal or plant living upon or in, and at the expense of, another organism.
> 
> PARTHENOGENESIS  The production of living Organisms from unimpregnated eggs or seeds.
> 
> PEDUNCULATED  Supported upon a stem or stalk. The pedunculated oak has its acorns borne upon a footstalk.
> 
> PELORIA or PELORISM  The appearance of regularity of structure in the flowers of plants which normally bear irregular flowers.
> 
> PELVIS  The bony arch to which the hind limbs of Vertebrate animals are articulated.
> 
> PETALS  The leaves of the corolla, or second circle of organs in a flower. They are usually of delicate texture and brightly coloured.
> 
> PHYLLODINEOUS  Having flattened, leaf-like twigs or leafstalks instead of true leaves.
> 
> PIGMENT  The colouring material produced generally in the superficial parts of animals. The cells secreting it are called pigment-cells.
> 
> PINNATE  Bearing leaflets on each side of a central stalk.
> 
> PISTILS  The female organs of a flower, which occupy a position in the centre of the other floral organs. The pistil is generally divisible into the ovary or germen, the style and the stigma.
> 
> PLACENTALIA, PLACENTATA, or Placental Mammals  See MAMMALIA.
> 
> PLANTIGRADES  Quadrupeds which walk upon the whole sole of the foot, like the Bears.
> 
> PLASTIC  Readily capable of change.
> 
> PLEISTOCENE PERIOD  The latest portion of the Tertiary epoch.
> 
> PLUMULE (in plants)  The minute bud between the seed-leaves of newly-germinated plants.
> 
> PLUTONIC ROCKS  Rocks supposed to have been produced by igneous action in the depths of the earth.
> 
> POLLEN  The male element in flowering plants; usually a fine dust produced by the anthers, which, by contact with the stigma effects the fecundation of the seeds. This impregnation is brought about by means of tubes (pollen-tubes) which issue from the pollen-grains adhering to the stigma, and penetrate through the tissues until they reach the ovary.
> 
> POLYANDROUS (flowers)  Flowers having many stamens.
> 
> POLYGAMOUS PLANTS  Plants in which some flowers are unisexual and others hermaphrodite. The unisexual (male and female) flowers, may be on the same or on different plants.
> 
> POLYMORPHIC  Presenting many forms.
> 
> POLYZOARY  The common structure for the Polyzoa, such as the well-known Sea-mats.
> 
> PREHENSILE  Capable of grasping.
> 
> PREPOTENT  Having a superiority of power.
> 
> PRIMARIES  The feathers forming the tip of the wing of a bird, and inserted upon that part which represents the hand of man.
> 
> PROCESSES  Projecting portions of bones, usually for the attachment of muscles, ligaments, &c.
> 
> PROPOLIS  A resinous material collected by the Hive-Bees from the opening buds of various trees.
> 
> PROTEAN  Exceedingly variable.
> 
> PROTOZOA  The lowest great division of the Animal Kingdom. These animals are composed of a gelatinous material, and show scarcely any trace of distinct organs. The Infusoria, Foraminifera, and Sponges, with some other forms, belong to this division.
> 
> PUPA (pl  PUPÆ). The second stage in the development of an Insect, from which it emerges in the perfect (winged) reproductive form. In most insects the pupal stage is passed in perfect repose. The chrysalis is the pupal state of butterflies.
> 
> RADICLE  The minute root of an embryo plant.
> 
> RAMUS  One half of the lower jaw in the Mammalia. The portion which rises to articulate with the skull is called the ascending ramus.
> 
> RANGE  The extent of country over which a plant or animal is naturally spread. Range in time expresses the distribution of a species or group through the fossiliferous beds of the earth's crust.
> 
> RETINA  The delicate inner coat of the eye, formed by nervous filaments spreading from the optic nerve, and serving for the perception of the impressions produced by light.
> 
> RETROGRESSION  Backward development. When an animal, as it approaches maturity, becomes less perfectly organised than might be expected from its early stages and known relationships, it is said to undergo a retrograde development or metamorphosis.
> 
> RHIZOPODS  A class of lowly organised animals (protozoa), having a gelatinous body, the surface of which can be protruded in the form of root-like processes or filaments, which serve for locomotion and the prehension of food. The most important order is that of the Foraminifera.
> 
> RODENTS  The gnawing Mammalia, such as the Rats, Rabbits, and Squirrels. They are especially characterised by the possession of a single pair of chisel-like cutting teeth in each jaw, between which and the grinding teeth there is a great gap.
> 
> RUBUS  The Bramble Genus.
> 
> RUDIMENTARY  Very imperfectly developed.
> 
> RUMINANTS  The group of Quadrupeds which ruminate or chew the cud, such as oxen, sheep, and deer. They have divided hoofs, and are destitute of front teeth in the upper jaw.
> 
> SACRAL  Belonging to the sacrum, or the bone composed usually of two or more united vertebræ to which the sides of the pelvis in Vertebrate animals are attached.
> 
> SARCODE  The gelatinous material of which the bodies of the lowest animals (Protozoa) are composed.
> 
> SCUTELLÆ  The horny plates with which the feet of birds are generally more or less covered, especially in front.
> 
> SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS  Rocks deposited as sediments from water.
> 
> SEGMENTS  The transverse rings of which the body of an articulate animal or Annelid is composed.
> 
> SEPALS  The leaves or segments of the calyx, or outermost envelope of an ordinary flower. They are usually green, but sometimes brightly coloured.
> 
> SERRATURES  Teeth like those of a saw.
> 
> SESSILE  Not supported on a stem or footstalk.
> 
> SILURIAN SYSTEM  A Very ancient system of fossiliferous rocks belonging to the earlier part of the Palæozoic series.
> 
> SPECIALISATION  The setting apart of a particular organ for the performance of a particular function.
> 
> SPINAL CHORD  The central portion of the nervous system in the Vertebrata, which descends from the brain through the arches of the vertebræ, and gives off nearly all the nerves to the various organs of the body.
> 
> STAMENS  The male organs of flowering plants, standing in a circle within the petals. They usually consist of a filament and an anther, the anther being the essential part in which the pollen, or fecundating dust, is formed.
> 
> STERNUM  The breast-bone.
> 
> STIGMA  The apical portion of the pistil in flowering plants.
> 
> STIPULES  Small leafy organs placed at the base of the footstalks of the leaves in many plants.
> 
> STYLE  The middle portion of the perfect pistil, which rises like a column from the ovary and supports the stigma at its summit.
> 
> SUBCUTANEOUS  Situated beneath the skin.
> 
> SUCTORIAL  Adapted for sucking.
> 
> SUTURES (in the skull)  The lines of junction of the bones of which the skull is composed.
> 
> TARSUS (pl  TARSI). The jointed feet of articulate animals, such as Insects.
> 
> TELEOSTEAN FISHES  Fishes of the kind familiar to us in the present day, having the skeleton usually completely ossified and the scales horny.
> 
> TENTACULA or TENTACLES  Delicate fleshy organs of prehension or touch possessed by many of the lower animals.
> 
> TERTIARY  The latest geological epoch, immediately preceding the establishment of the present order of things.
> 
> TRACHEA  The windpipe or passage for the admission of air to the lungs.
> 
> TRIDACTYLE  Three-fingered, or composed of three movable parts attached to a common base.
> 
> TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age.
> 
> TRIMORPHIC  Presenting three distinct forms.
> 
> UMBELLIFERÆ  An order of plants in which the flowers, which contain five stamens and a pistil with two styles, are supported upon footstalks which spring from the top of the flower stem and spread out like the wires of an umbrella, so as to bring all the flowers in the same head (umbel) nearly to the same level. (Examples, Parsley and Carrot). 
> 
> UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds.
> 
> UNICELLULAR  Consisting of a single cell.
> 
> VASCULAR  Containing blood-vessels
> 
> VERMIFORM  Like a worm.
> 
> VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth.
> 
> WORKERS  See neuters.
> 
> ZOEA-STAGE  The earliest stage in the development of many of the higher Crustacea, so called from the name of Zoea applied to these young animals when they were supposed to constitute a peculiar genus.
> 
> ZOOIDS  In many of the lower animals (such as the Corals, Medusæ, &c.) reproduction takes place in two ways, namely, by means of eggs and by a process of budding with or without separation from the parent of the product of the latter, which is often very different from that of the egg. The individuality of the species is represented by the whole of the form produced between two sexual reproductions; and these forms, which are apparently individual animals, have been called zooids.
------
Ciliophora|985505827
1c1
< The ciliates (Ciliophora) are one of the most important groups of [[Protista]], common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, soils - with a few parasitic members.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  They belong to a group called the [[Alveolates]], along with the [[Dinoflagellates]] and [[Apicomplexa]].
---
> The ciliates (Ciliophora, Infusoria) are one of the most important groups of [[Protista]], common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, soils - with a few parasitic members.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  They belong to a group called the [[Alveolates]], along with the [[Dinoflagellates]] and [[Apicomplexa]].
35c35
< ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
---
> ** Subclass [[Plagiopylia]]
------
Larrys_Text|985506185
19c19
< ::[[ethics]] -- MetaEthics/Naturalism MetaEthics/NonNaturalism MetaEthics/NonCognitivism  -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
---
> ::[[ethics]] -- [[meta-ethics]] -- [[ethical naturalism]] -- [[ethical non-naturalism]] -- [[non-cognitivism]] -- TheoryOfValue -- TheoryOfConduct
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985506210
15c15
< ALGAE  A class of plants including the ordinary sea-weeds and the filamentous fresh-water weeds. 
---
> [[Alga|ALGAE]]  A class of plants including the ordinary sea-weeds and the filamentous fresh-water weeds. 
145c145
< FUNGI (Sing  FUNGUS). A class of cellular plants, of which Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Moulds, are familiar examples. 
---
> [[Fungi|FUNGI]] (Sing  FUNGUS). A class of cellular plants, of which Mushrooms, Toadstools, and Moulds, are familiar examples. 
191c191
< INFUSORIA  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth.
---
> [[Ciliophora|INFUSORIA]]  A class of microscopic Animalcules, so called from their having originally been observed in infusions of vegetable matters. They consist of a gelatinous material enclosed in a delicate membrane, the whole or part of which is furnished with short vibrating hairs (called cilia), by means of which the animalcules swim through the water or convey the minute particles of their food to the orifice of the mouth.
217c217
< MAMMALIA  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus).
---
> [[Mammalia|MAMMALIA]]  The highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the Whales, and Man, and characterised by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (Mammoe, Mammary glands) of the mother. A striking difference in embryonic development has led to the division of this class into two great groups; in one of these, when the embryo has attained a certain stage, a vascular connection, called the placenta, is formed between the embryo and the mother; in the other this is wanting, and the young are produced in a very incomplete state. The former, including the greater part of the class, are called Placental mammals; the latter, or Aplacental mammals, include the Marsupials and Monotremes (Ornithorhynchus).
223c223
< MARSUPIALS  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA).
---
> [[Marsupial|MARSUPIALS]]  An order of Mammalia in which the young are born in a very incomplete state of development, and carried by the mother, while sucking, in a ventral pouch (marsupium), such as the Kangaroos, Opossums, &c. (see MAMMALIA).
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985506634
417c417
< UNGULATA  Hoofed quadrupeds.
---
> [[Ungulate|UNGULATA]]  Hoofed quadrupeds.
------
Requested_articles|985513096
18c18
< [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]]
---
> [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]] -- [[Acoustics]]
------
Sea|985515694
2c2
< [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]]
---
> [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]] -- [[North Sea]] 
5c5
< [[Caspian Sea]] -- [[Aral Sea]]
---
> [[Caspian Sea]] -- [[Aral Sea]]
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|985515881
1,2c1,2
< Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkowski born on April 4 in Russia,  1932, died december 28, 1986 in France.
< Director, Writer, Actor
---
> Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkowski born on April 4 in [[Russia]],  1932, died december 28, 1986 in [[France]].
> Director, Writer, [[Actor]]
4c4
< Famous Films:
---
> Famous [[Film]]s:
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|985515913
2c2
< Director, Writer, [[Actor]]
---
> Director, Writer, [[Actors|Actor]].
------
Cult_Film|985516103
7c7
< 
---
> :[[James Bond]] series
------
Actors|985516203
0a1,2
> An actress is a male that acts in [[film]], [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]]. 
> 
------
Actors|985516220
1c1
< An actress is a male that acts in [[film]], [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]]. 
---
> An actor is a male that acts in [[film]], [[television]], [[theater]], or [[radio]]. 
------
Berlin_Film_Festival|985516399
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former sovjet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears. 
> 
> 
> Their homepage is at http://www.berlinale.de 
> 
> List of Winners:
> 
> :[[/Golden Bear]]
> :[[/Honorary Golden Bear]]
> :[[/Berlinale Camera]]
------
James_Bond|985516636
1c1,23
< A sophisticated secred agent spy character appearing in [[Ian Flemming]]'s books and in numerous movies.
---
> A sophisticated british secret agent spy character appearing in [[Ian Flemming]]'s books and in numerous movies.
> 
> '''[[Film]]s'''
> 
> [[/Dr. No]]
> [[/From Russia With Love ]]
> [[/Goldfinger]] 
> [[/Thunderball]]
> [[/You Only Live Twice]] 
> [[/On Her Majestys Secret Service]] 
> [[/Diamonds Are Forever]] 
> [[/Live and Let Die]]
> [[/The Man with the Golden Gun ]]
> [[/The Spy Who Loved Me]]
> [[/Moonraker]]
> [[/For Your Eyes Only]]
> [[/Octopussy]] 
> [[/A View to a Kill]]
> [[/The Living Daylights]] 
> [[/Licence to Kill]] 
> [[/Golden Eye]] 
> [[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] 
> [[/The World is Not Enough ]]
------
James_Bond|985516688
5,23c5,23
< [[/Dr. No]]
< [[/From Russia With Love ]]
< [[/Goldfinger]] 
< [[/Thunderball]]
< [[/You Only Live Twice]] 
< [[/On Her Majestys Secret Service]] 
< [[/Diamonds Are Forever]] 
< [[/Live and Let Die]]
< [[/The Man with the Golden Gun ]]
< [[/The Spy Who Loved Me]]
< [[/Moonraker]]
< [[/For Your Eyes Only]]
< [[/Octopussy]] 
< [[/A View to a Kill]]
< [[/The Living Daylights]] 
< [[/Licence to Kill]] 
< [[/Golden Eye]] 
< [[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] 
< [[/The World is Not Enough ]]
---
> :[[/Dr. No]]
> :[[/From Russia With Love ]]
> :[[/Goldfinger]] 
> :[[/Thunderball]]
> :[[/You Only Live Twice]] 
> :[[/On Her Majestys Secret Service]] 
> :[[/Diamonds Are Forever]] 
> :[[/Live and Let Die]]
> :[[/The Man with the Golden Gun ]]
> :[[/The Spy Who Loved Me]]
> :[[/Moonraker]]
> :[[/For Your Eyes Only]]
> :[[/Octopussy]] 
> :[[/A View to a Kill]]
> :[[/The Living Daylights]] 
> :[[/Licence to Kill]] 
> :[[/Golden Eye]] 
> :[[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] 
> :[[/The World is Not Enough ]]
------
Berlin_Film_Festival|985516780
1c1
< One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former sovjet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears. 
---
> One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 
------
Izabella_Scorupco|985516947
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Appeared as a 'bond girl' in the [[James Bond]] [[film]] [[James Bond/Goldeneye|Goldeneye]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged|985518967
4a5,6
> <table><tr><td>
> 
19c21
< ----
---
> </td><td>
31a34
> </td></tr></table>
------
Atlas_Shrugged|985518983
21c21
< </td><td>
---
> </td><td valign=top>
------
Atlas_Shrugged|985519010
21c21
< </td><td valign=top>
---
> </td><td valign=top width=25%>
------
Atlas_Shrugged|985519030
4a5,6
> ----
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|985519055
39a40
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519107
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Plot summary
> Dagny Taggart visits the construction site of the Rio Norte Line near the Wyatt oil fields.  Construction is being supervised by Ben Nealy, who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets Ellis Wyatt who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  Rearden is also on hand, designing a Rearden Metal bridge to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Section161|party]] had never happened.
> 
> Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to Minnesota before heading to New York.  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no 
> 
> * Setting
> Laying of the new Rio Norte Line track near the Wyatt oil fields in Colorado.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519278
2c2
< Dagny Taggart visits the construction site of the Rio Norte Line near the Wyatt oil fields.  Construction is being supervised by Ben Nealy, who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets Ellis Wyatt who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  Rearden is also on hand, designing a Rearden Metal bridge to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Section161|party]] had never happened.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
4c4
< Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to Minnesota before heading to New York.  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no 
---
> Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[Atlas Shrugged/Minnesota]] before heading to [[Atlas Shrugged/New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
7c7
< Laying of the new Rio Norte Line track near the Wyatt oil fields in Colorado.
---
> Laying of the new [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt oil fields]] in [Atlas Shrugged/Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519323
2c2
< [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
7c7
< Laying of the new [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt oil fields]] in [Atlas Shrugged/Colorado]].
---
> Laying of the new [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [Atlas Shrugged/Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519382
2c2
< [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519458
2c2
< [[Atlas Shrugged/Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[Atlas Shrugged/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[Atlas Shrugged/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[Atlas Shrugged/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[Atlas Shrugged/Section161|party]] had never happened.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[/Rearden Metal bridge|Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[/Section161|party]] had never happened.
4c4
< Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[Atlas Shrugged/Minnesota]] before heading to [[Atlas Shrugged/New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
---
> Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[/Minnesota]] before heading to [[/New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
7c7
< Laying of the new [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [Atlas Shrugged/Colorado]].
---
> Laying of the new [[/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [/Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519488
4c4
< Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[/Minnesota]] before heading to [[/New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
---
> Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[/Minnesota|Minnesota]] before heading to [[/New York|New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
7c7
< Laying of the new [[/Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [/Colorado]].
---
> Laying of the new [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [/Colorado|Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519497
7c7
< Laying of the new [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [/Colorado|Colorado]].
---
> Laying of the new [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] track near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]] in [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519651
7a8,21
> 
> * Characters
>  [[/Chief engineer]]
>  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
>  [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]]
>  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]]
>  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - mentioned
>  [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]]
>  [[/Airport attendent 1|Airport attendent 1]]
>  [[/McNamara|McNamara]] - mentioned.
>  [[/Mr. Coleman|Mr. Coleman]] - mentioned.
>  [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]]
>  [[/Nat Taggarts son|Nat Taggart's son]] - mentioned.
>  [[/Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] - mentioned
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519663
10c10
<  [[/Chief engineer]]
---
>  [[/Chief engineer|Chief engineer]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985519735
10c10
<  [[/Chief engineer|Chief engineer]]
---
>  [[/Chief Engineer 2|Chief Engineer 2]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|985519885
1a2
>  [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]]
20a22
>  [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]]
34a37
>  [[/Airport attendent 1|Airport attendent 1]]
39a43
>  [[/Chief Engineer 2|Chief Engineer 2]]
52a57
>  [[/Mr. Coleman|Mr. Coleman]]
58a64
>  [[/Nat Taggarts son|Nat Taggart's son]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Ben_Nealy|985520199
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ben Nealy is a railroad contractor who [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hires to replace the track on the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country.  Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power.  He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inabillity to organize the project and to make decisions.  He relies on Dagny and [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around.
> 
> Ben Nealy appears in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Mowan|985520553
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mr. Mowan is the president of the [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut.  He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society.  He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial.
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hires Mr. Mowan to produce switches made of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract.
> 
> Mr. Mowan appears in:
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|985520604
2a3
>  [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Mowen|985520656
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mr. Mowen is the president of the [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut.  He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society.  He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial.
> 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract.
> 
> Mr. Mowen appears in:
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985520701
19c19
<  [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]]
---
>  [[/Mr. Mowen|Mr. Mowen]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|985520721
22c22
<  [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]]
---
>  [[/Mr. Mowen|Mr. Mowen]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|985520784
37c37
<  [[/Airport attendent 1|Airport attendent 1]]
---
>  [[/Airport attendant 1|Airport attendant 1]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985520815
9a10,11
>  [[/Airport attendant 1|Airport attendant 1]]
>  [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]]
12d13
<  [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]]
16d16
<  [[/Airport attendent 1|Airport attendent 1]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Airport_attendant_1|985520954
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An airport attendant at the airport near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  
> In [[/Section171|Section171]] he tells [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] had left for [[/New York|New York]].  Rearden had told Dagny he was flying to [[/Minnesota|Minnesota]].
------
TCP-IP|985520975
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The acronym TCP-IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol - Internet Protocol.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer_2|985521332
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The chief engineer of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] at a time when all the competent men have disappeared.  Since he can only imitate, and not innovate, he is unenthusiastic about having to work with Rearden Metal.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tells him to design a new bridge to be built with [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but rejects his design because it is a copy of a steel bridge that does not take into account the properties of the new alloy.  He is offended by this because his bridge was a good copy of the bridges he was taught to imitate.
> 
> He appears in  [[/Section171|Section171]].  
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer_2|985521367
1c1
< The chief engineer of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] at a time when all the competent men have disappeared.  Since he can only imitate, and not innovate, he is unenthusiastic about having to work with Rearden Metal.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tells him to design a new bridge to be built with [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], but rejects his design because it is a copy of a steel bridge that does not take into account the properties of the new alloy.  He is offended by this because his bridge was a good copy of the bridges he was taught to imitate.
---
> The chief engineer of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] at a time when all the competent men have disappeared.  Since he can only imitate, and not innovate, he is unenthusiastic about having to work with [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]].  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tells him to design a new bridge to be built with Rearden Metal, but rejects his design because it is a copy of a steel bridge that does not take into account the properties of the new alloy.  He is offended by this because his bridge was a good copy of the bridges he was taught to imitate.
3c3
< He appears in  [[/Section171|Section171]].  
---
> He appears in  [[/Section171|Section171]].  
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Coleman|985521506
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An employee of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] mentioned in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Nat_Taggarts_son|985521606
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mentioned in [[/Section171|Section171]].  A bridge that was built in the days of Nat Taggart's son is falling to pieces.  It is the bridge that will be replaced by the [[/Rearden Metal bridge|Rearden Metal bridge]].
------
James_Bond|985522655
5,9c5,9
< :[[/Dr. No]]
< :[[/From Russia With Love ]]
< :[[/Goldfinger]] 
< :[[/Thunderball]]
< :[[/You Only Live Twice]] 
---
> :[[/Dr. No]] (1962)
> :[[/From Russia With Love]] (1963)
> :[[/Goldfinger]] (1964)
> :[[/Thunderball]] (1965)
> :[[/You Only Live Twice]] (1967) 
11,13c11,13
< :[[/Diamonds Are Forever]] 
< :[[/Live and Let Die]]
< :[[/The Man with the Golden Gun ]]
---
> :[[/Diamonds Are Forever]] (1971)
> :[[/Live and Let Die]] (1973)
> :[[/The Man with the Golden Gun]] (1974)
15,16c15,16
< :[[/Moonraker]]
< :[[/For Your Eyes Only]]
---
> :[[/Moonraker]] (1979)
> :[[/For Your Eyes Only]] (1981)
18,23c18,25
< :[[/A View to a Kill]]
< :[[/The Living Daylights]] 
< :[[/Licence to Kill]] 
< :[[/Golden Eye]] 
< :[[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] 
< :[[/The World is Not Enough ]]
---
> :[[/A View to a Kill]] (1985)
> :[[/The Living Daylights]] (1987) 
> :[[/Licence to Kill]] (1989) 
> :[[/GoldenEye]] (1995) 
> :[[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] (1997)
> :[[/The World is Not Enough ]] (1999)
> 
> Apart from the movies, there are also some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies
------
Nicolas_Cage|985522859
3c3
< /Filmography
---
> He won an [[Academy Award]] for [[Leaving Las Vegas]]
4a5
> /Filmography
------
North_Sea|985533712
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Situated off the west coast of [[Norway]] and the East coast of the [[British Isles]]. There is a substancial amount of [[oil]] under the seabed.
------
Geography|985533789
3c3,5
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]]
> 
> [[Demography]]
------
James_Bond|985533871
20a21,23
> 
> :starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:
> 
25c28
< Apart from the movies, there are also some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies
---
> Apart from the movies, there are also some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies
------
James_Bond|985533892
22c22
< :starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:
---
> ''':starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:'''
------
James_Bond|985533910
22c22
< ''':starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:'''
---
> :'''starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:'''
------
Sigmund_Freud|985539938
1c1
< Sigmund Freud was an Austrian psychologist of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's mind into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [[Id]] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
---
> Sigmund Freud was an Austrian physician of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Trained as a neurologist, he founded a branch of psychiatry and psychotherapy called "Psychoanalysis." He believed that humans were driven by several primary desires, of which he came to place 'libido' as the foremost.  He described libido as the sex drive, and over time, became somewhat fascinated by it.  He and his contemporaries divided man's mind into 'sections', so to speak.  There was the [[Ego]] (the actual manifesting personality), the [[Superego]] (The internal Parent, or authority on what is Right and Wrong) and the [[Id]] (the inner child who simply Wants things). He also liked to differentiate the [[conscious mind]] (of which you are aware) from the [[subconscious]] or [[unconscious]] mind (which affects you, but of which you are unaware).  For example, he ascribed many of the taboos found in primitive tribal cultures around the world as being derived from attempts to prevent incest (Totem and Taboo, 1913).  He studied various forms of mental illness in an effort to understand the mind.  In the end, his work has been partially discredited, as modern psychology no longer holds so severely to the idea of the sex drive as being all-powerful over us.  His 'obsession' is mocked somewhat today, as is evident by the phrase "a Freudian slip," referring to a mispronunciation or verbal mistake which turns an ordinary word into something with a sexual connotation.
------
Chess|985546635
2c2
< It is especially popular for it's complexity.
---
> It is especially popular for its complexity.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985547207
1c1
< The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[religion|religious]] opinions. Technologies stemming from advances in [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] progresses and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
---
> The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humankind's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millenia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have often modified that world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we as humans see ourselves, often apparently conflicting with [[religion|religious]] opinions. New technologies have allowed us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. HST aims to understand how [[science]] and [[technology]] progress and how theories are formed by studying the lessons of the past, while simultaneously considering the socio-political and cultural mileau within which scientists and technologists work.
22a23
> ## Should this perhaps be chronological?
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985547405
7,8c7,8
< #[[Historiography]]
< #[[Science]]
---
> #[[/Historiography]]
> #[[/Science]]
10,11c10,11
< ###[[History of Biology]]
< ####[[History of Evolutionary Thought]]
---
> ###[[/Biology]]
> ####[[/Evolutionary Thought]]
13,16c13,16
< ####[[History of Genetics]]
< #####[[Discovery of DNA]] 
< ###[[History of Paleontology]]
< ###[[History of Biochemistry]]
---
> ####[[/Genetics]]
> #####[[/Discovery of DNA]] 
> ###[[/Paleontology]]
> ###[[/Biochemistry]]
18,22c18,22
< ##[[Psychology]] and Allied Sciences
< ##[[Natural Sciences]]
< ###[[History of Chemistry]]
< ###[[History of Physics]]
< #[[History of Technology]]
---
> ##[[/Psychology]] and Allied Sciences
> ##[[/Natural Sciences]]
> ###[[/Chemistry]]
> ###[[/Physics]]
> #[[/Technology]]
------
Rhetoric|985547664
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term "rhetoric" has developed a rather unsavory reputation. It is generally used to describe words without substance, language tricks used to convince people without basis. This idea of rhetoric, however, is not true to its philosophical basis.
> 
> I'll tell you more later...
------
Jmlynch|985547772
1c1
< John M. Lynch
---
> <h1>John M. Lynch</h1>
3c3
< Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], I have shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include Victorian responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "Argument from Design" as "Intelligent Design Theory". 
---
> Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], I have shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include [[Victorian]] responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "[[Argument from Design]]" as "[[Intelligent Design Theory]]". 
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985551054
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The second largest [[ocean]], the Atlantic Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the [[Earth]]'s surface. It separates the [[continents]] of [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the [[east]] from those of [[North America]] and [[South America]] to the [[west]]. The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek]] [[mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985551175
1c1,3
< The second largest [[ocean]], the Atlantic Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the [[Earth]]'s surface. It separates the [[continents]] of [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the [[east]] from those of [[North America]] and [[South America]] to the [[west]]. The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek]] [[mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
---
> The second largest [[ocean]], the Atlantic Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the [[Earth]]'s surface. It separates the [[continents]] of [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the [[east]] from those of [[North America]] and [[South America]] to the [[west]]. 
> 
> The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek]] [[mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
------
Requested_articles|985551545
14,16c14
< [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- 
< [[Linear equations]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  -- 
< [[Quadratic equations]] --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
32c30
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[GPS]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985551871
3c3
< The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek]] [[mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
---
> The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
------
Greek_mythology|985551968
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek mythology]]
------
Greek_mythology|985551977
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Greek mythology]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek Mythology]]
------
Pornography|985552696
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk|985553434
2c2,3
< ----
---
> ----
> Two thoughts.  First, I think there should definitely be categories for failed models - so pre-evolutionary thought beside evolutionary thought, neptunism beside continental drift, and so forth.  Those things are interesting.  Second, I'm going to suggest technology not be chronological - Titanium and Iron-working have more in common in my mind than Titanium and Aerodynamics. -- [[JG|Josh Grosse]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk|985553461
3c3
< Two thoughts.  First, I think there should definitely be categories for failed models - so pre-evolutionary thought beside evolutionary thought, neptunism beside continental drift, and so forth.  Those things are interesting.  Second, I'm going to suggest technology not be chronological - Titanium and Iron-working have more in common in my mind than Titanium and Aerodynamics. -- [[JG|Josh Grosse]]
---
> Two thoughts.  First, I think there should definitely be categories for failed models - so pre-evolutionary thought beside evolutionary thought, neptunism beside continental drift, and so forth.  Those things are interesting.  Second, I'm going to suggest technology not be chronological - Titanium and Iron-working have more in common in my mind than Titanium and Aerodynamics. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
SandBox|985555885
0a1,2
> So is this a link? [[Philosophy]]
> 
------
SandBox|985555950
1c1
< So is this a link? [[Philosophy]]
---
> So is this a link? [[Philosophy]] And what if I want to link to a new page [[Like_this_one]]
------
Like_this_one|985555986
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> But now it exists!
------
Dinoflagellates|985556789
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta) are a large group of [[flagellate]] protozoa.  Most forms are marine and make up an important class of plankton, with photosynthetic forms more common than any other [[alga|algae]] save the [[diatoms]].  A few are found in freshwater or as endosymbionts (''zooxanthellae'') of other creatures, which may even by dependent on their presence.
> 
> About half of all dinoflagellates contain chloroplasts.  These are pigmented similar to those of the [[stramenopiles]], containing chlorophylls a and c, and are surrounded by three membranes so must have been taken from an ingested cell.  Colorless forms feed on other protozoa; the largest dinoflagellate, ''[[Noctiluca]]'', is 2 mm across and is big enough to eat fish eggs.  ''Noctiluca'' is also among a few species which exhibit bioluminescence - they produce light through the oxidation of luciferin.  From this comes the name Pyrrhophyta: fire plants.
> 
> The name dinoflagellate refers to the whirling motion the cells sometimes perform.  Most cells have two unequal flagella, one of which extends posteriorly and propels the cell, and the other circling the cell transversely, used for turning and maneuvering.  Both lie in grooves, called the ''sulcus'' and the ''cingulum'', respectively.  In most forms the remainder of the cell is covered by plates of cellulose armor, supported by the alveoli.
> 
> Normal dinoflagellates are haploid and usually reproduce by fission, although sexual reproduction does occur.  The zygotes are motile and under adverse conditions form cysts, which are found as common microfossils since the [[Triassic]] and reach back at least to the [[Silurian]].  Some of the older acritarchs may also represent dinoflagellates, and other evidence suggests the group reaches back to the precambrian.
------
RulesToConsider|985557012
11c11
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, and OprgaG
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, OprgaG, and [[Invictus]]
23c23
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]] [[Invictus]]
53c53
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy TimShell and JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy TimShell and JerryMuelver 
------
Dinoflagellates|985557104
5c5
< The name dinoflagellate refers to the whirling motion the cells sometimes perform.  Most cells have two unequal flagella, one of which extends posteriorly and propels the cell, and the other circling the cell transversely, used for turning and maneuvering.  Both lie in grooves, called the ''sulcus'' and the ''cingulum'', respectively.  In most forms the remainder of the cell is covered by plates of cellulose armor, supported by the alveoli.
---
> The name dinoflagellate refers to the whirling motion the cells sometimes perform.  Most cells have two unequal flagella, one of which extends posteriorly and propels the cell, and the other circling the cell transversely, used for turning and maneuvering.  Both lie in grooves, called the ''sulcus'' and the ''cingulum'', respectively.  In most forms the remainder of the cell is covered by plates of cellulose armor, supported by vesicles called alveoli - these unite dinoflagellates with other [[alveolates]].
7c7
< Normal dinoflagellates are haploid and usually reproduce by fission, although sexual reproduction does occur.  The zygotes are motile and under adverse conditions form cysts, which are found as common microfossils since the [[Triassic]] and reach back at least to the [[Silurian]].  Some of the older acritarchs may also represent dinoflagellates, and other evidence suggests the group reaches back to the precambrian.
---
> Normal dinoflagellates are haploid and usually reproduce by fission, although sexual reproduction does occur.  The zygotes are motile and under adverse conditions form cysts, which are found as common microfossils since the [[Triassic]] and reach back at least to the [[Silurian]].  Some of the older acritarchs may also represent dinoflagellates, and other evidence suggests the group reaches back to the precambrian.
------
Pornography|985557683
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Magazines:
> 
> :[[Playboy]]
> :[[Penthouse]]
> :[[Hustler]]
> 
> Personalities:
> 
> :[[Hugh Hefner]]
> :[[Larry Flint]]
> :[[John Holmes]]
------
Alveolates|985558612
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The alveolates include several significant and diverse groups of [[Protista]] whose relationships to one another have only recently been recognized on the basis of ultrastructural and molecular studies.  The main lines of alveolates are the following:
> 
> * The [[Ciliophora]], including many common protozoa: ''Paramecium'', ''Stentor'', etc.
> * The [[Apicomplexa]], including mostly parasitic forms
> * The [[Dinoflagellates]], including mostly marine zoo- and phytoflagellates
> 
> The flagellate ''[[Colponema]]'' is also placed here by most workers.  Some molecular studies have suggested that the [[Haplosporidia]], a group of parasites on mostly marine invertebrates, might belong here too, but this is not supported by ultrastructure.
> 
> The main characteristic shared throughout the group is the presence of cortical alveoli, abutting sacs that form a continuous layer underneath the cell membrane and help support it.  In ciliates, for instance, the alveoli form a flexible pellicle, and in dinoflagellates they often give rise to armor plates.  Alveolates also characteristically have [[mitochondria]] with tubular cristae and flagella, when present, are ultrastructurally distinct.
------
Canada|985559385
5c5
< As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  The have been some political arguments about a possible separation with the French speaking majority in [[Quebec]].
---
> As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  There have been political arguments about a possible separation with the French speaking majority in [[Quebec]] throughout the country's history.
------
Beryllium/Talk|985560006
9a10,16
> ----
> 
> Yeah, I think this isn't that hard to deal with.  We can make some modifications to this to be extra-safe.
> 
> What is the original source?  Perhaps someone can go to another source and confirm the information and add a few more tidbits.
> 
> It's just facts, and if someone wants to sue us over something like this, then it will just be good publicity for us and bad publicity for them.  (And, by the way, since it is my money at stake, I'm the only one who gets to decide about these risks.)  ;-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Literature|985560467
6a7
> * [[Douglas Adams]]
7a9
> * [[Jane Austin]]
25a28
> * [[J.D. Salinger]]
------
Pornography|985560504
0a1,6
> Pornography is (speaking loosely) the depiction of sexual behavior in film, novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term erotica.
> 
> Legally speaking, pornography is a wider concept than obscenity.  Much pornography is not legally obscene.
> 
> /History
> 
5a12
> (what about other countries?  these are all American)
11c18
< :[[John Holmes]]
---
> :[[John Holmes]]
------
Pornography|985560525
1c1
< Pornography is (speaking loosely) the depiction of sexual behavior in film, novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term erotica.
---
> Pornography is (speaking loosely) the explicit or graphic depiction of sexual behavior in film, novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term erotica.
------
Gods|985560672
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Egyptian gods
>  Anubis
>  Buto
>  Chem
>  Chensit 
>  Chnum
>  Djebauti
>  Dua
>  Duamutef
>  Harakhti
>  Hathor
>  Heh
>  Hike
>  Horus
>  Imiut
>  Imset 
>  Isis
>  Maahes
>  Ma'at 
>  Menhit
>  Qetesh
>  Sai
>  Thoth
> 
> * Greek gods
>  Aphrodite
>  Apollo
>  Ares
>  Artemis
>  Athena
>  Demeter
>  Dionysius
>  Hades
>  Hephaestus
>  Hera
>  Hestia
>  Poseidon
>  Zeus
> 
> * Norse gods
>  Loki
>  Odin
> 
> * Roman gods
>  Janus
>  Jupiter
>  Mercury
>  Neptune
>  Saturn
>  Venus
------
Gods|985560757
2,23c2,23
<  Anubis
<  Buto
<  Chem
<  Chensit 
<  Chnum
<  Djebauti
<  Dua
<  Duamutef
<  Harakhti
<  Hathor
<  Heh
<  Hike
<  Horus
<  Imiut
<  Imset 
<  Isis
<  Maahes
<  Ma'at 
<  Menhit
<  Qetesh
<  Sai
<  Thoth
---
>  [[Anubis]]
>  [[Buto]]
>  [[Chem]]
>  [[Chensit]]
>  [[Chnum]]
>  [[Djebauti]]
>  [[Dua]]
>  [[Duamutef]]
>  [[Harakhti]]
>  [[Hathor]]
>  [[Heh]]
>  [[Hike]]
>  [[Horus]]
>  [[Imiut]]
>  [[Imset]]
>  [[Isis]]
>  [[Maahes]]
>  [[Maat|Ma'at]]
>  [[Menhit]]
>  [[Qetesh]]
>  [[Sai]]
>  [[Thoth]]
26,38c26,38
<  Aphrodite
<  Apollo
<  Ares
<  Artemis
<  Athena
<  Demeter
<  Dionysius
<  Hades
<  Hephaestus
<  Hera
<  Hestia
<  Poseidon
<  Zeus
---
>  [[Aphrodite]]
>  [[Apollo]]
>  [[Ares]]
>  [[Artemis]]
>  [[Athena]]
>  [[Demeter]]
>  [[Dionysius]]
>  [[Hades]]
>  [[Hephaestus]]
>  [[Hera]]
>  [[Hestia]]
>  [[Poseidon]]
>  [[Zeus]]
41,42c41,42
<  Loki
<  Odin
---
>  [[Loki]]
>  [[Odin]]
45,50c45,50
<  Janus
<  Jupiter
<  Mercury
<  Neptune
<  Saturn
<  Venus
---
>  [[Janus]]
>  [[Jupiter]]
>  [[Mercury]]
>  [[Neptune]]
>  [[Saturn]]
>  [[Venus]]
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Talk|985560790
8c8,13
< ----
---
> ----
> Wow, this is fantastic.  :-)  I would recommend that we go through later and put some introductory context remark at the front of each chapter.  Perhaps some language like this:
> 
> "What follows is the full text of [[Charles Darwin]]'s famous work [[The Origin of Species]].  You may want to also start with our main index page for [[evolution]]."
> 
> That way, when people accidentally surf in from search engines that index this stuff, they will be able to find what they might be looking for.
------
Charles_Darwin|985560837
1c1,3
< British Naturalist (1809 -1882). Contrary to popular opinion, Darwin did not "discover" [[evolution]] as it was accepted by many since the beginning of the 1800's. Instead, he provided the first really coherent theory of how evolution occurs (via his mechanism of [[natural selection]]). Other important aspects of Darwin's overall theory were; [[common descent]], [[sexual selection]], [[gradualism]], and [[pangenesis]].
---
> British Naturalist (1809 -1882). Contrary to popular opinion, Darwin did not "discover" [[evolution]] as it was accepted by many since the beginning of the 1800's. Instead, he provided the first really coherent theory of how evolution occurs (via his mechanism of [[natural selection]]). Other important aspects of Darwin's overall theory were; [[common descent]], [[sexual selection]], [[gradualism]], and [[pangenesis]].
> 
> Darwin's most famous work is [[The Origin of Species]].
------
Greek_Mythology|985560913
9c9,12
< [[Zeus]] -- [[Hera]] -- [[Poseidon]] -- [[Hades]] -- [[Demeter]] -- [[Hestia]] -- [[Athena]] -- [[Ares]] -- [[Hephaestus]] -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Artemis]] -- [[Aphrodite]] -- [[Dionysius]] -- [[Prometheus]]
---
> [[Zeus]] -- [[Hera]] -- [[Poseidon]] -- [[Hades]] -- [[Demeter]] -- [[Hestia]] -- [[Athena]] -- [[Ares]] -- [[Hephaestus]] -- [[Apollo]] -- [[Artemis]] -- [[Aphrodite]] -- [[Dionysius]]
> 
> Some important titans:
> [[Atlas]] -- [[Cronus]] -- [[Prometheus]]
------
Greek_Mythology|985560926
11a12
> 
------
The_Origin_of_Species|985561396
3c3
< Charles Darwin, M.A.,
---
> [[Charles Darwin]], M.A.,
29c29
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
French_language|985561684
1c1
< One of the [[Romance languages]], spoken by more than 100 Millions people in several countries outside of [[France]], and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
---
> One of the [[Romance languages]], spoken by more than 100 million people in several countries outside of [[France]], and official or administrative language in various communities and organizations (such as CEE, CIO, ...). 
------
French_language|985562017
3c3
< Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in today french.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic (frank) origin. 
---
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in the french of today.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic ([[frank]]) origin. 
------
HTML|985562067
3c3
< HTML generally appears in [[text file]]s stored on computers connected to the World Wide Web.  These files contain information in plain text mixed with <i>markup</i>, i.e., instructions for a [[web browser]] or other program on how to process the text.  There are three kinds of markup in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] that descibes the purpose of text (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup that describes the appearance of text (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup that links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;</code> will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link to the specified [[URL]].
---
> HTML generally appears in [[text file]]s stored on computers connected to the World Wide Web.  These files contain information in plain text mixed with <i>markup</i>, i.e., instructions for a [[web browser]] or other program on how to process the text.  There are three kinds of markup in HTML: <i>structural</i> [[markup]] that descibes the purpose of text (e.g., <code>&lt;h1&gt;Golf&lt;/h1&gt;</code> will cause a reader to treat "Golf" as a first-level heading), <i>presentational</i> markup that describes the appearance of text (e.g., <code>&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;</code> will render <b>boldface</b> text), and <i>hypertext</i> markup that links parts of the document to other documents (e.g., <code>&lt;a href="javascript:document.location=unescape('http://www.wikipedia.com/');" will render [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] as a link to the specified [[URL]].
5c5
< As with many Internet standards, the popularity and technological advancement of the World Wide Web grew much faster than standards bodies could track, so there are some incompatible proprietary versions of HTML still in use, though stadards are improving.
---
> As with many Internet standards, the popularity and technological advancement of the World Wide Web grew much faster than standards bodies could track, so there are some incompatible proprietary versions of HTML still in use, though standards are improving.
------
Pornography|985562100
1c1
< Pornography is (speaking loosely) the explicit or graphic depiction of sexual behavior in film, novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term erotica.
---
> Pornography is (speaking loosely) the explicit or graphic depiction of [[sexual behaviour]] in [[film]], novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term [[erotica]].
------
Sex|985562277
1c1
< Many species of living things exist in two or more forms that combine genetic material in order to reproduce.  This is called <i>sexual reproduction</i>.  Typically, a species will have two forms, called <i>male</i> and <i>female</i> (the female being the one that produces the larger [[gamete]]).  [[Fungi]] and some other organisms exist in more than two sexes, but still reproduce in pairs (any two differing sexes may reproduce).  The word <i>sex</i> is also used to refer to the physical acts related to sexual reproduction.  Some species are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction.
---
> Many species of living things exist in two or more forms that combine genetic material in order to reproduce.  This is called <i>sexual reproduction</i>.  Typically, a species will have two forms, called <i>male</i> and <i>female</i> (the female being the one that produces the larger [[gamete]]).  [[Fungi]] and some other organisms exist in more than two sexes, but still reproduce in pairs (any two differing sexes may reproduce).  The word <i>sex</i> is also used to refer to the physical acts related to [[sexual reproduction]].  Some species are capable of both sexual and [[asexual reproduction]].
------
Gods|985562594
1c1
< * Egyptian gods
---
>  <b>Egyptian gods</b>
25c25
< * Greek gods
---
>  <b>Greek gods</b>
40c40
< * Norse gods
---
>  <b>Norse gods</b>
44c44
< * Roman gods
---
>  <b>Roman gods</b>
50a51,54
> 
>  <b>Names for monotheistic God</b>
>  [[Allah]] - [[Islam]]
>  [[Yahveh]], [[Jehovah]] - [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]
------
Earth|985562759
3c3
< The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial Planet|terrestrial planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[magnetic field]], and a solid inner core.
---
> The interior of the Earth is, like the other [[Terrestrial planets|terrestrial planets]], divided into an outer silicaceous solid mantle and an inner nickel-iron core.  Our planet is big enough to have the core differentiated into an liquid outer core, which gives rise to a weak [[magnetic field]], and a solid inner core.
7c7
< The Earth is the only ''known'' place in the universe that supports [[Biology|life]], notably intelligent life including [[humans]] and to a lesser extent [[apes]], [[dolphins]], and maybe a few others.  Scientists have not ruled the existence of [[extraterrestrial life|life in other places in the universe]], and some think it likely.
---
> The Earth is the only ''known'' place in the universe that supports [[Biology|life]], notably intelligent life including [[humans]] and to a lesser extent [[apes]], [[dolphins]], and maybe a few others.  Scientists have not ruled the existence of [[extraterrestrial life|life in other places in the universe]], and some think it likely.
------
Stramenopiles|985562784
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The stramenopiles are one of the main groups of eukaryotes, including the giant multicellular brown algae, the planktonic diatoms, and most other [[alga|algae]] of similar pigmentation, as well as similar heterokont flagellates,  the fungus-like water molds and other colorless forms.  All forms have [[mitochondria]] with tubular cristae and show open mitosis.  The group is mainly distinguished, though, based on the characteristic structure that the flagella have when present.
> 
> A number of basal stramenopiles are [[flagellate|flagellates]], and multicellular forms still typically produce motile zoospores.  Almost all of these have two unequal flagella, one supporting tiny mastigonemes (hairs), and the other smooth and usually shorter.  These lie off to the side, and typically have four microtubule roots.  Such cells are called ''heterokont'', and are distinct to the group.  Also, mastigonemes whenever present have a unique tripartite structure.
> 
------
Law|985563046
6a7,9
> ''see also [[Crime]]''
> 
> 
------
Chemistry/peptides|985563059
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various of the amino acids.  How do peptides differ from proteins, which are also long chains of amino acids?; by virtue of their size.  Traditionally, those peptide chains which are short enough to make synthetically from constituent amino acids are called peptides rather than proteins.
> The limit to how long a peptide may now be made is slowly increasing, but once a chain is beyond about 75 residues (that is, amino acids)it is becoming the realm of protein chemistry.  So, the vast majority of peptides are 50 amino-acids or less in length, and naturally-ocurring proteins tend, at their smallest, to be measured in the hundreds of residues.
> Peptides occur in nature just like proteins, and are responsible for a bewildering array of functions, many of which are not yet understood
------
Requested_articles|985563126
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Associated_Steel|985563160
5a6
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|985563222
5a6
>  [[/Barton and Jones|Barton and Jones]]
------
Chemistry/peptides|985563276
1,3c1,3
< Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various of the amino acids.  How do peptides differ from proteins, which are also long chains of amino acids?; by virtue of their size.  Traditionally, those peptide chains which are short enough to make synthetically from constituent amino acids are called peptides rather than proteins.
< The limit to how long a peptide may now be made is slowly increasing, but once a chain is beyond about 75 residues (that is, amino acids)it is becoming the realm of protein chemistry.  So, the vast majority of peptides are 50 amino-acids or less in length, and naturally-ocurring proteins tend, at their smallest, to be measured in the hundreds of residues.
< Peptides occur in nature just like proteins, and are responsible for a bewildering array of functions, many of which are not yet understood
---
> Peptides are the family of molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various of the [[amino acid]]s.  How do peptides differ from [[protein]]s, which are also long chains of amino acids; by virtue of their size.  Traditionally, those peptide chains which are short enough to make synthetically from constituent amino acids are called peptides rather than proteins.
> The limit to how long a peptide may now be made is slowly increasing, but once a chain is beyond about 75 residues (that is, amino acids)it is becoming the realm of protein [[chemistry]].  So, the vast majority of peptides are 50 amino-acids or less in length, and naturally-ocurring proteins tend, at their smallest, to be measured in the hundreds of residues.
> Peptides occur in nature just like proteins, and are responsible for a bewildering array of functions, many of which are not yet understood.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Barton_and_Jones|985563323
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The company, located in [[/Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  They go bankrupt in the middle of the project.
> 
> Barton and James is mentioned in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/DAnconia_Copper|985563354
4a5
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|985563377
7a8
>  [[/Hammond Motors|Hammond Motors]]
------
Academy_Awards|985563454
4a5,6
> *[[/2000]]
> 
27c29
< *[[/Writing Screenplay Original|Writing - Screenplay - Original]]
---
> *[[/Writing Screenplay Original|Writing - Screenplay - Original]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Hammond_Motors|985563526
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A car company in Colorado.  They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears.
> 
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[/Colorado|Colorado]] in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Companies|985563568
8a9
>  [[/Incorporated Tool|Incorporated Tool]]
13a15
>  [[/Summit Casting|Summit Casting]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Incorporated_Tool|985563647
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A compant that is contracted to deliver drill heads to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] but who fail to do this.  It is mentioned in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Summit_Casting|985563787
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A company in [[/Illinois|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].  They go bamkrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[/Chicago|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again.
> 
> Summit Casting is mentioned in [[/Section171|Section171]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil|985563925
3c3,4
< Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[/Colorado|Colorado]] economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].
---
> Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[/Colorado|Colorado]] economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the [[/Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[/Colorado|Colorado]].  Afterwards, 
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[/Colorado|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Wyatt_Oil|985564002
4a5,9
> 
> Wyatt Oil is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section132|Section132]]
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Stramenopiles|985564002
4a5,20
> The primitively colorless stramenopiles include the following groups:
> * [[Bicosoecids]], a line of heterokont flagellates
> * [[Proteromonads]] and [[Opalines]], flagellates, the latter comprising multinucleate forms with flagella in rows across the body
> * [[Oomycota]] (water-molds) and [[Hypochytridiomycota]], forms similar to fungi
> * [[Labyrinthulids]] and [[Thraustochytrids]], two groups of [[slime mold|slime molds]]
> 
> After these, all stramenopiles are photosynthetic or secondarily colorless.  The chloroplasts contain the chlorophylls a and c and the pigment fucoxanthin.  They are bound by four membranes, suggesting that they are reduced form of some endosymbiont [[alga]], but unlike the chloroplasts in the [[cryptomonads]] there is never any remaining nucleomorph.  The main colored lines include:
> 
> * [[Chrysophyta]] (golden algae) - ''Paraphyletic''
> * [[Diatoms]]
> * [[Raphidophyta]]
> * [[Eustigmatophyta]]
> * [[Xanthophyta]] (yellow-green algae)
> * [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae)
> 
> These last two lists ought to be revised, completed, and probably expanded into surveys.  Right now, though, I'm going to leave them, and would need to know more about golden algae anyways to split them up properly.
------
Thriller_Film|985565133
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Natural Born Killers]]
------
Natural_Born_Killers|985565281
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Juliette Lewis]] and [[Woody Harrelson]] alias Micky and Mallory Knox on a killing spree.
------
Natural_Born_Killers|985565323
1c1,3
< [[Juliette Lewis]] and [[Woody Harrelson]] alias Micky and Mallory Knox on a killing spree.
---
> A film directed by [[Oliver Stone]].
> 
> [[Juliette Lewis]] and [[Woody Harrelson]] alias Micky and Mallory Knox on a killing spree.
------
CliffordAdams|985566278
5c5,7
< CliffordAdams is a hero to me for helping us with this project, and for his excellent software.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> CliffordAdams is a hero to me for helping us with this project, and for his excellent software.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> Hey, Cliff, on the announcements page you threw out a couple of neat searches.  I looked through the UseModWiki, though, and couldn't find a list of them anywhere.  Is there any documentation for these nifty features? --[[Josh Grosse]]
------
LangueFrancaise|985566812
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT http://francaise.wikipedia.com/
> 
16c18
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
LangueFrancaise|985566825
1,2d0
< #REDIRECT http://francaise.wikipedia.com/
< 
------
Australia|985566830
1,2c1,2
< Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of NewZealand, and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
< 
---
> Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of New Zealand, and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
> It is the seventh and smallest of the continents, being both an island and a continent.
5c5
< Australia's captial is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
---
> Australia's capital is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
------
Dinoflagellates|985566983
1c1
< The dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta) are a large group of [[flagellate]] protozoa.  Most forms are marine and make up an important class of plankton, with photosynthetic forms more common than any other [[alga|algae]] save the [[diatoms]].  A few are found in freshwater or as endosymbionts (''zooxanthellae'') of other creatures, which may even by dependent on their presence.
---
> The dinoflagellates (Pyrrhophyta, Dinophyta, Dinoflagellata) are a large group of [[flagellate]] protozoa.  Most forms are marine and make up an important class of plankton, with photosynthetic forms more common than any other [[alga|algae]] save the [[diatoms]].  A few are found in freshwater or as endosymbionts (''zooxanthellae'') of other creatures, which may even by dependent on their presence.
7a8,9
> 
> The organisms that cause [[red tide|red tides]] are dinoflagellates.  Other well-known forms include ''Peridinium'', ''Ceratium'', and ''Gonyaulax''.
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985567624
44,55c44,46
< <U>Celtic states</U>
< *[[Rheged]]
< *[[Cornwall]]
< *[[Devon]]
< *[[Seisyllwg]]
< *[[Camelot]] = fictional
< *[[Gwynedd]]
< *[[Powys]]
< *[[Dalriada]]
< *[[Galloway]]
< 
< <U>Angle, Saxon & Jute states</U>
---
> <U>Angle, Saxon, & Jute states</U>
> *[[Essex]]
> *[[Kent]]
60,62c51
< *[[Wessex]]
< *[[Essex]]
< *[[Kent]]
---
> *[[Sussex]]
63a53,95
> *[[Wessex]]
> 
> <U>Southern Celtic states</U>
> *[[Afan]]
> *[[Arfon]]
> *[[Arllechwedd]]
> *[[Brycheiniog]] (Brecon)
> *[[Buellt]] (Builth)
> *[[Calchvynydd]]
> *[[Camelot]] = fictional
> *[[Cornwall]]
> *[[Deheubarth]]
> *[[Demetae]]
> *[[Devon]]
> *[[Dunoding]]
> *[[Dyfed]]
> *[[Dyffryn Clwyd]]
> *[[Elfael]]
> *[[Erging]]
> *[[Glyn Rhondda]]
> *[[Glywysing]]
> *[[Gwerthrynion]]
> *[[Gwynedd]]
> *[[Gwynlliauc]]
> *[[Gwynllwg]]
> *[[Gwyr]]
> *[[Powys]]
> *[[Gwent]]
> *[[Llyn]]
> *[[Manaw Gododdin]]
> *[[Meirionydd]] (Merioneth)
> *[[Meisgyn]] (Miskin)
> *[[Melenydd]]
> *[[Mon]]
> *[[Morgannwg]] (Glamorgan)
> *[[Pennines]]
> *[[Penychen]]
> *[[Rheged]]
> *[[Seisyllwg]] (Ceredigion)
> *[[Senghennydd]]
> *[[South Gyrwe]]
> *[[Tegeingl]]
> *[[Ystrad Towi]]
66a99,100
> *[[Dalriada]]
> *[[Galloway]]
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985568119
57c57,59
< CARBONIFEROUS  This term is applied to the great formation which includes, among other rocks, the coal-measures. It belongs to the oldest, or Palæozoic, system of formations. CAUDAL  Of or belonging to the tail.
---
> CARBONIFEROUS  This term is applied to the great formation which includes, among other rocks, the coal-measures. It belongs to the oldest, or Palæozoic, system of formations.
> 
> CAUDAL  Of or belonging to the tail.
97c99
< DEVONIAN SYSTEM or formation  A series of Palæozoic rocks, including the Old Red Sandstone. DICOTYLEDONS or 
---
> DEVONIAN SYSTEM or formation  A series of Palæozoic rocks, including the Old Red Sandstone.
99c101
< DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  A class of plants characterised by having two seed-leaves, by the formation of new wood between the bark and the old wood (exogenous growth) and by the reticulation of the veins of the leaves. The parts of the flowers are generally in multiples of five.
---
> DICOTYLEDONS or DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS  A class of plants characterised by having two seed-leaves, by the formation of new wood between the bark and the old wood (exogenous growth) and by the reticulation of the veins of the leaves. The parts of the flowers are generally in multiples of five.
425c427,429
< VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system. WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth.
---
> VERTEBRATA: or VERTEBRATE ANIMALS  The highest division of the animal kingdom, so called from the presence in most cases of a backbone composed of numerous joints or vertebroe, which constitutes the centre of the skeleton and at the same time supports and protects the central parts of the nervous system.
> 
> WHORLS  The circles or spiral lines in which the parts of plants are arranged upon the axis of growth.
------
Jews|985568324
3c3
< Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of [[Israel]]. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered [[Jerusalem]] (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of Roman rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
---
> Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of [[Israel]]. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered [[Jerusalem]] (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
5c5
< Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, Crimea, [[India]], [[Yemen]], and [[China]]. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians.
---
> Some Jews were sold into slavery while others became citizens of other parts of the Roman Empire. The Israelite people became dispersed throughout the ancient world to places as diverse as Rome, [[Crimea]], [[India]], [[Yemen]], and [[China]]. Their descendants account for a significant proportion of the ancestry of many Jewish communities. Some contemporary Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism such as the [[Khazars]], [[Edomites]], and Ethiopians.
9c9
< Sects of Jews that survive into modern times include the Rabbinical Jews (followers of the Talmud, a component of the Oral Law), the Karaite Jews (who reject the authority of Rabbinical Oral Law), and the Samaritans (whose temple is located at Mount Gerizim rather than at Jerusalem). Rabbinical Jewish communities are led by rabbis (spiritual leaders) and cantors (singers), whereas the spiritual leader of a Karaite community is often called a hakham.
---
> Sects of Jews that survive into modern times include the Rabbinical Jews (followers of the Talmud, a component of the Oral Law), the [[Karaism|Karaite Jews]] (who reject the authority of Rabbinical Oral Law), and the Samaritans (whose temple is located at Mount Gerizim rather than at Jerusalem). Rabbinical Jewish communities are led by rabbis (spiritual leaders) and cantors (singers), whereas the spiritual leader of a Karaite community is often called a hakham.
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain/talk|985568502
10c10,16
< * Isn't Britain the whole island? Including Wales & Scotland?
---
> * Isn't Britain the whole island? Including Wales & Scotland?
> ----
> Medieval England aside, the first use of the term ''middle ages'' was referring to the period from 476 to 1453.  The idea was that this was the dark period between the brilliant light of Rome and the brilliant light of the rennaissance.  Since then the attitude has changed and the boundaries have dissolved a little, but the dark ages have always been considered a part.
> 
> I would guess the reason Medieval historians start with 1066 is because they are considering what came before then to be Medieval pre-English stuff.  If not, then they are using the term in a way inconsistent with everyone else.  In any case, since this page is referring to Medieval ''Britain'', I think anything post-Roman should be fine and move to end the weird segregation on the page/
> 
> --[[Josh Grosse]]
------
CountriesA|985568677
14d13
< :[[Arctic Ocean]]
19d17
< :[[Atlantic Ocean]] 
------
Red_tide|985568786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A red tide is a giant bloom of [[dinoflagellates]], so called because they are often present in sufficient numbers to turn the water red.  Red tides produce large quantities of neurotoxins that kill many fish and are accumulated by filter-feeders, like shellfish, which is why one must be careful of eating them at certain times of the year.
------
Abu_Dhabi|985568933
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abu Dhabi is [[city]] in north central [[United Arab Emirates]].  It is the capital of both the UAE and of the emirate of [[Abu Dhabi]].  It is a port city in the [[Persian Gulf]]. 
------
United_Arab_Emirates|985569044
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Persian Gulf]] country, [[Abu Dhabi]] is the capital.
------
CountriesA|985569067
3d2
< :[[Abu Dhabi]]
------
Jews|985570245
11c11,15
< Today, the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population is Israel, which was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew). Jews form significant minorities in the United States, [[Canada]], [[Hungary]], [[Ukraine]], [[France]], [[Russia]], and other countries.
---
> Today, there are an estimated 13 million Jews worldwide.  Of these, around 6 million live in the [[United States]] and slightly fewer than 6 million live in [[Israel]].  Most of the remainder live in [[Canada]], [[Hungary]], [[Ukraine]], [[France]], [[Russia]].
> 
> Israel is the only country in which Jews form a majority of the population.  It was established as an independent state on May 14, 1948. The symbol on the Israeli flag is known as the Star of David ("Magen David" in Hebrew).
> 
> Despite the small number of Jews worldwide, many of the most influential thinkers in modern times have been Jewish.  These include [[Karl Marx]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Ayn Rand]], and [[Milton Friedman]].
------
AtlasShrugged/McNamara|985571382
1,5c1
< A contractor who finished the /SanSebastianLine and who is hired to lay the new ReardenMetal track for the /RioNorteLine.  Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears.
< 
< /McNamara appears in:
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141 - Mentioned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Dick McNamara]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dick_McNamara|985571413
3c3
< [[/McNamara|McNamara]] appears in:
---
> Dick McNamara appears in:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dick_McNamara|985571435
3c3
< Dick McNamara appears in:
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged/Dick McNamara|Dick McNamara]] appears in:
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|985571465
1,20c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets /MysteryWorker.  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that /McNamara is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the /RioNorteLine.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with /MysteryWorker throughout the book.
< 
< The cafeteria is described as follows:  "The cafeteria lay underground.  It was a large room with walls of white tile that glittered in the reflections of electric lights and looked like silver brocade.  It had a high ceiling, sparkling counters of glass and chromium, a sense of space and light."
< 
< This description is in sharp contrast to the most expensive barroom in New York, from /SectioN131, that was atop a skyskraper but made to look like a cellar.  The contrast gives the chapter title - The Top and the Bottom - it's irony.
< 
< ----
< * Setting
< The employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.
< ----
< * Characters
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  /MysteryWorker
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]: Mentioned.
<  /McNamara: Mentioned.
<  /RichardHalley: Mentioned.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Section133]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN133|985571472
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Section133]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section133]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN141|985571499
1,21c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits /UnitedLocomotiveWorks to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The /PresidentofULW talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that /McNamara has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of /RichardHalley.  While she listens, she recalls Halley's struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to /NewYork amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] says he came to New York to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
< ----
< * Setting
< The offices of Taggart Transcontinental, New York in the evening, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] apartment.
< ----
< * Foreshadow
< 
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] sees a precision machine tool anandoned and decaying in the /UnitedLocomotiveWorks  factory; abandoned not because it was valueless, but because the owners could not extract value from it.  This foreshadows another discovery in an even less competent factory - a motor that is pricelss, but which is left abandoned by people who could not see its value.
< ----
< 
< The folowing characters appear in /SectioN141:
< 
<  /ChiefEngineer
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]]
<  /GilbertVail
<  /McNamara - Mentioned.
<  /MrsGilbertVail
<  /PresidentofULW
<  /RichardHalley 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section141]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|985571524
19c19
<  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|Dick McNamara]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer|985571543
1c1
< In [[/Section141|Section141]], [[/McNamara|McNamara's]] Chief Engineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation was given.
---
> In [[/Section141|Section141]], [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara's]] Chief Engineer phones [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] to tell him that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] has closed his businesss and quit.  No explanation was given.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Cleveland|985571560
5c5
< [[/McNamara|McNamara's]] offices are located in Cleveland.
---
> [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara's]] offices are located in Cleveland.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section133|985571586
4c4
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]].  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]] throughout the book.
---
> [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] ends a long day at work by having dinner in the employees' cafeteria of the Taggart Terminal.  There he meets [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]].  They sit together and he tells them about the problems of the day and what [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] is going to do to fix things.  He mentions that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] is the contractor who will lay the new rails for the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] will have many similar chats with [[/Mystery Worker|Mystery Worker]] throughout the book.
18c18
<  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]: Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]]: Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|985571614
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
18c18
<  [[/McNamara|McNamara]] - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] - Mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985571637
17c17
<  [[/McNamara|McNamara]] - mentioned.
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] - mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|985571643
17c17
<  [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] - mentioned.
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|Dick McNamara]] - mentioned.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Strikers|985571693
9a10
>  [[/Brakeman|Brakeman]]
15c16
<  [[/McNamara|McNamara]]
---
>  [[/Dick McNamara|Dick McNamara]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Strikers|985571707
5c5
< Other /Strikers include:
---
> Other Strikers include:
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|985572225
2a3,8
> John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
> 
> After graduating, Galt become an engineer at the [[/Twentieth Century Motor Works|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor that had the potential to change the world.  When the owners of the company decided to run the factory by the maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt perceived what was wrong with the world and what had to be done to stop it.  He put his mind on strike, and set about persuading the other men of the mind to go on strike as well.
> 
> ----
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|985572251
3c3
< John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
---
> John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Dr. Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|985572260
3c3
< John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Dr. Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
---
> John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Dr. Robert Stadtler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|985572270
3c3
< John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Dr. Robert Stadtler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
---
> John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Robert Stadtler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
------
AtlasShrugged/JohnGalt|985572310
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/John Galt]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/John Galt]]
------
AtlasShrugged/PatrickHenryUniversity|985572340
1c1
< The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[/John Galt|John Galt]], [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and /RagnarDanneskjold, where they met and became friends.  /HughAkston and /RobertStadler taught there.  It is located in /Cleveland.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Patrick Henry University]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Characters|985572398
31a32
>  [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/John_Galt|985572422
3c3
< John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Robert Stadtler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
---
> John Galt was the son of a garage mechanic in Ohio.  He left home at age 12 and began college at [[/Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16.  There he befriended [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], all three of whom double-majored in physics and philosophy.  They were the cherished students of [[/Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and [[/Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].
------
Philosophy|985574855
13c13
< '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism -- [[Populism]] and [[Nationalism]] [etc. continue the list please]
------
Philosophy|985574894
13c13
< '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism -- [[Populism]] and [[Nationalism]] [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism -- [[Populism and Nationalism]] [etc. continue the list please]
------
Populism_and_Nationalism|985576071
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Romanticism]], that anxiety against [[rationalism]], broadened after the beginnings of the [[European]] and [[Industrial Revolution]]s because of political insecurity to bring about religious revival, populism, and nationalism.  Even though the religious revival eventually blended into political populism and nationalism, [[romanticism]]'s [[paradigm shift]] was marked by people looking for security and community because of a strong emotional need to escape from anxiety to believe in something bigger than themselves.
> 	The revival of religiosity all over [[Europe]] played an important role in bringing people to
> populism and nationalism. In [[France]], [[Chateaubriand]] provided the opening shots of Catholic revivalism as he opposed enlightenment's [[materialism]] with the "mystery of life," the human need for redemption.  In Germany, [[Schleiermacher]] promoted [[pietism]] by claiming that religion was not the [[institution]], but a mystical [[piety]] [nd sentiment with [[Christ]] as the mediating figure raising the human consciousness above the mundane to [[God]]'s level.  In [[England]], [[John Wesley]]'s [[Methodism]] split with the [[Anglican church]] because of its emphasis on the salvation of the masses as a key to moral reform, which [[Wesley|John Wesley]] saw as the answer to the social problems of the day.  All of these were united by a search for something to believe in because of the anxiety of the time.      
> 	[[Chateaubriand]]'s beginning brought about TWO [[Catholic Revival]]s in [[France]]: first, a conservative revival led by [[Joseph de Maistre]], which defended [[ultra-montanism]], also known as the supremacy of the [[Pope]] in the church, and second, but at the same time, a populist revival led by [[Felicite de Lamennais]], an excommunicated priest.  This religious populism opposed [[ultra-montanism]] and emphasized a church community dependent upon all of the people, not just the elite.  Furthermore, it stressed that church authority should come from the bottom-up and that the church should alleviate suffering, not merely accept it, both principles that gave the masses strength.
> 	Nationalism became the secular religion of the masses; that something bigger than themselves that gave their life meaning.  It was a religion spawned of a fear of losing this meaning. [[Fichte]] began the development of nationalism by stating that people have the ethical duty to further their nation.  [[Herder]] proposed an organic nationalism that was a romantic vision of individual communities rejecting the [[Industrial Revolution]]'s model communities, in which people acquired their meaning from the community/nation.  The [[brothers Grimm]] collected [[German]] [[folklore]] to "gather the [[Teutonic]] spirit" and show that these tales provide the common values necessary for the historical survival of a nation.  [[Fredrick Jahn]], a [[Lutheran]] [[Minister]], a [[professor]] at the [[University of Berlin]] and the "father of [[gymnastics]]," introduced the [[Volkstum]], a racial nation that draws on the essence of a people that was lost in the [[Industrial Revolution]].  [[Adam Mueller]] went a step further by positing the state as a bigger totality than the government institution.  This paternalistic vision of [[aristocracy]] concerned with social orders had a dark side in that the opposite force of modernity was represented by the [[Jews]], who were said to be eating away at the state.  In [[German nationalism]], [[anti-Semitism]] began to raise its ugly head.
> 	In [[France]] the populist and nationalist picture was not so grim.  Historian [[Jules Michelet]] fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of [[history]] in which the [[divinity]] finds its purpose. For [[Michelet|Jules Michelet]], in [[history]], that representation of the struggle between spirit and matter, [[France]] has a special place because the [[French]] became a people through [[equality]], [[liberty]], and [[fraternity]].  Because of this, the [[French]] people can never be wrong.  It is important to remember that [[Michelet|John Michelet]]'s ideas are not [[socialism]] or [[rational]] politics, but his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.
> 	Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
------
Populism_and_Nationalism|985576116
2c2
< 	The revival of religiosity all over [[Europe]] played an important role in bringing people to
---
> The revival of religiosity all over [[Europe]] played an important role in bringing people to
4,7c4,7
< 	[[Chateaubriand]]'s beginning brought about TWO [[Catholic Revival]]s in [[France]]: first, a conservative revival led by [[Joseph de Maistre]], which defended [[ultra-montanism]], also known as the supremacy of the [[Pope]] in the church, and second, but at the same time, a populist revival led by [[Felicite de Lamennais]], an excommunicated priest.  This religious populism opposed [[ultra-montanism]] and emphasized a church community dependent upon all of the people, not just the elite.  Furthermore, it stressed that church authority should come from the bottom-up and that the church should alleviate suffering, not merely accept it, both principles that gave the masses strength.
< 	Nationalism became the secular religion of the masses; that something bigger than themselves that gave their life meaning.  It was a religion spawned of a fear of losing this meaning. [[Fichte]] began the development of nationalism by stating that people have the ethical duty to further their nation.  [[Herder]] proposed an organic nationalism that was a romantic vision of individual communities rejecting the [[Industrial Revolution]]'s model communities, in which people acquired their meaning from the community/nation.  The [[brothers Grimm]] collected [[German]] [[folklore]] to "gather the [[Teutonic]] spirit" and show that these tales provide the common values necessary for the historical survival of a nation.  [[Fredrick Jahn]], a [[Lutheran]] [[Minister]], a [[professor]] at the [[University of Berlin]] and the "father of [[gymnastics]]," introduced the [[Volkstum]], a racial nation that draws on the essence of a people that was lost in the [[Industrial Revolution]].  [[Adam Mueller]] went a step further by positing the state as a bigger totality than the government institution.  This paternalistic vision of [[aristocracy]] concerned with social orders had a dark side in that the opposite force of modernity was represented by the [[Jews]], who were said to be eating away at the state.  In [[German nationalism]], [[anti-Semitism]] began to raise its ugly head.
< 	In [[France]] the populist and nationalist picture was not so grim.  Historian [[Jules Michelet]] fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of [[history]] in which the [[divinity]] finds its purpose. For [[Michelet|Jules Michelet]], in [[history]], that representation of the struggle between spirit and matter, [[France]] has a special place because the [[French]] became a people through [[equality]], [[liberty]], and [[fraternity]].  Because of this, the [[French]] people can never be wrong.  It is important to remember that [[Michelet|John Michelet]]'s ideas are not [[socialism]] or [[rational]] politics, but his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.
< 	Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
---
> [[Chateaubriand]]'s beginning brought about TWO [[Catholic Revival]]s in [[France]]: first, a conservative revival led by [[Joseph de Maistre]], which defended [[ultra-montanism]], also known as the supremacy of the [[Pope]] in the church, and second, but at the same time, a populist revival led by [[Felicite de Lamennais]], an excommunicated priest.  This religious populism opposed [[ultra-montanism]] and emphasized a church community dependent upon all of the people, not just the elite.  Furthermore, it stressed that church authority should come from the bottom-up and that the church should alleviate suffering, not merely accept it, both principles that gave the masses strength.
> Nationalism became the secular religion of the masses; that something bigger than themselves that gave their life meaning.  It was a religion spawned of a fear of losing this meaning. [[Fichte]] began the development of nationalism by stating that people have the ethical duty to further their nation.  [[Herder]] proposed an organic nationalism that was a romantic vision of individual communities rejecting the [[Industrial Revolution]]'s model communities, in which people acquired their meaning from the community/nation.  The [[brothers Grimm]] collected [[German]] [[folklore]] to "gather the [[Teutonic]] spirit" and show that these tales provide the common values necessary for the historical survival of a nation.  [[Fredrick Jahn]], a [[Lutheran]] [[Minister]], a [[professor]] at the [[University of Berlin]] and the "father of [[gymnastics]]," introduced the [[Volkstum]], a racial nation that draws on the essence of a people that was lost in the [[Industrial Revolution]].  [[Adam Mueller]] went a step further by positing the state as a bigger totality than the government institution.  This paternalistic vision of [[aristocracy]] concerned with social orders had a dark side in that the opposite force of modernity was represented by the [[Jews]], who were said to be eating away at the state.  In [[German nationalism]], [[anti-Semitism]] began to raise its ugly head.
> In [[France]] the populist and nationalist picture was not so grim.  Historian [[Jules Michelet]] fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of [[history]] in which the [[divinity]] finds its purpose. For [[Michelet|Jules Michelet]], in [[history]], that representation of the struggle between spirit and matter, [[France]] has a special place because the [[French]] became a people through [[equality]], [[liberty]], and [[fraternity]].  Because of this, the [[French]] people can never be wrong.  It is important to remember that [[Michelet|John Michelet]]'s ideas are not [[socialism]] or [[rational]] politics, but his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.
> 	Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
------
Populism_and_Nationalism|985576154
1a2
> 
3a5
> 
4a7
> 
5a9
> 
7c11,12
< 	Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
---
> 
> Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
------
Populism_and_Nationalism|985576273
10c10
< In [[France]] the populist and nationalist picture was not so grim.  Historian [[Jules Michelet]] fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of [[history]] in which the [[divinity]] finds its purpose. For [[Michelet|Jules Michelet]], in [[history]], that representation of the struggle between spirit and matter, [[France]] has a special place because the [[French]] became a people through [[equality]], [[liberty]], and [[fraternity]].  Because of this, the [[French]] people can never be wrong.  It is important to remember that [[Michelet|John Michelet]]'s ideas are not [[socialism]] or [[rational]] politics, but his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.
---
> In [[France]] the populist and nationalist picture was not so grim.  Historian [[Jules Michelet]] fused nationalism and populism by positing the people as a mystical unity who are the driving force of [[history]] in which the [[divinity]] finds its purpose. For [[Jules Michelet|Michelet]], in [[history]], that representation of the struggle between spirit and matter, [[France]] has a special place because the [[French]] became a people through [[equality]], [[liberty]], and [[fraternity]].  Because of this, the [[French]] people can never be wrong.  It is important to remember that [[Michelet|John Michelet]]'s ideas are not [[socialism]] or [[rational]] politics, but his populism always minimizes, or even masks, social class differences.
12c12
< Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics|Politics by Treitschke]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[von Treitschke|Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Hitler|Adolh Hitler]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
---
> Nationalism turned in the second half of the Nineteenth Century and the nationalist sentiment was altered into an [[elitist]] and [[conservative]] [[doctrine]].  Power-state [[theorist]] and multi-volume [[historian]] [[Heinrich von Treitschke]]'s [[Politics by Treitschke|Politics]] talked about top-down nationalism in which the state is the creator of the nation, not a result thereof.  His state's power fashions political unity because, as he asserts, the national unity was always in place.  For [[Heinrich von Treitschke|von Treitschke]], the state is artificially constructed by the elite who know that power counts, but who also form myths such as racism for the comfort of the nationalistic masses.    [[Heinrich von Treitschke|von Treitschke]]'s nationalism had a dark side in his eternal struggle of nations, the weakness of confederated states and war as [[social hygiene]] that culminated into a thought that all nations are egoistic, but their struggles embody morality and embrace progress.  Such notions would later be proliferated in rather ugly methods by the likes of [[Adolph Hitler|Hitler]], [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], and even recently, [[Slobodan Milosevic]].
------
Philosophy|985576401
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
------
Gottleib_Fichte|985576979
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gottlieb Fichte had significant importance as a follower of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]].  He picked up the problem of [[Dualism]] where [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it and sought to solve some of the [[epistemological]] and [[ethical]] concerns of the [[objective knowledge]] and the [[subjective reason]].  Fichte strove to find the certain, common ground.  He argued that by not solving this problem, [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it open to [[skepticism]].  Fichte saw this as too materialistic, so he attempted to eliminate [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s [[dualism]], and, in doing so, articulated a [[nationalism]] that posited the national community as an ethical community.
> 
> Fichte's 1794, [[Theory of Knowledge by Fichte|Theory of Knowledge]], dealt with the problem of the [[dualism]] of [[subject]] (or [[freedom]]) and [[object]] (or [[determinism]]).  He concluded that neither was grounded enough to be confident.  His solution was classic [[idealism]].  Fichte approached the identity of [[subject]] and [[object]] by positing that we must think of ourselves from within in order to see that there is no [[dualism]].  He said that we must further posit an absolute [[ego]], a creative nature, the world as [[subject]], a conscious totality, a self-creating world with no duality.  But, we cannot prove the absolute [[ego]], so it must be posited as a regulative ideal, not a proven existing thing.  Furthermore, we have an ethical duty to posit this [[ego]], because we can only be moral by being [[rational]] and free.  But, to be free, we must be a part of an absolute [[freedom]].  We must also act as if [[God]] exists, even though we cannot know, nor demonstrate this.  We emulate this ideal by action, an [[ethical]] duty, that transforms the world and ourselves until we become more like the absolute [[ego]] (or [[God]]). In doing so, we see that [[subject]] and [[object]] are not isolated, but are identical.  We also discover that in changing the world, we change ourselves, because we only really know the world when we act upon it and change it.  This union of theory and action was called "[[praxis]]"; [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] would draw upon this ideal.  
> 
> Fichte develops [[nationalism]] in [[Vocation of Man by Fichte|Vocation of Man]] (1800).  In this political [[philosophy]] that is a defense of the [[ethical]] [[community of wills]], Fichte presents an [[ethical]] [[imperative]] to work for a community and against [[chaos]].  It is a compulsion to act that is a compulsion towards betterment.  Each individual has a duty to will an ethical community, a [[universal cosmopolitan culture]].  This universal community based on freedom is the goal of human freedom.  Fichte posits the intermediate community is the [[nation-state]], a limited community of wills, which is no less ethical and one in which our ethical duty towards national unification is an imperative.
> 
> Fichte's [[Kantian]] view of a unified [[Germany]] is [[nationalism]] with an undertone. Fichte sees [[Napoleon]]'s unification of [[France]] as "imposed" unification and, thus, opposed the [[French]] as [[imperialistic]].  He defends [[German]] [[nationalism]] and the [[German]]s as the original people, or [[Ur Volk]]. He sees the [[German]]s as a privileged and chosen people that must fight to prevent their corruption.  He further sees the state as an ethical realization of the [[German]] people that guarantees [[liberty]] and [[individuality]] and is the embodiment of the [[collective will]].  He believed that the individual has an ethical duty to immerse himself in the state.  
> 
> Fichte's [[nationalism]] is passionate; thus it does not give itself too much to [[philosophy]].  It also became a sort of secular religion for him.
------
Philosophy|985577119
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
------
John_Stuart_Mill|985577526
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As an important liberal thinker of the 19th Century, John Stuart Mill focused on the conflict between [[liberal democracy]] and [[democratic political equality]] by looking at [[capitalism]] with a human face and positing that the [[political process]] can subdue the excesses of [[capitalism]].  His vision was one of progress through [[capitalism]] controlled by [[democratic politics]].  
> 
> Mill argued that achieving a [[capitalist consensus]] takes time and that four things are needed for this consensus.  First, we must develop improvements in the [[standard of living]] overall; there should be no huge gaps between classes.  Second there must be a [[perception of upward mobility]] for enough people so as not to develop a caste system.  Third, [[liberal]] [[democratic]] [[nation-state]]s should grant a minimum amount of reforms to be legitimate and not be considered [[elitist]].  Finally, the old goals must be destroyed and replaced with a vision of a different and future life that provides betterment for everyone.  
> 
> These “old goals” he wanted replaced was the [[utilitarian]] notion of happiness through the accumulation of stuff.  Mill opposed this notion and began to reject the [[utilitarian]] [[rational]] thinking after his nervous breakdown that was brought about when Mill asked himself, “What would happen when all my goals are realized?” 
> 
> From this, Mill plunged himself into the writings of the [[German Idealists]] and the [[French]] political thinkers.  He began to reject [[egoism]] and then looked at the lower class’ plight, the problem of [[democracy]]and the question of [[socialism]].  From this he began to see the human face of [[capitalism]], which he thought to be the most productive and, thus, best and inevitable, system of [[economy]]. However, he saw that the distribution of the product was the problem.  He countered this problem by positing that an [[interventionist popular democracy]] can control hardships through programs such as [[social security]] pensions, [[equal opportunity]], [[public education]], and better roads and housing all made possible by taxation of the wealthy which would also bring political stability.  This almost [[utopian]] vision held that the free contract system of the time was unfair and that it was not so much “free contract” as it was [[slavery]].  The worker’s remuneration was simply not proportional to their exertion thus he thought the system needed alterations to provide equitable proportions.
> 
> Mill was also interested in such life betterment reforms as profit sharing and producer owned cooperatives.  However, he did not think of [[socialism]] as a viable solution because of the [[egoism]] inherent in mankind.  
> 
> Mill proved insensitive to the inequalities of [[capitalism]] in that he thought the lower classes could be made smaller through [[population control]].  His theory of “trickle down” [[economics]] did prove to a higher [[standard of living]] for all, but as it pushed the [[Gross National Product|GNP]] outward, it widened the gap between the working class and the elite. Furthermore, while an idea of [[upward mobility]] may have been perceived, the actual problem of inequality never actually went away.
------
Arthur_Schopenhauer|985577849
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arthur Schopenhauer - influenced by [[Schelling]], called himself a [[Kantian]], and violently hated [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] - possessed the rather pessimistic [[philosophy]] that was gaining importance and support after the [[revolution]].  He began with [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s division of realms claiming that the [[neuminal]] was the most important realm because the [[will]] is the inner content and the driving force.  For Schopenhauer, [[will]] had primacy over [[intellect]], and the [[striving will]] was even more important.  From this Schopenhauer devalued [[philosophy]] and [[logic]] for [[art]] because neither could prove the [[will]].  In "[[As Will and Idea by Schopenhauer|As Will and Idea]]," Schopenhauer posited that humans living at the [[realm of objects]] are living in the [[realm of desire]], and thus are eternally tormented by that desire.  For him, the way to escape this rut of eternal torment was art.  Artists intuitively grasped his eternal forms of existence and, thus, freed themselves from desire.  Music was particularly privileged because it was the most in tune with the universe.  
>   
> This was the foundation of Schopenhauer's [[aestheticism]], which was really just [[romantic escapism]] without the [[optimism]].  In this respect, he became [[anti-bourgeois]] and [[anti-capitalism]] in a sort of pseudo-opposition because these were, to him, what made existence, which was responsible for the ills of the world.  Existence became [[irrational]] simply because these ills were [[irrational]].  
------
Music|985577954
49c49
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Ricard Wagner]]
55c55
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
Ricard_Wagner|985578215
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[German]] theater-type, Ricard Wagner, was influenced by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and developed a new form of [[musical]] he dubbed, "[[A Total Work of Art]]."  He combined [[music]], [[drama]], [[literature]], [[staging]], and [[lighting]] to create an overwhelming spectacle. He wrote his stories from the [[German myths and folklore]] because, in them, he saw a deeper truth that the people had lost.  He believed that when these [[myth]]s were packaged in his "[[A Total Work of Art|Total Works of Art]]," they could rejuvenate the [[German]] soul.  He revolutionized [[opera]] into a huge [[morality play]], where [[love]] and [[materialism]] were incompatible and the gaining of all power had a price of the loss of love.  His [[music]] carried the [[opera]] and dominated everything.  His huge [[orchestra]]s created an ocean of sound that overwhelmed the audience.  His "[[leitmotiv]]s" - leading themes defining characters and events - would be present throughout a work, reappearing interwoven with other melodies whenever characters appeared on stage.  From the awesome stage effects of "[[The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner|The Ride of the Valkyries]]" to the lovers, "[[Tristan and Isoldeby Wagner|Tristan and Isolde]]", dying tragically, the [[love]] and [[death]] scenes were predominate.  For Wagner, losing one's self in the grand passion of [[love]] was a redemptive force over the corruption of power and wealth.  For the [[symbolist]]s, Wagner was the epitome of [[German]] [[art]] because he their problems and concerns into moral themes.    
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Philosophy|985578300
13c13
< '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism -- [[Populism and Nationalism]] [etc. continue the list please]
---
> '''[[Metaphysics]]:''' [[realism]] -- [[anti-realism]] -- [[irrealism]] -- NominaliIsm -- [[Platonism]] '''[[Epistemology]]:''' [[foundationalism]] -- [[coherentism]] -- [[reliabilism]] -- [[justified true belief]] '''[[Ethics]]:''' [[hedonism]] -- [[eudaimonism]] -- ConsequentialIsm -- [[utilitarianism]] -- AlTruism -- [[egoism]] -- PsychologicalEgoism -- '''Other:''' DeconstructionIsm -- HistoricalMaterialism -- [[Populism and Nationalism]] -- [[Irrationalism and Aestheticism]] [etc. continue the list please]
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CountriesA|985578304
7a8
> :[[American Samoa]]
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CountriesA|985578337
3a4
> :[[Afghanistan]]
7d7
< :AmericanSamoa 
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CountriesA|985578361
4d3
< :[[Afghanistan]]
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CountriesA|985578403
17c17
< :AustraliA
---
> :[[Australia]]
18a19
> :[[Austria]]
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CountriesA|985578429
4c4,5
< :AfghanistaN  
---
> :AfghanistaN
> :[[Albania]]
18d18
< :AustriA 
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CountriesA|985578442
5d4
< :[[Albania]]
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Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism|985578446
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The phenomenon of [[irrationalism]] and [[aestheticism]] was a reaction against [[positivism]] from which [[symbolism]]and [[existentialism]] came.  These phenomena opposed the [[rationality of human beings]] and concentrated on [[Immanuel Kent|Kant]]'s "[[neuminal realm]]" while claiming [[science]] as inferior to [[intuition]].  [[Art]] had emerged as the gateway to the [[neuminal realm|neuminal]], unfortunately, the working class was not involved in this movement and only [[elitism]] - a "[[Mandarin elitism]]" - had access to the [[art]].
> 
> 
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Walt_Disney|985578454
11c11
< Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company [[Buena Vista]].  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iwerks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iwerks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  But Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, but among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
---
> Walt found out that his distributor was stealing from him, so he broke away from him and eventually distributed his films with his own distribution company [[Buena Vista]].  But Walt's distributor persuaded Ub Iwerks to leave Walt and work for him.  Ub Iwerks owned one third of the Walt Disney Studios.  He eventually returned to Walt and worked for him in R & D creating such historic inventons as the multi-plane camera which created three dimensional backgrounds in animated films.  But his choice back then to leave the studio and sacrafice his percentage of the company cost him countless millions of dollars.  While Ub Iwerks' contribution may be overlooked by most people, among Disney historians his name is as well known as any Disney character.
------
Philosophy|985578585
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
------
Charl_du_Montesquieu|985578782
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Baron Charl du Montesquieu's was the first great modern [[conservative]].  He argued that the [[aristocracy]] [[Voltaire]] would decry protected the state from the [[absolutist despot]] (or [[monarchy]]) and from the [[despotism of the many]] (or [[anarchy]]). His was a purely political and [[rational]] [[defense]], conveniently non-economic. Montesquieu's motto was, "[[Liberty]] is the stepchild of [[privilege]]."  This allowed Montesquieu to defend the [[constitutional monarch]] as he claimed it was governed by honor.  Montesquieu argued that the [[monarch]]s could become too passionate and the commons were too big and too [[egalitarian]] to rule properly.  However, he portrayed the [[aristocracy]] as having and maintaining the honor that kept monarchies [[constitutional]].  But, he also warned that the [[aristocracy]] is doomed when it becomes self-interested, arrogant and parasitic.  
> 
> Montesquieu's most radical work situated the three [[French]] classes into a "[[checks and balances]]" (A termed he coined.) of three sovereignties; the [[monarchy]], the [[aristocracy]], and [[the commons]].  Montesquieu saw two types of powers existing; the [[sovereign]] and the [[administrative]].  The [[administrative powers]] were the [[legislative]], the [[executive]], and the [[judiciary]].  These powers were to be divided up amongst the three classes so that each would have a power over the other.  This is so radical because it completely eliminates the [[clergy]] from the estates and because it erases any last vestige of a [[feudalistic structure]].
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Walt_Disney|985578906
13c13
< Walt not only innovated with film technology, he innovated in business as well.  Mickey's films were successful, but it was in merchandising the studio became truly successful.  Starting out with Mickey Mouse pencils and then expanding into watches and toys, the Mouse created a true financial empire.  
---
> Walt not only innovated with film technology, he innovated in business as well.  Mickey's films were successful, but it was in merchandising the studio became truly lucrative.  Starting out with Mickey Mouse pencils and then expanding into watches and toys, the Mouse created a true financial empire.  
17c17
< The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like [[Benny Goodman]].  This song, by the way, was actually composed by one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat the him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
---
> The shorts also had success with their musical scores.  The Three Little Pigs may be a well known cartoon today.  But it was so successful when it was in theaters that it was actually billed above the features.  And the song Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf was a phenomenally successful hit that was covered by other artists like [[Benny Goodman]].  This song, by the way, was actually composed by one of Disney's animators, Frank Thomas.  But it was the story that hooked people.  The Three Little Pigs was released during the Depression.  As people saw the wolf blowing away the pigs' homes, and the pigs banding together to defeat him, they identified with the film's themes of resourcesfulness and togetherness.  The pigs losing their homes to the enemy, then cleverly overcoming him inspired the audiences and made the cartoon one of Walt's most successful films.
23c23
< To compensate for the dimished resources, Walt came out with movies like [[The Three Caballeros]] and [[Melody Time]] that were less complicated and relied upon short musical segments.  Learning from the lack of success he had with Fantasia, Walt used music from artists like [[Dinah Shore]] as opposed to [[Stravinsky]].
---
> To compensate for the diminished resources, Walt came out with movies like [[The Three Caballeros]] and [[Melody Time]] that were less complicated and relied upon short musical segments.  Learning from the lack of success he had with Fantasia, Walt used music from artists like [[Dinah Shore]] as opposed to [[Stravinsky]].
------
Voltaire|985578947
1c1,8
< French writer and philosopher.
---
> French writer and philosopher.
> 
> ----
> 
> The enemy of [[democracy]], Voltaire, admired the [[English]] [[religious toleration]] and [[freedom of speech]] breeding the power of ideas.  He saw this as a good future system for [[France]], which was not yet ready for such at the time.  Voltaire saw the [[bourgeoisie]] as too small and ineffective, the [[aristocracy]] as parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the [[church]] as a static force only useful for reaction because its "[[tithe|religious tax]]", or the [[tithe]], helped to create a powerbase against the king.  To Voltaire only an enlightened [[monarch]], advised by [[philosophés]], could bring about change.  Especially since it was in the king's [[rational]] interest to improve the power and wealth of [[France]] in the world.      
> 
> Voltaire held no truck in [[democracy]] because he saw [[equality]] as a dangerous illusion of the ignorant masses.  Voltaire "would rather obey one lion, than 200 rats of (his own) species."  Thus, Voltaire held up the [[monarchy]] as the key to progress and change.
> 
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Visual_Arts_and_Design|985579105
17a18
> :[[Renaissance Classicism]]
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Ricard_Wagner|985579357
1a2,3
> 
> /Talk
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Renaissance_Classicism|985579417
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely anti-classicist, Mannerism, and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority. Before and during the Reformation, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo defined the Classicist art movement.  But, a disheartened Michelangelo later introduced Mannerism with the dissonance and anxiety in his The Last Judgement.  Mannerism, which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the Reformation, defined itself by breaking all the rules.  Baroque painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the didactic lesson.
> 
> The Classicists entered on the heels of an artistic revolution, which was the Renaissance and ushered in the Reformation (da Vinci and Raphael died during the years Luther was being ordered to recant).  The use of light, shadow, foreshortening, and perspective had been perfected and was at the fingertips of these great men.  Classicism idealized the world as it was and as the artist felt it. Classicism left out the extraneous detail to go for the truth of the matter and emphasize the noble.  This style of painting was the first to stress a balance and harmony in art and nature.  Furthermore, it was subsidized by the Pope primarily for the painting of his chapel and by the rich Italian families that wanted to have that which the church had.  
> 
> Da Vinci even with his unexplainable dissonance mastered the harmonious in his paintings as he used space to even out The Holy Family with St. Anne and The Madonna of the Rocks. The Last Supper portrays Jesus standing out NOT because he is at the center of the painting, but because he represents calm in a chaotic time.    
> 
> Raphael's School of Athens borrowed from da Vinci's The Last Supper in its arrangement of characters.  However, Raphael chose to show the classical thinkers of Greece and Rome vice da Vinci's Christ and the Twelve. He displayed them modestly, each in a pose that epitomized the individual.  Sister Madonna continued such modesty and gave nobility to Mary that had never before been seen.   
> 
> Michelangelo would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the Mannerist movement with his anxious painting.  This talented sculptor, painter, architect, and poet would finish the Sistine Chapel ceiling in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His Holy Family featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like Greek gods.  In 1534, he completed The Last Judgement.   At the peak of the Protestant Reformation, this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an art movement that had already begun to rumble - Mannerism.  
> 
> Mannerism's style emphasized the feeling of the painter, himself.  It broke all the conventional rules of painting and laid a foundation upon which formalism and expressionism could stand.  The advent of formalism denoted the first time that art had taken itself as the subject.  Expressionism merely emoted the artist's subjectivity.  This was not the movement of king's and aristocracy; this belonged to the intellectuals.  Mannerism allowed the artist to be the harbinger of his own truth (not the pope's).  It was a reaction to the upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
> 
> Pontormo's Joseph in Egypt stood in garish colors and disunified time and space.  Neither the clothing, nor the buildings - not even the colors - accurately represented the Bible story of Joseph.  It was wrong, but it stood out as an accurate representation of society's feelings.   
> 
> Rosso painted with too much action, his pictorial movement seemed out of control.  He also introduced a new form of portraiture, which concealed the character of his subjects.  A drastic change from portraits, which had previously revealed who the subject was.  
> 
> Bronzino pushed the envelope, showing that which was condemned as attractive.  He adored the paradox when a single truth had disintegrated.  Giorgione's Tempest was just that, with no clue left as to what it meant or why it was even there.  Art began to gain its own value. 
> 
> Tintoretto's Last Supper epitomized Mannerism by taking Jesus and the table out of the middle of the room.  He showed all that was happening and even gave Judas Iscariot a halo.  In sickly, disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the angels from the real world.  He had removed the world from God's reach.  His El Greco attempted to express the religious tension with exaggerated Mannerism.  This exaggeration would serve to cross over the Mannerist line and be applied to Classicism.  Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
> 
> The culture of Baroque was that of Absolutism and the Church in Counter-Reformation.  The Continental Monarchies had not been defeated as in England and the Monarchs needed to display their power and authority in churches and state buildings using some sort of propaganda.  Baroque painting theatrically emerged giving the didactic lesson with none of the disturbing angst of Mannerism. Baroque painting featured an awesome-ness through sheer depth.  Whereas Classicism had order dominating energy, Baroque's energy and overkill dominated the order while maintaining the absence of the unessential.  
> 
> Tittian's Donne was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  Carrache's Domine, quo vadis? was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
> 
> Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque.  His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
> 
> Baroque also introduced the concept of the sublime and infinity.  The sublime was the awesome and overpowering force of the king or the church.  The kings needed this power through suggestion as a part of their propaganda to keep the masses quiet.  As the fields of mathematics and astronomy began to show that there might not be an end to our universe, Baroque painting featured infinity, with skies and landscapes disappearing into nowhere. 
> 
> The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
------
Ricard_Wagner/Talk|985579435
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Why Ricard, not Richard?  Is Ricard even a name?  I know it sounds like 'ricard' when pronounced properly but I don't think it is spelled that way - [[TimShell|TS]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|985579462
18a19,20
> :[[Mannerism]]
> :[[Baroque/Art|Baroque]]
------
Music|985579500
49c49
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- WolfgangAmadeusMozart -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Ricard Wagner]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Ricard Wagner]]
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985579515
11,19c11
< Mannerism's style emphasized the feeling of the painter, himself.  It broke all the conventional rules of painting and laid a foundation upon which formalism and expressionism could stand.  The advent of formalism denoted the first time that art had taken itself as the subject.  Expressionism merely emoted the artist's subjectivity.  This was not the movement of king's and aristocracy; this belonged to the intellectuals.  Mannerism allowed the artist to be the harbinger of his own truth (not the pope's).  It was a reaction to the upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
< 
< Pontormo's Joseph in Egypt stood in garish colors and disunified time and space.  Neither the clothing, nor the buildings - not even the colors - accurately represented the Bible story of Joseph.  It was wrong, but it stood out as an accurate representation of society's feelings.   
< 
< Rosso painted with too much action, his pictorial movement seemed out of control.  He also introduced a new form of portraiture, which concealed the character of his subjects.  A drastic change from portraits, which had previously revealed who the subject was.  
< 
< Bronzino pushed the envelope, showing that which was condemned as attractive.  He adored the paradox when a single truth had disintegrated.  Giorgione's Tempest was just that, with no clue left as to what it meant or why it was even there.  Art began to gain its own value. 
< 
< Tintoretto's Last Supper epitomized Mannerism by taking Jesus and the table out of the middle of the room.  He showed all that was happening and even gave Judas Iscariot a halo.  In sickly, disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the angels from the real world.  He had removed the world from God's reach.  His El Greco attempted to express the religious tension with exaggerated Mannerism.  This exaggeration would serve to cross over the Mannerist line and be applied to Classicism.  Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
---
>   Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
25c17
< Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque.  His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
---
> Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque. His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
29c21
< The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
---
> The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|985579538
19c19
< :[[Mannerism]]
---
> :[[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]]
------
Mannerism/Art|985579551
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mannerism's style emphasized the feeling of the painter, himself.  It broke all the conventional rules of painting and laid a foundation upon which formalism and expressionism could stand.  The advent of formalism denoted the first time that art had taken itself as the subject.  Expressionism merely emoted the artist's subjectivity.  This was not the movement of king's and aristocracy; this belonged to the intellectuals.  Mannerism allowed the artist to be the harbinger of his own truth (not the pope's).  It was a reaction to the upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
> 
> Pontormo's Joseph in Egypt stood in garish colors and disunified time and space.  Neither the clothing, nor the buildings - not even the colors - accurately represented the Bible story of Joseph.  It was wrong, but it stood out as an accurate representation of society's feelings.   
> 
> Rosso painted with too much action, his pictorial movement seemed out of control.  He also introduced a new form of portraiture, which concealed the character of his subjects.  A drastic change from portraits, which had previously revealed who the subject was.  
> 
> Bronzino pushed the envelope, showing that which was condemned as attractive.  He adored the paradox when a single truth had disintegrated.  Giorgione's Tempest was just that, with no clue left as to what it meant or why it was even there.  Art began to gain its own value. 
> 
> Tintoretto's Last Supper epitomized Mannerism by taking Jesus and the table out of the middle of the room.  He showed all that was happening and even gave Judas Iscariot a halo.  In sickly, disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the angels from the real world.  He had removed the world from God's reach.  His El Greco attempted to express the religious tension with exaggerated Mannerism.  This exaggeration would serve to cross over the Mannerist line and be applied to Classicism.
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985579591
11,21c11
<   Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
< 
< The culture of Baroque was that of Absolutism and the Church in Counter-Reformation.  The Continental Monarchies had not been defeated as in England and the Monarchs needed to display their power and authority in churches and state buildings using some sort of propaganda.  Baroque painting theatrically emerged giving the didactic lesson with none of the disturbing angst of Mannerism. Baroque painting featured an awesome-ness through sheer depth.  Whereas Classicism had order dominating energy, Baroque's energy and overkill dominated the order while maintaining the absence of the unessential.  
< 
< Tittian's Donne was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  Carrache's Domine, quo vadis? was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
< 
< Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque. His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
< 
< Baroque also introduced the concept of the sublime and infinity.  The sublime was the awesome and overpowering force of the king or the church.  The kings needed this power through suggestion as a part of their propaganda to keep the masses quiet.  As the fields of mathematics and astronomy began to show that there might not be an end to our universe, Baroque painting featured infinity, with skies and landscapes disappearing into nowhere. 
< 
< The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
---
> Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
------
Baroque/Art|985579607
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The culture of Baroque was that of Absolutism and the Church in Counter-Reformation.  The Continental Monarchies had not been defeated as in England and the Monarchs needed to display their power and authority in churches and state buildings using some sort of propaganda.  Baroque painting theatrically emerged giving the didactic lesson with none of the disturbing angst of Mannerism. Baroque painting featured an awesome-ness through sheer depth.  Whereas Classicism had order dominating energy, Baroque's energy and overkill dominated the order while maintaining the absence of the unessential.  
> 
> Tittian's Donne was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  Carrache's Domine, quo vadis? was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
> 
> Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque. His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
> 
> Baroque also introduced the concept of the sublime and infinity.  The sublime was the awesome and overpowering force of the king or the church.  The kings needed this power through suggestion as a part of their propaganda to keep the masses quiet.  As the fields of mathematics and astronomy began to show that there might not be an end to our universe, Baroque painting featured infinity, with skies and landscapes disappearing into nowhere. 
> 
> The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
------
Populism_and_Nationalism|985579662
12a13,14
> 
> ''This article seems mistitled.''
------
Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism|985579974
1,2c1
< The phenomenon of [[irrationalism]] and [[aestheticism]] was a reaction against [[positivism]] from which [[symbolism]]and [[existentialism]] came.  These phenomena opposed the [[rationality of human beings]] and concentrated on [[Immanuel Kent|Kant]]'s "[[neuminal realm]]" while claiming [[science]] as inferior to [[intuition]].  [[Art]] had emerged as the gateway to the [[neuminal realm|neuminal]], unfortunately, the working class was not involved in this movement and only [[elitism]] - a "[[Mandarin elitism]]" - had access to the [[art]].
< 
---
> The phenomenon of [[irrationalism]] and [[aestheticism]] was a reaction against [[positivism]] from which [[symbolism]]and [[existentialism]] came.  These phenomena opposed the [[rationality of human beings]] and concentrated on [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s "[[noumena|noumenal realm]]" while claiming [[science]] to be inferior to [[intuition]].  [[Art]] had emerged as the gateway to the "[[noumena|noumenal]]," unfortunately, the working class was not involved in this movement and only [[elitism]]--a "[[Mandarin elitism]]"--had access to the [[art]].
3a3
> /Talk
------
Mannerism/Art|985579976
1c1
< Mannerism's style emphasized the feeling of the painter, himself.  It broke all the conventional rules of painting and laid a foundation upon which formalism and expressionism could stand.  The advent of formalism denoted the first time that art had taken itself as the subject.  Expressionism merely emoted the artist's subjectivity.  This was not the movement of king's and aristocracy; this belonged to the intellectuals.  Mannerism allowed the artist to be the harbinger of his own truth (not the pope's).  It was a reaction to the upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
---
> Mannerism's style emphasized the feeling of the painter, himself.  It broke all the conventional rules of painting and laid a foundation upon which [[formalism/art|formalism]] and [[expresionism/art|expressionism]] could stand.  The advent of [[formalism/art|formalism]] denoted the first time that [[art]] had taken itself as the [[subject]].  [[expresionism/art|Expressionism]] merely emoted the artist's [[subjectivity]].  This was not the movement of [[king]]'s and [[aristocracy]]; this belonged to the [[intellectuals]].  Mannerism allowed the artist to be the [[harbinger]] of his own truth (not the pope's).  It was a reaction to the upheaval of the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]].
3c3
< Pontormo's Joseph in Egypt stood in garish colors and disunified time and space.  Neither the clothing, nor the buildings - not even the colors - accurately represented the Bible story of Joseph.  It was wrong, but it stood out as an accurate representation of society's feelings.   
---
> [[Pontormo]]'s [[Joseph in Egypt by Pontormo|Joseph in Egypt]] stood in garish colors and disunified time and space.  Neither the clothing, nor the buildings - not even the colors - accurately represented the [[Bible]] story of [[Joseph]].  It was wrong, but it stood out as an accurate representation of society's feelings.   
5c5
< Rosso painted with too much action, his pictorial movement seemed out of control.  He also introduced a new form of portraiture, which concealed the character of his subjects.  A drastic change from portraits, which had previously revealed who the subject was.  
---
> [[Rosso]] painted with too much action, his pictorial movement seemed out of control.  He also introduced a new form of [[portraiture]], which concealed the character of his subjects.  A drastic change from portraits, which had previously revealed who the subject was.  
7c7
< Bronzino pushed the envelope, showing that which was condemned as attractive.  He adored the paradox when a single truth had disintegrated.  Giorgione's Tempest was just that, with no clue left as to what it meant or why it was even there.  Art began to gain its own value. 
---
> [[Bronzino]] pushed the envelope, showing that which was condemned as attractive.  He adored the [[paradox]] when a single [[truth]] had disintegrated.  [[Giorgione]]'s [[Tempest by Giorgione|Tempest]] was just that, with no clue left as to what it meant or why it was even there.  [[Art]] began to gain its own value. 
9c9
< Tintoretto's Last Supper epitomized Mannerism by taking Jesus and the table out of the middle of the room.  He showed all that was happening and even gave Judas Iscariot a halo.  In sickly, disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the angels from the real world.  He had removed the world from God's reach.  His El Greco attempted to express the religious tension with exaggerated Mannerism.  This exaggeration would serve to cross over the Mannerist line and be applied to Classicism.
---
> [[Tintoretto]]'s The Last Supper by Tintoretto|Last Supper]] epitomized Mannerism by taking [[Jesus]] and the table out of the middle of the room.  He showed all that was happening and even gave [[Judas Iscariot]] a halo.  In sickly, disorienting colors he painted a scene of confusion that somehow separated the [[angel]]s from the real world.  He had removed the world from [[God]]'s reach.  His [[El Greco]] attempted to express the [[religious tension]] with exaggerated Mannerism.  This exaggeration would serve to cross over the [[Mannerist/Art|Mannerist]] line and be applied to [[Renaissance Classicism|Classicism]].
------
Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism/Talk|985580029
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I don't know how to improve this article, but it needs a lot of improvement.  For one thing, it needs a solid historical foundation: who were some irrationalists and aestheticists, and what was the positivist movement they were reacting to?  Basically, a list of [[isms]] without a statement of what the isms mean is only so much nonsense.  Also, consider retitling the article so it is very clear what you're talking about. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Ricard_Wagner|985580142
1,3c1
< A [[German]] theater-type, Ricard Wagner, was influenced by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and developed a new form of [[musical]] he dubbed, "[[A Total Work of Art]]."  He combined [[music]], [[drama]], [[literature]], [[staging]], and [[lighting]] to create an overwhelming spectacle. He wrote his stories from the [[German myths and folklore]] because, in them, he saw a deeper truth that the people had lost.  He believed that when these [[myth]]s were packaged in his "[[A Total Work of Art|Total Works of Art]]," they could rejuvenate the [[German]] soul.  He revolutionized [[opera]] into a huge [[morality play]], where [[love]] and [[materialism]] were incompatible and the gaining of all power had a price of the loss of love.  His [[music]] carried the [[opera]] and dominated everything.  His huge [[orchestra]]s created an ocean of sound that overwhelmed the audience.  His "[[leitmotiv]]s" - leading themes defining characters and events - would be present throughout a work, reappearing interwoven with other melodies whenever characters appeared on stage.  From the awesome stage effects of "[[The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner|The Ride of the Valkyries]]" to the lovers, "[[Tristan and Isoldeby Wagner|Tristan and Isolde]]", dying tragically, the [[love]] and [[death]] scenes were predominate.  For Wagner, losing one's self in the grand passion of [[love]] was a redemptive force over the corruption of power and wealth.  For the [[symbolist]]s, Wagner was the epitome of [[German]] [[art]] because he their problems and concerns into moral themes.    
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Richard Wagner]]
------
Richard_Wagner|985580150
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[German]] theater-type, Ricard Wagner, was influenced by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and developed a new form of [[musical]] he dubbed, "[[A Total Work of Art]]."  He combined [[music]], [[drama]], [[literature]], [[staging]], and [[lighting]] to create an overwhelming spectacle. He wrote his stories from the [[German myths and folklore]] because, in them, he saw a deeper truth that the people had lost.  He believed that when these [[myth]]s were packaged in his "[[A Total Work of Art|Total Works of Art]]," they could rejuvenate the [[German]] soul.  He revolutionized [[opera]] into a huge [[morality play]], where [[love]] and [[materialism]] were incompatible and the gaining of all power had a price of the loss of love.  His [[music]] carried the [[opera]] and dominated everything.  His huge [[orchestra]]s created an ocean of sound that overwhelmed the audience.  His "[[leitmotiv]]s" - leading themes defining characters and events - would be present throughout a work, reappearing interwoven with other melodies whenever characters appeared on stage.  From the awesome stage effects of "[[The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner|The Ride of the Valkyries]]" to the lovers, "[[Tristan and Isoldeby Wagner|Tristan and Isolde]]", dying tragically, the [[love]] and [[death]] scenes were predominate.  For Wagner, losing one's self in the grand passion of [[love]] was a redemptive force over the corruption of power and wealth.  For the [[symbolist]]s, Wagner was the epitome of [[German]] [[art]] because he their problems and concerns into moral themes.    
------
Richard_Wagner|985580160
1c1
< A [[German]] theater-type, Ricard Wagner, was influenced by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and developed a new form of [[musical]] he dubbed, "[[A Total Work of Art]]."  He combined [[music]], [[drama]], [[literature]], [[staging]], and [[lighting]] to create an overwhelming spectacle. He wrote his stories from the [[German myths and folklore]] because, in them, he saw a deeper truth that the people had lost.  He believed that when these [[myth]]s were packaged in his "[[A Total Work of Art|Total Works of Art]]," they could rejuvenate the [[German]] soul.  He revolutionized [[opera]] into a huge [[morality play]], where [[love]] and [[materialism]] were incompatible and the gaining of all power had a price of the loss of love.  His [[music]] carried the [[opera]] and dominated everything.  His huge [[orchestra]]s created an ocean of sound that overwhelmed the audience.  His "[[leitmotiv]]s" - leading themes defining characters and events - would be present throughout a work, reappearing interwoven with other melodies whenever characters appeared on stage.  From the awesome stage effects of "[[The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner|The Ride of the Valkyries]]" to the lovers, "[[Tristan and Isoldeby Wagner|Tristan and Isolde]]", dying tragically, the [[love]] and [[death]] scenes were predominate.  For Wagner, losing one's self in the grand passion of [[love]] was a redemptive force over the corruption of power and wealth.  For the [[symbolist]]s, Wagner was the epitome of [[German]] [[art]] because he their problems and concerns into moral themes.    
---
> A [[German]] theater-type, Richard Wagner, was influenced by [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and developed a new form of [[musical]] he dubbed, "[[A Total Work of Art]]."  He combined [[music]], [[drama]], [[literature]], [[staging]], and [[lighting]] to create an overwhelming spectacle. He wrote his stories from the [[German myths and folklore]] because, in them, he saw a deeper truth that the people had lost.  He believed that when these [[myth]]s were packaged in his "[[A Total Work of Art|Total Works of Art]]," they could rejuvenate the [[German]] soul.  He revolutionized [[opera]] into a huge [[morality play]], where [[love]] and [[materialism]] were incompatible and the gaining of all power had a price of the loss of love.  His [[music]] carried the [[opera]] and dominated everything.  His huge [[orchestra]]s created an ocean of sound that overwhelmed the audience.  His "[[leitmotiv]]s" - leading themes defining characters and events - would be present throughout a work, reappearing interwoven with other melodies whenever characters appeared on stage.  From the awesome stage effects of "[[The Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner|The Ride of the Valkyries]]" to the lovers, "[[Tristan and Isoldeby Wagner|Tristan and Isolde]]", dying tragically, the [[love]] and [[death]] scenes were predominate.  For Wagner, losing one's self in the grand passion of [[love]] was a redemptive force over the corruption of power and wealth.  For the [[symbolist]]s, Wagner was the epitome of [[German]] [[art]] because he their problems and concerns into moral themes.    
------
Charl_du_Montesquieu|985580242
1,3c1
< The Baron Charl du Montesquieu's was the first great modern [[conservative]].  He argued that the [[aristocracy]] [[Voltaire]] would decry protected the state from the [[absolutist despot]] (or [[monarchy]]) and from the [[despotism of the many]] (or [[anarchy]]). His was a purely political and [[rational]] [[defense]], conveniently non-economic. Montesquieu's motto was, "[[Liberty]] is the stepchild of [[privilege]]."  This allowed Montesquieu to defend the [[constitutional monarch]] as he claimed it was governed by honor.  Montesquieu argued that the [[monarch]]s could become too passionate and the commons were too big and too [[egalitarian]] to rule properly.  However, he portrayed the [[aristocracy]] as having and maintaining the honor that kept monarchies [[constitutional]].  But, he also warned that the [[aristocracy]] is doomed when it becomes self-interested, arrogant and parasitic.  
< 
< Montesquieu's most radical work situated the three [[French]] classes into a "[[checks and balances]]" (A termed he coined.) of three sovereignties; the [[monarchy]], the [[aristocracy]], and [[the commons]].  Montesquieu saw two types of powers existing; the [[sovereign]] and the [[administrative]].  The [[administrative powers]] were the [[legislative]], the [[executive]], and the [[judiciary]].  These powers were to be divided up amongst the three classes so that each would have a power over the other.  This is so radical because it completely eliminates the [[clergy]] from the estates and because it erases any last vestige of a [[feudalistic structure]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Montesquieu]]
------
Montesquieu|985580254
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, was the first great modern [[conservative]].  He argued that the [[aristocracy]] [[Voltaire]] would decry protected the state from the [[absolutist despot]] (or [[monarchy]]) and from the [[despotism of the many]] (or [[anarchy]]). His was a purely political and [[rational]] [[defense]], conveniently non-economic. Montesquieu's motto was, "[[Liberty]] is the stepchild of [[privilege]]."  This allowed Montesquieu to defend the [[constitutional monarch]] as he claimed it was governed by honor.  Montesquieu argued that the [[monarch]]s could become too passionate and the commons were too big and too [[egalitarian]] to rule properly.  However, he portrayed the [[aristocracy]] as having and maintaining the honor that kept monarchies [[constitutional]].  But, he also warned that the [[aristocracy]] is doomed when it becomes self-interested, arrogant and parasitic.  
> 
> Montesquieu's most radical work situated the three [[French]] classes into a "[[checks and balances]]" (A termed he coined.) of three sovereignties; the [[monarchy]], the [[aristocracy]], and [[the commons]].  Montesquieu saw two types of powers existing; the [[sovereign]] and the [[administrative]].  The [[administrative powers]] were the [[legislative]], the [[executive]], and the [[judiciary]].  These powers were to be divided up amongst the three classes so that each would have a power over the other.  This is so radical because it completely eliminates the [[clergy]] from the estates and because it erases any last vestige of a [[feudalistic structure]].
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985580704
1c1
< Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely anti-classicist, Mannerism, and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority. Before and during the Reformation, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo defined the Classicist art movement.  But, a disheartened Michelangelo later introduced Mannerism with the dissonance and anxiety in his The Last Judgement.  Mannerism, which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the Reformation, defined itself by breaking all the rules.  Baroque painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the didactic lesson.
---
> Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely [[anti-classicist/art|anti-classicist]], [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]], and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority [[Baroque/art|Baroque]]. Before and during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], and [[Michelangelo]] defined the [[Classicist art movement]].  But, a disheartened [[Michelangelo]] later introduced [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]] with the dissonance and anxiety in his [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].  [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]], which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], defined itself by breaking all the rules.  [[Baroque/art|Baroque]] painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the [[didactic lesson]].
3c3
< The Classicists entered on the heels of an artistic revolution, which was the Renaissance and ushered in the Reformation (da Vinci and Raphael died during the years Luther was being ordered to recant).  The use of light, shadow, foreshortening, and perspective had been perfected and was at the fingertips of these great men.  Classicism idealized the world as it was and as the artist felt it. Classicism left out the extraneous detail to go for the truth of the matter and emphasize the noble.  This style of painting was the first to stress a balance and harmony in art and nature.  Furthermore, it was subsidized by the Pope primarily for the painting of his chapel and by the rich Italian families that wanted to have that which the church had.  
---
> The Classicists entered on the heels of an [[artistic revolution]], which was the [[Renaissance]] and ushered in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] ([[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]] and [[Raphael]] died during the years [[Martin Luther|Luther]] was being ordered to recant).  The use of light, shadow, foreshortening, and perspective had been perfected and was at the fingertips of these great men.  Classicism idealized the world as it was and as the artist felt it. Classicism left out the extraneous detail to go for the truth of the matter and emphasize the noble.  This style of painting was the first to stress a balance and harmony in art and nature.  Furthermore, it was subsidized by the [[Pope]] primarily for the painting of his chapel and by the rich [[Italian]] families that wanted to have that which the [[church]] had.  
5c5
< Da Vinci even with his unexplainable dissonance mastered the harmonious in his paintings as he used space to even out The Holy Family with St. Anne and The Madonna of the Rocks. The Last Supper portrays Jesus standing out NOT because he is at the center of the painting, but because he represents calm in a chaotic time.    
---
> [[Leonardo da Vinci|Da Vinci]] even with his unexplainable dissonance mastered the harmonious in his paintings as he used space to even out [[The Holy Family with St. Anne by Da Vinci|The Holy Family with St. Anne]] and [[The Madonna of the Rocks by Da Vinci|The Madonna of the Rocks]]. [[The Last Supper by Da Vinci|The Last Supper]] portrays [[Jesus]]standing out NOT because he is at the center of the painting, but because he represents calm in a chaotic time.    
7c7
< Raphael's School of Athens borrowed from da Vinci's The Last Supper in its arrangement of characters.  However, Raphael chose to show the classical thinkers of Greece and Rome vice da Vinci's Christ and the Twelve. He displayed them modestly, each in a pose that epitomized the individual.  Sister Madonna continued such modesty and gave nobility to Mary that had never before been seen.   
---
> [[Raphael]]'s [[School of Athens by Raphael|School of Athens]] borrowed from [[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]]'s [[The Last Supper by Da Vinci|The Last Supper]] in its arrangement of characters.  However, [[Raphael]] chose to show the classical thinkers of [[Greece]] and [[Rome]] vice [[Leonardo da Vinci|da Vinci]]'s [[The Last Supper by Da Vinci|Christ and the Twelve]]. He displayed them modestly, each in a pose that epitomized the individual.  [[Sister Madonna by Raphael|Sister Madonna]] continued such modesty and gave nobility to [[Mary]] that had never before been seen.   
9c9
< Michelangelo would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the Mannerist movement with his anxious painting.  This talented sculptor, painter, architect, and poet would finish the Sistine Chapel ceiling in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His Holy Family featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like Greek gods.  In 1534, he completed The Last Judgement.   At the peak of the Protestant Reformation, this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an art movement that had already begun to rumble - Mannerism.  
---
> [[Michelangelo]] would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the [[mannerist/art|Mannerist]] movement with his anxious painting.  This talented [[sculptor]], [[painter]], [[architect]], and [[poet]] would finish the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]] in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His [[Holy Family by Michelangelo|Holy Family]] featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like [[Greek gods]].  In 1534, he completed [[The Last Judgement by Michealangelo|The Last Judgement]].   At the peak of the [[Protestant Reformation]], this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an [[art movement]] that had already begun to rumble - [[mannerisn/art|Mannerism]].  
11c11
< Exaggerated Classicism would be called Baroque.
---
> Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[baroque/art|Baroque]].
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985580737
5c5
< [[Leonardo da Vinci|Da Vinci]] even with his unexplainable dissonance mastered the harmonious in his paintings as he used space to even out [[The Holy Family with St. Anne by Da Vinci|The Holy Family with St. Anne]] and [[The Madonna of the Rocks by Da Vinci|The Madonna of the Rocks]]. [[The Last Supper by Da Vinci|The Last Supper]] portrays [[Jesus]]standing out NOT because he is at the center of the painting, but because he represents calm in a chaotic time.    
---
> [[Leonardo da Vinci|Da Vinci]] even with his unexplainable dissonance mastered the harmonious in his paintings as he used space to even out [[The Holy Family with St. Anne by Da Vinci|The Holy Family with St. Anne]] and [[The Madonna of the Rocks by Da Vinci|The Madonna of the Rocks]]. [[The Last Supper by Da Vinci|The Last Supper]] portrays [[Jesus]] standing out NOT because he is at the center of the painting, but because he represents calm in a chaotic time.    
11c11
< Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[baroque/art|Baroque]].
---
> Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[baroque/art|Baroque]].
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985580850
1c1
< Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely [[anti-classicist/art|anti-classicist]], [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]], and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority [[Baroque/art|Baroque]]. Before and during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], and [[Michelangelo]] defined the [[Classicist art movement]].  But, a disheartened [[Michelangelo]] later introduced [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]] with the dissonance and anxiety in his [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].  [[mannerism/art|Mannerism]], which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], defined itself by breaking all the rules.  [[Baroque/art|Baroque]] painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the [[didactic lesson]].
---
> Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely [[Anti-classicist/art|anti-classicist]], [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]], and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority [[Baroque/art|Baroque]]. Before and during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], and [[Michelangelo]] defined the [[Classicist art movement]].  But, a disheartened [[Michelangelo]] later introduced [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]] with the dissonance and anxiety in his [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].  [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]], which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], defined itself by breaking all the rules.  [[Baroque/art|Baroque]] painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the [[didactic lesson]].
9c9
< [[Michelangelo]] would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the [[mannerist/art|Mannerist]] movement with his anxious painting.  This talented [[sculptor]], [[painter]], [[architect]], and [[poet]] would finish the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]] in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His [[Holy Family by Michelangelo|Holy Family]] featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like [[Greek gods]].  In 1534, he completed [[The Last Judgement by Michealangelo|The Last Judgement]].   At the peak of the [[Protestant Reformation]], this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an [[art movement]] that had already begun to rumble - [[mannerisn/art|Mannerism]].  
---
> [[Michelangelo]] would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the [[Mannerist/art|Mannerist]] movement with his anxious painting.  This talented [[sculptor]], [[painter]], [[architect]], and [[poet]] would finish the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]] in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His [[Holy Family by Michelangelo|Holy Family]] featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like [[Greek gods]].  In 1534, he completed [[The Last Judgement by Michealangelo|The Last Judgement]].   At the peak of the [[Protestant Reformation]], this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an [[art movement]] that had already begun to rumble - [[Mannerisn/art|Mannerism]].  
11c11
< Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[baroque/art|Baroque]].
---
> Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[Baroque/art|Baroque]].
------
Renaissance_Classicism|985580936
1c1
< Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely [[Anti-classicist/art|anti-classicist]], [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]], and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority [[Baroque/art|Baroque]]. Before and during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], and [[Michelangelo]] defined the [[Classicist art movement]].  But, a disheartened [[Michelangelo]] later introduced [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]] with the dissonance and anxiety in his [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].  [[Mannerism/art|Mannerism]], which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], defined itself by breaking all the rules.  [[Baroque/art|Baroque]] painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the [[didactic lesson]].
---
> Renaissance Classicism cut out the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was.  From Classicism sprang two movements: a countermovement that was definitely [[Anti-classicist/Art|anti-classicist]], [[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]], and a later movement that became a sort of Classicism on a grand scale portraying power and authority [[Baroque/Art|Baroque]]. Before and during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Raphael]], and [[Michelangelo]] defined the [[Classicist art movement]].  But, a disheartened [[Michelangelo]] later introduced [[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]] with the dissonance and anxiety in his [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].  [[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]], which, in a way, represented the human soul during in the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], defined itself by breaking all the rules.  [[Baroque/Art|Baroque]] painting entered the scene after the Reformation bringing grandeur and normalcy, introducing nothing paradoxical, showing only the [[didactic lesson]].
9c9
< [[Michelangelo]] would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the [[Mannerist/art|Mannerist]] movement with his anxious painting.  This talented [[sculptor]], [[painter]], [[architect]], and [[poet]] would finish the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]] in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His [[Holy Family by Michelangelo|Holy Family]] featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like [[Greek gods]].  In 1534, he completed [[The Last Judgement by Michealangelo|The Last Judgement]].   At the peak of the [[Protestant Reformation]], this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an [[art movement]] that had already begun to rumble - [[Mannerisn/art|Mannerism]].  
---
> [[Michelangelo]] would be the most powerful of the classists, unintentionally influencing the [[Mannerist/Art|Mannerist]] movement with his anxious painting.  This talented [[sculptor]], [[painter]], [[architect]], and [[poet]] would finish the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]] in less than five years (1508-1512).  His painting on this ceiling was an extraordinary accomplishment portraying the anatomically correct human body in any position. His [[Holy Family by Michelangelo|Holy Family]] featured more motion in a smaller space with figures looking almost sculpted, like [[Greek gods]].  In 1534, he completed [[The Last Judgement by Michelangelo|The Last Judgement]].   At the peak of the [[Protestant Reformation]], this painting displayed the dissonance, anxiety and chaos ripping at the church's fabric.  In doing so, it gave rise to an [[art movement]] that had already begun to rumble - [[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]].  
11c11
< Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[Baroque/art|Baroque]].
---
> Exaggerated Classicism would be called [[Baroque/Art|Baroque]].
------
Baroque/Art|985581093
1c1
< The culture of Baroque was that of Absolutism and the Church in Counter-Reformation.  The Continental Monarchies had not been defeated as in England and the Monarchs needed to display their power and authority in churches and state buildings using some sort of propaganda.  Baroque painting theatrically emerged giving the didactic lesson with none of the disturbing angst of Mannerism. Baroque painting featured an awesome-ness through sheer depth.  Whereas Classicism had order dominating energy, Baroque's energy and overkill dominated the order while maintaining the absence of the unessential.  
---
> The culture of Baroque was that of [[Absolutism]] and the [[Church in Counter-Reformation]].  The [[Continental Monarchies]] had not been defeated as in [[England]] and the [[Monarchs]] needed to display their power and authority in churches and state buildings using some sort of propaganda.  Baroque painting theatrically emerged giving the [[didactic lesson]] with none of the disturbing angst of [[Mannerism/Art|Mannerism]]. Baroque painting featured an awesome-ness through sheer depth.  Whereas [[Renaissance Classicism|Classicism]] had order dominating energy, Baroque's energy and overkill dominated the order while maintaining the absence of the unessential.  
3c3
< Tittian's Donne was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  Carrache's Domine, quo vadis? was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
---
> [[Tittian]]'s [[Donne by Tittian|Donne]] was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  [[Carrache]]'s [[Domine, quo vadis? by Carrache|Domine, quo vadis?]] was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
------
Baroque/Art|985581375
3c3
< [[Tittian]]'s [[Donne by Tittian|Donne]] was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  [[Carrache]]'s [[Domine, quo vadis? by Carrache|Domine, quo vadis?]] was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the church.  His Coronation of a Virgin warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  Reni's Rape of Europe gets back to a Rapheal-like mythicalism, but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
---
> [[Tittian]]'s [[Donne by Tittian|Donne]] was light and rich in color with a painterly style that was more concerned with color creating a decorative picture.  [[Carrache]]'s [[Domine, quo vadis by Carrache|Domine, quo vadis]]? was upbeat and optimistic with none of the spiritual questioning but yet giving a lesson that one should follow the [[church]].  His [[Coronation of a Virgin by Carrache|Coronation of a Virgin]] warmly showed a massive form of figures in a straightforward and rich fashion.  [[Reni]]'s [[Rape of Europe by Reni|Rape of Europe]] gets back to a [[Rapheal]]-like [[mythicalism]], but it looks much like a decoration, not a painting.  
5c5
< Carravaggio represents the oppressed side of the Baroque. His Paul and Matthew lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing chiaroscuro, the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of God.  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich church aristocracy.  Carravaggio's emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
---
> [[Carravaggio]] represents the oppressed side of the Baroque. His [[Paul and Matthew by Carravaggio|Paul and Matthew]] lack the idealization of the human form.  While introducing [[chiaroscuro]], the use of light with dramatic, emotional effect in painting, his religious intensity moves inward, letting the light convey the visual image of [[God]].  Even though his painting is too powerful for idealists, he retains the patronization of the rich [[church aristocracy]].  [[Carravaggio]]'s emotion is a gut-check because it comes from the bottom-up, not the top-down.  
7c7
< Baroque also introduced the concept of the sublime and infinity.  The sublime was the awesome and overpowering force of the king or the church.  The kings needed this power through suggestion as a part of their propaganda to keep the masses quiet.  As the fields of mathematics and astronomy began to show that there might not be an end to our universe, Baroque painting featured infinity, with skies and landscapes disappearing into nowhere. 
---
> Baroque also introduced the concept of the [[sublime]] and [[infinity]].  The [[sublime]] was the awesome and overpowering force of the [[king]] or the [[church]].  The [[king]]s needed this power through suggestion as a part of their [[propaganda]] to keep the masses quiet.  As the fields of [[mathematics]] and [[astronomy]] began to show that there might not be an end to our [[universe]], Baroque painting featured [[infinity]], with skies and landscapes disappearing into nowhere. 
9c9
< The decorative Rubens was the prototypical artist patronized by Marie de Medici and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  Poussin's history paintings had purpose.  The didactic lessons of the evils of the mob and the dangers of democracy were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  Claude's happy village scenes would prompt French aristocrats to build faux villages that looked like Claude's paintings. Le Nain showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.     
---
> The decorative [[Rubens]] was the prototypical artist patronized by [[Marie de Medici]] and much in demand.  His light brought intensity to the painting and he reinforced the gender power of the Baroque (male over female).  [[Poussin]]'s [[history paintings]] had purpose.  The [[didactic lesson]]s of the evils of the mob and the dangers of [[democracy]] were represented as historic truths as he showed the countryside in a calm and nostalgic state.  [[Claude]]'s happy village scenes would prompt [[French aristocrats]] to build [[faux villages]] that looked like [[Claude]]'s paintings. [[Le Nain]] showed that even a peasant family has enough to feed the beggar, therefore, poverty does not exist.    
------
Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism/Talk|985581613
1c1,5
< I don't know how to improve this article, but it needs a lot of improvement.  For one thing, it needs a solid historical foundation: who were some irrationalists and aestheticists, and what was the positivist movement they were reacting to?  Basically, a list of [[isms]] without a statement of what the isms mean is only so much nonsense.  Also, consider retitling the article so it is very clear what you're talking about. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I don't know how to improve this article, but it needs a lot of improvement.  For one thing, it needs a solid historical foundation: who were some irrationalists and aestheticists, and what was the positivist movement they were reacting to?  Basically, a list of [[isms]] without a statement of what the isms mean is only so much nonsense.  Also, consider retitling the article so it is very clear what you're talking about. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Aye, Aye Captain.  It will require some delving into the old notebooks on my end, which will take some time, but I'll get to it.  Although I've studied this stuff, I'm an obvious babe in the world of [[philosphy]].  I do hope to change this.  -- [[Invictus]]
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Populism_and_Nationalism|985581685
14c14,16
< ''This article seems mistitled.''
---
> ''This article seems mistitled.''
> 
> [[Populism and Nationalism/Talk|/Talk]]
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Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk|985581727
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LS, what might you suggest as a better titla for this one?  -- [[Invictus]]
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Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk|985581831
1c1
< LS, what might you suggest as a better titla for this one?  -- [[Invictus]]
---
> LS, what might you suggest as a better title for this one?  And I am signing off tonight...needeth rest.  -- [[Invictus]]
------
Archaeology/Talk|985582320
11a12,13
> 
> Response to Larry: Physical remains are archaeological data, yes, but I'm wary of focusing on them in a definition. I'd rather get away from the "Indiana Jones" mentality that a lot of the general public - at least in the U.S. - seems to have.  It's tough to get people past the idea that archaeologists look for neat "things" for the sake of the things themselves. In American archaeology, at least, material objects are only important insofar as they convey information about the people who made and used them. There's a huge range of other archaeological evidence that's just as important as material objects.  Besides, the list of examples in the quoted text is not very illuminating, unless you're talking about a pretty narrow range of times and places. Most of the listed artifact types are not found in a significant percentage of the world's archaeological sites. So why didn't I just construct a better list? Any list will inevitably leave something out. In a short definition, I'd rather focus on the goals of the discipline than on one part of the method. Or maybe it's just an idiosyncrasy :). - [[Pemerson]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Amalgamated_Switch_and_Signal|985584217
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A company run by [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]] and located in [[/Connecticut|Connecticut]].  They have supplied [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] for generations.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] switches from them.
> 
> Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[/Section171]].
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Amalgamated_Switch_and_Signal|985584251
1c1
< A company run by [[/Mr. Mowan|Mr. Mowan]] and located in [[/Connecticut|Connecticut]].  They have supplied [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] for generations.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] switches from them.
---
> A company run by [[/Mr. Mowen|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[/Connecticut|Connecticut]].  They have supplied [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] for generations.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] switches from them.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Arizona|985584323
6a7
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Cheyenne_Wyoming|985584354
1c1,5
< Cheyenne, Wyoming is the northern terminus of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].  It is mentioned in [[/Section111|Section111]].
---
> Cheyenne, Wyoming is the northern terminus of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]].
> 
> It is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section111|Section111]]
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Chicago|985584457
1c1,3
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] in [[/Section112|Section112]].
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] passes through Chicago while returning from an inspection of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] in [[/Section112|Section112]].
> 
> In [[/Section171|Section171]] we learn Dagny flew to Chicago to take over [[/Summit Casting|Summit Casting]] which had goen bankrupt before delivering parts needed for the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]]. 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Colorado|985584483
10a11
>  - [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|985584515
15a16
>  [[/Connecticut|Connecticut]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Connecticut|985584543
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Colorado|985584596
2a3,4
> It is also the location of [[/Galts Gulch|Galt's Gulch]].
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|985584633
17a18
>  [[/Denver|Denver]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Denver|985584656
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of [[/Barton and Jones|Barton and Jones]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Places|985584690
25a26
>  [[/Illinois|Illinois]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Illinois|985584727
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The home of [[/Summit Casting|Summit Casting]].
> 
> Illinois is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Denver|985584758
1c1,4
< The home of [[/Barton and Jones|Barton and Jones]].
---
> The home of [[/Barton and Jones|Barton and Jones]].
> 
> Mentioned in:
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Connecticut|985584778
1c1,4
< The home of [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal]].
---
> The home of [[/Amalgamated Switch and Signal|Amalgamated Switch and Signal]].
> 
> Connecticut is mentioned in:
>  [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Minnesota|985585020
2a3,4
> In [[/Section171|Section171]] Rearden lies to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] about going to Minnesota so he doesn't have to fly with her to [[/New York|New York]].
> 
4a7
>  - [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/New_York|985585036
10a11
>  - [[/Section171|Section171]]
------
Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk|985587533
1a2,3
> 
> I really don't know. --LS
------
Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk|985588907
3c3,5
< I really don't know. --LS
---
> I really don't know. --LS
> 
> ''History of...?  Origins of...?''
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|985591232
4a5
> *2000 [[Gladiator]] - Ridley Scott
76c77
< *1928 [[Wings]] - Paramount Famous Lasky 
---
> *1928 [[Wings]] - Paramount Famous Lasky 
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|985591277
4a5
> *2000 [[Russel Crowe]] - [[Gladiator]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actress|985591329
4a5
> *2000 [[Julia Roberts]] - [[Erin Brokovich]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actor|985591411
4a5
> *2000 [[Benicio del Toro]] - [[Traffic]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|985591476
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *2000 [[Steven Soderbergh]] - [[Traffic]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Supporting_Actress|985591532
4a5
> *2000 [[Marcia Gay Harden]] - [[Pollock]]
------
Archaeology/Talk|985593618
13a14,15
> 
> Given the Britannica article, I'm betting it's an idiosyncracy.  :-)  The list was parenthetical, after all, and of course physical remains are a sine qua non of archaeological work.  Talking about archaeology without mentioning the physical remains of cultures is a little like talking about music without mentioning musical instruments.  Sure, you can do it, but it's kind of funny not to.  --LS
------
Archaeology/Talk|985593652
15c15
< Given the Britannica article, I'm betting it's an idiosyncracy.  :-)  The list was parenthetical, after all, and of course physical remains are a sine qua non of archaeological work.  Talking about archaeology without mentioning the physical remains of cultures is a little like talking about music without mentioning musical instruments.  Sure, you can do it, but it's kind of funny not to.  --LS
---
> Given the Britannica article, I'm betting it's an idiosyncracy.  :-)  The list was parenthetical, after all, and of course physical remains are a sine qua non of archaeological work.  Talking about archaeology without mentioning the physical remains of cultures is a little like talking about music without mentioning musical instruments.  Sure, you can do it, but it's kind of funny not to.  So, why not just choose the artifact types that happen to be most common?  I don't know what they are, so you'll have to change the list. --LS
------
Ungulate|985594513
1,8c1
< "Ungulate" is a more precise category that roughly corresponds to "hooved".  Ungulates make up several orders of mammals, of which four are alive: the [[Artiodactyla]] (even-toed ungulates), [[Perissodactyla]] (odd-toed ungulates), [[Proboscidea]] (elephants), and [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes).  Most large land mammals are ungulates.
< 
< ----
< more precise than what?
< 
< Sorry, that was a turn of phrase I used to respond to Larry's question ("what's an ungulate").  What I meant was that "ungulate" is a specific biologist's term that all agree upon, while "hoofed" is a more colloquial one.  For example, some people might not consider elephants to have "hooves", but they <i>are</i> ungulates.  If you can think of a better way to say that before I do, by all means do.
< 
< 
---
> "Ungulate" means roughly "hoofed" or "hoofed animal."  Ungulates make up several orders of mammals, of which four are alive: the [[Artiodactyla]] (even-toed ungulates), [[Perissodactyla]] (odd-toed ungulates), [[Proboscidea]] (elephants), and [[Hyracoidea]] (hyraxes).  Most large land mammals are ungulates.
------
History|985595941
48c48
< * [[History of Science]]
---
> * [[History of Science and Technology]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk|985596030
3c3,5
< Two thoughts.  First, I think there should definitely be categories for failed models - so pre-evolutionary thought beside evolutionary thought, neptunism beside continental drift, and so forth.  Those things are interesting.  Second, I'm going to suggest technology not be chronological - Titanium and Iron-working have more in common in my mind than Titanium and Aerodynamics. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> Two thoughts.  First, I think there should definitely be categories for failed models - so pre-evolutionary thought beside evolutionary thought, neptunism beside continental drift, and so forth.  Those things are interesting.  Second, I'm going to suggest technology not be chronological - Titanium and Iron-working have more in common in my mind than Titanium and Aerodynamics. -- [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> ----
> Why can't you have the information organized in multiple ways?  --[[LMS]]
------
LMS|985596044
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Larry_Sanger|985596161
1c1
< Editor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. [[Philosophy]], 2000, [[Ohio State University]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
---
> Editor-in-Chief of [[Nupedia]] and (with [[Jimbo Wales]]) instigator of [[Wikipedia]].  Ph.D. 2000, M.A. 1995, [[Philosophy]], [[Ohio State University]].  B.A. 1991 Philosophy, [[Reed College]].  Home town is [[Anchorage, Alaska]].
34c34
< It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows form the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> It would be a criticism of premise 7 (that evil exists in the world), not of premise 4, as far as I can tell.  The proposal is that evil is relative, and therefore, because someone in much worse conditions than we're in now would not consider the conditions we're in now as evil, evil doesn't exist.  I don't really agree that this latter conclusion really follows from the premise that evil is relative, but I think you might be on to something here.  I really don't know that much about this area of philosophy, to tell the truth. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
66c66
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
------
Thomas_Reid|985596223
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct Realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
Thomas_Reid|985596287
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[Common Sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[Direct realism]], or [[Common Sense Realism]], and inveighed strongly against [[The Theory Of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Rene Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern Philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[George E Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[common sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[direct realism]], or [[common sense realism]], and inveighed strongly against the so-called [[Theory of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[G. E. Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
Thomas_Reid|985596349
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[common sense]]--this terms is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[direct realism]], or [[common sense realism]], and inveighed strongly against the so-called [[Theory of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[G. E. Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[common sense]]--this term is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[direct realism]], or [[common sense realism]], and inveighed strongly against the so-called [[Theory of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[G. E. Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
POP3|985596580
1a2,1944
> 
> 
> 
> RFC1725 - POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3 
> 
> Network Working Group                                           J. Myers
> Request for Comments: 1725                               Carnegie Mellon
> Obsoletes: 1460                                                  M. Rose
> Category: Standards Track                   Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
>                                                            November 1994
> 
> 
>                     Post Office Protocol - Version 3
> 
> Status of this Memo
> 
>    This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
>    Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
>    improvements.  Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
>    Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
>    and status of this protocol.  Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
> 
> Overview
> 
>    This memo is a revision to RFC 1460, a Draft Standard.  It makes the
>    following changes from that document:
> 
>       - removed text regarding "split-UA model", which didn't add
>         anything to the understanding of POP
> 
>       - clarified syntax of commands, keywords, and arguments
> 
>       - clarified behavior on broken connection
> 
>       - explicitly permitted an inactivity autologout timer
> 
>       - clarified the requirements of the "exclusive-access lock"
> 
>       - removed implementation-specific wording regarding the parsing of
>         the maildrop
> 
>       - allowed servers to close the connection after a failed
>         authentication command
> 
>       - removed the LAST command
> 
>       - fixed typo in example of TOP command
> 
>       - clarified that the second argument to the TOP command is non-
>         negative
> 
>       - added the optional UIDL command
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 1]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>       - added warning regarding length of shared secrets with APOP
> 
>       - added additional warnings to the security considerations section
> 
> 1. Introduction
> 
>    On certain types of smaller nodes in the Internet it is often
>    impractical to maintain a message transport system (MTS).  For
>    example, a workstation may not have sufficient resources (cycles,
>    disk space) in order to permit a SMTP server [RFC821] and associated
>    local mail delivery system to be kept resident and continuously
>    running.  Similarly, it may be expensive (or impossible) to keep a
>    personal computer interconnected to an IP-style network for long
>    amounts of time (the node is lacking the resource known as
>    "connectivity").
> 
>    Despite this, it is often very useful to be able to manage mail on
>    these smaller nodes, and they often support a user agent (UA) to aid
>    the tasks of mail handling.  To solve this problem, a node which can
>    support an MTS entity offers a maildrop service to these less endowed
>    nodes.  The Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (POP3) is intended to
>    permit a workstation to dynamically access a maildrop on a server
>    host in a useful fashion.  Usually, this means that the POP3 is used
>    to allow a workstation to retrieve mail that the server is holding
>    for it.
> 
>    For the remainder of this memo, the term "client host" refers to a
>    host making use of the POP3 service, while the term "server host"
>    refers to a host which offers the POP3 service.
> 
> 2. A Short Digression
> 
>    This memo does not specify how a client host enters mail into the
>    transport system, although a method consistent with the philosophy of
>    this memo is presented here:
> 
>       When the user agent on a client host wishes to enter a message
>       into the transport system, it establishes an SMTP connection to
>       its relay host (this relay host could be, but need not be, the
>       POP3 server host for the client host).
> 
> 3. Basic Operation
> 
>    Initially, the server host starts the POP3 service by listening on
>    TCP port 110.  When a client host wishes to make use of the service,
>    it establishes a TCP connection with the server host.  When the
>    connection is established, the POP3 server sends a greeting.  The
>    client and POP3 server then exchange commands and responses
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 2]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    (respectively) until the connection is closed or aborted.
> 
>    Commands in the POP3 consist of a keyword, possibly followed by one
>    or more arguments.  All commands are terminated by a CRLF pair.
>    Keywords and arguments consist of printable ASCII characters.
>    Keywords and arguments are each separated by a single SPACE
>    character.  Keywords are three or four characters long. Each argument
>    may be up to 40 characters long.
> 
>    Responses in the POP3 consist of a status indicator and a keyword
>    possibly followed by additional information.  All responses are
>    terminated by a CRLF pair.  There are currently two status
>    indicators: positive ("+OK") and negative ("-ERR").
> 
>    Responses to certain commands are multi-line.  In these cases, which
>    are clearly indicated below, after sending the first line of the
>    response and a CRLF, any additional lines are sent, each terminated
>    by a CRLF pair.  When all lines of the response have been sent, a
>    final line is sent, consisting of a termination octet (decimal code
>    046, ".") and a CRLF pair.  If any line of the multi-line response
>    begins with the termination octet, the line is "byte-stuffed" by
>    pre-pending the termination octet to that line of the response.
>    Hence a multi-line response is terminated with the five octets
>    "CRLF.CRLF".  When examining a multi-line response, the client checks
>    to see if the line begins with the termination octet.  If so and if
>    octets other than CRLF follow, the the first octet of the line (the
>    termination octet) is stripped away.  If so and if CRLF immediately
>    follows the termination character, then the response from the POP
>    server is ended and the line containing ".CRLF" is not considered
>    part of the multi-line response.
> 
>    A POP3 session progresses through a number of states during its
>    lifetime.  Once the TCP connection has been opened and the POP3
>    server has sent the greeting, the session enters the AUTHORIZATION
>    state.  In this state, the client must identify itself to the POP3
>    server.  Once the client has successfully done this, the server
>    acquires resources associated with the client's maildrop, and the
>    session enters the TRANSACTION state.  In this state, the client
>    requests actions on the part of the POP3 server.  When the client has
>    issued the QUIT command, the session enters the UPDATE state.  In
>    this state, the POP3 server releases any resources acquired during
>    the TRANSACTION state and says goodbye.  The TCP connection is then
>    closed.
> 
>    A POP3 server MAY have an inactivity autologout timer.  Such a timer
>    MUST be of at least 10 minutes' duration.  The receipt of any command
>    from the client during that interval should suffice to reset the
>    autologout timer.  When the timer expires, the session does NOT enter
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 3]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    the UPDATE state--the server should close the TCP connection without
>    removing any messages or sending any response to the client.
> 
> 4. The AUTHORIZATION State
> 
>    Once the TCP connection has been opened by a POP3 client, the POP3
>    server issues a one line greeting.  This can be any string terminated
>    by CRLF.  An example might be:
> 
>       S:  +OK POP3 server ready
> 
>    Note that this greeting is a POP3 reply.  The POP3 server should
>    always give a positive response as the greeting.
> 
>    The POP3 session is now in the AUTHORIZATION state.  The client must
>    now identify and authenticate itself to the POP3 server.  Two
>    possible mechanisms for doing this are described in this document,
>    the USER and PASS command combination and the APOP command.  The APOP
>    command is described later in this document.
> 
>    To authenticate using the USER and PASS command combination, the
>    client must first issue the USER command.  If the POP3 server
>    responds with a positive status indicator ("+OK"), then the client
>    may issue either the PASS command to complete the authentication, or
>    the QUIT command to terminate the POP3 session.  If the POP3 server
>    responds with a negative status indicator ("-ERR") to the USER
>    command, then the client may either issue a new authentication
>    command or may issue the QUIT command.
> 
>    When the client issues the PASS command, the POP3 server uses the
>    argument pair from the USER and PASS commands to determine if the
>    client should be given access to the appropriate maildrop.
> 
>    Once the POP3 server has determined through the use of any
>    authentication command that the client should be given access to the
>    appropriate maildrop, the POP3 server then acquires an exclusive-
>    access lock on the maildrop, as necessary to prevent messages from
>    being modified or removed before the session enters the UPDATE state.
>    If the lock is successfully acquired, the POP3 server responds with a
>    positive status indicator.  The POP3 session now enters the
>    TRANSACTION state, with no messages marked as deleted.  If the the
>    maildrop cannot be opened for some reason (for example, a lock can
>    not be acquired, the client is denied access to the appropriate
>    maildrop, or the maildrop cannot be parsed), the POP3 server responds
>    with a negative status indicator.  (If a lock was acquired but the
>    POP3 server intends to respond with a negative status indicator, the
>    POP3 server must release the lock prior to rejecting the command.)
>    After returning a negative status indicator, the server may close the
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 4]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    connection.  If the server does not close the connection, the client
>    may either issue a new authentication command and start again, or the
>    client may issue the QUIT command.
> 
>    After the POP3 server has opened the maildrop, it assigns a message-
>    number to each message, and notes the size of each message in octets.
>    The first message in the maildrop is assigned a message-number of
>    "1", the second is assigned "2", and so on, so that the n'th message
>    in a maildrop is assigned a message-number of "n".  In POP3 commands
>    and responses, all message-number's and message sizes are expressed
>    in base-10 (i.e., decimal).
> 
>    Here are summaries for the three POP3 commands discussed thus far:
> 
>       USER name
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a string identifying a mailbox (required), which is of
>              significance ONLY to the server
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
>              greeting or after an unsuccessful USER or PASS command
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK name is a valid mailbox
>              -ERR never heard of mailbox name
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>                 ...
>              C: USER frated
>              S: -ERR sorry, no mailbox for frated here
> 
>       PASS string
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a server/mailbox-specific password (required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after a
>              successful USER command
> 
>          Discussion:
>              Since the PASS command has exactly one argument, a POP3
>              server may treat spaces in the argument as part of the
>              password, instead of as argument separators.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 5]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK maildrop locked and ready
>              -ERR invalid password
>              -ERR unable to lock maildrop
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>              C: PASS secret
>              S: +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
>                ...
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>              C: PASS secret
>              S: -ERR maildrop already locked
> 
>       QUIT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions: none
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off
> 
> 5. The TRANSACTION State
> 
>    Once the client has successfully identified itself to the POP3 server
>    and the POP3 server has locked and opened the appropriate maildrop,
>    the POP3 session is now in the TRANSACTION state.  The client may now
>    issue any of the following POP3 commands repeatedly.  After each
>    command, the POP3 server issues a response.  Eventually, the client
>    issues the QUIT command and the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.
> 
>    Here are the POP3 commands valid in the TRANSACTION state:
> 
>       STAT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 6]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line
>              containing information for the maildrop.  This line is
>              called a "drop listing" for that maildrop.
> 
>              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers required to
>              use a certain format for drop listings.  The positive
>              response consists of "+OK" followed by a single space, the
>              number of messages in the maildrop, a single space, and the
>              size of the maildrop in octets.  This memo makes no
>              requirement on what follows the maildrop size.  Minimal
>              implementations should just end that line of the response
>              with a CRLF pair.  More advanced implementations may
>              include other information.
> 
>                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
>                 from supplying additional information in the drop
>                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
>                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
>                 in the maildrop.
> 
>              Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in
>              either total.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK nn mm
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: STAT
>              S: +OK 2 320
> 
>       LIST [msg]
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (optional), which, if present, may NOT
>              refer to a message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
>              positive response with a line containing information for
>              that message.  This line is called a "scan listing" for
>              that message.
> 
>              If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
>              positive response, then the response given is multi-line.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 7]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              After the initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop,
>              the POP3 server responds with a line containing information
>              for that message.  This line is also called a "scan
>              listing" for that message.
> 
>              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required
>              to use a certain format for scan listings.  A scan listing
>              consists of the message-number of the message, followed by
>              a single space and the exact size of the message in octets.
>              This memo makes no requirement on what follows the message
>              size in the scan listing.  Minimal implementations should
>              just end that line of the response with a CRLF pair.  More
>              advanced implementations may include other information, as
>              parsed from the message.
> 
>                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
>                 from supplying additional information in the scan
>                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
>                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
>                 in the maildrop.
> 
>              Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK scan listing follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: LIST
>              S: +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
>              S: 1 120
>              S: 2 200
>              S: .
>                ...
>              C: LIST 2
>              S: +OK 2 200
>                ...
>              C: LIST 3
>              S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
> 
>       RETR msg
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
>              message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 8]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
>              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
>              POP3 server sends the message corresponding to the given
>              message-number, being careful to byte-stuff the termination
>              character (as with all multi-line responses).
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK message follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: RETR 1
>              S: +OK 120 octets
>              S: 
>              S: .
> 
>       DELE msg
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
>              message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server marks the message as deleted.  Any future
>              reference to the message-number associated with the message
>              in a POP3 command generates an error.  The POP3 server does
>              not actually delete the message until the POP3 session
>              enters the UPDATE state.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK message deleted
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: DELE 1
>              S: +OK message 1 deleted
>                 ...
>              C: DELE 2
>              S: -ERR message 2 already deleted
> 
>       NOOP
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 9]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server does nothing, it merely replies with a
>              positive response.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: NOOP
>              S: +OK
> 
>       RSET
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If any messages have been marked as deleted by the POP3
>              server, they are unmarked.  The POP3 server then replies
>              with a positive response.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: RSET
>              S: +OK maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
> 
> 6. The UPDATE State
> 
>    When the client issues the QUIT command from the TRANSACTION state,
>    the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.  (Note that if the client
>    issues the QUIT command from the AUTHORIZATION state, the POP3
>    session terminates but does NOT enter the UPDATE state.)
> 
>    If a session terminates for some reason other than a client-issued
>    QUIT command, the POP3 session does NOT enter the UPDATE state and
>    MUST not remove any messages from the maildrop.
> 
>       QUIT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 10]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Restrictions: none
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server removes all messages marked as deleted from
>              the maildrop.  It then releases any exclusive-access lock
>              on the maildrop and replies as to the status of these
>              operations.  The TCP connection is then closed.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
>                 ...
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (2 messages left)
>                 ...
> 
> 7. Optional POP3 Commands
> 
>    The POP3 commands discussed above must be supported by all minimal
>    implementations of POP3 servers.
> 
>    The optional POP3 commands described below permit a POP3 client
>    greater freedom in message handling, while preserving a simple POP3
>    server implementation.
> 
>       NOTE: This memo STRONGLY encourages implementations to support
>       these commands in lieu of developing augmented drop and scan
>       listings.  In short, the philosophy of this memo is to put
>       intelligence in the part of the POP3 client and not the POP3
>       server.
> 
>       TOP msg n
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may NOT refer to to a
>              message marked as deleted, and a non-negative number
>              (required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
>              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
>              POP3 server sends the headers of the message, the blank
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 11]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              line separating the headers from the body, and then the
>              number of lines indicated message's body, being careful to
>              byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-
>              line responses).
> 
>              Note that if the number of lines requested by the POP3
>              client is greater than than the number of lines in the
>              body, then the POP3 server sends the entire message.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK top of message follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: TOP 1 10
>              S: +OK
>              S: 
>              S: .
>                 ...
>              C: TOP 100 3
>              S: -ERR no such message
> 
>       UIDL [msg]
> 
>       Arguments:
>           a message-number (optionally)  If a message-number is given,
>           it may NOT refer to a message marked as deleted.
> 
>       Restrictions:
>           may only be given in the TRANSACTION state.
> 
>       Discussion:
>           If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
>           response with a line containing information for that message.
>           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
> 
>           If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
>           response, then the response given is multi-line.  After the
>           initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop, the POP3 server
>           responds with a line containing information for that message.
>           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
> 
>           In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required to
>           use a certain format for unique-id listings.  A unique-id
>           listing consists of the message-number of the message,
>           followed by a single space and the unique-id of the message.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 12]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>           No information follows the unique-id in the unique-id listing.
> 
>           The unique-id of a message is an arbitrary server-determined
>           string, consisting of characters in the range 0x21 to 0x7E,
>           which uniquely identifies a message within a maildrop and
>           which persists across sessions. The server should never reuse
>           an unique-id in a given maildrop, for as long as the entity
>           using the unique-id exists.
> 
>           Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
> 
>       Possible Responses:
>           +OK unique-id listing follows
>           -ERR no such message
> 
>       Examples:
>           C: UIDL
>           S: +OK
>           S: 1 whqtswO00WBw418f9t5JxYwZ
>           S: 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
>           S: .
>              ...
>           C: UIDL 2
>           S: +OK 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
>              ...
>           C: UIDL 3
>           S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
> 
>       APOP name digest
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a string identifying a mailbox and a MD5 digest string
>              (both required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
>              greeting
> 
>          Discussion:
>              Normally, each POP3 session starts with a USER/PASS
>              exchange.  This results in a server/user-id specific
>              password being sent in the clear on the network.  For
>              intermittent use of POP3, this may not introduce a sizable
>              risk.  However, many POP3 client implementations connect to
>              the POP3 server on a regular basis -- to check for new
>              mail.  Further the interval of session initiation may be on
>              the order of five minutes.  Hence, the risk of password
>              capture is greatly enhanced.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 13]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              An alternate method of authentication is required which
>              provides for both origin authentication and replay
>              protection, but which does not involve sending a password
>              in the clear over the network.  The APOP command provides
>              this functionality.
> 
>              A POP3 server which implements the APOP command will
>              include a timestamp in its banner greeting.  The syntax of
>              the timestamp corresponds to the `msg-id' in [RFC822], and
>              MUST be different each time the POP3 server issues a banner
>              greeting.  For example, on a UNIX implementation in which a
>              separate UNIX process is used for each instance of a POP3
>              server, the syntax of the timestamp might be:
> 
>                 
> 
>              where `process-ID' is the decimal value of the process's
>              PID, clock is the decimal value of the system clock, and
>              hostname is the fully-qualified domain-name corresponding
>              to the host where the POP3 server is running.
> 
>              The POP3 client makes note of this timestamp, and then
>              issues the APOP command.  The `name' parameter has
>              identical semantics to the `name' parameter of the USER
>              command. The `digest' parameter is calculated by applying
>              the MD5 algorithm [RFC1321] to a string consisting of the
>              timestamp (including angle-brackets) followed by a shared
>              secret.  This shared secret is a string known only to the
>              POP3 client and server.  Great care should be taken to
>              prevent unauthorized disclosure of the secret, as knowledge
>              of the secret will allow any entity to successfully
>              masquerade as the named user.  The `digest' parameter
>              itself is a 16-octet value which is sent in hexadecimal
>              format, using lower-case ASCII characters.
> 
>              When the POP3 server receives the APOP command, it verifies
>              the digest provided.  If the digest is correct, the POP3
>              server issues a positive response, and the POP3 session
>              enters the TRANSACTION state.  Otherwise, a negative
>              response is issued and the POP3 session remains in the
>              AUTHORIZATION state.
> 
>              Note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
>              does the difficulty of deriving it.  As such, shared
>              secrets should be long strings (considerably longer than
>              the 8-character example shown below).
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 14]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK maildrop locked and ready
>              -ERR permission denied
> 
>          Examples:
>              S: +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
>              C: APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
>              S: +OK maildrop has 1 message (369 octets)
> 
>              In this example, the shared  secret  is  the  string  `tan-
>              staaf'.  Hence, the MD5 algorithm is applied to the string
> 
>                 <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>tanstaaf
> 
>              which produces a digest value of
> 
>                 c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
> 
> 8. POP3 Command Summary
> 
>    Minimal POP3 Commands:
> 
>       USER name               valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
>       PASS string
>       QUIT
> 
>       STAT                    valid in the TRANSACTION state
>       LIST [msg]
>       RETR msg
>       DELE msg
>       NOOP
>       RSET
> 
>       QUIT                    valid in the UPDATE state
> 
>    Optional POP3 Commands:
> 
>       APOP name digest        valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
> 
>       TOP msg n               valid in the TRANSACTION state
>       UIDL [msg]
> 
>    POP3 Replies:
> 
>       +OK
>       -ERR
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 15]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    Note that with the exception of the STAT, LIST, and UIDL commands,
>    the reply given by the POP3 server to any command is significant only
>    to "+OK" and "-ERR".  Any text occurring after this reply may be
>    ignored by the client.
> 
> 9. Example POP3 Session
> 
>    S: 
>    C: 
>    S:    +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
>    C:    APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
>    S:    +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
>    C:    STAT
>    S:    +OK 2 320
>    C:    LIST
>    S:    +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
>    S:    1 120
>    S:    2 200
>    S:    .
>    C:    RETR 1
>    S:    +OK 120 octets
>    S:    
>    S:    .
>    C:    DELE 1
>    S:    +OK message 1 deleted
>    C:    RETR 2
>    S:    +OK 200 octets
>    S:    
>    S:    .
>    C:    DELE 2
>    S:    +OK message 2 deleted
>    C:    QUIT
>    S:    +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
>    C:  
>    S:  
> 
> 10. Message Format
> 
>    All messages transmitted during a POP3 session are assumed to conform
>    to the standard for the format of Internet text messages [RFC822].
> 
>    It is important to note that the octet count for a message on the
>    server host may differ from the octet count assigned to that message
>    due to local conventions for designating end-of-line.  Usually,
>    during the AUTHORIZATION state of the POP3 session, the POP3 server
>    can calculate the size of each message in octets when it opens the
>    maildrop.  For example, if the POP3 server host internally represents
>    end-of-line as a single character, then the POP3 server simply counts
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 16]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    each occurrence of this character in a message as two octets.  Note
>    that lines in the message which start with the termination octet need
>    not be counted twice, since the POP3 client will remove all byte-
>    stuffed termination characters when it receives a multi-line
>    response.
> 
> 11. References
> 
>    [RFC821] Postel, J., "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", STD 10, RFC
>        821, USC/Information Sciences Institute, August 1982.
> 
>    [RFC822] Crocker, D., "Standard for the Format of ARPA-Internet Text
>        Messages", STD 11, RFC 822, University of Delaware, August 1982.
> 
>    [RFC1321] Rivest, R. "The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC 1321,
>        MIT Laboratory for Computer Science, April, 1992.
> 
> 12. Security Considerations
> 
>    It is conjectured that use of the APOP command provides origin
>    identification and replay protection for a POP3 session.
>    Accordingly, a POP3 server which implements both the PASS and APOP
>    commands must not allow both methods of access for a given user; that
>    is, for a given "USER name" either the PASS or APOP command is
>    allowed, but not both.
> 
>    Further, note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
>    does the difficulty of deriving it.
> 
>    Servers that answer -ERR to the USER command are giving potential
>    attackers clues about which names are valid
> 
>    Use of the PASS command sends passwords in the clear over the
>    network.
> 
>    Use of the RETR and TOP commands sends mail in the clear over the
>    network.
> 
>    Otherwise, security issues are not discussed in this memo.
> 
> 13. Acknowledgements
> 
>    The POP family has a long and checkered history.  Although primarily
>    a minor revision to RFC 1460, POP3 is based on the ideas presented in
>    RFCs 918, 937, and 1081.
> 
>    In addition, Alfred Grimstad, Keith McCloghrie, and Neil Ostroff
>    provided significant comments on the APOP command.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 17]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
> 14. Authors' Addresses
> 
>    John G. Myers
>    Carnegie-Mellon University
>    5000 Forbes Ave
>    Pittsburgh, PA 15213
> 
>    EMail: jgm+@cmu.edu
> 
> 
>    Marshall T. Rose
>    Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
>    420 Whisman Court
>    Mountain View, CA  94043-2186
> 
>    EMail: mrose@dbc.mtview.ca.us
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Network Working Group                                           J. Myers
> Request for Comments: 1725                               Carnegie Mellon
> Obsoletes: 1460                                                  M. Rose
> Category: Standards Track                   Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
>                                                            November 1994
> 
> 
>                     Post Office Protocol - Version 3
> 
> Status of this Memo
> 
>    This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
>    Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
>    improvements.  Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
>    Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
>    and status of this protocol.  Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
> 
> Overview
> 
>    This memo is a revision to RFC 1460, a Draft Standard.  It makes the
>    following changes from that document:
> 
>       - removed text regarding "split-UA model", which didn't add
>         anything to the understanding of POP
> 
>       - clarified syntax of commands, keywords, and arguments
> 
>       - clarified behavior on broken connection
> 
>       - explicitly permitted an inactivity autologout timer
> 
>       - clarified the requirements of the "exclusive-access lock"
> 
>       - removed implementation-specific wording regarding the parsing of
>         the maildrop
> 
>       - allowed servers to close the connection after a failed
>         authentication command
> 
>       - removed the LAST command
> 
>       - fixed typo in example of TOP command
> 
>       - clarified that the second argument to the TOP command is non-
>         negative
> 
>       - added the optional UIDL command
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 1]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>       - added warning regarding length of shared secrets with APOP
> 
>       - added additional warnings to the security considerations section
> 
> 1. Introduction
> 
>    On certain types of smaller nodes in the Internet it is often
>    impractical to maintain a message transport system (MTS).  For
>    example, a workstation may not have sufficient resources (cycles,
>    disk space) in order to permit a SMTP server [RFC821] and associated
>    local mail delivery system to be kept resident and continuously
>    running.  Similarly, it may be expensive (or impossible) to keep a
>    personal computer interconnected to an IP-style network for long
>    amounts of time (the node is lacking the resource known as
>    "connectivity").
> 
>    Despite this, it is often very useful to be able to manage mail on
>    these smaller nodes, and they often support a user agent (UA) to aid
>    the tasks of mail handling.  To solve this problem, a node which can
>    support an MTS entity offers a maildrop service to these less endowed
>    nodes.  The Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (POP3) is intended to
>    permit a workstation to dynamically access a maildrop on a server
>    host in a useful fashion.  Usually, this means that the POP3 is used
>    to allow a workstation to retrieve mail that the server is holding
>    for it.
> 
>    For the remainder of this memo, the term "client host" refers to a
>    host making use of the POP3 service, while the term "server host"
>    refers to a host which offers the POP3 service.
> 
> 2. A Short Digression
> 
>    This memo does not specify how a client host enters mail into the
>    transport system, although a method consistent with the philosophy of
>    this memo is presented here:
> 
>       When the user agent on a client host wishes to enter a message
>       into the transport system, it establishes an SMTP connection to
>       its relay host (this relay host could be, but need not be, the
>       POP3 server host for the client host).
> 
> 3. Basic Operation
> 
>    Initially, the server host starts the POP3 service by listening on
>    TCP port 110.  When a client host wishes to make use of the service,
>    it establishes a TCP connection with the server host.  When the
>    connection is established, the POP3 server sends a greeting.  The
>    client and POP3 server then exchange commands and responses
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 2]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    (respectively) until the connection is closed or aborted.
> 
>    Commands in the POP3 consist of a keyword, possibly followed by one
>    or more arguments.  All commands are terminated by a CRLF pair.
>    Keywords and arguments consist of printable ASCII characters.
>    Keywords and arguments are each separated by a single SPACE
>    character.  Keywords are three or four characters long. Each argument
>    may be up to 40 characters long.
> 
>    Responses in the POP3 consist of a status indicator and a keyword
>    possibly followed by additional information.  All responses are
>    terminated by a CRLF pair.  There are currently two status
>    indicators: positive ("+OK") and negative ("-ERR").
> 
>    Responses to certain commands are multi-line.  In these cases, which
>    are clearly indicated below, after sending the first line of the
>    response and a CRLF, any additional lines are sent, each terminated
>    by a CRLF pair.  When all lines of the response have been sent, a
>    final line is sent, consisting of a termination octet (decimal code
>    046, ".") and a CRLF pair.  If any line of the multi-line response
>    begins with the termination octet, the line is "byte-stuffed" by
>    pre-pending the termination octet to that line of the response.
>    Hence a multi-line response is terminated with the five octets
>    "CRLF.CRLF".  When examining a multi-line response, the client checks
>    to see if the line begins with the termination octet.  If so and if
>    octets other than CRLF follow, the the first octet of the line (the
>    termination octet) is stripped away.  If so and if CRLF immediately
>    follows the termination character, then the response from the POP
>    server is ended and the line containing ".CRLF" is not considered
>    part of the multi-line response.
> 
>    A POP3 session progresses through a number of states during its
>    lifetime.  Once the TCP connection has been opened and the POP3
>    server has sent the greeting, the session enters the AUTHORIZATION
>    state.  In this state, the client must identify itself to the POP3
>    server.  Once the client has successfully done this, the server
>    acquires resources associated with the client's maildrop, and the
>    session enters the TRANSACTION state.  In this state, the client
>    requests actions on the part of the POP3 server.  When the client has
>    issued the QUIT command, the session enters the UPDATE state.  In
>    this state, the POP3 server releases any resources acquired during
>    the TRANSACTION state and says goodbye.  The TCP connection is then
>    closed.
> 
>    A POP3 server MAY have an inactivity autologout timer.  Such a timer
>    MUST be of at least 10 minutes' duration.  The receipt of any command
>    from the client during that interval should suffice to reset the
>    autologout timer.  When the timer expires, the session does NOT enter
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 3]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    the UPDATE state--the server should close the TCP connection without
>    removing any messages or sending any response to the client.
> 
> 4. The AUTHORIZATION State
> 
>    Once the TCP connection has been opened by a POP3 client, the POP3
>    server issues a one line greeting.  This can be any string terminated
>    by CRLF.  An example might be:
> 
>       S:  +OK POP3 server ready
> 
>    Note that this greeting is a POP3 reply.  The POP3 server should
>    always give a positive response as the greeting.
> 
>    The POP3 session is now in the AUTHORIZATION state.  The client must
>    now identify and authenticate itself to the POP3 server.  Two
>    possible mechanisms for doing this are described in this document,
>    the USER and PASS command combination and the APOP command.  The APOP
>    command is described later in this document.
> 
>    To authenticate using the USER and PASS command combination, the
>    client must first issue the USER command.  If the POP3 server
>    responds with a positive status indicator ("+OK"), then the client
>    may issue either the PASS command to complete the authentication, or
>    the QUIT command to terminate the POP3 session.  If the POP3 server
>    responds with a negative status indicator ("-ERR") to the USER
>    command, then the client may either issue a new authentication
>    command or may issue the QUIT command.
> 
>    When the client issues the PASS command, the POP3 server uses the
>    argument pair from the USER and PASS commands to determine if the
>    client should be given access to the appropriate maildrop.
> 
>    Once the POP3 server has determined through the use of any
>    authentication command that the client should be given access to the
>    appropriate maildrop, the POP3 server then acquires an exclusive-
>    access lock on the maildrop, as necessary to prevent messages from
>    being modified or removed before the session enters the UPDATE state.
>    If the lock is successfully acquired, the POP3 server responds with a
>    positive status indicator.  The POP3 session now enters the
>    TRANSACTION state, with no messages marked as deleted.  If the the
>    maildrop cannot be opened for some reason (for example, a lock can
>    not be acquired, the client is denied access to the appropriate
>    maildrop, or the maildrop cannot be parsed), the POP3 server responds
>    with a negative status indicator.  (If a lock was acquired but the
>    POP3 server intends to respond with a negative status indicator, the
>    POP3 server must release the lock prior to rejecting the command.)
>    After returning a negative status indicator, the server may close the
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 4]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    connection.  If the server does not close the connection, the client
>    may either issue a new authentication command and start again, or the
>    client may issue the QUIT command.
> 
>    After the POP3 server has opened the maildrop, it assigns a message-
>    number to each message, and notes the size of each message in octets.
>    The first message in the maildrop is assigned a message-number of
>    "1", the second is assigned "2", and so on, so that the n'th message
>    in a maildrop is assigned a message-number of "n".  In POP3 commands
>    and responses, all message-number's and message sizes are expressed
>    in base-10 (i.e., decimal).
> 
>    Here are summaries for the three POP3 commands discussed thus far:
> 
>       USER name
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a string identifying a mailbox (required), which is of
>              significance ONLY to the server
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
>              greeting or after an unsuccessful USER or PASS command
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK name is a valid mailbox
>              -ERR never heard of mailbox name
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>                 ...
>              C: USER frated
>              S: -ERR sorry, no mailbox for frated here
> 
>       PASS string
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a server/mailbox-specific password (required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after a
>              successful USER command
> 
>          Discussion:
>              Since the PASS command has exactly one argument, a POP3
>              server may treat spaces in the argument as part of the
>              password, instead of as argument separators.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 5]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK maildrop locked and ready
>              -ERR invalid password
>              -ERR unable to lock maildrop
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>              C: PASS secret
>              S: +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
>                ...
>              C: USER mrose
>              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
>              C: PASS secret
>              S: -ERR maildrop already locked
> 
>       QUIT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions: none
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off
> 
> 5. The TRANSACTION State
> 
>    Once the client has successfully identified itself to the POP3 server
>    and the POP3 server has locked and opened the appropriate maildrop,
>    the POP3 session is now in the TRANSACTION state.  The client may now
>    issue any of the following POP3 commands repeatedly.  After each
>    command, the POP3 server issues a response.  Eventually, the client
>    issues the QUIT command and the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.
> 
>    Here are the POP3 commands valid in the TRANSACTION state:
> 
>       STAT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 6]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line
>              containing information for the maildrop.  This line is
>              called a "drop listing" for that maildrop.
> 
>              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers required to
>              use a certain format for drop listings.  The positive
>              response consists of "+OK" followed by a single space, the
>              number of messages in the maildrop, a single space, and the
>              size of the maildrop in octets.  This memo makes no
>              requirement on what follows the maildrop size.  Minimal
>              implementations should just end that line of the response
>              with a CRLF pair.  More advanced implementations may
>              include other information.
> 
>                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
>                 from supplying additional information in the drop
>                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
>                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
>                 in the maildrop.
> 
>              Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in
>              either total.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK nn mm
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: STAT
>              S: +OK 2 320
> 
>       LIST [msg]
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (optional), which, if present, may NOT
>              refer to a message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
>              positive response with a line containing information for
>              that message.  This line is called a "scan listing" for
>              that message.
> 
>              If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
>              positive response, then the response given is multi-line.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 7]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              After the initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop,
>              the POP3 server responds with a line containing information
>              for that message.  This line is also called a "scan
>              listing" for that message.
> 
>              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required
>              to use a certain format for scan listings.  A scan listing
>              consists of the message-number of the message, followed by
>              a single space and the exact size of the message in octets.
>              This memo makes no requirement on what follows the message
>              size in the scan listing.  Minimal implementations should
>              just end that line of the response with a CRLF pair.  More
>              advanced implementations may include other information, as
>              parsed from the message.
> 
>                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
>                 from supplying additional information in the scan
>                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
>                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
>                 in the maildrop.
> 
>              Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK scan listing follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: LIST
>              S: +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
>              S: 1 120
>              S: 2 200
>              S: .
>                ...
>              C: LIST 2
>              S: +OK 2 200
>                ...
>              C: LIST 3
>              S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
> 
>       RETR msg
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
>              message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 8]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
>              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
>              POP3 server sends the message corresponding to the given
>              message-number, being careful to byte-stuff the termination
>              character (as with all multi-line responses).
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK message follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: RETR 1
>              S: +OK 120 octets
>              S: 
>              S: .
> 
>       DELE msg
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
>              message marked as deleted
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server marks the message as deleted.  Any future
>              reference to the message-number associated with the message
>              in a POP3 command generates an error.  The POP3 server does
>              not actually delete the message until the POP3 session
>              enters the UPDATE state.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK message deleted
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: DELE 1
>              S: +OK message 1 deleted
>                 ...
>              C: DELE 2
>              S: -ERR message 2 already deleted
> 
>       NOOP
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 9]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server does nothing, it merely replies with a
>              positive response.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: NOOP
>              S: +OK
> 
>       RSET
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If any messages have been marked as deleted by the POP3
>              server, they are unmarked.  The POP3 server then replies
>              with a positive response.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: RSET
>              S: +OK maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
> 
> 6. The UPDATE State
> 
>    When the client issues the QUIT command from the TRANSACTION state,
>    the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.  (Note that if the client
>    issues the QUIT command from the AUTHORIZATION state, the POP3
>    session terminates but does NOT enter the UPDATE state.)
> 
>    If a session terminates for some reason other than a client-issued
>    QUIT command, the POP3 session does NOT enter the UPDATE state and
>    MUST not remove any messages from the maildrop.
> 
>       QUIT
> 
>          Arguments: none
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 10]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Restrictions: none
> 
>          Discussion:
>              The POP3 server removes all messages marked as deleted from
>              the maildrop.  It then releases any exclusive-access lock
>              on the maildrop and replies as to the status of these
>              operations.  The TCP connection is then closed.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
>                 ...
>              C: QUIT
>              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (2 messages left)
>                 ...
> 
> 7. Optional POP3 Commands
> 
>    The POP3 commands discussed above must be supported by all minimal
>    implementations of POP3 servers.
> 
>    The optional POP3 commands described below permit a POP3 client
>    greater freedom in message handling, while preserving a simple POP3
>    server implementation.
> 
>       NOTE: This memo STRONGLY encourages implementations to support
>       these commands in lieu of developing augmented drop and scan
>       listings.  In short, the philosophy of this memo is to put
>       intelligence in the part of the POP3 client and not the POP3
>       server.
> 
>       TOP msg n
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a message-number (required) which may NOT refer to to a
>              message marked as deleted, and a non-negative number
>              (required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
> 
>          Discussion:
>              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
>              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
>              POP3 server sends the headers of the message, the blank
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 11]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              line separating the headers from the body, and then the
>              number of lines indicated message's body, being careful to
>              byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-
>              line responses).
> 
>              Note that if the number of lines requested by the POP3
>              client is greater than than the number of lines in the
>              body, then the POP3 server sends the entire message.
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK top of message follows
>              -ERR no such message
> 
>          Examples:
>              C: TOP 1 10
>              S: +OK
>              S: 
>              S: .
>                 ...
>              C: TOP 100 3
>              S: -ERR no such message
> 
>       UIDL [msg]
> 
>       Arguments:
>           a message-number (optionally)  If a message-number is given,
>           it may NOT refer to a message marked as deleted.
> 
>       Restrictions:
>           may only be given in the TRANSACTION state.
> 
>       Discussion:
>           If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
>           response with a line containing information for that message.
>           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
> 
>           If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
>           response, then the response given is multi-line.  After the
>           initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop, the POP3 server
>           responds with a line containing information for that message.
>           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
> 
>           In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required to
>           use a certain format for unique-id listings.  A unique-id
>           listing consists of the message-number of the message,
>           followed by a single space and the unique-id of the message.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 12]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>           No information follows the unique-id in the unique-id listing.
> 
>           The unique-id of a message is an arbitrary server-determined
>           string, consisting of characters in the range 0x21 to 0x7E,
>           which uniquely identifies a message within a maildrop and
>           which persists across sessions. The server should never reuse
>           an unique-id in a given maildrop, for as long as the entity
>           using the unique-id exists.
> 
>           Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
> 
>       Possible Responses:
>           +OK unique-id listing follows
>           -ERR no such message
> 
>       Examples:
>           C: UIDL
>           S: +OK
>           S: 1 whqtswO00WBw418f9t5JxYwZ
>           S: 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
>           S: .
>              ...
>           C: UIDL 2
>           S: +OK 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
>              ...
>           C: UIDL 3
>           S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
> 
>       APOP name digest
> 
>          Arguments:
>              a string identifying a mailbox and a MD5 digest string
>              (both required)
> 
>          Restrictions:
>              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
>              greeting
> 
>          Discussion:
>              Normally, each POP3 session starts with a USER/PASS
>              exchange.  This results in a server/user-id specific
>              password being sent in the clear on the network.  For
>              intermittent use of POP3, this may not introduce a sizable
>              risk.  However, many POP3 client implementations connect to
>              the POP3 server on a regular basis -- to check for new
>              mail.  Further the interval of session initiation may be on
>              the order of five minutes.  Hence, the risk of password
>              capture is greatly enhanced.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 13]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>              An alternate method of authentication is required which
>              provides for both origin authentication and replay
>              protection, but which does not involve sending a password
>              in the clear over the network.  The APOP command provides
>              this functionality.
> 
>              A POP3 server which implements the APOP command will
>              include a timestamp in its banner greeting.  The syntax of
>              the timestamp corresponds to the `msg-id' in [RFC822], and
>              MUST be different each time the POP3 server issues a banner
>              greeting.  For example, on a UNIX implementation in which a
>              separate UNIX process is used for each instance of a POP3
>              server, the syntax of the timestamp might be:
> 
>                 
> 
>              where `process-ID' is the decimal value of the process's
>              PID, clock is the decimal value of the system clock, and
>              hostname is the fully-qualified domain-name corresponding
>              to the host where the POP3 server is running.
> 
>              The POP3 client makes note of this timestamp, and then
>              issues the APOP command.  The `name' parameter has
>              identical semantics to the `name' parameter of the USER
>              command. The `digest' parameter is calculated by applying
>              the MD5 algorithm [RFC1321] to a string consisting of the
>              timestamp (including angle-brackets) followed by a shared
>              secret.  This shared secret is a string known only to the
>              POP3 client and server.  Great care should be taken to
>              prevent unauthorized disclosure of the secret, as knowledge
>              of the secret will allow any entity to successfully
>              masquerade as the named user.  The `digest' parameter
>              itself is a 16-octet value which is sent in hexadecimal
>              format, using lower-case ASCII characters.
> 
>              When the POP3 server receives the APOP command, it verifies
>              the digest provided.  If the digest is correct, the POP3
>              server issues a positive response, and the POP3 session
>              enters the TRANSACTION state.  Otherwise, a negative
>              response is issued and the POP3 session remains in the
>              AUTHORIZATION state.
> 
>              Note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
>              does the difficulty of deriving it.  As such, shared
>              secrets should be long strings (considerably longer than
>              the 8-character example shown below).
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 14]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>          Possible Responses:
>              +OK maildrop locked and ready
>              -ERR permission denied
> 
>          Examples:
>              S: +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
>              C: APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
>              S: +OK maildrop has 1 message (369 octets)
> 
>              In this example, the shared  secret  is  the  string  `tan-
>              staaf'.  Hence, the MD5 algorithm is applied to the string
> 
>                 <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>tanstaaf
> 
>              which produces a digest value of
> 
>                 c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
> 
> 8. POP3 Command Summary
> 
>    Minimal POP3 Commands:
> 
>       USER name               valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
>       PASS string
>       QUIT
> 
>       STAT                    valid in the TRANSACTION state
>       LIST [msg]
>       RETR msg
>       DELE msg
>       NOOP
>       RSET
> 
>       QUIT                    valid in the UPDATE state
> 
>    Optional POP3 Commands:
> 
>       APOP name digest        valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
> 
>       TOP msg n               valid in the TRANSACTION state
>       UIDL [msg]
> 
>    POP3 Replies:
> 
>       +OK
>       -ERR
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 15]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    Note that with the exception of the STAT, LIST, and UIDL commands,
>    the reply given by the POP3 server to any command is significant only
>    to "+OK" and "-ERR".  Any text occurring after this reply may be
>    ignored by the client.
> 
> 9. Example POP3 Session
> 
>    S: 
>    C: 
>    S:    +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
>    C:    APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
>    S:    +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
>    C:    STAT
>    S:    +OK 2 320
>    C:    LIST
>    S:    +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
>    S:    1 120
>    S:    2 200
>    S:    .
>    C:    RETR 1
>    S:    +OK 120 octets
>    S:    
>    S:    .
>    C:    DELE 1
>    S:    +OK message 1 deleted
>    C:    RETR 2
>    S:    +OK 200 octets
>    S:    
>    S:    .
>    C:    DELE 2
>    S:    +OK message 2 deleted
>    C:    QUIT
>    S:    +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
>    C:  
>    S:  
> 
> 10. Message Format
> 
>    All messages transmitted during a POP3 session are assumed to conform
>    to the standard for the format of Internet text messages [RFC822].
> 
>    It is important to note that the octet count for a message on the
>    server host may differ from the octet count assigned to that message
>    due to local conventions for designating end-of-line.  Usually,
>    during the AUTHORIZATION state of the POP3 session, the POP3 server
>    can calculate the size of each message in octets when it opens the
>    maildrop.  For example, if the POP3 server host internally represents
>    end-of-line as a single character, then the POP3 server simply counts
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 16]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
>    each occurrence of this character in a message as two octets.  Note
>    that lines in the message which start with the termination octet need
>    not be counted twice, since the POP3 client will remove all byte-
>    stuffed termination characters when it receives a multi-line
>    response.
> 
> 11. References
> 
>    [RFC821] Postel, J., "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", STD 10, RFC
>        821, USC/Information Sciences Institute, August 1982.
> 
>    [RFC822] Crocker, D., "Standard for the Format of ARPA-Internet Text
>        Messages", STD 11, RFC 822, University of Delaware, August 1982.
> 
>    [RFC1321] Rivest, R. "The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC 1321,
>        MIT Laboratory for Computer Science, April, 1992.
> 
> 12. Security Considerations
> 
>    It is conjectured that use of the APOP command provides origin
>    identification and replay protection for a POP3 session.
>    Accordingly, a POP3 server which implements both the PASS and APOP
>    commands must not allow both methods of access for a given user; that
>    is, for a given "USER name" either the PASS or APOP command is
>    allowed, but not both.
> 
>    Further, note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
>    does the difficulty of deriving it.
> 
>    Servers that answer -ERR to the USER command are giving potential
>    attackers clues about which names are valid
> 
>    Use of the PASS command sends passwords in the clear over the
>    network.
> 
>    Use of the RETR and TOP commands sends mail in the clear over the
>    network.
> 
>    Otherwise, security issues are not discussed in this memo.
> 
> 13. Acknowledgements
> 
>    The POP family has a long and checkered history.  Although primarily
>    a minor revision to RFC 1460, POP3 is based on the ideas presented in
>    RFCs 918, 937, and 1081.
> 
>    In addition, Alfred Grimstad, Keith McCloghrie, and Neil Ostroff
>    provided significant comments on the APOP command.
> 
> 
> 
> Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 17]
> 
> RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
> 
> 
> 14. Authors' Addresses
> 
>    John G. Myers
>    Carnegie-Mellon University
>    5000 Forbes Ave
>    Pittsburgh, PA 15213
> 
>    EMail: jgm+@cmu.edu
> 
> 
>    Marshall T. Rose
>    Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
>    420 Whisman Court
>    Mountain View, CA  94043-2186
> 
>    EMail: mrose@dbc.mtview.ca.us
> 
------
POP3|985596625
3,1944c3
< 
< 
< RFC1725 - POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3 
< 
< Network Working Group                                           J. Myers
< Request for Comments: 1725                               Carnegie Mellon
< Obsoletes: 1460                                                  M. Rose
< Category: Standards Track                   Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
<                                                            November 1994
< 
< 
<                     Post Office Protocol - Version 3
< 
< Status of this Memo
< 
<    This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
<    Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
<    improvements.  Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
<    Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
<    and status of this protocol.  Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
< 
< Overview
< 
<    This memo is a revision to RFC 1460, a Draft Standard.  It makes the
<    following changes from that document:
< 
<       - removed text regarding "split-UA model", which didn't add
<         anything to the understanding of POP
< 
<       - clarified syntax of commands, keywords, and arguments
< 
<       - clarified behavior on broken connection
< 
<       - explicitly permitted an inactivity autologout timer
< 
<       - clarified the requirements of the "exclusive-access lock"
< 
<       - removed implementation-specific wording regarding the parsing of
<         the maildrop
< 
<       - allowed servers to close the connection after a failed
<         authentication command
< 
<       - removed the LAST command
< 
<       - fixed typo in example of TOP command
< 
<       - clarified that the second argument to the TOP command is non-
<         negative
< 
<       - added the optional UIDL command
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 1]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<       - added warning regarding length of shared secrets with APOP
< 
<       - added additional warnings to the security considerations section
< 
< 1. Introduction
< 
<    On certain types of smaller nodes in the Internet it is often
<    impractical to maintain a message transport system (MTS).  For
<    example, a workstation may not have sufficient resources (cycles,
<    disk space) in order to permit a SMTP server [RFC821] and associated
<    local mail delivery system to be kept resident and continuously
<    running.  Similarly, it may be expensive (or impossible) to keep a
<    personal computer interconnected to an IP-style network for long
<    amounts of time (the node is lacking the resource known as
<    "connectivity").
< 
<    Despite this, it is often very useful to be able to manage mail on
<    these smaller nodes, and they often support a user agent (UA) to aid
<    the tasks of mail handling.  To solve this problem, a node which can
<    support an MTS entity offers a maildrop service to these less endowed
<    nodes.  The Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (POP3) is intended to
<    permit a workstation to dynamically access a maildrop on a server
<    host in a useful fashion.  Usually, this means that the POP3 is used
<    to allow a workstation to retrieve mail that the server is holding
<    for it.
< 
<    For the remainder of this memo, the term "client host" refers to a
<    host making use of the POP3 service, while the term "server host"
<    refers to a host which offers the POP3 service.
< 
< 2. A Short Digression
< 
<    This memo does not specify how a client host enters mail into the
<    transport system, although a method consistent with the philosophy of
<    this memo is presented here:
< 
<       When the user agent on a client host wishes to enter a message
<       into the transport system, it establishes an SMTP connection to
<       its relay host (this relay host could be, but need not be, the
<       POP3 server host for the client host).
< 
< 3. Basic Operation
< 
<    Initially, the server host starts the POP3 service by listening on
<    TCP port 110.  When a client host wishes to make use of the service,
<    it establishes a TCP connection with the server host.  When the
<    connection is established, the POP3 server sends a greeting.  The
<    client and POP3 server then exchange commands and responses
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 2]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    (respectively) until the connection is closed or aborted.
< 
<    Commands in the POP3 consist of a keyword, possibly followed by one
<    or more arguments.  All commands are terminated by a CRLF pair.
<    Keywords and arguments consist of printable ASCII characters.
<    Keywords and arguments are each separated by a single SPACE
<    character.  Keywords are three or four characters long. Each argument
<    may be up to 40 characters long.
< 
<    Responses in the POP3 consist of a status indicator and a keyword
<    possibly followed by additional information.  All responses are
<    terminated by a CRLF pair.  There are currently two status
<    indicators: positive ("+OK") and negative ("-ERR").
< 
<    Responses to certain commands are multi-line.  In these cases, which
<    are clearly indicated below, after sending the first line of the
<    response and a CRLF, any additional lines are sent, each terminated
<    by a CRLF pair.  When all lines of the response have been sent, a
<    final line is sent, consisting of a termination octet (decimal code
<    046, ".") and a CRLF pair.  If any line of the multi-line response
<    begins with the termination octet, the line is "byte-stuffed" by
<    pre-pending the termination octet to that line of the response.
<    Hence a multi-line response is terminated with the five octets
<    "CRLF.CRLF".  When examining a multi-line response, the client checks
<    to see if the line begins with the termination octet.  If so and if
<    octets other than CRLF follow, the the first octet of the line (the
<    termination octet) is stripped away.  If so and if CRLF immediately
<    follows the termination character, then the response from the POP
<    server is ended and the line containing ".CRLF" is not considered
<    part of the multi-line response.
< 
<    A POP3 session progresses through a number of states during its
<    lifetime.  Once the TCP connection has been opened and the POP3
<    server has sent the greeting, the session enters the AUTHORIZATION
<    state.  In this state, the client must identify itself to the POP3
<    server.  Once the client has successfully done this, the server
<    acquires resources associated with the client's maildrop, and the
<    session enters the TRANSACTION state.  In this state, the client
<    requests actions on the part of the POP3 server.  When the client has
<    issued the QUIT command, the session enters the UPDATE state.  In
<    this state, the POP3 server releases any resources acquired during
<    the TRANSACTION state and says goodbye.  The TCP connection is then
<    closed.
< 
<    A POP3 server MAY have an inactivity autologout timer.  Such a timer
<    MUST be of at least 10 minutes' duration.  The receipt of any command
<    from the client during that interval should suffice to reset the
<    autologout timer.  When the timer expires, the session does NOT enter
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 3]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    the UPDATE state--the server should close the TCP connection without
<    removing any messages or sending any response to the client.
< 
< 4. The AUTHORIZATION State
< 
<    Once the TCP connection has been opened by a POP3 client, the POP3
<    server issues a one line greeting.  This can be any string terminated
<    by CRLF.  An example might be:
< 
<       S:  +OK POP3 server ready
< 
<    Note that this greeting is a POP3 reply.  The POP3 server should
<    always give a positive response as the greeting.
< 
<    The POP3 session is now in the AUTHORIZATION state.  The client must
<    now identify and authenticate itself to the POP3 server.  Two
<    possible mechanisms for doing this are described in this document,
<    the USER and PASS command combination and the APOP command.  The APOP
<    command is described later in this document.
< 
<    To authenticate using the USER and PASS command combination, the
<    client must first issue the USER command.  If the POP3 server
<    responds with a positive status indicator ("+OK"), then the client
<    may issue either the PASS command to complete the authentication, or
<    the QUIT command to terminate the POP3 session.  If the POP3 server
<    responds with a negative status indicator ("-ERR") to the USER
<    command, then the client may either issue a new authentication
<    command or may issue the QUIT command.
< 
<    When the client issues the PASS command, the POP3 server uses the
<    argument pair from the USER and PASS commands to determine if the
<    client should be given access to the appropriate maildrop.
< 
<    Once the POP3 server has determined through the use of any
<    authentication command that the client should be given access to the
<    appropriate maildrop, the POP3 server then acquires an exclusive-
<    access lock on the maildrop, as necessary to prevent messages from
<    being modified or removed before the session enters the UPDATE state.
<    If the lock is successfully acquired, the POP3 server responds with a
<    positive status indicator.  The POP3 session now enters the
<    TRANSACTION state, with no messages marked as deleted.  If the the
<    maildrop cannot be opened for some reason (for example, a lock can
<    not be acquired, the client is denied access to the appropriate
<    maildrop, or the maildrop cannot be parsed), the POP3 server responds
<    with a negative status indicator.  (If a lock was acquired but the
<    POP3 server intends to respond with a negative status indicator, the
<    POP3 server must release the lock prior to rejecting the command.)
<    After returning a negative status indicator, the server may close the
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 4]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    connection.  If the server does not close the connection, the client
<    may either issue a new authentication command and start again, or the
<    client may issue the QUIT command.
< 
<    After the POP3 server has opened the maildrop, it assigns a message-
<    number to each message, and notes the size of each message in octets.
<    The first message in the maildrop is assigned a message-number of
<    "1", the second is assigned "2", and so on, so that the n'th message
<    in a maildrop is assigned a message-number of "n".  In POP3 commands
<    and responses, all message-number's and message sizes are expressed
<    in base-10 (i.e., decimal).
< 
<    Here are summaries for the three POP3 commands discussed thus far:
< 
<       USER name
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a string identifying a mailbox (required), which is of
<              significance ONLY to the server
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
<              greeting or after an unsuccessful USER or PASS command
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK name is a valid mailbox
<              -ERR never heard of mailbox name
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<                 ...
<              C: USER frated
<              S: -ERR sorry, no mailbox for frated here
< 
<       PASS string
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a server/mailbox-specific password (required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after a
<              successful USER command
< 
<          Discussion:
<              Since the PASS command has exactly one argument, a POP3
<              server may treat spaces in the argument as part of the
<              password, instead of as argument separators.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 5]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK maildrop locked and ready
<              -ERR invalid password
<              -ERR unable to lock maildrop
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<              C: PASS secret
<              S: +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
<                ...
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<              C: PASS secret
<              S: -ERR maildrop already locked
< 
<       QUIT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions: none
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off
< 
< 5. The TRANSACTION State
< 
<    Once the client has successfully identified itself to the POP3 server
<    and the POP3 server has locked and opened the appropriate maildrop,
<    the POP3 session is now in the TRANSACTION state.  The client may now
<    issue any of the following POP3 commands repeatedly.  After each
<    command, the POP3 server issues a response.  Eventually, the client
<    issues the QUIT command and the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.
< 
<    Here are the POP3 commands valid in the TRANSACTION state:
< 
<       STAT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 6]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line
<              containing information for the maildrop.  This line is
<              called a "drop listing" for that maildrop.
< 
<              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers required to
<              use a certain format for drop listings.  The positive
<              response consists of "+OK" followed by a single space, the
<              number of messages in the maildrop, a single space, and the
<              size of the maildrop in octets.  This memo makes no
<              requirement on what follows the maildrop size.  Minimal
<              implementations should just end that line of the response
<              with a CRLF pair.  More advanced implementations may
<              include other information.
< 
<                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
<                 from supplying additional information in the drop
<                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
<                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
<                 in the maildrop.
< 
<              Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in
<              either total.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK nn mm
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: STAT
<              S: +OK 2 320
< 
<       LIST [msg]
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (optional), which, if present, may NOT
<              refer to a message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
<              positive response with a line containing information for
<              that message.  This line is called a "scan listing" for
<              that message.
< 
<              If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
<              positive response, then the response given is multi-line.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 7]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              After the initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop,
<              the POP3 server responds with a line containing information
<              for that message.  This line is also called a "scan
<              listing" for that message.
< 
<              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required
<              to use a certain format for scan listings.  A scan listing
<              consists of the message-number of the message, followed by
<              a single space and the exact size of the message in octets.
<              This memo makes no requirement on what follows the message
<              size in the scan listing.  Minimal implementations should
<              just end that line of the response with a CRLF pair.  More
<              advanced implementations may include other information, as
<              parsed from the message.
< 
<                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
<                 from supplying additional information in the scan
<                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
<                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
<                 in the maildrop.
< 
<              Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK scan listing follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: LIST
<              S: +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
<              S: 1 120
<              S: 2 200
<              S: .
<                ...
<              C: LIST 2
<              S: +OK 2 200
<                ...
<              C: LIST 3
<              S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
< 
<       RETR msg
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
<              message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 8]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
<              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
<              POP3 server sends the message corresponding to the given
<              message-number, being careful to byte-stuff the termination
<              character (as with all multi-line responses).
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK message follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: RETR 1
<              S: +OK 120 octets
<              S: 
<              S: .
< 
<       DELE msg
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
<              message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server marks the message as deleted.  Any future
<              reference to the message-number associated with the message
<              in a POP3 command generates an error.  The POP3 server does
<              not actually delete the message until the POP3 session
<              enters the UPDATE state.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK message deleted
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: DELE 1
<              S: +OK message 1 deleted
<                 ...
<              C: DELE 2
<              S: -ERR message 2 already deleted
< 
<       NOOP
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 9]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server does nothing, it merely replies with a
<              positive response.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: NOOP
<              S: +OK
< 
<       RSET
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If any messages have been marked as deleted by the POP3
<              server, they are unmarked.  The POP3 server then replies
<              with a positive response.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: RSET
<              S: +OK maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
< 
< 6. The UPDATE State
< 
<    When the client issues the QUIT command from the TRANSACTION state,
<    the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.  (Note that if the client
<    issues the QUIT command from the AUTHORIZATION state, the POP3
<    session terminates but does NOT enter the UPDATE state.)
< 
<    If a session terminates for some reason other than a client-issued
<    QUIT command, the POP3 session does NOT enter the UPDATE state and
<    MUST not remove any messages from the maildrop.
< 
<       QUIT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 10]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Restrictions: none
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server removes all messages marked as deleted from
<              the maildrop.  It then releases any exclusive-access lock
<              on the maildrop and replies as to the status of these
<              operations.  The TCP connection is then closed.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
<                 ...
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (2 messages left)
<                 ...
< 
< 7. Optional POP3 Commands
< 
<    The POP3 commands discussed above must be supported by all minimal
<    implementations of POP3 servers.
< 
<    The optional POP3 commands described below permit a POP3 client
<    greater freedom in message handling, while preserving a simple POP3
<    server implementation.
< 
<       NOTE: This memo STRONGLY encourages implementations to support
<       these commands in lieu of developing augmented drop and scan
<       listings.  In short, the philosophy of this memo is to put
<       intelligence in the part of the POP3 client and not the POP3
<       server.
< 
<       TOP msg n
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may NOT refer to to a
<              message marked as deleted, and a non-negative number
<              (required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
<              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
<              POP3 server sends the headers of the message, the blank
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 11]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              line separating the headers from the body, and then the
<              number of lines indicated message's body, being careful to
<              byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-
<              line responses).
< 
<              Note that if the number of lines requested by the POP3
<              client is greater than than the number of lines in the
<              body, then the POP3 server sends the entire message.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK top of message follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: TOP 1 10
<              S: +OK
<              S: 
<              S: .
<                 ...
<              C: TOP 100 3
<              S: -ERR no such message
< 
<       UIDL [msg]
< 
<       Arguments:
<           a message-number (optionally)  If a message-number is given,
<           it may NOT refer to a message marked as deleted.
< 
<       Restrictions:
<           may only be given in the TRANSACTION state.
< 
<       Discussion:
<           If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
<           response with a line containing information for that message.
<           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
< 
<           If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
<           response, then the response given is multi-line.  After the
<           initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop, the POP3 server
<           responds with a line containing information for that message.
<           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
< 
<           In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required to
<           use a certain format for unique-id listings.  A unique-id
<           listing consists of the message-number of the message,
<           followed by a single space and the unique-id of the message.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 12]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<           No information follows the unique-id in the unique-id listing.
< 
<           The unique-id of a message is an arbitrary server-determined
<           string, consisting of characters in the range 0x21 to 0x7E,
<           which uniquely identifies a message within a maildrop and
<           which persists across sessions. The server should never reuse
<           an unique-id in a given maildrop, for as long as the entity
<           using the unique-id exists.
< 
<           Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
< 
<       Possible Responses:
<           +OK unique-id listing follows
<           -ERR no such message
< 
<       Examples:
<           C: UIDL
<           S: +OK
<           S: 1 whqtswO00WBw418f9t5JxYwZ
<           S: 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
<           S: .
<              ...
<           C: UIDL 2
<           S: +OK 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
<              ...
<           C: UIDL 3
<           S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
< 
<       APOP name digest
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a string identifying a mailbox and a MD5 digest string
<              (both required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
<              greeting
< 
<          Discussion:
<              Normally, each POP3 session starts with a USER/PASS
<              exchange.  This results in a server/user-id specific
<              password being sent in the clear on the network.  For
<              intermittent use of POP3, this may not introduce a sizable
<              risk.  However, many POP3 client implementations connect to
<              the POP3 server on a regular basis -- to check for new
<              mail.  Further the interval of session initiation may be on
<              the order of five minutes.  Hence, the risk of password
<              capture is greatly enhanced.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 13]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              An alternate method of authentication is required which
<              provides for both origin authentication and replay
<              protection, but which does not involve sending a password
<              in the clear over the network.  The APOP command provides
<              this functionality.
< 
<              A POP3 server which implements the APOP command will
<              include a timestamp in its banner greeting.  The syntax of
<              the timestamp corresponds to the `msg-id' in [RFC822], and
<              MUST be different each time the POP3 server issues a banner
<              greeting.  For example, on a UNIX implementation in which a
<              separate UNIX process is used for each instance of a POP3
<              server, the syntax of the timestamp might be:
< 
<                 
< 
<              where `process-ID' is the decimal value of the process's
<              PID, clock is the decimal value of the system clock, and
<              hostname is the fully-qualified domain-name corresponding
<              to the host where the POP3 server is running.
< 
<              The POP3 client makes note of this timestamp, and then
<              issues the APOP command.  The `name' parameter has
<              identical semantics to the `name' parameter of the USER
<              command. The `digest' parameter is calculated by applying
<              the MD5 algorithm [RFC1321] to a string consisting of the
<              timestamp (including angle-brackets) followed by a shared
<              secret.  This shared secret is a string known only to the
<              POP3 client and server.  Great care should be taken to
<              prevent unauthorized disclosure of the secret, as knowledge
<              of the secret will allow any entity to successfully
<              masquerade as the named user.  The `digest' parameter
<              itself is a 16-octet value which is sent in hexadecimal
<              format, using lower-case ASCII characters.
< 
<              When the POP3 server receives the APOP command, it verifies
<              the digest provided.  If the digest is correct, the POP3
<              server issues a positive response, and the POP3 session
<              enters the TRANSACTION state.  Otherwise, a negative
<              response is issued and the POP3 session remains in the
<              AUTHORIZATION state.
< 
<              Note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
<              does the difficulty of deriving it.  As such, shared
<              secrets should be long strings (considerably longer than
<              the 8-character example shown below).
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 14]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK maildrop locked and ready
<              -ERR permission denied
< 
<          Examples:
<              S: +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
<              C: APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
<              S: +OK maildrop has 1 message (369 octets)
< 
<              In this example, the shared  secret  is  the  string  `tan-
<              staaf'.  Hence, the MD5 algorithm is applied to the string
< 
<                 <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>tanstaaf
< 
<              which produces a digest value of
< 
<                 c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
< 
< 8. POP3 Command Summary
< 
<    Minimal POP3 Commands:
< 
<       USER name               valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
<       PASS string
<       QUIT
< 
<       STAT                    valid in the TRANSACTION state
<       LIST [msg]
<       RETR msg
<       DELE msg
<       NOOP
<       RSET
< 
<       QUIT                    valid in the UPDATE state
< 
<    Optional POP3 Commands:
< 
<       APOP name digest        valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
< 
<       TOP msg n               valid in the TRANSACTION state
<       UIDL [msg]
< 
<    POP3 Replies:
< 
<       +OK
<       -ERR
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 15]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    Note that with the exception of the STAT, LIST, and UIDL commands,
<    the reply given by the POP3 server to any command is significant only
<    to "+OK" and "-ERR".  Any text occurring after this reply may be
<    ignored by the client.
< 
< 9. Example POP3 Session
< 
<    S: 
<    C: 
<    S:    +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
<    C:    APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
<    S:    +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
<    C:    STAT
<    S:    +OK 2 320
<    C:    LIST
<    S:    +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
<    S:    1 120
<    S:    2 200
<    S:    .
<    C:    RETR 1
<    S:    +OK 120 octets
<    S:    
<    S:    .
<    C:    DELE 1
<    S:    +OK message 1 deleted
<    C:    RETR 2
<    S:    +OK 200 octets
<    S:    
<    S:    .
<    C:    DELE 2
<    S:    +OK message 2 deleted
<    C:    QUIT
<    S:    +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
<    C:  
<    S:  
< 
< 10. Message Format
< 
<    All messages transmitted during a POP3 session are assumed to conform
<    to the standard for the format of Internet text messages [RFC822].
< 
<    It is important to note that the octet count for a message on the
<    server host may differ from the octet count assigned to that message
<    due to local conventions for designating end-of-line.  Usually,
<    during the AUTHORIZATION state of the POP3 session, the POP3 server
<    can calculate the size of each message in octets when it opens the
<    maildrop.  For example, if the POP3 server host internally represents
<    end-of-line as a single character, then the POP3 server simply counts
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 16]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    each occurrence of this character in a message as two octets.  Note
<    that lines in the message which start with the termination octet need
<    not be counted twice, since the POP3 client will remove all byte-
<    stuffed termination characters when it receives a multi-line
<    response.
< 
< 11. References
< 
<    [RFC821] Postel, J., "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", STD 10, RFC
<        821, USC/Information Sciences Institute, August 1982.
< 
<    [RFC822] Crocker, D., "Standard for the Format of ARPA-Internet Text
<        Messages", STD 11, RFC 822, University of Delaware, August 1982.
< 
<    [RFC1321] Rivest, R. "The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC 1321,
<        MIT Laboratory for Computer Science, April, 1992.
< 
< 12. Security Considerations
< 
<    It is conjectured that use of the APOP command provides origin
<    identification and replay protection for a POP3 session.
<    Accordingly, a POP3 server which implements both the PASS and APOP
<    commands must not allow both methods of access for a given user; that
<    is, for a given "USER name" either the PASS or APOP command is
<    allowed, but not both.
< 
<    Further, note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
<    does the difficulty of deriving it.
< 
<    Servers that answer -ERR to the USER command are giving potential
<    attackers clues about which names are valid
< 
<    Use of the PASS command sends passwords in the clear over the
<    network.
< 
<    Use of the RETR and TOP commands sends mail in the clear over the
<    network.
< 
<    Otherwise, security issues are not discussed in this memo.
< 
< 13. Acknowledgements
< 
<    The POP family has a long and checkered history.  Although primarily
<    a minor revision to RFC 1460, POP3 is based on the ideas presented in
<    RFCs 918, 937, and 1081.
< 
<    In addition, Alfred Grimstad, Keith McCloghrie, and Neil Ostroff
<    provided significant comments on the APOP command.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 17]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
< 14. Authors' Addresses
< 
<    John G. Myers
<    Carnegie-Mellon University
<    5000 Forbes Ave
<    Pittsburgh, PA 15213
< 
<    EMail: jgm+@cmu.edu
< 
< 
<    Marshall T. Rose
<    Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
<    420 Whisman Court
<    Mountain View, CA  94043-2186
< 
<    EMail: mrose@dbc.mtview.ca.us
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Network Working Group                                           J. Myers
< Request for Comments: 1725                               Carnegie Mellon
< Obsoletes: 1460                                                  M. Rose
< Category: Standards Track                   Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
<                                                            November 1994
< 
< 
<                     Post Office Protocol - Version 3
< 
< Status of this Memo
< 
<    This document specifies an Internet standards track protocol for the
<    Internet community, and requests discussion and suggestions for
<    improvements.  Please refer to the current edition of the "Internet
<    Official Protocol Standards" (STD 1) for the standardization state
<    and status of this protocol.  Distribution of this memo is unlimited.
< 
< Overview
< 
<    This memo is a revision to RFC 1460, a Draft Standard.  It makes the
<    following changes from that document:
< 
<       - removed text regarding "split-UA model", which didn't add
<         anything to the understanding of POP
< 
<       - clarified syntax of commands, keywords, and arguments
< 
<       - clarified behavior on broken connection
< 
<       - explicitly permitted an inactivity autologout timer
< 
<       - clarified the requirements of the "exclusive-access lock"
< 
<       - removed implementation-specific wording regarding the parsing of
<         the maildrop
< 
<       - allowed servers to close the connection after a failed
<         authentication command
< 
<       - removed the LAST command
< 
<       - fixed typo in example of TOP command
< 
<       - clarified that the second argument to the TOP command is non-
<         negative
< 
<       - added the optional UIDL command
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 1]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<       - added warning regarding length of shared secrets with APOP
< 
<       - added additional warnings to the security considerations section
< 
< 1. Introduction
< 
<    On certain types of smaller nodes in the Internet it is often
<    impractical to maintain a message transport system (MTS).  For
<    example, a workstation may not have sufficient resources (cycles,
<    disk space) in order to permit a SMTP server [RFC821] and associated
<    local mail delivery system to be kept resident and continuously
<    running.  Similarly, it may be expensive (or impossible) to keep a
<    personal computer interconnected to an IP-style network for long
<    amounts of time (the node is lacking the resource known as
<    "connectivity").
< 
<    Despite this, it is often very useful to be able to manage mail on
<    these smaller nodes, and they often support a user agent (UA) to aid
<    the tasks of mail handling.  To solve this problem, a node which can
<    support an MTS entity offers a maildrop service to these less endowed
<    nodes.  The Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (POP3) is intended to
<    permit a workstation to dynamically access a maildrop on a server
<    host in a useful fashion.  Usually, this means that the POP3 is used
<    to allow a workstation to retrieve mail that the server is holding
<    for it.
< 
<    For the remainder of this memo, the term "client host" refers to a
<    host making use of the POP3 service, while the term "server host"
<    refers to a host which offers the POP3 service.
< 
< 2. A Short Digression
< 
<    This memo does not specify how a client host enters mail into the
<    transport system, although a method consistent with the philosophy of
<    this memo is presented here:
< 
<       When the user agent on a client host wishes to enter a message
<       into the transport system, it establishes an SMTP connection to
<       its relay host (this relay host could be, but need not be, the
<       POP3 server host for the client host).
< 
< 3. Basic Operation
< 
<    Initially, the server host starts the POP3 service by listening on
<    TCP port 110.  When a client host wishes to make use of the service,
<    it establishes a TCP connection with the server host.  When the
<    connection is established, the POP3 server sends a greeting.  The
<    client and POP3 server then exchange commands and responses
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 2]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    (respectively) until the connection is closed or aborted.
< 
<    Commands in the POP3 consist of a keyword, possibly followed by one
<    or more arguments.  All commands are terminated by a CRLF pair.
<    Keywords and arguments consist of printable ASCII characters.
<    Keywords and arguments are each separated by a single SPACE
<    character.  Keywords are three or four characters long. Each argument
<    may be up to 40 characters long.
< 
<    Responses in the POP3 consist of a status indicator and a keyword
<    possibly followed by additional information.  All responses are
<    terminated by a CRLF pair.  There are currently two status
<    indicators: positive ("+OK") and negative ("-ERR").
< 
<    Responses to certain commands are multi-line.  In these cases, which
<    are clearly indicated below, after sending the first line of the
<    response and a CRLF, any additional lines are sent, each terminated
<    by a CRLF pair.  When all lines of the response have been sent, a
<    final line is sent, consisting of a termination octet (decimal code
<    046, ".") and a CRLF pair.  If any line of the multi-line response
<    begins with the termination octet, the line is "byte-stuffed" by
<    pre-pending the termination octet to that line of the response.
<    Hence a multi-line response is terminated with the five octets
<    "CRLF.CRLF".  When examining a multi-line response, the client checks
<    to see if the line begins with the termination octet.  If so and if
<    octets other than CRLF follow, the the first octet of the line (the
<    termination octet) is stripped away.  If so and if CRLF immediately
<    follows the termination character, then the response from the POP
<    server is ended and the line containing ".CRLF" is not considered
<    part of the multi-line response.
< 
<    A POP3 session progresses through a number of states during its
<    lifetime.  Once the TCP connection has been opened and the POP3
<    server has sent the greeting, the session enters the AUTHORIZATION
<    state.  In this state, the client must identify itself to the POP3
<    server.  Once the client has successfully done this, the server
<    acquires resources associated with the client's maildrop, and the
<    session enters the TRANSACTION state.  In this state, the client
<    requests actions on the part of the POP3 server.  When the client has
<    issued the QUIT command, the session enters the UPDATE state.  In
<    this state, the POP3 server releases any resources acquired during
<    the TRANSACTION state and says goodbye.  The TCP connection is then
<    closed.
< 
<    A POP3 server MAY have an inactivity autologout timer.  Such a timer
<    MUST be of at least 10 minutes' duration.  The receipt of any command
<    from the client during that interval should suffice to reset the
<    autologout timer.  When the timer expires, the session does NOT enter
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 3]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    the UPDATE state--the server should close the TCP connection without
<    removing any messages or sending any response to the client.
< 
< 4. The AUTHORIZATION State
< 
<    Once the TCP connection has been opened by a POP3 client, the POP3
<    server issues a one line greeting.  This can be any string terminated
<    by CRLF.  An example might be:
< 
<       S:  +OK POP3 server ready
< 
<    Note that this greeting is a POP3 reply.  The POP3 server should
<    always give a positive response as the greeting.
< 
<    The POP3 session is now in the AUTHORIZATION state.  The client must
<    now identify and authenticate itself to the POP3 server.  Two
<    possible mechanisms for doing this are described in this document,
<    the USER and PASS command combination and the APOP command.  The APOP
<    command is described later in this document.
< 
<    To authenticate using the USER and PASS command combination, the
<    client must first issue the USER command.  If the POP3 server
<    responds with a positive status indicator ("+OK"), then the client
<    may issue either the PASS command to complete the authentication, or
<    the QUIT command to terminate the POP3 session.  If the POP3 server
<    responds with a negative status indicator ("-ERR") to the USER
<    command, then the client may either issue a new authentication
<    command or may issue the QUIT command.
< 
<    When the client issues the PASS command, the POP3 server uses the
<    argument pair from the USER and PASS commands to determine if the
<    client should be given access to the appropriate maildrop.
< 
<    Once the POP3 server has determined through the use of any
<    authentication command that the client should be given access to the
<    appropriate maildrop, the POP3 server then acquires an exclusive-
<    access lock on the maildrop, as necessary to prevent messages from
<    being modified or removed before the session enters the UPDATE state.
<    If the lock is successfully acquired, the POP3 server responds with a
<    positive status indicator.  The POP3 session now enters the
<    TRANSACTION state, with no messages marked as deleted.  If the the
<    maildrop cannot be opened for some reason (for example, a lock can
<    not be acquired, the client is denied access to the appropriate
<    maildrop, or the maildrop cannot be parsed), the POP3 server responds
<    with a negative status indicator.  (If a lock was acquired but the
<    POP3 server intends to respond with a negative status indicator, the
<    POP3 server must release the lock prior to rejecting the command.)
<    After returning a negative status indicator, the server may close the
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 4]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    connection.  If the server does not close the connection, the client
<    may either issue a new authentication command and start again, or the
<    client may issue the QUIT command.
< 
<    After the POP3 server has opened the maildrop, it assigns a message-
<    number to each message, and notes the size of each message in octets.
<    The first message in the maildrop is assigned a message-number of
<    "1", the second is assigned "2", and so on, so that the n'th message
<    in a maildrop is assigned a message-number of "n".  In POP3 commands
<    and responses, all message-number's and message sizes are expressed
<    in base-10 (i.e., decimal).
< 
<    Here are summaries for the three POP3 commands discussed thus far:
< 
<       USER name
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a string identifying a mailbox (required), which is of
<              significance ONLY to the server
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
<              greeting or after an unsuccessful USER or PASS command
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK name is a valid mailbox
<              -ERR never heard of mailbox name
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<                 ...
<              C: USER frated
<              S: -ERR sorry, no mailbox for frated here
< 
<       PASS string
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a server/mailbox-specific password (required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after a
<              successful USER command
< 
<          Discussion:
<              Since the PASS command has exactly one argument, a POP3
<              server may treat spaces in the argument as part of the
<              password, instead of as argument separators.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 5]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK maildrop locked and ready
<              -ERR invalid password
<              -ERR unable to lock maildrop
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<              C: PASS secret
<              S: +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
<                ...
<              C: USER mrose
<              S: +OK mrose is a real hoopy frood
<              C: PASS secret
<              S: -ERR maildrop already locked
< 
<       QUIT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions: none
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off
< 
< 5. The TRANSACTION State
< 
<    Once the client has successfully identified itself to the POP3 server
<    and the POP3 server has locked and opened the appropriate maildrop,
<    the POP3 session is now in the TRANSACTION state.  The client may now
<    issue any of the following POP3 commands repeatedly.  After each
<    command, the POP3 server issues a response.  Eventually, the client
<    issues the QUIT command and the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.
< 
<    Here are the POP3 commands valid in the TRANSACTION state:
< 
<       STAT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 6]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line
<              containing information for the maildrop.  This line is
<              called a "drop listing" for that maildrop.
< 
<              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers required to
<              use a certain format for drop listings.  The positive
<              response consists of "+OK" followed by a single space, the
<              number of messages in the maildrop, a single space, and the
<              size of the maildrop in octets.  This memo makes no
<              requirement on what follows the maildrop size.  Minimal
<              implementations should just end that line of the response
<              with a CRLF pair.  More advanced implementations may
<              include other information.
< 
<                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
<                 from supplying additional information in the drop
<                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
<                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
<                 in the maildrop.
< 
<              Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in
<              either total.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK nn mm
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: STAT
<              S: +OK 2 320
< 
<       LIST [msg]
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (optional), which, if present, may NOT
<              refer to a message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
<              positive response with a line containing information for
<              that message.  This line is called a "scan listing" for
<              that message.
< 
<              If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a
<              positive response, then the response given is multi-line.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 7]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              After the initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop,
<              the POP3 server responds with a line containing information
<              for that message.  This line is also called a "scan
<              listing" for that message.
< 
<              In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required
<              to use a certain format for scan listings.  A scan listing
<              consists of the message-number of the message, followed by
<              a single space and the exact size of the message in octets.
<              This memo makes no requirement on what follows the message
<              size in the scan listing.  Minimal implementations should
<              just end that line of the response with a CRLF pair.  More
<              advanced implementations may include other information, as
<              parsed from the message.
< 
<                 NOTE: This memo STRONGLY discourages implementations
<                 from supplying additional information in the scan
<                 listing.  Other, optional, facilities are discussed
<                 later on which permit the client to parse the messages
<                 in the maildrop.
< 
<              Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK scan listing follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: LIST
<              S: +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
<              S: 1 120
<              S: 2 200
<              S: .
<                ...
<              C: LIST 2
<              S: +OK 2 200
<                ...
<              C: LIST 3
<              S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
< 
<       RETR msg
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
<              message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 8]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
<              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
<              POP3 server sends the message corresponding to the given
<              message-number, being careful to byte-stuff the termination
<              character (as with all multi-line responses).
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK message follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: RETR 1
<              S: +OK 120 octets
<              S: 
<              S: .
< 
<       DELE msg
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may not refer to a
<              message marked as deleted
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server marks the message as deleted.  Any future
<              reference to the message-number associated with the message
<              in a POP3 command generates an error.  The POP3 server does
<              not actually delete the message until the POP3 session
<              enters the UPDATE state.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK message deleted
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: DELE 1
<              S: +OK message 1 deleted
<                 ...
<              C: DELE 2
<              S: -ERR message 2 already deleted
< 
<       NOOP
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                    [Page 9]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server does nothing, it merely replies with a
<              positive response.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: NOOP
<              S: +OK
< 
<       RSET
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If any messages have been marked as deleted by the POP3
<              server, they are unmarked.  The POP3 server then replies
<              with a positive response.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: RSET
<              S: +OK maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
< 
< 6. The UPDATE State
< 
<    When the client issues the QUIT command from the TRANSACTION state,
<    the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state.  (Note that if the client
<    issues the QUIT command from the AUTHORIZATION state, the POP3
<    session terminates but does NOT enter the UPDATE state.)
< 
<    If a session terminates for some reason other than a client-issued
<    QUIT command, the POP3 session does NOT enter the UPDATE state and
<    MUST not remove any messages from the maildrop.
< 
<       QUIT
< 
<          Arguments: none
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 10]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Restrictions: none
< 
<          Discussion:
<              The POP3 server removes all messages marked as deleted from
<              the maildrop.  It then releases any exclusive-access lock
<              on the maildrop and replies as to the status of these
<              operations.  The TCP connection is then closed.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
<                 ...
<              C: QUIT
<              S: +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (2 messages left)
<                 ...
< 
< 7. Optional POP3 Commands
< 
<    The POP3 commands discussed above must be supported by all minimal
<    implementations of POP3 servers.
< 
<    The optional POP3 commands described below permit a POP3 client
<    greater freedom in message handling, while preserving a simple POP3
<    server implementation.
< 
<       NOTE: This memo STRONGLY encourages implementations to support
<       these commands in lieu of developing augmented drop and scan
<       listings.  In short, the philosophy of this memo is to put
<       intelligence in the part of the POP3 client and not the POP3
<       server.
< 
<       TOP msg n
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a message-number (required) which may NOT refer to to a
<              message marked as deleted, and a non-negative number
<              (required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the TRANSACTION state
< 
<          Discussion:
<              If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the
<              response given is multi-line.  After the initial +OK, the
<              POP3 server sends the headers of the message, the blank
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 11]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              line separating the headers from the body, and then the
<              number of lines indicated message's body, being careful to
<              byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-
<              line responses).
< 
<              Note that if the number of lines requested by the POP3
<              client is greater than than the number of lines in the
<              body, then the POP3 server sends the entire message.
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK top of message follows
<              -ERR no such message
< 
<          Examples:
<              C: TOP 1 10
<              S: +OK
<              S: 
<              S: .
<                 ...
<              C: TOP 100 3
<              S: -ERR no such message
< 
<       UIDL [msg]
< 
<       Arguments:
<           a message-number (optionally)  If a message-number is given,
<           it may NOT refer to a message marked as deleted.
< 
<       Restrictions:
<           may only be given in the TRANSACTION state.
< 
<       Discussion:
<           If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
<           response with a line containing information for that message.
<           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
< 
<           If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive
<           response, then the response given is multi-line.  After the
<           initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop, the POP3 server
<           responds with a line containing information for that message.
<           This line is called a "unique-id listing" for that message.
< 
<           In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required to
<           use a certain format for unique-id listings.  A unique-id
<           listing consists of the message-number of the message,
<           followed by a single space and the unique-id of the message.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 12]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<           No information follows the unique-id in the unique-id listing.
< 
<           The unique-id of a message is an arbitrary server-determined
<           string, consisting of characters in the range 0x21 to 0x7E,
<           which uniquely identifies a message within a maildrop and
<           which persists across sessions. The server should never reuse
<           an unique-id in a given maildrop, for as long as the entity
<           using the unique-id exists.
< 
<           Note that messages marked as deleted are not listed.
< 
<       Possible Responses:
<           +OK unique-id listing follows
<           -ERR no such message
< 
<       Examples:
<           C: UIDL
<           S: +OK
<           S: 1 whqtswO00WBw418f9t5JxYwZ
<           S: 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
<           S: .
<              ...
<           C: UIDL 2
<           S: +OK 2 QhdPYR:00WBw1Ph7x7
<              ...
<           C: UIDL 3
<           S: -ERR no such message, only 2 messages in maildrop
< 
<       APOP name digest
< 
<          Arguments:
<              a string identifying a mailbox and a MD5 digest string
<              (both required)
< 
<          Restrictions:
<              may only be given in the AUTHORIZATION state after the POP3
<              greeting
< 
<          Discussion:
<              Normally, each POP3 session starts with a USER/PASS
<              exchange.  This results in a server/user-id specific
<              password being sent in the clear on the network.  For
<              intermittent use of POP3, this may not introduce a sizable
<              risk.  However, many POP3 client implementations connect to
<              the POP3 server on a regular basis -- to check for new
<              mail.  Further the interval of session initiation may be on
<              the order of five minutes.  Hence, the risk of password
<              capture is greatly enhanced.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 13]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<              An alternate method of authentication is required which
<              provides for both origin authentication and replay
<              protection, but which does not involve sending a password
<              in the clear over the network.  The APOP command provides
<              this functionality.
< 
<              A POP3 server which implements the APOP command will
<              include a timestamp in its banner greeting.  The syntax of
<              the timestamp corresponds to the `msg-id' in [RFC822], and
<              MUST be different each time the POP3 server issues a banner
<              greeting.  For example, on a UNIX implementation in which a
<              separate UNIX process is used for each instance of a POP3
<              server, the syntax of the timestamp might be:
< 
<                 
< 
<              where `process-ID' is the decimal value of the process's
<              PID, clock is the decimal value of the system clock, and
<              hostname is the fully-qualified domain-name corresponding
<              to the host where the POP3 server is running.
< 
<              The POP3 client makes note of this timestamp, and then
<              issues the APOP command.  The `name' parameter has
<              identical semantics to the `name' parameter of the USER
<              command. The `digest' parameter is calculated by applying
<              the MD5 algorithm [RFC1321] to a string consisting of the
<              timestamp (including angle-brackets) followed by a shared
<              secret.  This shared secret is a string known only to the
<              POP3 client and server.  Great care should be taken to
<              prevent unauthorized disclosure of the secret, as knowledge
<              of the secret will allow any entity to successfully
<              masquerade as the named user.  The `digest' parameter
<              itself is a 16-octet value which is sent in hexadecimal
<              format, using lower-case ASCII characters.
< 
<              When the POP3 server receives the APOP command, it verifies
<              the digest provided.  If the digest is correct, the POP3
<              server issues a positive response, and the POP3 session
<              enters the TRANSACTION state.  Otherwise, a negative
<              response is issued and the POP3 session remains in the
<              AUTHORIZATION state.
< 
<              Note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
<              does the difficulty of deriving it.  As such, shared
<              secrets should be long strings (considerably longer than
<              the 8-character example shown below).
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 14]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<          Possible Responses:
<              +OK maildrop locked and ready
<              -ERR permission denied
< 
<          Examples:
<              S: +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
<              C: APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
<              S: +OK maildrop has 1 message (369 octets)
< 
<              In this example, the shared  secret  is  the  string  `tan-
<              staaf'.  Hence, the MD5 algorithm is applied to the string
< 
<                 <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>tanstaaf
< 
<              which produces a digest value of
< 
<                 c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
< 
< 8. POP3 Command Summary
< 
<    Minimal POP3 Commands:
< 
<       USER name               valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
<       PASS string
<       QUIT
< 
<       STAT                    valid in the TRANSACTION state
<       LIST [msg]
<       RETR msg
<       DELE msg
<       NOOP
<       RSET
< 
<       QUIT                    valid in the UPDATE state
< 
<    Optional POP3 Commands:
< 
<       APOP name digest        valid in the AUTHORIZATION state
< 
<       TOP msg n               valid in the TRANSACTION state
<       UIDL [msg]
< 
<    POP3 Replies:
< 
<       +OK
<       -ERR
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 15]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    Note that with the exception of the STAT, LIST, and UIDL commands,
<    the reply given by the POP3 server to any command is significant only
<    to "+OK" and "-ERR".  Any text occurring after this reply may be
<    ignored by the client.
< 
< 9. Example POP3 Session
< 
<    S: 
<    C: 
<    S:    +OK POP3 server ready <1896.697170952@dbc.mtview.ca.us>
<    C:    APOP mrose c4c9334bac560ecc979e58001b3e22fb
<    S:    +OK mrose's maildrop has 2 messages (320 octets)
<    C:    STAT
<    S:    +OK 2 320
<    C:    LIST
<    S:    +OK 2 messages (320 octets)
<    S:    1 120
<    S:    2 200
<    S:    .
<    C:    RETR 1
<    S:    +OK 120 octets
<    S:    
<    S:    .
<    C:    DELE 1
<    S:    +OK message 1 deleted
<    C:    RETR 2
<    S:    +OK 200 octets
<    S:    
<    S:    .
<    C:    DELE 2
<    S:    +OK message 2 deleted
<    C:    QUIT
<    S:    +OK dewey POP3 server signing off (maildrop empty)
<    C:  
<    S:  
< 
< 10. Message Format
< 
<    All messages transmitted during a POP3 session are assumed to conform
<    to the standard for the format of Internet text messages [RFC822].
< 
<    It is important to note that the octet count for a message on the
<    server host may differ from the octet count assigned to that message
<    due to local conventions for designating end-of-line.  Usually,
<    during the AUTHORIZATION state of the POP3 session, the POP3 server
<    can calculate the size of each message in octets when it opens the
<    maildrop.  For example, if the POP3 server host internally represents
<    end-of-line as a single character, then the POP3 server simply counts
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 16]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
<    each occurrence of this character in a message as two octets.  Note
<    that lines in the message which start with the termination octet need
<    not be counted twice, since the POP3 client will remove all byte-
<    stuffed termination characters when it receives a multi-line
<    response.
< 
< 11. References
< 
<    [RFC821] Postel, J., "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol", STD 10, RFC
<        821, USC/Information Sciences Institute, August 1982.
< 
<    [RFC822] Crocker, D., "Standard for the Format of ARPA-Internet Text
<        Messages", STD 11, RFC 822, University of Delaware, August 1982.
< 
<    [RFC1321] Rivest, R. "The MD5 Message-Digest Algorithm", RFC 1321,
<        MIT Laboratory for Computer Science, April, 1992.
< 
< 12. Security Considerations
< 
<    It is conjectured that use of the APOP command provides origin
<    identification and replay protection for a POP3 session.
<    Accordingly, a POP3 server which implements both the PASS and APOP
<    commands must not allow both methods of access for a given user; that
<    is, for a given "USER name" either the PASS or APOP command is
<    allowed, but not both.
< 
<    Further, note that as the length of the shared secret increases, so
<    does the difficulty of deriving it.
< 
<    Servers that answer -ERR to the USER command are giving potential
<    attackers clues about which names are valid
< 
<    Use of the PASS command sends passwords in the clear over the
<    network.
< 
<    Use of the RETR and TOP commands sends mail in the clear over the
<    network.
< 
<    Otherwise, security issues are not discussed in this memo.
< 
< 13. Acknowledgements
< 
<    The POP family has a long and checkered history.  Although primarily
<    a minor revision to RFC 1460, POP3 is based on the ideas presented in
<    RFCs 918, 937, and 1081.
< 
<    In addition, Alfred Grimstad, Keith McCloghrie, and Neil Ostroff
<    provided significant comments on the APOP command.
< 
< 
< 
< Myers & Rose                                                   [Page 17]
< 
< RFC 1725                          POP3                     November 1994
< 
< 
< 14. Authors' Addresses
< 
<    John G. Myers
<    Carnegie-Mellon University
<    5000 Forbes Ave
<    Pittsburgh, PA 15213
< 
<    EMail: jgm+@cmu.edu
< 
< 
<    Marshall T. Rose
<    Dover Beach Consulting, Inc.
<    420 Whisman Court
<    Mountain View, CA  94043-2186
< 
<    EMail: mrose@dbc.mtview.ca.us
< 
---
> RFC1725 - describes the POP3 - Post Office Protocol version 3. 
------
John_Stuart_Mill|985603037
5c5
< These “old goals” he wanted replaced was the [[utilitarian]] notion of happiness through the accumulation of stuff.  Mill opposed this notion and began to reject the [[utilitarian]] [[rational]] thinking after his nervous breakdown that was brought about when Mill asked himself, “What would happen when all my goals are realized?” 
---
> These `old goals' he wanted replaced was the [[utilitarian]] notion of happiness through the accumulation of stuff.  Mill opposed this notion and began to reject the [[utilitarian]] [[rational]] thinking after his nervous breakdown that was brought about when Mill asked himself, `What would happen when all my goals are realized?' 
7c7
< From this, Mill plunged himself into the writings of the [[German Idealists]] and the [[French]] political thinkers.  He began to reject [[egoism]] and then looked at the lower class’ plight, the problem of [[democracy]]and the question of [[socialism]].  From this he began to see the human face of [[capitalism]], which he thought to be the most productive and, thus, best and inevitable, system of [[economy]]. However, he saw that the distribution of the product was the problem.  He countered this problem by positing that an [[interventionist popular democracy]] can control hardships through programs such as [[social security]] pensions, [[equal opportunity]], [[public education]], and better roads and housing all made possible by taxation of the wealthy which would also bring political stability.  This almost [[utopian]] vision held that the free contract system of the time was unfair and that it was not so much “free contract” as it was [[slavery]].  The worker’s remuneration was simply not proportional to their exertion thus he thought the system needed alterations to provide equitable proportions.
---
> From this, Mill plunged himself into the writings of the [[German Idealists]] and the [[French]] political thinkers.  He began to reject [[egoism]] and then looked at the lower class' plight, the problem of [[democracy]]and the question of [[socialism]].  From this he began to see the human face of [[capitalism]], which he thought to be the most productive and, thus, best and inevitable, system of [[economy]]. However, he saw that the distribution of the product was the problem.  He countered this problem by positing that an [[interventionist popular democracy]] can control hardships through programs such as [[social security]] pensions, [[equal opportunity]], [[public education]], and better roads and housing all made possible by taxation of the wealthy which would also bring political stability.  This almost [[utopian]] vision held that the free contract system of the time was unfair and that it was not so much `free contract' as it was [[slavery]].  The worker's remuneration was simply not proportional to their exertion thus he thought the system needed alterations to provide equitable proportions.
11c11
< Mill proved insensitive to the inequalities of [[capitalism]] in that he thought the lower classes could be made smaller through [[population control]].  His theory of “trickle down” [[economics]] did prove to a higher [[standard of living]] for all, but as it pushed the [[Gross National Product|GNP]] outward, it widened the gap between the working class and the elite. Furthermore, while an idea of [[upward mobility]] may have been perceived, the actual problem of inequality never actually went away.
---
> Mill proved insensitive to the inequalities of [[capitalism]] in that he thought the lower classes could be made smaller through [[population control]].  His theory of `trickle down' [[economics]] did prove to a higher [[standard of living]] for all, but as it pushed the [[Gross National Product|GNP]] outward, it widened the gap between the working class and the elite. Furthermore, while an idea of [[upward mobility]] may have been perceived, the actual problem of inequality never actually went away.
------
New_topics|985610391
2c2
< as of about 1.36 am 23rd March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 1 am 26th March, Wikipedia server time
6,107c6,145
< [[Affirming_the_consequent]] -- 
< [[Ambiguity]] -- 
< [[Anatomy]] -- 
< [[Andrei_Tarkovsky]] -- 
< [[Animals]] -- 
< [[Arc_de_Triomphe/Arc_de_Triumph]] -- 
< [[Atomic_number]] -- 
< [[Bach]] -- 
< [[Beverly_Hillbillies]] -- 
< [[Biology/Talk]] -- 
< [[Bob_Dylan/Blood_On_The_Tracks]] -- 
< [[Cecil_B._Demille]] -- 
< [[Chemical_equilibrium]] -- 
< [[Combinations]] -- 
< [[Computer_hardware]] -- 
< [[Computer_programming]] -- 
< [[Computer_software]] -- 
< [[Conditional]] -- 
< [[Cone]] -- 
< [[Conic_section]] -- 
< [[Conic_sections]] -- 
< [[Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon]] -- 
< [[Definition]] -- 
< [[Disjunction]] -- 
< [[Disjunctive_syllogism]] -- 
< [[Documentary_Film]] -- 
< [[Electronic_Music/Goa]] -- 
< [[Ellipse]] -- 
< [[Evolutionary_linguistics]] -- 
< [[Extension]] -- 
< [[Fermats_Last_Theorem]] -- 
< [[Film_director]] -- 
< [[Frank]] -- 
< [[GPS]] -- 
< [[Galileo_Galilei]] -- 
< [[Geometry/Talk]] -- 
< [[Geometry]] -- 
< [[George_W._Bush/Lexicon]] -- 
< [[Gnu/Talk]] -- 
< [[Gnu]] -- 
< [[Goeldis_monkey]] -- 
< [[Hawaii/Maui]] -- 
< [[Hawaii]] -- 
< [[Hilter]] -- 
< [[Human_anatomy]] -- 
< [[Intension]] -- 
< [[International_Trade/Risks]] -- 
< [[International_trade]] -- 
< [[Interpolation]] -- 
< [[John_Abbe]] -- 
< [[John_Grierson]] -- 
< [[Land-grant]] -- 
< [[LangueFrancaise/Talk]] -- 
< [[Laser]] -- 
< [[Leni_Riefenstahl]] -- 
< [[Lexical_definition_of_definition]] -- 
< [[Live-action_roleplaying_games]] -- 
< [[Longword]] -- 
< [[Marine_Sciences]] -- 
< [[Marsupial]] -- 
< [[Mathematician]] -- 
< [[Mathematics/Talk]] -- 
< [[Mendelevium]] -- 
< [[Metallica/Discography]] -- 
< [[Microfluidics]] -- 
< [[Minuscule]] -- 
< [[Modus_ponens]] -- 
< [[Modus_tollens]] -- 
< [[Nanook_of_the_North]] -- 
< [[Nitrogen]] -- 
< [[Pascal]] -- 
< [[Permutations]] -- 
< [[Pierre_de_Fermat]] -- 
< [[Popular_music]] -- 
< [[Prion]] -- 
< [[Quadword]] -- 
< [[Quantum_Mechanics]] -- 
< [[Robert_J._Flaherty]] -- 
< [[Rolling_Stone_magazine]] -- 
< [[Simon_and_Garfunkel]] -- 
< [[Spanish_language]] -- 
< [[Steve_Reich]] -- 
< [[SurrealNumbers]] -- 
< [[Telekinesis/Talk]] -- 
< [[Telekinesis]] -- 
< [[Telepathy]] -- 
< [[Texas_Agricultural_and_Mechanical_University]] -- 
< [[The_Book_of_Mormon]] -- 
< [[Transuranic]] -- 
< [[Truth]] -- 
< [[Udo_of_Aachen]] -- 
< [[Ungulate]] -- 
< [[Vagueness]] -- 
< [[Vector_space/Example_III]] -- 
< [[Vector_space/Example_II]] -- 
< [[Vector_space/Example_I]] -- 
< [[Vector_space]] -- 
< [[Verlan/Talk]] -- 
< [[Virus]] -- 
< [[Welcome,_newcomers]] -- 
< [[Word]] -- 
< [[Writing]]
---
> [[Abu_Dhabi]] -- 
> [[Academy_Awards/Directing]] -- 
> [[Adam_Sedgwick]] -- 
> [[Adventure]] -- 
> [[Agave]] -- 
> [[Alveolates]] -- 
> [[Amaltheia]] -- 
> [[Analysis_of_Variance]] -- 
> [[Arthur_Koestler]] -- 
> [[Arthur_Schopenhauer]] -- 
> [[Asia]] -- 
> [[Asia_Minor]] -- 
> [[Atlantic_Ocean]] -- 
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Amalgamated_Switch_and_Signal]] -- 
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Ben_Nealy]] -- 
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer_2]] -- 
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Mowen]] -- 
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Section171]] -- 
> [[Baroque/Art]] -- 
> [[Berlin_Film_Festival]] -- 
> [[Black_Forest]] -- 
> [[Black_Sea]] -- 
> [[Bratislava]] -- 
> [[Britney_Spears]] -- 
> [[Carbon_Nanotubes]] -- 
> [[Caspian_Sea]] -- 
> [[Catalan]] -- 
> [[Chapter_2_-_Variation_Under_Nature]] -- 
> [[Chapter_3_-_Struggle_for_Existence]] -- 
> [[Charl_du_Montesquieu]] -- 
> [[Chemistry/peptides]] -- 
> [[Computer_science]] -- 
> [[Creationism]] -- 
> [[Czech_Republic]] -- 
> [[Czechoslovakia]] -- 
> [[Danube_River]] -- 
> [[Darwin]] -- 
> [[Dinoflagellates]] -- 
> [[Equation]] -- 
> [[Ethical_naturalism]] -- 
> [[Ethical_non-naturalism]] -- 
> [[Fiddle_and_violin]] -- 
> [[Francis_II]] -- 
> [[Fullerene]] -- 
> [[G._E._Moore]] -- 
> [[Geography]] -- 
> [[George_Berkeley]] -- 
> [[Gods]] -- 
> [[Gottleib_Fichte]] -- 
> [[Greek_mythology]] -- 
> [[Guyana]] -- 
> [[Historiography]] -- 
> [[History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk]] -- 
> [[Holiday]] -- 
> [[Holidays]] -- 
> [[Holy_Roman_Empire]] -- 
> [[IETF]] -- 
> [[Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism]] -- 
> [[Izabella_Scorupco]] -- 
> [[John_Stuart_Mill]] -- 
> [[Kajtek]] -- 
> [[LMS]] -- 
> [[Like_this_one]] -- 
> [[Linear_equation]] -- 
> [[Linear_equations]] -- 
> [[Linguistics/Talk]] -- 
> [[Magnesium]] -- 
> [[Mannerism/Art]] -- 
> [[Markup_language]] -- 
> [[Masculism]] -- 
> [[Mathematical_expression]] -- 
> [[Meaning]] -- 
> [[Meta-ethics]] -- 
> [[Microphotonics]] -- 
> [[Mojo/Talk]] -- 
> [[Mojo_Jojo]] -- 
> [[Montesquieu]] -- 
> [[Natural_Born_Killers]] -- 
> [[Natural_Selection]] -- 
> [[Nominalism]] -- 
> [[Non-cognitivism]] -- 
> [[North_Sea]] -- 
> [[Ocean]] -- 
> [[Oceans]] -- 
> [[Oelde,_Germany]] -- 
> [[Oelde]] -- 
> [[One-time_pad]] -- 
> [[Operator]] -- 
> [[POP3]] -- 
> [[Passover]] -- 
> [[Philosophical_argument]] -- 
> [[Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Populism_and_Nationalism]] -- 
> [[Pornography]] -- 
> [[Potassium]] -- 
> [[Probability_and_Statistics/Talk]] -- 
> [[Quadratic_equation]] -- 
> [[Quadratic_equations]] -- 
> [[Red_tide]] -- 
> [[Renaissance_Classicism]] -- 
> [[Rhetoric]] -- 
> [[Ricard_Wagner/Talk]] -- 
> [[Ricard_Wagner]] -- 
> [[Richard_Wagner]] -- 
> [[Robert_Chambers]] -- 
> [[Romania]] -- 
> [[Sea]] -- 
> [[Sets]] -- 
> [[Slovakia]] -- 
> [[Stramenopiles]] -- 
> [[TCP-IP]] -- 
> [[Teaching_methods]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_1]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_4]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_5]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_6]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_7]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_8]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_9]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_10]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_11]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_12]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_13]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_14]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Preface]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species/Talk]] -- 
> [[The_Origin_of_Species]] -- 
> [[Thriller_Film]] -- 
> [[URL]] -- 
> [[USSR]] -- 
> [[Ukraine]] -- 
> [[Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics]] -- 
> [[United_Arab_Emirates]] -- 
> [[Voltaire]] -- 
> [[WikiBiblion/Talk]] -- 
> [[WojPob/contact]]  -- 
> [[Zoology]]
------
Henry_Mayhew|985610598
11c11
< He interviewed everyone - beggars, street-entertainers, market traders, prostitutes, labourers, [[sweatshop]] workers, even 
---
> He interviewed everyone - beggars, street-entertainers (such as [[Punch and Judy ]] men), market traders, prostitutes, labourers, [[sweatshop]] workers, even 
18c18
< beggars)
---
> beggars
------
Lewis_Carroll|985610933
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pen name used by [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson]] for his childrens books
------
Charles_Lutwidge_Dodgson|985611726
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English author and mathematician
> 
> He is famous now for his childrens books, which he wrote using the pen-name <i>`Lewis Carroll'</i>  ( - derived from a latinisation of his forenames). 
> 
> `Lewis Carroll' books were:
> * [[Alice in Wonderland]]
> * [[Through the Looking Glass]]
> * [[The Hunting of the Snark]]
> * [[Sylvie and Bruno]]
> 
> He is also notable as one of the pioneers of [[photography]], having taken 
> many portraits of notables of the time. 
> 
------
Technology|985612109
40a41,42
> 
> <i>How about a "Mass Media" catagory? It would also cover radio, printing press, etc.</i>
------
Music|985612983
20c20
< ** FiddleandViolin
---
> ** [[Fiddle and Violin]]
------
Music|985613052
20c20
< ** [[Fiddle and Violin]]
---
> ** [[Fiddle and violin|Fiddle and Violin]]
------
CIA_World_Factbook|985613294
2c2
< annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like.
---
> annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. A copy can be found [[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/|here]].
------
CountriesX|985613497
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are none.
------
Angola|985613727
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[History|/History]]
> 
------
Angola|985614035
1c1
< *[[History|/History]]
---
> * [[/History|History]]
2a3,17
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> 
> * [[/People|People]]
> 
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> 
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> 
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> 
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> 
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> 
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Angola/History|985614066
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Civil war has been the norm in Angola since independence from Portugal in 1975. A 1994 peace accord between the government and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government and armed forces. A national unity government was installed in April of 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century.
------
Angola/History|985614154
1c1
< Civil war has been the norm in Angola since independence from Portugal in 1975. A 1994 peace accord between the government and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government and armed forces. A national unity government was installed in April of 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century.
---
> Civil war has been the norm in [[Angola]] since independence from [[Portugal]] in 1975. A 1994 peace accord between the government and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government and armed forces. A national unity [[Government|government]] was installed in April of 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. Up to 1.5 million lives may have been lost in fighting over the past quarter century.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk|985614162
5c5,7
< Why can't you have the information organized in multiple ways?  --[[LMS]]
---
> Why can't you have the information organized in multiple ways?  --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Might [[History of Science and Technology|HST]] be the index table for entries such as [[History of the Petroleum Industry]] or [[History of Metallurgy]]?? -- [[Invictus]]
------
Hobbies|985614595
2a3,7
> How about:
> 
> A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work. While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
> 
> 
9a15
> ** [http://www.insulators.org Glass insulators]
------
Hobbies|985614801
15c15
< ** [http://www.insulators.org Glass insulators]
---
> ** [http://www.insulators.com Glass insulators]
------
Angola/Geography|985615137
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b> Southern [[Africa]], bordering the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Namibia]] and [[Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
> 

> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b> 12 30 S, 18 30 E

> 
> <b>Map references:</b> Africa

> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 1,246,700 sq km

> * <i>land:</i> 1,246,700 sq km

> * <i>water:</i> 0 sq km

> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b> slightly less than twice the size of [[Texas]]

> 
> <b>Land boundaries:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 5,198 km

> * <i>border countries:</i>
> [Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]] 2,511 km (of which 220 km is the boundary of discontiguous [[/Cabinda|Cabinda Province]]), Republic of the Congo 201 km, [[Namibia]] 1,376 km, [[Zambia]] 1,110 km

> 
> <b>Coastline:</b> 1,600 km

> 
> <b>Maritime claims:</b> 
> * <i>exclusive economic zone:</i> 200 nm

> * <i>territorial sea:</i> 12 nm

> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> semiarid in south and along coast to Luanda; north has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April)

> 
> <b>Terrain:</b> narrow coastal plain rises abruptly to vast interior plateau

> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> Atlantic Ocean 0 m

> * <i>highest point:</i> Morro de Moco 2,620 m

> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b> petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium
> 

> <b>Land use:</b>
> * <i>arable land:</i> 2%

> * <i>permanent crops:</i> 0%

> * <i>permanent pastures:</i> 23%

> * <i>forests and woodland:</i> 43%

> * <i>other: 32% (1993 est.)

> 
> <b>Irrigated land:</b> 750 sq km (1993 est.)

> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b> locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau

> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water

> 
> <b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> * <i>party to:</i> Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
> * <i>signed, but not ratified:</i> Climate Change

> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b> [[/Cabinda|Cabinda]] is separated from rest of country by the [[Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
------
Angola/Geography|985615198
51c51
< * <i>party to:</i> Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
---
> * party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
------
Angola/Geography|985615250
41c41
< * <i>other: 32% (1993 est.)

---
> * <i>other:</i> 32% (1993 est.)

51c51
< * party to: Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
---
> * <i>party to:</i> Biodiversity, Desertification, Law of the Sea
------
Angola/Geography|985615377
54a55,56
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/People|985615701
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b> 10,145,267 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Age structure:</b> 
> * <i>0-14 years:</i> 43% (male 2,215,706; female 2,172,106)
> * <i>15-64 years:</i> 54% (male 2,792,313; female 2,692,790)
> * <i>65 years and over:</i> 3% (male 124,404; female 147,948) (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Population growth rate:</b> 2.15% (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Birth rate:</b> 46.89 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Death rate:</b> 25.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Net migration rate:</b> -0.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Sex ratio:</b>
> * <i>at birth:</i> 1.05 male(s)/female
> * <i>under 15 years:</i> 1.02 male(s)/female
> * <i>15-64 years:</i> 1.04 male(s)/female
> * <i>65 years and over:</i> 0.84 male(s)/female
> * <i>total population:</i> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Infant mortality rate:</b> 195.78 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> * <i>total population:</i> 38.31 years
> * <i>male:</i> 37.11 years
> * <i>female:</i> 39.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Total fertility rate:</b> 6.52 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Nationality:</b>
> * <i>noun:</i> Angolan(s)
> * <i>adjective:</i> Angolan
> 
> <b>Ethnic groups:</b> Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and Native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%
> 
> <b>Religions:</b> indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)
> 
> <b>Languages:</b> Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages
> 
> <b>Literacy:</b>
> * <i>definition:</i> age 15 and over can read and write
> * <i>total population:</i> 42%
> * <i>male:</i> 56%
> * <i>female:</i> 28% (1998 est.)
------
Angola/People|985615767
46a47,48
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Architecture|985615789
3c3
< Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]].
---
> Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]],[[LeCorbusier, who was also a french painter]],[[Michalangelo]],[[Palladio]],[[and Frank Ghery]].
7c7
< [[Adobe]] is a type of material used in architecture, as well as the name of a type of architecture, related to [[stucco]].
---
> [[Adobe]] is a type of material used in architecture, as well as the name of a type of architecture, related to [[stucco]].
------
Rheology|985616121
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter. The term rheology was coinded by Eugene Bingham, a professor at Lehigh University, in 1920, inspired by the greek expression "panta rhei": everything flows.
> 
> Basic rheological terms are:
> * [[Viscosity]]
> * [[Shear Rate]] and [[Elongation Rate]]
> * [[Shear Stress]]
> * [[Newtonian Law]]
> 
> Fluids can be categorized in
> * [[newtonian fluids]] (the fluid viscosity is constant) and
> * [[non-newtonian fluids]] (the fluid viscosity depends on the stresses acting on the fluid) which can by subclassified into 
> ** generalized non-newtonian fluids (also called purely viscous fluids) and 
> ** [[viscoelastic fluids]].
> 
> Rheological properties are determined by means of [[rheometry]].
> 
>  
> 
> 
>  
------
Angola/Government|985616239
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> * <i>conventional long form:</i> Republic of Angola
> * <i>conventional short form:</i> Angola
> * <i>local long form:</i> Republica de Angola
> * <i>local short form:</i> Angola
> * <i>former:</i> People's Republic of Angola
> 
> <b>Data code:</b> AO
> 
> <b>Government type:</b> transitional government, nominally a multiparty democracy with a strong presidential system
> 
> <b>Capital:</b> Luanda
> 
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 18 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire
> 
> <b>Independence:</b> 11 November 1975 (from Portugal)
> 
> <b>National holiday:</b> Independence Day, 11 November (1975)
> 
> <b>Constitution:</b> 11 November 1975; revised 7 January 1978, 11 August 1980, 6 March 1991, and 26 August 1992
> 
> <b>Legal system:</b> based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law; recently modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets
> 
> <b>Suffrage:</b> 18 years of age; universal
> 
> <b>Executive branch:</b>
> * <i>chief of state:</i> President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since 21 September 1979); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> * <i>head of government:</i> President Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS (since January 1999); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> * <i>cabinet:</i> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> * <i>elections:</i> President DOS SANTOS originally elected (in 1979) without opposition under a one-party system and stood for reelection in Angola's first multiparty elections 28-29 September 1992, the last elections to be held (next to be held NA)
> * <i>election results:</i> DOS SANTOS received 49.6% of the total vote, making a run-off election necessary between him and second-place finisher Jonas SAVIMBI (40.1% of the vote); the run-off was not held and SAVIMBI's National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) repudiated the results of the first election; the civil war resumed
> 
> <b>Legislative branch:</b> unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (220 seats; members elected by proportional vote to serve four-year terms)
> * <i>elections:</i> last held 29-30 September 1992 (next to be held NA)
> * <i>election results:</i> percent of vote by party - MPLA 54%, UNITA 34%, others 12%; seats by party - MPLA 129, UNITA 70, PRS 6, FNLA 5, PLD 3, others 7
> 
> <b>Judicial branch:</b> Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president
> 
> <b>Political parties and leaders:</b> Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Analia de Victoria PEREIRA]; National Front for the Liberation of Angola or FNLA [disputed leadership: Lucas NGONDA, Holden ROBERTO]; National Union for the Total Independence of Angola or UNITA [Jonas SAVIMBI], largest opposition party engaged in years of armed resistance before joining the current unity government in April 1997; Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola or MPLA [Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS] ruling party in power since 1975; Social Renewal Party or PRS [disputed leadership: Eduardo KUANGANA, Antonio MUACHICUNGO]
> * <i>note:</i> about a dozen minor parties participated in the 1992 elections but won few seats and have little influence in the National Assembly
> 
> <b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b> Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO; Antonio Bento BEMBE]
> * <i>note:</i> FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province
> 
> <b>International organization participation:</b> ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> <b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> * <i>chief of mission:</i> Ambassador Antonio dos Santos FRANCA "N'dalu"
> * <i>chancery:</i> 1615 M Street, NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20036
> * <i>telephone:</i> [1] (202) 785-1156
> * <i>FAX:</i> [1] (202) 785-1258
> * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> New York
> 
> <b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> * <i>chief of mission:</i> Ambassador Joseph G. SULLIVAN
> * <i>embassy:</i> number 32 Rua Houari Boumedienne, Miramar, Luanda
> * <i>mailing address:</i> international mail: Caixa Postal 6484, Luanda; pouch: American Embassy Luanda, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2550
> * <i>telephone:</i> [244] (2) 345-481, 346-418
> * <i>FAX:</i> [244] (2) 346-924
> 
> <b>Flag description:</b> two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete (in the style of a hammer and sickle)
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/Economy|985616520
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b> Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector.
> 
> <b>GDP:</b> purchasing power parity - $11.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - real growth rate:</b> 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - per capita:</b> purchasing power parity - $1,030 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> * <i>agriculture:</i> 13%
> * <i>industry:</i> 53%
> * <i>services:</i> 34% (1998 est.)
> 
> <b>Population below poverty line:</b> NA%
> 
> <b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> * <i>lowest 10%:</i> NA%
> * <i>highest 10%:</i> NA%
> 
> <b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b> 270% (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Labor force:</b> 5 million (1997 est.)
> 
> <b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> * <i>agriculture:</i> 85%
> * <i>industry and services:</i> 15% (1997 est.)
> 
> <b>Unemployment rate:</b> extensive unemployment and underemployment affecting more than half the population (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Budget:</b>
> * <i>revenues:</i> $928 million
> * <i>expenditures:</i> $2.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $963 million (1992 est.)
> 
> <b>Industries:</b> petroleum; diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, feldspar, bauxite, uranium, and gold; cement; basic metal products; fish processing; food processing; brewing; tobacco products; sugar; textiles
> 
> <b>Industrial production growth rate:</b> NA%
> 
> <b>Electricity - production:</b> 1.886 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> * <i>fossil fuel:</i> 24.97%
> * <i>hydro:</i> 75.03%
> * <i>nuclear:</i> 0%
> * <i>other:</i> 0% (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - consumption:</b> 1.754 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - exports:</b> 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - imports:</b> 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Agriculture - products:</b> bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish
> 
> <b>Exports:</b> $5 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Exports - commodities:</b> crude oil 90%, diamonds, refined petroleum products, gas, coffee, sisal, fish and fish products, timber, cotton
> 
> <b>Exports - partners:</b> US 63%, Benelux 9%, China, Chile, France (1998)
> 
> <b>Imports:</b> $3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Imports - commodities:</b> machinery and electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts; medicines, food, textiles, military goods
> 
> <b>Imports - partners:</b> Portugal 20%, US 17%, South Africa 10%, Spain, Brazil, France (1998)
> 
> <b>Debt - external:</b> $10.5 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Economic aid - recipient:</b> $493.1 million (1995)
> 
> <b>Currency:</b> 1 kwanza (NKz) = 100 lwei
> 
> <b>Exchange rates:</b> kwanza (NKz) per US$1 - 577,304 (January 2000), 2,790,706 (1999), 392,824 (1998), 229,040 (1997), 128,029 (1996), 2,750 (1995); note - beginning in June 1998, the official rate is determined weekly in accordance with a crawling peg scheme
> 
> <b>Fiscal year:</b> calendar year
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/Communications|985616720
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b> 60,000 (1995)
> 
> <b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b> 1,994 (1995)
> 
> <b>Telephone system:</b> telephone service limited mostly to government and business use; HF radiotelephone used extensively for military links
> * <i>domestic:</i> limited system of wire, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
> * <i>international:</i> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> <b>Radio broadcast stations:</b> AM 34, FM 7, shortwave 9 (1999)
> 
> <b>Radios:</b> 630,000 (1997)
> 
> <b>Television broadcast stations:</b> 7 (1999)
> 
> <b>Televisions:</b> 150,000 (1997)
> 
> <b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b> 2 (1999)
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/Transportation|985616903
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 2,952 km (inland, much of the track is unusable because of land mines still in place from the civil war)
> * <i>narrow gauge:</i> 2,798 km 1.067-m gauge; 154 km 0.600-m gauge (1997)
> 
> <b>Highways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 76,626 km
> * <i>paved:</i> 19,156 km
> * <i>unpaved:</i> 57,470 km (1997 est.)
> 
> <b>Waterways:</b> 1,295 km navigable
> 
> <b>Pipelines:</b> crude oil 179 km
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b> Ambriz, Cabinda, Lobito, Luanda, Malongo, Namibe, Porto Amboim, Soyo
> 
> <b>Merchant marine:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 9 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 39,305 GRT/63,067 DWT
> * <i>ships by type:</i> cargo 8, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports:</b> 249 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with paved runways:</b> 
> * <i>total:</i> 32
> * <i>over 3,047 m:</i> 4
> * <i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i> 8
> * <i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 12
> * <i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 7
> * <i>under 914 m:</i> 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 217
> * <i>over 3,047 m:</i> 2
> * <i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i> 5
> * <i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 31
> * <i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 96
> * <i>under 914 m:</i> 83 (1999 est.)
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/Military|985617025
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b> Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Police Force
> 
> <b>Military manpower - military age:</b> 18 years of age
> 
> <b>Military manpower - availability:</b> 
> * <i>males age 15-49:</i> 2,429,842 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> * <i>males age 15-49:</i> 1,221,277 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> * <i>males:</i> 101,434 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b> $1.2 billion (FY97/98)
> 
> <b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b> 25% (FY97/98)
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola/Transnational_issues|985617085
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
> 
> <b>Illicit drugs:</b> increasingly used as a transshipment point for cocaine and heroin destined for Western Europe and other African states
> 
> [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Angola|985617193
0a1,2
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Slightly edited, not completely Wikified.</i>
> 
------
Junk_science|985618056
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Term used to describe theories that claim to be scientific but fail to follow the [[Scientific Method]]. See [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscience]].
> 
> [[http://www.junkscience.com|Junkscience.com]] defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
> 
> 
------
Junk_science|985618143
3c3
< [[http://www.junkscience.com|Junkscience.com]] defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
---
> [[http://www.junkscience.com]] defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
------
Junk_science|985618182
3c3
< [[http://www.junkscience.com]] defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
---
> http://www.junkscience.com defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
------
Scientific_method|985618270
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Scientific_Method]]
------
Scientific_Method|985618419
10c10
< If no experiment disproves your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory. Contrast PseudoScience.
---
> If no experiment disproves your theory, you can talk about it and hopefully convince other people of its validity. If your theory is similar to an already established one except in some point and your experiment shows that reality follows your theory instead of the old one, it is likely that many people will listen to you. If they can reproduce your experiment, they will be convinced of the validity of the new theory. Contrast [[Pseudoscience]].
16c16
< :see PostModernism
---
> :see [[Post_Modernism]]
------
Junk_science|985619611
3c3
< http://www.junkscience.com defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
---
> [http://www.junkscience.com Junkscience.com] defines the term as the "faulty scientific data and analysis used to used to further a special agenda."
------
CIA_World_Factbook|985619714
2c2
< annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. A copy can be found [[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/|here]].
---
> annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].
------
PublicDomainResources|985619785
19a20,21
> 
> [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ CIA World Factbook] -- Basic facts on all the countries of the world.
------
GNU|985621292
1c1,5
< "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by RichardStallman in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. By creating various utilities which could be used under other [[Unix]]'es as well, they have created a lot of programs which are considered to be the standard toolkit on any [[Unix]] machine. Their [[Operating system]] (known as [[Hurd]]) would be a major step in the project's goal. 
---
> "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by [[Richard_Stallman]] in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. <i>(more about RMS' motivations, early work, [[GPL]], etc)</i>
> 
> By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[Emacs]]), a compiler ([[GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable UNIX operating system. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[HURD]], the proposed GNU kernel.
> 
> Work on HURD proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the UNIX-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[GNU GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free_sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
------
Richard_Stallman|985621587
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Richard Stallman likes computers, music and butterflies---among other things."
> 
> See [[GNU]]
> 
> <i>(more to follow)
------
Richard_Stallman|985621608
5c5
< <i>(more to follow)
---
> <i>(more to follow)</i>
------
GNU|985621798
1c1
< "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by [[Richard_Stallman]] in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. <i>(more about RMS' motivations, early work, [[GPL]], etc)</i>
---
> "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by [[Richard_Stallman]] in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. <i>(more about RMS' motivations, early work, [[/GPL]], etc)</i>
3c3
< By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[Emacs]]), a compiler ([[GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable UNIX operating system. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[HURD]], the proposed GNU kernel.
---
> By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[/Emacs|Emacs]]), a compiler ([[/GCC|GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable Unix [[Operating system|operating system]]. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[/HURD|HURD]], the proposed GNU kernel.
5c5
< Work on HURD proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the UNIX-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[GNU GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free_sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
---
> Work on HURD proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free_sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
------
GPL|985621921
1,350c1
< GPL Stands for the [[GNU]] General Public License. Version 2 follows:
< 
< <hr>
< <pre>
< 
<                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
<                        Version 2, June 1991
< 
<  Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
<                 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
< 
<  Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
<  of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
< 
<                             Preamble
< 
<   The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
< freedom to share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public
< License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
< software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.  This
< General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
< Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
< using it.  (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
< the GNU Library General Public License instead.)  You can apply it to
< your programs, too.
< 
<   When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
< price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
< have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
< this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
< if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it
< in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.
< 
<   To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
< anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
< These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
< distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
< 
<   For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
< gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
< you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
< source code.  And you must show them these terms so they know their
< rights.
< 
<   We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and
< (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
< distribute and/or modify the software.
< 
<   Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
< that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
< software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
< want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
< that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
< authors' reputations.
< 
<   Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
< patents.  We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free
< program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
< program proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
< patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.
< 
<   The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
< modification follow.
< 
<                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
<    TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
< 
<   0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains
< a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed
< under the terms of this General Public License.  The "Program", below,
< refers to any such program or work, and a "work based on the Program"
< means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law:
< that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it,
< either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another
< language.  (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in
< the term "modification".)  Each licensee is addressed as "you".
< 
< Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
< covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act of
< running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program
< is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the
< Program (independent of having been made by running the Program).
< Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.
< 
<   1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's
< source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you
< conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate
< copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
< notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty;
< and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License
< along with the Program.
< 
< You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and
< you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.
< 
<   2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
< of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
< distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
< above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:
< 
<     a) You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
<     stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.
< 
<     b) You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in
<     whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any
<     part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third
<     parties under the terms of this License.
< 
<     c) If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
<     when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
<     interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an
<     announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a
<     notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide
<     a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under
<     these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this
<     License.  (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but
<     does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on
<     the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
< 
< These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
< identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program,
< and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in
< themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
< sections when you distribute them as separate works.  But when you
< distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based
< on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of
< this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the
< entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.
< 
< Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest
< your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to
< exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or
< collective works based on the Program.
< 
< In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
< with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of
< a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under
< the scope of this License.
< 
<   3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
< under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
< Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
< 
<     a) Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
<     source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections
<     1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,
< 
<     b) Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
<     years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
<     cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
<     machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
<     distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium
<     customarily used for software interchange; or,
< 
<     c) Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
<     to distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is
<     allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
<     received the program in object code or executable form with such
<     an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)
< 
< The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
< making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete source
< code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any
< associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to
< control compilation and installation of the executable.  However, as a
< special exception, the source code distributed need not include
< anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary
< form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the
< operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component
< itself accompanies the executable.
< 
< If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
< access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
< access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
< distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
< compelled to copy the source along with the object code.
< 
<   4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
< except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
< otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
< void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
< However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under
< this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
< 
< parties remain in full compliance.
< 
<   5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
< signed it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or
< distribute the Program or its derivative works.  These actions are
< prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by
< modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the
< Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and
< all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying
< the Program or works based on it.
< 
<   6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
< Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
< original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
< these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further
< restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.
< You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to
< this License.
< 
<   7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
< infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
< conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
< otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
< excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
< distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
< License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
< may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent
< license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by
< all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then
< the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to
< refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
< 
< If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
< any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
< apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
< circumstances.
< 
< It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
< patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
< such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
< integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
< implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
< generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
< through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
< system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing
< to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
< impose that choice.
< 
< This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to
< be a consequence of the rest of this License.
< ^L
<   8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
< certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the
< original copyright holder who places the Program under this License
< may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding
< those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among
< countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates
< the limitation as if written in the body of this License.
< 
<   9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
< of the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will
< be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
< address new problems or concerns.
< 
< Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
< specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and "any
< later version", you have the option of following the terms and conditions
< either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
< Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version number of
< this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software
< Foundation.
< 
<   10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
< programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
< to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free
< Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes
< make exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals
< of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
< of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.
< 
<                             NO WARRANTY
< 
<   11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY
< FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN
< OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES
< PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED
< OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
< MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS
< TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD THE
< PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING,
< REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
< 
<   12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
< WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR
< REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES,
< INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
< OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
< TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY
< YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER
< PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
< POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
< 
<                      END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
< 
<         Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
< 
<   If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
< possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
< free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms.
< 
<   To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest
< to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
< convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
< the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
< 
<     <one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.>
<     Copyright (C) 19yy  <name of author>
< 
<     This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
<     it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
<     the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
<     (at your option) any later version.
< 
<     This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
<     but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
<     MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
<     GNU General Public License for more details.
< 
<     You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
<     along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
<     Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
< 
< Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
< 
< If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
< when it starts in an interactive mode:
< 
<     Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19yy name of author
<     Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
<     This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
<     under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
< 
< The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate
< parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the commands you use may
< be called something other than `show w' and `show c'; they could even be
< mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your program.
< 
< You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
< school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if
< necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:
< 
<   Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
<   `Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.
< 
<   <signature of Ty Coon>, 1 April 1989
<   Ty Coon, President of Vice
< 
< This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into
< proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine library, you may
< consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the
< library.  If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General
< Public License instead of this License.
< </pre>
< <hr>
< 
< See also the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU/GPL]]
------
GNU/GPL|985621952
1c1,351
< Describe the new page here.
---
> GPL Stands for the [[GNU]] General Public License. Version 2 follows:
> 
> <hr>
> <pre>
> 
>                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
>                        Version 2, June 1991
> 
>  Copyright (C) 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
>                 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307, USA.
> 
>  Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
>  of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
> 
>                             Preamble
> 
>   The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
> freedom to share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public
> License is intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free
> software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.  This
> General Public License applies to most of the Free Software
> Foundation's software and to any other program whose authors commit to
> using it.  (Some other Free Software Foundation software is covered by
> the GNU Library General Public License instead.)  You can apply it to
> your programs, too.
> 
>   When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not
> price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
> have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
> this service if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it
> if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it
> in new free programs; and that you know you can do these things.
> 
>   To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
> anyone to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.
> These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
> distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
> 
>   For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether
> gratis or for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that
> you have.  You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the
> source code.  And you must show them these terms so they know their
> rights.
> 
>   We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and
> (2) offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
> distribute and/or modify the software.
> 
>   Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain
> that everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free
> software.  If the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we
> want its recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so
> that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
> authors' reputations.
> 
>   Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software
> patents.  We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free
> program will individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the
> program proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any
> patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.
> 
>   The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
> modification follow.
> 
>                     GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
>    TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING, DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION
> 
>   0. This License applies to any program or other work which contains
> a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed
> under the terms of this General Public License.  The "Program", below,
> refers to any such program or work, and a "work based on the Program"
> means either the Program or any derivative work under copyright law:
> that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it,
> either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another
> language.  (Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in
> the term "modification".)  Each licensee is addressed as "you".
> 
> Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
> covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act of
> running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program
> is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the
> Program (independent of having been made by running the Program).
> Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.
> 
>   1. You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's
> source code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you
> conspicuously and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate
> copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
> notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty;
> and give any other recipients of the Program a copy of this License
> along with the Program.
> 
> You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and
> you may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.
> 
>   2. You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
> of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
> distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
> above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:
> 
>     a) You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices
>     stating that you changed the files and the date of any change.
> 
>     b) You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in
>     whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any
>     part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third
>     parties under the terms of this License.
> 
>     c) If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
>     when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
>     interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an
>     announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a
>     notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide
>     a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under
>     these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this
>     License.  (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but
>     does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on
>     the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
> 
> These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
> identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program,
> and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in
> themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
> sections when you distribute them as separate works.  But when you
> distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based
> on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of
> this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the
> entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.
> 
> Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest
> your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to
> exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or
> collective works based on the Program.
> 
> In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
> with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of
> a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under
> the scope of this License.
> 
>   3. You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
> under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
> Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
> 
>     a) Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
>     source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections
>     1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,
> 
>     b) Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
>     years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
>     cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
>     machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
>     distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium
>     customarily used for software interchange; or,
> 
>     c) Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
>     to distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is
>     allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
>     received the program in object code or executable form with such
>     an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)
> 
> The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
> making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete source
> code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any
> associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to
> control compilation and installation of the executable.  However, as a
> special exception, the source code distributed need not include
> anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary
> form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the
> operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component
> itself accompanies the executable.
> 
> If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
> access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
> access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
> distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
> compelled to copy the source along with the object code.
> 
>   4. You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
> except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
> otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
> void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
> However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under
> this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
> 
> parties remain in full compliance.
> 
>   5. You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
> signed it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or
> distribute the Program or its derivative works.  These actions are
> prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by
> modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the
> Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and
> all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying
> the Program or works based on it.
> 
>   6. Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
> Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
> original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
> these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further
> restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.
> You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to
> this License.
> 
>   7. If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
> infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
> conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
> otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
> excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
> distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
> License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
> may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent
> license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by
> all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then
> the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to
> refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
> 
> If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
> any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
> apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
> circumstances.
> 
> It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
> patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
> such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
> integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
> implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
> generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
> through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
> system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing
> to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
> impose that choice.
> 
> This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to
> be a consequence of the rest of this License.
> ^L
>   8. If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
> certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the
> original copyright holder who places the Program under this License
> may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding
> those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among
> countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates
> the limitation as if written in the body of this License.
> 
>   9. The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
> of the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will
> be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
> address new problems or concerns.
> 
> Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
> specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and "any
> later version", you have the option of following the terms and conditions
> either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
> Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version number of
> this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software
> Foundation.
> 
>   10. If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
> programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
> to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free
> Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes
> make exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals
> of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
> of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.
> 
>                             NO WARRANTY
> 
>   11. BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY
> FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW.  EXCEPT WHEN
> OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES
> PROVIDE THE PROGRAM "AS IS" WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED
> OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
> MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  THE ENTIRE RISK AS
> TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU.  SHOULD THE
> PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING,
> REPAIR OR CORRECTION.
> 
>   12. IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING
> WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR
> REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES,
> INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING
> OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED
> TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY
> YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER
> PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE
> POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES.
> 
>                      END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS
> 
>         Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs
> 
>   If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
> possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
> free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these terms.
> 
>   To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest
> to attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively
> convey the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least
> the "copyright" line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
> 
>     <one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.>
>     Copyright (C) 19yy  <name of author>
> 
>     This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
>     it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
>     the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
>     (at your option) any later version.
> 
>     This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
>     but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
>     MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
>     GNU General Public License for more details.
> 
>     You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
>     along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
>     Foundation, Inc., 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
> 
> Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
> 
> If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
> when it starts in an interactive mode:
> 
>     Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) 19yy name of author
>     Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
>     This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
>     under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
> 
> The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate
> parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the commands you use may
> be called something other than `show w' and `show c'; they could even be
> mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits your program.
> 
> You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
> school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the program, if
> necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:
> 
>   Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
>   `Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.
> 
>   <signature of Ty Coon>, 1 April 1989
>   Ty Coon, President of Vice
> 
> This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into
> proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine library, you may
> consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the
> library.  If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library General
> Public License instead of this License.
> </pre>
> <hr>
> 
> See also the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense.
> 
------
Richard_M_Stallman|985622088
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Richard_Stallman]]
------
GNU_Free_Documentation_License|985622444
1c1
< The [[GNU]] FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for [[open content]].  The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].  Cf. the GPL (General Public License) for software.
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU/FDL]]
------
French_language|985622526
0a1,2
> Primary language spoken in [[France]], former French colonies, as well as international organizations such as the [[United Nations]] and [[Universal Postal Union]].
> ----
------
GNU/FDL|985622678
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[GNU]] FDL (Free Documentation License) is a license for [[open content]].  The full license is available [http://www.nupedia.com/license.shtml here].  Cf. the [[/GPL|GPL (General Public License)]] for software.
------
Junk_science|985622712
2a3,4
> Junk science is largely a result of the lack of factual verfication by the modern media.  Publicity is easier to get if you publish outrageous claims.
> ----
------
Nancy_Reagan|985622879
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wife of [[Ronald Reagan]].
------
Scientific_Method|985622906
16c16,17
< :see [[Post_Modernism]]
---
> :see [[Post Modernism]] -- [[Junk science]]
> 
------
Junk_science|985622942
3c3
< Junk science is largely a result of the lack of factual verfication by the modern media.  Publicity is easier to get if you publish outrageous claims.
---
> Junk science is largely a result of the lack of factual verfication by the modern [[media]].  Publicity is easier to get if you publish outrageous claims.
------
New_York_City|985623139
5c5,9
< [[NYC]] is an acroynm for New York City.
---
> [[NYC]] is an acroynm for New York City.
> 
> New York City is amongst the most densly populated places in the United States.
> 
> It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.
------
Wikipedia_policy|985623374
50a51,58
> 
> ----------
> I've noticed that the GNU General Public License is posted. It is under following restriction:
> 
> <pre> Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document, 
> but changing it is not allowed.</pre>
> 
> Does this restriction actually prevent us from putting the license in a Wikipedia article, since anyone has the power to edit it?
------
Nancy_Reagan|985624274
1c1
< Wife of [[Ronald Reagan]].
---
> A former US [[first lady]] - wife of [[Ronald Reagan]].
------
United_Arab_Emirates|985624806
1c1
< A [[Persian Gulf]] country, [[Abu Dhabi]] is the capital.
---
> A country situated in the middle east, in the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Abu Dhabi]] is the [[capital]]. Other cities: [[Dubai]], [[Sharjah]].
------
United_Arab_Emirates|985624870
1c1,2
< A country situated in the middle east, in the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Abu Dhabi]] is the [[capital]]. Other cities: [[Dubai]], [[Sharjah]].
---
> A country situated in the [[middle east]], in the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Abu Dhabi]] is the [[capital]]. Other cities: [[Dubai]], [[Sharjah]].
> 
------
Country|985624999
1a2,3
> 
> ''See [[countries of the world]]''
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985626484
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Morals and Ethics - Are They the Same?]]
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985626544
1c1
< [[Morals and Ethics - Are They the Same?]]
---
> [[Are Morals and Ethics the Same Thing?]]
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985626620
1c1
< [[Are Morals and Ethics the Same Thing?]]
---
> [[Morals or ethics]]
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985626646
1c1
< [[Morals or ethics]]
---
> [[Morals or Ethics]]
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985626763
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom." 
> 
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that “good,” or “right,” would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life; and “bad” or “wrong” would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
> While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  Social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary. They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group. Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them. 
> 
> One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that modernly, compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research. Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration. In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard. Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character. 
> While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by a Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa. 
> 
> Consider: It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies. Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful. One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema. On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, caused by a type of protein known as a “preon” which multiplies within its host and can be spread by ingestion, literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism. This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival. By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad." And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it. But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science. 
> Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members. These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes. Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins. Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue." In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm. There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts. 
> 
> The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense. "We must do this or perish." He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes. How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insight and understanding? One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff. So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are often established. Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in authority and buttressed by the power of the group. 
> 
> Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities. Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to viability in and of themselves. However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others. As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival. This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created. 
> 
> So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside. A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter. Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical. Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
>  
> Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
>  
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985626868
1d0
< 
3c2,3
< The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom." 
---
> 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."  Perhaps somthing of the original difference between the words lingers in modern understanding.
22c22
<  
---
>  
------
Politics|985626892
5c5
< Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  Politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the journalistic sub-class, pressure-groups, and the sub-class of educationalists, who have the power to push some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.
---
> Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  In "Democratic" societies, politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the power of the journalistic and educational sub-classes to push some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.  Pressure-groups also have the power to push issues to the fore.
17c17
< [[Masculism]]
---
> [[Masculism]]-- [[Feminism]] -- [[Indigenous Rights]] -- [[Minority Rights]]
------
Masculism|985627012
9c9
< The response of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have either ignored this movement, publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women could plausibly be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights activists access to the media and publishers and influence in education systems and bureaucracies.  
---
> The response of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have either ignored this movement, publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women might conceivably be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights activists access to the media and publishers and influence in education systems and bureaucracies.  
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985627247
1c1,36
< 
---
> ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer. What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
>  
> Consider: Holmes observed the world around him in a manner which took into account the most minor details. Those around him seldom detected the same "clues" and when they did, the evidence in front of their eyes was empty to them. Conan Doyle may or may not have consciously given Holmes an unfair leg up over his compatriots - but regardless of intent, that advantage existed. 
> 
> It is unlikely that persons who have not undertaken one form or another of professional investigation will detect how the "Holmes" world view differed from others. It is equally unlikely that it would reveal itself to professional investigators (be they involved in science, law enforcement or private investigation) who have not also made a targeted study of the science of logic and its associated processes. 
> 
> In one view, the subject of logic can be seen as a study involving datasets, relationships between them, belonging and not-belonging. This view will serve as well as any other to illustrate the synergy which exists between the three most basic elements of successful investigative technique:
>  
> #Perception 
> #Knowledge Base 
> #Logic
>  
> One must be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor. And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing. Factually, this may be one of the most rarely developed investigative skills. Although preconception impedes observation, too many investigators of all kinds approach a scene with definite ideas as to what they are looking for, what they expect to see, and what they expect it to mean. Even having viewed a scene initially without preconception, many are incapable of rehabilitating former observations to neutral value once they have assigned a given meaning or interpretation to them. Thus, when new or unexpected knowledge is available to inform old observations, these individuals are handicapped. They cannot look and make new, unbiased observations, nor remove the coloration previously applied to former observations so as to view them in light of newly available knowledge. 
> 
> The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them. That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data. The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances. Take this example: A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 AM and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM. What are we to make of this? In a vacuum of information, nothing. Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart. Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive. But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time. Time explained. But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered. 
> 
> Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed? It was no more nor less than this: His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era. He knew the smell of paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin. Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem. 'Nuff said? A further, though less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation. Multiple datasets in reference to a single clue generally did not exist. 
> 
> The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers." These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright feeble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison). In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'. 
> 
> Here's how: 
> 
> First, the prospective investigator should be encouraged to continually expand his or her knowledge base. There should be no off-limits learning. If one is to investigate in the field of medications, reactions and drug development, then the first and most important datasets to acquire would obviously deal with such things as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, and the like. Other areas of investigative specialty would likewise benefit most greatly from studies of their related datasets.
>  
> Second, in one fashion or another, the prospect should be educated in the logical concept of "belonging." Taken grossly, this concept could relate to things as obvious as a cooking stove in a living room or, conversely, a kitchen with no stove. Things which ought to belong to a scenario and which are present in the expected condition, receive the lowest importance in investigative observation, and things which are present when they do not belong or absent when they do belong receive first attention. First, of course, one observes the scene and makes no evaluation. Then one evaluates observed elements relative to each other. Lastly, one evaluates observed elements relative to datasets which are not implicit in the scene, but are rather contained in the investigator's head or his reference sources. 
> 
> Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process. Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential. In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme. Why does our guy move so slowly? A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 24" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound. 
> 
> A synergy exists between personal ability (as in native capacity for data-processing volume and speed, sensory acuity, etc.), perception, knowledge and logic. Increases in the appliciation of each factor can multiply the results available from the application of each other factor. 
> 
> How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber? The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint. He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter. Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen. The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed. E.G.: Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder? Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing? Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints? Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint? How was the tubing secured? How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood? The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc. The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation. 
> 
> If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused. If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective. 
> What does all this have to do with philosophy? 
> 
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge. In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible. One sees, for instance, a chair. According to Russell, this would be a misstatement. The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible. Therefore, one does not see it at all. One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image. Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer. On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist. Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation. From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed. In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. 
------
Yemen|985627248
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Yemen is a country in the [[Middle East]], bordering the [[Arabian Sea]], [[Gulf of Aden]], and [[Red Sea]], between [[Oman]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. 
> 
> [[North Yemen]] became independent of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1918. The British, who had set up a protectorate area around the southern port of [[Aden]] in the 19th century, withdrew in 1967 from what became [[South Yemen]]. Three years later, the southern government adopted a Marxist orientation. The massive exodus of hundreds of thousands of Yemenis from the south to the north contributed to two decades of hostility between the states. The two countries were formally unified as the Republic of Yemen in 1990. A southern secessionist movement in 1994 was quickly subdued. 
------
Canada|985627360
5c5
< As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  There have been political arguments about a possible separation with the French speaking majority in [[Quebec]] throughout the country's history.
---
> As one would expect immediately from the size, Canada is very diverse.  There have been political arguments about a possible separation of the French speaking majority in [[Quebec]] throughout the country's history.
7c7
< [[/History]]
---
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

10a11
> Canadians have an interesting [[/self-image|self-image]].
11a13,24
> --------
> <i>From the [[CIA_Worldfactbook]] 2000.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
13d25
< Canadians have an interesting [[/self-image]].
------
Yemen|985627367
0a1,2
> Republic of Yemen (Al Jumhuriyah al Yamaniyah)
> 
------
Yemen|985627387
1,3c1
< Republic of Yemen (Al Jumhuriyah al Yamaniyah)
< 
< Yemen is a country in the [[Middle East]], bordering the [[Arabian Sea]], [[Gulf of Aden]], and [[Red Sea]], between [[Oman]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. 
---
> The Republic of Yemen (Al Jumhuriyah al Yamaniyah) is a country in the [[Middle East]], bordering the [[Arabian Sea]], [[Gulf of Aden]], and [[Red Sea]], between [[Oman]] and [[Saudi Arabia]]. 
------
Canada/History|985627427
1,2c1
< 
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
---
> A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across an unfortified border. Its paramount political problem continues to be the relationship of the province of Quebec, with its French-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of the country.
------
Canada|985627523
14c14
< <i>From the [[CIA_Worldfactbook]] 2000.</i>
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.</i>
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985627539
1a2,8
> 
> Casually related issues:
>   #Informal use of logic
>   InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
> 
> 
> 
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985627579
4c4
<   #Informal use of logic
---
>   '''Informal use of logic:'''
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985627750
9,11c9,11
< #Perception 
< #Knowledge Base 
< #Logic
---
> #'''Perception''' 
> #'''Knowledge Base''' 
> #'''Logic'''
21c21
< Here's how: 
---
> '''Here's how''': 
33,34c33,35
< If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused. If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective. 
< What does all this have to do with philosophy? 
---
> If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused. If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective.
>  
> '''What does all this have to do with philosophy?''' 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985627782
21c21
< '''Here's how''': 
---
> '''Here's how:''' 
------
ChristianityTalk|985628005
34,35c34
< ----
< I re-inserted the commentary at the top, as Bryce's comments are out of context without it...
---
> 
------
Hobbies|985628063
6a7
> Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
------
Vincent_Van_Gogh|985628095
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gogh, Vincent Van was born on March 30, 1853, in [[Zundert]], [[Netherlands]] and died on July 29, 1890, in [[Auvers-sur-Oise]], near [[Paris]], [[France]]. He is generally considered the greatest Dutch painter after [[Rembrandt]];  Van Gogh produced all of his work during a period of only 10 years before he succumed to mental illness and committed suicide.
> 
> He sold only one painting during his lifetime ([[Red Vineyard at Arles]]; [[Pushkin Museum]], [[Moscow]], [[Russia]]).  His fame grew rapidly after his death. His influence on [[Expressionism]], [[Fauvism]] and early [[abstraction]] was enormous, and it can be seen in many other aspects of 20th-century art. 
------
ChristianityTalk|985628140
2,7c2,13
< Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines. Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstanding a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA. 
< In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today. 
< Why would that be? 
< A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems. Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness. One will not find in eastern religious thought a single threat of damnation, nor claim to sole possession of all and every religious truth. Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence. Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed. 
< Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point. By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east. Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers. 
< As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match. The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment. So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme. Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death. Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter. 
---
> Generally, Christianity, Judaism and Islam are exemplary of a modern conception of "western" faith, in contrast to "eastern" disciplines. Older "western" religious traditions, those being the pagan traditions of Norse, Celtic, Germanic and other generally European peoples, the polytheistic traditions of Greece and Rome, and New World animistic aboriginal practices, seem to have largely died out in developed areas, notwithstanding a minor contemporary revival of such observances as DruidisM and WiccA.
>  
> In contrast, the oldest "eastern" disciplines anyone has been able to detect are still in practice within their original geographical regions today.
>  
> Why would that be?
>  
> A cursory glance immediately reveals a marked difference in the nature of the use of authority between "eastern" and "western" belief systems. Where the Sons of Abraham, in all their various stripes, tend toward authoritarianism and exclusivity with regard to religious rites, the various eastern traditions tend toward democracy and inclusiveness. One will very rarely find in eastern religious thought, threats of damnation, generally, one will not find claims to sole possession of all and every religious truth. Nor will one find in western traditional religious scripture the slightest hint that other belief than the one at issue could be be given the slightest credence. Add to this the fact that Catholicism historically had government sanction, power of taxation, military might and punitive authority for a substantial block of time in history, and one can begin to see how an interesting paradox developed.
>  
> Western religionists, being authoritarian, exclusive, and having military might, tended to stamp out their competition through slaughter or threat thereof, while eastern religionists have enjoyed governmental favor from time to time, but have not historically converted their fellow man at sword point. By geographic coincidence, mechanization and its resulting period of "enlightenment" proceeded more quickly and broadly in the west than in the east. Inquiry in the physical sciences, fomented by the forces of mechanization, laid the groundwork for objective observation and its resulting egalitarian views, all the way back to early Greek philosophers.
>  
> As a result, democratic societies grew up in largely Christian areas, though Christianity is undemocratic; and totalitarian societies (save middle-east theocracies) tend to be anti-religious or to co-exist with the eastern observances which pre-dated them, though eastern religious thought and political democracy are a perfect match. The devout eastern student has learned tolerance, non-resistance, cooperation, disavowal of material wealth; and such principles as that revenge is base and unseemly, given that evil and corruption contain their own punishment. So he is more easily held down under an authoritarian scheme. Western scripture contains exhortations to rise up and smite non-believers and the unjust, to convert others to the one proper faith, and that various misdeeds should be remedied by putting the miscreant to death. Western believers, therefore, are able to justify their faith in forceful conversion and slaughter.
>  
------
AyeSpy|985628291
13a14,15
> ----
> Good to see some Vintage AyeSpy around here.   <grin>
------
Geography|985628342
1c1
< [[Earth]]
---
> The study of the surface of the [[Earth]]. The [[word]] is derived from the [[Greek]] words geo ("the Earth") and graphein ("to write").
3c3,5
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]]
---
> [[Earth]] -- [[atmosphere]] -- [[lithosphere]] -- [[hydrosphere]] -- [[biosphere]]
> 
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]]
------
CountriesK|985628395
0a1
> * [[Kazakhstan]]
2c3,4
< * [[Kiribati]]
---
> * [[Kiribati]]
> * [[Kyrgyzstan]]
------
AyeSpy|985628497
1c1
< For those who give a royal flyin' flip...
---
> Private investigator living in the Southwest
3c3
< Pardon my dust.  I believe I have removed all offending material I contributed.  Contrary to obvious appearance, I have not gathered up my toys and gone home in a huff.  I have concluded that it was error on my part to have presumed to contribute serious articles here.
---
> Informal student of philosophy and comparative religion for the last 33 years
5c5
< My article on sanity (later, the problem of defining sanity) was objected to on the grounds, chiefly, that I did not title it to reflect that it was not authoritative, but rather was merely my views.  It was also criticized, in spite of acknowledging the only widely recognized definition of "sanity" for failing to mention what the 'received view' on the subject was. (I have solicited reference to materials I lack, to see what authortitative position on sanity I have failed to consider.)  It was indicated, nay insisted, that I should remove my article to some title such as "Ayespy on Sanity."  The implication was that to do otherwise was dishonest, in that it would pretend authority or scholarship which did not exist.  The main defect in the article would appear to be that it was propounded by one who was not by formal academic certification a serious scholar, but rather, a crank.  I replaced the article with a quote from a presumed authority on the subject.
---
> Husband of 25 years, dad, rancher, writer and musician.
7,13d6
< I bridled at posting the article with a title indicating peculiarity to myself rather than a more general title, and I had to reflect on what bothered me about that.  I concluded that what irked me was I had written the piece in hopes folks might read it and reflect.  If it was introduced with my name rather than the subject matter, the effect would be (as I am a nobody) that it would be bypassed more than read.  As this would defeat my purpose in writing it, I preferred to take it down.  There is no point in bulking up wikipedia with useless content for the sake of content.
< 
< On reflection, I realized that all of my articles and most of my comments here suffered from the same defect complained of re: the Sanity article.  In the absence of credentials, I contributed thoughts and posted them under general headings, without clearly labeling them as being of no particular consequence (to quote Larry, "why should we ''care''...?".  Well, you probably shouldn't.  However, I suffer from the peculiar conceit that I will not bother to write something down unless I wish it to receive serious consideration.  This is my problem, and no one else's.  Writing, to me, is like a kind of art.  The wikipedia context, contrary to my initial impression, is intended to reflect serious scholarship unless clearly labeled otherwise, (while avoiding academic elitism, a balance to be achieved in a manner unclear to me).  And I don't like writing "second chair."  Absent a degree, 33 years of study (reduced by a tounge-in-cheek comment to:  I read a few books) in a field which I love like life itself fails to confer the stamp of serious scholarship on my writings.  I should, instead, "admit that I don't know very much about it" and go do some real study.  I would prefer not to contribute rather than have contributions dismissed or labeled as idiosyncratic background chatter.  I try not to waste time in small talk or light chat.  Especially not in writing.  I hope y'all (if anyone reads this) don't take offense.
< 
< Larry is probably right.  Without a degree in my field of study I should not try to get people to take me seriously.  He has indicated privately to me that it is fine him if I step back and make no further contributions.
< 
< No hard feelings.  I will check in from time to time.
15a9,10
> ----
> Why thank you.  I deleted the whining above... ;^)
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985628623
22c22,23
<  
---
> 
> /Talk
------
Hobbies|985628677
7c7
< Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
---
> Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like, doing so in a way that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
------
Morals_or_Ethics/Talk|985628706
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hi Bruce, I see you're emboldened again--that's good.  I don't mean to rain on your parade, but ''this ain't an encyclopedia article.''  It might be a brilliant article, for all I know, but it isn't an encyclopedia article.  We've already discussed this.  Hence, it needs to be renamed (e.g., "Bruce Hamilton on morals vs. ethics"), reworked (so that it is an encyclopedia article), or removed. --[[LMS]]
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985628731
5c5,6
< Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. Character and custom, however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
---
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. ''Character'' and ''custom,'' however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
> 
23c24
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985628770
37a38,39
> 
> /Talk
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher/Talk|985628780
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Please see Morals or Ethics/Talk.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher/Talk|985628790
1c1
< Please see Morals or Ethics/Talk.
---
> Please see [[Morals or Ethics/Talk]].
------
Morals_or_Ethics/Talk|985628912
1c1,3
< Hi Bruce, I see you're emboldened again--that's good.  I don't mean to rain on your parade, but ''this ain't an encyclopedia article.''  It might be a brilliant article, for all I know, but it isn't an encyclopedia article.  We've already discussed this.  Hence, it needs to be renamed (e.g., "Bruce Hamilton on morals vs. ethics"), reworked (so that it is an encyclopedia article), or removed. --[[LMS]]
---
> Hi Bruce, I see you're emboldened again--that's good.  I don't mean to rain on your parade, but ''this ain't an encyclopedia article.''  It might be a brilliant article, for all I know, but it isn't an encyclopedia article.  We've already discussed this.  Hence, it needs to be renamed (e.g., "Bruce Hamilton on morals vs. ethics"), reworked (so that it is an encyclopedia article), or removed. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Fine with me.  I can't rename it of course, lacking the administrator's buttons.  How about "Essay on Morals vs Ethics" or something.  I am not interested in having my name in the title.
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher/Talk|985629060
1c1,3
< Please see [[Morals or Ethics/Talk]].
---
> Please see [[Morals or Ethics/Talk]].
> ----
> Same here.  I did not know how to go about getting this in under an approriate title which would classify it as musings, yet still make it visible.  It may not belong under philosophy at all, but I was stuck for a category in which to place it.
------
Morals_or_Ethics/Talk|985629153
3a4,5
> ----
> You can replace the text on the page with <code>#REDIRECT [[Page name]]</code>.  "Essay on Morals vs. Ethics" doesn't uniquely identify your thoughts on the subject.  What if someone else wants to write an essay on morals vs. ethics?  The title I suggested is a perfect description of the contents, I thought.  In fact, I think it would be best if you would make [[Bruce Hamilton]] and then put it in a subdirectory of that: [[Bruce Hamilton/Morals or Ethics]].  Then everyone would be happy, I dare say.  --[[LMS]]
------
Geography|985629447
2a3,4
> [[Physical geography]] -- [[Human geography]]
> 
------
Pornography|985629546
1c1
< Pornography is (speaking loosely) the explicit or graphic depiction of [[sexual behaviour]] in [[film]], novels, short stories, etc., with the goal of sexual arousal.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term [[erotica]].
---
> Pornography is (speaking loosely) the explicit depiction of [[sexual behaviour]] or sexually related imagery in [[film]], novels, short stories, magazines, etc., with the generally accepted goal of sexual arousal.  In its original meaning, the word was literally "writing about prositutes."  It evolved into writing about anything sexual, especially in a base manner, and grew to include sexually related material of all kinds, both written and graphical.  But the term pornography is often used with a negative connotation of low quality as compared to the more esteemed term [[erotica]].
------
ArthurKoestler|985629600
13a14,17
> ----
> Someone copied the text from http://www.freedomsnest.com/koestler.html and placed it above. Did that person have permission to do this?
> For an original summary of Koestler see
> http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Arthur_Koestler
------
Stamp_collecting|985629624
5a6,14
> 
> Stamp collectors collect:
> * [[postage stamp]]s
> * [[Postal Stationary]] - includes government issued post cards, [[aerogram]]s, air letter sheets, etc
> * [[revenue stamp]]s
> * Philatelic literature
> * Government issued material associated with postage stamps
> * stamp like labels
> * non-stamp items picturing postage stamps
------
Pornography|985629667
5c5
< /History
---
> /History -- [[Fetish]]
------
CountriesK|985629678
4c4,5
< * [[Kyrgyzstan]]
---
> * [[Kuwait]]
> * [[Kyrgyzstan]]
------
ArthurKoestler|985629763
3c3
< Much of Koestler's work was completely out of step with mainstream views. He did not merely arrive at different answers to common questions. Anyone can do that. Instead, Koestler answered, or tried to answer, important questions that others were not even asking. This is often a sign of true creative genius. 
---
> Much of Koestler's work was completely out of step with mainstream views. He did not merely arrive at different answers to common questions. Anyone can do that. Instead, Koestler answered, or tried to answer, important questions that others were not even asking. Some may consider this a sign of true creative genius. 
------
Morals_or_Ethics/Talk|985629829
5c5,7
< You can replace the text on the page with <code>#REDIRECT [[Page name]]</code>.  "Essay on Morals vs. Ethics" doesn't uniquely identify your thoughts on the subject.  What if someone else wants to write an essay on morals vs. ethics?  The title I suggested is a perfect description of the contents, I thought.  In fact, I think it would be best if you would make [[Bruce Hamilton]] and then put it in a subdirectory of that: [[Bruce Hamilton/Morals or Ethics]].  Then everyone would be happy, I dare say.  --[[LMS]]
---
> You can replace the text on the page with <code>#REDIRECT [[Page name]]</code>.  "Essay on Morals vs. Ethics" doesn't uniquely identify your thoughts on the subject.  What if someone else wants to write an essay on morals vs. ethics?  The title I suggested is a perfect description of the contents, I thought.  In fact, I think it would be best if you would make [[Bruce Hamilton]] and then put it in a subdirectory of that: [[Bruce Hamilton/Morals or Ethics]].  Then everyone would be happy, I dare say.  --[[LMS]]
> ----
> How about this - I make a subcategory called "commentary," so that if someone is looking for informal writing on the subject they can dive into that, and then I put my name on my article.  I cannot for the life of me imagine someone reading anything because they saw my name, thought "aha!" and followed the link.  However, by clearly labeling it commentary and placing it below the actual subject in heirarchy, we create an area where people may, if they wish, create a pool of their personal views.
------
Definition|985629937
2a3,4
> [Obviously, we need a discussion definitions from a lexicographer's point of view here as well.]
> 
7c9
< '''A bit of background: extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness'''
---
> '''Some background: extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness'''
35,39c37
< So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  But we are not even close to being done in giving a definition of "causality," because obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are lots of different kinds of relations out there -- similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on -- and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
< 
< Now suppose we did come up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
< 
< This can be clarified with another hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the Greeks we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; and the Greeks (but not us -- go with it for now) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  So the genus is animal and the species is human being.  Now we ask: what are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals don?t have?  Well, the Greeks said, it?s <i>rationality</i>.  The things that humans have that other animals don?t is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the Greeks; and so an old Greek like Aristotle would be prone to say, "Man is the rational animal."  And he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
---
> So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  Obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are many kinds of relations out there--similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on--and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.  So we might look for a [[genus-differentia definition]].
------
Bluegrass|985629944
9a10,12
> ----
> Movies about bluegrass or featuring bluegrass themes:
> * [[O Brother, Where Art Thou]]
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985629974
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (members of which are often referred to as ''[[Mormons]]''), along with the King James version of TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (members of which are often referred to as ''[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints|Mormons]]''), along with the King James version of TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou|985630080
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>O Brother, Where Art Thou</b> is a [[movie]] about a [[convict]] who escapes [[prision]] to stop his ex-wife from remarrying.  
> 
> If prominently features [[bluegrass]] music.
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985630204
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''
> 
> This can be clarified with a hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the ancient Greeks (Socrates and his successors) and modern biologists, we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; the Greeks (but not the biologists) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  The genus, then, is animal and the species is human being.  What are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals do not have?  The Greeks said it is <i>rationality</i>: the things that humans have that other animals do not is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the ancient Greeks; thus Aristotle said, "Man is the rational animal."  By this he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
------
Definition|985630264
37c37,39
< So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  Obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are many kinds of relations out there--similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on--and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.  So we might look for a [[genus-differentia definition]].
---
> So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  Obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are many kinds of relations out there--similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on--and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
> 
> Suppose we came up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.  So we might look for a [[genus-differentia definition]].
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985630297
1c1
< A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''
---
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
3c3
< This can be clarified with a hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the ancient Greeks (Socrates and his successors) and modern biologists, we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; the Greeks (but not the biologists) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  The genus, then, is animal and the species is human being.  What are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals do not have?  The Greeks said it is <i>rationality</i>: the things that humans have that other animals do not is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the ancient Greeks; thus Aristotle said, "Man is the rational animal."  By this he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
---
> This can be clarified with a hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase "human being."  Following the ancient Greeks (Socrates and his successors) and modern biologists, we say that human beings are members of a <i>species</i>.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; the Greeks (but not the biologists) would say that the genus is <i>animal</i>.  The genus, then, is animal and the species is human being.  What are the <i>differentia</i> of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals do not have?  The Greeks said it is <i>rationality</i>: the things that humans have that other animals do not is <i>rationality</i>.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the ancient Greeks; thus Aristotle said, "Man is the rational animal."  By this he meant to be giving a <i>definition</i> of "man," or of "human being."
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985630331
1c1,3
< A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
---
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  
> 
> The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
------
The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|985630356
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also commonly referred to as the "Mormons" owing to the fact as well as the King James version of the [[TheBible|Bible]] the church accepts {[[The Book of Mormon]] as scripture.
> 
> -----
> For basic beliefs: http://www.lds.org
------
Geography|985630419
2a3,4
> Geography is much more than studying maps.  It includes studying how geography affects culture, population, etc...
> 
------
The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|985630571
1c1
< The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also commonly referred to as the "Mormons" owing to the fact as well as the King James version of the [[TheBible|Bible]] the church accepts {[[The Book of Mormon]] as scripture.
---
> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also commonly referred to as the "Mormons". This nickname comes from the fact that along with the King James version of the [[TheBible|Bible]] the church accepts [[The Book of Mormon]] as scripture.
4c4
< For basic beliefs: http://www.lds.org
---
> For basic beliefs see the church's official web site: http://www.lds.org
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985630577
1,3c1
< A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which the word or concept defined is placed into a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  
< 
< The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
---
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which a word or concept which indicates a ''species''--here, simply means a specific type of item, not a biological category--is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
------
Limousine_liberal|985630604
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Limousine Liberal</b> is a [[derogatory]] term for a rich [[liberal]] person that expresses a deep concern for poor people yet does not spend any considerable portion of his/her wealth to help poor people.
> 
> 
------
The_Book_of_Mormon|985630626
1c1
< Part of the scriptural canon of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (members of which are often referred to as ''[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints|Mormons]]''), along with the King James version of TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
---
> Part of the scriptural canon of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (members of which are often referred to as ''[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormons]]''), along with the King James version of TheBible, The Doctrine and Covenants (a record of revelations received during the 19th century) and The Pearl of Great Price.
------
Flub|985630753
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Flub</b> means to make a mistake.
> 
> It usually refers to [[athletic]] games but can be used in other [[context]]s.
> 
> <b>Flubbed</b> is [[past tense]] of flub.
------
Moat_that_God_Built|985630837
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Shakespeare]]'s term for the [[English Channel]].
> 
> In other words, [[England]] is separated from [[Europe]] by
> a [[moat]].
------
Java|985630982
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Java is an [[island]] in [[Indonesia]].
> 
> [[Jawa]] is the [[Indonesian]] spelling for Java.
> ----
> Java also is a [[coffee]] produced on the island of Java.
> ----
> Java is a [[programming language]].
> 
------
Definition|985631043
35c35
< BEGIN WIKIFICATION HERE
---
> So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  Obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.
37c37
< So we can say that, taking causality as a <i>species</i>, then the <i>genus</i> of that species is relation.  Obviously we would have to know what <i>kind</i> of relation causality is.  There are many kinds of relations out there--similarity, being larger than, being warmer than, being next to, and so on--and so we need to have some way to distinguish the <i>causality</i> relation from these other kinds of relations.
---
> Suppose we came up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.  If we discover any, we can formulate a [[genus-differentia definition]].
39c39
< Suppose we came up with some properties that allowed us to distinguish causality from all those other relations.  They would be the distinguishing properties of causation.  Those distinguishing properties would be called, by the ancient Greeks, the <i>differentia</i> of the species.  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do <i>not</i> have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.  So we might look for a [[genus-differentia definition]].
---
> So if we are looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  Here is an example:
41c41
< So if we?re looking for a definition of a philosophical concept like causality, we might begin like this: "Causality is a relation that ... ."  The question then is what goes after the "that."  Now, so as not to let you die of suspense, I?ll just give you an example of a definition of causality; it may not be a good definition, in fact I?m sure it isn?t.  But it?s a plausible attempt.  So here it is:
---
> :<i>Causality</i> is a [[relation]] that holds between [[event]]s, where the first event (called the <i>[[cause]]</i>) precedes the second (called the <i>[[effect]]</i>), and where events <i>like</i> the first are <i>[[Hume on constant conjunction|consistently followed]]</i> by events like the second.
43c43
< <i>Causality</i> is a relation that holds between events, where the first event (called the <i>cause</i>) precedes the second (called the <i>effect</i>), and where events <i>like</i> the first are <i>consistently</i> <i>followed</i> by events like the second.
---
> (Something like this definition was offered by the Scottish philosopher [[David Hume]].)
45c45
< So when we say there?s a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling; and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils, so that sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  So we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it?s a relation that holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  So, according to this definition, those three rather complex properties together make up the differentia of the species causality.
---
> So when we say there is a causal relation between heat and water boiling, we say: the heating came before the boiling, and whenever water is heated sufficiently, then it boils.  So sufficient heating is always, or consistently, followed by boiling.  In this case, we can say that causality has a rather complex differentia: it holds between events; moreover, the first event precedes the second; and finally, events like the first are consistently followed by events like the second.  According to this definition, those three rather complex properties together are the differentia of the species ''causality.''
47c47
< This is, in fact, a rather crude attempt at a definition of "causality."  But it should give you an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we?re looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.  The whole point of going into all this stuff about causality is to give you an example about how you might formulate an intensional definition of a philosophical concept.
---
> This is only a crude attempt at a definition of 'causality'.  But it does provide an example of the <i>sort</i> of thing that we are looking for in a definition of a philosophical concept.
49,65c49
< All right, we now have one last topic to discuss, and that is the way that definitions can go wrong.  Just as arguments can go wrong in various ways (remember, we called those <i>fallacies</i>), definitions too can go wrong in various ways.  So I am simply going to list five ways that definitions in philosophy can be inadequate.  Bear in mind I am saying this is how definitions can go wrong <i>in</i> <i>philosophy</i>.  For <i>other</i> purposes the following definitions may be fine.
< 
< First, a definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose I define the word "virtue" -- an important word in ethics -- just using the word "excellence."  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues, but the word "excellence" by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  If this isn?t just obvious to you, consider this.  Suppose you are asking me for enlightenment on what virtue is; you know how the word "virtue" is used in English, but you don?t really understand the basic nature of virtue.  Then I tell you: "virtue" means "excellence."  Now what is stopping you from asking, "But what does ?excellence? mean?"  Surely, if you?ve got a basic philosophical confusion about what "virtue" means, then you?ve <i>also</i> got a basic philosophical confusion about what "excellence" means.  If you?re confused about one then you?re confused about the other; so it won?t do to define one simply by stating the other!
< 
< The second sort of error is closely related to the first.  A definition is no good in philosophy if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose I define "beautiful" as "possessing aesthetic value."  The words "beautiful" and "aesthetic" are very nearly the same in meaning; so if I?m deeply confused, or curious, about beauty, then I am of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  And it is totally unenlightening to be told that what is beautiful possesses aesthetic value.  We already knew <i>that</i>.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, or all objects that have aesthetic value.  Here?s another example: suppose I define "good" as "possessing valuable characteristics."  "Good" and "valuable" are near synonyms, so it won?t do to define "good" using the term "valuable."  Again, if we?re confused about goodness, we are no doubt also confused about what?s valuable -- about <i>what</i> <i>characteristics</i> <i>are</i> in general valuable.
< 
< There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: in either case we may say that the definition offered is <i>circular</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.  I think you can already see, then, that giving a good definition of philosophical terms is going to be very difficult, if we?re going to avoid giving a <i>circular</i> definition.
< 
< Anyway, on to the third sort of error that definitions are prone to.  They can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose I define "bachelor" as "unmarried male."  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of <i>other</i> things besides bachelors: for example, male dogs, and male babies.  Those are unmarried males but they aren?t bachelors.  So definitions should not be too broad, and a definition is too broad if (and you can treat this as a definition of the words "too broad") it applies to things that are not part of the extension of the word defined.
< 
< The fourth sort of error is complementary to the third: they can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to.  In other words, they don?t describe some members of the word?s extension.  Here?s an example of a narrow definition: "piece of furniture" means "object that is used to sit on."  The trouble with this definition is that some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for exaple, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like "used to put feet up on" or "used to put household objects on," for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger -- that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word "furniture" to describe.
< 
< Let me give you examples of definitions that are too broad, and too narrow, in <i>philosophy</i>.  Suppose I defined "causality" as "relation where one thing precedes another thing."  This is way too broad.  All sorts of things precede other things without causing them.  For example, the sinking of the Titanic preceded the Vietnam War, but the sinking of the Titanic certainly did not cause the Vietnam War.  So "relation where one thing precedes another thing" applies to all sorts of relations that aren?t <i>causal</i> relations.
< 
< Now here?s a philosophical definition that is too <i>narrow</i>.  "Right action" means "telling the truth."  Surely, telling the truth is almost always right.  But right actions very often don?t involve telling the truth at all.  For example, it is right for me to pay back my debts; but when I do this I am not telling the truth; I can pay back debts, and so do something right, without saying anything at all.  So a definition of "right action" as "telling the truth" is way too narrow; the definition is going to have to include a lot more than just truth-telling.
< 
< That brings us to the fifth and final way definitions can go wrong: they can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose I defined "love" as "the insensible quivering of the soul."  This is absolute nonsense, and totally useless as a definition in philosophy, however nice it might be in poetry (although I doubt it).  Given a definition like this one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would I recognize it?  Is my soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on.  I?m sure you get the idea.  Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom you?re giving the definition.
---
> See also [[fallacies of definition]].
------
Larrys_Text|985631092
7c7
< ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] -- [[affirming the consequent]] -- [[definition]] -- [[extension]] -- [[intension]] -- [[ambiguity]] -- [[vagueness]]
---
> ::[[college logic]] -- [[argument]] -- [[logical fallacy]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[good argument]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]] -- [[modus tollens]] -- [[disjunctive syllogism]] -- [[affirming the consequent]] -- [[definition]] -- [[extension]] -- [[intension]] -- [[ambiguity]] -- [[vagueness]] -- [[genus-differentia definition]] -- [[fallacies of definition]]
------
Indonesia|985631099
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A country located southeast of [[Thailand]] and north of [[Australia]].
> 
> Indonesia is th fourth largest country in population after [[China]], [[India]], and the [[United States]].
> 
> 
------
Logical_fallacy|985631121
28a29,30
> 
> See also [[fallacies of definition]].
------
Indonesia|985631189
1c1
< A country located southeast of [[Thailand]] and north of [[Australia]].
---
> A country located in Asia, southeast of [[Thailand]] and north of [[Australia]].
3c3
< Indonesia is th fourth largest country in population after [[China]], [[India]], and the [[United States]].
---
> Indonesia is the fourth largest country in population after [[China]], [[India]], and the [[United States]].
------
Rifle|985631351
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A rifle is a gun with a grooved [[barrel]] about three feet long.
> 
> It is called 'rifle' because the inside of the barrel has spiral grooves.   These grooves cause the [[bullet]] to spin and result in more accuracy.  This is known as rifleing.
> 
------
Mormons|985631394
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
------
LALR|985631414
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>LALR</b> is an [[acroynm]] for <b>Look Ahead Left Reduce</b>.
------
Logical_fallacy|985631480
1c1,3
< A ''fallacy'' is a way that an [[argument]] can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  This page should eventually list various types of fallacy--a popular sport of debaters and logic text authors--but just to introduce the notion of a logical fallacy, a few examples should suffice.  There are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloguing fallacies, and [[traditional logic]] texts typically list a few dozen.
---
> A ''fallacy'' is a way that an [[argument]] can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  
> 
> This page should eventually list various types of fallacy--a popular sport of debaters and logic text authors--but just to introduce the notion of a logical fallacy, a few examples should suffice.  There are zillions of other fallacies.  Whole books have been written cataloguing fallacies, and [[traditional logic]] texts typically list a few dozen.
30c32
< See also [[fallacies of definition]].
---
> See also [[fallacies of definition]].
------
Definition|985631605
1a2,5
> ----
> Definition also is used to refer to the degree of detail in 
> a graphic image, piece of artwork, or any other object.
> ----
------
Republic_of_Texas|985631734
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Texas Declaration of Independence]] was enacted at [[Washington-on-the-Brazos]] on March 2, 1836, effectively creating the Republic of Texas.
> 
> The [[Battle of San Jacinto]] was fought on April 21, 1836, near the present city of [[Houston]]. [[Santa Anna]]'s entire force of 1,600 men was killed or captured by Gen. [[Sam Houston]]'s army of 800 [[Texan]]s; only nine [[Texan]]s died. This decisive battle resulted in [[Texas]]' [[independence]] from [[Mexico]].
> 
> [[Sam Houston]], a native of [[Virginia]], was [[President of the Republic of Texas]] for two separate terms, 1836-1838 and 1841-1844. He also was [[Governor of the state of Texas]] from 1859 to 1861.
> 
> The first [[Congress of the Republic of Texas]] convened October 1836 at [[Columbia Texas|Columbia]] (now [[West Columbia Texas|West Columbia]]).
> 
> [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]], known as the "[[Father of Texas]]," died Dec. 27, 1836, after serving two months as [[Secretary of State]] for the new Republic.
> 
> In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of [[Texas]] ([[Washington-on-the-Brazos]], [[Harrisburg Texas|Harrisburg]], [[Galveston Texas|Galveston]], [[Velasco Texas|Velasco]] and [[Columbia Texas|Columbia]]) before [[Sam Houston]] moved the capital to [[Houston]] in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to the new town of [[Austin]].
> 
> The Republic of Texas was annexed to the [[United States]] as the 28th state on Dec. 29, 1845.
> 
> Republic of Texas Patriots
> *[[Sam Houston]]
> *[[David Crockett]]
> *[[Jim Bowie]]
> *[[William B. Travis]]
> *[[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]
> *[[Albert Sidney Johnson]]
> *[[Edwin Burleson]]
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985631774
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> General Albert Sidney Johnson (b. February 2, 1803 – d. April 6, 1862) was a [[Kentucky]] native and in 1826 graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point]], [[New York|NY]]. As a [[United States Army|US Army]] officer, he was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]]. He served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in 1832. After resigning his [[United States Army|US Army]] commission in 1834, he returned to [[Kentucky]] to care for his dying wife.
> 
> He moved to [[Texas]] in July of 1836 and enlisted in [[The Republic of Texas Army|The Republic Army]]. One month later he was appointed to the position of [[Adjutant General]] and in January of 1837, he became Senior [[Brigadier General]] in Command of [[The Republic of Texas Army|the Republic Army]]. The Second President of The [[Republic of Texas]] [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] appointed him [[Secretary of War]] in December of 1838. In 1840, he returned to [[Kentucky]] and married [[Eliza Griffin]] in 1843. They settled in [[China Grove]], [[Texas|TX]] on his large [[plantation]] and lived there until 1849.
>  
> During the [[Mexican War]], he commanded a company of [[Texas]] volunteers. Later as a Colonel in the [[United States Army]], he served on the [[Texas]] frontier and in the West. At the outbreak of [[the Civil War]], he resigned from the [[United States Army|US Army]] and was appointed a [[Confederate General]] by [[President of the Confederate States of America]] [[Jefferson Davis]]. 
> 
> He was killed at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] in 1862 and was buried in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana|LA]]. In 1866, a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the state [[cemetery]] in [[Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in 1867).  Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite.
> 
> He is considered a [[Texas Patriot]] and a [[Confederate Hero]]
> .
> The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a [[historical marker]] near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]].  An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the ]]United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985631822
3c3
< He moved to [[Texas]] in July of 1836 and enlisted in [[The Republic of Texas Army|The Republic Army]]. One month later he was appointed to the position of [[Adjutant General]] and in January of 1837, he became Senior [[Brigadier General]] in Command of [[The Republic of Texas Army|the Republic Army]]. The Second President of The [[Republic of Texas]] [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] appointed him [[Secretary of War]] in December of 1838. In 1840, he returned to [[Kentucky]] and married [[Eliza Griffin]] in 1843. They settled in [[China Grove]], [[Texas|TX]] on his large [[plantation]] and lived there until 1849.
---
> He moved to [[Texas]] in July of 1836 and enlisted in [[The Republic of Texas Army|The Republic Army]]. One month later he was appointed to the position of [[Adjutant General]] and in January of 1837, he became Senior [[Brigadier General]] in Command of [[The Republic of Texas Army|the Republic Army]]. The Second [[President of the Republic of Texas]] [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] appointed him [[Secretary of War]] in December of 1838. In 1840, he returned to [[Kentucky]] and married [[Eliza Griffin]] in 1843. They settled in [[China Grove]], [[Texas|TX]] on his large [[plantation]] and lived there until 1849.
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985631853
5c5
< During the [[Mexican War]], he commanded a company of [[Texas]] volunteers. Later as a Colonel in the [[United States Army]], he served on the [[Texas]] frontier and in the West. At the outbreak of [[the Civil War]], he resigned from the [[United States Army|US Army]] and was appointed a [[Confederate General]] by [[President of the Confederate States of America]] [[Jefferson Davis]]. 
---
> During the [[Mexican War]], he commanded a company of [[Texas Volunteers]]. Later as a Colonel in the [[United States Army]], he served on the [[Texas]] frontier and in the West. At the outbreak of [[the Civil War]], he resigned from the [[United States Army|US Army]] and was appointed a [[Confederate General]] by [[President of the Confederate States of America]] [[Jefferson Davis]]. 
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985631868
5c5
< During the [[Mexican War]], he commanded a company of [[Texas Volunteers]]. Later as a Colonel in the [[United States Army]], he served on the [[Texas]] frontier and in the West. At the outbreak of [[the Civil War]], he resigned from the [[United States Army|US Army]] and was appointed a [[Confederate General]] by [[President of the Confederate States of America]] [[Jefferson Davis]]. 
---
> During the [[Mexican War]], he commanded a company of [[Texas Volunteers]]. Later as a [[Colonel]] in the [[United States Army]], he served on the [[Texas]] frontier and in the West. At the outbreak of [[the Civil War]], he resigned from the [[United States Army|US Army]] and was appointed a [[Confederate General]] by [[President of the Confederate States of America]] [[Jefferson Davis]]. 
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985631870
0a1,4
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which a word or concept is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  ''Differentia'' are characteristics that separate one from another.
> 
> It is usually used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.
> ----
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985631923
9,11c9,11
< He is considered a [[Texas Patriot]] and a [[Confederate Hero]]
< .
< The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a [[historical marker]] near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]].  An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the ]]United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].
---
> He is considered a [[Texas Patriot]] and a [[Confederate Hero]].
> 
> The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a [[historical marker]] near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]].  An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].
------
Republic_of_Texas|985631959
0a1,2
> A short lived country roughly corresponding to the present day state of [[Texas]] in the [[United States]].
> 
22c24
< *[[Edwin Burleson]]
---
> *[[Edwin Burleson]]
------
Fallacies_of_definition|985632124
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Definitions can go wrong in various ways; for convenience one can refer to these as ''fallacies of definition'' (by analogy with the [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]]).  This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in [[college logic]] courses.
> 
> '''[[circular definition|Circularity]]: defining with a synonym.'''  A definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word synonym.  For example, suppose we define the word 'virtue'--an important word in [[ethics]]--just using the word 'excellence'.  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues (that was perhaps an ancient Greek view; see ''[[arete]]''), but the word 'excellence' by itself is <i>not</i> a good definition of "virtue," in philosophy.  One can always simply ask, "But what does 'excellence' mean?"  Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what 'virtue' means, then one will <i>also</i> have a basic philosophical confusion about what 'excellence' means.  So it will not do to define one simply by stating the other.
> 
> '''Circularity: defining with a near synonym.'''  A definition is no good if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose we define 'beautiful' as 'possessing aesthetic value'.  The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then she is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, ''or'' all objects that have aesthetic value.
> 
> There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: <i>[[circular definition]]</i>.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a question-begging argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.
> 
> '''Over-broad definitions.''' Definitions can be <i>too</i> <i>broad</i>.  Suppose we define 'bachelor' as 'unmarried male'.  On first glance this might look all right, but it applies to a lot of things, for example, male dogs, and male babies, that, needless to say, are not bachelors.  A definition is too broad if it applies to things that are not part of the [[extension]] of the word defined.
> 
> '''Over-narrow definitions.'''  Definitions can be <i>too</i> <i>narrow</i>.  That is, they can <i>exclude</i> some things that they <i>should</i> apply to; they fail to describe some members of the word's [[extension]].  Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of furniture' means 'object used to sit on'.  Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like tables) or we put our feet on them (like footstools), and so forth.  So even though <i>some</i> pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not <i>all</i> furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger--that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe.  We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since laundry lists of characteristics strung together by 'or' are generally regarded by philosophers as not describing a unitary concept.
> 
> '''Obscurity.'''  Definitions can go wrong by using ambiguous, obscure, or figurative language.  Suppose we defined 'love' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'.  This is useless.  Given a definition like this, one has the right to ask: but <i>what</i> <i>is</i> the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would we recognize it?  Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on. Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom one is giving the definition.  See [[jargon]].
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985632492
1c1
< A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which a word or concept is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  ''Differentia'' are characteristics that separate one from another.
---
> A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which a word or concept that indicates a ''species''--a specific type of item, not necessarily a biological category--is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' then distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentia of a species are the species' properties that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  In short, the genus is the broad category, the species is a type within that category, and the differentia are the distinguishing characteristics of the species.
3,5c3
< It is usually used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.
< ----
< A ''genus-differentia'' [[definition]] is one in which a word or concept which indicates a ''species''--here, simply means a specific type of item, not a biological category--is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' and distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentia of a species are the properties that the species has, and that <i>other</i> members of the genus do not have.  So the differentia of a species are the <i>distinguishing</i> <i>characteristics</i> of the species.
---
> Under the "genus" and "species" description, this sort of definition is often used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.  See also [[genus]] and [[species]].
7a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
Genus-differentia_definition/Talk|985632570
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I recommend avoiding the habit of putting up competing versions of text side-by-side.  This is messy.  If you feel a need to discuss (as opposed to editing text so that it's more to your liking), do so on a /Talk page. --[[LMS]]
------
Genus-differentia_definition|985632704
3c3
< Under the "genus" and "species" description, this sort of definition is often used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.  See also [[genus]] and [[species]].
---
> Under the "genus" and "species" description, this sort of definition is used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.  See also [[genus]] and [[species]] and [[Linnaean taxonomy]].
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Nancy_Reagan|985632726
1c1,2
< A former US [[first lady]] - wife of [[Ronald Reagan]].
---
> A former US [[first lady]]; second wife of [[Ronald Reagan]].  Remembered for conservative fashions emulated by many women of the time, for championing the "Just Say No" campaign against juvenile drug use, and for her personal use of [[astrology]].
> 
------
Italy|985632774
6c6
< The capital is Roma (Rome); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
---
> The capital is [[Roma]] ([[Rome]]); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|985632836
14a15,16
> ----
> Q: When linking to city or town names, especially with names where there may be another city or town with the same name and spelling in another state or country (i.e., Paris, France and Paris, Texas), what type of convention might we use?  I understand that Paris, France would stand alone as [[Paris]] because it is a city of note.  But, might we use [[Paris Texas|Paris]], Texas to specify this particular town in Texas?  -- [[Invictus]] 
------
Definition|985632877
1,5c1
< Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) a brief account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].
< ----
< Definition also is used to refer to the degree of detail in 
< a graphic image, piece of artwork, or any other object.
< ----
---
> Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) a brief account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].  See also [[definition in graphic arts]].
------
Definition_in_graphic_arts|985632890
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Definition is used to refer to the degree of detail in a graphic image, piece of artwork, or any other object.
------
Canada|985633062
14c14
< <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.</i>
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000, plus some editing and updates. Not completely Wikified.</i>
------
Canada/Geography|985633264
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b> Northern [[North America]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]] and North [[Pacific Ocean]], north of the conterminous [[US]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b> 60 00 N, 95 00 W
> 
> <b>Map references:</b> North America
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 9,976,140 sq km
> * <i>land:</i> 9,220,970 sq km
> * <i>water:</i> 755,170 sq km
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b> slightly larger than the US
> 
> <b>Land boundaries:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 8,893 km
> * <i>border countries:</i> US 8,893 km (includes 2,477 km with Alaska)
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b> 243,791 km
> 
> <b>Maritime claims:</b>
> * <i>contiguous zone:</i> 24 nm
> * <i>continental shelf:</i> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> * <i>exclusive economic zone:</i> 200 nm
> * <i>territorial sea:</i> 12 nm
> 
> <b>Climate:</b> varies from temperate in south to subarctic and arctic in north
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b> mostly plains with mountains in west and lowlands in southeast
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> * <i>highest point:</i> [[Mount Logan]] 5,959 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b> iron ore, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, potash, silver, fish, timber, wildlife, coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower
> 
> <b>Land use:</b>
> * <i>arable land:</i> 5%
> * <i>permanent crops:</i> 0%
> * <i>permanent pastures:</i> 3%
> * <i>forests and woodland:</i> 54%
> * <i>other:</i> 38% (1993 est.)
> 
> <b>Irrigated land:</b> 7,100 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b> continuous permafrost in north is a serious obstacle to development; cyclonic storms form east of the [[Rocky Mountains]], a result of the mixing of air masses from the [[Arctic]], Pacific, and North American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and snow
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b> air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affecting lakes and damaging forests; metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impacting on agricultural and forest productivity; ocean waters becoming contaminated due to agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities
> 
> <b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> * <i>party to:</i> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> * <i>signed, but not ratified:</i> Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b> second-largest country in world (after [[Russia]]); strategic location between Russia and US via north polar route; nearly 90% of the population is concentrated within 160 km of the US-Canada border
------
HomePage|985633301
12a13,14
> :[[Commentary]] (essays and other non-encyclopedic content)
> 
------
Commentary|985633552
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also [[Wikipedia commentary]].
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985633655
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some people are itching to place essay-type material on Wikipedia.  Who are we to stop them?  So upload your essays here.  But please, follow '''the Wikipedia commentary area rule''':
> :Name your essay either as a subpage of the commentary page, [[/Like this]], or as a subpage of your personal home page, [[Larry Sanger/Like this]].  Expect essays named according to any other convention to be renamed appropriately.  We simply must not run the risk of people mistaking commentary for encyclopedia content.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985633694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here I am free to wax eloquent about whatever subject I would like to blather on about.  Ain't wikis great?
------
Rome|985633746
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rome is the capital city of [[Italy]].  It is located on the [[Tiber River]], in the central part of the country near the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. [[Vatican City]], most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the [[papacy]] of the [[Roman Catholic church]].
------
Larry_Sanger/Like_this|985633774
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Perhaps I want to make it absolutely clear who the author of this essay is.  Then I would follow the convention of making my essays subpages of my personal home page.
> 
> I just hope there aren't any Wikipedia contributors named "George Washington."
------
HomePage|985633869
13,14d12
< :[[Commentary]] (essays and other non-encyclopedic content)
< 
39c37,39
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> Some people have felt impelled to upload their essays to the [[Wikipedia commentary]] area.
> ----
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Canada/People|985633927
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b> 31,281,092 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Age structure:</b> 
> * <i>0-14 years:</i>19% (male 3,077,994; female 2,932,821)
> * <i>15-64 years:</i> 68% (male 10,714,305; female 10,591,494)
> * <i>65 years and over:</i> 13% (male 1,683,704; female 2,280,774) (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Population growth rate:</b> 1.02% (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Birth rate:</b> 11.41 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Death rate:</b> 7.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Net migration rate:</b> 6.2 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Sex ratio:</b>
> * <i>at birth:</i> 1.05 male(s)/female
> * <i>under 15 years:</i> 1.05 male(s)/female
> * <i>15-64 years:</i> 1.01 male(s)/female
> * <i>65 years and over:</i> 0.74 male(s)/female
> * <i>total population:</i> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Infant mortality rate:</b> 5.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> * <i>total population:</i> 79.43 years
> * <i>male:</i> 76.02 years
> * <i>female:</i>83 years (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Total fertility rate:</b> 1.64 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Nationality:</b>
> * <i>noun:</i> Canadian(s)
> * <i>adjective:</i> Canadian
> 
> <b>Ethnic groups:</b> [[British Isles]] origin 28%, [[French]] origin 23%, other European 15%, [[Amerindian]] 2%, other, mostly [[Asian]], [[African]], [[Arab]] 6%, mixed background 26%
> 
> <b>[[Religion]]s:</b> [[Roman Catholicism/Roman Catholic]] 42%, [[Protestantism/Protestant]] 40%, other 18%
> 
> <b>[[Language]]s:</b> [[English]] 59.3% (official), [[French]] 23.2% (official), other 17.5%
> 
> <b>Literacy:</b>
> * <i>definition:</i> age 15 and over can read and write
> * <i>total population:</i> 97% (1986 est.)
> * <i>male:</i> NA%
> * <i>female:</i> NA%
------
Canada/Government|985633976
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> * <i>conventional long form:</i> none
> * <i>conventional short form:</i> Canada
> 
> <b>Data code:</b> CA
> 
> <b>[[Government]] type:</b> [[confederation]] with [[Paliamentary democracy/parliamentary democracy]]
> 
> <b>Capital:</b> [[Ottawa]]
> 
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces|provinces]] and 3 [[/Territories|territories*; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
> 
> <b>Independence:</b> 1 July 1867 (from UK)
> 
> <b>National holiday:</b> Canada Day, 1 July (1867)
> 
> <b>[[/Constitution|Constitution]]:</b> 17 April 1982 (Constitution Act); originally, the machinery of the government was set up in the [[British North America Act]] of 1867; charter of rights and unwritten customs
> 
> <b>Legal system:</b> based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> 
> <b>[[Suffrage]]:</b> 18 years of age; universal
> 
> <b>Executive branch:</b>
> * <i>chief of state:</i> [[Elizabeth II|Queen ELIZABETH II]] (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Adrienne CLARKSON (since 7 October 1999)
> * <i>head of government:</i> Prime Minister Jean CHRETIEN (since 4 November 1993)
> * <i>cabinet:</i> Federal Ministry chosen by the prime minister from among the members of his own party sitting in Parliament
> * <i>elections:</i> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister for a five-year term; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is automatically designated by the governor general to become prime minister
> 
> <b>Legislative branch:</b> bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (a body whose members are appointed to serve until reaching 75 years of age by the governor general and selected on the advice of the prime minister; its normal limit is 104 senators) and the House of Commons or Chambre des Communes (301 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> * <i>elections:</i> House of Commons - last held November 27 2000
> * <i>election results:</i> percent of vote by party - Liberal Party 40.9%, Canadian Alliance Party 25.2%, Progressive Conservative Party 12.3%, Bloc Quebecois 10.8%, New Democratic Party 8.5%, other 2.2%; seats by party - Liberal Party 173, Canadian Alliance Party 66, Bloc Quebecois 37, New Democratic Party 13, Progressive Conservative Party 12
> * <i>note:</i> seats by party as of January 2001 - Liberal Party 172, Canadian Alliance Party 66, Bloc Quebecois 38, New Democratic Party 13, Progressive Conservative Party 12
> 
> <b>Judicial branch:</b> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the prime minister through the governor general
> 
> <b>Political parties and leaders:</b> Bloc Quebecois [Gilles DUCEPPE]; Liberal Party [Jean CHRETIEN]; New Democratic Party [Alexa MCDONOUGH]; Progressive Conservative Party [Joe CLARK]; Canadian Alliance Party [Preston MANNING]
> 
> <b>International organization participation:</b> ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> 
> <b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> * <i>chief of mission:</i> Ambassador Raymond A. J. CHRETIEN
> * <i>chancery:</i> 501 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20001
> * <i>telephone:</i> [1] (202) 682-1740
> * <i>FAX:</i> [1] (202) 682-7726
> * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> Atlanta, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, New York, and Seattle
> * <i>consulate(s):</i> Miami, Princeton, San Francisco, and San Jose
> 
> <b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> * <i>chief of mission:</i> Ambassador Gordon D. GIFFIN
> * <i>embassy:</i> 100 Wellington Street, K1P 5T1, Ottawa
> * <i>mailing address:</i> P. O. Box 5000, Ogdensburg, NY 13669-0430
> * <i>telephone:</i> [1] (613) 238-5335, 4470
> * <i>FAX:</i> [1] (613) 238-5720
> * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> Calgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec, Toronto, and Vancouver
> 
> <b>Flag description:</b> three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square), and red with a red maple leaf centered in the white band
------
ArthurKoestler|985633982
1d0
< Arthur Koestler was a twentieth century novelist, political activist, and a social philosopher. 
3,15c2
< Much of Koestler's work was completely out of step with mainstream views. He did not merely arrive at different answers to common questions. Anyone can do that. Instead, Koestler answered, or tried to answer, important questions that others were not even asking. Some may consider this a sign of true creative genius. 
< 
< The result of this originality is a uneven set of ideas and conclusions. Some of his ideas can be appreciated as brilliant, as his work on creativity. Some ideas challenge us to readjust our thinking in order to grasp their importance. And other ideas are just nonsense. But taken as a whole, they are well worth serious consideration. 
< 
< * Books by Arthur Koestler
<  /TheActofCreation
<  /TheSleepwalkers
<  /TheGhostintheMachine
<  /TheGodThatFailed
<  /DarknessatNoon
< 
< ----
< Someone copied the text from http://www.freedomsnest.com/koestler.html and placed it above. Did that person have permission to do this?
---
> Someone copied the text formerly placed above from http://www.freedomsnest.com/koestler.html . Did that person have permission to do this?  We don't know, so we have removed it.
------
Rome|985634019
1c1,3
< Rome is the capital city of [[Italy]].  It is located on the [[Tiber River]], in the central part of the country near the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. [[Vatican City]], most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the [[papacy]] of the [[Roman Catholic church]].
---
> Rome is the capital city of [[Italy]].  It is located on the [[Tiber River]], in the central part of the country near the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. [[Vatican City]], most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the [[papacy]] of the [[Roman Catholic church]].
> 
> Rome was the seat of the [[Roman Republic]], and the [[Roman Empire]].
------
Canada/Economy|985634035
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b> As an affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the US in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. Since [[World War II]], the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. Real rates of growth have averaged nearly 3.0% since 1993. Unemployment is falling and government budget surpluses are being partially devoted to reducing the large public sector debt. The 1989 US-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) have touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the US. With its great natural resources, skilled labor force, and modern capital plant Canada enjoys solid economic prospects. Two shadows loom, the first being the continuing constitutional impasse between English- and French-speaking areas, which has been raising the possibility of a split in the federation. Another long-term concern is the flow south to the US of professional persons lured by higher pay, lower taxes, and the immense high-tech infrastructure.
> 
> <b>GDP:</b> purchasing power parity - $722.3 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - real growth rate:</b> 3.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - per capita:</b> purchasing power parity - $23,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> * <i>agriculture:</i> 3%
> * <i>industry:</i> 31%
> * <i>services:</i> 66% (1998)
> 
> <b>Population below poverty line:</b> NA%
> 
> <b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> * <i>lowest 10%:</i> 2.8%
> * <i>highest 10%:</i> 23.8% (1994)
> 
> <b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b> 1.7% (1999)
> 
> <b>Labor force:</b> 15.9 million (1999)
> 
> <b>Labor force - by occupation:</b> services 75%, manufacturing 16%, construction 5%, agriculture 3%, other 1% (1997)
> 
> <b>Unemployment rate:</b> 7.6% (1999)
> 
> <b>Budget:</b>
> * <i>revenues:</i> $121.8 billion
> * <i>expenditures:</i> $115.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.7 billion (1998)
> 
> <b>Industries:</b> processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper products, transportation equipment, chemicals, fish products, petroleum and natural gas
> 
> <b>Industrial production growth rate:</b> 4.3% (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Electricity - production:</b> 550.852 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> * <i>fossil fuel:</i> 27.18%
> * <i>hydro:</i> 59.77%
> * <i>nuclear:</i> 12.25%
> * <i>other:</i> 0.8% (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - consumption:</b> 484.515 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - exports:</b> 39.502 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Electricity - imports:</b> 11.725 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> <b>Agriculture - products:</b> wheat, barley, oilseed, tobacco, fruits, vegetables; dairy products; forest products; fish
> 
> <b>Exports:</b> $277 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Exports - commodities:</b> motor vehicles and parts, newsprint, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, machinery, natural gas, aluminum, telecommunications equipment, electricity
> 
> <b>Exports - partners:</b> US 84%, Japan 3%, UK, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, China (1998)
> 
> <b>Imports:</b> $259.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Imports - commodities:</b> machinery and equipment, crude oil, chemicals, motor vehicles and parts, durable consumer goods, electricity
> 
> <b>Imports - partners:</b> US 77%, Japan 3%, UK, Germany, France, Mexico, Taiwan, South Korea (1998)
> 
> <b>Debt - external:</b> $253 billion (1996)
> 
> <b>Economic aid - donor:</b> ODA, $2.1 billion (1997)
> 
> <b>Currency:</b> 1 Canadian dollar (Can$) = 100 cents
> 
> <b>Exchange rates:</b> Canadian dollars (Can$) per US$1 - 1.4489 (January 2000), 1.4857 (1999), 1.4835 (1998), 1.3846 (1997), 1.3635 (1996), 1.3724 (1995)
> 
> <b>Fiscal year:</b> 1 April - 31 March
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985634048
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Another one who has caught the Wikipedia bug.
> 
> Welcome! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Canada/Communications|985634067
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b> 18.5 million (1999)
> 
> <b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b> 3 million (1999)
> 
> <b>Telephone system:</b> excellent service provided by modern technology
> * <i>domestic:</i> domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations
> * <i>international:</i> 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean) and 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)
> 
> <b>Radio broadcast stations:</b> AM 535, FM 53, shortwave 6 (1998)
> <b>Radios:</b> 32.3 million (1997)
> <b>Television broadcast stations:</b> 80 (plus many repeaters) (1997)
> <b>Televisions:</b> 21.5 million (1997)
> <b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b> 750 (1999 est.)
------
Philosophical_issues_and_problems|985634110
1,6c1
< [[Morals or Ethics]]
< 
< Casually related issues:
<   '''Informal use of logic:'''
<   InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
< 
---
> Somebody ought to write a systematic list of philosophical issues and problems here!
------
Canada/Communications|985634118
9a10
> 
10a12
> 
11a14
> 
13c16,17
< <b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b> 750 (1999 est.)
---
> 
> <b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b> 750 (1999 est.)
------
Canada/Transportation|985634149
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> b>Railways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 36,114 km; note - there are two major transcontinental freight railway systems: Canadian National (privatized November 1995) and Canadian Pacific Railway; passenger service provided by government-operated firm VIA, which has no trackage of its own
> * <i>standard gauge:</i> 36,114 km 1.435-m gauge (156 km electrified) (1998)
> 
> <b>Highways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 901,902 km
> * <i>paved:</i> 318,371 km (including 16,571 km of expressways)
> * <i>unpaved:</i> 583,531 km (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Waterways:</b> 3,000 km, including Saint Lawrence Seaway
> 
> <b>Pipelines:</b> crude and refined oil 23,564 km; natural gas 74,980 km
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b> Becancour (Quebec), Churchill, Halifax, Hamilton, Montreal, New Westminster, Prince Rupert, Quebec, Saint John (New Brunswick), St. John's (Newfoundland), Sept Isles, Sydney, Trois-Rivieres, Thunder Bay, Toronto, Vancouver, Windsor
> 
> <b>Merchant marine:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 114 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,602,275 GRT/2,371,146 DWT
> * <i>ships by type:</i> barge carrier 1, bulk 61, cargo 11, chemical tanker 5, combination bulk 2, passenger 3, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 16, rail car carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> * <i>note:</i> does not include ships used exclusively in the Great Lakes (1998 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports:</b> 1,411 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 515
> * <i>over 3,047 m:</i> 16
> * <i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i> 17
> * <i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 152
> * <i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 240
> * <i>under 914 m:</i> 90 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 896
> * <i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 73
> * <i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 362
> * <i>under 914 m:</i> 461 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Heliports:</b> 15 (1999 est.)
------
Canada/Transportation|985634181
1c1
< b>Railways:</b>
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
37c37
< <b>Heliports:</b> 15 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Heliports:</b> 15 (1999 est.)
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|985634205
16c16,20
< Q: When linking to city or town names, especially with names where there may be another city or town with the same name and spelling in another state or country (i.e., Paris, France and Paris, Texas), what type of convention might we use?  I understand that Paris, France would stand alone as [[Paris]] because it is a city of note.  But, might we use [[Paris Texas|Paris]], Texas to specify this particular town in Texas?  -- [[Invictus]] 
---
> Q: When linking to city or town names, especially with names where there may be another city or town with the same name and spelling in another state or country (i.e., Paris, France and Paris, Texas), what type of convention might we use?  I understand that Paris, France would stand alone as [[Paris]] because it is a city of note.  But, might we use [[Paris Texas|Paris]], Texas to specify this particular town in Texas?  -- [[Invictus]] 
> 
> ----
> I think "least surprize" should be the guiding principle here.  This implies several things: first, that disambiguating pages should list things in the likely order of significance.  For example, the "Paris" page should have links to the French city, the Texas city, and the mythological figure, in that order.  Second, when one mentions a subject in another page, it should link directly to the <i>most specific</i> page.  For example, the "Macbeth" link on the Orson Welles page should link directly to a page specific to his movie, not to the play or other movies or to the disambiguating page.  The text of the link, however, should be whatever makes sense in context; i.e., in a list of Welles' works, the link text should just be "Macbeth", but its destination should be "Macbeth (Orson Welles film)"  (Let's get those parentesized titles working!).  Similarly, if one is writing about Helen of Troy, the name "Paris" should appear unadorned to make the text read smoothly, but it should be linked directly to "Paris (mythological figure)".  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Canada/Military|985634215
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b> Canadian Forces (includes Land Forces Command or LC, Maritime Command or MC, Air Command or AC, Communications Command or CC, Training Command or TC), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
> 
> <b>Military manpower - military age:</b> 17 years of age
> 
> <b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> * <i>males age 15-49:</i> 8,282,846 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> * <i>males age 15-49:</i> 7,086,335 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> * <i>males:</i> 212,701 (2000 est.)
> 
> <b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b> $7.4 billion (FY97/98)
> 
> <b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b> 1.2% (FY97/98)
> 
------
PortlandOregon|985634227
1c1
< The largest city in the StatE of OregoN and the 26th largest city in the [[United States]].
---
> The largest city in the [[state]] of [[Oregon]] and the 26th largest city in the [[United States]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634266
5c5,7
< <td>CountriesA</td>
---
> <td>CountriesA :[[Aden]]
> :AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antarctica]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
> </td>
------
PortlandOregon|985634268
1,3c1
< The largest city in the [[state]] of [[Oregon]] and the 26th largest city in the [[United States]].
< 
< Portland has a population of 503,637 (est. 1999)
---
> #Redirect [[Portland Oregon]]
------
Canada/Transnational_Issues|985634278
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> maritime boundary disputes with the US (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island)
> 
> <b>Illicit drugs:</b> illicit producer of [[Cannabis|cannabis]] for the domestic drug market; use of hydroponics technology permits growers to plant large quantities of high-quality [[Marijuana|marijuana]] indoors; growing role as a transit point for heroin and cocaine entering the US market
------
Portland_Oregon|985634279
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest city in the [[state]] of [[Oregon]] and the 26th largest city in the [[United States]].
> 
> Portland has a population of 503,637 (est. 1999)
------
ArthurKoestler|985634282
1d0
< 
3,4c2
< For an original summary of Koestler see
< http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Arthur_Koestler
---
> For an original summary of Koestler see [[Arthur_Koestler]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634296
5,6c5,6
< <td>CountriesA :[[Aden]]
< :AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antarctica]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td>CountriesA
> <br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antarctica]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634375
8c8,10
< <td>CountriesJ</td>
---
> <td>CountriesJ
> <br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
> </td>
------
PortlandOregon|985634394
1c1
< #Redirect [[Portland Oregon]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Portland Oregon]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634433
11a12
> <br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
------
Oregon|985634435
11c11
< Other cities in Oregon include:  PortlandOregon, SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
---
> Other cities in Oregon include:  [[Portland Oregon]], SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
------
Oregon|985634475
11,12c11,12
< Other cities in Oregon include:  [[Portland Oregon]], SalemOregon, EugeneOregon,
< AstoriaOregon, BeavertonOregon, LakeOswegoOregon, and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
---
> Other cities in Oregon include:  [[Portland Oregon]], [[Salem Oregon]], [[Eugene Oregon]],
> [[Astoria Oregon]], [[Beaverton Oregon]], [[LakeOswego Oregon]], and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634475
11c11
< <td>CountriesS</td>
---
> <td>CountriesS
13c13
< </tr>
---
> </td></tr>
------
Countries_of_the_world|985634524
37d36
< <td>CountriesX</td>
------
Oregon|985634571
8c8
< OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
---
> OregoCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
12c12
< [[Astoria Oregon]], [[Beaverton Oregon]], [[LakeOswego Oregon]], and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
---
> [[Astoria Oregon]], [[Beaverton Oregon]], [[Lake Oswego Oregon]], [[Bend Oregon]], [[Baker City Oregon]], [[Klamath Falls Oregon]] and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
------
Italy|985634578
1,2c1,2
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of Europe. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
< Mediterranean Sea: one is Sicily and the other is Sardinia.
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of [[Europe]]. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
> [[Mediterranean Sea]]: one is [[Sicily]] and the other is [[Sardinia]].
4c4
< It is one of the countries that uses EuroCurrency.
---
> It is one of the countries that uses [[Euro currency]].
8c8
< Italy has won the FootBall WorldCup three (3) times: 1934, 1938 and 1982. Some of world's best FootBall teams come from Italy. The latter include Milan AC, Inter Milano FC, AS Roma, Lazio (also from Rome), Juventus (from Torino) and Fiorentina (from Florence).
---
> Italy has won the [[Football WorldCup]] three (3) times: 1934, 1938 and 1982. Some of world's best [[Football]] teams come from Italy. The latter include Milan AC, Inter Milano FC, AS Roma, Lazio (also from Rome), Juventus (from Torino) and Fiorentina (from Florence).
10,11c10,11
< Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the leaning tower of Pisa.
< Pisa is a beautiful small town in Tuscany, and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
---
> Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the [[leaning tower of Pisa]].
> Pisa is a beautiful small town in [[Tuscany]], and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
------
Oregon|985634581
8c8
< OregoCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
---
> OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
------
Oregon|985634603
8c8
< OregonCityOregon was the site of the first public library established west
---
> [[Oregon City Oregon]] was the site of the first public library established west
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985634755
1c1,3
< Here I am free to wax eloquent about whatever subject I would like to blather on about.  Ain't wikis great?
---
> Here I am free to wax eloquent about whatever subject I would like to blather on about.  Ain't wikis great?
> ----
> Wish I'd've known about this convention last week. [[Invictus|Grant]]
------
Canada/Government|985634765
11c11
< <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces|provinces]] and 3 [[/Territories|territories*; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
---
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces|provinces]] and 3 [[/Territories|territories*]]; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
17c17
< <b>[[/Constitution|Constitution]]:</b> 17 April 1982 (Constitution Act); originally, the machinery of the government was set up in the [[British North America Act]] of 1867; charter of rights and unwritten customs
---
> <b>[[/Constitution|Constitution]]:</b> 17 April 1982 ([[Canadian Constitution Act|Constitution Act]]); originally, the machinery of the government was set up in the [[British North America Act]] of 1867; charter of rights and unwritten customs
------
Oregon|985634876
16,27c16,20
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of NativeAmerican tribes, including the BannockPeople, ChinookPeople, 
< KlamathPeople, and NezPercePeople.  JamesCook explored the coast in 1778 in search of the NorthwestPassage.
< LewisAndClark travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the LouisianaPurchase, at the
< direction of ThomasJefferson.  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in WashingtoN.
< 
< Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign
< sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes.  AstoriaOregon was established by 
< representatives of JohnJacobAstor's AmericanFurCompany in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
< 
< The OregonTrail infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the [[United States]] sought to wrest
< control of the area from GreatBritain.  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was
< set at the 49th parallel.
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  [[Lewis and Clark]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in [[Washington]].
> 
> Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes. [[Astoria Oregon]] was established by representatives of [[John Jacob Astor]]'s [[American Fur Company]] in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
> 
> The [[Oregon Trail]] infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the [[United States]] sought to wrest control of the area from [[Great Britain]].  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was set at the 49th parallel.
31,44c24,28
< Industrial expansion began with ernest following the construction of the BonnevilleDam in 1943 on the ColumbiaRiver.
< The power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon have helped fuel the development of the west, and the periodic 
< fluctuations in the nation's building industry has severely impacted the state's economy on multiple occasions.
< 
< The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, 
< English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas,
< loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or
< outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay,
< pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
< 
< These controversies have served to keep the citizens of the state well engaged and aware of the consequences of their
< actions.  They have little fear of testing out new ideas, and often lead the nation in innovative policies and laws,
< yet at the same time pay great attention to the side effects and negatives these changes can have, and adjust as
< required.
---
> Industrial expansion began in ernest following the construction of the [[Bonneville Dam]] in 1943 on the [[Columbia River]]. The power, food, and lumber provided by Oregon have helped fuel the development of the west, and the periodic fluctuations in the nation's building industry has severely impacted the state's economy on multiple occasions.
> 
> The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas, loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay, pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
> 
> These controversies have served to keep the citizens of the state well engaged and aware of the consequences of their actions.  They have little fear of testing out new ideas, and often lead the nation in innovative policies and laws, yet at the same time pay great attention to the side effects and negatives these changes can have, and adjust as required.
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|985634915
20c20,21
< 
---
> ----
> I don't think the principle of "least surprise" implies that we should make [[Paris]] a links page.  I think it implies that we should make [[Paris]] about Paris, France, and also, on that page, include links to [[Paris, Texas]] and wherever else.  Bear in mind, though, that pretty soon we're going to be able to use parentheses in titles, and all of this will be moot (thank god). --[[LMS]]
------
Lewis_and_Clark|985634961
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Merriwether Lewis and William Clark
------
Canada/Military|985634984
1c1
< <b>Military branches:</b> Canadian Forces (includes Land Forces Command or LC, Maritime Command or MC, Air Command or AC, Communications Command or CC, Training Command or TC), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b> [[Canadian Forces]] (includes [[Canadian Land Forces Command|Land Forces Command]] or [[Canadian Land Forces Command|LC]], [[Canadian Maritime Command|Maritime Command]] or [[Canadian Maritime Command|MC]], [[Canadian Air Command|Air Command]] or [[Canadian Air Command|AC]], [[Canadian Communications Command|Communications Command]] or [[Canadian Communications Command|CC]], [[Canadian Training Command|Training Command]] or [[Canadian Training Command|TC]]), [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] ([[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]])
------
Oregon|985635026
16c16
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  [[Lewis and Clark]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in [[Washington]].
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in [[Washington]].
------
Canada/People|985635074
33c33
< * <i>noun:</i> Canadian(s)
---
> * <i>noun:</i> [[Canadian]](s)
36c36
< <b>Ethnic groups:</b> [[British Isles]] origin 28%, [[French]] origin 23%, other European 15%, [[Amerindian]] 2%, other, mostly [[Asian]], [[African]], [[Arab]] 6%, mixed background 26%
---
> <b>Ethnic groups:</b> [[British Isles]] origin 28%, [[French]] origin 23%, other [[European]] 15%, [[Amerindian]] 2%, other, mostly [[Asian]], [[African]], [[Arab]] 6%, mixed background 26%
46c46
< * <i>female:</i> NA%
---
> * <i>female:</i> NA%
------
Oregon|985635101
16c16
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort in [[Washington]].
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]].
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985635138
1c1
< Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark]] expedition and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
---
> Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
------
Canadian_Constitution_Act|985635147
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 can be found [http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/Canada/canada.cn|here].
------
Bluegrass|985635161
3c3
< Bluegrass is a relatively new form of [[folk music]], with direct roots in the much older tradition of [[American old-time music]], which in turn has roots in the [[Irish traditional music]] and [[Scottish traditional music]] of immigrants from the British Isles (particularly the [[Scotch-Irish immigrants]] of Appalachia).  Bluegrass songs are played with each melody instrument switching off playing the melody each time through, while the others revert to backup; this is in contrast to old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together, when indeed they are playing together rather than solo.
---
> Bluegrass is a relatively new form of [[folk music]], with direct roots in the much older tradition of [[American old-time music]], which in turn has roots in the [[Irish traditional music]] and [[Scottish traditional music]] of immigrants from the [[British Isles]] (particularly the [[Scotch-Irish immigrants]] of [[Appalachia]]).  Bluegrass songs are played with each melody instrument switching off playing the melody each time through, while the others revert to backup; this is in contrast to old-time music, in which all instruments play the melody together, when indeed they are playing together rather than solo.
9a10
> * [[Doc Watson]]
------
Canadian_Constitution_Act|985635176
1c1
< The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 can be found [http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/Canada/canada.cn|here].
---
> The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 can be found [http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/Canada/canada.cn here].
------
Canadian_Constitution_Act|985635215
1a2,3
> 
> See [[Canada]].
------
Louis_and_Clark_Expedition|985635271
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United State]]'s claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
------
Canada/Government|985635330
11c11
< <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces|provinces]] and 3 [[/Territories|territories*]]; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
---
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces_and_territories|provinces]] and 3 [[/Provinces_and_territoriesTerritories|territories*]]; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
------
Countries_of_the_world|985635394
6c6
< <br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antarctica]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Texas_Declaration_of_Independence|985635561
1c1,123
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Unanimous
> Declaration of Independence
> made by the
> Delegates of the People of Texas
> in General Convention
> at the town of Washington
> on the 2nd day of March 1836. 
> 
> 
> When a government has ceased to protect the lives, liberty and property of the people, from whom its legitimate powers are derived, and for the advancement of whose happiness it was instituted, and so far from being a guarantee for the enjoyment of those inestimable and inalienable rights, becomes an instrument in the hands of evil rulers for their oppression. 
> 
> When the Federal Republican Constitution of their country, which they have sworn to support, no longer has a substantial existence, and the whole nature of their government has been forcibly changed, without their consent, from a restricted federative republic, composed of sovereign states, to a consolidated central military despotism, in which every interest is disregarded but that of the army and the priesthood, both the eternal enemies of civil liberty, the everready minions of power, and the usual instruments of tyrants. 
> 
> When, long after the spirit of the constitution has departed, moderation is at length so far lost by those in power, that even the semblance of freedom is removed, and the forms themselves of the constitution discontinued, and so far from their petitions and remonstrances being regarded, the agents who bear them are thrown into dungeons, and mercenary armies sent forth to force a new government upon them at the point of the bayonet. 
> 
> When, in consequence of such acts of malfeasance and abdication on the part of the government, anarchy prevails, and civil society is dissolved into its original elements. In such a crisis, the first law of nature, the right of self-preservation, the inherent and inalienable rights of the people to appeal to first principles, and take their political affairs into their own hands in extreme cases, enjoins it as a right towards themselves, and a sacred obligation to their posterity, to abolish such government, and create another in its stead, calculated to rescue them from impending dangers, and to secure their future welfare and happiness. 
> 
> Nations, as well as individuals, are amenable for their acts to the public opinion of mankind. A statement of a part of our grievances is therefore submitted to an impartial world, in justification of the hazardous but unavoidable step now taken, of severing our political connection with the Mexican people, and assuming an independent attitude among the nations of the earth. 
> 
> The Mexican government, by its colonization laws, invited and induced the Anglo-American population of Texas to colonize its wilderness under the pledged faith of a written constitution, that they should continue to enjoy that constitutional liberty and republican government to which they had been habituated in the land of their birth, the United States of America. 
> 
> In this expectation they have been cruelly disappointed, inasmuch as the Mexican nation has acquiesced in the late changes made in the government by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who having overturned the constitution of his country, now offers us the cruel alternative, either to abandon our homes, acquired by so many privations, or submit to the most intolerable of all tyranny, the combined despotism of the sword and the priesthood. 
> 
> It has sacrificed our welfare to the state of Coahuila, by which our interests have been continually depressed through a jealous and partial course of legislation, carried on at a far distant seat of government, by a hostile majority, in an unknown tongue, and this too, notwithstanding we have petitioned in the humblest terms for the establishment of a separate state government, and have, in accordance with the provisions of the national constitution, presented to the general Congress a republican constitution, which was, without just cause, contemptuously rejected. 
> 
> It incarcerated in a dungeon, for a long time, one of our citizens, for no other cause but a zealous endeavor to procure the acceptance of our constitution, and the establishment of a state government. 
> 
> It has failed and refused to secure, on a firm basis, the right of trial by jury, that palladium of civil liberty, and only safe guarantee for the life, liberty, and property of the citizen. 
> 
> It has failed to establish any public system of education, although possessed of almost boundless resources, (the public domain,) and although it is an axiom in political science, that unless a people are educated and enlightened, it is idle to expect the continuance of civil liberty, or the capacity for self government. 
> 
> It has suffered the military commandants, stationed among us, to exercise arbitrary acts of oppression and tyrrany, thus trampling upon the most sacred rights of the citizens, and rendering the military superior to the civil power. 
> 
> It has dissolved, by force of arms, the state Congress of Coahuila and Texas, and obliged our representatives to fly for their lives from the seat of government, thus depriving us of the fundamental political right of representation. 
> 
> It has demanded the surrender of a number of our citizens, and ordered military detachments to seize and carry them into the Interior for trial, in contempt of the civil authorities, and in defiance of the laws and the constitution. 
> 
> It has made piratical attacks upon our commerce, by commissioning foreign desperadoes, and authorizing them to seize our vessels, and convey the property of our citizens to far distant ports for confiscation. 
> 
> It denies us the right of worshipping the Almighty according to the dictates of our own conscience, by the support of a national religion, calculated to promote the temporal interest of its human functionaries, rather than the glory of the true and living God. 
> 
> It has demanded us to deliver up our arms, which are essential to our defence, the rightful property of freemen, and formidable only to tyrannical governments. 
> 
> It has invaded our country both by sea and by land, with intent to lay waste our territory, and drive us from our homes; and has now a large mercenary army advancing, to carry on against us a war of extermination. 
> 
> It has, through its emissaries, incited the merciless savage, with the tomahawk and scalping knife, to massacre the inhabitants of our defenseless frontiers. 
> 
> It hath been, during the whole time of our connection with it, the contemptible sport and victim of successive military revolutions, and hath continually exhibited every characteristic of a weak, corrupt, and tyrranical government. 
> 
> These, and other grievances, were patiently borne by the people of Texas, untill they reached that point at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. We then took up arms in defence of the national constitution. We appealed to our Mexican brethren for assistance. Our appeal has been made in vain. Though months have elapsed, no sympathetic response has yet been heard from the Interior. We are, therefore, forced to the melancholy conclusion, that the Mexican people have acquiesced in the destruction of their liberty, and the substitution therfor of a military government; that they are unfit to be free, and incapable of self government. 
> 
> The necessity of self-preservation, therefore, now decrees our eternal political separation. 
> 
> We, therefore, the delegates with plenary powers of the people of Texas, in solemn convention assembled, appealing to a candid world for the necessities of our condition, do hereby resolve and declare, that our political connection with the Mexican nation has forever ended, and that the people of Texas do now constitute a free, Sovereign, and independent republic, and are fully invested with all the rights and attributes which properly belong to independent nations; and, conscious of the rectitude of our intentions, we fearlessly and confidently commit the issue to the decision of the Supreme arbiter of the destinies of nations. 
>  
> Richard Ellis, President
> of the Convention and Delegate
> from Red River. 
>  
> Charles B. Stewart
> Tho. Barnett
> John S. D. Byrom
> Francis Ruis
> J. Antonio Navarro
> Jesse B. Badgett
> Wm D. Lacy
> William Menifee
> Jn. Fisher
> Matthew Caldwell
> William Motley
> Lorenzo de Zavala
> Stephen H. Everett
> George W. Smyth
> Elijah Stapp
> Claiborne West
> Wm. B. Scates
> M. B. Menard
> A. B. Hardin
> J. W. Burton
> Thos. J. Gazley
> R. M. Coleman
> Sterling C. Robertson
> James Collinsworth
> Edwin Waller
> Asa Brigham
> Geo. C. Childress
> Bailey Hardeman
> Rob. Potter
> Thomas Jefferson Rusk
> Chas. S. Taylor
> John S. Roberts
> Robert Hamilton
> Collin McKinney
> Albert H. Latimer
> James Power
> Sam Houston
> David Thomas
> Edwd. Conrad 
> Martin Palmer
> Edwin O. Legrand
> Stephen W. Blount
> Jms. Gaines
> Wm. Clark, Jr.
> Sydney O. Pennington
> Wm. Carrol Crawford
> Jno. Turner
> Benj. Briggs Goodrich
> G. W. Barnett
> James G. Swisher
> Jesse Grimes
> S. Rhoads Fisher
> John W. Moore
> John W. Bower
> Saml. A. Maverick (from Bejar)
> Sam P. Carson
> A. Briscoe
> J. B. Woods
> H. S. Kimble, Secretary
> 
> 
> 
> 
>  
------
Punch_magazine|985635608
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Punch, or The London Charivari</i> 
> 
> A British weekly magazine founded in 1841 by [[Henry Mayhew]] and a wood engraver named Ebenezer Landells. The magazine was intended to be humorous and satirical, and to signify this intent, took as its name and masthead figure the anarchic glove puppet,[[Punch and Judy|Mr. Punch]]. (The `London Charivari' in the name was a reference to the French humorous magazine, <i>Le Charivari</i>)
> 
> Notable authors who contributed at one time or another included [[John Betjeman]], [[A.A. Milne]], [[Anthony Powell]] and [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]]; [[John Tenniel]] was a regular political cartoonist in the late 19th century.
> 
> Circulation slowly declined over the years, until the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years. However, in early 1996, the controversial businessman, [[Mohammed El-Fayed]] bought the rights to the name, and it was relaunched later that year.
------
Henry_Mayhew|985635666
3c3
< English journalist, one of the founders, and in the early days a co-editor, of the humorous magazine [[Punch Magazine|Punch]]
---
> English journalist, one of the founders, and in the early days a co-editor, of the humorous magazine [[Punch magazine|Punch]]
------
Canada/Government|985635666
11c11
< <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces_and_territories|provinces]] and 3 [[/Provinces_and_territoriesTerritories|territories*]]; Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory*
---
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces_and_territories|provinces]] and 3 [[/Provinces_and_territoriesTerritories|territories*]]; [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Northwest Territories]]*, [[Nova Scotia]], [[Nunavut]]*, [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Yukon Territory]]*
15c15
< <b>National holiday:</b> Canada Day, 1 July (1867)
---
> <b>National holiday:</b> [[Canada Day]], 1 July (1867)
19c19
< <b>Legal system:</b> based on English common law, except in Quebec, where civil law system based on French law prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
---
> <b>Legal system:</b> based on [[English common law]], except in Quebec, where a [[civil law]] system based on [[French law]] prevails; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
31c31
< * <i>election results:</i> percent of vote by party - Liberal Party 40.9%, Canadian Alliance Party 25.2%, Progressive Conservative Party 12.3%, Bloc Quebecois 10.8%, New Democratic Party 8.5%, other 2.2%; seats by party - Liberal Party 173, Canadian Alliance Party 66, Bloc Quebecois 37, New Democratic Party 13, Progressive Conservative Party 12
---
> * <i>election results:</i> percent of vote by party - [[Canadian Liberal Party|Liberal Party]] 40.9%, [[Canadian Alliance Party]] 25.2%, [[Canadian Progressive Conservative Party|Progressive Conservative Party]] 12.3%, [[Bloc Quebecois]] 10.8%, [[Canadian New Democratic Party|New Democratic Party]] 8.5%, other 2.2%; seats by party - Liberal Party 173, Canadian Alliance Party 66, Bloc Quebecois 37, New Democratic Party 13, Progressive Conservative Party 12
45,46c45,46
< * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> Atlanta, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, New York, and Seattle
< * <i>consulate(s):</i> Miami, Princeton, San Francisco, and San Jose
---
> * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> [[Atlanta]], [[Boston]], [[Buffalo]], [[Chicago]], [[Dallas]], [[Detroit]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Minneapolis]], [[New York City|New York]], and [[Seattle]]
> * <i>consulate(s):</i> [[Miami]], [[Princeton]], [[San Francisco]], and [[San Jose]]
54c54
< * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> Calgary, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec, Toronto, and Vancouver
---
> * <i>consulate(s) general:</i> [[Calgary]], [[Halifax]], [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Toronto]], and [[Vancouver]]
------
States_in_Medieval_Britain|985635671
52a53
> *[[Norfolk]]
53a55
> *[[East Anglia]]
98a101,103
> *[[Strathclyde]]
> *[[Lothian]]
> *[[Cumbria]]
101a107,112
> *[[Alban]]
> *[[Moray]]
> *[[Caithness]]
> *[[Mar]]
> *[[Argyll]]
> *[[Fortriu]]
105c116
< *[[Gaelgadil-something]]
---
> *[[Gaell-Gaedhill]] (Galloway)
106a118,120
> *[[Earldom of Orkney]]
> *[[Kingdom of Man]]
> *[[Cumbria]]
------
Canada/Provinces_and_territories|985635752
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Canada]] consists of ten [[province]]s and three territories.
> 
> <b>Provinces:</b>
> * [[Alberta]]
> * [[British Columbia]]
> * [[Manitoba]]
> * [[New Brunswick]]
> * [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland - Labrador]]
> * [[Nova Scotia]]
> * [[Ontario]]
> * [[Prince Edward Island]]
> * [[Quebec]]
> * [[Saskatchewan]]
> 
> <b>Territories:</b>
> * Northwest Terriories
> * Nunavut
> * Yukon
------
Quebec|985635833
1c1
< Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the FrenchLanguage. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
---
> Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the [[French Language]]. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
------
Quebec|985635864
1c1
< Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the [[French Language]]. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
---
> Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the [[French language]]. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
------
GrouP|985636409
1c1
< #REDIRECT MathematicalGrouP
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mathematical Group]]
------
AtlasShrugged/DAnconiaCopper|985636451
1,4c1
< A copper and mining company founded by /SebastianDAnconia in /Argentina during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, it to increase the size of the company by 100%.
< 
< D'Anconia Copper is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/DAnconia Copper]]
------
NYC|985636531
1c1
< see [[New York City]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[New York City]]
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985636645
0a1,8
> Stephen Gilbert...
> 
> * has a BA with a major in Communication Studies
> * is somewhat of an intellectual jack-of-all-trades
> * is Canada (you might notice the rapid increase of Canadian content)
> * finds this place facinating
> --------------------
> 
3c11,15
< Welcome! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Welcome! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> -------------------
> 
> Thanks! Happy to be here. It's strangely addictive, you know...
------
Albert_Sidney_Johnson|985636755
1c1
< General Albert Sidney Johnson (b. February 2, 1803 – d. April 6, 1862) was a [[Kentucky]] native and in 1826 graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point]], [[New York|NY]]. As a [[United States Army|US Army]] officer, he was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]]. He served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in 1832. After resigning his [[United States Army|US Army]] commission in 1834, he returned to [[Kentucky]] to care for his dying wife.
---
> General Albert Sidney Johnson (b. February 2, 1803 – d. April 6, 1862) was a [[Kentucky]] native and in 1826 graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[WestPoint, NY]]. As a [[United States Army|US Army]] officer, he was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]]. He served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in 1832. After resigning his [[United States Army|US Army]] commission in 1834, he returned to [[Kentucky]] to care for his dying wife.
3c3
< He moved to [[Texas]] in July of 1836 and enlisted in [[The Republic of Texas Army|The Republic Army]]. One month later he was appointed to the position of [[Adjutant General]] and in January of 1837, he became Senior [[Brigadier General]] in Command of [[The Republic of Texas Army|the Republic Army]]. The Second [[President of the Republic of Texas]] [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] appointed him [[Secretary of War]] in December of 1838. In 1840, he returned to [[Kentucky]] and married [[Eliza Griffin]] in 1843. They settled in [[China Grove]], [[Texas|TX]] on his large [[plantation]] and lived there until 1849.
---
> He moved to [[Texas]] in July of 1836 and enlisted in [[The Republic of Texas Army|The Republic Army]]. One month later he was appointed to the position of [[Adjutant General]] and in January of 1837, he became Senior [[Brigadier General]] in Command of [[The Republic of Texas Army|the Republic Army]]. The Second [[President of the Republic of Texas]] [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] appointed him [[Secretary of War]] in December of 1838. In 1840, he returned to [[Kentucky]] and married [[Eliza Griffin]] in 1843. They settled in [[China Grove, TX]] on his large [[plantation]] and lived there until 1849.
7c7
< He was killed at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] in 1862 and was buried in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana|LA]]. In 1866, a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the state [[cemetery]] in [[Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in 1867).  Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite.
---
> He was killed at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] in 1862 and was buried in [[New Orleans, LA]]. In 1866, a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the state [[cemetery]] in [[Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in 1867).  Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite.
11c11
< The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a [[historical marker]] near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]].  An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].
---
> The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a [[historical marker]] near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]].  An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].
------
Republic_of_Texas|985636805
9c9
< The first [[Congress of the Republic of Texas]] convened October 1836 at [[Columbia Texas|Columbia]] (now [[West Columbia Texas|West Columbia]]).
---
> The first [[Congress of the Republic of Texas]] convened October 1836 at [[Columbia, Texas|Columbia]] (now [[West Columbia, Texas|West Columbia]]).
13c13
< In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of [[Texas]] ([[Washington-on-the-Brazos]], [[Harrisburg Texas|Harrisburg]], [[Galveston Texas|Galveston]], [[Velasco Texas|Velasco]] and [[Columbia Texas|Columbia]]) before [[Sam Houston]] moved the capital to [[Houston]] in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to the new town of [[Austin]].
---
> In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of [[Texas]] ([[Washington-on-the-Brazos]], [[Harrisburg, Texas|Harrisburg]], [[Galveston Texas|Galveston]], [[Velasco, Texas|Velasco]] and [[Columbia, Texas|Columbia]]) before [[Sam Houston]] moved the capital to [[Houston]] in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to the new town of [[Austin]].
------
TheBible|985636917
1,15c1
< I DefinitionofBibleTerms
< 
< (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew/Aramaic vs Greek/Latin, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
< ----
< II DescriptionOfTheBible
< 
< (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book.  BooksOfTheBible)
< ----
< III BibleHistory
< 
< (modern reconstruction of composition of Hebrew Bible; of Christian Bible; don't try to explicate development of biblical criticism that underlies this here but cross-reference to article(s) to be written; try fairly to represent main stands of liberal vs conservative thought; outline history of transmission and translation after close of canons)
< ----
< IV BiblicalInterpretation
< 
< (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations)
---
> #REDIRECT Bible
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|985636927
1c1
< A street in downtown New York.  In /SectioN111 [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] walks down Fifth Avenue on his way to the Taggart Transcontinental building.
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Fifth Avenue]]
------
Bible|985636952
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I DefinitionofBibleTerms
> 
> (what is 'the Bible' [Hebrew/Aramaic vs Greek/Latin, Jewish vs Christian, Orthodox vs. Western, Catholic vs Protestant]; canon; apochrypha, pseudepigrapha)
> ----
> II DescriptionOfTheBible
> 
> (Hebrew Bible divided into 3 sections, Law, Prophets, Writings; Christian Bible divided into 2 parts (Old and New) with some subdivision not so clearly defined/recognised; what is in each part and section; summary of contents of each section, part, book.  BooksOfTheBible)
> ----
> III BibleHistory
> 
> (modern reconstruction of composition of Hebrew Bible; of Christian Bible; don't try to explicate development of biblical criticism that underlies this here but cross-reference to article(s) to be written; try fairly to represent main stands of liberal vs conservative thought; outline history of transmission and translation after close of canons)
> ----
> IV BiblicalInterpretation
> 
> (Jewish, Christian, Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, mediaeval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations)
------
AtlasShrugged/FifthAvenue|985636965
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Atlas Shrugged/Fifth Avenue]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Fifth Avenue]]
------
Set_Theory|985637036
44c44
< Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A SeT is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
---
> Sets are one of the base concepts of mathematics.  A [[Set|set]] is, more or less, just a collection of objects, called its elements.  Standard notation uses braces around the list of elements, as in:
183c183
< Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
---
> Nothing much seems to be happening on this page!
------
Bible|985637095
15a16,17
> ----
> Visit [http://bible.gospelcom.net/ The Bible Gateway] for various online translations of the Bible.
------
CIA_World_Factbook|985637357
2c2,4
< annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].
---
> annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. 
> 
> A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].  You (yes <i>you</i>) are encouraged to pick a country and following the model of [[Angola]], copy the information into the Wikipedia and start editing it.  See [[CountriesOfTheWorld]].
------
Rifle|985637406
1c1
< A rifle is a gun with a grooved [[barrel]] about three feet long.
---
> A rifle is a [[gun]] with a grooved [[barrel]] about three feet long.
------
Gun|985637503
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A gun is a machine for emitting projectiles at high velocity.  (Yes, that's an absurd definition, please change it!)
> 
> 
> Common types of civilian guns:
> 
> :[[long guns]]
> ::[[rifle]]
> ::[[shotgun]]
> 
> [[handguns]]
> ::[[revolver]]
> ::[[pistol]]
> 
------
Angola/Geography|985637679
55,56d54
< 
< [[Angola|Back to Angola]]
------
Canada/People|985637745
38c38
< <b>[[Religion]]s:</b> [[Roman Catholicism/Roman Catholic]] 42%, [[Protestantism/Protestant]] 40%, other 18%
---
> <b>[[Religion]]s:</b> [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 42%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 40%, other 18%
------
Aberdeen|985637962
229c229
< recreation; there is here a rifle range where a ``wapinschaw,'' 
---
> recreation; there is here a [[rifle]] range where a ``[[wapinschaw]],'' 
------
Aristotle|985638034
1c1
< Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who live from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
Morals_or_Ethics/Talk|985638036
7a8,9
> ----
> OK, I made a [[Wikipedia commentary]] page, which is linked from the HomePage.  I also made a rule which I will try to enforce :-) : essay-type stuff should be titled either [[Wikipedia commentary/Like this]] or as a subpage of the author's page: [[Larry Sanger/Like this]]. --[[LMS]]
------
Angola|985638065
4d3
< 
6d4
< 
8d5
< 
10d6
< 
12d7
< 
14d8
< 
16d9
< 
18,19c11
< 
< * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
---
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985638107
3c3,5
< Wish I'd've known about this convention last week. [[Invictus|Grant]]
---
> Wish I'd've known about this convention last week. [[Invictus|Grant]]
> ----
> It didn't exist last week.  :-)
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985638275
2c2,4
< :Name your essay either as a subpage of the commentary page, [[/Like this]], or as a subpage of your personal home page, [[Larry Sanger/Like this]].  Expect essays named according to any other convention to be renamed appropriately.  We simply must not run the risk of people mistaking commentary for encyclopedia content.
---
> :Name your essay either as a subpage of the commentary page, [[/Like this]], or as a subpage of your personal home page, [[Larry Sanger/Like this]].  Expect essays named according to any other convention to be renamed appropriately.  We simply must not run the risk of people mistaking commentary for encyclopedia content.
> 
> [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985638343
4c4
< [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985638364
3a4,5
> '''The commentary'''
> 
------
Aristotle|985638478
1c1
< Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential Philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
Countries_of_the_world|985638799
5,6c5
< <td>CountriesA
< <br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>A</b><br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
8,9c7
< <td>CountriesJ
< <br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>J</b><br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
11,12c9
< <td>CountriesS
< <br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>S</b><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
55c52
< See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]].
---
> See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
------
Countries_of_the_world|985638865
5c5
< <td><font size=+2>A</b><br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
7c7
< <td><font size=+2>J</b><br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
9c9
< <td><font size=+2>S</b><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
------
CountriesB|985638971
1,18c1
< * [[Bahrain]]
< * [[Bangladesh]]
< * [[Barbados]]
< * [[Belgium]]
< * [[Belize]]
< * [[Benin]]
< * [[Bhutan]]
< * [[Bermuda]]
< * [[Bolivia]]
< * [[Bosnia]]
< * [[Botswana]]
< * [[Brazil]]
< * [[British Indian Ocean Territories]]
< * [[Brunei]]
< * [[Bulgaria]]
< * [[Bulshire]] - kingdom within [[India]]
< * [[Burkina Faso]] - formerly Upper Volta
< * [[Burundi]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985639010
12c12,13
< <td>CountriesB</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Bahrain]] [[Bangladesh]] [[Barbados]] [[Belgium]] [[Belize]] [[Benin]] [[Bhutan]] [[Bermuda]] [[Bolivia]] [[Bosnia]] [[Botswana]] [[Brazil]] [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] [[Brunei]] [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) [[Burundi]]
> </td>
------
Countries_of_the_world|985639018
12c12
< <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Bahrain]] [[Bangladesh]] [[Barbados]] [[Belgium]] [[Belize]] [[Benin]] [[Bhutan]] [[Bermuda]] [[Bolivia]] [[Bosnia]] [[Botswana]] [[Brazil]] [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] [[Brunei]] [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) [[Burundi]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] [[Bangladesh]] [[Barbados]] [[Belgium]] [[Belize]] [[Benin]] [[Bhutan]] [[Bermuda]] [[Bolivia]] [[Bosnia]] [[Botswana]] [[Brazil]] [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] [[Brunei]] [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) [[Burundi]]
------
CountriesA|985639411
1,19c1
< Some of these need to be moved to [[Free Links]] pages.
< 
< :[[Aden]]
< :AfghanistaN
< :AlbaniA 
< :[[Algeria]]
< :[[American Samoa]]
< :[[Andorra]]
< :[[Angola]]
< :[[Anguilla]] 
< :[[Antarctica]] 
< :[[Antigua And Barbuda]] 
< :[[Argentina]]
< :[[Armenia]] 
< :[[Aruba]]
< :[[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] 
< :[[Australia]]
< :[[Austria]]
< :[[Azerbaijan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesJ|985639432
1,5c1
< * [[Jamaica]]
< 
< * [[Japan]]
< 
< * [[Jordan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesS|985639449
1,27c1
< * [[Saudi Arabia]]
< 
< * [[Sierra Leone]]
< 
< * [[Slovakia]]
< 
< * [[Slovenia]]
< 
< * [[Somalia]]
< 
< * [[South Africa]]
< 
< * [[Spain]]
< 
< * [[Sri Lanka]]
< 
< * [[Sudan]]
< 
< * [[Surinam]]
< 
< * [[Swaziland]]
< 
< * [[Sweden]]
< 
< * [[Switzerland]]
< 
< * [[Syria]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985639564
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage!
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
------
Countries_of_the_world|985639573
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
------
CIA_World_Factbook|985639596
4c4
< A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].  You (yes <i>you</i>) are encouraged to pick a country and following the model of [[Angola]], copy the information into the Wikipedia and start editing it.  See [[CountriesOfTheWorld]].
---
> A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].  You (yes <i>you</i>) are encouraged to pick a country and following the model of [[Angola]], copy the information into the Wikipedia and start editing it.  See [[countries of the world]].
------
Pacific_Ocean|985639785
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world's seven [[ocean]]s. It was named by the famous [[Portuguese]] explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]].
------
Indian_Ocean|985640004
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The world's third largest [[ocean]].
------
Pacific_Ocean|985640086
1c1
< The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world's seven [[ocean]]s. It was named by the famous [[Portuguese]] explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]].
---
> The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world's four [[ocean]]s. It was named by the famous [[Portuguese]] explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]].
------
Arctic_Ocean|985640195
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The world's smallest ocean.
------
Ocean|985640609
2a3
> *[[Arctic Ocean]]
6c7
< *[[Arctic Ocean]]
---
> *[[Southern Ocean]]
------
Southern_Ocean|985640734
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Defined, Spring 2000 by the International Hydrographic Organization. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarica north to 60 degrees south latitude. It is now the fourth largest ocean.
------
Southern_Ocean|985640771
1c1
< Defined, Spring 2000 by the International Hydrographic Organization. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarica north to 60 degrees south latitude. It is now the fourth largest ocean.
---
> Defined, Spring 2000 by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]]. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarica north to 60 degrees south [[latitude]]. It is now the fourth largest [[ocean]].
------
Pacific_Ocean|985640807
1c1
< The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world's four [[ocean]]s. It was named by the famous [[Portuguese]] explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]].
---
> The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the world's five [[ocean]]s. It was named by the famous [[Portuguese]] explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]].
------
Arctic_Ocean|985640845
1c1
< The world's smallest ocean.
---
> The world's smallest [[ocean]].
------
Earth|985641027
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into four [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace other elements.
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into five [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace other elements.
------
Earth|985641058
7a8,9
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Earth/Talk|985641170
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ----
> Geologically speaking, wouldn't the Earth have only six continents? Europe and Asia are actually one land mass; the are different 'continents' in a cultural sense only. - [[Stephen Gilbert]]
> ----
------
Canada/self-image|985641586
1c1
< In 1999 the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
---
> In 1999 the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC) held a competition whose goal was to compose the conclusion to the phrase: "As Canadian as ..." The winning entry reflects the ambivalence, self-questioning and ultimate pragmatism of Canadians. It read "... possible under the circumstances."
3c3
< [[Robertson Davies]], one of Canada's best known authors, once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
---
> [[Robertson Davies]], one of Canada's best known [[authors]], once commented about his homeland: "Some countries you love. Some countries you hate. Canada is a country you worry about."
------
Wiki_special_characters|985642295
1c1
< How does one do special characters on wiki?
---
> <i>This is still a work in progress!</i> --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
3c3
< Up until recently we've been using the extended ASCII characters, listed on [[Wiki ASCII codes page]].  Unfortunately, these turn out not to be universal.  They work fine for windows and unix, but on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly.  And, of course, they are fairly incomplete - missing, among other things, a [[Greek alphabet]] and mathematical symbols.
---
> Many characters not in the repertoire of stnadard [[ASCII]] will be useful--even necessary--for Wiki pages, especially the international pages.  This page contains my recommendations for which characters are safe to use and how to use them.
5c5
< The current suggestion is that we use the HTML4 character entry system.  These characters don't show up on older systems, and in fact not all of them show up for me, but it's beautiful as far as it goes.  A full list of codes are available at http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html.  Some examples:
---
> <h2>ISO-8859-1 Characters</h2>
7,21c7
<  &amp;amp;       &amp;
<  &amp;mdash;     &mdash;
<  &amp;agrave;    &agrave;
<  &amp;ntilde;    &ntilde;
<  &amp;Ccedil;    &Ccedil;
<  &amp;Uuml;      &Uuml;
<  &amp;Theta;     &Theta;
<  &amp;sigmaf;    &sigmaf;
<  &amp;forall;    &forall;
<  &amp;exist;     &exist;
<  &amp;ang;       &ang;
<  &amp;sum;       &sum;
<  &amp;there4;    &there4;
< ----
< The above says "on macs and other systems there's no guarantee they'll show up properly."  May we have some confirmation of this from a few sources, please?
---
> First of all, the most common [[Extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1251 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines (but not necessarily vice versa).  The most common non-ISO character sets are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, and Macintosh Roman.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, and its native character set contains many of the needed international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
23c9,99
< ----
---
> So I recommend that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are available on the native Macintosh character set can be used directly, as 8-bit characters entered from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available for entering these characters is available to the Wiki author.  For example, Wiki authors on using MS Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that ll 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Also, some users may have trouble with versions of MS Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use named character entity references if necessary.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format, or else use HTML named character entity references. 
> 
> Below is a table of these safe characters, their codes in hex and decimal, and their HTML entity names:
> 
> <pre><nowiki>
> Hex   Dec     Entity    Name
> 
>  A0  0160     &amp;nbsp;    no-break space
>  A1  0161  ¡  &amp;iexcl;   inverted exclamation
>  A2  0162  ¢  &amp;cent;    cent sign
>  A3  0163  £  &amp;pound;   pound sign
>  A4  0164  ¤  &amp;curren;  intl. currency sign
>  A5  0165  ¥  &amp;yen;     yen sign
>  A7  0167  §  &amp;sect;    section sign
>  A8  0168  ¨  &amp;uml;     diaeresis (umlaut)
>  A9  0169  ©  &amp;copy;    copyright sign
>  AA  0170  ª  &amp;ordf;    feminine ordinal
>  AB  0171  «  &amp;laquo;   left double-angle quote
>  AC  0172  ¬  &amp;not;     not sign
>  AE  0174  ®  &amp;reg;     registered trademark sign
>  AF  0175  ¯  &amp;macr;    macron
>  B0  0176  °  &amp;deg;     degree sign
>  B1  0177  ±  &amp;plusmn;  plus-minus sign
>  B4  0180  ´  &amp;acute;   acute accent
>  B5  0181  µ  &amp;micro;   micro sign
>  B6  0182  ¶  &amp;para;    pilcrow (paragraph) sign
>  B7  0183  ·  &amp;middot;  middle dot (Georgian comma)
>  B8  0184  ¸  &amp;cedil;   cedilla
>  BA  0186  º  &amp;ordm;    masculine ordinal
>  BB  0187  »  &amp;raquo;   right double-angle quote
>  BF  0191  ¿  &amp;iquest;  inverted question
>  C0  0192  À  &amp;Agrave;  A grave
>  C1  0193  Á  &amp;Aacute;  A acute
>  C2  0194  Â  &amp;Acirc;   A circumflex
>  C3  0195  Ã  &amp;Atilde;  A tilde
>  C4  0196  Ä  &amp;Auml;    A diaeresis
>  C5  0197  Å  &amp;Aring;   A ring
>  C6  0198  Æ  &amp;AElig;   AE ligature
>  C7  0199  Ç  &amp;Ccedil;  C cedilla
>  C8  0200  È  &amp;Egrave;  E grave
>  C9  0201  É  &amp;Eacute;  E acute
>  CA  0202  Ê  &amp;Ecirc;   E circumflex
>  CB  0203  Ë  &amp;Euml;    E diaeresis
>  CC  0204  Ì  &amp;Igrave;  I grave
>  CD  0205  Í  &amp;Iacute;  I acute
>  CE  0206  Î  &amp;Icirc;   I circumflex
>  CF  0207  Ï  &amp;Iuml;    I diaeresis
>  D1  0209  Ñ  &amp;Ntilde;  N tilde
>  D2  0210  Ò  &amp;Ograve;  O grave
>  D3  0211  Ó  &amp;Oacute;  O acute
>  D4  0212  Ô  &amp;Ocirc;   O circumflex
>  D5  0213  Õ  &amp;Otilde;  O tilde
>  D6  0214  Ö  &amp;Ouml;    O diaeresis
>  D8  0216  Ø  &amp;Oslash;  O stroke
>  D9  0217  Ù  &amp;Ugrave;  U grave
>  DA  0218  Ú  &amp;Uacute;  U acute
>  DB  0219  Û  &amp;Ucirc;   U circumflex
>  DC  0220  Ü  &amp;Uuml;    U diaeresis
>  DF  0223  ß  &amp;szlig;   sharp s (ess-zed)
>  E0  0224  à  &amp;agrave;  a grave
>  E1  0225  á  &amp;aacute;  a acute
>  E2  0226  â  &amp;acirc;   a circumflex
>  E3  0227  ã  &amp;atilde;  a tilde
>  E4  0228  ä  &amp;auml;    a diaeresis
>  E5  0229  å  &amp;aring;   a ring
>  E6  0230  æ  &amp;aelig;   ae ligature
>  E7  0231  ç  &amp;ccedil;  c cedilla
>  E8  0232  è  &amp;egrave;  e grave
>  E9  0233  é  &amp;eacute;  e acute
>  EA  0234  ê  &amp;ecirc;   e circumflex
>  EB  0235  ë  &amp;euml;    e diaeresis
>  EC  0236  ì  &amp;igrave;  i grave
>  ED  0237  í  &amp;iacute;  i acute
>  EE  0238  î  &amp;icirc;   i circumflex
>  EF  0239  ï  &amp;iuml;    i diaeresis
>  F1  0241  ñ  &amp;ntilde;  n tilde
>  F2  0242  ò  &amp;ograve;  o grave
>  F3  0243  ó  &amp;oacute;  o acute
>  F4  0244  ô  &amp;ocirc;   o circumflex
>  F5  0245  õ  &amp;otilde;  o tilde
>  F6  0246  ö  &amp;ouml;    o diaeresis
>  F7  0247  ÷  &amp;divide;  divide sign
>  F8  0248  ø  &amp;oslash;  o stroke
>  F9  0249  ù  &amp;ugrave;  u grave
>  FA  0250  ú  &amp;uacute;  u acute
>  FB  0251  û  &amp;ucirc;   u circumflex
>  FC  0252  ü  &amp;uuml;    u diaeresis
>  FF  0255  ÿ  &amp;yuml;    y diaeresis
> </nowiki></pre>
> 
> Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Icelandic/Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.  Possible workarounds include using HTML superscript and subscript tags which are more versatile anyway, and using middle dot in place of the multiply sign.
25c101
< I'm working on redoing this, and the Wiki ASCII codes page, into document that tells the whole story and gives concrete suggestions for usable characters.  For the moment I'm just using this comment to be able to store the ISO-8859-1 table below, which I will eventually explain.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by existing languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, Polish L with stroke, and others.  Some of these can be entered as HTML entity references, but should be considered unsafe.
27c103,107
< (In short, these is the ISO-8859-1 characters with hex and decimal values and names.  All of these should be available to MS Windows users and Unix/X.  An "m" in the first column indicates that the character exists in the standard Macintosh Roman character set (though at a diferent code); a "d" in the second column indicates that the character exists in the old MSDOS code page 437 set.  Note that many things like greek letters, math symbols, and punctuation that may be available on Windows (in the ISO unused 0x80..0x9F range) and/or Mac are not present, and therefore are unlikely to be available on X machines that don't have modern Unicode fonts.
---
> The euro currency sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>) is a special case.  It is likely to be understood and properly rendered by many browsers, even on machines whose character sets do not include it (because it is a very important for international trade, many computers specifically add it.
> 
> <h2>Typeset-style Punctuation</h2>
> 
> Absent from the ISO-8859-1 character set, but commonly used and present in both Macintosh Roman and Windows code page 1251 character sets, are the proper English quotation marks and dashes.  These can be entered as character entity references, and should appear correctly on most machines running recent software.  Even on ISO-based machines such as Unix/X, browsers should be able to interpret these references and make appropriate substitutes using plain ASCII straight quotes and hyphens (Mozilla does this correctly, for example).  These references were not present in older versions of HTML, so may not be recognized by older software.  Since using these characters maintains data integrity even on those machines that may not diaply them correctly, it should be considered safe to use these unless proper display on old software is critical.  German "low-9" quotation marks are a similar case, but are less commonly translated by browsing software, and so are not as safe.  The table below shows these characters next to a capital letter "O" for better visibility:
31,126c111,120
< md A0 0160   no-break space
< md A1 0161 ¡ inverted exclamation
< md A2 0162 ¢ cent sign
< md A3 0163 £ pound sign
< m  A4 0164 ¤ intl. currency sign
< md A5 0165 ¥ yen sign
<    A6 0166 ¦ broken bar
< m  A7 0167 § section sign
< m  A8 0168 ¨ diaeresis
< m  A9 0169 © copyright sign
< md AA 0170 ª feminine ordinal
< md AB 0171 « left double-angle quote
< md AC 0172 ¬ not sign
<    AD 0173 ­ soft hyphen
< m  AE 0174 ® registered sign
< m  AF 0175 ¯ macron
< md B0 0176 ° degree sign
< md B1 0177 ± plus-minus sign
<  d B2 0178 ² superscript two
<    B3 0179  superscript three
< m  B4 0180 ´ acute accent
< m  B5 0181 µ micro sign
< m  B6 0182 ¶ pilcrow sign
< md B7 0183 · middle dot
< m  B8 0184 ¸ cedilla
<    B9 0185 ¹ superscript one
< md BA 0186 º masculine ordinal
< md BB 0187 » right double-angle quote
<  d BC 0188 ¼ one quarter
<  d BD 0189 ½ one half
<    BE 0190 ¾ three quarters
< md BF 0191 ¿ inverted question
< m  C0 0192 À A grave
< m  C1 0193 Á A acute
< m  C2 0194 Â A circumflex
< m  C3 0195 Ã A tilde
< md C4 0196 Ä A diaeresis
< md C5 0197 Å A ring
< md C6 0198 Æ AE
< md C7 0199 Ç C cedilla
< m  C8 0200 È E grave
< md C9 0201 É E acute
< m  CA 0202 Ê E circumflex
< m  CB 0203 Ë E diaeresis
< m  CC 0204 Ì I grave
< m  CD 0205 Í I acute
< m  CE 0206 Î I circumflex
< m  CF 0207 Ï I diaeresis
<    D0 0208 Ð Eth
< md D1 0209 Ñ N tilde
< m  D2 0210 Ò O grave
< m  D3 0211 Ó O acute
< m  D4 0212 Ô O circumflex
< m  D5 0213 Õ O tilde
< md D6 0214 Ö O diaeresis
<    D7 0215 × multiply sign
< m  D8 0216 Ø O stroke
< m  D9 0217 Ù U grave
< m  DA 0218 Ú U acute
< m  DB 0219 Û U circumflex
< md DC 0220 Ü U diaeresis
<    DD 0221 Ý Y acute
<    DE 0222 Þ Thorn
< m  DF 0223 ß sharp s
< md E0 0224 à a grave
< md E1 0225 á a acute
< md E2 0226 â a circumflex
< m  E3 0227 ã a tilde
< md E4 0228 ä a diaeresis
< md E5 0229 å a ring
< md E6 0230 æ ae
< md E7 0231 ç c cedilla
< md E8 0232 è e grave
< md E9 0233 é e acute
< md EA 0234 ê e circumflex
< md EB 0235 ë e diaeresis
< md EC 0236 ì i grave
< md ED 0237 í i acute
< md EE 0238 î i circumflex
< md EF 0239 ï i diaeresis
<    F0 0240 ð eth
< md F1 0241 ñ n tilde
< md F2 0242 ò o grave
< md F3 0243 ó o acute
< md F4 0244 ô o circumflex
< m  F5 0245 õ o tilde
< md F6 0246 ö o diaeresis
< md F7 0247 ÷ divide sign
< m  F8 0248 ø o stroke
< md F9 0249 ù u grave
< md FA 0250 ú u acute
< md FB 0251 û u circumflex
< md FC 0252 ü u diaeresis
<    FD 0253 ý y acute
<    FE 0254 þ thorn
< md FF 0255 ÿ y diaeresis
---
> &lsquo;O   &amp;lsquo;  left single quote
> &rsquo;O   &amp;rsquo;  right sigle quote
> &ldquo;O   &amp;ldquo;  left double quote
> &rdquo;O   &amp;rdquo;  right double quote
> &mdash;O   &amp;mdash;  em dash
> &ndash;O   &amp;ndash;  en dash
> 
> &sbquo;O   &amp;sbquo;  single low-9 quote
> &bdquo;O   &amp;bdquo;  double low-9 quote
> 
127a122,133
> 
> To be continued...
> 
> <h2>Greek letters and math symbols</h2>
> 
> To be continued...
> 
> <h2>Other common symbols</h2>
> 
> To be continued...
> 
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985642416
5c5,7
< It didn't exist last week.  :-)
---
> It didn't exist last week.  :-)
> ----
> It would take more hubris than I possess to believe that I was the catalyst.
------
Earth/Talk|985642676
3a4
> Geologically speaking, one might talk of the different tectonic plates the earth has.  Geographically speaking, one might talk about continents.  -[[Invictus|Grant]]
------
Earth/Talk|985642752
4c4
< Geologically speaking, one might talk of the different tectonic plates the earth has.  Geographically speaking, one might talk about continents.  -[[Invictus|Grant]]
---
> Geologically speaking, one might talk of the different tectonic plates the earth has.  Geographically speaking, one might talk about continents.  Thus, I would add "...geographically dividing it into five oceans and seven continents". --[[Invictus|Grant]]
------
Louis_and_Clark_Expedition|985643043
1c1
< In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United State]]'s claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
---
> In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
------
Louis_and_Clark_Expedition|985643059
1c1
< In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
---
> In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
------
RockyMountains|985643139
1,17c1
< A MountaiN range in [[North America]], often called the RockieS.  The RockyMountains stretch more than 3000 miles from MexicO, through the continental [[United States]], into CanadA and AlaskA.  The highest peak is MtElbert, in ColoradO, which is 14,431 feet above SeaLevel.
< 
< The rivers that flow from the RockyMountains eventually drain into three of the worlds four OceanS: the AtlanticOcean, the PacificOcean, and the ArcticOcean.  These rivers include:
< * ArkansasRiver
< * AthabascaRiver
< * ColoradoRiver
< * ColumbiaRiver
< * FraserRiver
< * LiardRiver
< * MissouriRiver
< * PeaceRiver
< * PlatteRiver
< * RioGrandeRiver
< * SaskatchewanRiver
< * SnakeRiver
< * YellowstoneRiver
< * YukonRiver
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rocky Mountains]]
------
Rocky_Mountains|985643308
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Mountain]] range in [[North America]], often called the Rockies.  The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3000 miles from [[Mexico]], through the continental [[United States]], into [[Canada]] and [[Alaska]].  The highest peak is [[Mt Elbert]], in [[Colorado]], which is 14,431 feet above [[Sea Level]].
> 
> The rivers that flow from the Rocky Mountains eventually drain into three of the worlds four [[Oceans]]: the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and the [[Arctic Ocean]].  These rivers include:
> * [[Arkansas River]]
> * [[Athabasca River]]
> * [[Colorado River]]
> * [[Columbia River]]
> * [[Fraser River]]
> * [[Liard River]]
> * [[Missouri River]]
> * [[Peace River]]
> * [[Platte River]]
> * [[RioGrande River]]
> * [[Saskatchewan River]]
> * [[Snake River]]
> * [[Yellowstone River]]
> * [[Yukon River]]
------
Oregon|985643525
9c9
< of the RockyMountains.  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
---
> of the [[Rocky Mountains]].  It was stocked with only 300 volumes.
------
Sea|985643571
2c2
< [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]] -- [[North Sea]] 
---
> [[Baltic Sea]] -- [[Black Sea]] -- [[North Sea]] -- [[Mediterranean Sea]]
------
Geography|985643616
9c9
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]] --[[Mountain|Mountains]] -- [[Mountain Ranges]]
------
Probability_and_Statistics/Talk|985643716
1c1,3
< Again: I'm no expert in probability theory, but I can very confidently say that probability is not a mathematical theory.  Probability theory is a theory, but probability is something else.  I'd prefer not to be the one to make the change, though. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Again: I'm no expert in probability theory, but I can very confidently say that probability is not a mathematical theory.  Probability theory is a theory, but probability is something else.  I'd prefer not to be the one to make the change, though. --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ---
> There are philosophical concepts of probability which do not match or fit the mathematical theory of probability. My usage is perhaps too informal, but is conditioned by the topic residing in the [[Mathematics]] hierarchy as distinct from [[Philosophy]]. --[[Dick Beldin]]
------
Probability_and_Statistics|985644018
7c7
< [[Probability]] is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
---
> What mathematicians call [[Probability]] is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. In a larger context, the word ''probability'' is used with other concerns in mind. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
28c28
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Probability_and_Statistics/Talk|985644700
2,3c2,5
< ---
< There are philosophical concepts of probability which do not match or fit the mathematical theory of probability. My usage is perhaps too informal, but is conditioned by the topic residing in the [[Mathematics]] hierarchy as distinct from [[Philosophy]]. --[[Dick Beldin]]
---
> ----
> There are philosophical concepts of probability which do not match or fit the mathematical theory of probability. My usage is perhaps too informal, but is conditioned by the topic residing in the [[Mathematics]] hierarchy as distinct from [[Philosophy]]. --[[Dick Beldin]]
> ----
> It seems to me an article about probability ought to acknowledge the morass of senses that exist in ordinary language, philosophy, *and* mathematics. --[[LMS]]
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|985645289
1,27c1
< ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
< 
<  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
<  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
<  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú                                     211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ                                     212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
<  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
< 
< If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  On some computers  these don't show up properly, but at least default to something similar: 158 (times sign -> x), 167 (underlined ° -> °), 213 (undotted i -> i).
< 
< One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  However, one probably shouldn't, since they don't show up on some machines.
< ----
< 
< These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
< However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ----
< No! No!
< 
< ASCII is a 7-bit code.  Anything above 127 is <b>not</b> ASCII and will display in some system-dependent character set.  The character set above is ISO-8859-1, which will work on most Unix boxes and Windows boxes.  ISO also defines some other characters not listed above that Windows does differently.  Macintosh machines do not use ISO-8859-1 at all, and many foreign machines use different sets.  Wiki passes character entities like <b>&amp;eacute;</b> (<b>&eacute;</b>) through unmolested, and those work in any browser that complies with HTML 4+, including Macintoshes and foreign machines.  These should be used for foreign characters (though not titles as Jimbo points out).  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< ----
< Is anyone taking into consideration that "not everyone" keeps their character map (charmap) set to the default?  I for one, don't even remember what the default was/is.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wiki special characters]]
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985645650
1c1
< Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
---
> Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
------
Earth_Sciences|985645832
1c1
< Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], perhaps [[Environmental Sciences]], and other sciences.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], perhaps [[Environmental Sciences]], and other sciences.
------
Data|985646132
1c1
< The word <i>data</i> is the plural of <i>datum</i>, meaning a piece of information.  It is also commonly used as a mass noun, where it is treated as singular, e.g., "This is all the data from the experiment".  Many consider this usage incorrect, or at least colloquial, and would prefer "These are all the data from the experiment" (each individual measurement or result from the experiment is a single datum).
---
> The word <i>data</i> is the plural of <i>datum</i>, meaning a piece of information, or, "the givens".  It is also commonly used as a mass noun, where it is treated as singular, e.g., "This is all the data from the experiment".  Many consider this usage incorrect, or at least colloquial, and would prefer "These are all the data from the experiment" (each individual measurement or result from the experiment is a single datum).
3c3
< Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
---
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
------
Data|985646158
1c1
< The word <i>data</i> is the plural of <i>datum</i>, meaning a piece of information, or, "the givens".  It is also commonly used as a mass noun, where it is treated as singular, e.g., "This is all the data from the experiment".  Many consider this usage incorrect, or at least colloquial, and would prefer "These are all the data from the experiment" (each individual measurement or result from the experiment is a single datum).
---
> The word <i>data</i> is the plural of <i>datum</i>, meaning a piece of information, or, "the given".  It is also commonly used as a mass noun, where it is treated as singular, e.g., "This is all the data from the experiment".  Many consider this usage incorrect, or at least colloquial, and would prefer "These are all the data from the experiment" (each individual measurement or result from the experiment is a single datum).
3c3
< Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
---
> Data is also the name of an [[android]] character from the [[television]] series <i>[[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation</i>.
------
Gun|985646240
10c10
< [[handguns]]
---
> :[[handguns]]
------
Android|985646382
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An android is a machine that acts/presents as a human. Also, a song by RadioHead.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985647460
7c7,9
< It would take more hubris than I possess to believe that I was the catalyst.
---
> It would take more hubris than I possess to believe that I was the catalyst.
> ----
> Uhmmmm, actually, I agitated for it, and Larry was kind enough to set it up.  Before you came along, I put a good deal of ground glass in his oatmeal with my various less-than-encyclopedic postings hither and thither, and this is how we agreed to get me out of his hair...
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|985648169
1c1,30
< #REDIRECT [[Wiki special characters]]
---
> Please see [[Wiki special characters]] for a page that many believe should supercede this one.
> 
> ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
> 
>  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
>  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
>  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú                                     211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ                                     212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
> 
> If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  On some computers  these don't show up properly, but at least default to something similar: 158 (times sign -> x), 167 (underlined ° -> °), 213 (undotted i -> i).
> 
> One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  However, one probably shouldn't, since they don't show up on some machines.
> ----
> 
> These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
> However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> No! No!
> 
> ASCII is a 7-bit code.  Anything above 127 is <b>not</b> ASCII and will display in some system-dependent character set.  The character set above is ISO-8859-1, which will work on most Unix boxes and Windows boxes.  ISO also defines some other characters not listed above that Windows does differently.  Macintosh machines do not use ISO-8859-1 at all, and many foreign machines use different sets.  Wiki passes character entities like <b>&amp;eacute;</b> (<b>&eacute;</b>) through unmolested, and those work in any browser that complies with HTML 4+, including Macintoshes and foreign machines.  These should be used for foreign characters (though not titles as Jimbo points out).  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> ----
> Is anyone taking into consideration that "not everyone" keeps their character map (charmap) set to the default?  I for one, don't even remember what the default was/is.
> 
> /Talk
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985648205
1c1
< Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
---
> Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
------
Louis_and_Clark_Expedition|985648287
1c1
< In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Like_this|985648293
9a10,11
> ----
> An admirable summary of the situation, Bruce!  :-)  Surely Grant's presence didn't hurt, though!
------
Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition|985648299
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
------
Architecture|985648302
3c3
< Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]],[[LeCorbusier, who was also a french painter]],[[Michalangelo]],[[Palladio]],[[and Frank Ghery]].
---
> Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]],[[LeCorbusier, who was also a French painter]],[[Michelangelo]],[[Andrea Palladio]],[[and Frank Gehry]].
------
Thomas_Jefferson|985648321
1c1
< Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Louis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
---
> Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743 d. 1826) was the third PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the [[United States Declaration of Independence | Declaration of Independence]], and a source of many other contributions to American culture.  Achievements of his presidency include the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] and the [[Louisiana Purchase]].
------
Android|985648450
1c1
< An android is a machine that acts/presents as a human. Also, a song by RadioHead.
---
> An android is a machine that acts/presents as a human.
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985648450
6c6,8
< [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[LMS]]
---
> [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_Problem_of_Defining_Sanity|985648494
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Medicine and psychiatry have self-admitted difficulties defining sanity. Your author hopes to explore some of the possible reasons for this and poses the question:  could a definition be developed upon which most would agree?
> 
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, and other definitions, some of which have been developed from time to time in the interest of policital expediency (of which, more later).
>  
> The word itself comes from the root adjective "sane," which stems from Latin "sanus," or "healthy." The implication, then, is that a sane mind is a healthy mind. This is, in fact, part of most medical definitions.  Sanity is also defined as being mentally "normal."  Health, in general, denotes strength, soundness, proper functioning, especially of biological systems. As the mind is generally regarded as the seat of awareness and reasoning, your author posits that its proper function might be said to entail clarity of awareness and accuracy of reasoning. If this thesis holds, one might expect to find these qualities in a sane individual. 
> 
> It may be instructive to examine what constitutes clear and accurate awareness and reasoning and what constitutes inaccuracy in these areas. Further, it may be helpful to understand to what degree errancy must intrude into mental function before one can reasonably be determined to no longer be sane. 
> 
> There are a number of objective criteria whereby one may assess the workings of a mind and determine their accuracy, but by and large, one sees testing for such criteria used more frequently in determining IntelliGence than sanity. While a degree of IntelliGence may be implicit in the concept of sanity, this would not be the only measure.  One's ability to perform mathematical computations, identify shapes, find the next in a series of deductive steps, identify patterns in data, all are related to mental accuracy, but may be poor indicators of sanity. 
> 
> An instance of a broadly accepted test in English speaking areas of the world which is thought to address issues of mental and emotional health would be the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).  This test has no right or wrong answers, and the evaluee is advised of this fact.  He answers dozens of questions about how he feels and thinks regarding certain issues, and the way in which his answers relate to each other and pre-determined baseline critera determines whether the person adminstering or evaluating the test finds his attitudes more or less healthy in given areas.  If his environmental factors include the recent loss of a loved one and various of his answers reveal a depressed mood, the evaluator may declare this "appropriate."  Labels such as "normal" or "abnormal" with regard to test results are avoided.  The kinds of tasks which one performs accurately, then, and how "accuracy" is defined, may have an impact on the perception of one as sane or not. 
> 
> The most prominent aspects of accurate mental function which have been used by ordinary people as indicators of sanity over the centuries appear to have related to the areas of interpersonal relations and bodily safety of self and others. These criteria are frequently examined by courts in commitment proceedings, determination of fitness to stand trial, hearings on competency and other such undertakings.  More recently, especially in medically related fields, personal mental composure has come to be included, as well.  One sees diagnoses based on subjective mood, and drugs advertised to improve outlook.   
> 
> Criteria other than accuracy of function have been also employed as determinants of sanity. Conformance and agreement with societal norms have played as great a role in the determination of sanity historically as any other criteria. In some contexts, societal norms loom large. For example, in WesternCivilization?, one would generally find it unsettling if a friend began to speak of voices telling him things, of demons tormenting him, or how he was cured by someone burning incense, shaking rattles, and chanting. Modern psychiatry lists such reported experiences among the symptoms of SchizoPhrenia? - a serious mental disorder. In many regions of the ThirdWorld?, however, shamanistic tradition accepts and reinforces such experience. One who declared to the members of such a culture that these subjective experiences were invalid might find his sanity called into question by the local chief or medicine man. 
> 
> The impact of a culture or cultures are evident when one examines what the modern western medical (psychiatric) community uses as a measure of sanity. In a medical/psychiatric context, the most general means of identifying sanity is that a person's mentality is "normal."  A search of the meaning of "normal" leads us to a definition by exclusion - that is, absence of functional mental illness, defect or disorder. The word "functional" (denoting abnormality in function, but not in form) is important, as dysfunction which is traced to a uniformly remediable or replicable physical cause generally is reclassified as a medical problem rather than a mental one, with concomitant change in diagnosis and approach to treatment. Such medical issues are removed from the criteria for judging "sanity." Conversely, when one displays an apparent symptom or limitation for which no physiological cause is indicated, doctors refer to the problem as "functional."  That is, it is not related to a physical problem, but rather a mental one.  The medical/psychiatric definition just stated will seldom be satisfied in the absolute, as will be seen below. 
> 
> The problem of identifying a concise,positive, functional definition for sanity, a key element in the more general issue of MentalHealth, is perhaps best illustrated by comparison. In identifying "sanity" with "health," one invites comparison with known standards of health in other organs and systems. A contrast is immediately apparent between the certainty and objectivity with which one can identify physical health, as opposed to mental health. One may examine, for example, a liver. Its normal role and functions, uniform from one person to the next, can be determined through the methods of physical science. It can be x-rayed or biopsied. Liver enzymes in blood samples can be measured. Hepatitis antibodies can be tested for. In the extreme, exploratory surgery may be performed. The proper functioning of a liver can be quantatively measured. While the mind is usually associated with a body organ, the brain, science to date has been unsuccessful in attempting to develop brain testing protocols which are definitive in predicting or measuring sanity. Part of the reason for this is that "normal" mental function may vary from person to person and from one context to another. Therefore, contextual observations, tests and measurements remain the standards of choice. 
> 
> The standard for mental diagnosis in psychiatry is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of the American Psychiatric Association. It has undergone a substantial evolution in the last half-century. From the few mental disorders defined in Freud's time, the number of psychiatric determinations of aberrant human behavior has expanded. When the DSM was first published in 1952, it listed 112 mental illnesses or disorders. The 1994 issue of DSM (IV) specifies more than 370 disorders. And the psychiatric community has not always agreed on how these should be classified. For example, concerning "schizophrenia," DSM-II states, "Even if it had tried, the Committee could not establish agreement about what this disorder is; it could only agree on what to call it." DSM-III says "there is no satisfactory definition that specifies precise boundaries for the concept 'mental disorder'.... For most of the DSM-III disorders... the etiology [cause] is unknown. A variety of theories have been advanced... not always convincing, to explain how these disorders come about." DSM-IV states that the term "mental disorder" continues to appear in the volume "because we have not found an appropriate substitute." Diagnoses which appear in the manual were developed, in part, by a majority vote of those attending DSM conferences. As a result, short attention span, questions about one's spirituality, difficulty with writing or mathematics, defiance of one's parents, fidgeting, excessive neatness, all have found a place in the manual among symptoms and diagnoses. In contrast, homosexuality or the unreasonable desire of a slave to escape, once defined as mental defects (the former in early editions of the DSM), do not appear in today's DSM. 
> 
> In 1995, Dr. Rex Cowdry, then director of The National Institutes of Mental Health, stated to a U. S. House of Representatives appropriations subcommittee hearing that, regarding mental illness, "We do not know the causes. We don?t have methods of ?curing? these illnesses yet." This should not be surprising. It has been without doubt a cultural process, within the fairly limited culture of psychiatry and psychology, which has taken place in an effort to define the boundaries of sanity. Diseases with cultural definitions may not respond to medical science. 
> 
> And defining sane behavior must always be done, at least in part, in the context of the subject's culture. If one is raised in a given cultural environment, educated in a given fashion, and exposed to certain norms, then behavior which is inconsistent with these factors may well indicate some defect in the capacity to accurately process the information available to the mind. 
> 
> In recent times, more recognition has been given to the concept of sanity as a subjective manifestation, evidenced by mental quietude, peace of mind, and resiliancy - an ability to survive the vicissitudes of life without such mental discomfort that one's ability to function is impaired. 
> 
> In the legal community, a culture unto itself, an entirely different effort has been undertaken to define sanity. Generally speaking, the most broadly known and publicly accepted standard for sanity under law is "the ability to discern right and wrong." This has been broadened, extended, shaped and colored in widely scattered juristictions internationally in an effort to establish standards which will punish the guilty and forgive those whose temporary or permanent mental state deprived them of the requisite ability to form intent, or "mens rea" (guilty mind) under the law. 
> 
> Defenses based on various findings of mental defect by medical professionals have been offered by criminal defendants with varying levels of success, in an effort to avoid being found sane, and thus escape a death penalty or any form of punishment at all. Multiple personality disorder, sugar addiction, somnambulance, amnesia, excitement or passion, obsessive-compulsive behavior of varying kinds, all have been pled as defenses before the bar of justice. 
> 
> Finally, various governments, particularly authoritarian ones, have undertaken to use political or public policy standards to define sanity, and have underwritten psychiatric efforts to restore sanity under such definitions by remedying behaviors which betray a mindset declared unacceptable by the state. The treatments employed toward this end are typically aversive, punitive, and/or coercive. The working definition for sanity in such cases, usually implicit rather than explicit, would seem to be, "believing and thinking as one is authorized to believe and think."  The argument supporting such a definition of sanity and resulting efforts to restore same is generally this: "The state functions for the good of the people. Proper functioning of the state requires conformance and compliance with state aims and policies. Fomenting disagreement with state aims and policies interferes with the proper functioning of the state. Any sane person would desire the good of the people and would therefore not foment disagreement." As experience quickly reveals that talking therapies fail to restore the sanity of a person who openly disagrees with the state and encourages others to do so, the therapies employed necessarily become those that a deviant citizen, given his choice, would avoid. Failing this, state hospitals may resort to treatments which nullify the patient's ability to engage in unauthorized expression. Thus sanity by political definition may be restored. 
> 
> Political definitions of sanity have not been confined to openly authoritarian governments. In otherwise putatively democratice countries which have a history of democratic elections and peaceful transfer of power, state-sanctioned and state-funded mental treatement has been imposed upon political dissidents and upon members of racial and ethnic minorities whose activities and efforts to achieve equal treatment and equal rights to those enjoyed by favored elements of these societies have been felt to be a threat to civil order or state security. 
> 
> Political definitions of sanity are a reflection of the earliest attempts by humans in a social setting to live in comfort, unmolested by disquieting behavior by those around them. As far back as history has been recorded, mentions of "lunatics" (for the Latin meaning "moon-touched," after the belief that undue exposure to the full moon could damage the mind) appear. These persons fail their compatriots' test for sanity grounds observed by others rather than experienced by self. Their bevavior is erratic, unpredictable, unsettling, and cannot be rationally understood by those around them. The discomfort that they impose upon the society around them disqualifies them from being considered sane. The very concept of "sanity," as a condition, may have developed first and foremost in contrast to these early observations of it apparent absence. This primary identification of a health issue by others than the affected person is somewhat unique. One may complain of a headache, sore stomach, excessive weariness or various aches, pains, or numbness. One may notice a rash or falling hair, or be unable to keep food down. One may even be unable to concentrate or attend the utterances of others with clarity. These subjective symptoms, reported by their sufferer, translate to bodily illness of one kind or another and drive the individual to seek relief. Absent social indoctrination, however, one seldom will complain of a defect in their own sanity.
> 
> "Doctor, I'm depressed," is a complaint of relatively recent origin.  In pre-Freudian times, an individual may have been "sad," "morose," "maudlin," or "pessimistic," even afflicted with "despair" to the point of suicide.  This would not have been viewed as a mental disorder, nor occasion for a diagnosis or treatment.  It would have been perceived that the person needed cheering up, or that he was responding appropriately to some event or condition of his life which cried out for remedy, or that he was constitutionally incapable of being cheerful - much after the manner that one might be short, or bald.  Modernly, radio, television and popular periodicals carry messages from doctors and drug companies that being too sad may be a sign of clinical depression, and that one ought to seek treatment or drugs.  Hence, "Doctor, I'm depressed."  Whether the older or more modern view is more appropriate is the subject of ongoing debate between professionals in the field.
> 
> A common thread runs through the foregoing. Sanity, or health of mind, as evidenced by proper functioning is measured in each case against the ability of the individual to successfully cope with the demands of life and his society in a manner which coexists harmoniously with that society. To the degree that one inputs data faithfully, processes it accurately, and assesses the impact on self and others of his actions and reactions so as to avoid unnecessary friction or harm, he could be called sane. One could go so far as to say that errant mental function in any or all of these fields does not move an idividual over the line from the "sane" category to the "not-sane" category as long as the incidence of errant function is incidental, minor or infrequent, and proper function is predominant. Add to this the element that proper functioning necessary to cope does not place undue stresses or demands on the individual, require undue effort, nor cause excessive discomfort, (as in that the person can experience and express emotions without being victimized by them) and both objective and subjective criteria for sanity are met.  This is still a very long definition, but it seems to satisfy the requirements of almost every context.
> 
> The words "unnecessary friction or harm" probably cannot be omitted, but they are the weakest point of the proposed definition.  What is seen as necessary by one may be seen as wholly unnecessary and undesirable by another.  The case of the political dissident is such an example.  He sees his friction with the society around him as entirely necessary, for it is his position that the society must be altered for the good of all.  That same society, in preserving its continued existence, views such a position as deviant and dangerous, and is likely to exert pressure to eliminate it.
> 
> There is lively debate as to whether physical intervention is necessary or effective to achieve, maintain or restore sanity in the absence of quantifiable biological damage or dysfunction. The three main schools of thought in this arena could be called the "healthy brain - healthy mind" school, the "healthy mind - healthy brain" school and the "spiritual" school. The first maintains that mental function is a product of biologial function, and that therefore brain health and biochemical balance determines sanity. At this writing, this school of thought enjoys majority support in the West.  The second holds that observed changes in the brain and biochemical status are the product of mental function, and that mental health can therefore be addressed without treating the brain. The third holds that the mind is independent of the physical existence of the brain, and that the brain merely permits the mind to be expressed in the body. Organic damage to the brain would necessarily impair this expression. Traditional Eastern philosophical and religious thought tend more in this direction.  Various practitioners and researchers may adhere to a combination of the foregoing schools. How a society approaches its effort to maintain viabililty and cohesiveness through the sanity of its members would be determined by which school of thought enjoys the broadest acceptance in that society. -- AyeSpy 
> 
> ----
> 
------
AyeSpy|985648618
10a11,13
> ----
> I put your old article on sanity in the comentary page. You
> (obviously, and anybody else) can remove it if you wish. --AstroNomer
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|985649768
1c1
< The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], [[spontaneous combustion]] and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
5c5
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|985649937
1c1
< The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghosts]], [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], [[spontaneous combustion]] and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghost]]s, [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], [[spontaneous combustion]], [[doppleganger]]s, [[ouija board]]s and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
------
Wiki_special_characters|985650113
3c3,7
< Many characters not in the repertoire of stnadard [[ASCII]] will be useful--even necessary--for Wiki pages, especially the international pages.  This page contains my recommendations for which characters are safe to use and how to use them.
---
> Many characters not in the repertoire of stnadard [[ASCII]] will be useful--even necessary--for Wiki pages, especially the international pages.  This page contains my recommendations for which characters are safe to use and how to use them.  There are three ways to enter a non-ASCII character into a Wiki page:
> 
> * Enter the character directly from a foreign keyboard, or by cut and paste from a "character map" type application, or by some special means provided by the operating system or text editing application.  The web server should then be configured to announce which 8-bit character set is being used.
> * Use an HTML numeric character entity reference like <code>&amp;#161;</code>.  This is not recommended, because many browsers incorrectly interpret these as references to the native character set.
> * Use an HTML named character entity reference like <code>&amp;agrave;</code>.  This is the most reliable method, and is unambiguous even when the server does not announce the use of any special characer set.
7c11,13
< First of all, the most common [[Extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1251 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines (but not necessarily vice versa).  The most common non-ISO character sets are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, and Macintosh Roman.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, and its native character set contains many of the needed international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
---
> First of all, the most common [[extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  If a web server serves pages with characters outside the normal ASCII range, without announcing which set is being used, it is probably safest to assume ISO-8859-1 (though it is also quite common for servers to be misconfigured, and to serve other character sets unannounced).  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1252 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines (but not necessarily vice versa).  The most common Roman character sets other than ISO-8859-1 are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, Macintosh Roman, and other ISO sets such as ISO-8859-2.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  Other ISO sets are generally intended to be read by other browsers using those same sets in the same country, and so those pages should use a language-specific set.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, and its native character set contains many of the common international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
> 
> So I recommend that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are available on the native Macintosh character set can be used directly as 8-bit characters in all Wiki pages primarily in English, Spanish, French, German, and languages that require no more special characters than those (such as Catalan).
9c15
< So I recommend that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are available on the native Macintosh character set can be used directly, as 8-bit characters entered from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available for entering these characters is available to the Wiki author.  For example, Wiki authors on using MS Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that ll 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Also, some users may have trouble with versions of MS Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use named character entity references if necessary.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format, or else use HTML named character entity references. 
---
> These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors on using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Also, some users may have trouble with versions of Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.
14c20
< Hex   Dec     Entity    Name
---
> Hex   Dec     Entity    Character
99c105,109
< Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Icelandic/Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.  Possible workarounds include using HTML superscript and subscript tags which are more versatile anyway, and using middle dot in place of the multiply sign.
---
> This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style pubctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Roman alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Roman alphabet at all such as Japanese).
> 
> <h3>Unsafe characters</h3>
> 
> Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO-8859-1 set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Icelandic/Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.
101c111
< Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by existing languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, Polish L with stroke, and others.  Some of these can be entered as HTML entity references, but should be considered unsafe.
---
> Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by popular languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, L with stroke, and others.
103c113
< The euro currency sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>) is a special case.  It is likely to be understood and properly rendered by many browsers, even on machines whose character sets do not include it (because it is a very important for international trade, many computers specifically add it.
---
> Characters from Windows code page 1252 not in ISO-8859-1 include the euro sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), dagger and double dagger (<code>&amp;dagger;, &amp;Dagger;</code>), bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>), typeset-style punctuation (see below), per mille sign (<code>&amp;permil;</code>), some Eastern European caron-accented letters, and the oe ligatures.
105c115
< <h2>Typeset-style Punctuation</h2>
---
> Characters from the Macintosh Roman set not in ISO-8859-1 include dagger and double dagger, bullet, trade mark sign, a few math symbols such as infinity (<code>&amp;infin;</code>) and not equal (<code>&amp;ne;</code>), a few commonly-used Greek letters such as pi (<code>&amp;pi;</code>), ligatures like oe and fl, typeset-style punctuation, per mille sign, and lone accents such as the breve, onogek, and caron.
107c117,129
< Absent from the ISO-8859-1 character set, but commonly used and present in both Macintosh Roman and Windows code page 1251 character sets, are the proper English quotation marks and dashes.  These can be entered as character entity references, and should appear correctly on most machines running recent software.  Even on ISO-based machines such as Unix/X, browsers should be able to interpret these references and make appropriate substitutes using plain ASCII straight quotes and hyphens (Mozilla does this correctly, for example).  These references were not present in older versions of HTML, so may not be recognized by older software.  Since using these characters maintains data integrity even on those machines that may not diaply them correctly, it should be considered safe to use these unless proper display on old software is critical.  German "low-9" quotation marks are a similar case, but are less commonly translated by browsing software, and so are not as safe.  The table below shows these characters next to a capital letter "O" for better visibility:
---
> Characters from pre-Windows code page 437 that are not in ISO-8859-1 include the peseta sign, franc sign, several math symbols (such as infinity) not listed above, faces and card suits, and all the box and line drawing characters.
> 
> Most of these characters should generally be considered unsafe, even though some of them (especially those listed below under "Other common symbols") may display correctly on many machines if entered as HTML character entity references.
> 
> <h3>Workarounds</h3>
> 
> To be continued...
> 
> <h2>Possibly usable non-ISO characters</h2>
> 
> <h3>Typeset-style Punctuation</h3>
> 
> Absent from the ISO-8859-1 character set, but commonly used and present in both Macintosh Roman and Windows code page 1252 character sets, are the proper English quotation marks and dashes.  These can be entered as character entity references, and should appear correctly on most machines running recent software.  Even on ISO-based machines such as Unix/X, browsers should be able to interpret these references and make appropriate substitutes using plain ASCII straight quotes and hyphens (Mozilla does this correctly, for example).  These references were not present in older versions of HTML, so may not be recognized by older software.  Since using these characters maintains data integrity even on those machines that may not display them correctly, it should be considered safe to use these unless proper display on old software is critical.  German "low-9" quotation marks are a similar case, but are less commonly translated by browsing software, and so are not quite as safe.  The table below shows these characters next to a capital letter "O" for better visibility:
131,132c153
< To be continued...
< 
---
> Some characters such as the bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), euro currency sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), and trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>) are special cases.  They are likely to be understood and rendered in some way by many browsers.  Because they are important for international trade, many computers specifically add them to fonts at some non-standard location and render them when requested, or else render them in special ways that don't require them to be present in a font.  Your browser renders these as <b>&bull;</b>, <b>&euro;</b> and <b>&trade;</b>.
------
Android|985650237
1a2,3
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Portland_Oregon|985650525
3a4,6
> 
> Francis Pettygrove and Asa Lovejoy, co-founders of Portland, named the city in 1845 when Pettygrove won a coin toss with his partner. Pettygrove named it for his hometown of [[Portland Maine]]; had Lovejoy won he intended to name it after his hometown of [[Boston Massachusetts]].
> 
------
Rhetoric|985650609
1c1
< The term "rhetoric" has developed a rather unsavory reputation. It is generally used to describe words without substance, language tricks used to convince people without basis. This idea of rhetoric, however, is not true to its philosophical basis.
---
> <i>This is a rough sketch of what I hope will develop into a fairly comprehensive overview of rhetoric. Feel free to jump in anywhere. --[[STG]]</i>
3c3,40
< I'll tell you more later...
---
> <b>Introduction</b>
> 
> The word <i>rhetoric</i> has gathered a variety of unsavory connotations. Generally, it is used to refer to empty language and arguments without substance. However, the term is used in a deeper and more constructive sense in the study of human communication. Dr. Donald C. Bryant has defined rhetoric as the"rationale of informative and suasory discourse."
> 
> <i> (more definitions, dicussion of conflicting opinions, ending with synthesis: a working general definition of rhetoric for this article)</i>
> 
> -----
> 
> *Classical (Greek)
> **[[Corax]] (5th century BCE) -- first written manual of rhetoric
> **[[Gorgias]] (483?-376?) -- famous teacher of rhetoric throughout Greece
> **[[Socrates]] (470?-399) -- the questioner, Plato's teacher
> **[[Isocrates]] (436-338) -- Foremost teacher of speech in the ancient world
> ** [[Plato]] (427-347) -- outline the differences between true and false rhetoric
> ** [[Aristotle]] (384-322) -- most influencial systemization of rhetoric ever written
> *Classical (Roman)
> **[[Cicero]] (106-43) -- Great Roman orator and philsopher
> **[[Quintilian]] (35-100 AD) -- Imperial profesor of rhetoric, complete system of rhetorical education
> *Medieval <i>(not much happened here)</i>
> **[[Augustine]] (354-430) -- Christian, promoted use of rhetoric in preaching
> *Renaissance <i>(classical works rediscovered)</i>
> **[[Desiderius Erasmus]] (1466?-1536) -- Dutch scholar, wrote on style and composition
> **[[Thomas Wilson]] (1525?-1581) -- neoclassicist, first system of rhetoric in English
> *Modern
> ** <i>(there's quite a few here; I need to do a little sifting first)</i>
> *Contemporary
> **<i>(insert some contemporary rhetorical and communication theories and theorists here)</i>
> 
> -----
> 
> <b>Current State of Rhetorical Study</b>
> 
> -----
> 
> <b> See also; Further reading</b>
> 
> -----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Android/Talk|985650627
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Larry removed a reference to a song entitled "Android" from here, saying something to the effect that a song didn't really deserve its own page unless it was a culturally significant one.  I disagree.  <b>Every</b> human endeavor no matter how insignificant deserves a page here, and every possible sense of every word should be listed in a disambiguating page.  Indeed, I think s Wikipedia grows, pages with one-word titles should all become dictionary-like descriptions of the word and its various senses, with links to more specific pages on each.  One possible argument I might agree with is that one-word titles aren't really "senses" of the word, and will be found by a search on the word anyway, so it might not be neccesary to link from "Android" to "Android (Radiohead song)".  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
STG|985650647
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Stephen Gilbert]]
------
History|985650661
60a61,63
> 
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
History/Talk|985650690
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> So - in this organizational structure - where does the Roman Empire live?
------
Rhetoric/Talk|985650887
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Debate and such. Who and what should (and shouldn't) be included in a general overview of the subject, etc.
> -----
------
Beaverton_Oregon|985651259
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Beaverton is located seven miles west of [[Portland Oregon]] in the [[Tualatin River]] Valley. It is  15 square miles and is home to about 76,129 residents. The City is [[Oregon]]’s fifth largest city and is the largest incorporated city in [[Washington County]].
------
Wiki_special_characters|985651523
126a127,128
> Some characters not listed as safe above may still be usable when entered as named HTML character entity references, because web browsers will recognize them and render them correctly, perhaps by switching to alternate fonts as needed.  All of these should be considered less safe to use than those above, but only in the sense that they may not display properly, though in the form of HTML character entity references they are unambiguous, and preserve data integrity.
> 
129c131
< Absent from the ISO-8859-1 character set, but commonly used and present in both Macintosh Roman and Windows code page 1252 character sets, are the proper English quotation marks and dashes.  These can be entered as character entity references, and should appear correctly on most machines running recent software.  Even on ISO-based machines such as Unix/X, browsers should be able to interpret these references and make appropriate substitutes using plain ASCII straight quotes and hyphens (Mozilla does this correctly, for example).  These references were not present in older versions of HTML, so may not be recognized by older software.  Since using these characters maintains data integrity even on those machines that may not display them correctly, it should be considered safe to use these unless proper display on old software is critical.  German "low-9" quotation marks are a similar case, but are less commonly translated by browsing software, and so are not quite as safe.  The table below shows these characters next to a capital letter "O" for better visibility:
---
> Absent from the ISO-8859-1 character set, but commonly used and present in both Macintosh Roman and Windows code page 1252 character sets, are proper English quotation marks and dashes.  These can be entered as character entity references, and should appear correctly on most machines running recent software.  Even on ISO-based machines such as Unix/X, browsers should be able to interpret these references and make appropriate substitutes using plain ASCII straight quotes and hyphens (Mozilla does this correctly, for example).  These references were not present in older versions of HTML, so may not be recognized by older software.  Since using these characters maintains data integrity even on those machines that may not display them correctly, it should be considered safe to use these unless proper display on old software is critical.  German "low-9" quotation marks are a similar case, but are less commonly translated by browsing software, and so are not quite as safe.  The table below shows these characters next to a capital letter "O" for better visibility:
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985652049
1c1
< Stephen Gilbert...
---
> <b>Stephen Gilbert...</b>
5,7c5,17
< * is Canada (you might notice the rapid increase of Canadian content)
< * finds this place facinating
< --------------------
---
> * is Canadian (you might notice a rapid increase of Canadian content)
> * finds this place fascinating
> 
> <b>Current Wikipedia Interests</b>
> <i>(aside from the happy random editing, of course)</i>
> * Developing the article on [[Rhetoric]]
> * Filling out basic geographical data (mainly [[Countries of the world|countries]] and [[oceans]] at the moment)
> * [[Canada|Canadian]] stuff
> 
> Anyone with similar interests, please, jump in with both feet!
> 
> <b>Messages:</b>
> -----
13c23
< -------------------
---
> -----
15c25
< Thanks! Happy to be here. It's strangely addictive, you know...
---
> Thanks! Happy to be here. It's strangely addictive, you know... -- [[STG]]
------
Android/Talk|985652228
1a2,4
> ----
> :<b>Every</b> human endeavor no matter how insignificant deserves a page here, and every possible sense of every word should be listed in a disambiguating page.  
> If I agreed with that, then obviously I would agree with you, but as I don't, I don't.  Simply: why?  Also, "disambiguating pages" (pointer pages) are often going to be annoying.  When I go to [[Paris]], I don't want to have to click again to see the article that I obviously expect to see, i.e., the one about Paris, France.  If this makes it harder to find Paris, Texas (because I have to click through to reach that article), so much the worse for Paris, Texas.  Anyway, we'll make copious use of parentheses, as in "Paris (France)" when they're available, and then we ''can'' make [[Paris]] a pointer page as Lee suggests.  Even when we do have parentheses, though, I'm quite sure that there will still be many topics that, though the word describing them is ambiguous like almost all words, really don't need their own parentheses pages. --[[LMS]]
------
History/Talk|985652260
1c1,4
< So - in this organizational structure - where does the Roman Empire live?
---
> So - in this organizational structure - where does the Roman Empire live?
> 
> ----
> History is a huge topic. It doesn't have to be limited to one top-level organization scheme. -- STG
------
History/Talk|985652283
4c4
< History is a huge topic. It doesn't have to be limited to one top-level organization scheme. -- STG
---
> History is a huge topic. It doesn't have to be limited to one top-level organization scheme. -- [[STG]]
------
East_Germany|985652792
3c3
< After WorldWarTwo, in 1949 at the PotsdamConference, the winning countries FrancE, EnglanD, [[United States]] and SovietUnion decided to divide [[Germany]] in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former Germany.
---
> After [[World War II]], in 1949 at the [[Potsdam Conference]], the winning countries [[France]], [[England]], [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] decided to divide [[Germany]] in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former Germany.
5c5
< While soon the three areas controlled by the [[United States]], EnglanD and FrancE reunited and formed the 
---
> While soon the three areas controlled by the United States, England and France reunited and formed the 
7,8c7,8
< It was also called East Germany.  East Germany was under heavy influence of RussiA and became a CommunisT
< country very soon until the only link to DemocracY was the part in its name.
---
> It was also called East Germany.  East Germany was under heavy influence of [[Russia]] and became a [[Communist]]
> country very soon until the only link to [[Democracy]] was the part in its name.
10,11c10,11
< EastGermany soon started to seperate itself from WestGermany (which became more and more democratic and 
< capitalistic, with help from EnglanD, FrancE and most of all, the [[United States]]) by closing the open borders by 
---
> East Germany soon started to seperate itself from [[West Germany]] (which became more and more democratic and 
> capitalistic, with help from England, France and most of all, the [[United States]]) by closing the open borders by 
15c15
< soon became known as WestBerlin.
---
> soon became known as [[West Berlin]].
17c17
< So when EastGermany closed the western borders, it also literally enclosed WestBerlin within a huge wall, the BerlinWall.
---
> So when East Germany closed the western borders, it also literally enclosed WestBerlin within a huge wall, the [[Berlin Wall]].
20c20
< In 1989 the BerlinWall fell and with it the whole CommunisT system of EastGermany, both parts re-united and 
---
> In 1989 the Berlin Wall fell and with it the whole [[Communist]] system of East Germany, both parts re-united and 
------
AyeSpy|985653259
13c13,15
< (obviously, and anybody else) can remove it if you wish. --AstroNomer
---
> (obviously, and anybody else) can remove it if you wish. --AstroNomer
> ----
> Why, thank you!  You are a gentleman and a scholar.  I have not had time to get my pages into commentary, but hope to find that time tonight.  AyeSpy
------
Wiki_special_characters|985653774
151c151,157
< To be continued...
---
> Web standards for writing about mathematics are very recent (in fact MathML 2.0 was just released in February of 2001), so many browsers made before these standards were in place try to compensate by at least allowing characters commonly used in mathematics, including most of the Greek alphabet.  These are necessarily entered as character entity references.
> 
> Examples: <b>&alpha; &beta; &gamma; &Lambda; &Omicron; &Sigma;</b>
> 
> <b>&infin;  &le; &ge; &radic; </b>
> 
> Note generally available: <b>&real; &image; &alefsym; &forall; &exist; &isin; &notin;</b>
156a163,184
> Other somewhat less commonly used symbols include these:
> 
> <pre>
> 
> &dagger;   &amp;dagger;  dagger
> &Dagger;   &amp;Dagger;  double dagger
> &permil;   &amp;permil;  per mille sign
> &lsaquo;   &amp;lsaquo;  single left-pointing angle quote
> &rsaquo;   &amp;rsaquo;  single right-pointing angle quote
> &spades;   &amp;spades;  black spade suit
> &clubs;   &amp;clubs;   black club suit
> &hearts;   &amp;hearts;  black heart suit
> &diams;   &amp;diams;   black diamond suit
> &oline;   &amp;oline;   overline, = spacing overscore
> &larr;   &amp;larr;    leftward arrow
> &uarr;   &amp;uarr;    upward arrow
> &rarr;   &amp;rarr;    rightward arrow
> &darr;   &amp;darr;    downward arrow
> 
> </pre>
> 
> These should be considered unsafe to use except perhaps on pages intended for a specific audience likely to have very up-to-date software on popular machines.
------
Rome|985654244
1c1
< Rome is the capital city of [[Italy]].  It is located on the [[Tiber River]], in the central part of the country near the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. [[Vatican City]], most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the [[papacy]] of the [[Roman Catholic church]].
---
> Rome is the capital city of [[Italy]].  It is located on the [[Tiber River]], in the central part of the country near the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]]. [[Vatican City]], most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the [[Pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic church]].
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985655915
8c8,10
< [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]]
---
> [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]]
> ----
> [[/Investigator as Philosopher]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Investigator_as_Philosopher|985655953
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer. What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
>  
> Consider: Holmes observed the world around him in a manner which took into account the most minor details. Those around him seldom detected the same "clues" and when they did, the evidence in front of their eyes was empty to them. Conan Doyle may or may not have consciously given Holmes an unfair leg up over his compatriots - but regardless of intent, that advantage existed. 
> 
> It is unlikely that persons who have not undertaken one form or another of professional investigation will detect how the "Holmes" world view differed from others. It is equally unlikely that it would reveal itself to professional investigators (be they involved in science, law enforcement or private investigation) who have not also made a targeted study of the science of logic and its associated processes. 
> 
> In one view, the subject of logic can be seen as a study involving datasets, relationships between them, belonging and not-belonging. This view will serve as well as any other to illustrate the synergy which exists between the three most basic elements of successful investigative technique:
>  
> #'''Perception''' 
> #'''Knowledge Base''' 
> #'''Logic'''
>  
> One must be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor. And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing. Factually, this may be one of the most rarely developed investigative skills. Although preconception impedes observation, too many investigators of all kinds approach a scene with definite ideas as to what they are looking for, what they expect to see, and what they expect it to mean. Even having viewed a scene initially without preconception, many are incapable of rehabilitating former observations to neutral value once they have assigned a given meaning or interpretation to them. Thus, when new or unexpected knowledge is available to inform old observations, these individuals are handicapped. They cannot look and make new, unbiased observations, nor remove the coloration previously applied to former observations so as to view them in light of newly available knowledge. 
> 
> The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them. That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data. The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances. Take this example: A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 AM and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM. What are we to make of this? In a vacuum of information, nothing. Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart. Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive. But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time. Time explained. But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered. 
> 
> Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed? It was no more nor less than this: His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era. He knew the smell of paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin. Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem. 'Nuff said? A further, though less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation. Multiple datasets in reference to a single clue generally did not exist. 
> 
> The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers." These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright feeble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison). In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'. 
> 
> '''Here's how:''' 
> 
> First, the prospective investigator should be encouraged to continually expand his or her knowledge base. There should be no off-limits learning. If one is to investigate in the field of medications, reactions and drug development, then the first and most important datasets to acquire would obviously deal with such things as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, and the like. Other areas of investigative specialty would likewise benefit most greatly from studies of their related datasets.
>  
> Second, in one fashion or another, the prospect should be educated in the logical concept of "belonging." Taken grossly, this concept could relate to things as obvious as a cooking stove in a living room or, conversely, a kitchen with no stove. Things which ought to belong to a scenario and which are present in the expected condition, receive the lowest importance in investigative observation, and things which are present when they do not belong or absent when they do belong receive first attention. First, of course, one observes the scene and makes no evaluation. Then one evaluates observed elements relative to each other. Lastly, one evaluates observed elements relative to datasets which are not implicit in the scene, but are rather contained in the investigator's head or his reference sources. 
> 
> Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process. Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential. In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme. Why does our guy move so slowly? A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 24" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound. 
> 
> A synergy exists between personal ability (as in native capacity for data-processing volume and speed, sensory acuity, etc.), perception, knowledge and logic. Increases in the appliciation of each factor can multiply the results available from the application of each other factor. 
> 
> How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber? The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint. He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter. Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen. The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed. E.G.: Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder? Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing? Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints? Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint? How was the tubing secured? How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood? The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc. The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation. 
> 
> If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused. If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective.
>  
> '''What does all this have to do with philosophy?''' 
> 
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge. In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible. One sees, for instance, a chair. According to Russell, this would be a misstatement. The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible. Therefore, one does not see it at all. One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image. Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer. On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist. Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation. From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed. In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. 
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985656180
10a11,12
> ----
> [[/Ethics or Morals]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Ethics_or_Morals|985656219
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
> 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."  Perhaps somthing of the original difference between the words lingers in modern understanding.
> 
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. ''Character'' and ''custom,'' however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
> 
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that “good,” or “right,” would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life; and “bad” or “wrong” would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
> While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  Social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary. They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group. Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them. 
> 
> One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that modernly, compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research. Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration. In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard. Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character. 
> While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by a Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa. 
> 
> Consider: It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies. Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful. One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema. On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, caused by a type of protein known as a “preon” which multiplies within its host and can be spread by ingestion, literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism. This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival. By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad." And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it. But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science. 
> Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members. These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes. Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins. Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue." In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm. There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts. 
> 
> The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense. "We must do this or perish." He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes. How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insight and understanding? One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff. So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are often established. Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in authority and buttressed by the power of the group. 
> 
> Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities. Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to viability in and of themselves. However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others. As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival. This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created. 
> 
> So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside. A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter. Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical. Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
>  
> Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985656308
1,24c1
< Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
< 
< The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."  Perhaps somthing of the original difference between the words lingers in modern understanding.
< 
< Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. ''Character'' and ''custom,'' however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
< 
< It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that “good,” or “right,” would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life; and “bad” or “wrong” would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
< While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  Social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary. They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group. Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them. 
< 
< One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that modernly, compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research. Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration. In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard. Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character. 
< While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by a Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa. 
< 
< Consider: It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies. Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful. One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema. On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, caused by a type of protein known as a “preon” which multiplies within its host and can be spread by ingestion, literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism. This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival. By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad." And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it. But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science. 
< Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members. These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes. Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins. Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue." In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm. There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts. 
< 
< The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense. "We must do this or perish." He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes. How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insight and understanding? One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff. So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are often established. Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in authority and buttressed by the power of the group. 
< 
< Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities. Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to viability in and of themselves. However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others. As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival. This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created. 
< 
< So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside. A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter. Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical. Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
<  
< Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
< 
< /Talk
---
> 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985656369
1,39c1
< ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer. What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
<  
< Consider: Holmes observed the world around him in a manner which took into account the most minor details. Those around him seldom detected the same "clues" and when they did, the evidence in front of their eyes was empty to them. Conan Doyle may or may not have consciously given Holmes an unfair leg up over his compatriots - but regardless of intent, that advantage existed. 
< 
< It is unlikely that persons who have not undertaken one form or another of professional investigation will detect how the "Holmes" world view differed from others. It is equally unlikely that it would reveal itself to professional investigators (be they involved in science, law enforcement or private investigation) who have not also made a targeted study of the science of logic and its associated processes. 
< 
< In one view, the subject of logic can be seen as a study involving datasets, relationships between them, belonging and not-belonging. This view will serve as well as any other to illustrate the synergy which exists between the three most basic elements of successful investigative technique:
<  
< #'''Perception''' 
< #'''Knowledge Base''' 
< #'''Logic'''
<  
< One must be able to see the world in front of one's nose in order to succeed at an investigative endeavor. And by that, it is meant only to perceive - not to perceive and imbue with meaning and nuance, but merely perceive - to be accurate and complete in perception, to record accurately what is perceived, and to add or subtract nothing. Factually, this may be one of the most rarely developed investigative skills. Although preconception impedes observation, too many investigators of all kinds approach a scene with definite ideas as to what they are looking for, what they expect to see, and what they expect it to mean. Even having viewed a scene initially without preconception, many are incapable of rehabilitating former observations to neutral value once they have assigned a given meaning or interpretation to them. Thus, when new or unexpected knowledge is available to inform old observations, these individuals are handicapped. They cannot look and make new, unbiased observations, nor remove the coloration previously applied to former observations so as to view them in light of newly available knowledge. 
< 
< The oft-overlooked fact is that things perceived do not have meaning inherent in them. That which is perceived must be compared to a knowledge base to determine what relationships exist between elements observed and other known data. The relationships that are available serve to establish what meaning or sets of meanings may be attributed to observed items, facts or circumstances. Take this example: A suspect leaves his house at 8:00 AM and arrives in a neighboring town at 10:00 AM. What are we to make of this? In a vacuum of information, nothing. Now consider that the towns are 26 miles apart. Suddenly, the two hours seems excessive. But the highway between the towns was blocked by a toxic spill cleanup operation for a time. Time explained. But the suspect had foreknowledge of the spill and a helicopter at his disposal... and on and on until all data which would lend meaning to the evidence is gathered. 
< 
< Has the reader guessed by this time what important special advantage Holmes possessed? It was no more nor less than this: His knowledge base encompassed everything that was known about anything anywhere in the world in the Victorian Era. He knew the smell of paralytic poison manufactured from the sap of a tree which grew only in the Amazon Basin. Every single clue in every case he ever worked bore upon some knowledge which he possessed, no matter how remote the source of that knowledge might seem. 'Nuff said? A further, though less important advantage with which he was blessed by his creator was that each clue, on the whole, was subject to only a single interpetation. Multiple datasets in reference to a single clue generally did not exist. 
< 
< The above brings us to the subject of Holmes' logical facility, or "deductive powers." These were generally assumed to be a feature of unmatched native intelligence (Never mind that Watson was made to appear downright feeble-minded from time to time, in order to show Holmes as brilliant by comparison). In fact, anyone of average intelligence or better can be trained to utilize "deduction" on a par with Holmes'. 
< 
< '''Here's how:''' 
< 
< First, the prospective investigator should be encouraged to continually expand his or her knowledge base. There should be no off-limits learning. If one is to investigate in the field of medications, reactions and drug development, then the first and most important datasets to acquire would obviously deal with such things as chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, and the like. Other areas of investigative specialty would likewise benefit most greatly from studies of their related datasets.
<  
< Second, in one fashion or another, the prospect should be educated in the logical concept of "belonging." Taken grossly, this concept could relate to things as obvious as a cooking stove in a living room or, conversely, a kitchen with no stove. Things which ought to belong to a scenario and which are present in the expected condition, receive the lowest importance in investigative observation, and things which are present when they do not belong or absent when they do belong receive first attention. First, of course, one observes the scene and makes no evaluation. Then one evaluates observed elements relative to each other. Lastly, one evaluates observed elements relative to datasets which are not implicit in the scene, but are rather contained in the investigator's head or his reference sources. 
< 
< Such labeling of logical process as "syllogism" are unnecessary to this educational process. Classification of types of "belonging" or "not-belonging" are helpful but not essential. In an investigation where an unknown subject's movements repeatedly seem to take more time than expected, for instance, the classification of this repeated fact as multiple instances of "too much time" might lead the investigator to examine the available facts for things which might explain that one repeating theme. Why does our guy move so slowly? A concomitant observation at various scenes of parallel, narrow tracks occurring 24" apart might indicate the possibility of a suspect who is wheelchair-bound. 
< 
< A synergy exists between personal ability (as in native capacity for data-processing volume and speed, sensory acuity, etc.), perception, knowledge and logic. Increases in the appliciation of each factor can multiply the results available from the application of each other factor. 
< 
< How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber? The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint. He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter. Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen. The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed. E.G.: Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder? Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing? Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints? Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint? How was the tubing secured? How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood? The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc. The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation. 
< 
< If a skilled plumber makes the same observations, but is hindered by preconception (such as that the optimum repair of all defects is a complete replacement, thus maximizing profit), then he never will find out how the leaks were caused. If an individual knows plumbing concepts but cannot observe, his interpretation of a scene will likewise be defective.
<  
< '''What does all this have to do with philosophy?''' 
< 
< The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge. In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible. One sees, for instance, a chair. According to Russell, this would be a misstatement. The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible. Therefore, one does not see it at all. One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image. Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer. On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist. Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation. From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed. In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. 
< 
< /Talk
---
> 
------
InvestigatorAsPhilosopher|985657114
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Investigator as Philosopher]]
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985657168
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Commentary/Ethics or Morals]]. 
------
Wikipedia_Commentary/Ethics_or_Morals|985657354
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
> 
> The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."  Perhaps somthing of the original difference between the words lingers in modern understanding.
> 
> Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. ''Character'' and ''custom,'' however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
> 
> It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that “good,” or “right,” would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life; and “bad” or “wrong” would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
> While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  Social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary. They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group. Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them. 
> 
> One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that modernly, compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research. Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration. In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard. Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character. 
> While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by a Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa. 
> 
> Consider: It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies. Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful. One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema. On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, caused by a type of protein known as a “preon” which multiplies within its host and can be spread by ingestion, literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism. This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival. By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad." And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it. But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science. 
> Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members. These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes. Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins. Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue." In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm. There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts. 
> 
> The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense. "We must do this or perish." He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes. How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insight and understanding? One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff. So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are often established. Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in authority and buttressed by the power of the group. 
> 
> Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities. Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to viability in and of themselves. However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others. As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival. This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created. 
> 
> So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside. A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter. Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical. Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
>  
> Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
------
LALR|985658144
1a2,3
> 
> In what context?  This strikes me as a fairly useless entry unless there is an explanation of who uses this acronym, and what the meaning of 'Look Ahead Left Reduce' is!
------
Wiki_special_characters|985658731
1,3c1
< <i>This is still a work in progress!</i> --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< 
< Many characters not in the repertoire of stnadard [[ASCII]] will be useful--even necessary--for Wiki pages, especially the international pages.  This page contains my recommendations for which characters are safe to use and how to use them.  There are three ways to enter a non-ASCII character into a Wiki page:
---
> Many characters not in the repertoire of standard [[ASCII]] will be useful--even necessary--for Wiki pages, especially the international pages.  This page contains my recommendations for which characters are safe to use and how to use them.  There are three ways to enter a non-ASCII character into a Wiki page:
11c9,11
< First of all, the most common [[extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  If a web server serves pages with characters outside the normal ASCII range, without announcing which set is being used, it is probably safest to assume ISO-8859-1 (though it is also quite common for servers to be misconfigured, and to serve other character sets unannounced).  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1252 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines (but not necessarily vice versa).  The most common Roman character sets other than ISO-8859-1 are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, Macintosh Roman, and other ISO sets such as ISO-8859-2.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  Other ISO sets are generally intended to be read by other browsers using those same sets in the same country, and so those pages should use a language-specific set.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, and its native character set contains many of the common international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
---
> First of all, the most common [[extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  Wikipedia pages are identified by the server as containing ISO-8859-1 text.  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1252 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines.  The most common Latin character sets other than ISO-8859-1 are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, Macintosh Roman, and other ISO sets such as ISO-8859-2.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  Other ISO sets are generally intended to be read by other browsers using those same sets in the same country, and so those pages should use a language-specific set.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, are not limited to any specific language, and its native character set contains many of the common international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
> 
> So I recommend for maximum compatibility that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are also available on the native Macintosh character set should be used directly as 8-bit characters in all Wiki pages primarily in English, Spanish, French, German, and languages that require no more special characters than those (such as Catalan).
13c13
< So I recommend that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are available on the native Macintosh character set can be used directly as 8-bit characters in all Wiki pages primarily in English, Spanish, French, German, and languages that require no more special characters than those (such as Catalan).
---
> These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.  Note that some Windows users may have trouble with versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.
15c15
< These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors on using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Also, some users may have trouble with versions of Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.
---
> Despite their general safety, at this time, it is not possible to use these characters in Wiki page titles.
19c19
< <pre><nowiki>
---
> <pre>
103c103
< </nowiki></pre>
---
> </pre>
105c105
< This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style pubctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Roman alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Roman alphabet at all such as Japanese).
---
> This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style pubctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Latin alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Latin alphabet at all such as Japanese).
109c109
< Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO-8859-1 set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Icelandic/Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.
---
> Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO-8859-1 set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.
121,124d120
< <h3>Workarounds</h3>
< 
< To be continued...
< 
128a125,126
> For many of these, adequate substitutes and workarounds are available, and should be used when the value of making the text available to users of older computers and software exceeds the value of good presentation to those with newer software (in the judgment of the author or editor).
> 
134,144c132,137
< 
< &lsquo;O   &amp;lsquo;  left single quote
< &rsquo;O   &amp;rsquo;  right sigle quote
< &ldquo;O   &amp;ldquo;  left double quote
< &rdquo;O   &amp;rdquo;  right double quote
< &mdash;O   &amp;mdash;  em dash
< &ndash;O   &amp;ndash;  en dash
< 
< &sbquo;O   &amp;sbquo;  single low-9 quote
< &bdquo;O   &amp;bdquo;  double low-9 quote
< 
---
> &lsquo;O  &amp;lsquo;  left single quote     &sbquo;O  &amp;sbquo;  single low-9 quote
> &rsquo;O  &amp;rsquo;  right sigle quote     &bdquo;O  &amp;bdquo;  double low-9 quote
> &ldquo;O  &amp;ldquo;  left double quote
> &rdquo;O  &amp;rdquo;  right double quote
> &mdash;O  &amp;mdash;  em dash
> &ndash;O  &amp;ndash;  en dash
147,148d139
< To be continued...
< 
151c142,144
< Web standards for writing about mathematics are very recent (in fact MathML 2.0 was just released in February of 2001), so many browsers made before these standards were in place try to compensate by at least allowing characters commonly used in mathematics, including most of the Greek alphabet.  These are necessarily entered as character entity references.
---
> Web standards for writing about mathematics are very recent (in fact MathML 2.0 was just released in February of 2001), so many browsers made before these standards were in place try to compensate by at least allowing characters commonly used in mathematics, including most of the Greek alphabet.  These are necessarily entered as character entity references.  Browsers often render these by switching to a "Symbol" font or something similar.
> 
> Upper- and lowercase Greek letters simply use their full names for character entities.  These should, of course, only be used for occasional Greek letters in primarily-Latin text.  Actual Greek-language text should be written using a Greek character set to avoid bloated files and slow response.  Here are a few samples:
153c146,153
< Examples: <b>&alpha; &beta; &gamma; &Lambda; &Omicron; &Sigma;</b>
---
> <pre>
> &alpha;  &amp;alpha;      &Gamma;  &amp;Gamma;
> &beta;  &amp;beta;       &Lambda;  &amp;Lambda;
> &gamma;  &amp;gamma;      &Sigma;  &amp;Sigma;
> &pi;  &amp;pi;         &Pi;  &amp;Pi;
> &sigma;  &amp;sigma;      &Omega;  &amp;Omega;
> &sigmaf;  &amp;sigmaf; ("final" sigma, lowercase only)
> </pre>
155c155
< <b>&infin;  &le; &ge; &radic; </b>
---
> Other common math symbols:
157c157,165
< Note generally available: <b>&real; &image; &alefsym; &forall; &exist; &isin; &notin;</b>
---
> <pre>
> &ne;  &amp;ne;         &prime;  &amp;prime;
> &le;  &amp;le;         &Prime;  &amp;Prime;
> &ge;  &amp;ge;         &part;  &amp;part;
> &equiv;  &amp;equiv;      &int;  &amp;int;
> &asymp;  &amp;asymp;      &sum;  &amp;sum;
> &infin;  &amp;infin;      &prod;  &amp;prod;
> &radic;  &amp;radic;
> </pre>
167,180c175,188
< &dagger;   &amp;dagger;  dagger
< &Dagger;   &amp;Dagger;  double dagger
< &permil;   &amp;permil;  per mille sign
< &lsaquo;   &amp;lsaquo;  single left-pointing angle quote
< &rsaquo;   &amp;rsaquo;  single right-pointing angle quote
< &spades;   &amp;spades;  black spade suit
< &clubs;   &amp;clubs;   black club suit
< &hearts;   &amp;hearts;  black heart suit
< &diams;   &amp;diams;   black diamond suit
< &oline;   &amp;oline;   overline, = spacing overscore
< &larr;   &amp;larr;    leftward arrow
< &uarr;   &amp;uarr;    upward arrow
< &rarr;   &amp;rarr;    rightward arrow
< &darr;   &amp;darr;    downward arrow
---
> &dagger;  &amp;dagger;  dagger
> &Dagger;  &amp;Dagger;  double dagger
> &loz;  &amp;loz;     lozenge
> &permil;  &amp;permil;  per mille sign
> &lsaquo;  &amp;lsaquo;  single left-pointing angle quote
> &rsaquo;  &amp;rsaquo;  single right-pointing angle quote
> &spades;  &amp;spades;  black spade suit
> &clubs;  &amp;clubs;   black club suit
> &hearts;  &amp;hearts;  black heart suit
> &diams;  &amp;diams;   black diamond suit
> &larr;  &amp;larr;    leftward arrow
> &uarr;  &amp;uarr;    upward arrow
> &rarr;  &amp;rarr;    rightward arrow
> &darr;  &amp;darr;    downward arrow
------
Portland_Oregon|985659123
6a7,9
> Portland is on the south side of the Columbia River and is known as the CIty of Roses.
> 
> 
------
SandBox|985659163
47,67d46
< '''Spanish special characters'''
< <table width=30% border=2>
< <tr><td>129<td><font size=+2>ü</font></tr>
< <tr><td>130<td><font size=+2>é</font></tr>
< <tr><td>160<td><font size=+2>á</font></tr>
< <tr><td>161<td><font size=+2>í</font></tr>
< <tr><td>162<td><font size=+2>ó</font></tr>
< <tr><td>163<td><font size=+2>ú</font></tr>
< <tr><td>164<td><font size=+2>ñ</font></tr>
< <tr><td>165<td><font size=+2>Ñ</font></tr>
< <tr><td>0161<td><font size=+2>¡</font></tr>
< <tr><td>0191<td><font size=+2>¿</font></tr>
< </table>
< 
< Note: the characters above are entered using the non-standard Microsoft Windows 8-bit character set, and will no doubt appear incorrect on Unix and Macintosh machines.  Wiki seems to accept HTML character entities and pass them through unharmed, so these should be used to enter special characters.  For example, <b>&amp;agrave;</b> = <b>&agrave;</b>; <b>&amp;ntilde;</b> = <b>&ntilde;</b>; <b>&amp;Ccedil;</b> = <b>&Ccedil;</b>; <b>&amp;Uuml;</b> = <b>&Uuml;</b>, etc.  For a more complete list, see [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/entities.html Character Entity References in HTML 4].  These should display correctly on any system; assuming, of course, that the web browser being used on that system is compliant with the public specification of HTML 4 (most are today). --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< 
< --
< 
< The last two characters are using the non-standard system and won't show up properly, but everthing that uses only a three digit code is using [[ASCII]] and I think should show up properly.  At least, I've tried the ones listed on the [[Wiki ASCII code page]] on several different computers, including an XWindows terminal, and they've always seemed to work.  They have the advantage of being much less cumbersome to type, but the disadvantage of being much less comprehensive.
< 
< --
69,75c48,49
< Nothing over 127 is ASCII--ASCII is only a 7-bit code.  The "safe"
< characters above are from ISO-8859-1, which is used by most X servers
< and (with some minor modifications) MS Windows.  The Macintosh is where
< you'll probably run into problems, and computers sold in foreign
< markets.  8-bit characters are always ambiguous; entity references are
< not (though they may be unsupported by early browsers).  I think it's
< most important that the information be clear and unambiguous, so I think it's better to use the entity references.
---
> Special characters and math symbols: see [[Wiki special characters]].  Use this space to experiment
> with what is available on your browser.
107,126d80
< Test edit.  Another test edit.  Another test edit.
< 
< by the power of greyskull
< 
< -----
< 
< Testing.  Testing.  1-2-3.
< :allyourbasesarebelongtous
<  monospaced text here
< #what does this do?
< #And this?
< SandBox
< Sand Box [[SandBox]]
< 
< <font size=+3><b><i>I think I got it</b></i></font>
< 
< <font size=+3 color=red><b><i>I say, you've got it!!!</b></i></font>
< 
< testtesttest!!!!!!!
< 
129,151c83
< --------------
< [[My Great pages|My Grate Page's]]----
< <font size=+3><b>&alpha; , &beta; , &gamma; , &delta; , &epsilon; , &zeta; , &eta; , &theta; , &iota; , &kappa; , &lambda; , &mu; , &nu; , &xi; , &omicron; , &pi; , &rho; ,
< &sigma; , &tau; , &upsilon; , &phi; , &chi; , &psi; , &omega; </b></font>
< Eureka..
< &alpha;
< For [[Josh Grosse]]...
< <font size=+3><b>&sigmaf;</b></font>
< 
< That's so cool!  Is there any way to do a funny sigma, the kind at the end of words? It's a bit much to type for words...it would be neat if we could have an automatic detransliterator, but I guess having stuff in Greek isn't that important - just having the letters is good.
< 
< You know, once I have these, I can just copy and paste them in: &#920; ...and it looks like it automatically converts it to one of the HTML special symbols.  Again, very cool.  But not all the symbols that are listed on the page Lee Daniel's gives work on my computer: &thetasym; &upsih; &piv;
< <br>And on the other hand, &sigmaf;, which it says not to use, works just fine.  Hmmm.
< 
< On ''this'' computer the special symbols don't work.  Things specified by numbers, like &#920;, show up funny; things specified by words, like &Theta;, don't get reinterpreted at all.  This is a unix terminal running netscape 4.73, so it might not be any great tragedy, but it would be neat if there was a way to fail gracefully.
< 
< Try using Mozilla; it does this sort of thing right.  It supports all the HTML4 entity references, and even knows how to fail gracefully when using a character set that doesn't have the character specified.  For example, the em dash and "curly" quotes are not present is ISO-8859-1, and thus not present in most X character sets.  So if you use the <b>&amp;mdash;</b> entity, it will show up as a proper em dash&mdash;like this&mdash;on Windows and Macintosh machines (whose character sets do have it), and it will be translated into two hyphens--like this--on a Linux machine.
< 
< That's not really the point though...the computer isn't mine to change, I was just testing it as a representative other-system of the sort that readers may frequently have.  If many people can't see the new ISO characters, than it could be a problem - saying they need to upgrade is kind of a handwavey gloss.  We need to replace [[Wiki ASCII codes page]] with some new resource explaining all of what to use and what not to use.  The SandBox isn't supposed to be [[How does one edit a page]].
< ----
< <font size=+3><b> &forall; , &exist; , &ang; , &sum; , &there4; </b></font>
< 
< Wow!  Logicians should be happy!
---
> Goll dang it, I want to [[use (parentheses in titles)]]!  If not that way, then [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) This (way)]!
156,157d87
< Goll dang it, I want to [[use (parentheses in titles)]]!  If not that way, then [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?This_(way) This (way)]!
< ----
173d102
< Teletype: Yes
174a104
> Teletype: Yes
178d107
< 
181d109
< 
183,197d110
< 
< 
< Format for a Reference List:Yes!!!
< 
< 
< <h3><b>For Further Reading</b></h3>
< 
< Math Symbols:
< 
< Infinity: Yes- Eureka.
< 
< "as <b>x</b> approaches &infin;..."
< 
< 
< 
------
Oregon|985659588
5,6c5
< bottle bills, but has also suffered under the decline of its lumber and steel
< industries.  
---
> bottle bills, but has also suffered under the rapid pace of logging its forests.  
16c15
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]].
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]], the mouth of the Columbia River.
18c17
< Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign sickness and disease that depopulated nearly all of the native americans tribes. [[Astoria Oregon]] was established by representatives of [[John Jacob Astor]]'s [[American Fur Company]] in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
---
> Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign sickness and disease that affected all of the Native Americans peoples. [[Astoria Oregon]] was established by representatives of [[John Jacob Astor]]'s [[American Fur Company]] in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
26c25
< The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native americans vs. English fur trappers, English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas, loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay, pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
---
> The state has a long history of polarizing conflicts between its citizens:  Native Americans vs. English fur trappers, English vs. settlers from the U.S., ranchers vs. farmers, wealthy growing cities vs. established but poor rural areas, loggers vs. environmentalists, white supremicists vs. anti-racists, and native-Oregonians vs. Californians (or outsiders in general).  The state ballots frequently experience the extremes of the political spectrum - anti-gay, pro-religions measures on the same ballot as liberal drug-decriminalization measures.  
35,36c34
< dairy products, potatoes, and peppermint are all valuable products.  Vast pine
< forests have made Oregon the nation's major lumbering state since 1950.  In recent
---
> dairy products, potatoes, and peppermint are all valuable products.  Vast forests have made Oregon the nation's major lumbering state since 1950.  In recent
39,43c37
< Oregon has one of the largest salmon-fishing industries, and great care has been
< taken by the hydroelectric companies to preserve the habitats and migrational
< patterns of this fish.  Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen
< mountain forests, pristine lakes (including CraterLake), and scenic beaches draw 
< visitors year round.
---
> Oregon has had one of the largest salmon-fishing industries in the world, although ocean fisheries have reduced the river fisheries in recent years.   Tourism is also strong in the state; Oregon's evergreen mountain forests, waterfalls, pristine lakes (including Crater Lake National Park), and scenic beaches draw visitors year round.
------
New_York_City|985659650
9c9,10
< It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.
---
> It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.----
> Duplicate entry but not content. See [[City of New York]]
------
Alaska|985660307
3c3
< Capital, [[Juneau]].  Largest city, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]].  There are places in Alaska that are just [[BLM]] land or [[National Forest]] land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.
---
> Capital, [[Juneau]].  Largest city, [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]].  Many acres of Alaska are managed by the federal government as National Forests, National Parks, and National Wildlife Refuges. There are places in Alaska that are general public lands ([[BLM]]) land but they're more spectacular than many national parks in the the [[Lower 48]].  Every Alaska state park would be a national park in the lower 48.  Many acres of Alaska are managed by corporations (mostly, Native Alaska corporations, of which there are 13 regional ones and dozens of local ones).
7c7
< Largest state in the United States in terms of land area (615,230 sq mi).
---
> Largest state in the United States in terms of land area (615,230 sq mi).  If you superimposed Alaska on the Lower 48, Alaska touches Minnesota and Texas, as well as Georgia and California.
9c9
< At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [[United States Senate]] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov])
---
> At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [[United States Senate]] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov]).  Today Alaska celebrates the purchase on Seward's Day, the last Monday of March and the flag-raising on Alaska Day, the 18th of October.
------
Juneau|985660839
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The capital city of Alaska is Juneau.  The State Legislature meets in the Territorial Building.
> 
> Juneau has 30.000 people, one bridge to Douglas Island, an aiport and dead-end roads.  If you want to bring your car to Juneau, you'll have to put it on a barge or a ferry first.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|985660854
5c5
< Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly Ireland after that.  This is all possible because [[Larry Sanger]] works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
66c66
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
------
DonegalFiddleTradition|985660880
1,7c1
< A kind of IrishTraditionalMusic.  A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the FidDle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of FidDle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
< 
< There is a so-called Donegal style of fiddling, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.  To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more straight-ahead (unswung) in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reels and jigs); short (one-note-per-bowstroke), aggressive bowing; relatively sparse ornamentation; the use of bowed triplets more than rolls (an ornament like a turn) as ornaments; and the use of double stops and droning (playing on more than one string at once).  None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all.  But in general, aggressive and lively fiddling is very often heard in Donegal, which many listeners find exciting.  Donegal styles have been influenced to a great extent by southern Irish styles as well as Scottish and Shetland Island styles and repertoire, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Highland bagpipes (the so-called Scottish warpipes).  Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played.  Highlands, a 4/4 type of tune based on Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county.  Other tune types common in the county, but relatively uncommon elsewhere, include barndances, also called "germans," and mazurkas.
< 
< There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of FidDle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
< 
< '''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/the+Donegal+fiddle+tradition/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Donegal fiddle tradition]]
------
Juneau|985660886
1c1
< The capital city of Alaska is Juneau.  The State Legislature meets in the Territorial Building.
---
> The capital city of [[Alaska]] is Juneau.  The State Legislature meets in the Territorial Building.
------
Donegal_fiddle_tradition|985660909
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kind of [[Irish traditional music]].  A tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the FidDle in County Donegal, Ireland.  Donegal is a remote, partly Irish-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of Ulster that are part of the Republic of Ireland.  Donegal's tradition of FidDle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
> 
> There is a so-called Donegal style of fiddling, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.  To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more straight-ahead (unswung) in the playing of the fast dance tune types (reels and jigs); short (one-note-per-bowstroke), aggressive bowing; relatively sparse ornamentation; the use of bowed triplets more than rolls (an ornament like a turn) as ornaments; and the use of double stops and droning (playing on more than one string at once).  None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all.  But in general, aggressive and lively fiddling is very often heard in Donegal, which many listeners find exciting.  Donegal styles have been influenced to a great extent by southern Irish styles as well as Scottish and Shetland Island styles and repertoire, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Highland bagpipes (the so-called Scottish warpipes).  Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played.  Highlands, a 4/4 type of tune based on Scottish strathspeys, which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county.  Other tune types common in the county, but relatively uncommon elsewhere, include barndances, also called "germans," and mazurkas.
> 
> There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of FidDle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  Hugh Doherty is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, John Doherty.  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.  Other representatives, now dead, of older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy.  A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was Hugh Gillespie.  Some great Donegal fiddlers are still alive, including James Byrne, Vincent Campbell, John Gallagher, Paddy Glackin, Danny O'Donnell, and Tommy Peoples.  Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" Altan, Maireád Ní Mhaonaigh, Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, Dermot Byrne, the button accordion player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  
> ----
> An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/the+Donegal+fiddle+tradition/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent?.
------
Ohio_State_University|985660968
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Located in [[Columbus, Ohio]], one of the largest single-campus universities in the [[United States]], noted especially for its [[linguistics]] department and [[education]] school.
------
Calculus|985660981
7a8,9
> ----
> First, I think a page on Calculus should reflect current word usage in Mathematics. Therefore, functions are rules that assign  to each member of a specified domain a value in a specified range. We do not speak of independent and dependent variables in Math, hardly ever, any more. I am not sure this terminolgy, while easy to remember, is the what we want a learner to retain.
8a11,16
> 
> Second, Calculus, from the first day I opened my first book has always been both Differentiation and Integration and hopefully the relationship between them.
> Therefore, I see this entry as misleading. 
> 
> 
> For the above two reasons, I think it requires a major overhaul in terminology and content. This is a key entry in Math and only Math. In other areas in is ancillary. RoseParks
------
Wiki_special_characters|985661088
13c13
< These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from code page 437.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.  Note that some Windows users may have trouble with versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.
---
> These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from the obsolete code page 437.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.  Note that some Windows users may have trouble with versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.
105c105
< This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style pubctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Latin alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Latin alphabet at all such as Japanese).
---
> This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style punctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Latin alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Latin alphabet at all such as Japanese).
109c109
< Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO-8859-1 set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe.
---
> Note especially what is missing here from the full ISO-8859-1 set: The broken bar (<code>0166=&amp;brvbar;</code>), soft hyphen (<code>0173=&amp;shy;</code>), superscript digits (<code>0178=&amp;sup2;, 0179=&amp;sup3;</code>), vulgar fractions (<code>0188=&amp;frac14;, 0189=&amp;frac12;, 0190=&amp;frac34;</code>), Old English eth and thorn (<code>0208=&amp;ETH;, 0240=&amp;eth;, 0222=&amp;THORN;, 0254=&amp;thorn;</code>), and multiply sign (<code>0215=&amp;times;</code>).  These should be considered unsafe (and adequate substitutes are available for most of them).
------
Architecture|985661361
3c3,4
< Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], and [[Mies van der Rohe]],[[LeCorbusier, who was also a French painter]],[[Michelangelo]],[[Andrea Palladio]],[[and Frank Gehry]].
---
> Some great architects are [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Alvar Aalto]], 
> [[I. M. Pei]] and [[Mies van der Rohe]],[[LeCorbusier, who was also a French painter]],[[Michelangelo]],[[Andrea Palladio]],[[and Frank Gehry]].
------
Alaska|985661411
9c9,12
< At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [[United States Senate]] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov]).  Today Alaska celebrates the purchase on Seward's Day, the last Monday of March and the flag-raising on Alaska Day, the 18th of October.
---
> 
> The first Europeans to reach Alaska came from Russia.  Bering sailed east and saw Mt. St. Elias.  The Russian-American Company hunted otters for their fur.  The colony was never very profitable, because of the costs of transportation.
>   
> At the instigation of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] the [[United States Senate]] approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000 on April 9th, 1867, and the [[United States]] flag was raised on October 18th of that same year. (info from [http://www.senate.gov www.senate.gov]).  Currently, Alaska celebrates the purchase on Seward's Day, the last Monday of March, and the flag-raising on Alaska Day, the 18th of October.
------
Wiki_special_characters|985661855
132,137c132,135
< &lsquo;O  &amp;lsquo;  left single quote     &sbquo;O  &amp;sbquo;  single low-9 quote
< &rsquo;O  &amp;rsquo;  right sigle quote     &bdquo;O  &amp;bdquo;  double low-9 quote
< &ldquo;O  &amp;ldquo;  left double quote
< &rdquo;O  &amp;rdquo;  right double quote
< &mdash;O  &amp;mdash;  em dash
< &ndash;O  &amp;ndash;  en dash
---
> &lsquo;O  &amp;lsquo;  left single quote     &mdash;O  &amp;mdash;  em dash
> &rsquo;O  &amp;rsquo;  right sigle quote     &ndash;O  &amp;ndash;  en dash
> &ldquo;O  &amp;ldquo;  left double quote     &sbquo;O  &amp;sbquo;  single low-9 quote
> &rdquo;O  &amp;rdquo;  right double quote    &bdquo;O  &amp;bdquo;  double low-9 quote
169c167,173
< Some characters such as the bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), euro currency sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), and trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>) are special cases.  They are likely to be understood and rendered in some way by many browsers.  Because they are important for international trade, many computers specifically add them to fonts at some non-standard location and render them when requested, or else render them in special ways that don't require them to be present in a font.  Your browser renders these as <b>&bull;</b>, <b>&euro;</b> and <b>&trade;</b>.
---
> Some characters such as the bullet, euro currency sign, and trade mark sign are special cases.  They are likely to be understood and rendered in some way by many browsers.  Because they are important for international trade, many computers specifically add them to fonts at some non-standard location and render them when requested, or else render them in special ways that don't require them to be present in a font.  See below for how your browser renders these:
> 
> <pre>
> &bull;  &amp;bull;    bullet
> &euro;  &amp;euro;    euro currency sign
> &trade;  &amp;trade;   trade mark sign
> </pre>
174,186c178,183
< 
< &dagger;  &amp;dagger;  dagger
< &Dagger;  &amp;Dagger;  double dagger
< &loz;  &amp;loz;     lozenge
< &permil;  &amp;permil;  per mille sign
< &lsaquo;  &amp;lsaquo;  single left-pointing angle quote
< &rsaquo;  &amp;rsaquo;  single right-pointing angle quote
< &spades;  &amp;spades;  black spade suit
< &clubs;  &amp;clubs;   black club suit
< &hearts;  &amp;hearts;  black heart suit
< &diams;  &amp;diams;   black diamond suit
< &larr;  &amp;larr;    leftward arrow
< &uarr;  &amp;uarr;    upward arrow
---
> &dagger;  &amp;dagger;  dagger             &spades;  &amp;spades;  black spade suit
> &Dagger;  &amp;Dagger;  double dagger      &clubs;  &amp;clubs;   black club suit
> &loz;  &amp;loz;     lozenge            &hearts;  &amp;hearts;  black heart suit
> &permil;  &amp;permil;  per mille sign     &diams;  &amp;diams;   black diamond suit
> &larr;  &amp;larr;    leftward arrow     &lsaquo;  &amp;lsaquo;  single left-pointing angle quote
> &uarr;  &amp;uarr;    upward arrow       &rsaquo;  &amp;rsaquo;  single right-pointing angle quote
189d185
< 
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|985662658
2a3,6
> <b>NOTE</b>: This is more than a matter of taste/convenience.  The codes below are not ASCII; several will not work on many machines (particulary the ones listed as 158, 159, 169, 228, 229, 231, 232, 247), and don't even exist at the codes claimed.  For example, if you type Alt-151 on a Windows machine, you are actually entering code 249, because that's the "new" Windows code page 1252 code for what used to be at position 151 in the now-obsolete pre-Windows code page 437.  The use of the table below is dangerous and misleading.  The codes listed on [[Wiki special characters]] are correct.  Larry seems to want to keep this page around for historical reasons, but I disagree.  This page is simply in error, and should be removed or redirected.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> ----
> 
24,27d27
< No! No!
< 
< ASCII is a 7-bit code.  Anything above 127 is <b>not</b> ASCII and will display in some system-dependent character set.  The character set above is ISO-8859-1, which will work on most Unix boxes and Windows boxes.  ISO also defines some other characters not listed above that Windows does differently.  Macintosh machines do not use ISO-8859-1 at all, and many foreign machines use different sets.  Wiki passes character entities like <b>&amp;eacute;</b> (<b>&eacute;</b>) through unmolested, and those work in any browser that complies with HTML 4+, including Macintoshes and foreign machines.  These should be used for foreign characters (though not titles as Jimbo points out).  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< ----
30c30
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Wiki_special_characters|985662763
188a189,190
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Wiki_special_characters/Talk|985662863
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> At the moment this is worded as a personal recommendation.  After some shakeout, editing and decision making, it should probably be reworded to take out the first-person references.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Wiki_special_characters/Talk|985663130
1c1,30
< At the moment this is worded as a personal recommendation.  After some shakeout, editing and decision making, it should probably be reworded to take out the first-person references.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> At the moment, the "Wiki special characters" page is worded as a personal recommendation.  After some shakeout, editing and decision making, it should probably be reworded to take out the first-person references.
> 
> Below is the old contents of the "Wiki ASCII codes page".  The codes it lists will not work on many machines (particulary the ones listed as 158, 159, 169, 228, 229, 231, 232, 247), and don't even exist at the codes claimed.  For example, if you type Alt-151 on a Windows machine, you are actually entering code 249, because that's the "new" Windows code page 1252 code for what used to be at position 151 in the now-obsolete pre-Windows code page 437.  The use of the table below is dangerous and misleading.  The codes listed on [[Wiki special characters]] are correct, and conform to what the Bomis server actually claims to send (namely, ISO-8859-1).  Larry seems to want to keep this page around for historical reasons, but I disagree.  This page is simply in error, and should be removed or redirected.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> ----
> 
> ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
> 
>  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
>  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
>  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
>  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú                                     211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
>  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ                                     212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
>  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
>  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
>  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
> 
> If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  On some computers  these don't show up properly, but at least default to something similar: 158 (times sign -> x), 167 (underlined ° -> °), 213 (undotted i -> i).
> 
> One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  However, one probably shouldn't, since they don't show up on some machines.
> ----
> 
> These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
> However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> Is anyone taking into consideration that "not everyone" keeps their character map (charmap) set to the default?  I for one, don't even remember what the default was/is.
> 
> /Talk
------
Wiki_ASCII_codes_page|985663280
1,30c1
< Please see [[Wiki special characters]] for a page that many believe should supercede this one.
< 
< <b>NOTE</b>: This is more than a matter of taste/convenience.  The codes below are not ASCII; several will not work on many machines (particulary the ones listed as 158, 159, 169, 228, 229, 231, 232, 247), and don't even exist at the codes claimed.  For example, if you type Alt-151 on a Windows machine, you are actually entering code 249, because that's the "new" Windows code page 1252 code for what used to be at position 151 in the now-obsolete pre-Windows code page 437.  The use of the table below is dangerous and misleading.  The codes listed on [[Wiki special characters]] are correct.  Larry seems to want to keep this page around for historical reasons, but I disagree.  This page is simply in error, and should be removed or redirected.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< 
< ----
< 
< ASCII character codes that I think will work for everybody.  On many systems you can make these by holding down ''alt'' and then, using the number pad, typing the number of the character in question.
< 
<  128 Ç  136 ê  144 É  152 ÿ  160 á  168 ¿         184 ©                208 ð  216 Ï  224 Ó  232 Þ         248 °
<  129 ü  137 ë  145 æ  153 Ö  161 í  169 ®                              209 Ð         225 ß  233 Ú  241 ±  249 ¨
<  130 é  138 è  146 Æ  154 Ü  162 ó  170 ¬                              210 Ê         226 Ô  234 Û         250 ·
<  131 â  139 ï  147 ô  155 ø  163 ú                                     211 Ë         227 Ò  235 Ù
<  132 ä  140 î  148 ö  156 £  164 ñ                                     212 È         228 õ  236 ý  244 ¶
<  133 à  141 ì  149 ò  157 Ø  165 Ñ  173 ¡  181 Á  189 ¢                              229 Õ  237 Ý  245 §
<  134 å  142 Ä  150 û  158 ×  166 ª  174 «  182 Â  190 ¥  198 ã         214 Í         230 µ  238 ¯  246 ÷
<  135 ç  143 Å  151 ù  159 ƒ         175 »  183 À         199 Ã         215 Î         231 þ         247 ¸
< 
< If anything on this table shows up as a normal symbol, like a question mark or underscore, it isn't working and you should erase it so the rest of us know not to use it.  On some computers  these don't show up properly, but at least default to something similar: 158 (times sign -> x), 167 (underlined ° -> °), 213 (undotted i -> i).
< 
< One can also enter ANSI characters by holding down ''alt'' and typing in a number prefixed with a zero.  However, one probably shouldn't, since they don't show up on some machines.
< ----
< 
< These are delightful.  However, I'd like to remind everyone not to use these in page names (i.e. in URLs that you create), because it is my understanding that they will not generally work.
< However, if I'm totally wrong, I hope someone will correct me.
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ----
< Is anyone taking into consideration that "not everyone" keeps their character map (charmap) set to the default?  I for one, don't even remember what the default was/is.
< 
< /Talk
---
> The former contents of this pages are available from [[Wiki special characters/Talk]].  See [[Wiki special characters]] for a better treatment of the subject.
------
Archaeology/Talk|985665064
15c15,18
< Given the Britannica article, I'm betting it's an idiosyncracy.  :-)  The list was parenthetical, after all, and of course physical remains are a sine qua non of archaeological work.  Talking about archaeology without mentioning the physical remains of cultures is a little like talking about music without mentioning musical instruments.  Sure, you can do it, but it's kind of funny not to.  So, why not just choose the artifact types that happen to be most common?  I don't know what they are, so you'll have to change the list. --LS
---
> Given the Britannica article, I'm betting it's an idiosyncracy.  :-)  The list was parenthetical, after all, and of course physical remains are a sine qua non of archaeological work.  Talking about archaeology without mentioning the physical remains of cultures is a little like talking about music without mentioning musical instruments.  Sure, you can do it, but it's kind of funny not to.  So, why not just choose the artifact types that happen to be most common?  I don't know what they are, so you'll have to change the list. --LS
> 
> Ah, there is our difficulty. IMHO, the Britannica definition does not apply well at all to modern American archaeology. The authors seem to have missed some major changes that took place about 30 years ago. (Not to denigrate E.B., but when the first few paragraphs were circulated among my colleagues, they inspired reactions ranging from head-shaking to outright laughter.)  Note that Britannica defines archaeology as the study of "remains" - not the study of human cultures, which is what it is in the Americas. For a non-scholarly alternative, see the Society for American Archaeology at http://www.saa.org/Whatis/index.html. My essential objection to the text I removed is this: there has been more than enough emphasis on archaeology as the study of physical remains - as though that is a goal instead of a method. It is an impression that is stuck in the popular imagination and, frankly, it continually causes problems. I hoped to have an opportunity here to present a definition that might make people stop and think precisely because it <u>didn't</u> mention artifacts.  ("Archaeology - it's not just about artifacts anymore.") Maybe I need to spin off a new page specifically on American archaeology. - [[pemerson]]
> 
------
Gun|985667470
13a14,18
> ''Questioning separation of civilian and military guns: they overlap a heck of a lot, and what might be a civilian gun in one country might be an exclusively military weapon someplace else.''
> 
> Historical types of guns:
> 
> :[[musket]]
------
Animalia|985668171
33d32
<        "Acoelomates"
36d34
<        "Pseudocoelomates"
48d45
<        "Schizocoelomates"
58d54
<      Deuterostomia
61a58
>      Deuterostomia
------
BoMis|985669546
1,3c1,9
< We're not sure what a [http://www.bomis.com/ Bomis] is, but it seems to have a distasteful desire to "steal your pants."  It also features many slogans.
< ----
< Bomis Inc. is an Internet company and the owner of the popular WebSite Bomis.Com.
---
> Bomis? Bomis is a demon - born of a new generation of media. Bomis is a funny place. Bomis is Good. Bomis is evil. Bomis is what happens when you give rednecks degrees - a little gin - and their 16 year old sister's friends staying over for a slumber party.
> 
> Bomis is a search engine for finding all sorts of wonderful things.
> 
> Or losing them.
> 
> Watch your mind - or someone else will. 
> 
> http://www.bomis.com
------
Vietnam|985669916
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> France occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was declared after World War II, but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by communist forces under HO Chi Minh, who took control of the north. US economic and military aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later North Vietnamese forces overran the south. Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
> 
>  [[/Geography]]
>  [[/People]]
>  [[/Government]]
>  [[/Economy]]
>  [[/Communications]]
>  [[/Transporation]]
>  [[/Military]]
>  [[/Transnational Issues]]
------
Vietnam/Geography|985670175
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location</b>: Southeastern [[Asia]], bordering the [[Gulf of Thailand]], [[Gulf of Tonkin]], and [[South China Sea]], alongside [[China]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates</b>: 16 00 N, 106 00 E 
> 
> <b>Area</b>: 
>  total: 329,560 sq km
>  land: 325,360 sq km 
>  water: 4,200 sq km 
> 
> <b>Area - comparative</b>: slightly larger than [[United States/New Mexico]]
> 
> <b>Land boundaries</b>: 
>  total: 4,639 km  
>  border countries: [[Cambodia]] 1,228 km, [[China]] 1,281 km, [[Laos]] 2,130 km 
> 
> <b>Coastline</b>: 3,444 km (excludes islands) 
> 
> <b>Maritime claims</b>: 
>  contiguous zone: 24 nm
>  continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
>  exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
>  territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> <b>Climate</b>: tropical in south; monsoonal in north with hot, rainy season (mid-May to mid-September) and warm, dry season (mid-October to mid-March) 
> 
> <b>Terrain</b>: low, flat delta in south and north; central highlands; hilly, mountainous in far north and northwest 
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes</b>: 
>  lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
>  highest point: Ngoc Linh 3,143 m 
> 
> <b>Natural resources</b>: phosphates, coal, manganese, bauxite, chromate, offshore oil and gas deposits, forests, hydropower 
> 
> <b>Land use</b>: 
>  arable land: 17% 
>  permanent crops: 4% 
>  permanent pastures: 1% 
>  forests and woodland: 30% 
>  other: 48% (1993 est.) 
> 
> <b>Irrigated land</b>: 18,600 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> <b>Natural hazards</b>: occasional typhoons (May to January) with extensive flooding 
> 
> <b>Environment</b> - current issues:
> 
> Logging and slash-and-burn agricultural practices contribute to deforestation and soil degradation; water pollution and overfishing threaten marine life populations; groundwater contamination limits potable water supply; growing urban industrialization and population migration are rapidly degrading environment in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City 
> 
> <b>Environment</b> - international agreements: 
> 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental  Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
> 
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
> 
------
Vietnam/People|985670368
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b> 78,773,873 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Age structure:</b> 
>  0-14 years: 33% (male 13,353,828; female 12,516,289) 
>  15-64 years: 62% (male 23,691,412; female 24,951,397) 
>  65 years and over: 5% (male 1,696,708; female 2,564,239) (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Population growth rate:</b> 1.49% (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Birth rate:</b> 21.62 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Death rate:</b> 6.26 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Net migration rate:</b> -0.51 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Sex ratio:</b> 
>  at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female 
>  under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 
>  15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 
>  65 years and over: 0.66 male(s)/female 
>  total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Infant mortality rate:</b> 31.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Life expectancy at birth:</b> 
>  total population: 69.27 years 
>  male: 66.84 years 
>  female: 71.87 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Total fertility rate:</b> 2.53 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> <b>Nationality:</b>
>  noun: Vietnamese (singular and plural) 
>  adjective: Vietnamese 
> 
> <b>Ethnic groups:</b> Vietnamese 85%-90%, Chinese 3%, Muong, Tai, Meo, Khmer, Man, Cham 
> 
> <b>Religions:</b> Buddhist, Taoist, Roman Catholic, indigenous beliefs, Muslim, Protestant, Cao Dai, Hoa Hao 
> 
> <b>Languages:</b> Vietnamese (official), Chinese, English, French, Khmer, tribal languages (Mon-Khmer and Malayo-Polynesian) 
> 
> <b>Literacy:</b> 
>  definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
>  total population: 93.7% 
>  male: 96.5% 
>  female: 91.2% (1995 est.)
------
Vietnam/Government|985670501
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
>  conventional long form: Socialist Republic of Vietnam 
>  conventional short form: Vietnam 
>  local long form: Cong Hoa Chu Nghia Viet Nam 
>  local short form: Viet Nam 
>  abbreviation: SRV 
> 
> Data code: VM 
> 
> Government type: Communist state 
> 
> Capital: Hanoi 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 58 provinces (tinh, singular and plural), 3 municipalities* (thu do, singular and plural); An Giang, Bac Giang, Bac Kan, Bac Lieu, Bac Ninh, Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Ben Tre, Binh Dinh, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Binh Thuan, Ca Mau, Can Tho, Cao Bang, Dac Lac, Da Nang, Dong Nai, Dong Thap, Gia Lai, Ha Giang, Hai Duong, Hai Phong*, Ha Nam, Ha Noi*, Ha Tay, Ha Tinh, Hoa Binh, Ho Chi Minh*, Hung Yen, Khanh Hoa, Kien Giang, Kon Tum, Lai Chau, Lam Dong, Lang Son, Lao Cai, Long An, Nam Dinh, Nghe An, Ninh Binh, Ninh Thuan, Phu Tho, Phu Yen, Quang Binh, Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Quang Ninh, Quang Tri, Soc Trang, Son La, Tay Ninh, Thai Binh, Thai Nguyen, Thanh Hoa, Thua Thien-Hue, Tien Giang, Tra Vinh, Tuyen Quang, Vinh Long, Vinh Phuc, Yen Bai 
> 
> Independence: 2 September 1945 (from France) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 2 September (1945) 
> 
> Constitution: 15 April 1992 
> 
> Legal system: based on communist legal theory and French civil law system 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> 
> chief of state: President Tran Duc LUONG (since 24 September 1997) and Vice President Nguyen Thi BINH (since NA October 1992) 
> 
> head of government: Prime Minister Phan Van KHAI (since 25 September 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Nguyen Tan DUNG (since 29 September 1997); Deputy Prime Ministers Nguyen Cong TAN (since 29 September 1997), Nguyen Manh CAM (since 29 September 1997), and Pham Gia KHIEM (since 29 September 1997) 
> 
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president on the proposal of the prime minister and ratification of the National Assembly 
> 
> elections: president elected by the National Assembly from among its members for a five-year term; election last held 25 September 1997 (next to be held when National Assembly meets following legislative elections in NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president from among the members of the National Assembly; deputy prime ministers appointed by the prime minister 
> 
> election results: Tran Duc LUONG elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - NA 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Quoc-Hoi (450 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) 
> 
> elections: last held 20 July 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) 
> 
> election results: percent of vote by party - CPV 92%, other 8% (the 8% are not CPV members but are approved by the CPV to stand for election); seats by party - CPV or CPV-approved 450 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme People's Court, chief justice is elected for a five-year term by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the president 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: only party - Communist Party of Vietnam or CPV [Le Kha PHIEU, general secretary] 
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
>  chief of mission: Ambassador LE VAN BANG 
>  chancery: 1233 20th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036, Suite 400 
>  telephone: [1] (202) 861-0737 
>  FAX: [1] (202) 861-0917 
>  consulate(s) general: San Francisco 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
>  chief of mission: Ambassador Douglas B. "Pete" PETERSON 
>  embassy: 7 Lang Ha Road, Ba Dinh District, Hanoi 
>  mailing address: PSC 461, Box 400, FPO AP 96521-0002 
>  telephone: [84] (4) 8431500 
>  FAX: [84] (4) 8350484 
>  consulate(s) general: Ho Chi Minh City 
> 
> Flag description: red with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center 
> 
------
Vietnam/Economy|985670678
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Vietnam is a poor, densely populated country that has had to recover from the ravages of war, the loss of financial support from the old Soviet Bloc, and the rigidities of a centrally planned economy. Substantial progress was achieved from 1986 to 1996 in moving forward from an extremely low starting point - growth averaged around 9% per year from 1993 to 1997. The 1997 Asian financial crisis highlighted the problems existing in the Vietnamese economy but, rather than prompting reform, reaffirmed the government's belief that shifting to a market oriented economy leads to disaster. GDP growth of 8.5% in 1997 fell to 4% in 1998 and rose slightly to an estimated 4.8% in 1999. These numbers masked some major difficulties that are emerging in economic performance. Many domestic industries, including coal, cement, steel, and paper, have reported large stockpiles of inventory and tough competition from more efficient foreign producers. Foreign direct investment has fallen dramatically, from $8.3 billion in 1996 to about $1.6 billion in 1999. Meanwhile, Vietnamese authorities have slowed implementation of the structural reforms needed to revitalize the economy and produce more competitive, export-driven industries. Privatization of state enterprises remains bogged down in political controversy, while the country's dynamic private sector is denied both financing and access to markets. Reform of the banking sector - considered one of the riskiest in the world - is proceeding slowly, raising concerns that the country will be unable to tap sufficient domestic savings to finance growth. Administrative and legal barriers are also causing costly delays for foreign investors and are raising similar doubts about Vietnam's ability to attract additional foreign capital. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $143.1 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,850 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
>  agriculture: 26% 
>  industry: 33% 
>  services: 41% (1998 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 37% (1998 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
>  lowest 10%: 3.5% 
>  highest 10%: 29% (1993) 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 38.2 million (1998 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 67%, industry and services 33% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 25% (1995 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
>  revenues: $5.6 billion
>  expenditures: $6 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.7 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> Industries: food processing, garments, shoes, machine building, mining, cement, chemical fertilizer, glass, tires, oil, coal, steel, paper 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 10.3% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 20.62 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
>  fossil fuel: 12.95% 
>  hydro: 87.05% 
>  nuclear: 0% 
>  other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 19.177 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: paddy rice, corn, potatoes, rubber, soybeans, coffee, tea, bananas; poultry, pigs; fish 
> 
> Exports: $11.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: crude oil, marine products, rice, coffee, rubber, tea, garments, shoes 
> 
> Exports - partners: Japan, Germany, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, France, South Korea, US, China 
> 
> Imports: $11.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, petroleum products, fertilizer, steel products, raw cotton, grain, cement, motorcycles 
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore, South Korea, Japan, France, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, Sweden 
> 
> Debt - external: $7.3 billion Western countries; $4.5 billion CEMA debts primarily to Russia; $9 billion to $18 billion nonconvertible debt (former CEMA, Iraq, Iran) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2 billion in credits and grants pledged by international donors for 1999 and again for 2000 
> 
> Currency: 1 new dong (D) = 100 xu 
> 
> Exchange rates: new dong (D) per US$1 - 14,020 (January 2000), 13,900 (December 1998), 11,100 (December 1996), 11,193 (1995 average), 11,000 (October 1994), 10,800 (November 1993) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
------
Vietnam/Communications|985670721
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 775,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 178,000 (1998) 
> 
> Telephone system: while Vietnam's telecommunication sector lags far behind other countries in Southeast Asia, Hanoi has made considerable progress since 1991 in upgrading the system; Vietnam has digitalized all provincial switch boards, while fiber-optic and microwave transmission systems have been extended from Hanoi, Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City to all provinces; the density of telephone receivers nationwide doubled from 1993 to 1995, but is still far behind other countries in the region 
>  domestic: NA
>  international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 65, FM 7, shortwave 29 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 8.2 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: at least 7 (plus 13 repeaters) (1998) 
> 
> Televisions: 3.57 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (1999) 
------
Vietnam/Transporation|985670778
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
>  total: 2,652 km 
>  standard gauge: 166 km 1.435-m gauge 
>  narrow gauge: 2,249 km 1.000-m gauge 
>  dual gauge: 237 km NA-m gauges (three rails) (1998) 
> 
> Highways: 
>  total: 93,300 km 
>  paved: 23,418 km 
>  unpaved: 69,882 km (1996 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 17,702 km navigable; more than 5,149 km navigable at all times by vessels up to 1.8 m draft 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products 150 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Cam Ranh, Da Nang, Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Gai, Qui Nhon, Nha Trang 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> 
> total: 133 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 616,115 GRT/941,611 DWT 
> 
> ships by type: bulk 7, cargo 103, chemical tanker 1, combination bulk 1, container 1, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 15, refrigerated cargo 4 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 48 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
>  total: 36 
>  over 3,047 m: 8 
>  2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 
>  1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 
>  914 to 1,523 m: 13 
>  under 914 m: 7 (1994 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
>  total: 12 
>  1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 
>  914 to 1,523 m: 5 
>  under 914 m: 5 (1994 est.) 
> 
------
Vietnam/Military|985670815
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) (includes Ground Forces, Navy, and Air Force), Coast Guard 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 17 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
>  males age 15-49: 21,149,579 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
>  males age 15-49: 13,335,337 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
>  males: 949,532 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $650 million (FY98) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.5% (FY98) 
> 
> 
------
Vietnam/Transnational_Issues|985670865
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: maritime boundary with Cambodia not defined; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary with Thailand resolved, August 1997; maritime boundary dispute with China in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; offshore islands and sections of boundary with Cambodia are in dispute; agreement on land border with China was signed in December 1999, but details of alignment have not been made public 
> 
> Illicit drugs: minor producer of opium poppy with 2,100 hectares cultivated in 1999, capable of producing 11 metric tons of opium; probably minor transit point for Southeast Asian heroin destined for the US and Europe; growing opium/heroin addiction; possible small-scale heroin production 
------
Archaeology/Talk|985672375
18c18
< 
---
> (BTW - noticed your correction to my spelling of "idiosyncra**". I had yours originally but checked and discovered the "sy" version prevails, at least with Webster and American Heritage. Creeping Americanism, I guess.)
------
Rotifera|985673384
5c5
< There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  The external cuticle may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.  In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three classes:
---
> There are a variety of different shapes of rotifer.  There is a well-developed cuticle which may be rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape.  A few of these move by inchworming along the substrate.  Other rotifers are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts, and may even be colonial.  In most rotifers the males are reduced, and may even be absent, in which case reproduction is by [[Parthenogenesis]].  An interesting thing is that adult rotifers frequently have a precise number of cells, usually on the order of a thousand.  There are about 2000 species, classified into three classes:
11c11
< The closest relatives to the rotifers are the [[Acanthocephala]] (spiny-headed worms).  Further relationships to other phyla are not so clear, but they are probably related to the Trochozoa, as suggested by the presence of trocophore-like larvae in some groups.
---
> The closest relatives to the rotifers are the [[Acanthocephala]] (spiny-headed worms).  Further relationships to other phyla are not so clear, but they are probably related to the Trochozoa, as suggested by the presence of trocophore-like larvae in some groups.
------
Calculus|985674087
16a17,18
> 
> Well, RP, what's stopping you from rewriting it?  How long can it take to rewrite two short articles about a subject you teach regularly (I'm guessing)? :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Larry_Sanger|985674501
66c66,67
< Thanks! --LS
---
> Thanks! --LS
> ----LMS. It will take me less time to redo Calculus, than it will take you to read my message about the new bug on www.n*p*dia.com...:-). Please do not minimize me by initialzing me!!! RoseParks
------
Larry_Sanger/Like_this|985675060
3c3,5
< I just hope there aren't any Wikipedia contributors named "George Washington."
---
> I just hope there aren't any Wikipedia contributors named "George Washington."----
> And what is to stop someone from redirecting your essays to subpages of their page or worse..
> Better yet, what does authorship here mean in any case. Wherever your pages are, someone can change them and that was the original point, wasn't it??? [[Campaign against Authorship]],[[Campaign Against Covert Action]].
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985675193
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What a man hears he may doubt.
> 
> What a man sees he may possibly doubt, but
> 
> What a man does, he <b>can not</b> doubt.
------
Portland_Oregon|985675314
7c7
< Portland is on the south side of the Columbia River and is known as the CIty of Roses.
---
> Portland straddles the [[Willamette River]], just south of the Wilamette's convergence with the [[Columbia River]].   Portland is known as the "City of Roses".
------
Arthropoda|985681902
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest phylum of [[Animalia]], including the insects, spiders, crustaceans, and other similar creatures.  Over four out of five animal species are arthropods.  They are common throughout marine, terrestrial, and even aerial environments, and range in size from microscopic planton (~.25 mm) up to forms several metres long.
> 
> Arthropods are triploblastic protostomes.  There is a coelom, but it is reduced to a tiny cavity around the reproductive and excretory organs, and the dominant body cavity is a hemocoel, filled with blood which bathes the organs directly.  The arthropod body is divided into a series of distinct segments, plus a presegmental ''acron'' which usually supports compound and simple eyes and a postsegmental ''telson''.  These are grouped into distinct, specialized body regions called ''tagmata''.  Each segment at least primitively supports a pair of appendages.
> 
> The cuticle in arthropods forms a rigid exoskeleton, composed mainly of [[chitin]], which is periodically shed as the animal grows.  The exoskeleton takes the form of plates called ''sclerites'' on the segments, plus rings on the appendages that divide them into segments separated by joints.  This is in fact what gives arthropods their name - joint feet - and separates them from their very close relatives, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]].
> 
> The monophyly of the Arthropoda has been questioned, and some workers have proposed separate origins for the major subphyla  including possibly paraphyly to the Onychophorans, but this is rejected by many workers.  Traditionally the [[Annelida]] have been held up as the closest kin of these three phyla on account of their common segmentation, but new work suggests this is convergent evolution, and the Arthropods and their allies may be closer related to pseudocoelomates ([[Nematoda]], etc) that share with them growth by successive molting.
> 
> The arthropods are divided into four subphylums: the extinct Trilobitomorpha, the Cheliceriformes, the Crustacea, and the Uniramia.  There are also a number of fossil forms, mostly from the [[Cambrian]], with no clear affinity to any of these groups (or clear affinity to more than one).
> 
> * ''[[Trilobitomorpha]]''
> ** ''Class [[Trilobita]] (trilobites)''
> ** ''...''
> * [[Cheliceriformes]]
> ** Class [[Merostomata]] (horseshoe crabs, ''sea scorps'')
> ** Class [[Arachnida]] (spiders, scorpions, etc)
> ** Class [[Pycnogonida]] (sea spiders)
> * [[Crustacea]]
> ** Class [[Remipedia]]
> ** Class [[Cephalocarida]]
> ** Class [[Branchiopoda]]
> ** Class [[Maxillopoda]]
> *** Subclass [[Ostracoda]]
> *** Subclass [[Mystacocarida]]
> *** Subclass [[Copepoda]]
> *** Subclass [[Branchiura]]
> *** Subclass [[Cirripedia]]
> *** Subclass [[Tantulocarida]]
> ** Class [[Malacostraca]]
> * [[Uniramia]] (Atelocerata)
> ** Class [[Chilopoda]] (centipedes)
> ** Class [[Diplopoda]] (milipedes)
> ** Class [[Pauropoda]]
> ** Class [[Symphyla]]
> ** Class [[Hexapoda]] (insects)
> 
> Eventually I plan to put a brief survey here, plus some more on how arthropods are built.  Please feel free to beat me to it.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|985683105
35c35
< ARTICULATA  A great division of the Animal Kingdom characterised generally by having the surface of the body divided into rings called segments, a greater or less number of which are furnished with jointed legs (such as Insects, Crustaceans and Centipedes).
---
> [[Arthropoda|ARTICULATA]]  A great division of the Animal Kingdom characterised generally by having the surface of the body divided into rings called segments, a greater or less number of which are furnished with jointed legs (such as Insects, Crustaceans and Centipedes).
------
Types_of_Colloids|985683223
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Colloids]] can be categorized as follows:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;<TH colspan="3">Dispersed Phase (also called: "Solute" phase)
> <TR><TD>[[Gas]]<TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Solid]]
> <TR><TH rowspan="3">Dispersing Phase (also called: Continuous Phase; "solvent" phase)<TD> [[Gas]]<TD>-<TD>[[Liquid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.:  fog, mist<TD>[[Solid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.: smoke, dust
> <TR><TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Foam]],<BR>e.g.:  whipped cream<TD>[[Emulsion]],<BR>e.g.: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream<TD>[[Sol]], <BR>e.g.: paint, ink
> <TR><TD>[[Solid]]<TD>[[Solid Foam]],<BR>e.g.: styrofoam <TD>[[Gel]],<BR>e.g.: gelatin, jelly, cheese<TD>[[Solid Sol]],<BR>e.g.: ruby glass
> </TABLE>
------
Types_of_Colloids|985683379
1c1
< [[Colloids]] can be categorized as follows:
---
> [[Colloids]] (or colloidal dispersions) can be categorized as follows:
------
Requested_articles|985684114
28c28
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]] -- [[Rifle]]  -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]] -- [[Moat that God Built]] -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[limousine liberal]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]] -- [[flub]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]]
------
Engineering|985684126
1,5c1,13
< [[Chemical Engineering]]
< [[Electrical Engineering]]
< [[Mechanical Engineering]]
< [[Software Engineering]]
< [[Structural Engineering]]
---
> *[[Chemical Engineering]]
> *[[Electrical Engineering]]
> *[[Mechanical Engineering]]
> *[[Software Engineering]]
> *[[Structural Engineering]]
> *[[Food Process Engineering]]
> *[[Civil Engineering]]
> *[[Control Engineering]]
> *[[Nuclear Engineering]]
> *[[Computer Science]]
> *[[Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering]]
> *[[Environmental Engineering]]
> *[[Bioresource Engineering]]
------
Engineering|985684158
0a1,2
> Engineering: turning ideas into reality
> 
------
Wikipedians|985684263
3c3
< On [[feature requests]] someone requested the feature of keeping track of all contributors, and how much they've done.  It seems this would be impossible to do properly.  If someone wants that, though, then it probably won't hurt to have a manual list, would it?  These are all the people who have signed their names this last week:
---
> On [[feature requests]] someone requested the feature of keeping track of all contributors, and how much they've done.  It seems this would be impossible to do properly.  If someone wants that, though, then it probably won't hurt to have a manual list, would it?  These are all the people who have signed their names recently:
4a5,9
> * [[Rob Salzmann]]
> * [[Rose Parks]]
> * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of [[Wikipedia]] and editor-in-chief of [[Nupedia]]
> * [[Pemerson]]
> * [[TimShell]], to whom we owe all the stuff on [[Atlas Shrugged]] so far
6,11d10
< * [[Phil Bordelon]]
< * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of [[wikipedia]] and editor-in-chief of [[nupedia]]
< * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
< * RoseParks
< * SoniC
< * [[Mathijs]]
12a12
> * [[Orcalover]]
13a14,17
> * AyeSpy, who is back!
> * [[Stephen Gilbert]]
> * AstroNomer
> * [[Peter Sayer]]
15,16c19,24
< * CliffordAdams, author of [[UseModWiki]]
< * [[Bomfog]]
---
> * [[Don Kenney]]
> * [[Dick Beldin]], author of much statistics
> * [[Invictus]]
> * [[Tobias Hoevekamp]]
> * [[Mathijs]]
> * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
18c26,28
< * TimShell, to whom we owe the 13% of wikipedia devoted to [[Atlas Shrugged]]
---
> * [[SoniC]]
> * [[CliffordAdams]]
> * [[Kajtek]]
20c30,36
< * AstroNomer
---
> * [[Charu]]
> * [[Phil Borderlon]]
> * [[John Abbe]]
> 
> Others contributed, but chose not to sign, so are harder to keep track of.  These at least included [[JStoddW]].  Other people who have contributed, just not this week:
> 
> * [[Bomfog]]
23,26d38
< * [[Dick Beldin]], to whom we owe most of the [[Statistics]] pages
< * [[Invictus]]
< * [[John Abbe]]
< * [[JStoddW]]
29d40
< Others contributed, but chose to stay invisible.
------
Wikipedians|985684302
5,6c5,6
< * [[Rob Salzmann]]
< * [[Rose Parks]]
---
> * [[Rob Salzman]]
> * RoseParks
------
Wikipedians|985684373
31c31
< * [[Phil Borderlon]]
---
> * [[Phil Bordelon]]
------
Types_of_Colloids|985685212
1,9c1
< [[Colloids]] (or colloidal dispersions) can be categorized as follows:
< 
< <TABLE border="1">
< <TR><TH rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;<TH colspan="3">Dispersed Phase (also called: "Solute" phase)
< <TR><TD>[[Gas]]<TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Solid]]
< <TR><TH rowspan="3">Dispersing Phase (also called: Continuous Phase; "solvent" phase)<TD> [[Gas]]<TD>-<TD>[[Liquid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.:  fog, mist<TD>[[Solid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.: smoke, dust
< <TR><TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Foam]],<BR>e.g.:  whipped cream<TD>[[Emulsion]],<BR>e.g.: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream<TD>[[Sol]], <BR>e.g.: paint, ink
< <TR><TD>[[Solid]]<TD>[[Solid Foam]],<BR>e.g.: styrofoam <TD>[[Gel]],<BR>e.g.: gelatin, jelly, cheese<TD>[[Solid Sol]],<BR>e.g.: ruby glass
< </TABLE>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Colloids]]
------
Colloids|985685411
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Colloids, or colloidal dispersions, are things sort of intermediate between true solutions and mixtures: things where microscopic globs of one substance, said to be in the dispersed phase (solute phase), are distributed throughout another, said to be in the dispersing phase (continuous phase, solvent phase).
> 
> Colloids can be classified as follows:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;<TH colspan="3">Dispersed Phase
> <TR><TD>[[Gas]]<TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Solid]]
> <TR><TH rowspan="3">Dispersing Phase<TD> [[Gas]]<TD>-<TD>[[Liquid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.:  fog, mist<TD>[[Solid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.: smoke, dust
> <TR><TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Foam]],<BR>e.g.:  whipped cream<TD>[[Emulsion]],<BR>e.g.: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream<TD>[[Sol]], <BR>e.g.: paint, ink
> <TR><TD>[[Solid]]<TD>[[Solid Foam]],<BR>e.g.: styrofoam <TD>[[Gel]],<BR>e.g.: gelatin, jelly, cheese<TD>[[Solid Sol]],<BR>e.g.: ruby glass
> </TABLE>
------
Colloids|985685467
1,11c1
< Colloids, or colloidal dispersions, are things sort of intermediate between true solutions and mixtures: things where microscopic globs of one substance, said to be in the dispersed phase (solute phase), are distributed throughout another, said to be in the dispersing phase (continuous phase, solvent phase).
< 
< Colloids can be classified as follows:
< 
< <TABLE border="1">
< <TR><TH rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;<TH colspan="3">Dispersed Phase
< <TR><TD>[[Gas]]<TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Solid]]
< <TR><TH rowspan="3">Dispersing Phase<TD> [[Gas]]<TD>-<TD>[[Liquid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.:  fog, mist<TD>[[Solid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.: smoke, dust
< <TR><TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Foam]],<BR>e.g.:  whipped cream<TD>[[Emulsion]],<BR>e.g.: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream<TD>[[Sol]], <BR>e.g.: paint, ink
< <TR><TD>[[Solid]]<TD>[[Solid Foam]],<BR>e.g.: styrofoam <TD>[[Gel]],<BR>e.g.: gelatin, jelly, cheese<TD>[[Solid Sol]],<BR>e.g.: ruby glass
< </TABLE>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Colloid]]
------
Colloid|985685639
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Colloids, or colloidal dispersions, are things sort of intermediate between true solutions and mixtures: things where microscopic globs of one substance, said to be in the dispersed phase (solute phase), are distributed throughout another, said to be in the dispersing phase (continuous phase, solvent phase).
> 
> Colloids can be classified as follows:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH rowspan="2" colspan="2">&nbsp;<TH colspan="3">Dispersed Phase
> <TR><TD><CENTER>[[Gas]]</CENTER>
> <TD><CENTER>[[Liquid]]</CENTER>
> <TD><CENTER>[[Solid]]</CENTER>
> <TR><TH rowspan="3">Dispersing Phase
> <TD>[[Gas]]
> <TD>-
> <TD>[[Liquid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.:  fog, mist<TD>[[Solid Aerosol]],<BR>e.g.: smoke, dust
> <TR><TD>[[Liquid]]<TD>[[Foam]],<BR>e.g.:  whipped cream
> <TD>[[Emulsion]],<BR>e.g.: milk, mayonnaise, hand cream
> <TD>[[Sol]], <BR>e.g.: paint, ink
> <TR><TD>[[Solid]]
> <TD>[[Solid Foam]],<BR>e.g.: styrofoam
> <TD>[[Gel]],<BR>e.g.: gelatin, jelly, cheese<TD>[[Solid Sol]],<BR>e.g.: ruby glass
> </TABLE>
------
Types_of_Colloids|985685679
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Colloids]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Colloid]]
------
Biology|985687293
16d15
<  [[Behavior|behavior]]
37c36
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Dimensionless_Number|985687938
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dimensionless numbers are widely applied in the field of mechanical and chemical engineering. According to the [[Pi-Theorem]], the functional dependence between a certain number of variables (e.g.: n) can be reduced by the number of independent dimensions occuring in those variables (e.g. k) to
> give a set of independent, dimensionless variables (e.g. p=n-k)
> 
> Example: Stirrer
> 
> The power-consumption of a stirrer is a function of the [[density]] and the [[visosity]] of the fluid to be stirred, the size and the particular geometry of the stirrer given by the diameter of the stirrer, and the speed of the stirrer. Therefore, we do have n=5 variables representing our example.
> 
> Those n=5 variables are build up by k=3 dimensions being: 
> * Length L [m]
> * Time T [s]
> * Mass M [kg]
> 
> According to the [[Pi-Theorem]], the n=5 variables can be reduced by the k=3 dimensions to form p=n-k=5-3=2 independent dimensionless numbers which are in case of the stirrer
> * [[Reynold-Number]] (This is the most important dimensionless number)
> * [[Power-Number]]
> 
> There are literally thousands (to be precise: infinite) dimensionless numbers including those being used most often: (in alphabetical order indicating the field of use)
> 
> * [[Archimedes-Number]] Motion of fluids due to density differences
> * [[Capillary-Number]] fluid flow influenced by surface tension
> * [[Deborah-Number]] [[Rheology]] of [[viscoelastic]] fluids
> * [[Drag-Coefficient]] Flow resistance
> * [[Euler-Number]] Hydrodynamics (pressure forces vs. inertia forces)
> * [[Friction-Factor]] Fluid Flow 
> * [[Froude-Number]] Wave and surface behaviour
> * [[Grashof-Number]] Free convection
> * [[Laplace-Number]] Free convection with inmiscible fluids
> * [[Mach-Number]] Gasdynamics
> * [[Nusselt-Number]] Heat transfer with forced convection
> * [[Ohnesorge-Number]] Atomization of liquids
> * [[Peclet-Number]] Forced convection
> * [[Power-Number]] Power consumption by agitators
> * [[Prandtl-Number]] Forced and Free convection
> * [[Reynolds-Number]] Characterizing the flow behaviour ([[laminar]] or [[turbulent]])
> * [[Sherwood-Number]] Mass transfer
> * [[Stokes-Number]] Dynamics of particles
> * [[Strouhal-Number]] Oscillatory flows
> * [[Weber-Number]] Characterization of mulitphase flow with strongly bended surfaces
> * [[Weissenberg-Number]] [[Viscoelastic]] flows
> 
------
Engineering|985688084
15a16,20
> 
> Some engineering related topics are:
> 
> *[[Rheology]]
> *[[Dimensionless_Number]]s
------
Colloid|985688784
1c1
< Colloids, or colloidal dispersions, are things sort of intermediate between true solutions and mixtures: things where microscopic globs of one substance, said to be in the dispersed phase (solute phase), are distributed throughout another, said to be in the dispersing phase (continuous phase, solvent phase).
---
> Colloids, or colloidal dispersions, are things sort of intermediate between true solutions and mixtures, or suspensions: things where microscopic globs of one substance, said to be in the dispersed phase (solute phase), are distributed throughout another, said to be in the dispersing phase (continuous phase, solvent phase).
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Preface|985689589
3c3
< I WILL here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great majority of naturalists believed that species were immutable productions, and had been separately created. This view has been ably maintained by many authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have believed that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life are the descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms. Passing over allusions to the subject in the classical writers,* the first author who in modern times has treated it in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes * Aristotle, in his 'Physicae Auscultationes' (lib. 2, cap. 8, s. 2), after remarking that rain does not fall in order to make the corn grow, any more than it falls to spoil the farmer's corn when threshed out of doors, applies the same argument to organization: and adds (as translated by Mr Clair Grece, who first pointed out the passage to me), 'So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.  or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details. 
---
> I WILL here give a brief sketch of the progress of opinion on the Origin of Species. Until recently the great majority of naturalists believed that species were immutable productions, and had been separately created. This view has been ably maintained by many authors. Some few naturalists, on the other hand, have believed that species undergo modification, and that the existing forms of life are the descendants by true generation of pre-existing forms. Passing over allusions to the subject in the classical writers,* the first author who in modern times has treated it in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes * [[Aristotle]], in his 'Physicae Auscultationes' (lib. 2, cap. 8, s. 2), after remarking that rain does not fall in order to make the corn grow, any more than it falls to spoil the farmer's corn when threshed out of doors, applies the same argument to organization: and adds (as translated by Mr Clair Grece, who first pointed out the passage to me), 'So what hinders the different parts [of the body] from having this merely accidental relation in nature? as the teeth, for example, grow by necessity, the front ones sharp, adapted for dividing, and the grinders flat, and serviceable for masticating the food; since they were not made for the sake of this, but it was the result of accident. And in like manner as to the other parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Wheresoever, therefore, all things together (that is all the parts of one whole) happened like as if they were made for the sake of something, these were preserved, having been appropriately constituted by an internal spontaneity, and whatsoever things were not thus constituted, perished, and still perish.  or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details. 
7c7
<  We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth. *I have taken the date of the first publication of Lamarck from Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's ('Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. ii. p. 405, 1859) excellent history of opinion on this subject. In this work a full account is given of Buffon's conclusions on the same subject. It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr Erasmus Darwin, anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinion of Lamarck in his 'Zoonomia' (vol. i. pp. 500-510), published in 1794. According to Isid. Geoffroy there is no doubt that Goethe was an extreme partisan of similar views, as shown in the Introduction to a work written in 1794 and 1795, but not published till long afterwards: he has pointedly remarked ('Goethe als Naturforscher,' von Dr Karl Medinge s. 34) that the future question for naturalists will be how, for instance, cattle got their horns, and not for what they are used. It is rather a singular instance of the manner in which similar views arise at about the same time, that Goethe in Germany, Dr Darwin in England, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (as we shall immediately see) in France; came to the same conclusion on the origin of species, in the years 1794-5. 
---
> We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth. *I have taken the date of the first publication of Lamarck from Isid. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire's ('Hist. Nat. Générale,' tom. ii. p. 405, 1859) excellent history of opinion on this subject. In this work a full account is given of Buffon's conclusions on the same subject. It is curious how largely my grandfather, Dr [[Erasmus Darwin]], anticipated the views and erroneous grounds of opinion of Lamarck in his 'Zoonomia' (vol. i. pp. 500-510), published in 1794. According to Isid. Geoffroy there is no doubt that [[Goethe]] was an extreme partisan of similar views, as shown in the Introduction to a work written in 1794 and 1795, but not published till long afterwards: he has pointedly remarked ('Goethe als Naturforscher,' von Dr Karl Medinge s. 34) that the future question for naturalists will be how, for instance, cattle got their horns, and not for what they are used. It is rather a singular instance of the manner in which similar views arise at about the same time, that Goethe in Germany, Dr Darwin in England, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (as we shall immediately see) in France; came to the same conclusion on the origin of species, in the years 1794-5. 
9c9
< Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, as is stated in his 'Life,' written by his son, suspected, as early as 1795, that what we call species are various degenerations of the same type. It was not until 1828 that he published his conviction that the same forms have not been perpetuated since the origin of all things. Geoffroy seems to have relied chiefly on the conditions of life, or the 'monde ambiant' as the cause of change. He was cautious in drawing conclusions, and did not believe that existing species are now undergoing modification; and, as his son adds, "C'est donc un problème à réserver entièrement à l'avenir, supposé meme que l'avenir doive avoir prise sur lui.' 
---
> [[Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], as is stated in his 'Life,' written by his son, suspected, as early as 1795, that what we call species are various degenerations of the same type. It was not until 1828 that he published his conviction that the same forms have not been perpetuated since the origin of all things. Geoffroy seems to have relied chiefly on the conditions of life, or the 'monde ambiant' as the cause of change. He was cautious in drawing conclusions, and did not believe that existing species are now undergoing modification; and, as his son adds, "C'est donc un problème à réserver entièrement à l'avenir, supposé meme que l'avenir doive avoir prise sur lui.' 
11c11
< In 1813, Dr W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society 'An Account of a White female, part of whose skin resembled that of a Negro'; but his paper was not published until his famous 'Two Essays upon Dew and Single Vision' appeared in 1818. In this paper he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observes, firstly, that all animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that agriculturists improve their domesticated animals by selection; and then, he adds, but what is done in this latter case 'by art, seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind, fitted for the country which they inhabit. Of the accidental varieties of man, which would occur among the first few and scattered inhabitants of the middle regions of Africa, some one would be better fitted than the others to bear the diseases of the country. This race would consequently multiply, while the others would decrease; not only from their inability to sustain the attacks of disease, but from their incapacity of contending with their more vigorous neighbours. The colour of this vigorous race I take for granted, from what has been already said, would be dark. But the same disposition to form varieties still existing, a darker and a darker race would in the course of time occur: and as the darkest would be the best fitted for the climate, this would at length become the most prevalent; if not the only race, in the particular country in which it had originated.' He then extends these same views to the white inhabitants of colder climates. I am indebted to Mr Rowley, of the United States, for having called my attention, through Mr Brace, to the above passage in Dr Wells' work. 
---
> In 1813, Dr W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society 'An Account of a White female, part of whose skin resembled that of a Negro'; but his paper was not published until his famous `Two Essays upon Dew and Single Vision' appeared in 1818. In this paper he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection, and this is the first recognition which has been indicated; but he applies it only to the races of man, and to certain characters alone. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy an immunity from certain tropical diseases, he observes, firstly, that all animals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, that agriculturists improve their domesticated animals by selection; and then, he adds, but what is done in this latter case 'by art, seems to be done with equal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature, in the formation of varieties of mankind, fitted for the country which they inhabit. Of the accidental varieties of man, which would occur among the first few and scattered inhabitants of the middle regions of Africa, some one would be better fitted than the others to bear the diseases of the country. This race would consequently multiply, while the others would decrease; not only from their inability to sustain the attacks of disease, but from their incapacity of contending with their more vigorous neighbours. The colour of this vigorous race I take for granted, from what has been already said, would be dark. But the same disposition to form varieties still existing, a darker and a darker race would in the course of time occur: and as the darkest would be the best fitted for the climate, this would at length become the most prevalent; if not the only race, in the particular country in which it had originated.' He then extends these same views to the white inhabitants of colder climates. I am indebted to Mr Rowley, of the United States, for having called my attention, through Mr Brace, to the above passage in Dr Wells' work. 
29c29,30
< Professor Owen, in 1849 ('Nature of Limbs,' p. 86), wrote as follows:- "The archetypal idea was manifested in the flesh under diverse such modifications, upon this planet, long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it. To what natural laws or secondary causes the orderly succession and progression of such organic phenomena may have been committed, we, as yet, are ignorant.' In his Address to the British Association, in 1858, he speaks (p. li.) of "the axiom of the continuous operation of creative power, or of the ordained becoming of living things.' Farther on (p. xc.), after referring to geographical distribution, he adds, 'These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx of New Zealand and the Red Grouse of England were distinct creations in and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in mind that by the word ''creation'' the zoologist means '"a process he knows not what.'' He amplifies this idea by adding that when such cases as that of the Red Grouse are enumerated by the zoologists as evidence of distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses that he knows not how the Red Grouse came to be there, and there exclusively; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative Cause.' If we interpret these sentences given in the same Address, one by the other, it appears that this eminent philosopher felt in 1858 his confidence shaken that the Apteryx and the Red Grouse first appeared in their respective homes, 'he knew not how,' or by some process 'he knew not what.' 
---
> Professor Owen, in 1849 ('Nature of Limbs,' p. 86), wrote as follows:- "The archetypal idea was manifested in the flesh under diverse such modifications, upon this planet, long prior to the existence of those animal species that actually exemplify it. To what natural laws or secondary causes the orderly succession and progression of such organic phenomena may have been committed, we, as yet, are ignorant.' In his Address to the British Association, in 1858, he speaks (p. li.) of "the axiom of the continuous operation of creative power, or of the ordained becoming of living things.' Farther on (p. xc.), after referring to geographical distribution, he adds, 'These phenomena shake our confidence in the conclusion that the Apteryx of New Zealand and the Red Grouse of England were distinct creations in and for those islands respectively. Always, also, it may be well to bear in mind that by the word ''creation'' the 
> zoologist means '"a process he knows not what.'' He amplifies this idea by adding that when such cases as that of the Red Grouse are enumerated by the zoologists as evidence of distinct creation of the bird in and for such islands, he chiefly expresses that he knows not how the Red Grouse came to be there, and there exclusively; signifying also, by this mode of expressing such ignorance, his belief that both the bird and the islands owed their origin to a great first Creative Cause.' If we interpret these sentences given in the same Address, one by the other, it appears that this eminent philosopher felt in 1858 his confidence shaken that the Apteryx and the Red Grouse first appeared in their respective homes, 'he knew not how,' or by some process 'he knew not what.' 
31c32
< This Address was delivered after the papers by Mr Wallace and myself on the Origin of Species, presently to be referred to, had been read before the Linnean Society. When the first edition of this work was published, I was so completely deceived, as were many others, by such expressions as 'the continuous operation of creative power,' that I included Professor Owen with other palaeontologists as being firmly convinced of the immutability of species; but it appears ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 796) that this was on my part a preposterous error. In the last edition of this work I inferred, and the inference still seems to me perfectly just, from a passage beginning with the words 'no doubt the type-form,' &c. (Ibid. vol. i. p. xxxv.), that Professor Owen admitted that natural selection may have done something in the formation of a new species; but this it appears (Ibid. vol. nl. p. 798) is inaccurate and without evidence. I also gave some extracts from a correspondence between Professor Owen and the Editor of the 'London Review,' from which it appeared manifest to the Editor as well as to myself, that Professor Owen claimed to have promulgated the theory of natural selection before I had done so; and I expressed my surprise and satisfaction at this announcement; but as far as it is possible to understand certain recently published passages (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 798) I have either partially or wholly again fallen into error. It is consolatory to me that others find Professor Owen's controversial writings as difficult to understand and to reconcile with each other, as I do. As far as the mere enunciation of the principle of natural selection is concerned, it is quite immaterial whether or not Professor Owen preceded me, for both of us, as shown in this historical sketch, were long ago preceded by Dr Wells and Mr Matthews. 
---
> This Address was delivered after the papers by [[Alfred Wallace|Mr Wallace]] and myself on the Origin of Species, presently to be referred to, had been read before the Linnean Society. When the first edition of this work was published, I was so completely deceived, as were many others, by such expressions as 'the continuous operation of creative power,' that I included Professor Owen with other palaeontologists as being firmly convinced of the immutability of species; but it appears ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 796) that this was on my part a preposterous error. In the last edition of this work I inferred, and the inference still seems to me perfectly just, from a passage beginning with the words 'no doubt the type-form,' &c. (Ibid. vol. i. p. xxxv.), that Professor Owen admitted that natural selection may have done something in the formation of a new species; but this it appears (Ibid. vol. nl. p. 798) is inaccurate and without evidence. I also gave some extracts from a correspondence between Professor Owen and the Editor of the 'London Review,' from which it appeared manifest to the Editor as well as to myself, that Professor Owen claimed to have promulgated the theory of natural selection before I had done so; and I expressed my surprise and satisfaction at this announcement; but as far as it is possible to understand certain recently published passages (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 798) I have either partially or wholly again fallen into error. It is consolatory to me that others find Professor Owen's controversial writings as difficult to understand and to reconcile with each other, as I do. As far as the mere enunciation of the principle of natural selection is concerned, it is quite immaterial whether or not Professor Owen preceded me, for both of us, as shown in this historical sketch, were long ago preceded by Dr Wells and Mr Matthews. 
37c38
< Mr Herbert Spencer, in an Essay (originally published in the 'Leader,' March, 1852, and republished in his 'Essays,' in 1858), has contrasted the theories of the Creation and the Development of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He argues from the analogy of domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been modified; and he attributes the modification to the change of circumstances. The author (1855) has also treated psychology on the principle of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. 
---
> Mr [[Herbert Spencer]], in an Essay (originally published in the 'Leader,' March, 1852, and republished in his 'Essays,' in 1858), has contrasted the theories of the Creation and the Development of organic beings with remarkable skill and force. He argues from the analogy of domestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many species undergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have been modified; and he attributes the modification to the change of circumstances. The author (1855) has also treated psychology on the principle of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. 
47c48
<  I may add, that of the thirty-four authors named in this Historical Sketch, who believe in the modification of species, or at least disbelieve in separate acts of creation, twenty-seven have written on special branches of natural history or geology. 
---
> I may add, that of the thirty-four authors named in this Historical Sketch, who believe in the modification of species, or at least disbelieve in separate acts of creation, twenty-seven have written on special branches of natural history or geology. 
57c58
< In June, 1859, Professor Huxley gave a lecture before the Royal Institution on the 'Persistent Types of Animal Life.' Referring to such cases, he remarks, "It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of organisation, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of nature. If, on the other hand, we view 'Persistent Types' in relation to that hypothesis which supposes the species living at any time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing species a hypothesis which, though unproven, and sadly damaged by some of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any countenance; their existence would seem to show that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have suffered.' 
---
> In June, 1859, [[T.H. Huxley|Professor Huxley]] gave a lecture before the Royal Institution on the 'Persistent Types of Animal Life.' Referring to such cases, he remarks, "It is difficult to comprehend the meaning of such facts as these, if we suppose that each species of animal and plant, or each great type of organisation, was formed and placed upon the surface of the globe at long intervals by a distinct act of creative power; and it is well to recollect that such an assumption is as unsupported by tradition or revelation as it is opposed to the general analogy of nature. If, on the other hand, we view 'Persistent Types' in relation to that hypothesis which supposes the species living at any time to be the result of the gradual modification of pre-existing species a hypothesis which, though unproven, and sadly damaged by some of its supporters, is yet the only one to which physiology lends any countenance; their existence would seem to show that the amount of modification which living beings have undergone during geological time is but very small in relation to the whole series of changes which they have suffered.' 
59c60
< In December, 1859, Dr Hooker published his 'Introduction to the Australian Flora.' In the first part of this great work he admits the truth of the descent and modification of species, and supports this doctrine by many original observations. 
---
> In December, 1859, Dr Hooker published his 'Introduction to the Australian Flora.' In the first part of this great work he admits the truth of the descent and modification of species, and supports this doctrine by many original observations. 
------
Acroynm|985692115
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Acronym
> 
> Usually used as an abbreviation for a longer descriptive phrase, an acronym is a word coined by combining the initial letters of that phrase.
> :Examples of acronyms are: 
> 
> * [[NATO]]  -  from <b>N</b>orth <b>A</b>tlantic <b>T</b>reaty <b>O</b>rganisation
> * [[laser]] - from <b>L</b>ight <b>A</b>mplification by <b>S</b>timulated <b>E</b>mission of <b>R</b>adiation
> 
> As the second example shows, letters are occasionally added or omitted to make the acronym more pronounceable.
> 
------
Acroynm|985692669
1,10c1
< Acronym
< 
< Usually used as an abbreviation for a longer descriptive phrase, an acronym is a word coined by combining the initial letters of that phrase.
< :Examples of acronyms are: 
< 
< * [[NATO]]  -  from <b>N</b>orth <b>A</b>tlantic <b>T</b>reaty <b>O</b>rganisation
< * [[laser]] - from <b>L</b>ight <b>A</b>mplification by <b>S</b>timulated <b>E</b>mission of <b>R</b>adiation
< 
< As the second example shows, letters are occasionally added or omitted to make the acronym more pronounceable.
< 
---
> 
------
Earth/Talk|985692817
4a5,6
> ----
> If an entity from another system within the known universe (or any other universe for that matter) were to read (assuming that was possible) the [[Earth]] page, ya gotta wonder what said entity might think! --[[Invictus|Grant]]
------
Earth|985693086
1c1
< The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into five [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 2/3 [[Nitrogen]], 1/3 [[Oxygen]], plus trace other elements.
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into five [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 4/5 [[Nitrogen]], 1/5 [[Oxygen]], plus traces of other gases.
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985693282
5a6,7
> ----
> "Can" is a simple matter of ability.  Whether the doubt itself is emblazoned with integrity, or not, does not matter.  If you were to change that to "What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.", then you'd be presenting a matter of conjecture (methinks) and raising up a [[Campaign Against Thought Police]]!  :-7 ([[tongue in cheek]] [[emoticon]]) --[[Invictus|Grant]]  
------
Arctic_Ocean|985696452
1c1,51
< The world's smallest [[ocean]].
---
> The [[Arctic Ocean]] is the smallest of the world's five [[oceans]] (after the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Southern Ocean]]).
> 
> <b>Location:</b>
> body of water mostly north of the [[Arctic Circle]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 90 00 N, 0 00 E
> 
> <b>Map references:</b>
> [[Arctic]] Region
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i>14.056 million sq km
> * <i>note:</i> includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[Northwest Passage]], and other tributary water bodies
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the [[US]]
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b>
> 45,389 km
> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b>
> central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that averages about 3 meters in thickness, although pressure ridges may be three times that size; clockwise drift pattern in the [[Beaufort Gyral Stream]], but nearly straight-line movement from the [[New Siberian Islands]] ([[Russia]]) to [[Denmark Strait]] (between [[Greenland]] and [[Iceland]]); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the [[ocean]] floor is about 50% [[continental shelf]] (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges ([[Alpha Cordillera]], [[Nansen Cordillera]], and [[Lomonosov Ridge]])
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> [[Fram Basin]] -4,665 m
> * <i>highest point:</i> sea level 0 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b>
> sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[Seal|seals]] and [[Whale|whales]])
> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b>
> ice islands occasionally break away from northern [[Ellesmere Island]]; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern [[Canada]]; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> endangered marine species include [[Walrus|walruses]] and whales; fragile [[ecosystem]] slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b>
> major chokepoint is the southern [[Chukchi Sea]] (northern access to the [[Pacific Ocean]] via the [[Bering Strait]]); strategic location between [[North America]] and [[Russia]]; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> [[Churchill]] (Canada), [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Prudhoe Bay]] (US)
> 
> <b>Transportation - note:</b>
> sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the Northwest Passage (North America) and [[Northern Sea Route]] ([[Eurasia]]) are important seasonal waterways
> 
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> some maritime disputes (see littoral states); [[Svalbard]] is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between [[Norway]] and Russia
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985697602
1c1,51
< The second largest [[ocean]], the Atlantic Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the [[Earth]]'s surface. It separates the [[continents]] of [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] to the [[east]] from those of [[North America]] and [[South America]] to the [[west]]. 
---
> The second largest [[ocean]], the Atlantic Ocean covers approximately one-fifth of the [[Earth]]'s surface.  The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
> 
> <b>Location:</b>
> body of water between [[Africa]], [[Europe]], the [[Southern Ocean]], and the [[Western Hemisphere]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 00 N, 25 00 W
> 
> <b>Map references:</b>
> [[World]]
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 76.762 million sq km
> * <i>note:</i>includes [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the [[US]]
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b>
> 111,866 km
> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) develop off the coast of Africa near [[Cape Verde]] and move westward into the [[Caribbean Sea]]; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from August to November
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b>
> surface usually covered with sea ice in [[Labrador Sea]], Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June; clockwise warm-water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, counterclockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] -8,605 m
> * <i>highest point:</i> sea level 0 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b>
> oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones
> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b>
> [[Iceburg|icebergs]] common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as [[Bermuda]] and the [[Madeira Islands]]; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes (May to December)
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s; drift net fishing is hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern [[Brazil]], and eastern [[Argentina]]; oil pollution in [[Caribbean Sea]], Gulf of Mexico, [[Lake Maracaibo]], Mediterranean Sea, and [[North Sea]]; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b>
> major chokepoints include the [[Dardanelles]], [[Strait of Gibraltar]], access to the [[Panama Canal|Panama]] and [[Suez Canal|Suez Canals]]; strategic straits include the [[Strait of Dover]], [[Straits of Florida]], [[Mona Passage]], The Sound ([[Oresund]]), and [[Windward Passage]]; the [[Equator]] divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> [[Alexandria]] ([[Egypt]]), [[Algiers]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]), [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), [[Buenos Aires]] ([[Argentina]]), [[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]), [[Colon]] ([[Panama]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[Denmark]]), [[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]]), [[Gdansk]] ([[Poland]]), [[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]]), [[Helsinki]] ([[Finland]]), [[Las Palmas]] ([[Canary Islands]], Spain), [[Le Havre]] ([[France]]), [[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]]), [[London]] ([[UK]]), [[Marseille]] ([[France]]), [[Montevideo]] ([[Uruguay]]), [[Montreal]] ([[Canada]]), [[Naples]] ([[Italy]]), [[New Orleans]] ([[US]]), [[New York]] (US), [[Oran]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Oslo]] ([[Norway]]), [[Peiraiefs or Piraeus]] ([[Greece]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]), [[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]), [[Saint Petersburg]] ([[Russia]]), [[Stockholm]] ([[Sweden]])
> 
> <b>Transportation - note:</b>
> [[Kiel Canal]] and [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] are two important waterways
> 
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
3d52
< The [[ocean]]'s name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the "Sea of [[Atlas]]."
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985698064
45c45
< [[Alexandria]] ([[Egypt]]), [[Algiers]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]), [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), [[Buenos Aires]] ([[Argentina]]), [[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]), [[Colon]] ([[Panama]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[Denmark]]), [[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]]), [[Gdansk]] ([[Poland]]), [[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]]), [[Helsinki]] ([[Finland]]), [[Las Palmas]] ([[Canary Islands]], Spain), [[Le Havre]] ([[France]]), [[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]]), [[London]] ([[UK]]), [[Marseille]] ([[France]]), [[Montevideo]] ([[Uruguay]]), [[Montreal]] ([[Canada]]), [[Naples]] ([[Italy]]), [[New Orleans]] ([[US]]), [[New York]] (US), [[Oran]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Oslo]] ([[Norway]]), [[Peiraiefs or Piraeus]] ([[Greece]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]), [[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]), [[Saint Petersburg]] ([[Russia]]), [[Stockholm]] ([[Sweden]])
---
> [[Alexandria]] ([[Egypt]]), [[Algiers]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]), [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), [[Buenos Aires]] ([[Argentina]]), [[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]), [[Colon]] ([[Panama]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[Denmark]]), [[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]]), [[Gdansk]] ([[Poland]]), [[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]]), [[Helsinki]] ([[Finland]]), [[Las Palmas]] ([[Canary Islands]], Spain), [[Le Havre]] ([[France]]), [[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]]), [[United Kingdom/London|London]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[Marseille]] ([[France]]), [[Montevideo]] ([[Uruguay]]), [[Montreal]] ([[Canada]]), [[Naples]] ([[Italy]]), [[New Orleans]] ([[US]]), [[New York]] (US), [[Oran]] ([[Algeria]]), [[Oslo]] ([[Norway]]), [[Peiraiefs or Piraeus]] ([[Greece]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]), [[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]), [[Saint Petersburg]] ([[Russia]]), [[Stockholm]] ([[Sweden]])
------
Indian_Ocean|985698164
1c1,42
< The world's third largest [[ocean]].
---
> The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five [[ocean]]s (after the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Atlantic Ocean]], but larger than the [[Southern Ocean]] and [[Arctic Ocean]]).
> 
> <b>Location:</b>
> body of water between [[Africa]], the [[Southern Ocean]], [[Asia]], and [[Australia]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 20 00 S, 80 00 E
> 
> <b>Map references:</b>
> [[World]]
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 68.556 million sq km
> * <i>note:</i> includes [[Andaman Sea]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Bay of Bengal]], [[Great Australian Bight]], [[Gulf of Aden]], [[Gulf of Oman]], [[Mozambique Channel]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[Red Sea]], [[Strait of Malacca]], and other tributary water bodies
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 5.5 times the size of the [[US]]
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b>
> 66,526 km
> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> northeast [[monsoon]] (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b>
> surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge]] and subdivided by the [[Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge]], [[Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge]], and [[Ninetyeast Ridge]]
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> [[Java Trench]] -7,258 m
> * <i>highest point:</i> sea level 0 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b>
> [[oil]] and gas fields, [[fish]], [[shrimp]], sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> endangered marine species include the [[dugong]], [[seal]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s; oil [[pollution]] in the Arabian Sea, [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Red Sea]]
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b>
> major chokepoints include [[Bab el Mandeb]], [[Strait of Hormuz]], [[Strait of Malacca]], southern access to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Lombok Strait]]
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> [[Calcutta]] ([[India]]), [[Chennai]] ([[Madras]]; [[India]]), [[Colombo]] ([[Sri Lanka]]), [[Durban]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]]), [[Melbourne]] ([[Australia]]), [[Mumbai]] ([[Bombay]]; [[India]]), [[Richards Bay]] ([[South Africa]])
------
Atlantic_Ocean|985698251
49,52d48
< 
< <b>Disputes - international:</b>
< some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
< 
------
Arctic_Ocean|985698331
50,51d49
< <b>Disputes - international:</b>
< some maritime disputes (see littoral states); [[Svalbard]] is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between [[Norway]] and Russia
------
Pacific_Ocean|985699625
1a2,45
> 
> <b>Location:</b>
> body of water between the [[Southern Ocean]], [[Asia]], [[Australia]], and the [[Western Hemisphere]]
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 00 N, 160 00 W
> 
> <b>Map references:</b>
> [[World]]
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 155.557 million sq km
> * <i>note:</i> includes [[Bali Sea]], [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], [[Coral Sea]], [[East China Sea]], [[Flores Sea]], [[Gulf of Alaska]], [[Gulf of Tonkin]], [[Java Sea]], [[Philippine Sea]], [[Savu Sea]], [[Sea of Japan]], [[Sea of Okhotsk]], [[South China Sea]], [[Tasman Sea]], [[Timor Sea]], and other tributary water bodies
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 15 times the size of the [[US]]; covers about 28% of the global surface; larger than the total land area of the world
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b>
> 135,663 km
> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> planetary air pressure systems and resultant wind patterns exhibit remarkable uniformity in the south and east; trade winds and westerly winds are well-developed patterns, modified by seasonal fluctuations; tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) may form south of [[Mexico]] from June to October and affect Mexico and [[Central America]]; continental influences cause climatic uniformity to be much less pronounced in the eastern and western regions at the same latitude in the North Pacific Ocean; the western Pacific is monsoonal - a rainy season occurs during the summer months, when moisture-laden winds blow from the ocean over the land, and a dry season during the winter months, when dry winds blow from the Asian landmass back to the ocean; tropical cyclones ([[typhoon]]s) may strike southeast and east Asia from May to December
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b>
> surface currents in the northern Pacific are dominated by a clockwise, warm-water gyre (broad circular system of currents) and in the southern Pacific by a counterclockwise, cool-water gyre; in the northern Pacific, sea ice forms in the [[Bering Sea]] and [[Sea of Okhotsk]] in winter; in the southern Pacific, sea ice from Antarctica reaches its northernmost extent in October; the ocean floor in the eastern Pacific is dominated by the [[East Pacific Rise]], while the western Pacific is dissected by deep trenches, including the [[Mariana Trench]], which is the world's deepest
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> [[Challenger Deep]] in the Mariana Trench -10,924 m
> * <i>highest point:</i> sea level 0 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b>
> [[oil]] and [[gas]] fields, [[polymetallic nodules]], sand and gravel [[aggregates]], placer deposits, [[fish]]
> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b>
> surrounded by a zone of violent [[Volcano|volcanic]] and [[earthquake]] activity sometimes referred to as the "[[Pacific Ring of Fire]]"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical [[El Nino]] phenomenon occurs off the coast of [[Peru]], when the [[trade winds]] slacken and the warm Equatorial countercurrent moves south, killing the [[plankton]] that is the primary food source for [[Anchovy|anchovies]]; consequently, the anchovies move to better feeding grounds, causing resident marine birds to starve by the thousands because of the loss of their food source; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> endangered marine species include the [[dugong]], [[sea lion]], [[sea otter]], [[seal]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s; oil [[pollution]] in [[Philippine Sea]] and [[South China Sea]]
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b>
> the major chokepoints are the [[Bering Strait]], [[Panama Canal]], [[Luzon Strait]], and the [[Singapore Strait]]; the [[Equator]] divides the Pacific Ocean into the North Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean; dotted with low coral islands and rugged volcanic islands in the southwestern Pacific Ocean
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> [[Bangkok]] ([[Thailand]]), [[Hong Kong]], [[Kao-hsiung]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Los Angeles]] ([[US]]), [[Manila]] ([[Philippines]]), [[Pusan]] ([[South Korea]]), [[San Francisco]] (US), [[Seattle]] (US), [[Shanghai]] ([[China]]), [[Singapore]], [[Sydney]] ([[Australia]]), [[Vladivostok]] ([[Russia]]), [[Wellington]] ([[New Zealand]]), [[Yokohama]] ([[Japan]])
------
Southern_Ocean|985699771
1c1,53
< Defined, Spring 2000 by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]]. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarica north to 60 degrees south [[latitude]]. It is now the fourth largest [[ocean]].
---
> A spring 2000 decision by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] delimited a fifth world ocean from the southern portions of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Pacific Ocean]]. The new ocean extends from the coast of [[Antarctica]] north to 60 degrees south [[latitude]] which coincides with the [[Antarctic Treaty Limit]]. The Southern Ocean is now the fourth-largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean but larger than the [[Arctic Ocean]]).
> 
> <b>Location:</b>
> body of water between 60 degrees south latitude and Antarctica
> 
> <b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 65 00 S, 0 00 E (nominally), but the Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica; this ring of water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica, and encompasses 360 degrees of longitude
> 
> <b>Map references:</b> Antarctic Region
> 
> <b>Area:</b>
> * <i>total:</i> 20.327 million sq km
> * <i>note:</i> includes [[Amundsen Sea]], [[Bellingshausen Sea]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Ross Sea]], a small part of the [[Scotia Sea]], [[Weddell Sea]], and other tributary water bodies
> 
> <b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of the [[US]]
> 
> <b>Coastline:</b>
> 17,968 km
> 
> <b>Climate:</b>
> sea temperatures vary from about 10 degrees [[Centigrade]] to -2 degrees Centigrade; cyclonic storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently are intense because of the temperature contrast between ice and open [[ocean]]; the ocean area from about latitude 40 south to the [[Antarctic Circle]] has the strongest average winds found anywhere on [[Earth]]; in winter the ocean freezes outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Centigrade; at some coastal points intense persistent drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter
> 
> <b>Terrain:</b>
> the Southern Ocean is deep, 4,000 to 5,000 meters over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water; the [[antarctic continental shelf]] is generally narrow and unusually deep - its edge lying at depths of 400 to 800 meters (the global mean is 133 meters); the Antarctic ice pack grows from an average minimum of 2.6 million square kilometers in March to about 18.8 million square kilometers in September, better than a sevenfold increase in area; the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]] (21,000 km in length) moves perpetually eastward; it is the world's largest ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic meters of water per second - 100 times the flow of all the world's rivers
> 
> <b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> * <i>lowest point:</i> -7,235 m at the southern end of the [[South Sandwich Trench]]
> * <i>highest point:</i> sea level 0 m
> 
> <b>Natural resources:</b>
> probable large and possible giant [[oil]] and [[gas]] fields on the continental margin, [[manganese]] nodules, possible [[placer]] deposits, sand and gravel, fresh water as [[iceberg]]s, [[squid]], [[whale]]s, and [[seal]]s - none exploited; [[krill]], [[fish]]es
> 
> <b>Natural hazards:</b>
> huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5 to 1 meter thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances; high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and rescue
> 
> <b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> increased solar [[ultraviolet]] [[radiation]] resulting from the antarctic [[ozone hole]] in recent years, reducing marine primary productivity ([[phytoplankton]]) by as much as 15% and damaging the [[DNA]] of some fish; illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in recent years, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more [[Patagonian toothfish]] than the regulated fishery, which is likely to affect the sustainability of the stock; large amount of incidental mortality of seabirds resulting from long-line fishing for toothfish
> * <i>note:</i> the now-protected [[fur seal]] population is making a strong comeback after severe overexploitation in the 18th and 19th centuries
> 
> <b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> the Southern Ocean is subject to all international agreements regarding the world's oceans; in addition, it is subject to these agreements specific to the region: [[International Whaling Commission]] (prohibits commercial whaling south of 40 degrees south [south of 60 degrees south between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west]); [[Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] (limits sealing); [[Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] (regulates fishing)
> * <i>note:</i> many nations (including the US) prohibit mineral resource exploration and exploitation south of the fluctuating [[Polar Front]] ([[Antarctic Convergence]]) which is in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north
> 
> <b>Geography - note:</b>
> the major chokepoint is the [[Drake Passage]] between [[South America]] and [[Antarctica]]; the Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence) is the best natural definition of the northern extent of the Southern Ocean; it is a distinct region at the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that separates the very cold polar surface waters to the south from the warmer waters to the north; the Front and the Current extend entirely around Antarctica, reaching south of 60 degrees south near [[New Zealand]] and near 48 degrees south in the far South [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coinciding with the path of the maximum westerly winds
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> [[McMurdo]], [[Palmer]], and offshore anchorages in Antarctica
> * <i>note:</i> few ports or harbors exist on the southern side of the Southern Ocean; ice conditions limit use of most of them to short periods in midsummer; even then some cannot be entered without icebreaker escort; most antarctic ports are operated by government research stations and, except in an emergency, are not open to commercial or private vessels; vessels in any port south of 60 degrees south are subject to inspection by [[Antarctic Treaty]] observers
> 
> <b>Transportation - note:</b>
> [[Drake Passage]] offers alternative to transit through the [[Panama Canal]]
------
Canada|985700119
12a13
> The [[/Prime Ministers|Prime Ministers]] of Canada.
------
Canada/Prime_Ministers|985700737
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[John A Macdonald|Sir John Alexander Macdonald]]: 1 July 1867 - 5 November 1873, 17 October 1878 - 6 June 1891
> *[[Alexander Mackenzie]]: 7 November 1873 - 8 October 1878
> *[[John Joseph Caldwell Abbot|Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott]]: 16 June 1891 - 24 November 1892
> *[[John Sparrow David Thompson|Sir John Sparrow David Thompson]]: 5 December 1892 - 12 December 1894
> *[[Mackenzie Bowell|Sir Mackenzie Bowell]] 21: December 1894 - 27 April 1896
> *[[Charles Tupper|Sir Charles Tupper]]: 1 May 1896 - 8 July 1896 
> *[[Wilfrid Laurier|Sir Wilfrid Laurier]]: 11 July 1896 - 6 October 1911 
> *[[Robert Laird Borden|Sir Robert Laird Borden]]: 10 October 1911 - 10 July 1920 
> *[[Arthur Meighen]]: 10 July 1920 - 29 December 1921, 29 June 1926 - 25 September 1926 
> *[[William Lyon Mackenzie King]]: 29 December 1921 - 28 June 1926, 25 September 1926 - August 1930, 23 October 1935 - 15 November 1948 
> *[[Richard Bedford Bennett]] (later Viscount): 7 August 1930 - 23 October 1935 
> *[[Louis Stephen Saint Laurent]]: 15 November 1948 - 21 June 1957 
> *[[John George Diefenbaker]]: 21 June 1957 - 22 April 1963 
> *[[Lester Bowles Pearson]]: 22 April 1963 - 20 April 1968 
> *[[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]: 20 April 1968 - 3 June 1979, 3 March 1980 - 30 June 1984
> *[[Charles Joseph Clark]]: 4 June 1979 - 2 March 1980 
> *[[John Napier Turner]]: 30 June 1984 - 17 September 1984 
> *[[Martin Brian Mulroney]]: 17 September 1984 - 25 June 1993 
> *[[A. Kim Campbell]]: 25 June 1993 - 4 November 1993 
> *[[Jean Chretien|Joseph Jacques Jean Chrétien]]: 4 November 1993 - present 
------
Canada|985700821
7c7
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native Americans who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

---
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

------
Acroynm|985701868
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Acronym]]
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985702327
7c7
< "Can" is a simple matter of ability.  Whether the doubt itself is emblazoned with integrity, or not, does not matter.  If you were to change that to "What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.", then you'd be presenting a matter of conjecture (methinks) and raising up a [[Campaign Against Thought Police]]!  :-7 ([[tongue in cheek]] [[emoticon]]) --[[Invictus|Grant]]  
---
> "Can" is a simple matter of ability.  Whether the doubt itself is emblazoned with integrity, or not, does not matter.  If you were to change that to "What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.", then you'd be presenting a matter of conjecture (methinks) and raising up a [[Campaign Against Thought Police]]!  :-7 ([[smiley|tongue in cheek]] [[emoticon]]) --[[Invictus|Grant]]  
------
Smiley|985702362
11a12
>   :-7             tongue in cheek
------
East_Germany|985703020
3c3
< After [[World War II]], in 1949 at the [[Potsdam Conference]], the winning countries [[France]], [[England]], [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] decided to divide [[Germany]] in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former Germany.
---
> After [[World War II]], in 1949 at the [[Potsdam Conference]], the winning countries [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] decided to divide [[Germany]] in 4 parts.  Each country controlled a part former Germany.
------
Smiley|985703313
2c2
< are ususlly used in [[email]] messages or in [[chat]].
---
> are usually used in [[email]] messages or in [[chat]].
------
Vietnam/Geography|985704081
32c32
< <b>Natural resources</b>: phosphates, coal, manganese, bauxite, chromate, offshore oil and gas deposits, forests, hydropower 
---
> <b>Natural resources</b>: [[phosphates]], [[coal]], [[manganese]], [[bauxite]], [[chromate]], offshore [[oil]] and [[gas]] deposits, [[forest]]s, [[hydropower]] 
43c43
< <b>Natural hazards</b>: occasional typhoons (May to January) with extensive flooding 
---
> <b>Natural hazards</b>: occasional [[typhoon]]s (May to January) with extensive [[flooding]] 
47c47
< Logging and slash-and-burn agricultural practices contribute to deforestation and soil degradation; water pollution and overfishing threaten marine life populations; groundwater contamination limits potable water supply; growing urban industrialization and population migration are rapidly degrading environment in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City 
---
> [[Logging]] and [[slash-and-burn agricultural]] practices contribute to [[deforestation]] and [[soil degradation]]; [[water pollution]] and [[overfishing]] threaten [[marine life]] populations; [[groundwater contamination]] limits [[potable water]] supply; growing [[urban industrialization]] and [[population migration]] are rapidly degrading [[environment]] in [[Hanoi]] and [[Ho Chi Minh City]] 
51c51
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental  Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands 
---
> party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental  Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Wetlands]]
53c53
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
---
> signed, but not ratified: [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]] 
------
CliffordAdams|985705766
1c1
< Cliff is the author of the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.
---
> Cliff is the author of the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.  He can be contacted at [mailto:caadams@usemod.com caadams@usemod.com].
7a8,9
> 
> :The UseModWiki documentation is still rather minimal.  In the case of the searches you mentioned (searching by length), I just thought of them a few days ago.  In the current release (0.91) searches are simply case-insensitive Perl regular expressions.  (Future releases will probably add more options like faster link-only and title-only searches.)  After the next release I hope to coordinate a community effort to write more documentation (probably using a documentation wiki).  --CliffordAdams
------
Engineering|985706695
20a21
> *[[reverse engineerin]]
------
Engineering|985706703
21c21
< *[[reverse engineerin]]
---
> *[[reverse engineering]]
------
Vietnam|985706843
1c1
< France occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was declared after World War II, but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by communist forces under HO Chi Minh, who took control of the north. US economic and military aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later North Vietnamese forces overran the south. Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
---
> [[France]] occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was declared after [[World War II]], but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by communist forces under [[Ho Chi Minh]], who took control of the north. [[United States|US]] economic and military aid to [[South Vietnam]] grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later North Vietnamese forces overran the south. Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
------
Vietnam|985707013
1c1
< [[France]] occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was declared after [[World War II]], but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by communist forces under [[Ho Chi Minh]], who took control of the north. [[United States|US]] economic and military aid to [[South Vietnam]] grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later North Vietnamese forces overran the south. Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
---
> [[France]] occupied all of Vietnam by 1884. Independence was declared after [[World War II]], but the French continued to rule until 1954 when they were defeated by communist forces under [[Ho Chi Minh]], who took control of the north. [[United States|US]] economic and military aid to [[South Vietnam]] grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the government, but US armed forces were withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973 (''see [[Vietnam War]]''). Two years later North Vietnamese forces overran the south. Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult as aging Communist Party leaders have only grudgingly initiated reforms necessary for a free market.
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985707176
5c5
< What a man does, he <b>can not</b> doubt.
---
> What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985707225
7c7,10
< "Can" is a simple matter of ability.  Whether the doubt itself is emblazoned with integrity, or not, does not matter.  If you were to change that to "What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.", then you'd be presenting a matter of conjecture (methinks) and raising up a [[Campaign Against Thought Police]]!  :-7 ([[smiley|tongue in cheek]] [[emoticon]]) --[[Invictus|Grant]]  
---
> "Can" is a simple matter of ability.  Whether the doubt itself is emblazoned with integrity, or not, does not matter.  If you were to change that to "What a man does, he <b>may not</b> doubt.", then you'd be presenting a matter of conjecture (methinks) and raising up a [[Campaign Against Thought Police]]!  :-7 ([[smiley|tongue in cheek]] [[emoticon]]) --[[Invictus|Grant]]----
> 
> Good point...Changed
>   
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985707359
9c9
< Good point...Changed
---
> Good point...Changed...What aiming at covert action by [[Powers that be]]...:-).
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985707507
9c9
< Good point...Changed...What aiming at covert action by [[Powers that be]]...:-).
---
> Good point...Changed...What I am aiming at is covert action by [[Powers That Be]]...Asking them to be upfront about their actions. Can't say more:-).
------
Campaign_Against_Covert_Action|985707609
0a1,2
> Acronym: <b>CACA</b>...;-).
> 
------
Invictus|985707763
13c13,14
< ''P.S. My misfortune graduated me from [[Texas Agriculture and Mechanical University|Texas A&M University]] with two B.A.s ([[History]] and [[Philosophy]]) after a 6-year stint as a [[Russian]] [[Crypto-Linguist]] for the [[United States Marine Corps]].  However, I am now trying to improve upon my writing skills, thus I have latched on here.''
---
> ''P.S. My misfortune graduated me from [[Texas Agriculture and Mechanical University|Texas A&M University]] with two B.A.s ([[History]] and [[Philosophy]]) after a 6-year stint as a [[Russian]] [[Crypto-Linguist]] for the [[United States Marine Corps]].  However, I am now trying to improve upon my writing skills, thus I have latched on here.''----
> Adding a welcome from RoseParks and a thank you.
------
Vietnam|985708396
10a11
>  [[/Language]]
------
Politics|985709895
5c5
< Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  In "Democratic" societies, politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the power of the journalistic and educational sub-classes to push some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.  Pressure-groups also have the power to push issues to the fore.
---
> Those who influence politics answer these questions as they see fit, and seek to impose their answers on society.  In "democratic" societies, politicians are usually the apparent decision-makers on political questions, but they work in a political and ideological environment that is defined by the power of the journalistic and educational sub-classes to push some issues to the fore, and suppress other issues.  Pressure-groups also have the power to push issues to the fore.
------
Masculism|985710037
1c1
< Masculism (Men's Rights) is the ideology according to which men have intrinsic rights that are often denied them in contemporary Western culture -- indeed, according to this view, society does not usually recognize that men, as men, even have rights.  Feminists in western countries have, over about 200 years (since Wollstonecraft), established as a given the thesis that society is male-dominated and oppresses women.  This is the meta-issue that Men's Rights activists raise, as a logical (but not necessarily practical) precondition to  the raising of various specific issues.  
---
> Masculism (Men's Rights) is the ideology according to which men have intrinsic rights that are often denied them in contemporary Western culture -- indeed, according to this view, society does not usually recognize that men, as men, even have rights.  Feminists in western countries have, over about 200 years (since Wollstonecraft), established as a given the thesis that society is male-dominated and oppresses women.  This debatable assumption is the meta-issue that Men's Rights activists raise, as a logical (but not necessarily practical) precondition to  the raising of various specific issues.  
------
Vietnam/Language|985710119
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Vietnamese is a tonal language descended from Chinese.  Before the French occupation, an ideographic written language was used which was also based on Chinese.  The French introduced (mandated?) a phonetic written language system with roman characters which is now the dominant written language.
> 
> The six tones in Vietnamese are:
> 
>  Symbol  Name    Description
>  ----------------------------
>          Khong   no tone (flat)
>  /       Sach    rising
>  \       Huyen   falling
>  ?       Hoi     dipping
>  ~       Nga     dipping (but not as low)
>  .       Nam     low, glottal
> 
> Tone markers are written above the vowel they affect, with the exception of Nam, where the dot goes below the vowel. For example, the common family name:
> 
>    ~
>  Nguyen
> 
> begins with "ng" (this sound is difficult for native English speakers to place at the beginning of a word), and is followed by something approximated by the English word "win".  The ~ indicates a dipping tone; start somewhat low, go down in pith, then rise to the end of the word.
> 
> Most (all? is this true at all?) simple words in Vietnamese have one syllable, and there are lots of compound words.  Dipthongs and tripthongs are very common.  
> Marked differences in Vietnamese accents are found between natives of North (Ha Noi), Middle (Hue) and South Vietnam (Saigon).
> 
------
Vietnam|985710206
0a1,2
> Vietnam is a country locted in Southeast Asia.
> 
11c13
<  [[/Language]]
---
>  [[/Language]]
------
Morals_or_Ethics|985710432
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Commentary/Ethics or Morals]]. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Ethics or Morals]]. 
------
Elvis_Presley|985710605
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Elvis Presley was a musical performer in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
> 
> Elvis Presley performed [[Rock and Roll]] music.
> 
> 
> 
------
1960s|985710964
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The 1960s was a turbulent decade of change in the [[United States]].
> 
> Many of the trends of the 1960s were due to the [[demographic]]
> changes brought about by the [[baby boom]] generation.
> 
> Events/trends:
> * Bay of pigs
> * Civil rights movement
> * Cuban missile crisis 
> * Great society
> * Hippies
> * Increase in crime
> * Rise of the baby boom generation to adulthood
------
Vietnam/Language|985711092
1,2c1
< 
< Vietnamese is a tonal language descended from Chinese.  Before the French occupation, an ideographic written language was used which was also based on Chinese.  The French introduced (mandated?) a phonetic written language system with roman characters which is now the dominant written language.
---
> Vietnamese is a tonal [[language]] descended from [[Chinese]].  Before the [[France|French]] occupation, an ideographic written language was used which was also based on Chinese.  The French introduced (mandated?) a [[phonetic]] written language system with [[roman]] characters which is now the dominant written language.
22c21
< Most (all? is this true at all?) simple words in Vietnamese have one syllable, and there are lots of compound words.  Dipthongs and tripthongs are very common.  
---
> Most (all? is this true at all?) simple words in Vietnamese have one syllable, and there are lots of compound words.  [[Dipthong]]s and [[tripthong]]s are very common.  
24d22
< 
------
Chinese|985711123
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Of or being from the country of [[China]].
------
Invictus|985711159
14a15,16
> ----
> Hello and welcome from AyeSpy - vest-pocket rancher and amateur philosopher.  And because the greater society demands that I pay for things rather than simply taking them, I work for (ick) money as a private investigator...
------
Redneck|985711267
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person having a red neck caused by working outdoors in the sunlight.
> ----
> Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
> 
> Redneck is usually [[derogatory]].
> 
> 
------
Geek|985711350
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (old definition) A person that swallows live animals, bugs, etc.
> ----
> (modern definition) A person that is into technology.
------
Invictus|985711431
16a17,18
> ----
> Welcome aboard fellow [[Texan]].
------
Texan|985711454
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person from [[Texas]].
------
Invictus|985711660
18a19,28
> ----
> There a lot of redneck geeks....
> even some redneck geek jokes:
> 
> You know you are a redneck geek if
>   ...you computer is camoflague color
>   ...your monitor is up on blocks
>   ...you figured out how to use the computer's skoal can holder 
>   ...all of your c++ comments start with "Y'all' or contain one word with a "in'" instead of "ing"
> 
------
Geek|985711713
3c3,5
< (modern definition) A person that is into technology.
---
> (modern definition) A person that is into [[technology]], especially [[computing]] and [[new media]].
> 
> ''see also: [[nerd]]''
------
Geek|985711738
1c1
< (old definition) A person that swallows live animals, bugs, etc.
---
> '''(old definition)''' A person that swallows live animals, bugs, etc.
3c3
< (modern definition) A person that is into [[technology]], especially [[computing]] and [[new media]].
---
> '''(modern definition)''' A person that is into [[technology]], especially [[computing]] and [[new media]].
------
Redneck|985711884
3c3
< Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
---
> Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person (with a [[mullet]])from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
------
Redneck|985711900
3c3
< Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person (with a [[mullet]])from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
---
> Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person (with a [[mullet]]) from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
------
1960s|985712022
1c1
< The 1960s was a turbulent decade of change in the [[United States]].
---
> The 1960s was a turbulent decade of change in the [[United States]] and other parts of the world.
7,9c7,9
< * Bay of pigs
< * Civil rights movement
< * Cuban missile crisis 
---
> * [[Bay of pigs]]
> * [[Civil rights]] movement
> * [[Cuban missile crisis]]
11,12c11,12
< * Hippies
< * Increase in crime
---
> * [[Hippy|Hippies]]
> * Increase in [[crime]]
------
Las_Vegas|985712287
1c1
< The largest city in [[Nevada]]. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling and prostitution (to say nothing of other, illegal sins). In the last ten years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. Consequently, the city has enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism. 
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by Mormon farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as Albuquerque, New Mexico. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is sometimes called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling locally and prostitution in nearby counties (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  The nickname favored by local government and promoters of tourism is "The Entertainment Capitol of the World."  In the last fifteen years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. In addition, concerted effort has been put forth by city fathers to diversify their local economy by attracting light manufacturing, textiles, banking, and other commercial interests.  The lack of any state individual or corporate income tax, and very simple incorporation requirements has fostered the success of this effort.  Having been late to develop an urban core of any substantial size, Las vegas has retained very affordable real estate prices in comparison to nearby urban centers.  Consequently, the city has recently enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.  At this writing, the greater Las Vegas metropolitan area is the fastest growing population center in the [[United States]].
------
Wikipedia_Commentary/Ethics_or_Morals|985712762
1,22c1
< Is it in any way useful to draw a distinction between Ethics and Morals? Are they not, after all, synonymous? Doesn't one pretty much imply the other? Let us answer the three foregoing questions, "Yes, No, and No" respectively and see whether such a position is defensible. 
< 
< The root word for Ethical is the Greek "ethos," meaning "character." The root word for Moral is Latin "mos," meaning "custom."  Perhaps somthing of the original difference between the words lingers in modern understanding.
< 
< Both words are broadly defined in contemporary English as having to do with right and wrong conduct. ''Character'' and ''custom,'' however, provide two very different standards for defining what is right and what is wrong. Character would seem to be a personal attribute, while custom is defined by a society over time. People have character. Societies have custom. To violate either can be said to be wrong, within its appropriate frame of reference. 
< 
< It is possible to draw an objective distinction between good and bad, right and wrong, which does not depend on context for a measuring stick. Let us say that “good,” or “right,” would be the quality of those things which tend toward the greatest survival for the greatest cross-section of life; and “bad” or “wrong” would apply to those things which tend away from that greatest survival. This is a standard which can be objectively tested for, in theory. 
< While an objective standard of right and wrong may be desirable, this is not to say that objective standards and subjective standards are complete strangers to each other, necessarily.  Social mores are seldom entirely arbitrary. They are adopted by societies during the natural course of events because at one time or another this or that rule is seen as beneficial to the survival of the group as a group. Members who subscribe to the rules of the society arguably see survival potential in them. 
< 
< One might take Jewish dietary laws as an example of a subjective standard, in that modernly, compliance with them is rooted in faith rather than having been arrived at through research. Empirical observation in biblical and pre-biblical times, however, provided objective evidence aplenty for the necessity of dietary rules in the absence of such recent advancements as antibiotics and refrigeration. In early times, then, violation of dietary law may well have been "bad" or "wrong" by any standard. Nonetheless, obedience to such dietary law now may safely be classed as an issue of custom more than character. 
< While those of faith will argue that their custom is dictated by a Supreme Authority and as such establishes an asolute standard for both a morals and ethics (making them indistiguishable within that milleu), we may still discuss how what is "moral" may not be "right" by objective criteria, and vice-versa. 
< 
< Consider: It is moral, within the context of their society, for native African cannibals to eat their enemies. Judeo-Christian morality declares this practice sinful. One may argue on one hand that such practice is harmless in the context of a hunter-gatherer economy which relies on scarce resources and to which overpopulation is anathema. On closer inspection, however, we find that a neurologic disorder, caused by a type of protein known as a “preon” which multiplies within its host and can be spread by ingestion, literally causes the physical deterioration of the brains of some mammals, including humans, who practice cannibalism. This has been responsible for destructive epidemics among cannibalistic tribes, and so unqualifiedly militates against their survival. By objective standards, then, we might find that cannibalism is "bad." And not because this or that social standard says so, but because it is insidiously destroying populations who practice it. But one discovers this only by moving outside of the social structure of cannibalism and applying some science. 
< Note that governmental bodies and professions such as medicine and the law have developed codes of conduct for their members. These are called ethical codes, and not moral codes. Morality, being custom-based, relies heavily on the mores of the society - which tend to have religious origins. Therefore, in the field of morals, one talks of such things as "sin" and "virtue." In the field of professional ethics, the discussion tends to revolve around responsibility, duty, and benefit vs negligence, betrayal and harm. There is an obvious effort in the field of civic and professional ethics to establish and follow an objective standard based upon the concrete consequences of one's acts. 
< 
< The founder (and to a lesser degree, subsequent leaders) of a social grouping may see a necessity for a given type of behavior in a purely ethical sense. "We must do this or perish." He may attempt to educate others as to the necessity of the behavior which he prescribes. How likely is it, though, that the followers, adherents, members or what-have-you will share their leader's insight and understanding? One of the reasons they are sheep instead of shepherds is that they sense a superior ability to survive in the guy holding the staff. So, when education fails, when personal wisdom and responsibility are inadequate, rules, threats and punishments are often established. Now we have moved from the field of ethics, founded in personal character - and into the field of morals, founded in authority and buttressed by the power of the group. 
< 
< Ethically, there may be such things as neutral-value activities. Walking around naked, using profanity, painting one's car fuscia - all may have no innate implications as to viability in and of themselves. However, one may quickly find that one's activites have impact on the sensory and emotional states of others. As such, violating a social more or "good taste," even if it carries no penalty, interferes with the smooth passage of others through life and in such a miniscule fashion reduces the general survival. This fact can make the violation of moral standards an unethical act because of the turmoil created. 
< 
< So - things can be innately good or bad, all social standards aside. A person of character might learn what he can about the world around him; determine what will positively or negatively impact it; resolve to support the former, and strive against the latter. Such a person by any standard would probably have to be classified as ethical. Some social groups might find his actions offensive or sinful, but if he is honest about his observations, possesses personal integrity, and is true to values which embrace working maximum benefit and minimum harm - for their own sake - we could not but call him ethical.
<  
< Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
---
> Oops
------
Las_Vegas|985712893
1c1
< The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by Mormon farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as Albuquerque, New Mexico. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is sometimes called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling locally and prostitution in nearby counties (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  The nickname favored by local government and promoters of tourism is "The Entertainment Capitol of the World."  In the last fifteen years or so, many huge, extravagant casinos have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. In addition, concerted effort has been put forth by city fathers to diversify their local economy by attracting light manufacturing, textiles, banking, and other commercial interests.  The lack of any state individual or corporate income tax, and very simple incorporation requirements has fostered the success of this effort.  Having been late to develop an urban core of any substantial size, Las vegas has retained very affordable real estate prices in comparison to nearby urban centers.  Consequently, the city has recently enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.  At this writing, the greater Las Vegas metropolitan area is the fastest growing population center in the [[United States]].
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is sometimes called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling locally and prostitution in nearby counties (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  The nickname favored by local government and promoters of tourism is "The Entertainment Capital of the World."  In the last fifteen years or so, many huge, extravagant [[casino]]s have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. In addition, concerted effort has been put forth by city fathers to diversify their local economy by attracting light manufacturing, textiles, banking, and other commercial interests.  The lack of any state individual or corporate income tax, and very simple incorporation requirements has fostered the success of this effort.  Having been late to develop an urban core of any substantial size, Las vegas has retained very affordable real estate prices in comparison to nearby urban centers.  Consequently, the city has recently enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.  At this writing, the greater Las Vegas metropolitan area is the fastest growing population center in the [[United States]].
------
Wikipedia_Commentary/Ethics_or_Morals|985712926
1c1
< Oops
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Ethics or Morals]]
------
Casino|985712989
2a3,6
> The most famous casinos are located in:
> *[[Monte Carlo]]
> *[[Las Vegas]]
> *[[Atlantic City]]
------
Geek|985713140
3a4,5
> ----
> '''(ultra-modern definition)''' A person that swallows computer bugs.
------
Las_Vegas|985713247
1c1,3
< The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. It is sometimes called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling locally and prostitution in nearby counties (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  The nickname favored by local government and promoters of tourism is "The Entertainment Capital of the World."  In the last fifteen years or so, many huge, extravagant [[casino]]s have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. In addition, concerted effort has been put forth by city fathers to diversify their local economy by attracting light manufacturing, textiles, banking, and other commercial interests.  The lack of any state individual or corporate income tax, and very simple incorporation requirements has fostered the success of this effort.  Having been late to develop an urban core of any substantial size, Las vegas has retained very affordable real estate prices in comparison to nearby urban centers.  Consequently, the city has recently enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.  At this writing, the greater Las Vegas metropolitan area is the fastest growing population center in the [[United States]].
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, and with gambling legalized in the 1930's, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building large hotels incorporating gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. The first such enterprises are widely reputed to have been backed by money from large crime syndicates based the in the eastern U.S.  
> 
> Las Vegas is sometimes called "Sin City" due to the popularity of legalized gambling locally, and legalized prostitution in nearby counties (to say nothing of other, illegal sins).  The nickname favored by local government and promoters of tourism is "The Entertainment Capital of the World."  In the last fifteen years or so, many huge, extravagant [[casino]]s have been built, and the emphasis has turned from gambling and other "adult" pursuits to entertainment for both adults and children. In addition, concerted effort has been put forth by city fathers to diversify their local economy by attracting light manufacturing, textiles, banking, and other commercial interests.  The lack of any state individual or corporate income tax, and very simple incorporation requirements has fostered the success of this effort.  Having been late to develop an urban core of any substantial size, Las vegas has retained very affordable real estate prices in comparison to nearby urban centers.  Consequently, the city has recently enjoyed an enormous boom both in population and in tourism.  At this writing, the greater Las Vegas metropolitan area is the fastest growing population center in the [[United States]].
------
Casino|985713446
1c1
< A building designed to accommodate [[gambling]], usually maintained by a business that profits from the gamblers by offering games in which customers must make disadvantageous bets (e.g., [[craps]], [[roulette]]), or by charging a commission on bets customers make against each other (e.g., [[poker]], [[sports betting]]).  Often combined with or near hotels, restaurants and other vacation attractions to encourage long stays.
---
> A building designed to accommodate [[gambling]], usually maintained by a business that profits from the gamblers by offering games in which customers must make disadvantageous bets (e.g., [[craps]], [[roulette]]), or, in statistically even games, by charging a commission on bets customers make against each other (e.g., [[poker]], [[pai gow]],[[baccarat]], [[sports betting]]).  Often combined with or near hotels, restaurants and other vacation attractions to encourage long stays.
6c6
< *[[Atlantic City]]
---
> *[[Atlantic City]]
------
Larry_Sanger/Like_this|985713698
5a6,9
> ----
> Welllll....anybody can change my stuff, the only question is, would they want to waste the time?
> 
> A vigilant watch over the RecentChanges page is key, in any case.
------
Larry_Sanger|985713788
67a68,69
> ----
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
------
Canada/Government|985713870
11c11
< <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces_and_territories|provinces]] and 3 [[/Provinces_and_territoriesTerritories|territories*]]; [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Northwest Territories]]*, [[Nova Scotia]], [[Nunavut]]*, [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Yukon Territory]]*
---
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b> 10 [[/Provinces_and_territories|provinces]] and 3 [[/Provinces_and_territories|territories*]]; [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Northwest Territories]]*, [[Nova Scotia]], [[Nunavut]]*, [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Yukon Territory]]*
------
Canada/Government|985714187
24,25c24,25
< * <i>chief of state:</i> [[Elizabeth II|Queen ELIZABETH II]] (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Adrienne CLARKSON (since 7 October 1999)
< * <i>head of government:</i> Prime Minister Jean CHRETIEN (since 4 November 1993)
---
> * <i>chief of state:</i> [[Elizabeth II|Queen ELIZABETH II]] (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General [[Adrienne Clarkson]] (since 7 October 1999)
> * <i>head of government:</i> Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien]] (since 4 November 1993)
------
Alberta|985714397
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A provice of Canada. Its capitol is the city of [[Edmonton]].
------
Alberta|985714426
1c1
< A provice of Canada. Its capitol is the city of [[Edmonton]].
---
> A provice of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is the city of [[Edmonton]].
------
Biology/Talk|985714469
19a20
> I have an idea.  We could make ''all'' pages ''automatically'' in this format.  Each article would have a "text" area and a "links" area. --[[LMS]]
------
Biology/Talk|985714533
20c20
< I have an idea.  We could make ''all'' pages ''automatically'' in this format.  Each article would have a "text" area and a "links" area. --[[LMS]]
---
> I have an idea.  We could make ''all'' pages ''automatically'' in this format.  Each article would have a "text" area and a "links" area.  Each article would have, thus, two text boxes, which would be displayed in the same sort of format.  Now this might work...but perhaps we should bear in mind the KISS principle. --[[LMS]]
------
Edmonton|985714823
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Canada|Canadian]] city, and the capitol of the province of [[Alberta]].
------
Edmonton|985715005
1c1,3
< A [[Canada|Canadian]] city, and the capitol of the province of [[Alberta]].
---
> A [[Canada|Canadian]] city, and the capitol of the province of [[Alberta]].
> 
> See [[Canada/provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]].
------
Edmonton|985715104
3c3
< See [[Canada/provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]].
---
> See [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]].
------
1960s|985715240
7,11c7,11
< * [[Bay of pigs]]
< * [[Civil rights]] movement
< * [[Cuban missile crisis]]
< * Great society
< * [[Hippy|Hippies]]
---
> * [[Bay of Pigs]]
> * [[Civil rights movement]]
> * [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]
> * LBJ's [[Great Society]] program
> * [[Hippie|Hippies]]
13c13,23
< * Rise of the baby boom generation to adulthood
---
> * Rise of the [[baby boom]] generation to adulthood
> * The [[sexual revolution]]
> * The rise of [[radical feminism]]
> * Growing popularity of religions other than Christianity, and of atheism
> * The [[Vietnam War]] and protests
> * The growing hegemony of [[liberalism]] in universities and other institutions
> * The rise of [[political correctness]] and the bashing of the [[Western canon]]
> * The rise of the [[drug culture]]
> * [[Rock and roll]] develops, diversifies, and becomes very hip
> 
> ''A fascinating page, but it should be renamed somehow; I'd rather not do it myself, but perhaps [[1960s in the United States]].  Of course, many of the same events were occurring in Europe at the same time.  Would be interesting to learn what the European experience at that time was.''
------
Countries_of_the_world|985715271
9c9
< <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Singapore]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
------
British_Columbia|985715306
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most western [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Victoria BC|Victoria]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
------
Victoria_BC|985715489
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capitol of [[British Columbia]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
AyeSpy|985715497
15a16,18
> ----
> It probably would be worth to mention something about casinos
> operated by native american nations in the US, in the article about casinos.
------
CountriesK|985715536
1,5c1
< * [[Kazakhstan]]
< * [[Kenya]]
< * [[Kiribati]]
< * [[Kuwait]]
< * [[Kyrgyzstan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
AyeSpy|985715563
16,18d15
< ----
< It probably would be worth to mention something about casinos
< operated by native american nations in the US, in the article about casinos.
------
Countries_of_the_world|985715606
14c14
< <td>CountriesK</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Kenya]] -- [[Kiribati]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
------
Manitoba|985715631
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Winnipeg]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
------
AyeSpy|985715697
15a16,17
> ----
> Please do.  I, for one, found many insights in those pages I'd hate to lose. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985715738
5c5
< <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] AfghanistaN AlbaniA [[Algeria]] [[American Samoa]] [[Andorra]] [[Angola]] [[Anguilla]] [[Antigua And Barbuda]] [[Argentina]] [[Armenia]] [[Aruba]] [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] [[Australia]] [[Austria]] [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
7c7
< <td><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] [[Japan]] [[Jordan]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
9c9
< <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] [[Sierra Leone]] [[Slovakia]] [[Slovenia]] [[Singapore]] [[Somalia]] [[South Africa]] [[Spain]] [[Sri Lanka]] [[Sudan]] [[Surinam]] [[Swaziland]] [[Sweden]] [[Switzerland]] [[Syria]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
12c12
< <td><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] [[Bangladesh]] [[Barbados]] [[Belgium]] [[Belize]] [[Benin]] [[Bhutan]] [[Bermuda]] [[Bolivia]] [[Bosnia]] [[Botswana]] [[Brazil]] [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] [[Brunei]] [[Bulgaria]] [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) [[Burundi]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) - [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) - [[Burundi]]
14c14
< <td><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Kenya]] -- [[Kiribati]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
------
Winnipeg|985715802
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capitol of [[Manitoba]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
CountriesT|985715829
1,9c1
< * [[Taiwan]]
< * [[Tanzania]]
< * [[Texas]]
< * [[Togo]]
< * [[Tonga]]
< * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
< * [[Turkey]]
< * [[Turks and Caicos]]
< * [[Tuvalu]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985715856
15c15
< <td>CountriesT</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
------
Gun|985715923
15a16,17
> I don't disagree.  What I was grasping at was a loose distinction between ordinary household guns and things like bazookas, etc.  But you are absolutely right, there is a lot of overlap, and an artificial distinction is probably a bad idea.
> 
18c20
< :[[musket]]
---
> :[[musket]]
------
New_Brunswick|985715968
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Fredericton]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Fredericton|985716010
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[New Brunswick]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Newfoundland|985716121
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[St Johns NF|St. John's]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
St_Johns_NF|985716212
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland - Labrador]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Newfoundland|985716278
3c3,5
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> Newfoundland and Labrador are considered one province.
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Nova_Scotia|985716377
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[province]] of Canada. Its capitol is [[Halifax]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Halifax|985716427
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Nova Scotia]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Ontario|985716527
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian province. Its capitol is [[Toronto]].
> 
> [[Ottawa]], the nation's capitol, is also in Ontario.
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Shotgun|985716539
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Notice to any experts -- this was written by a rank amateur with an interest in the subject, and may contain errors of knowledge and/or evaluation.  Please click on 'edit this page right now' and correct my mistakes.  Thanks!
> 
> The United States legal code USC 18 defines the shotgun as "a weapon designed or redesigned, made or remade, and intended to be fired from the shoulder and designed or redesigned and made or remade to use the energy of the explosive in a fixed shotgun shell to fire through a smooth bore either a number of ball shot or a single projectile for each single pull of the trigger."
> 
> This definition, however, does not exactly match the colloquial use of the term, which would include the growing number of shotguns specifically designed to fire single projectiles ("shotgun slugs"), which have a rifled barrel rather than a smooth bore.
> 
> Also, colloquially, many people would likely call a fully automatic shotgun a shotgun, even though legally it would fall under a different category.
> 
> There are many types of shotguns, and they are a perennial favorite with collectors.  There is the [[over and under shotgun]], the [[side-by-side shotgun]], both of which are types of [[double barreled shotgun]]s.  There are [[pump action shotgun]]s and [[semi-automatic shotgun]]s.
> 
> In hunting circles, the shotgun is used primarily for bird hunting, although it is also increasingly used in deer hunting in semi-populated areas where the long-distance effectiveness of the rifle may pose too great a hazard.
> 
> The shotgun is also known as the premier weapon for home defense. It is particularly suitable for this purpose because it is very intimidating (making it less likely that actual gunfire will be needed to end a criminal attack) and will often end the assault with a single shot, if it comes to that.
------
Toronto|985716578
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Toronto is Canada's largest city, and is the provincial capitol of [[Ontario]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Ottawa|985716630
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ottawa is the capitol of [[Canada]]. It is in the [[province]] of [[Ontario]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Over_and_under_shotgun|985716662
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A type of [[double barreled shotgun]] in which the barrels sit one on top of the other.  Contrast with the [[side by side shotgun]].
> 
> See also: [[shotgun]], [[gun]].
------
Arthur_Koestler|985716664
1a2,15
> 
> Arthur Koestler was a novelist, political activist, and a social philosopher.  Much of Koestler's work was completely out of step with mainstream views. He did not merely arrive at different answers to common questions. Anyone can do that. Instead, Koestler answered, or tried to answer, important questions that others were not even asking. Some may consider this a sign of true creative genius. 
> 
> The result of this originality is a uneven set of ideas and conclusions. Some of his ideas can be appreciated as brilliant, as his work on creativity. Some ideas challenge us to readjust our thinking in order to grasp their importance. And other ideas are just nonsense. But taken as a whole, they are well worth serious consideration. 
> 
> 
> Books by Arthur Koestler 
>  /TheActofCreation?
>  /TheSleepwalkers?
>  /TheGhostintheMachine?
>  /TheGodThatFailed?
>  /DarknessatNoon?
> 
> 
------
Arthur_Koestler|985716698
9,13c9,13
<  /TheActofCreation?
<  /TheSleepwalkers?
<  /TheGhostintheMachine?
<  /TheGodThatFailed?
<  /DarknessatNoon?
---
>  [[/The Act of Creation]]
>  [[/The Sleepwalkers
>  [[/The Ghost in the Machine]]
>  [[/The God That Failed]]
>  [[/Darkness at Noon]]
------
ArthurKoestler|985716722
1,2c1
< Someone copied the text formerly placed above from http://www.freedomsnest.com/koestler.html . Did that person have permission to do this?  We don't know, so we have removed it.
< For an original summary of Koestler see [[Arthur_Koestler]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Arthur Koestler]]
------
Side-by-side_shotgun|985716732
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A type of [[double barreled shotgun]] with the barrels side-by-side.  This is the most classic archetypical image of what a shotgun should look like.
> 
> See also: [[shotgun]], [[gun]]
------
Prince_Edward_Island|985716734
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Prince Edward Island is Canada's smallest province. Its capitol is [[Charlottetown]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Charlottetown|985716775
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Prince Edward Island]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Double_barreled_shotgun|985716829
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[shotgun]] with two barrels.  Typically, double-barreled shotguns are not [[pump action shotguns]] or [[semi-automatic shotguns]].  They are capable of firing two shots in very rapid succession, but will then require a time-consuming reload.
> 
> The double-barreled shotgun is therefore an excellent tool for many [[hunting]] applications, but may be less useful for police force or home defense uses.
> 
> See also: [[shotgun]], [[gun]]
------
Quebec|985716892
1c1
< Quebec is a Canadian province, with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the [[French language]]. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
---
> Quebec is a [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian province]], with a population of 6 million, primarily speakers of the [[French language]]. It is surrounded by over 300 million English speakers in the [[US]] and the rest of [[Canada]], and yet, it manages to keep its unique culture and language.
3a4,7
> 
> Quebec's provincial capitol is [[Quebec City]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Arctic_Circle|985716897
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Arctic Circle is the parallel of latitude at 66°30' N. It marks the southern limit of the area in which the sun does not rise on the winter solstice or set on the summer solstice. 
------
Quebec_City|985716928
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Quebec]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Arctic_Circle|985716937
1c1
< Arctic Circle is the parallel of latitude at 66°30' N. It marks the southern limit of the area in which the sun does not rise on the winter solstice or set on the summer solstice. 
---
> Arctic Circle is the parallel of latitude at 66°30' N. It marks latitude north of which the sun does not rise on the winter solstice or set on the summer solstice. 
------
Arctic_Circle|985716971
1c1
< Arctic Circle is the parallel of latitude at 66°30' N. It marks latitude north of which the sun does not rise on the winter solstice or set on the summer solstice. 
---
> Arctic Circle is the parallel of [[latitude]] at 66°30' N. It marks latitude north of which the sun does not rise on the [[winter solstice]] or set on the [[summer solstice]]. 
------
Saskatchewan|985716995
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[province]] of Canada. Its capitol city is [[Regina]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
SomeMetaphysicalQuestions|985717039
1,19c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Today I am going to introduce one of the most fundamental and most difficult areas of philosophy, namely <i>metaphysics</i>.  It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even <i>are</i>, in metaphysics.  So I’m going to start with a fairly simple example that I’ll use to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
< 
< Imagine now that you’re in a nice bright room, and in the middle of this room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy red apple.  Now I’m going to ask a bunch of questions about this apple -- all of them examples of <i>metaphysical</i> questions.  This will, hopefully, help us understand better what metaphysics is.  Now don’t be worried if you don’t follow all of the questions that I ask.  I’m throwing a bunch of them at you at once in order to give you some general impression of what metaphysical questions are like.
< 
< The apple is an excellent example of a physical object: you can pick it up, throw it around, eat it, and so on.  It occupies space and time and has a variety of properties.  So now suppose we ask: What does it mean to say that the apple is a physical object?  In other words, <i>what</i> <i>are</i> physical objects?  This might seem like the sort of question to which one <i>can’t</i> give an answer.  I mean, what could you possibly use to explain what physical objects are?  But philosophers actually do try to give some general sorts of accounts of what they are.  They ask: Are physical objects just bundles of their properties?  Or are they substances which <i>have</i> those properties?  That’s called the problem of substance.
< 
< OK, here’s another sort of question.  I said that the apple has <i>properties</i>, like being red, being big, being juicy -- those are each properties of the apple.  But what does it mean to say that redness is a <i>property</i>?  How are properties different from objects?  Notice, we say that things like apples have properties like redness.  But apples and redness are totally different sorts of items, of things, of entities.  You can pick up and touch apples, but you can’t pick up and touch redness -- well, except in the sense that you can pick up and touch red <i>things</i> -- like apples!  So what’s the difference between objects, like apples, and properties, like redness?  How can we best think about what properties <i>are</i>?  This is something we’ll talk about, called <i>the</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>universals</i>.
< 
< And here’s another question about what physical objects are: When <i>in</i> <i>general</i> can we say that physical objects <i>come</i> <i>into</i> <i>being</i> and when they <i>cease</i> <i>to</i> <i>exist</i>?  Now surely the apple can <i>change</i> in lots of ways without ceasing to exist.  It could get brown and rotten but it would still be that apple.  But if I ate it -- well then the apple wouldn’t just have changed.  It would no longer exist.  So there are some questions to be answered about the notions of identity, or being the same thing over time, and change.
< 
< Now this apple is supposed to exist in space (it’s on the table in this room) and in time (it wasn’t on the table a week ago and it won’t be on the table a week from now).  But what does this talk of "space" and "time" mean?  Can we say, for example, that space is like an invisible three-dimensional grid in which the apple is located?  Well, suppose the apple, and every other physical object in the universe were to entirely removed from existence: then would space, that "invisible grid" still exist?  Some people say not -- they say that without physical objects, space would not exist, because space is the framework in which we understand how physical objects are related to each other.  So, no objects, no space.
< 
< Then there are other very different sorts of problems in metaphysics.  The apple is one sort of thing; now if I’m in the room, and I say I have a mind, I’m surely going to say that my mind is a different sort of thing from the apple.  I might say that my mind is immaterial, but the apple is a material object.  Here’s another difference: it sounds a little strange to say that my mind is located in any <i>particular</i> <i>place</i>; maybe we could say it’s somewhere in the room; but the apple is obviously located in a particular place, namely on the middle of the table.  And so on.  It <i>seems</i> clear that minds are fundamentally different from physical bodies.  But if so, how can something mental, like a decision to eat, cause a physical event to occur, like biting down on the apple?  How are the mind and body causally interconnected if they are two totally different sorts of things?  This is called the <i>mind</i>-<i>body</i> <i>problem</i>, something we’ll be studying in a few weeks when we study something called "the philosophy of mind."  The philosophy of mind used to be, and sometimes still is, considered part of metaphysics.
< 
< OK, I’m done giving you examples of metaphysical problems.  And I’ve just given you a <i>few</i> examples.  There are many, many more problems where those came from; for example, the problem of free will and determinism has often been considered part of metaphysics.
< 
< Now, I want to say something before I try to give a definition of the word "metaphysics."  Of all philosophical subjects, metaphysics is bound to look most <i>pointless</i>.  I am sure that some of you, when you heard the questions I just asked, were asking yourselves, "What on earth is the point of even <i>wondering</i> about stuff like this?"  So let me just remind you about what the task of philosophy is.  The task of philosophy is to <i>really</i> <i>get</i> <i>to</i> <i>understand</i> the meaning and justification of our most <i>basic</i> beliefs.  And metaphysics asks questions about <i>the</i> <i>most</i> basic of our beliefs.  Metaphysics is often thought to be the <i>most</i> <i>fundamental</i> part of philosophy.  If my saying that doesn’t help you get over the suspicion that this is all just hifalutin nonsense, just wait.  I am hoping that you will gain some <i>personal</i> <i>experience</i> of how questions in metaphysics underlie, and deeply inform, many other more obviously important questions in philosophy.  So insofar as how you answer metaphysical questions makes a big difference for how you answer other obviously important questions in philosophy, metaphysical questions are themselves important.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Metaphysics/Introduction]]
------
Metaphysics/Introduction|985717050
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This article is an attempt to introduce some issues of one of the most fundamental and most difficult areas of philosophy, namely <i>metaphysics</i>.  It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even <i>are</i>, in metaphysics.  It might help to begin with a fairly simple example that to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
> 
> Imagine now that we are in a nice bright room, and in the middle of this room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy red apple.  We can ask many <i>metaphysical</i> questions about this apple.  This will, hopefully, help us understand better what metaphysics is.
> 
> The apple is an excellent example of a [[physical object]]: one can pick it up, throw it around, eat it, and so on.  It occupies [[space and time]] and has a variety of [[property|properties]].  Suppose we ask: <i>what</i> <i>are</i> physical objects?  This might seem like the sort of question to which one <i>cannot</i> give an answer.  What could one possibly use to explain what physical objects are?  But philosophers actually do try to give some general sorts of accounts of what they are.  They ask: Are physical objects just bundles of their properties?  Or are they substances which <i>have</i> those properties?  That is called the [[problem of substance]].
> 
> Here is another sort of question.  We said that the apple has <i>properties</i>, like being red, being big, being juicy.  How are properties different from objects?  Notice, we say that things like apples have properties like redness.  But apples and redness are different sorts of items, of things, of entities.  One can pick up and touch an apple, but cannot pick up and touch redness, except perhaps in the sense that you can pick up and touch red <i>things.</i>  So how can we best think about what properties <i>are</i>?  This is called <i>the</i> <i>[[problem of universals]]</i>.
> 
> Here is another question about what physical objects are: when <i>in</i> <i>general</i> can we say that physical objects <i>come</i> <i>into</i> <i>being</i> and when they <i>cease</i> <i>to</i> <i>exist</i>?  Surely the apple can <i>change</i> in many ways without ceasing to exist.  It could get brown and rotten but it would still be that apple.  But if someone ate it, it would not just have changed; it would no longer exist.  So there are some metaphysical questions to be answered about the notions of [[identity]], or being the same thing over time, and [[change]].
> 
> This apple exists in space (it sits on a table in a room) and in time (it was not on the table a week ago and it will not be on the table a week from now).  But what does this talk of space and time mean?  Can we say, for example, that space is like an invisible three-dimensional grid in which the apple is located?  Suppose the apple, and every other physical object in the universe were to entirely removed from existence: then would space, that "invisible grid," still exist?  Some people say not--they say that without physical objects, space would not exist, because space is the framework in which we understand how physical objects are related to each other.  There are many other metaphysical questions to ask about space and time.
> 
> There are some other, very different sorts of problems in metaphysics.  The apple is one sort of thing; now if Sally is in the room, and we say Sally has a mind, we are surely going to say that Sally's mind is a different sort of thing from the apple (if it is a sort of ''thing'' at all).  I might say that my mind is immaterial, but the apple is a material object.  Moreover, it sounds a little strange to say that Sally's mind is located in any <i>particular</i> <i>place</i>; maybe we could say it is somewhere in the room; but the apple is obviously located in a particular place, namely on the middle of the table.  It <i>seems</i> clear that [[mind]]s are fundamentally different from physical [[body|bodies]].  But if so, how can something mental, like a decision to eat, cause a physical event to occur, like biting down on the apple?  How are the mind and body causally interconnected if they are two totally different sorts of things?  This is called the <i>[[mind-body problem]]</i>, which is now typically relegated to a philosophical subdiscipline called ''[[philosophy of mind]].''  The mind-body problem is sometimes still considered part of metaphysics, however.
> 
> Those, then, are some examples of metaphysical problems.  There are many more problems, of course.
------
Regina|985717052
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial [[capitol]] of [[Saskatchewan]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Latitude|985717099
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Latitude gives the location of a place north or south of the [[equator]].  Latitude is an [[angular measurement]] ranging from 0° at the [[equator]] to 90° at the poles.
> 
> See [[Longitude]].
------
Metaphysics|985717103
1c1
< An introduction to metaphysics can be found in SomeMetaphysicalQuestions.  See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
---
> /Introduction.
3c3,5
< One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
---
> See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
> 
> One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
------
Larrys_Text|985717143
9c9
< ::SomeMetaphysicalQuestions -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
---
> ::[[Metaphysics/Introduction|introduction to metaphysics]] -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
------
Countries_of_the_world|985717170
5c5
< <td><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td width=34% valign=top><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
7c7
< <td><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
---
> <td width=33% valign=top><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
9c9
< <td><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
---
> <td  valign=top width=33%><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
12c12
< <td><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) - [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) - [[Burundi]]
---
> <td valign=top><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) - [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) - [[Burundi]]
14,15c14,15
< <td><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
---
> <td valign=top><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
> <td valign=top><font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
------
Arthur_Koestler|985717363
10c10
<  [[/The Sleepwalkers
---
>  [[/The Sleepwalkers]]
------
Longitude|985717371
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Longitude describes the location of a place [[east]] or [[west]] of a north-south line called the [[prime meridian]].  Longitude is an [[angular measurement]] ranging from 0° at the [[prime meridian]] to 180° at the [[International Date Line]].
> 
------
Larrys_Text|985717521
1c1
< This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., [[philosophy of science]] and [[aesthetics]] are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for [[Wikipedia]].  On this page, we can discuss how to do this.
---
> This is a series of introductory philosophy lectures [[Larry Sanger]] wrote out completely and read to his unfortunate OhioState students in the spring of 1998.  Printed out it's about 350 pages long.  Its audience is average undergraduates who have never had a philosophy class before.  It covers, in a conversational yet concise fashion, all the main subdisciplines of philosophy, with a few exceptions (e.g., [[philosophy of science]] and [[aesthetics]] are omitted).  This material will require radical reworking and general wikification to become appropriate for [[Wikipedia]].
3c3,5
< Table of contents (please keep this updated as you wikify!):
---
> I'm now in the process of wikifying this.  Among other things, this involves renaming from the old linking style, LikeThis, to the new [[Free Links]] style, [[like this]].
> 
> Table of contents:
24,30c26,32
< * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  So, help me do that.  ''Don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
< * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  You should de-opinionate these, if you can.  (This, like much other but not all improvement, will have to be done by philosophers who know the issues.)
< * Please render my prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
< * I have saved the text in section-sized chunks, but I think it could have been saved in much smaller chunks.  If you want to do that, that would be Very Cool.
< * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  If you want to help totally wikify this text, you would remove all that stuff.  Please?
< * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles should be changed, or the entirety of a certain page should be split up and put on other pages.  I leave that to you.
< * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to [[Wikipedia]].  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and it took me all of an hour to upload them to the wiki!  So I won't mind, really!
---
> * I know a lot of this sucks.  It is written to get the general concepts across to Ohio State undergrads.  Yes, some of what I've written might be outright wrong, and most of it can be tightened up considerably.  If you want to help me do that, ''don't'' bother replying to something I've written here.  Just make the change you think is necessary, please.
> * I have taken actual stands on certain issues.  I'll be de-opinionating these entries, of course.
> * I'll be rendering the prose a little more formal, less lecture-like.
> * I have (temporarily) saved the text in section-sized chunks, but as I wikify I'm saving it even smaller chunks.
> * Since these are lectures, I refer to myself, the students, Ohio State, readings, other lectures I've given (hence, other parts of the wiki) and other stuff that shouldn't belong on the wiki.  Of course, I'll be removing all that.
> * I have saved the sections on pages with titles describing their content.  Ultimately, perhaps, the titles will be changed (rendered in [[Free Links]] style), and the entirety of a certain page will sometimes be split up and put on other pages.
> * Finally, you might not like my style, and you might think that I don't present the issues reliably enough, and otherwise feel that this contribution is not exactly a boon to [[Wikipedia]].  If that's the case, you can feel free to replace what I've written with your own golden prose; I'd just appreciate that you convey roughly the same information that I do (i.e., you cover the same topics and say the same (true) things I have to say about them).  If these textbook entries are placeholders before better stuff comes along, that's perfectly fine by me.  The lectures are long since over and they aren't my professional work--they're basic explanations for undergrads.  So I won't mind, really!
32,48c34
< I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
< ----
< I added a note to the top of most of the pages.  I would hope the notes don't last longer than the first couple of edits, which should suffice to make them read sufficiently less like lectures.  And having them link here means interested parties can find which ones have not yet been reviewed (that gives me an idea: ReviewRequests).  That having been said... Thanks for the material, Larry.  I skimmed sections here and there, and it all looks quite good.  Quite a boon for the PhiloSophy section.  I might just look you up and request a copy when I have to teach some undergrad intro class (or will the wikipedia be enough by then...).  --PhillipHankins
< ----
< Thanks very much, Phillip! -- Larry
< ----
< Update, Feb. 3, from [[Larry Sanger]]: as an example of how I would like this text to be wikified, I have started working on wikifying [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=PhilosophyOfMind&revision=1 the original PhilosophyOfMind entry] and [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=browse&id=TheMindBodyProblem&revision=1 the original TheMindBodyProblem entry].  In the process of wikifying these pages, as you can see by comparing the originals (click on the bracketed links) with the most recent versions (PhilosophyOfMind and TheMindBodyProblem), I have done the following:
< * Prised out large portions of the text that belong in their own headings; see DualIsm and PhysicalIsm 
< * Prised out smaller portions of text that explicate jargon; see MentalEvent, MentalFunctions, ConsciousNess, ReducTion, MonIsm, NeutralMonism
< * ''Importantly,'' I added links to the new entries created by prised-out text in the appropriate places in the table of contents above.  This is useful for someone who wants to follow the original text.
< * Invented a few new entries along the way; see PhysicalEvent, NeuroN (planned--go ahead, do it yourself), BrainEvent, PhilosophicalView
< * Changed some of the "I" talk to "magisterial-we" talk
< * Deleted parts of the text that make it easier to read/listen to (this was padding)
< * Deleted parts of the text that made transitions from one part to another (this isn't going to be one continuous text when we're done with it)
< * Did a little copyediting, tightening up, and even added a thought or two
< * Etc.?
< Go thou and do likewise--please!
---
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
------
Winter_solstice|985717580
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Northern hemisphere's shortest day - ususally a date near December 21st.
------
Summer_solstice|985717610
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Northern hemisphere's longest day - ususally a date near June 20th.
------
Summer_solstice|985717624
1c1
< The Northern hemisphere's longest day - ususally a date near June 20th.
---
> The [[Northern hemisphere]]'s longest day - ususally a date near June 20th.
------
Winter_solstice|985717644
1c1
< The Northern hemisphere's shortest day - ususally a date near December 21st.
---
> The [[Northern hemisphere]]'s shortest day - ususally a date near December 21st.
------
Longitude|985717819
2a3
> See [[latitude]].
------
Latitude|985717829
3c3
< See [[Longitude]].
---
> See [[longitude]].
------
Ich_bin_ein_Berliner|985718041
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Ich bin ein Berliner" is a german phrase with the ambiguous meaning of 
> 
> * I am living in [[Berlin]]
> * I am a doughnut
> 
> [[John F. Kennedy]] delivered this expression on June 26, 1963 in Berlin in the context of a speech ending with the sentence: "All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner."
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|985718197
3c3
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees latitude (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees longitude (about the same as Hawaii), northeast of the AlaskaPeninsula, KodiakIsland, and CookInlet, due north of the KenaiPeninsula, northwest of PrinceWilliamSound and ThePanhandleOfAlaska, and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of MountMcKinley''''/''''DenalI).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy ChugachMountains, on the northwest by the KnikArm, and on the southwest by the TurnagainArm, both of which are arms of the CookInlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees [[latitude]] (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaskan Panhandle]], and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], both of which are arms of the Cook Inlet.
------
Canada/cities|985718206
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Calgary]]
> *[[Charlottetown]]
> *[[Fredericton]]
> *[[Iqaluit]]
> *[[Halifax]]
> *[[Moncton]]
> *[[Montreal]]
> *[[Ottawa]]
> *[[Quebec City]]
> *[[Regina]]
> *[[Saint John NB|Saint John (New Brunswick)]]
> *[[St Johns NF|St John's (Newfoundland)]]
> *[[Toronto]]
> *[[Winnipeg]]
> *[[Vancouver]]
> *[[Victoria BC|Victoria]]
> *[[Whitehorse]]
> *[[Yellowknife]]
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|985718214
3c3
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of [[Alaska]], 61 degrees [[latitude]] (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaskan Panhandle]], and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], both of which are arms of the Cook Inlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees [[latitude]] (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaskan Panhandle]], and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], both of which are arms of the Cook Inlet.
------
Iqaluit|985718330
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Iqaluit is the territorial [[capitol]] of Canada's newsest territory, [[Nunavut]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Gun|985718376
1c1
< A gun is a machine for emitting projectiles at high velocity.  (Yes, that's an absurd definition, please change it!)
---
> A weapon that fires a projectile at a target with the purpose of damaging or killing it.  Guns are used as weapons of war, for committing crimes and for self-defense against criminals, for hunting, and for sport shooting.
2a3
> In military parlance, the term 'gun' is used only in reference to artillery.
4c5,8
< Common types of civilian guns:
---
> Common types of guns:
> 
> :[[bazooka]]
> :[[canon]]
14,17d17
< ''Questioning separation of civilian and military guns: they overlap a heck of a lot, and what might be a civilian gun in one country might be an exclusively military weapon someplace else.''
< 
< I don't disagree.  What I was grasping at was a loose distinction between ordinary household guns and things like bazookas, etc.  But you are absolutely right, there is a lot of overlap, and an artificial distinction is probably a bad idea.
< 
20a21,27
> 
> See also:
> :[[Gun control]]
> 
> ''Questioning separation of civilian and military guns: they overlap a heck of a lot, and what might be a civilian gun in one country might be an exclusively military weapon someplace else.''
> 
> I don't disagree.  What I was grasping at was a loose distinction between ordinary household guns and things like bazookas, etc.  But you are absolutely right, there is a lot of overlap, and an artificial distinction is probably a bad idea.
------
Gun|985718393
7,8c7,8
< :[[bazooka]]
< :[[canon]]
---
>  [[bazooka]]
>  [[canon]]
------
Gun|985718401
23c23
< :[[Gun control]]
---
>  [[Gun control]]
------
Feature_requests|985718475
26a27
> * There's a good reason why we can't use single quotes in titles, right?  It sure would be handy to have the use of them, though.
------
Iqaluit|985718673
3a4,5
> ----
> "Capital" is the word...this needs to be changed in all these entries.  :-/  Please see [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capitol 1] and [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capital 2].
------
Gun|985718719
1c1
< A weapon that fires a projectile at a target with the purpose of damaging or killing it.  Guns are used as weapons of war, for committing crimes and for self-defense against criminals, for hunting, and for sport shooting.
---
> A <i>gun</i> is a aimable [[weapon]] that emits projectiles at high velocity, or a device that resembles such a weapon used for other purposes (e.g., <i>glue gun</i>).  The term is also used for types of [[artillery]] with long barrels that fire at a relatively flat trajectory.
3c3
< In military parlance, the term 'gun' is used only in reference to artillery.
---
> Types of guns:
5c5,24
< Common types of guns:
---
> :[[Handgun]] (Also called a <i>pistol</i>; a gun used for short distances, fired from the hand).
> ::[[Historical pistol|Historical]] (Single-shots, "duelling" pistols, etc.).
> ::[[Pneumatic pistol|Pneumatic]]
> ::[[Revolver]]
> ::[[Semi-automatic handgun|Semi-automatic]]
> 
> :[[Long gun]] (A gun used for longer distances, fired from the shoulder).
> ::[[Historical long gun|Historical]] (Muzzle loaders, flintlocks, etc.)
> ::[[Pneumatic rifle|Pneumatic]]
> ::[[Rifle]]
> ::[[Shotgun]]
> ::[[Carbine]]
> ::[[Sub machine gun]]
> ::[[Machine gun]]
> ::[[Gatling gun]]
> 
> :[[Artillery]] (A gun typically for battlefield use, often mounted on wheels or on a vehicle such as a tank, boat, or aircraft).
> ::[[Cannon]]
> ::[[Bazooka]]
> ::[[Howitzer]]
7,27c26
<  [[bazooka]]
<  [[canon]]
< 
< :[[long guns]]
< ::[[rifle]]
< ::[[shotgun]]
< 
< :[[handguns]]
< ::[[revolver]]
< ::[[pistol]]
< 
< Historical types of guns:
< 
< :[[musket]]
< 
< See also:
<  [[Gun control]]
< 
< ''Questioning separation of civilian and military guns: they overlap a heck of a lot, and what might be a civilian gun in one country might be an exclusively military weapon someplace else.''
< 
< I don't disagree.  What I was grasping at was a loose distinction between ordinary household guns and things like bazookas, etc.  But you are absolutely right, there is a lot of overlap, and an artificial distinction is probably a bad idea.
---
> See also: [[Gun law]]
------
Gun|985718768
16a17
> ::[[Semi-automatic rifle|Semi-automatic]]
------
1960s|985718793
18c18
< * The growing hegemony of [[liberalism]] in universities and other institutions
---
> * The growing hegemony of ultra-[[liberalism]] in universities and other institutions
------
Iqaluit|985718805
5c5
< "Capital" is the word...this needs to be changed in all these entries.  :-/  Please see [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capitol 1] and [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capital 2].
---
> "Capital" is the word...this needs to be changed in all these entries.  :-/  Please see [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capitol 1] and [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capital 2] and [http://www.google.com/search?q=capital+capitol&btnG=Google+Search 3].
------
1960s|985718859
10c10
< * LBJ's [[Great Society]] program
---
> * [[LBJ]]'s [[Great Society]] program
23a24,27
> 
> See also:
>    [[1950s]] - previous
>    [[1980s]] - next
------
Iqaluit|985718893
1c1
< Iqaluit is the territorial [[capitol]] of Canada's newsest territory, [[Nunavut]].
---
> Iqaluit is the territorial [[capitol]] of Canada's newest territory, [[Nunavut]].
------
Nunavut|985718894
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nunavut is a territory of [[Canada]]. It was formerly part of the [[Northwest Territories]]. In 1993 the Canadian Parliment both the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]]. On April 1, 1999, Nunavut became a separate territory. Its territorial capitol is the city of [[Iqaluit]].
> 
> Nunavut means "our land" in [[Inuktitut]], the language of Inuit.
> 
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Northwest Territories]]
------
Nunavut|985718921
3c3
< Nunavut means "our land" in [[Inuktitut]], the language of Inuit.
---
> Nunavut means "our land" in [[Inuktitut]], the language of [[Inuit]].
6c6
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Northwest Territories]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Northwest Territories]]
------
Northwest_Territories|985719018
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A northern Canadian territory. Its capitol is [[Yellowknife]].
> 
> As of April 1 1999, the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories became a separate territory called [[Nunavut]].
------
Ich_bin_ein_Berliner|985719068
1c1
< "Ich bin ein Berliner" is a german phrase with the ambiguous meaning of 
---
> "Ich bin ein Berliner" is a german phrase with the ambiguous meanings of
3,4c3,4
< * I am living in [[Berlin]]
< * I am a doughnut
---
> * I am a resident of [[Berlin]] (This would more typically be phrased "Ich bin Berliner" in German).
> * I am a jelly doughnut
6c6
< [[John F. Kennedy]] delivered this expression on June 26, 1963 in Berlin in the context of a speech ending with the sentence: "All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words Ich bin ein Berliner."
---
> [[John F. Kennedy]] delivered this expression on June 26, 1963 in Berlin in the context of a speech ending with the sentence: "All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words <i>Ich bin ein Berliner</i>."
------
Yellowknife|985719082
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the territorial capitol of the [[Northwest Territories]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Northwest_Territories|985719117
3c3,5
< As of April 1 1999, the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories became a separate territory called [[Nunavut]].
---
> As of April 1 1999, the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories became a separate territory called [[Nunavut]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Nunavut]]
------
Gun|985719130
8a9
> ::[[Saturyday Nite Special]]
27c28,31
< See also: [[Gun law]]
---
> See also: 
> *[[Gun law]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Canada/Provinces_and_territories|985719157
16,18c16,18
< * Northwest Terriories
< * Nunavut
< * Yukon
---
> * [[Northwest Terriories]]
> * [[Nunavut]]
> * [[Yukon]]
------
Gun|985719227
23c23,24
< :[[Artillery]] (A gun typically for battlefield use, often mounted on wheels or on a vehicle such as a tank, boat, or aircraft).
---
> :[[Artillery]] (A larger gun typically for battlefield use, firing larger projectiles, and often mounted on wheels or on a vehicle such as a tank, boat, or aircraft).
> ::[[Anti-aircraft]]
------
Canada/Provinces_and_territories|985719245
16c16
< * [[Northwest Terriories]]
---
> * [[Northwest Territories]]
------
Yukon|985719289
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A northern territory of Canada, bordering [[Alaska]]. Its capitol is [[Whitehorse]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Whitehorse|985719340
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Canadian city, and the territorial capitol of the [[Yukon]].
> 
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Shotgun|985719393
13c13,15
< The shotgun is also known as the premier weapon for home defense. It is particularly suitable for this purpose because it is very intimidating (making it less likely that actual gunfire will be needed to end a criminal attack) and will often end the assault with a single shot, if it comes to that.
---
> The shotgun is also known as the premier weapon for home defense. It is particularly suitable for this purpose because it is very intimidating (making it less likely that actual gunfire will be needed to end a criminal attack) and will often end the assault with a single shot, if it comes to that.
> ----
> Shotgun also refers to a passenger riding next to a driver in a vehicle (and in old times (wild west?) carrying a shotgun to protect the vehicle and its contents).
------
Gun|985719444
9d8
< ::[[Saturyday Nite Special]]
29,30c28
< See also: 
< *[[Gun law]]
---
> See also: [[Gun law]], [[Saturday-night special]], [[Assault rifle]].
------
John_F._Kennedy|985719485
1c1,5
< John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  
> 
> He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  
> 
> He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
------
Continuous_game|985719547
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Realtime strategy games (eg Command and Conquer, Rea Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
------
Continuous_game|985719632
1c1
< Realtime strategy games (eg Command and Conquer, Rea Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
---
> Realtime strategy games (eg Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
------
Canada/Provinces_and_territories|985719638
1c1
< [[Canada]] consists of ten [[province]]s and three territories.
---
> [[Canada]] consists of ten provinces and three territories. The major difference between a Canadian province and a Canadian territory is that a province is a creation of the [[Canadian Constitution Act|Constitution Act]], while a territory is created by federal law. Thus, the federal government has more direct control over the territories, while the provinces are run by provincial governments.
------
Saturday-night_special|985719639
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Saturday-night special</i> is a colloquial term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].  The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to emphasize availability.
> 
------
HomePage|985719718
37c37
< Some people have felt impelled to upload their essays to the [[Wikipedia commentary]] area.
---
> You can upload your (non-encyclopedia article) essays to the [[Wikipedia commentary]] area.
39c39
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Continuous_game|985719722
1c1
< Realtime strategy games (eg Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
---
> [[Realtime strategy]] games (eg Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
------
Continuous_game|985719791
1c1,7
< [[Realtime strategy]] games (eg Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, Ages of Empires)
---
> 
> A <b>continuous game</b> is one without pauses, turns or other
> stopping points.
> 
> Some [[Realtime strategy]] games are Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, and Ages of Empires.
> 
> The opposite of a continuous game is a [[turn based game]].
------
Assault_rifle|985719932
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Asslault rifle</i> and <i>assault weapon</i> are colloquial terms for any of various types of intermediate-power [[long gun]]s.  Originally a military term for the kind of fully-automatic rifles issued to soldiers for battlefield use, the term has recently been applied (for political reasons) to low-powered semi-automatic personal defense weapons.
> 
------
Rob_Salzman|985719941
15a16,18
> 
> ----
> You're absolutely right re: capitol/capital. I have a history of confusing the two. Of course, you don't need my permission to change them. :) -- [[STG]]
------
Saturday-night_special|985719995
1c1
< <i>Saturday-night special</i> is a colloquial term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].  The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to emphasize availability.
---
> <i>Saturday-night special</i> is a [[colloquial]] term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].  
2a3,5
> The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to characterize guns in a negative light.
> ----
> Literally, a Saturday-night special is taken from a cheap handgun  fired by a person at a bar, club, etc. on Saturday-night often involving drugs and/or [[alcohol]].
------
Iqaluit|985720012
1c1
< Iqaluit is the territorial [[capitol]] of Canada's newest territory, [[Nunavut]].
---
> Iqaluit is the territorial [[capital]] of Canada's newest territory, [[Nunavut]].
4,5d3
< ----
< "Capital" is the word...this needs to be changed in all these entries.  :-/  Please see [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capitol 1] and [http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=capital 2] and [http://www.google.com/search?q=capital+capitol&btnG=Google+Search 3].
------
Assault_rifle|985720028
1c1
< <i>Asslault rifle</i> and <i>assault weapon</i> are colloquial terms for any of various types of intermediate-power [[long gun]]s.  Originally a military term for the kind of fully-automatic rifles issued to soldiers for battlefield use, the term has recently been applied (for political reasons) to low-powered semi-automatic personal defense weapons.
---
> <i>Assault rifle</i> and <i>assault weapon</i> are colloquial terms for any of various types of intermediate-power [[long gun]]s.  Originally a military term for the kind of fully-automatic rifles issued to soldiers for battlefield use, the term has recently been applied (for political reasons) to low-powered semi-automatic personal defense weapons.
------
Alberta|985720040
1c1
< A provice of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is the city of [[Edmonton]].
---
> A provice of [[Canada]]. Its capital is the city of [[Edmonton]].
------
Continuous_game|985720077
0a1
> A <i>continuous game</i> is a [[game]] without pauses, turns or other stopping points.
2,3c3
< A <b>continuous game</b> is one without pauses, turns or other
< stopping points.
---
> Examples of some [[realtime strategy game]]s are <i>Command and Conquer</i>, <i>Red Alert</i>, <i>Starcraft</i>, and <i>Age of Empires</i>.
5,7c5
< Some [[Realtime strategy]] games are Command and Conquer, Red Alert, Starcraft, and Ages of Empires.
< 
< The opposite of a continuous game is a [[turn based game]].
---
> Compare [[turn-based game]].
------
Edmonton|985720086
1c1
< A [[Canada|Canadian]] city, and the capitol of the province of [[Alberta]].
---
> A [[Canada|Canadian]] city, and the capital of the province of [[Alberta]].
3c3
< See [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]].
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
British_Columbia|985720123
1c1
< The most western [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Victoria BC|Victoria]].
---
> The most western [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[Victoria BC|Victoria]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Victoria_BC|985720150
1c1
< A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capitol of [[British Columbia]].
---
> A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capital of [[British Columbia]].
------
Manitoba|985720191
1c1
< A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Winnipeg]].
---
> A province of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[Winnipeg]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Winnipeg|985720215
1c1
< A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capitol of [[Manitoba]].
---
> A [[Canada/cities|Canadian city]], and the provincial capital of [[Manitoba]].
------
New_Brunswick|985720252
1c1
< A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[Fredericton]].
---
> A province of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[Fredericton]].
------
Newfoundland|985720288
1c1
< A [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capitol is [[St Johns NF|St. John's]].
---
> A province of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[St Johns NF|St. John's]].
------
St_Johns_NF|985720321
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland - Labrador]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capital of [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland - Labrador]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Saturday-night_special|985720357
1c1,5
< <i>Saturday-night special</i> is a [[colloquial]] term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].  
---
> <i>Saturday-night special</i> is an American [[colloquial]] term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].
> 
> The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to emphasize easy availability.  The term is meant to evoke the image of a bar fight (which are most common on Saturday nights).
> 
> [[/Talk]]
3,5d6
< The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to characterize guns in a negative light.
< ----
< Literally, a Saturday-night special is taken from a cheap handgun  fired by a person at a bar, club, etc. on Saturday-night often involving drugs and/or [[alcohol]].
------
Handgun|985720431
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carred in ones hand.
------
Nova_Scotia|985720489
1c1
< A [[province]] of Canada. Its capitol is [[Halifax]].
---
> A province of Canada. Its capital is [[Halifax]].
------
Halifax|985720510
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Nova Scotia]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capital of [[Nova Scotia]].
------
Ontario|985720547
1c1
< A Canadian province. Its capitol is [[Toronto]].
---
> A Canadian province. Its capital is [[Toronto]].
3c3
< [[Ottawa]], the nation's capitol, is also in Ontario.
---
> [[Ottawa]], the nation's capital, is also in Ontario.
5c5
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Prince_Edward_Island|985720579
1c1
< Prince Edward Island is Canada's smallest province. Its capitol is [[Charlottetown]].
---
> Prince Edward Island is Canada's smallest province. Its capital is [[Charlottetown]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Charlottetown|985720600
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the provincial capitol of [[Prince Edward Island]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capital of [[Prince Edward Island]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Toronto|985720661
1c1
< Toronto is Canada's largest city, and is the provincial capitol of [[Ontario]].
---
> Toronto is Canada's largest city, and is the provincial capital of [[Ontario]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Ottawa|985720699
1c1
< Ottawa is the capitol of [[Canada]]. It is in the [[province]] of [[Ontario]].
---
> Ottawa is the capital of [[Canada]]. It is in the province of [[Ontario]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Quebec|985720730
5c5
< Quebec's provincial capitol is [[Quebec City]].
---
> Quebec's provincial capital is [[Quebec City]].
------
Saskatchewan|985720769
1c1
< A [[province]] of Canada. Its capitol city is [[Regina]].
---
> A province of Canada. Its capital city is [[Regina]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Regina|985720800
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the provincial [[capitol]] of [[Saskatchewan]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the provincial capital of [[Saskatchewan]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Northwest_Territories|985720853
1c1
< A northern Canadian territory. Its capitol is [[Yellowknife]].
---
> A northern Canadian territory. Its capital is [[Yellowknife]].
3c3
< As of April 1 1999, the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories became a separate territory called [[Nunavut]].
---
> On April 1 1999, the eastern portion of the Northwest Territories became a separate territory called [[Nunavut]].
5c5
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Nunavut]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]], [[Nunavut]]
------
Yellowknife|985720876
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the territorial capitol of the [[Northwest Territories]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the territorial capital of the [[Northwest Territories]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985720887
25a26,29
> 
> -----
> 
> <grin>  That wasn't me who corrected you re: Capital/Capitol.  [[Larry Singer]] did.  I just corrected an additional misspelling.  [[Rob Salzman]]
------
Nunavut|985720916
1c1
< Nunavut is a territory of [[Canada]]. It was formerly part of the [[Northwest Territories]]. In 1993 the Canadian Parliment both the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]]. On April 1, 1999, Nunavut became a separate territory. Its territorial capitol is the city of [[Iqaluit]].
---
> Nunavut is a territory of [[Canada]]. It was formerly part of the [[Northwest Territories]]. In 1993 the Canadian Parliment both the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]]. On April 1, 1999, Nunavut became a separate territory. Its territorial capital is the city of [[Iqaluit]].
------
Saturday-night_special|985720918
1c1
< <i>Saturday-night special</i> is an American [[colloquial]] term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].
---
> <i>Saturday-night special</i> is an American colloquial term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].
------
Inuktitut|985720983
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The language of the [[Inuit]].
> 
> See also: [[Nunavut]]
------
Portland_Oregon|985720991
7c7
< Portland straddles the [[Willamette River]], just south of the Wilamette's convergence with the [[Columbia River]].   Portland is known as the "City of Roses".
---
> Portland straddles the [[Willamette River]], just south of where the Wilamette merges with the [[Columbia River]].   Portland is known as the "City of Roses".
------
Inuit|985721107
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]].
> 
> See also: [[Inuktitut]], [[Canada]]
------
Inuit|985721160
3c3
< See also: [[Inuktitut]], [[Canada]]
---
> See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada]], [[Inuktitut]]
------
Iqaluit|985721213
1c1
< Iqaluit is the territorial [[capital]] of Canada's newest territory, [[Nunavut]].
---
> Iqaluit is the territorial [[capital]] of Canada's youngest territory, [[Nunavut]].
------
Yukon|985721276
1c1
< A northern territory of Canada, bordering [[Alaska]]. Its capitol is [[Whitehorse]].
---
> A northern territory of Canada, bordering the [[United States|American]] state of [[Alaska]]. Its capital is [[Whitehorse]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Invictus|985721278
28a29,30
> ----
> Thanks for the welcome [[RoseParks|Rose]] and AyeSpy.  AyeSpy, I see that you understand something about the effects of [[totalitarian agriculture]].  Is an amatuer philosopher someone who reads [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] and professes to understand not a wit of it?  (that would be me).  --[[Invictus|Grant]] 
------
Whitehorse|985721437
1c1
< A Canadian city, and the territorial capitol of the [[Yukon]].
---
> A Canadian city, and the territorial capital of the [[Yukon]].
3c3
< See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
---
> See also: [[Canada]], [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Rob_Salzman|985721626
18a19,21
> ----
> An <b>additional</b> misspelling? Made by moi? Never! ;-) --[[STG]]
> ----
------
Saturday-night_special|985721765
1c1
< <i>Saturday-night special</i> is an American colloquial term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].
---
> <i>Saturday-night special</i> is an [[American]] colloquial term for a small, inexpensive [[handgun]].
3c3
< The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to emphasize easy availability.  The term is meant to evoke the image of a bar fight (which are most common on Saturday nights).
---
> The term is often used disparagingly to emphasize the poor quality of the gun, or for political reasons to emphasize easy availability.  The term is meant to evoke the image of a [[bar fight]] (which are most common on Saturday nights).
------
Oregon|985721817
15c15
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They found the state wet and miserable, and built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]], the mouth of the Columbia River.
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]] near the mouth of the Columbia River.  Exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805-1806) and Britain's [[David Thompson]] (1811) publicized the abundance of fur in the area. In 1811, New York financier [[John Jacob Astor]] established [[Fort Astoria]] at the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] as the anchor for a chain of [[Pacific Fur Company]] trading posts along the river, creating the first permanent white settlement. The War of 1812 caused the British to gain control of the posts as well as Fort Astoria.
17c17
< Fur traders began trading and trapping, and built up an active fur trade, and in the process brought foreign sickness and disease that affected all of the Native Americans peoples. [[Astoria Oregon]] was established by representatives of [[John Jacob Astor]]'s [[American Fur Company]] in 1811, creating the first permanent white settlement.
---
> Competition between the two countries for the fur trade continued during the 1820s and 1830s. The British [[Hudson's Bay Company]] dominated the region. [[John McLoughlin]], who was appointed the Company's Chief Factor of the Columbia District, built [[Fort Vancouver]] in 1825. 
------
United_States/Presidents|985721861
48c48,51
< ------
---
> The President's residence is the [[White House]]
> ----
> 
> 
------
White_House|985721947
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The residence of the[[United States/Presidents|President]] of the [[United States]]. It is a white building located on 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. in [[Washington DC]]
------
Saturday-night_special/Talk|985721963
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Was the SNS usually a .32 or .25 [[caliber]]?  Wasn't it also predominately a five-round [[revolver]] instead of the traditional six?  These things, I know not.  Being a [[redneck]], I use a larger caliber [[weapon]].  And my knowledge of ''Saturday-night special'' is limited to the title of a Lynyrd Skynyrd song.  FREEBIRD!  Where is [[Bill Hicks]] when we need him?  --[[Invictus]]
------
Saturday-night_special/Talk|985721992
1c1
< Was the SNS usually a .32 or .25 [[caliber]]?  Wasn't it also predominately a five-round [[revolver]] instead of the traditional six?  These things, I know not.  Being a [[redneck]], I use a larger caliber [[weapon]].  And my knowledge of ''Saturday-night special'' is limited to the title of a Lynyrd Skynyrd song.  FREEBIRD!  Where is [[Bill Hicks]] when we need him?  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Was the SNS usually a .32 or .25 [[caliber]]?  Wasn't it also predominately a five-round [[revolver]] instead of the traditional six?  These things, I know not.  Being a [[redneck]], I use a larger caliber [[weapon]].  And my knowledge of ''Saturday-night special'' is limited to the title of a [[Lynyrd Skynyrd]] song.  FREEBIRD!  Where is [[Bill Hicks]] when we need him?  --[[Invictus]]
------
Gun|985722016
1c1
< A <i>gun</i> is a aimable [[weapon]] that emits projectiles at high velocity, or a device that resembles such a weapon used for other purposes (e.g., <i>glue gun</i>).  The term is also used for types of [[artillery]] with long barrels that fire at a relatively flat trajectory.
---
> A <i>gun</i> is an aimable [[weapon]] that emits projectiles at high velocity, or a device that resembles such a weapon used for other purposes (e.g., <i>glue gun</i>).  The term is also used for types of [[artillery]] with long barrels that fire at a relatively flat trajectory.
------
Invictus|985722162
11c11
< Hey, I map [[EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[Brazos County|Brazos]] and [[Brazoria County|Brazoria]] Counties in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Invictus|Grant Cole]]
---
> Hey, I map [[Electronic Data Interchange|EDI]] and [[ebXML]] for a living, but I live on a mid-sized [[ranch]] in central [[Texas]].  This weekend, I hope to begin collecting information on and writing in [[Wikipedia]] about the histories of [[Brazos County|Brazos]] and [[Brazoria County|Brazoria]] Counties in the [[Texas|Lone Star State]].  That, and I'll clean up the [[Rugby]] entries!  -- [[Invictus|Grant Cole]]
------
White_House|985722203
1c1
< The residence of the[[United States/Presidents|President]] of the [[United States]]. It is a white building located on 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. in [[Washington DC]]
---
> The residence of the [[United States/Presidents|President]] of the [[United States]]. It is a white building located on 1600 Pennsylvania Ave. in [[Washington DC]]
------
Oregon|985722388
15c15
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]] near the mouth of the Columbia River.  Exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805-1806) and Britain's [[David Thompson]] (1811) publicized the abundance of fur in the area. In 1811, New York financier [[John Jacob Astor]] established [[Fort Astoria]] at the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] as the anchor for a chain of [[Pacific Fur Company]] trading posts along the river, creating the first permanent white settlement. The War of 1812 caused the British to gain control of the posts as well as Fort Astoria.
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]] near the mouth of the Columbia River.  Exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805-1806) and Britain's [[David Thompson]] (1811) publicized the abundance of fur in the area. In 1811, New York financier [[John Jacob Astor]] established [[Fort Astoria]] at the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] with the intention of starting chain of [[Pacific Fur Company]] trading posts along the river.  Fort Astoria was the the first permanent white settlement in Oregon. In the War of 1812 the British to gained control of all of the Pacific Fur Company posts.
17c17
< Competition between the two countries for the fur trade continued during the 1820s and 1830s. The British [[Hudson's Bay Company]] dominated the region. [[John McLoughlin]], who was appointed the Company's Chief Factor of the Columbia District, built [[Fort Vancouver]] in 1825. 
---
> By the 1820s and 1830s the British [[Hudson's Bay Company]] dominated the Pacific Northwest. [[John McLoughlin]], who was appointed the Company's Chief Factor of the Columbia District, built [[Fort Vancouver]] in 1825. 
------
Saturday-night_special/Talk|985722507
1a2,4
> 
> When the term was originally coined in the 1960s, it referred to a number of small-caliber, poorly-made, imported revolvers; but today it is simply slang for "cheap handgun".
> 
------
Portland_Oregon|985722546
5c5
< Francis Pettygrove and Asa Lovejoy, co-founders of Portland, named the city in 1845 when Pettygrove won a coin toss with his partner. Pettygrove named it for his hometown of [[Portland Maine]]; had Lovejoy won he intended to name it after his hometown of [[Boston Massachusetts]].
---
> [[/Lore]]
------
Portland_Oregon/Lore|985722557
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Francis Pettygrove and Asa Lovejoy, co-founders of Portland, named the city in 1845 when Pettygrove won a coin toss with his partner. Pettygrove named it for his hometown of [[Portland Maine]]; had Lovejoy won he intended to name it after his hometown of [[Boston Massachusetts]].
------
GNU/HURD|985722676
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU/Hurd]]
------
CountriesC|985722685
1,15c1
< * [[Cambodia]]
< 
< * [[Canada]]
< 
< * [[Chile]]
< 
< * [[China]]
< 
< * [[Colombia]]
< 
< * [[Cuba]]
< 
< * [[Cyprus]]
< 
< * [[Czech republic]] 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985722699
5c5
< <td width=34% valign=top><font size=+2>A</font><br>[[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <td width=34% valign=top>  <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
18c18
< <td>CountriesC</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>C</font><br>[[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]</td>
------
CountriesL|985722820
1,9c1
< * [[Latvia]]
< 
< * [[Liberia]]
< 
< * [[Libya]]
< 
< * [[Lithuania]]
< 
< * [[Luxembourg]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985722823
19c19
< <td>CountriesL</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>C</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]] </td>
------
Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition|985722827
1c1,4
< In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
---
> In 1804-06 it was first [[United States]] overland expedition to the Pacific coast and back. It was conducted under the leadership of Captain [[Meriwether Lewis]] and Lieutenant [[William Clark]], with the intention of solidifying the [[United States]] claim on the [[Lousiana Purchase]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].
> 
> The journals of the Lewis & Clark expedition can be seen online at
> http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/JOURNALS/journals.html
------
Countries_of_the_world|985722850
19c19
< <td><font size=+2>C</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]] </td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]] </td>
------
GNU/Hurd|985722921
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hurd is an [[operating system]] kernel being developed by the [[GNU]] Project. According to Thomas Bushnell, Hurd's head developer, it stands for "Hird of Unix-Replacing Daemons", and Hird stands for "Hurd of Interfaces Representing Depth".
> 
> See also: [[Free Software Foundation]], [[GNU]], [[Richard Stallman]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985722951
20c20
< <td>CountriesU</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>U</font><br>[[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]</td>
------
GNU/Hurd|985722954
1c1
< Hurd is an [[operating system]] kernel being developed by the [[GNU]] Project. According to Thomas Bushnell, Hurd's head developer, it stands for "Hird of Unix-Replacing Daemons", and Hird stands for "Hurd of Interfaces Representing Depth".
---
> Hurd is an [[operating system]] kernel being developed by the [[GNU]] Project. According to Thomas Bushnell, Hurd's head developer, it stands for "Hird of [[Unix]]-Replacing Daemons", and Hird stands for "Hurd of Interfaces Representing Depth".
------
CountriesU|985722956
1,7c1
< * [[Ukraine]]
< 
< * [[United Arab Emirates]]
< 
< * [[United Kingdom]]
< 
< * [[United States]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985723132
12c12
< <td valign=top><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Bulshire]] (kingdom within [[India]]) - [[Burkina Faso]] (formerly [[Upper Volta]]) - [[Burundi]]
---
> <td valign=top><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
18c18
< <td><font size=+2>C</font><br>[[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]</td>
---
> <td> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]</td>
23c23,24
< <td>CountriesD</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica ]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
> </td>
------
CountriesD|985723134
1,5c1
< *[[Dahomey]]
< *[[Denmark]]
< *[[Djibouti]]
< *[[Dominica ]]
< *[[Dominican Republic]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985723176
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
------
Handgun|985723397
1c1
< A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carred in ones hand.
---
> A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carried in ones hands.
------
GNU|985723425
6a7,8
> Richard Stallman requests that GNU be pronounced <i>guh-NEW</i> "to avoid horrible confusion."
> 
------
GNU|985723556
3c3
< By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[/Emacs|Emacs]]), a compiler ([[/GCC|GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable Unix [[Operating system|operating system]]. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[/HURD|HURD]], the proposed GNU kernel.
---
> By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[/Emacs|Emacs]]), a compiler ([[/GCC|GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable Unix [[Operating system|operating system]]. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[/Hurd|Hurd]], the proposed GNU kernel.
5c5
< Work on HURD proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free_sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
---
> Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
9a10,11
> 
> See also: [[Free software]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
GNU/Emacs|985723797
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Emacs is an extremely versitile editor originally written by [[Richard Stallman]].
> 
> See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
GNU/GCC|985724058
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> GCC is he [[GNU]] compiler. Originally, it stood for "GNU C Compiler", but it now handles many different [[programming languages]] and was renamed "GNU Compiler Collection".
> 
> The GCC homepage is [http://www.fsf.org/software/gcc/gcc.html]
> 
> See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
GNU/GCC|985724106
1c1
< GCC is he [[GNU]] compiler. Originally, it stood for "GNU C Compiler", but it now handles many different [[programming languages]] and was renamed "GNU Compiler Collection".
---
> GCC is he [[GNU]] compiler. Originally, it stood for "GNU C Compiler", but it now handles many different [[programming language]]s and was renamed "GNU Compiler Collection".
3c3
< The GCC homepage is [http://www.fsf.org/software/gcc/gcc.html]
---
> The GCC homepage is at http://www.fsf.org/software/gcc/gcc.html
5c5
< See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
---
> See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
GNU|985724199
3c3
< By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[/Emacs|Emacs]]), a compiler ([[/GCC|GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable Unix [[Operating system|operating system]]. All that was missing was the [[Operating system kernel|kernel]]. At this point, work commenced on [[/Hurd|Hurd]], the proposed GNU kernel.
---
> By 1990, the GNU system had an editor ([[/Emacs|Emacs]]), a compiler ([[/GCC|GCC]]) and all the major utilities needed for a usable Unix [[operating system]]. All that was missing was the kernel. At this point, work commenced on [[/Hurd|Hurd]], the proposed GNU kernel.
------
GNU/GPL|985724369
1c1
< GPL Stands for the [[GNU]] General Public License. Version 2 follows:
---
> GPL stands for the [[GNU]] General Public License. Version 2 follows:
------
Linus_Torvalds|985724801
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Linus Torvalds developed (and continues to develop) [[Linux]] kernel. He was born in Helsinki, Finland in 1969.
------
George_Washington|985724936
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first president of the [[United States]], referred to by Americans as "The Father of Our Country."  General of the colonial army in the [[American Revolutionary War]].
------
HomePage|985725324
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 1,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 2,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985725350
3c3
< Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Thursdy, March 22, 12:57 PM Pacific Time), we have 2,953 pages in Wikipedia.  Of these, 1,816 are relatively substantial articles.  We started in January, 2001, so we've made incredible progress--even we are surprised.  We'd love to see the number over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
---
> Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Thursday, March 22, 12:57 PM Pacific Time), we have 2,953 pages in Wikipedia.  Of these, 1,816 are relatively substantial articles.  We started in January, 2001, so we've made incredible progress--even we are surprised.  We'd love to see the number over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
------
Free_sofware|985725419
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> According to Richard Stallman, the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
> # The freedom to run the program for any purpose
> # The freedom to study and modify the program
> # The freedom to copy the program
> # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program.
> For numbers 2 and 4, access to the program's [[source code]] is necessary.
> 
> The common way to describe "free" in the term is to think "free speech", not "free beer".
> 
> See also: [[Open source]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
Open_source|985725447
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], and then licensed out according to an [[open source license]]; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the [[Source code]], so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
> 
> The [[open source movement]] is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
> 
> There is widespread agreement, but some tension, between the [[open source movement]] and the [[free software movement]].
> 
> Among the relevant topics:
> 
> [[Donald E Knuth]], [[Richard Stallman]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Eric Raymond]], [[Paul Vixie]]
> 
> The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Debian Linux]] distribution, [[FreeBSD]]
> 
> [[Open Source Software]]: [[Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
> 
> ''Please delete this note after confirmation/disconfirmation:
> I'm not sure that TeX is OpenSource.''
------
OpenSource|985725479
1,16c1
< Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], and then licensed out according to an [[open source license]]; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the [[Source code]], so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
< 
< The [[open source movement]] is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
< 
< There is widespread agreement, but some tension, between the [[open source movement]] and the [[free software movement]].
< 
< Among the relevant topics:
< 
< [[Donald E Knuth]], [[Richard Stallman]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Eric Raymond]], [[Paul Vixie]]
< 
< The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Debian Linux]] distribution, [[FreeBSD]]
< 
< [[Open Source Software]]: [[Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
< 
< ''Please delete this note after confirmation/disconfirmation:
< I'm not sure that TeX is OpenSource.''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Open source]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|985725496
11c11
< Maybe you think that Wikipedia would end up being a rather low-quality product, since it's open to everyone.  But perhaps it's the fact that it ''is'' open to everyone that makes a lot of these articles pretty good, and ever-improving.  To alter a now-famous catchphrase: "Given enough eyeballs, all errors are shallow."  We tend to cater to the ''highest'' common denominator--"lower denominators" tend politely not to touch articles they know nothing about!  There are got a lot of Ph.D.'s and graduate students and other very smart and knowledgeable people at work here--but everyone is welcome.
---
> Maybe you think that Wikipedia would end up being a rather low-quality product, since it's open to everyone.  But perhaps it's the fact that it ''is'' open to everyone that makes a lot of these articles pretty good, and ever-improving.  To alter a now-famous catchphrase: "Given enough eyeballs, all errors are shallow."  We tend to cater to the ''highest'' common denominator--"lower denominators" tend politely not to touch articles they know nothing about!  There are a lot of Ph.D.'s and graduate students and other very smart and knowledgeable people at work here--but everyone is welcome.
------
Free_software|985725581
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> According to Richard Stallman, the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
> # The freedom to run the program for any purpose
> # The freedom to study and modify the program
> # The freedom to copy the program
> # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program.
> For numbers 2 and 4, access to the program's [[source code]] is necessary.
> 
> The common way to describe "free" in the term is to think "free speech", not "free beer".
> 
> See also: [[Open source]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
Who_is_responsible_for_these_pages|985725587
1c1
< Who is responsible for these pages?  Everyone!  This is a collaborative endeavor.  Scores of people have contributed to different parts of this website, and anyone ''can'' do so.  All you need to know is [[How does one edit a page|how to edit a page]].
---
> Who is responsible for these pages?  [[Wikipedians]].  This is a collaborative endeavor.  Scores of people have contributed to different parts of this website, and anyone ''can'' do so.  All you need to know is [[How does one edit a page|how to edit a page]].
3c3
< You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.
---
> You can learn who is responsible for the most recent versions of any given page by going to the bottom of the page and clicking on the "View other revisions" link you'll find there.
------
Free_sofware|985725590
1,10c1
< According to Richard Stallman, the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
< # The freedom to run the program for any purpose
< # The freedom to study and modify the program
< # The freedom to copy the program
< # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program.
< For numbers 2 and 4, access to the program's [[source code]] is necessary.
< 
< The common way to describe "free" in the term is to think "free speech", not "free beer".
< 
< See also: [[Open source]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Free software]]
------
GNU|985725797
5c5
< Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free sofware|free]] operating system was formed.
---
> Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free software|free]] operating system was formed.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985725986
21,23c21,22
< * Notice that in ''URLs'' spaces in the title are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in your title, it won't work.
< * On pages themselves, a page title can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a URL that has the first letter of the page title uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But, that doesn't necessarily mean that you should.  Stylistically, this wiki is converging on a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
---
> * When you go to edit a page, the links you make to other pages can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a URL that has the first letter of the page title uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
> * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But please don't.  Stylistically, this wiki has converged on a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
37,47d35
< Good URLs: 
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My_new_page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Bacteria</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/JimboWales</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Platos_Republic</code>
< Bad URLs:
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/My new page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/my_new_page</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/bacteria</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/jimbowales</code>
< :<code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Plato's_Republic</code>
------
Saturday-night_special|985726051
4a5,6
> Currently, most so-called Saturday-night specials are manufactured by a group of handgun manufacturers located in the [[Los Angeles]] area, known as the [[ring of fire]] manufacturers.
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985726214
102c102
< The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag...?  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
---
> The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag works like the <code> tag except that it doesn't use a monospace font.  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
104c104
< You can (and should!) create subpages: /Talk
---
> You can create subpages: /Talk
106c106
< <br>You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]] but please, not [[Charlize Theron/filmography]] .
---
> <br>You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]].
143d142
< <br>It seems the suggestions on [[Wiki ASCII codes page]] may not work for Mac users, but we're waiting for confirmation of this.
------
Metaphysics/Introduction|985726290
1c1
< This article is an attempt to introduce some issues of one of the most fundamental and most difficult areas of philosophy, namely <i>metaphysics</i>.  It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even <i>are</i>, in metaphysics.  It might help to begin with a fairly simple example that to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
---
> This article is an attempt to introduce some issues of one of the most fundamental and most difficult areas of philosophy, namely <i>metaphysics</i>.  It is sometimes difficult to understand what the issues even <i>are</i>, in metaphysics.  It might help to begin with a fairly simple example that will help to introduce the problems of metaphysics.
15c15
< Those, then, are some examples of metaphysical problems.  There are many more problems, of course.
---
> Those, then, are some examples of metaphysical problems.  There are many more problems, of course.
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|985726290
5c5
< Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous AlaskaRailroad.  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: ElmendorfAirForceBase and FortRichardson.  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in [[Alaska]].  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
---
> Despite having wide and treacherous mudflats rather than beaches, Anchorage is a major port, as well as a terminus of the famous [[Alaska Railroad]].  Major industries include oil, tourism, and the military.  There are two strategically important U.S. military bases bordering Anchorage on the north: [[Elmendorf Airforce Base]] and [[Fort Richardson]].  Nearly all tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in [[Alaska]].  Not suprisingly, summer is tourist season, and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways leading north and south of town, are typically teeming with tourists then.
7c7
< Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "TheLower48").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see [[Alaska/TheBush]]--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs (SeasonalAffectiveDisorder) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
---
> Average daytime summer temperatures are, approximately, 55-70 degrees Fahrenheit; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5-20 degrees (warmer than many places in "[[The Lower 48]]").  The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be unusually unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and constant, annoying thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets.  (This has forced Anchoragites to be become rather good drivers.)  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain quite a bit then.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, and then those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular.  Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitos (which are much worse out in "The Bush"--see [[Alaska/TheBush]]--than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.  Consequently, SADs ([[Seasonal Affective Disorder]]) is an acknowledged problem in Anchorage and in [[Alaska]] generally.
11c11
< There was a massive, incredibly destructive EarthQuake in 1964 called the GoodFridayEarthquake, and the earthquake danger has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  But the city has an attractive skyline nonetheless, particular with the ChugachMountains, CookInlet, or an oft-visible MountMcKinley (also known as DenalI) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city).  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of Delaware).
---
> There was a massive, incredibly destructive EarthQuake in 1964 called the [[Good Friday Earthquake]], and the earthquake danger has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in Anchorage; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high.  But the city has an attractive skyline nonetheless, particular with the [[Chugach Mountains]], [[Cook Inle]]t, or an oft-visible [[Mount McKinley]] (also known as [[Denali]]) as a backdrop.  Though space is limited in the "Anchorage bowl" as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it a particularly attractive city to live in for nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city).  Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development.  Nonethless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage municipal control: some 1,955 square miles (about the size of [[Delaware]]).
13c13
< There is a branch of the UniversityofAlaska in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of the flagship University of Alaska-Fairbanks.  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
---
> There is a branch of the [[University of Alaska]] in east-central Anchorage, the quality of which, in most departments, lags that of the flagship [[University of Alaska-Fairbanks]].  Despite the remoteness of the location, the arts thrive in Anchorage.  The city boasts a symphony orchestra, an opera company and concert association, and numerous independent performance groups.  There are even weekly sessions of IrishTraditionalMusic and other sorts of music.
------
Free_software|985726390
1c1
< According to Richard Stallman, the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
---
> According to [[Richard Stallman]], the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
8c8
< The common way to describe "free" in the term is to think "free speech", not "free beer".
---
> While the above criteria are met by [[public domain]] software (i.e., software that disclaims all copyright), much of what is called <i>free software</i>, especially that produced by Stallman's [[Free Software Foundation]], is copyrighted and licensed under terms that prohibit distribution of modified versions without source code, for the purpose of ensuring that all modified versions also meet the above criteria.
------
Free_software|985726447
1c1
< According to [[Richard Stallman]], the term "free software" refers to four basic freedoms:
---
> According to [[Richard Stallman]], the term "free software" refers to freedom, not price.  In particular, these four basic freedoms:
------
Free_software|985726547
1c1
< According to [[Richard Stallman]], the term "free software" refers to freedom, not price.  In particular, these four basic freedoms:
---
> ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is [[free]].  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer to four basic freedoms:
------
Canada|985726613
13a14,17
> 
> [[/Provinces and territories|Provinces and territories]]
> 
> [[/cities|Canadian cities]]
------
Free|985726613
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Free'' is a highly ambiguous term.  Two of the most important senses are "unconstrained" (see [[freedom]]) and "without charge" (as in "free cigarettes").
------
Free_software|985726670
1c1
< ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is [[free]].  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer to four basic freedoms:
---
> ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is [[free]].  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer not merely to price, but to four basic freedoms:
------
Shotgun|985726797
15c15
< Shotgun also refers to a passenger riding next to a driver in a vehicle (and in old times (wild west?) carrying a shotgun to protect the vehicle and its contents).
---
> Shotgun also refers to a passenger riding next to a driver in a vehicle (and in old times (wild west?) carrying a shotgun to protect the vehicle and its contents).  In America, there is a tradition known as "[[calling shotgun]]", which determines who gets to sit next to the driver.
------
Free_software|985726828
10a11,12
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985726938
141c141
< Very often you might need to use special characters, like these: ü � &alpha;
---
> Very often you might need to use special characters, like these: ü À &alpha;
------
Free_software/Talk|985727131
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Good revisions; it's much tighter. About public domain software, though... a public domain program may not have its source code available (ie, released as binary only). While legally one can do anything with the program, freedoms 2 and 4 are practically impossible (aside from reverse engineering). -- [[STG]]
------
Free_software/Talk|985727495
1c1,3
< Good revisions; it's much tighter. About public domain software, though... a public domain program may not have its source code available (ie, released as binary only). While legally one can do anything with the program, freedoms 2 and 4 are practically impossible (aside from reverse engineering). -- [[STG]]
---
> Good revisions; it's much tighter. About public domain software, though... a public domain program may not have its source code available (ie, released as binary only). While legally one can do anything with the program, freedoms 2 and 4 are practically impossible (aside from reverse engineering). -- [[STG]]
> 
> That's true.  What I meant to emphasize there is that while the conditions listed would be met by public domain software (especially that which also releases source code), most "free" software is not in fact public domain, but copyrighted and licensed to ensure the four freedoms listed (while of course infringing upon other freedoms, namely the right to sell proprietary modified versions).
------
Free_software/Talk|985728368
3a4,8
> ----
> Of course, I'm not so big on giving people the freedom to take away other people's freedom... but anyway... :) Eventually we'll have sections on the various licenses.
> 
> To Larry: the term <i>free software</i> actually doesn't refer to price at all: http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html -- [[STG]]
> ----
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985728527
12a13
> * [[Open source]] - [[free software]] (whichever you prefer) related articles
------
Redneck|985728554
3c3
< Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person (with a [[mullet]]) from the countryside and usually applies to people from the Southern [[United States]].
---
> Redneck is commonly used to describe a dumb person (with a [[mullet]]) from the countryside and usually applies to people from the southern or midwestern [[United States]].
------
Calling_shotgun|985728852
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the [[US]], there is a longstanding tradition of determining who gets to sit in the seat next to the driver of a motor vehicle.  In order to claim that seat, one must "call shotgun" according to a set of standard rules.
> 
> To call shotgun is to, at minimum, yell out "shotgun" while approaching the vehicle.  The specific rules are the subject of much heated but good natured debate.  A number of websites claim to have the official rules, but <i>clearly</i> only a free and open consensus site such as Wikipedia has the moral and intellectual <i>right<i> to make that claim.
> 
> Therefore, by the powers vested in Wikipedia by the [[present King of France]], the following rules are hereby decreed:
> 
> 
------
Free_software/Talk|985728857
8c8,9
< ----
---
> ----
> STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, doesn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?
------
Calling_shotgun|985728879
3c3
< To call shotgun is to, at minimum, yell out "shotgun" while approaching the vehicle.  The specific rules are the subject of much heated but good natured debate.  A number of websites claim to have the official rules, but <i>clearly</i> only a free and open consensus site such as Wikipedia has the moral and intellectual <i>right<i> to make that claim.
---
> To call shotgun is to, at minimum, yell out "shotgun" while approaching the vehicle.  The specific rules are the subject of much heated but good natured debate.  A number of websites claim to have the official rules, but <i>clearly</i> only a free and open consensus site such as Wikipedia has the moral and intellectual <i>right</i> to make that claim.
------
Free_software/Talk|985728936
9c9
< STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, doesn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?
---
> STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, isn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?  (Of course, you can charge for incarnations of it, can't you...?  Hm.) --[[LMS]]
------
Free_software/Talk|985729034
9c9,12
< STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, isn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?  (Of course, you can charge for incarnations of it, can't you...?  Hm.) --[[LMS]]
---
> STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, isn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?  (Of course, you can charge for incarnations of it, can't you...?  Hm.) --[[LMS]]
> 
> Stallman explicitly says that charging for media or distribution in no way infringes his preferred meaning of the term.  Indeed, he derives significant income from selling it.  --LDC
> 
------
Oregon|985729299
49c49
<    Population: (1990) 2,842,321, an 8% increase over 1980 pop. 
---
>    Population: (2000) 3,421,399, an 20.4% increase over 1990 pop. 
------
Portland_Oregon|985729334
3c3
< Portland has a population of 503,637 (est. 1999)
---
> Portland has a population of 529,121 ([[2000 Census]])
------
Beaverton_Oregon|985729395
1c1
< Beaverton is located seven miles west of [[Portland Oregon]] in the [[Tualatin River]] Valley. It is  15 square miles and is home to about 76,129 residents. The City is [[Oregon]]’s fifth largest city and is the largest incorporated city in [[Washington County]].
---
> Beaverton is located seven miles west of [[Portland Oregon]] in the [[Tualatin River]] Valley. It is  15 square miles and is home to about 76,129 residents. The City is [[Oregon]]’s fifth largest city and is the largest incorporated city in [[Washington County Oregon]].
------
Free_software/Talk|985729396
7a8,10
> 
> An encyclopedia should describe generally-accepted meanings of words and phrases, not one man's politically-motivated usurpation of plain English.  If a store were to advertise "free software", you, I, and most other educated speakers of the English language would assume they meant software with no price.  Of course, the fact that Stallman and others use the term in a narrower sense should certainly be covered here, but let's not elevate Mr. Stallman to an authority on English usage.  --LDC
> 
------
Present_King_of_France|985729397
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> France is a democracy, and has no King.
> 
> The phrase "the present King of France" comes from an example
> by [[Bertrand Russell]], an apparent paradox raising some interesting questions about the law of the excluded middle, denotation, and so on.
> 
> Consider the statement "The present King of France is bald."  Is this statement true?  Is it false?  It is meaningless?
> 
> It surely can't be true, for there is no present King of France.
> But if it is false, then one would suppose that the negation of the statement is true, that is, "The present King of France has hair (is not bald)."  But that doesn't seem any more true than the original statement.
> 
> Is it meaningless, then?  One might suppose so, because it certainly does fail to denote in a sense, but on the other hand it sure seems to mean something that we can quite clearly understand.
> 
> If only Wikipedia had a professional philosopher as editor in chief, we could get a full explanation of these mysteries.
------
Washington_County_Oregon|985729547
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[Oregon]] county just a few miles west of downtown [[Portland Oregon]].  Washington county is home to 445,342 ([[2000 Census]]) residents.   The county seat is [[Hillsboro Oregon]].  Other cities of note include [[Tigard Oregon]], and parts of [[Portland Oregon]].
------
Saturday-night_special/Talk|985735062
4a5
> [[Bill Clinton]] tried to legally sue these companies out of business because he could not get legislation passed to put the companies out of business.  This was controversial because the lawsuits were all dismissed and they appeared to be pursued for the sole purpose of forcing the company to spend money for legal defense.
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985735329
0a1,11
> How do we fit in the Clinton policy of using executive branch regulations and lawsuits to punish organizations/companies that he did not like? (and possibly to drive them out of business)
> 
> He did this to:
> * the handgun industry
> * Microsoft (Al Gore went there to raise funds in 1996 but did not collect any).
> 
> Obvious questions:
> * Were the lawsuits/legal actions designed to force companies to pay 'protection money' to Democrat campaign organizations?
> * Were the lawsuits/legal actions designed to force companies to not contest a union action?
> 
> ----
------
UniCode|985735333
1,3c1
< Unicode goals is to encode all characters set in one standard.
< Unicode are multibytes.
< the linux console, the java langage, and Emacs are applications that support unicode. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Unicode]]
------
Extended_ASCII|985735440
11c11
< A proposal called [[Unicode]] was made to address many of these problems, and is now becoming widely accepted.  First formally standardized as ISO 10646, Unicode is a 16-bit code, meaning that it can represent 65,536 characters instead of the 128 of ASCII or 256 of extended ASCII.  The first 256 codes in Unicode are identical to ISO 8859-1.
---
> A proposal called [[Unicode]] was made to address many of these problems, and is now becoming widely accepted.  international standard ISO 10646 (based on Unicode) is a 16-bit code, meaning that it can represent 65,536 characters instead of the 128 of ASCII or 256 of extended ASCII.  The first 256 codes in Unicode are identical to ISO 8859-1.
------
Calling_shotgun|985735576
6c6,9
< 
---
> :the person nearest to the front passenger side door gets shotgun
> :Same as above except when someone bigger can push them out of the way
> :the only one allowed to carry the shotgun
> :the person that is most accurate in hitting rodsigns at 40 [[mph]] or faster (or can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns)
------
Calling_shotgun|985735613
6,9c6,10
< :the person nearest to the front passenger side door gets shotgun
< :Same as above except when someone bigger can push them out of the way
< :the only one allowed to carry the shotgun
< :the person that is most accurate in hitting rodsigns at 40 [[mph]] or faster (or can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns)
---
> *the person nearest to the front passenger side door gets shotgun
> *Same as above except when someone bigger can push them out of the way
> *the only one allowed to carry the shotgun
> *the person that is most accurate in hitting roadsigns at 40 [[mph]] or faster 
> *the person that can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns)
------
Computer_character|985736103
1c1
< In computer terminology, a <i>character</i> is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a [[grapheme]], or written symbol, of a [[natural language]], such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.  The concept also includes [[control character]]s, which do not correspond to natural language symbols but to other bits of information used to process texts of the language, such as instructions to [[computer printer|printer]]s or other devices that display such texts.  It is important to make the distinction that a character is a unit of <i>information</i>, and does not imply any particular physical appearance.  For example, the character "A" represents a letter of the [[Roman alphabet]], which might be displayed or printed in a number of different sizes, [[typeface]]s, colors, and so forth; but all of those are different manifetation of the same character "A".  The term [[glyph]] is used to describe a particular physical appearance of a character.
---
> In computer terminology, a <i>character</i> is a unit of information that roughly corresponds to a [[grapheme]], or written symbol, of a [[natural language]], such as a letter, numeral, or punctuation mark.  The concept also includes [[control character]]s, which do not correspond to natural language symbols but to other bits of information used to process texts of the language, such as instructions to [[computer printer|printer]]s or other devices that display such texts.
3c3,5
< Computers and communication equipment represent characters using a [[character encoding]] that matches each character with an integer that can be stored and manipulated.  The most common such encoding is [[ASCII]], though [[Unicode]] is quickly becoming popular.
---
> It is important in some contexts to make the distinction that a character is a unit of <i>information</i>, and does not imply any particular physical appearance.  For example, the Hebrew letter "Aleph" is often used by mathematicians to denote certain kinds of [[infinity]], but also of course in ordinary Hebrew text.  In [[Unicode]], for example, these two uses are different characters and are signified by two different codes, though they may look identical.  Conversely, the Chinese ideogram for "water" may have a slightly different appearance in Japanese texts than it does in Chinese texts, and local typefaces may reflect this.  But they nonetheless represent the same information, are considered the same character, and share the same Unicode value.  The term [[glyph]] is used to describe a particular physical appearance of a symbol.
> 
> Computers and communication equipment represent characters using a [[character encoding]] that matches each character with an integer that can be stored and manipulated.  The most common such encoding is [[ASCII]], though the more versatile[[Unicode]] is quickly becoming popular.
------
Extended_ASCII|985736160
0a1,2
> Extended [[ASCII]] is an 8 [[bit]] computer character representation which includes all of the 7 bit ASCII characters.
> ----
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985736852
10a11,12
> ''Oh, come on.  I don't suppose we'd be willing to accept the canonical reasons for actions against such companies - namely "guns kill people" and "Microsoft is a monopoly"?  You may not agree with either of those statements, but I don't see any reason to look for hidden motives here - these are precisely the sort of things democrats have a reputation of disagreeing with, so it's no surprise they took action against them.''
> 
------
Extended_ASCII|985737528
1,2c1,2
< Extended [[ASCII]] is an 8 [[bit]] computer character representation which includes all of the 7 bit ASCII characters.
< ----
---
> The term <i>extended ASCII</i> describes 8-bit or larger [[character encoding]]s that include the standard 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters as well as others.
> 
------
Vietnam/Language|985737709
7,12c7,12
<          Khong   no tone (flat)
<  /       Sach    rising
<  \       Huyen   falling
<  ?       Hoi     dipping
<  ~       Nga     dipping (but not as low)
<  .       Nam     low, glottal
---
>          Kho^ng   no tone (flat)
>  /       Sa'c    rising
>  \       Huye^`n   falling
>  ?       Ho?i     dipping
>  ~       Nga~     dipping (but not as low)
>  .       Na.ng     low, glottal
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|985738121
4a5,14
> <h2>Commentaries</h2>
> 
> While perhaps vaguely Wiki-related, the texts below refleect my personal opinions and biases.
> 
> * [[/Writing style]]
> 
> <h2>Notes</h2>
> 
> It seems to be an emerging Wikipedia tradition to place personal notes at the end of a person's page.  I hereby encourage that tradition, and invite all to do so here.
> 
------
Vietnam/Language|985738600
2a3,4
> ''Britannica claims that Vietnamese is one of the [[Austronesian languages]], not descended from [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  Do you have a better source?  Btw, most languages are on separate pages like [[Vietnamese language]], since not all correspond to countries (eg [[Esperanto language]], [[Catalan language]]).''
> 
------
Vietnam/Language|985738646
3c3
< ''Britannica claims that Vietnamese is one of the [[Austronesian languages]], not descended from [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  Do you have a better source?  Btw, most languages are on separate pages like [[Vietnamese language]], since not all correspond to countries (eg [[Esperanto language]], [[Catalan language]]).''
---
> ''Britannica claims that Vietnamese is one of the [[Austroasiatic languages]], not descended from [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  Do you have a better source?  Btw, most languages are on separate pages like [[Vietnamese language]], since not all correspond to countries (eg [[Esperanto]], [[Catalan language]]).''
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Writing_style|985739494
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Random notes on English usage inspired by Wiki.
> 
> <h2>Linguistic fluff</h2>
> 
> <h3>"Very"</h3>
> 
> I rarely use the word "very", because it takes up space and provides little information.  For example, if that sentence had said "...very little information.", what would it express that wasn't already expressed as it is?  It is also a way to sneak in personal bias and value judgment: to say that something is "very large", for example, is to say that it is larger, in the author's opinion, than what he would expect the reader to think of as merely "large".
> 
> <h3>"Of course"</h3>
> 
> The [[Wikipedia policy]] page contains this paragraph:
> 
> <blockquote>
> Never use the phrase 'of course' in an article.  'Of course' assumes the reader shares the author's context and perspetive and reaches the same obvious and intuitive conclusions. This is not always the case. Do not assume what the reader knows. Additionally, 'of course' is authoritarian and brooks no dissent, and is used when one wants to tell and assert rather than show and explain. This is not the attitude we should aim for in Wikipedia. 
> </blockquote>
> 
> While I generally agree, I think one particular instance in which I used the phrase (on the [[computer character]] page) works well:
> 
> <blockquote>
> For example, the Hebrew letter "Aleph" is often used by mathematicians to denote certain kinds of [[infinity]], and of course for ordinary Hebrew text.
> </blockquote>
> 
> In this case, just using "and" would imply that the two phrases thus joined are equal or parallel when they are not.  The first is a special use by a limited set of people, and the last is the common everyday use.  The "of course" emphasizes this and adds clarity I think.   "Aleph has special use X, and use Y (which is the ordinary use I assume you already know about)".  You might argue that the sentence could be reworded.  First, I stand by the use of passive voice here because the real subject of the sentence is the letter--a thing being used by two users, not the users.  Rewording to express the non-parallel nature of the joined clause and still be in passive voice is awkward and puts the letter in the middle: "In addition to its normal use in Hebrew text, the letter "Aleph" is used by mathematicians..."  I think the way the sentence is written, "of course" and all, is best.
> 
------
Calling_shotgun|985739926
2a3,4
> The purpose of the tradition, and the rules surrounding it, are to reduce conflict.  In American culture, which is generally notably lacking in the formal social graces, breaking shotgun rules is nonetheless considered a grave faux pas.  Most people consider the legitimate shotgun call to be sacrosanct.
> 
5a8,16
> 
> *Shotgun may not be called until all parties are outdoors and within sight of the vehicle
> 
> *Shotgun must be called loudly and distinctly.
> 
> *In the event of disputes, the driver is the final authority, though duty-bound to obey the customs of shotgun.
> 
> The following rules are questionable, and some actually illustrate the social chaos that would result from a lack of shotgun rules:
> 
------
Oregon|985740015
45a46,47
> [[/Constitution]]
> 
------
Free_software/Talk|985740225
10a11,12
> LDC: Personally, I mildly curse Stallman for his choice of words. "Liberated software" would work so much better. When I say "free software" doesn't refer to price, I mean that the term as used by the Free Software Foundation doesn't refer to price. Maybe a name change for the page is in order? It might work better under [[Free software movement]], or something similar. What do you think? -- [[STG]]
> 
15a18
> Larry, according to the FSF, you can indeed charge any amount you like for "free software" in the Stallman sense, so long as you do not try to prevent people from making copies and giving them away, if they choose to. Needless to say, no one's going to get rich off of such a business model. A direct quote from Stallman: "When we speak of `free software', we're talking about freedom, not price." -- [[STG]]
------
Free_software/Talk|985740636
12a13,14
> Sounds like a good way to do it.
> 
18c20
< Larry, according to the FSF, you can indeed charge any amount you like for "free software" in the Stallman sense, so long as you do not try to prevent people from making copies and giving them away, if they choose to. Needless to say, no one's going to get rich off of such a business model. A direct quote from Stallman: "When we speak of `free software', we're talking about freedom, not price." -- [[STG]]
---
> Larry, according to the FSF, you can indeed charge any amount you like for "free software" in the Stallman sense, so long as you do not try to prevent people from making copies and giving them away, if they choose to. Needless to say, no one's going to get rich off of such a business model. A direct quote from Stallman: "When we speak of `free software', we're talking about freedom, not price." -- [[STG]]
------
Free_software|985740673
1c1
< ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is [[free]].  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer not merely to price, but to four basic freedoms:
---
> ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is without monetary cost.  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer not to price, but to four basic freedoms:
5c5
< # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program.
---
> # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program
8c8
< While the above criteria are met by [[public domain]] software (i.e., software that disclaims all copyright), much of what is called <i>free software</i>, especially that produced by Stallman's [[Free Software Foundation]], is copyrighted and licensed under terms that prohibit distribution of modified versions without source code, for the purpose of ensuring that all modified versions also meet the above criteria.
---
> While the above criteria are met by some [[public domain]] software (i.e., software that disclaims all copyright), much of what is called <i>free software</i>, especially that produced by Stallman's [[Free Software Foundation]], is copyrighted and licensed under terms that prohibit distribution of modified versions without source code, for the purpose of ensuring that all modified versions also meet the above criteria.
12c12
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Free_software_movement|985740842
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is without monetary cost.  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer not to price, but to four basic freedoms:
> # The freedom to run the program for any purpose
> # The freedom to study and modify the program
> # The freedom to copy the program
> # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program
> For numbers 2 and 4, access to the program's [[source code]] is necessary.
> 
> While the above criteria are met by some [[public domain]] software (i.e., software that disclaims all copyright), much of what is called <i>free software</i>, especially that produced by Stallman's [[Free Software Foundation]], is copyrighted and licensed under terms that prohibit distribution of modified versions without source code, for the purpose of ensuring that all modified versions also meet the above criteria.
> 
> See also: [[Open source]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Free_software|985740911
1,12c1
< ''Free software'' means, for most people, [[software]] that is without monetary cost.  As a phrase, however, "free software" has been employed by [[Richard Stallman]] and his followers to refer not to price, but to four basic freedoms:
< # The freedom to run the program for any purpose
< # The freedom to study and modify the program
< # The freedom to copy the program
< # The freedom to redistribute modified versions of the program
< For numbers 2 and 4, access to the program's [[source code]] is necessary.
< 
< While the above criteria are met by some [[public domain]] software (i.e., software that disclaims all copyright), much of what is called <i>free software</i>, especially that produced by Stallman's [[Free Software Foundation]], is copyrighted and licensed under terms that prohibit distribution of modified versions without source code, for the purpose of ensuring that all modified versions also meet the above criteria.
< 
< See also: [[Open source]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Free software movement]]
------
Free_software_movement/Talk|985740999
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Good revisions; it's much tighter. About public domain software, though... a public domain program may not have its source code available (ie, released as binary only). While legally one can do anything with the program, freedoms 2 and 4 are practically impossible (aside from reverse engineering). -- [[STG]]
> 
> That's true.  What I meant to emphasize there is that while the conditions listed would be met by public domain software (especially that which also releases source code), most "free" software is not in fact public domain, but copyrighted and licensed to ensure the four freedoms listed (while of course infringing upon other freedoms, namely the right to sell proprietary modified versions).
> ----
> Of course, I'm not so big on giving people the freedom to take away other people's freedom... but anyway... :) Eventually we'll have sections on the various licenses.
> 
> To Larry: the term <i>free software</i> actually doesn't refer to price at all: http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html -- [[STG]]
> 
> An encyclopedia should describe generally-accepted meanings of words and phrases, not one man's politically-motivated usurpation of plain English.  If a store were to advertise "free software", you, I, and most other educated speakers of the English language would assume they meant software with no price.  Of course, the fact that Stallman and others use the term in a narrower sense should certainly be covered here, but let's not elevate Mr. Stallman to an authority on English usage.  --LDC
> 
> LDC: Personally, I mildly curse Stallman for his choice of words. "Liberated software" would work so much better. When I say "free software" doesn't refer to price, I mean that the term as used by the Free Software Foundation doesn't refer to price. Maybe a name change for the page is in order? It might work better under [[Free software movement]], or something similar. What do you think? -- [[STG]]
> 
> Sounds like a good way to do it.
> 
> ----
> STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, isn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?  (Of course, you can charge for incarnations of it, can't you...?  Hm.) --[[LMS]]
> 
> Stallman explicitly says that charging for media or distribution in no way infringes his preferred meaning of the term.  Indeed, he derives significant income from selling it.  --LDC
> 
> Larry, according to the FSF, you can indeed charge any amount you like for "free software" in the Stallman sense, so long as you do not try to prevent people from making copies and giving them away, if they choose to. Needless to say, no one's going to get rich off of such a business model. A direct quote from Stallman: "When we speak of `free software', we're talking about freedom, not price." -- [[STG]]
------
Free_software/Talk|985741044
1,20c1
< Good revisions; it's much tighter. About public domain software, though... a public domain program may not have its source code available (ie, released as binary only). While legally one can do anything with the program, freedoms 2 and 4 are practically impossible (aside from reverse engineering). -- [[STG]]
< 
< That's true.  What I meant to emphasize there is that while the conditions listed would be met by public domain software (especially that which also releases source code), most "free" software is not in fact public domain, but copyrighted and licensed to ensure the four freedoms listed (while of course infringing upon other freedoms, namely the right to sell proprietary modified versions).
< ----
< Of course, I'm not so big on giving people the freedom to take away other people's freedom... but anyway... :) Eventually we'll have sections on the various licenses.
< 
< To Larry: the term <i>free software</i> actually doesn't refer to price at all: http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html -- [[STG]]
< 
< An encyclopedia should describe generally-accepted meanings of words and phrases, not one man's politically-motivated usurpation of plain English.  If a store were to advertise "free software", you, I, and most other educated speakers of the English language would assume they meant software with no price.  Of course, the fact that Stallman and others use the term in a narrower sense should certainly be covered here, but let's not elevate Mr. Stallman to an authority on English usage.  --LDC
< 
< LDC: Personally, I mildly curse Stallman for his choice of words. "Liberated software" would work so much better. When I say "free software" doesn't refer to price, I mean that the term as used by the Free Software Foundation doesn't refer to price. Maybe a name change for the page is in order? It might work better under [[Free software movement]], or something similar. What do you think? -- [[STG]]
< 
< Sounds like a good way to do it.
< 
< ----
< STG, well, if one were to charge for it, could it possibly be free in Stallman's sense?  No, I believe.  So, for ordinary people who actually need to read this article to know what "free software" means to Stallmaniacs, isn't it actually less misleading to say "not merely to price, but" as opposed to "not to price, but"?  (Of course, you can charge for incarnations of it, can't you...?  Hm.) --[[LMS]]
< 
< Stallman explicitly says that charging for media or distribution in no way infringes his preferred meaning of the term.  Indeed, he derives significant income from selling it.  --LDC
< 
< Larry, according to the FSF, you can indeed charge any amount you like for "free software" in the Stallman sense, so long as you do not try to prevent people from making copies and giving them away, if they choose to. Needless to say, no one's going to get rich off of such a business model. A direct quote from Stallman: "When we speak of `free software', we're talking about freedom, not price." -- [[STG]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Free software movement/Talk]]
------
Oregon/Constitution|985741134
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/ARTICLE I BILL OF RIGHTS]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE II  SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE III  DISTRIBUTION OF POWERS]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE IV LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE V EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE VI ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENT]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE VII JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE VIII EDUCATION AND SCHOOL LANDS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE IX FINANCE]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE X THE MILITIA]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI CORPORATIONS AND INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-A RURAL CREDITS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-B STATE PAYMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT INTEREST]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-C WORLD WAR VETERANS' STATE AID SINKING FUND]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-D STATE POWER DEVELOPMENT]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-E STATE REFORESTATION]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-F(1) HIGHER EDUCATION BUILDING PROJECTS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-F(2) VETERANS' BONUS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-G HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIVITIES; COMMUNITY COLLEGES]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-H POLLUTION CONTROL]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-I(1) WATER DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-I(2) MULTIFAMILY HOUSING FOR ELDERLY AND DISABLED]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-J SMALL SCALE LOCAL ENERGY LOANS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XI-K GUARANTEE OF BONDED INDEBTEDNESS OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XII STATE PRINTING]] 
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XIII SALARIES]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XIV SEAT OF GOVERNMENT]] 
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> [[/ARTICLE XV MISCELLANEOUS]]
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> [[/ARTICLE XVI BOUNDARIES]]
> 
> [[/ARTICLE XVII AMENDMENTS AND REVISIONS]] 
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> [[/ARTICLE XVIII SCHEDULE]]
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Oregon/ARTICLE_I_BILL_OF_RIGHTS|985741193
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> ARTICLE I BILL OF RIGHTS
> 
> Sec. 1. Natural rights inherent in people 
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> 2. Freedom of worship 
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> 3. Freedom of religious opinion 
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> 4. No religious qualification for office 
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> 5. No money to be appropriated for religion 
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> 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors 
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> 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation 
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> 8. Freedom of speech and press 
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> 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures 
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> 10. Administration of justice 
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> 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution 
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> 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination 
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> 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons 
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> 14. Bailable offenses 
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> 15. Foundation principles of criminal law 
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> 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case 
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> 17. Jury trial in civil cases 
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> 18. Private property or services taken for public use 
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> 19. Imprisonment for debt 
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> 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens 
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> 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors 
> 
> 22. Suspension of operation of laws 
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> 23. Habeas corpus 
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> 24. Treason
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> 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate 
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> 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature 
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> 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power 
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> 28. Quartering soldiers 
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> 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions 
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> 30. Emigration
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> 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation 
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> 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive 
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> 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude 
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> 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass 
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> 40. Penalty for aggravated murder 
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> 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director 
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> 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings 
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> 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release 
> 
> 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions 
> 
> 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Natural rights inherent in people. We declare that all men, when they form a social compact are equal in right: that all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; and they have at all times a right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Freedom of worship. All men shall be secure in the Natural right, to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their own consciences.— 
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> 
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> Section 3. Freedom of religious opinion. No law shall in any case whatever control the free exercise, and enjoyment of religeous (sic) opinions, or interfere with the rights of conscience.— 
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> 
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> Section 4. No religious qualification for office. No religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office of trust or profit.— 
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> 
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> Section 5. No money to be appropriated for religion. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury for the benefit of any religeous (sic), or theological institution, nor shall any money be appropriated for the payment of any religeous (sic) services in either house of the Legislative Assembly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors. No person shall be rendered incompetent as a witness, or juror in consequence of his opinions on matters of religeon (sic); nor be questioned in any Court of Justice touching his religeous (sic) belief to affect the weight of his testimony.— 
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> 
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> Section 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation. The mode of administering an oath, or affirmation shall be such as may be most consistent with, and binding upon the conscience of the person to whom such oath or affirmation may be administered.— 
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> 
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> Section 8. Freedom of speech and press. No law shall be passed restraining the free expression of opinion, or restricting the right to speak, write, or print freely on any subject whatever; but every person shall be responsible for the abuse of this right.— 
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> 
> 
> Section 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures. No law shall violate the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable search, or seizure; and no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath, or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or thing to be seized.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Administration of justice. No court shall be secret, but justice shall be administered, openly and without purchase, completely and without delay, and every man shall have remedy by due course of law for injury done him in his person, property, or reputation.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall have the right to public trial by an impartial jury in the county in which the offense shall have been committed; to be heard by himself and counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him, and to have a copy thereof; to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; provided, however, that any accused person, in other than capital cases, and with the consent of the trial judge, may elect to waive trial by jury and consent to be tried by the judge of the court alone, such election to be in writing; provided, however, that in the circuit court ten members of the jury may render a verdict of guilty or not guilty, save and except a verdict of guilty of first degree murder, which shall be found only by a unanimous verdict, and not otherwise; provided further, that the existing laws and constitutional provisions relative to criminal prosecutions shall be continued and remain in effect as to all prosecutions for crimes committed before the taking effect of this amendment. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931 (2d s.s.), and adopted by the people May 18, 1934] 
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> 
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> Note: The leadline to section 11 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by S.J.R. 4, 1931. 
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> 
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> Section 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination. No person shall be put in jeopardy twice for the same offence (sic), nor be compelled in any criminal prosecution to testify against himself.— 
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> Section 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons. No person arrested, or confined in jail, shall be treated with unnecessary rigor.— 
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> Section 14. Bailable offenses. Offences (sic), except murder, and treason, shall be bailable by sufficient sureties. Murder or treason, shall not be bailable, when the proof is evident, or the presumption strong.— 
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> 
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> Section 15. Foundation principles of criminal law. Laws for the punishment of crime shall be founded on these principles: protection of society, personal responsibility, accountability for one's actions and reformation. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 32, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed. Cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted, but all penalties shall be proportioned to the offense.—In all criminal cases whatever, the jury shall have the right to determine the law, and the facts under the direction of the Court as to the law, and the right of new trial, as in civil cases. 
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> 
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> Section 17. Jury trial in civil cases. In all civil cases the right of Trial by Jury shall remain inviolate.— 
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> 
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> Section 18. Private property or services taken for public use. Private property shall not be taken for public use, nor the particular services of any man be demanded, without just compensation; nor except in the case of the state, without such compensation first assessed and tendered; provided, that the use of all roads, ways and waterways necessary to promote the transportation of the raw products of mine or farm or forest or water for beneficial use or drainage is necessary to the development and welfare of the state and is declared a public use. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 17, 1919, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1923, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1924] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The people voted on Measure No. 7, at the general election on November 7, 2000. On December 6, 2000, the Marion County Circuit Court enjoined the Secretary of State from canvassing the votes and enjoined the Governor from declaring or proclaiming whether Measure No. 7 was adopted at that election. At the time this edition of the Oregon Constitution went to the printer, Measure No. 7 was not part of the Constitution. The text of Measure No. 7 is set forth for the reader's convenience. 
> 
> 
> 
> THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE OF OREGON IS AMENDED BY ADDING THE FOLLOWING SUBSECTIONS TO SECTION 18 OF ARTICLE I: 
> 
> 
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> (a) If the state, a political subdivision of the state, or a local government passes or enforces a regulation that restricts the use of private real property, and the restriction has the effect of reducing the value of a property upon which the restriction is imposed; the property owner shall be paid just compensation equal to the reduction in the fair market value of the property. 
> 
> 
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> (b) For purposes of this section, adoption or enforcement of historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws shall not be deemed to have caused a reduction in the value of a property. The phrase “historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws” shall be narrowly construed in favor of a finding that just compensation is required under this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) A regulating entity may impose, to the minimum extent required, a regulation to implement a requirement of federal law without payment of compensation under this section. Nothing in this 2000 Amendment shall require compensation due to a government regulation prohibiting the use of a property for the purpose of selling pornography, performing nude dancing, selling alcoholic beverages or other controlled substances, or operating a casino or gaming parlor. 
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> 
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> (d) Compensation shall be due the property owner if the regulation was adopted, first enforced or applied after the current owner of the property became the owner, and continues to apply to the property 90 days after the owner applies for compensation under this section. 
> 
> 
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> (e) Definitions: For purposes of this section, “regulation” shall include any law, rule, ordinance, resolution, goal, or other enforceable enactment of government; “real property” shall include any structure built or sited on the property, aggregate and other removable minerals, and any forest product or other crop grown on the property; “reduction in the fair market value” shall mean the difference in the fair market value of the property before and after application of the regulation, and shall include the net cost to the landowner of an affirmative obligation to protect, provide, or preserve wildlife habitat, natural areas, wetlands, ecosystems, scenery, open space, historical, archaeological or cultural resources, or low income housing; and “just compensation” shall include, if a claim for compensation is denied or not fully paid within 90 days of filing, reasonable attorney fees and expenses necessary to collect the compensation. 
> 
> 
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> (f) If any phrase, clause, or part of this section is found to be invalid by a court of competent jurisdiction, the remaining phrases, clauses and parts shall remain in full force and effect. 
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> 
> 
> Section 19. Imprisonment for debt. There shall be no imprisonment for debt, except in case of fraud or absconding debtors.— 
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> 
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> Section 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens. No law shall be passed granting to any citizen or class of citizens privileges, or immunities, which, upon the same terms, shall not equally belong to all citizens.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors. No ex-post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts shall ever be passed, nor shall any law be passed, the taking effect of which shall be made to depend upon any authority, except as provided in this Constitution; provided, that laws locating the Capitol of the State, locating County Seats, and submitting town, and corporate acts, and other local, and Special laws may take effect, or not, upon a vote of the electors interested.— 
> 
> 
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> Section 22. Suspension of operation of laws. The operation of the laws shall never be suspended, except by the Authority of the Legislative Assembly. 
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> 
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> Section 23. Habeas corpus. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless in case of rebellion, or invasion the public safety require it.— 
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> 
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> Section 24. Treason. Treason against the State shall consist only in levying war against it, or adhering to its enemies, giving them aid or comfort.—No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confession in open Court.— 
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> 
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> Section 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate. No conviction shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture of estate.— 
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> 
> 
> Section 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature. No law shall be passed restraining any of the inhabitants of the State from assembling together in a peaceable manner to consult for their common good; nor from instructing their Representatives; nor from applying to the Legislature for redress of greviances (sic).— 
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> 
> 
> Section 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power. The people shall have the right to bear arms for the defence (sic) of themselves, and the State, but the Military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil power[.] 
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> 
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> Section 28. Quartering soldiers. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, except in the manner prescribed by law. 
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> 
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> Section 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions. No law shall be passed granting any title of Nobility, or conferring hereditary distinctions.— 
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> 
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> Section 30. Emigration. No law shall be passed prohibiting emigration from the State.— 
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> 
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> Section 31. Rights of aliens; immigration to state. [Constitution of 1859; repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
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> 
> 
> Section 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation. No tax or duty shall be imposed without the consent of the people or their representatives in the Legislative Assembly; and all taxation shall be uniform on the same class of subjects within the territorial limits of the authority levying the tax. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
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> Section 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive. This enumeration of rights, and privileges shall not be construed to impair or deny others retained by the people.— 
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> 
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> Section 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude. There shall be neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude in the State, otherwise than as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.— [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with section 4 of Article XVIII thereof] 
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> 
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> Section 35. Free negroes and mulattoes. [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with Section 4 of Article XVIII thereof; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 8, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926] 
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> Section 36. Liquor prohibition. [Created through initiative petition filed July 1, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
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> Section 36. Capital punishment abolished. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920, as Const. Art. I, s.38] 
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> Note: At the general election in 1914 two sections, each designated as section 36, were created and added to the Constitution by separate initiative petitions. One of these sections was the prohibition section and the other abolished capital punishment. 
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> Section 36a. Prohibition of importation of liquors. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1916, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
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> 
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> Section 37. Penalty for murder in first degree. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
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> Section 38. Laws abrogated by amendment abolishing death penalty revived. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
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> Section 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass. The State shall have power to license private clubs, fraternal organizations, veterans' organizations, railroad corporations operating interstate trains and commercial establishments where food is cooked and served, for the purpose of selling alcoholic liquor by the individual glass at retail, for consumption on the premises, including mixed drinks and cocktails, compounded or mixed on the premises only. The Legislative Assembly shall provide in such detail as it shall deem advisable for carrying out and administering the provisions of this amendment and shall provide adequate safeguards to carry out the original intent and purpose of the Oregon Liquor Control Act, including the promotion of temperance in the use and consumption of alcoholic beverages, encourage the use and consumption of lighter beverages and aid in the establishment of Oregon industry. This power is subject to the following: 
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> (1) The provisions of this amendment shall take effect and be in operation sixty (60) days after the approval and adoption by the people of Oregon; provided, however, the right of a local option election exists in the counties and in any incorporated city or town containing a population of at least five hundred (500). The Legislative Assembly shall prescribe a means and a procedure by which the voters of any county or incorporated city or town as limited above in any county, may through a local option election determine whether to prohibit or permit such power, and such procedure shall specifically include that whenever fifteen per cent (15%) of the registered voters of any county in the state or of any incorporated city or town as limited above, in any county in the state, shall file a petition requesting an election in this matter, the question shall be voted upon at the next regular November biennial election, provided said petition is filed not less than sixty (60) days before the day of election. 
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> (2) Legislation relating to this matter shall operate uniformly throughout the state and all individuals shall be treated equally; and all provisions shall be liberally construed for the accomplishment of these purposes. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1952, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
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> Section 40. Penalty for aggravated murder. Notwithstanding sections 15 and 16 of this Article, the penalty for aggravated murder as defined by law shall be death upon unanimous affirmative jury findings as provided by law and otherwise shall be life imprisonment with minimum sentence as provided by law. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1983, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1984] 
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> Section 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director. (1) Whereas the people of the state of Oregon find and declare that inmates who are confined in corrections institutions should work as hard as the taxpayers who provide for their upkeep; and whereas the people also find and declare that inmates confined within corrections institutions must be fully engaged in productive activity if they are to successfully re-enter society with practical skills and a viable work ethic; now, therefore, the people declare: 
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> (2) All inmates of state corrections institutions shall be actively engaged full-time in work or on-the-job training. The work or on-the-job training programs shall be established and overseen by the corrections director, who shall ensure that such programs are cost-effective and are designed to develop inmate motivation, work capabilities and cooperation. Such programs may include boot camp prison programs. Education may be provided to inmates as part of work or on-the-job training so long as each inmate is engaged at least half-time in hands-on training or work activity. 
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> (3) Each inmate shall begin full-time work or on-the-job training immediately upon admission to a corrections institution, allowing for a short time for administrative intake and processing. The specific quantity of hours per day to be spent in work or on-the-job training shall be determined by the corrections director, but the overall time spent in work or training shall be full-time. However, no inmate has a legally enforceable right to a job or to otherwise participate in work, on-the-job training or educational programs or to compensation for work or labor performed while an inmate of any state, county or city corrections facility or institution. The corrections director may reduce or exempt participation in work or training programs by those inmates deemed by corrections officials as physically or mentally disabled, or as too dangerous to society to engage in such programs. 
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> (4) There shall be sufficient work and training programs to ensure that every eligible inmate is productively involved in one or more programs. Where an inmate is drug and alcohol addicted so as to prevent the inmate from effectively participating in work or training programs, corrections officials shall provide appropriate drug or alcohol treatment. 
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> (5) The intent of the people is that taxpayer-supported institutions and programs shall be free to benefit from inmate work. Prison work programs shall be designed and carried out so as to achieve savings in government operations, so as to achieve a net profit in private sector activities or so as to benefit the community. 
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> (6) The provisions of this section are mandatory for all state corrections institutions. The provisions of this section are permissive for county or city corrections facilities. No law, ordinance or charter shall prevent or restrict a county or city governing body from implementing all or part of the provisions of this section. Compensation, if any, shall be determined and established by the governing body of the county or city which chooses to engage in prison work programs, and the governing body may choose to adopt any power or exemption allowed in this section. 
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> (7) The corrections director shall contact public and private enterprises in this state and seek proposals to use inmate work. The corrections director may: (a) install and equip plants in any state corrections institution, or any other location, for the employment or training of any of the inmates therein; or (b) purchase, acquire, install, maintain and operate materials, machinery and appliances necessary to the conduct and operation of such plants. The corrections director shall use every effort to enter into contracts or agreements with private business concerns or government agencies to accomplish the production or marketing of products or services produced or performed by inmates. The corrections director may carry out the director's powers and duties under this section by delegation to others. 
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> (8) Compensation, if any, for inmates who engage in prison work programs shall be determined and established by the corrections director. Such compensation shall not be subject to existing public or private sector minimum or prevailing wage laws, except where required to comply with federal law. Inmate compensation from enterprises entering into agreements with the state shall be exempt from unemployment compensation taxes to the extent allowed under federal law. Inmate injury or disease attributable to any inmate work shall be covered by a corrections system inmate injury fund rather than the workers compensation law. Except as otherwise required by federal law to permit transportation in interstate commerce of goods, wares or merchandise manufactured, produced or mined, wholly or in part by inmates or except as otherwise required by state law, any compensation earned through prison work programs shall only be used for the following purposes: (a) reimbursement for all or a portion of the costs of the inmate's rehabilitation, housing, health care, and living costs; (b) restitution or compensation to the victims of the particular inmate's crime; (c) restitution or compensation to the victims of crime generally through a fund designed for that purpose; (d) financial support for immediate family of the inmate outside the corrections institution; and (e) payment of fines, court costs, and applicable taxes. 
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> (9) All income generated from prison work programs shall be kept separate from general fund accounts and shall only be used for implementing, maintaining and developing prison work programs. Prison industry work programs shall be exempt from statutory competitive bid and purchase requirements. Expenditures for prison work programs shall be exempt from the legislative appropriations process to the extent the programs rely on income sources other than state taxes and fees. Where state taxes or fees are the source of capital or operating expenditures, the appropriations shall be made by the legislative assembly. The state programs shall be run in a businesslike fashion and shall be subject to regulation by the corrections director. Expenditures from income generated by state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. Agreements with private enterprise as to state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. The corrections director shall make all state records available for public scrutiny and the records shall be subject to audit by the Secretary of State. 
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> (10) Prison work products or services shall be available to any public agency and to any private enterprise of any state, any nation or any American Indian or Alaskan Native tribe without restriction imposed by any state or local law, ordinance or regulation as to competition with other public or private sector enterprises. The products and services of corrections work programs shall be provided on such terms as are set by the corrections director. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding for-profit prison work programs that produce goods or services offered for sale in the private sector if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce preexisting private enterprise. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding prison work programs if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce government or nonprofit programs that employ persons with developmental disabilities. However, the decision to establish, maintain, expand, reduce or terminate any prison work program remains in the sole discretion of the corrections director. 
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> (11) Inmate work shall be used as much as possible to help operate the corrections institutions themselves, to support other government operations and to support community charitable organizations. This work includes, but is not limited to, institutional food production; maintenance and repair of buildings, grounds, and equipment; office support services, including printing; prison clothing production and maintenance; prison medical services; training other inmates; agricultural and forestry work, especially in parks and public forest lands; and environmental clean-up projects. Every state agency shall cooperate with the corrections director in establishing inmate work programs. 
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> (12) As used throughout this section, unless the context requires otherwise: “full-time” means the equivalent of at least forty hours per seven day week, specifically including time spent by inmates as required by the Department of Corrections, while the inmate is participating in work or on-the-job training, to provide for the safety and security of the public, correctional staff and inmates; “corrections director” means the person in charge of the state corrections system. 
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> (13) This section is self-implementing and supersedes all existing inconsistent statutes. This section shall become effective April 1, 1995. If any part of this section or its application to any person or circumstance is held to be invalid for any reason, then the remaining parts or applications to any persons or circumstances shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 12, 1994, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 2, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 82, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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> Note: Added to Article I as unnumbered section by initiative petition (Measure No. 17, 1994) adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994. 
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> Note: An initiative petition (Measure No. 40, 1996) proposed adding an unnumbered section relating to crime victims' rights to Article I. That section, appearing as section 42 of Article I in previous editions of this Constitution, was declared void for not being enacted in compliance with section 1, Article XVII of this Constitution. See Armatta v. Kitzhaber , 327 Or. 250, 959 P.2d 49 (1998). 
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> Section 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings. (1) To preserve and protect the right of crime victims to justice, to ensure crime victims a meaningful role in the criminal and juvenile justice systems, to accord crime victims due dignity and respect and to ensure that criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings are conducted to seek the truth as to the defendant's innocence or guilt, and also to ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes and in juvenile court delinquency proceedings: 
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> (a) The right to be present at and, upon specific request, to be informed in advance of any critical stage of the proceedings held in open court when the defendant will be present, and to be heard at the pretrial release hearing and the sentencing or juvenile court delinquency disposition; 
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> (b) The right, upon request, to obtain information about the conviction, sentence, imprisonment, criminal history and future release from physical custody of the criminal defendant or convicted criminal and equivalent information regarding the alleged youth offender or youth offender; 
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> (c) The right to refuse an interview, deposition or other discovery request by the criminal defendant or other person acting on behalf of the criminal defendant provided, however, that nothing in this paragraph shall restrict any other constitutional right of the defendant to discovery against the state; 
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> (d) The right to receive prompt restitution from the convicted criminal who caused the victim's loss or injury; 
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> (e) The right to have a copy of a transcript of any court proceeding in open court, if one is otherwise prepared; 
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> (f) The right to be consulted, upon request, regarding plea negotiations involving any violent felony; and 
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> (g) The right to be informed of these rights as soon as practicable. 
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> (2) This section applies to all criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
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> (3) As used in this section: 
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> (a) “Convicted criminal” includes a youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
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> (b) “Criminal defendant” includes an alleged youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
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> (c) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event that no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
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> (d) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. [Created through H.J.R. 87, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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> Note: The effective date of House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, compiled as sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, Article I, is Dec. 2, 1999. 
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> Note: Sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, were added to Article I as unnumbered sections by the amendments proposed by House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release. (1) To ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The right to be reasonably protected from the criminal defendant or the convicted criminal throughout the criminal justice process and from the alleged youth offender or youth offender throughout the juvenile delinquency proceedings. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The right to have decisions by the court regarding the pretrial release of a criminal defendant based upon the principle of reasonable protection of the victim and the public, as well as the likelihood that the criminal defendant will appear for trial. Murder, aggravated murder and treason shall not be bailable when the proof is evident or the presumption strong that the person is guilty. Other violent felonies shall not be bailable when a court has determined there is probable cause to believe the criminal defendant committed the crime, and the court finds, by clear and convincing evidence, that there is danger of physical injury or sexual victimization to the victim or members of the public by the criminal defendant while on release. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section abridges any right of the criminal defendant guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, including the rights to be represented by counsel, have counsel appointed if indigent, testify, present witnesses, cross-examine witnesses or present information at the release hearing. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceeding at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The prosecuting attorney is the party authorized to assert the rights of the victim and the public established by this section. [Created through H.J.R. 90, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions. (1)(a) A term of imprisonment imposed by a judge in open court may not be set aside or otherwise not carried out, except as authorized by the sentencing court or through the subsequent exercise of: 
> 
> 
> 
> (A) The power of the Governor to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (B) Judicial authority to grant appellate or post-conviction relief. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) No law shall limit a court's authority to sentence a criminal defendant consecutively for crimes against different victims. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to all offenses committed on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section, “victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. [Created through H.J.R. 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case. (1) In all grand juries and in all prosecutions for crimes tried to a jury, the jury shall be composed of persons who have not been convicted: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Of a felony or served a felony sentence within the 15 years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Of a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty or served a sentence for a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty within the five years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to all criminal proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section, except a criminal proceeding in which a jury has been impaneled and sworn on the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to disqualify a jury, invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal proceeding at any point after a jury is impaneled and sworn or on appeal. [Created through H.J.R. 89, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
> 
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> ARTICLE I BILL OF RIGHTS
> 
> Sec. 1. Natural rights inherent in people 
> 
> 2. Freedom of worship 
> 
> 3. Freedom of religious opinion 
> 
> 4. No religious qualification for office 
> 
> 5. No money to be appropriated for religion 
> 
> 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors 
> 
> 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation 
> 
> 8. Freedom of speech and press 
> 
> 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures 
> 
> 10. Administration of justice 
> 
> 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution 
> 
> 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination 
> 
> 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons 
> 
> 14. Bailable offenses 
> 
> 15. Foundation principles of criminal law 
> 
> 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case 
> 
> 17. Jury trial in civil cases 
> 
> 18. Private property or services taken for public use 
> 
> 19. Imprisonment for debt 
> 
> 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens 
> 
> 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors 
> 
> 22. Suspension of operation of laws 
> 
> 23. Habeas corpus 
> 
> 24. Treason
> 
> 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate 
> 
> 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature 
> 
> 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power 
> 
> 28. Quartering soldiers 
> 
> 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions 
> 
> 30. Emigration
> 
> 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation 
> 
> 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive 
> 
> 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude 
> 
> 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass 
> 
> 40. Penalty for aggravated murder 
> 
> 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director 
> 
> 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings 
> 
> 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release 
> 
> 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions 
> 
> 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Natural rights inherent in people. We declare that all men, when they form a social compact are equal in right: that all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; and they have at all times a right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Freedom of worship. All men shall be secure in the Natural right, to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their own consciences.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Freedom of religious opinion. No law shall in any case whatever control the free exercise, and enjoyment of religeous (sic) opinions, or interfere with the rights of conscience.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. No religious qualification for office. No religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office of trust or profit.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. No money to be appropriated for religion. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury for the benefit of any religeous (sic), or theological institution, nor shall any money be appropriated for the payment of any religeous (sic) services in either house of the Legislative Assembly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors. No person shall be rendered incompetent as a witness, or juror in consequence of his opinions on matters of religeon (sic); nor be questioned in any Court of Justice touching his religeous (sic) belief to affect the weight of his testimony.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation. The mode of administering an oath, or affirmation shall be such as may be most consistent with, and binding upon the conscience of the person to whom such oath or affirmation may be administered.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Freedom of speech and press. No law shall be passed restraining the free expression of opinion, or restricting the right to speak, write, or print freely on any subject whatever; but every person shall be responsible for the abuse of this right.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures. No law shall violate the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable search, or seizure; and no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath, or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or thing to be seized.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Administration of justice. No court shall be secret, but justice shall be administered, openly and without purchase, completely and without delay, and every man shall have remedy by due course of law for injury done him in his person, property, or reputation.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall have the right to public trial by an impartial jury in the county in which the offense shall have been committed; to be heard by himself and counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him, and to have a copy thereof; to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; provided, however, that any accused person, in other than capital cases, and with the consent of the trial judge, may elect to waive trial by jury and consent to be tried by the judge of the court alone, such election to be in writing; provided, however, that in the circuit court ten members of the jury may render a verdict of guilty or not guilty, save and except a verdict of guilty of first degree murder, which shall be found only by a unanimous verdict, and not otherwise; provided further, that the existing laws and constitutional provisions relative to criminal prosecutions shall be continued and remain in effect as to all prosecutions for crimes committed before the taking effect of this amendment. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931 (2d s.s.), and adopted by the people May 18, 1934] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 11 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by S.J.R. 4, 1931. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination. No person shall be put in jeopardy twice for the same offence (sic), nor be compelled in any criminal prosecution to testify against himself.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons. No person arrested, or confined in jail, shall be treated with unnecessary rigor.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 14. Bailable offenses. Offences (sic), except murder, and treason, shall be bailable by sufficient sureties. Murder or treason, shall not be bailable, when the proof is evident, or the presumption strong.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15. Foundation principles of criminal law. Laws for the punishment of crime shall be founded on these principles: protection of society, personal responsibility, accountability for one's actions and reformation. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 32, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed. Cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted, but all penalties shall be proportioned to the offense.—In all criminal cases whatever, the jury shall have the right to determine the law, and the facts under the direction of the Court as to the law, and the right of new trial, as in civil cases. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 17. Jury trial in civil cases. In all civil cases the right of Trial by Jury shall remain inviolate.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 18. Private property or services taken for public use. Private property shall not be taken for public use, nor the particular services of any man be demanded, without just compensation; nor except in the case of the state, without such compensation first assessed and tendered; provided, that the use of all roads, ways and waterways necessary to promote the transportation of the raw products of mine or farm or forest or water for beneficial use or drainage is necessary to the development and welfare of the state and is declared a public use. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 17, 1919, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1923, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1924] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The people voted on Measure No. 7, at the general election on November 7, 2000. On December 6, 2000, the Marion County Circuit Court enjoined the Secretary of State from canvassing the votes and enjoined the Governor from declaring or proclaiming whether Measure No. 7 was adopted at that election. At the time this edition of the Oregon Constitution went to the printer, Measure No. 7 was not part of the Constitution. The text of Measure No. 7 is set forth for the reader's convenience. 
> 
> 
> 
> THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE OF OREGON IS AMENDED BY ADDING THE FOLLOWING SUBSECTIONS TO SECTION 18 OF ARTICLE I: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) If the state, a political subdivision of the state, or a local government passes or enforces a regulation that restricts the use of private real property, and the restriction has the effect of reducing the value of a property upon which the restriction is imposed; the property owner shall be paid just compensation equal to the reduction in the fair market value of the property. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) For purposes of this section, adoption or enforcement of historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws shall not be deemed to have caused a reduction in the value of a property. The phrase “historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws” shall be narrowly construed in favor of a finding that just compensation is required under this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) A regulating entity may impose, to the minimum extent required, a regulation to implement a requirement of federal law without payment of compensation under this section. Nothing in this 2000 Amendment shall require compensation due to a government regulation prohibiting the use of a property for the purpose of selling pornography, performing nude dancing, selling alcoholic beverages or other controlled substances, or operating a casino or gaming parlor. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Compensation shall be due the property owner if the regulation was adopted, first enforced or applied after the current owner of the property became the owner, and continues to apply to the property 90 days after the owner applies for compensation under this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) Definitions: For purposes of this section, “regulation” shall include any law, rule, ordinance, resolution, goal, or other enforceable enactment of government; “real property” shall include any structure built or sited on the property, aggregate and other removable minerals, and any forest product or other crop grown on the property; “reduction in the fair market value” shall mean the difference in the fair market value of the property before and after application of the regulation, and shall include the net cost to the landowner of an affirmative obligation to protect, provide, or preserve wildlife habitat, natural areas, wetlands, ecosystems, scenery, open space, historical, archaeological or cultural resources, or low income housing; and “just compensation” shall include, if a claim for compensation is denied or not fully paid within 90 days of filing, reasonable attorney fees and expenses necessary to collect the compensation. 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) If any phrase, clause, or part of this section is found to be invalid by a court of competent jurisdiction, the remaining phrases, clauses and parts shall remain in full force and effect. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 19. Imprisonment for debt. There shall be no imprisonment for debt, except in case of fraud or absconding debtors.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens. No law shall be passed granting to any citizen or class of citizens privileges, or immunities, which, upon the same terms, shall not equally belong to all citizens.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors. No ex-post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts shall ever be passed, nor shall any law be passed, the taking effect of which shall be made to depend upon any authority, except as provided in this Constitution; provided, that laws locating the Capitol of the State, locating County Seats, and submitting town, and corporate acts, and other local, and Special laws may take effect, or not, upon a vote of the electors interested.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 22. Suspension of operation of laws. The operation of the laws shall never be suspended, except by the Authority of the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 23. Habeas corpus. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless in case of rebellion, or invasion the public safety require it.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 24. Treason. Treason against the State shall consist only in levying war against it, or adhering to its enemies, giving them aid or comfort.—No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confession in open Court.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate. No conviction shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture of estate.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature. No law shall be passed restraining any of the inhabitants of the State from assembling together in a peaceable manner to consult for their common good; nor from instructing their Representatives; nor from applying to the Legislature for redress of greviances (sic).— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power. The people shall have the right to bear arms for the defence (sic) of themselves, and the State, but the Military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil power[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 28. Quartering soldiers. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, except in the manner prescribed by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions. No law shall be passed granting any title of Nobility, or conferring hereditary distinctions.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 30. Emigration. No law shall be passed prohibiting emigration from the State.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 31. Rights of aliens; immigration to state. [Constitution of 1859; repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation. No tax or duty shall be imposed without the consent of the people or their representatives in the Legislative Assembly; and all taxation shall be uniform on the same class of subjects within the territorial limits of the authority levying the tax. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive. This enumeration of rights, and privileges shall not be construed to impair or deny others retained by the people.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude. There shall be neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude in the State, otherwise than as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.— [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with section 4 of Article XVIII thereof] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 35. Free negroes and mulattoes. [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with Section 4 of Article XVIII thereof; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 8, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 36. Liquor prohibition. [Created through initiative petition filed July 1, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 36. Capital punishment abolished. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920, as Const. Art. I, s.38] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: At the general election in 1914 two sections, each designated as section 36, were created and added to the Constitution by separate initiative petitions. One of these sections was the prohibition section and the other abolished capital punishment. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 36a. Prohibition of importation of liquors. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1916, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 37. Penalty for murder in first degree. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 38. Laws abrogated by amendment abolishing death penalty revived. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass. The State shall have power to license private clubs, fraternal organizations, veterans' organizations, railroad corporations operating interstate trains and commercial establishments where food is cooked and served, for the purpose of selling alcoholic liquor by the individual glass at retail, for consumption on the premises, including mixed drinks and cocktails, compounded or mixed on the premises only. The Legislative Assembly shall provide in such detail as it shall deem advisable for carrying out and administering the provisions of this amendment and shall provide adequate safeguards to carry out the original intent and purpose of the Oregon Liquor Control Act, including the promotion of temperance in the use and consumption of alcoholic beverages, encourage the use and consumption of lighter beverages and aid in the establishment of Oregon industry. This power is subject to the following: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) The provisions of this amendment shall take effect and be in operation sixty (60) days after the approval and adoption by the people of Oregon; provided, however, the right of a local option election exists in the counties and in any incorporated city or town containing a population of at least five hundred (500). The Legislative Assembly shall prescribe a means and a procedure by which the voters of any county or incorporated city or town as limited above in any county, may through a local option election determine whether to prohibit or permit such power, and such procedure shall specifically include that whenever fifteen per cent (15%) of the registered voters of any county in the state or of any incorporated city or town as limited above, in any county in the state, shall file a petition requesting an election in this matter, the question shall be voted upon at the next regular November biennial election, provided said petition is filed not less than sixty (60) days before the day of election. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Legislation relating to this matter shall operate uniformly throughout the state and all individuals shall be treated equally; and all provisions shall be liberally construed for the accomplishment of these purposes. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1952, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 40. Penalty for aggravated murder. Notwithstanding sections 15 and 16 of this Article, the penalty for aggravated murder as defined by law shall be death upon unanimous affirmative jury findings as provided by law and otherwise shall be life imprisonment with minimum sentence as provided by law. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1983, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1984] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director. (1) Whereas the people of the state of Oregon find and declare that inmates who are confined in corrections institutions should work as hard as the taxpayers who provide for their upkeep; and whereas the people also find and declare that inmates confined within corrections institutions must be fully engaged in productive activity if they are to successfully re-enter society with practical skills and a viable work ethic; now, therefore, the people declare: 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) All inmates of state corrections institutions shall be actively engaged full-time in work or on-the-job training. The work or on-the-job training programs shall be established and overseen by the corrections director, who shall ensure that such programs are cost-effective and are designed to develop inmate motivation, work capabilities and cooperation. Such programs may include boot camp prison programs. Education may be provided to inmates as part of work or on-the-job training so long as each inmate is engaged at least half-time in hands-on training or work activity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Each inmate shall begin full-time work or on-the-job training immediately upon admission to a corrections institution, allowing for a short time for administrative intake and processing. The specific quantity of hours per day to be spent in work or on-the-job training shall be determined by the corrections director, but the overall time spent in work or training shall be full-time. However, no inmate has a legally enforceable right to a job or to otherwise participate in work, on-the-job training or educational programs or to compensation for work or labor performed while an inmate of any state, county or city corrections facility or institution. The corrections director may reduce or exempt participation in work or training programs by those inmates deemed by corrections officials as physically or mentally disabled, or as too dangerous to society to engage in such programs. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) There shall be sufficient work and training programs to ensure that every eligible inmate is productively involved in one or more programs. Where an inmate is drug and alcohol addicted so as to prevent the inmate from effectively participating in work or training programs, corrections officials shall provide appropriate drug or alcohol treatment. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The intent of the people is that taxpayer-supported institutions and programs shall be free to benefit from inmate work. Prison work programs shall be designed and carried out so as to achieve savings in government operations, so as to achieve a net profit in private sector activities or so as to benefit the community. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) The provisions of this section are mandatory for all state corrections institutions. The provisions of this section are permissive for county or city corrections facilities. No law, ordinance or charter shall prevent or restrict a county or city governing body from implementing all or part of the provisions of this section. Compensation, if any, shall be determined and established by the governing body of the county or city which chooses to engage in prison work programs, and the governing body may choose to adopt any power or exemption allowed in this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) The corrections director shall contact public and private enterprises in this state and seek proposals to use inmate work. The corrections director may: (a) install and equip plants in any state corrections institution, or any other location, for the employment or training of any of the inmates therein; or (b) purchase, acquire, install, maintain and operate materials, machinery and appliances necessary to the conduct and operation of such plants. The corrections director shall use every effort to enter into contracts or agreements with private business concerns or government agencies to accomplish the production or marketing of products or services produced or performed by inmates. The corrections director may carry out the director's powers and duties under this section by delegation to others. 
> 
> 
> 
> (8) Compensation, if any, for inmates who engage in prison work programs shall be determined and established by the corrections director. Such compensation shall not be subject to existing public or private sector minimum or prevailing wage laws, except where required to comply with federal law. Inmate compensation from enterprises entering into agreements with the state shall be exempt from unemployment compensation taxes to the extent allowed under federal law. Inmate injury or disease attributable to any inmate work shall be covered by a corrections system inmate injury fund rather than the workers compensation law. Except as otherwise required by federal law to permit transportation in interstate commerce of goods, wares or merchandise manufactured, produced or mined, wholly or in part by inmates or except as otherwise required by state law, any compensation earned through prison work programs shall only be used for the following purposes: (a) reimbursement for all or a portion of the costs of the inmate's rehabilitation, housing, health care, and living costs; (b) restitution or compensation to the victims of the particular inmate's crime; (c) restitution or compensation to the victims of crime generally through a fund designed for that purpose; (d) financial support for immediate family of the inmate outside the corrections institution; and (e) payment of fines, court costs, and applicable taxes. 
> 
> 
> 
> (9) All income generated from prison work programs shall be kept separate from general fund accounts and shall only be used for implementing, maintaining and developing prison work programs. Prison industry work programs shall be exempt from statutory competitive bid and purchase requirements. Expenditures for prison work programs shall be exempt from the legislative appropriations process to the extent the programs rely on income sources other than state taxes and fees. Where state taxes or fees are the source of capital or operating expenditures, the appropriations shall be made by the legislative assembly. The state programs shall be run in a businesslike fashion and shall be subject to regulation by the corrections director. Expenditures from income generated by state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. Agreements with private enterprise as to state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. The corrections director shall make all state records available for public scrutiny and the records shall be subject to audit by the Secretary of State. 
> 
> 
> 
> (10) Prison work products or services shall be available to any public agency and to any private enterprise of any state, any nation or any American Indian or Alaskan Native tribe without restriction imposed by any state or local law, ordinance or regulation as to competition with other public or private sector enterprises. The products and services of corrections work programs shall be provided on such terms as are set by the corrections director. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding for-profit prison work programs that produce goods or services offered for sale in the private sector if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce preexisting private enterprise. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding prison work programs if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce government or nonprofit programs that employ persons with developmental disabilities. However, the decision to establish, maintain, expand, reduce or terminate any prison work program remains in the sole discretion of the corrections director. 
> 
> 
> 
> (11) Inmate work shall be used as much as possible to help operate the corrections institutions themselves, to support other government operations and to support community charitable organizations. This work includes, but is not limited to, institutional food production; maintenance and repair of buildings, grounds, and equipment; office support services, including printing; prison clothing production and maintenance; prison medical services; training other inmates; agricultural and forestry work, especially in parks and public forest lands; and environmental clean-up projects. Every state agency shall cooperate with the corrections director in establishing inmate work programs. 
> 
> 
> 
> (12) As used throughout this section, unless the context requires otherwise: “full-time” means the equivalent of at least forty hours per seven day week, specifically including time spent by inmates as required by the Department of Corrections, while the inmate is participating in work or on-the-job training, to provide for the safety and security of the public, correctional staff and inmates; “corrections director” means the person in charge of the state corrections system. 
> 
> 
> 
> (13) This section is self-implementing and supersedes all existing inconsistent statutes. This section shall become effective April 1, 1995. If any part of this section or its application to any person or circumstance is held to be invalid for any reason, then the remaining parts or applications to any persons or circumstances shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 12, 1994, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 2, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 82, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Added to Article I as unnumbered section by initiative petition (Measure No. 17, 1994) adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: An initiative petition (Measure No. 40, 1996) proposed adding an unnumbered section relating to crime victims' rights to Article I. That section, appearing as section 42 of Article I in previous editions of this Constitution, was declared void for not being enacted in compliance with section 1, Article XVII of this Constitution. See Armatta v. Kitzhaber , 327 Or. 250, 959 P.2d 49 (1998). 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings. (1) To preserve and protect the right of crime victims to justice, to ensure crime victims a meaningful role in the criminal and juvenile justice systems, to accord crime victims due dignity and respect and to ensure that criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings are conducted to seek the truth as to the defendant's innocence or guilt, and also to ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes and in juvenile court delinquency proceedings: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The right to be present at and, upon specific request, to be informed in advance of any critical stage of the proceedings held in open court when the defendant will be present, and to be heard at the pretrial release hearing and the sentencing or juvenile court delinquency disposition; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The right, upon request, to obtain information about the conviction, sentence, imprisonment, criminal history and future release from physical custody of the criminal defendant or convicted criminal and equivalent information regarding the alleged youth offender or youth offender; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The right to refuse an interview, deposition or other discovery request by the criminal defendant or other person acting on behalf of the criminal defendant provided, however, that nothing in this paragraph shall restrict any other constitutional right of the defendant to discovery against the state; 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) The right to receive prompt restitution from the convicted criminal who caused the victim's loss or injury; 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) The right to have a copy of a transcript of any court proceeding in open court, if one is otherwise prepared; 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) The right to be consulted, upon request, regarding plea negotiations involving any violent felony; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (g) The right to be informed of these rights as soon as practicable. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to all criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) “Convicted criminal” includes a youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) “Criminal defendant” includes an alleged youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event that no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. [Created through H.J.R. 87, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The effective date of House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, compiled as sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, Article I, is Dec. 2, 1999. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, were added to Article I as unnumbered sections by the amendments proposed by House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release. (1) To ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The right to be reasonably protected from the criminal defendant or the convicted criminal throughout the criminal justice process and from the alleged youth offender or youth offender throughout the juvenile delinquency proceedings. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The right to have decisions by the court regarding the pretrial release of a criminal defendant based upon the principle of reasonable protection of the victim and the public, as well as the likelihood that the criminal defendant will appear for trial. Murder, aggravated murder and treason shall not be bailable when the proof is evident or the presumption strong that the person is guilty. Other violent felonies shall not be bailable when a court has determined there is probable cause to believe the criminal defendant committed the crime, and the court finds, by clear and convincing evidence, that there is danger of physical injury or sexual victimization to the victim or members of the public by the criminal defendant while on release. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section abridges any right of the criminal defendant guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, including the rights to be represented by counsel, have counsel appointed if indigent, testify, present witnesses, cross-examine witnesses or present information at the release hearing. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceeding at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The prosecuting attorney is the party authorized to assert the rights of the victim and the public established by this section. [Created through H.J.R. 90, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions. (1)(a) A term of imprisonment imposed by a judge in open court may not be set aside or otherwise not carried out, except as authorized by the sentencing court or through the subsequent exercise of: 
> 
> 
> 
> (A) The power of the Governor to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (B) Judicial authority to grant appellate or post-conviction relief. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) No law shall limit a court's authority to sentence a criminal defendant consecutively for crimes against different victims. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to all offenses committed on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section, “victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. [Created through H.J.R. 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case. (1) In all grand juries and in all prosecutions for crimes tried to a jury, the jury shall be composed of persons who have not been convicted: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Of a felony or served a felony sentence within the 15 years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Of a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty or served a sentence for a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty within the five years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section applies to all criminal proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section, except a criminal proceeding in which a jury has been impaneled and sworn on the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to disqualify a jury, invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal proceeding at any point after a jury is impaneled and sworn or on appeal. [Created through H.J.R. 89, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
------
ARTICLE_I_BILL_OF_RIGHTS|985741337
1,505c1
< ARTICLE I BILL OF RIGHTS
< 
< Sec. 1. Natural rights inherent in people 
< 
< 2. Freedom of worship 
< 
< 3. Freedom of religious opinion 
< 
< 4. No religious qualification for office 
< 
< 5. No money to be appropriated for religion 
< 
< 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors 
< 
< 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation 
< 
< 8. Freedom of speech and press 
< 
< 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures 
< 
< 10. Administration of justice 
< 
< 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution 
< 
< 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination 
< 
< 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons 
< 
< 14. Bailable offenses 
< 
< 15. Foundation principles of criminal law 
< 
< 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case 
< 
< 17. Jury trial in civil cases 
< 
< 18. Private property or services taken for public use 
< 
< 19. Imprisonment for debt 
< 
< 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens 
< 
< 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors 
< 
< 22. Suspension of operation of laws 
< 
< 23. Habeas corpus 
< 
< 24. Treason
< 
< 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate 
< 
< 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature 
< 
< 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power 
< 
< 28. Quartering soldiers 
< 
< 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions 
< 
< 30. Emigration
< 
< 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation 
< 
< 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive 
< 
< 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude 
< 
< 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass 
< 
< 40. Penalty for aggravated murder 
< 
< 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director 
< 
< 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings 
< 
< 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release 
< 
< 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions 
< 
< 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 1. Natural rights inherent in people. We declare that all men, when they form a social compact are equal in right: that all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; and they have at all times a right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 2. Freedom of worship. All men shall be secure in the Natural right, to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their own consciences.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 3. Freedom of religious opinion. No law shall in any case whatever control the free exercise, and enjoyment of religeous (sic) opinions, or interfere with the rights of conscience.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 4. No religious qualification for office. No religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office of trust or profit.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 5. No money to be appropriated for religion. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury for the benefit of any religeous (sic), or theological institution, nor shall any money be appropriated for the payment of any religeous (sic) services in either house of the Legislative Assembly.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 6. No religious test for witnesses or jurors. No person shall be rendered incompetent as a witness, or juror in consequence of his opinions on matters of religeon (sic); nor be questioned in any Court of Justice touching his religeous (sic) belief to affect the weight of his testimony.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 7. Manner of administering oath or affirmation. The mode of administering an oath, or affirmation shall be such as may be most consistent with, and binding upon the conscience of the person to whom such oath or affirmation may be administered.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 8. Freedom of speech and press. No law shall be passed restraining the free expression of opinion, or restricting the right to speak, write, or print freely on any subject whatever; but every person shall be responsible for the abuse of this right.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 9. Unreasonable searches or seizures. No law shall violate the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable search, or seizure; and no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath, or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or thing to be seized.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 10. Administration of justice. No court shall be secret, but justice shall be administered, openly and without purchase, completely and without delay, and every man shall have remedy by due course of law for injury done him in his person, property, or reputation.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 11. Rights of Accused in Criminal Prosecution. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall have the right to public trial by an impartial jury in the county in which the offense shall have been committed; to be heard by himself and counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him, and to have a copy thereof; to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; provided, however, that any accused person, in other than capital cases, and with the consent of the trial judge, may elect to waive trial by jury and consent to be tried by the judge of the court alone, such election to be in writing; provided, however, that in the circuit court ten members of the jury may render a verdict of guilty or not guilty, save and except a verdict of guilty of first degree murder, which shall be found only by a unanimous verdict, and not otherwise; provided further, that the existing laws and constitutional provisions relative to criminal prosecutions shall be continued and remain in effect as to all prosecutions for crimes committed before the taking effect of this amendment. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1931 (2d s.s.), and adopted by the people May 18, 1934] 
< 
< 
< 
< Note: The leadline to section 11 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by S.J.R. 4, 1931. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 12. Double jeopardy; compulsory self-incrimination. No person shall be put in jeopardy twice for the same offence (sic), nor be compelled in any criminal prosecution to testify against himself.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 13. Treatment of arrested or confined persons. No person arrested, or confined in jail, shall be treated with unnecessary rigor.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 14. Bailable offenses. Offences (sic), except murder, and treason, shall be bailable by sufficient sureties. Murder or treason, shall not be bailable, when the proof is evident, or the presumption strong.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 15. Foundation principles of criminal law. Laws for the punishment of crime shall be founded on these principles: protection of society, personal responsibility, accountability for one's actions and reformation. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 32, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 16. Excessive bail and fines; cruel and unusual punishments; power of jury in criminal case. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed. Cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted, but all penalties shall be proportioned to the offense.—In all criminal cases whatever, the jury shall have the right to determine the law, and the facts under the direction of the Court as to the law, and the right of new trial, as in civil cases. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 17. Jury trial in civil cases. In all civil cases the right of Trial by Jury shall remain inviolate.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 18. Private property or services taken for public use. Private property shall not be taken for public use, nor the particular services of any man be demanded, without just compensation; nor except in the case of the state, without such compensation first assessed and tendered; provided, that the use of all roads, ways and waterways necessary to promote the transportation of the raw products of mine or farm or forest or water for beneficial use or drainage is necessary to the development and welfare of the state and is declared a public use. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 17, 1919, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1923, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1924] 
< 
< 
< 
< Note: The people voted on Measure No. 7, at the general election on November 7, 2000. On December 6, 2000, the Marion County Circuit Court enjoined the Secretary of State from canvassing the votes and enjoined the Governor from declaring or proclaiming whether Measure No. 7 was adopted at that election. At the time this edition of the Oregon Constitution went to the printer, Measure No. 7 was not part of the Constitution. The text of Measure No. 7 is set forth for the reader's convenience. 
< 
< 
< 
< THE CONSTITUTION OF THE STATE OF OREGON IS AMENDED BY ADDING THE FOLLOWING SUBSECTIONS TO SECTION 18 OF ARTICLE I: 
< 
< 
< 
< (a) If the state, a political subdivision of the state, or a local government passes or enforces a regulation that restricts the use of private real property, and the restriction has the effect of reducing the value of a property upon which the restriction is imposed; the property owner shall be paid just compensation equal to the reduction in the fair market value of the property. 
< 
< 
< 
< (b) For purposes of this section, adoption or enforcement of historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws shall not be deemed to have caused a reduction in the value of a property. The phrase “historically and commonly recognized nuisance laws” shall be narrowly construed in favor of a finding that just compensation is required under this section. 
< 
< 
< 
< (c) A regulating entity may impose, to the minimum extent required, a regulation to implement a requirement of federal law without payment of compensation under this section. Nothing in this 2000 Amendment shall require compensation due to a government regulation prohibiting the use of a property for the purpose of selling pornography, performing nude dancing, selling alcoholic beverages or other controlled substances, or operating a casino or gaming parlor. 
< 
< 
< 
< (d) Compensation shall be due the property owner if the regulation was adopted, first enforced or applied after the current owner of the property became the owner, and continues to apply to the property 90 days after the owner applies for compensation under this section. 
< 
< 
< 
< (e) Definitions: For purposes of this section, “regulation” shall include any law, rule, ordinance, resolution, goal, or other enforceable enactment of government; “real property” shall include any structure built or sited on the property, aggregate and other removable minerals, and any forest product or other crop grown on the property; “reduction in the fair market value” shall mean the difference in the fair market value of the property before and after application of the regulation, and shall include the net cost to the landowner of an affirmative obligation to protect, provide, or preserve wildlife habitat, natural areas, wetlands, ecosystems, scenery, open space, historical, archaeological or cultural resources, or low income housing; and “just compensation” shall include, if a claim for compensation is denied or not fully paid within 90 days of filing, reasonable attorney fees and expenses necessary to collect the compensation. 
< 
< 
< 
< (f) If any phrase, clause, or part of this section is found to be invalid by a court of competent jurisdiction, the remaining phrases, clauses and parts shall remain in full force and effect. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 19. Imprisonment for debt. There shall be no imprisonment for debt, except in case of fraud or absconding debtors.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 20. Equality of privileges and immunities of citizens. No law shall be passed granting to any citizen or class of citizens privileges, or immunities, which, upon the same terms, shall not equally belong to all citizens.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 21. Ex-post facto laws; laws impairing contracts; laws depending on authorization in order to take effect; laws submitted to electors. No ex-post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts shall ever be passed, nor shall any law be passed, the taking effect of which shall be made to depend upon any authority, except as provided in this Constitution; provided, that laws locating the Capitol of the State, locating County Seats, and submitting town, and corporate acts, and other local, and Special laws may take effect, or not, upon a vote of the electors interested.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 22. Suspension of operation of laws. The operation of the laws shall never be suspended, except by the Authority of the Legislative Assembly. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 23. Habeas corpus. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless in case of rebellion, or invasion the public safety require it.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 24. Treason. Treason against the State shall consist only in levying war against it, or adhering to its enemies, giving them aid or comfort.—No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confession in open Court.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 25. Corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate. No conviction shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture of estate.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 26. Assemblages of people; instruction of representatives; application to legislature. No law shall be passed restraining any of the inhabitants of the State from assembling together in a peaceable manner to consult for their common good; nor from instructing their Representatives; nor from applying to the Legislature for redress of greviances (sic).— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 27. Right to bear arms; military subordinate to civil power. The people shall have the right to bear arms for the defence (sic) of themselves, and the State, but the Military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil power[.] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 28. Quartering soldiers. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, except in the manner prescribed by law. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 29. Titles of nobility; hereditary distinctions. No law shall be passed granting any title of Nobility, or conferring hereditary distinctions.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 30. Emigration. No law shall be passed prohibiting emigration from the State.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 31. Rights of aliens; immigration to state. [Constitution of 1859; repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 32. Taxes and duties; uniformity of taxation. No tax or duty shall be imposed without the consent of the people or their representatives in the Legislative Assembly; and all taxation shall be uniform on the same class of subjects within the territorial limits of the authority levying the tax. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 33. Enumeration of rights not exclusive. This enumeration of rights, and privileges shall not be construed to impair or deny others retained by the people.— 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 34. Slavery or involuntary servitude. There shall be neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude in the State, otherwise than as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.— [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with section 4 of Article XVIII thereof] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 35. Free negroes and mulattoes. [Added to Bill of Rights as unnumbered section by vote of the people at time of adoption of the Oregon Constitution in accordance with Section 4 of Article XVIII thereof; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 8, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 36. Liquor prohibition. [Created through initiative petition filed July 1, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 36. Capital punishment abolished. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1914, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920, as Const. Art. I, s.38] 
< 
< 
< 
< Note: At the general election in 1914 two sections, each designated as section 36, were created and added to the Constitution by separate initiative petitions. One of these sections was the prohibition section and the other abolished capital punishment. 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 36a. Prohibition of importation of liquors. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1916, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed March 20, 1933, and adopted by the people July 21, 1933] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 37. Penalty for murder in first degree. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 38. Laws abrogated by amendment abolishing death penalty revived. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1920, and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
< 
< 
< 
< Section 39. Sale of liquor by individual glass. The State shall have power to license private clubs, fraternal organizations, veterans' organizations, railroad corporations operating interstate trains and commercial establishments where food is cooked and served, for the purpose of selling alcoholic liquor by the individual glass at retail, for consumption on the premises, including mixed drinks and cocktails, compounded or mixed on the premises only. The Legislative Assembly shall provide in such detail as it shall deem advisable for carrying out and administering the provisions of this amendment and shall provide adequate safeguards to carry out the original intent and purpose of the Oregon Liquor Control Act, including the promotion of temperance in the use and consumption of alcoholic beverages, encourage the use and consumption of lighter beverages and aid in the establishment of Oregon industry. This power is subject to the following: 
< 
< 
< 
< (1) The provisions of this amendment shall take effect and be in operation sixty (60) days after the approval and adoption by the people of Oregon; provided, however, the right of a local option election exists in the counties and in any incorporated city or town containing a population of at least five hundred (500). The Legislative Assembly shall prescribe a means and a procedure by which the voters of any county or incorporated city or town as limited above in any county, may through a local option election determine whether to prohibit or permit such power, and such procedure shall specifically include that whenever fifteen per cent (15%) of the registered voters of any county in the state or of any incorporated city or town as limited above, in any county in the state, shall file a petition requesting an election in this matter, the question shall be voted upon at the next regular November biennial election, provided said petition is filed not less than sixty (60) days before the day of election. 
< 
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< 
< (2) Legislation relating to this matter shall operate uniformly throughout the state and all individuals shall be treated equally; and all provisions shall be liberally construed for the accomplishment of these purposes. [Created through initiative petition filed July 2, 1952, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
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< Section 40. Penalty for aggravated murder. Notwithstanding sections 15 and 16 of this Article, the penalty for aggravated murder as defined by law shall be death upon unanimous affirmative jury findings as provided by law and otherwise shall be life imprisonment with minimum sentence as provided by law. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1983, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1984] 
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< Section 41. Work and training for corrections institution inmates; work programs; limitations; duties of corrections director. (1) Whereas the people of the state of Oregon find and declare that inmates who are confined in corrections institutions should work as hard as the taxpayers who provide for their upkeep; and whereas the people also find and declare that inmates confined within corrections institutions must be fully engaged in productive activity if they are to successfully re-enter society with practical skills and a viable work ethic; now, therefore, the people declare: 
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< (2) All inmates of state corrections institutions shall be actively engaged full-time in work or on-the-job training. The work or on-the-job training programs shall be established and overseen by the corrections director, who shall ensure that such programs are cost-effective and are designed to develop inmate motivation, work capabilities and cooperation. Such programs may include boot camp prison programs. Education may be provided to inmates as part of work or on-the-job training so long as each inmate is engaged at least half-time in hands-on training or work activity. 
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< (3) Each inmate shall begin full-time work or on-the-job training immediately upon admission to a corrections institution, allowing for a short time for administrative intake and processing. The specific quantity of hours per day to be spent in work or on-the-job training shall be determined by the corrections director, but the overall time spent in work or training shall be full-time. However, no inmate has a legally enforceable right to a job or to otherwise participate in work, on-the-job training or educational programs or to compensation for work or labor performed while an inmate of any state, county or city corrections facility or institution. The corrections director may reduce or exempt participation in work or training programs by those inmates deemed by corrections officials as physically or mentally disabled, or as too dangerous to society to engage in such programs. 
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< (4) There shall be sufficient work and training programs to ensure that every eligible inmate is productively involved in one or more programs. Where an inmate is drug and alcohol addicted so as to prevent the inmate from effectively participating in work or training programs, corrections officials shall provide appropriate drug or alcohol treatment. 
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< (5) The intent of the people is that taxpayer-supported institutions and programs shall be free to benefit from inmate work. Prison work programs shall be designed and carried out so as to achieve savings in government operations, so as to achieve a net profit in private sector activities or so as to benefit the community. 
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< (6) The provisions of this section are mandatory for all state corrections institutions. The provisions of this section are permissive for county or city corrections facilities. No law, ordinance or charter shall prevent or restrict a county or city governing body from implementing all or part of the provisions of this section. Compensation, if any, shall be determined and established by the governing body of the county or city which chooses to engage in prison work programs, and the governing body may choose to adopt any power or exemption allowed in this section. 
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< (7) The corrections director shall contact public and private enterprises in this state and seek proposals to use inmate work. The corrections director may: (a) install and equip plants in any state corrections institution, or any other location, for the employment or training of any of the inmates therein; or (b) purchase, acquire, install, maintain and operate materials, machinery and appliances necessary to the conduct and operation of such plants. The corrections director shall use every effort to enter into contracts or agreements with private business concerns or government agencies to accomplish the production or marketing of products or services produced or performed by inmates. The corrections director may carry out the director's powers and duties under this section by delegation to others. 
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< (8) Compensation, if any, for inmates who engage in prison work programs shall be determined and established by the corrections director. Such compensation shall not be subject to existing public or private sector minimum or prevailing wage laws, except where required to comply with federal law. Inmate compensation from enterprises entering into agreements with the state shall be exempt from unemployment compensation taxes to the extent allowed under federal law. Inmate injury or disease attributable to any inmate work shall be covered by a corrections system inmate injury fund rather than the workers compensation law. Except as otherwise required by federal law to permit transportation in interstate commerce of goods, wares or merchandise manufactured, produced or mined, wholly or in part by inmates or except as otherwise required by state law, any compensation earned through prison work programs shall only be used for the following purposes: (a) reimbursement for all or a portion of the costs of the inmate's rehabilitation, housing, health care, and living costs; (b) restitution or compensation to the victims of the particular inmate's crime; (c) restitution or compensation to the victims of crime generally through a fund designed for that purpose; (d) financial support for immediate family of the inmate outside the corrections institution; and (e) payment of fines, court costs, and applicable taxes. 
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< (9) All income generated from prison work programs shall be kept separate from general fund accounts and shall only be used for implementing, maintaining and developing prison work programs. Prison industry work programs shall be exempt from statutory competitive bid and purchase requirements. Expenditures for prison work programs shall be exempt from the legislative appropriations process to the extent the programs rely on income sources other than state taxes and fees. Where state taxes or fees are the source of capital or operating expenditures, the appropriations shall be made by the legislative assembly. The state programs shall be run in a businesslike fashion and shall be subject to regulation by the corrections director. Expenditures from income generated by state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. Agreements with private enterprise as to state prison work programs must be approved by the corrections director. The corrections director shall make all state records available for public scrutiny and the records shall be subject to audit by the Secretary of State. 
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< (10) Prison work products or services shall be available to any public agency and to any private enterprise of any state, any nation or any American Indian or Alaskan Native tribe without restriction imposed by any state or local law, ordinance or regulation as to competition with other public or private sector enterprises. The products and services of corrections work programs shall be provided on such terms as are set by the corrections director. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding for-profit prison work programs that produce goods or services offered for sale in the private sector if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce preexisting private enterprise. To the extent determined possible by the corrections director, the corrections director shall avoid establishing or expanding prison work programs if the establishment or expansion would displace or significantly reduce government or nonprofit programs that employ persons with developmental disabilities. However, the decision to establish, maintain, expand, reduce or terminate any prison work program remains in the sole discretion of the corrections director. 
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< (11) Inmate work shall be used as much as possible to help operate the corrections institutions themselves, to support other government operations and to support community charitable organizations. This work includes, but is not limited to, institutional food production; maintenance and repair of buildings, grounds, and equipment; office support services, including printing; prison clothing production and maintenance; prison medical services; training other inmates; agricultural and forestry work, especially in parks and public forest lands; and environmental clean-up projects. Every state agency shall cooperate with the corrections director in establishing inmate work programs. 
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< (12) As used throughout this section, unless the context requires otherwise: “full-time” means the equivalent of at least forty hours per seven day week, specifically including time spent by inmates as required by the Department of Corrections, while the inmate is participating in work or on-the-job training, to provide for the safety and security of the public, correctional staff and inmates; “corrections director” means the person in charge of the state corrections system. 
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< (13) This section is self-implementing and supersedes all existing inconsistent statutes. This section shall become effective April 1, 1995. If any part of this section or its application to any person or circumstance is held to be invalid for any reason, then the remaining parts or applications to any persons or circumstances shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 12, 1994, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 2, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 82, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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< Note: Added to Article I as unnumbered section by initiative petition (Measure No. 17, 1994) adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994. 
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< Note: An initiative petition (Measure No. 40, 1996) proposed adding an unnumbered section relating to crime victims' rights to Article I. That section, appearing as section 42 of Article I in previous editions of this Constitution, was declared void for not being enacted in compliance with section 1, Article XVII of this Constitution. See Armatta v. Kitzhaber , 327 Or. 250, 959 P.2d 49 (1998). 
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< Section 42. Rights of victim in criminal prosecutions and juvenile court delinquency proceedings. (1) To preserve and protect the right of crime victims to justice, to ensure crime victims a meaningful role in the criminal and juvenile justice systems, to accord crime victims due dignity and respect and to ensure that criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings are conducted to seek the truth as to the defendant's innocence or guilt, and also to ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes and in juvenile court delinquency proceedings: 
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< (a) The right to be present at and, upon specific request, to be informed in advance of any critical stage of the proceedings held in open court when the defendant will be present, and to be heard at the pretrial release hearing and the sentencing or juvenile court delinquency disposition; 
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< (b) The right, upon request, to obtain information about the conviction, sentence, imprisonment, criminal history and future release from physical custody of the criminal defendant or convicted criminal and equivalent information regarding the alleged youth offender or youth offender; 
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< (c) The right to refuse an interview, deposition or other discovery request by the criminal defendant or other person acting on behalf of the criminal defendant provided, however, that nothing in this paragraph shall restrict any other constitutional right of the defendant to discovery against the state; 
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< (d) The right to receive prompt restitution from the convicted criminal who caused the victim's loss or injury; 
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< (e) The right to have a copy of a transcript of any court proceeding in open court, if one is otherwise prepared; 
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< (f) The right to be consulted, upon request, regarding plea negotiations involving any violent felony; and 
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< (g) The right to be informed of these rights as soon as practicable. 
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< (2) This section applies to all criminal and juvenile court delinquency proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
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< (3) As used in this section: 
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< (a) “Convicted criminal” includes a youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
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< (b) “Criminal defendant” includes an alleged youth offender in juvenile court delinquency proceedings. 
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< (c) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event that no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
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< (d) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. [Created through H.J.R. 87, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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< Note: The effective date of House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, compiled as sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, Article I, is Dec. 2, 1999. 
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< Note: Sections 42, 43, 44 and 45, were added to Article I as unnumbered sections by the amendments proposed by House Joint Resolutions 87, 89, 90 and 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999. 
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< Section 43. Rights of victim and public to protection from accused person during criminal proceedings; denial of pretrial release. (1) To ensure that a fair balance is struck between the rights of crime victims and the rights of criminal defendants in the course and conduct of criminal proceedings, the following rights are hereby granted to victims in all prosecutions for crimes: 
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< (a) The right to be reasonably protected from the criminal defendant or the convicted criminal throughout the criminal justice process and from the alleged youth offender or youth offender throughout the juvenile delinquency proceedings. 
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< (b) The right to have decisions by the court regarding the pretrial release of a criminal defendant based upon the principle of reasonable protection of the victim and the public, as well as the likelihood that the criminal defendant will appear for trial. Murder, aggravated murder and treason shall not be bailable when the proof is evident or the presumption strong that the person is guilty. Other violent felonies shall not be bailable when a court has determined there is probable cause to believe the criminal defendant committed the crime, and the court finds, by clear and convincing evidence, that there is danger of physical injury or sexual victimization to the victim or members of the public by the criminal defendant while on release. 
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< (2) This section applies to proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section abridges any right of the criminal defendant guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, including the rights to be represented by counsel, have counsel appointed if indigent, testify, present witnesses, cross-examine witnesses or present information at the release hearing. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceeding at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. 
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< (3) As used in this section: 
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< (a) “Victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. 
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< (b) “Violent felony” means a felony in which there was actual or threatened serious physical injury to a victim or a felony sexual offense. 
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< (4) The prosecuting attorney is the party authorized to assert the rights of the victim and the public established by this section. [Created through H.J.R. 90, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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< Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
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< Section 44. Term of imprisonment imposed by court to be fully served; exceptions. (1)(a) A term of imprisonment imposed by a judge in open court may not be set aside or otherwise not carried out, except as authorized by the sentencing court or through the subsequent exercise of: 
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< (A) The power of the Governor to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons; or 
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< (B) Judicial authority to grant appellate or post-conviction relief. 
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< (b) No law shall limit a court's authority to sentence a criminal defendant consecutively for crimes against different victims. 
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< (2) This section applies to all offenses committed on or after the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section creates any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal or juvenile delinquency proceedings at any point after the case is commenced or on appeal. 
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< (3) As used in this section, “victim” means any person determined by the prosecuting attorney to have suffered direct financial, psychological or physical harm as a result of a crime and, in the case of a victim who is a minor, the legal guardian of the minor. In the event no person has been determined to be a victim of the crime, the people of Oregon, represented by the prosecuting attorney, are considered to be the victims. In no event is it intended that the criminal defendant be considered the victim. [Created through H.J.R. 94, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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< Note: See notes under section 42 of this Article. 
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< Section 45. Person convicted of certain crimes not eligible to serve as juror on grand jury or trial jury in criminal case. (1) In all grand juries and in all prosecutions for crimes tried to a jury, the jury shall be composed of persons who have not been convicted: 
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< (a) Of a felony or served a felony sentence within the 15 years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty; or 
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< (b) Of a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty or served a sentence for a misdemeanor involving violence or dishonesty within the five years immediately preceding the date the persons are required to report for jury duty. 
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< (2) This section applies to all criminal proceedings pending or commenced on or after the effective date of this section, except a criminal proceeding in which a jury has been impaneled and sworn on the effective date of this section. Nothing in this section reduces a criminal defendant's rights under the Constitution of the United States. Except as otherwise specifically provided, this section supersedes any conflicting section of this Constitution. Nothing in this section is intended to create any cause of action for compensation or damages nor may this section be used to disqualify a jury, invalidate an accusatory instrument, ruling of a court, conviction or adjudication or otherwise suspend or terminate any criminal proceeding at any point after a jury is impaneled and sworn or on appeal. [Created through H.J.R. 89, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
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> ARTICLE II SUFFRAGE AND ELECTIONS
> 
> Sec. 1. Elections free 
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> 2. Qualifications of electors 
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> 3. Rights of certain electors 
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> 4. Residence
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> 5. Soldiers, seamen and marines; residence; right to vote 
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> 7. Bribery at elections 
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> 8. Regulation of elections 
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> 9. Penalty for dueling 
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> 10. Lucrative offices; holding other offices forbidden 
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> 11. When collector or holder of public moneys ineligible to office 
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> 12. Temporary appointments to office 
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> 13. Privileges of electors 
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> 14. Time of holding elections and assuming duties of office 
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> 14a. Time of holding elections in incorporated cities and towns 
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> 15. Method of voting in legislature 
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> 16. Election by plurality; proportional representation 
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> 17. Place of voting 
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> 18. Recall; meaning of words “the legislative assembly shall provide” 
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> 19. Limits on Oregon Terms 
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> 20. Limits on Congressional Terms 
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> 21. Severability; Standing 
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> 22. Political campaign contribution limitations 
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> 23. Approval by more than majority required for certain measures submitted to people 
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> 24. Disclosure of Large Contributions 
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> 25. Disclosure of Contributions During Petition Signature Gathering 
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> 26. Licensure of Businesses that Hire Paid Signature Gatherers 
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> 27. Individuals' Right to Participate 
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> 28. Disclosures of Paid Political Advertising 
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> 29. Disclosure of Contribution and Expenditure Reports 
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> 30. Protecting Petitioning Process 
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> 31. Penalties
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> 32. Administrative
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> 
> 
> Section 1. Elections free. All elections shall be free and equal.— 
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> 
> 
> Section 2. Qualifications of electors. (1) Every citizen of the United States is entitled to vote in all elections not otherwise provided for by this Constitution if such citizen: 
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> (a) Is 18 years of age or older; 
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> 
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> (b) Has resided in this state during the six months immediately preceding the election, except that provision may be made by law to permit a person who has resided in this state less than 30 days immediately preceding the election, but who is otherwise qualified under this subsection, to vote in the election for candidates for nomination or election for President or Vice President of the United States or elector of President and Vice President of the United States; and 
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> (c) Is registered not less than 20 calendar days immediately preceding any election in the manner provided by law. 
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> (2) Except as otherwise provided in section 6, Article VIII of this Constitution with respect to the qualifications of voters in all school district elections, provision may be made by law to require that persons who vote upon questions of levying special taxes or issuing public bonds shall be taxpayers. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed Dec. 20, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1912; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 6, 1913, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 6, 1923, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1924; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1927, and adopted by the people June 28, 1927; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1931, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 26, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 41, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed July 20, 1986, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986] 
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> Note: The leadline to section 2 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 13, 1986) and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986. 
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> 
> 
> Section 3. Rights of certain electors. A person suffering from a mental handicap is entitled to the full rights of an elector, if otherwise qualified, unless the person has been adjudicated incompetent to vote as provided by law. The privilege of an elector, upon conviction of any crime which is punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary, shall be forfeited, unless otherwise provided by law. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 9, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 26, 1979, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1980] 
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> 
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> Section 4. Residence. For the purpose of voting, no person shall be deemed to have gained, or lost a residence, by reason of his presence, or absence while employed in the service of the United States, or of this State; nor while engaged in the navigation of the waters of this State, or of the United States, or of the high seas; nor while a student of any Seminary of Learning; nor while kept at any alms house, or other assylum (sic), at public expence (sic); nor while confined in any public prison.— 
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> 
> 
> Section 5. Soldiers, seamen and marines; residence; right to vote. No soldier, seaman, or marine in the Army, or Navy of the United States, or of their allies, shall be deemed to have acquired a residence in the state, in consequence of having been stationed within the same; nor shall any such soldier, seaman, or marine have the right to vote.— 
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> Section 6. Negroes, Chinamen and mulattoes. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 4, 1927, and adopted by the people June 28, 1927] 
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> Section 7. Bribery at elections. Every person shall be disqualified from holding office, during the term for which he may have been elected, who shall have given, or offered a bribe, threat, or reward to procure his election.— 
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> Section 8. Regulation of elections. The Legislative Assembly shall enact laws to support the privilege of free suffrage, prescribing the manner of regulating, and conducting elections, and prohibiting under adequate penalties, all undue influence therein, from power, bribery, tumult, and other improper conduct.— 
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> 
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> Section 9. Penalty for dueling. Every person who shall give, or accept a challenge to fight a duel, or who shall knowingly carry to another person such challenge, or who shall agree to go out of the State to fight a duel, shall be ineligible to any office of trust, or profit.— 
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> Section 10. Lucrative offices; holding other offices forbidden. No person holding a lucrative office, or appointment under the United States, or under this State, shall be eligible to a seat in the Legislative Assembly; nor shall any person hold more than one lucrative office at the same time, except as in this Constition (sic) expressly permitted; Provided, that Officers in the Militia, to which there is attached no annual salary, and the Office of Post Master, where the compensation does not exceed One Hundred Dollars per annum, shall not be deemed lucrative.— 
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> Section 11. When collector or holder of public moneys ineligible to office. No person who may hereafter be a collector, or holder of public moneys, shall be eligible to any office of trust or profit, until he shall have accounted for, and paid over according to law, all sums for which he may be liable.— 
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> Section 12. Temporary appointments to office. In all cases, in which it is provided that an office shall not be filled by the same person, more than a certain number of years continuously, an appointment pro tempore shall not be reckoned a part of that term.— 
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> Section 13. Privileges of electors. In all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, electors shall be free from arrest in going to elections, during their attendance there, and in returning from the same; and no elector shall be obliged to do duty in the Militia on any day of election, except in time of war, or public danger.— 
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> 
> Section 14. Time of holding elections and assuming duties of office. The regular general biennial election in Oregon for the year A. D. 1910 and thereafter shall be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. All officers except the Governor, elected for a six year term in 1904 or for a four year term in 1906 or for a two year term in 1908 shall continue to hold their respective offices until the first Monday in January, 1911; and all officers, except the Governor elected at any regular general biennial election after the adoption of this amendment shall assume the duties of their respective offices on the first Monday in January following such election. All laws pertaining to the nomination of candidates, registration of voters and all other things incident to the holding of the regular biennial election shall be enforced and be effected the same number of days before the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November that they have heretofore been before the first Monday in June biennially, except as may hereafter be provided by law. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1907, and adopted by the people June 1, 1908] 
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> 
> 
> Section 14a. Time of holding elections in incorporated cities and towns. Incorporated cities and towns shall hold their nominating and regular elections for their several elective officers at the same time that the primary and general biennial elections for State and county officers are held, and the election precincts and officers shall be the same for all elections held at the same time. All provisions of the charters and ordinances of incorporated cities and towns pertaining to the holding of elections shall continue in full force and effect except so far as they relate to the time of holding such elections. Every officer who, at the time of the adoption of this amendment, is the duly qualified incumbent of an elective office of an incorporated city or town shall hold his office for the term for which he was elected and until his successor is elected and qualified. The Legislature, and cities and towns, shall enact such supplementary legislation as may be necessary to carry the provisions of this amendment into effect. [Created through H.J.R. 22, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15. Method of voting in legislature. In all elections by the Legislative Assembly, or by either branch thereof, votes shall be given openly or viva voce, and not by ballot, forever; and in all elections by the people, votes shall be given openly, or viva voce, until the Legislative Assembly shall otherwise direct.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 16. Election by plurality; proportional representation. In all elections authorized by this constitution until otherwise provided by law, the person or persons receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected, but provision may be made by law for elections by equal proportional representation of all the voters for every office which is filled by the election of two or more persons whose official duties, rights and powers are equal and concurrent. Every qualified elector resident in his precinct and registered as may be required by law, may vote for one person under the title for each office. Provision may be made by law for the voter's direct or indirect expression of his first, second or additional choices among the candidates for any office. For an office which is filled by the election of one person it may be required by law that the person elected shall be the final choice of a majority of the electors voting for candidates for that office. These principles may be applied by law to nominations by political parties and organizations. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1908, and adopted by the people June 1, 1908] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 17. Place of voting. All qualified electors shall vote in the election precinct in the County where they may reside, for County Officers, and in any County in the State for State Officers, or in any County of a Congressional District in which such electors may reside, for Members of Congress.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 18. Recall; meaning of words “the legislative assembly shall provide.” (1) Every public officer in Oregon is subject, as herein provided, to recall by the electors of the state or of the electoral district from which the public officer is elected. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Fifteen per cent, but not more, of the number of electors who voted for Governor in the officer's electoral district at the most recent election at which a candidate for Governor was elected to a full term, may be required to file their petition demanding the officer's recall by the people. 
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> 
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> (3) They shall set forth in the petition the reasons for the demand. 
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> 
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> (4) If the public officer offers to resign, the resignation shall be accepted and take effect on the day it is offered, and the vacancy shall be filled as may be provided by law. If the public officer does not resign within five days after the petition is filed, a special election shall be ordered to be held within 35 days in the electoral district to determine whether the people will recall the officer. 
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> 
> 
> (5) On the ballot at the election shall be printed in not more than 200 words the reasons for demanding the recall of the officer as set forth in the recall petition, and, in not more than 200 words, the officer's justification of the officer's course in office. The officer shall continue to perform the duties of office until the result of the special election is officially declared. If an officer is recalled from any public office the vacancy shall be filled immediately in the manner provided by law for filling a vacancy in that office arising from any other cause. 
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> 
> 
> (6) The recall petition shall be filed with the officer with whom a petition for nomination to such office should be filed, and the same officer shall order the special election when it is required. No such petition shall be circulated against any officer until the officer has actually held the office six months, save and except that it may be filed against a senator or representative in the legislative assembly at any time after five days from the beginning of the first session after the election of the senator or representative. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) After one such petition and special election, no further recall petition shall be filed against the same officer during the term for which the officer was elected unless such further petitioners first pay into the public treasury which has paid such special election expenses, the whole amount of its expenses for the preceding special election. 
> 
> 
> 
> (8) Such additional legislation as may aid the operation of this section shall be provided by the legislative assembly, including provision for payment by the public treasury of the reasonable special election campaign expenses of such officer. But the words, “the legislative assembly shall provide,” or any similar or equivalent words in this constitution or any amendment thereto, shall not be construed to grant to the legislative assembly any exclusive power of lawmaking nor in any way to limit the initiative and referendum powers reserved by the people. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1908, and adopted by the people June 1, 1908; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 16, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1983, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1984] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The word “Recall” constituted the leadline to section 18 and was a part of the measure submitted to the people by S.J.R. 16, 1925. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 19. Limits on Oregon Terms. To promote varied representation, to broaden the opportunities for public service, and to make the electoral process fairer by reducing the power of incumbency, terms in Oregon elected offices are limited as follows: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) No person shall serve more than six years in the Oregon House of Representatives, eight years in the Oregon Senate, and twelve years in the Oregon Legislative Assembly in his or her lifetime. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) No person shall serve more than eight years in each Oregon statewide office in his or her lifetime. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Only terms of service beginning after this Act [sections 19 to 21 of this Article] goes into effect [December 3, 1992] shall count towards the limits of this Section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) When a person is appointed or elected to fill a vacancy in office, then such service shall be counted as one term for the purposes of this Section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) A person shall not appear on the ballot as a candidate for elected office or be appointed to fill a vacancy in office if serving a full term in such office would cause them to violate the limits in this Section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) This Section does not apply to judicial offices. [Created through initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 19 was a part of the measure proposed by initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 20. Limits on Congressional Terms. To promote varied representation, to broaden the opportunities for public service, and to make the electoral process fairer by reducing the power of incumbency, terms in the United States Congress representing Oregon are limited as follows: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) No person shall represent Oregon for more than six years in the U.S. House of Representatives and twelve years in the U.S. Senate in his or her lifetime. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Only terms of service beginning after this Act [sections 19 to 21 of this Article] goes into effect [December 3, 1992] shall count towards the limits of this Section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) When a person is appointed or elected to fill a vacancy in office, then such service shall be counted as one term for the purposes of this Section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) A person shall not appear on the ballot as a candidate for elected office or be appointed to fill a vacancy in office if serving a full term in such office would cause them to violate the limits in this section. [Created through initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 20 was a part of the measure proposed by initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 21. Severability; Standing. (1) If any part of this Act [sections 19 to 21 of this Article] is held to be invalid for any reason, then the remaining parts shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. If any part of this Act is held to be invalid, it is the expressed intent of the People of Oregon that their elected officials should respect the limits within this Act. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Any person residing in Oregon or non-profit entity doing business in Oregon has standing to bring suit to enforce this measure [sections 19 to 21 of this Article]. [Created through initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 21 was designated as Paragraphs 2 and 4 in Measure No. 3, 1992, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992. Paragraph 3 was temporary in nature. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 21 was a part of the measure proposed by initiative petition filed April 23, 1991, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1992. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 22. Political campaign contribution limitations. Section (1) For purposes of campaigning for an elected public office, a candidate may use or direct only contributions which originate from individuals who at the time of their donation were residents of the electoral district of the public office sought by the candidate, unless the contribution consists of volunteer time, information provided to the candidate, or funding provided by federal, state, or local government for purposes of campaigning for an elected public office. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section (2) Where more than ten percent (10%) of a candidate's total campaign funding is in violation of Section (1), and the candidate is subsequently elected, the elected official shall forfeit the office and shall not hold a subsequent elected public office for a period equal to twice the tenure of the office sought. Where more than ten percent (10%) of a candidate's total campaign funding is in violation of Section (1) and the candidate is not elected, the unelected candidate shall not hold a subsequent elected public office for a period equal to twice the tenure of the office sought. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section (3) A qualified donor (an individual who is a resident within the electoral district of the office sought by the candidate) shall not contribute to a candidate's campaign any restricted contributions of Section (1) received from an unqualified donor for the purpose of contributing to a candidate's campaign for elected public office. An unqualified donor (an entity which is not an individual and who is not a resident of the electoral district of the office sought by the candidate) shall not give any restricted contributions of Section (1) to a qualified donor for the purpose of contributing to a candidate's campaign for elected public office. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section (4) A violation of Section (3) shall be an unclassified felony. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 25, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Initiative petition (Measure No. 6, 1994) proposed constitutional amendment as unnumbered section. Sections (1), (2), (3) and (4) were designated SECTION 1., SECTION 2., SECTION 3. and SECTION 4., respectively, by initiative petition (Measure No. 6, 1994) adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 23. Approval by more than majority required for certain measures submitted to people. (1) Any measure that includes any proposed requirement for more than a majority of votes cast by the electorate to approve any change in law or government action shall become effective only if approved by at least the same percentage of voters specified in the proposed voting requirement. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) For the purposes of this section, “measure” includes all initiatives and all measures referred to the voters by the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) The requirements of this section apply to all measures presented to the voters at the November 3, 1998 election and thereafter. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The purpose of this section is to prevent greater-than-majority voting requirements from being imposed by only a majority of the voters. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 15, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Added as unnumbered section to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by initiative petition (Measure No. 63, 1998) adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 24. Disclosure of Large Contributions. In addition to any other disclosures required by law, the recipient of aggregate political contributions of $500 or more from one contributor during any one calendar year shall disclose such contribution and any subsequent contributions from that contributor to the Secretary of State or other appropriate reporting authority within seven days of receipt. During the period two weeks prior to a primary or general election, such disclosure shall occur within two business days of its receipt. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 24 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 24 was designated as “Section 1” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 25. Disclosure of Contributions During Petition Signature Gathering. (1) The chief petitioner(s) on all petitions for a statewide initiative or referendum shall be responsible for disclosing to the Secretary of State all contributions received and expenditures made in support of the petition, including expenditures made for the purpose of collecting signatures or paying signature gatherers. The disclosure obligation imposed by this section shall commence upon the filing of the prospective petition for a statewide initiative or referendum with the Secretary of State, and shall include the amount and source of any assets on hand at the beginning of this reporting period. These disclosure reports shall be filed no less than once each month thereafter. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Before any entity receives a contribution or makes an expenditure for the purpose of influencing the collection of signatures on a proposed statewide initiative or referendum petition, that entity shall file a statement of organization with the Secretary of State, form a petition political committee, and thereafter disclose contributions and expenditures as required in subsection (1) herein. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 25 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 25 was designated as “Section 2” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 26. Licensure of Businesses that Hire Paid Signature Gatherers. (1) The Secretary of State shall provide for the licensure of any individual, business, service, firm, organization, association, labor union or club which for a fee hires or procures individuals who receive pay or anything of value to gather signatures on initiative or referendum petitions. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Secretary of State shall require all license holders to report at least once each month the names and addresses of individuals it hires or procures to gather signatures on initiative or referendum petitions, the amount of any payments made to such individuals, the name and address of individuals or entities who paid the license holder to gather signatures on initiative or referendum petitions, and any amount paid or accounts receivable to the license holder for this service. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 26 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 26 was designated as “Section 4” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 27. Individuals' Right to Participate. Individuals protected by this Constitution have a fundamental right to participate in the political process by expressing their support for a candidate or cause through payment of political funds used for political purposes by any method identified in this sub-section. Protected methods of participation include but are not limited to pledges of, payment for, collection of, or assistance in collection of political funds by check, credit card, electronic transfer, automatic payment through a financial institution, and payroll deduction by public or private employer which agrees to such deduction or if payroll deduction is available to the employer's employees for any other purpose. Such methods of participation shall not be prohibited or restricted by any law or regulation enacted after November 1, 1998. If an individual authorizes political payments through electronic transfer, automatic payment, or payroll deduction, such authorization shall be in writing. An employer may be reimbursed for the reasonable, actual and identifiable costs of the payroll deduction described in this section. This sub-section is not intended to create any new rights. Any political committee or other entity which receives political funds by any of the methods described in this sub-section shall be entitled to use such funds. A recipient of political funds described in this sub-section shall not co-mingle [sic] political with non-political funds. For purposes of this provision, it shall not be considered co-mingling [sic] if, promptly upon receipt, the recipient segregates political and non-political funds. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 27 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 27 was designated as “Section 5” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 28. Disclosures of Paid Political Advertising.(1) In addition to other requirements provided by law, no political committee or other entity shall cause any written material, photograph or broadcast supporting or opposing any candidate or measure for any election to be printed, posted, broadcast, mailed, circulated or otherwise published to the general public unless it states the name and address of the political committee or other entity authorizing or paying for the costs of the publication, including a statement that the publication was authorized by that committee or entity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Whenever a political committee or other entity makes an independent expenditure on a political communication to the general public that advocates the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate, or which uses a candidate's name or image within 60 days prior to an election, such communication shall include a statement which identifies by name and address any political committee or other entity that authorized it, and any political committee or other entity that paid for it. It shall also clearly state that the communication is not authorized by the candidate or the candidate's principal campaign committee. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 28 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 28 was designated as “Section 6” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 29. Disclosure of Contribution and Expenditure Reports. Within one business day of receipt, the Secretary of State shall disclose and make available to the public all contribution and expenditure reports. The Secretary shall establish rules allowing electronic filing of contribution and expenditure reports and the electronic dissemination of such information to the public. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 29 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 29 was designated as “Section 7” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 30. Protecting Petitioning Process. It is unlawful to offer, pay or provide money or other valuable consideration to another individual to sign or refrain from signing an initiative, referendum or recall petition, and for the other individual to accept or agree to accept money or other valuable consideration for signing or refraining to sign an initiative, referendum or recall petition. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 30 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 30 was designated as “Section 8” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 31. Penalties. In addition to any other penalties prescribed by law, the following penalties apply for violation of this Act: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) The Secretary of State may assess a penalty of up to $3,000 per occurrence or three times the amount not properly and timely disclosed, whichever is greater, against an individual or entity that fails to make the disclosures required by section 24 of this Article. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Secretary of State may assess a penalty of up to $1,000 per occurrence or three times the amount not properly and timely reported, whichever is greater, for violation of section 25 of this Article. In addition to any individual or entity responsible by law, the chief petitioner(s) and the treasurer of chief petitioner's political committee shall be jointly and severally liable for the penalty. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) The Secretary of State shall revoke the license of any licensee which fails to timely or accurately file the reports required under section 26 of this Article, or for other reasons provided by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The Secretary of State may impose a civil penalty of up to $25,000 per occurrence against any individual or entity which is not validly licensed under section 26 of this Article and which pays or attempts to pay or provide anything of value to individuals for gathering signatures on initiative or referendum petitions. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The exclusive penalty for co-mingling [sic] political and non-political funds shall be a requirement that the recipient return all of the co-mingled [sic] political funds to the contributor(s). 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) The Legislative Assembly shall enact penalties for violation of section 30 of this Article. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 31 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 31 was designated as “Section 9” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: “This Act” in section 31 refers to Measure No. 62, 1998, which created subsection (6) of section 1 and sections 1b and 1c of Article IV and sections 24 to 32 of Article II. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: References to sections 24, 25, 26 and 30 of this Article in section 31 were references to Section 1 of this Act, Section 2 of this Act, Section 4 of this Act and Section 8 of this Act, respectively, in Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 32. Administrative. If any phrase, clause, section, part or application of this Article is declared unconstitutional or otherwise unenforceable by a court of competent jurisdiction, the remaining phrases, clauses, sections, parts and applications shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 32 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 32 was designated as “Section 10” and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: “This Article” in section 32 refers to Measure No. 62, 1998, which created subsection (6) of section 1 and sections 1b and 1c of Article IV and sections 24 to 32 of Article II. 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_III__DISTRIBUTION_OF_POWERS|985741552
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
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> 
> 
> ARTICLE III
> 
> DISTRIBUTION OF POWERS
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Separation of powers 
> 
> 2. Budgetary control over executive and administrative officers and agencies 
> 
> 3. Joint legislative committee to allocate emergency fund appropriations and to authorize expenditures beyond budgetary limits 
> 
> 4. Senate, confirmation of executive appointments 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Separation of powers. The powers of the Government shall be divided into three seperate (sic) departments, the Legislative, the Executive, including the administrative, and the Judicial; and no person charged with official duties under one of these departments, shall exercise any of the functions of another, except as in this Constitution expressly provided.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Budgetary control over executive and administrative officers and agencies. The Legislative Assembly shall have power to establish an agency to exercise budgetary control over all executive and administrative state officers, departments, boards, commissions and agencies of the State Government. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 2 was designated as “Sec. 1” by S.J.R. 24, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Joint legislative committee to allocate emergency fund appropriations and to authorize expenditures beyond budgetary limits. (1) The Legislative Assembly is authorized to establish by law a joint committee composed of members of both houses of the Legislative Assembly, the membership to be as fixed by law, which committee may exercise, during the interim between sessions of the Legislative Assembly, such of the following powers as may be conferred upon it by law: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Where an emergency exists, to allocate to any state agency, out of any emergency fund that may be appropriated to the committee for that purpose, additional funds beyond the amount appropriated to the agency by the Legislative Assembly, or funds to carry on an activity required by law for which an appropriation was not made. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Where an emergency exists, to authorize any state agency to expend, from funds dedicated or continuously appropriated for the uses and purposes of the agency, sums in excess of the amount of the budget of the agency as approved in accordance with law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) In the case of a new activity coming into existence at such a time as to preclude the possibility of submitting a budget to the Legislative Assembly for approval, to approve, or revise and approve, a budget of the money appropriated for such new activity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Where an emergency exists, to revise or amend the budgets of state agencies to the extent of authorizing transfers between expenditure classifications within the budget of an agency. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Legislative Assembly shall prescribe by law what shall constitute an emergency for the purposes of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) As used in this section, “state agency” means any elected or appointed officer, board, commission, department, institution, branch or other agency of the state government. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The term of members of the joint committee established pursuant to this section shall run from the adjournment of one regular session to the organization of the next regular session. No member of a committee shall cease to be such member solely by reason of the expiration of his term of office as a member of the Legislative Assembly. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 3 was designated as “Sec. 2” by S.J.R. 24, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Senate confirmation of executive appointments. (1) The Legislative Assembly in the manner provided by law may require that all appointments and reappointments to state public office made by the Governor shall be subject to confirmation by the Senate. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The appointee shall not be eligible to serve until confirmed in the manner required by law and if not confirmed in that manner, shall not be eligible to serve in the public office. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) In addition to appointive offices, the provisions of this section shall apply to any state elective office when the Governor is authorized by law or this Constitution to fill any vacancy therein, except the office of judge of any court, United States Senator or Representative and a district, county or precinct office. [Created through S.J.R. 20, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1978] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_IV_LEGISLATIVE_DEPARTMENT|985741595
1c1,510
< Describe the new page here.
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> 
> 
> ARTICLE IV 
> 
> LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Legislative power; initiative and referendum 
> 
> 1b. Permitting Regulation of Payment for Signatures 
> 
> 1d. Effective date of amendment to section 1, Article IV, by S.J.R. 3, 1999 
> 
> 2. Number of Senators and Representatives 
> 
> 3. How Senators and Representatives chosen; filling vacancies; qualifications 
> 
> 4. Term of office of legislators; classification of Senators 
> 
> 6. Apportionment of Senators and Representatives 
> 
> 7. Senatorial districts; senatorial and representative subdistricts 
> 
> 8. Qualification of Senators and Representatives; effect of felony conviction 
> 
> 9. Legislators free from arrest and not subject to civil process in certain cases; words uttered in debate 
> 
> 10. Regular sessions of the Legislative Assembly 
> 
> 10a. Emergency sessions of the Legislative Assembly 
> 
> 11. Legislative officers; rules of proceedings; adjournments 
> 
> 12. Quorum; failure to effect organization 
> 
> 13. Journal; when yeas and nays to be entered 
> 
> 14. Deliberations to be open; rules to implement requirement 
> 
> 15. Punishment and expulsion of members 
> 
> 16. Punishment of nonmembers 
> 
> 17. General powers of Legislative Assembly 
> 
> 18. Where bills to originate 
> 
> 19. Reading of bills; vote on final passage 
> 
> 20. Subject and title of Act 
> 
> 21. Acts to be plainly worded 
> 
> 22. Mode of revision and amendment 
> 
> 23. Certain local and special laws prohibited 
> 
> 24. Suit against state 
> 
> 25. Majority necessary to pass bills and resolutions; special requirements for bills raising revenue; signatures of presiding officers required 
> 
> 26. Protest by member 
> 
> 27. All statutes public laws; exceptions 
> 
> 28. When Act takes effect 
> 
> 29. Compensation of members 
> 
> 30. Members not eligible to other offices 
> 
> 31. Oath of members 
> 
> 32. Income tax defined by federal law; review of tax laws required 
> 
> 33. Reduction of criminal sentences approved by initiative or referendum process 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Legislative power; initiative and referendum. (1) The legislative power of the state, except for the initiative and referendum powers reserved to the people, is vested in a Legislative Assembly, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2)(a) The people reserve to themselves the initiative power, which is to propose laws and amendments to the Constitution and enact or reject them at an election independently of the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) An initiative law may be proposed only by a petition signed by a number of qualified voters equal to six percent of the total number of votes cast for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) An initiative amendment to the Constitution may be proposed only by a petition signed by a number of qualified voters equal to eight percent of the total number of votes cast for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) An initiative petition shall include the full text of the proposed law or amendment to the Constitution. A proposed law or amendment to the Constitution shall embrace one subject only and matters properly connected therewith. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) An initiative petition shall be filed not less than four months before the election at which the proposed law or amendment to the Constitution is to be voted upon. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3)(a) The people reserve to themselves the referendum power, which is to approve or reject at an election any Act, or part thereof, of the Legislative Assembly that does not become effective earlier than 90 days after the end of the session at which the Act is passed. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) A referendum on an Act or part thereof may be ordered by a petition signed by a number of qualified voters equal to four percent of the total number of votes cast for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition. A referendum petition shall be filed not more than 90 days after the end of the session at which the Act is passed. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) A referendum on an Act may be ordered by the Legislative Assembly by law. Notwithstanding section 15b, Article V of this Constitution, bills ordering a referendum and bills on which a referendum is ordered are not subject to veto by the Governor. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4)(a) Petitions or orders for the initiative or referendum shall be filed with the Secretary of State. The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law for the manner in which the Secretary of State shall determine whether a petition contains the required number of signatures of qualified voters. The Secretary of State shall complete the verification process within the 30-day period after the last day on which the petition may be filed as provided in paragraph (e) of subsection (2) or paragraph (b) of subsection (3) of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Initiative and referendum measures shall be submitted to the people as provided in this section and by law not inconsistent therewith. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) All elections on initiative and referendum measures shall be held at the regular general elections, unless otherwise ordered by the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Notwithstanding section 1, Article XVII of this Constitution, an initiative or referendum measure becomes effective 30 days after the day on which it is enacted or approved by a majority of the votes cast thereon. A referendum ordered by petition on a part of an Act does not delay the remainder of the Act from becoming effective. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The initiative and referendum powers reserved to the people by subsections (2) and (3) of this section are further reserved to the qualified voters of each municipality and district as to all local, special and municipal legislation of every character in or for their municipality or district. The manner of exercising those powers shall be provided by general laws, but cities may provide the manner of exercising those powers as to their municipal legislation. In a city, not more than 15 percent of the qualified voters may be required to propose legislation by the initiative, and not more than 10 percent of the qualified voters may be required to order a referendum on legislation. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) Making Signature Gatherers Be Registered Oregon Voters. A person gathering signatures on an initiative or referendum petition shall be registered to vote in this state in the manner provided by law. [Created through H.J.R. 16, 1967, and adopted by the people May 28, 1968 (this section adopted in lieu of former sections 1 and 1a of this Article); Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 27, 1985, and adopted by the people May 20, 1986; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1999, and adopted by the people May 16, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Subsection (6) of section 1 was added as an unnumbered subsection to section 1 of Article IV by initiative petition (Measure No. 62, 1998) adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Subsection (6) of section 1 and sections 1b and 1c, together with leadlines therefor, were designated as “Section 3” in Measure No. 62, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Legislative authority vested in assembly; initiative and referendum; style of bills. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1901, and adopted by the people June 2, 1902; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 6, 1953, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1954; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1967, and adopted by the people May 28, 1968 (present section 1 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1a. Initiative and referendum on parts of laws and on local, special and municipal laws. [Created through initiative petition filed Feb. 3, 1906, and adopted by the people June 4, 1906; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1967, and adopted by the people May 28, 1968 (present section 1 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1b. Permitting Regulation of Payment for Signatures. The Legislative Assembly may pass laws which prohibit or regulate payment for gathering signatures for initiative or referendum petitions on a per signature basis if the Legislative Assembly finds that the practice has caused fraud or other abuses. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Subsection (6) of section 1 and sections 1b and 1c, together with leadlines therefor, were designated as “Section 3” in Measure No. 62, 1998, adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1c. Specifying Effective Date of This Constitutional Amendment. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 29, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998; Repealed Dec. 31, 2000, as specified in text of section adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1d. Effective date of amendment to section 1, Article IV, by S.J.R. 3, 1999. (1) The amendment to section 1 of this Article by Senate Joint Resolution 3 (1999) applies to any initiative or referendum petition that is filed with the Secretary of State, on or after the effective date of the amendment to section 1 of this Article by Senate Joint Resolution 3 (1999), for the purpose of determining whether the petition contains the required number of signatures of qualified voters. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This section is repealed December 31, 2002. [Created through S.J.R. 3, 1999, and adopted by the people May 16, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The effective date of Senate Joint Resolution 3, 1999, is June 15, 2000. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Number of Senators and Representatives. The Senate shall consist of sixteen, and the House of Representatives of thirty four members, which number shall not be increased until the year Eighteen Hundred and Sixty, after which time the Legislative Assembly may increase the number of Senators and Representatives, always keeping as near as may be the same ratio as to the number of Senators, and Representatives: Provided that the Senate shall never exceed thirty and the House of Representatives sixty members.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. How Senators and Representatives chosen; filling vacancies; qualifications. (1) The senators and representatives shall be chosen by the electors of the respective counties or districts or subdistricts within a county or district into which the state may from time to time be divided by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) If a vacancy in the office of senator or representative from any county or district or subdistrict shall occur, such vacancy shall be filled as may be provided by law. A person who is appointed to fill a vacancy in the office of senator or representative shall have been an inhabitant of the district the person is appointed to represent for at least one year next preceding the date of the appointment. However, for purposes of an appointment occurring during the period beginning on January 1 of the year next following the operative date of an apportionment under section 6 of this Article, the person must have been an inhabitant of the district for one year next preceding the date of the appointment or from January 1 of the year following the reapportionment to the date of the appointment, whichever is less. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 20, 1929, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1930; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 20, 1953, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1954; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 14, 1995, and adopted by the people May 16, 1995] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3a. Applicability of qualifications for appointment to legislative vacancy. [Section 3a was designated section 1b, which was created by S.J.R. 14, 1995, and adopted by the people May 16, 1995; Repealed Dec. 31, 1999, as specified in text of section adopted by the people May 16, 1995] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Term of office of legislators; classification of Senators. (1) The Senators shall be elected for the term of four years, and Representatives for the term of two years. The term of each Senator and Representative shall commence on the second Monday in January following his election, and shall continue for the full period of four years or two years, as the case may be, unless a different commencing day for such terms shall have been appointed by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Senators shall continue to be divided into two classes, in accordance with the division by lot provided for under the former provisions of this Constitution, so that one-half, as nearly as possible, of the number of Senators shall be elected biennially. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Any Senator or Representative whose term, under the former provisions of this section, would have expired on the first Monday in January 1961, shall continue in office until the second Monday in January 1961. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 23, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 28, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Census. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1971, and adopted by the people May 23, 1972] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Apportionment of Senators and Representatives. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed July 3, 1952, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 6, 1985, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986 (present section 6 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Apportionment of Senators and Representatives. (1) At the regular session of the Legislative Assembly next following an enumeration of the inhabitants by the United States Government, the number of Senators and Representatives shall be fixed by law and apportioned among legislative districts according to population. A senatorial district shall consist of two representative districts. Any Senator whose term continues through the next regular legislative session after the effective date of the reapportionment shall be specifically assigned to a senatorial district. The ratio of Senators and Representatives, respectively, to population shall be determined by dividing the total population of the state by the number of Senators and by the number of Representatives. A reapportionment by the Legislative Assembly shall become operative no sooner than September 1 of the year of reapportionment. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) This subsection governs judicial review and correction of a reapportionment enacted by the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Original jurisdiction is vested in the Supreme Court, upon the petition of any elector of the state filed with the Supreme Court on or before August 1 of the year in which the Legislative Assembly enacts a reapportionment, to review any reapportionment so enacted. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) If the Supreme Court determines that the reapportionment thus reviewed complies with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto, it shall dismiss the petition by written opinion on or before September 1 of the same year and the reapportionment shall become operative on September 1. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) If the Supreme Court determines that the reapportionment does not comply with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto, the reapportionment shall be void. In its written opinion, the Supreme Court shall specify with particularity wherein the reapportionment fails to comply. The opinion shall further direct the Secretary of State to draft a reapportionment of the Senators and Representatives in accordance with the provisions of subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto. The Supreme Court shall file its order with the Secretary of State on or before September 15. The Secretary of State shall conduct a hearing on the reapportionment at which the public may submit evidence, views and argument. The Secretary of State shall cause a transcription of the hearing to be prepared which, with the evidence, shall become part of the record. The Secretary of State shall file the corrected reapportionment with the Supreme Court on or before November 1 of the same year. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) On or before November 15, the Supreme Court shall review the corrected reapportionment to assure its compliance with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto and may further correct the reapportionment if the court considers correction to be necessary. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) The corrected reapportionment shall become operative upon November 15. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) This subsection governs enactment, judicial review and correction of a reapportionment if the Legislative Assembly fails to enact any reapportionment by July 1 of the year of the regular session of the Legislative Assembly next following an enumeration of the inhabitants by the United States Government. 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The Secretary of State shall make a reapportionment of the Senators and Representatives in accordance with the provisions of subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto. The Secretary of State shall conduct a hearing on the reapportionment at which the public may submit evidence, views and argument. The Secretary of State shall cause a transcription of the hearing to be prepared which, with the evidence, shall become part of the record. The reapportionment so made shall be filed with the Supreme Court by August 15 of the same year. It shall become operative on September 15. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Original jurisdiction is vested in the Supreme Court upon the petition of any elector of the state filed with the Supreme Court on or before September 15 of the same year to review any reapportionment and the record made by the Secretary of State. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) If the Supreme Court determines that the reapportionment thus reviewed complies with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto, it shall dismiss the petition by written opinion on or before October 15 of the same year and the reapportionment shall become operative on October 15. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) If the Supreme Court determines that the reapportionment does not comply with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto, the reapportionment shall be void. The Supreme Court shall return the reapportionment by November 1 to the Secretary of State accompanied by a written opinion specifying with particularity wherein the reapportionment fails to comply. The opinion shall further direct the Secretary of State to correct the reapportionment in those particulars, and in no others, and file the corrected reapportionment with the Supreme Court on or before December 1 of the same year. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) On or before December 15, the Supreme Court shall review the corrected reapportionment to assure its compliance with subsection (1) of this section and all law applicable thereto and may further correct the reapportionment if the court considers correction to be necessary. 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) The reapportionment shall become operative on December 15. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) Any reapportionment that becomes operative as provided in this section is a law of the state except for purposes of initiative and referendum. A reapportionment shall not be operative before the date on which an appeal may be taken therefrom or before the date specified in this section, whichever is later. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) Notwithstanding section 18, Article II of this Constitution, after the convening of the next regular legislative session following the reapportionment, a Senator whose term continues through that legislative session is subject to recall by the electors of the district to which the Senator is assigned and not by the electors of the district existing before the latest reapportionment. The number of signatures required on the recall petition is 15 percent of the total votes cast for all candidates for Governor at the most recent election at which a candidate for Governor was elected to a full term in the two representative districts comprising the senatorial district to which the Senator was assigned. [Created through H.J.R. 6, 1985, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986 (this section adopted in lieu of former section 6 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Senatorial districts; senatorial and representative subdistricts. A senatorial district, when more than one county shall constitute the same, shall be composed of contiguous counties, and no county shall be divided in creating such senatorial districts. Senatorial or representative districts comprising not more than one county may be divided into subdistricts from time to time by law. Subdistricts shall be composed of contiguous territory within the district; and the ratios to population of senators or representatives, as the case may be, elected from the subdistricts, shall be substantially equal within the district. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 20, 1953, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1954] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Qualification of Senators and Representatives; effect of felony conviction. (1) No person shall be a Senator or Representative who at the time of election is not a citizen of the United States; nor anyone who has not been for one year next preceding the election an inhabitant of the district from which the Senator or Representative may be chosen. However, for purposes of the general election next following the operative date of an apportionment under section 6 of this Article, the person must have been an inhabitant of the district from January 1 of the year following the reapportionment to the date of the election. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Senators and Representatives shall be at least twenty one years of age. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) No person shall be a Senator or Representative who has been convicted of a felony during: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The term of office of the person as a Senator or Representative; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The period beginning on the date of the election at which the person was elected to the office of Senator or Representative and ending on the first day of the term of office to which the person was elected. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) No person is eligible to be elected as a Senator or Representative if that person has been convicted of a felony and has not completed the sentence received for the conviction prior to the date that person would take office if elected. As used in this subsection, “sentence received for the conviction” includes a term of imprisonment, any period of probation or post-prison supervision and payment of a monetary obligation imposed as all or part of a sentence. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) Notwithstanding sections 11 and 15, Article IV of this Constitution: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The office of a Senator or Representative convicted of a felony during the term to which the Senator or Representative was elected or appointed shall become vacant on the date the Senator or Representative is convicted. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) A person elected to the office of Senator or Representative and convicted of a felony during the period beginning on the date of the election and ending on the first day of the term of office to which the person was elected shall be ineligible to take office and the office shall become vacant on the first day of the next term of office. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) Subject to subsection (4) of this section, a person who is ineligible to be a Senator or Representative under subsection (3) of this section may: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Be a Senator or Representative after the expiration of the term of office during which the person is ineligible; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Be a candidate for the office of Senator or Representative prior to the expiration of the term of office during which the person is ineligible. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) No person shall be a Senator or Representative who at all times during the term of office of the person as a Senator or Representative is not an inhabitant of the district from which the Senator or Representative may be chosen or has been appointed to represent. A person shall not lose status as an inhabitant of a district if the person is absent from the district for purposes of business of the Legislative Assembly. Following the operative date of an apportionment under section 6 of this Article, until the expiration of the term of office of the person, a person may be an inhabitant of any district. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 6, 1985, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 33, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 14, 1995, and adopted by the people May 16, 1995] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8a. Applicability of qualification for legislative office. [Created by S.J.R. 14, 1995, and adopted by the people May 16, 1995; Repealed Dec. 31, 1999, as specified in text of section adopted by the people May 16, 1995] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Legislators free from arrest and not subject to civil process in certain cases; words uttered in debate. Senators and Representatives in all cases, except for treason, felony, or breaches of the peace, shall be privileged from arrest during the session of the Legislative Assembly, and in going to and returning from the same; and shall not be subject to any civil process during the session of the Legislative Assembly, nor during the fifteen days next before the commencement thereof: Nor shall a member for words uttered in debate in either house, be questioned in any other place.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Regular sessions of the Legislative Assembly. The sessions of the Legislative Assembly shall be held biennially at the Capitol of the State commencing on the second Monday of September, in the year eighteen hundred and fifty eight, and on the same day of every second year thereafter, unless a different day shall have been appointed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10a. Emergency sessions of the Legislative Assembly. In the event of an emergency the Legislative Assembly shall be convened by the presiding officers of both Houses at the Capitol of the State at times other than required by section 10 of this Article upon the written request of the majority of the members of each House to commence within five days after receipt of the minimum requisite number of requests. [Created through H.J.R. 28, 1975, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1976] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Legislative officers; rules of proceedings; adjournments. Each house when assembled, shall choose its own officers, judge of the election, qualifications, and returns of its own members; determine its own rules of proceeding, and sit upon its own adjournments; but neither house shall without the concurrence of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which it may be sitting.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 12. Quorum; failure to effect organization. Two thirds of each house shall constitute a quorum to do business, but a smaller number may meet; adjourn from day to day, and compel the attendance of absent members. A quorum being in attendance, if either house fail to effect an organization within the first five days thereafter, the members of the house so failing shall be entitled to no compensation from the end of the said five days until an organization shall have been effected.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 13. Journal; when yeas and nays to be entered. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings.—The yeas and nays on any question, shall at the request of any two members, be entered, together with the names of the members demanding the same, on the journal; provided that on a motion to adjourn it shall require one tenth of the members present to order the yeas, and nays. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 14. Deliberations to be open; rules to implement requirement. The deliberations of each house, of committees of each house or joint committees and of committees of the whole, shall be open. Each house shall adopt rules to implement the requirement of this section and the houses jointly shall adopt rules to implement the requirements of this section in any joint activity that the two houses may undertake. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 36, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 29, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15. Punishment and expulsion of members. Either house may punish its members for disorderly behavior, and may with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member; but not a second time for the same cause.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 16. Punishment of nonmembers. Either house, during its session, may punish by imprisonment, any person, not a member, who shall have been guilty of disrespect to the house by disorderly or contemptious (sic) behavior in its presence, but such imprisonment shall not at any time, exceed twenty (sic) twenty four hours.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 17. General powers of Legislative Assembly. Each house shall have all powers necessary for a branch of the Legislative Department, of a free, and independant (sic) State.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 18. Where bills to originate. Bills may originate in either house, but may be amended, or rejected in the other; except that bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 19. Reading of bills; vote on final passage. Every bill shall be read by title only on three several days, in each house, unless in case of emergency two-thirds of the house where such bill may be pending shall, by a vote of yeas and nays, deem it expedient to dispense with this rule; provided, however, on its final passage such bill shall be read section by section unless such requirement be suspended by a vote of two-thirds of the house where such bill may be pending, and the vote on the final passage of every bill or joint resolution shall be taken by yeas and nays. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 15, 1945, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1946] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 20. Subject and title of Act. Every Act shall embrace but one subject, and matters properly connected therewith, which subject shall be expressed in the title. But if any subject shall be embraced in an Act which shall not be expressed in the title, such Act shall be void only as to so much thereof as shall not be expressed in the title. 
> 
> 
> 
> This section shall not be construed to prevent the inclusion in an amendatory Act, under a proper title, of matters otherwise germane to the same general subject, although the title or titles of the original Act or Acts may not have been sufficiently broad to have permitted such matter to have been so included in such original Act or Acts, or any of them. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 41, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 21. Acts to be plainly worded. Every act, and joint resolution shall be plainly worded, avoiding as far as practicable the use of technical terms.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 22. Mode of revision and amendment. No act shall ever be revised, or amended by mere reference to its title, but the act revised, or section amended shall be set forth, and published at full length. However, if, at any session of the Legislative Assembly, there are enacted two or more acts amending the same section, each of the acts shall be given effect to the extent that the amendments do not conflict in purpose. If the amendments conflict in purpose, the act last signed by the Governor shall control. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 28, 1975, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1976] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 23. Certain local and special laws prohibited. The Legislative Assembly, shall not pass special or local laws, in any of the following enumerated cases, that is to say:— 
> 
> 
> 
> Regulating the jurisdiction, and duties of justices of the peace, and of constables; 
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> 
> 
> For the punishment of Crimes, and Misdemeanors; 
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> 
> 
> Regulating the practice in Courts of Justice; 
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> 
> 
> Providing for changing the venue in civil, and Criminal cases; 
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> 
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> Granting divorces; 
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> 
> 
> Changing the names of persons; 
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> 
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> For laying, opening, and working on highways, and for the election, or appointment of supervisors; 
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> 
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> Vacating roads, Town plats, Streets, Alleys, and Public squares; 
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> 
> 
> Summoning and empanneling (sic) grand, and petit jurors; 
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> 
> 
> For the assessment and collection of Taxes, for State, County, Township, or road purposes; 
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> 
> 
> Providing for supporting Common schools, and for the preservation of school funds; 
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> 
> 
> In relation to interest on money; 
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> 
> 
> Providing for opening, and conducting the elections of State, County, and Township officers, and designating the places of voting; 
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> 
> 
> Providing for the sale of real estate, belonging to minors, or other persons laboring under legal disabilities, by executors, administrators, guardians, or trustees.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 24. Suit against state. Provision may be made by general law, for bringing suit against the State, as to all liabilities originating after, or existing at the time of the adoption of this Constitution; but no special act authorizeing (sic) such suit to be brought, or making compensation to any person claiming damages against the State, shall ever be passed.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 25. Majority necessary to pass bills and resolutions; special requirements for bills raising revenue; signatures of presiding officers required. (1) Except as otherwise provided in subsection (2) of this section, a majority of all the members elected to each House shall be necessary to pass every bill or Joint resolution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Three-fifths of all members elected to each House shall be necessary to pass bills for raising revenue. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) All bills, and Joint resolutions passed, shall be signed by the presiding officers of the respective houses. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 14, 1995, and adopted by the people May 21, 1996] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 26. Protest by member. Any member of either house, shall have the right to protest, and have his protest, with his reasons for dissent, entered on the journal.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 27. All statutes public laws; exceptions. Every Statute shall be a public law, unless otherwise declared in the Statute itself.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 28. When Act takes effect. No act shall take effect, until ninety days from the end of the session at which the same shall have been passed, except in case of emergency; which emergency shall be declared in the preamble, or in the body of the law. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 29. Compensation of members. The members of the Legislative Assembly shall receive for their services a salary to be established and paid in the same manner as the salaries of other elected state officers and employes. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1941, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1942; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 8, 1961, and adopted by the people May 18, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 30. Members not eligible to other offices. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he may have been elected, be eligible to any office the election to which is vested in the Legislative Assembly; nor shall be appointed to any civil office of profit which shall have been created, or the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such term; but this latter provision shall not be construed to apply to any officer elective by the people.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 31. Oath of members. The members of the Legislative Assembly shall before they enter on the duties of their respective offices, take and subscribe the following oath or affirmation;—I do solemnly swear (or affirm as the case may be) that I will support the Constitution of the United States, and the Constitution of the State of Oregon, and that I will faithfully discharge the duties of Senator (or Representative as the case may be) according to the best of my Ability, And such oath may be administered by the Govenor (sic), Secretary of State, or a judge of the Supreme Court.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 32. Income tax defined by federal law; review of tax laws required. Notwithstanding any other provision of this Constitution, the Legislative Assembly, in any law imposing a tax or taxes on, in respect to or measured by income, may define the income on, in respect to or by which such tax or taxes are imposed or measured, by reference to any provision of the laws of the United States as the same may be or become effective at any time or from time to time, and may prescribe exceptions or modifications to any such provisions. At each regular session the Legislative Assembly shall, and at any special session may, provide for a review of the Oregon laws imposing a tax upon or measured by income, but no such laws shall be amended or repealed except by a legislative Act. [Created through H.J.R. 3, 1969, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 33. Reduction of criminal sentences approved by initiative or referendum process. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 25 of this Article, a two-thirds vote of all the members elected to each house shall be necessary to pass a bill that reduces a criminal sentence approved by the people under section 1 of this Article. [Created through initiative petition filed Nov. 16, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_V_EXECUTIVE_DEPARTMENT|985741643
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> ARTICLE V EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Governor as chief executive; term of office; period of eligibility 
> 
> 2. Qualifications of Governor 
> 
> 3. Who not eligible 
> 
> 4. Election of Governor 
> 
> 5. Greatest number of votes decisive; election by legislature in case of tie 
> 
> 6. Contested elections 
> 
> 7. Term of office 
> 
> 8a. Vacancy in office of Governor 
> 
> 9. Governor as commander in chief of state military forces 
> 
> 10. Governor to see laws executed 
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> 11. Recommendations to legislature 
> 
> 12. Governor may convene legislature 
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> 13. Transaction of governmental business 
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> 14. Reprieves, commutations and pardons; remission of fines and forfeitures 
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> 15a. Single item and emergency clause veto 
> 
> 15b. Legislative enactments; approval by Governor; notice of intention to disapprove; disapproval and reconsideration by legislature; failure of Governor to return bill 
> 
> 16. Governor to Fill Vacancies by Appointment 
> 
> 17. Governor to issue writs of election to fill vacancies in legislature 
> 
> 18. Commissions
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Governor as chief executive; term of office; period of eligibility. The cheif (sic) executive power of the State, shall be vested in a Governor, who shall hold his office for the term of four years; and no person shall be eligible to such office more than Eight, in any period of twelve years.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Qualifications of Governor. No person except a citizen of the United States, shall be eligible to the Office of Governor, nor shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and who shall not have been three years next preceding his election, a resident within this State. The minimum age requirement of this section does not apply to a person who succeeds to the office of Governor under section 8a of this Article. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 52, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Who not eligible. No member of Congress, or person holding any office under the United States, or under this State, or under any other power, shall fill the Office of Governor, except as may be otherwise provided in this Constitution.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Election of Governor. The Governor shall be elected by the qualified Electors of the State at the times, and places of choosing members of the Legislative Assembly; and the returns of every Election for Governor, shall be sealed up, and transmitted to the Secretary of State; directed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, who shall open, and publish them in the presence of both houses of the Legislative Assembly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Greatest number of votes decisive; election by legislature in case of tie. The person having the highest number of votes for Governor, shall be elected; but in case two or more persons shall have an equal and the highest number of votes for Governor, the two houses of the Legislative Assembly at the next regular session thereof, shall forthwith by joint vote, proceed to elect one of the said persons Governor.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Contested elections. Contested Elections for Governor shall be determined by the Legislative Assembly in such manner as may be prescribed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Term of office. The official term of the Governor shall be four years; and shall commence at such times as may be prescribed by this constitution, or prescribed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Vacancy in office of Governor. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 10, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 8, 1945, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1946; Repeal proposed by initiative petition filed July 7, 1972, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972 (present section 8a of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8a. Vacancy in office of Governor. In case of the removal from office of the Governor, or of his death, resignation, or disability to discharge the duties of his office as prescribed by law, the Secretary of State; or if there be none, or in case of his removal from office, death, resignation, or disability to discharge the duties of his office as prescribed by law, then the State Treasurer; or if there be none, or in case of his removal from office, death, resignation, or disability to discharge the duties of his office as prescribed by law, then the President of the Senate; or if there be none, or in case of his removal from office, death, resignation, or disability to discharge the duties of his office as prescribed by law, then the Speaker of the House of Representatives, shall become Governor until the disability be removed, or a Governor be elected at the next general biennial election. The Governor elected to fill the vacancy shall hold office for the unexpired term of the outgoing Governor. The Secretary of State or the State Treasurer shall appoint a person to fill his office until the election of a Governor, at which time the office so filled by appointment shall be filled by election; or, in the event of a disability of the Governor, to be Acting Secretary of State or Acting State Treasurer until the disability be removed. The person so appointed shall not be eligible to succeed to the office of Governor by automatic succession under this section during the term of his appointment. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1972, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972 (this section adopted in lieu of former section 8 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Governor as commander in chief of state military forces. The Governor shall be commander in cheif (sic) of the military, and naval forces of this State, and may call out such forces to execute the laws, to suppress insurection (sic), or to repel invasion. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Governor to see laws executed. He shall take care that the Laws be faithfully executed.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Recommendations to legislature. He shall from time to time give to the Legislative Assembly information touching the condition of the State, and reccommend (sic) such measures as he shall judge to be expedient[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 12. Governor may convene legislature. He may on extraordinary occasions convene the Legislative Assembly by proclamation, and shall state to both houses when assembled, the purpose for which they shall have been convened.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 13. Transaction of governmental business. He shall transact all necessary business with the officers of government, and may require information in writing from the offices of the Administrative, and Military Departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 14. Reprieves, commutations and pardons; remission of fines and forfeitures. He shall have power to grant reprieves, commutations, and pardons, after conviction, for all offences (sic) except treason, subject to such regulations as may be provided by law. Upon conviction for treason he shall have power to suspend the execution of the sentence until the case shall be reported to the Legislative Assembly, at its next meeting, when the Legislative Assembly shall either grant a pardon, commute the sentence, direct the execution of the sentence, or grant a farther (sic) reprieve.— 
> 
> He shall have power to remit fines, and forfeitures, under such regulations as may be prescribed by law; and shall report to the Legislative Assembly at its next meeting each case of reprieve, commutation, or pardon granted, and the reasons for granting the same; and also the names of all persons in whose favor remission of fines, and forfeitures shall have been made, and the several amounts remitted[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15. [This section of the Constitution of 1859 was redesignated as section 15b by the amendment proposed by S.J.R. 12, 1915, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15a. Single item and emergency clause veto. The Governor shall have power to veto single items in appropriation bills, and any provision in new bills declaring an emergency, without thereby affecting any other provision of such bill. [Created through S.J.R. 12, 1915, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 13, 1921, and adopted by the people June 7, 1921] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15b. Legislative enactments; approval by Governor; notice of intention to disapprove; disapproval and reconsideration by legislature; failure of Governor to return bill. (1) Every bill which shall have passed the Legislative Assembly shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Governor; if the Governor approve, the Governor shall sign it; but if not, the Governor shall return it with written objections to that house in which it shall have originated, which house shall enter the objections at large upon the journal and proceed to reconsider it. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of the members present shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two-thirds of the members present, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the members voting for or against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) If any bill shall not be returned by the Governor within five days (Saturdays and Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to the Governor, it shall be a law without signature, unless the general adjournment shall prevent its return, in which case it shall be a law, unless the Governor within thirty days next after the adjournment (Saturdays and Sundays excepted) shall file such bill, with written objections thereto, in the office of the Secretary of State, who shall lay the same before the Legislative Assembly at its next session in like manner as if it had been returned by the Governor. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) Before filing a bill after adjournment with written objections, the Governor must announce publicly the possible intention to do so at least five days before filing the bill with written objections. However, nothing in this subsection requires the Governor to file any bill with objections because of the announcement. [Created through S.J.R. 12, 1915, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 9, 1937, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1938; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1987, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1988] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See note under section 15, Article V. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 16. Governor to Fill Vacancies by Appointment. When during a recess of the legislative assembly a vacancy occurs in any office, the appointment to which is vested in the legislative assembly, or when at any time a vacancy occurs in any other state office, or in the office of judge of any court, the governor shall fill such vacancy by appointment, which shall expire when a successor has been elected and qualified. When any vacancy occurs in any elective office of the state or of any district or county thereof, the vacancy shall be filled at the next general election, provided such vacancy occurs more than sixty-one (61) days prior to such general election. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 30, 1985, and adopted by the people May 20, 1986; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 16 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by H.J.R. 5, 1925. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 17. Governor to issue writs of election to fill vacancies in legislature. He shall issue writs of Election to fill such vacancies as may have occured (sic) in the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 18. Commissions. All commissions shall issue in the name of the State; shall be signed by the Govenor (sic), sealed with the seal of the State, and attested by the Secretary of State.— 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_VI_ADMINISTRATIVE_DEPARTMENT|985741724
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> ARTICLE VI ADMINISTRATIVE DEPARTMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Election of Secretary and Treasurer of state; terms of office; period of eligibility 
> 
> 2. Duties of Secretary of State 
> 
> 3. Seal of state 
> 
> 4. Powers and duties of Treasurer 
> 
> 5. Offices and records of executive officers 
> 
> 6. County Officers 
> 
> 7. Other officers 
> 
> 8. County officers' qualifications; location of offices of county and city officers; duties of such officers 
> 
> 9. Vacancies of county, township, precinct and city offices 
> 
> 10. County home rule under county charter 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Election of Secretary and Treasurer of state; terms of office; period of eligibility. There shall be elected by the qualified electors of the State, at the times and places of choosing Members of the Legislative Assembly, a Secretary, and Treasurer of State, who shall severally hold their offices for the term of four years; but no person shall be eligible to either of said offices more than Eight in any period of Twelve years.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Duties of Secretary of State. The Secretary of State shall keep a fair record of the official acts of the Legislative Assembly, and Executive Department of the State; and shall when required lay the same, and all matters relative thereto before either branch of the Legislative Assembly. He shall be by virtue of his office, Auditor of public Accounts, and shall perform such other duties as shall be assigned him by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Seal of state. There shall be a seal of State, kept by the Secretary of State for official purposes, which shall be called “The seal of the State of Oregon”.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Powers and duties of Treasurer. The powers, and duties of the Treasurer of State shall be such as may be prescribed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Offices and records of executive officers. The Governor, Secretary of State, and Treasurer of State shall severally keep the public records, books and papers at the seat of government in any manner relating to their respective offices. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 13, 1985, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. County Officers: There shall be elected in each county by the qualified electors thereof at the time of holding general elections, a county clerk, treasurer and sheriff who shall severally hold their offices for the term of four years. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed June 9, 1920, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1920; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1955, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1956] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 6 was a part of the measure proposed by initiative petition filed June 9, 1920, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1920. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Other officers. Such other county, township, precinct, and City officers as may be necessary, shall be elected, or appointed in such manner as may be prescribed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. County officers' qualifications; location of offices of county and city officers; duties of such officers. Every county officer shall be an elector of the county, and the county assessor, county sheriff, county coroner and county surveyor shall possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by law. All county and city officers shall keep their respective offices at such places therein, and perform such duties, as may be prescribed by law. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1955, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1956; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 42, 1971, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 22, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Vacancies in county, township, precinct and city offices. Vacancies in County, Township, precinct and City offices shall be filled in such manner as may be prescribed by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9a. County manager form of government. [Created through H.J.R. 3, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 22, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. County home rule under county charter. The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law a method whereby the legal voters of any county, by majority vote of such voters voting thereon at any legally called election, may adopt, amend, revise or repeal a county charter. A county charter may provide for the exercise by the county of authority over matters of county concern. Local improvements shall be financed only by taxes, assessments or charges imposed on benefited property, unless otherwise provided by law or charter. A county charter shall prescribe the organization of the county government and shall provide directly, or by its authority, for the number, election or appointment, qualifications, tenure, compensation, powers and duties of such officers as the county deems necessary. Such officers shall among them exercise all the powers and perform all the duties, as distributed by the county charter or by its authority, now or hereafter, by the Constitution or laws of this state, granted to or imposed upon any county officer. Except as expressly provided by general law, a county charter shall not affect the selection, tenure, compensation, powers or duties prescribed by law for judges in their judicial capacity, for justices of the peace or for district attorneys. The initiative and referendum powers reserved to the people by this Constitution hereby are further reserved to the legal voters of every county relative to the adoption, amendment, revision or repeal of a county charter and to legislation passed by counties which have adopted such a charter; and no county shall require that referendum petitions be filed less than 90 days after the provisions of the charter or the legislation proposed for referral is adopted by the county governing body. To be circulated, referendum or initiative petitions shall set forth in full the charter or legislative provisions proposed for adoption or referral. Referendum petitions shall not be required to include a ballot title to be circulated. In a county a number of signatures of qualified voters equal to but not greater than four percent of the total number of all votes cast in the county for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition shall be required for a petition to order a referendum on county legislation or a part thereof. A number of signatures equal to but not greater than six percent of the total number of votes cast in the county for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition shall be required for a petition to propose an initiative ordinance. A number of signatures equal to but not greater than eight percent of the total number of votes cast in the county for all candidates for Governor at the election at which a Governor was elected for a term of four years next preceding the filing of the petition shall be required for a petition to propose a charter amendment. [Created through H.J.R. 22, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 48, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 21, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978] 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_VII_JUDICIAL_DEPARTMENT|985741770
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> ARTICLE VII (Amended) JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Courts; election of judges; term of office; compensation 
> 
> 1a. Retirement of judges; recall to temporary active service 
> 
> 2. Amendment's effect on courts, jurisdiction and judicial system; Supreme Court's original jurisdiction 
> 
> 2a. Temporary appointment and assignment of judges 
> 
> 2b. Inferior courts may be affected in certain respects by special or local laws 
> 
> 3. Jury trial; re-examination of issues by appellate court; record on appeal to Supreme Court; affirmance notwithstanding error; determination of case by Supreme Court 
> 
> 4. Supreme Court; terms; statements of decisions of court 
> 
> 5. Juries; indictment; information; verdict in civil cases 
> 
> 6. Incompetency or malfeasance of public officer 
> 
> 7. Oath of office of Judges of Supreme Court 
> 
> 8. Removal, suspension or censure of judges 
> 
> 9. Juries of less than 12 jurors 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Courts; election of judges; term of office; compensation. The judicial power of the state shall be vested in one supreme court and in such other courts as may from time to time be created by law. The judges of the supreme and other courts shall be elected by the legal voters of the state or of their respective districts for a term of six years, and shall receive such compensation as may be provided by law, which compensation shall not be diminished during the term for which they are elected. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1a. Retirement of judges; recall to temporary active service. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 1, Article VII (Amended) of this Constitution, a judge of any court shall retire from judicial office at the end of the calendar year in which he attains the age of 75 years. The Legislative Assembly or the people may by law: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Fix a lesser age for mandatory retirement not earlier than the end of the calendar year in which the judge attains the age of 70 years; 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Provide for recalling retired judges to temporary active service on the court from which they are retired; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Authorize or require the retirement of judges for physical or mental disability or any other cause rendering judges incapable of performing their judicial duties. 
> 
> 
> 
> This section shall not affect the term to which any judge shall have been elected or appointed prior to or at the time of approval and ratification of this section. [Created through S.J.R. 3, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Amendment's effect on courts, jurisdiction and judicial system; Supreme Court's original jurisdiction. The courts, jurisdiction, and judicial system of Oregon, except so far as expressly changed by this amendment, shall remain as at present constituted until otherwise provided by law. But the supreme court may, in its own discretion, take original jurisdiction in mandamus, quo warranto and habeas corpus proceedings. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2a. Temporary appointment and assignment of judges. The Legislative Assembly or the people may by law empower the Supreme Court to: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Appoint retired judges of the Supreme Court or judges of courts inferior to the Supreme Court as temporary members of the Supreme Court. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Appoint members of the bar as judges pro tempore of courts inferior to the Supreme Court. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Assign judges of courts inferior to the Supreme Court to serve temporarily outside the district for which they were elected. 
> 
> 
> 
> A judge or member of the bar so appointed or assigned shall while serving have all the judicial powers and duties of a regularly elected judge of the court to which he is assigned or appointed. [Created through S.J.R. 30, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2b. Inferior courts may be affected in certain respects by special or local laws. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 23, Article IV of this Constitution, laws creating courts inferior to the Supreme Court or prescribing and defining the jurisdiction of such courts or the manner in which such jurisdiction may be exercised, may be made applicable: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) To all judicial districts or other subdivisions of this state; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) To designated classes of judicial districts or other subdivisions; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) To particular judicial districts or other subdivisions. [Created through S.J.R. 34, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Jury trial; re-examination of issues by appellate court; record on appeal to Supreme Court; affirmance notwithstanding error; determination of case by Supreme Court. In actions at law, where the value in controversy shall exceed $750, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of this state, unless the court can affirmatively say there is no evidence to support the verdict. Until otherwise provided by law, upon appeal of any case to the supreme court, either party may have attached to the bill of exceptions the whole testimony, the instructions of the court to the jury, and any other matter material to the decision of the appeal. If the supreme court shall be of opinion, after consideration of all the matters thus submitted, that the judgment of the court appealed from was such as should have been rendered in the case, such judgment shall be affirmed, notwithstanding any error committed during the trial; or if, in any respect, the judgment appealed from should be changed, and the supreme court shall be of opinion that it can determine what judgment should have been entered in the court below, it shall direct such judgment to be entered in the same manner and with like effect as decrees are now entered in equity cases on appeal to the supreme court. Provided, that nothing in this section shall be construed to authorize the supreme court to find the defendant in a criminal case guilty of an offense for which a greater penalty is provided than that of which the accused was convicted in the lower court. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 71, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 47, 1995, and adopted by the people May 21, 1996] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Supreme Court; terms; statements of decisions of court. The terms of the supreme court shall be appointed by law; but there shall be one term at the seat of government annually. At the close of each term the judges shall file with the secretary of state concise written statements of the decisions made at that term. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Juries; indictment; information. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 23, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974 (present section 5 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Juries; indictment; information; verdict in civil cases. (1) The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law for: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Selecting juries and qualifications of jurors; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Drawing and summoning grand jurors from the regular jury list at any time, separate from the panel of petit jurors; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Empaneling more than one grand jury in a county; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) The sitting of a grand jury during vacation as well as session of the court. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) A grand jury shall consist of seven jurors chosen by lot from the whole number of jurors in attendance at the court, five of whom must concur to find an indictment. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Except as provided in subsections (4) and (5) of this section, a person shall be charged in a circuit court with the commission of any crime punishable as a felony only on indictment by a grand jury. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) The district attorney may charge a person on an information filed in circuit court of a crime punishable as a felony if the person appears before the judge of the circuit court and knowingly waives indictment. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The district attorney may charge a person on an information filed in circuit court if, after a preliminary hearing before a magistrate, the person has been held to answer upon a showing of probable cause that a crime punishable as a felony has been committed and that the person has committed it, or if the person knowingly waives preliminary hearing. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) An information shall be substantially in the form provided by law for an indictment. The district attorney may file an amended indictment or information whenever, by ruling of the court, an indictment or information is held to be defective in form. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) In civil cases three-fourths of the jury may render a verdict. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1973, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1974 (this section adopted in lieu of former section 5 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Incompetency or malfeasance of public officer. Public officers shall not be impeached; but incompetency, corruption, malfeasance or delinquency in office may be tried in the same manner as criminal offenses, and judgment may be given of dismissal from office, and such further punishment as may have been prescribed by law. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Oath of office of Judges of Supreme Court. Every judge of the supreme court, before entering upon the duties of his office, shall take and subscribe, and transmit to the secretary of state, the following oath: 
> 
> 
> 
> “I, _________, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the constitution of the United States, and the constitution of the State of Oregon, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge the duties of a judge of the supreme court of this state, according to the best of my ability, and that I will not accept any other office, except judicial offices, during the term for which I have been elected.” [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Removal, suspension or censure of judges. (1) In the manner provided by law, and notwithstanding section 1 of this Article, a judge of any court may be removed or suspended from his judicial office by the Supreme Court, or censured by the Supreme Court, for: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Conviction in a court of this or any other state, or of the United States, of a crime punishable as a felony or a crime involving moral turpitude; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Wilful misconduct in a judicial office where such misconduct bears a demonstrable relationship to the effective performance of judicial duties; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Wilful or persistent failure to perform judicial duties; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Generally incompetent performance of judicial duties; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) Wilful violation of any rule of judicial conduct as shall be established by the Supreme Court; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) Habitual drunkenness or illegal use of narcotic or dangerous drugs. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Notwithstanding section 6 of this Article, the methods provided in this section, section 1a of this Article and in section 18, Article II of this Constitution, are the exclusive methods of the removal, suspension, or censure of a judge. [Created through S.J.R. 9, 1967, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1968; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 48, 1975, and adopted by the people May 25, 1976] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Juries of less than 12 jurors. Provision may be made by law for juries consisting of less than 12 but not less than six jurors. [Created through S.J.R. 17, 1971, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972] 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_VIII_EDUCATION_AND_SCHOOL_LANDS|985741857
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> ARTICLE VIII EDUCATION AND SCHOOL LANDS 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Superintendent of Public Instruction 
> 
> 2. Common School Fund 
> 
> 3. System of common schools 
> 
> 4. Distribution of school fund income 
> 
> 5. State Land Board; land management 
> 
> 6. Qualifications of electors at school elections 
> 
> 7. Prohibition of sale of state timber processed in Oregon 
> 
> 8. Adequate and Equitable Funding 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Superintendent of Public Instruction. The Governor shall be superintendent of public instruction, and his powers, and duties in that capacity shall be such as may be prescribed by law; but after the term of five years from the adoption of this Constitution, it shall be competent for the Legislative Assembly to provide by law for the election of a superintendent, to provide for his compensation, and prescribe his powers and duties.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Common School Fund. (1) The sources of the Common School Fund are: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The proceeds of all lands granted to this state for educational purposes, except the lands granted to aid in the establishment of institutions of higher education under the Acts of February 14, 1859 (11 Stat. 383) and July 2, 1862 (12 Stat. 503). 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) All the moneys and clear proceeds of all property which may accrue to the state by escheat. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The proceeds of all gifts, devises and bequests, made by any person to the state for common school purposes. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) The proceeds of all property granted to the state, when the purposes of such grant shall not be stated. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) The proceeds of the five hundred thousand acres of land to which this state is entitled under the Act of September 4, 1841 (5 Stat. 455). 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) The five percent of the net proceeds of the sales of public lands to which this state became entitled on her admission into the union. 
> 
> 
> 
> (g) After providing for the cost of administration and any refunds or credits authorized by law, the proceeds from any tax or excise levied on, with respect to or measured by the extraction, production, storage, use, sale, distribution or receipt of oil or natural gas and the proceeds from any tax or excise levied on the ownership of oil or natural gas. However, the rate of such taxes shall not be greater than six percent of the market value of all oil and natural gas produced or salvaged from the earth or waters of this state as and when owned or produced. This paragraph does not include proceeds from any tax or excise as described in section 3, Article IX of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) All revenues derived from the sources mentioned in subsection (1) of this section shall become a part of the Common School Fund. The State Land Board may expend moneys in the Common School Fund to carry out its powers and duties under subsection (2) of section 5 of this Article. Unexpended moneys in the Common School Fund shall be invested as the Legislative Assembly shall provide by law and shall not be subject to the limitations of section 6, Article XI of this Constitution. The State Land Board may apply, as it considers appropriate, income derived from the investment of the Common School Fund to the operating expenses of the State Land Board in exercising its powers and duties under subsection (2) of section 5 of this Article. The remainder of the income derived from the investment of the Common School Fund shall be applied to the support of primary and secondary education as prescribed by law. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1967, and adopted by the people May 28, 1968; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 6, 1979, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1980; Amendment to subsection (2) proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1987, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1988; Amendment to paragraph (b) of subsection (1) proposed by H.J.R. 3, 1989, and adopted by the people June 27, 1989] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. System of common schools. The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law for the establishment of a uniform, and general system of Common schools. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Distribution of school fund income. Provision shall be made by law for the distribution of the income of the common school fund among the several Counties of this state in proportion to the number of children resident therein between the ages, four and twenty years.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. State Land Board; land management. (1) The Governor, Secretary of State and State Treasurer shall constitute a State Land Board for the disposition and management of lands described in section 2 of this Article, and other lands owned by this state that are placed under their jurisdiction by law. Their powers and duties shall be prescribed by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The board shall manage lands under its jurisdiction with the object of obtaining the greatest benefit for the people of this state, consistent with the conservation of this resource under sound techniques of land management. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1967, and adopted by the people May 28, 1968] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Qualifications of electors at school elections. In all school district elections every citizen of the United States of the age of twenty-one years and upward who shall have resided in the school district during the six months immediately preceding such election, and who shall be duly registered prior to such election in the manner provided by law, shall be entitled to vote, provided such citizen is able to read and write the English language. [Created through initiative petition filed June 25, 1948, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1948] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 6 was a part of the measure proposed by initiative petition filed June 25, 1948, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1948. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Prohibition of sale of state timber unless timber processed in Oregon. (1) Notwithstanding subsection (2) of section 5 of this Article or any other provision of this Constitution, the State Land Board shall not authorize the sale or export of timber from lands described in section 2 of this Article unless such timber will be processed in Oregon. The limitation on sale or export in this subsection shall not apply to species, grades or quantities of timber which may be found by the State Land Board to be surplus to domestic needs. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Notwithstanding any prior agreements or other provisions of law or this Constitution, the Legislative Assembly shall not authorize the sale or export of timber from state lands other than those described in section 2 of this Article unless such timber will be processed in Oregon. The limitation on sale or export in this subsection shall not apply to species, grades or quantities of timber which may be found by the State Forester to be surplus to domestic needs. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) This section first becomes operative when federal law is enacted allowing this state to exercise such authority or when a court or the Attorney General of this state determines that such authority lawfully may be exercised. [Created through S.J.R. 8, 1989, and adopted by the people June 27, 1989] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Adequate and Equitable Funding. (1) The Legislative Assembly shall appropriate in each biennium a sum of money sufficient to ensure that the state's system of public education meets quality goals established by law, and publish a report that either demonstrates the appropriation is sufficient, or identifies the reasons for the insufficiency, its extent, and its impact on the ability of the state's system of public education to meet those goals. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Consistent with such legal obligation as it may have to maintain substantial equity in state funding, the Legislative Assembly shall establish a system of Equalization Grants to eligible districts for each year in which the voters of such districts approve local option taxes as described in Article XI, section 11 (4)(a)(B) of this Constitution. The amount of such Grants and eligibility criteria shall be determined by the Legislative Assembly. [Created through initiative petition filed Oct. 22, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Added to Article VIII as unnumbered section by initiative petition (Measure No. 1, 2000) adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 8 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by Measure No. 1, 2000. 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_IX_FINANCE|985741910
1c1,222
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> ARTICLE IX FINANCE
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Assessment and taxation; uniform rules; uniformity of operation of laws 
> 
> 1a. Poll or head tax; declaration of emergency in tax laws 
> 
> 1b. Ships exempt from taxation until 1935 
> 
> 1c. Financing redevelopment and urban renewal projects 
> 
> 2. Legislature to provide revenue to pay current state expenses and interest 
> 
> 3. Tax imposed only by law; statement of purpose 
> 
> 3a. Use of revenue from taxes on motor vehicle use and fuel; legislative review of allocation of taxes between vehicle classes 
> 
> 3b. Rate of levy on oil or natural gas; exception 
> 
> 4. Appropriation necessary for withdrawal from treasury 
> 
> 5. Publication of accounts 
> 
> 6. Deficiency of funds; tax levy to pay 
> 
> 7. Appropriation laws not to contain provisions on other subjects 
> 
> 8. Stationery for use of state 
> 
> 9. Taxation of certain benefits prohibited 
> 
> 10. Retirement plan contributions by governmental employees 
> 
> 11. Retirement plan rate of return contract guarantee prohibited 
> 
> 12. Retirement not to be increased by unused sick leave 
> 
> 13. Retirement plan restriction severability 
> 
> 14. Revenue estimate; return of excess revenue to taxpayers; legislative increase in estimate 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Assessment and taxation; uniform rules; uniformity of operation of laws. The Legislative Assembly shall, and the people through the initiative may, provide by law uniform rules of assessment and taxation. All taxes shall be levied and collected under general laws operating uniformly throughout the State. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 16, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1a. Poll or head tax; declaration of emergency in tax laws. No poll or head tax shall be levied or collected in Oregon. The Legislative Assembly shall not declare an emergency in any act regulating taxation or exemption. [Created through initiative petition filed June 23, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 10, 1911, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1912] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1b. Ships exempt from taxation until 1935. All ships and vessels of fifty tons or more capacity engaged in either passenger or freight coasting or foreign trade, whose home ports of registration are in the State of Oregon, shall be and are hereby exempted from all taxes of every kind whatsoever, excepting taxes for State purposes, until the first day of January, 1935. [Created through S.J.R. 18, 1915, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1c. Financing redevelopment and urban renewal projects. The Legislative Assembly may provide that the ad valorem taxes levied by any taxing unit, in which is located all or part of an area included in a redevelopment or urban renewal project, may be divided so that the taxes levied against any increase in the assessed value, as defined by law, of property in such area obtaining after the effective date of the ordinance or resolution approving the redevelopment or urban renewal plan for such area, shall be used to pay any indebtedness incurred for the redevelopment or urban renewal project. The legislature may enact such laws as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this section. [Created through S.J.R. 32, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Legislature to provide revenue to pay current state expenses and interest. The Legislative Assembly shall provide for raising revenue sufficiently to defray the expenses of the State for each fiscal year, and also a sufficient sum to pay the interest on the State debt, if there be any.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Laws imposing taxes; gasoline and motor vehicle taxes. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 11, 1941, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1942; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 7, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Tax imposed only by law; statement of purpose. No tax shall be levied except in accordance with law. Every law imposing a tax shall state distinctly the purpose to which the revenue shall be applied. [Created through S.J.R. 7, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980 (this section and section 3a adopted in lieu of former section 3 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3a. Use of revenue from taxes on motor vehicle use and fuel; legislative review of allocation of taxes between vehicle classes. (1) Except as provided in subsection (2) of this section, revenue from the following shall be used exclusively for the construction, reconstruction, improvement, repair, maintenance, operation and use of public highways, roads, streets and roadside rest areas in this state: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Any tax levied on, with respect to, or measured by the storage, withdrawal, use, sale, distribution, importation or receipt of motor vehicle fuel or any other product used for the propulsion of motor vehicles; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Any tax or excise levied on the ownership, operation or use of motor vehicles. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Revenues described in subsection (1) of this section: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) May also be used for the cost of administration and any refunds or credits authorized by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) May also be used for the retirement of bonds for which such revenues have been pledged. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) If from levies under paragraph (b) of subsection (1) of this section on campers, mobile homes, motor homes, travel trailers, snowmobiles, or like vehicles, may also be used for the acquisition, development, maintenance or care of parks or recreation areas. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) If from levies under paragraph (b) of subsection (1) of this section on vehicles used or held out for use for commercial purposes, may also be used for enforcement of commercial vehicle weight, size, load, conformation and equipment regulation. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Revenues described in subsection (1) of this section that are generated by taxes or excises imposed by the state shall be generated in a manner that ensures that the share of revenues paid for the use of light vehicles, including cars, and the share of revenues paid for the use of heavy vehicles, including trucks, is fair and proportionate to the costs incurred for the highway system because of each class of vehicle. The Legislative Assembly shall provide for a biennial review and, if necessary, adjustment, of revenue sources to ensure fairness and proportionality. [Created through S.J.R. 7, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980 (this section and section 3 adopted in lieu of former section 3 of this Article); Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 44, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1999] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3b. Rate of levy on oil or natural gas; exception. Any tax or excise levied on, with respect to or measured by the extraction, production, storage, use, sale, distribution or receipt of oil or natural gas, or the ownership thereof, shall not be levied at a rate that is greater than six percent of the market value of all oil and natural gas produced or salvaged from the earth or waters of this state as and when owned or produced. This section does not apply to any tax or excise the proceeds of which are dedicated as described in sections 3 and 3a of this Article. [Created through H.J.R. 6, 1979, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 3b was designated as “Section 3a” by H.J.R. 6, 1979, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1980. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Appropriation necessary for withdrawal from treasury. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in pursuance of appropriations made by law.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Publication of accounts. An accurate statement of the receipts, and expenditures of the public money shall be published with the laws of each regular session of the Legislative Assembly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Deficiency of funds; tax levy to pay. Whenever the expenses, of any fiscal year, shall exceed the income, the Legislative Assembly shall provide for levying a tax, for the ensuing fiscal year, sufficient, with other sources of income, to pay the deficiency, as well as the estimated expense of the ensuing fiscal year.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Appropriation laws not to contain provisions on other subjects. Laws making appropriations, for the salaries of public officers, and other current expenses of the State, shall contain provisions upon no other subject.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Stationery for use of state. All stationary (sic) required for the use of the State shall be furnished by the lowest responsible bidder, under such regulations as may be prescribed by law. But no State Officer, or member of the Legislative Assembly shall be interested in any bid, or contract for furnishing such stationery.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Taxation of certain benefits prohibited. Benefits payable under the federal old age and survivors insurance program or benefits under section 3(a), 4(a) or 4(f) of the federal Railroad Retirement Act of 1974, as amended, or their successors, shall not be considered income for the purposes of any tax levied by the state or by a local government in this state. Such benefits shall not be used in computing the tax liability of any person under any such tax. Nothing in this section is intended to affect any benefits to which the beneficiary would otherwise be entitled. This section applies to tax periods beginning on or after January 1, 1986. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1985, and adopted by the people May 20, 1986] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Retirement plan contributions by governmental employees. (1) Notwithstanding any existing State or Federal laws, an employee of the State of Oregon or any political subdivision of the state who is a member of a retirement system or plan established by law, charter or ordinance, or who will receive a retirement benefit from a system or plan offered by the state or a political subdivision of the state, must contribute to the system or plan an amount equal to six percent of their salary or gross wage. 
> 
> 
> 
> 2. On and after January 1, 1995, the state and political subdivisions of the state shall not thereafter contract or otherwise agree to make any payment or contribution to a retirement system or plan that would have the effect of relieving an employee, regardless of when that employee was employed, of the obligation imposed by subsection (1) of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> 3. On and after January 1, 1995, the state and political subdivisions of the state shall not thereafter contract or otherwise agree to increase any salary, benefit or other compensation payable to an employee for the purpose of offsetting or compensating an employee for the obligation imposed by subsection (1) of this section. [Created through initiative petition filed May 10, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Retirement plan rate of return contract guarantee prohibited. (1) Neither the state nor any political subdivision of the state shall contract to guarantee any rate of interest or return on the funds in a retirement system or plan established by law, charter or ordinance for the benefit of an employee of the state or a political subdivision of the state. [Created through initiative petition filed May 10, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 12. Retirement not to be increased by unused sick leave. (1) Notwithstanding any existing Federal or State law, the retirement benefits of an employee of the state or any political subdivision of the state retiring on or after January 1, 1995, shall not in any way be increased as a result of or due to unused sick leave. [Created through initiative petition filed May 10, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 13. Retirement plan restriction severability. If any part of Sections 10, 11 or 12 of this Article is held to be unconstitutional under the Federal or State Constitution, the remaining parts shall not be affected and shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed May 10, 1993, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1994] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 14. Revenue estimate; return of excess revenue to taxpayers; legislative increase in estimate. (1) As soon as is practicable after adjournment sine die of a regular session of the Legislative Assembly, the Governor shall cause an estimate to be prepared of revenues that will be received by the General Fund for the biennium beginning July 1. The estimated revenues from corporate income and excise taxes shall be separately stated from the estimated revenues from other General Fund sources. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) As soon as is practicable after the end of the biennium, the Governor shall cause actual collections of revenues received by the General Fund for that biennium to be determined. The revenues received from corporate income and excise taxes shall be determined separately from the revenues received from other General Fund sources. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) If the revenues received by the General Fund from corporate income and excise taxes during the biennium exceed the amount estimated to be received from corporate income and excise taxes for the biennium, by two percent or more, the total amount of the excess shall be returned to corporate income and excise taxpayers. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) If the revenues received from General Fund revenue sources, exclusive of those described in subsection (3) of this section, during the biennium exceed the amount estimated to be received from such sources for the biennium, by two percent or more, the total amount of the excess shall be returned to personal income taxpayers. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The Legislative Assembly may enact laws: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Establishing a tax credit, refund payment or other mechanism by which the excess revenues are returned to taxpayers, and establishing administrative procedures connected therewith. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Allowing the excess revenues to be reduced by administrative costs associated with returning the excess revenues. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Permitting a taxpayer's share of the excess revenues not to be returned to the taxpayer if the taxpayer's share is less than a de minimis amount identified by the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Permitting a taxpayer's share of excess revenues to be offset by any liability of the taxpayer for which the state is authorized to undertake collection efforts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6)(a) Prior to the close of a biennium for which an estimate described in subsection (1) of this section has been made, the Legislative Assembly, by a two-thirds majority vote of all members elected to each House, may enact legislation declaring an emergency and increasing the amount of the estimate prepared pursuant to subsection (1) of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The prohibition against declaring an emergency in an act regulating taxation or exemption in section 1a, Article IX of this Constitution, does not apply to legislation enacted pursuant to this subsection. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) This section does not apply: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) If, for a biennium or any portion of a biennium, a state tax is not imposed on or measured by the income of individuals. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) To revenues derived from any minimum tax imposed on corporations for the privilege of carrying on or doing business in this state that is imposed as a fixed amount and that is nonapportioned (except for changes of accounting periods). 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) To biennia beginning before July 1, 2001. [Created through H.J.R. 17, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_X_THE_MILITIA|985741949
1c1,33
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> ARTICLE X THE MILITIA 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State militia 
> 
> 2. Persons exempt 
> 
> 3. Officers 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State militia. The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law for the organization, maintenance and discipline of a state militia for the defense and protection of the State. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Persons exempt. Persons whose religious tenets, or conscientious scruples forbid them to bear arms shall not be compelled to do so. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Officers. The Governor, in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief of the military forces of the State, shall appoint and commission an Adjutant General. All other officers of the militia of the State shall be appointed and commissioned by the Governor upon the recommendation of the Adjutant General. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Staff officers; commissions. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Legislature to make regulations for militia. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 5, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Continuity of government in event of enemy attack. [Created through H.J.R. 9, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 24, 1975, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1976] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI_CORPORATIONS_AND_INTERNAL_IMPROVEMENTS|985742022
1c1,854
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> ARTICLE XI CORPORATIONS AND INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Prohibition of state banks 
> 
> 2. Formation of corporations; municipal charters; intoxicating liquor regulation 
> 
> 2a. Merger of adjoining municipalities; county-city consolidation 
> 
> 3. Liability of stockholders 
> 
> 4. Compensation for property taken by corporation 
> 
> 5. Restriction of municipal powers in Acts of incorporation 
> 
> 6. State not to be stockholder in company; exception of gifts for higher education purposes 
> 
> 7. Credit of State Not to Be Loaned; Limitation Upon Power of Contracting Debts 
> 
> 8. State not to assume debts of counties, towns or other corporations 
> 
> 9. Limitations on powers of county or city to assist corporations 
> 
> 10. County debt limitation 
> 
> 11. Property tax limitations on assessed value and rate of tax; exceptions 
> 
> 11b. Property tax categories; limitation on categories; exceptions 
> 
> 11c. Limits in addition to other tax limits 
> 
> 11d. Effect of section 11b on exemptions and assessments 
> 
> 11e. Severability of sections 11b, 11c and 11d 
> 
> 12. Peoples' utility districts 
> 
> 13. Interests of employes when operation of transportation system assumed by public body 
> 
> 14. Metropolitan service district charter 
> 
> 15. Funding of programs imposed upon local governments; exceptions 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Prohibition of state banks. The Legislative Assembly shall not have the power to establish, or incorporate any bank or banking company, or monied (sic) institution whatever; nor shall any bank company, or instition (sic) exist in the State, with the privilege of making, issuing, or putting in circulation, any bill, check, certificate, prommisory (sic) note, or other paper, or the paper of any bank company, or person, to circulate as money.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The semicolon appearing in the signed Constitution after the word “whatever” in section 1, was not in the original draft reported to, and adopted by the convention and is not part of the Constitution. State v. H.S. & L.A., (1880) 8 Or. 396, 401. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Formation of corporations; municipal charters; intoxicating liquor regulation. Corporations may be formed under general laws, but shall not be created by the Legislative Assembly by special laws. The Legislative Assembly shall not enact, amend or repeal any charter or act of incorporation for any municipality, city or town. The legal voters of every city and town are hereby granted power to enact and amend their municipal charter, subject to the Constitution and criminal laws of the State of Oregon, and the exclusive power to license, regulate, control, or to suppress or prohibit, the sale of intoxicating liquors therein is vested in such municipality; but such municipality shall within its limits be subject to the provisions of the local option law of the State of Oregon. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed Dec.13, 1905, and adopted by the people June 4, 1906; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed June 23, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2a. Merger of adjoining municipalities; county-city consolidation. (1) The Legislative Assembly, or the people by the Initiative, may enact a general law providing a method whereby an incorporated city or town or municipal corporation may surrender its charter and be merged into an adjoining city or town, provided a majority of the electors of each of the incorporated cities or towns or municipal corporations affected authorize the surrender or merger, as the case may be. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) In all counties having a city therein containing over 300,000 inhabitants, the county and city government thereof may be consolidated in such manner as may be provided by law with one set of officers. The consolidated county and city may be incorporated under general laws providing for incorporation for municipal purposes. The provisions of this Constitution applicable to cities, and also those applicable to counties, so far as not inconsistent or prohibited to cities, shall be applicable to such consolidated government. [Created through H.J.R. 10, 1913, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1914; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 29, 1967, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1968] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Liability of stockholders. The stockholders of all corporations and joint stock companies shall be liable for the indebtedness of said corporation to the amount of their stock subscribed and unpaid and no more, excepting that the stockholders of corporations or joint stock companies conducting the business of banking shall be individually liable equally and ratably and not one for another, for the benefit of the depositors of said bank, to the amount of their stock, at the par value thereof, in addition to the par value of such shares, unless such banking corporation shall have provided security through membership in the federal deposit insurance corporation or other instrumentality of the United States or otherwise for the benefit of the depositors of said bank equivalent in amount to such double liability of said stockholders. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 13, 1911, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1912; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 2, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Compensation for property taken by corporation. No person's property shall be taken by any corporation under authority of law, without compensation being first made, or secured in such manner as may be prescribed by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Restriction of municipal powers in Acts of incorporation. Acts of the Legislative Assembly, incorporating towns, and cities, shall restrict their powers of taxation, borrowing money, contracting debts, and loaning their credit.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. State not to be stockholder in company; exception of gifts for higher education purposes. The state shall not subscribe to, or be interested in the stock of any company, association or corporation. However, as provided by law the state may hold and dispose of stock, including stock already received, that is donated or bequeathed; and may invest, in the stock of any company, association or corporation, any funds or moneys that: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Are donated or bequeathed for higher education purposes; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Are the proceeds from the disposition of stock that is donated or bequeathed for higher education purposes, including stock already received; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Are dividends paid with respect to stock that is donated or bequeathed for higher education purposes, including stock already received. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 11, 1955, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1956; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 27, 1969, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Credit of State Not to Be Loaned; Limitation Upon Power of Contracting Debts. The Legislative Assembly shall not lend the credit of the state nor in any manner create any debt or liabilities which shall singly or in the aggregate with previous debts or liabilities exceed the sum of fifty thousand dollars, except in case of war or to repel invasion or suppress insurrection or to build and maintain permanent roads; and the Legislative Assembly shall not lend the credit of the state nor in any manner create any debts or liabilities to build and maintain permanent roads which shall singly or in the aggregate with previous debts or liabilities incurred for that purpose exceed one percent of the true cash value of all the property of the state taxed on an ad valorem basis; and every contract of indebtedness entered into or assumed by or on behalf of the state in violation of the provisions of this section shall be void and of no effect. This section does not apply to any agreement entered into pursuant to law by the state or any agency thereof for the lease of real property to the state or agency for any period not exceeding 20 years and for a public purpose. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed July 2, 1912, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1912; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 11, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 19, 1963, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1964] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadline to section 7 was a part of the measure submitted to the people by H.J.R. 11, 1920 (s.s.). 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. State not to assume debts of counties, towns or other corporations. The State shall never assume the debts of any county, town, or other corporation whatever, unless such debts, shall have been created to repel invasion, suppress insurrection, or defend the State in war.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Limitations on powers of county or city to assist corporations. No county, city, town or other municipal corporation, by vote of its citizens, or otherwise, shall become a stockholder in any joint company, corporation or association, whatever, or raise money for, or loan its credit to, or in aid of, any such company, corporation or association. Provided, that any municipal corporation designated as a port under any general or special law of the state of Oregon, may be empowered by statute to raise money and expend the same in the form of a bonus to aid in establishing water transportation lines between such port and any other domestic or foreign port or ports, and to aid in establishing water transportation lines on the interior rivers of this state, or on the rivers between Washington and Oregon, or on the rivers of Washington and Idaho reached by navigation from Oregon's rivers; any debts of a municipality to raise money created for the aforesaid purpose shall be incurred only on approval of a majority of those voting on the question, and shall not, either singly or in the aggregate, with previous debts and liabilities incurred for that purpose, exceed one per cent of the assessed valuation of all property in the municipality. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 13, 1917, and adopted by the people June 4, 1917] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. County debt limitation. No county shall create any debt or liabilities which shall singly or in the aggregate, with previous debts or liabilities, exceed the sum of $5,000; provided, however, counties may incur bonded indebtedness in excess of such $5,000 limitation to carry out purposes authorized by statute, such bonded indebtedness not to exceed limits fixed by statute. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed July 7, 1910, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1910; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed July 2, 1912, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1912; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 11, 1919, and adopted by the people June 3, 1919; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1920 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 21, 1920; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1921 (s.s.), and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1922; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 5, 1921 (s.s.), and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1922; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 3, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 18, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 19, 1925, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1926; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 21, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Tax and indebtedness limitation. [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1916, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 9, 1931, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 9, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 33, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962 (second section 11 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Tax base limitation. [Created through S.J.R. 33, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962 (this section adopted in lieu of first section 11 of this Article); Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 28, 1985, and adopted by the people May 20, 1986; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11a, 11f, 11g, 11h, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Property tax limitations on assessed value and rate of tax; exceptions. (1)(a) For the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, each unit of property in this state shall have a maximum assessed value for ad valorem property tax purposes that does not exceed the property's real market value for the tax year beginning July 1, 1995, reduced by 10 percent. 
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> 
> 
> (b) For tax years beginning after July 1, 1997, the property's maximum assessed value shall not increase by more than three percent from the previous tax year. 
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> 
> 
> (c) Notwithstanding paragraph (a) or (b) of this subsection, property shall be valued at the ratio of average maximum assessed value to average real market value of property located in the area in which the property is located that is within the same property class, if on or after July 1, 1995: 
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> 
> 
> (A) The property is new property or new improvements to property; 
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> 
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> (B) The property is partitioned or subdivided; 
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> 
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> (C) The property is rezoned and used consistently with the rezoning; 
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> 
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> (D) The property is first taken into account as omitted property; 
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> 
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> (E) The property becomes disqualified from exemption, partial exemption or special assessment; or 
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> 
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> (F) A lot line adjustment is made with respect to the property, except that the total assessed value of all property affected by a lot line adjustment shall not exceed the total maximum assessed value of the affected property under paragraph (a) or (b) of this subsection. 
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> 
> 
> (d) Property shall be valued under paragraph (c) of this subsection only for the first tax year in which the changes described in paragraph (c) of this subsection are taken into account following the effective date of this section. For each tax year thereafter, the limits described in paragraph (b) of this subsection apply. 
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> 
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> (e) The Legislative Assembly shall enact laws that establish property classes and areas sufficient to make a determination under paragraph (c) of this subsection. 
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> (f) Each property's assessed value shall not exceed the property's real market value. 
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> 
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> (g) There shall not be a reappraisal of the real market value used in the tax year beginning July 1, 1995, for purposes of determining the property's maximum assessed value under paragraph (a) of this subsection. 
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> 
> 
> (2) The maximum assessed value of property that is assessed under a partial exemption or special assessment law shall be determined by applying the percentage reduction of paragraph (a) and the limit of paragraph (b) of subsection (1) of this section, or if newly eligible for partial exemption or special assessment, using a ratio developed in a manner consistent with paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section to the property's partially exempt or specially assessed value in the manner provided by law. After disqualification from partial exemption or special assessment, any additional taxes authorized by law may be imposed, but in the aggregate may not exceed the amount that would have been imposed under this section had the property not been partially exempt or specially assessed for the years for which the additional taxes are being collected. 
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> 
> 
> (3)(a)(A) The Legislative Assembly shall enact laws to reduce the amount of ad valorem property taxes imposed by local taxing districts in this state so that the total of all ad valorem property taxes imposed in this state for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, is reduced by 17 percent from the total of all ad valorem property taxes that would have been imposed under repealed sections 11 and 11a of this Article (1995 Edition) and section 11b of this Article but not taking into account Ballot Measure 47 (1996), for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997. 
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> 
> 
> (B) The ad valorem property taxes to be reduced under subparagraph (A) of this paragraph are those taxes that would have been imposed under repealed sections 11 or 11a of this Article (1995 Edition) or section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section, other than taxes described in subsection (4), (5), (6) or (7) of this section, taxes imposed to pay bonded indebtedness described in section 11b of this Article, as modified by paragraph (d) of subsection (11) of this section, or taxes described in section 1c, Article IX of this Constitution. 
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> 
> 
> (C) It shall be the policy of this state to distribute the reductions caused by this paragraph so as to reflect: 
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> 
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> (i) The lesser of ad valorem property taxes imposed for the tax year beginning July 1, 1995, reduced by 10 percent, or ad valorem property taxes imposed for the tax year beginning July 1, 1994; 
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> 
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> (ii) Growth in new value under subparagraph (A), (B), (C), (D) or (E) of paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section, as added to the assessment and tax rolls for the tax year beginning July 1, 1996, or July 1, 1997 (or, if applicable, for the tax year beginning July 1, 1995); and 
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> 
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> (iii) Ad valorem property taxes authorized by voters to be imposed in tax years beginning on or after July 1, 1996, and imposed according to that authority for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997. 
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> (D) It shall be the policy of this state and the local taxing districts of this state to prioritize public safety and public education in responding to the reductions caused by this paragraph while minimizing the loss of decision-making control of local taxing districts. 
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> 
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> (E) If the total value for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, of additions of value described in subparagraph (A), (B), (C), (D) or (E) of paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section that are added to the assessment and tax rolls for the tax year beginning July 1, 1996, or July 1, 1997, exceeds four percent of the total assessed value of property statewide for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997 (before taking into account the additions of value described in subparagraph (A), (B), (C), (D) or (E) of paragraph (c) of subsection (1) of this section), then any ad valorem property taxes attributable to the excess above four percent shall reduce the dollar amount of the reduction described in subparagraph (A) of this paragraph. 
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> 
> 
> (b) For the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, the ad valorem property taxes that were reduced under paragraph (a) of this subsection shall be imposed on the assessed value of property in a local taxing district as provided by law, and the rate of the ad valorem property taxes imposed under this paragraph shall be the local taxing district's permanent limit on the rate of ad valorem property taxes imposed by the district for tax years beginning after July 1, 1997, except as provided in subsection (5) of this section. 
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> 
> 
> (c)(A) A local taxing district that has not previously imposed ad valorem property taxes and that seeks to impose ad valorem property taxes shall establish a limit on the rate of ad valorem property tax to be imposed by the district. The rate limit established under this subparagraph shall be approved by a majority of voters voting on the question. The rate limit approved under this subparagraph shall serve as the district's permanent rate limit under paragraph (b) of this subsection. 
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> (B) The voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section apply to an election under this paragraph. 
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> (d) If two or more local taxing districts seek to consolidate or merge, the limit on the rate of ad valorem property tax to be imposed by the consolidated or merged district shall be the rate that would produce the same tax revenue as the local taxing districts would have cumulatively produced in the year of consolidation or merger, if the consolidation or merger had not occurred. 
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> 
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> (e)(A) If a local taxing district divides, the limit on the rate of ad valorem property tax to be imposed by each local taxing district after division shall be the same as the local taxing district's rate limit under paragraph (b) of this subsection prior to division. 
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> (B) Notwithstanding subparagraph (A) of this paragraph, the limit determined under this paragraph shall not be greater than the rate that would have produced the same amount of ad valorem property tax revenue in the year of division, had the division not occurred. 
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> 
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> (f) Rates of ad valorem property tax established under this subsection may be carried to a number of decimal places provided by law and rounded as provided by law. 
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> (g) Urban renewal levies described in this subsection shall be imposed as provided in subsections (15) and (16) of this section and may not be imposed under this subsection. 
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> (h) Ad valorem property taxes described in this subsection shall be subject to the limitations described in section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> (4)(a)(A) A local taxing district other than a school district may impose a local option ad valorem property tax that exceeds the limitations imposed under this section by submitting the question of the levy to voters in the local taxing district and obtaining the approval of a majority of the voters voting on the question. 
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> 
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> (B) The Legislative Assembly may enact laws permitting a school district to impose a local option ad valorem property tax as otherwise provided under this subsection. 
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> (b) A levy imposed pursuant to legislation enacted under this subsection may be imposed for no more than five years, except that a levy for a capital project may be imposed for no more than the lesser of the expected useful life of the capital project or 10 years. 
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> (c) The voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section apply to an election held under this subsection. 
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> (5)(a) Any portion of a local taxing district levy shall not be subject to reduction and limitation under paragraphs (a) and (b) of subsection (3) of this section if that portion of the levy is used to repay: 
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> 
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> (A) Principal and interest for any bond issued before December 5, 1996, and secured by a pledge or explicit commitment of ad valorem property taxes or a covenant to levy or collect ad valorem property taxes; 
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> 
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> (B) Principal and interest for any other formal, written borrowing of moneys executed before December 5, 1996, for which ad valorem property tax revenues have been pledged or explicitly committed, or that are secured by a covenant to levy or collect ad valorem property taxes; 
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> 
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> (C) Principal and interest for any bond issued to refund an obligation described in subparagraph (A) or (B) of this paragraph; or 
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> (D) Local government pension and disability plan obligations that commit ad valorem property taxes and to ad valorem property taxes imposed to fulfill those obligations. 
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> (b)(A) A levy described in this subsection shall be imposed on assessed value as otherwise provided by law in an amount sufficient to repay the debt described in this subsection. Ad valorem property taxes may not be imposed under this subsection that repay the debt at an earlier date or on a different schedule than established in the agreement creating the debt. 
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> 
> 
> (B) A levy described in this subsection shall be subject to the limitations imposed under section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> (c)(A) As used in this subsection, “local government pension and disability plan obligations that commit ad valorem property taxes” is limited to contractual obligations for which the levy of ad valorem property taxes has been committed by a local government charter provision that was in effect on December 5, 1996, and, if in effect on December 5, 1996, as amended thereafter. 
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> (B) The rates of ad valorem property taxes described in this paragraph may be adjusted so that the maximum allowable rate is capable of raising the revenue that the levy would have been authorized to raise if applied to property valued at real market value. 
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> (C) Notwithstanding subparagraph (B) of this paragraph, ad valorem property taxes described in this paragraph shall be taken into account for purposes of the limitations in section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> 
> (D) If any proposed amendment to a charter described in subparagraph (A) of this paragraph permits the ad valorem property tax levy for local government pension and disability plan obligations to be increased, the amendment must be approved by voters in an election. The voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section apply to an election under this subparagraph. No amendment to any charter described in this paragraph may cause ad valorem property taxes to exceed the limitations of section 11b of this Article, as amended by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> 
> 
> (d) If the levy described in this subsection was a tax base or other permanent continuing levy, other than a levy imposed for the purpose described in subparagraph (D) of paragraph (a) of this subsection, prior to the effective date of this section, for the tax year following the repayment of debt described in this subsection the local taxing district's rate of ad valorem property tax established under paragraph (b) of subsection (3) of this section shall be increased to the rate that would have been in effect had the levy not been excepted from the reduction described in subsection (3) of this section. No adjustment shall be made to the rate of ad valorem property tax of local taxing districts other than the district imposing a levy under this subsection. 
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> 
> 
> (e) If this subsection would apply to a levy described in paragraph (d) of this subsection, the local taxing district imposing the levy may elect out of the provisions of this subsection. The levy of a local taxing district making the election shall be included in the reduction and ad valorem property tax rate determination described in subsection (3) of this section. 
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> 
> 
> (6)(a) The ad valorem property tax of a local taxing district, other than a city, county or school district, that is used to support a hospital facility shall not be subject to the reduction described in paragraph (a) of subsection (3) of this section. The entire ad valorem property tax imposed under this subsection for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, shall be the local taxing district's permanent limit on the rate of ad valorem property taxes imposed by the district under paragraph (b) of subsection (3) of this section. 
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> (b) Ad valorem property taxes described in this subsection shall be subject to the limitations imposed under section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> (7) Notwithstanding any other existing or former provision of this Constitution, the following are validated, ratified, approved and confirmed: 
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> 
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> (a) Any levy of ad valorem property taxes approved by a majority of voters voting on the question in an election held before December 5, 1996, if the election met the voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section and the ad valorem property taxes were first imposed for the tax year beginning July 1, 1996, or July 1, 1997. A levy described in this paragraph shall not be subject to reduction under paragraph (a) of subsection (3) of this section but shall be taken into account in determining the local taxing district's permanent rate of ad valorem property tax under paragraph (b) of subsection (3) this section. This paragraph does not apply to levies described in subsection (5) of this section or to levies to pay bonded indebtedness described in section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> 
> 
> (b) Any serial or one-year levy to replace an existing serial or one-year levy approved by a majority of the voters voting on the question at an election held after December 4, 1996, and to be first imposed for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997, if the rate or the amount of the levy approved is not greater than the rate or the amount of the levy replaced. 
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> 
> 
> (c) Any levy of ad valorem property taxes approved by a majority of voters voting on the question in an election held on or after December 5, 1996, and before the effective date of this section if the election met the voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section and the ad valorem property taxes were first imposed for the tax year beginning July 1, 1997. A levy described in this paragraph shall be treated as a local option ad valorem property tax under subsection (4) of this section. This paragraph does not apply to levies described in subsection (5) of this section or to levies to pay bonded indebtedness described in section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section. 
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> 
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> (8) An election described in subsection (3), (4), (5)(c)(D), (7)(a) or (c) or (11) of this section shall authorize the matter upon which the election is being held only if: 
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> (a) At least 50 percent of registered voters eligible to vote in the election cast a ballot; or 
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> (b) The election is a general election in an even-numbered year. 
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> (9) The Legislative Assembly shall replace, from the state's General Fund, revenue lost by the public school system because of the limitations of this section. The amount of the replacement revenue shall not be less than the total replaced in fiscal year 1997-1998. 
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> (10)(a) As used in this section: 
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> (A) “Improvements” includes new construction, reconstruction, major additions, remodeling, renovation and rehabilitation, including installation, but does not include minor construction or ongoing maintenance and repair. 
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> (B) “Ad valorem property tax” does not include taxes imposed to pay principal and interest on bonded indebtedness described in paragraph (d) of subsection (11) of this section. 
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> (b) In calculating the addition to value for new property and improvements, the amount added shall be net of the value of retired property. 
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> (11) For purposes of this section and for purposes of implementing the limits in section 11b of this Article in tax years beginning on or after July 1, 1997: 
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> (a)(A) The real market value of property shall be the amount in cash that could reasonably be expected to be paid by an informed buyer to an informed seller, each acting without compulsion in an arm's length transaction occurring as of the assessment date for the tax year, as established by law. 
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> 
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> (B) The Legislative Assembly shall enact laws to adjust the real market value of property to reflect a substantial casualty loss of value after the assessment date. 
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> (b) The $5 (public school system) and $10 (other government) limits on property taxes per $1,000 of real market value described in subsection (1) of section 11b of this Article shall be determined on the basis of property taxes imposed in each geographic area taxed by the same local taxing districts. 
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> (c)(A) All property taxes described in this section are subject to the limits described in paragraph (b) of this subsection, except for taxes described in paragraph (d) of this subsection. 
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> (B) If property taxes exceed the limitations imposed under either category of local taxing district under paragraph (b) of this subsection: 
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> (i) Any local option ad valorem property taxes imposed under this subsection shall be proportionally reduced by those local taxing districts within the category that is imposing local option ad valorem property taxes; and 
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> (ii) After local option ad valorem property taxes have been eliminated, all other ad valorem property taxes shall be proportionally reduced by those taxing districts within the category, until the limits are no longer exceeded. 
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> (C) The percentages used to make the proportional reductions under subparagraph (B) of this paragraph shall be calculated separately for each category. 
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> (d) Bonded indebtedness, the taxes of which are not subject to limitation under this section or section 11b of this Article, consists of: 
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> 
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> (A) Bonded indebtedness authorized by a provision of this Constitution; 
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> (B) Bonded indebtedness issued on or before November 6, 1990; or 
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> (C) Bonded indebtedness: 
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> 
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> (i) Incurred for capital construction or capital improvements; and 
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> (ii)(I) If issued after November 6, 1990, and approved prior to December 5, 1996, the issuance of which has been approved by a majority of voters voting on the question; or 
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> (II) If approved by voters after December 5, 1996, the issuance of which has been approved by a majority of voters voting on the question in an election that is in compliance with the voter participation requirements in subsection (8) of this section. 
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> (12) Bonded indebtedness described in subsection (11) of this section includes bonded indebtedness issued to refund bonded indebtedness described in subsection (11) of this section. 
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> (13) As used in subsection (11) of this section, with respect to bonded indebtedness issued on or after December 5, 1996, “capital construction” and “capital improvements”: 
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> (a) Include public safety and law enforcement vehicles with a projected useful life of five years or more; and 
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> 
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> (b) Do not include: 
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> (A) Maintenance and repairs, the need for which could reasonably be anticipated. 
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> (B) Supplies and equipment that are not intrinsic to the structure. 
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> (14) Ad valorem property taxes imposed to pay principal and interest on bonded indebtedness described in section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section, shall be imposed on the assessed value of the property determined under this section or, in the case of specially assessed property, as otherwise provided by law or as limited by this section, whichever is applicable. 
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> 
> 
> (15) If ad valorem property taxes are divided as provided in section 1c, Article IX of this Constitution, in order to fund a redevelopment or urban renewal project, then notwithstanding subsection (1) of this section, the ad valorem property taxes levied against the increase shall be used exclusively to pay any indebtedness incurred for the redevelopment or urban renewal project. 
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> 
> 
> (16) The Legislative Assembly shall enact laws that allow collection of ad valorem property taxes sufficient to pay, when due, indebtedness incurred to carry out urban renewal plans existing on December 5, 1996. These collections shall cease when the indebtedness is paid. Unless excepted from limitation under section 11b of this Article, as modified by subsection (11) of this section, nothing in this subsection shall be construed to remove ad valorem property taxes levied against the increase from the dollar limits in paragraph (b) of subsection (11) of this section. 
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> 
> 
> (17)(a) If, in an election on November 5, 1996, voters approved a new tax base for a local taxing district under repealed section 11 of this Article (1995 Edition) that was not to go into effect until the tax year beginning July 1, 1998, the local taxing district's permanent rate limit under subsection (3) of this section shall be recalculated for the tax year beginning on July 1, 1998, to reflect: 
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> 
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> (A) Ad valorem property taxes that would have been imposed had repealed section 11 of this Article (1995 Edition) remained in effect; and 
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> 
> 
> (B) Any other permanent continuing levies that would have been imposed under repealed section 11 of this Article (1995 Edition), as reduced by subsection (3) of this section. 
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> (b) The rate limit determined under this subsection shall be the local taxing district's permanent rate limit for tax years beginning on or after July 1, 1999. 
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> 
> 
> (18) Section 32, Article I, and section 1, Article IX of this Constitution, shall not apply to this section. 
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> 
> 
> (19)(a) The Legislative Assembly shall by statute limit the ability of local taxing districts to impose new or additional fees, taxes, assessments or other charges for the purpose of using the proceeds as alternative sources of funding to make up for ad valorem property tax revenue reductions caused by the initial implementation of this section, unless the new or additional fee, tax, assessment or other charge is approved by voters. 
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> 
> 
> (b) This subsection shall not apply to new or additional fees, taxes, assessments or other charges for a government product or service that a person: 
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> 
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> (A) May legally obtain from a source other than government; and 
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> 
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> (B) Is reasonably able to obtain from a source other than government. 
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> (c) As used in this subsection, “new or additional fees, taxes, assessments or other charges” does not include moneys received by a local taxing district as: 
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> 
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> (A) Rent or lease payments; 
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> (B) Interest, dividends, royalties or other investment earnings; 
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> (C) Fines, penalties and unitary assessments; 
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> (D) Amounts charged to and paid by another unit of government for products, services or property; or 
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> (E) Payments derived from a contract entered into by the local taxing district as a proprietary function of the local taxing district. 
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> (d) This subsection does not apply to a local taxing district that derived less than 10 percent of the local taxing district's operating revenues from ad valorem property taxes, other than ad valorem property taxes imposed to pay bonded indebtedness, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1996. 
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> (e) An election under this subsection need not comply with the voter participation requirements described in subsection (8) of this section. 
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> (20) If any provision of this section is determined to be unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, the remaining provisions shall continue in full force and effect. [Created through H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (this section adopted in lieu of former sections 11, 11a, 11f, 11g, 11h, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
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> 
> 
> Note: The effective date of House Joint Resolution 85, 1997, is June 19, 1997. 
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> 
> 
> Section 11a. School district tax levy. [Created through S.J.R. 3, 1987, and adopted by the people May 19, 1987; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11f, 11g, 11h, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
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> 
> 
> Section 11b. Property tax categories; limitation on categories; exceptions. (1) During and after the fiscal year 1991-92, taxes imposed upon any property shall be separated into two categories: One which dedicates revenues raised specifically to fund the public school system and one which dedicates revenues raised to fund government operations other than the public school system. The taxes in each category shall be limited as set forth in the table which follows and these limits shall apply whether the taxes imposed on property are calculated on the basis of the value of that property or on some other basis: 
> 
> 
> 
> MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TAXES 
> 
> For Each $1000.00 of 
> 
> Property's Real Market Value 
> 
> 
> 
> Fiscal Year School System Other than Schools 
> 
> 
> 
> 1991-1992 $15.00 $10.00
> 
> 1992-1993 $12.50 $10.00
> 
> 1993-1994 $10.00 $10.00
> 
> 1994-1995 $ 7.50 $10.00
> 
> 1995-1996 $ 5.00 $10.00
> 
> and thereafter 
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> Property tax revenues are deemed to be dedicated to funding the public school system if the revenues are to be used exclusively for educational services, including support services, provided by some unit of government, at any level from pre-kindergarten through post-graduate training. 
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> 
> 
> (2) The following definitions shall apply to this section: 
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> 
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> (a) “Real market value” is the minimum amount in cash which could reasonably be expected by an informed seller acting without compulsion, from an informed buyer acting without compulsion, in an “arms-length” transaction during the period for which the property is taxed. 
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> 
> 
> (b) A “tax” is any charge imposed by a governmental unit upon property or upon a property owner as a direct consequence of ownership of that property except incurred charges and assessments for local improvements. 
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> 
> 
> (c) “Incurred charges” include and are specifically limited to those charges by government which can be controlled or avoided by the property owner. 
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> 
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> (i) because the charges are based on the quantity of the goods or services used and the owner has direct control over the quantity; or 
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> 
> 
> (ii) because the goods or services are provided only on the specific request of the property owner; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (iii) because the goods or services are provided by the governmental unit only after the individual property owner has failed to meet routine obligations of ownership and such action is deemed necessary to enforce regulations pertaining to health or safety. 
> 
> 
> 
> Incurred charges shall not exceed the actual costs of providing the goods or services. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) A “local improvement” is a capital construction project undertaken by a governmental unit 
> 
> 
> 
> (i) which provides a special benefit only to specific properties or rectifies a problem caused by specific properties, and 
> 
> 
> 
> (ii) the costs of which are assessed against those properties in a single assessment upon the completion of the project, and 
> 
> 
> 
> (iii) for which the payment of the assessment plus appropriate interest may be spread over a period of at least ten years. 
> 
> 
> 
> The total of all assessments for a local improvement shall not exceed the actual costs incurred by the governmental unit in designing, constructing and financing the project. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) The limitations of subsection (1) of this section apply to all taxes imposed on property or property ownership except 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Taxes imposed to pay the principal and interest on bonded indebtedness authorized by a specific provision of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Taxes imposed to pay the principal and interest on bonded indebtedness incurred or to be incurred for capital construction or improvements, provided the bonds are offered as general obligations of the issuing governmental unit and provided further that either the bonds were issued not later than November 6, 1990, or the question of the issuance of the specific bonds has been approved by the electors of the issuing governmental unit. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) In the event that taxes authorized by any provision of this Constitution to be imposed upon any property should exceed the limitation imposed on either category of taxing units defined in subsection (1) of this section, then, notwithstanding any other provision of this Constitution, the taxes imposed upon such property by the taxing units in that category shall be reduced evenly by the percentage necessary to meet the limitation for that category. The percentages used to reduce the taxes imposed shall be calculated separately for each category and may vary from property to property within the same taxing unit. The limitation imposed by this section shall not affect the tax base of a taxing unit. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The Legislative Assembly shall replace from the State's general fund any revenue lost by the public school system because of the limitations of this section. The Legislative Assembly is authorized, however, to adopt laws which would limit the total of such replacement revenue plus the taxes imposed within the limitations of this section in any year to the corresponding total for the previous year plus 6 percent. This subsection applies only during fiscal years 1991-92 through 1995-96, inclusive. [Created through initiative petition filed May 8, 1990, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11c. Limits in addition to other tax limits. The limits in section 11b of this Article are in addition to any limits imposed on individual taxing units by this Constitution. [Created through initiative petition filed May 8, 1990, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11d. Effect of section 11b on exemptions and assessments. Nothing in sections 11b to 11e of this Article is intended to require or to prohibit the amendment of any current statute which partially or totally exempts certain classes of property or which prescribes special rules for assessing certain classes of property, unless such amendment is required or prohibited by the implementation of the limitations imposed by section 11b of this Article. [Created through initiative petition filed May 8, 1990, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11e. Severability of sections 11b, 11c and 11d. If any portion, clause or phrase of sections 11b to 11e of this Article is for any reason held to be invalid or unconstitutional by a court of competent jurisdiction, the remaining portions, clauses and phrases shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed May 8, 1990, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11f. School district tax levy following merger. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1989, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11a, 11g, 11h, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 11f was designated as “Section 11b” by H.J.R. 14, 1989, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11g. Tax increase limitation; exceptions. [Created through initiative petition filed Dec. 8, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11a, 11f, 11h, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11h. Voluntary contributions for support of schools or other public entities. [Created through initiative petition filed Dec. 8, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11a, 11f, 11g, 11i and 11j of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11i. Legislation to implement limitation and contribution provisions. [Created through initiative petition filed Dec. 8, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11a, 11f, 11g, 11h and 11j of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11j. Severability of sections 11g, 11h and 11i. [Created through initiative petition filed Dec. 8, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997 (present section 11 adopted in lieu of this section and sections 11, 11a, 11f, 11g, 11h and 11i of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 12. Peoples' utility districts. Peoples' Utility Districts may be created of territory, contiguous or otherwise, within one or more counties, and may consist of an incorporated municipality, or municipalities, with or without unincorporated territory, for the purpose of supplying water for domestic and municipal purposes; for the development of water power and/or electric energy; and for the distribution, disposal and sale of water, water power and electric energy. Such districts shall be managed by boards of directors, consisting of five members, who shall be residents of such districts. Such districts shall have power: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) To call and hold elections within their respective districts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) To levy taxes upon the taxable property of such districts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) To issue, sell and assume evidences of indebtedness. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) To enter into contracts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) To exercise the power of eminent domain. 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) To acquire and hold real and other property necessary or incident to the business of such districts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (g) To acquire, develop, and/or otherwise provide for a supply of water, water power and electric energy. 
> 
> 
> 
> Such districts may sell, distribute and/or otherwise dispose of water, water power and electric energy within or without the territory of such districts. 
> 
> 
> 
> The legislative assembly shall and the people may provide any legislation, that may be necessary, in addition to existing laws, to carry out the provisions of this section. [Created through initiative petition filed July 3, 1930, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1930] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 13. Interests of employes when operation of transportation system assumed by public body. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 20, Article I, section 10, Article VI, and sections 2 and 9, Article XI, of this Constitution, when any city, county, political subdivision, public agency or municipal corporation assumes responsibility for the operation of a public transportation system, the city, county, political subdivision, public agency or municipal corporation shall make fair and equitable arrangements to protect the interests of employes and retired employes affected. Such protective arrangements may include, without being limited to, such provisions as may be necessary for the preservation of rights, privileges and benefits (including continuation of pension rights and payment of benefits) under existing collective bargaining agreements, or otherwise. [Created through H.J.R. 13, 1965, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1966] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 14. Metropolitan service district charter. (1) The Legislative Assembly shall provide by law a method whereby the legal electors of any metropolitan service district organized under the laws of this state, by majority vote of such electors voting thereon at any legally called election, may adopt, amend, revise or repeal a district charter. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) A district charter shall prescribe the organization of the district government and shall provide directly, or by its authority, for the number, election or appointment, qualifications, tenure, compensation, powers and duties of such officers as the district considers necessary. Such officers shall among them exercise all the powers and perform all the duties, as granted to, imposed upon or distributed among district officers by the Constitution or laws of this state, by the district charter or by its authority. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) A district charter may provide for the exercise by ordinance of powers granted to the district by the Constitution or laws of this state. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) A metropolitan service district shall have jurisdiction over matters of metropolitan concern as set forth in the charter of the district. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) The initiative and referendum powers reserved to the people by this Constitution hereby are further reserved to the legal electors of a metropolitan service district relative to the adoption, amendment, revision or repeal of a district charter and district legislation enacted thereunder. Such powers shall be exercised in the manner provided for county measures under section 10, Article VI of this Constitution. [Created by S.J.R. 2, 1989, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15. Funding of programs imposed upon local governments; exceptions. (1) Except as provided in subsection (7) of this section, when the Legislative Assembly or any state agency requires any local government to establish a new program or provide an increased level of service for an existing program, the State of Oregon shall appropriate and allocate to the local government moneys sufficient to pay the ongoing, usual and reasonable costs of performing the mandated service or activity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) As used in this section: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) “Enterprise activity” means a program under which a local government sells products or services in competition with a nongovernment entity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) “Local government” means a city, county, municipal corporation or municipal utility operated by a board or commission. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) “Program” means a program or project imposed by enactment of the Legislative Assembly or by rule or order of a state agency under which a local government must provide administrative, financial, social, health or other specified services to persons, government agencies or to the public generally. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) “Usual and reasonable costs” means those costs incurred by the affected local governments for a specific program using generally accepted methods of service delivery and administrative practice. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) A local government is not required to comply with any state law or administrative rule or order enacted or adopted after January 1, 1997, that requires the expenditure of money by the local government for a new program or increased level of service for an existing program until the state appropriates and allocates to the local government reimbursement for any costs incurred to carry out the law, rule or order and unless the Legislative Assembly provides, by appropriation, reimbursement in each succeeding year for such costs. However, a local government may refuse to comply with a state law or administrative rule or order under this subsection only if the amount appropriated and allocated to the local government by the Legislative Assembly for a program in a fiscal year: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Is less than 95 percent of the usual and reasonable costs incurred by the local government in conducting the program at the same level of service in the preceding fiscal year; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Requires the local government to spend for the program, in addition to the amount appropriated and allocated by the Legislative Assembly, an amount that exceeds one-hundredth of one percent of the annual budget adopted by the governing body of the local government for that fiscal year. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) When a local government determines that a program is a program for which moneys are required to be appropriated and allocated under subsection (1) of this section, if the local government expended moneys to conduct the program and was not reimbursed under this section for the usual and reasonable costs of the program, the local government may submit the issue of reimbursement to nonbinding arbitration by a panel of three arbitrators. The panel shall consist of one representative from the Oregon Department of Administrative Services, the League of Oregon Cities and the Association of Oregon Counties. The panel shall determine whether the costs incurred by the local government are required to be reimbursed under this section and the amount of reimbursement. The decision of the arbitration panel is not binding upon the parties and may not be enforced by any court in this state. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) In any legal proceeding or arbitration proceeding under this section, the local government shall bear the burden of proving by a preponderance of the evidence that moneys appropriated by the Legislative Assembly are not sufficient to reimburse the local government for the usual and reasonable costs of a program. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) Except upon approval by three-fifths of the membership of each house of the Legislative Assembly, the Legislative Assembly shall not enact, amend or repeal any law if the anticipated effect of the action is to reduce the amount of state revenues derived from a specific state tax and distributed to local governments as an aggregate during the distribution period for such revenues immediately preceding January 1, 1997. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) This section shall not apply to: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Any law that is approved by three-fifths of the membership of each house of the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Any costs resulting from a law creating or changing the definition of a crime or a law establishing sentences for conviction of a crime. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) An existing program as enacted by legislation prior to January 1, 1997, except for legislation withdrawing state funds for programs required prior to January 1, 1997, unless the program is made optional. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) A new program or an increased level of program services established pursuant to action of the Federal Government so long as the program or increased level of program services imposes costs on local governments that are no greater than the usual and reasonable costs to local governments resulting from compliance with the minimum program standards required under federal law or regulations. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) Any requirement imposed by the judicial branch of government. 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) Legislation enacted or approved by electors in this state under the initiative and referendum powers reserved to the people under section 1, Article IV of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (g) Programs that are intended to inform citizens about the activities of local governments. 
> 
> 
> 
> (8) When a local government is not required under subsection (3) of this section to comply with a state law or administrative rule or order relating to an enterprise activity, if a nongovernment entity competes with the local government by selling products or services that are similar to the products and services sold under the enterprise activity, the nongovernment entity is not required to comply with the state law or administrative rule or order relating to that enterprise activity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (9) Nothing in this section shall give rise to a claim by a private person against the State of Oregon based on the establishment of a new program or an increased level of service for an existing program without sufficient appropriation and allocation of funds to pay the ongoing, usual and reasonable costs of performing the mandated service or activity. 
> 
> 
> 
> (10) Subsection (4) of this section does not apply to a local government when the local government is voluntarily providing a program four years after the effective date of the enactment, rule or order that imposed the program. 
> 
> 
> 
> (11) In lieu of appropriating and allocating funds under this section, the Legislative Assembly may identify and direct the imposition of a fee or charge to be used by a local government to recover the actual cost of the program. [Created through H.J.R. 2, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 15a. Subsequent vote for reaffirmation of section 15. [Created through H.J.R. 2, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 39, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-A_RURAL_CREDITS|985742130
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> ARTICLE XI-A RURAL CREDITS 
> 
> 
> 
> [Created through initiative petition filed July 6, 1916, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1916; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1941, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1942] 
> 
> 
> 
> ARTICLE XI-A 
> 
> FARM AND HOME LOANS TO VETERANS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to make farm and home loans to veterans; standards and priorities for loans 
> 
> 2. Bonds
> 
> 3. Eligibility to receive loans 
> 
> 4. Tax levy 
> 
> 5. Repeal of conflicting constitutional provisions 
> 
> 6. Refunding bonds 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to make farm and home loans to veterans; standards and priorities for loans. (1) Notwithstanding the limits contained in section 7, Article XI of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed eight percent of the true cash value of all the property in the state, for the purpose of creating a fund, to be known as the “Oregon War Veterans' Fund,” to be advanced for the acquisition of farms and homes for the benefit of male and female residents of the State of Oregon who served in the Armed Forces of the United States. Secured repayment thereof shall be and is a prerequisite to the advancement of money from such fund, except that moneys in the Oregon War Veterans' Fund may also be appropriated to the Director of Veterans' Affairs to be expended, without security, for the following purposes: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Aiding war veterans' organizations in connection with their programs of service to war veterans; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Training service officers appointed by the counties to give aid as provided by law to veterans and their dependents; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Aiding the counties in connection with programs of service to war veterans; 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) The duties of the Director of Veterans' Affairs as conservator of the estates of beneficiaries of the United States Veterans' Administration; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) The duties of the Director of Veterans' Affairs in providing services to war veterans, their dependents and survivors. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Director of Veterans' Affairs may establish standards and priorities with respect to the granting of loans from the Oregon War Veterans' Fund that, as determined by the director, best accomplish the purposes and promote the financial sustainability of the Oregon War Veterans' Fund, including, but not limited to, standards and priorities necessary to maintain the tax-exempt status of earnings from bonds issued under authority of this section and section 2 of this Article. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 14, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 14, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 9, 1967, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1968; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 33, 1969, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1970; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 12, 1973, and adopted by the people May 28, 1974; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 10, 1977, and adopted by the people May 17, 1977; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 53, 1977, and adopted by the people May 17, 1977; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 2, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Bonds. Bonds of the state of Oregon containing a direct promise on behalf of the state to pay the face value thereof, with the interest therein provided for, may be issued to an amount authorized by section 1 hereof for the purpose of creating said “Oregon War Veterans' Fund.” Said bonds shall be a direct obligation of the state and shall be in such form and shall run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as provided by statute. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Eligibility to receive loans. No person shall receive money from the Oregon War Veterans' Fund except the following: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) A person who: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) Resides in the State of Oregon at the time of applying for a loan from the fund; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) Served honorably in active duty, other than active duty for training, in the Armed Forces of the United States: 
> 
> 
> 
> (A) For a period of not less than 210 days or who was, prior to completion of such period of service, discharged or released from active duty on account of service-connected injury or illness; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (B) In a theater of operations for which a campaign or expeditionary ribbon or medal is authorized by the United States; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Has been honorably separated or discharged from the Armed Forces of the United States or has been furloughed to a reserve; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Makes application for a loan within the 30-year period immediately following the date on which the person was released from active duty in the Armed Forces of the United States. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2)(a) The spouse of a person who is qualified to receive a loan under subsection (1) of this section but who has either been missing in action or a prisoner of war while on active duty in the Armed Forces of the United States even though the status of missing or being a prisoner occurred prior to completion of the minimum length of service or residence set forth in subsection (1) of this section, provided the spouse resides in this state at the time of application for the loan. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The surviving spouse of a person who was qualified to receive a loan under subsection (1) of this section but who died while on active duty in the Armed Forces of the United States even though the death occurred prior to completion of the minimum length of service or residence set forth in subsection (1) of this section, provided the surviving spouse resides in this state at the time of application for the loan. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The eligibility of a surviving spouse under this subsection shall terminate on his or her remarriage. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 14, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 14, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 9, 1967, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1968; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 23, 1971, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 23, 1975, and adopted by the people May 25, 1976; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 23, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 3, 1995, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1996; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 2, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Tax levy. There shall be levied each year, at the same time and in the same manner that other taxes are levied, a tax upon all property in the state of Oregon not exempt from taxation, not to exceed two (2) mills on each dollar valuation, to provide for the payment of principal and interest of the bonds authorized to be issued by this article. The two (2) mills additional tax herein provided for hereby is specifically authorized and said tax levy hereby authorized shall be in addition to all other taxes which may be levied according to law. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Repeal of conflicting constitutional provisions. The provisions of the constitution in conflict with this amendment hereby are repealed so far as they conflict herewith. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Refunding bonds. Refunding bonds may be issued and sold to refund any bonds issued under authority of sections 1 and 2 of this article. There may be issued and outstanding at any one time bonds aggregating the amount authorized by section 1 hereof, but at no time shall the total of all bonds outstanding, including refunding bonds, exceed the amount so authorized. [Created through H.J.R. 7, 1943, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1944] 
> 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-B_STATE_PAYMENT_OF_IRRIGATION_AND_DRAINAGE_DISTRICT_INTEREST|985742161
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> ARTICLE XI-B STATE PAYMENT OF IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DISTRICT INTEREST 
> 
> [Created through H.J.R. 32, 1919, and adopted by the people June 3, 1919; Repeal proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1929, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1930] 
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Oregon/Constitution|985742192
27c27
< [[/ARTICLE XI-C WORLD WAR VETERANS' STATE AID SINKING FUND]] 
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> [[/ARTICLE XI-C WORLD WAR VETERANS STATE AID SINKING FUND]] 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-C_WORLD_WAR_VETERANS_STATE_AID_SINKING_FUND|985742220
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> ARTICLE XI-C WORLD WAR VETERANS' STATE AID SINKING FUND 
> 
> [Created through H.J.R. 12, 1921, and adopted by the people June 7, 1921; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 7, 1923, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1924; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 12, 1951, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1952] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-D_STATE_POWER_DEVELOPMENT|985742253
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> ARTICLE XI-D STATE POWER DEVELOPMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State's rights, title and interest to water and water-power sites to be held in perpetuity 
> 
> 2. State's powers enumerated 
> 
> 3. Legislation to effectuate article 
> 
> 4. Construction of article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State's rights, title and interest to water and water-power sites to be held in perpetuity. The rights, title and interest in and to all water for the development of water power and to water power sites, which the state of Oregon now owns or may hereafter acquire, shall be held by it in perpetuity. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1932, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. State's powers enumerated. The state of Oregon is authorized and empowered: 
> 
> 
> 
> 1. To control and/or develop the water power within the state; 
> 
> 
> 
> 2. To lease water and water power sites for the development of water power; 
> 
> 
> 
> 3. To control, use, transmit, distribute, sell and/or dispose of electric energy; 
> 
> 
> 
> 4. To develop, separately or in conjunction with the United States, or in conjunction with the political subdivisions of this state, any water power within the state, and to acquire, construct, maintain and/or operate hydroelectric power plants, transmission and distribution lines; 
> 
> 
> 
> 5. To develop, separately or in conjunction with the United States, with any state or states, or political subdivisions thereof, or with any political subdivision of this state, any water power in any interstate stream and to acquire, construct, maintain and/or operate hydroelectric power plants, transmission and distribution lines; 
> 
> 
> 
> 6. To contract with the United States, with any state or states, or political subdivisions thereof, or with any political subdivision of this state, for the purchase or acquisition of water, water power and/or electric energy for use, transmission, distribution, sale and/or disposal thereof; 
> 
> 
> 
> 7. To fix rates and charges for the use of water in the development of water power and for the sale and/or disposal of water power and/or electric energy; 
> 
> 
> 
> 8. To loan the credit of the state, and to incur indebtedness to an amount not exceeding one and one-half percent of the true cash value of all the property in the state taxed on an ad valorem basis, for the purpose of providing funds with which to carry out the provisions of this article, notwithstanding any limitations elsewhere contained in this constitution; 
> 
> 
> 
> 9. To do any and all things necessary or convenient to carry out the provisions of this article. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1932, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 6, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Legislation to effectuate article. The legislative assembly shall, and the people may, provide any legislation that may be necessary in addition to existing laws, to carry out the provisions of this article; Provided, that any board or commission created, or empowered to administer the laws enacted to carry out the purposes of this article shall consist of three members and be elected without party affiliation or designation. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1932, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Construction of article. Nothing in this article shall be construed to affect in any way the laws, and the administration thereof, now existing or hereafter enacted, relating to the appropriation and use of water for beneficial purposes, other than for the development of water power. [Created through initiative petition filed July 7, 1932, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1932] 
> 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-E_STATE_REFORESTATION|985742284
1c1,7
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> ARTICLE XI-E STATE REFORESTATION 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit for forest rehabilitation and reforestation; bonds; taxation. The credit of the state may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount which shall not exceed at any one time 3/16 of 1 percent of the true cash value of all the property in the state taxed on an ad valorem basis, to provide funds for forest rehabilitation and reforestation and for the acquisition, management, and development of lands for such purposes. So long as any such indebtedness shall remain outstanding, the funds derived from the sale, exchange, or use of said lands, and from the disposal of products therefrom, shall be applied only in the liquidation of such indebtedness. Bonds or other obligations issued pursuant hereto may be renewed or refunded. An ad valorem tax shall be levied annually upon all the property in the state of Oregon taxed on an ad valorem basis, in sufficient amount to provide for the payment of such indebtedness and the interest thereon. The legislative assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace the said tax levies. The legislature shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions hereof. This amendment shall supersede all constitutional provisions in conflict herewith. [Created through H.J.R. 24, 1947, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1948; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 7, 1961, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1962; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 85, 1997, and adopted by the people May 20, 1997] 
> 
> 
------
Biology/Talk|985742300
20c20,22
< I have an idea.  We could make ''all'' pages ''automatically'' in this format.  Each article would have a "text" area and a "links" area.  Each article would have, thus, two text boxes, which would be displayed in the same sort of format.  Now this might work...but perhaps we should bear in mind the KISS principle. --[[LMS]]
---
> I have an idea.  We could make ''all'' pages ''automatically'' in this format.  Each article would have a "text" area and a "links" area.  Each article would have, thus, two text boxes, which would be displayed in the same sort of format.  Now this might work...but perhaps we should bear in mind the KISS principle. --[[LMS]]
> 
> I think that in this case, the sidebar is mostly superfluous.  But it might also be a good place to put pictures, if we ever get any.
------
Oregon/Constitution|985742329
33c33
< [[/ARTICLE XI-F(1) HIGHER EDUCATION BUILDING PROJECTS]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-F-1 HIGHER EDUCATION BUILDING PROJECTS]] 
35c35
< [[/ARTICLE XI-F(2) VETERANS' BONUS]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-F-2 VETERANS' BONUS]] 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-F-1_HIGHER_EDUCATION_BUILDING_PROJECTS|985742345
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ARTICLE XI-F(1) HIGHER EDUCATION BUILDING PROJECTS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit for higher education building projects 
> 
> 2. Only self-liquidating projects authorized 
> 
> 3. Sources of revenue 
> 
> 4. Bonds
> 
> 5. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit for higher education building projects. The credit of the state may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount which shall not exceed at any one time three-fourths of one percent of the true cash value of all the taxable property in the state, as determined by law to provide funds with which to redeem and refund outstanding revenue bonds issued to finance the cost of buildings and other projects for higher education, and to construct, improve, repair, equip, and furnish buildings and other structures for such purpose, and to purchase or improve sites therefor. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 12, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Only self-liquidating projects authorized. The buildings and structures hereafter constructed for higher education pursuant to this amendment shall be such only as conservatively shall appear to the constructing authority to be wholly self-liquidating and self-supporting from revenues, gifts, grants, or building fees. All unpledged net revenues of buildings and other projects may be pooled with the net revenues of new buildings or projects in order to render the new buildings or projects self-liquidating and self-supporting. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Sources of revenue. Ad valorem taxes shall be levied annually upon all the taxable property in the state of Oregon in sufficient amount, with the aforesaid revenues, gifts, grants, or building fees, to provide for the payment of such indebtedness and the interest thereon. The legislative assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace such tax levies. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Bonds. Bonds issued pursuant to this article shall be the direct general obligations of the state, and be in such form, run for such periods of time, and bear such rates of interest, as shall be provided by statute. Such bonds may be refunded with bonds of like obligation. Unless provided by statute, no bonds shall be issued pursuant to this article for the construction of buildings or other structures for higher education until after all of the aforesaid outstanding revenue bonds shall have been redeemed or refunded. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Legislation to effectuate Article. The legislative assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions hereof. This article shall supersede all conflicting constitutional provisions. [Created through H.J.R. 26, 1949, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/Constitution|985742382
35c35
< [[/ARTICLE XI-F-2 VETERANS' BONUS]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-F-2 VETERANS BONUS]] 
41c41
< [[/ARTICLE XI-I(1) WATER DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-I-1 WATER DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS]] 
43c43
< [[/ARTICLE XI-I(2) MULTIFAMILY HOUSING FOR ELDERLY AND DISABLED]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-I-2 MULTIFAMILY HOUSING FOR ELDERLY AND DISABLED]] 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-F-2_VETERANS_BONUS|985742416
1c1,103
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ARTICLE XI-F(2) VETERANS' BONUS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit to pay veterans' bonus; issuance of bonds 
> 
> 2. Definitions
> 
> 3. Amount of bonus 
> 
> 4. Survivors of certain deceased veterans entitled to maximum amount 
> 
> 5. Certain persons not eligible 
> 
> 6. Order of distribution among survivors 
> 
> 7. Bonus not saleable or assignable; bonus free from creditors' claims and state taxes 
> 
> 8. Administration of Article; rules and regulations 
> 
> 9. Applications
> 
> 10. Furnishing forms; printing, office supplies and equipment; employes; payment of expenses 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit to pay veterans' bonus; issuance of bonds. Notwithstanding the limitations contained in Section 7 of Article XI of the constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred to an amount not exceeding 5 percent of the assessed valuation of all the property in the state, for the purpose of creating a fund to be paid to residents of the State of Oregon who served in the armed forces of the United States between September 16, 1940, and June 30, 1946, and were honorably discharged from such service, which fund shall be known as the “World War II Veterans' Compensation Fund.” 
> 
> 
> 
> Bonds of the State of Oregon, containing a direct promise on behalf of the state to pay the face value thereof with the interest thereon provided for may be issued to an amount authorized in Section 1 hereof for the purpose of creating said World War II Veterans' Compensation Fund. Refunding bonds may be issued and sold to refund any bonds issued under authority of Section 1 hereof. There may be issued and outstanding at any one time bonds aggregating the amount authorized by Section 1, but at no time shall the total of all bonds outstanding, including refunding bonds, exceed the amount so authorized. Said bonds shall be a direct obligation of the State and shall be in such form and shall run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as shall be provided by statute. No person shall be eligible to receive money from said fund except the veterans as defined in Section 3 of this act [sic]. The legislature shall and the people may provide any additional legislation that may be necessary, in addition to existing laws, to carry out the provisions of this section. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Definitions. The following words, terms, and phrases, as used in this act [sic] shall have the following meaning unless the text otherwise requires: 
> 
> 
> 
> 1. “Domestic service” means service within the continental limits of the United States, excluding Alaska, Hawaii, Canal Zone and Puerto Rico. 
> 
> 
> 
> 2. “Foreign Service” means service in all other places, including sea duty. 
> 
> 
> 
> 3. “Husband” means the unremarried husband, and “wife” means the unremarried wife. 
> 
> 
> 
> 4. “Child or Children” means child or children of issue, child or children by adoption or child or children to whom the deceased person has stood in loco parentis for one year or more immediately preceding his death. 
> 
> 
> 
> 5. “Parent or Parents” means natural parent or parents; parent or parents by adoption; or, person or persons, including stepparent or stepparents, who have stood in loco parentis to the deceased person for a period of one year or more immediately prior to entrance into the armed service of the United States. 
> 
> 
> 
> 6. “Veterans” means any person who shall have served in active duty in the armed forces of the United States at any time between September 16, 1940, and June 30, 1946, both dates inclusive, and who, at the time of commencing such service, was and had been a bona fide resident of the State of Oregon for at least one year immediately preceding the commencement of such service, and who shall have been separated from such service under honorable conditions, or who is still in such service, or who has been retired. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Amount of bonus. Every veteran who was in such service for a period of at least 90 days shall be entitled to receive compensation at the rate of Ten Dollars ($10.00) for each full month during which such veteran was in active domestic service and Fifteen Dollars ($15.00) for each full month during which such veteran was in active foreign service within said period of time. Any veteran who was serving on active duty in the armed forces between September 16, 1940, and June 30, 1946, whose services were terminated by reason of service-connected disabilities, and who, upon filing a claim for disabilities with the United States Veterans' Administration within three months after separation from the armed service, was rated not less than 50% disabled as a result of such claim, shall be deemed to have served sufficient time to entitle him or her to the maximum payment under this act [sic] and shall be so entitled. The maximum amount of compensation payable under this act [sic] shall be six hundred dollars ($600.00) and no such compensation shall be paid to any veteran who shall have received from another state a bonus or compensation because of such military service. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Survivors of certain deceased veterans entitled to maximum amount. The survivor or survivors, of the deceased veteran whose death was caused or contributed to by a service-connected disease or disability incurred in service under conditions other than dishonorable, shall be entitled, in the order of survivorship provided in this act [sic], to receive the maximum amount of said compensation irrespective of the amount such deceased would have been entitled to receive if living. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Certain persons not eligible. No compensation shall be paid under this act [sic] to any veteran who, during the period of service refused on conscientious, political or other grounds to subject himself to full military discipline and unqualified service, or to any veteran for any periods of time spent under penal confinement during the period of active duty, or for service in the merchant marine: Provided, however, that for the purposes of this act [sic], active service in the chaplain corps, or medical corps shall be deemed unqualified service under full military discipline. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Order of distribution among survivors. The survivor or survivors of any deceased veteran who would have been entitled to compensation under this act [sic], other than those mentioned in Section 4 of this act [sic], shall be entitled to receive the same amount of compensation as said deceased veteran would have received, if living, which shall be distributed as follows: 
> 
> 
> 
> 1. To the husband or wife, as the case may be, the whole amount. 
> 
> 
> 
> 2. If there be no husband or wife, to the child or children, equally; and 
> 
> 
> 
> 3. If there be no husband or wife or child or children, to the parent or parents, equally. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Bonus not saleable or assignable; bonus free from creditors' claims and state taxes. No sale or assignment of any right or claim to compensation under this act [sic] shall be valid, no claims of creditors shall be enforcible against rights or claims to or payments of such compensation, and such compensation shall be exempt from all taxes imposed by the laws of this state. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Administration of article; rules and regulations. The director of Veterans' Affairs, State of Oregon, referred to herein as the “director” hereby is authorized and empowered, and it shall be his duty, to administer the provisions of this act [sic], and with the approval of the veterans advisory committee may make such rules and regulations as are deemed necessary to accomplish the purpose hereof. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Applications. All applications for certificates under this act [sic] shall be made within two years from the effective date hereof and upon forms to be supplied by the director. Said applications shall be duly verified by the claimant before a notary public or other person authorized to take acknowledgments, and shall set forth applicant's name, residence at the time of entry into the service, date and place of enlistment, induction or entry upon active federal service, beginning and ending dates of foreign service, date of discharge, retirement or release from active federal service, statement of time lost by reason of penal confinement during the period of active duty; together with the applicant's original discharge, or certificate in lieu of lost discharge, or certificate of service, or if the applicant has not been released at the time of application, a statement by competent military authority that the applicant during the period for which compensation is claimed did not refuse to subject himself to full military discipline and unqualified service, and that the applicant has not been separated from service under circumstances other than honorable. The director may require such further information to be included in such application as deemed necessary to enable him to determine the eligibility of the applicant. Such applications, together with satisfactory evidence of honorable service, shall be filed with the director. The director shall make such reasonable requirements for applicants as may be necessary to prevent fraud or the payment of compensation to persons not entitled thereto. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Furnishing forms; printing, office supplies and equipment; employes; payment of expenses. The director shall furnish free of charge, upon request, the necessary forms upon which applications may be made and may authorize the county clerks, Veterans organizations and other organizations, and notaries public willing to assist veterans without charge, to act for him in receiving application under this act [sic], and shall furnish such clerks, organizations and notaries public, with the proper forms for such purpose. The director hereby is authorized and directed with the approval of the veterans' advisory committee, to procure such printing, office supplies and equipment and to employ such persons as may be necessary in order to properly carry out the provisions of this act [sic], and all expense incurred by him in the administration thereof shall be paid out of the World War II Veterans' Compensation Fund, in the manner provided by law for payment of claims from other state funds. [Created through initiative petition filed June 30, 1950, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1950] 
------
Oregon/Constitution|985742438
37c37
< [[/ARTICLE XI-G HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIVITIES; COMMUNITY COLLEGES]] 
---
> [[/ARTICLE XI-G HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIVITIES COMMUNITY COLLEGES]] 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-G_HIGHER_EDUCATION_INSTITUTIONS_AND_ACTIVITIES_COMMUNITY_COLLEGES|985742463
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ARTICLE XI-G HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIVITIES; COMMUNITY COLLEGES 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit for financing higher education institutions and activities, and community colleges 
> 
> 2. Bonds
> 
> 3. Sources of revenue 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit for financing higher education institutions and activities, and community colleges. (1) Notwithstanding the limitations contained in section 7, Article XI of this Constitution, and in addition to other exceptions from the limitations of such section, the credit of the state may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed at any time three-fourths of one percent of the true cash value of all taxable property in the state, as determined by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Proceeds from any loan authorized or indebtedness incurred under this section shall be used to provide funds with which to construct, improve, repair, equip and furnish those buildings, structures and projects, or parts thereof, and to purchase or improve sites therefor, designated by the Legislative Assembly for higher education institutions and activities or for community colleges authorized by law to receive state aid. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) The amount of any loan authorized or indebtedness incurred under this section by means of bonds to be issued in any biennium shall not exceed the dollar amount appropriated from the General Fund for the same or similar purposes. Any dollar amounts appropriated to meet the requirements of this subsection shall be specifically designated therefor by the Legislative Assembly. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) Nothing in this section prevents the financing of buildings, structures and projects, or parts thereof, by a combination of the moneys available under this section, under Article XI-F(1) of this Constitution, and from other lawful sources. However, moneys available under this section shall not be expended on or for any buildings, structures or projects, or parts thereof, that are wholly self-liquidating and self-supporting. [Created through H.J.R. 8, 1963 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 15, 1964; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 2, 1967 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 28, 1968] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Bonds. Bonds issued pursuant to this Article shall be the direct general obligations of the state and shall be in such form, run for such periods of time, and bear such rates of interest as the Legislative Assembly provides. Such bonds may be refunded with bonds of like obligation. [Created through H.J.R. 8, 1963 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 15, 1964] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Sources of revenue. Ad valorem taxes shall be levied annually upon the taxable property within the State of Oregon in sufficient amount to provide for the prompt payment of bonds issued pursuant to this Article and the interest thereon. The Legislative Assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace, in whole or in part, such tax levies. [Created through H.J.R. 8, 1963 (s.s.), and adopted by the people May 15, 1964] 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-H_POLLUTION_CONTROL|985742488
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ARTICLE XI-H POLLUTION CONTROL 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit for financing pollution control facilities or related activities 
> 
> 2. Only facilities seventy percent self-supporting and self-liquidating authorized; exceptions 
> 
> 3. Authority of public bodies to receive funds 
> 
> 4. Source of revenue 
> 
> 5. Bonds
> 
> 6. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit for financing pollution control facilities or related activities. In the manner provided by law and notwithstanding the limitations contained in sections 7 and 8, Article XI, of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed, at any one time, one percent of the true cash value of all taxable property in the state: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) To provide funds to be advanced, by contract, grant, loan or otherwise, to any municipal corporation, city, county or agency of the State of Oregon, or combinations thereof, for the purpose of planning, acquisition, construction, alteration or improvement of facilities for or activities related to, the collection, treatment, dilution and disposal of all forms of waste in or upon the air, water and lands of this state; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) To provide funds for the acquisition, by purchase, loan or otherwise, of bonds, notes or other obligations of any municipal corporation, city, county or agency of the State of Oregon, or combinations thereof, issued or made for the purposes of subsection (1) of this section. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 41, 1989, and adopted by the people May 22, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Only facilities seventy percent self-supporting and self-liquidating authorized; exceptions. The facilities for which funds are advanced and for which bonds, notes or other obligations are issued or made and acquired pursuant to this Article shall be only such facilities as conservatively appear to the agency designated by law to make the determination to be not less than 70 percent self-supporting and self-liquidating from revenues, gifts, grants from the Federal Government, user charges, assessments and other fees. This section shall not apply to any activities for which funds are advanced and shall not apply to facilities for the collection, treatment, dilution, removal and disposal of hazardous substances. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 41, 1989, and adopted by the people May 22, 1990] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Authority of public bodies to receive funds. Notwithstanding the limitations contained in section 10, Article XI of this Constitution, municipal corporations, cities, counties, and agencies of the State of Oregon, or combinations thereof, may receive funds referred to in section 1 of this Article, by contract, grant, loan or otherwise and may also receive such funds through disposition to the state, by sale, loan or otherwise, of bonds, notes or other obligations issued or made for the purposes set forth in section 1 of this Article. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Source of revenue. Ad valorem taxes shall be levied annually upon all taxable property within the State of Oregon in sufficient amount to provide, together with the revenues, gifts, grants from the Federal Government, user charges, assessments and other fees referred to in section 2 of this Article for the payment of indebtedness incurred by the state and the interest thereon. The Legislative Assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace such tax levies. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Bonds. Bonds issued pursuant to section 1 of this Article shall be the direct obligations of the state and shall be in such form, run for such periods of time, and bear such rates of interest, as shall be provided by law. Such bonds may be refunded with bonds of like obligation. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Legislation to effectuate Article. The Legislative Assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions of this Article. This Article shall supersede all conflicting constitutional provisions and shall supersede any conflicting provision of a county or city charter or act of incorporation. [Created through H.J.R. 14, 1969, and adopted by the people May 26, 1970] 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-I-1_WATER_DEVELOPMENT_PROJECTS|985742511
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ARTICLE XI-I(1) 
> 
> WATER DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit to established Water Development Fund; eligibility; use 
> 
> 2. Bonds
> 
> 3. Refunding bonds 
> 
> 4. Source of revenue 
> 
> 5. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit to establish Water Development Fund; eligibility; use. Notwithstanding the limits contained in sections 7 and 8, Article XI of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed one and one-half percent of the true cash value of all the property in the state for the purpose of creating a fund to be known as the Water Development Fund. The fund shall be used to provide financing for loans for residents of this state for construction of water development projects for irrigation, drainage, fish protection, watershed restoration and municipal uses and for the acquisition of easements and rights of way for water development projects authorized by law. Secured repayment thereof shall be and is a prerequisite to the advancement of money from such fund. As used in this section, “resident” includes both natural persons and any corporation or cooperative, either for profit or nonprofit, whose principal income is from farming in Oregon or municipal or quasi-municipal or other body subject to the laws of the State of Oregon. Not less than 50 percent of the potential amount available from the fund will be reserved for irrigation and drainage projects. For municipal use, only municipalities and communities with populations less than 30,000 are eligible for loans from the fund. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1977; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 6, 1981, and adopted by the people May 18, 1982; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 45, 1987, and adopted by the people May 17, 1988] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Bonds. Bonds of the State of Oregon containing a direct promise on behalf of the state to pay the face value thereof, with the interest therein provided for, may be issued to an amount authorized by section 1 of this Article for the purpose of creating such fund. The bonds shall be a direct obligation of the state and shall be in such form and shall run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as provided by statute. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1977] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Refunding bonds. Refunding bonds may be issued and sold to refund any bonds issued under authority of sections 1 and 2 of this Article. There may be issued and outstanding at any time bonds aggregating the amount authorized by section 1 of this Article but at no time shall the total of all bonds outstanding, including refunding bonds, exceed the amount so authorized. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1977] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Source of revenue. Ad valorem taxes shall be levied annually upon all the taxable property in the State of Oregon in sufficient amount to provide for the payment of principal and interest of the bonds issued pursuant to this Article. The Legislative Assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace, in whole or in part, such tax levies. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1977] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Legislation to effectuate Article. The Legislative Assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions of this Article. This Article supersedes any conflicting provision of a county or city charter or act of incorporation. [Created through S.J.R. 1, 1977, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1977] 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-I-2_MULTIFAMILY_HOUSING_FOR_ELDERLY_AND_DISABLED|985742528
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ARTICLE XI-I(2) 
> 
> MULTIFAMILY HOUSING FOR ELDERLY AND DISABLED 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to lend credit for multifamily housing for elderly and disabled persons 
> 
> 2. Source of revenue 
> 
> 3. Bonds
> 
> 4. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to lend credit for multifamily housing for elderly and disabled persons. In the manner provided by law and notwithstanding the limitations contained in section 7, Article XI of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed, at any one time, one-half of one percent of the true cash value of all taxable property in the state to provide funds to be advanced, by contract, grant, loan or otherwise, for the purpose of providing additional financing for multifamily housing for the elderly and for disabled persons. Multifamily housing means a structure or facility designed to contain more than one living unit. Additional financing may be provided to the elderly to purchase ownership interest in the structure or facility. [Created through H.J.R. 61, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 34, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 1, 1981, and adopted by the people May 18, 1982] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Source of revenue. The bonds shall be payable from contract or loan proceeds; bond reserves; other funds available for these purposes; and, if necessary, state ad valorem taxes. [Created through H.J.R. 61, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Bonds. Bonds issued pursuant to section 1 of this Article shall be the direct obligations of the state and shall be in such form, run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as shall be provided by law. The bonds may be refunded with bonds of like obligation. [Created through H.J.R. 61, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Legislation to effectuate Article. The Legislative Assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions of this Article. This Article shall supersede all conflicting constitutional provisions. [Created through H.J.R. 61, 1977, and adopted by the people May 23, 1978] 
> 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-J_SMALL_SCALE_LOCAL_ENERGY_LOANS|985742550
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ARTICLE XI-J 
> 
> SMALL SCALE LOCAL ENERGY LOANS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to loan credit for small scale local energy loans; eligibility; use 
> 
> 2. Bonds
> 
> 3. Refunding bonds 
> 
> 4. Source of revenue 
> 
> 5. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to loan credit for small scale local energy loans; eligibility; use. Notwithstanding the limits contained in sections 7 and 8, Article XI of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred in an amount not to exceed one-half of one percent of the true cash value of all the property in the state for the purpose of creating a fund to be known as the Small Scale Local Energy Project Loan Fund. The fund shall be used to provide financing for the development of small scale local energy projects. Secured repayment thereof shall be and is a prerequisite to the advancement of money from such fund. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Bonds. Bonds of the State of Oregon containing a direct promise on behalf of the state to pay the face value thereof, with the interest therein provided for, may be issued to an amount authorized by section 1 of this Article for the purpose of creating such fund. The bonds shall be a direct obligation of the state and shall be in such form and shall run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as provided by statute. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Refunding bonds. Refunding bonds may be issued and sold to refund any bonds issued under authority of sections 1 and 2 of this Article. There may be issued and outstanding at any time bonds aggregating the amount authorized by section 1 of this Article but at no time shall the total of all bonds outstanding including refunding bonds, exceed the amount so authorized. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Source of revenue. Ad valorem taxes shall be levied annually upon all the taxable property in the State of Oregon in sufficient amount to provide for the payment of principal and interest of the bonds issued pursuant to this Article. The Legislative Assembly may provide other revenues to supplement or replace, in whole or in part, such tax levies. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Legislation to effectuate Article. The Legislative Assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions of this Article. This Article supersedes any conflicting provision of a county or city charter or act of incorporation. [Created through S.J.R. 24, 1979, and adopted by the people May 20, 1980] 
> 
> 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XI-K_GUARANTEE_OF_BONDED_INDEBTEDNESS_OF_EDUCATION_DISTRICTS|985742567
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> ARTICLE XI-K 
> 
> GUARANTEE
> 
> OF BONDED INDEBTEDNESS 
> 
> OF EDUCATION DISTRICTS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. State empowered to guarantee bonded indebtedness of education districts 
> 
> 2. State empowered to lend credit for state guarantee of bonded indebtedness of education districts 
> 
> 3. Repayment by education districts 
> 
> 4. Source of revenue 
> 
> 5. Bonds
> 
> 6. Legislation to effectuate Article 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State empowered to guarantee bonded indebtedness of education districts. To secure lower interest costs on the general obligation bonds of school districts, education service districts and community college districts, the State of Oregon may guarantee the general obligation bonded indebtedness of those districts as provided in sections 2 to 6 of this Article and laws enacted pursuant to this Article. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. State empowered to lend credit for state guarantee of bonded indebtedness of education districts. In the manner provided by law and notwithstanding the limitations contained in sections 7 and 8, Article XI of this Constitution, the credit of the State of Oregon may be loaned and indebtedness incurred, in an amount not to exceed, at any one time, one-half of one percent of the true cash value of all taxable property in the state, to provide funds as necessary to satisfy the state guaranty of the bonded general obligation indebtedness of school districts, education service districts and community college districts that qualify, under procedures that shall be established by law, to issue general obligation bonds that are guaranteed by the full faith and credit of this state. The state may guarantee the general obligation debt of qualified school districts, education service districts and community college districts and may guarantee general obligation bonded indebtedness incurred to refund the school district, education service district or community college district general obligation bonded indebtedness. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Repayment by education districts. The Legislative Assembly may provide that reimbursement to the state shall be obtained from, but shall not be limited to, moneys that otherwise would be used for the support of the educational programs of the school district, the education service district or the community college district that incurred the bonded indebtedness with respect to which any payment under the state's guaranty is made. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Source of revenue. The State of Oregon may issue bonds if and as necessary to provide funding to satisfy the state's guaranty obligations undertaken pursuant to this Article. In addition, notwithstanding anything to the contrary in Article VIII of this Constitution, the state may borrow available moneys from the Common School Fund if such borrowing is reasonably necessary to satisfy the state's guaranty obligations undertaken pursuant to this Article. The State of Oregon also may issue bonds if and as necessary to provide funding to repay the borrowed moneys, and any interest thereon, to the Common School Fund. The bonds shall be payable from any moneys reimbursed to the state under section 3 of this Article, from any moneys recoverable from the school district, the education service district or the community college district that incurred the bonded indebtedness with respect to which any payment under the state's guaranty is made, any other funds available for these purposes and, if necessary, from state ad valorem taxes. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Bonds. Bonds of the state issued pursuant to this Article shall be the direct obligations of the state and shall be in such form, run for such periods of time and bear such rates of interest as shall be provided by law. The bonds may be refunded with bonds of like obligation. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Legislation to effectuate Article. The Legislative Assembly shall enact legislation to carry out the provisions of this Article, including provisions that authorize the state's recovery, from any school district, education service district or community college district that incurred the bonded indebtedness with respect to which any payment under the state's guaranty is made, any amounts necessary to make the state whole. This Article shall supersede all conflicting constitutional provisions and shall supersede any conflicting provision of any law, ordinance or charter pertaining to any school district, education service district or community college district. [Created through H.J.R. 71, 1997, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XII_STATE_PRINTING|985742584
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> 
> ARTICLE XII 
> 
> STATE PRINTING 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State printing; State Printer. Laws may be enacted providing for the state printing and binding, and for the election or appointment of a state printer, who shall have had not less than ten years' experience in the art of printing. The state printer shall receive such compensation as may from time to time be provided by law. Until such laws shall be enacted the state printer shall be elected, and the printing done as heretofore provided by this constitution and the general laws. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1901, and adopted by the people June 6, 1904; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed Feb. 3, 1906, and adopted by the people June 4, 1906] 
> 
> 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XIII_SALARIES|985742601
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> 
> ARTICLE XIII 
> 
> SALARIES
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Salaries or other compensation of state officers. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 12, 1955, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1956] 
> 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XIV_SEAT_OF_GOVERNMENT|985742618
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> 
> ARTICLE XIV 
> 
> SEAT OF GOVERNMENT 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Seat of government 
> 
> 2. Erection of state house prior to 1865 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Seat of government. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 41, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958 (present section 1 and former 1958 section 3 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section and former original section 3 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Seat of government. The permanent seat of government for the state shall be Marion County. [Created through S.J.R. 41, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958 (this section and former 1958 section 3 of this Article adopted in lieu of former original sections 1 and 3 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Erection of state house prior to 1865. No tax shall be levied, or money of the State expended, or debt contracted for the erection of a State House prior to the year eighteen hundred and sixty five.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Limitation on removal of seat of government; location of state institutions. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 1, 1907, and adopted by the people June 1, 1908; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 41, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958 (present section 1 and former 1958 section 3 of this Article adopted in lieu of this section and former section 1 of this Article)] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Location and use of state institutions. [Created through S.J.R. 41, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958 (this section, designated as “Section 2” by S.J.R. 41, 1957, and present section 1 of this Article adopted in lieu of former original sections 1 and 3 of this Article); Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 9, 1971, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 1972] 
> 
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Oregon/ARTICLE_XV_MISCELLANEOUS|985742652
1c1,393
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> 
> 
> 
> ARTICLE XV 
> 
> MISCELLANEOUS
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Officers to hold office until successors elected; exceptions; effect on defeated incumbent 
> 
> 2. Tenure of office; how fixed; maximum tenure 
> 
> 3. Oaths of office 
> 
> 4. Regulation of lotteries; state lottery; use of net proceeds from state lottery 
> 
> 4a. Use of net proceeds from state lottery for parks and recreation areas 
> 
> 4b. Use of net proceeds from state lottery for salmon restoration and watershed and wildlife habitat protection 
> 
> 4c. Audit of agency receiving certain net proceeds from state lottery 
> 
> 4d. Subsequent vote for reaffirmation of sections 4a, 4b and 4c and amendment to section 4 
> 
> 5. Property of married women not subject to debts of of husband; registration of separate property 
> 
> 6. Minimum area and population of counties 
> 
> 7. Officers not to receive fees from or represent claimants against state 
> 
> 8. Persons eligible to serve in legislature 
> 
> 9. When elective office becomes vacant 
> 
> 10. The Oregon Property Protection Act of 2000 
> 
> 11. Home Care Commission 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Officers to hold office until successors elected; exceptions; effect on defeated incumbent. (1) All officers, except members of the Legislative Assembly and incumbents who seek reelection and are defeated, shall hold their offices until their successors are elected, and qualified. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) If an incumbent seeks reelection and is defeated, he shall hold office only until the end of his term; and if an election contest is pending in the courts regarding that office when the term of such an incumbent ends and a successor to the office has not been elected or if elected, has not qualified because of such election contest, the person appointed to fill the vacancy thus created shall serve only until the contest and any appeal is finally determined notwithstanding any other provision of this constitution. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 51, 1969, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1970] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Tenure of office; how fixed; maximum tenure. When the duration of any office is not provided for by this Constitution, it may be declared by law; and if not so declared, such office shall be held during the pleasure of the authority making the appointment. But the Legislative Assembly shall not create any office, the tenure of which shall be longer than four years. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Oaths of office. Every person elected or appointed to any office under this Constitution, shall, before entering on the duties thereof, take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of the United States, and of this State, and also an oath of office.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Regulation of lotteries; state lottery; use of net proceeds from state lottery. (1) Except as provided in subsections (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6) of this section, lotteries and the sale of lottery tickets, for any purpose whatever, are prohibited, and the Legislative Assembly shall prevent the same by penal laws. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Legislative Assembly may provide for the establishment, operation, and regulation of raffles and the lottery commonly known as bingo or lotto by charitable, fraternal, or religious organizations. As used in this section, charitable, fraternal or religious organization means such organizations or foundations as defined by law because of their charitable, fraternal, or religious purposes. The regulations shall define eligible organizations or foundations, and may prescribe the frequency of raffles, bingo or lotto, set a maximum monetary limit for prizes and require a statement of the odds on winning a prize. The Legislative Assembly shall vest the regulatory authority in any appropriate state agency. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) There is hereby created the State Lottery Commission which shall establish and operate a State Lottery. All proceeds from the State Lottery, including interest, but excluding costs of administration and payment of prizes, shall be used for any of the following purposes: creating jobs, furthering economic development, financing public education in Oregon or restoring and protecting Oregon's parks, beaches, watersheds and critical fish and wildlife habitats. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4)(a) The State Lottery Commission shall be comprised of five members appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate who shall serve at the pleasure of the Governor. At least one of the Commissioners shall have a minimum of five years experience in law enforcement and at least one of the Commissioners shall be a certified public accountant. The Commission is empowered to promulgate rules related to the procedures of the Commission and the operation of the State Lottery. Such rules and any statutes enacted to further implement this article shall insure the integrity, security, honesty, and fairness of the Lottery. The Commission shall have such additional powers and duties as may be provided by law. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The Governor shall appoint a Director subject to confirmation by the Senate who shall serve at the pleasure of the Governor. The Director shall be qualified by training and experience to direct the operations of a state-operated lottery. The Director shall be responsible for managing the affairs of the Commission. The Director may appoint and prescribe the duties of no more than four Assistant Directors as the Director deems necessary. One of the Assistant Directors shall be responsible for a security division to assure security, integrity, honesty, and fairness in the operations and administration of the State Lottery. To fulfill these responsibilities, the Assistant Director for security shall be qualified by training and experience, including at least five years of law enforcement experience, and knowledge and experience in computer security. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The Director shall implement and operate a State Lottery pursuant to the rules, and under the guidance, of the Commission. The State Lottery may operate any game procedure authorized by the commission, except parimutuel racing, social games, and the games commonly known in Oregon as bingo or lotto, whereby prizes are distributed using any existing or future methods among adult persons who have paid for tickets or shares in that game; provided that, in lottery games utilizing computer terminals or other devices, no coins or currency shall ever be dispensed directly to players from such computer terminals or devices. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) There is hereby created within the General Fund the Oregon State Lottery Fund which is continuously appropriated for the purpose of administering and operating the Commission and the State Lottery. The State Lottery shall operate as a self-supporting revenue-raising agency of state government and no appropriations, loans, or other transfers of state funds shall be made to it. The State Lottery shall pay all prizes and all of its expenses out of the revenues it receives from the sale of tickets or shares to the public and turnover the net proceeds therefrom to a fund to be established by the Legislative Assembly from which the Legislative Assembly shall make appropriations for the benefit of any of the following public purposes: creating jobs, furthering economic development, financing public education in Oregon or restoring and protecting Oregon's parks, beaches, watersheds and critical fish and wildlife habitats. Effective July 1, 1997, 15% of the net proceeds from the State Lottery shall be deposited, from the fund created by the Legislative Assembly under this paragraph, in an education endowment fund. Earnings on moneys in the education endowment fund shall be retained in the fund or expended for the public purpose of financing public education in Oregon as provided by law. Moneys in the education endowment fund shall be invested as provided by law and shall not be subject to the limitations of section 6, Article XI of this Constitution. The Legislative Assembly may appropriate other moneys or revenue to the education endowment fund. The Legislative Assembly shall appropriate amounts sufficient to pay lottery bonds before appropriating the net proceeds from the State Lottery for any other purpose. At least 84% of the total annual revenues from the sale of all lottery tickets or shares shall be returned to the public in the form of prizes and net revenues benefiting the public purpose. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) Effective July 1, 1999, 15% of the net proceeds from the State Lottery shall be deposited in a parks and natural resources fund created by the Legislative Assembly. Of the moneys in the parks and natural resources fund, 50% shall be distributed for the public purpose of financing the protection, repair, operation, and creation of state parks, ocean shore and public beach access areas, historic sites and recreation areas, and 50% shall be distributed for the public purpose of financing the restoration and protection of native salmonid populations, watersheds, fish and wildlife habitats and water quality in Oregon. The Legislative Assembly shall not limit expenditures from the parks and natural resources fund. The Legislative Assembly may appropriate other moneys or revenue to the parks and natural resources fund. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) Only one State Lottery operation shall be permitted in the State. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) The Legislative Assembly has no power to authorize, and shall prohibit, casinos from operation in the State of Oregon. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 14, 1975, and adopted by the people Nov. 2, 1976; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed April 3, 1984, and adopted by the people Nov. 6, 1984 (paragraph designations in subsection (4) were not included in the petition); Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 20, 1985, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1986; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 15, 1995, and adopted by the people May 16, 1995; Amendment proposed by initiative petition filed March 11, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The amendments to section 4, as adopted by the people in Measure No. 66, 1998, incorrectly set forth the text of section 4 as it existed at the time the measure was submitted to the people. The text of the measure, as approved by the voters, has been printed here. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4a. Use of net proceeds from state lottery for parks and recreation areas. Any state agency that receives moneys from the parks and natural resources fund established under section 4 of this Article for the public purpose of financing the protection, repair, operation, creation and development of state parks, ocean shores and public beach access areas, historic sites and recreation areas shall have the authority to use the moneys for the following purposes: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Maintain, construct, improve, develop, manage and operate state park and recreation facilities, programs and areas. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Acquire real property, or interest therein, deemed necessary for the creation and operation of state parks, ocean shores public beach access areas, recreation and historic sites or because of natural, scenic, cultural, historic and recreational values. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Operate grant programs for local government entities deemed necessary to accomplish the public purposes of the parks and natural resources fund established under section 4 of this Article. [Created through initiative petition filed March 11, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4b. Use of net proceeds from state lottery for salmon restoration and watershed and wildlife habitat protection. Moneys disbursed for the public purpose of financing the restoration and protection of wild salmonid populations, watersheds, fish and wildlife habitats and water quality from the fund established under Section 4 of this Article shall be administered by one state agency. At least 65% of the moneys will be used for capital expenditures. These moneys, including grants, shall be used for all of the following purposes: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Watershed, fish and wildlife, and riparian and other native species, habitat conservation activities, including but not limited to planning, coordination, assessment, implementation, restoration, inventory, information management and monitoring activities. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Watershed and riparian education efforts. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) The development and implementation of watershed and water quality enhancement plans. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) Entering into agreements to obtain from willing owners determinate interests in lands and waters that protect watershed resources, including but not limited to fee simple interests in land, leases of land or conservation easements. 
> 
> 
> 
> (5) Enforcement of fish and wildlife and habitat protection laws and regulations. [Created through initiative petition filed March 11, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4c. Audit of agency receiving certain net proceeds from state lottery. Any state agency that receives moneys from the parks and natural resources fund established under section 4 of this Article shall secure an independent audit, pursuant to section 2, Article VI of this Constitution, to measure the financial integrity, effectiveness and performance of the agency receiving such moneys. Each agency shall submit the audit to the Legislative Assembly as part of a biennial report to the Legislative Assembly. [Created through initiative petition filed March 11, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Added as section 4c to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by initiative petition (Measure No. 66, 1998) adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4d. Subsequent vote for reaffirmation of sections 4a, 4b and 4c and amendment to section 4. The Legislative Assembly shall submit to a vote of the people at the November 2014 general elections the question of continuation of this amendment. This Section is repealed on January 1, 2015. [Created through initiative petition filed March 11, 1998, and adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by initiative petition (Measure No. 66, 1998) adopted by the people Nov. 3, 1998. Section 4d was designated as “Section 5a” by Measure No. 66, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: “This amendment” in section 4d refers to the amendment to section 4 of this Article and the creation of sections 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d of this Article by Measure No. 66, 1998. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Property of married women not subject to debts of husband; registration of separate property. The property and pecuniary rights of every married woman, at the time of marriage or afterwards, acquired by gift, devise, or inheritance shall not be subject to the debts, or contracts of the husband; and laws shall be passed providing for the registration of the wife's seperate (sic) property. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Minimum area and population of counties. No county shall be reduced to an area of less than four hundred square miles; nor shall any new county be established in this State containing a less area, nor unless such new county shall contain a population of at least twelve hundred inhabitants. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Officers not to receive fees from or represent claimants against state. No State officers, or members of the Legislative Assembly, shall directly or indirectly receive a fee, or be engaged as counsel, agent, or Attorney in the prosecution of any claim against this State.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Chinamen not to hold real estate or mining claims; working mining claims. [Constitution of 1859; Repeal proposed by S.J.R. 14, 1945, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1946] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Persons eligible to serve in legislature. Notwithstanding the provisions of section 1 article III and section 10 article II of the Constitution of the State of Oregon, a person employed by the State Board of Higher Education, a member of any school board or employee thereof, shall be eligible to a seat in the Legislative Assembly and such membership in the Legislative Assembly shall not prevent such person from being employed by the State Board of Higher Education or from being a member or employee of a school board. [Created through initiative petition filed June 13, 1958, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. When elective office becomes vacant. The Legislative Assembly may provide that any elective public office becomes vacant, under such conditions or circumstances as the Legislative Assembly may specify, whenever a person holding the office is elected to another public office more than 90 days prior to the expiration of the term of the office he is holding. For the purposes of this section, a person elected is considered to be elected as of the date the election is held. [Created through S.J.R. 41, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960] 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. The Oregon Property Protection Act of 2000. (1) This section may be known and shall be cited as the “Oregon Property Protection Act of 2000.” 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Statement of principles. The People, in the exercise of the power reserved to them under the Constitution of the State of Oregon, declare that: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) A basic tenet of a democratic society is that a person is presumed innocent and should not be punished until proven guilty; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The property of a person should not be forfeited in a forfeiture proceeding by government unless and until that person is convicted of a crime involving the property; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The value of property forfeited should be proportional to the specific conduct for which the owner of the property has been convicted; and 
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> 
> 
> (d) Proceeds from forfeited property should be used for treatment of drug abuse unless otherwise specified by law for another purpose. 
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> 
> 
> (3) Forfeitures prohibited without conviction. No judgment of forfeiture of property in a civil forfeiture proceeding by the State or any of its political subdivisions shall be allowed or entered until and unless the owner of the property is convicted of a crime in Oregon or another jurisdiction and the property is found by clear and convincing evidence to have been instrumental in committing or facilitating the crime or to be proceeds of that crime. The value of the property forfeited under the provisions of this subsection shall not be excessive and shall be substantially proportional to the specific conduct for which the owner of the property has been convicted. For purposes of this section, “property” means any interest in anything of value, including the whole of any lot or tract of land and tangible and intangible personal property, including currency, instruments or securities or any other kind of privilege, interest, claim or right whether due or to become due. Nothing in this section shall prohibit a person from voluntarily giving a judgment of forfeiture. 
> 
> 
> 
> (4) Protection of innocent property owners. In a civil forfeiture proceeding if a financial institution claiming an interest in the property demonstrates that it holds an interest, its interest shall not be subject to forfeiture. 
> 
> 
> 
> In a civil forfeiture proceeding if a person claiming an interest in the property, other than a financial institution or a defendant who has been charged with or convicted of a crime involving that property, demonstrates that the person has an interest in the property, that person's interest shall not be subject to forfeiture unless: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The forfeiting agency proves by clear and convincing evidence that the person took the property or the interest with the intent to defeat the forfeiture; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) A conviction under subsection (3) is later obtained against the person. 
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> 
> 
> (5) Exception for unclaimed property and contraband. Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (3) of this section, if, following notice to all persons known to have an interest or who may have an interest, no person claims an interest in the seized property or if the property is contraband, a judgment of forfeiture may be allowed and entered without a criminal conviction. For purposes of this subsection, “contraband” means personal property, articles or things, including but not limited to controlled substances or drug paraphernalia, that a person is prohibited by Oregon statute or local ordinance from producing, obtaining or possessing. 
> 
> 
> 
> (6) Law enforcement seizures unaffected. Nothing in this section shall be construed to affect the temporary seizure of property for evidentiary, forfeiture, or protective purposes, or to alter the power of the Governor to remit fines or forfeitures under Article V, Section 14, of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> (7) Disposition of property and proceeds to drug treatment. Any sale of forfeited property shall be conducted in a commercially reasonable manner. Property or proceeds forfeited under subsections (3), (5), or (8) of this section shall not be used for law enforcement purposes but shall be distributed or applied in the following order: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) To the satisfaction of any foreclosed liens, security interests and contracts in the order of their priority; 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) To the State or any of its political subdivisions for actual and reasonable expenses related to the costs of the forfeiture proceeding, including attorney fees, storage, maintenance, management, and disposition of the property incurred in connection with the sale of any forfeited property in an amount not to exceed twenty-five percent of the total proceeds in any single forfeiture; 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) To the State or any of its political subdivisions to be used exclusively for drug treatment, unless another disposition is specially provided by law. 
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> 
> 
> (8) State and federal sharing. The State of Oregon or any of its political subdivisions shall take all necessary steps to obtain shared property or proceeds from the United States Department of Justice resulting from a forfeiture. Any property or proceeds received from the United States Department of Justice by the State of Oregon or any of its political subdivisions shall be applied as provided in subsection (7) of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (9) Restrictions on State transfers. Neither the State of Oregon, its political subdivisions, nor any forfeiting agency shall transfer forfeiture proceedings to the federal government unless a state court has affirmatively found that: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The activity giving rise to the forfeiture is interstate in nature and sufficiently complex to justify the transfer; 
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> 
> 
> (b) The seized property may only be forfeited under federal law; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Pursuing forfeiture under state law would unduly burden the state forfeiting agencies. 
> 
> 
> 
> (10) Penalty for violations. Any person acting under color of law, official title or position who takes any action intending to conceal, transfer, withhold, retain, divert or otherwise prevent any proceeds, conveyances, real property, or any things of value forfeited under the law of this State or the United States from being applied, deposited or used in accordance with subsections (7), (8) or (9) of this section shall be subject to a civil penalty in an amount treble the value of the forfeited property concealed, transferred, withheld, retained or diverted. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to impair judicial immunity if otherwise applicable. 
> 
> 
> 
> (11) Reporting requirement. All forfeiting agencies shall report the nature and disposition of all property and proceeds seized for forfeiture or forfeited to a State asset forfeiture oversight committee that is independent of any forfeiting agency. The asset forfeiture oversight committee shall generate and make available to the public an annual report of the information collected. The asset forfeiture oversight committee shall also make recommendations to ensure that asset forfeiture proceedings are handled in a manner that is fair to innocent property owners and interest holders. 
> 
> 
> 
> (12) Severability. If any part of this section or its application to any person or circumstance is held to be invalid for any reason, then the remaining parts or applications to any persons or circumstances shall not be affected but shall remain in full force and effect. [Created through initiative petition filed Jan. 5, 2000, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadlines to section 10 and subsections (2) to (12) of section 10 were a part of the measure submitted by initiative petition (Measure No. 3, 2000) adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The text of section 11 (sections 1 to 3, Measure No. 99, 2000) as submitted to the people was preceded by a preamble that reads as follows: 
> 
> 
> 
> WHEREAS, thousands of Oregon seniors and persons with disabilities live independently in their own homes, which they prefer and is less costly than institutional care (i.e. nursing homes), because over 10,000 home care workers, (also known as client employed providers), paid by the State of Oregon provide in-home support services; 
> 
> 
> 
> WHEREAS, home care workers provide services that range from housekeeping, shopping, meal preparation, money management and personal care to medical care and treatment, but receive little, if any, training in those areas resulting in a detrimental impact on quality of care; 
> 
> 
> 
> WHEREAS, the quality of care provided to seniors and people with disabilities is diminished when there is a lack of stability in the workforce which is the result of home care workers receiving low wages, minimal training and benefits; 
> 
> 
> 
> WHEREAS, both home care workers and clients receiving home care services would benefit from creating an entity which has the authority to provide, and is held accountable for the quality of services provided in Oregon's in-home system of long-term care. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Home Care Commission. (1) Ensuring High Quality Home Care Services: Creation and Duties of the Quality Home Care Commission. (a) The Home Care Commission is created as an independent public commission consisting of nine members appointed by the Governor. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The duties and functions of the Home Care Commission include, but are not limited to: 
> 
> 
> 
> (A) Ensuring that high quality, comprehensive home care services are provided to the elderly and people with disabilities who receive personal care services in their homes by home care workers hired directly by the client and financed by payments from the State or by payments from a county or other public agency which receives money for that purpose from the State; 
> 
> 
> 
> (B) Providing routine, emergency and respite referrals of qualified home care providers to the elderly and people with disabilities who receive personal care services by home care workers hired directly by the client and financed in whole or in part by the State, or by payment from a county or other public agency which receives money for that purpose from the State; 
> 
> 
> 
> (C) Provide training opportunities for home care workers, seniors and people with disabilities as consumers of personal care services; 
> 
> 
> 
> (D) Establish qualifications for home care workers; 
> 
> 
> 
> (E) Establish and maintain a registry of qualified home care workers; 
> 
> 
> 
> (F) Cooperate with area agencies on aging and disability services and other local agencies to provide the services described and set forth in this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Home Care Commission Operation/Selection. (a) The Home Care Commission shall be comprised of nine members. Five members of the Commission shall be current or former consumers of home care services for the elderly or people with disabilities. One member shall be a representative of the Oregon Disabilities Commission, (or a successor entity, for as long as a comparable entity exists). One member shall be a representative of the Governor's Commission on Senior Services, (or a successor entity, for as long as a comparable entity exists). One member shall be a representative of the Oregon Association of Area Agencies on Aging and Disabilities, (or a successor entity, for as long as a comparable entity exists). One member shall be a representative of the Senior and Disabled Services Division, (or a successor entity, for as long as a comparable entity exists). 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) The term of office of each member is three years, subject to confirmation by the Senate. If there is a vacancy for any cause, the Governor shall make an appointment to become immediately effective for the unexpired term. A member is eligible for reappointment and may serve no more than three consecutive terms. In making appointments to the Commission, the Governor may take into consideration any nominations or recommendations made by the representative groups or agencies. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Other Provisions — Legal Duties and Responsibilities of the Commission. (a) The Home Care Commission shall, in its own name, for the purpose of carrying into effect and promoting its functions, have authority to contract, lease, acquire, hold, own, encumber, insure, sell, replace, deal in and with and dispose of real and personal property. 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) When conducting any activities in this Section or in subsection (1) of this section, and in making decisions relating to those activities, the Home Care Commission shall first consider the effect of its activities and its decisions on improving the quality of service delivery and ensuring adequate hours of service are provided to clients who are served by home care workers. 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) Clients of home care services retain their right to select the providers of their choice, including family members. 
> 
> 
> 
> (d) Employees of the Commission are not employees of the State of Oregon for any purpose. 
> 
> 
> 
> (e) Notwithstanding the provisions in paragraph (d) of this subsection, the State of Oregon shall be held responsible for unemployment insurance payments for home care workers. 
> 
> 
> 
> (f) For purposes of collective bargaining, the Commission shall be the employer of record of home care workers hired directly by the client and paid by the State, or by a county or other public agency which receives money for that purpose from the State. Home care workers have the right to form, join and participate in the activities of labor organizations of their own choosing for the purpose of representation and collective bargaining with the Commission on matters concerning employment relations. These rights shall be exercised in accordance with the rights granted to public employees with mediation and interest arbitration as the method of concluding the collective bargaining process. Home care workers shall not have the right to strike. 
> 
> 
> 
> (g) The Commission may adopt rules to carry out its functions. [Created through initiative petition filed Nov. 10, 1999, and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The leadlines to subsections (1), (2) and (3) of section 11, except the periods in subsections (2) and (3), were a part of the measure submitted to the people by initiative petition (Measure No. 99, 2000) and adopted by the people Nov. 7, 2000. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: Section 11 was submitted to the voters as sections 1, 2 and 3 and added to the Constitution but not to any Article therein by Measure No. 99, 2000. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: In Measure No. 99, 2000, subsection (1)(a) and (b)(A) to (F) were designated as section 1 (A) and (B)(1) to (6); subsection (2)(a) and (b) as section 2 (A) and (B); and subsection (3)(a) to (g) as section 3 (A) to (G). The reference to subsection (1) of this section was a reference to Section 1 above, and the reference to paragraph (d) of this subsection was a reference to subsection (D) of this section. 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: In Measure No. 99, 2000, the period in subsection (1)(b)(F) appeared as a semicolon, and there was no period in subsection (3)(e). 
> 
> 
> 
------
Free_Links/Talk|985742665
10a11,13
> 
> We might have to use something like UTF-7 to encode URLs for the Japanese pages or for other languages.  But for the more common ones that fit within the normal ISO-8859-1 range (Spanish, French, German, et al.) it might be better to anglicise for the purpose of searching.  I can imagine, for example, English-speaking people who might want to read a French page about Paris, or a German page about Kurt G&ouml;del.  I can imagine people (perhaps even Germans used to English web sites) searching for "Godel" or "Goedel", but I can't imagine them ever searching for "G+APY-del" (the UTF-7 rendering).  Of course, the software could do that in the background, but I think taking advantage of 8-bit ISOwould generate more links and hits.
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XVI_BOUNDARIES|985742674
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ARTICLE XVI 
> 
> BOUNDARIES
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. State boundaries. The State of Oregon shall be bounded as provided by section 1 of the Act of Congress of February 1859, admitting the State of Oregon into the Union of the United States, until: 
> 
> 
> 
> (1) Such boundaries are modified by appropriate interstate compact or compacts heretofore or hereafter approved by the Congress of the United States; or 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) The Legislative Assembly by law extends the boundaries or jurisdiction of this state an additional distance seaward under authority of a law heretofore or hereafter enacted by the Congress of the United States. [Constitution of 1859; Amendment proposed by S.J.R. 4, 1957, and adopted by the people Nov. 4, 1958; Amendment proposed by H.J.R. 24, 1967, and adopted by the people Nov. 5, 1968] 
> 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XVII_AMENDMENTS_AND_REVISIONS|985742690
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ARTICLE XVII 
> 
> AMENDMENTS AND REVISIONS 
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Method of amending Constitution 
> 
> 2. Method of revising Constitution 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Method of amending Constitution. Any amendment or amendments to this Constitution may be proposed in either branch of the legislative assembly, and if the same shall be agreed to by a majority of all the members elected to each of the two houses, such proposed amendment or amendments shall, with the yeas and nays thereon, be entered in their journals and referred by the secretary of state to the people for their approval or rejection, at the next regular general election, except when the legislative assembly shall order a special election for that purpose. If a majority of the electors voting on any such amendment shall vote in favor thereof, it shall thereby become a part of this Constitution. The votes for and against such amendment, or amendments, severally, whether proposed by the legislative assembly or by initiative petition, shall be canvassed by the secretary of state in the presence of the governor, and if it shall appear to the governor that the majority of the votes cast at said election on said amendment, or amendments, severally, are cast in favor thereof, it shall be his duty forthwith after such canvass, by his proclamation, to declare the said amendment, or amendments, severally, having received said majority of votes to have been adopted by the people of Oregon as part of the Constitution thereof, and the same shall be in effect as a part of the Constitution from the date of such proclamation. When two or more amendments shall be submitted in the manner aforesaid to the voters of this state at the same election, they shall be so submitted that each amendment shall be voted on separately. No convention shall be called to amend or propose amendments to this Constitution, or to propose a new Constitution, unless the law providing for such convention shall first be approved by the people on a referendum vote at a regular general election. This article shall not be construed to impair the right of the people to amend this Constitution by vote upon an initiative petition therefor. [Created through initiative petition filed Feb. 3, 1906, and adopted by the people June 4, 1906] 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: The above section replaces sections 1 and 2 of Article XVII of the original Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Method of revising Constitution. (1) In addition to the power to amend this Constitution granted by section 1, Article IV, and section 1 of this Article, a revision of all or part of this Constitution may be proposed in either house of the Legislative Assembly and, if the proposed revision is agreed to by at least two-thirds of all the members of each house, the proposed revision shall, with the yeas and nays thereon, be entered in their journals and referred by the Secretary of State to the people for their approval or rejection, notwithstanding section 1, Article IV of this Constitution, at the next regular state-wide primary election, except when the Legislative Assembly orders a special election for that purpose. A proposed revision may deal with more than one subject and shall be voted upon as one question. The votes for and against the proposed revision shall be canvassed by the Secretary of State in the presence of the Governor and, if it appears to the Governor that the majority of the votes cast in the election on the proposed revision are in favor of the proposed revision, he shall, promptly following the canvass, declare, by his proclamation, that the proposed revision has received a majority of votes and has been adopted by the people as the Constitution of the State of Oregon or as a part of the Constitution of the State of Oregon, as the case may be. The revision shall be in effect as the Constitution or as a part of this Constitution from the date of such proclamation. 
> 
> 
> 
> (2) Subject to subsection (3) of this section, an amendment proposed to the Constitution under section 1, Article IV, or under section 1 of this Article may be submitted to the people in the form of alternative provisions so that one provision will become a part of the Constitution if a proposed revision is adopted by the people and the other provision will become a part of the Constitution if a proposed revision is rejected by the people. A proposed amendment submitted in the form of alternative provisions as authorized by this subsection shall be voted upon as one question. 
> 
> 
> 
> (3) Subsection (2) of this section applies only when: 
> 
> 
> 
> (a) The Legislative Assembly proposes and refers to the people a revision under subsection (1) of this section; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (b) An amendment is proposed under section 1, Article IV, or under section 1 of this Article; and 
> 
> 
> 
> (c) The proposed amendment will be submitted to the people at an election held during the period between the adjournment of the legislative session at which the proposed revision is referred to the people and the next regular legislative session. [Created through H.J.R. 5, 1959, and adopted by the people Nov. 8, 1960] 
> 
> 
> 
------
Oregon/ARTICLE_XVIII_SCHEDULE|985742716
1c1,179
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ARTICLE XVIII 
> 
> SCHEDULE
> 
> 
> 
> Sec. 1. Election to accept or reject Constitution 
> 
> 2. Questions submitted to voters 
> 
> 3. Majority of votes required to accept or reject Constitution 
> 
> 4. Vote on certain sections of Constitution 
> 
> 5. Apportionment of Senators and Representatives 
> 
> 6. Election under Constitution; organization of state 
> 
> 7. Former laws continued in force 
> 
> 8. Officers to continue in office 
> 
> 9. Crimes against territory 
> 
> 10. Saving existing rights and liabilities 
> 
> 11. Judicial districts 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 1. Election to accept or reject Constitution. For the purpose of taking the vote of the electors of the State, for the acceptance or rejection of this Constitution, an election shall be held on the second Monday of November, in the year 1857, to be conducted according to existing laws regulating the election of Delegates in Congress, so far as applicable, except as herein otherwise provided. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 2. Questions submitted to voters. Each elector who offers to vote upon this Constitution, shall be asked by the judges of election this question: 
> 
> 
> 
> Do you vote for the Constitution? Yes, or No. 
> 
> 
> 
> And also this question: 
> 
> 
> 
> Do you vote for Slavery in Oregon? Yes, or No. 
> 
> 
> 
> And also this question: 
> 
> 
> 
> Do you vote for free Negroes in Oregon? Yes, or No. 
> 
> 
> 
> And in the poll books shall be columns headed respectively. 
> 
> 
> 
> “Constitution, Yes.” “Constitution, No” 
> 
> “Free Negroes, Yes” “Free Negroes, No.” 
> 
> “Slavery, Yes.” “Slavery, No”. — 
> 
> 
> 
> And the names of the electors shall be entered in the poll books, together with their awnsers (sic) to the said questions, under their appropriate heads. The abstracts of the votes transmitted to the Secretary of the Territory, shall be publicly opened, and canvassed by the Governor and Secretary, or by either of them in the absence of the other; and the Governor, or in his absence the Secretary, shall forthwith issue his proclamation, and publish the same in the several newspapers printed in this State, declaring the result of the said election upon each of said questions.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 3. Majority of votes required to accept or reject Constitution. If a majority of all the votes given for, and against the Constitution, shall be given for the Constitution, then this Constitution shall be deemed to be approved, and accepted by the electors of the State, and shall take effect accordingly; and if a majority of such votes shall be given against the Constitution, then this Constitution shall be deemed to be rejected by the electors of the State, and shall be void.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 4. Vote on certain sections of Constitution. If this Constitution shall be accepted by the electors, and a majority of all the votes given for, and against slavery, shall be given for slavery, then the following section shall be added to the Bill of Rights, and shall be part of this Constitution: 
> 
> 
> 
> “Sec. ___ “Persons lawfully held as slaves in any State, Territory, or District of the United States, under the laws thereof, may be brought into this State, and such Slaves, and their descendants may be held as slaves within this State, and shall not be emancipated without the consent of their owners.” 
> 
> 
> 
> And if a majority of such votes shall be given against slavery, then the foregoing section shall not, but the following sections shall be added to the Bill of Rights, and shall be a part of this Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> “Sec. ___ There shall be neither slavery, nor involuntary servitude in the State, otherwise than as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.”— 
> 
> 
> 
> And if a majority of all the votes given for, and against free negroes, shall be given against free negroes, then the following section shall be added to the Bill of Rights, and shall be part of this Constitution: 
> 
> 
> 
> “Sec. ___ No free negro, or mulatto, not residing in this State at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall come, reside, or be within this State, or hold any real estate, or make any contracts, or maintain any suit therein; and the Legislative Assembly shall provide by penal laws, for the removal, by public officers, of all such negroes, and mulattoes, and for their effectual exclusion from the State, and for the punishment of persons who shall bring them into the State, or employ, or harbor them.” 
> 
> 
> 
> Note: See sections 34 and 35 of Article I, Oregon Constitution. 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 5. Apportionment of Senators and Representatives. Until an enumeration of the white inhabitants of the State shall be made, and the senators and representatives apportioned as directed in the Constitution, the County of Marion shall have two senators, and four representatives.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Linn two senators, and four representatives. 
> 
> 
> 
> Lane two senators, and three represtatives (sic). 
> 
> 
> 
> Clackamas and Wasco, one senator jointly, and Clackamas three representatives, and Wasco one representative.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Yamhill one senator, and two represen-tatives[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Polk one senator, and two representatives[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Benton one senator, and two represen-tatives[.] 
> 
> 
> 
> Multnomah, one senator, and two representatives. 
> 
> 
> 
> Washington, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook one senator jointly, and Washington one representative, and Washington and Columbia one representative jointly, and Clatsop and Tillamook one representative jointly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Douglas, one senator, and two representatives.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Jackson one senator, and three representatives. 
> 
> 
> 
> Josephine one senator, and one repsentative (sic).— 
> 
> 
> 
> Umpqua, Coos and Curry, one senator jointly, and Umpqua one representative, and Coos and Curry one representative jointly.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 6. Election under Constitution; organization of state. If this Constitution shall be ratified, an election shall be held on the first Monday of June 1858, for the election of members of the Legislative Assembly, a Representative in Congress, and State and County officers, and the Legislative Assembly shall convene at the Capital on the first Monday of July 1858, and proceed to elect two senators in Congress, and make such further provision as may be necessary to the complete organization of a State government.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 7. Former laws continued in force. All laws in force in the Territory of Oregon when this Constitution takes effect, and consistent therewith, shall continue in force until altered, or repealed.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 8. Officers to continue in office. All officers of the Territory of Oregon, or under its laws, when this Constitution takes effect, shall continue in office, until superseded by the State authorities.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 9. Crimes against territory. Crimes and misdemeanors committed against the Territory of Oregon shall be punished by the State, as they might have been punished by the Territory, if the change of government had not been made.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 10. Saving existing rights and liabilities. All property and rights of the Territory, and of the several counties, subdivisions, and political bodies corporate, of, or in the Territory, including fines, penalties, forfeitures, debts and claims, of whatsoever nature, and recognizances, obligations, and undertakings to, or for the use of the Territory, or any county, political corporation, office, or otherwise, to or for the public, shall inure to the State, or remain to the county, local division, corporation, officer, or public, as if the change of government had not been made. And private rights shall not be affected by such change.— 
> 
> 
> 
> Section 11. Judicial districts. Until otherwise provided by law, the judicial districts of the State, shall be constituted as follows: The counties of Jackson, Josephine, and Douglas, shall constitute the first district. The counties of Umpqua, Coos, Curry, Lane, and Benton, shall constitute the second district.—The counties of Linn, Marion, Polk, Yamhill and Washington, shall constitute the third district.—The counties of Clackamas, Multnomah, Wasco, Columbia, Clatsop, and Tillamook, shall constitute the fourth district—and the County of Tillamook shall be attached to the county of Clatsop for judicial purposes.— 
------
Nez_Perce|985744699
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tribe of Native Americans inhabiting the West Coast and adjoining regions at the time of the [[Lewis and Clark expedition.]]  Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the time they first encountered the tribe in 1805. It is from the French, "pierced nose." This is an inaccurate description of the tribe. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The "pierced nose" tribe, though related to the Nez Perce, factually lived on and around the lower Columbia River, and in other areas of the Northwest.
> 
> Not surprisingly, the Nez Perce's name for themselves was Nee-me-poo, or "the People." This is perhaps the most common self-designation of aboriginal peoples the world over.
> 
> The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark was approximately 17 million acres. It covered partss of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The Nez Perce, as many western Native American tribes, were migratory and would travel with the seasons, according to where the most abundant food was to be found at a given time of year. They were known go as far east as the Great Plains, hunting buffalo and fishing for salmon at Celilo Falls on the Columbia River. 
> 
------
WikiBiblion|985745086
4,6c4
< * [[United States Constitution]]
< * JapanConstitution
< * ChristianBibleGenesis - King James' version ''[very incomplete]''
---
> * [[The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]]
8c6,10
< * [[The Origin of Species]], by Darwin
---
> * ChristianBibleGenesis - King James' version ''[very incomplete]''
> 
> * JapanConstitution
> * [[United States Constitution]]
> * [[Oregon/Constitution]]
------
Free|985746491
1c1,3
< ''Free'' is a highly ambiguous term.  Two of the most important senses are "unconstrained" (see [[freedom]]) and "without charge" (as in "free cigarettes").
---
> ''Free'' is a highly ambiguous term.  Two of the most important senses are "unconstrained" (as in [[freedom]]) and "without charge" (as in "free cigarettes").
> 
> Many people in the Open Source community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
------
Hawaii|985751325
17d16
< ----
19d17
< I'm impressed...it's not "[[Atlas Shrugged/Hawaii]]" ;)
------
Insecta|985754611
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Predominant group of arthropods, placed within the class [[Hexapoda]] along with the [[Protura]], [[Collembola]], and [[Diplura]].  The only group other than vertebrates to have developed flight.
> 
> * Order [[Archaeognatha]]  (Jumping bristletails)
> * ''Order [[Monura]]'' - ''extinct''
> * Order [[Thysanura]]  (Common bristletails: silverfish, firebrats)
> * [[Pterygota]], the winged insects
> ** ''Order [[Palaeodictyoptera]]'' - ''extinct''
> ** ''...''
> ** Order [[Ephemeroptera]]  (Mayflies)
> ** Order [[Odonata]]  (Dragonflies and damselflies)
> ** [[Neoptera]], insects with folding wings
> *** Order [[Blattodea]]  (Cockroaches)
> *** Order [[Mantodea]]  (Mantids)
> *** Order [[Isoptera]]  (Termites)
> *** Order [[Zoraptera]]  (Zorapterans)
> *** Order [[Grylloblattodea]]  (Ice Insects)
> *** Order [[Dermaptera]]  (Earwigs)
> *** Order [[Plecoptera]]  (Stoneflies)
> *** Order [[Orthoptera]]  (Grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids)
> *** Order [[Phasmatodea]]  (Walking sticks, timemas)
> *** Order [[Embioptera]]  (Webspinners)
> *** ''Various extinct orders''
> *** Group name eludes me...
> **** Order [[Psocoptera]]  (Booklice and barklice)
> **** Order [[Pthiraptera]]  (Sucking and chewing lice)
> **** Order [[Hemiptera]]  (True bugs, cicadas and kin - formerly Heteroptera + Homoptera)
> **** Order [[Thysanoptera]]  (Thrips)
> *** [[Endopterygota]], insects with complete metamorphosis
> **** ''Order [[Miomoptera]]'' - ''extinct''
> **** Order [[Megaloptera]]  (Alderflies, dobsonflies, and fishflies)
> **** Order [[Raphidioptera]]  (Snakeflies)
> **** Order [[Neuroptera]]  (Net-veined insects)
> **** Order [[Coleoptera]]  (Beetles)
> **** Order [[Strepsiptera]]  (Twisted-winged parasites)
> **** Order [[Mecoptera]]  (Scorpionflies and kin)
> **** Order [[Siphonaptera]]  (Fleas)
> **** Order [[Diptera]]  (Flies)
> **** Order [[Trichoptera]]  (Caddisflies)
> **** Order [[Lepidoptera]]  (Butterflies and moths)
> **** Order [[Hymenoptera]]  (Bees, ants, wasps, sawflies, and kin)
------
Arthropoda|985754655
35c35
< ** Class [[Hexapoda]] (insects)
---
> ** Class [[Hexapoda]] ([[Insecta|insects]] and kin)
37c37
< Eventually I plan to put a brief survey here, plus some more on how arthropods are built.  Please feel free to beat me to it.
---
> Eventually I plan to put a brief survey here, plus some more on how arthropods are built.  Please feel free to beat me to it.
------
Linnaean_taxonomy/Talk|985756023
0a1,12
> Putting in [[Arthropoda]] has made me wonder whether we shouldn't be using common names first.  Here are my thoughts:
> * Some grops have had their Latin names broken by being moved around.  For instance, the [[dinoflagellates]] have had several names which often differ in senses.  Also, many groups show slight variations in suffices, eg the Nemertea vs the Nemertina.
> * Some groups just don't have common names available to us.  Loricifera are sometimes referred to as Loriciferans, but this is secondary from the Latin and not much used, since the creatures are poorly known.  On the other hand, the Hymenoptera have no common name because they are too diverse, usually labelled something like "bees, ants, wasps, etc."
> * In a few cases the anglicized version of the Latin name is more common than the Latin name itself, but still clearly derived from it.  Do a search for Arthropoda vs arthropods and you will see.  However, it is very hard to know how to draw the line between such things and things like the Loricifera.
> * In a few cases the group has a common name, but one which is often used in a different sense.  Flies are a good example - the term is often taken to be a synonym for the Diptera, but it is not at all uncommon for mosquitoes to be considered something separate from flies.
> * There are a lot of groups where the common name is going to be unbelievably prevalent over the entirely synonymous Latin name.  A page entitled beetles is going to be linked and searched to about fifty thousand more times than a page entitled Coleoptera.  And, of course, it can be rendered singular, so that something is a beetle rather than a member of the Coleoptera.
> * Redirects are useful but a nuisance to go through, and it's very hard to keep track of a mix between two systems, so we want the page nomenclature to be as uniform as possible.
> 
> The status quo is Latin names except in the case of a few badly abused Protozoa, and then incongruent links to pages like [[cattle]].  Does anyone have any brilliant ideas on what should be done, before this becomes too messy?  Thanks, [[JG|Josh Grosse]]
> 
> ----
> 
------
Linnaean_taxonomy/Talk|985756052
2a3
> 
3a5
> 
4a7
> 
5a9
> 
6a11
> 
9c14
< The status quo is Latin names except in the case of a few badly abused Protozoa, and then incongruent links to pages like [[cattle]].  Does anyone have any brilliant ideas on what should be done, before this becomes too messy?  Thanks, [[JG|Josh Grosse]]
---
> The status quo is Latin names except in the case of a few badly abused Protozoa, and then incongruent links to pages like [[cattle]].  Does anyone have any brilliant ideas on what should be done, before this becomes too messy?  Thanks, [[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|985758052
15c15
< There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("ChinookWinds"); erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others, that have coated the city with ash); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs (and two sizable actual suburbs, EagleRiver and ChugiaK), a downtown skyline, etc.
---
> There are other features of Anchorage that make it unique: the huge tidal range, second in the world; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; the FurRendezvous festival, held each February; a huge portion of airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low population density for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms ("ChinookWinds"); erupting volcanos nearby (to the southwest, in the AlaskaRange, there are active volcanos such as MountStAugustine, IliamnaVolcano, and others, that have coated the city with ash); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915 and didn't grow much until the 1940's); and much else besides.  And despite all this, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with an enterprising business sensibility, large shopping malls, a lot of automobiles (one can't easily move about by foot and public transportation in the middle of winter), areas of town resembling suburbs (and two sizable actual suburbs, EagleRiver and ChugiaK), a downtown skyline, etc.
------
Hawaii/Maui|985758350
3c3
< [[Haleakala]], a dormant volcano stretching above 10,000 feet, dominates south-eastern Maui.
---
> Maui is a [[volcanic doublet]], built from two volcanos that were originally separate but which now overlap.  The older volcano, [[Mauna Kahalawai]], has been so completely eroded that it is no longer considered a volcano except by geologists.  It common parlance it is called the West Maui Mountains.  The newer volcano, [[Haleakala]], rises above 10,000 feet and dominates south-eastern Maui.
------
Hawaii|985758727
16a17,19
> Hawaii is a chain of volcanic islands.  Recent volcanic activity has been limited to the [[/Hawaii|Big Island]].
> 
> The islands are all much wetter on their north and east coasts.  These are the windward coasts, as they are exposed to the northeasterly tradewinds.  The the south and west, or leeward, coasts, tend to be much drier.  Because of this, most tourist areas have been built on the leeward coasts.
------
Hawaii/Maui|985758780
1c1,3
< Maui is the second largest Hawaiian island.  It has a population just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles large.  The major industries are agriculture and tourism.  Major cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], and [[Wailea]].
---
> Maui is the second largest Hawaiian island.  It has a population just over 100,000 and is 727 square miles large.  The major industries are agriculture and tourism.
> 
> Major cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], and [[Wailea]].
------
Orcalover|985758945
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> New [[Wikipedian]].  Lover of killer whales, apparently.  Fellow [[Alaska|Alaskan]]?  Welcome, anyway! --[[LMS]]
------
Orcalover|985758960
1c1
< New [[Wikipedian]].  Lover of killer whales, apparently.  Fellow [[Alaska|Alaskan]]?  Welcome, anyway! --[[LMS]]
---
> New [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]].  Lover of killer whales, apparently.  Fellow [[Alaska|Alaskan]]?  Welcome, anyway! --[[LMS]]
------
Lahaina|985758977
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lahaina is a city on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui]] in [[Hawaii]].
> 
> Lahaina is the former capital of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] and was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet.
------
Insecta|985759125
40a41,43
> 
> ----
> Let's not overlook the (genus?) ''Nupedia'', a kind of fly!  ;-)
------
Hawaii/Maui|985759148
5a6,17
> 
> Golf courses on Maui include:
>  Grand Waikapu Country Club
>  Ka'anapali Golf Course
>  Kapalua Golf Club
>  Makena Golf Club
>  Maui Country Club
>  Pukalani Country Club
>  Sandalwood Country Club
>  Silversword Golf Course
>  Wai'ehu Municpal Golf Course
>  Wailea Golf Club
------
Hawaii|985759205
20a21
> The telephone [[area code]] for Hawaii is 808.
------
Kahului|985759728
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest town on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui]] with over 50,000 inhabitants.  Kahului hosts Maui's main airport, harbor and shopping malls.  It is located on the north shore of central Maui.
> 
> Typically Kahului is not considered a tourist destination.  It does feature the [[Alexander and Baldwin Sugar Museum]], [[Kanaha Pond State Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kanaha Beach County Park]], and the [[Maui Arts and Cultural Center]].
------
Kahului|985759742
1c1
< The largest town on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui]] with over 50,000 inhabitants.  Kahului hosts Maui's main airport, harbor and shopping malls.  It is located on the north shore of central Maui.
---
> The largest town on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] with over 50,000 inhabitants.  Kahului hosts Maui's main airport, harbor and shopping malls.  It is located on the north shore of central Maui.
3c3
< Typically Kahului is not considered a tourist destination.  It does feature the [[Alexander and Baldwin Sugar Museum]], [[Kanaha Pond State Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kanaha Beach County Park]], and the [[Maui Arts and Cultural Center]].
---
> Typically Kahului is not considered a tourist destination.  It does feature the [[Alexander and Baldwin Sugar Museum]], [[Kanaha Pond State Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kanaha Beach County Park]], and the [[Maui Arts and Cultural Center]].
------
Lahaina|985759800
1c1
< Lahaina is a city on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui]] in [[Hawaii]].
---
> Lahaina is a city on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] in [[Hawaii]].
3c3
< Lahaina is the former capital of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] and was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet.
---
> Lahaina is the former capital of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] and was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet.
------
Dessert|985760038
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A course that typically comes at the end of a meal, usually consisting of food that is very sugary.
> 
> Types of desserts include:
>  [[Fudge]]
>  [[Pie]]
>  [[Ice cream]]
>  [[Cake]]
------
Nez_Perce|985761851
1c1
< A tribe of Native Americans inhabiting the West Coast and adjoining regions at the time of the [[Lewis and Clark expedition.]]  Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the time they first encountered the tribe in 1805. It is from the French, "pierced nose." This is an inaccurate description of the tribe. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The "pierced nose" tribe, though related to the Nez Perce, factually lived on and around the lower Columbia River, and in other areas of the Northwest.
---
> A tribe of Native Americans inhabiting the West Coast and adjoining regions at the time of the [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition.  Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the time they first encountered the tribe in 1805. It is from the French, "pierced nose." This is an inaccurate description of the tribe. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The "pierced nose" tribe, though related to the Nez Perce, factually lived on and around the lower Columbia River, and in other areas of the Northwest.
------
Nez_Perce|985761913
5c5
< The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark was approximately 17 million acres. It covered partss of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The Nez Perce, as many western Native American tribes, were migratory and would travel with the seasons, according to where the most abundant food was to be found at a given time of year. They were known go as far east as the Great Plains, hunting buffalo and fishing for salmon at Celilo Falls on the Columbia River. 
---
> The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark was approximately 17 million acres. It covered parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The Nez Perce, as many western Native American tribes, were migratory and would travel with the seasons, according to where the most abundant food was to be found at a given time of year. They were known go as far east as the Great Plains, hunting buffalo and fishing for salmon at Celilo Falls on the Columbia River. 
------
Rob_Salzman|985761934
21a22,26
> Cool addition, that Oregon constitution.  May I make a recommendation?  Sometimes I personally click 'this change is a minor edit' when I'm doing large blocks of stuff like this.  I do a handful as major edits, so people can see what I'm doing, but then I do the rest as minor edits.
> 
> This keeps from churning the RecentChanges page as much.
> 
> If you feel differently, by all means do differently.  :-)
------
Dessert|985761998
7c7,8
<  [[Cake]]
---
>  [[Cake]]
>  [[Canneloni]]
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985762188
30a31,43
> 
> ----
> 
> I have a theory, which I offer with no particular authority.  I theorize that pages with a handful of incompleted links are more productive in the long run, as compared to short articles that seem complete.
> 
> I notice that many of your Canadian articles are short but complete and self-contained.  Maybe it would be better to leave a few teasers in there?  Like in a page for a particular city, you might leave teasers like:
> :/Climate
> :/People
> :/Industry
> 
> The idea behind this is to tease the next person along into contributing.
> 
> This is only a pet theory of mine, so by all means proceed as you wish.  :-)
------
Rob_Salzman|985764409
26a27,29
> 
> ----
> Thanks - I never knew what the minor edit did.  I'll make judicious use of it now...
------
Rob_Salzman|985764585
29a30,31
> ----
> Wow, Rob.  You're up late.  I was quite serious about nomads/wikipedia.  I think there's maybe five of 'em could contribute a little something meaningful...
------
AyeSpy|985764783
19a20,21
> ----
> It isn't that the nomads don't have knowledge - it's just that they've never really shown the interest in this type of thing.  Be interesting to toss it out, though, wouldn't it...  
------
Nez_Perce|985764906
1c1
< A tribe of Native Americans inhabiting the West Coast and adjoining regions at the time of the [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition.  Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the time they first encountered the tribe in 1805. It is from the French, "pierced nose." This is an inaccurate description of the tribe. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The "pierced nose" tribe, though related to the Nez Perce, factually lived on and around the lower Columbia River, and in other areas of the Northwest.
---
> A tribe of Native Americans inhabiting the West Coast and adjoining regions at the time of the [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition.  Nez Perce is a misnomer given by the interpreter of the Lewis and Clark expedition at the time they first encountered the tribe in 1805. It is from the [[French]], "pierced nose." This is an inaccurate description of the tribe. They did not practice nose piercing or wearing ornaments. The "pierced nose" tribe, though related to the Nez Perce, factually lived on and around the lower [[Columbia River]], and in other areas of the [[Pacific Northwest]].
3c3
< Not surprisingly, the Nez Perce's name for themselves was Nee-me-poo, or "the People." This is perhaps the most common self-designation of aboriginal peoples the world over.
---
> Not surprisingly, the Nez Perce's name for themselves was Nee-me-poo, or "the People." This is perhaps the most common self-designation of [[aboriginal]] peoples the world over.
5c5
< The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark was approximately 17 million acres. It covered parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. The Nez Perce, as many western Native American tribes, were migratory and would travel with the seasons, according to where the most abundant food was to be found at a given time of year. They were known go as far east as the Great Plains, hunting buffalo and fishing for salmon at Celilo Falls on the Columbia River. 
---
> The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark was approximately 17 million acres. It covered parts of [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], and [[Idaho]]. The Nez Perce, as many western [[Native American]] tribes, were migratory and would travel with the seasons, according to where the most abundant food was to be found at a given time of year. They were known go as far east as the [[Great Plains]], hunting [[buffalo]] and fishing for salmon at [[Celilo Falls]] on the [[Columbia River]]. 
------
Oregon|985765011
12a13,15
> Oregon is bounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west, [[Washington]] to the North, [[Idaho]] to the east,
> and [[Nevada]] and [[California]] to the south.
> 
------
Rob_Salzman|985765204
31a32,33
> ----
> Sure.  What would it hurt?
------
Handgun|985765698
1c1
< A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carried in ones hands.
---
> A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carried and used in one hand.  While a two-handed aiming posture may be optimum for most firearms, including handguns; if the gun is not designed to be useable in a single hand, it is not a handgun.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_11|985770314
1,3c1
< 
< 
<  In considering the distribution of organic beings over the face of the globe, the first great fact which strikes us is, that neither the similarity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of various regions can be accounted for by their climatal and other physical conditions. Of late, almost every author who has studied the subject has come to this conclusion. The case of America alone would almost suffice to prove its truth: for if we exclude the northern parts where the circumpolar land is almost continuous, all authors agree that one of the most fundamental divisions in geographical distribution is that between the New and Old Worlds; yet if we travel over the vast American continent, from the central parts of the United States to its extreme southern point, we meet with the most diversified conditions; the most humid districts, arid deserts, lofty mountains, grassy plains, forests, marshes, lakes, and great rivers, under almost every temperature. There is hardly a climate or condition in the Old World which cannot be paralleled in the New at least as closely as the same species generally require; for it is a most rare case to find a group of organisms confined to any small spot, having conditions peculiar in only a slight degree; for instance, small areas in the Old World could be pointed out hotter than any in the New World, yet these are not inhabited by a peculiar fauna or flora. Notwithstanding this parallelism in the conditions of the Old and New Worlds, how widely different are their living productions! 
---
> In considering the distribution of organic beings over the face of the globe, the first great fact which strikes us is, that neither the similarity nor the dissimilarity of the inhabitants of various regions can be accounted for by their climatal and other physical conditions. Of late, almost every author who has studied the subject has come to this conclusion. The case of America alone would almost suffice to prove its truth: for if we exclude the northern parts where the circumpolar land is almost continuous, all authors agree that one of the most fundamental divisions in geographical distribution is that between the New and Old Worlds; yet if we travel over the vast American continent, from the central parts of the United States to its extreme southern point, we meet with the most diversified conditions; the most humid districts, arid deserts, lofty mountains, grassy plains, forests, marshes, lakes, and great rivers, under almost every temperature. There is hardly a climate or condition in the Old World which cannot be paralleled in the New at least as closely as the same species generally require; for it is a most rare case to find a group of organisms confined to any small spot, having conditions peculiar in only a slight degree; for instance, small areas in the Old World could be pointed out hotter than any in the New World, yet these are not inhabited by a peculiar fauna or flora. Notwithstanding this parallelism in the conditions of the Old and New Worlds, how widely different are their living productions! 
65c63
<  As on the land, so in the waters of the sea, a slow southern migration of a marine fauna, which during the Pliocene or even a somewhat earlier period, was nearly uniform along the continuous shores of the Polar Circle, will account, on the theory of modification, for many closely allied forms now living in areas completely sundered. Thus, I think, we can understand the presence of many existing and tertiary representative forms on the eastern and western shores of temperate North America; and the still more striking case of many closely allied crustaceans (as described in Dana's admirable work), of some fish and other marine animals, in the Mediterranean and in the seas of Japan, areas now separated by a continent and by nearly a hemisphere of equatorial ocean. 
---
> As on the land, so in the waters of the sea, a slow southern migration of a marine fauna, which during the Pliocene or even a somewhat earlier period, was nearly uniform along the continuous shores of the Polar Circle, will account, on the theory of modification, for many closely allied forms now living in areas completely sundered. Thus, I think, we can understand the presence of many existing and tertiary representative forms on the eastern and western shores of temperate North America; and the still more striking case of many closely allied crustaceans (as described in Dana's admirable work), of some fish and other marine animals, in the Mediterranean and in the seas of Japan, areas now separated by a continent and by nearly a hemisphere of equatorial ocean. 
93c91
< Sir C. Lyell in a striking passage has speculated, in language almost identical with mine, on the effects of great alterations of climate on geographical distribution. I believe that the world has recently felt one of his great cycles of change; and that on this view, combined with modification through natural selection, a multitude of facts in the present distribution both of the same and of allied forms of life can be explained. The living waters may be said to have flowed during one short period from the north and from the south, and to have crossed at the equator; but to have flowed with greater force from the north so as to have freely inundated the south. As the tide leaves its drift in horizontal lines, though rising higher on the shores where the tide rises highest, so have the living waters left their living drift on our mountain-summits, in a line gently rising from the arctic lowlands to a great height under the equator. The various beings thus left stranded may be compared with savage races of man, driven up and surviving in the mountain-fastnesses of almost every land, which serve as a record, full of interest to us, of the former inhabitants of the surrounding lowlands.
---
> Sir C. Lyell in a striking passage has speculated, in language almost identical with mine, on the effects of great alterations of climate on geographical distribution. I believe that the world has recently felt one of his great cycles of change; and that on this view, combined with modification through natural selection, a multitude of facts in the present distribution both of the same and of allied forms of life can be explained. The living waters may be said to have flowed during one short period from the north and from the south, and to have crossed at the equator; but to have flowed with greater force from the north so as to have freely inundated the south. As the tide leaves its drift in horizontal lines, though rising higher on the shores where the tide rises highest, so have the living waters left their living drift on our mountain-summits, in a line gently rising from the arctic lowlands to a great height under the equator. The various beings thus left stranded may be compared with savage races of man, driven up and surviving in the mountain-fastnesses of almost every land, which serve as a record, full of interest to us, of the former inhabitants of the surrounding lowlands.
------
Calculus|985777166
18c18,21
< Well, RP, what's stopping you from rewriting it?  How long can it take to rewrite two short articles about a subject you teach regularly (I'm guessing)? :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> Well, RP, what's stopping you from rewriting it?  How long can it take to rewrite two short articles about a subject you teach regularly (I'm guessing)? :-) --[[LMS]]----
> Well it is 5:39 A.M. Wednesday, March 28,2001, I think and I am still dealing with 
> copy edit problems. Any suggestion about when I might do this, not to mention sleep, food,
> a shower...Not all of us have time to come and write on wikipedia every day for a number of hours...HELP...RoseParks
------
Free_Software_Foundation|985783732
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <i>Free Software Foundation</i> (FSF) is a non-profit organization dedicated to producing and promoting [[Free software movement|free software]]. It was founded by [[Richard Stallman]], and works primarily on the [[GNU]] project.
> 
> <i>FSF history, software...</i>
> 
> See also: [[GNU]], [[Richard Stallman]], [[free]], [[free software movement]]
------
GNU|985783794
1c1,3
< "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by [[Richard_Stallman]] in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. <i>(more about RMS' motivations, early work, [[/GPL]], etc)</i>
---
> "GNU's Not [[Unix]]". The GNU project was started by [[Richard_Stallman]] in 1984 to create a complete free [[Unix]] system. 
> 
> <i>(more about RMS' motivations, early work, [[/GPL]], etc)</i>
11c13
< See also: [[Free software]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
---
> See also: [[Free software movement]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
Australia|985783837
1,2c1,2
< Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of New Zealand, and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
< It is the seventh and smallest of the continents, being both an island and a continent.
---
> Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of [[New Zealand]], and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
> It is the seventh and smallest of the [[continent]]s, being both an island and a continent.
7c7
< [[Great Britain]] originally used as a prison colony.
---
> [[Great Britain]] originally used it as a prison colony.
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985784054
43a44
> * I'm inclined to agree. I think I'll do that from now on. Hopefully, though, people won't take "it's the captial of [[Ontario]]" to be the last word on [[Toronto]]. :)
------
Countries_of_the_world|985784080
20c20
< <td><font size=+2>U</font><br>[[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]</td>
---
> <td> <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]</td>
25c25
< <td>CountriesM</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]</td>
------
CountriesM|985784098
1,15c1
< * [[Madagaskar]]
< * [[Malaysia]]
< * [[Malawi]]
< * [[Maldives]]
< * [[Mali]]
< * [[Malta]]
< * [[Martinique]]
< * [[Mauretania]]
< * [[Mauritius]]
< * [[Mexico]]
< * [[Moldova]]
< * [[Monaco]]
< * [[Mongolia]]
< * [[Morocco]]
< * [[Mozambique]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Stephen_Gilbert|985784143
44c44
< * I'm inclined to agree. I think I'll do that from now on. Hopefully, though, people won't take "it's the captial of [[Ontario]]" to be the last word on [[Toronto]]. :)
---
> * I'm inclined to agree. I think I'll do that from now on. Hopefully, though, people won't take "it's the captial of [[Ontario]]" to be the last word on [[Toronto]]. :) -- [[STG]]
------
CountriesV|985784197
1,8c1
< * [[Vanuatu]]
< 
< * [[Vatican City]]
< 
< * [[Venezuela]]
< 
< * [[Vietnam]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesE|985784283
1,3c1
< * [[Ecuador]]
< 
< * [[Estonia]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985784298
25,26c25,26
< <td><font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]</td>
< <td>CountriesV</td>
---
> <td> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]</td>
> <td><font size=+2>V</font><br> [[Vanuatu]] - [[Vatican City]] - [[Venezuela]] - [[Vietnam]] </td>
29c29,30
< <td>CountriesE</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
>  </td>
------
PublicDomainResources|985785351
21a22,23
> 
> [http://www.statcan.ca/ Statistics Canada] -- for all your Canadian data-related needs.
------
HomePage|985788129
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Animals]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
------
Animals|985788205
5c5,6
< 
---
> *Birds
>  [[Peregrin Falcon]]
------
Rob_Salzman|985788334
33a34,35
> ----
> And at least one of us that are lurking about trying to discern the difference betwixt meaningful and useful.  And still wondering if he should care if he doesn't comply to someone's differing definition thereof.  Rob, you and AyeSpy generally have some immediately thought-provoking articles here.  I'd classify those under meaningful, but immediately thought-provoking articles are not the only meaningful somethings produced here.  I want to contribute something meaningful and I'd like to do so within conventions and without elitism.  Any advice on how to do such? --[[Invictus]] 
------
Peregrin_Falcon|985788466
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Peregrine Falcon
> 
> Peregrine falcons are about the size of a crow; 15 to 21 
> inches long.  They have a wing span of about 40 inches.  
> Peregrine falcons are medium size falcons.  Adult peregrine 
> falcons have slate blue grey wings and backs barred with black.  
> Their undersides are white with light brown stripes; white faces 
> with a black stripe on each cheek and the head is blue-black.  
> They have large dark eyes. The younger birds are darker below and 
> browner.  The name for the peregrine in Latin, peregrinus, means 
> "foreigner" or "traveler".  The females are larger than the 
> males.
> 
> They eat mostly other birds such as shore birds, song birds, and ducks. In urban areas they also eat starlings and pigeons. They attack their prey by flying higher then them and diving at them.  A peregrine can dive over 200 miles per hour.
> 
> If a peregrine falcon can live through the first year, they can live up to 10 years.  Most do not survive their first year.
> 
> * Habitat
> 
> They live mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, and coast lines.  Peregrine falcons used to be most commonly found in parts of the Appalachian Mountains and nearby valleys from New England south to Georgia, the upper Mississippi River valley, and the Rocky Mountains.  They also inhabited along the Pacific Coast from Mexico north to the Arctic Tundra.
> 
> The nest is a scrape or depression dug in gravel on a cliff ledge .  Sometimes the peregrines will nest in a tree cavity or in an old stick nest.   The female will usually lay 3 to 5 eggs.  The color ranges from white reddish to molten brown.
> 
> * Endangered
> 
> The peregrine falcons become endangered because of pesticides.  The pesticides interfered with reproduction ( making it so that babies would not be born).  The peregrine falcon became extinct in eastern North America because of the pesticides.  In 1970, peregrine falcons were put on the endangered list.
> 
> * Recovery Efforts
> 
> The US Fish and Wildlife Services made peregrine falcon recovery teams of federal, state and independent biologists.  They breed and raise peregrine falcons in captivity at Cornell University.  To release a captive bred falcon, the bird was placed in a special box at the top of a tower or cliff ledge.  The birds were fed through a chute so they could not see the human trainers.  Then, when they were old enough, the box was opened.  This allowed the bird to test its wings.  As the bird got stronger the food was reduced because the bird could hunt its own food.  This is called hacking.
------
Animals|985788780
6c6
<  [[Peregrin Falcon]]
---
>  [[Peregrine Falcon]]
------
Peregrine_Falcon|985788800
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Peregrine Falcon
> 
> Peregrine falcons are about the size of a crow; 15 to 21 
> inches long.  They have a wing span of about 40 inches.  
> Peregrine falcons are medium size falcons.  Adult peregrine 
> falcons have slate blue grey wings and backs barred with black.  
> Their undersides are white with light brown stripes; white faces 
> with a black stripe on each cheek and the head is blue-black.  
> They have large dark eyes. The younger birds are darker below and 
> browner.  The name for the peregrine in Latin, peregrinus, means 
> "foreigner" or "traveler".  The females are larger than the 
> males.
> 
> They eat mostly other birds such as shore birds, song birds, and ducks. In urban areas they also eat starlings and pigeons. They attack their prey by flying higher then them and diving at them.  A peregrine can dive over 200 miles per hour.
> 
> If a peregrine falcon can live through the first year, they can live up to 10 years.  Most do not survive their first year.
> 
> * Habitat
> 
> They live mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, and coast lines.  Peregrine falcons used to be most commonly found in parts of the Appalachian Mountains and nearby valleys from New England south to Georgia, the upper Mississippi River valley, and the Rocky Mountains.  They also inhabited along the Pacific Coast from Mexico north to the Arctic Tundra.
> 
> The nest is a scrape or depression dug in gravel on a cliff ledge .  Sometimes the peregrines will nest in a tree cavity or in an old stick nest.   The female will usually lay 3 to 5 eggs.  The color ranges from white reddish to molten brown.
> 
> * Endangered
> 
> The peregrine falcons become endangered because of pesticides.  The pesticides interfered with reproduction ( making it so that babies would not be born).  The peregrine falcon became extinct in eastern North America because of the pesticides.  In 1970, peregrine falcons were put on the endangered list.
> 
> * Recovery Efforts
> 
> The US Fish and Wildlife Services made peregrine falcon recovery teams of federal, state and independent biologists.  They breed and raise peregrine falcons in captivity at Cornell University.  To release a captive bred falcon, the bird was placed in a special box at the top of a tower or cliff ledge.  The birds were fed through a chute so they could not see the human trainers.  Then, when they were old enough, the box was opened.  This allowed the bird to test its wings.  As the bird got stronger the food was reduced because the bird could hunt its own food.  This is called hacking.
> 
------
Falconiformes|985788824
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Includes [[Peregrine Falcon]].
------
Peregrin_Falcon|985789003
1,30c1
< * Peregrine Falcon
< 
< Peregrine falcons are about the size of a crow; 15 to 21 
< inches long.  They have a wing span of about 40 inches.  
< Peregrine falcons are medium size falcons.  Adult peregrine 
< falcons have slate blue grey wings and backs barred with black.  
< Their undersides are white with light brown stripes; white faces 
< with a black stripe on each cheek and the head is blue-black.  
< They have large dark eyes. The younger birds are darker below and 
< browner.  The name for the peregrine in Latin, peregrinus, means 
< "foreigner" or "traveler".  The females are larger than the 
< males.
< 
< They eat mostly other birds such as shore birds, song birds, and ducks. In urban areas they also eat starlings and pigeons. They attack their prey by flying higher then them and diving at them.  A peregrine can dive over 200 miles per hour.
< 
< If a peregrine falcon can live through the first year, they can live up to 10 years.  Most do not survive their first year.
< 
< * Habitat
< 
< They live mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, and coast lines.  Peregrine falcons used to be most commonly found in parts of the Appalachian Mountains and nearby valleys from New England south to Georgia, the upper Mississippi River valley, and the Rocky Mountains.  They also inhabited along the Pacific Coast from Mexico north to the Arctic Tundra.
< 
< The nest is a scrape or depression dug in gravel on a cliff ledge .  Sometimes the peregrines will nest in a tree cavity or in an old stick nest.   The female will usually lay 3 to 5 eggs.  The color ranges from white reddish to molten brown.
< 
< * Endangered
< 
< The peregrine falcons become endangered because of pesticides.  The pesticides interfered with reproduction ( making it so that babies would not be born).  The peregrine falcon became extinct in eastern North America because of the pesticides.  In 1970, peregrine falcons were put on the endangered list.
< 
< * Recovery Efforts
< 
< The US Fish and Wildlife Services made peregrine falcon recovery teams of federal, state and independent biologists.  They breed and raise peregrine falcons in captivity at Cornell University.  To release a captive bred falcon, the bird was placed in a special box at the top of a tower or cliff ledge.  The birds were fed through a chute so they could not see the human trainers.  Then, when they were old enough, the box was opened.  This allowed the bird to test its wings.  As the bird got stronger the food was reduced because the bird could hunt its own food.  This is called hacking.
---
> See: [[Peregrine Falcon]]
------
Calling_shotgun|985792302
21c21
< *the person that can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns)
---
> *the person that can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns
------
Bill_Clinton/Talk|985792435
12a13,15
> What is questionable is whether or not the executive branch took legal action that could not be won just to bankrupt the target industry/company.
> 
> Unions do this to non-union shops. see [[Salting]]
------
Salting|985792632
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Salting is a labor [[union]] tactic used to force a non-union business to accept a union.
> 
> Salting is where labor union members hire on at a non-union business and repeatedly file workplace complaints / harassment complaints against the employer in order to force the company to spend money defending itself from legal/investigative action by government regulators in order to force the business to accept a labor union.
------
Salting|985792689
1c1
< Salting is a labor [[union]] tactic used to force a non-union business to accept a union.
---
> Salting is a [[labor union]] tactic used to force a non-union business to accept a union.
3c3
< Salting is where labor union members hire on at a non-union business and repeatedly file workplace complaints / harassment complaints against the employer in order to force the company to spend money defending itself from legal/investigative action by government regulators in order to force the business to accept a labor union.
---
> Salting is where labor union members hire on at a non-union [[business]] and repeatedly file workplace complaints / harassment complaints against the employer in order to force the company to spend money defending itself from legal/investigative action by [[government]] regulators in order to force the business to accept a labor union.
------
Labor_union|985792776
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[organization]] of workers organized to [[negotiate]] [[wage]]s, [[working conditions]], and benefits with a business or group of businesses.
> 
> See also:
> *[[Salting]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985793218
23c23
< <td><font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica ]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
---
> <td><font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
31,32c31,32
< <td>CountriesN</td>
< <td>CountriesW</td>
---
> <td>CountriesN<br>[[Nepal]] -- [[Nicaragua]] -- [[Nigeria]] -- [[Norway]] -- [[Netherlands]]</td>
> <td>CountriesW<br>[[Western Samoa]]</td>
35,36c35,36
< <td>CountriesF</td>
< <td>CountriesO</td>
---
> <td>CountriesF<br>[[Fiji]]</td>
> <td>CountriesO<br>[[Oman]]</td>
39,41c39,41
< <td>CountriesG</td>
< <td>CountriesP</td>
< <td>CountriesY</td>
---
> <td>CountriesG<br>[[Greece]] - [[Guyana]] -- [[Guatamala]]</td>
> <td>CountriesP<br>[[Pakistan]] -- [[Paraguay]] -- [[Poland]]</td>
> <td>CountriesY<br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
44,46c44,46
< <td>CountriesH</td>
< <td>CountriesQ</td>
< <td>CountriesZ</td>
---
> <td>CountriesH<br>[[Hati]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]</td>
> <td>CountriesQ<br>[[Qatar]]</td>
> <td>CountriesZ<br>[[Zambia]]</td>
49,50c49,50
< <td>CountriesI</td>
< <td>CountriesR</td>
---
> <td>CountriesI<br>[[Iran]] -- [[Iraq]] -- [[Ireland]] -- [[Italy]]</td>
> <td>CountriesR<br>[[Romania]]</td>
------
Australia|985793372
10a11,12
> Australia and its territories is sometimes referred to as the <b>Australian Commonwealth</b>.
> 
------
Handgun|985793458
1c1,3
< A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carried and used in one hand.  While a two-handed aiming posture may be optimum for most firearms, including handguns; if the gun is not designed to be useable in a single hand, it is not a handgun.
---
> A handgun is a [[gun]] small enough to be carried and used in one hand.  
> 
> While a two-handed aiming posture may be optimum for most firearms, including handguns; if the gun is not designed to be useable in a single hand, it is not a handgun.
------
MouthOff|985793638
0a1,2
> <b>Mouth off</b> means to express ones opinion or to speak.
> ----
------
IslandS|985793762
0a1,6
> A land mass surrounded by water.
> 
> [[Greenland]] is the largest island is the world.
> 
> [[Australia]] is also an island and a continent.
> 
3c9
< One Island of the coast of Australia called Fraser Island.
---
> One Island of the coast of Australia called Fraser Island.
------
Encyclopedia|985793820
7a8,9
> ----
> <b>Cyclopedia</b> is the old form of the word encyclopedia.
------
PublicDomainResources|985793997
4c4,6
< 
---
> ----
> Shouldn't we use the public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary as a basic definition reference?
> ----
------
GNU|985794082
7c7
< Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it un the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free software|free]] operating system was formed.
---
> Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it under the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free software|free]] operating system was formed.
------
Oregon|985794320
1c1,3
< Oregonians are proud of their state's wealth of beautiful forests and streams,
---
> Oregon is a state located in the western [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[California]], [[Washington]], [[Idaho]], and [[Nevada]].
> ----
> [[Oregonian]]s are proud of their state's wealth of beautiful forests and streams,
------
City_of_New_York|985794486
0a1,2
> Large city in the state of New York in the United States. 
> 
12a15,16
> New York City is amongst the most densly populated places in the United States. 
> 
13a18,22
> A resident of New York City is a New Yorker. 
> 
> NYC is an acroynm for New York City. 
> 
> It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.
15a25
> 
------
New_York_City|985794509
1,10c1
< Large city in the state of [[New York]] in the [[United States]].
< 
< A resident of New York City is a [[New Yorker]].
< 
< [[NYC]] is an acroynm for New York City.
< 
< New York City is amongst the most densly populated places in the United States.
< 
< It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.----
< Duplicate entry but not content. See [[City of New York]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[City of New York]]
------
Washington_DC|985794622
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital city / administrative district for the [[United States]] of [[America]].
> 
> 
------
Requested_articles|985794930
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] 
------
LiberaL|985795003
3a4,6
> 
> See also:
> *[[Limousine liberal]]
------
GNU|985795455
7c7
< Work on Hurd proceed much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it under the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[Free software|free]] operating system was formed.
---
> Work on Hurd proceeded much slower than expected for a variety of reasons. However, in 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]] developed the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel and released it under the [[/GPL|GNU General Public licence]]. Linux was futher developed by various programmers around the world, combined with the nearly-completed GNU system in 1992, and thus fully functional [[free]] operating system was formed.
------
LiberaL|985798013
1,6c1
< Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.
< 
< Starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
< 
< See also:
< *[[Limousine liberal]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Liberal]]
------
Liberal|985798022
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.  This is now called "[[classical liberalism]]."  The word "liberal" still has this meaning in [[Europe]], but not in the [[United States]].
> 
> In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
> 
> See also:
> *[[limousine liberal]]
------
PublicDomainResources|985798132
5,6d4
< Shouldn't we use the public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary as a basic definition reference?
< ----
------
Invictus|985798140
30a31,32
> ----
> One reads Hegel, yes - and, by the way, finds his thinking rather convoluted.  I tend to find that the more complex treatments of the truth become, the farther they stray from the truth, itself.  In most respects, not a great admirer of Hegel.  As to your question to Rob, I don't know that Wikipedia really invites such partisan expression as might cause the blood pressure to rise in those with non-congruous viwepoints.  However, You might have a strong opinion which you feel is straining to see the light of day.  If you wrote an article which gave credit to opposing views, even while mentioning that you yourself do not see eye-to-eye with them, you might resonably place it within [[Wikipedia commentary]].   If objection, hue and cry are raised, then you might modify or remove it in the interest of peaceful coexistence.  But it's hard to gauge the impact of something without at least letting it breathe ''a little''. 
------
Calculus|985798300
21a22,23
> ----
> What can I say?  Thanks!  Anyway, no rush on Wikipedia.  If you don't make changes, eventually, someone else will, I'm sure. --[[LMS]]
------
HomePage|985798476
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Animals]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
------
Biology|985798532
8c8
< The classification of living things is called [[taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.  The standard system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], where living things are divided into a hierarchy starting with five kingdoms - the [[Monera]], [[Protista]], [[Fungi]], [[Plantae]], and [[Animalia]].
---
> The classification of living things is called [[taxonomy]], and ideally should reflect the evolutionary trees of the different creatures.  The standard system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], where living things are divided into a hierarchy starting with five kingdoms - the [[Monera]], [[Protista]], [[Fungi]], [[Plantae]], and [[Animalia]] (i.e., [[animal]]s).
------
Animals|985798590
1,11c1
< *Taxonomy
<  [[Animalia]]
< 
< ''Very little of what's on that page is taxonomy - it's mostly an overview of the group, a discussion of what distinguishes them, and some notes about their origin.  I know it's a little technical but that's mainly because I wrote it in excitement over finding out what unites sponges and metazoa; I'm not sure what the purpose of dividing pages like this would be.''
< *Birds
<  [[Peregrine Falcon]]
< *Mammals
<  [[Aardvark]]
<  [[Aardwolf]]
<  [[Cattle]]
<  [[Elephant]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Animal]]
------
Animal|985798605
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *Taxonomy
>  [[Animalia]]
> *Birds
>  [[Peregrine Falcon]]
> *Mammals
>  [[Aardvark]]
>  [[Aardwolf]]
>  [[Cattle]]
>  [[Elephant]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Animal/Talk|985798631
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Very little of what's on that page [i.e., [[Animalia]]] is taxonomy - it's mostly an overview of the group, a discussion of what distinguishes them, and some notes about their origin.  I know it's a little technical but that's mainly because I wrote it in excitement over finding out what unites sponges and metazoa; I'm not sure what the purpose of dividing pages like this would be.''
------
Animal/Talk|985798852
1c1,3
< ''Very little of what's on that page [i.e., [[Animalia]]] is taxonomy - it's mostly an overview of the group, a discussion of what distinguishes them, and some notes about their origin.  I know it's a little technical but that's mainly because I wrote it in excitement over finding out what unites sponges and metazoa; I'm not sure what the purpose of dividing pages like this would be.''
---
> ''Very little of what's on that page [i.e., [[Animalia]]] is taxonomy - it's mostly an overview of the group, a discussion of what distinguishes them, and some notes about their origin.  I know it's a little technical but that's mainly because I wrote it in excitement over finding out what unites sponges and metazoa; I'm not sure what the purpose of dividing pages like this would be.''
> 
> "Animal" is quite obviously a natural topic for biology!  You might want to say ''something'' on the page called "animal," in less technical terms, and otherwise point to the [[Animalia]] page.  Similarly, Wikipedia is not going to go through life never having a [[plant]] page.  There is no good reason to use the Latin words ''exclusively,'' is there?  If only to avoid redundancy, well, of course you can avoid redundancy by monitoring what is put on the [[animal]] page and what is on the [[animalia]] page.  ''Maybe,'' you'll simply want the [[animal]] page point to [[animalia]]. --[[LMS]]
------
Animal|985798922
1,9c1,9
< *Taxonomy
<  [[Animalia]]
< *Birds
<  [[Peregrine Falcon]]
< *Mammals
<  [[Aardvark]]
<  [[Aardwolf]]
<  [[Cattle]]
<  [[Elephant]]
---
> Taxonomy
> :[[Animalia]]
> Birds
> :[[Peregrine Falcon]]
> Mammals
> :[[Aardvark]]
> :[[Aardwolf]]
> :[[Cattle]]
> :[[Elephant]]
11c11
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
CountriesW|985799091
1,3c1
< * [[Wales]]
< 
< * [[Wallis and Fortuna]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesF|985799281
1,3c1
< [[Finland]]
< 
< [[France]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesO|985799331
1,2c1
< [[Oman]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Wiki_Canonization|985799358
44a45,62
> '''March 28, 2001 update:'''
> 
> The development version of UseModWiki now converts all separate "words" in a page name to start with uppercase letters.  Words are separated by spaces/underscores or punctuation.  (In this version the 5 punctuation characters (),.- are allowed in page titles.)
> 
> Links to pages (either within pages or in URLs) will be able to use lowercase words.  For instance:
>  [[naming conventions]]
>  [[naming Conventions]]
>  [[Naming conventions]]
>  [[Naming Conventions]]
> ...will all link to the same page (which will be titled titled "Naming Conventions").  One could link to http.../naming_conventions or http.../naming_Conventions, etc.
> 
> The only drawback of this solution that I can find is that irrelevant words (like and, of, or a) will also be capitalized in page titles.  For instance, the page [[The Canon of Scripture]] will be titled [[The Canon Of Scripture]].  The page title (fully capitalized) is what is shown on the RecentChanges page, the search results page, and the top of the actual wiki page itself.
> 
> Before the code can be changed, a conversion script must be run to convert all the old pages with lowercase words to uppercase names.  In most cases this will be easy, but there are a few pages with names that differ only in case.  Links will not have to be converted--they will work as-is.
> 
> Does anyone strongly object to this plan?  Eventually further canonization may occur, but this simple step should solve some recent problems.  --CliffordAdams
> 
> ----
------
Countries_of_the_world|985799443
31,32c31,32
< <td>CountriesN<br>[[Nepal]] -- [[Nicaragua]] -- [[Nigeria]] -- [[Norway]] -- [[Netherlands]]</td>
< <td>CountriesW<br>[[Western Samoa]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)</td>
> <td><font size=+2>W</font><br>* [[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]</td>
35,36c35,37
< <td>CountriesF<br>[[Fiji]]</td>
< <td>CountriesO<br>[[Oman]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>F</font><br>[[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]]</td>
> <td><font size=+2>O</font><br>[[Oman]]</td>
> <td>CountriesY<br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
41c42
< <td>CountriesY<br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
---
> <td>CountriesZ<br>[[Zambia]]</td>
46d46
< <td>CountriesZ<br>[[Zambia]]</td>
------
CountriesG|985799506
1,9c1
< * [[Germany]]
< 
< * [[Ghana]]
< 
< * [[Greece]]
< 
< * [[Guatemala]]
< 
< * [[Guyana]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesP|985799623
1,19c1
< * [[Panama]]
< 
< * [[Pakistan]]
< 
< * [[Papua New Guinea]]
< 
< * [[Paraguay]]
< 
< * [[Peru]]
< 
< * [[Phillipines]]
< 
< * [[Pitcairn Island]]
< 
< * [[Poland]]
< 
< * [[Portugal]]
< 
< * [[Puerto Rico]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesZ|985799672
1,7c1
< [[Zaire]]
< 
< [[Zambia]]
< 
< [[Zanzibar]]
< 
< [[Zimbabwe]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesH|985799724
1,5c1
< * [[Haiti]]
< 
< * [[Honduras]]
< 
< * [[Hungary]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesI|985799823
1,15c1
< * [[Iceland]]
< 
< * [[India]]
< 
< * [[Indonesia]]
< 
< * [[Iran]]
< 
< * [[Iraq]]
< 
< * [[Ireland]]
< 
< * [[Israel]]
< 
< * [[Italy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
CountriesR|985799869
1,5c1
< * [[Romania]]
< 
< * [[Russia]]
< 
< * [[Rwanda]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985799909
37c37
< <td>CountriesY<br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
40,42c40,43
< <td>CountriesG<br>[[Greece]] - [[Guyana]] -- [[Guatamala]]</td>
< <td>CountriesP<br>[[Pakistan]] -- [[Paraguay]] -- [[Poland]]</td>
< <td>CountriesZ<br>[[Zambia]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
> </td>
> <td><font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]</td>
> <td><font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]</td>
45,46c46,47
< <td>CountriesH<br>[[Hati]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]</td>
< <td>CountriesQ<br>[[Qatar]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]</td>
> <td><font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]</td>
49,50c50,51
< <td>CountriesI<br>[[Iran]] -- [[Iraq]] -- [[Ireland]] -- [[Italy]]</td>
< <td>CountriesR<br>[[Romania]]</td>
---
> <td><font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]</td>
> <td><font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]</td>
------
Wiki_Canonization|985800415
61c61,62
< 
---
> ----
> Sounds great!  I have no objections, but I think it would be nice if ' could be used in page titles, since possessives are so often used.  I'm vaguely aware that this might mess up the use of italics or bold, so why not at least permit ' as long as there is no ' adjacent to it?  I'd like to be able to write [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Plato's_Republic Plato's Republic]. -- [[LMS]]
------
Free_sofware|985800633
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Free software]]
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Countries_of_the_world|985800718
58a59,60
> 
> /Talk
------
Countries_of_the_world/Talk|985801042
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I must say that I object to getting rid of the CountriesX system
> completely.  I don't mind <i>much</i> seeing all the countries here on this page listed in a table (though see below).  But I think there was no harm in leaving the individual pages alone.
> 
> We could have the letters in the table (the big A, big B, etc.) point to individual pages for that group of countries.
> ----
> 
> My objection to having all the countries here on this page are two-fold.
> 
> First, this page is now a giant monstrosity.  Any list over a certain length ought to be broken down alphabetically, I think.  For example, over on [[actresses]] and [[actors]], I anticipate that we would prefer, eventually, to not have a huge and useless list, but instead to break it down alphabetically <i>and</i> perhaps by era (date of birth, for example).  But in any event, even if we did have one big page of actors, we should also have alphabetically-broken-down pages, etc.
> 
> Second, I think that the use of tables for this sort of thing ought to be discouraged, for the same reason that people complained (rightfully so, I think) about the [[biology]] page.  Yes, it looks nicer, but it also makes it harder to use the data for other purposes (by other projects, for example), and it makes it harder for newcomers.  Simple straight text is really nice for many reasons.
------
Handgun|985801091
3c3
< While a two-handed aiming posture may be optimum for most firearms, including handguns; if the gun is not designed to be useable in a single hand, it is not a handgun.
---
> While a two-handed aiming posture may be optimum for most firearms, including handguns, if the gun is not designed to be useable in a single hand, it is not a handgun.
------
PublicDomainResources|985801164
23a24,25
> 
> /Talk
------
Invictus|985801235
32a33,34
> ----
> Grant, in case you didn't know this already, the eminently reasonable request is that one not present one's essays, which are full of [[idiosyncratic]] personal opinion (however brilliant it might be), as though they were encyclopedia articles.  Your opinions and mine are not of interest (unless we are the subject of an encyclopedia article, which you'll forgive me for saying is a little unlikely).  There are [[RulesToConsider|rules]] against this--to be specific, an "avoid bias" rule to which Bruce has (curiously) put his name.  See also NeutralPointOfView.  To satisfy Bruce's opinionizing urges, we have set up the [[Wikipedia commentary]] page.  He and you and everyone is free (at least as far as ''I'm'' concerned--I ''predict'' that no one will change your productions, but I don't ''know'') to opinionize to whatever extent you please there (as long as it's non-libellous and otherwise legal).  Hope this helps.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
PublicDomainResources/Talk|985801520
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone wrote "Shouldn't we use the public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary as a basic definition reference?"
> 
> [[Larry Sanger]] responded: "To answer the question: no, 1913 is too old."
> 
> I don't understand this response.  We have a handful of articles from the public domain version of Britannica, which is quite old, and these articles <i>are</i> too old, because much of the information is hopelessly outdated.  But a dictionary is different.  A 1913 dictionary surely has a perfectly good definition of '[[shotgun]]' for example.  Since I didn't know there was a 1913 public domain dictionary, I had to dig up a very legalistic definition from the US legal code.
> 
> I think that using the public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged as a basic reference for definitions of words can be very helpful.
> 
> Of course, it is important for us to remember that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary, so the random copying of entries from that work can be discouraged.  But using those entries as a jumping off point seems like a great idea.
> 
> I mean, [[shotgun]] is a great example.  I "just knew" what a shotgun was, but never tried to put it into words.  I found it very difficult to do so!  A dictionary definition, especially a public domain one that I could just freely copy without questions of fair use, etc., would have been great.
------
Countries_of_the_world/Talk|985801752
11c11,15
< Second, I think that the use of tables for this sort of thing ought to be discouraged, for the same reason that people complained (rightfully so, I think) about the [[biology]] page.  Yes, it looks nicer, but it also makes it harder to use the data for other purposes (by other projects, for example), and it makes it harder for newcomers.  Simple straight text is really nice for many reasons.
---
> Second, I think that the use of tables for this sort of thing ought to be discouraged, for the same reason that people complained (rightfully so, I think) about the [[biology]] page.  Yes, it looks nicer, but it also makes it harder to use the data for other purposes (by other projects, for example), and it makes it harder for newcomers.  Simple straight text is really nice for many reasons.
> ----
> Well, it is broken down alphabetically, as it ought to be.  :-)  But why on separate pages?  I don't think it's a monstrosity at all.  I like being able to see all the countries in the world from one page; it's kind of a pain to have to click through to the "CountriesA" page just to find the entry on [[Andorra]].  I'll grant you it would be nicer if it were alphabetized horizontally rather than vertically.  That wouldn't take long to do, though.
> 
> As to the second objection, well, since I was the first one to object to the [[biology]] page format, I guess you're right.  How about [[Countries of the world2|this]]? --[[LMS]]
------
Encyclopedia|985801803
1c1
< An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter of shelf space.
---
> An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter (roughly one yard, for those of you still using the English system) of shelf space.
3c3,4
< When the computers become more and more common Encyclopedias is by their structure of words and cross references extremely well suited for moving the contents from the book format to the computer format. Firstly because it is a lot easier to carry around and find what you are looking for and secondly because it is possible to include sounds and films as illustrations.
---
> Encyclopedias, by their structure of words and cross references,
> are extremely well suited for moving the contents from the book format to the computer format. Firstly because it is a lot easier to carry around and find what you are looking for and secondly because it is possible to include sounds and films as illustrations.
9c10
< <b>Cyclopedia</b> is the old form of the word encyclopedia.
---
> <b>Cyclopedia</b> is the old form of the word encyclopedia.
------
Countries_of_the_world2|985802127
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
> 
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
> 
> <font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
> 
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
> 
> <font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
> 
> <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
> 
> <font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
> 
> <font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
> 
> <font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
> 
> <font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
> 
> <font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
> 
> <font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]]
> 
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
> 
> <font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)
> 
> <font size=+2>O</font><br>[[Oman]]
> 
> <font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]
> 
> <font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]
> 
> <font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
> 
> <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
> 
> <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]
> 
> <font size=+2>V</font><br> [[Vanuatu]] - [[Vatican City]] - [[Venezuela]] - [[Vietnam]]
> 
> <font size=+2>W</font><br>* [[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
> ----
> See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
> 
> /Talk
------
Countries_of_the_world2|985802179
39c39
< <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
---
> <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]
45c45
< <font size=+2>W</font><br>* [[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
---
> <font size=+2>W</font><br>[[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
53c53
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Countries_of_the_world|985802269
1c1,3
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
> 
> '''If you think [[Countries of the world2|this]] is better, replace the contents of the present page with the contents of [[Countries of the world2|this]].'''
60c62
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mount_Logan|985802378
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> At 5,959 metres, Mount Logan is Canada's highest [[mountain]]. It is located in the [[Yukon]], and was named after Sir [[Willian Edmond Logan]], a [[Canadian]] [[geologist]].
> 
> <i>-- to be added: geological features, climbing history, controversy surrounding the proposed name change to '[[Pierre Elliot Trudeau]] Mountain' --</i>
------
Oregon|985802517
20c20
< Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]] near the mouth of the Columbia River.  Exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805-1806) and Britain's [[David Thompson]] (1811) publicized the abundance of fur in the area. In 1811, New York financier [[John Jacob Astor]] established [[Fort Astoria]] at the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] with the intention of starting chain of [[Pacific Fur Company]] trading posts along the river.  Fort Astoria was the the first permanent white settlement in Oregon. In the War of 1812 the British to gained control of all of the Pacific Fur Company posts.
---
> Oregon was originally occupied by a number of [[Native American]] tribes, including the [[Bannock]], [[Chinook]], [[Klamath]], and [[Nez Perce]].  [[James Cook]] explored the coast in 1778 in search of the [[Northwest Passage]].  The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] travelled through the region during their expedition to explore the [[Louisiana Purchase]], at the direction of [[Thomas Jefferson]].  They built their winter fort at [[Fort Clatsop Washington]] near the mouth of the Columbia River.  Exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805-1806) and Britain's [[David Thompson]] (1811) publicized the abundance of fur in the area. In 1811, New York financier [[John Jacob Astor]] established [[Fort Astoria]] at the mouth of the [[Columbia River]] with the intention of starting chain of [[Pacific Fur Company]] trading posts along the river.  Fort Astoria was the the first permanent white settlement in Oregon. In the War of 1812 the British gained control of all of the Pacific Fur Company posts.
------
James_Cook|985802691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> James Cook (1728-1779) was a British explorer and navigator.  He was famous for his exploration of the South [[Pacific Ocean]] and the coastal waters of North America. Cook discovered [[Hawaii]].
------
PublicDomainResources/Talk|985803061
11c11,15
< I mean, [[shotgun]] is a great example.  I "just knew" what a shotgun was, but never tried to put it into words.  I found it very difficult to do so!  A dictionary definition, especially a public domain one that I could just freely copy without questions of fair use, etc., would have been great.
---
> I mean, [[shotgun]] is a great example.  I "just knew" what a shotgun was, but never tried to put it into words.  I found it very difficult to do so!  A dictionary definition, especially a public domain one that I could just freely copy without questions of fair use, etc., would have been great.
> ----
> Well, I deleted the question because I thought it was a nonstarter, but maybe it wasn't.  As you said, we aren't really after dictionary definitions here; encyclopedias are different from dictionaries.  We can ''use'' text ''from'' a public domain dictionary, sure.  In most cases, though, I don't think it would make much sense simply to ''cut and paste'' a definition from an dictionary into Wikipedia.  Basically, if someone doesn't have more to say about a topic than what is in a dictionary, then we probably shouldn't just create the article just in order to paste a dictionary definition in.  Using them as a jumping-off point is fine, sure, I'll go along with that.
> 
> I have no objection whatsoever to putting a link to a 1913 public domain dictionary on the PublicDomainResources page.  My reservations are about what people will most likely ''do'' with it. --[[LMS]]
------
PublicDomainResources|985803120
25c25,27
< /Talk
---
> The public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary could be useful for defining a term (as part of a longer article).
> 
> /Talk
------
Louisiana_Purchase|985803182
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Louisiana Purchase is more then 800,000 square miles of territory purchased by the [[United States]] from [[France]] in 1803. The purchase contained parts or all of present-day [[Arkansas]], [[Missouri]], [[Iowa]], [[Minnesota]] west of the [[Mississippi River]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Nebraska]], [[Oklahoma]], nearly all of [[Kansas]], the portions of [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Colorado]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]], and [[Louisiana]] west of the [[Mississippi River]] but including the city of [[New Orleans]].
------
Countries_of_the_world/Talk|985803405
15c15,18
< As to the second objection, well, since I was the first one to object to the [[biology]] page format, I guess you're right.  How about [[Countries of the world2|this]]? --[[LMS]]
---
> As to the second objection, well, since I was the first one to object to the [[biology]] page format, I guess you're right.  How about [[Countries of the world2|this]]? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> I like the second form better. It's more accesible for devices
> that do not render tables well --AstroNomer
------
Wiki_Canonization|985803498
63a64,74
> First of all, thanks for the parentheses, that will be a big help.  And I don't think your present proposal willcause any major problems.
> 
> There are two separate functions here that are currently closely tied, but that perhaps could be separated at some point: (1) the page "address" and (2) the displayed page title.  The address should be such that accidental or ad hoc links are maximized.  For example, if I'm typing some text on another page and use the word "republic", I should be able to put brackets around it on a whim and hope it goes somewhere useful.  It would be nice to do the same thing with "Plato's <nowiki>''Republic''</nowiki>", "Kurt G&ouml;del", and "War and Peace".  Removing punctuation, extra spaces, and markup; anglicizing foreign characters (or maybe encoding them); and standardizing case achieves this purpose nicely.  But doing the same thing to the displayed title of a page makes it ugly and (more seriously) less accurate.
> 
> I can imagine two ways to produce cleaner titles and simple ad hoc links: (1) Rather than simply removing punctuation and foreign characters, encode them in a way that allows them to be reproduced for the title, perhaps URL-encoding.  That takes care of "Plato%27s" and "G%F6del", but not the capitalization of "War and Peace".  (2) Allow the page itself to override the address-title with its own display-title.  This takes care of all of the above, at the risk of possibly confusing users by allowing titles that don't relate to the address at all.  Perhaps allow only certain changes; for example, the given title must cannonize to the same address.  Also, I assume this is harder to implement.
> 
> If you decide to eventually adopt one of these schemes or a similar one, it might be a good idea to use a near-term solution that does not conflict with its later adoption.  
> 
> Also, it is unclear from your description of the proposed capitalization scheme whether "Nirvana (band)" would remanin as is or become "Nirvana (Band)". --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> ----
------
PublicDomainResources/Talk|985803599
15c15,21
< I have no objection whatsoever to putting a link to a 1913 public domain dictionary on the PublicDomainResources page.  My reservations are about what people will most likely ''do'' with it. --[[LMS]]
---
> I have no objection whatsoever to putting a link to a 1913 public domain dictionary on the PublicDomainResources page.  My reservations are about what people will most likely ''do'' with it. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> The dictionary entry for a particular topic would be helpful in giving the overview/short explanation of a topic.  A much longer entry would have to follow.
> 
> I've used the 1913 dictionary and found that most of the definitions are the same as the modern day dictionary.  It serves as a good fundamental public domain quick reference for topics.
> 
> Project Guttenburg has a 1921 encyclopedia volume A online also...  The data is dated but most of the classical topics in it are worth using.  For example, an entry for Angola would be dated but a biography of John Adams would not necessarily be dated.
------
HomePage|985803645
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Marine Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
Earth_Sciences|985803720
1c1
< Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], perhaps [[Environmental Sciences]], and other sciences.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
------
Countries_of_the_world/Talk|985803757
18c18,23
< that do not render tables well --AstroNomer
---
> that do not render tables well --AstroNomer
> ----
> It would be nice to have some sort of a jumpbar on the top of the pages
> A B C D E F ..
> where clicking on A takes you to the A's, etc..
> I'm not sure if this can be done with this software (Wiki) [[Rob Salzman]]
------
CategorySchemesTalk|985803927
36a37,40
> 
> ----
> 
> As you can see, I've been tweaking our HomePage category scheme.  It probably needs further tweaking, if we're going to follow a nonredundancy rule; e.g., [[countries of the world]] is a subcategory of [[geography]].  This is something we should perhaps discuss. [[LMS]]
------
Dessert|985803988
8c8
<  [[Canneloni]]
---
>  [[Canoli]]
------
Dessert|985804053
8c8
<  [[Canoli]]
---
>  [[Cannoli]]
------
Political_liberal|985804269
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.  This is now called "[[classical liberalism]]."  The word "liberal" still has this meaning in [[Europe]], but not in the [[United States]].
> 
> In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
> 
> See also:
> *[[limousine liberal]]
------
GNU|985804600
0a1,2
> See also the animal, [[Gnu]].
> 
------
Liberal|985804704
1c1,5
< Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.  This is now called "[[classical liberalism]]."  The word "liberal" still has this meaning in [[Europe]], but not in the [[United States]].
---
> The word <i>liberal</i>, derived from the Latin <i>liber</i> ("free") has several senses:
> 
> * [[Political liberal]]
> * generous, abundant, bountiful: <i>the dessert contains a liberal amount of sugar</i>
> * independent, unrestrained: <i>the liberal arts, a liberal tongue, a liberal translation</i>
3d6
< In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
5,6d7
< See also:
< *[[limousine liberal]]
------
John_Adams|985804749
1c1,206
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>John Adams</b> was the second president of the [[United States]].
> ----
> From the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia Volume 1:
> 
> ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United 
> States of America, was born on the 30th of October 1735 in 
> what is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts.  His father, a 
> farmer, also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent 
> from Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, 
> to Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston 
> Adams.  Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1755, 
> and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in 
> the office of Rufus Putnam.  In 1758 he was admitted to the 
> bar.  From an early age he developed the habit of writing 
> descriptions of events and impressions of men.  The earliest 
> of these is his report of the argument of James Otis in the 
> superior court of Massachusetts as to the constitutionality 
> of writs of assistance.  This was in 1761, and the argument 
> inspired him with zeal for the cause of the American 
> colonies.  Years afterwards, when an old man, Adams undertook 
> to write out at length his recollections of this scene; it is 
> instructive to compare the two accounts.  John Adams had none 
> of the qualities of popular leadership which were so marked a 
> characteristic of his second cousin, Samuel Adams; it was rather 
> as a constitutional lawyer that he influenced the course of 
> events.  He was impetuous, intense and often vehement, 
> unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his whole soul to the 
> cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his pride of opinion 
> and his inborn contentiousness were serious handicaps to him 
> in his political career.  These qualities were particularly 
> manifested at a later period---as, for example, during his 
> term as president.  He first made his influence widely felt 
> and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs 
> during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765.  
> In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the 
> town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts 
> legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in 
> drawing up instructions to their representatives; in August 
> 1765 he contributed anonymously four notable articles to the 
> Boston Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 
> as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he 
> argued that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act 
> was a part of the never-ending struggle between individualism 
> and corporate authority; and in December 1765 he delivered a 
> speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced 
> the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being 
> without representation in parliament, had not assented to 
> it.  In 1768 fee removed to Boston, Two years later, with that 
> degree of moral courage which was one of his distinguishing 
> characteristics, as it has been of his descendants, he, 
> aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr., defended the British soldiers 
> who were arrested after the ``Boston Massacre,'' charged 
> with causing the death of four persons, inhabitants of the 
> colony.  The trial resulted in an acquittal of the officer 
> who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers; 
> but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter.  These 
> claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and 
> released.  Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking 
> the unpopular side in this case met with its just reward 
> in the following year, in the shape of his election to the 
> Massachusetts House of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118. 
> 
> John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 
> 1778.  In June 1775, with a view to promoting the union of 
> the colonies, he seconded the nomination of Washington as 
> commander-in-chief of the army.  His influence in congress was 
> great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a 
> separation of the colonies from Great Britain.  On the 7th 
> of June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by 
> Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that ``these colonies are, and of 
> a right ought to be, free and independent states,'' and no 
> man championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) 
> so eloquently and effectively before the congress.  On the 
> 8th of June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, 
> Franklin, Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of 
> Independence; and although that document was by the request 
> of the committee written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John 
> Adams who occupied the foremost place in the debate on its 
> adoption.  Before this question had been disposed of, Adams 
> was placed at the head of the Board of War and Ordnance, 
> and he also served on many other important committees. 
> 
> In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas Deane 
> in the American commission there.  But just as he embarked that 
> commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance, and soon 
> after his arrival he advised that the number of commissioners 
> be reduced to one.  His advice was followed and he returned home 
> in time to be elected a member of the convention which framed 
> the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the organic law 
> of that commonwealth.  With James Bowdoin and Samuel Adams, he 
> formed a sub-committee which drew up the first draft of that 
> instrument, and most of it probably came from John Adams's 
> pen.  Before this work had been completed he was again sent to 
> Europe, having been chosen on the 27th of September 1779 as 
> minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a treaty of peace 
> and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain.  Conditions were 
> not then favourable for peace, however; the French government, 
> moreover, did not approve of the choice, inasmuch as Adams 
> was not sufficiently pliant and tractable and was from the 
> first suspicious of Vergennes; and subsequently Benjamin 
> Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were 
> appointed to co-operate with Adams.  Jefferson, however, did 
> not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took little part in the 
> negotiations.  This left the management of the business to the other 
> three.  Jay and Adams distrusted thc good faith of the French 
> government.  Outvoting Franklin, they decided to break their 
> instructions, which required them to ``make the most candid 
> confidential communications on all subjects to the ministers 
> of our generous ally, the king of France; to undertake 
> nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their 
> knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to govern yourself 
> by their advice and opinion''; and, instead, they dealt 
> directly with the British commissioners, without consulting 
> the French ministers.  Throughout the negotiations Adams was 
> especially determined that the right of the United States 
> to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be 
> recognized.  Political conditions in Great Britain, at the 
> moment, made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity 
> with the British ministry, and eventually the American 
> negotiators were able to secure a peculiarly favourable 
> treaty.  This preliminary treaty was signed on the 30th of 
> November 1782.  Before these negotiations began, Adams had 
> spent some time in the Netherlands.  In July 1780 he had been 
> authorized to execute the duties previously assigned to Henry 
> Laurens, and at the Hague was eminently successful, securing 
> there recognition of the United States as an independent 
> government (April 19, 1782), and negotiating both a loan 
> and, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce, 
> the first of such treaties between the United States and 
> foreign powers after that of February 1778 with France. 
> 
> In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line of 
> able and distinguished American ministers to the court of St 
> James's.  When he was presented to his former sovereign, 
> George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack 
> of confidence in the French government.  Replying, Mr Adams 
> admitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: ``I must 
> avow to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own 
> country''--a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's 
> sensibilities.  While in London Adams published a work 
> entitled A Defence of the Constitution of Government of 
> the United States (1787).  In this work he ably combated 
> the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the 
> viciousness of the frame-work of the state governments.  
> Unfortunately, in so doing, he used phrases savouring of 
> aristocracy which offended many of his countrymen,---as in the 
> sentence in which he suggested that ``the rich, the well-born 
> and the able'' should be set apart from other men in a 
> senate.  Partly for this reason, while Washington had the vote 
> of every elector in the first presidential election of 1789, 
> Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty-nine.  As this 
> was the second largest number he was declared vice-president, 
> but he began his eight years in that office (1789-- 1797) with 
> a sense of grievance and of suspicion of many of the leading 
> men.  Differences of opinion with regard to the policies to be 
> pursued by the new government gradually led to the formation 
> of two well-defined political groups---the Federalists and the 
> Democratic-Republicans--and Adams became recognized as one of 
> the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the former. 
> 
> In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another 
> election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jefferson; 
> though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had asked that 
> an equal vote should be cast for Adams and Thomas Pinckney, 
> the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order that 
> Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded 
> altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney 
> should in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in 
> accordance with the system then obtaining, be elected president, 
> though he was intended for the second place on the Federalist 
> ticket.  Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1797--1801) 
> were marked by a succession of intrigues which embittered 
> all his later life; they were marked, also, by events, such 
> as the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought 
> discredit on the Federalist party.  Moreover, factional strife 
> broke out within the party itself; Adams and Hamilton became 
> alienated, and members of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked 
> to Hamilton rather than to the president as their political 
> chief.  The United States was, at this time, drawn into the 
> vortex of European complications, and Adams, instead of taking 
> advantage of the militant spirit which was aroused, patriotically 
> devoted himself to securing peace with France, much against 
> the wishes of Hamilton and of Hamilton's adherents in the 
> cabinet.  In 1800, Adams was again the Federalist candidate 
> for the presidency, but the distrust of him in his own 
> party, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition 
> Acts and the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, 
> combined to cause his defeat.  He then retired into private 
> life.  On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary 
> of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, he died at 
> Quincy.  Jefferson died on the same day.  In 1764 Adams had married 
> Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the daughter of a Congregational 
> minister at Weymouth, Massachusetts.  She was a woman of much 
> ability, and her letters, written in an excellent English 
> style, are of great value to students of the period in which she 
> lived.  President John Quincy Adams was their eldest son. 
> 
> AUTHORITIES.--C.  F. Adams, The Works of John Aadms, with 
> Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856); John and Abigail Adams, 
> Familiar Letters during thc Revolution (Boston, 1875); 
> J. T. Morse, John Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 
> 1899), in the ``American Statesmen Series''; and Mellen 
> Chamberlain, John Adams, the Statesman of the Revolution; 
> with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 1898). (E. CH.) 
> 
> 
------
Political_liberal|985804934
1c1
< Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.  This is now called "[[classical liberalism]]."  The word "liberal" still has this meaning in [[Europe]], but not in the [[United States]].
---
> Early liberals believed in individual rights and limited government.  This is now called "[[classical liberalism]]."  The word "liberal" still has this meaning in [[Europe]], but not in the [[United States]], where the term has the same meaning as [[socialism|socialist]] has everywhere else.
3c3
< In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.
---
> In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.  
------
PublicDomainResources/Talk|985804943
21a22,24
> 
> Encyclopedia is at: http://promo.net/cgi-promo/pg/t9.cgi?entry=200&full=yes&ftpsite=ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/
> 
------
Subjectivism|985805572
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Subjectivism refers to more than one concept:
> 
>  [[Economic subjectivism]]
>  [[Metaphysical subjectivism]] 
------
PublicDomainResources/Talk|985805936
24a25,27
> ----
> Though it may seem as something like a biography will not be dated, history is also a research area, and new facts (and even
> more interpretations) are always surfacing.
------
Economic_subjectivism|985806240
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that value is a property of the valuer and not of the thing being valued.
> 
> Subjective value theory was developed in the late 19th century as an attempt to overcome the shortcomings of classical economics.  The most influential value theorists were members of the [[Austrian School]] of economics such as [[Carl Menger]] and [[Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk]].
> 
> Those who endorse subjective value theory believe it is a refutation of intrincisim, such as the [[labor theory of value]], which is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].
> 
> The theory can be illustrated as follows: Imagine you are very hungry before dinner and see a piece of candy sitting on the kitchen counter.  The candy seems very desirable to you, but you forbear on the candy, and wait for dinner.  Dinner is very good and you end up stuffing yourself on three helpings.  Afterwards, you again see the candy sitting on the counter but now you have no desire whatsoever to eat it because you are so full.  The candy went from being of value, to being of no value, <i> even though the candy has not changed</i>.  But you have changed, illustrating that the value of the candy is a property of you, not of the candy.  If you accept any form of value intrincisim, then the change in the value of and unchanging piece of candy represents a paradox.
------
Economic_subjectivism|985806302
5c5
< Those who endorse subjective value theory believe it is a refutation of intrincisim, such as the [[labor theory of value]], which is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].
---
> Those who endorse subjective value theory believe it is a refutation of intrincisist value theories, such as the [[labor theory of value]], which is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].
------
Mount_Logan|985806426
1c1
< At 5,959 metres, Mount Logan is Canada's highest [[mountain]]. It is located in the [[Yukon]], and was named after Sir [[Willian Edmond Logan]], a [[Canadian]] [[geologist]].
---
> At 5,959 meters (19,486 feet), Mount Logan is Canada's highest [[mountain]]. It is located in the [[Yukon]], and was named after Sir [[Willian Edmond Logan]], a [[Canadian]] [[geologist]].
------
Economic_subjectivism|985807091
7c7,9
< The theory can be illustrated as follows: Imagine you are very hungry before dinner and see a piece of candy sitting on the kitchen counter.  The candy seems very desirable to you, but you forbear on the candy, and wait for dinner.  Dinner is very good and you end up stuffing yourself on three helpings.  Afterwards, you again see the candy sitting on the counter but now you have no desire whatsoever to eat it because you are so full.  The candy went from being of value, to being of no value, <i> even though the candy has not changed</i>.  But you have changed, illustrating that the value of the candy is a property of you, not of the candy.  If you accept any form of value intrincisim, then the change in the value of and unchanging piece of candy represents a paradox.
---
> The theory can be illustrated as follows: Imagine you are very hungry before dinner and see a piece of candy sitting on the kitchen counter.  The candy seems very desirable to you, but you forbear on the candy, and wait for dinner.  Dinner is very good and you end up stuffing yourself on three helpings.  Afterwards, you again see the candy sitting on the counter but now you have no desire whatsoever to eat it because you are so full.  The candy went from being of value, to being of no value, <i> even though the candy has not changed</i>.  But you have changed, illustrating that the value of the candy is a property of you, not of the candy.  If you accept any form of value intrincisim, then the change in the value of an unchanging piece of candy represents a paradox.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985807143
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of intrincicist value theory that is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].  The labor theory of value, like all intrincicist theories, holds that there is a 'true' value for any item, and that this true value is determined by the amount of labor that went into its production.
> 
> This theory supports a highly political conclusion, that the role of owners and managers in production is exploitative, since it is only the workers that add value to the product.
> 
> Today the labor theory of value is not taken seriously by economists, and is accepted only by those who support the political conclusions that it implies.
> 
> A [[Reductio ad absurdum]] of this theory would go as follows: Say two men each set out to build a shed.  One is skillful and experienced and completes the shed in 8 hours.  The other lacks skill and experience, and must work twice as long to build an identical shed.  According to the labor theory of value, the second shed should have twice the value of the first, because twice as much labor went into it, despite the fact that they are in all other respects identical.
------
Nunavut|985807194
1c1
< Nunavut is a territory of [[Canada]]. It was formerly part of the [[Northwest Territories]]. In 1993 the Canadian Parliment both the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]]. On April 1, 1999, Nunavut became a separate territory. Its territorial capital is the city of [[Iqaluit]].
---
> Nunavut is [[Canada]]'s newest [[Canada/Provinces and territories|territory]]. Formerly part of the vast [[Northwest Territories]], Nunavut officially separated on April 1, 1999 via the [[Nunavut Act]] and the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]], though the actual bounderies were established as early as 1993.
3c3
< Nunavut means "our land" in [[Inuktitut]], the language of [[Inuit]].
---
> The capital of Nunavut is [[Iqaluit]]. Other major communities include [[Rankin Inlet]] and [[Cambridge Bay]].
4a5,31
> <i>Nunavut</i> means <i>our land</i> in [[Inuktitut]], the language of the [[Inuit]].
> 
> <b>History</b>
> 
> The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of [[Baffin Island]] with the [[Helluland]] described in [[Norse sagas]], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occassional contact with [Norse] sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see [[Paleoeskimo]], [[Neoeskimo]] and [[Helluland]].
> 
> The recorded history of Nunavut began in 1576. [[Martin Frobisher]], while leading an expedition to find the [[Northwest Passage]], thought he had discovered [[gold]] ore in what is now known as [[Frobisher Bay]] on the coast of [[Baffin Island]]. The ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit. The contact was hostile, with Frobisher capturing four Inuit people and bringing them back to England, where they quickly perished.
> 
> Other explorers in search of the elusive [[Northwest Passage]] followed in the 17th century, including [[Henry Hudson]], [[Willian Baffin]] and [[Robert Bylot]].
> 
> <i>(and there were quite a few more after that. More needs to be said about various explorers and collonial history in Nunavut. But for now, let's make a jump into recent history)</i>
> 
> In 1976, negotiations for a land claim agreement and the new territory between the [[Inuit Tapirisat of Canada]] and the federal government began. In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. A land claims agreement was reached in September, 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut. In June 1993 the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]] were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition was completed on April 1, 1999.
> 
> <i>(this is very choppy and needs work)</i>
> 
> <b>People</b>
> 
> Nunavut's population consists mainly of the [[Inuit]] people. There's a lot to say about that.
> 
> <b>Geography</b>
> 
> <b>Economy</b>
> *<i>mix of subsistence and wage-based economy</i>
> 
> <b>Government</b>
> *<i>somewhere in between a provincial and territorial government</i>
------
Economic_subjectivism/Talk|985807212
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Though your text does not mention it, is this not the prevailing attitude of all modern economists?  It is my impression that economic intrinsicism is as thoroughly discredited as Lamarckism in biology, but this text makes it sound like there are still adherents.
> 
------
PublicDomainResources|985807278
25c25
< The public domain 1913 Webster's Unabridged Dictionary could be useful for defining a term (as part of a longer article).
---
> [http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~ralph/OPTED/ public domain dictionary] -- please use freely but sparingly, keeping in mind that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary
------
Inuktitut|985807324
1c1
< The language of the [[Inuit]].
---
> The language of the [[Inuit]]. Contrary to popular belief, there is only one word for "snow" in Inuktitut: <i>aput</i>.
3c3
< See also: [[Nunavut]]
---
> See also: [[Nunavut]], [[Inuit]]
------
Inuit|985807794
2a3,6
> In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people". "Eskimo" is a name from the [[language]] of the [[Cree]], meaning "eaters of raw meat". Many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory.
> 
> <i>(to do list: culture past and present, spirituality, customs, etc)</i>
> 
------
Invictus|985807896
34c34,36
< Grant, in case you didn't know this already, the eminently reasonable request is that one not present one's essays, which are full of [[idiosyncratic]] personal opinion (however brilliant it might be), as though they were encyclopedia articles.  Your opinions and mine are not of interest (unless we are the subject of an encyclopedia article, which you'll forgive me for saying is a little unlikely).  There are [[RulesToConsider|rules]] against this--to be specific, an "avoid bias" rule to which Bruce has (curiously) put his name.  See also NeutralPointOfView.  To satisfy Bruce's opinionizing urges, we have set up the [[Wikipedia commentary]] page.  He and you and everyone is free (at least as far as ''I'm'' concerned--I ''predict'' that no one will change your productions, but I don't ''know'') to opinionize to whatever extent you please there (as long as it's non-libellous and otherwise legal).  Hope this helps.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> Grant, in case you didn't know this already, the eminently reasonable request is that one not present one's essays, which are full of [[idiosyncratic]] personal opinion (however brilliant it might be), as though they were encyclopedia articles.  Your opinions and mine are not of interest (unless we are the subject of an encyclopedia article, which you'll forgive me for saying is a little unlikely).  There are [[RulesToConsider|rules]] against this--to be specific, an "avoid bias" rule to which Bruce has (curiously) put his name.  See also NeutralPointOfView.  To satisfy Bruce's opinionizing urges, we have set up the [[Wikipedia commentary]] page.  He and you and everyone is free (at least as far as ''I'm'' concerned--I ''predict'' that no one will change your productions, but I don't ''know'') to opinionize to whatever extent you please there (as long as it's non-libellous and otherwise legal).  Hope this helps.  :-) --[[LMS]]
> ----
> My admiration of Hegel lies solely in his complexity of thought, not in his truth, whatever that might be.  As far as my personal opinion is concerned, I do not consider mine to be sufficiently backed by knowledge to be presented.  Thus, I am here, to read and present fact/truth and improve my discernment thereof.  I try to chain my written opinions to mild adjectives.  Not always successful, but too much time on the Web has proven that this is best (for me).  Thanks for the advice, though, it is excellent and thought-provoking.  --Grant
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985808011
7c7
< A [[Reductio ad absurdum]] of this theory would go as follows: Say two men each set out to build a shed.  One is skillful and experienced and completes the shed in 8 hours.  The other lacks skill and experience, and must work twice as long to build an identical shed.  According to the labor theory of value, the second shed should have twice the value of the first, because twice as much labor went into it, despite the fact that they are in all other respects identical.
---
> A [[Reductio ad absurdum]] of this theory would go as follows: Say two men each set out to build a shed.  One is skillful and experienced and completes the shed in five hours.  The other lacks skill and experience, and must work twice as long to build an identical shed.  According to the labor theory of value, the second shed should have twice the value of the first, because twice as much labor went into it, despite the fact that they are in all other respects identical.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction|985808047
1c1
< WHEN on board H.M.S. Beagle, as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species ? that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision. 
---
> WHEN on board [[H.M.S. Beagle]], as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species ? that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers. On my return home, it occurred to me, in 1837, that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it. After five years' work I allowed myself to speculate on the subject, and drew up some short notes; these I enlarged in 1844 into a sketch of the conclusions, which then seemed to me probable: from that period to the present day I have steadily pursued the same object. I hope that I may be excused for entering on these personal details, as I give them to show that I have not been hasty in coming to a decision. 
3c3
< My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr Wallace, who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir Charles Lyell, who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr Hooker, who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
---
> My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr [[Wallace|A.R. Wallace]], who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir [[Charles Lyell]], who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr [[Hooker|Joseph Hooker]], who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
11c11
< The author of the 'Vestiges of Creation' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
---
> The author of the '[[Vestiges of Creation|Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
13c13
< It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariably found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under domestication, afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists. 
---
> It is, therefore, of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and coadaptation. At the commencement of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem. Nor have I been disappointed; in this and in all other perplexing cases I have invariably found that our knowledge, imperfect though it be, of variation under [[domestication]], afforded the best and safest clue. I may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies, although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists. 
15c15
< From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of Malthus, applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
---
> From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of [[Malthus|Thomas Malthus]], applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
17c17
< This fundamental subject of Natural Selection will be treated at some length in the fourth chapter; and we shall then see how Natural Selection almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character. In the next chapter I shall discuss the complex and little known laws of variation and of correlation of growth. In the four succeeding chapters, the most apparent and gravest difficulties on the theory will be given: namely, first, the difficulties of transitions, or understanding how a simple being or a simple organ can be changed and perfected into a highly developed being or elaborately constructed organ; secondly the subject of Instinct, or the mental powers of animals, thirdly, Hybridism, or the infertility of species and the fertility of varieties when intercrossed; and fourthly, the imperfection of the Geological Record. In the next chapter I shall consider the geological succession of organic beings throughout time; in the eleventh and twelfth, their geographical distribution throughout space; in the thirteenth, their classification or mutual affinities, both when mature and in an embryonic condition. In the last chapter I shall give a brief recapitulation of the whole work, and a few concluding remarks.) 
---
> This fundamental subject of Natural Selection will be treated at some length in the fourth chapter; and we shall then see how [[Natural Selection]] almost inevitably causes much Extinction of the less improved forms of life and induces what I have called Divergence of Character. In the next chapter I shall discuss the complex and little known laws of variation and of correlation of growth. In the four succeeding chapters, the most apparent and gravest difficulties on the theory will be given: namely, first, the difficulties of transitions, or understanding how a simple being or a simple organ can be changed and perfected into a highly developed being or elaborately constructed organ; secondly the subject of Instinct, or the mental powers of animals, thirdly, Hybridism, or the infertility of species and the fertility of varieties when intercrossed; and fourthly, the imperfection of the Geological Record. In the next chapter I shall consider the geological succession of organic beings throughout time; in the eleventh and twelfth, their geographical distribution throughout space; in the thirteenth, their classification or mutual affinities, both when mature and in an embryonic condition. In the last chapter I shall give a brief recapitulation of the whole work, and a few concluding remarks.) 
19c19
< No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgement of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained ? namely, that each species has been independently created ? is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.
---
> No one ought to feel surprise at much remaining as yet unexplained in regard to the origin of species and varieties, if he makes due allowance for our profound ignorance in regard to the mutual relations of all the beings which live around us. Who can explain why one species ranges widely and is very numerous, and why another allied species has a narrow range and is rare? Yet these relations are of the highest importance, for they determine the present welfare, and, as I believe, the future success and modification of every inhabitant of this world. Still less do we know of the mutual relations of the innumerable inhabitants of the world during the many past geological epochs in its history. Although much remains obscure, and will long remain obscure, I can entertain no doubt, after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgement of which I am capable, that the view which most naturalists entertain, and which I formerly entertained ? namely, that each species has been independently created ? is erroneous. I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|985808152
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.
> 
> This is in contrast to [[objectivism]].
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction|985808154
3c3
< My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr [[Wallace|A.R. Wallace]], who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir [[Charles Lyell]], who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr [[Hooker|Joseph Hooker]], who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
---
> My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr [[A.R. Wallace|Wallace]], who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir [[Charles Lyell]], who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr [[Joseph Hooker|Hooker]], who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
11c11
< The author of the '[[Vestiges of Creation|Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
---
> The author of the '[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges of Creation]]' would, I presume, say that, after a certain unknown number of generations, some bird had given birth to a woodpecker, and some plant to the misseltoe, and that these had been produced perfect as we now see them; but this assumption seems to me to be no explanation, for it leaves the case of the coadaptations of organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life, untouched and unexplained. 
15c15
< From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of [[Malthus|Thomas Malthus]], applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
---
> From these considerations, I shall devote the first chapter of this Abstract to Variation under Domestication. We shall thus see that a large amount of hereditary modification is at least possible, and, what is equally or more important, we shall see how great is the power of man in accumulating by his Selection successive slight variations. I will then pass on to the variability of species in a state of nature; but I shall, unfortunately, be compelled to treat this subject far too briefly, as it can be treated properly only by giving long catalogues of facts. We shall, however, be enabled to discuss what circumstances are most favourable to variation. In the next chapter the Struggle for Existence amongst all organic beings throughout the world, which inevitably follows from their high geometrical powers of increase, will be treated of. This is the doctrine of [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]], applied to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms. As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form. 
------
Brazoria_County|985808192
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Brazoria County is located on the [[Gulf Coast of Texas|Gulf Coast]], due south of [[Houston]].  [[Anglo-Texas]] began in Brazoria County when the first of [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]'s authorized 300 Anglo settlers arrived at the mouth of the [[Brazos River]] in 1821.  Many of the events leading to the [[Texas Revolution]] developed in Brazoria County.  
------
Intuit|985808194
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Intuit is a [[United States]] [[software]] company which makes the popular person finance programs [[Quicken]] and [[TurboTax]],
> and the popular small business accounting program [[QuickBooks]].
> 
> The company was founded in 1983 by [[Scott Cook]] and [[Tom Proulx]].  It is a notable rare example of a company which has successfully competed with [[Microsoft]].  According to their website, "Intuit's source of success is not as much technological prowess as it is a relentless focus on the customer."
------
Brazoria_County|985808224
1c1
< Brazoria County is located on the [[Gulf Coast of Texas|Gulf Coast]], due south of [[Houston]].  [[Anglo-Texas]] began in Brazoria County when the first of [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]'s authorized 300 Anglo settlers arrived at the mouth of the [[Brazos River]] in 1821.  Many of the events leading to the [[Texas Revolution]] developed in Brazoria County.  
---
> Brazoria County is a county of [[Texas]] located on the [[Gulf Coast of Texas|Gulf Coast]], due south of [[Houston]].  [[Anglo-Texas]] began in Brazoria County when the first of [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]'s authorized 300 Anglo settlers arrived at the mouth of the [[Brazos River]] in 1821.  Many of the events leading to the [[Texas Revolution]] developed in Brazoria County.  
------
Larry_Sanger|985808457
69c69,71
< Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
---
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
> ----
> Hmmmm - I don't find it ''curious'' that I subscribe to the "avoid bias" rule.  The '''encyclopedia''' articles which I have contributed or contributed to (though mostly as an anonymous DNS) are arguably bias-free.  In fact I have ''removed'' bias from some of them.  These are vampires, nez perce, tao teh ching, all the law articles, handgun, scientology, hare krishna, hate crimes, Las Vegas, horse training, the ultimate, &c.  I am opinionated in my commentary, which is why I want it labeled commentary.  Some tell me my opinions make them think, else I would not express them - 'cause I think people thinking is a good thing...
------
John_Baskerville|985808483
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Baskerville
> 
> A printer in 18th century [[Birmingham England|Birmingham]], and an associate of some of the members of the [[Lunar Society]]. He devised the Baskerville [[typeface]], which was named after him.
> 
> 
------
Jmlynch|985808520
5c5
< I am the editor of "Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). I also authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which I also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. I am currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
---
> I am the editor of "[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). I also authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which I also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. I am currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
7c7
< I also edit the [[History of Science and Technology]] section and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the [[Nupedia]] Project.
---
> I also edit the [[History of Science and Technology]] section and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the [[Nupedia]] Project.
------
Jmlynch|985808546
5c5
< I am the editor of "[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). I also authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which I also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. I am currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
---
> I am the editor of "[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation|Vestiges]] and the Debates Before [[Darwin]]" (2000), "British Responses to [[Natural Selection]], 1859-1871" (2001), and "[[Creationism]] and Scriptural Geology, 1817 - 1857" (in prep.). I also authored the entry on the history of biological sciences for "The Readers Guide to British History" (2001), and essays on [[Adam Sedgwick]] and [[Robert Chambers]] for "The Dictionary of Nineteenth Century British Philosophers" (in press) for which I also was the contributing editor for entries relating to evolutionary thought. I am currently studying Sedgwick's anti-evolutionism particularly in relation to pre-Darwinian ideas.
------
Lunar_Society|985808604
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Lunar Society
> 
> The Lunar Society was  a discussion club, of a number of prominent industrialists and scientists, who met regularly in the latter half of the 18th century in [[Birmingham England|Birmingham]], England. The society's name came from their practice of scheduling their meetings (at [[Matthew Boulton]]'s house at the time of the full moon. (in that time of no street lighting, the extra light made the journey home easier) 
> 
> They were a very influential group in British science and industry of the time - amongst those who attended meetings more or less regularly were:
> Matthew Boulton, [[Erasmus Darwin]], [[Josiah Wedgwood]], [[James Watt]], [[William Withering]], [[Joseph Priestley]] and  [[Samuel Galton]].
> [[Benjamin Franklin]] frequently corresponded with various members of the group, and visted them in Birmingham on several occasions.
> 
------
Lunar_Society|985808623
3c3
< The Lunar Society was  a discussion club, of a number of prominent industrialists and scientists, who met regularly in the latter half of the 18th century in [[Birmingham England|Birmingham]], England. The society's name came from their practice of scheduling their meetings (at [[Matthew Boulton]]'s house at the time of the full moon. (in that time of no street lighting, the extra light made the journey home easier) 
---
> The Lunar Society was  a discussion club, of a number of prominent industrialists and scientists, who met regularly in the latter half of the 18th century in [[Birmingham England|Birmingham]], England. The society's name came from their practice of scheduling their meetings at [[Matthew Boulton]]'s house at the time of the full moon. (in that time of no street lighting, the extra light made the journey home easier) 
------
Objectivist_philosophy|985808679
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Objectivism (capitalized) is the name chosen by [[Ayn Rand]] for her philosophy.  Some of the main Objectivist tenets are:
> 
> I. Objective reality 
> 
> Reality is what it is, independent of our beliefs or desires. No two facts of reality can contradict each other- this is an important test of truth. Everything that exists has a specific identity and a specific nature that determines how it acts. Nature is to be explained in terms of nature, without reference to the supernatural. Everything that occurs has a material cause, and everything that exists has a material basis. 
> 
> II. Reason 
> 
> The mind apprehends reality through a process of reasoning. Reasoning is the art of building from perceptions to concepts and propositions. In this way, beliefs are built up from the evidence. Reasoning, or logic, follows certain, non-arbitrary rules which must be adhered to if we wish to reach valid conclusions. These rules include non-contradictory identification and grouping by essentials. By applying the rules of logic consistently, we can hope to achieve objectively valid knowledge about reality. 
> 
> III. Morality 
> 
> If we wish to survive we must act in certain ways. Moral behavior is that which tends to promote our survival. Immoral behavior is that which tends to promote our destruction. Where survival is not at issue, moral behavior will tend to promote security and happiness, immoral behavior insecurity and unhappiness. There are different levels of value. The higher values are those which make the lesser values possible. At the higher levels of value there is a community of interests among all rational, civilized human beings. The question of self versus others is irrelevant, in that one's self-interest and the interests of others are in fundamental harmony. The rational pursuit of one's interests promotes the interests of others, while the good of others promotes one's own good. As a practical matter, the good of all is best served when individuals pursue their own legitimate interests as they each see fit. 
> 
> IV. Politics 
> 
> If self versus others is an irrelevant issue, so too is the question of the individual versus society. The individual good and the social good are in harmony. A society is healthy to the extent that individuals are free to pursue their goals. This freedom is the fundamental social value. It requires that human relationships of all forms be voluntary. Mutual consent is the defining characteristic of a free society. People are unfree to the extent that they are forced to do what they would not choose for themselves. As all governmental action is based on using force to this end, it is necessary to limit the scope of government action as much as possible, leaving the scope of individual freedom as broad as possible. Politically, people can exercise their rights however they please, so long as they do not encroach upon the rights of others. Socially, people can choose to what extent they will abide by cultural norms. Economically, people are free to produce and exchange as they see fit, in the spirit of capitalism. 
------
ObjectivisM|985808709
1,17c1
< Objectivism (capitalized) is the name chosen by [[Ayn Rand]] for her philosophy.  Some of the main Objectivist tenets are:
< 
< I. Objective reality 
< 
< Reality is what it is, independent of our beliefs or desires. No two facts of reality can contradict each other- this is an important test of truth. Everything that exists has a specific identity and a specific nature that determines how it acts. Nature is to be explained in terms of nature, without reference to the supernatural. Everything that occurs has a material cause, and everything that exists has a material basis. 
< 
< II. Reason 
< 
< The mind apprehends reality through a process of reasoning. Reasoning is the art of building from perceptions to concepts and propositions. In this way, beliefs are built up from the evidence. Reasoning, or logic, follows certain, non-arbitrary rules which must be adhered to if we wish to reach valid conclusions. These rules include non-contradictory identification and grouping by essentials. By applying the rules of logic consistently, we can hope to achieve objectively valid knowledge about reality. 
< 
< III. Morality 
< 
< If we wish to survive we must act in certain ways. Moral behavior is that which tends to promote our survival. Immoral behavior is that which tends to promote our destruction. Where survival is not at issue, moral behavior will tend to promote security and happiness, immoral behavior insecurity and unhappiness. There are different levels of value. The higher values are those which make the lesser values possible. At the higher levels of value there is a community of interests among all rational, civilized human beings. The question of self versus others is irrelevant, in that one's self-interest and the interests of others are in fundamental harmony. The rational pursuit of one's interests promotes the interests of others, while the good of others promotes one's own good. As a practical matter, the good of all is best served when individuals pursue their own legitimate interests as they each see fit. 
< 
< IV. Politics 
< 
< If self versus others is an irrelevant issue, so too is the question of the individual versus society. The individual good and the social good are in harmony. A society is healthy to the extent that individuals are free to pursue their goals. This freedom is the fundamental social value. It requires that human relationships of all forms be voluntary. Mutual consent is the defining characteristic of a free society. People are unfree to the extent that they are forced to do what they would not choose for themselves. As all governmental action is based on using force to this end, it is necessary to limit the scope of government action as much as possible, leaving the scope of individual freedom as broad as possible. Politically, people can exercise their rights however they please, so long as they do not encroach upon the rights of others. Socially, people can choose to what extent they will abide by cultural norms. Economically, people are free to produce and exchange as they see fit, in the spirit of capitalism. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Objectivism]]
------
Invictus|985808742
36a37,38
> ----
> I see.  If you have fact/truth, why not simply contribute it in the form of articles?  AyeSpy
------
Requested_articles|985808742
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Napoleon]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Napoleon]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
24c24
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Elvis Presley]] 
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Frank Zappa]]
------
Objectivism|985808788
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Objectivism refers to more than one concept:
> 
>  [[Metaphysical objectivism]]
>  [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism - the philosophy of Ayn Rand]]
------
Objectivism|985808806
4c4
<  [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism - the philosophy of Ayn Rand]]
---
>  [[Objectivist philosophy|The philosophy of Ayn Rand]]
------
Larry_Sanger|985808843
69,71c69
< Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
< ----
< Hmmmm - I don't find it ''curious'' that I subscribe to the "avoid bias" rule.  The '''encyclopedia''' articles which I have contributed or contributed to (though mostly as an anonymous DNS) are arguably bias-free.  In fact I have ''removed'' bias from some of them.  These are vampires, nez perce, tao teh ching, all the law articles, handgun, scientology, hare krishna, hate crimes, Las Vegas, horse training, the ultimate, &c.  I am opinionated in my commentary, which is why I want it labeled commentary.  Some tell me my opinions make them think, else I would not express them - 'cause I think people thinking is a good thing...
---
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
------
Ayn_Rand|985808851
11c11
< Rand then wrote the philosophical novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957), also a best seller.  Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ''[[Objectivism]]''.
---
> Rand then wrote the philosophical novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957), also a best seller.  Along with Branden, she launched the Objectivist movement to promote her philosophy of ''[[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]''.
------
Invictus|985808977
35a36,37
> Hmmmm - I don't find it ''curious'' that I subscribe to the "avoid bias" rule.  The '''encyclopedia''' articles which I have contributed or contributed to (though mostly as an anonymous DNS) are arguably bias-free.  In fact I have ''removed'' bias from some of them.  These are vampires, nez perce, tao teh ching, all the law articles, handgun, scientology, hare krishna, hate crimes, Las Vegas, horse training, the ultimate, &c.  I am opinionated in my commentary, which is why I want it labeled commentary.  Some tell me my opinions make them think, else I would not express them - 'cause I think people thinking is a good thing... --AyeSpy
> ----
------
Metaphysical_objectivism|985809125
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that there is an underlying reality exists independently of our perception and consciousness.  This is in contrast to [[Metaphysical subjectivism|metaphysical subjectivism]]. 
------
Invictus|985809190
37a38,39
> Bruce, perhaps if you had taken credit for all that good work, it wouldn't have seemed so curious to me!  I'm glad that you agree with the rule and I'm also glad we've arrived at a satisfactory solution!  I'm not glad we're cluttering up Grant's page.  :-)  I wouldn't stand for it, myself.  :-) --[[LMS]]  (please feel free to "refactor" your page, Grant, of course...)
> ----
------
Metaphysical_objectivism|985809280
1c1
< The theory that there is an underlying reality exists independently of our perception and consciousness.  This is in contrast to [[Metaphysical subjectivism|metaphysical subjectivism]]. 
---
> The theory that there is an underlying reality that exists independent of our perception and consciousness.  This is in contrast to [[Metaphysical subjectivism|metaphysical subjectivism]]. 
------
PublicDomainResources|985809355
1c1
< This will be a list not only of public domain resources, but also "free" (GNU licensed) and open content resources.  Feel free to rename this page and the link(s) to it, if you like...I'm being lazy.
---
> This will be a list of resources with content that may be used in some form for Wikipedia.
3,5c3
< '''Let's go get stuff from these pages and post it (with appropriate source citation, if necessary) on the Wikipedia!'''
< ----
< [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg]  (See in particular PublicDomainBritannica)
---
> <h2>True Public Domain Resources</h2>
7c5
< [http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/ Images of American Political History]
---
> These resources are completely free of copyright restrictions, and can therefore be used and modified at will for any Wikipedia page.  Some (such as Project Gutenberg texts and the public domain dictionary) are in the public domain because they are very old and their copyrights have expired.  Care should be taken to bring such text up to date.
9c7,14
< [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com]
---
> * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia.
> * [http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/ Images of American Political History]
> * [http://members.nbci.com/mspong/ The Household Cyclopedia]
> * [http://www.census.gov US Census Bureau] Has an enormous range of facts and figures which we will find helpful in fleshing out articles about cities and states.
> * [http://stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] Contains descriptions of a great many occupations such as [[Therapy/Physical|Physical Therapist]].
> * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ CIA World Factbook] Contains basic facts on all the countries of the world.
> * [http://www.statcan.ca/ Statistics Canada] For all your Canadian data-related needs.
> * [http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~ralph/OPTED/ Public Domain Dictionary] Please use freely but sparingly, keeping in mind that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.
11c16
< [http://www.opencontent.org OpenContent.org]
---
> <h2>Other "Free" Resources</h2>
13c18
< [http://www.andamooka.org Andamooka.org]
---
> These resources are copyrighted and licensed under terms that allow free redistribution in some form.  There may be requirements to credit the original authors, or restrictions on making modifications.  Check the license posted on each site for such restrictions.
15,25c20,22
< [http://members.nbci.com/mspong/ The Household Cyclopedia]
< 
< [http://www.census.gov US Census Bureau] -- has an enormous range of facts and figures which we will find helpful in fleshing out articles about cities and states.
< 
< [http://stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] -- contains descriptions of a great many occupations such as [[Therapy/Physical|Physical Therapist]]
< 
< [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ CIA World Factbook] -- Basic facts on all the countries of the world.
< 
< [http://www.statcan.ca/ Statistics Canada] -- for all your Canadian data-related needs.
< 
< [http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~ralph/OPTED/ public domain dictionary] -- please use freely but sparingly, keeping in mind that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary
---
> * [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com]
> * [http://www.opencontent.org OpenContent.org]
> * [http://www.andamooka.org Andamooka.org]
------
John_Adams|985809503
206c206
< 
---
> /Talk
------
John_Adams/Talk|985809576
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I vaguely recall that we aren't actually supposed to use ''either'' "Project Gutenberg" ''or'' "En******* Br******" here.  I could be wrong.  Anybody?
------
PublicDomainResources|985809877
20c20
< * [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com]
---
> * [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] -- have a look at [[CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|this page]] first
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|985810011
1c1
< Yes.  To add a NuPedia article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at IrishTraditionalMusic.  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "'''Notice, don't remove''': An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is OpenContent."
---
> Yes.  To add a [[nupedia]] article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at [[Irish traditional music]].  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is [[open content]]."
3c3
< It wouldn't be a bad idea to find this out: WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia?
---
> It wouldn't be a bad idea to find this out: [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]?
5c5
< Question: I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the MuSic page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the MuSic page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the MuSic page was unbuilt).
---
> Question: I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the [[music]] page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the [[music]] page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the [[music]] page was unbuilt).
7c7
< Answer: Sounds like you want to know how to MakeaNewPage!
---
> Answer: Sounds like you want to know how to edit a page!
9c9
< Once you add any text to the MuSic page, you can then edit it using the "Edit text of this page" link.  In fact, I did this for you.  No thanks necessary.  Now go to the MuSic page and you can add text.
---
> Once you add any text to the [[music]] page, you can then edit it using the "Edit text of this page" link.  In fact, I did this for you.  No thanks necessary.  Now go to the [[music]] page and you can add text.
11c11
< More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after MuSic.  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
---
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after [[music]].  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|985810034
1,11c1
< Yes.  To add a [[nupedia]] article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at [[Irish traditional music]].  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is [[open content]]."
< 
< It wouldn't be a bad idea to find this out: [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]?
< ----
< Question: I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the [[music]] page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the [[music]] page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the [[music]] page was unbuilt).
< 
< Answer: Sounds like you want to know how to edit a page!
< 
< Once you add any text to the [[music]] page, you can then edit it using the "Edit text of this page" link.  In fact, I did this for you.  No thanks necessary.  Now go to the [[music]] page and you can add text.
< 
< More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after [[music]].  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
---
> #REDIRECT [[Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]]
------
Adding_Nupedia_articles_to_Wikipedia|985810041
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Yes.  To add a [[nupedia]] article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at [[Irish traditional music]].  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is [[open content]]."
> 
> It wouldn't be a bad idea to find this out: [[How does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]]?
> ----
> Question: I'd like to add a new entry to the list on the [[music]] page (this was formerly an unbuilt page), for MusicNotation.  However, the [[music]] page doesn't have a "Edit text of this page" link at the bottom (when this question was written, the [[music]] page was unbuilt).
> 
> Answer: Sounds like you want to know how to edit a page!
> 
> Once you add any text to the [[music]] page, you can then edit it using the "Edit text of this page" link.  In fact, I did this for you.  No thanks necessary.  Now go to the [[music]] page and you can add text.
> 
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after [[music]].  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
PublicDomainResources|985810079
20c20
< * [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] -- have a look at [[CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|this page]] first
---
> * [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com] -- read about [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]]
------
Adding_Nupedia_articles_to_Wikipedia|985810095
1c1
< Yes.  To add a [[nupedia]] article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at [[Irish traditional music]].  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is [[open content]]."
---
> To add a [[Nupedia]] article to [[Wikipedia]], all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate).  You should also put up the URL to the original article location in Nupedia; this is an adequate "link back" required by the Nupedia license.  For example, have a look at [[Irish traditional music]].  The proper text to use at the bottom of a Wikipedia page sourced from Nupedia is: "An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia].  This article is [[open content]]."
11c11
< More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after [[music]].  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
---
> More to the point, whenever you see what looks like a topic, followed by a question mark, just click on the question mark.  You did this when you first clicked on the question mark after [[music]].  After you clicked on that question mark, you saw a big text box with the words, "Describe the new page here."  You probably didn't realize that you could just erase those words and type in whatever you wanted!
------
John_Adams/Talk|985810268
1c1,4
< I vaguely recall that we aren't actually supposed to use ''either'' "Project Gutenberg" ''or'' "En******* Br******" here.  I could be wrong.  Anybody?
---
> I vaguely recall that we aren't actually supposed to use ''either'' "Project Gutenberg" ''or'' "En******* Br******" here.  I could be wrong.  Anybody?
> ----
> The PG header for the document has language that states you can do whatever you wish with the text but cannot say it is endorsed by project guttenburg????
> ----
------
Java|985810377
7c7
< Java is a [[programming language]].
---
> Java is a [[programming language]] not to be confused with [[javascript]] and some other variety of java the name of which a programmer will now promptly supply.  :-)
------
John_Adams/Talk|985810386
2,4c2,3
< ----
< The PG header for the document has language that states you can do whatever you wish with the text but cannot say it is endorsed by project guttenburg????
< ----
---
> 
> The text itself is truly public domain, so using the text confers no requirements of any kind.  "Encyclopedia Britannica" is an active trademark and should not be mentioned (except when talking _about_ EB such as this sentence).  It is acceptable, but unnecessary, to credit Project Gutenberg.  It is probably best not to mention either, as that might be construed as an endorsement.  --LDC
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons|985810460
2,5d1
< ----
< At first a revision of a tabletop wargame simulation it in thirty years time grew to be the escape for all reality weary.
< Anything is possible in RGP! Eat your heart out. Be evil at will, without consequences in the real world.
< ----
7,27d2
< The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties (listed on [[requested articles]]) to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this 
< [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS
< 
< Actually, the first few - Elf, Dwarf, etc - were listed because Hobbits were, so it seems they were referring to Lord o' the Rings stuff.  I'm planning to put some of that up when I have more time (and, despite your suggestion, I think maybe under [[Lord of the Rings]] since that's the name best associated with the world).  In any case, I think that many of these span from Tolkien through D&D to pretty much the whole fantasy genre, and as such deserve treatment on the toplevel pages along with the folklore.  ''Exempli gratia'':
< :Elf - little forest fairies, blah blah blah ninety thousand pages of blah.  In Tolkien elves became blah, which with some minor modifications (pointy ears, sometimes prolonged mortality) has become the standard in the fantasy genre.
< Or something like that. --JG
< 
< OK.  Notice, [[hobbits]] does exist (but should be named "[[hobbit]]").  In fact, Tolkien's elves bear very little resemblance to the elves of, e.g., Irish folklore.  The similarity seems to be mainly in the name.  In folklore, elves are typically very magical, very tiny, supernatural beings more like poltergeists than like human beings; they're often very mischievous.  They aren't necessarily little forest fairies.  See [[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/midwife.html this link]] for an interesting data point; notice how these stories often use "elf," "dwarf," "hobgoblin," "fairy," etc., '''interchangeably'''.  There is no neat mapping from LotR/D&D-type mythos to the actual folk myths you find in Europe and America.  Not that this matters--it's all just about words.  I think it's interesting! -- LS
< ----
< Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)<BR>
< OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! <FONT SIZE=+3>=:P</FONT><BR>
< I won't ever do it again;<BR>
< I'm nice too, don't be sad!
< 
< <i>You are forgiven, and now no one is sad.  I do thank you for your enthusiasm, but we really need to keep this thing clean.</i> --JimboWales
< 
< <P>Might the RPG-story be placed back?
< - the author of that is a friend of mine
< 
< <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
< ----
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985810475
1c1,24
< 
---
> At first a revision of a tabletop wargame simulation it in thirty years time grew to be the escape for all reality weary.
> Anything is possible in RGP! Eat your heart out. Be evil at will, without consequences in the real world.
> ----
> 
> The reason I repointed the links to the various mythical beasties (listed on [[requested articles]]) to subpages of this D&D page is that the person who listed the beasties seemed to have gotten the ideas for the beasties from D&D.  The list provided wouldn't be a list of mythical beasties that a folklorist would produce.  Having played D&D doesn't even begin to give you an understanding of actual folklore.  If you don't believe me, do this 
> [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=folklore+elf+gnome+pooka Google search].  A [[folklore]] page would be very cool.  :-) --LS
> 
> Actually, the first few - Elf, Dwarf, etc - were listed because Hobbits were, so it seems they were referring to Lord o' the Rings stuff.  I'm planning to put some of that up when I have more time (and, despite your suggestion, I think maybe under [[Lord of the Rings]] since that's the name best associated with the world).  In any case, I think that many of these span from Tolkien through D&D to pretty much the whole fantasy genre, and as such deserve treatment on the toplevel pages along with the folklore.  ''Exempli gratia'':
> :Elf - little forest fairies, blah blah blah ninety thousand pages of blah.  In Tolkien elves became blah, which with some minor modifications (pointy ears, sometimes prolonged mortality) has become the standard in the fantasy genre.
> Or something like that. --JG
> 
> OK.  Notice, [[hobbits]] does exist (but should be named "[[hobbit]]").  In fact, Tolkien's elves bear very little resemblance to the elves of, e.g., Irish folklore.  The similarity seems to be mainly in the name.  In folklore, elves are typically very magical, very tiny, supernatural beings more like poltergeists than like human beings; they're often very mischievous.  They aren't necessarily little forest fairies.  See [[http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/midwife.html this link]] for an interesting data point; notice how these stories often use "elf," "dwarf," "hobgoblin," "fairy," etc., '''interchangeably'''.  There is no neat mapping from LotR/D&D-type mythos to the actual folk myths you find in Europe and America.  Not that this matters--it's all just about words.  I think it's interesting! -- LS
> ----
> Some very naughty person simply cut and pasted a copyrighted article from the web here.  DO NOT DO THIS.  People who do this make us all very sad.  Do not make us sad.  We are nice people.  :-)<BR>
> OOOW, sorry, <FONT SIZE=+1>sorry</FONT>, <FONT SIZE=+2>sorry</FONT>.<BR>Wasn't meant that way;<BR>you might thank me for my enthousiasm! <FONT SIZE=+3>=:P</FONT><BR>
> I won't ever do it again;<BR>
> I'm nice too, don't be sad!
> 
> <i>You are forgiven, and now no one is sad.  I do thank you for your enthusiasm, but we really need to keep this thing clean.</i> --JimboWales
> 
> <P>Might the RPG-story be placed back?
> - the author of that is a friend of mine
> 
> <i>Only if your friend posts it, or emails me to tell me that it is o.k.</i> --JimboWales
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985810709
7a8,17
> 
> Marxists will respond that this is a misrepresentation of the meaning of the labor theory of value.  Even Marx deals with the problem of unequal abilities in chapter one of volume one of [[Capital]].  Perhaps the clearest exposition of Marx's view on this question can be found in [[The Poverty of Philosophy]]:
> 
> <i>Does labour time, as the measure of value, suppose at least that the days are equivalent, and that one man's day is worth as much as another's? No.</i>
> 
> <i>Let us suppose for a moment that a jeweller's day is equivalent to three days of a weaver; the fact remains that any change in the value of jewels relative to that of woven materials, unless it be the transitory result of the fluctuation of demand and supply, must have as its cause a reduction or an increase in the labour time expended in the production of one or the other. If three working days of different workers be related to one another in the ratio 1:2:3, then a change in the relative value of their products will be a change in the same proportion of 1:2:3. Thus values can be measured by labour time, in spite of the inequality of value of different working days; but to apply such a measure we must have a comparative scale of the different  working days: it is competition that sets up this scale.</i>
>  
> The overall point here is that <i>for a given set of skill levels throughout the economy</i>, the overall rate of profit must be zero unless some workers are 'exploited' in the Marxist sense.  This, it is said, can be demonstrated without a claim that all laborers are equal.
> 
> Modern economists respond by pointing out that if the labor theory of value means this, then it isn't really a labor theory at all.
------
John_Adams/Talk|985810709
3a4,5
> 
> Well, the reason I asked was that someone (Bryce Harrington?  I forget) said something along the lines of "we shouldn't use the Project Gutenberg name."  I believe he found something to this effect on their website, or had communication from someone in the PG project.
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985810837
17c17,19
< Modern economists respond by pointing out that if the labor theory of value means this, then it isn't really a labor theory at all.
---
> Modern economists respond by pointing out that if the labor theory of value means this, then it isn't really a labor theory at all.
> 
> /Talk
------
Labor_theory_of_value/Talk|985810909
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is "intrinsicism" economics jargon?  See
> http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=intrinsicist
> 
> I have never heard the word from anyone other than followers of Ayn Rand. --[[LMS]]
------
Countries_of_the_world2|985811024
1,53c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
< 
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
< 
< <font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
< 
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
< 
< <font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
< 
< <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
< 
< <font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
< 
< <font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
< 
< <font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
< 
< <font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
< 
< <font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
< 
< <font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]]
< 
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
< 
< <font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)
< 
< <font size=+2>O</font><br>[[Oman]]
< 
< <font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
< 
< <font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]
< 
< <font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]
< 
< <font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
< 
< <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]
< 
< <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]
< 
< <font size=+2>V</font><br> [[Vanuatu]] - [[Vatican City]] - [[Venezuela]] - [[Vietnam]]
< 
< <font size=+2>W</font><br>[[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
< 
< <font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]
< 
< <font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
< ----
< See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985811033
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
3c3
< '''If you think [[Countries of the world2|this]] is better, replace the contents of the present page with the contents of [[Countries of the world2|this]].'''
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
5,56c5,49
< <table border=1>
< <tr>
< <td width=34% valign=top>  <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
< </td>
< <td width=33% valign=top><font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
< </td>
< <td  valign=top width=33%><font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
< </td></tr>
< <tr>
< <td valign=top><font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
< </td>
< <td valign=top><font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]</td>
< <td valign=top><font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]] </td>
< <td> <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
< </td>
< <td> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>V</font><br> [[Vanuatu]] - [[Vatican City]] - [[Venezuela]] - [[Vietnam]] </td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
<  </td>
< <td><font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)</td>
< <td><font size=+2>W</font><br>* [[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>F</font><br>[[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>O</font><br>[[Oman]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
< </td>
< <td><font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]</td>
< <td><font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]</td>
< <td></td>
< </tr>
< </table>
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
> 
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
> 
> <font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
> 
> <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
> 
> <font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
> 
> <font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
> 
> <font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
> 
> <font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
> 
> <font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
> 
> <font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]]
> 
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
> 
> <font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)
> 
> <font size=+2>O</font><br>[[Oman]]
> 
> <font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]
> 
> <font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]
> 
> <font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
> 
> <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]
> 
> <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]
> 
> <font size=+2>V</font><br> [[Vanuatu]] - [[Vatican City]] - [[Venezuela]] - [[Vietnam]]
> 
> <font size=+2>W</font><br>[[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
59,60d51
< ----
< :See [http://www.mapplanet.com |MapPlanet] for a [[Java Applet]] that shows maps of the world.
62c53
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
John_Adams/Talk|985811101
0a1,2
> back to [[John Adams]]
> 
5c7
< Well, the reason I asked was that someone (Bryce Harrington?  I forget) said something along the lines of "we shouldn't use the Project Gutenberg name."  I believe he found something to this effect on their website, or had communication from someone in the PG project.
---
> Well, the reason I asked was that someone (Bryce Harrington?  I forget) said something along the lines of "we shouldn't use the Project Gutenberg name."  I believe he found something to this effect on their website, or had communication from someone in the PG project.
------
John_Adams/Talk|985811177
7a8,14
> 
> Project Gutenberg is a trademark, as is Encyclopedia Britannica.
> They require a fee if their texts are distributed <i>under their trademark</i>.  What that might mean, exactly, is sometimes unclear.  But in order to distribute texts under their trademark requires that we not modify the text in any way.  In the context of the wiki, that's obviously impossible.  Anyone might come along and edit anything.  So we can't distribute the texts <i>under their trademark</i> at all.
> 
> This does not preclude us from using the words at all!  That isn't how trademark works.  It's just that we can't use their trademark in such a fashion as to suggest that they support or endorse this project or any changes that we might have (accidentally or on purpose) made to their texts.
> 
> I am on the mailing list for Project Gutenburg, and Michael Hart knows who I am, I suppose, from our joint [[Slashdot]] interview.  So I will ask for more clarification.
------
John_Adams/Talk|985811211
8c8
< 
---
> ----
14c14
< I am on the mailing list for Project Gutenburg, and Michael Hart knows who I am, I suppose, from our joint [[Slashdot]] interview.  So I will ask for more clarification.
---
> I am on the mailing list for Project Gutenburg, and Michael Hart knows who I am, I suppose, from our joint [[Slashdot]] interview.  So I will ask for more clarification. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
John_Adams/Talk|985811431
14a15,23
> ----
> Here is a fair use extract from the file:
> 
>   "You may distribute copies of this etext 
>   electronically, or by disk, book or any other 
>   medium if you either delete this "Small Print!" and all 
>   other references to Project Gutenberg,"
> 
> 
------
Brazoria_County|985811645
1c1,3
< Brazoria County is a county of [[Texas]] located on the [[Gulf Coast of Texas|Gulf Coast]], due south of [[Houston]].  [[Anglo-Texas]] began in Brazoria County when the first of [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]'s authorized 300 Anglo settlers arrived at the mouth of the [[Brazos River]] in 1821.  Many of the events leading to the [[Texas Revolution]] developed in Brazoria County.  
---
> Brazoria County is a county of [[Texas]] located on the [[Gulf Coast of Texas|Gulf Coast]], due south of [[Houston]].
> 
> [[Anglo-Texas]] began in Brazoria County when the first of [[Stephen Fitzgerald Austin|Stephen F. Austin]]'s authorized 300 Anglo settlers arrived at the mouth of the [[Brazos River]] in 1821.  Many of the events leading to the [[Texas Revolution]] developed in Brazoria County.  
------
Invictus|985811719
42a43,44
> ----
> Bruce, I am here to read and PRESENT fact/truth as I said above.  Presentation here, will of course be in the form of contributed articles, unless I make or contribute to a /commentary or /talk page otherwise.   I may refactor this page (not today).  I don't mind it being cluttered as long as I know I can makes changes to it at my leisure (and other's chagrin?).  :-7 -Grant
------
Lunar_Society|985811845
5a6
> 
7c8,9
< [[Benjamin Franklin]] frequently corresponded with various members of the group, and visted them in Birmingham on several occasions.
---
> 
> [[Benjamin Franklin]] frequently corresponded with various members of the group, and visited them in Birmingham on several occasions.
------
Gulf_Coast_of_Texas|985811899
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <b>Gulf Coast</b> is a coastal area of the [[United States]] [[adjacent]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
> 
> The states of [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], and [[Florida]] are Gulf Coast states.
> 
> 
> The Gulf Coast is sometimes referred to as <b>third coast</b>.
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985811921
1c1
< A form of intrincicist value theory that is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].  The labor theory of value, like all intrincicist theories, holds that there is a 'true' value for any item, and that this true value is determined by the amount of labor that went into its production.
---
> A form of intrincic value theory that is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].  The labor theory of value, like all intrincic value theories, holds that there is a 'true' value for any item, and that this true value is determined by the amount of labor that went into its production.
19c19
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
John_Adams|985811928
205a206,208
> ----
> [[John Adams' Inaugural Speech]]
> ----
------
John_Adams|985811942
207c207
< [[John Adams' Inaugural Speech]]
---
> [[John Adams Inaugural Speech]]
------
Alabama|985811953
1c1
< Homestate of [[Jimbo Wales]].
---
> A state located in the southern [[United States]].
4c4,6
< by the [[United States Census]].
---
> by the [[United States Census]].
> ----
> Homestate of [[Jimbo Wales]].
------
Labor_theory_of_value|985811957
1c1
< A form of intrincic value theory that is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].  The labor theory of value, like all intrincic value theories, holds that there is a 'true' value for any item, and that this true value is determined by the amount of labor that went into its production.
---
> A form of intrinsic value theory that is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].  The labor theory of value, like all intrinsic value theories, holds that there is a 'true' value for any item, and that this true value is determined by the amount of labor that went into its production.
------
Labor_theory_of_value/Talk|985812442
4c4,16
< I have never heard the word from anyone other than followers of Ayn Rand. --[[LMS]]
---
> I have never heard the word from anyone other than followers of Ayn Rand. --[[LMS]]
> 
> The word appears, but rarely, in the philosophical literature,
> I think.
> 
> Two examples I found on the web:
> :http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/j/justwar.htm
> :http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/i/interven.htm
> 
> However, the correct jargon here is 'intrinsic value theory', so
> I changed it.
> 
> Other examples of 'intrinsic value theory', besides the labor theory of value, would include various forms of environmentalism, and at least one theory (not of any repute, I think, but I did read it somewhere) that the 'real' value of any thing is the amount of energy it took to produce it.
------
How_does_Wikipedia_relate_to_Nupedia|985812543
5c5,7
< We hope the projects will be complementary. 
---
> We hope the projects will be complementary.  See:
> * [[Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]]
> * [[Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]
------
Adding_Nupedia_articles_to_Wikipedia|985812565
3a4,5
> 
> See also [[adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]].
------
Economic_subjectivism/Talk|985812611
1a2,3
> ---
> I agree with LDC on this one.  I don't think anyone has seriously held an intrinisic theory of value in economics in a long long time.  Certainly, modern mathematical economists, with utility theory and all that stuff, are thoroughly 'subjectivist' in the relevant sense.
2a5
> I will go change the text now.
------
Economic_subjectivism/Talk|985812630
2c2,3
< ---
---
> ----
> 
5c6
< I will go change the text now.
---
> I will go change the text now.
------
Economic_subjectivism|985812710
5c5
< Those who endorse subjective value theory believe it is a refutation of intrincisist value theories, such as the [[labor theory of value]], which is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].
---
> Those who endorse subjective value theory (meaning, virtually all modern economists) believe it is a refutation of intrincisist value theories, such as the [[labor theory of value]], which is a cornerstone of [[Marxism]].
------
Invictus|985812778
44c44,46
< Bruce, I am here to read and PRESENT fact/truth as I said above.  Presentation here, will of course be in the form of contributed articles, unless I make or contribute to a /commentary or /talk page otherwise.   I may refactor this page (not today).  I don't mind it being cluttered as long as I know I can makes changes to it at my leisure (and other's chagrin?).  :-7 -Grant
---
> Bruce, I am here to read and PRESENT fact/truth as I said above.  Presentation here, will of course be in the form of contributed articles, unless I make or contribute to a /commentary or /talk page otherwise.   I may refactor this page (not today).  I don't mind it being cluttered as long as I know I can makes changes to it at my leisure (and other's chagrin?).  :-7 -Grant
> ----
> Heh heh  - another happy ending... AyeSpy ;^)
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985812979
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> WHEN it was first perceived, in early times, that no middle course for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must determine to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise concerning the forms of government to be instituted over the whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces the chains which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, but frankly cut asunder the ties which had bound them, and launched into an ocean of uncertainty.
> 
> The zeal and ardor of the people during the Revolutionary war, supplying the place of government, commanded a degree of order sufficient at least for the temporary preservation of society. The Confederation which was early felt to be necessary was prepared from the models of the Batavian and Helvetic confederacies, the only examples which remain with any detail and precision in history, and certainly the only ones which the people at large had ever considered. But reflecting on the striking difference in so many particulars between this country and those where a courier may go from the seat of government to the frontier in a single day, it was then certainly foreseen by some who assisted in Congress at the formation of it that it could not be durable.
> 
> Negligence of its regulations, inattention to its recommendations, if not disobedience to its authority, not only in individuals but in States, soon appeared with their melancholy consequences—universal languor, jealousies and rivalries of States, decline of navigation and commerce, discouragement of necessary manufactures, universal fall in the value of lands and their produce, contempt of public and private faith, loss of consideration and credit with foreign nations, and at length in discontents, animosities, combinations, partial conventions, and insurrection, threatening some great national calamity.
> 
> In this dangerous crisis the people of America were not abandoned by their usual good sense, presence of mind, resolution, or integrity. Measures were pursued to concert a plan to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty. The public disquisitions, discussions, and deliberations issued in the present happy Constitution of Government.
> 
> Employed in the service of my country abroad during the whole course of these transactions, I first saw the Constitution of the United States in a foreign country. Irritated by no literary altercation, animated by no public debate, heated by no party animosity, I read it with great satisfaction, as the result of good heads prompted by good hearts, as an experiment better adapted to the genius, character, situation, and relations of this nation and country than any which had ever been proposed or suggested. In its general principles and great outlines it was conformable to such a system of government as I had ever most esteemed, and in some States, my own native State in particular, had contributed to establish. Claiming a right of suffrage, in common with my fellow-citizens, in the adoption or rejection of a constitution which was to rule me and my posterity, as well as them and theirs, I did not hesitate to express my approbation of it on all occasions, in public and in private. It was not then, nor has been since, any objection to it in my mind that the Executive and Senate were not more permanent. Nor have I ever entertained a thought of promoting any alteration in it but such as the people themselves, in the course of their experience, should see and feel to be necessary or expedient, and by their representatives in Congress and the State legislatures, according to the Constitution itself, adopt and ordain.
> 
> Returning to the bosom of my country after a painful separation from it for ten years, I had the honor to be elected to a station under the new order of things, and I have repeatedly laid myself under the most serious obligations to support the Constitution. The operation of it has equaled the most sanguine expectations of its friends, and from an habitual attention to it, satisfaction in its administration, and delight in its effects upon the peace, order, prosperity, and happiness of the nation I have acquired an habitual attachment to it and veneration for it.
> 
> What other form of government, indeed, can so well deserve our esteem and love?
> 
> There may be little solidity in an ancient idea that congregations of men into cities and nations are the most pleasing objects in the sight of superior intelligences, but this is very certain, that to a benevolent human mind there can be no spectacle presented by any nation more pleasing, more noble, majestic, or august, than an assembly like that which has so often been seen in this and the other Chamber of Congress, of a Government in which the Executive authority, as well as that of all the branches of the Legislature, are exercised by citizens selected at regular periods by their neighbors to make and execute laws for the general good. Can anything essential, anything more than mere ornament and decoration, be added to this by robes and diamonds? Can authority be more amiable and respectable when it descends from accidents or institutions established in remote antiquity than when it springs fresh from the hearts and judgments of an honest and enlightened people? For it is the people only that are represented. It is their power and majesty that is reflected, and only for their good, in every legitimate government, under whatever form it may appear. The existence of such a government as ours for any length of time is a full proof of a general dissemination of knowledge and virtue throughout the whole body of the people. And what object or consideration more pleasing than this can be presented to the human mind? If national pride is ever justifiable or excusable it is when it springs, not from power or riches, grandeur or glory, but from conviction of national innocence, information, and benevolence.
> 
> In the midst of these pleasing ideas we should be unfaithful to ourselves if we should ever lose sight of the danger to our liberties if anything partial or extraneous should infect the purity of our free, fair, virtuous, and independent elections. If an election is to be determined by a majority of a single vote, and that can be procured by a party through artifice or corruption, the Government may be the choice of a party for its own ends, not of the nation for the national good. If that solitary suffrage can be obtained by foreign nations by flattery or menaces, by fraud or violence, by terror, intrigue, or venality, the Government may not be the choice of the American people, but of foreign nations. It may be foreign nations who govern us, and not we, the people, who govern ourselves; and candid men will acknowledge that in such cases choice would have little advantage to boast of over lot or chance.
> 
> Such is the amiable and interesting system of government (and such are some of the abuses to which it may be exposed) which the people of America have exhibited to the admiration and anxiety of the wise and virtuous of all nations for eight years under the administration of a citizen who, by a long course of great actions, regulated by prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude, conducting a people inspired with the same virtues and animated with the same ardent patriotism and love of liberty to independence and peace, to increasing wealth and unexampled prosperity, has merited the gratitude of his fellow-citizens, commanded the highest praises of foreign nations, and secured immortal glory with posterity.
> 
> In that retirement which is his voluntary choice may he long live to enjoy the delicious recollection of his services, the gratitude of mankind, the happy fruits of them to himself and the world, which are daily increasing, and that splendid prospect of the future fortunes of this country which is opening from year to year. His name may be still a rampart, and the knowledge that he lives a bulwark, against all open or secret enemies of his country's peace. This example has been recommended to the imitation of his successors by both Houses of Congress and by the voice of the legislatures and the people throughout the nation.
> 
> On this subject it might become me better to be silent or to speak with diffidence; but as something may be expected, the occasion, I hope, will be admitted as an apology if I venture to say that if a preference, upon principle, of a free republican government, formed upon long and serious reflection, after a diligent and impartial inquiry after truth; if an attachment to the Constitution of the United States, and a conscientious determination to support it until it shall be altered by the judgments and wishes of the people, expressed in the mode prescribed in it; if a respectful attention to the constitutions of the individual States and a constant caution and delicacy toward the State governments; if an equal and impartial regard to the rights, interest, honor, and happiness of all the States in the Union, without preference or regard to a northern or southern, an eastern or western, position, their various political opinions on unessential points or their personal attachments; if a love of virtuous men of all parties and denominations; if a love of science and letters and a wish to patronize every rational effort to encourage schools, colleges, universities, academies, and every institution for propagating knowledge, virtue, and religion among all classes of the people, not only for their benign influence on the happiness of life in all its stages and classes, and of society in all its forms, but as the only means of preserving our Constitution from its natural enemies, the spirit of sophistry, the spirit of party, the spirit of intrigue, the profligacy of corruption, and the pestilence of foreign influence, which is the angel of destruction to elective governments; if a love of equal laws, of justice, and humanity in the interior administration; if an inclination to improve agriculture, commerce, and manufacturers for necessity, convenience, and defense; if a spirit of equity and humanity toward the aboriginal nations of America, and a disposition to meliorate their condition by inclining them to be more friendly to us, and our citizens to be more friendly to them; if an inflexible determination to maintain peace and inviolable faith with all nations, and that system of neutrality and impartiality among the belligerent powers of Europe which has been adopted by this Government and so solemnly sanctioned by both Houses of Congress and applauded by the legislatures of the States and the public opinion, until it shall be otherwise ordained by Congress; if a personal esteem for the French nation, formed in a residence of seven years chiefly among them, and a sincere desire to preserve the friendship which has been so much for the honor and interest of both nations; if, while the conscious honor and integrity of the people of America and the internal sentiment of their own power and energies must be preserved, an earnest endeavor to investigate every just cause and remove every colorable pretense of complaint; if an intention to pursue by amicable negotiation a reparation for the injuries that have been committed on the commerce of our fellow-citizens by whatever nation, and if success can not be obtained, to lay the facts before the Legislature, that they may consider what further measures the honor and interest of the Government and its constituents demand; if a resolution to do justice as far as may depend upon me, at all times and to all nations, and maintain peace, friendship, and benevolence with all the world; if an unshaken confidence in the honor, spirit, and resources of the American people, on which I have so often hazarded my all and never been deceived; if elevated ideas of the high destinies of this country and of my own duties toward it, founded on a knowledge of the moral principles and intellectual improvements of the people deeply engraven on my mind in early life, and not obscured but exalted by experience and age; and, with humble reverence, I feel it to be my duty to add, if a veneration for the religion of a people who profess and call themselves Christians, and a fixed resolution to consider a decent respect for Christianity among the best recommendations for the public service, can enable me in any degree to comply with your wishes, it shall be my strenuous endeavor that this sagacious injunction of the two Houses shall not be without effect.
> 
> With this great example before me, with the sense and spirit, the faith and honor, the duty and interest, of the same American people pledged to support the Constitution of the United States, I entertain no doubt of its continuance in all its energy, and my mind is prepared without hesitation to lay myself under the most solemn obligations to support it to the utmost of my power.
> 
> And may that Being who is supreme over all, the Patron of Order, the Fountain of Justice, and the Protector in all ages of the world of virtuous liberty, continue His blessing upon this nation and its Government and give it all possible success and duration consistent with the ends of His providence.
> 
> ----
> [[John Adams Inaugural Speech/Talk|/Talk]]
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech/Talk|985813155
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I pulled this from my vast archive of each and every Inaugural Address presented by an elected American President.  I predict that the next President will begin copyrighting his speeches so that this may no longer be done ([[intellectual property]] being what it is).  -[[Invictus|Grant]]
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985813639
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Please consider submitting any very well-developed [[Wikipedia]] articles for which you're mainly responsible to [[Nupedia]]!
> 
> '''Background'''
> <br>In March 2001, the leadership of Nupedia began serious consideration of the idea of working more closely with Wikipedia, or else setting up a Nupedia wiki.  [[Larry Sanger]], editor-in-chief of Nupedia, seriously advanced for discussion the idea of switching Nupedia's editorial process to a less bottleneck-ridden, wiki type of process.
> 
> The general sense that Nupedia arrived at is that, while some changes in Nupedia's editorial process might be warranted, we should wait several months before making any change.  In the meantime, however, many Nupedia editors and peer reviewers were very receptive to the idea of ''Wikipedia'' articles being submitted to Nupedia.  So we'd like officially to encourage you to submit articles for which you're mainly responsible to Nupedia.
> 
> '''How to get started'''
> *[http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/signup.phtml Get a Nupedia member ID.]
> *[http://www.nupedia.com/write.shtml Read over Nupedia's submission guidelines.]
> *[http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/writearticle.phtml?instr=on Sign up to write the article.]
> 
> '''Tips'''
> *When in doubt, ask for help, either from Larry Sanger (lsanger at nupedia.com) or from the [http://www.nupedia.com/editors.phtml relevant area editor].
> *If we don't have an active review group in the area your article would be filed under, while it ''might'' be accepted under a different area, it might not.  If the article is five paragraphs and under, and treats a "nonspecialist" topic (e.g., most topics in geography would work), then submit it under the General and Other heading.
> *Generally speaking, you'll have a slightly better change to have your article assigned since it already exists.  Still, to avoid embarrassment, it would probably be best to ask the relevant editor in e-mail if he or she believes an article is ready for Nupedia, or if it needs further work.
> *Bear in mind that Nupedia, unlike Wikipedia, has a very thorough review process, which requires patience and thick skin.  It will help considerably if you familiarize yourself with the (presently-outdated) [http://www.nupedia.com/policy.shtml editorial policy guidelines].
> 
> '''What about multiple authorship?  How do we work that out?'''
> <br>Obviously, articles created on Wikipedia have something akin to multiple authors.  So, I suggest that on a /Talk page for the article, you present the idea of submitting the article to Nupedia.  Some people have made very minor edits, and they shouldn't be credited as co-authors.  Others, however, might have added whole sections.  In that case, you should try to contact that other person and discuss how to proceed.  You might want to act as co-authors on Nupedia; alternatively, you might want to ''credit'' the other co-authors, but take responsibility for all the changes required by Nupedia.  This is the sort of thing that we can learn to do by doing.
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985813744
14c14
< *When in doubt, ask for help, either from Larry Sanger (lsanger at nupedia.com) or from the [http://www.nupedia.com/editors.phtml relevant area editor].
---
> *When in doubt, ask for help on the /Help subpage, or by e-mail from Larry Sanger (lsanger at nupedia.com) or from the [http://www.nupedia.com/editors.phtml relevant area editor].
20c20
< <br>Obviously, articles created on Wikipedia have something akin to multiple authors.  So, I suggest that on a /Talk page for the article, you present the idea of submitting the article to Nupedia.  Some people have made very minor edits, and they shouldn't be credited as co-authors.  Others, however, might have added whole sections.  In that case, you should try to contact that other person and discuss how to proceed.  You might want to act as co-authors on Nupedia; alternatively, you might want to ''credit'' the other co-authors, but take responsibility for all the changes required by Nupedia.  This is the sort of thing that we can learn to do by doing.
---
> <br>Obviously, articles created on Wikipedia have something akin to multiple authors.  So, I suggest that on a /Talk page for the article, you present the idea of submitting the article to Nupedia.  Some people have made very minor edits, and they shouldn't be credited as co-authors.  Others, however, might have added whole sections.  In that case, you should try to contact that other person and discuss how to proceed.  You might want to act as co-authors on Nupedia; alternatively, you might want to ''credit'' the other co-authors, but take responsibility for all the changes required by Nupedia.  This is the sort of thing that we can learn to do by doing.
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Help|985813774
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Need help?  Want to discuss this whole ball of wax?  Let's have at it!
------
Brazoria_County|985813906
3a4,5
> 
> Brazoria County constitutes the southern tip of the [[Cancer Coast]], so named by doctors at the [[Texas Medical Center]] in [[Houston]] and members of the local [[media]].
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814012
17a18
> *''We strongly encourage that you develop Nupedia articles, or proposed Nupedia articles, on Wikipedia!''  You can get much useful help here, particularly if you let it be known to the others that an article could become a Nupedia article.
20a22,24
> 
> '''Pah!  We're Wikipedia!  We don't <i>need</i> Nupedia!'''
> <br>You've got an excellent point there.  Wikipedia is much more successful in terms of sheer numbers.  But Nupedia has the great advantage of being very carefully peer-reviewed by experts.  Getting an article through Nupedia's editorial process is difficult, and a considerable achievement.  A case can be made that Wikipedia and Nupedia need each other; Wikipedia need's the rigor of Nupedia's editorial process, and its expertise, while Nupedia needs Wikipedia's open, vigorous dynamic.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985814084
4a5,7
> Oh no, not again. Who is spreading "Gamers are psychopaths" propaganda this time?  -SoniC
> 
> 
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814092
21c21
< <br>Obviously, articles created on Wikipedia have something akin to multiple authors.  So, I suggest that on a /Talk page for the article, you present the idea of submitting the article to Nupedia.  Some people have made very minor edits, and they shouldn't be credited as co-authors.  Others, however, might have added whole sections.  In that case, you should try to contact that other person and discuss how to proceed.  You might want to act as co-authors on Nupedia; alternatively, you might want to ''credit'' the other co-authors, but take responsibility for all the changes required by Nupedia.  This is the sort of thing that we can learn to do by doing.
---
> <br>Obviously, articles created on Wikipedia have something akin to multiple authors.  So, I suggest that on a <nowiki>/Talk</nowiki> page for the article, you present the idea of submitting the article to Nupedia.  Some people have made very minor edits, and they shouldn't be credited as co-authors.  Others, however, might have added whole sections.  In that case, you should try to contact that other person and discuss how to proceed.  You might want to act as co-authors on Nupedia; alternatively, you might want to ''credit'' the other co-authors, but take responsibility for all the changes required by Nupedia.  This is the sort of thing that we can learn to do by doing.
24c24
< <br>You've got an excellent point there.  Wikipedia is much more successful in terms of sheer numbers.  But Nupedia has the great advantage of being very carefully peer-reviewed by experts.  Getting an article through Nupedia's editorial process is difficult, and a considerable achievement.  A case can be made that Wikipedia and Nupedia need each other; Wikipedia need's the rigor of Nupedia's editorial process, and its expertise, while Nupedia needs Wikipedia's open, vigorous dynamic.
---
> <br>You've got an excellent point there.  Wikipedia is much more successful in terms of sheer numbers.  But Nupedia has the great advantage of being very carefully peer-reviewed by experts.  Getting an article through Nupedia's editorial process is difficult, and a considerable achievement.  A case can be made that Wikipedia and Nupedia need each other; Wikipedia need's the rigor of Nupedia's editorial process, and its expertise, while Nupedia needs Wikipedia's open, vigorous dynamic.
------
Dungeons_and_Dragons/Talk|985814104
6c6
< 
---
> ----
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814126
24a25,26
> 
> See also [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].
------
Free|985814157
3c3
< Many people in the Open Source community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
---
> Many English-speaking people in the Open Source community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814186
22a23,27
> <b>I think that in many cases, and <i>as for me</i>, credit is neither asked for or wanted.  When I write on the wikipedia, I do so for my own entertainment and to <i>anonymously</i> contribute to the body of knowledge.  Is it possible for articles to appear in Nupedia without any particular attribution, or with attribution to the Wikipedia community-at-large? This seems to better suit our social mores over here. --[[Jimbo Wales]]</b>
> 
> 
> 
> 
26c31
< See also [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].
---
> See also [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|985814195
2a3,6
> '''March 28, 2001'''
> 
> Consider [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].  More importantly (?), consider [[adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
> 
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814324
25c25
< 
---
> :Yes, that's quite possible.  Simply sign up for the article under your own Nupedia member ID, and just before we give it final acceptance, we'll switch the author field off to some specially-created "Wikipedia-created" ID. --[[LMS]]
------
Astronomy|985814535
3c3
< 
---
> \History
------
Astronomy|985814581
3c3,4
< \History
---
> 
> [[/History]]
------
Astronomy/History|985814606
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Astronomy is probably the oldest of the [[Natural Sciences]].
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the [[Sun]] and the stars where correlated with the [[seasons]], and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and [[planets]], that move between stars.
> [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> [[Copernicus]] proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous supporters were [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
> 
> Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
> 
> Galilei was apparently the first one to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky, discovering the moons of [[Jupiter]] and the [[Sunspots]], but he is most famous by his problems with the [[Catholic Church]] (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> 
> [[Isaac Newton]] was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the [[Laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
> found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
> into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
> the 20th century research.
> 
> At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
> decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of [[spectral lines]]
> were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
> Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
> observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
> to unique elements. It was proved that the [[elements]] found in the
> sun were also found on earth. 
> 
> During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines)
> advanced.
> 
> (to be continued)
>  
> Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
> With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were 
> observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[Galaxy]] made by more
> than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
> own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985814742
0a1,2
> John Adams gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]]. 
> ----
30c32
< [[John Adams Inaugural Speech/Talk|/Talk]]
---
> [[John Adams Inaugural Speech/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Economic_subjectivism/Talk|985814807
6a7,10
> ----
> It is mentioned in the article that the changed value of the unchanged candy is a paradox.  That seems superficial to me.  Value = exchangeability, and is a relational function, not a property of the thing nor of the valuer, but of the relationship between the two.  A thing of poor quality may have properties which reduce the likelihood of its being widely or highly valued, but the destitute may esteem it highly.  Likewise, a wealthy and privileged individual may be unwilling to part with any portion of his considerable wealth to obtain a 7-11 franchise, while a struggling entrepreneur might give up 75% of his net worth to get it.  So, as value is a function of relationship, it should not be surprising that candy exists in one relationship to a famished individual, and in a totally different relationship to a stuffed individual.  Just as the top of the empire state building is high to a sidewalk dweller and low to a commercial jet passenger, high and low are relational values and it presents no paradox that they are viewed differently from different perspectives.  My $.02.
> 
> If no one minds, I will change the text.
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985814936
18c18
< *''We strongly encourage that you develop Nupedia articles, or proposed Nupedia articles, on Wikipedia!''  You can get much useful help here, particularly if you let it be known to the others that an article could become a Nupedia article.
---
> *''We strongly encourage you to develop Nupedia articles, or proposed Nupedia articles, on Wikipedia!''  You can get much useful help here, particularly if you let it be known to the others that an article could become a Nupedia article.
29c29
< <br>You've got an excellent point there.  Wikipedia is much more successful in terms of sheer numbers.  But Nupedia has the great advantage of being very carefully peer-reviewed by experts.  Getting an article through Nupedia's editorial process is difficult, and a considerable achievement.  A case can be made that Wikipedia and Nupedia need each other; Wikipedia need's the rigor of Nupedia's editorial process, and its expertise, while Nupedia needs Wikipedia's open, vigorous dynamic.
---
> <br>You've got an excellent point there.  Wikipedia is much more successful in terms of sheer numbers.  But Nupedia has the great advantage of being very carefully peer-reviewed by experts.  Getting an article through Nupedia's editorial process is difficult, and a considerable achievement.  A case can be made that Wikipedia and Nupedia need each other; Wikipedia needs the rigor of Nupedia's editorial process, and its expertise, while Nupedia needs Wikipedia's open, vigorous dynamic.
------
Economic_subjectivism|985815051
7c7
< The theory can be illustrated as follows: Imagine you are very hungry before dinner and see a piece of candy sitting on the kitchen counter.  The candy seems very desirable to you, but you forbear on the candy, and wait for dinner.  Dinner is very good and you end up stuffing yourself on three helpings.  Afterwards, you again see the candy sitting on the counter but now you have no desire whatsoever to eat it because you are so full.  The candy went from being of value, to being of no value, <i> even though the candy has not changed</i>.  But you have changed, illustrating that the value of the candy is a property of you, not of the candy.  If you accept any form of value intrincisim, then the change in the value of an unchanging piece of candy represents a paradox.
---
> The theory can be illustrated as follows: Imagine you are very hungry before dinner and see a piece of candy sitting on the kitchen counter.  The candy seems very desirable to you, but you forbear on the candy, and wait for dinner.  Dinner is very good and you end up stuffing yourself on three helpings.  Afterwards, you again see the candy sitting on the counter but now you have no desire whatsoever to eat it because you are so full.  The candy went from being of value, to being of no value, <i> even though the candy has not changed</i>.  But you have changed, illustrating that the value of the candy is a property of you, not of the candy.  If one accepts absolute intrincisim, then the change in the value of an unchanging piece of candy represents a paradox.  If, on the other hand, a thing's intrinsic attributes ''influence'' but do not ''determine'' its value, the changes in value according to changing circumstances present no surprise to the observer.
------
WikiBiblion|985815088
11a12,13
> * [[John Adams Inaugural Speech|John Adams' Inaugural Speech]]
> 
------
Economic_subjectivism|985815187
1c1
< The theory that value is a property of the valuer and not of the thing being valued.
---
> The theory that value is a feature of the valuer and not of the thing being valued.
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985815329
1c1
< John Adams gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]]. 
---
> John Adams gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]] after [[Chief Justice]] [[Oliver Ellsworth]] administered the oath of office in the Hall of the [[House of Representatives]] in [[Federal Hall]] before a [[Joint Session of Congress]].
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985815386
29a30,31
> ----
> Nupedia does not need wiki articles.
30a33
> ----
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985815474
1c1
< John Adams gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]] after [[Chief Justice]] [[Oliver Ellsworth]] administered the oath of office in the Hall of the [[House of Representatives]] in [[Federal Hall]] before a [[Joint Session of Congress]].
---
> [[John Adams]], second president of the [[United States]], gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]] after [[Chief Justice]] [[Oliver Ellsworth]] administered the [[oath of office]] in the Hall of the [[House of Representatives]] in [[Federal Hall]] before a [[Joint Session of Congress]].
------
Oath_of_office|985815630
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <b>Oath of Office</b> is a sworn statement/oath a person takes before officially assuming the office.
> 
> An oath of office is administered at a [[swearing in ceremony]]
> and, most of the time, sworn with one hand on the [[bible]].
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech/Talk|985815729
1c1,6
< I pulled this from my vast archive of each and every Inaugural Address presented by an elected American President.  I predict that the next President will begin copyrighting his speeches so that this may no longer be done ([[intellectual property]] being what it is).  -[[Invictus|Grant]]
---
> I pulled this from my vast archive of each and every Inaugural Address presented by an elected American President.  I predict that the next President will begin copyrighting his speeches so that this may no longer be done ([[intellectual property]] being what it is).  -[[Invictus|Grant]]
> 
> Technically, any speech given by anyone in the [[United States]]
> is copyrighted when it is given.
> 
> Aren't there some laws stating what data produced by the federal government are public domain?
------
Astronomy|985816460
1c1,4
< Astronomy deals with the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Etymologically means "Measuring of Stars", but
---
> Astronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. The study of the [[planet]]s of the [[solar system]] is (in recent times)
> sometimes considered a different discipline, called [[Planetary Sciences]].
> 
> Astronomy means etymologically "Measuring of Stars", but
4,27c7,22
< [[/History]]
<  
< Astronomy is probably the oldest of the [[Natural Sciences]].
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the [[Sun]] and the stars where correlated with the [[seasons]], and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and [[planets]], that move between stars.
< [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< [[Copernicus]] proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous supporters were [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
< 
< Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
< 
< Galilei was apparently the first one to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky, discovering the moons of [[Jupiter]] and the [[Sunspots]], but he is most famous by his problems with the [[Catholic Church]] (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
< 
< [[Isaac Newton]] was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
< earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the [[Laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
< found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
< into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
< the 20th century research.
< 
< At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
< decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of [[spectral lines]]
< were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
< Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
< observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
< to unique elements. It was proved that the [[elements]] found in the
< sun were also found on earth. 
---
> For a history of astronomy [[click here|\History]].
> 
> Given its huge scope, astronomy is divided in different branches.
> The divisions are not unique, however, and the intersections, as
> well as astronomers who works in several areas, are the rule more
> that the exception.
> 
> In astronomy, the main way of obtaining information is through
> the detection and analysis of [[electromagnetic radiation]].
> [[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
> and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelengths]] than
> can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 8000 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
> deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
> [[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
> detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are
> similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that wavelegths of radiation). 
29,30d23
< During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines)
< advanced.
34,38d26
< Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
< With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were 
< observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[Galaxy]] made by more
< than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
< own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
Astronomy|985816502
7c7
< For a history of astronomy [[click here|\History]].
---
> For a history of astronomy [[click here|/History]].
------
Astronomy|985816575
7c7
< For a history of astronomy [[click here|/History]].
---
> For a history of astronomy [[/History|click here]].
------
Astronomy|985816631
7c7
< For a history of astronomy [[/History|click here]].
---
> For a history of astronomy [[click here|\History]].
18c18
< can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 8000 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
---
> can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
------
Astronomy|985816987
22a23,31
> (...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
> 
> (Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
> 
> A somehow dated division is [[Galactic Astronomy]] and [[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
> 
> The most used division used now is by problems:
> 
> [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]], [[Star Formation]], [[Stellar Astronomy]].
25d33
< (to be continued)
------
Astronomy|985817109
7c7
< For a history of astronomy [[click here|\History]].
---
> For a history of astronomy [[/History|click here]].
------
Anthropology|985817352
2a3,6
> Notable [[Anthropologist]]s include
> *[[Margaret Meade]]
> *[[Colin Turnbull]]
> 
------
Anthropologist|985817419
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An anthropologist is someone who studies [[Anthropology]].
> 
> Notable anthropologists include
> *[[Margaret Meade]]
> *[[Colin Turnbull]]
------
Archaeology|985817937
2a3,5
> Archaeology subdisciplines
> *[[Nautical Archaeology]] 
> 
------
Archaeology|985817953
3c3
< Archaeology subdisciplines
---
> Archaeology subdisciplines:
------
Nautical_Archaeology|985818350
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nautical Archaeology is the study of past human activity the physical remains of  maritime activities.
> 
> Notable Nautical Araeology projects:
> *The [[H. L. Hunley Project]]
------
Nautical_Archaeology|985818363
3c3
< Notable Nautical Araeology projects:
---
> Notable Nautical Archaeology projects:
------
AbeceDarians|985818691
8a9
> [[Abecedarian]]
------
Abecedarian|985818774
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme 
> [[Anabaptist]]s (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the [[Holy 
> Spirit]] as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
> learning and even the power of reading the written word. 
> 
> ----
> Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
Abecedarian|985818816
2,3c2,3
< [[Anabaptist]]s (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the [[Holy 
< Spirit]] as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
---
> [[Anabaptist]]s (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the 
> [[Holy Spirit]] as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia|985818829
31,32c31
< Nupedia does not need wiki articles.
< 
---
> /Talk
------
AbeceDarians|985818854
1,9c1
< ABECEDARIANS, a nickname given to certain extreme 
< Anabaptists (q.v.), who regarded the teaching of the Holy 
< Spirit as all that was necessary, and so despised all human 
< learning and even the power of reading the written word. 
< 
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
< 
< [[Abecedarian]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Abecedarian]]
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk|985818904
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nupedia does not need wiki articles.
> ----
> I would like the person who wrote the above to elaborate the sentiment.  I know that there are some on Nupedia who feel that way.  But there are a few Wikipedia articles that are, frankly, rather better than some articles-in-progress on Nupedia.  The fact that an article started life on Wikipedia does not, of course, make it a bad article. --[[LMS]]
------
John_Adams|985819052
3c3
< From the Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia Volume 1:
---
> From an early twentieth-century encyclopedia:
------
HomePage|985819131
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Planetary Sciences]]
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985819325
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> stronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. The study of the [[planet]]s of the [[solar system]] is (in recent times)
> sometimes considered a different discipline, called [[Planetary Sciences]].
> 
> Astronomy means etymologically "Measuring of Stars", but
> modern day astronomy studies much more than that. 
> 
> For a history of astronomy [[/History|click here]].
> 
> Given its huge scope, astronomy is divided in different branches.
> The divisions are not unique, however, and the intersections, as
> well as astronomers who works in several areas, are the rule more
> that the exception.
> 
> In astronomy, the main way of obtaining information is through
> the detection and analysis of [[electromagnetic radiation]].
> [[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
> and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelengths]] than
> can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
> deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
> [[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
> detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are
> similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that wavelegths of radiation). 
> (...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
> 
> (Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
> 
> A somehow dated division is [[Galactic Astronomy]] and [[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
> 
> The most used division used now is by problems:
> 
> [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]], [[Star Formation]], [[Stellar Astronomy]].
> 
> 
>  
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics/History|985819398
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Astronomy is probably the oldest of the [[Natural Sciences]].
> In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the [[Sun]] and the stars where correlated with the [[seasons]], and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and [[planets]], that move between stars.
> [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
> [[Copernicus]] proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous supporters were [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
> 
> Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
> 
> Galilei was apparently the first one to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky, discovering the moons of [[Jupiter]] and the [[Sunspots]], but he is most famous by his problems with the [[Catholic Church]] (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
> 
> [[Isaac Newton]] was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
> earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the [[Laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
> found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
> into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
> the 20th century research.
> 
> At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
> decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of [[spectral lines]]
> were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
> Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
> observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
> to unique elements. It was proved that the [[elements]] found in the
> sun were also found on earth. 
> 
> During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines)
> advanced.
> 
> (to be continued)
>  
> Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
> With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were 
> observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[Galaxy]] made by more
> than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
> own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
------
Planetary_Sciences|985819861
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Discipline that studies the [[solar system]]
> in detail, using astronomical observations and data from
> [[spaceship]]s that have been sent to [[planet]]s, [[satellite]]s
> and [[asteroid]]s. It shares many interests with [[Earth sciences]]. 
>  
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk|985820055
1a2,6
> 
> This will allow each of wiki and nupedia to evolve on their own and act as a quality check in giving two versions of many articles.
> 
> Plus, using a 'mature' article from nupedia may stifle creativity in writing the same topic on wiki.  This may prevent interesting information from being in wiki articles.
> 
3c8
< I would like the person who wrote the above to elaborate the sentiment.  I know that there are some on Nupedia who feel that way.  But there are a few Wikipedia articles that are, frankly, rather better than some articles-in-progress on Nupedia.  The fact that an article started life on Wikipedia does not, of course, make it a bad article. --[[LMS]]
---
> I would like the person who wrote the above to elaborate the sentiment.  I know that there are some on Nupedia who feel that way.  But there are a few Wikipedia articles that are, frankly, rather better than some articles-in-progress on Nupedia.  The fact that an article started life on Wikipedia does not, of course, make it a bad article. --[[LMS]]
------
John_Adams|985820096
3c3
< From an early twentieth-century encyclopedia:
---
> From an early twentieth-century encyclopedia published in 1911 in the [[United States]]:
------
Oregon|985820211
15,17d14
< Oregon is bounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west, [[Washington]] to the North, [[Idaho]] to the east,
< and [[Nevada]] and [[California]] to the south.
< 
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985820246
1c1,7
< stronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. The study of the [[planet]]s of the [[solar system]] is (in recent times)
---
> Astronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
> applied, [[Astrophysics]] was born, as an application of
> physics to phenomena observed by astronomy. Most (if not all)
> astronomers now have a strong background in physics, and observations are always put in an astrophysical context, so
> the distinction between astronomy and astrophysics  almost doesn't exist.
> 
> The study of the [[planet]]s of the [[solar system]] is (in recent times)
------
Astrophysics|985820429
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physics applied to phenomena observed by [[astronomy]]. It's
> almost a synonim of astronomy, except when it is purely theoretical.
> 
> See [[Theoretical astrophysics]]
------
Astronomy|985820464
1,34c1
< Astronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. The study of the [[planet]]s of the [[solar system]] is (in recent times)
< sometimes considered a different discipline, called [[Planetary Sciences]].
< 
< Astronomy means etymologically "Measuring of Stars", but
< modern day astronomy studies much more than that. 
< 
< For a history of astronomy [[/History|click here]].
< 
< Given its huge scope, astronomy is divided in different branches.
< The divisions are not unique, however, and the intersections, as
< well as astronomers who works in several areas, are the rule more
< that the exception.
< 
< In astronomy, the main way of obtaining information is through
< the detection and analysis of [[electromagnetic radiation]].
< [[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
< and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelengths]] than
< can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
< deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
< [[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
< detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are
< similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that wavelegths of radiation). 
< (...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
< 
< (Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
< 
< A somehow dated division is [[Galactic Astronomy]] and [[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
< 
< The most used division used now is by problems:
< 
< [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]], [[Star Formation]], [[Stellar Astronomy]].
< 
< 
<  
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
------
Astrophysics|985822483
4a5,6
> 
> ''What about amateur astronomy?  Surely that's not the same thing as experimental astrophysics!''
------
Animal/Talk|985823421
3c3,5
< "Animal" is quite obviously a natural topic for biology!  You might want to say ''something'' on the page called "animal," in less technical terms, and otherwise point to the [[Animalia]] page.  Similarly, Wikipedia is not going to go through life never having a [[plant]] page.  There is no good reason to use the Latin words ''exclusively,'' is there?  If only to avoid redundancy, well, of course you can avoid redundancy by monitoring what is put on the [[animal]] page and what is on the [[animalia]] page.  ''Maybe,'' you'll simply want the [[animal]] page point to [[animalia]]. --[[LMS]]
---
> "Animal" is quite obviously a natural topic for biology!  You might want to say ''something'' on the page called "animal," in less technical terms, and otherwise point to the [[Animalia]] page.  Similarly, Wikipedia is not going to go through life never having a [[plant]] page.  There is no good reason to use the Latin words ''exclusively,'' is there?  If only to avoid redundancy, well, of course you can avoid redundancy by monitoring what is put on the [[animal]] page and what is on the [[animalia]] page.  ''Maybe,'' you'll simply want the [[animal]] page point to [[animalia]]. --[[LMS]]
> 
> I think the last is probably the best.  Or maybe [[animalia]] should point to [[animal]], I'm having a tought time figuring that out.  See [[Linnaean taxonomy/Talk]].
------
Animal/Talk|985823499
5c5
< I think the last is probably the best.  Or maybe [[animalia]] should point to [[animal]], I'm having a tought time figuring that out.  See [[Linnaean taxonomy/Talk]].
---
> I think the last is probably the best.  Or maybe [[animalia]] should point to [[animal]], I'm having a tought time figuring that out.  See [[Linnaean taxonomy/Talk]]...also note that a flat list of animals like this is going to die hard if more people ever take an interest in them.
------
Oath_of_office|985823903
4c4
< and, most of the time, sworn with one hand on the [[bible]].
---
> and, most of the time (in Western countries), sworn with one hand on the [[bible]].
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk|985825560
2c2,4
< 
---
> ----
> I would like the person who wrote the above to elaborate the sentiment.  I know that there are some on Nupedia who feel that way.  But there are a few Wikipedia articles that are, frankly, rather better than some articles-in-progress on Nupedia.  The fact that an article started life on Wikipedia does not, of course, make it a bad article. --[[LMS]]
> ----
6d7
< 
8c9,11
< I would like the person who wrote the above to elaborate the sentiment.  I know that there are some on Nupedia who feel that way.  But there are a few Wikipedia articles that are, frankly, rather better than some articles-in-progress on Nupedia.  The fact that an article started life on Wikipedia does not, of course, make it a bad article. --[[LMS]]
---
> If Nupedia doesn't comment on Wikipedia formally, it can't act as a "quality check" on Wikipedia, as far as I can tell; and the only way for Nupedia to comment on Wikipedia formally is for Wikipedia articles to be submitted to Nupedia.
> 
> I think we should make the articles on Wikipedia as "mature" as possible.  We do, after all, ''eventually'' want top-quality articles on Wikipedia.  It doesn't matter at all that we won't have such articles anytime soon.  The notion that creativity is stifle by quality is one I for one completely and totally reject. --[[LMS]]
------
Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk|985825618
11c11
< I think we should make the articles on Wikipedia as "mature" as possible.  We do, after all, ''eventually'' want top-quality articles on Wikipedia.  It doesn't matter at all that we won't have such articles anytime soon.  The notion that creativity is stifle by quality is one I for one completely and totally reject. --[[LMS]]
---
> I think we should make the articles on Wikipedia as "mature" as possible.  We do, after all, ''eventually'' want top-quality articles on Wikipedia.  It doesn't matter at all that we won't have such articles anytime soon.  The notion that creativity is stifle by quality is one I for one completely and totally reject.  Moreover, I fail to see how information will not be added to high-quality articles.  Finally, the issue under discussion isn't whether Nupedia articles should be added to Wikipedia, but whether Wikipedia articles should be submitted to Nupedia. --[[LMS]]
------
Animal/Talk|985825812
5a6,7
> ----
> I suggest that the biologists develop biology articles in whatever format they find most simpatico, and after that we can construct a page in ordinary English that points to the Latin pages. --[[LMS]]
------
Animal/Talk|985825868
7c7
< I suggest that the biologists develop biology articles in whatever format they find most simpatico, and after that we can construct a page in ordinary English that points to the Latin pages. --[[LMS]]
---
> I suggest that the biologists develop biology articles in whatever format they find most simpatico, and after that we can construct a page in ordinary English that points to the Latin pages.  (You might want to state your intentions on [[Animal]] in order to make this unconfusing to the casual reader.) --[[LMS]]
------
Hobbies|985826139
5c5,7
< A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work. While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
---
> A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  This may include activities that are in fact professions for others: for example, a computer game programmer may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy computer games.
> 
> While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
17a20
> ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
19,20c22
< * Antiquing (what's the word?)
< * [[Cooking]] of course
---
> * [[Cooking]]
23d24
< * [[Minature wargaming]]
25a27,28
> * [[Game]]s
> ** [[Minature wargaming]]
------
Games|985826177
1,17c1
< People throughout history have played games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.
< 
< Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
< 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
< 
< *[[Board games]]
< *[[Card games]]
< *[[Collectable card games]]
< *[[Casino games]]
< *[[Computer games]]
< *[[Letter games]]
< *[[Role playing games]]
< *[[Table top games]]
< *[[Tile based games]]
< *[[Video games]]
< 
< Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Game]]
------
Game|985826191
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> People throughout history have played games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.
> 
> Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
> 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
> 
> *[[Board games]]
> *[[Card games]]
> *[[Collectable card games]]
> *[[Casino games]]
> *[[Computer games]]
> *[[Letter games]]
> *[[Role playing games]]
> *[[Table top games]]
> *[[Tile based games]]
> *[[Video games]]
> 
> Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
------
Hobbies|985826241
1,31c1
< I would love someone to give us a good definition of ''hobby''.
< 
< How about:
< 
< A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  This may include activities that are in fact professions for others: for example, a computer game programmer may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy computer games.
< 
< While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
< 
< Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like, doing so in a way that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
< 
< Hobbies include:
< * Collecting
< ** [[Book collecting]]
< ** [[Card collecting]]
< ** [[Coin collecting]]
< ** [[Comic book collecting]]
< ** [[Currency collecting]]
< ** [http://www.insulators.com Glass insulators]
< ** [[Stamp collecting]]
< ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
< * [[Gardening]]
< * [[Cooking]]
< * [[Genealogy]]
< * [[Music]]
< * [[Model-building]]
< * [[Coding]]
< * [[Game]]s
< ** [[Minature wargaming]]
< * [[Adding stuff to Wikipedia]] 
< 
< Etc.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hobby]]
------
Hobby|985826253
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I would love someone to give us a good definition of ''hobby''.
> 
> How about:
> 
> A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  This may include activities that are in fact professions for others: for example, a computer game programmer may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy computer games.
> 
> While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
> 
> Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like, doing so in a way that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
> 
> Hobbies include:
> * Collecting
> ** [[Book collecting]]
> ** [[Card collecting]]
> ** [[Coin collecting]]
> ** [[Comic book collecting]]
> ** [[Currency collecting]]
> ** [http://www.insulators.com Glass insulators]
> ** [[Stamp collecting]]
> ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
> * [[Gardening]]
> * [[Cooking]]
> * [[Genealogy]]
> * [[Music]]
> * [[Model-building]]
> * [[Coding]]
> * [[Game]]s
> ** [[Minature wargaming]]
> * [[Adding stuff to Wikipedia]] 
> 
> Etc.
> 
------
HomePage|985826317
11c11
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Games]] -- [[Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game]]s -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Cooking|985826949
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Cooking</i> is the [[art]], [[science]], [[profession]], and [[hobby]] of preparing [[food]] for human consumption.  The term is often used in the narrower sense of applying heat to chemically transform a food to change its flavor, texture, appearance, or to preserve it.
------
Cooking|985826978
1c1
< <i>Cooking</i> is the [[art]], [[science]], [[profession]], and [[hobby]] of preparing [[food]] for human consumption.  The term is often used in the narrower sense of applying heat to chemically transform a food to change its flavor, texture, appearance, or to preserve it.
---
> <i>Cooking</i> is the [[art]], [[science]], [[profession]], and [[hobby]] of preparing [[food]] for human consumption.  The term is often used in the narrower sense of applying heat to chemically transform a food to change its flavor, texture, appearance, or nutritional properties.
------
Bronx|985828313
11c11
< : 7). Very good neighborhoods - [[Riverdale]], [[County Club Estates]].
---
> : 7). Very good neighborhoods - [[Riverdale]], [[Country Club Estates]].
------
Stupid_Republicans|985828603
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is a tradition in the American media to portray Republican Presidents as being stupid.  Since most members of the press (around 90%) vote Democrat rather than Republican, there is reason to suspect this portrayal is simply grounded in anti-Republican sentiment rather than in fact.  Many of the Republicans who are portrayed as stupid have credentials that should put to rest any doubts about their intelligence.  Dwight Eisenhower graduated first from the Army's demanding Command and General Staff School.  George W. Bush was a fighter pilot, and has a masters degree from the very prestigious Harvard Business School.  Yet both men are popularly perceived as being below average in intelligence.  
> 
> Republican Presidents that are often considered stupid:
>  [[George W. Bush]]
>  [[Dwight Eisenhower]]
>  [[Gerald Ford]]
>  [[Ulysses Grant]]
>  [[Warren Harding]]
>  [[Ronald Reagan]]
------
Stupid_Republicans|985828712
7c7
<  [[Ulysses Grant]]
---
>  [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
------
Games_of_Chance|985829551
1c1
< back to [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Games]]
---
> A <i>game of chance</i> is a [[game]] whose outcome is strongly influenced by some randomiziing device, and upon which contestant frequently wager money.  Common devices used include [[dice]], [[card]]s, spun wheels, and numbered balls drawn from a container.
3c3
< We humans have always had a latent addiction to gambling. It is said that the Roman soldiers guarding the scene of the crucifiction of [[Jesus]] played with dice carved from the knuckle bones of previous victims. The possibillity that a ''twist of fate'' might change our material circumstances appeals to us. It is ironic that exploiting this fact provides one of the most stable businesses known.
---
> Gambling is known in nearly all human societies, even though many have passed laws restricting it.  Early people used the knucklebones of sheep as dice.  Many people develop a psychological addiction to gambling, and will risk even food and shelter to continue.
5,7c5
< Dice, coin flipping, shufled decks of cards, and carefully balanced roulette wheels have been commonly used instruments for several hundred years in many cultures. Today, electronics offers the opportunity to add ''bells and whistles'' to the casino. '''[[Slot machines]]''' (one-armed bandits, some call them) will entice you to continue playing with sound effects and flashing lights as well as minor payouts.
< 
< The same tools have always been part of the equipment that many professors of statistics use to engage the students' attention and to illustrate the main ideas of [[Statistics]].
---
> See [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]]
------
Stupid_Republicans|985832398
9a10,11
> 
> ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans or stupid, or anything.''
------
Stupid_Republicans|985832405
11c11
< ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans or stupid, or anything.''
---
> ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''
------
Astrophysics|985834940
6a7,8
> 
> I had completely forgotten about amateur astronomy...I'll change it soon.
------
Astrophysics|985836527
2c2
< almost a synonim of astronomy, except when it is purely theoretical.
---
> almost a synonym of astronomy, except when it is purely theoretical.
8c8
< I had completely forgotten about amateur astronomy...I'll change it soon.
---
> I had completely forgotten about amateur astronomy...I'll change it soon.
------
United_States_Constitution/Amendment_Two|985839436
1,2c1
< A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be
< infringed. 
---
> A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
5c4
< /AmendmentTwoTalk
---
> /AmendmentTwoTalk
------
United_States_Constitution/Amendment_Two|985840603
1c1
< A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
---
> A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. 
------
United_States_Constitution/AmendmentTwoTalk|985840674
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The comma is there in the constitution - removing it removes much of the ambiguity that resides in the amendment, and changes the meaning.  Please make sure the punctuation matches what's really in the constitution.
------
Stupid_Republicans|985841150
11c11,13
< ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''
---
> ''There are some good reasons for some of these...Bush has a record for saying things that sound remarkably similar to English, but aren't quite, and there was the beautiful incident where Reagan assimilated a WWII movie into his personal record.  I think maybe the complaitn should be changed to "not enough stupid Democrats are recognized as such." ;)''
> 
> ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''
------
Mammalia|985841389
29,30c29,30
<    Order [[Cetacea ]](whales, dolphins, porpoises)
<    Order [[Tubulidentata]] (aardvark)
---
>    Order [[Cetacea]](whales, dolphins, porpoises)
>    Order [[Tubulidentata]] ([[aardvark]])
33c33
<    Order [[Proboscidea]] (elephants, etc)
---
>    Order [[Proboscidea]] ([[elephant]]s, etc)
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985841425
1c1
< Quantum Mechanics has its origin in the discovery of the quantification of the light energy.
---
> Quantum Mechanics has its origin in the discovery of the quantization of the light energy.
------
Animal|985841539
1,9c1
< Taxonomy
< :[[Animalia]]
< Birds
< :[[Peregrine Falcon]]
< Mammals
< :[[Aardvark]]
< :[[Aardwolf]]
< :[[Cattle]]
< :[[Elephant]]
---
> Members of the kingdom [[Animalia]].  At Larry's suggestion, I think we may want to the pages on higher forms under the Latin name, with English pages forwarding to them.  But better ideas are welcome to encouraged.
11c3
< /Talk
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Carnivora|985841829
14c14
<  Family [[Hyaenidae]] (yyenas and aardwolf)
---
>  Family [[Hyaenidae]] (yyenas and [[aardwolf]])
------
Inuit|985842595
1c1
< The native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]].
---
> The native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]].  These people live all across the Arctic, that's why the Arctic Winter Games have been held in Greenland and Alaska as well as in Canada.
------
Belgium|985843149
19a20,21
> The best beer is that of the Trappist monks.  Technically, it's ale and traditionally each abbey's beer is served in its own glass (the heights and widths are different).
> 
21a24,25
> One of the great athletes of Belgium and the world was Eddy Merckx.  He won the Tour de France 5 times.  
> 
25c29
< The inhabitants of this country have a reputation for loving FrenchFries.
---
> The inhabitants of this country have a reputation for loving FrenchFries.  The fried potato strips are sold at many small shops and stands (often at train stations) and are frites (not identified as French, though).
------
Insecta|985848020
23c23
< *** Group name eludes me...
---
> *** [[Hemipterodea]]
43c43
< Let's not overlook the (genus?) ''Nupedia'', a kind of fly!  ;-)
---
> Let's not overlook the (genus?) ''Nupedia'', a kind of fly!  ;-)
------
Mammalia|985848970
19c19
<    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, Homo sapiens)
---
>    Order [[Primates]] (apes, monkeys, people)
------
Actinopterygii|985854207
1c1,44
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This group includes the ray-finned fish, the dominant group of vertebrates, ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments.  Traditionally the Actinopterygii have been divided into three grades: the Chondrostei, Holostei, and Teleostei, but the middle group has kind of gone out of style.  I don't feel like putting any details right now - a good classification was hard enough to sort out.
> 
> * Order [[Polypteriformes]]
> * Order [[Acipenseriformes]]
> * Order [[Semionotiformes]]
> * Order [[Amiiformes]]
> * Teleostei
> ** Osteoglosomorpha - order [[Osteoglossiformes]]
> ** Elopomorpha
> *** [[Elopiformes]]
> *** [[Anguilliformes]]
> ** Clupeomorpha - order [[Clupeiformes]]
> ** Ostariophysi
> *** Order [[Gonorhynchiformes]]
> *** Order [[Cypriniformes]]
> *** Order [[Characiformes]]
> *** Order [[Gymnotiformes]]
> *** Order [[Siluriformes]]
> ** Protacanthopterygii - order [[Salmoniformes]]
> ** Stenopterygii
> *** Order [[Aleopodiformes]]
> *** Order [[Stomiiformes]]
> ** Cyclosquamata - order [[Aulopiformes]]
> ** Scopelomorpha - order [[Myctophiformes]]
> ** Lampridiomorpha - order [[Lampridiformes]]
> ** Polymyxiomorpha - order [[Polymyxiformes]]
> ** Paracanthopterygii
> *** Order [[Percopsiformes]]
> *** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]]
> *** Order [[Lophiiformes]]
> *** Order [[Gadiformes]]
> *** Order [[Ophidiiformes]]
> ** Acanthopterygii
> *** Order [[Mugiliformes]]
> *** Order [[Atheriniformes]]
> *** Order [[Beloniformes]]
> *** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]]
> *** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]
> *** Order [[Beryciformes]]
> *** Order [[Zeiformes]]
> *** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]
> *** Order [[Synbranchiformes]]
> *** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]]
> *** Order [[Perciformes]] (including [[Pleuronectiformes]], [[Tetraodontiformes]])
------
Colleges_and_universities|985858567
20a21,27
> ----
> 
> A very good "College and University" list can be found at http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/cdemello/univ.html which was built up by Christina DeMello in 1995. I'll contact her to ask her if
> * we are allowed to copy her list to this project
> * if she is willing to help us on building up this list here at wikipedia.
> 
> Tobias Hoevekamp
------
Actinopterygii|985858919
3,6c3,6
< * Order [[Polypteriformes]]
< * Order [[Acipenseriformes]]
< * Order [[Semionotiformes]]
< * Order [[Amiiformes]]
---
> * Order [[Polypteriformes]]  (bichirs)
> * Order [[Acipenseriformes]]  (sturgeons, paddlefish)
> * Order [[Semionotiformes]]  (gars)
> * Order [[Amiiformes]]  (bowfins)
8c8
< ** Osteoglosomorpha - order [[Osteoglossiformes]]
---
> ** Osteoglosomorpha - order [[Osteoglossiformes]]  (bony tongues, etc)
10,12c10,12
< *** [[Elopiformes]]
< *** [[Anguilliformes]]
< ** Clupeomorpha - order [[Clupeiformes]]
---
> *** [[Elopiformes]]  (tarpons, etc)
> *** [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels)
> ** Clupeomorpha - order [[Clupeiformes]]  (herrings & allies)
15,26c15,28
< *** Order [[Cypriniformes]]
< *** Order [[Characiformes]]
< *** Order [[Gymnotiformes]]
< *** Order [[Siluriformes]]
< ** Protacanthopterygii - order [[Salmoniformes]]
< ** Stenopterygii
< *** Order [[Aleopodiformes]]
< *** Order [[Stomiiformes]]
< ** Cyclosquamata - order [[Aulopiformes]]
< ** Scopelomorpha - order [[Myctophiformes]]
< ** Lampridiomorpha - order [[Lampridiformes]]
< ** Polymyxiomorpha - order [[Polymyxiformes]]
---
> *** Order [[Cypriniformes]]  (minnows & allies)
> *** Order [[Characiformes]]  (characins & allies)
> *** Order [[Gymnotiformes]]  (electric eels, knifefishes)
> *** Order [[Siluriformes]]  (catfishes)
> ** Protacanthopterygii
> *** Order [[Salmoniformes]]  (salmon & allies)
> *** Order [[Esociformes]]  (pikes & allies)
> ** Sternopterygii
> *** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]]
> *** Order [[Stomiiformes]]  (dragonfishes & allies)
> ** Cyclosquamata - order [[Aulopiformes]]  (lizardfishes)
> ** Scopelomorpha - order [[Myctophiformes]]  (lanternfishes)
> ** Lampridiomorpha - order [[Lampridiformes]]  (opahs, etc)
> ** Polymyxiomorpha - order [[Polymyxiformes]]  (beardfishes)
28,32c30,34
< *** Order [[Percopsiformes]]
< *** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]]
< *** Order [[Lophiiformes]]
< *** Order [[Gadiformes]]
< *** Order [[Ophidiiformes]]
---
> *** Order [[Percopsiformes]]  (trout-perches & allies)
> *** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]]  (toadfishes)
> *** Order [[Lophiiformes]]  (goosefishes, etc)
> *** Order [[Gadiformes]]  (cods & allies)
> *** Order [[Ophidiiformes]]  (cusk eels, etc)
34,44c36,46
< *** Order [[Mugiliformes]]
< *** Order [[Atheriniformes]]
< *** Order [[Beloniformes]]
< *** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]]
< *** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]
< *** Order [[Beryciformes]]
< *** Order [[Zeiformes]]
< *** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]
< *** Order [[Synbranchiformes]]
< *** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]]
< *** Order [[Perciformes]] (including [[Pleuronectiformes]], [[Tetraodontiformes]])
---
> *** Order [[Mugiliformes]]  (mullets & allies)
> *** Order [[Atheriniformes]]  (silversides & allies)
> *** Order [[Beloniformes]]  (needlefishes, etc)
> *** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]]  (killifishes, etc)
> *** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]  (pricklefishes, etc)
> *** Order [[Beryciformes]]  (alfonsinoes, etc)
> *** Order [[Zeiformes]]  (dories, etc)
> *** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]  (sticklebacks & allies)
> *** Order [[Synbranchiformes]]  (swamp-eels, etc)
> *** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]]  (scorpionfishes)
> *** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches & many allies - including [[Pleuronectiformes]], [[Tetraodontiformes]])
------
Actinopterygii|985858965
3,4c3,5
< * Order [[Polypteriformes]]  (bichirs)
< * Order [[Acipenseriformes]]  (sturgeons, paddlefish)
---
> * Chondrostei
> ** Order [[Polypteriformes]]  (bichirs)
> ** Order [[Acipenseriformes]]  (sturgeons, paddlefish)
------
SandBox|985861272
14c14
<                            * �   � *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
16c16
<                            *   �   *                    /
---
>                            *   ?   *                    /
41c41
< �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this �!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
44c44
< � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
------
Netherlands|985861671
1c1,20
< A quaint little monarchy nudged in the northwest corner of [[Europe]]. 
---
> A quaint little monarchy nudged in the northwest corner of [[Europe]]. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, having 16 million inhabitants on a piece of land of about 300 by 150 kilometers.
> 
> The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]].
> 
> The Netherlands are divided into 12 provinces: [[Groningen]], [[Friesland]], [[Drenthe]], [[Overijssel]], [[Gelderland]], [[Utrecht]], [[North Holland]], [[South Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[North Brabant]], [[Limburg]] and [[Flevoland]].
> 
> The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian]] is also spoken.
> 
> ----
> 
> The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade.
> 
> Take a view at [[NetherlandsHistory|Dutch history]].
> 
> ----
> 
> One remarkable aspect of the Netherlands, is the flatness of the country. About half the country is less than 1 meter above sea level, some parts of it are actually below sea level. The highest point, the [[Vaalserberg]] is only 321m high.
> 
> Much of what is now the Netherlands, was originally sea or lake. Such pieces of land that have been won on the water, are called [[polders]].
> 
4a24
> 
5a26
> 
------
Netherlands|985861747
13c13
< Take a view at [[NetherlandsHistory|Dutch history]].
---
> Take a view at [[History of the Netherlands]].
------
Netherlands|985861787
13c13
< Take a view at [[History of the Netherlands]].
---
> Take a view at [History of the Netherlands].
------
Netherlands|985861856
13c13
< Take a view at [History of the Netherlands].
---
> Take a view at the [[history of the Netherlands]].
------
Netherlands|985862152
13c13
< Take a view at the [[history of the Netherlands]].
---
> Take a view at the [[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]].
------
Stupid_Republicans|985862238
13c13,17
< ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''
---
> ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''----
> And since when does has a piece of paper (diploma) ever been indicative of intelligence anyway. At best it is one of many, many measures.
> Oh, and by the way LMS, at exactly what point in time did wikipedia be determined to be an encyclopedia? And by whom? I was under the misapprehension that it was a wiki run by Bomis.
> And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Committee Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and
> not enter material here in the guise of a member, while, in fact, you are acting like a "boss.' AnonymousCoward.
------
History|985862417
36a37
> ** [[Netherlands/history|History of the Netherlands]]
57c58
< When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones (neolithic, bronze age, ''maybe'' iron age) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
---
> When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones ([[neolithic]], [[bronze age]], ''maybe'' [[iron age]]) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Neolithic|985862561
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, is the last part of the Stone Age. It start is taken as the start of farming, while its end with the start of use of metal tools.
> 
> The start of farming meant a large difference in the life of people, its beginning is therefore sometimes called the ''neolithic revolution''. Instead of travelling around to find food, people now much more stayed in one place. Also, tribes now changed into towns, and later cities and states.
------
Netherlands|985863831
3c3
< The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]].
---
> The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller towns of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Alkmaar]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Lutjebroek]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
30c30,32
< Also see [[/Talk]]
---
> Also see
> *[[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]] 
> *[[/Talk]]
------
Holland|985864260
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Holland comprises two Western provinces of the Netherlands: Zuid-Holland & Noord-Holland.
> ----
> Because of its commercial & political predominance 'Holland' is often used as a synonym for 'The Netherlands'
> ----
> (een wilde greep puntjes om verder uit te werken:<BR>
> some lemma's to be worked out by someone)
> *Holtland
> *Graven van Holland
> *Haringvisserij
> *Stapelmarkt
> *De Hanze
> *Schiphol
> *Kaas
> *De Bollenstreek
> *Duinen
> *De Opstand
> *De Monarchie
------
Holland|985864347
7,17c7,18
< *Holtland
< *Graven van Holland
< *Haringvisserij
< *Stapelmarkt
< *De Hanze
< *Schiphol
< *Kaas
< *De Bollenstreek
< *Duinen
< *De Opstand
< *De Monarchie
---
> *[[Holtland]]
> *[[GravenVanHolland]]
> *[[Haringvisserij]]
> *[[Stapelmarkt]]
> *[[DeHanze]]
> *[[Schiphol]]
> *[[Kaas]]
> *[[DeBollenstreek]]
> *[[Duinen]]
> *[[DeOpstand]]
> *[[DeMonarchie]]
> *[[HetPoldermodel]]
------
Stupid_Republicans|985864744
8c8
<  [[Warren Harding]]
---
>  [[Warren G. Harding]]
------
Warren_G._Harding|985864877
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Warren G. Harding from [[Ohio]] was the first sitting [[Senator]] to be elected [[President]].  Before becoming a Senator, he was a [[newspaper publisher]] and [[Governor of Ohio]].
> ----
> [[Warren G. Harding Inaugural Address]]
> ----
> [[Warren G. Harding/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Warren_G._Harding_Inaugural_Address|985864982
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> President-elect Harding rode to the [[Capitol]] with [[Woodrow Wilson|President Wilson]] in the first [[automobile]] to be used in an [[inauguration]]. President Wilson had suffered a [[stroke]] in 1919, and his fragile health prevented his attendance at the ceremony on the [[East Portico of the Capitol]]. The [[oath of office]] was administered by [[Chief Justice]] [[Edward White]], using the [[Bible]] from [[George Washington]]'s first inauguration. The address to the crowd at the Capitol was broadcast on a [[loudspeaker]]. A simple [[parade]] followed.
> 
------
Holland|985864983
3c3
< Because of its commercial & political predominance 'Holland' is often used as a synonym for 'The Netherlands'
---
> Because of its commercial & political predominance 'Holland' is often used as a synonym for 'The [[Netherlands]]'
------
Netherlands/history|985865101
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Netherlands have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
> 
> In the first century BC, the [[Roman empire|Romans]] came to the Netherlands. In the largest part of the Roman time, the boundary between the Roman Empire lay along the Rhine. In the Netherlands, the Romans built the first cities, [[Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]] and [[Maastricht]] are nowadays the most important of the cities built by the Romans. Of course, the northern part of the Netherlands, outside the Roman Empire, where the [[Frisians]] lived (and still do), also was much influenced by its strong southern neighbour.
> 
> After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning [[France]], [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
> 
> The Holy Roman Empire did however not remain a political unity. Local vassals made their countships and duchies into private kingdoms and felt not much obliged to the emperor, who over large parts of the nation governed only in name. Large parts of what is now the Netherlands were governed by the count of [[Holland]], the duke of [[Gelre]], the duke of [[Brabant]] and the bishop of [[Utrecht]], but [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen]] in the north kept their independence, being governed by the lower nobility. Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] was united by the duke of [[Burgundy]].
> 
> Through inheritage, the area became possession of the Spanish king [[Charles V]] in the early 16th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was a very Spanish person (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (now in [[Belgium]]) and had become lord of the Netherlands before king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
> 
> In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spiceries]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brasil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by the aristocracy rather than by a king or the nobility. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
> 
> At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. The latter won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with [[Belgium]] and a part of [[Germany]]) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king. This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
> 
> After the Napoleontic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
> 
> By the end of the 19th century, when internationally countries were claiming colonies, the Netherlands extended their hold of [[Indonesia]]. ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' by [[Multatuli]], the most famous book in the history of Dutch literature, complained about the exploitation the Dutch made of the country and its inhabitants.
> 
> In the [[World War I|First World War]], the Netherlands remained neutral. In the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Netherlands were conquered by the Germans in May 1940 in only six days. Later, the Japanese conquered [[Indonesia]]. Both nations preferred to get the 'wrong elements' out of their areas - for the Germans, these were the [[Jews]], [[Roma]] ([[gypsies]]) etcetera, for the Japanese the Europeans.
> 
> After [[World War II]], Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch did not agree with this, preferring just an increased amount of internal autonomy, and sent soldiers to fight the so-called 'first and second police action'. However, the determination of the Indonesians and international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], forced the Dutch to recognize Indonesia's independence. Only the eastern half of [[New Guinea]] remained Dutch a few years more.
> 
> Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands increased in wealth fast. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
------
Netherlands/history|985865126
1c1
< The Netherlands have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
---
> The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
------
Warren_G._Harding_Inaugural_Address|985865399
1a2,3
> ----
> My Countrymen: 
2a5,69
> When one surveys the world about him after the great storm, noting the marks of destruction and yet rejoicing in the ruggedness of the things which withstood it, if he is an American he breathes the clarified atmosphere with a strange mingling of regret and new hope. We have seen a world passion spend its fury, but we contemplate our Republic unshaken, and hold our civilization secure. Liberty—liberty within the law—and civilization are inseparable, and though both were threatened we find them now secure; and there comes to Americans the profound assurance that our representative government is the highest expression and surest guaranty of both.
> 
> Standing in this presence, mindful of the solemnity of this occasion, feeling the emotions which no one may know until he senses the great weight of responsibility for himself, I must utter my belief in the divine inspiration of the founding fathers. Surely there must have been God's intent in the making of this new-world Republic. Ours is an organic law which had but one ambiguity, and we saw that effaced in a baptism of sacrifice and blood, with union maintained, the Nation supreme, and its concord inspiring. We have seen the world rivet its hopeful gaze on the great truths on which the founders wrought. We have seen civil, human, and religious liberty verified and glorified. In the beginning the Old World scoffed at our experiment; today our foundations of political and social belief stand unshaken, a precious inheritance to ourselves, an inspiring example of freedom and civilization to all mankind. Let us express renewed and strengthened devotion, in grateful reverence for the immortal beginning, and utter our confidence in the supreme fulfillment.
> 
> The recorded progress of our Republic, materially and spiritually, in itself proves the wisdom of the inherited policy of noninvolvement in Old World affairs. Confident of our ability to work out our own destiny, and jealously guarding our right to do so, we seek no part in directing the destinies of the Old World. We do not mean to be entangled. We will accept no responsibility except as our own conscience and judgment, in each instance, may determine.
> 
> Our eyes never will be blind to a developing menace, our ears never deaf to the call of civilization. We recognize the new order in the world, with the closer contacts which progress has wrought. We sense the call of the human heart for fellowship, fraternity, and cooperation. We crave friendship and harbor no hate. But America, our America, the America builded on the foundation laid by the inspired fathers, can be a party to no permanent military alliance. It can enter into no political commitments, nor assume any economic obligations which will subject our decisions to any other than our own authority.
> 
> I am sure our own people will not misunderstand, nor will the world misconstrue. We have no thought to impede the paths to closer relationship. We wish to promote understanding. We want to do our part in making offensive warfare so hateful that Governments and peoples who resort to it must prove the righteousness of their cause or stand as outlaws before the bar of civilization.
> 
> We are ready to associate ourselves with the nations of the world, great and small, for conference, for counsel; to seek the expressed views of world opinion; to recommend a way to approximate disarmament and relieve the crushing burdens of military and naval establishments. We elect to participate in suggesting plans for mediation, conciliation, and arbitration, and would gladly join in that expressed conscience of progress, which seeks to clarify and write the laws of international relationship, and establish a world court for the disposition of such justiciable questions as nations are agreed to submit thereto. In expressing aspirations, in seeking practical plans, in translating humanity's new concept of righteousness and justice and its hatred of war into recommended action we are ready most heartily to unite, but every commitment must be made in the exercise of our national sovereignty. Since freedom impelled, and independence inspired, and nationality exalted, a world supergovernment is contrary to everything we cherish and can have no sanction by our Republic. This is not selfishness, it is sanctity. It is not aloofness, it is security. It is not suspicion of others, it is patriotic adherence to the things which made us what we are.
> 
> Today, better than ever before, we know the aspirations of humankind, and share them. We have come to a new realization of our place in the world and a new appraisal of our Nation by the world. The unselfishness of these United States is a thing proven; our devotion to peace for ourselves and for the world is well established; our concern for preserved civilization has had its impassioned and heroic expression. There was no American failure to resist the attempted reversion of civilization; there will be no failure today or tomorrow.
> 
> The success of our popular government rests wholly upon the correct interpretation of the deliberate, intelligent, dependable popular will of America. In a deliberate questioning of a suggested change of national policy, where internationality was to supersede nationality, we turned to a referendum, to the American people. There was ample discussion, and there is a public mandate in manifest understanding.
> 
> America is ready to encourage, eager to initiate, anxious to participate in any seemly program likely to lessen the probability of war, and promote that brotherhood of mankind which must be God's highest conception of human relationship. Because we cherish ideals of justice and peace, because we appraise international comity and helpful relationship no less highly than any people of the world, we aspire to a high place in the moral leadership of civilization, and we hold a maintained America, the proven Republic, the unshaken temple of representative democracy, to be not only an inspiration and example, but the highest agency of strengthening good will and promoting accord on both continents.
> 
> Mankind needs a world-wide benediction of understanding. It is needed among individuals, among peoples, among governments, and it will inaugurate an era of good feeling to make the birth of a new order. In such understanding men will strive confidently for the promotion of their better relationships and nations will promote the comities so essential to peace.
> 
> We must understand that ties of trade bind nations in closest intimacy, and none may receive except as he gives. We have not strengthened ours in accordance with our resources or our genius, notably on our own continent, where a galaxy of Republics reflects the glory of new-world democracy, but in the new order of finance and trade we mean to promote enlarged activities and seek expanded confidence.
> 
> Perhaps we can make no more helpful contribution by example than prove a Republic's capacity to emerge from the wreckage of war. While the world's embittered travail did not leave us devastated lands nor desolated cities, left no gaping wounds, no breast with hate, it did involve us in the delirium of expenditure, in expanded currency and credits, in unbalanced industry, in unspeakable waste, and disturbed relationships. While it uncovered our portion of hateful selfishness at home, it also revealed the heart of America as sound and fearless, and beating in confidence unfailing.
> 
> Amid it all we have riveted the gaze of all civilization to the unselfishness and the righteousness of representative democracy, where our freedom never has made offensive warfare, never has sought territorial aggrandizement through force, never has turned to the arbitrament of arms until reason has been exhausted. When the Governments of the earth shall have established a freedom like our own and shall have sanctioned the pursuit of peace as we have practiced it, I believe the last sorrow and the final sacrifice of international warfare will have been written.
> 
> Let me speak to the maimed and wounded soldiers who are present today, and through them convey to their comrades the gratitude of the Republic for their sacrifices in its defense. A generous country will never forget the services you rendered, and you may hope for a policy under Government that will relieve any maimed successors from taking your places on another such occasion as this.
> 
> Our supreme task is the resumption of our onward, normal way. Reconstruction, readjustment, restoration all these must follow. I would like to hasten them. If it will lighten the spirit and add to the resolution with which we take up the task, let me repeat for our Nation, we shall give no people just cause to make war upon us; we hold no national prejudices; we entertain no spirit of revenge; we do not hate; we do not covet; we dream of no conquest, nor boast of armed prowess.
> 
> If, despite this attitude, war is again forced upon us, I earnestly hope a way may be found which will unify our individual and collective strength and consecrate all America, materially and spiritually, body and soul, to national defense. I can vision the ideal republic, where every man and woman is called under the flag for assignment to duty for whatever service, military or civic, the individual is best fitted; where we may call to universal service every plant, agency, or facility, all in the sublime sacrifice for country, and not one penny of war profit shall inure to the benefit of private individual, corporation, or combination, but all above the normal shall flow into the defense chest of the Nation. There is something inherently wrong, something out of accord with the ideals of representative democracy, when one portion of our citizenship turns its activities to private gain amid defensive war while another is fighting, sacrificing, or dying for national preservation.
> 
> Out of such universal service will come a new unity of spirit and purpose, a new confidence and consecration, which would make our defense impregnable, our triumph assured. Then we should have little or no disorganization of our economic, industrial, and commercial systems at home, no staggering war debts, no swollen fortunes to flout the sacrifices of our soldiers, no excuse for sedition, no pitiable slackerism, no outrage of treason. Envy and jealousy would have no soil for their menacing development, and revolution would be without the passion which engenders it.
> 
> A regret for the mistakes of yesterday must not, however, blind us to the tasks of today. War never left such an aftermath. There has been staggering loss of life and measureless wastage of materials. Nations are still groping for return to stable ways. Discouraging indebtedness confronts us like all the war-torn nations, and these obligations must be provided for. No civilization can survive repudiation.
> 
> We can reduce the abnormal expenditures, and we will. We can strike at war taxation, and we must. We must face the grim necessity, with full knowledge that the task is to be solved, and we must proceed with a full realization that no statute enacted by man can repeal the inexorable laws of nature. Our most dangerous tendency is to expect too much of government, and at the same time do for it too little. We contemplate the immediate task of putting our public household in order. We need a rigid and yet sane economy, combined with fiscal justice, and it must be attended by individual prudence and thrift, which are so essential to this trying hour and reassuring for the future.
> 
> The business world reflects the disturbance of war's reaction. Herein flows the lifeblood of material existence. The economic mechanism is intricate and its parts interdependent, and has suffered the shocks and jars incident to abnormal demands, credit inflations, and price upheavals. The normal balances have been impaired, the channels of distribution have been clogged, the relations of labor and management have been strained. We must seek the readjustment with care and courage. Our people must give and take. Prices must reflect the receding fever of war activities. Perhaps we never shall know the old levels of wages again, because war invariably readjusts compensations, and the necessaries of life will show their inseparable relationship, but we must strive for normalcy to reach stability. All the penalties will not be light, nor evenly distributed. There is no way of making them so. There is no instant step from disorder to order. We must face a condition of grim reality, charge off our losses and start afresh. It is the oldest lesson of civilization. I would like government to do all it can to mitigate; then, in understanding, in mutuality of interest, in concern for the common good, our tasks will be solved. No altered system will work a miracle. Any wild experiment will only add to the confusion. Our best assurance lies in efficient administration of our proven system.
> 
> The forward course of the business cycle is unmistakable. Peoples are turning from destruction to production. Industry has sensed the changed order and our own people are turning to resume their normal, onward way. The call is for productive America to go on. I know that Congress and the Administration will favor every wise Government policy to aid the resumption and encourage continued progress.
> 
> I speak for administrative efficiency, for lightened tax burdens, for sound commercial practices, for adequate credit facilities, for sympathetic concern for all agricultural problems, for the omission of unnecessary interference of Government with business, for an end to Government's experiment in business, and for more efficient business in Government administration. With all of this must attend a mindfulness of the human side of all activities, so that social, industrial, and economic justice will be squared with the purposes of a righteous people. 
> 
> With the nation-wide induction of womanhood into our political life, we may count upon her intuitions, her refinements, her intelligence, and her influence to exalt the social order. We count upon her exercise of the full privileges and the performance of the duties of citizenship to speed the attainment of the highest state.
> 
> I wish for an America no less alert in guarding against dangers from within than it is watchful against enemies from without. Our fundamental law recognizes no class, no group, no section; there must be none in legislation or administration. The supreme inspiration is the common weal. Humanity hungers for international peace, and we crave it with all mankind. My most reverent prayer for America is for industrial peace, with its rewards, widely and generally distributed, amid the inspirations of equal opportunity. No one justly may deny the equality of opportunity which made us what we are. We have mistaken unpreparedness to embrace it to be a challenge of the reality, and due concern for making all citizens fit for participation will give added strength of citizenship and magnify our achievement.
> 
> If revolution insists upon overturning established order, let other peoples make the tragic experiment. There is no place for it in America. When World War threatened civilization we pledged our resources and our lives to its preservation, and when revolution threatens we unfurl the flag of law and order and renew our consecration. Ours is a constitutional freedom where the popular will is the law supreme and minorities are sacredly protected. Our revisions, reformations, and evolutions reflect a deliberate judgment and an orderly progress, and we mean to cure our ills, but never destroy or permit destruction by force.
> 
> I had rather submit our industrial controversies to the conference table in advance than to a settlement table after conflict and suffering. The earth is thirsting for the cup of good will, understanding is its fountain source. I would like to acclaim an era of good feeling amid dependable prosperity and all the blessings which attend.
> 
> It has been proved again and again that we cannot, while throwing our markets open to the world, maintain American standards of living and opportunity, and hold our industrial eminence in such unequal competition. There is a luring fallacy in the theory of banished barriers of trade, but preserved American standards require our higher production costs to be reflected in our tariffs on imports. Today, as never before, when peoples are seeking trade restoration and expansion, we must adjust our tariffs to the new order. We seek participation in the world's exchanges, because therein lies our way to widened influence and the triumphs of peace. We know full well we cannot sell where we do not buy, and we cannot sell successfully where we do not carry. Opportunity is calling not alone for the restoration, but for a new era in production, transportation and trade. We shall answer it best by meeting the demand of a surpassing home market, by promoting self-reliance in production, and by bidding enterprise, genius, and efficiency to carry our cargoes in American bottoms to the marts of the world.
> 
> We would not have an America living within and for herself alone, but we would have her self-reliant, independent, and ever nobler, stronger, and richer. Believing in our higher standards, reared through constitutional liberty and maintained opportunity, we invite the world to the same heights. But pride in things wrought is no reflex of a completed task. Common welfare is the goal of our national endeavor. Wealth is not inimical to welfare; it ought to be its friendliest agency. There never can be equality of rewards or possessions so long as the human plan contains varied talents and differing degrees of industry and thrift, but ours ought to be a country free from the great blotches of distressed poverty. We ought to find a way to guard against the perils and penalties of unemployment. We want an America of homes, illumined with hope and happiness, where mothers, freed from the necessity for long hours of toil beyond their own doors, may preside as befits the hearthstone of American citizenship. We want the cradle of American childhood rocked under conditions so wholesome and so hopeful that no blight may touch it in its development, and we want to provide that no selfish interest, no material necessity, no lack of opportunity shall prevent the gaining of that education so essential to best citizenship.
> 
> There is no short cut to the making of these ideals into glad realities. The world has witnessed again and again the futility and the mischief of ill-considered remedies for social and economic disorders. But we are mindful today as never before of the friction of modern industrialism, and we must learn its causes and reduce its evil consequences by sober and tested methods. Where genius has made for great possibilities, justice and happiness must be reflected in a greater common welfare.
> 
> Service is the supreme commitment of life. I would rejoice to acclaim the era of the Golden Rule and crown it with the autocracy of service. I pledge an administration wherein all the agencies of Government are called to serve, and ever promote an understanding of Government purely as an expression of the popular will.
> 
> One cannot stand in this presence and be unmindful of the tremendous responsibility. The world upheaval has added heavily to our tasks. But with the realization comes the surge of high resolve, and there is reassurance in belief in the God-given destiny of our Republic. If I felt that there is to be sole responsibility in the Executive for the America of tomorrow I should shrink from the burden. But here are a hundred millions, with common concern and shared responsibility, answerable to God and country. The Republic summons them to their duty, and I invite co-operation.
> 
> I accept my part with single-mindedness of purpose and humility of spirit, and implore the favor and guidance of God in His Heaven. With these I am unafraid, and confidently face the future.
> 
> I have taken the solemn oath of office on that passage of Holy Writ wherein it is asked: "What doth the Lord require of thee but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?" This I plight to God and country.
------
Neolithic|985866102
0a1
> (Gr. ''neos''=new, ''lithos''=stone)
------
Neolithic|985866157
1c1
< (Gr. ''neos''=new, ''lithos''=stone)
---
> (Gr. ''neos''=new, ''lithos''=stone)<br>
------
PoliticalSpectrum|985866787
3c3
< Because there are many possible political spectrums, one should not talk about _the_ political spectrum as if there were only one.  At the very least, one should first establish context by defining the axis upon which different positions will be measured.  Unfortunately, this is seldom done (see PoLitics, e.g.).
---
> Because there are many possible political spectrums, one should not talk about _the_ political spectrum as if there were only one.  At the very least, one should first establish context by defining the axis upon which different positions will be measured.  Unfortunately, this is seldom done (see [[Politics]], e.g.).
7c7
< In modern WesterN countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of ConservatisM ("the right") versus SocialisM ("the left", called liberalism in the [[United States]]).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.  EricHoffer suggested that the right-left spectrum measures whether one is frightened by change (the right) or whether one embraces change (the left).  ThomasSowell has argued that one is left-wing to the extent that one beleives human nature, and therefore human society, is malleable, and right-wing to the extent that one believes human nature is fixed.  Since it is not obvious how these various concepts are related, it is very confusing to speak of the right or the left without indicating what exactly you are refering to.
---
> In modern Western countries, the spectrum is usually defined along an axis of [[Conservatism]] ("the right") versus [[Socialism]] ("the left", called [[Political liberal|Liberalism]] in the [[United States]]).  There are different opinions about what is actually being measured along this axis.  Some people view it as a measure of social equality, some as a measure of the government's role in the economy, some as a measure of religion's place in society, some as a measure of the different weight put on fair outcomes versus fair processes.  EricHoffer suggested that the right-left spectrum measures whether one is frightened by change (the right) or whether one embraces change (the left).  ThomasSowell has argued that one is left-wing to the extent that one beleives human nature, and therefore human society, is malleable, and right-wing to the extent that one believes human nature is fixed.  Since it is not obvious how these various concepts are related, it is very confusing to speak of the right or the left without indicating what exactly you are refering to.
9c9
< Nonetheless, the right-left spectrum is so common as to be taken for granted.  Many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it (see PoLitics, e.g.).  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
---
> Nonetheless, the right-left spectrum is so common as to be taken for granted.  Many people have a hard time conceptualizing any alternative to it (see [[Politics]], e.g.).  However, numerous alternatives exist, usually having been developed by people who feel their views are not fairly represented on the traditional right-left spectrum.
11c11
< Such an alternative, and an example of a two-axes spectrum, has been popularized by the [http://www.self-gov.org/ Advocates for Self-Government].  One axis measures your views on "personal self-government", which pertains to the government's role in the home, church, and between consenting adults in private, while the other axis measures "economic self-government", which pertains to the government's role in economic activities.  With two axes, there are four different extremes: Libertarian, which favors personal freedom and economic freedom; Left Liberal, which favors personal freedom but opposes economic freedom; Right Conservative, which favors economic freedom but opposes personal freedom; and Authoritarian, which opposes both personal freedom and economic freedom.  There is, of course, plenty of room in the center for people who hold moderate views along either axis.
---
> Such an alternative, and an example of a two-axes spectrum, has been popularized by the [http://www.self-gov.org/ Advocates for Self-Government].  One axis measures your views on "personal self-government", which pertains to the government's role in the home, church, and between consenting adults in private, while the other axis measures "economic self-government", which pertains to the government's role in economic activities.  With two axes, there are four different extremes: Libertarian, which favors personal freedom and economic freedom; Left Liberal (or Socialist), which favors personal freedom but opposes economic freedom; Right Conservative, which favors economic freedom but opposes personal freedom; and Authoritarian, which opposes both personal freedom and economic freedom.  There is, of course, plenty of room in the center for people who hold moderate views along either axis.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Socialism|985866844
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
> 
> A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.
> 
> Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.
> 
> Thus, for a socialist, the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
> 
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
> 
------
Socialism|985867012
1c1
< ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "CommunisM"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "[[Communism]]"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
7a8,9
> 
> Note that there are also mixture forms that are called ''Socialism'' - those that politically go all the way with what is expressed above are often called Communists, while those that want a strong government influence on economy, but not as complete as the Communists, are called [[Social-democrats]].
------
Netherlands/history|985867802
19c19
< In the [[World War I|First World War]], the Netherlands remained neutral. In the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Netherlands were conquered by the Germans in May 1940 in only six days. Later, the Japanese conquered [[Indonesia]]. Both nations preferred to get the 'wrong elements' out of their areas - for the Germans, these were the [[Jews]], [[Roma]] ([[gypsies]]) etcetera, for the Japanese the Europeans.
---
> In the [[World War I|First World War]], the Netherlands remained neutral. In the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Netherlands were conquered by the Germans in May 1940 in only six days. Later, the Japanese conquered [[Indonesia]]. Both nations preferred to get the 'wrong elements' out of their areas - for the Germans, these were the [[Jews]], [[Roma]] ([[Gypsy|gypsies]]) etcetera, for the Japanese the Europeans.
------
Netherlands/history|985868122
5c5
< After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning [[France]], [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
---
> After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning France, [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
7c7
< The Holy Roman Empire did however not remain a political unity. Local vassals made their countships and duchies into private kingdoms and felt not much obliged to the emperor, who over large parts of the nation governed only in name. Large parts of what is now the Netherlands were governed by the count of [[Holland]], the duke of [[Gelre]], the duke of [[Brabant]] and the bishop of [[Utrecht]], but [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen]] in the north kept their independence, being governed by the lower nobility. Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] was united by the duke of [[Burgundy]].
---
> The Holy Roman Empire did however not remain a political unity. Local vassals made their countships and duchies into private kingdoms and felt not much obliged to the emperor, who over large parts of the nation governed only in name. Large parts of what is now the Netherlands were governed by the count of [[Holland]], the duke of [[Gelre]], the duke of [[Brabant]] and the bishop of [[Utrecht]], but [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen]] in the north kept their independence, being governed by the lower nobility. Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and Belgium was united by the duke of [[Burgundy]].
9c9
< Through inheritage, the area became possession of the Spanish king [[Charles V]] in the early 16th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was a very Spanish person (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (now in [[Belgium]]) and had become lord of the Netherlands before king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
---
> Through inheritage, the area became possession of the Spanish king [[Charles V]] in the early 16th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was a very Spanish person (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (now in Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
13c13
< At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. The latter won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with [[Belgium]] and a part of [[Germany]]) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king. This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
---
> At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. The latter won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with Belgium and a part of Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king. This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
15c15
< After the Napoleontic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
---
> After the Napoleontic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
------
Stupid_Republicans|985868718
17a18,19
> 
> Well, I think that the name "Wikipedia" would imply that this project was aiming to be an encylopedia. Also, there's this quote from the front page: "We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively." And, there seems to be a great desire on the part of the community to write encyclopedia articles. Finally, I hardly think that a comment by Larry (which I happen to think is a valid one) constitutes him acting like a "boss". It's not as if he's using administrative power to delete pages he doesn't like. All in all, I think you should lighten up a bit. ;-) -- [[STG]]
------
Socialism|985869826
3,4c3,6
< A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do</i> <i>not</i> have is the right to private property.
< 
---
> A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
> ----
> A socialist believes that the government is the sole power to realise those purposes and rights.
> ----
11c13
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
---
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
------
Syndicalism|985869954
2c2,4
< It often choses to use [[Direct Action]], such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
---
> It often choses to use [[Direct Action]], such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
> ----
> In History these methods & theories have been put into effect during the Spanish Civil War by the Spanish Anarchist Party (can't get the correct name now)
------
Mathijs|985871085
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''hey mathijs - long time no see;-7 WojPob''
------
Belgium|985871372
1c1
< Small Country of Western Europe.
---
> Small Country in Western [[Europe]].
3c3
< Capital: Brussels<BR>
---
> [[Capital]]: Brussels<BR>
29c29
< The inhabitants of this country have a reputation for loving FrenchFries.  The fried potato strips are sold at many small shops and stands (often at train stations) and are frites (not identified as French, though).
---
> The inhabitants of this country have a reputation for loving [[French fries]].  The fried potato strips are sold at many small shops and stands (often at train stations) and are frites (not identified as French, though).
------
Games_of_Chance|985872776
3c3
< Gambling is known in nearly all human societies, even though many have passed laws restricting it.  Early people used the knucklebones of sheep as dice.  Many people develop a psychological addiction to gambling, and will risk even food and shelter to continue.
---
> [[Gambling]] is known in nearly all human societies, even though many have passed laws restricting it.  Early people used the knucklebones of sheep as dice.  Many people develop a psychological addiction to gambling, and will risk even food and shelter to continue.
5c5
< See [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]]
---
> See [[Probability Applications]] -- [[Psychology]]
------
Sports|985873058
6a7,8
> [[/Events]]
> 
------
Sports/Events|985873220
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Olympic Games]]
> *[[Olympic Games/Summer|Summer Olympics]]
> *[[Olympic Games/Winter|Winter Olympics]]
------
Mathijs|985873459
1c1,16
< ''hey mathijs - long time no see;-7 WojPob''
---
> ''Disclaimer 1'':<BR>
> I'm not a 'troll' because I write what <B>I</I> think,<BR>
> but because somebody over-reacts (very silly)
> 
> ''Disclaimer 2'':<BR>
> I've only quoted [[Montesquie]] once<BR>
> I hardly read (& quote) any philosophers because I'm too lazy
> ----
> ''hey mathijs - long time no see;-7 WojPob''
> 
> long time?<BR>
> Last weekend I've had a very unsatisfying clash with some 'reasonable people'<BR>Even [[Christ]] has admitted in the [[Bible]] that he has some [[flaws]], but I'm not allowed to have any.
> ----
> Some people have to destroy everything that's disagreeable to them (and hey! It's words! Ideas! Opinions! Someones perception!)
> 
> 
------
Mathijs|985873478
2c2
< I'm not a 'troll' because I write what <B>I</I> think,<BR>
---
> I'm not a 'troll' because I write what <B>I</B> think,<BR>
------
Olympic_Games/Summer|985873732
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The modern summer [[Olympic Games]] have been held every four years since 1896 (except for a break 1936-1948 caused by the [[World War II|Second World War]].
> 
> *[[/Athens 1896]]
> *[[/Paris 1900]]
> *[[/Saint-Louis 1904]]
> *[[/London 1908]]
> *[[/Stockholm 1912]]
> *[[/Antwerp 1920]]
> *[[/Paris 1924]]
> *[[/Amsterdam 1928]]
> *[[/Los Angeles 1932]]
> *[[/Berlin 1936]]
> *[[/London 1948]]
> *[[/Helsinki 1952]]
> *[[/Melbourne 1956]]
> *[[/Rome 1960]]
> *[[/Tokyo 1964]]
> *[[/Mexico City 1968]]
> *[[/Munich 1972]]
> *[[/Montreal 1976]]
> *[[/Moscow 1980]]
> *[[/Los Angeles 1984]]
> *[[/Seoul 1988]]
> *[[/Barcelona 1992]]
> *[[/Atlanta 1996]]
> *[[/Sydney 2000]]
> *[[/Athens 2004]]
------
Olympic_Games/Summer|985873756
1c1
< The modern summer [[Olympic Games]] have been held every four years since 1896 (except for a break 1936-1948 caused by the [[World War II|Second World War]].
---
> The modern summer [[Olympic Games]] have been held every four years since 1896 (except for a break 1936-1948 caused by the [[World War II|Second World War]]).
------
Syndicalism|985873837
4c4
< In History these methods & theories have been put into effect during the Spanish Civil War by the Spanish Anarchist Party (can't get the correct name now)
---
> In History these methods & theories have been put into effect during the Spanish Civil War by the Spanish Anarchist Party (Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo - CNT)
------
Syndicalism|985873934
1,2c1,2
< The syndicalism political theory places control of both industry and government to labor union federations.
< It often choses to use [[Direct Action]], such as general strikes and sabotage to achieve its objectives.
---
> The syndicalism [[political theory]] places control of both [[industry]] and [[government]] to [[labor union federations]].
> It often choses to use [[Direct Action]], such as general [[strike]]s and [[sabotage]] to achieve its objectives.
4c4
< In History these methods & theories have been put into effect during the Spanish Civil War by the Spanish Anarchist Party (Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo - CNT)
---
> In [[History]] these methods & theories have been put into effect during the [[Spanish Civil War]] by the [[Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo|Spanish Anarchist Party]] ([[Confederacion Nacional del Trabajo]] - CNT)
------
Netherlands/history|985874658
9c9
< Through inheritage, the area became possession of the Spanish king [[Charles V]] in the early 16th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was a very Spanish person (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (now in Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
---
> Through inheritage, the area became possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
11c11
< In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spiceries]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brasil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by the aristocracy rather than by a king or the nobility. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
---
> In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brasil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
13c13
< At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. The latter won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with Belgium and a part of Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king. This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
---
> At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. When the French republican armies invaded the Netherlands in 1789 the Patriots won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with Belgium and a part of Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king ("Konijn van Olland"). This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
17c17
< By the end of the 19th century, when internationally countries were claiming colonies, the Netherlands extended their hold of [[Indonesia]]. ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' by [[Multatuli]], the most famous book in the history of Dutch literature, complained about the exploitation the Dutch made of the country and its inhabitants.
---
> By the end of the 19th century, when internationally countries were claiming colonies, the Netherlands extended their hold of [[Indonesia]]. ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' by [[Multatuli]], the most famous book in the history of Dutch literature, complained about the exploitation by the Dutch of the country and its inhabitants.
23a24,25
> ----
> knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985874709
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ulyssess Simpson Grant was the 18th [[President of the United States]] and served two terms from March 4,1869 to March 3, 1877.  He was born April 27, 1822 in [[Point Pleasant, Ohio]] to Jesse and Hannah Grant and died on July 23, 1885 in [[Mount McGregor, New York]]. He graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] in West Point, New York]] in 1843.   He married [[Julia Boggs Dent]] (1826-1902) on August 22, 1843 and they bore four children: Frederick Dent, Ulysses Simpson, Jr., Ellen Wrenshall, and Jesse Root.  
> 
> Professed [[Religion]]: [[Methodist]]
> [[Political Party]]: [[Republican]]
> 
> ----
> [[Ulysses S. Grant/First Inaugural Address|/First Inaugural Address]]
> [[Ulysses S. Grant/Second Inaugural Address|/Second Inaugural Address]]
------
Mathijs|985874759
14c14
< Some people have to destroy everything that's disagreeable to them (and hey! It's words! Ideas! Opinions! Someones perception!)
---
> Some people have to destroy everything that's [[disagreeable]] to them (and hey! It's [[words]]! [[Ideas]]! [[Opinions]]! [[Someones perception]]!)
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985874761
3,4c3,5
< Professed [[Religion]]: [[Methodist]]
< [[Political Party]]: [[Republican]]
---
> <b>Professed Religion:</b> [[Methodist]]
> 
> <b>Political Party:</b> [[Republican]]
8c9,10
< [[Ulysses S. Grant/Second Inaugural Address|/Second Inaugural Address]]
---
> 
> [[Ulysses S. Grant/Second Inaugural Address|/Second Inaugural Address]]
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985874777
1c1
< Ulyssess Simpson Grant was the 18th [[President of the United States]] and served two terms from March 4,1869 to March 3, 1877.  He was born April 27, 1822 in [[Point Pleasant, Ohio]] to Jesse and Hannah Grant and died on July 23, 1885 in [[Mount McGregor, New York]]. He graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] in West Point, New York]] in 1843.   He married [[Julia Boggs Dent]] (1826-1902) on August 22, 1843 and they bore four children: Frederick Dent, Ulysses Simpson, Jr., Ellen Wrenshall, and Jesse Root.  
---
> Ulyssess Simpson Grant was the 18th [[President of the United States]] and served two terms from March 4,1869 to March 3, 1877.  He was born April 27, 1822 in [[Point Pleasant, Ohio]] to Jesse and Hannah Grant and died on July 23, 1885 in [[Mount McGregor, New York]]. He graduated from the [[United States Military Academy]] in [[West Point, New York]] in 1843.   He married [[Julia Boggs Dent]] (1826-1902) on August 22, 1843 and they bore four children: Frederick Dent, Ulysses Simpson, Jr., Ellen Wrenshall, and Jesse Root.  
------
Ulysses_S._Grant/First_Inaugural_Address|985875176
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>History</b>
> 
> General Grant refused to ride in the carriage to the [[Capitol]] with President [[Andrew Johnson]] for his first inauguration. A miffed Johnson then decided not to attend the ceremony. [[Chief Justice]] [[Salmon Chase]] administered the [[oath of office]] on the [[East Portico]]. The [[Inaugural Parade]] boasted eight full divisions of the [[United States Army|Army]] — the largest contingent yet to march on such an occasion. That evening, a ball was held in the [[Treasury Building]].
> ----
> <b>Address</b>
> 
> Citizens of the United States: 
> 
> Your suffrages having elected me to the office of President of the United States, I have, in conformity to the Constitution of our country, taken the oath of office prescribed therein. I have taken this oath without mental reservation and with the determination to do to the best of my ability all that is required of me. The responsibilities of the position I feel, but accept them without fear. The office has come to me unsought; I commence its duties untrammeled. I bring to it a conscious desire and determination to fill it to the best of my ability to the satisfaction of the people.
> 
> On all leading questions agitating the public mind I will always express my views to Congress and urge them according to my judgment, and when I think it advisable will exercise the constitutional privilege of interposing a veto to defeat measures which I oppose; but all laws will be faithfully executed, whether they meet my approval or not.
> 
> I shall on all subjects have a policy to recommend, but none to enforce against the will of the people. Laws are to govern all alike—those opposed as well as those who favor them. I know no method to secure the repeal of bad or obnoxious laws so effective as their stringent execution.
> 
> The country having just emerged from a great rebellion, many questions will come before it for settlement in the next four years which preceding Administrations have never had to deal with. In meeting these it is desirable that they should be approached calmly, without prejudice, hate, or sectional pride, remembering that the greatest good to the greatest number is the object to be attained.
> 
> This requires security of person, property, and free religious and political opinion in every part of our common country, without regard to local prejudice. All laws to secure these ends will receive my best efforts for their enforcement.
> 
> A great debt has been contracted in securing to us and our posterity the Union. The payment of this, principal and interest, as well as the return to a specie basis as soon as it can be accomplished without material detriment to the debtor class or to the country at large, must be provided for. To protect the national honor, every dollar of Government indebtedness should be paid in gold, unless otherwise expressly stipulated in the contract. Let it be understood that no repudiator of one farthing of our public debt will be trusted in public place, and it will go far toward strengthening a credit which ought to be the best in the world, and will ultimately enable us to replace the debt with bonds bearing less interest than we now pay. To this should be added a faithful collection of the revenue, a strict accountability to the Treasury for every dollar collected, and the greatest practicable retrenchment in expenditure in every department of Government.
> 
> When we compare the paying capacity of the country now, with the ten States in poverty from the effects of war, but soon to emerge, I trust, into greater prosperity than ever before, with its paying capacity twenty-five years ago, and calculate what it probably will be twenty-five years hence, who can doubt the feasibility of paying every dollar then with more ease than we now pay for useless luxuries? Why, it looks as though Providence had bestowed upon us a strong box in the precious metals locked up in the sterile mountains of the far West, and which we are now forging the key to unlock, to meet the very contingency that is now upon us.
> 
> Ultimately it may be necessary to insure the facilities to reach these riches and it may be necessary also that the General Government should give its aid to secure this access; but that should only be when a dollar of obligation to pay secures precisely the same sort of dollar to use now, and not before. Whilst the question of specie payments is in abeyance the prudent business man is careful about contracting debts payable in the distant future. The nation should follow the same rule. A prostrate commerce is to be rebuilt and all industries encouraged.
> 
> The young men of the country—those who from their age must be its rulers twenty-five years hence—have a peculiar interest in maintaining the national honor. A moment's reflection as to what will be our commanding influence among the nations of the earth in their day, if they are only true to themselves, should inspire them with national pride. All divisions—geographical, political, and religious—can join in this common sentiment. How the public debt is to be paid or specie payments resumed is not so important as that a plan should be adopted and acquiesced in. A united determination to do is worth more than divided counsels upon the method of doing. Legislation upon this subject may not be necessary now, or even advisable, but it will be when the civil law is more fully restored in all parts of the country and trade resumes its wonted channels.
> 
> It will be my endeavor to execute all laws in good faith, to collect all revenues assessed, and to have them properly accounted for and economically disbursed. I will to the best of my ability appoint to office those only who will carry out this design.
> 
> In regard to foreign policy, I would deal with nations as equitable law requires individuals to deal with each other, and I would protect the law-abiding citizen, whether of native or foreign birth, wherever his rights are jeopardized or the flag of our country floats. I would respect the rights of all nations, demanding equal respect for our own. If others depart from this rule in their dealings with us, we may be compelled to follow their precedent.
> 
> The proper treatment of the original occupants of this land—the Indians one deserving of careful study. I will favor any course toward them which tends to their civilization and ultimate citizenship.
> 
> The question of suffrage is one which is likely to agitate the public so long as a portion of the citizens of the nation are excluded from its privileges in any State. It seems to me very desirable that this question should be settled now, and I entertain the hope and express the desire that it may be by the ratification of the fifteenth article of amendment to the Constitution.
> 
> In conclusion I ask patient forbearance one toward another throughout the land, and a determined effort on the part of every citizen to do his share toward cementing a happy union; and I ask the prayers of the nation to Almighty God in behalf of this consummation.
> 
------
Ulysses_S._Grant/Second_Inaugural_Address|985875625
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>History</b>
> 
> A dehibilitating [[cold front]] caused the abandonment of several events planned for the second inauguration. The [[thermometer]] never rose to zero that day, persuading avoidance of the ceremony on the [[East Portico]] of the [[Capitol]]. The [[oath of office]] was administered by [[Chief Justice]] [[Salmon Chase]]. Later that day, a short [[parade]] and a display of [[fireworks]] were undertaken. A ball was held in a temporary wooden structure on [[Judiciary Square]] where the endless wind blowing through the ballroom caused the guests of the ball to remain in their coats.
> ----
> <b>Address</b>
> 
> Fellow-Citizens: 
> 
> Under Providence I have been called a second time to act as Executive over this great nation. It has been my endeavor in the past to maintain all the laws, and, so far as lay in my power, to act for the best interests of the whole people. My best efforts will be given in the same direction in the future, aided, I trust, by my four years' experience in the office.
> 
> When my first term of the office of Chief Executive began, the country had not recovered from the effects of a great internal revolution, and three of the former States of the Union had not been restored to their Federal relations.
> 
> It seemed to me wise that no new questions should be raised so long as that condition of affairs existed. Therefore the past four years, so far as I could control events, have been consumed in the effort to restore harmony, public credit, commerce, and all the arts of peace and progress. It is my firm conviction that the civilized world is tending toward republicanism, or government by the people through their chosen representatives, and that our own great Republic is destined to be the guiding star to all others.
> 
> Under our Republic we support an army less than that of any European power of any standing and a navy less than that of either of at least five of them. There could be no extension of territory on the continent which would call for an increase of this force, but rather might such extension enable us to diminish it.
> 
> The theory of government changes with general progress. Now that the telegraph is made available for communicating thought, together with rapid transit by steam, all parts of a continent are made contiguous for all purposes of government, and communication between the extreme limits of the country made easier than it was throughout the old thirteen States at the beginning of our national existence.
> 
> The effects of the late civil strife have been to free the slave and make him a citizen. Yet he is not possessed of the civil rights which citizenship should carry with it. This is wrong, and should be corrected. To this correction I stand committed, so far as Executive influence can avail.
> 
> Social equality is not a subject to be legislated upon, nor shall I ask that anything be done to advance the social status of the colored man, except to give him a fair chance to develop what there is good in him, give him access to the schools, and when he travels let him feel assured that his conduct will regulate the treatment and fare he will receive.
> 
> The States lately at war with the General Government are now happily rehabilitated, and no Executive control is exercised in any one of them that would not be exercised in any other State under like circumstances.
> 
> In the first year of the past Administration the proposition came up for the admission of Santo Domingo as a Territory of the Union. It was not a question of my seeking, but was a proposition from the people of Santo Domingo, and which I entertained. I believe now, as I did then, that it was for the best interest of this country, for the people of Santo Domingo, and all concerned that the proposition should be received favorably. It was, however, rejected constitutionally, and therefore the subject was never brought up again by me.
> 
> In future, while I hold my present office, the subject of acquisition of territory must have the support of the people before I will recommend any proposition looking to such acquisition. I say here, however, that I do not share in the apprehension held by many as to the danger of governments becoming weakened and destroyed by reason of their extension of territory. Commerce, education, and rapid transit of thought and matter by telegraph and steam have changed all this. Rather do I believe that our Great Maker is preparing the world, in His own good time, to become one nation, speaking one language, and when armies and navies will be no longer required.
> 
> My efforts in the future will be directed to the restoration of good feeling between the different sections of our common country; to the restoration of our currency to a fixed value as compared with the world's standard of values—gold—and, if possible, to a par with it; to the construction of cheap routes of transit throughout the land, to the end that the products of all may find a market and leave a living remuneration to the producer; to the maintenance of friendly relations with all our neighbors and with distant nations; to the reestablishment of our commerce and share in the carrying trade upon the ocean; to the encouragement of such manufacturing industries as can be economically pursued in this country, to the end that the exports of home products and industries may pay for our imports—the only sure method of returning to and permanently maintaining a specie basis; to the elevation of labor; and, by a humane course, to bring the aborigines of the country under the benign influences of education and civilization. It is either this or war of extermination: Wars of extermination, engaged in by people pursuing commerce and all industrial pursuits, are expensive even against the weakest people, and are demoralizing and wicked. Our superiority of strength and advantages of civilization should make us lenient toward the Indian. The wrong inflicted upon him should be taken into account and the balance placed to his credit. The moral view of the question should be considered and the question asked, Can not the Indian be made a useful and productive member of society by proper teaching and treatment? If the effort is made in good faith, we will stand better before the civilized nations of the earth and in our own consciences for having made it.
> 
> All these things are not to be accomplished by one individual, but they will receive my support and such recommendations to Congress as will in my judgment best serve to carry them into effect. I beg your support and encouragement.
> 
> It has been, and is, my earnest desire to correct abuses that have grown up in the civil service of the country. To secure this reformation rules regulating methods of appointment and promotions were established and have been tried. My efforts for such reformation shall be continued to the best of my judgment. The spirit of the rules adopted will be maintained.
> 
> I acknowledge before this assemblage, representing, as it does, every section of our country, the obligation I am under to my countrymen for the great honor they have conferred on me by returning me to the highest office within their gift, and the further obligation resting on me to render to them the best services within my power. This I promise, looking forward with the greatest anxiety to the day when I shall be released from responsibilities that at times are almost overwhelming, and from which I have scarcely had a respite since the eventful firing upon Fort Sumter, in April, 1861, to the present day. My services were then tendered and accepted under the first call for troops growing out of that event.
> 
> I did not ask for place or position, and was entirely without influence or the acquaintance of persons of influence, but was resolved to perform my part in a struggle threatening the very existence of the nation. I performed a conscientious duty, without asking promotion or command, and without a revengeful feeling toward any section or individual.
> 
> Notwithstanding this, throughout the war, and from my candidacy for my present office in 1868 to the close of the last Presidential campaign, I have been the subject of abuse and slander scarcely ever equaled in political history, which to-day I feel that I can afford to disregard in view of your verdict, which I gratefully accept as my vindication.
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985875707
0a1,2
> <b> History</b>
> 
3c5,7
< WHEN it was first perceived, in early times, that no middle course for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must determine to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise concerning the forms of government to be instituted over the whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces the chains which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, but frankly cut asunder the ties which had bound them, and launched into an ocean of uncertainty.
---
> <b>Address</b>
> 
> When it was first perceived, in early times, that no middle course for America remained between unlimited submission to a foreign legislature and a total independence of its claims, men of reflection were less apprehensive of danger from the formidable power of fleets and armies they must determine to resist than from those contests and dissensions which would certainly arise concerning the forms of government to be instituted over the whole and over the parts of this extensive country. Relying, however, on the purity of their intentions, the justice of their cause, and the integrity and intelligence of the people, under an overruling Providence which had so signally protected this country from the first, the representatives of this nation, then consisting of little more than half its present number, not only broke to pieces the chains which were forging and the rod of iron that was lifted up, but frankly cut asunder the ties which had bound them, and launched into an ocean of uncertainty.
------
John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech|985875733
3c3
< [[John Adams]], second president of the [[United States]], gave his Inaugural Address on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]] after [[Chief Justice]] [[Oliver Ellsworth]] administered the [[oath of office]] in the Hall of the [[House of Representatives]] in [[Federal Hall]] before a [[Joint Session of Congress]].
---
> [[John Adams]], second [[President of the United States]], gave his [[Inaugural Address]] on Saturday, March 4, 1797 in the city of [[Philadelphia]] after [[Chief Justice]] [[Oliver Ellsworth]] administered the [[oath of office]] in the Hall of the [[House of Representatives]] in [[Federal Hall]] before a [[Joint Session of Congress]].
------
Cancer_Coast|985876090
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cancer Coast is a moniker given by [[Oncologist]]s at the [[Texas Medical Center]] in [[Houston]] and members of the Houston-area [[media]] to a region of the [[Texas Gulf Coast]] stretching from the [[Sabine River]] to the southern boundary of [[Brazoria County]] and reaching 20 to 50 miles inland.  
> 
> Oncologists and media postulate that the [[cancer cluster]]s evident in this area might be caused by the high concentration of [[petrochemical plants]].
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985876166
6a7,11
> <b>Military Career:</b> 
> *
> *
> *
> *
------
Sabine_River|985876207
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Sabine River begins in Northeast [[Texas]] and flows into the [[Gulf of Mexico]].  It also serves as a state line boundary between Texas and [[Louisiana]].
------
Stupid_Republicans|985876306
16c16
< And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Committee Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and
---
> And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Campaign Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985876519
7,11c7,13
< <b>Military Career:</b> 
< *
< *
< *
< *
---
> <b>Military Career:</b><BR>
> *Fort Henry and Fort Donelson (Unconditional Surrender!)
> *[[Shiloh]]
> *[[Vicksburg]]
> *[[Chattanooga]]
> *siege of [[Richmond]]
> *[[Appomattox]] Court House
------
Stupid_Republicans|985876946
19c19,21
< Well, I think that the name "Wikipedia" would imply that this project was aiming to be an encylopedia. Also, there's this quote from the front page: "We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively." And, there seems to be a great desire on the part of the community to write encyclopedia articles. Finally, I hardly think that a comment by Larry (which I happen to think is a valid one) constitutes him acting like a "boss". It's not as if he's using administrative power to delete pages he doesn't like. All in all, I think you should lighten up a bit. ;-) -- [[STG]]
---
> Well, I think that the name "Wikipedia" would imply that this project was aiming to be an encylopedia. Also, there's this quote from the front page: "We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively." And, there seems to be a great desire on the part of the community to write encyclopedia articles. Finally, I hardly think that a comment by Larry (which I happen to think is a valid one) constitutes him acting like a "boss". It's not as if he's using administrative power to delete pages he doesn't like. All in all, I think you should lighten up a bit. ;-) -- [[STG]]----
> As I remember, this remark about wikipedia being an encyclopedia was not always on the home page. There is a lot of history behind my comments that you may or may not be aware of.
> Further, I find it is hard to believe that a user takes [[LMS]]'s remarks with equal force that they would take "just an ordinary user's". You may disagree with me, of course. AnonymousCoward
------
Rational_number|985880490
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [natural number]s. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [real number]s, which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [countable] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
------
Rational_number|985880516
1c1
< The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [natural number]s. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [real number]s, which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [countable] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
---
> The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [[natural number]]s. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [[real number]]s, which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [[countable]] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
------
Rational_number|985880553
1c1
< The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [[natural number]]s. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [[real number]]s, which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [[countable]] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
---
> The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [[natural numbers]]. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [[real numbers]], which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [[countable]] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
------
History_of_the_Netherlands|985881653
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Netherlands/history]]
------
Island|985882092
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An island is any piece of land that is completely surrounded by water. Her is a list of the largest islands of the world:
> # [[Greenland]]
> # [[New Guinea]]
> # [[Borneo]]
> # [[Madagascar]]
> # [[Baffin Island]]
> # [[Sumatra]]
> # [[Honshu]]
> # [[Victoria Island]]
> # [[Great Britain]]
> # [[Ellesmere Island]]
> # [[Celebes]]
> # [[South Island]] ([[New Zealand]])
> # [[Java]]
> # [[North Island]] ([[New Zealand]])
> # [[Newfoundland]]
> # [[Cuba]]
> # [[Luzon]]
> # [[Iceland]]
> # [[Mindanao]]
> # [[Ireland]]
> # [[Hokkaido]]
> # [[Sakhalin]]
> # [[Hispaniola]]
> # [[Banks Island]]
> # [[Sri Lanka]] ([[Ceylon]])
> 
------
Netherlands/history|985882252
25c25,26
< knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]
---
> knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]
> Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]
------
Netherlands/history|985882293
25,26c25,26
< knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]
< Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]
---
> knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]<br>
> Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]
------
Netherlands/history|985882425
11c11
< In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brasil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
---
> In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brazil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
------
Olympic_Games/Summer|985882841
1c1
< The modern summer [[Olympic Games]] have been held every four years since 1896 (except for a break 1936-1948 caused by the [[World War II|Second World War]]).
---
> The modern summer [[Olympic Games]] have been held every four years since 1896. Exceptions were 1916, 1940 and 1944, which were missed out because of the [[World War I|First World War]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]). An extra Olympics were held in Athens in 1906, because the Greeks disliked the fact that the games were not to be held in Greece every four years. This one is not officially counted as one of the Olympics, however.
5a6
> *[[/Athens 1906]]
------
Actinopterygii|985882858
9c9,11
< ** Osteoglosomorpha - order [[Osteoglossiformes]]  (bony tongues, etc)
---
> ** Osteoglossomorpha
> *** Order [[Osteoglossiformes]]  (bony tongues, etc)
> *** Order [[Hiodontiformes]]  (mooneye, etc)
12c14,16
< *** [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels)
---
> *** [[Albuliformes]]  (bonefishes)
> *** [[Notacanthiformes]]  (spiny eels)
> *** [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels, gulpers)
24c28
< *** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]]
---
> *** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]]  (jellynosed fishes)
41,42c45,46
< *** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]  (pricklefishes, etc)
< *** Order [[Beryciformes]]  (alfonsinoes, etc)
---
> *** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]  (pricklefishes, whalefishes, etc)
> *** Order [[Beryciformes]]  (alfonsinos, etc)
44c48
< *** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]  (sticklebacks & allies)
---
> *** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]  (sticklebacks, pipefishes & allies)
47c51
< *** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches & many allies - including [[Pleuronectiformes]], [[Tetraodontiformes]])
---
> *** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches, puffers, flatfish & many allies)
------
Rational_number|985883052
1c1
< The Rational numbers are all numbers of the form p/q, where p and q are both [[natural numbers]]. Although the rational numbers are dense in the [[real numbers]], which means that there is a rational number arbitrarily close to each real number, the number of rational numbers is [[countable]] while the number of real numbers is uncountable.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rational numbers]]
------
Card_games|985883116
3c3
< Trick-taking games
---
> [[Trick-taking]] games
------
Trick-taking|985883380
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In many [[card games]], the goal of the game is to make tricks, or sometimes to not make tricks. In these games, the players have a hand of cards (often the same number), and the play is divided into tricks. One player leads a card, and the others in turn play one card on it. In most games, if a player has a card in the same suit as the card led, (s)he has to play some such card. The winner of the trick is the player who has played the highest card in the suit that was led. Typically, the winner of a trick will lead on the next trick.
> 
> Often, trick-taking games have a suit, or some cards, that are called trumps. A trump counts as higher as any other card, and can take tricks in other suits than its own.
> 
> The various games vary in the value that the various cards have, but (from high to low) A-K-Q-J-T-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2 is the most common.
------
Game|985883559
15a16
> *[[Other games]]
------
Other_games|985883595
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Various games do not fit into the classification given in [[Games]]. See for example:
> 
> * [[Nomic]]
------
Netherlands/history|985883666
9c9
< Through inheritage, the area became possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious prosecutions of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
---
> Through inheritance, the area became a possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
15c15
< After the Napoleontic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
---
> After the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
------
Nomic|985883788
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nomic is a game in which the rules themselves are the subject of play. The starting ruleset is such that the players can change them, and the game play is all about changing those rules. The game was thougt out by [[Peter Suber]] in his book ''The paradox of self-amendment''.
> 
> The game is also played via the [[Internet]], sometimes for a very long time - [[AgoraNomic|Agora]] has been going on continuously ever since 1993.
> 
> For more information on Nomic, see [NomicWiki http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/].
------
Nomic|985883817
5c5
< For more information on Nomic, see [NomicWiki http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/].
---
> For more information on Nomic, see [http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/|NomicWiki].
------
Nomic|985883840
5c5
< For more information on Nomic, see [http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/|NomicWiki].
---
> For more information on Nomic, see the Nomic Wiki at http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/.
------
SandBox|985884342
34a35,36
> ''I'm not the best person to answer this question, but this we do permit [[Free Links]] and we can (can't we?  Guys?) change the settings so that an entire revision history of each page is stored.  Besides, we have CliffordAdams working to add features that make UseModWiki the best possible wiki for an encyclopedia project! --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
------
SandBox|985884356
35c35
< ''I'm not the best person to answer this question, but this we do permit [[Free Links]] and we can (can't we?  Guys?) change the settings so that an entire revision history of each page is stored.  Besides, we have CliffordAdams working to add features that make UseModWiki the best possible wiki for an encyclopedia project! --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> ''I'm not the best person to answer this question, but this we do permit [[Free Links]] and we can (can't we?  Guys?) change the settings so that an entire revision history of each page is stored.  Besides, we have CliffordAdams working to add features that make UseModWiki the best possible wiki for an encyclopedia project! --[[Larry Sanger]]''
------
Socialism|985884858
3,6c3,4
< A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
< ----
< A socialist believes that the government is the sole power to realise those purposes and rights.
< ----
---
> A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  Socialists believe that the government, rather than the individual, is the ultimate arbiter of how those purposes and rights are realized.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
> 
------
Socialism|985885235
1c1
< ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as "[[Communism]]"; but philosophers use the term "communism" to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as '[[Communism]]'; but philosophers use the term 'communism' to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
3c3,5
< A socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  Socialists believe that the government, rather than the individual, is the ultimate arbiter of how those purposes and rights are realized.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
---
> Note that there are also mixed governmental forms that are popularly called 'socialism'--on one extreme is communism, here meaning extreme socialism rather than the sense above-described, while on the other extreme are those that wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise, are called, for example in [[Germany]], '[[social democrats]]'.  Indeed, there have been literally ''dozens'' of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
> 
> Generally speaking, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  Socialists believe that the government, rather than the individual, is the ultimate arbiter of how those purposes and rights are realized.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
9,12c11
< Note that there are also mixture forms that are called ''Socialism'' - those that politically go all the way with what is expressed above are often called Communists, while those that want a strong government influence on economy, but not as complete as the Communists, are called [[Social-democrats]].
< 
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
< 
---
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
------
RulesToConsider|985885444
42a43,48
> '''Integrate changes:''' When you make a change to some text, rather than appending the new text you'd like to see included at the bottom of the page, please place and edit your comments so that it flows seamlessly with the present text.  Wikipedia articles shouldn't be a series of disjoint comments about a subject, but unified, seamless, and ever-expanding expositions of the subject.  (Rule introduced 29-03-2001)
> 
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
59c65
< [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
------
RulesToConsider|985885487
43c43
< '''Integrate changes:''' When you make a change to some text, rather than appending the new text you'd like to see included at the bottom of the page, please place and edit your comments so that it flows seamlessly with the present text.  Wikipedia articles shouldn't be a series of disjoint comments about a subject, but unified, seamless, and ever-expanding expositions of the subject.  (Rule introduced 29-03-2001)
---
> '''Integrate changes:''' When you make a change to some text, rather than appending the new text you'd like to see included at the bottom of the page, please place and edit your comments so that they flows seamlessly with the present text.  Wikipedia articles shouldn't be a series of disjoint comments about a subject, but unified, seamless, and ever-expanding expositions of the subject.  (Rule introduced 29-03-2001)
------
Alabama|985886613
5a6,7
> A [[country music]] band during the [[1980s]].
> ----
------
Stupid_Republicans|985886709
21a22,23
> ----
> Should be in ''Republican/talk'' or ''media bias''.
------
Island|985886759
1c1
< An island is any piece of land that is completely surrounded by water. Her is a list of the largest islands of the world:
---
> An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks, are called [[islet]]s.  Here is a list of the largest islands of the world:
27a28,54
> Other notable islands:
> * [[Alcatraz]]
> * [[Azores]]
> * [[Bahamas]]
> * [[Bali]]
> * [[Canary Islands]]
> * [[Capri]]
> * [[Channel Islands]]
> * [[Cyprus]]
> * [[Ellis Island]]
> * [[Falkland Islands]]
> * [[Galapagos Islands]]
> * [[Hawaiian Islands]]
> * [[Hong Kong Island]]
> * [[Jamaica]]
> * [[Kodiak Island]]
> * [[Long Island]]
> * [[Manhattan]]
> * [[Pitcairn Island]]
> * [[Puerto Rico]]
> * [[Sicily]]
> * [[Singapore]]
> * [[Tahiti]]
> * [[Taiwan]]
> * [[Vancouver Island]]
> 
> See also [[atoll]]; [[reef]]; [[volcanic island]]; [[archipelago]].
------
Netherlands/history|985887002
26c26,27
< Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]
---
> Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]<br>
> Yes, very impressive! --[[LMS]]
------
NeutralPointOfView|985887152
13c13,16
< Of course, I agree.  For more in the same vein, see [http://www.nupedia.com/policy.shtml#III Nupedia's policy statement], Part III, Section D ("Lack of Bias"). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Of course, I agree.  For more in the same vein, see [http://www.nupedia.com/policy.shtml#III Nupedia's policy statement], Part III, Section D ("Lack of Bias"). -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> I have one minor clarification that I would add: I don't think the practice of including other points of view implies that an article should treat them equally.  In reporting things like pseudoscience, for example, I think it is within the obligation of an encyclopedia to emphasize the lack of scientific basis for some beliefs, and to clearly state that belief in such things is not justified by apparent facts.
------
Stupid_Republicans|985887210
1,23c1
< There is a tradition in the American media to portray Republican Presidents as being stupid.  Since most members of the press (around 90%) vote Democrat rather than Republican, there is reason to suspect this portrayal is simply grounded in anti-Republican sentiment rather than in fact.  Many of the Republicans who are portrayed as stupid have credentials that should put to rest any doubts about their intelligence.  Dwight Eisenhower graduated first from the Army's demanding Command and General Staff School.  George W. Bush was a fighter pilot, and has a masters degree from the very prestigious Harvard Business School.  Yet both men are popularly perceived as being below average in intelligence.  
< 
< Republican Presidents that are often considered stupid:
<  [[George W. Bush]]
<  [[Dwight Eisenhower]]
<  [[Gerald Ford]]
<  [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
<  [[Warren G. Harding]]
<  [[Ronald Reagan]]
< 
< ''There are some good reasons for some of these...Bush has a record for saying things that sound remarkably similar to English, but aren't quite, and there was the beautiful incident where Reagan assimilated a WWII movie into his personal record.  I think maybe the complaitn should be changed to "not enough stupid Democrats are recognized as such." ;)''
< 
< ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''----
< And since when does has a piece of paper (diploma) ever been indicative of intelligence anyway. At best it is one of many, many measures.
< Oh, and by the way LMS, at exactly what point in time did wikipedia be determined to be an encyclopedia? And by whom? I was under the misapprehension that it was a wiki run by Bomis.
< And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Campaign Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and
< not enter material here in the guise of a member, while, in fact, you are acting like a "boss.' AnonymousCoward.
< 
< Well, I think that the name "Wikipedia" would imply that this project was aiming to be an encylopedia. Also, there's this quote from the front page: "We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively." And, there seems to be a great desire on the part of the community to write encyclopedia articles. Finally, I hardly think that a comment by Larry (which I happen to think is a valid one) constitutes him acting like a "boss". It's not as if he's using administrative power to delete pages he doesn't like. All in all, I think you should lighten up a bit. ;-) -- [[STG]]----
< As I remember, this remark about wikipedia being an encyclopedia was not always on the home page. There is a lot of history behind my comments that you may or may not be aware of.
< Further, I find it is hard to believe that a user takes [[LMS]]'s remarks with equal force that they would take "just an ordinary user's". You may disagree with me, of course. AnonymousCoward
< ----
< Should be in ''Republican/talk'' or ''media bias''.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Stupid Republicans]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Stupid_Republicans|985887258
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is a tradition in the American media to portray Republican Presidents as being stupid.  Since most members of the press (around 90%) vote Democrat rather than Republican, there is reason to suspect this portrayal is simply grounded in anti-Republican sentiment rather than in fact.  Many of the Republicans who are portrayed as stupid have credentials that should put to rest any doubts about their intelligence.  Dwight Eisenhower graduated first from the Army's demanding Command and General Staff School.  George W. Bush was a fighter pilot, and has a masters degree from the very prestigious Harvard Business School.  Yet both men are popularly perceived as being below average in intelligence.  
> 
> Republican Presidents that are often considered stupid:
>  [[George W. Bush]]
>  [[Dwight Eisenhower]]
>  [[Gerald Ford]]
>  [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
>  [[Warren G. Harding]]
>  [[Ronald Reagan]]
> 
> See also [[Stupid Republicans/Talk]]
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985887773
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Frankly, in my 20-some years of political activism, I was completely unaware of a "tradition" to call republican presidents stupid.  I have always viewed presidents as smart, brilliant, stupid or neutral based on where I perceived their policies to be leading.
> 
> Has anyone noticed the often disjointed and internally self-contradictory manner in which the current administration seems to be expressing itself so far?  What's with that?
------
The_best_president_to_have_a_beer_with|985887790
9a10,17
> ----
> Amongst modern presidents, Reagan would be best.
> 
> Clinton would be best to go to a wwf wrestling event with.
> 
> George HW Bush would be best to tour aircraft carriers with for the actual war stories.
> 
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985887887
12a13,14
> ----
> [[/Stupid Republicans]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|985887918
3c3,4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> 
> <a name="A"></a><font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
53c54
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Countries_of_the_world|985887935
4c4
< <a name="A"></a><font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985887990
3c3,7
< Has anyone noticed the often disjointed and internally self-contradictory manner in which the current administration seems to be expressing itself so far?  What's with that?
---
> Has anyone noticed the often disjointed and internally self-contradictory manner in which the current administration seems to be expressing itself so far?  What's with that?
> ----
> I haven't noticed that but actual legislation passed, executive actions taken, and judical appointments will be the telling factor.
> ----
> As far as raw IQ, each of our presidents have to be high on the scale.  Whether or not their initiatives work out is another thing.
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985888046
14a15,16
> ----
> [[/Media Bias]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|985888494
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is the media really biased?
> 
> How you answer usually depends upon your political, societal,
> economic, religious, and philosophical outlook.
> ----
> I believe that the media is biased towards news agencies
> located in [[New York City]] and [[Washington DC]].
> 
> Evidence of this is how much local newspaper/broadcast news stories are just syndicated stories from the New York Times, Washington Post and national networks.
> 
> News generated from news agencies in those two cities is 
> typically liberal and oriented towards issues that affect
> those cities.
> ----
> How do newspaper/tv/radio conglomerates bias the news?
> 
> ----
> Is this good or is this bad?
> 
> 
> 
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985888544
0a1,32
> Note from one Wikipedian to another: I know it's going to upset some people, and anyone can move it back, but I have moved the "Stupid Republicans" entry to this [[Wikipedia commentary]] page, because it contains a lot of stuff that, I think, isn't exactly objectively-stated fact in a balanced fashion.  Now, that in itself might not even be enough to remove it to the commentary page.  What pushes it over the edge is the highly-charged political nature of the entry, which in ''my'' opinion, at least (just my opinion), threatens to set a bad precedent.
> 
> I think this could easily be rewritten, perhaps with a different title ("perceptions of intelligence in American politics"?), and made fact-stating.  It could still convey the facts that many people believe Republicans are stupider than Democrats--sure, that's a fact--and that the media vote Democrat.  But, basically, it should be something that should make everybody happy, Republicans and Democrats like.
> ----
> ''There are some good reasons for some of these...Bush has a record for saying things that sound remarkably similar to English, but aren't quite, and there was the beautiful incident where Reagan assimilated a WWII movie into his personal record.  I think maybe the complaitn should be changed to "not enough stupid Democrats are recognized as such." ;)''
> 
> ''Umm...doesn't this belong in [[Wikipedia commentary]]?  It isn't anything close to being an encyclopedia article.  Not that I think Republicans are stupid, or anything.''----
> And since when does has a piece of paper (diploma) ever been indicative of intelligence anyway. At best it is one of many, many measures.
> Oh, and by the way LMS, at exactly what point in time did wikipedia be determined to be an encyclopedia? And by whom? I was under the misapprehension that it was a wiki run by Bomis.
> And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Campaign Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and
> not enter material here in the guise of a member, while, in fact, you are acting like a "boss.' AnonymousCoward.
> 
> Well, I think that the name "Wikipedia" would imply that this project was aiming to be an encylopedia. Also, there's this quote from the front page: "We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively." And, there seems to be a great desire on the part of the community to write encyclopedia articles. Finally, I hardly think that a comment by Larry (which I happen to think is a valid one) constitutes him acting like a "boss". It's not as if he's using administrative power to delete pages he doesn't like. All in all, I think you should lighten up a bit. ;-) -- [[STG]]----
> As I remember, this remark about wikipedia being an encyclopedia was not always on the home page. There is a lot of history behind my comments that you may or may not be aware of.
> Further, I find it is hard to believe that a user takes [[LMS]]'s remarks with equal force that they would take "just an ordinary user's". You may disagree with me, of course. AnonymousCoward
> ----
> Should be in ''Republican/talk'' or ''media bias''.
> ----
> :Oh, and by the way LMS, at exactly what point in time did wikipedia be determined to be an encyclopedia? And by whom? I was under the misapprehension that it was a wiki run by Bomis.
> 
> Well, since you ask, it was decided by [[Jimbo Wales]], the president and CEO of Bomis, and myself.  It was my idea, which I hammered away at Jimbo with for a week and a half, and then he finally gave in (only to be very pleasantly surprised!).  The idea I got from in a conversation with my friend Ben Kovitz (who is a Ward's Wiki regular), to experiment with a wiki-format ''encyclopedia.''
> 
> There are many other projects you can join that aren't encyclopedias, y'know.
> 
> Other matters that I regard to be basic to an encyclopedia--e.g., that bias shouldn't be included in Wikipedia--are just matters that I will do my best to try to enforce and persuade other people to enforce.  They aren't, as far as I know, "official policy."  On Wikipedia we don't have much of that.  We do have opinionated people, though. --[[LMS]]
> 
> :And, finally, I was not aware that we had an Editor-In-chief here to begin with, much less  one weeding out bias. The [[Campaign Against Covert Action]] is starring right at you, Sir. and asking you to be open in your actions here, to declare you intentions here, and not enter material here in the guise of a member, while, in fact, you are acting like a "boss.' 
> 
> Nothing is stopping you, whoever you are, or anyone else from acting similarly!  I wish you would.  Why don't you?  BeBoldInUpdatingPages.  Disputes can always be handled on Talk pages.  If you take me to be your boss, that's too bad.  You give me power I didn't ask for.  Obviously, I have some very definite ideas about what I think is and is not appropriate for this wiki.  I'm not about to say that certain elements of policy are written in stone.  But I won't be afraid to use my leverage, however it might be based (sheer force of personality, I like to think), to persuade people to adopt certain broad policies I personally support (see RulesToConsider, for example; see especially the first "rule").
> 
> Of course, there are plenty of policies on which reasonable people can disagree, and I can and do have no trouble at all with the thought that competing, inconsistent policies might lead to an inconsistently formatted and executed encyclopedia. --[[LMS]]
> ----
7c39
< As far as raw IQ, each of our presidents have to be high on the scale.  Whether or not their initiatives work out is another thing.
---
> As far as raw IQ, each of our presidents have to be high on the scale.  Whether or not their initiatives work out is another thing.
------
NeutralPointOfView|985888675
16a17,18
> ----
> Invariably, inclusion of different points of view or even different factual events may unbalance an encyclopedia entry.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|985889168
20a21,23
> ----
> In my opinion, the problem with the media is not bias, but the pretense of objectivity.  ALL people are biased, and always will be, and the fact that news agencies attempt to cover up that fact and pretend that they are reporting objectively makes them less likely to see their biases, and makes consumers less likely to look for it.  --LDC
> 
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985890331
20a21,23
> '''There is a separate wiki run by Bomis, that is for Bomis.  It is, like Bomis, heavily oriented to celebrities and goofy humor.  It is interesting to note, though, that it has less participation (despite massively higher traffic!) than the Wikipedia.  The reason seems obvious to me: this is a real community project with a central vision, while the Bomis wiki is just an addendum to a successful search engine site. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> 
------
NeutralPointOfView|985890449
18a19,20
> ----
> A clear mention of lack of scientific basis ''without additional emphasis'' is adequate to place anomolous or pseudoscientific positions in context.  Science is not the be-all and end-all of human inquiry, and worship of its supposed infallibility in detecting the truth has at times delayed recognition of valid observations or procedures because they were "unscientific."   Medicine is famous for this.  Chiropractic, herbal medicine, acupuncture, chelation therapy, etc. have all been quackery until science discovered why they worked.  Humans cling mightily to their religious observances which "fly in the face" of science, and yet we do not go out of our way to discredit them.  What remains unconfirmed by science deserves such a mention- a reader should not be confused that physical confirmation has been demonstrated when it has not.  But it is not necessary to exhibit antagonism for these ideas beyond that.
------
Al_Gore|985892860
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
---
> [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
------
Al_Gore|985892900
1c1,15
< [[Albert Arnold Gore]]
---
> Vice President of the [[United States]] 1993-2001 during [[Bill Clinton]]'s presidency.
> 
> Al Gore is the son of a Senator and grew up in [[Washington DC]] and [[Tennessee]].
> 
> He was a senator from Tennessee before he became Vice President.
> 
> He wrote an environmental conservation book entitled [[Earth in the Balance]].
> 
> He ran for president and was defeated by [[George W. Bush]] in 2000.
> 
> See also:
> * [[US Election 2000]]
> 
> /Accolades
> <br>/Criticisms
------
Al_Gore/Criticisms|985892930
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the 2000 presidential campaign, he was attacked by environmentalists for owning (indirectly through his father's estate) several thousand shares of Occidental Petroleum Corporation.  Occidental Petroleum angered environmentalists by trying to open a new oil/gas drilling field in [[Colombia]].
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore/Criticisms|985892958
1c1
< During the 2000 presidential campaign, he was attacked by environmentalists for owning (indirectly through his father's estate) several thousand shares of Occidental Petroleum Corporation.  Occidental Petroleum angered environmentalists by trying to open a new oil/gas drilling field in [[Colombia]].
---
> #REDITECT [[Al Gore/Criticisms]]
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore/Criticisms|985892969
1c1
< #REDITECT [[Al Gore/Criticisms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Al Gore/Criticisms]]
------
Albert_Arnold_Gore|985892991
1,24c1
< Vice President of the [[United States]] 1993-2001 during [[Bill Clinton]]'s presidency.
< 
< Al Gore is the son of a Senator and grew up in [[Washington DC]] and [[Tennessee]].
< 
< He was a senator from Tennessee before he became Vice President.
< 
< He wrote an environmental conservation book entitled [[Earth in the Balance]].
< 
< He ran for president and was defeated by [[George W. Bush]] in 2000.
< 
< See also:
< * [[US Election 2000]]
< 
< /Accolades
< <br>/Criticisms
< 
< ----
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
< Since nobody will ever search on 'Albert Arnold Gore' but lots of people will search on [[Al Gore]], shouldn't this page be at [[Al Gore]], with a redirect here, and not the other way around? 
< 
< Following the normal habit of listing full names in other reference works is a good idea.
< ----
< I'm not sure this is the normal habit; regardless, if there are reasons why this is a good idea, please list them at [[Naming conventions]].  There you will see arguments in favor of using common names like [[Al Gore]] rather than formal names like [[Albert Arnold Gore]].  The best argument wins.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Al Gore]]
------
NeutralPointOfView|985893704
20a21,23
> 
> Every now and then a crackpot's speculation turns out to be right--that doesn't mean that we shouldn't call it speculation when it still is.  Chiropractic, herbal medicine, accupuncture, and chelation are all still quackery in most cases, and we should not shirk from saying so, except in those few instances where they have been studied scientifically for specific things.  Chelation to treat heavy-metal poisoning, for example, or drugs derived from certain herbs.  "Science" as I use the term here is just methodical honesty.  Once you have honestly and properly tested something and evaluated the results, you can say that it has some reasonable basis.  But when something has been tested repeatedly and failed (like chelation for treatment of cancer/heart disease, chiropractic for treatment of bacterial and viral disease, and all of homeopathy), continued belief in that thing is not merely an "alternative" point of view--it's clearly wrong and dangerous.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
NeutralPointOfView|985895416
21c21
< 
---
> ----
22a23,30
> ----
> You and I clearly differ on this.  "Once you have honestly and properly tested something and evaluated the results, you can say that it has some reasonable basis."  Those you call quacks and crackpots will aver that they have done just as you suggest.  Granted, they may rely wholly on what they perceive as empirical "evidence," but most will not admit to a moment's dishonesty with regard to their researches, even to themselves.  Neither, by the way, will most research scientists, even when they claim proofs which are later proven false.  
> 
> You can claim something "has been repeatedly tested and failed" but should put that claim in context - ie, it "has been repeatedly tested" with available methods, which is not to say that available methods are infallible or capable or detecting or measuring all things.  A little humility goes a long way.  It is the most valuable quality for an experimental scientist to possess, in my view.  "We are SCIENCE and we declare that assertion to be PURE BUNK," holds no water with me.  "I tested it with every method which seemed reasonable to me and I cannot verify your assertion" is honest and says all that needs to be said.  If history is any indicator, time will eventually reveal whether the assertions were at fault or the experimenter's methods or observations were.  It is not up to us to foreclose the possibility that more may be discovered on the basis of what has not been discovered.
> 
> So - in your articles you will openly declare things hokum and bunk.  I will call them unverified.  And we will be free to tinker with each other's articles.  And in some future age, we will all know who was on the right side of which of today's contentious questions.
> 
> I will go ahead and beat this to death:  Let's look at my re-treatment of [[Numerology]].  I said generally "numerologist believe..." and noted that independent verfication of these beliefs is lacking.  I went a step further and mentioned what I see as a nearly insuperable fallacy in the belief in the validity of numerology as it applies to the names of things (unrelated numerlogic values in different languages for the same exact thing) and mentioned this as a question which remains unexplained.  In my mind, that fallacy may be just about adequate to invalidate the entire field.  Numerologists will differ.  It is not my job to tell them they are full of it.  Let reasonble people look at it objectively and draw their own conclusions.
23a32
> OK - stepping off the soap box...
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|985895640
1c1
< Is the media really biased?
---
> is the media really biased?
16d15
< 
19,20d17
< 
< 
23,24c20,21
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I agree wholeheartedly.  And I find the pretense pernicious.  AyeSpy
------
NeutralPointOfView|985896440
25a26,27
> <i>Relying on testimonials is inherently willfully dishonest, because we have known about the placebo affect for years and have proven it beyond a shadow of any doubt.  To continue to cling to testimonials after knowing about the placebo affect, and knowing that placebo-controlled studies of something have failed, is negligent.  Yes, many traditional scientists also have egos and can deceive themselves. That's why real journals have peer review.  What I'm saying here is that Wikipedia articles should act as peer review, and clearly identify such deception when we see it.</i>
> 
29a32,33
> <i>"Unverified" is fine if that's the case; other things have been tested and failed, and that's different.  And article should point out such failures.</i>
> 
32c36,40
< OK - stepping off the soap box...
---
> <i>I have no problem with that article.  It's exactly what I'm talking about.  What I'm warning against is the treatment of such "alternative" ideas on an equal basis with verified ones.  That article clearly states the case that the belief is unfounded, and that's good.</i>
> 
> 
> OK - stepping off the soap box...
> 
------
NeutralPointOfView|985896484
34c34
< I will go ahead and beat this to death:  Let's look at my re-treatment of [[Numerology]].  I said generally "numerologist believe..." and noted that independent verfication of these beliefs is lacking.  I went a step further and mentioned what I see as a nearly insuperable fallacy in the belief in the validity of numerology as it applies to the names of things (unrelated numerlogic values in different languages for the same exact thing) and mentioned this as a question which remains unexplained.  In my mind, that fallacy may be just about adequate to invalidate the entire field.  Numerologists will differ.  It is not my job to tell them they are full of it.  Let reasonble people look at it objectively and draw their own conclusions.
---
> I will go ahead and beat this to death:  Let's look at my re-treatment of [[Numerology]].  I said generally "numerologist believe..." and noted that independent verfication of these beliefs is lacking.  I went a step further and mentioned what I see as a nearly insuperable fallacy in the belief in the validity of numerology as it applies to the names of things (unrelated numerlogic values in different languages for the same exact thing) and mentioned this as a question which remains unexplained.  In my mind, that fallacy may be just about adequate to invalidate the entire field.  Numerologists will differ.  It is not my job to tell them they are full of it.  Let reasonable people look at it objectively and draw their own conclusions.
------
NeutralPointOfView|985896792
39a40,41
> ----
> Ah, well - in that case, we are in agreement as to how to couch these things.  Larry asserted early, and I think we all agreed, that "neutral" handling of unproven claims would uniformly include revelation of their lack of proven foundation.  Dang - another happy ending...  ;^)  AyeSpy 
------
Socialism|985896910
11c11,13
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
---
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
> ----
> An important tenent of socialism is that individuals are rewarded/paid for existing and not on the basis of achievement or  supply/demand.  Some critics of socialism say that removes incentives towards improving technology, medicine, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.  In sort, some critics of socialism define socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor.
------
Socialism|985897038
13c13
< An important tenent of socialism is that individuals are rewarded/paid for existing and not on the basis of achievement or  supply/demand.  Some critics of socialism say that removes incentives towards improving technology, medicine, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.  In sort, some critics of socialism define socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor.
---
> /Talk
------
Socialism/Talk|985897216
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An important tenent of socialism is that individuals are rewarded/paid for existing and not on the basis of achievement or  supply/demand.  Some critics of socialism say that removes incentives towards improving technology, medicine, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.  In short, some critics of socialism define socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor.
> ----
> I put the above on this Talk page because it wasn't integrated with the text.  I hope you'll take a minute or two to put it somewhere inside the text (wherever it belongs).
> 
> I have a few minor questions about the comment itself, too.  Do any significant critics of socialism actually ''define'' socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor?  I rather doubt that.
------
Socialism|985899018
1c1
< ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  This has been loosely and popularly known as '[[Communism]]'; but philosophers use the term 'communism' to mean <i>the final</i> stage in the progression of a socialist society.
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  Extreme forms of this are commonly called ''[[Communism]]'', though [[Marxist]] philosophy reserves that to mean the final, stateless stage in the supposed progression of a socialist society.  There are also mixed governmental forms popularly called socialism.  Communism at one extreme, and at the other those who  wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise and are called, for example in [[Germany]], ''[[social democrat]]s''.  Indeed, there have been dozens of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
3c3
< Note that there are also mixed governmental forms that are popularly called 'socialism'--on one extreme is communism, here meaning extreme socialism rather than the sense above-described, while on the other extreme are those that wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise, are called, for example in [[Germany]], '[[social democrats]]'.  Indeed, there have been literally ''dozens'' of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
---
> Generally speaking, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we are further entitled to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, water, shelter, and so forth.  Justice, moreover, demands not only that everyone have <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it requires also of the <i>absence of large inequities</i> in wealth and other resources among people.
5c5
< Generally speaking, a socialist believes that we have a right not just to life; we have a right to all the essential means of sustaining life, such as food, clean water, shelter, and so forth.  Socialists believe that the government, rather than the individual, is the ultimate arbiter of how those purposes and rights are realized.  An important right that many socialists say we <i>do not</i> have is the right to private property.
---
> Socialists believe that the people collectively (or more specifically, the government as their representative), rather than the individual, are the ultimate authority on how those purposes and rights are realized.  They maintain that governments are morally justified in controlling such varied societal functions as utilities, factories, medical care, welfare benefits, and others because individuals often act in selfish and exploitive ways.  Thus, socialists often <i>do not</i> recognize an individual right to private property.  Critics have said that "socialism is a system in which everyone is equally poor", pointing out that because individuals are not rewarded more on the basis of supply and demand, there is less incentive for individual achievement, improving technology, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.
7c7
< Justice, moreover, consists not only of everyone having <i>adequate</i> amounts of those basic rights; it consists also of the <i>lack</i> of large <i>discrepancies</i> in wealth and other resources between people.
---
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; [[Syndicalism]]; [[Karl Marx]]; [[Friedrich Engels]]; [[Georg Hegel]]; [[Welfare State]].
9d8
< Thus, for a socialist, the functions of the government are many and varied, everything from running electric and water utilities, to providing welfare benefits for those who cannot work, to running factories, and so forth.  So socialists want the government to be in virtually every productive area of life.  They maintain that governments are <i>morally</i> <i>justified</i> in being a part of all of those different areas.
11d9
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]];  [[Syndicalism]]; KarlMarx; FriedrichEngels; [[Hegel]]; WelfareStateLiberalism; ThePurposeOfGovernment.
13c11
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Socialism/Talk|985899101
5c5,8
< I have a few minor questions about the comment itself, too.  Do any significant critics of socialism actually ''define'' socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor?  I rather doubt that.
---
> I have a few minor questions about the comment itself, too.  Do any significant critics of socialism actually ''define'' socialism as a system where everyone is equally poor?  I rather doubt that.
> 
> I cleaned up and reworked the text, and included the quote as a common criticism. --LDC
> 
------
Game|985901123
15a16
> *[[Sports]]
16a18
> 
------
Economics|985902391
7c7
< is scarce; there are not enough resources around world to satisfy
---
> is scarce; there are not enough resources around the world to satisfy
19c19
< [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Market forms]]
------
Socialism|985904985
1c1
< ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  Extreme forms of this are commonly called ''[[Communism]]'', though [[Marxist]] philosophy reserves that to mean the final, stateless stage in the supposed progression of a socialist society.  There are also mixed governmental forms popularly called socialism.  Communism at one extreme, and at the other those who  wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise and are called, for example in [[Germany]], ''[[social democrat]]s''.  Indeed, there have been dozens of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  Extreme forms of this are commonly called ''[[communism]]'', though philosophers (particularly [[Marxist]] philosophers) reserve that to mean the final, stateless stage in the supposed progression of a socialist society.  There are also mixed governmental forms popularly called socialism.  Communism at one extreme, and at the other those who  wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise and are called, for example in [[Germany]], ''[[social democrat]]s''.  Indeed, there have been dozens of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
5c5
< Socialists believe that the people collectively (or more specifically, the government as their representative), rather than the individual, are the ultimate authority on how those purposes and rights are realized.  They maintain that governments are morally justified in controlling such varied societal functions as utilities, factories, medical care, welfare benefits, and others because individuals often act in selfish and exploitive ways.  Thus, socialists often <i>do not</i> recognize an individual right to private property.  Critics have said that "socialism is a system in which everyone is equally poor", pointing out that because individuals are not rewarded more on the basis of supply and demand, there is less incentive for individual achievement, improving technology, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.
---
> Socialists believe that the people collectively (or more specifically, the government as their representative), rather than the individual, are the ultimate authority on how those purposes and rights are realized.  They maintain that governments are morally justified in controlling such varied societal functions as utilities, factories, medical care, welfare benefits, and others because individuals often act in selfish and exploitive ways.  Thus, socialists often (or, in varying degrees) <i>do not</i> recognize an individual right to private property.  In general, at any rate, socialist philosophers argue that there is not a specific ''right'' to private property, though it might be in society's best interest that individuals have exclusive control over certain goods.
7c7
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; [[Syndicalism]]; [[Karl Marx]]; [[Friedrich Engels]]; [[Georg Hegel]]; [[Welfare State]].
---
> Critics have said that "socialism is a system in which everyone is equally poor", pointing out that because individuals are not rewarded more on the basis of supply and demand, there is less incentive for individual achievement, improving technology, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.  Socialists reply...[how?].
8a9
> See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; [[Syndicalism]]; [[Karl Marx]]; [[Friedrich Engels]]; [[Georg Hegel]]; [[Welfare State]].
------
Socialism/Talk|985906148
7a8,10
> ----
> I think the response to the ''standard of living'' criticism is usually that supply and demand rewards mainly a narrow elite - even in the present system, where globalization has simply created a geographical separation between them and the proles.  But I'm not quite confident enough to put that on the main page.
> -- [[Josh Grosse]]
------
Communism|985906464
0a1,4
> In common usage, communism refers to totalitarian socialism (as distinct from democratic socialism).  Communist regimes are/were generally despotic and extremely abusive of human rights.  Examples are the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]].
> 
> In [[Marxism|Marxist]] theory, communism refers to the final stage of social development.
> 
------
Socialism/Talk|985906599
11a12,13
> ----
> I think a subpage [[Socialism/Criticisms]] would be in order.  There should be enough material there to make an entire article.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|985906649
21c21,23
< I agree wholeheartedly.  And I find the pretense pernicious.  AyeSpy
---
> I agree wholeheartedly.  And I find the pretense pernicious.  AyeSpy
> ----
> There is admiting you have a bias, though, and there is out-and-out propaganda.  In Calgary we have one of the worst papers to ever exist, essentially a form letter for one of the political parties.  Do I say this because they tend to report on their achievements first, or praise them over their competitors?  No.  I say this because when a tornado hit the province they ran a column about what their favored candidate thought of the incident and, surprise surprise, he is in favor of fewer tornadoes.  That hardly even counts as an editorial.
------
Socialism/Talk|985906991
11a12,13
> The most common replies I've seen to the problem of incentive are that the profit motive is replaced by (1) accomplishment as its own reward, and (2) the motive to make life better for all people.  Neither of these really works, but those are the contentions (I will not dignify them by calling them "arguments").   I suppose we ought to mention something to the effect that the vast majority of socialist economies have failed, but since we include pseudo-socialist democrats above, we can't say that about some of them (Sweden, for example, seems to be surviving despite its welfare state).  --LDC
> 
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985907175
1c1,8
< Quantum Mechanics has its origin in the discovery of the quantization of the light energy.
---
> Quantum Mechanics is the physical theory that describe the
> behaviour of atoms and subatomic particles. It's a highly
> mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered
> to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is
> chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but
> not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was
> never completely accepted by [[Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dices'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extension
> count among the most highly tested physical theories.
2a10
> (not too good, but I had to replace the nonsense previously here)
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985907203
5c5
< Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.
---
> Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.  Also of note, studies guess that ~20% of executed people are actually innocent.
20a21,23
> 
> ----
> More controversial things: plans announced to drill for oil in an Alaskan national park.  Renewed bombings against Iraq.  A general chill in relations with Russia - pulling of diplomats, SDI.  Giving copious amounts of money to churches as instruments of morality.  Refusal to participate in a campaign against global warming.  Cutting government funding to feminist organizations and some kind of general move against workers unions.  I have a friend whose keeping a more thorough list of minuses and pluses (the latter being the tax cut, which Americans tend to like).
------
Ulysses_S._Grant|985907291
13a14,17
> 
> <b>NickName:</b>
> 
> *The Hero of Appomattox
------
Socialism/Talk|985907432
13a14
> You're not referring to the soviet union and its kin, are you?  I don't think very many socialists uphold those as model states...what non-dictatorial socialisms have there been that have failed?
------
Communism|985907990
9a10
> [[/Talk]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985908155
23c23,25
< More controversial things: plans announced to drill for oil in an Alaskan national park.  Renewed bombings against Iraq.  A general chill in relations with Russia - pulling of diplomats, SDI.  Giving copious amounts of money to churches as instruments of morality.  Refusal to participate in a campaign against global warming.  Cutting government funding to feminist organizations and some kind of general move against workers unions.  I have a friend whose keeping a more thorough list of minuses and pluses (the latter being the tax cut, which Americans tend to like).
---
> More controversial things: plans announced to drill for oil in an Alaskan national park.  Renewed bombings against Iraq.  A general chill in relations with Russia - pulling of diplomats, SDI.  Giving copious amounts of money to churches as instruments of morality.  Refusal to participate in a campaign against global warming.  Cutting government funding to feminist organizations and some kind of general move against workers unions.  I have a friend whose keeping a more thorough list of minuses and pluses (the latter being the tax cut, which Americans tend to like).
> ----
> Almost makes you think we are witnessing the "[[Malcolm effect]]" as it relates to the forthcoming extinction of civilization and, possibly, humanity (it's gotta happen sometime, doesn't it?).  ''Without man, what hope is there for gorilla?'' -[[Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|Ishmael]]'s Koan  What do I know? I've chosen to work in a city moving towards destruction at the speed of stupidity... --[[Invictus]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985908370
17c17,19
< I'm the one who added the note about about Cruz, Jacobs, et al.  I agree--I din't find anything out of place orunusual about Tucker's execution.  If one believes in the penalty at all, she was an exemplary case.
---
> I'm the one who added the note about about Cruz, Jacobs, et al.  I agree--I din't find anything out of place or unusual about Tucker's execution.  If one believes in the penalty at all, she was an exemplary case.
> 
> ''Don't get me wrong.  I got no bones about what happened to her, either.  It just happened on his watch.''
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985909060
27a28,29
> ----
> You read ''Ishmael''?  I ''' ''loved'' ''' that book!  AyeSpy
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985909226
1,8c1,3
< Quantum Mechanics is the physical theory that describe the
< behaviour of atoms and subatomic particles. It's a highly
< mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered
< to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is
< chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but
< not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was
< never completely accepted by [[Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dices'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extension
< count among the most highly tested physical theories.
---
> Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
> 
> 
------
Socialism/Talk|985909492
14a15,16
> 
> The UK, perhaps.  Leading world power before becoming socialist, now just another country. - [[TimShell|TS]]
------
Communism/Talk|985909517
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Please, someone that has read Marx and Hegel correct me if I'm wrong.
> 
> Hegel (or someone else) believed in ''dialectic'' processes, where each  idea (the thesis) generated it's antithesis, and
> together they merged into a sysnthesis, which again generated
> it's own antithesis, and so on.
> 
> Marx based on that created a "materialistic dialectics" where
> each historical institution has created its antithesis, and
> a systhesis has been made. That until the last systhesis, comunism. 
> 
> Does it sound familiar to any philosopher that has read marx and/or hegel??
------
Einstein|985909626
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albert Einstein]]
------
Albert_Einstein|985910290
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
> 
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctor's degree in 1905.  In 1914 he became a German citizen, which he renounced in 1933 in protest of the Nazi government.  He came to the [[United States]], becoming a US citizen in 1940.
------
Communism/Talk|985910408
11c11,13
< Does it sound familiar to any philosopher that has read marx and/or hegel??
---
> Does it sound familiar to any philosopher that has read marx and/or hegel??
> ----
> Frankly, I haven't read much of either.  :-)  --[[LMS]]
------
Socialism/Talk|985910511
16a17,18
> 
> I think we may reasonably chalk that up to the influence of the world wars, rather than socialism.  The problem is that normal examples are somewhat lacking...other than the Scandinavian countries, most socialisms have collapsed through unrelated events, just given up on the idea, or started out as some highly modified and so unrepresentative variation.
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985910752
1c1
< Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
---
> Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985910955
1c1
< Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
---
> Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', he said, but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
5c5
< (not too good, but I had to replace the nonsense previously here)
---
> (
------
Wikipedia_commentary|985911181
6c6
< [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[LMS]]
---
> [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[Larry Sanger]]
8c8
< [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]]
---
> [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]] (Bruce Hamilton)
10c10
< [[/Investigator as Philosopher]]
---
> [[/Investigator as Philosopher]] (Bruce Hamilton)
12c12
< [[/Ethics or Morals]]
---
> [[/Ethics or Morals]] (Bruce Hamilton)
14c14
< [[/Stupid Republicans]]
---
> [[/Stupid Republicans]] (author unknown)
16c16,18
< [[/Media Bias]]
---
> [[/Media Bias]] (collectively written)
> ----
> [[/The elements of an encyclopedia project]] (Larry Sanger and whoever else joins in)
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985911336
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Suppose we wanted to write a classification scheme of encyclopedia projects, that is, we wanted to produce an exhaustive set characteristics of encyclopedia projects, differences among which would distinguish various encyclopedia projects, e.g., Nupedia, Wikipedia, Encarta, Britannica, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and so forth.  E.g., Nupedia is carefully-controlled; Wikipedia isn't.  Nupedia and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy pay only a few people; Britannica, presumably, pays everyone involved.  Nupedia is not proprietary; Encarta is.  Etc.
> 
> The elements of an encyclopedia project can be reduced to their essentials, I think, not in terms of people or products, but in terms of processes, goals, and a few other items.  One can then present a number of choices about how each function is performed.  I've listed a number of such choices below, though I can't pretend that it's exhaustive.
> 
> Thinking about this will, perhaps, help us organize our thoughts (over the next several months) about where we are going, and where we want to go with Nupedia.
> 
> 1. The writing function
> * Configurations of writers: individuals; individuals and coauthors; teams
> * Who can revise an article (after it's posted)
> * How writers are found: volunteers; invitations; combination of volunteers and invitations
> * Who assigns authors: automatically; by subject editors; by head editor
> * Minimum qualifications of writers
> * Is writing paid work?
> 
> 2. The review function
> * Who has the right to make changes to the text: author; author and editor; author, editor, and designated reviewer(s); anyone (moderated); everyone (unmoderated)
> * Who has the right to comment on the text: editor; reviewer and editor; designated reviewers and editor; everyone (moderated); anyone (unmoderated)
> * Qualifications of reviewers
> * How reviewers are found: volunteers; invitations; combination of volunteers and invitations
> * Who choose reviewers: head editor; subject editors; other reviewers
> * Is editing paid work?
> 
> 3. The copyediting function
> * Who copyedits: designated copyeditor(s); anyone (moderated); anyone (unmoderated)
> * Qualifications of copyeditors
> * Who chooses copyeditors: head editor; subject editors; chief copyeditor; author; automatically assigned
> * Is copyediting paid work?
> 
> 4. The acceptance function
> * Who renders final acceptance of an article: the head editor; subject editors; a vote (among various different people--different possibilities here); acceptance is automatic once a process is complete
> * When acceptance (i.e., publishing) is done: after writing; after reviewing; after copyediting
> * Is acceptance paid work?
> 
> 5. The posting (technical) function
> * Paper or electronic
> (Etc.  We needn't concern ourselves with this now?)
> 
> 6. General characteristics of official policies
> * Level of detail
> * Level of enforcement
> * The degree to which traditional/mainstream values are expected in *editing standards* (e.g., copyediting standards that "push the envelope")
> * The degree to which traditional/mainstream values are expected in the *content-creation process* (e.g., Wikipedia is extremely nontraditional; Stanford is extremely traditional; Nupedia is in between)
> 
> 7. Goals of the project
> * Quality of articles
> * Quantity of articles
> * Rate of article production
> * Timeliness of articles (how out-of-date we're willing to let an article get)
> * Subject matter (general vs. specialized)
> * Special aspects of authors (e.g., an international base of authors)
> * Special aspects of readers (ditto)
> * Popularity (online, measured by traffic)
> * Lack of bias/bias acceptable/bias (of a particular sort) desired
> * Make a profit or employment for the encyclopedists; contribute (without compensation) to freely-available knowledge
> 
> The only observation I have at this time is that the items in #7 ought to determine our choices in #1-6 (if we're being rational).
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985911685
3,5c3
< 
< 
< (
---
> ''Actually, Einstein's complaints were not so much about the non-determinism in the theory as in the Copenhagen interpretation's claim that reality is created by observation.  "Do you really think the moon isn't there when you're not looking at it?" is another Einstein quote.  Many people have been very cautious around such strange philosophy, but luckily there are other interpretations that are both realist and as it turns out deterministic (eg multiworlds).''
------
Socialism/Talk|985912242
19a20,23
> ''Neither of these really works, but those are the contentions (I will not dignify them by calling them "arguments").''
> 
> Oh, and I should point out the obvious - that the alternative that capitalism provides, that money should be the reward for labor, doesn't "really work" either.  In the sense that when the main motive is avarice, people often try to skip out on doing work or worse yet overlook the wider consequences of their actions.  Thus everything from tax evasion and embezzlement, to the unfair buisness practices monopolies often excercise, to the horrendous concealment of evidence and murder on the part of the tobacco companies.
> ----
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985912594
3a4,7
> 
> Go ahead and incorporate it into the text... (though call
> multiworlds "realistic" is a bit of a stretch to me...or
> it requires a new understanding of what "[[realism]]" means...)
------
Establishing_Shot|985912958
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A shot at the beginning of a scene indicating where the remainder of the scene takes place.  For example, an exterior shot on location of a large building on a rainy night, followed by an interior shot of a couple talking, implies that the conversation is taking place inside that building.  Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set because of budget, permitting, time limitations, etc.  Directors will frequently use subtle cues to reinforce the illusion--in this case, the sound of rain plus the occasional sight of it through a window in the background.
------
Astronomy/History|985913313
1,34c1
< 
< Astronomy is probably the oldest of the [[Natural Sciences]].
< In its origins it consisted on the observation and cataloging of the sky and its changes. Soon the changes in the positions of the [[Sun]] and the stars where correlated with the [[seasons]], and Astronomy took on greater importance, beeing practiced mostly by priests, and shrouded in mysticism. Most (if not all) ancient civilizations measured the length of the year, with varying degrees of precision. They also noticed the difference between [[Star]]""s, that always keep the same relative positions, and [[planets]], that move between stars.
< [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]]""s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. The one most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the earth occupied the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.
< [[Copernicus]] proposed a heliocentric system, in which the Sun was in the center. The model had some flaws, and did not predict the positions of the planets better that the old Ptolemaic system (the version of the geocentric model that was most accepted), but had its supporters. Two of the most famous supporters were [[Johannes Kepler]] and [[Galileo Galilei]]. 
< 
< Kepler, using precise eyeball observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three laws of planetary movement that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and did't give them the importance that we do).
< 
< Galilei was apparently the first one to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky, discovering the moons of [[Jupiter]] and the [[Sunspots]], but he is most famous by his problems with the [[Catholic Church]] (the story usually known is just a cartoon a the real thing). Galileo's greatest contribution to science was not in astronomy, but in dynamics, where he studied the motion of objects.
< 
< [[Isaac Newton]] was the first one to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on
< earth, causes the motion of planets and the moon. Using his Law Of [[Gravity]], the [[Laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gains a sound physical basis. Newton also
< found out that the white light from the sun can be decomposed 
< into its component colors, this fact is crucial for most of
< the 20th century research.
< 
< At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when
< decomposing the light from the sun, multitude of [[spectral lines]]
< were observed (regions where there was less or no light).
< Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be 
< observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding
< to unique elements. It was proved that the [[elements]] found in the
< sun were also found on earth. 
< 
< During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines)
< advanced.
< 
< (to be continued)
<  
< Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century.
< With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were 
< observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[Galaxy]] made by more
< than 10^10 stars, and the existence of other galaxies like our 
< own, at large distances at receiding from our own, was confirmed.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysic/History]]
------
The_Graduate|985913338
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ***spoiler alert***
> 
> 2nd film by Mike Nichols, in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by Mrs. Robinson and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classis, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
------
Astronomy/History|985913338
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysic/History]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics/History]]
------
The_Graduate|985913371
1,3c1
< ***spoiler alert***
< 
< 2nd film by Mike Nichols, in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by Mrs. Robinson and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classis, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
---
> 2nd film by Mike Nichols, in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by Mrs. Robinson and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classic, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
------
The_Graduate|985913401
0a1,2
> !!***spoiler alert***!!
> 
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985913521
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 80's film in which a group of teenagers representing different cliques in high school spends a Saturday morning in detention together and comes to realize that they are all deeper than their respective stereotypes.
------
Evil_Dead|985913793
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sam Raimi film in which reading from the Necronomicon causes the dead to come back to life to possess the living.  Ash, trapped in a cabin in the woods with a few friends, must try to survive the night.
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985913849
1c1
< Quantum Mechanics is the group of physical theories that describe the behaviour of atoms and in particular, subatomic particles. It's a highly mathematical and abstract theory, where a system is considered to be the [[linear combination]] of states, one of which is chosen when a measurement is made. The theory allows the calculation of the probabilities of all possible states, but not the exact result of the experiment. For this reason, it was never completely accepted by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] ''God doesn't play dice'', he said, but it has been thoroughly tested, and its extensions count among the most highly tested physical theories.
---
> The term <i>Quantum Mechanics</i> applies to a set of theories from [[physics]] based upon the idea that [[energy]] exists only in discrete packages, or <i>quanta</i>, much in the same way matter exists as discrete particles.  The popularity of the theories grew when [[Max Planck]] won the 1918 [[Nobel Prize]] in physics for early work in this area.  Many scientists have expanded upon this work, notably [[Werner Heisenberg]], whose [[Uncertainty Principle]] is derived from the idea and is itself the basis of much later work.  These theories help to explain many formerly puzzling scientific phenomena, such as [[blackbody radiation]], the [[photoelectric effect]], and other strange behaviors of subatomic particles.
3,7c3
< ''Actually, Einstein's complaints were not so much about the non-determinism in the theory as in the Copenhagen interpretation's claim that reality is created by observation.  "Do you really think the moon isn't there when you're not looking at it?" is another Einstein quote.  Many people have been very cautious around such strange philosophy, but luckily there are other interpretations that are both realist and as it turns out deterministic (eg multiworlds).''
< 
< Go ahead and incorporate it into the text... (though call
< multiworlds "realistic" is a bit of a stretch to me...or
< it requires a new understanding of what "[[realism]]" means...)
---
> The first rigorous mathematical models of quantum theory were published by [[John von Neumann]] in 1932.  The equations of quantum mechanical threory have the odd property that unlike older physical theories that predict the exact position, speed, and other states of things, quantum equations produce <i>probabilities</i> of finding things in a certain state.  There are various competing interpretations of what this means, including some that are very counter-intuitive.  [[Albert Einstein]] in particular expressed skepticism over interpretations that held that only the probabilities themselves actually existed, saying "God does not play dice with the universe."  The theories and equations themselves have been well-tested and verified over many years.
------
Cult_Film|985913931
16a17
> :[[Harold and Maude]]
------
Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution|985914261
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is now widely accepted that the [[universe]] had a period
> in the past when it was extremely hot and dense, and remarkable
> homogeneous, and since then expansion has decreased its density
> and lowered it's temperature. The homogeneity 
> can be observed in the [[microwave cosmic backgroud]], whose
> fluctuations are smaller than 1 in 10^5.
> 
> The questions of galaxy formation and evolutions is ''How, from
> such a homogeneous universe, we obtained the very inhomogeneous 
> one we live on?'', ''How did galaxies form?'', ''How have they changed in the past''.
> 
> The most accepted view is that all the structre we observe today
> was formed as a consequence of the growing of primordial fluctuations by gravitational instability.
> Galaxies have formed in a "bottom up" process in which smaller
> units merge and form larger units.
> At our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies, called clusters,
> are still assembling.
> 
> .(to be continued...)
------
Harold_and_Maude|985914267
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Late 60's film in which Harold, a wealthy young boy who attends funerals for fun and constantly stages his own suicides in an attempt to get his mother's attention, meets Maude, a 79-year-old woman who is very much his opposite: energetic, impulsive, and light-hearted.  The two form an unlikely friendship.
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985914554
1c1,12
< 80's film in which a group of teenagers representing different cliques in high school spends a Saturday morning in detention together and comes to realize that they are all deeper than their respective stereotypes.
---
> Quintessential 80s (1985) film in which a group of teenagers representing different cliques in high school spends a Saturday morning in detention together and comes to realize that they are all deeper than their respective stereotypes.
> 
> Directed by [[John Hughes]], this film's stars came to be known as the [[brat pack]] because they all hit stardom at the same time and tended to star in movies together.
> 
> [[Emelio Esteves]]
> [[Anthony Michael Hall]]
> [[Judd Nelson]]
> [[Molly Ringwald]]
> [[Alley Sheedy]]
> 
> were the teenagers in the film.
> 
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985914618
5,9c5,9
< [[Emelio Esteves]]
< [[Anthony Michael Hall]]
< [[Judd Nelson]]
< [[Molly Ringwald]]
< [[Alley Sheedy]]
---
> :[[Emelio Esteves]]
> :[[Anthony Michael Hall]]
> :[[Judd Nelson]]
> :[[Molly Ringwald]]
> :[[Alley Sheedy]]
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985914729
5,9c5,9
< :[[Emelio Esteves]]
< :[[Anthony Michael Hall]]
< :[[Judd Nelson]]
< :[[Molly Ringwald]]
< :[[Alley Sheedy]]
---
> :[[Emelio Esteves] -- (high school jock)
> :[[Anthony Michael Hall]] -- (nerd)
> :[[Judd Nelson]] -- (stoner)
> :[[Molly Ringwald]] -- (rich girl)
> :[[Alley Sheedy]] -- (weird girl)
------
The_Graduate|985914825
3c3
< 2nd film by Mike Nichols, in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by Mrs. Robinson and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classic, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
---
> 2nd film by [[Mike Nichols]], in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by [[Mrs. Robinson]] and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classic, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
------
The_Graduate|985914840
3c3
< 2nd film by [[Mike Nichols]], in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by [[Mrs. Robinson]] and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classic, and ranked #9 on the American Film Institute's list of 100 Funniest Movies.
---
> 2nd film by [[Mike Nichols]], in which Benjamin, a recent college graduate with no well-defined aim in life, is seduced by [[Mrs. Robinson]] and then leaves her for her daughter.  Commonly considered a film classic, and ranked #9 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s list of 100 Funniest Movies.
------
Evil_Dead|985914999
1c1,8
< Sam Raimi film in which reading from the Necronomicon causes the dead to come back to life to possess the living.  Ash, trapped in a cabin in the woods with a few friends, must try to survive the night.
---
> 1982 [[Sam Raimi]] [[film]] in which reading from the [[Necronomicon]] causes the dead to come back to life to possess the living.  Ash, trapped in a cabin in the woods with a few friends, must try to survive the night.
> 
> Starring:
> [[Bruce Campbell]] -- Ash
> [[Ellen Sandweiss]]
> [[Hal Delrich]]
> [[Betsy Baker]]
> [[Shelly York]]
------
Evil_Dead|985915010
4,8c4,8
< [[Bruce Campbell]] -- Ash
< [[Ellen Sandweiss]]
< [[Hal Delrich]]
< [[Betsy Baker]]
< [[Shelly York]]
---
> :[[Bruce Campbell]] -- Ash
> :[[Ellen Sandweiss]]
> :[[Hal Delrich]]
> :[[Betsy Baker]]
> :[[Shelly York]]
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985915193
3a4,5
> 
> ''I'm under the impression than Quantum Mechanics is beeing confused with [[Quantum Physics]]''
------
Albert_Einstein|985915315
1c1
< Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
---
> Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
3c3
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctor's degree in 1905.  In 1914 he became a German citizen, which he renounced in 1933 in protest of the Nazi government.  He came to the [[United States]], becoming a US citizen in 1940.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  In 1914 he became a German citizen, which he renounced in 1933 in protest of the Nazi government.  He came to the [[United States]], becoming a US citizen in 1940.
------
Astrophysics|985915513
1,2c1,2
< Physics applied to phenomena observed by [[astronomy]]. It's
< almost a synonym of astronomy, except when it is purely theoretical.
---
> Physics applied to phenomena observed by [[astronomy]]. Most
> [[astronomer]]s are also [[astrophysicist]]s (with the possible exception of [[astrometer]]s and most [[amateur astronomer]]s. 
4c4
< See [[Theoretical astrophysics]]
---
> ''Also see'' [[Theoretical astrophysics]].
6,8d5
< ''What about amateur astronomy?  Surely that's not the same thing as experimental astrophysics!''
< 
< I had completely forgotten about amateur astronomy...I'll change it soon.
------
Astrophysics|985915536
5a6
> (still can improve)
------
Nibble|985916252
1c1
< Sometimes spelled nybble, a [[nibble]] is half a [[byte]].
---
> Sometimes spelled nybble, a [[nibble]] is half a [[byte]].  Being four [[bit]]s, there are sixteen possible values.  A nibble is evenly representable by a [[hexadecimal]] number.  A full byte is evenly representable by two hexadecimal numbers, therefore it is a common way to display bytes of information as two hexadecimal nibbles.
------
PresidentialMedalOfFreedom|985916628
1c1
< Highest civilian award in the United States.  Established by HarryTruman in 1945.  Awarded to several people annually.
---
> Highest civilian award in the [[United States]].  Established by [[Harry Truman]] in 1945.  Awarded to several people annually.
3c3
< Winners include such diverse personalities as EricHoffer and JesseJackson.
---
> Winners include such diverse personalities as EricHoffer and [[Jesse Jackson]].
7c7
< EdgarWayburn
---
> [[Edgar Wayburn]]
9c9
< HelmutKohl
---
> [[Helmut Kohl]]
11c11
< MaxKampelman
---
> [[Max Kampelman]]
13c13
< OliverWhiteHill
---
> [[Oliver White Hill]]
15c15
< GeraldFord
---
> [[Gerald Ford]]
17c17
< IsolinaFerre
---
> [[Isolina Ferre]]
19c19
< EvelynDubrow
---
> [[Evelyn Dubrow]]
21c21
< RosalynnCarter
---
> [[Rosalynn Carter]]
23c23
< JimmyCarter
---
> [[Jimmy Carter]]
25c25
< EdgarMBronfmanJr
---
> [[Edgar M Bronfman Jr]]
27c27
< LloydMBentsen
---
> [[Lloyd M Bentsen]]
29c29
< ElmoRZumwaltJr
---
> [[Elmo R Zumwalt Jr]]
31c31
< AlbertShanker
---
> [[Albert Shanker]]
33c33
< DavidRockefeller
---
> [[David Rockefeller]]
35c35
< ElliotLRichardson
---
> [[Elliot L Richardson]]
37c37
< MarioGObledo
---
> [[Mario G Obledo]]
39c39
< MargaretMurie
---
> [[Margaret Murie]]
41c41
< WilmaMankiller
---
> [[Wilma Mankiller]]
43c43
< SolMLinowitz
---
> [[Sol M Linowitz]]
45c45
< Fred Korematsu
---
> [[Fred Korematsu]]
47c47
< FrancesHesselbein
---
> [[Frances Hesselbein]]
49c49
< ZacharyFisher
---
> [[Zachary Fisher]]
51c51
< DanteBFascell
---
> [[Dante B Fascell]]
53c53
< JamesFarmer
---
> [[James Farmer]]
55c55
< RobertColes
---
> [[Robert Coles]]
57c57
< BrookeAstor
---
> [[Brooke Astor]]
59c59
< ArnoldAronson
---
> [[Arnold Aronson]]
61c61
< I am getting this list from [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0002285.html here], and hopefully other people can join in with the typing.  :-)
---
> I am getting this list from [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0002285.html here], and hopefully other people can join in with the typing.  :-)
------
Cmontpla|985916771
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A newcomer, welcome!
> 
> Did you come from the [[Slashdot]] post that I made?
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985917656
1c1
< Suppose we wanted to write a classification scheme of encyclopedia projects, that is, we wanted to produce an exhaustive set characteristics of encyclopedia projects, differences among which would distinguish various encyclopedia projects, e.g., Nupedia, Wikipedia, Encarta, Britannica, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and so forth.  E.g., Nupedia is carefully-controlled; Wikipedia isn't.  Nupedia and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy pay only a few people; Britannica, presumably, pays everyone involved.  Nupedia is not proprietary; Encarta is.  Etc.
---
> Suppose we wanted to categorize encyclopedia projects, e.g., Nupedia, Wikipedia, Encarta, Britannica, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and so forth.  For this, we could produce an exhaustive set of encyclopedia project characteristics.  Differences among the projects' characteristics would distinguish the projects.  For example, Nupedia is carefully-controlled; Wikipedia isn't.  Nupedia and Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy pay only a few people; Britannica, presumably, pays everyone involved.  Nupedia is not proprietary; Encarta is.  Etc.
3,5c3
< The elements of an encyclopedia project can be reduced to their essentials, I think, not in terms of people or products, but in terms of processes, goals, and a few other items.  One can then present a number of choices about how each function is performed.  I've listed a number of such choices below, though I can't pretend that it's exhaustive.
< 
< Thinking about this will, perhaps, help us organize our thoughts (over the next several months) about where we are going, and where we want to go with Nupedia.
---
> The elements of an encyclopedia project can be characterized in terms of functions (e.g., article-writing), goals, and a few other items.  One can then present a number of choices about how each function is performed.  A number of such choices are listed below; this isn't an exhaustive list.
8,9c6,7
< * Configurations of writers: individuals; individuals and coauthors; teams
< * Who can revise an article (after it's posted)
---
> * Who writes in what configurations: strictly individuals; individuals and coauthors; strictly teams
> * Who can revise an article (after it's posted): author; author and selected other people (e.g., editor); anyone (moderated); anyone (unmoderated)
11c9
< * Who assigns authors: automatically; by subject editors; by head editor
---
> * Who assigns authors: subject editors; head editor; self-assignment
21c19
< * Is editing paid work?
---
> * Is reviewing paid work?
26c24
< * Who chooses copyeditors: head editor; subject editors; chief copyeditor; author; automatically assigned
---
> * Who chooses copyeditors: head editor; subject editors; chief copyeditor; author; self-assigned
30c28
< * Who renders final acceptance of an article: the head editor; subject editors; a vote (among various different people--different possibilities here); acceptance is automatic once a process is complete
---
> * Who gives final acceptance of an article: the head editor; subject editors; a vote (among various different people--different possibilities here); acceptance is automatic once a process is complete, there is no special acceptance procedure
56c54
< The only observation I have at this time is that the items in #7 ought to determine our choices in #1-6 (if we're being rational).
---
> The items in #7 ought to determine our choices in #1-6 (if we're being rational).
------
Visual_Basic|985919317
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine, and enables for easy developement of GUI applications.
------
SandBox|985922862
73c73
< it is really a [[funny]] game
---
> it is really a game
------
RulesToConsider|985923182
46a47,48
> ''See [[/Integrate changes debate|Integrate changes debate]]
> 
65c67
< [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
---
> [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
------
RulesToConsider/Integrate_changes_debate|985923743
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You can and should add disjunct comments to an article.  Over time, these comments will accumulate, and eventually there will be enough so that you or some other Wikinaut can junct them into beautiful prose.
> 
> However, comments relevent to the existing beautiful prose should be integrated into the flow of the article rather than tacked on.  The rule, as presently formulated, is correct for such cases, but is harmfully restrictive with regards to comments not relevent to the prose as it currently exists.
------
RulesToConsider|985923814
47c47
< ''See [[/Integrate changes debate|Integrate changes debate]]
---
> See [[/Integrate changes debate|Integrate changes debate]]
------
Visual_Basic|985923842
1c1
< Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine, and enables for easy developement of GUI applications.
---
> Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine, and enables rapid developement of GUI applications.
------
Visual_Basic|985923859
1c1
< Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine, and enables rapid developement of GUI applications.
---
> Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine and enables rapid developement of GUI applications.
------
ProgrammingLanguages|985924595
16a17
> * [[Ruby]]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|985924694
17d16
< * [[Ruby]]
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985924707
3c3,9
< The first rigorous mathematical models of quantum theory were published by [[John von Neumann]] in 1932.  The equations of quantum mechanical threory have the odd property that unlike older physical theories that predict the exact position, speed, and other states of things, quantum equations produce <i>probabilities</i> of finding things in a certain state.  There are various competing interpretations of what this means, including some that are very counter-intuitive.  [[Albert Einstein]] in particular expressed skepticism over interpretations that held that only the probabilities themselves actually existed, saying "God does not play dice with the universe."  The theories and equations themselves have been well-tested and verified over many years.
---
> Quantum effects were first observed in 1752 when T. Melvill showed that light from an incandescent gas is composed of discrete wavelengths.  In 1859 G. R. Kirchhoff demonstrated that the light emmited by a particular element was characteristic to that element - the foundation of [[spectroscopic analysis]] techniques.  These facts remained unexplained until 1913 when [[Niels Bohr]] combined ideas from [[Ernest Rutherford]]s nuclear atom, [[Max Plank]]'s quanta and [[Albert Einstein]]'s photons to produce <i>old quantum theory</i>, the first explanation of the emitted light spectrum of the hydrogen atom.  This was later made more rigourous, and developed into modern quantum mechanics.
> 
> The first rigorous mathematical models of quantum mechanics were published by [[John von Neumann]] in 1932.  The equations of quantum mechanical threory have the odd property that unlike older physical theories that predict the exact position, speed, and other states of things, quantum equations produce <i>probabilities</i> of finding things in a certain state.  There are various competing interpretations of what this means, including some that are very counter-intuitive.  [[Albert Einstein]] in particular expressed skepticism over interpretations that held that only the probabilities themselves actually existed, saying "God does not play dice with the universe."  The theories and equations themselves have been well-tested and verified over many years.
> 
> ''I'm under the impression than Quantum Mechanics is being confused with [[Quantum Physics]]''
> 
> 
5d10
< ''I'm under the impression than Quantum Mechanics is beeing confused with [[Quantum Physics]]''
------
XML|985925241
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <LI>XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language 
> <LI>XML is a markup language much like HTML. 
> <LI>XML was designed to describe data. 
> <LI>XML tags are not predefined in XML. You must define your own tags. 
> <LI>XML uses a DTD (Document Type Definition) to describe the data. 
> <LI>XML with a DTD is designed to be self describing. 
> <BR><BR>
> Put simply, XML provides a way to describe data that is portable
> across many architectures running many operating systems.
------
RulesToConsider/Integrate_changes_debate|985925453
3c3,5
< However, comments relevent to the existing beautiful prose should be integrated into the flow of the article rather than tacked on.  The rule, as presently formulated, is correct for such cases, but is harmfully restrictive with regards to comments not relevent to the prose as it currently exists.
---
> However, comments relevent to the existing beautiful prose should be integrated into the flow of the article rather than tacked on.  The rule, as presently formulated, is correct for such cases, but is harmfully restrictive with regards to comments not relevent to the prose as it currently exists.
> ----
> There's nothing "harmfully restrictive" about it: if you are a good writer and you understand the subject, you will easily be able to figure out where in the article your comment fits.  But this much is true: if you feel motivated to add a paragraph but you don't feel motivated to put it anywhere in particular, sure, go ahead and tack it onto the bottom.  Just realize that you're creating work for other people, who will (or won't) use your contribution in updating the article properly later on.  If you feel at all motivated, ''please do'' update the article properly, i.e., integrate your contribution with the existing entry. --[[LMS]]
------
Evil_Dead|985925859
1c1
< 1982 [[Sam Raimi]] [[film]] in which reading from the [[Necronomicon]] causes the dead to come back to life to possess the living.  Ash, trapped in a cabin in the woods with a few friends, must try to survive the night.
---
> The story is a simple one. Five college students venture into the wooded mountains of Tennessee to spend a weekend of fun in an isolated cabin. Is this your standard weekend of sex, drugs, and rock n' roll? No...unfortunately, our heroes find the "Book of the Dead", play a tape recording of demonic incantations, and unknowingly open a portal to the netherworld. <BR>
3,8c3,9
< Starring:
< :[[Bruce Campbell]] -- Ash
< :[[Ellen Sandweiss]]
< :[[Hal Delrich]]
< :[[Betsy Baker]]
< :[[Shelly York]]
---
> The "Book of the Dead", bound in human flesh and inked in human blood, contains the ancient rituals that cause the spirits of evil to awaken and possess, one by one, the poor innocent students. As the survivors see their friends and loved ones transformed into hideous, murdering demons, they learn that the only way to kill the possessed is to dismember their bodies.<BR>
> 
>  Who will be next possessed by the evil dead? Will anyone survive this night of terror? I won't tell. See this movie, you won't regret it!!!!! The Greatest Horror Movie of All Time!!!!! <BR><BR>
> 
> Editorial Reviews<BR>
> Amazon.com <BR>
> In the fall of 1979, Sam Raimi and his merry band headed into the woods of rural Tennessee to make a movie. They emerged with a roller coaster of a film packed with shocks, gore, and wild humor, a film that remains a benchmark for the genre. Ash (cult favorite Bruce Campbell) and four friends arrive at a backwoods cabin for a vacation, where they find a tape recorder containing incantations from an ancient book of the dead. When they play the tape, evil forces are unleashed, and one by one the friends are possessed. Wouldn't you know it, the only way to kill a "deadite" is by total bodily dismemberment, and soon the blood starts to fly. Raimi injects tremendous energy into this simple plot, using the claustrophobic set, disorienting camera angles, and even the graininess of the film stock itself to create an atmosphere of dread, punctuated by a relentless series of jump-out-of-your-seat shocks. The Evil Deadlacks the more highly developed sense of the absurd that distinguish later entries in the series--Evil Dead 2 and Army of Darkness--but it is still much more than a gore movie. It marks the appearance of one of the most original and visually exciting directors of his generation, and it stands as a monument to the triumph of imagination over budget.
------
RulesToConsider/Integrate_changes_debate|985926327
5c5,7
< There's nothing "harmfully restrictive" about it: if you are a good writer and you understand the subject, you will easily be able to figure out where in the article your comment fits.  But this much is true: if you feel motivated to add a paragraph but you don't feel motivated to put it anywhere in particular, sure, go ahead and tack it onto the bottom.  Just realize that you're creating work for other people, who will (or won't) use your contribution in updating the article properly later on.  If you feel at all motivated, ''please do'' update the article properly, i.e., integrate your contribution with the existing entry. --[[LMS]]
---
> There's nothing "harmfully restrictive" about it: if you are a good writer and you understand the subject, you will easily be able to figure out where in the article your comment fits.  But this much is true: if you feel motivated to add a paragraph but you don't feel motivated to put it anywhere in particular, sure, go ahead and tack it onto the bottom.  Just realize that you're creating work for other people, who will (or won't) use your contribution in updating the article properly later on.  If you feel at all motivated, ''please do'' update the article properly, i.e., integrate your contribution with the existing entry. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> It is harmfully restrictive, in that if the rule were consistently followed it would restrict how people comment in a way that is harmful to the growth of Wikipedia.  It would prevent people from adding information that cannot be integrated into the material already written, without adding a substantial amount of new material.  In cases when people do not wish to add a substantial amount of new matieral, they would leave nothing.  Adding new information to the bottom of the page is preferable to adding nothing.
------
Wikipedia_policy|985926802
5a6
> * [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
------
Refactoring_as_the_essential_Wikipedia_process|985927399
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is very nice when someone adds a complete, well-written, final draft of an article to Wikipedia.  This should never be discouraged.
> 
> However, one great advantage of the Wiki system is that incomplete, poorly written, first drafts of articles can evolve into polished, presentable masterpieces through the process of collaborative refactoring.  If this does give our system an advantage over other systems of producing similar end-products, then it would be very wise and desirable to encourage this process as much as possible.
> 
> One person can start an article off with an overview or a few random facts.  Someone else can add the opinion of some small minority.  The next person can round off the article with additional opinions.  Someone else can play up an angle that has been neglected.  The next person might have a list of facts and figures to include.
> 
> As all this material is added, anyone can jump in and refactor to turn it into a more cohesive whole.  Then more stuff will be added, then more refactoring, and the article will spiral ever-closer to the perfect final draft.
> 
> During this process, the article might look like a first draft, or worse, a random collection of notes and factoids.  Rather than being horrifed by this ugliness, we should rejoice in its potential, and have faith that the refactoring process will turn it into beautiful prose.
------
Wikipedia_policy|985927518
6c6
< * [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
---
>  [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
------
Wikipedia_policy|985927538
6c6
<  [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
---
> * [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
------
Programming_language|985927668
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
---
> #REDIcRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
------
Programming_language|985927708
1c1
< #REDIcRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
------
RulesToConsider|985928305
43c43
< '''Integrate changes:''' When you make a change to some text, rather than appending the new text you'd like to see included at the bottom of the page, please place and edit your comments so that they flows seamlessly with the present text.  Wikipedia articles shouldn't be a series of disjoint comments about a subject, but unified, seamless, and ever-expanding expositions of the subject.  (Rule introduced 29-03-2001)
---
> '''Integrate changes:''' When you make a change to some text, rather than appending the new text you'd like to see included at the bottom of the page, if you feel so motivated, then please place and edit your comments so that they flows seamlessly with the present text.  Wikipedia articles in the end shouldn't be a series of disjoint comments about a subject, but unified, seamless, and ever-expanding expositions of the subject.  (Rule introduced 29-03-2001)
------
RulesToConsider/Integrate_changes_debate|985928330
7c7,9
< It is harmfully restrictive, in that if the rule were consistently followed it would restrict how people comment in a way that is harmful to the growth of Wikipedia.  It would prevent people from adding information that cannot be integrated into the material already written, without adding a substantial amount of new material.  In cases when people do not wish to add a substantial amount of new matieral, they would leave nothing.  Adding new information to the bottom of the page is preferable to adding nothing.
---
> It is harmfully restrictive, in that if the rule were consistently followed it would restrict how people comment in a way that is harmful to the growth of Wikipedia.  It would prevent people from adding information that cannot be integrated into the material already written, without adding a substantial amount of new material.  In cases when people do not wish to add a substantial amount of new matieral, they would leave nothing.  Adding new information to the bottom of the page is preferable to adding nothing.
> ----
> Well, I agree 100% with the latter paragraph.  But this is consistent with what I said.  I've edited the rule so you ought to be able to agree with it now, Tim. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_policy|985928398
6d5
< * [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]]
------
RefactoringPolicy|985928484
0a1,2
> [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process|Refactoring is essential to the Wikipedia process]].  [[Tim Shell]]
> 
39c41
< ''See also PolicyPolicy.''
---
> ''See also PolicyPolicy.''
------
RefactoringPolicy|985928496
1c1
< [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process|Refactoring is essential to the Wikipedia process]].  [[Tim Shell]]
---
> [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process|Refactoring is essential to the Wikipedia process]].  [[TimShell]]
------
RefactoringPolicy|985928535
1c1
< [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process|Refactoring is essential to the Wikipedia process]].  [[TimShell]]
---
> [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process|Refactoring is essential to the Wikipedia process]].  --[[TimShell]] (and others!)
------
Refactoring_as_the_essential_Wikipedia_process|985928593
9a10,11
> 
> For more considerations about this subject, see also the "Integrate Changes" rule under RulesToConsider, as well as [[Integrate changes debate]].
------
Refactoring_as_the_essential_Wikipedia_process|985928652
11c11
< For more considerations about this subject, see also the "Integrate Changes" rule under RulesToConsider, as well as [[Integrate changes debate]].
---
> For more considerations about this subject, see also the "Integrate Changes" rule under RulesToConsider, as well as the [[RulesToConsider/Integrate changes debate|integrate changes debate]] page.
------
RulesToConsider/Integrate_changes_debate|985928914
9c9,11
< Well, I agree 100% with the latter paragraph.  But this is consistent with what I said.  I've edited the rule so you ought to be able to agree with it now, Tim. --[[LMS]]
---
> Well, I agree 100% with the latter paragraph.  But this is consistent with what I said.  I've edited the rule so you ought to be able to agree with it now, Tim. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> See also Tim's [[Refactoring as the essential Wikipedia process]].
------
Wikipedia_policy|985929154
4,5d3
< * PolicyPolicy
< * RefactoringPolicy
7,8c5
< * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
< * LinkingToExternalImages
---
> * RefactoringPolicy
9a7
> * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
11a10,11
> * LinkingToExternalImages
> * PolicyPolicy
------
RefactoringPolicy|985930467
40a41,43
> Why not?  If an article is biased, or out and out wrong, then anyone who makes even a cursory glance at the page should be warned of the possibility.  Isn't that at least as important as the contents of the page, since they are worthless without the grain of salt that tells you to take?  Hiding such comments on a talk section would seem to give the page an air of legitimacy that is potentially harmful - in such a case we need big blinking lights on the page itself. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
> 
> ----
------
Mathematics/Talk|985930971
25a26,28
> 
> ----
> I am a student studying to be a mathematician. The mathematics section of Wikipedia looks like it could eventually be a good replacement for Mathworld. I think that MathML should be considered for the math section. Yes, I know that not many browsers other than Mozilla can render it, but someone could make a CGI script that converts pages that use MathML into pages that express mathematical expressions in plain text form. There are some things that cannot be easily expressed in plain text form and the alternative of using gifs for mathematical expressions is rather unappealing.
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|985931371
8a9,12
> 
> ----
> I don't support this rule either, because the very mindset that a Wiki page has "an author" (as opposed to being an emergent property of the collaborative process) restricts the process by which pages can evolve.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
XML|985932363
1,9c1,6
< <LI>XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language 
< <LI>XML is a markup language much like HTML. 
< <LI>XML was designed to describe data. 
< <LI>XML tags are not predefined in XML. You must define your own tags. 
< <LI>XML uses a DTD (Document Type Definition) to describe the data. 
< <LI>XML with a DTD is designed to be self describing. 
< <BR><BR>
< Put simply, XML provides a way to describe data that is portable
< across many architectures running many operating systems.
---
> <i>XML</i>, for extensible markup language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[DocBook]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
> 
> A powerful adjunct to XML is the stylesheet language [[XSL]], which allows users to describe visual properties and transformations of XML data without embedding those instructions into the data itself.
> 
> See [[XSL]], [[HTML]], [[DocBook]].
> 
------
Quantum_Mechanics|985932483
3c3
< Quantum effects were first observed in 1752 when T. Melvill showed that light from an incandescent gas is composed of discrete wavelengths.  In 1859 G. R. Kirchhoff demonstrated that the light emmited by a particular element was characteristic to that element - the foundation of [[spectroscopic analysis]] techniques.  These facts remained unexplained until 1913 when [[Niels Bohr]] combined ideas from [[Ernest Rutherford]]s nuclear atom, [[Max Plank]]'s quanta and [[Albert Einstein]]'s photons to produce <i>old quantum theory</i>, the first explanation of the emitted light spectrum of the hydrogen atom.  This was later made more rigourous, and developed into modern quantum mechanics.
---
> Quantum effects were first observed in 1752 when T. Melvill showed that light from an incandescent gas is composed of discrete wavelengths.  In 1859 G. R. Kirchhoff demonstrated that the light emmited by a particular element was characteristic to that element - the foundation of [[spectroscopic analysis]] techniques.  These facts remained unexplained until 1913 when [[Niels Bohr]] combined ideas from [[Ernest Rutherford]]s nuclear atom, [[Max Planck]]'s quanta and [[Albert Einstein]]'s photons to produce <i>old quantum theory</i>, the first explanation of the emitted light spectrum of the hydrogen atom.  This was later made more rigourous, and developed into modern quantum mechanics.
------
Japanese_language|985932955
108,109c108,109
< Sanga:    Hajimashite, Senga desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
< Tanaka:   Hajimashite. ABC no Tanka desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
---
> Sanga:    Hajimemashite, Senga desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
> Tanaka:   Hajimemashite. ABC no Tanka desu. Doozo yoroshiku.
172c172
< Weruzu:    Biiru ga, hosii desu.                I like beer.
---
> Weruzu:    Biiru ga, hoshii desu.               I like beer.
188c188
< hosii         -  desirable
---
> hoshii        -  desirable
------
RefactoringPolicy|985933520
42c42,43
< 
---
> ----
> In that case, I'd say you're right, Josh.  But for general innocuous discussion, that's what the talk page is for. --[[LMS]]
------
LOGO|985935052
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <h1>LOGO <img src="turtle.png" width=28 height=44 alt=": Turtle Graphics"></h1>
> 
> <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early <acronym name="Command Line Interface">CLI</acronym> driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the <acronym name="1980's">80s</acronym> to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
> 
>  <tt>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  LEFT 90<br>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  LEFT 90<br>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  LEFT 90<br>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  </tt>
> 
> <p>This would draw a square with sides 100 units long.</p>
> 
> <p>Rather than entering each line many versions of LOGO allowed you to put them all on the same line: <tt>"FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100"</tt>  was a valid command.
> 
>  <tt>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  RIGHT 60<br>
>  FORWARD 100<br>
>  RIGHT 60<br>
>  FORWARD 100
>  </tt>
> 
> <p>Would draw a triangle.</p>
> 
> <p>The turtle's pen could be lifted and lowered; drawing a dotted line was rudimentary. In this example we'll use the the shorthand for <tt>FORWARD</tt>, which is <tt>FD</tt>.</p>
> 
>  <tt>
>  FD 10 </tt> (drawing a line and moving) <tt><br>
>  PENUP </tt> (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <tt><br>
>  FD 10 </tt> (not drawing but moving) <tt><br> 
>  PENDOWN </tt> (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <tt><br>
>  FD 10 </tt> (drawing a line and moving) <tt><br>
>  PENUP<br>
>  FD 10 </tt> (etc...) <tt><br>
>  PENDOWN<br>
>  FD 10
>  </tt>
> 
> <p>You could loop (repeat) commands. This would draw the exact same box in the first example:</p>
> 
>  <tt>
>  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RIGHT 90&#93;
>  </tt>
> 
> <p>Which would execute the command "<tt>FD 100 RIGHT 90</tt>" four times.</p>
> 
> <p>A simplistic circle consists of 360 individual rotations with a step forward, so "<tt>REPEAT 360 &#91;FD 1 RIGHT 1&#93;</tt>" would have the expected result.</p>
> 
> <p>You could title groups of instructions, ie. make procedures. These needed to be done from the Editor, that was known as <tt>Ed</tt>.</p>
> 
>  <tt>
>  ED</tt> (to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure)<tt>
>  <br><br>
>  TO BOBSAGET<br>
>  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RT 90&#93;<br>
>  FD 30<br>
>  END<br>
>  </tt>
> 
> <p>Now any time <tt>BOBSAGET</tt> is entered "<tt>REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 LEFT 90&#93; FD 30</tt>" will be executed. You can compound these by <tt>REPEAT 4 &#91;BOBSAGET&#93; if you wanted.</tt></p>
> 
> <p>LOGO is from the Greek word "logos" meaning "a word".</p>
> 
> <p>The father of LOGO is Seymour Pappert, who - while at MIT during 1966/68 - led the LOGO Group in developing the first programming language for children.  He was the author of "Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas".</p>
> 
------
LOGO|985935230
1c1
< <h1>LOGO <img src="turtle.png" width=28 height=44 alt=": Turtle Graphics"></h1>
---
> <h1>LOGO: Turtle Graphics</h1>
3c3
< <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early <acronym name="Command Line Interface">CLI</acronym> driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the <acronym name="1980's">80s</acronym> to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
---
> <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early [CLI] driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
5,13c5,13
<  <tt>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  LEFT 90<br>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  LEFT 90<br>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  LEFT 90<br>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  </tt>
---
>  <code>
>  FORWARD 100
>  LEFT 90
>  FORWARD 100
>  LEFT 90
>  FORWARD 100
>  LEFT 90
>  FORWARD 100
>  </code>
19,23c19
<  <tt>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  RIGHT 60<br>
<  FORWARD 100<br>
<  RIGHT 60<br>
---
>  <code>
25c21,25
<  </tt>
---
>  RIGHT 60
>  FORWARD 100
>  RIGHT 60
>  FORWARD 100
>  </code>
31,39c31,39
<  <tt>
<  FD 10 </tt> (drawing a line and moving) <tt><br>
<  PENUP </tt> (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <tt><br>
<  FD 10 </tt> (not drawing but moving) <tt><br> 
<  PENDOWN </tt> (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <tt><br>
<  FD 10 </tt> (drawing a line and moving) <tt><br>
<  PENUP<br>
<  FD 10 </tt> (etc...) <tt><br>
<  PENDOWN<br>
---
>  <code>
>  FD 10 </code> (drawing a line and moving) <code>
>  PENUP </code> (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <code>
>  FD 10 </code> (not drawing but moving) <code>
>  PENDOWN </code> (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <code>
>  FD 10 </code> (drawing a line and moving) <code>
>  PENUP
>  FD 10 </code> (etc...) <code>
>  PENDOWN
45c45
<  <tt>
---
>  <code>
47c47
<  </tt>
---
>  </code>
68a69
> 
------
LOGO|985935303
49c49
< <p>Which would execute the command "<tt>FD 100 RIGHT 90</tt>" four times.</p>
---
> <p>Which would execute the command "<code>FD 100 RIGHT 90</code>" four times.</p>
53c53
< <p>You could title groups of instructions, ie. make procedures. These needed to be done from the Editor, that was known as <tt>Ed</tt>.</p>
---
> <p>You could title groups of instructions, ie. make procedures. These needed to be done from the Editor, that was known as <cite>Ed</cite>.</p>
55,62c55,62
<  <tt>
<  ED</tt> (to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure)<tt>
<  <br><br>
<  TO BOBSAGET<br>
<  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RT 90&#93;<br>
<  FD 30<br>
<  END<br>
<  </tt>
---
>  <code>
>  ED</code> (to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure)<code>
>  
>  TO BOBSAGET
>  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RT 90&#93;
>  FD 30
>  END
>  </code>
70a71
> == (matthew@holloway.co.nz)
------
LOGO|985935393
29c29
< <p>The turtle's pen could be lifted and lowered; drawing a dotted line was rudimentary. In this example we'll use the the shorthand for <tt>FORWARD</tt>, which is <tt>FD</tt>.</p>
---
> <p>The turtle's pen could be lifted and lowered; drawing a dotted line was rudimentary. In this example we'll use the the shorthand for <code>FORWARD</code>, which is <code>FD</code>.</p>
71c71
< == (matthew@holloway.co.nz)
---
> == (matthew@holloway.co.nz)
------
LOGO|985935477
3c3
< <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early [CLI] driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
---
> <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early CLI driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
32,36c32,41
<  FD 10 </code> (drawing a line and moving) <code>
<  PENUP </code> (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <code>
<  FD 10 </code> (not drawing but moving) <code>
<  PENDOWN </code> (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <code>
<  FD 10 </code> (drawing a line and moving) <code>
---
>  FD 10 </code>
>    (drawing a line and moving) <code>
>  PENUP </code>
>    (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <code>
>  FD 10 </code>
>    (not drawing but moving) <code>
>  PENDOWN </code>
>    (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <code>
>  FD 10 </code>
>    (drawing a line and moving) <code>
38c43,44
<  FD 10 </code> (etc...) <code>
---
>  FD 10 </code>
>    (etc...) <code>
------
LOGO|985935567
31c31,41
<  <code>
---
>  <code>FD 10 </code>
>    (drawing a line and moving)
>  <code>PENUP </code>
>    (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move)
>  <code>FD 10 </code>
>    (not drawing but moving)
>  <code>PENDOWN </code>
>    (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves)
>  <code>FD 10 </code>
>    (drawing a line and moving)
>  <code>PENUP
33,45c43,44
<    (drawing a line and moving) <code>
<  PENUP </code>
<    (now we've lifted the pen so it won't draw anything even if we do move) <code>
<  FD 10 </code>
<    (not drawing but moving) <code>
<  PENDOWN </code>
<    (now we've lowered the pen so it draws a line wherever the turtle moves) <code>
<  FD 10 </code>
<    (drawing a line and moving) <code>
<  PENUP
<  FD 10 </code>
<    (etc...) <code>
<  PENDOWN
---
>    (etc...)
>  <code>PENDOWN
47c46
<  </tt>
---
>  </code>
------
LOGO|985935674
5a6
> 
19a21
> 
50a53
> 
59a63
>  <code>ED</code> (to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure)
61d64
<  ED</code> (to enter the editor mode, then the actual procedure)<code>
69c72
< <p>Now any time <tt>BOBSAGET</tt> is entered "<tt>REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 LEFT 90&#93; FD 30</tt>" will be executed. You can compound these by <tt>REPEAT 4 &#91;BOBSAGET&#93; if you wanted.</tt></p>
---
> <p>Now any time <code>BOBSAGET</code> is entered "<code>REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 LEFT 90&#93; FD 30</code>" will be executed. You can compound these by <code>REPEAT 4 &#91;BOBSAGET&#93; if you wanted.</code></p>
76c79
< == (matthew@holloway.co.nz)
---
> == (matthew@holloway.co.nz - forgive me, I'm new here. Tidying this node as I go.)
------
LOGO|985935825
3c3
< <p>LOGO:Turtle Graphics was an early CLI driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
---
> <p>LOGO: Turtle Graphics was an early CLI driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
------
Socialism/Talk|985936047
0a1,2
> Fundamental flaw in all Hegel/Marx-based policy is the belief in total control of all facets of reality; the illusion that society/history/life can be shaped at will from a central controller. This is why Socialism and Communism of all 19-th century political philosophies come closest to religion.
> ----
------
Socialism/Talk|985936524
1a2,3
> 
> That's just not true.  First of all, there are many versions of socialism without a hint of religion, even though Marx may be an exception.  Second, to control an economy from a central authority is no more difficult than to control anything else - there are governments other than feudalism, right?  And indeed, historically centrally-planned economies have occured and worked well, eg Mycenae.
------
Ethical_egoism|985936938
3c3
< There have been only a few ethical egoists among professional philosophers, but in the wake of [[Ayn Rand]]'s nonfiction, there have been a number of attempts to make ethical egoism widely respectable.  The consensus among professional philosophers seems to be that the view is implausible to begin with and that those who advocate it seriously (as "enlightened egoists") do so only at the expense of redefining what [[self-interest]] amounts to (including, as it is made to do, the interests of some other people or all other people at some times).
---
> There have been only a few ethical egoists among professional philosophers, but in the wake of [[Ayn Rand]]'s nonfiction (she wrote a collection of essays called ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]],'' there have been a number of attempts to make ethical egoism widely respectable.  The consensus among professional philosophers seems to be that the view is implausible to begin with and that those who advocate it seriously (as "enlightened egoists") do so only at the expense of redefining what [[self-interest]] amounts to (including, as it is made to do, the interests of some other people or all other people at some times).
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Ethical_egoism|985936949
3c3
< There have been only a few ethical egoists among professional philosophers, but in the wake of [[Ayn Rand]]'s nonfiction (she wrote a collection of essays called ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]],'' there have been a number of attempts to make ethical egoism widely respectable.  The consensus among professional philosophers seems to be that the view is implausible to begin with and that those who advocate it seriously (as "enlightened egoists") do so only at the expense of redefining what [[self-interest]] amounts to (including, as it is made to do, the interests of some other people or all other people at some times).
---
> There have been only a few ethical egoists among professional philosophers, but in the wake of [[Ayn Rand]]'s nonfiction (she wrote a collection of essays called ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''), there have been a number of attempts to make ethical egoism widely respectable.  The consensus among professional philosophers seems to be that the view is implausible to begin with and that those who advocate it seriously (as "enlightened egoists") do so only at the expense of redefining what [[self-interest]] amounts to (including, as it is made to do, the interests of some other people or all other people at some times).
------
Socialism/Talk|985937949
22c22
< I think we may reasonably chalk that up to the influence of the world wars, rather than socialism.  The problem is that normal examples are somewhat lacking...other than the Scandinavian countries, most socialisms have collapsed through unrelated events, just given up on the idea, or started out as some highly modified and so unrepresentative variation.
---
> I think we may reasonably chalk that up to the influence of the world wars, rather than socialism.  There aren't too many examples to work with, but very few have just collapsed through socialism.  See below.
28a29,34
> ----
> Most of the above criticisms have the common idea that socialism, for one reason or another, doesn't work.  But historically socialism ''has'' worked, and indeed has worked well.  Sweden is a particularly good example (and there is no real reason to suppose that its success is ''despite'' its welfare, unless you assume the conclusion it is a counterexample to).  There are others which I'm less familiar with.
> 
> I would guess that in general socialist economies have had lower standards of living than free markets, simply because they tend to be draw their supporters from the poorer classes - more poor means more socialism.  The history of Athens is a beautiful example of that principle.  The great depression is another; there was more welfare because people needed it.
> 
> There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else - indeed Stalin, though by no means a good leader, <i>did</i> significantly industrialize the country.
------
Mathematical_induction|985937993
1c1
< The standard way of proving that a proposition is true for an infinte sequence of cases is '''mathematical induction'''.  
---
> The standard way of proving that a proposition is true for an infinite sequence of cases is '''mathematical induction'''.  
------
Socialism/Talk|985938193
32c32
< I would guess that in general socialist economies have had lower standards of living than free markets, simply because they tend to be draw their supporters from the poorer classes - more poor means more socialism.  The history of Athens is a beautiful example of that principle.  The great depression is another; there was more welfare because people needed it.
---
> I would guess that in general socialist economies have had lower standards of living than free markets, simply because they tend to be draw their supporters from the poorer classes - more poor means more socialism.  The history of Athens is a beautiful example of that principle, and also of the fact that welfare need not retard progress.  The great depression is another; there was more welfare because people needed it.
34c34
< There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else - indeed Stalin, though by no means a good leader, <i>did</i> significantly industrialize the country.
---
> There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else - indeed Stalin, though by no means a good leader, <i>did</i> significantly industrialize the country.
------
Socialism/Talk|985938304
34c34
< There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else - indeed Stalin, though by no means a good leader, <i>did</i> significantly industrialize the country.
---
> There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else.  Indeed Stalin, though as a dictator exceedingly harmful to his people, did succeed in significantly industrializing that country.
------
Economics|985939217
12c12
< The major divisions of Economics include [[Microeconomics]], which deals with the  behaviour of individual consumers, companies, traders, and farmers; and [[Macroeconomics]], which focuses on aggregates such as the level of income in an economy, the volume of total employment, and the flow of investment. Another branch,
---
> The traditional major divisions of Economics include [[Microeconomics]], which deals with the  behaviour of individual consumers, companies, traders, and farmers; and [[Macroeconomics]], which focuses on aggregates such as the level of income in an economy, the volume of total employment, and the flow of investment. Another branch,
------
XML|985939422
5,6c5,8
< See [[XSL]], [[HTML]], [[DocBook]].
< 
---
> See [[XSL]], [[HTML]], [[DocBook]].----I am finding the use of terminology here a little confusing. You say that Doc Book is an XML language. I would say it is a particular
> DTD, and a DTD is a possible way of defining the elements of a particular XML language. Alternatively, an XML language can specify its element by a Schema, or simply define its elements within each document itself. 
> Also, one of its main features is its flexibilty compared with HTML. Each user can, indeed, define their own mark-up language by defining each required and optional element for their
> language. Finally, the entire Doc Book DTD has been made available by O'Reilly online, and I suggest you provide a link to it. RoseParks
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|985941997
1c1
< Something I thought might be neat to have.  Not a full dictionary, but just a list of some of the words that have prominent derivatives in English or other languages.  This could be very cool if we ever got a Greek alphabet, and someone who knows Greek.
---
> Something I thought might be neat to have.  Not a full dictionary, but just a list of some of the words that have prominent derivatives in English or other languages.  This could be very cool if we ever got a Greek alphabet, and someone who knows Greek. (Note: if someone who actually knows Greek sees this page, please check the suffixes of the words below, I know of myself that many of them are little more than educated guesses).
3c3
< Alphabet being used - a b g d e z ê th i k l m n x o p r s t u ph ch ps ô - plus h for breathing
---
> Alphabet being used - a b g d e z ê th i k l m n x o p r s t u ph kh ps ô - plus h for breathing (the 'h' is not considered an independent letter in Greek, thus words starting with h are alphabetized under the second letter). Note that in general the Greek 'u' becomes a 'y' when the word is used in English or other modern languages, while a 'k' often becomes a 'c'.
6,11c6
< autos, -ê, -o
<  </td><td>
< Self ''(reflexive pronoun)''
<  </td></tr><tr>
<  <td>
< eu
---
> andros
13c8
< Well
---
> man
15c10
< kakos, -ê, -on
---
> anthos, -ous
17c12
< Bad
---
> flower
19c14
< monos, -ê, -on 
---
> anthrôpos, -ou, -o
21c16
< Alone, solitary, forsaken
---
> human being
23,25c18,20
< oligos, -ê, -on
<  </td> <td>
< Few, little, small
---
> astêr
>  </td><td>
> star
27c22
< polus, pollê, polu
---
> autos, -ê, -o
29c24
< Many, much
---
> self ''(reflexive pronoun)''
31c26
< philos, -ê, -on
---
> barbaros
33c28
< Beloved, dear
---
> stranger, non-Greek
35c30
< anthos, -ous
---
> bios
37c32
< Flower
---
> life
39c34
< astêr
---
> gê
41c36
< Star
---
> earth
43c38
< bios
---
> gunê
45c40
< Life
---
> woman
49c44
< District, its inhabitants, commoners
---
> district, its inhabitants, commoners
51c46
< gê
---
> eu
53c48
< Earth
---
> well
57c52
< Animal
---
> animal
59c54
< ichthus [?]
---
> iathros
61c56
< Fish
---
> doctor
63c58
< logos, -ou, -o 
---
> [[ikhthus]]
65c60
< Word (to frightened to try to list the verb)
---
> fish
67c62
< phuton, -o
---
> kakos, -ê, -on
69c64
< Plant
---
> bad
71c66
< chaitê, -hê
---
> lithos
73c68,72
< Loose, flowing hair
---
> stone
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> logos, -ou, -o 
>  </td><td>
> word (too frightened to try to list the verb)
81c80
< Small
---
> small
83c82
< anthrôpos, -ou, -o
---
> monos, -ê, -on 
85c84,108
< Human being
---
> alone, solitary, forsaken
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> neos [?]
>  </td><td>
> new, young
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> oligos, -ê, -on
>  </td> <td>
> few, little, small
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> paedos
>  </td><td>
> boy, child
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> polus, pollê, polu
>  </td><td>
> many, much
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> saurus
>  </td><td>
> lizard
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> sophein
>  </td><td>
> to know
89,90c112,136
< Sleep
<  </td></tr>
---
> sleep
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> philia
>  </td><td>
> love, friendship
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> philos, -ê, -on
>  </td><td>
> beloved, dear
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> phobia
>  </td><td>
> fear
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> phuton, -o
>  </td><td>
> plant
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> khaitê, -hê
>  </td><td>
> loose, flowing hair
>  </td></tr><tr><td>
> psuchos
>  </td><td>
> spirit, mind
------
Evil_Dead|985942513
1c1
< The story is a simple one. Five college students venture into the wooded mountains of Tennessee to spend a weekend of fun in an isolated cabin. Is this your standard weekend of sex, drugs, and rock n' roll? No...unfortunately, our heroes find the "Book of the Dead", play a tape recording of demonic incantations, and unknowingly open a portal to the netherworld. <BR>
---
> The story is a simple one. Five college students venture into the wooded mountains of Tennessee to spend a weekend of fun in an isolated cabin. Is this your standard weekend of sex, drugs, and rock n' roll? No...unfortunately, our heroes find the "Book of the Dead", play a tape recording of demonic incantations, and unknowingly open a portal to the netherworld.
3c3
< The "Book of the Dead", bound in human flesh and inked in human blood, contains the ancient rituals that cause the spirits of evil to awaken and possess, one by one, the poor innocent students. As the survivors see their friends and loved ones transformed into hideous, murdering demons, they learn that the only way to kill the possessed is to dismember their bodies.<BR>
---
> The "Book of the Dead", bound in human flesh and inked in human blood, contains the ancient rituals that cause the spirits of evil to awaken and possess, one by one, the poor innocent students. As the survivors see their friends and loved ones transformed into hideous, murdering demons, they learn that the only way to kill the possessed is to dismember their bodies.
5c5,10
<  Who will be next possessed by the evil dead? Will anyone survive this night of terror? I won't tell. See this movie, you won't regret it!!!!! The Greatest Horror Movie of All Time!!!!! <BR><BR>
---
>  Who will be next possessed by the evil dead?
>  Will anyone survive this night of terror? I won't tell.
>  See this movie, you won't regret it!!!!!
>  The Greatest Horror Movie of All Time!!!!!
> 
> Editorial Reviews
7d11
< Editorial Reviews<BR>
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985942586
5c5
< :[[Emelio Esteves] -- (high school jock)
---
> :[[Emelio Esteves]] -- (high school jock)
------
New_topics|985943374
2c2
< as of about 1 am 26th March, Wikipedia server time
---
> as of about 8 pm 29th March, Wikipedia server time
4c4
< These are some new topics from the previous few days:
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days:
6,145c6,92
< [[Abu_Dhabi]] -- 
< [[Academy_Awards/Directing]] -- 
< [[Adam_Sedgwick]] -- 
< [[Adventure]] -- 
< [[Agave]] -- 
< [[Alveolates]] -- 
< [[Amaltheia]] -- 
< [[Analysis_of_Variance]] -- 
< [[Arthur_Koestler]] -- 
< [[Arthur_Schopenhauer]] -- 
< [[Asia]] -- 
< [[Asia_Minor]] -- 
< [[Atlantic_Ocean]] -- 
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Amalgamated_Switch_and_Signal]] -- 
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Ben_Nealy]] -- 
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Chief_Engineer_2]] -- 
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Mr._Mowen]] -- 
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Section171]] -- 
< [[Baroque/Art]] -- 
< [[Berlin_Film_Festival]] -- 
< [[Black_Forest]] -- 
< [[Black_Sea]] -- 
< [[Bratislava]] -- 
< [[Britney_Spears]] -- 
< [[Carbon_Nanotubes]] -- 
< [[Caspian_Sea]] -- 
< [[Catalan]] -- 
< [[Chapter_2_-_Variation_Under_Nature]] -- 
< [[Chapter_3_-_Struggle_for_Existence]] -- 
< [[Charl_du_Montesquieu]] -- 
< [[Chemistry/peptides]] -- 
< [[Computer_science]] -- 
< [[Creationism]] -- 
< [[Czech_Republic]] -- 
< [[Czechoslovakia]] -- 
< [[Danube_River]] -- 
< [[Darwin]] -- 
< [[Dinoflagellates]] -- 
< [[Equation]] -- 
< [[Ethical_naturalism]] -- 
< [[Ethical_non-naturalism]] -- 
< [[Fiddle_and_violin]] -- 
< [[Francis_II]] -- 
< [[Fullerene]] -- 
< [[G._E._Moore]] -- 
< [[Geography]] -- 
< [[George_Berkeley]] -- 
< [[Gods]] -- 
< [[Gottleib_Fichte]] -- 
< [[Greek_mythology]] -- 
< [[Guyana]] -- 
< [[Historiography]] -- 
< [[History_of_Science_and_Technology/Talk]] -- 
< [[Holiday]] -- 
< [[Holidays]] -- 
< [[Holy_Roman_Empire]] -- 
< [[IETF]] -- 
< [[Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Irrationalism_and_Aestheticism]] -- 
< [[Izabella_Scorupco]] -- 
< [[John_Stuart_Mill]] -- 
< [[Kajtek]] -- 
< [[LMS]] -- 
< [[Like_this_one]] -- 
< [[Linear_equation]] -- 
< [[Linear_equations]] -- 
< [[Linguistics/Talk]] -- 
< [[Magnesium]] -- 
< [[Mannerism/Art]] -- 
< [[Markup_language]] -- 
< [[Masculism]] -- 
< [[Mathematical_expression]] -- 
< [[Meaning]] -- 
< [[Meta-ethics]] -- 
< [[Microphotonics]] -- 
< [[Mojo/Talk]] -- 
< [[Mojo_Jojo]] -- 
< [[Montesquieu]] -- 
< [[Natural_Born_Killers]] -- 
< [[Natural_Selection]] -- 
< [[Nominalism]] -- 
< [[Non-cognitivism]] -- 
< [[North_Sea]] -- 
< [[Ocean]] -- 
< [[Oceans]] -- 
< [[Oelde,_Germany]] -- 
< [[Oelde]] -- 
< [[One-time_pad]] -- 
< [[Operator]] -- 
< [[POP3]] -- 
< [[Passover]] -- 
< [[Philosophical_argument]] -- 
< [[Populism_and_Nationalism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Populism_and_Nationalism]] -- 
< [[Pornography]] -- 
< [[Potassium]] -- 
< [[Probability_and_Statistics/Talk]] -- 
< [[Quadratic_equation]] -- 
< [[Quadratic_equations]] -- 
< [[Red_tide]] -- 
< [[Renaissance_Classicism]] -- 
< [[Rhetoric]] -- 
< [[Ricard_Wagner/Talk]] -- 
< [[Ricard_Wagner]] -- 
< [[Richard_Wagner]] -- 
< [[Robert_Chambers]] -- 
< [[Romania]] -- 
< [[Sea]] -- 
< [[Sets]] -- 
< [[Slovakia]] -- 
< [[Stramenopiles]] -- 
< [[TCP-IP]] -- 
< [[Teaching_methods]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_1]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_4]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_5]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_6]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_7]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_8]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_9]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_10]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_11]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_12]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_13]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_14]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Preface]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species/Talk]] -- 
< [[The_Origin_of_Species]] -- 
< [[Thriller_Film]] -- 
< [[URL]] -- 
< [[USSR]] -- 
< [[Ukraine]] -- 
< [[Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics]] -- 
< [[United_Arab_Emirates]] -- 
< [[Voltaire]] -- 
< [[WikiBiblion/Talk]] -- 
< [[WojPob/contact]]  -- 
< [[Zoology]]
---
> 
> [[AbeceDarians]] -- 
> [[Abecedarian]] -- 
> [[Actinopterygii]] -- 
> [[Adding_Nupedia_articles_to_Wikipedia]] -- 
> [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Help]] -- 
> [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk]] -- 
> [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia]] -- 
> [[Albert_Einstein]] -- 
> [[Animal/Talk]] -- 
> [[Animal]] -- 
> [[Anthropologist]] -- 
> [[Astronomy/History]] -- 
> [[Astronomy_and_Astrophysics/History]] -- 
> [[Astronomy_and_Astrophysics]] -- 
> [[Astrophysics]] -- 
> [[Brazoria_County]] -- 
> [[Cancer_Coast]] -- 
> [[Cmontpla]] -- 
> [[Communism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Cooking]] -- 
> [[Countries_of_the_world/Talk]] -- 
> [[Countries_of_the_world2]] -- 
> [[Economic_subjectivism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Economic_subjectivism]] -- 
> [[Establishing_Shot]] -- 
> [[Evil_Dead]] -- 
> [[Falconiformes]] -- 
> [[Free_Software_Foundation]] -- 
> [[Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution]] -- 
> [[Game]] -- 
> [[Gulf_Coast_of_Texas]] -- 
> [[Harold_and_Maude]] -- 
> [[History_of_the_Netherlands]] -- 
> [[Hobby]] -- 
> [[Holland]] -- 
> [[Intuit]] -- 
> [[Island]] -- 
> [[James_Cook]] -- 
> [[John_Adams/Talk]] -- 
> [[John_Adams]] -- 
> [[John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech/Talk]] -- 
> [[John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech]] -- 
> [[John_Baskerville]] -- 
> [[Labor_theory_of_value/Talk]] -- 
> [[Labor_theory_of_value]] -- 
> [[Labor_union]] -- 
> [[Liberal]] -- 
> [[Louisiana_Purchase]] -- 
> [[Lunar_Society]] -- 
> [[Metaphysical_subjectivism]] -- 
> [[Mount_Logan]] -- 
> [[Nautical_Archaeology]] -- 
> [[Neolithic]] -- 
> [[Netherlands/history]] -- 
> [[Nomic]] -- 
> [[Oath_of_office]] -- 
> [[Objectivism]] -- 
> [[Olympic_Games/Summer]] -- 
> [[Other_games]] -- 
> [[Peregrin_Falcon]] -- 
> [[Peregrine_Falcon]] -- 
> [[Planetary_Sciences]] -- 
> [[Political_liberal]] -- 
> [[PublicDomainResources/Talk]] -- 
> [[Rational_number]] -- 
> [[Sabine_River]] -- 
> [[Salting]] -- 
> [[Socialism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Socialism]] -- 
> [[Sports/Events]] -- 
> [[Stupid_Republicans/Talk]] -- 
> [[Stupid_Republicans]] -- 
> [[Subjectivism]] -- 
> [[The_Breakfast_Club]] -- 
> [[The_Graduate]] -- 
> [[Trick-taking]] -- 
> [[Ulysses_S._Grant/First_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
> [[Ulysses_S._Grant/Second_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
> [[Ulysses_S._Grant]] -- 
> [[United_States_Constitution/AmendmentTwoTalk]] -- 
> [[Warren_G._Harding]] -- 
> [[Warren_G._Harding_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
> [[Washington_DC]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/Stupid_Republicans]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project]]
------
Albert_Einstein|985943747
3c3,4
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  In 1914 he became a German citizen, which he renounced in 1933 in protest of the Nazi government.  He came to the [[United States]], becoming a US citizen in 1940.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativety, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a Jew he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
> In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativety. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
------
Albert_Einstein|985943768
3c3
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativety, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a Jew he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a Jew he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
------
Quantum_physics|985943812
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Until someone creates a page on this, we will refer you to [[Quantum Mechanics]].
------
Island|985944138
28c28
< Other notable islands:
---
> Other notable islands and groups of islands (in alphabetical order):
29a30
> * [[Aleutians]]
35a37
> * [[Corsica]]
45a48
> * [[Novaya Zemlya]]
47a51
> * [[Sardinia]]
49a54
> * [[Svalbard]]
51a57,58
> * [[Tasmania]]
> * [[Timor]]
52a60
> * [[Vanuatu]]
54c62
< See also [[atoll]]; [[reef]]; [[volcanic island]]; [[archipelago]].
---
> See also [[atoll]]; [[reef]]; [[volcanic island]]; [[archipelago]].
------
Afghanistan|985944914
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Afghanistan is a country in [[Central Asia]]. It borders [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]].
> 
>  AfghanistanHistory
>  AfghanistanGeography
>  AfghanistanPeople
>  AfghanistanGovernement
>  AfghanistanEconomy
>  AfghanistanCommunications
>  AfghanistanTransportations
>  AfghanistanMilitary
>  AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|985944954
4c4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - AfghanistaN - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - [[Afghanistan]] - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
------
CryptologY|985944995
14a15
> * [[Blowfish]]
------
ColdWar|985945067
1c1
< The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the [[Warsaw Pact]]). Except for the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and the conflict in AfghanistaN, the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the [[CIA]] ([[United States]]), [[MI6]] ([[Great Britain]]), [[BND]] ([[West Germany]]), [[STASI]] ([[East Germany]]) and the [[KGB]] ([[USSR]]).
---
> The Cold War describes the ways of fighting between the western and the eastern countries between 1950-1990 (particularly between [[NATO]] and the countries of the [[Warsaw Pact]]). Except for the [[Korean War]], [[Vietnam War]] and the conflict in [[Afghanistan]], the aggression between those two parts of the world never shaped in an armed conflict, but was held by spys and traitors which were working undercover. Because of that, the population of the countries (this war took place mostly in eastern and western [[Germany]]) never took much notice about this war going on. Also, the armies of the countries involved never had much participation in the ColdWar; the war was fought by intelligence organizations like the [[CIA]] ([[United States]]), [[MI6]] ([[Great Britain]]), [[BND]] ([[West Germany]]), [[STASI]] ([[East Germany]]) and the [[KGB]] ([[USSR]]).
------
Indo-Iranian_languages|985945142
4,8c4,8
< * [[Sanskrit language] (extinct)
< * [[Hindi language]]
< * [[Bengali language]]
< * [[Punjabi language]]
< * [[Urdu language]]
---
> * [[Sanskrit]] (extinct)
> * [[Hindi]]
> * [[Bengali]]
> * [[Punjabi]]
> * [[Urdu]]
12,17c12,17
< * [[Persian language]]
< * [[Pashto language]]
< * [[Tajik language]]
< * [[Ossetic language]]
< * [[Kurdish language]]
< * [[Balochi language]]
---
> * [[Persian]]
> * [[Pashto]]
> * [[Tajik]]
> * [[Ossetic]]
> * [[Kurdish]]
> * [[Balochi]]
------
Indo-Iranian_languages|985945213
4,8c4,8
< * [[Sanskrit]] (extinct)
< * [[Hindi]]
< * [[Bengali]]
< * [[Punjabi]]
< * [[Urdu]]
---
> * [[Sanskrit language]] (extinct)
> * [[Hindi language]]
> * [[Bengali language]]
> * [[Punjabi language]]
> * [[Urdu language]]
12,17c12,17
< * [[Persian]]
< * [[Pashto]]
< * [[Tajik]]
< * [[Ossetic]]
< * [[Kurdish]]
< * [[Balochi]]
---
> * [[Persian language]]
> * [[Pashto language]]
> * [[Tajik language]]
> * [[Ossetic language]]
> * [[Kurdish language]]
> * [[Balochi language]]
------
AfghanistaN|985945312
1,11c1
< Afghanistan is a country in Southern AsiA, north and west of PakistaN, east of IraN
< 
<  AfghanistanHistory
<  AfghanistanGeography
<  AfghanistanPeople
<  AfghanistanGovernement
<  AfghanistanEconomy
<  AfghanistanCommunications
<  AfghanistanTransportations
<  AfghanistanMilitary
<  AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
---
> 
------
AfghanistaN|985945331
1c1
< 
---
> See [[Afghanistan]].
------
Hungary|985945414
1c1
< Hungary was founded in 896 by the Magyars. The name Hungary derives from "On-Ogur" which means "Ten Arrows" in Turkic. The [[capital]] of Hungary is [[Budapest]].
---
> Hungary was founded in 896 by the Magyars. Some suggest that the name Hungary derives from "On-Ogur" which means "Ten Arrows" in Turkic, but historians have yet to come to a consensus on this issue. The [[capital]] of Hungary is [[Budapest]].
3c3
< The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric [[language]], were forced out of Khazaria in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
---
> The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric [[language]], were forced out of Khazaria in what is now Northern Russia in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
------
Countries_of_the_world|985945485
52c52
< See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
---
> See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[dependent areas]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
------
Albania|985945597
1c1,113
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AlbaniaHistory
> 
> AlbaniaGeography
> 
> AlbaniaPeople
> 
> AlbaniaGovernment
> 
> AlbaniaEconomy
> 
> AlbaniaCommunications
> 
> AlbaniaTransportations
> 
> AlbaniaMilitary
> 
> AlbaniaTransnationalIssues
> 
> 
>                                        Communications
> 
>  
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999) 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist
> government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences 
> international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 810,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999) 
> 
> Televisions: 405,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
> 
>                                         Transportation
> 
>  
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 670 km 
> standard gauge: 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1996) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 18,000 km 
> paved: 5,400 km 
> unpaved: 12,600 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Lake Ohrid, and Lake Prespa (1990) 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 145 km; petroleum products 55 km; natural gas 64 km (1991) 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 10,907 GRT/16,101 DWT 
> ships by type: cargo 6 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 10 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 7 
> over 3,047 m: 1 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 
> under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
>                                           Military
> 
>  
> 
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 856,820 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 701,194 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 35,508 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY99) 
> 
>                                       Transnational Issues
> 
> 
> 
> Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but
> has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks
> independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education,
> access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government 
> 
> Illicit drugs: increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route
> and - to a far lesser extent - cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production;
> ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
------
AlbaniA|985945641
1,113c1
< AlbaniaHistory
< 
< AlbaniaGeography
< 
< AlbaniaPeople
< 
< AlbaniaGovernment
< 
< AlbaniaEconomy
< 
< AlbaniaCommunications
< 
< AlbaniaTransportations
< 
< AlbaniaMilitary
< 
< AlbaniaTransnationalIssues
< 
< 
<                                        Communications
< 
<  
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999) 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist
< government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences 
< international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999) 
< 
< Radios: 810,000 (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999) 
< 
< Televisions: 405,000 (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
< 
<                                         Transportation
< 
<  
< 
< Railways: 
< total: 670 km 
< standard gauge: 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1996) 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 18,000 km 
< paved: 5,400 km 
< unpaved: 12,600 km (1998 est.) 
< 
< Waterways: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Lake Ohrid, and Lake Prespa (1990) 
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 145 km; petroleum products 55 km; natural gas 64 km (1991) 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore 
< 
< Merchant marine: 
< total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 10,907 GRT/16,101 DWT 
< ships by type: cargo 6 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 10 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 3 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 7 
< over 3,047 m: 1 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 
< under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
<                                           Military
< 
<  
< 
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards 
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 856,820 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 701,194 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
< males: 35,508 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY99) 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY99) 
< 
<                                       Transnational Issues
< 
< 
< 
< Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but
< has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks
< independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education,
< access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government 
< 
< Illicit drugs: increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route
< and - to a far lesser extent - cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production;
< ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
---
> See [[Albania]]
------
Europe|985945731
12c12
<     AlbaniA,
---
>     [[Albania]],
14c14
<     AustriA,
---
>     [[Austria]],
53c53
<     [[United Kingdom]] (sometimes called [[Britain]] or [[Great Britain]],
---
>     [[United Kingdom]] (sometimes called [[Britain]] or [[Great Britain]]),
59c59
< The term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxembourg]] which are core members of the [[European Union]].
---
> The term [[Benelux]] is used to refer to [[Belgium]], The [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxembourg]] which are core members of the [[European Union]].
------
What_is_a_wiki|985945754
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have fun!
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have funz!
12c12
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
World_War_I|985945953
4a5,6
> Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russion Revolution. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occured in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany. 
> 
------
World_War_I|985946011
5c5
< Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russion Revolution. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occured in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany. 
---
> Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russian Revolution. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occured in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany. 
------
Libya|985946440
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Libya is an Islamic Arabic country ruled by a Dictator nowdays called Qhadafi. The country has a nice stratigiec position in North Africa, and a long coast on the Medetarinian sea opposite to Italy.
------
Andre_Engels|985947161
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jij hebt overduidelijk hardstikke veel tijd<BR>
> ik zit van mijn werktijd te snoepen - [[Mathijs]]
------
Islam|985947195
1,2c1,3
< Islam is the group of people who follow the word of the prophet MuHammad, embodied in dual oral and written form in TheKoran.  The individuals of Islam are [[Muslims]].  [[Islam]] is not a nation in the usual political sense; there is no country with a body of government for it.  The [[Nation Of Islam]] is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are [[Muslims]], and therefore members of [[Islam]]; but this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
< 
---
> Islam means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word peace, [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adem,Noah,Moses,Jessus, and all the Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed. The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic,..etc. It talks about God, and God Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the bleivers, and thier virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jessus, and all the other prophets.It has some scientific discoveries,..etc 
> Muslims believe that all humanbeings belong to One Nation, but deviation from religion, and Good caused all these differences, and sects to appear. one of these sects for example that has nothing to do with the spirit of Islam is [[Nation Of Islam]] which is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are called[[Muslims]], and therefore accliamed to be members of [[Islam]]; but that is not true. this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
> True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah",the holy book of jessus "Injeel", and all the other holy books, Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds.
------
Islam|985947312
1c1,2
< Islam means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word peace, [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adem,Noah,Moses,Jessus, and all the Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed. The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic,..etc. It talks about God, and God Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the bleivers, and thier virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jessus, and all the other prophets.It has some scientific discoveries,..etc 
---
> Islam means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word [[peace]], [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adem,Noah,Mosses,Jessus, and all the other Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed.
> The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic,..etc. It talks about God, and God Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the bleivers, and thier virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jessus, and all the other prophets.It has some scientific discoveries,..etc 
3c4
< True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah",the holy book of jessus "Injeel", and all the other holy books, Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds.
---
> True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah",the holy book of jessus "Injeel", and all the other holy books, Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds. the bleive that [[Allah ]] created heaven, and earth, and manages them.
------
Allah|985947522
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Allah is one of the names of God.
> Allah is the creator, and the Lord.
> There are no true Gods but Allah, the God of adem,Mosses, and jessus, and the prophets
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|985947742
5,138c5,39
< <table width=600><tr><td>
< andros
<  </td><td>
< man
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< anthos, -ous
<  </td><td>
< flower
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< anthrôpos, -ou, -o
<  </td><td>
< human being
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< astêr
<  </td><td>
< star
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< autos, -ê, -o
<  </td><td>
< self ''(reflexive pronoun)''
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< barbaros
<  </td><td>
< stranger, non-Greek
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< bios
<  </td><td>
< life
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< gê
<  </td><td>
< earth
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< gunê
<  </td><td>
< woman
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< dêmos
<  </td><td>
< district, its inhabitants, commoners
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< eu
<  </td><td>
< well
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< zoon [?]
<  </td><td>
< animal
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< iathros
<  </td><td>
< doctor
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< [[ikhthus]]
<  </td><td>
< fish
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< kakos, -ê, -on
<  </td><td>
< bad
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< lithos
<  </td><td>
< stone
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< logos, -ou, -o 
<  </td><td>
< word (too frightened to try to list the verb)
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< makros
<  </td><td>
< Large
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< mikros
<  </td><td>
< small
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< monos, -ê, -on 
<  </td><td>
< alone, solitary, forsaken
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< neos [?]
<  </td><td>
< new, young
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< oligos, -ê, -on
<  </td> <td>
< few, little, small
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< paedos
<  </td><td>
< boy, child
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< polus, pollê, polu
<  </td><td>
< many, much
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< saurus
<  </td><td>
< lizard
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< sophein
<  </td><td>
< to know
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< hupnos, -ou, -o
<  </td><td>
< sleep
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< philia
<  </td><td>
< love, friendship
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< philos, -ê, -on
<  </td><td>
< beloved, dear
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< phobia
<  </td><td>
< fear
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< phuton, -o
<  </td><td>
< plant
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< khaitê, -hê
<  </td><td>
< loose, flowing hair
<  </td></tr><tr><td>
< psuchos
<  </td><td>
< spirit, mind
< </table>
< 
---
> <table Border=1>
> <tr><td>andros </td><td>man </td></tr>
> <tr><td>anthos, -ous </td><td>flower </td></tr>
> <tr><td>anthrôpos, -ou, -o </td><td>human being </td></tr>
> <tr><td>arachne</td><td>spider</td></tr>
> <tr><td>astêr </td><td>star </td></tr>
> <tr><td>autos, -ê, -o </td><td>self ''(reflexive pronoun)'' </td></tr>
> <tr><td>barbaros </td><td>stranger, non-Greek </td></tr>
> <tr><td>bios </td><td>life </td></tr>
> <tr><td>gê </td><td>earth </td></tr>
> <tr><td>gunê </td><td>woman </td></tr>
> <tr><td>dêmos </td><td>district, its inhabitants, commoners </td></tr>
> <tr><td>eu </td><td>well </td></tr>
> <tr><td>zoon [?] </td><td>animal </td></tr>
> <tr><td>iathros </td><td>doctor </td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[ikhthus]] </td><td>fish </td></tr>
> <tr><td>kakos, -ê, -on </td><td>bad </td></tr>
> <tr><td>lithos </td><td>stone </td></tr>
> <tr><td>logos, -ou, -o  </td><td>word (too frightened to try to list the verb) </td></tr>
> <tr><td>makros </td><td>Large </td></tr>
> <tr><td>mikros </td><td>small </td></tr>
> <tr><td>monos, -ê, -on  </td><td>alone, solitary, forsaken </td></tr>
> <tr><td>neos [?] </td><td>new, young </td></tr>
> <tr><td>oligos, -ê, -on </td> <td>few, little, small </td></tr>
> <tr><td>paedos </td><td>boy, child </td></tr>
> <tr><td>polus, pollê, polu </td><td>many, much </td></tr>
> <tr><td>saurus </td><td>lizard </td></tr>
> <tr><td>sophein </td><td>to know </td></tr>
> <tr><td>hupnos, -ou, -o </td><td>sleep </td></tr>
> <tr><td>philia </td><td>love, friendship </td></tr>
> <tr><td>philos, -ê, -on </td><td>beloved, dear </td></tr>
> <tr><td>phobia</td><td>fear </td></tr>
> <tr><td>phuton, -o </td><td>plant </td></tr>
> <tr><td>khaitê, -hê </td><td>loose, flowing hair </td></tr>
> <tr><td>psuchos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985947905
1c1,2
< There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  The Islamic traditions, and the Quran tells us that there are 99 names for God such as [[Allah]], [[The Mrecifull]],[[the Mrecy giving]],..etc these names let us know our God more, and know his attributes, and makes us feel closer to him.
> Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
------
LALR|985948313
3c3,5
< In what context?  This strikes me as a fairly useless entry unless there is an explanation of who uses this acronym, and what the meaning of 'Look Ahead Left Reduce' is!
---
> In what context?  This strikes me as a fairly useless entry unless there is an explanation of who uses this acronym, and what the meaning of 'Look Ahead Left Reduce' is!
> 
> It's a computer science algorithm, used for parsing forammlly grammatical things, especially computer languages. But it's a long time since i looked at this stuff, so i can't really remember why it's different to other parsing algorithms such as LL-n and LR-n.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985948314
1,2c1
< There are many names given to the divine.  The Islamic traditions, and the Quran tells us that there are 99 names for God such as [[Allah]], [[The Mrecifull]],[[the Mrecy giving]],..etc these names let us know our God more, and know his attributes, and makes us feel closer to him.
< Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
11c10,111
< The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
---
> The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
> 
> The 99 Names of God according to the tradition of Islam are :
> Ar-Rahman: The Most Compassionate, Most Kind
> Ar-Rahim: The Most Merciful
> Al-Malik: The Master, The King, The Monarch
> Al-Quddus: The Pure, The Holy One
> As-Salaam: The Peace, The Tranquility
> Al-Mu'min: The Faithful, The Trusted
> Al-Muhaymin: The Protector, The Vigilant, The Controller
> Al-'Aziz: The Almighty, The Powerful
> Al-Jabbar: The Oppressor, The All Compelling
> Al-Mutakabbir: The Haughty, The Majestic, The Lord
> Al-Khaliq: The Creator, The Maker
> Al-Baari': The Inventor
> Al-Musawwir: The Fashioner, The Organiser, The Designer
> Al-Ghaffar: The Forgiving, The Forgiver
> Al-Qahhar: The Almighty, The Dominant
> Al-Wahhab: The Donor, The Bestower
> Ar-Razzaq: The Provider, The Sustainer
> Al-Fattah: The Opener, The Revealer
> Al-'Alim: The All Knowing, The Omniscient
> Al-Qabid: The Contractor, The Restrainer, The Recipient
> Al-Basit: The Expander, The Increaser
> Al-Khafid: The Abaser, The Humbler
> Ar-Rafi': The Raiser, The Exalter
> Al-Mu'iz: The Honourer, The Exalter
> Al-Muzil: The Abaser, The Subduer
> As-Sami': The All Hearing, The All Knowing
> Al-Basir: The All Seeing, The Insightful
> Al-Hakam: The Arbitrator, The Judge
> Al-'Adl: The Justice, The Equitable
> Al-Latif: The Most Gentle, The Gracious, The One Who is Kind
> Al-Khabir: The Aware, The Segacious
> Al-Halim: The Gentle, The Most Patient, The Benevolent
> Al-'Azim: The Great, The Mighty
> Al-Ghafoor: The Forgiving, The Pardoner
> Ash-Shakur: The Grateful, The Thankful
> Al-'Aliy: The Most High, The Exalted
> Al-Kabir: The Greatest, The Biggest
> Al-Hafiz: The Guardian, The Preserver
> Al-Muqit: The Maintainer, The Nourisher
> Al-Hasib: The Noble, The Reckoner
> Al-Jalil: The Majestic, The Honorable, The Exalted
> Al-Karim: The Most Generous, The Bountiful
> Ar-Raqib: The Guardian, The Watcher
> Al-Mujib: The Answerer
> Al-Wasi': The Enricher, The Omnipresent, The Knowledgeable
> Al-Hakim: The Most Wise, The Judicious
> Al-Wadud: The Affectionate, The Loving
> Al-Majid: The Glorious, The Exalted
> Al-Ba'ith: The Resurrector, The Raiser from death
> Ash-Shahid: The Witness
> Al-Haqq: The Truth, The Just
> Al-Wakil: The Guardian, the Trustee
> Al-Qawee: The Powerful, The Almighty, The Strong
> Al-Matin: The Strong, The Firm
> Al-Walee: The Supporter, The Friend, The Defender
> Al-Hamid: The Praiseworthy, The Commendable
> Al-Muhsi: The Counter
> Al-Mubdi': The Beginner, The Creator, The Originator
> Al-Mu'eed: The Restorer, The Resurrector
> Al-Muhyee: The Bestower, The Life Giver
> Al-Mumeet: The Bringer of Death, The Death Giver
> Al-Hayy: The Ever-Living
> Al-Qayyum: The Self-Subsistent, The Eternal, The Self-Sustaining
> Al-Wajid: The All Perceiving, The Bountiful, The Finder
> Al-Wahid: The One, The Unique
> Al-Majid: The Noble, The Illustrious
> Al-Ahad: The Only, The Unique
> As-Samad: The Perfect, The Eternal
> Al-Qadir: The Able, The Capable, The Omnipotent
> Al-Muqtadir: The Capable, The All Powerful
> Al-Muqaddim: The Presenter, The Advancer, The Expediter
> Al-Mu'akhkhir: The Fulfiller, The Deferrer
> Al-'Awwal: The First
> Al-'Akhir: The Last
> Az-Zahir: The Apparent, The Exterior, The Manifest
> Al-Batin: The Hidden, The Interior, The Veiled
> Al-Waali: The Governor, The Ruler, The Master
> Al-Muta'ali: The Exalted, The Most High, The One above reproach
> Al-Barr: The Benefactor, The Beneficient, The Pious
> At-Tawwab: The Acceptor of Repentance, The Forgiver, The Relenting
> Al-Muntaqim: The Avenger
> Al-'Afuww: The Forgiver, The Pardoner
> Ar-Ra'uf: The Merciful, The Ever Indulgent
> Al-Muqsit: The Just, The Equitable
> Aj-Jami': The Collector, The Comprehensive, The Gatherer
> Al-Ghanee: The Richest, The All Sufficing, The Self-Sufficient
> Al-Mughnee: The Enricher, The Sufficer, The Bestower
> Al-Maani': The Supporter
> Ad-Daarr: The Distresser, The Afflictor, The Bringer of Adversity
> An-Nafi': The Beneficial, The Benefactor
> An-Nur: The Light
> Al-Hadi: The Guide
> Al-Badi': The Wonderful, The Maker, The Incomparable
> Al-Baqi: The Enduring, The Everlasting, The Eternal
> Al-Warith: The Inheritor, The Heir
> Ar-Rashid: The Rightly Guided, The Concious, The Guide
> As-Sabur: The Most Patient, The Enduring
> Malik Al-Mulk: The Ruler of The Kingdom, The King of The Universe
> Zul-Jalali wal-Ikram: Lord of Majesty and Generosity
------
Requested_articles|985948488
7c7
< <b>The Netherlands:</b>[[Netherlands/Culture]] -- [[History of the Netherlands]] -- [[The Dutch monarchy]] -- [[Netherlands/Cities]] 
---
> <b>The Netherlands:</b>[[Netherlands/Culture]] -- [[The Dutch monarchy]] -- [[Netherlands/Cities]] 
------
Dependent_areas|985948519
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page gives a list of links to pages on colonies, overseas territories and other not or only partially independent country-like units.
> 
> <font size=+2>A</font> [[American Samoa]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>B</font> [[Baker Island]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] - [[British Virgin Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>C</font> [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Cook Islands]] - [[Coral Sea Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>D</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>E</font> [[England]] - [[Europa Island]]
> 
> <font size=+2>F</font> [[Falkland Islands]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[French Guiana]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>G</font> [[Gaza Strip]] - [[Gibraltar]] - [[Glorioso Islands]] - [[Greenland]] - [[Guadeloupe]] - [[Guam]] - [[Guernsey]]
> 
> <font size=+2>H</font> [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - [[Hong Kong]] - [[Howland Island]]
> 
> <font size=+2>I</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>J</font> [[Jan Mayen]] - [[Jarvis Island]] - [[Jersey]] - [[Johnston Atoll] - [[Juan de Nova Island]]
> 
> <font size=+2>K</font> [[Kingman Reef]] - [[Kosovo]]
> 
> <font size=+2>L</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>M</font> [[Macau]] - Isle of [[Man]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Montenegro]] - [[Montserrat]]
> 
> <font size=+2>N</font> [[Navassa Island]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]] - [[New Caledonia]] - [[Niue]] - [[Norfolk Island]] - [[Northern Ireland]] - [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>O</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>P</font> [[Palmyra Atoll]] - [[Pitcairn Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>Q</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>R</font> [[Reunion]]
> 
> <font size=+2>S</font> [[Saint Helena]] - [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] - [[Scotland]] - [[Serbia]] - [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] - [[Svalbard]]
> 
> <font size=+2>T</font> [[Tokelau]] - [[Tromelin Island]] - [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>U</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>V</font> [[Virgin Islands]]
> 
> <font size=+2>W</font> [[Wake Island]] - [[Wales]] - [[Wallis and Futuna]] - [[West Bank]]
> 
> <font size=+2>X</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>Y</font>
> 
> <font size=+2>Z</font> [[Zanzibar]]
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|985948524
4c4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Aden]] - [[Afghanistan]] - AlbaniA - [[Algeria]] - [[American Samoa]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br>[[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territories]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Canada]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] -[[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
10c10
< <font size=+2>D</font><br>[[Dahomey]] - [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>D</font><br> [[Denmark]] - [[Djibouti]] - [[Dominica]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
12c12
< <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
---
> <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Egypt]] - [[El Salvador]] - [[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Eritrea]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
14c14
< <font size=+2>G</font><br>[[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guyana]]
---
> <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]]
16c16
< <font size=+2>H</font><br>[[Haiti]] -- [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
---
> <font size=+2>G</font><br> [[Gabon]] - [[Gambia]] - [[Georgia]] - [[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Grenada]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guinea]] - [[Guinea-Bissau]] - [[Guyana]]
18c18
< <font size=+2>I</font><br>[[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
---
> <font size=+2>H</font><br> [[Haiti]] - [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
20c20
< <font size=+2>J</font><br>[[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
---
> <font size=+2>I</font><br> [[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
22c22
< <font size=+2>K</font><br>[[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
---
> <font size=+2>J</font><br> [[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
24c24
< <font size=+2>L</font><br>[[Latvia]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] -  [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]]
---
> <font size=+2>K</font><br> [[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
26c26
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Madagaskar]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>L</font><br> [[Laos]] - [[Latvia]] - [[Lebanon]] - [[Lesotho]] - [[Liberia]] - [[Libya]] - [[Liechtenstein]] - [[Lithuania]] - [[Luxembourg]]
28c28,30
< <font size=+2>N</font><br>[[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Norway]] - [[Norfolk Island]] (a country??)
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> Former Yugoslav Republic of [[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - federated states of [[Micronesia]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
> 
> <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Norway]]
32c34
< <font size=+2>P</font><br>[[Panama]] - [[Pakistan]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] -[[Phillipines]] - [[Pitcairn Island]] - [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
---
> <font size=+2>P</font><br> [[Pakistan]] - [[Palau]] - [[Panama]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] - [[Paraguay]] - [[Peru]] - [[Philippines]]- [[Poland]] - [[Portugal]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
34c36
< <font size=+2>Q</font><br>[[Qatar]]
---
> <font size=+2>Q</font><br> [[Qatar]]
36c38
< <font size=+2>R</font><br>[[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]
---
> <font size=+2>R</font><br> [[Romania]] - [[Russia]] - [[Rwanda]]
38c40
< <font size=+2>S</font><br>[[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Surinam]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
---
> <font size=+2>S</font><br> [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] - [[Saint Lucia]] - [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] - [[Samoa]] - [[San Marino]] - [[Sao Tome and Principe]] - [[Saudi Arabia]] - [[Senegal]] - [[Seychelles]] - [[Sierra Leone]] - [[Singapore]] - [[Slovakia]] - [[Slovenia]] - [[Solomon Islands]] - [[Somalia]] - [[South Africa]] - [[South Korea]] - [[Spain]] - [[Sri Lanka]] - [[Sudan]] - [[Suriname]] - [[Swaziland]] - [[Sweden]] - [[Switzerland]] - [[Syria]]
40c42
< <font size=+2>T</font><br>[[Taiwan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turks and Caicos]] - [[Tuvalu]]
---
> <font size=+2>T</font><br> [[Taiwan]] - [[Tajikistan]] - [[Tanzania]] - [[Thailand]] - [[Togo]] - [[Tonga]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Tunisia]] - [[Turkey]] - [[Turkmenistan]] - [[Tuvalu]]
42c44
< <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]]
---
> <font size=+2>U</font><br> [[Uganda]] - [[Ukraine]] - [[United Arab Emirates]] - [[United Kingdom]] - [[United States]] - [[Uruguay]] - [[Uzbekistan]]
46c48
< <font size=+2>W</font><br>[[Wales]]- [[Wallis and Fortuna]] - [[Western Samoa]]
---
> <font size=+2>W</font><br> [[Western Sahara]]
48c50
< <font size=+2>Y</font><br>[[Yemen]] -- [[Yugoslavia]]
---
> <font size=+2>Y</font><br> [[Yemen]] - [[Yugoslavia]]
50c52
< <font size=+2>Z</font><br>[[Zaire]] - [[Zambia]] - [[Zanzibar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
---
> <font size=+2>Z</font><br> [[Zambia]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
------
Netherlands|985948658
7c7
< The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian]] is also spoken.
---
> The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian Language]] is also spoken.
------
Netherlands|985948689
7c7
< The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian Language]] is also spoken.
---
> The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.
------
Dependent_areas|985949955
3c3
< <font size=+2>A</font> [[American Samoa]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font> [[American Samoa]] - [[Anguilla]] - [[Aruba]] - [[Ashmore And Cartier Islands]]
------
First_person_shooter|985950073
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A first-person shooter, or FPS, is a game belonging to that breed where the 'camera' or the player's view is an exact replica of the in-game character's... put more simply, you're looking through the eyes of the game's hero.  The title derives from this 'first-person' perspective.
> 
> The original FPS was Wolfenstein 3D from id software; it was shortly supplanted (around 1989/90) by the genre-defining Doom, which introduced network multiplayer capabilities and thereby guaranteed the persistence of the FPS in gaming formats; the real thrill of these already-atmospheric games comes from blasting colleagues, strangers, spouses etc.  A HUGE percentage of all new games nowadays are FPS, almost all playable over the Internet (on non-console platforms), giving rise to another enormous net subculture (usually called Clans, esp. re Quake, the definitive FPS).
> 
> Another characteristic of FPSs is the ability, either designed or hacked in, for players and enthusiasts to create their own levels (or indeed overall graphical appearances) for distribution to other fans.  This has again contributed to the longevity both of the genre and of individual games.
> 
> The appeal of the FPS lies in immersive frenetic blasting with a touch of verisimilitude, humour, puzzle-solving and claustrophobia.
> 
> 
------
Netherlands|985950231
1c1,2
< A quaint little monarchy nudged in the northwest corner of [[Europe]]. It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, having 16 million inhabitants on a piece of land of about 300 by 150 kilometers.
---
> Better known as [[Holland]], the Netherlands is a country in the 
> northwest corner of [[Europe]]
3c4,5
< The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller towns of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Alkmaar]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Lutjebroek]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
---
> It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, having 16 million inhabitants on a piece of land of about 300 by 150 kilometers. One remarkable aspect of the Netherlands is the flatness of the country. About half the country is less than 1 meter above sea level, some parts of it are actually below sea level. The highest point, the [[Vaalserberg]] is only 321m high.
> Much of the land has been reclaimed from the sea - these areas of reclaimed land are known as [[polders]]
7c9
< The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.
---
> The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller towns of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Lutjebroek]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
9,17c11
< ----
< 
< The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade.
< 
< Take a view at the [[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]].
< 
< ----
< 
< One remarkable aspect of the Netherlands, is the flatness of the country. About half the country is less than 1 meter above sea level, some parts of it are actually below sea level. The highest point, the [[Vaalserberg]] is only 321m high.
---
> The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade.
19,25c13
< Much of what is now the Netherlands, was originally sea or lake. Such pieces of land that have been won on the water, are called [[polders]].
< 
< ----
< 
< Better known as [[Holland]]
< 
< ----
---
> Country of [[Erasmus]] and [[Spinoza]]: all of [[Descartes]]' major work was done in Holland.
27,28d14
< Country of [[Erasmus]], [[Spinoza]] & [[Descartes]] 
< <BR>(All his major work was done in Holland)
30c16
< Also see
---
> See also:
------
Faroe_Islands|985950245
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of islands in the north Atlantic between [Scotland] and
> [Iceland]. They are a territory of [Denmark]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
------
Faroe_Islands|985950318
2c2
< [Iceland]. They are a territory of [Denmark]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
---
> [Iceland]. They are a territory of [[Denmark]]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
------
Faroe_Islands|985950365
1,2c1,2
< A group of islands in the north Atlantic between [Scotland] and
< [Iceland]. They are a territory of [[Denmark]]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
---
> A group of islands in the north Atlantic between [[Scotland]] and
> [[Iceland]]. They are a territory of [[Denmark]]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
------
Faroe_Islands|985950394
1c1
< A group of islands in the north Atlantic between [[Scotland]] and
---
> A group of islands in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Scotland]] and
------
Go|985951462
2a3,4
> (The same game is played in China under the name Wei-chi, or Wei-qi, and in Korea under the name Baduk. It may have originated in China, and is much older than 500AD. In fact the game gets a brief mention in the writings of [[Confucious]].)
> 
42c44,46
< Go Masters to date have been all male.
---
> Go Masters to date have been all male. (Not quite true, there are
> some women playing at master level in Japan, China and probably
> elsewhere.)
------
Requested_articles|985951514
18c18
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[first person shooter]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
------
Zanzibar|985952113
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zanzibar is an island off the east coast of [[Africa]]. It was an independant nation at one stage, then a colony of the [[United Kingdom]]. Today it is part of [[Tanzania]].
------
Aruba|985952397
5c5
< In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherland Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the [[Dutch monarch]], who appoints a governor to represent her.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
---
> In 1986 Aruba seperated from the rest of the [[Netherlands Antilles]] and became an autonomous part of the Kingdom of the [[Netherlands]].   The head of State is the [[Dutch monarch]], who appoints a governor to represent her.  Internal affairs are the responsibilty of the elected prime minister and his council of ministers.
------
Crypto|985952910
1c1
< see CryptologY
---
> see [[cryptology]], [[cryptography]] 
------
Australia|985953204
2c2
< It is the seventh and smallest of the [[continent]]s, being both an island and a continent.
---
> It is the seventh and smallest of the [[continent]]s, being both an [[island]] and a [[continent]].
5c5
< Australia's capital is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
---
> Australia's [[capital]] is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
------
Antarctica|985953319
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[continent]] located around [[earth]]'s [[South pole]], which is entirely covered by ice.
------
Libya|985953732
1c1
< Libya is an Islamic Arabic country ruled by a Dictator nowdays called Qhadafi. The country has a nice stratigiec position in North Africa, and a long coast on the Medetarinian sea opposite to Italy.
---
> Libya is an Islamic Arabic country ruled by a dictator called Qhadafi. The country has a strategic location in North [[Africa]], and a long coast on the [[Mediterranean sea]] south of [[Italy]].
------
Pope|985953744
4c4,66
< * ...
---
> * [[St. Peter|Peter]] (32-67)
> * [[pope Linus|Linus]] (67-76)
> * [[Anacletus I]] (76-88)
> * [[Clement I]] (88-97)
> * [[Evaristus]] (97-105)
> * [[Alexander I]] (105-115)
> * [[Sixtus I]] (115-125)
> * [[Telesphorus]] (125-136)
> * [[Hyginus]] (136-140)
> * [[Pius I]] (140-155)
> * [[Anicetus]] (155-166)
> * [[Soter]] (166-175)
> * [[Eleuterus]] (175-189)
> * [[Victor I]] (189-199)
> * [[Zephyrinus]] (199-217)
> * [[Callistus I]] (217-222)
> * [[Urban I]] (222-230)
> * [[Pontain]] (230-235)
> * [[Anterus]] (235-236)
> * [[Fabian]] (236-250)
> * [[Cornelius]] (251-253)
> * [[Lucius I]] (253-254)
> * [[Stephen I]] (254-257)
> * [[Sixtus II]] (257-258)
> * [[pope Dionysius|Dionysius]] (260-268)
> * [[Felix I]] (269-274)
> * [[Eutychian]] (275-283)
> * [[Caius]] (283-296)
> * [[Marcellinus]] (296-304)
> * [[Marcellus I]] (308-309)
> * [[Eusebius]] (309-310)
> * [[Miltiades]] (311-314)
> * [[Sylvester I]] (314-335)
> * [[Marcus]] (335-336)
> * [[Julius I]] (337-352)
> * [[Liberius]] (352-366)
> * [[Damasus I]] (366-383)
> * [[Siricius]] (384-399)
> * [[Anastasius I]] (399-401)
> * [[Innocent I]] (401-417)
> * [[Zosimus]] (417-418)
> * [[Boniface I]] (418-422)
> * [[Celestine I]] (422-432)
> * [[Sixtus III]] (432-440)
> * [[Leo I]] (440-461)
> * [[Hilarius]] (461-468)
> * [[Simplicius]] (468-483)
> * [[Felix III]] (483-492)
> * [[Gelasius I]] (492-496)
> * [[Anastasius II]] (496-498)
> * [[Symmachus]] (498-514)
> * [[Hormisdas]] (514-523)
> * [[John I]] (523-526)
> * [[Felix IV]] (526-530)
> * [[Boniface II]] (530-532)
> * [[John II]] (533-535)
> * [[Agapetus I]] (535-536)
> * [[Silverius]] (536-537)
> * [[Vigilius]] (537-555)
> * [[Pelagius I]] (556-561)
> * [[John III]] (561-574)
> * [[Benedict I]] (575-579)
> * [[Pelagius II]] (579-590)
16c78
< * [[Eugenius I]] (654-7)
---
> * [[Eugene I]] (654-7)
25a88,131
> * [[John VI]] (701-705)
> * [[John VII]] (705-709)
> * [[Sisinniius]] (708)
> * [[Constantine]] (708-715)
> * [[Gregory II]] (715-731)
> * [[Gregory III]] (731-741)
> * [[Zacharias]] (741-752)
> * [[Stephen II]] (752-757)
> * [[Paul I]] (757-767)
> * [[Stephen III]] (767-772)
> * [[Adrian I]] (772-795)
> * [[Leo III]] (795-816)
> * [[Stephen IV]] (816-817)
> * [[Paschal I]] (817-824)
> * [[Eugene II]] (824-827)
> * [[Valentine]] (827)
> * [[Gregory IV]] (827-844)
> * [[Sergius II]] (844-847)
> * [[Leo IV]] (847-855)
> * [[Benedict III]] (855-858)
> * [[Nicholas I]] (858-867)
> * [[Adrian II]] (867-872)
> * [[John VIII]] (872-882)
> * [[Marinus I]] (882-884)
> * [[Adrian III]] (884-885)
> * [[Stephen V]] (885-891)
> * [[Formosus]] (891-896)
> * [[Boniface VI]] (896)
> * [[Stephen VI]] (896-897)
> * [[Romanus]] (897)
> * [[Theodore II]] (897)
> * [[John IX]] (898-900)
> * [[Benedict IV]] (900-903)
> * [[Leo V]] (903)
> * [[Christopher]] (903-904)
> * [[Sergius III]] (904-911)
> * [[Anastasius III]] (911-913)
> * [[Lando]] (913-914)
> * [[John X]] (914-928)
> * [[Leo VI]] (928-929)
> * [[Stephen VII]] (929-931)
> * [[John XI]] (931-935)
> * [[Leo VII]] (936-939)
> * [[Stephen VIII]] (939-942)
------
SandBox|985953860
6c6
< <pre>
---
> &lt;pre&gt;
12c12
<                            * ***** *        &Theta; = =
---
>                            * ***** *        &amp;Theta; = =
14c14
<                            * ?   ? *                      &Theta;
---
>                            * ?   ? *                      &amp;Theta;
19c19
< </pre>
---
> &lt;/pre&gt;
21c21
< A monkey says "eep".
---
> A monkey says &quot;eep&quot;.
31c31
< Why don't you people use TWiki?  It is, in my opinion, better than the typical wiki web because it stores an entire revision history of each page.  You can also turn things into wiki pages that don't fit the CorrectSyntax.  So, you could make "Correctsyntax" into a page.
---
> Why don't you people use TWiki?  It is, in my opinion, better than the typical wiki web because it stores an entire revision history of each page.  You can also turn things into wiki pages that don't fit the CorrectSyntax.  So, you could make &quot;Correctsyntax&quot; into a page.
47c47
< No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. ?????  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..°?????*--~?s>??Yí¡¢ú
---
> No. I was entering unprintable characters by holding down the ALT key and entering 0141 in the keypad. This is on a PC not a Mac. ?????  See...RoseParks. Learned from entering the Iternational Phonetics Alphabet in a doc, then copying to e-mail I got boxes and other strange things. «««« See..°?????*--~?s&gt;??Yí¡¢ú
60,69c60,69
< <table border=2/>
< <tr>
<   <td> Me  </td>
<   <td> You </td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
<   <td> A+  </td>
<   <td> F   </td>
< </tr>
< </table>
---
> &lt;table border=2/&gt;
> &lt;tr&gt;
>   &lt;td&gt; Me  &lt;/td&gt;
>   &lt;td&gt; You &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;/tr&gt;
> &lt;tr&gt;
>   &lt;td&gt; A+  &lt;/td&gt;
>   &lt;td&gt; F   &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;/tr&gt;
> &lt;/table&gt;
78c78
< *f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...
---
> *f(x) = a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ...
80c80
< *<font size=+2 color=red>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
---
> *&lt;font size=+2 color=red&gt;f(x) = a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + a&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ...&lt;/font&gt;
88c88
<  <b>bold</b>
---
>  &lt;b&gt;bold&lt;/b&gt;
93c93
< <h2>Level 2 Heading</h2>
---
> &lt;h2&gt;Level 2 Heading&lt;/h2&gt;
95c95
< <h3>Level 3 Heading</h3>
---
> &lt;h3&gt;Level 3 Heading&lt;/h3&gt;
97c97
< &lt;i&gt;This should not be italicized!&lt;/i&gt;
---
> &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;This should not be italicized!&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;
99c99
< <q>Tagged quotes?  No.</q>
---
> &lt;q&gt;Tagged quotes?  No.&lt;/q&gt;
101c101
< <samp>SAMP</samp>, <kbd>KBD</kbd>, <var>VAR</var>, <dfn>DFN</dfn>
---
> &lt;samp&gt;SAMP&lt;/samp&gt;, &lt;kbd&gt;KBD&lt;/kbd&gt;, &lt;var&gt;VAR&lt;/var&gt;, &lt;dfn&gt;DFN&lt;/dfn&gt;
103,104c103,104
< <blockquote>Inset quotes?  Yes!</blockquote>
< <cite>Citations?  Yes!</cite>----
---
> &lt;blockquote&gt;Inset quotes?  Yes!&lt;/blockquote&gt;
> &lt;cite&gt;Citations?  Yes!&lt;/cite&gt;----
108c108
< <tt>teletype</tt>
---
> &lt;tt&gt;teletype&lt;/tt&gt;
112c112
< <!--Comment here-->
---
> &lt;!--Comment here--&gt;
117a118
> Test emacs-w3-mode.
------
Albert_Einstein|985953880
3c3
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, Germany.  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a Jew he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Würtenberg, [[Germany]].  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a [[Jews|Jew]] he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
------
Islam|985954129
1,4c1,6
< Islam means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word [[peace]], [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adem,Noah,Mosses,Jessus, and all the other Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed.
< The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic,..etc. It talks about God, and God Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the bleivers, and thier virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jessus, and all the other prophets.It has some scientific discoveries,..etc 
< Muslims believe that all humanbeings belong to One Nation, but deviation from religion, and Good caused all these differences, and sects to appear. one of these sects for example that has nothing to do with the spirit of Islam is [[Nation Of Islam]] which is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are called[[Muslims]], and therefore accliamed to be members of [[Islam]]; but that is not true. this movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
< True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah",the holy book of jessus "Injeel", and all the other holy books, Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds. the bleive that [[Allah ]] created heaven, and earth, and manages them.
---
> Islam is one of the world's largest [[religion]]s. 
> 
> The word "Islam" means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word [[peace]], [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adam, Noah, Mosses, Jesus, and all the other Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed.
> The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic, etc. It talks about God, and God's Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the believers, and their virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jesus, and all the other prophets. It has some scientific discoveries, etc. 
> Muslims believe that all human beings belong to One Nation, but deviation from religion, and Good caused all these differences, and sects to appear. One of these sects for example that has nothing to do with the spirit of Islam is [[Nation Of Islam]] which is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are called [[Muslims]], and therefore acclaimed to be members of [[Islam]]; but that is not true. This movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
> True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah", the holy book of Jesus "Injeel", and all the other holy books. Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds. The belief that [[Allah ]] created heaven, and earth, and manages them.
------
Allah|985954272
1,3c1,3
< Allah is one of the names of God.
< Allah is the creator, and the Lord.
< There are no true Gods but Allah, the God of adem,Mosses, and jessus, and the prophets
---
> Allah is one of the names of God.
> Allah is the creator, and the Lord.
> [[Muslim]]s believe that there are no other [[God]]s but Allah, the God of Adam, Moses, and Jesus, and the prophets.
------
Economics|985954381
17c17
< [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]]
---
> [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]] -- [[Market forms]]
19c19
< [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Economists]]
------
Economists|985954516
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economists are scholars, doing research in the field of [[economics]]. The most famous ones include:
> *[[Adam Smith]]
> *[[Karl Marx]]
> *[[Friedrich Engels]]
> *[[Milton Friedman]]
> *[[Maynard Keynes]]
> *[[Hayek]]
> 
------
Crypto|985954656
0a1,2
> derived from the Greek word ''kryptós'' meaning "hidden." 
> 
------
Albert_Einstein|985956179
3,4c3,4
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Würtenberg, [[Germany]].  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazis]], being a [[Jews|Jew]] he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
< In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativety. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Würtenberg, [[Germany]].  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazi]]s, being a [[Jews|Jew]] he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
> In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativIty. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
------
Set_Theory|985956193
68c68,70
<    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that, if x is in X, so is {x}.  
---
>    Axiom of infinite:         There exists a set X such that {}
>                               is an element of X and whenever 
>                               x is in X, so is ''x union {x}''.
70c72
< ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?''
---
> ''This has been left in here uncorrected for a long time now.  Is the empty set infinite?'' -- Now corrected.
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985956404
15a16
> * I have little knowledge of the history of Wikipedia. What I do know is that an encylopedia to which anyone can contribute is an idea that I'm excited about. If there are people here that are not interested such a project, there are plenty of other wikis, message boards and newsgroups where they can choose to participate. Regarding the remarks of [[LMS]]: I'm a new 'ordinary user' here. As far as I'm concerned, the force of any comment he makes is in direct proportion to the strength of the arguments he uses to support said comment. -- [[STG]]
------
CryptologY|985956779
1,20c1
< CryptologY is a science concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
< 
< 
< The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a CipheR by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the CipheR is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the CipheR to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
< 
< The most frequently confused, and misused, terms in the lexicon of CryptologY are CodE and CipheR. Even experts occasionally employ these terms as though they were synonymous.
< 
< [[Crypto]] is short for Cryptology.
< 
< ----
< 
< See also:
< 
< * DataEncryptionStandard - [[DES]]
< * [[Blowfish]]
< * EnigmA
< * UltrA
< * OneTimePads
< * PrettyGoodPrivacy
< * [[Codec]]
---
> #REDIRECT Cryptology
------
Cryptology|985956796
1c1,20
< #REDIRECT CryptologY
---
> CryptologY is a science concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
> 
> 
> The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a CipheR by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the CipheR is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the CipheR to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
> 
> The most frequently confused, and misused, terms in the lexicon of CryptologY are CodE and CipheR. Even experts occasionally employ these terms as though they were synonymous.
> 
> [[Crypto]] is short for Cryptology.
> 
> ----
> 
> See also:
> 
> * DataEncryptionStandard - [[DES]]
> * [[Blowfish]]
> * EnigmA
> * UltrA
> * OneTimePads
> * PrettyGoodPrivacy
> * [[Codec]]
------
Cryptology|985958768
1c1
< CryptologY is a science concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both CryptographY and CryptanalysiS.
---
> Cryptology is a [[science]] concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]].
4c4
< The term CryptologY is derived from the GreeK kryptós, "hidden," and lógos, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a CipheR by virtue of a key--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the CipheR is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the CipheR to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
---
> The term <i>cryptology</i> is derived from the [[Greek]] <i>kryptós</i>, "hidden," and <i>lógos</i>, "word." Security obtains from legitimate users, the transmitter and the receiver, being able to transform information into a [[cipher]] by virtue of a [[key]]--i.e., a piece of information known only to them. Although the cipher is inscrutable and often unforgeable to anyone without this secret key, the authorized receiver can either decrypt the cipher to recover the hidden information or verify that it was sent in all likelihood by someone possessing the key. 
6c6
< The most frequently confused, and misused, terms in the lexicon of CryptologY are CodE and CipheR. Even experts occasionally employ these terms as though they were synonymous.
---
> The most frequently confused, and misused, terms in the lexicon of cryptology are [[code]] and [[cipher]]. Even experts occasionally employ these terms as though they were synonymous.
8c8
< [[Crypto]] is short for Cryptology.
---
> [[Crypto]] is short for cryptology.
------
DES|985958879
1c1
< acroynm for DataEncryptionStandard
---
> acroynm for [[Data Encryption Standard]]
------
Data_Encryption_Standard|985958967
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
> 
> Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) to replace DES.
> 
> See also: [[CryptologY]]
------
DataEncryptionStandard|985959006
1,5c1
< The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
< 
< Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) to replace DES.
< 
< See also: [[CryptologY]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Data Encrytion Standard]]
------
DataEncryptionStandard|985959039
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Data Encrytion Standard]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Data Encryption Standard]]
------
Data_Encryption_Standard|985959338
1c1
< The DataEncryptionStandard (DES) is a product block CipheR in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data (plaintext) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by the DES as well.) The key, which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The CipheR function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the CipheR output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate CipheR, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next CipheR, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the Bureau of Standards in tabulated functions known as S boxes. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate CipheR. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To decrypt a CipheR, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
---
> The [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES) is a product block [[cipher]] in which 16 iterations, or rounds, of the substitution and transposition (permutation) process are cascaded. The block size is 64 bits, so that a 64-bit block of data ([[plaintext]]) can be encrypted into a 64-bit cipher at any one time. (A 64-bit block cipher can be decrypted by DES as well.) The [[key]], which controls the transformation, also consists of 64 bits. Only 56 of these, however, are at the user's disposal; the remaining eight bits are employed for checking parity (the state of being odd or even used as a basis for detecting errors in binary-coded data). Subsets of the key bits are designated K1, K2, etc., with the subscript indicating the number of the round. The cipher function (substitution and transposition) that is used with the key bits in each round is labeled f. At each intermediate stage of the transformation process, the cipher output from the preceding stage is partitioned into the 32 leftmost bits, Li, and the 32 rightmost bits, Ri. Ri is transposed to become the left-hand part of the next higher intermediate cipher, Li+1. The right-hand half of the next cipher, Ri+1, however, is a complex function of the key and of the entire preceding intermediate cipher. The essential feature to the security of the DES is that f involves a very special nonlinear substitution--i.e., f(A) + f(B)  f(A + B)--specified by the [[Bureau of Standards]] in tabulated functions known as [[S boxes]]. This operation results in a 32-bit number, which is logically added to Ri to produce the left-hand half of the new intermediate cipher. This process is repeated, 16 times in all. To [[decrypt]] a cipher, the process is carried out in reverse order, with the 16th round being first. The DES process lends itself well to integrated-chip implementation. By 1984 the Bureau of Standards had certified over 35 LSI- and VLSI-chip implementations of the DES, most on single 40-pin chips, some of which operate at speeds of several million bits per second.
3c3
< Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use triple DES (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) to replace DES.
---
> Because the key length is only 56 bits, DES can be, and has been, broken. Many former DES users now use [[triple DES]] (3DES) which involves DES coding each block three times with different keys. 3DES is considered safe for now. The U.S. [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) has selected a new cipher, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES) to replace DES.
5c5
< See also: [[CryptologY]]
---
> See also: [[cryptology]]
------
DES|985959427
1c1
< acroynm for [[Data Encryption Standard]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Data Encryption Standard]]
------
Cryptology|985959457
14c14,15
< * DataEncryptionStandard - [[DES]]
---
> * [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] - [[AES]]
> * [[Data Encryption Standard]] - [[DES]]
------
Enigma|985959616
1,2c1
< Enigma was a device used by the German military command to encode strategic messages before and during [[World War II|World War II]]. The Enigma Code was broken by a British intelligence system known as UltrA.
< 
---
> 
------
UltrA|985959658
1,12c1
< UltrA was an Allied intelligence system that, in tapping the very highest-level communications among the German armed forces, as well as (after 1941) those of the Japanese armed forces, contributed to the Allied victory in World War II.
< 
< 
< In 1938 a Polish mechanic employed in a German factory producing secret signaling machines named EnigmA (which worked on the basis of a set of preset revolving drums) took notes of the components before being repatriated and, with the help of the British and French secret services, constructed a wooden mockup of the machine. A British cryptographer later smuggled a complete new EnigmA machine to EnglanD. There, British mathematicians and cryptographers conquered the problems of EnigmA variations and found means of cracking the CipheR's. Early in 1939 Britain's secret service set up the UltrA project at BletchleyPark, 50 miles (80 km) north of LondoN, for the purpose of intercepting the Germans' EnigmA signals and controlling the distribution of the resultant secret information. Strict rules were established to restrict the number of people who knew about the existence of the UltrA information and to ensure that no actions would alert the Axis powers that the Allies possessed knowledge of their plans.
< 
< 
< The incoming signals from the German war machine (more than 2,000 daily at the war's height) were of the highest level, even from AdolfHitler himself. Such information enabled the Allies to build up an accurate picture of enemy plans and orders of battle, forming the basis of war plans both strategic and tactical. UltrA intercepts of signals helped the Royal Air Force to win the Battle of Britain. Signals between AdolfHitler and General Günther von Kluge led to the destruction of a large part of the German forces in NormandY in 1944 after the Allied landing. In the Pacific the Germans had supplied their Japanese ally with an EnigmA machine as early as 1937; the modified Japanese version, called "Purple" by the Americans, was duplicated by the U.S. Signal Intelligence Service well before PearlHarbor. Resultant revelations of Japanese plans led to U.S. naval victories in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, crushing the offensive power of the Japanese fleet, and enabled American flyers to find and shoot down the plane carrying Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku, the Japanese commander in the Pacific.
< 
< 
< For 29 years after the war the existence of UltrA remained an official British secret. The ban was not lifted until 1974, the year that a key participant in the UltrA project, Frederick William Winterbotham, published The UltrA Secret.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ultra]]
------
Enigma|985959721
1c1,2
< 
---
> Enigma was a device used by the [[German]] [[military]] command to encode strategic messages before and during [[World War II]]. The Enigma Code was broken by a [[British]] intelligence system known as [[Ultra]].
> 
------
Ultra|985960087
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ultra was an [[Allied]] intelligence system that, in tapping the very highest-level communications among the [[German]] armed forces, as well as (after 1941) those of the [[Japanese]] armed forces, contributed to the Allied victory in [[World War II]].
> 
> 
> In 1938 a [[Polish]] mechanic employed in a German factory producing secret signaling machines named [[Enigma]] (which worked on the basis of a set of preset revolving drums) took notes of the components before being repatriated and, with the help of the [[British]] and [[French]] secret services, constructed a wooden mockup of the machine. A British [[cryptographer]] later smuggled a complete new Enigma machine to [[England]]. There, British [[mathematician|mathematicians]] and cryptographers conquered the problems of Enigma variations and found means of cracking the [[cipher|ciphers]. Early in 1939 Britain's secret service set up the Ultra project at [[Bletchley Park]], 50 miles (80 km) north of [[London]], for the purpose of intercepting the Germans' Enigma signals and controlling the distribution of the resultant secret information. Strict rules were established to restrict the number of people who knew about the existence of the Ultra information and to ensure that no actions would alert the [[Axis]] powers that the Allies possessed knowledge of their plans.
> 
> 
> The incoming signals from the German war machine (more than 2,000 daily at the war's height) were of the highest level, even from [[Adolf Hitler]] himself. Such information enabled the Allies to build up an accurate picture of enemy plans and orders of battle, forming the basis of war plans both strategic and tactical. Ultra intercepts of signals helped the Royal Air Force to win the [[Battle of Britain]]. Signals between Adolf Hitler and General [[Gunther von Kluge|Günther von Kluge]] led to the destruction of a large part of the German forces in [[Normandy]] in 1944 after the Allied landing. In the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] the Germans had supplied their [[Japanese]] ally with an Enigma machine as early as 1937; the modified Japanese version, called "Purple" by the Americans, was duplicated by the [[U.S. Signal Intelligence Service]] well before [[Pearl Harbor]]. Resultant revelations of Japanese plans led to [[United States|U.S.]] naval victories in the battles of the [[Coral Sea]] and [[Battle of Midway|Midway]], crushing the offensive power of the Japanese fleet, and enabled American flyers to find and shoot down the plane carrying Admiral [[Yamamoto Isoroku]], the Japanese commander in the Pacific.
> 
> 
> For 29 years after the war the existence of Ultra remained an official British secret. The ban was not lifted until 1974, the year that a key participant in the Ultra project, [[Frederick William Winterbotham]], published [[The Ultra Secret]].
------
PrettyGoodPrivacy|985960179
1c1
< PGP (PrettyGoodPrivacy) is an application developed by PhilZimmermann that provides an easy to use interface for high security encryption of emails and other sensitive content. The newer PGP packages contain plug-ins for most modern email applications like MicrosoftOutlook, OutlookExpress and NetscapeMessenger. PGP uses AsymmetricEncryption and the RSA algorithm with a PublicKey and a PrivateKey which are used to sign and encrypt a message. The PublicKey is publicly available on some of the many KeyServer around the world and it can be used to encrypt a message to the owner of the PublicKey or to verify a signature of the keyowner. The recipient of the encrypted message can then decrypt this message using his PrivateKey. To verify whether an email was not altered during transmission and whether it was really sent by the specified sender you can use PGP to electronically sign your mail. PGP then creats a HashCode of the message, which is then encrypted using the PrivateKey of the signer. The recipient of the mail uses the PublicKey of the signer to decrypt the HashCode which is then compared to the HashCode the recipient computes using the mail content. Only if both hashes are the same the mail was not altered. Currently there exists an open source and free replacement for PGP called GnuPG.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pretty Good Privacy]]
------
PhilZimmermann|985960328
1c1
< Phil Zimmermann is the creator of PrettyGoodPrivacy (PGP). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the FBI (the FederalBureauOfInvestigation) and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
---
> Phil Zimmermann is the creator of [[Pretty Good Privacy]] ([[PGP]]). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
------
PhilZimmermann|985960387
1c1
< Phil Zimmermann is the creator of [[Pretty Good Privacy]] ([[PGP]]). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Phil Zimmermann]]
------
PhilZimmermann|985960430
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Phil Zimmermann]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Philip Zimmermann]]
------
Philip_Zimmermann|985960451
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philip Zimmermann is the creator of [[Pretty Good Privacy]] ([[PGP]]). He was the first to make asymmetric encryption available to the masses - which was the reason why he was soon charged by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and he nearly had to go to prison for his achievement.
------
Pope|985960512
67c67
< * [[Gregory the Great|Gregory I the Great]] (590-604)
---
> * [[Gregory I]] the Great (590-604)
95c95,96
< * [[Stephen II]] (752-757)
---
> * [[Stephen II]] (752)
> * [[Stephen III]] (752-757)
97c98
< * [[Stephen III]] (767-772)
---
> * [[Stephen IV]] (767-772)
100c101
< * [[Stephen IV]] (816-817)
---
> * [[Stephen V]] (816-817)
108c109
< * [[Nicholas I]] (858-867)
---
> * [[Nicholas I]] the Great (858-867)
113c114
< * [[Stephen V]] (885-891)
---
> * [[Stephen VI]] (885-891)
116c117
< * [[Stephen VI]] (896-897)
---
> * [[Stephen VII]] (896-897)
128c129
< * [[Stephen VII]] (929-931)
---
> * [[Stephen VIII]] (929-931)
131,132c132,207
< * [[Stephen VIII]] (939-942)
< * ...
---
> * [[Stephen IX]] (939-942)
> * [[Marinus II]] (942-946)
> * [[Agapetus II]] (946-955)
> * [[John XII]] (955-963)
> * [[Leo VIII]] (963-964)
> * [[Benedict V]] (964)
> * [[John XIII]] (965-972)
> * [[Benedict VI]] (973-974)
> * [[Benedict VII]] (974-983)
> * [[John XIV]] (983-984)
> * [[John XV]] (985-996)
> * [[Gregory V]] (996-999)
> * [[Sylvester II]] (999-1003)
> * [[John XVII]] (1003)
> * [[John XVIII]] (1003-1009)
> * [[Sergius IV]] (1009-1012)
> * [[Benedict VIII]] (1012-1024)
> * [[John XIX]] (1024-1032)
> * [[Benedict IX]] (1032-1045)
> * [[Sylvester III]] (1045)
> * [[Benedict IX]] (1045)
> * [[Gregory VI]] (1045-1046)
> * [[Clement II]] (1046-1047)
> * [[Benedict IX]] (1047-1048)
> * [[Damasus II]] (1048)
> * [[Leo IX]] (1049-1054)
> * [[Victor II]] (1055-1057)
> * [[Stephen X]] (1057-1058)
> * [[Nicholas II]] (1058-1061)
> * [[Alexander II]] (1061-1073)
> * [[Gregory VII]] (1073-1085)
> * [[Victor III]] (1086-1087)
> * [[Urban II]] (1088-1099)
> * [[Paschal II]] (1099-1118)
> * [[Gelasius II]] (1118-1119)
> * [[Callistus II]] (1119-1124)
> * [[Honorius II]] (1124-1130)
> * [[Innocent II]] (1130-1143)
> * [[Celestine II]] (1143-1144)
> * [[Lucius II]] (1144-1145)
> * [[Eugene III]] (1145-1153)
> * [[Anastasius IV]] (1153-1154)
> * [[Adrian IV]] (1154-1159)
> * [[Alexander III]] (1159-1181)
> * [[Lucius III]] (1181-1185)
> * [[Urban III]] (1185-1187)
> * [[Gregory VIII]] (1187)
> * [[Clement III]] (1187-1191)
> * [[Celestine III]] (1191-1198)
> * [[Innocent III]] (1198-1216)
> * [[Honorius III]] (1216-1227)
> * [[Gregory IX]] (1227-1241)
> * [[Celestine IV]] (1241)
> * [[Innocent IV]] (1243-1254)
> * [[Alexander IV]] (1254-1261)
> * [[Urban IV]] (1261-1264)
> * [[Clement IV]] (1265-1268)
> * [[Gregory X]] (1271-1276)
> * [[Innocent V]] (1276)
> * [[Adrian V]] (1276)
> * [[John XXI]] (1276-1277)
> * [[Nicholas III]] (1277-1280)
> * [[Martin IV]] (1281-1285)
> * [[Honorius IV]] (1285-1287)
> * [[Nicholas IV]] (1288-1292)
> * [[Celestine V]] (1294)
> * [[Boniface VIII]] (1294-1303)
> * [[Benedict XI]] (1303-1304)
> * [[Clement V]] (1305-1314)
> * [[John XXII]] (1316-1334)
> * [[Benedict XII]] (1334-1342)
> * [[Clement VI]] (1342-1352)
> * [[Innocent VI]] (1352-1362)
> * [[Urban V]] (1362-1370)
> * [[Gregory XI]] (1370-1378)
> * [[Urban VI]] (1378-1389)
148,150c223,272
< * ...
< * [[John Paul]]
< * [[John Paul II]]
---
> * [[Pius III]] (1503)
> * [[Julius II]] (1503-1513)
> * [[Leo X]] (1513-1521)
> * [[Adrian VI]] (1522-1523)
> * [[Clement VII]] (1523-1534)
> * [[Paul III]] (1534-1549)
> * [[Julius III]] (1550-1555)
> * [[Marcellus II]] (1555)
> * [[Paul IV]] (1555-1559)
> * [[Pius IV]] (1559-1565)
> * [[Pius V]] (1566-1572)
> * [[Gregory XIII]] (1572-1585)
> * [[Sixtus V]] (1585-1590)
> * [[Urban VII]] (1590)
> * [[Gregory XIV]] (1590-1591)
> * [[Innocent IX]] (1591)
> * [[Clement VIII]] (1592-1605)
> * [[Leo XI]] (1605)
> * [[Paul V]] (1605-1621)
> * [[Gregory XV]] (1621-1623)
> * [[Urban VIII]] (1623-1644)
> * [[Innocent X]] (1644-1655)
> * [[Alexander VII]] (1655-1667)
> * [[Clement IX]] (1667-1669)
> * [[Clement X]] (1670-1676)
> * [[Innocent XI]] (1676-1689)
> * [[Alexander VIII]] (1689-1691)
> * [[Innocent XII]] (1691-1700)
> * [[Clement XI]] (1700-1721)
> * [[Innocent XIII]] (1721-1724)
> * [[Benedict XIII]] (1724-1730)
> * [[Clement XII]] (1730-1740)
> * [[Benedict XIV]] (1740-1758)
> * [[Clement XIII]] (1758-1769)
> * [[Clement XIV]] (1769-1774)
> * [[Pius VI]] (1775-1799)
> * [[Pius VII]] (1800-1823)
> * [[Leo XII]] (1823-1829)
> * [[Pius VIII]] (1829-1830)
> * [[Gregory XVI]] (1831-1846)
> * [[Pius IX]] (1846-1878)
> * [[Leo XIII]] (1878-1903)
> * [[Pius X]] (1903-1914)
> * [[Benedict XV]] (1914-1922)
> * [[Pius XI]] (1922-1939)
> * [[Pius XII]] (1939-1958)
> * [[John XXIII]] (1958-1963)
> * [[Paul VI]] (1963-1978)
> * [[John Paul I]] (1978)
> * [[John Paul II]] (1978-present)
------
AlbaniA|985960688
1c1
< See [[Albania]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania]]
------
Pretty_Good_Privacy|985960721
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) is an application developed by [[Phil Zimmermann]] that provides high security [[encryption]] of [[email|emails]] and other sensitive content. The newer PGP packages contain [[Plug-in|plug-ins]] for most modern email applications like [[Microsoft Outlook]], [[Outlook Express]] and [[Netscape Messenger]]. PGP uses [[asymmetric encryption]] and the [[RSA]] [[algorithm]] with a [[public key]] and a [[private key]] which are used to sign and [[encrypt]] a message. The public key is publicly available on some of the many [[Key server|key servers]] around the world and it can be used to encrypt a message to the owner of the public key or to verify a signature of the keyowner. The recipient of the encrypted message can then [[decrypt]] this message using his private key. To verify whether an email was not altered during transmission and whether it was really sent by the specified sender you can use PGP to electronically sign your mail. PGP then creats a [[hash code]] of the message, which is then encrypted using the private key of the signer. The recipient of the mail uses the public key of the signer to decrypt the hash code which is then compared to the hash code the recipient computes using the mail content. Only if both hashes are the same the mail was not altered. 
> 
> Currently there exists an [[open source]] replacement for PGP called [[Gnu Privacy Guard]] (GPG).
------
PGP|985960799
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pretty Good Privacy]]
------
Cryptology|985960826
17,20c17,20
< * EnigmA
< * UltrA
< * OneTimePads
< * PrettyGoodPrivacy
---
> * [[Enigma]]
> * [[Ultra]]
> * [[One time pads]]
> * [[Pretty Good Privacy]]
------
Gnu_Privacy_Guard|985960892
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[open source]] [[PGP]] replacement.
> 
> See [[Pretty Good Privacy]].
------
Buddhism|985960927
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Religion|religion]] based on the teachings of the [[Buddha]].
> 
> According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million.
> 
> ----
> 
> Other related local pages include:
> * NirvanaBuddhism
> 
> ----
> Notable online resources include:
> * [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Google directory for Buddhism]
> * [http://buddhism.about.com/religion/buddhism/ About.com entry for Buddhism]
> 
------
BuddhIsm|985960943
1,13c1
< The [[Religion|religion]] based on the teachings of the BuddHa.
< 
< According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with most around 350 million.
< 
< ----
< 
< Other related local pages include:
< * NirvanaBuddhism
< 
< ----
< Notable online resources include:
< * [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Buddhism/ Google directory for Buddhism]
< * [http://buddhism.about.com/religion/buddhism/ About.com entry for Buddhism]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]
------
Buddha|985961030
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Founder of [[Buddhism]] who lived approximately 563-483 BCE.  The Buddha, born Gautama Siddhartha, was a prince by birth, but at age 29 became dissatisfied with what he observed as an unjustifiable disparity between the luxury of his life, and the abject poverty he had observed within the community in general, and began practicing austere meditative practices.  After six years, he abandoned the severe practices, and soon afterwards realized complete awakening/enlightenment.  That enlightnment is called a state of "Bodhi," and hence the name "Buddha," or "enlightened one."  The Buddha taught followers for 45 years until his death (considered to be the complete ending of the Buddha).
> 
> See [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A Sketch of the Buddha's Life] for an excellent overview of the Buddha's life and teachings.
> 
> ----
> '''Other views:'''
> At least in the Westernized version of Buddhism I have heard, Buddha is not a deity.  He is a man who achieved enlightenment in the Hindu sense in one lifetime instead of in many reincarnations in a state of self-awareness.  He achieved this by living many different lifestyles including that of a decaying waterfowl.  After enlightenment, he recognized his unity with the universal oneness, or atman.  He thus got to stop being reincarnated, just like many other people who had achieved enlightenment over many lifetimes.  Since the original Buddha, several other Buddhists have accomplished this feat and are thus called Buddha as well (i.e. the fat LaughingBuddha of China).  If anything, the name for the sole deity in the universe is "atman".
> 
> :Some versions of Buddhism emphasize the Hindu legends more than others.  The version you heard seems to be closer to the Hindu ideas of Buddhism.  Most other versions do not focus on atman or reincarnation.  Instead, the core of Buddhism is considered to be the teachings such as the NobleEightfoldPath and the FourNobleTruths.
> 
> :Also, while it is considered possible to achieve the same enlightenment as the historical Buddha, most Buddhists would not call those enlightened ones "Buddha"--that title is generally reserved only for the historical Buddha.
> 
> ''[[Buddhism]] has a whole bunch of branches, and some of the less-philosophical-more-ritualistic ones have him as a deity.''
------
BuddHa|985961045
1,13c1
< Founder of BuddhIsm who lived approximately 563-483 BCE.  The Buddha, born Gautama Siddhartha, was a prince by birth, but at age 29 became dissatisfied with what he observed as an unjustifiable disparity between the luxury of his life, and the abject poverty he had observed within the community in general, and began practicing austere meditative practices.  After six years, he abandoned the severe practices, and soon afterwards realized complete awakening/enlightenment.  That enlightnment is called a state of "Bodhi," and hence the name "Buddha," or "enlightened one."  The Buddha taught followers for 45 years until his death (considered to be the complete ending of the Buddha).
< 
< See [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A Sketch of the Buddha's Life] for an excellent overview of the Buddha's life and teachings.
< 
< ----
< '''Other views:'''
< At least in the Westernized version of Buddhism I have heard, Buddha is not a deity.  He is a man who achieved enlightenment in the Hindu sense in one lifetime instead of in many reincarnations in a state of self-awareness.  He achieved this by living many different lifestyles including that of a decaying waterfowl.  After enlightenment, he recognized his unity with the universal oneness, or atman.  He thus got to stop being reincarnated, just like many other people who had achieved enlightenment over many lifetimes.  Since the original Buddha, several other Buddhists have accomplished this feat and are thus called Buddha as well (i.e. the fat LaughingBuddha of China).  If anything, the name for the sole deity in the universe is "atman".
< 
< :Some versions of Buddhism emphasize the Hindu legends more than others.  The version you heard seems to be closer to the Hindu ideas of Buddhism.  Most other versions do not focus on atman or reincarnation.  Instead, the core of Buddhism is considered to be the teachings such as the NobleEightfoldPath and the FourNobleTruths.
< 
< :Also, while it is considered possible to achieve the same enlightenment as the historical Buddha, most Buddhists would not call those enlightened ones "Buddha"--that title is generally reserved only for the historical Buddha.
< 
< ''BuddhIsm has a whole bunch of branches, and some of the less-philosophical-more-ritualistic ones have him as a deity.''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Buddha]]
------
Music|985961062
36a37,41
> ** Cymbals
> *** Crash
> *** Ride
> *** Hi-Hat
> *** Splash
38a44,48
> *** Timpani
> *** Bass Drum
> *** Tom-Tom
> *** Snare
> ** Marimba
------
Religion|985961304
2c2
< GoD -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- PhilosophyOfReligion
---
> [[God]] -- NamesGivenToTheDivine -- PhilosophyOfReligion
5c5
< ChristianIty -- IsLam -- JudaIsm -- ShinTo -- BuddhIsm -- ShamanIsm -- JainIsm -- HinduIsm -- ScientologY 
---
> [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- ScientologY 
8c8
< TheBible -- TheKoran -- TheTorah -- BhagavadGita -- TheUpanishads -- TheVedas -- PaliCanon -- [[The Book of Mormon]]
---
> [[Bible]] -- TheKoran -- [[Torah]] -- [[Bhagavadgita]] -- [[Upanishads]] -- [[Vedas]] -- [[Palicanon]] -- [[The Book of Mormon]]
------
Andre_Engels|985961595
0a1,2
> I am Dutch, and by profession mathematician and theoretical computer scientist, although at the moment I am without a job. I have been helping with Wikipedia since late March, one of my first articles was [[Netherlands/history]], which gained me some acclaim.
> ----
------
Algorithms|985962062
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An algorithm is the description of a procedure to solve a certain (mathematical) problem. Typically, an algorithm consists of a series of actions that have to be done plus an indication of whether and when they are to be repeated. One could see an algorithm as a rough form of a computer program.
> 
> The word ''algorithm'' is a corruption of the word ''algorism'' which came from the name of [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book '''Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''' (Rules of Restoration and Reduction) which introduced [[Algebra|algebra]] to people in the West. The word ''algebra'' itself originates from ''al-Jabr'' from the book title. The word alogorism orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the eighteenth century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
> 
> As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclides]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of to numbers A and B:
> 
> # Let A be the greatest number of A and B, and B the smallest.
> # Subtract B from A.
> # Repeat steps 1 and 2 until A and B are equal, this number will then be the greatest common divisor of the original numbers.
------
Algorithms|985962103
3c3
< The word ''algorithm'' is a corruption of the word ''algorism'' which came from the name of [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book '''Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''' (Rules of Restoration and Reduction) which introduced [[Algebra|algebra]] to people in the West. The word ''algebra'' itself originates from ''al-Jabr'' from the book title. The word alogorism orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the eighteenth century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
---
> The word ''algorithm'' is a corruption of the word ''algorism'' which came from the name of [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book "''Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''" (''Rules of Restoration and Reduction'') which introduced [[Algebra|algebra]] to people in the West. The word ''algebra'' itself originates from ''al-Jabr'' from the book title. The word alogorism orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the eighteenth century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
------
AlgorithmS|985962123
1,6c1
< The word ALGORITHM is a corruption of the word ALGORISM which came from the name of ABU JA'FAR MOHAMMED IBN MUSA AL-KHWARIZMI (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book "Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala" (Rules of Restoration and Reduction) which introduced algebra to people in the West. The word ALGEBRA itself originates from AL-JABR from the book title. The word ALGORISM orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the XVIII-th century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
< ----
< What you have if you can dance like AlGore.
< ----
< It is well known that robots can only dance with an algorithm, so I guess that's right.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Algorithms]]
------
Computing|985962163
19c19
< *** AlgorithmS
---
> *** [[Algorithms]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|985962299
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone (It's true, I just did it).  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|985963170
43a44,47
> ----
> Maybe it's just me, but I always try to remind myself that my perception - whatever it may be - of a current executive administration is incredibly biased by whichever form of media I have viewed it through and that said media has deleted much information that would be useful in making a fair judgement of the situation.  This is in their own interests, obviously (advertisement time, owner's political leanings, reporter's bias, etc).  Many factors come together to present the tainted information.  So, our view of Republicans as stupid, a Democrat as a blithering idiot, or Ralph Nader as a kook would seem to be compromised.  Sure, one could be egotistical and state that he/she has all the information and has it 100% correct and untainted.  How honest could that statement be?  Thus, their opinion would be invalidated that much more.
> 
> Such inherent incorrectness is what bores me about politics.  Regular-Expressions are so much more interesting, thence I go.  --[[Invictus]]
------
First_person_shooter|985964407
5c5
< Another characteristic of FPSs is the ability, either designed or hacked in, for players and enthusiasts to create their own levels (or indeed overall graphical appearances) for distribution to other fans.  This has again contributed to the longevity both of the genre and of individual games.
---
> Another characteristic of FPSs is the ability, either designed or hacked in, for players and enthusiasts to create their own levels (or indeed overall graphical appearances) for distribution to other fans.  This has again contributed to the longevity both of the genre and of individual [[games]].
8d7
< 
------
What_is_a_wiki|985965075
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have funz!
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have funz! :)
------
HomePage|985965769
11c11
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game]]s -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
HomePage|985965852
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 2,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 3,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
Philip_Zimmermann|985966465
1a2,3
> 
> As of February 2001, Zimmermann left [[Network Associates]], who bought the [[PGP]] label in 1997.
------
Economists|985966716
8c8
< 
---
> *[[Schumpeter]]
------
Dependent_areas|985967076
39c39
< <font size=+2>S</font> [[Saint Helena]] - [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] - [[Scotland]] - [[Serbia]] - [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] - [[Svalbard]]
---
> <font size=+2>S</font> [[Saint Helena]] - [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] - [[Scotland]] - [[Serbia]] - [[Sicily]] - [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] - [[Svalbard]] 
41c41
< <font size=+2>T</font> [[Tokelau]] - [[Tromelin Island]] - [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
---
> <font size=+2>T</font> [[Tasmania]] - [[Tokelau]] - [[Tromelin Island]] - [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
------
Australia|985967169
3c3
< Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, [[Australian Captial Territory]], [[Northern Territory Australia]], and six states, [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Queensland Australia]], [[New South Wales Australia]], and [[Victoria Australia]].
---
> Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, [[Australian Captial Territory]], [[Northern Territory Australia]], and six states, [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Queensland Australia]], [[New South Wales Australia]], [[Victoria Australia]] and [[Tasmania]].
------
Tasmania|985967272
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[island]], an [[Australia|Australian state]], located south of the main island. The [[capital]] is [[Hobart]].
------
Capital|985967355
1c1
< The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each country has one official capital at any given point in time, though it may be separate from the actual seat of government or move about seasonally.
---
> The town that contains the administration, the residence of the president or king. Each [[countries of the world|country]] has one official capital at any given point in time, though it may be separate from the actual seat of government or move about seasonally.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|985967425
35a36
> *[[Zaire]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985968245
5c5
< Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.  Also of note, studies guess that ~20% of executed people are actually innocent.
---
> Of note, every one of the executed felons was executed for murder.  Also of note, studies <b>guess</b> that ~20% of executed people are actually innocent.
25a26,33
> ----
> Drilling for oil in Alaska on a limited scale: A good idea - either we drill here or inefficiently buy oil from [[OPEC]].  Environmentalists have an unfounded fear that a few wells in Alaska will spoil the entire state.  
> 
> A chill in relations with Russia: A good thing because the prior administration freely let money flow from American taxpayers to corrupt burecrats in Russia.  In effect, the prior administration lett Russians steal from American citizens.  All forms of 'aid' money should be cut off until Russia cleans itself up.  If they don't like it, they should refuse the money.  American taxpayers should not give money to countries that don't do what we want.  Tough luck.  I don't recall any other countries sending us aid packages when a hurricane strikes, Dakota floods, etc.  If, as most liberals want, the US should get out of telling other countries what to do, the US should get out of sending the money also.
> 
> Refusing to participate in a campaign against global warming: A good thing.  The US government should not intentionally lower our standard of living by reducing the amount of energy we use in producing product.  Conservatives actually want a cleaner environment...but not one mandated by government.  Do you think conservatives want to buy oil from another country?  A bad move for our economy.  Why do you think Bush supports the $5000 tax credit for buying a gas/electric hybrid vehicle (supported by ford and environmentalists)?
> 
> Cutting government funding to femminist organizations: Bush recently closed the OWI office at the white house.  The OWI was created by the prior administration to cordinate activities of other parts of the executive branch that involve women.  In short, they were a redundant part of the executive branch and had no actual power to implement/enforce regulations.  Liberals do not understand that conservatives want people to be treated equally by not awarding <b>special rights</b> to one group of people or another.  Liberals also don't understand that conservatives do not split people into demographic groups like liberals do. Splitting people into demographic groups only serves to divide and cause conflict amongst groups.  An example of this is where we celebrate a whole month to one group's history yet do not celebrate any others history for a whole month.  Where is 'equal protection under the law'?
------
NirvanaBand|985968524
6a7,8
> Kurt Cobain was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's demise. 
> 
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985968766
33a34,41
> 
> General move against workers unions:  Bush has done two things: 1. When a government contract passes from one company to another, the new company is not <b>forced</b> to hire all of the union workers from the company that lost the contract.  This is a good thing as it allows more competition and lower cost for the service.  It also forces the union workers to do better jobs and improve productivity so that the company can continue to keep the government contract.  In short, government is not telling people how to run their lives as much as before.  I thought that liberals whanted government to not tell people how to run their lives. Larger government == lower personal freedome.
> 
> 2. Allow union members to withold their dues that go towards political operations that the union member does not want to support.  How can letting workers have more flexibility and freedom be bad?
> 
> The tax cut: It reduces the taxes paid by lower income workers and causes much more of the income taxes paid to be paid by higher income workers.  In effect, the wealthy, which by government standards is any household with income above $60,000 (i.e., two union schoolteachers), pay much more of the income taxes.  The fact that a worker earning $30,000 will get less of a reduction in dollars and a much larger reduction in percentage is completely lost on liberals.  You cannot give someone that pays $1000 in income taxes a reduction more than $1000, but you can give someone that pays $100,000 in taxes a $20,000 reduction.
> 
> Why do liberals equate more government as better...more government results in less personal freedom...?
------
NirvanaBand|985969115
19a20,21
> 
> /Talk
------
NirvanaBand/Talk|985969426
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nirvana should be credited with reviving hard rock radio.
> 
> Starting in the early [[1980s]] along with the middle aging of the [[baby boom]] generation rock and roll radio stations softened their playlists.  This softening continued throughout the 1980s along with baby boomers hitting their late 30s and early 40s.  Nirvana's Nevermind was such a hit and had such heavy airplay that it drove most of the soft rock to oldies staions and/or adult contemporary stations.
> 
> A fundamental question: Was [[grunge music]] a reaction/rebellion to baby boom oriented music?
------
NirvanaBand/Talk|985969618
5a6,10
> 
> Can anyone shed some light on what age demographics are targed by different marketers and how this affected the music played? 
> 
> If marketers want to hit a demographic group, they advertise where that group is.  If enough demand occurs for advertisement space, media formats/styles/content will change to provide the format desired by the marketers.
> 
------
NirvanaBand/Talk|985969707
10a11,12
> See also:
> * [[Generation X]]
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985970242
5c5
< :[[Emelio Esteves]] -- (high school jock)
---
> :[[Emelio Estevez]] -- (high school jock)
9c9
< :[[Alley Sheedy]] -- (weird girl)
---
> :[[Ally Sheedy]] -- (weird girl)
------
The_Breakfast_Club|985970259
5c5
< :[[Emelio Estevez]] -- (high school jock)
---
> :[[Emilio Estevez]] -- (high school jock)
------
Generation_X|985970285
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Generation X</b> consists of persons born from 1965 until 1974.
> 
> The prior generation is the [[Baby Boom]] and the following generation is [[Generation Y]].
> 
> Generation X is much much smaller in size than the baby boom generation and therefore had much less impact on popular culture than the baby boom generation.
> 
> Generation X did not have much effect on popular culture until the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]].
> 
> This manifested itself in [[grunge]] music and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  It had large overtones of cynacism against thing held dear to the baby boom generation.  
> 
> Some have suggested that Generation Xers are proud to not be from the baby boom generation and activly rebel against the idealism the baby boomers advocated in the [[1960s]].
> 
> Some have also suggested that the Generation Xers are much more like the [[World War II]] generation that preceeded the baby boomers.
> 
> There's definitely going to be some 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Guam|985970394
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Guam</b> is an [[island]] in the [[Pacific]] Ocean and is a territory of the [[United States]].
> 
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk|985970491
1c1,5
< If you can think of a better description, have at it.  "Political entity" is too broad.  "State" isn't quite right, it seems (some empires weren't what we ordinarily think of as "states," though strictly I suppose they were).  "Realm" might be used tongue-in-cheek...
---
> If you can think of a better description, have at it.  "Political entity" is too broad.  "State" isn't quite right, it seems (some empires weren't what we ordinarily think of as "states," though strictly I suppose they were).  "Realm" might be used tongue-in-cheek...
> ----
> When possible, we should link to and explain what a particular country/territory became/merged into.
> 
> This allow readers to see the formation of modern day countries.
------
Ikhthus|985970571
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this, is that the Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', is regarded an abbreviation of ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve; Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
------
Ikhthus|985970600
1c1
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this, is that the Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', is regarded an abbreviation of ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve; Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this, is that the Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', is regarded an abbreviation of ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|985970730
9c9
< <tr><td>arachne</td><td>spider</td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>arachnê</td><td>spider</td></tr>
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|985970784
39c39
< <tr><td>psuchos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>
---
> <tr><td>psukhos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>
------
Generation_X/Talk|985970946
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As an early Generation Xer (1966), I feel fortunate to not be a boomer every day of my life.
> 
> I feel fortunate to not be generationally responsible for:
> * political correctness
> * self help books (boomer women's best friend)
> * my child the emperor (babies in 1980-1984) that has to have the best of everything including appling for pre-school the day the baby is born
> * women that require having multiple children, a thrilling and fufilling career without sacrificing any part of full motherhood (two conflicting and unrealistic ideals)
> * reliving the 1960s and how great they were
> * being cursed with classic rock for all eternity (face it, the 1960s music was great but is lame after 1000 listens - yes, Mick Jagger, I got satisfaction and don't want to hear any Rolling Kidney Stones anymore)
------
First_person_shooter|985971156
8a9,13
> Of historical note, First Person Shooters are a derrivative of early 3d games such as:
> * [[Battle Zone]] - is this the earliest commercial first person shooter
> * Tail gunner - fixed screen shooter with 3d aspects
> 
> 
------
Southern_Ocean|985971164
9,10d8
< <b>Map references:</b> Antarctic Region
< 
43c41
< * <i>note:</i> many nations (including the US) prohibit mineral resource exploration and exploitation south of the fluctuating [[Polar Front]] ([[Antarctic Convergence]]) which is in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north
---
> * <i>note:</i> many nations prohibit mineral resource exploration and exploitation south of the fluctuating [[Polar Front]] ([[Antarctic Convergence]]) which is in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer waters to the north
------
Guam|985972688
1c1
< <b>Guam</b> is an [[island]] in the [[Pacific]] Ocean and is a territory of the [[United States]].
---
> <b>Guam</b> is an [[island]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]] and is a territory of the [[United States]].
------
Greek_alphabet|985972733
34c34
< The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be intelligable.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o.
---
> The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o.
------
Iowa|985973211
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> an area of land between the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and one of the 50 states
> of the united states.
------
Iowa|985973421
1,2c1,5
< an area of land between the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and one of the 50 states
< of the united states.
---
> an area of land between the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, 
> and one of the 50 states of the united states, with its
> capital at Des Moines (Pronounced: "dee moyn").
> 
> the state government has a web site, at http://www.state.ia.us.
------
XML|985973454
1c1
< <i>XML</i>, for extensible markup language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[DocBook]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
---
> <i>XML</i>, for extensible markup language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[SMIL]] and [[MathML]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
5c5,8
< See [[XSL]], [[HTML]], [[DocBook]].----I am finding the use of terminology here a little confusing. You say that Doc Book is an XML language. I would say it is a particular
---
> See [[XSL]], [[HTML]].
> 
> ----
> I am finding the use of terminology here a little confusing. You say that Doc Book is an XML language. I would say it is a particular
8a12,13
> 
> Yeah, DocBook probably isn't the best example, because it can be implemented in SGML as well.  I'll reword to use something better.  XML is not itself a markup language; specific applications of XML (defined by a DTD or schema) are.  I'm not sure of a better way to word that.
------
Generation_X/Talk|985973532
9c9,11
< * being cursed with classic rock for all eternity (face it, the 1960s music was great but is lame after 1000 listens - yes, Mick Jagger, I got satisfaction and don't want to hear any Rolling Kidney Stones anymore)
---
> * being cursed with classic rock for all eternity (face it, the 1960s music was great but is lame after 1000 listens - yes, Mick Jagger, I got satisfaction and don't want to hear any Rolling Kidney Stones anymore
> ----
> As a boomer ('53), I feel fortunate to have raised my college-aged kids to conform to neither boomer no Gen-X ideals - respecting the values of those who came before them, conscious of the ideals which mobilized a generation before their time, educated yet unpretentious, not needing material things to be happy, loving even those who hate them, appreciating classical, blues, jazz, be-bop, hip-hop, classical rock, country, and all the rest, sure enough of themselves and eager enough to contribute to society that they have no time to find fault with or poke fun at traditions and values whose time has passed, but whose lessons live on. AyeSpy
------
Media_bias|985973681
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term "media bias" refers to a real or perceived tendency of the mass media (newspapers, television news programs, radio news programs, and Internet outlets for those media) tend to approach both the presentation of particular stories, and the selection of which stories to cover, with a preconceived agenda.
> 
> Media bias is studied diligently at schools of journalism, and by several independent watchdog groups from various parts of the political spectrum.
> 
> We can begin our study of different forms of media bias by looking at two of the most commonly asserted kinds of bias: liberal media bias and conservative media bias.
> 
> Liberal media bias is said to exist mainly because most journalists are liberal in their political views.  One survey (do we have a reference?) found that 89% of journalists (defined how?) voted for Bill Clinton.  Such a uniformity of political opinion among journalists may tend to to give rise to a tendency to cover or not cover particular stories, or to cover them with a particular slant.  Examples of liberal bias may include, for example, a tendency to inflame stories which suggest that [[guns]] are responsible for crime, or (some have argued), a tendency to portray Republican leaders as [[Wikipedia Commentary/Stupid Republicans less intelligent]], despite what their real qualifications might be.
> 
> Conservative media bias is said to exist mainly because the mass media are owned by a small number of very large diversified media corporations.  Such a uniformity of ownership means that stories which do not somehow benefit these large corportations may not be run.  Examples of conservative media bias might include the media's failure to cover... (examples, anyone?)
> 
> We might also consider one other form of media bias, which is not specifically political in nature.  The news media tend to cover stories which give higher ratings, which means that stories that are important (in some enlightened sense) are neglected in favor of the latest sensational mass school shooting.  Millions of people can die at the hands of some African dictator with hardly a moment of notice by the news, but the shooting of 5 people with a handgun in a high school is analyzed endlessly.  The reason may not be political, it is said, but simply a function of what the public wants to watch.
> 
> Nonetheless, this form of bias <i>is</i> a bias, if we regard the function of the media as the presentation of a relatively balanced and factual explanation of the state of the world.
> 
> /Talk
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985973715
63c63
< <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!)
---
> <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!) (how confusing!) 
------
Media_bias/Talk|985973745
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> I'd like to make this page be talk <i>about how to make this article better</i>.  We can leave a general philosophical discussion of media bias on this page: [[Wikipedia Commentary/Media Bias]].
------
Media_bias/Talk|985973777
1,2c1
< 
< I'd like to make this page be talk <i>about how to make this article better</i>.  We can leave a general philosophical discussion of media bias on this page: [[Wikipedia Commentary/Media Bias]].
---
> I'd like to make this page be talk <i>about how to make this article better</i>.  We can leave a general philosophical discussion of media bias on this page: [[Wikipedia commentary/Media Bias]].
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|985973941
23c23,29
< There is admiting you have a bias, though, and there is out-and-out propaganda.  In Calgary we have one of the worst papers to ever exist, essentially a form letter for one of the political parties.  Do I say this because they tend to report on their achievements first, or praise them over their competitors?  No.  I say this because when a tornado hit the province they ran a column about what their favored candidate thought of the incident and, surprise surprise, he is in favor of fewer tornadoes.  That hardly even counts as an editorial.
---
> There is admiting you have a bias, though, and there is out-and-out propaganda.  In Calgary we have one of the worst papers to ever exist, essentially a form letter for one of the political parties.  Do I say this because they tend to report on their achievements first, or praise them over their competitors?  No.  I say this because when a tornado hit the province they ran a column about what their favored candidate thought of the incident and, surprise surprise, he is in favor of fewer tornadoes.  That hardly even counts as an editorial.
> ----
> I am trying to write a real encyclopedia article on [[Media bias]].  Please help me.  The goal is to present the issue in an unbiased manner.  :-)
> 
> I strongly disagree with the idea that lack of bias is impossible.  Difficult, perhaps, but not impossible.  There is a certain amount of cynicism in the view that since everyone is biased (allegedly), the most important thing is to just admit it and get on with it.  I don't agree.
> 
> It is very possible to put aside our own views, in order to present a balanced presentation of all views.  Will it ever be perfect?  Perhaps not.  But if it is not possible <i>at all</i> then perhaps the fault is with your conception of what a lack of bias actually is.
------
Generation_X|985974015
9c9
< This manifested itself in [[grunge]] music and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  It had large overtones of cynacism against thing held dear to the baby boom generation.  
---
> This manifested itself in [[grunge]] music and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the generation of their parents, the baby boomers.  
13c13
< Some have also suggested that the Generation Xers are much more like the [[World War II]] generation that preceeded the baby boomers.
---
> Some have also suggested, though with questionable basis, that the Generation Xers are much more like the [[World War II]] generation that preceeded the baby boomers.  The WWII generation was one of confidence in the value of tradition and strongly-held cultural mores, which seldom questioned whether their society was on the right path.  The formula rebellion of stereotypical Gen-Xers is anathema to such thinking.
16c16
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
First_person_shooter|985974146
1c1
< A first-person shooter, or FPS, is a game belonging to that breed where the 'camera' or the player's view is an exact replica of the in-game character's... put more simply, you're looking through the eyes of the game's hero.  The title derives from this 'first-person' perspective.
---
> A first-person shooter, or FPS, is a [[computer game]] belonging to that breed where the 'camera' or the player's view is an exact replica of the in-game character's... put more simply, you're looking through the eyes of the game's hero.  The title derives from this 'first-person' perspective.
3c3
< The original FPS was Wolfenstein 3D from id software; it was shortly supplanted (around 1989/90) by the genre-defining Doom, which introduced network multiplayer capabilities and thereby guaranteed the persistence of the FPS in gaming formats; the real thrill of these already-atmospheric games comes from blasting colleagues, strangers, spouses etc.  A HUGE percentage of all new games nowadays are FPS, almost all playable over the Internet (on non-console platforms), giving rise to another enormous net subculture (usually called Clans, esp. re Quake, the definitive FPS).
---
> The original FPS was [[Wolfenstein 3D]] from id software; it was shortly supplanted (around 1989/90) by the genre-defining [[Doom]], which introduced network multiplayer capabilities and thereby guaranteed the persistence of the FPS in gaming formats; the real thrill of these already-atmospheric games comes from blasting colleagues, strangers, spouses etc.  A <i>large</i> percentage of all new games nowadays are FPS, almost all playable over the Internet (on non-console platforms), giving rise to another enormous net subculture (usually called Clans, esp. re [[Quake]], the definitive FPS).
11c11
< * Tail gunner - fixed screen shooter with 3d aspects
---
> * [[Tail gunner]] - fixed screen shooter with 3d aspects
------
Iowa|985974279
2,3c2,3
< and one of the 50 states of the united states, with its
< capital at Des Moines (Pronounced: "dee moyn").
---
> and one of the 50 states of the [[United States]], with its
> [[capital]] at [[Des Moines]] (Pronounced: "dee moyn").
5c5
< the state government has a web site, at http://www.state.ia.us.
---
> The state government's web site: http://www.state.ia.us.
------
Economists|985974301
8a9,12
> 
> *[[Paul Samuelson]]
> 
> See also [[Nobel Prize/Economic sciences]]
------
Economists|985974340
12c12
< See also [[Nobel Prize/Economic sciences]]
---
> See also [[NobelPrize/EconomicSciences]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985974446
45a46,47
> ----
> Ishmael, [[My Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|My Ishmael]], [[The Story of B by Daniel Quinn|The Story of B]], [[Providence by Daniel Quinn|Providence]], [[Beyond Civilization by Daniel Quinn|Beyond Civilization]], and - recently - [[After Dachau by Daniel Quinn|After Dachau]].  It all started with an [[Anthropology]] course at [[Texas Agricutural and Mechanical University|Texas A&M]].  Making every attempt to ''walk away'' as fast as possible (and I work in the e-Commerce industry!  HA!).  --[[Invictus]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985974467
47c47
< Ishmael, [[My Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|My Ishmael]], [[The Story of B by Daniel Quinn|The Story of B]], [[Providence by Daniel Quinn|Providence]], [[Beyond Civilization by Daniel Quinn|Beyond Civilization]], and - recently - [[After Dachau by Daniel Quinn|After Dachau]].  It all started with an [[Anthropology]] course at [[Texas Agricutural and Mechanical University|Texas A&M]].  Making every attempt to ''walk away'' as fast as possible (and I work in the e-Commerce industry!  HA!).  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Ishmael, [[My Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|My Ishmael]], [[The Story of B by Daniel Quinn|The Story of B]], [[Providence by Daniel Quinn|Providence]], [[Beyond Civilization by Daniel Quinn|Beyond Civilization]], and - recently - [[After Dachau by Daniel Quinn|After Dachau]].  It all started with an [[Anthropology]] course at [[Texas Agricuture and Mechanical University|Texas A&M]].  Making every attempt to ''walk away'' as fast as possible (and I work in the e-Commerce industry!  HA!).  --[[Invictus]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|985974482
47c47
< Ishmael, [[My Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|My Ishmael]], [[The Story of B by Daniel Quinn|The Story of B]], [[Providence by Daniel Quinn|Providence]], [[Beyond Civilization by Daniel Quinn|Beyond Civilization]], and - recently - [[After Dachau by Daniel Quinn|After Dachau]].  It all started with an [[Anthropology]] course at [[Texas Agricuture and Mechanical University|Texas A&M]].  Making every attempt to ''walk away'' as fast as possible (and I work in the e-Commerce industry!  HA!).  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Ishmael, [[My Ishmael by Daniel Quinn|My Ishmael]], [[The Story of B by Daniel Quinn|The Story of B]], [[Providence by Daniel Quinn|Providence]], [[Beyond Civilization by Daniel Quinn|Beyond Civilization]], and - recently - [[After Dachau by Daniel Quinn|After Dachau]].  It all started with an [[Anthropology]] course at [[Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University|Texas A&M]].  Making every attempt to ''walk away'' as fast as possible (and I work in the e-Commerce industry!  HA!).  --[[Invictus]]
------
Ikhthus|985974841
1c1,3
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this, is that the Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', is regarded an abbreviation of ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Ypsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Arabic characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Arabic characters, Iesou Christos Theou Uios Soter) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
> 
> Connection has also been made between this symbol and the story of the loaves and the fishes which Christ used to feed the multitude, and the expression that Jesus and his apostles were "fishers for men's souls.
------
Political_liberal|985974918
0a1,66
> What is a liberal? 
> The word has a number of meanings, all of which reflect aspects of liberal thought. These include "favorable to progress and reform, as in religious or political affairs"; "favorable to or in accord with concepts of maximum individual freedom possible, esp. as guaranteed by law and secured by governmental protection of civil liberties"; "open-minded or tolerant, esp. free of or not bound by traditional or conventional ideas, values, etc."; and "characterized by generosity and willingness to give in large amounts". [Random House Dictionary of the English Language]. Liberals want to change things to increase personal freedom and tolerance, and are willing to empower government to the extent necessary to achieve those ends. 
> 
> 2. What do liberals want to do? 
> Help individuals take more control over their own lives. This requires (a) providing an environment that does not arbitrarily remove choice; (b) ensuring that isolated failures of judgment are not catastrophic, removing choice; (c) offering enough information so that choices can be understood and made intelligently; and (d) giving people responsibility and encouraging self-reliance within a social framework. It is important to distinguish different levels of choice; alternative kinds of toothpaste are not more important than (e.g.) career options. 
> 
> 3. Where does liberalism come from? 
> Modern liberalism has multiple roots. An important one is the provision of human rights, from the Magna Carta through the US Constitution to the International Declaration of Human Rights. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill and the "classical liberals" of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were another influence. The recognition that the social and economic patterns of large populations are qualitatively different from those of small groups draws upon insights of Marx, Weber, and Keynes. Modern liberalism is virtually alone among 20th-century movements in trying to synthesize classical-liberal individualism with the Marxist critique of capitalism, adding a heavy sprinkling of pragmatic compromise. 
> 
> 4. How do liberals differ from "libertarians" and "conservatives"? 
> Once upon a time (in the 1800s), "liberal" and "libertarian" meant the same thing; both were individualist, distrustful of state power, pro-free-market, and opposed to the entrenched privilege of the feudal and mercantilist system. After 1870, models of of society were being refined in terms of the structural effects of group interaction; the social environment came to be seen as a significant factor in determining the ability of large numbers of people to succeed in attaining their goals (and indeed in determining what those goals were). Libertarians felt that any attempt to solve social problems had to depend on private, voluntary effort, and that modifying social factors would inevitably lead to worse problems. Liberals felt that the problems were too serious to be passively left to chance in this way, and that government should have a role in influencing the social framework within which people act. Economically, liberals came to believe that pure free markets led to systematic abuse, so that a limited amount of regulation was needed; libertarians continued to favour the caveat emptor approach. By this time, conservatives had become comfortable with the free-market, capitalist system, so they joined forces with the libertarians on the economic (though not the social) front. 
> 
> 5. How do liberals differ from "socialists" and "communists"? 
> Communists understand society as interactions of groups, to the extent that they largely ignore the value and effect of individual action. Socialists, while advocating individual rights, see property-owning structures in society as inevitably leading to corruption and the ill-treatment of the poor by the rich. Both groups arose as a reaction to the abuses of capitalists, and so feel that individual acquisitiveness is the primary cause of social injustice and poverty. [This is over-simplified.] Liberals feel that when properly regulated, self-interest is a powerful and useful motivation; it should be harnessed, rather than erased. 
> 
> 6. What do liberals want the government to do? 
> Liberals see the role of government as providing a framework within which individuals can develop their lives and contribute to society. Regulation of private industry is needed to ensure integrity and safety, with respect to customers and workers. Equal opportunity should be a goal, which entails a level of provision to ameliorate the effects of poverty and discrimination. Health care and education should be universally available, since without either, individual choice is severely limited. Liberals do *not* want the government to protect people from themselves, or to interfere in individual interaction, except insofar as to prevent systematic actions that cause harm. 
> 
> B. Politics and Consequences 
> The liberal approach to controversial issues is to recognize that there are usually conflicting principles involved, neither of which always dominates. It is necessary first to discover the conflict, and then to find the best tradeoff in any given situation; i.e. absolute priorities, while simple, are almost always wrong. 
> 
> 7. What is the liberal position on abortion? 
> Most liberals are in favor of abortion rights. Although a foetus is a pre-human, and should be accorded as many rights as possible all else being equal, the quality of life of existing human beings can at this level outweigh the potential life of the baby. It is, however, a difficult question that involves tradeoffs among very important conflicting goals, so no dogmatic yes/no answer can be found; it depends on circumstances. 
> 
> 8. What is the liberal position on minority, gay & women's rights? 
> Liberals believe that every human being is entitled both to equality before the law and equal opportunity in society. Systematic discrimination causes unequal opportunity by removing choice; it is not enough to say that the victim(s) could go elsewhere, if there is nowhere else to go. It is true that legislating beliefs cannot work; but legislating that actions cannot discriminate unfairly treats the symptom while a cure is sought. The danger is that the underlying problem is then ignored or exacerbated; this is why education plays such a vital role. 
> 
> 9. What is the liberal position on gun control? 
> The conflict here involves distrust of government, individual responsibility, and attitudes towards violence within society. Giving everyone a mechanism to hurt other people quickly, easily, and at a distance is dangerous; people are more likely to do it. On the other hand, a basic liberal principle is that people should be trusted, and that large organizations should not. One approach to resolving this conflict is the Swiss system, in which large numbers of people own guns, but they are registered such that usage can be easily traced; such weapons are kept in a manner that reduces the possibility of sudden, irrational use. Many liberals prefer the outright banning of guns intended only to kill people, on the grounds that such weapons are by now ineffective in dealing with abuse of power by government. 
> 
> 10. What is the liberal position on art, pornography and censorship?
> Liberals are opposed to government-enforced limits on free expression; this, the First Amendment of the US Constitution, is the issue on which they come closest to taking an absolutist line. This extends to the propagation of ideas; in our mass media age, an opinion or argument that is not conveyed to large numbers of people is effectively censored. Thus, not only should anti-pornography laws be removed, but the active promotion of alternative and controversial viewpoints should be encouraged and financially supported. This can give people a better idea of the arguments both for and against a given position. 
> 
> 11. What is the liberal position on the draft? 
> The argument against the draft is that it coerces people, and it reduces the overall effectiveness of the army. The argument for the draft is that in an emergency, manpower may be required that otherwise would not be available, and depending entirely upon supply and demand places the poor at risk more than the rich. In ordinary peacetime, the draft should not exist. In foreign adventures, some liberals feel that only volunteers should be sent to fight. In genuine emergencies that threaten the nation, where volunteer forces are not sufficient, the draft is preferable to simply increasing wages until enough people are willing to fight. 
> 
> 12. What is the liberal position on the "drug war"? 
> This country went through Prohibition once, and its only long-term result was to corrupt law enforcement and create a vicious and entrenched criminal class. It's happening again, and (just like last time) selective enforcement is making the "war on drugs" a war against the poor and black and downtrodden and a pretext for dangerous expansions in police power (through confiscation laws, "no-knock" warrants and a thousand other "anti-drug" measures). In any case, the government has no right to tell us what we can or cannot put in our bodies. Only the individual can decide to "say no"; the drug problem is not one of supply but of *demand*. Total legalization of everything is the only way to break the drug gangs. However, restriction of access to children should be ensured, as with tobacco and alcohol; and taxes should be used to reduce the potential for abuse. 
> 
> 13. What would liberals do about concentrations of corporate power? 
> Provide a regulatory mechanism to ensure that abuses of power towards both customers and employees carry severe penalties, and offer a whistle-blowing office to encourage the reporting of breaches of human rights, in terms of safety and environmental consequences. It is not feasible to abolish limited liability, because people are going to be manipulating resources well beyond the scope of individual repayment, and assuring them of disaster if they make a mistake simply ensures that such officers are drawn only from the imprudent. However, no liability whatsoever is also to be avoided. 
> 
> C. Standard Criticisms 
> Liberals are often accused of being wishy-washy, of sitting on the fence and refusing to accept that the world can be viewed in black and white. This does not mean that they lack principles, and have no ideas for change, however. 
> 
> 14. But what about the environment? 
> The environment is important both for quality of life, and for the preservation of resources that are as yet unvalued. However, it should not be given absolute priority over human welfare. Changes that need to be made to deal with the environment include the widespread introduction of quality of life into economic evaluations, and the idea that economic decisions need to err on the safe side whenever it is known that there is not enough information for an accurate evaluation to be made. Such radical changes to standard economic analyses can only be brought about through legislation; otherwise short-term interests will outweigh longer term considerations. 
> 
> 15. What is the role of property rights? 
> Property is a social convention that allows people to claim priorities for certain kinds of interactions with their environment. To own something is to be able to use it in particular ways. The kinds of changes that a person can make to an object depends on its value to others, and the degree of ownership. For example, renting a house confers a certain amount of freedom in remodelling it, owning it (but not the land it rests on) adds to this freedom, and owning both it and the land adds more. If the house is of value to the community, this restricts the possible modifications; if the house is sufficiently important to be of value to the nation as a whole, this adds further restrictions. Property rights are always a compromise between those who are most directly involved and others whose interest is indirect. 
> 
> 16. Would liberals just give money to the poor? 
> No, though paying the poor might be an improvement over what government has done to them. As the level of "anti-poverty" spending in this country has risen, so has poverty, because so much money is being spent on bureaucratic administration. Liberals want to break this cycle by eliminating marginal tax rates of over 100%, allowing the poor to *keep* most of what they earn instead of removing it by reducing benefits. The simplest scheme to administer is universal welfare, combined with a relatively high flat rate income tax. This removes the demeaning aspect of receiving charity, which encourages dependency, and ensures that the inadequate levels of charity offered are not stretched to the breaking point in trying to cope. It is important to remember that education and training also need to be provided to offer a realistic way to find jobs. 
> 
> 17. What about national defense? 
> This issue is inevitably combined with that of foreign aid; to what extent does it make sense to give money to others so that they won't be inclined to attack us? The bottom line seems to be human rights; a country in which human rights are respected is far more stable than one in which they are not. In the latter, a ruler is more likely to seek external adventures, so as to bolster internal support; and also, dictators are more likely to support one another in pacts against potential victims than rulers of democratic republics. The goal should be to maintain a defense against potential threats, but to spend most of the defense budget on increasing the standard of living and level of democratic participation in other countries. 
> 
> D. Prospects 
> 18. How can I get involved? 
> Think about freedom, and act on your thoughts. Spend your dollars wisely. Oppose the expansion of corporate power, and state power when it exceeds its limits. Promote "bottom-up" solutions that encourage local solutions to local problems, within a universally agreed framework, and that empower individuals to make decisions affecting their lives. Join a liberal organization; the ACLU (NCCL in the UK), Amnesty International, Oxfam, Shelter. Encourage others to think about issues without stereotyping and oversimplifying; show what being a liberal means by example. Support voluntary cooperation. 
> 
> 19. Is liberalism likely to get a practical test in my lifetime? 
> Many non-liberals seem to think that liberalism is what is currently being practiced in the Western world; of course they are mistaken. Your author thinks that liberalism is on the brink of a revival, with the collapse of command economies in Eastern Europe and the failure of the voodoo economics of the '80s; the alternative is further bloodshed, suffering, and a retreat towards "strong" leaders who can get the trains to run on time. Some liberals believe that the fundamental changes in society over the past few decades will make most of the favoured ideologies obsolete, just as the industrial revolution did. Only time will tell. 
> 
> ---
> 
------
Generation_X/Talk|985974933
6c6
< * my child the emperor (babies in 1980-1984) that has to have the best of everything including appling for pre-school the day the baby is born
---
> * my child the emperor (babies in 1980-1984) that has to have the best of everything including appling for pre-school the day the baby is born 
11c11,15
< As a boomer ('53), I feel fortunate to have raised my college-aged kids to conform to neither boomer no Gen-X ideals - respecting the values of those who came before them, conscious of the ideals which mobilized a generation before their time, educated yet unpretentious, not needing material things to be happy, loving even those who hate them, appreciating classical, blues, jazz, be-bop, hip-hop, classical rock, country, and all the rest, sure enough of themselves and eager enough to contribute to society that they have no time to find fault with or poke fun at traditions and values whose time has passed, but whose lessons live on. AyeSpy
---
> As a boomer ('53), I feel fortunate to have raised my college-aged kids to conform to neither boomer nor Gen-X ideals - respecting the values of those who came before them, conscious of the ideals which mobilized a generation before their time, educated yet unpretentious, not needing material things to be happy, loving even those who hate them, appreciating classical, blues, jazz, be-bop, hip-hop, classical rock, country, and all the rest, sure enough of themselves and eager enough to contribute to society that they have no time to find fault with or poke fun at traditions and values whose time has passed, but whose lessons live on. AyeSpy
> ----
> "My child the emperor" - didn't [[John Steinbeck|Steinbeck]] call this a disease and name it [[paedosis]]?  
> 
> Also an early GenXer ('69), but raised by a Dad and Grandparents who still remembered the Depression and WW2 and taught me values gleaned from those occurrences.  My GenX friends call me a BoomXer.  Why are stuck on these labels?  --[[Invictus]]
------
Economists|985974942
2,3d1
< *[[Adam Smith]]
< *[[Karl Marx]]
4a3
> *[[David Friedman]]
6,9c5,7
< *[[Maynard Keynes]]
< *[[Hayek]]
< *[[Schumpeter]]
< 
---
> *[[Friedrich Hayek]]
> *[[John Maynard Keynes]]
> *[[Karl Marx]]
10a9,11
> *[[Joseph Schumpeter]]
> *[[Julian Simon]]
> *[[Adam Smith]]
------
Political_liberal|985975164
65c65
< ---
---
> ----
------
Socialism/Talk|985975214
34c34,45
< There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else.  Indeed Stalin, though as a dictator exceedingly harmful to his people, did succeed in significantly industrializing that country.
---
> There are valid criticisms of socialism, mainly having to do with issues like political rights.  That socialism does not work is not one of them.  It's an impression mainly generated from the collapse of the USSR, which was more from idiotic management than anythign else.  Indeed Stalin, though as a dictator exceedingly harmful to his people, did succeed in significantly industrializing that country.
> ----
> To the author of the previous ([[Joshua Grosse]], I think): do you mean to say "that socialism does not work is not one of them?"  Or "I am not convinced that socialism does not work is not one of them?"  That is, are you affirmatively asserting that this is not a valid criticism, i.e. that it is false?  Or are you merely asserting that you aren't sure the evidence is conclusive.
> 
> As for me, I think that the evidence is conclusive and overwhelming.  We could perhaps better discuss this, if we wanted, in another forum.  For example, the idea that the collapse of the USSR was "more from idiotic management than anything else" suggests that someone else could have run a command-and-control central planning economy more effectively, that they just didn't have good enough, smart enough, bureaucrats at the top.
> 
> But there are very good theoretical considerations which show that it isn't all about politics or morals, it's that a centrally planned economy is downright <i>impossible</i>.  We need the market price system because it is the only effective means of concisely communicating accurate signals about costs.
> 
> (see Hayek's 
> [http://www.virtualschool.edu/mon/Economics/HayekUseOfKnowledge.html The Use of Knowledge in Society] (originally published in [[American Economic Review]], XXXV, No. 4; September, 1945, 519-30) for a classic pre-mathematical statement of the problem.)
> 
> A better article would back up the statement with a summary of the serious empirical research which has been done in this area.  I think if you looked at the data, you would agree: socialism doesn't work.  (This is in addition to it being horribly repressive, etc.)
------
Media_bias|985975316
11c11
< We might also consider one other form of media bias, which is not specifically political in nature.  The news media tend to cover stories which give higher ratings, which means that stories that are important (in some enlightened sense) are neglected in favor of the latest sensational mass school shooting.  Millions of people can die at the hands of some African dictator with hardly a moment of notice by the news, but the shooting of 5 people with a handgun in a high school is analyzed endlessly.  The reason may not be political, it is said, but simply a function of what the public wants to watch.
---
> We might also consider another form of media bias, which is not specifically political in nature.  The news media tend to cover stories which give higher ratings, which means that stories that are important (in some enlightened sense) are neglected in favor of the latest sensational mass school shooting.  Millions of people can die at the hands of some African dictator with hardly a moment of notice by the news, but the shooting of 5 people with a handgun in a high school is analyzed endlessly.  The reason may not be political, it is said, but simply a function of what the public wants to watch.
15c15,17
< /Talk
---
> Bias has also been claimed in instances referred to as conflict of interest, where the owners of media organs have vested interests in other commercial enterprise.  In such a case, it has from time to time been observed that stories which favor the commercial interests of the media owners or are detrimental to their competitors and opponents have not only been favored, but even at times invented whole-cloth from manufactured evidence.  The conflict of interest here is between the perceived interest of the media in impartially informing the public, and the hidden interest of someone who controls a media organ in misleading the public to his own benefit.
> 
> /Talk
------
Rush_Limbaugh|985975358
5a6,9
> 
> ----
> 
> see also http://www.bartcop.com
------
Political_liberal|985975514
33a34,37
> <blockquote><i>
> While this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, there is a large faction of liberals who want stronger anti-pornography laws, led by the likes of Katherine McKinnon, who believe (without much evidence) that it "degrades" women or incites violence against women.  Many liberals also support "hate speech" codes, which make illegal statements derogatory to members of a race, religion, etc.
> </i></blockquote>
> 
38a43,46
> 
> <blockquote><i>
> Again while this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, most self-described liberals, and nearly all liberal politicians, are happy to support the drug war.
> </i></blockquote>
------
Generation_X|985975626
9c9
< This manifested itself in [[grunge]] music and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the generation of their parents, the baby boomers.  
---
> This manifested itself in [[grunge music]] and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the generation of their parents, the baby boomers.  
13,15d12
< Some have also suggested, though with questionable basis, that the Generation Xers are much more like the [[World War II]] generation that preceeded the baby boomers.  The WWII generation was one of confidence in the value of tradition and strongly-held cultural mores, which seldom questioned whether their society was on the right path.  The formula rebellion of stereotypical Gen-Xers is anathema to such thinking.
< 
< There's definitely going to be some 
------
Generation_X/Talk|985975690
15c15,19
< Also an early GenXer ('69), but raised by a Dad and Grandparents who still remembered the Depression and WW2 and taught me values gleaned from those occurrences.  My GenX friends call me a BoomXer.  Why are stuck on these labels?  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Also an early GenXer ('69), but raised by a Dad and Grandparents who still remembered the Depression and WW2 and taught me values gleaned from those occurrences.  My GenX friends call me a BoomXer.  Why are stuck on these labels?  --[[Invictus]]
> ----
> Some have also suggested, though with questionable basis, that the Generation Xers are more like the [[World War II]] generation that preceeded the baby boomers.  The WWII generation was one of confidence in the value of tradition and strongly-held cultural mores, which seldom questioned whether their society was on the right path.  The formula rebellion of stereotypical Gen-Xers is anathema to such thinking.
> 
> 
------
Political_liberal|985975861
78a79,80
> [[/Political liberal/FAQ]]
> 
------
Political_liberal|985975873
79c79
< [[/Political liberal/FAQ]]
---
> [[Political liberal/FAQ]]
------
Political_liberal/FAQ|985975886
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What is a liberal? 
> The word has a number of meanings, all of which reflect aspects of liberal thought. These include "favorable to progress and reform, as in religious or political affairs"; "favorable to or in accord with concepts of maximum individual freedom possible, esp. as guaranteed by law and secured by governmental protection of civil liberties"; "open-minded or tolerant, esp. free of or not bound by traditional or conventional ideas, values, etc."; and "characterized by generosity and willingness to give in large amounts". [Random House Dictionary of the English Language]. Liberals want to change things to increase personal freedom and tolerance, and are willing to empower government to the extent necessary to achieve those ends. 
> 
> 2. What do liberals want to do? 
> Help individuals take more control over their own lives. This requires (a) providing an environment that does not arbitrarily remove choice; (b) ensuring that isolated failures of judgment are not catastrophic, removing choice; (c) offering enough information so that choices can be understood and made intelligently; and (d) giving people responsibility and encouraging self-reliance within a social framework. It is important to distinguish different levels of choice; alternative kinds of toothpaste are not more important than (e.g.) career options. 
> 
> 3. Where does liberalism come from? 
> Modern liberalism has multiple roots. An important one is the provision of human rights, from the Magna Carta through the US Constitution to the International Declaration of Human Rights. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill and the "classical liberals" of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were another influence. The recognition that the social and economic patterns of large populations are qualitatively different from those of small groups draws upon insights of Marx, Weber, and Keynes. Modern liberalism is virtually alone among 20th-century movements in trying to synthesize classical-liberal individualism with the Marxist critique of capitalism, adding a heavy sprinkling of pragmatic compromise. 
> 
> 4. How do liberals differ from "libertarians" and "conservatives"? 
> Once upon a time (in the 1800s), "liberal" and "libertarian" meant the same thing; both were individualist, distrustful of state power, pro-free-market, and opposed to the entrenched privilege of the feudal and mercantilist system. After 1870, models of of society were being refined in terms of the structural effects of group interaction; the social environment came to be seen as a significant factor in determining the ability of large numbers of people to succeed in attaining their goals (and indeed in determining what those goals were). Libertarians felt that any attempt to solve social problems had to depend on private, voluntary effort, and that modifying social factors would inevitably lead to worse problems. Liberals felt that the problems were too serious to be passively left to chance in this way, and that government should have a role in influencing the social framework within which people act. Economically, liberals came to believe that pure free markets led to systematic abuse, so that a limited amount of regulation was needed; libertarians continued to favour the caveat emptor approach. By this time, conservatives had become comfortable with the free-market, capitalist system, so they joined forces with the libertarians on the economic (though not the social) front. 
> 
> 5. How do liberals differ from "socialists" and "communists"? 
> Communists understand society as interactions of groups, to the extent that they largely ignore the value and effect of individual action. Socialists, while advocating individual rights, see property-owning structures in society as inevitably leading to corruption and the ill-treatment of the poor by the rich. Both groups arose as a reaction to the abuses of capitalists, and so feel that individual acquisitiveness is the primary cause of social injustice and poverty. [This is over-simplified.] Liberals feel that when properly regulated, self-interest is a powerful and useful motivation; it should be harnessed, rather than erased. 
> 
> 6. What do liberals want the government to do? 
> Liberals see the role of government as providing a framework within which individuals can develop their lives and contribute to society. Regulation of private industry is needed to ensure integrity and safety, with respect to customers and workers. Equal opportunity should be a goal, which entails a level of provision to ameliorate the effects of poverty and discrimination. Health care and education should be universally available, since without either, individual choice is severely limited. Liberals do *not* want the government to protect people from themselves, or to interfere in individual interaction, except insofar as to prevent systematic actions that cause harm. 
> 
> B. Politics and Consequences 
> The liberal approach to controversial issues is to recognize that there are usually conflicting principles involved, neither of which always dominates. It is necessary first to discover the conflict, and then to find the best tradeoff in any given situation; i.e. absolute priorities, while simple, are almost always wrong. 
> 
> 7. What is the liberal position on abortion? 
> Most liberals are in favor of abortion rights. Although a foetus is a pre-human, and should be accorded as many rights as possible all else being equal, the quality of life of existing human beings can at this level outweigh the potential life of the baby. It is, however, a difficult question that involves tradeoffs among very important conflicting goals, so no dogmatic yes/no answer can be found; it depends on circumstances. 
> 
> 8. What is the liberal position on minority, gay & women's rights? 
> Liberals believe that every human being is entitled both to equality before the law and equal opportunity in society. Systematic discrimination causes unequal opportunity by removing choice; it is not enough to say that the victim(s) could go elsewhere, if there is nowhere else to go. It is true that legislating beliefs cannot work; but legislating that actions cannot discriminate unfairly treats the symptom while a cure is sought. The danger is that the underlying problem is then ignored or exacerbated; this is why education plays such a vital role. 
> 
> 9. What is the liberal position on gun control? 
> The conflict here involves distrust of government, individual responsibility, and attitudes towards violence within society. Giving everyone a mechanism to hurt other people quickly, easily, and at a distance is dangerous; people are more likely to do it. On the other hand, a basic liberal principle is that people should be trusted, and that large organizations should not. One approach to resolving this conflict is the Swiss system, in which large numbers of people own guns, but they are registered such that usage can be easily traced; such weapons are kept in a manner that reduces the possibility of sudden, irrational use. Many liberals prefer the outright banning of guns intended only to kill people, on the grounds that such weapons are by now ineffective in dealing with abuse of power by government. 
> 
> 10. What is the liberal position on art, pornography and censorship?
> Liberals are opposed to government-enforced limits on free expression; this, the First Amendment of the US Constitution, is the issue on which they come closest to taking an absolutist line. This extends to the propagation of ideas; in our mass media age, an opinion or argument that is not conveyed to large numbers of people is effectively censored. Thus, not only should anti-pornography laws be removed, but the active promotion of alternative and controversial viewpoints should be encouraged and financially supported. This can give people a better idea of the arguments both for and against a given position. 
> 
> <blockquote><i>
> While this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, there is a large faction of liberals who want stronger anti-pornography laws, led by the likes of Katherine McKinnon, who believe (without much evidence) that it "degrades" women or incites violence against women.  Many liberals also support "hate speech" codes, which make illegal statements derogatory to members of a race, religion, etc.
> </i></blockquote>
> 
> 11. What is the liberal position on the draft? 
> The argument against the draft is that it coerces people, and it reduces the overall effectiveness of the army. The argument for the draft is that in an emergency, manpower may be required that otherwise would not be available, and depending entirely upon supply and demand places the poor at risk more than the rich. In ordinary peacetime, the draft should not exist. In foreign adventures, some liberals feel that only volunteers should be sent to fight. In genuine emergencies that threaten the nation, where volunteer forces are not sufficient, the draft is preferable to simply increasing wages until enough people are willing to fight. 
> 
> 12. What is the liberal position on the "drug war"? 
> This country went through Prohibition once, and its only long-term result was to corrupt law enforcement and create a vicious and entrenched criminal class. It's happening again, and (just like last time) selective enforcement is making the "war on drugs" a war against the poor and black and downtrodden and a pretext for dangerous expansions in police power (through confiscation laws, "no-knock" warrants and a thousand other "anti-drug" measures). In any case, the government has no right to tell us what we can or cannot put in our bodies. Only the individual can decide to "say no"; the drug problem is not one of supply but of *demand*. Total legalization of everything is the only way to break the drug gangs. However, restriction of access to children should be ensured, as with tobacco and alcohol; and taxes should be used to reduce the potential for abuse. 
> 
> <blockquote><i>
> Again while this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, most self-described liberals, and nearly all liberal politicians, are happy to support the drug war.
> </i></blockquote>
> 
> 13. What would liberals do about concentrations of corporate power? 
> Provide a regulatory mechanism to ensure that abuses of power towards both customers and employees carry severe penalties, and offer a whistle-blowing office to encourage the reporting of breaches of human rights, in terms of safety and environmental consequences. It is not feasible to abolish limited liability, because people are going to be manipulating resources well beyond the scope of individual repayment, and assuring them of disaster if they make a mistake simply ensures that such officers are drawn only from the imprudent. However, no liability whatsoever is also to be avoided. 
> 
> C. Standard Criticisms 
> Liberals are often accused of being wishy-washy, of sitting on the fence and refusing to accept that the world can be viewed in black and white. This does not mean that they lack principles, and have no ideas for change, however. 
> 
> 14. But what about the environment? 
> The environment is important both for quality of life, and for the preservation of resources that are as yet unvalued. However, it should not be given absolute priority over human welfare. Changes that need to be made to deal with the environment include the widespread introduction of quality of life into economic evaluations, and the idea that economic decisions need to err on the safe side whenever it is known that there is not enough information for an accurate evaluation to be made. Such radical changes to standard economic analyses can only be brought about through legislation; otherwise short-term interests will outweigh longer term considerations. 
> 
> 15. What is the role of property rights? 
> Property is a social convention that allows people to claim priorities for certain kinds of interactions with their environment. To own something is to be able to use it in particular ways. The kinds of changes that a person can make to an object depends on its value to others, and the degree of ownership. For example, renting a house confers a certain amount of freedom in remodelling it, owning it (but not the land it rests on) adds to this freedom, and owning both it and the land adds more. If the house is of value to the community, this restricts the possible modifications; if the house is sufficiently important to be of value to the nation as a whole, this adds further restrictions. Property rights are always a compromise between those who are most directly involved and others whose interest is indirect. 
> 
> 16. Would liberals just give money to the poor? 
> No, though paying the poor might be an improvement over what government has done to them. As the level of "anti-poverty" spending in this country has risen, so has poverty, because so much money is being spent on bureaucratic administration. Liberals want to break this cycle by eliminating marginal tax rates of over 100%, allowing the poor to *keep* most of what they earn instead of removing it by reducing benefits. The simplest scheme to administer is universal welfare, combined with a relatively high flat rate income tax. This removes the demeaning aspect of receiving charity, which encourages dependency, and ensures that the inadequate levels of charity offered are not stretched to the breaking point in trying to cope. It is important to remember that education and training also need to be provided to offer a realistic way to find jobs. 
> 
> 17. What about national defense? 
> This issue is inevitably combined with that of foreign aid; to what extent does it make sense to give money to others so that they won't be inclined to attack us? The bottom line seems to be human rights; a country in which human rights are respected is far more stable than one in which they are not. In the latter, a ruler is more likely to seek external adventures, so as to bolster internal support; and also, dictators are more likely to support one another in pacts against potential victims than rulers of democratic republics. The goal should be to maintain a defense against potential threats, but to spend most of the defense budget on increasing the standard of living and level of democratic participation in other countries. 
> 
> D. Prospects 
> 18. How can I get involved? 
> Think about freedom, and act on your thoughts. Spend your dollars wisely. Oppose the expansion of corporate power, and state power when it exceeds its limits. Promote "bottom-up" solutions that encourage local solutions to local problems, within a universally agreed framework, and that empower individuals to make decisions affecting their lives. Join a liberal organization; the ACLU (NCCL in the UK), Amnesty International, Oxfam, Shelter. Encourage others to think about issues without stereotyping and oversimplifying; show what being a liberal means by example. Support voluntary cooperation. 
> 
> 19. Is liberalism likely to get a practical test in my lifetime? 
> Many non-liberals seem to think that liberalism is what is currently being practiced in the Western world; of course they are mistaken. Your author thinks that liberalism is on the brink of a revival, with the collapse of command economies in Eastern Europe and the failure of the voodoo economics of the '80s; the alternative is further bloodshed, suffering, and a retreat towards "strong" leaders who can get the trains to run on time. Some liberals believe that the fundamental changes in society over the past few decades will make most of the favoured ideologies obsolete, just as the industrial revolution did. Only time will tell. 
> 
> 
------
Political_liberal|985975986
1,73d0
< What is a liberal? 
< The word has a number of meanings, all of which reflect aspects of liberal thought. These include "favorable to progress and reform, as in religious or political affairs"; "favorable to or in accord with concepts of maximum individual freedom possible, esp. as guaranteed by law and secured by governmental protection of civil liberties"; "open-minded or tolerant, esp. free of or not bound by traditional or conventional ideas, values, etc."; and "characterized by generosity and willingness to give in large amounts". [Random House Dictionary of the English Language]. Liberals want to change things to increase personal freedom and tolerance, and are willing to empower government to the extent necessary to achieve those ends. 
< 
< 2. What do liberals want to do? 
< Help individuals take more control over their own lives. This requires (a) providing an environment that does not arbitrarily remove choice; (b) ensuring that isolated failures of judgment are not catastrophic, removing choice; (c) offering enough information so that choices can be understood and made intelligently; and (d) giving people responsibility and encouraging self-reliance within a social framework. It is important to distinguish different levels of choice; alternative kinds of toothpaste are not more important than (e.g.) career options. 
< 
< 3. Where does liberalism come from? 
< Modern liberalism has multiple roots. An important one is the provision of human rights, from the Magna Carta through the US Constitution to the International Declaration of Human Rights. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill and the "classical liberals" of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were another influence. The recognition that the social and economic patterns of large populations are qualitatively different from those of small groups draws upon insights of Marx, Weber, and Keynes. Modern liberalism is virtually alone among 20th-century movements in trying to synthesize classical-liberal individualism with the Marxist critique of capitalism, adding a heavy sprinkling of pragmatic compromise. 
< 
< 4. How do liberals differ from "libertarians" and "conservatives"? 
< Once upon a time (in the 1800s), "liberal" and "libertarian" meant the same thing; both were individualist, distrustful of state power, pro-free-market, and opposed to the entrenched privilege of the feudal and mercantilist system. After 1870, models of of society were being refined in terms of the structural effects of group interaction; the social environment came to be seen as a significant factor in determining the ability of large numbers of people to succeed in attaining their goals (and indeed in determining what those goals were). Libertarians felt that any attempt to solve social problems had to depend on private, voluntary effort, and that modifying social factors would inevitably lead to worse problems. Liberals felt that the problems were too serious to be passively left to chance in this way, and that government should have a role in influencing the social framework within which people act. Economically, liberals came to believe that pure free markets led to systematic abuse, so that a limited amount of regulation was needed; libertarians continued to favour the caveat emptor approach. By this time, conservatives had become comfortable with the free-market, capitalist system, so they joined forces with the libertarians on the economic (though not the social) front. 
< 
< 5. How do liberals differ from "socialists" and "communists"? 
< Communists understand society as interactions of groups, to the extent that they largely ignore the value and effect of individual action. Socialists, while advocating individual rights, see property-owning structures in society as inevitably leading to corruption and the ill-treatment of the poor by the rich. Both groups arose as a reaction to the abuses of capitalists, and so feel that individual acquisitiveness is the primary cause of social injustice and poverty. [This is over-simplified.] Liberals feel that when properly regulated, self-interest is a powerful and useful motivation; it should be harnessed, rather than erased. 
< 
< 6. What do liberals want the government to do? 
< Liberals see the role of government as providing a framework within which individuals can develop their lives and contribute to society. Regulation of private industry is needed to ensure integrity and safety, with respect to customers and workers. Equal opportunity should be a goal, which entails a level of provision to ameliorate the effects of poverty and discrimination. Health care and education should be universally available, since without either, individual choice is severely limited. Liberals do *not* want the government to protect people from themselves, or to interfere in individual interaction, except insofar as to prevent systematic actions that cause harm. 
< 
< B. Politics and Consequences 
< The liberal approach to controversial issues is to recognize that there are usually conflicting principles involved, neither of which always dominates. It is necessary first to discover the conflict, and then to find the best tradeoff in any given situation; i.e. absolute priorities, while simple, are almost always wrong. 
< 
< 7. What is the liberal position on abortion? 
< Most liberals are in favor of abortion rights. Although a foetus is a pre-human, and should be accorded as many rights as possible all else being equal, the quality of life of existing human beings can at this level outweigh the potential life of the baby. It is, however, a difficult question that involves tradeoffs among very important conflicting goals, so no dogmatic yes/no answer can be found; it depends on circumstances. 
< 
< 8. What is the liberal position on minority, gay & women's rights? 
< Liberals believe that every human being is entitled both to equality before the law and equal opportunity in society. Systematic discrimination causes unequal opportunity by removing choice; it is not enough to say that the victim(s) could go elsewhere, if there is nowhere else to go. It is true that legislating beliefs cannot work; but legislating that actions cannot discriminate unfairly treats the symptom while a cure is sought. The danger is that the underlying problem is then ignored or exacerbated; this is why education plays such a vital role. 
< 
< 9. What is the liberal position on gun control? 
< The conflict here involves distrust of government, individual responsibility, and attitudes towards violence within society. Giving everyone a mechanism to hurt other people quickly, easily, and at a distance is dangerous; people are more likely to do it. On the other hand, a basic liberal principle is that people should be trusted, and that large organizations should not. One approach to resolving this conflict is the Swiss system, in which large numbers of people own guns, but they are registered such that usage can be easily traced; such weapons are kept in a manner that reduces the possibility of sudden, irrational use. Many liberals prefer the outright banning of guns intended only to kill people, on the grounds that such weapons are by now ineffective in dealing with abuse of power by government. 
< 
< 10. What is the liberal position on art, pornography and censorship?
< Liberals are opposed to government-enforced limits on free expression; this, the First Amendment of the US Constitution, is the issue on which they come closest to taking an absolutist line. This extends to the propagation of ideas; in our mass media age, an opinion or argument that is not conveyed to large numbers of people is effectively censored. Thus, not only should anti-pornography laws be removed, but the active promotion of alternative and controversial viewpoints should be encouraged and financially supported. This can give people a better idea of the arguments both for and against a given position. 
< 
< <blockquote><i>
< While this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, there is a large faction of liberals who want stronger anti-pornography laws, led by the likes of Katherine McKinnon, who believe (without much evidence) that it "degrades" women or incites violence against women.  Many liberals also support "hate speech" codes, which make illegal statements derogatory to members of a race, religion, etc.
< </i></blockquote>
< 
< 11. What is the liberal position on the draft? 
< The argument against the draft is that it coerces people, and it reduces the overall effectiveness of the army. The argument for the draft is that in an emergency, manpower may be required that otherwise would not be available, and depending entirely upon supply and demand places the poor at risk more than the rich. In ordinary peacetime, the draft should not exist. In foreign adventures, some liberals feel that only volunteers should be sent to fight. In genuine emergencies that threaten the nation, where volunteer forces are not sufficient, the draft is preferable to simply increasing wages until enough people are willing to fight. 
< 
< 12. What is the liberal position on the "drug war"? 
< This country went through Prohibition once, and its only long-term result was to corrupt law enforcement and create a vicious and entrenched criminal class. It's happening again, and (just like last time) selective enforcement is making the "war on drugs" a war against the poor and black and downtrodden and a pretext for dangerous expansions in police power (through confiscation laws, "no-knock" warrants and a thousand other "anti-drug" measures). In any case, the government has no right to tell us what we can or cannot put in our bodies. Only the individual can decide to "say no"; the drug problem is not one of supply but of *demand*. Total legalization of everything is the only way to break the drug gangs. However, restriction of access to children should be ensured, as with tobacco and alcohol; and taxes should be used to reduce the potential for abuse. 
< 
< <blockquote><i>
< Again while this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, most self-described liberals, and nearly all liberal politicians, are happy to support the drug war.
< </i></blockquote>
< 
< 13. What would liberals do about concentrations of corporate power? 
< Provide a regulatory mechanism to ensure that abuses of power towards both customers and employees carry severe penalties, and offer a whistle-blowing office to encourage the reporting of breaches of human rights, in terms of safety and environmental consequences. It is not feasible to abolish limited liability, because people are going to be manipulating resources well beyond the scope of individual repayment, and assuring them of disaster if they make a mistake simply ensures that such officers are drawn only from the imprudent. However, no liability whatsoever is also to be avoided. 
< 
< C. Standard Criticisms 
< Liberals are often accused of being wishy-washy, of sitting on the fence and refusing to accept that the world can be viewed in black and white. This does not mean that they lack principles, and have no ideas for change, however. 
< 
< 14. But what about the environment? 
< The environment is important both for quality of life, and for the preservation of resources that are as yet unvalued. However, it should not be given absolute priority over human welfare. Changes that need to be made to deal with the environment include the widespread introduction of quality of life into economic evaluations, and the idea that economic decisions need to err on the safe side whenever it is known that there is not enough information for an accurate evaluation to be made. Such radical changes to standard economic analyses can only be brought about through legislation; otherwise short-term interests will outweigh longer term considerations. 
< 
< 15. What is the role of property rights? 
< Property is a social convention that allows people to claim priorities for certain kinds of interactions with their environment. To own something is to be able to use it in particular ways. The kinds of changes that a person can make to an object depends on its value to others, and the degree of ownership. For example, renting a house confers a certain amount of freedom in remodelling it, owning it (but not the land it rests on) adds to this freedom, and owning both it and the land adds more. If the house is of value to the community, this restricts the possible modifications; if the house is sufficiently important to be of value to the nation as a whole, this adds further restrictions. Property rights are always a compromise between those who are most directly involved and others whose interest is indirect. 
< 
< 16. Would liberals just give money to the poor? 
< No, though paying the poor might be an improvement over what government has done to them. As the level of "anti-poverty" spending in this country has risen, so has poverty, because so much money is being spent on bureaucratic administration. Liberals want to break this cycle by eliminating marginal tax rates of over 100%, allowing the poor to *keep* most of what they earn instead of removing it by reducing benefits. The simplest scheme to administer is universal welfare, combined with a relatively high flat rate income tax. This removes the demeaning aspect of receiving charity, which encourages dependency, and ensures that the inadequate levels of charity offered are not stretched to the breaking point in trying to cope. It is important to remember that education and training also need to be provided to offer a realistic way to find jobs. 
< 
< 17. What about national defense? 
< This issue is inevitably combined with that of foreign aid; to what extent does it make sense to give money to others so that they won't be inclined to attack us? The bottom line seems to be human rights; a country in which human rights are respected is far more stable than one in which they are not. In the latter, a ruler is more likely to seek external adventures, so as to bolster internal support; and also, dictators are more likely to support one another in pacts against potential victims than rulers of democratic republics. The goal should be to maintain a defense against potential threats, but to spend most of the defense budget on increasing the standard of living and level of democratic participation in other countries. 
< 
< D. Prospects 
< 18. How can I get involved? 
< Think about freedom, and act on your thoughts. Spend your dollars wisely. Oppose the expansion of corporate power, and state power when it exceeds its limits. Promote "bottom-up" solutions that encourage local solutions to local problems, within a universally agreed framework, and that empower individuals to make decisions affecting their lives. Join a liberal organization; the ACLU (NCCL in the UK), Amnesty International, Oxfam, Shelter. Encourage others to think about issues without stereotyping and oversimplifying; show what being a liberal means by example. Support voluntary cooperation. 
< 
< 19. Is liberalism likely to get a practical test in my lifetime? 
< Many non-liberals seem to think that liberalism is what is currently being practiced in the Western world; of course they are mistaken. Your author thinks that liberalism is on the brink of a revival, with the collapse of command economies in Eastern Europe and the failure of the voodoo economics of the '80s; the alternative is further bloodshed, suffering, and a retreat towards "strong" leaders who can get the trains to run on time. Some liberals believe that the fundamental changes in society over the past few decades will make most of the favoured ideologies obsolete, just as the industrial revolution did. Only time will tell. 
< 
< ----
79c6,8
< [[Political liberal/FAQ]]
---
> [[Political liberal/FAQ]] - A liberal's view of liberalism.
> 
> (This was apparently written by Chris Holt and is circulated in the net, but I do not see any copyright info for it.  Do we have permission to use it here?)
------
Antigua_And_Barbuda|985976083
1c1,309
< Describe the new page here.
---
> from the CIA World Factbook, 2000 edition:
> ----
> 
> Antigua and Barbuda
> ----
> Introduction 
> 
> Background: The islands of Antigua and Barbuda became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of Nations in 1981. Some 3,000 refugees fleeing a volcanic eruption on nearby Montserrat have settled in Antigua and Barbuda since 1995. 
> 
> ----
> Geography 
> 
> Location: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 03 N, 61 48 W 
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 442 sq km (Antigua 281 sq km; Barbuda 161 sq km) 
> land: 442 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> note: includes Redonda 
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km 
> 
> Coastline: 153 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands, with some higher volcanic areas 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m 
> highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m 
> 
> Natural resources: NEGL; pleasant climate fosters tourism 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 18% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 9% 
> forests and woodland: 11% 
> other: 62% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts 
> 
> Environment - current issues: water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> ----
> People 
> 
> Population: 66,422 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 28% (male 9,414; female 9,098) 
> 15-64 years: 67% (male 22,199; female 22,341) 
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,424; female 1,946) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.73% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 19.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.99 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -6.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 23.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 70.46 years 
> male: 68.19 years 
> female: 72.84 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.92 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) 
> adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian 
> 
> Religions: Anglican (predominant), other Protestant, some Roman Catholic 
> 
> Languages: English (official), local dialects 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling 
> total population: 89% 
> male: 90% 
> female: 88% (1960 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: none 
> conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda 
> 
> Data code: AC 
> 
> Government type: constitutional monarchy with Westminster-style parliament 
> 
> Capital: Saint John's 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip 
> 
> Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 1 November (1981) 
> 
> Constitution: 1 November 1981 
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister 
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general chosen by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister; prime minister appointed by the governor general 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms) 
> elections: House of Representatives - last held 9 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2004) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ALP 12, UPP 4, independent 1 
> 
> Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia) (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or ACLM [leader NA]; Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester Bryant BIRD]; Barbuda People's Movement or BPM [leader NA]; Progressive Labor Movement or PLM [leader NA]; United National Democratic Party or UNDP [leader NA]; United Progressive Party or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER], a coalition of three opposition political parties - UNDP, ACLM, and PLM 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Antigua Trades and Labor Union or ATLU [William ROBINSON]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Hugh MARSHALL] 
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST 
> chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 
> telephone: [1] (202) 362-5211 
> FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225 
> consulate(s) general: Miami 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda (embassy closed 30 June 1994); the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda 
> 
> Flag description: red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band 
> 
> ----
> Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Tourism continues to be the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly for more than half of GDP. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the US and UK as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 4% 
> industry: 12.5% 
> services: 83.5% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.6% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 30,000 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $122.6 million 
> expenditures: $141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Industries: tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances) 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 6% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 90 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 100% 
> hydro: 0% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 84 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock 
> 
> Exports: $38 million (1998) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% 
> 
> Exports - partners: OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3% 
> 
> Imports: $330 million (1998) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil 
> 
> Imports - partners: US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3% 
> 
> Debt - external: $357 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2.3 million (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976) 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March 
> 
> ----
> Communications 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 20,000 (1994) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good automatic telephone system 
> international: 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 36,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 31,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
> ----
> Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 77 km 
> narrow gauge: 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost exclusively for handling sugarcane) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 250 km (1996 est.) 
> paved: NA km 
> unpaved: NA km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Saint John's 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 607 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,528,944 GRT/4,590,590 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 17, cargo 385, chemical tanker 9, combination bulk 2, container 149, liquified gas 3, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 12, roll-on/roll-off 28 (1999 est.) 
> note: a flag of convenience registry: Germany owns 10 ships, Slovenia 2, and Cyprus 2 (1998 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Military 
> 
> Military branches: Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes Coast Guard) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
> 
> Illicit drugs: considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center 
------
Political_liberal/FAQ|985976093
1,73c1
< What is a liberal? 
< The word has a number of meanings, all of which reflect aspects of liberal thought. These include "favorable to progress and reform, as in religious or political affairs"; "favorable to or in accord with concepts of maximum individual freedom possible, esp. as guaranteed by law and secured by governmental protection of civil liberties"; "open-minded or tolerant, esp. free of or not bound by traditional or conventional ideas, values, etc."; and "characterized by generosity and willingness to give in large amounts". [Random House Dictionary of the English Language]. Liberals want to change things to increase personal freedom and tolerance, and are willing to empower government to the extent necessary to achieve those ends. 
< 
< 2. What do liberals want to do? 
< Help individuals take more control over their own lives. This requires (a) providing an environment that does not arbitrarily remove choice; (b) ensuring that isolated failures of judgment are not catastrophic, removing choice; (c) offering enough information so that choices can be understood and made intelligently; and (d) giving people responsibility and encouraging self-reliance within a social framework. It is important to distinguish different levels of choice; alternative kinds of toothpaste are not more important than (e.g.) career options. 
< 
< 3. Where does liberalism come from? 
< Modern liberalism has multiple roots. An important one is the provision of human rights, from the Magna Carta through the US Constitution to the International Declaration of Human Rights. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill and the "classical liberals" of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were another influence. The recognition that the social and economic patterns of large populations are qualitatively different from those of small groups draws upon insights of Marx, Weber, and Keynes. Modern liberalism is virtually alone among 20th-century movements in trying to synthesize classical-liberal individualism with the Marxist critique of capitalism, adding a heavy sprinkling of pragmatic compromise. 
< 
< 4. How do liberals differ from "libertarians" and "conservatives"? 
< Once upon a time (in the 1800s), "liberal" and "libertarian" meant the same thing; both were individualist, distrustful of state power, pro-free-market, and opposed to the entrenched privilege of the feudal and mercantilist system. After 1870, models of of society were being refined in terms of the structural effects of group interaction; the social environment came to be seen as a significant factor in determining the ability of large numbers of people to succeed in attaining their goals (and indeed in determining what those goals were). Libertarians felt that any attempt to solve social problems had to depend on private, voluntary effort, and that modifying social factors would inevitably lead to worse problems. Liberals felt that the problems were too serious to be passively left to chance in this way, and that government should have a role in influencing the social framework within which people act. Economically, liberals came to believe that pure free markets led to systematic abuse, so that a limited amount of regulation was needed; libertarians continued to favour the caveat emptor approach. By this time, conservatives had become comfortable with the free-market, capitalist system, so they joined forces with the libertarians on the economic (though not the social) front. 
< 
< 5. How do liberals differ from "socialists" and "communists"? 
< Communists understand society as interactions of groups, to the extent that they largely ignore the value and effect of individual action. Socialists, while advocating individual rights, see property-owning structures in society as inevitably leading to corruption and the ill-treatment of the poor by the rich. Both groups arose as a reaction to the abuses of capitalists, and so feel that individual acquisitiveness is the primary cause of social injustice and poverty. [This is over-simplified.] Liberals feel that when properly regulated, self-interest is a powerful and useful motivation; it should be harnessed, rather than erased. 
< 
< 6. What do liberals want the government to do? 
< Liberals see the role of government as providing a framework within which individuals can develop their lives and contribute to society. Regulation of private industry is needed to ensure integrity and safety, with respect to customers and workers. Equal opportunity should be a goal, which entails a level of provision to ameliorate the effects of poverty and discrimination. Health care and education should be universally available, since without either, individual choice is severely limited. Liberals do *not* want the government to protect people from themselves, or to interfere in individual interaction, except insofar as to prevent systematic actions that cause harm. 
< 
< B. Politics and Consequences 
< The liberal approach to controversial issues is to recognize that there are usually conflicting principles involved, neither of which always dominates. It is necessary first to discover the conflict, and then to find the best tradeoff in any given situation; i.e. absolute priorities, while simple, are almost always wrong. 
< 
< 7. What is the liberal position on abortion? 
< Most liberals are in favor of abortion rights. Although a foetus is a pre-human, and should be accorded as many rights as possible all else being equal, the quality of life of existing human beings can at this level outweigh the potential life of the baby. It is, however, a difficult question that involves tradeoffs among very important conflicting goals, so no dogmatic yes/no answer can be found; it depends on circumstances. 
< 
< 8. What is the liberal position on minority, gay & women's rights? 
< Liberals believe that every human being is entitled both to equality before the law and equal opportunity in society. Systematic discrimination causes unequal opportunity by removing choice; it is not enough to say that the victim(s) could go elsewhere, if there is nowhere else to go. It is true that legislating beliefs cannot work; but legislating that actions cannot discriminate unfairly treats the symptom while a cure is sought. The danger is that the underlying problem is then ignored or exacerbated; this is why education plays such a vital role. 
< 
< 9. What is the liberal position on gun control? 
< The conflict here involves distrust of government, individual responsibility, and attitudes towards violence within society. Giving everyone a mechanism to hurt other people quickly, easily, and at a distance is dangerous; people are more likely to do it. On the other hand, a basic liberal principle is that people should be trusted, and that large organizations should not. One approach to resolving this conflict is the Swiss system, in which large numbers of people own guns, but they are registered such that usage can be easily traced; such weapons are kept in a manner that reduces the possibility of sudden, irrational use. Many liberals prefer the outright banning of guns intended only to kill people, on the grounds that such weapons are by now ineffective in dealing with abuse of power by government. 
< 
< 10. What is the liberal position on art, pornography and censorship?
< Liberals are opposed to government-enforced limits on free expression; this, the First Amendment of the US Constitution, is the issue on which they come closest to taking an absolutist line. This extends to the propagation of ideas; in our mass media age, an opinion or argument that is not conveyed to large numbers of people is effectively censored. Thus, not only should anti-pornography laws be removed, but the active promotion of alternative and controversial viewpoints should be encouraged and financially supported. This can give people a better idea of the arguments both for and against a given position. 
< 
< <blockquote><i>
< While this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, there is a large faction of liberals who want stronger anti-pornography laws, led by the likes of Katherine McKinnon, who believe (without much evidence) that it "degrades" women or incites violence against women.  Many liberals also support "hate speech" codes, which make illegal statements derogatory to members of a race, religion, etc.
< </i></blockquote>
< 
< 11. What is the liberal position on the draft? 
< The argument against the draft is that it coerces people, and it reduces the overall effectiveness of the army. The argument for the draft is that in an emergency, manpower may be required that otherwise would not be available, and depending entirely upon supply and demand places the poor at risk more than the rich. In ordinary peacetime, the draft should not exist. In foreign adventures, some liberals feel that only volunteers should be sent to fight. In genuine emergencies that threaten the nation, where volunteer forces are not sufficient, the draft is preferable to simply increasing wages until enough people are willing to fight. 
< 
< 12. What is the liberal position on the "drug war"? 
< This country went through Prohibition once, and its only long-term result was to corrupt law enforcement and create a vicious and entrenched criminal class. It's happening again, and (just like last time) selective enforcement is making the "war on drugs" a war against the poor and black and downtrodden and a pretext for dangerous expansions in police power (through confiscation laws, "no-knock" warrants and a thousand other "anti-drug" measures). In any case, the government has no right to tell us what we can or cannot put in our bodies. Only the individual can decide to "say no"; the drug problem is not one of supply but of *demand*. Total legalization of everything is the only way to break the drug gangs. However, restriction of access to children should be ensured, as with tobacco and alcohol; and taxes should be used to reduce the potential for abuse. 
< 
< <blockquote><i>
< Again while this <b>should</b> be the liberal position, most self-described liberals, and nearly all liberal politicians, are happy to support the drug war.
< </i></blockquote>
< 
< 13. What would liberals do about concentrations of corporate power? 
< Provide a regulatory mechanism to ensure that abuses of power towards both customers and employees carry severe penalties, and offer a whistle-blowing office to encourage the reporting of breaches of human rights, in terms of safety and environmental consequences. It is not feasible to abolish limited liability, because people are going to be manipulating resources well beyond the scope of individual repayment, and assuring them of disaster if they make a mistake simply ensures that such officers are drawn only from the imprudent. However, no liability whatsoever is also to be avoided. 
< 
< C. Standard Criticisms 
< Liberals are often accused of being wishy-washy, of sitting on the fence and refusing to accept that the world can be viewed in black and white. This does not mean that they lack principles, and have no ideas for change, however. 
< 
< 14. But what about the environment? 
< The environment is important both for quality of life, and for the preservation of resources that are as yet unvalued. However, it should not be given absolute priority over human welfare. Changes that need to be made to deal with the environment include the widespread introduction of quality of life into economic evaluations, and the idea that economic decisions need to err on the safe side whenever it is known that there is not enough information for an accurate evaluation to be made. Such radical changes to standard economic analyses can only be brought about through legislation; otherwise short-term interests will outweigh longer term considerations. 
< 
< 15. What is the role of property rights? 
< Property is a social convention that allows people to claim priorities for certain kinds of interactions with their environment. To own something is to be able to use it in particular ways. The kinds of changes that a person can make to an object depends on its value to others, and the degree of ownership. For example, renting a house confers a certain amount of freedom in remodelling it, owning it (but not the land it rests on) adds to this freedom, and owning both it and the land adds more. If the house is of value to the community, this restricts the possible modifications; if the house is sufficiently important to be of value to the nation as a whole, this adds further restrictions. Property rights are always a compromise between those who are most directly involved and others whose interest is indirect. 
< 
< 16. Would liberals just give money to the poor? 
< No, though paying the poor might be an improvement over what government has done to them. As the level of "anti-poverty" spending in this country has risen, so has poverty, because so much money is being spent on bureaucratic administration. Liberals want to break this cycle by eliminating marginal tax rates of over 100%, allowing the poor to *keep* most of what they earn instead of removing it by reducing benefits. The simplest scheme to administer is universal welfare, combined with a relatively high flat rate income tax. This removes the demeaning aspect of receiving charity, which encourages dependency, and ensures that the inadequate levels of charity offered are not stretched to the breaking point in trying to cope. It is important to remember that education and training also need to be provided to offer a realistic way to find jobs. 
< 
< 17. What about national defense? 
< This issue is inevitably combined with that of foreign aid; to what extent does it make sense to give money to others so that they won't be inclined to attack us? The bottom line seems to be human rights; a country in which human rights are respected is far more stable than one in which they are not. In the latter, a ruler is more likely to seek external adventures, so as to bolster internal support; and also, dictators are more likely to support one another in pacts against potential victims than rulers of democratic republics. The goal should be to maintain a defense against potential threats, but to spend most of the defense budget on increasing the standard of living and level of democratic participation in other countries. 
< 
< D. Prospects 
< 18. How can I get involved? 
< Think about freedom, and act on your thoughts. Spend your dollars wisely. Oppose the expansion of corporate power, and state power when it exceeds its limits. Promote "bottom-up" solutions that encourage local solutions to local problems, within a universally agreed framework, and that empower individuals to make decisions affecting their lives. Join a liberal organization; the ACLU (NCCL in the UK), Amnesty International, Oxfam, Shelter. Encourage others to think about issues without stereotyping and oversimplifying; show what being a liberal means by example. Support voluntary cooperation. 
< 
< 19. Is liberalism likely to get a practical test in my lifetime? 
< Many non-liberals seem to think that liberalism is what is currently being practiced in the Western world; of course they are mistaken. Your author thinks that liberalism is on the brink of a revival, with the collapse of command economies in Eastern Europe and the failure of the voodoo economics of the '80s; the alternative is further bloodshed, suffering, and a retreat towards "strong" leaders who can get the trains to run on time. Some liberals believe that the fundamental changes in society over the past few decades will make most of the favoured ideologies obsolete, just as the industrial revolution did. Only time will tell. 
< 
< 
---
> Text removed pending confirmation of Wikipedia's right to use it.
------
Generation_X|985976110
11c11
< Some have suggested that Generation Xers are proud to not be from the baby boom generation and activly rebel against the idealism the baby boomers advocated in the [[1960s]].
---
> Some have suggested that Generation Xers are proud to not be from the baby boom generation and actively rebel against the idealism the baby boomers advocated in the [[1960s]].
------
Political_liberal|985976147
1d0
< 
5,8d3
< 
< [[Political liberal/FAQ]] - A liberal's view of liberalism.
< 
< (This was apparently written by Chris Holt and is circulated in the net, but I do not see any copyright info for it.  Do we have permission to use it here?)
------
Generation_X/Talk|985976154
3a4
> * conspicuous consumption of material goods
9a11,20
> 
> I feel fortunate to know:
> * direct knowledge from depression era kids (1930 & 1932) as parents
> * frugality from my parents
> * respect for sacrifices made in WWI, WWII, Korea, and Vietnam as well as the Revolutionary and Civil wars.
> * respect for doing the right thing even if you could get away with antisocial behavior (stealing, cheating, etc.)
> * respect and responsibility that I will be judged on my accomplishments and abilities and not on an inclusion in a demographic group
> * well founded skepticism of the legal/social/ethical mire of granting special rights to people based on their demograpics
> * hearty skepticism of utopians and idealists
> 
15a27
> 
16a29
> (moved from the non-talk page):
------
Political_liberal/FAQ|985976231
1c1,3
< Text removed pending confirmation of Wikipedia's right to use it.
---
> Text removed pending confirmation of Wikipedia's right to use it.
> 
> It's also quite blatantly biased in places.  It contains a lot of good text about how liberals think about themselves and describe themselves, but if we can only use it without changes, it's worthless.
------
Generation_X/Talk|985976247
16a17
> * resentment of the willingness many people have to be labeled as victims and of those that label people as victims
------
Argentina|985976424
1c1,348
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ----
> from the 2000 edition of the cia world factbook:
> ----
> 
> ----
> Argentina
> ----
> Introduction 
> 
> Background: Following independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina experienced periods of internal political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military factions. After World War II, a long period of Peronist dictatorship was followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and four free elections since then have underscored Argentina's progress in democratic consolidation. 
> 
> ----
> Geography 
> 
> Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 34 00 S, 64 00 W 
> 
> Map references: South America 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 2,766,890 sq km 
> land: 2,736,690 sq km 
> water: 30,200 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than three-tenths the size of the US 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 9,665 km 
> border countries: Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km, Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km 
> 
> Coastline: 4,989 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: mostly temperate; arid in southeast; subantarctic in southwest 
> 
> Terrain: rich plains of the Pampas in northern half, flat to rolling plateau of Patagonia in south, rugged Andes along western border 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Salinas Chicas -40 m (located on Peninsula Valdes) 
> highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,960 m 
> 
> Natural resources: fertile plains of the pampas, lead, zinc, tin, copper, iron ore, manganese, petroleum, uranium 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 9% 
> permanent crops: 1% 
> permanent pastures: 52% 
> forests and woodland: 19% 
> other: 19% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 17,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the Pampas and northeast; heavy flooding 
> 
> Environment - current issues: environmental problems (urban and rural) typical of an industrializing economy such as soil degradation, desertification, air pollution, and water pollution 
> note: Argentina is a world leader in setting voluntary greenhouse gas targets 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation 
> 
> Geography - note: second-largest country in South America (after Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage) 
> 
> ----
> People 
> 
> Population: 36,955,182 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 27% (male 5,061,588; female 4,827,582) 
> 15-64 years: 63% (male 11,625,574; female 11,613,358) 
> 65 years and over: 10% (male 1,582,861; female 2,244,219) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.16% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 18.59 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 7.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 0.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 18.31 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 75.05 years 
> male: 71.67 years 
> female: 78.61 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Argentine(s) 
> adjective: Argentine 
> 
> Ethnic groups: white (mostly Spanish and Italian) 97%, mestizo, Amerindian, or other nonwhite groups 3% 
> 
> Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 92% (less than 20% practicing), Protestant 2%, Jewish 2%, other 4% 
> 
> Languages: Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 96.2% 
> male: 96.2% 
> female: 96.2% (1995 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Argentine Republic 
> conventional short form: Argentina 
> local long form: Republica Argentina 
> local short form: Argentina 
> 
> Data code: AR 
> 
> Government type: republic 
> 
> Capital: Buenos Aires 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 23 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia), and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Buenos Aires; Catamarca; Chaco; Chubut; Cordoba; Corrientes; Distrito Federal*; Entre Rios; Formosa; Jujuy; La Pampa; La Rioja; Mendoza; Misiones; Neuquen; Rio Negro; Salta; San Juan; San Luis; Santa Cruz; Santa Fe; Santiago del Estero; Tierra del Fuego, Antartica e Islas del Atlantico Sur; Tucuman 
> note: the US does not recognize any claims to Antarctica 
> 
> Independence: 9 July 1816 (from Spain) 
> 
> National holiday: Revolution Day, 25 May (1810) 
> 
> Constitution: 1 May 1853; revised August 1994 
> 
> Legal system: mixture of US and West European legal systems; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President Fernando DE LA RUA (since 10 December 1999); Vice President Carlos Alberto ALVAREZ (since 10 December 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
> head of government: President Fernando DE LA RUA (since 10 December 1999); Vice President Carlos Alberto ALVAREZ (since 10 December 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president 
> elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 24 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2003) 
> election results: Fernando DE LA RUA elected president; percent of vote - 48.5% 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate (72 seats; formerly, three members appointed by each of the provincial legislatures; presently transitioning to one-third of the members being elected every two years to six-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies (257 seats; one-half of the members elected every two years to four-year terms) 
> elections: Senate - transition phase will begin in 2001 elections when all seats will be fully contested; winners will randomly draw to determine whether they will serve a two-year, four-year, or full six-year term, beginning a rotating cycle renovating a third of the body every two years; Chamber of Deputies - last held 24 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2001) 
> election results: Senate - percent of vote by bloc or party - NA; seats by bloc or party - Peronist 40, UCR 20, Frepaso 1, other 11; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by bloc or party - NA; seats by bloc or party - Alliance 124 (UCR 85, Frepaso 36, others 3), Peronist 101, AR 12, other 20 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), the nine Supreme Court judges are appointed by the president with approval of the Senate 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Action for the Republic or AR [Domingo CAVALLO]; Alliance (UCR, Frepaso and others) [leader NA]; Front for a Country in Solidarity or Frepaso (a four-party coalition) [Carlos ALVAREZ]; Justicialist Party or PJ [Carlos Saul MENEM] (Peronist umbrella political organization); Radical Civic Union or UCR [Raul ALFONSIN]; several provincial parties 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Argentine Association of Pharmaceutical Labs (CILFA); Argentine Industrial Union (manufacturers' association); Argentine Rural Society (large landowners' association); Armed Forces; business organizations; General Confederation of Labor or CGT (Peronist-leaning umbrella labor organization); Peronist-dominated labor movement; Roman Catholic Church; students 
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB, Australia Group, BCIE, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G- 6, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MTCR, NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Guillermo GONZALEZ Enrique 
> chancery: 1600 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009 
> telephone: [1] (202) 238-6400 
> FAX: [1] (202) 238-6471 
> consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
> embassy: 4300 Colombia, 1425 Buenos Aires 
> mailing address: international mail: use street address; APO address: Unit 4334, APO AA 34034 
> telephone: [54] (1) 777-4533, 4534 
> FAX: [54] (1) 777-0197 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of light blue (top), white, and light blue; centered in the white band is a radiant yellow sun with a human face known as the Sun of May 
> 
> ----
> Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. However, when President Carlos MENEM took office in 1989, the country had piled up huge external debts, inflation had reached 200% per month, and output was plummeting. To combat the economic crisis, the government embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. In 1991, it implemented radical monetary reforms which pegged the peso to the US dollar and limited the growth in the monetary base by law to the growth in reserves. Inflation fell sharply in subsequent years. In 1995, the Mexican peso crisis produced capital flight, the loss of banking system deposits, and a severe, but short-lived, recession; a series of reforms to bolster the domestic banking system followed. Real GDP growth recovered strongly, reaching 8% in 1997. In 1998, international financial turmoil caused by Russia's problems and increasing investor anxiety over Brazil produced the highest domestic interest rates in more than three years, halving the growth rate of the economy. Conditions worsened in 1999 with GDP falling by 3%. President Fernando DE LA RUA, who took office in December 1999, sponsored tax increases and spending cuts to reduce the deficit, which had ballooned to 2.5% of GDP in 1999. The new government also arranged a new $7.4 billion stand-by facility with the IMF for contingency purposes - almost three times the size of the previous arrangement. Key challenges facing the new government include reforming the country's rigid labor code and addressing the precarious financial situation of several highly indebted provinces. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $367 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: -3% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $10,000 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 7% 
> industry: 29% 
> services: 64% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 36% (1998 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -2% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 15 million (1999) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14% (December 1999) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $44 billion 
> expenditures: $48 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA billion (2000 est.) 
> 
> Industries: food processing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, textiles, chemicals and petrochemicals, printing, metallurgy, steel 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 75.237 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 42.71% 
> hydro: 47.55% 
> nuclear: 9.47% 
> other: 0.27% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 75.57 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 250 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 5.85 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: sunflower seeds, lemons, soybeans, grapes, corn, tobacco, peanuts, tea, wheat; livestock 
> 
> Exports: $23 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: edible oils, fuels and energy, cereals, feed, motor vehicles 
> 
> Exports - partners: Brazil 24%, EU 21%, US 11% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports: $25 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, metal manufactures, plastics 
> 
> Imports - partners: EU 28%, US 22%, Brazil 21% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Debt - external: $149 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2.833 billion (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 peso = 100 centavos 
> 
> Exchange rates: peso is pegged to the US dollar at an exchange rate of 1 peso = $1 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
> ----
> Communications 
> 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 7.5 million (1997) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1.8 million (1997) 
> 
> Telephone system: 12,000 public telephones; extensive modern system but many families do not have telephones; despite extensive use of microwave radio relay, the telephone system frequently fails during rainstorms, even in Buenos Aires 
> domestic: microwave radio relay and a domestic satellite system with 40 earth stations serve the trunk network 
> international: satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); two international gateways near Buenos Aires; Atlantis II submarine cable (1999) 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 260 (including 10 inactive stations), FM NA (probably more than 1,000, mostly unlicensed), shortwave 6 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 24.3 million (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 42 (plus 444 repeaters) (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 7.95 million (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 47 (1999) 
> 
> ----
> Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 38,326 km (160 km electrified) 
> broad gauge: 24,481 km 1.676-m gauge (134 km electrified) 
> standard gauge: 2,765 km 1.435-m gauge (26 km electrified) 
> narrow gauge: 11,080 km 1.000-m gauge (1999) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 215,434 km 
> paved: 63,553 km (including 734 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 151,881 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 10,950 km navigable 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 4,090 km; petroleum products 2,900 km; natural gas 9,918 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bahia Blanca, Buenos Aires, Comodoro Rivadavia, Concepcion del Uruguay, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Necochea, Rio Gallegos, Rosario, Santa Fe, Ushuaia 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 26 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 218,540 GRT/333,413 DWT 
> ships by type: cargo 9, petroleum tanker 11, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 1,359 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 142 
> over 3,047 m: 5 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 26 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 60 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 44 
> under 914 m: 7 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 1,217 
> over 3,047 m: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 63 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 614 
> under 914 m: 536 (1999 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Military 
> 
> Military branches: Argentine Army, Navy of the Argentine Republic (includes Naval Aviation, Marines, and Coast Guard), Argentine Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Aeronautical Police Force 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 20 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 9,287,499 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 7,530,476 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 341,544 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $4.3 billion (FY99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.3% (FY99) 
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: claims UK-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims UK-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica 
> 
> Illicit drugs: increasing use as a transshipment country for cocaine headed for Europe and the US; increasing use as a money-laundering center; domestic consumption of drugs has skyrocketed 
------
Rush_Limbaugh|985976433
6,9d5
< 
< ----
< 
< see also http://www.bartcop.com
------
Political_liberal/FAQ|985976517
3a4,5
> 
> <i>I agree.  Not just blatantly biased, but also factually questionable or at least highly idiosyncratic.  For example, it claims that the liberal position is that all drugs be legalized, but that doesn't seem to be a major tenet of many (any?) liberal politicians or groups.  Most would probably support legalizing marijuana, or at least making the penalties less severe, and they would of course support efforts to ensure that drugs abused by the rich (regular cocaine) are punished on an equal basis with drugs abused by the poor (crack cocaine).  But that's hardly the same as the legalization proposed by the author.</i>
------
Rush_Limbaugh/Talk|985976522
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone put this link on the first page...it deserves to be on the talk page.
> 
> Anti-conservitive web sites:
> * http://www.bartcop.com
> 
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985976569
10,111c10
< The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
< 
< The 99 Names of God according to the tradition of Islam are :
< Ar-Rahman: The Most Compassionate, Most Kind
< Ar-Rahim: The Most Merciful
< Al-Malik: The Master, The King, The Monarch
< Al-Quddus: The Pure, The Holy One
< As-Salaam: The Peace, The Tranquility
< Al-Mu'min: The Faithful, The Trusted
< Al-Muhaymin: The Protector, The Vigilant, The Controller
< Al-'Aziz: The Almighty, The Powerful
< Al-Jabbar: The Oppressor, The All Compelling
< Al-Mutakabbir: The Haughty, The Majestic, The Lord
< Al-Khaliq: The Creator, The Maker
< Al-Baari': The Inventor
< Al-Musawwir: The Fashioner, The Organiser, The Designer
< Al-Ghaffar: The Forgiving, The Forgiver
< Al-Qahhar: The Almighty, The Dominant
< Al-Wahhab: The Donor, The Bestower
< Ar-Razzaq: The Provider, The Sustainer
< Al-Fattah: The Opener, The Revealer
< Al-'Alim: The All Knowing, The Omniscient
< Al-Qabid: The Contractor, The Restrainer, The Recipient
< Al-Basit: The Expander, The Increaser
< Al-Khafid: The Abaser, The Humbler
< Ar-Rafi': The Raiser, The Exalter
< Al-Mu'iz: The Honourer, The Exalter
< Al-Muzil: The Abaser, The Subduer
< As-Sami': The All Hearing, The All Knowing
< Al-Basir: The All Seeing, The Insightful
< Al-Hakam: The Arbitrator, The Judge
< Al-'Adl: The Justice, The Equitable
< Al-Latif: The Most Gentle, The Gracious, The One Who is Kind
< Al-Khabir: The Aware, The Segacious
< Al-Halim: The Gentle, The Most Patient, The Benevolent
< Al-'Azim: The Great, The Mighty
< Al-Ghafoor: The Forgiving, The Pardoner
< Ash-Shakur: The Grateful, The Thankful
< Al-'Aliy: The Most High, The Exalted
< Al-Kabir: The Greatest, The Biggest
< Al-Hafiz: The Guardian, The Preserver
< Al-Muqit: The Maintainer, The Nourisher
< Al-Hasib: The Noble, The Reckoner
< Al-Jalil: The Majestic, The Honorable, The Exalted
< Al-Karim: The Most Generous, The Bountiful
< Ar-Raqib: The Guardian, The Watcher
< Al-Mujib: The Answerer
< Al-Wasi': The Enricher, The Omnipresent, The Knowledgeable
< Al-Hakim: The Most Wise, The Judicious
< Al-Wadud: The Affectionate, The Loving
< Al-Majid: The Glorious, The Exalted
< Al-Ba'ith: The Resurrector, The Raiser from death
< Ash-Shahid: The Witness
< Al-Haqq: The Truth, The Just
< Al-Wakil: The Guardian, the Trustee
< Al-Qawee: The Powerful, The Almighty, The Strong
< Al-Matin: The Strong, The Firm
< Al-Walee: The Supporter, The Friend, The Defender
< Al-Hamid: The Praiseworthy, The Commendable
< Al-Muhsi: The Counter
< Al-Mubdi': The Beginner, The Creator, The Originator
< Al-Mu'eed: The Restorer, The Resurrector
< Al-Muhyee: The Bestower, The Life Giver
< Al-Mumeet: The Bringer of Death, The Death Giver
< Al-Hayy: The Ever-Living
< Al-Qayyum: The Self-Subsistent, The Eternal, The Self-Sustaining
< Al-Wajid: The All Perceiving, The Bountiful, The Finder
< Al-Wahid: The One, The Unique
< Al-Majid: The Noble, The Illustrious
< Al-Ahad: The Only, The Unique
< As-Samad: The Perfect, The Eternal
< Al-Qadir: The Able, The Capable, The Omnipotent
< Al-Muqtadir: The Capable, The All Powerful
< Al-Muqaddim: The Presenter, The Advancer, The Expediter
< Al-Mu'akhkhir: The Fulfiller, The Deferrer
< Al-'Awwal: The First
< Al-'Akhir: The Last
< Az-Zahir: The Apparent, The Exterior, The Manifest
< Al-Batin: The Hidden, The Interior, The Veiled
< Al-Waali: The Governor, The Ruler, The Master
< Al-Muta'ali: The Exalted, The Most High, The One above reproach
< Al-Barr: The Benefactor, The Beneficient, The Pious
< At-Tawwab: The Acceptor of Repentance, The Forgiver, The Relenting
< Al-Muntaqim: The Avenger
< Al-'Afuww: The Forgiver, The Pardoner
< Ar-Ra'uf: The Merciful, The Ever Indulgent
< Al-Muqsit: The Just, The Equitable
< Aj-Jami': The Collector, The Comprehensive, The Gatherer
< Al-Ghanee: The Richest, The All Sufficing, The Self-Sufficient
< Al-Mughnee: The Enricher, The Sufficer, The Bestower
< Al-Maani': The Supporter
< Ad-Daarr: The Distresser, The Afflictor, The Bringer of Adversity
< An-Nafi': The Beneficial, The Benefactor
< An-Nur: The Light
< Al-Hadi: The Guide
< Al-Badi': The Wonderful, The Maker, The Incomparable
< Al-Baqi: The Enduring, The Everlasting, The Eternal
< Al-Warith: The Inheritor, The Heir
< Ar-Rashid: The Rightly Guided, The Concious, The Guide
< As-Sabur: The Most Patient, The Enduring
< Malik Al-Mulk: The Ruler of The Kingdom, The King of The Universe
< Zul-Jalali wal-Ikram: Lord of Majesty and Generosity
---
> The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.  See also: [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]
------
Armenia|985976642
1c1,332
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Armenia
> ----
> 
> ----
> Introduction 
> ----
> 
> Background: An Orthodox Christian country, Armenia was incorporated into Russia in 1828 and the USSR in 1920. Armenian leaders remain preoccupied by the long conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh, a primarily Armenian-populated exclave, assigned to Soviet Azerbaijan in the 1920s by Moscow. Armenia and Azerbaijan began fighting over the exclave in 1988; the struggle escalated after both countries attained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994, when a cease-fire took hold, Armenian forces held not only Nagorno-Karabakh but also a significant portion of Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both sides have been hurt by their inability to make substantial progress toward a peaceful resolution. 
> 
> ----
> Geography 
> 
> Location: Southwestern Asia, east of Turkey 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 40 00 N, 45 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 29,800 sq km 
> land: 28,400 sq km 
> water: 1,400 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 1,254 km 
> border countries: Azerbaijan-proper 566 km, Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave 221 km, Georgia 164 km, Iran 35 km, Turkey 268 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: highland continental, hot summers, cold winters 
> 
> Terrain: Armenian Highland with mountains; little forest land; fast flowing rivers; good soil in Aras River valley 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Debed River 400 m 
> highest point: Aragats Lerr 4,095 m 
> 
> Natural resources: small deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, alumina 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 17% 
> permanent crops: 3% 
> permanent pastures: 24% 
> forests and woodland: 15% 
> other: 41% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 2,870 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; energy blockade, the result of conflict with Azerbaijan, has led to deforestation when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan), a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies; restart of Metsamor nuclear power plant without adequate (IAEA-recommended) safety and backup systems 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands 
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked 
> 
> ----
> People 
> 
> Population: 3,344,336 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 24% (male 415,297; female 400,590) 
> 15-64 years: 66% (male 1,084,588; female 1,131,387) 
> 65 years and over: 10% (male 129,890; female 182,584) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: -0.28% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 10.97 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 9.53 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -4.23 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 66.4 years 
> male: 61.98 years 
> female: 71.04 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.47 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Armenian(s) 
> adjective: Armenian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Armenian 93%, Azeri 3%, Russian 2%, other (mostly Yezidi Kurds) 2% (1989) 
> note: as of the end of 1993, virtually all Azeris had emigrated from Armenia 
> 
> Religions: Armenian Orthodox 94% 
> 
> Languages: Armenian 96%, Russian 2%, other 2% 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 99% 
> male: 99% 
> female: 98% (1989 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Republic of Armenia 
> conventional short form: Armenia 
> local long form: Hayastani Hanrapetut'yun 
> local short form: Hayastan 
> former: Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic; Armenian Republic 
> 
> Data code: AM 
> 
> Government type: republic 
> 
> Capital: Yerevan 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (marzer, singular - marz) and 1 city* (k'aghak'ner, singular - k'aghak'); Aragatsotn, Ararat, Armavir, Geghark'unik', Kotayk', Lorri, Shirak, Syunik', Tavush, Vayots' Dzor, Yerevan* 
> 
> Independence: 28 May 1918-2 December 1920 (First Armenian Republic); 23 September 1991 (from Soviet Union) 
> 
> National holiday: Referendum Day, 21 September 
> 
> Constitution: adopted by nationwide referendum 5 July 1995 
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President Robert KOCHARIAN (since 30 March 1998) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Aram SARKISYAN (since 3 November 1999) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister 
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; special election last held 30 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); prime minister appointed by the president 
> election results: Robert KOCHARIAN elected president; percent of vote - Robert KOCHARIAN 59%, Karen DEMIRCHYAN 41% 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly (Parliament) or Azgayin Zhoghov (131 seats; members serve four-year terms) 
> elections: last held 30 May 1999 (next to be held in the spring of 2003) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - unity bloc 61 (Republican Party 41, People's Party of Armenia 20), Stability Group (independent Armenian deputies who have formed a bloc) 21, ACP 10, independents 10, ARF (Dashnak) 8, Law and Unity Party 7, NDU 6, Law-Governed Party 6, unfilled 2; note - seats by party change frequently 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Constitutional Court 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Armenian Communist Party or ACP [Vladimir DARBINIAN]; Armenian National Movement or ANM [Vano SIRADEGIAN, chairman]; Armenian Revolutionary Federation ("Dashnak" Party) or ARF [Vahan HAVHANNISIAN]; Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Azat ARSHAKYN, chairman]; Democratic Liberal Party [Ramkavar AZATAKAN, chairman]; Free Armenian's Mission [Ruben MNATSANIAN, chairman]; Law and Unity Party [Artashes GEGAMIAN, chairman]; Law-Governed Party [Artur BAGDASARIAN, chairman]; Mission Party [Artush PAPOIAN, chairman]; National Democratic Union or NDU [Vazgen MANUKIAN]; National State Party [Samvel SHAGINIAN]; People's Party of Armenia [Stepan DEMIRCHYAN]; Republican Party [Andranik MARKARYAN]; Shamiram Women's Movement or SWM [Maria NERSISSIAN]; Social Democratic (Hnchakian) Party [Yeghia NACHARIAN]; Stability Group [Vartan AYVAZIAN, chairman]; Union of National Self-Determination or NSDU [Paruir HAIRIKIAN, chairman] 
> 
> International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arman KIRAKOSIAN 
> chancery: 2225 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 319-1976 
> FAX: [1] (202) 319-2982 
> consulate(s) general: Los Angeles 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Michael LEMMON 
> embassy: 18 General Bagramian Avenue, Yerevan 
> mailing address: American Embassy Yerevan, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-7020 
> telephone: [374] (2) 151-551 
> FAX: [374] (2) 151-550 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and orange 
> 
> ----
> Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet era. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for more investment and updated technology. The privatization of industry has been at a slower pace, but has been given renewed emphasis by the current administration. Armenia is a food importer, and its mineral deposits (gold, bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh and the breakup of the centrally directed economic system of the former Soviet Union contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. By 1994, however, the Armenian Government had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic program that has resulted in positive growth rates in 1995-99. Armenia also managed to slash inflation and to privatize most small- and medium-sized enterprises. The chronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in recent years have been largely offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at Metsamor. Continued Russian financial difficulties have hurt the trade sector especially, but have been offset by international aid, domestic restructuring, and foreign direct investment. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $9.9 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,900 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 40% 
> industry: 25% 
> services: 35% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 45% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.5% (1999) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.5 million (1999) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 55%, services 25%, manufacturing, mining, and construction 20% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 20% (1998 est.) 
> note: official rate is 9.3% for 1998 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $360 million 
> expenditures: $566 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.) 
> 
> Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, forging-pressing machines, electric motors, tires, knitted wear, hosiery, shoes, silk fabric, washing machines, chemicals, trucks, watches, instruments, microelectronics 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -2% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 5.764 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 48.92% 
> hydro: 26.44% 
> nuclear: 24.64% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 5.361 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: fruit (especially grapes), vegetables; livestock 
> 
> Exports: $240 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: diamonds, scrap metal, machinery and equipment, cognac, copper ore 
> 
> Exports - partners: Belgium, Russia, Iran, Turkmenistan, US, Georgia (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $782 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: natural gas, petroleum, tobacco products, foodstuffs, diamonds 
> 
> Imports - partners: Russia, US, UK, Iran, Turkey, Belgium (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $862.7 million (1999) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $245.5 million (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 dram = 100 luma 
> 
> Exchange rates: dram per US$1 - 527.02 (January 2000), 535.06 (1999), 504.92 (1998), 490.85 (1997), 414.04 (1996), 405.91 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
> ----
> Communications 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 583,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: system inadequate; now 90% privately owned and undergoing modernization and expansion 
> domestic: the majority of subscribers and the most modern equipment are in Yerevan (this includes paging and mobile cellular service) 
> international: Yerevan is connected to the Trans-Asia-Europe fiber-optic cable through Iran; additional international service is available by microwave radio relay and landline connections to the other countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States and through the Moscow international switch and by satellite to the rest of the world; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 9, FM 6, shortwave 1 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 850,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 4 (1998) 
> 
> Televisions: 825,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) 
> 
> ----
> Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 825 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines 
> broad gauge: 825 km 1.520-m gauge (825 km electrified) (1995) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 15,998 km 
> paved: 15,998 km (including 7,567 km of expressways) 
> unpaved: 0 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: NA km 
> 
> Pipelines: natural gas 900 km (1991) 
> 
> Ports and harbors: none 
> 
> Airports: 11 (1996 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 5 
> over 3,047 m: 2 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1996 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 6 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.) 
> 
> 
> Military 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Military branches: Army, Air Force and Air Defense Aviation, Air Defense Force, Security Forces (internal and border troops) 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 896,646 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 708,940 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 33,391 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $75 million (FY99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 4% (FY99) 
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; traditional demands regarding former Armenian lands in Turkey have subsided 
> 
> Illicit drugs: illicit cultivator of cannabis mostly for domestic consumption; increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs - mostly opium and hashish - to Western Europe and the US via Iran, Central Asia, and Russia 
------
Generation_X|985976684
9c9
< This manifested itself in [[grunge music]] and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the generation of their parents, the baby boomers.  
---
> This manifested itself in [[Grunge Music]] and was explempified in the band Nirvana (see [[NirvanaBand]]).  As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the generation of their parents, the baby boomers.  
------
Ninety-nine_names_of_Allah|985976711
1c1,100
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The 99 Names of God according to the tradition of Islam are :
> *Ar-Rahman: The Most Compassionate, Most Kind
> *Ar-Rahim: The Most Merciful
> *Al-Malik: The Master, The King, The Monarch
> *Al-Quddus: The Pure, The Holy One
> *As-Salaam: The Peace, The Tranquility
> *Al-Mu'min: The Faithful, The Trusted
> *Al-Muhaymin: The Protector, The Vigilant, The Controller
> *Al-'Aziz: The Almighty, The Powerful
> *Al-Jabbar: The Oppressor, The All Compelling
> *Al-Mutakabbir: The Haughty, The Majestic, The Lord
> *Al-Khaliq: The Creator, The Maker
> *Al-Baari': The Inventor
> *Al-Musawwir: The Fashioner, The Organiser, The Designer
> *Al-Ghaffar: The Forgiving, The Forgiver
> *Al-Qahhar: The Almighty, The Dominant
> *Al-Wahhab: The Donor, The Bestower
> *Ar-Razzaq: The Provider, The Sustainer
> *Al-Fattah: The Opener, The Revealer
> *Al-'Alim: The All Knowing, The Omniscient
> *Al-Qabid: The Contractor, The Restrainer, The Recipient
> *Al-Basit: The Expander, The Increaser
> *Al-Khafid: The Abaser, The Humbler
> *Ar-Rafi': The Raiser, The Exalter
> *Al-Mu'iz: The Honourer, The Exalter
> *Al-Muzil: The Abaser, The Subduer
> *As-Sami': The All Hearing, The All Knowing
> *Al-Basir: The All Seeing, The Insightful
> *Al-Hakam: The Arbitrator, The Judge
> *Al-'Adl: The Justice, The Equitable
> *Al-Latif: The Most Gentle, The Gracious, The One Who is Kind
> *Al-Khabir: The Aware, The Segacious
> *Al-Halim: The Gentle, The Most Patient, The Benevolent
> *Al-'Azim: The Great, The Mighty
> *Al-Ghafoor: The Forgiving, The Pardoner
> *Ash-Shakur: The Grateful, The Thankful
> *Al-'Aliy: The Most High, The Exalted
> *Al-Kabir: The Greatest, The Biggest
> *Al-Hafiz: The Guardian, The Preserver
> *Al-Muqit: The Maintainer, The Nourisher
> *Al-Hasib: The Noble, The Reckoner
> *Al-Jalil: The Majestic, The Honorable, The Exalted
> *Al-Karim: The Most Generous, The Bountiful
> *Ar-Raqib: The Guardian, The Watcher
> *Al-Mujib: The Answerer
> *Al-Wasi': The Enricher, The Omnipresent, The Knowledgeable
> *Al-Hakim: The Most Wise, The Judicious
> *Al-Wadud: The Affectionate, The Loving
> *Al-Majid: The Glorious, The Exalted
> *Al-Ba'ith: The Resurrector, The Raiser from death
> *Ash-Shahid: The Witness
> *Al-Haqq: The Truth, The Just
> *Al-Wakil: The Guardian, the Trustee
> *Al-Qawee: The Powerful, The Almighty, The Strong
> *Al-Matin: The Strong, The Firm
> *Al-Walee: The Supporter, The Friend, The Defender
> *Al-Hamid: The Praiseworthy, The Commendable
> *Al-Muhsi: The Counter
> *Al-Mubdi': The Beginner, The Creator, The Originator
> *Al-Mu'eed: The Restorer, The Resurrector
> *Al-Muhyee: The Bestower, The Life Giver
> *Al-Mumeet: The Bringer of Death, The Death Giver
> *Al-Hayy: The Ever-Living
> *Al-Qayyum: The Self-Subsistent, The Eternal, The Self-Sustaining
> *Al-Wajid: The All Perceiving, The Bountiful, The Finder
> *Al-Wahid: The One, The Unique
> *Al-Majid: The Noble, The Illustrious
> *Al-Ahad: The Only, The Unique
> *As-Samad: The Perfect, The Eternal
> *Al-Qadir: The Able, The Capable, The Omnipotent
> *Al-Muqtadir: The Capable, The All Powerful
> *Al-Muqaddim: The Presenter, The Advancer, The Expediter
> *Al-Mu'akhkhir: The Fulfiller, The Deferrer
> *Al-'Awwal: The First
> *Al-'Akhir: The Last
> *Az-Zahir: The Apparent, The Exterior, The Manifest
> *Al-Batin: The Hidden, The Interior, The Veiled
> *Al-Waali: The Governor, The Ruler, The Master
> *Al-Muta'ali: The Exalted, The Most High, The One above reproach
> *Al-Barr: The Benefactor, The Beneficient, The Pious
> *At-Tawwab: The Acceptor of Repentance, The Forgiver, The Relenting
> *Al-Muntaqim: The Avenger
> *Al-'Afuww: The Forgiver, The Pardoner
> *Ar-Ra'uf: The Merciful, The Ever Indulgent
> *Al-Muqsit: The Just, The Equitable
> *Aj-Jami': The Collector, The Comprehensive, The Gatherer
> *Al-Ghanee: The Richest, The All Sufficing, The Self-Sufficient
> *Al-Mughnee: The Enricher, The Sufficer, The Bestower
> *Al-Maani': The Supporter
> *Ad-Daarr: The Distresser, The Afflictor, The Bringer of Adversity
> *An-Nafi': The Beneficial, The Benefactor
> *An-Nur: The Light
> *Al-Hadi: The Guide
> *Al-Badi': The Wonderful, The Maker, The Incomparable
> *Al-Baqi: The Enduring, The Everlasting, The Eternal
> *Al-Warith: The Inheritor, The Heir
> *Ar-Rashid: The Rightly Guided, The Concious, The Guide
> *As-Sabur: The Most Patient, The Enduring
> *Malik Al-Mulk: The Ruler of The Kingdom, The King of The Universe
> *Zul-Jalali wal-Ikram: Lord of Majesty and Generosity
------
XML|985976739
1c1
< <i>XML</i>, for extensible markup language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[SMIL]] and [[MathML]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
---
> <i>XML</i>, for eXtensible Markup Language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[SMIL]] and [[MathML]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985976762
10c10
< The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.  See also: [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]
---
> See also: [[The name of God in Judaism]] [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]
------
Generation_X/Talk|985976769
12a13
> * hearty skepticism of utopians and idealists
20d20
< * hearty skepticism of utopians and idealists
------
The_name_of_God_in_Judaism|985976772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name of God is very important in [[Judaism]]; some Jewish believers hold that the name of God is not to be used except in certain special circumstances.  (Anyone know more about this?  Do tell.)  They generally write "G-d" to avoid blasphemy.  I think this stems from the Third Commandment in Exodus 20: "You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless who takes his name in vain."  This basically means unless you are actually adressing Him, you should not say His name.
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985976791
10c10
< See also: [[The name of God in Judaism]] [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]
---
> See also: [[The name of God in Judaism]]; [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]].
------
Argentina|985976797
1,5d0
< ----
< from the 2000 edition of the cia world factbook:
< ----
< 
< ----
10c5
< Background: Following independence from Spain in 1816, Argentina experienced periods of internal political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military factions. After World War II, a long period of Peronist dictatorship was followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and four free elections since then have underscored Argentina's progress in democratic consolidation. 
---
> Background: Following independence from [[Spain]] in 1816, Argentina experienced periods of internal political conflict between conservatives and liberals and between civilian and military factions. After [[World War II]], a long period of Peronist dictatorship was followed by a military junta that took power in 1976. Democracy returned in 1983, and four free elections since then have underscored Argentina's progress in democratic consolidation. 
13c8
< Geography 
---
> [[Geography]] 
15c10
< Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Chile and Uruguay 
---
> Location: Southern [[South America]], bordering the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Chile]] and [[Uruguay]] 
19,20d13
< Map references: South America 
< 
30c23
< border countries: Bolivia 832 km, Brazil 1,224 km, Chile 5,150 km, Paraguay 1,880 km, Uruguay 579 km 
---
> border countries: [[Bolivia]] 832 km, [[Brazil]] 1,224 km, [[Chile]] 5,150 km, [[Paraguay]] 1,880 km, [[Uruguay]] 579 km 
68c61
< Geography - note: second-largest country in South America (after Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage) 
---
> [[Geography]] - note: second-largest country in South America (after Brazil); strategic location relative to sea lanes between South Atlantic and South [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage) 
88c81
< Sex ratio: 
---
> [[Sex]] ratio: 
110c103
< Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 92% (less than 20% practicing), Protestant 2%, Jewish 2%, other 4% 
---
> [[Religion]]s: nominally Roman Catholic 92% (less than 20% practicing), Protestant 2%, Jewish 2%, other 4% 
112c105
< Languages: Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French 
---
> [[Language]]s: Spanish (official), English, Italian, German, French 
133c126
< Capital: Buenos Aires 
---
> Capital: [[Buenos Aires]] 
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985976857
3c3
< Generic names for the divine being(s): [[God]] (GodCapitalized), god (i.e., GodUncapitalized), [[Goddess]], [[Gods]], [[Deity]], deities
---
> Generic names for the divine being(s): [[God]], [[Goddess]], [[gods]], [[Deity]], deities
5c5
< Names for specific conceptions of god: [[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]], JesusChrist, the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," [[Allah]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]]; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Odin]], and [[Siva]]. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
---
> Names for specific conceptions of god: [[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]], [[Jesus Christ]], the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," [[Allah]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]]; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Odin]], and [[Siva]]. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
------
Generation_X/Talk|985976889
3a4
> * (most importantly) doing everyting legally possible to keep people from being responsible for themselves and protecting people from doing stupid things
------
Generation_X|985976936
1c1
< <b>Generation X</b> consists of persons born from 1965 until 1974.
---
> <b>Generation X</b> consists of persons born from 1965 until 1974.  The term was coined by [[Douglas Coupland]] in his book [[Generation X]].
------
Azerbaijan|985976971
1c1,338
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ----
> from the 2000 edition of The cia World Factbook 
> ----
> 
> ----
> Azerbaijan
> ----
> Introduction 
> 
> Background: Azerbaijan - a nation of Turkic Muslims - has been an independent republic since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a cease-fire, in place since 1994, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with Armenia over the Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh enclave (largely Armenian populated). Azerbaijan has lost almost 20% of its territory and must support some 750,000 refugees as a result of the conflict. Corruption is ubiquitous and the promise of wealth from Azerbaijan's undeveloped petroleum resources remains largely unfulfilled. 
> 
> ----
> Geography 
> 
> Location: Southwestern Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Russia 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 40 30 N, 47 30 E 
> 
> Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 86,600 sq km 
> land: 86,100 sq km 
> water: 500 sq km 
> note: includes the exclave of Naxcivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on 26 November 1991 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maine 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 2,013 km 
> border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 322 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 179 km, Russia 284 km, Turkey 9 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> note: Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea (800 km, est.) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: dry, semiarid steppe 
> 
> Terrain: large, flat Kur-Araz Ovaligi (Kura-Araks Lowland) (much of it below sea level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, Qarabag Yaylasi (Karabakh Upland) in west; Baku lies on Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) that juts into Caspian Sea 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m 
> highest point: Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, alumina 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 18% 
> permanent crops: 5% 
> permanent pastures: 25% 
> forests and woodland: 11% 
> other: 41% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 10,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: droughts; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea 
> 
> Environment - current issues: local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection 
> signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked (ed. note: the caspian sea doesnt count?)
> 
> ----
> People 
> 
> Population: 7,748,163 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 1,172,944; female 1,127,624) 
> 15-64 years: 63% (male 2,388,737; female 2,525,797) 
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 210,774; female 322,287) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.27% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 18.08 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 9.47 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -5.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 83.41 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 62.87 years 
> male: 58.51 years 
> female: 67.45 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.19 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Azerbaijani(s) 
> adjective: Azerbaijani 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Azeri 90%, Dagestani 3.2%, Russian 2.5%, Armenian 2%, other 2.3% (1998 est.) 
> note: almost all Armenians live in the separatist Nagorno-Karabakh region 
> 
> Religions: Muslim 93.4%, Russian Orthodox 2.5%, Armenian Orthodox 2.3%, other 1.8% (1995 est.) 
> note: religious affiliation is still nominal in Azerbaijan; percentages for actual practicing adherents are much lower 
> 
> Languages: Azeri 89%, Russian 3%, Armenian 2%, other 6% (1995 est.) 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 97% 
> male: 99% 
> female: 96% (1989 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Azerbaijani Republic 
> conventional short form: Azerbaijan 
> local long form: Azarbaycan Respublikasi 
> local short form: none 
> former: Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic 
> 
> Data code: AJ 
> 
> Government type: republic 
> 
> Capital: Baku (Baki) 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 59 rayons (rayonlar; rayon - singular), 11 cities* (saharlar; sahar - singular), 1 autonomous republic** (muxtar respublika); Abseron Rayonu, Agcabadi Rayonu, Agdam Rayonu, Agdas Rayonu, Agstafa Rayonu, Agsu Rayonu, Ali Bayramli Sahari*, Astara Rayonu, Baki Sahari*, Balakan Rayonu, Barda Rayonu, Beylaqan Rayonu, Bilasuvar Rayonu, Cabrayil Rayonu, Calilabad Rayonu, Daskasan Rayonu, Davaci Rayonu, Fuzuli Rayonu, Gadabay Rayonu, Ganca Sahari*, Goranboy Rayonu, Goycay Rayonu, Haciqabul Rayonu, Imisli Rayonu, Ismayilli Rayonu, Kalbacar Rayonu, Kurdamir Rayonu, Lacin Rayonu, Lankaran Rayonu, Lankaran Sahari*, Lerik Rayonu, Masalli Rayonu, Mingacevir Sahari*, Naftalan Sahari*, Naxcivan Muxtar Respublikasi**, Neftcala Rayonu, Oguz Rayonu, Qabala Rayonu, Qax Rayonu, Qazax Rayonu, Qobustan Rayonu, Quba Rayonu, Qubadli Rayonu, Qusar Rayonu, Saatli Rayonu, Sabirabad Rayonu, Saki Rayonu, Saki Sahari*, Salyan Rayonu, Samaxi Rayonu, Samkir Rayonu, Samux Rayonu, Siyazan Rayonu, Sumqayit Sahari*, Susa Rayonu, Susa Sahari*, Tartar Rayonu, Tovuz Rayonu, Ucar Rayonu, Xacmaz Rayonu, Xankandi Sahari*, Xanlar Rayonu, Xizi Rayonu, Xocali Rayonu, Xocavand Rayonu, Yardimli Rayonu, Yevlax Rayonu, Yevlax Sahari*, Zangilan Rayonu, Zaqatala Rayonu, Zardab Rayonu 
> 
> Independence: 30 August 1991 (from Soviet Union) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 28 May (1918) 
> 
> Constitution: adopted 12 November 1995 
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: President Heydar ALIYEV (since 18 June 1993) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Artur RASIZADE (since 26 November 1996) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president and confirmed by the National Assembly 
> elections: president elected by popular vote to a five-year term; election last held 11 October 1998 (next to be held October 2003); prime minister and first deputy prime ministers appointed by the president and confirmed by the National Assembly 
> election results: Heydar ALIYEV reelected president; percent of vote - Heydar ALIYEV 76% 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Milli Mejlis (125 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) 
> elections: last held 12 and 26 November 1995 (next to be held NA 2000) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NAP and allies 115, APF 4, PNIA 3, Musavat Party 1, vacant 2 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Azerbaijan Democratic Party or ADP [Ilyas ISMAYLOV]; Azerbaijan Popular Front or APF [Abulfaz ELCHIBEY, chairman]; Civic Solidarity [Sabir RUSTAMXANLI]; Communist Party of Azerbaijan or CPA-2 [Firudin HASANOV]; Democratic Party of Independence of Azerbaijan [Vagit KERIMOV]; Liberal Party of Azerbaijan [Lala HAJIYEVA]; Motherland Party [Fazail AGAMALI]; Musavat Party [Isa GAMBAR, chairman]; New Azerbaijan Party or NAP [Heydar ALIYEV, chairman]; Party for National Independence of Azerbaijan or PNIA [Etibar MAMMADOV, chairman]; People's Democratic Party of Azerbaijan [Rafig TURABXANLY]; Social Democratic Party of Azerbaijan or SDP [Zardusht ALIZADE, chairman]; Vahdat Party [Leyla YUNUSOV, Jabrayil ALIZADE] 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Sadval, Lezgin movement; self-proclaimed Armenian Nagorno-Karabakh Republic; Talysh independence movement 
> 
> International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (observer) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Hafiz Mir Jalal PASHAYEV 
> chancery: (temporary) Suite 700, 927 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005 or P. O. Box 28790, Washington, DC 20038-8790 
> telephone: [1] (202) 842-0001 
> FAX: [1] (202) 842-0004 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Stanley T. ESCUDERO 
> embassy: Azadliq Prospekt 83, Baku 370007 
> mailing address: American Embassy Baku, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-7050 
> telephone: [9] (9412) 98-03-35, 36, 37 
> FAX: [9] (9412) 90-66-71 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), red, and green; a crescent and eight-pointed star in white are centered in red band 
> 
> ----
> Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Azerbaijan is less developed industrially than either Armenia or Georgia, the other Caucasian states. It resembles the Central Asian states in its majority Muslim population, high structural unemployment, and low standard of living. The economy's most prominent products are oil, cotton, and natural gas. Production from the Caspian oil field declined through 1997 but registered an increase in 1998-99. Negotiation of 19 production-sharing arrangements (PSAs) with foreign firms, which have thus far committed $60 billion to oil field development, should generate the funds needed to spur future industrial development. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997. Azerbaijan shares all the formidable problems of the former Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its considerable energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Baku has only recently begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. An obstacle to economic progress, including stepped up foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region. Trade with Russia and the other former Soviet republics is declining in importance while trade is building up with Turkey, Iran, UAE, and the nations of Europe. Growth in 2000 should match growth in 1999. Long-term prospects will depend on world oil prices and the location of new pipelines in the region. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $14 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 22% 
> industry: 18% 
> services: 60% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 60% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -6.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 2.9 million (1997) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture and forestry 32%, industry and construction 15%, services 53% (1997) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 20% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $565 million 
> expenditures: $682 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1996 est.) 
> 
> Industries: petroleum and natural gas, petroleum products, oilfield equipment; steel, iron ore, cement; chemicals and petrochemicals; textiles 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 3% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 18.062 billion kWh (1999) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 90.98% 
> hydro: 9.02% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 15.508 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 1 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 1.2 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: cotton, grain, rice, grapes, fruit, vegetables, tea, tobacco; cattle, pigs, sheep, goats 
> 
> Exports: $885 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: oil and gas 70%, machinery, cotton, foodstuffs 
> 
> Exports - partners: Turkey, Russia, Georgia, Italy, Iran 
> 
> Imports: $1.62 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, metals, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Turkey, Russia, Ukraine, UAE, Iran 
> 
> Debt - external: $684 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: ODA, $113 million (1996) 
> 
> Currency: 1 manat = 100 gopiks 
> 
> Exchange rates: manats per US$1 - 4,342 (October 1999), 4,373 (1999), 3,869 (1998), 3,985.38 (1997), 4,301.26 (1996), 4,413.54 (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
> ----
> Communications 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 640,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 6,000 (1995) 
> 
> Telephone system: Azerbaijan's telephone system is a combination of old Soviet era technology used by Azerbaijani citizens and small- to medium-size commercial establishments, and modern cellular telephones used by an increasing middle class, large commercial ventures, international companies, and most government officials; the average citizen waits on a 200,000-person list for telephone service; Internet and e-mail service are available in Baku 
> domestic: local - the majority of telephones are in Baku or other industrial centers - about 700 villages still do not have public telephone service; intercity; all long distance service must use Azertel's (Ministry of Communications) lines; satellite service connects Baku to a modern switch in its separated enclave of Naxcivan 
> international: the old Soviet system of cable and microwave is still serviceable; satellite service between Baku and Turkey provides access to 200 countries; additional satellite providers supply services between Baku and specific countries; Azerbaijan is a signator of the Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE); their lines are not laid but a Turkish satellite and a microwave link between Azerbaijan and Iran could provide Azerbaijan worldwide access 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 10, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 175,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 170,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
> 
> ----
> Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 2,125 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines 
> broad gauge: 2,125 km 1.520-m gauge (1,278 km electrified) (1993) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 24,981 km 
> paved: 23,057 km 
> unpaved: 1,924 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,130 km; petroleum products 630 km; natural gas 1,240 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Baku (Baki) 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 55 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 248,155 GRT/304,215 DWT 
> ships by type: cargo 12, petroleum tanker 40, roll-on/roll-off 2, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 69 (1996 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 29 
> over 3,047 m: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 17 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 40 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 7 
> under 914 m: 33 (1996 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Military 
> 
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Guards 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 2,073,067 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 1,662,435 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 74,496 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $121 million (FY99) 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY99) 
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan 
> 
> Illicit drugs: limited illicit cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; transshipment point for opiates via Iran, Central Asia, and Russia to Western Europe 
------
Dependent_areas|985976988
33c33
< <font size=+2>P</font> [[Palmyra Atoll]] - [[Pitcairn Islands]]
---
> <font size=+2>P</font> [[Palmyra Atoll]] - [[Pitcairn Island]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985977044
36c36,39
< 6. General characteristics of official policies
---
> 6. The organization function
> * coordinating all of the aspects of the the encyclopedia
> 
> 7. General characteristics of official policies
42c45
< 7. Goals of the project
---
> 8. Goals of the project
------
Dependent_areas|985977069
33c33
< <font size=+2>P</font> [[Palmyra Atoll]] - [[Pitcairn Island]]
---
> <font size=+2>P</font> [[Palmyra Atoll]] - [[Pitcairn Islands]] (and see [[Pitcairn Island]])
------
George_Washington|985977072
1c1,6
< The first president of the [[United States]], referred to by Americans as "The Father of Our Country."  General of the colonial army in the [[American Revolutionary War]].
---
> The first president of the [[United States]], referred to by Americans as "The Father of Our Country."  General of the colonial army in the [[American Revolutionary War]].
> 
> <b>Inaugural Addresses:</b>
> 
> *[[George Washington/First Inaugural Address|First Inaugural Address]]
> *[[George Washington/Second Inaugural Address|Second Inaugural Address]]
------
Generation_X/Talk|985977144
11a12
> * eventual collapse of Social Security
------
XML|985977263
1c1
< <i>XML</i>, for eXtensible Markup Language, is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[SMIL]] and [[MathML]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
---
> <i>XML</i> (for <i>extensible markup language</i>) is a standard maintained by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium] for creating special-purpose [[markup language]]s.  It is general enough that XML-based languages can be used to describe a number of different kinds of data as well as text.  Its primary purpose is to facilitate the sharing of structured text and information across the [[Internet]].  Although based on [[SGML]], it is greatly simplified, despite including enhancements for portability.  Languages based on XML (for example, [[SMIL]] and [[MathML]]) are themselves described in a formal way, allowing programs to modify and validate documents in these languages without prior knowledge.
------
Generation_X/Talk|985977290
22a23,25
> * respect for personal freedom
> * overall knowledge that enlarging the government is not a solution to all problems and that limited government is best
> 
------
Generation_X/Talk|985977325
36a37,41
> ----
> I'm 1966 myself.  It's interesting to note that while the original meaning of "Generation X" had to do with being a "slacker" or something like that, later research showed that Generation X was a highly motivated and entrpreneurial generation.  I remember reading Coupland's initial descriptions and the subsequent media love affair with the term and being puzzled because it seemed so remote from my life or the lives of my friends.
> 
> I personally think that there is a good reason to doubt the validity of assuming a consistency among people born in a particular time period, except perhaps with regard to some fairly superficial pop culture stuff.  I had a Six Million Dollar man action figure.  So what? :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
------
George_Washington/First_Inaugural_Address|985977404
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>History:</b>
> 
> After being elected President by the first electoral college, General George Washington took his first [[oath of office]] on April 30, 1789 in [[New York City]] on the balcony of the Senate Chamber at Federal Hall on [[Wall Street]].  [[John Adams]] was elected [[Vice President]] due to receiving the second greatest number of votes (each elector had two votes). The [[Chancellor of New York]] and fellow [[Freemason]], [[Robert R. Livingston]] administered the oath of office. The [[Bible]] on which the oath was sworn belonged to New York's St. John's [[Masonic Lodge]]. The inaugural address was then given before a joint session of the two Houses of Congress.
> ----
> <b>Address:</b>
> 
> Fellow-Citizens of the Senate and of the House of Representatives:
> 
> Among the vicissitudes incident to life no event could have filled me with greater anxieties than that of which the notification was transmitted by your order, and received on the 14th day of the present month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice I can never hear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I had chosen with the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes, with an immutable decision, as the asylum of my declining years—a retreat which was rendered every day more necessary as well as more dear to me by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent interruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by time. On the other hand, the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to which the voice of my country called me, being sufficient to awaken in the wisest and most experienced of her citizens a distrustful scrutiny into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence one who (inheriting inferior endowments from nature and unpracticed in the duties of civil administration) ought to be peculiarly conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of emotions all I dare aver is that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty from a just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be affected. All I dare hope is that if, in executing this task, I have been too much swayed by a grateful remembrance of former instances, or by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of the confidence of my fellow-citizens, and have thence too little consulted my incapacity as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried cares before me, my error will be palliated by the motives which mislead me, and its consequences be judged by my country with some share of the partiality in which they originated.
> 
> Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the public summons, repaired to the present station, it would be peculiarly improper to omit in this first official act my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations, and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, that His benediction may consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States a Government instituted by themselves for these essential purposes, and may enable every instrument employed in its administration to execute with success the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to the Great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it expresses your sentiments not less than my own, nor those of my fellow-citizens at large less than either. No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the Invisible Hand which conducts the affairs of men more than those of the United States. Every step by which they have advanced to the character of an independent nation seems to have been distinguished by some token of providential agency; and in the important revolution just accomplished in the system of their united government the tranquil deliberations and voluntary consent of so many distinct communities from which the event has resulted can not be compared with the means by which most governments have been established without some return of pious gratitude, along with an humble anticipation of the future blessings which the past seem to presage. These reflections, arising out of the present crisis, have forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none under the influence of which the proceedings of a new and free government can more auspiciously commence.
> 
> By the article establishing the executive department it is made the duty of the President "to recommend to your consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient." The circumstances under which I now meet you will acquit me from entering into that subject further than to refer to the great constitutional charter under which you are assembled, and which, in defining your powers, designates the objects to which your attention is to be given. It will be more consistent with those circumstances, and far more congenial with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute, in place of a recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism which adorn the characters selected to devise and adopt them. In these honorable qualifications I behold the surest pledges that as on one side no local prejudices or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, will misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over this great assemblage of communities and interests, so, on another, that the foundation of our national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable principles of private morality, and the preeminence of free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win the affections of its citizens and command the respect of the world. I dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love for my country can inspire, since there is no truth more thoroughly established than that there exists in the economy and course of nature an indissoluble union between virtue and happiness; between duty and advantage; between the genuine maxims of an honest and magnanimous policy and the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity; since we ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious smiles of Heaven can never be expected on a nation that disregards the eternal rules of order and right which Heaven itself has ordained; and since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican model of government are justly considered, perhaps, as deeply, as finally, staked on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people.
> 
> Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain with your judgment to decide how far an exercise of the occasional power delegated by the fifth article of the Constitution is rendered expedient at the present juncture by the nature of objections which have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude which has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular recommendations on this subject, in which I could be guided by no lights derived from official opportunities, I shall again give way to my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public good; for I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience, a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen and a regard for the public harmony will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
> 
> To the foregoing observations I have one to add, which will be most properly addressed to the House of Representatives. It concerns myself, and will therefore be as brief as possible. When I was first honored with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I contemplated my duty required that I should renounce every pecuniary compensation. From this resolution I have in no instance departed; and being still under the impressions which produced it, I must decline as inapplicable to myself any share in the personal emoluments which may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the executive department, and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary estimates for the station in which I am placed may during my continuance in it be limited to such actual expenditures as the public good may be thought to require.
> 
> Having thus imparted to you my sentiments as they have been awakened by the occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present leave; but not without resorting once more to the benign Parent of the Human Race in humble supplication that, since He has been pleased to favor the American people with opportunities for deliberating in perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled unanimity on a form of government for the security of their union and the advancement of their happiness, so His divine blessing may be equally conspicuous in the enlarged views, the temperate consultations, and the wise measures on which the success of this Government must depend.
------
John_Adams|985977532
207c207
< [[John Adams Inaugural Speech]]
---
> [[John Adams Inaugural Speech|Inaugural Address]]
------
MuHammad|985977553
1,3c1
< As MusLims say, "There is no GoD but AlLah and MuHammad is His prophet."
< 
< Muhammad is the author of the TheKoran.  He was a poor and illiterate man, when the ArchangelGabriel came down to deliver the divine Word to Muhammad.  He recited the Qur'an to Muhammad, and made him memorize it perfectly; its contents are a copy of parts of the BookOfHeaven.  This book the basis of the Muslim religion.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Muhammad]]
------
United_States/Presidents|985977557
18c18
< * [[Ulysses S Grant]] (1869-1877)
---
> * [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1869-1877)
------
Muhammad|985977560
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As MusLims say, "There is no GoD but AlLah and MuHammad is His prophet."
> 
> Muhammad is the author of the TheKoran.  He was a poor and illiterate man, when the ArchangelGabriel came down to deliver the divine Word to Muhammad.  He recited the Qur'an to Muhammad, and made him memorize it perfectly; its contents are a copy of parts of the BookOfHeaven.  This book the basis of the Muslim religion.
------
TheKoran|985977580
1,5c1
< The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet MuHammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
< 
< Much of the content in the Qur'an makes reference back to parts of the Christian Bible.  Well-known Biblical characters such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus are mentioned.  Detractors of the Qur'an and Muhammad have claimed that Muhammad was merely taking older religious documents and stories and embellishing them.  Muslims maintain that this could not be the case, on scientific grounds. Modern science has identified many factual errors and internal inconsistencies in the Bible.  However, the Qur'an has none, according to Muslims; and what's more, in cases where Biblical stories reappear in very similar form in the Qur'an, the stories are always changed in such a way that the scientific inaccuracies and inconsistencies are gone.  This is considered proof of the Qur'an's divine origin.
< 
< The Qur'an today is believed to be identical to the version from the time of Muhammad.  Muhammad only delivered the Qur'an in spoken form during his lifetime; the word "Qur'an" in fact means "the recitation."  The faithful were require to memorize them perfectly, down to the last syllable, and recite them frequently, to make sure they had the text perfectly.  Shortly after his death, his disciples began recording all the Suras down in written form.  Thus, two different mechanisms were in place -- oral and written -- to help ensure that no corruption of the text took place over time.  There is almost no dispute amongst modern Qur'anic scholars that the text today is as it was when it was first written down.
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Koran]]
------
The_Koran|985977586
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet MuHammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
> 
> Much of the content in the Qur'an makes reference back to parts of the Christian Bible.  Well-known Biblical characters such as Abraham, Noah, and Jesus are mentioned.  Detractors of the Qur'an and Muhammad have claimed that Muhammad was merely taking older religious documents and stories and embellishing them.  Muslims maintain that this could not be the case, on scientific grounds. Modern science has identified many factual errors and internal inconsistencies in the Bible.  However, the Qur'an has none, according to Muslims; and what's more, in cases where Biblical stories reappear in very similar form in the Qur'an, the stories are always changed in such a way that the scientific inaccuracies and inconsistencies are gone.  This is considered proof of the Qur'an's divine origin.
> 
> The Qur'an today is believed to be identical to the version from the time of Muhammad.  Muhammad only delivered the Qur'an in spoken form during his lifetime; the word "Qur'an" in fact means "the recitation."  The faithful were require to memorize them perfectly, down to the last syllable, and recite them frequently, to make sure they had the text perfectly.  Shortly after his death, his disciples began recording all the Suras down in written form.  Thus, two different mechanisms were in place -- oral and written -- to help ensure that no corruption of the text took place over time.  There is almost no dispute amongst modern Qur'anic scholars that the text today is as it was when it was first written down.
------
Invictus|985977611
46a47,49
> ----
> I can't find an e-mail address for you here.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Wiki_Canonization|985977659
62a63,64
> 
> :I looked for any reason to disallow the ' character, and I don't see any major problems.  (I had some concerns about handling the files using UNIX shell utilities, but that is also a concern for the () characters.)  If someone uses two or three ' characters in a row it will simply look strange (and can be fixed with a quick edit).  --CliffordAdams
71a74,75
> :Eventually I would like to fully separate content storage from titles.  Rather than the current system where a page has one true title, I would like for pages to have multiple names.  This is not likely to happen soon.  The display-title idea is a good one, but I think it would be more confusing than helpful.  --CliffordAdams
> 
72a77,78
> 
> :It will become "Nirvana (Band)".  Any [a-z] character after a space or punctuation character will be uppercased.  --CliffordAdams
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|985977679
4,15c4,18
< *2000 -- JamesHeckman, DanielMcFadden
< *1999 -- RobertMundell
< *1998 -- AmartyaSen
< *1997 -- RobertMerton, MyronScholes
< *1996 -- JamesMirrlees, WilliamVickrey
< *1995 -- RobertLucasJr
< *1994 -- ReinhardSelten, JohnNashJr, JohnHarsanyi
< *1993 -- RobertFogel, DouglasNorth
< *1992 -- GaryBecker
< *1991 -- RonaldCoase
< *1990 -- HarryMarkowitz, MertonMiller, WilliamSharpe
< *1989 -- TrygveHaavelmo
---
> *2000 -- [[James Heckman]], [[Daniel McFadden]]
> *1999 -- [[Robert Mundell]]
> *1998 -- [[Amartya Sen]]
> *1997 -- [[Robert Merton]], [[Myron Scholes]]
> *1996 -- [[James Mirrlees]], [[William Vickrey]]
> *1995 -- [[Robert Lucas Jr]]
> *1994 -- [[Reinhard Selten]], [[John Nash Jr]], [[John Harsanyi]]
> *1993 -- [[Robert Fogel]], [[Douglas North]]
> *1992 -- [[Gary Becker]]
> *1991 -- [[Ronald Coase]]
> *1990 -- [[Harry Markowitz]], [[Merton Miller]], [[William Sharpe]]
> *1989 -- [[Trygve Haavelmo]]
> 
> (we need to continue reformatting the following names into free links)
> 
------
The_Koran|985977716
1c1
< The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of GoD for Muslims.  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet MuHammad.  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
---
> The Koran, otherwise spelled Qur'an, is the book of [[God]] for [[Muslims]].  It is, for Muslims, the eternal, literal word of God, revealed to Prophet [[Muhammad]].  It consists of 114 suras (chapters) and 6000 ayats (verses).  It was revealed to the Prophet, according to Muslims, over a period of 22 years.
5c5
< The Qur'an today is believed to be identical to the version from the time of Muhammad.  Muhammad only delivered the Qur'an in spoken form during his lifetime; the word "Qur'an" in fact means "the recitation."  The faithful were require to memorize them perfectly, down to the last syllable, and recite them frequently, to make sure they had the text perfectly.  Shortly after his death, his disciples began recording all the Suras down in written form.  Thus, two different mechanisms were in place -- oral and written -- to help ensure that no corruption of the text took place over time.  There is almost no dispute amongst modern Qur'anic scholars that the text today is as it was when it was first written down.
---
> The Qur'an today is believed to be identical to the version from the time of Muhammad.  Muhammad only delivered the Qur'an in spoken form during his lifetime; the word "Qur'an" in fact means "the recitation."  The faithful were require to memorize them perfectly, down to the last syllable, and recite them frequently, to make sure they had the text perfectly.  Shortly after his death, his disciples began recording all the Suras down in written form.  Thus, two different mechanisms were in place -- oral and written -- to help ensure that no corruption of the text took place over time.  There is almost no dispute amongst modern Qur'anic scholars that the text today is as it was when it was first written down.
------
Ikhthus|985977734
1c1
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Ypsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Arabic characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Arabic characters, Iesou Christos Theou Uios Soter) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Ypsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Arabic characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Arabic characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
------
Muhammad|985977900
1c1
< As MusLims say, "There is no GoD but AlLah and MuHammad is His prophet."
---
> As [[Muslims]] say, "There is no [[God]] but [[Allah]] and [[Muhammad]] is His prophet."
3c3
< Muhammad is the author of the TheKoran.  He was a poor and illiterate man, when the ArchangelGabriel came down to deliver the divine Word to Muhammad.  He recited the Qur'an to Muhammad, and made him memorize it perfectly; its contents are a copy of parts of the BookOfHeaven.  This book the basis of the Muslim religion.
---
> Muhammad is the author of the [[The Koran]].  He was a poor and illiterate man, when the ArchangelGabriel came down to deliver the divine Word to Muhammad.  He recited the Qur'an to Muhammad, and made him memorize it perfectly; its contents are a copy of parts of the BookOfHeaven.  This book the basis of the Muslim religion.
------
Ikhthus|985978030
3c3
< Connection has also been made between this symbol and the story of the loaves and the fishes which Christ used to feed the multitude, and the expression that Jesus and his apostles were "fishers for men's souls.
---
> Connection has also been made between this symbol and the story of the loaves and the fish which Christ used to feed the multitude, and the expression that Jesus and his apostles were "fishers for men's souls."
------
United_States/Presidents|985978096
1,43c1,43
< * [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
< * [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
< * [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
< * [[James Madison]] (1809-1817)
< * [[James Monroe]] (1817-1825)
< * [[John QuincyAdams]] (1825-1829)
< * [[Andrew Jackson]] (1829-1837)
< * [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837-1841)
< * [[William Henry Harrison]] (1841)
< * [[John Tyler]] (1841-1845)
< * [[James Polk]] (1845-1849)
< * [[Zachary Taylor]] (1849-1850)
< * [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850-1853)
< * [[Franklin Pierce]] (1853-1857)
< * [[James Buchanan]] (1857-1861)
< * [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1861-1865)
< * [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865-1869)
< * [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1869-1877)
< * [[Rutherford B Hayes]] (1877-1881)
< * [[James Garfield]] (1881)
< * [[Chester Arthur]] (1881-1885)
< * [[Grover Cleveland]] (1885-1889)
< * [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893)
< * [[Grover Cleveland]] (1893-1897)
< * [[William McKinley]] (1897-1901)
< * [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909)
< * [[William Howard Taft]] (1909-1913)
< * [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1913-1921)
< * [[Warren Harding]] (1921-1923)
< * [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923-1929)
< * [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929-1933)
< * [[Franklin Roosevelt]] (1933-1945)
< * [[Harry Truman]] (1945-1953)
< * [[Dwight Eisenhower]] (1953-1961)
< * [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
< * [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1963-1969)
< * [[Richard Millhouse Nixon]] (1969-1974)
< * [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
< * [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
< * [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981-1989)
< * [[George Bush]] (1989-1993)
< * [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
< * [[George W. Bush]] (2001-)
---
> # [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
> # [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
> # [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
> # [[James Madison]] (1809-1817)
> # [[James Monroe]] (1817-1825)
> # [[John Quincy Adams]] (1825-1829)
> # [[Andrew Jackson]] (1829-1837)
> # [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837-1841)
> # [[William Henry Harrison]] (1841)
> # [[John Tyler]] (1841-1845)
> # [[James Knox Polk]] (1845-1849)
> # [[Zachary Taylor]] (1849-1850)
> # [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850-1853)
> # [[Franklin Pierce]] (1853-1857)
> # [[James Buchanan]] (1857-1861)
> # [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1861-1865)
> # [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865-1869)
> # [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1869-1877)
> # [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] (1877-1881)
> # [[James Garfield]] (1881)
> # [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881-1885)
> # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1885-1889)
> # [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893)
> # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1893-1897)
> # [[William McKinley]] (1897-1901)
> # [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909)
> # [[William Howard Taft]] (1909-1913)
> # [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1913-1921)
> # [[Warren G. Harding]] (1921-1923)
> # [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923-1929)
> # [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929-1933)
> # [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] (1933-1945)
> # [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945-1953)
> # [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1953-1961)
> # [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
> # [[Lyndon Johnson]] (1963-1969)
> # [[Richard Nixon]] (1969-1974)
> # [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
> # [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
> # [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981-1989)
> # [[George Bush]] (1989-1993)
> # [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
> # [[George W. Bush]] (2001-)
------
NobelPrize|985978224
22a23,25
> ----
> I'm not sure EconomicSciences is included in Nobel's will,
> isn't it another Prize that is awarded atthe same time of the Nobel's?
------
Islam|985978385
1c1
< Islam is one of the world's largest [[religion]]s. 
---
> ''Islam'' means the religion of the group of people who worship [[Allah]] (the name of [[God]] in the [[Arabic language]]) and follow the word of the prophet [[Muhammad]], embodied in dual oral and written form in [[The Koran]].  The adherents of Islam are [[Muslim]]s or (though this use is outdated) [[Muhammadan]]s.
3,6c3,9
< The word "Islam" means submission to [[God]], and also implies the word [[peace]], [[Muslims]] are the followers of Islam, Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adam, Noah, Mosses, Jesus, and all the other Messengers, and prohpets before the last last message of Muhammed.
< The Miracle of Muhammed given by God was the Quran, a book that answers human day to day needs; be it spiritual, Materialistic, etc. It talks about God, and God's Names, and attributes, the Name that is most commonly used by muslims is Allah. it talks about the believers, and their virtues, it talks about Mary, and Jesus, and all the other prophets. It has some scientific discoveries, etc. 
< Muslims believe that all human beings belong to One Nation, but deviation from religion, and Good caused all these differences, and sects to appear. One of these sects for example that has nothing to do with the spirit of Islam is [[Nation Of Islam]] which is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are called [[Muslims]], and therefore acclaimed to be members of [[Islam]]; but that is not true. This movement, too, is not a nation in the usual sense of the word.
< True Muslims are those who believe in One God, The Angles, the holy books of Moses "Torah", the holy book of Jesus "Injeel", and all the other holy books. Also believe in the hereafter, and that life is just a passageway to either heaven or hell, and all that counts are your good deeds. The belief that [[Allah ]] created heaven, and earth, and manages them.
---
> For a strict Muslim, the word "Islam" means submission to [[God]].  Muslims believe in One God, the God of Adam, Noah, Moses, Jesus, who are all regarded as prophets or "Messengers" before the last last message of Muhammed.
> 
> For Muslims, [[the Koran]] answers questions about daily needs, both spiritual and materialistic.  It discusses God and God's Names and attributes; believers and their virtues; Mary, Jesus, and all the other prophets; and even scientific subjects.
> 
> Muslims believe that all human beings belong to one nation, but deviation from religion and virtue caused national differences and religious sects to appear.  The vast bulk of the world's muslims live in the [[Middle East]] and north [[Africa]], and indeed are of many different races and (political and ethnic) nationalities.
> 
> The [[Nation of Islam]] is a movement in the [[United States]] for black empowerment, with one of its leaders being [[Louis Farrakhan]], and its members are, or claim to be, adherents of [[Islam]].
------
Buddha|985978490
5,13c5
< ----
< '''Other views:'''
< At least in the Westernized version of Buddhism I have heard, Buddha is not a deity.  He is a man who achieved enlightenment in the Hindu sense in one lifetime instead of in many reincarnations in a state of self-awareness.  He achieved this by living many different lifestyles including that of a decaying waterfowl.  After enlightenment, he recognized his unity with the universal oneness, or atman.  He thus got to stop being reincarnated, just like many other people who had achieved enlightenment over many lifetimes.  Since the original Buddha, several other Buddhists have accomplished this feat and are thus called Buddha as well (i.e. the fat LaughingBuddha of China).  If anything, the name for the sole deity in the universe is "atman".
< 
< :Some versions of Buddhism emphasize the Hindu legends more than others.  The version you heard seems to be closer to the Hindu ideas of Buddhism.  Most other versions do not focus on atman or reincarnation.  Instead, the core of Buddhism is considered to be the teachings such as the NobleEightfoldPath and the FourNobleTruths.
< 
< :Also, while it is considered possible to achieve the same enlightenment as the historical Buddha, most Buddhists would not call those enlightened ones "Buddha"--that title is generally reserved only for the historical Buddha.
< 
< ''[[Buddhism]] has a whole bunch of branches, and some of the less-philosophical-more-ritualistic ones have him as a deity.''
---
> See /Talk.
------
Buddha/Talk|985978513
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This needs to be integrated with the main text.''
> 
> At least in the Westernized version of Buddhism I have heard, Buddha is not a deity.  He is a man who achieved enlightenment in the Hindu sense in one lifetime instead of in many reincarnations in a state of self-awareness.  He achieved this by living many different lifestyles including that of a decaying waterfowl.  After enlightenment, he recognized his unity with the universal oneness, or atman.  He thus got to stop being reincarnated, just like many other people who had achieved enlightenment over many lifetimes.  Since the original Buddha, several other Buddhists have accomplished this feat and are thus called Buddha as well (i.e. the fat LaughingBuddha of China).  If anything, the name for the sole deity in the universe is "atman".
> 
> :Some versions of Buddhism emphasize the Hindu legends more than others.  The version you heard seems to be closer to the Hindu ideas of Buddhism.  Most other versions do not focus on atman or reincarnation.  Instead, the core of Buddhism is considered to be the teachings such as the NobleEightfoldPath and the FourNobleTruths.
> 
> :Also, while it is considered possible to achieve the same enlightenment as the historical Buddha, most Buddhists would not call those enlightened ones "Buddha"--that title is generally reserved only for the historical Buddha.
> 
> ''[[Buddhism]] has a whole bunch of branches, and some of the less-philosophical-more-ritualistic ones have him as a deity.''
------
What_is_a_wiki|985978670
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone (It's true, I just did it).  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.  
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have funz! :)
---
> So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have fun!
------
HomePage|985978781
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]] -- [[Planetary Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
CategorySchemesTalk|985979008
40c40,42
< As you can see, I've been tweaking our HomePage category scheme.  It probably needs further tweaking, if we're going to follow a nonredundancy rule; e.g., [[countries of the world]] is a subcategory of [[geography]].  This is something we should perhaps discuss. [[LMS]]
---
> As you can see, I've been tweaking our HomePage category scheme.  It probably needs further tweaking, if we're going to follow a nonredundancy rule; e.g., [[countries of the world]] is a subcategory of [[geography]].  This is something we should perhaps discuss. [[LMS]]
> ----
> Perhaps AstroNomer could explain why [[Planetary Sciences]] should be distinguished from [[Astronomy]]?  For simplicity, I propose to continue regarding PS as a branch of Astronomy.  We could, for example, regard [[Oceanography]] as a separate science from [[Earth Sciences]], but again, simplicity seems to recommend that we keep relatively few broadly-characterized categories.  Disagree? --[[LMS]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985979146
63c63
< <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!) (how confusing!) 
---
> <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!  How confusing!  But any of them will do.)
------
Media_bias|985979328
7c7
< Liberal media bias is said to exist mainly because most journalists are liberal in their political views.  One survey (do we have a reference?) found that 89% of journalists (defined how?) voted for Bill Clinton.  Such a uniformity of political opinion among journalists may tend to to give rise to a tendency to cover or not cover particular stories, or to cover them with a particular slant.  Examples of liberal bias may include, for example, a tendency to inflame stories which suggest that [[guns]] are responsible for crime, or (some have argued), a tendency to portray Republican leaders as [[Wikipedia Commentary/Stupid Republicans less intelligent]], despite what their real qualifications might be.
---
> Liberal media bias is said to exist mainly because most journalists are liberal in their political views.  One survey (do we have a reference?) found that 89% of journalists (defined how?) voted for Bill Clinton.  Such a uniformity of political opinion among journalists may tend to to give rise to a tendency to cover or not cover particular stories, or to cover them with a particular slant.  Examples of liberal bias may include, for example, a tendency to inflame stories which suggest that [[guns]] are responsible for crime, or (some have argued), a tendency to portray Republican leaders as less intelligent, despite what their real qualifications might be.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Media_bias/Talk|985979359
1a2,3
> ----
> This is ''great.''  I'm so glad you wrote this article. --[[LMS]]
------
Game|985979434
1c1
< People throughout history have played games for many reasons, but the essence of a game is that it presents novel situations within a defined context and is entertaining.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.
---
> People throughout history have played games for many reasons, primarily for entertainment.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.  Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept "game" as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  While this covers most cases well, it does not quite fit with things like war games and sports that are often done not for entertainment but to build skills for later use.  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept "game" could not be defined.
3,4c3,6
< Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept
< 'game' as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept 'game' could not be defined, due to the many different kinds of games.  In order to come up with a proper genus/species definition, we need to find a property common to all games, to differentiate them from everything else.
---
> 
> Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
> 
> <h2>Types of Games</h2>
18,20d19
< 
< 
< Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]].
------
NamesGivenToTheDivine|985979621
1,10c1
< There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
< 
< Generic names for the divine being(s): [[God]], [[Goddess]], [[gods]], [[Deity]], deities
< 
< Names for specific conceptions of god: [[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]], [[Jesus Christ]], the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," [[Allah]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]]; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Odin]], and [[Siva]]. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
< 
< 
< [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.  Although, this could be dangerous.  There's an old [[Superstition]] that the world will end if ever all the names of G-d are written down.]
< 
< See also: [[The name of God in Judaism]]; [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Names given to the divine]]
------
Names_given_to_the_divine|985979629
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are many names given to the divine.  Some of the names are used in approximately the same sense (e.g., when a Catholic uses both "God" and "the Holy Trinity"), but for the most part, the names mark important differences in meaning.  Positivists (e.g., advocates of LogicalEmpiricism) should take note that a robust theory of the meaning of ReligiousLanguage, however dismissive, ought to be able to account, in ''some'' fashion, for these differences in meaning.  Among the names used, or ways to refer to the divine, are the following; there are both generic words given for the divine being(s), as well as specific names (used by analogy to names for particular individuals or things) for the divine used in particular religions.
> 
> Generic names for the divine being(s): [[God]], [[Goddess]], [[gods]], [[Deity]], deities
> 
> Names for specific conceptions of god: [[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]], [[Jesus Christ]], the HolyTrinity, TheGodhead, Him, He who is called "I am," [[Allah]], [[Krishna]], [[Buddha]]; then there are the many names for the many different gods of polytheistic religions, e.g., [[Zeus]], [[Jupiter]], [[Odin]], and [[Siva]]. In old persia the name of the sun god was shamash (or sha.mash). According to the old sources his sister "Ishtar" (AKA "Ianna") represented the goddess of the moon. In some narrations the both of them were mixed up, so Ishtar was the goddess of the sun and shamash was the god of the moon. Shamash -being the sun god- was the first to be pictured with a sort of corona. In a later time the christian religion adapted this kind of image when the holy saints got their gloriole.
> 
> 
> [Please add to this list, and if you feel ambitious, give a brief gloss on each.  Although, this could be dangerous.  There's an old [[Superstition]] that the world will end if ever all the names of G-d are written down.]
> 
> See also: [[The name of God in Judaism]]; [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]].
------
Card_games|985979633
1c1
< Many [[games]] involve the use of [[Playing cards]].  Here are some examples:
---
> The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[collectable card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
------
Playing_cards|985979747
1,15c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[card games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
< 
< The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs similar to those on modern [[Mah Jongg]] tiles (paper cards came before tiles in China).  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four "suits": polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the bamboo sticks and circles of their Chinese ancestors), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards (cards identified by the number of suit symbols or "pips" they show) and three "court" cards.  The Mameluke court cards showed abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of miltary officers.  Europeans changed the court cards to represent European royalty and attendants, and created many other variations such as different suit systems and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
< 
< Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe in the 1400s with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  In most of the world today, they are primarily used for [[cartomancy]].
< 
< The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].  Although the Joker card often bears the image of a fool, which is one of the images of the Tarot deck, it not believed that there is any relation.  The most common form of cards now in use is a deck comprising the four French suits, each of which has ten spot cards (the one-spot being called an "Ace"), and three court cards of the Rouen design called "King", "Queen", and "Jack" (or less commonly "Knave").  The decks are generally sold with two Jokers (one often of more colorful or intricate design than the other).  It is also common practice now for the Ace of spades to bear special markings that include the manufacturer's name and date of production.  This practice originated with the use of that card to carry a British tax stamp.
< 
< In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
< 
< See also [[Card games]].
< 
< For more information:
< * [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
< * [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company]
---
> #REDIRECT [[playing card]]
------
Playing_card|985979763
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[card games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
> 
> The origin of playing cards is obscure, but it is likely that they began in [[China]] after the invention of [[paper]], with designs similar to those on modern [[Mah Jongg]] tiles (paper cards came before tiles in China).  It is known that they arrived in [[Europe]] from the [[Mamelukes]] of [[Egypt]] in the late 1300s, by which time they had already assumed a form very close to modern cards.  In particular, the Mameluke deck contained 52 cards comprising four "suits": polo sticks and coins (probably descended from the bamboo sticks and circles of their Chinese ancestors), plus swords and cups.  Each suit contained ten "spot" cards (cards identified by the number of suit symbols or "pips" they show) and three "court" cards.  The Mameluke court cards showed abstract designs not depicting persons (at least not in any surviving specimens) though they did bear the names of miltary officers.  Europeans changed the court cards to represent European royalty and attendants, and created many other variations such as different suit systems and added or omitted cards.  Some of these variations are still present today in decks used to play regionally popular games (such as the [[Germany|German]] [[Skat]]).
> 
> Notable among these variations is the [[Tarot]] deck, with many added cards carrying images from mythology and mysticism.  Some believe that these arrived in Western Europe in the 1400s with the [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], but it is more likely that they were created by [[Italy|Italians]] for trick-taking games, for which purpose they are still used today, especially in France.  In most of the world today, they are primarily used for [[cartomancy]].
> 
> The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].  Although the Joker card often bears the image of a fool, which is one of the images of the Tarot deck, it not believed that there is any relation.  The most common form of cards now in use is a deck comprising the four French suits, each of which has ten spot cards (the one-spot being called an "Ace"), and three court cards of the Rouen design called "King", "Queen", and "Jack" (or less commonly "Knave").  The decks are generally sold with two Jokers (one often of more colorful or intricate design than the other).  It is also common practice now for the Ace of spades to bear special markings that include the manufacturer's name and date of production.  This practice originated with the use of that card to carry a British tax stamp.
> 
> In addition to being used for hundreds of games, playing cards are also a popular [[collectible]].  Specialty and novelty decks are commonly produced for collectors.  They are also popular as props for [[conjuring]] tricks.
> 
> See also [[Card games]].
> 
> For more information:
> * [http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
> * [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company]
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985979802
57c57,61
< The items in #7 ought to determine our choices in #1-6 (if we're being rational).
---
> The items in #8 ought to determine our choices in #1-7 (if we're being rational).
> ----
> '''Discussion'''
> 
> What does "coordinating all of the aspects of the the encyclopedia" mean? --[[LMS]]
------
Collectable_card_games|985979832
1,5c1
< Collectable Card [[Games]]
< * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[collectable card game]]
------
Collectable_card_game|985979844
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Collectable Card [[Games]]
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
> 
------
Wiki_Canonization|985980045
79a80,81
> ::''Except for single quotes, please??  :-)  "Plato'S Republic" is going to look kinda funny. --[[LMS]]''
> 
------
Linguistics|985980169
4c4
< [[descriptive linguistics]] is divided into a number of fields.
---
> [[Descriptive linguistics]] is divided into a number of fields.
11a12,14
> Other areas within linguistics:
> * [[etymology]]
> 
22c25
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Collectable_card_game|985980280
1c1,2
< Collectable Card [[Games]]
---
> <i>Collectable card games</i> are not played with traditional playing cards, but with sets of cards that can be bought, traded, and combined into sets in various ways.  These games are generally promoted by the manufacturer of the cards themselves, and are structured so that purchasing additional cards is to the player's benefit.
> 
6d6
< 
------
CategorySchemesTalk|985980455
42c42,57
< Perhaps AstroNomer could explain why [[Planetary Sciences]] should be distinguished from [[Astronomy]]?  For simplicity, I propose to continue regarding PS as a branch of Astronomy.  We could, for example, regard [[Oceanography]] as a separate science from [[Earth Sciences]], but again, simplicity seems to recommend that we keep relatively few broadly-characterized categories.  Disagree? --[[LMS]]
---
> Perhaps AstroNomer could explain why [[Planetary Sciences]] should be distinguished from [[Astronomy]]?  For simplicity, I propose to continue regarding PS as a branch of Astronomy.  We could, for example, regard [[Oceanography]] as a separate science from [[Earth Sciences]], but again, simplicity seems to recommend that we keep relatively few broadly-characterized categories.  Disagree? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> In some Universities in the US, there are Planetary Sciences departments separate from the astronomy departments, and,
> though they use some of the techniques of astronomy, they also
> are able to "go there" and observe directly (trips to the moon,
> unmanned mission to Mars and other planets, the recent landing
> in an asteroid). They study things as the geology of planets,
> or the meteorology of others...In a way, I'd say that [[earth sciences]] is branch of [[Planetary Sciences]], more than P.S.
> is a branch of astronomy. There are even some (I hope few) planetary scientists than get offended is someone called them astronomers...
> 
> All that said, it is possible than putting it at the top of the 
> hirarchy was a bit extreme, and I'm not moving it back till some
> pl. scientists joins  the wiki and moves it back.
> 
> Also, I think there should be a link to [[Planetary Sciences]]
> from [[Earth sciences]] -- AstroNomer
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985981140
61c61,65
< What does "coordinating all of the aspects of the the encyclopedia" mean? --[[LMS]]
---
> What does "coordinating all of the aspects of the the encyclopedia" mean? --[[LMS]]
> 
> A: A mostly systematic review of article content, format, topic hiearchy, link structure, etc.  Most of these should be self-healing processes and could be placed within other categories such as copyediting.  'Self healing' because wiki is almost a genetic organism with new mutations created/altered/destroyed on an ongoing basis.  
> 
> Wiki - the 'Self healing genetic algorithmic public encyclopedia'
------
Hobby|985981286
26a27
> * [[Amateur Astronomy]]
------
Poker|985981385
1c1
< The [[card games|card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards can either make wagers into a central <i>pot</i> or drop out, after which is the pot is awarded to the player or players with the best combination of cards among those who did not drop.
---
> The [[card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central <i>pot</i>, after which is the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards.  In poker, there are typically several <i>rounds</i> of betting in which players wager in turn, and each player may take one of three actions.  He may <i>fold</i> (also called <i>drop</i> or <i>pass</i>) by relinquishing his cards, putting no money into the pot, and taking no further action in the hand; this forfeits his right to win the pot.  He may <i>call</i>, wagering an amount equal to the wager of all previous players in the round, to maintain his right to play further (when no players have yet wagered in the round, this is called a <i>check</i>).  Finally, he may <i>raise</i>, betting a larger amount than previously bet in the round, forcing all other players to match the larger amount to continue (when there is no previous bet in the round, this is called simply a <i>bet</i>).  At the end of betting, if more than one player remains, they <i>show down</i> their cards, and the best combination of cards wins the pot.  If one player raises and no other players call the raise, he wins the pot uncontested without showing his cards.  This makes it possible to <i>bluff</i>.
5c5
< It is well accepted that the game's first appearance in the [[United States]] was in [[New Orleans]] in the 1920s, and that from there the game quickly spread and became an important part of American culture.
---
> It is well accepted that the game's first appearance in the [[United States]] was in [[New Orleans]] in the 1920s, and that from there the game quickly spread and became an important part of American culture.  Nearly all forms of poker played in the world today originated in the United States.
------
Card_games|985981420
1,36c1
< The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[collectable card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
< 
< [[Trick-taking]] games
< * [[Whist]]
< * [[Bridge]]
< * [[Euchre]]
< * [[Skat]]
< * [[Tarot]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Nap|Napolean]]
< 
< [[Gambling]] games
< * [[Poker]]
< * [[Boure]]
< * [[Blackjack]]
< * [[Panguingue]]
< * [[Red Dog]]
< * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
< 
< [[Rummy games]]
< * [[Gin Rummy]]
< * [[Gin]]
< * [[Canasta]]
< 
< [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
< 
< Other games
< * [[Old Maid]]
< * [[Go Fish]]
< * [[Macchiavelli]]
< * [[Spit]]
< * [[Grass]]
< * [[Pinochle]]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[card game]]
------
Card_game|985981432
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[collectable card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
> 
> [[Trick-taking]] games
> * [[Whist]]
> * [[Bridge]]
> * [[Euchre]]
> * [[Skat]]
> * [[Tarot]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Spades]]
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
> 
> [[Gambling]] games
> * [[Poker]]
> * [[Boure]]
> * [[Blackjack]]
> * [[Panguingue]]
> * [[Red Dog]]
> * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
> 
> [[Rummy games]]
> * [[Gin Rummy]]
> * [[Gin]]
> * [[Canasta]]
> 
> [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
> 
> Other games
> * [[Old Maid]]
> * [[Go Fish]]
> * [[Macchiavelli]]
> * [[Spit]]
> * [[Grass]]
> * [[Pinochle]]
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985981451
102c102
< The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag works like the <code> tag except that it doesn't use a monospace font.  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
---
> The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag works like the <code><code></code> tag except that it doesn't use a monospace font.  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
------
Collectable_card_game|985981532
3c3,19
< * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]
---
> <b>CCG</b> is short for collectable card game.
> 
> A big part of a CCG is the difficulty in obtaining the more powerful cards in the game.  Most of the cards are sold in packs or 10 to 15 cards with each pack having
> * 1 card of a high scaricity
> * 2-3 cards of a lower scaricity
> * 7-12 cards of the lowest scaricity
> 
> This is done to 'force' the card game player to buy many packs to get enough of the powerful cards.
> 
> One of the other aspects of CCGs is that the same/similar game mechanics and same/similar cards make playing one game like another.
> 
> Another aspect of CCGs is the evolution of standard decks that exist throughout the life time of a CCG with minor modifications based on each new set of cards released.
> 
> Some CCGs:
> 
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]] - generally considered to be the first major CCG
> 
6a23
> 
------
World_War_I|985981673
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
------
Paleontology|985981797
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paleontology is the study of ancient animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with Geology -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
> 
> Fossils were known by primitive man and were sometimes identified correctly as the remains of ancient lifeforms.  The organized study of Paleontology dates from the late 18th Century.  The primary economic importance of Paleontology lies in its ability to identify the age and nature of rock formations by the fossils contained in the rocks themselves or in underlaying or overlaying beds.  These determinations are very important to the mining industries and especially to the petroleum industry.
> 
> Paleontologists are among the more colorful and eccentric figures in the history of science.  Important figures include the Englishman William Smith who first noted that similar fossil sequences were found regionally and Georges Cuvier who initiated the study of ancient animals based on living animals.  Legendary American figures include Edward Cope, Orthniel Marsh, Henry Osborne and Charles Walcott.  The swashbuckling movie character Indiana Jones is said to be based loosely on the early 20th Century paleontologist Roy Champman Andrews.
> 
> Paleontology is divided into two major subdivisions.  Invertebrate paleontology deals with simple animals.  Vertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of animals with backbones.  There are many minor specialties such as Paleobotany and Ichnology (the study of tracks and burrows.) 
------
Etymology|985981822
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Some words have been derived from other languages, others have been part of a language, either or not in changed shape. Through old texts and comparisons with other languages, etymologists try to reconstruct the history of words - when did they enter a language, from what source, and how did their form and meaning change?
> 
> Etymologists will also try to reconstruct information of languages that are too old for any direct information (such as written texts) to be known. By comparing words in related languages, one can get information on their shared parent language. This way, 'word roots' have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of the [[Indo-European Languages|Indo-European language family]].
------
Paleontology|985982043
1c1
< Paleontology is the study of ancient animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with Geology -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
---
> Paleontology is the study of ancient plants and animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with Geology -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
------
Etymology|985982078
3c3,4
< Etymologists will also try to reconstruct information of languages that are too old for any direct information (such as written texts) to be known. By comparing words in related languages, one can get information on their shared parent language. This way, 'word roots' have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of the [[Indo-European Languages|Indo-European language family]].
---
> Etymologists will also try to reconstruct information of languages that are too old for any direct information (such as written texts) to be known. By comparing words in related languages, one can get information on their shared parent language. This way, 'word roots' have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of the [[Indo-European]] language family.
> 
------
Earth_Sciences|985982233
1c1,3
< Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
> 
> Arguably, Earth Sciences can be regarded as a branch of [[Planetary Sciences]].
------
Card_games|985982250
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[card game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Card game]]
------
Game|985982271
9c9
< *[[Card games]]
---
> *[[Card game|Card games]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project|985982498
36,39c36
< 6. The organization function
< * coordinating all of the aspects of the the encyclopedia
< 
< 7. General characteristics of official policies
---
> 6. General characteristics of official policies
45c42
< 8. Goals of the project
---
> 7. Goals of the project
57c54
< The items in #8 ought to determine our choices in #1-7 (if we're being rational).
---
> The items in #7 ought to determine our choices in #1-6 (if we're being rational).
65a63,64
> ----
> I see.  Well, indeed, "self-healing" ought to be entirely included in the other processes.  The processes aren't necessarily discrete; they might work all at the same time, depending on the system. --[[LMS]]
------
James_Joyce|985982666
1c1,3
< Famous Works:
---
> Irish author.
> 
> Famous works:
5a8
> *Dubliners
------
EuroCurrency|985982792
5c5
< The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on Januar 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999).
---
> The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on January 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value has decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999).
------
EuroCurrency|985982814
1c1
< The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002 Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries.
---
> The Euro is the new currency in Europe. After January 1st, 2002, Euro bills and coins will be available and a few months later you will have to pay in Euro in the participating countries.
------
EuroCurrency|985982846
3c3
< The currently participating countries are: GermanY, FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: [[Germany]], FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
------
EuroCurrency|985982941
3c3
< The currently participating countries are: [[Germany]], FrancE, ItalY, SpaiN, NetherLands, BelGium, AustriA, FinLand, PortuGal, IreLand, LuxembourG. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the EuropeanCentralBank, which has its HQ in FrankfurT, GermanY. 
---
> The currently participating countries are: [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Austria]], [[Finland]], [[Portugal]], [[Ireland]], [[Luxembourg]]. The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the [[European Central Bank]], which has its HQ in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]. 
------
Computer_games|985983188
13a14
> ** Pseudo 2d
14a16,19
> ** Pseudo 3d
> ** [[Fixed 3d]]
> ** On the rails
> ** Cut scenes
24c29,31
< ''Most references you will find separate out video games, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no, but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
---
> ''Most references you will find separate out videogames, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no (and you'd be right), but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
> 
> ''With videogames consoles getting ever more powerful and taking on former PC strongholds (the web, content creation, programming even..) and games migrating every which way, the seperation of hardware platforms is quite arbitrary and damaging. Let us be platform agnostic - it's the games that matter.''
------
Newsgroup|985983631
4a5
> Newsgroups are much like the public message boards on old Bulliten Board Systems. For those readers not familiar with this concept, envision an electronic version of the coardboard in the entrance of your local grocery store.
------
Bridge|985983923
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bridge is a [[trick taking]] card game for four players (please follow the link if you do not know what trick taking is), which form two teams. The players of one team sit opposit one another. Game play is in two phases: bidding and playing.
> 
> <h2>Dealing</h2>
> The game is played with one complete deck of 52 cards. One player is the dealer, and deals 13 cards to each player. In the next round, the player left to the current dealer will be dealer.
> 
> <h2>Bidding</h2>
> During the bidding, the teams bid how many tricks they think they are going to make. The team that makes the highest bid, will be playing the game, but must make the number of tricks bid to score positive. The dealer makes the first bid, after this bidding goes round clockwise. When a player has the turn to bid, he can do any of the following:
> * Make a new bid. Bids consist of a number (ranging from 1 to 7) plus a suit (with 'No Trump' being an extra suit). If the bid remains the highest, the player must try to make (together with his or her partner) a number of tricks equal to 6 plus the number bid, with the suit bid as trumps (or no trump if No Trump was bid). The bid must be higher than the highest bid upto that point, with the order being decided as:
> ** A bid for a higher number of tricks is always higher
> ** For bids with the same number of tricks, the order (from high to low) is NT, spades, hearts, diamonds, clubs
> Thus, a bid of 1H (1 hearts) is beaten by a bid of 1 spades, 1 No Trump or 2 or more in any suit.
> * Pass
> * Double. This may only be bid if the last player who did not pass was an opponent making a bid. If that contract is played, scores will be higher (for the bidder if the contract is made, for the doubler if it fails)
> * Redouble. This may only be bid if the last non-pass bid was a double by opponent. This raises the stakes again, in much the same way as the original double.
> 
> The bidding ends if either all four players pass on their first round of bidding, or if three players pass in a row after at least one non-pass bid has been made. In the first case, the game is over with neither pair scoring any points. In the second case, the last bid is the contract that is going to be made, possibly doubled or redoubled.
> 
> <h2>Playing</h2>
> 
> The player from the pair that won the bidding (that is, the pair that is going to play the contract), who was the first to make a bid in the suit of the final contract (who is thus either the player bidding the final contract or his partner), is called the declarer. His partner is called the dummy.
> 
> The first trick is started by the player to the left of the leader. After the first card has been played, the dummy lays his cards open on the table. These cards are from then on played by the declarer, who tells the dummy which card is to be played whenever it is the dummy's turn to play on a trick.
> 
> Apart from this, the play is just like other trick-taking games - the player who made the previous trick starts the next one (if the leader made the trick in the dummy, he has to play from the dummy on the next trick, if he made the trick in his own hand, he has to play from his own hand). Whether there is a trump and if so which, has been decided during bidding.
> 
> <h2>Scoring - Rubber Bridge</h2>
> 
> In friendly play, one generally plays rubber bridge. In rubber bridge, extra points are scored for winning a rubber, which means getting to a game (100 points) twice. There are two types of points: Points below the line and points above the line. Only points below the line count towards a game.
> 
> If the declarer makes his contract, the number bid, multiplied by a suit-dependent multiplier, is scored below the line. Any overtricks, again multiplied by the suit-dependent multiplier, are scored above the line.
> 
> The multiplier is 20 for clubs and diamonds, and 30 for hearts and spades. For No Trump, the multiplier is also 30, but with an added 10 points below the line.
> 
> Example11 trick11 ss:
> bid: 2 clubs, made 9 tricks: 40 (2x20) points below, 20 (1x20) above the line.
> bid: 4 hearts, made 10 tricks: 120 (4x30) points below, 0 (0x30) above the line.
> bid: 4 no trump, made 
> 
> ----
> 
> Note: Everywhere on this page where 'he' and 'his' are used, one can of course also read 'she' and 'her'.
------
Computer_science|985984155
1c1
< The study of [[computer]]s.  See [[computing]].
---
> The study of the design, use, and properties of [[computer]]s.  See [[computing]].
3c3,16
< (This obviously needs expansion!)
---
> Major subfields include
> * [[Algorithms]]
> * [[Artificial Intelligence]]
> * [[Compilers]]
> * [[Computer Architecture]]
> * [[Computer Graphics]]
> * [[Computer Networks]]
> * [[Databases]]
> * [[Human-Computer Interaction]]
> * [[Operating Systems]]
> * [[Programming Languages]]
> * [[Software Engineering]]
> * [[Theory of Computation]]
> * [[VLSI Design]]
------
Computer_science|985984412
12c12
< * [[Operating Systems]]
---
> * [[Operating system|Operating Systems]]
------
Bridge|985984423
29a30,31
> <h3>Score for making</h3>
> 
34,37c36,51
< Example11 trick11 ss:
< bid: 2 clubs, made 9 tricks: 40 (2x20) points below, 20 (1x20) above the line.
< bid: 4 hearts, made 10 tricks: 120 (4x30) points below, 0 (0x30) above the line.
< bid: 4 no trump, made 
---
> Examples:<br>
> bid: 2 clubs, made 9 tricks: 40 (2x20) points below, 20 (1x20) above the line.<br>
> bid: 4 hearts, made 10 tricks: 120 (4x30) points below, 0 (0x30) above the line.<br>
> bid: 4 no trump, made 11 tricks: 130 (4x30+10) points below, 30 (1x30) above the line.
> 
> <h3>Game and Rubber</h3>
> If the score of the pair below the line equals or exceeds 100 points (either at once or taken together with what already was below the line), the team is said to have scored a game, and all scores below the line are turned into scores above the line. If the team has made their second game, the rubber has ended, and the final scores are counted. The team that won the rubber scores 500 points bonus if their opponents also made a game, 700 points bonus otherwise.
> 
> <h3>Vulnerability and slam bonus</h3>
> A team that has already made a game, is called vulnerable, which is of importance for the slam bonus and for the downtricks.
> 
> If a player bids and makes a bid of 6 in something, he is said to have made a ''small slam''. This gives a bonus (above the line) of 500 points when not vulnerable, and 750 points when vulnerable. If a player bids and makes a bid of 7 in something (thus scoring all the tricks), he is said to have made a ''grand slam''. This gives a bonus of 1000 points when not vulnerable, and 1500 points when vulnerable.
> 
> <h3>Downtricks</h3>
> Sorry, time's up. I will leave the counting of downtricks for another time.
> 
------
Computer_science|985984505
13c13
< * [[Programming Languages]]
---
> * [[ProgrammingLanguages|Programming Languages]]
------
Probability_and_Statistics|985984835
7c7
< What mathematicians call [[Probability]] is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. In a larger context, the word ''probability'' is used with other concerns in mind. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
---
> What mathematicians call [[Probability]] is the mathematical theory we use to describe and quantify uncertainty. In a larger context, (see [[Probability Interpretations]]) the word ''probability'' is used with other concerns in mind. Uncertainty can be due to our ignorance, deliberate mixing or shuffling, or due to the essential randomness of Nature. In any case, we measure the uncertainty of '''events''' on a scale from zero (impossible events) to one (certain events or no uncertainty).
------
Fixed_3d|985984966
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Used heavily in the [[survival horror]] genre, fixed 3d, uses characters rendered in realtime against a pre-rendered background.
> First seen in Delphine's [[Alone In The Dark]] series in the late 80s, it was later revived and bought up to date by Capcom in the [[Residant Evil]] series.
> Other notable examples include
> * [[Blade Runner]] ([[Westwood]]) - apparently the backgrounds are rendered in realtime, using millions of polygons, although this is difficult to tell
> * [[Ecstatica]] and Ecstatica 2 (Andrew Spencer/Psygnosis) - a strange one this, the backgrounds and characters are rendered with elipsoids, leading to a very natural looking bunch of creatures. Like Blade Runner, it again is rendered entirely in real time, although it is difficult to tell at first sight
> * Legend of Zelda Ocarina of Time ([[Nintendo]]) - dropped for full on [[3d]] in it's successor, Majora's Mask, [[2d]] is used for many of the building interiors and for a whole town
> 
> Admitedly not much seems to seperate fixed [[3d]] with its precursor, the graphical adventure (Monkey Island, Sam & Max etc.), but whereas the latter ovelays [[2d]] characters over a [[2d]] background, the former is at least [[3d]] overlayed on [[2d]], and often onto [[3d]].
------
Hobby|985985012
30a31,41
> * Arts and Crafts
> ** [[Painting]]
> ** [[Drawing]]
> ** [[Needlepoint]]
> ** [[Quilting]]
> ** [[Embroidery]]
> ** [[Cross-stitch]]
> ** [[Beadwork]]
> ** [[Sculpture]]
> ** [[Pottery]]
> ** [[Sewing]]
------
Probability_Interpretations|985985507
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word [[Probability]] has been used in a variety of ways since it was first coined in relation to [[Games of Chance]]. There have been debates among the proponents of different interpretations of probability during the twentieth century which have not been resolved. These debates occurred in several academic communities: 
> #[[Philosophical views on probability]]
> #[[Statistical probabililty]]
> #[[Probabililty theory|Mathematical probability]]
> 
------
Probability_Interpretations|985985552
4c4
< #[[Probabililty theory|Mathematical probability]]
---
> #[[Probabililty/Theory|Mathematical probability]]
------
Probability_Interpretations|985985572
4c4
< #[[Probabililty/Theory|Mathematical probability]]
---
> #[[Probability/Theory|Mathematical probability]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985985787
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Among statisticians, there are three distinct interpretations of probability:
> #Relative frequency
> #Logical probability
> #[[Personal probability]]
------
Beadwork|985985844
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The art or craft of attaching [[bead]]s to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread.  Most beadwork takes the form of [[jewelry]] or other [[personal adornnment]], but beads are also used in wall handings and [[sculpture]].  
> 
> Beadwork techniques are broadly divided into [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] weaving, [[Bead stringing|stringing]], and [[Bead embroidery|embroidery]].
> 
> Most cultures have employed beads for personal adornment.  
> * [[Native American beadwork]]
> * [[Asian beadwork]]
> * [[African beadwork]]
> * [[European beadwork]]
> * others?
------
Hobby|985985897
41a42,43
> ** [[Knitting]]
> ** [[Crocheting]]
------
Richard_Nixon|985986033
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Richard Millhouse Nixon</b> was president of the [[United States]] from 1969-1974.
> 
> Major initiatives during his presidency:
> * re-establishment of diplomatic relations with China
------
Beadwork|985986295
10c10,12
< * others?
---
> * others?
> 
> A number of [[bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
------
Whist|985986548
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whist is a simple trick taking game with several variations.  Briefly described here are the 3 main variations that I know of.
> <P>
> <b>Four Handed Whist</B>
> The game is relatively simple in that there are no trump, and the goal of the game is to make 7 of the 13 tricks.  Four handed Whist is played with 2 couples.  Each couple sits opposite each other at the table.  Couples can be determined by everyone cutting the deck.  High 2 cards are parnters and low 2 are.  
> <P>
> <B>Card Order:</B>
> A, K, Q, J, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2
> No trump
> (Simple, eh?)
> <P>
> <B>How to Play:</B>
> <OL>
> <LI>Everyone cuts the deck and high card is dealer
> <LI>Cards are dealt one at a time starting with the person to the left of the dealer and moving clockwise until all cards are dealt.  Each person should have 13 cards
> <LI>Each person surmises his/her hand and determines wether go to "grant" or not.  If you are going to "grant" (play high), you lay down a low black card.  Otherwise a low red card.
> <LI>After all 4 players have laid down their cards, players flip up their cards, starting with the person just left of the dealer.  
> <LI>As soon as a black card is flipped up, noone else has to flip their card up.  
> <LI>If all cards are red, you "play to lose", meaning you don't want any tricks if possible
> <LI>If any cards are black, you play to win, and you want to take at least 7 tricks
> <LI>Play begins either (1) the person to the left fo the person who granted -or- (if you are playing low) (2) player to the left of the dealer
> </OL>
> <B>Taking tricks</B>
> Basically, the person who leads lays down a card from his/her hand.  Everyone must follow suit if they have it.  If you don't have the suit, lay down any other card.  Highest card of the lead suit takes the trick.  Whoever takes the trick leads the next one.  Each team pools their tricks, so only one player from each team needs to collect the winning tricks.  Play continues until all cards are gone.  Dealer moves one to the left.
> <P>
> Example:  
> <UL>
> <LI>Player1: (starts with) Q of hearts 
> <LI>Player2: K of hearts 
> <LI>Player3: 3 spades (no hearts) 
> <LI>Player4: 2 hearts
> </UL>
> Player2 wins the trick and starts the next one!
> <P>
> <B>Scoring</B>
> SUPER simple.  <BR>
> If you are playing LOW:  Get a point for every trick under 7 total.  
> If you are playing HIGH:  Get a point for every trick over 7 total.  Lose a point for every trick under 7--IF you grant (went high with a black card).  
> <P>
> We generally played up to 13 points total.
> <P>
> Scoring Sample:
> <UL>
> <LI>Us:   Grant, got 7 tricks
> <LI>Them:   got 6 tricks
> </UL>
> High game, "Us" makes 1 point
> <P>
> --------------------
> <P>
> <UL>
> <LI>Us:   Grant, got 5 tricks
> <LI>Them:   got 8 tricks
> </UL>
> High game, "Them" gets 2 points, "Us" loses 2 points
> <P>
> --------------------
> <P>
> <UL>
> <LI>Us:   got 9 tricks
> <LI>Them:   got 4 tricks
> </UL>
> Low game, "Them" get's 3 points 
> <P>
> --------------------
> <P>
> <BR>
> <P>
> <B>Three Handed Whist</B><BR>
> To be continued...
> <P>
> 
> 
> <P>
> <B>Two Handed Whist</B><BR>
> To be continued...
------
Bead_artists|985986595
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> People who practice the craft of [[beadwork]].
> 
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads Janet Davis] -- I mainly do [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.  I have a gallery and a number of free patterns on my web site.
> 
> * Add your link here!
------
Bead_artists|985986623
4d3
< 
------
LiteraryArtTalk|985986637
14c14,19
< (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
---
> (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
> 
> -----
> 
> What's the difference between Literary Art and Literature?
> Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
------
Richard_Nixon|985986664
1c1
< <b>Richard Millhouse Nixon</b> was president of the [[United States]] from 1969-1974.
---
> Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was [[United States President|President]] of the [[United States]] from 1969-1974.
4c4
< * re-establishment of diplomatic relations with China
---
> * Re-establishment of diplomatic relations with China
------
Beadwork_patterns|985986778
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Charts for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.  
> 
> Free patterns
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet's Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
> 
> Commercial patterns
------
Richard_Nixon|985986781
1c1
< Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was [[United States President|President]] of the [[United States]] from 1969-1974.
---
> Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was the 37th [[President of the United States]], from 1969-1974.
------
Beadwork_patterns|985986793
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet's Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
------
Beadwork_patterns|985986801
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet"s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
------
President_of_the_United_States|985986809
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/President]]
------
Beadwork_patterns|985986814
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns|Janet"s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns| Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
------
United_States/Presidents|985986854
1,56c1
< # [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
< # [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
< # [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
< # [[James Madison]] (1809-1817)
< # [[James Monroe]] (1817-1825)
< # [[John Quincy Adams]] (1825-1829)
< # [[Andrew Jackson]] (1829-1837)
< # [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837-1841)
< # [[William Henry Harrison]] (1841)
< # [[John Tyler]] (1841-1845)
< # [[James Knox Polk]] (1845-1849)
< # [[Zachary Taylor]] (1849-1850)
< # [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850-1853)
< # [[Franklin Pierce]] (1853-1857)
< # [[James Buchanan]] (1857-1861)
< # [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1861-1865)
< # [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865-1869)
< # [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1869-1877)
< # [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] (1877-1881)
< # [[James Garfield]] (1881)
< # [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881-1885)
< # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1885-1889)
< # [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893)
< # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1893-1897)
< # [[William McKinley]] (1897-1901)
< # [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909)
< # [[William Howard Taft]] (1909-1913)
< # [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1913-1921)
< # [[Warren G. Harding]] (1921-1923)
< # [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923-1929)
< # [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929-1933)
< # [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] (1933-1945)
< # [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945-1953)
< # [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1953-1961)
< # [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
< # [[Lyndon Johnson]] (1963-1969)
< # [[Richard Nixon]] (1969-1974)
< # [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
< # [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
< # [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981-1989)
< # [[George Bush]] (1989-1993)
< # [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
< # [[George W. Bush]] (2001-)
< 
< Also of note,
< * Emperor JoshuaANorton I (1849-1880)
< 
< The President's residence is the [[White House]]
< ----
< 
< 
< Sorry for the poor formatting; I got the list from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/.
< Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
< ----
< An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/President]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985986901
2,3c2,3
< #Relative frequency
< #Logical probability
---
> #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html|Richard von Mises] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html|John Maynard Keynes], Frank Ramsey, and B. O. Koopman.
------
United_States/President|985986987
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[head of state]] of the [[United States]] is called the <i>President</i>, who also serves the functions of [[chief executive]] and [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces.  See [[United States Consitution]].
> 
> # [[George Washington]] (1789-1797)
> # [[John Adams]] (1797-1801)
> # [[Thomas Jefferson]] (1801-1809)
> # [[James Madison]] (1809-1817)
> # [[James Monroe]] (1817-1825)
> # [[John Quincy Adams]] (1825-1829)
> # [[Andrew Jackson]] (1829-1837)
> # [[Martin Van Buren]] (1837-1841)
> # [[William Henry Harrison]] (1841)
> # [[John Tyler]] (1841-1845)
> # [[James Knox Polk]] (1845-1849)
> # [[Zachary Taylor]] (1849-1850)
> # [[Millard Fillmore]] (1850-1853)
> # [[Franklin Pierce]] (1853-1857)
> # [[James Buchanan]] (1857-1861)
> # [[Abraham Lincoln]] (1861-1865)
> # [[Andrew Johnson]] (1865-1869)
> # [[Ulysses S. Grant]] (1869-1877)
> # [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] (1877-1881)
> # [[James Garfield]] (1881)
> # [[Chester A. Arthur]] (1881-1885)
> # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1885-1889)
> # [[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889-1893)
> # [[Grover Cleveland]] (1893-1897)
> # [[William McKinley]] (1897-1901)
> # [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1901-1909)
> # [[William Howard Taft]] (1909-1913)
> # [[Woodrow Wilson]] (1913-1921)
> # [[Warren G. Harding]] (1921-1923)
> # [[Calvin Coolidge]] (1923-1929)
> # [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929-1933)
> # [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] (1933-1945)
> # [[Harry S. Truman]] (1945-1953)
> # [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1953-1961)
> # [[John F. Kennedy]] (1961-1963)
> # [[Lyndon Johnson]] (1963-1969)
> # [[Richard Nixon]] (1969-1974)
> # [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974-1977)
> # [[Jimmy Carter]] (1977-1981)
> # [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981-1989)
> # [[George Bush]] (1989-1993)
> # [[Bill Clinton]] (1993-2001)
> # [[George W. Bush]] (2001-)
> 
> Also of note,
> * Emperor JoshuaANorton I (1849-1880)
> 
> The President's residence is the [[White House]]
> ----
> 
> 
> Sorry for the poor formatting; I got the list from http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/.
> Looks like they've got more info, and I'd bet that info is in the public domain and therefore copyable?
> ----
> An important question.  Could you research this and report back?
> 
------
Beadwork|985987038
12c12
< A number of [[bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
---
> A number of [[Bead artists|bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
------
United_States/President|985987042
1c1
< The [[head of state]] of the [[United States]] is called the <i>President</i>, who also serves the functions of [[chief executive]] and [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces.  See [[United States Consitution]].
---
> The [[head of state]] of the [[United States]] is called the <i>President</i>, who also serves the functions of [[chief executive]] and [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces.  See [[United States Constitution]].
------
United_States/Presidents|985987058
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[United States/President]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/President]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985987062
3c3
< #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html|John Maynard Keynes], Frank Ramsey, and B. O. Koopman.
---
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html | John Maynard Keynes], [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html | Frank Ramsey], and B. O. Koopman.
------
United_States|985987086
4c4
< * [[/Presidents]]
---
> * [[/President]]
------
Tourism|985987091
1c1,5
< ''Tourism'' is the habit people have of visiting each other's locales, looking at their museums and natural wonders, getting to know the people, etc. 
---
> ''Tourism'' is to travel and stay in places different that the
> own usual place of residence, as an end in itself (different than, for example, [[bussiness travel]].
> 
> The [[tourist]] can be interested (among other things) in the new place [[culture]]
> (in it most wide sense), or the [[nature]] of the place.
9c13
< *[[Travelling]]
---
> *[[Travelling]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985987176
2,3c2,3
< #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html|Richard von Mises] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
< #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html | John Maynard Keynes], [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html | Frank Ramsey], and B. O. Koopman.
---
> #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. <a href="http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html">Richard von Mises</a> is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like <a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html">John Maynard Keynes</a>, <a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html">Frank Ramsey</a>, and B. O. Koopman.
------
Cross-stitch|985987259
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A popular form of [[embroidery]] in which X-shaped stitches are used to form a picture.
------
Beadwork|985987342
1c1
< The art or craft of attaching [[bead]]s to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread.  Most beadwork takes the form of [[jewelry]] or other [[personal adornnment]], but beads are also used in wall handings and [[sculpture]].  
---
> The art or craft of attaching [[bead]]s to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread.  Most beadwork takes the form of [[jewelry]] or other [[personal adornnment]], but beads are also used in wall hangings and [[sculpture]].  
------
Jlnd|985987663
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Janet!  I found your link to your [[beadwork]] article from [[http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/links.php3 Janet's Beadwork Links]].  I found the latter link, however, from our referer_log.  :-)  Hope you have fun. --[[LMS]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985987686
2,4c2,6
< #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. <a href="http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html">Richard von Mises</a> is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
< #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like <a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html">John Maynard Keynes</a>, <a href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html">Frank Ramsey</a>, and B. O. Koopman.
< #[[Personal probability]]
---
> #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [[http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html|Richard von Mises]] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html|John Maynard Keynes]], [[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html|Frank Plumpton Ramsey]], and B. O. Koopman. In essence, they advocated use of the concept of ''expected rational utility]] to develop an operational definition of the probability of any proposition.
> #[[Personal probability]] was championed by Leonard J. Savage and Bruno de Finnetti as a way of giving meaning to non-repeatable propositions and subjective evaluations of their ''probability''.
> 
> An [[Eclectic probability|eclectic school]] has developed which attempts to defuse the debate by focusing on the [[Probability/Axioms|axioms of mathematical probability]] as the only criterion as to whether an interpretation is valid and/or valuable.
------
Jlnd|985987682
1c1
< Welcome, Janet!  I found your link to your [[beadwork]] article from [[http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/links.php3 Janet's Beadwork Links]].  I found the latter link, however, from our referer_log.  :-)  Hope you have fun. --[[LMS]]
---
> Welcome, Janet!  I found your link to your [[beadwork]] article from [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/links.php3 Janet's Beadwork Links].  I found the latter link, however, from our referer_log.  :-)  Hope you have fun. --[[LMS]]
------
Newsgroup|985987880
5c5
< Newsgroups are much like the public message boards on old Bulliten Board Systems. For those readers not familiar with this concept, envision an electronic version of the coardboard in the entrance of your local grocery store.
---
> Newsgroups are much like the public message boards on old [[bulletin board system]]s. For those readers not familiar with this concept, envision an electronic version of the corkboard in the entrance of your local grocery store.
------
Statistical_probabililty|985987895
2,3c2,3
< #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [[http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html|Richard von Mises]] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
< #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html|John Maynard Keynes]], [[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html|Frank Plumpton Ramsey]], and B. O. Koopman. In essence, they advocated use of the concept of ''expected rational utility]] to develop an operational definition of the probability of any proposition.
---
> #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html |Richard von Mises] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html |John Maynard Keynes], [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html |Frank Plumpton Ramsey], and B. O. Koopman. In essence, they advocated use of the concept of ''expected rational utility]] to develop an operational definition of the probability of any proposition.
------
DeMoivresFormula|985987934
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> DeMoivres Formula states that for any <I>x,n</I>
> <P ALIGN="center"> <I>  (cos x + i sin x)<SUP>n</SUP> = cos xn + i sin xn </I> </P>
> It is also sometimes seen as
> <P ALIGN="center"> <I> e <SUP> xi</SUP> = cos x + i sin x </I> </P>
> 
> <I> cos x + i sin x </I> is oftentimes just refered to as <I> cis x</I> for short.
------
Statistical_probabililty|985987977
2c2
< #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html |Richard von Mises] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
---
> #Due to the phenomenon known as [[Statistical Regularity]], [[Frequency Probability|relative frequency]] is universally accepted as a legitimate interpretation of probability. This interpretation is most clearly demonstrated with [[Games of Chance]]. Consisistency with this interpretation has provoked some conceptual complexities in [[Statistical Inference]] which introductory courses attempt to convey to students. [http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/teacherlink/math/probability/history/contributors/vonMises.html |Richard von Mises] is one of the better known advocates of this point of view.
------
Nafai|985987985
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[whist]] player and new [[wikipedians|wikipedian]].
> 
> Welcome! -- [[LMS]]
------
Statistical_probabililty|985988017
4c4
< #[[Personal probability]] was championed by Leonard J. Savage and Bruno de Finnetti as a way of giving meaning to non-repeatable propositions and subjective evaluations of their ''probability''.
---
> #[[Personal Probability]] was championed by Leonard J. Savage and Bruno de Finnetti as a way of giving meaning to non-repeatable propositions and subjective evaluations of their ''probability''.
6c6
< An [[Eclectic probability|eclectic school]] has developed which attempts to defuse the debate by focusing on the [[Probability/Axioms|axioms of mathematical probability]] as the only criterion as to whether an interpretation is valid and/or valuable.
---
> An [[Eclectic Probability|eclectic school]] has developed which attempts to defuse the debate by focusing on the [[Probability/Axioms|axioms of mathematical probability]] as the only criterion as to whether an interpretation is valid and/or valuable.
------
Andre_Engels|985988090
4a5,6
> ----
> Don't think I've welcomed you yet, so, welcome, Andre!  Great work. --[[LMS]]
------
Adding_stuff_to_Wikipedia|985988242
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most addictive hobby of all.
------
Statistical_probabililty|985988256
3c3
< #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html |John Maynard Keynes], [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html |Frank Plumpton Ramsey], and B. O. Koopman. In essence, they advocated use of the concept of ''expected rational utility]] to develop an operational definition of the probability of any proposition.
---
> #Logical probability is an attempt to extend formal logic with truth values intermediate to the conventional end points of ''false'' (zero probability) and ''true'' (unit probability). This interpretation has been favored by economists like [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Keynes.html |John Maynard Keynes], [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html |Frank Plumpton Ramsey], and B. O. Koopman. In essence, they advocated use of the concept of ''expected rational utility'' to develop an operational definition of the probability of any proposition.
6c6
< An [[Eclectic Probability|eclectic school]] has developed which attempts to defuse the debate by focusing on the [[Probability/Axioms|axioms of mathematical probability]] as the only criterion as to whether an interpretation is valid and/or valuable.
---
> An [[Eclectic Probability|eclectic school]] has developed which attempts to defuse the debate by focusing on the [[Probability/Axioms|axioms of mathematical probability]] as the criterion as to whether an interpretation is valid and/or valuable.
------
Adding_stuff_to_Wikipedia|985988265
1c1
< The most addictive hobby of all.
---
> The most addictive hobby of all.
------
Neeklamy|985988401
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Doubtless a [[Computer games]] enthusiast as well as a new [[wikipedians|wikipedian]].
> 
> Welcome! --[[LMS]]
------
Neeklamy|985988414
1c1
< Doubtless a [[Computer games]] enthusiast as well as a new [[wikipedians|wikipedian]].
---
> Doubtless a [[computer games]] enthusiast as well as a new [[wikipedians|wikipedian]].
------
Relative_Frequency|985988561
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''limiting relative frequency''' of an event over a long series of trials is the conceptual foundation of the [[Frequency Probability|frequency]] interpretation of probability. We consider a class of repeatable experiments in which we either do or do not observe the occurrence of the event in question. We presume that as the length of the series increases without bound, the fraction of the experiments in which we observe the event will stabilize. (See [[Statistical Regularity]]).
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985988746
21a22
> ###[[/Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
25c26
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985988775
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics/History]]
------
Collectable_card_game|985988849
23c23,24
< 
---
> ----
> ''It's "collectible," isn't it?''
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985988950
22c22
< ###[[/Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
---
> ###[[/Astronomy and Astrophysics|Astronomy and Astrophysics/History]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985988992
22c22
< ###[[/Astronomy and Astrophysics|Astronomy and Astrophysics/History]]
---
> ###[[Astronomy and Astrophysics/History|/Astronomy and Astophysics]]
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|985989022
22c22
< ###[[Astronomy and Astrophysics/History|/Astronomy and Astophysics]]
---
> ###[[Astronomy and Astrophysics/History|/Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985989102
77a78,80
> 
> (Added note by [mailto:ralphcf@home.com R. Furmaniak]) The best way to put in math would probably be to write it in TeX (or LaTeX) and then use [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH].  This will generate an HTML file with all of the math symbols in text form (no images).  Here is an [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example1.html example], and here is [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example2.html another].
> TeX is almost inarguably the standard for mathematical writing.
122c125
< A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least, by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least, by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Economic_Calculation_Problem|985989120
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics.  It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in 1920.  Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of socialism, and that it shows why a socialist command economy could never work.  They also believe that all attempts to refute this criticism have failed.
> 
> The Argument goes as follows:
> 
> <b>
> 1. Without private property in the means of production, there will be no market for the means of production;
> 
> 2. Without a market for a means of production, there will be no monetary prices established for the means of production;
> 
> 3. Without monetary prices, reflecting the relative scarcity of capital goods, economic decision makers will be unable to rationally calculate the alternative use of capital goods.
> </b>
> 
> This argument served as a starting point for [[F.A. Hayek|F.A. Hayek's]] work on the use of knowledge in society.
> 
> 
------
Socialism|985989187
10a11,13
> Criticisms of socialsim:
>  [[Economic Calculation Problem]]
> 
------
Socialism|985989198
11c11,13
< Criticisms of socialsim:
---
> ----
> 
> Criticisms of socialism:
------
Logic|985989286
1c1
< ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
---
> ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  Regarded as a branch both of [[philosophy]] and of [[mathematics]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|985989550
80a81,83
> 
> As much as I admire Knuth, I must disagree totally.  MathML should be the ultimate standard, not TeX.  For one thing, TeX is more display-oriented and MathML is more semantics-oriented.  MathML is also the standard supported by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium], and will therefore likely be supported by browsers (Mozilla and Microsoft are committed to it, for example).  TeX is used by a few academics, but they don't represent the real world.
> 
------
BallroomDance|985989566
1,49c1
< Ballroom dance originated in the western world, and is now enjoyed both socially and competitively in many parts of the world.
< 
< Contemporary ballroom dance technique has been extensively 
< studied and formalized.  MedalsExams are a commonly accepted standard of measurement of a dancer's technique according to conventional standards, and are classed Bronze, Silver, Gold and Gold Bar.
< 
< The three divisions of contemporary ballroom dance are called:
< 
< ----
< 
< International Standard (also called International Ballroom)
< 
< The dances which make up International Standard ballroom dance are:
< * WaltZ
< * InternationalVienneseWaltz
< * InternationalTango
< * InternationalFoxtrot
< * InternationalQuickstep
< 
< ----
< 
< International Latin
< 
< The dances which make up International Latin ballroom dance are:
< * Rumba
< * Samba
< * Cha-Cha
< * Paso Doble
< * Jive
< 
< ----
< 
< American style Ballroom
< 
< The dances which are included in American style ballroom include
< (more than just) the following.  Note that American versions of dances which are also danced in the International style usually have differences in technique.  Also note that popular club dances such as LindyHop, WestCoastSwing and EastCoastSwing will often be danced differently in clubs than in ballroom studios.
< * Foxtrot
< * Cha-Cha
< * Waltz
< * Viennese Waltz
< * TripleSwing (also known as EastCoastSwing)
< * WestCoastSwing
< * LindyHop
< * Tango
< * Mambo
< * Rumba
< * Samba
< * Two Step
< * New York Hustle----
< No place for SalsaDancing ...Gee.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ballroom Dance]]
------
Larry_Sanger/Test|985989812
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
------
Collectable_card_game|985989870
24c24,27
< ''It's "collectible," isn't it?''
---
> ''It's "collectible," isn't it?''
> 
> I think that's preferred, yes.  But most dictionaries list both, and I didn't feel like fixing all the pages and links.  We could also avoid the issue entirely by refering to them as "trading card games", as does the maker of MTG.
> 
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|985990082
2a3,10
> '''March 30, 2001'''
> 
> [http://slashdot.org/articles/01/03/29/2035230.shtml Slashdotted again!]  One "jwales" has written "Wikipedia hits 2000 articles" as a reply to a post about Everything2.  (Score:5, Informative--wow!  Way to go, jwales!)
> 
> Yep, and as a result all these new addic...I mean new contributors have joined us.  Of course, most have been contributing the [[computing]] area and [[Technology|techie subjects]] but it seems they do [[beadwork]] or play [[whist]] in their spare time.
> 
> Actual statistics as of 1:37 PM PST, March 30, 2001: 3,577 pages; 2,221 "comma" pages (pages containing commas); 2,365 pages with at least 150 characters; 553 articles with at least 2,000 characters (roughly, three normal-sized paragraphs).
> 
------
Economists|985990115
11a12
> *[[Ludwig von Mises]]
------
Trick-taking|985990380
1,5c1
< In many [[card games]], the goal of the game is to make tricks, or sometimes to not make tricks. In these games, the players have a hand of cards (often the same number), and the play is divided into tricks. One player leads a card, and the others in turn play one card on it. In most games, if a player has a card in the same suit as the card led, (s)he has to play some such card. The winner of the trick is the player who has played the highest card in the suit that was led. Typically, the winner of a trick will lead on the next trick.
< 
< Often, trick-taking games have a suit, or some cards, that are called trumps. A trump counts as higher as any other card, and can take tricks in other suits than its own.
< 
< The various games vary in the value that the various cards have, but (from high to low) A-K-Q-J-T-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2 is the most common.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Trick-taking game]]
------
Trick-taking_game|985990400
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In many [[card game]]s, the goal of the game is to make tricks, or sometimes to not make tricks. In these games, the players have a hand of cards (often the same number), and the play is divided into tricks. One player leads a card, and the others in turn play one card on it. In most games, if a player has a card in the same suit as the card led, (s)he has to play some such card. The winner of the trick is the player who has played the highest card in the suit that was led. Typically, the winner of a trick will lead on the next trick.
> 
> Often, trick-taking games have a suit, or some cards, that are called trumps. A trump counts as higher as any other card, and can take tricks in other suits than its own.
> 
> The various games vary in the value that the various cards have, but (from high to low) A-K-Q-J-T-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2 is the most common.
> 
------
Trick-taking_game|985991180
1c1
< In many [[card game]]s, the goal of the game is to make tricks, or sometimes to not make tricks. In these games, the players have a hand of cards (often the same number), and the play is divided into tricks. One player leads a card, and the others in turn play one card on it. In most games, if a player has a card in the same suit as the card led, (s)he has to play some such card. The winner of the trick is the player who has played the highest card in the suit that was led. Typically, the winner of a trick will lead on the next trick.
---
> <i>Trick-taking games</i> are [[card game]]s in which play is divided into multiple rounds called <i>tricks</i>, during which each player plays one card from his hand, and the rules of the game determine which player wins each round based on the cards played.  The object of the game is to win the most tricks, avoid winning tricks, or to win a certain number of tricks, at the end of play.  One might also include in this category other [[game]]s such as the Chinese [[Tien Gow]], played with [[domino]]es.
3,5c3
< Often, trick-taking games have a suit, or some cards, that are called trumps. A trump counts as higher as any other card, and can take tricks in other suits than its own.
< 
< The various games vary in the value that the various cards have, but (from high to low) A-K-Q-J-T-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2 is the most common.
---
> A common feature of trick-taking games is the concept of <i>following suit</i>, in which each player is constrained in which card he may play by the obligation to match the suit of the first card played in that trick, called the <i>lead</i>, if he can.  Another feature common to many games is the concept of <i>trump</i> (from the French <i>triomphe</i>, although the idea probably originated in [[Italy]]), in which special cards (sometimes all the cards of a certain suit) are designated to outrank all other cards played.
------
Card_game|985991209
3,11c3
< [[Trick-taking]] games
< * [[Whist]]
< * [[Bridge]]
< * [[Euchre]]
< * [[Skat]]
< * [[Tarot]]
< * [[Hearts]]
< * [[Spades]]
< * [[Nap|Napolean]]
---
> [[Trick-taking game]]s
------
Trick-taking_game|985991230
4a5,12
> * [[Whist]]
> * [[Bridge]]
> * [[Euchre]]
> * [[Skat]]
> * [[Tarot]]
> * [[Hearts]]
> * [[Spades]]
> * [[Nap|Napolean]]
------
Economists|985991987
7a8
> *[[Ludwig von Mises]]
12c13
< *[[Ludwig von Mises]]
---
> 
------
Whist|985991990
1,6c1,7
< Whist is a simple trick taking game with several variations.  Briefly described here are the 3 main variations that I know of.
< <P>
< <b>Four Handed Whist</B>
< The game is relatively simple in that there are no trump, and the goal of the game is to make 7 of the 13 tricks.  Four handed Whist is played with 2 couples.  Each couple sits opposite each other at the table.  Couples can be determined by everyone cutting the deck.  High 2 cards are parnters and low 2 are.  
< <P>
< <B>Card Order:</B>
---
> <i>Whist</i> is a simple [[trick-taking game]] with several variations.  Briefly described here are the three popular variations.
> 
> <h2>Four-handed Whist</h2>
> 
> The game is relatively simple in that there are no trumps, and the goal of the game is to take 7 of the 13 tricks.  Four-handed Whist is played with two teams.  The players of each team sit opposite each other at the table.
> 
> <h3>Card Rank</h3>
9,31c10,32
< (Simple, eh?)
< <P>
< <B>How to Play:</B>
< <OL>
< <LI>Everyone cuts the deck and high card is dealer
< <LI>Cards are dealt one at a time starting with the person to the left of the dealer and moving clockwise until all cards are dealt.  Each person should have 13 cards
< <LI>Each person surmises his/her hand and determines wether go to "grant" or not.  If you are going to "grant" (play high), you lay down a low black card.  Otherwise a low red card.
< <LI>After all 4 players have laid down their cards, players flip up their cards, starting with the person just left of the dealer.  
< <LI>As soon as a black card is flipped up, noone else has to flip their card up.  
< <LI>If all cards are red, you "play to lose", meaning you don't want any tricks if possible
< <LI>If any cards are black, you play to win, and you want to take at least 7 tricks
< <LI>Play begins either (1) the person to the left fo the person who granted -or- (if you are playing low) (2) player to the left of the dealer
< </OL>
< <B>Taking tricks</B>
< Basically, the person who leads lays down a card from his/her hand.  Everyone must follow suit if they have it.  If you don't have the suit, lay down any other card.  Highest card of the lead suit takes the trick.  Whoever takes the trick leads the next one.  Each team pools their tricks, so only one player from each team needs to collect the winning tricks.  Play continues until all cards are gone.  Dealer moves one to the left.
< <P>
< Example:  
< <UL>
< <LI>Player1: (starts with) Q of hearts 
< <LI>Player2: K of hearts 
< <LI>Player3: 3 spades (no hearts) 
< <LI>Player4: 2 hearts
< </UL>
---
> 
> <h3>Order of Play</h3>
> 
> # Everyone cuts the deck and high card is dealer.
> # Cards are dealt one at a time starting with the person to the left of the dealer and moving clockwise until all cards are dealt.  Each person should have 13 cards.
> # Each person surmises his/her hand and determines wether go to "grant" or not.  If you are going to "grant" (play high), you lay down a low black card.  Otherwise a low red card.
> # After all 4 players have laid down their cards, players flip up their cards in turn, starting with the person just left of the dealer.  
> # As soon as a black card is flipped up, noone else has to flip their card up.
> # If all cards are red, you "play to lose", meaning you don't want any tricks if possible.
> # If any cards are black, you play to win, and you want to take at least 7 tricks.
> # Play begins with either (1) the person to the left fo the person who granted, or (if playing low) (2) player to the left of the dealer.
> 
> <h3>Taking tricks</h3>
> 
> Basically, the person who leads lays down a card from his/her hand.  Everyone must follow suit if they can.  If you don't have the suit, lay down any other card.  Highest card of the lead suit takes the trick.  Whoever takes the trick leads the next one.  Each team pools their tricks, so only one player from each team needs to collect the winning tricks.  Play continues until all cards are gone.  Dealer moves one to the left.
> 
> Example:
> 
> * Player1: (starts with) Q of hearts 
> * Player2: K of hearts 
> * Player3: 3 spades (no hearts) 
> * Player4: 2 hearts
> 
33,70d33
< <P>
< <B>Scoring</B>
< SUPER simple.  <BR>
< If you are playing LOW:  Get a point for every trick under 7 total.  
< If you are playing HIGH:  Get a point for every trick over 7 total.  Lose a point for every trick under 7--IF you grant (went high with a black card).  
< <P>
< We generally played up to 13 points total.
< <P>
< Scoring Sample:
< <UL>
< <LI>Us:   Grant, got 7 tricks
< <LI>Them:   got 6 tricks
< </UL>
< High game, "Us" makes 1 point
< <P>
< --------------------
< <P>
< <UL>
< <LI>Us:   Grant, got 5 tricks
< <LI>Them:   got 8 tricks
< </UL>
< High game, "Them" gets 2 points, "Us" loses 2 points
< <P>
< --------------------
< <P>
< <UL>
< <LI>Us:   got 9 tricks
< <LI>Them:   got 4 tricks
< </UL>
< Low game, "Them" get's 3 points 
< <P>
< --------------------
< <P>
< <BR>
< <P>
< <B>Three Handed Whist</B><BR>
< To be continued...
< <P>
71a35,57
> <h3>Scoring</h3>
> 
> If playing LOW:  Get a point for every trick under 7 total.
> If playing HIGH:  Get a point for every trick over 7 total.  Lose a point for every trick under 7--IF you grant (went high with a black card).
> 
> The game continues until one player reaches a pre-designated point total, typically 13.
> 
> Scoring Samples:
> 
> * Us:   Grant, got 7 tricks
> * Them:   got 6 tricks
> * High game, "Us" makes 1 point
> 
> * Us:   Grant, got 5 tricks
> * Them:   got 8 tricks
> * High game, "Them" gets 2 points, "Us" loses 2 points
> 
> * Us:   got 9 tricks
> * Them:   got 4 tricks
> * Low game, "Them" get's 3 points 
> 
> <h2>Three-handed Whist</h2>
> To be continued...
73,74c59
< <P>
< <B>Two Handed Whist</B><BR>
---
> <h2>Two-handed Whist</h2>
------
Whist|985992240
8a9
> 
------
SandBox|985992288
20a21,26
> 
> I'm a little worried -- 
> Hey, could you use something like this for a message board?  Where people meet?  maybe sign there name so you know who's who.?
> 
> What about pics? can ya' do that too? loretta
>   
118c124
< Test emacs-w3-mode.
---
> Test emacs-w3-mode.
------
Nintendo|985992748
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the greatest videogame developers.
> Known affectionately as the big "N" or "Ninty", Nintendo have been responsible for some of the of the most exceptional videogaming software and hardware.
> 
> The Hardware
> * Game & Watch
> * Nintendo Entertainment System (rest of world) / Famicom (Japan)
> ** Disk drive (Japan only) - a large number of stores in Japan had machines which had many hundreds (thousands?) of games stored upon them. For a set price, a blank disk was bought and games selected and wrote to it, very popular in Japan, suprisingly never seen anywhere else (or was it?)
> * Game Boy - the original smash hit
> ** Super Game Boy - not a Game Boy portable, but a plugin cartridge for the Super Nintendo, it was the first Game Boy to offer color games (although with a very limited palette) A few games for both Game Boy and Super Game Boy were bought out, but it has since been ignored
> ** Game Boy Pocket - smaller, neater unit
> ** Game Boy Light - only seen in Japan, same size as the Pocket, but has a backlit screen, not sure what the battery life is like can't be much though!
> ** Game Boy Color - most recent update to the 8bit range of Game Boy, the processor has doubled in speed, has twice as much memory and, naturally has a color screen
> ** Game Boy Advance - 32bit overhaul of the winning formula
> * Virtual Boy - not one of the Game Boy family despite sounding like it. The Virtual Boy used a poorly developed [[3d]] virtual reality like system, it was in red monochrome and induced nausea. Games wise it was the worst Nintendo release ever 
> * Super Nintendo aka Super NES (rest of world) / Super Famicom (Japan)
> * Nintendo N64 - [[2d]] is dead, or is it? let's hope not
> ** [[Pokemon]] styled
> ** 64DD - only released in Japan, this add on system games are on rewriteable disks. Games released include a paint and 3d package, F Zero X, for creating new F Zero tracks and a few others
> 
> The Game & Watch devices saw some of Nintendo's best loved characters develop, namely Donkey Kong and the Mario Brothers. The NES was the real hit though, originally released in its native homeland as the Famicom (Family Computer), the styling is the other great difference. For those used to the west's bulky, front loading, VCR style unit, the top loading Japanese unit comes as quite a surprise. At its peak, the NES was the word for videogames and was as widespread as its great influence, the VCR.
> 
> The Game Boy series took Nintendo to another place altogether. As massive as the NES was in its heyday, it had a natural life span and was obsoleted by other machines from both Nintendo and its rivals.
> The Game Boy however is quite unique, yes, it had rivals, SEGA Game Gear and and Atari Lynx were the two most likely (although they were, and have been many more wanabees), but they were seen off by the highly competitive and economic system.
> With machines selling by the millions (100 million and counting) a well documented system and a typically short development cycle mean that there are thousands of games available, it isn't going anytime soon.
> 
> SNES: Nintendo at its finest? probably. Whereas the Game Boy has sold more and has outlived its technically superior brethren, the SNES saw the creation of some of the finest videogames, by both Nintendo and the many hundreds of developers that came to it.
> * Super Mario Kart - the racing game by which others are still being measured
> * Zelda III A Link to the Past - forget the first two installments, this defines the series
> * Super Mario World
> * Super Contra
> * Castlevania IV
> 
> After the unprecendented success of the Game Boy series of machines, and the Super Nintendo much was expected of the N64.
> Subjected to heavy delays and many name changes, the N64 was eventually released with the exceptional Super Mario 64, Wave Race, and well, not much else. Starved for much of its life of the steady stream of games that the Sony PlayStation saw, the N64 was equally condemned by the generally misinformed as being a "kiddie console".
> Despite this, the N64 has actually done very well, it strongly sits in second place to the PlayStation's lead, for both hardware, and often better still with the software.
> Whilst not being home to as many AAA games as the SNES and lacking the essential breath of life that is third party support, it still see's some of the finest videogaming events ever. From multiplayer skirmishes in GoldenEye, to the warped world of Super Mario and the beautifully realised world of The Legend of Zelda Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask.
> 
> The Software and Franchises
> * Mario Brothers etc. - Mario and Luigi, have to wonder about the names though, Mario Mario and Luigi Mario. Seen in countless videogames, on cereal boxes, stickers, t-shirts and even (an awful) movie. As well known as Mickey Mouse
> * Zelda, Link, Ganondorf etc. - a huge and sprawling game world, features hundreds of characters. The main character, strangely isn't Zelda, but Link, the elfin hero of every adventure
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * Donkey Kong - one of Nintendo's original arcade games, back when they developed for the arcades
------
Neeklamy|985993252
3c3,8
< Welcome! --[[LMS]]
---
> Welcome! --[[LMS]]
> 
> Thanks, that I am, this is such a coooooool site, check out my new [[Nintendo]] page, much needs to be added and checked though.
> Will put together a [[SEGA]] page soon. Oh and a [[Sonic Team]].
> 
> Chris neeKlamy (oh. my nick wasn't capped right, oh well!)
------
Collectable_card_games|985993319
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[collectable card game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[trading card game]]
------
Collectable_card_game|985993377
1,27c1
< <i>Collectable card games</i> are not played with traditional playing cards, but with sets of cards that can be bought, traded, and combined into sets in various ways.  These games are generally promoted by the manufacturer of the cards themselves, and are structured so that purchasing additional cards is to the player's benefit.
< 
< <b>CCG</b> is short for collectable card game.
< 
< A big part of a CCG is the difficulty in obtaining the more powerful cards in the game.  Most of the cards are sold in packs or 10 to 15 cards with each pack having
< * 1 card of a high scaricity
< * 2-3 cards of a lower scaricity
< * 7-12 cards of the lowest scaricity
< 
< This is done to 'force' the card game player to buy many packs to get enough of the powerful cards.
< 
< One of the other aspects of CCGs is that the same/similar game mechanics and same/similar cards make playing one game like another.
< 
< Another aspect of CCGs is the evolution of standard decks that exist throughout the life time of a CCG with minor modifications based on each new set of cards released.
< 
< Some CCGs:
< 
< * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]] - generally considered to be the first major CCG
< 
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
< ----
< ''It's "collectible," isn't it?''
< 
< I think that's preferred, yes.  But most dictionaries list both, and I didn't feel like fixing all the pages and links.  We could also avoid the issue entirely by refering to them as "trading card games", as does the maker of MTG.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[trading card game]]
------
Trading_card_game|985993393
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Collectable card games</i> are not played with traditional playing cards, but with sets of cards that can be bought, traded, and combined into sets in various ways.  These games are generally promoted by the manufacturer of the cards themselves, and are structured so that purchasing additional cards is to the player's benefit.
> 
> <b>CCG</b> is short for collectable card game.
> 
> A big part of a CCG is the difficulty in obtaining the more powerful cards in the game.  Most of the cards are sold in packs or 10 to 15 cards with each pack having
> * 1 card of a high scaricity
> * 2-3 cards of a lower scaricity
> * 7-12 cards of the lowest scaricity
> 
> This is done to 'force' the card game player to buy many packs to get enough of the powerful cards.
> 
> One of the other aspects of CCGs is that the same/similar game mechanics and same/similar cards make playing one game like another.
> 
> Another aspect of CCGs is the evolution of standard decks that exist throughout the life time of a CCG with minor modifications based on each new set of cards released.
> 
> Some CCGs:
> 
> * [[Magic The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]] - generally considered to be the first major CCG
> 
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Illuminati New World Order|Illuminati: New World Order]]
------
Trading_card_game|985993451
1,3c1
< <i>Collectable card games</i> are not played with traditional playing cards, but with sets of cards that can be bought, traded, and combined into sets in various ways.  These games are generally promoted by the manufacturer of the cards themselves, and are structured so that purchasing additional cards is to the player's benefit.
< 
< <b>CCG</b> is short for collectable card game.
---
> <i>Trading card games</i>, also called <i>CCGs</i> or <i>collectible card games</i>, are not played with traditional playing cards, but with sets of cards that can be bought, traded, and combined into sets in various ways.  These games are generally promoted by the manufacturer of the cards themselves, and are structured so that purchasing additional cards is to the player's benefit.
------
Card_game|985993497
1c1
< The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[collectable card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
---
> The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[trading card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
------
Playing_card|985993535
1c1
< <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[card games]].  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
---
> <i>Playing Cards</i> are typically hand-sized rectangular pieces of heavy paper or thin plastic used for playing [[card game]]s.  One side of each card (the "front" or "face") carries markings that distinguish it from the others and determine its use under the rules of the particular game being played, while the other side (the "back") is identical for all cards, usually a plain color or abstract design.  In most games, the cards are assembled into a "deck" (or "pack"), and their order is randomized by a procedure called "shuffling" to provide an element of chance in the game.  For this reason, many card games involve [[gambling]].
------
Playing_card|985993554
11,12d10
< See also [[Card games]].
< 
------
Games/TradingCard|985993619
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Collectable card games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[trading card games]]
------
Game|985993806
8,17c8,16
< *[[Board games]]
< *[[Card game|Card games]]
< *[[Collectable card games]]
< *[[Casino games]]
< *[[Computer games]]
< *[[Letter games]]
< *[[Role playing games]]
< *[[Table top games]]
< *[[Tile based games]]
< *[[Video games]]
---
> *[[Board game]]
> *[[Card game]]
> *[[Casino game]]
> *[[Computer game]]
> *[[Letter game]]
> *[[Role playing game]]
> *[[Table top game]]
> *[[Tile based game]]
> *[[Video game]]
19c18
< *[[Other games]]
---
> *[[Unclassified game]]
------
Board_games|985993844
1,32c1
< Board [[Games]]
< 
< Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces, make it impossible for the other player to move. or to control the largest area at the end of the game.
<  
< * [[Checkers]]
< * [[Chess]]
< * [[Chinese Checkers]]
< * [[Go]]
< * [[Games/Hex|Hex]]
< * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
< * [[Othello - Reversi]]
< 
< Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to reach some specific location on the board.
< 
< * [[Ludo]]
< * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
< * [[Snakes and Ladders]]
< 
< Other:
< * [[Abalone]]
< * [[Alquerque]]
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
< * [[Diplomacy]]
< * [[Mancala]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< 
< ----
< 
< We definitely need to come up with a better classification here, at some point.  It's a good start, but games like [[Abalone]] and [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]] really defy any coarse classification.  Perhaps nested classification pages, with games existing on multiple pages?  I'm planning on adding entries for a few more games that we play regularly, most of which won't quite fit anywhere in here.  Don't take this as anything other than a random thought. :) -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[board game]]
------
Wikipedians|985993878
32a33
> * [[Neeklamy]]
------
Board_game|985993888
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Board [[Game]]s
> 
> Strategy games: where the object is to capture or remove the other players pieces, make it impossible for the other player to move. or to control the largest area at the end of the game.
>  
> * [[Checkers]]
> * [[Chess]]
> * [[Chinese Checkers]]
> * [[Go]]
> * [[Games/Hex|Hex]]
> * [[Nine Mens Morris]]
> * [[Reversi]] ("Othello")
> 
> Track Games: where the players move pieces along a track, usually a distance randomly set by the throw of dice. The winner is usually the first to reach some specific location on the board.
> 
> * [[Ludo]]
> * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
> * [[Snakes and Ladders]]
> 
> Other:
> * [[Abalone]]
> * [[Alquerque]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Die Siedler von Catan]], which is also known as "[[The Settlers of Catan]]".
> * [[Diplomacy]]
> * [[Mancala]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> 
> ----
> 
> We definitely need to come up with a better classification here, at some point.  It's a good start, but games like [[Abalone]] and [[Die Siedler von Catan|Die Siedler]] really defy any coarse classification.  Perhaps nested classification pages, with games existing on multiple pages?  I'm planning on adding entries for a few more games that we play regularly, most of which won't quite fit anywhere in here.  Don't take this as anything other than a random thought. :) -- [[Phil Bordelon]]
> 
------
Casino_games|985993950
1,4c1
< Casino [[Games]]
< * [[Craps]]
< * [[Roulette]]
< * [[Games of Chance]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[casino game]]
------
Casino_game|985993979
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Casino [[Game]]s
> 
> * [[Craps]]
> * [[Roulette]]
> * [[Games of Chance]]
> 
------
Casino_game|985994000
5c5
< * [[Games of Chance]]
---
> * [[Blackjack]]
------
Computer_games|985994030
1,32c1
< [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
< 
< Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
< 
< * [[Turn based game]]
< * [[Continuous game]]
< 
< * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
< ** Fixed screen
< ** Scrolling screen
< *** Horizontal scrolling
< **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
< *** Vertical scrolling
< ** Pseudo 2d
< * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
< ** Pseudo 3d
< ** [[Fixed 3d]]
< ** On the rails
< ** Cut scenes
< 
< * [[First person]]
< ** [[First person shooter]]
< * [[Third person]]
< 
< <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
< 
< ----
< 
< ''Most references you will find separate out videogames, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no (and you'd be right), but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
< 
< ''With videogames consoles getting ever more powerful and taking on former PC strongholds (the web, content creation, programming even..) and games migrating every which way, the seperation of hardware platforms is quite arbitrary and damaging. Let us be platform agnostic - it's the games that matter.''
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[computer game]]
------
Computer_game|985994048
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
> 
> Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
> 
> * [[Turn based game]]
> * [[Continuous game]]
> 
> * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
> ** Fixed screen
> ** Scrolling screen
> *** Horizontal scrolling
> **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
> *** Vertical scrolling
> ** Pseudo 2d
> * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
> ** Pseudo 3d
> ** [[Fixed 3d]]
> ** On the rails
> ** Cut scenes
> 
> * [[First person]]
> ** [[First person shooter]]
> * [[Third person]]
> 
> <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
> 
> ----
> 
> ''Most references you will find separate out videogames, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no (and you'd be right), but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
> 
> ''With videogames consoles getting ever more powerful and taking on former PC strongholds (the web, content creation, programming even..) and games migrating every which way, the seperation of hardware platforms is quite arbitrary and damaging. Let us be platform agnostic - it's the games that matter.''
> 
------
Letter_games|985994109
1,5c1
< Letter [[Games]]
< * [[Crosswords]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< * [[Up words]]
< * [[Hangman]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[letter game]]
------
Letter_game|985994119
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Letter [[Game]]s
> * [[Crossword puzzle]]s
> * [[Hangman]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Up words]]
> 
------
Role_playing_games|985994162
1,90c1
< In role-playing [[games]], or RPGs, players take the role of characters in a world that is otherwise run by the [[gamemaster]], usually with the support of rules, simple or complex.
< 
< Originally, RPGs were usually played on a tabletop, because they involved paper, dice, and maybe [[/Miniatures | miniatures]]. The first and probably best-known of these types of games is [[Dungeons and Dragons]], which evolved from [[wargaming]] roots in the 1970s.
< 
< The rest of this page is about tabletop RPGs, but they also quickly became available in a variety of other "media":
< 
< * [[Live-action roleplaying games|Live-action RPGs]]
< * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]] - closely related to adventure games
< ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUD]]s)
< * [[Console role playing games|Console RPGS]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
< Make believe with consensual parameters of reality<BR>
< alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
< <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
< Players present characters according.<BR>
< <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
< Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
< It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
< It's addictive
< ----
< Participants play characters which consist of different numerical attributes describing their abilities, skills and various other parts of their personality and guide them through a world described by the system's setting and the system's rules, which form the game mechanics. One person is responsible for telling the story, presenting plotlines to the characters and who interacts with them in the roles of various in-game figures called Non-Player Characters (NPCs). He has the final say about all game matters and reacts to the players' actions (or rather to the actions of their characters). Usually, this person is called "Game Master" (GM), but in some RPGs it's Dungeon Master (DM) or Storyteller. Play is completely freeform, i.e. the players describe their characters' actions and roleplay conversations and then the GM decides which effect these actions have on the story, which is often called the Adventure. Think of it as a moderated theatrical play with an open end. 
< 
< Physical combat and other actions that can't be roleplayed are usually decided with a dice system based on the characters' attributes, although there are some diceless system, too.
< 
< Game systems usually consist of a set of rules and a description of the setting, i.e. of the game world and the different peoples. In most RPGs, Player Charcters (PCs) can be of different races (depending on the setting [[Elf]]s, Humans, [[Dwarf]]s or all sorts of aliens]]) and of different Character Classes (in fantasy settings these might be [[Barbarian]]s, [[Druid]]s, rogues etc. while in Science Fiction settings they might be Space Craft Pilots, Street Samurai or Hackers, etc.). 
< 
< Apart from commercial systems there are countless homemade systems written by gamers for them and their friends. 
< ----
< Games:<BR>
< 
< Fantasy settings:
< 
< * [[RuneQuest]]
< * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
< * [[Midgard]]
< * [[Harnmaster]]
< * [[Earthdawn]]
< * [[Legend of the Five Rings/RPG|Legend of the Five Rings]]
< * [[Ars Magica]]
< * [[Rolemaster]]
< 
< Science Fiction settings:
< 
< * [[Gamma World]]
< * [[Shadowrun]]
< * [[Cyberpunk]]
< * [[Traveller]]
< * [[Paranoia]]
< * [[Star Wars/RPG|Star Wars]]
< * [[Star Trek/RPG|Star Trek]]
< * [[Tales from the Floating Vagabound]]
< * [[Teenagers From Outer Space]]
< 
< Contemporary settings:
< 
< * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
< * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]]
< * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]]
< * [[Kult]]
< * [[Top Secret]]
< * [[Champions]]
< * [[Call of Cthulhu]]
< * [[Hong Kong Action Theater]]
< 
< Steam Punk/Steam Fantasy:
< 
< * [[Space 1889]]
< 
< Generic games with multiple settings:
< 
< * [[GURPS]]
< * [[TWERPS]]
< 
< Zines:
< 
< * [[White Dwarf]]
< * [[Dragon]]
< 
< Old magazines:
< * [[The Space Gamer]]
< 
< Comics:
< 
< * [[Knights of the Dinner Table]]
< * [[Dork Towers]]
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Role-playing game]]
------
Role-playing_game|985994178
1c1,90
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In role-playing [[game]]s, or RPGs, players take the role of characters in a world that is otherwise run by the [[gamemaster]], usually with the support of rules, simple or complex.
> 
> Originally, RPGs were usually played on a tabletop, because they involved paper, dice, and maybe [[/Miniatures | miniatures]]. The first and probably best-known of these types of games is [[Dungeons and Dragons]], which evolved from [[wargaming]] roots in the 1970s.
> 
> The rest of this page is about tabletop RPGs, but they also quickly became available in a variety of other "media":
> 
> * [[Live-action roleplaying games|Live-action RPGs]]
> * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]] - closely related to adventure games
> ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUD]]s)
> * [[Console role playing games|Console RPGS]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
> Make believe with consensual parameters of reality<BR>
> alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
> <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
> Players present characters according.<BR>
> <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
> Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
> It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
> It's addictive
> ----
> Participants play characters which consist of different numerical attributes describing their abilities, skills and various other parts of their personality and guide them through a world described by the system's setting and the system's rules, which form the game mechanics. One person is responsible for telling the story, presenting plotlines to the characters and who interacts with them in the roles of various in-game figures called Non-Player Characters (NPCs). He has the final say about all game matters and reacts to the players' actions (or rather to the actions of their characters). Usually, this person is called "Game Master" (GM), but in some RPGs it's Dungeon Master (DM) or Storyteller. Play is completely freeform, i.e. the players describe their characters' actions and roleplay conversations and then the GM decides which effect these actions have on the story, which is often called the Adventure. Think of it as a moderated theatrical play with an open end. 
> 
> Physical combat and other actions that can't be roleplayed are usually decided with a dice system based on the characters' attributes, although there are some diceless system, too.
> 
> Game systems usually consist of a set of rules and a description of the setting, i.e. of the game world and the different peoples. In most RPGs, Player Charcters (PCs) can be of different races (depending on the setting [[Elf]]s, Humans, [[Dwarf]]s or all sorts of aliens]]) and of different Character Classes (in fantasy settings these might be [[Barbarian]]s, [[Druid]]s, rogues etc. while in Science Fiction settings they might be Space Craft Pilots, Street Samurai or Hackers, etc.). 
> 
> Apart from commercial systems there are countless homemade systems written by gamers for them and their friends. 
> ----
> Games:<BR>
> 
> Fantasy settings:
> 
> * [[RuneQuest]]
> * [[Dungeons and Dragons]]
> * [[Midgard]]
> * [[Harnmaster]]
> * [[Earthdawn]]
> * [[Legend of the Five Rings/RPG|Legend of the Five Rings]]
> * [[Ars Magica]]
> * [[Rolemaster]]
> 
> Science Fiction settings:
> 
> * [[Gamma World]]
> * [[Shadowrun]]
> * [[Cyberpunk]]
> * [[Traveller]]
> * [[Paranoia]]
> * [[Star Wars/RPG|Star Wars]]
> * [[Star Trek/RPG|Star Trek]]
> * [[Tales from the Floating Vagabound]]
> * [[Teenagers From Outer Space]]
> 
> Contemporary settings:
> 
> * [[Vampire The Masquerade|Vampire: The Masquerade]]
> * [[Werewolf The Apocalypse|Werewolf: The Apocalypse]]
> * [[Mage The Ascension|Mage: The Ascension]]
> * [[Kult]]
> * [[Top Secret]]
> * [[Champions]]
> * [[Call of Cthulhu]]
> * [[Hong Kong Action Theater]]
> 
> Steam Punk/Steam Fantasy:
> 
> * [[Space 1889]]
> 
> Generic games with multiple settings:
> 
> * [[GURPS]]
> * [[TWERPS]]
> 
> Zines:
> 
> * [[White Dwarf]]
> * [[Dragon]]
> 
> Old magazines:
> * [[The Space Gamer]]
> 
> Comics:
> 
> * [[Knights of the Dinner Table]]
> * [[Dork Towers]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Game|985994211
13,15c13,15
< *[[Role playing game]]
< *[[Table top game]]
< *[[Tile based game]]
---
> *[[Role-playing game]]
> *[[Table-top game]]
> *[[Tile-based game]]
------
Table_top_games|985994245
1,21c1
< Tabletop [[Games]]
< * [[Mah Jongg]]
< * [[Minature Wargaming]]
< ** [[Warhammer]]
< ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
< ** [[Flintloque]]
< * [[CoSims]]
< ** [[Axis and Allies]]
< ** [[Samurai Swords]]
< ** [[World in Flames]]
< ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
< * [[Blood Bowl]]
< * [[Monopoly]]
< * [[Scrabble]]
< * [[Clue]]
< * [[Robo Rally]]
< * [[Civilization]]
< * [[Merchant of Venus]]
< * [[Outpost]]
< * [[The Settlers of Catan]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Table-top game]]
------
Table-top_game|985994276
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tabletop [[Game]]s
> * [[Mah Jongg]]
> * [[Minature Wargaming]]
> ** [[Warhammer]]
> ** [[Warhammer 40K]]
> ** [[Flintloque]]
> * [[CoSims]]
> ** [[Axis and Allies]]
> ** [[Samurai Swords]]
> ** [[World in Flames]]
> ** [[Advanced Squad Leader]]
> * [[Blood Bowl]]
> * [[MonopolyGame|Monopoly]]
> * [[Scrabble]]
> * [[Clue]]
> * [[Robo Rally]]
> * [[Civilization]]
> * [[Merchant of Venus]]
> * [[Outpost]]
> * [[The Settlers of Catan]]
> 
> 
------
Tile_based_games|985994316
1,7c1
< A [[tile]] based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
< 
< Some tile based games:
< * Dominoes
< * 42 (Forty Two)
< * Mah Jong
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[tile-based game]]
------
Tile-based_game|985994343
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[tile]]-based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
> 
> Some tile based games:
> * Dominoes
> * 42 (Forty Two)
> * Mah Jong
> 
------
Video_games|985994377
1,75c1
< Adventure Games:
< 
< traditional:
< 
< : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< : [[Manic Mansion]]
< : [[Zack McCracken]]
< : [[Zork]]
< : [[Sam and Max]]
< : [[Monkey Island]] series
< 
< 3D:
< 
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
< 
< -----
< 
< Roleplaying Games:
< 
< * [[Dungeon Master]]
< * [[Hack]]
< * [[Ultima]] series
< * [[Ambermoon]]
< * [[Amberstar]]
< * [[Final Fantasy]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Legend of Zelda]]
< 
< -----
< 
< First Person Shooters (FPS):
< 
< * [[Quake]] series
< * [[Unreal]]
< * [[Half Life]]
< * [[Doom]] series
< * [[Hexen]]
< * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< * [[Rise of the Triad]]
< * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
< 
< -----
< 
< Strategy:
< 
< turn-based:
< * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
< * [[Battle Isle]] series
< * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
< 
< real time:
< * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
< * [[Command and Conquer]]
< * [[Red Alert]]
< * [[Dark Reign]]
< * [[Populous]] series
< * [[StarCraft]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Platform:
< 
< * [[Super Mario]] series
< * [[Sonic]] series
< * [[Lionheart]]
< 
< -----
< Arcade
< 
< * [[Pacman]]
< * [[Space Invaders]]
< * [[Asteroids]]
< * [[Joust]]
< * [[Yars Revenge]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[video game]]
------
Video_game|985994394
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adventure Games:
> 
> traditional:
> 
> : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> : [[Manic Mansion]]
> : [[Zack McCracken]]
> : [[Zork]]
> : [[Sam and Max]]
> : [[Monkey Island]] series
> 
> 3D:
> 
> * [[Tomb Raider]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Roleplaying Games:
> 
> * [[Dungeon Master]]
> * [[Hack]]
> * [[Ultima]] series
> * [[Ambermoon]]
> * [[Amberstar]]
> * [[Final Fantasy]]
> * [[Pokemon]]
> * [[Legend of Zelda]]
> 
> -----
> 
> First Person Shooters (FPS):
> 
> * [[Quake]] series
> * [[Unreal]]
> * [[Half Life]]
> * [[Doom]] series
> * [[Hexen]]
> * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> * [[Rise of the Triad]]
> * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
> 
> -----
> 
> Strategy:
> 
> turn-based:
> * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
> * [[Battle Isle]] series
> * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
> 
> real time:
> * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
> * [[Command and Conquer]]
> * [[Red Alert]]
> * [[Dark Reign]]
> * [[Populous]] series
> * [[StarCraft]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Platform:
> 
> * [[Super Mario]] series
> * [[Sonic]] series
> * [[Lionheart]]
> 
> -----
> Arcade
> 
> * [[Pacman]]
> * [[Space Invaders]]
> * [[Asteroids]]
> * [[Joust]]
> * [[Yars Revenge]]
> 
> 
------
Other_games|985994444
1,3c1
< Various games do not fit into the classification given in [[Games]]. See for example:
< 
< * [[Nomic]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[unclassified game]]
------
Unclassified_game|985994467
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Various games do not fit into the classification given in [[Game]].  For example:
> 
> * [[Nomic]]
> 
------
Game|985994507
8,18c8,18
< *[[Board game]]
< *[[Card game]]
< *[[Casino game]]
< *[[Computer game]]
< *[[Letter game]]
< *[[Role-playing game]]
< *[[Table-top game]]
< *[[Tile-based game]]
< *[[Video game]]
< *[[Sports]]
< *[[Unclassified game]]
---
> *[[Board game]]s
> *[[Card game]]s
> *[[Casino game]]s
> *[[Computer game]]s
> *[[Letter game]]s
> *[[Role-playing game]]s
> *[[Table-top game]]s
> *[[Tile-based game]]s
> *[[Video game]]s
> *[[Sport]]s
> *[[Unclassified game]]s
------
Sports|985994534
1,172c1
< Jump in and tell us what you know about these sports.
< 
< I have tried to do a classification of sports in categories.
< ----
< (Where do sports such as parallel bars and jumping fit ?)
< 
< [[/Events]]
< 
< Speed sports (where the goal is to be as quick as possible. No or very little contact with your opponents.):
< * [[Bicycling]]
< ** Bicycling/Road
< ** Bicycling/Offroad - Mountain Biking
< * [[Orienteering]]
< * Rowing
< * [[Running]]
< ** [[Running/CrossCountry]]
< ** [[Running/LongDistance]]
< ** [[Running/Steeplechase]]
< ** [[Running/Track]]
< * Sailing / Yahting
< * [[Swimming]]
< 
< 
< Surpassing sports (where the goal is to pull your body or an object beyond a physical mark):
< * [[Jumps]]
< ** LongJump
< ** HighJump
< ** TripleJump
< ** PoleVault
< * [[Throws]]
< ** ShotPut
< ** [[Discus]]
< ** [[Javelin]]
< ** [[Hammer]]
< * [[Halterophily]]
< 
< Precision sports (where the goal is to be as accurate as possible in throwing, tossing, rolling, ... No or very little contact with your opponents.):
< * [[Archery]]
< * [[Billiards]]
< * [[Bowling]]
< * Bicycling - Mountain Bike Trials
< * [[Croquet]]
< * Curling
< * [[Golf]]
< * [[Shooting]]
< 
< Ball sports (where you and your opponent(s) are working to get control of and place a ball):
< * [[Badminton]]
< * [[Baseball]]
< * [[Basketball]]
< * AmericanFootball
< * AustralianRulesFootball
< * [[Cricket]]
< * FieldHockey
< * [[Football]]
< * IceHockey
< * [[Rugby]]
< * TableTennis
< * [[Tennis]]
< * Volleyball
< 
< Fighting (where you and your opponents compete against each other using your strength and speed in contact.):
< * ArmWrestling
< * [[Boxing]]
< * [[Wrestling]]
< * [[Fencing]]
< * MartialArts
< * RopePulling
< 
< Motor sports (where you use the power of an engine as an important part of the sport.):
< * Racing - Motorized
< ** Airplane
< ** Automobile
< *** Drag Racing
< *** Stock Car Racing
< *** Formula One Racing
< *** Cross Country / Offroad Racing
< ** Boat/Ship
< ** Motorcycle
< * [[Enduro]]
< 
< Combination sports (where the winning is decided by putting together results from several of the other categories):
< * [[Biathlon]] ([[Skiing]] and [[Shooting]])
< * [[Triathlon]] ([[Running/LongDistance]], [[Swimming]], and [[Bicycling]])
< * [[Pentathlon]] (track and field events)
< * [[Decathlon]] (100m, LongJump, ShotPut, HighJump, 400m, 110m [[Hurdles]], [[Discus]], PoleVault, ][[Javelin]], 1500m)
< 
< Comparison sports (where the winning is decided by a judge):
< * BodyBuilding
< * CheerLeading
< * [[Diving]]
< * FigureSkating
< * [[Gymnastics]]
< * SynchronizedSwimming
< * Strenght / Weightlifting
< * WoodworkerContests
< 
< Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive; these are also comparison sports!)
< * Gymnastics
< * IceSkating
< * RollerSkating
< * [[Skateboarding]]
< * [[Skiing]]
< ** CrossCountrySkiing
< ** DownhillSkiing
< ** SnowBoarding
< * [[Surfing]]
< 
< Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
< * BushWalking
< 
< Hunting sports (where the sport is to find, lure, catch some animal):
< * Fishing
< * FoxHunt
< * [[Hunting]]
< ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
< 
< Animal sports (where use of an animal is integral to the sport):
< 
< Horses
< * [[Horse-breaking]]
< * [[Horse-training]]
< :(The rest of these links need to be renamed so that they specifically identify their topic.)
< ** [[Race]]
< ** [[Working Cattle]]
< ** [[Pleasure]]
< * [[Horse Racing]]
< ** [[Sprint]]
< ** [[Derby]]
< ** [[Harness]]
< ** [[Steeplechase]]
< ** [[Endurance]]
< * [[Hunter Jumper]]
< ** [[Fox Hunt]]
< ** [[Grand Prix]]
< * [[Exhibition]]
< ** [[Dressage]]
< ** [[Equitation/Horsemanship]]
< ** [[Pleasure]]
< ** [[Showmanship]]
< ** [[Jumping]]
< ** [[Trail]]
< ** [[Reining]]
< ** [[Pole Bending]]
< ** [[Barrell Racing]]
< 
< 
< Dogs
< * [[Dog Racing]]
< ** [[Track]]
< ** [[Agility]]
< ** [[Flyball]]
< 
< Rodeo
< * [[Roping]]
< ** [[Heading]]
< ** [[Heeling]]
< ** [[Steer Roping]]
< ** [[Bulldogging]] 
< ** [[Goat Tying]]
< * [[Speed]]
< ** [[Barrel Racing]]
< ** [[Pole Bending]]
< ** [[Saddle Race]]
< ** [[Flag Race]]
< * [[Rough Stock]]
< ** [[Bull Riding]]
< ** [[Bareback]]
< ** [[Saddle Bronc]]
< * [[Bullfighting]]
< 
< Bull Fighting
---
> #REDIRECT [[sport]]
------
Sport|985994546
1c1,173
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jump in and tell us what you know about these sports.
> 
> I have tried to do a classification of sports in categories.
> ----
> (Where do sports such as parallel bars and jumping fit ?)
> 
> [[/Events]]
> 
> Speed sports (where the goal is to be as quick as possible. No or very little contact with your opponents.):
> * [[Bicycling]]
> ** Bicycling/Road
> ** Bicycling/Offroad - Mountain Biking
> * [[Orienteering]]
> * Rowing
> * [[Running]]
> ** [[Running/CrossCountry]]
> ** [[Running/LongDistance]]
> ** [[Running/Steeplechase]]
> ** [[Running/Track]]
> * Sailing / Yahting
> * [[Swimming]]
> 
> 
> Surpassing sports (where the goal is to pull your body or an object beyond a physical mark):
> * [[Jumps]]
> ** LongJump
> ** HighJump
> ** TripleJump
> ** PoleVault
> * [[Throws]]
> ** ShotPut
> ** [[Discus]]
> ** [[Javelin]]
> ** [[Hammer]]
> * [[Halterophily]]
> 
> Precision sports (where the goal is to be as accurate as possible in throwing, tossing, rolling, ... No or very little contact with your opponents.):
> * [[Archery]]
> * [[Billiards]]
> * [[Bowling]]
> * Bicycling - Mountain Bike Trials
> * [[Croquet]]
> * Curling
> * [[Golf]]
> * [[Shooting]]
> 
> Ball sports (where you and your opponent(s) are working to get control of and place a ball):
> * [[Badminton]]
> * [[Baseball]]
> * [[Basketball]]
> * AmericanFootball
> * AustralianRulesFootball
> * [[Cricket]]
> * FieldHockey
> * [[Football]]
> * IceHockey
> * [[Rugby]]
> * TableTennis
> * [[Tennis]]
> * Volleyball
> 
> Fighting (where you and your opponents compete against each other using your strength and speed in contact.):
> * ArmWrestling
> * [[Boxing]]
> * [[Wrestling]]
> * [[Fencing]]
> * MartialArts
> * RopePulling
> 
> Motor sports (where you use the power of an engine as an important part of the sport.):
> * Racing - Motorized
> ** Airplane
> ** Automobile
> *** Drag Racing
> *** Stock Car Racing
> *** Formula One Racing
> *** Cross Country / Offroad Racing
> ** Boat/Ship
> ** Motorcycle
> * [[Enduro]]
> 
> Combination sports (where the winning is decided by putting together results from several of the other categories):
> * [[Biathlon]] ([[Skiing]] and [[Shooting]])
> * [[Triathlon]] ([[Running/LongDistance]], [[Swimming]], and [[Bicycling]])
> * [[Pentathlon]] (track and field events)
> * [[Decathlon]] (100m, LongJump, ShotPut, HighJump, 400m, 110m [[Hurdles]], [[Discus]], PoleVault, ][[Javelin]], 1500m)
> 
> Comparison sports (where the winning is decided by a judge):
> * BodyBuilding
> * CheerLeading
> * [[Diving]]
> * FigureSkating
> * [[Gymnastics]]
> * SynchronizedSwimming
> * Strenght / Weightlifting
> * WoodworkerContests
> 
> Sports emphasizing balance and co-ordination (usually recreational but can also be competitive; these are also comparison sports!)
> * Gymnastics
> * IceSkating
> * RollerSkating
> * [[Skateboarding]]
> * [[Skiing]]
> ** CrossCountrySkiing
> ** DownhillSkiing
> ** SnowBoarding
> * [[Surfing]]
> 
> Sports without competition (where the ultimate goal is not to win but to have fun):
> * BushWalking
> 
> Hunting sports (where the sport is to find, lure, catch some animal):
> * Fishing
> * FoxHunt
> * [[Hunting]]
> ** [[Hunting/Bowhunting]]
> 
> Animal sports (where use of an animal is integral to the sport):
> 
> Horses
> * [[Horse-breaking]]
> * [[Horse-training]]
> :(The rest of these links need to be renamed so that they specifically identify their topic.)
> ** [[Race]]
> ** [[Working Cattle]]
> ** [[Pleasure]]
> * [[Horse Racing]]
> ** [[Sprint]]
> ** [[Derby]]
> ** [[Harness]]
> ** [[Steeplechase]]
> ** [[Endurance]]
> * [[Hunter Jumper]]
> ** [[Fox Hunt]]
> ** [[Grand Prix]]
> * [[Exhibition]]
> ** [[Dressage]]
> ** [[Equitation/Horsemanship]]
> ** [[Pleasure]]
> ** [[Showmanship]]
> ** [[Jumping]]
> ** [[Trail]]
> ** [[Reining]]
> ** [[Pole Bending]]
> ** [[Barrell Racing]]
> 
> 
> Dogs
> * [[Dog Racing]]
> ** [[Track]]
> ** [[Agility]]
> ** [[Flyball]]
> 
> Rodeo
> * [[Roping]]
> ** [[Heading]]
> ** [[Heeling]]
> ** [[Steer Roping]]
> ** [[Bulldogging]] 
> ** [[Goat Tying]]
> * [[Speed]]
> ** [[Barrel Racing]]
> ** [[Pole Bending]]
> ** [[Saddle Race]]
> ** [[Flag Race]]
> * [[Rough Stock]]
> ** [[Bull Riding]]
> ** [[Bareback]]
> ** [[Saddle Bronc]]
> * [[Bullfighting]]
> 
> Bull Fighting
> 
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985994558
1c1
< Astronomy is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
---
> Astronomy, that etymologycaly mean ''measuring of stars'', is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
10,12d9
< Astronomy means etymologically "Measuring of Stars", but
< modern day astronomy studies much more than that. 
< 
22,24c19,24
< [[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
< and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelengths]] than
< can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). [[Infrared Astronomy]]
---
> A triditional division of astronomy is given by the region of
> the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] observed:
> 
> #[[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
> and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelength]]s than
> can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). #[[Infrared Astronomy]]
26c26
< [[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
---
> #[[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
29c29
< (...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
---
> #(...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
31c31
< (Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
---
> #(Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
33c33,34
< A somehow dated division is [[Galactic Astronomy]] and [[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
---
> A different division can be made using the regions of space
> and problems addressed, some of them are:
35c36,40
< The most used division used now is by problems:
---
> #[[Galactic Astronomy]]
> #[[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
> #[[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]
> #[[Star Formation]]
> #[[Stellar Astronomy]].
37d41
< [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]], [[Star Formation]], [[Stellar Astronomy]].
38a43,44
> If your favorite area of research is not mentioned, feel free to
> add it.
40c46
<  
---
> ''See also [[Amateur Astronomy]]. 
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985994690
22,29c22,24
< #[[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect
< and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelength]]s than
< can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). #[[Infrared Astronomy]]
< deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
< #[[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to
< detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are
< similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that wavelegths of radiation). 
< #(...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
---
> *[[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelength]]s than can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). *[[Infrared Astronomy]] deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
> *[[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that  wavelegths of radiation). 
> *(...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
31c26
< #(Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
---
> *(Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
36,40c31,35
< #[[Galactic Astronomy]]
< #[[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
< #[[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]
< #[[Star Formation]]
< #[[Stellar Astronomy]].
---
> *[[Galactic Astronomy]]
> *[[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
> *[[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]
> *[[Star Formation]]
> *[[Stellar Astronomy]].
------
Amateur_Astronomy|985995193
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also called [[Backyard Astronomy]], is a [[hobby]] whose cultors
> enjoy watching the night sky (and the day sky too, for sunspots),
> and the pletora of objects found in it, with (mainly) portable [[telescope]]s.
> 
> Even though scientific research is not their main goal, many
> amateur astronomers make a contribution to astronomy by monitoring variable stars, and discovering transient objects,
> as comets.
> 
> Large encounters of amateur astronomers in dark places suitable
> for sky viewing are called [[Star party|star parties]].
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|985995626
41c41,44
< ''See also [[Amateur Astronomy]]. 
---
> 
> 
> 
> ''See also [[Astronomers and Astrophysicists]], [[Amateur Astronomy]]. 
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|985995905
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Important Astronomers and Astrophysicist:
> 
> *[[Tycho Brahe]]
> *[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]
> *[[Galileo Galileo]]
> *[[Edwin Hubble]]
> *[[Johannes Kepler]]
> *[[Henrietta Leavitt]]
> *[[Alan Sandage]]
> 
> (...many more)
> 
> Other scientists whose work had an impact on A&A.
> 
> *[[Niels Bohr]]
> *[[Albert Einstein]]
> 
> (...many more)
------
George_W._Bush|985996362
1c1
< George W. Bush is the current [2001] PresidentOfTheUnitedStates, the 43rd.  Formerly the Governor of the state of [[Texas]].
---
> George W. Bush is the current (2001) [[President of the United States]], the 43rd.  Immediately prior to attaining the office, he was Governor of the state of [[Texas]].
3c3
< Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the [[United States Supreme Court]]. 
---
> Bush was the winner of a controversial election process which ended with a ruling by the [[United States Supreme Court]].
5c5
< See [[US Election 2000]]
---
> See [[US Election 2000]], [http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?UsElection2000].
7,9c7
< see also http://www.ourpla.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?UsElection2000
< 
< Among his cabinet members/appointees are [[Colin Powell]], [[US Secretary Of State]]; [[Spencer Abraham]], [[US Secretary Of Energy]]; [[Gale Norton]], [[US Secretary Of Interior]]; and [[Tommy Thompson]], [[US Secretary Of Health And Human Services]].  His controversial appointee for the important [[US Attorney General post]] is [[John Ashcroft]], and [[Condoleeza Rice]] is his [[US National Security Advisor]].
---
> Among his cabinet appointees are [[Colin Powell]], [[US Secretary Of State]]; [[Spencer Abraham]], [[US Secretary Of Energy]]; [[Gale Norton]], [[US Secretary Of Interior]]; and [[Tommy Thompson]], [[US Secretary Of Health And Human Services]].  His controversial appointee for the important [[US Attorney General post]] is [[John Ashcroft]], and [[Condoleeza Rice]] is his [[US National Security Advisor]].
15,17c13
< He is the first president with a [[MBA]] degree.
< 
< Bush is married to [[Laura Welch Bush]], a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Bush]] was the 41st president. The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
---
> He is the first president with an [[MBA]] degree.
19c15
< [edited from whitehouse.gov]
---
> Bush is married to [[Laura Welch Bush]], a former teacher and librarian, and they have 19-year-old twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna.  Bush's brother Jeb is the governor of Florida.  His father [[George Bush]] was the 41st president.  The Bush family has been intimately involved in American and global politics and business throughout this century.
------
Lewis_and_Clark|985997481
1c1
< Merriwether Lewis and William Clark
---
> Merriwether Lewis and William Clark were famous for their pathbreaking and daring [[Lewis and Clark Expedition|expedition across the American west]].
------
Larry_Sanger/Test|985997962
1c1,3
< ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
---
>                                     ..o00oo.
>                    nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnhnnn
> ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|985999457
1c1
< It's very easy to edit a wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit" link at the top or bottom of a wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!
---
> It's very easy to edit a Wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit this page right now!" link at the top or bottom of a Wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that Wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!  (You can also preview your changes before saving if you like).
3c3
< Now, the rest of this page is a demonstration of various wiki techniques.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" link (above and below) to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!
---
> What you see in the text box will be mostly plain text, but you will see some special things the Wiki software uses to create links, lists, and other effects.  The rest of this page is a demonstration of how to use these features.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" link (above or below) to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!  You can practice editing in the [[SandBox]] before taking on other pages if you like.
7c7
< '''Make a new page'''
---
> <h2>Adding links</h2>
9,25c9,17
< Two ways to make a new page:
< #Edit an old page and put <code>[[</code> before the name of the new page, and <code>]]</code> after the name.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code> .  Then save the old page and return to the <code>[[my page]]</code> link you created.  It will appear with a question mark after it, like this: <code>[my page]</code><u>?</u> .  Click on the question mark; that will open up the new page.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
< #Type the URL of the ''new'' page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.
< For example, in the URL above, you would replace
< <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with the new URL <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.  Notice that, ''in the URL,'' ''spaces'' in the title of the page are converted into underscores ( _ ).  If you type spaces rather than underscores in the URL, it won't work.  Also, be sure to make the ''first letter'' of your page upper case, or no one will be able to link to it!  (If you're still confused, see "Naming pages," below.)
< ----
< Good example of [[recursion]]. Try it!!!----
< 
< '''Naming pages'''
< 
< Here are some important notes about naming pages:
< * Generally, see [[naming conventions]] and [[Free Links]].
< * When you go to edit a page, the links you make to other pages can have a lowercase letter first, <code>[[like this]]</code>--but the link ''points to'' a URL that has the first letter of the page title uppercase, <code>Like_this</code> .
< * You can still use the old page naming convention, which consists of mashing words together and capitalizing them, LikeThis.  (But please don't.  Stylistically, this wiki has converged on a consensus that [[Free Links|free links]] are nicer.)
< * Don't use single quotes in titles.  Sorry, but <code>Plato's Republic</code> won't work as a page name.
< In sum, examine the following examples.
< Good links:
---
> Let's say that your editing a page about sports, and you mention soccer.  Well, there's probably a Wiki page about soccer (and if there isn't, there should be) and you want to make the word a link to that article.  Simple: type double square brackets around it <code>[[like this]]</code> and continue editing.  That's it!  If the page already exists, a link will be made to it.  If the page doesn't already exist, a link will be made that allows someone to create it.  Add links liberally--that's what makes Wikipedia powerful.
> 
> There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[ card game ]]</code>, it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
> 
> Older versions of the Wiki software only made one-word links <code>LikeThis</code>, and didn't require the brackets to make them links.  You may encouter these as you edit older pages.  Please don't create new links like that, but you may want to leave the existing ones in place until you're more comfortable editing pages to fix them.  See [[Free Links]] for more information about those. The [[naming conventions]] page contains hints about useful page names.  For example, it is handy to use singular words like "game" rather than "games", because that makes it easier to create links in other pages.
> 
> Finally, sometimes the text you would like to make into a link just doesn't make a good page title.  In that case, you can specify both inside the brackets separated by a vertical bar like this: <code>[[Page link | text of link]]</code>.  This will appear as "text of link", but will link to a page entitled "Page link".
> 
> Examples of Good links:
34c26
< :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters)
---
> :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters or brackets)
38c30,40
< '''Demonstration area'''
---
> <h2>Making a new page</h2>
> 
> There are two ways to make a new page:
> 
> # As mentioned above, while you're editing the text of an old page, you can just put something in brackets.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code>.  When you save the page you're editing, if the link you included doesn't exist, you will see a question mark after the text.  Click on that question mark and you will be taken to a newly-created page that you can edit.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
> #Type the URL of the new page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  The URL of the new page will be the text of a link, with the first letter uppercased and spaces replaced by underscores (see [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details about this). For example, in the URL above, you would replace
> <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with the new URL <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.
> 
> 
> <h2>Demonstration area</h2>
> 
------
Richard_Nixon|985999516
1c1
< Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-1994) was the 37th [[President of the United States]], from 1969-1974.
---
> Richard Milhous Nixon was born in 1913 in Yorba Linda, California, and died in 1994.  He was the 37th [[President of the United States]], from 1969-1974. He was the only president to have resigned from office.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|986000648
9c9
< Let's say that your editing a page about sports, and you mention soccer.  Well, there's probably a Wiki page about soccer (and if there isn't, there should be) and you want to make the word a link to that article.  Simple: type double square brackets around it <code>[[like this]]</code> and continue editing.  That's it!  If the page already exists, a link will be made to it.  If the page doesn't already exist, a link will be made that allows someone to create it.  Add links liberally--that's what makes Wikipedia powerful.
---
> Let's say that you're editing a page about sports, and you mention soccer.  Well, there's probably a Wiki page about soccer (and if there isn't, there should be) and you want to make the word a link to that article.  Simple: type double square brackets around it <code>[[like this]]</code> and continue editing.  That's it!  If the page already exists, a link will be made to it.  If the page doesn't already exist, a link will be made that allows someone to create it.  Add links liberally--that's what makes Wikipedia powerful.
11c11
< There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[ card game ]]</code>, it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
---
> There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[card game]]</code>, it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
15c15
< Finally, sometimes the text you would like to make into a link just doesn't make a good page title.  In that case, you can specify both inside the brackets separated by a vertical bar like this: <code>[[Page link | text of link]]</code>.  This will appear as "text of link", but will link to a page entitled "Page link".
---
> Finally, sometimes the text you would like to make into a link just doesn't make a good page title.  In that case, you can specify both inside the brackets separated by a vertical bar like this: <code>[[Page link|text of link]]</code>.  This will appear as "text of link", but will link to a page entitled "Page link".
36c36,39
< <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code> with the new URL <code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> and then hit return.
---
> <br><code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code>
> <br>with the new URL 
> <br><code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> 
> <br>and then hit return.
70,71c73,74
< Here is an old style link: HomePage
< <br>Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
---
> Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
> <br>Here is an old style link: HomePage
74c77
< <br>[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all linked!]]
---
> <br>[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all link&eacute;d!]]
154c157
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
Wiki_special_characters|986001122
4d3
< * Use an HTML numeric character entity reference like <code>&amp;#161;</code>.  This is not recommended, because many browsers incorrectly interpret these as references to the native character set.
5a5
> * Use an HTML numeric character entity reference like <code>&amp;#161;</code>.  This is not recommended, because many browsers incorrectly interpret these as references to the native character set.
9c9
< First of all, the most common [[extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]] is [[ISO]] 8859-1.  Wikipedia pages are identified by the server as containing ISO-8859-1 text.  The [[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1252 set is a superset of this, so ISO text will be readable as is on Windows machines.  The most common Latin character sets other than ISO-8859-1 are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, Macintosh Roman, and other ISO sets such as ISO-8859-2.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so I think it is safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  Other ISO sets are generally intended to be read by other browsers using those same sets in the same country, and so those pages should use a language-specific set.  The Macintosh character set is another matter.  Macintoshes are in common use on the Internet, are not limited to any specific language, and its native character set contains many of the common international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.
---
> The following [[extended ASCII]] characters are safe for use in all Wiki pages.  The table below lists the code for each character in hexadecimal and decimal, shows the character itself, shows the HTML entity name, and the common name of the character.
11c11,12
< So I recommend for maximum compatibility that the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are also available on the native Macintosh character set should be used directly as 8-bit characters in all Wiki pages primarily in English, Spanish, French, German, and languages that require no more special characters than those (such as Catalan).
---
> <pre>
>  Hex   Dec     Entity    Character
13c14,95
< These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references or directly from foreign keyboards or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character from the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from the obsolete code page 437.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.  Note that some Windows users may have trouble with versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.
---
> 00A0  0160     &amp;nbsp;    no-break space
> 00A1  0161  ¡  &amp;iexcl;   inverted exclamation
> 00A2  0162  ¢  &amp;cent;    cent sign
> 00A3  0163  £  &amp;pound;   pound sign
> 00A4  0164  ¤  &amp;curren;  intl. currency sign
> 00A5  0165  ¥  &amp;yen;     yen sign
> 00A7  0167  §  &amp;sect;    section sign
> 00A8  0168  ¨  &amp;uml;     diaeresis (umlaut)
> 00A9  0169  ©  &amp;copy;    copyright sign
> 00AA  0170  ª  &amp;ordf;    feminine ordinal
> 00AB  0171  «  &amp;laquo;   left double-angle quote
> 00AC  0172  ¬  &amp;not;     not sign
> 00AE  0174  ®  &amp;reg;     registered trademark sign
> 00AF  0175  ¯  &amp;macr;    macron
> 00B0  0176  °  &amp;deg;     degree sign
> 00B1  0177  ±  &amp;plusmn;  plus-minus sign
> 00B4  0180  ´  &amp;acute;   acute accent
> 00B5  0181  µ  &amp;micro;   micro sign
> 00B6  0182  ¶  &amp;para;    pilcrow (paragraph) sign
> 00B7  0183  ·  &amp;middot;  middle dot (Georgian comma)
> 00B8  0184  ¸  &amp;cedil;   cedilla
> 00BA  0186  º  &amp;ordm;    masculine ordinal
> 00BB  0187  »  &amp;raquo;   right double-angle quote
> 00BF  0191  ¿  &amp;iquest;  inverted question
> 00C0  0192  À  &amp;Agrave;  A grave
> 00C1  0193  Á  &amp;Aacute;  A acute
> 00C2  0194  Â  &amp;Acirc;   A circumflex
> 00C3  0195  Ã  &amp;Atilde;  A tilde
> 00C4  0196  Ä  &amp;Auml;    A diaeresis
> 00C5  0197  Å  &amp;Aring;   A ring
> 00C6  0198  Æ  &amp;AElig;   AE ligature
> 00C7  0199  Ç  &amp;Ccedil;  C cedilla
> 00C8  0200  È  &amp;Egrave;  E grave
> 00C9  0201  É  &amp;Eacute;  E acute
> 00CA  0202  Ê  &amp;Ecirc;   E circumflex
> 00CB  0203  Ë  &amp;Euml;    E diaeresis
> 00CC  0204  Ì  &amp;Igrave;  I grave
> 00CD  0205  Í  &amp;Iacute;  I acute
> 00CE  0206  Î  &amp;Icirc;   I circumflex
> 00CF  0207  Ï  &amp;Iuml;    I diaeresis
> 00D1  0209  Ñ  &amp;Ntilde;  N tilde
> 00D2  0210  Ò  &amp;Ograve;  O grave
> 00D3  0211  Ó  &amp;Oacute;  O acute
> 00D4  0212  Ô  &amp;Ocirc;   O circumflex
> 00D5  0213  Õ  &amp;Otilde;  O tilde
> 00D6  0214  Ö  &amp;Ouml;    O diaeresis
> 00D8  0216  Ø  &amp;Oslash;  O stroke
> 00D9  0217  Ù  &amp;Ugrave;  U grave
> 00DA  0218  Ú  &amp;Uacute;  U acute
> 00DB  0219  Û  &amp;Ucirc;   U circumflex
> 00DC  0220  Ü  &amp;Uuml;    U diaeresis
> 00DF  0223  ß  &amp;szlig;   sharp s (ess-zed)
> 00E0  0224  à  &amp;agrave;  a grave
> 00E1  0225  á  &amp;aacute;  a acute
> 00E2  0226  â  &amp;acirc;   a circumflex
> 00E3  0227  ã  &amp;atilde;  a tilde
> 00E4  0228  ä  &amp;auml;    a diaeresis
> 00E5  0229  å  &amp;aring;   a ring
> 00E6  0230  æ  &amp;aelig;   ae ligature
> 00E7  0231  ç  &amp;ccedil;  c cedilla
> 00E8  0232  è  &amp;egrave;  e grave
> 00E9  0233  é  &amp;eacute;  e acute
> 00EA  0234  ê  &amp;ecirc;   e circumflex
> 00EB  0235  ë  &amp;euml;    e diaeresis
> 00EC  0236  ì  &amp;igrave;  i grave
> 00ED  0237  í  &amp;iacute;  i acute
> 00EE  0238  î  &amp;icirc;   i circumflex
> 00EF  0239  ï  &amp;iuml;    i diaeresis
> 00F1  0241  ñ  &amp;ntilde;  n tilde
> 00F2  0242  ò  &amp;ograve;  o grave
> 00F3  0243  ó  &amp;oacute;  o acute
> 00F4  0244  ô  &amp;ocirc;   o circumflex
> 00F5  0245  õ  &amp;otilde;  o tilde
> 00F6  0246  ö  &amp;ouml;    o diaeresis
> 00F7  0247  ÷  &amp;divide;  divide sign
> 00F8  0248  ø  &amp;oslash;  o stroke
> 00F9  0249  ù  &amp;ugrave;  u grave
> 00FA  0250  ú  &amp;uacute;  u acute
> 00FB  0251  û  &amp;ucirc;   u circumflex
> 00FC  0252  ü  &amp;uuml;    u diaeresis
> 00FF  0255  ÿ  &amp;yuml;    y diaeresis
> </pre>
15c97
< Despite their general safety, at this time, it is not possible to use these characters in Wiki page titles.
---
> These characters are a subset of the most common [[extended ASCII]] character set in use on the [[Internet]], [[ISO]] 8859-1.  Wikipedia pages are identified by the server as containing ISO-8859-1 text.  The characters above are a subset selected to improve compatibility with other machines.
17c99
< Below is a table of these safe characters, their codes in hex and decimal, and their HTML entity names:
---
> For example, the [[Apple Macintosh]] is in common use on the Internet, is not limited to any specific language, and its native character set (which is not ISO-8859-1) contains many of the common international characters.  Many Macintosh browsers will correctly translate ISO text into the native character set, as long as the characters used are available.  So the table above is the subset of ISO-8859-1 characters that are also available on the native Macintosh character set.[[Microsoft Windows]] standard code page 1252 set is a superset of ISO-8859-1, so these characters will be readable as is on Windows machines.  The most common Latin character sets other than ISO-8859-1 are MS-DOS (pre-Windows) code page 437, Macintosh Roman, and other ISO sets such as ISO-8859-2.  The number of pre-Windows MS-DOS machines with web browsers is small and they are often dedicated-purpose machines that wouldn't be using Wikipedia anyway, so it is reasonably safe to sacrifice compatibility with them for the sake of needed foreign characters.  Other ISO sets are generally intended to be read by other browsers using those same sets in the same country, and so those pages should use a language-specific set.
19,20d100
< <pre>
< Hex   Dec     Entity    Character
22,103c102
<  A0  0160     &amp;nbsp;    no-break space
<  A1  0161  ¡  &amp;iexcl;   inverted exclamation
<  A2  0162  ¢  &amp;cent;    cent sign
<  A3  0163  £  &amp;pound;   pound sign
<  A4  0164  ¤  &amp;curren;  intl. currency sign
<  A5  0165  ¥  &amp;yen;     yen sign
<  A7  0167  §  &amp;sect;    section sign
<  A8  0168  ¨  &amp;uml;     diaeresis (umlaut)
<  A9  0169  ©  &amp;copy;    copyright sign
<  AA  0170  ª  &amp;ordf;    feminine ordinal
<  AB  0171  «  &amp;laquo;   left double-angle quote
<  AC  0172  ¬  &amp;not;     not sign
<  AE  0174  ®  &amp;reg;     registered trademark sign
<  AF  0175  ¯  &amp;macr;    macron
<  B0  0176  °  &amp;deg;     degree sign
<  B1  0177  ±  &amp;plusmn;  plus-minus sign
<  B4  0180  ´  &amp;acute;   acute accent
<  B5  0181  µ  &amp;micro;   micro sign
<  B6  0182  ¶  &amp;para;    pilcrow (paragraph) sign
<  B7  0183  ·  &amp;middot;  middle dot (Georgian comma)
<  B8  0184  ¸  &amp;cedil;   cedilla
<  BA  0186  º  &amp;ordm;    masculine ordinal
<  BB  0187  »  &amp;raquo;   right double-angle quote
<  BF  0191  ¿  &amp;iquest;  inverted question
<  C0  0192  À  &amp;Agrave;  A grave
<  C1  0193  Á  &amp;Aacute;  A acute
<  C2  0194  Â  &amp;Acirc;   A circumflex
<  C3  0195  Ã  &amp;Atilde;  A tilde
<  C4  0196  Ä  &amp;Auml;    A diaeresis
<  C5  0197  Å  &amp;Aring;   A ring
<  C6  0198  Æ  &amp;AElig;   AE ligature
<  C7  0199  Ç  &amp;Ccedil;  C cedilla
<  C8  0200  È  &amp;Egrave;  E grave
<  C9  0201  É  &amp;Eacute;  E acute
<  CA  0202  Ê  &amp;Ecirc;   E circumflex
<  CB  0203  Ë  &amp;Euml;    E diaeresis
<  CC  0204  Ì  &amp;Igrave;  I grave
<  CD  0205  Í  &amp;Iacute;  I acute
<  CE  0206  Î  &amp;Icirc;   I circumflex
<  CF  0207  Ï  &amp;Iuml;    I diaeresis
<  D1  0209  Ñ  &amp;Ntilde;  N tilde
<  D2  0210  Ò  &amp;Ograve;  O grave
<  D3  0211  Ó  &amp;Oacute;  O acute
<  D4  0212  Ô  &amp;Ocirc;   O circumflex
<  D5  0213  Õ  &amp;Otilde;  O tilde
<  D6  0214  Ö  &amp;Ouml;    O diaeresis
<  D8  0216  Ø  &amp;Oslash;  O stroke
<  D9  0217  Ù  &amp;Ugrave;  U grave
<  DA  0218  Ú  &amp;Uacute;  U acute
<  DB  0219  Û  &amp;Ucirc;   U circumflex
<  DC  0220  Ü  &amp;Uuml;    U diaeresis
<  DF  0223  ß  &amp;szlig;   sharp s (ess-zed)
<  E0  0224  à  &amp;agrave;  a grave
<  E1  0225  á  &amp;aacute;  a acute
<  E2  0226  â  &amp;acirc;   a circumflex
<  E3  0227  ã  &amp;atilde;  a tilde
<  E4  0228  ä  &amp;auml;    a diaeresis
<  E5  0229  å  &amp;aring;   a ring
<  E6  0230  æ  &amp;aelig;   ae ligature
<  E7  0231  ç  &amp;ccedil;  c cedilla
<  E8  0232  è  &amp;egrave;  e grave
<  E9  0233  é  &amp;eacute;  e acute
<  EA  0234  ê  &amp;ecirc;   e circumflex
<  EB  0235  ë  &amp;euml;    e diaeresis
<  EC  0236  ì  &amp;igrave;  i grave
<  ED  0237  í  &amp;iacute;  i acute
<  EE  0238  î  &amp;icirc;   i circumflex
<  EF  0239  ï  &amp;iuml;    i diaeresis
<  F1  0241  ñ  &amp;ntilde;  n tilde
<  F2  0242  ò  &amp;ograve;  o grave
<  F3  0243  ó  &amp;oacute;  o acute
<  F4  0244  ô  &amp;ocirc;   o circumflex
<  F5  0245  õ  &amp;otilde;  o tilde
<  F6  0246  ö  &amp;ouml;    o diaeresis
<  F7  0247  ÷  &amp;divide;  divide sign
<  F8  0248  ø  &amp;oslash;  o stroke
<  F9  0249  ù  &amp;ugrave;  u grave
<  FA  0250  ú  &amp;uacute;  u acute
<  FB  0251  û  &amp;ucirc;   u circumflex
<  FC  0252  ü  &amp;uuml;    u diaeresis
<  FF  0255  ÿ  &amp;yuml;    y diaeresis
< </pre>
---
> These characters can be entered either as HTML named character entity references such as <b>&amp;agrave;</b>, directly from foreign keyboards, or with whatever facilities are available to the Wiki author for entering these characters.  For example, Wiki authors using Windows machines can enter these by holding down the Alt key while typing the 4-digit decimal code of the character on the numeric pad of the keyboard.  It is important that all 4 digits (including the leading 0) be typed; typing a 3-digit code will enter characters from the obsolete code page 437.  Wiki authors using Macintosh machines should take care to either use special facilities to enter these in ISO-8859-1 format rather than with the native character set, or else use HTML named character entity references.  Note that some Windows users may have trouble with versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer that use "Alt-Left-Arrow" and "Alt-Right-Arrow" for page movement.  These will interfere with entering codes that contain the digits 4 and 6.  Use HTML named character entity references in this case.
105c104
< This set should be sufficient for text in any mixture of English, French, Spanish, German, and many other languages, with the exception of a few national currency symbols and typeset-style punctuation (see below).  Many languages that use the Latin alphabet (such as Polish and Hungarian) are nonetheless not adequately covered here, so Wiki pages in those languages will require special server settings and character sets (as will, of course, languages that do not use the Latin alphabet at all such as Japanese).
---
> The characters from the table above can be used directly as 8-bit characters in all Wiki pages, and are sufficient for all pages primarily in English, Spanish, French, German, and languages that require no more special characters than those (such as Catalan).  Despite their general safety, at this time, it is not possible to use these characters in Wiki page titles.
111,115c110
< Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by popular languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, L with stroke, and others.
< 
< Characters from Windows code page 1252 not in ISO-8859-1 include the euro sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), dagger and double dagger (<code>&amp;dagger;, &amp;Dagger;</code>), bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>), typeset-style punctuation (see below), per mille sign (<code>&amp;permil;</code>), some Eastern European caron-accented letters, and the oe ligatures.
< 
< Characters from the Macintosh Roman set not in ISO-8859-1 include dagger and double dagger, bullet, trade mark sign, a few math symbols such as infinity (<code>&amp;infin;</code>) and not equal (<code>&amp;ne;</code>), a few commonly-used Greek letters such as pi (<code>&amp;pi;</code>), ligatures like oe and fl, typeset-style punctuation, per mille sign, and lone accents such as the breve, onogek, and caron.
---
> Speical care should be taken with characters that do exist in the native character set of popular machines but not in the above set.  These are not safe, even theough they may display correctly to you when you use them.  Characters from Windows code page 1252 not in ISO-8859-1 include the euro sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), dagger and double dagger (<code>&amp;dagger;, &amp;Dagger;</code>), bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>), typeset-style punctuation (see below), per mille sign (<code>&amp;permil;</code>), some Eastern European caron-accented letters, and the oe ligatures.  Characters from the Macintosh Roman set not in ISO-8859-1 include dagger and double dagger, bullet, trade mark sign, a few math symbols such as infinity (<code>&amp;infin;</code>) and not equal (<code>&amp;ne;</code>), a few commonly-used Greek letters such as pi (<code>&amp;pi;</code>), ligatures like oe and fl, typeset-style punctuation, per mille sign, and lone accents such as the breve, onogek, and caron.
117c112
< Characters from pre-Windows code page 437 that are not in ISO-8859-1 include the peseta sign, franc sign, several math symbols (such as infinity) not listed above, faces and card suits, and all the box and line drawing characters.
---
> Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by popular languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, L with stroke, and others.  These are also unsafe, though if they entered as HTML named character entity references, they may display on some machines.
119c114
< Most of these characters should generally be considered unsafe, even though some of them (especially those listed below under "Other common symbols") may display correctly on many machines if entered as HTML character entity references.
---
> In short, don't assume that it is safe to use a special character just because it looks correct on your machine.  Use the ones from the table above, and read and understand how to use others shown below.
------
LOGO|986001923
1c1
< <h1>LOGO: Turtle Graphics</h1>
---
> <i>LOGO</i> is a programming language based on [[LISP]] designed by [[Seymore Papert]] in the late 1960s to teach computer skills to children.  Papert was a professor at [[MIT]], and the author of <i>Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas</i>.  LOGO is from the Greek word "logos" meaning "word".
3c3
< <p>LOGO: Turtle Graphics was an early CLI driven piece of 2D graphics software. The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around. From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles - using these to draw houses or sail boats. You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands. It was a simple and popular educational language for school children during the 80s to teach basic programming concepts.</p>
---
> One of its most notable features was called "Turtle Graphics"; a system for creating graphics that allowed a LOGO user to easily produce visual effects from simple programs.  The idea was that a turtle with a pen strapped to it could be instructed to do simple things like move forward 100 spaces or turn around.  From these building blocks you could draw more complex shapes like squares, triangles, circles--using these to draw houses or sail boats.  You could give titles to groups of instructions; essentially creating libraries of more complex commands.
6d5
< 
18,19d16
< <p>Rather than entering each line many versions of LOGO allowed you to put them all on the same line: <tt>"FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100 LEFT 90 FORWARD 100"</tt>  was a valid command.
< 
21d17
< 
29c25
< <p>Would draw a triangle.</p>
---
> Would draw a triangle.
31c27
< <p>The turtle's pen could be lifted and lowered; drawing a dotted line was rudimentary. In this example we'll use the the shorthand for <code>FORWARD</code>, which is <code>FD</code>.</p>
---
> The turtle's pen could be lifted and lowered; drawing a dotted line was rudimentary. In this example we'll use the the shorthand for <code>FORWARD</code>, which is <code>FD</code>.
50c46
< <p>You could loop (repeat) commands. This would draw the exact same box in the first example:</p>
---
> You could also use loop (repeat) commands.  This would draw the exact same box in the first example:
53,54c49
< 
<  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RIGHT 90&#93;
---
>  REPEAT 4 [FD 100 RIGHT 90]
57c52
< <p>Which would execute the command "<code>FD 100 RIGHT 90</code>" four times.</p>
---
> Which would execute the command "<code>FD 100 RIGHT 90</code>" four times.
59c54
< <p>A simplistic circle consists of 360 individual rotations with a step forward, so "<tt>REPEAT 360 &#91;FD 1 RIGHT 1&#93;</tt>" would have the expected result.</p>
---
> A simplistic circle consists of 360 individual rotations with a step forward, so "<tt>REPEAT 360 [FD 1 RIGHT 1]</tt>" would have the expected result.
61c56
< <p>You could title groups of instructions, ie. make procedures. These needed to be done from the Editor, that was known as <cite>Ed</cite>.</p>
---
> You could title groups of instructions, ie. make procedures. These needed to be done from the Editor, that was known as <cite>Ed</cite>.
67c62
<  REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 RT 90&#93;
---
>  REPEAT 4 [FD 100 RT 90]
72,79c67
< <p>Now any time <code>BOBSAGET</code> is entered "<code>REPEAT 4 &#91;FD 100 LEFT 90&#93; FD 30</code>" will be executed. You can compound these by <code>REPEAT 4 &#91;BOBSAGET&#93; if you wanted.</code></p>
< 
< <p>LOGO is from the Greek word "logos" meaning "a word".</p>
< 
< <p>The father of LOGO is Seymour Pappert, who - while at MIT during 1966/68 - led the LOGO Group in developing the first programming language for children.  He was the author of "Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas".</p>
< 
< 
< == (matthew@holloway.co.nz - forgive me, I'm new here. Tidying this node as I go.)
---
> Now any time <code>BOBSAGET</code> is entered "<code>REPEAT 4 [FD 100 LEFT 90] FD 30</code>" will be executed. You can compound these by <code>REPEAT 4 [BOBSAGET] if you wanted.</code>
------
LOGO|986001997
1c1
< <i>LOGO</i> is a programming language based on [[LISP]] designed by [[Seymore Papert]] in the late 1960s to teach computer skills to children.  Papert was a professor at [[MIT]], and the author of <i>Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas</i>.  LOGO is from the Greek word "logos" meaning "word".
---
> <i>LOGO</i> is a programming language based on [[LISP]] designed by [[Seymour Papert]] in the late 1960s to teach computer skills to children.  Papert was a professor at [[MIT]], and the author of <i>Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas</i>.  LOGO is from the Greek word "logos" meaning "word".
------
Bead_artists|986002531
1c1
< People who practice the craft of [[beadwork]].
---
> People who make [[bead]]s or practice the craft of [[beadwork]].
2a3,10
> Some better-known bead artists include
> * [[Virginia Blakelock]]
> * [[David Chatt]]
> * [[Carol Perrenoud]]
> * [[Joyce J. Scott]]
> * [[Carol Wilcox Wells]]
> 
> Many bead artists have web presences.
------
Seed_beads|986003654
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Seed beads are uniformly shaped, spheroidal or cylindrical [[Bead|beads]] ranging in size from under a millimeter to several millimeters.  The most common bead size is 11/0 ("eleven-aught"), but sizes range from 22/0 (the smallest, I believe) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest).  These are the beads most commonly used for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.
> 
> Most of today's seed beeds are made in [[Japan]] or the [[Czech Republic]].  Conventional wisdom is that Japanese seed beads are more regularly shaped and sized, but the Czechs make a larger range of sizes and colors.  
> 
> [[Miyuki]] is a popular Japanese seed bead manufacturer.
------
Seed_beads|986003694
1c1
< Seed beads are uniformly shaped, spheroidal or cylindrical [[Bead|beads]] ranging in size from under a millimeter to several millimeters.  The most common bead size is 11/0 ("eleven-aught"), but sizes range from 22/0 (the smallest, I believe) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest).  These are the beads most commonly used for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.
---
> Seed beads are uniformly shaped, spheroidal or cylindrical [[bead]]s ranging in size from under a millimeter to several millimeters.  The most common bead size is 11/0 ("eleven-aught"), but sizes range from 22/0 (the smallest, I believe) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest).  These are the beads most commonly used for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.
------
Bead|986003735
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A small, decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing.  Beads range in size from under a millimeter to over a centimeter.   Glass, plastic, and stone are probably the most common materials, but beads are also made from bone, metal, resin, wood, clay, felt, paper, and other materials.  [[Beadwork]] is the craft of making things with beads.
> 
> Types of beads include
> * [[Seed beads]]
> * [[Pressed glass beads]]
> * [[Fire-polish beads]]
> * [[Chevrons]]
> * [[Millefiori]]
> * ...
------
Beadwork_patterns|986004223
6a7,10
> * Add links here
> 
> Indexes
> * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm|Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm|loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm|off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/]
------
Beadwork_patterns|986004249
10c10
< * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm|Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm|loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm|off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/]
---
> * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm| Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm| loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm| off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/| Beadwork at About.com]
------
Ikhthus|986004333
1c1
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Ypsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Arabic characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Arabic characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Upsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Roman alphabet characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Roman alphabet characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
------
Beadwork_patterns|986004348
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns| Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns | Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
10c10
< * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm| Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm| loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm| off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/| Beadwork at About.com]
---
> * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm | Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm | loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm | off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/ | Beadwork at About.com]
------
Beadwork_patterns|986004374
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns | Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
10c10
< * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm | Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm | loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm | off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/ | Beadwork at About.com]
---
> * [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsstringing/index.htm Stringing], [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsloom/index.htm loom], and [http://beadwork.about.com/hobbies/beadwork/cs/patternsoffloom/index.htm off-loom] patterns at [http://beadwork.about.com/ Beadwork at About.com]
------
Beadwork_patterns|986004396
4c4
< * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
---
> * [http://www.one-eyed-alien.net/~janet/beads/patterns.php3 Janet`s Beadwork Patterns] -- Patterns for brick and gourd stitch, as well as the loom.
------
Christianity|986004469
15a16
> /Symbolism
------
Christianity|986004498
15a16
> 
------
Christianity/Symbolism|986004662
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[INRI]]
> [[Crucifix]]
> [[Christianity/Fish]]
> [[Halo]]
> [[Pearly gates}}
> [[Mitre]]
> [[Sacrament]]
> [[Icons]]
------
INRI|986005286
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On certain depictions of the [[Crucifix]], both sculpted and pictoral, especially as related to the Catholic religion, one may see a stylized plaque or parchment with the letters INRI just above or below the figure of Jesus.  In some cases, these letters may be carved into the cross.
> 
> In the Gospel of John they are explained: 
> 
> "Pilate also had an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek" (John 19:19-20). 
> 
> The Latin form of "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" is "Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum" and the anagram for this title is INRI. 
> 
> Pilate was loathe to crucify Jesus without some strong justification.  The one he used was the standing Roman treaty with the Jews which allowed them self-goverment.  When it was complained that Jesus was interfering with that self-rule by holding himself to possess authority that the lacked, Pilate challenged him to deny that he was called "King of Jews."  Jesus did not deny the accusation.  Hence, the justification for his crucifixion, that he claimed an illegitemate title, was made a part of the final punitive act.
> 
------
Bead_weaving_on_a_loom|986005316
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Seed beads]] can be woven into fabric on a loom.  The beads are locked in between the warp threads by the woof threads.  Although a heddle can be used similar to ordinary weaving, the most common technique requires two passes of the woof thread.  First, an entire row of beads is strung on the woof thread.  Then, the beads are pressed up in between the warp threads.  The needle is passed back through the beads above the warp threads to lock the beads into place.  The most difficult part of loomwork is finishing off the warp threads.
> 
> Although loomed pieces are typically rectangular, it is possible to increase and decrease to produce angular or curvy shapes.  Fringe can also be added during weaving or before the piece is removed from the loom.
> 
> Bead looms vary in size and are typically made of wood or metal.  Usually, a comb or spring is used to hold the warp threads a bead-width apart.  Some looms have roller bars that allow the weaver to produce pieces that are longer than the loom is.  Most looms are meant to sit on a table, but some have floor stands or are meant to sit in the lap.
> 
> [[Don Pierce]] has written a great loomwork reference.
> 
> Tips
> * Please share your loom weaving tips here!
------
Christianity/Fish|986005362
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Ikhthus]]
------
Don_Pierce|986005622
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Don Pierce is a well-known bead artist, specializing in loom weaving.  He wrote the book _Beading on a Loom_, an excellent loom weaving reference.  He also sells bead looms.  His website is [http://www.donpierce.com http://www.donpierce.com], where you can look at his work or purchase his book or a loom.
------
Don_Pierce|986005841
1c1
< Don Pierce is a well-known bead artist, specializing in loom weaving.  He wrote the book _Beading on a Loom_, an excellent loom weaving reference.  He also sells bead looms.  His website is [http://www.donpierce.com http://www.donpierce.com], where you can look at his work or purchase his book or a loom.
---
> Don Pierce is a well-known [[Bead artists|bead artist]], specializing in [[Bead weaving on a loom| loom weaving]].  He wrote the book <i>Beading on a Loom</i>, an excellent loom weaving reference.  He also sells bead looms.  His website is [http://www.donpierce.com http://www.donpierce.com], where you can look at his work, buy his book, or buy a loom.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Test|986006311
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just testing...
> 
> 
------
Computer_Monitor|986006704
1c1
< Display device wich produces an image on the screen.
---
> Display device which produces an image on the screen.
8c8
< Is Flat Panel Display FPD?
---
> Is Flat Panel Display FPD?
------
Plotter|986006823
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A plotter is a printing device that connects to a computer.
> 
> Plotters print diagrams by moving one of several coloured pens accross the surface of a piece of paper.
> This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than full graphics as with other [printers]
------
Hobby|986006837
43a44,45
> ** [[Woodworking]]
> ** [[Photography]]
------
Plotter|986006886
4c4
< This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than full graphics as with other [printers]
---
> This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than full graphics as with other [[Computer Printer]]s
------
Beadwork_patterns|986006906
1c1
< Charts for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.  
---
> Charts for [[Bead weaving on a loom|loom]] and [[Off-loom bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.   See also [[Beadwork]].
------
Plotter|986006927
4c4
< This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than full graphics as with other [[Computer Printer]]s
---
> This means that plotters are restricted to line art, rather than full graphics as with other Computer Printers
------
Bead_artists|986006945
6a7
> * [[Don Pierce]]
------
Bead_artists|986007108
11c11
< Many bead artists have web presences.
---
> Many bead artists have personal web pages.
------
Playing_card|986009449
7c7,8
< The familiar suits of the now internationally-used pattern (spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs) are of [[France|French]] origin.  The currently popular design of court cards originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].  Although the Joker card often bears the image of a fool, which is one of the images of the Tarot deck, it not believed that there is any relation.  The most common form of cards now in use is a deck comprising the four French suits, each of which has ten spot cards (the one-spot being called an "Ace"), and three court cards of the Rouen design called "King", "Queen", and "Jack" (or less commonly "Knave").  The decks are generally sold with two Jokers (one often of more colorful or intricate design than the other).  It is also common practice now for the Ace of spades to bear special markings that include the manufacturer's name and date of production.  This practice originated with the use of that card to carry a British tax stamp.
---
> The primary form of playing cards in use today, called the [[/Anglo-American]] design, is actually of eclectic origin.
> The familiar suits of spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs originated in [[France]].  The currently popular design of court cards originated in [[Rouen]] in the early 1500s, was exported to [[Great Britain]], and then was overtaken in Rouen by what is now the French national design.  The [[JokerPlayingCard|Joker]] was an [[United States|American]] innovation of the late 1800s created for the Alsatian game of [[Euchre]].  It then spread to Europe from America along with the spread of [[Poker]].  Although the Joker card often bears the image of a fool, which is one of the images of the Tarot deck, it not believed that there is any relation.
------
Daffodil|986010379
1c1
< A pretty flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].
---
> A pretty yellow flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].  In [[North America]], these are among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
------
Daffodil|986010401
1c1
< A pretty yellow flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].  In [[North America]], these are among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
---
> A pretty yellow flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].  At least in [[North America]], these are among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
------
Daffodil|986010416
1c1
< A pretty yellow flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].  At least in [[North America]], these are among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
---
> A pretty yellow flower and the national flower of [[Wales]].  These are among the first flowers to bloom in spring.
------
Recreation|986010722
7c7
< [[Music]] and [[Dance]] play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do [[Sports]], of course, and sometimes [[Food and Drinks]].
---
> [[Music]] and [[Dance]] play an important part of recreation in many cultures.  So do [[Sports]] and [[Hobbies]], of course, and sometimes [[Food and Drinks]].
------
Christianity/Symbolism|986010902
5c5
< [[Pearly gates}}
---
> [[Pearly gates]]
8c8
< [[Icons]]
---
> [[Icons]]
------
Playing_card/Anglo-American|986011095
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A standard Anglo-American deck of [[playing card]]s is composed of 13 <i>ranks</i> in each of 4 <i>suits</i>, plus 2 <i>[[Playing card/Joker|jokers]]</i>, for a total of 54 cards.  The suits used are the French suits of spades and clubs, which are black, and diamonds and hearts, which are red.  In each suit there are 10 <i>spot cards</i>, each of which is identified by the number of suit symbols it shows, and three <i>court cards</i> of the Rouen design, also called <i>face cards</i>, that carry highly stylized depictions of persons.
> 
> Modern playing cards carry index labels on opposite corners, to facilitate identifying the cards when they overlap.  The 1-spot card of each suit is called an <i>Ace</i>, and in many games is given the highest rank.  It carries the index label "A".  The next highest rank in most games is the court card called the <i>King</i>, followed by the other court cards, the <i>Queen</i> and <i>Jack</i> (also called <i>Knave</i>).  They carry index labels of "K", "Q", and "J", respectively.  Finally, the remaining spot cards ranking numerically from 10 (higest) to 2 (lowest).  Their index labels are simple numerals.  The 2-spot card is often called a <i>deuce</i>, and the 3-spot a <i>trey</i>.
> 
> One of the two jokers is often more colorful or more intricately detailed than the other, but this feature is not used in any common card games.  The design of jokers is not standard, and many manufacturers use them to carry trademark designs.  It is also common practice now for the Ace of spades to bear special markings that include the manufacturer's name and date of production.  This practice originated with the use of that card to carry a British tax stamp.
> 
> There is no standard ranking among the four suits, though many games do specify such a ranking.  For example, the game of [[Bridge]] ranks the spade suit highest, followed by hearts, diamonds, and clubs.
> 
> (include some pictures here...)
------
Court_of_Appeals|986011103
1c1
< Formal name of an [[appellate court]] in certain jurisdictions.  In the State of New York, for instance, the Court of Appeals is the highest court in the land.
---
> Formal name of an [[appellate court]] in certain jurisdictions.  In the State of [[New York]], for instance, the Court of Appeals is the highest court in the land.
3c3
< In New Mexico, the Court of Appeals is the intermediate appellate court between county jurisdictions and the state's Supreme Court.
---
> In [[New Mexico]], the Court of Appeals is the intermediate appellate court between county jurisdictions and the state's Supreme Court.
5c5
< In Nevada, there is no Court of Appeals.  Cases are appealed directly from District (county) Courts to the state's Supreme Court.
---
> In [[Nevada]], there is no Court of Appeals.  Cases are appealed directly from District (county) Courts to the state's Supreme Court.
7c7
< In Great Britain, the Court of Appeals sits above the High Court (also an appellate court) and below the ultimate judicial authority, the House of Lords.
---
> In [[Great Britain]], the Court of Appeals sits above the High Court (also an appellate court) and below the ultimate judicial authority, the [[House of Lords]].
------
Ikhthus|986011135
1c1
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol wchich adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as emminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Upsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Roman alphabet characters) is regarded an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Roman alphabet characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol which adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as eminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Upsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Roman alphabet characters) is regarded as an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Roman alphabet characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
3c3
< Connection has also been made between this symbol and the story of the loaves and the fish which Christ used to feed the multitude, and the expression that Jesus and his apostles were "fishers for men's souls."
---
> Connection has also been made between this symbol and the story of the loaves and the fishes which Christ used to feed the multitude, and the expression that Jesus and his apostles were "fishers for men's souls."
------
Bill_Clinton|986011285
9c9
< In 1999, in conjunction with a [[Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
---
> In 1999, in conjunction with a [[United States Congress|Congress]] controlled by the [[Republican party]] he balanced the US budget for the first time since 1969.
------
Poker|986011375
1c1
< The [[card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central <i>pot</i>, after which is the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards.  In poker, there are typically several <i>rounds</i> of betting in which players wager in turn, and each player may take one of three actions.  He may <i>fold</i> (also called <i>drop</i> or <i>pass</i>) by relinquishing his cards, putting no money into the pot, and taking no further action in the hand; this forfeits his right to win the pot.  He may <i>call</i>, wagering an amount equal to the wager of all previous players in the round, to maintain his right to play further (when no players have yet wagered in the round, this is called a <i>check</i>).  Finally, he may <i>raise</i>, betting a larger amount than previously bet in the round, forcing all other players to match the larger amount to continue (when there is no previous bet in the round, this is called simply a <i>bet</i>).  At the end of betting, if more than one player remains, they <i>show down</i> their cards, and the best combination of cards wins the pot.  If one player raises and no other players call the raise, he wins the pot uncontested without showing his cards.  This makes it possible to <i>bluff</i>.
---
> The [[card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central <i>pot</i>, after which is the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards.
9,11c9,11
< * Equipment
< * Game play and betting
< * Hands
---
> * [[/Equipment]]
> * [[/Game play]]
> * [[/Hands]]
------
United_States_Congress|986011581
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[legislative body]] of the [[United States]].  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
------
United_States|986011685
4a5,6
> * [[/Congress]]
> * [[/Supreme Court]]
------
United_States/Congress|986011949
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT United States Congress
------
United_States/Congress|986011966
1c1
< #REDIRECT United States Congress
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Congress]]
------
United_States/Supreme_Court|986012018
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Supreme Court]]
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986012156
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Part of the legislative branch of the [[United States government]].  Each state elects two [[Senators of the United States|senators]].
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986012249
1c1
< Part of the legislative branch of the [[United States government]].  Each state elects two [[Senators of the United States|senators]].
---
> Part of the legislative branch of the government of the [[United States]].  Each state elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
------
United_States_Congress|986012316
1c1
< The [[legislative body]] of the [[United States]].  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
---
> The [[legislative branch]] of the [[United States]] government.  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986012394
1c1,3
< Part of the legislative branch of the government of the [[United States]].  Each state elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
---
> Part of the [[legislative branch]] of the government of the [[United States]].  Each [[United States/States|state]] elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
> 
> In what part of the [[United States Constitution]] is the Senate described?
------
SandBox|986012474
14c14
<                            * ?   ? *                      &amp;Theta;
---
>                            * �   � *                      &amp;Theta;
16c16
<                            *   ?   *                    /
---
>                            *   �   *                    /
------
George_W._Bush|986012675
19c19
< 
---
> * /GWB
31a32
> 
------
George_W._Bush|986012742
19d18
< * /GWB
------
George_W._Bush|986012817
18a19
> */George W.
------
Poker/Equipment|986012890
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Equipment for playing [[Poker]]:
> 
> * <b>Table:</b> It is convenient if every player (a typical poker game will have 2 to 10) can reach the center of the table where the <i>pot</i> is built, so tables are generally circular or only slighlty oblong.  It also helps if the table is padded with a soft material that makes it easy to pick up cards, coins, and chips.
> 
> * <b>Cards:</b> Standard [[Playing card/Anglo-American|Anglo-American]] playing cards are used.  In home games it is common to have two decks with distinct backs, and to shuffle the unused deck while each hand is in progress.  Casinos typically change decks after 15 minutes of use as they become soiled.  High-quality plastic cards last much longer than paper ones, especially for such games as [[stud poker]], where players often bend up the corners of cards lying on the table rather than holding the cards in their hands.
> 
> * <b>Chips:</b> Currency is difficult to handle, so most poker games are played with <i>chips</i>, which are coin-shaped tokens of uniform size and weight, often made of clay or other similarly-textured heavy material allowing them to be easily stacked and unstacked.  Inexpensive lightweight plastic chips are sold in many places, but these are nearly as difficult to use as currency.  Different colors of chips are usually used to represent different amounts of money.
> 
> * <b>Lammers:</b> Miscellaneous plastic tokens with text markings are handy for various uses.  In a typical home game only one is used to mark the current dealer as the deal rotates (in which case it is called a <i>buck</i>).  In a casino they are used to remind players of which game variant is being played, who owes house commissions, and other uses.
> 
------
George_W._Bush|986012942
19d18
< */George W.
31c30,31
< * Next President: ?
---
> * Next President: ?----
> [Geroge W]
------
George_W._Bush|986012974
31c31
< [Geroge W]
---
> [George W]
------
George_W._Bush|986013006
31c31
< [George W]
---
> [[George W]]
------
George_W|986013101
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This ain't my first rodeo!!!
------
George_W|986013490
1c1
< This ain't my first rodeo!!!
---
> This ain't my first rodeo!!!---Howdie guys...I mean..uh..guys and gals.
------
George_W|986013756
1c1,5
< This ain't my first rodeo!!!---Howdie guys...I mean..uh..guys and gals.
---
> This ain't my first rodeo!!!--Howdie guys...I mean..uh..guys and gals.
> 
> Think I'll just wait here til this Sanger guy comes to howdie.
> 
> Gotta wait for the media anywanys, ya see.
------
Poker/Game_play|986014507
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Poker]] has hundreds of [[Poker/Variants|Variants]], but the following overview of game play should apply to most of them.
> 
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of the deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.
> At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and shuffled by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a cut.  That player removes roughly the top half of the deck and places it next to the bottom half, toward the dealer, who then picks up the bottom half, places it on the cut top half and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  The initial bets come in two forms:
> 
> * <b>Antes:</b> Every player places an equal (typically small) amount into the pot before the deal begins.  In a home game where the right to act as dealer rotates, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer must ante for everyone in his turn.  This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal.
> * <b>Blinds</b>: One or more players 
> 
> ...
------
History_of_Levant|986014511
46a47
> ''[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22History+of+Levant%22&btnG=Google+Search This page is #1 on Google]''
------
Larry_Sanger|986014665
69c69,71
< Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
---
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
> ----
> This pathetic page is the #1 Google search for [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22Larry+Sanger%22 "Larry Sanger"].  Go figure.
------
Poker/Equipment|986014690
10a11
> * <b>Cut card:</b> Not generally used in home games, but universal in casinos and recommended.  This is a thick plastic card the same size and shape of a playing card upon which the deck is placed before being picked up for the deal.  This prevents any accidental exposure of the bottom card of the deck during the deal.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Mother|986014958
3a4,5
> 
> ''This page is on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Atlas+Shrugged%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=20&sa=N page 3 of Google "Atlas Shrugged" search]''
------
Ethical_egoism/Talk|986015071
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Ethical egoism]] is on [[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=30&sa=N page 4 of Google's "ethical egoism" search]]!
------
Ethical_egoism/Talk|986015106
1c1
< [[Ethical egoism]] is on [[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=30&sa=N page 4 of Google's "ethical egoism" search]]!
---
> [[Ethical egoism]] is on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=30&sa=N page 4 of Google's "ethical egoism" search]!
------
George_W|986015350
5a6,7
> ----
> Welcome, Mr. President!  A slow, uneventful Friday for you, I see. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
The_Most_Remarkable_Formula_In_The_World|986015388
3c3
< :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*&pi;i)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
5c5
< where '''e''' is the base of the natural logarithms, '''i''' is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers), and '''pi''' is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle to its diameter.
---
> where '''e''' is the base of the natural logarithms, '''i''' is the square-root of -1 (imaginary numbers), and '''&pi;''' is the ratio of the circumferance of a circle to its diameter.
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''pi''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all [[polynomial]]s of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''&pi;''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all [[polynomial]]s of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
28c28
< So, if b = pi, then  <font size=+1 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = cos(pi) + i * sin(pi)</font>.
---
> So, if b = &pi;, then  <font size=+1 color=red>e<sup>(i*&pi;)</sup> = cos(&pi;) + i * sin(&pi;)</font>.
31c31
< Then, since cos(pi) = -1 and sin(pi) = 0,
---
> Then, since cos(&pi;) = -1 and sin(&pi;) = 0,
34c34
< :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> = - 1, and e<sup>(i*pi)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*&pi;)</sup> = - 1, and e<sup>(i*&pi;)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
------
History_of_Levant|986015437
47c47
< ''[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22History+of+Levant%22&btnG=Google+Search This page is #1 on Google]''
---
> ''[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22History+of+Levant%22&btnG=Google+Search This page was? #1 on Google]''
------
Ethical_egoism/Talk|986015532
1c1
< [[Ethical egoism]] is on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=30&sa=N page 4 of Google's "ethical egoism" search]!
---
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Dagnys_Mother|986015548
3,5c3
< There is no indication that Dagny's parents failed in their parenting: they were kind, loving, and did not stand in her way or attempt to change her decisions.  There is no fuel here for a Freudian interpretation of Dagny's character, such as, 'her drive to achieve is merely the attempt to earn the love she wanted but was denied as a child.'  Greatness, in Rand's heroes, is not the attempt to compensate for some shortcoming; it is an expression of values, not an expression of their absence.
< 
< ''This page is on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Atlas+Shrugged%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=20&sa=N page 3 of Google "Atlas Shrugged" search]''
---
> There is no indication that Dagny's parents failed in their parenting: they were kind, loving, and did not stand in her way or attempt to change her decisions.  There is no fuel here for a Freudian interpretation of Dagny's character, such as, 'her drive to achieve is merely the attempt to earn the love she wanted but was denied as a child.'  Greatness, in Rand's heroes, is not the attempt to compensate for some shortcoming; it is an expression of values, not an expression of their absence.
------
Larry_Sanger|986015574
69,71c69
< Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
< ----
< This pathetic page is the #1 Google search for [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22Larry+Sanger%22 "Larry Sanger"].  Go figure.
---
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
------
Poker/Game_play|986016374
3,4c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of the deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.
< At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and shuffled by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a cut.  That player removes roughly the top half of the deck and places it next to the bottom half, toward the dealer, who then picks up the bottom half, places it on the cut top half and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  The initial bets come in two forms:
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and shuffled by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
7c6,7
< * <b>Blinds</b>: One or more players 
---
> * <b>Blinds:</b> (This description might make more sense after you've learned more about betting as described below).  One or more players after the dealer in order open the betting before receiving their cards, but in the same manner as if they were opening the betting after the deal.  For example, the first player to the dealer's left blinds $1, and the next player blinds $2.  After the cards are dealt for the first round, betting continues with the third player to the dealer's left, who must call the $2 bet, raise, or fold, exactly as if that bet had been made during play rather than before.  When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, he acts just as if that had been the initial bet; he must equal the bet facing him (toward which he may count his $1), fold, or raise.  An additional privilege is given to the player who posted the $2 <i>big blind</i>: if there have been no raises by the time his first real turn to bet comes (that is, the bet amount facing him is just the $2 he originally put in), then he has the right to raise at that point, even though his right-hand opponent's call would normally have closed the betting round under other circumstances.  This "extra" right to raise (called a "live" blind) occurs only once: if his raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes.
> * <b>Bring-in:</b> This actually occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action.  One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to open the betting by some token amount, after which players act after him in normal rotation.
9c9,17
< ...
---
> After the antes and/or blinds have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
> 
> After the initial deal, the first of what may be several <i>betting rounds</i> begins.  Beginning with a player determined by the particular rules of the game (usually the player to the dealers left, or the first player after the big blind, or a player determined by the value of cards dealt face up), each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
> 
> * <b>Fold:</b>
> * <b>Call:</b>
> * <b>Raise:</b>
> 
> to be continued...
------
Playing_card/cut|986016772
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After a deck of [[playing card]]s is [[Playing card/shuffle]]d, it is often given to a player other than the one who performed the shuffle for a procedure called a <i>cut</i>.  To cut the deck, the player removes as a unit roughly half of the cards from the top of the deck, placing that portion on the table next to the remaining cards, toward the dealer (by convention).  Either he or the dealer then picks up the bottom portion of the deck, places it uopn the former top portion, then squares the deck.
> 
> Need a video clip here!...
------
Playing_card/cut|986016793
1c1
< After a deck of [[playing card]]s is [[Playing card/shuffle]]d, it is often given to a player other than the one who performed the shuffle for a procedure called a <i>cut</i>.  To cut the deck, the player removes as a unit roughly half of the cards from the top of the deck, placing that portion on the table next to the remaining cards, toward the dealer (by convention).  Either he or the dealer then picks up the bottom portion of the deck, places it uopn the former top portion, then squares the deck.
---
> After a deck of [[playing card]]s is [[Playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d, it is often given to a player other than the one who performed the shuffle for a procedure called a <i>cut</i>.  To cut the deck, the player removes as a unit roughly half of the cards from the top of the deck, placing that portion on the table next to the remaining cards, toward the dealer (by convention).  Either he or the dealer then picks up the bottom portion of the deck, places it uopn the former top portion, then squares the deck.
------
Playing_card/shuffle|986016865
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A deck of [[playing card]]s is randomized by a precedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in [[card game]]s.
> 
> Need a video clip here!...
------
Playing_card/shuffle|986016885
1c1
< A deck of [[playing card]]s is randomized by a precedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in [[card game]]s.
---
> A deck of [[playing card]]s is randomized by a procedure called <i>shuffling</i> to provide an element of chance in [[card game]]s.
------
Linguistics/Talk|986016927
5c5,7
< I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).
---
> I was just suggesting some way to separate out language families by origin and by geography. I am not wedded to any particular scheme. I wouldn't want readers to assume that SouthEastAsianLanguages are necessarily similar. Also, eventually, casual language descriptions of a particular language shoud be separated from Linguistic analysis of particular languages, I should think. Assuming the content appears...:-).----
> Neither etymology nor philology are strictly speaking areas in the modern study in Linguistics. Both these areas have nothing to do with making generalizations about Language with a capital L. For example, etymology studies specific words and their origins, but not the processes envolved in a change. This later general discussion is part of Historical Linguistics.
> 
------
Linguistics/Talk|986016976
6c6
< Neither etymology nor philology are strictly speaking areas in the modern study in Linguistics. Both these areas have nothing to do with making generalizations about Language with a capital L. For example, etymology studies specific words and their origins, but not the processes envolved in a change. This later general discussion is part of Historical Linguistics.
---
> Neither etymology nor philology are strictly speaking areas in the modern study in Linguistics. Both these areas have nothing to do with making generalizations about Language with a capital L. For example, etymology studies specific words and their origins, but not the processes involved in a change. This later general discussion is part of Historical Linguistics.
------
The_Most_Remarkable_Formula_In_The_World|986016999
3c3
< :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i*&pi;i)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
---
> :<font size=+2 color=red>e<sup>(i * &pi;)</sup> + 1 = 0.</font>
------
Atlas_Shrugged|986017084
3c3
< Readers should be warned that Atlas Shurgged is a mystery novel, and that this section and its numerous subsections contain a vast amount of information that will spoil the mystery.
---
> Readers should be warned that Atlas Shrugged is a mystery novel, and that this section and its numerous subsections contain a vast amount of information that will spoil the mystery.
------
Atlas_Shrugged|986017288
9c9
< The theme of Atlas Shrugged is the role of the mind in human society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In Atlas Shrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
---
> The theme of Atlas Shrugged is the role of the mind in life and society.  Rand argues that independent thinking, and the creativity and inventiveness that comes from this, is the motor that runs the world.  In Atlas Shrugged she shows what she thinks would happen to the world if the "men of the mind" went on strike: the motor of the world would shut down, and civilization would fall apart.  This is a direct assault on the [[Labor Theory Of Value]], which was popular at the time of writing.
------
Fundamental_Theorem_of_Calculus|986017420
1c1
< Expressed most simply this states the integration and differentiation are inverses of one another. i.e. if the [[function]] f(x) is continuous on some interval (a,b) containing the point c, then the function F(x) defined by:
---
> Expressed most simply this states the integration and differentiation are inverses of one another. i.e. if the [[function]] f(x) is continuous on some  closed interval [a,b] containing the point c, then the function F(x) defined by:
------
Atlas_Shrugged|986017533
17c17
< Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In [[/Section152|Section152]] the population of [[/New York|New York]] is given as 7 million.  The historical [[/New York City|New York City]] reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century [[/Technology|Technology]] in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, computers, or television.
---
> Exactly when Atlas Shrugged is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague.  In [[/Section152|Section152]] the population of [[/New York|New York]] is given as 7 million.  The historical [[/New York City|New York City]] reached 7 million people in the 1930s, placing the novel sometime after that.  There are numerous early 20th century technologies available, but the political situtation is clearly different from actual history.  It is as if history had changed around 1900, and the world went unimpeded down a gradual path towards socialism for perhaps 40 years, with no [[World War]], and no rise of fascism in Europe.  There are many examples of early 20th century [[/Technology|Technology]] in Atlas Shrugged, but no post-war technologies such as jet planes, atomic weapons, helicoptors, or computers; television is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Technology|986017646
7a8
>  Telvision (mentioned in [[/Section252|Section252]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Technology|986017658
8c8
<  Telvision (mentioned in [[/Section252|Section252]]
---
>  Telvision (mentioned in [[/Section252|Section252]])
------
Fundamental_Theorem_of_Calculus|986017660
3,7c3,5
<        x
<        /
< F(x) = | f(s) ds
<        /
<        c
---
>                x
>        F(x) = &int; f(s) ds
>               c
------
Poker/Game_play|986017782
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and shuffled by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
15a16,19
> 
> After the first betting round is complete, the may be more rounds in which cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, and the next deal begins.
> 
> After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last bet and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best hand (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  In the case of ties, the pot is split among the tied players.
------
George_W|986019053
7c7,11
< Welcome, Mr. President!  A slow, uneventful Friday for you, I see. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Welcome, Mr. President!  A slow, uneventful Friday for you, I see. --[[Larry Sanger]]----
> Hmm...Seemed like a nice fella. Real respectful. Didn't stay 'round fer very long though. I'm guessin' they do things differunt here in CypherSpace ;-). I wished they woulda briefed me before sendin' me here.
> 
> 
> And Al Gore thinks <b>he</b>'s the only one who invented the Internet. Gee- I do think I'm seeing the media comin after all--:-). Now we'll see who cun bring his horse to water and make him drink!!!
------
Algorithms|986019979
5c5
< As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclides]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of to numbers A and B:
---
> As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclid]], and thus known as the [[Euclidean Algorithm]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of to [[natural numbers]] A and B:
------
Socialism/Talk|986022835
45a46,51
> ----
> To the above, I am indeed asserting that socialism is workable.  I don't feel the need to move to a different forum, because regardless of what sort of evidence you have, I don't see how it can be conclusive and overwhelming when working socialisms have actually existed.
> 
> As for the USSR, try comparing it to other ''Russian'' governments.  The tsars ruled over a poor and primarily agricultural country.  Modern Russia is in sufficiently bad shape that many people are considering a return to what is, regardless of economics, undoubtedly a cruel tyranny.  Yet under Stalin, the country was significantly industrialized, and I have heard of no major crises that were not deliberate (dictatorship being a problem, but a different one).  Perhaps communism in its decline is no comparison for capitalism in its flower, but clearly initiative had been lost - where were the five year plans, for instance - and at its height the Soviet Union was a power to be reckoned with.
> 
> In any case, the failure of that one country at best shows socialism does not work in all circumstances.  Does it speak to us about the doom of democratic socialism or libertarian socialism?  Does it somehow invalidate the evidence provided by Sweden and its kin?  Any proof that socialism does not work is in direct conflict, not with opinions, with ''facts''.  Those are hard to argue against.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986023222
41a42,43
> 
> ''These are all very partisan responses.  There are partisan responses to them, and partisan responses to those, and so on endlessly.  I'd like to avoid the whole thing and point out I merely stated they were all controversial, and I think there can be no dispute on that.  Your claim that more government is an intrinsically bad thing is far from a univeral sentiment - nor are the claims that feminism is unequal, relations with other countries don't matter, that environmentalism is paranoia, or even that tax reductions are good (though I had listed that under plus).  Give me a break!''
------
Collectable_card_game|986024358
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[trading card game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Trading card game]]
------
Computer_game|986024649
1,32c1
< [[Computer]] games are simply using a computer to play a [[game]].
< 
< Computer games can be categorized in one or more of the following categories:
< 
< * [[Turn based game]]
< * [[Continuous game]]
< 
< * [[Two dimensional]] - [[2d]]
< ** Fixed screen
< ** Scrolling screen
< *** Horizontal scrolling
< **** Left to right scrolling - as you move to the right, you cannot move back to the left
< *** Vertical scrolling
< ** Pseudo 2d
< * [[Three dimensional]] - [[3d]]
< ** Pseudo 3d
< ** [[Fixed 3d]]
< ** On the rails
< ** Cut scenes
< 
< * [[First person]]
< ** [[First person shooter]]
< * [[Third person]]
< 
< <b>Special note about computerization of existing board games: </b>Most popular board games have been computerized to some degree or another.  [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven  , by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
< 
< ----
< 
< ''Most references you will find separate out videogames, arcade games, and computer games into different categories.  Do we want to do that?  I'd vote no (and you'd be right), but since it seems kind of standard, somebody might want to disagree.  Most pages - or at least those on game history - tend to be about the hardware and companies anyway.  It would be cool if this could end up different.''
< 
< ''With videogames consoles getting ever more powerful and taking on former PC strongholds (the web, content creation, programming even..) and games migrating every which way, the seperation of hardware platforms is quite arbitrary and damaging. Let us be platform agnostic - it's the games that matter.''
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Video game]]
------
Video_game|986024971
0a1,4
> Games played on electronic devices.  Often ''video game'' is taken in a narrow sense to mean those games played on consoles for television and similar handhelds, with computer games and arcade games treated separately.  This is because the early games of these three tended to be very different.  However, now there is considerable similarity between them, and many games have appeared on more than one platform.
> 
> Below are some of the main genres of video games.  This list could be improved on, and the titles relisted to those of great importance.  Video games can also be categorized temporally - one may be a [[turn based game]] or a [[continuous game]] - or in terms of the sort of display they have - [[2d]], [[3d]], [[fixed 3d]], and so forth - though these tend to be more flexible.  Of course all of these categories are somewhat overlapping and incomplete.
> 
------
Video_game|986025040
79a80,81
> ----
> Traditional
80a83,85
> Most popular [[board game]]s, [[card game]]s, and the like have been computerized to some degree or another.
> 
> [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven, by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
------
WikiPediaBugs|986025248
41a42,44
> 
> ----
> I think maybe the redirect might not be canonizing capitalization.  See for instance [[Computer games]], which when I looked at it pointed to [[computer game]] and went to that page - not to [[Computer game]], which it should have.
------
Video_game|986025262
85c85,87
< [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven, by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
---
> [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven, by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
> ----
> ''Nitpick: I would disagree with redirecting "computer game" to "video game."  Plainly, not all computer games are video games, as anyone who recognizes "phlug" and "a hollow voice says..." knows very well.  If anything, the broader genus is indeed "computer game."  Anyway, I'd say both deserve their own pages.  MHO.''
------
Video_game|986026049
87c87,91
< ''Nitpick: I would disagree with redirecting "computer game" to "video game."  Plainly, not all computer games are video games, as anyone who recognizes "phlug" and "a hollow voice says..." knows very well.  If anything, the broader genus is indeed "computer game."  Anyway, I'd say both deserve their own pages.  MHO.''
---
> ''Nitpick: I would disagree with redirecting "computer game" to "video game."  Plainly, not all computer games are video games, as anyone who recognizes "phlug" and "a hollow voice says..." knows very well.  If anything, the broader genus is indeed "computer game."  Anyway, I'd say both deserve their own pages.  MHO.''
> 
> Video game is generally considered to be broader - people often refer to Quake as a video game, people never refer to Mario as a computer game.  See for instance the [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/21/2018208&mode=thread recent /. article] - it's never mentioned whether or not computer games are responsible for violence.  Etymologically you'd be more correct, but people rarely worry about that sort of thing when they talk.
> 
> The separation of the two is certainly canon, and I agree that it makes good sense for older games.  The problem is that the distinction necessarily carries itself forward to the present, where it becomes a harmful anachronism.  Games slip back and forth all the time, and Mario and Goldeneye pair up far better with Keen and Quake then which each other.  Emulators make things even worse.  This merging was brought about by the suggestion we be platform agnostic, and I can't say I disagree - there's plenty of room for separation when talking about genres or history.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Artificial_neural_network|986026907
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adrian, are you interested in changing this page?
> 
> (Dear Wikipedians: If this page doesn't contain anything more meaningful by the end of April 2001, feel free to remove it, tobias :-)
------
Video_game|986027155
89c89
< Video game is generally considered to be broader - people often refer to Quake as a video game, people never refer to Mario as a computer game.  See for instance the [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/21/2018208&mode=thread recent /. article] - it's never mentioned whether or not computer games are responsible for violence.  Etymologically you'd be more correct, but people rarely worry about that sort of thing when they talk.
---
> Video game is generally considered to be broader - people often refer to Quake as a video game, people never refer to Mario as a computer game.  See for instance the [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/21/2018208&mode=thread recent /. article] - it's never mentioned whether or not computer games are responsible for violence.  Etymologically you'd be more correct, but people rarely worry about that sort of thing when they talk.  Heck, note Zork and Ultima were already here.
------
Artificial_neural_network|986027613
1c1
< Adrian, are you interested in changing this page?
---
> Adrian, are you interested in changing this page? Just go ahead and click on the "edit this page right now" link... (You can (and should) make links to other pages like the existing page on [[Science]], or to not yet existing pages like [[Artificial neural network simulator]])
3c3,13
< (Dear Wikipedians: If this page doesn't contain anything more meaningful by the end of April 2001, feel free to remove it, tobias :-)
---
> List are also a very nice tool.
> * topic one
> * topic two
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> ----
> 
> Dear Wikipedians: If this page doesn't contain anything more meaningful by the end of April 2001, feel free to remove it. It is meant to getting a collegue interested in Wikipedia, tobias :-)
------
Socialism/Talk|986027752
51c51,65
< In any case, the failure of that one country at best shows socialism does not work in all circumstances.  Does it speak to us about the doom of democratic socialism or libertarian socialism?  Does it somehow invalidate the evidence provided by Sweden and its kin?  Any proof that socialism does not work is in direct conflict, not with opinions, with ''facts''.  Those are hard to argue against.
---
> In any case, the failure of that one country at best shows socialism does not work in all circumstances.  Does it speak to us about the doom of democratic socialism or libertarian socialism?  Does it somehow invalidate the evidence provided by Sweden and its kin?  Any proof that socialism does not work is in direct conflict, not with opinions, with ''facts''.  Those are hard to argue against.
> ----
> I disagree.  I think that the facts, seriously studied by serious people, are conclusive.  What is needed is a serious measure of degree of socialistic control of the economy and a metric of success.  When this is done properly, the evidence is striking.  Even done -improperly-, one is required to evade or ignore quite a bit to get any other result.
> 
> It's been a long time, but if you provoke me enough :-), I'll have to look up the serious academic studies of this issue.
> 
> Socialism can't work for a reason that most non-economists have a hard time grasping -- the economic calculation problem.  This isn't about rights and justice or anything like that.
> 
> Of course, I'm leaving aside the most important reason that socialism can't work -- any serious definition of "working" would have to include respect for individual rights as a criterion for success, in my book, because politics is grounded in morality, and morality demands that we not use force to control people's lives in precisely the way that socialism demands.
> 
> What I'm saying is -- even leaving aside the obvious grave moral failings of a system rooted in command-and-control -- socialism can't work (and doesn't work, as amply proven by the evidence, seriously studied) because of the economic calculation problem.
> 
> You can disagree, of course!  But your disagreement will sound to the broad consensus of economists as kooky as the disagreement of the creationist who makes goofy claims about evolution based on hoary old fallacies disproven long ago.
> 
> There is a fact of the matter, and serious people have studied it.  Random opinions are no more valid in economics than they are in biology or any other science.
------
Janet_Davis|986027841
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Janet Davis is new to Wikipedia, and an expert on beads and bead weaving.  She's linked to us from her webpage, and has invited her community to help fill in the encyclopedia in this area.  Awesome!
------
Socialism/Talk|986028101
26a27,34
> 
> <b>I let this slide earlier, but I have to comment now.  No serious modern supporter of capitalism (nor any historical supporter of whom I am aware) has ever said anything like this.
> Under capitalism people are left alone to pursue whatever motives they like -- profit is not defined monetarily, but in whatever terms people choose!  Some people may choose to work solely for money (but almost no on ever does).  You may work for whatever reason you desire, and freely trade the product of your labors with whomever you may desire.  What capitalist theorist say that you ought not to be able to do is use force to make other people supply you with what you want.
> 
> It's simply a very freshman error to claim this about capitalism.
> Serious theorists of all stripes do not make this error.  (Political activists often do, of course.)
> </b>
> 
65c73
< There is a fact of the matter, and serious people have studied it.  Random opinions are no more valid in economics than they are in biology or any other science.
---
> There is a fact of the matter, and serious people have studied it.  Random opinions are no more valid in economics than they are in biology or any other science.
------
Socialism/Talk|986028974
66a67,68
> ''Admittedly I am not an economist.  But when ordinary evidence contradicts something, all the credentials of the author and brilliance of their arguments suddently become irrelevant.  I can disprove Aristotle's physics with a bowl and some water, though he thought it out in detail and I am by no means as great a man as he.  Now, what you have not explained to me is this: how can it be claimed that socialism can't work, when there are actual examples of working socialism?  Sweden, Mycenae...are you just going to ignore these?''
> 
68a71,72
> ''That's not usually what is meant by it - for instance, dictatorship is generally held to work, and in fact is often quite brilliant at achieving its goals, which simply happen be at frequent odds with those of the people.  But in any case this is an infinitely less objective criterion, as many people have different definitions of rights.  Thus some would claim that socialism is the only working system, since others allow inequities that many consider to be a violation of the right to equality.''
> 
73a78,79
> 
> ''As stated above, it's not a random opinion, but rather one based on evidence.  No matter how carefully constructed an argument is, no matter how clever the people who hold a consensus, it is invalid the moment a counter-example shows up.  That's nothing akin to creationism, that's the scientific method.  And it is hard to see the existence of something as anything but a counter-example to claims of its non-existence.''
------
Socialism/Talk|986029812
28c28
< <b>I let this slide earlier, but I have to comment now.  No serious modern supporter of capitalism (nor any historical supporter of whom I am aware) has ever said anything like this.
---
> I let this slide earlier, but I have to comment now.  No serious modern supporter of capitalism (nor any historical supporter of whom I am aware) has ever said anything like this.
33c33,36
< </b>
---
> 
> ''Few modern supporters of capitalism have said this because it is a criticism of the system.  I can't be so sure about serious theorists, because I'm not sure how the term is meant- very often the distinction between them and crackpots is drawn based on the conclusions they reached, rather than the methodologies, so it is possible that merely being a proponent of a non-capitalist system means one is not serious, regardless of the qualities of one's arguments.  I hope this is not how the term is being used.''
> 
> ''As for profit, it is all very well and good to say it is non-monetary, and defined in terms of whatever terms you want.  But I have yet to see any economists talk much about anything other than money, property, and other assets to which a material value can be pegged.  Whatever the theory, in practice the primary motive in all exemplary capitalists systems is monetary, and it is a fact that all of the above phenomena have occured as a result.  So it is not a mistake to criticize at least current capitalist systems on those grounds.''
79c82
< ''As stated above, it's not a random opinion, but rather one based on evidence.  No matter how carefully constructed an argument is, no matter how clever the people who hold a consensus, it is invalid the moment a counter-example shows up.  That's nothing akin to creationism, that's the scientific method.  And it is hard to see the existence of something as anything but a counter-example to claims of its non-existence.''
---
> ''As stated above, it's not a random opinion, but rather one based on evidence.  No matter how carefully constructed an argument is, no matter how clever the people who hold a consensus, it is invalid the moment a counter-example shows up.  That's nothing akin to creationism, that's the scientific method.  And it is hard to see the existence of something as anything but a counter-example to claims of its non-existence.''
------
Continuous_game|986033106
1c1
< A <i>continuous game</i> is a [[game]] without pauses, turns or other stopping points.
---
> A <i>continuous game</i> is a [[game]] without pauses, turns or other stopping points, also known as real time.
3c3,5
< Examples of some [[realtime strategy game]]s are <i>Command and Conquer</i>, <i>Red Alert</i>, <i>Starcraft</i>, and <i>Age of Empires</i>.
---
> Most [[Video game|video games]] are now in real time, but it wasn't that long ago that any game more complex than Pac Man would have been turn based.
> 
> Examples of some [[realtime strategy game]]s are [[Command and Conquer]], [[Red Alert]], [[StarCraft]], and [[Age of Empires]].
------
Vostok_1|986033165
2,5d1
< 
< There have been rumors that other astronauts preceded Gagarin but died in flight, and that these missions were never reported by the Soviet military.
< 
< ''The Russians probably would have tried a cover-up, but do we have any reason to believe they did?  After all, they had done a series of tests with dogs, and the American first attempt went fine.  There are a million rumors about the Russian military and a milion conspiracy theories besides, and they are mostly false.''
------
Video_game|986033926
9,17c9,14
< : [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< : [[Manic Mansion]]
< : [[Zack McCracken]]
< : [[Zork]]
< : [[Sam and Max]]
< : [[Monkey Island]] series
< 
< 3D:
< 
---
> * [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> * [[Manic Mansion]]
> * [[Zack McCracken]]
> * [[Zork]]
> * [[Sam and Max]]
> * [[Monkey Island]] series
91a89,90
> ----
> /Talk
------
2984/New_speak|986034340
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. I vaguely recall a long essay about it tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language. 
------
Video_game/Talk|986034700
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> But how to pigeonhole games by genre?
> There are so many examples of series that span many genre's and styles, that appear at first glance to be one thing, but are in fact another.
> Take for example the [[Tomb Raider]] entry, the fact that the first 3 instalments are [[3d]] doesn't make it a 3d series, "huh?!?" there is a [[2d]] [[Game Boy| Game Boy Color]] Tomb Raider.
> But that's just the beginning.
> A better example again is [[Panzer Dragoon]], the first two games were on the rail shooters, the third, Panzer Dragoon Saga was an [[RPG]].
> Best yet is [[Super Mario]]; [[2d]] [[platform game]]? or [[3d]] platform game? or kart racing game? or all three and then some more.
> 
> I haven't the answer, perhaps games that aren't so readily defined should he left just that, undefined.
> --[[Neeklamy]]
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|986034703
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[J.R.R Tolkein]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
> 
> It would be interesting to hear from anyone with a good knowledge of language and linguistics who has looked at Sindarin. What relationship does it have to real-world languages?
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|986034742
1c1
< A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[J.R.R Tolkein]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
---
> A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkein]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|986034764
1c1
< A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkein]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
---
> A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
------
Video_game|986034782
84,89d83
< ''Nitpick: I would disagree with redirecting "computer game" to "video game."  Plainly, not all computer games are video games, as anyone who recognizes "phlug" and "a hollow voice says..." knows very well.  If anything, the broader genus is indeed "computer game."  Anyway, I'd say both deserve their own pages.  MHO.''
< 
< Video game is generally considered to be broader - people often refer to Quake as a video game, people never refer to Mario as a computer game.  See for instance the [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/21/2018208&mode=thread recent /. article] - it's never mentioned whether or not computer games are responsible for violence.  Etymologically you'd be more correct, but people rarely worry about that sort of thing when they talk.  Heck, note Zork and Ultima were already here.
< 
< The separation of the two is certainly canon, and I agree that it makes good sense for older games.  The problem is that the distinction necessarily carries itself forward to the present, where it becomes a harmful anachronism.  Games slip back and forth all the time, and Mario and Goldeneye pair up far better with Keen and Quake then which each other.  Emulators make things even worse.  This merging was brought about by the suggestion we be platform agnostic, and I can't say I disagree - there's plenty of room for separation when talking about genres or history.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
< ----
------
Computer_game|986034894
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Video game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Video game]]
------
Video_game/Talk|986035024
0a1,8
> ''Nitpick: I would disagree with redirecting "computer game" to "video game."  Plainly, not all computer games are video games, as anyone who recognizes "phlug" and "a hollow voice says..." knows very well.  If anything, the broader genus is indeed "computer game."  Anyway, I'd say both deserve their own pages.  MHO.''
> 
> Video game is generally considered to be broader - people often refer to Quake as a video game, people never refer to Mario as a computer game.  See for instance the [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/21/2018208&mode=thread recent /. article] - it's never mentioned whether or not computer games are responsible for violence.  Etymologically you'd be more correct, but people rarely worry about that sort of thing when they talk.  Heck, note Zork and Ultima were already here.
> 
> The separation of the two is certainly canon, and I agree that it makes good sense for older games.  The problem is that the distinction necessarily carries itself forward to the present, where it becomes a harmful anachronism.  Games slip back and forth all the time, and Mario and Goldeneye pair up far better with Keen and Quake then which each other.  Emulators make things even worse.  This merging was brought about by the suggestion we be platform agnostic, and I can't say I disagree - there's plenty of room for separation when talking about genres or history.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> 
> ----
> 
9a18,19
> 
> Those examples aren't really cross-genre games, but series that span several genres - particularly the last, since Mario Kart is a different series altogether.  But you have a good point, many games are going to be problematic.  I think probably the best way to handle this would be to just mention them in multiple categories, and for truly unique games (Robot Odyssey) make an other category.  ''Most'' games fall very clearly into one genre or another - platformers, first person shooters, and RPGs have each had hundreds of nearly identical titles.
------
2984/New_speak|986035086
1c1
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. I vaguely recall a long essay about it tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[1984/New speak]]
------
1984/New_speak|986035101
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. I vaguely recall a long essay about it tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language. 
------
Artificial_language|986035139
12c12
< * [[2984/New speak|New speak]]
---
> * [[1984/New speak|New speak]]
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|986035394
1c1
< A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It was the language of the high elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
---
> A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It was the language of the grey elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
3c3
< It would be interesting to hear from anyone with a good knowledge of language and linguistics who has looked at Sindarin. What relationship does it have to real-world languages?
---
> It would be interesting to hear from anyone with a good knowledge of language and linguistics who has looked at Sindarin. What relationship does it have to real-world languages?
------
Code|986035948
8a9
> see also [[morse code]]
------
Morse_code|986036036
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <TABLE>
> <TR>
>     <TD>A</TD>
>     <TD>*-</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>B</TD>
>     <TD>-***</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>C</TD>
>     <TD>-*-*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>D</TD>
>     <TD>-**</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>E</TD>
>     <TD>*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>F</TD>
>     <TD>**-*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>G</TD>
>     <TD>--*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>H</TD>
>     <TD>****</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>I</TD>
>     <TD>**</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>J</TD>
>     <TD>*---</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>K</TD>
>     <TD>
>       <P>-*-</P></TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>L</TD>
>     <TD>*-**</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>M</TD>
>     <TD>--</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>N</TD>
>     <TD>-*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>O</TD>
>     <TD>---</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>P</TD>
>     <TD>*--*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>Q</TD>
>     <TD>--*-</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>R</TD>
>     <TD>*-*</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>S</TD>
>     <TD>***</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>T</TD>
>     <TD>- (3 units)</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>U</TD>
>     <TD>
>       <P>**-</P></TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>V</TD>
>     <TD>
>       <P>***-</P></TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>W</TD>
>     <TD>*--</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>X</TD>
>     <TD>-**-</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>Y</TD>
>     <TD>-*--</TD></TR>
>   <TR>
>     <TD>Z</TD>
>     <TD>--**</TD></TR></TABLE>
------
Sports|986036213
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[sport]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sport]]
------
Sport/Events|986036254
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sports/Events]]
------
Computer_games|986036296
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[computer game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Video game]]
------
Video_game/Talk|986037590
16,18c16,17
< I haven't the answer, perhaps games that aren't so readily defined should he left just that, undefined.
< --[[Neeklamy]]
< 
---
> I haven't the answer, perhaps games that aren't so readily defined should he left just that, undefined.--[[Neeklamy]]
> ----
19a19,20
> ----
> You got me there! But really, there are plenty of actual cross-genre games; how about those shoot em up levels in [[Super Mario|Super Mario Land]], or more recent still, the racing in [[Shenmue]]. Slight diversions maybe, but the last few years have seen more games tackling several genres, probably the best known example is [[Final Fantasy VII]]. --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Bridge|986038574
50c50
< Sorry, time's up. I will leave the counting of downtricks for another time.
---
> If a pair goes down, their opponents score points above the line. If the pair is not vulnerable, their opponents get 50 points per undertrick, if it is vulnerable 100 points per undertrick.
51a52,59
> <h3>Doubling</h3>
> If a pair is doubled, and makes their contract, they get double points for all tricks bid, while overtricks score extra - 100 points per overtrick if not vulnerable, 200 points if vulnerable. Furthermore, the pair gets 50 points bonus 'for the insult'. All these values are doubled again if the contract was redoubled. The slam bonuses are not influenced by a double, nor are the rubber bonuses - although the latter are of course influenced by the fact that there are more scores below the line, and thus games are reached faster.
> 
> If a pair is doubled and goes down, the penalty (points to the other pair) are as follows:
> * If the pair is not vulnerable, 100 for the first downtrick, 200 for the second and third, and 300 for each subsequent downtrick.
> * If the pair is vulnerable, 200 for the first downtrick, and 300 for each following one.
> 
> These scores are also doubled again if the contract was redoubled.
------
Game_Boy|986039966
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The hardware
> * Game Boy - the original 8bit
> ** Super Game Boy - not a Game Boy portable, but a plugin cartridge for the Super Nintendo, it was the first Game Boy to offer color games (although with a very limited palette) A few games for both Game Boy and Super Game Boy were bought out, but it has since been ignored 
> ** Game Boy Pocket - smaller, neater unit
> ** Game Boy Light - only seen in Japan, same size as the Pocket, but has a backlit screen, not sure what the battery life is like can't be much though!
> ** Game Boy Color - most recent update to the 8bit range of Game Boy, the processor has doubled in speed, has twice as much memory and, naturally has a color screen
> * Game Boy Advance - 32bit overhaul of the winning formula. Technically likened to the [[Super Nintendo]] and backed up with supperior ports of classics such as [[Super Mario|Super Mario Bros. 2]], Super Mario Kart and F-Zero alongside new titles such as [[Kuru Kuru Kuruin]]
> 
> The Game Boy series took [[Nintendo]] to another place altogether.
> As massive as the NES was in its heyday, it had a natural life span and was obsoleted by other machines from both Nintendo and its rivals. The Game Boy however is quite unique, yes, it had rivals in the [[SEGA]] [[Game Gear]] and the [[Atari Lynx]] were the two most likely (although they were, and have been many more wannabees), but they were seen off by the highly competitive and economic system.
> With machines selling by the millions (100 million and counting) a well documented system and a typically short development cycle mean that there are thousands of games available.
------
Super_Nintendo|986040459
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Nintendo]] at its finest? probably. Whereas the [[Game Boy]] has sold more and has outlived its technically superior brethren, the SNES saw the creation of some of the finest videogames, by both Nintendo and the many hundreds of developers that came to it.
> 
> * Super Mario Kart - the racing game by which others are still being measured
> * Zelda III A Link to the Past - forget the first two installments, this defines the series
> * Super Mario World
> * Super Contra
> * Castlevania IV
> 
------
Bridge|986041504
30c30
< <h3>Score for making</h3>
---
> <b>Score for making</b>
41c41
< <h3>Game and Rubber</h3>
---
> <b>Game and Rubber</b>
44c44
< <h3>Vulnerability and slam bonus</h3>
---
> <b>Vulnerability and slam bonus</b>
49c49
< <h3>Downtricks</h3>
---
> <b>Downtricks</b>
52c52
< <h3>Doubling</h3>
---
> <b>Doubling</b>
59a60,94
> 
> <h3>Scoring - Duplicate Bridge</h3>
> 
> In duplicate bridge, which is what is normally played on a club or tournament, each hand is played on itself, and not as part of a rubber. This changes (and simplifies) the scoring as described above.
> 
> In duplicate bridge, if the required number of tricks for the contract has been made, the pair gets a number of points for the tricks bid and the overtricks as described above (20 per trick above 6 in clubs/diamonds, 30 per trick in hearts/spades, 30 per trick plus 10 bonus in No Trump, possibly doubled or redoubled). If the number actually ''bid'' is enough to score 100 points or more, a game has been made, which scores 300 when not vulnerable and 500 when vulnerable. If it is lower, the score is not carried over to the next hand, but there is a 'part score' bonus of 50 points.
> 
> The bonus for slam, the bonus 'for the insult' and the scores for downtricks and doubled overtricks are the same as described above.
> 
> In duplicate bridge, in every series of four deals, the vulnerabilities of 'all vulnerable', 'none vulnerable', 'vulnerable against not vulnerable' and 'not vulnerable against vulnerable' will all occur once, in a predetermined order.
> 
> <h3>Duplicate Bridge</h3>
> 
> Like all other [[Card game|card games]], the score in bridge is dependant on one's cards. To diminish this effect, and make Bridge less a game of chance and more a game of skill, in clubs and tournaments one's score is not looked at on its own, but compared to that of others who played the same deals. There are two major systems: Pairs and teams games.
> 
> <b>Pairs games</b>
> 
> In a pairs game, each deal is played a number of times, after which all the scores are compared. Each pair scores 2 points for each other pair that with the same hand scored less points (or had their opponents score more points), and 1 point for each other pair that scored the same number of points. These points are added over a number of games to determine the winner. Scores are usually given in percentages; 100% means that the pair scored more than any other pair on all the hands, 50% means that it scored a dead average in the tournament.
> 
> <b>Teams games</b>
> 
> In a teams game, a pair is part of a team of two pairs. Each deal is played twice, and the second time the other pair of the team plays the cards that were played by the opponents the first time. Of course the teams may not discuss the deals between the two plays. After each deal has been played twice, the scores per deal are compared, and a score is given depending on the total score in the two times playing. For example, if one pair scores +1000 on a deal, and their team mates score -980, then the team's score on that deal is +20.
> 
> <h3>Bidding Systems and Conventions</h3>
> 
> A pair is allowed to try to pass information about their hands, but this is restricted in two ways:
> 
> * Information may ''only'' be passed by the bids made and the cards played, not by anything else.
> * All information must be fully explained to the opponents.
> 
> Thus, one may have all kind of meanings for biddings, as long as they are told to the opponents.
> 
> The meaning of the various bids in a partnership are called that partnership's ''bidding system''. There exist a number of different bidding systems, such as [[Goren]], [[ACOL]], [[Standard American]], [[strong clubs]] etcetera.
> 
> A bid that means something different than a certain range of points and length in the suit bid and/or a willingness to play in that suit, is called a ''convention''. Many conventions have been invented, some of the most famous are [[Stayman]], [[Jacoby transfers]] and [[Blackwood]].
------
Bridge|986041558
41a42
> 
44a46
> 
49a52
> 
52a56
> 
------
Bridge|986041748
1c1
< Bridge is a [[trick taking]] card game for four players (please follow the link if you do not know what trick taking is), which form two teams. The players of one team sit opposit one another. Game play is in two phases: bidding and playing.
---
> Bridge is a [[Trick-taking games|trick taking]] card game for four players (please follow the link if you do not know what trick taking is), which form two teams. The players of one team sit opposit one another. Game play is in two phases: bidding and playing.
------
Bridge|986041779
1c1
< Bridge is a [[Trick-taking games|trick taking]] card game for four players (please follow the link if you do not know what trick taking is), which form two teams. The players of one team sit opposit one another. Game play is in two phases: bidding and playing.
---
> Bridge is a [[Trick-taking_game|trick taking]] card game for four players (please follow the link if you do not know what trick taking is), which form two teams. The players of one team sit opposit one another. Game play is in two phases: bidding and playing.
------
Trick-taking_game|986041925
3c3
< A common feature of trick-taking games is the concept of <i>following suit</i>, in which each player is constrained in which card he may play by the obligation to match the suit of the first card played in that trick, called the <i>lead</i>, if he can.  Another feature common to many games is the concept of <i>trump</i> (from the French <i>triomphe</i>, although the idea probably originated in [[Italy]]), in which special cards (sometimes all the cards of a certain suit) are designated to outrank all other cards played.
---
> A common feature of trick-taking games is the concept of <i>following suit</i>, in which each player is constrained in which card he may play by the obligation to match the suit of the first card played in that trick, called the <i>lead</i>, if he can.  Another feature common to many games is the concept of <i>trump</i> (from the French <i>triomphe</i>, although the idea probably originated in [[Italy]]), in which special cards (sometimes all the cards of a certain suit) are designated to outrank all other cards played. In general, the player who wins the trick is the player who played the highest trump, or, if no trump is played, the player who played the highest card in the suit that was led. In most games the player who won the previous trick, has to lead on the next one.
------
Ikhthus|986042216
1c1
< One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol which adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as eminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhtus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Upsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Roman alphabet characters) is regarded as an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Roman alphabet characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
---
> One of the signs for [[Christianity]] is the fish. The reason for this is that some early societies of Christians protected themselves and their congregations by keeping their meetings secret.  In order to point the way to ever-changing meeting places, they developed a symbol which adherents would readily recognize, and which they could scratch on rocks, walls and the like, in advance of a meeting.  The fish was chosen as eminently apropos.  The Greek word for fish, ''ikhthus'', spelled, in Greek characters, Iota-Chi-Theta-Upsilon-Sigma (Looks like IXOYE in Roman alphabet characters) is regarded as an acronym for ''I&egrave;&egrave;s&ograve;&ograve;s Khristos Theou hUios S&ograve;&ograve;ter'', (or, in Roman alphabet characters, Iesou (Jesus) Christos (annointed) Theou (of God) Uios (son) Soter (saviour)) which means ''Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour''.
------
Other_games|986042401
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[unclassified game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Unclassified game]]
------
Wikipedians|986042588
33a34
> * [[Andre Engels]]
------
N64|986045544
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the unprecendented success of the [[Game Boy]] series and the [[Super Nintendo]] much was expected of the N64.
> Subjected to heavy delays and many name changes, the N64 was eventually released with the exceptional [[Super Mario|Super Mario 64]], Wave Race, and well, not much else.
> Starved for much of its life of the steady stream of games that the [[Sony]] [PlayStation]] saw, the N64 was equally condemned by the generally misinformed as being a "kiddie console". Despite this, the N64 has actually done very well, it strongly sits in second place to the [[PlayStation]]'s lead, for both hardware, and often better still with the software.
> 
> Whilst not being home to as many AAA games as the [[Super Nintendo|SNES]] and lacking the essential breath of life that is third party support, it still see's some of the finest videogaming events ever.
> From multiplayer skirmishes in [[GoldenEye]], to the warped world of Super Mario and the beautifully realised worlds and inhabitants of The Legend of Zelda Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask.
> 
> Apart from Nintendo's own in-house development, the second party developer, Rareware have also produced a steady stream of top quality titles. From their first, the exceptional Blast Corps., through GoldenEye, Banjo Tooie, Perfect Dark, Jet Force Gemini, [[Donkey Kong| Donky Kong 64]] to the more recent Conkers Bad Fur Day.
------
Nintendo|986045699
6c6
< * Nintendo Entertainment System (rest of world) / Famicom (Japan)
---
> * [[NES|Nintendo Entertainment System]] (rest of world) / Famicom (Japan)
8,13c8
< * Game Boy - the original smash hit
< ** Super Game Boy - not a Game Boy portable, but a plugin cartridge for the Super Nintendo, it was the first Game Boy to offer color games (although with a very limited palette) A few games for both Game Boy and Super Game Boy were bought out, but it has since been ignored
< ** Game Boy Pocket - smaller, neater unit
< ** Game Boy Light - only seen in Japan, same size as the Pocket, but has a backlit screen, not sure what the battery life is like can't be much though!
< ** Game Boy Color - most recent update to the 8bit range of Game Boy, the processor has doubled in speed, has twice as much memory and, naturally has a color screen
< ** Game Boy Advance - 32bit overhaul of the winning formula
---
> * [[Game Boy]] - the original smash hit
15,16c10,11
< * Super Nintendo aka Super NES (rest of world) / Super Famicom (Japan)
< * Nintendo N64 - [[2d]] is dead, or is it? let's hope not
---
> * [[Super Nintendo]] aka Super NES (rest of world) / Super Famicom (Japan)
> * [[N64|Nintendo N64]] - [[2d]] is dead, or is it? the N64 saw Nintendo fully embrace the 3d game worlds that Starfox, Pilotwings, and Super Mario Kart only pretended to be
20,37d14
< The Game & Watch devices saw some of Nintendo's best loved characters develop, namely Donkey Kong and the Mario Brothers. The NES was the real hit though, originally released in its native homeland as the Famicom (Family Computer), the styling is the other great difference. For those used to the west's bulky, front loading, VCR style unit, the top loading Japanese unit comes as quite a surprise. At its peak, the NES was the word for videogames and was as widespread as its great influence, the VCR.
< 
< The Game Boy series took Nintendo to another place altogether. As massive as the NES was in its heyday, it had a natural life span and was obsoleted by other machines from both Nintendo and its rivals.
< The Game Boy however is quite unique, yes, it had rivals, SEGA Game Gear and and Atari Lynx were the two most likely (although they were, and have been many more wanabees), but they were seen off by the highly competitive and economic system.
< With machines selling by the millions (100 million and counting) a well documented system and a typically short development cycle mean that there are thousands of games available, it isn't going anytime soon.
< 
< SNES: Nintendo at its finest? probably. Whereas the Game Boy has sold more and has outlived its technically superior brethren, the SNES saw the creation of some of the finest videogames, by both Nintendo and the many hundreds of developers that came to it.
< * Super Mario Kart - the racing game by which others are still being measured
< * Zelda III A Link to the Past - forget the first two installments, this defines the series
< * Super Mario World
< * Super Contra
< * Castlevania IV
< 
< After the unprecendented success of the Game Boy series of machines, and the Super Nintendo much was expected of the N64.
< Subjected to heavy delays and many name changes, the N64 was eventually released with the exceptional Super Mario 64, Wave Race, and well, not much else. Starved for much of its life of the steady stream of games that the Sony PlayStation saw, the N64 was equally condemned by the generally misinformed as being a "kiddie console".
< Despite this, the N64 has actually done very well, it strongly sits in second place to the PlayStation's lead, for both hardware, and often better still with the software.
< Whilst not being home to as many AAA games as the SNES and lacking the essential breath of life that is third party support, it still see's some of the finest videogaming events ever. From multiplayer skirmishes in GoldenEye, to the warped world of Super Mario and the beautifully realised world of The Legend of Zelda Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask.
< 
42c19
< * Donkey Kong - one of Nintendo's original arcade games, back when they developed for the arcades
---
> * [[Donkey Kong]] - one of Nintendo's original arcade games, back when they developed for the arcades
------
Engineering|986049706
20a21
> *[[Thermodynamics]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|986049944
43a44,45
> <b>Redirects and canonized names:</b> <i>(fixed for next release)</i>
> 
44a47,48
> 
> :At this time (March 31, 2001) the canonization code is very incomplete on Wikipedia.  This is one of the unhandled cases.  The fix for this and several other cases is in the development UseModWiki code, which I hope to release (as 0.92) by mid-late April 2001 (CE :-).  See [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details.  --CliffordAdams
------
Thermodynamics|986050036
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 0th-law:
> * Thermal Equilibrium
> 
> 1st-law:
> * Convervation of Energy
> 
> 2nd-law:
> * Degradation of Energy (irreversibilities)
> *"Nothing goes without loss"
> * concept of [[Entropy]] (s)
> * T.ds = du + p.dv
> * T.ds = dh - v.dp
------
Tobias_Hoevekamp|986050601
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tobias Hoevekamp is a Ph.D. student in the institute of [http://www.vt.ilw.agrl.ethz.ch Food Process Engineering] at the [http://www..ethz.ch Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich]. He started out his Ph.D. work in the field of numerics ([[Computational Fluid Dynamic]]s tackled by the [[Finite Element Method]]). In an intermediate state of his work, experimental work on producing emulsions within porous media was added to his objectives which became the focal point lately.
> 
> He got fascinated by the drive of free software and is convinced that the philosophy behind free licences like the [[GPL]] will have a significant influence on our life. He is pleased to see that this philosophy fertilizes already areas outside its primary field of application as indicated with the emergence of the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] and - for example - [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> He sees the main advantage of free software (and likewise free knowledge and free speech) in the utilization of [[Synergy]] which seems to be unparallized in human's history. Tobias likes
> to compare the evolution of nature with the evolution of the [[Noosphere]]. Both form complex structures that are apparently self-organizing. [[Entropy]] is considered a good concept for explaining the emergence of structures. Tobias thinks that utilizing the concept of [[Synergy]] will provide a much better explanation for the both, the evolution of the nature and the evolution of the [[Noosphere]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
>   
------
Video_game|986051109
5,15c5,12
< Adventure Games:
< 
< traditional:
< 
< * [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< * [[Manic Mansion]]
< * [[Zack McCracken]]
< * [[Zork]]
< * [[Sam and Max]]
< * [[Monkey Island]] series
< * [[Tomb Raider]]
---
> * [[/Adventure|ADVENTURE]]
> ** [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> ** [[Manic Mansion]]
> ** [[Zack McCracken]]
> ** [[Zork]] series
> ** [[Sam and Max]]
> ** [[Monkey Island]] series
> ** [[Tomb Raider]] series
19,28c16,24
< Roleplaying Games:
< 
< * [[Dungeon Master]]
< * [[Hack]]
< * [[Ultima]] series
< * [[Ambermoon]]
< * [[Amberstar]]
< * [[Final Fantasy]]
< * [[Pokemon]]
< * [[Legend of Zelda]]
---
> * [[/RPG|ROLE PLAYING]] (RPG)
> ** [[Dungeon Master]] series
> ** [[Hack]]
> ** [[Ultima]] series
> ** [[Ambermoon]]
> ** [[Amberstar]]
> ** [[Final Fantasy]] series
> ** [[Pokemon]] series
> ** [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
32,41c28,43
< First Person Shooters (FPS):
< 
< * [[Quake]] series
< * [[Unreal]]
< * [[Half Life]]
< * [[Doom]] series
< * [[Hexen]]
< * [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< * [[Rise of the Triad]]
< * [[Duke Nukem III-D]]
---
> * [[/Shoot_em_ups|SHOOT 'EM UPS]]
> ** [[/Scrolling_shooters|SCROLLING]]
> *** [[Space Invaders]]
> *** [[R-Type]] series
> *** [[Gradius]] series
> *** [[Radiant Silvergun]]
> *** [[Bangai-O]]
> ** [[/FPS|FIRST PERSON SHOOTERS]] (FPS)
> *** [[Quake]] series
> *** [[Unreal]] series
> *** [[Half Life]]
> *** [[Doom]] series
> *** [[Hexen]]
> *** [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> *** [[Rise of the Triad]]
> *** [[Duke Nukem 3D]] series
45,58c47,58
< Strategy:
< 
< turn-based:
< * [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
< * [[Battle Isle]] series
< * [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
< 
< real time:
< * [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
< * [[Command and Conquer]]
< * [[Red Alert]]
< * [[Dark Reign]]
< * [[Populous]] series
< * [[StarCraft]]
---
> * [[/Strategy|STRATEGY]]
> ** [[/Turn_based|TURN BASED]]
> *** [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
> *** [[Battle Isle]] series
> *** [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
> ** [[/Real_time|REAL TIME]] (RTS):
> *** [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
> *** [[Command and Conquer]]
> *** [[Red Alert]]
> *** [[Dark Reign]]
> *** [[Populous]] series
> *** [[StarCraft]]
62,66c62,65
< Platform:
< 
< * [[Super Mario]] series
< * [[Sonic]] series
< * [[Lionheart]]
---
> * [[/Platform|PLATFORM]]
> ** [[Super Mario]] series
> ** [[Sonic]] series
> ** [[Lionheart]]
69d67
< Arcade
71,75c69,72
< * [[Pacman]]
< * [[Space Invaders]]
< * [[Asteroids]]
< * [[Joust]]
< * [[Yars Revenge]]
---
> * [[/Puzzle|PUZZLE]]
> ** [[Tetris]]
> ** [[ChuChu Rocket]]
> ** [[Mr Driller]]
78c75,76
< Traditional
---
> 
> TRADITIONAL
------
Video_game/Talk|986051663
16c16
< I haven't the answer, perhaps games that aren't so readily defined should he left just that, undefined.--[[Neeklamy]]
---
> I haven't the answer, perhaps games that aren't so readily defined should he left just that, undefined. --[[Neeklamy]]
20a21,23
> ----
> Is the video game section going to be exhaustive? I presume so, so each genre now has a subpage.
> I suggest there be no more than half a dozen good examples of each genre on the main page, with the full list being on the specific subpage. --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Synergy|986052161
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are different definitions of synergy. One is:
> 
> "Synergy is the excess steming from cooperation"
> 
> One simple example for synergy is:
> 
> Person A alone is to small to reach an apple on a tree and person B is to small either. Once person B sits on the shoulder of person A, they can reach the apple. In this example, the synergy would be one apple :-)
> 
> Prof. [[Hermann Haken]] founded in the early 70s the field of [[Synergetics]]. He is author of several books including: "Synergetics : an introduction : nonequilibrium phase transitions and self-organization in physics, chemistry, and biology" (ISBN: 0-387-12356-3)
> 
> [[Peter A. Corning]] also wrote on this subject:
> "The synergism hypothesis : a theory of progressive evolution"
> (ISBN: 0-07-013172-4)
------
George_W|986052203
11c11,14
< And Al Gore thinks <b>he</b>'s the only one who invented the Internet. Gee- I do think I'm seeing the media comin after all--:-). Now we'll see who cun bring his horse to water and make him drink!!!
---
> And Al Gore thinks <b>he</b>'s the only one who invented the Internet. Gee- I do think I'm seeing the media comin after all--:-). Now we'll see who cun bring his horse to water and make him drink!!!----
> Yawn...:-0...Looks like I've been sleepin. No matter, I'm gonna lose an hour of sleep tonight. I'm off to the White House... Feelin' as welcome as a skunk at lawn party here.
> But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll inviite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and bring [[Clifford Adams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an A-type..
> B-type..A-type...well ya all know what I mean. Men,, were goin' make a [[White House Wiki]] and a [[Texas Death Row Wiki]] too. I gotta hand it too these guys here...they sure know how to use all this new technography!!!   
------
Paleontology|986052292
4a5,6
> Major areas of study include the division of strata into geologic ages and the study of evolution of lifeforms.  The latter utilizes a classic binomial scheme divised by the mid 18th Century biologist Carl Linneaus.  This has been augmented (some would say 'replaced') by a somewhat controversial alternative known as Cladistics.
> 
------
George_W|986052386
13c13
< But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll inviite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and bring [[Clifford Adams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an A-type..
---
> But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll invite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and rustle up [[CliffordAdams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an A-type..
------
Artificial_neural_network|986052611
13c13
< Dear Wikipedians: If this page doesn't contain anything more meaningful by the end of April 2001, feel free to remove it. It is meant to getting a collegue interested in Wikipedia, tobias :-)
---
> Dear [[Wikipedians]]: If this page doesn't contain anything more meaningful by the end of April 2001, feel free to remove it. It is meant to getting a collegue interested in Wikipedia, tobias :-)
------
Paleontology|986052630
1c1
< Paleontology is the study of ancient plants and animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with Geology -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
---
> Paleontology is the study of ancient plants and animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with [[Geology]] -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
------
Tobias_Hoevekamp|986052676
6c6
< to compare the evolution of nature with the evolution of the [[Noosphere]]. Both form complex structures that are apparently self-organizing. [[Entropy]] is considered a good concept for explaining the emergence of structures. Tobias thinks that utilizing the concept of [[Synergy]] will provide a much better explanation for the both, the evolution of the nature and the evolution of the [[Noosphere]].
---
> to compare the evolution of nature with the evolution of the [[Noosphere]]. Both form complex structures that are apparently self-organizing. [[Entropy]] is considered a good concept for explaining the emergence of structures. Tobias thinks that additionally utilizing the concept of [[Synergy]] will provide a much better explanation for the both, the evolution of the nature and the evolution of the [[Noosphere]].
------
Paleontology|986052877
1c1
< Paleontology is the study of ancient plants and animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with [[Geology]] -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with Botany, Biology, Zoology, and Ecology -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
---
> Paleontology is the study of ancient plants and animals based on the evidence of their existence preserved in rocks.  This includes the study of body fossils, tracks, burrows, cast off parts, and chemical residues.  Paleontology overlaps to some extent with [[Geology]] -- the study of rocks and rock formations and with [[Botany]], [[Biology]], [[Zoology]], and [[Ecology]] -- the study of living creatures and how they interact.
5c5
< Major areas of study include the division of strata into geologic ages and the study of evolution of lifeforms.  The latter utilizes a classic binomial scheme divised by the mid 18th Century biologist Carl Linneaus.  This has been augmented (some would say 'replaced') by a somewhat controversial alternative known as Cladistics.
---
> Major areas of study include the division of strata into [[geologic ages]] and the study of [[evolution]] of lifeforms.  The latter utilizes a classic [[binomial nomenclature]] scheme divised by the mid 18th Century biologist [[Carl Linneaus]].  This has been augmented (some would say 'replaced') by a somewhat controversial alternative known as [[Cladistics]].
7c7
< Paleontologists are among the more colorful and eccentric figures in the history of science.  Important figures include the Englishman William Smith who first noted that similar fossil sequences were found regionally and Georges Cuvier who initiated the study of ancient animals based on living animals.  Legendary American figures include Edward Cope, Orthniel Marsh, Henry Osborne and Charles Walcott.  The swashbuckling movie character Indiana Jones is said to be based loosely on the early 20th Century paleontologist Roy Champman Andrews.
---
> Paleontologists are among the more colorful and eccentric figures in the history of science.  Important figures include the Englishman [[William Smith]] who first noted that similar fossil sequences were found regionally and [[Georges Cuvier]] who initiated the study of ancient animals based on living animals.  Legendary American figures include [[Edward Cope]], [[Orthniel Marsh]], [[Henry Osborne]] and [[Charles Walcott]].  The swashbuckling movie character Indiana Jones is said to be based loosely on the early 20th Century paleontologist [[Roy Champman Andrews]].
9c9
< Paleontology is divided into two major subdivisions.  Invertebrate paleontology deals with simple animals.  Vertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of animals with backbones.  There are many minor specialties such as Paleobotany and Ichnology (the study of tracks and burrows.) 
---
> Paleontology is divided into two major subdivisions.  [[Invertebrate paleontology]] deals with simple animals.  [[Vertebrate paleontology]] deals with fossils of animals with backbones.  There are many minor specialties such as [[Paleobotany]] and [[Ichnology]] (the study of tracks and burrows.) 
------
Tobias_Hoevekamp|986052927
14c14
<   
---
>   
------
Larry_Sanger|986053438
69c69,73
< Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS
---
> Well, we already found that bug, why, ''hours'' before you did :-P, and I confidently predict that Toan will fix it well before noon! --LMS----
> 
> Say...Mr. Sanger I know you are here. I duuno, but I guess this is what [[Virtuall Unreality]] means..;-). Been wonderin about that. Before I head off to [The White House]]
> I came to tell you, I sure gotta hand it to you. This is an enervating place...been busy since I landed. I'm leavin a big [[Texas Handshake]] for ya. Next time were goin both handshake, not just howdie. I'm settin up the [[White House Wiki]] and you are welcome there anytime at all. Oh...and takin [[CliffordAdams]] with me. I just know you won't
> be mindin. By the time ya all get yer boots on, he'll be back. Bye all...come on fellas, we got a haystack a work to do. [[George W]]
------
Video_game/Adventure|986053462
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adventure is such a broad genre, it takes in many game styles and really any subject could be turned to an adventure.
> Typically an adventure is very story driven with characters and locales that are consistant within the game world.
> ----
> * [[Blade Runner/videogame|Blade Runner]]
> * [[Broken Sword]]
> * [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> * [[Diskworld/videogame|Diskworld]] series
> * [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
> * [[Little Big Adventure]] series
> * [[Manic Mansion]]
> * [[Monkey Island]] series
> * [[Sam and Max]]
> * [[Tomb Raider]] series
> * [[Zack McCracken]]
> * [[Zork]] series
------
Larry_Sanger|986053717
73c73
< be mindin. By the time ya all get yer boots on, he'll be back. Bye all...come on fellas, we got a haystack a work to do. [[George W]]
---
> be mindin. By the time ya all get yer boots on, he'll be back. Bye all...come on fellas, we got a haystack a work to do. Had a real good time here- [[George W]]
------
Geologic_ages|986053813
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the Earth and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th Century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening Century and a half, Geologists and Paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the Geologic Time Scale -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar fossil faunas together.
------
George_W|986053936
13,14c13
< But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll invite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and rustle up [[CliffordAdams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an A-type..
< B-type..A-type...well ya all know what I mean. Men,, were goin' make a [[White House Wiki]] and a [[Texas Death Row Wiki]] too. I gotta hand it too these guys here...they sure know how to use all this new technography!!!   
---
> But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll invite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and rustle up [[CliffordAdams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an [[Type A]]..[[Type B]]..umm..[[Type A]]...well ya all know what I mean. Men,, were goin' make a [[White House Wiki]] and a [[Texas Death Row Wiki]] too. I gotta hand it too these guys here...they sure know how to use all this new technography!!!   
------
Video_game/Puzzle|986054271
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The massmarket videogames, puzzlers. Before there ever were videogames (well, as we would recognise them) there were the likes of [[Connect 4]] and [[Rubiks Cube]], todays puzzle games forebears.
> 
> Puzzle games are relatively easy to develop and to take from dedictaed arcade units, to home consoles, to [[PDA]]s and mobile phones.
> 
> Just as easy for everyone to pick up and play, no wonder [[Tetris]] is one of the most recognised videogames ever. And all that despite not having any real advertising nor a cute character to lust after, unless of course the "T" shaped block (or whatever) does anything for you.
> ----
> * [[Bust A Move]]
> * [[ChuChu Rocket]]
> * [[Mr Driller]]
> * [[Snakes/videogame|Snakes]]
> * [[Tetris]]
------
SandBox|986054291
49c49
< ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ?!!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this � !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
52c52
< ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
118a119,134
> 
> Infinty: Yes
> 
> 
> &infin;
> 
> Integral:Yes
> 
> 
> &int;
> 
> 
> Pi: Yes
> 
> 
> &pi;
------
Vegetable_farming|986054486
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Growing vegetables has been traditionally done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive fertalizers.
------
WikiPediaBugs|986054648
48c48,50
< :At this time (March 31, 2001) the canonization code is very incomplete on Wikipedia.  This is one of the unhandled cases.  The fix for this and several other cases is in the development UseModWiki code, which I hope to release (as 0.92) by mid-late April 2001 (CE :-).  See [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details.  --CliffordAdams
---
> :At this time (March 31, 2001) the canonization code is very incomplete on Wikipedia.  This is one of the unhandled cases.  The fix for this and several other cases is in the development UseModWiki code, which I hope to release (as 0.92) by mid-late April 2001 (CE :-).  See [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details.  --CliffordAdams----
> 
> I don't know if you would call this a bug..but it sure is an [Identity Crisis] because I am not CliffordAdams.. Not to mention an authorship problem...CliffordAdams.
------
Raised_bed_gardening|986054811
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In raised bed gardening, the garden is formed in 4 foot wide beds, which can be of any length. The soil is about 1 foot above the surrounding soil and is enclosed by a frame generally made of wood or concrete blocks. The soil is enriched with compost made from leaves and grass clippings. The vegetable plants are spaced in geometric patterns, much closer together than conventional row gardening.
------
George_W|986054873
13c13
< But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll invite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and rustle up [[CliffordAdams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an [[Type A]]..[[Type B]]..umm..[[Type A]]...well ya all know what I mean. Men,, were goin' make a [[White House Wiki]] and a [[Texas Death Row Wiki]] too. I gotta hand it too these guys here...they sure know how to use all this new technography!!!   
---
> But, this place is kinda addictive. I'm thinkin mebbe...[[White House Wiki]]or [[George W Wiki]]. Yup, then I'll invite this Sanger fella there and he can interview me on my own turf. Give ya an edge, ya know. Come on guys. Time to head for [[Air Force One]] and rustle up [[CliffordAdams]]. This is gonna be bigger than my tax cut. I'll show um I'm an [[Type A]]..[[Type B]]..umm..[[Type A]]...well ya all know what I mean. Men,, were goin' make a [[White House Wiki]] and a [[Texas Death Row Wiki]] too. I gotta hand it too these guys here...they sure know how to use all this new [[technography]]!!!   
------
Wikipedians|986055003
34a35
> * [[DaveRaftery]]
------
DaveRaftery|986055249
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dave is busy bringing a Usemod wiki to life at his employer. He can be reached at draftery@ici.net .
> 
> I do have a question about how Usemod wiki scales up. How many pages does this site now have and has the search capability showed any signs of slowing down with a large number of pages? - dr
------
DaveRaftery|986056335
1c1
< Dave is busy bringing a Usemod wiki to life at his employer. He can be reached at draftery@ici.net .
---
> Dave is busy bringing a Usemod wiki to life at his employer. He can be reached at draftery@ici.net . When the weather in the North East gets warm, Dave likes to dabble in the garden. He can also be seen flying through the air when he is doing Aikido.
3c3
< I do have a question about how Usemod wiki scales up. How many pages does this site now have and has the search capability showed any signs of slowing down with a large number of pages? - dr
---
> I do have a question about how Usemod wiki scales up. How many pages does this site now have and has the search capability showed any signs of slowing down with a large number of pages? - dr
------
MartialArts|986056652
6c6
< Aikido
---
> [[Aikido]]
------
Aikido|986056767
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Aikido was created in Japan by Morihei Ueshiba during the 1930s to the 1960s.
------
Video_game/Platform|986056992
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A once very popular genre, now all but forgotten by the majority of gamers and developers. The platform game usually scrolls right to left, with the playable character viewed from a side angle.
> The best known platform game is the original [[Super Mario|Super Mario Bros.]], it has appeared in both arcade and home console varieties over many years.
> Platform games are still being made, mainly in Japan by the likes of [[SNK]] and [[Nintendo]].
> ----
> * [[Alex Kid]] series
> * [[Kid Icarus]]
> * [[Metroid]]
> * [[Megaman]] series
> * [[Puzzle Bobble]]
> * [[Lionheart]]
> * [[New Zealand Story]]
> * [[The Simpsons/videogame|Simpsons, The]] series
> * [[Sonic|Sonic the Hedgehog]] series
> * [[Super Mario]] series
> * [[Wario Land]] series
------
Game_Boy|986057192
7c7
< * Game Boy Advance - 32bit overhaul of the winning formula. Technically likened to the [[Super Nintendo]] and backed up with supperior ports of classics such as [[Super Mario|Super Mario Bros. 2]], Super Mario Kart and F-Zero alongside new titles such as [[Kuru Kuru Kuruin]]
---
> * Game Boy Advance - 32bit overhaul of the winning formula. Technically likened to the [[Super_Nintendo|Super Nintendo]] and backed up with supperior ports of classics such as [[Super Mario|Super Mario Bros. 2]], Super Mario Kart and F-Zero alongside new titles such as [[Kuru Kuru Kuruin]]
------
Mr_Driller|986058233
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Namco 1999, 2000
> 
> An insanely addictive [[Video game/Puzzle|puzzle game]] that has you, in the guise of Mr Driller, working down through screens of blocks.
> Imagine [[Tetris]] in reverse, that is, the screen is already full of bricks and you have to work through them, and you'll be getting the idea.
> The two main challenges is to drill through the blocks whilst keeping your air supply topped up with air capsules that are burried and to avoid being crushed by falling blocks.
------
Video_game|986058909
6,8c6,8
< ** [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< ** [[Manic Mansion]]
< ** [[Zack McCracken]]
---
> ** [[Day_of_the_Tentacle|Day of the Tentacle]]
> ** [[Maniac_Mansion|Maniac Mansion]]
> ** [[Zack_McCracken|Zack McCracken]]
10,12c10,12
< ** [[Sam and Max]]
< ** [[Monkey Island]] series
< ** [[Tomb Raider]] series
---
> ** [[Sam_and_Max|Sam and Max]]
> ** [[Monkey_Island|Monkey Island]] series
> ** [[Tomb_Raider|Tomb Raider]] series
17c17
< ** [[Dungeon Master]] series
---
> ** [[Dungeon_Master|Dungeon Master]] series
22c22
< ** [[Final Fantasy]] series
---
> ** [[Final_Fantasy|Final Fantasy]] series
24c24
< ** [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
---
> ** [[The_Legend_of_Zelda|The Legend of Zelda]] series
30c30
< *** [[Space Invaders]]
---
> *** [[Space_Invaders|Space Invaders]]
33c33
< *** [[Radiant Silvergun]]
---
> *** [[Radiant_Silvergun|Radiant Silvergun]]
38c38
< *** [[Half Life]]
---
> *** [[Half_Life|Half Life]]
41,43c41,43
< *** [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< *** [[Rise of the Triad]]
< *** [[Duke Nukem 3D]] series
---
> *** [[Castle_Wolfenstein|Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> *** [[Rise_of_the_Triad|Rise of the Triad]]
> *** [[Duke_Nukem_3D|Duke Nukem 3D]] series
50,51c50,51
< *** [[Battle Isle]] series
< *** [[Alpha Centauri/video game| Alpha Centauri]]
---
> *** [[Battle_Isle|Battle Isle]] series
> *** [[Alpha_Centauri/video game|Alpha Centauri]]
53,56c53,56
< *** [[Dune/video game|Dune]] series
< *** [[Command and Conquer]]
< *** [[Red Alert]]
< *** [[Dark Reign]]
---
> *** [[Dune/videogame|Dune]] series
> *** [[Command_and_Conquer|Command and Conquer]]
> *** [[Red_Alert|Red Alert]]
> *** [[Dark_Reign|Dark Reign]]
63c63
< ** [[Super Mario]] series
---
> ** [[Super_Mario|Super Mario]] series
71,72c71,72
< ** [[ChuChu Rocket]]
< ** [[Mr Driller]]
---
> ** [[ChuChu_Rocket|ChuChu Rocket]]
> ** [[Mr_Driller|Mr Driller]]
------
Topology|986059490
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a SeT X is defined a SeT T of SubSet''s'' of X satisfying:
> 
> 1) T is closed under abitrary unions
> 
> 
> 2) T is closed under finite intersections
> 
> 
> 3) X, {} are in T
> 
> 
> 
> The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.
> ----
> The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful.
> ----
> Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modeled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
> 
> Its been a while since I've had topology, but I seem to remember there being a theorem indicating that there were only some specific number (6 is it?) of different topological shapes in 3-space.  Does anyone remember this?
> 
> I've been out of it for far too long...
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't know what you mean by "different topological shapes in 3-space", but I can't imagine a meaning for which there would only be 6 of them.  Even if we restrict ourselves to nice objects such as compact surfaces (which seems to be what you have in mind) there are infinitely many pairs that are non-homeomorphic. There is a representation theorem that characterizes them in very simple terms, however.
> 
> ----
> 
> As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
> 
> ----
> 
> OK - fair enough, but generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
> 
> ''which exercise is that?  if this is the enclyopedia page on topology (the initial page, anyway, which should expand ultimately into many), the exercise is not primarily about modelling the physical world, but about doing mathematics''
> 
> As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to make our models more like the real world?
> 
> ----
> 
> 3-D Euclidean space itself is as much a "theoretical object" as a Mobius strip, and the physical analogues we build of Mobius strips are certainly closer to actual Mobius strips than to tori. Tori are ''not'' three dimensional objects -- they are two dimensional objects -- compact connected 2-manifolds.   That is, a torus is not the topological equivalent of a donut, for it is hollow.
> 
> ----
> When one is studying the topology of surfaces, there is no escaping the fact that surfaces are 2-dimensional.  A torus's surface is not 2-dimensional and a torus does not have ''guts'' as part of its identity, because a torus ''is'' a surface.  That we cannot build these objects in our physical 3-space because of physical limitations is irrelevant.  We cannot exhibit a straight line in our 3-space either, or a flat surface, or even a point for that matter.  These are all mathematical objects and this is an encyclopedia page about mathematics.  
> 
> However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobius strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
> ----
> ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one. (Of course "Mobious" is not an accepted spelling under either scheme.)''
> ----
> "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street would not get very much edification out of it. 
> 
> The discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Mobius strips (as well as lines, planes, and every other object studied in mathematics) should then be placed in a separate page that discusses mathematical ontology in relation to physical ontology, or something along those lines, since it comes up in discussion of more than one sub-discipline of mathematics, although not very much in the practice of mathematics proper. 
> 
> -- CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> 
> Better yet the discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Moebius (Mobius, whatever) strips (and everything else) could be edited out altogether.  It adds very little substantive value to the understanding of any branch of mathematics, certainly not topology as I understand it.
> 
> Just my 2 cents.
------
TopOlogy|986059494
1,62c1
< TopologyForBeginners needs to be written.  :-)  Or is such a thing even possible?
< 
< Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a SeT X is defined a SeT T of SubSet''s'' of X satisfying:
< 
< 1) T is closed under abitrary unions
< 
< 
< 2) T is closed under finite intersections
< 
< 
< 3) X, {} are in T
< 
< 
< 
< The sets in T are referred to as open sets, and their complements as closed sets.  Roughly speaking open sets are thought of as neighborhoods of points.  This definition of topology is too general to be of much use and so normally additional conditions are imposed.
< ----
< The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful.
< ----
< Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modeled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
< 
< Its been a while since I've had topology, but I seem to remember there being a theorem indicating that there were only some specific number (6 is it?) of different topological shapes in 3-space.  Does anyone remember this?
< 
< I've been out of it for far too long...
< 
< ----
< 
< I don't know what you mean by "different topological shapes in 3-space", but I can't imagine a meaning for which there would only be 6 of them.  Even if we restrict ourselves to nice objects such as compact surfaces (which seems to be what you have in mind) there are infinitely many pairs that are non-homeomorphic. There is a representation theorem that characterizes them in very simple terms, however.
< 
< ----
< 
< As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
< 
< ----
< 
< OK - fair enough, but generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
< 
< ''which exercise is that?  if this is the enclyopedia page on topology (the initial page, anyway, which should expand ultimately into many), the exercise is not primarily about modelling the physical world, but about doing mathematics''
< 
< As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to make our models more like the real world?
< 
< ----
< 
< 3-D Euclidean space itself is as much a "theoretical object" as a Mobius strip, and the physical analogues we build of Mobius strips are certainly closer to actual Mobius strips than to tori. Tori are ''not'' three dimensional objects -- they are two dimensional objects -- compact connected 2-manifolds.   That is, a torus is not the topological equivalent of a donut, for it is hollow.
< 
< ----
< When one is studying the topology of surfaces, there is no escaping the fact that surfaces are 2-dimensional.  A torus's surface is not 2-dimensional and a torus does not have ''guts'' as part of its identity, because a torus ''is'' a surface.  That we cannot build these objects in our physical 3-space because of physical limitations is irrelevant.  We cannot exhibit a straight line in our 3-space either, or a flat surface, or even a point for that matter.  These are all mathematical objects and this is an encyclopedia page about mathematics.  
< 
< However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobius strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
< ----
< ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one. (Of course "Mobious" is not an accepted spelling under either scheme.)''
< ----
< "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street would not get very much edification out of it. 
< 
< The discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Mobius strips (as well as lines, planes, and every other object studied in mathematics) should then be placed in a separate page that discusses mathematical ontology in relation to physical ontology, or something along those lines, since it comes up in discussion of more than one sub-discipline of mathematics, although not very much in the practice of mathematics proper. 
< 
< -- CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< 
< Better yet the discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Moebius (Mobius, whatever) strips (and everything else) could be edited out altogether.  It adds very little substantive value to the understanding of any branch of mathematics, certainly not topology as I understand it.
< 
< Just my 2 cents.
---
> #REFERENCE [[Topology]]
------
TopOlogy|986059555
1c1
< #REFERENCE [[Topology]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Topology]]
------
StarCraft|986059602
0a1,2
> Blizzard 1997
> 
3a6,7
> 
> [http://www.blizzard.com/starcraft/ StarCraft homepage]
------
Topology/Talk|986059900
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ----
> Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modeled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
> 
> Its been a while since I've had topology, but I seem to remember there being a theorem indicating that there were only some specific number (6 is it?) of different topological shapes in 3-space.  Does anyone remember this?
> 
> I've been out of it for far too long...
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't know what you mean by "different topological shapes in 3-space", but I can't imagine a meaning for which there would only be 6 of them.  Even if we restrict ourselves to nice objects such as compact surfaces (which seems to be what you have in mind) there are infinitely many pairs that are non-homeomorphic. There is a representation theorem that characterizes them in very simple terms, however.
> 
> ----
> 
> As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
> 
> ----
> 
> OK - fair enough, but generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
> 
> ''which exercise is that?  if this is the enclyopedia page on topology (the initial page, anyway, which should expand ultimately into many), the exercise is not primarily about modelling the physical world, but about doing mathematics''
> 
> As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to make our models more like the real world?
> 
> ----
> 
> 3-D Euclidean space itself is as much a "theoretical object" as a Mobius strip, and the physical analogues we build of Mobius strips are certainly closer to actual Mobius strips than to tori. Tori are ''not'' three dimensional objects -- they are two dimensional objects -- compact connected 2-manifolds.   That is, a torus is not the topological equivalent of a donut, for it is hollow.
> 
> ----
> When one is studying the topology of surfaces, there is no escaping the fact that surfaces are 2-dimensional.  A torus's surface is not 2-dimensional and a torus does not have ''guts'' as part of its identity, because a torus ''is'' a surface.  That we cannot build these objects in our physical 3-space because of physical limitations is irrelevant.  We cannot exhibit a straight line in our 3-space either, or a flat surface, or even a point for that matter.  These are all mathematical objects and this is an encyclopedia page about mathematics.  
> 
> However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobius strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
> ----
> ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one. (Of course "Mobious" is not an accepted spelling under either scheme.)''
> ----
> "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street would not get very much edification out of it. 
> 
> The discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Mobius strips (as well as lines, planes, and every other object studied in mathematics) should then be placed in a separate page that discusses mathematical ontology in relation to physical ontology, or something along those lines, since it comes up in discussion of more than one sub-discipline of mathematics, although not very much in the practice of mathematics proper. 
> 
> -- CalvinOstrum
> 
> ----
> 
> Better yet the discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Moebius (Mobius, whatever) strips (and everything else) could be edited out altogether.  It adds very little substantive value to the understanding of any branch of mathematics, certainly not topology as I understand it.
> 
> Just my 2 cents.
> 
------
Topology|986060250
1c1
< Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a SeT X is defined a SeT T of SubSet''s'' of X satisfying:
---
> Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a [[Set]] X is defined a [[Set]] T of [[SubSet]]s of X satisfying:
14,17d13
< ----
< The importance of TopOlogy is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from AnalySis, AlgeBra, or GeoMetry and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through TopOlogy one can obtain results in AnalySis, AlgeBra and GeoMetry. This makes TopOlogy very powerful.
< ----
< Just to be clear, a Moebius strip can be modeled in 3D space (we made them as kids all the time), it's the Klein bottle that cannot.
19,60c15
< Its been a while since I've had topology, but I seem to remember there being a theorem indicating that there were only some specific number (6 is it?) of different topological shapes in 3-space.  Does anyone remember this?
< 
< I've been out of it for far too long...
< 
< ----
< 
< I don't know what you mean by "different topological shapes in 3-space", but I can't imagine a meaning for which there would only be 6 of them.  Even if we restrict ourselves to nice objects such as compact surfaces (which seems to be what you have in mind) there are infinitely many pairs that are non-homeomorphic. There is a representation theorem that characterizes them in very simple terms, however.
< 
< ----
< 
< As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
< 
< ----
< 
< OK - fair enough, but generally, the purpose of this whole exercise is to use a mathematical model to further understand something that exists, not bring into existance things have the exact characteristics of any given mathematical model.  The Klein bottle is interesting because there is nothing physical that it is modelling, but we can analyze it anyway.
< 
< ''which exercise is that?  if this is the enclyopedia page on topology (the initial page, anyway, which should expand ultimately into many), the exercise is not primarily about modelling the physical world, but about doing mathematics''
< 
< As far as your "paper is not continuous" argument, does this mean that we should be using Toplogical models that have CantorSet qualities in order to make our models more like the real world?
< 
< ----
< 
< 3-D Euclidean space itself is as much a "theoretical object" as a Mobius strip, and the physical analogues we build of Mobius strips are certainly closer to actual Mobius strips than to tori. Tori are ''not'' three dimensional objects -- they are two dimensional objects -- compact connected 2-manifolds.   That is, a torus is not the topological equivalent of a donut, for it is hollow.
< 
< ----
< When one is studying the topology of surfaces, there is no escaping the fact that surfaces are 2-dimensional.  A torus's surface is not 2-dimensional and a torus does not have ''guts'' as part of its identity, because a torus ''is'' a surface.  That we cannot build these objects in our physical 3-space because of physical limitations is irrelevant.  We cannot exhibit a straight line in our 3-space either, or a flat surface, or even a point for that matter.  These are all mathematical objects and this is an encyclopedia page about mathematics.  
< 
< However, it is useful to point out that we ''can'' build a Mobius strip ''exactly'' in 3-space.  That is, we can exhibit a set of points in 3-space which is homeomorphic to any and all Mobius strips.  That is a triviality.  However, we ''cannot'' build a Klein bottle in 3-space.  So there really ''is'' an significant and purely ''mathematical'' difference here.
< ----
< ''Side note: Mobius is actually spelt with an umlaut, two dots over the o.  The preferred anglicization is to change this to an oe, but sometimes people just drop the o.  It's not so much an incorrect spelling as a non-conventional one. (Of course "Mobious" is not an accepted spelling under either scheme.)''
< ----
< "Mobious" was a typo.  Anything that is a typo in something unsigned can pretty safely be edited out. In fact, if this is to be a useful resource for anyone, the whole page should be radically edited.  Among possible pages of a similar length, the average Joe on the street would not get very much edification out of it. 
< 
< The discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Mobius strips (as well as lines, planes, and every other object studied in mathematics) should then be placed in a separate page that discusses mathematical ontology in relation to physical ontology, or something along those lines, since it comes up in discussion of more than one sub-discipline of mathematics, although not very much in the practice of mathematics proper. 
< 
< -- CalvinOstrum
< 
< ----
< 
< Better yet the discussion of the non-existence in our physical universe of Moebius (Mobius, whatever) strips (and everything else) could be edited out altogether.  It adds very little substantive value to the understanding of any branch of mathematics, certainly not topology as I understand it.
< 
< Just my 2 cents.
---
> The importance of [[Topology]] is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from [[Analysis]], [[Algebra]], or [[Geometry]] and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through Topology one can obtain results in Analysis, Algebra and Geometry. This makes Topology very powerful.
------
Abstract_Algebra|986060889
1c1
< An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebra--is a mathematical system consisting of a SeT of elements together with one or more OperatioNs on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
---
> An ''abstract algebra''--i.e., there is more than one abstract algebra--is a mathematical system consisting of a [[Set]] of elements together with one or more [[Operation]]s on that set.  Of course these aren't particularly interesting without some additional constraints as to how the operations behave.  Some of the most important abstract algebrae are as follows:
3,6c3,6
< * MathematicalGrouP
< * RinGs and ModulEs
< * FielDs and VectorSpaces
< * AssociativeAlgebrae and LieAlgebrae
---
> * [[Mathematical group|Groups]]
> * [[Rings]] and [[Modules]]
> * [[Fields]] and [[Vector spaces]]
> * [[Associative Algebrae]] and [[Lie Algebrae]]
9c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof CloseD under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A MappinG between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a BiJection, it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A [[Mapping]] between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a [[Bijection]], it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
------
Don_Kenney|986060982
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Don!
> 
> Are you responsible for the [[paleontology]] article?  Excellent work!
------
Ring|986061089
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page describes the mathematical concept of a 'ring'.  You might also be interested in [[web ring]] or [[jewelry ring]].
> 
> 
> A Ring is a commutative [[Group]] under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
> 
>    a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
>    a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
> 
> Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.
> 
> Some important concepts: [[SubRing]]s and ideals, [[Module]]s
> 
> A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  In such rings, multiplicative cancellation is possible.  Of particular interest are [[Field]]s, [[IntegralDomain]]s where every non-zero element has a muliplicative inverse.
> 
------
RinG|986061111
1,14c1
< This page describes the mathematical concept of a 'ring'.  You might also be interested in [[web ring]] or [[jewelry ring]].
< 
< 
< A Ring is a commutative GrouP under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
< 
<    a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
<    a*(b+c) = (a*b)+(a*c), (a+b)*c = (a*c)+(b*c)
< 
< Very often the definition of a ring is taken to require a multiplicative identity, or unity, denoted 1.  Nearly all important rings actually satisfy this.  It has the disadvantage, however, of making ring ideals not subrings, as compared with their group-analog, the normal subgroups.
< 
< Some important concepts: SubRing''s'' and ideals, ModulE''s''
< 
< A ring where no two non-zero elements multiply to give zero is called an IntegralDomain.  In such rings, multiplicative cancellation is possible.  Of particular interest are FielD''s'', IntegralDomain''s'' where every non-zero element has a muliplicative inverse.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ring]]
------
DaveRaftery|986061265
3a4,7
> ----
> Please see [[Wikipedia Announcements]] for some recent statistics (and how to check them yourself).  So far, I personally have noticed a very slight slowdown in search results.  I believe [[CliffordAdams]] or perhaps someone else like [[Jimbo Wales]] is planning to write a search program in a more efficient language than the one we're using.  I don't know the details and they do, so I'll shut up now.  :-)
> 
> Anyway, welcome!  The gardening articles are great! --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Ring|986061282
4c4
< A Ring is a commutative [[Group]] under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
---
> A Ring is a commutative [[Mathematical Group|Group]] under an operation +, together with a second operation * s.t.
------
FielDs|986061500
1,22c1
< Fields
< 
< A field is a RinG in which * is commutative and the nonzero elements form a GrouP under *.
< 
< A more useable definition is the following:
< 
< The field (R,+,*) contains a set (R) and two binary operators (+,*) such that:
< 
< # + is associative:  a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
< # + has an "zero" z, written 0, such that a+z = z+a = a
< # for each a in R there is an opposite -a such that a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0
< # for all a, b in R: a+b = b+a
< # * is associative: a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
< # * has an identity e, written 1, such that for all non-zero a: a * 1 = 1 * a = a
< # each non-zero element a has an inverse, inv(a), such that a * inv(a) = inv(a) * a = 1
< # for all a and b, a*b = b*a
< # for all a,b,c: a*(b+c) = a*b + a*c and (b+c)*a = b*a + c*a
< 
< ----We already have a page "FielD" with the same material. What do we do?
< RoseParks
< ----Since the other page seems more complete, why not make this one a redirect to the other one? On a related note, is there some convention regarding node name (singular vs plural)?
< [[Jpmartin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Field]]
------
Field|986061687
1c1
< A FielD, briefly, is an algebraic system of elements, usually called numbers, in which the 
---
> A [[Field]], briefly, is an algebraic system of elements, usually called numbers, in which the 
5c5
< '''Definition''': Given a SeT '''F''' and two BinaryOperation''s'' defined on '''F''', called addition and multiplication, denoted "+" and "*" respectively. Then ('''F''',+,*) is called a FielD if:
---
> '''Definition''': Given a [[Set]] '''F''' and two [[Binary operation]]s defined on '''F''', called addition and multiplication, denoted "+" and "*" respectively. Then ('''F''',+,*) is called a Field if:
45c45,47
< Note that a FielD is just a RinG where all elements have multiplicative inverses, except 0 which cannot.  Examples: Three Common FielD''s''.
---
> Note that a Field is just a [[Ring]] where all elements have multiplicative inverses, except 0 which cannot.
> 
> Three Common Fields.
47c49
< *The Rational Numbers '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
---
> *The [[Rational numbers]] '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the [[IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
53c55
< The concept of a FielD is of use, for example, in defining VectorS and MatriceS, two structures in LinearAlgebra, whose components can be elements of an arbitrary FielD.  
---
> The concept of a Field is of use, for example, in defining [[Vectors]] and [[Matrices]], two structures in [[Linear Algebra]], whose components can be elements of an arbitrary Field.  
------
Larry_Sanger|986061720
73a74,75
> ----
> Thanks, Mr. President!  It's been a great honor to have you with us.  I'm sure if CliffordAdams is developing the White House wiki, he'll have plenty of people to satisfy [[Wikipedia]] feature requests.  So we don't mind at all!  All the best, Larry Sanger.
------
Field|986061728
49c49
< *The [[Rational numbers]] '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the [[IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
---
> *The [[Rational numbers]] '''Q'''={all a/b: a, b belong to '''Z''', the IntegerNumbers, and b not=0}.
------
Abstract_Algebra|986061749
3,5c3,5
< * [[Mathematical group|Groups]]
< * [[Rings]] and [[Modules]]
< * [[Fields]] and [[Vector spaces]]
---
> * [[Mathematical Group|Groups]]
> * [[Ring|Rings]] and [[Modules]]
> * [[Field|Fields]] and [[Vector spaces]]
9c9
< A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A [[Mapping]] between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a [[Bijection]], it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned.
---
> A subalgebra of a given algebra is a SubSet thereof closed under all relevant operations, so that it forms an algebra of the same kind under them (or more technically their restrictions).  A [[Mapping]] between two algebrae that preserves all relevant operations and relations is called a HomoMorphism; if it is also a [[Bijection]], it is called an IsoMorphism.  Isomorphic algebrae are indistinguishable as far as algebraic structure is concerned. Algebra deals with those properties that are independent of such isomorphisms.
------
George_W|986061756
0a1,2
> Perhaps it's [[George W. Bush]] you're looking for.
> ----
------
Whist|986061803
1c1
< <i>Whist</i> is a simple [[trick-taking game]] with several variations.  Briefly described here are the three popular variations.
---
> <i>Whist</i> is a simple [[trick-taking game]] with several variations.  Briefly described here are three popular variations.
5c5,7
< The game is relatively simple in that there are no trumps, and the goal of the game is to take 7 of the 13 tricks.  Four-handed Whist is played with two teams.  The players of each team sit opposite each other at the table.
---
> This set of rules comes from a variation known as "Minnesota Whist".
> 
> The game is relatively simple in that there are no trumps, and the goal of the game is to take 7 of the 13 tricks.  Four-handed Whist is played with two teams.  The players of each team sit opposite each other at the table.  One person is elected to keep score.  Typically the scorer's team is labeled as "Us" and the other team labeled as "Them".
16c18
< # Each person surmises his/her hand and determines wether go to "grant" or not.  If you are going to "grant" (play high), you lay down a low black card.  Otherwise a low red card.
---
> # Each person surmises his/her hand and determines wether go to "grand" or not.  If you are going to "grand" (play high), you lay down a low black card.  Otherwise a low red card.
19c21
< # If all cards are red, you "play to lose", meaning you don't want any tricks if possible.
---
> # If all cards are red, you "play to lose", meaning you want 6 or less tricks. 
21c23
< # Play begins with either (1) the person to the left fo the person who granted, or (if playing low) (2) player to the left of the dealer.
---
> # Play begins with either (1) the person to the left fo the person who granded, or (if playing low) (2) player to the left of the dealer.
39c41
< If playing HIGH:  Get a point for every trick over 7 total.  Lose a point for every trick under 7--IF you grant (went high with a black card).
---
> If playing HIGH:  Get a point for every trick over 6 total if your team <B>granded</B>.  Get 2 points for every trick over 6 total if the opposite team <B>granded</B>.
41c43
< The game continues until one player reaches a pre-designated point total, typically 13.
---
> The game continues until one team reaches a pre-designated point total, typically 13.
45,47c47,49
< * Us:   Grant, got 7 tricks
< * Them:   got 6 tricks
< * High game, "Us" makes 1 point
---
> * Us:   Granded, got 10 tricks
> * Them:   got 3 tricks
> * High game, "Us" makes 4 points (10 - 6)
49c51
< * Us:   Grant, got 5 tricks
---
> * Us:   Granded, got 5 tricks
51c53
< * High game, "Them" gets 2 points, "Us" loses 2 points
---
> * High game, "Them" makes 4 points (8 - 6) x 2
55c57,62
< * Low game, "Them" get's 3 points 
---
> * Low game, "Them" makes 3 points (7 - 4)
> 
> <H3>Strategy</H3>
> 
> * When granding, if you have doubts about your hand and you are the first (or even second) person to flip, you may think twice about laying a black card.  You may want to go low and hope the other team grands instead.
> * When you run out of a suit and have to throw off, lay down a suit that you would like your parnter to lead if they get control.  This is called "inviting".  Example: You have A and K of clubs.  Hearts was lead (and you have no hearts).  Lay down a low club to "invite" your partner to play that suit.  (A meaningful glance at your partner can't hurt!)
------
Geologic_ages|986062052
1c1
< When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the Earth and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th Century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening Century and a half, Geologists and Paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the Geologic Time Scale -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar fossil faunas together.
---
> When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Time Scale]] -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar [[fossil]] faunas together.
------
Topology|986062125
15a16,17
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Feature_requests|986062156
1c1
< Features of Wikipedia software (Usemod wiki software) that somebody would like to see, someday:
---
> Features of Wikipedia software (UseModWiki software) that somebody would like to see, someday:
------
Topology/Talk|986062167
0a1
> (Discussion moved from main [[Topology]] entry)
------
Trick-taking_game|986062334
12a13
> * [[Sheepshead]]
------
CantorSet|986062398
2a3
> <pre>
7a9
> </pre>
------
Feature_requests|986062413
19,20c19,20
< * It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages.  There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to.  It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no other links, or only one other link, or only two other links. --[[Larry Sanger]]
< * Clicking the name of the article at the top of the page searches for the link, but it would be possibly more useful for that to point to a list of all the pages that ''link to'' the page in question.  There doesn't seem to be any way to do that at present. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> * It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages.  There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to.  It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --[[Larry Sanger]]
> * Clicking the name of the article at the top of the page searches for occurrences of the page title on other pages, but it would be possibly more useful for that to point to a list of all the pages that ''link to'' the page in question.  There doesn't seem to be any way to do that at present. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Don_Kenney|986062536
0a1,2
> A paleontologist?  A new [[wikipedians|wikipedian]], anyway!
> ----
3c5
< Are you responsible for the [[paleontology]] article?  Excellent work!
---
> Are you responsible for the [[paleontology]] article?  Excellent work! --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|986062627
3c3
< Welcome to the Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Thursday, March 22, 12:57 PM Pacific Time), we have 2,953 pages in Wikipedia.  Of these, 1,816 are relatively substantial articles.  We started in January, 2001, so we've made incredible progress--even we are surprised.  We'd love to see the number over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
---
> Welcome to Wikipedia.  As of this moment (Thursday, March 22, 12:57 PM Pacific Time), we have 2,953 pages in Wikipedia.  Of these, 1,816 are relatively substantial articles.  We started in January, 2001, so we've made incredible progress--even we are surprised.  We'd love to see the number over 10,000 by the end of the summer.
------
BeBoldInUpdatingPages|986062689
1,5c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "[[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited|Why aren't these pages copyedited]]?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
< 
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live [[Wikipedia]]!
< 
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: HowDoesOneEditaPage?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Be bold in updating pages]]
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|986062696
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "[[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited|Why aren't these pages copyedited]]?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
> 
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live [[Wikipedia]]!
> 
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: HowDoesOneEditaPage?
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|986062722
5c5
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: HowDoesOneEditaPage?
---
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
------
BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense|986062780
1,74c1
< We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
< [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
< encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
< of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
< ----
< From PolanD:
< :From an Englishman's diary:
< * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
< * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
< * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
< * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
< ----
< From PatentNonsense:
< Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
< A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
< Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
< A. Go figure!
< ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
< ----
< order arising out of chaos...
< ----
< From WhatIsaWiki:
< This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
< Blah...
< ----
< Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
< It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
< ----
< Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
< Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
< ----
< Wow, This is kinda wierd
<     -- Drachs
< ----
< Investigation of the Wiki concept...
< ----
< From [[Idiosyncratic]]:
< My dad knew him.
< ----
< From HareKrishna:
< (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
< ----
< Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
< ----
< From EnglishLanguage:
< A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
< And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
< ----says who? Can't languages evolve? I don't see you spelling like Shakespeare...
< From SnowBoarding:
< This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
< ----
< From AustriA:
< <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
< ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
< ''Ever been to AustriA?? Then you'll know what I mean;-)''
< ----
< From WikiWatcher:
< (for the time beeing, the previous definition would be best applied to MiracleDoer)...
< ----
< From ActorS:
< 
< Q: How do you make a little box?
< A: With little boards. ;-)
< 
< What do you mean by 'little box'?
< ----
< From [[The Recorder]]:
< 
< I played the Recorder when i was in 6th grade
< -Zed
< ----
< From LoGic:
< 
< The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense]]
------
Bad_jokes_and_other_deleted_nonsense|986062786
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> We need a page where bad jokes and other deleted nonsense can rest in peace.  So, here it is!
> [I'm half tempted to suggest keeping the jokes inline with the pages, as they must sorta give the
> encyclopedia some lively color.  But I do know it'd just get carried away and turn into an encyclopedia
> of silliness, so look forward to frequent updates of this page.  ;-) -- BryceHarrington ]
> ----
> From PolanD:
> :From an Englishman's diary:
> * Monday: I went drinking with the PoleS
> * Tuesday: I think I'm going to die
> * Wednesday: I went drinking with the PoleS again
> * Thursday: Why the hell didn't I die on Tuesday...
> ----
> From PatentNonsense:
> Q. SO, you are really looking for Chaos on a webpage, right?
> A. Er...no, we'd like to avoid it.
> Q. K, how is that going to happen without a policeman?
> A. Go figure!
> ''[Of all the text to end up being hauled into this detention centre... :)]''
> ----
> order arising out of chaos...
> ----
> From WhatIsaWiki:
> This is crazy!  A tremendous Fear and Loathing of wikis is present...
> Blah...
> ----
> Er, what's crazy?  To whom are these Kierkegaardian sentiments present?
> It was a dark and stormy night and the captain said "tell us a story" ...
> ----
> Hmmm - it's REALLY possible to edit ALL of EVERY page?  Seems a recipe for diaster to me!  One destructive moron and the whole Wiki becomes mush.
> Maybe I'm just cynical.  :-)
> ----
> Wow, This is kinda wierd
>     -- Drachs
> ----
> Investigation of the Wiki concept...
> ----
> From [[Idiosyncratic]]:
> My dad knew him.
> ----
> From HareKrishna:
> (For more on little-known religions' positions on sex, see BokoNonism.)
> ----
> Oh Wiki, you're so fine!...
> ----
> From EnglishLanguage:
> A quick guide for those living in the [[United States]] - Colour is spelt with a 'u', Aluminium has 5 syllables, and Encyclopaedia does indeed have an 'a' in it. In addition, Sulphur is not spelt with a 'f', foetus has an 'o', and 'organisation' is indeed spelt with an 's', as are many other words you spell with a 'z' (which is incidentally a 'zed', not a 'zee'), and it's "spelt," not "spelled."
> And if you can't use apostrophes correctly, *learn*. It's not hard. Plurals don't need them, normal possessives do, contractions do, 'its' as a posessive doesn't. Thank you.
> ----says who? Can't languages evolve? I don't see you spelling like Shakespeare...
> From SnowBoarding:
> This snowboarding page is dedicated to all the hot snowbunnies!! (ha,ha)  
> ----
> From AustriA:
> <b>Austrians are known as the best lovers worldwide.</b>
> ''Ha ha ha!  You mean that's not an objective fact?!  :-)''
> ''Ever been to AustriA?? Then you'll know what I mean;-)''
> ----
> From WikiWatcher:
> (for the time beeing, the previous definition would be best applied to MiracleDoer)...
> ----
> From ActorS:
> 
> Q: How do you make a little box?
> A: With little boards. ;-)
> 
> What do you mean by 'little box'?
> ----
> From [[The Recorder]]:
> 
> I played the Recorder when i was in 6th grade
> -Zed
> ----
> From LoGic:
> 
> The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
------
Welcome,_newcomers|986062843
5c5
< Ordinary smart people are building this project very actively; probably as you are reading this, someone is editing an article.  You don't have to be logged in to contribute.  You can just dive right in and work on any page you like.  Please drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) [[BeBoldInUpdatingPages|be bold in updating pages]].  And above all, play nice.
---
> Ordinary smart people are building this project very actively; probably as you are reading this, someone is editing an article.  You don't have to be logged in to contribute.  You can just dive right in and work on any page you like.  Please drop in as often as you can.  If you're the kind of person that we are, you'll soon be addicted to the RecentChanges page.  You can (and should) [[be bold in updating pages]].  And above all, play nice.
------
What_is_a_Wiki_for|986062989
1c1
< In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for. The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to DisRuption.
---
> In principle, a wiki is for whatever its users want it to be for. The format lends itself to collaboration--but collaboration that involves ''anyone'' at all, who can do ''anything'' they want to the pages.  You might think that this leads to [[disruption]].
3c3
< The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else.
---
> The idea is that anyone can share the knowledge they have with anyone else.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986063198
3c3
< * Wikipedia articles are extremely easy to edit.  Anyone can click the "edit" link and edit an article.  Peer review per se is not necessary and is actually a bit of a pain to deal with.  We prefer that people just go in and make changes they deem necessary.  This is very efficient; our efforts seem more <i>constructive</i> than those on similar projects (not to mention any names).
---
> * Wikipedia articles are extremely easy to edit.  Anyone can click the "edit" link and edit an article.  Peer review per se is not necessary and is actually a bit of a pain to deal with.  We prefer (in most cases) that people just go in and make changes they deem necessary.  This is very efficient; our efforts seem more <i>constructive</i> than those on similar projects (not to mention any names).
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986063853
11c11
< * Wikipedia is growing at a dizzying rate.  Wikipedia produces articles at about 1,200 per month (at present; if you count only "substantial" articles, it seems to be more like 600-800 per month).  And the word (as of March 11) still hasn't gotten out that widely about Wikipedia.
---
> * Wikipedia is growing at a dizzying rate.  Wikipedia produces articles at over 1,300 per month (at present; if you count only "substantial" articles, it's closer to 850 per month).  This rate of growth has been slowly increasing.  And the word (as of March 31) is only slowly getting out about Wikipedia.
13c13
< * Our likelihood of success seems alarmingly high.  The probability of our getting 10,000 articles is nearly 100%, regardless of whatever else we do.  Depending on the level of resources that end up getting committed to Wikipedia, our getting 100,000 articles is definitely not out of the question (in the opinion of [[Larry Sanger]]), but very much over 50% seems hard to say.  But to be completely honest, it's also far from impossible that we could have 1,000,000 articles someday; there are, surely, 1,000,000 topics of discussion in existence, and if Wikipedia hits it big, which it might, then they might all be covered...eventually.  It also seems rather likely that there will always be a lot of mediocre stuff.  But it's possible--how likely we'd be able to tell after more months of experience--that articles would just gradually improve until they were polished to a Nupedia polish.  I think we've already seen instances of this (see above).
---
> * Our likelihood of success seems alarmingly high.  The probability of our getting 10,000 articles is nearly 100%, regardless of whatever else we do.  Our getting 100,000 articles is definitely not out of the question.  Indeed, it's also far from impossible that we could have 1,000,000 articles someday (Everything2 recently announced they had 1,000,000 "nodes"); there are, surely, 1,000,000 topics of discussion in existence, and if Wikipedia hits it big, or even simply continues on as it has been, which seems plausible, then they might all be covered...eventually.  It also seems rather likely that there will always be a lot of mediocre stuff.  But it's possible--how likely we'd be able to tell after more months of experience--that articles would just gradually improve until they were polished to a [[Nupedia]] polish.  I think we've already seen instances of this (see above).
16a17,18
> * Wikipedia seems to attract highly intelligent, articulate people with a little (or a lot of) time on their hands.
> 
19c21
< * See [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wiki is not paper]] for another page along the same lines as the above.
---
> * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.
------
Nafai|986067046
3c3,22
< Welcome! -- [[LMS]]
---
> Welcome! -- [[LMS]]
> 
> --------
> 
> This is a very fascinating experiement you have going here, guys.  I'm all for collaborative (and very open) information efforts like this.
> 
> Well, here is a list of my interests.
> 
> * [[Computer Programming]]
> * [[Open Source Software|Open Source]] and [[Free Software|Free]] Software (particularily [[Debian]])
> * Playing [[Card game|Cards]]
> 
> 
> Other things about me
> * I live in [[Milwaukee]], WI.
> * I love my [[DSL]] line  :)
> * I have a [[Smooth Haired Fox Terrier]] named Jordi
> 
> That's all for now.
> 
------
Nafai|986067249
11,12c11,12
< * [[Computer Programming]]
< * [[Open Source Software|Open Source]] and [[Free Software|Free]] Software (particularily [[Debian]])
---
> * [[Computer programming]]
> * [[Open source software|Open Source]] and [[Free software]] (particularily [[Debian]])
------
Video_game/RPG|986067274
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Released from the constraints of the real world, videogame role playing games have taken on a whole new design of their own.
> ----
> * [[Ambermoon]]
> * [[Amberstar]]
> * [[Dungeon Master]] series
> * [[Final Fantasy]] series
> * [[Hack]]
> * [[Pokemon]] series
> * [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
> * [[Ultima]] series
------
Nafai|986067296
12c12
< * [[Open source software|Open Source]] and [[Free software]] (particularily [[Debian]])
---
> * [[Free software]] (particularily [[Debian]])
------
Beadwork|986067456
12c12,13
< A number of [[Bead artists|bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
---
> A number of [[Bead artists|bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available, but most are not
> very good.
------
Synergy|986067477
3c3
< "Synergy is the excess steming from cooperation"
---
> "Synergy is the excess stemming from cooperation"
7c7
< Person A alone is to small to reach an apple on a tree and person B is to small either. Once person B sits on the shoulder of person A, they can reach the apple. In this example, the synergy would be one apple :-)
---
> Person A alone is too short to reach an apple on a tree and person B is too short as well. Once person B sits on the shoulders of person A, they are more than tall enough to reach the apple. In this example, the synergy would be one apple :-)
------
Art|986067500
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Art is art.
------
Video_game|986067549
3c3
< Below are some of the main genres of video games.  This list could be improved on, and the titles relisted to those of great importance.  Video games can also be categorized temporally - one may be a [[turn based game]] or a [[continuous game]] - or in terms of the sort of display they have - [[2d]], [[3d]], [[fixed 3d]], and so forth - though these tend to be more flexible.  Of course all of these categories are somewhat overlapping and incomplete.
---
> Below are some of the main genres of videogames.  This list could be improved on, and the titles relisted to those of great importance.  Video games can also be categorized temporally - one may be a [[turn based game]] or a [[continuous game]] - or in terms of the sort of display they have - [[2d]], [[3d]], [[fixed 3d]], and so forth - though these tend to be more flexible.  Of course all of these categories are somewhat overlapping and incomplete.
6,8c6,8
< ** [[Day_of_the_Tentacle|Day of the Tentacle]]
< ** [[Maniac_Mansion|Maniac Mansion]]
< ** [[Zack_McCracken|Zack McCracken]]
---
> just six examples:
> ** [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> ** [[Maniac Mansion]]
10,13c10,13
< ** [[Sam_and_Max|Sam and Max]]
< ** [[Monkey_Island|Monkey Island]] series
< ** [[Tomb_Raider|Tomb Raider]] series
< 
---
> ** [[Sam and Max]]
> ** [[Monkey Island]] series
> ** [[Tomb Raider]] series
> [[/Adventure|more...]]
17c17,18
< ** [[Dungeon_Master|Dungeon Master]] series
---
> just six examples:
> ** [[Dungeon Master]] series
20,22c21
< ** [[Ambermoon]]
< ** [[Amberstar]]
< ** [[Final_Fantasy|Final Fantasy]] series
---
> ** [[Final Fantasy]] series
24,25c23,24
< ** [[The_Legend_of_Zelda|The Legend of Zelda]] series
< 
---
> ** [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
> [[/RPG|more...]]
28,30c27,30
< * [[/Shoot_em_ups|SHOOT 'EM UPS]]
< ** [[/Scrolling_shooters|SCROLLING]]
< *** [[Space_Invaders|Space Invaders]]
---
> * [[/Shoot em ups|SHOOT 'EM UPS]]
> ** [[/Scrolling shooters|SCROLLING]]
> just six examples:
> *** [[Space Invaders]]
33c33
< *** [[Radiant_Silvergun|Radiant Silvergun]]
---
> *** [[Radiant Silvergun]]
34a35,36
> *** [[Mr Heli]]
> [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
35a38
> just six examples:
38c41
< *** [[Half_Life|Half Life]]
---
> *** [[Half Life]]
41,44c44,47
< *** [[Castle_Wolfenstein|Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< *** [[Rise_of_the_Triad|Rise of the Triad]]
< *** [[Duke_Nukem_3D|Duke Nukem 3D]] series
< 
---
> *** [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> *** [[Rise of the Triad]]
> *** [[Duke Nukem 3D]] series
> [[/FPS|more...]]
48c51,52
< ** [[/Turn_based|TURN BASED]]
---
> ** [[/Turn based|TURN BASED]]
> just 3 examples:
50,52c54,57
< *** [[Battle_Isle|Battle Isle]] series
< *** [[Alpha_Centauri/video game|Alpha Centauri]]
< ** [[/Real_time|REAL TIME]] (RTS):
---
> *** [[Battle Isle]] series
> *** [[Alpha Centauri/videogame|Alpha Centauri]]
> ** [[/Real time|REAL TIME]] (RTS):
> just six examples:
54,56c59,61
< *** [[Command_and_Conquer|Command and Conquer]]
< *** [[Red_Alert|Red Alert]]
< *** [[Dark_Reign|Dark Reign]]
---
> *** [[Command and Conquer]]
> *** [[Red Alert]]
> *** [[Dark Reign]]
59c64
< 
---
> [[/Real time|more...]]
63,64c68,70
< ** [[Super_Mario|Super Mario]] series
< ** [[Sonic]] series
---
> just six examples:
> ** [[Super Mario]] series
> ** [[Sonic|Sonic the Hedgehog]] series
66c72,75
< 
---
> ** [[Wario Land]] series
> ** [[Metroid]]
> ** [[Megaman]]
> [[/Platform|more...]]
69a79
> just six examples:
71,73c81,86
< ** [[ChuChu_Rocket|ChuChu Rocket]]
< ** [[Mr_Driller|Mr Driller]]
< 
---
> ** [[ChuChu Rocket]]
> ** [[Mr Driller]]
> ** [[Snakes]]
> ** [[Bust A Move]]
> ** [[Columns]]
> [[/Puzzle|more...]]
------
Synergy|986068524
8a9,14
> A formal definition for synergy, or synergism, is the phenomenon of two or more discrete influences or agents acting in common to create an effect which is greater than the sum of the effects each is able to create independently.
> 
> An example of this might be drug interaction.  While each of two agents might have a very mild soporific effect, the two taken together render a patient unconscious.
> 
> Another might be relatively transparent and easy-to-understand operating systems and advances in micro-miniturization through refinements of semiconductor technology.  Either influence alone would be capable of causing a gradual increase in the versatility and utility of computers, leading to a broadening of their use.  Combining the two influences could result in an explosion of computer use, driving ever-more-rapid advances in both compactness and unser-friendliness, until computers are as common as kitchen tables.
> 
------
Synergy|986068598
13c13
< Another might be relatively transparent and easy-to-understand operating systems and advances in micro-miniturization through refinements of semiconductor technology.  Either influence alone would be capable of causing a gradual increase in the versatility and utility of computers, leading to a broadening of their use.  Combining the two influences could result in an explosion of computer use, driving ever-more-rapid advances in both compactness and unser-friendliness, until computers are as common as kitchen tables.
---
> Another might be relatively transparent and easy-to-understand operating systems and advances in micro-miniturization through refinements of semiconductor technology.  Either influence alone would be capable of causing a gradual increase in the versatility and utility of computers, leading to a broadening of their use.  Combining the two influences could result in an explosion of computer use, driving ever-more-rapid advances in both compactness and user-friendliness, until computers are as common as kitchen tables.
------
Video_game/FPS|986069115
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Single handedly responsible year in, year out, of pushing to breaking point otherwise perfect systems.
> Yes, you bought a new video card for those spread sheets, well, that's what you tell anyone who'll listen.
> That's why you've managed to destroy several controllers and keyboards this.
> 
> Top dogs in the FPS world are [[id software]] with their hugely played and raved [[Quake]] series and [[Epic]]'s [[Unreal]] series.
> Such is the might and ability of these two developers, they actively licence out the game engines to third party for other game developments.
> ----
> * [[Castle Wolfenstein]]
> * [[Doom]]
> * [[Duke Nukem 3D]]
> * [[Half Life]]
> * [[Hexen]]
> * [[Quake]] series
> * [[Rise of the Triad]]
> * [[Unreal]] series
------
Video_game/Scrolling_shooters|986069313
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Typically set in deep space, you're given three craft, numerous power ups and the odds of winning somewhere in the region of a 1,000,000 to 1.
> 
> But not always though, the amazing [[R-Type]] certainly sticks to this well refined design, but then there are such quirky and unmissable treats as [[Rabio Lepus Special]] - a side on shooter featuring the worlds most fearsome rabbit.
> And how about leading a squad of soldiers into battle in [[Cannon Fodder]] or buying in the biggest and meanest weaponry with [[UN Squadron]] or really blowing your opponent to bits in a friendly bout of [[Return Fire]], the [[WWII]]-lite sim.
> ----
> * [[Bangai-O]]
> * [[Gradius]] series
> * [[Mr Heli]]
> * [[Radiant Silvergun]]
> * [[Return Fire]]
> * [[R-Type]] series
> * [[Space Invaders]]
------
Video_game|986069607
5,6c5
< * [[/Adventure|ADVENTURE]]
< just six examples:
---
> * [[/Adventure|ADVENTURE]] just six examples:
13c12
< [[/Adventure|more...]]
---
> * [[/Adventure|more...]]
16,17c15
< * [[/RPG|ROLE PLAYING]] (RPG)
< just six examples:
---
> * [[/RPG|ROLE PLAYING]] (RPG) just six examples:
24c22
< [[/RPG|more...]]
---
> * [[/RPG|more...]]
28,29c26
< ** [[/Scrolling shooters|SCROLLING]]
< just six examples:
---
> ** [[/Scrolling shooters|SCROLLING]] just six examples:
36,38c33,34
< [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
< ** [[/FPS|FIRST PERSON SHOOTERS]] (FPS)
< just six examples:
---
> * [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
> ** [[/FPS|FIRST PERSON SHOOTERS]] (FPS) just six examples:
43d38
< *** [[Hexen]]
45d39
< *** [[Rise of the Triad]]
47c41
< [[/FPS|more...]]
---
> * [[/FPS|more...]]
51,52c45
< ** [[/Turn based|TURN BASED]]
< just 3 examples:
---
> ** [[/Turn based|TURN BASED]] just three examples:
56,57c49
< ** [[/Real time|REAL TIME]] (RTS):
< just six examples:
---
> ** [[/Real time|REAL TIME]] (RTS) just six examples:
64c56
< [[/Real time|more...]]
---
> * [[/Real time|more...]]
67,68c59
< * [[/Platform|PLATFORM]]
< just six examples:
---
> * [[/Platform|PLATFORM]] just six examples:
75c66
< [[/Platform|more...]]
---
> * [[/Platform|more...]]
78,79c69
< * [[/Puzzle|PUZZLE]]
< just six examples:
---
> * [[/Puzzle|PUZZLE]] just six examples:
86c76
< [[/Puzzle|more...]]
---
> * [[/Puzzle|more...]]
------
Socialism/Talk|986070009
82a83,84
> ----
> '''As currently  propounded, neither argument (socialism works - no, it doesn't) can succeed.'''  Socialism is not a discrete thing which can be held to possess invariant properties.  Every socialist will give you a different definition of the ideology.  "Works" is nearly impossible to define.  Because "works" means "accomplishes a task or goal," and how many tasks and goals are there?  Which are more valid than others?  Whose goals are they?  If the discussion is to continue, and is to actually lead anywhere at all, it would be beneficial to agree on precise definitions of these things - which I predict will not happen.
------
Geologic_ages|986071034
1c1
< When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Time Scale]] -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar [[fossil]] faunas together.
---
> When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar [[fossil]] faunas together.
------
Linux|986071089
1c1
< A computer operating system first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]].  Linux became popular in the late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]].
---
> A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]].  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]] and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop and computer standards.
3c3
< Abbreviated from Linus' [[Unix]]. Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] for a multitude of platforms.
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures.
5c5,7
< Technically speaking, the term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A full distribution such as [Red Hat], [SuSE], or [Debian] contains much software not created by Linus Torvalds and his group.  Some (notably [[Richard M Stallman]]) suggest that Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux.
---
> The term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A distribution, for example [[Red Hat]], [[SuSE]], [[Debian]], [[Caldera]] etc. is a collection of free, and sometimes non-free software created by individuals, groups and organisations from around the world.  Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux for this sole reason, afterall, there would be no Linux if it weren't for the [[GPL]] [[GNU]] [[copyleft]] licences.
> ----
> /Talk
------
Abstract_Algebra|986074457
5c5
< * [[Field|Fields]] and [[Vector spaces]]
---
> * [[Field|Fields]] and [[Vector space]]s
------
Abstract_Algebra|986074566
4c4
< * [[Ring|Rings]] and [[Modules]]
---
> * [[Ring|Rings]] and [[ModulE]]s
------
Abstract_Algebra|986074725
4c4
< * [[Ring|Rings]] and [[ModulE]]s
---
> * [[Ring|Rings]] and [[ModulE|Modules]]
------
Video_game/Platform|986074841
1,3c1,3
< A once very popular genre, now all but forgotten by the majority of gamers and developers. The platform game usually scrolls right to left, with the playable character viewed from a side angle.
< The best known platform game is the original [[Super Mario|Super Mario Bros.]], it has appeared in both arcade and home console varieties over many years.
< Platform games are still being made, mainly in Japan by the likes of [[SNK]] and [[Nintendo]].
---
> A once very popular genre, now all but forgotten by the majority of gamers and developers. The platform game usually scrolls right to left, with the playable character viewed from a side angle.  The character jumps from platform to platform fighting enemies, and often has the ability to gain powers or weapons.
> 
> The first platform game was [[Nintendo]]'s [[Donkey Kong]], from which grew the [[Super Mario]] series, appearing in both arcade and home console varieties over many years.  Super Mario Bros. 3 was the highest grossing console game ever before Pokemon.  Platform games are still being made, mainly in Japan by the likes of [[SNK]] and [[Nintendo]].
------
Nintendo|986074936
1,2c1
< One of the greatest videogame developers.
< Known affectionately as the big "N" or "Ninty", Nintendo have been responsible for some of the of the most exceptional videogaming software and hardware.
---
> Nintendo was originally founded as a trading card company, a role they still play to some extent, but they are far better known as one of the greatest [[video game]] developers.  Known affectionately as the big "N" or "Ninty", Nintendo have been responsible for some of the of the most exceptional videogaming software and hardware.
------
Video_game/Platform|986074994
5a6
> * [[Commander Keen]] series
------
Video_game/Adventure|986076734
2a3,8
> 
> The first adventure games to appear were text adventures, which typically use a verb-noun parser to interact with the user.  These were the first things to appear on mainframe computers after ''[[Space War]]'', evolving from early titles like ''[[Wump]]'' and ''[[Adventure]]'' (1972) to the widely popular ''[[Zork]]'' series (1979) which made its way onto the new [[Apple II]] personal computer.  A few text adventures are still played today, notably ''[[Nethack]]'' and [[MUD]]-like things.
> 
> Graphical adventure games were introduced by a new company called On-line systems, which later changed its name to [[Sierra On-line]].  After the rudimentary ''[[Mystery House]]'' (1980) they established themselves with the full adventure [[King's Quest]] (1984), appearing on various systems, succeeded with a variety of strong titles.  In 1987 a second major developer entered the field, [[Lucasarts]], with the release of ''[[Maniac Mansion]]'' that replaced the text-based parser with a point-and-click interface.
> 
> Another variety of adventure game is the action adventure, which as far as I can tell was introduced by [[Nintendo]] with the very nice title ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1986).  In these, the player controls the character directly, but still gathers items and solves puzzles.  [[/RPG|RPGs]] are also very closely related to Adventure games.
8c14
< * [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
---
> * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
10c16
< * [[Manic Mansion]]
---
> * [[Maniac Mansion]]
------
Video_game/Adventure|986077093
9c9,27
< ----
---
> 
> ''Text adventures''
> * [[Zork]] series (1979-)
> 
> ''Sierra adventures''
> * [[King's Quest]] series (1984-)
> * [[Space Quest]] series (1986-)
> * [[Leisure Suit Larry]] series (1987-)
> 
> ''Lucasarts adventures''
> * [[Maniac Mansion]] (1987)
> * [[Monkey Island]] series
> * [[Sam and Max]]
> * [[Day of the Tentacle]]
> 
> ''Action adventures''
> * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series (1986-)
> 
> ''Unclassified so far''
12d29
< * [[Day of the Tentacle]]
14,19c31
< * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
< * [[Little Big Adventure]] series
< * [[Maniac Mansion]]
< * [[Monkey Island]] series
< * [[Sam and Max]]
< * [[Tomb Raider]] series
---
> * [[Little Big Adventure]] series* [[Tomb Raider]] series
21d32
< * [[Zork]] series
------
Hawaii/Maui|986081340
3c3
< Major cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], and [[Wailea]].
---
> Cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], [[Wailuku]] and [[Wailea]].
------
Socialism/Talk|986081397
84a85,86
> 
> Sweden is an example of a welfare state and Mycenae is an example of a centrally planned economy.  Both of these have proved reasonably prosperous and enduring.  If neither is to be counted as a socialism, and their successes do not count as working, I will gladly drop the point, but merely suggest that less misleading terminology be used.
------
Video_game|986081713
21c21
< ** [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
---
> ** [[Diablo]] series
------
Wailuku|986082143
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A town in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] just west of [[Kahului]], located at the mouth of the [[Ioa Valley]].  In the early 20th century Wailuku was the main tourist destination on Maui, though it has since been eclipsed with the rise of the resort towns such as [[Ka'anapali]], so much that there are no hotels to speak of in Wailuku.  It is, however, a pleasant community thay tourists may wish to visit on a day trip.  
> 
> Worth seeing are the [[Ka'ahumanu Church]] which dates to 1876, the [[Bailey House]], also a 19th century relic that is home to a history museum.  There are also many small shops.
> 
> There are two ancient temples near Wailuku, called [[heiaus]] - the [[Haleki'i Heiau]] and the [[Pihanakalani Heiau]].  Both date back hundreds of years, and were used for human sacrfices by the native Hawaiians.
------
Wailuku|986082186
1c1
< A town in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] just west of [[Kahului]], located at the mouth of the [[Ioa Valley]].  In the early 20th century Wailuku was the main tourist destination on Maui, though it has since been eclipsed with the rise of the resort towns such as [[Ka'anapali]], so much that there are no hotels to speak of in Wailuku.  It is, however, a pleasant community thay tourists may wish to visit on a day trip.  
---
> A town in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] just west of [[Kahului]], located at the mouth of the [[Ioa Valley]].  In the early 20th century Wailuku was the main tourist destination on Maui, though it has since been eclipsed with the rise of the resort towns such as [[Kaanapali|Ka'anapali]], so much that there are no hotels to speak of in Wailuku.  It is, however, a pleasant community thay tourists may wish to visit on a day trip.  
3c3
< Worth seeing are the [[Ka'ahumanu Church]] which dates to 1876, the [[Bailey House]], also a 19th century relic that is home to a history museum.  There are also many small shops.
---
> Worth seeing are the [[Kaahumanu Church|Ka'ahumanu Church]] which dates to 1876, the [[Bailey House]], also a 19th century relic that is home to a history museum.  There are also many small shops.
5c5
< There are two ancient temples near Wailuku, called [[heiaus]] - the [[Haleki'i Heiau]] and the [[Pihanakalani Heiau]].  Both date back hundreds of years, and were used for human sacrfices by the native Hawaiians.
---
> There are two ancient temples near Wailuku, called [[heiaus]] - the [[Halekii Heiau|Haleki'i Heiau]] and the [[Pihanakalani Heiau]].  Both date back hundreds of years, and were used for human sacrfices by the native Hawaiians.
------
Video_game/RPG|986082432
1c1,5
< Released from the constraints of the real world, videogame role playing games have taken on a whole new design of their own.
---
> Released from the constraints of the real world, video [[role playing game]]s have taken on a whole new design of their own.  Video RPGs have tended to show some significant differences from others, usually blending into adventures, typically with a single party on a definite quest.
> 
> Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known [[Ultima]] series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.  ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1985) also introduced a sort of mixed-genre game sometimes called an action RPG.
> 
> Probably the most important title in recent years is [[Pokemon]], a fairly simplistic game whose main innovation was the replacement of the party by creatures that can be captured, collected, and trained.  Its success is unqualified, leading to a huge industry with many spin-off products, including other games, cartoons, and endless merchandise.
9c13
< * [[The Legend of Zelda|Legend of Zelda, The]] series
---
> * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
------
Socialism/Talk|986082565
86c86,88
< Sweden is an example of a welfare state and Mycenae is an example of a centrally planned economy.  Both of these have proved reasonably prosperous and enduring.  If neither is to be counted as a socialism, and their successes do not count as working, I will gladly drop the point, but merely suggest that less misleading terminology be used.
---
> Sweden is an example of a welfare state and Mycenae is an example of a centrally planned economy.  Both of these have proved reasonably prosperous and enduring.  If neither is to be counted as a socialism, and their successes do not count as working, I will gladly drop the point, but merely suggest that less misleading terminology be used.
> ----
> See, defnitions are the bugger, here.  Sweden is not a welfare state - it is a free enterprise economy with huge, huge taxes which are spent to create a very deep cushion of social support.  Within the last 20 years, some of the more burdensome taxes have been modified so that a person who makes too much cannot be taxed more than he earned (formerly possible)  I will check out the Mycenae contention...
------
Video_game/Adventure|986082582
8,9c8
< Another variety of adventure game is the action adventure, which as far as I can tell was introduced by [[Nintendo]] with the very nice title ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1986).  In these, the player controls the character directly, but still gathers items and solves puzzles.  [[/RPG|RPGs]] are also very closely related to Adventure games.
< 
---
> Another variety of adventure game is the action adventure, which as far as I can tell was introduced by [[Nintendo]] with the very nice title ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1985).  In these, the player controls the character directly, but still gathers items and solves puzzles.  Both these and text adventures blend very much into [[/RPG|RPGs]].
23,25d21
< 
< ''Action adventures''
< * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series (1986-)
------
Video_game/RPG|986082781
3c3
< Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known [[Ultima]] series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.  ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1985) also introduced a sort of mixed-genre game sometimes called an action RPG.
---
> Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known [[Ultima]] series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.
5c5,7
< Probably the most important title in recent years is [[Pokemon]], a fairly simplistic game whose main innovation was the replacement of the party by creatures that can be captured, collected, and trained.  Its success is unqualified, leading to a huge industry with many spin-off products, including other games, cartoons, and endless merchandise.
---
> Fairly recently more and more multiplayer RPGs have appeared.  For instance, ''[[Diablo]]'' features a system by which different players can enter the same world and cooperate against the enemies, trade equipment, or should they wish, kill one another.  Massively multiplayer games, huge open-ended worlds with hundreds of interacting characters, have also appeared, pioneered by systems like ''[[Ultima online]]'' and ''[[Everquest]]''.
> 
> Probably the most important title in recent years is ''[[Pokemon]]'', a fairly simplistic game whose main innovation was the replacement of the party by creatures that can be captured, collected, and trained.  Its success is unqualified, leading to a huge industry with many spin-off products, including other games, cartoons, and endless merchandise.
8a11
> * [[Diablo]]
13d15
< * [[The Legend of Zelda]] series
------
Ioa_Valley|986082914
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lush valley in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] that is presently the home of [[Kepaniwai County Park]] and the [[Ioa Valley State Park]].  Because of its beauty it has become one of Hawaii's most famous spots.
> 
> Ioa Valley and the surrounding mountains get a remarkable amount of rain - some peaks receive more than 400 inches per year - which flows into the Ioa Stream.  
> 
> The [[Ioa Needle]] is a famous Iao Valley landmark.  It is a huge slab of lave strateching 1200 feet into the air, covered with vegetation.
> 
> Trails in the State Park run alongside Ioa Stream and through the rainforest, making it a very nice place for a short hike, if you don't mind getting rained on.
> 
> Ioa Valley was the site of the battle of [[Kepaniwai]], which occured in 1790.  It was the battle in which King [[Kamehameha the Great]] conquered Maui.
> 
------
Video_game/RPG|986082986
1c1
< Released from the constraints of the real world, video [[role playing game]]s have taken on a whole new design of their own.  Video RPGs have tended to show some significant differences from others, usually blending into adventures, typically with a single party on a definite quest.
---
> Released from the constraints of the real world, video [[role-playing game]]s have taken on a whole new design of their own.  Video RPGs have tended to show some significant differences from others, usually blending into adventures, typically with a single party on a definite quest.
3c3
< Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known [[Ultima]] series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.
---
> Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known ''[[Ultima]]'' series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.
------
Role-playing_game|986083026
8,10c8
< * [[Computer role playing games|Computer RPGs]] - closely related to adventure games
< ** [[On-line role-playing games]] (e.g. [[MUD]]s)
< * [[Console role playing games|Console RPGS]]
---
> * [[Video role playing games|Video game/RPG]]
------
Role-playing_game|986083062
8c8
< * [[Video role playing games|Video game/RPG]]
---
> * [[Video game/RPG|Video role playing games]]
------
Socialism/Talk|986084047
88a89,90
> 
> Ok, sorry 'bout that one then.  ''Welfare state'' was the term used above for Sweden, with the additional statement that it was a working system, though strangely with the claim that such states don't work.  Any examples of systems that are indeed welfare states?  How 'bout the economies during the great depression (which though not stellar certainly were preferrable to the alternative)?
------
Plantae|986086717
1c1,22
< Plantae is one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]. It includes the Phyla :
---
> '''Introduction'''
> 
> Blah, blah, blah.  I have no idea how to write introductions.
> 
> '''Evolution and Systematics'''
> 
> Plants are eukaryotes and find their origins among a group called the [[green algae]].  These forms are often classed among the [[Protista]] as the phylum Chlorophyta, but in that case form a group paraphyletic to the kingdom [[Plantae]].  Green algae have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b, bound by double membranes, and come in a variety of forms: [[flagellate]], colonial, filamentous, or even primitively multicellular.
> 
> Some time during the [[Palaeozoic]] plants began to appear on land.  In these new forms, called embryophytes, the haploid and diploid individuals (called the gametophyte and sporophyte) become very different in shape and function, the sporophyte remaining small and dependent on its parent for its whole life.  Groups at this level of organization include:
> 
> * Division [[Bryophyta]]  (mosses)
> * Division [[Anthocerotophyta]]  (hornworts)
> * Division [[Hepaticophyta]]  (liverworts)
> 
> All of these forms are small and confined to moist environments, relying on water to disperse spores.  In the [[Silurian]] groups appeared with adaptations enabling them to overcome these constraints, which underwent a massive adaptive radition in the [[Devonian]], taking over the land.  These groups typically have a cuticle resistant to dessication and vascular tissue, which transports water throughout the organism, and are called vascular plants as a result.  In many of these the sporophyte acts as a separate individual.  Groups at this level of organization include:
> 
> * Division [[Lycophyta]]  (club mosses)
> * Division [[Sphenophyta]]  (horsetails)
> * Division [[Psilophyta]]  (whisk ferns)
> * Division [[Pterophyta]]  (ferns)
> 
> And a particularly important group of vascular plants, those with seeds:
3,8d23
<  Phylum [[Chlorophyta]] - paraphyletic to other groups, often placed among [[Protista]].
<  Phylum [[Bryophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Psilophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Lycopodophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Sphenophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Filicinophyta]]
------
Green_algae|986087624
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The green algae are the large group of eukaryotes from which the higher [[Plantae]] emerged.  As such they form a paraphyletic grouping, variously classed with their kin or with the [[Protista]].  In the latter case they are often put into a single phylum Chlorophyta, but sometimes separated out into several different groups.
> 
> There is considerable diversity among the basal green algae, called Prasinophytes.  All have platycristate [[mitochondria]] and most contain green chloroplasts, with chlorophylls a and b, and bound by a double membrane.  The flagella have some ultrastructure in common but vary in number and covering, and there is even some differences in nuclear mitosis.
> 
> Other green algae are divided into these classes:
> * [[Chlorophyceae]]
> * [[Ulvophyceae]]
> * [[Trebouxiophyceae]]
> * [[Charophyceae]] (paraphyletic to land plants)
> 
> All of these groups have cellulose cell walls.  Flagellate cells occur among the first three and typically have two flagella.  Colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms all occur, and sexual reproduction ranges from isogamy all the way to oogamy with internal development.  In the last group, from which higher plants evolved, there are even a few forms ([[Charales]] - stoneworts) that show true differentiation of tissues.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Protista|986087735
14,15c14,15
<  Phylum [[Pelobionts|Caryoblastea = Pelobionta]]
<  Phylum Rhizopoda (lobose and filose [[Amoeboid]]s) 
---
>  Phylum [[Pelobionts|Pelobionta/Caryoblastea]]
>  Phylum Rhizopoda - lobose and filose [[Amoeboid]]s
17,18c17,18
<  Phylum Actinopoda (actinopod [[Amoeboid]]s)
<  Phylum Zoomastigina (heterotrophic [[Flagellate]]s)
---
>  Phylum Actinopoda - actinopod [[Amoeboid]]s
>  Phylum Zoomastigina - heterotrophic [[Flagellate]]s)
21,23c21,23
<  Phylum [[Haptophytes|Haptophyta = Prymnesiophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Dinoflagellates|Pyrrophyta = Dinoflagellata]]
<  Phylum Chrysophyta (basal [[Stramenopiles]])
---
>  Phylum [[Haptophytes|Haptophyta/Prymnesiophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Dinoflagellates|Pyrrophyta/Dinoflagellata]]
>  Phylum Chrysophyta
26c26
<  Phylum [[Diatoms|Bacillariophyta = Diatomophyta]]
---
>  Phylum [[Diatoms|Bacillariophyta/Diatomophyta]]
28,29c28,29
<  Phylum Chlorophyta (basal [[Plantae]])
<  Phylum [[Myxozoa]] = Cnidosporidia
---
>  Phylum [[Green algae|Chlorophyta]]
>  Phylum [[Myxozoa]]/Cnidosporidia
34,35c34,35
<  Phylum [[Labyrinthulids|Labyrinthulomycota = Labyrinthulida]]
<  Phylum [[Plasmodiophorids|Plasmodiophoromycota = Plasmodiophorida]]
---
>  Phylum [[Labyrinthulids|Labyrinthulomycota/Labyrinthulida]]
>  Phylum [[Plasmodiophorids|Plasmodiophoromycota/Plasmodiophorida]]
------
Alga|986087800
10,12c10,12
< The following groups are generally considered algal, even though they may have a few colorless forms:
< * Basal [[Plantae]] (green algae)
< * Most [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, brown algae, diatoms, etc)
---
> The following groups are generally considered algal, or at least are primarily so, even though they may have a few colorless forms:
> * [[Green algae]] - paraphyletic to [[Plantae]]
> * [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, brown algae, diatoms, etc)
------
Alga|986087833
8c8
< In three lines - the brown algae ([[Phaeophyta]]), red algae ([[Rhodophyta]]), and green algae ([[Plantae]]) - even higher levels of organization have developed, leading to organisms with tissue differentiation, and the case of the last to land plants.
---
> In three lines - the brown algae ([[Phaeophyta]]), red algae ([[Rhodophyta]]), and [[green algae]] - even higher levels of organization have developed, leading to organisms with tissue differentiation, and the case of the last to land plants.
------
Flagellate|986087867
15c15
< * Basal [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, bicosoecids, etc)
---
> * [[Stramenopiles]] (golden algae, bicosoecids, etc)
18c18
< * Basal [[Plantae]] (green algae)
---
> * [[Green algae]]
------
Art|986093628
1c1
< Art is art.
---
> Art is art.  (Or is it?)
------
Role-playing_game|986093695
9d8
< 
11,20d9
< 
< Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
< Make believe with consensual parameters of reality<BR>
< alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
< <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
< Players present characters according.<BR>
< <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
< Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
< It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
< It's addictive
------
Role-playing_game/Talk|986093807
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roleplaying Tabletop [[Games]]
> Make believe with consensual parameters of reality<BR>
> alternative reality is stated by a games master (Dungeon master story teller, master of ceremonies)<BR>
> <I>The Dungeon Master is god in this universe</I><BR>
> Players present characters according.<BR>
> <I>In AD&D a fighter, magic-user, cleric, thief, etc.</I><BR>
> Dice of many forms (4-sided, 6-sided, 8-sided, 10-sided, etc.) are the lubricant of fantasy gameplay, but technically not necessary.<BR>
> It's like an ensemble telling of a story<BR>
> It's addictive
> ----
> The above is more akin to poetry than to a bona fide encyclopedia entry.  The idiosyncratic line-breaking, the cryptic statements, etc., is just silly. --[[LMS]]
------
Protista|986094183
38c38,39
< 
---
> ----
> /Talk
------
Protista/Talk|986094233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Brief comment: it seems to me that an article like this could benefit greatly, for the benefit of people who don't actually know what protista are and therefore need this article, to begin with examples of protists.  Whenever defining any term in any field, it always helps to begin with concrete examples (if possible).  Generally speaking, unless you're just trying sum up the knowledge of biologists, without good examples generously interspersed, and other jargon explained, these articles aren't going to be as helpful as they might otherwise be. --[[LMS]]
------
Lahaina|986097277
1c1,9
< Lahaina is a city on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] in [[Hawaii]].
---
> Lahaina is a city on the island of [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] in [[Hawaii]].  It is the only town of substance in West Maui.
> 
> The locus of activity is Front Street, which dates back to the 1820s.  It is lined with streets and restaurants, and is often packed with tourists.
> 
> Banyan Tree Square features a tremedously large banyan tree planted in 1873 to commemorate the fiftieth aniversary of the arrival of the missionaries.  It is also the site of the reconstructed ruins of Lahaina Fort, originally built in 1832.
> 
> Lahaina was the capital of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] for a brief period in the early 19th century.  Prior to unification, in 1795, the town was sacked by [[Kamehameha the Great]].
> 
> It was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet, whose presence at Lahaina frequently led to conflicts with the Christian missionaries living there.  On more than one occassion this conflict was so severe it led to the shelling of Lahaina by a whaleboat.
3d10
< Lahaina is the former capital of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] and was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet.
------
Lahaina|986097328
9c9
< It was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet, whose presence at Lahaina frequently led to conflicts with the Christian missionaries living there.  On more than one occassion this conflict was so severe it led to the shelling of Lahaina by a whaleboat.
---
> It was an important destination for the 19th century whaling fleet, whose presence at Lahaina frequently led to conflicts with the Christian missionaries living there.  On more than one occassion this conflict was so severe it led to the shelling of Lahaina by whaleboats.
------
Ioa_Valley|986097405
1c1
< A lush valley in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] that is presently the home of [[Kepaniwai County Park]] and the [[Ioa Valley State Park]].  Because of its beauty it has become one of Hawaii's most famous spots.
---
> A lush valley in central [[Hawaii/Maui|Maui]] that is presently the home of [[Kepaniwai County Park]] and the [[Ioa Valley State Park]].  Because of its beauty it has become one of [[Hawaii|Hawaii's]] most famous spots.
------
Hawaii/Hawaii|986097725
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hawaii is the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands chain.  It is often refered to as The Big Island to distinguish it from Hawaii the state.
> 
> Hawaii was the home island of [[Kamehameha the Great]] who by 1795 had united most of the Hawaiian Islands under his rule.  He gave his kingdom the name of his native island, which is why we now call all the islands Hawaii.
------
Hawaii/Hawaii|986097765
1c1
< Hawaii is the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands chain.  It is often refered to as The Big Island to distinguish it from Hawaii the state.
---
> Hawaii is the largest island in the Hawaiian Islands chain.  It is often refered to as The Big Island to distinguish it from [[Hawaii]] the state.
3c3
< Hawaii was the home island of [[Kamehameha the Great]] who by 1795 had united most of the Hawaiian Islands under his rule.  He gave his kingdom the name of his native island, which is why we now call all the islands Hawaii.
---
> Hawaii was the home island of [[Kamehameha the Great]] who by 1795 had united most of the Hawaiian Islands under his rule.  He gave his kingdom the name of his native island, which is why we now call all the islands Hawaii.
------
Hawaii|986097793
6c6
<  [[/Hawaii]]
---
>  [[/Hawaii|Hawaii]]
------
Hawaii/Maui|986099129
3c3
< Cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], [[Wailuku]] and [[Wailea]].
---
> Cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], [[Wailuku]] and [[Wailea]].  It is the home of [Ioa Valley]].
------
Hawaii/Maui|986099140
3c3
< Cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], [[Wailuku]] and [[Wailea]].  It is the home of [Ioa Valley]].
---
> Cities include [[Lahaina]], [[Kahului]], [[Hana]], [[Wailuku]] and [[Wailea]].  It is the home of [[Ioa Valley]].
------
Socialism/Talk|986100968
82a83,91
> 
> <b>Creationists say precisely the same sorts of things to attempt to evade the scientific consensus.  Creationists say things like "Evolution could not be true, because how could a complex structure like the eye develop?" or "Evolution is not true because there are gaps in the fossil record."  These are both totally ignorant objections, of course, as anyone who has studied the evidence knows.  But they certainly seem plausible to the uninformed.
> 
> By 'serious people' I mean <i>economists</i>.  PhD economists who have reputable jobs at reputable universities.  Of course, it is possible to dig up some crank economists here or there who think that socialism can work.  (It isn't easy, though!  At least, not at good universities!)
> 
> It is of course possible, in some sense of the word 'possible' that a totally untrained layperson, reading the works of politically or religouslly motivated activists, might stumble onto a major flaw in the scientific consensus of evolution.  But we should doubt it.
> 
> Similarly, we should regard the claim that "socialism works" as not much more scientific than the claim that "Lamarckism works" or "The scientific evidence shows that there was a great flood, covering the entire surface of the world 60 feet deep in Noah's time."  Interesting to observe, culturally, but having no place in a serious writeup.</b>
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986103724
4,6c4,7
< 	Akaka,	 Daniel (D - HI)
< 	Allard,	 Wayne (R - CO)
< 	Allen,	 George (R - VA)
---
> :[[Daniel Akaka]] (D - HI)
> :[[Wayne Allard]] (R - CO)
> :[[George Allen]] (R - VA)
> 
8,9c9,10
< 	Baucus,	 Max (D - MT)
< 	Bayh,	 Evan (D - IN)
---
> :[[Max Baucus]] (D - MT)
> :[[Evan Bayh]] (D - IN)
19c20
< 	[[Byrd, Robert]] (D - WV)
---
> 	[[Robert Byrd]] (D - WV)
128d128
< 
------
Syntax|986103856
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Every language has a specific order to arrange its words. Any alteration in the order leads to a meaning change. Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986103962
11,20c11,21
< 	Bennett, Robert (R - UT)
< 	Biden Jr, Joseph (D - DE)
< 	Bingaman, Jeff (D - NM)
< 	Bond,	 Christopher (R - MO)
< 	Boxer,	 Barbara (D - CA)
< 	Breaux,	 John (D - LA)
< 	Brownback, Sam (R - KS)
< 	Bunning, Jim (R - KY)
< 	Burns, Conrad (R - MT)
< 	[[Robert Byrd]] (D - WV)
---
> :[[Robert Bennett]] (R - UT)
> :[[Joseph Biden, Jr.]] (D - DE)
> :[[Jeff Bingaman]] (D - NM)
> :[[Christopher Bond]] (R - MO)
> :[[Barbara Boxer]] (D - CA)
> :[[John Breaux]] (D - LA)
> :[[Sam Brownback]] (R - KS)
> :[[Jim Bunning]] (R - KY)
> :[[Conrad Burns]] (R - MT)
> :[[Robert Byrd]] (D - WV)
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104095
23,35c23,36
< 	Campbell, Ben Nighthorse (R - CO)
< 	Cantwell, Maria (D - WA)
< 	Carnahan, Jean (D - MO)
< 	Carper,	 Thomas (D - DE)
< 	Chafee, Lincoln (R - RI)
< 	Cleland, Max (D - GA)
< 	Clinton, Hillary (D - NY)
< 	Cochran, Thad (R - MS)
< 	Collins, Susan (R - ME)
< 	Conrad,	 Kent (D - ND)
< 	Corzine, Jon (D - NJ)
< 	Craig,	 Larry (R - ID)
< 	Crapo,	 Mike (R - ID)
---
> :[[Ben Nighthorse Campbell]] (R - CO)
> :[[Maria Cantwell]] (D - WA)
> :[[Jean Carnahan]] (D - MO)
> :[[Thomas Carper]] (D - DE)
> :[[Lincoln Chafee]] (R - RI)
> :[[Max Cleland]] (D - GA)
> :[[Hillary Clinton]] (D - NY)
> :[[Thad Cochran]] (R - MS)
> :[[Susan Collins]] (R - ME)
> :[[Kent Conrad]] (D - ND)
> :[[Jon Corzine]] (D - NJ)
> :[[Larry Craig]] (R - ID)
> :[[Mike Crapo]] (R - ID)
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104128
29c29
< :[[Hillary Clinton]] (D - NY)
---
> :[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] (D - NY)
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104169
129a130
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104287
38,44c38,45
< 	Daschle, Thomas (D - SD)
< 	Dayton,	 Mark (D - MN)
< 	DeWine,	 Mike (R - OH)
< 	Dodd,	 Christopher (D - CT)
< 	Domenici, Pete (R - NM)
< 	Dorgan,	 Byron (D - ND)
< 	Durbin,	 Richard (D - IL)
---
> :[[Thomas Daschle]] (D - SD)
> :[[Mark Dayton]] (D - MN)
> :[[Mike DeWine]] (R - OH)
> :[[Christopher Dodd]] (D - CT)
> :[[Pete Deminici]] (R - NM)
> :[[Byron Dorgan]] (D - ND)
> :[[Richard Durbin]] (D - IL)
> 
46,48c47,50
< 	Edwards, John (D - NC)
< 	Ensign,	 John (R - NV)
< 	Enzi,	 Mike (R - WY)
---
> :[[John Edwards]] (D - NC)
> :[[John Ensign]] (R - NV)
> :[[Mike Enzi]] (R - WY)
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104463
52,55c52,56
< 	Feingold, Russell (D - WI)
< 	Feinstein, Dianne (D - CA)
< 	Fitzgerald, Peter (R - IL)
< 	Frist,	 William (R - TN)
---
> :[[Russell Feingold]] (D - WI)
> :[[Dianne Feinstein]] (D - CA)
> :[[Peter Fitzgerald]] (R - IL)
> :[[William Frist]] (R - TN)
> 
57,60c58,62
< 	Graham,	 Bob (D - FL)
< 	Gramm,	 Phil (R - TX)
< 	Grassley, Chuck (R - IA)
< 	Gregg,	 Judd (R - NH)
---
> :[[Bob Graham]] (D - FL)
> :[[Phil Gramm]] (R - TX)
> :[[Chuck Grassley]] (R - IA)
> :[[Judd Gregg]] (R - NH)
> 
62,68c64,71
< 	Hagel,	 Charles (R - NE)
< 	Harkin,	 Tom (D - IA)
< 	Hatch,	 Orrin (R - UT)
< 	Helms,	 Jesse (R - NC)
< 	Hollings, Ernest (D - SC)
< 	Hutchinson, Tim (R - AR)
< 	Hutchison, Kay Bailey (R - TX)
---
> :[[Charles Hagel]] (R - NE)
> :[[Tom Harkin]] ( D - IA)
> :[[Orrin Hatch]] (R - UT)
> :[[Jesse Helms]] (R - NC)
> :[[Ernest Hollings]] (D - SC)
> :[[Tim Hutchinson]] (R - AR)
> :[[Kay Bailey Hutchison]] (R - TX)
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986104581
73,74c73,75
< 	Inhofe,	 James (R - OK)
< 	Inouye,	 Daniel (D - HI)
---
> :[[James Inhofe]] (R - OK)
> :[[Daniel Inouye]] (D - HI)
> 
76,77c77,79
< 	Jeffords, James (R - VT)
< 	Johnson, Tim (D - SD)
---
> :[[James Jeffords]] (R - VT)
> :[[Tim Johnson]] (D - SD)
> 
79,82c81,85
< 	Kennedy, Edward (D - MA)
< 	Kerry,	 John (D - MA)
< 	Kohl,	 Herb (D - WI)
< 	Kyl,	 Jon (R - AZ)
---
> :[[Edward Kennedy]] (D - MA)
> :[[John Kerry]] (D - MA)
> :[[Herb Kohl]] (D - WI)
> :[[Jon Kyl]] (R - AZ)
> 
------
Senators_Of_The_United_States|986105078
87,93c87,94
< 	Landrieu, Mary (D - LA)
< 	Leahy,  Patrick (D - VT)
< 	Levin,	 Carl (D - MI)
< 	Lieberman, Joseph (D - CT)
< 	Lincoln, Blanche (D - AR)
< 	Lott,	 Trent (R - MS)
< 	Lugar,	 Richard (R - IN)
---
> :[[Mary Landrieu]] (D - LA)
> :[[Patrick Leahy]] (D - VT)
> :[[Carl Levin]] (D - MI)
> :[[Joseph Lieberman]] (D - CT)
> :[[Blanche Lincoln]] (D - AR)
> :[[Trent Lott]] (R - MS)
> :[[Richard Lugar]] (R - IN)
> 
95,100c96,102
< 	McCain,	 John (R - AZ)
< 	McConnell, Mitch (R - KY)
< 	Mikulski, Barbara (D - MD)
< 	Miller,	 Zell (D - GA)
< 	Murkowski, Frank (R - AK)
< 	Murray,	 Patty (D - WA)
---
> :[[John McCain]] (R - AZ)
> :[[Mitch McConnell]] (R - KY)
> :[[Barbara Mikulski]] (D - MD)
> :[[Zell Miller]] (D - GA)
> :[[Frank Murkowski]] (R - AK)
> :[[Patty Murray]] (D - WA)
> 
102,104c104,107
< 	Nelson,	 Ben (D - NE)
< 	Nelson,	 Bill (D - FL)
< 	Nickles, Don (R - OK)
---
> :[[Ben Nelson]] (D - NE)
> :[[Bill Nelson]] (D - NE)
> :[[Don Nickles]] (R - OK)
> 
106,109c109,113
< 	Reed, Jack (D - RI)
< 	Reid,	 Harry (D - NV)
< 	Roberts, Pat (R - KS)
< 	Rockefeller IV,	 John (D - WV)
---
> :[[Jack Reed]] (D - RI)
> :[[Harry Reid]] (D - NV)
> :[[Pat Roberts]] (R - KS)
> :[[John Rockefeller IV]] (D - WV)
> 
111,121c115,126
< 	Santorum, Rick (R - PA)
< 	Sarbanes, Paul (D - MD)
< 	Schumer, Charles (D - NY)
< 	Sessions, Jeff (R - AL)
< 	Shelby,	 Richard (R - AL)
< 	Smith,	 Bob (R - NH)
< 	Smith,	 Gordon (R - OR)
< 	Snowe,	 Olympia (R - ME)
< 	Specter, Arlen (R - PA)
< 	Stabenow, Debbie (D - MI)
< 	Stevens, Ted (R - AK)
---
> :[[Rick Santorum]] (R - PA)
> :[[Paul Sarbanes]] (D - MD)
> :[[Charles Schumer]] (D - NY)
> :[[Jeff Sessions]] (R - AL)
> :[[Richard Shelby]] (R - AL)
> :[[Bob Smith]] (R - NH)
> :[[Gordon Smith]] (R - OR)
> :[[Olympia Snowe]] (R - ME)
> :[[Arlen Specter]] (R - PA)
> :[[Debbie Stabenow]] (D - MI)
> :[[Ted Stevens]] (R - AK)
> 
123,126c128,132
< 	Thomas,	 Craig (R - WY)
< 	Thompson, Fred (R - TN)
< 	Thurmond, Strom (R - SC)
< 	Torricelli, Robert (D - NJ)
---
> :[[Craig Thomas]] (R - WY)
> :[[Fred Thompson]] (R - TN)
> :[[Strom Thurmond]] (R - SC)
> :[[Robert Torricelli]] (D - NJ)
> 
128c134,135
< 	Voinovich, George (R - OH)
---
> :[[George Voinovich]] (R - OH)
> 
130,132c137,139
< 	Warner,	 John (R - VA)
< 	Wellstone, Paul (D - MN)
< 	Wyden,	 Ron (D - OR)
---
> :[[John Warner]] (R - VA)
> :[[Paul Wellstone]] (D - MN)
> :[[Ron Wyden]] (D - OR)
134,135c141,142
< * 50 Democrats
< * 50 Republicans
---
> * 50 [[Democrat]]s
> * 50 [[Republican]]s
139c146
< Republicans have a majority of 51 because the [[Vice President of the United States]] casts tiebreaking votes.
---
> [[Republican]]s have a majority of 51 because the [[Vice President of the United States]] casts tiebreaking votes.
------
Syntax|986105270
1c1
< Describe the new page here.Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Every language has a specific order to arrange its words. Any alteration in the order leads to a meaning change. Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
---
> Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Every language has a specific order to arrange its words. Any alteration in the order leads to a meaning change. Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
------
Morse_code|986105292
82c82,83
<     <TD>--**</TD></TR></TABLE>
---
>     <TD>--**</TD></TR>
> </TABLE>
------
Morse_code|986105310
1c1
< <TABLE>
---
> <TABLE border=1>
------
AtlasShrugged/JamesTaggart|986105433
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/James Taggart]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/James Taggart]]
------
AtlasShrugged/James_Taggart|986105464
1,11c1
< The President of /TaggartTranscontinental.  James Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own.  He relies on his sister [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor.  He associates with other influence peddlers such as /OrrenBoyle, /WesleyMouch, and /PaulLarkin.
< 
< James Taggart appears in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN144
<  /SectioN146 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN148 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/James Taggart]]
------
DaveRaftery|986105490
7c7,11
< Anyway, welcome!  The gardening articles are great! --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Anyway, welcome!  The gardening articles are great! --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Yes, we are noticing some slowdown of the search function.  As I understand it, it basically greps the entire site.  Works great for small sites, but will not scale, for sure.
> 
> I do have a (vague!) plan to make a more efficient search function, and I'll submit the patches to CliffordAdams, but not, as Larry thought, "in a more efficient language".  :-)  It's all perl, which is the only thing I'm good at, anyway.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/James_Taggart|986105888
2a3,5
> As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the [[/Looters|Looters]] is revealed: it is a code of anti-life.  The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero.  Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal.  He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself.  This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this.
> 
> 
------
Socialism/Talk|986111380
84c84
< <b>Creationists say precisely the same sorts of things to attempt to evade the scientific consensus.  Creationists say things like "Evolution could not be true, because how could a complex structure like the eye develop?" or "Evolution is not true because there are gaps in the fossil record."  These are both totally ignorant objections, of course, as anyone who has studied the evidence knows.  But they certainly seem plausible to the uninformed.
---
> Creationists say precisely the same sorts of things to attempt to evade the scientific consensus.  Creationists say things like "Evolution could not be true, because how could a complex structure like the eye develop?" or "Evolution is not true because there are gaps in the fossil record."  These are both totally ignorant objections, of course, as anyone who has studied the evidence knows.  But they certainly seem plausible to the uninformed.
90c90
< Similarly, we should regard the claim that "socialism works" as not much more scientific than the claim that "Lamarckism works" or "The scientific evidence shows that there was a great flood, covering the entire surface of the world 60 feet deep in Noah's time."  Interesting to observe, culturally, but having no place in a serious writeup.</b>
---
> Similarly, we should regard the claim that "socialism works" as not much more scientific than the claim that "Lamarckism works" or "The scientific evidence shows that there was a great flood, covering the entire surface of the world 60 feet deep in Noah's time."  Interesting to observe, culturally, but having no place in a serious writeup.
91a92,94
> ''In the event that there is an example of something, than all claims it does not exist are automatically null and void, and there can be no further discussion of them.  Looking at evidence is not akin to creationism..  Now supposedly Sweden is not actually an example of a welfare state; fine, and in the case that no others turn up, theories that they are impossible are potentially ok.  But you yourself have given no indication that the examples are invalid, and yet still maintained they can't exist, and quite frankly that seems far more akin to creationism than looking at them would be.''
> 
> ''By whose book, by the way, are these few economists "cranks"?  As I understand, socialism is still a well-known and respected theory in Europe, so presumably European economists haven't been nearly so quick to conclude it is unworkable.  Have they?  About what percent of economists are we considering wrong here?''
------
Protista/Talk|986111679
1c1,3
< Brief comment: it seems to me that an article like this could benefit greatly, for the benefit of people who don't actually know what protista are and therefore need this article, to begin with examples of protists.  Whenever defining any term in any field, it always helps to begin with concrete examples (if possible).  Generally speaking, unless you're just trying sum up the knowledge of biologists, without good examples generously interspersed, and other jargon explained, these articles aren't going to be as helpful as they might otherwise be. --[[LMS]]
---
> Brief comment: it seems to me that an article like this could benefit greatly, for the benefit of people who don't actually know what protista are and therefore need this article, to begin with examples of protists.  Whenever defining any term in any field, it always helps to begin with concrete examples (if possible).  Generally speaking, unless you're just trying sum up the knowledge of biologists, without good examples generously interspersed, and other jargon explained, these articles aren't going to be as helpful as they might otherwise be. --[[LMS]]
> 
> Ok.  What protists are people familiar with that reference can be made to?  The only ones I can think of that are truly well-known are ''Amoeba'' - maybe ''Paramecium'' and ''Euglena'', but I'd be surprised if anyone has heard of those and didn't know they were protozoa.  Multicellular forms people would know, but they're already mentioned on the page.  Maybe it would help to say the rest comprise all single-celled forms, instead of are just single-celled? --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Protista/Talk|986112493
3a4,5
> 
> You'd know the answer to your questions better than I would, I'm sure.  When I write an article or lecture about a philosophical subject to nonphilosophers, I try to ease my way into the subject, if I can.  That's all. --[[LMS]]
------
Syntax|986112590
1c1
< Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Every language has a specific order to arrange its words. Any alteration in the order leads to a meaning change. Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
---
> Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together.  Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
------
Protista|986113015
1c1
< The Kingdom Protista (one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]) includes all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few forms are multicellular, ie the [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae) and [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae).  The vast majority, though, are single-celled and are typically only 0.01-0.5 mm in size, too small to be seen without a microscope.  Protists are ubiquitous throughout aqueous environments and the soil, commonly surviving dry periods in the form of ''cysts''; a few are important parasites.
---
> The Kingdom Protista (one of the five kingdoms in [[biology|Linnaean Taxonomy]]) includes all the [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotes]] except for the [[Plantae]], [[Fungi]], and [[Animalia]].  A few forms are multicellular, ie the [[Phaeophyta]] (brown algae) and [[Rhodophyta]] (red algae).  The vast majority, though, comprise the single-celled organisms, and are typically only 0.01-0.5 mm in size, too small to be seen without a microscope.  Protists are ubiquitous throughout aqueous environments and the soil, commonly surviving dry periods in the form of ''cysts''; a few are important parasites.
5c5
< * Fungus-like forms, the [[Slime mold|Slime molds]] and [[Oomycota]];
---
> * Fungus-like forms, the [[Slime mold|Slime molds]] and [[Oomycota]] (water molds);
7,8c7,8
< ** [[Flagellate|Flagellates]]
< ** [[Amoeboid|Amoeboids]]
---
> ** [[Flagellate|Flagellates]] (eg ''Euglena'')
> ** [[Amoeboid|Amoeboids]] (eg ''Amoeba'')
10c10
< ** [[Ciliophora|Ciliates (Ciliophora)]]
---
> ** [[Ciliophora|Ciliates]] (Ciliophora - eg ''Paramecium'')
39c39
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Wasting_time|986113434
1c1,3
< There are many ways to waste time.
---
> There are many ways to waste time.  The best way to waste time, though, is to write stuff into the [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> Another way to waste time is to find out where your favorite Wikipedia page is showing up in [http://www.google.com Google] results.  E.g., at present writing, [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22History+of+Levant%22 History of Levant], it turns out, is #1!  [[Probability and Statistics]] turns up on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Probability+and+Statistics%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=50&sa=N page 6]; [[ethical egoism]] on [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&start=30&sa=N page 4]; etc.
21,23c23
< :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+lonliest+person+in+the+world%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the lonliest person in the world]
< 
< The best way to waste time, though, is to write stuff into the [[Wikipedia]].
---
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+lonliest+person+in+the+world%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the lonliest person in the world]
------
Wasting_time|986113483
5c5
< One way to waste time is to find cool searches on Google, such as these:
---
> Another way to waste time is to find cool searches on Google, such as these:
------
Video_game|986116292
33c33
< * [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
---
> ** [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
41c41
< * [[/FPS|more...]]
---
> ** [[/FPS|more...]]
56c56
< * [[/Real time|more...]]
---
> ** [[/Real time|more...]]
76a77,86
> ----
> 
> * [[/Beat em ups|BEAT 'EM UPS]] just six examples:
> ** [[Street Fighter]] series
> ** [[Virtua Fighter]] series
> ** [[King of the Monsters]] series
> ** [[Mortal Kombat]]
> ** [[Powerstone]]
> ** [[Tekken]]
> * [[/Beat em ups|more...]]
------
Video_game/Beat_em_ups|986117843
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Along with [[Video game/Shoot em ups|shoot 'em ups]], beat 'em ups are traditionally at home in the arcades.
> Typically fights are staged between two opponents with various strengths and weaknesses over three bouts. With the winner either knocking out (K.O) the rival or fairing better over the majority of the fight.
> 
> Just as in other genres there are two well respected developers that produce the majoirty of titles.
> [[Capcom]] are the best known for the [[Street Fighter]] series that although is only up too Street Fighter III has still managed to spawn dozens of versions.
> The first [[Street Fighter]] game is quite mediocre, it wasn't until Street Fighter II and Street Fighter II CE that the franchise really became popular. Since then subsequent incarnations have seen the roster of fighters evolve and swell, leaving at times, just the main two characters, Ryu and Ken from the original Street Fighter II line up.
> 
> Contrasting with [[Capcom]]s approach is [[SEGA]]s [[SEGA/AM2|AM2]] developers, the [[Virtua Fighter]] series has seen just three and a bit versions since its inception in (year?). Each new installment brings with it years of carefully refined mechanics, style and gameplay and is always a big event.
> ----
> * [[King of Fighters]] series
> * [[Marvel/videogame|Marvel..]] series
> * [[Mortal Kombat]] series
> * [[Powerstone]] series
> * [[Rise of the Robots]]
> * [[Soul Calibur]]
> * [[Street Fighter]] series
> * [[Tekken]] series
> * [[Virtua Fighter]] series
> * [[X-Men/videogame|X-Men]] series
------
INRI|986119772
3c3
< In the Gospel of John they are explained: 
---
> In the Gospel of John (19:19-20) the inscription is explained: 
5c5
< "Pilate also had an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek" (John 19:19-20). 
---
> "Pilate also had an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek." 
7c7
< The Latin form of "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" is "Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum" and the anagram for this title is INRI. 
---
> Latin for "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" is "Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum" and the anagram for this title is INRI. 
------
INRI|986119819
5c5
< "Pilate also had an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews." Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek." 
---
> "Pilate also had an inscription written and put on the cross. It read, 'Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews.' Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek." 
------
Geologic_Timescale|986120360
3a4,7
>  |      [[Holocene]]           |                  |                  |
>  |      [[Pleistocene]]        |                  |                  |
>  |      [[Pliocene]]           |                  |                  |
>  |      [[Miocene]]            |                  |                  |
5a10,11
>  |      [[Eocene]]             |               |               |
>  |      [[Paleocene]]          |               |               |
31a38,39
>  |      ([[Neoproterozoic]])                   |               |      
>  (600) -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  - |
------
Dune|986122818
8,9c8,10
< :/Films -- inpired by Dune
< :[[/Games]] -- PC games inspired by Dune
---
> :/Films - inspired by Dune
> :/Games - games inspired by Dune
> :/Videogames - videogames inspired by Dune
13c14
< Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
---
> Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
------
Dune/Videogames|986123065
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
> 
> Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple and not very successful. You played Paul Atreides, who learns the ways of the Desert Planet and tries to establish a Fremen army to reclaim his father's fief.
> ----
> Dune II, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
> 
> Dune II: The Battle for Arrakis, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
> 
> Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
> 
> The world's first realtime strategy game, complex and fun to play, was a huge success. You played a commander for one of three parties at war, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos (which appear in one of the later novels).
> Your objective is to wipe out all resistance and to conquer Arrakis. 
> ----
> Dune 2000, [[Westwood Studios]] 1998
> 
> Has better graphics than Dune 2, but game mechanisms remain almost unchanged.
> ----
> Emperor: Battle for Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] (not yet released)
> 
> [http://pc.ign.com/previews/15485.html PC.IGN preview]
> 
------
Dune/Games|986124184
1c1
< Dune
---
> [[Video games]]
3c3,7
< Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple and not very successful. You played Paul Atreides, who learns the ways of the Desert Planet and tries to establish a Fremen army to reclaim his father's fief.
---
> * Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
> Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple
> [[Dune/Videogame|more...]]
> ----
> [[Card game]]
5c9,12
< Dune 2
---
> * Dune: Eye of the Storm, Five Rings Publishing Group 1997
> [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Rampart/1937/ fanpage]
> ----
> [[Board game]]
7c14,15
< The world's first realtime strategy game, complex and fun to play, was a huge success. You played a commander for one of three parties at war, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos (which appear in one of the later novels). Your objective is to wipe out all resistance and to conquer Arrakis.
---
> * Avalon Hill's Dune, Avalon Hill Games 1979
> [http://www.duneworld.org/games/ah.html fanpage]
9c17,20
< Dune 2000
---
> * Parker Brothers Dune, Parker Brothers 1984
> [http://www.duneworld.org/games/pb.html fanpage]
> ----
> Online
11c22,24
< Has better graphics than Dune 2, but game mechanisms remain almost unchanged.
---
> * Regent of Dune
> * Dune [[MUDD]]
> * Kaitain [[MUSH]]
------
Dune/Videogame|986124517
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
> Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple and not very successful. You played Paul Atreides, who learns the ways of the Desert Planet and tries to establish a Fremen army to reclaim his father's fief.
> ----
> * Dune II, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
> * Dune II: The Battle for Arrakis, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
> * Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
> The world's first realtime strategy game, complex and fun to play, was a huge success. You played a commander for one of three parties at war, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos (which appear in one of the later novels).
> Your objective is to wipe out all resistance and to conquer Arrakis.
> ----
> * Dune 2000, [[Westwood Studios]] 1998
> Has better graphics than Dune 2, but game mechanisms remain almost unchanged.
> ----
> * Emperor: Battle for Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] (not yet released)
> [http://pc.ign.com/previews/15485.html PC.IGN preview]
------
Dune|986124594
10c10
< :/Videogames - videogames inspired by Dune
---
> :/Videogame - videogames inspired by Dune
------
Dune/Videogames|986124609
1,20d0
< Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
< 
< Mixture between adventure and strategy game, fairly simple and not very successful. You played Paul Atreides, who learns the ways of the Desert Planet and tries to establish a Fremen army to reclaim his father's fief.
< ----
< Dune II, [[Westwood Studios]] 1992
< 
< Dune II: The Battle for Arrakis, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
< 
< Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty, [[Westwood Studios]] (year?)
< 
< The world's first realtime strategy game, complex and fun to play, was a huge success. You played a commander for one of three parties at war, the Atreides, the Harkonnen or the Ordos (which appear in one of the later novels).
< Your objective is to wipe out all resistance and to conquer Arrakis. 
< ----
< Dune 2000, [[Westwood Studios]] 1998
< 
< Has better graphics than Dune 2, but game mechanisms remain almost unchanged.
< ----
< Emperor: Battle for Dune, [[Westwood Studios]] (not yet released)
< 
< [http://pc.ign.com/previews/15485.html PC.IGN preview]
------
Games/video_games|986124712
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Video games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Video game]]
------
Organic_chemistry|986125061
3c3
< For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Wohler in 1828.
---
> For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Woehler in 1828.
------
Video_game|986125526
48c48
< *** [[Alpha Centauri/videogame|Alpha Centauri]]
---
> *** [[Alpha Centauri/Videogame|Alpha Centauri]]
50c50
< *** [[Dune/videogame|Dune]] series
---
> *** [[Dune/Videogame|Dune]] series
65c65
< ** [[Megaman]]
---
> ** [[Mega Man]]
73c73
< ** [[Snakes]]
---
> ** [[Snakes/Videogame|Snakes]]
------
Painters|986125735
56a57
>      [[Ulrich Leman]]
------
Geography|986126086
3c3
< Geography is much more than studying maps.  It includes studying how geography affects culture, population, etc...
---
> Geography is much more than studying maps.  It includes studying how physical factors of the planet's surface affect human culture, biological populations, etc...
------
Germany/People|986127082
1d0
< 
37c36
< Ethnic groups: German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Russian, Greek, Polish, Spanish)
---
> Ethnic groups: German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Russian, Greek, Polish, Spanish. There is a Danish minority in the most northern state (Schlewig-Holstein) and a Sorbic minority in Saxony.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes/Talk|986133523
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As an example I've put [[Wikipedia]] pages into NuPedia'''''s category scheme on the [[Category Schemes]] page. A short history of this, then. The Nupedia category scheme is really intended to be a way to organize ''review groups'', not necessarily subject areas (i.e., it's intended to organize people, not content); but, as it turns out, it is also not a bad way to organize subject areas as well.
> 
> I devised the category scheme very roughly according to the way universities divide up academic departments. I tried, above all, to be exhaustive; if there is some area of human knowledge that cannot be placed in this category scheme, I'd like to know. The supercategories ("FoundationalDisciplines," " NaturalSciences," etc.) are all reasonably coherent concepts, and in most cases it's clear enough that a category definitely belongs in one supercategory rather than another. 
> 
> On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme. But of course others may differ. Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> I'm sorry, but the current organizational scheme that's been used on the homepage just makes me cringe every time I look at it. It seems as if there's no sense - that they're merely random points into the database. I tried to provide a simple three-grouping system to help at least organize it a little, but it appears to have been reverted out. There are few clues as to how to fit new topics into the organizational scheme... How can you tell if some technical topic belongs in TechnologY rather than ScienCe? ArtsAndEntertainment? is an extremely broad subject area; CountriesOfTheWorld extremely specific... -- BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington
> 
> Science includes the principles behind things, but technology includes their uses. A lot of topics will straddle the two, but for a top-level classification I don't think there's a problem. I do agree, though, that there are way to many top-level nodes. Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
> 
> Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
> ----
> The point of having a computerized encyclopedia is not to face some of the traditionnal dilemma of the Editor-In-Chief: meeting the deadline, having a fixed list of articles, publishing a fixed work, having only one table of contents.
> 
> I think that apart from quite rational CategorySchemes we should encourage many apparently non-sensical categorizations and make them available through a variant of the CategorySchemes and/or of the PatentNonsense page, like this one:
> #Things written by BryceHarrington
> #Things having kept a wEiRDcAPITALIZATion? in wikiwiki
> #Things whose name is badly spelt by most
> #Things whose shape or color has a cute name in shwahili
> #Birds that cannot fly
> #Subjects alluded to in more than two of the above categories
> #People not wanting to be classified as things
> #Objects not wanting to be called by any other name
> #Objects that can be thrown at someone you despise
> #Savoir-vivre manuals
> #Mirrors, Queens and Rabbits
> #Miscelleaneous and Dinosaurs
> 
> --OprgaG
> ----
> As you can see, I've been tweaking our HomePage category scheme. It probably needs further tweaking, if we're going to follow a nonredundancy rule; e.g., countries of the world is a subcategory of geography. This is something we should perhaps discuss. LMS
> ----
> Perhaps AstroNomer could explain why Planetary Sciences should be distinguished from Astronomy? For simplicity, I propose to continue regarding PS as a branch of Astronomy. We could, for example, regard Oceanography? as a separate science from Earth Sciences, but again, simplicity seems to recommend that we keep relatively few broadly-characterized categories. Disagree? --LMS
> ----
> In some Universities in the US, there are Planetary Sciences departments separate from the astronomy departments, and, though they use some of the techniques of astronomy, they also are able to "go there" and observe directly (trips to the moon, unmanned mission to Mars and other planets, the recent landing in an asteroid). They study things as the geology of planets, or the meteorology of others...In a way, I'd say that [[earth sciences]] is branch of Planetary Sciences, more than P.S. is a branch of astronomy. There are even some (I hope few) planetary scientists than get offended is someone called them astronomers...
> 
> All that said, it is possible than putting it at the top of the hierarchy was a bit extreme, and I'm not moving it back till some pl. scientists joins the wiki and moves it back.
> 
> Also, I think there should be a link to Planetary Sciences from [[Earth sciences]] -- AstroNomer
------
Syntax|986133643
1c1
< Syntax is the study of the rules which govern the way the words in a sentence come together.  Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
---
> Syntax is the study of the rules, or "patterned realtions," which govern the way the words in a sentence come together.  Different words which are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs etc. combine into clauses which in turn combine into sentences.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes/Talk|986133758
39a40,46
> ----
> The DeweyDecimalSystem is really more appropriate for a library of books, not
> an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!)
> perspective.
> ----
> Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public
> Domain, being produced by the US government.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|986133954
1,2c1,4
< Add your category scheme below!  Let's discuss the different category schemes on CategorySchemesTalk.
< ----
---
> Add your category scheme below!
> 
> Let's discuss the different category schemes on /Talk
> 
23c25
< The [[DeweyDecimalSystem]] is really more appropriate for a library of books, not an encyclopedia, but still gives an interesting (if old-fashioned!) perspective.
---
> Years in Review
24a27
> [[1999]] - [[2000]] - [[2001]]
26,27c29
< 
< Or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme]] perhaps. I assume that it's Public Domain, being produced by the US government.
---
> /Talk
------
CategorySchemesTalk|986134043
1,57c1
< Talk about various [[Wikipedia]] CategorySchemes here.
< ----
< As an example I've put [[Wikipedia]] pages into NuPedia'''''s category scheme on the CategorySchemes page.  A short history of this, then.  The Nupedia category scheme is really intended to be a way to organize ''review groups,'' not necessarily subject areas (i.e., it's intended to organize people, not content); but, as it turns out, it is also not a bad way to organize subject areas as well.
< 
< I devised the category scheme very roughly according to the way universities divide up academic departments.  I tried, above all, to be exhaustive; if there is some area of human knowledge that cannot be placed in this category scheme, I'd like to know.  The supercategories ("FoundationalDisciplines," "NaturalSciences," etc.) are all reasonably coherent concepts, and in most cases it's clear enough that a category definitely belongs in one supercategory rather than another.
< 
< On the whole, I think that as a category scheme it is a lot more coherent than, say, the DeweyDecimalSystem or the [[Library of Congress catalogue scheme|LibraryOfCongressClassificationScheme]].  But of course others may differ.  Feel free to devise your own category scheme and place it on the CategorySchemes page! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< ----
< I'm sorry, but the current organizational scheme that's been used on the homepage just makes me cringe every time I look at it.  It seems as if there's no sense - that they're merely random points into the database.  I tried to provide a simple three-grouping system to help at least organize it a little, but it appears to have been reverted out.  There are few clues as to how to fit new topics into the organizational scheme...  How can you tell if some technical topic belongs in TechnologY rather than ScienCe?  ArtsAndEntertainment is an extremely broad subject area; CountriesOfTheWorld extremely specific...  -- BryceSorryAndConfusedHarrington
< 
< Science includes the principles behind things, but technology includes their uses.  A lot of topics will straddle the two, but for a top-level classification I don't think there's a problem.  I do agree, though, that there are way to many top-level nodes.  Off the top of my head, I would propose a different system:
< 
< Understanding the way the world works - PhiloSophy, MathematicsAndStatistics, NaturalSciences
< Understanding what's actually in it - BiologicalSciences (?), HiStory, GeoGraphy
< Making stuff for practical use - TechnologY
< Making stuff for its own ends - ArtsAndEntertainment
< ----
< The point of having a computerized encyclopedia is not to face some of the traditionnal dilemma of the Editor-In-Chief:
< meeting the deadline, having a fixed list of articles, publishing a fixed work, having only one table of contents.
< 
< I think that apart from quite rational CategorySchemes we should encourage many apparently non-sensical categorizations and make them available through a variant of the CategorySchemes and/or of the PatentNonsense page, like this one:
< #Things written by BryceHarrington
< #Things having kept a wEiRDcAPITALIZATion in wikiwiki 
< #Things whose name is badly spelt by most
< #Things whose shape or color has a cute name in shwahili
< #Birds that cannot fly
< #Subjects alluded to in more than two of the above categories
< #People not wanting to be classified as things
< #Objects not wanting to be called by any other name
< #Objects that can be thrown at someone you despise
< #Savoir-vivre manuals
< #Mirrors, Queens and Rabbits
< #Miscelleaneous and Dinosaurs
< 
< --OprgaG
< 
< ----
< 
< As you can see, I've been tweaking our HomePage category scheme.  It probably needs further tweaking, if we're going to follow a nonredundancy rule; e.g., [[countries of the world]] is a subcategory of [[geography]].  This is something we should perhaps discuss. [[LMS]]
< ----
< Perhaps AstroNomer could explain why [[Planetary Sciences]] should be distinguished from [[Astronomy]]?  For simplicity, I propose to continue regarding PS as a branch of Astronomy.  We could, for example, regard [[Oceanography]] as a separate science from [[Earth Sciences]], but again, simplicity seems to recommend that we keep relatively few broadly-characterized categories.  Disagree? --[[LMS]]
< ----
< In some Universities in the US, there are Planetary Sciences departments separate from the astronomy departments, and,
< though they use some of the techniques of astronomy, they also
< are able to "go there" and observe directly (trips to the moon,
< unmanned mission to Mars and other planets, the recent landing
< in an asteroid). They study things as the geology of planets,
< or the meteorology of others...In a way, I'd say that [[earth sciences]] is branch of [[Planetary Sciences]], more than P.S.
< is a branch of astronomy. There are even some (I hope few) planetary scientists than get offended is someone called them astronomers...
< 
< All that said, it is possible than putting it at the top of the 
< hirarchy was a bit extreme, and I'm not moving it back till some
< pl. scientists joins  the wiki and moves it back.
< 
< Also, I think there should be a link to [[Planetary Sciences]]
< from [[Earth sciences]] -- AstroNomer
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia category schemes/Talk]]
------
Requested_articles|986134388
18c18
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[LALR]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
------
Academy_Awards/Art_Direction|986135174
3c3
< The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 went to the best art diretcion in 1999. 
---
> The films are listed with their production year, so the Oscar 2000 for best art direction went to a film from 1999. 
126c126
< *1928 William Cameron Menzies - [[The Dove]] and [[Tempest]]
---
> *1928 William Cameron Menzies - [[The Dove]] and [[Tempest]]
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|986136478
14a15
> <tr><td>graphein </td><td>to write </td></tr>
------
Erasmus_Darwin|986138530
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)
> 
> Trained as a physician, he wrote extensively on medicine and botany. Living in [[Birmingham, England]], he corresponded and discussed many topics with other members of the [[Lunar Society]].
> 
> His long poem `<i>Zoonomia</i>' is widely considered to foreshadow the [[Theory of Evolution]] formulated by his grandson [[Charles Darwin]]. 
> Another of his grandsons was [[Samuel Galton]].
> 
------
William_Withering|986138676
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> William Withering (1741-1799)
> 
> Trained as a doctor at Edinburgh University, he worked at Birmingham General 
> Hospital from 1779. The story is that one of his patients with dropsy 
> ([[congestive heart failure]]) improved remarkably after taking a traditional 
> herbal remedy; William became famous for recognising that the active 
> ingredient in the mixture was contained in the leaves of [[foxglove]]s.
> The active ingredient is now known as [[digitalis]] to denote its discovery in foxgloves)
> 
> He lived in Edgbaston Hall (now a [[golf]] club), in [[Birmingham, England]], and was one of the members of the [[Lunar Society]]. He is buried in Edgbaston old church. His memorial stone, now moved inside the church, has foxgloves carved upon it to commemorate his discovery. 
> 
------
2000|986139224
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The year in review
> 
> :[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> ::[[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]
> Sadly we lost [[Charles Schultz]], February 12, the much missed creator of the [[Peanuts]] comic strip.
> ::[[Film]]
> The latest [[Coen Brothers]] film, [[O Brother Where Are Thou]] was released to much criticial acclaim.
> 
> Martial arts extravaganza, [[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]] leaped and flew itself onto the publics imagination.
> 
> The annual [[Academy Awards]] served out gongs for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] in [[Gladiator]] to [[Russel Crowe]], and gave [[Julia Roberts]] a [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]].
> [[Ridley Scott]]s [[Gladiator]] took the [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]].
> [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] and [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Actor]] were won by [[Marcia Gay Harden]] for [[Pollock]] and [[Benicio del Toro]] for [[Traffic/Film|Traffic]], which also won its director, [[Steven Soderbergh]] the [[Academy Awards/Directing|Directing]] statue.
> 
> And to spite all the critics, the fairy tale adventure based on the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed $259,951,325 at the box office.
> ::[[Music]]
> [[Bob Dylan]] released his first new album in three years, Time Out Of Mind alongside relative youngsters, [[Catatonia]] with [[Equally Cursed and Blessed]].
> ----
> :[[Politics]]
> ::[[United States|US]]
> It was the end of an era, [[Bill Clinton]], who'd spent the maximum two terms in office was on his way out. After all of the furore during the Clinton administration the election was sure to go well, [[US Election 2000|but it didn't]], and a whole shake down of the judicial syste, later and [[George W. Bush]] becomes the 52 president of The United States of America.
------
Role-playing_game/Talk|986139343
11c11,13
< The above is more akin to poetry than to a bona fide encyclopedia entry.  The idiosyncratic line-breaking, the cryptic statements, etc., is just silly. --[[LMS]]
---
> The above is more akin to poetry than to a bona fide encyclopedia entry.  The idiosyncratic line-breaking, the cryptic statements, etc., is just silly. --[[LMS]]
> 
> maybe it's beyond your imagination
------
Role-playing_game/Talk|986139631
13c13
< maybe it's beyond your imagination
---
> maybe it's beyond your imagination, Larry
------
2000|986142556
1c1
< The year in review
---
> [[Year in Review]]
3,4c3,6
< :[[Arts and Entertainment]]
< ::[[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]
---
> [[1999]] - 2000 - [[2001]]
> ----
> *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> **[[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]
6c8
< ::[[Film]]
---
> **[[Film]]
16c18
< ::[[Music]]
---
> **[[Music]]
19,20c21,22
< :[[Politics]]
< ::[[United States|US]]
---
> *[[Politics]]
> **[[United States|US]]
21a24,25
> ----
> /Talk
------
Year_in_Review|986143317
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Year in Review
> 
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>[[1950]]</td>
> <td>[[1951]]</td>
> <td>[[1952]]</td>
> <td>[[1953]]</td>
> <td>[[1954]]</td>
> <td>[[1955]]</td>
> <td>[[1956]]</td>
> <td>[[1957]]</td>
> <td>[[1958]]</td>
> <td>[[1959]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[1960]]</td>
> <td>[[1961]]</td>
> <td>[[1962]]</td>
> <td>[[1963]]</td>
> <td>[[1964]]</td>
> <td>[[1965]]</td>
> <td>[[1966]]</td>
> <td>[[1967]]</td>
> <td>[[1968]]</td>
> <td>[[1969]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[1970]]</td>
> <td>[[1971]]</td>
> <td>[[1972]]</td>
> <td>[[1973]]</td>
> <td>[[1974]]</td>
> <td>[[1975]]</td>
> <td>[[1976]]</td>
> <td>[[1977]]</td>
> <td>[[1978]]</td>
> <td>[[1979]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[1980]]</td>
> <td>[[1981]]</td>
> <td>[[1982]]</td>
> <td>[[1983]]</td>
> <td>[[1984]]</td>
> <td>[[1985]]</td>
> <td>[[1986]]</td>
> <td>[[1987]]</td>
> <td>[[1988]]</td>
> <td>[[1989]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[1990]]</td>
> <td>[[1991]]</td>
> <td>[[1992]]</td>
> <td>[[1993]]</td>
> <td>[[1994]]</td>
> <td>[[1995]]</td>
> <td>[[1996]]</td>
> <td>[[1997]]</td>
> <td>[[1998]]</td>
> <td>[[1999]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[2000]]</td>
> <td>[[2001]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> ----
> /Talk
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|986143452
25c25,27
< Years in Review
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> Read a review about each year
------
Neeklamy|986144493
4c4
< 
---
> ----
8c8,20
< Chris neeKlamy (oh. my nick wasn't capped right, oh well!)
---
> Chris neeKlamy
> ----
> April 1 [[2001]]
> 
> This is my third day at [[Wikipedia]], and I'm finding myself a whole bunch of new pages and projects to work on..
> 
> Just put in place the basics for [[Year in Review]], it is a new [[Wikipedia category schemes|category scheme]] that just had to be done.
> I envision it being like the [[BBC]] [[Television]] series, I Love (year goes here), where they looked at art, pop, films and the general goings on in that particular year.
> It was an interesting series, they did the [[1970]]s [[1980]]s and are going to do the [[1990]]s later this year, really!
> 
> Other than taking [[2000]] I shall also be heavily into the year [[1977]], my birth year, and I expect that birth years (and other, personal or not) landmarks will also be quickly wrote up.
> 
> My other big project in the making is [[Video game]]. There's plenty to be done there as well; listing the many developers, games, franchises and genres will take an age, but it'll be fun and I'll get to learn a whole bunch of new things about gaming.
------
NASCAR_Championship|986146729
54c54,55
< 
---
> ----
> /Talk
------
NASCAR_Championship/Talk|986146988
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just interested, what does "point margin" actually mean?
> Also, it'd probably be best to format the list in a table, as it is, the data doesn't line up well.
> --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Dune|986148290
10,14c10
< :/Videogame - videogames inspired by Dune
< 
< ----
< 
< Larry, I followed your advice and refactored this page.
---
> :/Videogame - videogames inspired by Dune
------
History|986148624
43a44,46
> * [[Twentieth-century history]] (rename this to something appropriate?)
> ** [[Year in Review]]
> 
------
History|986148786
59,62c59
< Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosophy, or other cross sections of human history? -- [[Dick Beldin]]
< 
< When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones ([[neolithic]], [[bronze age]], ''maybe'' [[iron age]]) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
< 
---
> See also: [[Archaeology]]
64,67c61
< Related themes: [[Archaeology]]
< 
< ----
< [[/Talk]]
---
> /Talk
------
NASCAR_Championship|986149165
1,53c1,58
<  Year  Winner            Points Margin     Runner-up
< 
< 
<  1998 [[Jeff Gordon]]           364           [[Mark Martin]]
<  1997 [[Jeff Gordon]]            14           [[Dale Jarrett]]
<  1996 [[Terry Labonte]]          37           [[Jeff Gordon]]
<  1995 [[Jeff Gordon]]            34           [[Dale Earnhardt]]
<  1994 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        444           [[Mark Martin]]
<  1993 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         80           [[Rusty Wallace]]
<  1992 [[Alan Kulwicki]]          10           [[Bill Elliott]]
<  1991 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        195           [[Ricky Rudd]]
<  1990 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         26           [[Mark Martin]]
<  1989 [[Rusty Wallace]]          12           [[Dale Earnhardt]]
<  1988 [[Bill Elliott]]           24           [[Rusty Wallace]]
<  1987 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        489           [[Bill Elliott]]
<  1986 [[Dale Earnhardt]]        288           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
<  1985 [[Darrell Waltrip]]       101           [[Bill Elliott]]
<  1984 [[Terry Labonte]]          65           [[Harry Gant]]
<  1983 [[Bobby Allison]]          47           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
<  1982 [[Darrell Waltrip]]        72           [[Bobby Allison]]
<  1981 [[Darrell Waltrip]]        53           [[Bobby Allison]]
<  1980 [[Dale Earnhardt]]         19           [[Cale Yarborough]]
<  1979 [[Richard Petty]]          11           [[Darrell Waltrip]]
<  1978 [[Cale Yarborough]]       474           [[Bobby Allison]]
<  1977 [[Cale Yarborough]]       386           [[Richard Petty]]
<  1976 [[Cale Yarborough]]       195           [[Richard Petty]]
<  1975 [[Richard Petty]]         722           [[Dave Marcis]]
<  1974 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a+          [[Cale Yarborough]]
<  1973 [[Benny Parsons]]         n/a           [[Cale Yarborough]]
<  1972 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[Bobby Allison]]
<  1971 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
<  1970 [[Bobby Isaac]]           n/a           [[Bobby Allison]]
<  1969 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
<  1968 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[Bobby Isaac]]
<  1967 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
<  1966 [[David Pearson]]         n/a           [[James Hylton]]
<  1965 [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           [[Dick Hutcherson]]
<  1964 [[Richard Petty]]         n/a           [[Ned Jarrett]]
<  1963 [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
<  1962 [[Joe Weatherly]]         n/a           [[Richard Petty]] 
<  1961 [[Ned Jarrett]]           n/a           [[Rex White]]
<  1960 [[Rex White]]             n/a           [[Richard Petty]]
<  1959 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Cotton Owens]]
<  1958 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Buck Baker]]
<  1957 [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           [[Marvin Panch]]
<  1956 [[Buck Baker]]            n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
<  1955 [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           [[Buck Baker]]
<  1954 [[Lee Petty]]             n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
<  1953 [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           [[Lee Petty]]
<  1952 [[Tim Flock]]             n/a           [[Herb Thomas]]
<  1951 [[Herb Thomas]]           n/a           [[Fonty Flock]]
<  1950 [[Bill Rexford]]          n/a           [[Fireball Robert]]
<  1949 [[Red Byron]]             n/a           [[Lee Petty]]
---
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>Year</td>
> <td>Winner</td>
> <td>Points Margin</td>
> <td>Runner-up</td>
> </tr>
> <tr><td>[[1998]]</td><td>[[Jeff Gordon]]</td>		<td>364</td><td>[[Mark Martin]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1997]]</td><td>[[Jeff Gordon]] </td>		<td> 14</td><td>[[Dale Jarrett]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1996]]</td><td>[[Terry Labonte]]</td>		<td> 37</td><td>[[Jeff Gordon]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1995]]</td><td>[[Jeff Gordon]]</td>		<td> 34</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1994]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td>444</td><td>[[Mark Martin]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1993]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td> 80</td><td>[[Rusty Wallace]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1992]]</td><td>[[Alan Kulwicki]]</td>		<td> 10</td><td>[[Bill Elliott]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1991]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td>195</td><td>[[Ricky Rudd]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1990]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td> 26</td><td>[[Mark Martin]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1989]]</td><td>[[Rusty Wallace]]</td>		<td> 12</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1988]]</td><td>[[Bill Elliott]]</td>		<td> 24</td><td>[[Rusty Wallace]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1987]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td>489</td><td>[[Bill Elliott]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1986]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td>288</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1985]]</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td>	<td>101</td><td>[[Bill Elliott]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1984]]</td><td>[[Terry Labonte]]</td>		<td> 65</td><td>[[Harry Gant]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1983]]</td><td>[[Bobby Allison]]</td>		<td> 47</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1982]]</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td>	<td> 72</td><td>[[Bobby Allison]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1981]]</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td>	<td> 53</td><td>[Bobby Allison]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1980]]</td><td>[[Dale Earnhardt]]</td>	<td> 19</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1979]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td> 11</td><td>[[Darrell Waltrip]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1978]]</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td>	<td>474</td><td>[[Bobby Allison]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1977]]</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td>	<td>386</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1976]]</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td>	<td>195</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1975]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>722</td><td>[[Dave Marcis]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1974]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1973]]</td><td>[[Benny Parsons]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Cale Yarborough]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1972]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Bobby Allison]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1971]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[James Hylton]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1970]]</td><td>[[Bobby Isaac]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Bobby Allison]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1969]]</td><td>[[David Pearson]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1968]]</td><td>[[David Pearson]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Bobby Isaac]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1967]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[James Hylton]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1966]]</td><td>[[David Pearson]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[James Hylton]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1965]]</td><td>[[Ned Jarrett]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Dick Hutcherson]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1964]]</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Ned Jarrett]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1963]]</td><td>[[Joe Weatherly]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1962]]</td><td>[[Joe Weatherly]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1961]]</td><td>[[Ned Jarrett]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Rex White]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1960]]</td><td>[[Rex White]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[Richard Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1959]]</td><td>[[Lee Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Cotton Owens]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1958]]</td><td>[[Lee Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Buck Baker]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1957]]</td><td>[[Buck Baker]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Marvin Panch]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1956]]</td><td>[[Buck Baker]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Herb Thomas]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1955]]</td><td>[[Tim Flock]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Buck Baker]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1954]]</td><td>[[Lee Petty]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Herb Thomas]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1953]]</td><td>[[Herb Thomas]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Lee Petty]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1952]]</td><td>[[Tim Flock]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Herb Thomas]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1951]]</td><td> [[Herb Thomas]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Fonty Flock]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1950]]</td><td> [[Bill Rexford]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Fireball Robert]]</td></tr>
> <tr><td>[[1949]]</td><td> [[Red Byron]]</td>		<td>n/a</td><td>[[Lee Petty]]</td></tr>
> </table>
------
History/Talk|986149292
4a5,10
> ----
> Is the geographical indexing the only kind we will offer from this point? Should we offer any others (for example, History of ''X'' where ''X'' is an academic discipline, a persistent type of human behavior like religion or philosophy, or other cross sections of human history? -- [[Dick Beldin]]
> 
> When I started the page I made a couple of time slices, but except for the very early ones ([[neolithic]], [[bronze age]], ''maybe'' [[iron age]]) they really don't work too well except in localized areas.  That's why the geographic overviews are at the top.  But histories of disciplines wouldn't hurt to add. -- [[Josh Grosse]]
> 
> Some typical ways to divide up history that I recall include: by geographical region; by nation-state or empire; by time period (or a region in a time period such as history of medieval Europe); by sector or function within society (history of the church, history of the state which is what much history is thought to be, intellectual history, social history, military history, history of exploration, etc.).  See http://dmoz.org/Society/History/ and http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/History/.  I'm not suggesting we replicate their category schemes (which wouldn't make sense for an encyclopedia), but just use that for ideas about how to expand ours.  I'd lend a direct hand but I haven't studied history in a long time. --[[LMS]]
------
NASCAR_Championship/Talk|986149307
1c1
< Just interested, what does "point margin" actually mean?
---
> Just interested, what does "Points Margin" actually mean?
2a3
> 
3a5
> P.S. Nevermind, fixed the table and linked the years myself now, will have to look up the more rececnt years though now (since 1998)
------
Erasmus_Darwin|986150090
6,7c6
< Another of his grandsons was [[Samuel Galton]].
< 
---
> Another of his grandsons was [[Francis Galton]].
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|986150704
3c3
< '''March 30, 2001'''
---
> '''April 1, 2001'''
5c5
< [http://slashdot.org/articles/01/03/29/2035230.shtml Slashdotted again!]  One "jwales" has written "Wikipedia hits 2000 articles" as a reply to a post about Everything2.  (Score:5, Informative--wow!  Way to go, jwales!)
---
> [http://www.google.com Google] has been crawling through Wikipedia and including pages in their database rather slowly.  For example, though the Wikipedia [[History of Levant]] page is the #1 item for the search "History of Levant", the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/History_of_Levant+%22History+of+Levant%22&hl=en cached version] is from way back on February 19 and the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Ethical_egoism+%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en cached version] of [[ethical egoism]] is from March 2.  Despite the delay, we have a slowly-growing source of traffic--and therefore more contributors, and therefore (very possibly, anyway) an increasing rate of article-writing--from Google and Google-using search engines like Yahoo! and Netscape.  The news then, though it's surely not great news to many, is that on Wikipedia "the rich (will) get richer"; or "if we build it, they will come" and in greater and greater numbers.
7,49c7,9
< Yep, and as a result all these new addic...I mean new contributors have joined us.  Of course, most have been contributing the [[computing]] area and [[Technology|techie subjects]] but it seems they do [[beadwork]] or play [[whist]] in their spare time.
< 
< Actual statistics as of 1:37 PM PST, March 30, 2001: 3,577 pages; 2,221 "comma" pages (pages containing commas); 2,365 pages with at least 150 characters; 553 articles with at least 2,000 characters (roughly, three normal-sized paragraphs).
< 
< '''March 28, 2001'''
< 
< Consider [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].  More importantly (?), consider [[adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
< 
< '''March 24, 2001'''
< 
< We have broken 3,000 pages!  As impressive as this sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,910--we can expect to break the 2,000 level of "comma" articles within the next few days.
< 
< P.S.  As of 11:20pm EST there were 2056 pages with at least 150 characters.  Of those pages, 796 had at least 1,000 characters and 159 pages had 5,000 or more characters.  (To search by minimum length, search for <code>(.|\n){150}</code> and replace 150 with the desired number of characters.)  There were also 634 redirection pages (search for <code>^#REDIRECT\s</code> for a list).
< 
< '''March 23, 2001'''
< 
< [[Nupedia]] finally announced to its members the existence of Wikipedia; as a result, we have had a nice, modest influx of traffic.
< 
< In related events, recently a discussion was started on Advisory-L and Nupedia-L, two Nupedia mailing lists, pointing to the fact that Wikipedia had made fantastic progress while Nupedia seemed relatively inefficient.  It has been suggested that Nupedia might take a clue, somehow, from Wikipedia's progress, in redesigning its own system.  This, too, accounts for the recent influx of traffic on Wikipedia.
< 
< '''March 7, 2001'''
< 
< We've broken 2,000 articles!  As of this writing, we have 2,144 individual pages.  This enormous jump in production is due to the massive influx of people from the Slashdot.org mention of Wikipedia--contrary to fears, people who seem to understand what's going on here very well and are (it seems) rapidly getting addicted.  :-)
< 
< As impressive as the 2,000 mark sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,323.  Still very impressive.
< 
< [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] and no doubt some others think Wikipedia's going to be huge.
< 
< '''March 6, 2001'''
< 
< Jimbo was wrong!  We have had a massive influx of people writing a lot of interesting, good articles.  Nothing to fear, it seems!  March 5 really was a sort of banner day--probably set a record in terms of number of edits and number of new articles.
< 
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
< 
< '''March 5, 2001'''
< 
< The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot.org, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< '''March 3, 2001'''
< 
< The [[how does one edit a page]] page has been given a thorough overhaul.  Wiki experts, please help edit ''that'' page!
< 
< '''News archive'''
---
> Much more news in the
> <br>'''News Archive'''
> <br>[[/March 2001]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements/March_2001|986150713
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''March 30, 2001'''
> 
> [http://slashdot.org/articles/01/03/29/2035230.shtml Slashdotted again!]  One "jwales" has written "Wikipedia hits 2000 articles" as a reply to a post about Everything2.  (Score:5, Informative--wow!  Way to go, jwales!)
> 
> Yep, and as a result all these new addic...I mean new contributors have joined us.  Of course, most have been contributing the [[computing]] area and [[Technology|techie subjects]] but it seems they do [[beadwork]] or play [[whist]] in their spare time.
> 
> Actual statistics as of 1:37 PM PST, March 30, 2001: 3,577 pages; 2,221 "comma" pages (pages containing commas); 2,365 pages with at least 150 characters; 553 articles with at least 2,000 characters (roughly, three normal-sized paragraphs).
> 
> '''March 28, 2001'''
> 
> Consider [[adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]].  More importantly (?), consider [[adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
> 
> '''March 24, 2001'''
> 
> We have broken 3,000 pages!  As impressive as this sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,910--we can expect to break the 2,000 level of "comma" articles within the next few days.
> 
> P.S.  As of 11:20pm EST there were 2056 pages with at least 150 characters.  Of those pages, 796 had at least 1,000 characters and 159 pages had 5,000 or more characters.  (To search by minimum length, search for <code>(.|\n){150}</code> and replace 150 with the desired number of characters.)  There were also 634 redirection pages (search for <code>^#REDIRECT\s</code> for a list).
> 
> '''March 23, 2001'''
> 
> [[Nupedia]] finally announced to its members the existence of Wikipedia; as a result, we have had a nice, modest influx of traffic.
> 
> In related events, recently a discussion was started on Advisory-L and Nupedia-L, two Nupedia mailing lists, pointing to the fact that Wikipedia had made fantastic progress while Nupedia seemed relatively inefficient.  It has been suggested that Nupedia might take a clue, somehow, from Wikipedia's progress, in redesigning its own system.  This, too, accounts for the recent influx of traffic on Wikipedia.
> 
> '''March 7, 2001'''
> 
> We've broken 2,000 articles!  As of this writing, we have 2,144 individual pages.  This enormous jump in production is due to the massive influx of people from the Slashdot.org mention of Wikipedia--contrary to fears, people who seem to understand what's going on here very well and are (it seems) rapidly getting addicted.  :-)
> 
> As impressive as the 2,000 mark sounds, it's misleading, because very many of the pages are redirection pages and "one-liners."  A slightly more accurate count can be achieved by using the search function (at the bottom of every page) to search for "," (comma).  This excludes redirection pages and many one-liners.  At present, the count of "comma" articles is at 1,323.  Still very impressive.
> 
> [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] and no doubt some others think Wikipedia's going to be huge.
> 
> '''March 6, 2001'''
> 
> Jimbo was wrong!  We have had a massive influx of people writing a lot of interesting, good articles.  Nothing to fear, it seems!  March 5 really was a sort of banner day--probably set a record in terms of number of edits and number of new articles.
> 
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
> 
> '''March 5, 2001'''
> 
> The Slashdot interview just now appeared on Slashdot.org, but the link to this site is buried fairly deeply.  So we may not have the massive influx that I had hoped and feared. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> '''March 3, 2001'''
> 
> The [[how does one edit a page]] page has been given a thorough overhaul.  Wiki experts, please help edit ''that'' page!
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|986150745
7,8c7,9
< Much more news in the
< <br>'''News Archive'''
---
> Much more news below.
> 
> '''News Archive'''
------
Josh_Grosse|986151513
3c3
< Things I am happy about, not because they are necessarily BrilliantProse, but because they contain things that are often glossed over or hard to find: [[Animalia]], [[Euglenozoa]] and especially [[Ramicristates]], [[Minuscule]].  I would also be happy with [[Rotifera]] if tripod would let me show off my picture.
---
> Things I am happy about, not because they are necessarily BrilliantProse, but because they contain things that are often glossed over or hard to find: [[Animalia]], [[Euglenozoa]] and especially [[Ramicristates]], [[Minuscule]].  I would also be happy with [[Rotifera]] if tripod would let me show off my picture.  And I am fairly happy about [[History of Levant]], since it apparently has a lot of keywords in it.
------
Role-playing_game/Talk|986152044
12c12
< 
---
> ----
13a14,15
> ----
> and maybe it's beyond everybody's imagination but yours, because you already know what this is supposed to mean, but when you want to know something abour RPGs and start by reading a text like the above one, the only information you get is that whoever wrote it is some kind of weirdo (no offence meant) -SoniC
------
Neeklamy|986152666
0a1,4
> Hey, we all love NeeKlamy, and that is a known fact!
> 
> -No Fear
> ----
------
Neeklamy|986152691
1c1
< Hey, we all love NeeKlamy, and that is a known fact!
---
> Hey, we all love [[NeeKlamy]], and that is a known fact!
------
Neeklamy|986152710
1c1
< Hey, we all love [[NeeKlamy]], and that is a known fact!
---
> Hey, we all love [[Neeklamy]], and that is a known fact!
------
Country|986152818
1c1
< A ''country'' is a geographical area with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
---
> A ''country'' is a geographical area with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
------
Germany|986153106
33c33
< BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in BavariA.  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
---
> BTW: It's not true that all Germans like "Sauerkraut and Eisbein", and not many people there are wearing short leather trousers even not in [[Bavaria]].  The Bavarian Capital is [[Munich]] (German ''München'') which is famous of its big beer festival, the "[[Oktoberfest]]."
------
Soviet_Union|986153219
5c5
< The Soviet Union was the most [[Genocide|genocidal]] regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
---
> The Soviet Union was the most [[Genocide|genocidal]] regime in human [[history]], murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
7c7
< Former members of the Soviet Union: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]]
---
> Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]]
------
Country|986153276
1c1
< A ''country'' is a geographical area with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
---
> A ''country'' is a geographical area and an independent political entity with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
------
POP3|986153457
3a4,5
> ---------------------------------------------------------------
> Poop Of Pleasure 3
------
1977|986153553
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[1976]] - 1977 - [[1978]]
> ----
> *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> **[[Book]]
> A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
> **[[Film]]
> The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.
> 
> And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
> 
> In the [[Academy Awards]], [[Peter Finch]], [[Faye Dunaway]] and [[Beatrice Straight]] win [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] and [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Actress]] and [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress|Supporting Actress]] awards for [[Network]].
> [[Rocky]] picks up a [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]] wins [[Jason Robards]] the [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Supporting Actor]] and an [Academy Awards/Art Direction|Art Direction]] for George Jenkins and George Gaines.
> George Jenkins and George Gaines win the [[Academy Awards/Art Direction|Art Direction]] award.
> ----
> *[[Sport]]
> **[[Motor sport]]
> ***[[NASCAR Championship]]
> [[Cale Yarborough]] won this years event, with [[Richard Petty]] coming in second.
> ----
> /Talk
------
POP3|986153800
4,5c4,5
< ---------------------------------------------------------------
< Poop Of Pleasure 3
---
> 
> 
------
Bad_jokes_and_other_deleted_nonsense|986153902
74c74,80
< The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
---
> The ultimate goal of logic is to show nothing can be proved.
> ----
> From [[POP3]]:
> 
> Poop Of Pleasure 3
> 
> 
------
Neeklamy|986154044
1,4d0
< Hey, we all love [[Neeklamy]], and that is a known fact!
< 
< -No Fear
< ----
24a21,23
> ----
> Hey, we all love [[Neeklamy]], and that is a known fact!
> 
------
United_Kingdom|986154323
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and the [[Channel Islands]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
------
Geography|986154491
9c9
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]] --[[Mountain|Mountains]] -- [[Mountain Ranges]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[city|cities]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]] --[[Mountain|Mountains]] -- [[Mountain Ranges]]
------
No_Fear|986154776
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This name looks familiar! Hello No Fear, you are now an official [[wikipedians|wikipedian]], Have fun.
> --[[Neeklamy]]
------
No_Fear|986154836
1d0
< 
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986155571
6a7,8
> * Wikipedia is open content, released under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].  Knowing this encourages people to contribute; they know it's a public project that everyone can use.
> 
9c11
< * Wikipedia is open content, released under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].  Knowing this encourages people to contribute; they know it's a public project that everyone can use.
---
> * Wikipedia seems to attract highly intelligent, articulate people with a little (or a lot of) time on their hands.  Moreover, there are some experts at work here.  Over time, the huge amount of solid work done by hobbyists and dilettantes can (and no doubt will) be hugely improved upon by experts.  This both makes Wikipedia a pleasant intellectual community (or so it seems to some) and gives us some confidence that the quality of Wikipedia articles will, in time if not yet, be high.
11c13,15
< * Wikipedia is growing at a dizzying rate.  Wikipedia produces articles at over 1,300 per month (at present; if you count only "substantial" articles, it's closer to 850 per month).  This rate of growth has been slowly increasing.  And the word (as of March 31) is only slowly getting out about Wikipedia.
---
> * Wikipedia is growing at a dizzying rate.  Wikipedia produces articles at over 1,300 per month (at present, March 31, 2001; if you count only "substantial" articles, it's closer to 850 per month).  This rate of growth has been slowly increasing.  And the word is only slowly getting out about Wikipedia.
> 
> * We have a slowly-growing source of traffic--and therefore more contributors, and therefore (very possibly, anyway) an increasing rate of article-writing--from Google and Google-using search engines like Yahoo! and Netscape.  The greater the number of Wikipedia articles, the greater the number of people will link to us, and therefore the higher the rankings (and numbers of listings) we'll have on Google.  Hence, on Wikipedia "the rich (will) get richer"; or "if we build it, they will come" and in greater and greater numbers.
17,19c21
< * Wikipedia seems to attract highly intelligent, articulate people with a little (or a lot of) time on their hands.
< 
< * [[Wiki As Fertile Soil|Wikipedia is very fertile soil]].  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can attribute to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
---
> * [[Wiki As Fertile Soil|Wikipedia is very fertile soil]].  Think about it.  (An apt metaphor we can credit to [[Jimbo Wales]].)
------
WikiIsNotPaper|986155682
49d48
< 
51,59c50,52
< Please add to this list and comment.
< 
< For my part, I agree with most of this and I agree 100% with Jimbo's reactions. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< A note on timeliness: the text above has changed since Larry wrote the statement above. :)
< 
< see also:
<  WikiIsNotRock
<  WikiIsNotScissors
---
> For my part, I agree with most of this. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Please add to this list and comment.
------
No_Fear|986155720
2a3,6
> --------------------------------------------------
> Scary!
> 
> -[[No Fear]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986155776
6a7,8
> * On Wikipedia, there are no required topics and no one making assignments.  That means that anyone can find part of the encyclopedia they're interested in, and add to it immediately (if they can do better than what's already there--but at this stage, there are necessarily very many gaps in our coverage of the universe!).  This increases motivation and keeps things fun.
> 
19,20d20
< * On Wikipedia, there are no required topics and no one making assignments.  That means that anyone can find part of the encyclopedia they're interested in, and add to it immediately (if they can do better than what's already there--but at this stage, there are necessarily very many gaps in our coverage of the universe!).
< 
23c23
< * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.
---
> * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.
------
United_Kingdom|986155900
1a2,3
> 
> /Talk
------
Year_in_Review/Talk|986155933
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I love this idea.
> 
> I have written several celebrity biographies, see [[Actor]] and [[Actress]].  I will go back through and format them to link to the years, and add the fact that someone famous was born (or died) in those years.
> 
> I don't know how easy this will be to maintain, but even if it is incomplete, it sure is fun.  :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|986155948
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I thought "Great Britain" referred to the island of Britain as opposed to the political entity [[United Kingdom]].  The latter includes the Channel Islands, but the former does not. --[[LMS]]
------
Actor|986155961
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Actors]]
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|986155979
1c1
< I thought "Great Britain" referred to the island of Britain as opposed to the political entity [[United Kingdom]].  The latter includes the Channel Islands, but the former does not. --[[LMS]]
---
> I thought "Great Britain" referred to the island of Britain as opposed to the political entity [[United Kingdom]].  The latter includes the Channel Islands (and the Isle of Man, and the Shetland Islands, and much else), but the former does not. --[[LMS]]
------
Nicolas_Cage|986155986
1c1
< Nicolas Cage was born on January 7th, 1964 in [[California]]. He is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s nephew.
---
> Nicolas Cage was born on January 7th, [[1964]] in [[California]]. He is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s nephew.
------
1964|986156044
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Year in Review
> 
> 
> *Famous People Births and Deaths
> :[[Nicholas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
------
1964|986156067
5c5
< :[[Nicholas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
---
> :[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
------
1964|986156123
1c1,3
< The Year in Review
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[1963]] -- 1964 -- [[1965]]
5c7
< :[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
---
> :[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
------
Painters|986156166
8a9
> :[[Andy Warhol]]
------
1964|986156209
3a4
> ----
5,6c6,7
< 
< *Famous People Births and Deaths
---
> *[[Arts]] and [[Entertainment]]
> **Famous People Births and Deaths
------
1964|986156226
8c8
< :[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
---
> ***[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
------
Dune/Videogames|986156227
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dune/Videogame]]
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|986157467
1c1,6
< I thought "Great Britain" referred to the island of Britain as opposed to the political entity [[United Kingdom]].  The latter includes the Channel Islands (and the Isle of Man, and the Shetland Islands, and much else), but the former does not. --[[LMS]]
---
> I thought "Great Britain" referred to the island of Britain as opposed to the political entity [[United Kingdom]].  The latter includes the Channel Islands (and the Isle of Man, and the Shetland Islands, and much else), but the former does not. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Yes, you're right, I think (!) just did a quick search and found an abundance of information at [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/je.html CIA Jersey factbook] (incidentally, ci.html is Chile, there doesn't appear to be a Channel Islands specific page), note the "Dependency status: British crown dependency" and the Independence.
> Certainly I know there is a lot of independence between mainland Britain and the Channel Islands, as demonstrated by the fact it is tax exempt (and the number of offshore banks shows this)..
> 
> But this does highlight that the [[United Kingdom]] page should be about that, and the [[Great Britain]] page should be about that (even if that does leave everyone a bit confused ;-) --[[Neeklamy]]
------
United_Kingdom|986158571
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  Great Britain comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and the [[Channel Islands]].   The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].   It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and the [[Channel Islands]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].  It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
3c3
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|986158750
6a7,8
> ----
> OK, but do the Channel Islands deserve ''special'' mention as part of the U.K. that, for example, the Isle of Man or the British Virgin Islands would not?  I don't know what the legal relationships are, but I would guess (just guess) that the Channel Islands are in the same relationship to the U.K. that the Isle of Man and the British Virgin Islands are.  Of course, I wouldn't be at all surprised if I were totally wrong. --[[LMS]]
------
Mapping|986158990
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Mapping is simply a "rule" that assigns to each member of a SeT A, a unique element of a SeT B.
> 
> There are non-mathematical Mapping''s''. Consider the “rule,” WGT that assigns to every living human being in United States their weight in pounds.  Then the set A = {people living in the United States} and B = {x:  0<x<=1000}. For example:
> 
> 
> *                       Larry  -> 160 or WGT (Larry) = 160
> *                       Jimmy  -> 165 or WGT (Jimmy) = 165
> *                       Ruth   -> 125 or WGT (Ruth)  = 125
> *                       Cindy  -> 120 or WGT (Cindy) = 120
> *                         .
> *                         .
> There are mathematical Mapping''s'' as well. Consider the “rule,” ABS that assigns to each integer, its absolute value. Let set C = I, and the set D = I, also. Then, for example:
> *                     -5         ->  5 or ABS (-5) = 5
> *                      5         ->  5 or ABS (5)  = 5
> *                     19         -> 19 or ABS (19) = 19
> *                   -145         -> 14 or ABS (-145) = 145
> *                        .
> *                        .
> 
> 
> There are 4 basic kinds of Mapping''s''.
> 
> 1) ''into'' Mapping: this is a Mapping from a set X to a set Y such that there exists a y in Y such that there is no x in X such that x is mapped to y. 
> 
> 
> 2) ''onto'' Mapping: this is Mapping from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is at least one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a Mapping is called a SurJection.
> 
> 
> 3) ''one-to-one'' Mapping : this is a Mapping from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is one and only one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a mapping is called an InJection.
>  
> 4) Further, a Mapping that is both "onto" and "one-to-one," or is both a SurJection and an InJection is called a BiJection.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * The mapping defined above as ABS, defined from the set I = Integers to the set I = integers is "into." Since the exists an integer –5 in I such that there is no integer i in I such that ABS (i) = -5, ABS defined from I -> I is "into."
> 
> * Consider the Mapping, ABS, defined from I = IntegerNumbers to I* = { IntegerNumbers >= 0}. Then ABS defined from I to I* is "onto," or a SurJection, since for every y in I*, that is, every positive integer, there is at least one x in  I such that ABS (x) = y.
> 
> * Consider the Mapping, ADD1, defined from I to I such that if x is in I then ADD1 (x) = x+1. Then ADD1 is "one-to-one" or an InJection, since for every Y in I there is one and only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y.
> 
> * Consider the Mapping, ADD1, as defined above. Then ADD1 is both "onto" and "one-to-one" or a BiJection, since it is already “onto” and we can show it is "one-to-one" as well. Thus, given a y in I, there is only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y, that is, x = y-1.
> 
> In terms of formal SetTheory, a Mapping from X to Y is usually defined as a MathematicalRelation where each x in X is related to one, and only one, element of Y.  This element is the image of x.  However, there are lots of other equivalent definitions.
------
MappinG|986159034
1,43c1
< A MappinG is simply a "rule" that assigns to each member of a SeT A, a unique element of a SeT B.
< 
< There are non-mathematical MappinG''s''. Consider the “rule,” WGT that assigns to every living human being in United States their weight in pounds.  Then the set A = {people living in the United States} and B = {x:  0<x<=1000}. For example:
< 
< 
< *                       Larry  -> 160 or WGT (Larry) = 160
< *                       Jimmy  -> 165 or WGT (Jimmy) = 165
< *                       Ruth   -> 125 or WGT (Ruth)  = 125
< *                       Cindy  -> 120 or WGT (Cindy) = 120
< *                         .
< *                         .
< There are mathematical MappinG''s'' as well. Consider the “rule,” ABS that assigns to each integer, its absolute value. Let set C = I, and the set D = I, also. Then, for example:
< *                     -5         ->  5 or ABS (-5) = 5
< *                      5         ->  5 or ABS (5)  = 5
< *                     19         -> 19 or ABS (19) = 19
< *                   -145         -> 14 or ABS (-145) = 145
< *                        .
< *                        .
< 
< 
< There are 4 basic kinds of MappinG''s''.
< 
< 1) ''into'' MappinG: this is a MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that there exists a y in Y such that there is no x in X such that x is mapped to y. 
< 
< 
< 2) ''onto'' MappinG: this is MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is at least one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a MappinG is called a SurJection.
< 
< 
< 3) ''one-to-one'' MappinG : this is a MappinG from a set X to a set Y such that for every y in Y there is one and only one x in X such that x is mapped to y. Such a mapping is called an InJection.
<  
< 4) Further, a MappinG that is both "onto" and "one-to-one," or is both a SurJection and an InJection is called a BiJection.
< 
< Examples:
< 
< * The mapping defined above as ABS, defined from the set I = Integers to the set I = integers is "into." Since the exists an integer –5 in I such that there is no integer i in I such that ABS (i) = -5, ABS defined from I -> I is "into."
< 
< * Consider the MappinG, ABS, defined from I = IntegerNumbers to I* = { IntegerNumbers >= 0}. Then ABS defined from I to I* is "onto," or a SurJection, since for every y in I*, that is, every positive integer, there is at least one x in  I such that ABS (x) = y.
< 
< * Consider the MappinG, ADD1, defined from I to I such that if x is in I then ADD1 (x) = x+1. Then ADD1 is "one-to-one" or an InJection, since for every Y in I there is one and only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y.
< 
< * Consider the MappinG, ADD1, as defined above. Then ADD1 is both "onto" and "one-to-one" or a BiJection, since it is already “onto” and we can show it is "one-to-one" as well. Thus, given a y in I, there is only one x in I such that ADD1 (x) = y, that is, x = y-1.
< 
< In terms of formal SetTheory, a Mapping from X to Y is usually defined as a MathematicalRelation where each x in X is related to one, and only one, element of Y.  This element is the image of x.  However, there are lots of other equivalent definitions.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mapping]]
------
BiJection|986159073
1c1
< A bijection is a MappinG or function between two sets that is surjective (onto) and injective (one-to-one).
---
> A bijection is a [[Mapping]] or function between two sets that is surjective (onto) and injective (one-to-one).
------
HomoMorphism|986159118
1c1
< A homomorphism, (or sometimes simply MorphisM) from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a MappinG that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
---
> A homomorphism, (or sometimes simply MorphisM) from one mathematical object to another of the same kind, is a [[Mapping]] that preserves all relevant structure.  For instance, if we are concerned about some operation *, homomorphisms must satisfy f(x*y)=f(x)*f(y).
------
MathematicalRelation|986159144
3c3
< Some particularly important kind of relations are MappinG''s'', EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
---
> Some particularly important kind of relations are [[Mapping|Mappings]], EquivalenceRelation''s'', and PartialOrder''s''.
------
Set_Theory|986159185
74c74
<    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any MappinG, formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
---
>    Axiom of replacement:      Given any set and any [[Mapping]], formally defined as a proposition P(x,y) where
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|986159899
8c8,10
< OK, but do the Channel Islands deserve ''special'' mention as part of the U.K. that, for example, the Isle of Man or the British Virgin Islands would not?  I don't know what the legal relationships are, but I would guess (just guess) that the Channel Islands are in the same relationship to the U.K. that the Isle of Man and the British Virgin Islands are.  Of course, I wouldn't be at all surprised if I were totally wrong. --[[LMS]]
---
> OK, but do the Channel Islands deserve ''special'' mention as part of the U.K. that, for example, the Isle of Man or the British Virgin Islands would not?  I don't know what the legal relationships are, but I would guess (just guess) that the Channel Islands are in the same relationship to the U.K. that the Isle of Man and the British Virgin Islands are.  Of course, I wouldn't be at all surprised if I were totally wrong. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> You've caught me again, I can't say for sure tonight, but certainly I'll hit the library tomorrow and find some dead wood answer to this. --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Year_in_Review/Talk|986160390
5c5,8
< I don't know how easy this will be to maintain, but even if it is incomplete, it sure is fun.  :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> I don't know how easy this will be to maintain, but even if it is incomplete, it sure is fun.  :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> Thanks, I've wrote a little bit more about it on my [[Neeklamy|homepage]], perhaps there should be something wrote up on the main page about it as well?
> Something just to put the idea across more, or is it entirely self explanatory? --[[Neeklamy]]
------
CentralTendancy|986164806
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Central Tendancy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Central Tendency]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BrakemaN|986164881
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[AtlasShrugged/Brakeman]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Brakeman]]
------
Popular_tourist_regions|986164933
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Hawaii]]
------
Popular_tourist_regions|986165097
1c1
< [[Hawaii]]
---
> [[Hawaii]]
------
Country|986165288
1c1,3
< A ''country'' is a geographical area and an independent political entity with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]]. 
---
> A ''country'' is a geographical area and an independent political entity with its own [[government]], administration, [[law]]s, often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and [[people]].
> 
> Note: This would be a definition of a nation state.  A country could be a part of a nation state with a distinct history or culture: Wales and Scotland both are sometimes called countries, even though they are not nation states.
------
Tile_based_games|986165483
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[tile-based game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tile-based game]]
------
Sarajevo|986165554
1c1
< Capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina
---
> Capital of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
------
Albania/Government|986165651
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Albania conventional short form: Albania local long form: Republika e
> Shqiperise local short form: Shqiperia former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania 
> 
> Data code: AL 
> 
> Government type: emerging democracy 
> 
> Capital: Tirana 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth) and 1 municipality* (bashki); Berat, Bulqize, Delvine, Devoll
> (Bilisht), Diber (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje,
> Kucove, Kukes, Kurbin, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesi e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen),
> Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane (Tirana), Tirane* (Tirana), Tropoje
> (Bajram Curri), Vlore note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the
> administrative center name following in parentheses) 
> 
> Independence: 28 November 1912 (from Ottoman Empire) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 28 November (1912) 
> 
> Constitution: a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum on 28 November 1998; note - the opposition Democratic Party
> boycotted the vote 
> 
> Legal system: has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory 
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) head of government: Prime
> Minister Ilir META (since 29 October 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the
> president elections: president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held
> NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president election results: Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote
> by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3, abstained 2, invalid 7 
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote
> and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) elections: last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) election results:
> percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%, PLL 3.09%, PDK
> 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1, PUK 1,
> independents 3 
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the
> Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Albanian United Right or DBSH (includes PBK, Albanian Republican Party or
> PRS, AND PDD) [Abaz ERMENJI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan
> CEKA]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Liberal Union Party
> [Teodor LACO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Ekrem SPAHIA]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Abaz ERMENJI];
> Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Right National Front [Hysni SELFO]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender
> GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; note - Teodar LACO of the Liberal Union Party was
> leader of the Social Democratic Union of Albania or PBSD 
> 
> International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB,
> IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN,
> UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO? (applicant) 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Petrit BUSHATI chancery: 2100 S Street NW, Washington, DC
> 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 223-4942 FAX: [1] (202) 628-7342 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph LIMPRECHT embassy: Rruga Elbasanit 103, Tirana
> mailing address: American Embassy, Tirana, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9510 telephone: [355] (42) 47285
> through 47289 FAX: [355] (42) 32222 
> 
> Flag description: red with a black two-headed eagle in the center 
------
Albania|986165671
7c7
< AlbaniaGovernment
---
> [[Albania/Government]]
------
AlbaniaGovernment|986165694
1,62c1
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Albania conventional short form: Albania local long form: Republika e
< Shqiperise local short form: Shqiperia former: People's Socialist Republic of Albania 
< 
< Data code: AL 
< 
< Government type: emerging democracy 
< 
< Capital: Tirana 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 36 districts (rrethe, singular - rreth) and 1 municipality* (bashki); Berat, Bulqize, Delvine, Devoll
< (Bilisht), Diber (Peshkopi), Durres, Elbasan, Fier, Gjirokaster, Gramsh, Has (Krume), Kavaje, Kolonje (Erseke), Korce, Kruje,
< Kucove, Kukes, Kurbin, Lezhe, Librazhd, Lushnje, Malesi e Madhe (Koplik), Mallakaster (Ballsh), Mat (Burrel), Mirdite (Rreshen),
< Peqin, Permet, Pogradec, Puke, Sarande, Shkoder, Skrapar (Corovode), Tepelene, Tirane (Tirana), Tirane* (Tirana), Tropoje
< (Bajram Curri), Vlore note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the
< administrative center name following in parentheses) 
< 
< Independence: 28 November 1912 (from Ottoman Empire) 
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 28 November (1912) 
< 
< Constitution: a new constitution was adopted by popular referendum on 28 November 1998; note - the opposition Democratic Party
< boycotted the vote 
< 
< Legal system: has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory 
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President of the Republic Rexhep MEIDANI (since 24 July 1997) head of government: Prime
< Minister Ilir META (since 29 October 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the
< president elections: president elected by the People's Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1997 (next to be held
< NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president election results: Rexhep MEIDANI elected president; People's Assembly vote
< by number - total votes 122, for 110, against 3, abstained 2, invalid 7 
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Kuvendi Popullor (155 seats; most members are elected by direct popular vote
< and some by proportional vote for four-year terms) elections: last held 29 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) election results:
< percent of vote by party - PS 53.36%, PD 25.33%, PSD 2.5%, PBDNJ 2.78%, PBK 2.36%, PAD 2.85%, PR 2.25%, PLL 3.09%, PDK
< 1.00%, PBSD 0.84%; seats by party - PS 101, PD 27, PSD 8, PBDNJ 4, PBK 3, PAD 2, PR 2, PLL 2, PDK 1, PBSD 1, PUK 1,
< independents 3 
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman of the Supreme Court is elected by the People's Assembly for a four-year term 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Albanian Republican Party or PR [Fatmir MEHDIU]; Albanian Socialist Party or PS (formerly the
< Albania Workers Party) [Fatos NANO, chairman]; Albanian United Right or DBSH (includes PBK, Albanian Republican Party or
< PRS, AND PDD) [Abaz ERMENJI]; Christian Democratic Party or PDK [Zef BUSHATI]; Democratic Alliance or PAD [Neritan
< CEKA]; Democratic Party or PD [Sali BERISHA]; Democratic Party of the Right or PDD [Petrit KALAKULA]; Liberal Union Party
< [Teodor LACO]; Movement of Legality Party or PLL [Ekrem SPAHIA]; National Front (Balli Kombetar) or PBK [Abaz ERMENJI];
< Party of National Unity or PUK [Idajet BEQIRI]; Right National Front [Hysni SELFO]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Skender
< GJINUSHI]; Unity for Human Rights Party or PBDNJ [Vasil MELO, chairman]; note - Teodar LACO of the Liberal Union Party was
< leader of the Social Democratic Union of Albania or PBSD 
< 
< International organization participation: BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB,
< IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN,
< UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOMIG, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO? (applicant) 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Petrit BUSHATI chancery: 2100 S Street NW, Washington, DC
< 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 223-4942 FAX: [1] (202) 628-7342 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph LIMPRECHT embassy: Rruga Elbasanit 103, Tirana
< mailing address: American Embassy, Tirana, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-9510 telephone: [355] (42) 47285
< through 47289 FAX: [355] (42) 32222 
< 
< Flag description: red with a black two-headed eagle in the center 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/Government]]
------
Albania|986165709
7c7
< [[Albania/Government]]
---
> [[Albania/Government|Government]]
------
Albania/History|986165761
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1990 Albania ended 44 years of xenophobic [[Communism/Communist]] rule and established a multiparty [[Democracy]]. The transition has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring [[Kosovo]]. 
------
AlbaniaHistory|986165788
1c1
< In 1990 AlbaniA ended 44 years of xenophobic CommunisT rule and established a multiparty DemocracY. The transition has proven difficult as corrupt governments have tried to deal with severe unemployment, the collapse of a fraudulent nationwide investment scheme, widespread gangsterism, and massive refugee influxes from neighboring KosovO. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/History]]
------
Albania|986165805
1c1
< AlbaniaHistory
---
> [[Albania/History|History]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|986166303
4,7c4,7
<  |      [[Holocene]]           |                  |                  |
<  |      [[Pleistocene]]        |                  |                  |
<  |      [[Pliocene]]           |                  |                  |
<  |      [[Miocene]]            |                  |                  |
---
>  |      [[Holocene]]           |               |               |
>  |      [[Pleistocene]]        |               |               |
>  |      [[Pliocene]]           |               |               |
>  |      [[Miocene]]            |               |               |
25c25
<  325 - - - | [[Carboniferous]] |               |               |
---
>  325 - - - | [[Carboniferous]]1|               |               |
38c38
<  |      ([[Neoproterozoic]])                   |               |      
---
>  |      ([[Neoproterozoic]])2                  |               |      
44a45,48
> 
> 1In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into Mississippian and Pennsylvanian Periods
> 
> 2'[[Neoproterozoic]]' is a fairly recent term and is usually treated as a subset of the [[Proterozoic]] rather than a period between the [[Paleozoic]] and the [[Proterozoic]]
------
Cambrian|986167744
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has the largest areas of Cambrian age rocks in England.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropods]] known as [[trilobites]] and of animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the period was set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
> 
> Current dates for the start of the Cambrian hover around 544 million years.  A radiodate from New Brunswick puts the end of the first stage of the Cambrian around 511 million years.  This leaves only 11 million years for the other two periods of the Cambrian.
> 
> All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas in only a few tens of millions of years at most is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
> 
------
Cambrian|986168742
1c1
< The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has the largest areas of Cambrian age rocks in England.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropods]] known as [[trilobites]] and of animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the period was set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
---
> The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has areas of Cambrian age rocks investigated by [[Adam Sedgwick]] in the 1830s.  Eventually as the series was filled out, the youngest "Cambrian" came to overlap the oldest parts of Murchison's [[Silurian]].  In 1879, [[Charles Lapworth]] defined an [[Ordovician]] period that included the overlapping beds.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropods]] known as [[trilobites]] and of primitive reef forming animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the Cambrian period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
5c5
< All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas in only a few tens of millions of years at most is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
---
> All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more that a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
------
Cambrian|986168892
5c5
< All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more that a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
---
> All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
------
Famous_Physicists|986169102
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physicists mentioned in wikipedia so far
> 
> 
> [[Albert Einstein]]
------
Cambrian|986169570
1c1
< The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has areas of Cambrian age rocks investigated by [[Adam Sedgwick]] in the 1830s.  Eventually as the series was filled out, the youngest "Cambrian" came to overlap the oldest parts of Murchison's [[Silurian]].  In 1879, [[Charles Lapworth]] defined an [[Ordovician]] period that included the overlapping beds.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropods]] known as [[trilobites]] and of primitive reef forming animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the Cambrian period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
---
> The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has areas of Cambrian age rocks investigated by [[Adam Sedgwick]] in the 1830s.  Eventually as the series was filled out, the youngest "Cambrian" came to overlap the oldest parts of Murchison's [[Silurian]].  In 1879, [[Charles Lapworth]] defined an [[Ordovician]] period that included the overlapping beds.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropoda]] known as [[trilobites]] and of primitive reef forming animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the Cambrian period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
5c5
< All modern phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
---
> Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern phyla of [[Animalia]] except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
------
Cambrian|986170199
5c5
< Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern phyla of [[Animalia]] except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.   Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
---
> Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[Animalia|animal]] phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.  Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  One of the few sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized, the [[Burgess shale]], represents strata from the middle Cambrian and so provides us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity.
------
Famous_Physicists|986170398
1c1
< Physicists mentioned in wikipedia so far
---
> Many famous physicists of this century are found on the list of [[NobelPrize|Nobel Prize laureates in physics]].
4c4,7
< [[Albert Einstein]]
---
> Physicists with a biography in wikipedia:
> 
> 
> * [[Albert Einstein]]
------
Neeklamy|986170829
23c23,24
< 
---
> ----
> Yep, the year pages are a good idea, and the stuff you put up on [[video game]]s is neat.  But what's wrong with Zelda I?  I ''like'' Zelda I...
------
The_Silmarillion|986170901
7a8,9
> 
> See also at the moment: [[/Sindarin]]
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|986171014
3a4,5
> 
> The other language, [[/Quenya]], was designed to be a little bit like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and the two were made as if they evolved from a common ancestor.  But Sindarin reflects different aesthetics.
------
Plantae|986171602
22c22
< And a particularly important group of vascular plants, those with seeds:
---
> The vascular plants also include as a subgroup the spermatophytes, or seed plants, which diversified towards the end of the [[Palaeozoic]].  In these forms it is the gametophyte is completely reduced, and the young sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops on its parent.  Spermatophytes are collectively referred to as gymnosperms, except the flowering plants, called [[Anthophyta]] or angiosperms; they include:
24,28c24,28
<  Phylum [[Cycadophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Ginkgophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Coniferophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Gnetophyta]]
<  Phylum [[Angiospermophyta]]
---
> * Division [[Cycadophyta]]  (Cycads)
> * Division [[Ginkgophyta]]  (''[[Gingko]]'')
> * Division [[Coniferophyta]]  (Conifers)
> * Division [[Gnetophyta]]
> * Division [[Anthophyta]]  (Flowering plants)
------
Plantae|986171727
22c22
< The vascular plants also include as a subgroup the spermatophytes, or seed plants, which diversified towards the end of the [[Palaeozoic]].  In these forms it is the gametophyte is completely reduced, and the young sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops on its parent.  Spermatophytes are collectively referred to as gymnosperms, except the flowering plants, called [[Anthophyta]] or angiosperms; they include:
---
> The vascular plants also include as a subgroup the spermatophytes, or seed plants, which diversified towards the end of the [[Palaeozoic]].  In these forms it is the gametophyte is completely reduced, and the young sporophyte begins life inside an enclosure called a seed, which develops on its parent.  Spermatophytes include:
28a29,30
> 
> These are often referred to as gymnosperms, except for the flowering plants, which are referred to as angiosperms.  The latter are the last major group of plants to have appeared, arising during the [[Cretaceous]] and quickly becoming predominant.
------
NobelPrize|986172230
0a1,2
> #redirect [[Nobel Prize]]
> 
25c27
< isn't it another Prize that is awarded atthe same time of the Nobel's?
---
> isn't it another Prize that is awarded atthe same time of the Nobel's?
------
Nobel_Prize|986172989
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nobel Prizes have been given yearly since 1901 for achievements in:
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Physics]]
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/Chemistry|Chemistry]]
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|Medicine]]
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/LiteraturE|Literature]]
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/PeacE|Peace]]
> 
> In 1968, the Bank of Sweden (Sveriges Riksbank) instituted the prize in economic sciences:
> 
> * [[NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|Economics]]
> 
> The Nobel Foundation has its own website: http://www.nobel.se/
> 
> ----
> For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the Nobel Prize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
> 
> Don't forget the IgNobelPrize.
------
Habitus|986173758
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Habitus, a concept invented by [[Pierre Bourdieu]], refers to the total ideational environment of a person. This includes the person's beliefs and dispositions, and prefigures everything that that person may choose to do. The concept of habitues changes the concept of free will, in that within a certain habitus at any one time, choices are not limitless -- there are limited dispositions, or readinesses for action. A person is not conceived of as an automaton, for there exists flexibility in a habitus.
> 
> A large part of the concept of habitus is that it brings attention to the fact that there are limitless options for action that a person would never think of, and therefore those options don't really exist as possibilities. In normal social situations, a person relies upon a large store of scripts and a large store of knowledge, which present that person with a certain picture of the world and how she or he thinks to behave within it.
------
Habitus|986173826
1c1
< Habitus, a concept invented by [[Pierre Bourdieu]], refers to the total ideational environment of a person. This includes the person's beliefs and dispositions, and prefigures everything that that person may choose to do. The concept of habitues changes the concept of free will, in that within a certain habitus at any one time, choices are not limitless -- there are limited dispositions, or readinesses for action. A person is not conceived of as an automaton, for there exists flexibility in a habitus.
---
> Habitus, a concept invented by [[Pierre Bourdieu]], refers to the total ideational environment of a person. This includes the person's beliefs and dispositions, and prefigures everything that that person may choose to do. The concept of habitus changes the concept of free will, in that within a certain habitus at any one time, choices are not limitless -- there are limited dispositions, or readinesses for action. A person is not conceived of as an automaton, for there exists flexibility in a habitus.
3c3
< A large part of the concept of habitus is that it brings attention to the fact that there are limitless options for action that a person would never think of, and therefore those options don't really exist as possibilities. In normal social situations, a person relies upon a large store of scripts and a large store of knowledge, which present that person with a certain picture of the world and how she or he thinks to behave within it.
---
> A large part of the concept of habitus is that it brings attention to the fact that there are limitless options for action that a person would never think of, and therefore those options don't really exist as possibilities. In normal social situations, a person relies upon a large store of scripts and a large store of knowledge, which present that person with a certain picture of the world and how she or he thinks to behave within it.
------
Habitus|986174389
1c1
< Habitus, a concept invented by [[Pierre Bourdieu]], refers to the total ideational environment of a person. This includes the person's beliefs and dispositions, and prefigures everything that that person may choose to do. The concept of habitus changes the concept of free will, in that within a certain habitus at any one time, choices are not limitless -- there are limited dispositions, or readinesses for action. A person is not conceived of as an automaton, for there exists flexibility in a habitus.
---
> Habitus, a concept invented by [[Pierre Bourdieu]], refers to the total ideational environment of a person. This includes the person's beliefs and dispositions, and prefigures everything that that person may choose to do. The concept of habitus challenges the concept of free will, in that within a certain habitus at any one time, choices are not limitless -- there are limited dispositions, or readinesses for action. A person is not an automaton, for there exists flexibility in a habitus, but neither is there complete free will.
3a4,5
> 
> A person's habitus cannot be fully known to the person, as it exists largely within the realm of the unconscious and includes things as visceral as body movements and poistures, and it also includes the most basic aspects of thought and knowledge about the world, including about the habitus itself.
------
Habitus|986174405
5c5
< A person's habitus cannot be fully known to the person, as it exists largely within the realm of the unconscious and includes things as visceral as body movements and poistures, and it also includes the most basic aspects of thought and knowledge about the world, including about the habitus itself.
---
> A person's habitus cannot be fully known to the person, as it exists largely within the realm of the unconscious and includes things as visceral as body movements and postures, and it also includes the most basic aspects of thought and knowledge about the world, including about the habitus itself.
------
Trilobita|986174826
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The trilobites are an extinct class of [[Arthropoda]], appearing in the [[Cambrian]] and flourishing throughout the lower Palaeozoic before slowly declining.  The last group disappeared in the mass extinction at the end of the [[Permian]].  Trilobites are well-known, possibly the second most famous group after the dinosaurs, although by no means as awe-inspiring: most are small animals which filtered mud to obtain food.  Their charm is of a different sort.
> 
> The bodies of the most primitive trilobites are divided into two tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, and a thorax composed of freely articulating segments.  In other forms the last few thoracic segments are fused with the telson to form a pygidium (tail).  The thoracic segments are otherwise freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do when disturbed.
> 
> Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated limbs.  Each leg had 8 segments (?), analagous to those of other arthropods, with no knee joint.  The first segment also bore a featherlike epipodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and swimming.  The limbs were covered by lateral projections called ''pleural lobes'', extending outward from a ''central axial lobe''; it is this tripartite division that gives trilobites their name.
> 
> Trilobites were only armored on top, but still had a fairly heavy exoskeleton.  In molting it generally split between the head and thorax, which is why so many trilobite fossils are missing one or the other: many trilobite fossils are actually molts, rather than dead individuals.  In most groups there were two facial sutures on the cheeks to make shedding it easier.  The cheeks usually also supported a pair of crescent-shaped compound eyes, which are often surprisingly advanced.
> 
> An egg hatched to give a tiny larva called a ''protaspid'', in which only the fused segments of the cephalon are present.  Subsequent thoracic segments were added behind the cephalon in successive molts in intermediate stages called ''meraspids'', until finally the adult number of segments was reached, at which point the animal is called a ''holaspid''.  Trilobite larvae are reasonably well known and provide an important aid in their classification.
> 
> As far as I can tell, trilobites are currently divided into the following orders:
> 
> * Order [[Agnostida]]
> * Order [[Redlichiida]]
> * Order [[Corynexochida]]
> * Order [[Lichida]]
> * Order [[Phacopida]]
> * Order [[Proetida]]
> * Order [[Asaphida]]
> * Order [[Ptychopariida]]
------
Cambrian|986174880
1c1
< The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has areas of Cambrian age rocks investigated by [[Adam Sedgwick]] in the 1830s.  Eventually as the series was filled out, the youngest "Cambrian" came to overlap the oldest parts of Murchison's [[Silurian]].  In 1879, [[Charles Lapworth]] defined an [[Ordovician]] period that included the overlapping beds.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropoda]] known as [[trilobites]] and of primitive reef forming animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the Cambrian period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
---
> The Cambrian Period is the earliest period in whose rocks large numbers of fossils are found.  Cambria is the Roman name for Wales which has areas of Cambrian age rocks investigated by [[Adam Sedgwick]] in the 1830s.  Eventually as the series was filled out, the youngest "Cambrian" came to overlap the oldest parts of Murchison's [[Silurian]].  In 1879, [[Charles Lapworth]] defined an [[Ordovician]] period that included the overlapping beds.  The Cambrian Period follows the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] Period.  The Cambrian is classically divided into three stages -- the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian.  The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropoda]] known as [[Trilobita|trilobites]] and of primitive reef forming animals known as [[archeocyathids]].  The end of the Cambrian period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an extinction event.  The time range has classically been thought to have been from about 500 million years before the present to about 570 million years before the present.  Fossil discoveries and radioactive dating in the last quarter of the 20th Century have called these dates into some question.
5c5
< Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[Animalia|animal]] phyla except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.  Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  One of the few sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized, the [[Burgess shale]], represents strata from the middle Cambrian and so provides us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity.
---
> Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[Animalia|animal]] phyla except [[Ectoprocta|bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.  Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  One of the few sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized, the [[Burgess shale]], represents strata from the middle Cambrian and so provides us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|986174954
413c413
< TRILOBITES  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age.
---
> [[Trilobita|TRILOBITES]]  A peculiar group of extinct Crustaceans, somewhat resembling the Woodlice in external form, and, like some of them, capable of rolling themselves up into a ball. Their remains are found only in the Palæozoic rocks, and most abundantly in those of Silurian age.
------
Famous_Physicists|986174999
7a8,16
> 
> ----
> Pictures of famous physicists are collected in the <i>Emilio Segre Visual Archives</i>:
> 
> 
> http://www.aip.org/history/esva/
> 
> 
> 
------
Trilobita|986175999
5c5
< Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated limbs.  Each leg had 8 segments (?), analagous to those of other arthropods, with no knee joint.  The first segment also bore a featherlike epipodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and swimming.  The limbs were covered by lateral projections called ''pleural lobes'', extending outward from a ''central axial lobe''; it is this tripartite division that gives trilobites their name.
---
> Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated limbs.  Each leg had 8 segments (?), analagous to those of other arthropods, with no knee joint.  The first segment also bore a featherlike epipodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and swimming.  The limbs were covered by lateral projections called ''pleural lobes'', extending outward from a central ''axial lobe''; it is this tripartite division that gives trilobites their name.
20c20
< * Order [[Ptychopariida]]
---
> * Order [[Ptychopariida]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|986176985
35c35
<  |    [[Cambrian]]             |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Cambrian]]              |               |               |
37,40c37,42
<  |    [[Proterozoic]]                          | [[Precambrian]]  |
<  |      ([[Neoproterozoic]])2                  |               |      
<  (600) -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  -  - |
<  2500- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |
---
>  |    [[Neoproterozoic]]2      | [[Proterozoic]]  | [[Precambrian]]  |
>  900 - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
>  |    [[Mesoproterozoic]]      |               |               |
>  1600 - - - - - - - - - - - |               |               |
>  |    [[Palaeoproterozoic]]    |               |               |      
>  2500- - - - - - - - - - - -+- - - - - - - -|               |
48a51,52
> 
> ''Hey, Don.  Thanks very much for adding - though I was kind of hoping for the spacing to reflect timing. ;) You had the neoproterozoic ending ~600 mya, but a quick search finds people tending to end it earlier, with the appearance of acritarchs and the assembly of Rodinia.  It seems to me that the era ~600-550 mya is called by most people the Ediacaran.  I changed this above, but you'd probably know better than me, so I'd like your ok.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Physics|986179665
38a39,56
> 
> ----
> Alternatively, the categories could be similar to the divisions of the American Physical Society (APS). This approach would emphasize the topics that occupy physicists today. APS has the following divisions:
> 
> * Astrophysics
> * Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
> * Biological physics
> * Chemical physics
> * Computational physics
> * Condensed matter physics
> * Fluid dynamics
> * Polymer physics
> * Laser science
> * Materials physics
> * Nuclear physics
> * Particles and fields
> * Physics of beams
> * Plasma Physics
------
NASCAR_Championship/Talk|986181239
5a6,9
> ----
> In any [[NASCAR]] series race, the Points Margin is the number of points that separates one racer from another in the Points Standings.
> 
> It has been said that if you've no idea what your multiplication tables are, but you have the [[Winston Cup]] points system memorized, you might be a [[redneck]].  Guilty.  --[[Invictus]]
------
Agnostida|986186726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Trilobita]] that aren't entirely sure whether or not God exists.  These form a side branch to the main line of trilobite development, which runs from early mostly-theistic forms to later mostly-atheistic forms.  People have interpreted this as both evolution in action and as the reason trilobites became extinct.  In any case, the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
------
Shamanism|986187243
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See http://www.shamanism.org/ for one of the primary teachers in the USA.
------
Branchiopoda|986187456
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of primarily freshwater crustaceans, mostly resembling shrimp.  A few are well-known, including the ''Artemia'' (brine shrimp, also called a "sea monkey") and ''Daphnia'', both of which are raised as aquarium food or as interesting pets in and of themselves.
> 
> * Order [[Anostraca]]  (fairy shrimps)
> * Order [[Notostraca]]  (tadpole shrimps)
> * Order [[Cladocera]]  (water fleas)
> * Order [[Conchostraca]]  (clam shrimps)
> 
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/PassengerNumber3|986187730
1c1
< An economics professor and a passenger on a train that passes /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He gazes at the steel mill and focuses on the fact that [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] has proudly put his name on the company.  He scoffs at this, dismissing the individual as unimportant.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Passenger Number 3]]
------
SummaryStatistics|986187948
1c1
< see [[Summary Statistics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Summary Statistics]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianMines|986188010
1,9c1
< A copper mining project in /Mexico founded by [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] named after his ancestor /SebastianDAnconia.  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] and /OrrenBoyle.  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] goes so far as to build a new branch of /TaggartTranscontinental, the /SanSebastianLine, to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the San Sebastian Line, only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
< 
< The San Sebastian Mines appear in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/San Sebastian Mines]]
------
Agriculture|986188036
1c1
< This would be the ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]].
---
> The ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]].
------
Michael_Collins|986188750
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Michael Collins was an astronaut in the Gemini and Apollo space programs.
> 
> He flew on the [[Apollo 11]] mission, the first lunar landing.  On this mission Collins was the Command Module pilot who orbited the moon while his colleagues [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] landed and walked on the lunar surface.
> 
> Prior to this, he flew on [[Gemini 10]].  On this flight Collins and his shipmate [[John W. Young]] set a new record for the highest flight, 475 miles above the earth.  Collins walked in space on this mission.
> 
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Michael_Collins|986188814
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN: 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Michael_Collins|986188829
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN: 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN: 1885283148|Carry], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Michael_Collins|986188848
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN: 1885283148|Carry], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire <small>[ISBN: 1885283148]</small>, about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Michael_Collins|986188867
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire <small>[ISBN: 1885283148]</small>, about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire <small>ISBN: 1885283148</small>, about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Michael_Collins|986188889
5c5
< Prior to this, he flew on [[Gemini 10]].  On this flight Collins and his shipmate [[John W. Young]] set a new record for the highest flight, 475 miles above the earth.  Collins walked in space on this mission.
---
> Prior to this, he flew on [[Gemini 10]].  On this flight Collins and his shipmate [[John  Young]] set a new record for the highest flight, 475 miles above the earth.  Collins walked in space on this mission.
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire <small>ISBN: 1885283148</small>, about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Gemini_10|986189385
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A mission of NASA's Gemini space program.  Gemini 10 launched July 18, 1966, carrying [[Michael Collins]] and [[John Young]].  Their ship travelled 475 miles above the earth which was a record at the time.  Collins left the spacecraft and walked in space.
> 
> The purpose of the mission was to attach scientific equipment to an orbiting Agena rocket.  Because the craft was low on fuel, the mission had to be cut short, and the mission objectives were never achieved.  The spacecraft returned to earth on July 21, 1966.
------
Gene_Cernan|986189433
1c1
< Eugene A. Cernan was an [[Astronaut|astronaut]] who flew in the [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] space programs.  Cernan is one of only two men to voyage to the moon on two different occasions (the other being [[Jim Lovell]]), and one of only twelve men to walk on the moon.  Cernan orbited the moon on [[Apollo 10]], and landed on the moon on [[Apollo 17]].  He also flew on [[Gemini 9]].
---
> Eugene A. Cernan was an [[Astronaut|astronaut]] who flew in the [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and [[Apollo program|Apollo]] space programs.  Cernan is one of only three men to voyage to the moon on two different occasions (the others being [[Jim Lovell]] and [[John Young]]), and one of only twelve men to walk on the moon.  Cernan orbited the moon on [[Apollo 10]], and landed on the moon on [[Apollo 17]].  He also flew on [[Gemini 9]].
------
BaruchSpinoza|986189627
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Baruch Spinoza (1632-77).  Jewish of descent; born in the Netherlands.  MoNist.
------
John_Young|986190393
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Watts Young was an astronaut who walked on the moon on [[Apollo 16]], April 21, 1972.
> 
> Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space on six occasions and twice journeyed to the moon.
> 
> Young was born September 24, 1930 in San Francisco.  In 1922 he received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering with highest honors from Georgia Institute of Technology.  After graduation Young entered the navy, becoming a figter pilot, and in 1959, a test pilot.
> 
> He joined NASA in 1962, and flew on [[Gemini 3]], [[Gemini 10]], [[Apollo 10]], [[Apollo 16]], and two space shuttle missions, including [[Columbia 1]], the first shuttle mission.
------
John_Young|986190459
3c3
< Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space on six occasions and twice journeyed to the moon.
---
> Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space on six times and twice journeyed to the moon.
------
Columbia_1|986191090
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first space shuttle mission, STS-1, launched April 12, 1981, returned April 14.  Columbia orbited the earth 36 times in this 54.5 hour mission.
> 
> The crew consisted of [[John Young]] and [[Robert Crippen]].
------
Plato|986191909
1c1
< Famous ancient Greek philosopher.
---
> Famous ancient Greek philosopher.  Wrote that thing about the cave.
------
Economics|986193455
19c19
< [[Economists]]
---
> [[Economists]] -- [[Nobel Prize/EconomicSciences|Nobel prize]]
------
Economics|986193515
19c19
< [[Economists]] -- [[Nobel Prize/EconomicSciences|Nobel prize]]
---
> [[Economists]] -- [[NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|Nobel prize]]
------
Philology|986193618
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Philology is the study of ancient texts.
> 
> Most of the first people doing HistoricalLinguistcs were philologists.
------
Linguistics|986193774
4a5
> * [[phonetics]] 
------
2001|986194200
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[2000]] - 2001 - 2002
> ----
> *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> **[[Film]]
> The annual [[Academy Awards]] served out gongs for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] in [[Gladiator]] to 
> [[Ridley Scott]]s [[Gladiator]] took the [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]].
> [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] and [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Actor]] were won by [[Marcia Gay Harden]] for [[Pollock]] and [[Benicio del Toro]] for [[Traffic/Film|Traffic]] which also won its director, [[Steven Soderbergh]] the [[Academy Awards/Directing|Directing]] statue.
> ----
> /Talk
------
2000|986194234
13,16d12
< The annual [[Academy Awards]] served out gongs for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] in [[Gladiator]] to [[Russel Crowe]], and gave [[Julia Roberts]] a [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]].
< [[Ridley Scott]]s [[Gladiator]] took the [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]].
< [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] and [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Actor]] were won by [[Marcia Gay Harden]] for [[Pollock]] and [[Benicio del Toro]] for [[Traffic/Film|Traffic]], which also won its director, [[Steven Soderbergh]] the [[Academy Awards/Directing|Directing]] statue.
< 
------
Phonetics|986194334
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Phonetics is the study of speech sounds.
> Phonetics is concerned with the actual nature of the sounds and there production, as opposed to [[phonology]] which operates at the level of sound systems. 
> 
> The object of study of phonetics are called phones. Phones are actual speach sounds as uttered by human beings.
> 
> There are two main branches of phonetics [[articulatory phonetics]] and [[acoustic phonetics]]
------
2000/Talk|986194424
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oops! the year [[2000]] [[Academy Awards]] results were, of course, the year [[2001]] winners, the [[Academy Awards]] pages should be reformatted soon for more clarity. --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Neeklamy|986196095
24c24,35
< Yep, the year pages are a good idea, and the stuff you put up on [[video game]]s is neat.  But what's wrong with Zelda I?  I ''like'' Zelda I...
---
> Yep, the year pages are a good idea, and the stuff you put up on [[video game]]s is neat.  But what's wrong with Zelda I?  I ''like'' Zelda I...
> ----
> Okay, a confession.
> 
> I have played Zelda I, not much really. Played Zelda II more.
> It was fun, but I got so far (somewhere deep within the mountains) and got stuck and gave up, bad I know, it's something I wouldn't do so readily now (maybe games are easier now though?).
> 
> The next Zelda game after that was IV DX, yes, I skipped III and went to Link's Awakening. From playing a little (again, not much, just like part I) I do feel confident in saying that III is really when the series took off.
> 
> So much to discover, so much to catch up on!
> 
> Please, tell us about [[The Legend of Zelda/I|Zelda I]]
------
Neeklamy|986197662
35a36,42
> ----
> Zelda II was an experiment.  It was pretty neat, but it was more of an action RPG and less of a Zelda, and I found it too difficult.  After that they returned to normal - most of the gameplay from III and IV, plus the very cool overworld music, are already in place in the first title.  The world was big and fun to explore, absolutely stunning at the time and still fun to play (I think).  So I would say the series took off from the beginning.
> 
> Zelda III is still a great improvement, though.  Plus the monologues rock, throughout the series from then on (''The well of three features''...)  What on earth are you doing spending time on Wikipedia if you haven't played Zelda III? ;)
> 
> I was thinking about putting up a page on [[The Legend of Zelda]], but wasn't sure if it would cause others to start writing about hundreds of obscure games, or if maybe you wanted to do it.  But I think I might get around to it soon.
> <br>--[[Josh Grosse|JG :)]]
------
Neeklamy|986197727
41,42c41,44
< I was thinking about putting up a page on [[The Legend of Zelda]], but wasn't sure if it would cause others to start writing about hundreds of obscure games, or if maybe you wanted to do it.  But I think I might get around to it soon.
< <br>--[[Josh Grosse|JG :)]]
---
> I was thinking about putting up a page on [[The Legend of Zelda]], but wasn't sure if it would cause others to start writing about hundreds of obscure games, or if maybe you wanted to do it.  But I think I might get around to it soon.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]] :)
> 
>   &Delta;
>  &Delta; &Delta;
------
Bob_Dylan|986198877
7c7
< In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout the 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1997) and "Time Out Of Mind"(2000).
---
> In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout the 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1993) and "Time Out Of Mind"(1997).
14c14
< * [[/Blood On The Tracks]] (1974)
---
> * [[/Blood On The Tracks]] (1974)
------
2000|986198942
15c15
< [[Bob Dylan]] released his first new album in three years, Time Out Of Mind alongside relative youngsters, [[Catatonia]] with [[Equally Cursed and Blessed]].
---
> [[Catatonia]] with [[Equally Cursed and Blessed]].
21c21
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Bob_Dylan|986199325
7c7
< In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout the 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1993) and "Time Out Of Mind"(1997).
---
> In the late 1970s he became a born-again [[Christian]] and released records of primarily religious songs, of which only the first, "Slow Train Coming" is worth attention.  He remained in the doldrums throughout the 1980s whilst crossing the world on his "Neverending Tour."  The 1990s again saw something of a renaissance, first with "Oh Mercy" (1990) and later returning to his folk roots with "Good As I've Been To You"(1992), "World Gone Wrong" (1993) and "Time Out Of Mind"(1997) - for which he won a Grammy Award.
14c14,15
< * [[/Blood On The Tracks]] (1974)
---
> * [[/Blood On The Tracks]] (1974)
> * [[/Time Out of Mind]] (1997)
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986200564
23c23,26
< * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.
---
> * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.----
> Funny, this page strikes me as a gratuitous self-congralulatory one. Not to mention opinionated-who can tell the tell articluateness and intelligence of contributors-
> to me an entirely subjective judgment.
> It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refacoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine job. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is move to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986200687
26c26
< It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refacoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine job. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is move to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point.
---
> It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986202144
26c26,27
< It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
---
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986202161
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
> 
------
BaruchSpinoza|986202895
1c1
< Baruch Spinoza (1632-77).  Jewish of descent; born in the Netherlands.  MoNist.
---
> Baruch Spinoza (1632-77) was one of the great [[rationalism|rationalists]] of [[early modern philosophy]], along with [[Descartes]] and [[Leibniz]].  He was [[Jews|Jewish]], of Spanish parents, and born in the [[Netherlands]].  He is perhaps most famous for his [[pantheism]], his [[neutral monism]], and the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written out in the form of postulates and definitions, as if it were a geometry treatise.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great|986202962
23,27c23,25
< * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.----
< Funny, this page strikes me as a gratuitous self-congralulatory one. Not to mention opinionated-who can tell the tell articluateness and intelligence of contributors-
< to me an entirely subjective judgment.
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> * [[WikiIsNotPaper|Wikipedia is not paper]], and that's a good thing.
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986203199
1c1,2
< It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
---
> Funny, this page strikes me as a gratuitous self-congralulatory one. Not to mention opinionated-who can tell the tell articluateness and intelligence of contributors-
> to me an entirely subjective judgment.
2a4
> It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
------
Phonetics|986203441
4c4
< The object of study of phonetics are called phones. Phones are actual speach sounds as uttered by human beings.
---
> The object of study of phonetics are called phones. Phones are actual speech sounds as uttered by human beings.
------
John_Young|986203612
5c5
< Young was born September 24, 1930 in San Francisco.  In 1922 he received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering with highest honors from Georgia Institute of Technology.  After graduation Young entered the navy, becoming a figter pilot, and in 1959, a test pilot.
---
> Young was born September 24, 1930 in San Francisco.  In 1952 he received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering with highest honors from Georgia Institute of Technology.  After graduation Young entered the navy, becoming a fighter pilot, and in 1959, a test pilot.
------
John_Young|986204291
3c3
< Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space on six times and twice journeyed to the moon.
---
> Young enjoyed one of the longest and busiest careers of any astronaut in the American space program.  He was the first person to fly into space six times and twice journeyed to the moon.
------
New_topics|986205783
6,92c6,95
< 
< [[AbeceDarians]] -- 
< [[Abecedarian]] -- 
< [[Actinopterygii]] -- 
< [[Adding_Nupedia_articles_to_Wikipedia]] -- 
< [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Help]] -- 
< [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia/Talk]] -- 
< [[Adding_Wikipedia_articles_to_Nupedia]] -- 
< [[Albert_Einstein]] -- 
< [[Animal/Talk]] -- 
< [[Animal]] -- 
< [[Anthropologist]] -- 
< [[Astronomy/History]] -- 
< [[Astronomy_and_Astrophysics/History]] -- 
< [[Astronomy_and_Astrophysics]] -- 
< [[Astrophysics]] -- 
< [[Brazoria_County]] -- 
< [[Cancer_Coast]] -- 
< [[Cmontpla]] -- 
< [[Communism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Cooking]] -- 
< [[Countries_of_the_world/Talk]] -- 
< [[Countries_of_the_world2]] -- 
< [[Economic_subjectivism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Economic_subjectivism]] -- 
< [[Establishing_Shot]] -- 
< [[Evil_Dead]] -- 
< [[Falconiformes]] -- 
< [[Free_Software_Foundation]] -- 
< [[Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution]] -- 
< [[Game]] -- 
< [[Gulf_Coast_of_Texas]] -- 
< [[Harold_and_Maude]] -- 
< [[History_of_the_Netherlands]] -- 
< [[Hobby]] -- 
< [[Holland]] -- 
< [[Intuit]] -- 
< [[Island]] -- 
< [[James_Cook]] -- 
< [[John_Adams/Talk]] -- 
< [[John_Adams]] -- 
< [[John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech/Talk]] -- 
< [[John_Adams_Inaugural_Speech]] -- 
< [[John_Baskerville]] -- 
< [[Labor_theory_of_value/Talk]] -- 
< [[Labor_theory_of_value]] -- 
< [[Labor_union]] -- 
< [[Liberal]] -- 
< [[Louisiana_Purchase]] -- 
< [[Lunar_Society]] -- 
< [[Metaphysical_subjectivism]] -- 
< [[Mount_Logan]] -- 
< [[Nautical_Archaeology]] -- 
< [[Neolithic]] -- 
< [[Netherlands/history]] -- 
< [[Nomic]] -- 
< [[Oath_of_office]] -- 
< [[Objectivism]] -- 
< [[Olympic_Games/Summer]] -- 
< [[Other_games]] -- 
< [[Peregrin_Falcon]] -- 
< [[Peregrine_Falcon]] -- 
< [[Planetary_Sciences]] -- 
< [[Political_liberal]] -- 
< [[PublicDomainResources/Talk]] -- 
< [[Rational_number]] -- 
< [[Sabine_River]] -- 
< [[Salting]] -- 
< [[Socialism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Socialism]] -- 
< [[Sports/Events]] -- 
< [[Stupid_Republicans/Talk]] -- 
< [[Stupid_Republicans]] -- 
< [[Subjectivism]] -- 
< [[The_Breakfast_Club]] -- 
< [[The_Graduate]] -- 
< [[Trick-taking]] -- 
< [[Ulysses_S._Grant/First_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
< [[Ulysses_S._Grant/Second_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
< [[Ulysses_S._Grant]] -- 
< [[United_States_Constitution/AmendmentTwoTalk]] -- 
< [[Warren_G._Harding]] -- 
< [[Warren_G._Harding_Inaugural_Address]] -- 
< [[Washington_DC]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/Stupid_Republicans]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/The_elements_of_an_encyclopedia_project]]
---
> [[1964]] -- 
> [[1977]] -- 
> [[2000]] -- 
> [[2984/New_speak]] -- 
> [[Aikido]] -- 
> [[Algorithms]] -- 
> [[Art]] -- 
> [[Artificial_neural_network]] -- 
> [[Bad_jokes_and_other_deleted_nonsense]] -- 
> [[Be_bold_in_updating_pages]] -- 
> [[Bead_artists]] -- 
> [[Bead_weaving_on_a_loom]] -- 
> [[Beadwork_patterns]] -- 
> [[Bridge]] -- 
> [[Cambrian]] -- 
> [[Christianity/Fish]] -- 
> [[Christianity/Symbolism]] -- 
> [[Collectable_card_game]] -- 
> [[Computer_game]] -- 
> [[Don_Kenney]] -- 
> [[Don_Pierce]] -- 
> [[Dune/Videogame]] -- 
> [[Dune/Videogames]] -- 
> [[Erasmus_Darwin]] -- 
> [[Ethical_egoism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Famous_Physicists]] -- 
> [[Game_Boy]] -- 
> [[Geologic_ages]] -- 
> [[George_W]] -- 
> [[Green_algae]] -- 
> [[Habitus]] -- 
> [[Hawaii/Hawaii]] -- 
> [[INRI]] -- 
> [[Ikhthus]] -- 
> [[Ioa_Valley]] -- 
> [[Janet_Davis]] -- 
> [[Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Test]] -- 
> [[Morse_code]] -- 
> [[Mr_Driller]] -- 
> [[N64]] -- 
> [[NASCAR_Championship/Talk]] -- 
> [[Nafai]] -- 
> [[Nintendo]] -- 
> [[No_Fear]] -- 
> [[Nobel_Prize]] -- 
> [[Paleontology]] -- 
> [[Playing_card/Anglo-American]] -- 
> [[Playing_card/cut]] -- 
> [[Playing_card/shuffle]] -- 
> [[Playing_card]] -- 
> [[Plotter]] -- 
> [[Poker/Equipment]] -- 
> [[Poker/Game_play]] -- 
> [[Protista/Talk]] --  
> [[Raised_bed_gardening]] -- 
> [[Ring]] -- 
> [[Role-playing_game/Talk]] -- 
> [[Role-playing_game]] -- 
> [[Sport/Events]] -- 
> [[Super_Nintendo]] -- 
> [[Synergy]] -- 
> [[Syntax]] -- 
> [[The_Silmarillion/Sindarin]] -- 
> [[Thermodynamics]] -- 
> [[Tobias_Hoevekamp]] -- 
> [[Topology/Talk]] -- 
> [[Topology]] -- 
> [[Trick-taking_game]] -- 
> [[Trilobita]] -- 
> [[United_Kingdom/Talk]] -- 
> [[United_States/Congress]] -- 
> [[United_States/Supreme_Court]] -- 
> [[United_States_Congress/Senate]] -- 
> [[United_States_Congress]] -- 
> [[Vegetable_farming]] -- 
> [[Video_game/Adventure]] -- [
> [[Video_game/Beat_em_ups]] -- 
> [[Video_game/FPS]] -- 
> [[Video_game/Platform]] -- 
> [[Video_game/Puzzle]] -- 
> [[Video_game/RPG]] -- 
> [[Video_game/Scrolling_shooters]] -- 
> [[Video_game/Talk]] -- 
> [[Wailuku]] -- 
> [[Whist]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_Announcements/March_2001]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_category_schemes/Talk]] -- 
> [[William_Withering]] -- 
> [[Year_in_Review/Talk]] -- 
> [[Year_in_Review]] 
------
Role-playing_game/Talk|986206876
15c15,17
< and maybe it's beyond everybody's imagination but yours, because you already know what this is supposed to mean, but when you want to know something abour RPGs and start by reading a text like the above one, the only information you get is that whoever wrote it is some kind of weirdo (no offence meant) -SoniC
---
> and maybe it's beyond everybody's imagination but yours, because you already know what this is supposed to mean, but when you want to know something abour RPGs and start by reading a text like the above one, the only information you get is that whoever wrote it is some kind of weirdo (no offence meant) -SoniC
> ----
> Thank you, SoniC, this is feedback that helps me improve my writings
------
1977|986207033
6a7
> **a song by [[TheClash]]
------
1977|986207147
7c7
< **a song by [[TheClash]]
---
> **a song by [[TheClash]]; [[Lyrics1977]]
------
Lyrics1977|986207421
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Strummer/Jones)
> 
> IN 1977<BR>
> I HOPE I GO TO HEAVEN<BR>
> COS I BEEN TOO LONG ON THE DOLE<BR>
> AND I CAN'T WORK AT ALL<BR>
> 
> DANGER STRANGER<BR>
> YOU BETTER PAINT YOUR FACE<BR>
> NO ELVIS, BEATLES, OR THE ROLLING STONES<BR>
> IN 1977<BR>
> 
> IN 1977<BR>
> KNIVES IN WEST 11<BR>
> LENT SO LUCKY TO BE RICH<BR>
> STEN GUNS IN KNIGHTSBRIDGE<BR>
> 
> DANGER STRANGER<BR>
> YOU BETTER PAINT YOUR FACE<BR>
> NO ELVIS, BEATLES OR THE ROLLING STONES<BR>
> IN 1977<BR>
> 
> IN 1977<BR>
> YOU'RE ON THE NEVER NEVER<BR>
> YOU THINK IT CAN'T GO ON FOREVER<BR>
> BUT THE PAPERS SAY IT'S BETTER<BR>
> I DON'T CARE 'COS I'M NOT ALL THERE<BR>
> NO ELVIS, BEATLES OR THE ROLLING STONES
> 
> IN 1977<BR>
> SOD THE JUBILEE<BR>
> IN 1978<BR>
> IN 1979<BR>
> STAYED IN BED<BR>
> IN 1980<BR>
> IN 1981<BR>
> THE TOILET DON'T WORK<BR>
> IN 1982<BR>
> IN 1983<BR>
> HERE COME THE POLICE<BR>
> IN 1984
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_9|986208944
16,25c16,22
< 
< Feet 
< 
< Palaeozoic strata (not including igneous beds) 57,154 
< 
< Secondary strata 13,190 
< 
< Tertiary strata 2,240 
< 
<  making altogether 72,584 feet; that is, very nearly thirteen and three-quarters British miles. Some of these formations, which are represented in England by thin beds, are thousands of feet in thickness on the Continent. Moreover, between each successive formation, we have, in the opinion of most geologists, enormously long blank periods. So that the lofty pile of sedimentary rocks in Britain, gives but an inadequate idea of the time which has elapsed during their accumulation; yet what time this must have consumed! Good observers have estimated that sediment is deposited by the great Mississippi river at the rate of only 600 feet in a hundred thousand years. This estimate may be quite erroneous; yet, considering over what wide spaces very fine sediment is transported by the currents of the sea, the process of accumulation in any one area must be extremely slow. 
---
> <table><tr><td></td><td>Feet</td></tr> 
> <tr><td>
> Palaeozoic strata (not <br> including igneous beds)  </td><td align=right> 57,154 </td></tr> 
> <tr><td>
> Secondary strata </td><td align=right>13,190 </td></tr> 
> <tr><td> Tertiary strata </td><td align=right> 2,240 </td></tr></table>
> making altogether 72,584 feet; that is, very nearly thirteen and three-quarters British miles. Some of these formations, which are represented in England by thin beds, are thousands of feet in thickness on the Continent. Moreover, between each successive formation, we have, in the opinion of most geologists, enormously long blank periods. So that the lofty pile of sedimentary rocks in Britain, gives but an inadequate idea of the time which has elapsed during their accumulation; yet what time this must have consumed! Good observers have estimated that sediment is deposited by the great Mississippi river at the rate of only 600 feet in a hundred thousand years. This estimate may be quite erroneous; yet, considering over what wide spaces very fine sediment is transported by the currents of the sea, the process of accumulation in any one area must be extremely slow. 
59c56
<  With marine animals of all kinds, we may safely infer a large amount of migration during climatal and other changes; and when we see a species first appearing in any formation, the probability is that it only then first immigrated into that area. It is well known, for instance, that several species appeared somewhat earlier in the palaeozoic beds of North America than in those of Europe; time having apparently been required for their migration from the American to the European seas. In examining the latest deposits of various quarters of the world, it has everywhere been noted, that some few still existing species are common in the deposit, but have become extinct in the immediately surrounding sea; or, conversely, that some are now abundant in the neighbouring sea, but are rare or absent in this particular deposit. It is an excellent lesson to reflect on the ascertained amount of migration of the inhabitants of Europe during the Glacial period, which forms only a part of one whole geological period; and likewise to reflect on the great changes of level, on the inordinately great change of climate, on the prodigious lapse of time, all included within this same glacial period. Yet it may be doubted whether in any quarter of the world, sedimentary deposits, including fossil remains, have gone on accumulating within the same area during the whole of this period. It is not, for instance, probable that sediment was deposited during the whole of the glacial period near the mouth of the Mississippi, within that limit of depth at which marine animals can flourish; for we know what vast geographical changes occurred in other parts of America during this space of time. When such beds as were deposited in shallow water near the mouth of the Mississippi during some part of the glacial period shall have been upraised, organic remains will probably first appear and disappear at different levels, owing to the migration of species and to geographical changes. And in the distant future, a geologist examining these beds, might be tempted to conclude that the average duration of life of the embedded fossils had been less than that of the glacial period, instead of having been really far greater, that is extending from before the glacial epoch to the present day. 
---
> With marine animals of all kinds, we may safely infer a large amount of migration during climatal and other changes; and when we see a species first appearing in any formation, the probability is that it only then first immigrated into that area. It is well known, for instance, that several species appeared somewhat earlier in the palaeozoic beds of North America than in those of Europe; time having apparently been required for their migration from the American to the European seas. In examining the latest deposits of various quarters of the world, it has everywhere been noted, that some few still existing species are common in the deposit, but have become extinct in the immediately surrounding sea; or, conversely, that some are now abundant in the neighbouring sea, but are rare or absent in this particular deposit. It is an excellent lesson to reflect on the ascertained amount of migration of the inhabitants of Europe during the Glacial period, which forms only a part of one whole geological period; and likewise to reflect on the great changes of level, on the inordinately great change of climate, on the prodigious lapse of time, all included within this same glacial period. Yet it may be doubted whether in any quarter of the world, sedimentary deposits, including fossil remains, have gone on accumulating within the same area during the whole of this period. It is not, for instance, probable that sediment was deposited during the whole of the glacial period near the mouth of the Mississippi, within that limit of depth at which marine animals can flourish; for we know what vast geographical changes occurred in other parts of America during this space of time. When such beds as were deposited in shallow water near the mouth of the Mississippi during some part of the glacial period shall have been upraised, organic remains will probably first appear and disappear at different levels, owing to the migration of species and to geographical changes. And in the distant future, a geologist examining these beds, might be tempted to conclude that the average duration of life of the embedded fossils had been less than that of the glacial period, instead of having been really far greater, that is extending from before the glacial epoch to the present day. 
107c104
< The several difficulties here discussed, namely our not finding in the successive formations infinitely numerous transitional links between the many species which now exist or have existed; the sudden manner in which whole groups of species appear in our European formations; the almost entire absence, as at present known, of fossiliferous formations beneath the Silurian strata, are all undoubtedly of the gravest nature. We see this in the plainest manner by the fact that all the most eminent palaeontologists, namely Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, Barrande, Falconer, E. Forbes, &c., and all our greatest geologists, as Lyell, Murchison, Sedgwick, &c., have unanimously, often vehemently, maintained the immutability of species. But I have reason to believe that one great authority, Sir Charles Lyell, from further reflexion entertains grave doubts on this subject. I feel how rash it is to differ from these great authorities, to whom, with others, we owe all our knowledge. Those who think the natural geological record in any degree perfect, and who do not attach much weight to the facts and arguments of other kinds even in this volume, will undoubtedly at once reject my theory. For my part, following out Lyell's metaphor, I look at the natural geological record, as a history of the world imperfectly kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess the last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. Of this volume, only here and there a short chapter has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there a few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, in which the history is supposed to be written, being more or less different in the interrupted succession of chapters, may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life, entombed in our consecutive, but widely separated formations. On this view, the difficulties above discussed are greatly diminished, or even disappear.
---
> The several difficulties here discussed, namely our not finding in the successive formations infinitely numerous transitional links between the many species which now exist or have existed; the sudden manner in which whole groups of species appear in our European formations; the almost entire absence, as at present known, of fossiliferous formations beneath the Silurian strata, are all undoubtedly of the gravest nature. We see this in the plainest manner by the fact that all the most eminent palaeontologists, namely Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, Barrande, Falconer, E. Forbes, &c., and all our greatest geologists, as Lyell, Murchison, Sedgwick, &c., have unanimously, often vehemently, maintained the immutability of species. But I have reason to believe that one great authority, Sir Charles Lyell, from further reflexion entertains grave doubts on this subject. I feel how rash it is to differ from these great authorities, to whom, with others, we owe all our knowledge. Those who think the natural geological record in any degree perfect, and who do not attach much weight to the facts and arguments of other kinds even in this volume, will undoubtedly at once reject my theory. For my part, following out Lyell's metaphor, I look at the natural geological record, as a history of the world imperfectly kept, and written in a changing dialect; of this history we possess the last volume alone, relating only to two or three countries. Of this volume, only here and there a short chapter has been preserved; and of each page, only here and there a few lines. Each word of the slowly-changing language, in which the history is supposed to be written, being more or less different in the interrupted succession of chapters, may represent the apparently abruptly changed forms of life, entombed in our consecutive, but widely separated formations. On this view, the difficulties above discussed are greatly diminished, or even disappear.
------
Netherlands|986213341
13c13
< Country of [[Erasmus]] and [[Spinoza]]: all of [[Descartes]]' major work was done in Holland.
---
> Country of [[Erasmus]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]: all of [[Descartes]]' major work was done in Holland.
------
Baruch_Spinoza|986213425
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Baruch Spinoza (1632-77) was one of the great [[rationalism|rationalists]] of [[early modern philosophy]], along with [[Descartes]] and [[Leibniz]].  He was [[Jews|Jewish]], of Spanish parents, and born in the [[Netherlands]].  He is perhaps most famous for his [[pantheism]], his [[neutral monism]], and the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written out in the form of postulates and definitions, as if it were a geometry treatise.
> 
------
BaruchSpinoza|986213517
1c1
< Baruch Spinoza (1632-77) was one of the great [[rationalism|rationalists]] of [[early modern philosophy]], along with [[Descartes]] and [[Leibniz]].  He was [[Jews|Jewish]], of Spanish parents, and born in the [[Netherlands]].  He is perhaps most famous for his [[pantheism]], his [[neutral monism]], and the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written out in the form of postulates and definitions, as if it were a geometry treatise.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Baruch Spinoza]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986215908
6a7
> ''Why the emphasis?  Do you claim to have a better figure?''
------
NobelPrize/Peace|986216621
1c1,103
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize upto now:
> 
> <dl>
> <dt><b>1901</b>
> <dd>[[Jean Henri Dunant]] (CH), founder of the [[Red Cross]] and initiator of the [[Geneva Convention]].
> <dd>[[Frederic Passy|Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Passy]] (F), founder and president of the [[Societe Francaise pour l'arbitrage entre nations]].
> <dt><b>1902</b>
> <dd>[[Elie Ducommun|&Eacute;lie Ducommun]] (CH) and [[Charles Albert Gobat]], honorary secretaries of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]] in Berne.
> <dt><b>1903</b>
> <dd>Sir [[William Randal Cremer]] (UK), secretary of the [[International Arbitration League]].
> <dt><b>1904</b>
> <dd>[[Institut De Droit International]] (Gent, BE).
> <dt><b>1905</b>
> <dd>[[Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita Von Suttner]], n&eacute;e Countess Kinsky von Chinic und Tettau]] (A), writer, honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1906</b>
> <dd>[[Theodore Roosevelt]] (USA), president of the United States, for drawing up the peace treaty in the [[Russo-Japanese War]].
> <dt><b>1907</b>
> <dd>[[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]] (I), president of the [[Lombard League of Peace]].
> <dd>[[Louis Renault]] (F), professor International Law.
> <dt><b>1908</b>
> <dd>[[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]] (S), founder of the [[Swedish Peace and Arbitration League]].
> <dd>[[Fredrik Bajer]] (DK), honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1909</b>
> <dd>[[Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert]] (BE), member of the [[Cour Internationale dArbitrage|Cour Internationale d'Arbitrage]].
> <dd>[[Paul Henribenjamin Balluet Destournelles De Constant|Paul Henribenjamin Balluet D'estournelles De Constant, Baron De Constant De Rebecque]] (F), founder and president of the French parliamentary group for international arbitration. Founder of the [[Comite de defense des interets nationaux et de conciliation internationale|Comité de défense des intérêts nationaux et de conciliation internationale]]
> <dt><b>1910</b>
> <dd>Bureau International Permanent De La Paix ([[Permanent International Peace Bureau]]), Berne.
> <dt><b>1911</b>
> <dd>[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] (NL), initiator of the [[International Conferences of Private Law]] in The Hague.
> <dd>[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] (A), founder of ''[[Die Waffen Nieder]]''.
> <dt><b>1912</b>
> <dd>[[Elihu Root] (USA), for initiating various arbitration agreements.
> <dt><b>1913</b>
> <dd>[[Henri La Fontaine]] (BE), president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1914-1916</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1917</b>
> <dd>International [[Red Cros]], Geneva.
> <dt><b>1918</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1919</b>
> <dd>[[Thomas Woodrow Wilson]] (USA) for founding the [[League of Nations]].
> <dt><b>1920</b>
> <dd>[[Leon Victor Auguste Bourgeois|L&eacute;on Victor Auguste Bourgeois]], president of the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
> <dt><b>1921</b>
> <dd>[[Karl Hjalmar Branting]] (S), prime minister, Swedish delegate to the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
> <dd>[[Christian Lous Lange]] (N), secretary-general of the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]
> <dt><b>1922</b>
> <dd>[[Fridtjof Nansen]] (N), Norwegian delegate to the [[League of Nations]], originator of the [[Nansen passports]] for refugees.
> <dt><b>1923-1924</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1925</b>
> <dd>Sir [[Austen Chamberlain]] (UK) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
> <dd>[[Charles Gates Dawes]] (USA), chairman of the [[Allied Reparation Commission]] and originater of the [[Dawes Plan]].
> <dt><b>1926</b>
> <dd>[[Artistide Briand]] (F) for the [[Locarno Treaty]] and the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dd>[[Gustav Stresemann]] (D) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
> <dt><b>1927</b>
> <dd>[[Ferdinand Buisson]] (F), founder and president of the [[League for Human Rights]].
> <dd>[[Ludwig Quidde]] (D), delegate to numerous peace conferences.
> <dt><b>1928</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1929</b>
> <dd>[[Frank Billings Kellogg]] (USA) for the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dt><b>1930</b>
> <dd>Archbishop [[Lars Olof Nathan Soderblom|Lars Olof Nathan (Jonathan) S&ouml;derblom]] (S), leader of the ecumenical movement.
> <dt><b>1931</b>
> <dd>[[Jane Addams]] (USA), international president of the [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
> <dd>[[Nicholas Murray Butler]] (USA) for promoting the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dt><b>1932</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1933</b>
> <dd>[[Norman Angell|Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane)]] (UK), writer, member of the Executive Committee of the [[League of Nations]] and the [[National Peace Council]].
> <dt><b>1934</b>
> <dd>[[Arthur Henderson]] (UK), chairman of the [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations Disarmament Conference|Disarmament Conference]]
> <dt><b>1935</b>
> <dd>[[Carl Von Ossietzky]] (D), pacifistic journalist.
> <dt><b>1936<M/b>
> <dd>[[Carlos Saavedra Lamas]] (Arg), president of the [[League of Nations]] and mediator in a conflict between [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]].
> <dt><b>1937</b>
> <dd>[[Cecil of Chelwood|Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (Lord Edgar Algernon Robert Gascoyne Cecil)]], founder and president of the [[International Peace Campaign]].
> <dt><b>1938</b>
> <dd>[[Nansen International Office For Refugees]], Geneva.
> <dt><b>1939-1943</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1944</b>
> <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]].
> <dt><b>1945</b>
> <dd>[[Cordell Hull]] (USA) for co-initiating the [[United Nations]].
> <dt><b>1946</b>
> <dd>[[Emily Greene Balch]] (USA), honorary international president [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
> <dd>[[John Raleigh Mott]] (USA), chairman [[International Missionary Council]] and president [[World Alliance of Young Mens Christian Associations|World Alliance of Young Men's Christian Associations]]
> <dt><b>1947</b>
> <dd>The Friends Service Council (UK) and The American Friends Service Committee (USA), better known as the [[Quakers]].
> <dt><b>1948</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1949</b>
> <dd>[[Lord John Boyd Orr of Brechin]] (UK), director [[General Food and Agricultural Organization]], president [[National Peace Council]], president [[World Union of Peace Organizations]].
> <dt><b>1950</b>
> <dd>[[Ralph Bunche]] for mediating in [[Palestina]] (1948).
> <dt><b>1951</b>
> <dd>[[Leon Jouhaux|L&eacute;on Jouhaux]] (F), president of the [[International Committee of the European Council]], vice president of the [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]], vice president of the [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], member of the [[ILO Council]], delegate to the UN.
> </dl>
------
NobelPrize/Peace|986217368
78c78
< <dt><b>1936<M/b>
---
> <dt><b>1936</b>
102a103,112
> <dt><b>1952</b>
> <dd>[[Albert Schweitzer]] (F) for founding the [[Lambarene Hospital]] in [[Gabon]].
> <dt><b>1953</b>
> <dd>[[George Catlett Marshall]] (USA) for the [[Marshall Plan]].
> <dt><b>1954</b>
> <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
> <dt><b>1955-1956</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1957</b>
> <dd>[[Lester Bowles Pearson]] (CAN), president of the 7th session of the [[United Nations]] General Assembly.
------
NobelPrize/Peace|986219440
1c1
< Here are the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize upto now:
---
>  Here are the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize upto now:
112a113,198
> <dt><b>1958</b>
> <dd>[[George Henri Pire]] (B), leader of [[lEurope du Coeur au Service du Monde|l'Europe du Coeur au Service du Monde]], a relief organization for refugees.
> <dt><b>1959</b>
> <dd>[[Philip J. Noel-Baker]] (UK), for his lifelong ardent work for international peace and co-operation.
> <dt><b>1960</b>
> <dd>[[Albert John Lutuli]] (RSA), president of the [[ANC]] (African National Congress).
> <dt><b>1961</b>
> <dd>[[Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjold|Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskj&ouml;ld]] (S), secretary-general of the [[United Nations|UN]] (awarded posthumously).
> <dt><b>1962</b>
> <dd>[[Linus Carl Pauling]] (USA) for his campaign against nuclear weapons test.
> <dt><b>1963</b>
> <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]], Geneva.
> <dd>League of [[Red Cross]] Societies, Geneva.
> <dt><b>1964</b>
> <dd>[[Martin Luther King]], campaigner for civil rights.
> <dt><b>1965</b>
> <dd>[[UNICEF|United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF)]]
> <dt><b>1966-1967</b>
> <dd>Not Awarded.
> <dt><b>1968</b>
> <dd>[[Rene Cassin|Ren&eacute; Cassin]] (F), president of the [[European Court for Human Rights]].
> <dt><b>1969</b>
> <dd>[[International Labour Organization]] (I.L.O.), Geneva.
> <dt><b>1970</b>
> <dd>[[Norman Borlaug]] (USA), for research at the [[International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center]].
> <dt><b>1971</b>
> <dd>[[Willy Brandt]] (D), for [[Germany/West Germany|West Germany]]'s ''Ostpolitik'', embodying a new attitude towards Eastern Europe and [[German/East Germany|East Germany]].
> <dt><b>1972</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1973</b>
> <dd>[[Henry A. Kissinger]] (USA) and [[LeDuc Tho]] (Vietnam, declined) for the [[Vietnam]] peace accord.
> <dt><b>1974</b>
> <dd>[[Sean Mac Bride|S&eacute;an Mac Bride]] (IRL), president of the [[International Peace Bureau]] and the Commission of [[Namabia]] of the [[United Nations]].
> <dd>[[Eisaku Sato]] (J), prime minister.
> <dt><b>1975</b>
> <dd>[[Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov]] (USSR) for his campaigning for human rights.
> <dt><b>1976</b>
> <dd>[[Betty Williams]] and [[Mairead Corrigan]], founders of the [[Northern Ireland Peace Movement]] (later renamed [[Community of Peace People]]).
> <dt><b>1977</b>
> <dd>[[Amnesty International]], London.
> <dt><b>1978</b>
> <dd>[[Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat]] (Egypt) and [[Menachem Begin]] (Israel) for negotiating peace between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]].
> <dt><b>1979</b>
> <dd>[[Mother Theresa]] (India)
> <dt><b>1980</b>
> <dd>[[Adolfo perez Esquivel]] (Argentina), human rights leader.
> <dt><b>1981</b>
> <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
> <dt><b>1982</b>
> <dd>[[Alva Myrdal]] (S) and [[Alfonso Garcia Robles|Alfonso Garc&iacute;a Robles]] (Mexico), delegates to the [[United Nations]] General Assembly on Disarmament.
> <dt><b>1983</b>
> <dd>[[Lech Walesa]] (Poland), founder of [[Solidarnosc]] and campaigner for human rights.
> <dt><b>1984</b>
> <dd>Bishop [[Desmond Tutu|Desmond Mpilo Tutu]] (South Africa) for his work against [[Apartheid|apartheid]].
> <dt><b>1985</b>
> <dd>[[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]], Boston.
> <dt><b>1986</b>
> <dd>[[Elie Wiesel]] (USA).
> <dt><b>1987</b>
> <dd>[[Oscar Arias Sanchez]] (Costa Rica) for initiating peace negotations in [[Central America]].
> <dt><b>1988</b>
> <dd>The [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces|Peace-Keeping Forces]], New York.
> <dt><b>1989</b>
> <dd>Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th [[Dalai Lama]].
> <dt><b>1990</b>
> <dd>[[Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev]] (USSR) for helping to end the [[Cold War]].
> <dt><b>1991</b>
> <dd>[[Aung San Suu Kyi]] (Burma), oppositional leader and human rights advocate.
> <dt><b>1992</b>
> <dd>[[Rigoberta Menchu Tum]] (Guatemala), for campaigning for human rights, especially for indigenous peoples.
> <dt><b>1993</b>
> <dd>[[Nelson Mandela]] (RSA) and [[Frederik Willem De Klerk]] (RSA).
> <dt><b>1994</b>
> <dd>[[Yasser Arafat]] (Palestina), [[Shimon Peres]] (Israel) and [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (Israel).
> <dt><b>1995</b>
> <dd>[[Joseph Rotblat]] (Poland/UK) and the [[Pugwash]] Conferences on Science and World Affairs, for their efforts in the fight against nuclear arms.
> <dt><b>1996</b>
> <dd>[[Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo]] (East Timor) and [[Jose Ramos-Horta]] (East Timor) for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor.
> <dt><b>1997</b>
> <dd>[[ICBL|International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL)]] and [[Jody Williams]] (USA) for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines.
> <dt><b>1998</b>
> <dd>[[John Hume]] (UK) and [[David Trimble]] (UK) for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland.
> <dt><b>1999</b>
> <dd>[[Doctors Without Borders]], Brussels.
> <dt><b>2000</b>
> <dd>[[Kim Dae Jung]] (S.Korea) for his work for democracy and human rights, and in particular for peace and reconciliation with [[North Korea]].
------
NobelPrize|986219477
17c17
< /PeacE
---
> /Peace
------
NobelPrize|986219535
1,27c1
< #redirect [[Nobel Prize]]
< 
< <i>I suppose we need a writeup of what the prize actually is.</i>
< 
< The Nobel Foundation has its own website: http://www.nobel.se/
< 
< Nobel Prizes are awarded in the following disciplines:
< 
< /PhysicS
< 
< [[/Chemistry|Chemistry]]
< 
< /PhysiologyOrMedicine
< 
< /LiteraturE
< 
< /Peace
< 
< /EconomicSciences
< 
< ----
< For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the NobelPrize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
< 
< Don't forget the IgNobelPrize.
< ----
< I'm not sure EconomicSciences is included in Nobel's will,
< isn't it another Prize that is awarded atthe same time of the Nobel's?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nobel Prize]]
------
Nobel_Prize|986219560
11c11
< * [[NobelPrize/PeacE|Peace]]
---
> * [[NobelPrize/Peace|Peace]]
------
NobelPrize/PeacE|986219670
1c1
< 2000 - KimDaeJung 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nobel Prize/Peace]]
------
NobelPrize/Peace|986219779
1,199c1
<  Here are the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize upto now:
< 
< <dl>
< <dt><b>1901</b>
< <dd>[[Jean Henri Dunant]] (CH), founder of the [[Red Cross]] and initiator of the [[Geneva Convention]].
< <dd>[[Frederic Passy|Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Passy]] (F), founder and president of the [[Societe Francaise pour l'arbitrage entre nations]].
< <dt><b>1902</b>
< <dd>[[Elie Ducommun|&Eacute;lie Ducommun]] (CH) and [[Charles Albert Gobat]], honorary secretaries of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]] in Berne.
< <dt><b>1903</b>
< <dd>Sir [[William Randal Cremer]] (UK), secretary of the [[International Arbitration League]].
< <dt><b>1904</b>
< <dd>[[Institut De Droit International]] (Gent, BE).
< <dt><b>1905</b>
< <dd>[[Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita Von Suttner]], n&eacute;e Countess Kinsky von Chinic und Tettau]] (A), writer, honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
< <dt><b>1906</b>
< <dd>[[Theodore Roosevelt]] (USA), president of the United States, for drawing up the peace treaty in the [[Russo-Japanese War]].
< <dt><b>1907</b>
< <dd>[[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]] (I), president of the [[Lombard League of Peace]].
< <dd>[[Louis Renault]] (F), professor International Law.
< <dt><b>1908</b>
< <dd>[[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]] (S), founder of the [[Swedish Peace and Arbitration League]].
< <dd>[[Fredrik Bajer]] (DK), honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
< <dt><b>1909</b>
< <dd>[[Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert]] (BE), member of the [[Cour Internationale dArbitrage|Cour Internationale d'Arbitrage]].
< <dd>[[Paul Henribenjamin Balluet Destournelles De Constant|Paul Henribenjamin Balluet D'estournelles De Constant, Baron De Constant De Rebecque]] (F), founder and president of the French parliamentary group for international arbitration. Founder of the [[Comite de defense des interets nationaux et de conciliation internationale|Comité de défense des intérêts nationaux et de conciliation internationale]]
< <dt><b>1910</b>
< <dd>Bureau International Permanent De La Paix ([[Permanent International Peace Bureau]]), Berne.
< <dt><b>1911</b>
< <dd>[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] (NL), initiator of the [[International Conferences of Private Law]] in The Hague.
< <dd>[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] (A), founder of ''[[Die Waffen Nieder]]''.
< <dt><b>1912</b>
< <dd>[[Elihu Root] (USA), for initiating various arbitration agreements.
< <dt><b>1913</b>
< <dd>[[Henri La Fontaine]] (BE), president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
< <dt><b>1914-1916</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1917</b>
< <dd>International [[Red Cros]], Geneva.
< <dt><b>1918</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1919</b>
< <dd>[[Thomas Woodrow Wilson]] (USA) for founding the [[League of Nations]].
< <dt><b>1920</b>
< <dd>[[Leon Victor Auguste Bourgeois|L&eacute;on Victor Auguste Bourgeois]], president of the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
< <dt><b>1921</b>
< <dd>[[Karl Hjalmar Branting]] (S), prime minister, Swedish delegate to the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
< <dd>[[Christian Lous Lange]] (N), secretary-general of the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]
< <dt><b>1922</b>
< <dd>[[Fridtjof Nansen]] (N), Norwegian delegate to the [[League of Nations]], originator of the [[Nansen passports]] for refugees.
< <dt><b>1923-1924</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1925</b>
< <dd>Sir [[Austen Chamberlain]] (UK) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
< <dd>[[Charles Gates Dawes]] (USA), chairman of the [[Allied Reparation Commission]] and originater of the [[Dawes Plan]].
< <dt><b>1926</b>
< <dd>[[Artistide Briand]] (F) for the [[Locarno Treaty]] and the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
< <dd>[[Gustav Stresemann]] (D) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
< <dt><b>1927</b>
< <dd>[[Ferdinand Buisson]] (F), founder and president of the [[League for Human Rights]].
< <dd>[[Ludwig Quidde]] (D), delegate to numerous peace conferences.
< <dt><b>1928</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1929</b>
< <dd>[[Frank Billings Kellogg]] (USA) for the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
< <dt><b>1930</b>
< <dd>Archbishop [[Lars Olof Nathan Soderblom|Lars Olof Nathan (Jonathan) S&ouml;derblom]] (S), leader of the ecumenical movement.
< <dt><b>1931</b>
< <dd>[[Jane Addams]] (USA), international president of the [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
< <dd>[[Nicholas Murray Butler]] (USA) for promoting the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
< <dt><b>1932</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1933</b>
< <dd>[[Norman Angell|Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane)]] (UK), writer, member of the Executive Committee of the [[League of Nations]] and the [[National Peace Council]].
< <dt><b>1934</b>
< <dd>[[Arthur Henderson]] (UK), chairman of the [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations Disarmament Conference|Disarmament Conference]]
< <dt><b>1935</b>
< <dd>[[Carl Von Ossietzky]] (D), pacifistic journalist.
< <dt><b>1936</b>
< <dd>[[Carlos Saavedra Lamas]] (Arg), president of the [[League of Nations]] and mediator in a conflict between [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]].
< <dt><b>1937</b>
< <dd>[[Cecil of Chelwood|Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (Lord Edgar Algernon Robert Gascoyne Cecil)]], founder and president of the [[International Peace Campaign]].
< <dt><b>1938</b>
< <dd>[[Nansen International Office For Refugees]], Geneva.
< <dt><b>1939-1943</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1944</b>
< <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]].
< <dt><b>1945</b>
< <dd>[[Cordell Hull]] (USA) for co-initiating the [[United Nations]].
< <dt><b>1946</b>
< <dd>[[Emily Greene Balch]] (USA), honorary international president [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
< <dd>[[John Raleigh Mott]] (USA), chairman [[International Missionary Council]] and president [[World Alliance of Young Mens Christian Associations|World Alliance of Young Men's Christian Associations]]
< <dt><b>1947</b>
< <dd>The Friends Service Council (UK) and The American Friends Service Committee (USA), better known as the [[Quakers]].
< <dt><b>1948</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1949</b>
< <dd>[[Lord John Boyd Orr of Brechin]] (UK), director [[General Food and Agricultural Organization]], president [[National Peace Council]], president [[World Union of Peace Organizations]].
< <dt><b>1950</b>
< <dd>[[Ralph Bunche]] for mediating in [[Palestina]] (1948).
< <dt><b>1951</b>
< <dd>[[Leon Jouhaux|L&eacute;on Jouhaux]] (F), president of the [[International Committee of the European Council]], vice president of the [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]], vice president of the [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], member of the [[ILO Council]], delegate to the UN.
< <dt><b>1952</b>
< <dd>[[Albert Schweitzer]] (F) for founding the [[Lambarene Hospital]] in [[Gabon]].
< <dt><b>1953</b>
< <dd>[[George Catlett Marshall]] (USA) for the [[Marshall Plan]].
< <dt><b>1954</b>
< <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
< <dt><b>1955-1956</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1957</b>
< <dd>[[Lester Bowles Pearson]] (CAN), president of the 7th session of the [[United Nations]] General Assembly.
< <dt><b>1958</b>
< <dd>[[George Henri Pire]] (B), leader of [[lEurope du Coeur au Service du Monde|l'Europe du Coeur au Service du Monde]], a relief organization for refugees.
< <dt><b>1959</b>
< <dd>[[Philip J. Noel-Baker]] (UK), for his lifelong ardent work for international peace and co-operation.
< <dt><b>1960</b>
< <dd>[[Albert John Lutuli]] (RSA), president of the [[ANC]] (African National Congress).
< <dt><b>1961</b>
< <dd>[[Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjold|Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskj&ouml;ld]] (S), secretary-general of the [[United Nations|UN]] (awarded posthumously).
< <dt><b>1962</b>
< <dd>[[Linus Carl Pauling]] (USA) for his campaign against nuclear weapons test.
< <dt><b>1963</b>
< <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]], Geneva.
< <dd>League of [[Red Cross]] Societies, Geneva.
< <dt><b>1964</b>
< <dd>[[Martin Luther King]], campaigner for civil rights.
< <dt><b>1965</b>
< <dd>[[UNICEF|United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF)]]
< <dt><b>1966-1967</b>
< <dd>Not Awarded.
< <dt><b>1968</b>
< <dd>[[Rene Cassin|Ren&eacute; Cassin]] (F), president of the [[European Court for Human Rights]].
< <dt><b>1969</b>
< <dd>[[International Labour Organization]] (I.L.O.), Geneva.
< <dt><b>1970</b>
< <dd>[[Norman Borlaug]] (USA), for research at the [[International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center]].
< <dt><b>1971</b>
< <dd>[[Willy Brandt]] (D), for [[Germany/West Germany|West Germany]]'s ''Ostpolitik'', embodying a new attitude towards Eastern Europe and [[German/East Germany|East Germany]].
< <dt><b>1972</b>
< <dd>Not awarded.
< <dt><b>1973</b>
< <dd>[[Henry A. Kissinger]] (USA) and [[LeDuc Tho]] (Vietnam, declined) for the [[Vietnam]] peace accord.
< <dt><b>1974</b>
< <dd>[[Sean Mac Bride|S&eacute;an Mac Bride]] (IRL), president of the [[International Peace Bureau]] and the Commission of [[Namabia]] of the [[United Nations]].
< <dd>[[Eisaku Sato]] (J), prime minister.
< <dt><b>1975</b>
< <dd>[[Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov]] (USSR) for his campaigning for human rights.
< <dt><b>1976</b>
< <dd>[[Betty Williams]] and [[Mairead Corrigan]], founders of the [[Northern Ireland Peace Movement]] (later renamed [[Community of Peace People]]).
< <dt><b>1977</b>
< <dd>[[Amnesty International]], London.
< <dt><b>1978</b>
< <dd>[[Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat]] (Egypt) and [[Menachem Begin]] (Israel) for negotiating peace between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]].
< <dt><b>1979</b>
< <dd>[[Mother Theresa]] (India)
< <dt><b>1980</b>
< <dd>[[Adolfo perez Esquivel]] (Argentina), human rights leader.
< <dt><b>1981</b>
< <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
< <dt><b>1982</b>
< <dd>[[Alva Myrdal]] (S) and [[Alfonso Garcia Robles|Alfonso Garc&iacute;a Robles]] (Mexico), delegates to the [[United Nations]] General Assembly on Disarmament.
< <dt><b>1983</b>
< <dd>[[Lech Walesa]] (Poland), founder of [[Solidarnosc]] and campaigner for human rights.
< <dt><b>1984</b>
< <dd>Bishop [[Desmond Tutu|Desmond Mpilo Tutu]] (South Africa) for his work against [[Apartheid|apartheid]].
< <dt><b>1985</b>
< <dd>[[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]], Boston.
< <dt><b>1986</b>
< <dd>[[Elie Wiesel]] (USA).
< <dt><b>1987</b>
< <dd>[[Oscar Arias Sanchez]] (Costa Rica) for initiating peace negotations in [[Central America]].
< <dt><b>1988</b>
< <dd>The [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces|Peace-Keeping Forces]], New York.
< <dt><b>1989</b>
< <dd>Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th [[Dalai Lama]].
< <dt><b>1990</b>
< <dd>[[Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev]] (USSR) for helping to end the [[Cold War]].
< <dt><b>1991</b>
< <dd>[[Aung San Suu Kyi]] (Burma), oppositional leader and human rights advocate.
< <dt><b>1992</b>
< <dd>[[Rigoberta Menchu Tum]] (Guatemala), for campaigning for human rights, especially for indigenous peoples.
< <dt><b>1993</b>
< <dd>[[Nelson Mandela]] (RSA) and [[Frederik Willem De Klerk]] (RSA).
< <dt><b>1994</b>
< <dd>[[Yasser Arafat]] (Palestina), [[Shimon Peres]] (Israel) and [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (Israel).
< <dt><b>1995</b>
< <dd>[[Joseph Rotblat]] (Poland/UK) and the [[Pugwash]] Conferences on Science and World Affairs, for their efforts in the fight against nuclear arms.
< <dt><b>1996</b>
< <dd>[[Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo]] (East Timor) and [[Jose Ramos-Horta]] (East Timor) for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor.
< <dt><b>1997</b>
< <dd>[[ICBL|International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL)]] and [[Jody Williams]] (USA) for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines.
< <dt><b>1998</b>
< <dd>[[John Hume]] (UK) and [[David Trimble]] (UK) for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland.
< <dt><b>1999</b>
< <dd>[[Doctors Without Borders]], Brussels.
< <dt><b>2000</b>
< <dd>[[Kim Dae Jung]] (S.Korea) for his work for democracy and human rights, and in particular for peace and reconciliation with [[North Korea]].
< </dl>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nobel Prize/Peace]]
------
Nobel_Prize/Peace|986219784
1c1,199
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are the winners of the Nobel Peace Prize upto now:
> 
> <dl>
> <dt><b>1901</b>
> <dd>[[Jean Henri Dunant]] (CH), founder of the [[Red Cross]] and initiator of the [[Geneva Convention]].
> <dd>[[Frederic Passy|Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric Passy]] (F), founder and president of the [[Societe Francaise pour l'arbitrage entre nations]].
> <dt><b>1902</b>
> <dd>[[Elie Ducommun|&Eacute;lie Ducommun]] (CH) and [[Charles Albert Gobat]], honorary secretaries of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]] in Berne.
> <dt><b>1903</b>
> <dd>Sir [[William Randal Cremer]] (UK), secretary of the [[International Arbitration League]].
> <dt><b>1904</b>
> <dd>[[Institut De Droit International]] (Gent, BE).
> <dt><b>1905</b>
> <dd>[[Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita Von Suttner]], n&eacute;e Countess Kinsky von Chinic und Tettau]] (A), writer, honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1906</b>
> <dd>[[Theodore Roosevelt]] (USA), president of the United States, for drawing up the peace treaty in the [[Russo-Japanese War]].
> <dt><b>1907</b>
> <dd>[[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]] (I), president of the [[Lombard League of Peace]].
> <dd>[[Louis Renault]] (F), professor International Law.
> <dt><b>1908</b>
> <dd>[[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]] (S), founder of the [[Swedish Peace and Arbitration League]].
> <dd>[[Fredrik Bajer]] (DK), honorary president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1909</b>
> <dd>[[Auguste Marie Francois Beernaert]] (BE), member of the [[Cour Internationale dArbitrage|Cour Internationale d'Arbitrage]].
> <dd>[[Paul Henribenjamin Balluet Destournelles De Constant|Paul Henribenjamin Balluet D'estournelles De Constant, Baron De Constant De Rebecque]] (F), founder and president of the French parliamentary group for international arbitration. Founder of the [[Comite de defense des interets nationaux et de conciliation internationale|Comité de défense des intérêts nationaux et de conciliation internationale]]
> <dt><b>1910</b>
> <dd>Bureau International Permanent De La Paix ([[Permanent International Peace Bureau]]), Berne.
> <dt><b>1911</b>
> <dd>[[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]] (NL), initiator of the [[International Conferences of Private Law]] in The Hague.
> <dd>[[Alfred Hermann Fried]] (A), founder of ''[[Die Waffen Nieder]]''.
> <dt><b>1912</b>
> <dd>[[Elihu Root] (USA), for initiating various arbitration agreements.
> <dt><b>1913</b>
> <dd>[[Henri La Fontaine]] (BE), president of the [[Permanent International Peace Bureau]].
> <dt><b>1914-1916</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1917</b>
> <dd>International [[Red Cros]], Geneva.
> <dt><b>1918</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1919</b>
> <dd>[[Thomas Woodrow Wilson]] (USA) for founding the [[League of Nations]].
> <dt><b>1920</b>
> <dd>[[Leon Victor Auguste Bourgeois|L&eacute;on Victor Auguste Bourgeois]], president of the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
> <dt><b>1921</b>
> <dd>[[Karl Hjalmar Branting]] (S), prime minister, Swedish delegate to the Council of the [[League of Nations]].
> <dd>[[Christian Lous Lange]] (N), secretary-general of the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]
> <dt><b>1922</b>
> <dd>[[Fridtjof Nansen]] (N), Norwegian delegate to the [[League of Nations]], originator of the [[Nansen passports]] for refugees.
> <dt><b>1923-1924</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1925</b>
> <dd>Sir [[Austen Chamberlain]] (UK) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
> <dd>[[Charles Gates Dawes]] (USA), chairman of the [[Allied Reparation Commission]] and originater of the [[Dawes Plan]].
> <dt><b>1926</b>
> <dd>[[Artistide Briand]] (F) for the [[Locarno Treaty]] and the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dd>[[Gustav Stresemann]] (D) for the [[Locarno Treaty]].
> <dt><b>1927</b>
> <dd>[[Ferdinand Buisson]] (F), founder and president of the [[League for Human Rights]].
> <dd>[[Ludwig Quidde]] (D), delegate to numerous peace conferences.
> <dt><b>1928</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1929</b>
> <dd>[[Frank Billings Kellogg]] (USA) for the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dt><b>1930</b>
> <dd>Archbishop [[Lars Olof Nathan Soderblom|Lars Olof Nathan (Jonathan) S&ouml;derblom]] (S), leader of the ecumenical movement.
> <dt><b>1931</b>
> <dd>[[Jane Addams]] (USA), international president of the [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
> <dd>[[Nicholas Murray Butler]] (USA) for promoting the [[Briand-Kellogg Pact]].
> <dt><b>1932</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1933</b>
> <dd>[[Norman Angell|Sir Norman Angell (Ralph Lane)]] (UK), writer, member of the Executive Committee of the [[League of Nations]] and the [[National Peace Council]].
> <dt><b>1934</b>
> <dd>[[Arthur Henderson]] (UK), chairman of the [[League of Nations]] [[League of Nations Disarmament Conference|Disarmament Conference]]
> <dt><b>1935</b>
> <dd>[[Carl Von Ossietzky]] (D), pacifistic journalist.
> <dt><b>1936</b>
> <dd>[[Carlos Saavedra Lamas]] (Arg), president of the [[League of Nations]] and mediator in a conflict between [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]].
> <dt><b>1937</b>
> <dd>[[Cecil of Chelwood|Viscount Cecil of Chelwood (Lord Edgar Algernon Robert Gascoyne Cecil)]], founder and president of the [[International Peace Campaign]].
> <dt><b>1938</b>
> <dd>[[Nansen International Office For Refugees]], Geneva.
> <dt><b>1939-1943</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1944</b>
> <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]].
> <dt><b>1945</b>
> <dd>[[Cordell Hull]] (USA) for co-initiating the [[United Nations]].
> <dt><b>1946</b>
> <dd>[[Emily Greene Balch]] (USA), honorary international president [[Womens International League for Peace and Freedom|Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]]
> <dd>[[John Raleigh Mott]] (USA), chairman [[International Missionary Council]] and president [[World Alliance of Young Mens Christian Associations|World Alliance of Young Men's Christian Associations]]
> <dt><b>1947</b>
> <dd>The Friends Service Council (UK) and The American Friends Service Committee (USA), better known as the [[Quakers]].
> <dt><b>1948</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1949</b>
> <dd>[[Lord John Boyd Orr of Brechin]] (UK), director [[General Food and Agricultural Organization]], president [[National Peace Council]], president [[World Union of Peace Organizations]].
> <dt><b>1950</b>
> <dd>[[Ralph Bunche]] for mediating in [[Palestina]] (1948).
> <dt><b>1951</b>
> <dd>[[Leon Jouhaux|L&eacute;on Jouhaux]] (F), president of the [[International Committee of the European Council]], vice president of the [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]], vice president of the [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], member of the [[ILO Council]], delegate to the UN.
> <dt><b>1952</b>
> <dd>[[Albert Schweitzer]] (F) for founding the [[Lambarene Hospital]] in [[Gabon]].
> <dt><b>1953</b>
> <dd>[[George Catlett Marshall]] (USA) for the [[Marshall Plan]].
> <dt><b>1954</b>
> <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
> <dt><b>1955-1956</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1957</b>
> <dd>[[Lester Bowles Pearson]] (CAN), president of the 7th session of the [[United Nations]] General Assembly.
> <dt><b>1958</b>
> <dd>[[George Henri Pire]] (B), leader of [[lEurope du Coeur au Service du Monde|l'Europe du Coeur au Service du Monde]], a relief organization for refugees.
> <dt><b>1959</b>
> <dd>[[Philip J. Noel-Baker]] (UK), for his lifelong ardent work for international peace and co-operation.
> <dt><b>1960</b>
> <dd>[[Albert John Lutuli]] (RSA), president of the [[ANC]] (African National Congress).
> <dt><b>1961</b>
> <dd>[[Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjold|Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskj&ouml;ld]] (S), secretary-general of the [[United Nations|UN]] (awarded posthumously).
> <dt><b>1962</b>
> <dd>[[Linus Carl Pauling]] (USA) for his campaign against nuclear weapons test.
> <dt><b>1963</b>
> <dd>International Committee of the [[Red Cross]], Geneva.
> <dd>League of [[Red Cross]] Societies, Geneva.
> <dt><b>1964</b>
> <dd>[[Martin Luther King]], campaigner for civil rights.
> <dt><b>1965</b>
> <dd>[[UNICEF|United Nation's Children's Fund (UNICEF)]]
> <dt><b>1966-1967</b>
> <dd>Not Awarded.
> <dt><b>1968</b>
> <dd>[[Rene Cassin|Ren&eacute; Cassin]] (F), president of the [[European Court for Human Rights]].
> <dt><b>1969</b>
> <dd>[[International Labour Organization]] (I.L.O.), Geneva.
> <dt><b>1970</b>
> <dd>[[Norman Borlaug]] (USA), for research at the [[International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center]].
> <dt><b>1971</b>
> <dd>[[Willy Brandt]] (D), for [[Germany/West Germany|West Germany]]'s ''Ostpolitik'', embodying a new attitude towards Eastern Europe and [[German/East Germany|East Germany]].
> <dt><b>1972</b>
> <dd>Not awarded.
> <dt><b>1973</b>
> <dd>[[Henry A. Kissinger]] (USA) and [[LeDuc Tho]] (Vietnam, declined) for the [[Vietnam]] peace accord.
> <dt><b>1974</b>
> <dd>[[Sean Mac Bride|S&eacute;an Mac Bride]] (IRL), president of the [[International Peace Bureau]] and the Commission of [[Namabia]] of the [[United Nations]].
> <dd>[[Eisaku Sato]] (J), prime minister.
> <dt><b>1975</b>
> <dd>[[Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov]] (USSR) for his campaigning for human rights.
> <dt><b>1976</b>
> <dd>[[Betty Williams]] and [[Mairead Corrigan]], founders of the [[Northern Ireland Peace Movement]] (later renamed [[Community of Peace People]]).
> <dt><b>1977</b>
> <dd>[[Amnesty International]], London.
> <dt><b>1978</b>
> <dd>[[Mohamed Anwar Al-Sadat]] (Egypt) and [[Menachem Begin]] (Israel) for negotiating peace between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]].
> <dt><b>1979</b>
> <dd>[[Mother Theresa]] (India)
> <dt><b>1980</b>
> <dd>[[Adolfo perez Esquivel]] (Argentina), human rights leader.
> <dt><b>1981</b>
> <dd>The Office of the [[United Nations]] [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees|High Commissioner For Refugees]].
> <dt><b>1982</b>
> <dd>[[Alva Myrdal]] (S) and [[Alfonso Garcia Robles|Alfonso Garc&iacute;a Robles]] (Mexico), delegates to the [[United Nations]] General Assembly on Disarmament.
> <dt><b>1983</b>
> <dd>[[Lech Walesa]] (Poland), founder of [[Solidarnosc]] and campaigner for human rights.
> <dt><b>1984</b>
> <dd>Bishop [[Desmond Tutu|Desmond Mpilo Tutu]] (South Africa) for his work against [[Apartheid|apartheid]].
> <dt><b>1985</b>
> <dd>[[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]], Boston.
> <dt><b>1986</b>
> <dd>[[Elie Wiesel]] (USA).
> <dt><b>1987</b>
> <dd>[[Oscar Arias Sanchez]] (Costa Rica) for initiating peace negotations in [[Central America]].
> <dt><b>1988</b>
> <dd>The [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces|Peace-Keeping Forces]], New York.
> <dt><b>1989</b>
> <dd>Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th [[Dalai Lama]].
> <dt><b>1990</b>
> <dd>[[Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev]] (USSR) for helping to end the [[Cold War]].
> <dt><b>1991</b>
> <dd>[[Aung San Suu Kyi]] (Burma), oppositional leader and human rights advocate.
> <dt><b>1992</b>
> <dd>[[Rigoberta Menchu Tum]] (Guatemala), for campaigning for human rights, especially for indigenous peoples.
> <dt><b>1993</b>
> <dd>[[Nelson Mandela]] (RSA) and [[Frederik Willem De Klerk]] (RSA).
> <dt><b>1994</b>
> <dd>[[Yasser Arafat]] (Palestina), [[Shimon Peres]] (Israel) and [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (Israel).
> <dt><b>1995</b>
> <dd>[[Joseph Rotblat]] (Poland/UK) and the [[Pugwash]] Conferences on Science and World Affairs, for their efforts in the fight against nuclear arms.
> <dt><b>1996</b>
> <dd>[[Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo]] (East Timor) and [[Jose Ramos-Horta]] (East Timor) for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor.
> <dt><b>1997</b>
> <dd>[[ICBL|International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL)]] and [[Jody Williams]] (USA) for their work for the banning and clearing of anti-personnel mines.
> <dt><b>1998</b>
> <dd>[[John Hume]] (UK) and [[David Trimble]] (UK) for their efforts to find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland.
> <dt><b>1999</b>
> <dd>[[Doctors Without Borders]], Brussels.
> <dt><b>2000</b>
> <dd>[[Kim Dae Jung]] (S.Korea) for his work for democracy and human rights, and in particular for peace and reconciliation with [[North Korea]].
> </dl>
------
Nobel_Prize|986219813
11c11
< * [[NobelPrize/Peace|Peace]]
---
> * [[Nobel Prize/Peace|Peace]]
------
Film_Directors|986220487
23a24,25
> :[[Jacques Rivette]]
> :[[Eric Rohmer]]
------
Geologic_ages|986221066
1c1
< When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  The other scale -- which I will call the Paleontological Time Scale until I find something that reminds me what it is actually called -- is used primarily by paleontologists and groups similar [[fossil]] faunas together.
---
> When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  Geologists tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Middle and often Middle parts of periods or eras -- e.g. "Upper Jurassic", "Middle Cambrian".  Paleontologists divide the same periods into sometimes regional faunal assembleges.  For example, in North America the Late Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian are grouped into a Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones based on trilobites.  The same timespan is split into Tommotian, Atdabanian and Botomian periods in East Asia and Siberia.
------
Literature|986221182
23a24
> * [[Flann O'Brien]]
------
Literature|986221234
24d23
< * [[Flann O'Brien]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|986221493
52c52,54
< ''Hey, Don.  Thanks very much for adding - though I was kind of hoping for the spacing to reflect timing. ;) You had the neoproterozoic ending ~600 mya, but a quick search finds people tending to end it earlier, with the appearance of acritarchs and the assembly of Rodinia.  It seems to me that the era ~600-550 mya is called by most people the Ediacaran.  I changed this above, but you'd probably know better than me, so I'd like your ok.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> ''Hey, Don.  Thanks very much for adding - though I was kind of hoping for the spacing to reflect timing. ;) You had the neoproterozoic ending ~600 mya, but a quick search finds people tending to end it earlier, with the appearance of acritarchs and the assembly of Rodinia.  It seems to me that the era ~600-550 mya is called by most people the Ediacaran.  I changed this above, but you'd probably know better than me, so I'd like your ok.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> 
> ''Whatever you prefer.  The terminology seems to be pretty variable with different people prefering Vendian, Ediacarian, Cambrian, Neoproterozoic for the same rocks.  My personal preference is to keep the Cambrian boundary somewhere around the classic first trilobites, but it's the professionals that will make the decisions someday.  I think that Vendian and Ediacarian could reasonably be taken as faunal assemblege names that are conventionally used in parallel with Geologic designators?''
------
Cambrian|986222320
5c5
< Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[Animalia|animal]] phyla except [[Ectoprocta|bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.  Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  One of the few sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized, the [[Burgess shale]], represents strata from the middle Cambrian and so provides us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity.
---
> Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[Animalia|animal]] phyla except [[Ectoprocta|bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian.  Many extinct phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian.  The apparent sudden appearance of very diverse faunas no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  The best studied sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized, are in the [[Burgess shale]] of British Columbia.  They represent strata from the middle Cambrian and provide us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity.  Similar faunas have subsequently been found in a number of other places -- most importantly in very Early Cambrian shales in China's Yunnan Province.  Fairly extensive preCambrian [[Ediacarian]] faunas have been identified in the past 50 years, but their relationships to Cambrian forms are quite obscure.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_9|986223887
7c7
< It is just possible by my theory, that one of two living forms might have descended from the other; for instance, a horse from a tapir; and in this case direct intermediate links will have existed between them. But such a case would imply that one form had remained for a very long period unaltered, whilst its descendants had undergone a vast amount of change; and the principle of competition between organism and organism, between child and parent, will render this a very rare event; for in all cases the new and improved forms of life will tend to supplant the old and unimproved. 
---
> It is just possible by my theory, that one of two living forms might have descended from the other; for instance, a horse from a tapir; and in this case direct intermediate links will have existed between them. But such a case would imply that one form had remained for a very long period unaltered, whilst its descendants had undergone a vast amount of change; and the principle of competition between organism and organism, between child and parent, will render this a very rare event; for in all cases the new and improved forms of life will tend to supplant the old and unimproved.  
82c82
< On the sudden appearance of whole groups of Allied Species. The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations, has been urged by several palaeontologists, for instance, by Agassiz, Pictet, and by none more forcibly than by Professor Sedgwick, as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species. If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life all at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of descent with slow modification through natural selection. For the development of a group of forms, all of which have descended from some one progenitor, must have been an extremely slow process; and the progenitors must have lived long ages before their modified descendants. But we continually over-rate the perfection of the geological record, and falsely infer, because certain genera or families have not been found beneath a certain stage, that they did not exist before that stage. We continually forget how large the world is, compared with the area over which our geological formations have been carefully examined; we forget that groups of species may elsewhere have long existed and have slowly multiplied before they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of Europe and of the United States. We do not make due allowance for the enormous intervals of time, which have probably elapsed between our consecutive formations, longer perhaps in some cases than the time required for the accumulation of each formation. These intervals will have given time for the multiplication of species from some one or some few parent-forms; and in the succeeding formation such species will appear as if suddenly created. 
---
> On the sudden appearance of whole groups of Allied Species. The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in certain formations, has been urged by several palaeontologists, for instance, by Agassiz, Pictet, and by none more forcibly than by [[Adam Sedgwick|Professor Sedgwick]], as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species. If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life all at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of descent with slow modification through natural selection. For the development of a group of forms, all of which have descended from some one progenitor, must have been an extremely slow process; and the progenitors must have lived long ages before their modified descendants. But we continually over-rate the perfection of the geological record, and falsely infer, because certain genera or families have not been found beneath a certain stage, that they did not exist before that stage. We continually forget how large the world is, compared with the area over which our geological formations have been carefully examined; we forget that groups of species may elsewhere have long existed and have slowly multiplied before they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of Europe and of the United States. We do not make due allowance for the enormous intervals of time, which have probably elapsed between our consecutive formations, longer perhaps in some cases than the time required for the accumulation of each formation. These intervals will have given time for the multiplication of species from some one or some few parent-forms; and in the succeeding formation such species will appear as if suddenly created. 
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_10|986223988
2,3c2
< 
<  Let us now see whether the several facts and rules relating to the geological succession of organic beings, better accord with the common view of the immutability of species, or with that of their slow and gradual modification, through descent and natural selection. 
---
> Let us now see whether the several facts and rules relating to the geological succession of organic beings, better accord with the common view of the immutability of species, or with that of their slow and gradual modification, through descent and natural selection. 
109c108
< If then the geological record be as imperfect as I believe it to be, and it may at least be asserted that the record cannot be proved to be much more perfect, the main objections to the theory of natural selection are greatly diminished or disappear. On the other hand, all the chief laws of palaeontology plainly proclaim, as it seems to me, that species have been produced by ordinary generation: old forms having been supplanted by new and improved forms of life, produced by the laws of variation still acting round us, and preserved by Natural Selection.
---
> If then the geological record be as imperfect as I believe it to be, and it may at least be asserted that the record cannot be proved to be much more perfect, the main objections to the theory of natural selection are greatly diminished or disappear. On the other hand, all the chief laws of palaeontology plainly proclaim, as it seems to me, that species have been produced by ordinary generation: old forms having been supplanted by new and improved forms of life, produced by the laws of variation still acting round us, and preserved by Natural Selection.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986224178
44a45,50
> 
> Reread carefully without generalization and you will see that it was not stated that feminism was 'unequal'.  What was stated is that conservatives do not want special rights granted to any group of people.  In other words, conservatives want everyone treated equally.  If special rights are granted to left handed people for example, all right handed people are discriminated against because they do not have the special rights.
> 
> Relations with other countries do matter.  The US should be diplomatically difficult with countries that abuse their relationship with us (e.g., how Russia's burecrats have stolen millions of us taxpayers dollars for their own personal purposes).
> 
> It was not stated that envrionmentalism is not paranoia.  That was incorrectly generalized in your reply.  We can drill in Alaska and not spoil the environment.  Most of the environmental horror stories related to oil production are from perfectly legal practices the oil companies did in the 1920s and 1930s (e.g., open storage of oil in pits, etc.).  Those practices are not legal anymore.
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986224342
20a21,22
> 
> A good question: Why did she receive so much more publicity from news organizations than the person legally executed just before or after?  Was it because she was female?  Was it biased to report that case much more than the execution before or after it?
------
1999|986224699
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Y2K]] preparation was the biggest event in 1999 both in actual events and in media over-reporting.
> 
------
Y2K|986224759
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[year 2000 problem]]
------
Ediacarian|986225176
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ediacarian Fauna is a collective term for a variety of early animals found in rocks older than the [[Cambrian]] Period that marked the beginning of life in classical paleontology.  The name Ediacaria comes from the Ediacarian Hills of South Australia where peculiar precambrian fossils were found by a geologist named Sprigg in 1946.  Martin Glaessner initiated more serious study of these fossils in the 1950s.  Glaessner initially thought the creatures to be primitive versions of animals such as corals, sea-pens and worms that were better known from later times.  In subsequent decades, many more pre-Cambrian fossils have been found in South Australia.  Additional fossils have been found in dozens of outcrops on all continents.  Especially important deposits have been found in the White Sea area of Russia, in SouthWest Africa and in Newfoundland.
> 
> As time has passed, the Ediacarian faunas have, if anything, become more rather than less enigmatic.  A few fossils such as ''Kimberella'', ''Bomkiella'', and ''Xenusion'' seem to be possible for precursors to Cambrian forms.  Close to the Cambrian boundary, worm tracks, and various hard shelled forms -- especially a collection of small forms known as the 'small shelly fauna' also appear to be probable precursors of Cambrian life.  On the other hand, many of the best known Ediacarian creatures appear to be immobile blobs, disks, fronds, and air matress like shapes that have no obvious relationship to later forms.  There is considerable controversy about the nature of many Ediacarian forms.
> 
> It should also be mentioned that there are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3465 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
> 
------
Year_2000_problem|986225279
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <b>Year 2000 Problem</b> was a technological fear that computer programs used in critical industries (electricity, financial, etc.) would stop working at 12:00 AM, [[January]] 1, 2000.
> 
> These computer programs would stop working because they stored years with only two digits and that the year 2000 would be represented by '00' and would not follow 1999 (i.e., '99') in numerical sequence.  This would cause date comparisions to fail and thus cause the computer programs to fail.
> 
> It was the media hype story of all of 1999.
> 
> <b>Y2K</b> is the common abbreviation for the year 2000 problem.
> 
> Some items of interest:
> * insurance companies were selling insurance policys covering failure of businesses due to Y2K problems.
> * attorneys organized/mobilized for Y2K class action lawsuits (which never were pursued)
> * no major failures of infrastructure were reported in the [[United States]]
> * the Y2K problem mainly affected countries that follow the western calendar (China does not).
> 
------
Y2K|986225310
1c1
< see [[year 2000 problem]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[year 2000 problem]]
------
Y2K|986225322
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[year 2000 problem]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Year 2000 problem]]
------
Nobel_Prize|986225515
0a1,4
> The <b>Nobel Prize</b> is an award given to people that have done outstanding research or made outstanding contributions to society.
> 
> A large [[monetary]] award is included with the Nobel Prize and is intended to allow the person to continue working/researching without the pressures of raising money for the research/work.
> 
------
Sex|986228855
8a9,11
> :[[Sexology]]
> ::[[Paraphilias]]
> 
------
Sexology|986229360
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sexology is the study of human [[Sex|sexuality]]. It encompasses all aspects of sexuality:
> 
> * Normal Sexuality
> * [[Paraphilias]]
> * [[Sexual Development]]
> * [[Sexual Malfunction]]
> * [[Sexual Violence]] and [[Sexual Abuse]]
> * Sexuality of special groups, such as handicapped, children, elderly
> 
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986230983
49a50,51
> ''Feminism is supposed to be a movement about ensuring equality between the two genders.  Admittedly it sometimes deviates from that a little, but as such, it is not granting anyone any special status.  So I stick by that comment.  The others are overgeneralizing a bit, for which I am sorry - rhetoric is hard to stop in mid-sentence - though the points in question do remain very controversial.''
> 
------
Nobel_Prize|986231396
24,26c24
< For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the Nobel Prize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
< 
< Don't forget the IgNobelPrize.
---
> For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the Nobel Prize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
------
Jews|986231610
1c1,3
< Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as [[Judaism]]. The Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
---
> Jews are the followers of the ancient religion known as [[Judaism]], or, in a secondary sense, the (nonbelieving) offspring of Jews (by tradition, a Jewish mother).  Jewishness is thus both a religion and an ethnicity.
> 
> Religious Jews hold the Torah, Talmud, and Mishnah to be sacred documents. According to the Torah, there are 613 binding commandments that Jews are obliged to follow. Traditionally, Jews believe that the Torah was given by God to the prophet Moses at Mount Sinai, with hundreds of thousands of Israelites witnessing the event.
------
1977/Talk|986231931
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Maybe it's just me, but I find the following way of indicating headings unintuitive:
> ----
> *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> **[[Book]]
> **a song by [[TheClash]]; [[Lyrics1977]]
> A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
> ----
> Usually, a bullet is used for a listed item, not to indicate a heading.  One more ordinary convention would rewrite the above as follows:
> 
> ----
> '''Arts and Entertainment'''
> 
> ''[[Books]]''
> <br>A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
> ----
> Something like that, anyway.
> 
> By the way, I really don't see what interest there is in having lyrics from Clash songs on Wikipedia.  :-)  Again, maybe it's just me... :-) --[[LMS]]
------
1977|986232033
7d6
< **a song by [[TheClash]]; [[Lyrics1977]]
------
Mathijs|986232502
15,16c15,16
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I thought you were going to leave, Mathijs; that's what you told me.  But it seems your feelings had just been hurt, and now you're back for more.  As far as I'm concerned, almost 100% of what you have contributed (or tried to contribute) to Wikipedia has been, in sum, not encyclopedic.  Obviously--''obviously''--not all words, ideas, opinions, and perceptions are welcome on Wikipedia.  Those words, etc., that express ''encyclopedic content,'' i.e., something closely resembling an encyclopedia article, are the word that are welcome here.  If all you want to do is rant, argue, upload lyrics of idiotic songs, and otherwise behave like the child I suspect you to be, there are '''many, many''' other places on the Internet where your stuff will fit in perfectly.  Wikipedia is not one of them.  Since you're not interested in shaping up, just leave. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Mathijs|986232650
3a4
> ::''Yes, Mathijs, you <b>are</b> a troll, and not because others react to you in any particular way, but because you make no useful contribution to the encyclopedia and expect other people to indulge your nonsense.''
16c17
< I thought you were going to leave, Mathijs; that's what you told me.  But it seems your feelings had just been hurt, and now you're back for more.  As far as I'm concerned, almost 100% of what you have contributed (or tried to contribute) to Wikipedia has been, in sum, not encyclopedic.  Obviously--''obviously''--not all words, ideas, opinions, and perceptions are welcome on Wikipedia.  Those words, etc., that express ''encyclopedic content,'' i.e., something closely resembling an encyclopedia article, are the word that are welcome here.  If all you want to do is rant, argue, upload lyrics of idiotic songs, and otherwise behave like the child I suspect you to be, there are '''many, many''' other places on the Internet where your stuff will fit in perfectly.  Wikipedia is not one of them.  Since you're not interested in shaping up, just leave. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I thought you were going to leave, Mathijs; that's what you told me.  But it seems your feelings had just been hurt, and now you're back for more.  As far as I'm concerned, almost 100% of what you have contributed (or tried to contribute) to Wikipedia has been, in sum, not encyclopedic.  Obviously--''obviously''--not all words, ideas, opinions, and perceptions are welcome on Wikipedia.  Those words, etc., that express ''encyclopedic content,'' i.e., something closely resembling an encyclopedia article, are the word that are welcome here.  If all you want to do is rant, argue, upload lyrics of idiotic songs, and otherwise behave like the child I suspect you to be, there are '''many, many''' other places on the Internet where your stuff will fit in perfectly.  Wikipedia is not one of them.  That sort of stupidity ''is'' disagreeable on Wikipedia.  Since you're not interested in shaping up, just leave. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986233367
51a52,53
> ''reply: Question: Is a special government office for a particular demographic group considered unequal protection under the law because the group gets speciall attention from the government and citizens not in the group do not get such special attention?
> 
------
1977/Talk|986233922
18c18,43
< By the way, I really don't see what interest there is in having lyrics from Clash songs on Wikipedia.  :-)  Again, maybe it's just me... :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> By the way, I really don't see what interest there is in having lyrics from Clash songs on Wikipedia.  :-)  Again, maybe it's just me... :-) --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Two approaches:
> 
> * single page factoid list of information contained on other pages (e.g., Nobel prize, academy awards) along with other summary information
> * just the summary information without links to academy awards, nobel prizes, etc.
> 
> It would get really cluttered when you add:
> *superbowl
> *world series
> *wimbledon (sp?)
> *nascar
> *golf (masters, ryder cup, etc)
> *grammys
> *tonys
> 
> I vote for summary information only and not all of the factoids that are contained in other lists.
> 
> Do this give us a feature list like?
> 
> 'GREP [[page title]] "string"'
> 
> which includes one or more lines from a page within the currently being viewed page.
> 
> Selective include/partial include of pages may bog wiki down too much especially on a large scale.
> 
------
1977/Talk|986234068
42a43,47
> ----
> As far as the clash 1977 song, just mentioning the album would be enough...see the page on the clash for real info.
> 
> Also, only 'significant' books/music should be included.  That would be accomplished by 'popular' vote in many people reviewing/changing the page.
> ----
------
Mathijs|986235543
2c2
< I'm not a 'troll' because I write what <B>I</B> think,<BR>
---
> I'm not a '[[troll]]' because I write what <B>I</B> think,<BR>
------
Troll|986235823
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictious monster.
> 
> (wasn't there some famous story about a troll under a bridge that demanded tribute to cross the bridge?)
> ----
> In [[computer]] terms, a troll is a person that posts [[off topic]] messages or messages meant to create controversy without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]].
------
Richard_Petty|986236061
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Richard Petty is a reknown former [[NASCAR Winston Cup Series]] driver and is now a NASCAR Winston Cup Series owner.  He won the [[NASCAR Winston Cup Championship]] 7 times ([[Dale Earnhardt]] is the only other one to do this) and he won an unprecendented 200 races during his career.  He is known to NASCAR fans as "The King" or "King Richard".
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986236180
4c4,8
< It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
---
> It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here. Refactoring is neither an indication of intelligence or articulateness. This reminds me of the days when companies actually gave intelligence tests to potential employees to weed out people too "bright" for a monotonous routine jobs. BTW, this is no longer legal. If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse.
> ----
> At present, many wiki articles are of high enough quality to be the basis of a reviewed encyclopedia.
> 
> Given enough time, many many more will follow.
------
Lyrics1977|986236346
1,41c1
< (Strummer/Jones)
< 
< IN 1977<BR>
< I HOPE I GO TO HEAVEN<BR>
< COS I BEEN TOO LONG ON THE DOLE<BR>
< AND I CAN'T WORK AT ALL<BR>
< 
< DANGER STRANGER<BR>
< YOU BETTER PAINT YOUR FACE<BR>
< NO ELVIS, BEATLES, OR THE ROLLING STONES<BR>
< IN 1977<BR>
< 
< IN 1977<BR>
< KNIVES IN WEST 11<BR>
< LENT SO LUCKY TO BE RICH<BR>
< STEN GUNS IN KNIGHTSBRIDGE<BR>
< 
< DANGER STRANGER<BR>
< YOU BETTER PAINT YOUR FACE<BR>
< NO ELVIS, BEATLES OR THE ROLLING STONES<BR>
< IN 1977<BR>
< 
< IN 1977<BR>
< YOU'RE ON THE NEVER NEVER<BR>
< YOU THINK IT CAN'T GO ON FOREVER<BR>
< BUT THE PAPERS SAY IT'S BETTER<BR>
< I DON'T CARE 'COS I'M NOT ALL THERE<BR>
< NO ELVIS, BEATLES OR THE ROLLING STONES
< 
< IN 1977<BR>
< SOD THE JUBILEE<BR>
< IN 1978<BR>
< IN 1979<BR>
< STAYED IN BED<BR>
< IN 1980<BR>
< IN 1981<BR>
< THE TOILET DON'T WORK<BR>
< IN 1982<BR>
< IN 1983<BR>
< HERE COME THE POLICE<BR>
< IN 1984
---
> Copyrighted song lyrics removed
------
Sea_Transport|986236604
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Sea Transport</b> is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by [[ship]] or [[sailboat]] over a [[sea] or [[ocean]].
> 
> Modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting very large quantities of goods.
> 
> See also
> * double hulled tanker
------
Sea_Transport|986236645
6c6
< * double hulled tanker
---
> * [[double-hulled tanker]]
------
Richard_Petty|986236723
1c1,3
< Richard Petty is a reknown former [[NASCAR Winston Cup Series]] driver and is now a NASCAR Winston Cup Series owner.  He won the [[NASCAR Winston Cup Championship]] 7 times ([[Dale Earnhardt]] is the only other one to do this) and he won an unprecendented 200 races during his career.  He is known to NASCAR fans as "The King" or "King Richard".
---
> Richard Petty is a reknowned former [[NASCAR Winston Cup Series]] driver and is now a NASCAR Winston Cup Series owner.  He won the [[NASCAR Winston Cup Championship]] 7 times ([[Dale Earnhardt]] is the only other person to do this) and he won an unprecendented 200 races during his career.  He is known to NASCAR fans as "The King" or "King Richard".
> 
> His entire family is involved in racing.  His father, [[Lee Petty]] was also a NASCAR champion.  His son [[Kyle Petty]] is also a well-known NASCAR driver, and his grandson [[Adam Petty]] was killed in an accident at [[New Hampshire International Speedway]] on May 12, 2000.
------
Soviet_Union|986236752
10a11,12
> ----
> [[Soviet Union/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986236806
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>Double-hulled Tanker</b> is a large ship used for transporting liquids (usually [[oil]] which has two hulls.
> 
> Two hulls are used to prevent the liquid cargo from spilling when the outter hull is breached.
> 
> Double-hulled tankers were required (I don't know on required) after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986236833
5a6,8
> 
> See also:
> * [[tanker]]
------
Mathijs|986236897
17a18,23
> ----
> I think Larry's being a little harsh.  But Mathijs, it is important that you understand why people are unhappy with you.  It isn't as though we don't welcome controversial opinions or people with different ideas.  Josh Grosse and I have been arguing a lot recently over on the [[Socialism/Talk]] page.  If you think that's what this is about, you should think again.
> 
> The objection that I think most people have is that you <i>rant</i> (in your own terminology).  I take this to mean that rather than putting forth ideas and arguments (that might or might not be controversial in some instances) you just post random crap to piss people off.  That's really not nice, and not in the spirit of co-operation that we have here.
> 
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Joseph_Stalin|986237102
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Joseph Stalin</b> was the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
> 
> Joseph Stalin presided over the most genocidal government in history and ordered the execution of ??? million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
> 
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986237113
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How can an "estimated" number of genocides determine the superlative "most genocidal" be given to a former nation?  If this is the case, then some of the numbers reportedly killed during Mao's Regime, although obviously unconfirmed, are more than twice the supposed 62 million killed by the USSR.  I would suggest a change:
> 
> :''The Soviet Union was reportedly one of the most genocidal regime in human history, murdering an estimated 62 million people.''
> 
> This is a bit wordy and can be reduced, but I think you might get the gist. --[[Invictus]] 
------
Mathijs|986237217
23c23,24
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> A good reason to put stuff in <b>Talk Page</b>s.
------
Mathijs|986237230
24c24
< A good reason to put stuff in <b>Talk Page</b>s.
---
> A good reason to put stuff in <b>[[Talk Page]]</b>s.
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986237238
5c5
< This is a bit wordy and can be reduced, but I think you might get the gist. --[[Invictus]] 
---
> This is a bit wordy and can be reduced, but I think you might get the gist.  Make the same change on the Stalin page, if you so feel necessary.  --[[Invictus]] 
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986237329
1c1
< A <b>Double-hulled Tanker</b> is a large ship used for transporting liquids (usually [[oil]] which has two hulls.
---
> A <b>Double-hulled Tanker</b> is a large ship used for transporting liquids (usually [[petroleum]]) which has two hulls.
8c8
< * [[tanker]]
---
> * [[tanker]]
------
Talk_Page|986237371
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>Talk Page</b> is a [[wikipedia]] page containing free flowing discussion about a particular topic and attached to the main page for that topic.
> 
> For example, most political figures, such as
> [[Bill Clinton]], have their own talk page ([[Bill Clinton/Talk]]).
------
Petroleum|986237495
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Petroleum is a thick, flammable, dark brown or greenish inflammable liquid, which, at certain points, exists in the upper strata of the earth. It consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of the methane series, but may vary much in appearance, composition, and properties. After a a drilling and pumping process to extract it from the strata, petroleum is refined by distillation, and the products include kerosene, benzine, gasoline, paraffin, etc.
------
Sea_Transport|986237548
6c6
< * [[double-hulled tanker]]
---
> * [[Double-hulled tanker]]
------
Erotica|986237622
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Erotica is literature or art intending to arouse sexual desire.
------
Contraception|986237746
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Contraception is the utilization of various or sundry surgical procedures, devices, sexual practices, agents, or drugs with the intention of preventing conception or impregnation.
------
Geologic_ages|986237936
1c1
< When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  Geologists tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Middle and often Middle parts of periods or eras -- e.g. "Upper Jurassic", "Middle Cambrian".  Paleontologists divide the same periods into sometimes regional faunal assembleges.  For example, in North America the Late Neoproterozoic and Early Cambrian are grouped into a Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones based on trilobites.  The same timespan is split into Tommotian, Atdabanian and Botomian periods in East Asia and Siberia.
---
> When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  [[Geologist]]s tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Middle and often Middle parts of periods or eras -- e.g. "Upper [[Jurassic]]", "Middle [[Cambrian]]".  [[Paleontologist]]s divide the same periods into sometimes regional faunal assembleges.  For example, in [[North America]] the Late [[Neoproterozoic]] and Early [[Cambrian]] are grouped into a [[Waucoban]] series that is then subdivided into zones based on [[trilobites]].  The same timespan is split into [[Tommotian]], [[Atdabanian]] and [[Botomian]] periods in [[East Asia]] and [[Siberia]].
------
SandBox|986237988
14c14
<                            * �   � *                      &amp;Theta;
---
>                            * ?   ? *                      &amp;Theta;
16c16
<                            *   �   *                    /
---
>                            *   ?   *                    /
30a31,36
> Some monkeys cannot, for they have been silent since birth.
> 
> Poor monkeys.
> 
> ----
> 
49c55
< �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this � !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
52c58
< � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
------
Troll|986238102
1,3c1
< A fictious monster.
< 
< (wasn't there some famous story about a troll under a bridge that demanded tribute to cross the bridge?)
---
> A fictitious monster of folk legend, as in "The Three Billy Goats Gruff," the well-known folk tale in which a troll living under a bridge torments some billy goats that want to cross.
5c3
< In [[computer]] terms, a troll is a person that posts [[off topic]] messages or messages meant to create controversy without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]].
---
> On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.  (The connotation of "troll" is someone who does this intentionally.)  One way to do this is to post [[off topic]] messages; another is to but there are many other ways.  The actions that lead to someone's being called a troll are called ''trolling,'' although in a restricted sense, "trolling" means posting messages specifically in order to elicit an angry, frustrated, exasperated, etc., response.
------
Internet|986238174
7a8,12
> 
> Internet culture:
> * [[Internet friendship]]
> * [[Internet romance]]
> * [[troll|Trolls and trolling]]
------
Contraception|986238370
1c1,7
< Contraception is the utilization of various or sundry surgical procedures, devices, sexual practices, agents, or drugs with the intention of preventing conception or impregnation.
---
> Contraception is the utilization of various or sundry surgical procedures, devices, sexual practices, agents, or drugs with the intention of preventing conception or impregnation.
> 
> There are various kinds of contraception (and an excellent idea for articles would have information about each kind):
> * [["The Pill"]]
> * [[The Rhythm Method]]
> * etc. (there are many...)
> * [[Abstinence]]
------
Contraception|986238412
4,5c4,5
< * [["The Pill"]]
< * [[The Rhythm Method]]
---
> * [[The Pill]]
> * The [[rhythm method]]
------
RulesToConsider|986238556
59c59
< '''Give the author a chance:'''  I propose that we add comments at the bottom of a page instead of within the text, when we disagree with an author but to delete or re-write portions of his material would substnatially alter its meaning.  Then the author may make changes in his own style, and/or discussion of the material can be moved to a _____Talk page.  When one encounters obvious vandalism of another's work, he should feel free to Delete PatentNonsense.
---
> '''Give the author a chance:'''  I propose that we add comments at the bottom of a page instead of within the text, when we disagree with an author but to delete or re-write portions of his material would substnatially alter its meaning.  Then the author may make changes in his own style, and/or discussion of the material can be moved to a [[talk page]].  When one encounters obvious vandalism of another's work, he should feel free to Delete PatentNonsense.
------
RulesToConsider|986238587
59c59
< '''Give the author a chance:'''  I propose that we add comments at the bottom of a page instead of within the text, when we disagree with an author but to delete or re-write portions of his material would substnatially alter its meaning.  Then the author may make changes in his own style, and/or discussion of the material can be moved to a [[talk page]].  When one encounters obvious vandalism of another's work, he should feel free to Delete PatentNonsense.
---
> '''Give the author a chance:'''  I propose that we add comments at the bottom of a page instead of within the text, when we disagree with an author but to delete or re-write portions of his material would substnatially alter its meaning.  Then the author may make changes in his own style, and/or discussion of the material can be moved to a [[Talk Page]].  When one encounters obvious vandalism of another's work, he should feel free to Delete PatentNonsense.
------
RefactoringPolicy|986238631
43c43
< In that case, I'd say you're right, Josh.  But for general innocuous discussion, that's what the talk page is for. --[[LMS]]
---
> In that case, I'd say you're right, Josh.  But for general innocuous discussion, that's what the [[Talk Page]] is for. --[[LMS]]
------
Abortion|986238676
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An abortion can be many things; from the obvious induced termination of pregnancy to the cessation of a body part or organ's normal growth.  
> 
> Abortion as the termination of pregnancy became a controversial topic in 20th Century politics.   
------
PartakeInDiscussion|986238679
4c4
< Perhaps an even better idea is to create a /Talk page (such as ElephanT/Talk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on content over controversy.
---
> Perhaps an even better idea is to create a [[Talk Page]] (such as ElephanT/Talk, which is comment on the ElephanT article) and move the discussion there.  After all, we'd like to focus on content over controversy.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Talk|986238794
3c3
< This is the /Talk page for the [[how does one edit a page]] page.
---
> This is the /Talk page for the [[how does one edit a page]] page.  Don't know what a "talk page" is?  See [[Talk Page]].
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986239096
5a6,7
> 
> The average PRC estimate is around 40 million.
------
Joseph_Stalin|986239173
3c3
< Joseph Stalin presided over the most genocidal government in history and ordered the execution of ??? million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
---
> Joseph Stalin presided over the most genocidal government in history and ordered the execution of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
------
Geologic_ages|986239216
1c1
< When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  [[Geologist]]s tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Middle and often Middle parts of periods or eras -- e.g. "Upper [[Jurassic]]", "Middle [[Cambrian]]".  [[Paleontologist]]s divide the same periods into sometimes regional faunal assembleges.  For example, in [[North America]] the Late [[Neoproterozoic]] and Early [[Cambrian]] are grouped into a [[Waucoban]] series that is then subdivided into zones based on [[trilobites]].  The same timespan is split into [[Tommotian]], [[Atdabanian]] and [[Botomian]] periods in [[East Asia]] and [[Siberia]].
---
> When [[William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  The age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of scientific debate for over 100 years as various advances in other sciences continued to place the creation of the Earth further into the past.  In the latter part of the 20th century, it became possible to assign relatively firm dates using radioactive dating.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists devised two relative time scales.  One scale -- termed the [[Geologic Timescale]] -- is used by both sciences.  [[Geologist]]s tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Middle and often Middle parts of periods or eras -- e.g. "Upper [[Jurassic]]", "Middle [[Cambrian]]".  [[Paleontologist]]s divide the same periods into sometimes regional faunal assembleges.  For example, in [[North America]] the Late [[Neoproterozoic]] and Early [[Cambrian]] are grouped into a [[Waucoban]] series that is then subdivided into zones based on [[trilobita|trilobites]].  The same timespan is split into [[Tommotian]], [[Atdabanian]] and [[Botomian]] periods in [[East Asia]] and [[Siberia]].
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|986240120
1,10c1
< Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way, in terms of truth (it might then might be confused with ThePrincipleOfBivalence).  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.  In Aristotle's formulation: "One cannot say of something that it is and that it is not in the same respect and at the same time."
< 
< The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.  See also TheLawOfExcludedMiddle and ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
< 
< ----
< However, see [ftp://www.phil.mq.edu.au/pub/grestall/lnclem.pdf] for a paper (in PDF format) on "paraconsistent" logics and non-contradiction:
< 
< :Abstract: There is widespread agreement that the law of non-contradiction is an important logical principle. There is less agreement on exactly what the law amounts to. This unclarity is brought to light by the emergence of paraconsistent logics in which contradictions are tolerated (in the sense that not everything need follow from a contradiction, and that there are "worlds" in which contradictions are true) but in which the statement [not (A and not-A)] (it is not the case that A and not-A) is still provable.  This paper attempts to clarify the connection between different readings of the law of non-contradiction, the duality between the law of non-contradiction and the law of the excluded middle, and connections with logical consequence in general.
< 
< ...and [http://andstuff.org/NonContradiction] for more discussion of this "law".
---
> #REDIRECT [[law of non-contradiction]]
------
TheLawOfNoncontradiction|986240131
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[law of non-contradiction]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Law of non-contradiction]]
------
Law_of_non-contradiction|986240147
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Variously formulated, the gist of the Law of Noncontradiction is that a proposition and its denial cannot both be true at the same time and "in the same respect."  If we're being careful, we won't formulate it this way, in terms of truth (it might then might be confused with ThePrincipleOfBivalence).  Instead, we'll say the law is: for any proposition P, it is not both the case that P and not-P.  In Aristotle's formulation: "One cannot say of something that it is and that it is not in the same respect and at the same time."
> 
> The Law of Noncontradiction is almost universally affirmed by philosophers.  See also the [[law of excluded middle]] and ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
> 
> ----
> However, see [ftp://www.phil.mq.edu.au/pub/grestall/lnclem.pdf] for a paper (in PDF format) on "paraconsistent" logics and non-contradiction:
> 
> :Abstract: There is widespread agreement that the law of non-contradiction is an important logical principle. There is less agreement on exactly what the law amounts to. This unclarity is brought to light by the emergence of paraconsistent logics in which contradictions are tolerated (in the sense that not everything need follow from a contradiction, and that there are "worlds" in which contradictions are true) but in which the statement [not (A and not-A)] (it is not the case that A and not-A) is still provable.  This paper attempts to clarify the connection between different readings of the law of non-contradiction, the duality between the law of non-contradiction and the law of the excluded middle, and connections with logical consequence in general.
> 
> ...and [http://andstuff.org/NonContradiction] for more discussion of this law.
------
TheLawOfExcludedMiddle|986240199
1,3c1
< For any proposition, either it or its contradictory obtains; for any proposition P, either P or not-P.
< 
< If we're being careful, we'll distinguish this from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Law of excluded middle]]
------
Law_of_excluded_middle|986240205
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For any proposition, either it or its contradictory obtains; for any proposition P, either P or not-P.
> 
> If we're being careful, we'll distinguish this from ThePrincipleOfBivalence.
------
Logic|986240249
1c1
< ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  Regarded as a branch both of [[philosophy]] and of [[mathematics]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are TheLawOfNoncontradiction and TheLawOfExcludedMiddle.  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
---
> ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  Regarded as a branch both of [[philosophy]] and of [[mathematics]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are the [[law of non-contradiction]] and the [law of excluded middle]].  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
------
Logic|986240262
1c1
< ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  Regarded as a branch both of [[philosophy]] and of [[mathematics]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are the [[law of non-contradiction]] and the [law of excluded middle]].  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
---
> ''Logic'' is the study of argument, and in particular the principles of proper reasoning or [[good argument]].  Regarded as a branch both of [[philosophy]] and of [[mathematics]].  It was pioneered by [[Aristotle]].  Although it is possible that Aristotle himself had been taught by someone else, the earliest study of reasoning can be attributed to Aristotle.  Two of the most important principles of logic are the [[law of non-contradiction]] and the [[law of excluded middle]].  The ultimate goal of logic, if it can be said to have a goal, is [[validity|valid argumentation]] and to avoid [[logical fallacy]].
------
MetaphysicsAndOntology|986240867
1,41c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< So now let’s talk a bit about the field of metaphysics in general, before we consider some particular metaphysical problems.  And let’s begin with the origin of the word "metaphysics."  Now, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  The way that the books of Aristotle were organized in an early edition, there was another set of books that were placed right after the physics.  These books seemed to concern a really basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which up to that time did not have any particular name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the books that come after the physics."  So that’s where we get the word "metaphysics."  Metaphysics is supposed to be the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So etymologically, what "metaphysics" means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
< 
< But this just begs the following question: What were those books by Aristotle about?  The books were divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  We aren’t going to go into this division of metaphysics in much depth because I don’t think it is very helpful.  But just to explain, very briefly, what these three terms at least <i>mean</i>.  (1) "Ontology" is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  If you don’t know what that means, you’re not alone; more about it in just a bit.  (2) "Theology" means, here, the study of God or the gods (remember, we’re talking about ancient Greeks here) and of questions about the divine.  (3) "Universal science" is supposed to be the study of so-called first principles, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the Law of Non-Contradiction: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
< 
< Metaphysics has changed a lot since then, over the many centuries of its existence.  Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical were added to metaphysics.  Other problems that were for centuries considered metaphysical problems are now pretty much relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy.  For example, there are a lot of problems that used to be considered part of metaphysics, but are now more commonly considered parts of the philosophy of religion, philosophy of mind, philosophy of perception, and philosophy of science.  So needless to say, it would take us a <i>long</i> time even to <i>state</i> all the problems that have, at <i>one</i> time or another, been considered part of metaphysics.
< 
< But you might be asking this: Can we give some rough-and-ready account of what made all of these different problems "metaphysical" problems?  I think so.  We could give the following very rough, inexact definition of "metaphysics": Metaphysics is the study of any of the most fundamental philosophical beliefs, on which many other philosophical beliefs rest.  
< 
< And you could ask this too.  Suppose we consider only the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems.  The core problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  Is there something that distinguishes <i>those</i> problems?
< 
< I would think that most of such problems are part of Aristotle’s first branch of metaphysics, or <i>ontology</i>, and ontology, remember, is supposed to be the study of existence, or as Aristotle says, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  So I’m saying the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems are, at least mostly, problems about "being <i>qua</i> being."  But this must be frustrating to hear because you don’t know what "being <i>qua</i> being" means!  I’ll give a go at explaining what it means, and that way you can learn what "ontology" means.
< 
< First I need to explain what the word "being" means here.  I would suggest the following as a rough gloss:
< 
< A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
< 
< Now, you remember from last time that many words are ambiguous -- which means they have various different senses.  "Be" is a word, like many other words, that has different senses.  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, there are different <i>kinds</i> of beings.  Because, as I said, a <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to "be" <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> "<i>be</i>."
< 
< The different kinds of being are called <i>categories</i> of being.  Let’s go through a few of these categories of beings.  That should give you an idea of what we’re talking about when we use the words "being" and "category" of being.  Just bear in mind that different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  Anyway, in no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> categories of being.
< 
< First category.  Physical objects.  Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to <i>be</i> in the simple sense that they <i>exist</i> all around us.  So a house is a being, a person’s body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  You might also call them bodies, or concrete things, or maybe "substances" -- but the word "substance" has some special philosophical meanings as we'll see.  For a neutral term I’ll usually use either "object" or "body."
< 
< Second category.  Minds.  Minds -- those the parts of us that think and perceive -- are beings.  Each of us, we say, has a mind, a mind that exists or has being.  So each of our minds is a being.  Now I don’t mean to imply that minds are necessarily a <i>different</i> <i>category</i> of beings from physical objects.  But many people have thought so and you probably think so yourselves.  More about that in a few weeks.
< 
< Third category.  Classes.  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  In the class of human beings is all of the human beings; or, to use terminology from last time, the extension of the term "human being."  In the class of planets would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc. -- all the planets that there might be in the universe.  I’m saying that classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of engines <i>is</i>, or has being.
< 
< Fourth category.  Properties.  The redness of our red apple on the table is a <i>property</i>.  You could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Everyone in this room, I think, has the property of having hair.  So very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  Of course that won’t do as a <i>definition</i> of the word "property" because, like "attribute," "quality" is a near-synonym of "property."  And remember, it’s not particularly helpful to give philosophical definitions using near synonyms.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we’re talking about.  I’m just going to blur over any distinctions that have been drawn between the terms "property," "attribute," and "quality"; for purposes of introducing this material the distinctions don’t matter.  Anyway, whenever you talk about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, you’re talking about the object’s properties.  My claim then is that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
< 
< Fifth category.  Relations.  The apple is in a relation to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table -- namely, the relation of "sitting-on."  So we can say that that relation has being.  Or how about this: the World Trade Center is taller than University Hall.  "Being taller than" is a relation between the two buildings.  And we can say that <i>that</i> relation has being as well.  It exists.
< 
< Relations are like properties in that both of them are supposed to be <i>abstract</i>.  Now let me explain what that means.  Something is abstract if it does not exist in any particular place, but instances, or members, of it <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  For example, lots of different things have the property of redness: lots of things are red.  And we find the relation "sitting on" all over the place: lots of things sit on other things.  So the property, redness, and the relation, sitting-on, do not exist in any one <i>particular</i> place.  So if we want to say that properties and relations <i>are</i>, or have being, clearly we want to say they have a different sort of being from the sort of being that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have.  So that’s where this word "abstract" comes in.  We apply the word "abstract" to properties and relations to mark the fact that if they exist, they don’t exist in space or time, but that instances of them <i>can</i> exist in many different places.  Redness itself is not supposed to exist anywhere, but our apple is red, and lots of roses are red; and that’s why we say that redness <i>itself</i>, as opposed to instances of redness, is abstract.
< 
< On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>concrete</i>.  This means basically that they aren’t abstract: they are particular individuals, located at a place and a time.  So if you want a definition, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
< 
< I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
< 
< Let’s get back to the question of what "ontology" means.  I said it was, in the words of Aristotle, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  Well, the word "qua" means "with regard to the aspect of."  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being -- so it’s the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  Ontology is concerned with the different senses of "being," or in yet other words, with the different fundamental categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.  So from this we can derive some examples of ontological questions.  First: what does it mean to say a physical object exists?  Second: what sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?  Third: what sorts of beings are an object’s properties or relations?  And fourth: when does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?  
< 
< In fact, those are exactly the four questions we are going to try to answer in the rest of our consideration of metaphysics.  If you’re baffled about what these questions are asking, don’t worry -- after we focus on each question individually you will be less confused.
---
> For edited versions of the former contents of this page, please see [[metaphysics]], [[ontology]], ...
------
Troll|986240920
3c3,11
< On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.  (The connotation of "troll" is someone who does this intentionally.)  One way to do this is to post [[off topic]] messages; another is to but there are many other ways.  The actions that lead to someone's being called a troll are called ''trolling,'' although in a restricted sense, "trolling" means posting messages specifically in order to elicit an angry, frustrated, exasperated, etc., response.
---
> On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.  
> 
> (The connotation of "troll" is someone who does this intentionally.)  
> 
> The actions that lead to someone's being called a troll are called ''trolling,'' although in a restricted sense, "trolling" means posting messages specifically in order to elicit an angry, frustrated, exasperated, etc., response.
> 
> Types of troll messages:
> * [[off topic]] messages
> * inflamitory messages
------
Law_of_non-contradiction|986241157
10c10,21
< ...and [http://andstuff.org/NonContradiction] for more discussion of this law.
---
> ...and [http://andstuff.org/NonContradiction] for more discussion of this law.
> ----
> 
> Here's a simple example:
> 
> I state this to be true:
>   If it is raining, I am wearing blue socks.
> 
>   If I am wearing blue socks, you cannot conclude that
>   it is raining because I did not state that blue socks 
>   are worn only when it is raining.
> 
------
Internet|986241217
12c12,13
< * [[troll|Trolls and trolling]]
---
> * [[troll|Trolls and trolling]]
> * [[flame war]]
------
Metaphysics|986241331
1c1
< /Introduction.
---
> ''Metaphysics'' is a notoriously difficult term to define, but for purposes of briefly introducing it to a nonphilosophers, it can be identified as the study of any of the most fundamental concepts and beliefs, on which many other concepts and beliefs rest.
3c3
< See also MetaphysicsAndOntology.
---
> The field of metaphysics has changed a lot since it first received its name by [[Aristotle]]'s editors (see below), over the many centuries of its existence.  Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical were added to metaphysics.  Other problems that were for centuries considered metaphysical problems are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy.  For example, there are a lot of problems that used to be considered part of metaphysics, but are now more commonly considered parts of the [[philosophy of religion]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of perception]], and [[philosophy of science]].  It would require quite a long time to state all the problems that have, at one time or another, been considered part of metaphysics.
5c5,18
< One important topic in metaphysics is IdentityAndChange.
---
> What might be called the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of <i>[[ontology]],</i> "the science of being <i>qua</i> being" (see the [[ontology]] article for an explanation of what this means).
> 
> 
> <b>The origin of the word 'metaphysics'</b>
> 
> The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  An early edition of the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that there was another set of books that were placed right after the <i>Physics.</i>  These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the (books that come) after the (books about) physics."  That, then, is the origin of the word 'metaphysics'.
> 
> Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics is the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So, etymologically, what 'metaphysics' means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
> 
> What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So [[ontology]], [[theology]], and [[universal science]] are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of God or the gods and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
> 
> We have an [[/Introduction|introductory discussion of some metaphysical problems]].
> 
> One important metaphysical topic is IdentityAndChange.
------
Ontology|986241511
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Ontology'' is the study of existence, or in [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."
> 
> A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[[[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
> 
> The different kinds or ways of being are called <i>[[category of being|categories of being]].</i>  Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
------
Being|986241537
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[[[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986241551
6c6
< 
---
> ----
7a8,9
> ----
> Tim, I've always been curious where such average estimates are gleaned from.  And, if the numbers of the Former USSR are so much greater than that of the PRC, why then, do those who cry foul on issues of humanity and the mistreatment thereof, bemoan the misdeeds of the PRC over the USSR (or so it seems, from these eyes so jaded by an inadequate media)?   I am no champion of either cause, however, for purposes of an encyclopedic project such as this, I hope we are more careful in our phraseology than those who have preceded us.   The use of comparatives or superlatives where estimates, especially unconfirmed, are concerned seems a bit out of whack.  --[[Invictus]]
------
Being|986241554
1c1
< A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[[[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
---
> A <i>being</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
------
Ontology|986241567
3c3
< A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[[[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
---
> A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
5c5
< The different kinds or ways of being are called <i>[[category of being|categories of being]].</i>  Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
---
> The different kinds or ways of being are called <i>[[category of being|categories of being]].</i>  Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
------
Erotica|986242681
1c1,7
< Erotica is literature or art intending to arouse sexual desire.
---
> Erotica, after the Greek god of love, Eros, is literature or art tending to stimulate or arouse sexual love or desire, by virtue of the fact that it deals in unambiguous portrayal of sexual acts or situations.
> 
> In contrast to [[pornography]], the term "erotica" is usually associated with aesthetic and artistic treatment of its subject matter, as opposed to raw sexuality without artistic overtones.  Pornography is popularly focused on unadorned lust, sexual acts and sensations, while erotica generally tends to include higher emotional content, the development of place, character and story line, or of an overall atristic them.
> 
> It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to create an involuntary reaction of sexual arousal, possibly creating increased sexual desire, which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in sexual activity.  This can be true of Erotica, as well as other, less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender. 
> 
> For this reason, it is almost redundant to define erotica in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.
------
Category_of_being|986242971
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[metaphysics]] ([[ontology]] in particular]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
> 
> Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.  Indeed, one of the basic questions of [[ontology]] is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  In no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other:
> 
> '''[[Physical object|Physical objects]].'''  Physical objects are beings; certainly they are said to <i>be</i> in the simple sense that they <i>exist</i> all around us.  So a house is a being, a person's body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  One might also call them [[body|bodies]], or (physical) [[particular]]s, or [[concrete]] things, or maybe [[substance]]s (but bear in mind the word 'substance' has some special philosophical meanings.
> 
> '''[[Mind|Minds]].'''  Minds--those the "parts" of us that think and perceive--are beings.  Each of us, according to [[common sense]] anyway, has a mind, a mind that exists or has being.  So each of our minds is a being.  Of course, philosophers rarely ''just assume'' that minds are a <i>different</i> <i>category</i> of beings from physical objects.  Some have thought that mind is in a different category (this is the view of [[dualism]]), while some have thought that concepts of the mental (e.g., our notion of the mind) can be [[reduction|reduced]] to physical concepts (this is the view of [[physicalism]] or [[materialism]]).
> 
> '''[[Class|Classes]].'''  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  Within the class of human beings is all of the human beings, or (in other words) the [[extension]] of the term 'human being'.  In the class of [[planet]]s would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc.--and all the other planets that there might be in the universe.  Classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of planets <i>is</i>, or has being.  Classes are usually taken to be [[abstract]] objects, equivalent in meaning to '[[set]]'.
> 
> '''[[Property|Properties]].'''  The redness of a red apple is a <i>property</i>.  One could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  This will do as a <i>definition</i> of the word 'property' because, like 'attribute', 'quality' is a near-synonym of 'property'.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we are talking about.  Whenever one talks about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, one talks about the object's properties.  Some--though this is a point of severe contention in the [[problem of universals]]--believe that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
> 
> '''[[Relation|Relations]].'''  An apple sitting on a table is in a relation to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table--namely, the relation of sitting-on.  So--some say--we can say that that relation has being.  Or how about this: the [[World Trade Center]] is taller than the [[White House]].  Being-taller-than is a relation between the two buildings.  We can--it seems, anyway--say that <i>that</i> relation has being as well.  (This too is a point of contention in the [[problem of universals]].)
> 
> Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]]</i>.
> 
> I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986242973
9a10,15
> ----
> This is a good source of data: http://www2.hawaii.edu/~rummel/
> 
> I think it is reliable because the methodology used to compile this data is revealed explicity and makes perfect sense, it is widely quoted by respectable sources, and so far as I know it is not contested by anyone who is taken seriously.
> 
> One reason the crimes of the USSR are ignored may be that for much of its history, American and western journalists were sympathetic to it.  An American won the Pulitzer Prize for reporting how wonderful the Soviet Union was, reporting from Russia at the height of the Stalinist genocides in the 1930s.  The American conservatives were most sternly anti-Soviet, and the magniude of the Soviet's crimes against humanity show that in this they were in the right; the leftist media might downplay these crimes to avoid admitting their political enemies were right all along.
------
Category_of_being|986243091
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]] ([[ontology]] in particular]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
---
> In [[metaphysics]] ([[ontology]] in particular), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
17c17
< I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
---
> I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
------
Contraception|986243186
5a6,8
> * [[Abstinence]]
> * [[Diaphragm]]
> * [[Vaseytomy]]
7d9
< * [[Abstinence]]
------
Contraception|986243194
8c8
< * [[Vaseytomy]]
---
> * [[Vasectomy]]
------
Contraception|986243227
8a9
> * [[Coitus interruptus]]
------
Abstract|986243263
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something is ''abstract'' if it does not exist at any particular place and time, but instances, or members, of it <i>can</i> exist in many different places and/or times (we say that what is abstract can be ''multiply instantiated'').  For example, lots of different things have the [[property]] of redness: lots of things are red.  And we find the [[relation]] sitting-on everywhere: many things sit on other things.  So the property, redness, and the relation, sitting-on, do not exist in any one <i>particular</i> place.  So if we want to say that properties and relations <i>are</i>, or have being, clearly we want to say they have a different sort of being from the sort of being that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have.  That accounts for the usefulness of this word 'abstract'.  We apply it to properties and relations to mark the fact that if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them <i>can</i> exist in many different places.
> 
> On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>[[concrete]]</i>.
------
Category_of_being|986243463
15,17c15
< Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]]</i>.
< 
< I’ve just explained the difference between abstract and concrete.  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  So now consider, aren’t those two different ways in which a thing can be said to "be," or to have being, or to exist?  I think you can see that "being" is an ambiguous word.  We have found two examples of different senses of the words "being" or "existence."
---
> Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]],</i> rather than ''[[concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of two different ways in which a thing can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
------
Concrete|986243606
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something is ''concrete'' if it is not [[abstract]]: it is both [[particular]] and an [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  So, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
> 
> See [[particular]]; [[individual]]; [[abstract]].
------
Category_of_being|986243669
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]] ([[ontology]] in particular), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
---
> In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
------
Sea_Transport|986243817
1c1
< <b>Sea Transport</b> is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by [[ship]] or [[sailboat]] over a [[sea] or [[ocean]].
---
> <b>Sea Transport</b> is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by [[ship]] or [[sailboat]] over a [[sea]] or [[ocean]].
3c3
< Modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting very large quantities of goods.
---
> Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting very large quantities of goods.
6a7
> * [[Ferries]]
------
Ontology|986243996
5a6,19
> 
> In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More importantly, ontology concerns the different ''fundamental'' or [[reduction|irreducible]] categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.
> 
> So here are some examples of ontological questions:
> #What does it mean to say a physical object exists?
> #What sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?
> #What sorts of beings are an object's properties or relations?
> #When does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?
> 
> There are, of course, many more.
> 
> '''Ontological problems and topics'''
> 
> '''Ontological concepts'''
------
Category_of_being|986244023
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
---
> In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (which can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
------
Metaphysics|986244289
18a19,30
> 
> '''Metaphysical subdisciplines''' (i.e., fields now or traditionally treated as part of metaphysics):
> * [[Ontology]]
> * [[Philosophy of religion]]
> * [[Philosophy of mind]]
> * [[Philosophy of perception]]
> 
> '''Metaphysical problems'''
> * ...
> 
> '''Metaphysical jargon'''
> :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
------
MetaphysicsAndOntology|986244339
1c1
< For edited versions of the former contents of this page, please see [[metaphysics]], [[ontology]], ...
---
> For edited versions of the former contents of this page, please see [[metaphysics]], [[ontology]], [[being]], [[category of being]], [[abstract]], and [[concrete]]
------
Metaphysics|986244376
18,19d17
< One important metaphysical topic is IdentityAndChange.
< 
26,27c24,25
< '''Metaphysical problems'''
< * ...
---
> '''Metaphysical topics and problems'''
> * IdentityAndChange
30c28
< :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
---
> :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
------
ReducTion|986244425
1,7c1
< ''Reduction'' is a difficult piece of philosophical terminology.  The <i>basic</i> notion is this: If we <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever we talk about X, we can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead.</i>
< 
< So, for example, if we reduce the mental to the physical, then whenever we talk of pains, thoughts, and decisions, we can be understood as talking about physical events in the brain.  Does that mean that we must then think that pains, thoughts, and decisions don’t <i>exist</i>?  Not necessarily and usually not.
< 
< Here is an example of a reduction from MetaPhysics.  The BundleTheory says that objects can be reduced to collections of properties; so whenever we talk about objects, we can be understood to be talking about bundles of properties.  Does this mean that the bundle theory says that <i>objects</i> <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i> ?  Perhaps not objects as we had thought of them, but the theory <i>is</i> trying to give an account of what objects <i>are</i>; namely, they are bundles of properties.  So the bundle theory is not denying that objects <i>exist</i>--just that objects are the same as bundles of properties.  The only reason one would have for maintaining, then that the bundle theory holds that objects do not exist is if you think that, according to our ordinary concepts, something simply ''cannot'' both be a bundle of properties ''and'' an object.  
< 
< Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Reduction]]
------
Reduction|986244432
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Reduction'' is a difficult piece of philosophical terminology.  The <i>basic</i> notion is this: If we <i>reduce</i> X to Y, then whenever we talk about X, we can be understood to be talking about Y <i>instead.</i>
> 
> So, for example, if we reduce the mental to the physical, then whenever we talk of pains, thoughts, and decisions, we can be understood as talking about physical events in the brain.  Does that mean that we must then think that pains, thoughts, and decisions don’t <i>exist</i>?  Not necessarily and usually not.
> 
> Here is an example of a reduction from MetaPhysics.  The BundleTheory says that objects can be reduced to collections of properties; so whenever we talk about objects, we can be understood to be talking about bundles of properties.  Does this mean that the bundle theory says that <i>objects</i> <i>don’t</i> <i>exist</i> ?  Perhaps not objects as we had thought of them, but the theory <i>is</i> trying to give an account of what objects <i>are</i>; namely, they are bundles of properties.  So the bundle theory is not denying that objects <i>exist</i>--just that objects are the same as bundles of properties.  The only reason one would have for maintaining, then that the bundle theory holds that objects do not exist is if you think that, according to our ordinary concepts, something simply ''cannot'' both be a bundle of properties ''and'' an object.  
> 
> Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
------
Larrys_Text|986244563
11c11
< ::[[Metaphysics/Introduction|introduction to metaphysics]] -- MetaphysicsAndOntology -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
---
> ::[[Metaphysics/Introduction|introduction to metaphysics]] -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[ontology]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] --[[abstract]] -- [[concrete]] -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
15c15
< ::[[philosophy of mind]] -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- ReducTion -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
---
> ::[[philosophy of mind]] -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- [[reduction]] -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
34c34
< I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
---
> I think that's it for now.  Any comments or questions?
------
Contraception|986244672
1c1
< Contraception is the utilization of various or sundry surgical procedures, devices, sexual practices, agents, or drugs with the intention of preventing conception or impregnation.
---
> Contraception is the utilization of various and sundry surgical procedures, devices, practices, agents, or drugs with the intention of preventing conception or impregnation.
------
Erotica|986245027
1c1
< Erotica, after the Greek god of love, Eros, is literature or art tending to stimulate or arouse sexual love or desire, by virtue of the fact that it deals in unambiguous portrayal of sexual acts or situations.
---
> Erotica, after the Greek god of love, Eros, is art (including literature, photography, painting, etc.) intended to stimulate or arouse sexual love or desire, by virtue of the fact that it deals in unambiguous portrayal of sexual acts or situations.
3c3
< In contrast to [[pornography]], the term "erotica" is usually associated with aesthetic and artistic treatment of its subject matter, as opposed to raw sexuality without artistic overtones.  Pornography is popularly focused on unadorned lust, sexual acts and sensations, while erotica generally tends to include higher emotional content, the development of place, character and story line, or of an overall atristic them.
---
> In contrast to [[pornography]], the term "erotica" is usually associated with aesthetic and artistic treatment of its subject matter, as opposed to raw sexuality without artistic overtones.  Pornography is popularly focused on unadorned lust, sexual acts and sensations, while erotica generally tends to include higher emotional content, the development of place, character and story line, or of an overall artistic theme.
5,7c5
< It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to create an involuntary reaction of sexual arousal, possibly creating increased sexual desire, which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in sexual activity.  This can be true of Erotica, as well as other, less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender. 
< 
< For this reason, it is almost redundant to define erotica in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.
---
> It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to create an involuntary reaction of sexual arousal, possibly creating increased sexual desire, which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in sexual activity.  This can be true of erotica just as well as other, both more and less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which merely fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender.  For this reason, erotica is too broadly described merely in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.
------
Law_of_non-contradiction|986245083
13,21c13
< Here's a simple example:
< 
< I state this to be true:
<   If it is raining, I am wearing blue socks.
< 
<   If I am wearing blue socks, you cannot conclude that
<   it is raining because I did not state that blue socks 
<   are worn only when it is raining.
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Law_of_non-contradiction/Talk|986245164
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's a simple example:
> 
> I state this to be true:
>   If it is raining, I am wearing blue socks.
> 
>   If I am wearing blue socks, you cannot conclude that
>   it is raining because I did not state that blue socks 
>   are worn only when it is raining.
> ----
> The above is not an example of the law of noncontradiction, nor is it an example of a contradiction.  But it is an example of a [[logical fallacy]].  (The name of the fallacy is [[affirming the consequent]]. --[[LMS]]
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986245375
1c1
< A <b>Double-hulled Tanker</b> is a large ship used for transporting liquids (usually [[petroleum]]) which has two hulls.
---
> A <b>Double-hulled Tanker</b> is a large [[ship]] used for transporting [[liquid]]s (usually [[petroleum]]) which has two hulls.
5c5
< Double-hulled tankers were required (I don't know on required) after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
---
> Double-hulled tankers were required after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. (I think this is true - but need confirmation)
------
Computer_Monitor|986245488
8a9,11
> ----
> A computer monitor is different from a software monitor
> which is a [[synchronization]] mechanism.
------
LiteraryArtTalk|986245712
19c19
< Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
---
> Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
------
Kludge|986245778
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a software system that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
> 
------
Literary_Art|986245909
3c3,5
< See also LiteraryArtTalk
---
> See also LiteraryArtTalk
> 
> ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[literature]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
------
Literature|986245934
35a36,37
> 
> ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[Literary Art]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
------
Poker/Game_play|986246067
1c1
< [[Poker]] has hundreds of [[Poker/Variants|Variants]], but the following overview of game play should apply to most of them.
---
> [[Poker]] has hundreds of [[Poker/Variants|variant]]s, but the following overview of game play applies to most of them.
11c11
< After the initial deal, the first of what may be several <i>betting rounds</i> begins.  Beginning with a player determined by the particular rules of the game (usually the player to the dealers left, or the first player after the big blind, or a player determined by the value of cards dealt face up), each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
---
> After the initial deal, the first of what may be several <i>betting rounds</i> begins.  During a round of betting, there will always be a <i>current bet amount</i>, which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called <i>splashing</i> the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.  Beginning with a player determined by the rules of the particular game, each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
13,15c13,15
< * <b>Fold:</b>
< * <b>Call:</b>
< * <b>Raise:</b>
---
> * <b>Fold:</b> The terms <i>drop</i> or <i>pass</i> are also used.  The player places no money in the pot, relinquishes his cards, and takes no further action in this deal.  This action forfeits the player's right to win the pot for this deal.
> * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  Also, if the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more han once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to being his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5 to call.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
> * <b>Raise:</b> If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a <i>bet</i>.  The player increases the current bet amount by betting more than the amount sufficient to call.  All remaining players (in order) are now required to call the new current bet amount to maintain their interest in the pot.  If a player raises, and every other remaining player folds, so that the raiser is the only player left who can win the pot, he takes the pot immediately and no cards are ever shown.
17c17
< After the first betting round is complete, the may be more rounds in which cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, and the next deal begins.
---
> Except as noted above in the case of a live blind, a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have matched the same amount.
19c19
< After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last bet and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best hand (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  In the case of ties, the pot is split among the tied players.
---
> After the first betting round is complete because every player called an equal amount, there may be more rounds in which more cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, no more rounds are dealt, and the next deal begins.
21c21,31
< to be continued...
---
> After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last raise and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  This is called a <i>showdown</i>.  In the case of ties, the pot is split among the tied players.
> 
> <h2>Sample deals</h2>
> 
> Here are some sample deals to show the order of betting.  Assume that Alice is dealing, that Bob sits to her left, Carol to his left, and David to her left.
> 
> # All players ante $1.  Alice deals five cards to each player one at a time, beginning with Bob, and ending with herself.  Bob has the first turn to bet, and there is no current bet amount, so he verbally declares "check"; this action calls the current bet amount of zero, so he keeps his cards.  Carol now bets $2, placing that amount in front of her toward the pot.  This is a raise, and makes the current bet amount $2.  David calls, by placing $2 in the pot (he did not have the option to check, because there was a non-zero bet amount facing him).  Alice now <i>reraises</i>, placing $10 in the pot.  This makes the current amount $10.  It it now Bob's turn again.  He folds, discarding his cards, and will take no further part in the action.  On this deal, he has lost $1, the amount of his ante.  Carol now calls Alice's raise by placing $8 more into the pot, which, along with the $2 bet she made earlier, matches Alice's $10.  David now folds, discarding his cards.  He has lost $3 on this deal: the $1 ante and his $2 call of Carol's first bet.  Because it is now Alice's turn, and she was the player who set the current amount, the betting round is closed (she cannot raise her own bet).  All remaining players (Alice and Carol) have now bet an equal amount ($10).  All of the bets are now gathered into the central pot, which is now $26.  A second round begins with Alice and Carol replacing one or more of their initial five cards with new ones from the remainder of the deck (they are playing a variant of [[draw poker]]).  It is Carol's turn to act first on this round (she is the first player to the dealer's left now that Bob has folded).  She checks, betting nothing.  Alice bets $10.  Carol calls, closing the second betting round.  The new bets are gathered into the pot, which now contains $46.  Because the game they are playing has only two rounds, the betting is now complete and Alice and Carol show their hands.  Carol has the best hand, so she wins the showdown and takes the $46 pot.  She has made a profit of $25 ($46 less the $21 she bet).  Alice has lost $21.
> # On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the rules of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
> # On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and Bob has the best hand.  He takes the $34 pot.
> 
> See [[Poker/Variants]], [[Poker/Hands]], [[Poker/Betting structure]].
------
Poker|986246280
10a11
> * [[/Betting structure]]
12,18c13,17
< ** High
< ** Low
< * Variations
< ** Draw games
< ** Stud games
< ** Community card games
< ** Other
---
> * [[/Variants]]
> ** [[Draw poker|Draw games]]
> ** [[Stud poker|Stud games]]
> ** [[Community card poker|Community card games]]
> ** [[Miscellaneous poker game]]s
------
Poker/Game_play|986246501
29c29
< # On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and Bob has the best hand.  He takes the $34 pot.
---
> # On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
------
Poker/Game_play|986246559
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a casino with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
------
Computer_Monitor|986246596
7,9d6
< ----
< Is Flat Panel Display FPD?
< ----
11a9,10
> 
> /Talk
------
Computer_Monitor/Talk|986246997
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is Flat Panel Display FPD?
> ----
> "Display device which produces an image on the screen."  Hmm.  A paintbrush is therefore sometimes a computer monitor?
> 
> C'mon, everyone will be able to understand what "computer monitor" means before they understand this definition.  :-)
------
Category_of_being|986247232
11c11
< '''[[Property|Properties]].'''  The redness of a red apple is a <i>property</i>.  One could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  This will do as a <i>definition</i> of the word 'property' because, like 'attribute', 'quality' is a near-synonym of 'property'.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we are talking about.  Whenever one talks about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, one talks about the object's properties.  Some--though this is a point of severe contention in the [[problem of universals]]--believe that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
---
> '''[[Property|Properties]].'''  The redness of a red apple is a <i>property</i>.  One could also call it an <i>attribute</i> of the apple.  Very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  This will not do as a <i>definition</i> of the word 'property' because, like 'attribute', 'quality' is a near-synonym of 'property'.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we are talking about.  Whenever one talks about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, one talks about the object's properties.  Some--though this is a point of severe contention in the [[problem of universals]]--believe that properties are beings; the redness of the apple is something that <i>is</i>.
------
Category_of_being|986247454
15c15
< Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]],</i> rather than ''[[concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of two different ways in which a thing can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
---
> Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]],</i> rather than ''[[concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
------
Aikido|986247485
1c1,5
< Aikido was created in Japan by Morihei Ueshiba during the 1930s to the 1960s.
---
> Aikido was created in Japan by Morihei Ueshiba during the 1930s to the 1960s. It is a defensive art, in which the defender redirects the attacker's motion and energy back into the attacker. It is practiced by men and women of any size or age. It is one of the more difficult of the martial arts and it takes about 10 years of practice to really be able to defend oneself.
> 
> Mr Ueshiba, who is referred to as O Sensei by aikidoists, was an expert in the use of the sword, spear, staff and juijitsu. As a result, many of the flowing movements of the sword have been translated into unarmed aikido defense.
> 
> The central repository of aikido is Hombu Dojo, in Japan. Aikido was brought to the United States in the 1960s. Today there are many aikido dojos available to train at.
------
Reduction|986248313
7c7,9
< Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
---
> Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
> ----
> In [[mathematics]], reduction is the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrix into a desired 'simpler' format.
------
Literature|986248996
0a1,10
> <b>Literature</b> is written works.
> 
> Literature usually refers to works of ficton (usually novels) but can also mean the written works for a particular topic.
> 
> For example, the literature of [[stamp collecting]] includes:
> * books on stamp collecting
> * journals on stamp collecting
> * newspapers on stamp collecting
> * any other thing written about stamp collecting in just about any format.
> 
37c47
< ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[Literary Art]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
---
> ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[Literary Art]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
------
Reduction|986249366
0a1,2
> In [[mathematics]], reduction is the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrix into a desired 'simpler' format.
> ----
7,9c9
< Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
< ----
< In [[mathematics]], reduction is the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrix into a desired 'simpler' format.
---
> Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986249886
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every games situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> ([[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
> 
> The betting structure of a game is a significant factor in its balance of luck and skill.  Higher forced bets and smaller limits increase the influence of chance.  Smaller forced bets and larger limits increase the element of skill.  Good games are carfully balanced so that skillful players will win in the long run while recreational players can win often enough for the game to be exciting to them.
> 
> <h2>Forced bets</h2>
> 
> 
> <h2>Betting limit types</h2>
> 
> * <b>No limit:</b> Any player may bet any amount of his stake at any time (subject to <i>Table stakes</i> rules and the <i>equal raise</i> rule below).
> * <b>Pot Limit</b> A player may raise up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.  For example, let's assume that there is $10 in the pot at the start of a betting round.  The first player open the betting for up to $10.  If he does in fact open for $10, the next player may raise to $40 (after calling the $10 bet, the total amount of the pot is $30, so he may raise $30).
> * <b>Fixed limit:</b> The player never chooses the amount bet, only whether to bet or not, and the amount is fixed by rule.  Commonly later betting rounds specify higher bets than earlier rounds; for example a four-round game called "2 and 4 limit" may specify that all bets on the first two rounds are $2, and on the third and fourth round $4.  This amount applies to each raise, not the total amount bet in a round, so a player may bet $2, be raised $2, and then reraise another $2, for a total bet of $6, in such a game.
> * <b>Spread Limit:</b> The player make raise any amount within a specified range.  For example, a game called "1 to 5 limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to the rules below).
> 
> <h2>Equal raise rule</h2>
> 
> A universal rule in American casinos, and common in home games as well, is that any raise must at least equal the amount of the previous bet.  For example, if a player in a spread limit or no limit game bets $5, the next player may raise by another $5 or more, but he may not raise by only $2, even if that would otherwise conform to the game's structure.  The primary purpose of this rule is to avoid game delays caused by "nuisance" raises (small raises of large bets that don't affect the bet amount much but that take time).  This rule is often overridden by table stakes rules (see below), so that a player may in fact raise a $5 bet by $2 if that $2 is his entire remaining stake.
> 
> <h2>Raise caps</h2>
> 
> In many casinos, there is a limit to the total number of raises allowed in a single betting round (typically 3 or 4, not including the opening bet of a round).  For example in a casino with a 3-raise rule, if one player opens the betting for $5, the next raises by $5 making it $10, a third player raises another $5, and a fourth player raises $5 again making the current bet $20, the betting is said to be <i>capped</i> at that point, and no further raises beyond the $20 level will be allowed on that round.  It is common to suspend this rule when there are only two players betting in the round (called being <i>head up</i>).
> 
> <h2>Table stakes rules</h2>
> 
> All casinos and many home games play by what are called <i>table stakes</i> rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and playes that deal with that stake.  He may not remove money from the table or add money from his pocket during the play of a hand.  This requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that he cannot call with his available stake....
> 
> See also [[Poker/Game play]].
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986249941
1c1
< The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every games situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> ([[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
---
> The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every games situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
27a28
> 
------
Poker/Game_play|986250069
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms:
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/betting structure]] for more details).
5,9c5
< * <b>Antes:</b> Every player places an equal (typically small) amount into the pot before the deal begins.  In a home game where the right to act as dealer rotates, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer must ante for everyone in his turn.  This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal.
< * <b>Blinds:</b> (This description might make more sense after you've learned more about betting as described below).  One or more players after the dealer in order open the betting before receiving their cards, but in the same manner as if they were opening the betting after the deal.  For example, the first player to the dealer's left blinds $1, and the next player blinds $2.  After the cards are dealt for the first round, betting continues with the third player to the dealer's left, who must call the $2 bet, raise, or fold, exactly as if that bet had been made during play rather than before.  When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, he acts just as if that had been the initial bet; he must equal the bet facing him (toward which he may count his $1), fold, or raise.  An additional privilege is given to the player who posted the $2 <i>big blind</i>: if there have been no raises by the time his first real turn to bet comes (that is, the bet amount facing him is just the $2 he originally put in), then he has the right to raise at that point, even though his right-hand opponent's call would normally have closed the betting round under other circumstances.  This "extra" right to raise (called a "live" blind) occurs only once: if his raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes.
< * <b>Bring-in:</b> This actually occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action.  One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to open the betting by some token amount, after which players act after him in normal rotation.
< 
< After the antes and/or blinds have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
---
> After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986250133
6a7,9
> * <b>Antes:</b> Every player places an equal (typically small) amount into the pot before the deal begins.  In a home game where the right to act as dealer rotates, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer must ante for everyone in his turn.  This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal.
> * <b>Blinds:</b> One or more players after the dealer in order open the betting before receiving their cards, but in the same manner as if they were opening the betting after the deal.  For example, the first player to the dealer's left blinds $1, and the next player blinds $2.  After the cards are dealt for the first round, betting continues with the third player to the dealer's left, who must call the $2 bet, raise, or fold, exactly as if that bet had been made during play rather than before.  When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, he acts just as if that had been the initial bet; he must equal the bet facing him (toward which he may count his $1), fold, or raise.  An additional privilege is given to the player who posted the $2 <i>big blind</i>: if there have been no raises by the time his first real turn to bet comes (that is, the bet amount facing him is just the $2 he originally put in), then he has the right to raise at that point, even though his right-hand opponent's call would normally have closed the betting round under other circumstances.  This "extra" right to raise (called a "live" blind) occurs only once: if his raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes.
> * <b>Bring-ins:</b> This actually occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action.  One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to open the betting by some token amount, after which players act after him in normal rotation.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986250223
3c3
< The betting structure of a game is a significant factor in its balance of luck and skill.  Higher forced bets and smaller limits increase the influence of chance.  Smaller forced bets and larger limits increase the element of skill.  Good games are carfully balanced so that skillful players will win in the long run while recreational players can win often enough for the game to be exciting to them.
---
> The betting structure of a game is a more significant factor in its balance of luck and skill than the game variant being played.  Higher forced bets and smaller limits increase the influence of chance.  Smaller forced bets and larger limits increase the element of skill.  Good games are carfully balanced so that skillful players will win in the long run while recreational players can win often enough for the game to be exciting to them.
------
Erotica|986250431
5c5
< It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to create an involuntary reaction of sexual arousal, possibly creating increased sexual desire, which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in sexual activity.  This can be true of erotica just as well as other, both more and less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which merely fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender.  For this reason, erotica is too broadly described merely in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.
---
> It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to intiate an involuntary reaction of sexual arousal, possibly building increased sexual desire, which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in sexual activity.  This can be true of erotica just as well as other, both more and less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which merely fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender.  For this reason, erotica is too broadly described merely in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.
------
Poker/Game_play|986250552
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/betting structure]] for more details).
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).
13c13
< Except as noted above in the case of a live blind, a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have matched the same amount.
---
> Except in the case of a live blind (see [[Poker/Betting structure]]), a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have matched the same amount.
24c24
< # On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the rules of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
---
> # On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
------
Metaphysics|986251382
10c10
< The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together he called the <i>Physics</i>.  An early edition of the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that there was another set of books that were placed right after the <i>Physics.</i>  These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the (books that come) after the (books about) physics."  That, then, is the origin of the word 'metaphysics'.
---
> The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together were called the <i>Physics</i>.  An early edition of the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that there was another set of books that were placed right after the <i>Physics.</i>  These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the (books that come) after the (books about) physics."  That, then, is the origin of the word 'metaphysics'.
------
Metaphysics|986251440
12c12
< Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics is the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So, etymologically, what 'metaphysics' means is "the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about."
---
> Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics is the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So, etymologically, what 'metaphysics' means is 'the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about'.
------
Metaphysics|986251507
14c14
< What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So [[ontology]], [[theology]], and [[universal science]] are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of God or the gods and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  Our apple cannot both exist and not exist.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
---
> What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So [[ontology]], [[theology]], and [[universal science]] are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of God or the gods and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  A particular apple cannot both exist and not exist at the same time.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986251558
10a11,14
> A good balance is for the total of all forced bets to equal one or two times the betting limit for a game.  For example, if eight players play a game with a $2 betting limit, a $.25 or $.50 ante would make a well-balanced game, as would a game with $1 and $2 blinds, or a $.25 ante and $1 bring-in.
> 
> The sample deals in [[Poker/Game play]] show examples of each of these forced bets.
> 
13,14c17,18
< * <b>No limit:</b> Any player may bet any amount of his stake at any time (subject to <i>Table stakes</i> rules and the <i>equal raise</i> rule below).
< * <b>Pot Limit</b> A player may raise up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.  For example, let's assume that there is $10 in the pot at the start of a betting round.  The first player open the betting for up to $10.  If he does in fact open for $10, the next player may raise to $40 (after calling the $10 bet, the total amount of the pot is $30, so he may raise $30).
---
> * <b>No limit:</b> Any player may bet all of his stake at any time (subject to the <i>table stakes</i> and <i>equal raise</i> rules below).
> * <b>Pot Limit</b> A player may raise up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.  For example, let's assume that there is $10 in the pot at the start of a betting round.  The first player may open the betting for up to $10.  If he does in fact open for $10, the next player may raise to $40 (after calling the $10 bet, the total amount of the pot is $30, so he may raise $30).
16c20,22
< * <b>Spread Limit:</b> The player make raise any amount within a specified range.  For example, a game called "1 to 5 limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to the rules below).
---
> * <b>Spread Limit:</b> The player make raise any amount within a specified range.  For example, a game called "1 to 5 limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to the rules below).  These also are typically larger in later rounds of multi-round games.
> 
> All such games have a minimum bet as well as the stated maximums, and also commonly a <i>betting unit</i>, which is the smallest denomination in which bets can be made.  For example, it is common for a games with $20 and $40 betting limits to have a minimum betting unit of $5, so that all bets must be in multiples of $5, to simplify game play.  It is also common for some games to have a bring-in that is less than the minimum for other bets.  In this case, players may either call the bring-in, or raise to the full amount of a normal bet, called <i>completing</i> the bet.
------
Ontology|986251768
7c7
< In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More importantly, ontology concerns the different ''fundamental'' or [[reduction|irreducible]] categories of beings and the ways in which the things in the things in those categories can be said to exist.
---
> In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what categories of being are ''fundamental'' or ''[[reduction|irreducible]]'' and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to exist.
11,12c11,12
< #What sorts of beings are physical objects anyway?
< #What sorts of beings are an object's properties or relations?
---
> #What are physical objects anyway?
> #What are an object's properties or relations?
19c19
< '''Ontological concepts'''
---
> '''Ontological concepts'''
------
Poker/Game_play|986251820
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.
5c5
< After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
---
> Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).  After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
10,11c10,11
< * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  Also, if the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more han once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to being his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5 to call.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
< * <b>Raise:</b> If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a <i>bet</i>.  The player increases the current bet amount by betting more than the amount sufficient to call.  All remaining players (in order) are now required to call the new current bet amount to maintain their interest in the pot.  If a player raises, and every other remaining player folds, so that the raiser is the only player left who can win the pot, he takes the pot immediately and no cards are ever shown.
---
> * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more han once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to being his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5 to call.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
> * <b>Raise:</b> If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a <i>bet</i>, or an <i>open</i>.  The player increases the current bet amount by betting more than the amount sufficient to call.  All remaining players (in order) are now required to call the new current bet amount to maintain their interest in the pot.  If a player raises, and every other remaining player folds, so that the raiser is the only player left who can win the pot, he takes the pot immediately and no cards are ever shown.
13c13
< Except in the case of a live blind (see [[Poker/Betting structure]]), a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have matched the same amount.
---
> Except in the case of a live blind (see [[Poker/Betting structure]]), a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have bet an equal total amount.
------
Reduction|986251913
1c1,3
< In [[mathematics]], reduction is the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrix into a desired 'simpler' format.
---
> * In [[mathematics]], reduction is the process of manipulating a series of equations or matrix into a desired 'simpler' format.
> * In [[cooking]], reduction is the process of thickening a liquid mixture such as a sauce by evaporation.
> 
9c11
< Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
---
> Philosophers mean about the same thing when they talk about what exists <i>ultimately</i>.  For example, the bundle theory says that <i>ultimately</i>, properties and bundles thereof exist, rather than objects.  The things that exist "ultimately" are precisely the things to which other things are reduced.
------
Internet|986253578
4d3
< 
6,7c5,16
< * [[newsgroup]]
< * [[World Wide Web]] -- [[website]]s
---
> * [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s
> * [[World Wide Web]] - [[website]]s
> * [[FTP]]
> * [[IRC]]
> * [[MUD]]
> * [[MUSH]]
> * [[Finger]]
> * [[Gopher]]
> * [[Proprietary]] [[Instant messenger]]s
> ** [[ICQ]]
> ** [[AIM]]
> ** [[Yahoo]]
13c22
< * [[flame war]]
---
> * [[flame war]]
------
Yahoo|986253659
3a4,5
> ----
> /Talk
------
Yahoo/Talk|986254038
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just from the top of my head, (and a quick serch on [[Google]]) says that [[Yahoo]] (the web search engine) actually stands for Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle. [http://www.cknow.com/ckinfo/acronyms/yahoo.htm Computer Knowledge] --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Yahoo/Talk|986254057
1c1
< Just from the top of my head, (and a quick serch on [[Google]]) says that [[Yahoo]] (the web search engine) actually stands for Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle. [http://www.cknow.com/ckinfo/acronyms/yahoo.htm Computer Knowledge] --[[Neeklamy]]
---
> Just from the top of my head, (and a quick search on [[Google]]) says that [[Yahoo]] (the web search engine) actually stands for Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle. [http://www.cknow.com/ckinfo/acronyms/yahoo.htm Computer Knowledge] --[[Neeklamy]]
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986254816
1c1
< The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every games situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
---
> The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every game situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
23a24,25
> Outside of the [[United States]], pot limit and no limit games are the most common.  Most American home games are played with a spread limit, while casino games are played with spread or fixed limits, though larger casinos may have a high-stakes pot limit or no limit game as well.  Fixed limit and spread-limit games emphasise the skill of estimating odds, and are more influenced by chance.  Pot limit and no limit games emphasis the skills of game threory and psychology, and are far less influenced by chance.
> 
34c36,44
< All casinos and many home games play by what are called <i>table stakes</i> rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and playes that deal with that stake.  He may not remove money from the table or add money from his pocket during the play of a hand.  This requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that he cannot call with his available stake....
---
> All casinos and many home games play by what are called <i>table stakes</i> rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and plays that deal with that stake.  He may not remove money from the table or add money from his pocket during the play of a hand.  This requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that he cannot call with his available stake.  A player also may not hide the amount of his stake from other players, and must disclose the amount when asked.
> 
> When a player is faced with a current bet amount that he has insufficient remaining stake to call, and he wishes to call (he may of course fold without the need of special rules), he bets the remainder of his stake and declares himself <i>all in</i>.  He may now hold onto his cards for the remainder of the deal as if he had called every bet, but he may not win any more money from any player above the amount of his bet.  For example, let's assume that the first player in a betting round opens for $20, and the next player to bet only has $5 remaining of his stake.  He bets the $5, declaring himself all in, and holds onto his cards.  The next player in turn still has the $20 bet facing him, and if he can cover it he must call $20 or fold.  If he calls $20, thus ending the betting round, instead of collecting all bets into the central pot as usual, the following procedure is applied: since there is an all in player with only $5 bet, his $5, and $5 from each of the other players, is collected into the central pot, now called the <i>main pot</i>, as if the final bet had been only $5.  This main pot (including any antes or bets from pervious rounds) is the most the all in player is eligible to win.  The remaining money from the still-active bettors, in this case $15 apiece, is collected into a <i>side pot</i> that only the players who contributed to it are eligible to win.  If there are further betting rounds, all bets are placed into the side pot while the all in player continues to hold onto he cards but does not participate in further betting.  Upon the showdown, the players eligible for the side pot--and only those players--reveal their hands, and the winner among them takes the side pot, regardless of what the all in player holds (indeed, before he even shows).  After the side pot is awarded, the all in player then shows his hand, and if it is superior to all others shown, he wins the main pot (otherwise he loses as usual).
> 
> There is a strategic advantage to being all in: you cannot be bluffed, because you are entitled to hold your cards and win the pot without risking any more money.  The players who continue to bet after you are all in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to your advantage.  But these advantages are more than offset by the disadvantage that you cannot win any more money than what your stake can cover.  After all, the object of poker is not to win hands--it is to win money.
> 
> If a player goes all in with a raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play.  There are two rules in common use here: pot limit and no limit games always use what is called the <i>full bet</i> rule, while smaller fixed or spread limit games use either the full bet rule or the <i>half bet</i> rule.  The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all in raise does not equal the full amount of the previous bet, it does not consitute a raise, and therefore does not reopen the betting action.  The half bet rule states that if an all in raise is equal to or larger than half the bet being raised, it does constitute a raise and reopens the action.  For example, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $25.  He may raise to $25, declaring himself all in, but this doesn't consitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $25, and the first player's turn to act comes up, he must now call the additional $5, but he does not have the right to reraise further.  The all in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though he must still equalize by putting in the additional $5).  If the half bet rule is being used, and the all in player had raised to $30 instead of $25, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to reraise if he chose to (this would create a side pot for the amount of his reraise and the third player's call, if any).
> 
> Because these rules are complicated (especially when more than one player goes all in, or there are pots to be split because of ties), informal home games often allow players to temporarily borrow money to add to their stake during a hand when necessary, which is called <i>going light</i>.
------
1977/Talk|986254871
47a48,51
> The bulleted format is just a test of style, I did try indenting the headers but that looked worse.
> As for information, well, there should be enough on each year page to make it read sensibly and contain a link to the real meaty page on the particular subject.
> What would be bad is if each year page just ends up looking like some boring page of stats that hold together as real [[English]] .
> Finally, with regards to what is valid to make it onto each page, well, I'd say "did it occur in the year in question?" "yes" "include it!" If the page shows a bunch of eclectric stuff that isn't mainstream knowledge, great! Bring on the obscure factoids, the more the merrier.
48a53
> Above all, these pages should be FUN, if it doesn't raise a smile whilst you're reading the [[Year in Review]] pages, then it aint doing its job. --[[Neeklamy]]
------
1977/Talk|986254923
48a49
> 
49a51
> 
50a53
> 
------
Poker/Equipment|986255266
3c3
< * <b>Table:</b> It is convenient if every player (a typical poker game will have 2 to 10) can reach the center of the table where the <i>pot</i> is built, so tables are generally circular or only slighlty oblong.  It also helps if the table is padded with a soft material that makes it easy to pick up cards, coins, and chips.
---
> * <b>Table:</b> It is convenient if every player (a typical poker game will have 2 to 10) can reach the center of the table where the <i>pot</i> is built, so tables are generally circular or only slighlty oblong.  It also helps if the table is padded with a soft material that makes it easy to pick up cards, coins, and chips.  Many tables sold as "poker tables" for home use have hard surfaces that are less convenient than a simple circular dining table with a soft blanket and tablecloth, and so are often not worth the price.
5c5
< * <b>Cards:</b> Standard [[Playing card/Anglo-American|Anglo-American]] playing cards are used.  In home games it is common to have two decks with distinct backs, and to shuffle the unused deck while each hand is in progress.  Casinos typically change decks after 15 minutes of use as they become soiled.  High-quality plastic cards last much longer than paper ones, especially for such games as [[stud poker]], where players often bend up the corners of cards lying on the table rather than holding the cards in their hands.
---
> * <b>Cards:</b> Standard [[Playing card/Anglo-American|Anglo-American]] playing cards are used.  In home games it is common to have two decks with distinct backs, and to shuffle the unused deck while each hand is in progress.  Casinos typically change decks after 15 minutes of use as they become soiled.  Have extra decks on hand to replace soiled, marked or bent cards as necessary.  High-quality plastic cards last much longer than paper ones, especially for such games as [[stud poker]], where players often bend up the corners of cards lying on the table rather than holding the cards in their hands.
9c9
< * <b>Lammers:</b> Miscellaneous plastic tokens with text markings are handy for various uses.  In a typical home game only one is used to mark the current dealer as the deal rotates (in which case it is called a <i>buck</i>).  In a casino they are used to remind players of which game variant is being played, who owes house commissions, and other uses.
---
> * <b>Lammers:</b> Miscellaneous plastic tokens with text markings are handy for various uses.  In a typical home game only one is used to mark the current dealer as the deal rotates (in which case it is called a <i>buck</i>).  In a casino they are used to remind players of which game variant is being played, who owes blinds or house commissions, and other uses.
------
Poker/Game_play|986255373
9a10
> 
10a12
> 
23,25c25,29
< # All players ante $1.  Alice deals five cards to each player one at a time, beginning with Bob, and ending with herself.  Bob has the first turn to bet, and there is no current bet amount, so he verbally declares "check"; this action calls the current bet amount of zero, so he keeps his cards.  Carol now bets $2, placing that amount in front of her toward the pot.  This is a raise, and makes the current bet amount $2.  David calls, by placing $2 in the pot (he did not have the option to check, because there was a non-zero bet amount facing him).  Alice now <i>reraises</i>, placing $10 in the pot.  This makes the current amount $10.  It it now Bob's turn again.  He folds, discarding his cards, and will take no further part in the action.  On this deal, he has lost $1, the amount of his ante.  Carol now calls Alice's raise by placing $8 more into the pot, which, along with the $2 bet she made earlier, matches Alice's $10.  David now folds, discarding his cards.  He has lost $3 on this deal: the $1 ante and his $2 call of Carol's first bet.  Because it is now Alice's turn, and she was the player who set the current amount, the betting round is closed (she cannot raise her own bet).  All remaining players (Alice and Carol) have now bet an equal amount ($10).  All of the bets are now gathered into the central pot, which is now $26.  A second round begins with Alice and Carol replacing one or more of their initial five cards with new ones from the remainder of the deck (they are playing a variant of [[draw poker]]).  It is Carol's turn to act first on this round (she is the first player to the dealer's left now that Bob has folded).  She checks, betting nothing.  Alice bets $10.  Carol calls, closing the second betting round.  The new bets are gathered into the pot, which now contains $46.  Because the game they are playing has only two rounds, the betting is now complete and Alice and Carol show their hands.  Carol has the best hand, so she wins the showdown and takes the $46 pot.  She has made a profit of $25 ($46 less the $21 she bet).  Alice has lost $21.
< # On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
< # On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
---
> All players ante $1.  Alice deals five cards to each player one at a time, beginning with Bob, and ending with herself.  Bob has the first turn to bet, and there is no current bet amount, so he verbally declares "check"; this action calls the current bet amount of zero, so he keeps his cards.  Carol now bets $2, placing that amount in front of her toward the pot.  This is a raise, and makes the current bet amount $2.  David calls, by placing $2 in the pot (he did not have the option to check, because there was a non-zero bet amount facing him).  Alice now <i>reraises</i>, placing $10 in the pot.  This makes the current amount $10.  It it now Bob's turn again.  He folds, discarding his cards, and will take no further part in the action.  On this deal, he has lost $1, the amount of his ante.  Carol now calls Alice's raise by placing $8 more into the pot, which, along with the $2 bet she made earlier, matches Alice's $10.  David now folds, discarding his cards.  He has lost $3 on this deal: the $1 ante and his $2 call of Carol's first bet.  Because it is now Alice's turn, and she was the player who set the current amount, the betting round is closed (she cannot raise her own bet).  All remaining players (Alice and Carol) have now bet an equal amount ($10).  All of the bets are now gathered into the central pot, which is now $26.  A second round begins with Alice and Carol replacing one or more of their initial five cards with new ones from the remainder of the deck (they are playing a variant of [[draw poker]]).  It is Carol's turn to act first on this round (she is the first player to the dealer's left now that Bob has folded).  She checks, betting nothing.  Alice bets $10.  Carol calls, closing the second betting round.  The new bets are gathered into the pot, which now contains $46.  Because the game they are playing has only two rounds, the betting is now complete and Alice and Carol show their hands.  Carol has the best hand, so she wins the showdown and takes the $46 pot.  She has made a profit of $25 ($46 less the $21 she bet).  Alice has lost $21.
> 
> On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
> 
> On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
------
2000|986255397
5,6c5,7
< *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
< **[[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]
---
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]...
> 
> - [[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]...
8c9,10
< **[[Film]]
---
> 
> - [[Film]]...
14c16,17
< **[[Music]]
---
> 
> - [[Music]]...
17,18c20,22
< *[[Politics]]
< **[[United States|US]]
---
> [[Politics]]...
> 
> - [[United States|US]]...
21c25
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Poker/Game_play|986255419
27c27
< On this deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
---
> On this second deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
29c29
< On this deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
---
> On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986255480
7a8
> 
8a10
> 
17a20
> 
18a22
> 
19a24
> 
------
1977|986255555
5,6c5,7
< *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
< **[[Book]]
---
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]...
> 
> - [[Book]]...
8c9,10
< **[[Film]]
---
> 
> - [[Film]]...
17,19c19,23
< *[[Sport]]
< **[[Motor sport]]
< ***[[NASCAR Championship]]
---
> [[Sport]]...
> 
> - [[Motor sport]]...
> 
> - [[NASCAR Championship]]...
------
Poker/Hands|986256228
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are many [[poker variant]]s, but all of them rank combinations of cards in one of only a few ways, as outlined below.  Each poker game will specify which of these hand rankings is used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]]).
> 
> Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif] ranks higher than [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif], but lower than [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif]).
> 
> ...
> 
------
Agnostida|986256705
1a2,5
> 
> Agnostidia first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until Ordovician.  ''I think''  The Agnostidia are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.
> 
> Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The problem is that the legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites.
------
Yahoo/Talk|986257093
1a2,3
> 
> I would guess that is a backronym. - TS
------
1984/New_speak|986257389
1c1,3
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. I vaguely recall a long essay about it tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language. 
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.
> Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
> This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
------
1984/New_speak|986257443
2,3c2,3
< Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
< This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
---
>  Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
>  This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
------
1977|986257560
5c5
< [[Arts and Entertainment]]...
---
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
7,8c7,8
< - [[Book]]...
< A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
---
> [[Books]]
> <br>A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
10,13c10,11
< - [[Film]]...
< The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.
< 
< And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
---
> [[Film]]
> <br>The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
17d14
< George Jenkins and George Gaines win the [[Academy Awards/Art Direction|Art Direction]] award.
19c16
< [[Sport]]...
---
> [[Sport]]
21c18
< - [[Motor sport]]...
---
> [[Motor sport]]
23,24c20,21
< - [[NASCAR Championship]]...
< [[Cale Yarborough]] won this years event, with [[Richard Petty]] coming in second.
---
> [[NASCAR Championship]]
> <br>[[Cale Yarborough]] won this years event, with [[Richard Petty]] coming in second.
26c23
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
1977|986257594
7c7
< [[Books]]
---
> [[Book|Books]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|986258089
2a3
> [[/44 BC]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|986258097
3,4c3,4
< [[/44 BC]]
< [[/2000]]
---
>  [[/44 BC]]
>  [[/2000]]
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths/44_BC|986258112
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Julius Ceasar - stabbed.
------
1984/New_speak|986259725
1,3c1
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.
<  Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
<  This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
---
> #REDIRECT [[1984/Newspeak]]
------
1984/New_speak|986259744
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[1984/Newspeak]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Newspeak]]
------
Newspeak|986259751
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.
> 
> Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
> 
> This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
------
Poker/Hands|986259831
1c1
< There are many [[poker variant]]s, but all of them rank combinations of cards in one of only a few ways, as outlined below.  Each poker game will specify which of these hand rankings is used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]]).
---
> There are many [[Poker/Variants|variants]] of the game [[poker]], but nearly all of them rank combinations of cards as outlined below.  Poker games should specify if any variations of these hand rankings are used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]] for how to play the game itself and [[Poker]] for more information).
3c3
< Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif] ranks higher than [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif], but lower than [http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif]).
---
> <b>Readers note:</b> The explanations below use four-color images for improved readability, but typical [[playing card]]s used for poker are only the standard Anglo-American black and red.
5c5,104
< ...
---
> <h2>General rules</h2>
> 
> * <b>A poker hand consists of five cards.</b>
> :Even in games where more than five cards are available to each player, hands are ranked by choosing some five-card subset according to the rules of the game, and comparing that five-card hand against the five-card hands of the other players.  Whatever cards remain after choosing the five to be played are of no consequence in determining the winner.
> 
> * <b>Hands are ranked by category first.</b>
> :That is, even the minimum qualifying hand in a certain category below defeats all hands in all lower categories.  The smallest two-pair hand, for example, defeats all hands with just one pair or no pair.
> 
> * <b>The order in which cards are dealt is unimportant</b>
> :For ease of explanation, hands are shown here neatly arranged, but a poker hand is the same no matter what order the cards are received in.
> 
> * <b>Suits have no value.</b>
> :The suits of the cards may be used in determining a hand (specifically the "flush" and "straight flush" hands), but never does a card or hand of cards rank above another solely because of suit.  If two players have hands that are identical except for suit, then they are tied and split the pot.
> 
> :Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, the Ace of clubs ranks higher than any King, but lower than the Ace of diamonds.  This ranking of cards is called "high card by suit", and can be used for determining who is required to pay a bring-in, who gets the odd chip in a split pot, and other uses, but <i>never</i> to break ties between poker hands themselves.
> 
> * <b>Individual cards are ranked.</b>
> Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
> 
> <h2>Hand categories</h2>
> 
> <h3>
> No Pair
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>No Pair</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7h.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
> 
> <h3>
> One Pair
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>One Pair</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><tr>
> </table>
> 
> In some games, kickers become very important (typically community card games like [[Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
> 
> <h3>
> Two Pair
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.
> If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Two Pair</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif</td><tr>
> </table>
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example,
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif, 
> the highest poker hand you can make is two pair:
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif.
> The extra http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Three of a Kind
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set" (the latter term is more
> specific to community card games, where two of the set are in your hand and one in the community cards).  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in
> games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Three of a Kind</th><tr>
> <td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif</td><tr>
> <td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif<br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Straight
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif
> </h3>
6a106,203
> Five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight"
> or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).
> 
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Straight</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> Aces are a special case here: the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif
> is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif,
> called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
> 
> When "wild" cards are used (cards, often the joker, that may be designated as another card of the player's choice according
> to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif, it plays as a http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7.gif (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
> 
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif, and your opponent has http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
> Of course, if his hand were instead http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Flush
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Flush</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> When wild cards are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present
> in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif, the wild card plays as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif, but in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif, it plays as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif.
> 
> <b>Exception:</b> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always
> plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif would defeat http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif (the wild card playing as an imaginary
> second http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif outranks the former's http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif).
> This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Full House
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of tips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Full House</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Four of a Kind
> <br>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Four of a Kind</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Straight Flush
> <br>
> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Straight Flush</th><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif</td><tr>
> <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif</td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Five of a Kind
> <br>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards of the same rank (only possible in wild card games).  Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.
> (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with <em>way</em> too many wild cards).
> 
> <h2>Lowball</h2>
> 
> ...
------
2984/New_speak|986259861
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[1984/New speak]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Newspeak]]
------
Famous_Physicists|986260061
1c1
< Many famous physicists of this century are found on the list of [[NobelPrize|Nobel Prize laureates in physics]].
---
> Many famous physicists of this century are found on the list of [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Prize laureates in physics]].
------
Poker/Hands|986260984
3,4d2
< <b>Readers note:</b> The explanations below use four-color images for improved readability, but typical [[playing card]]s used for poker are only the standard Anglo-American black and red.
< 
29c27
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif
---
> <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;
36,37c34,35
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7h.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif</td>
---
> <td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&hearts;</font></td><tr>
> <td>A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;</td>
45c43
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif
---
> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;
52,53c50,51
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><tr>
---
> <td>10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><tr>
61c59
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif
---
> <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;
69,71c67,69
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif</td><tr>
---
> <td><font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades;</td><tr>
> <td>9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> K&clubs;</td><tr>
> <td>4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;</td><tr>
75c73
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif, 
---
> 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
77,78c75,76
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif.
< The extra http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
---
> 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>.
> The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
84c82
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif
---
> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;
93,96c91,94
< <td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif</td><tr>
< <td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif<br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif</td>
---
> <td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs;</td><tr>
> <td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font><br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;</td>
103c101
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif
---
> Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font>
112,113c110,111
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2c.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif</td>
---
> <td>8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><tr>
> <td>8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font></td>
116,118c114,116
< Aces are a special case here: the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif
< is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif,
< called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
---
> Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades;
> is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;,
> called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
121c119
< to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7s.gif, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif, it plays as a http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7.gif (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
---
> to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>J&diams;</font> 10&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7&spades;, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
123,124c121,122
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif, and your opponent has http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
< Of course, if his hand were instead http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
---
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
> Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
130c128
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4c.gif
---
> Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;
137,139c135,137
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2h.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif</td>
---
> <td><font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades;</td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><td>ties</td><td>Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;</td>
143c141
< in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif, the wild card plays as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif, but in the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif, it plays as http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif.
---
> in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>A&hearts;</font>, but in the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&clubs; 6&clubs;, it plays as Q&clubs;.
146,147c144,145
< plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font> http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif would defeat http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif (the wild card playing as an imaginary
< second http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif outranks the former's http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif).
---
> plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary
> second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).
154c152
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif
---
> 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font>
161,163c159,161
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qh.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif</td>
---
> <td>10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs;</td><tr>
> <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&spades;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font></td>
168c166
< <br>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jh.gif
---
> <br>9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font>
175,176c173,174
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ks.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif</td>
---
> <td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;</td><tr>
> <td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font></td>
182c180
< http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qs.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Js.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8s.gif
---
> Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;
185c183
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Kc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Qc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
---
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
189,190c187,188
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/6h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4h.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3h.gif</td><td>defeats</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/5s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/4s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/3s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/2s.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif</td><tr>
< <td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jc.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8c.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7c.gif</td><td>ties</td><td>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Jd.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/10d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/9d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/8d.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/7d.gif</td>
---
> <td><font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;</td><tr>
> <td>J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs;</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font></td>
195c193
< <br>http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/As.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ac.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ah.gif http://www.piclab.com/poker/cards/Ad.gif <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
---
> <br>A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
200,203d197
< 
< <h2>Lowball</h2>
< 
< ...
------
Poker/Hands|986261115
2a3,4
> <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses card suit symbols that may not appear correctly on your web browser.  If that is the case, go to [[Poker/Hands2|this page]] which uses letters to represent suits.
> 
------
Poker/Hands2|986261329
1c1,199
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are many [[Poker/Variants|variants]] of the game [[poker]], but nearly all of them rank combinations of cards as outlined below.  Poker games should specify if any variations of these hand rankings are used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]] for how to play the game itself and [[Poker]] for more information).
> 
> <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses letters to represent card suits.  A more readable version that uses suit symbols is [[Poker/Hands|this page]], though it may not work in your browser.
> 
> <h2>General rules</h2>
> 
> * <b>A poker hand consists of five cards.</b>
> :Even in games where more than five cards are available to each player, hands are ranked by choosing some five-card subset according to the rules of the game, and comparing that five-card hand against the five-card hands of the other players.  Whatever cards remain after choosing the five to be played are of no consequence in determining the winner.
> 
> * <b>Hands are ranked by category first.</b>
> :That is, even the minimum qualifying hand in a certain category below defeats all hands in all lower categories.  The smallest two-pair hand, for example, defeats all hands with just one pair or no pair.
> 
> * <b>The order in which cards are dealt is unimportant</b>
> :For ease of explanation, hands are shown here neatly arranged, but a poker hand is the same no matter what order the cards are received in.
> 
> * <b>Suits have no value.</b>
> :The suits of the cards may be used in determining a hand (specifically the "flush" and "straight flush" hands), but never does a card or hand of cards rank above another solely because of suit.  If two players have hands that are identical except for suit, then they are tied and split the pot.
> 
> :Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, the Ace of clubs ranks higher than any King, but lower than the Ace of diamonds.  This ranking of cards is called "high card by suit", and can be used for determining who is required to pay a bring-in, who gets the odd chip in a split pot, and other uses, but <i>never</i> to break ties between poker hands themselves.
> 
> * <b>Individual cards are ranked.</b>
> Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
> 
> <h2>Hand categories</h2>
> 
> <h3>
> No Pair
> <br>
> <font color=red>KH</font> JC 8C <font color=red>7D</font> 3S
> </h3>
> 
> Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>No Pair</th><tr>
> <td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9S 5C 4C</td><td>defeats</td><td>KC <font color=red>QD</font> JC <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>7H</font></td><tr>
> <td>AC QC <font color=red>7D</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 2C</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9S 5C 4C</td>
> </table>
> 
> No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
> 
> <h3>
> One Pair
> <br>
> <font color=red>4H</font> 4S KS <font color=red>10D</font> 5S
> </h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>One Pair</th><tr>
> <td>10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9C <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>10D</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>3H</font> 2C</td><td>defeats</td><td>10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><tr>
> </table>
> 
> In some games, kickers become very important (typically community card games like [[Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
> 
> <h3>
> Two Pair
> <br>
> <font color=red>JD</font> JC 4C 4S 9S
> </h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.
> If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Two Pair</th><tr>
> <td><font color=red>KH</font> <font color=red>KD</font> 2C <font color=red>2D</font> <font color=red>JH</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>JD</font> JS 10S 10C 9S</td><tr>
> <td>9C <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>7D</font> 7S <font color=red>6H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9S <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> KC</td><tr>
> <td>4S 4C 3S <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>KD</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 10S</td><tr>
> </table>
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example,
> 10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>8H</font> 4C 4S <font color=red>QD</font>, 
> the highest poker hand you can make is two pair:
> 10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>QD</font>.
> The extra 4C 4S are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Three of a Kind
> <br>
> <font color=red>2D</font> 2S <font color=red>2H</font> KS 6S
> </h3>
> 
> Three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set" (the latter term is more
> specific to community card games, where two of the set are in your hand and one in the community cards).  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in
> games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Three of a Kind</th><tr>
> <td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> 5S 3C<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>5C <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>QD</font> 10C</td><tr>
> <td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> AC <font color=red>2D</font><br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
> <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> 5S 3C</td>
> </table>
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Straight
> <br>
> QC JS 10S <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>8H</font>
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight"
> or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).
> 
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Straight</th><tr>
> <td>8S 7S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4S</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3H</font> 2C</td><tr>
> <td>8S 7S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4S</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>7D</font> 6C 5C <font color=red>4H</font></td>
> </table>
> 
> Aces are a special case here: the hand AC KC <font color=red>QD</font> JS 10S
> is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>9D</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 2S AC,
> called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6S 5C 4C <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>2H</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3C <font color=red>2D</font> AS KS QC is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
> 
> When "wild" cards are used (cards, often the joker, that may be designated as another card of the player's choice according
> to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>JD</font> 10S 9C <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7S, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3D</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
> 
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9C, and your opponent has <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 9S 8S 7C, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
> Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 9S 8S, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Flush
> <br>
> QC 10C 7C 6C 4C
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Flush</th><tr>
> <td><font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>KS QS JS 9S 6S</td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>7D</font> <font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>2D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><td>ties</td><td>QS 10S 9S 5S 2S</td>
> </table>
> 
> When wild cards are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present
> in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>AH</font>, but in the hand AC KC <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9C 6C, it plays as QC.
> 
> <b>Exception:</b> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always
> plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand AS <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9S 5S 2S would defeat <font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary
> second AS), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's <font color=red>QD</font> outranks the former's 9S).
> This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> 
> <h3>
> Full House
> <br>
> 3C 3S <font color=red>3D</font> 6C <font color=red>6H</font>
> </h3>
> 
> Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of tips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Full House</th><tr>
> <td>10S <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9C 9S <font color=red>AH</font> AC</td><tr>
> <td>KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 3S</td><td>defeats</td><td>10S <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font></td><tr>
> <td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> QC <font color=red>8H</font> 8C</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> QC 5S <font color=red>5H</font></td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Four of a Kind
> <br>9C 9S <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>JH</font>
> </h3>
> 
> Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Four of a Kind</th><tr>
> <td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>6H</font> 6S 6C KS</td><tr>
> <td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S QC</td><td>defeats</td><td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font></td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Straight Flush
> <br>
> QS JS 10S 9S 8S
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>2D</font> <font color=red>AD</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush AC KC QC JC 10C is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
> 
> <table border=0 align=center><tr>
> <th colspan=3>Straight Flush</th><tr>
> <td><font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>5S 4S 3S 2S AS</td><tr>
> <td>JC 10C 9C 8C 7C</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>7D</font></td>
> </table>
> 
> <h3>
> Five of a Kind
> <br>AS AC <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
> </h3>
> 
> Five cards of the same rank (only possible in wild card games).  Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.
> (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with <em>way</em> too many wild cards).
------
Poker/Hands|986261576
199a200,203
> 
> <h2>Lowball</b>
> 
> To be continued...
------
Poker/Hands2|986261600
199a200,203
> 
> <h2>Lowball</h2>
> 
> To be continued...
------
Poker/Hands|986262017
203c203
< To be continued...
---
> To be continued....
------
Niels_Bohr|986262124
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Niels Bohr (1885-1962); danish physicist who recieved the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics in 1922.
> 
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|986262274
5c5
< *[[Galileo Galileo]]
---
> *[[Galileo]]
18c18
< (...many more)
---
> (...many more)
------
Famous_Physicists|986262349
7a8
> * [[Niels Bohr]]
------
Prion|986263572
1c1
< Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
---
> Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[/Stanley B. Prusiner|Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
------
Prion|986263627
1c1
< Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[/Stanley B. Prusiner|Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
---
> Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[Stanley B. Prusiner|Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
------
Biology|986265477
22a23
>  [[Molecular biology|molecular biology]]
------
Biology|986265543
23c23
<  [[Molecular biology|molecular biology]]
---
>  [[Molecular Biology|molecular biology]]
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986267806
53a54,55
> ''Citizens not in the group get attention from other departments.  This particular one is dedicated to helping no given individuals but to ironing out a strong demographic inequity.  Treating unequals as equals leaves them so, this is a balancing force.  Hypothetically should the inequity go the other way, there should be an organization to fix that to.  I can see how this could easily become problematic, and it frequently does, but I don't consider the principle unequal.''
> 
56a59,60
> 
> ''And actually, I forgot to mention this before, but spoiling the state is not the issue.  The problem is that particular national park was set up to protect a particularly important area, one that the caribou habitually migrate to and from.  Disrupting it will hurt the caribou even if it does not spread oil across the whole area.''
------
Agnostida|986268844
3c3,10
< Agnostidia first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until Ordovician.  ''I think''  The Agnostidia are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.
---
> ''Someone who knows more about palaeotheology should check this.  As I understand it theism in early trilobites is clearly indicated by the development of the three lobes, symbolizing the trinity, but I don't understand why this was retained in later forms, whose atheism is well established by the development of the third tagmata (see "Islam and Eurypterids", 1986).''
> 
> Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until Ordovician.  ''I think''  The Agnostida are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.
> 
> ''Doing a quick search found the Agnostids divided into two suborders - the Agnostina and the Eodiscina - both divided into many families, with ''Pagetides'' itself placed in the Eodiscidae.  That seems to be fairly recent, from 1977.  I can copy and paste it in if you want.''
> 
> Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The problem is that the legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites; if so, they are probably the first line to have diverged.
> 
5d11
< Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The problem is that the legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites.
------
Erotica|986268947
1c1
< Erotica, after the Greek god of love, Eros, is art (including literature, photography, painting, etc.) intended to stimulate or arouse sexual love or desire, by virtue of the fact that it deals in unambiguous portrayal of sexual acts or situations.
---
> Erotica, after from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''eros'', love, is art (including literature, photography, painting, etc.) intended to stimulate or arouse sexual love or desire, by virtue of the fact that it deals in unambiguous portrayal of sexual acts or situations.
------
Biology|986269326
23c23
<  [[Molecular Biology|molecular biology]]
---
>  [[Molecular Biology|molecular_biology]]
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986269547
15a16,17
> 
> Surely the media wasn't leftist during the cold war, when the government ended up instituting legislation against it being so?  Huh!  You learn something each day...
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986269653
17c17
< Surely the media wasn't leftist during the cold war, when the government ended up instituting legislation against it being so?  Huh!  You learn something each day...
---
> Surely the media wasn't leftist during the cold war, when the government ended up instituting legislation against it being so?  Huh!  You learn something each day...as a technical note, do the crimes of the USSR end up being counted as genocide ''per se''?  I was under the impression that genocide referred to the targeting of a particular ethnic group, whereas Stalin pretty much killed people randomly.  I think it might be better to use most murderous or some other superlative like that.
------
Geologic_Timescale|986270220
54a55,56
> 
> ''Everything I've seen has used Ediacaran and Vendian as synonyms for the geologic period itself, the animals always being referred to by nuisance constructions like Ediacaran fauna, Vendian biota, and so forth.  The term Neoproterozoic I've never seen before, but as I said, with some searching it appears to be somewhat longer.  But I'm not a palaeontologist, you shouldn't leave such decisions to me just because I got here first.''
------
Contraception|986272302
7a8,9
> * [[Intrauterine Device]]
> * [[Prophylactic]]
8a11
> * [[Tubal Ligation]]
------
Poker/Hands|986272624
22c22
< Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
---
> :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
201c201
< <h2>Lowball</b>
---
> <h2>Lowball</h2>
------
Poker/Hands2|986272660
22c22
< Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
---
> :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
------
Sex|986272803
19a20,21
> ::[[Syphilis]]
> ::[[Gonorrhea]]
22,23c24,25
< :[[Erotica]]
< :[[Pornography]]
---
> ::[[Erotica]]
> ::[[Pornography]]
------
Concrete|986273526
3c3,11
< See [[particular]]; [[individual]]; [[abstract]].
---
> See [[particular]]; [[individual]]; [[abstract]].----
> 
> Truly confused. You say:
> it is both [[particular]] and *an [[individual]]*, hence occupying some space and time. 
> But an individual as a noun refers to a person. I think you want to say that:
> it is both [[particular]] and [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  
> Then you expand on this and compound the confusion with: 
> So, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular *individual* that is located at a particular place and time. 
> Are only individuals, i.e. people, concrete? I always thought my PC was conctrete. I guess I had better look at it. An abstract PC will be little help in disputing this definition.  Please clarify. 
------
SandBox|986273946
14c14
<                            * ?   ? *                      &amp;Theta;
---
>                            * &alpha;   &alpha; *                      &amp;Theta;
16c16
<                            *   ?   *                    /
---
>                            *   &gamma;   *                    /
55c55
< ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
58c58
< ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986274581
17a18,23
> ----
> Stalin killed in both manners.  While his regime committed genocide, he also had people killed without concern to ethnicity, but almost always with some sort of maligned reason.  
> 
> Unfortunately, my first-hand research of Stalin was limited to the period from 1915-1921.  In 1997, I was translating telegrams and messages regarding the [[Czech Legion]]'s [[anabasis]] across [[Revolutionary Russia]] after their defection from the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] on the [[Eastern Front]] of [[World War I]].  Many of these documents were handwritten by Stalin, [[Vladimir Illich Lenin|Lenin]], [[Aralov]], and [[Trotsky]].  I wikified all of this, because it has to do with the Soviet Union and I need to dig my notes out and write about that.  
> 
> Larry, I still have many of my rough draft translations from that project, would that be considered encyclopedic (''general education'')?   The professor is dead now and the project died with her (and I can't get the fellowship to continue the work!), but I know not the legalities on this.  --[[Invictus]]
------
Poker/Hands|986274808
203c203,247
< To be continued....
---
> Some games called "lowball" or "low poker" are played where players strive not for the highest ranking of the above combinations but for the lowest ranking hand.  Some games are also played "high/low" or "high/low split", in which the high hand and the low hand split the pot upon showdown.  There are three methods of determining low hands.  The "Ace to Five" method is most common, especially in high/low games.
> 
> <h3>"California" or "Ace to Five" low</h3>
> 
> In all lowball games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair
> hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the "high" hand loses.  In ace to five low, straights and flushes are ignored, and aces play as the lowest card.
> 
> For example, the hand <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs;3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats 9&spades;7&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs;, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
> Aces are low, so 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> defeats
> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font>.
> Also, A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> 3&clubs; (a pair of aces) defeats 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 5&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> 8&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 6&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>
> defeats <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> A&clubs;.
> 
> This is called ace to five low, because the lowest (and therefore best) possible hand is 5-4-3-2-A (suits irrelevant), called a "wheel" or "bicycle".  The next best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-A, then 6-5-4-2-A, etc.
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8&spades; 6&spades; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8&clubs; 7&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> A&spades;.
> 
> In games where the high and low hands split the winnings, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may
> be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre
> both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&clubs; A&spades;, and another has 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
> half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.
> Strange things can happen at poker tables.
> 
> Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs; 2&spades;--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 3&spades;.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
> 
> 
> <h3>"Kansas City" or "Deuce to Seven" Low</h3>
> 
> Kansas City low poker is almost the direct opposite of standard high poker: high poker hand loses.  Aces are always high, and straights and flushes count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce to seven low because the best possible hand is 7&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> 3&spades; 2&clubs; (of any mixed suits).
> Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.  The game of five-card draw poker, deuce to seven low is sometimes called "Billy Baxter draw", in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the game for many years.  Deuce to seven low is rarely played with wild cards.
> 
> <h3>"Chicago" or "Ace to Six" Low</h3>
> 
> This is the rarest form of low poker in the [[United States]], but is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball.  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
> 
> <h3>Wild Cards</h3>
> 
> Poker games may contain one or more cards designated as "wild".  These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant).  There are two rules in common use regarding wildcards: fully "wild" cards and the "bug".
> 
> A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs; 3&spades; is a straight.
> 
> Two exceptions to standard practice sometimes seen in home games are the double-ace flush rule mentioned above (in the
> section on flushes), and the "natural wins" rule.  The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins.  This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush).
> 
> There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish.
> While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play.  In particular, 5-card draw, whether for high or low, is traditionally played with a Joker in California (which plays as a bug for high).  Seven-Card Stud plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played high/low.  Five-Card Draw and Stud even play well with deuces fully wild.  Other games like Texas Holdem and Omaha do not play well with wild cards.
------
Poker/Hands2|986274990
203c203,248
< To be continued...
---
> Some games called "lowball" or "low poker" are played where players strive not for the highest ranking of the above combinations but for the lowest ranking hand.  Some games are also played "high/low" or "high/low split", in which the high hand and the low hand split the pot upon showdown.  There are three methods of determining low hands.  The "Ace to Five" method is most common, especially in high/low games.
> 
> <h3>"California" or "Ace to Five" low</h3>
> 
> In all lowball games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair
> hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the "high" hand loses.  In ace to five low, straights and flushes are ignored, and aces play as the lowest card.
> 
> For example, the hand <font color=red>8H</font> 5C 4C3S <font color=red>2D</font> defeats 9S7C <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> 3C, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3H</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
> Aces are low, so 8S 5C 4C <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>AD</font> defeats
> <font color=red>8H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3S <font color=red>2D</font>.
> Also, AS AC <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>5D</font> 3C (a pair of aces) defeats 2C <font color=red>2D</font> 5S 4S <font color=red>3H</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to KS <font color=red>JH</font> 8S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>4D</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 6S 4S <font color=red>2H</font>
> defeats <font color=red>3H</font> 3S <font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>5H</font> AC.
> 
> This is called ace to five low, because the lowest (and therefore best) possible hand is 5-4-3-2-A (suits irrelevant), called a "wheel" or "bicycle".  The next best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-A, then 6-5-4-2-A, etc.
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8S 6S 5C <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>2D</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8C 7S <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4H</font> AS.
> 
> In games where the high and low hands split the winnings, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may
> be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre
> both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>2H</font> <font color=red>AH</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 2C AS, and another has 10C 9C 8C 7C 6C for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
> half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.
> Strange things can happen at poker tables.
> 
> Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>AD</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6C 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3C 2S--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4C 3S.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
> 
> 
> <h3>"Kansas City" or "Deuce to Seven" Low</h3>
> 
> Kansas City low poker is almost the direct opposite of standard high poker: high poker hand loses.  Aces are always high, and straights and flushes count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce to seven low because the best possible hand is 7C 5S <font color=red>4D</font> 3S 2C (of any mixed suits).
> Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that AC 5C <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>2H</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.  The game of five-card draw poker, deuce to seven low is sometimes called "Billy Baxter draw", in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the game for many years.  Deuce to seven low is rarely played with wild cards.
> 
> <h3>"Chicago" or "Ace to Six" Low</h3>
> 
> This is the rarest form of low poker in the [[United States]], but is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball.  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
> 
> <h3>Wild Cards</h3>
> 
> Poker games may contain one or more cards designated as "wild".  These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant).  There are two rules in common use regarding wildcards: fully "wild" cards and the "bug".
> 
> A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> 5C 4C 3S is a straight.
> 
> Two exceptions to standard practice sometimes seen in home games are the double-ace flush rule mentioned above (in the
> section on flushes), and the "natural wins" rule.  The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins.  This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush).
> 
> There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish.
> While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play.  In particular, 5-card draw, whether for high or low, is traditionally played with a Joker in California (which plays as a bug for high).  Seven-Card Stud plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played high/low.  Five-Card Draw and Stud even play well with deuces fully wild.  Other games like Texas Holdem and Omaha do not play well with wild cards.
> 
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986274991
1c1
< Funny, this page strikes me as a gratuitous self-congralulatory one. Not to mention opinionated-who can tell the tell articluateness and intelligence of contributors-
---
> Funny, this page strikes me as a gratuitous self-congralulatory one. Not to mention opinionated-who can tell the tell articulateness and intelligence of contributors-
8c8,13
< Given enough time, many many more will follow.
---
> Given enough time, many many more will follow.----
> I said:
> 
> "If this content is moved to a linked talk or opinion page, I will consider that proof of my point, and worse."
> 
> You did exactly what I feared and have surely proved my point to me. And as the ultimate detector of bias and defender of non-bias, I am more than disappointed in your action.. It appears you don't care, enough to either have read my whole statemnt or, if you did consider this remark I just quoted, you did not have the courtesy to explain why my remarks are opinion, while the page I originally added them to is fact. Such is life.
------
Poker/Game_play|986275489
23c23
< Here are some sample deals to show the order of betting.  Assume that Alice is dealing, that Bob sits to her left, Carol to his left, and David to her left.
---
> Here are some sample deals to show the order of betting.  Assume that Alice is dealing, that Bob sits to her left, Carol to his left, and David to her left.  Sitting at a table with actual chips will make it considerably easier to follow and understand the text below.
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|986275567
24c24
< <tr><td>logos, -ou, -o  </td><td>word (too frightened to try to list the verb) </td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>legein<br>logos, -ou, -o</td><td>to pick up, count, say<br>thought, word ''(verbal noun)''</td></tr>
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986275860
3c3
< The betting structure of a game is a more significant factor in its balance of luck and skill than the game variant being played.  Higher forced bets and smaller limits increase the influence of chance.  Smaller forced bets and larger limits increase the element of skill.  Good games are carfully balanced so that skillful players will win in the long run while recreational players can win often enough for the game to be exciting to them.
---
> The betting structure of a poker game is a more significant factor in its balance of luck and skill than the game variant being played.  Higher forced bets and smaller limits increase the influence of chance.  Smaller forced bets and larger limits increase the element of skill.  Good games are carefully balanced so that skillful players will win in the long run while recreational players can win often enough for the game to be exciting to them.
13c13
< A good balance is for the total of all forced bets to equal one or two times the betting limit for a game.  For example, if eight players play a game with a $2 betting limit, a $.25 or $.50 ante would make a well-balanced game, as would a game with $1 and $2 blinds, or a $.25 ante and $1 bring-in.
---
> Home games typically use a small ante only.  Casino games typically use blinds for draw and community card games, and an ante plus bring-in for stud games (very small limit stud games may omit the ante).  A good balance is for the total of all forced bets to equal one or two times the betting limit for a game.  For example, if eight players play a game with a $2 betting limit, a $.25 or $.50 ante would make a well-balanced game, as would a game with $1 and $2 blinds, or a $.25 ante and $1 bring-in.
------
Ediacarian|986277165
3c3
< As time has passed, the Ediacarian faunas have, if anything, become more rather than less enigmatic.  A few fossils such as ''Kimberella'', ''Bomkiella'', and ''Xenusion'' seem to be possible for precursors to Cambrian forms.  Close to the Cambrian boundary, worm tracks, and various hard shelled forms -- especially a collection of small forms known as the 'small shelly fauna' also appear to be probable precursors of Cambrian life.  On the other hand, many of the best known Ediacarian creatures appear to be immobile blobs, disks, fronds, and air matress like shapes that have no obvious relationship to later forms.  There is considerable controversy about the nature of many Ediacarian forms.
---
> As time has passed, the Ediacarian faunas have, if anything, become more rather than less enigmatic.  A few fossils such as ''Kimberella'', ''Bomakellia'', and ''Xenusion'' seem to be possible for precursors to Cambrian forms.  Close to the Cambrian boundary, worm tracks, and various hard shelled forms -- especially a collection of small forms known as the 'small shelly fauna' also appear to be probable precursors of Cambrian life.  On the other hand, many of the best known Ediacarian creatures appear to be immobile blobs, disks, fronds, and air matress like shapes that have no obvious relationship to later forms.  There is considerable controversy about the nature of many Ediacarian forms.
5c5
< It should also be mentioned that there are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3465 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
---
> It should also be mentioned that there are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
------
Agnostida|986278523
5c5
< Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until Ordovician.  ''I think''  The Agnostida are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.
---
> Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until the late Ordovician.  The Agnostida are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.  
9c9,11
< Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The problem is that the legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites; if so, they are probably the first line to have diverged.
---
> ''In the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, the Eodiscina in turn are divided into two families -- Eodiscids and Pagetids.  I think that still reflects general usage.  BTW, I think we might have the endings ids, ins, es etc within the Order a bit scrambled.  I'll look at that Wednesday''
> 
> Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites.  Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites.  However, four orders of trilobites (Redlichia, Corynexida, Naroidia, Ptychoparia) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the fossil record.
------
Soviet_Union|986279642
7c7
< Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]]
---
> Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]]
12c12
< [[Soviet Union/Talk|/Talk]]
---
> [[Soviet Union/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Lyrics1977|986281009
1c1,3
< Copyrighted song lyrics removed
---
> Copyrighted song lyrics removed
> 
> are you sure even that was copyrighted?
------
Mathijs|986281243
4d3
< ::''Yes, Mathijs, you <b>are</b> a troll, and not because others react to you in any particular way, but because you make no useful contribution to the encyclopedia and expect other people to indulge your nonsense.''
16,24d14
< ----
< I thought you were going to leave, Mathijs; that's what you told me.  But it seems your feelings had just been hurt, and now you're back for more.  As far as I'm concerned, almost 100% of what you have contributed (or tried to contribute) to Wikipedia has been, in sum, not encyclopedic.  Obviously--''obviously''--not all words, ideas, opinions, and perceptions are welcome on Wikipedia.  Those words, etc., that express ''encyclopedic content,'' i.e., something closely resembling an encyclopedia article, are the word that are welcome here.  If all you want to do is rant, argue, upload lyrics of idiotic songs, and otherwise behave like the child I suspect you to be, there are '''many, many''' other places on the Internet where your stuff will fit in perfectly.  Wikipedia is not one of them.  That sort of stupidity ''is'' disagreeable on Wikipedia.  Since you're not interested in shaping up, just leave. --[[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< I think Larry's being a little harsh.  But Mathijs, it is important that you understand why people are unhappy with you.  It isn't as though we don't welcome controversial opinions or people with different ideas.  Josh Grosse and I have been arguing a lot recently over on the [[Socialism/Talk]] page.  If you think that's what this is about, you should think again.
< 
< The objection that I think most people have is that you <i>rant</i> (in your own terminology).  I take this to mean that rather than putting forth ideas and arguments (that might or might not be controversial in some instances) you just post random crap to piss people off.  That's really not nice, and not in the spirit of co-operation that we have here.
< 
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< A good reason to put stuff in <b>[[Talk Page]]</b>s.
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986281950
19c19,21
< Stalin killed in both manners.  While his regime committed genocide, he also had people killed without concern to ethnicity, but almost always with some sort of maligned reason.  
---
> Stalin killed in both manners.  While his regime committed genocide, he also had people killed without concern to ethnicity, but almost always with some sort of maligned reason.
> 
> (Genocide is a technical term, but is commonly used in a non-technical way to mean political mass killing; democide may be the correct term for this but it is not in common usage; it is used in the Sovier Union article in the non-technical sense. - TS) 
23c25
< Larry, I still have many of my rough draft translations from that project, would that be considered encyclopedic (''general education'')?   The professor is dead now and the project died with her (and I can't get the fellowship to continue the work!), but I know not the legalities on this.  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Larry, I still have many of my rough draft translations from that project, would that be considered encyclopedic (''general education'')?   The professor is dead now and the project died with her (and I can't get the fellowship to continue the work!), but I know not the legalities on this.  --[[Invictus]]
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986282254
25a26,37
> ----
> Well, this is a very good question.  We've discussed a similar question on Nupedia: should original research be included in the encyclopedia?  The answer for Nupedia is: generally speaking, no.  An encyclopedia is a summation of what is known about a subject, not a place for original research.  (This is a summary of the conclusion we, most of us, came to, not our reasoning.)  Now, on Wikipedia, perhaps we would want to be more inclusive.  One might ask what reason we might have for ''not'' being inclusive in this regard.  I think there might be a reason; the purpose of an encyclopedia is not to put research under the careful scrutiny of experts, as with journal and academic book publishing.
> 
> So one might argue that, unless your research had already been reviewed in such a forum, it wouldn't be appropriate for Wikipedia (or Nupedia), because, for all we know, it might be really shoddy work.  Of course, I'm not saying your work ''is'' shoddy work--probably it isn't.  But that's not for Wikipedia to determine.
> 
> Here is another possible argument: if indeed your research ''were'' important enough to be included as the source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact, then (probably, only probably) it should ''and would'' already have been published and made more widely known to the world.  On the other hand, if it's not important enough to have been published, then it's surely not important enough to be a source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact (I'm thinking I like that phrase; we can create an acronym: enimaf).  And on a third hand, supposing that what you're translating is already widely-known and imparted in various sources about Stalin's Russia, then I have a question: shouldn't we consult such sources in conjunction with your work?  Very often, historical examination of source material by non-historians is prone to all sorts of mistakes--just like examination of history of philosophy by non-philosophers, or examination of history of science by non-scientists, etc.
> 
> As to the legalities, I don't know, but I imagine they're worth considering, at least.
> 
> Anyway, I'd be interested to see what other people have to say about this.  I think it's an interesting subject.  Above, mainly I'm playing devil's advocate, but I am by no means strongly on this side of the debate.
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Morse_code|986282732
0a1,2
> A system of representing letters, numbers and punctuation marks by the means of dots and dashes. The code was transmitted as electrical pulse or as a mechanical or visual signal (eg. a flashing light). It was invented by [[Samuel Morse]] in the 1830s to be used in [[telegraphy]].
> 
------
Soviet_Union|986282769
7c7
< Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]]
---
> Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]] -- [[Moldova]]
------
Niels_Bohr|986282991
1c1
< Niels Bohr (1885-1962); danish physicist who recieved the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics in 1922.
---
> Niels Bohr (1885-1962); Danish physicist who received the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics in 1922.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986283402
13a14,21
> ----
> Well, basically, you're confused, and many of us no doubt don't want to take the time to try to unconfuse you, particularly because you sound like you're the sort of person, or in a sort of mood, or whatever, such that you would be very hard to unconfuse.  Anyway, there is a basica confusion you seem to be laboring under: you think that [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is intended to be, and will be understood by most people to be, a statement of fact rather than opinion.  This is false.  In fact, it is so obviously false that that's probably why no one wanted to take the trouble to point it out to you.  In this case, the page isn't in the encyclopedia; it's ''about'' the encyclopedia.  So why should you expect it to be fact-stating rather than opinion-stating?  You fail to understand that the purpose of [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is, essentially, PR; like much PR, a lot of it is stated with tongue in cheek and with cheery optimism.  And there's nothing wrong with that, and if you think there is, you're wrong.  :-)  This also explains why it has the self-congratulatory tone it has, but it also explains why it isn't ''gratutiously'' self-congratulatory.
> 
> As to your point,
> :It behooves me to mention the large amount of pages that are cut and pasted from other free domain sources that are merely refactored at best but rarely updated. I would not count these at all, in the so-called unprecedented growth of pages here.
> I find this confusing.  Why not include them in the growth of pages?  They're part of Wikipedia, aren't they?  We aren't embarrassed by those pages.  Do you think we should be?  We're glad they're there.
> 
> It seems to me you're taking all this much more seriously than we do.  Consequently, your reaction seems strangely out of place. --[[LMS]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986283552
15c15
< Well, basically, you're confused, and many of us no doubt don't want to take the time to try to unconfuse you, particularly because you sound like you're the sort of person, or in a sort of mood, or whatever, such that you would be very hard to unconfuse.  Anyway, there is a basica confusion you seem to be laboring under: you think that [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is intended to be, and will be understood by most people to be, a statement of fact rather than opinion.  This is false.  In fact, it is so obviously false that that's probably why no one wanted to take the trouble to point it out to you.  In this case, the page isn't in the encyclopedia; it's ''about'' the encyclopedia.  So why should you expect it to be fact-stating rather than opinion-stating?  You fail to understand that the purpose of [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is, essentially, PR; like much PR, a lot of it is stated with tongue in cheek and with cheery optimism.  And there's nothing wrong with that, and if you think there is, you're wrong.  :-)  This also explains why it has the self-congratulatory tone it has, but it also explains why it isn't ''gratutiously'' self-congratulatory.
---
> Well, basically, you're confused, and many of us no doubt don't want to take the time to try to unconfuse you, particularly because you sound like you're the sort of person, or in a sort of mood, or whatever, such that you would be very hard to unconfuse.  Anyway, there is a basic confusion you seem to be laboring under: you think that [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is intended to be, and will be understood by most people to be, a statement of fact rather than opinion.  This is false.  In fact, it is so obviously false that that's probably why no one wanted to take the trouble to point it out to you.  In this case, the page isn't in the encyclopedia; it's ''about'' the encyclopedia.  So why should you expect it to be fact-stating (as encyclopedia articles are) rather than opinion-stating (as they are not)?  You fail to understand that the purpose of [[why Wikipedia is so great]] is, essentially, PR; like much PR, a lot of it is stated with tongue in cheek and with cheery optimism.  And there's nothing wrong with that, and if you think there is, you're wrong.  :-)  This also explains why it has the self-congratulatory tone it has, but it also explains why it isn't ''gratutiously'' self-congratulatory.  It serves its purpose admirably (if I may say so myself).
19c19
< I find this confusing.  Why not include them in the growth of pages?  They're part of Wikipedia, aren't they?  We aren't embarrassed by those pages.  Do you think we should be?  We're glad they're there.
---
> I find this confusing.  Why not include them in the growth of pages?  They're part of Wikipedia, aren't they?  We aren't embarrassed by those pages.  Do you think we should be?  We're glad they're there.  We wish more people would add such pages.
21c21
< It seems to me you're taking all this much more seriously than we do.  Consequently, your reaction seems strangely out of place. --[[LMS]]
---
> It seems to me you're taking all this much more seriously than we do.  Consequently, your reaction seems strangely out of place. --[[LMS]]
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986283775
37c37,39
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Tim, you gave several specific numbers re: Stalinist atrocities.  Are these all accepted by historians and scholars of the Soviet Union?  Frankly, I doubt it.  If not, we should say so and we should say what the other views are.  Otherwise, it makes us look like ideologues (as surely we aren't, right?). --[[LMS]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986284095
21a22,23
> 
> I think the best way to make complaints would be to make a second opinion metapage, [[Why Wikipedia is not so great]].
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986284432
22,23c22,25
< 
< I think the best way to make complaints would be to make a second opinion metapage, [[Why Wikipedia is not so great]].
---
> ----
> I think the best way to make complaints would be to make a second opinion metapage, [[Why Wikipedia is not so great]].
> ----
> Brilliant idea.  (See, I told you Wikipedians were brilliant.) --[[LMS]]
------
Petroleum|986284735
1c1,3
< Petroleum is a thick, flammable, dark brown or greenish inflammable liquid, which, at certain points, exists in the upper strata of the earth. It consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of the methane series, but may vary much in appearance, composition, and properties. After a a drilling and pumping process to extract it from the strata, petroleum is refined by distillation, and the products include kerosene, benzine, gasoline, paraffin, etc.
---
> Petroleum is a thick, flammable, dark brown or greenish inflammable liquid, which, at certain points, exists in the upper strata of the [[earth]]. It consists of a complex mixture of various hydrocarbons, largely of the methane series, but may vary much in appearance, composition, and properties. After a a drilling and pumping process to extract it from the strata, petroleum is refined by distillation, and the products include kerosene, benzine, gasoline, paraffin, etc.
> 
> see also [[OPEC]]
------
OPEC|986284909
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for '''O'''rganisation of '''P'''etroleum '''E'''xporting '''C'''ountries - a cartel-like organisation, which represents the interests of oil producing and exporting countries. The OPEC headquarters is situated in [[Vienna]] - [[Austria]].
> 
> Members: [[Nigeria]] -- [[Columbia]] -- [[Saudi Arabia]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- ????
------
Trade_blocks|986285157
1a2,3
> * [[NAFTA]]
> * [[CEFTA]]
------
International_trade|986285184
3a4,5
> 
> see also [[OPEC]]
------
Food_and_Drinks|986285291
18c18
< [[Food]]:
---
> [[Food]] ([[cooking]]):
------
International_trade|986285749
3c3
< International trade is subject to various [[International Trade/Risks|risks]].
---
> International trade is subject to various [[/Risks|risks]] and [[/Benefits|benefits]].
5c5
< see also [[OPEC]]
---
> see also [[OPEC]]
------
International_Trade/Risks|986285793
1,13c1
< The risks that exist in International trade can be divided into two major groups:
< 
< :1. '''Commercial risks'''
< *Risk of insolvency of the buyer
< *Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date
< *Risk of non-acceptance
< 
< :2. '''Political risks'''
< *Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
< *War risks
< *Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
< *Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
< *Trabsfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
---
> #REDIRECT [[International trade/Risks]]
------
International_trade/Risks|986285814
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The risks that exist in International trade can be divided into two major groups:
> 
> :1. '''Commercial risks'''
> *Risk of insolvency of the buyer
> *Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date
> *Risk of non-acceptance
> 
> :2. '''Political risks'''
> *Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
> *War risks
> *Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
> *Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
> *Trabsfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages
------
Concrete|986286365
3,11c3,5
< See [[particular]]; [[individual]]; [[abstract]].----
< 
< Truly confused. You say:
< it is both [[particular]] and *an [[individual]]*, hence occupying some space and time. 
< But an individual as a noun refers to a person. I think you want to say that:
< it is both [[particular]] and [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  
< Then you expand on this and compound the confusion with: 
< So, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular *individual* that is located at a particular place and time. 
< Are only individuals, i.e. people, concrete? I always thought my PC was conctrete. I guess I had better look at it. An abstract PC will be little help in disputing this definition.  Please clarify. 
---
> See [[particular]]; [[individual]]; [[abstract]].
> ----
> /Talk
------
Concrete/Talk|986286483
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Truly confused. You say:
> it is both [[particular]] and *an [[individual]]*, hence occupying some space and time. 
> But an individual as a noun refers to a person. I think you want to say that:
> it is both [[particular]] and [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  
> Then you expand on this and compound the confusion with: 
> So, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular *individual* that is located at a particular place and time. 
> Are only individuals, i.e. people, concrete? I always thought my PC was conctrete. I guess I had better look at it. An abstract PC will be little help in disputing this definition.  Please clarify. 
> ----
> 'Individuals' (as in P. F. Strawson's book by the title) in philosophical jargon refer not just to individual human beings but to any individual (numerically singular) thing.
------
Concrete|986286695
1c1,3
< Something is ''concrete'' if it is not [[abstract]]: it is both [[particular]] and an [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  So, to say that something is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
---
> Something is ''concrete'' if it is not [[abstract]]: it is both [[particular]] and an [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  So, to say that an object is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
> 
> Philosophers sometimes refer to [[trope]]s, or property-instances (e.g., the particular redness of this particular apple), as '[[concrete particular]]s'.
5c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Concrete/Talk|986287166
9c9,11
< 'Individuals' (as in P. F. Strawson's book by the title) in philosophical jargon refer not just to individual human beings but to any individual (numerically singular) thing.
---
> 'Individuals' (as in P. F. Strawson's book by the title) in philosophical jargon refer not just to individual human beings but to any individual (numerically singular) thing.
> ----
> A beautiful pun one of my profs made, completely unintentionally: ''Sometimes being concrete actually makes things harder.''  We need a place to put information about sidewalk-stuff, too.
------
Individual|986287434
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[metaphysics]], the word ''individual,'' while sometimes meaning a person, more typically refers to any numerically singular thing.  This term is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]''--often ''equated with'' particulars (though one wonders if [[abstract particular]]s can count as individuals)--and contrasted with [[universal]]s.
> 
> A famous work on individuals and their [[individuation]] is by [[P. F. Strawson]]: ''Individuals: An Essay in Descriptive Metaphysics'' (London:
> Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1959; New York: Anchor, 1963).
------
Individual|986287658
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]], the word ''individual,'' while sometimes meaning a person, more typically refers to any numerically singular thing.  This term is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]''--often ''equated with'' particulars (though one wonders if [[abstract particular]]s can count as individuals)--and contrasted with [[universal]]s.
---
> In [[metaphysics]], the word ''individual,'' while sometimes meaning a person, more typically refers to any numerically singular thing.  Used in many contexts, both 'Socrates' and 'the Moon' denote individuals; 'grapefruit' and 'redness' (at least often) do not.  'Individual' as a piece of philosophical jargon is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]''--individuals often ''equated with'' particulars (though one wonders if [[abstract particular]]s can count as individuals)--and contrasted with [[universal]]s.
------
Mathijs|986287762
4a5,6
> ::''Larry, please be so kind <B>not</B> to react''
> 
------
Particular|986287917
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract and [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
> 
> Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individuals]].  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
------
Particular|986287935
3c3
< Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individuals]].  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
---
> Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individual]]s.  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
------
Individual|986288029
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]], the word ''individual,'' while sometimes meaning a person, more typically refers to any numerically singular thing.  Used in many contexts, both 'Socrates' and 'the Moon' denote individuals; 'grapefruit' and 'redness' (at least often) do not.  'Individual' as a piece of philosophical jargon is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]''--individuals often ''equated with'' particulars (though one wonders if [[abstract particular]]s can count as individuals)--and contrasted with [[universal]]s.
---
> In [[metaphysics]], the word ''individual,'' while sometimes meaning a person, more typically refers to any numerically singular thing.  Used in many contexts, both 'Socrates' and 'the Moon' denote individuals; 'grapefruit' and 'redness' (at least often) do not.  'Individual' as a piece of philosophical jargon is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]''--indeed, often treated as ''synonymous with'' 'particular' (though one wonders if [[abstract particular]]s can count as individuals)--and contrasted with '[[universal]]'.
4c4
< Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1959; New York: Anchor, 1963).
---
> Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1959; New York: Anchor, 1963).
------
Particular|986288065
1c1
< ''Particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract and [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
---
> In [[metaphysics]], ''particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract and [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
3c3
< Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individual]]s.  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
---
> Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individual]]s.  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
------
Particular|986288098
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]], ''particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract and [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
---
> In [[metaphysics]], ''particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract, not [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
------
Concrete|986288233
1c1
< Something is ''concrete'' if it is not [[abstract]]: it is both [[particular]] and an [[individual]], hence occupying some space and time.  So, to say that an object is concrete is to say that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
---
> Something is ''concrete'' if it is not [[abstract]]: it is both [[particular]] and an [[individual]], and (hence?) occupies some space and time.  To say that a physical object is concrete is to say, approximately, that it is a particular individual that is located at a particular place and time.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Newspeak|986288525
1c1
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say or think anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.(see also the <i>[[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]</i>)
3c3
< Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language.
---
> Orwell's portrayal of Newspeak was not entirely spurious.  Newspeak aimed to remove all shades of meaning from language, leaving simple dichotomies (pleasure and pain, happiness and sadness, good thoughts and thoughtcrimes).  A staccato rhythm of short syllables was also a goal, further reducing the need for deep thinking about language. 
5c5
< This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
---
> This kind of reduction can be seen in such places as political rhetoric, where each side strings together rhetorical phrases so empty of meaning that they have been compared to the taunts young children toss back and forth.  Each side's arguments ultimately reduce to "I'm good; he's bad."
------
Concrete/Talk|986288590
11a12,13
> ----
> :-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.
------
Concrete/Talk|986288605
12,13c12
< ----
< :-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.
---
> ----<br>:-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.
------
Concrete|986290006
3c3
< Philosophers sometimes refer to [[trope]]s, or property-instances (e.g., the particular redness of this particular apple), as '[[concrete particular]]s'.
---
> Confusingly, philosophers sometimes refer to [[trope]]s, or property-instances (e.g., the particular redness of this particular apple), as '[[abstract particular]]s'.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Particular|986290696
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]], ''particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract, not [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
---
> In [[metaphysics]], ''particulars'' are, one might say, identified by what they are not: they are not abstract, not [[multiple instantiation|multiply instantiated]].  (Though there is a potentially confusing piece of jargon that seems to contradict this: instances of properties are sometimes called ''[[abstract particulars]]''.)  Hence, Socrates is a particular (there's only one Socrates-the-teacher-of-Plato and one cannot make copies of him, e.g., by cloning him, without introducing new, distinct particulars).  Redness, by contrast, is not a particular, because (it is held by [[metaphysical realism|metaphysical realists]]) it is abstract and multiply instantiated (my bicycle, this apple, and that girl's hair are all red).
3c3,5
< Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individual]]s.  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]].
---
> Particulars might (or might not) be all [[individual]]s.  At any rate, they are certainly all [[concrete]]--again, with the possible exception of abstract particulars ([[trope]]s).
> 
> The fact of the matter is that all such terms are used by philosophers with a rough-and-ready idea of how they work.  If there is confusion or lack of agreement about the specifics, that is a reflection of the fact that philosophers have many competing metaphysical theories that inform more precise, but idiosyncratic, accounts of the meanings of these terms.  Hence, for example, for convenience in formulating a solution to the [[problem of universals]], 'particular' can be pressed into service in describing the ''particular'' instance of redness of a particular apple.  See [[philosophical jargon]].
------
Particular|986290770
5c5
< The fact of the matter is that all such terms are used by philosophers with a rough-and-ready idea of how they work.  If there is confusion or lack of agreement about the specifics, that is a reflection of the fact that philosophers have many competing metaphysical theories that inform more precise, but idiosyncratic, accounts of the meanings of these terms.  Hence, for example, for convenience in formulating a solution to the [[problem of universals]], 'particular' can be pressed into service in describing the ''particular'' instance of redness of a particular apple.  See [[philosophical jargon]].
---
> The fact of the matter is that all such terms are used by philosophers with a rough-and-ready idea of how they work.  If there is confusion or lack of agreement about the specifics, that is a reflection of the fact that philosophers have many competing metaphysical theories that inform more precise, but idiosyncratic, accounts of the meanings of these terms.  Hence, for example, for convenience in formulating a solution to the [[problem of universals]], 'particular' can be pressed into service in describing the ''particular'' instance of redness of a particular apple--even though redness (being [[abstract]]) is precisely the sort of thing that is ''not'' supposed to be particular.  See [[philosophical jargon]].
------
Abstract|986290990
3c3,5
< On the other hand the apple, and an individual rose, are said to be <i>[[concrete]]</i>.
---
> On the other hand the apple, and an individual human being, are said to be <i>[[concrete]],</i> and ''[[particular]]s,'' and ''[[individual]s.''
> 
> [[Trope]] theory has nonetheless introduced the jargon "[[abstract particular]]."
------
Troll|986292018
3c3,5
< On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.  
---
> Another sense of the word ''trolling'' (also spelled ''trawling'') is the practice of fishing by drawing a baited line or lure behind a boat.
> ----
> On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.
5c7,11
< (The connotation of "troll" is someone who does this intentionally.)  
---
> Originally this term applied to people who were intentionally posting [[flamebait]], by analogy with the fishing technique: metaphorically, these people were dragging a conversational lure through the group, hoping for a response. The concept of "this person is trolling us" became shortened to "this person is a troll", and picked up the folkloric association.
> 
> ''Trolling'' mostly maintains its earlier meaning of posting messages specifically in order to elicit an particular response, usually anger or argument.
> 
> The noun form, ''troll'', is sometimes used in the more general sense of someone who stirs up controversy, whether or not the controversy itself is their goal. Frequently this is used to discredit one position in an argument. By asserting that one's opponents are trolls, one is asserting that they are only maintaining their position in order to feed the flames, and that their position is actually indefensible.
7d12
< The actions that lead to someone's being called a troll are called ''trolling,'' although in a restricted sense, "trolling" means posting messages specifically in order to elicit an angry, frustrated, exasperated, etc., response.
11c16,18
< * inflamitory messages
---
> * inflammatory messages
> * messages containing an obvious flaw or error
> 
------
Troll|986292039
14c14
< Types of troll messages:
---
> Common types of troll messages:
------
Troll|986292311
1c1
< A fictitious monster of folk legend, as in "The Three Billy Goats Gruff," the well-known folk tale in which a troll living under a bridge torments some billy goats that want to cross.
---
> A fictitious monster of [[folk legend]], as in "The Three Billy Goats Gruff," the well-known folk tale in which a troll living under a bridge torments some billy goats that want to cross.
3c3
< Another sense of the word ''trolling'' (also spelled ''trawling'') is the practice of fishing by drawing a baited line or lure behind a boat.
---
> Another sense of the word ''trolling'' (also spelled ''trawling'') is the practice of [[fishing]] by drawing a baited line or lure behind a [[boat]].
------
Dance_music|986293545
3c3,7
< Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
---
> Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
> 
> ----
> 
> ''I think there needs to be a mention of the other common sense of Dance music, as found in many nightclubs today. I'm not sure how to go about describing the distinction. Notably, the actions people do to both kinds of music are called dancing, but the actions are fairly different.''
------
OPEC|986294231
1c1
< Short for '''O'''rganisation of '''P'''etroleum '''E'''xporting '''C'''ountries - a cartel-like organisation, which represents the interests of oil producing and exporting countries. The OPEC headquarters is situated in [[Vienna]] - [[Austria]].
---
> Short for '''O'''rganisation of '''P'''etroleum '''E'''xporting '''C'''ountries - a cartel-like organisation, which represents the interests of oil producing and exporting countries. The members agree on the quantity and the prices of the oil exported. The OPEC headquarters is situated in [[Vienna]] - [[Austria]].
3c3,5
< Members: [[Nigeria]] -- [[Columbia]] -- [[Saudi Arabia]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- ????
---
> OPEC decissions have a large influence on world price of oil. A good example of this in action was the [[oil crisis]] in the [[1970s]].
> 
> Members: [[Nigeria]] -- [[Columbia]] -- [[Saudi Arabia]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- ????
------
OPEC|986295561
1c1
< Short for '''O'''rganisation of '''P'''etroleum '''E'''xporting '''C'''ountries - a cartel-like organisation, which represents the interests of oil producing and exporting countries. The members agree on the quantity and the prices of the oil exported. The OPEC headquarters is situated in [[Vienna]] - [[Austria]].
---
> Short for '''O'''rganisation of '''P'''etroleum '''E'''xporting '''C'''ountries - a cartel-like organisation, which represents the interests of [[oil]] producing and exporting countries. The members agree on the quantity and the prices of the oil exported. The OPEC headquarters is situated in [[Vienna]] ([[Austria]]).
3c3,18
< OPEC decissions have a large influence on world price of oil. A good example of this in action was the [[oil crisis]] in the [[1970s]].
---
> OPEC decissions have a large influence on world price of oil. A good example of this in action was the [[oil crisis]] in the [[1970s]]. The OPEC tries to control the world oil price through setting quotas for its members, which are raised when the oil prize is high, and lowered when it is low. The policy has been successfull in the past, causing the prizes of earth oil to rise to levels that otherwise are not reached by raw materials, but only by industry products.
> 
> Members:
> * [[Saudi Arabia]]
> * [[Iran]]
> * [[Venezuela]]
> * [[United Arab Emirates]]
> * [[Nigeria]]
> * [[Kuwait]]
> * [[Iraq]]
> * [[Lybia]]
> * [[Indonesia]]
> * [[Algeria]]
> * [[Qatar]]
> 
> Major oil-producing countries that are not OPEC members include [[Mexico]], [[Norway]], [[Russia]] and [[Oman]].
5d19
< Members: [[Nigeria]] -- [[Columbia]] -- [[Saudi Arabia]] -- [[Kuwait]] -- ????
------
OPEC|986295725
3c3
< OPEC decissions have a large influence on world price of oil. A good example of this in action was the [[oil crisis]] in the [[1970s]]. The OPEC tries to control the world oil price through setting quotas for its members, which are raised when the oil prize is high, and lowered when it is low. The policy has been successfull in the past, causing the prizes of earth oil to rise to levels that otherwise are not reached by raw materials, but only by industry products.
---
> OPEC decissions have a large influence on world price of oil. A good example of this in action was the [[oil crisis]] in the [[1970s]]. The OPEC tries to control the world oil price through setting quotas for its members, which are raised when the oil prize is high, and lowered when it is low. The policy has been successfull in the past, causing the prizes of oil to rise to levels that otherwise are not reached by raw materials, but only by industry products.
------
Contraception|986295744
12a13,14
> * [[Condoms]]
> * [[Semen-killing pasta]]
------
Coitus_interruptus|986296123
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Coitus interruptus is a method of [[contraception]] which does not use any additional means. It means that the man removes his [[penis]] from the woman's [[vagina]] just before his [[orgasm]]. That way, the [[ejaculation]] is not in the woman but elsewhere.
> 
> The method is very unreliable, because [[pre-cum]] also contains (small amounts of) [[semen]]. Also, not everyone is able to note the coming of the orgasm in a timely manner, and interrupting just as things come to a climax is hard psychologically.
> 
> The advantage of coitus interruptus is that it can be used by people who have religious objections against other methods of contraception, and that it requires no appliances. The disadvantage, as stated, is that it is extremely unreliable.
------
Contraception|986296198
14a15
> * [[morning after pill]]
------
Morning_after_pill|986296451
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The morning after pill is a pill that can be taken by a woman after she has had sex to avoid pregnancies. It contains a rather high dose of [[hormones]], and can therefore cause the user to feel rather sick.
> 
> The morning after pill is not to be advised as one's main means of [[contraception]] because of its strong side effects. However, it is useful as a back-up when other means of contraception have failed - for example, if one has forgotten to take [[the pill]] or when a [[condom]] was torn during sex.
------
Contraception|986296504
13,14c13,14
< * [[Condoms]]
< * [[Semen-killing pasta]]
---
> * [[Condom]]s
> * [[Spermicides]]
------
Condom|986296805
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A condom is a device, usually made of [[rubber]], that covers the man's [[penis]] during intercourse to avoid [[pregnancy]] and/or [[sexually transmitted diseases]].
> 
> As a method of [[contraception]], condoms have the advantage of being relatively reliable, especially when used in combination with [[spermicidals]], and of offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases as well. Their disadvantage is that some people find them unpleasant, especially because they stop skin contact, and that putting them on can interrupt lovemaking.
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986300110
3c3
< Two hulls are used to prevent the liquid cargo from spilling when the outter hull is breached.
---
> Two hulls are used to prevent the liquid cargo from spilling: when the outter hull is breached the inner hull keeps the transported substance in place.
------
DNA|986300290
9c9
< In sexual reproduction, a diploid cell divides without the DNA being replicated, so as to form two haploid cells, which then divide again.  This process is called [[meiosis]].  Eventually some haploid cells unite together to form a new diploid cell ([[syngamy]]) with half its genome from each diploid ancestor.  When there are different versions of the same gene, their effects may be blended or a single version may be dominant.
---
> In [[Sexual Reproduction|sexual reproduction]], a diploid cell divides without the DNA being replicated, so as to form two haploid cells, which then divide again.  This process is called [[meiosis]].  Eventually some haploid cells unite together to form a new diploid cell ([[syngamy]]) with half its genome from each diploid ancestor.  When there are different versions of the same gene, their effects may be blended or a single version may be dominant.
------
Lyrics1977|986301433
3c3
< are you sure even that was copyrighted?
---
> too bad
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|986301717
32c32
< <tr><td>saurus </td><td>lizard </td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>sauros </td><td>lizard </td></tr>
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|986301777
35,36c35
< <tr><td>philia </td><td>love, friendship </td></tr>
< <tr><td>philos, -ê, -on </td><td>beloved, dear </td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>philos, -ê, -on<br>philia</td><td>beloved, dear<br>love, friendship</td></tr>
------
Joseph_Stalin|986301941
1c1,2
< <b>Joseph Stalin</b> was the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
---
> <b>Joseph Stalin</b> (1879-1953)<BR>
> the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
------
Evolution|986304753
5c5,8
< Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develop adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time.
---
> Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develop adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over greater spans of time.
> 
> Following the dawn of [[Molecular Biology|molecular biology]], it became clear that the mechanism for evolutionary change was through the mutagenesis of [[dna|DNA]].  During the [[Cell Cycle|cell cycle]], DNA is copied fairly, but not entirely, faithfully.  These copying errors introduce genetic mutations of three general consequences relative to the current environment:  good, bad, or neutral.  As long as the environment remains stable, individuals with "good" mutations will have an a stronger propensity to propogate, individuals with "bad" mutations will have less of a chance at successful reproduction, and those carrying "neutral" mutations will have neither an advantage nor a disadvantage.  Considered at the level of a single [[Gene|gene]], these variations just described represent different [[allele|genetic alleles]].  Following envirnomental change, alleles may retain their classification of good, bad, or neutral, or shift into one of the other categories.  Individuals carrying alleles formerly neutral but now "good" bear adaptive mutations. Since neutral alleles can accumulate in the population without consequence while an environment is stable, they create a considerable resevoir for adaptability. 
> 
11c14
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Joseph_Stalin|986305138
1c1,3
< <b>Joseph Stalin</b> (1879-1953)<BR>
---
> 
> <b>Joseph Stalin</b> (1879-1953)
> 
------
Evolution/Talk|986305538
23c23,28
< Rearranged some text and clarified some issues. This should suffice as a first attempt. I aggree with Larry regarding the start of articles. --jml
---
> Rearranged some text and clarified some issues. This should suffice as a first attempt. I aggree with Larry regarding the start of articles. --jml
> 
> ----
> The sentence "Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time" was changed to read "...to persist over <i>greater spans of</i> time."  Lineages can certainly evolve but still eventually die out.  Also, the paragraph on the molecular basis of evolution was added primarily to continue the campaign against teleological thinking about adaption.
> 
> [[Suzanne Elsasser|Suze]]  
------
Benjamin_Whorf|986308811
3c3
< Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, prusuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with [[Edward Sapir]] (1884-1939), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
---
> Born in Winthrop, Massachusetts the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Intitute of Technology ([[M.I.T.]]) in 1918 with a degree in Chemical Engineering and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, pursuing linguistic studies as an avocation. Although he met, and later studied with [[Edward Sapir]] (1884-1939), he never took up linguistics as a profession, though his contribution to the field was profound.
7c7
< Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
---
> Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
------
Evolution/Talk|986309584
28a29,30
> 
> Disagree.  Some lineages eventually die out, but there are others that show no sign of being about to, and life as a whole seems to be doing a great job persisting itself. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Soviet_Union|986310220
7c7
< Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]] -- [[Moldova]]
---
> Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]] -- [[Moldova]] -- [[Georgia]]
10a11,12
> 
> [[Soviet Union/Leaders|Leaders of the USSR]]
------
Evolution/Talk|986310278
30c30,32
< Disagree.  Some lineages eventually die out, but there are others that show no sign of being about to, and life as a whole seems to be doing a great job persisting itself. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> Disagree.  Some lineages eventually die out, but there are others that show no sign of being about to, and life as a whole seems to be doing a great job persisting itself. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> 
> I disagree, in that the phrase 'persist over time' does not mean 'persist throughout time', i.e., it does not imply eternal persistence.  So the change was unnecessary.  But the current wording is not bad - just not better, in my opinion.  [[Tim Shell|TS]]
------
Soviet_Union/Leaders|986310337
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Lenin]]
> ** [[Lew Trostky]]
> * [[Joseph Stalin]]
> * [[Nikita Chrushchev]]
> * [[Leonid Breznev]]
> * [[Chernenko]]
> * [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|986310522
7a8,9
> /BathSchoolOfManagement
> 
------
Country_codes|986310636
1c1,270
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Every country has a two letter code that is used in Interner addresses.  They are also called top level domains, or ISO 3166 Codes.  For example, www.whatever.es is a Spanish web site, because ES is Spain's country code.
> 
>  AC - Ascension Island 
>  AD - Andorra 
>  AE - United Arab Emirates 
>  AF - Afghanistan 
>  AG - Antigua and Barbuda 
>  AI - Anguilla 
>  AL - Albania 
>  AM - Armenia 
>  AN - Netherlands Antilles 
>  AO - Angola 
>  AQ - Antarctica 
>  AR - Argentina 
>  AS - American Samoa 
>  AT - Austria 
>  AU - Australia 
>  AW - Aruba 
>  AZ - Azerbaijan
> 
>  BA - Bosnia and Herzegovina 
>  BB - Barbados 
>  BD - Bangladesh 
>  BE - Belgium 
>  BF - Burkina Faso 
>  BG - Bulgaria 
>  BH - Bahrain 
>  BI - Burundi 
>  BJ - Benin 
>  BM - Bermuda 
>  BN - Brunei Darussalam 
>  BO - Bolivia 
>  BR - Brazil 
>  BS - Bahamas 
>  BT - Bhutan 
>  BV - Bouvet Island 
>  BW - Botswana 
>  BY - Belarus 
>  BZ - Belize 
> 
>  CA - Canada 
>  CC - Cocos (Keeling) Islands 
>  CD - Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) 
>  CF - Central African Republic 
>  CG - Congo 
>  CH - Switzerland 
>  CI - Cote D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) 
>  CK - Cook Islands 
>  CL - Chile 
>  CM - Cameroon 
>  CN - China 
>  CO - Colombia 
>  CR - Costa Rica 
>  CS - Czechoslovakia (former) 
>  CU - Cuba 
>  CV - Cape Verde 
>  CX - Christmas Island 
>  CY - Cyprus 
>  CZ - Czech Republic 
> 
>  DE - Germany 
>  DJ - Djibouti 
>  DK - Denmark 
>  DM - Dominica 
>  DO - Dominican Republic 
>  DZ - Algeria 
> 
>  EC - Ecuador 
>  EE - Estonia 
>  EG - Egypt 
>  EH - Western Sahara 
>  ER - Eritrea 
>  ES - Spain 
>  ET - Ethiopia  
> 
>  FI - Finland 
>  FJ - Fiji 
>  FK - Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 
>  FM - Micronesia 
>  FO - Faroe Islands 
>  FR - France 
>  FX - France, Metropolitan 
> 
>  GA - Gabon 
>  GB - Great Britain (UK) 
>  GD - Grenada 
>  GE - Georgia 
>  GF - French Guiana 
>  GH - Ghana 
>  GI - Gibraltar 
>  GL - Greenland 
>  GM - Gambia 
>  GN - Guinea 
>  GP - Guadeloupe 
>  GQ - Equatorial Guinea 
>  GR - Greece 
>  GS - S. Georgia & S. Sandwich Islands 
>  GT - Guatemala 
>  GU - Guam 
>  GW - Guinea-Bissau 
>  GY - Guyana 
> 
>  HK - Hong Kong 
>  HM - Heard and McDonald Islands 
>  HN - Honduras 
>  HR - Croatia (Hrvatska) 
>  HT - Haiti 
>  HU - Hungary 
> 
>  ID - Indonesia 
>  IE - Ireland 
>  IL - Israel 
>  IN - India 
>  IO - British Indian Ocean Territory 
>  IQ - Iraq 
>  IR - Iran 
>  IS - Iceland 
>  IT - Italy 
> 
>  JM - Jamaica 
>  JO - Jordan 
>  JP - Japan 
> 
>  KE - Kenya 
>  KG - Kyrgyzstan 
>  KH - Cambodia 
>  KI - Kiribati 
>  KM - Comoros 
>  KN - Saint Kitts and Nevis 
>  KP - Korea (North) 
>  KR - Korea (South) 
>  KW - Kuwait 
>  KY - Cayman Islands 
>  KZ - Kazakhstan 
> 
>  LA - Laos 
>  LB - Lebanon 
>  LC - Saint Lucia 
>  LI - Liechtenstein 
>  LK - Sri Lanka 
>  LR - Liberia 
>  LS - Lesotho 
>  LT - Lithuania 
>  LU - Luxembourg 
>  LV - Latvia 
>  LY - Libya 
> 
>  MA - Morocco 
>  MC - Monaco 
>  MD - Moldova 
>  MG - Madagascar 
>  MH - Marshall Islands 
>  MK - Macedonia 
>  ML - Mali 
>  MM - Myanmar 
>  MN - Mongolia 
>  MO - Macau 
>  MP - Northern Mariana Islands 
>  MQ - Martinique 
>  MR - Mauritania 
>  MS - Montserrat 
>  MT - Malta 
>  MU - Mauritius 
>  MV - Maldives 
>  MW - Malawi 
>  MX - Mexico 
>  MY - Malaysia 
>  MZ - Mozambique 
> 
>  NA - Namibia 
>  NC - New Caledonia 
>  NE - Niger 
>  NF - Norfolk Island 
>  NG - Nigeria 
>  NI - Nicaragua 
>  NL - Netherlands 
>  NO - Norway 
>  NP - Nepal 
>  NR - Nauru 
>  NT - Neutral Zone 
>  NU - Niue 
>  NZ - New Zealand (Aotearoa) 
> 
>  OM - Oman 
> 
>  PA - Panama 
>  PE - Peru 
>  PF - French Polynesia 
>  PG - Papua New Guinea 
>  PH - Philippines 
>  PK - Pakistan 
>  PL - Poland 
>  PM - St. Pierre and Miquelon 
>  PN - Pitcairn 
>  PR - Puerto Rico 
>  PT - Portugal 
>  PW - Palau 
>  PY - Paraguay 
> 
>  QA - Qatar 
> 
>  RE - Reunion 
>  RO - Romania 
>  RU - Russia 
>  RW - Rwanda 
> 
>  SA - Saudi Arabia 
>  SB - Solomon Islands 
>  SC - Seychelles 
>  SD - Sudan 
>  SE - Sweden 
>  SG - Singapore 
>  SH - St. Helena 
>  SI - Slovenia 
>  SJ - Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands 
>  SK - Slovak Republic 
>  SL - Sierra Leone 
>  SM - San Marino 
>  SN - Senegal 
>  SO - Somalia 
>  SR - Surinam 
>  ST - Sao Tome and Principe 
>  SV - El Salvador 
>  SY - Syria 
>  SZ - Swaziland 
> 
>  TC - Turks and Caicos Islands 
>  TD - Chad 
>  TF - French Southern Territories 
>  TG - Togo 
>  TH - Thailand 
>  TJ - Tajikistan 
>  TK - Tokelau 
>  TM - Turkmenistan 
>  TN - Tunisia 
>  TO - Tonga 
>  TP - East Timor 
>  TR - Turkey 
>  TT - Trinidad and Tobago 
>  TV - Tuvalu 
>  TW - Taiwan 
>  TZ - Tanzania 
> 
>  UA - Ukraine 
>  UG - Uganda 
>  UK - United Kingdom 
>  UM - US Minor Outlying Islands 
>  US - United States 
>  UY - Uruguay 
>  UZ - Uzbekistan 
> 
>  VA - Vatican City State (Holy See) 
>  VC - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 
>  VE - Venezuela 
>  VG - Virgin Islands (British) 
>  VI - Virgin Islands (U.S.) 
>  VN - Viet Nam 
>  VU - Vanuatu 
> 
>  WF - Wallis and Futuna Islands 
>  WS - Samoa 
> 
>  YE - Yemen 
>  YT - Mayotte 
>  YU - Yugoslavia 
> 
>  ZA - South Africa 
>  ZM - Zambia 
>  ZR - Zaire (now CD - Democratic Republic of Congo) 
>  ZW - Zimbabwe 
------
Country_codes|986310655
1c1
< Every country has a two letter code that is used in Interner addresses.  They are also called top level domains, or ISO 3166 Codes.  For example, www.whatever.es is a Spanish web site, because ES is Spain's country code.
---
> Every country has a two letter code that is used in Internet addresses.  They are also called top level domains, or ISO 3166 Codes.  For example, www.whatever.es is a Spanish web site, because ES is Spain's country code.
------
Code|986310778
9c9
< see also [[morse code]]
---
> see also [[morse code]], [[country codes]]
------
Country_codes|986310830
1c1
< Every country has a two letter code that is used in Internet addresses.  They are also called top level domains, or ISO 3166 Codes.  For example, www.whatever.es is a Spanish web site, because ES is Spain's country code.
---
> Every country has a two letter [[code]] that is used in [[Internet]] addresses.  They are also called [[top level domains]], or ISO 3166 Codes.  For example, www.whatever.es is a Spanish web site, because ES is Spain's country code.
270c270
<  ZW - Zimbabwe 
---
>  ZW - Zimbabwe 
------
Vietnam/Language|986311092
4a5,6
> -- I don't know what an Austroasiatic language is, other than perhaps a language used near Australia or Asia.  The old characters are very similar to Chinese, and the language seems to me to be more related to Chinese than any of the other southeast asian languages I've heard.  The only other tonal languages in the area which I know of are Thai, Laotian, Hmong (and some of the other tribal languages), and they're nothing like Vietnamese.  My evidence is only empirical, though; I'm sure the real linguists have a better answer for us. -J
> 
21c23
< begins with "ng" (this sound is difficult for native English speakers to place at the beginning of a word), and is followed by something approximated by the English word "win".  The ~ indicates a dipping tone; start somewhat low, go down in pith, then rise to the end of the word.
---
> begins with "ng" (this sound is difficult for native English speakers to place at the beginning of a word), and is followed by something approximated by the English word "win".  The ~ indicates a dipping tone; start somewhat low, go down in pitch, then rise to the end of the word.
24c26
< Marked differences in Vietnamese accents are found between natives of North (Ha Noi), Middle (Hue) and South Vietnam (Saigon).
---
> Marked differences in Vietnamese accents are found between natives of North (Ha Noi), Middle (Hue) and South Vietnam (Saigon).
------
Vietnam/Language|986312815
6a7,8
> ''Ok.  The languages you cited are members of the [[Tai languages]], which is a different group altogether.  As to what the Austroasiatic languages are, I think the best answer for now is the languages related to Vietnamese and [[Cambodian language|Cambodian]], which do not include Chinese.  If they sound similar, though, I would bet that Chinese has had a big influence on Vietnamese, including probably the system of writing.  Permission to say so above?''
> ----
26c28
< Marked differences in Vietnamese accents are found between natives of North (Ha Noi), Middle (Hue) and South Vietnam (Saigon).
---
> Marked differences in Vietnamese accents are found between natives of North (Ha Noi), Middle (Hue) and South Vietnam (Saigon).
------
Coitus_interruptus|986313189
3c3
< The method is very unreliable, because [[pre-cum]] also contains (small amounts of) [[semen]]. Also, not everyone is able to note the coming of the orgasm in a timely manner, and interrupting just as things come to a climax is hard psychologically.
---
> The method is very unreliable, because [[pre-ejaculate]] may also contain (small amounts of) [[spermatozoa]]. Also, not everyone is able to note the arrival of orgasm in a timely manner, and interrupting just at climax can be psychologically difficult.
------
Dance_music|986313233
1c1
< [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] (e.g., [[disco]]) to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For younger people who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]].
3,7c3
< Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
< 
< ----
< 
< ''I think there needs to be a mention of the other common sense of Dance music, as found in many nightclubs today. I'm not sure how to go about describing the distinction. Notably, the actions people do to both kinds of music are called dancing, but the actions are fairly different.''
---
> Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
------
Morse_code|986314075
1c1,33
< A system of representing letters, numbers and punctuation marks by the means of dots and dashes. The code was transmitted as electrical pulse or as a mechanical or visual signal (eg. a flashing light). It was invented by [[Samuel Morse]] in the 1830s to be used in [[telegraphy]].
---
> A system of representing letters, numbers and punctuation marks by the means of a signal sent intermittently. The code is transmitted as an audio tone, steady radio signal switched on and off (known as continuous wave, or CW), an electrical pulse down a telegraph wire, or as a mechanical or visual signal (eg. a flashing light). It was invented by [[Samuel Morse]] in the 1830s to be used in [[telegraphy]].  Two kinds of Morse Code have been used, each with different representations for the symbols used in written English.  American Morse Code was used in the wired telegraph systems that made up the first long-distance electronic communication system.  "International Morse Code" is most commonly used today.
> 
> ----
> International Morse Code
> 
> International Morse Code is still in use today.  Since it relies only on a steady (unmodulated) radio signal, it requires less hardware to send and receive than other forms of radio communication, can be used in very high noise / low signal situations, and requires very little bandwidth.  Until the 1990's (when did the code-free Tech first appear?), the ability to transcribe morse code sent at 5 words per minute was a requirement to receive an FCC Amateur Radio license in the US. 20 WPM was required for the license with highest privileges ("Extra" class).  Certain parts of the radio spectrum are still(?) reserved only for transmission of morse code signals.
> 
> Amateur and military radio operators skilled in morse code can often understand ("copy") code in their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM.
> 
> 
> Timing and representation:
> 
> There are two "symbols" used, called dots and dashes or dits and dahs.  The length of the dit determines the speed at which the message is sent, and is used as the timing reference.  Here is an illustration of the timing conventions.  It's intent is to show exact timing - it would normally be written something like this: 
> 
>  -- --- *-* *** *   /      -*-* --- -** *
>  M  O   R   S   E  (space) C    O   D   E
> 
>  where - represents dah and * represents dit. Here's the exact conventional timing for the same message (= represents signal on, . represents signal off, each for the length of a dit):
> 
>  ===.===...===.===.===...=.===.=...=.=.=...=.......===.=.===.=...===.===.===...===.=.=...=
>     ^           ^        ^       ^             ^
>     |           dah      dit     |             word space
>     symbol space                 letter space
> 
> A dah is conventionally 3 times as long as a dit.  Spacing between dits and dahs in a character is the length of one dit.  Spacing between letters in a word is the length of a dah (3 dits).  Spacing between words is 7 dits.
> 
> People familiar with Morse Code often speak or write it like this.  ("Dah" is pronounced with an "awe" vowel sound).
> 
>  -- --- *-* *** * / -*-* --- -** *
> 
>  DahDah DahDahDah DiDahDit DiDiDit Dit, DahDiDahDit DahDahDah DahDiDit Dit.
> 
> Here's a table including the alphabet and some other commonly used symbols:
64c96
<     <TD>- (3 units)</TD></TR>
---
>     <TD>-</TD></TR>
85a118,136
> 
> The numbers are as follows:
> 
>  0 -----
>  1 *----
>  2 **---
>  3 ***--
>  4 ****-
>  5 *****
>  6 -****
>  7 --***
>  8 ---**
>  9 ----*
> 
> Some common punctuation:
> 
>  . *-*-*-
>  , --**--
>  ? **--**
------
Morse_code|986314245
120a121,122
> -- Hm... need to escape these dashes somehow:
> 
136c138
<  ? **--**
---
>  ? **--**
------
George_W._Bush/Talk|986314837
55a56,90
> ''(reply) Citizens in the group get special attention from the agency/department that everyone uses as well as the department specifically setup for their demographic group.  This extra government service is denied to people outside of the demographic group.  Thus, giving a lower level of government service to people outside of the demographic group.  Is giving lower level of service to people outside of the demographic group discriminating against them?
> 
> Two of the main sticking points:
> * defining strong demographic inequity and measuring it.  Consider an industry that has 5% of the employees are of a certain demographic group and that demographic group makes up 20% of the population.  Does that in itself make a case for systematic inequity?  Is the industry responsible to make sure that the number of qualified entry level candidates (consider a specialized field such as neurology) matches the same demographics as the general population?  
> * addressing strong demographic inequity without discriminating against other demographic groups
> * determining when to end the regulations/laws specifically made to address strong demographic inequity.
> 
>   Here are a couple of questions to ponder:
>   1. If affirmative action is meant to repay people for past
>      discrimination during the civil war era and before, does
>      Alaska and Hawaii have to be subject to this also?
>      Remember that Alaska and Hawaii became part of the United
>      States in the 1950s and therefore could not be somehow
>      responsible/participate in the discrimination that
>      affirmative action was created for.
>   2. Should differencs in percentage amongst demographic
>      groups in the general population always have to be
>      reflected in university faculty, corporations, and
>      government agencies?
>   3. Should geographic discrimination be something that
>      needs to be corrected?  Consider how many government
>      employees live in and around Washington DC and the
>      economic impact of their actions versus areas such as
>      New Mexico which have almost no government employees?
>   4. Same basic question for government ownership of land.
>      2/3rds of some western states are owned by the federal
>      government.  Does that mean that 2/3rds of each of
>      the eastern states should be owned by the federal 
>      government?  More basically, does government ownership
>      of large amounts of land in a given state discriminate
>      against the residents of that state? (very important
>      in rural argicultural/ranching states on such things
>      as water rights).
> 
> 
------
Concrete|986315013
7a8,9
> ----
> <b>Concrete</b> is a building material made from sand, water, and limestone that in a mostly liquid form and that eventually dries out into a stone.
------
OPEC|986315210
6,16c6,16
< * [[Saudi Arabia]]
< * [[Iran]]
< * [[Venezuela]]
< * [[United Arab Emirates]]
< * [[Nigeria]]
< * [[Kuwait]]
< * [[Iraq]]
< * [[Lybia]]
< * [[Indonesia]]
< * [[Algeria]]
< * [[Qatar]]
---
> * [[Algeria]] - North Africa
> * [[Indonesia]] - Oceania
> * [[Iran]] - Middle East
> * [[Iraq]] - Middle East
> * [[Kuwait]] - Middle East
> * [[Lybia]] - North Africa
> * [[Nigeria]] - Africa
> * [[Qatar]] - Middle East
> * [[Saudi Arabia]] - Middle East
> * [[United Arab Emirates]] - Middle East
> * [[Venezuela]] - South America
------
Morse_code|986315352
121,124c121,122
< -- Hm... need to escape these dashes somehow:
< 
<  0 -----
<  1 *----
---
>  0 <nowiki>-----</nowiki>
>  1 <nowiki>*----</nowiki>
138c136
<  ? **--**
---
>  ? **--**
------
1970s|986315370
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Events in the 1970s
> 
> * [[oil crisis]]
> * Iran hostage situation
> * [[Richard Nixon]] resignation
> * end of Vietnam war
> * high inflation
> * high unemployment
------
Country_codes|986315466
110c110
<  ID - Indonesia 
---
>  ID - [[Indonesia]]
------
1970s|986315620
4c4
< * Iran hostage situation
---
> * [[Iran]] hostage situation
6,8c6,8
< * end of Vietnam war
< * high inflation
< * high unemployment
---
> * end of [[Vietnam war]]
> * high [[inflation]]
> * high [[unemployment]]
------
Yahoo|986315687
1c1
< 1. A vile and savage creature, filthy and with unpleasant habits, resembling human beings far too closely for the liking of the narrator of [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]], who finds the calm and rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s far preferable.
---
> 1. An onomatopoeic word representing the sound of a cheer.  1a. The cheer itself, made by uttering the two syllables of the word, drawn out, in a high, loud voice.
3c3,5
< 2. A popular Internet [[Search Engine|search engine]]. One wonders why they chose to use that particular name.
---
> 2. A vile and savage creature, filthy and with unpleasant habits, resembling human beings far too closely for the liking of the narrator of [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver's Travels]], who finds the calm and rational society of the [[Houyhnhm]]s far preferable.
> 
> 3. A popular Internet [[Search Engine|search engine]]. Unknown why they chose to use that particular name - possibly after the cheer.
------
Soviet_Union/Leaders|986316133
1,2c1,3
< * [[Lenin]]
< ** [[Lew Trostky]]
---
> An approximately chronological listing of Soviet leaders
> * [[Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]]
> * [[Lew Trotsky]]
4,6c5,9
< * [[Nikita Chrushchev]]
< * [[Leonid Breznev]]
< * [[Chernenko]]
---
> * [[Nikita Khrushchev]]
> * [[Leonid Brezhnev]]
> * [[Yuri Andropov]]
> * [[Konstantin Chernenko]]
> * [[Andrei Gromyko]]
------
Evolution|986316403
1c1
< Generally speaking, any process of growth or development in a certain direction. The word stems from the [[Latin]] 'evolutio' meaning 'unfolding' and prior to the late 1800's was confined to referring to goal-directed, pre-programmed processes such as embryological development. Prior to this period, biological evolution was termed 'transmutation'. While one can now speak of [[stellar evolution]], [[cultural evolution]] or the evolution of an [[idea]], the concept largely is used in the sense of this biological evolution, and refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time. 
---
> Generally speaking, any process of growth or development in a certain direction. The word stems from the [[Latin]] 'evolutio' meaning 'unfolding' and prior to the late 1800's was confined to referring to goal-directed, pre-programmed processes such as embryological development. A pre-programmed task, as in a military maneuver may be termed an "evolution."  Prior to the 1800's, biological evolution was termed 'transmutation'. While one can now speak of [[stellar evolution]], [[cultural evolution]] or the evolution of an [[idea]], the concept largely is used in the sense of this biological evolution, and refers to the change in the genetic characteristics of a [[population biology|population]] over time. 
5c5
< Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since in the long run environments always change, if individuals did not develop adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life to persist over greater spans of time.
---
> Biological evolution results in populations of organisms which are more adapted to their current environment than previous populations.  Since, in the long run, environments always change, if successive generations did not develop adaptations which allowed them to survive and reproduce, species would simply die out.  Evolution therefore allows life, as expressed in a given genetic line, to persist over greater spans of time.
------
Year_in_Review|986319172
77a78,83
> /Backward
> 
> /Forward
> 
> /Guidelines
> 
------
Kludge|986319969
1c1,5
< A <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a software system that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
---
> Possibly fron German ''klug'' ("clever")  Originally spelled "kluge," and used as early as the 1940's in Great Britain, term originally applied to any solution for accomplishing a task, especially mechanical, which consisted of various otherwise disrelated parts and mechanisms, cobbled together in a untidy or downright messy manner.  Presumably through military co-action, Americans eventually adopted the term.  In Naval parlance, a kluge was usually a machine or process which woked perfectly ashore, but never aboard ship.  The resulting inoperative machinery was regarded as so much clutter, and a minor naval usage of the word came to apply to clutter in general, especially as it might impede shipboard operations.
> 
> In 1962, an article appeared in an American computing magazine which appears to have adopted the term under the misspelling "kludge" (while retaining the ''klooj'' pronunciation, in defiance of American English convention) to refer to ingenious but unwieldy solutions in that field.  American technical specialists appear to have carried the misspelling forward.
> 
> In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system, whether hardware or software that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986320376
31c31
< Here is another possible argument: if indeed your research ''were'' important enough to be included as the source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact, then (probably, only probably) it should ''and would'' already have been published and made more widely known to the world.  On the other hand, if it's not important enough to have been published, then it's surely not important enough to be a source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact (I'm thinking I like that phrase; we can create an acronym: enimaf).  And on a third hand, supposing that what you're translating is already widely-known and imparted in various sources about Stalin's Russia, then I have a question: shouldn't we consult such sources in conjunction with your work?  Very often, historical examination of source material by non-historians is prone to all sorts of mistakes--just like examination of history of philosophy by non-philosophers, or examination of history of science by non-scientists, etc.
---
> Here is another possible argument: if indeed your research ''were'' important enough to be included as the source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact, then (probably, only probably) it should ''and would'' already have been published and made more widely known to the world.  On the other hand, if it's not important enough to have been published, then it's surely not important enough to be a source for encyclopedically-imparted (alleged) fact (I'm thinking I like that phrase; we can create an acronym: [[enimaf]]).  And on a third hand, supposing that what you're translating is already widely-known and imparted in various sources about Stalin's Russia, then I have a question: shouldn't we consult such sources in conjunction with your work?  Very often, historical examination of source material by non-historians is prone to all sorts of mistakes--just like examination of history of philosophy by non-philosophers, or examination of history of science by non-scientists, etc.
39c39,44
< Tim, you gave several specific numbers re: Stalinist atrocities.  Are these all accepted by historians and scholars of the Soviet Union?  Frankly, I doubt it.  If not, we should say so and we should say what the other views are.  Otherwise, it makes us look like ideologues (as surely we aren't, right?). --[[LMS]]
---
> Tim, you gave several specific numbers re: Stalinist atrocities.  Are these all accepted by historians and scholars of the Soviet Union?  Frankly, I doubt it.  If not, we should say so and we should say what the other views are.  Otherwise, it makes us look like ideologues (as surely we aren't, right?). --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Larry, 
> I presume you know the Russian Language, so you know that context is of great importance to the proper and accurate translation thereof.  Regarding the translation work I performed for the professor in question, She required that ALL of her assistants on this project read 18 different books in order to have a firm understanding of the history behind the project.  So, many sources were consulted in conjunction with the work and the translations were reviewed by the senior Russian professor for accuracy.
> 
> There's so much to write upon and discover about the former USSR and its beginnings. IMHO, This debate - friendly, as it is - is excellent. I'm all for [[enimaf]]!  --[[Invictus]]
------
Trilobita|986320522
3c3
< The bodies of the most primitive trilobites are divided into two tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, and a thorax composed of freely articulating segments.  In other forms the last few thoracic segments are fused with the telson to form a pygidium (tail).  The thoracic segments are otherwise freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do when disturbed.
---
> The bodies of the most primitive trilobites are divided into two tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, and a thorax composed of freely articulating segments.  In other forms the last few thoracic segments are fused with the telson to form a pygidium (tail).  I think, and I do emphasize think, that all known trilobites including the primitive Olenellids -- have a pygidium.''  The thoracic segments are otherwise freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do when disturbed.
5c5
< Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated limbs.  Each leg had 8 segments (?), analagous to those of other arthropods, with no knee joint.  The first segment also bore a featherlike epipodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and swimming.  The limbs were covered by lateral projections called ''pleural lobes'', extending outward from a central ''axial lobe''; it is this tripartite division that gives trilobites their name.
---
> Trilobites had a single pair of preoral antennae and otherwise undifferentiated biramous limbs.  Each leg had 8 segments (?), analagous to those of other arthropods, with no knee joint.  The first segment also bore a featherlike epipodite, or gill branch, which was used for respiration and swimming.  The limbs were covered by lateral projections called ''pleural lobes'', extending outward from a central ''axial lobe''; it is this tripartite division that gives trilobites their name.
16a17
> * Order [[Naraoidia]]
------
Food|986321254
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Food</i> is material, usually of animal or plant origin, consumed by living things to provide energy and nutrition.  Liquids used for this purpose are often called [[drink]], but the term <i>food</i> applies to them as well.  Sometimes used metaphorically, as in <i>food for thought</i>.
> 
> * [[Metabolism]]
> * [[Nutrition]]
> * [[Agriculture]]
> * [[Cooking]]
------
Food|986321348
6a7,8
> 
> [[/talk]]
------
Food|986321369
8c8
< [[/talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Food/talk|986321379
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Where does fictuous food such as [[soylent green]] fit in?
------
Year_in_Review/Guidelines|986321382
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Each [[Year in Review]] will be a part of this new [[Wikipedia category schemes]].
> And as an overview of the particular year will highlight events and people that made the news.
> 
> There are some basic style guides for each [[Year in Review]]
> ----
> Listing subjects
> 
> There are just a few broad subjects from which others branch.
> At present there is (much needs to be added):
> :[[Arts and Entertainment]]
> ::[[Film]]
> ::[[Television]]
> ::[[Music]]
> :[[Politics]]
> :[[Sport]]
> ----
> Presenting numerical data
> 
> The following is bad:
> "the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed $259,951,325 at the box office."
> 
> The following is better:
> "the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[Top Grossing Movies|$260 million]] at the box office."
> 
> Not a big change, but rounding the figure up to a more [[human]] friendly number just helps make this look less like a spread sheet.
> ----
> Presenting data
> 
> It should be remembered that this is to be a new [[Wikipedia category schemes|category scheme]], so whilst each year should read nicely, it should also include just enough information to entice the reader into following the links to the actual pages on the information to find out more.
------
Cooking|986321721
1a2,26
> 
> A <i>cuisine</i> (from the French word for "kitchen") is a specific set of traditions and practices, usually associated with a place of origin, for cooking.
> 
> * [[Vegetarian Cuisine]]
> * [[Kosher Cuisine]]
> * [[Western cuisine]]s
> ** [[Italian cuisine]]
> ** [[French cuisine]]
> ** [[German cuisine]]
> ** [[Mexican cuisine]]
> ** [[Spanish cuisine]]
> * [[Asian cuisine]]s
> ** [[Japanese cuisine]]
> ** [[Chinese cuisine]]s
> *** [[Cantonese cuisine]]
> *** [[Mandarin cuisine]]
> *** [[Szechuan cuisine]]
> ** [[Thai cuisine]]
> ** [[Indonesian cuisine]]
> ** [[Indian cuisine]]
> * [[Mediterranean cuisine]]s
> ** [[Turkish cuisine]]
> ** [[Greek cuisine]]
> 
> 
------
Food|986321750
7a8,15
> Types of food:
> 
> * [[Meat]]
> * [[Seafood]]
> * [[Vegetable]]s
> * [[Fruit]]
> * [[Grain]]s
> 
------
2000|986321793
5c5
< [[Arts and Entertainment]]...
---
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
7c7
< - [[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]]...
---
> [[Recent celebrity deaths/2000|Deaths]] -
10c10
< - [[Film]]...
---
> [[Film]] -
17c17
< - [[Music]]...
---
> [[Music]] -
20c20
< [[Politics]]...
---
> [[Politics]]
22c22
< - [[United States|US]]...
---
> [[United States|US]] -
------
2001|986322008
5,6c5,7
< *[[Arts and Entertainment]]
< **[[Film]]
---
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
> 
> [[Film]] -
------
Cooking|986322034
5,6d4
< * [[Vegetarian Cuisine]]
< * [[Kosher Cuisine]]
8,12c6,10
< ** [[Italian cuisine]]
< ** [[French cuisine]]
< ** [[German cuisine]]
< ** [[Mexican cuisine]]
< ** [[Spanish cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Italian cuisine|Italian]]
> ** [[French cuisine|French]]
> ** [[German cuisine|German]]
> ** [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]]
> ** [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]]
14c12
< ** [[Japanese cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]]
16,21c14,19
< *** [[Cantonese cuisine]]
< *** [[Mandarin cuisine]]
< *** [[Szechuan cuisine]]
< ** [[Thai cuisine]]
< ** [[Indonesian cuisine]]
< ** [[Indian cuisine]]
---
> *** [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]]
> *** [[Mandarin cuisine|Mandarin]]
> *** [[Szechuan cuisine|Szechuan]]
> ** [[Thai cuisine|Thai]]
> ** [[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian]]
> ** [[Indian cuisine|Indian]]
23,24c21,22
< ** [[Turkish cuisine]]
< ** [[Greek cuisine]]
---
> ** [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]]
> ** [[Greek cuisine|Greek]]
25a24,26
> * [[Fusion cuisine]]
> * [[Vegetarian cuisine]]
> * [[Kosher cuisine]]
------
Food|986322240
10a11
> * [[Poultry]]
14a16,17
> * [[Herb]]s
> * [[Spice]]s
------
Meat|986322550
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The English word <i>meat</i> originally meant simply "food", but is today used in the narrower sense of animal flesh used as food.  It is often used in the still narrower sense of flesh from [[mammal]]s (most commonly [[ungulate]]s), as distinguished from [[fish]] or other [[seafood]], and [[poultry]] (from birds).
------
Mammal|986323140
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>mammal</i> (from the Latin <i>mamma</i>, for breast) is an [[animal]] of the class [[Mammalia]].  The primary distinguishing characteristic is the presence of breasts with [[mammary gland]]s in the female, which produce [[milk]] for the nourishment of young.  Other characteristics of mammals include [[hair]] and live birth of young (except for [[monotreme]]s such as the [[platypus]]).
------
Animal|986323474
1c1
< Members of the kingdom [[Animalia]].  At Larry's suggestion, I think we may want to the pages on higher forms under the Latin name, with English pages forwarding to them.  But better ideas are welcome to encouraged.
---
> An <i>animal</i> (from the Latin <i>anima</i>, for breath or soul) is a living organism of the kingdom [[Animalia]].  Often used in the narrower sense of non-human animal, or the still narrower sense of [[mammal]].
3c3
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Poultry|986324109
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>poultry</i> refers to the flesh of [[bird]]s, used as [[food]].  Those most typically used are members of the orders [[Galliformes]] (chickens, turkeys, and "game" birds such as pheasants) and [[Anseriformes]] (waterfowl such as ducks and geese), though occasionally other birds such as doves may be used.
------
Bird|986324469
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>bird</i> is an [[animal]] of the class [[Aves]].  The primary distinguishing characteristic is the presence of [[feather]]s.  Other common characteristics are the ability to fly (with a few exceptions), a bony beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, high [[metabolism]], and a light but strong skeleton.
------
Fish|986325478
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word <i>fish</i> has several senses:
> 
> # An cold-blooded vertebrate [[animal]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]] and "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
> # The flesh of a fish (in sense 1) used for [[food]].  May also include the flesh of other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s or [[crustacean]]s (commonly called <i>shellfish</i>).
> # (As a verb) To attempt to catch fish (in sense 1) for the purpose of food or sport.
------
Seafood|986326585
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>seafood</i> refers to foods derived from aquatic [[animal]]s, such as [[fish]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[crustacean]]s.  The term is not restricted to "sea" creatures, but includes fresh-water animals as well.
> 
> * [[Fish]]
> ** [[Eel]]
> * [[Shellfish]]
> ** [[Mollusk]]s
> *** [[Octopus]]
> *** [[Squid]]
> *** [[Scallop]]
> *** [[Clam]]
> *** [[Mussel]]
> *** [[Oyster]]
> *** [[Abalone]]
> ** [[Crustacean]]s
> *** [[Crab]]
> *** [[Lobster]]
> *** [[Shrimp]]
> *** [[Crayfish]]
> * [[Miscellaneous seafood]]
> ** [[Caviar]] (sturgeon roe)
> ** [[Uni]] (sea urchin roe)
------
Food/Talk|986326763
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Where does fictuous food such as [soylent green]? fit in? 
------
Soviet_Union/Talk|986327367
39a40,42
> 
> Estimates vary.  The Black Book of Communism claims 25 million.  Britannica says 10s of millions.  Rummel's data is or was the most thorough research that I've heard of - it was done before the Soviet collapse so better research may be available.  We should probably hedge with "an estimated" or "approximately". --[[TimShell|TS]]
> 
44c47
< There's so much to write upon and discover about the former USSR and its beginnings. IMHO, This debate - friendly, as it is - is excellent. I'm all for [[enimaf]]!  --[[Invictus]]
---
> There's so much to write upon and discover about the former USSR and its beginnings. IMHO, This debate - friendly, as it is - is excellent. I'm all for [[enimaf]]!  --[[Invictus]]
------
H.G._Wells|986328353
1c1
< Herbert George Wells (1866-1946)
---
> Herbert George Wells - English writer 1866-1946
3c3
< English writer
---
> Born in 1866, he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper - his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel `<i>Kipps</i>'. In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T.H. Huxley]]
5c5,6
< In his early novels, described at the time as `scientific romances'  he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers, and have entered popular culture, with such works as [[The Time Machine]], [[The Invisible Man]], and [[The War of the Worlds]] 
---
> In his early novels, described at the time as `scientific romances'  he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers, and have entered popular culture, with such works as [[The Time Machine]], [[The Invisible Man]], and [[The War of the Worlds]]. 
> Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising, `<i>Tono-Bungay</i>', and  `<i>Kipps</i>', which drew on his experiences a a draper's assistant. 
7c8
< In a long writing career, he wrote novels covering a wide range of subjects, such as the excesses of Edwardian advertising, in `Tono-Bungay', books depicting various [[Utopia|Utopian]] societies, such as "In the days of the comet" and even wrote the screenplay for the [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]], (1937?) which depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment.
---
> From quite early in his career, he felt that there should be a better way of organising society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels; usually starting with the world heading inexorably towards catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to suddenly behave rationally ('<i>In the Days of the Comet</i>'), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in `<i>The Shape of Things to Come</i>' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1938 [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]], This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment. 
9c10,11
< He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, "Mind at the end of its tether" suggests. His growing pessimism led to his later books tending rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier science fiction novels - as the science fiction writer [[Theodore Sturgeon]] aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message"
---
> Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] `<i>When the Sleeper Awakes</i>' shows. 
> '<i>The Island of Dr. Moreau</i> is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhms]] he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
10a13
> He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the  shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit  (<i>`Russia in the Shadows'</i>) However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong. In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. (1)
12c15,18
< A partial listing of his novels, with dates of publication where I know them: 
---
> He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, "Mind at the end of its tether" suggests. His later books tended rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier works - as one critic aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message" (2)
> 
> 
> A partial listing of his novels:
14d19
< :[[The War of the Worlds]]
15a21
> :The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896)
16a23,24
> :[[The War of the Worlds]] (1898)
> :Love and Mr Lewisham (1900)
17a26
> :A Modern Utopia (1905)
19a29
> :The history of Mr Polly (1910)
21a32
> :Men Like Gods (1923)
24,26c35
< :The Island of Dr. Moreau
< :The history of Mr Polly
< :A Modern Utopia
---
> 
30a40,50
> 
> His autobiography was published in 1934, as `<i>An Experiment in Autobiography</i>'
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> (1) For examples of his contemporaries wilful disregard of the failings of the Soviet Union, see the book `<i>Political Pilgrims'</i> by Paul Hollander.
> 
> (2) I thought [[Theodore Sturgeon]] had coined the "pot of message" remark, but on rereading the source (a Sturgeon short story from 1948 entitled `<i>Unite and Conquer</i>') find that a character in the story was quoting a `Dr Pierce' with that remark. Wherever it came from, it's a perfect description of why his later books weren't as good as the early ones..
> 
> This needs a lot more yet....
------
1960s|986328770
24a25,26
> ''Perhaps the different continents should just have subpages off of each decades page. Then have the main page highlight the more global events such as the Vietnam war, the sexual revolution etc..''
> 
27c29
<    [[1980s]] - next
---
>    [[1980s]] - next
------
Kludge|986328866
1c1
< Possibly fron German ''klug'' ("clever")  Originally spelled "kluge," and used as early as the 1940's in Great Britain, term originally applied to any solution for accomplishing a task, especially mechanical, which consisted of various otherwise disrelated parts and mechanisms, cobbled together in a untidy or downright messy manner.  Presumably through military co-action, Americans eventually adopted the term.  In Naval parlance, a kluge was usually a machine or process which woked perfectly ashore, but never aboard ship.  The resulting inoperative machinery was regarded as so much clutter, and a minor naval usage of the word came to apply to clutter in general, especially as it might impede shipboard operations.
---
> Possibly fron German ''klug'' ("clever")  Originally spelled "kluge," and used as early as the 1940's in Great Britain, term originally applied to any solution for accomplishing a task, especially mechanical, which consisted of various otherwise disrelated parts and mechanisms, cobbled together in a untidy or downright messy manner.  Presumably through military co-action, Americans eventually adopted the term.  In Naval parlance, a kluge was usually a machine or process which worked perfectly ashore, but never aboard ship.  The resulting inoperative machinery was regarded as so much clutter, and a minor naval usage of the word came to apply to clutter in general, especially as it might impede shipboard operations.
------
Year_in_Review/Backward|986328907
1c1,141
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>[[2000s]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[2001]]</td>
> <td>[[2000]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1990s]]</td>
> <td>[[1999]]</td>
> <td>[[1998]]</td>
> <td>[[1997]]</td>
> <td>[[1996]]</td>
> <td>[[1995]]</td>
> <td>[[1994]]</td>
> <td>[[1993]]</td>
> <td>[[1992]]</td>
> <td>[[1991]]</td>
> <td>[[1990]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1980s]]</td>
> <td>[[1989]]</td>
> <td>[[1988]]</td>
> <td>[[1987]]</td>
> <td>[[1986]]</td>
> <td>[[1985]]</td>
> <td>[[1984]]</td>
> <td>[[1983]]</td>
> <td>[[1982]]</td>
> <td>[[1981]]</td>
> <td>[[1980]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1970s]]</td>
> <td>[[1979]]</td>
> <td>[[1978]]</td>
> <td>[[1977]]</td>
> <td>[[1976]]</td>
> <td>[[1975]]</td>
> <td>[[1974]]</td>
> <td>[[1973]]</td>
> <td>[[1972]]</td>
> <td>[[1971]]</td>
> <td>[[1970]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1960s]]</td>
> <td>[[1969]]</td>
> <td>[[1968]]</td>
> <td>[[1967]]</td>
> <td>[[1966]]</td>
> <td>[[1965]]</td>
> <td>[[1964]]</td>
> <td>[[1963]]</td>
> <td>[[1962]]</td>
> <td>[[1961]]</td>
> <td>[[1960]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1950s]]</td>
> <td>[[1959]]</td>
> <td>[[1958]]</td>
> <td>[[1957]]</td>
> <td>[[1956]]</td>
> <td>[[1955]]</td>
> <td>[[1954]]</td>
> <td>[[1953]]</td>
> <td>[[1952]]</td>
> <td>[[1951]]</td>
> <td>[[1950]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1940s]]</td>
> <td>[[1949]]</td>
> <td>[[1948]]</td>
> <td>[[1947]]</td>
> <td>[[1946]]</td>
> <td>[[1945]]</td>
> <td>[[1944]]</td>
> <td>[[1943]]</td>
> <td>[[1942]]</td>
> <td>[[1941]]</td>
> <td>[[1940]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1930s]]</td>
> <td>[[1939]]</td>
> <td>[[1938]]</td>
> <td>[[1937]]</td>
> <td>[[1936]]</td>
> <td>[[1935]]</td>
> <td>[[1934]]</td>
> <td>[[1933]]</td>
> <td>[[1932]]</td>
> <td>[[1931]]</td>
> <td>[[1930]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1920s]]</td>
> <td>[[1929]]</td>
> <td>[[1928]]</td>
> <td>[[1927]]</td>
> <td>[[1926]]</td>
> <td>[[1925]]</td>
> <td>[[1924]]</td>
> <td>[[1923]]</td>
> <td>[[1922]]</td>
> <td>[[1921]]</td>
> <td>[[1920]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1910s]]</td>
> <td>[[1919]]</td>
> <td>[[1918]]</td>
> <td>[[1917]]</td>
> <td>[[1916]]</td>
> <td>[[1915]]</td>
> <td>[[1914]]</td>
> <td>[[1913]]</td>
> <td>[[1912]]</td>
> <td>[[1911]]</td>
> <td>[[1910]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1900s]]</td>
> <td>[[1909]]</td>
> <td>[[1908]]</td>
> <td>[[1907]]</td>
> <td>[[1906]]</td>
> <td>[[1905]]</td>
> <td>[[1904]]</td>
> <td>[[1903]]</td>
> <td>[[1902]]</td>
> <td>[[1901]]</td>
> <td>[[1900]]</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> ----
> /Forward
> 
> /Guidelines
> 
> /Talk
------
Yahoo|986329050
5c5
< 3. A popular Internet [[Search Engine|search engine]]. Unknown why they chose to use that particular name - possibly after the cheer.
---
> 3. A popular [[Internet|internet]] portal and [[Search Engine|search engine]]. Unknown why they chose to use that particular name - possibly after the cheer.
------
Year_in_Review|986329151
1,2d0
< Year in Review
< 
4a3
> <td>[[1950s]]</td>
15,16c14,15
< </tr>
< <tr>
---
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1960s]]</td>
27,28c26,27
< </tr>
< <tr>
---
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1970s]]</td>
39,40c38,39
< </tr>
< <tr>
---
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1980s]]</td>
51,52c50,51
< </tr>
< <tr>
---
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1990s]]</td>
63,64c62,63
< </tr>
< <tr>
---
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[2000s]]</td>
------
Fish|986329424
3c3
< # An cold-blooded vertebrate [[animal]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]] and "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
---
> # A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]] and "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
------
PopularMusic|986329865
3,29c3,29
< * PaulaAbdul
< * AllSaints
< * ToriAmos
< * FionaApple
< * TinaArena
< * SherrieAustin
< 
< * BackstreetBoys
< * AnaBelen
< * BjorK
< * TracyBonham
< * ToniBraxton
< * DanielleBrisbois
< * GarthBrooks
< * MeredithBrooks
< 
< * MariahCarey
< * BelindaCarlisle
< * RobynCarlsson
< * MaryChapinCarpenter
< * JohnnyCash
< * CheR
< * EricClapton
< * KurtCobain
< * AndreaCorr
< * CreedenceClearwaterRevival
< * SherylCrow
---
> * [[Paula Abdul]]
> * [[All Saints]]
> * [[Tori Amos]]
> * [[Fiona Apple]]
> * [[Tina Arena]]
> * [[Sherrie Austin]]
> 
> * [[Backstreet Boys]]
> * [[Ana Belen]]
> * [[Bjork]]
> * [[Tracy Bonham]]
> * [[Toni Braxton]]
> * [[Danielle Brisbois]]
> * [[Garth Brooks]]
> * [[Meredith Brooks]]
> 
> * [[Mariah Carey]]
> * [[Belinda Carlisle]]
> * [[Robyn Carlsson]]
> * [[Mary Chapin Carpenter]]
> * [[Johnny Cash]]
> * [[Cher]]
> * [[Eric Clapton]]
> * [[Kurt Cobain]]
> * [[Andrea Corr]]
> * [[Creedence Clearwater Revival]]
> * [[Sheryl Crow]]
31c31
< * JarsOfClay
---
> * [[Jars Of Clay]]
33c33
< * KingCrimson
---
> * [[King Crimson]]
37c37
< * NirvanA
---
> * [[Nirvana]]
39,40c39,42
< * MichaelWSmith
< * BritneySpears
---
> * [[Michael W Smith]]
> * [[Britney Spears]]
> ----
> /Talk
------
Drink|986329916
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word <i>drink</i> is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids.  As a noun, it refers to the liquids thus ingested.  It is often used in a narrower sense to refer to [[alcohol]]ic beverages (as both a verb and a noun).  Can also be used metaphorically, as in <i>to drink in the scenery</i>.
------
Morse_code|986330331
69c69
<       <P>-*-</P></TD></TR>
---
>       -*-</TD></TR>
100c100
<       <P>**-</P></TD></TR>
---
>       **-</TD></TR>
104c104
<       <P>***-</P></TD></TR>
---
>       ***-</TD></TR>
130c130
<  9 ----*
---
>  9 <nowiki>----</nowiki>*
------
Drink|986330350
1c1,18
< The word <i>drink</i> is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids.  As a noun, it refers to the liquids thus ingested.  It is often used in a narrower sense to refer to [[alcohol]]ic beverages (as both a verb and a noun).  Can also be used metaphorically, as in <i>to drink in the scenery</i>.
---
> The word <i>drink</i> is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids.  As a noun, it refers to the liquid thus ingested.   It is often used in a narrower sense to refer to [[alcohol]]ic beverages (as both a verb and a noun).  Can also be used metaphorically, as in <i>to drink in the scenery</i>.
> 
> A <i>beverage</i> is a drink specifically prepared for human consumption.  These include:
> 
> * [[Juice]] and [[Juice drink]]s
> * [[Carbonated drink]]s
> * [[Sports drink]]s
> * [[Infusion]]s
> ** [[Coffee]]
> ** [[Tea]]
> * [[Dairy drink]]s
> * [[Alcoholic beverage]]s
> ** [[Beer]]
> ** [[Wine]]
> ** [[Hard liquor]]
> ** [[Cocktail]]s
> 
> 
------
Food_and_Drinks|986330401
1,39c1
< [[Beverages]]:
< * [[Water]]
< * [[Juices]]
< * [[Ades]]
< * [[Carbonated Drinks]]
< * [[Sports Drinks]]
< * [[Coffee]]
< * [[Tea]]
< * [[Dairy Drinks]]
< * [[Soy Drinks]]
< * [[Alcoholic Beverages]]
< ** [[Beer]]
< ** [[Spirits]]
< ** [[Wine]]
< ** [[Cocktails]]
< 
< 
< [[Food]] ([[cooking]]):
< 
< * [[Vegetarian Cuisine]]
< * [[Vegan Cuisine]]
< * [[Kosher Cuisine]]
< * [[Seafood]]
< * [[Fast Food]]
< * [[Western Cuisine]]
< ** [[Italian Cuisine]]
< ** [[French Cuisine]]
< ** [[German Cuisine]]
< ** [[Mexican Cuisine]]
< ** [[Spanish Cuisine]]
< * [[Asian Cuisine]]
< ** [[Japanese Cuisine]]
< ** [[Cantonese Cuisine]]
< ** [[Thai Cuisine]]
< ** [[Indonesian Cuisine]]
< ** [[Indian Cuisine]]
< * [[Mediterranean Cuisine]]
< ** [[Turkish Cuisine]]
< ** [[Greek Cuisine]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Food and drink]]
------
Morse_code|986330518
37,116c37,113
<     <TD>A</TD>
<     <TD>*-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>B</TD>
<     <TD>-***</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>C</TD>
<     <TD>-*-*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>D</TD>
<     <TD>-**</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>E</TD>
<     <TD>*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>F</TD>
<     <TD>**-*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>G</TD>
<     <TD>--*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>H</TD>
<     <TD>****</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>I</TD>
<     <TD>**</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>J</TD>
<     <TD>*---</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>K</TD>
<     <TD>
<       -*-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>L</TD>
<     <TD>*-**</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>M</TD>
<     <TD>--</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>N</TD>
<     <TD>-*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>O</TD>
<     <TD>---</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>P</TD>
<     <TD>*--*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>Q</TD>
<     <TD>--*-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>R</TD>
<     <TD>*-*</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>S</TD>
<     <TD>***</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>T</TD>
<     <TD>-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>U</TD>
<     <TD>
<       **-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>V</TD>
<     <TD>
<       ***-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>W</TD>
<     <TD>*--</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>X</TD>
<     <TD>-**-</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>Y</TD>
<     <TD>-*--</TD></TR>
<   <TR>
<     <TD>Z</TD>
<     <TD>--**</TD></TR>
---
> <TD>A</TD>
> <TD>*-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>B</TD>
> <TD>-***</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>C</TD>
> <TD>-*-*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>D</TD>
> <TD>-**</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>E</TD>
> <TD>*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>F</TD>
> <TD>**-*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>G</TD>
> <TD>--*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>H</TD>
> <TD>****</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>I</TD>
> <TD>**</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>J</TD>
> <TD>*---</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>K</TD>
> <TD> -*-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>L</TD>
> <TD>*-**</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>M</TD>
> <TD>--</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>N</TD>
> <TD>-*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>O</TD>
> <TD>---</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>P</TD>
> <TD>*--*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>Q</TD>
> <TD>--*-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>R</TD>
> <TD>*-*</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>S</TD>
> <TD>***</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>T</TD>
> <TD>-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>U</TD>
> <TD>**-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>V</TD>
> <TD>***-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>W</TD>
> <TD>*--</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>X</TD>
> <TD>-**-</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>Y</TD>
> <TD>-*--</TD></TR>
> <TR>
> <TD>Z</TD>
> <TD>--**</TD></TR>
117a115
> 
------
Food_and_drink|986330566
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The phrase <i>food and drink</i> is commonly used to refer to [[food]] and [[drink]] specifically selected or prepared for human consumption.  Can also refer to the craft of such preparation, also called [[cooking]].
> 
> 
------
1977|986330647
7,8c7,8
< [[Book|Books]]
< <br>A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
---
> [[Book|Books]] -
> A collection of work by [[JRR Tolkien]], [[The Silmarillion]] is published posthumously by his son, Christopher.
10,11c10,11
< [[Film]]
< <br>The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
---
> [[Film]] -
> The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
20,21c20,21
< [[NASCAR Championship]]
< <br>[[Cale Yarborough]] won this years event, with [[Richard Petty]] coming in second.
---
> [[NASCAR Championship]] -
> [[Cale Yarborough]] won this years event, beating [[Richard Petty]] into second place with a very respectable 386 point lead.
23c23
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
1977|986330841
11c11
< The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and lands itself in the [[Top Grossing Movies|top grossing films]] of all time with a staggering $460,935,655.  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
---
> The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and makes [[George Lucas]] and the team at [[LucasArts]] a staggering [[Top Grossing Movies|$461 million]].  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
------
Kludge|986331283
1,5c1
< Possibly fron German ''klug'' ("clever")  Originally spelled "kluge," and used as early as the 1940's in Great Britain, term originally applied to any solution for accomplishing a task, especially mechanical, which consisted of various otherwise disrelated parts and mechanisms, cobbled together in a untidy or downright messy manner.  Presumably through military co-action, Americans eventually adopted the term.  In Naval parlance, a kluge was usually a machine or process which worked perfectly ashore, but never aboard ship.  The resulting inoperative machinery was regarded as so much clutter, and a minor naval usage of the word came to apply to clutter in general, especially as it might impede shipboard operations.
< 
< In 1962, an article appeared in an American computing magazine which appears to have adopted the term under the misspelling "kludge" (while retaining the ''klooj'' pronunciation, in defiance of American English convention) to refer to ingenious but unwieldy solutions in that field.  American technical specialists appear to have carried the misspelling forward.
< 
< In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system, whether hardware or software that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
---
> See [[Kluge]]
------
Kluge|986331343
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Possibly fron German ''klug'' ("clever")  Originally spelled "kluge," and used as early as the 1940's in Great Britain, term originally applied to any solution for accomplishing a task, especially mechanical, which consisted of various otherwise disrelated parts and mechanisms, cobbled together in a untidy or downright messy manner.  Presumably through military co-action, Americans eventually adopted the term.  In Naval parlance, a kluge was usually a machine or process which worked perfectly ashore, but never aboard ship.  The resulting inoperative machinery was regarded as so much clutter, and a minor naval usage of the word came to apply to clutter in general, especially as it might impede shipboard operations.
> 
> In 1962, an article appeared in an American computing magazine which appears to have adopted the term under the misspelling "kludge" (while retaining the ''klooj'' pronunciation, in defiance of American English convention) to refer to ingenious but unwieldy solutions in that field.  American technical specialists appear to have carried the misspelling forward.
> 
> In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system, whether hardware or software that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
------
Vietnam/Language|986331371
7a8,11
> 
> --Go ahead and BeBoldInUpdatingPages; I don't mind.  Interesting that you bring up Cambodian, though, because that's the language I'm most familiar with - and it's closer to Laotian and Thai than anything else.  Cambodian and Thai are about as close to each other as Spanish and English - *lots* of roots and words that are similar or the same, and the written languages are also very close.  (Thai and Lao are about like Spanish and Italian, or even Spain-Spanish and Mexico-Spanish).  Those three all have strong roots in Pali and Sanskrit.  Doing a little research, however,  http://www.saigon.com/~nguyent/hoa_04.html seems to agree with you, so let's go ahead and make the change.
>   
> 
------
Kludge|986331382
2a3,4
> In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system, whether hardware or software that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
> 
------
1999|986332461
0a1,9
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[1998]] - 1999 [[2000]]
> ----
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
> 
> [[Music]] -
> 
> ----
------
Poker/Variants|986333731
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The game of [[poker]] has many variations, most of them created in the [[United States]] in the mid-1900s.  The standard [[Poker/Game play|order of play]] applies to most of these games, but to fully specify a poker game requires details about which [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] are used, the number of betting rounds, and exactly what cards are dealt and what other actions are taken between rounds.  Any game may also use any [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]].
> 
> They can be divided into the following groups:
> 
> * [[Draw poker]] Games in which players are dealt a complete hand, hidden, and then improve it by replacing cards.
> * [[Stud poker]] Games in which each player receives a combination of face-up cards and face-down cards in multiple betting rounds).
> * [[Community card poker]] Games in which each player's incomplete hidden hand is combined with shared face-up cards.
> * [[Miscellaneous poker]] Other games, or hybrids of the foregoing games.
> 
------
Poker|986333852
14,17c14,17
< ** [[Draw poker|Draw games]]
< ** [[Stud poker|Stud games]]
< ** [[Community card poker|Community card games]]
< ** [[Miscellaneous poker game]]s
---
> ** [[Draw poker]]
> ** [[Stud poker]]
> ** [[Community card poker]]
> ** [[Miscellaneous poker]]
31a32
> * Culture
------
Draw_poker|986334010
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Draw poker</i> refers to a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing cards.
> 
------
Poker_variant|986334036
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poker/Variant]]
------
Poker_variant|986334058
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Poker/Variant]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poker/Variants]]
------
Draw_poker|986334094
1c1
< <i>Draw poker</i> refers to a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing cards.
---
> <i>Draw poker</i> refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing cards.
------
Poker/Game_play|986334602
3c3,9
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less confusing), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less ambiguous because <i>hand</i> also refers to the cards held by each player), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.
> 
> A single deal (or hand) of poker consists of one or more <i>betting rounds</i>, during which players make bets into the central pot.  Between betting rounds, the players's hands <i>develop</i> in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt.
> 
> At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a <i>showdown</i> in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands.  The player with the best hands according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.
> 
> At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  
7c13
< After the initial deal, the first of what may be several <i>betting rounds</i> begins.  During a round of betting, there will always be a <i>current bet amount</i>, which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called <i>splashing</i> the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.  Beginning with a player determined by the rules of the particular game, each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
---
> After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins.  During a round of betting, there will always be a <i>current bet amount</i>, which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called <i>splashing</i> the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.  Beginning with a player determined by the rules of the particular game, each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
------
Baby_One_More_Time|986334605
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Baby One More Time, [[Britney Spears]], BMG/Jive/Novus/Silvertone, January 12 [[1999]]
> 
> Debut album, also includes interview videos and Baby One More Time music video
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr><td>song</td><td>time (minutes)</td></tr>
> <tr><td>...Baby One More Time</td>	<td>3:30</td></tr>
> <tr><td>(You Drive Me) Crazy</td>	<td>3:17</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Sometimes</td>			<td>4:05</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Soda Pop</td>			<td>3:20</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Born To Make You Happy</td>	<td>4:03</td></tr>
> <tr><td>From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart</td>	<td>5:11</td></tr>
> <tr><td>I Will Be There</td>		<td>3:53</td></tr>
> <tr><td>I Will Still Love You (with [[Don Philip]])</td>	<td>4:02</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Deep In My Heart</td>		<td>3:34</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Thinkin' About You</td>		<td>3:35</td></tr>
> <tr><td>E-mail My Heart</td>		<td>3:41</td></tr>
> <tr><td>The Beat Goes On</td>		<td>3:43</td></tr>
> </table>
> 
> "Deep In My Heart" is an extra bonus song on the International release only. Not available in the [[United States|US]].
------
BabyOneMoreTime|986334662
1,17c1
< ...Baby One More Time
< 
< Debut album by BritneySpears, released January 12, 1999.
< 
< Songs include:
< 
< :...Baby, One More Time
< :(You Drive Me) Crazy
< :Sometimes
< :Soda Pop
< :Born To Make You Happy
< :From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart
< :I Will Be There
< :I Will Still Love You (with DonPhilip)
< :Thinkin' About You
< :Email My Heart
< :The Beat Goes On
---
> #REDIRECT [[Baby One More Time]]
------
Poker_hand|986335056
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>hand</i> in the [[game]] of [[poker]] is ambiguous, and means one of these related things:
> 
> * The set of cards held by an individual player.  E.g., "Each player is dealt a hand of 5 cards."
> * The <i>value</i> of the cards held by a player.  E.g., "John's hand was a flush, but lost to my full house."  (see [[Poker/Hands]])
> * An instance of play of a particular game.  E.g., "We played four hands of draw and three hands of stud." This is also referred to as a <i>deal</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]).
------
Britney_Spears|986335488
1c1
< Britney Jean Spears is an American pop singer.  Born December 2, 1981 in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of [[Disney]]'s [[Mickey Mouse Club]] in the 1993 and 1994 seasons.
---
> Britney Jean Spears is an [[United States|American]] pop singer.  Born December 2, [[1981]] in Kentwood, Louisiana, Britney first came to fame as a member of [[Disney]]'s [[Mickey Mouse Club]] in the [[1993]] and [[1994]] seasons.
3c3
< Castmates included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]], who later became members of the pop band [[N Sync]], and [[Christina Aguilera]], also a pop singer. 
---
> Castmates included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]], who later became members of the pop band [[N Sync]], and [[Christina Aguilera]], also a pop singer.
5c5
< Her first album, BabyOneMoreTime, debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early 1999.  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
---
> Her first album, [[Baby One More Time]], debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early [[1999]].  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
------
Keanu_Reeves|986335985
1c1
< Keanu Reeves is an American [[actor]].  He was born on September 2, 1964 in Beruit, Lebanon.  His first name means "cool breeze over the mountains" in Hawaiian.
---
> Keanu Reeves is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]].  He was born on September 2, [[1964]] in Beruit, Lebanon.  His first name means "cool breeze over the mountains" in Hawaiian.
3c3
< His first major film role was in [[Youngblood]] (1986), with [[Rob Lowe]], and his first popularly successful film was [[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989).  Indeed, much of Reeves subsequent public image has been haunted by the inane character Ted from that film.  His first major success, to this day, inhibits his acceptance as a serious actor.
---
> His first major film role was in [[Youngblood]] ([[1986]]), with [[Rob Lowe]], and his first popularly successful film was [[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] ([[1989]]).  Indeed, much of Reeves subsequent public image has been haunted by the inane character Ted from that film.  His first major success, to this day, inhibits his acceptance as a serious actor.
5c5
< To date, his best films have been [[The Matrix]] (1999), [[Dangerous Liasons]] (1988), and [[Much Ado About Nothing]] (1993).
---
> To date, his best films have been [[The Matrix]] ([[1999]]), [[Dangerous Liasons]] ([[1988]]), and [[Much Ado About Nothing]] ([[1993]]).
------
Keanu_Reeves/Filmography|986336117
3,18c3,18
< *[[The Replacements]] (2000)
< *[[The Watcher]] (2000)
< *[[The Gift]] (2000)
< *[[The Matrix]] (1999)
< *[[The Devils Advocate]] (1997)
< *[[Speed]] (1994)
< *[[Much Ado About Nothing]] (1993)
< *[[Dracula]] (1992)
< *[[Point Break]] (1991)
< *[[My Own Private Idaho]] (1991)
< *[[Tune in Tomorrow]] (1990)
< *[[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]] (1989)
< *[[Parenthood]] (1989)
< *[[Permanent Record]] (1988)
< *[[Dangerous Liasons]] (1988)
< *[[Rivers Edge]] (1986)
---
> *[[The Replacements]], [[2000]]
> *[[The Watcher]], [[2000]]
> *[[The Gift]], [[2000]]
> *[[The Matrix]], [[1999]]
> *[[The Devils Advocate]], [[1997]]
> *[[Speed]], [[1994]]
> *[[Much Ado About Nothing]], [[1993]]
> *[[Dracula]], [[1992]]
> *[[Point Break]], [[1991]]
> *[[My Own Private Idaho]], [[1991]]
> *[[Tune in Tomorrow]], [[1990]]
> *[[Bill and Teds Excellent Adventure]], [[1989]]
> *[[Parenthood]], [[1989]]
> *[[Permanent Record]], [[1988]]
> *[[Dangerous Liasons]], [[1988]]
> *[[Rivers Edge]], [[1986]]
------
1964|986336219
3c3
< [[1963]] -- 1964 -- [[1965]]
---
> [[1963]] - 1964 - [[1965]]
4a5
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
6,8c7,8
< *[[Arts]] and [[Entertainment]]
< **Famous People Births and Deaths
< ***[[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
---
> Famous People Births and Deaths -
> [[Nicolas Cage]] is born, January 7th.
------
1999|986336295
3c3
< [[1998]] - 1999 [[2000]]
---
> [[1998]] - 1999 - [[2000]]
------
SandBox|986336424
2a3,4
> I want to TrySomething
> 
------
TrySomething|986336435
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> 
> first rev
------
TrySomething|986336475
3c3,6
< first rev
---
> first rev
> 
> second rev
> 
------
TrySomething|986336533
3,6c3
< first rev
< 
< second rev
< 
---
> first rev. version 2
------
Draw_poker|986337548
2a3,25
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use an ante, and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left.  In casino play, it is more common to use blinds; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.
> 
> Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left.
> 
> <h2>Five-card draw</h2>
> 
> This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play.  Two to eight players can play.
> 
> Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, all face down.  Players generally pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace with cards from the remainder of the deck, and these replacements are done in turn.
> 
> <b>Example:</b> ...
> 
> <h3>Variations</h3>
> 
> Five-card draw can be played with traditional [[Poker/Hands|hand values]], or using any of various [[lowball]] variations, or high/low split.  In casinos, both low and high variations are generally played with a single joker in the deck, used as a bug.  Draw games play well with wild cards, so the <i>deuces wild</i> variant is very popular in home games.  More than one draw can be used to add betting rounds.  Some specific popular variants include:
> 
> * Gardena Jackpots: Standard hand values, with a single joker in the deck, acting as a bug.  Always played with an ante.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand (other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens).  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.
> * California High/Low Draw: Played with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no one qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.
> * California Lowball: Ace-to-five lowball, with a single joker in the deck.   Always played with blinds, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A common rule is that a player with a 7-high hand is not allowed to check after the draw.  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.
> * Double-draw Lowball: As above, but played with two draw phases and therefore three betting rounds.
> * Kansas City Lowball: Deuce-to-seven lowball, no joker.  Often called "Billy Baxter Draw" in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the event for many years.
> 
> ...
------
Lowball|986337706
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which traditional hand values are reversed, so that the lowest-valued hand wins.  There are several interpretations of this idea: see [[Poker/Hands]] for the specific methods used.
------
Lowball|986337757
1c1
< Any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which traditional hand values are reversed, so that the lowest-valued hand wins.  There are several interpretations of this idea: see [[Poker/Hands]] for the specific methods used.
---
> <i>Lowball</i> (or <i>low poker</i>) refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which traditional hand values are reversed, so that the lowest-valued hand wins.  There are several interpretations of this idea: see [[Poker/Hands]] for the specific methods used.
------
Poker/Variants|986337882
5,8c5,8
< * [[Draw poker]] Games in which players are dealt a complete hand, hidden, and then improve it by replacing cards.
< * [[Stud poker]] Games in which each player receives a combination of face-up cards and face-down cards in multiple betting rounds).
< * [[Community card poker]] Games in which each player's incomplete hidden hand is combined with shared face-up cards.
< * [[Miscellaneous poker]] Other games, or hybrids of the foregoing games.
---
> * [[Draw poker]]: Games in which players are dealt a complete hand, hidden, and then improve it by replacing cards.
> * [[Stud poker]]: Games in which each player receives a combination of face-up cards and face-down cards in multiple betting rounds).
> * [[Community card poker]]: Games in which each player's incomplete hidden hand is combined with shared face-up cards.
> * [[Miscellaneous poker]]: Other games, or hybrids of the foregoing games.
------
Physics|986337966
3,4d2
< * PhotoElectricEffect (German)
< 
6c4
< Rough draft of categories of Physics:
---
> Categories of physics with respect to theory:
8,12d5
< * [[Solid State Physics]]
< 
< * [[Hydrodynamics]]
< 
< * [[Quantum Mechanics]]
15c8
< 
---
> * [[Thermodynamics]]
17,19c10,11
< 
< * [[Gravity]]
< 
---
> * [[Statistical mechanics]]
> * [[Quantum Mechanics]]
20a13,16
> * Quantum field theory
> * ...
> * [[Hydrodynamics]]
> * [[Gravity]]
22,26c18,20
< * [[Thermodynamics]]
< 
< * [[Atomic, Nuclear, and Particle Physics]]
< 
< * [[Cosmology]] (see also [[Astronomy]])
---
> <P>
> Categories of physics with respect to building blocks:
> <P>
27a22,27
> * [[Atomic physics]]
> * [[Nuclear physics]]
> * [[Particle physics]]
> <P>
> The experiment is central to physics, and thus we may emphasize:
> </p>
30,40c30
< * [[Physics instrumentation]]
< 
< * [[Physics theoretical methods]]
< 
< * [[Physics computer simulation methods]]
< 
< * [[History of Physics]]
< 
< * [[Famous Physicists]]
< 
< ----
---
> <p>
42c32
< 
---
> </p>
56a47,55
> 
> <P>
> Categories of physics from a "social science" point of view:
> <P>
> * [[History of Physics]]
> * [[Famous Physicists]]
> * [[Physics instrumentation|Large scale facilities]]
> * Learned societies
> 
------
Evolution/Talk|986338363
26,28c26
< The sentence "Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time" was changed to read "...to persist over <i>greater spans of</i> time."  Lineages can certainly evolve but still eventually die out.  Also, the paragraph on the molecular basis of evolution was added primarily to continue the campaign against teleological thinking about adaption.
< 
< [[Suzanne Elsasser|Suze]]  
---
> The sentence "Evolution therefore allows life to persist over time" was changed to read "...to persist over <i>greater spans of</i> time."  Lineages can certainly evolve but still eventually die out.  Also, the paragraph on the molecular basis of evolution was added primarily to continue the campaign against teleological thinking about adaption.    [[Suzanne Elsasser|Suze]]  
------
Fish|986339051
3a4,6
> 
> - When I took zoology agnatha was a class of jawless fish: hagfish, lampreys.  Have they been reclassifed?
> 
------
Burn_card|986339117
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <i>burn card</i> is a [[playing card]] dealt from the top of a deck, and placed aside unused by those playing a [[card game]].  This is often done in casinos to deter cheating, to provide extra cards for use when an irregularity of play occurs, or for other reasons.  In [[blackjack]] for example, several cards are burned after the shuffle to make [[card counting]] more difficult.  In [[poker]], the top card of the deck stub is burned at the beginning of each betting round, so that players who might have been able to read markings on that card during the previous round cannot take advantage of that information.
> 
> 
------
Fish|986339343
3,8c3,5
< # A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]] and "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
< 
< - When I took zoology agnatha was a class of jawless fish: hagfish, lampreys.  Have they been reclassifed?
< 
< # The flesh of a fish (in sense 1) used for [[food]].  May also include the flesh of other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s or [[crustacean]]s (commonly called <i>shellfish</i>).
< # (As a verb) To attempt to catch fish (in sense 1) for the purpose of food or sport.
---
> * A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]], "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]], and "jawless" fish of class [[Agnatha]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
> * The flesh of a fish (in the primary sense above) used for [[food]].  May also include the flesh of other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s or [[crustacean]]s (commonly called <i>shellfish</i>).
> * (As a verb) To attempt to catch fish for the purpose of food or sport.
------
Draw_poker|986339889
11c11
< Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, all face down.  Players generally pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace with cards from the remainder of the deck, and these replacements are done in turn.
---
> Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn is dealt the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.  A second betting round occurs after the draw phase, followed by a showdown if more than one player remains.
13c13
< <b>Example:</b> ...
---
> <b>Example:</b> Alice deals five cards to each player, one at a time, face down.  She places the remaining deck stub aside, putting a chip on top to protect it from accidents.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a [[burn card]], then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub.  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.
------
Draw_poker|986340006
11c11
< Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn is dealt the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.  A second betting round occurs after the draw phase, followed by a showdown if more than one player remains.
---
> Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn is dealt the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.  A second betting round occurs after the draw phase, followed by a showdown if more than one player remains.
13c13
< <b>Example:</b> Alice deals five cards to each player, one at a time, face down.  She places the remaining deck stub aside, putting a chip on top to protect it from accidents.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a [[burn card]], then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub.  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.
---
> <b>Example:</b> Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub.  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.
------
Poker/Game_play|986340889
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less ambiguous because <i>hand</i> also refers to the cards held by each player), in which players make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of each deal.
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less ambiguous because <i>hand</i> also refers to the cards held by each player).  During each deal, players deal cards, make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of the deal.
7c7
< At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a <i>showdown</i> in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands.  The player with the best hands according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.
---
> At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a <i>showdown</i> in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands.  The player with the best hands according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.  Some deals may not reach the showdown phase, as explained below.
11c11
< Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i> come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).  After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular game being played.
---
> Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i>, and come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).  After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular variant being played.
17c17
< * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more han once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to being his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5 to call.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
---
> * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more than once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to bring his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
35c35
< On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now bets $4, and Carol calls.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $34 between them, each getting $17.
---
> On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now checks, and Carol checks.  The fourth betting round is thus <i>checked around</i>, and ends.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $26 between them, each getting $13.
------
Feature_requests|986341433
20a21
> * Generate and place on an automatically-generated R/O page a list of the most popular Wikipedia searches.  This would encourage people to write articles specifically on those topics that people search for. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Kluge|986341831
5c5
< In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system, whether hardware or software that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
---
> In modern computing technology, <b>kludge</b> is a method of solving a problem, doing a task, or fixing a system (whether hardware or software) that works but is inefficient, inelegant, or unfathomable.
------
Year_2000_problem|986348367
14c14
< 
---
> * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
------
Year_2000_problem|986348421
14c14
< * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
---
> * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of new money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
------
Lowball|986348896
1a2,3
> 
> Also a class of alcoholic [[Beverage|beverage]]: an unmixed drink served on ice or water in a short glass.
------
Concrete/Talk|986357064
12c12
< ----<br>:-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.
---
> ----<br>:-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.----If this is Philosopy Jargon, isn't it time to indicate that and offer possibly an "English" rephrasing of the distinction.
------
Concrete/Talk|986357138
7c7
< Are only individuals, i.e. people, concrete? I always thought my PC was conctrete. I guess I had better look at it. An abstract PC will be little help in disputing this definition.  Please clarify. 
---
> Are only individuals, i.e. people, concrete? I always thought my PC was concrete. I guess I had better look at it. An abstract PC will be little help in disputing this definition.  Please clarify. 
------
Music|986357994
59c59
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' JohannSebastianBach -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Ludwig Van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Ricard Wagner]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]]
------
HomePage|986358443
4a5
> 
------
Mathematics|986365382
9c9
< :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
---
> :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- [[Tensors]]
------
Gravity|986367405
1c1
< Gravity is one of the four fundamental forces in physics, along with ElectroMagnetism, the WeakNuclearForce and the StrongNuclearForce.  Two of history's greatest physicists, Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein, are mostly famous for studying gravity.
---
> Gravity is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s in physics, along with [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak nuclear force]] and the [[strong nuclear force]].  Two of history's greatest physicists, [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein]], are each famous for studying gravity.
3c3
< Isaac Newton's laws of gravity are very simple, yet when combined with his laws of motion explain the motion of both the planets around the sun and objects here on earth.  Newton's law for the gravitational force between two masses M1 and M2 is <br>
---
> Isaac Newton's laws of gravity are very simple, yet when combined with his laws of motion explain the motion of both the planets around the sun and objects here on earth.  Newton's law for the gravitational force between two masses M1 and M2 is
5c5
< F<sub>grav</sub>=G*M<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>/R<sup>2</sup> <br>
---
> :F<sub>grav</sub>=G*M<sub>1</sub>M<sub>2</sub>/R<sup>2</sup>
7,8c7
< where R is the distance between them and G is the Gravitational constant, which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).<br>
< Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [GeneralRelativity], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen significant figures.
---
> where R is the distance between them and G is the [gravitational constant]], which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).
9a9
> Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [[general relativity]], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen significant figures.
------
Gravity|986367414
7c7
< where R is the distance between them and G is the [gravitational constant]], which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).
---
> where R is the distance between them and G is the [[gravitational constant]], which has a value of 6.672*10<sup>-11</sup> meters<sup>3</sup>/(seconds<sup>2</sup>*kilograms).
------
Gravity|986367435
1c1
< Gravity is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s in physics, along with [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak nuclear force]] and the [[strong nuclear force]].  Two of history's greatest physicists, [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein]], are each famous for studying gravity.
---
> Gravity is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s in [[physics]], along with [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak nuclear force]] and the [[strong nuclear force]].  Two of history's greatest physicists, [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein]], are each famous for studying gravity.
------
KingCrimson|986367525
1,3c1
< Classic but strange rock and roll band.  Members have included AdrianBelew and RobertFripp.
< 
< See ElephantTalk.
---
> #REDIRECT [[King Crimson]]
------
King_Crimson|986367531
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Classic but strange [[rock and roll]] band.  Members have included [[Adrian Belew]] and [[Robert Fripp]].
------
Flamebait|986368307
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Flamebait'' refers to a message posted to an [[Internet]] discussion group, such as a [[newsgroup]] or a [[mailing list]], with the intent of provoking an angry response (a "[[flaming|flame]]").  Various motives or explanations can be sought for this puzzling behavior; from a commonsense point of view, the practice seems usually to be a cry for attention.
> 
> Flamebaiting and flaming are an interesting psycho-social phenomenon that no doubt will be exhaustively studied within the next decades as the Internet matures.
> 
> See also [[troll]].
------
Internet|986368350
22c22
< * [[flame war]]
---
> * [[flaming]], [[flamebait]], [[flame war]]
------
Troll|986368426
4,17d3
< ----
< On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.
< 
< Originally this term applied to people who were intentionally posting [[flamebait]], by analogy with the fishing technique: metaphorically, these people were dragging a conversational lure through the group, hoping for a response. The concept of "this person is trolling us" became shortened to "this person is a troll", and picked up the folkloric association.
< 
< ''Trolling'' mostly maintains its earlier meaning of posting messages specifically in order to elicit an particular response, usually anger or argument.
< 
< The noun form, ''troll'', is sometimes used in the more general sense of someone who stirs up controversy, whether or not the controversy itself is their goal. Frequently this is used to discredit one position in an argument. By asserting that one's opponents are trolls, one is asserting that they are only maintaining their position in order to feed the flames, and that their position is actually indefensible.
< 
< 
< Common types of troll messages:
< * [[off topic]] messages
< * inflammatory messages
< * messages containing an obvious flaw or error
18a5
> There are also [[Internet troll]]s.
------
Internet_troll|986368447
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On the [[Internet]], a troll is a person who posts messages that create controversy or an angry response without adding [[content]] to the [[discussion]], often intentionally.
> 
> Originally this term applied to people who were intentionally posting [[flamebait]], by analogy with the fishing technique: metaphorically, these people were dragging a conversational lure through the group, hoping for a response. The concept of "this person is trolling us" became shortened to "this person is a troll", and picked up the [[troll|folkloric association]].
> 
> ''Trolling'' mostly maintains its earlier meaning of posting messages specifically in order to elicit an particular response, usually anger or argument.
> 
> The noun form, ''troll'', is sometimes used in the more general sense of someone who stirs up controversy, whether or not the controversy itself is their goal. Frequently this is used to discredit one position in an argument. By asserting that one's opponents are trolls, one is asserting that they are only maintaining their position in order to feed the flames, and that their position is actually indefensible.
> 
> 
> Common types of troll messages:
> * [[off topic]] messages
> * inflammatory messages
> * messages containing an obvious flaw or error
------
Internet|986368491
21c21
< * [[troll|Trolls and trolling]]
---
> * [[Internet troll|Trolls and trolling]]
------
Flamebait|986368504
5c5
< See also [[troll]].
---
> See also [[Internet troll]].
------
Trilobita|986369588
21a22,23
> 
> ''Some notes: I think that the very most primitive Olenellids do actually lack a pygidium.  At least I am certain there were a few genera with a two-segmented pygidium, and remember there being others with a one-segmented pygidium, which is not really a pygidium at all, just a telson.  But aside from these one or two genera all trilobites certainly have pygidia.  With respect to the limbs, is biramous the right word to use?  I know it has two branches, but they are not homologous at all to those of crustacean limbs.''
------
Animal/Talk|986369839
7c7,9
< I suggest that the biologists develop biology articles in whatever format they find most simpatico, and after that we can construct a page in ordinary English that points to the Latin pages.  (You might want to state your intentions on [[Animal]] in order to make this unconfusing to the casual reader.) --[[LMS]]
---
> I suggest that the biologists develop biology articles in whatever format they find most simpatico, and after that we can construct a page in ordinary English that points to the Latin pages.  (You might want to state your intentions on [[Animal]] in order to make this unconfusing to the casual reader.) --[[LMS]]
> ----
> I don't think animal is ever meant in the sense of mammal.  Certainly when people give examples of animals, they choose them from that order, but that is no different than ''aleph'' not coming to mind when you give an example of a letter.  Certainly the dictionary has no knowledge of that sense, and whenever non-mammals are at all considered the word animal is assumed to include them - for instance, ''fish and animals'' is a construction which is just plain wrong.
------
Animal/Talk|986369895
9c9
< I don't think animal is ever meant in the sense of mammal.  Certainly when people give examples of animals, they choose them from that order, but that is no different than ''aleph'' not coming to mind when you give an example of a letter.  Certainly the dictionary has no knowledge of that sense, and whenever non-mammals are at all considered the word animal is assumed to include them - for instance, ''fish and animals'' is a construction which is just plain wrong.
---
> I don't think animal is ever meant in the sense of mammal.  Certainly when people give examples of animals, they choose them from that order, but that is no different than ''aleph'' not coming to mind when you give an example of a letter.  Certainly whenever non-mammals are at all considered the word animal is assumed to include them - for instance, ''fish and animals'' is a construction which is just plain wrong.
------
Animal/Talk|986370031
9a10,11
> 
> This same sort of trouble seems to me to come up on [[Fish]], too - the word is often used for things like jellyfish and shellfish, but if it ever came down to the question "are these fish?" the answer would be a definite no.
------
Fish|986370162
3c3
< * A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] of the superclass [[Pisces]], specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]], "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]], and "jawless" fish of class [[Agnatha]].  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
---
> * A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] with gills, specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]], "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]], as well as various groups of "jawless" fish.  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
------
New_topics|986375274
1,2c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, 
< as of about 8 pm 29th March, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 3rd April, Wikipedia server time
5,95c4,78
< 
< [[1964]] -- 
< [[1977]] -- 
< [[2000]] -- 
< [[2984/New_speak]] -- 
< [[Aikido]] -- 
< [[Algorithms]] -- 
< [[Art]] -- 
< [[Artificial_neural_network]] -- 
< [[Bad_jokes_and_other_deleted_nonsense]] -- 
< [[Be_bold_in_updating_pages]] -- 
< [[Bead_artists]] -- 
< [[Bead_weaving_on_a_loom]] -- 
< [[Beadwork_patterns]] -- 
< [[Bridge]] -- 
< [[Cambrian]] -- 
< [[Christianity/Fish]] -- 
< [[Christianity/Symbolism]] -- 
< [[Collectable_card_game]] -- 
< [[Computer_game]] -- 
< [[Don_Kenney]] -- 
< [[Don_Pierce]] -- 
< [[Dune/Videogame]] -- 
< [[Dune/Videogames]] -- 
< [[Erasmus_Darwin]] -- 
< [[Ethical_egoism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Famous_Physicists]] -- 
< [[Game_Boy]] -- 
< [[Geologic_ages]] -- 
< [[George_W]] -- 
< [[Green_algae]] -- 
< [[Habitus]] -- 
< [[Hawaii/Hawaii]] -- 
< [[INRI]] -- 
< [[Ikhthus]] -- 
< [[Ioa_Valley]] -- 
< [[Janet_Davis]] -- 
< [[Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Test]] -- 
< [[Morse_code]] -- 
< [[Mr_Driller]] -- 
< [[N64]] -- 
< [[NASCAR_Championship/Talk]] -- 
< [[Nafai]] -- 
< [[Nintendo]] -- 
< [[No_Fear]] -- 
< [[Nobel_Prize]] -- 
< [[Paleontology]] -- 
< [[Playing_card/Anglo-American]] -- 
< [[Playing_card/cut]] -- 
< [[Playing_card/shuffle]] -- 
< [[Playing_card]] -- 
< [[Plotter]] -- 
< [[Poker/Equipment]] -- 
< [[Poker/Game_play]] -- 
< [[Protista/Talk]] --  
< [[Raised_bed_gardening]] -- 
< [[Ring]] -- 
< [[Role-playing_game/Talk]] -- 
< [[Role-playing_game]] -- 
< [[Sport/Events]] -- 
< [[Super_Nintendo]] -- 
< [[Synergy]] -- 
< [[Syntax]] -- 
< [[The_Silmarillion/Sindarin]] -- 
< [[Thermodynamics]] -- 
< [[Tobias_Hoevekamp]] -- 
< [[Topology/Talk]] -- 
< [[Topology]] -- 
< [[Trick-taking_game]] -- 
< [[Trilobita]] -- 
< [[United_Kingdom/Talk]] -- 
< [[United_States/Congress]] -- 
< [[United_States/Supreme_Court]] -- 
< [[United_States_Congress/Senate]] -- 
< [[United_States_Congress]] -- 
< [[Vegetable_farming]] -- 
< [[Video_game/Adventure]] -- [
< [[Video_game/Beat_em_ups]] -- 
< [[Video_game/FPS]] -- 
< [[Video_game/Platform]] -- 
< [[Video_game/Puzzle]] -- 
< [[Video_game/RPG]] -- 
< [[Video_game/Scrolling_shooters]] -- 
< [[Video_game/Talk]] -- 
< [[Wailuku]] -- 
< [[Whist]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_Announcements/March_2001]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_category_schemes/Talk]] -- 
< [[William_Withering]] -- 
< [[Year_in_Review/Talk]] -- 
< [[Year_in_Review]] 
---
> [[1970s]] -- 
> [[1977/Talk]] -- 
> [[1999]] -- 
> [[2000/Talk]] -- 
> [[Abortion]] -- 
> [[Abstract]] -- 
> [[Baby_One_More_Time]] -- 
> [[Being]] -- 
> [[Bird]] -- 
> [[Branchiopoda]] -- 
> [[Burn_card]] -- 
> [[Category_of_being]] -- 
> [[Coitus_interruptus]] -- 
> [[Columbia_1]] -- 
> [[Computer_Monitor/Talk]] -- 
> [[Concrete/Talk]] -- 
> [[Concrete]] -- 
> [[Condom]] -- 
> [[Contraception]] -- 
> [[Country_codes]] -- 
> [[Double-hulled_tanker]] -- 
> [[Draw_poker]] -- 
> [[Drink]] -- 
> [[Ediacarian]] -- 
> [[Erotica]] -- 
> [[Fish]] -- 
> [[Food/Talk]] -- 
> [[Food/talk]] -- 
> [[Food]] -- 
> [[Food_and_drink]] -- 
> [[Gemini_10]] -- 
> [[Individual]] -- 
> [[Joseph_Stalin]] -- 
> [[Kludge]] -- 
> [[Kluge]] -- 
> [[Law_of_excluded_middle]] -- 
> [[Law_of_non-contradiction/Talk]] -- 
> [[Law_of_non-contradiction]] -- 
> [[Lowball]] -- 
> [[Lyrics1977]] --  
> [[Mammal]] -- 
> [[Meat]] -- 
> [[Morning_after_pill]] -- 
> [[Newspeak]] -- 
> [[Niels_Bohr]] -- 
> [[Nobel_Prize/Peace]] -- 
> [[OPEC]] -- 
> [[Ontology]] -- 
> [[Particular]] -- 
> [[Petroleum]] -- 
> [[Philology]] -- 
> [[Poker/Betting_structure]] -- 
> [[Poker/Hands2]] -- 
> [[Poker/Hands]] -- 
> [[Poker/Variants]] -- 
> [[Poker_hand]] -- 
> [[Poker_variant]] -- 
> [[Poultry]] -- 
> [[Reduction]] -- 
> [[Richard_Petty]] -- 
> [[Sea_Transport]] -- 
> [[Seafood]] -- 
> [[Sexology]] -- 
> [[Shamanism]] -- 
> [[Soviet_Union/Leaders]] -- 
> [[Soviet_Union/Talk]] -- 
> [[Talk_Page]] -- 
> [[Troll]] -- 
> [[TrySomething]] -- 
> [[Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk]] -- 
> [[Y2K]] -- 
> [[Yahoo/Talk]] -- 
> [[Year_2000_problem]] -- 
> [[Year_in_Review/Backward]] -- 
> [[Year_in_Review/Guidelines]]
101c84
< The next version of the script will do some size analysis, so large new entries are distinguished from one-liners. Any other suggestions? -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
---
> The a later version will do some size analysis, so large new entries are distinguished from one-liners. Any other suggestions? -- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
------
H.G._Wells|986375596
11c11
< '<i>The Island of Dr. Moreau</i> is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhms]] he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
---
> '<i>The Island of Dr. Moreau</i> is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
13c13
< He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the  shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit  (<i>`Russia in the Shadows'</i>) However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong. In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. (1)
---
> He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the  shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit  (<i>`Russia in the Shadows'</i>) However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong. In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. (1)
------
Science_Fiction_Film|986375711
6c6
< * [[Things to Come]] (1936)
---
> * [[Things to Come]] (1938)
16c16
< * [[Star Trek]] (1979- }
---
> * [[Star Trek]] (1979- )
------
Science_fiction|986376177
4c4
< Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel ''FrankensteiN'', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and RobertLouisStevenson'''''s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
---
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel `[[Frankenstein]]', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
8c8
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of EdgarAllanPoe, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
---
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
12c12
< 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as [[Isaac Asimov]], ArthurCClarke, and [[Robert Heinlein]], science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and KurtVonnegut, also added respectability.
---
> 1930) and with the publication of stories and novels by such writers as [[Isaac Asimov]], [[Arthur C. Clarke]], and [[Robert Heinlein]], science fiction emerged as a mode of serious fiction. Ventures into the genre by writers who were not devoted exclusively to science fiction, such as [[Aldous Huxley]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Kurt Vonnegut]], also added respectability.
14c14
< A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the SovietUnion and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the [[United States]] particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
---
> A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the [[Soviet Union]] and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the [[United States]] particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
16c16
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and [[Isaac Asimov]], science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included AEVanVogt, JGBallard, [[Ray Bradbury]], Frank Herbert, Harlan Ellison, [[Philip K. Dick]], PoulAnderson, SamuelRDelany, UrsulaKLeGuin, FrederikPohl, OctaviaEButler, and BrianAldiss. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on EartH, analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and [[Isaac Asimov]], science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
A.E._van_Vogt|986378109
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alfred Elton van Vogt
> 
> Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed, and started writing science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
> 
> He wrote a large number of short stories, many of which were retrospectively patched together into novels, or `fixups' as he called them. Sometimes this was successful (`<i>The War against the Rull</i>'), other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a completely incoherent plot (`<i>Quest for the Future</i>'). 
> 
> He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge - his very first story used a system called `Nexialism' to analyse the aliens's behaviour - and he became interested in the `[[General Semantics]]' of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, `<i>The World of 
> Null-A</i>' and '<i>The Pawns of Null-A'</i>. In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his writing more or less stopped for some years. He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
> 
> He systematised his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. 
> He claimed to get many of his ideas from dreams, and indeed his stories at their worst had the coherence of a dream, but at their best, like the fantasy novel `<i>The Book of Ptath</i>' had the power of a dream. [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt stories got him interested in science fiction, with their strange sense of the unexplained, that there was more going on than the protagonists realised. 
> 
> 
> ----
> This is just dashed off from memory. I'll check the details later...
------
A.E._van_Vogt|986378297
7c7
< He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge - his very first story used a system called `Nexialism' to analyse the aliens's behaviour - and he became interested in the `[[General Semantics]]' of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, `<i>The World of 
---
> He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge - the characters in his very first story used a system called `Nexialism' to analyse the aliens's behaviour - and he became interested in the `[[General Semantics]]' of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, `<i>The World of 
------
Science_fiction|986378411
5c5
< Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas BramStoker's ``[[Dracula]]'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas [[Bram Stoker]]'s ``[[Dracula]]'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
16c16
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and [[Isaac Asimov]], science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
Year_2000_problem|986381556
5c5
< It was the media hype story of all of 1999.
---
> It was the media hype story of all of 1999, but when January 1, 2000 finally came, there were hardly any major problems whereas a large number of them had been expected.
14c14
< * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of new money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
---
> * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of new money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
------
Internet_troll|986382403
13c13
< * messages containing an obvious flaw or error
---
> * messages containing an obvious flaw or error
------
Troll|986382599
5c5,8
< There are also [[Internet troll]]s.
---
> There are also [[Internet troll]]s.
> 
> ----
> Why doesn't this link to [[Internet troll]] work? Wow..it does now.
------
Troll|986382620
7,8d6
< ----
< Why doesn't this link to [[Internet troll]] work? Wow..it does now.
------
Feature_requests|986384653
58c58,61
< That would be very groovy! --LS
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS----
> Secure, but Optional ID :
> 
> I noticed last weekend that I can set my ID in Preferences to anybody else's, certainly, if they are not using it. I would not care if people had mutlyiple IDs. But, I do see a problem in my setting my ID to, say [[Larry Sanger]] and entering content all over which will wrongly be identified as his in recent changes. And possibly elsewhere. RoseParks 
------
Concrete/Talk|986384761
12c12
< ----<br>:-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.----If this is Philosopy Jargon, isn't it time to indicate that and offer possibly an "English" rephrasing of the distinction.
---
> ----<br>:-)  Hopefully, we'll be able to start disambiguating words with parentheses; then I'll direct you to [[concrete (metaphysics)]], I suppose.----
------
Mathijs|986385964
5,6d4
< ::''Larry, please be so kind <B>not</B> to react''
< 
15,16c13
< ----
< Some people have to destroy everything that's [[disagreeable]] to them (and hey! It's [[words]]! [[Ideas]]! [[Opinions]]! [[Someones perception]]!)
---
> 
------
Requested_articles|986388729
18c18
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]] -- [[Kludge]] -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]  -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
30c30
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[double-hulled tanker]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[media bias]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]] -- [[Java]] -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] 
------
Ediacarian|986388743
5c5,7
< It should also be mentioned that there are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
---
> The Ediacarian faunas are sometimes referred to as "Vendian Faunas".  Modern usage tends toward using "Ediacarian" to describe the full faunal range including algae, sponges, and all other life forms of the late preCambrian.  The term "Vendian" is then reserved by some for a diverse collection of multilobed, softbodied, sessile forms that appear as fronds, disks, and other shapes.  These are termed "Vendazoa" and have been proposed as a separate phyllum or kingdom.
> 
> There are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
------
January|986388897
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> First month in the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]
> 
> Named for the [[Roman gods|Roman god]] Januarius
------
Cladistics|986389487
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A classification scheme that has somewhat replaced the traditional Linnean System with its heiarchy of kingdom, phyllum, class, order, family, genus and species. Weaknesses of the Linnean system include a lack of information on evolutionary history; substantial vagueness about the closeness of apparent relationships; lack of rigor in assigning relationships; and lack of tools for assessing the quality of alternative structures. 
> Cladistics arranges lifeforms into "cladograms" that attempt to relate animals back to ancestoral forms. A heiarchy over time rather than a heiarchy over physiology if you will. Cladograms are binary trees that attempt to show each evolutionary step in the differentiation of lifeforms.
>  
> Thus, for example, Linnean systemology shows dogs, wolves and coyotes as all being species within the Genus Canis.  A cladogram would show which canid evolved from which. Weaknesses of cladistics include mindnumbing jargon; difficulty in handling missing forms; problems in distinguishing inherited from separately evolved/lost characteristics; and a dependence of results on the choice of characters used to develop the cladogram. Cladistics uses the principle of parsimony -- the most compact possible arrangement is deemed to be correct. It also incorporates the concept of genetic distance -- the shortest number of nodes between two nodes. 
> 
> It has not, ''so far as I know'', been shown that cladistics can effectively handle sparsely populated data sets such as those encountered in paleontology either in theory or practice. 
> 
> Cladistic discussions tend to be conducted at high amplitude in quite incomprehnsible lingo and with a notable lack of fellowship, congeniality and good humor. 
> 
> There is a movement toward replacing Linnean species nomenclature with cladogram based nomenclature. There has been substantial resistance even among moderates who have doubts about the stability of the cladograms and concerns about the possibility of having to deal with a constantly changing nomenclature. 
> 
> Cladistics really has two applications. One is to molecular phylogeny which deals with changes in DNA. The second is for systemizastion of eternal morphology. It is often assumed that since DNA controls the morphology, these two concepts are fully interchangable. This may not be true and it is possible that concepts that work in one of the two contexts may not work in the other. Cladistics uses a plethora of jargon. Key terms include: Polyphyly, Paraphyly, Monophyly, Clade, Apomorphy, Plesiomorphy, Synamorphy  
> 
> ''If anyone wants to go further in defining the elements of cladistics, feel free''
------
Calendar|986389703
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A scheme for giving a name to the days and years.
> 
> Because of the prominence of the [[phases of the Moon]] in the sky, a [[lunar calendar]] has often been used. Unfortunately, the length of the [[lunar month]] does not fit as an exact mutiple into the length of the [[year]], so a lunar calendar gradually drifts against the seasons. For this reason, other calendars have been devised related to the length of the year.
> 
> In the West, the [[Julian calendar]] was adopted, but this did not adequately allow for the year not being an exact number of days, so it too slowly drifted out of synch with the seasons. For this reason, the [[Gregorian calendar]] was adopted by most of th west, which by using a flexible system of [[leap year]]s,  can be ket as accurately matched to the year as desired. 
> 
> Calendar systems:
> 
> #[[Gregorian calendar]]
> #[[julian calendar]]
> #[[Chinese calendar]]
> 
> And many others no doubt...
------
Cladistics|986390102
1,2c1,2
< A classification scheme that has somewhat replaced the traditional Linnean System with its heiarchy of kingdom, phyllum, class, order, family, genus and species. Weaknesses of the Linnean system include a lack of information on evolutionary history; substantial vagueness about the closeness of apparent relationships; lack of rigor in assigning relationships; and lack of tools for assessing the quality of alternative structures. 
< Cladistics arranges lifeforms into "cladograms" that attempt to relate animals back to ancestoral forms. A heiarchy over time rather than a heiarchy over physiology if you will. Cladograms are binary trees that attempt to show each evolutionary step in the differentiation of lifeforms.
---
> A classification scheme that has somewhat replaced the traditional [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnean System]] with its hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Weaknesses of the Linnean system include a lack of information on evolutionary history; substantial vagueness about the closeness of apparent relationships; lack of rigor in assigning relationships; and lack of tools for assessing the quality of alternative structures. 
> Cladistics arranges lifeforms into "cladograms" that attempt to relate animals back to ancestoral forms. A hierarchy over time rather than a hierarchy over physiology if you will. Cladograms are binary trees that attempt to show each evolutionary step in the differentiation of lifeforms.
------
Trilobita|986391090
23c23,41
< ''Some notes: I think that the very most primitive Olenellids do actually lack a pygidium.  At least I am certain there were a few genera with a two-segmented pygidium, and remember there being others with a one-segmented pygidium, which is not really a pygidium at all, just a telson.  But aside from these one or two genera all trilobites certainly have pygidia.  With respect to the limbs, is biramous the right word to use?  I know it has two branches, but they are not homologous at all to those of crustacean limbs.''
---
> ''Some notes: I think that the very most primitive Olenellids do actually lack a pygidium.''
> 
> ''Fallotopsis and Nevadia -- the earliest trilobites in the Waucoban sequence have pygidia.  Thumbing through the Treatise, I can't find a Relichiid without one although a few -- e.g. Wanneria -- are pretty minimal.  The Treatise has a lengthy paragraph that I think says that all trilobites have pygidia but that the pygidium in Ollenelids isn't exactly homologous to the pygidium in other trilobites''
> 
> ''At least I am certain there were a few genera with a two-segmented pygidium, and remember there being others with a one-segmented pygidium, which is not really a pygidium at all, just a telson.''
> 
> ''I think that's basically correct, but that you'll get a really blank look from a lot of trilobite people if you start talking about telsons.  I can ask in one of the newsgroups and see if I get information or abuse.  The latter is fairly likely, but the former is a possibility.' '
> 
> ''But aside from these one or two genera all trilobites certainly have pygidia.''
> 
> ''With respect to the limbs, is biramous the right word to use?''
> 
> ''AFAIK.  The Treatise devotes a couple of pages to 'Biramous Appendages' and I've seen the term in a fair number of other places.''
> 
> ''I know it has two branches, but they are not homologous at all to those of crustacean limbs.''
> 
> ...
> 
> ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page?''
------
Agnostida|986392260
5c5,9
< Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until the late Ordovician.  The Agnostida are divided into three families.  One family is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  The Agnostids have pygidia that look much like the cephalons.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.  
---
> ''I kinda like this, but I'm sure that some zealous pedant will cut it someday.  Do you think its chances of survival would be enhanced if we cut it to about 20 words?''
> 
> Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until the late Ordovician.  The Agnostida are divided into two suborders that are then divided into three suborders.  One suborder is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  Members of the suborder Agnostina are generally referred to simply as 'Agnostids' even though they probably should be called 'Agnostines'. They have pygidia that look much like their cephalons and neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.  
> 
> ''suborder/family ... close.  I should get half credit.  Does the revised copy look OK?''
12,13d15
< 
< 
------
Trilobita|986392480
25c25
< ''Fallotopsis and Nevadia -- the earliest trilobites in the Waucoban sequence have pygidia.  Thumbing through the Treatise, I can't find a Relichiid without one although a few -- e.g. Wanneria -- are pretty minimal.  The Treatise has a lengthy paragraph that I think says that all trilobites have pygidia but that the pygidium in Ollenelids isn't exactly homologous to the pygidium in other trilobites''
---
> ''Fallotopsis and Nevadia -- the earliest trilobites in the Waucoban sequence have pygidia.  Thumbing through the Treatise, I can't find a Relichiid without one although a few -- e.g. Wanneria -- are pretty minimal.  The (1959) Treatise has a lengthy paragraph that I think says that all trilobites have pygidia but that the pygidium in Ollenelids isn't exactly homologous to the pygidium in other trilobites.  Could be different in the 1997 version''
29c29
< ''I think that's basically correct, but that you'll get a really blank look from a lot of trilobite people if you start talking about telsons.  I can ask in one of the newsgroups and see if I get information or abuse.  The latter is fairly likely, but the former is a possibility.' '
---
> ''I think that's basically correct, but that you'll get a really blank look from a lot of trilobite people if you start talking about telsons.  I can ask in one of the newsgroups and see if I get information or abuse.  The latter is fairly likely, but the former is a possibility.''
35c35
< ''AFAIK.  The Treatise devotes a couple of pages to 'Biramous Appendages' and I've seen the term in a fair number of other places.''
---
> ''AFAIK.  The (1959)Treatise devotes a couple of pages to 'Biramous Appendages' and I've seen the term in a fair number of other places.''
41c41
< ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page?''
---
> ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page?''
------
Trilobita|986392523
41c41
< ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page?''
---
> ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page? http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/''
------
Feature_requests|986393639
8a9
> ** This might become a user option eventually, but the default is unlikely to change.  Many browsers are vulnerable to malicious scripting, or plugin attacks.  Because of this I think external links should be noted so that people can be more cautious when following external links.  --CliffordAdams
20a22,23
> ** This is likely to be added eventually, and may even become the default behavior of the page-title link.  This was not much of a problem with the old WikiName links because those titles were automatically links.  Now with "free links" there may be several pages that use a page title but do not link to it.  --CliffordAdams
> *** Eventually, a feature to find non-linked mentions of pages could also be useful.  --CliffordAdams
21a25
> ** This would probably be easiest to do outside of the wiki script by processing the server's logs.
25c29
< ** This is almost certain to be in version 0.92.  The canonical form of a page will have all words capitalized, and links can have arbitrary words capitalized.  This will be a little strange sometimes, but it seems to be the best solution for now.
---
> ** This will be done in version 0.92.  The canonical form of a page will have all words capitalized, and links can have arbitrary words capitalized.  This will be a little strange sometimes, but it seems to be the best solution for now.
27c31
< ** This may go into version 0.92.  I was surprised to see that parentheses <i>are</i> allowed in URIs/URLs according to RFC 2396, so it shouldn't be hard to add them.  --CliffordAdams
---
> ** This will be in version 0.92.  I was surprised to see that parentheses <i>are</i> allowed in URIs/URLs according to RFC 2396, so it shouldn't be hard to add them.  --CliffordAdams
29c33
< 
---
> ** After more thought, I've given in on this request also.  Single quotes will be allowed in 0.92.  Please don't ask for any more punctuation, however, or I may scream.  :-)  --CliffordAdams
58c62,63
< That would be very groovy! --LS----
---
> That would be very groovy! --LS
> ----
61a67,68
> 
> :There is a secure user-ID already--it is the "User ID number" shown on the Preferences page.  If you are using recent versions of MSIE or Netscape you can see the ID number and the IP address by moving the mouse over the user name.  (A popup saying something like "ID 1622 from 165.79.13.xxx" should appear.)  It should be non-trivial for anyone else to use that ID number, since it protected by a random number in the user's cookie (which is compared with a copy on the server).  Eventually a more conventional username/password combination may become an option, but this is unlikely to happen soon.  --CliffordAdams (or somebody with ID 1675 :-)
------
King_Crimson|986394086
1c1,3
< Classic but strange [[rock and roll]] band.  Members have included [[Adrian Belew]] and [[Robert Fripp]].
---
> Classic but strange [[rock and roll]] band.  Members have included [[Adrian Belew]] and [[Robert Fripp]].
> ----
> <b>King Crimson</b> is the name of the second highest ranking devil/demon below Satan.
------
Year_2000_problem|986394290
14a15,16
> 
> * (speculatively) The Y2K spending on information infrastructure caused a slowdown in information technology spending in the year 2000 and 2001 as may eventually lead to higher productivity in future years.
------
Internet_troll|986394437
13a14,19
> 
> An example of a troll message would be one that denounces a particular religion in a religion newsgroup.
> 
> See also:
> * [[AOLamer]]
> * [[killfile]]
------
Killfile|986394614
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>Killfile</b> is a list of patterns that are used to kill newsgroup or email messages so that the reader does not have to see them.
> 
> Each message is examined to see if it contains one or more of the  killfile patterns.  If a message contains a killfile pattern, the newsreader program or email program deletes the message.
> 
> See also:
> * [[AOLamer]]
------
AOLamer|986394812
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <b>AOLamer</b> or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[off topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup.
> 
> During the early [[1990s]], many regular non-AOL internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from AOL as many of the messages coming from AOL were junk.
> 
> See also:
> * [[internet troll]]
------
Off_topic|986394972
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Off topic</b> is a message in a discussion that is on a different topic than the main topic in the discussion.
> 
> Originally, off topic applied to [[newsgroup]] messages, but now applies to any discussion forum.
> 
> See also:
> * [[Internet troll]]
------
AOLamer|986395004
1c1
< An <b>AOLamer</b> or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[off topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup.
---
> An <b>AOLamer</b> or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[Off topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup.
6c6
< * [[internet troll]]
---
> * [[internet troll]]
------
1990s|986395162
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Significant events/trends during the 1990s:
> 
> * growth of the [[internet]]
> * decrease in the cost of [[computer]]s
> * [[Year 2000 problem]]
> * [[impeachment]] of [[Bill Clinton]]
> * [[splintering]] of traditional news media
> 
------
Splintering|986395230
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Splintering</b> is when something breaks into many parts.
------
Feature_requests|986395372
3a4,5
> * provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them.
> 
------
Feature_requests|986395432
4c4
< * provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them.
---
> * provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them.  Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.
------
Batch_job|986395544
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>batch job</b> is a [[computer]] [[task]] that is submitted, usually on a regular [[schedule]], and is not [[interactive]].
------
Computing|986395593
68a69,71
> 
> * Other
> ** [[Batch job]]
------
Single_Precision|986395635
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>Single Precision</b> number is a 32 [[bit]] [[floating point]] number.
> 
> 
------
Single_Precision|986395680
1c1
< A <b>Single Precision</b> number is a 32 [[bit]] [[floating point]] number.
---
> A <b>Single Precision</b> number is a 32 [[bit]] [[Floating Point]] number.
------
Floating_Point|986395743
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>Floating Point</b> [[number]] is a [[computer]] [[representation]] for a number with a [[fraction]].
> 
> 
------
Business_and_Industry|986395896
11a12
> ** [[trade secret]]
------
Trade_secret|986395991
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>trade secret</b> is a [[practice]], [[method]], [[process]], [[design]], or other [[information]] used by a company to [[compete]] with other businesses.
> 
------
Floating_Point|986397143
1,3c1
< A <b>Floating Point</b> [[number]] is a [[computer]] [[representation]] for a number with a [[fraction]].
< 
< 
---
> A <b>Floating Point</b> [[number]] is a [[computer]] [[representation]] for a number that is not an integer, where the number of [[significant digit]]s is constant, rather than the absolute precision. As an example, a floating point number with four decimal digits (of course in reality the number of digits is larger, and often binary or hexadecimal) could be used to represent 4321 or 0.00004321, but would round 432.123 to 432.1 and 43212.3 to 43210. That way, small numbers can also be represented correctly, which is not possible in a [[Fixed Point]] notation.
------
Fixed_Point|986397283
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fixed point presentation is a computer presentation for a (non-integer) number that has a fixed number of digits after the decimal (or binary or hexadecimal) point. For example, a fixed point number with 4 digits after the decimal point could be used to store numbers such as 1.3467, 281243.3234 and 0.1000, but would round 1.0301789 to 1.0302 and 0.0000654 to 0.0001.
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|986397480
32c32
< *[[Extragalactic Astronomy]].
---
> *[[Extragalactic Astronomy]]
35,36c35,36
< *[[Stellar Astronomy]].
< 
---
> *[[Stellar Astronomy]]
> *[[Cosmology]]
------
Cosmology|986397841
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cosmology is the branch of [[Astronomy]] that deals with the large-scale structure and history of the universe. In particular, it deals with subjects regarding its origin.
> 
> Subjects in cosmology include:
> 
> * The [[Big Bang]]
> * [[Inflation]]
> * [[Large Scale Structure of the Cosmos]]
> * [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]
> 
> Because of the extreme circumstances during the first minutes of the galaxy's history, cosmologists often co-operate with scientists from areas such as [[Particle physics]].
------
Cosmology|986397873
8a9
> * The [[dark matter problem]]
------
Gravity|986398032
9c9,10
< Einstein's theory of gravity is known as [[general relativity]], which involves curved space-time, is really complicated, and agrees with Newton's theory in most circumstances to about a dozen significant figures.
---
> Newton's laws of gravity have now been replaced by Einstein's theory of [[general relativity]], which involves curved space-time, and is really complicated. However, significant differences between the theories only exist when gravitational powers become very strong, for example in the neighborhood of very dense stars.
> 
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986398297
25c25
< Brilliant idea.  (See, I told you Wikipedians were brilliant.) --[[LMS]]
---
> I want to thank you for taking your valuable time in "unconfusing" me, and alienating me, by making it clear that "we" doesn't include me. It is clear is that I don't fit in with all these brilliant people, and I thank you for clarifying this and puttimg me in my place. Strange how <i>someone</i> thought  many of my pages are [[BrilliantProse]]. He/she must be confused too. Maybe you can help this person out too.
------
JohnnyUnitas|986398509
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
SandBox|986398716
143a144,147
> Degrees: Yes
> 
> 35&deg;
> 
------
SandBox|986398840
14c14
<                            * ***** *        &amp;Theta; = =
---
>                            * ***** *        &amp;&Theta; = =
16c16
<                            * &alpha;   &alpha; *                      &amp;Theta;
---
>                            * &alpha;   &alpha; *                      &amp;&Theta;
------
Go|986399864
1c1
< Go is a board game that was introduced into [[Japan]] in about 500 A.D. Go is remarkable for the utter simplicity of it's rules and the extreme complexity of it's play.
---
> Go is an extremely old [[board game]], having been invented in [[China]] between 3000 and 4000 years ago. Nowadays, it is mostly played in China (where it is called ''wei-qi''), Korea (''baduk'') and Japan. Only since the twentieth century has the game spread from Japan to the western world.
3c3
< (The same game is played in China under the name Wei-chi, or Wei-qi, and in Korea under the name Baduk. It may have originated in China, and is much older than 500AD. In fact the game gets a brief mention in the writings of [[Confucious]].)
---
> <h3>What do you need to play go</h3>
5c5
< *What do you need to play go.
---
> A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines. These form a grid of 361 intersections. For beginning players or short games, smaller boards of 13x13 or 9x9 intersections are sometimes used.
7c7
< A Go board (''goban''): A Go board is a board with 19 horizontal and 19 verical lines.
---
> Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. One player plays the black stones, the other the white ones. 
9c9
< These form a grid of 361 intersections.
---
> <h3>Rules of the game</h3>
11c11
< Two sets of stones (''go-ishi''), one black and one white. The black stones number 181, and the white ones 180.
---
> The players alternate making moves, the black player starts. Making a move consists of putting a single stone on one of the intersections. Once played, a stone does not move, and remains at the same place unless it is captured. A player is allowed to pass instead of making a move.
13c13
< * How do you play Go.
---
> When a stone, or a group of stones, is not connected to an empty intersection (by the lines of the board), it is captured. The complete group is taken off the board, and added to the opponent's prisoner bin.
15c15,16
< The player with the black stones goes first and places one black stone at one of the intersections on the Go board.
---
> When both players have passed, the game has ended, and counting begins. There are two methods of counting. In the Japanese counting method, which is also most usual in western countries, each player adds the number of stones he has captured to the number of empty intersections he has enclosed. In the Chinese counting method, prisoners are not counted, but a player counts every point that he controls - that is, all points where his stones are or that are completely surrounded by his stones. Whichever counting method is used, the player with most points wins.
> In normal circumstances, the difference between Chinese and Japanese counting is too small to be of influence on game play.
17c18
< The player with the white stones, goes next and does the same.
---
> <h3>Handicaps</h3>
19c20
< A stone, once placed, cannot be moved.
---
> To equalize games between players of different skills, handicaps can be used. Handicaps are given by having black (which in this case is the weaker player) play 2 or more stones (traditionally upto 9) as his first move.
21c22
< Play continues like this until the game is over.
---
> <h3>Traditional Go Game Equipment</h3>
23c24
< * How to win a game of Go.
---
> Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic chips, Go players pride themselves on their Go sets. The traditional Go board is solid wood and stands on it's own attached legs. Players sit on mats (''tatami'') on the floor to play. The stones come in matching solid wood pots and are made out of shells (white) and slate (black) and are extremely smooth. However, such sets are not often used even in official tournament play. What mostly can be found at go clubs and tournaments in the West, are wooden boards but thinner than the traditional table boards and without legs, and glass stones, which are considered superior to plastic ones, although worse than shell and slate ones.
25,37c26
< Go is a game of capturing territory on the Go board. When a player completely surrounds
< 
< an area of his oponent's stones on the Go board with his stones or has "eye" that territory belongs to him, and he may remove his opponent's stones that he has surrounded.
< 
< A player's final score is the number of points on the board he has surrounded minus the number of stones he has lost to his oponent by capture. 
< 
< * It is traditional for players of unequal skill to use handicaps to equalize the game.
< 
< * Go is a game involving a high level of stategy. Players must see the entire board as whole and act accordingly, to be successful.
< 
< * Traditional Go Game Equipment
< 
< Although one could play Go with a piece of carboard for a board and a bag of plastic chips, Go players pride themselves on their Go sets. The traditional Go board is solid wood and stands on it's own attached legs. Players sit on mats (''tatami'') on the floor to play. The stones come in matching solid wood pots and are made out of ivory (white) and slate (black) and are extremely smooth. There is even an art to putting down a Go stone,
---
> There is even an art to putting down a Go stone,
40,42c29
< * Who plays Go?
< 
< In Japan, Go is a national past time much like chess or bridge here. Some individuals devote their lives to play. On the other hand, the game of Go has such simple rules, that even children play with each other and parents.
---
> <h3>Nature of the Game</h3>
44,46c31,32
< Go Masters to date have been all male. (Not quite true, there are
< some women playing at master level in Japan, China and probably
< elsewhere.)
---
> Although the rules of Go are very simple, the game itself can be extremely complex.
> Go is a thinking game like [[chess]] and [[checkers]], although often seen to be even more difficult than those. It is a highly strategical game, where decisions in one part of the board have to take the other parts of the board in account.
48,49c34
< Americans play Go too. They invariably, with very few exceptions, play with a handicap against the Japanese.
< ----
---
> Although attempts have been made to program [[computers]] to play Go, success in that area has been moderate at best. Even the strongest programs are no better than an average club player, and would easily be beaten by a strong player even getting a nine stone handicap.
51c36
< * How do I know this?
---
> <h3>The Go World</h3>
53c38
< My father played Go for his whole adult life at the Go Club in New York, of which he was a charter member, and, of course, taught his children how to play. 
---
> Although traditionally the strongest players in the world came from [[Japan]], [[China]] in the 1980s and [[South Korea]] in the 1990s have reached the same or even a higher level. Nowadays, top players from the three countries are approximately of the same strength. All three have professional competitions where there is sometimes a high amount of prize money.
55c40,42
< * Additional resources
---
> Players from other countries are much weaker, except for some players who have taken up professional courses in one of these countries. American player Michael Redmond, who is a professional player in Japan, in 2000 became the first non-Asian player to reach 9 dan, the highest possible grade in Go.
>  
> <h3>Additional resources</h3>
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986402576
25c25,27
< I want to thank you for taking your valuable time in "unconfusing" me, and alienating me, by making it clear that "we" doesn't include me. It is clear is that I don't fit in with all these brilliant people, and I thank you for clarifying this and puttimg me in my place. Strange how <i>someone</i> thought  many of my pages are [[BrilliantProse]]. He/she must be confused too. Maybe you can help this person out too.
---
> I want to thank you for taking your valuable time in "unconfusing" me, and alienating me, by making it clear that "we" doesn't include me. It is clear is that I don't fit in with all these brilliant people, and I thank you for clarifying this and puttimg me in my place. Strange how <i>someone</i> thought  many of my pages are BrilliantProse. He/she must be confused too. Maybe you can help this person out too.
> ----
> You're welcome.  So now, presumably, you understand the intended function of the page you were complaining about.  I'm glad.  I'm sorry you're alienated; but you alienated me, too.  Seriously, perhaps I shouldn't have presumed to speak for anyone else on Wikipedia, but certainly I could speak for the many people who have uploaded public domain content to Wikipedia.  Surely ''they'' think that material is valuable.  Anyway, indeed since I can't really speak for everyone else on Wikipedia, how could I alienate you?  (Can't one be alienated only by a group or, metaphorically, by some other huge entity, like The Universe?)  In short: lighten up. --[[LMS]]
------
Cosmology|986402841
1c1
< Cosmology is the branch of [[Astronomy]] that deals with the large-scale structure and history of the universe. In particular, it deals with subjects regarding its origin.
---
> Cosmology is the study of the large-scale structure and history of the universe. In particular, it deals with subjects regarding its origin.   It is studied by [[Astronomy]], [[Philosophy]], and [[Religion]].
------
Trade_secret|986403109
1c1
< A <b>trade secret</b> is a [[practice]], [[method]], [[process]], [[design]], or other [[information]] used by a company to [[compete]] with other businesses.
---
> A <b>trade secret</b> is a [[practice]], [[method]], [[process]], [[design]], or other [[information]] used by a company to [[competition|compete]] with other businesses.
------
Trade_secret|986404010
1c1
< A <b>trade secret</b> is a [[practice]], [[method]], [[process]], [[design]], or other [[information]] used by a company to [[competition|compete]] with other businesses.
---
> A <b>trade secret</b> is a confidential [[practice]], [[method]], [[process]], [[design]], or other [[information]] used by a company to [[competition|compete]] with other businesses.
2a3,5
> The concept is that the reason Company A is more successful than Company B, or is successful at all, is not related to much to access to markets, resources or personell, but to special knowledge owned by Company A.  If others had access to the same knowledge, then Company A's ability to survive in an otherwise equal markeplace would be impaired.  Thus, such secrets are guarded jealously.
> 
> Trade secrets are not, in and of themselves, protected by law in the same manner as a [[trademark]] or [[patent]].  Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to keep their special knowledge out of the hands of competitors through a variety of civil and commercial means, not the least of which is the employment of confidentiality agreements.  In exchange for the opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, a worker will sign an agreement not to reveal his prospective employer's proprietary information.  Often, he will also sign over rights to the ownership of his own intellectual production during the course of his employment.  Violation of the agreement generally carries stiff financial penalties, agreed to in writing by the worker, and designed to operate as a disincentive to going back on his word.
------
Existence|986406806
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This is just a set of notes about the subject, not yet well organized and far from exhaustive.''
> 
> Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.
> 
> [[David Hume|Hume]] and [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], among others, are each well-known for their shared view that the claim that a thing exists, when added to our notion of a thing, does not add anything to the concept.  For example, if we form a complete notion of Moses, and superadd to that notion the claim that Moses existed, we are not adding anything to the notion of Moses.  [This needs to be greatly expanded.]
> 
> [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]] and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], among many others, for similar reasons are well-known for their view that 'exists' is not a (logical) [[logical predicate|predicate]], or more precisely, not a [[first-order predicate]]--or, perhaps equivalently (and perhaps not), that existence is not a property.  This has become the dominant but not the universal view in twentieth-century and contemporary Anglo-American philosophy.  But, as [[G. E. Moore]] pointed out in an early essay, it is a matter of some difficulty to say what exactly what this view amounts to.  [This too needs to be greatly expanded, and probably made into its own article.]
> 
> The words (and concepts) 'existence' and '[[being]]' are treated in slightly different ways in Western philosophy.  Aristotle pointed out that there are various ways in which a thing can "be" and inaugurated [[ontology]] as a field with his notion that there are [[category of being|categories of being]], such as substance, attribute, and acting-upon.  Similar claims, however, are not as often made on behalf of existence.  That is, contemporary philosophers at least are wont to treat existence as a univocal, [[ambiguity|unambiguous]] concept, as if the only sense of 'existence', or the only sort of existence worth talking about, were [[the existence of physical objects]].  Consequently, some discussions of existence have an unclear bearing on, for example, the sense in which numbers, possibilities, and properties exist (or might be thought to exist).
> 
> Even if the ambiguity of 'exists' is sometimes overlooked, oddly enough, the ambiguity of 'does not exist' is not.  That is, ontologists are fond of pointing out that there are various ways in which things can fail to exist: they can be fictional (Sherlock Holmes), imaginary ([[the golden mountain]]), legendary ([[Loch Ness Monster]]), mistakenly inferred (the ether), etc.  The multiplicity of ways in which a thing can fail to exist has be so striking to some that it has been suggested that existence is, in fact, merely an "excluder" concept--used to classify items by what they are ''not'' (not fictional, not imaginary, not mistakenly inferred, etc.)--as 'real' is sometimes thought to be.
> 
> Though often not discussed under the heading of existence, disputes among [[realism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[physicalism]], and various other metaphysical views concern what might be called the ''criteria'' for existence.  For example, phenomenalist, generally speaking, is the view that everything that exists is mental.  Most phenomenalists would want to deny that this claim is a ''definition'' of 'exists'; if phenomenalism ''were'' treated as a definition of 'exists', then others might accuse the view of trying to be "true by definition."  Accordingly, it might be dismissed as a trivial exercise in redefining the ordinary concept of existence, which is, perhaps, of little interest to anyone.  Exactly what relation, however, definitions (or analyses, or explications, etc.) and criteria have is an interesting and vexed question.  See [[definitions vs. criteria]].
------
Existence|986406885
3c3
< Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.
---
> Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.
13c13
< Though often not discussed under the heading of existence, disputes among [[realism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[physicalism]], and various other metaphysical views concern what might be called the ''criteria'' for existence.  For example, phenomenalist, generally speaking, is the view that everything that exists is mental.  Most phenomenalists would want to deny that this claim is a ''definition'' of 'exists'; if phenomenalism ''were'' treated as a definition of 'exists', then others might accuse the view of trying to be "true by definition."  Accordingly, it might be dismissed as a trivial exercise in redefining the ordinary concept of existence, which is, perhaps, of little interest to anyone.  Exactly what relation, however, definitions (or analyses, or explications, etc.) and criteria have is an interesting and vexed question.  See [[definitions vs. criteria]].
---
> Though often not discussed under the heading of existence, disputes among [[realism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[physicalism]], and various other metaphysical views concern what might be called the ''criteria'' for existence.  For example, phenomenalist, generally speaking, is the view that everything that exists is mental.  Most phenomenalists would want to deny that this claim is a ''definition'' of 'exists'; if phenomenalism ''were'' treated as a definition of 'exists', then others might accuse the view of trying to be "true by definition."  Accordingly, it might be dismissed as a trivial exercise in redefining the ordinary concept of existence, which is, perhaps, of little interest to anyone.  Exactly what relation, however, definitions (or analyses, or explications, etc.) and criteria have is an interesting and vexed question.  See [[definitions vs. criteria]].
------
Category_of_being|986407599
1c1,3
< In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  This term came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (which can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  Since a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''
---
> In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  Since, according to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class|classes]] of things--'thing' here being used to mean anything whatever that can be discussed--that cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.  It is hoped, moreover, that a full account of the categories would be exhaustive in the sense that everything (in some category schemes, even nonexistent and impossible things) can be placed into at least one of the categories.  [I'm not sure if this is precisely correct ''a la'' Aristotle, or anyone else for that matter.]
> 
> ''Category'' came into use with [[Aristotle]]; one of his treatises is called the ''Categories'' (which can be found online, for example, [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html here]).  [Somebody should list Aristotle's categories here.]  Aristotle's particular list of categories is widely rejected nowadays, however, in part because the Aristotelian notion of [[substance]] has been widely rejected.
15c17
< Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]],</i> rather than ''[[concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
---
> Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be <i>[[abstract]],</i> rather than ''[[concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.
------
Trade_secret|986407925
3c3
< The concept is that the reason Company A is more successful than Company B, or is successful at all, is not related to much to access to markets, resources or personell, but to special knowledge owned by Company A.  If others had access to the same knowledge, then Company A's ability to survive in an otherwise equal markeplace would be impaired.  Thus, such secrets are guarded jealously.
---
> The concept is that, sometimes, Company A is more successful than Company B, or is successful at all, not so much due to access to markets, resources, or personnel, but due to special knowledge owned by Company A.  If others had access to the same knowledge, then Company A's ability to survive in an otherwise equal markeplace would be impaired.  Thus, such secrets are guarded jealously.
5c5
< Trade secrets are not, in and of themselves, protected by law in the same manner as a [[trademark]] or [[patent]].  Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to keep their special knowledge out of the hands of competitors through a variety of civil and commercial means, not the least of which is the employment of confidentiality agreements.  In exchange for the opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, a worker will sign an agreement not to reveal his prospective employer's proprietary information.  Often, he will also sign over rights to the ownership of his own intellectual production during the course of his employment.  Violation of the agreement generally carries stiff financial penalties, agreed to in writing by the worker, and designed to operate as a disincentive to going back on his word.
---
> Trade secrets are neither necessarily nor always protected by law in the same manner as a [[trademark]] or [[patent]].  Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to keep their special knowledge out of the hands of competitors through a variety of civil and commercial means, not the least of which is the employment of [[confidentiality agreement]]s.  In exchange for the opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, a worker will sign an agreement not to reveal his prospective employer's proprietary information.  Often, he will also sign over rights to the ownership of his own intellectual production during the course (or as a condition) of his employment.  Violation of the agreement generally carries stiff financial penalties, agreed to in writing by the worker and designed to operate as a disincentive to going back on his word.
------
Ontology|986408132
1c1
< ''Ontology'' is the study of existence, or in [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."
---
> ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof; in [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."
7c7
< In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what categories of being are ''fundamental'' or ''[[reduction|irreducible]]'' and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to exist.
---
> In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what [[category of being|categories of being]] are ''fundamental'' or ''[[reduction|irreducible]]'' and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to exist.
10c10,11
< #What does it mean to say a physical object exists?
---
> #What sort of concept is [[existence]]?
> #Is it possible to give an account of what it means to say that a physical object exists?
12c13
< #What are an object's properties or relations?
---
> #What are an object's properties or relations and how are they related to the object itself?
------
Metaphysics|986408404
14c14
< What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) ontology, (2) theology, and (3) universal science.  So [[ontology]], [[theology]], and [[universal science]] are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of existence; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of being <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of God or the gods and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  A particular apple cannot both exist and not exist at the same time.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
---
> What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) [[ontology]], (2) [[Aristotelian theology|theology]], and (3) [[universal science]].  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of [[existence]]; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of [[being]] <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of [[God]] or the [[gods]] and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  A particular apple cannot both exist and not exist at the same time.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
28c28
< :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
---
> :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
------
Definition_of_philosophy|986408505
39c39
< A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the [[universe]] which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things.  Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>existence</i> <i>itself</i> is.  It also studies [[value]]--the [[good]]ness of things--in general.  Surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere, not just moral goodness, though that might be very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable, the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good.  (If indeed there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.")
---
> A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the [[universe]] which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things.  Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>[[existence]]</i> <i>itself</i> is.  It also studies [[value]]--the [[good]]ness of things--in general.  Surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere, not just moral goodness, though that might be very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable, the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good.  (If indeed there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.")
41c41
< Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.
---
> Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally.  Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation.  Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls.  Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers.
------
ExistencE|986408529
1c1
< See TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Existence]]
------
OntOlogy|986408582
1,12c1
< The core of MetaPhysics, ''ontology'' is the study of existence in general, or in AristotlE'''''s memorable phrase, the study of ''BeingQuaBeing.''  So ontology is the study of existing things insofar as they exist, or as to the aspect of ExistEnce.
< 
< While perhaps there's not any one thing such obscure phrases must mean, what they have come to mean, due to AristotlE's influence, is the study of the most basic CategoriesOfBeing--and of "NonBeing" as well.  (MeinonG, who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.)  A "category of being" is a type or class of thing--''ThinG'' being used in its broadest possible sense--that cannot be reduced to (see ReductioN) or explicated (see ExplicatioN) in terms of any other category.  Among the many and varied categories that have been postulated over the millennia, some perennial favorites are ObjectS (presumably, PhysicalObjects), UniversalS, PropertieS, RelationS, EventS, TheMind (or something mental), and SeT''''s.
< 
< What it means to take, for example, the category ObjectS seriously as a CategoryOfBeing is to assert that the concept of objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of bundles of properties.  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of OntOlogy can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) CategoriesOfBeing.
< 
< The ontological problems ''par excellence'' include:
< * What is ExistencE?
< * Is ExistencE is a property?
< * The ProblemOfUniversals
< * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
< There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ontology]]
------
Trade_secret|986408677
5c5,7
< Trade secrets are neither necessarily nor always protected by law in the same manner as a [[trademark]] or [[patent]].  Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to keep their special knowledge out of the hands of competitors through a variety of civil and commercial means, not the least of which is the employment of [[confidentiality agreement]]s.  In exchange for the opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, a worker will sign an agreement not to reveal his prospective employer's proprietary information.  Often, he will also sign over rights to the ownership of his own intellectual production during the course (or as a condition) of his employment.  Violation of the agreement generally carries stiff financial penalties, agreed to in writing by the worker and designed to operate as a disincentive to going back on his word.
---
> Trade secrets are neither necessarily nor always protected by law in the same manner as a [[trademark]] or [[patent]].  Instead, owners of trade secrets seek to keep their special knowledge out of the hands of competitors through a variety of civil and commercial means, not the least of which is the employment of [[confidentiality agreement]]s.  In exchange for the opportunity to be employed by the holder of secrets, a worker will sign an agreement not to reveal his prospective employer's proprietary information.  Often, he will also sign over rights to the ownership of his own intellectual production during the course (or as a condition) of his employment.  Violation of the agreement generally carries stiff financial penalties, agreed to in writing by the worker and designed to operate as a disincentive to going back on his word.
> 
> Historically, trade secrets have been with us since early times in the forms of keeping advanced military technology from ones enemies and in more recent times in keeping industrial revoloution era technology secret.
------
JohnnyUnitas|986408708
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Johnny Unitas]]
------
Johnny_Unitas|986408795
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Johnny Unitas</b> was a [[professional]] [[football]] [[player]] in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
------
Television|986408928
9a10
> :[[Monty Python]]
------
Ontology|986408982
1c1
< ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof; in [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."
---
> ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundament or ''[[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
3,7c3
< A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.
< 
< The different kinds or ways of being are called <i>[[category of being|categories of being]].</i>  Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
< 
< In Aristotle's phrase, "the science of being <i>qua</i> being," the word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what [[category of being|categories of being]] are ''fundamental'' or ''[[reduction|irreducible]]'' and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to exist.
---
> Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
20a17,24
> 
> 
> The ontological problems ''par excellence'' include:
> * What is ExistencE?
> * Is ExistencE is a property?
> * The ProblemOfUniversals
> * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
> There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these.
------
Ontology|986409008
1c1
< ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundament or ''[[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
---
> ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundamental or [[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
------
Monty_Python|986409075
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Monty Python</b> was an [[England]] based [[comedy]] [[television]] show that aired from 1969 until 1974 (dates correct ?).
> 
> It is most famous for creating many silly [[skit]]s that are referenced in many other television shows and movies.
> 
> 
------
Category_of_being|986409418
1c1,5
< In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  Since, according to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class|classes]] of things--'thing' here being used to mean anything whatever that can be discussed--that cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.  It is hoped, moreover, that a full account of the categories would be exhaustive in the sense that everything (in some category schemes, even nonexistent and impossible things) can be placed into at least one of the categories.  [I'm not sure if this is precisely correct ''a la'' Aristotle, or anyone else for that matter.]
---
> In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  Since, according to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class|classes]] of things--'thing' here being used to mean anything whatever that can be discussed--that cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.
> 
> It is hoped, moreover, that a full account of the categories would be exhaustive in the sense that everything can be placed into at least one of the categories.  Sometimes ontological category schemes have included nonexistent or even impossible objects; [[Alexius Meinong|Meinong]], who thought we can talk unobjectionably about nonexistent objects such as the golden mountain, was an ontologist.
> 
> For example, what it means to take the category [[physical object]] seriously as a category of being is to assert that the concept of physical objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms--not, for example, in terms of [[bundle theory|bundles of properties]].  In this way, as it turns out, very many controversies of ontology can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be regarded as the (fundamental, irreducible, primitive) categories.
5c9
< Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.  Indeed, one of the basic questions of [[ontology]] is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"  In no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other:
---
> Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.  In no particular order, here are at least <i>some</i> items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other:
11c15
< '''[[Class|Classes]].'''  We can talk about human beings, and planets, and engines as classes of things.  Within the class of human beings is all of the human beings, or (in other words) the [[extension]] of the term 'human being'.  In the class of [[planet]]s would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc.--and all the other planets that there might be in the universe.  Classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of planets <i>is</i>, or has being.  Classes are usually taken to be [[abstract]] objects, equivalent in meaning to '[[set]]'.
---
> '''[[Class|Classes]].'''  We can talk about all human beings, and the planets, and all engines as belonging to classes.  Within the class of human beings is all of the human beings, or (in other words) the [[extension]] of the term 'human being'.  In the class of [[planet]]s would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, etc.--and all the other planets that there might be in the universe.  Classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of planets <i>is</i>, or has being.  Classes are usually taken to be [[abstract]] objects, like sets; 'class' is often regarded as equivalent in meaning to '[[set]]'.
------
Business_and_Industry|986409514
12c12
< ** [[trade secret]]
---
> ** [[Trade secret]]
------
Category_of_being|986409607
1c1
< In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  Since, according to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]), to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class|classes]] of things--'thing' here being used to mean anything whatever that can be discussed--that cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.
---
> In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called <i>categories of being</i> or simply ''categories.''  According to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word (see [[being]]).  Hence, to investigate the categories of being is to determine what the most fundamental senses are in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class|classes]] of things--'thing' here being used to mean anything whatever that can be discussed--that cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.
------
Trade_secret|986409667
7c7,9
< Historically, trade secrets have been with us since early times in the forms of keeping advanced military technology from ones enemies and in more recent times in keeping industrial revoloution era technology secret.
---
> Historically, trade secrets have been with us since early times in the forms of keeping advanced military technology from ones enemies and in more recent times in keeping industrial revoloution era technology secret.
> 
> [[Industrial espionage]] is the common name given to the practice of trying to discover other company's trade secrets
------
Monty_Python|986409738
4a5,7
> Members:
> *[[John Cleese]]
> ???
------
Logic|986409852
5c5
< See also [[college logic]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- ArgumentForms; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> See also [[college logic]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]]; MeaningAndDefinitions.
------
1990s|986409904
8c8,10
< 
---
> * [[Balkan war]] in former [[Yugoslavia]]
> * [[Gulf war]]
> * Break-up of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1992]]
------
1990s|986409949
10c10
< * Break-up of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1992]]
---
> * Break-up of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1992]] -- the end of the [[Cold war]]
------
1990s|986409967
10c10
< * Break-up of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1992]] -- the end of the [[Cold war]]
---
> * Break-up of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1992]] -- the end of the [[Cold War]]
------
Logic|986409972
3c3
< Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of [[traditional logic]] were often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The [[Jesuit]]s emphasized this so highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session with their peers.
---
> Logic as a science defines the structure of statement and argument and defines formulae by which these are codified.  Implicit in a study of logic is the understanding of what makes a good argument and what arguments are fallacious.  Students of [[traditional logic]]--which studied standards of [[definition]] as well as of argument--were often made to memorize certain argument forms so that they could more easily create better arguments and disprove weaker ones thrown against them.  The [[Jesuit]]s emphasized this so highly, that their students were required to take part in a structured argument session with their peers.
5c5
< See also [[college logic]] -- [[argument form]] -- [[validity]] -- [[soundness]] -- [[cogency]] -- [[deduction and induction]] -- [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]]; MeaningAndDefinitions.
---
> See also [[college logic]]; [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[deduction and induction]]; [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]].
------
Philosophy|986410121
7c7
< [[logic]] -- OntOlogy -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[philosophy of religion]] -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- [[philosophy of mind]] -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- [[meta-philosophy]] -- [[ethics]] -- MetaEthics -- [[value theory]] -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- [[political philosophy]] -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
---
> [[logic]] -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[philosophy of religion]] -- [[philosophy of nature]] -- [[philosophy of physics]] -- [[philosophy of biology]] -- [[philosophy of mind]] -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[philosophy of language]] -- [[epistemology]] -- [[philosophy of science]] -- PhilosophyOfPsychology -- [[meta-philosophy]] -- [[ethics]] -- MetaEthics -- [[value theory]] -- TheoryOfConduct -- AppliedEthics -- [[political philosophy]] -- [[philosophy of social sciences]] -- [[aesthetics]] -- [[philosophy of education]] -- PhilosophicalCounseling
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- AristotlE -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
22c22
< [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of [[Larrys Text]] to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to LarrysText to discuss what to do with it.
---
> [[Larry Sanger]] has donated the content of [[Larrys Text]] to [[Wikipedia]].  Please go to [[Larrys Text]] to discuss what to do (and what is being done) with it.
------
Television|986410284
10c10
< :[[Monty Python]]
---
> :[[Monty_Python]]
------
Married_with_Children|986410631
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A comedy [[television]] series about a [[white trash]] family (the Bundies) living in Chicago. Aired in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]].
> 
> Characters:
> *'''Bundy family'''
> **[[Al Bundy]]
> **[[Peggy Bundy]]
> **[[Bud Bundy]]
> **[[Kelly Bundy]]
> **Buck - the dog
> *'''Neighbours'''
> **[[Marcy Darcy]]
> **[[Jefferson Darcy]]
------
Television|986410750
1c1,2
< There are various kinds of television:
---
> There are various kinds of television:  
> 
------
Trade_secret|986410800
7c7
< Historically, trade secrets have been with us since early times in the forms of keeping advanced military technology from ones enemies and in more recent times in keeping industrial revoloution era technology secret.
---
> Historically, trade secrets have been with us after a fashion since early times in the form of keeping advanced military technology from one's enemies - and in more recent times, in keeping industrial revolution era technology secret.
9c9
< [[Industrial espionage]] is the common name given to the practice of trying to discover other company's trade secrets
---
> [[Industrial espionage]] is the common name given to the practice of trying to discover other companies' trade secrets
------
Cosmology|986411227
9a10
> * [[Creationism|creationism]]
------
Creationism|986411388
1c1,3
< Opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian literalism.
---
> Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe out of nothing.  Ithas been expanded to include the idea that all life, and in particular mankind, was also so created.  
> 
> Creationsim is frequently expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.
------
PythagoreanTheorem|986411854
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pythagorean Theorem]]
------
What_Google_Likes|986411871
1c1
<  Updated 2/26/2001
---
>  Updated 4/04/2001
3c3,5
< The following list shows hits from Google over the past 8 days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
---
> Google has finally updated their database!
> 
> The following list shows hits from Google over the past 3 days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
7,31c9,10
< (Also note that I have seen alltheweb.com and Inktomi spidering the site, so within the next couple of weeks, they should pick us up as well.)
< 
<   44    RosaParks
<   15    ThomasEdison
<    9    WikiWiki
<    7    GermanY
<    7    BillClinton
<    4    RoseParks
<    4    RhodeIsland
<    4    PhiloSophy
<    4    OldTestament
<    3    PitcairnIsland
<    3    NewZealand
<    3    HiStory
<    3    EuroCurrency
<    3    BoMis
<    2    TopOlogy
<    2    [[The Recorder]]
<    2    PhilZimmermann
<    2    FilmHistory
<    2    FidDle
<    2    EuropE
<    2    BronzeAge
<    2    AlTruism 
< 
---
> Google is now sending us about 3 times as much traffic as they
> used to send.  They are now sending more than Bomis, even!
33a13,45
> 
> :  13   [[RosaParks]]
> :  10   [[EiffelTower]]
> :   9   [[The Cohen Brothers]]
> :   8   [[ThomasEdison]]
> :   7   [[Martin Scorcese]]
> :   7   [[AdolfHitler]]
> :   6   [[Interquartile Range]]
> :   6   [[HomePage]]
> :   6   [[BritannicaPublicDomain]]
> :   6   [[AnnaKournikova]]
> :   5   [[WikiWiki]]
> :   5   [[NewHampshire]]
> :   5   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
> :   5   [[BillClinton]]
> :   4   [[Standard Deviation]]
> :   4   [[KurtCobain]]
> :   4   [[JapaneseAnime]]
> :   4   [[IndoEuropean]]
> :   4   [[Cluster Sampling]]
> :   4   [[BritneySpears]]
> :   4   [[AnchorageAlaska]]
> :   4   [[AlexanderTheGreat]]
> :   3   [[WorldWarOne]]
> :   3   [[ThomasJefferson]]
> :   3   [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
> :   3   [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :   3   [[RequestedArticles]]
> :   3   [[PythagoreanTheorem]]
> :   3   [[PresidentialMedalOfFreedom]]
> :   3   [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
> :   3   [[PopularMusic]]
> :   3   [[NationalFootballLeague]] 
------
Wikipedia_policy|986412783
4a5
> * [[Topic creation]]
------
Topic_creation|986413246
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The question which topics we should create is related to, but definitely distinct from, the question of what [[naming conventions]] we should follow.  I'd like to start a discussion about this.  Here are some places to start:
> 
> * Generally speaking, the creation of topics should be broadly encouraged.  If anyone ever feels discouraged from creating a topic, it should be for a very good, clear, specific reason.
> * One issue that might constrain the choice of topics occurs when there are two or more names for the same topic.  For example, "spam" and "spamming"; the first is a kind of e-mail or newsgroup post, and the second is the activity of sending or posting such messages.  With such sets of closely-related topics, we have a number of choices:
> # Redirect from one topic to another; so, for example, make "spamming" redirect to "spam."
> # Make one page a very brief definition, followed by a pointer to the other page ("for more information, see [[spam]]").
> # Develop two separate articles.
> 
> There must be other issues.  Discussion?
------
Draw_poker|986414549
3c3
< The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use an ante, and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left.  In casino play, it is more common to use blinds; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.
---
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use an ante, and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left.  In casino play, it is more common to use blinds; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.
7c7
< <h2>Five-card draw</h2>
---
> <h2>"Standard" five-card draw</h2>
9c9
< This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play.  Two to eight players can play.
---
> This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play.  When played skillfully, it can become monotonous.  The lowball variations described later are more interesting games.  Two to eight players can play.
15c15
< <h3>Variations</h3>
---
> <h2>Other draw games</h2>
17c17
< Five-card draw can be played with traditional [[Poker/Hands|hand values]], or using any of various [[lowball]] variations, or high/low split.  In casinos, both low and high variations are generally played with a single joker in the deck, used as a bug.  Draw games play well with wild cards, so the <i>deuces wild</i> variant is very popular in home games.  More than one draw can be used to add betting rounds.  Some specific popular variants include:
---
> <h3>Gardena jackpots ("Jacks to open")</h3>
19,23c19
< * Gardena Jackpots: Standard hand values, with a single joker in the deck, acting as a bug.  Always played with an ante.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand (other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens).  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.
< * California High/Low Draw: Played with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no one qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.
< * California Lowball: Ace-to-five lowball, with a single joker in the deck.   Always played with blinds, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A common rule is that a player with a 7-high hand is not allowed to check after the draw.  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.
< * Double-draw Lowball: As above, but played with two draw phases and therefore three betting rounds.
< * Kansas City Lowball: Deuce-to-seven lowball, no joker.  Often called "Billy Baxter Draw" in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the event for many years.
---
> Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a "bug" (i.e., it can be used to complete a straight or flush, and is otherwise an ace).  Always played with an ante and no blinds.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand.  Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens.  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.
25c21,59
< ...
---
> The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular in the 1970s (though it has always been secondary to lowball).  At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all of the rest of the [[United States]].  Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms now than they did at that time.  Because "Jacks to open" was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the [[retronym]] "Guts to open".
> 
> In home games, it is common that when a deal is <i>passed out</i> (i.e., when no one opens and players re-ante), the qualifier to open is raised to a pair of queens, and if that deal is passed out, the qualifier is raised to kings, and finally to aces.  This is called <i>progressive</i> jackpots.
> 
> <h3>California lowball</h3>
> 
> This was the primary poker game played in California during the heyday of Gardena in the 1970s.  It is still played today, though its popularity has somewhat lessened since the introduction of [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] to the state.
> 
> Played as above, using ace-to-five lowball hand values, with a single joker in the deck.  Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A player with a 7-high hand or better who checks after the draw foreits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw.  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.  This latter rule is never used in games with pot limit or no limit betting structure.
> 
> <h3>California high/low</h3>
> 
> Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called <i>scooping</i> or <i>hogging</i> the pot.
> 
> <h3>Kansas City lowball</h3>
> 
> Played as above, with no joker, and deuce-to-seven lowball hand values.  Often called "Billy Baxter" draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years.
> 
> <h3>Double-draw</h3>
> 
> Any game above can be played with two draw phases and therefore three betting rounds.  Double-draw California lowball is a particularly good game.
> 
> <h3>Four-before</h3>
> 
> Another variation that can be applied to any game above, but that is especially suited to lowball.  On the initial deal, only four cards are dealt to each player.  A betting round follows, then each player draws one more card than he discards, completing his hand to five cards.  Then the final betting round and showdown.  Note that it is impossible to be dealt a <i>pat hand</i>, i.e., a hand (such as a straight or flush) that is complete before the draw.
> 
> <h3>Johnson</h3>
> 
> Played with one joker which acts as a bug.  Must be played with antes and no blinds.  Each player is deal five cards.  The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything.  If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker.  If the first round is passed out (i.e., no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball.  On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again.  This game plays well head-up (i.e., with only two players).
> 
> Some examples might help clarify: On the first deal, players ante and Alice deals five cards around.  Bob sees that he has a 6-high straight, which is a very good hand for both high and low.  He also wants to be deceptive about the value of his hand, so he checks.  Carol opens for $1, David folds, Alice raises to $2, and Bob (who now realizes that Carol and Alice want to play high hands) reraises to $3, which is called by Carol and Alice.  Bob annonces that he "stands pat" (i.e., draws no cards).  Carol draws three cards, and Alice draws two.  Bob bets $2, Carol folds, Alice raises, and Bob calls.  Bob shows his straight, but Alice has made a full house and wins the pot.
> 
> On the second deal, Bob has the same hand: a 6-high straight, and makes the same play, checking.  This time, Carol also checks, as does David, and finally Alice.  Now it is Bob's turn again, but now they are playing lowball.  He opens for $1.  Carol folds, and David raises to $2.  Alice folds, and Bob reraises to $3 (a 6-high is a very good low hand; much better, in fact, than a 6-high straight would be for high).  David calls.  Bob stands pat, and David draws one card.  Bob bets $2 (he is required to bet under California lowball rules since he has a hand better than 7-high), and David calls.  Bob shows his 6-5-4-3-2 low, and David shows 7-5-4-3-A low, and Bob wins with his 6-high.
> 
> <h3>Spit in the ocean</h3>
> 
> This might be classified as a hybrid draw/community card game, but it is placed here because it plays mostly as a draw game.  On the initial deal, each player is dealt four cards, and then a single card is dealt to the center of the table face up.  This card plays as if it were the fifth card in every player's hand.  It is also a wild card, and every other card of its rank is wild.  The first betting round is then played, followed by a draw in which each each player replaces cards from his hand with an equal number, so that each player still has only four cards in hand.  A final betting round is followed by a showdown.  High-hand values are used.
> 
> Here's a sample deal: Alice deals four cards to each player, then deals the next card face up to the center of the table.  it is the 6 of diamonds, and this makes all 6-spot cards wild.  Bob opens for $1, Carol raises to $2, David folds, Alice and Bob call.  Bob discards two cards, and recieves two replacements.  Carol draws one card, and Alice draws one.  Bob checks, Carol bets $2, Alice raises to $4, Bob folds, Carol reraise to $6, and Alice calls.  The cards in Carol's hand are a 6-spot, two kings, and a 4-spot.  Because the 6-spot in her hand and the one on the board are wild, her hand is four kings.  Alice's hand contains the king, jack, 9, and 7 of spades.  With the shared wild card, this gives her a flush, which loses to Carol's four kings.
------
1980s|986414674
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Trends/events during the <b>1980s</b>:
> 
> * rise of [[cable television]]
> * 24 hour news channels
> * assination attempt on [[Ronald Reagan]]
> * [[political correctness]]
------
Alan_Alda|986414925
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Alan Alda</b> is a male actor most famous for his role of Hawkeye Pierce in the [[television]] series [[MASH]].
> 
> Or recent work, he plays [[sensitive male]] characters in drama movies.
------
Sport|986415562
173a174,175
> See also:
> * [[fantasy sports]]
------
Fantasy_sports|986415699
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>fantasy sport</b> is a game where players get points based on the [[statistics]] generated by individual players or teams of a [[professional]] sport.
> 
> Some popular fantasy sports:
> * Fantasy Baseball
> * Fantasy Football
> * Fantasy Basketball
> * Fantasy Golf
> 
------
Creationism|986415701
1c1,3
< Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe out of nothing.  Ithas been expanded to include the idea that all life, and in particular mankind, was also so created.  
---
> Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe out of nothing.  It has been expanded to include the idea that all life, and in particular humankind, was also so created.  
> 
> Creationsim is frequently expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism. Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are, for various reasons, meaningless and given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.
3d4
< Creationsim is frequently expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.
------
1980s|986415742
6a7
> * [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]]
------
Methodological_naturalism|986415936
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation - i.e. one must assume the non-existance of super-natural forces and entities. Note that you are NOT stating that such entities or forces do not exists, merely that you cannot use them in scientific explanation.
> 
> Opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) conveniently forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and does not imply [[atheism]].
------
Creationism|986416045
3c3
< Creationsim is frequently expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism. Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are, for various reasons, meaningless and given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.
---
> Creationism is frequently (though not always) expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are regarded by most biologists as, for various reasons, meaningless; many biologists hold that, given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
4a5
> ''Let's try to keep this fact-stating.''
------
Creationism|986416069
3c3
< Creationism is frequently (though not always) expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are regarded by most biologists as, for various reasons, meaningless; many biologists hold that, given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
---
> Creationism is frequently (though not always) expressed in opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are regarded by most biologists as, for various reasons, meaningless; many biologists hold that, given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
------
Draw_poker|986416196
54a55,64
> <h2>"Home" games</h2>
> 
> These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes.  This does not mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive.
> 
> <h3>Roll 'em out</h3>
> 
> This is a draw game that plays much like a [[stud poker]] game.  First five cards are dealt to each player, followed by a betting round, and a draw.  Now, in place of a second round and showdown, there is a <i>rollout</i> phase, which begins with the players arranging their five cards in any chosen order, placing them face down in front of themselves.  Each player's top card is now revealed, followed by a betting round.  Then each player reveals his next card, followed by a betting round.  Then a third card is revealed, followed by a betting round, a fourth card, a betting round, and finally a showdown.  Players may not change the order of their cards at any time during the rollout phase.
> 
> This game can be played for high or low, but plays best at high/low split, in which case it is called "Skinny Minnie".  
> 
59a70,75
> 
> <h3>Anaconda ("Pass the trash")</h3>
> 
> Seven cards are dealt to each player.  Before the first betting round, each player examines his hand, and removes exactly three cards from his hand and places them on the table to his left.  After each person has thus discarded, he picks up the cards discarded by his right-hand neighbor and places them in his hand (thus, each player will have given three cards to his left-hand neighbor).  It is important that each player discard before looking at the cards he is to receive.  After the first pass, there is a betting round.  Then a second pass occurs, each player passing two cards to his right.  A second betting round is followed by a third pass, each player passing one card to his left.  Finally, a fourth betting round and a showdown, in which the player with the best five-card high hand he can make out of the seven in his hand wins the pot.
> 
> In some truly silly games, the showdown is replaced by a rollout phase, as described above in "Roll 'em out".  This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds.
------
Methodological_naturalism|986416422
1c1
< The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation - i.e. one must assume the non-existance of super-natural forces and entities. Note that you are NOT stating that such entities or forces do not exists, merely that you cannot use them in scientific explanation.
---
> The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation--i.e. one's explanations must not presuppose the existence of super-natural forces and entities.  Note that methodological naturalism does ''not'' hold that such entities or forces do not exist, but merely that one cannot use them in scientific explanation.
3c3,5
< Opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) conveniently forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and does not imply [[atheism]].
---
> Opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) conveniently forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and does not imply [[atheism]].
> 
> ''Is there some way to rephrase the latter sentence so that it isn't tendentious--i.e., so that it is something that Philip Johnson could, if grudgingly, accept as true?''
------
Methodological_naturalism|986416592
3,5c3
< Opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) conveniently forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and does not imply [[atheism]].
< 
< ''Is there some way to rephrase the latter sentence so that it isn't tendentious--i.e., so that it is something that Philip Johnson could, if grudgingly, accept as true?''
---
> Many opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) often forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and neither implies [[philosophical naturalism]] (the claim that supernatural entities do not exist) or [[atheism]].
------
Creationism|986417520
1c1
< Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe out of nothing.  It has been expanded to include the idea that all life, and in particular humankind, was also so created.  
---
> Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe and all life contained therein. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, this creation is taken to be ''ex nihilo'' (out of nothing), but Biblical scholars have argued that this comes from a miss-translation of ''Genesis''.
3c3,5
< Creationism is frequently (though not always) expressed in opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" are regarded by most biologists as, for various reasons, meaningless; many biologists hold that, given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation. However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]"are regarded by the vast majority of theologians and philosophers of science as, for various reasons, meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
> 
> /Talk
5d6
< ''Let's try to keep this fact-stating.''
------
Physics|986417686
33c33
< * Astrophysics
---
> * [[Astrophysics]]
------
Creationism|986417730
3c3
< In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation. However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]"are regarded by the vast majority of theologians and philosophers of science as, for various reasons, meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, all creationism can only be properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who, of course, disagree.
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation. However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]"are regarded by the vast majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science as meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, they claim that all creationism can only properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is also rooted in faith. 
6d5
< 
------
SI|986419012
1c1,4
< [[System International]]; also, ''[[Sports Illustrated]].''
---
> The <i>International System</I> of units, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>[[System International]]</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science (and the legal system in most countries). The SI units are <i>meter, kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>. 
> 
> ----
> also, ''[[Sports Illustrated]].''
------
Physics_experimental_methods|986419283
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Standards and Units]]
------
Johnny_Unitas|986419298
1c1,5
< <b>Johnny Unitas</b> was a [[professional]] [[football]] [[player]] in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
---
> <b>Johnny Unitas</b> (1933- ) was a [[professional]] [[American Football]] [[player]] in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  He was the [[National Football League]]s most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967.
> 
> Unitas was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the Baltimore Colts NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though in 1968 the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently lead the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
> 
> Johnny Unitas was traded to the [[San Diego Chargers]] in 1972, and retired from football in 1974.  He was voted into the [[NFL Hall of Fame]] in 1979.
------
Johnny_Unitas|986419329
3c3
< Unitas was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the Baltimore Colts NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though in 1968 the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently lead the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
---
> Unitas was drafted by the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the [[Baltimore Colts]] NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though in 1968 the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently lead the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
5c5
< Johnny Unitas was traded to the [[San Diego Chargers]] in 1972, and retired from football in 1974.  He was voted into the [[NFL Hall of Fame]] in 1979.
---
> Johnny Unitas was traded to the [[San Diego Chargers]] in 1972, and retired from football in 1974.  He was voted into the [[NFL Hall of Fame]] in 1979.
------
Logic|986419613
5c5,16
< See also [[college logic]]; [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[deduction and induction]]; [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]].
---
> See also [[college logic]]; [[argument form]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[deduction and induction]]; [[modus ponens]]; [[affirming the consequent]]; [[modus tollens]]; [[disjunctive syllogism]].
> ----
> Shouldn't this page include the basic logic relationships?
> 
> If A, then B
> 
> is true when
> A is true and B is true
> A is false
> 
> is false when
> A is true and B is false
------
SI|986419822
1c1
< The <i>International System</I> of units, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>[[System International]]</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science (and the legal system in most countries). The SI units are <i>meter, kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>. 
---
> The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  The primary SI units are the <i>meter</i>, <i>kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>.
------
Methodological_naturalism|986420638
3c3
< Many opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) often forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and neither implies [[philosophical naturalism]] (the claim that supernatural entities do not exist) or [[atheism]].
---
> Many opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) often forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and implies neither [[philosophical naturalism]] (the claim that supernatural entities do not exist) nor [[atheism]].
------
Methodological_naturalism|986420815
1c1
< The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation--i.e. one's explanations must not presuppose the existence of super-natural forces and entities.  Note that methodological naturalism does ''not'' hold that such entities or forces do not exist, but merely that one cannot use them in scientific explanation.
---
> The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation--i.e. one's explanations must not presuppose the existence of supernatural forces and entities.  Note that methodological naturalism does ''not'' hold that such entities or forces do not exist, but merely that one cannot use them in scientific explanation.
------
Logic|986420865
7,16c7
< Shouldn't this page include the basic logic relationships?
< 
< If A, then B
< 
< is true when
< A is true and B is true
< A is false
< 
< is false when
< A is true and B is false
---
> Shouldn't this page include the basic logic relationships?  Why don't you add them to [[truth tables]], [[connective]], and [[quantifier]]?
------
Creationism|986421011
1c1
< Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe and all life contained therein. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, this creation is taken to be ''ex nihilo'' (out of nothing), but Biblical scholars have argued that this comes from a miss-translation of ''Genesis''.
---
> Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe and all life contained therein. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, this creation is taken to be ''ex nihilo'' (out of nothing), but some Biblical scholars have argued that this comes from a mistranslation of ''Genesis''.
3c3
< In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation. However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]"are regarded by the vast majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science as meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, they claim that all creationism can only properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is also rooted in faith. 
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with His hand.  However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]" are regarded by the vast majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science as meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, they claim that all creationism can only properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is also rooted in faith. 
------
Creationism|986421034
1c1
< Creationism is a philosphical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe and all life contained therein. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, this creation is taken to be ''ex nihilo'' (out of nothing), but some Biblical scholars have argued that this comes from a mistranslation of ''Genesis''.
---
> Creationism is a philosophical or religious position grounded in the idea that a supreme being or ultimate mover literally created the physical universe and all life contained therein. Within the Judeo-Christian tradition, this creation is taken to be ''ex nihilo'' (out of nothing), but some Biblical scholars have argued that this comes from a mistranslation of ''Genesis''.
------
Methodological_naturalism|986421107
1c1
< The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation--i.e. one's explanations must not presuppose the existence of supernatural forces and entities.  Note that methodological naturalism does ''not'' hold that such entities or forces do not exist, but merely that one cannot use them in scientific explanation.
---
> The philosophical tenet that, within scientific enquiry, one can only use naturalistic explanation - i.e. one's explanations must not presuppose the existence of supernatural forces and entities.  Note that methodological naturalism does ''not'' hold that such entities or forces do not exist, but merely that one cannot use them in scientific explanation.
------
Johnny_Unitas|986421230
1c1
< <b>Johnny Unitas</b> (1933- ) was a [[professional]] [[American Football]] [[player]] in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  He was the [[National Football League]]s most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967.
---
> <b>Johnny Unitas</b> (1933- ) was a [[professional]] [[American Football]] [[player]] in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  He was the [[National Football League]]'s most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967.
3c3
< Unitas was drafted by the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the [[Baltimore Colts]] NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though in 1968 the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently lead the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
---
> Unitas was drafted by the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the [[Baltimore Colts]] NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though after the 1968 season, the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently led the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
------
Johnny_Unitas|986421283
1c1
< <b>Johnny Unitas</b> (1933- ) was a [[professional]] [[American Football]] [[player]] in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  He was the [[National Football League]]'s most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967.
---
> <b>Johnny Unitas</b> (1933- ) was a [[professional]] [[American football]] [[player]] in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  He was the [[National Football League]]'s most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967.
------
AmericanFootball|986421378
1,8c1
< A sport in which two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field. 
< 
< American football is played at several levels in the United States.
< 
< Football is played by teams from colleges and universities.  This is popularly known as [[College Football]].
< 
< Football is also played by teams of professional players.  The most prominent league is of course the NationalFootballLeague.
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
---
> See [[American football]]
------
Standards_and_Units|986421430
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Reproducibility of experimental results is central to the [[scientific method]]. To facilitate this we need <i>standards</i>, and to get convenient measures of the standards we need systems of <i>units</i>.
> 
> The standards are defined by operational definitions.
> 
> The quantities length, time and mass are central to the physical sciences.
> 
> <b>Length</b>
> : The [[SI|SI unit]] of length is meter. One meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 second. This standard was adopted in 1983, when the speed of light in vacuum was defined to be precisely 299792458 m/s.
> 
> <b>Time</b>
> : The SI unit of time is second. One second is defined as the time required for 9192631770 cycles of a hyperfine transition in cesium 133. This definition was adopted in 1967.
> 
> <b>Mass</b>
> : The SI unit of mass is kilogram. One kilogram is defined to be the mass of a specific cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy, kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (near Paris).
> 
> The most widely used system of units in science is the [[SI|SI units]].
------
SI|986421533
2a3
> see [[Standards and Units]]
------
American_football|986421568
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sport in which two teams fight for control of an oblate spheroid ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player (only one forward pass permitted per [[football play]], and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].  After this, all passes must be [[lateral pass]]es or rearward passes) on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball gets to the end of the field. 
> 
> American football is played at several levels in the United States.
> 
> Football is played by teams from colleges and universities.  This is popularly known as [[College Football]].
> 
> Football is also played by teams of professional players.  The most prominent league is of course the NationalFootballLeague.
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
------
WikiPediaBugs|986421859
50a51,52
> ----
> OK - this is weird.  I fixed the [[American football]] link in [[Johnny Unitas]], it forwards to the new page, but it will not show up as a link.
------
Johnny_Unitas|986422077
3c3
< Unitas was drafted by the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the [[Baltimore Colts]] NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though after the 1968 season, the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American Football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently led the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
---
> Unitas was drafted by the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the NFL, but was released before the season began.  In 1956 Unitas joined the [[Baltimore Colts]] NFL team.   The Colts won the NFL championship under his leadership in 1958, 1959, and in 1968 (Though after the 1968 season, the Colts lost the 1969 [[Super Bowl]], which was the last championship game between the rival [[American football]] leagues the NFL and AFL ([[American Football League]])).  Unitas subsequently led the Colts to a [[Super Bowl]] win over the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the 1971 [[Super Bowl]].
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986422100
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <b>line of scrimmage</b> is the last position of the football in [[American football]].
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986422342
1c1
< The <b>line of scrimmage</b> is the last position of the football in [[American football]].
---
> The <b>line of scrimmage</b> is the transverse line crossing the [[football field]] across its narrower dimension, which passes through the last position of the football, after the end of the most recent play and following the assessment of any [[penalty yards]] in [[American football]].  It is the line from which the next play will begin.
------
Lateral_pass|986422682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to [[football goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
------
United_States/History|986422733
1c1
< The United States were founded from 13 colonies established in [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1773 frustration with various British practices led to revolt and independence.  In a second war, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
---
> The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
8c8
< [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]), and [[Texas]].
---
> [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah. and [[Nevada]]).  American settlers in [[Texas]] declared independence from Mexico in the 1830, won independence and joined the United States a decade later.
------
Draw_poker|986423310
12a13,14
> A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card).  This rule does not improve the game, and is not generally followed in casinos, so it is not recommended.  A rule that <i>is</i> followed by many casinos that makes more sense is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).
> 
19c21
< Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a "bug" (i.e., it can be used to complete a straight or flush, and is otherwise an ace).  Always played with an ante and no blinds.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand.  Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens.  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.
---
> Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a "bug" (i.e., it can be used to complete a straight or flush, and is otherwise an ace).  Always played with an ante and no blinds.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand.  Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens.  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.  The player who opened the betting keeps his discarded cards near him on the table so that he can prove, if necessary, that he had a sufficient opening hand.  For example, a player with the king, jack, 9, and 7 of clubs and the jack of hearts has a pair of jacks and may open.  He may wish to <i>break openers</i> in this case by discarding the jack of hearts in an attempt to make the club flush, so he keeps the discarded jack to prove that he was entitled to open.
21c23
< The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular in the 1970s (though it has always been secondary to lowball).  At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all of the rest of the [[United States]].  Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms now than they did at that time.  Because "Jacks to open" was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the [[retronym]] "Guts to open".
---
> The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular in the 1970s (though it has always been secondary to lowball).  At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all the rest of the [[United States]].  Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms than they did at that time.  Because "Jacks to open" was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the [[retronym]] "Guts to open".
31c33
< <h3>California high/low</h3>
---
> <h3>Other forms of lowball</h3>
33c35
< Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called <i>scooping</i> or <i>hogging</i> the pot.
---
> Five-card draw, with no joker, and deuce-to-seven lowball hand values is called "Kansas City" or "Low Poker" or even "Billy Baxter" draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years.  The 7-high rule and the no check-and-raise rule do not apply.  In the eastern United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and elsewhere, ace-to-six lowball hand values are common.
35c37
< <h3>Kansas City lowball</h3>
---
> <h3>California high/low split</h3>
37c39
< Played as above, with no joker, and deuce-to-seven lowball hand values.  Often called "Billy Baxter" draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years.
---
> Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called <i>scooping</i> or <i>hogging</i> the pot.
41c43
< Any game above can be played with two draw phases and therefore three betting rounds.  Double-draw California lowball is a particularly good game.
---
> Any game above can be played with two draw phases and therefore three betting rounds.  Double-draw California lowball is a particularly good game.  Triple-draw games can be played as well.
47c49
< <h3>Johnson</h3>
---
> <h3>Johnson (and "Jacks back")</h3>
49c51
< Played with one joker which acts as a bug.  Must be played with antes and no blinds.  Each player is deal five cards.  The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything.  If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker.  If the first round is passed out (i.e., no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball.  On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again.  This game plays well head-up (i.e., with only two players).
---
> Played with one joker which acts as a bug.  Must be played with antes and no blinds.  Each player is deal five cards.  The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything.  If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker.  If the first round is passed out (i.e., no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball.  On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again.  This game plays well head-up (i.e., with only two players).  When the game is played that a pair of jacks or better is required to open on the first high-hand round, the game is called "Jacks back".
57c59
< These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes.  This does not mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive.
---
> These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes.  This does not necessarily mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive.
59c61
< <h3>Roll 'em out</h3>
---
> <h3>Shotgun ("Roll 'em out" and "Skinny Minnie")</h3>
75c77,89
< In some truly silly games, the showdown is replaced by a rollout phase, as described above in "Roll 'em out".  This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds.
---
> In some truly silly games, the showdown is replaced by a rollout phase, as described above in "Shotgun".  This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds.
> 
> <h2>Ad hoc variants</h2>
> 
> Any of the above games can be modified in many ways upon player whim, by designating additional wild cards, betting rounds, more or fewer cards, altered hand values, and any other change agreed upon by all players prior to each deal.  You can announce such a game by using the name of an existing game and specifying the variations, for example "Three-card Triple-draw California lowball, Kings wild" (a surprizingly good game head up).  Many times this will result in a game that does not play well, but occasionally will produce a game that is well-suited to a particular group of players.  Even if it doesn't, such games can be used sparingly to enliven an otherwise serious game.
> 
> Here are some general guidelines:
> 
> * If you want to designate some normal suited cards as wild, choose cards that would otherwise be bad for the game being played.  For example, deuces wild for high-hand games, kings wild for lowball, 9-spots wild for high/low split (where an 8-high or lower is necessary to win low).
> * Designating more than four four wild cards (or possibly six) will result in considerable confusion and many ties.
> * High/low split games play best with more than four players.
> * Two to five betting rounds makes a good game.  One round or more than five rounds reduces the amount of skill involved.
> * Giving each player more than eight or nine cards usually makes a bad game. (Note that in Anaconda, each player will have seen up to thirteen cards!)
------
Lateral_pass|986423334
1a2,3
> 
> In [[College football]], the lateral pass is used extensively much in the same manner a ?? is done in [[rugby]].
------
WikiPediaBugs|986423498
48c48,49
< :At this time (March 31, 2001) the canonization code is very incomplete on Wikipedia.  This is one of the unhandled cases.  The fix for this and several other cases is in the development UseModWiki code, which I hope to release (as 0.92) by mid-late April 2001 (CE :-).  See [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details.  --CliffordAdams----
---
> :At this time (March 31, 2001) the canonization code is very incomplete on Wikipedia.  This is one of the unhandled cases.  The fix for this and several other cases is in the development UseModWiki code, which I hope to release (as 0.92) by mid-late April 2001 (CE :-).  See [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details.  --CliffordAdams
> ----
50a52,53
> 
> :I don't see a problem. --[[Napoleon Bonaparte]]  :-)
52a56,57
> 
> :Right now (April 4, 2001), you have to use the same upper/lowercase letters in free links as the target page.  (The <i>first</i> letter can be lowercase, but all the others must match.)  This means that [[American Football]] (capital-F Football) will not <b>currently</b> match [[American football]] (lowercase f).  This is considered a bug, and it will be fixed in 0.92 (sometime in April 2001).  --CliffordAdams (ID 1675.  I am not a free man--I am a number!)
------
Methodological_naturalism|986424238
3a4,5
> 
> /Talk
------
Lateral_pass|986424611
1c1
< In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to [[football goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
---
> In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to the [[goal|football goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
------
AmericanFootball|986424632
1c1
< See [[American football]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[American football]]
------
NationalFootballLeague|986424673
1,42c1
< An AmericaN [[Sports]] league, usually called the [[NFL]].
< 
< The [[NFL]] is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
< 
< The league has a new competitor in the form of a new league known as the [[XFL]].  Only time will tell if the new competitor will survive, but other attempts have failed in the past.
< 
< The [[USFL]] competed with the NFL from 198? - 198?.
< 
< At the end of each season, the winners of playoff games meet in the SuperBowl.
< 
< :ArizonaCardinals
< :AtlantaFalcons
< :BaltimoreRavens
< :BuffaloBills
< :CarolinaPanthers
< :ChicagoBears
< :CincinnatiBengals
< :ClevelandBrowns
< :DenverBroncos
< :DetroitLions
< :GreenBayPackers
< :HoustonOilers - founded 196? - moved to Tennessee in 199? and changed name to Tennessee Titans
< :HoustonTexans
< :IndianapolisColts
< :JacksonvilleJaguars
< :KansasCityChiefs
< :MiamiDolphins
< :MinnesotaVikings
< :NewEnglandPatriots
< :NewOrleansSaints
< :NewYorkGiants
< :NewYorkJets
< :OaklandRaiders
< :PhiladelphiaEagles
< :PittsburghSteelers
< :SanDiegoChargers
< :SanFrancisco49ers
< :SeattleSeahawks
< :StLouisRams
< :TampaBayBuccaneers
< :TennesseeTitans
< :WashingtonRedskins
---
> #REDIRECT [[National Football League]]
------
Lateral_pass|986424694
3c3
< In [[College football]], the lateral pass is used extensively much in the same manner a ?? is done in [[rugby]].
---
> In [[College football]], the lateral pass is used more extensively than in professional football, more in the same manner as is done in [[rugby]].
------
National_Football_League|986424695
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An AmericaN [[Sports]] league, usually called the [[NFL]].
> 
> The [[NFL]] is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
> 
> The league has a new competitor in the form of a new league known as the [[XFL]].  Only time will tell if the new competitor will survive, but other attempts have failed in the past.
> 
> The [[USFL]] competed with the NFL from 198? - 198?.
> 
> At the end of each season, the winners of playoff games meet in the SuperBowl.
> 
> :ArizonaCardinals
> :AtlantaFalcons
> :BaltimoreRavens
> :BuffaloBills
> :CarolinaPanthers
> :ChicagoBears
> :CincinnatiBengals
> :ClevelandBrowns
> :DenverBroncos
> :DetroitLions
> :GreenBayPackers
> :HoustonOilers - founded 196? - moved to Tennessee in 199? and changed name to Tennessee Titans
> :HoustonTexans
> :IndianapolisColts
> :JacksonvilleJaguars
> :KansasCityChiefs
> :MiamiDolphins
> :MinnesotaVikings
> :NewEnglandPatriots
> :NewOrleansSaints
> :NewYorkGiants
> :NewYorkJets
> :OaklandRaiders
> :PhiladelphiaEagles
> :PittsburghSteelers
> :SanDiegoChargers
> :SanFrancisco49ers
> :SeattleSeahawks
> :StLouisRams
> :TampaBayBuccaneers
> :TennesseeTitans
> :WashingtonRedskins
------
United_States/History|986424815
5c5
< [[Louissiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
---
> [[Louisiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
------
United_States/History|986424862
5,6c5,6
< [[Louisiana Purchase]], were the United Stated bought from
< France all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
---
> [[Louisiana Purchase]], where the [[United States]] bought from
> [[France\\ all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
------
WojPob|986424994
26a27,28
> ----
> remember to press "Reload" after making a change. Very often, your browser will show you an old version.
------
Agnostida|986425169
15a16,18
> ----
> ''How much longer are you keeping the joke at the begining?
> Permanently wouldn't be a good idea in an encyclopaedia.''
------
Forward_pass|986425301
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A throwing of the football from a member of the team in possession of same to another member of the same team who is closer to the [[goal|fottball goal]] for that team than the member throwing the ball.  This is permitted only one time during an offensive [[football play]] and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
> 
> The person passing the ball must be a member of the [[offensive team]], the recipient of the forward pass must be an [[eligible receiver]], and must touch the passed ball before any [[ineligible player]].  
------
Forward_pass|986425325
1c1
< A throwing of the football from a member of the team in possession of same to another member of the same team who is closer to the [[goal|fottball goal]] for that team than the member throwing the ball.  This is permitted only one time during an offensive [[football play]] and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
---
> A throwing of the football from a member of the team in possession of same to another member of the same team who is closer to the [[goal|football goal]] for that team than the member throwing the ball.  This is permitted only one time during an offensive [[football play]] and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
3c3
< The person passing the ball must be a member of the [[offensive team]], the recipient of the forward pass must be an [[eligible receiver]], and must touch the passed ball before any [[ineligible player]].  
---
> The person passing the ball must be a member of the [[offensive team]], the recipient of the forward pass must be an [[eligible receiver]], and must touch the passed ball before any [[ineligible player]].  
------
Methodological_naturalism/Talk|986425517
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm no creationist (in fact, I don't believe I have a genuine concept of God; I think God talk is a special sort of nonsense).  But I do think the second paragraph is still biased.  It is couched as a criticism.  Now, there's nothing wrong with including criticisms in encyclopedia articles, I think--but only as long as the criticisms are attributed to someone or some group of people, and as long as they are identified as such.
> 
> There are no doubt many ways to say what you want to say in a not-quite-so-biased fashion.  How about: "Logically speaking, methodological naturalism implies neither philosophical naturalism (the claim that supernatural entities do not exist) nor atheism; it is merely a very widely-accepted constraint on what counts as a legitimate explanation in science."  You could just leave it at that.  Isn't that enough?  What's the reason for pointing out that the opponents of Darwinism, in particular, fail to recognize this, other than to try to discredit the opponents of Darwinism?  Perhaps, in the Darwinism article, when the criticism in question are actually stated, the scientists' reply to the criticism can be explained.
> 
> I fully agree that creationists deserve to be discredited, by the way.  I fully agree that the flaws in their arguments should be pointed out, for example--but only once those arguments have been stated as sympathetically as possible, and only if the views ''that'' the arguments are flawed are attributed to someone (rather than to the authoritative, faceless Wikipedia author who knows all). --[[LMS]]
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986425665
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A war fought between English settlers in North America and the British Crown from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 Southernmost of the British American colonies as well as lightly settled territories West to the Mississippi River.
> 
> The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to sieze munitions stored by colonial militias at Lexington and Concord.  Conflict quickly spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly es[e;;ed.  Ft Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City,
> 
> In 1776, King George the III assembled the largest army seen in Western Europe since Roman times and sent 75,000 troops to North America.  The colonists met in Philadelphia in June of 1776 and declared indepdence from England on July 4, 1776.  The colonial army proved no match for the well armed British and suffered an embarassing series of defeats in New York, and New Jersey.  By the end of 1776, Quebec, New York City and much of New Jersey were in British hands.  However, during Christmas week, general Washington who had retreated into Pennsylvania crossed the Deleware River back into New Jersy and rolled up outlying British garrisons at Trenton and Princeton.  This established a pattern that held for the rest of the war.  The British controlled the territory they occupied in with major forces -- primarily New York City and Philadelphia.  The colonists controlled everything else.
> 
> In 1777. A force of 10000 troops started down from Montreal to cut the colonies in half while the major force in New Jersey moved across the Deleware and took Philadelphia -- the colonial capitol and the second largest city in the British Empire.  However, after retaking Ticonderoga with little trouble, the Northern army suffered a series of serious defeats at Bennington, Fort Stanwix and in two battles near Saratoga.  By October the 5700 survivors found themselves surrounded, outnumbered and short of supplies in the forests 130 miles South of Montreal with Winter approaching.  On October 17th General Burgoyne surrendered an entire British Army to the colonials.  News of the surrender arrived in Paris hard on the heels of news that colonial troops had routed supposedly invincible British regulars in the early stages of the Battle of Germantown.  Convinced by Benjamin Franklin and the news from North America that the Colonials had a reasonable chance of victory, the French agreed to support the colonists.
> 
> ''more later''
------
Offensive_team|986425954
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[American football]], the team which starts out in possession of the ball at the beginning of a [[football play]], and the team which initiates play by a [[snap|football snap]] of the ball from the [[center|football center]] to a [[back|football back]].  The offensive team is eligible to legally excute certain maneuvers, including a [[punt]], [[place kick]], or [[forward pass]], which the [[defensive team]] (or [[receiving team]] in the case of a [[change of possession play]]) may not execute, even if they should come into possession of the ball during the course of the [[football play]]. 
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986426162
1c1
< The <b>line of scrimmage</b> is the transverse line crossing the [[football field]] across its narrower dimension, which passes through the last position of the football, after the end of the most recent play and following the assessment of any [[penalty yards]] in [[American football]].  It is the line from which the next play will begin.
---
> The <b>line of scrimmage</b> is the imaginary transverse line crossing the [[football field]] across its narrower dimension, which passes through the last position of the football, after the end of the most recent play and following the assessment of any [[penalty yards]] in [[American football]].  It is the line from which the next play will begin.
------
Creationism/Talk|986426281
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :"Neologisms like "scientific creationism" and "intelligent design theory" are regarded by the vast majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science as meaningless.
> The ''names'' of the theories aren't what are regarded as meaningless, are they?  Perhaps crucial ''elements'' of the theories are regarded as meaningless.  (E.g., perhaps no good sense can be given to the notion of creation ''ex nihilo.'')  In any case, probably the more important thing to mention is that the theories, insofar as they do seem to be meaningful at all, seem to be ''unsupported'' and ''unverifiable.''  (I can maintain that the theories are unverifiable but, disagreeing with verificationism, believe them to be more-or-less meaningful--just false.  Far from all scientists, theologians, and philosophers of science are verificationists.)
> 
> How about: "A very large ['vast' pours salt in the wound] majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory [identifying these as 'neologisms' in this context is to dismiss them]--terms many of them cannot use without shuddering--to be untenable, either because they are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense." --[[LMS]]
------
January|986426297
3c3
< Named for the [[Roman gods|Roman god]] Januarius
---
> Named for [[Janus]], [[Roman gods|Roman god]] of doors and gateways.  This and [[February]] were the last two months to be added to the calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period.
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986426393
1a2,3
> 
> When the players of both teams line up to begin the next play, no member of either team may, prior to the [[snap|football snap]] of the ball, cross the line of scrimmage.  In order for there to be a legal beginning of a play, a certain number of the players on the [[offensive team]], including certain [[eligible receiver]]s, must be at, on or within a few inches of the line of scrimmage.
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986426422
3c3
< When the players of both teams line up to begin the next play, no member of either team may, prior to the [[snap|football snap]] of the ball, cross the line of scrimmage.  In order for there to be a legal beginning of a play, a certain number of the players on the [[offensive team]], including certain [[eligible receiver]]s, must be at, on or within a few inches of the line of scrimmage.
---
> When the players of both teams line up to begin the next play, no member of either team may, prior to the [[football snap|snap]] of the ball, cross the line of scrimmage.  In order for there to be a legal beginning of a play, a certain number of the players on the [[offensive team]], including certain [[eligible receiver]]s, must be at, on or within a few inches of the line of scrimmage.
------
Offensive_team|986426565
1c1
< In [[American football]], the team which starts out in possession of the ball at the beginning of a [[football play]], and the team which initiates play by a [[snap|football snap]] of the ball from the [[center|football center]] to a [[back|football back]].  The offensive team is eligible to legally excute certain maneuvers, including a [[punt]], [[place kick]], or [[forward pass]], which the [[defensive team]] (or [[receiving team]] in the case of a [[change of possession play]]) may not execute, even if they should come into possession of the ball during the course of the [[football play]]. 
---
> In [[American football]], the team which starts out in possession of the ball at the beginning of a [[football play]], and the team which initiates play by a [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]].  The offensive team is eligible to legally excute certain maneuvers, including a [[punt]], [[place kick]], or [[forward pass]], which the [[defensive team]] (or [[receiving team]] in the case of a [[change of possession play]]) may not execute, even if they should come into possession of the ball during the course of the [[football play|play]]. 
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986426581
3c3
< The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to sieze munitions stored by colonial militias at Lexington and Concord.  Conflict quickly spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly es[e;;ed.  Ft Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City,
---
> The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to seize munitions stored by colonial militias at Lexington and Concord.  Conflict spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly defeated.  Ft. Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City.
5c5
< In 1776, King George the III assembled the largest army seen in Western Europe since Roman times and sent 75,000 troops to North America.  The colonists met in Philadelphia in June of 1776 and declared indepdence from England on July 4, 1776.  The colonial army proved no match for the well armed British and suffered an embarassing series of defeats in New York, and New Jersey.  By the end of 1776, Quebec, New York City and much of New Jersey were in British hands.  However, during Christmas week, general Washington who had retreated into Pennsylvania crossed the Deleware River back into New Jersy and rolled up outlying British garrisons at Trenton and Princeton.  This established a pattern that held for the rest of the war.  The British controlled the territory they occupied in with major forces -- primarily New York City and Philadelphia.  The colonists controlled everything else.
---
> In 1776, King George III assembled the largest army seen in Western Europe since roman times and sent 75,000 troops to North America.  The colonists met in Philadelphia in June of 1776 and declared independence from England on July 4, 1776.  The colonial army proved no match for the well armed British and suffered an embarassing series of defeats in New York, and New Jersey.  By the end of 1776, Quebec, New York City and much of New Jersey were in British hands.  However, during Christmas week, general Washington who had retreated into Pennsylvania crossed the Deleware River back into New Jersey and rolled up outlying British garrisons at Trenton and Princeton.  This established a pattern that held for the rest of the war.  The British controlled the territory they occupied with major forces -- primarily New York City and Philadelphia.  The colonists controlled everything else.
7c7
< In 1777. A force of 10000 troops started down from Montreal to cut the colonies in half while the major force in New Jersey moved across the Deleware and took Philadelphia -- the colonial capitol and the second largest city in the British Empire.  However, after retaking Ticonderoga with little trouble, the Northern army suffered a series of serious defeats at Bennington, Fort Stanwix and in two battles near Saratoga.  By October the 5700 survivors found themselves surrounded, outnumbered and short of supplies in the forests 130 miles South of Montreal with Winter approaching.  On October 17th General Burgoyne surrendered an entire British Army to the colonials.  News of the surrender arrived in Paris hard on the heels of news that colonial troops had routed supposedly invincible British regulars in the early stages of the Battle of Germantown.  Convinced by Benjamin Franklin and the news from North America that the Colonials had a reasonable chance of victory, the French agreed to support the colonists.
---
> In 1777, a force of 10000 troops started down from Montreal to cut the colonies in half while the major force in New Jersey moved across the Deleware and took Philadelphia -- the colonial capitol and the second largest city in the British Empire.  However, after retaking Ticonderoga with little trouble, the Northern army suffered a series of serious defeats at Bennington, Fort Stanwix and in two battles near Saratoga.  By October the 5700 survivors found themselves surrounded, outnumbered and short of supplies in the forests 130 miles south of Montreal with winter approaching.  On October 17th General Burgoyne surrendered an entire British Army to the colonials.  News of the surrender arrived in Paris hard on the heels of news that colonial troops had routed supposedly invincible British regulars in the early stages of the Battle of Germantown.  Convinced by Benjamin Franklin and the news from North America that the Colonials had a reasonable chance of victory, the French agreed to support the colonists.
9c9
< ''more later''
---
> ''more later''
------
SI|986426596
1c1
< The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  The primary SI units are the <i>meter</i>, <i>kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>.
---
> The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  The primary SI units are the <i>metre</i>, <i>kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>.
------
Creationism|986426606
3c3,5
< In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist - one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with His hand.  However, Creationism is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism.  Neologisms like "[[scientific creationism]]" and "[[intelligent design theory]]" are regarded by the vast majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science as meaningless; given the place of [[methodological naturalism]] within scientific inquiry, they claim that all creationism can only properly be rooted in faith.  There are a number of Christian scientists who disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is also rooted in faith. 
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist: one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with the divine hand.
> 
> Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because they are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
------
Creationism|986426655
5c5
< Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because they are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
---
> Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
------
January|986426667
3c3
< Named for [[Janus]], [[Roman gods|Roman god]] of doors and gateways.  This and [[February]] were the last two months to be added to the calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period.
---
> Named for [[Janus]], [[Roman gods|Roman god]] of doors and gateways.  This and [[February]] were the last two months to be added to the calendar, since the Romans originally considered winter a monthless period.  Although [[March]] was the first month, January usurped that position since the consuls were usually chosen then.
------
Creationism|986426796
5c5
< Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
---
> Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
------
Lateral_pass|986426952
1c1
< In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to the [[goal|football goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
---
> In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to the [[fottball goal|goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play|play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
------
Trilobita|986426979
3c3
< The bodies of the most primitive trilobites are divided into two tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, and a thorax composed of freely articulating segments.  In other forms the last few thoracic segments are fused with the telson to form a pygidium (tail).  I think, and I do emphasize think, that all known trilobites including the primitive Olenellids -- have a pygidium.''  The thoracic segments are otherwise freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do when disturbed.
---
> The bodies of trilobites are divided into three tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, a thorax composed of freely articulating segments, and a pygidium (tail) composed of the last few segments fused together with the telson.  In the most primitive trilobites the pygidia are still fairly rudimentary.  The thoracic segments are left freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do for protection when disturbed.
23,41c23
< ''Some notes: I think that the very most primitive Olenellids do actually lack a pygidium.''
< 
< ''Fallotopsis and Nevadia -- the earliest trilobites in the Waucoban sequence have pygidia.  Thumbing through the Treatise, I can't find a Relichiid without one although a few -- e.g. Wanneria -- are pretty minimal.  The (1959) Treatise has a lengthy paragraph that I think says that all trilobites have pygidia but that the pygidium in Ollenelids isn't exactly homologous to the pygidium in other trilobites.  Could be different in the 1997 version''
< 
< ''At least I am certain there were a few genera with a two-segmented pygidium, and remember there being others with a one-segmented pygidium, which is not really a pygidium at all, just a telson.''
< 
< ''I think that's basically correct, but that you'll get a really blank look from a lot of trilobite people if you start talking about telsons.  I can ask in one of the newsgroups and see if I get information or abuse.  The latter is fairly likely, but the former is a possibility.''
< 
< ''But aside from these one or two genera all trilobites certainly have pygidia.''
< 
< ''With respect to the limbs, is biramous the right word to use?''
< 
< ''AFAIK.  The (1959)Treatise devotes a couple of pages to 'Biramous Appendages' and I've seen the term in a fair number of other places.''
< 
< ''I know it has two branches, but they are not homologous at all to those of crustacean limbs.''
< 
< ...
< 
< ''Are we allowed to reference other sites?  Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page? http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/''
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Lateral_pass|986426991
1c1
< In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to the [[fottball goal|goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play|play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
---
> In [[American football]], an intentional throwing of the football by a member of the team in possession of same, to or toward a player on the same team who is no closer to the [[football goal|goal]] of the team in possession than the player throwing the ball.  A lateral pass, in order to qualify as such, cannot advance the position of the football in and of itself.  This maneuver is permissible at any time and from any position during a [[football play|play]], as opposed to the [[forward pass]], which is only permitted one time during a play, and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986426995
27c27,29
< You're welcome.  So now, presumably, you understand the intended function of the page you were complaining about.  I'm glad.  I'm sorry you're alienated; but you alienated me, too.  Seriously, perhaps I shouldn't have presumed to speak for anyone else on Wikipedia, but certainly I could speak for the many people who have uploaded public domain content to Wikipedia.  Surely ''they'' think that material is valuable.  Anyway, indeed since I can't really speak for everyone else on Wikipedia, how could I alienate you?  (Can't one be alienated only by a group or, metaphorically, by some other huge entity, like The Universe?)  In short: lighten up. --[[LMS]]
---
> You're welcome.  So now, presumably, you understand the intended function of the page you were complaining about.  I'm glad.  I'm sorry you're alienated; but you alienated me, too.  Seriously, perhaps I shouldn't have presumed to speak for anyone else on Wikipedia, but certainly I could speak for the many people who have uploaded public domain content to Wikipedia.  Surely ''they'' think that material is valuable.  Anyway, indeed since I can't really speak for everyone else on Wikipedia, how could I alienate you?  (Can't one be alienated only by a group or, metaphorically, by some other huge entity, like The Universe?)  In short: lighten up. --[[LMS]]----
> The expression that got me was:
> "It seems to me you're taking all this much more seriously than "we" do." We who-the insiders? the important people? Here you are speaking for others as well as yourself, and created a divsion between me and a group of others you are a member of. I think you know who is writing this. I will leave this discussion with "No Further Comment," but with the caveat that silence is not aquiescence.
------
United_States/History|986427076
6c6
< [[France\\ all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
---
> [[France]] all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
------
Football|986427280
29c29
< Here at [[Wikipedia]], in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the [[Earth]], we shall call this sport AmericanFootball 
---
> Here at [[Wikipedia]], in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the [[Earth]], we shall call this sport [[American football]].
------
Football|986427367
1c1
< Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term [[Football]], primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
---
> Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term Football, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
3c3
< If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means: 
---
> If you are outside the [[United States]], Football means: 
13c13
< In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and EuropE) [[Football]] is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
---
> In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and [[Europe]]) Football is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
19c19
< In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to SocceR. 
---
> In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to [[Soccer]]. 
------
Football|986427387
1c1
< Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term Football, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
---
> Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term [[Football]], primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
3c3
< If you are outside the [[United States]], Football means: 
---
> If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means: 
13c13
< In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and [[Europe]]) Football is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
---
> In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and EuropE) [[Football]] is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
19c19
< In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to [[Soccer]]. 
---
> In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to SocceR. 
------
SocceR|986427476
1,2c1
< The name that the SporT called FootBall in the rest of the world
< has in the [[United States]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Soccer]]
------
Soccer|986427599
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called Soccer in the [[United States].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]]. The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
------
Soccer|986427621
1c1
< The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called Soccer in the [[United States].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]]. The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
---
> The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called soccer in the [[United States].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]]. The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
------
Football_goal|986427728
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (also "goal line") The chalked or painted line dividing the [[end zone]] from the field of play in [[American football]].
> 
> If any part of the ball reaches any part of the imaginary vertical plane transected by this line while [[in-bounds]] and in possession of a player whose team is striving toward that end of the field, this is called a [[touchdown]] and scores six points for the team whose player has advanced the ball to, or recovered the ball in, this position.
> 
> If any member of of the [[offensive team]] is [[football down|down]]ed while in possession of the ball and at or behind the goal toward which the other team is striving, this is called a [[safety]] and scores two points for the [[defensive team]].
> 
> If, during the course of play, a loose ball travels past the goal line and is recovered within the [[end zone]], then it is a touchdown if recovered by the team striving toward that goal, or a [[touchback]] if recovered and [[football down|down]]ed by the team striving toward the goal at the opposite end of the field.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|986427862
12a13
> *[[Byzantine Empire]]
18d18
< *[[Byzantine Empire]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|986427935
13d12
< *[[Byzantine Empire]]
20a20
> *[[Byzantine Empire]]
------
Seafood|986428091
4a5,17
> ** [[Salmon]]
> ** [[Flounder]]
> ** [[Sole]]
> ** [[Mahi Mahi]]
> ** [[Tile Fish]]
> ** [[Monk Fish]]
> ** [[Trout]]
> ** [[Sword Fish]]
> ** [[Cod]]
> ** [[Snapper]
> ** [[Pike]]
> ** [[Blow Fish]]
> ** [[Bass]]]
------
Soccer|986428222
1c1
< The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called soccer in the [[United States].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]]. The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
---
> The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called soccer in the [[United States]].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]].  The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
------
Gregorian_Calendar|986428273
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Modification of the [[Julian Calendar]] made by pope Gregory ??.
> The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but
> given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422,
> every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.
> The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the
> correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be 
> modified. The fix consist in that years divisible by 100 will
> be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.
> So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap, but
> 1100,1300,1400,1500,1700,1800 and 1900 where not, that gives
> a correction on 7 days. This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
> 
> When the new calendar was put in use, to correct the error
> already accumulated in sixteen centuries, a jump of eleven(?) days
> was made passing from (?? to ??) directly. This created some consternation, and the church was accused of stealing days of
> peoples lives.
> 
> Not all countries accepted the new calendar immediately, what 
> have as consecuence, aming others things, that Russia [[october revolution]] was actually on november.
------
Seafood|986428321
4c4
< ** [[Eel]]
---
> ** [[Eel]]s
9,10c9,10
< ** [[Tile Fish]]
< ** [[Monk Fish]]
---
> ** [[Tilefish]]
> ** [[Monkfish]]
12c12
< ** [[Sword Fish]]
---
> ** [[Swordfish]]
14c14
< ** [[Snapper]
---
> ** [[Snapper]]
16c16
< ** [[Blow Fish]]
---
> ** [[Blowfish]]
------
Seafood|986428342
17c17,18
< ** [[Bass]]]
---
> ** [[Bass]]
> ** [[Tuna]]
------
Seafood|986428464
35a36,37
> 
> /Talk
------
Seafood/Talk|986428500
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just curiosity, edible algae are not considered seafood?
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986428814
29a30,31
> ----
> Well, in the future, I'll make an effort to speak only for myself, then.  Anyway, who was ''asking'' you to acquiesce?  Why should anyone care whether you, I, or anyone does or does not acquiesce?  This is a ''wiki''!  :-)  You can still create that [[why Wikipedia is not so great]] page, y'know. --[[LMS]]
------
Football_down|986428835
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Down - v.  To cause the cessation of play by causing the ball to be [[football dead|dead]] in one manner or another.  The [[line of scrimmage]] for the next play will be determined by the position of the ball when it is downed. 
> 
> If recovering the ball in one's opponent's [[end zone]], a player may down the ball by taking a knee.  
> 
> If a [[quarterback]] is running with the ball during his initial possession of same following the [[football snap|snap]] from the [[football center|center]], he may down the ball by voluntarily sliding from his feet to a sitting or recumbent position.  
> 
> If a member of the [[defensive team]] desires to down a ball in the possession of a member of the [[offensive team]], he may do so by [[football tackle|tackling]] the offensive player, or by merely coming into contact with the offensive player at a time when some part of the offensive player's body other than his feet or hands is touching the ground.
> 
> A player in possession of the ball will down the ball if he [[fumble]]s it out of bounds.
> 
> Down - adj.  When referring to a ball: out of play, or [[football dead|dead]].  When referring to a player who is in possession of the ball:  ineligible to to advance the ball further, on account of having touched some part of his body other than hands or feet to the ground while in contact with an opposing player.
> 
> Down - n.  A single period during which a [[football play|play]] transpires.  It begins with a [[football snap|snap]] or [[kickoff]] or [[ football free kick|free kick]], and ends when the ball or the player in possession of it is declared down by an official, a team scores, or the ball or player in possession of it leaves the field of play.  At the end of a play, the ball is [[football dead|dead]].
------
Football_dead|986428975
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dead ball is one which is ineligible to be advanced because one [[football play|play]] has ended or the next [[football play|play]] has not begun.
------
Economy|986429149
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> /[[Inflation]]
------
Economy|986429183
2c2
< /[[Inflation]]
---
> [[/Inflation]]
------
Economy/Inflation|986429206
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of [[purchasing power]] and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
> 
> Types of inflation:
> *[[/Demand pull]] inflation
> *[[/Cost push]] inflation
> *inflation induced by [[adaptive expectations]]
> *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as ''seignorage''
> 
> An extreme type of inlation is known as [[hyperinflation]].
> 
> The relationship ([[trade off]]) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
> 
> See also:
> * [[deflation]]
> * [[[hyperinflation]]
> * [[stagflation]]
> 
------
Inflation|986429294
1,17c1,4
< A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of [[purchasing power]] and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
< 
< Types of inflation:
< *[[/Demand pull]] inflation
< *[[/Cost push]] inflation
< *inflation induced by [[adaptive expectations]]
< *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as ''seignorage''
< 
< An extreme type of inlation is known as [[hyperinflation]].
< 
< The relationship ([[trade off]]) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
< 
< See also:
< * [[deflation]]
< * [[[hyperinflation]]
< * [[stagflation]]
< 
---
> Are you looking for 
> *[[Economy/Inflation]] 
> or
> *[[Cosmology/Inflation]]?
------
Cosmology/Inflation|986429525
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Idea that the universe passes through a phase of exponential
> expansion, driven by some [[potential]]. After this expansion,
> all our observable universe comes from an initially [[causally connected]] region. Also, [[quatum fluctuation]]s are amplified,
> and become the seed for the growing of structure (''See [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]'')
------
Football_down|986429528
13c13,15
< Down - n.  A single period during which a [[football play|play]] transpires.  It begins with a [[football snap|snap]] or [[kickoff]] or [[ football free kick|free kick]], and ends when the ball or the player in possession of it is declared down by an official, a team scores, or the ball or player in possession of it leaves the field of play.  At the end of a play, the ball is [[football dead|dead]].
---
> Down - n.  A single period during which a [[football play|play]] transpires.  It begins with a [[football snap|snap]] or [[kickoff]] or [[ football free kick|free kick]], and ends when the ball or the player in possession of it is declared down by an official, a team scores, or the ball or player in possession of it leaves the field of play.  At the end of a play, the ball is [[football dead|dead]].
> 
> Each [[football possession|possession]] consists of four downs.  If, during a possession, the [[offensive team]] advances the ball ten yards or more, they get four more downs within which to try to score, or to at least advance an adidtional ten yards.  If, in four downs, an offensive team has not advanced at least ten yards, then they may elect, on the fourth down, to [[punt]], or if they elect to continue to try to advance the ball and fail to gain the necessary yards to accumulate to ten yards for that possession or series of four downs, then possession of the ball reverts to the opposing team at the spot where the ball was downed at the end of the fourth down.
------
Cosmology|986429551
6c6
< * [[Inflation]]
---
> * [[/Inflation]]
------
Cosmology|986429596
6c6
< * [[/Inflation]]
---
> * [[Inflation]]
10c10
< * [[Creationism|creationism]]
---
> * [[Creationism]]
------
Football_down|986429628
15c15
< Each [[football possession|possession]] consists of four downs.  If, during a possession, the [[offensive team]] advances the ball ten yards or more, they get four more downs within which to try to score, or to at least advance an adidtional ten yards.  If, in four downs, an offensive team has not advanced at least ten yards, then they may elect, on the fourth down, to [[punt]], or if they elect to continue to try to advance the ball and fail to gain the necessary yards to accumulate to ten yards for that possession or series of four downs, then possession of the ball reverts to the opposing team at the spot where the ball was downed at the end of the fourth down.
---
> Each [[football possession|possession]] consists of four downs.  If, during a possession, the [[offensive team]] advances the ball ten yards or more, they get four more downs within which to try to score, or to at least advance an additional ten yards.  If, in four downs, an offensive team has not advanced at least ten yards, then they may elect on the fourth down, to [[punt]], or if they elect to continue to try to advance the ball and fail to gain the necessary yards to accumulate to ten yards for that possession or series of four downs, then possession of the ball reverts to the opposing team at the spot where the ball was downed at the end of the fourth down.
------
Football_tackle|986429892
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body the the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds.  In any such case, the ball becomes [[football dead|dead]], the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next [[football play|play]].
------
Gregorian_Calendar|986429897
0a1
> The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by [[Pope Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
2,12c3
< Modification of the [[Julian Calendar]] made by pope Gregory ??.
< The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but
< given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422,
< every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.
< The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the
< correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be 
< modified. The fix consist in that years divisible by 100 will
< be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.
< So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap, but
< 1100,1300,1400,1500,1700,1800 and 1900 where not, that gives
< a correction on 7 days. This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
---
> The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in Italy, Germany, and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).  This is why the months named after the Latin numbers 7, 8, 9, and 10 (September, October, November, December) are now the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th month, respectively.
14,17c5
< When the new calendar was put in use, to correct the error
< already accumulated in sixteen centuries, a jump of eleven(?) days
< was made passing from (?? to ??) directly. This created some consternation, and the church was accused of stealing days of
< peoples lives.
---
> When the new calendar was put in use, to correct the error already accumulated in sixteen centuries, a jump of eleven days was made passing from October 4, 1582 directly to October 15, 1582.  This created some consternation, and the church was accused of stealing days of peoples lives.
19,20c7
< Not all countries accepted the new calendar immediately, what 
< have as consecuence, aming others things, that Russia [[october revolution]] was actually on november.
---
> Not all countries accepted the new calendar immediately.  The [[British Empire]] (including what is now the [[United States]]) didn't adopt it until 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by twelve days (September 2, 1752 being followed by September 14, 1752).  Russia did not accept the new calendar until 1918, which has the bizarre consequence that the anniversary of the [[October revolution]] now falls in November.
------
Seafood/Talk|986429967
1a2,4
> 
> I would certainly consider them such; I don't find them in my grocery store, though, so if you can name some, please add them.
> 
------
Trilobita/Talk|986430075
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> With respect to the limbs, is biramous the right word to use?  I know it has two branches, but they are not homologous at all to those of crustacean limbs.
> 
> AFAIK. The (1959)Treatise devotes a couple of pages to 'Biramous Appendages' and I've seen the term in a fair number of other places.
> ----
> Are we allowed to reference other sites? Probably we should have a link to Sam Gon's trilobite page? http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/
> 
------
Seafood/Talk|986430090
3c3,4
< I would certainly consider them such; I don't find them in my grocery store, though, so if you can name some, please add them.
---
> I would certainly consider them such; I don't find them in my grocery store, though, so if you can name some, please add them.  I deliberately did not include seaweed, though, such as Japanese Nori and Hijiki, because I think English speakers generally apply the term "seafood" only to animals.  Algae may also be a stretch for some.
> 
------
Seafood/Talk|986430306
5c5
< 
---
> Actually, i used the word algae because i forgot the term seaweed.
------
Defensive_team|986430320
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The team which begins a [[football play|play]] not in possession of the ball.  The goal of the defensive team is to prevent forward progress by the [[offensive team]], to prevent them from scoring, and/or to wrest possession of the ball from them during the course of a play and advance it toward their own [[football goal|goal]].
------
Defensive_team|986430365
1c1
< The team which begins a [[football play|play]] not in possession of the ball.  The goal of the defensive team is to prevent forward progress by the [[offensive team]], to prevent them from scoring, and/or to wrest possession of the ball from them during the course of a play and advance it toward their own [[football goal|goal]].
---
> In [[American football]], the team which begins a [[football play|play]] not in possession of the ball.  The goal of the defensive team is to prevent forward progress by the [[offensive team]], to prevent them from scoring, and/or to wrest possession of the ball from them during the course of a play and advance it toward their own [[football goal|goal]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986430487
28c28,30
< 
---
> ----
> I've found out that the best way to obtain a page about something
> is to begin the page, and someone like Lee will finish it ;)
------
AyeSpy|986430635
21a22,23
> ----
> I think I'll finally understand what [[American football]] is about (funny think that i wrote the initial definition of American football in FootBall)--AstroNomer
------
AyeSpy|986430731
23c23
< I think I'll finally understand what [[American football]] is about (funny think that i wrote the initial definition of American football in FootBall)--AstroNomer
---
> I think I'll finally understand what [[American football]] is about (funny thing that i wrote the initial definition of American football in FootBall, asking for someone to complete it or correct it, the plea is still there)--AstroNomer
------
AyeSpy|986431491
23a24,25
> ----
> Happy to be of service.  If you were to ask me to define the game, I could never do it.  There are so many different situations, conditions and variables, I would have to recite the rule book, which would take forever.  However, if you ask me to define the individual terms, no problem.  Each one is discretely definable - and if you read enough of them, you begin to get a sense of the game.  :-)
------
Football_dead|986431621
1c1
< A dead ball is one which is ineligible to be advanced because one [[football play|play]] has ended or the next [[football play|play]] has not begun.
---
> A dead ball is one which is ineligible to be advanced or to change possession because one [[football play|play]] has ended and the next [[football play|play]] has not begun.
------
Football_play|986432940
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The activity of the game of [[American football]] during which one team tries to advance the ball or to score, and the other team tries to stop them and/or take the ball away without rendering it [[football dead|dead]].
> 
> The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the offense may be faced with or or two [[football down|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] whichone has been chosen.  Because of planning and prectice, each player will know what is role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.
> 
> Conversely, the defensive squad will know that the offense has to cover a good deal of ground in a single play, will expect a forward pass, and will know from earlier study something of the propensities of the offense they face.  The [[defensive captain]] is likely to call out a specific [[football formation|formation]] or defensive play, to anticipate and counteract the expected action by the offense.
> 
> The play will begin with the [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]], usually the [[quarterback]], and it will end when the effort by the offensive squad to advance the ball and/or score has either succeeded or been frustrated by the ball being [[football down|downed]] before the aim of the offensive play is accomplished, or by the defensive squad having managed to come into possession of the ball without first downing it.  In the event of change of possession during a play, the team newly in possession of the ball may try to advance it toward their own goal, which the team formerly in possession with naturally resist.  Change of possession during a routine play may occur by [[football interception|interception]] or by [[fumble]].  
> 
> Change of possession during a [[change of possession play]] is accomplished by [[punt]] or by [[over on downs]].  [[kickoff|Kickoff]] and [[free kick]] are not considered true [[change of possession play]]s
------
Football_play|986433005
3c3
< The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the offense may be faced with or or two [[football down|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] whichone has been chosen.  Because of planning and prectice, each player will know what is role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.
---
> The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the offense may be faced with one or or two [[football down|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] whichone has been chosen.  Because of planning and prectice, each player will know what is role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.
------
Football_play|986433083
3c3
< The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the offense may be faced with one or or two [[football down|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] whichone has been chosen.  Because of planning and prectice, each player will know what is role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.
---
> The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the offense may be faced with one or or two [[football down|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution to outsiders.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] which one has been chosen.  Because of planning and practice, each player will know what his role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.
------
Football_tackle|986433346
1c1,3
< To physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body the the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds.  In any such case, the ball becomes [[football dead|dead]], the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next [[football play|play]].
---
> To physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body to the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds.  In any such case, the ball becomes [[football dead|dead]], the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next [[football play|play]].
> 
> See also [[football player/tackle]]
------
Football_tackle|986433402
3c3
< See also [[football player/tackle]]
---
> See also [[American football player/tackle]]
------
Poker/Hands|986433522
24c24
< <h2>Hand categories</h2>
---
> <h2>"High" hands</h2>
26,38c26,28
< <h3>
< No Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;
< </h3>
< 
< Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>No Pair</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&hearts;</font></td><tr>
< <td>A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;</td>
< </table>
---
> <h3>No Pair <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;</h3>
> 
> Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; defeats K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&hearts;</font>, and A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;.
42,54c32,34
< <h3>
< One Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;
< </h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>One Pair</th><tr>
< <td>10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><tr>
< </table>
---
> <h3>One Pair <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;</h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.
58,62c38
< <h3>
< Two Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Two Pair <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;</h3>
65c41,44
< If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).
---
> If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades; , 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> K&clubs;, and 4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;.
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
> the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>.  The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
67,85c46
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Two Pair</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades;</td><tr>
< <td>9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> K&clubs;</td><tr>
< <td>4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;</td><tr>
< </table>
< 
< Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example,
< 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
< the highest poker hand you can make is two pair:
< 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>.
< The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Three of a Kind
< <br>
< <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Three of a Kind <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;</h3>
89c50
< games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.
---
> games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs; ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs; ("three fives"), and 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;
91,104c52
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Three of a Kind</th><tr>
< <td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs;</td><tr>
< <td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font><br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;</td>
< </table>
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Straight
< <br>
< Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font>
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Straight Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font></h3>
107c55
< or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).
---
> or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;, and 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; ties <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>.
109,118c57
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Straight</th><tr>
< <td>8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;</td><tr>
< <td>8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades;
< is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;,
< called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
---
> Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
123,124c62
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
< Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
---
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
125a64
> <h3>Flush Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;</h3>
127,140c66
< <h3>
< Flush
< <br>
< Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;
< </h3>
< 
< Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Flush</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades;</td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font></td><td>ties</td><td>Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;</td>
< </table>
---
> Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> defeats K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades; , <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> ties Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;.
146,196c72,86
< plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary
< second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).
< This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Full House
< <br>
< 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font>
< </h3>
< 
< Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of tips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Full House</th><tr>
< <td>10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs;</td><tr>
< <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&spades;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Four of a Kind
< <br>9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font>
< </h3>
< 
< Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Four of a Kind</th><tr>
< <td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;</td><tr>
< <td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs;</td><td>defeats</td><td>10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Straight Flush
< <br>
< Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;
< </h3>
< 
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Straight Flush</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;</td><tr>
< <td>J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs;</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Five of a Kind
< <br>A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
< </h3>
---
> plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a K&spades;, the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> <h3>Full House 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></h3>
> 
> Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs; , <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&spades; defeats 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs; defeats <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font>.
> 
> <h3>Four of a Kind 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts; J&hearts;</font></h3>
> 
> Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;, and 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>.
> 
> <h3>Straight Flush Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;</h3>
> 
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule for straights also applies: <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats 5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;, and J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; ties <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams; 9&diams; 8&diams; 7&diams;</font>.
> 
> <h3>Five of a Kind A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; A&diams; (Wild)</font></h3>
201c91
< <h2>Lowball</h2>
---
> <h2>"Low" hands</h2>
227d116
< 
231c120
< Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.  The game of five-card draw poker, deuce to seven low is sometimes called "Billy Baxter draw", in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the game for many years.  Deuce to seven low is rarely played with wild cards.
---
> Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
235c124
< This is the rarest form of low poker in the [[United States]], but is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball.  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
---
> This played in the eastern [[United States]] and elsewhere (and is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball, a [[stud poker]] game).  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
237c126
< <h3>Wild Cards</h3>
---
> <h2>Wild Cards</h2>
247a137,150
> 
> <h2>Exceptions</h2>
> 
> In certain games, special exceptions may be made.  In particular, some places play poker with a deck that has been stripped of certain cards, usually low ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of Manila uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of 7 are removed, and [[Mexican stud]] removes the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because with fewer cards of each suit available it is more difficult to get.  Other hands retain their normal values.  Also in Mexican stud, because the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards are removed, a hand such as <font color=red>6&hearts; 7&diams;</font> J&clubs; Q&clubs; K&spades; counts as a straight.
> 
> There is a variant called Canadian stud in which a four-card straight ranks above one pair, a four-card flush above that, followed by two pair.
> 
> In the game of [[Pai Gow Poker]] as played in Nevada, a wheel (5-4-3-2-A) ranks above a king-high straight, but below an ace-high straight.  This is not the case in California, where the nearly identical game is played under the name [[Double-hand poker]].
> 
> <h2>Three-card hands</h2>
> 
> Certain [[poker variant]]s use only three cards.  Low hands can be ranked by any of the three methods, which therefore become ace-to-three (rather than ace-to-five), deuce-to-five, and ace-to-four.  The ace-to-three method is the most common, just as the ace-to-five method is most common for five cards.  When adapting a five-card ace-to-five high/low split game in which an 8-high hand or lower is required to win low, the rough equivalent three-card low is a 6-high.
> 
> High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add strights and flushes, the order of hands changes to reflect different probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
------
Poker/Hands|986434676
26c26
< <h3>No Pair <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;</h3>
---
> <h3>No Pair: <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;</h3>
28c28
< Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; defeats K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&hearts;</font>, and A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;.
---
> Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>A&diams;10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; defeats K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>, and A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats <font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;.
32c32
< <h3>One Pair <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;</h3>
---
> <h3>One Pair: <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;</h3>
34c34
< Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.
---
> Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>.
38c38
< <h3>Two Pair <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;</h3>
---
> <h3>Two Pair: <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;</h3>
41c41
< If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades; , 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> K&clubs;, and 4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;.
---
> If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>K&hearts; K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams; J&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades; , 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams;</font> K&clubs;, and 4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts; K&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>4&hearts; 4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;.
43,44c43,44
< Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
< the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>.  The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
---
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
> the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts; Q&diams;</font>.  The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
46c46
< <h3>Three of a Kind <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;</h3>
---
> <h3>Three of a Kind: <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;</h3>
50c50
< games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs; ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs; ("three fives"), and 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;
---
> games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs; ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams; Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs; ("three fives"), and 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;
52c52
< <h3>Straight Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font></h3>
---
> <h3>Straight: Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts; 8&hearts;</font></h3>
55c55
< or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;, and 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; ties <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>.
---
> or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;, and 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; ties <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>.
57c57
< Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
---
> Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
60c60
< to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>J&diams;</font> 10&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7&spades;, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
---
> to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>J&diams;</font> 10&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7&spades;, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 6&hearts; 5&diams; 4&hearts; 3&diams;</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
62c62
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
---
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts; K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
64c64
< <h3>Flush Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;</h3>
---
> <h3>Flush: Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;</h3>
66c66
< Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> defeats K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades; , <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>7&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> ties Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;.
---
> Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades; , <font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; 7&diams; 6&diams; 2&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&hearts; 5&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> ties Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;.
69c69
< in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>A&hearts;</font>, but in the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&clubs; 6&clubs;, it plays as Q&clubs;.
---
> in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 10&hearts; 8&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts;</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>A&hearts;</font>, but in the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&clubs; 6&clubs;, it plays as Q&clubs;.
71,72c71
< <b>Exception:</b> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always
< plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams;</font> <font color=red>K&diams;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a K&spades;, the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
---
> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; Q&diams; 10&diams; 8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a K&spades;, the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
74c73
< <h3>Full House 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></h3>
---
> <h3>Full House: 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></h3>
76c75
< Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs; , <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&spades; defeats 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs; defeats <font color=red>Q&hearts;</font> <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font>.
---
> Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs; , <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts; 3&diams;</font> 3&spades; defeats 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs; defeats <font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font>.
78c77
< <h3>Four of a Kind 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts; J&hearts;</font></h3>
---
> <h3>Four of a Kind: 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts; J&hearts;</font></h3>
80c79
< Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;, and 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> <font color=red>10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>.
---
> Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>6&diams; 6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;, and 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>.
82c81
< <h3>Straight Flush Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;</h3>
---
> <h3>Straight Flush: Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;</h3>
84c83
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule for straights also applies: <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats 5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;, and J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; ties <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams; 9&diams; 8&diams; 7&diams;</font>.
---
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5&diams; 4&diams; 3&diams; 2&diams; A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats 5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;, and J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; ties <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams; 9&diams; 8&diams; 7&diams;</font>.
86c85
< <h3>Five of a Kind A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; A&diams; (Wild)</font></h3>
---
> <h3>Five of a Kind: A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; A&diams; (Wild)</font></h3>
95c94
< <h3>"California" or "Ace to Five" low</h3>
---
> <h3>"California" or "ace to five" low</h3>
100,101c99,100
< For example, the hand <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs;3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats 9&spades;7&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs;, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
< Aces are low, so 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font> defeats
---
> For example, the hand <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs;3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats 9&spades;7&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts; 4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs;, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&hearts;</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
> Aces are low, so 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&diams; A&diams;</font> defeats
103,104c102,103
< Also, A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&diams;</font> 3&clubs; (a pair of aces) defeats 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 5&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> 8&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&diams;</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 6&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>
< defeats <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>6&diams;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> A&clubs;.
---
> Also, A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 5&diams;</font> 3&clubs; (a pair of aces) defeats 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 5&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> 8&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 4&diams;</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 6&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>
> defeats <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&hearts;</font> A&clubs;.
107c106
< When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8&spades; 6&spades; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&diams;</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8&clubs; 7&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> A&spades;.
---
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8&spades; 6&spades; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&diams;</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8&clubs; 7&spades; <font color=red>5&diams; 4&hearts;</font> A&spades;.
111c110
< both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 2&clubs; A&spades;, and another has 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
---
> both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts; 2&hearts; A&hearts;</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 2&clubs; A&spades;, and another has 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
115c114
< Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>A&diams;</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs; 2&spades;--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> <font color=red>5&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 3&spades;.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
---
> Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; (Joker) A&diams;</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs; 2&spades;--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker) 6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 3&spades;.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
117c116
< <h3>"Kansas City" or "Deuce to Seven" Low</h3>
---
> <h3>"Kansas City" or "deuce to seven" low</h3>
120c119
< Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> <font color=red>3&diams;</font> <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
---
> Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams; 2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
122c121
< <h3>"Chicago" or "Ace to Six" Low</h3>
---
> <h3>"Chicago" or "ace to six" low</h3>
126c125
< <h2>Wild Cards</h2>
---
> <h2>Wild cards</h2>
130c129
< A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs; 3&spades; is a straight.
---
> A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7&hearts; (Joker)</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs; 3&spades; is a straight.
------
Poker/Hands2|986434833
3c3
< <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses letters to represent card suits.  A more readable version that uses suit symbols is [[Poker/Hands|this page]], though it may not work in your browser.
---
> <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses the letters S, H, D, and C to represent card suits.  A more readable version that uses suit symbols is [[Poker/Hands|this page]], though it may not work in your browser.
24c24
< <h2>Hand categories</h2>
---
> <h2>"High" hands</h2>
26,38c26,28
< <h3>
< No Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>KH</font> JC 8C <font color=red>7D</font> 3S
< </h3>
< 
< Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>No Pair</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9S 5C 4C</td><td>defeats</td><td>KC <font color=red>QD</font> JC <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>7H</font></td><tr>
< <td>AC QC <font color=red>7D</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 2C</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9S 5C 4C</td>
< </table>
---
> <h3>No Pair: <font color=red>KH</font> JC 8C <font color=red>7D</font> 3S</h3>
> 
> Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>AD10D</font> 9S 5C 4C defeats KC <font color=red>QD</font> JC <font color=red>8H 7H</font>, and AC QC <font color=red>7D 5H</font> 2C defeats <font color=red>AD 10D</font> 9S 5C 4C.
42,54c32,34
< <h3>
< One Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>4H</font> 4S KS <font color=red>10D</font> 5S
< </h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>One Pair</th><tr>
< <td>10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9C <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>10D</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>3H</font> 2C</td><td>defeats</td><td>10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><tr>
< </table>
---
> <h3>One Pair: <font color=red>4H</font> 4S KS <font color=red>10D</font> 5S</h3>
> 
> Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H 2H</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9C <font color=red>AH QD 10D</font>, and <font color=red>10H 10D JD 3H</font> 2C defeats 10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H 2H</font>.
58,62c38
< <h3>
< Two Pair
< <br>
< <font color=red>JD</font> JC 4C 4S 9S
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Two Pair: <font color=red>JD</font> JC 4C 4S 9S</h3>
65c41,44
< If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).
---
> If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>KH KD</font> 2C <font color=red>2D JH</font> defeats <font color=red>JD</font> JS 10S 10C 9S , 9C <font color=red>9D 7D</font> 7S <font color=red>6H</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9S <font color=red>5H 5D</font> KC, and 4S 4C 3S <font color=red>3H KD</font> defeats <font color=red>4H 4D 3D</font> 3C 10S.
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10C <font color=red>10D 8D 8H</font> 4C 4S <font color=red>QD</font>, 
> the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10C <font color=red>10D 8D 8H QD</font>.  The extra 4C 4S are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
67,85c46
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Two Pair</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>KH</font> <font color=red>KD</font> 2C <font color=red>2D</font> <font color=red>JH</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>JD</font> JS 10S 10C 9S</td><tr>
< <td>9C <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>7D</font> 7S <font color=red>6H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9S <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> KC</td><tr>
< <td>4S 4C 3S <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>KD</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 10S</td><tr>
< </table>
< 
< Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example,
< 10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>8H</font> 4C 4S <font color=red>QD</font>, 
< the highest poker hand you can make is two pair:
< 10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>QD</font>.
< The extra 4C 4S are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Three of a Kind
< <br>
< <font color=red>2D</font> 2S <font color=red>2H</font> KS 6S
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Three of a Kind: <font color=red>2D</font> 2S <font color=red>2H</font> KS 6S</h3>
89c50
< games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.
---
> games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> 5S 3C ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5C <font color=red>5H 5D QD</font> 10C ("three fives"), and 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> AC <font color=red>2D</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> 5S 3C
91,104c52
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Three of a Kind</th><tr>
< <td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> 5S 3C<br>("three eights" or "trip eights")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>5C <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>QD</font> 10C</td><tr>
< <td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> AC <font color=red>2D</font><br>("three eights, ace kicker")</td>
< <td valign=top>defeats</td><td valign=top>8S <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>8D</font> 5S 3C</td>
< </table>
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Straight
< <br>
< QC JS 10S <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>8H</font>
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Straight: QC JS 10S <font color=red>9H 8H</font></h3>
107c55
< or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).
---
> or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8S 7S <font color=red>6H 5H</font> 4S defeats <font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D 3H</font> 2C, and 8S 7S <font color=red>6H 5H</font> 4S ties <font color=red>8H 7D</font> 6C 5C <font color=red>4H</font>.
109,118c57
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Straight</th><tr>
< <td>8S 7S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4S</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3H</font> 2C</td><tr>
< <td>8S 7S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4S</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>7D</font> 6C 5C <font color=red>4H</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< Aces are a special case here: the hand AC KC <font color=red>QD</font> JS 10S
< is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>9D</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in the hand 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 2S AC,
< called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6S 5C 4C <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>2H</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3C <font color=red>2D</font> AS KS QC is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
---
> Aces are a special case here: the hand AC KC <font color=red>QD</font> JS 10S is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JH 10H 9D</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5S <font color=red>4D 3D</font> 2S AC, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6S 5C 4C <font color=red>3H 2H</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3C <font color=red>2D</font> AS KS QC is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
121c60
< to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>JD</font> 10S 9C <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7S, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3D</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
---
> to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>JD</font> 10S 9C <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7S, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 6H 5D 4H 3D</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
123,124c62
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 9C, and your opponent has <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 9S 8S 7C, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.
< Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>JH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 9S 8S, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
---
> The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JD 10D</font> 9C, and your opponent has <font color=red>KD QD JH 10H</font> 9S 8S 7C, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>AH KD QD JH 10H</font> 9S 8S, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
125a64
> <h3>Flush: QC 10C 7C 6C 4C</h3>
127,140c66
< <h3>
< Flush
< <br>
< QC 10C 7C 6C 4C
< </h3>
< 
< Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Flush</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>KS QS JS 9S 6S</td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>7D</font> <font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>2D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>2H</font></td><td>ties</td><td>QS 10S 9S 5S 2S</td>
< </table>
---
> Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>AH QH 10H 5H 3H</font> defeats KS QS JS 9S 6S , <font color=red>AD KD 7D 6D 2D</font> defeats <font color=red>AH QH 10H 5H 3H</font>, and <font color=red>QH 10H 9H 5H 2H</font> ties QS 10S 9S 5S 2S.
143c69,79
< in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild)</font> <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>8H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>AH</font>, but in the hand AC KC <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9C 6C, it plays as QC.
---
> in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 10H 8H 5H 4H</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>AH</font>, but in the hand AC KC <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9C 6C, it plays as QC.
> 
> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand AS <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9S 5S 2S would defeat <font color=red>AD KD QD 10D 8D</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second AS), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a KS, the latter hand's <font color=red>QD</font> outranks the former's 9S).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> <h3>Full House: 3C 3S <font color=red>3D</font> 6C <font color=red>6H</font></h3>
> 
> Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10S <font color=red>10H 10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9C 9S <font color=red>AH</font> AC , <td>KS KC <font color=red>KH 3D</font> 3S defeats 10S <font color=red>10H 10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font>, and <font color=red>QH QD</font> QC <font color=red>8H</font> 8C defeats <font color=red>QH QD</font> QC 5S <font color=red>5H</font>.
> 
> <h3>Four of a Kind: 9C 9S <font color=red>9D 9H JH</font></h3>
> 
> Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font> defeats <font color=red>6D 6H</font> 6S 6C KS, and 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S QC defeats 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font>.
145,196c81,85
< <b>Exception:</b> Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always
< plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand AS <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9S 5S 2S would defeat <font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>KD</font> <font color=red>QD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary
< second AS), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because the latter hand's <font color=red>QD</font> outranks the former's 9S).
< This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
< 
< 
< <h3>
< Full House
< <br>
< 3C 3S <font color=red>3D</font> 6C <font color=red>6H</font>
< </h3>
< 
< Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of tips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Full House</th><tr>
< <td>10S <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>9H</font> 9C 9S <font color=red>AH</font> AC</td><tr>
< <td>KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 3S</td><td>defeats</td><td>10S <font color=red>10H</font> <font color=red>10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font></td><tr>
< <td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> QC <font color=red>8H</font> 8C</td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>QH</font> <font color=red>QD</font> QC 5S <font color=red>5H</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Four of a Kind
< <br>9C 9S <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>9H</font> <font color=red>JH</font>
< </h3>
< 
< Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Four of a Kind</th><tr>
< <td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font></td><td>defeats</td><td><font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>6H</font> 6S 6C KS</td><tr>
< <td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S QC</td><td>defeats</td><td>10C <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Straight Flush
< <br>
< QS JS 10S 9S 8S
< </h3>
< 
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>2D</font> <font color=red>AD</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush AC KC QC JC 10C is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.
< 
< <table border=0 align=center><tr>
< <th colspan=3>Straight Flush</th><tr>
< <td><font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3H</font></td><td>defeats</td><td>5S 4S 3S 2S AS</td><tr>
< <td>JC 10C 9C 8C 7C</td><td>ties</td><td><font color=red>JD</font> <font color=red>10D</font> <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>8D</font> <font color=red>7D</font></td>
< </table>
< 
< <h3>
< Five of a Kind
< <br>AS AC <font color=red>AH</font> <font color=red>AD</font> <font color=red>(Wild)</font>
< </h3>
---
> <h3>Straight Flush: QS JS 10S 9S 8S</h3>
> 
> Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5D 4D 3D 2D AD</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush AC KC QC JC 10C is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7H 6H 5H 4H 3H</font> defeats 5S 4S 3S 2S AS, and JC 10C 9C 8C 7C ties <font color=red>JD 10D 9D 8D 7D</font>.
> 
> <h3>Five of a Kind: AS AC <font color=red>AH AD (Wild)</font></h3>
201c90
< <h2>Lowball</h2>
---
> <h2>"Low" hands</h2>
205c94
< <h3>"California" or "Ace to Five" low</h3>
---
> <h3>"California" or "ace to five" low</h3>
210,211c99,100
< For example, the hand <font color=red>8H</font> 5C 4C3S <font color=red>2D</font> defeats 9S7C <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> 3C, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3H</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
< Aces are low, so 8S 5C 4C <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>AD</font> defeats
---
> For example, the hand <font color=red>8H</font> 5C 4C3S <font color=red>2D</font> defeats 9S7C <font color=red>6H 4H</font> 3C, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7H 6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D 3H</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
> Aces are low, so 8S 5C 4C <font color=red>3D AD</font> defeats
213,214c102,103
< Also, AS AC <font color=red>9D</font> <font color=red>5D</font> 3C (a pair of aces) defeats 2C <font color=red>2D</font> 5S 4S <font color=red>3H</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to KS <font color=red>JH</font> 8S <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>4D</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 6S 4S <font color=red>2H</font>
< defeats <font color=red>3H</font> 3S <font color=red>6D</font> <font color=red>5H</font> AC.
---
> Also, AS AC <font color=red>9D 5D</font> 3C (a pair of aces) defeats 2C <font color=red>2D</font> 5S 4S <font color=red>3H</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to KS <font color=red>JH</font> 8S <font color=red>6H 4D</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 6S 4S <font color=red>2H</font>
> defeats <font color=red>3H</font> 3S <font color=red>6D 5H</font> AC.
217c106
< When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8S 6S 5C <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>2D</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8C 7S <font color=red>5D</font> <font color=red>4H</font> AS.
---
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8S 6S 5C <font color=red>4D 2D</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8C 7S <font color=red>5D 4H</font> AS.
221c110
< both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5H</font> <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>3H</font> <font color=red>2H</font> <font color=red>AH</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5S <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> 2C AS, and another has 10C 9C 8C 7C 6C for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
---
> both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5H 4H 3H 2H AH</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5S <font color=red>4D 3D</font> 2C AS, and another has 10C 9C 8C 7C 6C for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
225,226c114
< Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>AD</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6C 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3C 2S--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker)</font> <font color=red>6H</font> <font color=red>5H</font> 4C 3S.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
< 
---
> Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H (Joker) AD</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6C 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3C 2S--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker) 6H 5H</font> 4C 3S.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
228c116
< <h3>"Kansas City" or "Deuce to Seven" Low</h3>
---
> <h3>"Kansas City" or "deuce to seven" low</h3>
231c119
< Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that AC 5C <font color=red>4D</font> <font color=red>3D</font> <font color=red>2H</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.  The game of five-card draw poker, deuce to seven low is sometimes called "Billy Baxter draw", in honor of the player who dominated the world championship of the game for many years.  Deuce to seven low is rarely played with wild cards.
---
> Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that AC 5C <font color=red>4D 3D 2H</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
233c121
< <h3>"Chicago" or "Ace to Six" Low</h3>
---
> <h3>"Chicago" or "ace to six" low</h3>
235c123
< This is the rarest form of low poker in the [[United States]], but is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball.  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
---
> This played in the eastern [[United States]] and elsewhere (and is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball, a [[stud poker]] game).  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
237c125
< <h3>Wild Cards</h3>
---
> <h2>Wild cards</h2>
241c129
< A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7H</font> <font color=red>(Joker)</font> 5C 4C 3S is a straight.
---
> A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7H (Joker)</font> 5C 4C 3S is a straight.
248a137,149
> <h2>Exceptions</h2>
> 
> In certain games, special exceptions may be made.  In particular, some places play poker with a deck that has been stripped of certain cards, usually low ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of Manila uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of 7 are removed, and [[Mexican stud]] removes the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because with fewer cards of each suit available it is more difficult to get.  Other hands retain their normal values.  Also in Mexican stud, because the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards are removed, a hand such as <font color=red>6H 7D</font> JC QC KS counts as a straight.
> 
> There is a variant called Canadian stud in which a four-card straight ranks above one pair, a four-card flush above that, followed by two pair.
> 
> In the game of [[Pai Gow Poker]] as played in Nevada, a wheel (5-4-3-2-A) ranks above a king-high straight, but below an ace-high straight.  This is not the case in California, where the nearly identical game is played under the name [[Double-hand poker]].
> 
> <h2>Three-card hands</h2>
> 
> Certain [[poker variant]]s use only three cards.  Low hands can be ranked by any of the three methods, which therefore become ace-to-three (rather than ace-to-five), deuce-to-five, and ace-to-four.  The ace-to-three method is the most common, just as the ace-to-five method is most common for five cards.  When adapting a five-card ace-to-five high/low split game in which an 8-high hand or lower is required to win low, the rough equivalent three-card low is a 6-high.
> 
> High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add strights and flushes, the order of hands changes to reflect different probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
------
Creationism|986437795
3c3
< In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist: one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with the divine hand.
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist: one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with the divine hand. This latter option, however, violates the stipulation that scientific enquiry be built upon a foundation of [[methodological naturalism]].
5c5
< Creationism, however, often rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory--terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously--to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
---
> Creationism, particularly when rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and [[intelligent design theory]] -- terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously -- to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
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Methodological_naturalism|986437846
3c3
< Many opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) often forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and implies neither [[philosophical naturalism]] (the claim that supernatural entities do not exist) nor [[atheism]].
---
> Many opponents of [[Darwinism]] (such as the lawyer Philip Johnson) often forget that methodological naturalism is a working rule of all scientific and medical research and implies neither [[philosophical naturalism]] nor [[atheism]].
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Philosophical_naturalism|986437896
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The claim that supernatural entities or forces do not exist (c.f. [[methodological naturalism]]).
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Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution|986439605
12c12
< The most accepted view is that all the structre we observe today
---
> The most accepted view is that all the structure we observe today
------
Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution|986439615
16c16
< At our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies, called clusters,
---
> In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies, called clusters,
------
Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution|986439643
16c16
< In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies, called clusters,
---
> In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ("clusters")
------
Creationism|986440030
5c5
< Creationism, particularly when rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and [[intelligent design theory]] -- terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously -- to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well.
---
> Creationism, particularly when rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and [[intelligent design theory]] -- terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously -- to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well. Evolutionary scientists, at this point in the debate, usually argue that science does not claim any absolute truths but learns from its own failures and incompleteness, and that creationists do not present anything which would qualify as a falsifiable theory.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
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Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986440158
7c7
< While perhaps vaguely Wiki-related, the texts below refleect my personal opinions and biases.
---
> While perhaps vaguely Wiki-related, the texts below reflect my personal opinions and biases.
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Fish|986440248
3c3
< * A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] with gills, specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]], "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]], as well as various groups of "jawless" fish.  May also be used in a broader sense to refer to other water-dwelling creatures such as jellyfish or cuttlefish, and even aquatic [[mammal]]s that resemble piceans such as [[whale]]s and [[dolphin]]s (especially in English texts that predate modern biology).
---
> * A cold-blooded water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] with gills, specifically "bony" fish of class [[Osteichthyes]], "cartilaginous" fish of class [[Chondrichthyes]], as well as various groups of "jawless" fish.  Other aquatic animals like jellyfish and cuttlefish are not truly fish.
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Flamebait|986440583
2a3,4
> It should be pointed out that, of course, it is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a flamewar. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a "baiter", "flamer" or "troll". Therefore, it seems especially important to point out the rules and focus of a discussion forum to avoid misconceptions about its accepted use.
> 
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Flamebait|986440618
3c3
< It should be pointed out that, of course, it is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a flamewar. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a "baiter", "flamer" or "troll". Therefore, it seems especially important to point out the rules and focus of a discussion forum to avoid misconceptions about its accepted use.
---
> It should be pointed out that, of course, it is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a flamewar. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a "baiter", "flamer" or "troll". Therefore, it seems especially important to make the rules and focus of a discussion forum public to avoid misconceptions about its accepted use.
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|986440796
7c7
< Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the propaganda in her films rebukes many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
---
> Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the propaganda in her films repulses many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
16c16
< * [[Olympia]] (1938)
---
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
Trilobita|986440840
3c3
< The bodies of trilobites are divided into three tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, a thorax composed of freely articulating segments, and a pygidium (tail) composed of the last few segments fused together with the telson.  In the most primitive trilobites the pygidia are still fairly rudimentary.  The thoracic segments are left freely articulating, leaving the body fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do for protection when disturbed.
---
> The bodies of trilobites are divided into three tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, a thorax composed of freely articulating segments, and a pygidium (tail) composed of the last few segments fused together with the telson.  In the most primitive trilobites the pygidia are still fairly rudimentary.  The thorax is fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do for protection when disturbed.
23c23
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Agnostida|986441106
15c15
< Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites.  Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites.  However, four orders of trilobites (Redlichia, Corynexida, Naroidia, Ptychoparia) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the fossil record.
---
> Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one genus of Agnostid.  The legs of that one genus look much more like crustacean legs than the legs on other trilobites with preserved appendages.  This has caused many taxonomists to question whether the Agnostids truly are trilobites.  Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites.  However, four orders of trilobites (Redlichiida, Corynexochida, Naraoidia, Ptychopariida) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the fossil record.
18c18,20
< Permanently wouldn't be a good idea in an encyclopaedia.''
---
> Permanently wouldn't be a good idea in an encyclopaedia.''
> 
> (Laugh) The joke at the beginning was put in on April 1 since nobody seemed to be doing anything for the occasion, and was lengthened since nobody seemed to be removing it.  I was honestly expecting it to be rewritten the moment somebody saw it.  You're welcome to do whatever you want with it, but it's not going to die by ''my'' hands.
------
Tensors|986442161
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by Einstein in order to formulate General Relativity in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
> 
> Throughout we will use the [[Einstein summation convention]] in which repeated indices imply a sum over components.  Capatilized indicies will likewise be summed.  The reader should already be familiar with [[vector spaces]] and their properties.  
> 
> An example in 3 space follows: 
> 
> Let <strong>A</strong> be a vector and {<strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>} be a set of linearly independent vectors that span a 3 dimensional space (all 3 dimensional spaces are spanned if any is as a result of the properties of a [[vector space]]. 
> 
> <strong>A</strong>=A<sup>1</sup><strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> + A<sup>2</sup><strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> + A<sup>3</sup><strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>
> 
> This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {</strong>E<sub>i<sub>} with i from 1 to n. 
> 
> The reciprocal vectors can be found as such.  We take
>  
> <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors <strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong> with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
> 
> Excercise:  What can you say about three vectors whos triple product is 0 (or alternately who determinant is 0)? 
> Answer: (ROT13 gurl qba'g fcna gur fcnpr == gurl qrsvar n cnenyyrycvcrq gung unf n 0 ibyhzr) 
> 
> <strong>E<sup>2</sup></strong> is likewise equal to <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> * 1/V and 
> <strong>E<sup>3</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V.  This can be generalized to an nth dimensional space, keeping in mind that the operations must be done in [[clockwise cyclic]] order. 
> 
> MORE TO COME
------
Tensors|986442418
1d0
< 
12c11
< This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {</strong>E<sub>i<sub>} with i from 1 to n. 
---
> This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {<strong>E<sub>i</sub></strong>} with i from 1 to n. 
16c15
< <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors <strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong> with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
---
> <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors |<strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong>| with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
18c17
< Excercise:  What can you say about three vectors whos triple product is 0 (or alternately who determinant is 0)? 
---
> Excercise:  What can you say about three vectors whos triple product is 0 (or alternately who determinant is 0)? <br>
21,22c20,21
< <strong>E<sup>2</sup></strong> is likewise equal to <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> * 1/V and 
< <strong>E<sup>3</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V.  This can be generalized to an nth dimensional space, keeping in mind that the operations must be done in [[clockwise cyclic]] order. 
---
> <strong>E<sup>2</sup></strong> is likewise equal to <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> * 1/V and <BR>
> <strong>E<sup>3</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V.<BR>  This can be generalized to an nth dimensional space, keeping in mind that the operations must be done in [[clockwise cyclic]] order. 
------
Tensors|986442472
3c3
< Throughout we will use the [[Einstein summation convention]] in which repeated indices imply a sum over components.  Capatilized indicies will likewise be summed.  The reader should already be familiar with [[vector spaces]] and their properties.  
---
> Throughout we will use the [[Einstein summation convention]] in which repeated indices imply a sum over components.  Capatilized indicies will likewise be summed.  The reader should already be familiar with [[vector space]]s and their properties.  
------
Propaganda|986442625
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Propaganda, in the broad sense of the term, refers to information that serves a particular agenda.  The information may be true or false.  If true, it is often one-sided and fails to paint a complete picture.  Examples would include corporate information released by the corporation (so-called [[Corporate propaganda|corporate propaganda]]), and, in many cases, national histories as taught to school children.
> 
> In a narrower and more common use of the term, propaganda refers to deliberately false or misleading information that supports a political cause or the interests of those in power.  The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or a situation, for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are considered desirable by the propagandist.  In this sense, propaganda serves as a corollary to censorship, in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's heads with false information, but by preventing people from knowing true information.  What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy, is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception, rather than persuasion.
> 
> In an even narrower, less commonly used but legitimate sense of the term, propaganda refers only to false information that is meant to reassure people who already believe.  The assumption is that, if people believe something that is false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts.  Since these doubts are unpleasant, people will be eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the reassurances of those in a position of authority.  For this reason propaganda is often addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda.
> 
> Propaganda, like censorship, is generally most extreme within totalitarian systems, and probably can be expected to increase, or decrease, as a government becomes more, or less, despotic.
> 
> Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, books, movies, and posters.
------
Tensors|986442819
1c1
< Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by Einstein in order to formulate General Relativity in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
---
> Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
------
Tensors|986442846
1c1
< Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
---
> Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|986442921
27c27
< *[[Confederated States of America]]
---
> *[[Confederate States of America]]
------
Propaganda|986443014
9c9
< Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, books, movies, and posters.
---
> Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, movies, and posters.
------
Propaganda|986443061
9c9
< Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, movies, and posters.
---
> Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, [[Junk science|junk science]], books, movies, and posters.
------
Propaganda|986443161
3c3
< In a narrower and more common use of the term, propaganda refers to deliberately false or misleading information that supports a political cause or the interests of those in power.  The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or a situation, for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are considered desirable by the propagandist.  In this sense, propaganda serves as a corollary to censorship, in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's heads with false information, but by preventing people from knowing true information.  What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy, is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception, rather than persuasion.
---
> In a narrower and more common use of the term, propaganda refers to deliberately false or misleading information that supports a political cause or the interests of those in power.  The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or a situation, for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are considered desirable by the propagandist.  In this sense, propaganda serves as a corollary to [[Censorship|censorship]], in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's heads with false information, but by preventing people from knowing true information.  What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy, is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception, rather than persuasion.
------
Censorship|986443999
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the strict sense, censorship is an act of government in which it becomes criminal to obtain or disseminate certain types of information.
> 
> The purpose of censorship is to control people by influencing the way they think and act.
> It is understood that people's thoughts and actions are shaped by the information they have available.  To the extent one can control what information people have, one is able to control the people themselves.  For this reason, censorship is very common among, perhaps even essential to, totalitarian governments.
> 
> In a less strict sense, censorship means any attempt to prevent people from obtaining or disseminating information.  This would include, for example, a newspaper that refuses to run an advertisement it considers inappropriate, or a lecture hall that refuses to rent itself out to a particular speaker.  This sense of the term is often considered incorrect, in that it implies the 'censored' party has some right to use the property of the 'censoring' party.
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|986444485
33a34
> *[[Tannu Tuva]]
------
Censorship|986444517
7a8,24
> We need more than just the meaning and purpose of "censorship"!  How about:
> 
> [[History of censorship]]
> 
> [[Censorship in the United States]] (books, art, etc. censored)
> 
> [[Censorship in Europe]] (books, art, etc. censored)
> 
> [[Censorship under communist regimes]] (etc.)
> 
> [[Censorship under fascist regimes]]
> 
> [[Philosophical arguments for censorship]]
> 
> [[Philosophical arguments against censorship]]
> 
> See also: [[J. S. Mill]]; [[book burning]]; [[Fahrenheit 451]]
------
Censorship|986444546
24c24
< See also: [[J. S. Mill]]; [[book burning]]; [[Fahrenheit 451]]
---
> See also: [[John Stuart Mill]]; [[book burning]]; [[Fahrenheit 451]]
------
Poker/Hands|986444586
149c149,150
< High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add strights and flushes, the order of hands changes to reflect different probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
---
> High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add straights and flushes, the order of hands should be changed to reflect the correct probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This order is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
> 
------
Poker/Hands2|986444617
149c149
< High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add strights and flushes, the order of hands changes to reflect different probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
---
> High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add straights and flushes, the order of hands should be changed to reflect the correct probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This order is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|986444803
7c7
< Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the propaganda in her films repulses many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
---
> Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the [[propaganda]] in her films repulses many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
------
Creationism|986445181
3c3
< In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist: one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution with the divine hand. This latter option, however, violates the stipulation that scientific enquiry be built upon a foundation of [[methodological naturalism]].
---
> In one sense it is possible to be an evolutionary creationist: one can believe that a supreme being created the universe and also hold that life (and humans) evolved within this creation.  It can also be held that a supreme being guided the process of evolution.  This latter option, however--if it is construed as being part of a scientific explanation--might well be held up to criticism, since it seems to violate the stipulation that scientific enquiry be built upon a foundation of [[methodological naturalism]].
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|986445188
3c3
< She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a documentary filmmaker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hilter]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
---
> She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a documentary filmmaker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
------
Creationism|986445321
6a7,8
> [We need a way to sum up the situation that does not make it seem as though Wikipedia officially endorses evolutionary science, as the above does.  (Whoever gets the last word seems the victor, eh?)  Yes, that sounds ridiculous, but that's an illustration of lack of bias.]
> 
------
Agnostida|986445850
1,5c1
< [[Trilobita]] that aren't entirely sure whether or not God exists.  These form a side branch to the main line of trilobite development, which runs from early mostly-theistic forms to later mostly-atheistic forms.  People have interpreted this as both evolution in action and as the reason trilobites became extinct.  In any case, the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
< 
< ''Someone who knows more about palaeotheology should check this.  As I understand it theism in early trilobites is clearly indicated by the development of the three lobes, symbolizing the trinity, but I don't understand why this was retained in later forms, whose atheism is well established by the development of the third tagmata (see "Islam and Eurypterids", 1986).''
< 
< ''I kinda like this, but I'm sure that some zealous pedant will cut it someday.  Do you think its chances of survival would be enhanced if we cut it to about 20 words?''
---
> [[Trilobita]] that aren't entirely sure whether or not God exists.  Just kidding.  Seriously, the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
20c16
< (Laugh) The joke at the beginning was put in on April 1 since nobody seemed to be doing anything for the occasion, and was lengthened since nobody seemed to be removing it.  I was honestly expecting it to be rewritten the moment somebody saw it.  You're welcome to do whatever you want with it, but it's not going to die by ''my'' hands.
---
> (Laugh) The joke at the beginning was put in on April 1 since nobody seemed to be doing anything for the occasion, and was lengthened since nobody seemed to be removing it.  I was honestly expecting it to be rewritten the moment somebody saw it.  You're welcome to do whatever you want with it, but it's not going to die by ''my'' hands.
------
Draw_poker|986445930
31c31
< Played as above, using ace-to-five lowball hand values, with a single joker in the deck.  Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A player with a 7-high hand or better who checks after the draw foreits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw.  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.  This latter rule is never used in games with pot limit or no limit betting structure.
---
> Played as above, using ace-to-five lowball hand values, with a single joker in the deck.  Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A player with a 7-high hand or better who checks after the draw foreits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw.  (In other words, you may not check unless you intend to fold when someone else bets).  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.  This latter rule is never used in games with pot limit or no limit betting structure.
39a40,45
> 
> <h3>High/low with declare</h3>
> 
> This is common in home games but is rarely found in casinos today.  Played as are other versions of five-card draw, but after the second betting round and before the showdown, there is a <i>simulataneous declaration</i> phase.  Each player takes two chips from his stack and takes them under the table, bringing up a closed fist that contains either no chips (indicating that the player intends to win the low half of the pot), one chip (indicating that the player intends to win the high half), or two chips (indicating that he intends to scoop).  When everyone has brought up the closed fist, the players all open their hands simultaneously to reveal their choices.  If any player shows two chips, and his hand is the best low and the best high, he scoops the pot.  Otherwise, half of the pot goes to the player with the highest hand who declared high, and the other half to the player with the lowest hand of those who declared low.  There is no qualifying hand to win either high or low, and if no one declares in one direction, the full pot is awarded in the other (for example, if all players declare low, the low hand wins the whole pot rather than half).  A player who declares for a scoop must win both ends outright, with no ties.  For example, if a player declares scoop, has the lowest hand clearly but ties for high, he wins nothing.  The other player with the same high hand wins the high half of the pot and the next-lowest hand wins low (assuming he declared low--if no other player declared low, the high hand who declared high wins the whole pot).
> 
> This game can be played with deuce-to-seven or ace-to-six low hand values, but in that case it is nearly impossible to scoop (though you can still win the whole pot if everyone declares the same direction).
------
Creationism/Talk|986446537
4c4,11
< How about: "A very large ['vast' pours salt in the wound] majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory [identifying these as 'neologisms' in this context is to dismiss them]--terms many of them cannot use without shuddering--to be untenable, either because they are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense." --[[LMS]]
---
> How about: "A very large ['vast' pours salt in the wound] majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and intelligent design theory [identifying these as 'neologisms' in this context is to dismiss them]--terms many of them cannot use without shuddering--to be untenable, either because they are scientifically unsupportable and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense." --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> In reference to the following:
> 
> :[We need a way to sum up the situation that does not make it seem as though Wikipedia officially endorses evolutionary science, as the above does.  (Whoever gets the last word seems the victor, eh?)  Yes, that sounds ridiculous, but that's an illustration of lack of bias.]
> 
> One can carry the "lack of bias" mantra too far.  If Wikipedia <i>didn't</i> officially endorse evolutionary science, it would be derelict in its duty to educate.  Its only obligation to non-bias is to accurately report that some people choose not to believe in evolution.  It should also not call those people idiots, or otherwise make derogatory comments about them (the word "nonsense" is probably a bit strong, though I happen to believe that, and I like the rest of LMS's phrasing).  But it most definitely should report accurately that evolution, as endorsed with near unanimity among educated biologists, accurate describes the biological world, and that creationism does not.  The article on [[Numerology]] is a good example: it clearly shows why it doesn't make sense, accurately identifies it as nonscientific, and merely reports that some people believe it.  --LDC
------
Tensors|986446792
23a24,25
> 
> ''This will probably end up the usual physics way of defining tensors, in terms of objects whose components transform according to certain rules.  There's also a usual mathematics way, which involves defining certain vector spaces and not worrying about any given components until bases are introduced.  The covariant vectors, for instance, are the linear functions R<sup>3</sup> -> R.  This has the advantage of letting us know what we are really working with, and I think we should come up with a way to at least fit it into the description.  Ideas?''
------
Dual_space|986447641
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Given any [[vector space]] V over some [[field]] F, we define the dual space V* to be the set of all linear transformations from V to F, with addition and scalar multiplication defined in the obvious ways.
> 
> There is a natural [[homomorphism]] &Phi; from any space V into V**, defined by (&Phi;(v))(x) = x(v) for all v in V, x in V*.  This is always injective and, in the event that V is finite dimensional, is actually an [[isomorphism]].  V is always isomorphic to V*, too: given any basis {v<sub>a</sub>} for V, define &Phi; such that
> 
> (&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>))(v<sub>a</sub>) = 1
> <br>(&Phi;(v<sub>b</sub>))(v<sub>a</sub>) = 0
> 
> for a,b distinct.  The set {&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>)} is called the dual basis of {v<sub>a</sub>}.  However, the exact isomorphism &Phi; depends on what basis we decided to use, so this is not a ''natural'' isomorphism and the two spaces are not usually identified.  In fact, any isomorphism from V to V* defines a unique bilinear product on V by
> 
> <v,w> = (&Phi;(v))(w)
> 
> and vice versa.  Elements of V are sometimes called ''contravariant vectors'', and elements of V*, ''covariant vectors'' or ''one-forms''.
------
Tensors|986447692
25c25
< ''This will probably end up the usual physics way of defining tensors, in terms of objects whose components transform according to certain rules.  There's also a usual mathematics way, which involves defining certain vector spaces and not worrying about any given components until bases are introduced.  The covariant vectors, for instance, are the linear functions R<sup>3</sup> -> R.  This has the advantage of letting us know what we are really working with, and I think we should come up with a way to at least fit it into the description.  Ideas?''
---
> ''This will probably end up the usual physics way of defining tensors, in terms of objects whose components transform according to certain rules.  There's also a usual mathematics way, which involves defining certain vector spaces and not worrying about any given components until bases are introduced.  The covariant vectors, for instance, are the elements of a [[dual space]].  This has the advantage of letting us know what we are really working with, and I think we should come up with a way to at least fit it into the description.  Ideas?''
------
Dual_space|986447861
12c12
< and vice versa.  Elements of V are sometimes called ''contravariant vectors'', and elements of V*, ''covariant vectors'' or ''one-forms''.
---
> and vice versa.  This is effectively the same as identifying orthonormal bases with their duals.  Elements of V are sometimes called ''contravariant vectors'', and elements of V*, ''covariant vectors'' or ''one-forms''.
------
Dual_space|986447904
8c8
< for a,b distinct.  The set {&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>)} is called the dual basis of {v<sub>a</sub>}.  However, the exact isomorphism &Phi; depends on what basis we decided to use, so this is not a ''natural'' isomorphism and the two spaces are not usually identified.  In fact, any isomorphism from V to V* defines a unique bilinear product on V by
---
> for a,b distinct.  The set {&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>)} is called the dual basis of {v<sub>a</sub>}.  The exact isomorphism &Phi; depends on what basis we decided to use.  In fact, any isomorphism from V to V* defines a unique bilinear product on V by
------
Topic_creation|986447947
9c9
< There must be other issues.  Discussion?
---
> There must be other issues.  Discussion?
------
WikiPediaBugs|986448199
57a58,59
> 
> Cliff, I think I'm experiencing the same problem.  On [[Wikipedia policy]], there was a link to a newly created topic, [[topic creation]].  I had already written, saved, and seen that page, many hours ago.  Then, just now, I was on [[Wikipedia policy]], and the [[topic creation]] link appeared as a question mark.  I clicked on the question mark, and lo and behold, there was the text of the page I had entered.  I hit "save" again, then went back to [[Wikipedia policy]], hit reload, and the link still appeared as a question mark.  Also, this sort of thing has happened to me several times over the last week or so (I don't know exactly when it started, but not that long ago). --[[LMS]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986448307
11a12,20
> ----
> I don't think that what I asked carries the lack of bias policy too far.  I ''very'' strongly disagree with your stated view that Wikipedia would be derelict in its duty to educate by not officially endorsing evolutionary science.  In fact, I really wonder why you say this.  Insofar as education includes the teaching of values, as it does and should (I think), I don't think that Wikipedia should engage in education; it should engage, rather, in ''reporting.''  Compare these two claims of yours:
> #But it most definitely should report accurately that evolution, as endorsed with near unanimity among educated biologists, accurate describes the biological world, and that creationism does not.
> #The article on [[Numerology]] is a good example: it clearly shows why it doesn't make sense, accurately identifies it as nonscientific, and merely reports that some people believe it.
> The Numerology example doesn't illustrate what you want it to illustrate.  The Numerology article does not state that Numerology is false.  It states that it is nonscientific, which (I am supposing) is uncontroversial.  In precisely the same way, I think we should ''not'' claim that evolution accurately describes the biological world and creationism does not.  There are many good reasons, that we can review if you wish, that it is far preferable to say, instead: most scientists embrace evolutionary theory and reject creationism.  This gets the idea across.
> 
> I don't think encyclopedias should be in the business of doing anything other than stating facts that sane, thinking people--among whom I would include, yes, creationists--can agree upon.  If not on the subject matter itself, then they ''can'' usually agree on how competing views are characterized; or at least they can agree to allow each side to be permitted to characterize its own view sympathetically and to criticize other views.  When an article becomes contentious, I think we should "go meta."
> 
> Why should there be any resistance to this?  I'm very curious to know.  Do you want to have a (another) debate about this on NeutralPointOfView? --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986448542
20c20,22
< Why should there be any resistance to this?  I'm very curious to know.  Do you want to have a (another) debate about this on NeutralPointOfView? --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Why should there be any resistance to this?  I'm very curious to know.  Do you want to have a (another) debate about this on NeutralPointOfView? --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> P.S. I find your resistance to the word "nonsense" puzzling, and it indicates that, perhaps, you aren't ''entirely'' understanding the nonbias policy the way I understand it.  I think it is ''all-important'' that the claim of nonsense is ''attributed to someone,'' rather than asserted to be the case by the author of the article itself.  When it is attributed to someone, it immediately becomes uncontroversial and straightforwardly fact-stating (no matter how irritating to creationists). --[[LMS]]
------
Topic_creation|986449316
9a10,11
> 
> Another issue is that creating topics randomly might lead to collisions.  Spam isn't first and foremost a type of post, it is a type of food that rumored to be made of compressed pigs.  Thus spamming might be a better name since it has no such ambiguity.  People should probably think a little about such things when creating new pages.
------
Kishka|986450480
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Russian word meaning gut.  In English means an ethnically Jewish food similar to a sausage.
> 
> Kishka is also a type of prison cell used in Soviet political prisons.  The cell was named after the gut, in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney.  The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down.  In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisonor was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces.  In some cases the cells were never cleaned.  Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.  This practice was intended to soften the prisoner so that he would make a 'voluntary' confession. 
------
Kishka|986450501
1c1
< A Russian word meaning gut.  In English means an ethnically Jewish food similar to a sausage.
---
> A Russian word meaning gut.  In English, lishka means an ethnically Jewish food similar to a sausage.
3c3
< Kishka is also a type of prison cell used in Soviet political prisons.  The cell was named after the gut, in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney.  The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down.  In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisonor was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces.  In some cases the cells were never cleaned.  Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.  This practice was intended to soften the prisoner so that he would make a 'voluntary' confession. 
---
> Kishka is also a type of prison cell used in Soviet political prisons.  The cell was named after the gut, in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney.  The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down.  In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisonor was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces.  In some cases the cells were never cleaned.  Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.  This practice was intended to soften the prisoner so that he would make a 'voluntary' confession. 
------
Kishka|986450511
1c1
< A Russian word meaning gut.  In English, lishka means an ethnically Jewish food similar to a sausage.
---
> A Russian word meaning gut.  In English, kishka means an ethnically Jewish food similar to a sausage.
------
AfghanistanHistory|986450637
1c1
< AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
---
> AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
------
Soviet_Union|986450726
12a13,17
> 
> <b>Related topics:</b>  [[Communism]] -- [[Kishka]]
> 
> 
> 
------
World_War_II|986452140
65a66
> <font color=white>World War 2</font>
------
Wikipedia_policy|986452620
20a21,26
> I searched on World War 2 and found no matches.  So on the World War II page, I added <font color=c0c0c0>World War 2</font>, except in a white font that should be invisible in most people's browsers (because it is on a white background).  We could add lists of keywords onto a page in this manner to improve the search engine results.  This will work so long as we do not switch to a different method of indexing (which we may have to do).
> 
> Actually, for a different method, we could add something like <font color=c0c0c0>keywords: world war two, Dwight Eisenhower, Winston Churchil, Pearl Harbor, etc.</font>, but make that invisible, and teach the search engine to look only at the keywords in that list.  This would make it easy for anyone to add keywords without dealing with meta tags, xml, or other things the average user might not understand.
> 
> ----
> 
------
Wikipedia_policy|986453084
24a25
> ''Strongly disagree.  To start with, what happens if I have my window colors set up differently, or if I am working with a text-only program, or copy the contents to some such environment?''
------
ManiFold|986453597
1,26c1
< A continuous n-manifold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to the ProductTopology R^n.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get an analytic manifold.  All differentiable manifolds can be made analytic.
< 
< Associated with every point on an analytic manifold is a TangentSpace and its dual, the CotangentSpace.  The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.  These spaces always have the same dimension as the manifold does.
< 
< One of the most important kinds of manifold is a LieGroup.  These can always be made differentiable.
< 
< The classification of all manifold is an open problem.  We know that every connected 1-D manifold is isomorphic either to R or the circle S.  Connected, compact 2-manifolds can be divided into three infinite series:
< 
< * Orientable with characteristic 2-2n (spheres with n handles)
< * Non-orientable with characteristic 1-2n (projective planes with n handles)
< * Non-orientable with characteristic -2n (klein bottles with n handles)
< 
< Non-compact connected 2-manifolds are just these with one or more punctures (missing points).  A 2-manifold can be embedded in R^3 if it is orientable or if it has at least one puncture.  All can be embedded in R^4.  If anyone want to make some models, attach the sides of these (and remove the corners to puncture)
< 
<        *              *                  B                B
<       v v            v ^              *>>>>>*          *>>>>>*
<      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
<    A v   v A      A v   ^ A         A v     v A      A v     v A
<      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
<       v v            v ^              *<<<<<*          *>>>>>*
<        *              *                  B                B
< 
<    Sphere      Projective plane     Klein bottle        Torus
<              (punct: MoebiusBand)                 (sphere w handle)
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Manifold]]
------
Manifold|986453726
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A continuous n-manifold is a topological space where there is some open set around each point that is isomorphic to [[Euclidean space]] R<sup>n</sup>.  That is, the space looks locally Euclidean.  These isomorphisms are called charts, and the collection of all of them is called an atlas; by only including charts that relate smoothly to one another, we get an analytic manifold.  All differentiable manifolds can be made analytic.
> 
> Associated with every point on an analytic manifold is a [[tangent space]] and its [[dual space|dual]], the cotangent space.  The former consists of the possible directional derivatives, and the latter the differentials, which can be thought of as infinitesimal elements of the manifold.  These spaces always have the same dimension as the manifold does.
> 
> One of the most important kinds of manifold is a [[Lie group]].  These can always be made differentiable.
> 
> The classification of all manifold is an open problem.  We know that every connected 1-D manifold is isomorphic either to R or the circle S.  Connected, compact 2-manifolds can be divided into three infinite series:
> 
> * Orientable with characteristic 2-2n (spheres with n handles)
> * Non-orientable with characteristic 1-2n (projective planes with n handles)
> * Non-orientable with characteristic -2n (klein bottles with n handles)
> 
> Non-compact connected 2-manifolds are just these with one or more punctures (missing points).  A 2-manifold can be embedded in R<sup>3</sup> if it is orientable or if it has at least one puncture.  All can be embedded in R<sup>4</sup>.  If anyone want to make some models, attach the sides of these (and remove the corners to puncture):
> 
>        *              *                  B                B
>       v v            v ^              *>>>>>*          *>>>>>*
>      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
>    A v   v A      A v   ^ A         A v     v A      A v     v A
>      v   v          v   ^             v     v          v     v
>       v v            v ^              *<<<<<*          *>>>>>*
>        *              *                  B                B
> 
>    Sphere      Projective plane     Klein bottle        Torus
>              (punct: MoebiusBand)                 (sphere w handle)
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986454594
22a23,24
> ----
> Sorry, but strong disagreement with the above.  Neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions, and the existance of evolution is as close to a fact as we are ever going to get.  Certainly it is going to be taken as such on virtually every biology page written, because the phylogeny of organisms is ''important'', and it would be an ''unbelievable'' headache to have to qualify it in every case to avoid offending a minority of people who are ''wrong''.  I say giving fair treatment to anything so unanimously decreed as ''false'' by workers in the field is silly and makes a mockery of the concept of objectivity.  Or should we also make allowances for the flat earth hypothesis on our geography and astronomy pages? --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986455032
24c24,26
< Sorry, but strong disagreement with the above.  Neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions, and the existance of evolution is as close to a fact as we are ever going to get.  Certainly it is going to be taken as such on virtually every biology page written, because the phylogeny of organisms is ''important'', and it would be an ''unbelievable'' headache to have to qualify it in every case to avoid offending a minority of people who are ''wrong''.  I say giving fair treatment to anything so unanimously decreed as ''false'' by workers in the field is silly and makes a mockery of the concept of objectivity.  Or should we also make allowances for the flat earth hypothesis on our geography and astronomy pages? --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> Sorry, but strong disagreement with the above.  Neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions, and the existance of evolution is as close to a fact as we are ever going to get.  Certainly it is going to be taken as such on virtually every biology page written, because the phylogeny of organisms is ''important'', and it would be an ''unbelievable'' headache to have to qualify it in every case to avoid offending a minority of people who are ''wrong''.  I say giving fair treatment to anything so unanimously decreed as ''false'' by workers in the field is silly and makes a mockery of the concept of objectivity.  Or should we also make allowances for the flat earth hypothesis on our geography and astronomy pages?
> 
> As for creationists still being thinking and sane people, well - yes, they probably are.  But that doesn't mean that the hypothesis is any less ridiculous.  [[Aristotle]] believed in physics that can be disproved with a bowl and some water. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Propaganda|986455942
9a10,11
> 
> [[Adolf Hitler]]'s propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] was considered a master in this area.
------
SI|986457582
1c1,18
< The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  The primary SI units are the <i>metre</i>, <i>kilogram</i> and <i>second</i>.
---
> The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  It was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960 and is built from the following seven SI base units:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
> <TR><TD>length<TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
> <TR><TD>mass<TD>[[kilogram]]<TD>kg
> <TR><TD>time<TD>[[second]]<TD>s
> <TR><TD>electric current<TD>[[ampere]]<TD>A
> <TR><TD>thermodynamic temperature<TD>[[kelvin]]<TD>K
> <TR><TD>amount of substance<TD>[[mole]]<TD>mol
> <TR><TD>luminous intensity<TD>[[candela]]<TD>cd
> </TABLE>
> 
> See also
> 
> * [[SI derived unit]]s 
> * [[SI prefix]]s
> 
3a21,22
> 
> <i>The</i> reference for "Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry" is: ISBN:0632035838
------
SI_base_unit|986457694
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[SI]] base units are:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
> <TR><TD>length<TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
> <TR><TD>mass<TD>[[kilogram]]<TD>kg
> <TR><TD>time<TD>[[second]]<TD>s
> <TR><TD>electric current<TD>[[ampere]]<TD>A
> <TR><TD>thermodynamic temperature<TD>[[kelvin]]<TD>K
> <TR><TD>amount of substance<TD>[[mole]]<TD>mol
> <TR><TD>luminous intensity<TD>[[candela]]<TD>cd
> </TABLE>
------
SI|986457766
1,12c1
< The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  It was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960 and is built from the following seven SI base units:
< 
< <TABLE border="1">
< <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
< <TR><TD>length<TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
< <TR><TD>mass<TD>[[kilogram]]<TD>kg
< <TR><TD>time<TD>[[second]]<TD>s
< <TR><TD>electric current<TD>[[ampere]]<TD>A
< <TR><TD>thermodynamic temperature<TD>[[kelvin]]<TD>K
< <TR><TD>amount of substance<TD>[[mole]]<TD>mol
< <TR><TD>luminous intensity<TD>[[candela]]<TD>cd
< </TABLE>
---
> The <i>International System of Units</i>, abbreviated SI (for the french name <i>Système International d'Unités</i>), is the most widely used system of units in science, and the legal system in most countries.  It was adopted by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960 and is built from the seven [[SI base unit]]s.
------
Metre|986457907
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Metre is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is define as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
------
Metre|986457966
1c1
< Metre is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is define as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
---
> Metre is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
------
Kilogram|986458051
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kilogram is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is the unit of mass and is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram.
------
Second|986458171
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Second  is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
------
Metre|986458365
1c1
< Metre is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
---
> Metre is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
------
Ampere|986458432
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ampere is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2x10^-7 [[newton]] per [[metre]] of length.
------
Netherlands/history|986458465
5c5
< After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning France, [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
---
> After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Frank|Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning France, [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
------
Kelvin|986458523
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kelvin is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the [[triple point]] of water.
------
Mole|986458732
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mole is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 [[kilogram]] of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified. Entities may be:
> 
> * [[atom]]s
> * [[molecule]]s
> * [[ion]]s
> * [[electron]]s
> * other particles
> * specified groups of such particles
------
Candela|986458879
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Candela is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540x10^12 [[hertz]] and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of (1/683)[[watt]] per [[steradian]].
------
Elephant|986459214
0a1
> A large greyish animal, found in Africa and India. The elephant is the heaviest living land animal. Its most typical characteristic is the [[trunk]], a very much elongated nose, which can be used to grab objects. Elephants also have [[tusk]]s, large teeth coming out of their upper jaws. Elephants tusks are the major source of [[ivory]], but because of the increased rarity of elephants, almost all hunting is now illegal.
2d2
< A large greyish animal with large ears and a trunk, found in Africa and India.
3a4
> 
------
ProbabilityAxioms|986459351
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Probability Axioms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Probability/Axioms]]
------
SI_prefix|986461016
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> SI prefixes are:
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>(Sub)multiple<TH>Prefix<TH>Symbol</TR>
> <TR>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<TD>deca<TD>da<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z<TD></TR>
> <TR>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yotta<TD>Y<TD></TR>
> 
> </TABLE>
> 
> Hmmm. What's the problem with formating this table??? Tobias
------
Ampere|986461989
1c1
< Ampere is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2x10^-7 [[newton]] per [[metre]] of length.
---
> Ampere is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2x10<sup>-7</sup> [[newton]] per [[metre]] of length.
------
Propaganda|986462060
9c9
< Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, [[Junk science|junk science]], books, movies, and posters.
---
> Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, [[Junk science|junk science]], books, [[Propaganda Film|movies]], and posters.
11c11
< [[Adolf Hitler]]'s propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] was considered a master in this area.
---
> [[Adolf Hitler]]'s propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] was considered a master in this area.
------
SI_prefix|986462410
5,24c5,24
< <TR>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<TD>deca<TD>da<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z<TD></TR>
< <TR>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yotta<TD>Y<TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<TD>deca<TD>da<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z<TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yotta<TD>Y<TD></TR>
28c28,32
< Hmmm. What's the problem with formating this table??? Tobias
---
> '''Examples:'''
> 
> * 5 dm = 5 x 10<sup>-2</sup>m = 5 x 0.01 m = 0.05 m
> * 3 MW = 3 x 10<sup>6</sup>W = 3 x 1 000 000 W = 3 000 000 W
> 
------
A.E._van_Vogt|986462458
1c1
< Alfred Elton van Vogt
---
> Alfred Elton van Vogt (1912 -1998?)
3c3
< Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed, and started writing science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
---
> Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author,. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed, and started writing science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
10c10
< He systematised his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. 
---
> He had systematised his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. 
13,15c13,21
< 
< ----
< This is just dashed off from memory. I'll check the details later...
---
> Notable books:
> *The Voyage of the Space Beagle
> *The World of Null-A
> *The Pawns of Null-A
> *Slan
> *The Weapon Shops of Isher
> *The War against the Rull
> *The Book of Ptath
> *The Silkie
------
SI_supplementary_unit|986462494
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[SI]] supplementary units are:
> 
> * [[radian]]
> * [[steradian]]
------
DianeticS|986462529
1c1
< A sub-study of ScientologY, primarily concerned with an individual's mental, emotional and physical status, especially with regard to psychosomatic ills, in contrast to ScientologY overall, which is more concerned with the individual's spiritual well-being.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dianetics]]
------
SI|986462537
5c5,6
< * [[SI derived unit]]s 
---
> * [[SI derived unit]]s
> * [[SI supplementary unit]]s 
------
SI_prefix|986462842
5,24c5,24
< <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<TD>deca<TD>da<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z<TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yotta<TD>Y<TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<TD>deca<TD>da</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yotta<TD>Y</TR>
------
Dianetics|986463115
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Devised by the [[science fiction]] writer [[L. Ron Hubbard]].
> First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book `Dianetics: The new science of Mental Health'
> It was presented as a method of getting to the causes and relieving most of an individual's mental, emotional or physical problems, though there have been a considerable number of differing opinions. 
> 
> When Hubbard founded [[Scientology]], a number of its basic concepts were incorporated into Scientology's doctrines.
> 
------
ScientologY|986463302
1,9c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''DianeticS the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subesquent volumes, ''Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival.''  Hubbard eventually characterized DianeticS as a sub-study of ScientologY.  By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of books on ScientologY, and only a few on DianeticS.
< 
< The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  His survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
< 
< The central practice of ScientologY, and DianeticS before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a state of "clear," that state being one of freedom from the influences of the reactive mind.  The practice is one  wherein a counselor called an "auditor" addresses a series of questions to a "preclear'" or one who is not yet "clear," observes and records his responses, and acknowledges them.  The aim is to enable the preclear to recover awareness and volitional control of the material previously stored in his reactive mind.  The earliest forms of Dianetic processing, still practiced today, involved a scenario reminiscent of Freudian psychoanalysis, with the preclear reclining on a couch in a reflective state called "Dianetic reverie" while the auditor observed from a chair nearby and took notes, predicating his questions and responses on utterances by the preclear and a number of clearly defined physiological indica.  Some later forms of auditing employ a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer ("E-Meter").  This is a device which measures changes in the electrical resistance of the preclear's skin by passing approximately 1/2 volt through a pair of zinc-plated tubes much like empty soup cans, atached to the meter by wires and held by the preclear during auditing.  These low-potential changes in electrical resistance, known as galvanic response, are similar to those measured by polygraphs and related machines, and are thought to be more reliable and sensitive to the preclear's state of mind than the physiological indica of early DianeticS.
< 
< Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that LRonHubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
< 
< As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day.  Some of the early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further censure on the young church.   As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics matured.  The result has been steadily decreasing friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years.  There remain European governments whose official antagonism toward Scientology is quite strong.  Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining acceptance.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Scientology]]
------
SI_derived_unit|986463402
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[SI]] derived units are [[unit]]s derived from the seven [[SI base unit]]s
> 
> 
> <sup></sup>
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit<TH>Expression in terms of SI base units</TR>
> <TR><TD>frequency<TD>hertz<TD>Hz<TD>s<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>force<TD>newton<TD>N<TD>m.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>pressure, stress<TD>pascal<TD>Pa<TD>N.m<sup>-2</sup> = m<sup>-1</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>energy, work, heat<TD>joule<TD>J<TD>N.m = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric charge<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric capacitance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic flux density<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>inductance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Celsius temperature<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>luminous flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>illuminance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>activity (radioactive)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>absorbed dose (of radiation)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>dose equivalent (dose equivalent index)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>plane angle<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>solid angle<TD><TD><TD></TR>
> </TABLE>
------
Scientology|986463616
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book
> [[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
> Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of ScientologY. By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
> books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics. 
> 
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of
> these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive. His survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of
> brotherhood with the universe. It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of
> which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank." This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional
> and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress. The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind." 
> 
> The central practice of Scientology, and Dianetics before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a
> state of "clear," that state being one of freedom from the influences of the reactive mind. The practice is one wherein a counselor called an "auditor"
> addresses a series of questions to a "preclear'" or one who is not yet "clear," observes and records his responses, and acknowledges them. The
> aim is to enable the preclear to recover awareness and volitional control of the material previously stored in his reactive mind. The earliest forms
> of Dianetic processing, still practiced today, involved a scenario reminiscent of Freudian psychoanalysis, with the preclear reclining on a couch in
> a reflective state called "Dianetic reverie" while the auditor observed from a chair nearby and took notes, predicating his questions and responses
> on utterances by the preclear and a number of clearly defined physiological indica. Some later forms of auditing employ a device called the
> Hubbard Electropsychometer ("E-Meter"). This is a device which measures changes in the electrical resistance of the preclear's skin by passing
> approximately 1/2 volt through a pair of zinc-plated tubes much like empty soup cans, atached to the meter by wires and held by the preclear
> during auditing. These low-potential changes in electrical resistance, known as galvanic response, are similar to those measured by polygraphs
> and related machines, and are thought to be more reliable and sensitive to the preclear's state of mind than the physiological indica of early
> Dianetics. 
> 
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. Scientology has long
> held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches. Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a
> number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable
> organization by the United States government in 1993. And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only
> extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their
> own meditations and worship. This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find
> harmonious with their own. This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist
> influence in forming his own personal philosphy. 
> 
> As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day. Some
> of the early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further
> censure on the young church. As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics
> matured. The result has been steadily decreasing friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years. There remain
> European governments whose official antagonism toward Scientology is quite strong. Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining
> acceptance.
------
SI_derived_unit|986463674
12,15c12,15
< <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric charge<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD>watt<TD>W<TD>J.s<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric charge<TD>coulomb<TD>C<TD>A.s</TR>
> <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD>volt<TD>V<TD>J.C<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>/Omega<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
------
Scientology|986463677
39a40,41
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Scientology/Talk|986464229
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I moved the page to a free link style page, but the page seems very one-sided, more like a Scientology pamphlet than an encyclopedia entry. 
> 
> 
------
Scientology|986464310
3c3
< Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of ScientologY. By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
---
> Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology. By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
41c41
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
SI_derived_unit|986464486
7,24c7,24
< <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit<TH>Expression in terms of SI base units</TR>
< <TR><TD>frequency<TD>hertz<TD>Hz<TD>s<sup>-1</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>force<TD>newton<TD>N<TD>m.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>pressure, stress<TD>pascal<TD>Pa<TD>N.m<sup>-2</sup> = m<sup>-1</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>energy, work, heat<TD>joule<TD>J<TD>N.m = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD>watt<TD>W<TD>J.s<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric charge<TD>coulomb<TD>C<TD>A.s</TR>
< <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD>volt<TD>V<TD>J.C<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>/Omega<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> = m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric capacitance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>magnetic flux density<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>magnetic flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>inductance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Celsius temperature<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>luminous flux<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>illuminance<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>activity (radioactive)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit<TH colspan="2">Expression in terms of SI base units</TR>
> <TR><TD>frequency<TD>hertz<TD>Hz<TD>s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>force<TD>newton<TD>N<TD>m.kg.s<sup>-2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>pressure, stress<TD>pascal<TD>Pa<TD>N.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-1</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>energy, work, heat<TD>joule<TD>J<TD>N.m <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD>watt<TD>W<TD>J.s<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric charge<TD>coulomb<TD>C<TD>A.s<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD>volt<TD>V<TD>J.C<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>/Omega<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD>siemens<TD>S<TD>/Omega<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>3</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric capacitance<TD>farad<TD>F<TD>C.V<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>4</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic flux density<TD>tesla<TD>T<TD>V.s.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= kg.s<sup>-2</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic flux<TD>weber<TD>Wb<TD>V.s <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>inductance<TD>henry<TD>H<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup>.s <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Celsius temperature<TD>degree Celsius<TD><sup>o</sup>C<TD>K<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>luminous flux<TD>lumen<TD>lm<TD>cd.sr<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>illuminance<TD>lux<TD>lx<TD>cd.sr.m<sup>-2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>activity (radioactive)<TD><TD><TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
------
SI_prefix|986464881
5,23d4
< <TR><TD>10<sup>24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>mju</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<TD>deca<TD>da</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E</TR>
< <TR><TD>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z</TR>
25c6,24
< 
---
> <TR><TD>10<sup>21</sup><TD>zetta<TD>Z</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>18</sup><TD>exa<TD>E</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>15</sup><TD>peta<TD>P</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>12</sup><TD>tera<TD>T</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>9</sup><TD>giga<TD>G</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>6</sup><TD>mega<TD>M</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>3</sup><TD>kilo<TD>k</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>2</sup><TD>hecto<TD>h</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<TD>deca<TD>da</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-1</sup><TD>deci<TD>d</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-2</sup><TD>centi<TD>c</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-3</sup><TD>milli<TD>m</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-6</sup><TD>micro<TD>&mu;</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-9</sup><TD>nano<TD>n</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-12</sup><TD>pico<TD>p</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-15</sup><TD>femto<TD>f</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-18</sup><TD>atto<TD>a</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-21</sup><TD>zepto<TD>z</TR>
> <TR><TD>10<sup>-24</sup><TD>yocto<TD>y</TR>
32a32
> Note that when used with non-SI units, prefices ''occasionally'' have other values.  For instance, when referring to units of storage like bytes, ''kilo'' means 2<sup>10</sup>.
------
SI_derived_unit|986465087
3,5d2
< 
< <sup></sup>
< 
7c4
< <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit<TH colspan="2">Expression in terms of SI base units</TR>
---
> <TR><TH>[[Physical quantity]]<TH>Name of [[SI unit]]<TH>[[Symbol]] for SI unit<TH colspan="2">Expression in terms of [[SI base unit]]s</TR>
22c19,20
< <TR><TD>luminous flux<TD>lumen<TD>lm<TD>cd.sr<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
---
> <TR><TD>plane angle<TD>radian<TD>rad<TD>1<TD>= m.m<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>solid angle<TD>steradian<TD>sr<TD>1<TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.m<sup>-2</sup></TR><TR><TD>luminous flux<TD>lumen<TD>lm<TD>cd.sr<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
24,28c22,24
< <TR><TD>activity (radioactive)<TD><TD><TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
< <TR><TD>absorbed dose (of radiation)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>dose equivalent (dose equivalent index)<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>plane angle<TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>solid angle<TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>activity (radioactive)<TD>becquerel<TD>Bq<TD>s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>absorbed dose (of radiation)<TD>gray<TD>Gy<TD>J.kg<sup>-1</sup><TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>dose equivalent (dose equivalent index)<TD>sievert<TD>Sv<TD>J.kg<sup>-1</sup><TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
29a26,31
> 
> (According to ISBN:0632035838, page 72)
> 
> ----
> 
> Hmmm. Are I'm infringing ones copyright by taking commonly used definitions??? Tobias Hoevekamp
------
SI_unit|986465233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Units according to the <i>International System of Units</i> [[SI]]. There are the seven [[SI base unit]]s and the [[SI derived unit| derived SI]] units.
------
SI|986465282
5c5
< * [[SI derived unit]]s
---
> * [[SI unit]]s and [[SI derived unit]]s
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|986465493
3c3
<                                     Jan	  Feb  	Mar	  Apr	  May	  Jun
---
>                                      Jan        Feb  	 Mar	   Apr	 May	 Jun
6,8c6,8
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	0.68 	0.55 	0.44 	0.26 	0.19 	0.18 	 
<  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	     0.7 	 0.1  	0.0 	 0.0 	 0.0   0.0  
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	         0    	0    	0   	 0    	0    	0  
---
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.)    0.68 	 0.55 	 0.44      0.26 	 0.19 	 0.18 	 
>  Average Total Snowfall (in.) 	      0.7 	 0.1  	 0.0 	   0.0 	 0.0     0.0  
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	      0    	 0    	 0   	   0     	 0    	 0  
10c10
<                                       Jul	   Aug	   Sep	  Oct	  Nov	  Dec	   Annual
---
>                                         Jul	Aug	Sep	 Oct	Nov	Dec	   Annual
12,15c12,15
<  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	 68.9 	 67.3  59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 		  0.55 	 0.49 	0.42 	0.27 	0.22 	0.51 	4.77 
<  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	      	  0.0 	 0.0  	0.0  	0.0 	 0.0  0.2 	 1.1 
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	              0    	0     	0    	0    	0	   0    	0 
---
>  Average Min. Temperature (F) 	      	 68.9 	 67.3   59.6 	48.7 	37.5 	32.5 	49.0 
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	  0.55 	  0.49 	 0.42 	   0.27 	 0.22 	 0.51 	 4.77 
>  Average Total SnowFall (in.) 	      	  0.0 	  0.0  	 0.0  	   0.0 	 0.0     0.2 	 1.1 
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0    	  0      0	   0    	 0	 0    	 0 
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|986465533
6c6
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.)    0.68 	 0.55 	 0.44      0.26 	 0.19 	 0.18 	 
---
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.)    0.68 	 0.55 	 0.44      0.26	 0.19 	 0.18 	 
8c8
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	      0    	 0    	 0   	   0     	 0    	 0  
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	      0    	 0    	 0   	   0 	 0    	 0  
10c10
<                                         Jul	Aug	Sep	 Oct	Nov	Dec	   Annual
---
>                                         Jul	Aug	Sep	 Oct	Nov	Dec     Annual
------
Las_Vegas/Climate|986465560
13c13
<  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	  0.55 	  0.49 	 0.42 	   0.27 	 0.22 	 0.51 	 4.77 
---
>  Average Total Precipitation (in.) 	  0.55 	  0.49 	 0.42 	   0.27	 0.22 	 0.51 	 4.77 
15c15
<  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0    	  0      0	   0    	 0	 0    	 0 
---
>  Average Snow Depth (in.) 	          0    	  0      0	   0	 0	 0    	 0 
------
SI_derived_unit|986465702
4a5
> <TR><TD colspan="5" ><center><i>Special names and Symbols</i></center></TR>
25c26,35
< </TABLE>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="5" ><center><i>Special names and Symbols</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>area<TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD>m<sup>2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
------
SI_derived_unit|986465751
28,35c28,36
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
< <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR></TABLE>
---
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&nbsp;<TD><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> </TABLE>
------
SI_prefix|986465899
32c32
< Note that when used with non-SI units, prefices ''occasionally'' have other values.  For instance, when referring to units of storage like bytes, ''kilo'' means 2<sup>10</sup>.
---
> Note that when used with non-SI units, prefices ''occasionally'' have other values.  For instance, when referring to units of storage like bytes, ''kilo'' means 2<sup>10</sup>=1024 rather than 1000.
------
SI_derived_unit|986466200
13,14c13,14
< <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>/Omega<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD>siemens<TD>S<TD>/Omega<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>3</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>&Omega;<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD>siemens<TD>S<TD>&Omega;<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>3</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
------
Creationism/Talk|986466349
26c26
< As for creationists still being thinking and sane people, well - yes, they probably are.  But that doesn't mean that the hypothesis is any less ridiculous.  [[Aristotle]] believed in physics that can be disproved with a bowl and some water. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> As for creationists still being thinking and sane people, well - yes, they probably are.  But that doesn't mean that the hypothesis is any less ridiculous.  [[Aristotle]] believed in physics that can be disproved with a bowl and some water.  And what will we do with the views of historical revisionists? --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Mathematics|986466501
9c9
< :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants -- [[Tensors]]
---
> :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
18c18
< :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] 
---
> :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Tensors]]
------
Mathematics|986466560
15c15
< :AbstractAlgebra -- AnaLysis -- TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
---
> :[[Abstract algebra]] -- [[Analysis]] -- [[Topology]] -- [[Geometry]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
18c18
< :TopOlogy -- GeoMetry -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Tensors]]
---
> :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Tensors]]
------
Monty_Python|986473344
8c8,9
< 
---
> ----
> [[Monty Python/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986473517
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> My immediate presumption is that a list of MP songs may need to be editted for decency (like I care about somebody else's norms and mores!).  Much can be written on this page and the innuendo is well known.  Lawrence? James? Your 2 pesos, please.  --[[Invictus]]
------
American_football|986473733
1c1
< A sport in which two teams fight for control of an oblate spheroid ball, which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player (only one forward pass permitted per [[football play]], and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].  After this, all passes must be [[lateral pass]]es or rearward passes) on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball gets to the end of the field. 
---
> Historically known as Gridiron Football, American Football is a sport in which two teams fight for control of an oblate spheroid ball (a direct descendant of a size 3 rugby ball), which they have to carry in the arms and/or pass to another player (only one forward pass permitted per [[football play]], and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]].  After this, all passes must be [[lateral pass]]es or rearward passes) on the same team, until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball gets to the end of the field. 
8c8,11
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
---
> 
> There is a new league, known as the XfL.  
> 
> You may read and write about individual teams on their respective pages.
------
Line_of_scrimmage|986473786
3a4,5
> ----
> [[Line of scrimmage/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Line_of_scrimmage/Talk|986474483
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is no known record of how the name "scrimmage" came about, but rugby folklore insists that when [[Pop Warner]] initially played rugby in the late 19th century, he disliked the [[scrummage]] (now known as a [[scrum]]).  Warner had enough influence to design his own game (the rugby culture at the time allowed for this as it was the spirit with which the game was invented), so he invented an "open scrummage" (as his personal notes called it).  Rugby folklore holds that rugby purists laughed at the "sissified scrummage" and, instead of adopting Warner's preferred terminology, mockingly dubbed it "the scrimmage". It simply was not as manly as 6 men ramming their shoulders and heads against each other all at once.  
> 
> I am aware that there may be other versions of this and would love to read these if any of you have them.
> 
> BTW, can anyone settle a Line of Scrimmage related question for me?  Who was the fourth member of the Dallas Cowboys defensive line on the Flex Defense that had Randy White and Ed "Too Tall" Jones as D-Ends and Harvey Martin as a D-Tackle?  I can't remember if it was Larry Cole or Jethro Pue (sp?).  --[[Invictus]] 
------
AyeSpy|986474634
25a26,27
> ----
> Excellent Gridiron Football definitions you have input, Vest-pocket. :-7  -[[Invictus]]
------
Monty_Python|986477784
5a6
> *[[Graham Chapman]]
7c8,15
< ???
---
> *[[Terry Jones]]
> *[[Michael Palin]]
> *[[Carol Cleveland]]
> ??
> 
> plus very odd [[animated]] graphics by [[Terry Gilliam]]
> 
> 
------
Seafood/Talk|986478235
5a6,10
> ----
> 
> Well, there's a Welsh dish from seaweed, known as 'Laver bread' IIRC.
> 
> ....and sodium alginate is a very common food ingredient ,as a thickener and gelling agent etc. It's not regarded as a food item in its own right, though
------
1980s|986479253
4,5c4,5
< * 24 hour news channels
< * assination attempt on [[Ronald Reagan]]
---
> * 24 hour news channels (e.g., [[CNN]])
> * assassination attempt on [[Ronald Reagan]]
7c7
< * [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]]
---
> * [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]] in the [[Soviet Union]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|986480971
59c59,66
< Cliff, I think I'm experiencing the same problem.  On [[Wikipedia policy]], there was a link to a newly created topic, [[topic creation]].  I had already written, saved, and seen that page, many hours ago.  Then, just now, I was on [[Wikipedia policy]], and the [[topic creation]] link appeared as a question mark.  I clicked on the question mark, and lo and behold, there was the text of the page I had entered.  I hit "save" again, then went back to [[Wikipedia policy]], hit reload, and the link still appeared as a question mark.  Also, this sort of thing has happened to me several times over the last week or so (I don't know exactly when it started, but not that long ago). --[[LMS]]
---
> Cliff, I think I'm experiencing the same problem.  On [[Wikipedia policy]], there was a link to a newly created topic, [[topic creation]].  I had already written, saved, and seen that page, many hours ago.  Then, just now, I was on [[Wikipedia policy]], and the [[topic creation]] link appeared as a question mark.  I clicked on the question mark, and lo and behold, there was the text of the page I had entered.  I hit "save" again, then went back to [[Wikipedia policy]], hit reload, and the link still appeared as a question mark.  Also, this sort of thing has happened to me several times over the last week or so (I don't know exactly when it started, but not that long ago). --[[LMS]]
> 
> :This could be a caching problem, even if you reload the page.  One possible cause for caching problems is using the "slash style" of URLs in Wikipedia: urls like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/RecentChanges rather than the old CGI-style urls like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?RecentChanges.  (Some browsers seem to do more caching of slash-style urls than CGI-style urls.)  Here are a few things to try:  --CliffordAdams
> * If you are using MSIE, try holding down shift while clicking the reload button--it sometimes helps (especially if there is an intermediate cache).
> * Try using the alternate form of the URL (either with a slash like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/RecentChanges or the CGI-style like http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?RecentChanges).
> * Exit the browser completely (closing all windows) and revisit the page.
> * Make sure your cache settings are something like "Automatic" (the default MSIE setting), and not something like "check only once per session".
> * If you see this problem again try the index action: http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index and see if the page appears in the list (to rule out an index file problem).
------
AyeSpy|986484973
27c27,29
< Excellent Gridiron Football definitions you have input, Vest-pocket. :-7  -[[Invictus]]
---
> Excellent Gridiron Football definitions you have input, Vest-pocket. :-7  -[[Invictus]]
> ----
> Dang, guys...  <blush>
------
Scientology/Talk|986485603
1a2,3
> ----
> If you read any of the entries on any of the religions mentioned here, hare krishna, christianity, tao teh ching, buddhism, you will not find any effort to do more than recite what the adherents hold as being the parts of their faith.  It is not our place to praise or bash beliefs here, nor to seek out and repeat controversial utterances by others about a given faith or practice.  In Catholicism we could repeat polemics by Martin Luther, in Lutheranism we could rave on about how Luther's own writings in some cases depict him as a psycho drunk and woman-hating womanizer, decry the snake-handling practices of some Pentacostals.
3c5
< 
---
> If we are not going to do it to everyone, let's don't do it to anyone.
------
Offensive_team|986486346
1c1
< In [[American football]], the team which starts out in possession of the ball at the beginning of a [[football play]], and the team which initiates play by a [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]].  The offensive team is eligible to legally excute certain maneuvers, including a [[punt]], [[place kick]], or [[forward pass]], which the [[defensive team]] (or [[receiving team]] in the case of a [[change of possession play]]) may not execute, even if they should come into possession of the ball during the course of the [[football play|play]]. 
---
> In [[American football]], the team which starts out in possession of the ball at the beginning of a [[football play|play]], and the team which initiates play by a [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]].  The offensive team is eligible to legally excute certain maneuvers, including a [[punt]], [[place kick]], or [[forward pass]], which the [[defensive team]] (or [[receiving team]] in the case of a [[change of possession play]]) may not execute, even if they should come into possession of the ball during the course of the [[football play|play]]. 
------
Scientology|986487629
1,2c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [L. Ron Hubbard](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book
< [[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [[L. Ron Hubbard]](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book [[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
12c11
< The central practice of Scientology, and Dianetics before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a
---
> The central practice of Scientology, and [[Dianetics]] before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a
34c33
< As with all new religions, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day. Some
---
> As with all new [[religion]]s, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day. Some
------
Economics|986487797
17c17
< [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Inflation]] -- [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Economy/Inflation|inflation]] -- [[Market forms]]
------
Economy|986487843
1,2c1
< Describe the new page here.
< [[/Inflation]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Economics]]
------
Economics|986487873
17c17
< [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Economy/Inflation|inflation]] -- [[Market forms]]
---
> [[Microeconomics]] --  [[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Development Economics]] -- [[Recession]] -- [[Economics/Inflation|inflation]] -- [[Market forms]]
------
Economics/Inflation|986487930
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of [[purchasing power]] and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
> 
> Types of inflation:
> *[[/Demand pull]] inflation
> *[[/Cost push]] inflation
> *inflation induced by [[adaptive expectations]]
> *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as ''seignorage''
> 
> An extreme type of inlation is known as [[hyperinflation]].
> 
> The relationship ([[trade off]]) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
> 
> See also:
> * [[deflation]]
> * [[[hyperinflation]]
> * [[stagflation]]
> 
------
Economy/Inflation|986487965
1,17c1
< A rise in the general level of prices which results in a fall of [[purchasing power]] and the decline of the value of money. Inflation adversely affects the [[Economy]] by increasing uncertainty and discouraging savings. It also means high nominal rates of interest which discourages investment. It also negatively affects the [[Balance of Payments]] by making imports cheaper and exports more expensive. Furthermore, a fall in the value of money will redistribute income - it will remove purchasing power from those living on fixed incomes (eg. pensioners) and shift it towards those who draw a variable income from prices and interest.
< 
< Types of inflation:
< *[[/Demand pull]] inflation
< *[[/Cost push]] inflation
< *inflation induced by [[adaptive expectations]]
< *inflation induced by the goverment printing an excess amount of money (increasing the money supply) - also known as ''seignorage''
< 
< An extreme type of inlation is known as [[hyperinflation]].
< 
< The relationship ([[trade off]]) between inflation and [[unemployment]] is described by the [[Philips curve]].
< 
< See also:
< * [[deflation]]
< * [[[hyperinflation]]
< * [[stagflation]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Economics/Inflation]]
------
Inflation|986487990
2c2
< *[[Economy/Inflation]] 
---
> *[[Economics/Inflation]] 
4c4
< *[[Cosmology/Inflation]]?
---
> *[[Cosmology/Inflation]]?
------
Inflation|986488006
4c4
< *[[Cosmology/Inflation]]?
---
> *[[Cosmology/Inflation]]
------
Dianetics|986488037
1,3c1,2
< Devised by the [[science fiction]] writer [[L. Ron Hubbard]].
< First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book `Dianetics: The new science of Mental Health'
< It was presented as a method of getting to the causes and relieving most of an individual's mental, emotional or physical problems, though there have been a considerable number of differing opinions. 
---
> Devised by [[L. Ron Hubbard]], writer of [[western fiction]], [[romance novels]], [[screenplays]], [[mystery]], [[fantasy]] and [[science fiction]].  First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''
> It was presented as a method of getting to the causes and relieving most of an individual's mental, emotional or psychosomatic physical problems, though there have been a considerable number of differing opinions. 
------
SI_unit|986488066
1c1
< Units according to the <i>International System of Units</i> [[SI]]. There are the seven [[SI base unit]]s and the [[SI derived unit| derived SI]] units.
---
> Unit according to the <i>International System of Units</i> [[SI]]. There are the seven [[SI base unit]]s and the [[SI derived unit| derived SI]] units.
------
Dianetics|986488069
1c1
< Devised by [[L. Ron Hubbard]], writer of [[western fiction]], [[romance novels]], [[screenplays]], [[mystery]], [[fantasy]] and [[science fiction]].  First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''
---
> Devised by [[L. Ron Hubbard]], writer of [[western fiction]], [[romance novels]], [[screenplay]]s, [[mystery]], [[fantasy]] and [[science fiction]].  First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''
------
Scientology|986488171
1c1
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [[L. Ron Hubbard]](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book [[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
---
> Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [[L. Ron Hubbard]](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
------
Wikipedia_policy|986488573
25a26,27
> 
> OK, but why not just add keywords, visible, to the bottom of every page?  So the end of article scheme would be (approximately): "See also" then a line, then "Keywords" followed by a list of keywords (unlinked).  Would be useful for a variety of purposes.  I think it's worth considering.  The only trouble I have with it is that it seems like too much trouble.  We've already got thousands of articles that would need keywords, if we started adding them!  Ambiguously yours, [[LMS]]
------
SI_base_unit|986488725
4,11c4,11
< <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
< <TR><TD>length<TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
< <TR><TD>mass<TD>[[kilogram]]<TD>kg
< <TR><TD>time<TD>[[second]]<TD>s
< <TR><TD>electric current<TD>[[ampere]]<TD>A
< <TR><TD>thermodynamic temperature<TD>[[kelvin]]<TD>K
< <TR><TD>amount of substance<TD>[[mole]]<TD>mol
< <TR><TD>luminous intensity<TD>[[candela]]<TD>cd
---
> <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Symbol<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
> <TR><TD>length<TD><i>l</i><TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
> <TR><TD>mass<TD><i>m</i><TD>[[kilogram]]<TD>kg
> <TR><TD>time<TD><i>t</i><TD>[[second]]<TD>s
> <TR><TD>electric current<TD><i>I</i><TD>[[ampere]]<TD>A
> <TR><TD>thermodynamic temperature<TD><i>T</i><TD>[[kelvin]]<TD>K
> <TR><TD>amount of substance<TD><i>n</i><TD>[[mole]]<TD>mol
> <TR><TD>luminous intensity<TD><i>I<sub>v</sub></i><TD>[[candela]]<TD>cd
------
Physical_quantity|986489407
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A physical quantity is usually expressed as the product of a [[numerical value]] and a [[unit]]:
> 
> * physical quantity = [[numerical value]] x [[SI_unit|unit]]
> 
> '''Example:'''
> 
> * <i>P</i> = 42.3 x 10<sup>3</sup> W = 42.3 kW
> 
> With
> 
> * <i>P</i> being the [[physical quantity]] for power
> * 42.3 x 10<sup>3</sup> being the [[numerical value]] which is split up into
> ** 42.3 and 
> ** k, the [[SI prefix]] representing 10<sup>3</sup>
> * W being the [[SI derived unit|unit]] for [[watt]]s
> 
> Usually, the symbols of physical quantities are choosen to be a single letter of the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet]], printed in italic. Both, lower and capital letters are used. Often, the symbols are modified by subscripts and/or superscripts. If these sub- or superscripts are themselves symbols for physical quantities or numbers, they are printed in italic. Other sub- and superscripts are printed upright (roman).
------
Creationism/Talk|986489652
26a27,34
> ----
> Perhaps--consider the possibility a moment--it is possible, in most articles that elaborate evolutionary theory and processes, simply to use a few words that imply that the claims in question are the views and the results of work by scientists.  Then creationists will have nothing to do complain about.
> 
> You say "neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions."  Well, that's a quick-and-easy way to put it.  It is more accurate to say that, '''where there is significant disagreement on a point, then neutrality demands that the disagreement be fairly characterized.'''  Be careful to understand what this does and does not imply.  It does imply that evolutionary science not be stated as fact and creation science as obviously false (rather, it implies that these views by described as being held by certain groups of people, and then the public can draw their own opinions).  It ''does not'' imply that, ''whenever'' you mention anything about evolutionary theory, you say something to the effect that creationists disagree.
> 
> In general, and most importantly, this principle does not imply that our articles have to look like ''we think'' that evolutionary theory and creationism are equally weighted, and we can't make up our minds.  If you think that's what it implies, you don't understand the principle.  Don't you think it's possible ''not to take an official stand,'' and yet still very strongly be in favor of one of the views?  Of course it is.  Why would you resist doing this, then, when you ''can'' (after all) say that most respected scientists reject creationism?  It seems you want to cow creationists and people whose minds are not made up--as silly as they might seem to you and me--into believing what you believe.  That's never the right way to go about it.
> 
> As to historical revisionists, sometimes they're right, eh?  And even when they're not, sometimes their views need to be ''reported''--if only as a fascinating sociological phenomenon. --[[LMS]]
------
Physical_quantity|986489734
17a18,21
> 
> '''Examples:'''
> * <i>E</i><sub>p</sub> for potential energy (note: p is upright)
> * <i>c<sub>p</sub></i> for heat capacity at constant pressure (note: p represents the physical quantity of pressure and is therefore printed italic)
------
Scientology/Talk|986490351
5c5,7
< If we are not going to do it to everyone, let's don't do it to anyone.
---
> If we are not going to do it to everyone, let's don't do it to anyone.
> ----
> In general, see NeutralPointOfView.  The principle I crusade for is the controversial views by attributed to someone--or that it be obvious (as in [[Scientology]] it is) that the views and practices in questions are attributed to someone.  Beyond that, as long as competing theories are portrayed ''sympathetically,'' the sky's the limit.  So, there's absolutely ''nothing'' wrong (IMO) with adding some mainstream criticisms of Scientology, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.--but really, if the criticisms deserve to be in an encyclopedia article, they must either be really quite common criticisms (and identified/attributed as such; e.g., "One common criticism...") or else credited to the person who originated it.  I can imagine a separate page, [[Scientology/Criticisms and replies]] as well as [[Scientology/Public perception]], in which what seems to be the cult-like nature of Scientology is described--and attributed to, well, someone or other. --[[LMS]]
------
Scientology/Talk|986490374
7c7
< In general, see NeutralPointOfView.  The principle I crusade for is the controversial views by attributed to someone--or that it be obvious (as in [[Scientology]] it is) that the views and practices in questions are attributed to someone.  Beyond that, as long as competing theories are portrayed ''sympathetically,'' the sky's the limit.  So, there's absolutely ''nothing'' wrong (IMO) with adding some mainstream criticisms of Scientology, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.--but really, if the criticisms deserve to be in an encyclopedia article, they must either be really quite common criticisms (and identified/attributed as such; e.g., "One common criticism...") or else credited to the person who originated it.  I can imagine a separate page, [[Scientology/Criticisms and replies]] as well as [[Scientology/Public perception]], in which what seems to be the cult-like nature of Scientology is described--and attributed to, well, someone or other. --[[LMS]]
---
> In general, see NeutralPointOfView.  The principle I crusade for is that controversial views be attributed to someone--or that it be obvious (as in [[Scientology]] it is) that the views and practices in questions are attributed to someone.  Beyond that, as long as competing theories are portrayed ''sympathetically,'' the sky's the limit.  So, there's absolutely ''nothing'' wrong (IMO) with adding some mainstream criticisms of Scientology, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.--but really, if the criticisms deserve to be in an encyclopedia article, they must either be really quite common criticisms (and identified/attributed as such; e.g., "One common criticism...") or else credited to the person who originated it.  I can imagine a separate page, [[Scientology/Criticisms and replies]] as well as [[Scientology/Public perception]], in which what seems to be the cult-like nature of Scientology is described--and attributed to, well, someone or other. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_policy|986490950
4,12c4,15
< * [[Naming conventions]]
< * [[Topic creation]]
< * RefactoringPolicy
< * RulesToConsider
< * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk
< * [[Wiki Administrators]]
< * [[/Foul Language]]
< * LinkingToExternalImages
< * PolicyPolicy
---
> * [[Naming conventions]] - all about how to name new pages
> * [[Topic creation]] - all about how to decide what topics to create
> * RefactoringPolicy - on the importance and function of revising pages
> * RulesToConsider - a variety of rules
> * NeutralPointOfView - policy and debate about the desirability of writing unbiased articles
> 
> '''A few other issues'''
> * CategorySchemes and CategorySchemesTalk - about Wikipedia's top-level category scheme
> * [[Wiki Administrators]] - what roles Wikipedia "administrators" have
> * [[/Foul Language]] - keep it clean, except when reporting someone else's profanity
> * LinkingToExternalImages - policy on using images found outside Wikipedia
> * PolicyPolicy - our policy on formulating policy
------
Creationism/Talk|986491474
30c30
< You say "neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions."  Well, that's a quick-and-easy way to put it.  It is more accurate to say that, '''where there is significant disagreement on a point, then neutrality demands that the disagreement be fairly characterized.'''  Be careful to understand what this does and does not imply.  It does imply that evolutionary science not be stated as fact and creation science as obviously false (rather, it implies that these views by described as being held by certain groups of people, and then the public can draw their own opinions).  It ''does not'' imply that, ''whenever'' you mention anything about evolutionary theory, you say something to the effect that creationists disagree.
---
> You say "neutrality is about stating facts rather than opinions."  Well, that's a quick-and-easy way to put it.  It is more accurate to say that, '''where there is significant disagreement on a point, then neutrality demands that the disagreement be fairly characterized.'''  Be careful to understand what this does and does not imply.  It does imply that evolutionary science not be stated as fact and creation science as obviously false (rather, it implies that these views be described as being held by certain groups of people, and then the public can draw their own conclusions; you don't mind that they draw their own conclusions, do you?).  It ''does not'' imply that, ''whenever'' you mention anything about evolutionary theory, you say something to the effect that creationists disagree.  It ''does not'' imply that you outright assert, "Evolution is just a hypothesis."  This too would be hugely controversial.  You would be fully in your rights to say that most scientists fully believe evolution to be a very well-substantiated theory, as well-substantiated as many less controversial theories.
32c32
< In general, and most importantly, this principle does not imply that our articles have to look like ''we think'' that evolutionary theory and creationism are equally weighted, and we can't make up our minds.  If you think that's what it implies, you don't understand the principle.  Don't you think it's possible ''not to take an official stand,'' and yet still very strongly be in favor of one of the views?  Of course it is.  Why would you resist doing this, then, when you ''can'' (after all) say that most respected scientists reject creationism?  It seems you want to cow creationists and people whose minds are not made up--as silly as they might seem to you and me--into believing what you believe.  That's never the right way to go about it.
---
> In general, and most importantly, this principle does not imply that our articles have to look like ''we think'' that evolutionary theory and creationism are equally weighted, and we (Wikipedia article authors) can't make up our minds.  If you think that's what it implies, you don't understand the principle.  Don't you think it's possible ''not to take an official stand,'' and yet still very strongly be in favor of one of the views?  Of course it is.  Why would you resist doing this, then, when you ''can'' (after all) say that most respected scientists reject creationism?  It seems you want to cow creationists and people whose minds are not made up--as silly as they might seem to you and me--into believing what you believe.  That's never the right way to go about it.  Is there something wrong with letting people draw their own conclusions?
34c34,36
< As to historical revisionists, sometimes they're right, eh?  And even when they're not, sometimes their views need to be ''reported''--if only as a fascinating sociological phenomenon. --[[LMS]]
---
> The Wikipedia articles on controversial subjects are not likely to change any minds.  The kooks will go on believing kooky things, the rational people will go on being rational, and we can take enormous pride in reporting accurately on the situation.
> 
> As to historical revisionists, sometimes they're right, eh?  And even when they're not, sometimes their views need to be ''reported''--if only as a fascinating sociological phenomenon. --[[LMS]]
------
Scientology/Talk|986492851
7c7,15
< In general, see NeutralPointOfView.  The principle I crusade for is that controversial views be attributed to someone--or that it be obvious (as in [[Scientology]] it is) that the views and practices in questions are attributed to someone.  Beyond that, as long as competing theories are portrayed ''sympathetically,'' the sky's the limit.  So, there's absolutely ''nothing'' wrong (IMO) with adding some mainstream criticisms of Scientology, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.--but really, if the criticisms deserve to be in an encyclopedia article, they must either be really quite common criticisms (and identified/attributed as such; e.g., "One common criticism...") or else credited to the person who originated it.  I can imagine a separate page, [[Scientology/Criticisms and replies]] as well as [[Scientology/Public perception]], in which what seems to be the cult-like nature of Scientology is described--and attributed to, well, someone or other. --[[LMS]]
---
> In general, see NeutralPointOfView.  The principle I crusade for is that controversial views be attributed to someone--or that it be obvious (as in [[Scientology]] it is) that the views and practices in questions are attributed to someone.  Beyond that, as long as competing theories are portrayed ''sympathetically,'' the sky's the limit.  So, there's absolutely ''nothing'' wrong (IMO) with adding some mainstream criticisms of Scientology, Christianity, Buddhism, etc.--but really, if the criticisms deserve to be in an encyclopedia article, they must either be really quite common criticisms (and identified/attributed as such; e.g., "One common criticism...") or else credited to the person who originated it.  I can imagine a separate page, [[Scientology/Criticisms and replies]] as well as [[Scientology/Public perception]], in which what seems to be the cult-like nature of Scientology is described--and attributed to, well, someone or other. --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Thank you, Larry. You put it much better than I could. I just thought the last paragraph rather glossed over the endless arguments and controversy about Scientology over the last several decades. And since there has been <i>so much</i> controversy, it seems reasonable to have some account with summaries of the two sides - at least report that group A says X, group B says Y.
> (for comparison, there's a nice entry for [[the Book of Mormon]] that summarises Mormon doctrine, and reports other theories of the origins of the book)
> 
> 
> And all I originally set out to do was remove a couple of CapitaliseDLinKs...
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986493086
1c1,3
< My immediate presumption is that a list of MP songs may need to be editted for decency (like I care about somebody else's norms and mores!).  Much can be written on this page and the innuendo is well known.  Lawrence? James? Your 2 pesos, please.  --[[Invictus]]
---
> My immediate presumption is that a list of MP songs may need to be editted for decency (like I care about somebody else's norms and mores!).  Much can be written on this page and the innuendo is well known.  Lawrence? James? Your 2 pesos, please.  --[[Invictus]]
> ----
> Monty Pytton was the group, not the show.  Monty Python's Flying Circus was the show.
------
Elephant|986494144
1c1
< A large greyish animal, found in Africa and India. The elephant is the heaviest living land animal. Its most typical characteristic is the [[trunk]], a very much elongated nose, which can be used to grab objects. Elephants also have [[tusk]]s, large teeth coming out of their upper jaws. Elephants tusks are the major source of [[ivory]], but because of the increased rarity of elephants, almost all hunting is now illegal.
---
> A large greyish animal, found in [[Africa]] and [[India]]. The elephant is the heaviest living land animal. Its most typical characteristic is the [[trunk]], a very much elongated nose, which can be used to grab objects, such as food. Elephants also have [[tusk]]s, large teeth coming out of their upper jaws. Elephants tusks are the major source of [[ivory]], but because of the increased rarity of elephants, almost all hunting and trade is now illegal.
------
Business_and_Industry|986494277
12a13,14
> ** [[copyright]]
> ** [[patents]]
------
Hypoxia|986494874
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hypoxia is a condition in which the body does not get enough oxygen to function efficiently.
> 
> Hypoxia is often associated with high altitudes, where it is called altitude sickness.  This condition occurs because of the thinner (i.e., lower pressure) atmosphere at higher altitudes, which means the body takes in fewer oxygen molecules per breath.  Symptoms of hypoxia include headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, nasuea, unsteadiness, and sometimes even seizures and coma.
> 
> Different people have different susceptibilities to hypoxia.  For some otherwise healthy people symptoms can begin to appear at around 5000 feet above sea level.
------
Draw_poker|986495167
91a92
> * When playing high/low split, it is necessary to have either a declare phase or a qualifier (but not both).  The most common form is 8-high or better to qualify low, but also common is any pair/no pair (i.e., a pair or better is required to win high, and no pair or better low is required to win low), and 9-high for low.
------
Stud_poker|986495284
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Stud poker</i> refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player receives a mix of face-down and face-up cards dealt in multiple rounds with betting on each round.
> 
------
Hypoxia|986495694
3c3
< Hypoxia is often associated with high altitudes, where it is called altitude sickness.  This condition occurs because of the thinner (i.e., lower pressure) atmosphere at higher altitudes, which means the body takes in fewer oxygen molecules per breath.  Symptoms of hypoxia include headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, nasuea, unsteadiness, and sometimes even seizures and coma.
---
> Hypoxia is often associated with high altitudes, where it is called altitude sickness.  This condition occurs because of the thinner (i.e., lower pressure) atmosphere at higher altitudes, which means the body takes in fewer oxygen molecules per breath.  Symptoms of hypoxia include headaches, fatigue, shortness of breath, nausea, unsteadiness, and sometimes even seizures and [[coma]].
5c5
< Different people have different susceptibilities to hypoxia.  For some otherwise healthy people symptoms can begin to appear at around 5000 feet above sea level.
---
> Different people have different susceptibilities to hypoxia.  For some otherwise healthy people symptoms can begin to appear at around 5000 feet above sea level.
------
Gregorian_Calendar|986495798
3c3
< The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in Italy, Germany, and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).  This is why the months named after the Latin numbers 7, 8, 9, and 10 (September, October, November, December) are now the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th month, respectively.
---
> The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).  This is why the months named after the Latin numbers 7, 8, 9, and 10 (September, October, November, December) are now the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th month, respectively.
7c7
< Not all countries accepted the new calendar immediately.  The [[British Empire]] (including what is now the [[United States]]) didn't adopt it until 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by twelve days (September 2, 1752 being followed by September 14, 1752).  Russia did not accept the new calendar until 1918, which has the bizarre consequence that the anniversary of the [[October revolution]] now falls in November.
---
> Not all countries accepted the new calendar immediately.  The [[British Empire]] (including what is now the [[United States]]) didn't adopt it until 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by twelve days (September 2, 1752 being followed by September 14, 1752).  [[Russia]] did not accept the new calendar until 1918, which has the bizarre consequence that the anniversary of the [[October revolution]] now falls in November.
------
Stud_poker|986497187
2a3,19
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use a small ante or none at all, and a bring-in.  Both fixed and spread limits are common; no limit and pot limit stud games are rare.  Each betting round begins with the player whose face-up cards make the best hand for the game being played.
> 
> Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left.
> 
> <h2>Five-card stud</h2>
> 
> Probably the earliest form of stud poker, but no longer commonly played.  Like standard five-card draw, when played skillfully it can become monotonous.  Seven-card stud varieties are far more common now.
> 
> Play begins with each player being dealt one card face down, followed by one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest upcard must pay the bring in, and betting proceeds after that.  If two players have equally ranked low cards, suit may be used to break the tie and assign the bring-in (clubs ranking lowest, followed by diamonds, hearts, and spades as in [[bridge]]).  If there is no bring-in, then the first betting round begins with the player showing the highest-ranking upcard, who may check.  In this case, suit should not be used to break ties.  If two players have the same high upcard, the one first in clockwise rotation from the dealer acts first.
> 
> After the first betting round, another face-up card is dealt to each player.  Betting now begins with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand (since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses).  On this and subsequent betting rounds, the player to act first may check or bet up to the game's limit.  The second betting round is followed by a third upcard to each player and a thid betting round, again starting with the player with the best poker hand showing (thus, the first player to act on each round may change).  A fourth face-up card and fourth betting round is followed by a showdown, if necessary (it usually won't be--most deals of five-card stud end early when a player bets and gets no calls).
> 
> Here's a sample deal:
> 
> <h2>Seven-card stud</h2>
> 
> ...
------
What_Google_Likes|986497743
1c1
<  Updated 4/04/2001
---
>  Updated 4/05/2001
14,15c14,15
< :  13   [[RosaParks]]
< :  10   [[EiffelTower]]
---
> :  12   [[EiffelTower]]
> :  11   [[AdolfHitler]]
17,24c17,28
< :   8   [[ThomasEdison]]
< :   7   [[Martin Scorcese]]
< :   7   [[AdolfHitler]]
< :   6   [[Interquartile Range]]
< :   6   [[HomePage]]
< :   6   [[BritannicaPublicDomain]]
< :   6   [[AnnaKournikova]]
< :   5   [[WikiWiki]]
---
> :   8   [[Martin Scorcese]]
> :   8   [[Interquartile Range]]
> :   7   [[RosaParks]]
> :   7   [[KurtCobain]]
> :   7   [[BritannicaPublicDomain]]
> :   6   [[WikiWiki]]
> :   6   [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
> :   6   [[Las Vegas/Climate]]
> :   6   [[BillClinton]]
> :   6   [[AlexanderTheGreat]]
> :   5   [[ThomasEdison]]
> :   5   [[Standard Deviation]]
26,29c30,40
< :   5   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
< :   5   [[BillClinton]]
< :   4   [[Standard Deviation]]
< :   4   [[KurtCobain]]
---
> :   5   [[Johnny Got His Gun]]
> :   5   [[HomePage]]
> :   5   [[Gene chip]]
> :   5   [[Cluster Sampling]]
> :   5   [[AnnaKournikova]]
> :   4   [[World War II]]
> :   4   [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :   4   [[PythagoreanTheorem]]
> :   4   [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
> :   4   [[Perseus]]
> :   4   [[NamingConventions/Oldpage]]
30a42
> :   4   [[Japan/Military]]
32,45c44,45
< :   4   [[Cluster Sampling]]
< :   4   [[BritneySpears]]
< :   4   [[AnchorageAlaska]]
< :   4   [[AlexanderTheGreat]]
< :   3   [[WorldWarOne]]
< :   3   [[ThomasJefferson]]
< :   3   [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
< :   3   [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
< :   3   [[RequestedArticles]]
< :   3   [[PythagoreanTheorem]]
< :   3   [[PresidentialMedalOfFreedom]]
< :   3   [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
< :   3   [[PopularMusic]]
< :   3   [[NationalFootballLeague]] 
---
> :   4   [[DeconstructionIsm]]
> :   4   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986498104
36a37,43
> ----
> The problem is that evolution is ''not'' controversial, not among anyone except the misinformed and those with an agenda.  I honestly think that continual treatment of evolution as if it is the consensus of an extreme majority of scientists, rather than fact, is misleading.  Do you think that it is a good idea to prefix ''every'' page with such a statement?  "Most scientists now believe that Calcium has an atomic weight of 40.078..."  It's silly, but if not, then topics like evolution are going to appear strongly singled out as questionable.
> 
> Historical revisionists are probably more important even.  Yes, they can be interesting, but statement of their opinions as anything even resembling potential fact isn't just wrong, it is potentially offensive.  To take the extreme example, even if it invokes Godwin's law against myself, what do you suppose would be the response if we said the holocaust was something widely considered to have occured by most historians?  Or would you throw out such claims and keep those of other revisionists, less offensive but certainly no more valid?  I say the best ground for decision is on merit; meritless arguments should not need consideration, unless we want to pretend all of reality is an opinion.  And those probably include young earth creationism.
> 
> --[[Josh Grosse]]
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986498213
40c40
< Historical revisionists are probably more important even.  Yes, they can be interesting, but statement of their opinions as anything even resembling potential fact isn't just wrong, it is potentially offensive.  To take the extreme example, even if it invokes Godwin's law against myself, what do you suppose would be the response if we said the holocaust was something widely considered to have occured by most historians?  Or would you throw out such claims and keep those of other revisionists, less offensive but certainly no more valid?  I say the best ground for decision is on merit; meritless arguments should not need consideration, unless we want to pretend all of reality is an opinion.  And those probably include young earth creationism.
---
> Historical revisionists are probably more important even.  Yes, they can be interesting, but statement of their opinions as anything even resembling potential fact isn't just wrong, it is potentially offensive.  To take the extreme example, even if it invokes Godwin's law against myself, what do you suppose would be the response if we said the holocaust was something widely considered to have occured by most historians, rather than something that occured?  ''I'd'' consider that an awful legitamization of some of the worst opinions available.  Or would you throw out such claims and keep those of other revisionists, less offensive but certainly no more valid?  I say the best ground for decision is on merit; meritless arguments should not need consideration, unless we want to pretend all of reality is an opinion.  And those probably include young earth creationism.
------
Creationism/Talk|986499102
43a44,47
> ----
> I'm with Josh here. Evolution is not controversial within the scientific community. As someone who has spent the best part of ten years researching creationism, I can attest that Creationists are not crazies or ignorant (far from it in many cases). However, in accordance with the views of 99% of theologians, scientists and philosophers, they ''are'' wrong. We should state so emphatically. To do otherwise is to be spineless. Evolution has traditionally been singled out among scientific areas and people are more likely to use accomodationist language so as to placate a vocal minority. This, I assure you, is contrary to the aims of any good project (particularly if it is haunted by the shades of the original Encyclopediestes). Evolution is a fact, natural selection is currently one of the few ''scientific'' mechanisms by which evolution can occur. Move on.
> 
> --[[Jmlynch]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986499631
47a48,51
> 
> ----
> Hear!  Hear!  I personally admire philosophers a great deal, study philosophy, and enjoy throwing the monkey wrench of doubt into common beliefs as much as anyone.  But when philosophers and others go beyond rational skepticism to justify what are simply and clearly mistakes, one should throw at them what one personally believes to be a brick, and assuage one's conscience with the assurance that they are free to believe otherwise.  --LDC
> 
------
Physical_quantity|986499684
15c15
< * W being the [[SI derived unit|unit]] for [[watt]]s
---
> * W being the [[SI derived unit|unit]] symbol of unit of power, the [[watt]]s
21c21
< * <i>c<sub>p</sub></i> for heat capacity at constant pressure (note: p represents the physical quantity of pressure and is therefore printed italic)
---
> * <i>c<sub>p</sub></i> for heat capacity at constant pressure (note: p represents the physical quantity of pressure and is therefore printed italic)
------
Elephant|986499713
6a7
> *[[white elephant]]
------
White_elephant|986499743
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A thing that is not useful or have monetary value.
------
Splitting_poker_pots|986500022
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[poker]] it is sometimes necessary to divide the pot among two or more players rather than awarding it all to a single player.  This can happen because of ties, and also by playing intentional split-pot [[poker variant]]s (the most typical of these is high/low split, where the high hand and low hand split the pot).  Here are some guidelines on how this is done.
> 
> To split a pot, use both hands to take chips from the pot and make stacks, placing them side by side to compare height (and therefore value).  Separate equal stacks and place aside.  If there is more than one denomination of chip in the pot, start with the largest and work down.  If there is an odd number of larger chips, use smaller chips from the pot to equalize stacks, or make change as necessary.  Always break the pot down to the lowest denomination of chip used in the game.  Three-way ties or further splits can also be done this way.
> 
> When you have finished fully dividing a pot, there may be a single odd lowest-denomination chip remaining (or two odd chips if splitting three ways, etc.).  Odd chips are awarded in several ways:
> 
> * If playing a high/low split game and dividing a pot between the high and low hands, always award the odd chip to the high hand.
> * If splitting a pot because of tied hands, award the odd chip to the hand that contains the highest-ranking single card, using suits to break ties if necessary (clubs ranking the lowest, followed by diamonds, hearts, and spades as in [[bridge]]).
> * (Variation) Between tied hands, award the odd chip to the first player in clockwise rotation from the dealer.  (Note that in a casino stud game with a house dealer and no "buck" this gives an unfair advantage to players on the dealer's left, so the high card by suit method is preferred).
> * (Variation) Leave the odd chip as an extra ante for the next deal.  This is common in home games.
> 
> Sometimes it is necessary to further split a half pot into quarters, or even smaller portions.  This is especially common in community card high/low split games such as [[Omaha holdem]], where one player has the high hand and two or more players have tied low hands.  Unfortunate players receiving such a fractional pot call it being <i>quartered</i>, in reference to the torture technique of being "drawn and quartered".  When this happens, an exception to the odd chip rules above can be made: if the high hand wins its half of the pot alone, and the low half is going to be quartered, the odd chip (if any) from the first split should be placed in the low half, rather than being awarded to the high hand.
------
Poker/Game_play|986500218
25c25
< After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last raise and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  This is called a <i>showdown</i>.  In the case of ties, the pot is split among the tied players.
---
> After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last raise and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  This is called a <i>showdown</i>.  In the case of ties, the pot is [[Splitting poker pots|split]] among the tied players.
35c35
< On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now checks, and Carol checks.  The fourth betting round is thus <i>checked around</i>, and ends.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore split the $26 between them, each getting $13.
---
> On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now checks, and Carol checks.  The fourth betting round is thus <i>checked around</i>, and ends.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore [[Splitting poker pots|split]] the $26 between them, each getting $13.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986500732
30a31,32
> ----
> Great Job with the Poker pages!
------
White_elephant|986500834
1c1,3
< A thing that is not useful or have monetary value.
---
> Usually, a thing which has outlived its usefulness, or is more trouble than it is worth, to the person who has it.  While the item may be useful to others, its current owner would usually be glad to be rid of it.  By reason of this, commercially, a "white elephant" might be available to purchase at a very favorable price.
> 
> An example of such an item might be a large, old house, occupied by an elderly widow who has neither the physical prowess nor the funds to keep it up any longer.  The widow might sell the home at well below its ordinary market value because it is a burden to her.  The buyer, likely someone who has use for a large home, would get a good bargain. 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|986500902
79c79
< (Added note by [mailto:ralphcf@home.com R. Furmaniak]) The best way to put in math would probably be to write it in TeX (or LaTeX) and then use [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH].  This will generate an HTML file with all of the math symbols in text form (no images).  Here is an [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example1.html example], and here is [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example2.html another].
---
> (Added note by [mailto:ralphcf@home.com Zephyr]) The best way to put in math would probably be to write it in TeX (or LaTeX) and then use [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH].  This will generate an HTML file with all of the math symbols in text form (no images).  Here is an [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example1.html example], and here is [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example2.html another].
82a83,89
> 
> 
> It really comes down to WYSIWYG (What You See is What You Get) vs WYSIWYM (What You Say is What You Mean).  First of all, I would like to say that TeX is used almost exclusively by anyone writing up math.  Can you show me any major publication which does not require submissions to be in some variant of TeX?  A popular thing about TeX is that (if you so wish) you do not need to worry about formatting, you can just say "this is a section, format it for me".  You can still have this flexibility by setting the templates.  Have you looked at MathML lately?  I was looking at some MathML examples and it seems that TeX is much more straightforward to write.  $x^2-4=2$ becomes &lt;math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
> &lt;mrow>
> &lt;msup>&lt;mi>x&lt;/mi>&lt;mrow>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>
> &lt;/msup>
> &lt;mo>-&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>4&lt;/mn>&lt;mo>=&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>&lt;/math>.  I cannot speak much for this, everybody is entitled to their opinion, but I think that MathML would have a very tough time overthrowing TeX (although it would be good for the TeX to MathML convertor).
------
Creationism/Talk|986500933
51c51,52
< 
---
> ----
> I'll reply later, but I would like to see someone reply, dispassionately, to my ''arguments.''  I had some, if you didn't notice.  You're all rational people; you should be able to appreciate my efforts. --[[LMS]]
------
White_elephant|986501228
3c3,14
< An example of such an item might be a large, old house, occupied by an elderly widow who has neither the physical prowess nor the funds to keep it up any longer.  The widow might sell the home at well below its ordinary market value because it is a burden to her.  The buyer, likely someone who has use for a large home, would get a good bargain. 
---
> An example of such an item might be a large, old house, occupied by an elderly widow who has neither the physical prowess nor the funds to keep it up any longer.  The widow might sell the home at well below its ordinary market value because it is a burden to her.  The buyer, likely someone who has use for a large home, would get a good bargain. 
> 
> In [[Siam]](?), where white elephants were sacred and had to be
> taken care of, only the monarch (or the very rich) could afford
> them, so, they were sometimes given as a present to some enemy.
> The unfortunate recipient, unable to make any profit of it,
> and oblied to take  care of it, would fall in bankrupcy and often
> die.
> 
> (I'm not sure about the previous history, if someone knows for
> a fact to be a legend, please label it as such, or remove it.
> If you know it to be correct, make the neccessary corrections).
------
Draw_poker|986501527
13c13,15
< A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card).  This rule does not improve the game, and is not generally followed in casinos, so it is not recommended.  A rule that <i>is</i> followed by many casinos that makes more sense is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).
---
> A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card).  This rule is only needed for low-limit social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub.  In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used.  A rule that <i>is</i> used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).
> 
> Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information.  If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players.  For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card if any, and the earlier players' discards (but not the three discards of the last player!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.
39c41
< Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) split the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played "cards speak", i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called <i>scooping</i> or <i>hogging</i> the pot.
---
> Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug.  High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five values) [[Splitting poker pots|split]] the pot.  An 8-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played <i>cards speak</i>, i.e., players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called <i>scooping</i> or <i>hogging</i> the pot.
91a94
> * High/low split games play best with more than four players.
94d96
< * High/low split games play best with more than four players.
------
Physical_quantity|986501529
21c21,23
< * <i>c<sub>p</sub></i> for heat capacity at constant pressure (note: p represents the physical quantity of pressure and is therefore printed italic)
---
> * <i>c<sub>p</sub></i> for heat capacity at constant pressure (note: p represents the physical quantity of pressure and is therefore printed italic)
> 
> A quantity is called <i><b>extensive</b></i> when its magnitude is additive for subsystems as there are the Volume <i>V</i> or the mass <i>m</i>. In case the magnitude is independent of the extent of the system (e.g. temperature <i>T</i>, pressure <i>p</i>) the quantity is called <i><b>intensive</b></i>. The word <i><b>specific</b></i> is added to an extensive quantity in order to refer to the quantity divided by its mass (e.g. the specific volume <i>v</i> = <i>V/m</i>). Similarly, the expression <i><b>molar</b></i> before an extensive quantity means divided by amount of substance (e.g. molar Volume <i>V</i><sub>m</sub> = <i>V</i>/<i>n</i>).
------
Physics|986501799
55a56,58
> Uncategorized
> * [[Physical quantity]]
> * [[SI base unit]]
------
Physics|986501995
35,43c35,43
< * Biological physics
< * Chemical physics
< * Computational physics
< * Condensed matter physics
< * Fluid dynamics
< * Polymer physics
< * Laser science
< * Materials physics
< * Nuclear physics
---
> * [[Biological physics]]
> * [[Chemical physics]]
> * [[Computational physics]]
> * [[Condensed matter physics]]
> * [[Fluid dynamics]]
> * [[Polymer physics]]
> * [[Laser science]]
> * [[Materials physics]]
> * [[Nuclear physics]]
45,46c45,46
< * Physics of beams
< * Plasma Physics
---
> * [[Physics of beams]]
> * [[Plasma physics]]
58c58,59
< * [[SI base unit]]
---
> * [[SI base unit]]
> * [[Rheology]]
------
Physical_constants|986503225
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <sup></sup>
> <sub></sub>
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>Quantity<TH>Symbol<TH>Value</TR>
> <TR><TD>permeability of vacuum<TD>&mu;<TD>4&pi; x 10<sup>-7</sup> H.m<sup>-1</sup> (defined)</TR>
> <TR><TD>speed of light in vacuum<TD>c<sub>0</sub><TD>299 792 458 m.s<sup>-1</sup> (defined)</TR>
> <TR><TD>permittivity of vacuum<TD>&epsilon;<sub>0</sub> = 1/&mu;<sub>0</sub>c<sub>0</sub><sup>2</sup><TD>8.854 187 816 ... x 10<sup>-12</sup> F.m<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Planck constant<TD><i>h</i><TD>6.626 075 5(40) x 10<sup>-34</sup> J.s</TR>
> <TR><TD>&nbsp;<TD><i>h_strikethrough</i> = <i>h</i>/2&pi;<TD>1.054 572 66(63) x 10<sup>-34</sup> J.s </TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> </TABLE>
------
Physical_constants|986503945
11,31c11,40
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>elementary charge<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electron rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>neutron rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>atomic mass constant, (unified atomic mass unit)<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Avogadro constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Boltzmann constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Faraday constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>gas constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>zero of the Celsius scale<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>molar volume, ideal gas, <i>p</i> = 1 bar, &theta; = 0<sup>0</sup>C<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>standard atmosphere<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>fine structure constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Bohr radius<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Hartee energy<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Rydberg constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Bohr magneton<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>electron magnetic moment<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Lande <i>g</i>-factor for free electron<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>nuclear magneton<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton magnetic moment<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton magnetogyric ratio<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic moment of protons in H<sub>2</sub>0, &mu;'<sub>p</sub><TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton resonance frequency per field in H<sub>2</sub>0<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>Stefan-Boltzmann constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>first radiation constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>second radiation constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>gravitational constant<TD><TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>standard acceleration of free fall<TD><TD></TR>
------
White_elephant|986504016
5,10c5
< In [[Siam]](?), where white elephants were sacred and had to be
< taken care of, only the monarch (or the very rich) could afford
< them, so, they were sometimes given as a present to some enemy.
< The unfortunate recipient, unable to make any profit of it,
< and oblied to take  care of it, would fall in bankrupcy and often
< die.
---
> In [[Siam]](?), where white elephants were sacred and had to be taken care of, only the monarch (or the very rich) could afford them, so, they were sometimes given as a present to some enemy (often a lesser noble withwhom the king was displeased).  The unfortunate recipient, unable to make any profit of it, and obliged to take care of it, would suffer bankrupcy and might even die.
12,14c7
< (I'm not sure about the previous history, if someone knows for
< a fact to be a legend, please label it as such, or remove it.
< If you know it to be correct, make the neccessary corrections).
---
> (I'm not sure about the previous history, if someone knows for a fact to be a legend, please label it as such, or remove it.  If you know it to be correct, make the neccessary corrections).
------
Creationism/Talk|986504525
52c52,54
< I'll reply later, but I would like to see someone reply, dispassionately, to my ''arguments.''  I had some, if you didn't notice.  You're all rational people; you should be able to appreciate my efforts. --[[LMS]]
---
> I'll reply later, but I would like to see someone reply, dispassionately, to my ''arguments.''  I had some, if you didn't notice.  You're all rational people; you should be able to appreciate my efforts. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Can someone tell me where the matter involved in the Big Bang ''came from''?  If not, you will have to cut creationism in one stripe or color or another, some slack.  All creationism is not biblical literalism.  It ''is'', however, in every case, an effort to arrive at a rational answer which science has so far not been able to provide ie, where everything came from.  This is not Evolution/Talk, but Creation/Talk.  As something better than half the world populace embraces some kind of creationist explanation for the beginning of things, then we are not talking about appeasing a vocal minority here.  We are talking about acknowledging what we don't know - the first step to finding out...
------
Creationism/Talk|986504572
54c54
< Can someone tell me where the matter involved in the Big Bang ''came from''?  If not, you will have to cut creationism in one stripe or color or another, some slack.  All creationism is not biblical literalism.  It ''is'', however, in every case, an effort to arrive at a rational answer which science has so far not been able to provide ie, where everything came from.  This is not Evolution/Talk, but Creation/Talk.  As something better than half the world populace embraces some kind of creationist explanation for the beginning of things, then we are not talking about appeasing a vocal minority here.  We are talking about acknowledging what we don't know - the first step to finding out...
---
> Can someone tell me where the matter involved in the Big Bang ''came from''?  If not, you will have to cut creationism in one stripe or color or another, some slack.  All creationism is not biblical literalism.  It ''is'', however, in every case, an effort to arrive at a rational answer which science has so far not been able to provide ie, where everything came from.  This is not Evolution/Talk, but Creationism/Talk.  As something better than half the world populace embraces some kind of creationist explanation for the beginning of things, then we are not talking about appeasing a vocal minority here.  We are talking about acknowledging what we don't know - the first step to finding out...
------
Creationism|986504762
5c5
< Creationism, particularly when rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and [[intelligent design theory]] -- terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously -- to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well. Evolutionary scientists, at this point in the debate, usually argue that science does not claim any absolute truths but learns from its own failures and incompleteness, and that creationists do not present anything which would qualify as a falsifiable theory.
---
> Creationism, particularly when rooted in Judeo-Christian biblical literalism, is usually expressed as opposition to evolutionary thinking.  A very large majority of practising scientists, theologians and philosophers of science believe scientific creationism and [[intelligent design theory]] -- terms that many of these thinkers do not take seriously -- to be untenable, either because these views are scientifically unsupported and unverifiable, or because they are considered outright nonsense.  Creationists, of course, including a number of Christian scientists, disagree with this position and primarily combat it by claiming that evolutionary theory is inadequately supported and thus rooted in faith as well. Evolutionary scientists, at this point in the debate, usually argue that science does not claim any absolute truths but learns from its own failures and incompleteness, and that creationists do not present anything which would qualify as a falsifiable theory.
9c9
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Physical_constants|986504828
2a3,4
> <i></i>
>  x 10<sup></sup> 
11,18c13,20
< <TR><TD>elementary charge<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electron rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>proton rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>neutron rest mass<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>atomic mass constant, (unified atomic mass unit)<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Avogadro constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Boltzmann constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Faraday constant<TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>elementary charge<TD><i>e</i><TD>1.602 177 33(49) x 10<sup>-19</sup> C</TR>
> <TR><TD>electron rest mass<TD><i>m<sub>e</sub></i><TD>9.109 389 7(54) x 10<sup>-31</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>proton rest mass<TD><i>m<sub>p</sub></i><TD>1.672 623 1(10) x 10<sup>-27</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>neutron rest mass<TD><i>m<sub>n</sub></i><TD>1.674 928 6(10) x 10<sup>-27</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>atomic mass constant, (unified atomic mass unit)<TD><i>m<sub>u</sub></i> = 1u<TD>1.660 540 2(10) x 10<sup>-27</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>Avogadro constant<TD><i>L, N</i><sub>A</sub><TD>6.022 136 7(36) x 10<sup>23</sup> mol<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Boltzmann constant<TD><i>k</i><TD>1.380 658(12) x 10<sup>-23</sup> J.K<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Faraday constant<TD><i>F</i><TD>9.648 530 9(29) x 10<sup>4</sup> C.mol<sup>-1</sup></TR>
------
Television|986504847
19c19
< :[[Ali McBeal]]
---
> :[[Ally McBeal]]
23a24
> :[[The Young Ones]]
25a27
> :[[Red Dwarf]]
26a29,31
> :[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire]]
> :[[Top Of The Pops]]
> :[[Mtv Unplugged]]
29,35c34,41
< : [[Animaniacs]]
< : [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]]
< : [[Futurama]]
< : [[Peanuts]]
< : [[Ren and Stimpy]]
< : [[The Simpsons]]
< : [[South Park]]
---
> :[[Animaniacs]]
> :[[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]]
> :[[Futurama]]
> :[[Peanuts]]
> :[[Ren and Stimpy]]
> :[[The Simpsons]]
> :[[South Park]]
> :[[Wallace and Gromit]]
40a47
> :[[Brian Blessed]]
43a51
> :[[Peter Cook]]
46a55,56
> :[[Chris Evans]]
> :[[Tony Hancock]]
47a58,59
> :[[Jools Holland]]
> :[[Sid James]]
51a64
> :[[Michael Parkinson]]
52a66
> :[[Jeremy Paxman]]
53a68
> :[[Anne Robinson]]
67a83
> :[[Michael J. Fox]]
------
Creationism/Talk|986504971
54a55,59
> ----
> Let's get this straight once and for all (I have to do this with students every semester). Firstly, the Big Bang or any other theory of cosmogenesis has ''nothing'' to do with evolutionary thinking. Cosmologists could believe anything about the universe and it would not dent the theory of evolution one bit. Secondly, and almost most importantly, creationists don't really care about cosmology - it's the proposition that humans evolved that creates problems for them (a proposition that is indepndant of cosmology). Lastly, theories of abiogenesis also have nothing to do with evolution. Evolutionary theory explains how the diversity of life on Earth came to it's present state, ''not'' how life got here and ''not'' how the universe got here. 
> 
> Creationism is ''not'' an 'effort to arrive at a rational answer'. Rationality has nothing to do with it.
> --[[Jmlynch]]
------
Nazi|986505007
3c3
< In the late 20th century the Neonazi movement has become dangerously popular around the world (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
---
> A Neonazi movement became popular towrds the end of the 20th century, (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
------
Creationism/Talk|986505125
56c56,58
< Let's get this straight once and for all (I have to do this with students every semester). Firstly, the Big Bang or any other theory of cosmogenesis has ''nothing'' to do with evolutionary thinking. Cosmologists could believe anything about the universe and it would not dent the theory of evolution one bit. Secondly, and almost most importantly, creationists don't really care about cosmology - it's the proposition that humans evolved that creates problems for them (a proposition that is indepndant of cosmology). Lastly, theories of abiogenesis also have nothing to do with evolution. Evolutionary theory explains how the diversity of life on Earth came to it's present state, ''not'' how life got here and ''not'' how the universe got here. 
---
> Let's get this straight once and for all (I have to do this with students every semester). Firstly, the Big Bang or any other theory of cosmogenesis has ''nothing'' to do with evolutionary thinking. Cosmologists could theorize about the universe and it would not dent the theory of evolution one bit. Secondly, and almost most importantly, creationists don't really care about cosmology - it's the proposition that humans evolved that creates problems for them (a proposition that is indepndant of cosmology). Lastly, theories of abiogenesis also have nothing to do with evolution. Evolutionary theory explains how the diversity of life on Earth came to it's present state, ''not'' how life got here and ''not'' how the universe got here. 
> 
> Creationism is ''not'' an 'effort to arrive at a rational answer'. Rationality has nothing to do with it. As any theologian will tell you, the project of rationalizing the existence of a creation has fallen into disrepute for various reasons. Creationists can ''believe'' whatever they like about the history of life, but that does not mean they make scientific statements. 
58d59
< Creationism is ''not'' an 'effort to arrive at a rational answer'. Rationality has nothing to do with it.
------
Physical_constants|986505916
21,31c21,31
< <TR><TD>gas constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>zero of the Celsius scale<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>molar volume, ideal gas, <i>p</i> = 1 bar, &theta; = 0<sup>0</sup>C<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>standard atmosphere<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>fine structure constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Bohr radius<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Hartee energy<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Rydberg constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Bohr magneton<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>electron magnetic moment<TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>gas constant<TD><i>R</i><TD>8.314 510 (70) J.K<sup>-1</sup>.mol<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>zero of the Celsius scale<TD>&nbsp;<TD>273.15 K (defined)</TR>
> <TR><TD>molar volume, ideal gas, <i>p</i> = 1 bar, &theta; = 0<sup>0</sup>C<TD>&nbsp;<TD>22.711 08(19) L.mol<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>standard atmosphere<TD>atm<TD>101 325 Pa (defined)</TR>
> <TR><TD>fine structure constant<TD>&alpha; = &mu;<sub>0</sub><i>e</i><sup>2</sup><i>c</i><sub>0</sub>/2<i>h</i><TD>7.297 353 08(33) x 10<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>&nbsp;<TD>&alpha;<sup>-1</sup><TD>137.035 989 5(61)</TR>
> <TR><TD>Bohr radius<TD><i>a</i><sub>0</sub><TD>5.291 772 49(24) x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>Hartee energy<TD><i>E</i><sub>h</sub><TD>4.359 748 2(26) x 10<sup>-18</sup> J</TR>
> <TR><TD>Rydberg constant<TD><i>R</i><sub>infinity</sub><TD>1.097 373 153 4(13) x 10<sup>-7</sup> m<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Bohr magneton<TD>&mu;<sub>B</sub><TD>9.247 015 4(31) x 10<sup>-24</sup> J.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electron magnetic moment<TD>&mu;<sub>e</sub><TD>9.284 770 1(31) x 10<sup>-24</sup> J.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
------
Physics|986505997
57a58
> * [[Physical constants]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986506452
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It mixes pages of serious content with PR stuff like [[Why Wikipedia is so great]] that confuses and alienate people.
> ''See [[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986506488
2c2
< ''See [[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]
---
> ''See [[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]''
------
Creationism/Talk|986507188
60c60,79
< --[[Jmlynch]]
---
> --[[Jmlynch]
> ----
> Jim I am talking about creationism, not about evolution (pro or con).  Did you notice that?
> Humans arrive at answers through reason.  Use of reason = 'effort to arrive at a rational answer.'  Let's get this straight once and for all - creationism, as a holding, is not necesarily either pro- or anti-evolution.  That is the area where we see the most frequent fireworks and high-profile clashes, but please quit cofusing the two.  Again - this is creationism/Talk.
> 
> 'effort to arrive at a rational answer' = "I can see what caused z; y caused it.  I can see what caused y; x caused it.  I have investigated until I am blue in the face, and cannot tease out of the universe what caused a.  Maybe whatever caused it is not natural, but super-natural.  Maybe that's why I can't get at it."  This may not be scientific method, but it '''is''' how people rationalize.  Ie, it is an effort to arrive at rational answer.
> 
> This is where creationism as a subject comes from.  Then we later on down the road get into such things as oral tradition, legends, myths, scriptures, and other means of passing down the stories about the supernatural.  Never proved nor disproved, neither provable nor disprovable by scientific means, they are, by definition, unscientific.  Now there are some parts of this tradition which seem to run afoul of scientific evidence.  The most notable of these in recent time involves timescale of this planet and origin of species.  When the scientist points this out to the dyed-in-the-wool hardline fundamental biblical literalist, the irresistible force meets the immoveable object.  At the same time, bits and pieces of biblical history are verfied by archaeology daily.  So, "See!  The Bible '''is''' the infallible word of God!" and the scientist cringes.
> 
> '' '''BUT''' '' it is not necessarily the case that unscientific = wrong, any more that it is the case that proof of bible history a = proof of the whole bible.
> 
> To say that creationists believe that ''someone'' created things in the beginning is not to say that they beleive, 1-for-1, that '''SCIENCE''' in its infinite wisdom, ultimate arbiter of all human knowledge, is wrong.  It is to say - "we believe these extra-scientific facts to be true."  And who is to gainsay them?
> 
> When writing about evolution, that ''other'' topic, explain what theories it encompasses.
> 
> When writing about creationism, explain what theories it encompasses.
> 
> When writing about cosmologies, mention creationism.  It happens to be one such.
> 
> Why is it necessary to flay the creationist?  Has someone here disproven that a supreme influence, possibly an intelligent one, created the universe?  Has someone read the report of a researcher who has?  I think not.  It's unfalsifiable.  So it's unscientific.  That does not make it wrong, or even irrational.  "The geologic record does not support a literal biblical version of planetary time scale and origin of species."  So how does that invalidate creationism as an overall subject?
------
Nazi_Germany|986507289
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nazi Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
> 
> The Nazi regime was characterized by brutal persecution at home, especially against targeted minority groups such as [[Jews]], [[Gypsies]], and homosexuals.  This persecution reached a peak in the last years of the regime, in which some 6 million Jews, 10 million Slavs, and sundry others, were systematically killed.  This is refered to as the [[Holocaust]].
> 
> In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in Europe, successfully invading Poland, France, and the Low Countries, while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading Greece and North Africa, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
> 
> *<b>Gleichschaltung</b>
> 
> The Nazi regime practiced [[Gleichschaltung]], a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society.  
> The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  This included unions, political parties, and non-political social organizations.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
> 
> Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of Czechoslovakis, and the whole of Austria, before launching all out war in 1939.
> 
> *<b>Prominent figures in Nazi Germany</b>:
>  [[Adolf Hitler]]
>  [[Joseph Goebbels]]
>  [[Hermann Goering]]
>  [[Heinrich Himmler]]
>  [[Erwin Rommell]]
>  [[Eva Braun]]
> 
> *<b>Noted refugees</b>:
>  [[Albert Einstein]]
>  [[Sigmund Freud]]
>  [[Friedrich Hayek]]
>  [[Ludwig von Mises]]
>  [[Niels Bohr]]
------
Nazi_Germany|986507311
1c1
< Nazi Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
---
> Nazi Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
------
WikiPediaBugs|986507322
66a67,70
> 
> Another data point.  The follow is probably related, and it is a brand-new problem I've never seen before today (or, perhaps, just the last few days)--that I can remember.  On, just for example, [[Larry Sanger]], there is a link that points directly to [[Thomas Reid]].  But when I click on the link, I am told that the page has been redirected from ThomasReid.  This shouldn't be, because (as far as I can tell) the link on [[Larry Sanger]] points directly to [[Thomas Reid]] without ThomasReid as an intermediary.  (Notice, the ThomasReid link was repointed to [[Thomas Reid]] days ago.)  By the way, as another example, on the [[Thomas Reid]] page, there's a link to [[common sense]].  But when I click through to it, I am told the page is redirected from CommonSense.  This is totally bizarre, because it's been weeks since I changed the link on [[Thomas Reid]] from CommonSense to [[common sense]].
> 
> I am thinking someone has been tweaking the code?  Jimbo perhaps? --[[LMS]]
------
Nazi_Germany|986507340
3c3
< The Nazi regime was characterized by brutal persecution at home, especially against targeted minority groups such as [[Jews]], [[Gypsies]], and homosexuals.  This persecution reached a peak in the last years of the regime, in which some 6 million Jews, 10 million Slavs, and sundry others, were systematically killed.  This is refered to as the [[Holocaust]].
---
> The Nazi regime was characterized by brutal persecution, especially against targeted minority groups such as [[Jews]], [[Gypsies]], and homosexuals.  This persecution reached a peak in the last years of the regime, in which some 6 million Jews, 10 million Slavs, and sundry others, were systematically killed.  This is refered to as the [[Holocaust]].
27c27
<  [[Niels Bohr]]
---
>  [[Niels Bohr]]
------
Nazi_Germany|986507447
10c10
< The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  This included unions, political parties, and non-political social organizations.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
---
> The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
------
Nazi_Germany|986507474
12c12
< Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of Czechoslovakis, and the whole of Austria, before launching all out war in 1939.
---
> Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out war in 1939.
------
Creationism/Talk|986507512
52a53,61
> 
> I think we all agree with your arguments, and even with your value judgement that Wikipedia articles should be fact-stating and unbiased (two very independent goals).  I think our disagreements here are with (1) the <i>standard</i> by which we decide that something is a fact, and (2) the extent of implied bias in fact-stating prose.  There is no such thing as a fact without a standard by which it is judged to be a fact--even simple observational statements like "Fred claims that grass is green" imply that someone at some point judged this to be a fact because he observed Fred saying it (thus "direct observation" being the standard), and might be argued by someone.  I happen to think "agreed upon with near unanimity by persons educated in the field" is a sufficient criterion for factualness.  Sure, that will occasionally require us to change when some new discovery upsets an established fact, but so what?  Any standard will require change--so why not choose one that's useful.  Even your stricter standard of "totally uncontroversial" is no guarantee against future change.
> 
> Further, one can easily propagandize by stating only facts.  A full page of "Creationists believe that...because..." with no reference to contradictory evidence or any other claim is clearly a propaganda piece, even though it happens to be fact-stating.  The goal of eliminating bias requires more than merely being fact-stating.  It also requires us to judge the rhetorical effect of an article, and to add rebutting facts where needed.  I also believe that it is fundamentally impossible to eliminate all bias, and the all readers of any purportedly-factual article should understand that all authors have biases, and read in that context.
> 
> I hold the additional value judgments that Wikipedia should be lucid and useful.  I believe that being overly afraid of bias sometimes compromises those goals, by cluttering articles with reportage on clearly useless beliefs held by a few minorities.  This latter is certainly open to argument.  Yes, an article specifically about Creationism (which is by its very nature a controversial belief) should probably stick to making claims about who said what, how many believe what, and how such beliefs compare to other scientific and theological beliefs.  Reporting on a controversy as a controversy is a worthwhile thing for an encyclopedia to do.  The articles should also point out arguments on both sides, but we should further report what are actual arguments and what are simply unsupported claims, because that is useful.  Even the article on evolution should probably mention that there are a few people who choose to dispute it, and point to the article on Creationism, though it should otherwise be written simply and clearly by treating it as a the ordinary uncontroversial fact it is.
> 
> General articles on biology, on the other hand, should simply treat evolution as uncontroversial, because no serious biologist disagrees, and failure to do so compromises understanding of the subject.  Articles about radiocarbon dating or tree rings should not be cluttered with an unnecessary reference to the fact that a few folks happen to believe that God placed all of the old rocks and trees here 6000 years ago, and is just trying to confuse us. --LDC
> 
54a64,65
> 
> The simple belief that the world as it exists was created by a supernatural being is not what we are talking about here.  The word "creationist" is never used to mean that; the word means denial of biological evolution, and that's what we're talking about.  What you describe is merely Theism.  --LDC
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986507605
2a3,4
> 
> I think this page should be renamed [[Why Why Wikipedia is so great is not so great]].
------
Nazi_Germany|986507666
1c1
< Nazi Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
---
> [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
5c5
< In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in Europe, successfully invading Poland, France, and the Low Countries, while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading Greece and North Africa, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
---
> In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the Low Countries, while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
9,10c9
< The Nazi regime practiced [[Gleichschaltung]], a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society.  
< The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
---
> The [[Nazi]] regime practiced [[Gleichschaltung]], a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society. The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
------
History_of_Germany|986507883
16c16
< 
---
> ''see also [[Nazi Germany]]''
------
Nazi|986507914
3c3,5
< A Neonazi movement became popular towrds the end of the 20th century, (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
---
> A Neonazi movement became popular towards the end of the 20th century, (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
> 
> ''see also [[Nazi Germany]]
------
Nazi|986507924
5c5
< ''see also [[Nazi Germany]]
---
> ''see also [[Nazi Germany]]''
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986507967
1,2c1,2
< It mixes pages of serious content with PR stuff like [[Why Wikipedia is so great]] that confuses and alienate people.
< ''See [[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]''
---
> It mixes pages of serious content with PR stuff like [[Why Wikipedia is so great]] that confuses and alienates people.
> See ''[[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]''
4c4
< I think this page should be renamed [[Why Why Wikipedia is so great is not so great]].
---
> I think this page should be renamed <i>Why "Why Wikipedia is so great" is not so great</i>.
------
Creationism/Talk|986508200
69c69
< Creationism is ''not'' an 'effort to arrive at a rational answer'. Rationality has nothing to do with it. As any theologian will tell you, the project of rationalizing the existence of a creation has fallen into disrepute for various reasons. Creationists can ''believe'' whatever they like about the history of life, but that does not mean they make scientific statements. 
---
> Creationism is ''not'' an 'effort to arrive at a rational answer'. Rationality has nothing to do with it. As any theologian will tell you, the project of rationalizing the existence of a creator has fallen into disrepute for various reasons. Creationists can ''believe'' whatever they like about the history of life, but that does not mean they make scientific statements. 
71c71
< --[[Jmlynch]
---
> --[[Jmlynch]]
90c90
< Why is it necessary to flay the creationist?  Has someone here disproven that a supreme influence, possibly an intelligent one, created the universe?  Has someone read the report of a researcher who has?  I think not.  It's unfalsifiable.  So it's unscientific.  That does not make it wrong, or even irrational.  "The geologic record does not support a literal biblical version of planetary time scale and origin of species."  So how does that invalidate creationism as an overall subject?
---
> Why is it necessary to flay the creationist?  Has someone here disproven that a supreme influence, possibly an intelligent one, created the universe?  Has someone read the report of a researcher who has?  I think not.  It's unfalsifiable.  So it's unscientific.  That does not make it wrong, or even irrational.  "The geologic record does not support a literal biblical version of planetary time scale and origin of species."  So how does that invalidate creationism as an overall subject?
------
Creationism/Talk|986508286
90c90
< Why is it necessary to flay the creationist?  Has someone here disproven that a supreme influence, possibly an intelligent one, created the universe?  Has someone read the report of a researcher who has?  I think not.  It's unfalsifiable.  So it's unscientific.  That does not make it wrong, or even irrational.  "The geologic record does not support a literal biblical version of planetary time scale and origin of species."  So how does that invalidate creationism as an overall subject?
---
> Why is it necessary to flay the creationist?  Has someone here disproven that a supreme influence, possibly an intelligent one, created the universe?  Has someone read the report of a researcher who has?  I think not.  It's unfalsifiable.  So it's unscientific.  That does not make it wrong, or even irrational.  "The geologic record does not support a literal biblical version of planetary time scale and origin of species."  So how does that invalidate creationism as an overall subject?
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986508368
4a5,11
> 
> I just followed the link that LS made...And I believe that the
> whole discussion was caused by a misunderstanding of the meaning
> of a page...maybe all pages "about" wikipedia as opposed to
> belonging to the wikipedia should be under wiki/   ...but doing
> that would cause so much work and further confusion that i don't
> think is worth it.
------
Creationism/Talk|986508498
90a91,108
> ----
> LMS - I am with you 100%
> 
> and...  
> 
> Blatantly stealing from Webster:
> 
> Main Entry: cre·a·tion·ism
> Pronunciation: -sh&-"ni-z&m
> Function: noun
> Date: 1880
> : a doctrine or theory holding that matter, the various forms of life, and the world were created by God out of nothing and ''usually'' in the way described in Genesis -- compare EVOLUTION 
> 
> Hey LDC - how do mean cerationism is ''' "never" ''' used to mean that the world as it exists was created by a supernatual being?
> 
> If webster and I are wrong as to what the word means, then we'd better re-write the wikipedia article to reflect that creationism is only anti-evolutionism and nothing else.
> ----
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986508570
104c104
< Hey LDC - how do mean cerationism is ''' "never" ''' used to mean that the world as it exists was created by a supernatual being?
---
> Hey LDC - how do mean creationism is ''' "never" ''' used to mean that the world as it exists was created by a supernatual being?
------
Creationism/Talk|986508998
105a106,107
> OK, then, describe that as another sense of the word.  The most common meaning of the word is as your definition above describes it: that various forms of life were created, as opposed to the belief that they evolved from a single earlier form.  This is what a newspaper or magazine would generally mean when they describe someone as a "creationist writer" or something.  If you choose to also use the word to mean mere theist, or to think of creationism as cosmology rather than biology, I suppose you're free to do so, but that's a second sense of the word, and perhaps separate articles should treat them as such.  --LDC
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986509393
110c110,111
< 
---
> The defense rests.  You guys divvy up creationism into different articles however you want.
> maybe there should be an article biology/creationism (how's that for an oxymoron?) and another (which is the branch under which I created this one) cosmology/creationism arrows pointed to see each other, see theism, etc.  I don't have the time right now.
------
Creationism/Talk|986509499
5d4
< 
111c110
< maybe there should be an article biology/creationism (how's that for an oxymoron?) and another (which is the branch under which I created this one) cosmology/creationism arrows pointed to see each other, see theism, etc.  I don't have the time right now.
---
> maybe there should be an article biology/creationism (how's that for an oxymoron?) and another (which is the branch under which I created this one) cosmology/creationism arrows pointed to see each other, see theism, etc.  I don't have the time right now.  Damn - I just realized my cookies have somehow been cleared.  This has been AyeSpy raving on above.  Did not mean to hide my light under a bushel...
------
Wasting_time|986510561
23c23,24
< :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+lonliest+person+in+the+world%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the lonliest person in the world]
---
> :[http://www.google.com/search?q=%22the+lonliest+person+in+the+world%22&hl=en&lr=&safe=off the lonliest person in the world]
> :[http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22thou+shall+not+use+archaic+pronouns%22 thou shall not use archaic pronouns]
------
Stud_poker|986511830
3c3
< The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use a small ante or none at all, and a bring-in.  Both fixed and spread limits are common; no limit and pot limit stud games are rare.  Each betting round begins with the player whose face-up cards make the best hand for the game being played.
---
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use a small ante or none at all, and a bring-in.  Both fixed and spread limits are common, frequently with the later betting rounds having a higher limit than earlier betting rounds.  No limit and pot limit stud games are rare.  Each betting round begins with the player whose face-up cards make the best hand for the game being played.
11c11
< Play begins with each player being dealt one card face down, followed by one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest upcard must pay the bring in, and betting proceeds after that.  If two players have equally ranked low cards, suit may be used to break the tie and assign the bring-in (clubs ranking lowest, followed by diamonds, hearts, and spades as in [[bridge]]).  If there is no bring-in, then the first betting round begins with the player showing the highest-ranking upcard, who may check.  In this case, suit should not be used to break ties.  If two players have the same high upcard, the one first in clockwise rotation from the dealer acts first.
---
> Play begins with each player being dealt one card face down, followed by one card face up (beginning as usual with the player to the dealer's left).  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest upcard must pay the bring in, and betting proceeds after that.  If two players have equally ranked low cards, suit may be used to break the tie and assign the bring-in (clubs ranking lowest, followed by diamonds, hearts, and spades as in [[bridge]]).  If there is no bring-in, then the first betting round begins with the player showing the highest-ranking upcard, who may check.  In this case, suit should not be used to break ties.  If two players have the same high upcard, the one first in clockwise rotation from the dealer acts first.
13c13,25
< After the first betting round, another face-up card is dealt to each player.  Betting now begins with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand (since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses).  On this and subsequent betting rounds, the player to act first may check or bet up to the game's limit.  The second betting round is followed by a third upcard to each player and a thid betting round, again starting with the player with the best poker hand showing (thus, the first player to act on each round may change).  A fourth face-up card and fourth betting round is followed by a showdown, if necessary (it usually won't be--most deals of five-card stud end early when a player bets and gets no calls).
---
> After the first betting round, another face-up card is dealt to each player (again stating with the player to the dealer's left, as will all subsequent rounds).  Betting now begins with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand (since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses).  On this and subsequent betting rounds, the player to act first may check or bet up to the game's limit.  The second betting round is followed by a third upcard to each player and a thid betting round, again starting with the player with the best poker hand showing (thus, the first player to act on each round may change).  A fourth face-up card and fourth betting round is followed by a showdown, if necessary (it usually won't be--most deals of five-card stud end early when a player bets and gets no calls).
> 
> Here's a sample deal: Alice deals one card face down to each player, followed by one card face up to each player, beginning with Bob and ending with herself.  Bob is dealt the 4 of spades, Carol the king of diamonds, David the 4 of diamonds, and Alice the 9 of clubs.  Because they are playing with a $1 bring-in, David is required to start the betting with a $1 bring-in (his 4 is lower than Bob's by suit).  He had the option to open the betting for more, but he chose to bet only the required $1.  The bring-in sets the current bet amount to $1, so Alice cannot check.  She decides to call.  Bob folds, indicating this by turning his upcard face down and discarding his cards.  Carol raises to $3.  David folds, and Alice calls.  Alice now deals a second face-up card to each remaining player: Carol is dealt the jack of clubs, and Alice the king of hearts.  Alice's two face-up cards make a poker hand of no pair, king-9 high, and Carol has king-jack high, so it is Carol's turn to bet.  She checks, as does Alice, ending the betting round.  Another face up card is dealt: Carol gets the 3 of hearts, and Alice gets the king of clubs.  Alice now has a pair of kings showing, and Carol still has no pair, so Alice bets first.  She bets $5, and Carol folds.  Alice wins the pot without a showdown.
> 
> <h3>Variations on five-card stud</h3>
> 
> The game can be played with low hand values, in which case the best low hand showing starts each betting round instead of the best high hand showing.  Also, the highest-ranking card must pay the bring-in if it is played with a bring-in.  If played high/low split, the highest showing hand always acts first.
> 
> The fifth and final card is dealt face down in some games.  Otherwise play is identical (the player who acted first on round three will therefore act first again on round four since no one's exposed hand has changed).  This game is described as "one down, three up, one down" or simply "1-3-1", while traditional five-card stud is called "one down, four up".
> 
> <h3>The "twist"</h3>
> 
> One can add an additional betting round in which each player is offered the option to replace one, and only one, card in his hand with a new one from the remaining deck stub.  This is similar to the draw phase of [[draw poker]], differing in the following way: if the player chooses to replace his downcard, he discards it and is dealt a replacement card also face down; if he wishes to replace an upcard, he discards it and receives the replacement face up.
15d26
< Here's a sample deal:
19c30,46
< ...
---
> <h3>Razz (seven card low)</h3>
> 
> <h3>Eight-or-better high/low</h3>
> 
> <h3>Mississippi stud</h3>
> 
> <h2>"Home" games</h2>
> 
> <h3>Chicago</h3>
> 
> <h3>Low hole card wild</h3>
> 
> <h3>Follow the queen</h3>
> 
> <h3>Draft ("Socialist poker")</h3>
> 
> <h2>Ad hoc variants</h2>
------
Nazi|986512054
3c3
< A Neonazi movement became popular towards the end of the 20th century, (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
---
> A [[Neonazi]] movement became popular towards the end of the [[20th century]], (especially among youths - [[Skinheads]]). 
------
Skinheads|986512222
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Skinheads</b> are a group of people who shave their heads and usually believe in [[fascist]] [[political]] ideas.
> 
> Skinheads gained their [[identity]] during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
> 
> It is [[incorrect]] to [[characterize]] all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas.
------
Creationism/Talk|986512261
110a111,113
> 
> Then the article is misleading: the very first sentence says that creationism is the belief that a supreme being "created the physical universe and all life contained therein."  Make up your mind: if you are a calling it a cosmology, then you can't include life, because life evolved long after the birth of the universe.  If you want to include life, then call it a biology and take your lumps from the evolutionists.  --LDC
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986513055
112a113,114
> ----
> '''Larry's Big Reply'''
113a116,146
> Before I reply, let me just say that if we can agree that [[creationism]] as it stands, apart perhaps from the fact that the evolutionist insists on having the last word, is adequately unbiased, then our dispute is probably academic.  So--on with the academic dispute!
> 
> I ''totally'' agree with your guys' attitude toward creationism.  I think it's silly nonsense, too.  Let's get that straight--we don't need to debate the merits of the theory (unless Bruce wants to do so).  Moreover, I am probably the biggest commonsense realist and defender of rationality here.  If you think my position is rooted in anything like relativism, that is excellent evidence that you don't understand my position and that you need to re-read what I've written more carefully.  Jimbo, too, is a realist and defender of rationality, and he shares my view (in generalities, at least), as you can see on NeutralPointOfView.  Gee, how can that be?  Read on.
> 
> 1. Is evolution controversial?  Yes--to the public at large, which will be reading Wikipedia.  No--to scientists.  For whom are we writing?  The public at large--''and'' scientists.  (Perhaps that's what causes our problem here.)  Lee says: "General articles on biology, on the other hand, should simply treat evolution as uncontroversial, because no serious biologist disagrees, and failure to do so compromises understanding of the subject."  I think this is wrong on two counts.  First, while evolution is uncontroversial among serious biologists, it ''is'' controversial among an alarmingly large portion of the general public; you do them and yourselves no favors by ignoring this controversy.  Second, I see no reason to believe that recognizing that nonbiologists do not accept evolution as fact in any way "undermines understanding" of evolution.  It doesn't even undermine your ''real'' goal, of course, which is to get people to ''accept'' evolution instead of getting caught up in idiotic creationist nonsense.  In fact, the opposite is true: by failing to recognize the controversy, you essentially alienate the people you most want to teach.  You would prefer indoctrination, it seems.
> 
> 2. Will we have to qualify ''every'' statement, or even ''every'' page, with a statement to the effect that it is the view of scientists?  No, of course not.  Why not?  Because it's not controversial ''to anyone.''  Will we have to highlight discredited minority views as prominently as scientific fact?  Of course not.
> 
> 3. If we do describe scientific fact as what is accepted by all or nearly all scientists, then how are we misleading ''anyone''?  The question, again, is ''how''?  Have we ''encouraged'' anyone to believe anything other than what you want them to believe?  Where's the downside you all fear?
> 
> 4. Josh writes: "Historical revisionists are probably more important even. Yes, they can be interesting, but statement of their opinions as anything even resembling potential fact isn't just wrong, it is potentially offensive."  Josh, I am ''not'' saying that historical revisionism should be presented as "anything even resembling potential fact."  I am saying that the view should be described and appropriately attributed.  How does that imply that the opinions will be presented as "anything even resembling potential fact"?  Please bear in mind that we can reserve ''plenty'' of room for '''attributed''' explanations of why mainstream historians regard various kinds of historical revisionism as so much hokum.  Our including such explanations is absolutely essential to having an unbiased encyclopedia, by the way.
> 
> 5. Josh again: "To take the extreme example, even if it invokes Godwin's law against myself, what do you suppose would be the response if we said the holocaust was something widely considered to have occured by most historians, rather than something that occured? I'd consider that an awful legitamization of some of the worst opinions available."  I would say that this is a very poor illustration (i.e., a "straw man") of my position.  I imagine we should first clearly present what is generally believed about the Holocaust; then, perhaps quite far down in the article, we should have a paragraph or two that says something to the effect that the above is accepted (in generalities anyway) by all but a very small handful of trained historians, called Holocaust deniers and revisionists, blah blah blah, and explain the facts of that.  This then ''attributes'' the claims about the Holocaust in a perfectly appropriate way and also mentions the fact that there is another (very minority) view.  At the same time, we can state that most historians (most ''people'') find such revisionism not only obviously false, but extremely morally repugnant.  I hope I am making my position clearer now.
> 
> 6. Is my position "spineless"?  Jmlynch thinks so: "in accordance with the views of 99% of theologians, scientists and philosophers, they are wrong. We should state so emphatically. To do otherwise is to be spineless. ... This, I assure you, is contrary to the aims of any good project (particularly if it is haunted by the shades of the original Encyclopediestes)."  Well, as a modern-day encyclopedist who has thought for many, many hours about this stuff (even before I started working on an encyclopedia), I can "assure you" that our doing what I ask is ''not'' in the slightest "spineless."  Well, so much for mutual assurances; now to arguments.  I think I can understand your reason for thinking so.  Your assumption appears to be that, ''if'' we do not ''explicitly'' declare something to be true, then the reader can draw certain inferences ''about us''--such as that we wish to placate creationists, or that we think creationism might be scientifically respectable, or that we might be creationists ourselves, etc., etc.  Well, no.  Reasonable people do not draw such inferences when presented with unbiased texts.  You yourself, Jim, would not typically draw such inferences--you know better, of course.  Suppose that a history text adopted a policy of failing to identify Nazi scum as the murdering bastards they were--but simply reported the facts about what they did.  Would it be reasonable to assume that the text's author(s) might just be willing to admit the possibility that the Nazis were upstanding citizens doing a service to Europe?
> 
> 7. Are being fact-stating and unbiased independent goals?  No: in order to be unbiased, you ''must'' be fact-stating.  In particular, you must be very clear about how you word the facts about what various majority and minority positions are.  I contrast (in the present context--not when I'm talking metaphysics & philosophy of language, where 'fact' is a technical term) fact with opinion; opinions can be correct (and thus fact-stating), but one ''identifies'' something ''as'' a fact to emphasize that it is not under dispute, and one ''identifies'' something ''as'' an opinion in order to emphasize that it ''is'' under dispute.  If, in our evolution article, we say that evolution is a "proven fact," while this is no doubt true (i.e., evolutionary theory has met ordinary standards of scientific evidence), the force of ''saying it'' is that evolution is simply not under dispute.  Well, it ''is'' under dispute ''by your readers,'' guys.  And (damnably) ''that's'' a fact.  You aren't going to change their minds, or make the world otherwise any safer for rationality and science (which I love at least as much as you do), by explicitly averring that evolution is a fact and creationism is false.  Actually, what you do is close off the avenues of discourse by doing so, setting up the less-rational folk in an antagonistic stance toward you, and make it harder to help them see the light.  (Think of this as intellectual diplomacy.)
> 
> 8. "Further, one can easily propagandize by stating only facts."  Very true; that's why we shouldn't refer to my position as ''merely'' that articles should be fact-stating.  They should be unbiased.  I've explained what I mean by this in many different places many different times.  "A full page of 'Creationists believe that...because...' with no reference to contradictory evidence or any other claim is clearly a propaganda piece, even though it happens to be fact-stating."  I totally agree, and I will thank you for not setting up further caricatures of my view.
> 
> 9. "I also believe that it is fundamentally impossible to eliminate all bias, and the all readers of any purportedly-factual article should understand that all authors have biases, and read in that context."  But whenever we can ''identify'' bias, we can ''eliminate'' it--one way or another, and usually by going "meta."  Give yourself some credit; people are creative; we can think of ways to eliminate bias when we spot it.  (If you're still not convince, I suspect this is because you have a useless, impossibly-restrictive concept of bias.  Personally, I prefer my concepts to be useful.)
> 
> 10. "I believe that being overly afraid of bias sometimes compromises those goals, by cluttering articles with reportage on clearly useless beliefs held by a few minorities."  Why think that articles will be ''cluttered'' with views held by minorities?  If they are minority views, they will not be ''highlighted'' and ubiquitous in the same way that the majority views will be.  That's as it should be.  No one can reasonably complain.
> 
> My conclusion:
> 
> '''We should not impose our values on other thinking people.'''  You are all liberal-minded people, I trust--not liberal politically, necessarily, but liberal in the sense that you want to free minds.  I enjoin you to think carefully about the best way to achieve this.  By failing to take stands on controversial issues, we ''aren't'' demonstrating weakness--in fact, we are demonstrating the strength of our faith in the minds of our fellow human beings.  We should let them arrive at their own conclusions.  We should trust them to use their own minds--just as ''you'' want to be trusted.  More benighted souls than our enlightened selves will appreciate our stance and be more apt to listen when we hand down the truth.
> 
> I don't know if I can make my case any more completely...
> 
> Larry
------
Skinheads|986513343
1c1
< <b>Skinheads</b> are a group of people who shave their heads and usually believe in [[fascist]] [[political]] ideas.
---
> <b>Skinheads</b> are a group of people who shave their heads and usually believe in [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas.
3c3
< Skinheads gained their [[identity]] during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
---
> Skinheads gained their identity during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
5c5
< It is [[incorrect]] to [[characterize]] all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas.
---
> It is incorrect to characterize all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas.
------
Historical_revisionism|986516240
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Historical revisionism is a type of research that aims to change people's understanding of specific historical events.  Historical revisionism thus includes legitimate historical research as well as crank theories such as [[Holocaust]] denial.
> 
> Historical revisionism is often controversial, and sometimes has the elements of a conspiracy theory.  An example is the theory that [[Franklin Roosevelt]] had prior knowledge about the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and allowed it to happen.
------
Community_card_poker|986516424
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Community card</i> games are those [[poker variant]]s in which each player is dealt an incomplete hand, which is combined with cards dealt face-up to the center of the table and shared by all players to make a complete hand.
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general game play of poker, and with hand values (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what betting structure is used.  In home games, it is typical to use antes, while casinos typically use only blinds.   Fixed betting limits are common, as are no limit games; spread limit and pot limit games are less common.  As with [[stud poker]], later betting rounds often have a higher limit than earlier betting rounds.  Each betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left (when blinds are used, the first round begins with the player after the big blind).
> 
> Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left. 
> 
> <h2>Texas hold'em</h2>
> 
> <h3>Pineapple (and Crazy Pineapple, Tahoe)</h3>
> 
> <h2>Omaha hold'em</h2>
> 
> <h3>Cincinnatti</h3>
> 
> <h3>Chowaha</h3>
> 
> <h2>Oxford stud</h2>
> 
> <h2>"Home" games</h2>
> 
> <h3>Tic tac toe</h3>
> 
> <h3>Iron cross</h3>
> 
> <h3>Lame brain Pete</h3>
> 
> <h2>Ad hoc variants</h2>
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986516544
119a120,121
> ''Why on earth would I wanna do that, Larry?  It's not like I advocate Creationism as such or anything.  I only tried to point out that beating on the creationists is counter-productive. - AyeSpy (aka BrucieBaby)''
> 
121a124,125
> ''I think you may overestimate the controversy over evolution in the general public, but I agree with your point wholeheatedly - AyeSpy''
> 
131a136,137
> ''Factually, I have read some very dry and "non-judgemental" accounts, practically devoid of adjectives.  They still gave me the heebeejeebees and I never thought for a moment the author favored the Nazis. - AyeSpy''
> 
146c152,154
< Larry
---
> ''No need to... - AyeSpy''
> 
> Larry
------
BrucieBaby|986516598
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AyeSpy
------
FootBall|986516818
27,29c27
< Here at Wikipedia, in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the Earth, we shall call this sport AmericanFootball
< 
< (Please someone that knows more about this that me, complete/correct it)
---
> Here at Wikipedia, in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the Earth, we shall call this sport AmericanFootball (which see).
------
American_football|986516882
11a12,13
> ----
> /glossary
------
American_football|986516897
13c13
< /glossary
---
> /Glossary
------
Stud_poker|986516918
26a27
> <h3>Roll your own</h3>
30c31
< <h3>Razz (seven card low)</h3>
---
> <h3>Razz (and London lowball)</h3>
33a35,36
> <h3>English stud</h3>
> 
35a39,40
> <h2>Mexican poker</h2>
> 
44a50,51
> 
> <h3>Cowpie</h3>
------
Poker|986517072
23a24,26
> * Cheating
> ** Mechanics
> ** Collusion
------
American_football/Glossary|986517291
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[forward pass]]
> [[football tackle|tackle]]
> [[Player]]
> [[punt]]
> [[football down|down]]
> [[football play|play]]
> [[football dead|dead]]
> [[football back|back]]
> [[kickoff]]
> [[football goal|goal]]
> [[end zone]]
------
American_football/Glossary|986517342
3c3
< [[Player]]
---
> [[football player|player]]
------
Football_player|986517719
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /Tackle
> 
> /Center
> 
> 
> /Back
> 
> /Halfback
> 
> /Fullback
> 
> /Quarterback
> 
> /Tight end
> 
> /Center
> 
> /Defensive back
> 
> /End
> 
> /Tight end
> 
> /Wide receiver
> 
> /I back
> 
> /Cornerback
> 
> /Nose tackle
> 
> /Guard
> 
> /Safety
> 
> /Free safety
> 
> /Wide out
> 
> /Punter
> 
> /Place kicker
> 
> /Kick returner
> 
> 
------
Creationism/Talk|986518814
154a155,162
> 
> ----
> Yes, well said.  Perhaps my initial reaction comes from a different mindset about the "audience" of our work, since I generally think of encyclopedias as things used by schoolchildren, or adults looking for quick explanations of things outside their fields of expertise.  Your view seems more appropriate to a collaboratively built growing record of  facts, usable as a resource even for those with expertise.  I certainly cannot argue with that vision, or your method for achieving it.
> 
> I would like to expand upon something you mentioned in passing that I think is important: you mentioned that an article might written largely as though uncontroversial, <i>followed</i> by a mention that the text above is believed by a majority, but controversial in that others believe something else (which is then linked to).  I think this is a great method of doing it, and if using this technique meets with your approval I wholeheartedly endorse it as a way to write both lucidly and without bias.  This seems appropriate for the article on the majority view, while the article on the minority view might be written more from the minority's own viewpoint (though careful to remain fact-stating).
> 
> Finally, I have encountered some places where I think minor amounts of open bias in an otherwise factual article is useful and not very controversial, so some simple method of doing those appropriately is needed.  The specific example I have in mind is my pages on [[poker]], which are full of opinions like "X makes a more interesting game than Y", or "game X is best played with betting structure Y", or "clay chips are easier to use than thin plastic ones", and so on.  I originally wrote most of this text as a potential book which was full of my personal opinions.  In the process of Wikifying it have removed opinions that were more significant and might be more controversial ("many casinos have rule X, which is stupid and counterproductive"), but those other little tidbits are the kind of thing I think someone learning the game of poker from a text such as this will want to know, and I think it's a waste of time to reword them all into "many poker players believe..." form.  Of course if someone does object at some point (perhaps a manufacturer of plastic chips?), then rewording and pointing to other opinions might be necessary, but until then, I think they are clean and useful as they are.  --LDC
> 
------
Poker/Betting_structure|986519992
33c33
< A universal rule in American casinos, and common in home games as well, is that any raise must at least equal the amount of the previous bet.  For example, if a player in a spread limit or no limit game bets $5, the next player may raise by another $5 or more, but he may not raise by only $2, even if that would otherwise conform to the game's structure.  The primary purpose of this rule is to avoid game delays caused by "nuisance" raises (small raises of large bets that don't affect the bet amount much but that take time).  This rule is often overridden by table stakes rules (see below), so that a player may in fact raise a $5 bet by $2 if that $2 is his entire remaining stake.
---
> A universal rule in American casinos, and common in home games as well, is that any raise must at least equal the amount of the previous raise.  For example, if a player in a spread limit or no limit game bets $5, the next player may raise by another $5 or more, but he may not raise by only $2, even if that would otherwise conform to the game's structure.  The primary purpose of this rule is to avoid game delays caused by "nuisance" raises (small raises of large bets that don't affect the bet amount much but that take time).  This rule is often overridden by table stakes rules (see below), so that a player may in fact raise a $5 bet by $2 if that $2 is his entire remaining stake.
43c43
< When a player is faced with a current bet amount that he has insufficient remaining stake to call, and he wishes to call (he may of course fold without the need of special rules), he bets the remainder of his stake and declares himself <i>all in</i>.  He may now hold onto his cards for the remainder of the deal as if he had called every bet, but he may not win any more money from any player above the amount of his bet.  For example, let's assume that the first player in a betting round opens for $20, and the next player to bet only has $5 remaining of his stake.  He bets the $5, declaring himself all in, and holds onto his cards.  The next player in turn still has the $20 bet facing him, and if he can cover it he must call $20 or fold.  If he calls $20, thus ending the betting round, instead of collecting all bets into the central pot as usual, the following procedure is applied: since there is an all in player with only $5 bet, his $5, and $5 from each of the other players, is collected into the central pot, now called the <i>main pot</i>, as if the final bet had been only $5.  This main pot (including any antes or bets from pervious rounds) is the most the all in player is eligible to win.  The remaining money from the still-active bettors, in this case $15 apiece, is collected into a <i>side pot</i> that only the players who contributed to it are eligible to win.  If there are further betting rounds, all bets are placed into the side pot while the all in player continues to hold onto he cards but does not participate in further betting.  Upon the showdown, the players eligible for the side pot--and only those players--reveal their hands, and the winner among them takes the side pot, regardless of what the all in player holds (indeed, before he even shows).  After the side pot is awarded, the all in player then shows his hand, and if it is superior to all others shown, he wins the main pot (otherwise he loses as usual).
---
> When a player is faced with a current bet amount that he has insufficient remaining stake to call, and he wishes to call (he may of course fold without the need of special rules), he bets the remainder of his stake and declares himself <i>all in</i>.  He may now hold onto his cards for the remainder of the deal as if he had called every bet, but he may not win any more money from any player above the amount of his bet.  For example, let's assume that the first player in a betting round opens for $20, and the next player to bet only has $5 remaining of his stake.  He bets the $5, declaring himself all in, and holds onto his cards.  The next player in turn still has the $20 bet facing him, and if he can cover it he must call $20 or fold.  If he calls $20, thus ending the betting round, instead of collecting all bets into the central pot as usual, the following procedure is applied: since there is an all in player with only $5 bet, his $5, and $5 from each of the other players, is collected into the central pot, now called the <i>main pot</i>, as if the final bet had been only $5.  This main pot (which may include any antes or bets from pervious rounds) is the most the all in player is eligible to win.  The remaining money from the still-active bettors, in this case $15 apiece, is collected into a <i>side pot</i> that only the players who contributed to it are eligible to win.  If there are further betting rounds, all bets are placed into the side pot while the all in player continues to hold his cards but does not participate in further betting.  Upon the showdown, the players eligible for the side pot--and only those players--reveal their hands, and the winner among them takes the side pot, regardless of what the all in player holds (indeed, before he even shows).  After the side pot is awarded, the all in player then shows his hand, and if it is superior to all others shown, he wins the main pot (otherwise he loses as usual).
45c45
< There is a strategic advantage to being all in: you cannot be bluffed, because you are entitled to hold your cards and win the pot without risking any more money.  The players who continue to bet after you are all in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to your advantage.  But these advantages are more than offset by the disadvantage that you cannot win any more money than what your stake can cover.  After all, the object of poker is not to win hands--it is to win money.
---
> There is a strategic advantage to being all in: you cannot be bluffed, because you are entitled to hold your cards and win the pot without risking any more money.  The players who continue to bet after you are all in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to your advantage since they reduce your competition without risk to you.  But these advantages are more than offset by the disadvantage that you cannot win any more money than what your stake can cover.  After all, the object of poker is not to win hands--it is to win money.
47c47
< If a player goes all in with a raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play.  There are two rules in common use here: pot limit and no limit games always use what is called the <i>full bet</i> rule, while smaller fixed or spread limit games use either the full bet rule or the <i>half bet</i> rule.  The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all in raise does not equal the full amount of the previous bet, it does not consitute a raise, and therefore does not reopen the betting action.  The half bet rule states that if an all in raise is equal to or larger than half the bet being raised, it does constitute a raise and reopens the action.  For example, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $25.  He may raise to $25, declaring himself all in, but this doesn't consitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $25, and the first player's turn to act comes up, he must now call the additional $5, but he does not have the right to reraise further.  The all in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though he must still equalize by putting in the additional $5).  If the half bet rule is being used, and the all in player had raised to $30 instead of $25, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to reraise if he chose to (this would create a side pot for the amount of his reraise and the third player's call, if any).
---
> If a player goes all in with a raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play.  There are two options in common use here: pot limit and no limit games always use what is called the <i>full bet</i> rule, while smaller fixed or spread limit games use either the full bet rule or the <i>half bet</i> rule.  The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all in raise does not equal the full amount of the previous raise, it does not consitute a "real" raise, and therefore does not reopen the betting action.  The half bet rule states that if an all in raise is equal to or larger than half the bet being raised, it does constitute a raise and reopens the action.  For example, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $25.  He may raise to $25, declaring himself all in, but this doesn't consitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $25, and the first player's turn to act comes up, he must now call the additional $5, but he does not have the right to reraise further.  The all in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though he must still equalize the money by putting in the additional $5).  If the half bet rule were being used, and the all in player had raised to $30 instead of $25, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to reraise if he chose to (this would create a side pot for the amount of his reraise and the third player's call, if any).
------
Musical_Genres|986522394
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rap/Hip Hop
------
Condensed_matter_physics|986522682
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term <i>condensed matter</i> includes the solid and liquid states of matter.
> 
> * Solids
> ** [[Superconductivity]]
> * Surfaces and interfaces
> * Soft matter
> ** Polymers
> ** Membranes
> ** Liquid crystals
> *Liquids
> 
------
Physics|986522779
60c60
< * [[Rheology]]
---
> * [[Rheology]]
------
Superconductivity|986525275
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Superconductitivy is the complete disappearance of electrical resitance in certain materials when cooled to low temperatures.
> 
> <b>Historical highlights</b>
> *<b>1911</b>
> : Superconductivity is discovered by Heike Kammerlingh Onnes in mercury (Hg) at temperatures less than 4 K.
> 
> *<b>1957</b>
> : John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer put forth a succesful theory of superconductivity (now called the BCS theory).
> 
> *<b>1986</b>
> : Superconductivity at about 30 K is discovered by Bednorz and Müller (from IBM Zürich) in oxides. The phenomenon is termed <i>high temperature superconductivity</i> (HTSC).
> 
> *<b>1987</b>
> : First HTSC with T>77 K. This makes it possible to cool the superconducters with liquid N<sub>2</sub>.
> 
> *<b>1993</b>
> : Record critical temperature: T=133 K in a Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O system.
> 
> *<b>2001</b>
> : Supercondutivity at nearly 40 K is discovered in the simple system of magnesium diboride. The result was reported at conference in january, and has sparked a huge activity in the research community.
> 
------
Superconductivity|986526665
1c1
< Superconductitivy is the complete disappearance of electrical resitance in certain materials when cooled to low temperatures.
---
> <i>Superconductitivy</i> is the complete disappearance of electrical resitance in certain materials, which typically occurs when they are cooled to low temperatures.
5c5
< : Superconductivity is discovered by Heike Kammerlingh Onnes in mercury (Hg) at temperatures less than 4 K.
---
> : Superconductivity is discovered by Heike Kammerlingh Onnes in [[mercury]] at temperatures less than 4 K.
------
Tensors|986527896
25a26,28
> 
> I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so!
> --Gavin E. Mendel-Gleason
------
Tensors|986528029
27c27,28
< I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so!
---
> ''I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so! 
> Oh, also, its a real pain to type set tensors, any suggestions?''
------
Tensors|986528055
27,28c27,28
< ''I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so! 
< Oh, also, its a real pain to type set tensors, any suggestions?''
---
> I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so! 
> Oh, also, its a real pain to type set tensors, any suggestions?
------
Condensed_matter_physics|986528184
11c11
< 
---
> ** [[Super fluids]]
------
Super_fluids|986528352
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Superfluids are fluids that exhibit zero viscosity.  Helium is a superfluid at low temperatures.  This is usually explained as being a result of [[Bose Einstien statistics]].
------
Tensors|986528905
15c15
< <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors |<strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong>| with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
---
> <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors |<strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong>| with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986529857
3a4,5
> ----
> Whiskey Tango Foxtrot, over?
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|986530076
23a24
> ## [[Kranzbergs 5th Law of Technology]]
------
Kranzbergs_5th_Law_of_Technology|986530136
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kranzberg's 5th Law of Technology states that: "All history is relevant, but the history of technology is the most relevant."
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|986530277
24a25
> ## [[History of the Petroleum Industry]]
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry|986530553
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> History of the Petroleum Industry:
> # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/Prior to 1859|Prior to 1859]]
> # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1859 to 1913|1859 to 1913]]
> # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1914 to 1941|1914 to 1941]]
> # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1941 to 1973|1941 to 1973]]
> # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1973 to 1998|1973 to 1998]]
> 
------
Monty_Python|986530924
9a10
> *[[Eric Idle]]
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986531049
5a6,9
> ----
> 'Monty Python' is the name of the comedy troupe.  '[[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]' was the name of their televisions show.  [[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]] was the name of one of their movies.
> 
> I'll fix this up on the main page, possibly after dinner. - Tim
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|986531237
25a26,34
> ### Prior to 1859
> #### [[History of the Petroleum Industry/Early uses of petroleum|Early uses of petroleum]]
> #### [[History of the Petroleum Industry/Prior to 1859 in the USA|In the USA]]
> ##### [[Salt Drilling]]
> ##### [[Early Coal Oil]]
> ### 1859 to 1913
> ### 1914 to 1941
> ### 1941 to 1973
> ### 1973 to 1998
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry/Early_uses_of_petroleum|986531878
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by ''homo sapiens'' for over 5000 years.  Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper echelons of their society.  Ancient Chinese were also known to burn skimmed oil for light.
> 
> The Early 19th Century ushered in petroleum's usefulness as a medicine and lubricant.  But, it first successful uses proved to be lighting and heating.
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986532036
9a10,11
> ----
> TS, sorry, took me a minute to figure out what you were talking about.  Yes, the main Monty Python opage is incorrect and should be altered to reflect your points.
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry|986532065
1,6c1
< History of the Petroleum Industry:
< # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/Prior to 1859|Prior to 1859]]
< # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1859 to 1913|1859 to 1913]]
< # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1914 to 1941|1914 to 1941]]
< # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1941 to 1973|1941 to 1973]]
< # [[History of the Petroleum Industry/1973 to 1998|1973 to 1998]]
---
> 
------
Juneau|986532752
3c3,7
< Juneau has 30.000 people, one bridge to Douglas Island, an aiport and dead-end roads.  If you want to bring your car to Juneau, you'll have to put it on a barge or a ferry first.
---
> Juneau has 30.000 people, several glaciers near hiking trails, one bridge to Douglas Island, an aiport, and dead-end roads.  If you want to bring your car to Juneau, you'll have to put it on a barge or a ferry first.
> 
> Auke and Taku people lived here.  After gold was found, a mining camp sprang up.  The town was organized in 1881.  By the turn of the century, the placer miners had wandered on, but large underground mines were being developed.  Juneau was a gritty mining town up through the 1940s.  The mines shut down (under wartime orders, not considered essential).
> 
> After the completion of the Alyeska pipeline (to take petroleum from the Arctic shore to the Pacific coast), Juneau grew with the growth of state government. 
------
Double-hulled_tanker|986533335
5c5
< Double-hulled tankers were required after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. (I think this is true - but need confirmation)
---
> Double-hulled tankers were required after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.   The US Congress passed The Oil Protection Act of 1990 requiring double-hull tankers now, but allowing the transportation companies until 2015 to replace the tankers.
------
Cultural_anthropology|986533797
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of human beings in groups, categorized by habitat, economic system, language, government, or religion.
> [Americans]
> 	
> [Eskimos]
> 	
> [hunters-gatherers]
> [nomads]
> [Romans]
------
Beadwork|986534069
12,13c12
< A number of [[Bead artists|bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available, but most are not
< very good.
---
> A number of [[Bead artists|bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
------
Road_Transport|986534077
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Romans built great roads.  They used deep roadbeds of crushed stone.  The legions made good time on these roads and some are still used millennia later.
> 
> Paving roads reduces dust.  Farm roads were paved first on the way into town, to keep produce clean.
> 
> Bicyclists campaigned for good roads early on.
> 
> Australia has huge, fast truck trailer combinations called road trains.
> 
> For many years, the British and the Americans drove on the other side of the road.  In American cars, the driver sits on the left and the car goes on the right side of the road. 
> 
------
Monty_Pythons_Flying_Circus|986534302
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Monty Python's Flying Circus</b> was [[comedy]] [[television]] series that originally aired in Britain from 1969 until 1974.  It became of hit series in Britain and soon after was syndicated to the [[United States]], where it earned a huge cult following.
> 
> The show was written by and starred the members of the [[Monty Python]] comedy troupe, [[Graham Chapman]], [[John Cleese]], [[Terry Gilliam]], [[Eric Idle]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Michael Palin]], as well as [[Carol Cleveland]], and other bit players.
> 
> The show was characterized by numerous, usually unrelated skits that came and went at a frenetic pace.  The skits ranged from the completely silly and non-sensical, to the bitingly satirical.  The show often targeted the idiosyncracies of British life, and was at times politically charged.  The members of Monty Python were highly educated, and their comedy was often pointedly intelligent, with numerous references to philosophers and literary figures.  They frequently appeared in women's clothes.
> 
> The show aged very well and remains widely popular decades later.  Because of its frequent rebroadcasts, many of its skits have become ingrained into English-speaking culture, and are commonly referenced in other shows, movies, etc.
> 
> Well-know skits include:
>  [[/Dead Parrot]]
>  [[/Spam|Spam]]
>  [[/The Argument Clinic|The Argument Clinic]]
>  [[/The Cheese Shop|The Cheese Shop]]
>  [[/The Funniest Joke in the World|The Funniest Joke in the World]]
>  [[/The Lumberjack Song|The Lumberjack Song]]
>  [[/The Ministry of Silly Walks|The Ministry of Silly Walks]]
>  [[/The Spanish Inquistion|The Spanish Inquistion]]
> 
> The first episode was recorded September 7, 1969, and the first broadcast was October 5, 1969.  The final episode was recorded November 16, 1974, and the final original broadcast was on December 5, 1974.  There were a total of 45 episodes.  No new episodes were produced from the October, 1970 until December, 1971, and no original broadcasts occured from December, 1970 through October 1972.  John Cleese did not appear in the final six episodes of the series.
> 
------
Television|986534350
11c11
< :[[Monty_Python]]
---
> :[[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]
------
Monty_Pythons_Flying_Circus|986534471
5c5
< The show was characterized by numerous, usually unrelated skits that came and went at a frenetic pace.  The skits ranged from the completely silly and non-sensical, to the bitingly satirical.  The show often targeted the idiosyncracies of British life, and was at times politically charged.  The members of Monty Python were highly educated, and their comedy was often pointedly intelligent, with numerous references to philosophers and literary figures.  They frequently appeared in women's clothes.
---
> The show was characterized by numerous, usually unrelated skits that came and went at a frenetic pace.  The skits ranged from the completely silly and non-sensical, to the bitingly satirical.  The show often targeted the idiosyncracies of British life, and was at times politically charged.  The members of Monty Python were highly educated, and their comedy was often pointedly intelligent, with numerous references to philosophers and literary figures.  They frequently appeared in women's clothes.  Skits were often punctauted with Terry Gilliam's graphics and animations, which tended to be quite bizarre.
10c10
<  [[/Dead Parrot]]
---
>  [[/Dead Parrot|Dead Parrot]]
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986534622
1,3c1
< Part of the [[legislative branch]] of the government of the [[United States]].  Each [[United States/States|state]] elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
< 
< In what part of the [[United States Constitution]] is the Senate described?
---
> Part of the [[legislative branch]] of the government of the [[United States]].  Each [[United States/States|state]] elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
------
United_States_Congress|986534896
1c1
< The [[legislative branch]] of the [[United States]] government.  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
---
> The [[legislative branch]] of the [[United States]] government.  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]] of the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
------
Monty_Python|986535125
1,3c1
< <b>Monty Python</b> was an [[England]] based [[comedy]] [[television]] show that aired from 1969 until 1974 (dates correct ?).
< 
< It is most famous for creating many silly [[skit]]s that are referenced in many other television shows and movies.
---
> A comedy troupe formed in England in the late 1960s which rose to international fame with its hit television series [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]].  
11,12c9,16
< *[[Carol Cleveland]]
< ??
---
> *[[Terry Gilliam]]
> 
> The entire group was English except for Gilliam, who is American.  Jones was born in Wales, so he may very well be Welsh, rather than English.
> 
> After 'Flying Circus' ceased production in 1974, the group began making full-length motion pictures.  These include:
> *[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]
> *[[Life of Brian]]
> *[[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]]
14c18
< plus very odd [[animated]] graphics by [[Terry Gilliam]]
---
> Each member pursued other film and television projects, often working with one another.  Many of these were very successful, such as [[A Fish Called Wanda]], starring Cleese and Palin.
15a20
> Graham Chapman died in 1989 of cancer.
17,18d21
< ----
< [[Monty Python/Talk|/Talk]]
------
United_States_Senate|986535168
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States/Congress/Senate]]
------
Monty_Python|986535221
16c16
< *[[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]]
---
> *[[Monty Pythons The Meaning of Life|Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]]
------
United_States_Senate|986535309
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[United States/Congress/Senate]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Congress/Senate]]
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986535403
1c1,6
< Part of the [[legislative branch]] of the government of the [[United States]].  Each [[United States/States|state]] elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
---
> Part of the [[legislative branch]] of the government of the [[United States]].  Each [[United States/States|state]] elects two [[SenatorsOfTheUnitedStates|senators]].
> 
> = [[\Procedures]]
> = [[\Majority leader]]
> = [[\Minority whip]]
> = [[\Committees]]
------
United_States_Congress/Senate|986535472
3,6c3,6
< = [[\Procedures]]
< = [[\Majority leader]]
< = [[\Minority whip]]
< = [[\Committees]]
---
> * [[/Procedures]]
> * [[/Majority leader]]
> * [[/Minority whip]]
> * [[/Committees]]
------
Condensed_matter_physics|986535614
7c7
< ** Polymers
---
> ** [[Polymer|Polymers]]
------
Gardening|986535944
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The craft of growing [[plant]]s, typically outdoors, for food or beauty.  [[Vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[flower]]s are all grown in [[garden]]s -- sometimes in the same gardens, but often separately.  (Can anyone do better than this?)
> 
> See also [[Vegetable farming]].
------
Herb|986536082
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A plant grown for culinary or medicinal value.  Herbs are distinguished from [[vegetable]]s in that they are used in small quantities and provide flavor rather than substance to food.  Herbs are generally distinguished from [[spice]]s in that they grow in temperate climates and are often used fresh rather than dried.
------
FootBall|986536901
1,31c1
< Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term FootBall, primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world.  Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area.  The agreement ends there.
< 
< 
< If you are outside the United States, FootBall means:
< 
< Two teams of eleven players each fight to get a spherical ball into the other team's goal.
< 
< The players are not allowed to touch the ball with their arms or shoulders.
< 
< Each team has a goal keeper that is allowed to touch the ball with his arms and shoulders when he is standing within the marked area around the home goal, which is called the PenaltyArea (aka the "box").
< 
< A match lasts 90 minutes (two halves - 45 minutes each) plus 2-5 minutes of injury time.
< 
< In many countries (mainly in SouthAmerica and EuropE) FootBall is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (''See HooliGans'').
< 
< The major event is the WorldCup which is held every four years and in which 32 countries take part. 
< 
< In the United States, the previous definition corresponds to SocceR.
< ----
< 
< However, if you are in the [[United States]], FootBall is something different:
< 
< Two teams fight for control of an oval ball, which they have to
< carry in the arms and/or pass to another player on the same team,
< until the ball is stopped or the player carrying the ball get to the end of the field.
< 
< Here at Wikipedia, in the interests of peace among all the peoples of the Earth, we shall call this sport AmericanFootball (which see).
< 
< ----
< ''see'' /Talk
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Football]]
------
Cultural_anthropology|986537106
8a9,10
> 
> ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article, the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
------
Cultural_anthropology|986537120
10c10
< ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article, the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
---
> ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article (or two or three), the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
------
Oregon|986537126
19c19
< By the 1820s and 1830s the British [[Hudson's Bay Company]] dominated the Pacific Northwest. [[John McLoughlin]], who was appointed the Company's Chief Factor of the Columbia District, built [[Fort Vancouver]] in 1825. 
---
> By the 1820s and 1830s the British [[Hudsons Bay Company]] dominated the Pacific Northwest. [[John McLoughlin]], who was appointed the Company's Chief Factor of the Columbia District, built [[Fort Vancouver]] in 1825. 
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|986537172
26c26
< New Categories (not traditional, i.e. sculpture, painting)
---
> New Categories (not traditional, i.e. sculpture, classical painting)
33a34
> ::[[Graffiti art]]
------
Visual_Arts_and_Design|986537254
30a31
> :[[Graffiti art]]
34c35
< ::[[Graffiti art]]
---
> 
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|986537422
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in Canada.  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.   In 1859, the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|986537446
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in Canada.  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.   In 1859, the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in Canada.  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.   In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
------
Graffiti|986537775
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Graffiti in general is the action of writing on things which don't belong to you. In the past this has included everything from cave walls to Roman baths, and nowadays it has evolved into a (still mostly illegal) art form of its own, with a modern history, master practitioners, categories of style, etc. See Art Crimes at http://www.graffiti.org for more information.
------
MrTAteMyBalls|986537888
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> !
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986539651
31c31,43
< Well, in the future, I'll make an effort to speak only for myself, then.  Anyway, who was ''asking'' you to acquiesce?  Why should anyone care whether you, I, or anyone does or does not acquiesce?  This is a ''wiki''!  :-)  You can still create that [[why Wikipedia is not so great]] page, y'know. --[[LMS]]
---
> Well, in the future, I'll make an effort to speak only for myself, then.  Anyway, who was ''asking'' you to acquiesce?  Why should anyone care whether you, I, or anyone does or does not acquiesce?  This is a ''wiki''!  :-)  You can still create that [[why Wikipedia is not so great]] page, y'know. --[[LMS]]----
> Watch my lips!!! "NO FURTHER COMMENT" but with the caveat that silence is not acquiessence.
> Translation: I will no longer take part in this conversation, but that does not mean I agree with you.. And :
> 
> "You can still create that [[why Wikipedia is not so great]] page, y'know." 
> 
> But, Your "we" already did it. Finally, you said:
> 
> "This is a ''wiki''!"  On the contrary you and others are trying to make what "was" a Wiki into an encylcopedia.  
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Elephant|986540684
7c7
< *[[white elephant]]
---
> *[[White elephant]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986540780
39a40,41
> ----
> A wiki is a community project.  The purpose to which the software can be put is wide open.  A wiki can be an encyclopedia, eh?
41,43c43
< 
< 
< 
---
> By the way, I never interpret silence as agreement. --[[LMS]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk|986540801
43c43,45
< By the way, I never interpret silence as agreement. --[[LMS]]
---
> By the way, I never interpret silence as agreement. --[[LMS]]
> 
> P.S. OK, ''rarely.''  :-)
------
Herb|986541930
1a2,4
> 
> <i>My impression of the herb/spice distinction is that herbs are generally the green parts of a plant, while spices are generally seeds, berries, and other parts.  For example, coriander is a spice and cilantro is an herb, even though the former is the seed of the latter.</i>
> 
------
Skinheads|986543272
3c3
< Skinheads gained their identity during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
---
> Skinheads gained their identity during the late [[1970s]], [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
5c5
< It is incorrect to characterize all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas.
---
> It is incorrect to characterize all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
------
Soccer|986544553
1c1
< The [[Sport]] called [[Football]] in the rest of the world is called soccer in the [[United States]].  The official name of the sport is [[association football]].  The word soccer is slang derived from the abbreviation "assoc".
---
> The [[sport]] called [[football]] in most the rest of the world is called soccer in the [[United States]] and a few other countries.  One official name of the sport is [[association football]].  The origin of the word 'soccer' is a slang abbreviation of "association."
------
Superconductivity|986545365
2a3,8
> [[Superconductor]]s are...
> 
> Superconductivity, in general, is used for...
> 
> Some technological innovations due to the discovery of superconductivity include...
> 
------
Skinheads|986545711
1,5c1
< <b>Skinheads</b> are a group of people who shave their heads and usually believe in [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas.
< 
< Skinheads gained their identity during the late [[1970s]], [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].
< 
< It is incorrect to characterize all skinheads as believing in fascist political ideas (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
---
> <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|986545745
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in Canada.  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.   In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]].  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
------
Siam|986546169
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Siam is the old name for the country that now is called [[Thailand]].
------
Scientology|986547672
33,38c33
< As with all new [[religion]]s, Scientology has faced skepticism and occasional attacks from the religious and secular establishments of its day. Some
< of the early responses to these attacks have been characterized as intemperate and ill-conceived and have, in themselves, brought further
< censure on the young church. As acceptance of the church has grown, so, too, have the methods of the church in responding to its critics
< matured. The result has been steadily decreasing friction between Scientology and the surrounding society in recent years. There remain
< European governments whose official antagonism toward Scientology is quite strong. Adherents in those nations face an uphill battle in gaining
< acceptance.
---
> The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive courses, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation or steps to stop the possibility to offer Scientology courses under other pretenses.
------
Scientology|986547755
33c33
< The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive courses, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation or steps to stop the possibility to offer Scientology courses under other pretenses.
---
> The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
------
Scientology/Talk|986547964
15a16,19
> 
> ----
> 
> I have re-written the last paragraph from a Scientology-positive point of view to a Scientology-negative one in neutralised wording. I hope this alleviates the problems mentioned above. -- [[Andre Engels]]
------
Trilobita|986548050
4a5,6
> ''Is 'milipedes' supposed to be 'isopods (pill bugs)'?  My impression is that Millipedes curl up into horizontal spirals rather than trilobite like spheres.  But I'm no entymologist.  I can't even spell entymologist.''
> 
------
New_topics|986548210
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 3rd April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 5th April, Wikipedia server time
4,78d3
< [[1970s]] -- 
< [[1977/Talk]] -- 
< [[1999]] -- 
< [[2000/Talk]] -- 
< [[Abortion]] -- 
< [[Abstract]] -- 
< [[Baby_One_More_Time]] -- 
< [[Being]] -- 
< [[Bird]] -- 
< [[Branchiopoda]] -- 
< [[Burn_card]] -- 
< [[Category_of_being]] -- 
< [[Coitus_interruptus]] -- 
< [[Columbia_1]] -- 
< [[Computer_Monitor/Talk]] -- 
< [[Concrete/Talk]] -- 
< [[Concrete]] -- 
< [[Condom]] -- 
< [[Contraception]] -- 
< [[Country_codes]] -- 
< [[Double-hulled_tanker]] -- 
< [[Draw_poker]] -- 
< [[Drink]] -- 
< [[Ediacarian]] -- 
< [[Erotica]] -- 
< [[Fish]] -- 
< [[Food/Talk]] -- 
< [[Food/talk]] -- 
< [[Food]] -- 
< [[Food_and_drink]] -- 
< [[Gemini_10]] -- 
< [[Individual]] -- 
< [[Joseph_Stalin]] -- 
< [[Kludge]] -- 
< [[Kluge]] -- 
< [[Law_of_excluded_middle]] -- 
< [[Law_of_non-contradiction/Talk]] -- 
< [[Law_of_non-contradiction]] -- 
< [[Lowball]] -- 
< [[Lyrics1977]] --  
< [[Mammal]] -- 
< [[Meat]] -- 
< [[Morning_after_pill]] -- 
< [[Newspeak]] -- 
< [[Niels_Bohr]] -- 
< [[Nobel_Prize/Peace]] -- 
< [[OPEC]] -- 
< [[Ontology]] -- 
< [[Particular]] -- 
< [[Petroleum]] -- 
< [[Philology]] -- 
< [[Poker/Betting_structure]] -- 
< [[Poker/Hands2]] -- 
< [[Poker/Hands]] -- 
< [[Poker/Variants]] -- 
< [[Poker_hand]] -- 
< [[Poker_variant]] -- 
< [[Poultry]] -- 
< [[Reduction]] -- 
< [[Richard_Petty]] -- 
< [[Sea_Transport]] -- 
< [[Seafood]] -- 
< [[Sexology]] -- 
< [[Shamanism]] -- 
< [[Soviet_Union/Leaders]] -- 
< [[Soviet_Union/Talk]] -- 
< [[Talk_Page]] -- 
< [[Troll]] -- 
< [[TrySomething]] -- 
< [[Why_Wikipedia_is_so_great/Talk]] -- 
< [[Y2K]] -- 
< [[Yahoo/Talk]] -- 
< [[Year_2000_problem]] -- 
< [[Year_in_Review/Backward]] -- 
< [[Year_in_Review/Guidelines]]
79a5,89
> [[1980s]] -- 
> [[1990s]] -- 
> [[A.E. van Vogt]] --
> [[AOLamer]] -- 
> [[Alan_Alda]] -- 
> [[American_Revolutionary_War]] -- 
> [[American_football/Glossary]] -- 
> [[American_football]] -- 
> [[Ampere]] -- 
> [[Batch_job]] -- 
> [[BrucieBaby]] -- 
> [[Calendar]] -- 
> [[Candela]] -- 
> [[Censorship]] -- 
> [[Cladistics]] -- 
> [[Community_card_poker]] -- 
> [[Condensed_matter_physics]] -- 
> [[Cosmology/Inflation]] -- 
> [[Cosmology]] -- 
> [[Creationism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Defensive_team]] -- 
> [[Dianetics]] -- 
> [[Dual_space]] -- 
> [[Economy/Inflation]] -- 
> [[Economy]] -- 
> [[Existence]] -- 
> [[Fantasy_sports]] -- 
> [[Fixed_Point]] -- 
> [[Flamebait]] -- 
> [[Floating_Point]] -- 
> [[Football_dead]] -- 
> [[Football_down]] -- 
> [[Football_goal]] -- 
> [[Football_play]] -- 
> [[Football_player]] -- 
> [[Football_tackle]] -- 
> [[Forward_pass]] -- 
> [[Gregorian_Calendar]] -- 
> [[Hypoxia]] -- 
> [[Internet_troll]] -- 
> [[January]] -- 
> [[JohnnyUnitas]] -- 
> [[Johnny_Unitas]] -- 
> [[Kelvin]] -- 
> [[Killfile]] -- 
> [[Kilogram]] -- 
> [[Kishka]] -- 
> [[Lateral_pass]] -- 
> [[Line_of_scrimmage/Talk]] -- 
> [[Line_of_scrimmage]] -- 
> [[Married_with_Children]] -- 
> [[Methodological_naturalism]] -- 
> [[Metre]] -- 
> [[Mole]] -- 
> [[Monty_Python/Talk]] -- 
> [[Monty_Python]] -- 
> [[National_Football_League]] -- 
> [[Nazi_Germany]] -- 
> [[Off_topic]] -- 
> [[Offensive_team]] -- 
> [[Philosophical_naturalism]] -- 
> [[Physical_constants]] -- 
> [[Physical_quantity]] -- 
> [[Propaganda]] -- 
> [[SI_base_unit]] -- 
> [[SI_derived_unit]] -- 
> [[SI_prefix]] -- 
> [[SI_supplementary_unit]] -- 
> [[SI_unit]] -- 
> [[Scientology/Talk]] -- 
> [[Scientology]] -- 
> [[Seafood/Talk]] -- 
> [[Second]] -- 
> [[Single_Precision]] -- 
> [[Skinheads]] -- 
> [[Soccer]] -- 
> [[Splintering]] -- 
> [[Splitting_poker_pots]] -- 
> [[Standards_and_Units]] -- 
> [[Stud_poker]] -- 
> [[Superconductivity]] -- 
> [[Tensors]] -- 
> [[Topic_creation]] -- 
> [[White_elephant]] -- 
> [[Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great]]
------
Scientology|986548218
33c33
< The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
---
> The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation is forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation(eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
------
United_States_Congress|986548377
1c1
< The [[legislative branch]] of the [[United States]] government.  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]] of the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
---
> The [[legislative branch]] of the [[United States]] government.  The structure and responsibilities of Congress are defined in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]] of the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States Congress has two houses: the [[/Senate|Senate]] and the [[/House of Representatives]].
------
Superconductivity|986548489
1c1
< <i>Superconductitivy</i> is the complete disappearance of electrical resitance in certain materials, which typically occurs when they are cooled to low temperatures.
---
> <i>Superconductivity</i> is the complete disappearance of electrical resistance in certain materials, which typically occurs when they are cooled to low temperatures.
20c20
< : First HTSC with T>77 K. This makes it possible to cool the superconducters with liquid N<sub>2</sub>.
---
> : First HTSC with T>77 K. This makes it possible to cool the superconductors with liquid N<sub>2</sub>.
26c26
< : Supercondutivity at nearly 40 K is discovered in the simple system of magnesium diboride. The result was reported at conference in january, and has sparked a huge activity in the research community.
---
> : Superconductivity at nearly 40 K is discovered in the simple system of magnesium diboride. The result was reported at conference in january, and has sparked a huge activity in the research community.
------
Gardening|986548557
1c1
< The craft of growing [[plant]]s, typically outdoors, for food or beauty.  [[Vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[flower]]s are all grown in [[garden]]s -- sometimes in the same gardens, but often separately.  (Can anyone do better than this?)
---
> The craft of growing [[plant]]s, typically outdoors, for [[food]] or beauty.  [[Vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[flower]]s are all grown in [[garden]]s -- sometimes in the same gardens, but often separately.  (Can anyone do better than this?)
------
Kelvin|986548831
1a2,3
> 
> It is named after the physicist and engineer [[William Thompson]], who became Lord Kelvin when he was made a peer.
------
Metre|986550037
1c1
< Metre is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meter]]
------
Meter|986550049
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Meter is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
------
SI_base_unit|986550072
5c5
< <TR><TD>length<TD><i>l</i><TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
---
> <TR><TD>length<TD><i>l</i><TD>[[meter]]<TD>m
------
Warsaw|986550165
4c4
< Warsaw is notable among [[Europe]]'s capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the [[Swedish]] and [[Prussian]] occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the [[Russian]] army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the Warsaw Uprising failed, by [[Adolf Hitler]]'s order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the [[German]]s, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of Warsaw, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
---
> Warsaw is notable among [[Europe]]'s capital cities not for its size, its age, or its beauty but for its indestructibility. It is a phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes of war. Having suffered fearful damage during the [[Sweden|Swedish]] and [[Prussia|Prussian]] occupation of 1655-56, it was again assaulted in 1794, when the [[Russian]] army massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. In 1944, after the Warsaw Uprising failed, by [[Adolf Hitler]]'s order the city was razed; the left-bank suburbs, controlled by the [[German]]s, were emptied of their remaining population; and the buildings were systematically reduced to rubble by fire and dynamite. In 1945, however, the people of Warsaw, the Varsovians, returned, and the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of social, political, economic, scientific, and cultural life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches have been restored exactly according to their original forms.
------
James_Bond|986550249
3c3
< '''[[Film]]s'''
---
> '''[[Film|Films]]'''
------
Ordovician|986550403
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Ordovician Period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the [[Paleozoic Era]].  The Ordovician follows the Cambrian Period and is followed by the Silurian Period.  The Ordovician -- named for a Welsh tribe -- was defined by [[Charles Lapworth]] in 1879 to resolve a situation where followers of [[Adam Sedgwick]] and Murchison were placing the same rock beds in the [[Cambrian]] and [[Silurian]] Periods respectively.  [[Charles Lapworth]] simply took all the conflicting strata and placed them in the new Ordovician Period.
> 
> The Ordovician period started at a (apparently minor?) extinction event sometime around 500 million years ago and lasted for about 50-80 million years.  It ended with a major extinction event that wiped out 60% of marine genera.  It is unusual to find any two sources that agree exactly on the absolute time of the start and end of the period.
> 
> Ordovician rocks contained abundant life and contain major oil and gas resevoirs in some regions.
> 
> In North America and Europe, the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life.  [[Trilobites]] and [[Brachiopods]] in particular were rich and diverse.  The first [[Bryozoa]] appear in the Ordovician as do the first coral reefs.  Solitary corals date back to the Cambrian at least.  It was long thought that the first true [[vertebrates]] (Fish) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably orginated in the Early Cambrian.  Now extinct marine animals called [[graptolites]] thrived in the oceans.  The Southern continents were collected into a single continent called [[Gondwana]] during the Ordovician.  Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and drifted toward the South Pole during the period.  As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician.  By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
------
OPEC|986550528
19a20
> ''see also [[petroleum]]''
------
Ordovician|986550614
7c7
< In North America and Europe, the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life.  [[Trilobites]] and [[Brachiopods]] in particular were rich and diverse.  The first [[Bryozoa]] appear in the Ordovician as do the first coral reefs.  Solitary corals date back to the Cambrian at least.  It was long thought that the first true [[vertebrates]] (Fish) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably orginated in the Early Cambrian.  Now extinct marine animals called [[graptolites]] thrived in the oceans.  The Southern continents were collected into a single continent called [[Gondwana]] during the Ordovician.  Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and drifted toward the South Pole during the period.  As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician.  By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
---
> In [[North America]] and [[Europe]], the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life.  [[Trilobites]] and [[Brachiopods]] in particular were rich and diverse.  The first [[Bryozoa]] appear in the Ordovician as do the first coral reefs.  Solitary corals date back to the Cambrian at least.  It was long thought that the first true [[vertebrates]] (Fish) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably orginated in the Early Cambrian.  Now extinct marine animals called [[graptolites]] thrived in the oceans.  The Southern continents were collected into a single continent called [[Gondwana]] during the Ordovician.  Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and drifted toward the South Pole during the period.  As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician.  By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
------
Bulgaria|986550820
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A small country in the south east of [[Europe]]. It borders with the [[Black Sea]] (East), [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] (South), [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Macedonia]] (West), and with [[Romania]] (North). [[Sofia]] is the [[capital]].
------
Bulgaria|986550913
1c1
< A small country in the south east of [[Europe]]. It borders with the [[Black Sea]] (East), [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] (South), [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Macedonia]] (West), and with [[Romania]] (North). [[Sofia]] is the [[capital]].
---
> A small country in the south east of [[Europe]]. It borders with the [[Black Sea]] (East), [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] (South), [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Macedonia]] (West), and with [[Romania]] (North). [[Sofia]] is the [[capital]] and largest city.
------
Trilobites|986551060
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Trilobita]]
------
Bryozoa|986551193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Moss animals", tiny creatures with a ring of tentacles surrounding the mouth.  The phylum Bryozoa has been divided into several phyla that are quite likely unrelated: the [[Ectoprocta]], the [[Endoprocta]], and the [[Cycliophora]].
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry|986551203
2c2
< 
---
> [[/Early uses of petroleum]]
------
Meter|986551241
1c1
< Meter is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Metre]]
------
Metre|986551326
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Meter]]
---
> The metre is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
> 
> An alternate spelling, particularly common in the US, of the unit is "meter".  However "metre" is the official way of spelling the unit and is used in most countries that have formally adopted SI.
------
Scientology|986551686
33c33
< The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests etcetera. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation is forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation(eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
---
> The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests ''et cetera''. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation is forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation(eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
------
Bryozoa|986551724
1c1
< "Moss animals", tiny creatures with a ring of tentacles surrounding the mouth.  The phylum Bryozoa has been divided into several phyla that are quite likely unrelated: the [[Ectoprocta]], the [[Endoprocta]], and the [[Cycliophora]].
---
> "Moss animals", tiny creatures with a ring of tentacles surrounding the mouth.  The phylum Bryozoa has been divided into several phyla that are quite likely unrelated: the [[Ectoprocta]], the [[Endoprocta]], and the [[Cycliophora]].  Almost always the first of the three is meant.
------
Computing|986551773
14a15
> *** [[Webcam]]
------
Algorithms|986551933
9a10,14
> ----
> Related topics:<br>
> '''Cryptographic algorithms''':
> #[[Symmetric Algorithms]]
> #[[Asymmetric Algorithms]]
------
Tensors|986551998
29a30,31
> 
> ''I had very much the opposite problem. :) I would love to give you a hand but I'm not sure how to fit a formal construction into the above sort of presentation.  If you have any ideas, I would be happy to hear them!  As for type-setting, you are doomed to a life of misery. ;) But wiki supports using triple apostrophes to '''bold''', that might be a bit easier than using the strong tags.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
Webcam|986552133
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mainly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting and video conferences over the [[internet]].
------
Petroleum|986552258
3c3
< see also [[OPEC]]
---
> see also [[OPEC]], [[History of the Petroleum Industry]]
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry/Early_uses_of_petroleum|986552317
1c1
< Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by ''homo sapiens'' for over 5000 years.  Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper echelons of their society.  Ancient Chinese were also known to burn skimmed oil for light.
---
> [[Petroleum]] in an unrefined state has been utilized by ''homo sapiens'' for over 5000 years.  Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper echelons of their society.  Ancient Chinese were also known to burn skimmed oil for light.
3c3
< The Early 19th Century ushered in petroleum's usefulness as a medicine and lubricant.  But, it first successful uses proved to be lighting and heating.
---
> The Early 19th Century ushered in petroleum's usefulness as a [[medicine]] and lubricant.  But, it first successful uses proved to be lighting and heating.
------
James_Bond|986553023
4a5
> :''Starring [[Sean Connery]]''
9a11,12
> 
> :''Starring [[George Lazenby]]''
10a14,15
> 
> :''Starring [[Roger Moore]]''
18a24,25
> 
> :''Starring [[Timothy Dalton]]''
22,23c29
< :'''starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]:'''
< 
---
> :''starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]''
26c32
< :[[/The World is Not Enough ]] (1999)
---
> :[[/The World is Not Enough]] (1999)
28c34
< Apart from the movies, there are also some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies
---
> James Bond is a household name and has had a definitive impact on the spy genre, including some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies.
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986553027
7c7,14
< In 1777, a force of 10000 troops started down from Montreal to cut the colonies in half while the major force in New Jersey moved across the Deleware and took Philadelphia -- the colonial capitol and the second largest city in the British Empire.  However, after retaking Ticonderoga with little trouble, the Northern army suffered a series of serious defeats at Bennington, Fort Stanwix and in two battles near Saratoga.  By October the 5700 survivors found themselves surrounded, outnumbered and short of supplies in the forests 130 miles south of Montreal with winter approaching.  On October 17th General Burgoyne surrendered an entire British Army to the colonials.  News of the surrender arrived in Paris hard on the heels of news that colonial troops had routed supposedly invincible British regulars in the early stages of the Battle of Germantown.  Convinced by Benjamin Franklin and the news from North America that the Colonials had a reasonable chance of victory, the French agreed to support the colonists.
---
> In 1777, a force of 10000 troops started down from Quebec to cut the colonies in half.  Simultanously the much larger army in New Jersey moved across the Deleware and took Philadelphia -- the colonial capitol and the second largest city in the British Empire.  However, after retaking Ticonderoga with little trouble, the Northern army suffered a series of serious defeats at Bennington, Fort Stanwix and in two battles near Saratoga.  By October the 5700 survivors found themselves surrounded, outnumbered and short of supplies in the wilderness 130 miles south of Montreal with winter approaching.  On October 17th General Burgoyne surrendered an entire British Army to the colonials.  News of the surrender arrived in Paris hard on the heels of news that colonial troops had caused supposedly invincible British regulars to flee in disarray in the early stages of the Battle of Germantown.  Convinced by Benjamin Franklin and the news from North America that the Colonials had a reasonable chance of victory, the French agreed to support the colonists.
> 
> With the French in the war, the conflict settled into a war of attrition.  The colonials were too weak to dislodge the British from Philadelphia and New York.  The British tried various strategies, but were unable to establish permanent control over the countryside and the vast majority of the population.  The economy of the colonies slowly disintigrated and the British economy -- drained by the costs of a War with France and supporting the large occupation forces in America also suffered substantially.
> 
> In 1781, the British strategy de jour placed a force of about 7000 troops under General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Tidewater Virginia.  Accounts of what happened next are remarkably diverse -- possibly due to a desire by some American authors to minimize the French role in the events.  All sources agree that French naval forces defeated the British Navy on September 5th at the Battle of The Virginia Capes cutting off Cornwallis' supplies and transport.  A combined Colonial-French force of 16000 or 17000 troops was assembled and commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown]] on October 6, 1781.  Cornwallis position quickly became untenable.  On October 19th a substantial British Army once again surrendered to the Colonials.
> 
> In April 1782, the British House of Commons voted to end the war with the American colonies and the government of war proponent Lord North was ousted.  The British removed their troops from Charleston and Savannah in the Summer of 1782.  In November 1782 a peace agreement was reached although the formal end of the War did not occur until the Treaty of Paris was signed in November of 1783.
> 
9d15
< ''more later''
------
James_Bond|986553163
15c15
< :''Starring [[Roger Moore]]''
---
> :''Starring [[Sean Connery]]''
17c17,19
< :[[/Live and Let Die]] (1973)
---
> 
> :''Starring [[Roger Moore]]''
> :[[/To Live and Let Die]] (1973)
------
Minuscule_letter|986554640
5c5
< There is a lot more to say about minuscule, and most of the above only pertains to the [[Roman alphabet]] - the [[Greek alphabet]] and probably others were undergoing parallel developments I can only guess at.  But the precise origin of mixed case was very hard to find, so I figured I'd put it here.
---
> Similar developments have taken place in other alphabets.  The [[Greek alphabet]] was put in minuscule form around the same time that the Roman alphabet was, although uncial letters were not mixed in until about a century later.  Ancient texts tend to capitalize mainly proper nouns; the modern practice of capitalizing every sentence seems to be imported.
------
NFL|986554691
1c1
< See [[NationalFootballLeague]]
---
> See [[National Football League]]
------
Greek_alphabet|986554775
42c42
< The [[minuscule letter|miniscule]] Greek letters developed during the Middle ages, in parallel with those for the Roman alphabet (&sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time).  This is something I would love to know more about - in particular, when the process of mixing majuscule and minuscule letters appeared (for either script).  Some time during this period, too, some [[Byzantine]] monk introduced the system of accenting Greek letters to aid pronounciation.
---
> During the Middle ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter &sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the ime.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronounciation.
------
Sweden/Kings|986555540
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ...
> 
> Bernadottes
> 
> ...
> *[[/Oscar II]]
> *[[/Gustav IV Adolf]]
> *[[/Carl XVI Gustaf]]
> 
------
Sweden|986555555
12a13,14
> The Swedish [[/Kings]].
> 
------
Sweden/Kings|986555816
6,9c6,9
< *[[/Oscar II]]
< *[[/Gustav IV Adolf]]
< *[[/Carl XVI Gustaf]]
< 
---
> *[[/Oscar II]] 1872 - 1907
> *[[Gustaf V]] 1907 - 1950
> *[[/Gustaf IV Adolf]] 1950 - 1973
> *[[/Carl XVI Gustaf]] 1973 - present
------
Sweden|986560651
1c1
< Swedish [[Sverige]].
---
> Swedish name: [[Sverige]].
3c3
< [[Country]] in [[Scandinavia]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
---
> [[Country]] ([[monarchy]]) in [[Scandinavia]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
13c13
< The Swedish [[/Kings]].
---
> The Swedish [[Sweden/Kings|Kings]].
------
Scandinavia|986560757
1c1
< Region in northern [[Europe]] including [[Sweden]],[[Norway]],
---
> A Region in northern [[Europe]] including [[Sweden]], [[Norway]],
------
20th_century|986560861
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The twentieth century comprises the years [[1901]]-[[2000]].
------
Year_in_Review/Backward|986561057
0a1
> '''[[20th century]]'''
------
20th_century|986561106
1c1
< The twentieth century comprises the years [[1901]]-[[2000]].
---
> The twentieth century comprises the years [[1901]]-[[2000]]. 
------
Countries_of_the_world|986561181
54c54,59
< See also [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]; [[dependent areas]]; [[continent]]; [[Earth]]; [[geography]].
---
> '''Related topics:'''
> * [[extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
> * [[dependent areas]]
> * [[continent]]
> * [[Earth]]
> * [[geography]].
------
WojPob|986561356
10,11d9
< Inspired by [[Wikipedia]] I've installed and am currently messing about with the [[PHP Wiki]]. Check it out. It's got a few interesting funtions. 
< 
27,28d24
< ----
< remember to press "Reload" after making a change. Very often, your browser will show you an old version.
------
Cultural_anthropology|986563843
10c10,14
< ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article (or two or three), the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
---
> ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article (or two or three), the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
> ----
> Answers here:
> 
> [[Cultural anthropology/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Cultural_anthropology/Talk|986564004
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cultural Anthropology studies human beings and the development and dynamics of their cultures.  Sociology is a statistical study of human social issues (my layman's definition).  And Social Psychology studies individual human thought and behavoir in social settings.  
> 
> Welcome to compartmentalized academia.  --[[Invictus]] 
------
Scandinavia|986567546
2c2
< [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]].
---
> [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].
------
KurtCobain|986567784
3a4,5
> Kurt we adore you!
> You´ll alwys live in your songs!
------
20th_century|986567880
1c1
< The twentieth century comprises the years [[1901]]-[[2000]]. 
---
> Formally the twentieth century comprises the years [[1901]]-[[2000]].  In common usage the 20th century comprises the years 1900-1999.
------
SandBox|986568328
6d5
< I am....
------
History_of_Germany|986568988
1c1
< The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the [[communist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the [[socialist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
------
Nazi_Germany|986569480
3c3
< The Nazi regime was characterized by brutal persecution, especially against targeted minority groups such as [[Jews]], [[Gypsies]], and homosexuals.  This persecution reached a peak in the last years of the regime, in which some 6 million Jews, 10 million Slavs, and sundry others, were systematically killed.  This is refered to as the [[Holocaust]].
---
> The Nazi regime was characterized by brutal persecution, especially against targeted minority groups such as [[Jews]], [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], and homosexuals.  This persecution reached a peak in the last years of the regime, in which some 6 million Jews, 10 million Slavs, and sundry others, were systematically killed.  This is refered to as the [[Holocaust]].
------
History_of_Germany|986569685
10c10
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin was divided in the to parts West-Berlin (capitalistic) and "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
---
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin alsa was divided in four sectors (french, british, american, soviet), whereas western zones formed West-Berlin (capitalistic) and the soviet secort became "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
12c12
< In 1989 EastGermany opened its borders again and in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified, which in actuality meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]]. (Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II.)
---
> In 1989 the people of EastGermany demanded a political change. Therefor the political leaders were constrained to open the borders again (which happend in a confused and unexpected act). As most of the East-Germans wanted a rejunification and then chancelor H. Kohl of West Germany saw this as his "life task", in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified. In fact it  meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]] for the time being. Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II. Now the main administrative bodies are situated in Berlin.
------
India|986570156
5c5,7
< Like the rest of [[South Asia]], India has stagnated economically since independence in 1947, while countries in nearby [[South-East Asia]] and [[East Asia]] have made remarkable strides in wealth creation.
---
> <I>Like the rest of [[South Asia]], India has stagnated economically since independence in 1947, while countries in nearby [[South-East Asia]] and [[East Asia]] have made remarkable strides in wealth creation.</I>
> 
> This is irrelevant in the country main page besides being highly opinionated.
------
KurtCobain|986570510
4,5c4
< Kurt we adore you!
< You´ll alwys live in your songs!
---
> 
------
History_of_Germany|986570579
4c4
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the [[Franconian]] Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "[[Reich]]" (German for empire), with the "[[Kaiser]]" (emperor, term is derived from [[Caesar]]) as the head of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which was several hundred years later renamed to [[Holy Roman Empire of German Nations]] which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] some years later. After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''[[Deutscher Bund]]'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the [[Austrian]] empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second [[Reich]], with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of [[Bismarck]], but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the [[British Empire]]'s [[naval]] power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the [[Franks|Frankish]] Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "[[Reich]]" (German for empire), with the "[[Kaiser]]" (emperor, term is derived from [[Caesar]]) as the head of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which was several hundred years later renamed to [[Holy Roman Empire of German Nations]] which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] some years later. After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''[[Deutscher Bund]]'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the [[Austrian]] empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second [[Reich]], with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of [[Bismarck]], but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the [[British Empire]]'s [[naval]] power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
------
India|986570663
4a5
> [[/Talk|talk]]
------
India|986570683
6d5
< <I>Like the rest of [[South Asia]], India has stagnated economically since independence in 1947, while countries in nearby [[South-East Asia]] and [[East Asia]] have made remarkable strides in wealth creation.</I>
8d6
< This is irrelevant in the country main page besides being highly opinionated.
------
India/Talk|986570700
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <I>Like the rest of [[South Asia]], India has stagnated economically since independence in 1947, while countries in nearby [[South-East Asia]] and [[East Asia]] have made remarkable strides in wealth creation.</I>
------
Computing|986570928
22a23,36
> * [[Business Computing]]
> ** [[Computer Aided Design]]
> ** [[Computer Aided Manufacturing]]
> ** [[Customer Relationship Management]]
> ** [[Data Warehouse]]
> ** [[Decision Support System]]
> ** [[Electronic Data Processing]]
> ** [[Enterprise Resource Planning]]
> ** [[Geographic Information System]]
> ** [[Management Information System]]
> ** [[Material Resource Planning]]
> ** [[Strategic Enterprise Management]]
> ** [[Supply Chain Management]]
> 
------
Herb|986571295
1c1,3
< A plant grown for culinary or medicinal value.  Herbs are distinguished from [[vegetable]]s in that they are used in small quantities and provide flavor rather than substance to food.  Herbs are generally distinguished from [[spice]]s in that they grow in temperate climates and are often used fresh rather than dried.
---
> A plant grown for culinary or medicinal value.  Typically, the green, leafy part of the plant is used.  Herbs are distinguished from [[vegetable]]s in that they are used in small quantities and provide flavor rather than substance to food.   See also [[spice]].
> 
> <hr>
4a7
> <i>You're probably right.</i>
------
Spice|986571972
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spice
> 
> The strongly flavoured or aromatic parts of plants used in food as a preservative or flavouring. Many spices were formerly used in medicine, though this use has decreased somewhat in later years.
> 
> One of the most valuable items of trade in the ancient world was spices.
> 
> *[[Allspice]]
> *[[Anise]]
> *[[Cloves]] are dried buds of a tree
> *[[Coriander]]
> *[[Cumin]]
> *[[Nutmeg]] is the seed of a tree, [[Mace]] is the husk of the nut.
> *[[Pepper]]
> *[[Turmeric]]
------
Herb|986572591
7c7,9
< <i>You're probably right.</i>
---
> <i>You're probably right.</i>
> 
> <i>I think so too; though older english useage appears to have been to refer to edible green plants in general as herbs, at least that seems to be what the King James version of [[ChristianBibleGenesis/One]] 11-12 is referring to...</i>
------
Enterprise_Resource_Planning|986572692
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term derived from [[Material Resource Planning]].  An Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP software is used to control most of the common business activities, like sales, delivery, billing, production, [[Inventory Management]], and [[Human Resource Management]].  
> 
> In the earlier days of business computing, companies used to write their own software to control their business processes.  This is an expensive process.  Since many of these processes are common across various types of businesses, common reusable softwares are cost effective alternatives to custom sotwares.  Thus some of these ERP softwares cater to a wide range of industries from service sectors like software vendors and hospitals to manufacturing industries and even government departments.
> 
> Because of their wide applications, ERP softwares are some of the largest bodies of software ever written.  Implementing such a complex and huge software in a company usually involves an army of analysts, programmers, and users, and is often a multi-million dollar project in itself for bigger companies.  
> 
> To implement ERP systems, companies often seek the help of their ERP vendor or third party consulting companies.  Consulting in ERP involves two levels, namely business consulting and technical consulting.  A business consultant studies the company's current business process and matches them to the corresponding process in the ERP system, thus 'configures' the ERP system to the company's needs.  Technical consulting often involves programming. Most ERP vendors allow changing their software to suit the business needs of their customer.  
> 
> Popular ERP softwares include [[SAP R/3]], Baan, Oracle Applications, Peoplesoft.
------
Algorithms|986573225
5c5
< As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclid]], and thus known as the [[Euclidean Algorithm]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of to [[natural numbers]] A and B:
---
> As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclid]], and thus known as the [[Euclidean Algorithm]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of two [[natural numbers]] A and B:
------
NirvanaBand|986573426
15c15
< * Hormoaning(1992 - AustraliA and JapaN only)
---
> * Hormoaning(1992 - [[Australia]] and [[Japan]] only)
21c21
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
NirvanaBand|986573476
1c1
< Nirvana was a GrungE band from [[Seattle]] 
---
> Nirvana was a [[Grunge Music|Grunge]] band from [[Seattle]] 
3c3
< Their first album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[Grunge Music]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
---
> Their first album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[Grunge Music|Grunge]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
------
Data_Warehouse|986573839
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Data Warehouse is a computing system that is used to store periodic or historic information from an organization's normal business activities in a separate database specifically for the purpose of analysing that information to gain strategic information or strategic reporting.
> 
> Normally a data warehouse will not store reliable and current information on an individual business activity.  It is normally used for collective processing only.  Computing in data warehouses are often refered to as On Line Analytical Processing [[OLAP]], contrasting it to On Line Transaction Processing [[OLTP]] used for normal business activities.  Data from ERP systems and other related business software systems is imported into the data warehouses periodically for further processing.
------
John_Jacob_Astor|986574448
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between [[England]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission totrade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
> 
> Astor then turned his sights on [[New York City]] real estate.  At the time of his death, Astor was the wealthiest person in the [[United States]].
------
John_Jacob_Astor|986574478
1c1
< John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between [[England]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission totrade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
---
> John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between [[England]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
------
John_Jacob_Astor|986574503
1c1
< John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between [[England]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
---
> John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
------
John_Jacob_Astor|986574565
1c1
< John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the British East India Company, and greatly benefited from the fur trade with China.   His plan to establish a fur trading company around [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
---
> John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the [[British East India Company]], and greatly benefited from the fur trade with [[China]].   His plan to establish a fur trading company headquartered in [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
------
John_Jacob_Astor|986574610
1c1
< John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  A treaty between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the [[British East India Company]], and greatly benefited from the fur trade with [[China]].   His plan to establish a fur trading company headquartered in [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
---
> John Jacob Astor (1763-1848).  Astor started a fur goods shop in [[New York City]] in the late 1780's.  Astor took advantage of a treaty between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]] in 1794 which opened new markets in [[Canada]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region.  By 1800 he had amassed nearly a quarter millon dollars, and had become one of the leading figures in the fur trade.  Astor was given permission to trade in ports monopolized by the [[British East India Company]], and greatly benefited from the fur trade with [[China]].   His plan to establish a fur trading company headquartered in [[Astoria]] [[Oregon]] failed when the British captured the posts during the [[War of 1812]].
------
WikiPediaBugs|986574930
70c70,74
< I am thinking someone has been tweaking the code?  Jimbo perhaps? --[[LMS]]
---
> I am thinking someone has been tweaking the code?  Jimbo perhaps? --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Another datapoint.  Yesterday I added [[Hudsons Bay Company]] and today I added [[John Jacob Astor]].  If you go to [[Oregon]] you can see these links are not live - however, if you click on the ? to add content, you can see the content I added.  [[Rob Salzman]]
------
Oregon|986575038
63a64
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|986575126
74a75,76
> 
> Heh - additional information...  When I edited Oregon and saved it - the links went live.   I KNOW when I started doing this, the links went live without a new save in the parent topic...
------
Data_Warehouse|986575432
1c1
< Data Warehouse is a computing system that is used to store periodic or historic information from an organization's normal business activities in a separate database specifically for the purpose of analysing that information to gain strategic information or strategic reporting.
---
> Data Warehouse is a [[computing]] system that is used to store periodic or historic information from an organization's normal business activities in a separate database specifically for the purpose of analysing that information to gain strategic information or strategic reporting.
3c3
< Normally a data warehouse will not store reliable and current information on an individual business activity.  It is normally used for collective processing only.  Computing in data warehouses are often refered to as On Line Analytical Processing [[OLAP]], contrasting it to On Line Transaction Processing [[OLTP]] used for normal business activities.  Data from ERP systems and other related business software systems is imported into the data warehouses periodically for further processing.
---
> Normally a data warehouse will not store reliable and current information on an individual business activity.  It is normally used for collective processing only.  Computing in data warehouses are often refered to as On Line Analytical Processing [[OLAP]], contrasting it to On Line Transaction Processing [[OLTP]] used for normal business activities.  Data from [[Enterprice Resource Planning]] (ERP) systems and other related business software systems is imported into the data warehouses periodically for further processing.
------
Data_Warehouse|986575455
3c3
< Normally a data warehouse will not store reliable and current information on an individual business activity.  It is normally used for collective processing only.  Computing in data warehouses are often refered to as On Line Analytical Processing [[OLAP]], contrasting it to On Line Transaction Processing [[OLTP]] used for normal business activities.  Data from [[Enterprice Resource Planning]] (ERP) systems and other related business software systems is imported into the data warehouses periodically for further processing.
---
> Normally a data warehouse will not store reliable and current information on an individual business activity.  It is normally used for collective processing only.  Computing in data warehouses are often refered to as On Line Analytical Processing [[OLAP]], contrasting it to On Line Transaction Processing [[OLTP]] used for normal business activities.  Data from [[Enterprise Resource Planning]] (ERP) systems and other related business software systems is imported into the data warehouses periodically for further processing.
------
Scientology|986575760
33c33,49
< The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organisation aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. Members are expected to do numbers of expensive classes, tests ''et cetera''. Other points of criticism are that scientology often asks its adherents to break contact with family and friends who are not of the same religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s), the secrecy about their teachings, and the attempts to silence critics (for example by forcing them to extremely high costs by making a number of law suits in different states). Especially in Europe, some governments agree with the critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a few cases the organisation is forbidden, more often there is a less far-going obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organisation(eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under other pretenses.
---
> The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organization aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. The response of the church to this claim, when leveled by official sources, has been to open its books to scrutiny by the United States Internal Revenue Service and to tax authorities in other countries in an effort to show that no individual or group of individuals realizes any but the most modest sums from church operations, and that monies accumulated by the church are put to charitable and religious use.  
> 
> In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church. 
> 
> Another point of criticism has been that church officials have asked one adherent or another to break contact with family and friends who are antagonistic to their religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s).  In response, the church has pointed out that there used to be a policy, since cancelled, called "disconnection," aimed at securing the peace of mind of adherents in the face of persons who criticized them for their membership.  The current church practice is pointed to; that of requiring members who have significant turmoil in their lives stemming from the antagonisms of family and friends to cease participation in church services and not resume them until differences with those close to them have been ironed out.
> 
> Critics similarly complained of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowedges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical," and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.
> 
> Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with those it perceives to have attacked it unjustly, lied about it, caused it legal diffculties without justification, or sought its demise.  The most noted strategy for dealing with such parties has been to investigate them openly and/or force them to defend their actions in court.  Critics point to this as unacceptable.  Scientologists reply that it is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environemnt.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
> 
> Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an avowed agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California, were broken into and ransacked in a massive pre-dawn raid by FBI agents.  Seven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raid.  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  No similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
> 
> Those who oppose Scientology style themselves "critics."  These range from press with critical statments to make, having had no contact with the church themselves; to apostates who may have left the church following disagreements or who may have been expelled on moral grounds; to avowed enemies of the church who planned to infiltrate it, plant documents, and foment fraudulently based criminal prosecutions.  Other critics speak from the point of view that the beliefs and practices of Scientology are in one manner or another antipathetic to their own religious convictions, and therefore deserving of censure.
> 
> Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with is official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, The U.S. Internal Revenue Service and Federal Bureau of Investigation had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was somehow extorted from the IRS.  How the church threatened a national government to accomplish this extortion is not explained.
> 
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
------
Scientology/Talk|986575975
16d15
< 
18,19c17,19
< 
< I have re-written the last paragraph from a Scientology-positive point of view to a Scientology-negative one in neutralised wording. I hope this alleviates the problems mentioned above. -- [[Andre Engels]]
---
> I have re-written the last paragraph from a Scientology-positive point of view to a Scientology-negative one in neutralised wording. I hope this alleviates the problems mentioned above. -- [[Andre Engels]]
> ----
> As a researcher of religions and a lover of a good spy story (being a PI myself) I once read 'way too much about Scientolgy controversy from both sides.  I added bunches of material in that vein.  I'm afraid there is now more about the controversy than the beliefs, but if that's where people's attention is...
------
Sect|986579155
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A religion or sub-group of a religion.  Modernly, critics of newer religions have adopted the term in a pejorative sense to denote groups whose validity they challenge.
------
James_Bond|986579510
1c1
< A sophisticated british secret agent spy character appearing in [[Ian Flemming]]'s books and in numerous movies.
---
> A sophisticated [[British]] secret agent spy character appearing in [[books]] by [[Ian Flemming]], a series of [[Film|films]] and some notable [[Video game|videogames]].
5,34c5,38
< :''Starring [[Sean Connery]]''
< :[[/Dr. No]] (1962)
< :[[/From Russia With Love]] (1963)
< :[[/Goldfinger]] (1964)
< :[[/Thunderball]] (1965)
< :[[/You Only Live Twice]] (1967) 
< 
< :''Starring [[George Lazenby]]''
< :[[/On Her Majestys Secret Service]] 
< 
< :''Starring [[Sean Connery]]''
< :[[/Diamonds Are Forever]] (1971)
< 
< :''Starring [[Roger Moore]]''
< :[[/To Live and Let Die]] (1973)
< :[[/The Man with the Golden Gun]] (1974)
< :[[/The Spy Who Loved Me]]
< :[[/Moonraker]] (1979)
< :[[/For Your Eyes Only]] (1981)
< :[[/Octopussy]] 
< :[[/A View to a Kill]] (1985)
< 
< :''Starring [[Timothy Dalton]]''
< :[[/The Living Daylights]] (1987) 
< :[[/Licence to Kill]] (1989) 
< 
< :''starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]''
< :[[/GoldenEye]] (1995) 
< :[[/Tomorrow Never Dies]] (1997)
< :[[/The World is Not Enough]] (1999)
---
> ''starring [[Sean Connery]]''
> :[[/Dr. No]], [[1962]]
> :[[/From Russia With Love]], [[1963]]
> :[[/Goldfinger]], [[1964]]
> :[[/Thunderball]], [[1965]]
> :[[/You Only Live Twice]], [[1967]] 
> 
> ''starring [[George Lazenby]]''
> :[[/On Her Majestys Secret Service]], [[1969]]
> 
> ''starring [[Sean Connery]]''
> :[[/Diamonds Are Forever]], [[1971]]
> 
> ''starring [[Roger Moore]]''
> :[[/To Live and Let Die]], [[1973]]
> :[[/The Man with the Golden Gun]], [[1974]]
> :[[/The Spy Who Loved Me]], [[1977]]
> :[[/Moonraker]], [[1979]]
> :[[/For Your Eyes Only]], [[1981]]
> :[[/Octopussy]], [[1983]]
> :[[/A View to a Kill]], [[1985]]
> 
> ''starring [[Timothy Dalton]]''
> :[[/The Living Daylights]], [[1987]] 
> :[[/Licence to Kill]], [[1989]] 
> 
> ''starring [[Pierce Brosnan]]''
> :[[/GoldenEye]], [[1995]] 
> :[[/Tomorrow Never Dies]], [[1997]]
> :[[/The World is Not Enough]], [[1999]]
> 
> James Bond is a household name and has had a definitive impact on the spy genre, including some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]], [[1967]], or the [[Austin Powers]] movies.
> ----
> /Videogame
36c40
< James Bond is a household name and has had a definitive impact on the spy genre, including some parodies like [[/Casino Royale]] (1967), or the [[Austin Powers]] movies.
---
> /Talk
------
Spice|986580267
6a7,9
> Individual spices (not including [[herb]]s, [[aromatic vegetable]]s, and dried [[fruit]]s used for similar purposes):
> 
> *[[Ajowan seed]] (Ajwain, Carom)
8,13c11,36
< *[[Anise]]
< *[[Cloves]] are dried buds of a tree
< *[[Coriander]]
< *[[Cumin]]
< *[[Nutmeg]] is the seed of a tree, [[Mace]] is the husk of the nut.
< *[[Pepper]]
---
> *[[Anise seed]] (and [[Star anise]])
> *[[Annato seed]] (Achiote)
> *[[Asafoetida]]
> *[[Caraway seed]]
> *[[Cardamom]]
> *[[Celery seed]]
> *[[Cinnamon]] (and [[Cassia]])
> *[[Cloves]]
> *[[Coriander seed]]
> *[[Cubeb]]
> *[[Cumin seed]]
> *[[Dill seed]]
> *[[Fennel seed]]
> *[[Fenugreek seed]]
> *[[Ginger]] (and [[Galangal]])
> *[[Horseradish]]
> *[[Mustard seed]]
> *[[Nigella]] (Kolanji, Black caraway)
> *[[Nutmeg]] (and [[Mace]])
> *[[Paprika]]
> *[[Pepper]] (and relatives)
> *[[Poppy seed]]
> *[[Saffron]]
> *[[Sesame seed]]
> *[[Sumac]]
> *[[Tamarind]]
14a38,55
> *[[Vanilla]]
> *[[Wasabi]]
> *[[Zedoary]] (Amb halad)
> 
> Common spice mixtures:
> 
> *[[Berebere]]
> *[[Chili powder]]
> *[[Chinese five spice]]
> *[[Curry powder]]
> *[[Garam masala]]
> *[[Jamaican jerk spice]]
> *[[Ponch phoran]]
> *[[Quatre epices|Quatre épices]]
> *[[Ras-el hanout]]
> *[[Sansho]]
> *[[Zahtar]]
> 
------
Feature_requests|986580342
2c2
< 
---
> jjjjj
------
James_Bond|986581185
16a17
> :[[/Never Say Never Again]], [[1983]]
------
Herb|986581266
9a10,38
> ----
> Common culinary herbs:
> 
> *[[Basil]]
> *[[Bay leaf]]
> *[[Caper]]
> *[[Chervil]]
> *[[Chives]]
> *[[Cilantro]] ([[Coriander]])
> *[[Curry leaf]]
> *[[Dill]]
> *[[Fennel]]
> *[[Lemon grass]]
> *[[Lovage]]
> *[[Marjoram]]
> *[[Mint]]
> *[[Oregano]]
> *[[Parsley]]
> *[[Rosemary]]
> *[[Sage]]
> *[[Savory]]
> *[[Tarragon]]
> *[[Thyme]]
> 
> Common herb mixtures:
> 
> *[[Fines herbes]]
> *[[Herbes de Provence|Herbes de Provençe]]
> 
------
Scientology|986581341
6c6
< these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive. His survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of
---
> these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive. Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of
25,30c25,26
< held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other churches. Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a
< number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable
< organization by the United States government in 1993. And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only
< extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their
< own meditations and worship. This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find
< harmonious with their own. This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist
---
> held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions. Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a
> number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993. And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship. This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own. This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist
39c35
< Critics similarly complained of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowedges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical," and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.
---
> Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical," and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.
43c39
< Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an avowed agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California, were broken into and ransacked in a massive pre-dawn raid by FBI agents.  Seven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raid.  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  No similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
---
> Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an avowed agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California and Washington, D.C. were broken into and ransacked in massive pre-dawn raids by FBI agents.  Eleven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raid, and received sentences from two to six years (some suspended).  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  The church was reorganized so that no branch enjoyed similar autonomy to the former "rogues," and no similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
49c45
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]]) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where nonetheless some officially sanctioned exclusion from public life is practiced) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
------
Tensors|986581435
1,31c1
< Tensors are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
< 
< Throughout we will use the [[Einstein summation convention]] in which repeated indices imply a sum over components.  Capatilized indicies will likewise be summed.  The reader should already be familiar with [[vector space]]s and their properties.  
< 
< An example in 3 space follows: 
< 
< Let <strong>A</strong> be a vector and {<strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>} be a set of linearly independent vectors that span a 3 dimensional space (all 3 dimensional spaces are spanned if any is as a result of the properties of a [[vector space]]. 
< 
< <strong>A</strong>=A<sup>1</sup><strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> + A<sup>2</sup><strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> + A<sup>3</sup><strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>
< 
< This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {<strong>E<sub>i</sub></strong>} with i from 1 to n. 
< 
< The reciprocal vectors can be found as such.  We take
<  
< <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors |<strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong>| with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
< 
< Excercise:  What can you say about three vectors whos triple product is 0 (or alternately who determinant is 0)? <br>
< Answer: (ROT13 gurl qba'g fcna gur fcnpr == gurl qrsvar n cnenyyrycvcrq gung unf n 0 ibyhzr) 
< 
< <strong>E<sup>2</sup></strong> is likewise equal to <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> * 1/V and <BR>
< <strong>E<sup>3</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V.<BR>  This can be generalized to an nth dimensional space, keeping in mind that the operations must be done in [[clockwise cyclic]] order. 
< 
< MORE TO COME
< 
< ''This will probably end up the usual physics way of defining tensors, in terms of objects whose components transform according to certain rules.  There's also a usual mathematics way, which involves defining certain vector spaces and not worrying about any given components until bases are introduced.  The covariant vectors, for instance, are the elements of a [[dual space]].  This has the advantage of letting us know what we are really working with, and I think we should come up with a way to at least fit it into the description.  Ideas?''
< 
< I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so! 
< Oh, also, its a real pain to type set tensors, any suggestions?
< --Gavin E. Mendel-Gleason
< 
< ''I had very much the opposite problem. :) I would love to give you a hand but I'm not sure how to fit a formal construction into the above sort of presentation.  If you have any ideas, I would be happy to hear them!  As for type-setting, you are doomed to a life of misery. ;) But wiki supports using triple apostrophes to '''bold''', that might be a bit easier than using the strong tags.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tensor]]
------
Tensor|986581450
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Tensors'' are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
> 
> Throughout we will use the [[Einstein summation convention]] in which repeated indices imply a sum over components.  Capatilized indicies will likewise be summed.  The reader should already be familiar with [[vector space]]s and their properties.  
> 
> An example in 3 space follows: 
> 
> Let <strong>A</strong> be a vector and {<strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong>,<strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>} be a set of linearly independent vectors that span a 3 dimensional space (all 3 dimensional spaces are spanned if any is as a result of the properties of a [[vector space]]. 
> 
> <strong>A</strong>=A<sup>1</sup><strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> + A<sup>2</sup><strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> + A<sup>3</sup><strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>
> 
> This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {<strong>E<sub>i</sub></strong>} with i from 1 to n. 
> 
> The reciprocal vectors can be found as such.  We take
>  
> <strong>E<sup>1</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> * 1/V where V is the volume of the parallepiped defined by the three E vectors.  This volume can be found by finding the triple product (which can be writen as <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> dot <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong>, or by finding the determinant of the matrix of the three vectors |<strong>E<sub>IJ</sub></strong>| with I,J = 1,2,3 (The determinant actually finds a volume!).
> 
> Excercise:  What can you say about three vectors whos triple product is 0 (or alternately who determinant is 0)? <br>
> Answer: (ROT13 gurl qba'g fcna gur fcnpr == gurl qrsvar n cnenyyrycvcrq gung unf n 0 ibyhzr) 
> 
> <strong>E<sup>2</sup></strong> is likewise equal to <strong>E<sub>3</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> * 1/V and <BR>
> <strong>E<sup>3</sup></strong> = <strong>E<sub>1</sub></strong> cross <strong>E<sub>2</sub></strong> * 1/V.<BR>  This can be generalized to an nth dimensional space, keeping in mind that the operations must be done in [[clockwise cyclic]] order. 
> 
> MORE TO COME
> 
> ''This will probably end up the usual physics way of defining tensors, in terms of objects whose components transform according to certain rules.  There's also a usual mathematics way, which involves defining certain vector spaces and not worrying about any given components until bases are introduced.  The covariant vectors, for instance, are the elements of a [[dual space]].  This has the advantage of letting us know what we are really working with, and I think we should come up with a way to at least fit it into the description.  Ideas?''
> 
> I'm trying to motivate it from a perspective that is a little easier to grasp in a conceptual way (ie. applied math), and then I was hoping to move to a more mathematical way of dealing with them.  The problems I had in learning what they were were caused by not being able to understand how they could be used in a geometric fasion. If you would like to add a section that describes them from the other perspective, I think it would be highly informative!  I encourage you to do so! 
> Oh, also, its a real pain to type set tensors, any suggestions?
> --Gavin E. Mendel-Gleason
> 
> ''I had very much the opposite problem. :) I would love to give you a hand but I'm not sure how to fit a formal construction into the above sort of presentation.  If you have any ideas, I would be happy to hear them!  As for type-setting, you are doomed to a life of misery. ;) But wiki supports using triple apostrophes to '''bold''', that might be a bit easier than using the strong tags.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
> 
------
Algorithms|986581510
1,14c1
< An algorithm is the description of a procedure to solve a certain (mathematical) problem. Typically, an algorithm consists of a series of actions that have to be done plus an indication of whether and when they are to be repeated. One could see an algorithm as a rough form of a computer program.
< 
< The word ''algorithm'' is a corruption of the word ''algorism'' which came from the name of [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book "''Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''" (''Rules of Restoration and Reduction'') which introduced [[Algebra|algebra]] to people in the West. The word ''algebra'' itself originates from ''al-Jabr'' from the book title. The word alogorism orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the eighteenth century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
< 
< As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclid]], and thus known as the [[Euclidean Algorithm]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of two [[natural numbers]] A and B:
< 
< # Let A be the greatest number of A and B, and B the smallest.
< # Subtract B from A.
< # Repeat steps 1 and 2 until A and B are equal, this number will then be the greatest common divisor of the original numbers.
< ----
< Related topics:<br>
< '''Cryptographic algorithms''':
< #[[Symmetric Algorithms]]
< #[[Asymmetric Algorithms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Algorithm]]
------
Algorithm|986581548
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An algorithm is the description of a procedure to solve a certain (mathematical) problem. Typically, an algorithm consists of a series of actions that have to be done plus an indication of whether and when they are to be repeated. One could see an algorithm as a rough form of a computer program.
> 
> The word ''algorithm'' is a corruption of the word ''algorism'' which came from the name of [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Ja'far Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi]] (ca. 780 - ca. 850). He was the author of the book "''Kitab al-jabr w'al-muqabala''" (''Rules of Restoration and Reduction'') which introduced [[Algebra|algebra]] to people in the West. The word ''algebra'' itself originates from ''al-Jabr'' from the book title. The word alogorism orignally referred only to the rules of performing arithmetic using Hindu-Arabic numerals, but evolved into "algorithm" by the eighteenth century. The word has nowadays evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems, including cooking :)
> 
> As an example of an algorithm, here is an algorithm, brought to us by [[Euclid]], and thus known as the [[Euclidean Algorithm]], for finding the [[greatest common divisor]] (ggd) of two [[natural numbers]] A and B:
> 
> # Let A be the greatest number of A and B, and B the smallest.
> # Subtract B from A.
> # Repeat steps 1 and 2 until A and B are equal, this number will then be the greatest common divisor of the original numbers.
> ----
> Related topics:<br>
> '''Cryptographic algorithms''':
> #[[Symmetric Algorithms]]
> #[[Asymmetric Algorithms]]
------
Symmetric_Algorithms|986581739
1c1
< [[Symmetric Algorithms]] use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (''see [[CryptographY/Keys]] for details''). They can be divided into stream CipheR's and block CipheR's. The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used. [[Symmetric Algorithms]] are faster to execute electronically than [[Asymmetric Algorithms]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Symmetric algorithm]]
------
Symmetric_algorithm|986581753
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Symmetric algorithms'' are [[algorithm]]s for [[cryptography]] that use the same key to encrypt and decrypt the message (see [[Cryptography/Keys]]).  They can be divided into stream [[Cipher]]s and block [[Cipher]]s.  The former encrypts the bits of the plaintext one at a time, while the former takes a number of bits and encrypts them as a a single unit. Normally blocks of 64 bits are used.  Symmetric algorithms are faster to execute electronically than [[Asymmetric algorithm]]s.
> 
------
Asymmetric_Algorithms|986581872
1c1
< [[Asymmetric Algorithms]] use two different keys to encrypt and decrypt the plaintext (''see CryptographY/Keys for details''). They are mostly slower to execute electronically than [[Symmetric Algorithms]]. Very often a combination of both is used; a public key is used to encrypt a secret encryption key, and then the secret key is used to encrypt the the plaintext using a symmetric algorithm. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Asymmetric algorithm]]
------
Asymmetric_algorithm|986581892
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Asymmetric algorithms'' are [[algorithm]]s used in [[cryptography]] that use two different keys to encrypt and decrypt the plaintext (see [[Cryptography/Keys]]).  They are mostly slower to execute electronically than [[Symmetric algorithm]]s.  Very often a combination of both is used; a public key is used to encrypt a secret encryption key, and then the secret key is used to encrypt the the plaintext using a symmetric algorithm.
> 
------
CryptographY|986581979
1,18c1
< CryptographY (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]''), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
< 
< :CryptologY -- CryptanalysiS
< 
< :[[/Hashfunctions]]: [[MD5]] -- [[SHA-1]]
< :'''Public Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Asymmetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
< :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symmetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] -- [[IDEA]]-- [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]
< 
< :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- [[Cipher]] -- [[Code]]
< ----
< Further Reading:
< 
< * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography'' 
< * Schneier, Bruce - ''Secrets and Lies'' ISBN 0471253111
< ----
< Related topics:
< 
< [[Echelon]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]
------
Cryptography|986581994
1c1,19
< #REDIRECT [[CryptographY]]
---
> ''Cryptography'' (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]''), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
> 
> :CryptologY -- CryptanalysiS
> 
> :[[/Hashfunctions]]: [[MD5]] -- [[SHA-1]]
> :'''Public Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Asymmetric Algorithms]]): [[RSA]] -- [[Diffie-Hellman]]
> :'''Secret Key Cryptosystems''' ([[Symmetric Algorithms]]): EnigmA -- OneTimePads -- DataEncryptionStandard (DES) -- [[RC4]]--[[Blowfish]] -- [[IDEA]]-- [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]
> 
> :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- [[Cipher]] -- [[Code]]
> ----
> Further Reading:
> 
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Aplied Cryptography'' 
> * Schneier, Bruce - ''Secrets and Lies'' ISBN 0471253111
> ----
> Related topics:
> 
> [[Echelon]]
> 
------
Cultural_anthropology/Talk|986581998
3c3,5
< Welcome to compartmentalized academia.  --[[Invictus]] 
---
> Welcome to compartmentalized academia.  --[[Invictus]] 
> ----
> Well, heck, ''I'' knew that much.  I wanted a longer, more in-depth answer! --[[LMS]]
------
Cultural_anthropology|986582026
11,12d10
< ----
< Answers here:
------
Cultural_anthropology|986582091
10c10
< ''Could someone please explain, in an appropriately-titled article (or two or three), the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
---
> ''Could someone please explain in depth, in an appropriately-titled article (or two or three), the differences and similarities between cultural anthropology, sociology, and social psychology?''
------
Cryptography|986582107
1c1
< ''Cryptography'' (from the GreeK kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (''see [[/Keys]]''), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
---
> ''Cryptography'' (from the [[Greek language]] kryptós and gráphein, "to write") is the study of the principles and techniques by which information can be concealed in ciphers and later revealed by legitimate users employing the encryption key (see [[/Key]]), but in which it is either impossible or computationally infeasible for an unauthorized person to do so.
5c5
< :[[/Hashfunctions]]: [[MD5]] -- [[SHA-1]]
---
> :[[/Hashfunction]]: [[MD5]] -- [[SHA-1]]
9c9
< :Terminology: [[/Keys]] -- [[Cipher]] -- [[Code]]
---
> :Terminology: [[/Key]] -- [[Cipher]] -- [[Code]]
------
Cultural_anthropology/Talk|986582134
5c5
< Well, heck, ''I'' knew that much.  I wanted a longer, more in-depth answer! --[[LMS]]
---
> Thanks!  But heck, ''I'' knew that much.  I wanted a longer, more in-depth answer!  I'll say so on the [[cultural anthropology]] page. --[[LMS]]
------
Metre|986582225
3c3,4
< An alternate spelling, particularly common in the US, of the unit is "meter".  However "metre" is the official way of spelling the unit and is used in most countries that have formally adopted SI.
---
> The American spelling is "meter".
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|986582435
76a77,78
> ----
> Yet another data point.  I simply typed in "/wiki/Existence" in the address line of my browser, and lo and behold, at the top of the page I saw: "(redirected from ExistencE)"!  I think someone's clearly been tweaking the code.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
ProgrammingLanguages|986582590
1,44c1
< A programming language is a linear or non-linear set of statements that are executed on a computer.
< 
< <b>Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in the
< order they appear.
< 
< <b>Non-Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in a semi-random order.  At any particular time, one or more statements are ready to be executed, one of them is chosen at random and then is executed.
< ----
< ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages. - JavaJini
< 
< ScriptingLanguages or interpreted languages
< 
< * [[Perl]]
< * [[PHP]]
< * [[Python]]
< * [[Ruby]]
< * [[Basic]]
< 
< CompiledLanguages
< 
< * [[Ada]]
< * [[Assembly Language]]
< * [[C Language|C]]
< * [[COBOL]]
< * [[C Plus Plus|C++|CPP]]
< * [[Fortran|Fortran 77|Fortran IV]]
< * [[Pascal]]
< * [[Visual Basic|VB]]
< * [[Delphi]]
< 
< HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to [[Byte Code]] and executed by an [[Interpreter]]
< 
< * [[Java]]
< * [[Lisp]]
< * [[Scheme]]
< 
< PathologicalLanguages
< 
< * InterCal
< * BeFunge
< * VarAq
< * UnLamda
< 
< ----
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Programming language]]
------
Programming_language|986582606
1c1,45
< #REDIRECT [[ProgrammingLanguages]]
---
> A programming language is a linear or non-linear set of statements that are executed on a computer.
> 
> <b>Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in the
> order they appear.
> 
> <b>Non-Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in a semi-random order.  At any particular time, one or more statements are ready to be executed, one of them is chosen at random and then is executed.
> ----
> ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages. - JavaJini
> 
> ScriptingLanguages or interpreted languages
> 
> * [[Perl]]
> * [[PHP]]
> * [[Python]]
> * [[Ruby]]
> * [[Basic]]
> 
> CompiledLanguages
> 
> * [[Ada]]
> * [[Assembly Language]]
> * [[C Language|C]]
> * [[COBOL]]
> * [[C Plus Plus|C++|CPP]]
> * [[Fortran|Fortran 77|Fortran IV]]
> * [[Pascal]]
> * [[Visual Basic|VB]]
> * [[Delphi]]
> 
> HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to [[Byte Code]] and executed by an [[Interpreter]]
> 
> * [[Java]]
> * [[Lisp]]
> * [[Scheme]]
> 
> PathologicalLanguages
> 
> * InterCal
> * BeFunge
> * VarAq
> * UnLamda
> 
> ----
> 
> 
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|986582827
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Suppose that 'exists' does have different senses, so that, if it could be defined (analyzed, explicated), one might define it for physical objects, for properties, for relations, for facts, for possibilia, etc.
> 
> In that case, what does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  One might try to fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."
> 
> A common view is that this question cannot be answered.  It has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial</i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
> 
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of [[nonexistence]].
> 
> Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it's actually in the world, it's not fictional; it's real, not imaginary; it's an actual phenomenon, it's not part of a false hypothesis; and it's located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
> 
> There may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
> 
> Physical object O <i>exists</i> if, and only if, O is, at present, spatially located in the universe with which we are in contact.
> 
> This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That's approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
> 
> Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn't exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
> 
> As one might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Consider the following objection, probably the most widespread.
> 
> There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
> 
> First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn't</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
> 
> Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It's red, it has a stem, it's four inches wide, it's juicy, it's on the table, it's in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
> 
> So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant's, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn't mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant's argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
> 
> Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant's argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
> 
> "If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world." 
> 
> Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren't attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That's what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it's not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn't to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn't exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers' argument apparently isn't valid.  It just doesn't prove that existence isn't a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn't a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
> 
> But the dialectic definitely doesn't end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can't be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
> 
> /Talk
------
Programming_language|986582862
1c1
< A programming language is a linear or non-linear set of statements that are executed on a computer.
---
> A ''programming language'' is a standardized method for expressing instructions (called a ''program'') to a computer.
3,4c3
< <b>Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in the
< order they appear.
---
> <b>Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in the order they appear.  <b>Non-linear</b> programming language statements are executed in a semi-random order.  At any particular time, one or more statements are ready to be executed, one of them is chosen at random and then is executed.
6d4
< <b>Non-Linear</b> programming language statements are executed in a semi-random order.  At any particular time, one or more statements are ready to be executed, one of them is chosen at random and then is executed.
8c6
< ProgrammingLanguages are at least as numerous as natural languages. Here are some broad categories of programming languages. - JavaJini
---
> Programming languages are at least as numerous as [[natural language]]s.  Here are some broad categories of programming languages.
16c14
< * [[Basic]]
---
> * [[BASIC]]
21,22c19,20
< * [[Assembly Language]]
< * [[C Language|C]]
---
> * [[Assembly language]]
> * [[C language|C]]
25c23
< * [[Fortran|Fortran 77|Fortran IV]]
---
> * [[Fortran]]
------
Computing|986582899
19,20c19,20
< *** ProgrammingLanguages
< *** [[Algorithms]]
---
> *** [[Programming language]]s
> *** [[Algorithm]]s
------
Algorithm|986582934
13,14c13,14
< #[[Symmetric Algorithms]]
< #[[Asymmetric Algorithms]]
---
> #[[Symmetric Algorithm]]s
> #[[Asymmetric Algorithm]]s
------
Algorithm|986582957
13,14c13,14
< #[[Symmetric Algorithm]]s
< #[[Asymmetric Algorithm]]s
---
> *[[Symmetric algorithm]]s
> *[[Asymmetric algorithm]]s
------
Standards_and_Units|986583201
8c8
< : The [[SI|SI unit]] of length is meter. One meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 second. This standard was adopted in 1983, when the speed of light in vacuum was defined to be precisely 299792458 m/s.
---
> : The [[SI|SI unit]] of length is metre. One metre is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299792458 second. This standard was adopted in 1983, when the speed of light in vacuum was defined to be precisely 299792458 m/s.
------
Nonexistence|986583287
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is a variety of senses in which something can fail to exist:
> 
> * In fiction: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.
> * Suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  This Nobel Prize does not exist: it is just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or one might say, tendentiously but idiomatically, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")
> * Consider that old hypothesis, that the [[Earth]] is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  The world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world does not exist.  So that is a another kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that is the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.
> * There is a quite different kind of nonexistence, namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there is a sense in which he does not exist; namely, he does not exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  Of course--though this presents a separate set of problems (e.g., having to do with free will)--there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
> 
> One central problem that philosophers face in thinking about nonexistence is generally discussed under the heading ''[[fictional truth]].''  How can we account for the truth of the proposition 'Romeo killed himself' when Romeo is nonexistent?
------
Nonexistence|986583316
1c1
< There is a variety of senses in which something can fail to exist:
---
> There are a variety of senses in which something can fail to exist:
------
Nonexistence|986583399
4c4
< * Suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  This Nobel Prize does not exist: it is just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or one might say, tendentiously but idiomatically, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")
---
> * Suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  This Nobel Prize does not exist: it is just <i>imaginary</i>.  So another kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or one might say, tendentiously but idiomatically, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")
6c6
< * There is a quite different kind of nonexistence, namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there is a sense in which he does not exist; namely, he does not exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  Of course--though this presents a separate set of problems (e.g., having to do with free will)--there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
---
> * There is a quite different kind of nonexistence, namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there is a sense in which he does not exist; namely, he does not exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So another sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  Of course--though this presents a separate set of problems (e.g., having to do with free will)--there might be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
------
TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects|986583536
1c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
---
> See [[The existence of physical objects]] and [[nonexistence]].
3,37c3
< What does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  Take for granted, for the time being, that one knows <i>what</i> a physical object is.  The question is what it means to say that that sort of being <i>exists</i>.  Or, if one prefers, one may fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."  That would give one a definition of the word "exists" in the sense in which that word applies to physical objects.
< 
< Some have thought that this question cannot be answered.  It has been suggested that "exists" simply cannot be defined.  That people very well understand what it means to say that an object exists is not necessarily to say one can define it.  This is a very influential view, which many very smart people hold.  But the <i>initial</i> assumption will be made here that  we <i>can</i> define "exists" for physical objects.  
< 
< Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of nonexistence.  Think of all the different ways that something talked about nevertheless <i>fails</i> to exist.  For example, in stories: Romeo and Juliet do not really exist, because they are merely characters in a play.  So there is <i>fictional</i> nonexistence.  Or suppose one is just daydreaming and one imagines winning the Nobel Prize.  Well of course this Nobel Prize does not exist: it's just <i>imaginary</i>.  So a second kind of nonexistence is <i>imaginary</i> nonexistence.  (Or you might say, "It has existence only in one's imagination.")  Or consider that old hypothesis, that the [[Earth]] is flat.  People who thought the Earth was flat thought there was an edge to the world, and if one sailed too far across the ocean one would sail off the edge of the world.  Well, the world is not flat but roughly spherical, and the edge of the world doesn't exist.  So that is a third kind of nonexistence: <i>hypothetical</i> nonexistence.  In other words, that's the sort of nonexistence that false posits have, when one posits something in a false hypothesis.  And now here's a totally different kind of nonexistence: namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there's a sense in which he doesn't exist; namely, he doesn't exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So the fourth sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  And of course then, fifth, there would have to be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
< 
< Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it's actually in the world, it's not fictional; it's real, not imaginary; it's an actual phenomenon, it's not part of a false hypothesis; and it's located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
< 
< There may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
< 
< Physical object O <i>exists</i> if, and only if, O is, at present, spatially located in the universe with which we are in contact.
< 
< This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That's approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
< 
< Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn't exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
< 
< As one might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Consider the following objection, probably the most widespread.
< 
< There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
< 
< First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn't</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
< 
< Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It's red, it has a stem, it's four inches wide, it's juicy, it's on the table, it's in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
< 
< So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant's, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn't mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant's argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
< 
< Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant's argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
< 
< "If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world." 
< 
< Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren't attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That's what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it's not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn't to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn't exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers' argument apparently isn't valid.  It just doesn't prove that existence isn't a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn't a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
< 
< But the dialectic definitely doesn't end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can't be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
< 
< /Talk
---
> See /Talk for old discussion associated with this topic.
------
Scientology/Talk|986584051
19a20,37
> -----
> 
> I ([[Jimbo Wales]]) have a problem with this paragraph:
> 
> <i>Those who oppose Scientology style themselves "critics." These range from press with critical statments to make, having had no
> contact with the church themselves; to apostates who may have left the church following disagreements or who may have been
> expelled on moral grounds; to avowed enemies of the church who planned to infiltrate it, plant documents, and foment fraudulently based criminal prosecutions. Other critics speak from the point of view that the beliefs and practices of Scientology are in one manner or another antipathetic to their own religious convictions, and therefore deserving of censure. 
> </i>
> 
> A few points I'd like to make about this:
> 
> 1.  The use of the scare quores around the word "critics" suggests that these opponents aren't _really_ critics, but something else, perhaps something less than true critics.  
> 
> 2.  The list of types of people who are critical of the church reads like the church's own version of the story.  Only 4 types are mentioned (a) members of the press with no actual contact themselves (b) apostates (c) avowed enemies who would gladly resort to fraud and criminality and (d) advocates of other religions, who oppose it on those grounds, exhibiting one supposes religious intolerance.
> 
> This list makes it sound like the good church of Scientology is just being harassed.  My own reading of the criticisms, though, is quite different.  I am by no means a Scientology-basher, but when I got interested in this issue a few years ago, I thought that the critics (and they are real critics) had quite a good case.
> 
> Our write-up need not end up supporting the critics or the church, but the current writeup (this paragraph anyway) is decidedly pro-scientology.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great|986584145
1,11c1
< It mixes pages of serious content with PR stuff like [[Why Wikipedia is so great]] that confuses and alienates people.
< See ''[[Why Wikipedia is so great/Talk]]''
< 
< I think this page should be renamed <i>Why "Why Wikipedia is so great" is not so great</i>.
< 
< I just followed the link that LS made...And I believe that the
< whole discussion was caused by a misunderstanding of the meaning
< of a page...maybe all pages "about" wikipedia as opposed to
< belonging to the wikipedia should be under wiki/   ...but doing
< that would cause so much work and further confusion that i don't
< think is worth it.
---
> 
------
Roy_Champman_Andrews|986584374
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roy Chapman Andrews (1884-1960).  An colorful american mammologist who rose from a menial job at the American Museum of Natural History to the directorship.  Andrews is primarily known for leading a series of expeditions through the fragmented China of the early 20th Century into the Gobi Desert and Mongolia.  The expeditions made important discoveries including returning the first known fossil dinosaur eggs to the Museum.
> 
> Andrews was primarily a naturalist and an organizer of expeditions.  His life was a long series of travels and explorations of desert islands, raging seas, remote mountains and deserts.  Numerous encounters -- many well documented -- are reported with everything from angry whales and hungry sharks, thru pythons to several brushes with armed Chinese bandits.  He was erroneously reported dead at least once.
> 
> Andrews was married in 1914.  Not suprisingly perhaps Andrews' wife divorced him divorced him in 1930.  He had one child -- a son.  Andrews is said to have been one of the models for movie legend Indiana Jones. 
> 
> Andrews was born January 26, 1884 and died in 1960.
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|986584508
7c7
< Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  Well, nonexistence; but there are different kinds of [[nonexistence]].
---
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  There are different kinds of [[nonexistence]].  So it has been proposed that the existence of physical objects is an "excluder" concept, as it were a purely negative concept: an item is actually in the world, it is not fictional; it is real, not imaginary; it is an actual phenomenon, it is not part of a false hypothesis; and it is located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.  
9c9,11
< Hopefully this gives a very vivid idea of what it is that one is talking about when one says that a physical object exists: it's actually in the world, it's not fictional; it's real, not imaginary; it's an actual phenomenon, it's not part of a false hypothesis; and it's located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.
---
> Common sense would seem to have it, however, that there ''is'' one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
> :Physical object O <i>exists</i> if, and only if, O is, at present, spatially located in the universe with which we are in contact.
> This definition would seem to express a common sense notion of existence.  Interestingly enough, though, only a few philosophers have given such definitions.  [Bruce Aune], for example, in an introductory philosophy textbook, gives a definition much like this one.
11c13
< There may be many different senses in which objects can <i>fail</i> to exist; but it would appear there is only one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
---
> This sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Consider the following objection, probably the most widespread.
13c15
< Physical object O <i>exists</i> if, and only if, O is, at present, spatially located in the universe with which we are in contact.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], who claim that existence is not a property, or that 'exists' is not a predicate.  Typically, the discussions in which this claim arises are discussions of the existence of physical objects.  So, for example, the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  This is a true claim; what makes it true?  One would like to be able to say that it is the fact that the Eiffel Tower has the property of existence.  It <i>seems</i> that the claim asserts that existence is a property of the Eiffel Tower.  Yet the philosophers listed--with qualifications we perhaps need not go into right now--deny that existence is a property.  In fact, this is the common view among philosophers today.
15c17
< This is a plausible definition of "exists," one that expresses the common sense notion of existence.  But it's just an attempt, of a sort that a few, but only a few, philosophers have given.  [Aune], for example, gives a definition much like this one.  Suppose one is in a room with a big red apple.  According to this definition, to say that that apple exists is just to say that right now, it has some location in space, that is, in the space that one's body is also part of.  So in other words one is at some distance from the apple right now.  That's approximately what it would mean to say that the apple exists.
---
> One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>is not</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not as it has been defined here.  The foregoing definition of 'exists' is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.
17c19
< Consider how it is that those five different kinds of nonexistent objects fail to exist according to this definition.  First, fictional characters.  In fact, Romeo is not spatially located anywhere.  So he doesn't exist.  Second, imagination.  The imaginary Nobel Prize is not located anywhere in relation to the observable universe.  So it doesn't exist.  Third, false hypotheses.  Well, the edge of the world is not, in fact, located anywhere in the world; the world doesn't have an edge.  So the edge of the world doesn't exist.  Fourth, past and future.  Socrates from ancient Greece, and the President in the distant future, are not at present located anywhere in relation to the observable universe, not <i>at</i> <i>present</i>.
---
> Kant wrote:
19c21
< As one might suspect, this sort of definition encounters some serious objections.  Consider the following objection, probably the most widespread.
---
> :By whatever and by however many predicates we may think a thing--even if we completely determine it--we do not make the least addition to the thing when we further declare that this thing is. Otherwise, it would not be exactly the same thing that exists, but something more than we had thought in the concept; and we could not, therefore, say that the exact object of my concept exists. If we think in a thing every feature of reality except one, the missing reality is not added by my saying that this defective thing exists. On the contrary, it exists with the same defect with which I have thought it, since otherwise what exists would be something different from what I thought. (''Critique of Pure Reason,'' B627-8)
21,25c23
< There are many philosophers today, following Kant and Russell, who claim that existence is not a property.  This is a rather strange thing to say.  Now, the writer of this article exists, and the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  These are both true claims, and they both make perfect grammatical sense.  It <i>seems</i> like the author asserts that existence is a property of himself, and of the Eiffel Tower.  And yet many -- not all, but many -- philosophers deny that existence is a property.
< 
< First of all, One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>isn't</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not the ithas been defined here.  The foregoing definition of "exists" is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.  It starts out by saying "Physical object O exists if..."
< 
< Many people have said that the influential German philosopher [Kant] had an argument with the following conclusion: existence is not a property.  In an effort to expain this:  Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of the aforementioned apple.  It's red, it has a stem, it's four inches wide, it's juicy, it's on the table, it's in the room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
---
> Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of an apple sitting on a table.  It is red, it has a stem, it is four inches wide, it is juicy, it is on the table, it is in a room, and so on.  CONTINUE WIKIFICATION FROM HERE  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
------
Physical_constants|986584963
1,5d0
< <sup></sup>
< <sub></sub>
< <i></i>
<  x 10<sup></sup> 
< 
32,42c27,37
< <TR><TD>Lande <i>g</i>-factor for free electron<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>nuclear magneton<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>proton magnetic moment<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>proton magnetogyric ratio<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>magnetic moment of protons in H<sub>2</sub>0, &mu;'<sub>p</sub><TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>proton resonance frequency per field in H<sub>2</sub>0<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>Stefan-Boltzmann constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>first radiation constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>second radiation constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>gravitational constant<TD><TD></TR>
< <TR><TD>standard acceleration of free fall<TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>Lande <i>g</i>-factor for free electron<TD>g<sub>e</sub><TD>2.002 319 304 386(20)</TR>
> <TR><TD>nuclear magneton<TD>&mu;<sub>N</sub><TD>5.050 786 6(17) x 10<sup>-27</sup> J.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton magnetic moment<TD>&mu;<sub>p</sub><TD>1.410 607 61(47) x 10<sup>-26</sup> J.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton magnetogyric ratio<TD>&gamma;<sub>p</sub><TD>2.675 221 28(81) x 10<sup>8</sup> s<sup>-1</sup>.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>magnetic moment of protons in H<sub>2</sub>0, &mu;'<sub>p</sub><TD>&mu;'<sub>p</sub>/&mu;<sub>B</sub><TD>1.520 993 129(17) x 10<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>proton resonance frequency per field in H<sub>2</sub>0<TD>&gamma;'<sub>p</sub>/2&pi;<TD>42.576 375 (13) M.Hz.T<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>Stefan-Boltzmann constant<TD>&sigma;<TD>5.670 51(19) x 10<sup>-8</sup> W.m<sup>-2</sup>.K<sup>-4</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>first radiation constant<TD>c<sub>1</sub><TD>3.741 774 9(22) x 10<sup>-16</sup> W.m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>second radiation constant<TD>c<sub>2</sub><TD>1.438 769 (12) x 10<sup>-2</sup> m.K</TR>
> <TR><TD>gravitational constant<TD>G<TD>6.672 59(85) x 10<sup>-11 </sup>m<sup>3</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>standard acceleration of free fall<TD>g<sub>n</sub><TD>9.80665 m.s<sup>-2</sup> (defined)</TR>
------
SI_unit|986585254
1c1
< Unit according to the <i>International System of Units</i> [[SI]]. There are the seven [[SI base unit]]s and the [[SI derived unit| derived SI]] units.
---
> Unit according to the <i>International System of Units</i> [[SI]]. There are the seven [[SI base unit]]s and the [[SI derived unit| derived SI]] units. Non-SI units can be converted to SI units (or vice verca) according to the [[conversion of units]].
------
Conversion_of_units|986586756
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <sub></sub>
> <sup></sup>
> 
> 
> <TABLE border="1">
> <TR><TH>Name of unit<TH>Symbol<TH>Relation to [[SI unit]]s</TR>
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l ([[SI base unit]]:</i> m)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD>bohr (au)<TD>a<sub>0</sub>,b<TD>~ 5.291 77 x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>angström<TD>A<sup>o</sup><TD>= 10<sup>-10</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>micron<TD>&mu;<TD>= &mu;m = 10<sup>-6</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>x unit<TD>X<TD>~ 1.002 x 10<sup>-13</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>inch<TD>in<TD>= 2.54 x 10<sup>-2</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>foot<TD>ft<TD>= 12 in = 0.3048 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>yard<TD>yd<TD>= 3 ft = 0.9144 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>mile<TD>mi<TD>= 1760 yd = 1609.344 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>nautical mile<TD>&nbsp;<TD>= 1852 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>astronomical unit<TD>AU<TD>= 1.496 00 x 10<sup>11</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>parsec<TD>pc<TD>~ 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>light year<TD>l.y.<TD>~ 9.460 528 x 10<sup>15</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>light second<TD>&nbsp;<TD>299 792 458 m</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>area, A ([[SI unit]]: square metre</i> m<sup>2</sup>)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD>barn<TD>b<TD>10<sup>-28</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>acre<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 4046.856 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD>10<sup></sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD>10<sup></sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> </TABLE>
------
Nonexistence|986586759
8c8
< One central problem that philosophers face in thinking about nonexistence is generally discussed under the heading ''[[fictional truth]].''  How can we account for the truth of the proposition 'Romeo killed himself' when Romeo is nonexistent?
---
> One central problem that philosophers face in thinking about nonexistence is generally discussed under the heading ''[[fictional truth]].''  How can we account for the truth of the proposition 'Romeo killed himself' when Romeo is nonexistent?
------
Scientology/Talk|986586763
37a38,43
> ----
> The "good" church?  I think convictions for stealing gov't docs surely puts the question to that...
> 
> As to "critics," what suggestion would you make?  I was similarly disposed to you when I first undertook to do my own bit of investigating.  My reading, however, did not turn up any independent critics without their own agenda.  One such who held herself out as a completely objective academic expert (notwisthstanding that she published at least one book accusing all "cults" of brainwashing or something, which her peers pretty roundly criticized) turned out to be making a major portion of her income testifying against Scientology and other groups in court.  I have read probably thirty to fifty independent appraisals, some quite detailed, from academics, psychologists, clerics, investigative reporters and the like and they were neutral, not critical.  The persons listed in the paragraph do style themselves "critics."  And I have noted that's what opponents of Scientology do, publicly.  They don't say "I hate this church and want to close it."  They say - "I have criticisms."  One guy in particular, whom I saw a news video on (taken without his knowledge) is sitting there with a reporter whom he believes to be an FBI agent or something, plotting to destroy the church from inside.  He calls himself a "critic" and says the church does not like him because he "criticizes" it.  In contrast, those reporting on the subject who do not refer to themselves as critics also, it seems a) have no agenda and b) are neutral, not critical.
> 
> If you don't mind, could you refer me to an otherwise unbiased critic?  If you will do so, I will immediately include his class of people in paragraph.  I just don't want people misled by the idea that the othwise neutral term "critic" means that the person so styled speaks without a predisposing agenda.  Until I actually see someone who does not oppose Scientology and yet who is critical of it, I'm not sure how that paragraph should read...
------
Conversion_of_units|986587251
25,26c25,33
< <TR><TD><TD><TD>10<sup></sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD>10<sup></sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>are<TD>a<TD>= 100 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>hectare<TD>ha<TD>= 10<sup>4</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>Volume, V ([[SI unit]]: cubic metre</i> m<sup>3</sup>)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD>litre<TD>l, L<TD>= dm<sup>3</sup> = 10<sup>-3</sup> m<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>lambda<TD>&lambda;<TD>= &mu;l = 10<sup>-6</sup> dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>barrel (US)<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 158.987 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>gallon (US)<TD>gal (US)<TD>= 3.78541 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>gallon (UK)<TD>gal (UK)<TD>= 4.546 09 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
------
Scientology|986588002
31c31
< In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church. 
---
> In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Further such practices as Special Dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
39c39
< Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an avowed agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California and Washington, D.C. were broken into and ransacked in massive pre-dawn raids by FBI agents.  Eleven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raid, and received sentences from two to six years (some suspended).  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  The church was reorganized so that no branch enjoyed similar autonomy to the former "rogues," and no similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
---
> Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an admitted agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California and Washington, D.C. were broken into and ransacked in massive pre-dawn raids by FBI agents.  Eleven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raids, and received sentences from two to six years (some suspended).  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  The church was reorganized so that no branch enjoyed similar autonomy to the former "rogues," and no similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
41c41
< Those who oppose Scientology style themselves "critics."  These range from press with critical statments to make, having had no contact with the church themselves; to apostates who may have left the church following disagreements or who may have been expelled on moral grounds; to avowed enemies of the church who planned to infiltrate it, plant documents, and foment fraudulently based criminal prosecutions.  Other critics speak from the point of view that the beliefs and practices of Scientology are in one manner or another antipathetic to their own religious convictions, and therefore deserving of censure.
---
> Those who oppose Scientology style themselves "critics."  These range from press with critical statments to make, having had little or no contact with the church themselves outside of press interviews; to apostates who may have left the church following disagreements or who may have been expelled on moral grounds; to avowed enemies of the church who planned to infiltrate it, plant documents, and foment fraudulently based criminal prosecutions.  Other critics speak from the point of view that the beliefs and practices of Scientology are in one manner or another antipathetic to their own religious convictions, (or lack thereof, in those who criticize or oppose organized religion) and therefore deserving of censure.
------
Conversion_of_units|986588931
7c7,8
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l ([[SI base unit]]:</i> m)</center></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l</center></TR>
> <TR><TD>metre ([[SI base unit]])<TD>m<TD></TR>
22a24
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
28a31
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
33a37,64
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>mass, m ([[SI base unit]]: kilogram</i> kg)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>electron mass (au)<TD><i>m</i>sub>e</sub><TD>=~ 9.109 39 x 10<sup>-31</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>unified atomic mass unit, dalton<TD>u, Da<TD>~ 1.660 540 x 10<sup>-27</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>gamma<TD>&gamma;<TD>= &mu;g</TR>
> <TR><TD>tonne<TD>t<TD>= 10<sup>3</sup> kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>pound (avoirdupois)<TD>lb<TD>= 0.453 592 37 kg</TR>
> <TR><TD>ounce (avoirdupois)<TD>oz<TD>~ 28.3495 g</TR>
> <TR><TD>ounce (troy)<TD>oz (troy)<TD>=~ 31.1035g</TR>
> <TR><TD>grain<TD>gr<TD>= 64.798 91 mg</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>time, t ([[SI base unit]]: second</i> s)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>au of time<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 2.418 88 x 10<sup>-17</sup> s</TR>
> <TR><TD>minute<TD>min<TD>= 60 s</TR>
> <TR><TD>hour<TD>h<TD>= 3600 s</TR>
> <TR><TD>day<TD>d<TD>= 86 400 s (not exactly defined due to 'leap' seconds</TR>
> <TR><TD>year<TD>a<TD>~ 31 556 952 s</TR>
> <TR><TD>svedberg<TD>Sv<TD>= ~ 10<sup>-13</sup> s</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>acceleration, a ([[SI unit]]: m.s<sup>-2</sup>)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>standard acceleration of free fall<TD><i>g</i><sub>n</sub><TD>= 9.806 65 m.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>gal galileo<TD>Gal<TD>= 10<sup>-2</sup> m.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>acceleration, a ([[SI unit]]: m.s<sup>-2</sup>)</center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
------
Year_in_Review|986589320
0a1
> '''[[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
------
Conversion_of_units|986589677
7,8c7,8
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l</center></TR>
< <TR><TD>metre ([[SI base unit]])<TD>m<TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l<i/></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>metre ([[SI base unit]])<TD>m<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
23,24c23,24
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>area, A ([[SI unit]]: square metre</i> m<sup>2</sup>)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>area, A</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>square metre ([[SI unit]])<TD>m<sup>2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
30,31c30,31
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>Volume, V ([[SI unit]]: cubic metre</i> m<sup>3</sup>)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>Volume, V</i></center></TR>
> <TR>cubic metre ([[SI unit]])<TD>m<sup>3</sup><TD>&nbsp;<TD></TR>
38,39c38,39
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>mass, m ([[SI base unit]]: kilogram</i> kg)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>mass, m</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>kilogram ([[SI base unit]])<TD>kg<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
49,50c49,50
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>time, t ([[SI base unit]]: second</i> s)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>time, t</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>second ([[SI base unit]])<TD>s<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
58,59c58,59
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>acceleration, a ([[SI unit]]: m.s<sup>-2</sup>)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>acceleration, a</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>([[SI unit]])<TD>m.s<sup>-2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
63,64c63,65
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>acceleration, a ([[SI unit]]: m.s<sup>-2</sup>)</center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>force, F</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>newton ([[SI_unit]])<TD>N<TD>= kg.m.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>dyne ([[cgs_unit]])<TD>dyn<TD>= 10<sup>-5</sup>N</TR>
------
Neeklamy|986589892
44a45,47
> 
> ----
> The ordinary language phrase might be "present nonexistence," but this doesn't distinguish things that did exist in the past from things that will exist in the future. --[[LMS]]
------
Conversion_of_units|986590070
7c7
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l<i/></center></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>length, l</i></center></TR>
31c31
< <TR>cubic metre ([[SI unit]])<TD>m<sup>3</sup><TD>&nbsp;<TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>cubic metre ([[SI unit]])<TD>m<sup>3</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
65a66,67
> <TR><TD>au of force<TD>&nbsp;<TD>=~ 8.238 73 x 10<sup>-8</sup>N</TR>
> <TR><TD>kilogram-force<TD>kgf<TD>= 9.806 65 N</TR>
------
Nonexistence|986590127
6c6
< * There is a quite different kind of nonexistence, namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there is a sense in which he does not exist; namely, he does not exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So another sort of nonexistence is past nonexistence.  Of course--though this presents a separate set of problems (e.g., having to do with free will)--there might be a corresponding <i>future</i> nonexistence.  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.
---
> * There is a quite different kind of nonexistence, namely, the kind the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates now has.  Socrates does not exist now.  He <i>did</i> exist, but there is a sense in which he does not exist; namely, he does not exist <i>any</i> <i>longer</i>.  So another sort of nonexistence is present nonexistence.  Of course--though this presents a separate set of problems (e.g., having to do with free will)--something presently nonexistent might exist in the ''future.''  The person who will be President of the United States 200 years from now does not, now, exist.  So we might distinguish two types of present nonexistence--the sort had by entities that did exist and the sort had by entities that will exist.  Of course, neither of these notions is entirely unproblematic.
------
Tobias_Hoevekamp|986590247
6,14c6
< to compare the evolution of nature with the evolution of the [[Noosphere]]. Both form complex structures that are apparently self-organizing. [[Entropy]] is considered a good concept for explaining the emergence of structures. Tobias thinks that additionally utilizing the concept of [[Synergy]] will provide a much better explanation for the both, the evolution of the nature and the evolution of the [[Noosphere]].
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
<   
---
> to compare the evolution of nature with the evolution of the [[Noosphere]]. Both form complex structures that are apparently self-organizing. [[Entropy]] is considered a good concept for explaining the emergence of structures. Tobias thinks that additionally utilizing the concept of [[Synergy]] will provide a much better explanation for the both, the evolution of the nature and the evolution of the [[Noosphere]].
------
Physical_quantity|986590515
1c1
< A physical quantity is usually expressed as the product of a [[numerical value]] and a [[unit]]:
---
> A physical quantity is usually expressed as the product of a [[numerical value]] and a [[unit]] (whereby [[SI unit]]s are usually preferred):
------
SI_base_unit|986590598
4c4
< <TR><TH>Physical quantity<TH>Symbol<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
---
> <TR><TH>[[Physical quantity]]<TH>Symbol<TH>Name of SI base unit<TH>Symbol for SI unit
12c12
< </TABLE>
---
> </TABLE>
------
Conversion_of_units|986592724
67a68,100
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>energy, U</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>joule ([[SI_unit]])<TD>J = N.m<TD>= kg.m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>erg ([[cgs unit]])<TD>erg<TD>= 10<sup>-7</sup> J</TR>
> <TR><TD>hartee (au)<TD><i>E</i><sub>h</sub><TD>~4.359 75 x 10<sup>-18</sup> J</TR>
> <TR><TD>rydberg<TD>Ry<TD>~ 2.179 87 x 10<sup>-18</sup> J</TR>
> <TR><TD>electronvolt<TD>eV<TD>= <i>e</i> x V ~ 1.602 18 x 10<sup>-19</sup> J</TR>
> <TR><TD>calorie, thermochemical<TD>cal<sub>th</sub><TD>= 4.184 J</TR>
> <TR><TD>calorie, international<TD>cal<sub>IT</sub><TD>= 4.1868 J</TR>
> <TR><TD>15 <sup>o</sup>C calorie<TD>cal<sub>IT</sub><TD>~ 4.1855 J</TR>
> <TR><TD>litre atmosphere<TD>l atm<TD>= 101.325 J</TR>
> <TR><TD>British thermal unit<TD>Btu<TD>= 1055.06 J</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>pressure, p</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>pascal ([[SI unit]])<TD>Pa<TD>= N.m<sup>-2</sup> = kg.m<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>atmosphere<TD>atm<TD>= 101 325 Pa</TR>
> <TR><TD>bar<TD>bar<TD>= 10<sup>5</sup> Pa</TR>
> <TR><TD>torr<TD>Torr<TD>= (101 325/760) Pa ~ 133.322 Pa</TR>
> <TR><TD>millimetre of mercury (conventional)<TD>mmHg<TD>= 13.5951 x 980.655 x 10<sup>-2</sup> Pa ~ 133.322 Pa</TR>
> <TR><TD>pounds per square inch<TD>psi<TD>~ 6.894 757 x 10<sup>3</sup> Pa</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>power, P</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>watt ([[SI unit]])<TD>W<TD>= J.s<sup>-1</sup> = N.m.s<sup>-1</sup> = kg.m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>hores power<TD>hp<TD>=745.7 W</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
------
Conversion_of_units|986592885
9c9
< <TR><TD>bohr (au)<TD>a<sub>0</sub>,b<TD>~ 5.291 77 x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
---
> <TR><TD>bohr (au)<TD>a<sub>0</sub>, b<TD>~ 5.291 77 x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
33c33
< <TR><TD>lambda<TD>&lambda;<TD>= &mu;l = 10<sup>-6</sup> dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>lambda<TD>&lambda;<TD>= &mu;, l = 10<sup>-6</sup> dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
40c40
< <TR><TD>electron mass (au)<TD><i>m</i>sub>e</sub><TD>=~ 9.109 39 x 10<sup>-31</sup> kg</TR>
---
> <TR><TD>electron mass (au)<TD><i>m</i><sub>e</sub><TD>~ 9.109 39 x 10<sup>-31</sup> kg</TR>
------
Conversion_of_units|986592971
33c33
< <TR><TD>lambda<TD>&lambda;<TD>= &mu;, l = 10<sup>-6</sup> dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>lambda<TD>&lambda;<TD>= &mu;l = 10<sup>-6</sup> dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
------
Scientology/Talk|986593152
43a44,51
> ----
> O.k., I think I can help with this.  Of course in some sense, all people who are critical of X must oppose X to some extent, right?  So pointing out that all the critics of Scientology are opposed to Scientology is either redundant or (as in this case) it sounds like a way of dismissing the critics, i.e. to say that no objective person actually opposes Scientology.
> 
> So, let me be your hypothetical critic.  My own views do not belong in Wikipedia, of course, but consider what my view is.  I am critical of Scientology.  I think it is total bunk as a theory about the world.  It's just as much bunk as Christianity or Marxism as a theory about the world.  It's untested or, where tested, provably false in important ways.
> 
> Yet, I can hardly be seen as someone who is "opposed to" Scientology, unless any criticism at all is to be discounted because it <i>is</i> criticism.  I don't suppose that I've ever written publicly about it until just now.  Not that I can recall, anyway.  I'm an objective outsider, with no particular emotional investment in the question, and it seems quite clear to me that the critics have many valid points.  Check out the XENU documents, for example.  Nutso stuff.
> 
> I would object equally to a paragraph in an essay on Christianity that suggested that everyone opposed to Christianity is either a heretic, uninformed, biased, etc.
------
Scientology|986593415
1,3c1,2
< Religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of [[L. Ron Hubbard]](1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]] the Modern Science of Mental Health''. and two subsequent volumes, Dianetics, the Evolution of a Science and Science of Survival.
< Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology. By the time he died, in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
< books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics. 
---
> Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of science fiction author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
> books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics.
5,9c4
< The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of
< these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive. Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of
< brotherhood with the universe. It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of
< which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank." This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional
< and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress. The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind." 
---
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
11,22c6,7
< The central practice of Scientology, and [[Dianetics]] before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a
< state of "clear," that state being one of freedom from the influences of the reactive mind. The practice is one wherein a counselor called an "auditor"
< addresses a series of questions to a "preclear'" or one who is not yet "clear," observes and records his responses, and acknowledges them. The
< aim is to enable the preclear to recover awareness and volitional control of the material previously stored in his reactive mind. The earliest forms
< of Dianetic processing, still practiced today, involved a scenario reminiscent of Freudian psychoanalysis, with the preclear reclining on a couch in
< a reflective state called "Dianetic reverie" while the auditor observed from a chair nearby and took notes, predicating his questions and responses
< on utterances by the preclear and a number of clearly defined physiological indica. Some later forms of auditing employ a device called the
< Hubbard Electropsychometer ("E-Meter"). This is a device which measures changes in the electrical resistance of the preclear's skin by passing
< approximately 1/2 volt through a pair of zinc-plated tubes much like empty soup cans, atached to the meter by wires and held by the preclear
< during auditing. These low-potential changes in electrical resistance, known as galvanic response, are similar to those measured by polygraphs
< and related machines, and are thought to be more reliable and sensitive to the preclear's state of mind than the physiological indica of early
< Dianetics. 
---
> The central practice of Scientology, and [[Dianetics]] before it, is an activity known as "auditing" (listening) which seeks to elevate an adherent to a state of "clear", that being one of freedom from the influences of the reactive mind.  The practice is one wherein a counselor called an "auditor" addresses a series of questions to a "preclear", observes and records his responses, and acknowledges them.  The aim is to enable the preclear to recover awareness and volitional control of the material previously stored in his reactive mind.  The earliest forms of Dianetic processing, still practiced today, involved a scenario reminiscent of Freudian psychoanalysis, with the preclear reclining on a couch in
> a reflective state called "Dianetic reverie" while the auditor observed from a chair nearby and took notes, predicating his questions and responses on utterances by the preclear and a number of physiological indica.  Some later forms of auditing employ a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer ("E-Meter").  This is a device which measures changes in the electrical resistance of the preclear's skin by passing approximately 1/2 volt through a pair of zinc-plated tubes much like empty soup cans, atached to the meter by wires and held by the preclear during auditing.  These low-potential changes in electrical resistance, known as galvanic response, are similar to those measured by polygraphs and related machines, and are believed by church adherents to be more reliable and sensitive to the preclear's state of mind than the physiological indica of early Dianetics.
24,27c9
< Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. Scientology has long
< held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions. Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a
< number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993. And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship. This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own. This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist
< influence in forming his own personal philosphy. 
---
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
29c11
< The church of Scientology has a number of strong critics. In the opinion of these critics, Scientology is not really a religion, but an organization aimed at getting money from its members and outsiders. The response of the church to this claim, when leveled by official sources, has been to open its books to scrutiny by the United States Internal Revenue Service and to tax authorities in other countries in an effort to show that no individual or group of individuals realizes any but the most modest sums from church operations, and that monies accumulated by the church are put to charitable and religious use.  
---
> Critics of Scientology point to the lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and other practices.  Critics also frequently attack the organization, called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
31c13
< In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Further such practices as Special Dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
---
> While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make a lot of money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.
33c15
< Another point of criticism has been that church officials have asked one adherent or another to break contact with family and friends who are antagonistic to their religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s).  In response, the church has pointed out that there used to be a policy, since cancelled, called "disconnection," aimed at securing the peace of mind of adherents in the face of persons who criticized them for their membership.  The current church practice is pointed to; that of requiring members who have significant turmoil in their lives stemming from the antagonisms of family and friends to cease participation in church services and not resume them until differences with those close to them have been ironed out.
---
> Another point of criticism has been that church officials have asked one adherent or another to break contact with family and friends who are antagonistic to their religion (a habit shared with many [[sect]]s).  In response, the church has pointed out that there used to be a policy, since cancelled, called "disconnection", aimed at securing the peace of mind of adherents in the face of persons who criticized them for their membership.  The current church practice is pointed to; that of requiring members who have significant turmoil in their lives stemming from the antagonisms of family and friends to cease participation in church services and not resume them until differences with those close to them have been ironed out.
35c17
< Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical," and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.
---
> Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these secret "Operating Thetan" documents written by Hubbard that describe beliefs such as alien spirits called "Thetans" and a an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these documents.
37d18
< Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with those it perceives to have attacked it unjustly, lied about it, caused it legal diffculties without justification, or sought its demise.  The most noted strategy for dealing with such parties has been to investigate them openly and/or force them to defend their actions in court.  Critics point to this as unacceptable.  Scientologists reply that it is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environemnt.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
39c20
< Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an admitted agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California and Washington, D.C. were broken into and ransacked in massive pre-dawn raids by FBI agents.  Eleven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raids, and received sentences from two to six years (some suspended).  There is disagreement over how much official church approval, if any, the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  The church was reorganized so that no branch enjoyed similar autonomy to the former "rogues," and no similar activity on the part of the church has been reported since that time. 
---
> Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization calls "supressive persons").  It has spent millions of dollars on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, and many others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [[http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ |archive]] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
41c22
< Those who oppose Scientology style themselves "critics."  These range from press with critical statments to make, having had little or no contact with the church themselves outside of press interviews; to apostates who may have left the church following disagreements or who may have been expelled on moral grounds; to avowed enemies of the church who planned to infiltrate it, plant documents, and foment fraudulently based criminal prosecutions.  Other critics speak from the point of view that the beliefs and practices of Scientology are in one manner or another antipathetic to their own religious convictions, (or lack thereof, in those who criticize or oppose organized religion) and therefore deserving of censure.
---
> Some avowed enemies of Scientology have accused the organization of covert "black bag" operations against opponents.  Certainly, it would seem the church did not help its own cause in this regard when, in the mid-1970's, an admitted agent of the church was caught covertly pilfering documents on Scientology from IRS intelligence files.  Following this episode, offices of the church in Los Angeles, California and Washington, D.C. were broken into and ransacked in massive pre-dawn raids by FBI agents.  Eleven church staff, some highly placed, pled guilty or were convicted in federal court based on evidence seized in the raids, and received sentences from two to six years (some suspended).  There is disagreement over how much official church approval the covert actions enjoyed.  It is known that a "rogue" branch of the church was closed on the heels of the event, gutted of its staff, and dozens of personnel expelled or subjected to lesser sanctions.  The church claims that it has since been reorganized so that no branch enjoys similar autonomy to the former "rogues".
43c24
< Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with is official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, The U.S. Internal Revenue Service and Federal Bureau of Investigation had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was somehow extorted from the IRS.  How the church threatened a national government to accomplish this extortion is not explained.
---
> Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with its official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, the IRS and FBI had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was extorted from the IRS.
45c26
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology. In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where nonetheless some officially sanctioned exclusion from public life is practiced) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where nonetheless some officially sanctioned exclusion from public life is practiced) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
------
Scientology/Talk|986593592
51a52,55
> 
> ----
> Court records make great credible sources.  I've cleaned the text up a bit and removed the most blatant pro-CoS bias, and added some factual material about their history (Though I would personally prefer to be <i>much</i> harder on them).
> 
------
Scientology|986593618
1c1
< Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of science fiction author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
---
> ''Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of science fiction author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
------
Scientology|986593769
13c13
< While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make a lot of money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.
---
> While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.
------
Scientology|986593888
20c20
< Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization calls "supressive persons").  It has spent millions of dollars on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, and many others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [[http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ |archive]] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
---
> Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization calls "supressive persons").  It has spent millions of dollars on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, and many others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ archive] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
------
Scientology|986595240
11c11
< Critics of Scientology point to the lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and other practices.  Critics also frequently attack the organization, called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
---
> Critics of Scientology point to the lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and other practices.  In an interesting, if somewhat contradictory style of response, the church has claimed on the one hand that Scientology is religion and not science and therefore does not seek scientific support - and on the other, that just as a polygraph may use electrical conductivity of the skin to indicate whether one is confrotable with one's utterances, so may any instrument which measures galvanic response.
13c13,15
< While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.
---
> Critics also frequently attack the organization, called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  Members deny that this is the case.  In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
> 
> While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.  Members hold that the truth or falsity of such claims is irrelevant in judging whether the church meets their spiritual needs.
17c19
< Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these secret "Operating Thetan" documents written by Hubbard that describe beliefs such as alien spirits called "Thetans" and a an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these documents.
---
> Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these secret "Operating Thetan" documents written by Hubbard that describe beliefs such as extraterrestrial intelligence, spirits called "Thetans" and a an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these documents.
20c22
< Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization calls "supressive persons").  It has spent millions of dollars on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, and many others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ archive] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
---
> Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization may call "supressive persons").  It has spent large sums on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, government agencies and others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 (though subsequently officially revoked) which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ archive] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
24c26
< Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with its official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, the IRS and FBI had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was extorted from the IRS.
---
> Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with its official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, the IRS, FBI and other government agencies had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was extorted from the IRS.
------
Scientology/Talk|986595290
54a55,56
> ----
> One wonders why you would prefer this.  Have they done something to you?
------
Scientology|986595384
1c1
< ''Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of science fiction author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
---
> ''Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
------
20th_century|986595572
1a2,5
> 
> The twentieth century was remarkable, indeed, probably the most remarkable century in human history, due to the technological, social, ideological, and international innovations, and due to the rise of war, genocide, and democide on an unprecedented scale.  Virtually every aspect of human life had changed in some fundamental way by the end of the twentieth century.
> 
> [to be continued, perhaps by you]
------
Algorithm|986595845
14c14,15
< *[[Asymmetric algorithm]]s
---
> *[[Asymmetric algorithm]]s----
> Where does the new cryptographic algorithm that is supposed to be unbreakable and was developed by a faculty member at M.I.T., I believe, belong here. It works by keys picked up from some random source, like a satellite, that are processed in the encryption but never stored anywhere. The inventor has proved that it is unbreakable with current computational power, and no one contests this apparently. Do you know what I am referring to? RoseParks
------
Ontology|986595908
7c7
< #Is it possible to give an account of what it means to say that a physical object exists?
---
> #Is it possible to give an account of [[the existence of physical objects|what it means to say that a physical object exists]]?
24c24
< There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these.
---
> There are, however, very many more ontological problems than these.
------
Existence|986595949
3c3
< Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.
---
> Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.  (For further discussion, see "[[The existence of physical objects]].")
------
Algorithm|986595965
8c8
< # Subtract B from A.
---
> # Let A = A-B.
------
Existence|986595972
3c3
< Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.  (For further discussion, see "[[The existence of physical objects]].")
---
> Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.  (For further discussion, see [[he existence of physical objects]].)
------
Existence|986595980
3c3
< Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.  (For further discussion, see [[he existence of physical objects]].)
---
> Existence is the [[ontology|ontological]] topic ''par excellence.''  In Anglo-American philosophy (this article will have to be augmented with summaries of work in other traditions), probably the most widely-asked question about it is what sort of concept it is, or what function it serves in languages, both [[natural language|natural]] and [[formal language|formal]].  Another significant topic, related to the first, but somewhat less discussed, is whether 'existence' or 'exists' can be [[philosophical analysis|analyzed]] or [[definition|defined]] or otherwise [[explication|explicated]], and if so, what the explication might be.  (For further discussion, see [[the existence of physical objects]].)
------
Ontology|986596058
1c1
< ''Ontology'' is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|fundamental categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundamental or [[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
---
> ''Ontology,'' the most fundamental branch of [[metaphysics]], is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|basic categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundamental or [[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
------
20th_century|986596399
5c5,9
< [to be continued, perhaps by you]
---
> [to be continued, perhaps by you]----
> And I bet, everyone said the same thing as the year 1900 began, i.e. that the nineteenth century was the most remarkable century of all time...:-). Remember the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, the Civil War and Emancipation Proclamation. Sorry,
> since I was not here for the last century, I would be very reluctant to make the above
> judgments.  Perhaps, you should be too. Unless you are much older than I thought...
> :-).RoseParks.
------
20th_century|986596453
8,9c8,9
< judgments.  Perhaps, you should be too. Unless you are much older than I thought...
< :-).RoseParks.
---
> judgments.  Perhaps, you should be too. Unless you are much older than I thought
> ...:-).RoseParks.
------
20th_century|986596983
9a10,11
> ----
> The 19th century ''was'' the most remarkable century of all time--until the 20th came along.  :-)
------
Scientology/Talk|986597080
57a58
> Yes, they've done something to all of us: they are solely responsible for shutting down the "penet" anonymous Usenet posting service, and have done much to further the cause of internet censorship.  They've also caused a lot of harm (possibly including murder) to many good people, including my friend Keith Henson.  They are truly an evil organization, and will stop at nothing to silence critics.  That, of course, is a personal opinion not worthy to put in an article here, but I stand by it nonetheless.
------
Cultural_anthropology/Talk|986597410
1c1
< Cultural Anthropology studies human beings and the development and dynamics of their cultures.  Sociology is a statistical study of human social issues (my layman's definition).  And Social Psychology studies individual human thought and behavoir in social settings.  
---
> Cultural Anthropology studies human beings and the development and dynamics of their cultures.  [[Sociology]] is a statistical study of human social issues (my layman's definition).  And [[Social Psychology]] studies individual human thought and behavior in social settings.  
5a6,8
> ----
> Ah, I wondered if that was your question, but since you had logged on anonymously (for that entry) and that didn't exactly seem like a question you'd ask, I just decided to write a rather brief description.  What the heck, I need to do some academic reading this weekend, I can try to put together a more descriptive article.  
> 
------
20th_century|986597692
11c11,15
< The 19th century ''was'' the most remarkable century of all time--until the 20th came along.  :-)
---
> The 19th century ''was'' the most remarkable century of all time--until the 20th came along.  :-)
> ----
> And probably  the 21th will be the most remarkable when it's over...
> By the way, the french revolution was in the eighteen century.
> --AstroNomer
------
Superconductivity|986597840
1c1
< <i>Superconductivity</i> is the complete disappearance of electrical resistance in certain materials, which typically occurs when they are cooled to low temperatures.
---
> <i>Superconductivity</i> is the complete disappearance of electrical resistance in certain materials, which occurs when they are cooled below a characteristic transtition temperature, T<sub>C</sub>. The highest known T<sub>C</sub> at the time of discovery of high temperature superconductivity in oxides (1986) was T<sub>C</sub>=23 K in Nb<sub>3</sub>Ge (discovered in the early 1970s).
5,7c5
< Superconductivity, in general, is used for...
< 
< Some technological innovations due to the discovery of superconductivity include...
---
> Some technological innovations benefiting from the discovery of superconductivity include sensitive detector for magnetic fields (SQIUD), logic devices, MR-scanner, beam stearing magnets in high-energy accelerators, microwave filters (e.g. for base stations for mobile phones). Industrial/commercial promising applications are power cables, transforms, motors, magnets.
17c15
< : Superconductivity at about 30 K is discovered by Bednorz and Müller (from IBM Zürich) in oxides. The phenomenon is termed <i>high temperature superconductivity</i> (HTSC).
---
> : Superconductivity at about T<sub>C</sub>=30 K is discovered by Bednorz and Müller (from IBM Zürich) in oxides. The phenomenon is termed <i>high temperature superconductivity</i> (HTSC).
20c18
< : First HTSC with T>77 K. This makes it possible to cool the superconductors with liquid N<sub>2</sub>.
---
> : First HTSC with T<sub>C</sub>>77 K. This makes it possible to cool the superconductors with liquid N<sub>2</sub>.
23c21
< : Record critical temperature: T=133 K in a Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O system.
---
> : Record critical temperature: T<sub>C</sub>=133 K in a Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O system.
26c24
< : Superconductivity at nearly 40 K is discovered in the simple system of magnesium diboride. The result was reported at conference in january, and has sparked a huge activity in the research community.
---
> : Superconductivity at nearly T<sub>C</sub>=40 K is discovered in the simple system of magnesium diboride. The result was reported at conference in january, and has sparked a huge activity in the research community.
------
Algorithm|986597895
14c14,16
< *[[Asymmetric algorithm]]s----
---
> *[[Asymmetric algorithm]]s
> 
> ----
15a18,19
> 
> Yes, but it isn't really an encryption algorithm itself so much as a novel means of key exchange.  Most modern cryptography techniques are like that: everyone has known about [[one-time pad]]s for a long time, and that they are unbreakable.  Modern techniques like RSA and Diffie-Helmann are just ways to safely exchange keys, which can then be used as one-time pads.  RSA and DH key exchange protocols can themselves be broken, while professor Rabin's method theoretically cannot be, but it is not yet practical for other reasons.
------
Superconductivity|986598198
5c5
< Some technological innovations benefiting from the discovery of superconductivity include sensitive detector for magnetic fields (SQIUD), logic devices, MR-scanner, beam stearing magnets in high-energy accelerators, microwave filters (e.g. for base stations for mobile phones). Industrial/commercial promising applications are power cables, transforms, motors, magnets.
---
> Some technological innovations benefiting from the discovery of superconductivity include sensitive detectors for magnetic fields called SQUIDs, logic devices, magnetic resonance imaging, beam-steering magnets in particle accelerators, and microwave filters (e.g., for mobile phone base stations).  Promising future industrial and commercial applications include power cables, transformers, power storage, motors, and magnetic levitation devices.
------
Scientology|986598472
28c28
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where nonetheless some officially sanctioned exclusion from public life is practiced) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
------
Echelon/Talk|986598797
21a22,24
> 
> ----
> :''Satan's greatest achievement was to to make humanity believe that he doesn't exist'' -- WojPob
------
Scientology/Talk|986598803
58a59,64
> ----
> Well, I am pleased to see you own up to the nature and the source of your position.  If more people were as honest, then more truth would come to the whole picture.  Unfortunately, the world is full of people disguising personal hatreds as "impartial analysis."
> 
> In my travels, I have quite literally lived and conversed with Moonies, Hare Krishna, Buddhists, Pentacostals, Scientologists, astrologers, numerololgists, followers of the I Ching, a palmist, World Messaianists, Mormons (one of my daughters was baptised in that faith), Babptists, Born-agains, Catholics, Jews, Moslems, Tarot readers, General Semanticists, Theosophists, Wiccans, Jehovah's Witnesses (in cities 400 mi. distant from each other, some of the kindest and most generous neighbors I ever had), Seventh Day Adventists and others.  As to each of the above I have found the decided majority of adherents to each given school of thought to be good people, concerned about their community and their world, and trying to do and be the best they could for themselves and others.
> 
> Here is what I learned:  Return good for good.  Return good for evil.  Judge none.  Be no man's enemy.  Such evil as you seek to punish will taint you.  Life is too short to hate.
------
Scientology/Talk|986598867
62c62
< In my travels, I have quite literally lived and conversed with Moonies, Hare Krishna, Buddhists, Pentacostals, Scientologists, astrologers, numerololgists, followers of the I Ching, a palmist, World Messaianists, Mormons (one of my daughters was baptised in that faith), Babptists, Born-agains, Catholics, Jews, Moslems, Tarot readers, General Semanticists, Theosophists, Wiccans, Jehovah's Witnesses (in cities 400 mi. distant from each other, some of the kindest and most generous neighbors I ever had), Seventh Day Adventists and others.  As to each of the above I have found the decided majority of adherents to each given school of thought to be good people, concerned about their community and their world, and trying to do and be the best they could for themselves and others.
---
> In my travels, I have quite literally lived and conversed with Moonies, Hare Krishna, Buddhists, Pentacostals, Scientologists, astrologers, numerololgists, followers of the I Ching, a palmist, World Messaianists, Mormons (one of my daughters was baptised in that faith), Baptists, Born-agains, Catholics, Jews, Moslems, Tarot readers, General Semanticists, Theosophists, Wiccans, Jehovah's Witnesses (in cities 400 mi. distant from each other, some of the kindest and most generous neighbors I ever had), Seventh Day Adventists and others.  As to each of the above I have found the decided majority of adherents to each given school of thought to be good people, concerned about their community and their world, and trying to do and be the best they could for themselves and others.
------
Scientology/Talk|986598936
58a59,60
> 
> One also wonders why you changed the first line "...science fiction author L. Ron..." to "...author L. Ron...", while marking your change as a "minor edit" so it wouldn't show up in the recent changes list.  At that time, that's exactly what L. Ron was, a science fiction author, which is an interesting bit of background information (though admittedly not necessarily relevant to the religion itself).
------
Scientology/Talk|986599239
66a67,68
> 
> ''I would never disagree.  I have nothing against any rank-and-file Scientologist; they are victims of the organization, not perpetrators.  It is the organization itself that I consider a criminal conspiracy.  I happen to think that it is a moral duty to point out evil and work to eliminate it.  If you call that "hate", well then we'll just have to disagree about that.''
------
Scientology/Talk|986599536
68a69,70
> 
> [[WojPob|I'm]] quite touched with your wholehearted attempt to save humanity from the evil of this world. However, you seem to have never experienced the full power of scientology to destroy your family. 
------
Scientology|986599935
9c9
< Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
---
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. In addition, it funds a runs a number of community-based charitable activities aimed at such things as relieving hunger, combatting drug use, and fostering literacy.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
13c13,15
< Critics also frequently attack the organization, called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  Members deny that this is the case.  In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
---
> In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
> 
> Critics also frequently attack the organization called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  Members deny that this is the case, and a number of leaders in the psychological community have published works strongly disputing the validity of "brainwashing" claims as related to any so-called "cult."
28c30
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations, and steps have been taken to exclude Scintologists from some aspects of public life) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
------
Algorithm|986600176
19a20,21
> ----Thank you. You may remove or do what you want with this. Perhaps other people have read about it and could use your explanation on these pages...maybe a page itself, or
> somewhere on these pages. RoseParks
------
20th_century|986600564
4a5
> [[/Life expectancy]]
5a7,8
> 
> 
15c18
< --AstroNomer
---
> --AstroNomer
------
Scientology/Talk|986600680
70a71,75
> ----
> No, WojPob, I have not.  And neither, I believe you would find, have most of the people who write and talk about it.
> 
> LDC - The church of JC of LDS was also officially regarded as a criminal conspiracy by the US gov't in early days, and the army was dispatched to do away with it.  In a hundred years, we will see whether the C of S more closely paralled the Mafia or the Mormons (I do so love a good alliteration).  One things puzzles me, however.  In a criminal conspiracy, one will uniformly find the members (of the conspiracy) seeking to realize a personal benefit from the fruits of the crime, hopefully fruit which justifies the scope of the crime and effort undertake to plan and commit it.  Arguably, Hubbard (dead at the moment) was the primary criminal master mind.  Who would that be now, and how are they benefitting from it?
> ----
------
20th_century|986600775
18c18,19
< --AstroNomer
---
> --AstroNomer----
> I stand corrected on The French Revolution. Trying again...:-). I believe you understood my point. Thank you. RoseParks
------
Scientology|986600983
1c1
< ''Scientology'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
---
> [http://www.Scientology.org/ ''Scientology''] is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
------
20th_century/Life_expectancy|986601039
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Life expectancy in the 20th century increased dramatically.
> 
> Life expectancy at birth in the United States in 1901 was 49 years.  At the end of the century it was 77 years, an increase of greater than 50%.
> 
> Similar gains have been enjoyed throughout the world.  Life expectancy in India and China was around 40 years in midcentury.  At century's close it had risen to around 63 years.
> 
> These gains were due largely to advances in agriculatural technology (such as chemical fertilizers) and to the eradication and control of numerous infectious diseases.
> 
> 
------
20th_century/Life_expectancy|986601090
3c3
< Life expectancy at birth in the United States in 1901 was 49 years.  At the end of the century it was 77 years, an increase of greater than 50%.
---
> Life expectancy at birth in the [[United States]] in 1901 was 49 years.  At the end of the century it was 77 years, an increase of greater than 50%.
5c5
< Similar gains have been enjoyed throughout the world.  Life expectancy in India and China was around 40 years in midcentury.  At century's close it had risen to around 63 years.
---
> Similar gains have been enjoyed throughout the world.  Life expectancy in [[India]] and [[China]] was around 40 years at midcentury.  At century's close it had risen to around 63 years.
------
20th_century|986601253
4a5
> [[/Infant mortality]]
5a7
> 
------
20th_century|986601261
5,6c5,6
< [[/Infant mortality]]
< [[/Life expectancy]]
---
>  [[/Infant mortality]]
>  [[/Life expectancy]]
------
Seafood|986601352
4c4
< ** [[Eel]]s
---
> ** [[Eel]]
18a19,21
> ** [[White Fish]]
> ** [[Shark]]
> ** [[Haddock]]
37c40
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
20th_century/Infant_mortality|986601696
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Infant mortality rates plummeted around the globe in the 20th century.
> 
> In the [[United States]] infant mortality fell from more than 10% to significantly less than 1%.
> 
> In India, the child mortality rate (death at or before 5 years of age) fell from 17.3% in 1980 to 8.5% in 1986.  In Bangladesh in the same period, it fell from over 20% to around 10%, in Iran, from 13% to around 4%.
> 
> Infant mortality rates were driven down by improved health care and nutrition, and by cleaner, healthier environments world wide.
------
City|986601815
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It would be very cool to have a list of cities here.  Why don't you add one?  :-)  Starting with the cities for which we have articles.  I know there's [[Paris]], [[Warsaw]], [[City of New York]] (shouldn't that be New York City?), [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[Juneau, Alaska]], and many others.
------
City|986601847
1c1
< It would be very cool to have a list of cities here.  Why don't you add one?  :-)  Starting with the cities for which we have articles.  I know there's [[Paris]], [[Warsaw]], [[City of New York]] (shouldn't that be New York City?), [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[Juneau, Alaska]], and many others.
---
> It would be very cool to have a list of cities here.  Why don't you add one?  :-)  Starting with the cities for which we have articles.  I know there's [[Paris]], [[Warsaw]], [[City of New York]] (shouldn't that be New York City?), [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[Juneau]], and many others.
------
20th_century|986601902
6a7
>  [[/Maternal death rates]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986602089
6,18c6,13
< [[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< [[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]] (Bruce Hamilton)
< ----
< [[/Investigator as Philosopher]] (Bruce Hamilton)
< ----
< [[/Ethics or Morals]] (Bruce Hamilton)
< ----
< [[/Stupid Republicans]] (author unknown)
< ----
< [[/Media Bias]] (collectively written)
< ----
< [[/The elements of an encyclopedia project]] (Larry Sanger and whoever else joins in)
---
> :[[/The Problem of Defining Sanity]] (Bruce Hamilton)
> :[[/Investigator as Philosopher]] (Bruce Hamilton)
> :[[/Ethics or Morals]] (Bruce Hamilton)
> :[[/Stupid Republicans]] (author unknown)
> :[[/Media Bias]] (collectively written)
> :[[/The elements of an encyclopedia project]] (Larry Sanger and whoever else joins in)
> :[[/Breadth and depth]] (Larry Sanger)
> :[[Larrys Text]] -- a lot of this is in lecture format, and some of it contains my own personal opinions.  I fully intend to wikify it and render it encyclopedic; I've been doing so slowly but steadily.  When it's fully wiki'ed, I'll remove it from this commentary page, because it will no longer contain any commentary per se.  :-)  As you can see, I am the first one to break my own rule (the item isn't filed under my name or the commentary page) but that's only because I do fully intend to make it into encyclopedia articles, and am in the process of doing so. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
20th_century/Maternal_death_rates|986602259
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The death rates of women giving birth plummeted in the 20th century.
> 
> At the beginning of the century, maternal death rates were around their historical level of nearly 1 in 100 for all live births.  The number today in the [[United States]] is 1 in 10,000, a 99% decline.
> 
> The decline in maternal deaths has been due largely to better drugs and medical procedures, increased prenatal care, better education, and the increase in expendable incomes to pay for all this.
------
20th_century/Maternal_death_rates|986602291
1c1
< The death rates of women giving birth plummeted in the 20th century.
---
> The death rate for women giving birth plummeted in the 20th century.
5c5
< The decline in maternal deaths has been due largely to better drugs and medical procedures, increased prenatal care, better education, and the increase in expendable incomes to pay for all this.
---
> The decline in maternal deaths has been due largely to better drugs and medical procedures, increased prenatal care, better education, and the increase in expendable incomes to pay for all this.
------
Dual_space|986602403
1c1
< Given any [[vector space]] V over some [[field]] F, we define the dual space V* to be the set of all linear transformations from V to F, with addition and scalar multiplication defined in the obvious ways.
---
> Given any [[vector space]] V over some [[field]] F, we define the dual space V* to be the set of all [[Linear transformation]]s from V to F, with addition and scalar multiplication defined in the obvious ways.
3c3
< There is a natural [[homomorphism]] &Phi; from any space V into V**, defined by (&Phi;(v))(x) = x(v) for all v in V, x in V*.  This is always injective and, in the event that V is finite dimensional, is actually an [[isomorphism]].  V is always isomorphic to V*, too: given any basis {v<sub>a</sub>} for V, define &Phi; such that
---
> There is a natural [[Homomorphism]] &Phi; from any space V into V**, defined by (&Phi;(v))(x) = x(v) for all v in V, x in V*.  This is always injective and, in the event that V is [[finite dimensional]], is actually an [[Isomorphism]].  V is always isomorphic to V*, too: given any [[Basis]] {v<sub>a</sub>} for V, define &Phi; such that
8c8
< for a,b distinct.  The set {&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>)} is called the dual basis of {v<sub>a</sub>}.  The exact isomorphism &Phi; depends on what basis we decided to use.  In fact, any isomorphism from V to V* defines a unique bilinear product on V by
---
> for a,b distinct.  The set {&Phi;(v<sub>a</sub>)} is called the dual [[Basis]] of {v<sub>a</sub>}.  The exact [[Isomorphism]] &Phi; depends on what [[Basis]] we decided to use.  In fact, any isomorphism from V to V* defines a unique [[Bilinear product]] on V by
12c12,13
< and vice versa.  This is effectively the same as identifying orthonormal bases with their duals.  Elements of V are sometimes called ''contravariant vectors'', and elements of V*, ''covariant vectors'' or ''one-forms''.
---
> and vice versa.  This is effectively the same as identifying [[Orthonormal bases]] with their duals.  Elements of V are sometimes called ''contravariant vectors'', and elements of V*, ''covariant vectors'' or ''one-forms''.----
> This is fine math, but no one has even defined a basis for a Vector Space, given the standard geometric interpretation of <b>R<sup>3</sup></b> as a Vector Space (a good concrete example.), etc. Lets try to fill in the more elementary material, before we soar to these heights...:-). I guess that includes me, too. RoseParks
------
20th_century|986602500
4a5
>  [[/Death rates]]
------
Scientology/Talk|986602632
74,75c74
< LDC - The church of JC of LDS was also officially regarded as a criminal conspiracy by the US gov't in early days, and the army was dispatched to do away with it.  In a hundred years, we will see whether the C of S more closely paralled the Mafia or the Mormons (I do so love a good alliteration).  One things puzzles me, however.  In a criminal conspiracy, one will uniformly find the members (of the conspiracy) seeking to realize a personal benefit from the fruits of the crime, hopefully fruit which justifies the scope of the crime and effort undertake to plan and commit it.  Arguably, Hubbard (dead at the moment) was the primary criminal master mind.  Who would that be now, and how are they benefitting from it?
< ----
---
> LDC - The church of JC of LDS was also officially regarded as a criminal conspiracy by the US gov't in early days, and the army was dispatched to do away with it.  In a hundred years, we will see whether the C of S more closely paralled the Mafia or the Mormons (I do so love a good alliteration).  One things puzzles me, however.  In a criminal conspiracy, one will uniformly find the members (of the conspiracy) seeking to realize a personal benefit from the fruits of the crime - hopefully fruit which justifies the scope of the crime and effort undertaken to plan and commit it.  Arguably, Hubbard (dead at the moment) was the primary criminal master mind.  Who would that be now, and how are they benefitting from it?
------
20th_century/Death_rates|986602870
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Death rates plummeted in the United States in the 20th century.  Elsewhere, an estimated 7.3% of the human population was murdered by governments, which offset many of the gains made by advances in nutrition, environment, and medical care.
> 
> In 1900 around 17 Ameriacns per 1000 died in any given year.  At the close of the century the number was around 9 per thousand.
> 
> Age-adjusted death rates fell even more dramtically. Children in 1999 were 10 times less likely to die than children in 1900.  For adults 24-65, death rates have been halved.  The death rate for Americans aged  65 to 74 fell from nearly 7% per year to fewer than 2% per year.
------
20th_century|986603358
6a7
>  [[/Infectious disease]]
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986603814
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many diseases that killed by the millions were largely eradicated in the 20th century.
> 
> Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza has fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - it has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
> 
> Death due to infectious disease declined because of a cleaner, healthier environment worldwide, advances in medical knowledge, and the economic expansion that made it possible to pay for these things.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986604241
3c3
< Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza has fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - it has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
---
> Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - it has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
5c5
< Death due to infectious disease declined because of a cleaner, healthier environment worldwide, advances in medical knowledge, and the economic expansion that made it possible to pay for these things.
---
> Death due to infectious disease declined because of a cleaner, healthier environment worldwide, advances in medical knowledge, and the economic expansion that made it possible to pay for these things.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986604260
3c3
< Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - it has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
---
> Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - that figure has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
------
20th_century/Death_rates|986604551
3c3
< In 1900 around 17 Ameriacns per 1000 died in any given year.  At the close of the century the number was around 9 per thousand.
---
> In 1900 around 17 Americans per 1000 died in any given year.  At the close of the century the number was around 9 per thousand.
5c5
< Age-adjusted death rates fell even more dramtically. Children in 1999 were 10 times less likely to die than children in 1900.  For adults 24-65, death rates have been halved.  The death rate for Americans aged  65 to 74 fell from nearly 7% per year to fewer than 2% per year.
---
> Age-adjusted death rates fell even more dramtically. Children in 1999 were 10 times less likely to die than children in 1900.  For adults 24-65, death rates have been halved.  The death rate for Americans aged  65 to 74 fell from nearly 7% per year to fewer than 2% per year.
------
20th_century/Infant_mortality|986604616
5c5
< In India, the child mortality rate (death at or before 5 years of age) fell from 17.3% in 1980 to 8.5% in 1986.  In Bangladesh in the same period, it fell from over 20% to around 10%, in Iran, from 13% to around 4%.
---
> In India, the child mortality rate (death at or before 5 years of age) fell from 17.3% in 1980 to 8.5% in 1996.  In Bangladesh in the same period, it fell from over 20% to around 10%, in Iran, from 13% to around 4%.
7c7
< Infant mortality rates were driven down by improved health care and nutrition, and by cleaner, healthier environments world wide.
---
> Infant mortality rates were driven down by improved health care and nutrition, and by cleaner, healthier environments world wide.
------
20th_century/Maternal_death_rates|986604703
3c3
< At the beginning of the century, maternal death rates were around their historical level of nearly 1 in 100 for all live births.  The number today in the [[United States]] is 1 in 10,000, a 99% decline.
---
> At the beginning of the century, maternal death rates were around their historical level of nearly 1 in 100 for live births.  The number today in the [[United States]] is 1 in 10,000, a 99% decline.
------
Parsley|986604806
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bright green [[herb]] that is very common in [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]], [[Europe|European]], and [[America|American]] [[cooking]].  Parsley's value as a breath-freshener, and much of its taste, come from its high concentration of [[chlorophyll]].
> 
> Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian or flat-leaf.  Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish.  Many people think flat leaf parsley has a stronger flavor.  Another type of parsley is grown for its edible [[root]].
------
Parsley|986604831
3c3
< Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian or flat-leaf.  Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish.  Many people think flat leaf parsley has a stronger flavor.  Another type of parsley is grown for its edible [[root]].
---
> Two forms of parsley are used as herbs: curly leaf and Italian or flat leaf.  Curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish.  Many people think flat leaf parsley has a stronger flavor.  Another type of parsley is grown for its edible [[root]].
------
Scientology|986608368
1,2c1
< [http://www.Scientology.org/ ''Scientology''] is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of
< books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics.
---
> ''[http://www.Scientology.org/ Scientology]'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics.
4c3
< The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
---
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being (referred to as a "thetan") who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past events containing some level of unconsciousnesse, motional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
9c8
< Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. In addition, it funds a runs a number of community-based charitable activities aimed at such things as relieving hunger, combatting drug use, and fostering literacy.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices are compatible with those of other religions.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  And it was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
---
> Other activites of a Scientology church include Sunday services, formal classes, naming, marriage and funeral ceremonies. In addition, it funds and runs a number of community-based charitable activities aimed at such things as relieving hunger, combatting drug use, and fostering literacy.  Scientology has long held that its beliefs and practices were compatible with those of other religions.  Scientology enjoyed good relations with and recognition by a number of Christian, Buddhist and other sects for a number of decades before being formally recognized as a tax exempt religious and charitable organization by the United States government in 1993.  It was not until 1994 that a joint council of Shinto Buddhist sects in Japan not only extended official recognition of Scientology, but also undertook to train a number of their monks in its beliefs and practices as an adjunct to their own meditations and worship.  This continues a long tradition of Eastern faiths of assimilating or adopting elements of others faiths which they find harmonious with their own.  This may be a reflection of the fact that Hubbard acknowledged a strong Eastern, and specifically Buddhist influence in forming his own personal philosphy.
11c10
< Critics of Scientology point to the lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and other practices.  In an interesting, if somewhat contradictory style of response, the church has claimed on the one hand that Scientology is religion and not science and therefore does not seek scientific support - and on the other, that just as a polygraph may use electrical conductivity of the skin to indicate whether one is confrotable with one's utterances, so may any instrument which measures galvanic response.
---
> Critics of Scientology point to a lack of scientific basis for the E-meter and other practices.  In an interesting, if somewhat contradictory response, the church has claimed on the one hand that Scientology is religion and not science and therefore does not seek scientific support - and on the other, that just as a polygraph may use electrical conductivity of the skin to indicate whether one is comfortable with questions and answers, so may any instrument which measures galvanic response.
13c12
< In addition to free sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church, and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
---
> In addition to free Sunday services, lectures and the like, members are invited to do any number of classes, exercises or counseling sessions, at fixed donation rates ranging from free to, in some cases, thousands of dollars.  Generally the higher expected donations are for the more advanced initiatory activities.  Critics hold that it is improper to fix a donation for religious service and that therefore the activity is non-religious.  The church points out that almost all classes, exercises and counseling may also be traded for "in kind" or performed cooperatively by students for no cost, and that members of its most devoted ecclesiastic orders need donate nothing for services and are, in fact supported in toto by the church.  Other practices such as special dispensations granted for a fixed donation by the Catholic Church and fixed tithing by other denominations are held up as evidence of a long-standing religious tradition of fixed donations.  In some coutries, such as Germany, such donations are imposed under government authority, as a tax.
15c14
< Critics also frequently attack the organization called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing them of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  Members deny that this is the case, and a number of leaders in the psychological community have published works strongly disputing the validity of "brainwashing" claims as related to any so-called "cult."
---
> Critics also frequently attack the organization called the ''Church of Scientology'', accusing it of using brainwashing and intimidation tactics to influence members to donate large amounts of money.  Members deny that this is the case, and a number of leaders in the psychological community have published works strongly disputing the validity of "brainwashing" claims as related to any so-called "cult."
17c16
< While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have verified that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, recorded Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.  Members hold that the truth or falsity of such claims is irrelevant in judging whether the church meets their spiritual needs.
---
> While the often-seen rumor that Hubbard made a bar bet with Robert Heinlein that he could start a religion is almost certainly false, others have claimed direct knowledge that during 1949 Hubbard did make statements to other people that starting a religion would be a good way to make money.  Writer and publisher Lloyd Arthur Eshbach, for example, reported Hubbard saying "I'd like to start a religion. That's where the money is."  And writer Theodore Sturgeon reported that he made a similar statement at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society.  The Church of Scientology denies these claims, and has in fact sued publishers for making them.  Members hold that the truth or falsity of such claims is irrelevant in judging whether the church meets their spiritual needs.
21c20
< Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries, in excess of three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these secret "Operating Thetan" documents written by Hubbard that describe beliefs such as extraterrestrial intelligence, spirits called "Thetans" and a an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these documents.
---
> Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries more than three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these purported secret "Operating Thetan" documents attributed to Hubbard that describe beliefs such as extraterrestrial intelligence, and an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these and other documents.
24c23
< Scientology as an organization has a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organization may call "supressive persons").  It has spent large sums on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, government agencies and others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document the Church's "fair game" policy established in 1967 (though subsequently officially revoked) which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ archive] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
---
> Scientology organizations have a history of dealing forcefully with critics (which the organizations may call "supressive persons").  It has spent large sums on lawsuits filed against individuals, newspapers, magazines, television studios, internet service providers, government agencies and others.  Publicly available court records, for example, document a "fair game" policy established in 1967 (though subsequently officially revoked) which stated that critics "May be tricked, sued or lied to or destroyed."  The Church is one of few organizations to have been convicted of barratry, the willful use of frivolous lawsuits for the purpose of harassment.  The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] maintains an [http://www.eff.org/pub/Censorship/CoS_v_the_Net/ archive] of documents related to the church's efforts to interfere with online critics.  The organization replies that this is the only way the church has been able to survive in a sometimes hostile environment.  In an earlier era Mormons, for example, took up arms and organized militia to defend themselves from those hostile to their faith.  Scientology, it would seem, has taken up the civil complaint in place of weaponry.
28c27
< Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with its official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back into the early 1950's, the IRS, FBI and other government agencies had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was extorted from the IRS.
---
> Scientologists have been accused over the years of dealing with their environment in a paranoid manner, claiming conspiracy by governments and the medical and psychiatric establishment against its continued survival.  In 1993, contemporaneously with its official recognition of Scientlogy as a bonafide church, The United States Internal Revenue Service released and circulated to the press and to foreign governments a body of documents covered with an explantory letter.  It acknowledged that, in violation of their authority and in a more or less coordinated campaign stretching back to the early 1953, the IRS, FBI and other government agencies had forwarded significant amounts of information on Scientology which they knew to be false and defamatory, some compiled without any factual basis by medical and psychiatric sources, to foreign intelligence agencies abroad.  These agencies had also urged foreign governments to take action against the church.  The motives for these actions were not explained.  The cover letter requested removal of the false data from foreign government files, but it is unknown if this request had any effect.  Critics claim that the agreement to recognize the church and renounce its earlier covert campaign against the church was extorted from the IRS.  The IRS flatly denies this claim.
------
Dianetics|986608514
1c1,2
< Devised by [[L. Ron Hubbard]], writer of [[western fiction]], [[romance novels]], [[screenplay]]s, [[mystery]], [[fantasy]] and [[science fiction]].  First publicised by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''
---
> Devised by [[L. Ron Hubbard]], writer of [[western fiction]], [[romance novels]], [[screenplay]]s, [[mystery]], [[fantasy]] and [[science fiction]].  First publicized by a series of articles in Astounding Science Fiction, it was brought to the attention of a wider public by the publication of the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''
> 
------
SI_base_unit|986609310
5c5
< <TR><TD>length<TD><i>l</i><TD>[[meter]]<TD>m
---
> <TR><TD>length<TD><i>l</i><TD>[[metre]]<TD>m
12c12
< </TABLE>
---
> </TABLE>
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986609970
1c1
< A war fought between English settlers in North America and the British Crown from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 Southernmost of the British American colonies as well as lightly settled territories West to the Mississippi River.
---
> A war fought between colonial citizens in North America and the British Crown from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 Southernmost of the British American colonies as well as lightly settled territories West to the Mississippi River.
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986610026
3c3
< The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to seize munitions stored by colonial militias at Lexington and Concord.  Conflict spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly defeated.  Ft. Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City.
---
> The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to seize munitions stored by colonial militias at [[Concord]], [[Massachusetts]].  Conflict spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly defeated.  Ft. Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City.
------
Ronald_Reagan|986610149
25c25
< *Does the president have unconditional authority to conduct foreign policy?  (Can the president approve selling arms to a foreign nation without [[congressional]] approval?)
---
> *Does the president have unconditional authority to conduct foreign policy?  (Can the president approve selling arms to a foreign nation without [[United States Congress|congressional]] approval?)
28c28
< *What role the [[Supreme Court]] has in deciding conflicts between the [[legislative branch]] and [[executive branch]]?
---
> *What role the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] has in deciding conflicts between the [[legislative branch]] and [[executive branch]]?
------
American_Revolutionary_War|986610276
14a15,31
> * Important battles:
>  [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]]
>  [[Battle of Saratoga]]
>  [[Battle of Yorktown]]
> 
> * Important persons:
>  [[Samuel Adams]]
>  [[Ethan Allen]]
>  [[Benedict Arnold]]
>  [[Benjamin Franklin]]
>  [[King George III]]
>  [[John Hancock]]
>  [[Thomas Jefferson]]
>  [[John Paul Jones]]
>  [[Thomas Paine]]
>  [[Paul Revere]]
>  [[George Washington]]
------
Knitting|986611167
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Knitting is one of several ways to turn thread or yarn into cloth.  A series of loops are formed on a pointed stick called a knitting needle.  Another needle is used to pull yarn through the loops to produce another row of loops, and so on.  Work can proceed in the round or by going back and forth in rows.  Knitting can also be done by [[machine]]s.
> 
> There are two basic stitches: <i>knit</i> and <i>purl</i>.  They are identical, except that a knit stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the front of the loop, while a purl stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the back of the loops.   If only knits or purls are used when working back and forth in rows, the result is called garter stitch.  Alternating rows of knits and purls result in stockinette or jersey stitch, the stitch most often used in commercial garments such as T-shirts.  Different patterns of stitches can be used to form cables or other textures.
> 
> See also [[crochet]], [[weaving]], [[spinning]].
> 
> <hr>
> 
> Someone who knows more about knitting should add to this.  I know far more theory than practice.
------
Hobby|986611233
43c43
< ** [[Crocheting]]
---
> ** [[crochet|Crocheting]]
------
Cilantro|986611572
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cilantro is an [[herb]] commonly used in [[Latin America|Latin American]] and [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]] [[cooking]].  Cilantro tastes soapy to some people.  [[Coriander]] is the name typically used for the seed of this plant.
------
Coriander|986611707
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Another name for the [[cilantro]] plant.  When used as a [[spice]], the seeds are usually called coriander seed.  Coriander seeds are usually dried but can be eaten green. 
------
Spice|986611751
19c19
< *[[Coriander seed]]
---
> *[[coriander|Coriander seed]]
------
Coriander|986611776
1c1
< Another name for the [[cilantro]] plant.  When used as a [[spice]], the seeds are usually called coriander seed.  Coriander seeds are usually dried but can be eaten green. 
---
> Another name for the [[cilantro]] plant.  When used as a [[spice]], the seeds are called coriander seed.  Coriander seeds are usually dried but can be eaten green. 
------
Cilantro|986611809
1c1
< Cilantro is an [[herb]] commonly used in [[Latin America|Latin American]] and [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]] [[cooking]].  Cilantro tastes soapy to some people.  [[Coriander]] is the name typically used for the seed of this plant.
---
> Cilantro is an [[herb]] commonly used in [[Latin America|Latin American]] and [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]] [[cooking]].  Cilantro leaves taste soapy to some people.  [[Coriander]] is the name typically used for the seed of this plant.
------
Herb|986612051
12a13,14
> *[[Angelica]]
> *[[Anise hyssop]]
21a24,25
> *[[Hyssop]]
> *[[Lemon balm]]
22a27
> *[[Lemon verbena]]
30a36
> *[[Sorrel]]
38a45,50
> Medicinal herbs:
> 
> *[[Chamomile]]
> *[[Digitalis]]
> *[[Echinacea]]
> *[[Feverfew]]
------
Parsley|986612105
3a4,5
> 
> Parsley is somewhat unusual in that it is a [[biennial plant|biennial]].
------
Biennial_plant|986612154
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[plant]] which produces seed and dies in its second year of life.
------
City|986612257
1c1,17
< It would be very cool to have a list of cities here.  Why don't you add one?  :-)  Starting with the cities for which we have articles.  I know there's [[Paris]], [[Warsaw]], [[City of New York]] (shouldn't that be New York City?), [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[Juneau]], and many others.
---
> Cities of the world by country:
> 
> <b>[[France]]</b>
> * [[Paris]]
> 
> <b>[[Poland]]</b>
> * [[Warsaw]]
> 
> <b>[[United States]]</b>
> * [[City of New York|New York City]]
> * [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]]
> * [[Juneau]]
> 
> Cities of the world by number of inhabitants:
> 
> ----
> It would be very cool to have a list of cities here.  Why don't you add one?  :-)  Starting with the cities for which we have articles.  I know there's [[Paris]], [[Warsaw]], [[City of New York]] (shouldn't that be New York City?), [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[Juneau]], and many others.
------
Scientology/Talk|986612876
74a75,84
> ----
> I just noticed this above, and had not responded to it:
> 
> "One also wonders why you changed the first line "...science fiction author L. Ron..." to "...author L. Ron...", while marking your change as a "minor edit" so it wouldn't show up in the recent changes list. At that time, that's exactly what L. Ron was, a science fiction author, which is an interesting bit of background information (though admittedly not necessarily relevant to the religion itself)." 
> 
> I considered the change a minor edit.  My understanding, from a couple of Hubbard biographies (one unauthorized) is that science fiction was less than half of his writing (see the [[Dianetics]] entry).  I personally first read anything by the man in like '67 or so, a somewhat tongue-in-cheek little novel called "Buckskin Brigades" if I recall.  At the time I thought of him as a minor sort of Zane Gray.  So to call him a science fiction writer would probably be like introducing Thomas Jefferson as a farmer.  Sure, he was one - but that was not his chief, or even secondary avocation.  Then, too, each time I have seen him introduced that way, it has been the lead-in to a Scientology hit piece.  So, I thot why not drop it?
> 
> BTW - I did not notice who put in the Fishman thing.  When I looked him up a minute ago, this was the #1 item on the hit list:  [http://jehovah.to/freedom/fishman.htm/ Jehovah's site] .  I thot at first - nah, different guy.  A couple of paragraphs in, it's like - oh.  Same guy.
> 
> 
------
Scientology/Talk|986613220
82c82
< BTW - I did not notice who put in the Fishman thing.  When I looked him up a minute ago, this was the #1 item on the hit list:  [http://jehovah.to/freedom/fishman.htm/ Jehovah's site] .  I thot at first - nah, different guy.  A couple of paragraphs in, it's like - oh.  Same guy.
---
> BTW - I did not notice who put in the Fishman thing.  When I looked him up a minute ago, this was the #1 item on the hit list:  [http://jehovah.to/freedom/fishman.htm / Jehovah's site] .  I thot at first - nah, different guy.  A couple of paragraphs in, it's like - oh.  Same guy.
------
Scientology|986613459
29c29
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations, and steps have been taken to exclude Scintologists from some aspects of public life) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim are false pretenses.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations, and steps have been taken to exclude Scintologists from some aspects of public life) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim is false pretense.  
------
City|986613514
15a16,22
> Cities (alphabetical):
> * [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]]
> * [[Juneau]]
> * [[City of New York|New York City]]
> * [[Paris]]
> * [[Warsaw]]
> 
------
Biennial_plant|986613647
1c1
< A [[plant]] which produces seed and dies in its second year of life.
---
> A [[plant]] which flowers and dies after its second summer of life.  See also [[annual plant|annual]], [[perennial plant|perennial]].
------
Annual_plant|986613694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[plant]] which flowers and dies after less than one year of life.  See also [[perennial plant|perennial]], [[biennial plant|biennial]]
------
Perennial_plant|986613820
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.
------
Perennial_plant|986613859
1c1
< A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.
---
> A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.  See also [[biennal plant|biennial]], [[annual plant|annual]].
------
Perennial_plant|986613878
1c1
< A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.  See also [[biennal plant|biennial]], [[annual plant|annual]].
---
> A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.  See also [[biennial plant|biennial]], [[annual plant|annual]].
------
Biennial_plant|986613906
1c1
< A [[plant]] which flowers and dies after its second summer of life.  See also [[annual plant|annual]], [[perennial plant|perennial]].
---
> A [[plant]] which lives for one to two years.  See also [[annual plant|annual]], [[perennial plant|perennial]].
------
Annual_plant|986613932
1c1
< A [[plant]] which flowers and dies after less than one year of life.  See also [[perennial plant|perennial]], [[biennial plant|biennial]]
---
> A [[plant]] that lives for less than one year. See also [[perennial plant|perennial]], [[biennial plant|biennial]]
------
Perennial_plant|986613948
1c1
< A [[plant]] which lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.  See also [[biennial plant|biennial]], [[annual plant|annual]].
---
> A [[plant]] that lives for more than two years.  This term is usually applied to herbacious plants or small [[shrub|shrubs]] rather than large shrubs or [[tree]]s.  See also [[biennial plant|biennial]], [[annual plant|annual]].
------
Biennial_plant|986613968
1c1
< A [[plant]] which lives for one to two years.  See also [[annual plant|annual]], [[perennial plant|perennial]].
---
> A [[plant]] that lives for one to two years.  See also [[annual plant|annual]], [[perennial plant|perennial]].
------
Parsley|986614000
1c1
< A bright green [[herb]] that is very common in [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]], [[Europe|European]], and [[America|American]] [[cooking]].  Parsley's value as a breath-freshener, and much of its taste, come from its high concentration of [[chlorophyll]].
---
> A bright green, [[biennial plant|biennial]] [[herb]] that is very common in [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]], [[Europe|European]], and [[America|American]] [[cooking]].  Parsley's value as a breath-freshener, and much of its taste, come from its high concentration of [[chlorophyll]].
5d4
< Parsley is somewhat unusual in that it is a [[biennial plant|biennial]].
------
Cilantro|986614034
1c1
< Cilantro is an [[herb]] commonly used in [[Latin America|Latin American]] and [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]] [[cooking]].  Cilantro leaves taste soapy to some people.  [[Coriander]] is the name typically used for the seed of this plant.
---
> Cilantro is an [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]] commonly used in [[Latin America|Latin American]] and [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]] [[cooking]].  Cilantro leaves taste soapy to some people.  [[Coriander]] is the name typically used for the seed of this plant.
------
Rosemary|986614293
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woody, [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] with fragrant evergreen needles that are used in [[cooking]].  Forms range from upright to trailing.  Flowers are usually pink, purple, or blue.
------
Knitting|986614555
3c3
< There are two basic stitches: <i>knit</i> and <i>purl</i>.  They are identical, except that a knit stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the front of the loop, while a purl stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the back of the loops.   If only knits or purls are used when working back and forth in rows, the result is called garter stitch.  Alternating rows of knits and purls result in stockinette or jersey stitch, the stitch most often used in commercial garments such as T-shirts.  Different patterns of stitches can be used to form cables or other textures.
---
> There are two basic stitches: <i>knit</i> and <i>purl</i>.  They are identical, except that a knit stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the front of the loop, while a purl stitch is formed by inserting the needle in the back of the loops.   If only knits or purls are used when working back and forth in rows, the result is called garter stitch.  Alternating rows of knits and purls result in stockinette or jersey stitch, the stitch most often used in commercial garments such as T-shirts.  Different combinations of stitches can be used to form ribbing, cables, or other textures.
------
History|986617478
58a59,60
> [[Military History]]:
> ----
------
Military_History|986617647
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Ancient
> * Medieval
> * Pike & Shot
> * Age of Rifles
> * Early 20th Century
> * Mid 20th Century
> * Late 20th Century
> 
> See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]]
------
History|986617719
59c59
< [[Military History]]:
---
> [[Military History]] index
------
Military_History|986618681
1a2,6
> ** Trojan War (c. 1200BC)
> ** Persian Wars (499-479BC)
> ** Peloponnesian War (431-404BC)
> ** Wars of Alexander the Great (334-323BC)
> ** Punic Wars (264-241BC, 218-202BC, 149-146BC)
2a8,10
> ** Crusades (1096-1291)
> ** Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
> ** Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)
3a12,20
> ** Dutch Independence (1568-1648)
> ** Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
> ** English Civil War (1642-1649)
> ** Northern War (1700-1721)
> ** Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
> ** Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
> ** Seven Years War (1756-1763)
> ** United States Revolution (1775-1783)
> ** French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815)
4a22,33
> ** War of 1812 (1812-1814)
> ** Greek Independence (1821-1829)
> ** Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
> ** Taiping Rebellion (1850-1865)
> ** Crimean War (1854-1856)
> ** United States Civil War (1861-1865)
> ** Austro-Prussian War (aka Seven Weeks War) (1866)
> ** Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
> ** Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
> ** Chinese-Japanese War (1894-1895)
> ** Spanish-American War (1898)
> ** Boer War (1899-1902)
5a35,41
> ** Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
> ** Balkan Wars (1912-1913)
> ** World War I (1914-1918)
> ** Russian Revolution (1917-1918)
> ** Chinese Revolution (1926?-1949)
> ** Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
> ** World War II (1939-1945)
6a43,46
> ** First Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949)
> ** Korean War (1950-1953)
> ** Vietnam War (1955-1975)
> ** Second Arab-Israeli War (1956)
7a48,52
> ** Six-Day War (1967)
> ** Yom Kippur War (1973)
> ** Afghan Civil War (1979-1989)
> ** Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)
> ** Persian Gulf War (aka Desert Storm) (1991)
9c54
< See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]]
---
> See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]], [[History]]
------
Military_History|986619349
2,6c2,6
< ** Trojan War (c. 1200BC)
< ** Persian Wars (499-479BC)
< ** Peloponnesian War (431-404BC)
< ** Wars of Alexander the Great (334-323BC)
< ** Punic Wars (264-241BC, 218-202BC, 149-146BC)
---
> ** [[Trojan War]] (c. 1200BC)
> ** [[Persian Wars]] (499-479BC)
> ** [[Peloponnesian War]] (431-404BC)
> ** [[Wars of Alexander the Great]] (334-323BC)
> ** [[Punic Wars]] (264-241BC, 218-202BC, 149-146BC)
8,10c8,10
< ** Crusades (1096-1291)
< ** Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
< ** Wars of the Roses (1455-1485)
---
> ** [[Crusades]] (1096-1291)
> ** [[Hundred Years War]] (1337-1453)
> ** [[Wars of the Roses]] (1455-1485)
12,20c12,20
< ** Dutch Independence (1568-1648)
< ** Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
< ** English Civil War (1642-1649)
< ** Northern War (1700-1721)
< ** Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
< ** Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
< ** Seven Years War (1756-1763)
< ** United States Revolution (1775-1783)
< ** French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars (1789-1815)
---
> ** [[Dutch Independence]] (1568-1648)
> ** [[Thirty Years War]] (1618-1648)
> ** [[English Civil War]] (1642-1649)
> ** [[Northern War]] (1700-1721)
> ** [[Spanish Succession]] (1701-1713)
> ** [[Austrian Succession]] (1740-1748)
> ** [[Seven Years War]] (1756-1763)
> ** [[United States Revolution]] (1775-1783)
> ** [[French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars]] (1789-1815)
22,33c22,33
< ** War of 1812 (1812-1814)
< ** Greek Independence (1821-1829)
< ** Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
< ** Taiping Rebellion (1850-1865)
< ** Crimean War (1854-1856)
< ** United States Civil War (1861-1865)
< ** Austro-Prussian War (aka Seven Weeks War) (1866)
< ** Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
< ** Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878)
< ** Chinese-Japanese War (1894-1895)
< ** Spanish-American War (1898)
< ** Boer War (1899-1902)
---
> ** [[War of 1812]] (1812-1814)
> ** [[Greek Independence]] (1821-1829)
> ** [[Mexican-American War]] (1846-1848)
> ** [[Taiping Rebellion]] (1850-1865)
> ** [[Crimean War]] (1854-1856)
> ** [[United States Civil War]] (1861-1865)
> ** [[Austro-Prussian War]] (aka Seven Weeks War) (1866)
> ** [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870-1871)
> ** [[Russo-Turkish War]] (1877-1878)
> ** [[Chinese-Japanese War]] (1894-1895)
> ** [[Spanish-American War]] (1898)
> ** [[Boer War]] (1899-1902)
35,41c35,41
< ** Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
< ** Balkan Wars (1912-1913)
< ** World War I (1914-1918)
< ** Russian Revolution (1917-1918)
< ** Chinese Revolution (1926?-1949)
< ** Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
< ** World War II (1939-1945)
---
> ** [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904-1905)
> ** [[Balkan Wars]] (1912-1913)
> ** [[World War I]] (1914-1918)
> ** [[Russian Revolution]] (1917-1918)
> ** [[Chinese Revolution]] (1926?-1949)
> ** [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-1939)
> ** [[World War II]] (1939-1945)
43,46c43,46
< ** First Arab-Israeli War (1948-1949)
< ** Korean War (1950-1953)
< ** Vietnam War (1955-1975)
< ** Second Arab-Israeli War (1956)
---
> ** [[First Arab-Israeli War]] (1948-1949)
> ** [[Korean War]] (1950-1953)
> ** [[Vietnam War]] (1955-1975)
> ** [[Second Arab-Israeli War]] (1956)
48,52c48,52
< ** Six-Day War (1967)
< ** Yom Kippur War (1973)
< ** Afghan Civil War (1979-1989)
< ** Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)
< ** Persian Gulf War (aka Desert Storm) (1991)
---
> ** [[Six-Day War]] (1967)
> ** [[Yom Kippur War]] (1973)
> ** [[Afghan Civil War]] (1979-1989)
> ** [[Iran-Iraq War]] (1980-1988)
> ** [[Persian Gulf War]] (aka Desert Storm) (1991)
------
Plant|986619708
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Plantae]]
> See Animal for the time being as to reasons for this redirect
------
Herb|986621816
24a25
> *[[Lavender]]
------
Basil|986622147
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tender [[Mediterranean]] [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]].  The most commonly used varieties are sweet basil and [[Thai]] basil.  Other varieties include Purple Ruffles, Mammoth, Cinnamon, Lemon, Globe, and African Blue.  The original variety from India, Holy Basil, is camphoric and rarely used in the kitchen.  Basil is very sensitive to cold.
------
Bay_leaf|986622264
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The leaf of the bay laurel [[tree]], [[Laurus nobilis]], is a culinary [[herb]] often used to flavor soups, stews, and braises.
------
Chervil|986622437
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chervil is a delicate [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]], usually used to flavor delicate foods such as mild-flavored [[seafood]]s, [[poultry]], and young [[vegetable]]s.
------
Chives|986622539
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chives are the only member of the [[onion]] family grown for their leaves, which are used as an [[herb]].  Chives have a much milder flavor than onions or garlic.
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986622552
13a14
> :[[a pome of sorts in narrative style...]]  (Bruce Hamilton)
------
A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986622683
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religion and philosophy in the life of Man.
> 
> There is little debate that religion and philosophy have been commonly perceived through the ages as a refining influence on the impulses and actions of men.  Paradoxically, highly contentious debates and great wars have also been inspired thereby.  Why this dichotomy?
> It is, perhaps, an issue of value, and of values.  That which offers significant structure and stability, paradoxically leads to great turmoil.
> 
> For what do men value, if not their own peace of mind?  And what brings peace of mind?  Answers.  And these answers are couched in a consistent and predictable system of values, that men might know what to expect from each other.   Value.  And values.  What do we hold dear?
> 
> And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
> 
> War.
> 
> If not war, then culture war.  Oppression.  Censorship.  Calumny and libel.  At no cost let the infidels make inroads, secure a single convert.  Stability must be maintained.  For man has had enough, in centuries past, of uncertainty.  Uncertainty meant doubt, confusion, danger.  It was a sign of impending loss.  Loss of food, of hunting territory, of life, limb, family or friend.  Let not uncertainty enter in.
> 
> And what of the men who provided the answers, the so-precious stability, certainty, predictability?  Were they gods, prophets, saviours?  Were they men rendered more by a divine hand?  Greater in the sight of God?  Were they unassailable, without flaw?  Almost never.  What they were was certain.  Those who followed found security, hope of greater survival, a reason to believe, like the warmth in the dinted snow left by the steps of the sainted King Wenceslaus.
> 
> And what of SCIENCE?  What of knowledge, and wisdom gained by peereing through lenses, combining reagents, accelerating quantum particles?  Is this not of greater and more enduring value?  Is this not less subject to attack from unlooked-for sources?  Cannot the mind find its precious broad and stable road here?  Perhaps not.  Not entirely.  For science, too has its limits.  Ask a physicist, "But where did it all come from?  Where is it going?  What is the meaning, the purpose in it?"  Blank stare.  Silly questions.  You have no call to ask them.  Ask me something Scientific.  You moron.
> 
> But Man must have his answers.  His mind, supreme arbiter of all that is true and right, has solved the problems put so far.  No problem can be really insoluble can it?  We shall apply the inexorable force of our reason, and the universal secrets will open to us.  We will know Truth.  How will we know it is truth?  Our logic will be seamless.  Our reason without crook or blemish.  The Truth will be self-consistent and consistent with all things.  It will not be gainsaid.  It will be invulnerable to attack.  It will endure.
> 
> So what do men need?  Answers.  Answers they can use, which do not fail them, and which have utility in life.  Answers in which they can rest secure that the travails of life will not unseat them, and send them spinning.  Answers, in short, which work for them.  Answers which work.  And you will not disabuse a man of answers thus sought, found and relied upon, answers which give his life shape, texture, color and meaning.  Answers which ease the path of his life and of those he loves.
>   
> Mount your best assault upon the source, the foundation, the premises, arguments and formulae of his answers.  Tell him the revelator of his truth is a swine.  Prove it in court.  Show pictures.  Film at 11.  But if his answers have met the test of his life, if they have succored him in his need, if they continue to provide the fulcrums and levers which move his mountains, you will make not a dent.  Flattened logical slugs impotent at your feet.  Tattered slings and shattered arrows.  Your keenest arguments and most telling expositions gone like a passing breeze.
> 
> So leave Man his answers.   Tamper not with the rudder of his life.  If he steers a clean course and collides not with the reefs or other craft, congratulate him on his seamanship.  Envy him his calm.  And find answers of your own.
> 
> BrucieBaby
------
Dill|986622706
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dill is a short-lived, [[Europe|European]], [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]].  Dill seeds are used to flavor [[pickle]]s; the fernlike leaves are used to flavor many other [[food]]s.
------
A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986622748
3a4
> 
26c27
< BrucieBaby
---
> BrucieBaby
------
Lavender|986622850
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woody [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]].  The fragrant flower buds are used in [[cooking]], as well as in [[potpourri]].
------
Lemon_balm|986622953
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] with a gentle [[lemon]] scent, related to [[mint]].
------
AyeSpy|986623200
29a30,31
> ----
> And now, ducking from the onslaught of rotten eggs and tomatoes - Shakespeare never had it this tough...
------
Mint|986623210
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] herb which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
> 
> Some common varieties include
> *[[spearmint]]
> *[[peppermint]]
> *[[chocolate mint]]
> *[[fruit mints]]
------
Hoplite|986623212
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Warfare in Hellenic Greece centered mainly around heavy infantrymen called ''hoplites''.  These were a citizen-militia, and so were armed as spearmen, which are relatively easy to equip and maintain; mainly they represented the middle class, who could afford the cost of the armaments.  Almost all the famous men of ancient Greece, even the philosophers and playwrites, fought as a hoplite in some battle or another.
> 
> Since farming was generally substinence, campaigns were short and mainly confined to the summer.  Armies marched directly to their target.  There the defenders could hide behind city walls, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside as siegecraft was undeveloped, or meet them on the field.  Battles were usually set piece and intended to be decisive.  Both forces lined up on a level field, usually in a rough phalanx around eight ranks deep (though this varied.  Other troops were less important - cavalry generally protected the flanks, when present at all, and both light infantry and missile troops were negligable.
> 
> Hoplites generally armed themselves right before battle, since the equipment was so heavy.  Each man provided his own gear so it was fairly non-uniform, and often friendly troops would fail to recognise one another.  A hoplite typically had a breastplate, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well greaves and other armor, plus a large bowl-shaped wooden shield called the ''hoplon'' that protected the left side of the body.  The primary weapon was a spear, around 9 feet long; as this frequently broke upon charging, hoplites also carried a smaller 2-foot thrusting sword.
> 
> The strength of hoplites was in shock combat.  The two armies would literally run into each other in hopes of breaking or encircling the enemy line.  Failing that, things degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in back trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy.  Battles rarely lasted more than an hour or so.  Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally drop their equipment and flee from the field, generally unpursued.  Casualties were comparatively slight, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but often included the most influential citizens and generals who led from the front.  Victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the "custom of the Greeks" in contrast to the oriental practice of mutilating the slain, and usually decided the whole war.
> 
> The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  The practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, with increased reliance on mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, navies, and generally non-standard tactics; there were three major traditional hoplite battles, and none of them decided anything.  Strategy found a permanent place on the battle field with the reforms of [[Epaminondas]], which led to the development of the Macedonian phalanx by [[Phillip II]] which was generally used in a combined arms sort of approach along with cavalry and skirmishers.  The last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, was met by him at the [[battle of Charonea]] and defeated, permanently ending the era of both city-states and hoplites.
------
Spearmint|986623293
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[mint]] variety most commonly used in [[cooking]].  It is named for its crinkled, spear-shaped leaves.
------
Mint|986623334
1c1
< A [[perennial plant|perennial]] herb which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] herb which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
7c7
< *[[fruit mints]]
---
> *[[fruit mints]]
------
Peppermint|986623386
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sterile hybrid [[mint]] with a high [[menthol]] content, often used in [[tea]] and [[candy]].
------
Mint|986623410
1c1
< A [[perennial plant|perennial]] herb which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
------
A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986623426
27c27
< BrucieBaby
---
> [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
------
Military_History|986623528
1a2,24
> ** [[Infantry]]
> ** [[Cavalry]]
> ** [[Chariotry]]
> ** [[Archery]]
> ** [[Slingman]]
> ** [[Hoplite]]
> ** [[Macedonian Phalanx]]
> ** [[Roman Legion]]
> * Medieval
> ** [[Knight]]
> ** [[Cataphract]]
> ** [[Horse archer]]
> ** [[Pikeman]]
> ** [[Longbow]]
> ** [[Artillery]]
> * Modern
> ** [[Musketeer]]
> ** [[Rifleman]]
> ** [[Armory]]
> 
> '''Famous wars and battles'''
> 
> * Ancient
54c77,79
< See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]], [[History]]
---
> ''This list is inevitably going to be pretty complete, at least with the ancient and medieval stuff...''
> 
> See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]], [[History]]
------
Marjoram|986623534
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cold-sensitive [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], related to [[oregano]], with [[pine]] and [[citrus]] flavors.
------
Oregano|986623634
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A spicy, [[Mediterranean]], [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]]
------
Oregano|986623642
1c1
< A spicy, [[Mediterranean]], [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]]
---
> A spicy, [[Mediterranean]], [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]].
------
Sage|986623757
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A savory [[evergreen]] [[herb]] with woody stems and woolly leaves.
------
Savory|986623841
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A savory [[herb]], best known for flavoring [[bean]]s.  Summer savory is an [[annual plant|annual]]; winter savory is a [[perennial plant|perennial]].
------
Tarragon|986624060
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] with a spicy flavor reminiscent of [[anise]].  French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen.  It cannot be grown from seed.  Russian tarragon can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavor.
------
Hoplite|986624339
9c9,11
< The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  The practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, with increased reliance on mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, navies, and generally non-standard tactics; there were three major traditional hoplite battles, and none of them decided anything.  Strategy found a permanent place on the battle field with the reforms of [[Epaminondas]], which led to the development of the Macedonian phalanx by [[Phillip II]] which was generally used in a combined arms sort of approach along with cavalry and skirmishers.  The last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, was met by him at the [[battle of Charonea]] and defeated, permanently ending the era of both city-states and hoplites.
---
> The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  The practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, with increased reliance on mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, navies, and generally non-standard tactics; there were three major traditional hoplite battles, and none of them decided anything.  Strategy found a permanent place on the battle field with the reforms of [[Epaminondas]], which led to the development of the Macedonian phalanx by [[Phillip II]] which was generally used in a combined arms sort of approach along with cavalry and skirmishers.  The last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, was met by him at the [[battle of Charonea]] and defeated, permanently ending the era of both city-states and hoplites.
> 
> Hoplite-style warfare was also practiced around the Mediterranean basin.  Of particular note, the city-states [[Estruscans]] usually fought with such militias, a practice they adopted from the Greek colonies.  From this sort of warfare developed the [[Roman legion]] that was to dominate western military history for hundreds of years.
------
Thyme|986624390
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very commonly used culinary [[herb]].  It is a [[Mediterranean]] [[perennial plant|perennial]].  Varieties include
> 
> *English thyme, the most commonly used variety
> *French thyme, similar to English thyme
> *Citrus thymes
> **Lemon
> **Lime
> **Orange balsam
> *Caraway thyme
> 
> Wooly thyme and creeping thyme are not culinary herbs but are attractive ground covers.
------
Thyme|986624416
11c11
< Wooly thyme and creeping thyme are not culinary herbs but are attractive ground covers.
---
> Woolly thyme and creeping thyme are not culinary herbs but are attractive ground covers.
------
Josh_Grosse|986624739
1c1
< Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.  So far on this wiki, Josh is responsible for some of the structure around AbstractAlgebra, [[History]], [[Language]], [[Greek Mythology]], [[Chemistry]], and [[Protista]]/[[Animalia]].
---
> Josh Grosse is a student of pure mathematics with a distinct over-abundance of spare time.  He figured that it wouldn't hurt, therefore, to spend some of it just randomly smashing things he knows into [[Wikipedia]].  Interests include maths, sciences, and histories.
3c3,9
< Things I am happy about, not because they are necessarily BrilliantProse, but because they contain things that are often glossed over or hard to find: [[Animalia]], [[Euglenozoa]] and especially [[Ramicristates]], [[Minuscule]].  I would also be happy with [[Rotifera]] if tripod would let me show off my picture.  And I am fairly happy about [[History of Levant]], since it apparently has a lot of keywords in it.
---
> Things I am happy about:
> * [[History of Levant]], which is neat because it apparently has lots of keywords in it.
> * [[Rotifera]], although it would be much cooler if triod would let me show off my picture.
> * [[Animalia]], [[Euglenozoa]], and [[Ramicristates]] because they have stuff that is hard to find.
> * [[Trilobita]], because it has been very thoroughly copy-edited.
> * [[Greek alphabet]] and [[Minuscule letter]], because I don't actually need reasons for any of these.
> Yes, this is bragging.  I call bragging rights on anything that makes me happy, at least for a little while. :)
5d10
< 
------
Josh_Grosse|986624761
8c8
< * [[Greek alphabet]] and [[Minuscule letter]], because I don't actually need reasons for any of these.
---
> * [[Greek alphabet]], [[Hoplite]] and [[Minuscule letter]], because I don't actually need reasons for any of these.
------
Trilobita|986624836
3,5c3
< The bodies of trilobites are divided into three tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, a thorax composed of freely articulating segments, and a pygidium (tail) composed of the last few segments fused together with the telson.  In the most primitive trilobites the pygidia are still fairly rudimentary.  The thorax is fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern milipedes do for protection when disturbed.
< 
< ''Is 'milipedes' supposed to be 'isopods (pill bugs)'?  My impression is that Millipedes curl up into horizontal spirals rather than trilobite like spheres.  But I'm no entymologist.  I can't even spell entymologist.''
---
> The bodies of trilobites are divided into three tagmata: a cephalon (head), composed of the two preoral and first four postoral segments completely fused together, a thorax composed of freely articulating segments, and a pygidium (tail) composed of the last few segments fused together with the telson.  In the most primitive trilobites the pygidia are still fairly rudimentary.  The thorax is fairly flexible - trilobites are often found curled up into balls, like modern sow bugs do for protection when disturbed.
------
Tea|986624928
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[beverage]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is also called a [[tisane]] or infusion.
> 
> Tea is served both hot and cold, sometimes with [[lemon]], [[milk]], [[honey]], or [[sugar]].
------
Beverage|986624968
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[drink]]
------
Beverage|986625002
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[drink]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Drink]]
------
Tea|986625046
1c1
< A [[beverage]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is also called a [[tisane]] or infusion.
---
> A [[beverage]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is also called an [[infusion]] or tisane.
3c3
< Tea is served both hot and cold, sometimes with [[lemon]], [[milk]], [[honey]], or [[sugar]].
---
> Tea is served both hot and cold, sometimes with [[lemon]], [[milk]], [[honey]], or [[sugar]].
------
Infusion|986625123
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[beverage]] made by steeping a flavoring substance, such as an [[herb]], a [[spice]], or [[fruit]], in hot or boiling water.  See also [[tea]].
------
Infusion|986625215
1c1
< A [[beverage]] made by steeping a flavoring substance, such as an [[herb]], a [[spice]], or [[fruit]], in hot or boiling water.  See also [[tea]].
---
> A [[beverage]] made by steeping a flavoring substance, such as [[tea]], [[coffee]], or an [[herb]] or [[spice]] mixture, in hot or boiling water.  
------
Anthophyta|986625941
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Upper classification has been changed a lot recently - the dicots have been split up, etc.  Something will have to be done.  What kind of flowering plants do we know about here on wiki?
> 
> * Apiaceae (parsley family)
> ** [[Chervil]]
> ** [[Coriander]]
> ** [[Dill]]
> ** [[Parsley]]
> ** [[Sage]]
> 
> * Asteraceae
> ** [[Tarragon]]
> 
> * Lamiaceae (mint family)
> ** [[Basil]]
> ** [[Lavender]]
> ** [[Marjoram]]
> ** [[Mint]]
> ** [[Oregano]]
> ** [[Rosemary]]
> ** [[Sage]]
> ** [[Savory]]
> ** [[Thyme]]
> 
> * Family unknown here on wiki, for now
------
Anthophyta|986627042
3a4
> ** [[Carrot]]
10c11,13
< * Asteraceae
---
> * Asteraceae (composite family)
> ** [[Daisy]]
> ** [[Dandelion]]
12a16,23
> * Brassiaceae (mustard family)
> ** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
> 
> * Gramineae (grass family)
> ** [[Barley]]
> ** [[Corn]]
> ** [[Wheat]]
> 
24c35,53
< * Family unknown here on wiki, for now
---
> * Liliaceae (lily family)
> ** [[Chives]]
> ** [[Lily]]
> 
> * Rosaceae (rose family)
> ** [[Apple]]
> ** [[Cherry]]
> ** [[Peach]]
> ** [[Plum]]
> ** [[Raspberry]]
> ** [[Rose]]
> ** [[Strawberry]]
> 
> * Solanaceae (nightshade family)
> ** [[Potato]]
> ** [[Tobacco]]
> ** [[Tomato]]
> 
> * Family unknown here on wiki, for now
------
A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986631508
1,27c1
< Religion and philosophy in the life of Man.
< 
< There is little debate that religion and philosophy have been commonly perceived through the ages as a refining influence on the impulses and actions of men.  Paradoxically, highly contentious debates and great wars have also been inspired thereby.  Why this dichotomy?
< 
< It is, perhaps, an issue of value, and of values.  That which offers significant structure and stability, paradoxically leads to great turmoil.
< 
< For what do men value, if not their own peace of mind?  And what brings peace of mind?  Answers.  And these answers are couched in a consistent and predictable system of values, that men might know what to expect from each other.   Value.  And values.  What do we hold dear?
< 
< And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
< 
< War.
< 
< If not war, then culture war.  Oppression.  Censorship.  Calumny and libel.  At no cost let the infidels make inroads, secure a single convert.  Stability must be maintained.  For man has had enough, in centuries past, of uncertainty.  Uncertainty meant doubt, confusion, danger.  It was a sign of impending loss.  Loss of food, of hunting territory, of life, limb, family or friend.  Let not uncertainty enter in.
< 
< And what of the men who provided the answers, the so-precious stability, certainty, predictability?  Were they gods, prophets, saviours?  Were they men rendered more by a divine hand?  Greater in the sight of God?  Were they unassailable, without flaw?  Almost never.  What they were was certain.  Those who followed found security, hope of greater survival, a reason to believe, like the warmth in the dinted snow left by the steps of the sainted King Wenceslaus.
< 
< And what of SCIENCE?  What of knowledge, and wisdom gained by peereing through lenses, combining reagents, accelerating quantum particles?  Is this not of greater and more enduring value?  Is this not less subject to attack from unlooked-for sources?  Cannot the mind find its precious broad and stable road here?  Perhaps not.  Not entirely.  For science, too has its limits.  Ask a physicist, "But where did it all come from?  Where is it going?  What is the meaning, the purpose in it?"  Blank stare.  Silly questions.  You have no call to ask them.  Ask me something Scientific.  You moron.
< 
< But Man must have his answers.  His mind, supreme arbiter of all that is true and right, has solved the problems put so far.  No problem can be really insoluble can it?  We shall apply the inexorable force of our reason, and the universal secrets will open to us.  We will know Truth.  How will we know it is truth?  Our logic will be seamless.  Our reason without crook or blemish.  The Truth will be self-consistent and consistent with all things.  It will not be gainsaid.  It will be invulnerable to attack.  It will endure.
< 
< So what do men need?  Answers.  Answers they can use, which do not fail them, and which have utility in life.  Answers in which they can rest secure that the travails of life will not unseat them, and send them spinning.  Answers, in short, which work for them.  Answers which work.  And you will not disabuse a man of answers thus sought, found and relied upon, answers which give his life shape, texture, color and meaning.  Answers which ease the path of his life and of those he loves.
<   
< Mount your best assault upon the source, the foundation, the premises, arguments and formulae of his answers.  Tell him the revelator of his truth is a swine.  Prove it in court.  Show pictures.  Film at 11.  But if his answers have met the test of his life, if they have succored him in his need, if they continue to provide the fulcrums and levers which move his mountains, you will make not a dent.  Flattened logical slugs impotent at your feet.  Tattered slings and shattered arrows.  Your keenest arguments and most telling expositions gone like a passing breeze.
< 
< So leave Man his answers.   Tamper not with the rudder of his life.  If he steers a clean course and collides not with the reefs or other craft, congratulate him on his seamanship.  Envy him his calm.  And find answers of your own.
< 
< [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/A poem of sorts in narrative style...]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/A_poem_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986631519
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religion and philosophy in the life of Man.
> 
> There is little debate that religion and philosophy have been commonly perceived through the ages as a refining influence on the impulses and actions of men.  Paradoxically, highly contentious debates and great wars have also been inspired thereby.  Why this dichotomy?
> 
> It is, perhaps, an issue of value, and of values.  That which offers significant structure and stability, paradoxically leads to great turmoil.
> 
> For what do men value, if not their own peace of mind?  And what brings peace of mind?  Answers.  And these answers are couched in a consistent and predictable system of values, that men might know what to expect from each other.   Value.  And values.  What do we hold dear?
> 
> And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
> 
> War.
> 
> If not war, then culture war.  Oppression.  Censorship.  Calumny and libel.  At no cost let the infidels make inroads, secure a single convert.  Stability must be maintained.  For man has had enough, in centuries past, of uncertainty.  Uncertainty meant doubt, confusion, danger.  It was a sign of impending loss.  Loss of food, of hunting territory, of life, limb, family or friend.  Let not uncertainty enter in.
> 
> And what of the men who provided the answers, the so-precious stability, certainty, predictability?  Were they gods, prophets, saviours?  Were they men rendered more by a divine hand?  Greater in the sight of God?  Were they unassailable, without flaw?  Almost never.  What they were was certain.  Those who followed found security, hope of greater survival, a reason to believe, like the warmth in the dinted snow left by the steps of the sainted King Wenceslaus.
> 
> And what of SCIENCE?  What of knowledge, and wisdom gained by peereing through lenses, combining reagents, accelerating quantum particles?  Is this not of greater and more enduring value?  Is this not less subject to attack from unlooked-for sources?  Cannot the mind find its precious broad and stable road here?  Perhaps not.  Not entirely.  For science, too has its limits.  Ask a physicist, "But where did it all come from?  Where is it going?  What is the meaning, the purpose in it?"  Blank stare.  Silly questions.  You have no call to ask them.  Ask me something Scientific.  You moron.
> 
> But Man must have his answers.  His mind, supreme arbiter of all that is true and right, has solved the problems put so far.  No problem can be really insoluble can it?  We shall apply the inexorable force of our reason, and the universal secrets will open to us.  We will know Truth.  How will we know it is truth?  Our logic will be seamless.  Our reason without crook or blemish.  The Truth will be self-consistent and consistent with all things.  It will not be gainsaid.  It will be invulnerable to attack.  It will endure.
> 
> So what do men need?  Answers.  Answers they can use, which do not fail them, and which have utility in life.  Answers in which they can rest secure that the travails of life will not unseat them, and send them spinning.  Answers, in short, which work for them.  Answers which work.  And you will not disabuse a man of answers thus sought, found and relied upon, answers which give his life shape, texture, color and meaning.  Answers which ease the path of his life and of those he loves.
>   
> Mount your best assault upon the source, the foundation, the premises, arguments and formulae of his answers.  Tell him the revelator of his truth is a swine.  Prove it in court.  Show pictures.  Film at 11.  But if his answers have met the test of his life, if they have succored him in his need, if they continue to provide the fulcrums and levers which move his mountains, you will make not a dent.  Flattened logical slugs impotent at your feet.  Tattered slings and shattered arrows.  Your keenest arguments and most telling expositions gone like a passing breeze.
> 
> So leave Man his answers.   Tamper not with the rudder of his life.  If he steers a clean course and collides not with the reefs or other craft, congratulate him on his seamanship.  Envy him his calm.  And find answers of your own.
> 
> [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986631546
14c14
< :[[a pome of sorts in narrative style...]]  (Bruce Hamilton)
---
> :[[/A poem of sorts in narrative style...]]  (Bruce Hamilton)
------
Basis|986633412
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
> 
------
Basis|986634478
1c1
< A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
---
> A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any linearly independent set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
------
Vector_space|986635096
26a27,32
> ----
> Given a vector space V, any subset W of V which is closed under addition and scalar multiplication is called a ''subspace'' of V.  It is easy to see that subspaces of V are vector spaces (over the same field) in their own right.  The intersection of all subspaces containing a set of some given vectors {v<sub>&alpha;</sub>} is called their ''span''; if no vector can be removed without diminishing the span, the set is called ''linearly independent''.  A linearly independent set whose span is the whole space is called a ''basis''.
> 
> All bases for a given space have the same cardinality.  If you accept the axiom of choice, then ''all'' vector spaces have bases, so vector spaces are fixed up to isomorphism by a single cardinal representing the size of the basis.  For instance the real vector spaces are just '''R''', '''R'''<sup>2</sup>, '''R'''<sup>3</sup>, ..., '''R'''<sup>&infin;</sup>, ...  This is a very strong result, much stronger than equivalent results over more general [[module]]s.
> 
> A homomorphism from a vector space V to a vector space W (necessarily over the same field) is called a ''linear map''.  That is, a map is linear if and only if it preserves sums and scalar products.  An isomorphism is a linear map that is one-to-one and onto.  The set of all linear maps from V to W is denoted L(V,W) and makes up a vector space over the same field.  When bases for both V and W are given, linear maps can be expressed in terms of components as [[matrices]].
------
Vector_space|986635278
28c28
< Given a vector space V, any subset W of V which is closed under addition and scalar multiplication is called a ''subspace'' of V.  It is easy to see that subspaces of V are vector spaces (over the same field) in their own right.  The intersection of all subspaces containing a set of some given vectors {v<sub>&alpha;</sub>} is called their ''span''; if no vector can be removed without diminishing the span, the set is called ''linearly independent''.  A linearly independent set whose span is the whole space is called a ''basis''.
---
> Given a vector space V, any subset W of V which is closed under addition and scalar multiplication is called a ''subspace'' of V.  It is easy to see that subspaces of V are vector spaces (over the same field) in their own right.  The intersection of all subspaces containing a set of some given vectors {v<sub>&alpha;</sub>} is called their ''span''; if no vector can be removed without diminishing the span, the set is called ''linearly independent''.  A linearly independent set whose span is the whole space is called a ''[[basis]]''.
------
Geologic_Timescale|986637291
1c1
<  MYA  Period                | Era           | Eon           |
---
>  MYA3 Period                | Era           | Eon           |
48c48
< 1In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into Mississippian and Pennsylvanian Periods
---
> 1) In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into Mississippian and Pennsylvanian Periods
50c50,54
< 2'[[Neoproterozoic]]' is a fairly recent term and is usually treated as a subset of the [[Proterozoic]] rather than a period between the [[Paleozoic]] and the [[Proterozoic]]
---
> 2) Discoveries in the past quarter century have substantially changed the view of geologic and paleontologic events immediately prior to the Cambrian.  The nomenclature has not stabilized the term [[Neoproterozoic]] is used here, but other writers might equally well have used one or more of the terms 'Ediacarian', 'Vendian', 'Varangian', 'PreCambrian', 'ProtoCambrian', 'EoCambrian', or might have extended the Cambrian further back in time. All of these terms are usually treated as a subset of the [[Proterozoic]] rather than a period between the [[Paleozoic]] and the [[Proterozoic]]
> 
> 3) Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiodating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for [[radiodating]] seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where we would most like to have them.
> 
> ''Josh -- if the above is OK, let's delete the commentary below.  If not, please fix it''
------
Ordovician|986637489
1c1
< The Ordovician Period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the [[Paleozoic Era]].  The Ordovician follows the Cambrian Period and is followed by the Silurian Period.  The Ordovician -- named for a Welsh tribe -- was defined by [[Charles Lapworth]] in 1879 to resolve a situation where followers of [[Adam Sedgwick]] and Murchison were placing the same rock beds in the [[Cambrian]] and [[Silurian]] Periods respectively.  [[Charles Lapworth]] simply took all the conflicting strata and placed them in the new Ordovician Period.
---
> The Ordovician Period is the second of the six (seven in North America) periods of the [[Paleozoic Era]].  The Ordovician follows the [[Cambrian]] Period and is followed by the [[Silurian]] Period.  The Ordovician -- named for a Welsh tribe -- was defined by [[Charles Lapworth]] in 1879 to resolve a situation where followers of [[Adam Sedgwick]] and Murchison were placing the same rock beds in the [[Cambrian]] and [[Silurian]] Periods respectively.  [[Charles Lapworth]] simply took all the conflicting strata and placed them in the new Ordovician Period.
7c7
< In [[North America]] and [[Europe]], the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life.  [[Trilobites]] and [[Brachiopods]] in particular were rich and diverse.  The first [[Bryozoa]] appear in the Ordovician as do the first coral reefs.  Solitary corals date back to the Cambrian at least.  It was long thought that the first true [[vertebrates]] (Fish) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably orginated in the Early Cambrian.  Now extinct marine animals called [[graptolites]] thrived in the oceans.  The Southern continents were collected into a single continent called [[Gondwana]] during the Ordovician.  Gondwana started the period in equatorial latitudes and drifted toward the South Pole during the period.  As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician.  By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
---
> In [[North America]] and [[Europe]], the Ordovician was a time of shallow continental seas rich in life.  [[Trilobites]] and [[Brachiopods]] in particular were rich and diverse.  The first [[Bryozoa]] appear in the Ordovician as do the first coral reefs.  Solitary corals date back to the [[Cambrian]] at least.  It was long thought that the first true [[vertebrates]] (Fish) appeared in the Ordovician, but recent discoveries in China reveal that they probably orginated in the Early Cambrian.  Now extinct marine animals called [[graptolites]] thrived in the oceans.  The Southern continents were collected into a single continent called [[Gondwana]] during the Ordovician.  [[Gondwana]] started the period in equatorial latitudes and drifted toward the South Pole during the period.  As with North America and Europe, [[Gondwana]] was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician.  By the end of the period, [[Gondwana]] had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
------
Naraoidia|986638811
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Soft shelled trilobites that are known only from the the Early and Middle [[Cambrian]] -- primarily from the [[Burgess Shale]] of British Columbia and the Maotianshan Shale of China.  There is a single genus -- Naraoia  Naraoia is considered to be a trilobite but has two peculiar features.  The body covering is entirely unmineralized, and there is no thorax.  Maximum size is about 4cm.  A second softbodied trilobite -- Tegopelte -- is known from the same formations, but it may be only distantly related to Naraoia.
------
Burgess_shale|986640344
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A black shale found high up in the Canadian Rockies near the town of Field, BC.  Fossils were found in the Burgess Shale by [C D Walcott]in 1909.  Walcott returned in the following yeats to collect additional specimens.  The majority of the fossils collected were unique to the site although some common Middle [[Cambrian]] trilobites were also found.  The fossils were of substantial interest because they included appendages and soft parts that are rarely preserved.
> 
> A reinvestigation of the fossils in the 1980s by Wittington, Morris and Biggs revealed that the fauna represented was much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized.  Indeed, many of the animals present had bizarre anatomical features and only the sketchiest resemblence to other known animals.  Examples include Opabinia with five eyes and a vacuum cleaner like snout; Aysheaia which bears an extrordinary resemblence to a minor modern Phyllum -- the Onocyphores; Nectocaris which is apparently either a crustacean with fins or a vertebrate with a shell; and Hallucigenia which pretty much defied rational description.
> 
> The diversity and exotic nature of the Burgess faunas has caused a great deal of controversy in paleontology with regard to the reasons for and nature of what has come to be called [[The Cambrian Explosion]].
> 
> Further investigations showed that the Burgess Shale extends for many miles in isolated outcrops and the various faunas are preserved in different places.  The deposits appear to represent small areas of muddy ocean bottom that -- from time to time -- slid down the face of a limestone cliff carrying their fauna and anything unfortunate enought to be swimming by into Oxygen poor waters in the depths.  Knowing what to look for, similar deposits have been identified elsewhere with similar faunas.  The most important similar deposits are even older turbide flow deposits created in much the same way as the Burgess shales in Yunnan Province, China.  The [[Maotianshan shales]] contain faunas quite similar to the Burgess.
------
Basis|986646085
1c1
< A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any linearly independent set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
---
> A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any [[linearly independent]] set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
------
Poland|986647587
1c1
< Officially Republic of Poland, Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of [[Poland]] is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its [[capital]] is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, in Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of [[Poland]] is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its [[capital]] is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
------
Health_Sciences|986648055
1c1
< The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional medicine, but
---
> The ''health sciences'' include not only traditional [[medicine]], but
9c9
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Medicine|986648344
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Main branches of medicine : [[pathology]], [[physiology]], [[pharmacology]], [[therapy]].
> 
> One can distinguish also : [[endocrinology]], [[nephrology]], [[gastroenterology]] and
> many more.
> 
------
Scientology|986648345
29c29
< Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a [[Pseudo-church]], it has been under close observation by national security organisations, and steps have been taken to exclude Scintologists from some aspects of public life) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get people to classes under what official sources claim is false pretense.  
---
> Especially in Europe, some governments agree with critics, with negative effects for Scientology.  In a very few cases the organization is banned; more often there is less far-reaching obstruction, such as non-recognition as a religious organization (eg. in [[Germany]], where Scientology is seen as a pseudo-church, it has been under close observation by national security organisations, and steps have been taken to exclude Scientologists from some aspects of public life) or steps to make it difficult for Scientology to get outsiders to take their classes.
------
Endocrinology|986648759
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
> system called [[hormones]].
>  
------
Endocrinology|986648837
1c1
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[endocrine_system]] and specific secrections of the
3c3
<  
---
>  
------
Programming_language|986651463
14a15
> * [[Euphoria]]
32a34
> * [[Lua]]
------
Conversion_of_units|986653923
93,94c93,96
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>action, L, J (angular momentum)</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[SI unit]]<TD>J.s. = N.m.s<TD>= kg.m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>cgs unit<TD>erg.s<TD>= 10<sup>-7</sup> J.s</TR>
> <TR>au of action<TD><i>h</i>_strikethrough<TD>= <i>h</i>/2&pi; = 1.054 57 x 10<sup>-34</sup> J.s<TD></TR>
101c103
< </TABLE>
---
> </TABLE>
------
Endocrinology|986654039
1c1
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[endocrine_system]] and specific secrections of the
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
------
Endocrinology|986654080
1c1
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[ Endocrine system ]] and specific secrections of the
------
Endocrinology|986654210
1c1
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[ Endocrine system ]] and specific secrections of the
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with EndocrineSystem and specific secrections of the
------
Conversion_of_units|986654235
98,99c98,105
< <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
< <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
---
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>dynamic viscosity, &eta;</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[SI unit]]<TD>Pa.s = N.m<sup>-2</sup>.s<TD>= kg.m<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>poise<TD>P<TD>= 10<sup>-1</sup>Pa.s</TR>
> <TR><TD>centipoise<TD>cP<TD>= mPa.s</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>kinematic viscosity, &nu;</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[SI unit]]<TD>m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>stokes<TD>St<TD>= 10<sup>-4</sup>m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup></TR>
102a109
> 
------
Endocrinology|986654248
1c1
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with EndocrineSystem and specific secrections of the
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
------
SandBox|986654469
151a152,153
> 
> [[Some system]] testing done. Trivial.
------
Endocrine_system|986654744
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Throughout the body there are formation of special secretory tissue that forms glands. The glands function is to
> produce, and output [[hormones]] into bloodstream. [[Hormones]] are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and
> tissues and there exert its actions.
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|986654752
135a136,137
> ----
> '''Q. What happens if two (or more) people are editing the same page more-or-less simultaneously, and both submit modified versions that don't include the other's changes?'''
------
Conversion_of_units|986654889
96c96
< <TR>au of action<TD><i>h</i>_strikethrough<TD>= <i>h</i>/2&pi; = 1.054 57 x 10<sup>-34</sup> J.s<TD></TR>
---
> <TR>au of action<TD><i>h</i>_strikethrough<TD>= <i>h</i>/2&pi; <TD>= 1.054 57 x 10<sup>-34</sup> J.s</TR>
104c104,105
< <TR><TD>[[SI unit]]<TD>m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[SI unit]] <TD>m<sup>2</sup>.s<sup>-1</sup><TD>
> &nbsp;</TR>
105a107,116
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i>thermodynamic temerature, T (see [[Conversion_of_temperatures]])</i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD>kelvin ([[SI base unit]])<TD>K<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>degree Rankine<TD><sup>o</sup>R<TD>= (5/9) K</TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
> 
> <TR><TD colspan="3" ><center><i></i></center></TR>
> <TR><TD><TD><TD></TR>
------
Military_History|986655141
42,43c42,43
< ** [[United States Revolution]] (1775-1783)
< ** [[French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars]] (1789-1815)
---
> ** [[American Revolutionary War | United States Revolution]] (1775-1783)
> ** [[French Revolution]] & [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1789-1815)
79c79
< See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]], [[History]]
---
> See Also: [[Imperialism]], [[Colonialism]], [[War]], [[History]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|986658453
137a138,139
> 
> A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|986658782
23a24,25
> 
> '''Q. American English though, I presume, not British English?'''
------
Stop_Motion|986659486
1,2c1
< Stop Motion is an old animation technique. It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves. This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the old [[King Kong]], [[Godzilla]] movies or the [[Wallace and Gromit]] films.
< 
---
> Stop Motion is an animation technique.
3a3,6
> It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves.
> This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the [[Ray Harryhausen]] and [[King Kong]] films and more recently in the works of [[Aardman Animation]]s [[Wallace and Gromit]] films.
> ----
> /Talk
------
Atlas|986659795
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1) In [[Greek Mythology]], son of the [[Titan]] Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of [[Prometheus]].  Father of the [[Hesperides]], [[Hyades]], and [[Pleiades]].  When he fought in the war between the Titans and the gods of [[Mount Olympus]], [[Zeus]] decreed that, as punishment, he should forever bear the burden of carrying the heavens and the Earth upon his shoulders.  Was turned to stone by [[Perseus]] using [[Medusa]]'s head in the place where the Atlas mountains now stand.  Also known as the king of [[Atlantis]].  
> 
> Reference: 
> :"Atlas"
> :<i>Encyclopedia Mythica</i>
> :http://www.pantheon.org/mythica/articles/a/atlas.html
> :[Page accessed on April 7, 2001]
> 
> 2) A collection of maps, often with additional geopolitical or social statistics, usually bound into book form.  The name 'Atlas' derives from the custom of adorning the cover or title page of such collections with a picture of the Atlas of [[Greek mythology]] holding the [[Earth]] on his shoulders.  This usage of the term dates from Gerardus [[Mercator]]'s <i>Atlas Sive Cosmographicae</i>, (Atlas, or Description of the Universe) of 1585-1595.  The earliest atlas was [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Geography]] of c. 150AD.
> 
> 3) In [[Anatomy]], the topmost vertebra of the spine, which (along with the Axis) forms the joint connecting the skull and spine.  The Atlas and Axis are specialized to allow a greater range of motion than normal vertebrae.
> 
> 4) In [[Geology]]/[[Geography]], a mountain system in northwest [[Africa]] extending about 2400km through [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]], and including [[Gibraltar | The Rock of Gibraltar]].  The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 4165 m (13,665 ft), located in southwestern Morocco.  The Atlas ranges separate the [[Mediterranean Sea | Mediterranean]] & [[Atlantic Ocean | Atlantic]] coastlines from the [[Sahara Desert]].
> 
> 5) 'Atlantes', the plural form of 'Atlas', is an architectural term for support columns sculpted in the form of a man.  Also the basis of the world '[[Atlantic]]'.
> 
------
BBC|986661204
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[British]] Broadcasting Corporation are the primary [[television]] and [[radio]] provider in the [[United Kingdom]].
> 
> Originally a private company, The British Broadcasting Company became the entity we know today in (year?) when it came under public ownership.
> Since then, government backed license schemes have ensured the BBC is funded to produce high quality and diverse media content for the British people.
> Because of this unique funding method, BBC radio and television output has always been free of the constraints of commercial advertisers, programme makers are answerable only to the license payer.
> 
> Radio was the main output of the BBC prior to the invention of television, is still seen in the BBC's most revered magazine, [[Radio Times]].
> It is something that still makes up a large part of the output.
> 
> What is now known as [[/1|BBC1]], was the worlds first [[television]] station, it was broadcast from the [[Alexandra Palace]] in [[London]] to just a few hundred viewers in the imediate area.
> 
> [[/2|BBC2]] was the second television station, its remit is to provide more niche programming.
> Unlike its contemporarys, BBC2 does not have the usual [[soap opera]] or standard [[news]] programming.
> What BBC2 does have is a breadth of programming, ecletric, fun and diversive, in fact so good it is at finding and nurturing new talent, often BBC1 will steal programmes from the schedules.
> 
> Since the introduction of digital television and the explosion in [[web]] use, new channels and online content have developed keeping the BBC current and vibrant.
> ----
> /Television
> 
> [[/1|BBC1]]
> 
> [[/2|BBC2]]
> 
> [[/Choice|BBC Choice]
> 
> [[/News 24|BBC News 24]]
> 
> 
> /Radio
> 
> [[/Radio 1]]
> 
> [[/Radio 2]]
> 
> [[/Radio 3]]
> 
> [[/Radio 4]]
> 
> [[/Radio 5 Live]]
> 
> 
> [[/Ceefax]]
> [[/Online]]
> 
> 
> /Talk
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986661288
5a6,7
> 
> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
------
ChrisMorris|986661502
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (born?)
> 
> Maverick [[television]] and [[radio]] visionary.
> He is either very sick and twisted or very clever and unique, depending on who you listen to.
> 
> Always courting controversy, programmes explore such taboo's as infant mortality, [[incest]], [[buggery]], [[rape]], sado masochism and more.
> 
> [[/Brass Eye]]
> 
> [[/Blue Jam]] - [[radio]] show and [[sound track]]
> 
> /Jam
> 
> [[/The Day Today]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Chris_Morris|986662417
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (born?)
> 
> Maverick [[television] and [[radio]] visionary. He is either very sick and twisted or very clever and unique, depending on who you listen to.
> 
> Always courting controversy, programmes explore such taboo's as infant mortality, [[incest]], [[buggery]], [[rape]], [[suicide]], sado masochism and more.
> 
> [[/Brass Eye]]
> 
> [[/Blue Jam]] - radio show and [sound track]?
> 
> /Jam?
------
ChrisMorris|986662520
1,16c1
< (born?)
< 
< Maverick [[television]] and [[radio]] visionary.
< He is either very sick and twisted or very clever and unique, depending on who you listen to.
< 
< Always courting controversy, programmes explore such taboo's as infant mortality, [[incest]], [[buggery]], [[rape]], sado masochism and more.
< 
< [[/Brass Eye]]
< 
< [[/Blue Jam]] - [[radio]] show and [[sound track]]
< 
< /Jam
< 
< [[/The Day Today]]
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Chris Morris]]
------
Chris_Morris|986663006
11c11,13
< /Jam?
---
> /Jam
> 
> /Talk
------
Baby_One_More_Time|986663429
1c1
< Baby One More Time, [[Britney Spears]], BMG/Jive/Novus/Silvertone, January 12 [[1999]]
---
> [[Britney Spears]], BMG/Jive/Novus/Silvertone, January 12 [[1999]]
------
Oops_I_Did_It_Again|986664158
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Britney Spears]], BMG/Jive/Novus/Silvertone, [[2000]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr><td>song</td><td>time (minutes)</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Oops! I Did It Again</td>		<td>3:31</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Stronger</td>				<td>3:23</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Don't Go Knocking On My Door</td>	<td>3:14</td></tr>
> <tr><td>(I Cna't Get No) Satisfaction</td>	<td>4:28</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Don't Let Me Be The Last To Know</td>	<td>3:50</td></tr>
> <tr><td>What U See (Is What U Get)</td>		<td>3:14</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Lucky</td>				<td>3:25</td></tr>
> <tr><td>One Kiss From You</td>			<td>3:23</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Where Are You Now</td>			<td>4:39</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Can't make you Love Me</td>		<td>3:16</td></tr>
> <tr><td>When Your Eyes Say It</td>		<td>4:06</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Girl In The Mirror</td>			<td>3:36</td></tr>
> <tr><td>Dear Diary</td>				<td>2:46</td></tr>
> </table>
------
Wikipedia_commentary/A_poem_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986664268
27c27,29
< [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
---
> [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
> ----
> Dang, Larry - you took the joke out of my title...  BTW - thanks for fixing the redirection.
------
Atlas|986664926
1c1,2
< 1) In [[Greek Mythology]], son of the [[Titan]] Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of [[Prometheus]].  Father of the [[Hesperides]], [[Hyades]], and [[Pleiades]].  When he fought in the war between the Titans and the gods of [[Mount Olympus]], [[Zeus]] decreed that, as punishment, he should forever bear the burden of carrying the heavens and the Earth upon his shoulders.  Was turned to stone by [[Perseus]] using [[Medusa]]'s head in the place where the Atlas mountains now stand.  Also known as the king of [[Atlantis]].  
---
> ----
> 1) In [[Greek Mythology]], son of the [[Titan]] Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of [[Prometheus]].  Father of the [[Hesperides]], [[Hyades]], and [[Pleiades]].  When he fought in the war between the Titans and the gods of [[Mount Olympus]], [[Zeus]] decreed that, as punishment, he should forever bear the burden of carrying the heavens and the Earth upon his shoulders.  Was turned to stone by [[Perseus]] using [[Medusa]]'s head in the place where the Atlas mountains (see below) now stand.  Also known as the king of [[Atlantis]].  
8a10
> ----
10a13
> ----
12a16
> ----
15,16c19,39
< 5) 'Atlantes', the plural form of 'Atlas', is an architectural term for support columns sculpted in the form of a man.  Also the basis of the world '[[Atlantic]]'.
< 
---
> ----
> 5) The Atlas, first tested in 1959, was the United States' first 
> successful [[ICBM]] (Intercontinental Ballistic Missile).  It was a 
> multistage, liquid-fueled (liquid oxygen and kerosene) [[rocket]], with
> three engines which produced 162,000kg of [[thrust]].
> 
> Though never used in combat, it was used to launch the [[Mariner]] 
> space probes used to study [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], and [[Mars]] 
> (1962-1973); and to launch all but the first two the [[Mercury]] 
> missions (1962-1963).  The Mercury missions resulted in the first 
> American to orbit the earth (Lt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr.) in February
> of 1962.  (Major Yuri A. Gargarin, a Soviet cosmonaut was the first 
> human in orbit, in April of 1961.)
> 
> ----
> 6) 'Atlantes', the plural form of 'Atlas', is an architectural term for support columns sculpted in the form of a man.  Also the basis of the word '[[Atlantic]]'.
> 
> ----
> Other uses:
> *Atlas [[Beetle]] (insect)
> *Atlas [[Cedar]] (tree)
------
BBC/Radio_1|986665509
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[DJ|DJs]] on this chart station include the timeless [[John Peel]], [[Jo Whiley]], [[Steve Lamacq]], [[Mark Radcliffe]], half of [[Mark and Lard]], otherwise known as the [[Shirehorses]]. As well as [[Tim Westwood]], [[The Dreem Teem]], club supremos [[Pete Tong]], [[Judge Jules]] and [[Seb Fontaine]], [[Mary Anne Hobbs]] and more to add.
> ----
> /Talk
------
Atlas_2091|986665691
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Atlas_2091 is a high-school dropout and former real-life adventurer
> with a deep-seated interest in various intellectual fields.  Having 
> settled into a more stable lifestyle, he once more has time to 
> pursue scholarly matters.
> 
> Interests include military history, computer programming, sketching,
> and debating with others to resolve his own conflicting opinions.
------
Godzilla|986665826
1c1,172
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Monster film series from Japan.
> Godzilla was originally a radioactively mutated dinosaur, it died at the end of the orginal [[1954]] film and subsequent entries in the series were in fact an identical monster (needs a better explanation).
> 
> Films have been made over the last 5 decades, each reflecting the climate in Japan.
> All but 1 of the 20 films were produced by [[Toho]], the last was made and set in the [[United States]] by the makers of Idependence Day (ID4) and is widly disregarded by most Godzilla fans.
> ----
> Filmography
> 
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>US release</td>
> <td>year</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special fx</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>/Gojira</td>
> <td>Godzilla</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]</td>
> <td>[[1954]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira No Gyakusha]]</td>
> <td>Godzilla's Counterattack</td>
> <td>[[/Gigantis the Fire Monster]]</td>
> <td>[[1955]]</td>
> <td>[[Motoyoshi Oda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/King Kong Tai Gojira]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/King Kong vs Godzilla]]</td>
> <td>[[1962]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Mosura Tai Gojira]]</td>
> <td>Mothra vs Godzilla</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Thing]]</td>
> <td>[[1964]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Sandai Kaiju Chikyu Saidal No Kessen]]</td>
> <td>Monster of Monsters - Ghidorah</td>
> <td>[[/Ghidorah the Three Headed Monster]]</td>
> <td>[[1964]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Kaiju Dai Senso]]</td>
> <td>Invasion of Astro-Monster</td>
> <td>[[/Monster Zero]]</td>
> <td>[[1965]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Nankai No Daiketto]]</td>
> <td>Ebirah - Horror of the Deep</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Sea Monster]]</td>
> <td>[[1966]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira No Masuko]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Son of Godzilla]]</td>
> <td>[[1967]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Koija So Shingeki]]</td>
> <td>Attack of the Marching Monsters</td>
> <td>[[/Destroy All Monsters]]</td>
> <td>[[1968]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Oru Kaiju Daisshingeki]]</td>
> <td>All Monsters Attack</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla's Revenge]]</td>
> <td>[[1969]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Medora]]</td>
> <td>Godzilla vs Hedora</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Smog Monster]]</td>
> <td>[[1971]]</td>
> <td>[[Yoshimitsa Banno]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Medora]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs Gigan]]</td>
> <td>[[1972]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Megalon]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs Megalon]]</td>
> <td>[[1973]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Mekagojira]]</td>
> <td>Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Cosmic Monster]]</td>
> <td>[[1974]]</td>
> <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Mekagojira No Gyakushu]]</td>
> <td>Mechagodzilla's Counterattack</td>
> <td>[[/Terror of Mechagodzilla]]</td>
> <td>[[1975]]</td>
> <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira]]</td>
> <td>The Return of Godzilla</td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla]]</td>
> <td>[[1984]]</td>
> <td>[[Koji Hashimoto]]</td>
> <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Biollante]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs Biollante]]</td>
> <td>[[1989]]</td>
> <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
> <td>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai King Gidora]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs King Ghidorah]]</td>
> <td>[[1991]]</td>
> <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
> <td>[[Koichi Kawakita</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>[[/Gojira Tai Mosura]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla vs Mothra]]</td>
> <td>[[1992]]</td>
> <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
> <td>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> /Talk
------
RefactoringPolicy|986667774
9c9
< View 3.  The middle road -- respect for a dialogue ''qua'' dialogue should be respected, but at the same time a minor tweak early on can avoid a flame war.  To refactor or not will often depend on the context, and so either rule 1 (change immediately) or rule 2 (wait for the discussion to end) are too extreme.  Adherents of this view: [[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> View 3.  The middle road -- respect for a dialogue ''qua'' dialogue should be respected, but at the same time a minor tweak early on can avoid a flame war.  To refactor or not will often depend on the context, and so either rule 1 (change immediately) or rule 2 (wait for the discussion to end) are too extreme.  Adherents of this view: [[Jimbo Wales]], [[Atlas_2091]]
11a12,13
> ----
> I believe that when retitling, making additions, spelling or grammatical corrections, etc; immediate with no discussion is best.  But with large deletions or replacements, it might be better to suggest changes in a discussion, lest the original author get discouraged and quit posting.  One person's improvement is another's desecration, and nobody likes to see their work just flushed without warning.  Then again, oversensitivity can be detrimental to progress, and they could just restore it.  What I'll do is; as long as the changes are a synthesis, immediate; when they're a competition, discuss (on a separate page). -- [[Atlas_2091]]
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986670349
7c7,11
< Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
---
> ----
> 
> Talk:
> 
> <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
------
Atlas|986670562
2c2,4
< 1) In [[Greek Mythology]], son of the [[Titan]] Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of [[Prometheus]].  Father of the [[Hesperides]], [[Hyades]], and [[Pleiades]].  When he fought in the war between the Titans and the gods of [[Mount Olympus]], [[Zeus]] decreed that, as punishment, he should forever bear the burden of carrying the heavens and the Earth upon his shoulders.  Was turned to stone by [[Perseus]] using [[Medusa]]'s head in the place where the Atlas mountains (see below) now stand.  Also known as the king of [[Atlantis]].  
---
> 1) In [[Greek Mythology]], son of the [[Titan]] Iapetus and the nymph Clymene, and brother of [[Prometheus]].  Father of the [[Hesperides]], [[Hyades]], and [[Pleiades]].  When he fought in the war between the Titans and the gods of [[Mount Olympus]], [[Zeus]] decreed that, as punishment, he should forever bear the burden of carrying the heavens and the earth upon his shoulders.  Was turned to stone by [[Perseus]] using [[Medusa]]'s head in the place where the Atlas mountains (see below) now stand.  Also known as the king of [[Atlantis]].  
> 
> Question: Did Atlas hold the earth on his shoulders?  Original sources indicate he sttod on the earth and held up the heavens.  Is holding the earth as well a modern retelling or does it have classical roots?
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986671162
11c11,15
< <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
---
> <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.----
> 
> I was not aware that there was any cure for AIDS, not matter how rich you are. Rather, their are medications that can bring <i>temporary</i> remissions, slow down the prgress of the disease, and treat complications more efficiently.
> At this point, I believe it is considered a terminal disease, despite hopes to the contrary in the last ten years. I would check the GMHC - (Gay Men's Health Crisis) figures. Whereas 5 years ago they were developing programs to "rehabilitate" AIDS victims in order that they might retirn to work, right in the middle of this effort, victims who appeared to be in long term remissions returned to active status. Needless to say, they have reverted to their
> original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986671329
15c15,16
< original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives
---
> original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives----
> T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986671481
16c16
< T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication.
---
> T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication. I wouldn't say that T.B. has "largely disappeared."
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986672020
15,16c15,23
< original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives----
< T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication. I wouldn't say that T.B. has "largely disappeared."
---
> original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives
> 
> The discussion could be moved to an AIDS page.  Anecdotally, a friend with HIV looks forward to an "indefinitely long life" thanks to the effectiveness of protease blockers.  He has been infected for more than 10 years, so in his case and others, remissions appear to be permanent.
> 
> ----
> 
> T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication. I wouldn't say that T.B. has "largely disappeared."  
> 
> In 1900 TB was responsible for more than 11% of ll deaths in the US; that declined to about one-twentieth of 1% in 1998
------
2000|986672129
15c15
< And to spite all the critics, the fairy tale adventure based on the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed $259,951,325 at the box office.
---
> And to spite all the critics, the fairy tale adventure based on the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[Top Grossing Movies|$260]] million at the box office.
23c23,29
< It was the end of an era, [[Bill Clinton]], who'd spent the maximum two terms in office was on his way out. After all of the furore during the Clinton administration the election was sure to go well, [[US Election 2000|but it didn't]], and a whole shake down of the judicial syste, later and [[George W. Bush]] becomes the 52 president of The United States of America.
---
> It was the end of an era, [[Bill Clinton]], who'd spent the maximum two terms in office was on his way out. After all of the furore during the Clinton administration the election was sure to go well, [[US Election 2000|but it didn't]], and a whole shake down of the judicial syste, later and [[George W. Bush]] defeats [[Al Gore]] to become the 52 president of The United States of America.
> ----
> [[Technology]]
> 
> [[Computing]] -
> The [[New Year]], people, companies, countries and much of the world was fearing the worst, planes falling out of the sky, electricity grids and essential services collapsing.
> Not the [[apocalypse]] but the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K bug]] - a computer bug that saw many computers not recognising the new year.
------
BBC|986672465
24c24
< [[/Choice|BBC Choice]
---
> [[/Choice|BBC Choice]]
31c31
< [[/Radio 1]]
---
> [[/Radio_1]]
42a43
> 
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986672689
11c11,15
< <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.----
---
> <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
> 
> The benefits of modern medicine enjoyed by people in poor countries in the 20th century were probably greater than benefits enjoyed by people in the rich countries.  This explains the faster growth in populations in poor countries - populations could not have grown, unless the diseases that killed people (mostly children) by the millions had been defeated.  The fact that the defeat of infectious diseases resulted in faster population growth in poor countries, shows that these diseases had been a bigger problem in poor countries, hence their eradication a bigger benefit in poor countries.
> 
> ----
23c27
< In 1900 TB was responsible for more than 11% of ll deaths in the US; that declined to about one-twentieth of 1% in 1998
---
> In 1900 TB was responsible for more than 11% of ll deaths in the US; that declined to about one-twentieth of 1% in 1998
------
Tank|986673327
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A tank is a track-laying, turreted, all-terrain AFV (armored fighting vehicle).  They are distinguished from other AFVs primarily by purpose, armament, and mobility.  
> 
> During [[World War I]], motorized vehicles were still relatively new and uncommon, but their use on the battlefield was imminent.  The earliest AFVs were tractors with metal plates bolted on to give some protection to the driver and passengers.  The British navy developed the idea into the first tanks (called 'landships') by fully-enclosing the armored area, adding a tracklaying suspension, and guns mounted in turrets.  Early tanks were large, had large crews, and moved about the same speed as marching infantry.  They were 'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament was a large cannon or multiple smaller machine guns.  The nickname 'tank' was a code-word used to confuse the enemy and maintain secrecy while they were being built and shipped to the front.
> 
> The first use of tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 British tanks at the battle of the Somme (September 15, 1916).
> 
> See Also: [[Armor]], [[Blitzkrieg]]
> ----
> '''this article intentionally incomplete, more to come later, in the meantime feel free to add to it'''
------
Tank|986673358
1d0
< 
10c9
< '''this article intentionally incomplete, more to come later, in the meantime feel free to add to it'''
---
> ''this article intentionally incomplete, more to come later, in the meantime feel free to add to it''
------
Military_History|986673765
79a80,81
> 
> /Talk
------
Military_History/Talk|986673905
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Would it be desirable to move these long lists to sub-pages such as:
> 
>  [[Military History/Famous Wars and Battle]]
>  [[Military History/Ancient]]
>  [[Military History/Medieval]]
>  [[Military History/Great Commanders]]
> 
> etc.?
> 
> Eventually there will be an article about military history as such on the [[Military History]] page, so having all these lists there could make it very cluttered.
------
BBC|986673971
1c1
< The [[British]] Broadcasting Corporation are the primary [[television]] and [[radio]] provider in the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The [[British]] Broadcasting Corporation is the primary [[television]] and [[radio]] provider in the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Bjork|986674594
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bjork Gudmundsdottir, singer, [[Icelandic]]
> ----
> Discography
> 
> With [[The Sugarcubes]]
> 
> [[Here Today, Tomorrow Next Week]]
> 
> [[Lifes Too Good|Life's Too Good]]
> 
> [[Its It|It's It]]
> 
> [[Stick Around For Joy]]
> 
> Solo
> 
> *[[Debut]]
> **Venus As A Boy
> 
> [[Gling-Glo]]
> 
> [[The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who don't buy white-labels]]
> 
> [[Post]]
> 
> [[Telegram]]
> 
> [[Homogenic]]
> 
> [[SelmaSongs]]
------
Reverse_engineering|986674701
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Reverse engineering is the process of using the information you obtain from a component to either recreate it or modify it.
> Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) can be used to digitise your component and the information can be utilised in computer aided modelling. 
> New and improved techniques in reverse engineering include Laser Scanning which, as the name implies, uses laser beams to scan across the surface of components of any shape and display the results in real time. 
------
Bjork|986674919
22c22
< [[The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who don't buy white-labels]]
---
> [[The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who dont buy white-labels|The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who don't buy white-labels]]
24c24,26
< [[Post]]
---
> *[[Post]]
> **Army Of Me
> **Possibly Maybe
28c30,32
< [[Homogenic]]
---
> *[[Homogenic]]
> **Joga
> **All is full of love
------
Reverse_engineering|986674929
3c3
< New and improved techniques in reverse engineering include Laser Scanning which, as the name implies, uses laser beams to scan across the surface of components of any shape and display the results in real time. 
---
> New and improved techniques in reverse engineering include Laser Scanning which, as the name implies, uses laser beams to scan across the surface of components of any shape and display the results in real time. 
------
The_best_mixes_from_the_album_debut_for_all_the_people_who_dont_buy_white-labels|986675610
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Bjork]], [[One Little Indian]]/[[Polygram]]/[[Warner]]/Mother, [[1994]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>song</td>
> <td>time (minutes)</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Human Behaviour -
> The Underworld Mix 110 [[BPM]]</td>
> <td>12:05</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>One Day -
> Endorphin Mix 52.5 [[BPM]]</td>
> <td>5:10</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Come To Me -
> Black Dog Mix</td>
> <td>5:03</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Come To Me -
> Sabres Of Paradise</td>
> <td>4:48</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>The Anchor Song -
> Black Dog Mix</td>
> <td>4:51</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>One Day -
> Springs Eternal Mix 105 [[BPM]]</td>
> <td>9:44</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
GNUFreeDocumentationLicense|986677775
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU/FDL]]
------
HomePage|986677919
40c40
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
HomePage|986677956
40c40
< The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The content of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Unmanned_space_missions|986678016
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  [[Mars Odyssey]]
>  [[Voyager]]
------
Atlas|986678048
4c4,6
< Question: Did Atlas hold the earth on his shoulders?  Original sources indicate he sttod on the earth and held up the heavens.  Is holding the earth as well a modern retelling or does it have classical roots?
---
> Question: Did Atlas hold the earth on his shoulders?  Original sources indicate he stood on the earth and held up the heavens.  Is holding the earth as well a modern retelling or does it have classical roots?
> 
> - The earth version dates at least from Rennaissance times, if not before.  Could the change have been due to 'artistic license'?  (Easier to draw someone holding the earth than the sky.)  Or just a mistranslation?
------
Mars_Odyssey|986678335
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mars Odyssey is an unmanned spacecraft that launched April 7, 2001.  It's mission is to travel to Mars, establish itself in orbit, and, using spectrometers and imagers, hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars.  It is hoped that the evidence Odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars.
> 
> The spacecraft is expected to reach Mars in October, 2001.
> 
> The project was developed by [[NASA]], and contracted out to [[Lockheed Martin]].  The expected cost for the entire mission is $297 million.
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|986678349
3c3
< The Book
---
> [[Book]]
7c7
< 
---
> ----
10c10,23
< For [[Halloween]] in 1938 [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption.  The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to Grover's Mill, New Jersey, and the plan was to present the story in a documentary style. To this end, Welles even played recordings of the radio reports of the famous [[Hindenberg disaster]] to the cast to demonstrate the mood he wanted. The play started as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
---
> For [[Halloween]] in [[1938]] [[Orson Welles]] made a radio adaption.  The time was the present day, the invasion relocated to Grover's Mill, New Jersey, and the plan was to present the story in a documentary style. To this end, Welles even played recordings of the radio reports of the famous [[Hindenberg disaster]] to the cast to demonstrate the mood he wanted. The play started as an apparently ordinary music programme, interrupted by news flashes. The news reports grew more frequent and increasingly ominous, ending with a lone reporter talking from the top of a building, above the poison gas, asking if there was anyone out there. In the atmosphere of growing tension and anxiety in the days leading up to [[World War II]], many people missed or ignored the opening credits of the programme, and took it to be an actual news broadcast. Panic ensued, with people fleeing the area, and others thinking they could smell the poison gas or could see the flashes of the fighting in the distance. Possibly the most successful radio dramatic production in history.
> ----
> [[Film]]
> 
> The War of the Worlds, [[Byron Haskins]] [[1952]]
> Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including [[nuclear bombs]], but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
> 
> [[Independence Day/Film]], [[Roland Emerich]] [[1996]] 
> Aliens weak spot is a MacOS with no anti virus installed, when will they ever learn.
> 
> [[Mars Attacks]], [[Tim Burton]] [[1996]]
> Loosely based upon the original story, in this version, the aliens are repelled not by the natural germs on Earth, but by [[yodelling]]
> ----
> [[Television]]
11a25
> [[War of the Worlds]], [[1988]]-[[1990]]
13c27,29
< The Film
---
> Martian Mania: The True Story of The War of the Worlds, [[1998]]
> ----
> [http://www.war-of-the-worlds.org/ war-of-the-worlds.org]
15c31
< Made by [[George Pal]] in 1952. Moved forward in time again for this film, the Martians face more impressive weaponry, including [[nuclear bombs]], but as ever, the human defences have no effect on the Martian fighting machines. All is lost, with humanity defeated, until the Martians succumb to the smallest and humblest of Earth's living creatures.
---
> /Talk
------
Mars_Odyssey|986678371
1c1
< Mars Odyssey is an unmanned spacecraft that launched April 7, 2001.  It's mission is to travel to Mars, establish itself in orbit, and, using spectrometers and imagers, hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars.  It is hoped that the evidence Odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars.
---
> Mars Odyssey is an unmanned spacecraft that launched April 7, 2001.  It's mission is to travel to Mars, establish itself in orbit, and, using spectrometers and imagers, hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars.  It is hoped that the data Odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on Mars.
5c5
< The project was developed by [[NASA]], and contracted out to [[Lockheed Martin]].  The expected cost for the entire mission is $297 million.
---
> The project was developed by [[NASA]], and contracted out to [[Lockheed Martin]].  The expected cost for the entire mission is $297 million.
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|986678470
25a26,27
> 
> A. Why presume that?  People are writing in all sorts of English.  This isn't necessarily a bad situation, either.  Anyway, of course, the Americans aren't going to adjust their usage for the Brits, and god knows the Brits won't adjust theirs for the Americans.  :-)
------
Military_History/Talk|986678486
3c3
<  [[Military History/Famous Wars and Battle]]
---
>  [[Military History/Famous Wars and Battles]]
10a11,21
> ----
> A good idea.  I started to put them right on the History page, but it got too crowded too quick.  How does:
> 
>  [[Military History/Technology]]
>  [[Military History/Famous Wars and Battles]]
>  [[Military History/By Era]] (?)
>  [[Military History/Great Commanders]]
>  [[Military History/Science]] (or Doctrine or Strategy & Tactics?)
> 
> sound?
> 
------
Unmanned_space_missions|986678537
0a1
>  [[Mars Climate Orbiter]]
2c3,4
<  [[Voyager]]
---
>  [[Mars Polar Lander]]
>  [[Voyager]]
------
Astronaut|986678638
33d32
<  [[John Young]]
------
Astronaut|986678654
32a33
>  [[John Young]]
------
Atlas_2091|986678655
7a8,9
> ----
> Welcome, Atlas!  Put that globe down for a while and write a bit for us!  ;-)  You certainly the only autodidact among us. --[[LMS]]
------
Space_Exploration|986678676
4c4
<  [[Unmanned space missions]]
---
> 
------
Space_Exploration|986678683
4c4
< 
---
>  [[Unmanned space missions]]
------
Manned_space_missions|986678711
119c119
<  [[Columbia 1]]
---
> 
------
Manned_space_missions|986678726
119c119
< 
---
>  [[Columbia 1]]
------
A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986678756
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/A poem of sorts in narrative style...]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/A pome of sorts in narrative style...]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/A_poem_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986678828
1,29c1
< Religion and philosophy in the life of Man.
< 
< There is little debate that religion and philosophy have been commonly perceived through the ages as a refining influence on the impulses and actions of men.  Paradoxically, highly contentious debates and great wars have also been inspired thereby.  Why this dichotomy?
< 
< It is, perhaps, an issue of value, and of values.  That which offers significant structure and stability, paradoxically leads to great turmoil.
< 
< For what do men value, if not their own peace of mind?  And what brings peace of mind?  Answers.  And these answers are couched in a consistent and predictable system of values, that men might know what to expect from each other.   Value.  And values.  What do we hold dear?
< 
< And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
< 
< War.
< 
< If not war, then culture war.  Oppression.  Censorship.  Calumny and libel.  At no cost let the infidels make inroads, secure a single convert.  Stability must be maintained.  For man has had enough, in centuries past, of uncertainty.  Uncertainty meant doubt, confusion, danger.  It was a sign of impending loss.  Loss of food, of hunting territory, of life, limb, family or friend.  Let not uncertainty enter in.
< 
< And what of the men who provided the answers, the so-precious stability, certainty, predictability?  Were they gods, prophets, saviours?  Were they men rendered more by a divine hand?  Greater in the sight of God?  Were they unassailable, without flaw?  Almost never.  What they were was certain.  Those who followed found security, hope of greater survival, a reason to believe, like the warmth in the dinted snow left by the steps of the sainted King Wenceslaus.
< 
< And what of SCIENCE?  What of knowledge, and wisdom gained by peereing through lenses, combining reagents, accelerating quantum particles?  Is this not of greater and more enduring value?  Is this not less subject to attack from unlooked-for sources?  Cannot the mind find its precious broad and stable road here?  Perhaps not.  Not entirely.  For science, too has its limits.  Ask a physicist, "But where did it all come from?  Where is it going?  What is the meaning, the purpose in it?"  Blank stare.  Silly questions.  You have no call to ask them.  Ask me something Scientific.  You moron.
< 
< But Man must have his answers.  His mind, supreme arbiter of all that is true and right, has solved the problems put so far.  No problem can be really insoluble can it?  We shall apply the inexorable force of our reason, and the universal secrets will open to us.  We will know Truth.  How will we know it is truth?  Our logic will be seamless.  Our reason without crook or blemish.  The Truth will be self-consistent and consistent with all things.  It will not be gainsaid.  It will be invulnerable to attack.  It will endure.
< 
< So what do men need?  Answers.  Answers they can use, which do not fail them, and which have utility in life.  Answers in which they can rest secure that the travails of life will not unseat them, and send them spinning.  Answers, in short, which work for them.  Answers which work.  And you will not disabuse a man of answers thus sought, found and relied upon, answers which give his life shape, texture, color and meaning.  Answers which ease the path of his life and of those he loves.
<   
< Mount your best assault upon the source, the foundation, the premises, arguments and formulae of his answers.  Tell him the revelator of his truth is a swine.  Prove it in court.  Show pictures.  Film at 11.  But if his answers have met the test of his life, if they have succored him in his need, if they continue to provide the fulcrums and levers which move his mountains, you will make not a dent.  Flattened logical slugs impotent at your feet.  Tattered slings and shattered arrows.  Your keenest arguments and most telling expositions gone like a passing breeze.
< 
< So leave Man his answers.   Tamper not with the rudder of his life.  If he steers a clean course and collides not with the reefs or other craft, congratulate him on his seamanship.  Envy him his calm.  And find answers of your own.
< 
< [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
< ----
< Dang, Larry - you took the joke out of my title...  BTW - thanks for fixing the redirection.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/A pome of sorts in narrative style...]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986678869
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religion and philosophy in the life of Man.
> 
> There is little debate that religion and philosophy have been commonly perceived through the ages as a refining influence on the impulses and actions of men.  Paradoxically, highly contentious debates and great wars have also been inspired thereby.  Why this dichotomy?
> 
> It is, perhaps, an issue of value, and of values.  That which offers significant structure and stability, paradoxically leads to great turmoil.
> 
> For what do men value, if not their own peace of mind?  And what brings peace of mind?  Answers.  And these answers are couched in a consistent and predictable system of values, that men might know what to expect from each other.   Value.  And values.  What do we hold dear?
> 
> And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
> 
> War.
> 
> If not war, then culture war.  Oppression.  Censorship.  Calumny and libel.  At no cost let the infidels make inroads, secure a single convert.  Stability must be maintained.  For man has had enough, in centuries past, of uncertainty.  Uncertainty meant doubt, confusion, danger.  It was a sign of impending loss.  Loss of food, of hunting territory, of life, limb, family or friend.  Let not uncertainty enter in.
> 
> And what of the men who provided the answers, the so-precious stability, certainty, predictability?  Were they gods, prophets, saviours?  Were they men rendered more by a divine hand?  Greater in the sight of God?  Were they unassailable, without flaw?  Almost never.  What they were was certain.  Those who followed found security, hope of greater survival, a reason to believe, like the warmth in the dinted snow left by the steps of the sainted King Wenceslaus.
> 
> And what of SCIENCE?  What of knowledge, and wisdom gained by peereing through lenses, combining reagents, accelerating quantum particles?  Is this not of greater and more enduring value?  Is this not less subject to attack from unlooked-for sources?  Cannot the mind find its precious broad and stable road here?  Perhaps not.  Not entirely.  For science, too has its limits.  Ask a physicist, "But where did it all come from?  Where is it going?  What is the meaning, the purpose in it?"  Blank stare.  Silly questions.  You have no call to ask them.  Ask me something Scientific.  You moron.
> 
> But Man must have his answers.  His mind, supreme arbiter of all that is true and right, has solved the problems put so far.  No problem can be really insoluble can it?  We shall apply the inexorable force of our reason, and the universal secrets will open to us.  We will know Truth.  How will we know it is truth?  Our logic will be seamless.  Our reason without crook or blemish.  The Truth will be self-consistent and consistent with all things.  It will not be gainsaid.  It will be invulnerable to attack.  It will endure.
> 
> So what do men need?  Answers.  Answers they can use, which do not fail them, and which have utility in life.  Answers in which they can rest secure that the travails of life will not unseat them, and send them spinning.  Answers, in short, which work for them.  Answers which work.  And you will not disabuse a man of answers thus sought, found and relied upon, answers which give his life shape, texture, color and meaning.  Answers which ease the path of his life and of those he loves.
>   
> Mount your best assault upon the source, the foundation, the premises, arguments and formulae of his answers.  Tell him the revelator of his truth is a swine.  Prove it in court.  Show pictures.  Film at 11.  But if his answers have met the test of his life, if they have succored him in his need, if they continue to provide the fulcrums and levers which move his mountains, you will make not a dent.  Flattened logical slugs impotent at your feet.  Tattered slings and shattered arrows.  Your keenest arguments and most telling expositions gone like a passing breeze.
> 
> So leave Man his answers.   Tamper not with the rudder of his life.  If he steers a clean course and collides not with the reefs or other craft, congratulate him on his seamanship.  Envy him his calm.  And find answers of your own.
> 
> [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986678900
14c14
< :[[/A poem of sorts in narrative style...]]  (Bruce Hamilton)
---
> :[[/A pome of sorts in narrative style...]]  (Bruce Hamilton)
------
WikiPediaBugs|986679238
67a68,71
> 20010707: About this caching problem (or whatever it is).  Last weekend I added a page about [[John Young]] and added a link to the astronuats page.  This weekend I noticed the link on the astronauts page was still incorrect:<br>
> 'John Young?' rather than '[[John Young]]', as if no John Young article existed.
> <br>I edited the astronaut page and removed the link to [[John Young]], saved, and the link was gone.  Then I edited again, added the link, saved, and the link was correct. -[[TimShell|TS]]
> 
78c82
< Yet another data point.  I simply typed in "/wiki/Existence" in the address line of my browser, and lo and behold, at the top of the page I saw: "(redirected from ExistencE)"!  I think someone's clearly been tweaking the code.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> Yet another data point.  I simply typed in "/wiki/Existence" in the address line of my browser, and lo and behold, at the top of the page I saw: "(redirected from ExistencE)"!  I think someone's clearly been tweaking the code.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986679906
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I don't know if anyone wants to discuss this topic of breadth vs. depth.  Originally I was going to say that breadth should be preferred to depth in the beginning; then I considered the wonderfully in-depth articles some people have written, and I was thinking we should encourage more of that; but now I think we should encourage everything!
> 
> One very prolific member has been writing a wonderfully in-depth guide to [[poker]].  Meanwhile, lots of other card games, and other games, go undiscussed.  But that's fine.  In other areas (e.g., [[computing]], we're achieving excellent breadth, but rather little depth so far.  In many cases, people are content to simply write definitions of the subjects in the title.
> 
> I counsel patience.  In fact, I think it's great that people feel completely free to pursue topics either way.  One of the great things about Wikipedia is that anyone can come in and do as little or as much as they like.
> 
> I have a feeling that experts (snobs, some might say) might happen upon Wikipedia, and look at selected areas of the wiki and, failing to understand what's going on here, will point to the lack of depth as a sign that there are only dilettantes on board here, who are only interested in bite-sized pieces of knowledge.  But such snobs simply will have to explore further and bethink themselves that, once the breadth of topics is explored, depth is all that's left.
> 
> I think that both breadth and depth on Wikipedia are nearly inevitable.  As some of us exhaust the breadth of various subjects, others of us will have written stuff that, being more in-depth, appears to be more "intellectually respectable" to the aforementioned experts.  I think we've already come from the point where, to Nupedia, Wikipedia seems to be a silly game, to the point where we're now at least a source of abundant information, some of it surprisingly good.  And that's just in the space of three months.  In three years, if we and the many, many more who will arrive, keep at it, this is going to be just really quite an amazing resource.
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986679980
1,2c1
< Some people are itching to place essay-type material on Wikipedia.  Who are we to stop them?  So upload your essays here.  But please, follow '''the Wikipedia commentary area rule''':
< :Name your essay either as a subpage of the commentary page, [[/Like this]], or as a subpage of your personal home page, [[Larry Sanger/Like this]].  Expect essays named according to any other convention to be renamed appropriately.  We simply must not run the risk of people mistaking commentary for encyclopedia content.
---
> Some people are itching to place essay-type material on Wikipedia.  Who are we to stop them?  So upload your essays here.  But please, follow '''the Wikipedia commentary area rule''': Name your essay either as a subpage of the commentary page, [[/Like this]], or as a subpage of your personal home page, [[Larry Sanger/Like this]].  Expect essays named according to any other convention to be renamed appropriately.  We simply must not run the risk of people mistaking commentary for encyclopedia content.
12c11
< :[[/Breadth and depth]] (Larry Sanger)
---
> :[[/Breadth and depth]] (discussion)
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986680046
9c9
< I think that both breadth and depth on Wikipedia are nearly inevitable.  As some of us exhaust the breadth of various subjects, others of us will have written stuff that, being more in-depth, appears to be more "intellectually respectable" to the aforementioned experts.  I think we've already come from the point where, to Nupedia, Wikipedia seems to be a silly game, to the point where we're now at least a source of abundant information, some of it surprisingly good.  And that's just in the space of three months.  In three years, if we and the many, many more who will arrive, keep at it, this is going to be just really quite an amazing resource.
---
> I think that both breadth and depth on Wikipedia are nearly inevitable.  As some of us exhaust the breadth of various subjects, others of us will have written stuff that, being more in-depth, appears to be more "intellectually respectable" to the aforementioned experts.  I think we've already come from the point where, to Nupedia, Wikipedia seems to be a silly game, to the point where we're now at least a source of abundant information, some of it surprisingly good.  And that's just in the space of three months.  In three years, if we and the many, many more who will arrive, keep at it, this is going to be just really quite an amazing resource.  --[[LMS]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|986680398
82a83,84
> 
> :I've now seen this (with another page).  I think someone (by the name of Jimbo :-) turned on the HTML caching feature in the wiki.  Unfortunately, I don't think that feature is quite 100% working, although I don't see any good reason for it to fail.  I've been considering removing that feature because it doesn't interact well with user customization of pages.  Larger sites like WikiPedia can get most of the savings in CPU time by using persistent CGI techniques like mod_perl or Fast-CGI.  --CliffordAdams
------
Michael_Collins|986680572
5c5
< Prior to this, he flew on [[Gemini 10]].  On this flight Collins and his shipmate [[John  Young]] set a new record for the highest flight, 475 miles above the earth.  Collins walked in space on this mission.
---
> Prior to this, he flew on [[Gemini 10]].  On this flight Collins and his shipmate [[John Young]] set a new record for the highest flight, 475 miles above the earth.  Collins walked in space on this mission.
7c7
< He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
---
> He wrote a book, Carrying the Fire [ISBN 1885283148], about his experiences as an astronaut. 
------
Gemini_10|986680610
3c3,5
< The purpose of the mission was to attach scientific equipment to an orbiting Agena rocket.  Because the craft was low on fuel, the mission had to be cut short, and the mission objectives were never achieved.  The spacecraft returned to earth on July 21, 1966.
---
> The purpose of the mission was to attach scientific equipment to an orbiting Agena rocket.  Because the craft was low on fuel, the mission had to be cut short, and the mission objectives were never achieved.  The spacecraft returned to earth on July 21, 1966.
> 
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|986680780
71a72,73
> Further experimentation shows that to fix this problem, one needs only to edit the page and save, and the links will appear properly - TS
> 
------
Canada|986680897
7c7
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The Native who were originally living there, the French who first settled there and the English who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with separatism and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

---
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The [[Native|Natives]] who were originally living there, the [[French]] who first settled there and the [[English]] who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with [[separatism]] and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

9c9
< The country is surrounded by three oceans: the Pacific on the west coast, the Arctic on the north coast and the Atlantic on the east coast. The southern border is shared with the [[United States]] and is the longest undefended border crossing in the world.
---
> The country is surrounded by three [[Ocean|oceans]]: the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] on the west coast, the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] on the north coast and the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] on the east coast. The southern border is shared with the [[United States]] and is the longest undefended border crossing in the world.
------
Canadian_Constitution_Act|986681044
1c1
< The Canadian Constitution Act of 1867 can be found [http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/Canada/canada.cn here].
---
> The Canadian Constitution Act can be found [http://wiretap.area.com/Gopher/Gov/Canada/canada.cn here].
------
Antiseptic_mouth_rinse|986681313
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Antiseptic mouth rinse, often called mouthwash, is an oral hygiene product that kills the germs that cause [[plaque]], [[gingivits]], and [[bad breath]].  It is used by people interested in oral health and in not offending others with bad breath.  It often comes in a mint flavor.
> 
> Proper use involves rinsing one's mouth with 20 milliliters of antiseptic mouth rinse two times a day.  One then spits out, rather than swallows, the mouth rinse.
> 
> Active ingredients include [[thymol]], [[eucalyptol]], [[methyl salicylate]], and [[menthol]].  Ingredients also include [[water]], and a significant amount of [[alcohol]] (around 20%).  Because of the alcohol content, it possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing one's mouth.
------
Antiseptic_mouth_rinse|986685180
1c1
< Antiseptic mouth rinse, often called mouthwash, is an oral hygiene product that kills the germs that cause [[plaque]], [[gingivits]], and [[bad breath]].  It is used by people interested in oral health and in not offending others with bad breath.  It often comes in a mint flavor.
---
> Antiseptic mouth rinse, often called mouthwash, is an oral hygiene product that kills the germs that cause [[plaque]], [[gingivits]], and [[bad breath]].  It is used by people interested in oral health and in not offending others with bad breath.  It often comes in a [[mint]] flavor.
------
Mint|986685240
1c1
< A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, [[antiseptic mouth rinse]]s, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
------
Scientology/Talk|986685251
83a84,85
> ----
> Yeah, Fishman's a flake, which I why I didn't quote him or offer him as an example of anything.  I only mentioned the court case to verify the source of the OT documents.
84a87
> The comparison with Mormons is interesting but flawed.  The Mormons were primarily persecuted because of the practice of bigamy, which they eventually gave up (at least officially) in order to better get along with the neighbors.  I personally think  that laws against consensual polygamy are stupid and opressive, and that they had every right to fight back.  But once they abandoned that practice, their critics fell back to saying nasty things about them instead of having them jailed, and the Mormons let them.  The CoS on the other hand unleashes the might of its legal team against those who merely /speak/ against them (including, admittedly, some who speak falsely).  I believe quite strongly that the only legitimate response to speech--even false speech--is more speech, and if the CoS had only done that I would consider them harmless crackpots like Moonies or Krishnas.  But when you use the force of government to supress your critics, you are in effect taking up arms to supress /their/ ideas, and it is /you/ who bears responsibility for escalating the conflict beyond words.
------
Mint|986685263
1c1
< A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] which is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, [[antiseptic mouth rinse]]s, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
---
> A [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]] that is used to flavor [[food]], [[candy]], [[tea]]s, breath fresheners, [[antiseptic mouth rinse]]s, and [[toothpaste]].  The underlying minty scent is that of [[menthol]].  Mint is known as a vigorous, spreading plant.  There are hundreds of varieties.  
------
Tea|986685467
1c1
< A [[beverage]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is also called an [[infusion]] or tisane.
---
> An [[infusion]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is more properly called an [[infusion]] or tisane.
3c3
< Tea is served both hot and cold, sometimes with [[lemon]], [[milk]], [[honey]], or [[sugar]].
---
> Tea is served both hot and iced, sometimes with [[lemon]], [[milk]], [[honey]], or [[sugar]].
------
Tea|986685655
1c1
< An [[infusion]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the [[camellia]] bush in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is more properly called an [[infusion]] or tisane.
---
> An [[infusion]] made by steeping the dried leaves or buds of the shrub <i>Camelia sinensis</i> in boiling water.  Tea may include other [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[fruit]] flavors.  An herbal tea--that is, a tea with no tea leaves in it--is more properly called an [[infusion]] or [[tisane]].
------
Tisane|986685721
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[herb|herbal]] [[infusion]], also known as herbal [[tea]].
------
Infusion|986685785
1c1
< A [[beverage]] made by steeping a flavoring substance, such as [[tea]], [[coffee]], or an [[herb]] or [[spice]] mixture, in hot or boiling water.  
---
> A [[beverage]] made by steeping a flavoring substance in hot or boiling water.  See also [[coffee]], [[tea]], [[tisane]].
------
Turmeric|986686179
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[spice]] commonly used in [[curry powder]] and other south [[Asian cuisine]].  It gives prepared [[mustard]] and other [[food]]s their yellow color.
------
Spice|986686319
5c5
< One of the most valuable items of trade in the ancient world was spices.
---
> Spices were some of the most valuable items of trade in the ancient and medieval world.
------
ToriAmos|986686653
1c1
< Band Members:
---
> Band Members:TORI AMOS
3c3
< Bio(s):
---
> Bio(s):BORN AUGUST,22 1963 IN NORTH CAROLINA
5c5
< Musical Style:
---
> Musical Style:NEW AGE ALTERNATIVE
7c7
< Influence & Influences:
---
> Influence & Influences:SOUND IS SIMILAR TO KATE BUSH
9c9,10
< Discography:
---
> Discography:1992:LITTLE EARTHQUAKES,1994:UNDER THE PINK
> 1996:BOYS FOR PELE,1998:CHOIR GIRL HOTEL,2000:TO VENUS AND BACK(DOUBLE ALBUM.)
------
Burgess_shale|986687007
3c3
< A reinvestigation of the fossils in the 1980s by Wittington, Morris and Biggs revealed that the fauna represented was much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized.  Indeed, many of the animals present had bizarre anatomical features and only the sketchiest resemblence to other known animals.  Examples include Opabinia with five eyes and a vacuum cleaner like snout; Aysheaia which bears an extrordinary resemblence to a minor modern Phyllum -- the Onocyphores; Nectocaris which is apparently either a crustacean with fins or a vertebrate with a shell; and Hallucigenia which pretty much defied rational description.
---
> A reinvestigation of the fossils in the 1980s by Wittington, Morris and Biggs revealed that the fauna represented was much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized.  Indeed, many of the animals present had bizarre anatomical features and only the sketchiest resemblence to other known animals.  Examples include ''Opabinia'' with five eyes and a vacuum cleaner like snout; ''Aysheaia'' which bears an extrordinary resemblence to a minor modern Phylum -- the [[Onychophora]]; ''Nectocaris'' which is apparently either a crustacean with fins or a vertebrate with a shell; and ''Hallucigenia'' which pretty much defied rational description.
5c5
< The diversity and exotic nature of the Burgess faunas has caused a great deal of controversy in paleontology with regard to the reasons for and nature of what has come to be called [[The Cambrian Explosion]].
---
> The diversity and exotic nature of the Burgess faunas has caused a great deal of controversy in paleontology with regard to the reasons for and nature of what has come to be called the [[Cambrian Explosion]].
------
Atlas|986687829
13a14
> ''Holding up the earth doesn't seem to be classical, at any rate - none of the authors know anything about it.''
------
Tank|986688202
6a7,25
> During [[World War II]], the tank reached new heights of capability and sophistication.  The [[German]] tanks, though technologically inferior to many of their opponents' tanks in the areas of armor and weaponry, were used most skillfully to achieve  surprising strategic victories early in the war.  The German doctrine stressed the use of combined-arms involving infantry and air support, and the tactic of the [[blitzkrieg]] (lightning warfare).  Furthermore, the Germans were quick to supply their tanks with radios, which provided unmatched command/control.
> 
> ''(use of training tanks due to lack of combat tanks)''
> 
> The largest tank ever built was the Maus, designed in 1942 by Ferdinand Porsche under direct order from Hitler.  Weighing 188 tons, the Maus was armed with a 128mm cannon and a coaxial 75mm gun, and covered with
> 180-240mm of armor.  Only two prototypes were built, and both were thrown into action against the Russians (and lost) while still undergoing testing.
> 
> ''(T-34, tankettes, and other allied tanks of WWII; Patton, Rommel, Guderian, etc)''
> 
> Since WWII, most of the changes in tank design have been refinements to targeting, ranging, and stabilization equipment, and to communications, and crew comfort.  Armor has evolved to keep pace with
> improvements in weaponry, and guns have gotten bigger, but haven't fundamentally changed.
> ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use 
> barrel-launched ATGMs)''
> 
> ''(use of tanks and new tactics by Israelis in Arab-Israeli wars)''
> 
> ''(elaborate distinction between tanks and other AFVs)''
> 
> 
9c28
< ''this article intentionally incomplete, more to come later, in the meantime feel free to add to it''
---
> ''this article intentionally incomplete, more to come later, in the meantime feel free to edit/add to it''
------
Anthophyta|986690356
2a3,8
> * Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
> 
> * Anarcadiaceae (cashew family)
> ** [[Cashew]]
> ** [[Sumac]]
> 
3a10,11
> ** [[Anise]]
> ** [[Caraway]]
4a13
> ** [[Celery]]
5a15
> ** [[Cumin]]
7a18
> ** [[Fennel]]
11c22
< * Asteraceae (composite family)
---
> * Asteraceae (sunflower family)
13a25
> ** [[Sunflower]]
16c28
< * Brassiaceae (mustard family)
---
> * Brassicaceae (mustard family)
17a30,48
> ** [[Horseradish]]
> ** [[Mustard]]
> 
> * Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
> ** [[Gourd]]
> ** [[Pumpkin]]
> ** [[Squash]]
> 
> * Ericaceae
> ** [[Blueberry]]
> 
> * Fabaceae (pea family)
> ** [[Bean]]
> ** [[Fenugreek]]
> ** [[Pea]]
> ** [[Peanut]]
> ** [[Tamarind]]
> 
> * Fagaceae ([[oak]] family)
34a66,69
> * Lauraceae (laurel family)
> ** [[Cinnamon]]
> ** [[Laurel]]
> 
38a74,87
> * Malvaceae ([[mallow]] family)
> 
> * Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
> 
> * Myrtaceae (myrtel family)
> ** [[Allspice]]
> ** [[Cloves]]
> ** [[Myrtel]]
> 
> * Orchidaceae (orchid family)
> ** [[Vanilla]]
> 
> * Pavaraceae ([[poppy]] family)
> 
39a89
> ** [[Almond]]
40a91,92
> ** [[Apricot]]
> ** [[Blackberry]]
47a100,105
> * Rutaceae (rue family)
> ** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]]
> ** [[Rue]]
> 
> * Salicaceae ([[willow]] family)
> 
48a107,110
> ** [[Eggplant]]
> ** [[Nightshade]]
> ** [[Paprika]]
> ** [[Pepper]]
51a114,122
> 
> * Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
> 
> * Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
> 
> * Zingeberaceae (ginger family)
> ** [[Cardamom]]
> ** [[Ginger]]
> ** [[Turmeric]]
------
Tank|986692015
6a7,8
> ''(more on WWI usage)''
> 
9c11,16
< ''(use of training tanks due to lack of combat tanks)''
---
> <blockquote><i>It was true that nothing larger than machine guns could be mounted in any turret that this vehicle could carry.  But with this disadvantage, it could be made ready for action by 1934 and it would at least serve as a training tank until our real combat tanks began to appear.  [...]  Nobody in 1932 could have guessed that one day we should have to go into action with this little training tank.</i><br>
> -- Heinz Guderian, Chief of German Army General Staff, on the Pz I.
> </blockquote>
> ''(use of Pz I and Pz II training tanks due to lack of combat tanks)''
> 
> The largest tank ever built was the Maus, designed in 1942 by Ferdinand Porsche under direct order from Hitler.  Weighing 188 tons, the Maus was armed with a 128mm cannon and a coaxial 75mm gun, and covered with 180-240mm of armor.  Only two prototypes were built, and both were lost while still undergoing testing.  One of the Maus prototypes currently resides in the Museum of Armored Forces in Kubinka Russia.  
11,12c18
< The largest tank ever built was the Maus, designed in 1942 by Ferdinand Porsche under direct order from Hitler.  Weighing 188 tons, the Maus was armed with a 128mm cannon and a coaxial 75mm gun, and covered with
< 180-240mm of armor.  Only two prototypes were built, and both were thrown into action against the Russians (and lost) while still undergoing testing.
---
> ''(What's the true story behind the Maus in the museum?  There are conflicting stories.  In one version, both were scuttled at the factory prior to Soviet occupation, in another, one fought briefly before being captured.)''
18,19c24,25
< ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use 
< barrel-launched ATGMs)''
---
> 
> ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use barrel-launched ATGMs)''
------
Scientology/Talk|986692283
87a88,89
> ----
> ...by which I presume you would deny access to courts for things like libel, slander, copyright infringements.  Well, that's your opinion and you're entitled to it...
------
Anthophyta|986692414
1c1
< Upper classification has been changed a lot recently - the dicots have been split up, etc.  Something will have to be done.  What kind of flowering plants do we know about here on wiki?
---
> Upper classification has been changed a lot recently - the dicots have been split up, etc.  Something will have to be done, and pretty soon these families will start departing to their own pages.  What kind of flowering plants do we know about here on wiki?
5c5
< * Anarcadiaceae (cashew family)
---
> * Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
6a7,9
> ** [[Mango]]
> ** [[Pistachio]]
> ** [[Poison ivy]]
8a12,17
> * Araliaceae (ginseng family)
> ** [[Ginseng]]
> ** [[Ivy]]
> 
> * Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
> 
18a28
> ** [[Hemlock]]
19a30
> ** [[Parsnip]]
22c33,35
< * Asteraceae (sunflower family)
---
> * Asteraceae
> ** [[Aster]]
> ** [[Chrysanthemum]]
24a38,40
> ** [[Lettuce]]
> ** [[Marigold]]
> ** [[Ragweed]]
26a43
> ** [[Thistle]]
29c46
< ** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
---
> ** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
31a49,50
> ** [[Radish]]
> ** [[Turnip]]
36a56,57
> ** [[Melon]]
> ** [[Watermelon]]
38c59
< * Ericaceae
---
> * Ericaceae (heath family)
39a61,63
> ** [[Heath]]
> ** [[Heather]]
> ** [[Rhododendron]]
48,53c72,75
< * Fagaceae ([[oak]] family)
< 
< * Gramineae (grass family)
< ** [[Barley]]
< ** [[Corn]]
< ** [[Wheat]]
---
> * Fagaceae (beech family)
> ** [[Beech]]
> ** [[Chestnut]]
> ** [[Oak]]
56a79,80
> ** [[Catnip]]
> ** [[Hyssop]]
64a89
> ** [[Woundwort]]
66a92
> ** [[Advocado]]
70a97
> ** [[Bluebell]]
71a99
> ** [[Hyacinth]]
72a101
> ** [[Tulip]]
74c103,106
< * Malvaceae ([[mallow]] family)
---
> * Malvaceae (mallow family)
> ** [[Cotton]]
> ** [[Hollyhock]]
> ** [[Mallow]]
78c110
< * Myrtaceae (myrtel family)
---
> * Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
81c113,114
< ** [[Myrtel]]
---
> ** [[Eucalyptus]]
> ** [[Myrtle]]
86c119,126
< * Pavaraceae ([[poppy]] family)
---
> * Papavaraceae ([[poppy]] family)
> 
> * Poaceae (grass family)
> ** [[Barley]]
> ** [[Corn]]
> ** [[Millet]]
> ** [[Rice]]
> ** [[Wheat]]
93a134
> ** [[Hawthorn]]
94a136
> ** [[Pear]]
101c143
< ** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]]
---
> ** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
104c146,148
< * Salicaceae ([[willow]] family)
---
> * Salicaceae (willow family)
> ** [[Poplar]]
> ** [[Willow]]
119c163
< * Zingeberaceae (ginger family)
---
> * Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
------
Anthophyta|986695630
3c3,20
< * Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
---
> * Apiales
> ** Araliaceae (ginseng family)
> *** [[Ginseng]]
> *** [[Ivy]]
> ** Apiaceae (parsley family)
> *** [[Anise]]
> *** [[Caraway]]
> *** [[Carrot]]
> *** [[Celery]]
> *** [[Chervil]]
> *** [[Cumin]]
> *** [[Coriander]]
> *** [[Dill]]
> *** [[Fennel]]
> *** [[Hemlock]]
> *** [[Parsley]]
> *** [[Parsnip]]
> *** [[Sage]]
5,33c22
< * Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
< ** [[Cashew]]
< ** [[Mango]]
< ** [[Pistachio]]
< ** [[Poison ivy]]
< ** [[Sumac]]
< 
< * Araliaceae (ginseng family)
< ** [[Ginseng]]
< ** [[Ivy]]
< 
< * Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
< 
< * Apiaceae (parsley family)
< ** [[Anise]]
< ** [[Caraway]]
< ** [[Carrot]]
< ** [[Celery]]
< ** [[Chervil]]
< ** [[Cumin]]
< ** [[Coriander]]
< ** [[Dill]]
< ** [[Fennel]]
< ** [[Hemlock]]
< ** [[Parsley]]
< ** [[Parsnip]]
< ** [[Sage]]
< 
< * Asteraceae
---
> * Asterales - Asteraceae
45c34
< * Brassicaceae (mustard family)
---
> * Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
52,57c41,48
< * Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
< ** [[Gourd]]
< ** [[Pumpkin]]
< ** [[Squash]]
< ** [[Melon]]
< ** [[Watermelon]]
---
> * Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
> 
> * Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
> ** [[Barley]]
> ** [[Corn]]
> ** [[Millet]]
> ** [[Rice]]
> ** [[Wheat]]
59c50
< * Ericaceae (heath family)
---
> * Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
65c56
< * Fabaceae (pea family)
---
> * Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
72c63
< * Fagaceae (beech family)
---
> * Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
77c68
< * Lamiaceae (mint family)
---
> * Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
91c82
< * Lauraceae (laurel family)
---
> * Laurales - Lauraceae (laurel family)
96c87
< * Liliaceae (lily family)
---
> * Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
103c94
< * Malvaceae (mallow family)
---
> * Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
108,110c99
< * Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
< 
< * Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
---
> * Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
116c105
< * Orchidaceae (orchid family)
---
> * Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
119c108
< * Papavaraceae ([[poppy]] family)
---
> * Papaverales - Papaveraceae ([[poppy]] family)
121,126c110
< * Poaceae (grass family)
< ** [[Barley]]
< ** [[Corn]]
< ** [[Millet]]
< ** [[Rice]]
< ** [[Wheat]]
---
> * Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
128c112
< * Rosaceae (rose family)
---
> * Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
142,146c126
< * Rutaceae (rue family)
< ** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
< ** [[Rue]]
< 
< * Salicaceae (willow family)
---
> * Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
150c130,142
< * Solanaceae (nightshade family)
---
> * Sapindales
> ** Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
> ** Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
> *** [[Cashew]]
> *** [[Mango]]
> *** [[Pistachio]]
> *** [[Poison ivy]]
> *** [[Sumac]]
> ** Rutaceae (rue family)
> *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
> *** [[Rue]]
> 
> * Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
159c151
< * Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
---
> * Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
161c153,158
< * Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
---
> * Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
> ** [[Gourd]]
> ** [[Pumpkin]]
> ** [[Squash]]
> ** [[Melon]]
> ** [[Watermelon]]
163,166c160,165
< * Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
< ** [[Cardamom]]
< ** [[Ginger]]
< ** [[Turmeric]]
---
> * Zingiberales
> ** Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
> ** Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
> *** [[Cardamom]]
> *** [[Ginger]]
> *** [[Turmeric]]
------
Anthophyta|986697365
1c1
< Upper classification has been changed a lot recently - the dicots have been split up, etc.  Something will have to be done, and pretty soon these families will start departing to their own pages.  What kind of flowering plants do we know about here on wiki?
---
> '''Monocots'''
3,4c3,74
< * Apiales
< ** Araliaceae (ginseng family)
---
> * Commelinidae
> ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
> *** [[Barley]]
> *** [[Corn]]
> *** [[Millet]]
> *** [[Rice]]
> *** [[Wheat]]
> 
> * Zingereridae
> ** Zingiberales - Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
> ** Zingiberales - Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
> *** [[Cardamom]]
> *** [[Ginger]]
> *** [[Turmeric]]
> 
> * Liliidae - ''Don't know''
> ** Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
> *** [[Bluebell]]
> *** [[Chives]]
> *** [[Hyacinth]]
> *** [[Lily]]
> *** [[Tulip]]
> ** Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
> *** [[Vanilla]]
> 
> '''Eudicots'''
> 
> * Hamamelidae - ''paraphyletic''
> ** Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
> ** Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
> *** [[Beech]]
> *** [[Chestnut]]
> *** [[Oak]]
> 
> * Rosidae - ''paraphyletic''
> **  Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
> *** [[Almond]]
> *** [[Apple]]
> *** [[Apricot]]
> *** [[Blackberry]]
> *** [[Cherry]]
> *** [[Hawthorn]]
> *** [[Peach]]
> *** [[Pear]]
> *** [[Plum]]
> *** [[Raspberry]]
> *** [[Rose]]
> *** [[Strawberry]]
> ** Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
> *** [[Bean]]
> *** [[Fenugreek]]
> *** [[Pea]]
> *** [[Peanut]]
> *** [[Tamarind]]
> ** Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
> *** [[Allspice]]
> *** [[Cloves]]
> *** [[Eucalyptus]]
> *** [[Myrtle]]
> ** Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
> ** Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
> ** Sapindales - Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
> ** Sapindales - Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
> *** [[Cashew]]
> *** [[Mango]]
> *** [[Pistachio]]
> *** [[Poison ivy]]
> *** [[Sumac]]
> ** Sapindales -Rutaceae (rue family)
> *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
> *** [[Rue]]
> ** Apiales - Araliaceae (ginseng family)
7c77
< ** Apiaceae (parsley family)
---
> ** Apiales - Apiaceae (parsley family)
22,80c92,152
< * Asterales - Asteraceae
< ** [[Aster]]
< ** [[Chrysanthemum]]
< ** [[Daisy]]
< ** [[Dandelion]]
< ** [[Lettuce]]
< ** [[Marigold]]
< ** [[Ragweed]]
< ** [[Sunflower]]
< ** [[Tarragon]]
< ** [[Thistle]]
< 
< * Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
< ** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
< ** [[Horseradish]]
< ** [[Mustard]]
< ** [[Radish]]
< ** [[Turnip]]
< 
< * Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
< 
< * Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
< ** [[Barley]]
< ** [[Corn]]
< ** [[Millet]]
< ** [[Rice]]
< ** [[Wheat]]
< 
< * Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
< ** [[Blueberry]]
< ** [[Heath]]
< ** [[Heather]]
< ** [[Rhododendron]]
< 
< * Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
< ** [[Bean]]
< ** [[Fenugreek]]
< ** [[Pea]]
< ** [[Peanut]]
< ** [[Tamarind]]
< 
< * Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
< ** [[Beech]]
< ** [[Chestnut]]
< ** [[Oak]]
< 
< * Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
< ** [[Basil]]
< ** [[Catnip]]
< ** [[Hyssop]]
< ** [[Lavender]]
< ** [[Marjoram]]
< ** [[Mint]]
< ** [[Oregano]]
< ** [[Rosemary]]
< ** [[Sage]]
< ** [[Savory]]
< ** [[Thyme]]
< ** [[Woundwort]]
---
> * Asteridae
> ** Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
> *** [[Eggplant]]
> *** [[Nightshade]]
> *** [[Paprika]]
> *** [[Pepper]]
> *** [[Potato]]
> *** [[Tobacco]]
> *** [[Tomato]]
> ** Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
> *** [[Basil]]
> *** [[Catnip]]
> *** [[Hyssop]]
> *** [[Lavender]]
> *** [[Marjoram]]
> *** [[Mint]]
> *** [[Oregano]]
> *** [[Rosemary]]
> *** [[Sage]]
> *** [[Savory]]
> *** [[Thyme]]
> *** [[Woundwort]]
> ** Asterales - Asteraceae
> *** [[Aster]]
> *** [[Chrysanthemum]]
> *** [[Daisy]]
> *** [[Dandelion]]
> *** [[Lettuce]]
> *** [[Marigold]]
> *** [[Ragweed]]
> *** [[Sunflower]]
> *** [[Tarragon]]
> *** [[Thistle]]
> 
> * Dillenidae - ''I have no idea how valid this group is...''
> ** Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
> *** [[Cotton]]
> *** [[Hollyhock]]
> *** [[Mallow]]
> ** Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
> *** [[Gourd]]
> *** [[Pumpkin]]
> *** [[Squash]]
> *** [[Melon]]
> *** [[Watermelon]]
> ** Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
> *** [[Poplar]]
> *** [[Willow]]
> ** Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
> *** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
> *** [[Horseradish]]
> *** [[Mustard]]
> *** [[Radish]]
> *** [[Turnip]]
> ** Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
> *** [[Blueberry]]
> *** [[Heath]]
> *** [[Heather]]
> *** [[Rhododendron]]
> 
> '''Others'''
87,107d158
< * Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
< ** [[Bluebell]]
< ** [[Chives]]
< ** [[Hyacinth]]
< ** [[Lily]]
< ** [[Tulip]]
< 
< * Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
< ** [[Cotton]]
< ** [[Hollyhock]]
< ** [[Mallow]]
< 
< * Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
< ** [[Allspice]]
< ** [[Cloves]]
< ** [[Eucalyptus]]
< ** [[Myrtle]]
< 
< * Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
< ** [[Vanilla]]
< 
109,167d159
< 
< * Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
< 
< * Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
< ** [[Almond]]
< ** [[Apple]]
< ** [[Apricot]]
< ** [[Blackberry]]
< ** [[Cherry]]
< ** [[Hawthorn]]
< ** [[Peach]]
< ** [[Pear]]
< ** [[Plum]]
< ** [[Raspberry]]
< ** [[Rose]]
< ** [[Strawberry]]
< 
< * Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
< ** [[Poplar]]
< ** [[Willow]]
< 
< * Sapindales
< ** Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
< ** Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
< *** [[Cashew]]
< *** [[Mango]]
< *** [[Pistachio]]
< *** [[Poison ivy]]
< *** [[Sumac]]
< ** Rutaceae (rue family)
< *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
< *** [[Rue]]
< 
< * Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
< ** [[Eggplant]]
< ** [[Nightshade]]
< ** [[Paprika]]
< ** [[Pepper]]
< ** [[Potato]]
< ** [[Tobacco]]
< ** [[Tomato]]
< 
< * Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
< 
< * Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
< ** [[Gourd]]
< ** [[Pumpkin]]
< ** [[Squash]]
< ** [[Melon]]
< ** [[Watermelon]]
< 
< * Zingiberales
< ** Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
< ** Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
< *** [[Cardamom]]
< *** [[Ginger]]
< *** [[Turmeric]]
< 
< * Family unknown here on wiki, for now
------
Anthophyta|986697399
10d9
< 
17d15
< 
36d33
< 
91d87
< 
125d120
< 
158d152
< 
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986698966
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Battle of Pearl Harbor occured on December 7, 1941.  Planes of the Japanese Navy attacked the American naval base and Army air field at [[Pearl Harbar]], [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]].  Eighteen ships were sunk or damaged, and around 2400 Americans lost their lives.  The Japanese suffered minimal casualties.
> 
> The Japanese deployed six aircraft carriers for the attack, [[/Akagi]], [[/Hiryu]],[[/Kaga]], [[/Shokaku]], [[/Soryu]], [[/Zuikaku]], with a total of 441 planes, including fighters, torpedo-bombers, dive-bombers, and fighter-bombers.  Of these, 55 were lost during the battle.
> 
> The Japanese planes bombed [[Hickham Airfield]] and the ships anchored in Battleship Row.  The American battleship Arizona was sunk with a loss of 1100 men, nearly half of the American dead.  Seven other battleships and ten other ships were sunk or damaged.
> 
> *<b>Historical significance</b>
> 
> This, like the Battle of [[Concord]], was a comparatively minor battle that had history-altering consequences.  It drew the [[United States]] into World War II and led to the demise of the [[Japanese Empire]] and [[Nazi Germany]] as well.  America's ultimate victory in this war and its emergence as a world power has shaped international politics ever since.
> 
> *<b>Strategic appraisal</b>
> 
> The purpose of the attck on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific.  The Japanese wanted license to do as they pleased in the Pacific and Asia, and thought they could get this by eliminating American influence.  Specifically, Japan had been embroiled in a war with China which had come to a stalemate after many years of fighting.  Japan thought by cutting China off from Amerian (as well as British) aid, China would be weakened, and the stalemate could be broken.  Japan also knew that American naval power could not be neutralized indefinately, but thought thay by dealing it a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor, the American Navy could be neutralized long enough for Japan to achieve it's objectives in Asia and the Pacific.
> 
> Viewed in terms of its strategic objectives, the attack on Pearl Harbor must be viewed as a complete failure.  Whether it was even possible to achieve these objectives, while half the American fleet was stationed in the Atlantic and therefore quite safe, is debatable.  What is certain is that on December 8, 1941, the American Navy remained perfectly capable of operations in the Pacific and a major obstacle to the designs of the Japanese government.
> 
> In response to this strategic failure, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of Hawaii in order to achieve those objectives it had failed to achieve at Pearl Harvor.  This invasion, however, never took place.  The Japanese fleet spearhading this invasion was intercepted off [[/Midway]] and largely destroyed.
> 
> 
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986698987
1c1
< The Battle of Pearl Harbor occured on December 7, 1941.  Planes of the Japanese Navy attacked the American naval base and Army air field at [[Pearl Harbar]], [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]].  Eighteen ships were sunk or damaged, and around 2400 Americans lost their lives.  The Japanese suffered minimal casualties.
---
> The Battle of Pearl Harbor occured on December 7, 1941.  Planes of the Japanese Navy attacked the American naval base and Army air field at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]].  Eighteen ships were sunk or damaged, and around 2400 Americans lost their lives.  The Japanese suffered minimal casualties.
17c17
< In response to this strategic failure, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of Hawaii in order to achieve those objectives it had failed to achieve at Pearl Harvor.  This invasion, however, never took place.  The Japanese fleet spearhading this invasion was intercepted off [[/Midway]] and largely destroyed.
---
> In response to this strategic failure, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of Hawaii in order to achieve those objectives it had failed to achieve at Pearl Harbor.  This invasion, however, never took place.  The Japanese fleet spearhading this invasion was intercepted off [[/Midway]] and largely destroyed.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986699042
13c13
< The purpose of the attck on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific.  The Japanese wanted license to do as they pleased in the Pacific and Asia, and thought they could get this by eliminating American influence.  Specifically, Japan had been embroiled in a war with China which had come to a stalemate after many years of fighting.  Japan thought by cutting China off from Amerian (as well as British) aid, China would be weakened, and the stalemate could be broken.  Japan also knew that American naval power could not be neutralized indefinately, but thought thay by dealing it a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor, the American Navy could be neutralized long enough for Japan to achieve it's objectives in Asia and the Pacific.
---
> The purpose of the attack on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific.  The Japanese wanted license to do as they pleased in the Pacific and Asia, and thought they could get this by eliminating American influence.  Specifically, Japan had been embroiled in a war with China which had come to a stalemate after many years of fighting.  Japan thought by cutting China off from Amerian (as well as British) aid, China would be weakened, and the stalemate could be broken.  Japan also knew that American naval power could not be neutralized indefinately, but thought thay by dealing it a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor, the American Navy could be neutralized long enough for Japan to achieve it's objectives in Asia and the Pacific.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986699081
13c13
< The purpose of the attack on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific.  The Japanese wanted license to do as they pleased in the Pacific and Asia, and thought they could get this by eliminating American influence.  Specifically, Japan had been embroiled in a war with China which had come to a stalemate after many years of fighting.  Japan thought by cutting China off from Amerian (as well as British) aid, China would be weakened, and the stalemate could be broken.  Japan also knew that American naval power could not be neutralized indefinately, but thought thay by dealing it a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor, the American Navy could be neutralized long enough for Japan to achieve it's objectives in Asia and the Pacific.
---
> The purpose of the attack on Pearl Harbor was to neutralize American naval power in the Pacific.  The Japanese wanted license to do as they pleased in the Pacific and Asia, and thought they could get this by eliminating American influence.  Specifically, Japan had been embroiled in a war with China which had come to a stalemate after many years of fighting.  Japan thought by cutting China off from Amerian (as well as British) aid, China would be weakened, and the stalemate could be broken.  Japan also knew that American naval power could not be neutralized indefinately, but thought that by dealing it a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor, the American Navy could be neutralized long enough for Japan to achieve it's objectives in Asia and the Pacific.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986699141
17,18c17
< In response to this strategic failure, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of Hawaii in order to achieve those objectives it had failed to achieve at Pearl Harbor.  This invasion, however, never took place.  The Japanese fleet spearhading this invasion was intercepted off [[/Midway]] and largely destroyed.
< 
---
> In response to this strategic failure, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of Hawaii in order to achieve those objectives it had failed to achieve at Pearl Harbor.  This invasion, however, never took place.  The Japanese fleet spearhading this invasion was intercepted off [[/Midway]] and largely destroyed, the invasion fleet turned around and went home.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986699179
15c15
< Viewed in terms of its strategic objectives, the attack on Pearl Harbor must be viewed as a complete failure.  Whether it was even possible to achieve these objectives, while half the American fleet was stationed in the Atlantic and therefore quite safe, is debatable.  What is certain is that on December 8, 1941, the American Navy remained perfectly capable of operations in the Pacific and a major obstacle to the designs of the Japanese government.
---
> In terms of its strategic objectives, the attack on Pearl Harbor must be viewed as a complete failure.  Whether it was even possible to achieve these objectives, while half the American fleet was stationed in the Atlantic and therefore quite safe, is debatable.  What is certain is that on December 8, 1941, the American Navy remained perfectly capable of operations in the Pacific and a major obstacle to the designs of the Japanese government.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986700340
16a17,18
> ''The Japanese target wasn't really that half of the American fleet at all, but rather the aircraft carriers.  That would have neutralized the ability of the air force to make attacks in the Pacific, and so could have had a significant imapact.  Of course it means Pearl Harbor was a complete failure, since the aircraft carriers were not in port at the time.  The above should probably be changed to mention all this, though I'm not quite sure how.''
> 
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986700375
17c17
< ''The Japanese target wasn't really that half of the American fleet at all, but rather the aircraft carriers.  That would have neutralized the ability of the air force to make attacks in the Pacific, and so could have had a significant imapact.  Of course it means Pearl Harbor was a complete failure, since the aircraft carriers were not in port at the time.  The above should probably be changed to mention all this, though I'm not quite sure how.''
---
> ''The Japanese target wasn't really the American navy at all, but rather the aircraft carriers.  That would have neutralized the ability of the air force to make attacks in the Pacific, and so could have had a significant imapact.  Of course it means Pearl Harbor was a complete failure, since the aircraft carriers were not in port at the time.  The above should probably be changed to mention all this, though I'm not quite sure how.''
------
Hoplite|986700871
9c9
< The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  The practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, with increased reliance on mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, navies, and generally non-standard tactics; there were three major traditional hoplite battles, and none of them decided anything.  Strategy found a permanent place on the battle field with the reforms of [[Epaminondas]], which led to the development of the Macedonian phalanx by [[Phillip II]] which was generally used in a combined arms sort of approach along with cavalry and skirmishers.  The last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, was met by him at the [[battle of Charonea]] and defeated, permanently ending the era of both city-states and hoplites.
---
> The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  Its practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, when there were three major hoplite battles, none of which decided anything.  Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, and non-set piece tactics.  These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the casualties of battle.  Many of them were combined by the brilliant general [[Epaminondas]], whose tactics formed the basis for the Macedonian phalanx of [[Philip II]], used as a back-up to his cavalry.  These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, at the [[Battle of Charonea]], after which Greece became part of the Macedonian empire.
11c11
< Hoplite-style warfare was also practiced around the Mediterranean basin.  Of particular note, the city-states [[Estruscans]] usually fought with such militias, a practice they adopted from the Greek colonies.  From this sort of warfare developed the [[Roman legion]] that was to dominate western military history for hundreds of years.
---
> Hoplite-style warfare was also practiced around the Mediterranean basin.  Of particular note, the city-states [[Estruscans]] usually fought with such militias, a practice they adopted from the Greek colonies.  From this sort of warfare developed the [[Roman legion]] that was to dominate western military history for hundreds of years.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986701642
18a19,20
> - ''This relates to the 'half the fleet in Atlantic' problem.  There were six carriers in the fleet, three were stationed in the Atlantic.  If the three Pacific carriers had been sunk, the US Navy still could have operated in the Pacific with the other three carriers.  Not as effectively as it did with all 6 carriers, but effectively enough to make their presence felt.''
> 
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986704229
21c21,22
< The discussion could be moved to an AIDS page.  Anecdotally, a friend with HIV looks forward to an "indefinitely long life" thanks to the effectiveness of protease blockers.  He has been infected for more than 10 years, so in his case and others, remissions appear to be permanent.
---
> The discussion could be moved to an AIDS page.  Anecdotally, a friend with HIV looks forward to an "indefinitely long life" thanks to the effectiveness of protease blockers.  He has been infected for more than 10 years, so in his case and others, remissions appear to be permanent.-----
> Anecdotally, I can think of over a dozen people who I <b>knew</b> who thought the same thing.
------
Macedonian_phalanx|986707025
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Persian empire.  Phalanxes remained dominant on battlefields throughout the hellenistic period, although wars had evolved into more protracted operations generally involving sieges and naval combat as much as field battles, until they were finally displaced by the Roman legions.
> 
> Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes, where he studied under the renowned general Epaminondas, whose reforms were the basis for the phalanx.  Phalangites were professional soldiers, and were among the first troops ever to be drilled, thereby allowing them to execute complex maneuvers well beyond the reach of most other armies.  They fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with a leader at the head of each column and a secondary leader in the middle, so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed.  Unlike earlier [[hoplite]]s, phalangites were unarmored except possibly those of the first row, and carried only tiny shields.  No enemies were expected to get close enough for them to need any.
> 
> Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a ''sarissa'', a double-pointed pike over four metres in length.  These were carried in two pieces, slid together just before battle, and had to be wielded with two hands.  At close range such large weapons were useless, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time.  The secondary weapon, more or less an afterthought, was a small dagger.
> 
> Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their light cavalry broke through their ranks.  The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was stationed on the far right; after these broke through the enemy lines they were followed by the hyspapists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, and then the phalanx proper.  The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role.  Other forces - skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, and artillery - were also employed.
------
Hoplite|986707063
9c9
< The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  Its practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, when there were three major hoplite battles, none of which decided anything.  Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, and non-set piece tactics.  These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the casualties of battle.  Many of them were combined by the brilliant general [[Epaminondas]], whose tactics formed the basis for the Macedonian phalanx of [[Philip II]], used as a back-up to his cavalry.  These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, at the [[Battle of Charonea]], after which Greece became part of the Macedonian empire.
---
> The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the city-state.  Its practice began to decline during the Peloponnesian war, when there were three major hoplite battles, none of which decided anything.  Instead there was increased reliance on navies, skirmishers, mercenaries, city walls, siege engines, and non-set piece tactics.  These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the casualties of battle.  Many of them were combined by the brilliant general [[Epaminondas]], whose tactics formed the basis for the [[Macedonian phalanx]] of [[Philip II]], used as a back-up to his cavalry.  These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, at the [[Battle of Charonea]], after which Greece became part of the Macedonian empire.
------
AlexanderTheGreat|986707124
1,9c1
< Alexander (the Great) was born Alexander III., son of Philip, King of Macedonia, in 356 BC. Macedonia was a country to the north of classical Greece, regarded as semi-barbarian (and therefore foreign) by most Greeks, but the Mecedonians felt as Greeks, as a matter of honor.
< 
< Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with [[Aristotle]], who was his private teacher.
< 
< In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in [[Greece]], he set of on his famous conquest of PersiA in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered EgypT. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to IndiA. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his [[Greek]] countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in IndiA, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
< 
< He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over [[Greece]], PersiA, EgypT, and all the way to IndiA.
< 
< Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in IraN for burning Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Alexander the Great]]
------
Alexander_the_Great|986707232
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alexander (the Great) was born Alexander III., son of Philip, King of Macedonia, in 356 BC. Macedonia was a country to the north of classical Greece, regarded as semi-barbarian (and therefore foreign) by most Greeks, but the Mecedonians felt as Greeks, as a matter of honor.
> 
> Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with [[Aristotle]], who was his private teacher.
> 
> In 336, he succeeded his father on the throne. Having established his political power in [[Greece]], he set of on his famous conquest of PersiA in 334. Within two years, he had conquered the eastern Mediterranean coast, and in 332-331, he conquered EgypT. Returning to Persia proper, he occupied Babylon within the same year. He proceeded to Media, Scythia, and on to IndiA. Having adopted Persian attire and customs (e.g. at audiences, his subjects had to cast themselves on their faces when approaching him), he lost a lot of sympathies amongst his [[Greek]] countrymen. He also lost a lot of lives amongst his countrymen when he drove his army further and further east, through deserts and other nasty places. Having won a battle or two in IndiA, he returned west in an attempt to consolidate his empire, but died of a sudden fever before he really got anywhere.
> 
> He left a huge empire of persio-greek culture (which then fell apart into three parts), and an odd assemblage of towns: Alexandrias, Alexandropolises and other Alexvilles all over [[Greece]], PersiA, EgypT, and all the way to IndiA.
> 
> Oddly, he seems to be cursed to this day in IraN for burning Persepolis, which is supposed to have been quite pretty before Alexander arrived.  This ill reputation is not really deserved, for in life Alexander was a strong supporter of equality between Greeks and Persians.  Even so, modern critics have found much blame in his other actions, and modern opinion is strongly divided as to whether he was a heroic general or an ancient Hitler.
------
Alexander_the_Great|986707270
3c3
< Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's army. He studied with [[Aristotle]], who was his private teacher.
---
> Alexander was a high-spirited youth, a wild horseman, and a favorite captain of his father's [[Macedonian phalanx|army]]. He studied with [[Aristotle]], who was his private teacher.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986707810
14a15
> Are you implying that such diseases do not remain a significant problem?  If one looks at world-wide statistics for, say, the distribution of tuberculosis, one finds that very little progress has in fact been made throughout much of the world.  It would be wrong to present figures for the US and pretend that they indicate a positive trend everywhere.  And, btw, population has been growing throughout most of history despite the prominence of disease; the black plague is about the only example I can think of where it has actually been halted.
------
Military|986708407
1a2,3
> 
> [[Military History]]
------
Military_History|986708440
8,9c8,9
< ** [[Macedonian Phalanx]]
< ** [[Roman Legion]]
---
> ** [[Macedonian phalanx]]
> ** [[Roman legion]]
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986709224
15a16,18
> 
> Estimates of historic population levels look like the letter L on its back.  There is a upward slope during the period of classical antiquity, and an upward slope in the period of the Renaissance.  At about the time of Louis Pasteur, the graph turns abruptly skyward. - TS
> 
------
Scientology|986709409
31a32,34
> 
> 
> [[/Links]]
------
Scientology/Links|986710495
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some scientology-related links. Please add your own.
> 
> --
> 
> Sites against scientology
> 
> Operation Clambake [[http://www.xenu.net]]
> 
> In Memory of Lisa Mc Pherson [[http://www.lisamcpherson.org/]]
> 
> A collection of documents about scientology [[http://www.altreligionscientology.org/]]
> 
> Scientology vs the Internet [[http://www2.thecia.net/users/rnewman/scientology/home.html]]
> 
> Scientology harassing people who criticize it [[http://www2.thecia.net/users/rnewman/scientology/harass/writers.txt]]
> 
> --
> 
> Sites for scientology
> 
> (put them here)
> 
> --
> 
> (Old) News about scientology (in reverse chronological order)
> 
> CoS takes off a Slashdot comment about them on March 16, 2001
> [[http://slashdot.org/articles/01/03/16/1256226.shtml]] 
> 
> CoS tried to shut does the Clambake site on November 19, 2000 [[http://slashdot.org/yro/99/11/19/0219227.shtml]]
> 
> QoS removes auction of "e-meter" on eBay claiming copyright under the DMCA - April 28, 2000
> [[http://slashdot.org/yro/00/04/27/1712248.shtml]]
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986710828
7,32c7
< ----
< 
< Talk:
< 
< <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
< 
< The benefits of modern medicine enjoyed by people in poor countries in the 20th century were probably greater than benefits enjoyed by people in the rich countries.  This explains the faster growth in populations in poor countries - populations could not have grown, unless the diseases that killed people (mostly children) by the millions had been defeated.  The fact that the defeat of infectious diseases resulted in faster population growth in poor countries, shows that these diseases had been a bigger problem in poor countries, hence their eradication a bigger benefit in poor countries.
< 
< Are you implying that such diseases do not remain a significant problem?  If one looks at world-wide statistics for, say, the distribution of tuberculosis, one finds that very little progress has in fact been made throughout much of the world.  It would be wrong to present figures for the US and pretend that they indicate a positive trend everywhere.  And, btw, population has been growing throughout most of history despite the prominence of disease; the black plague is about the only example I can think of where it has actually been halted.
< 
< Estimates of historic population levels look like the letter L on its back.  There is a upward slope during the period of classical antiquity, and an upward slope in the period of the Renaissance.  At about the time of Louis Pasteur, the graph turns abruptly skyward. - TS
< 
< ----
< 
< I was not aware that there was any cure for AIDS, not matter how rich you are. Rather, their are medications that can bring <i>temporary</i> remissions, slow down the prgress of the disease, and treat complications more efficiently.
< At this point, I believe it is considered a terminal disease, despite hopes to the contrary in the last ten years. I would check the GMHC - (Gay Men's Health Crisis) figures. Whereas 5 years ago they were developing programs to "rehabilitate" AIDS victims in order that they might retirn to work, right in the middle of this effort, victims who appeared to be in long term remissions returned to active status. Needless to say, they have reverted to their
< original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives
< 
< The discussion could be moved to an AIDS page.  Anecdotally, a friend with HIV looks forward to an "indefinitely long life" thanks to the effectiveness of protease blockers.  He has been infected for more than 10 years, so in his case and others, remissions appear to be permanent.-----
< Anecdotally, I can think of over a dozen people who I <b>knew</b> who thought the same thing.
< 
< ----
< 
< T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication. I wouldn't say that T.B. has "largely disappeared."  
< 
< In 1900 TB was responsible for more than 11% of ll deaths in the US; that declined to about one-twentieth of 1% in 1998
---
> [[20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|Talk]]
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986710836
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>[Comments on historical periods should be in the past tense]</i> Third World countries are not so well off unfortunately. They are too poor to afford modern medicine and thus mortality rates of diseaes like [[AIDS]] are still very high and the number of infected people is in some sountries (like [[South Africa]]) as high as 20% of adult population.
> 
> The benefits of modern medicine enjoyed by people in poor countries in the 20th century were probably greater than benefits enjoyed by people in the rich countries.  This explains the faster growth in populations in poor countries - populations could not have grown, unless the diseases that killed people (mostly children) by the millions had been defeated.  The fact that the defeat of infectious diseases resulted in faster population growth in poor countries, shows that these diseases had been a bigger problem in poor countries, hence their eradication a bigger benefit in poor countries.
> 
> Are you implying that such diseases do not remain a significant problem?  If one looks at world-wide statistics for, say, the distribution of tuberculosis, one finds that very little progress has in fact been made throughout much of the world.  It would be wrong to present figures for the US and pretend that they indicate a positive trend everywhere.  And, btw, population has been growing throughout most of history despite the prominence of disease; the black plague is about the only example I can think of where it has actually been halted.
> 
> Estimates of historic population levels look like the letter L on its back.  There is a upward slope during the period of classical antiquity, and an upward slope in the period of the Renaissance.  At about the time of Louis Pasteur, the graph turns abruptly skyward. - TS
> 
> ----
> 
> I was not aware that there was any cure for AIDS, not matter how rich you are. Rather, their are medications that can bring <i>temporary</i> remissions, slow down the prgress of the disease, and treat complications more efficiently.
> At this point, I believe it is considered a terminal disease, despite hopes to the contrary in the last ten years. I would check the GMHC - (Gay Men's Health Crisis) figures. Whereas 5 years ago they were developing programs to "rehabilitate" AIDS victims in order that they might retirn to work, right in the middle of this effort, victims who appeared to be in long term remissions returned to active status. Needless to say, they have reverted to their
> original mission, to support AIDS sufferers as face the end of their lives
> 
> The discussion could be moved to an AIDS page.  Anecdotally, a friend with HIV looks forward to an "indefinitely long life" thanks to the effectiveness of protease blockers.  He has been infected for more than 10 years, so in his case and others, remissions appear to be permanent.-----
> Anecdotally, I can think of over a dozen people who I <b>knew</b> who thought the same thing.
> 
> ----
> 
> T.B. is actually on the rise in the USA. It is becoming enough of a problem that in certain states it is legal to institutionalize sufferers in an active state of this disease, if there is firm evidence that they are not taking their medication. I wouldn't say that T.B. has "largely disappeared."  
> 
> In 1900 TB was responsible for more than 11% of ll deaths in the US; that declined to about one-twentieth of 1% in 1998
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986710938
8a9
> All the ones I've seen have been frankly exponential, with little jumps at such important innovations as agriculture, industry, and modern health care, but no serious change in the growth rate per number of people.  In any case, though, the first point still stands: disease remains an unbelievably serious problem throughout much of the world, and a fair description of 20th century health would mention that.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986711240
9a10,12
> 
> 'Disease as serious problem' is something the 20th century has in common with every other century.  What sets it apart in this respect are the gains made in the fight against disease.  -TS
> 
------
Solar_system|986714357
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A solar system is all the matter that goes around a particular star.
> 
> OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [Sun]: for example, there are 9 planets: [Mercury], [Venus], [Earth], [Mars], [Jupiter], [Saturn], [Uranus], [Neptune] and [Pluto], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too.
> The boundary of our solar system is the heliopause - the point at which the [Sun]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986714366
12a13,14
> Agreed, but I think it should be mentioned that there is still a long way to go.  If one were to talk about disease in the 19th century, one would also focus on the many advances made, but it would seem awfully strange for disease to have been near-eradicated in both it and the subsequent century.  And what will our page on the 21st century say?
> 
------
Solar_system|986714468
3,4c3,4
< OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [Sun]: for example, there are 9 planets: [Mercury], [Venus], [Earth], [Mars], [Jupiter], [Saturn], [Uranus], [Neptune] and [Pluto], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too.
< The boundary of our solar system is the heliopause - the point at which the [Sun]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
---
> OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: for example, there are 9 planets: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]] and [[Pluto]], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too.
> The boundary of our solar system is the heliopause - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986716855
14a15,16
> At the end of the 19th century, deadly disease claimed mostly young people.  At the end of the 20th century, deadly disease claimed mostly old people.  This is true even in poor countries, as increases in life expectancy show.  It is possibly THE story of the 20th century.  At the end of the 21st century, deadly disease may claim mostly people nearing 150. - TS
> 
------
Solar_system|986716949
4c4,8
< The boundary of our solar system is the heliopause - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
---
> The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
> 
> ----
> 
> Question: Shouldn't the solar system be said to include the particular star as well?
------
Burgess_shale|986721054
1c1
< A black shale found high up in the Canadian Rockies near the town of Field, BC.  Fossils were found in the Burgess Shale by [C D Walcott]in 1909.  Walcott returned in the following yeats to collect additional specimens.  The majority of the fossils collected were unique to the site although some common Middle [[Cambrian]] trilobites were also found.  The fossils were of substantial interest because they included appendages and soft parts that are rarely preserved.
---
> A black shale found high up in the Canadian Rockies near the town of Field, BC.  Fossils were found in the Burgess Shale by [C D Walcott]in 1909.  Walcott returned in the following years to collect additional specimens.  The majority of the fossils collected were unique to the site although some common Middle [[Cambrian]] trilobites were also found.  The fossils were of substantial interest because they included appendages and soft parts that are rarely preserved.
------
Silurian|986723941
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Silurian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 400 to 435 million Years before the present.  As with most other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Silurian period follows the [[Ordovician]] and is followed by the [[Devonian]].  The base of the Silurian is set at a major extinction event where 60% of marine species were wiped out.
> 
> The Silurian system was first described by Sir Roderick Murchison in the 1830s based on rocks in South Wales.  It is named for a Welsh Celtic tribe -- the Silures.  The series quickly came to overlap the [[Sedgwick]]'s [[Cambrian]] sequence.  Lapworth eventually resolved the conflict by defining a new [[Ordovician]] system including the contended beds.
> 
> Life was abundant in the Silurian.  Silurian beds are oil and gas producers in some areas.  Extensive beds of Silurian hematite -- an iron ore -- in Eastern North America were important to the colonial economy.
> 
> The Silurian was a time of high sea levels in Eastern North America and Europe.  Primitive multicelled land plants are found from the Silurian.  A few arthropods seem to have invaded the land during the Silurian.  Fish reached considerable diversity and developed movable jaws.  A diverse fauna of (Sea Scorpions) -- some of them several meters in length -- graces the Silurian of North America.  Brachiopods, bryozoa, mollusks, etc were abundant and diverse
> 
> During the Silurian, [[Gondwana]] remained in high Southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Ordovician ice age receded and that glaciation in the Silurian was minor.  The other continents drifted together near the equator starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Laurasia.
------
BBC|986724001
24c24,30
< [[/Choice|BBC Choice]]
---
> [[/Choice|BBC Choice]] soon to be known as
> [[/3|BBC3]]
> 
> [[/Knowledge|BBC Knowledge]] soon to be known as
> [[/4|BBC4]]
> 
> [[/Parliament|BBC Parliament]]
27a34
> BBC Children A - coming soon
28a36,37
> BBC Children B - coming soon
> ----
40a50,62
> The following stations are coming soon
> 
> Asian Network
> 
> Five Live Sports Plus
> 
> Network X - working title
> 
> Network Y - working title
> 
> Network Y - working title
> ----
> Misc
------
Silurian|986724430
7c7
< The Silurian was a time of high sea levels in Eastern North America and Europe.  Primitive multicelled land plants are found from the Silurian.  A few arthropods seem to have invaded the land during the Silurian.  Fish reached considerable diversity and developed movable jaws.  A diverse fauna of (Sea Scorpions) -- some of them several meters in length -- graces the Silurian of North America.  Brachiopods, bryozoa, mollusks, etc were abundant and diverse
---
> The Silurian was a time of high sea levels in Eastern North America and Europe.  Primitive multicelled land plants are found from the Silurian.  A few arthropods seem to have invaded the land during the Silurian.  Fish reached considerable diversity and developed movable jaws.  A diverse fauna of Sea Scorpions -- some of them several meters in length -- graces the Silurian of North America.  Brachiopods, bryozoa, mollusks, etc were abundant and diverse
9c9
< During the Silurian, [[Gondwana]] remained in high Southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Ordovician ice age receded and that glaciation in the Silurian was minor.  The other continents drifted together near the equator starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Laurasia.
---
> During the Silurian, [[Gondwana]] remained in high Southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian icecaps were less extensive than those of the late [[Ordovician]].  The other continents drifted together near the equator starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Laurasia.
------
BASIC|986724486
10c10
< BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in 1964 by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
---
> BASIC is a high-level programming language invented in [[1964]] by John George Kemeny and Thomas Eugene Kurtz at Dartmouth College.  It was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers.  At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only scientists and mathematicians tended to do.
------
1964|986724720
8a9,16
> 
> [[Film]] -
> ----
> [[Technology]]
> 
> [[Computing]] -
> [[John George Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Eugene Kurtz]] create [[BASIC]], the easy to learn, high level computer language that has popped up on just about every [[computer]] and even games console out there.
> 
------
Godzilla/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster|986725211
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1955]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira No Gyakusha</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla's Counterattack</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Motoyoshi Oda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla|986725540
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1962]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>King Kong Tai Gojira</b></td>
> <td><b>King Kong vs Godzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Thing|986725676
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1964]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Mosura Tai Gojira</b></td>
> <td><b>Mothra vs Godzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster|986725842
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1964]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Sandai Kaiju Chikyu Saidal no Kessen</b></td>
> <td><b>Monster of Monsters - Ghidorah</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla|986726015
14c14
< <td><b>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</b></td>
---
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
------
Godzilla/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster|986726083
14c14
< <td><b>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</b></td>
---
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
------
Godzilla|986726107
27,29c27,29
< <td>[[/Gojira No Gyakusha]]</td>
< <td>Godzilla's Counterattack</td>
< <td>[[/Gigantis the Fire Monster]]</td>
---
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster]]</td>
31,32c31,32
< <td>[[Motoyoshi Oda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
---
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
35d34
< <td>[[/King Kong Tai Gojira]]</td>
37,40c36,40
< <td>[[/King Kong vs Godzilla]]</td>
< <td>[[1962]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
---
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
43,48c43,48
< <td>[[/Mosura Tai Gojira]]</td>
< <td>Mothra vs Godzilla</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Thing]]</td>
< <td>[[1964]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
---
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Godzilla_vs_The_Thing]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
51,56c51,56
< <td>[[/Sandai Kaiju Chikyu Saidal No Kessen]]</td>
< <td>Monster of Monsters - Ghidorah</td>
< <td>[[/Ghidorah the Three Headed Monster]]</td>
< <td>[[1964]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
---
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td>[[/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster]]</td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
> <td></td>
------
Godzilla/Monster_Zero|986726251
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1965]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Kaiju Dai Senso</b></td>
> <td><b>Invasion of Astro-Monster</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Anthophyta|986726333
121c121
< * Dillenidae - ''I have no idea how valid this group is...''
---
> * Dillenidae - ''Seems to have been subsumed into the Rosidae''
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Sea_Monster|986726361
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1966]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Nankai No Daiketto</b></td>
> <td><b>Ebirah - Horror of the Deep</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Son_of_Godzilla|986726486
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1967]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>gojira No Masuko</b></td>
> <td><b>Son of Godzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Destroy_All_Monsters|986726620
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1968]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Koija So Shingeki</b></td>
> <td><b>Attack of the Marching Monsters</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzillas_Revenge|986726788
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1969]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Oru Kaiju Daisshingeki</b></td>
> <td><b>All Monsters Attack</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Gigan|986727038
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1972]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira Tai Gaigan</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Gigan</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Smog_Monster|986727205
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1971]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira Tai Medora</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Hedora</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Yoshimitsa Banno]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Megalon|986727239
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1973]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira Tai Megalon</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Megalon</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Cosmic_Monster|986727358
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1974]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira tai Mekagojira</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Biollante|986727441
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1989]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira Tai Biollante</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Biollante</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Kazuki Omori]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Terror_of_Mechagodzilla|986727540
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1975]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Makagojira No Gyakushu</b></td>
> <td><b>Mechagodzilla's Counterattack</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_King_Ghidorah|986727634
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1991]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira Tai King Gidora</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs King Gidorah</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Kazuki Omori]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Mothra|986727707
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1992]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira tai Mosura</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Mothra</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Takeo Okawara]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla|986728307
9,171c9,29
< <table border=1>
< <tr>
< <td>title</td>
< <td>translation</td>
< <td>US release</td>
< <td>year</td>
< <td>director</td>
< <td>special fx</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>/Gojira</td>
< <td>Godzilla</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]</td>
< <td>[[1954]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster]]</td>
< <td>[[1955]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla_vs_The_Thing]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< <td></td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Kaiju Dai Senso]]</td>
< <td>Invasion of Astro-Monster</td>
< <td>[[/Monster Zero]]</td>
< <td>[[1965]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Nankai No Daiketto]]</td>
< <td>Ebirah - Horror of the Deep</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Sea Monster]]</td>
< <td>[[1966]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira No Masuko]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Son of Godzilla]]</td>
< <td>[[1967]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Koija So Shingeki]]</td>
< <td>Attack of the Marching Monsters</td>
< <td>[[/Destroy All Monsters]]</td>
< <td>[[1968]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Oru Kaiju Daisshingeki]]</td>
< <td>All Monsters Attack</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla's Revenge]]</td>
< <td>[[1969]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]/[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Medora]]</td>
< <td>Godzilla vs Hedora</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Smog Monster]]</td>
< <td>[[1971]]</td>
< <td>[[Yoshimitsa Banno]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Medora]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs Gigan]]</td>
< <td>[[1972]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Megalon]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs Megalon]]</td>
< <td>[[1973]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Mekagojira]]</td>
< <td>Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs The Cosmic Monster]]</td>
< <td>[[1974]]</td>
< <td>[[Jun Fukuda]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Mekagojira No Gyakushu]]</td>
< <td>Mechagodzilla's Counterattack</td>
< <td>[[/Terror of Mechagodzilla]]</td>
< <td>[[1975]]</td>
< <td>[[Ishiro Honda]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira]]</td>
< <td>The Return of Godzilla</td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla]]</td>
< <td>[[1984]]</td>
< <td>[[Koji Hashimoto]]</td>
< <td>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Biollante]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs Biollante]]</td>
< <td>[[1989]]</td>
< <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
< <td>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai King Gidora]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs King Ghidorah]]</td>
< <td>[[1991]]</td>
< <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
< <td>[[Koichi Kawakita</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td>[[/Gojira Tai Mosura]]</td>
< <td></td>
< <td>[[/Godzilla vs Mothra]]</td>
< <td>[[1992]]</td>
< <td>[[Kazuki Omori]]</td>
< <td>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</td>
< </tr>
< </table>
< 
---
> #[[/Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]
> #[[/Gigantis the Fire Monster]]
> #[[/King Kong vs Godzilla]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs The Thing]]
> #[[/Ghidorah the Three Headed Monster]]
> #[[/Monster Zero]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs The Sea Monster]]
> #[[/Son of Godzilla]]
> #[[/Destroy All Monsters]]
> #[[/Godzillas Revenge|/Godzilla's Revenge]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs The Smog Monster]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs Gigan]]
> #[[/Gojira Tai Megalon]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs Megalon]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs The Cosmic Monster]]
> #[[/Terror of Mechagodzilla]]
> #[[/The Return of Godzilla]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs Biollante]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs King Ghidorah]]
> #[[/Godzilla vs Mothra]]
> ----
------
Godzilla|986728412
21d20
< #[[/Gojira Tai Megalon]]
------
Godzilla/Godzilla,_King_of_the_Monsters|986728486
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1954]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Ishiro Honda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/The_Return_of_Godzilla|986728559
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1984]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Koji Hashimoto]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster|986728726
11c11
< <td><b>Gojira No Gyakusha</b></td>
---
> <td><b>Gojira No Gyakushu</b></td>
14c14
< <td><b>[[Eiji Tsubaraya]]</b></td>
---
> <td><b>[[Eiji Tsuaraya]]</b></td>
------
Godzilla/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster|986728849
11c11
< <td><b>Sandai Kaiju Chikyu Saidal no Kessen</b></td>
---
> <td><b>Sandai Kaiju Chikyu Saidai no Kessen</b></td>
------
Godzilla/Son_of_Godzilla|986728963
11c11
< <td><b>gojira No Masuko</b></td>
---
> <td><b>Gojira No Masuko</b></td>
------
Godzilla|986729208
20c20
< #[[/Godzilla vs Gigan]]
---
> #[[/Godzilla on Monster Island]]
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_on_Monster_Island|986729240
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Toho]], [[1992]]
> 
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
> <td>original title</td>
> <td>translation</td>
> <td>director</td>
> <td>special effects</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td><b>Gojira tai Mosura</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Mothra</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Takeo Okawara]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</b></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_on_Monster_Island|986729377
1c1
< [[Toho]], [[1992]]
---
> [[Toho]], [[1972]]
11,14c11,14
< <td><b>Gojira tai Mosura</b></td>
< <td><b>Godzilla vs Mothra</b></td>
< <td><b>[[Takeo Okawara]]</b></td>
< <td><b>[[Koichi Kawakita]]</b></td>
---
> <td><b>Gojira Tai Gaigan</b></td>
> <td><b>Godzilla vs Gigan</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
> <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
------
Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Gigan|986729444
1,16c1
< [[Toho]], [[1972]]
< 
< <table border=0>
< <tr>
< <td>original title</td>
< <td>translation</td>
< <td>director</td>
< <td>special effects</td>
< </tr>
< <tr>
< <td><b>Gojira Tai Gaigan</b></td>
< <td><b>Godzilla vs Gigan</b></td>
< <td><b>[[Jun Fukuda]]</b></td>
< <td><b>[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]</b></td>
< </tr>
< </table>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Godzilla/Godzilla on Monster Island]]
------
Godzilla|986729649
20c20
< #[[/Godzilla on Monster Island]]
---
> #[[/Godzilla_on_Monster_Island]]
------
Computer_Security|986742724
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Computer Security refers to the measures taken to assure that only the allowed persons can have access to the data in a [[computer system]]. As computer systems hold ever more valuable data, the importance of computer security grows. As the systems are ever more complex, this objective, as security in the real world, remains forever unattainable.
> 
> A determined thief can successfully rob the best guarded of banks. A determined computer criminal can read, copy, alter or destroy data in the best secured computer. As in the real world, the best you can do is make it more difficult, changing the cost/benefit equation for the criminal. You can reduce the effects of data loss by careful [[back up|backing up]] and [[insurance]]. And you can further change the cost/benefit equation by pursuing the criminal after the attack.
> 
> The only real difference between computer security and real world, "bank" security is that computer systems are poorly understood, as a rule. Managers have usually a firm grasp on real world security issues, like fences, walls, security personnel, alarms, police, ect. And if they do not, their insurance companies do. Computer systems are many times not insured against data theft or destruction, so this "security consulting" is lost. This lack of insurance for so a potentially important loss is in itself noteworthy. It stems probably, although the cause may be more complex, from this same lack of knowledge.
> 
> A teenager wandering into a warehouse to pick up a trophy and show it to his friends, is not treated in the real world as a dangerous criminal. If such an "explorer" enters into the company computer system, the management can go ballistic, and the trespasser if aprehended risks prosecution. This lack of knowledge is potentially the biggest risk in a company. Of course they will have competent technical personnel, but they will tend to concentrate in the technical side of the issue. [[Social engineering]], for example, will probably be ignored.
> 
> Of course, the paralelism between computer security and real world security is not exact, for a number of reasons. For example, vandalism is more dangerous in the computer world because is potentially much more destructive. A vandal can break havoc in thousands of computers systems around the world with little effort and small risk of capture. Of course the result would be not as visually satisfying as a [[graffity|graffitied]] wall, but all taken into account, what is really surprising is the small probaiblity you have today of suffering damage from a [[computer virus]] or [[computer worm]].
> 
> Today, computer security is composed mainly from "preventive" measures, like [[firewalls]]. We could liken a firewall to the building of a good fence around your warehouse. A good first step. But not enough if you keep the fence unguarded (no [[computer monitoring|monitoring]]), or if you hand a copy of the key to everybody that asks for it by phone (social engineering). If, to add insult to injury, it's widely known that you won't prosecute any trespasser, we could consider the firewall installation as almost an exercise in futility. However, many computer systems are not monitored, and the number of computer criminals to be really brought to justice is abysmally low. In that situation, it's no wonder you have no insurance, the policy would be enormous.
> 
> In the same line of reasoning, it's a good think to have an [[antivirus program]], but rather pointless if your users are going to open any and all of the executable [[attachment|attachments]] that they receive by [[e-mail]]. Opening an executable attachment is the same as opening the door of your sistem, with your [[user privileges]], to anybody that sent you that attachment.
> 
> In short, computer security today is a multi-pronged menace to which a multi-faceted defense is the only response. Buying an off-the-shelf software package is no substitute for a careful evaluation of the risks, the possible losses, the counter-measures and the security policies, done at a high enough company level.
------
Scientology/Talk|986758557
89c89,101
< ...by which I presume you would deny access to courts for things like libel, slander, copyright infringements.  Well, that's your opinion and you're entitled to it...
---
> ...by which I presume you would deny access to courts for things like libel, slander, copyright infringements.  Well, that's your opinion and you're entitled to it...
> ----
> So, for kicks, I went to some of the source material (historical documents written contemporaneously with the events) on the Mormon expulsion from Illinois, the Missouri Extermination Order by Governor Boggs, etc.
> 
> In brief - the Mormons did not sit still for utterances against them, but fired back in their own newspapers, in the absence of legal protection agains libel and slander on the American frontier in those days.  The accusations against them at the time appear mostly to have been petit larceny, sharp business practice, unsightly buildings, over-agressive acquisition of land, and open derision of others' beliefs.  I was unable, in about four hours of looking, to find anything on polygamy in connection with these events, though it was key in holding up the application for statehood by Utah, and the subject of treaty talks between the Mormon forces and the U.S. Army around that time.
> 
> Interestingly, the Mormons '''as the local militia''' went under arms on at least two occasions under a duly constituted non-mormon general to quell mob violence against them - ie they could be seen to "...use the force of government to suppress (their) critics..."
> 
> Absent the context of Wild West shooting and violence, it would appear the parallel between their and the Scientologists' response to threat is fairly apropos.
> 
> I was reading from my ''The Essential Koran'' (Thomas Cleary - 1993, selected readings in which its easier to find some quotes I like) last night.  Some of my earlier passion for defending those of faith and good will was rekindled.  I think I will be a thorn in everyone's side on this and related issues, as the self-appointed defender of faith.  All faith.
> 
> I think it will be best if we conscientiously avoid baiting anyone of any faith in these pages.  So, as it seems that the mention of specific words from the purportedly quoted "Operating Thetan" materials in the main article is, to Scientologists, like waving a red flag in front of a bull while stinging it with a cattle prod, I replaced it with a non-quote reference to the same material.
------
Scientology|986758777
20,21c20
< Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries more than three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these purported secret "Operating Thetan" documents attributed to Hubbard that describe beliefs such as extraterrestrial intelligence, and an evil being called "Xenu".  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church frequently uses copyright law to sue others who reveal portions of these and other documents.
< 
---
> Critics similarly complain of a perceived secrecy about Scientology teachings, in response to which the church acknowledges that at the very most rarified levels of initiation, there are teachings which may be understood as "mystical", and fit only for the most enlightened and serene souls.  On the other hand, the public is invited to purchase or seek in libraries more than three hundred different books laying out in painstaking detail every belief and pactice of the church except these few secrets.  In the <i>Church of Scientology vs. Fishman and Geertz</i> case, former scientologist Steven Fishman introduced for his defense some of these purported secret "Operating Thetan" documents attributed to Hubbard that describe beliefs such as extraterrestrial intelligence, and an evil galactic overlord who oppressed free spirits with science fiction-like tactics.  The church dropped the case against Fishman and petitioned the court to seal the documents.  The Church has also used copyright law to sue others who have published portions of these and other documents.
------
Scientology/Links|986759016
1a2,3
> ----
> Sites about Scientology
3c5
< --
---
> [[http:www.scientology.org]]
5c7,10
< Sites against scientology
---
> (let's see what I can find about them from non-Scientology sources which is not critical)
> ----
> 
> Sites against Scientology
17,21d21
< --
< 
< Sites for scientology
< 
< (put them here)
------
Scientology/Links|986759294
5c5,7
< [[http:www.scientology.org]]
---
> Scientology home page [[http:www.scientology.org]]
> 
> Scientology and Shinto/Buddhism [[http://www.neuereligion.de/ENG/SAWADA/]]
------
Scientology/Links|986759865
8a9,10
> Scientology (and other beliefs) and celebrities [[http://www.qualitylife.co.za/dharma.htm]]
> 
------
Scientology/Talk|986760406
101a102,103
> 
> ''You don't seem to have replaced any quote in particular, merely the name of the evil galactic overlord with his title.  Out of curiosity, why is that an important difference?''
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986761430
30a31,32
> ----
> There seem to be far to many un-observed factors in trying to qusntify the amount of illness or of a particular illness in a particular population or globally over time. I think we could argue for ever. We are getting statistics from a source unidentifed to me. Anyway, even with identifiction of the source, I suspect these stats could probably stand some scrutiny. Medical statistics are notoriously influenced by factors other than data.
------
Scientology/Links|986762085
10a11,12
> South African Calvinist Dr. Of Tehology evaluates: [[http://www.emanationinc.com/oost/]]
> 
------
Scientology/Links|986762141
11c11
< South African Calvinist Dr. Of Tehology evaluates: [[http://www.emanationinc.com/oost/]]
---
> South African Calvinist Dr. Of Theology evaluates: [[http://www.emanationinc.com/oost/]]
------
Scientology/Talk|986762969
103c103,107
< ''You don't seem to have replaced any quote in particular, merely the name of the evil galactic overlord with his title.  Out of curiosity, why is that an important difference?''
---
> ''You don't seem to have replaced any quote in particular, merely the name of the evil galactic overlord with his title.  Out of curiosity, why is that an important difference?''
> ----
> If you've been around the net on this subject, you already know the answer to that question.  Scientologists did not start getting freaked about supposed leaks of this "Operating Thetan" material unless certain specific terms were used.  If you leave out the actual names and terms, they don't seem to mind.
> 
> I have this old book (1952, I think) called ''Scientology, a History of Man'' that has almost all the same stuff in it (and more - talk about a science fiction scenario!) as the "Operating Thetan" materials on the web, but without specific names and certain terms.  If they are willing to sell this book to the public and put it in libraries, as I have seen, then it's not the general subject matter of the materials they don't want bandied about.  It's things like names and exact events - I think.  So - in deference to tender feelings, I deleted the name.  Anyone is free to correct me if this understanding is wrong, but that's why I did it.
------
Scientology/Links|986763585
13c13
< (let's see what I can find about them from non-Scientology sources which is not critical)
---
> German court decisions [[http://www.religioustolerance.org/scie_pos.htm]]
------
Medicine|986764003
4c4,54
< many more.
---
> many more.----
> Alternate Scheme based on USA Medical Schools and Hospitals, including. right now,
> only fields that require an M.D.
> 
> * [[Internal Medicine]]
> 
> 
> ** [[Internist]]
> ** [[Cardiologist]]
> ** [[Gastroenterology]]
> ** [[Endocrinology]]
> ** [[Dermatology]]
> ** [[Gynecology]]
> ** [[Obstetrics]]
> ** [[Orthopedics]]
> ** [[Pediatrics]]
> ** [[Oncology]]
> ** [[Opthamology]]
> ** [[Urology]]
> ** [[Pulomonology]]
> ** [[Rheumatology]]
> ** [[Physiatry]]
> ** ....
> 
> 
> *  [[Surgery]]
> 
> 
> ** [[General Suregery]]
> ** [[Cardiac Surgery]]
> ** [[Orthopedic Surgery]]
> ** [[GastroIntestinal Surgery]]
> ** [[Thorasic Surgery]]
> ** [[Ontologic Surgery]]
> ** ....
> 
> 
> * [[Psychiatry]]- note Psychologists have Doctorates in Psychology but are not necessarily 
>                   Doctors of Medicine.
> 
> 
> ** [[General Psychiatrist]]
> ** [[Geriatric Psychiatry]]
> ** [[Pediatric Psychiatrist]]
> ** ....
> 
> 
> * [[Pathology]]
> 
> 
> * [[Epidemology]]
------
TimShell/Omaha|986764305
1c1,2
< TimShell was born in Omaha, Nebraska for reasons that remain unclear to this day.
---
> TimShell was born in Omaha, Nebraska for reasons that remain unclear to this day.----
> I would think an important factor was that his mother was there at the time.----
------
TimShell/Chicago|986764424
3c3
< He first lived in a studio apartment off the Bryn Mawr el stop in Edgewater, abut 5700 north.  This aprtment cost $245 a month, and it was across the alley from the el tracks.  TimShell had many dreams involving oncoming trains.
---
> He first lived in a studio apartment off the Bryn Mawr el stop in Edgewater, about 5700 north.  This apartment cost $245 a month, and it was across the alley from the el tracks.  TimShell had many dreams involving oncoming trains.
7c7
< Later he moved into the basement of a house on Barry, in Lakeview.
---
> Later he moved into the basement of a house on Barry, in Lakeview.
------
Endocrine_system|986765248
1,3c1,2
< Throughout the body there are formation of special secretory tissue that forms glands. The glands function is to
< produce, and output [[hormones]] into bloodstream. [[Hormones]] are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and
< tissues and there exert its actions.
---
> Throughout the body there are formations of special secretory tissues that forms glands. The glands function is to
> produce, and output [[hormones]] into the bloodstream. [[Hormones]] are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and tissues where they can act.
------
Disperser|986769738
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An (N,M,D,K,e)-disperser is a bipartite
> graph with N nodes on the left side, each with degree D, and M
> nodes on the right side, such that every subset of K nodes on the
> left side is connected to more than (1-e) fraction of the nodes on
> the right (i.e. more than (1-e)M nodes).
------
Extractor|986770398
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An (N,M,D,K,e)-Extractor is a bipartite graph with N nodes on the left and M nodes on the right such that each node on the left has D neighbors (on the right), which has the added property that
> for any subset A of N of size at least K, choosing a random node in A and then following a random edge brings you to a node x on the right side with probability within e of 1/M. 
> 
> These graphs are called "extractors" because they can be used to "extract" randomness from weak random sources. Here are some other uses of extractors:
> 
> Random sampling using few random bits
> 
> Simulating randomized algorithms using weak random sources
> 
> Expanders that beat the eigenvalue bound
> 
> Error-correcting codes with good list decoding properties.
> 
> 
------
Expander|986771418
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An expander graph is a graph with high vertex or edge expansion.
> 
> Let N(S) denote the set of neighbors of S (excluding S itself). 
> 
> The <b>Vertex Expansion</b> of a graph is the minimum of |N(S)| / |S|.
> 
> Let E(A,B) denote the number of edges with one extremity in A and the other in B. Let /S denote the complement of S.
> 
> The <b>Edge Expansion</b> of a graph is the minimum E(S,/S) / |S|.
> 
------
Pseudorandomness|986771832
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pseudorandomness: the act of being "almost random"
> 
> A pseudo-random variable is a variable which is created by a deterministic procedures which takes random bits as input. The pseudo-random string will typically be longer than the original random string but less random. This can be useful for randomized algorithms.
> 
> (There are much better introductions out there. Please fix the above)
> 
> See also [[Random Variable]], [[Extractor]], [[Disperser]], [[Expander]].
------
Scientology/Links|986771976
29c29
< --
---
> ----
------
Scientology/Links|986772612
17a18,19
> Official German view of scientology [[http://www.germany-info.org/newcontent/np.bak/np_3k.html]]
> 
------
The_Most_Remarkable_Formula_In_The_World|986773425
1c1
< At least according to Richard Feynman, the most remarkable formula in the world is:
---
> At least according to [[Richard Feynman]], the most remarkable formula in the world is:
15c15
< Richard Feynman is a NobelPrize winner in PhysICs (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''&pi;''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all [[polynomial]]s of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
---
> Richard Feynman is a [[Nobel Prize]] winner in [[physics]] (QuantumElectrodynamics, 1950s?). He found this formula funny because it links all the main constants a human being is exposed to in this world. Zero and unity arise kinda naturally: one is how one starts to count, and zero comes later... when one does not want to :). '''&pi;''' is a constant related to our world being Euclidean (otherwise, the ratio of the length of a circumference to its diameter would not be a universal constant, i.e. the same for all circumferences). The '''e''' constant is related to the speed of change, or growth, or whatever like that, as the solution to the simplest growth equation dy/dx=y is y=e<sup>x</sup>. Finally, '''i''' is the concept introduced mathematically to have a nice property that all [[polynomial]]s of degree n have exactly n roots in the complex plane. So, quite a lot of rather deep concepts are interrelated within this formula. Of course, there is a number of other ways to arrive to any of those numbers... which only underlines their fundamentality :).
19c19
< TheMostRemarkableFormulaInTheWorld is an example of EuleR s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
---
> [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] is an example of EuleR s Theorem from Complex Analysis.
------
Pseudorandomness|986775804
1c1
< Pseudorandomness: the act of being "almost random"
---
> Pseudorandomness: the state of being, while statistically seemingly random, generated at least in part by a definite computational process.   "Almost random"
------
Requested_articles|986798538
28c28
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Tank]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
------
New_topics|986798624
80a81
> [[Solar System]] --
------
New_topics|986798640
81c81
< [[Solar System]] --
---
> [[Solar system]] --
------
Solar_system|986798733
1c1
< A solar system is all the matter that goes around a particular star.
---
> A solar system is a star and all the matter that goes around it.
3,8c3,4
< OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: for example, there are 9 planets: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]] and [[Pluto]], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too.
< The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
< 
< ----
< 
< Question: Shouldn't the solar system be said to include the particular star as well?
---
> OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: for example, there are 9 planets: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]] and [[Pluto]], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too (and the [[Sun]] itself, of course.
> The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
------
Encyclopedia|986803416
8c8
< [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
---
> [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.netcyclo.com netcyclo] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
------
New_topics|986805657
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 5th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 8th April, Wikipedia server time
5,90c5,73
< [[1980s]] -- 
< [[1990s]] -- 
< [[A.E. van Vogt]] --
< [[AOLamer]] -- 
< [[Alan_Alda]] -- 
< [[American_Revolutionary_War]] -- 
< [[American_football/Glossary]] -- 
< [[American_football]] -- 
< [[Ampere]] -- 
< [[Batch_job]] -- 
< [[BrucieBaby]] -- 
< [[Calendar]] -- 
< [[Candela]] -- 
< [[Censorship]] -- 
< [[Cladistics]] -- 
< [[Community_card_poker]] -- 
< [[Condensed_matter_physics]] -- 
< [[Cosmology/Inflation]] -- 
< [[Cosmology]] -- 
< [[Creationism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Defensive_team]] -- 
< [[Dianetics]] -- 
< [[Dual_space]] -- 
< [[Economy/Inflation]] -- 
< [[Economy]] -- 
< [[Existence]] -- 
< [[Fantasy_sports]] -- 
< [[Fixed_Point]] -- 
< [[Flamebait]] -- 
< [[Floating_Point]] -- 
< [[Football_dead]] -- 
< [[Football_down]] -- 
< [[Football_goal]] -- 
< [[Football_play]] -- 
< [[Football_player]] -- 
< [[Football_tackle]] -- 
< [[Forward_pass]] -- 
< [[Gregorian_Calendar]] -- 
< [[Hypoxia]] -- 
< [[Internet_troll]] -- 
< [[January]] -- 
< [[JohnnyUnitas]] -- 
< [[Johnny_Unitas]] -- 
< [[Kelvin]] -- 
< [[Killfile]] -- 
< [[Kilogram]] -- 
< [[Kishka]] -- 
< [[Lateral_pass]] -- 
< [[Line_of_scrimmage/Talk]] -- 
< [[Line_of_scrimmage]] -- 
< [[Married_with_Children]] -- 
< [[Methodological_naturalism]] -- 
< [[Metre]] -- 
< [[Mole]] -- 
< [[Monty_Python/Talk]] -- 
< [[Monty_Python]] -- 
< [[National_Football_League]] -- 
< [[Nazi_Germany]] -- 
< [[Off_topic]] -- 
< [[Offensive_team]] -- 
< [[Philosophical_naturalism]] -- 
< [[Physical_constants]] -- 
< [[Physical_quantity]] -- 
< [[Propaganda]] -- 
< [[SI_base_unit]] -- 
< [[SI_derived_unit]] -- 
< [[SI_prefix]] -- 
< [[SI_supplementary_unit]] -- 
< [[SI_unit]] -- 
< [[Scientology/Talk]] -- 
< [[Scientology]] -- 
< [[Seafood/Talk]] -- 
< [[Second]] -- 
< [[Single_Precision]] -- 
< [[Skinheads]] -- 
< [[Soccer]] -- 
< [[Solar system]] --
< [[Splintering]] -- 
< [[Splitting_poker_pots]] -- 
< [[Standards_and_Units]] -- 
< [[Stud_poker]] -- 
< [[Superconductivity]] -- 
< [[Tensors]] -- 
< [[Topic_creation]] -- 
< [[White_elephant]] -- 
< [[Why_Wikipedia_is_not_so_great]]
---
> [[20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk]] -- 
> [[Antiseptic_mouth_rinse]] -- 
> [[Atlas]] -- 
> [[Atlas_2091]] -- 
> [[BBC/Radio_1]] -- 
> [[BBC]] -- 
> [[Basil]] -- 
> [[Basis]] -- 
> [[Bay_leaf]] -- 
> [[Bjork]] -- 
> [[Burgess_shale]] -- 
> [[Chervil]] -- 
> [[Chives]] -- 
> [[Chris_Morris]] --
> [[Computer_Security]] -- 
> [[Dill]] -- 
> [[Disperser]] -- 
> [[Endocrine_system]] -- 
> [[Endocrinology]] -- 
> [[Expander]] -- 
> [[Extractor]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Destroy_All_Monsters]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla,_King_of_the_Monsters]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_on_Monster_Island]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Biollante]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Gigan]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_King_Ghidorah]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Megalon]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Cosmic_Monster]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Sea_Monster]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Smog_Monster]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Thing]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Godzillas_Revenge]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Monster_Zero]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Son_of_Godzilla]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/Terror_of_Mechagodzilla]] -- 
> [[Godzilla/The_Return_of_Godzilla]] -- 
> [[Godzilla]] -- [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Mothra]] -- 
> [[Lavender]] -- 
> [[Lemon_balm]] -- 
> [[Macedonian_phalanx]] -- 
> [[Marjoram]] -- 
> [[Mars_Odyssey]] -- 
> [[Medicine]] -- 
> [[Military_History/Talk]] -- 
> [[Naraoidia]] -- 
> [[Oops_I_Did_It_Again]] -- 
> [[Peppermint]] -- 
> [[Pseudorandomness]] -- 
> [[Reverse_engineering]] -- 
> [[Rosemary]] -- 
> [[Sage]] -- 
> [[Savory]] -- 
> [[Scientology/Links]] -- 
> [[Silurian]] -- 
> [[Solar_system]] -- 
> [[Spearmint]] -- 
> [[Tank]] -- 
> [[Tarragon]] -- 
> [[The_best_mixes_from_the_album_debut_for_all_the_people_who_dont_buy_white-labels]] -- 
> [[Tisane]] -- 
> [[ToriAmos]] -- 
> [[Turmeric]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/A_poem_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth]] --  
> [[World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor]]
------
Medicine|986806452
21c21
< ** [[Opthamology]]
---
> ** [[Opthalmology]]
23c23
< ** [[Pulomonology]]
---
> ** [[Pulmonology]]
32c32
< ** [[General Suregery]]
---
> ** [[General Surgery]]
36,37c36,37
< ** [[Thorasic Surgery]]
< ** [[Ontologic Surgery]]
---
> ** [[Thoracic Surgery]]
> ** [[Otologic Surgery]]
41,42c41
< * [[Psychiatry]]- note Psychologists have Doctorates in Psychology but are not necessarily 
<                   Doctors of Medicine.
---
> * [[Psychiatry]]- note Psychologists have Doctorates in Psychology but are not necessarily Doctors of Medicine.
54c53
< * [[Epidemology]]
---
> * [[Public Health ]] and [[Epidemology]]
------
SandBox|986807821
10c10
<                             * * *
---
>                             * * * petit test de france :-))))
------
Canada/Government|986821017
38c38
< <b>International organization participation:</b> ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
---
> <b>International organization participation:</b> ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE (observer), EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, ESA (cooperating state), FAO, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
------
United_Nations|986823127
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The United Nations (UN) is an [[International organizations|international organization]] made up of 189 [[[[Countries of the World|countries]]. It was founded on October 24, 1945.
> 
> The UN is divided into six major 'organs':
> 
> *[[/General Assembly]]
> *[[/Security Council]]
> *[[/Economic and Social Council]]
> *[[/Trusteeship Council]]
> *[[/Secretariat]]
> *[[/International Court of Justice]]
> 
> Other stuff:
> *[[/Documents]]
> *[[/Organizations]]
> *[[/Member States]]
> 
> 
------
United_Nations|986823142
1c1
< The United Nations (UN) is an [[International organizations|international organization]] made up of 189 [[[[Countries of the World|countries]]. It was founded on October 24, 1945.
---
> The United Nations (UN) is an [[International organizations|international organization]] made up of 189 [[Countries of the World|countries]]. It was founded on October 24, 1945.
------
United_Nations|986823416
11a12,14
> The current Secretary-General of the United Nations is [[Kofi Annan]]
> *[[/Secretary Generals|List of UN Secretary-Generals]]
> 
------
Basis|986829448
1c1,4
< A basis for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any [[linearly independent]] set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
---
> A <b>basis</b> for an n dimensional [[vector space]] is any [[linearly independent]] set of n vectors which [[span]] that space. 
> ----
> A <b>basis</b> is a set of [[fact]]s used as a starting point for
> an [[argument]] or larger [[discussion]].
------
Military_History|986829650
3a4
> ** [[Cataphract]]
9a11,12
> *** [[Marius' army]]
> *** [[auxilliaries]]
12c15
< ** [[Cataphract]]
---
> ** [[Condottieri]]
15c18
< ** [[Longbow]]
---
> ** [[Longbowman]]
16a20,21
> ** [[Fyrd]]
> ** [[Fortification]]
20a26
> ** [[conscription]]
68c74
< ** [[Vietnam War]] (1955-1975)
---
> ** [[Vietnam War]] (1950-1975)
------
Total_war|986829848
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Total war</b> is a method of [[warfare]] where anything [[connected]] to ones [[enemy]] is attacked.
> 
> The object of total war is to [[demorialize]] your enemy so that he [[surrender]]s.
> 
> Total war originated with Clauswitz (spelling) book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
------
United_Nations|986829951
19a20,22
> Multinational government like organizations
> *[[NATO]] - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
> *[[UPU]] - Universal Postal Union
------
United_Nations|986829977
20c20
< Multinational government like organizations
---
> Other multinational government like organizations
------
Total_war|986830239
1c1
< <b>Total war</b> is a method of [[warfare]] where anything [[connected]] to ones [[enemy]] is attacked.
---
> <b>Total war</b> is a method of [[warfare]] where anything [[connected]] to one's [[enemy]] is attacked.
3c3
< The object of total war is to [[demorialize]] your enemy so that he [[surrender]]s.
---
> The object of total war is to [[demoralize]] your enemy so that he [[surrender]]s.
5c5
< Total war originated with Clauswitz (spelling) book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
---
> Total war originated with Clausewicz' book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
------
Total_war|986830416
5c5
< Total war originated with Clausewicz' book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
---
> The concept of total war was put forth in writing in Karl von Clausewicz' book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
------
Total_war|986830697
5c5
< The concept of total war was put forth in writing in Karl von Clausewicz' book ''On War''.  (I think this is correct)
---
> The concept of total war was put forth in writing in Karl von Clausewicz' posthumusly published book ''On War'' (1832).
------
Military_History|986831145
4d3
< ** [[Cataphract]]
14a14
> ** [[Cataphract]]
------
Encyclopedia|986831241
8c8,9
< [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.netcyclo.com netcyclo] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise]
---
> [http://www.wikipedia.com/ Wikipedia] -- [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia] -- [http://www.britannica.com Britannica] -- [http://encarta.msn.com/ Encarta] -- [http://www.netcyclo.com netcyclo] -- [http://www.encyclopedia.com Columbia Concise] --
> [http://auth.grolier.com/cgi-bin/authV2 Grolier] -- [http://www.comptons.com/encyclopedia/home.html Comptons]
------
World_War_II|986831456
33c33
<  [[/Pearl Harbor]]
---
>  [[/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]]
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986831602
17,20d16
< ''The Japanese target wasn't really the American navy at all, but rather the aircraft carriers.  That would have neutralized the ability of the air force to make attacks in the Pacific, and so could have had a significant imapact.  Of course it means Pearl Harbor was a complete failure, since the aircraft carriers were not in port at the time.  The above should probably be changed to mention all this, though I'm not quite sure how.''
< 
< - ''This relates to the 'half the fleet in Atlantic' problem.  There were six carriers in the fleet, three were stationed in the Atlantic.  If the three Pacific carriers had been sunk, the US Navy still could have operated in the Pacific with the other three carriers.  Not as effectively as it did with all 6 carriers, but effectively enough to make their presence felt.''
< 
22a19
>  [[World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor_Talk|Talk]]
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor_Talk|986831611
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''The Japanese target wasn't really the American navy at all, but rather the aircraft carriers.  That would have neutralized the ability of the air force to make attacks in the Pacific, and so could have had a significant imapact.  Of course it means Pearl Harbor was a complete failure, since the aircraft carriers were not in port at the time.  The above should probably be changed to mention all this, though I'm not quite sure how.''
> 
> - ''This relates to the 'half the fleet in Atlantic' problem.  There were six carriers in the fleet, three were stationed in the Atlantic.  If the three Pacific carriers had been sunk, the US Navy still could have operated in the Pacific with the other three carriers.  Not as effectively as it did with all 6 carriers, but effectively enough to make their presence felt.''
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986831695
5c5
< The Japanese planes bombed [[Hickham Airfield]] and the ships anchored in Battleship Row.  The American battleship Arizona was sunk with a loss of 1100 men, nearly half of the American dead.  Seven other battleships and ten other ships were sunk or damaged.
---
> The Japanese planes bombed [[Hickham Airfield]] and the ships anchored in Battleship Row.  The American battleship [[USS Arizona|Arizona]] was sunk with a loss of 1100 men, nearly half of the American dead.  Seven other battleships and ten other ships were sunk or damaged.
------
USS_Arizona|986832675
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The USS Arizona was an American [[Battleship|battleship]] sunk at the Battle of [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] with the loss of almost all its crew.
> 
> Arizona was a Pennsylvania class battleship launched June 9, 1915, and was commissioned October 17, 1916.  It was built as part a modernization drive to prepare the US Navy for World War I.
> 
>  Length: 608 feet 
>  Beam: 106 feet, 2 inches 
>  Draft: 28 feet, 10 inches 
>  Displacement: 34,207 tons 
> 
> During the attack on Pearl Harbor, a 1,760-lb bomb pierced the Arizona's magazines, causing an explosian that destroyed the ship almost instantly. 
> 
> Today the USS Arizona is a national landmark.  A memorial has been built over the ships sunked remains.
------
USS_Arizona|986832686
12c12
< Today the USS Arizona is a national landmark.  A memorial has been built over the ships sunked remains.
---
> Today the USS Arizona is a national landmark.  A memorial has been built over the ship's sunked remains.
------
USS_Arizona|986832801
12c12
< Today the USS Arizona is a national landmark.  A memorial has been built over the ship's sunked remains.
---
> Today the USS Arizona is a national landmark.  A memorial has been built over the ship's sunken remains.
------
World_War_II/Akagi|986832830
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 5, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Kaga|986832861
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
Science_Fiction_Film|986832879
9a10
> * [[Godzilla]] (1954- )
------
World_War_II/Hiryu|986832900
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 5, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Soryu|986832917
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Hiryu|986832971
1c1
< A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 5, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Hiryu was destroyed June 5, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Kaga|986832987
1c1
< A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Kaga was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Soryu|986833004
1c1
< A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Akagi was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Soryu was destroyed June 4, 1942 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of Midway]].
------
World_War_II/Shokaku|986833263
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Battle of Pearl Harbor]].  The Shokaku was sunk June 19, 1944 by American submarine Cavalla during the [[World War II/Midway|Battle of the Philippine Sea]].
------
World_War_II/Zuikaku|986833444
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Japanese aircraft carrier that took part in the [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].  The Zuikaku was destroyed October 24, 1944 by planes of the American Navy during the [[World War II/Leyte Gulf|Battle of Leyte Gulf]].  It was the last of the Pearl Harbor carriers to be destroyed.
------
Macedonian_phalanx|986833635
7c7,11
< Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their light cavalry broke through their ranks.  The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was stationed on the far right; after these broke through the enemy lines they were followed by the hyspapists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, and then the phalanx proper.  The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role.  Other forces - skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, and artillery - were also employed.
---
> Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their light cavalry broke through their ranks.  The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was stationed on the far right; after these broke through the enemy lines they were followed by the hyspapists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, and then the phalanx proper.  The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role.  
> 
> Other forces - skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, and artillery - were also employed.  The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one servant for every few men.  This gave it a marching speed that contemporary armies could not hope to match - on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more days.  Phalangites were drilled to perform short forced marches if required.
> 
> The armies of the early hellenistic period were equipped and fought mainly in the same style as Alexander's.  Towards the end, however, there was a general slide away from the combined arms approach back to using the phalanx itself as the arm of decision, having it charge into the enemy lines much like earlier hoplites had.  This left the formation fairly vulnerable - though near invincible to forwards assault, phalanxes like other infantry formations were fairly prone to flanking, and worse still tending to break up when advancing quickly over rough ground.  So long as everyone was using the same tactics these weaknesses were not immediately apparent, but with the advent of the Roman legion they proved fatal in every major engagement, as the Romans were able to advance through gaps in the line and easily defeat the phalangites once in close.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|986833925
5c5
< The Japanese planes bombed [[Hickham Airfield]] and the ships anchored in Battleship Row.  The American battleship [[USS Arizona|Arizona]] was sunk with a loss of 1100 men, nearly half of the American dead.  Seven other battleships and ten other ships were sunk or damaged.
---
> The Japanese planes bombed [[Hickham Airfield]] and the ships anchored in Battleship Row.  The American battleship [[USS Arizona|Arizona]] was sunk with a loss of 1100 men, nearly half of the American dead.  Seven other battleships and twelve other ships were sunk or damaged.
17a18,21
> 
> *<b>Aftermath</b>
> 
> Despite the perception of this battle as a devastating blow to America, only three ships were permanently lost to the Navy.  These were the battleships [[USS Arizona/Arizona]], [[USS Oklahoma/Oklahoma]], and [[USS Utah/Utah]].  Five ships that were sunk during the attack were later raised and returned to duty.  Of the 22 Japanese ships that took part in the attack, only one was to survive the war.
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986834798
1c1
< Many diseases that killed by the millions were largely eradicated in the 20th century.
---
> Many diseases that killed by the millions were greatly reduced  in the 20th century, with one notable achievement being the eradication of [[smallpox]], and considerable progress being made toward the eradication of [[poliomyelitis|polio]] (polio eradication being expected to be complete within the next decade)
3c3,6
< Diptheria, malaria, polio, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and whooping cough have largely disappeared throughout much of the world.  In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - that figure has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
---
> 
> Other diseases, such as diptheria, malaria, typhoid fever and whooping cough  have been greatly reduced throughout the industrial world due to childhood immunisation programs, improved sanitation, and the use of [[antibiotics]], though they remain as severe problems elsewhere, and ready to reappear if precautions in the wealthy countries become lax; this has been observed in the case of tuberculosis, where cases in industrial counties have started to rise again. There is also the growing problem of [[antibiotic resistance]]
> 
> In the [[United States]] the death rate from pneumonia and influenza fell 93% in the 20th century; bronchitis was once responsible for 3% of deaths in America  - that figure has fallen to nearly one-tenth of 1%.
5a9,10
> 
> One offsetting factor is the greater mobility of people, leading to new (or obscure old) diseases, such as [[HIV]] and [[Ebola virus]] potentially emerging onto a wider stage - the first is now a major world wide health problem, the second, fortunatley, has been limited in its outbreaks. Even an old disease such as [[influenza]] still remains, waiting for a random genetic reassortment to regain the virulence that killed millions in the epidemic of 1917-1919. 
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|986835108
32c32,36
< There seem to be far to many un-observed factors in trying to qusntify the amount of illness or of a particular illness in a particular population or globally over time. I think we could argue for ever. We are getting statistics from a source unidentifed to me. Anyway, even with identifiction of the source, I suspect these stats could probably stand some scrutiny. Medical statistics are notoriously influenced by factors other than data.
---
> There seem to be far to many un-observed factors in trying to qusntify the amount of illness or of a particular illness in a particular population or globally over time. I think we could argue for ever. We are getting statistics from a source unidentifed to me. Anyway, even with identifiction of the source, I suspect these stats could probably stand some scrutiny. Medical statistics are notoriously influenced by factors other than data.
> 
> ----
> There should be some stats here, for those who want to argue about them:
> [[http://www.who.int/whosis/]] 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986835493
32c32,34
< Great Job with the Poker pages!
---
> Great Job with the Poker pages!
> ----
> LDC - at the end of one discussion on LMS' page, you stated you could not find an e-mail address for "you."  Did that refer to LMS, or me?  (mine is ayespy@mail.com )  AyeSpy
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986836453
1c1
< Many diseases that killed by the millions were greatly reduced  in the 20th century, with one notable achievement being the eradication of [[smallpox]], and considerable progress being made toward the eradication of [[poliomyelitis|polio]] (polio eradication being expected to be complete within the next decade)
---
> Many diseases that killed by the millions were greatly reduced in the 20th century, with one notable achievement being the eradication of [[smallpox]], and considerable progress being made toward the eradication of [[poliomyelitis|polio]] (polio eradication being expected to be complete within the next decade)
3,4c3
< 
< Other diseases, such as diptheria, malaria, typhoid fever and whooping cough  have been greatly reduced throughout the industrial world due to childhood immunisation programs, improved sanitation, and the use of [[antibiotics]], though they remain as severe problems elsewhere, and ready to reappear if precautions in the wealthy countries become lax; this has been observed in the case of tuberculosis, where cases in industrial counties have started to rise again. There is also the growing problem of [[antibiotic resistance]]
---
> Other diseases, such as diptheria, malaria, typhoid fever and whooping cough were greatly reduced throughout the industrial world due to childhood immunisation programs, improved sanitation, and the use of [[antibiotics]]
10c9
< One offsetting factor is the greater mobility of people, leading to new (or obscure old) diseases, such as [[HIV]] and [[Ebola virus]] potentially emerging onto a wider stage - the first is now a major world wide health problem, the second, fortunatley, has been limited in its outbreaks. Even an old disease such as [[influenza]] still remains, waiting for a random genetic reassortment to regain the virulence that killed millions in the epidemic of 1917-1919. 
---
> At the close of the 20th century, major health risks remained.  The greater mobility of people and agricultural products increased the probability that an outbreak could occur on a global scale.  There was also the growing problem on [[antibiotic reistance]].  There were signigicant outbreaks of [[HIV]] and [[Ebola]].
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease|986836656
3c3
< Other diseases, such as diptheria, malaria, typhoid fever and whooping cough were greatly reduced throughout the industrial world due to childhood immunisation programs, improved sanitation, and the use of [[antibiotics]]
---
> Other diseases, such as diptheria, malaria, typhoid fever and whooping cough were greatly reduced throughout the world due to childhood immunisation programs, improved sanitation, and the use of [[antibiotics]].
------
Scientology|986836892
1c1
< ''[http://www.Scientology.org/ Scientology]'' is a religion founded in 1952 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics.
---
> ''[http://www.Scientology.org/ Scientology]'' is a religion begun in 1952 and first incorporated as a religious organization in 1954 based on the teachings of author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] (1911-1986 b. Tilden, Nebraska), following the 1950 publication of his book ''[[Dianetics]]: the Modern Science of Mental Health'', and two subsequent volumes, ''Dianetics: the Evolution of a Science'' and ''Science of Survival''.  Hubbard eventually characterized Dianetics as a sub-study of Scientology.  By the time he died in 1986, Hubbard had published hundreds of books on Scientology, and only a few on Dianetics.
3c3
< The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being (referred to as a "thetan") who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past events containing some level of unconsciousnesse, motional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
---
> The central tenets of the religion are based on the belief that a person is an immortal spiritual being (referred to as a "thetan") who has a mind and a body, but is neither of these, that he is basically good, and that he is seeking to survive.  Scientology holds that man's survival depends upon himself, and upon his fellows, and his attainment of brotherhood with the universe.  It is taught that a person's upsets, limitations and harmful acts can be attributed in part to a portion of his mind of which he is normally unaware, called the "reactive mind" or the "bank."  This portion of the mind is believed to store impressions of past events containing some level of unconsciousnesse, emotional and physical trauma, which can be re-activated in times of stress.  The aware portion of a person's mind is referred to as the "analytical mind."
------
OpenSourced|986837203
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Excellent article on [[Computer Security]]!  Welcome to Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
------
Total_war|986837435
5c5
< The concept of total war was put forth in writing in Karl von Clausewicz' posthumusly published book ''On War'' (1832).
---
> The concept of total war was put forth in writing in [[Karl von Clausewicz]]' [[posthumusly]] published book ''[[On War]]'' (1832).
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|986838091
6a7
> :[[Raising Arizona]]
------
Macedonian_phalanx|986838116
1c1
< An infantry formation developed by Philip II and used by his son Alexander the Great to conquer the Persian empire.  Phalanxes remained dominant on battlefields throughout the hellenistic period, although wars had evolved into more protracted operations generally involving sieges and naval combat as much as field battles, until they were finally displaced by the Roman legions.
---
> An [[infantry]] [[formation]] developed by [[Philip II]] and used by his son [[Alexander the Great]] to conquer the [[Persian]] empire.  Phalanxes remained dominant on battlefields throughout the [[hellenistic]] period, although wars had evolved into more protracted operations generally involving [[siege]]s and [[naval]] combat as much as field [[battle]]s, until they were finally displaced by the Roman [[legion]]s.
3c3
< Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes, where he studied under the renowned general Epaminondas, whose reforms were the basis for the phalanx.  Phalangites were professional soldiers, and were among the first troops ever to be drilled, thereby allowing them to execute complex maneuvers well beyond the reach of most other armies.  They fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with a leader at the head of each column and a secondary leader in the middle, so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed.  Unlike earlier [[hoplite]]s, phalangites were unarmored except possibly those of the first row, and carried only tiny shields.  No enemies were expected to get close enough for them to need any.
---
> Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at [[Thebes]], where he studied under the renowned general [[Epaminondas]], whose reforms were the basis for the phalanx.  Phalangites were professional soldiers, and were among the first troops ever to be drilled, thereby allowing them to execute complex maneuvers well beyond the reach of most other armies.  They fought packed in a close rectangular formation, typically eight men deep, with a leader at the head of each column and a secondary leader in the middle, so that the back rows could move off to the sides if more frontage was needed.  Unlike earlier [[hoplite]]s, phalangites were unarmored except possibly those of the first row, and carried only tiny shields.  No enemies were expected to get close enough for them to need any.
5c5
< Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a ''sarissa'', a double-pointed pike over four metres in length.  These were carried in two pieces, slid together just before battle, and had to be wielded with two hands.  At close range such large weapons were useless, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time.  The secondary weapon, more or less an afterthought, was a small dagger.
---
> Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a ''sarissa'', a double-pointed [[pike]] over four [[metre]]s in length.  These were carried in two pieces, slid together just before battle, and had to be wielded with two hands.  At close range such large weapons were useless, but an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time.  The secondary weapon, more or less an afterthought, was a small [[dagger]].
7c7
< Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their light cavalry broke through their ranks.  The Macedonian cavalry fought in wedge formation and was stationed on the far right; after these broke through the enemy lines they were followed by the hyspapists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, and then the phalanx proper.  The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in rhomboid formation and served mainly in a defensive role.  
---
> Neither Philip nor Alexander actually used the phalanx as their arm of choice, but instead used it to hold the enemy in place while their light [[cavalry]] broke through their ranks.  The [[Macedonian]] cavalry fought in wedge formation and was stationed on the far right; after these broke through the enemy lines they were followed by the hyspapists, elite infantrymen who served as the king's bodyguard, and then the phalanx proper.  The left flank was generally covered by allied cavalry supplied by the Thessalians, which fought in [[rhomboid]] formation and served mainly in a defensive role.  
9c9
< Other forces - skirmishers, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, and artillery - were also employed.  The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one servant for every few men.  This gave it a marching speed that contemporary armies could not hope to match - on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more days.  Phalangites were drilled to perform short forced marches if required.
---
> Other forces - [[skirmisher]]s, range troops, reserves of allied hoplites, and [[artillery]] - were also employed.  The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage train, with only one servant for every few men.  This gave it a marching speed that contemporary armies could not hope to match - on occasion forces surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up for several more days.  Phalangites were drilled to perform short forced marches if required.
11c11
< The armies of the early hellenistic period were equipped and fought mainly in the same style as Alexander's.  Towards the end, however, there was a general slide away from the combined arms approach back to using the phalanx itself as the arm of decision, having it charge into the enemy lines much like earlier hoplites had.  This left the formation fairly vulnerable - though near invincible to forwards assault, phalanxes like other infantry formations were fairly prone to flanking, and worse still tending to break up when advancing quickly over rough ground.  So long as everyone was using the same tactics these weaknesses were not immediately apparent, but with the advent of the Roman legion they proved fatal in every major engagement, as the Romans were able to advance through gaps in the line and easily defeat the phalangites once in close.
---
> The armies of the early hellenistic period were equipped and fought mainly in the same style as Alexander's.  Towards the end, however, there was a general slide away from the combined arms approach back to using the phalanx itself as the arm of decision, having it charge into the enemy lines much like earlier hoplites had.  This left the formation fairly vulnerable - though near invincible to forwards assault, phalanxes like other infantry formations were fairly prone to [[flanking]], and worse still tending to break up when advancing quickly over rough ground.  So long as everyone was using the same tactics these weaknesses were not immediately apparent, but with the advent of the Roman legion they proved fatal in every major engagement, as the Romans were able to advance through gaps in the line and easily defeat the phalangites once in close.
------
Siege|986838319
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>siege</b> is a prolonged [[military]] [[assault]] and [[blockade]] on a [[castle]], [[town]] or [[city]] with the [[intent]] of conquering by [[force]] or [[attrition]].
> 
> See also:
> * [[catapult]] or [[tre buchet]] - a [[siege engine]]
------
Stud_poker|986838743
13c13
< After the first betting round, another face-up card is dealt to each player (again stating with the player to the dealer's left, as will all subsequent rounds).  Betting now begins with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand (since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses).  On this and subsequent betting rounds, the player to act first may check or bet up to the game's limit.  The second betting round is followed by a third upcard to each player and a thid betting round, again starting with the player with the best poker hand showing (thus, the first player to act on each round may change).  A fourth face-up card and fourth betting round is followed by a showdown, if necessary (it usually won't be--most deals of five-card stud end early when a player bets and gets no calls).
---
> After the first betting round, another face-up card is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], starting with the player to the dealer's left, as will all subsequent rounds).  Betting now begins with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand (since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses).  On this and subsequent betting rounds, the player to act first may check or bet up to the game's limit.  The second betting round is followed by a third upcard to each player and a third betting round, again starting with the player with the best poker hand showing (thus, the first player to act on each round may change).  A fourth face-up card and fourth betting round is followed by a showdown, if necessary (it usually won't be--most deals of five-card stud end early when a player bets and gets no calls).
25c25
< One can add an additional betting round in which each player is offered the option to replace one, and only one, card in his hand with a new one from the remaining deck stub.  This is similar to the draw phase of [[draw poker]], differing in the following way: if the player chooses to replace his downcard, he discards it and is dealt a replacement card also face down; if he wishes to replace an upcard, he discards it and receives the replacement face up.
---
> One can add an additional betting round in which each player is offered the option to replace one, and only one, card in his hand with a new one from the remaining deck stub.  This is similar to the draw phase of [[draw poker]], differing in the following way: if the player chooses to replace his downcard, he discards it and is dealt a replacement card also face down; if he wishes to replace an upcard, he discards it and receives the replacement face up.  If a twist round is added to the game, players make the decision of which card to replace in turn, discarding the card they choose to replace, if any.  After everyone has made the choice, the replacement cards are then dealt starting at the dealer's left as usual.  Five-card stud played high/low split with a twist is called "Option Alley".
28a29,30
> There are three alternative methods for dealing stud games, all called "roll your own".  If you want to play a roll your own game, you must specify whether it is ''simultaneous choose-after'', ''in turn choose-after'', or ''in turn choose-before''.  The first method is that on every round where an upcard is normally dealt, each player is instead dealt a downcard.  All players then look at their cards and choose one to turn face up, then all players turn their chosen card at once.  The in turn choose-after method begins the same way with each player being dealt a downcard, but then the first player to act (the same player who started the last betting round--the one with the highest exposed poker hand) turns over his choice of upcard, then the next player may use that information to decide which of his cards to turn up, and then all players follow in turn.  The final method is choose-before roll your own, always played in turn.  On upcard rounds, before a card is dealt to each player, that player must choose whether he wants to receive it up or down.  If he wants to receive it up, he just says so.  If he wants to receive it down, he must first turn one of his already-dealt downcards face up, so that all players will still have the same number of up and down cards.  When using this method, you will note that cards are not dealt to players starting at the dealer's left as usual, but must start with the high hand showing.
> 
30a33,38
> This is the pimary form of poker played in home games across the United States, and played in casinos in the eastern part of the country.  It is also played in some western casinos, but [[Texas holdem]] is far more popular there.
> 
> The game begins with each player being dealt to cards face down and one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest-ranking upcard pays the bring in.  After the first betting round, another upcard is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], and starting at the dealer's left as will all subsequent rounds), followed by a second betting round beginning with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand.  This is followed by a third upcard and betting round, a fourth upcard and betting round, and finally a downcard, a fifth betting round, and showndown if necessary (so seven-card stud can be summarized as "two down, four up, one down").
> 
> You may note that seven cards to eight players plus four burn cards makes 60 cards, and there are only 52 in the deck.  In most games this is not a problem because several players will have folded in early betting rounds.  But there are certainly low-stakes home games where few if any players fold.  If this is the case in your game, you may want to limit the game to seven players.  If the deck does become exhausted during play, previously-dealt burn cards can be used when only a few cards are needed to complete the deal.  If even those are not sufficient, then on the final round instead of dealing a downcard to each player, a single ''community card'' is deal to the center of the table, and is shared by everyone (i.e., each player treats it as his seventh card).  Under no circumstances can any discarded card from a folded hand be "recycled" for later use.  Unlike draw poker, where no cards are ever seen before showdown, stud poker players use the information they get from face-up cards to make strategic decisions, and so a player who sees a certain card folded is entitled to make decisions knowing that the card will never appear in another opponent's hand.
> 
32a41,46
> "Razz" is seven-card stud played with ace-to-five lowball hand values.  It is usually played with a bring-in, paid by the player with the highest-ranking upcard on the initial deal (aces are always low cards in Razz, even for the purpose of the bring-in).  One the second and subsequent rounds, the player with the lowest exposed hand starts the betting.
> 
> "London lowball" is seven-card stud played with ace-to-six lowball hand values.  It is usually played at pot limit or no limit, and is otherwise identical to Razz.
> 
> Here's a sample Razz deal: Alice deals each player two downcards and then one upcard: Bob's upcard is a jack, Carol is dealt a 3, David an ace, and Alice a 4.  Bob's jack is the high card (David's ace is low), so he pays a $1 bring-in.  Carol, David, and Alice all call.  Now bob is dealt a 9, Carol another 3, David a 4, and Alice a 2.  The best low hand showing is now David's 4-A, just beating Alice's 4-2.  David bets $1, Alice calls.  Bob folds his jack-9, and Carol calls (her pair of 3s is the worst hand showing, but there are still many cards to come).  Alice now deals Carol an ace, David a king, and herself an 8.  The low hand showing is now Alice's 8-4-2, so she bets $2.  Carol raises $2, and David folds.  Alice calls, ending the round.  Carol is now dealt a 6, and Alice another 8.  Now the lowest hand showing is Carol's 3-3-6-A, a pair of 3s being lower than Alice's pair of 8s.  She bets $2 and Alice calls.  A final downcard is dealt, Carol again best $2, and Alice calls.  Alice reveals that her downcards are a 7, jack, and an ace.  That makes her lowest five-card hand an 8-7-4-2-A.  Carol reveals her downcards to be a 4, a 6, and a 7.  That makes her lowest five-card hand a 7-6-4-3-A, which wins the pot.
> 
33a48,49
> 
> This is the most common form of high/low split seven card stud.  Played as above, but the pot is split between the player with the highest hand and the player with the lowest hand, using the ace-to-five lowball values.  A 8-high hand or lower is required to win low.  Betting takes place as if playing standard high-hand stud; that is, low card pays the bring-in, if any, on the first round and subsequent rounds start the betting with the highest showing poker hand.  The showdown is ''cards speak'', i.e., there is no declaration for high and low.  Each player may choose a different subset of five cards to play for high and low.  For example, a player with A-A-8-6-6-4-3 can play a high hand of A-A-6-6-8, and a low hand of 8-6-4-3-A.  A player with K-9-8-7-6-5-4 can play a 9-high straight for his high hand, and 8-7-6-5-4 for low (which is the worst possible qualifying low, but it does qualify).  A player with K-9-8-7-7-6-5 can play the 9-high straight for high, but cannot play any low hand, because he cannot make an 8-high or lower.
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986839825
4a5,9
> Brief Rush Limbaugh terminology:
> * [[eib]]
> * [[environmental wacko]]
> * [[femminazi]]
> 
------
Environmental_wacko|986839926
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] to describe [[radical]] [[environmentalist]]s who have extreme ideas as to how man uses relates to and uses the [[environment]].
------
FriedrichNietzsche|986839926
1,3c1
< Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a famous and influential German philosopher.
< 
< Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or [[altruism]]; his vigorous attacks on Christianity; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzche]]
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|986840444
7a8,9
> ----
> This should be renamed "The Coen Brothers"
------
ToriAmos|986840952
1c1
< Band Members:TORI AMOS
---
> American female singer and songwriter, born August 22 1963 in [[North Carolina]].  After an early failure with the band "Y Kant Tori Read"(1988), Amos' breakthrough critical success came with the album "Little Earthquakes" and the accompanying singles "Silent All These Years" and "Crucify".  Stylistically bleak, with stripped down arrangements, her work has most frequently been compared to that of [[Kate Bush]]. 
3,10c3,8
< Bio(s):BORN AUGUST,22 1963 IN NORTH CAROLINA
< 
< Musical Style:NEW AGE ALTERNATIVE
< 
< Influence & Influences:SOUND IS SIMILAR TO KATE BUSH
< 
< Discography:1992:LITTLE EARTHQUAKES,1994:UNDER THE PINK
< 1996:BOYS FOR PELE,1998:CHOIR GIRL HOTEL,2000:TO VENUS AND BACK(DOUBLE ALBUM.)
---
> Discography:<br>
> *[[/Little Earthquakes]] (1992)
> *[[/Under The Pink]](1994)
> *[[/Boys For Pele]](1996)
> *[[/Choir Girl Hotel]](1998)
> *[[/Venus And Back]](2000)
------
Friedrich_Nietzche|986840970
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
------
Friedrich_Nietzsche|986840988
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) was a famous and influential German philosopher.
> 
> Nietzsche is famous as a precursor of existentialism; his rejection of what he calls "slave morality" or [[altruism]]; his vigorous attacks on Christianity; his embrace of a sort of irrationalism; and something he called TheWillToPower.
> 
> Works:
> 
> * The Antichrist
> * Beyond Good and Evil
> * The Birth of Tragedy
> * The Twilight of the Idols
> * On the Genealogy of Morals
> * On the Use and Abuse of History for Life
> * Thus Spake Zarathustra
> * Human, All Too Human
> * The Will to Power
> * The Gay Science
> * Daybreak, or The Dawn
> 
------
FriedrichNietzsche|986841012
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzche]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
------
Monty_Python/Talk|986841336
9a10,11
> 
> Did they ever explicitly refer to themselves collectively as "Monty Python"?  I've heard them called "The Pythons" and "the Monty Python team" but never (in the UK) collectively as "Monty Python"
------
Total_war|986841879
5c5
< The concept of total war was put forth in writing in [[Karl von Clausewicz]]' [[posthumusly]] published book ''[[On War]]'' (1832).
---
> The concept of total war was put forth in writing in [[Karl von Clausewicz]]' [[posthumously]] published book ''[[On War]]'' (1832).
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|986842000
9c9
< This should be renamed "The Coen Brothers"
---
> This should be renamed "[[The Coen Brothers]]"
------
The_Coen_Brothers|986842036
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[O Brother Where Are Thou]]
> :[[The Big Lebowski]]
> :[[Barton Fink]]
> :[[Fargo]]
> :[[Raising Arizona]]
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|986842123
1c1
< Famous Movies:
---
> You are probably looking for [[The Coen Brothers]], the directors of such famous films as [[Raising Arizona]], [[O Brother Where Art Thou]], and [[The Big Lebowski]].
3,9c3
< :[[O Brother Where Are Thou]]
< :[[The Big Lebowski]]
< :[[Barton Fink]]
< :[[Fargo]]
< :[[Raising Arizona]]
< ----
< This should be renamed "[[The Coen Brothers]]"
---
> "Cohen" is a frequent misspelling of "Coen".
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|986842152
1c1
< You are probably looking for [[The Coen Brothers]], the directors of such famous films as [[Raising Arizona]], [[O Brother Where Art Thou]], and [[The Big Lebowski]].
---
> You are probably looking for [[The Coen Brothers]], the directors of such famous films as [[Raising Arizona]], [[O Brother Where Are Thou]], and [[The Big Lebowski]].
------
Frank_Zappa|986842185
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American rock musician, composer and satirist.  Born Frank Vincent Zappa in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]] Zappa was raised in California where he grew up influenced in equal measures by [[avant garde]] composers such as [[Edgar Varese]] and [[Igor Stravinsky]] and the local [[Rhythm and Blues]] and [[Doo-wop]] groups.
> 
> After a short career as a professional songwriter (his elegiac "Memories of El Monte" was recorded by [[The Penguins]]) Zappa joined a local R'n'B band as a guitarist. A short time later he re-christening them "The Mothers" (and, later still, "The Mothers Of Invention", at the insistence of the record company.)
> 
> The Mothers were signed by well known producer Tom Wilson, and soon produced the double album "Freak Out" (1966) a mixture of often topical R'n'B and experimental sound collage.  The similarly eclectic "Absolutely Free" and "Lumpy Gravy" followed the next year.  Zappa also recorded "We're Only In It For The Money", a withering satire on both flower power and the prevailing mood of mainstream America, who's cover parodied that of [[The Beatles/Sgt Pepper|Sergeant Pepper]], replacing flowers with vegetables.
------
Friedrich_Nietzsche|986842488
7,18c7,20
< * The Antichrist
< * Beyond Good and Evil
< * The Birth of Tragedy
< * The Twilight of the Idols
< * On the Genealogy of Morals
< * On the Use and Abuse of History for Life
< * Thus Spake Zarathustra
< * Human, All Too Human
< * The Will to Power
< * The Gay Science
< * Daybreak, or The Dawn
< 
---
> * ''Die Geburt der Tragödie'', 1872 (The Birth of Tragedy)
> * ''Unzeitgemässe Betrachtungen'', 1876 (Untimely Meditations)
> * ''Menschliches, Allzumenschliches'',  1878 (Human, All Too Human)
> * ''Morgenröte'', 1881 (Daybreak, or The Dawn)
> * ''Die fröhliche Wissenschaft'', 1882 (The Gay Science)
> * ''Also sprach Zarathustra'', 1885 (Thus Spake Zarathustra)
> * ''Jenseits von Gut und Böse'', 1886 (Beyond Good and Evil)
> * ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', 1887 (On the Genealogy of Morals)
> * ''Der Fall Wagner'', 1888 (The Case of Wagner)
> * ''Götzen-Dämmerung'', 1889 (The Twilight of the Idols)
> * ''Der Antichrist'', 1895 (The Antichrist)
> * ''Nietzsche contra Wagner'', 1895 (Nietzsche vs. Wagner)
> * ''Der Wille zur Macht'', 1901 (The Will to Power, a collection of essays not intended for publication)
> * ''Ecce Homo'', 1908
------
Philosophy|986842670
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill|J. S. Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- FriedrichNietzsche -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]]
------
SemanticDispute|986843292
1,7c1
< A [[disagreement]] is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the [[disagreement]] disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the DefinitioN''''s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the MeaninG of a word, the words are associated with different ConcepT s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
< 
< It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all.  But very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in PhiloSophy.  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what turns on the claim that a dispute is "genuine" (see GenuineDisputes).
< 
< It is also sometimes held that, when a semantic dispute arises, the focus of the debate should switch from the original thesis to the meaning of the terms of which there are different definitions (understandings, concepts, etc.).
< 
< As a purely HypotheticalExample, one disputant, call him "Tim," might maintain that the [[United States]] has the highest StandardOfLiving (see [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?UnitedStates/StandardOfLiving standard of living]) in history.  Suppose Joshua maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "StandardOfLiving": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living," while Joshua disagrees with this.  In this case, Tim and Joshua have (suffer, are engaging in) a semantic dispute.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Semantic dispute]]
------
Semantic_dispute|986843308
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[disagreement]] is a ''semantic dispute'' if (1) the parties to the disagreement disagree about whether a particular claim is true, (2) they agree on all material facts, but (3) they disagree on the [[definition]]s of a word (or several words) essential to formulating the claim at issue (they have different understandings of the [[meaning]] of a word, the words are associated with different [[concept]]s).  Consequently, their disagreeing on these definitions explains why there is a dispute at all; briefly, (2) and (3) together explain (1).
> 
> It is sometimes held that semantic disputes are not genuine disputes at all.  But very often they ''are'' regarded as perfectly genuine, e.g., in [[philosophy]].  One might well wonder, of course, exactly what makes a [[Genuine dispute]].
> 
> It is also sometimes held that, when a semantic dispute arises, the focus of the debate should switch from the original thesis to the meaning of the terms of which there are different definitions (understandings, concepts, etc.).
> 
> As a purely [[hypothetical example]], one disputant, call him "Tim", might maintain that the [[United States]] has the highest [[standard of living]] in history.  Suppose Joshua maintains the precise contradictory of that claim.  Being reasonable people, they agree on all relevant statistical results, but they disagree about the meaning of "standard of living": Tim holds that PerCapitaIncome is the meaning of (or at least an infallible or direct indicator of) "standard of living", while Joshua disagrees with this.  In this case, Tim and Joshua have (suffer, are engaging in) a semantic dispute.
> 
------
Science_Fiction_Film|986844599
4,25c4,27
< * [[Metropolis]] (1926)
< * [[The Invisible Man]] (1933) 
< * [[Things to Come]] (1938)
< * [[The Day the Earth Stood Still]] 
< * [[Plan 9 from Outer Space]] 
< * [[The War of the Worlds]] (1952)
< * [[Godzilla]] (1954- )
< * [[Forbidden Planet]] (1956)
< * [[The Time Machine]] (1960)
< * [[Day of the Triffids]] (1963)
< * [[2001 A Space Odyssey]] (1968)
< * [[Dark Star]] (1974)
< * [[Star Wars]] (1977- )
< * [[Star Trek]] (1979- )
< * [[Alien]] (1979)
< * [[Outland]]  (1981)
< * [[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]] (1982)
< * [[Blade Runner]] (1982)
< * [[Film/Dune|Dune]] (1984)
< * [[The Terminator]] (1984)
< * [[The Abyss]] 
< * [[Mission to Mars]]  
---
> :[[Metropolis]], [[1926]]
> :[[The Invisible Man]], [[1933]] 
> :[[Things to Come]], [[1938]]
> :[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]], [[1951]]
> :[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]], [[1958]]
> :[[The War of the Worlds]], [[1952]]
> :[[Godzilla]], [[1954]]-
> :[[Forbidden Planet]], [[1956]]
> :[[The Time Machine]], [[1960]]
> :[[Day of the Triffids]], [[1963]]
> :[[2001 A Space Odyssey]] (1968)
> :[[Dark Star]], [[1974]]
> :[[Star Wars]], [[1977]]-
> :[[Star Trek]], [[1979]]-
> :[[Alien]], [[1979]]
> :[[Outland]], [[1981)
> :[[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]], [[1982]]
> :[[Blade Runner]], [[1982]]
> :[[Dune/Films|Dune]], [[1984]]
> :[[Jouney to the Center of the Earth]], [[1959]]
> :[[The Terminator]], [[1984]]
> :[[Rollerball]], [[1975]]
> :[[The Abyss]], [[1989]]
> :[[Mission to Mars]], [[2000]]
------
Siege|986844638
1c1
< A <b>siege</b> is a prolonged [[military]] [[assault]] and [[blockade]] on a [[castle]], [[town]] or [[city]] with the [[intent]] of conquering by [[force]] or [[attrition]].
---
> A <b>siege</b> is a prolonged [[military]] [[assault]] and [[blockade]] on a [[city]] or [[fortress]] with the [[intent]] of conquering by [[force]] or [[attrition]].
3,4c3,12
< See also:
< * [[catapult]] or [[tre buchet]] - a [[siege engine]]
---
> Siege weapons:
> * [[catapult]]
> ** [[torsion catapult]]
> ** [[trebuchet]]
> * [[cannon]]
> * [[siege tower]]
> 
> Other:
> * [[sappers]]
> * [[mole]]
------
Charlemagne|986844809
1c1
< Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in [[Latin language|Latin]]), king of the [[Frank]]s at the height of their power.  Charlemagne was the son of [[Pepin the short]], and ascended to the throne in 768.  He did all sorts of stuff, including the conquest of north [[Lombardy]].
---
> Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in [[Latin language|Latin]]), king of the [[Frank]]s at the height of their power.  Charlemagne was the son of [[Pepin the short]], and ascended to the throne in 768.  He did all sorts of stuff, including the conquest of north [[Lombardy]], [[Saxony]] and [[Bavaria]].
3c3
< In 800 at mass on Chistmas day, the pope crowned Charlemagne the emperor of the west, a title that had remained vacant since the death of [[Romulus Augustus]] in 476.  He was succeeded by his son [[Louis the Pious]], after whom his empire disintegrated and feudalized.  Much of it would later be reconstructed as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], however.
---
> In 800 at mass on Chistmas day, the pope crowned Charlemagne the emperor of the west, a title that had remained vacant since the death of [[Romulus Augustus]] in 476.  He was succeeded by his son [[Louis the Pious]], after whom his empire disintegrated and feudalized.  Much of it would later be reconstructed as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], however.
------
TheWillToPower|986845695
1c1,5
< A interesting link: http://nietzsche.ps.uni-sb.de
---
> Nietzsche presupposed that humans are always attempting to inflict their wills upon others. Every action toward another, accordeing to Neitzsche, is born of a basic desire to bring that other under one's own power in some way. Gift-giving, claims of love, praise, or harmful acts such as physical violence, carrying tales, etc. all stem from the same motive:  to exert the will over others. Nietzsche's presupposition entails that human beings are basically and only egoistic. Therefore there are no truly altruistic actions. The theory of the will to power is not limited to the psychology of human beings. instead, it is the essential nature of the universe, manifest in all things.  Growth, survival, dominance in business or physical competition, all are seen as elements of this will.
> 
> Some see Nietzsche's "will to power," as life-affirming.  Creatures affirm instinct in exerting power and dominance.  The suffering born of conflict between competing wills and the efforts to overcome one's environment is not evil, but a part of existence to be embraced in that it signifies the healthy expression of the natural order. Enduring satisfaction and pleasure result from living by instinct and successfully exerting the will to power. 
> ----
> An interesting link: http://nietzsche.ps.uni-sb.de
------
Environmental_wacko|986845897
1c1
< A term [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] to describe [[radical]] [[environmentalist]]s who have extreme ideas as to how man uses relates to and uses the [[environment]].
---
> A term [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] to describe [[radical]] [[environmentalist]]s who have extreme ideas as to how man relates to and uses the [[environment]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986846027
32,34c32
< Great Job with the Poker pages!
< ----
< LDC - at the end of one discussion on LMS' page, you stated you could not find an e-mail address for "you."  Did that refer to LMS, or me?  (mine is ayespy@mail.com )  AyeSpy
---
> Great Job with the Poker pages!
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986849049
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You might have noticed that this is a dotcom site, Wikipedia has to make money.
> This page is intended to be a forum to knock out ideas to get Wikipedia a profit.
> ----
> Tried, Tested and Tired Methods
> 
> *banner adverts - generally awful, not proving to work very well at all. Click through rates are low and banners are generally considered a nuisance at best.
> *subscription - free or otherwise, a bad idea, certainly worse than banner ads.
> 
> Exciting new 21st Century Methods
> 
> *branded merchandising - t-shirts are always popular amongst geeks, print up some of the most favourite and oddball pages and sell hundreds.
> *micro-payment system - add a small donation button to the top and tail of each page. 
> *Wikipedia cd/dvd - wait a while, bring across the majority of the well authored and editied pages to cd/dvd and add in loads and loads of multimedia content; videos, music, pictures. Package it up, sell it for a reasonable price and watch the money roll in! This is probably one of the best ways for Wikipedia to make money in the long run, there are still billions of people without highspeed Internet access (or any at all) and the added advantage of multimedia would even make it a draw for those who can get to the website.
> *any more?
> 
> /Talk
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986849404
6a7
> * [[emotional punditry]]
------
Emotional_punditry|986849543
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[term]] [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] that describes advocating/arguing for a particular objective using purely [[emotional]] pleas with little regard for [[logic]] arguments for/against the objective.
> 
> 
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986849656
14a15
> ----
15a17,18
> Easy method: Contribute useful articles so that everyone can profit from the concise knowledge contained therein.
> ----
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986850110
16d15
< 
17a17,19
> 
> ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
> Remember, Wikipedia is intending to make MONEY, not just some hazy, vague notion of good will etc etc. (no matter how great those things are)
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986850292
9c9
< * [[femminazi]]
---
> * [[feminazi]]
------
TheWillToPower|986850763
1c1
< Nietzsche presupposed that humans are always attempting to inflict their wills upon others. Every action toward another, accordeing to Neitzsche, is born of a basic desire to bring that other under one's own power in some way. Gift-giving, claims of love, praise, or harmful acts such as physical violence, carrying tales, etc. all stem from the same motive:  to exert the will over others. Nietzsche's presupposition entails that human beings are basically and only egoistic. Therefore there are no truly altruistic actions. The theory of the will to power is not limited to the psychology of human beings. instead, it is the essential nature of the universe, manifest in all things.  Growth, survival, dominance in business or physical competition, all are seen as elements of this will.
---
> Nietzsche presupposed that humans are always attempting to inflict their wills upon others. Every action toward another, accordeing to Neitzsche, is born of a basic desire to bring that other under one's own power in some way. Gift-giving, claims of love, praise, or harmful acts such as physical violence, carrying tales, etc. all stem from the same motive:  to exert the will over others. Nietzsche's presupposition entails that human beings are basically and only egoistic. Therefore there are no truly altruistic actions. The theory of the will to power is not limited to the psychology of human beings.  Instead, it is the essential nature of the universe, manifest in all things.  Growth, survival, dominance in business or physical competition, all are seen as elements of this will.
------
Cladistics|986852465
12c12
< Cladistics really has two applications. One is to molecular phylogeny which deals with changes in DNA. The second is for systemizastion of eternal morphology. It is often assumed that since DNA controls the morphology, these two concepts are fully interchangable. This may not be true and it is possible that concepts that work in one of the two contexts may not work in the other. Cladistics uses a plethora of jargon. Key terms include: Polyphyly, Paraphyly, Monophyly, Clade, Apomorphy, Plesiomorphy, Synamorphy  
---
> Cladistics really has two applications. One is to molecular phylogeny which deals with changes in DNA. The second is for systemization of external morphology. It is often assumed that since DNA controls the morphology, these two concepts are fully interchangable. This may not be true.  It is possible that concepts that work in one of the two contexts may not work in the other. Cladistics uses a plethora of jargon. Key terms include: Polyphyly, Paraphyly, Monophyly, Clade, Apomorphy, Plesiomorphy, Synamorphy  
------
Cladistics|986853630
14a15,16
> ----
> ''I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.''
------
Devonian|986853832
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Devonian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 345 to 400 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Devonian is named for England's Devonshire area where Devonian Outcrops are common.  The Devonian follows the [[Silurian]] Period and precedes the [[Mississippian]] subperiod of the [[Carboniferous]] Period.
> 
> Devonian rocks are oil and gas producers in some areas.
> 
> Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high.  Fish were abundant and diverse.  The first sharks appeared early in the period.  Bony fish, many or substantial size appeared shortly thereafter.  Small land plants appeared early in the period.  By the end of the period forests of primitive plants existed.  Both vertebrates and arthropods were solidly established on the land.  Marine faunas continued to be dominated by bryozoa, brachiopods and corals.  Trilobites were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods. 
> 
> The southern continents remained tied together into the Supercontinent Gondwana.  In equatorial regions, North America and Europe formed a continent.  The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere.
------
Computing|986856316
38c38
< 
---
>  
------
Emotional_punditry|986856660
1,3c1
< A [[term]] [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] that describes advocating/arguing for a particular objective using purely [[emotional]] pleas with little regard for [[logic]] arguments for/against the objective.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rush Limbaugh/Emotional punditry]]
------
Rush_Limbaugh/Emotional_punditry|986856758
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term coined by [[Rush Limbaugh]] that describes advocating/arguing for a particular objective using purely emotional pleas with little regard for [[logic]] arguments for/against the objective.
------
Environmental_wacko|986856796
1c1
< A term [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] to describe [[radical]] [[environmentalist]]s who have extreme ideas as to how man relates to and uses the [[environment]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rush Limbaugh/Environmental wacko]]
------
Rush_Limbaugh/Environmental_wacko|986856807
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A term [[coined]] by [[Rush Limbaugh]] to describe [[radical]] [[environmentalist]]s who have extreme ideas as to how man relates to and uses the [[environment]].
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986856837
6,9c6,9
< * [[eib]]
< * [[emotional punditry]]
< * [[environmental wacko]]
< * [[feminazi]]
---
> * [[/eib]]
> * [[/emotional punditry]]
> * [[/environmental wacko]]
> * [[/feminazi]]
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986856862
6,9c6,9
< * [[/eib]]
< * [[/emotional punditry]]
< * [[/environmental wacko]]
< * [[/feminazi]]
---
> * [[/EIB]]
> * [[/Emotional punditry]]
> * [[/Environmental wacko]]
> * [[/Feminazi]]
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986857111
1,21c1
< You might have noticed that this is a dotcom site, Wikipedia has to make money.
< This page is intended to be a forum to knock out ideas to get Wikipedia a profit.
< ----
< Tried, Tested and Tired Methods
< 
< *banner adverts - generally awful, not proving to work very well at all. Click through rates are low and banners are generally considered a nuisance at best.
< *subscription - free or otherwise, a bad idea, certainly worse than banner ads.
< 
< Exciting new 21st Century Methods
< 
< *branded merchandising - t-shirts are always popular amongst geeks, print up some of the most favourite and oddball pages and sell hundreds.
< *micro-payment system - add a small donation button to the top and tail of each page. 
< *Wikipedia cd/dvd - wait a while, bring across the majority of the well authored and editied pages to cd/dvd and add in loads and loads of multimedia content; videos, music, pictures. Package it up, sell it for a reasonable price and watch the money roll in! This is probably one of the best ways for Wikipedia to make money in the long run, there are still billions of people without highspeed Internet access (or any at all) and the added advantage of multimedia would even make it a draw for those who can get to the website.
< *any more?
< ----
< Easy method: Contribute useful articles so that everyone can profit from the concise knowledge contained therein.
< 
< ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
< Remember, Wikipedia is intending to make MONEY, not just some hazy, vague notion of good will etc etc. (no matter how great those things are)
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Making Wikipedia profitable]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986857138
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You might have noticed that this is a dotcom site, Wikipedia has to make money.
> This page is intended to be a forum to knock out ideas to get Wikipedia a profit.
> ----
> Tried, Tested and Tired Methods
> 
> *banner adverts - generally awful, not proving to work very well at all. Click through rates are low and banners are generally considered a nuisance at best.
> *subscription - free or otherwise, a bad idea, certainly worse than banner ads.
> 
> Exciting new 21st Century Methods
> 
> *branded merchandising - t-shirts are always popular amongst geeks, print up some of the most favourite and oddball pages and sell hundreds.
> *micro-payment system - add a small donation button to the top and tail of each page. 
> *Wikipedia cd/dvd - wait a while, bring across the majority of the well authored and editied pages to cd/dvd and add in loads and loads of multimedia content; videos, music, pictures. Package it up, sell it for a reasonable price and watch the money roll in! This is probably one of the best ways for Wikipedia to make money in the long run, there are still billions of people without highspeed Internet access (or any at all) and the added advantage of multimedia would even make it a draw for those who can get to the website.
> *any more?
> ----
> Easy method: Contribute useful articles so that everyone can profit from the concise knowledge contained therein.
> 
> ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
> Remember, Wikipedia is intending to make MONEY, not just some hazy, vague notion of good will etc etc. (no matter how great those things are)
> ----
> [[Making Wikipedia profitable/Talk]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|986857228
13a14
> :[[/Making Wikipedia profitable]] ([[Neeklamy]])
------
Gottleib_Fichte|986857589
1,9c1
< Gottlieb Fichte had significant importance as a follower of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]].  He picked up the problem of [[Dualism]] where [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it and sought to solve some of the [[epistemological]] and [[ethical]] concerns of the [[objective knowledge]] and the [[subjective reason]].  Fichte strove to find the certain, common ground.  He argued that by not solving this problem, [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it open to [[skepticism]].  Fichte saw this as too materialistic, so he attempted to eliminate [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s [[dualism]], and, in doing so, articulated a [[nationalism]] that posited the national community as an ethical community.
< 
< Fichte's 1794, [[Theory of Knowledge by Fichte|Theory of Knowledge]], dealt with the problem of the [[dualism]] of [[subject]] (or [[freedom]]) and [[object]] (or [[determinism]]).  He concluded that neither was grounded enough to be confident.  His solution was classic [[idealism]].  Fichte approached the identity of [[subject]] and [[object]] by positing that we must think of ourselves from within in order to see that there is no [[dualism]].  He said that we must further posit an absolute [[ego]], a creative nature, the world as [[subject]], a conscious totality, a self-creating world with no duality.  But, we cannot prove the absolute [[ego]], so it must be posited as a regulative ideal, not a proven existing thing.  Furthermore, we have an ethical duty to posit this [[ego]], because we can only be moral by being [[rational]] and free.  But, to be free, we must be a part of an absolute [[freedom]].  We must also act as if [[God]] exists, even though we cannot know, nor demonstrate this.  We emulate this ideal by action, an [[ethical]] duty, that transforms the world and ourselves until we become more like the absolute [[ego]] (or [[God]]). In doing so, we see that [[subject]] and [[object]] are not isolated, but are identical.  We also discover that in changing the world, we change ourselves, because we only really know the world when we act upon it and change it.  This union of theory and action was called "[[praxis]]"; [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] would draw upon this ideal.  
< 
< Fichte develops [[nationalism]] in [[Vocation of Man by Fichte|Vocation of Man]] (1800).  In this political [[philosophy]] that is a defense of the [[ethical]] [[community of wills]], Fichte presents an [[ethical]] [[imperative]] to work for a community and against [[chaos]].  It is a compulsion to act that is a compulsion towards betterment.  Each individual has a duty to will an ethical community, a [[universal cosmopolitan culture]].  This universal community based on freedom is the goal of human freedom.  Fichte posits the intermediate community is the [[nation-state]], a limited community of wills, which is no less ethical and one in which our ethical duty towards national unification is an imperative.
< 
< Fichte's [[Kantian]] view of a unified [[Germany]] is [[nationalism]] with an undertone. Fichte sees [[Napoleon]]'s unification of [[France]] as "imposed" unification and, thus, opposed the [[French]] as [[imperialistic]].  He defends [[German]] [[nationalism]] and the [[German]]s as the original people, or [[Ur Volk]]. He sees the [[German]]s as a privileged and chosen people that must fight to prevent their corruption.  He further sees the state as an ethical realization of the [[German]] people that guarantees [[liberty]] and [[individuality]] and is the embodiment of the [[collective will]].  He believed that the individual has an ethical duty to immerse himself in the state.  
< 
< Fichte's [[nationalism]] is passionate; thus it does not give itself too much to [[philosophy]].  It also became a sort of secular religion for him.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Gottlieb Fichte]]
------
Social_engineering|986857598
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Social engineering is a set of techniques to obtain information, usually sensitive, from unaware people. One of the most common examples of social engineering is getting a [[password]] or a new [[computer account|account]] from an [[operator]]. Usually the process involving impersonating a lawful user, company employee, or similar. Convincing an operator of your "bona fides" is not so difficult if you have the employee data. And getting these date one piece at a time is also not difficult, with calls to different departments.
> 
> The "Social Engineering" term origin is in the unauthorized access to computer systems. Of course the idea is older even than the telephone.
------
Gottlieb_Fichte|986857606
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gottlieb Fichte had significant importance as a follower of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]].  He picked up the problem of [[Dualism]] where [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it and sought to solve some of the [[epistemological]] and [[ethical]] concerns of the [[objective knowledge]] and the [[subjective reason]].  Fichte strove to find the certain, common ground.  He argued that by not solving this problem, [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] left it open to [[skepticism]].  Fichte saw this as too materialistic, so he attempted to eliminate [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s [[dualism]], and, in doing so, articulated a [[nationalism]] that posited the national community as an ethical community.
> 
> Fichte's 1794, [[Theory of Knowledge by Fichte|Theory of Knowledge]], dealt with the problem of the [[dualism]] of [[subject]] (or [[freedom]]) and [[object]] (or [[determinism]]).  He concluded that neither was grounded enough to be confident.  His solution was classic [[idealism]].  Fichte approached the identity of [[subject]] and [[object]] by positing that we must think of ourselves from within in order to see that there is no [[dualism]].  He said that we must further posit an absolute [[ego]], a creative nature, the world as [[subject]], a conscious totality, a self-creating world with no duality.  But, we cannot prove the absolute [[ego]], so it must be posited as a regulative ideal, not a proven existing thing.  Furthermore, we have an ethical duty to posit this [[ego]], because we can only be moral by being [[rational]] and free.  But, to be free, we must be a part of an absolute [[freedom]].  We must also act as if [[God]] exists, even though we cannot know, nor demonstrate this.  We emulate this ideal by action, an [[ethical]] duty, that transforms the world and ourselves until we become more like the absolute [[ego]] (or [[God]]). In doing so, we see that [[subject]] and [[object]] are not isolated, but are identical.  We also discover that in changing the world, we change ourselves, because we only really know the world when we act upon it and change it.  This union of theory and action was called "[[praxis]]"; [[George Wilhem Fredrick Hegel|Hegel]] would draw upon this ideal.  
> 
> Fichte develops [[nationalism]] in [[Vocation of Man by Fichte|Vocation of Man]] (1800).  In this political [[philosophy]] that is a defense of the [[ethical]] [[community of wills]], Fichte presents an [[ethical]] [[imperative]] to work for a community and against [[chaos]].  It is a compulsion to act that is a compulsion towards betterment.  Each individual has a duty to will an ethical community, a [[universal cosmopolitan culture]].  This universal community based on freedom is the goal of human freedom.  Fichte posits the intermediate community is the [[nation-state]], a limited community of wills, which is no less ethical and one in which our ethical duty towards national unification is an imperative.
> 
> Fichte's [[Kantian]] view of a unified [[Germany]] is [[nationalism]] with an undertone. Fichte sees [[Napoleon]]'s unification of [[France]] as "imposed" unification and, thus, opposed the [[French]] as [[imperialistic]].  He defends [[German]] [[nationalism]] and the [[German]]s as the original people, or [[Ur Volk]]. He sees the [[German]]s as a privileged and chosen people that must fight to prevent their corruption.  He further sees the state as an ethical realization of the [[German]] people that guarantees [[liberty]] and [[individuality]] and is the embodiment of the [[collective will]].  He believed that the individual has an ethical duty to immerse himself in the state.  
> 
> Fichte's [[nationalism]] is passionate; thus it does not give itself too much to [[philosophy]].  It also became a sort of secular religion for him.
------
Computer_Security|986857645
7c7
< A teenager wandering into a warehouse to pick up a trophy and show it to his friends, is not treated in the real world as a dangerous criminal. If such an "explorer" enters into the company computer system, the management can go ballistic, and the trespasser if aprehended risks prosecution. This lack of knowledge is potentially the biggest risk in a company. Of course they will have competent technical personnel, but they will tend to concentrate in the technical side of the issue. [[Social engineering]], for example, will probably be ignored.
---
> A teenager wandering into a warehouse to pick up a trophy and show it to his friends, is not treated in the real world as a dangerous criminal. If such an "explorer" enters into the company computer system, the management can go ballistic, and the trespasser if aprehended risks prosecution. This lack of knowledge is potentially the biggest risk in a company. Of course they will have competent technical personnel, but they will tend to concentrate in the technical side of the issue. [[Social engineering]], for example, will probably be ignored. 
------
Gottlieb_Fichte|986857721
9a10,11
> 
> /Talk
------
Gottlieb_Fichte/Talk|986857853
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> First, please don't wiki every instance of a term; just the first one (maybe).
> 
> Also, I think a number of claims here need to be made substantially clearer.  For example, "He picked up the problem of Dualism? where Kant? left it and sought to solve some of the epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]?."  So, where did Kant "leave" the problem of dualism, and just what does it mean to say Fichte "picked it up" there?  Also, just what are the "epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]"?  I can't tell, but I sure would like to know! --[[LMS]]
------
Total_war|986858045
1c1
< <b>Total war</b> is a method of [[warfare]] where anything [[connected]] to one's [[enemy]] is attacked.
---
> <b>Total war</b> is a method of [[warfare]] where anything connected to one's enemy is attacked.
3c3
< The object of total war is to [[demoralize]] your enemy so that he [[surrender]]s.
---
> The object of total war is to demoralize your enemy so that he surrenders.
5c5
< The concept of total war was put forth in writing in [[Karl von Clausewicz]]' [[posthumously]] published book ''[[On War]]'' (1832).
---
> The concept of total war was put forth in writing in [[Karl von Clausewicz]]' posthumously published book ''[[On War]]'' (1832).
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986858501
2a3
> :Well, no, Wikipedia doesn't ''have'' to make money--except insofar as it wants to support its server and employees who work on developing various aspects of the site.  Moreover, because this is an open content/"free" website, anyone ''can'' take the contents of Wikipedia and proceed to (try to) make money from it.  So...
6a8
> ::Unfortunately, you happen to be wrong about the profitability of banner ads.  :-/
7a10
> ::I totally agree.
18,21c21
< ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
< Remember, Wikipedia is intending to make MONEY, not just some hazy, vague notion of good will etc etc. (no matter how great those things are)
< ----
< [[Making Wikipedia profitable/Talk]]
---
> ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable/Talk|986858557
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Repeating some else's comment- This doesn't seem to involve anyone but those who <b> will</b> profit from Wikipedia. Of course, if the owner/owner's want to issue shares to contributors, then writers might have a real interest in this...:-).
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986858861
21c21,23
< ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
---
> ...Except this doesn't actually translate into real money that can be used to keep ther server running, by bigger hard disks etc. sadly most people look no further than placing those awful banners on every page and then wonder how to coerce the readers into clicking said accursed ads.
> 
> [[Making Wikipedia profitable/Talk]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986859066
23c23,35
< [[Making Wikipedia profitable/Talk]]
---
> [[Making Wikipedia profitable/Talk]]
> --------
> Jimbo here...
> 
> One interesting angle for Wikipedia is that each page is definitively keyword-based.  That is, the title of the page serves as a very clear and simple keyword.  This enables us to hook up with some keyword-based advertisers.  People like GoTo.com and Directhit.Com.  We use these advertisers with great success at Bomis.
> 
> The advantages, I would hope, would be that the advertising would actually be relevant to the page in question.  Right now, keyword based advertising is still in its infancy, but in the future, I can imagine that a page on [[World War II]] might magically have an ad which corresponds to that topic -- perhaps an ad for a video series on that topic, or for books on that topic.
> 
> One of the most important facts about Wikipedia is that it is really a very low cost way to generate content.  What do I give up in exchange for the free content everyone is putting on here?  Well, the most important thing is the *license*, which guarantees that your work will never be proprietary.  If people don't like the way we put ads up here, if we try to overcommercialize it, then someone can very easily just take the content and put it up for free elsewhere.
> 
> This limits the upside of profitability, obviously.  But due to the overall low cost of running this, that's o.k.
> 
> 
------
Planetary_Sciences|986859076
4,5c4,5
< and [[asteroid]]s. It shares many interests with [[Earth sciences]]. 
<  
---
> and [[asteroid]]s. It shares many interests with [[Earth Sciences]]. 
>  
------
Rush_Limbaugh|986859192
9a10
> * [[/Dittoheads]]
------
Rush_Limbaugh/Dittoheads|986859243
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Term for people who call up the Rush Limbaugh show to agree with him.  Although it sounds derogatory, and is sometimes used in that way, Limbaugh fans seem to embrace the term.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986859363
34,35c34,35
< 
< 
---
> ----
> A semi-brilliant way to generate keywords automatically: for each page, the page's keywords are defined by the set of the words in the titles of other pages that link to the page and of other pages to which the page links. --[[LMS]]
------
Stud_poker|986859427
1c1
< <i>Stud poker</i> refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player receives a mix of face-down and face-up cards dealt in multiple rounds with betting on each round.
---
> <i>Stud poker</i> refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which each player receives a mix of face-down and face-up cards dealt in multiple betting rounds.  Stud games are also ''non-positional'' games, meaning that the player who bets first on each round may change from round to round (it is usually the player whose face-up cards make the best hand for the game being played).
3c3,5
< The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use a small ante or none at all, and a bring-in.  Both fixed and spread limits are common, frequently with the later betting rounds having a higher limit than earlier betting rounds.  No limit and pot limit stud games are rare.  Each betting round begins with the player whose face-up cards make the best hand for the game being played.
---
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of poker, and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use a small ante or none at all, and a bring-in.  Both fixed and spread limits are common, frequently with the later betting rounds having a higher limit than earlier betting rounds.  No limit and pot limit stud games are rare, though games with fewer betting rounds (such as five-card stud and Mississippi stud) play well.
> 
> It is a common convention in stud poker to name the betting rounds after the number of cards each player holds when that betting round begins.  So that bet that occurs when each player has three cards is called "third card" or "third street", while the bet that occurs when each player has five cards is "fifth street".  The final round, regardless of the number of betting rounds, is commonly called the "river" or simply the "end".
6a9,16
> <h2>Roll your own</h2>
> 
> In traditional stud games (as described below), cards are simply dealt to each player, either face up or face down according to the rules of the game being played, followed by betting.  There are three alternative methods for dealing stud games, all called "roll your own".  If you want to play a roll your own game, you must specify whether it is ''simultaneous choose-after'', ''in turn choose-after'', or ''choose-before''.  The first method is that on every round where an upcard is normally dealt, each player is instead dealt a downcard.  All players then look at all of their downcards cards and choose one to turn face up, then all players turn their chosen card at once.  The in turn choose-after method begins the same way with each player being dealt a downcard, but then the first player to act (the same player who started the last betting round) turns over his choice of upcard, then the next player may use that information to decide which of his cards to turn up, and then all players follow in turn.  The final method is choose-before roll your own, always played in turn.  On upcard rounds, before a card is dealt to each player, that player must choose whether he wants to receive it up or down.  If he wants to receive it up, he just says so.  If he wants to receive it down, he must first turn one of his already-dealt downcards face up, so that all players will still have the same number of up and down cards.  When using this method, you will note that cards are not dealt to players starting at the dealer's left as usual, but must start with the high hand showing.
> 
> <h2>The "twist"</h2>
> 
> One can replace any round of (or add an additional betting round to) a stud game with a ''twist'' round, in which each player is offered the option to replace one, and only one, card in his hand with a new one from the remaining deck stub.  This is similar to the draw phase of [[draw poker]], differing in the following way: if the player chooses to replace a downcard, he discards it and is dealt a replacement card also face down; if he wishes to replace an upcard, he discards it and receives the replacement face up.  On a twist round, players make the decision of which card to replace in turn starting with the player who bet first on the preceding round (usually the player whose upcards make the best hand), discarding the card they choose to replace, if any.  After everyone has made the choice, the replacement cards are then dealt starting at the dealer's left as usual.
> 
23,27c33
< <h3>The "twist"</h3>
< 
< One can add an additional betting round in which each player is offered the option to replace one, and only one, card in his hand with a new one from the remaining deck stub.  This is similar to the draw phase of [[draw poker]], differing in the following way: if the player chooses to replace his downcard, he discards it and is dealt a replacement card also face down; if he wishes to replace an upcard, he discards it and receives the replacement face up.  If a twist round is added to the game, players make the decision of which card to replace in turn, discarding the card they choose to replace, if any.  After everyone has made the choice, the replacement cards are then dealt starting at the dealer's left as usual.  Five-card stud played high/low split with a twist is called "Option Alley".
< 
< <h3>Roll your own</h3>
---
> Five-card stud played high/low split with a twist is called "option alley" or "five card option".
29c35
< There are three alternative methods for dealing stud games, all called "roll your own".  If you want to play a roll your own game, you must specify whether it is ''simultaneous choose-after'', ''in turn choose-after'', or ''in turn choose-before''.  The first method is that on every round where an upcard is normally dealt, each player is instead dealt a downcard.  All players then look at their cards and choose one to turn face up, then all players turn their chosen card at once.  The in turn choose-after method begins the same way with each player being dealt a downcard, but then the first player to act (the same player who started the last betting round--the one with the highest exposed poker hand) turns over his choice of upcard, then the next player may use that information to decide which of his cards to turn up, and then all players follow in turn.  The final method is choose-before roll your own, always played in turn.  On upcard rounds, before a card is dealt to each player, that player must choose whether he wants to receive it up or down.  If he wants to receive it up, he just says so.  If he wants to receive it down, he must first turn one of his already-dealt downcards face up, so that all players will still have the same number of up and down cards.  When using this method, you will note that cards are not dealt to players starting at the dealer's left as usual, but must start with the high hand showing.
---
> The game "Canadian stud" or "Sökö" is five-card stud with two new hand values added: a four-card stright beats one pair, a four-card flush beats a four-card straight, and two pair beats both of the above.
35c41
< The game begins with each player being dealt to cards face down and one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest-ranking upcard pays the bring in.  After the first betting round, another upcard is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], and starting at the dealer's left as will all subsequent rounds), followed by a second betting round beginning with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand.  This is followed by a third upcard and betting round, a fourth upcard and betting round, and finally a downcard, a fifth betting round, and showndown if necessary (so seven-card stud can be summarized as "two down, four up, one down").
---
> The game begins with each player being dealt two cards face down and one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest-ranking upcard pays the bring in.  After the first betting round, another upcard is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], and starting at the dealer's left as will all subsequent rounds), followed by a second betting round beginning with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand.  This is followed by a third upcard and betting round, a fourth upcard and betting round, and finally a downcard, a fifth betting round, and showndown if necessary (so seven-card stud can be summarized as "two down, four up, one down").  Upon showdown, each player makes the best five-card poker hand he can out of the seven cards he was dealt.
38a45,48
> <h3>Six-card stud</h3>
> 
> Six-card stud is usually played as identical to seven-card stud, except that the last face-up round is removed (Thus it is two down, three up, one down).  It can also be played as 1-4-1, where the first betting round occurs after only two cards are dealt (one down and one up).
> 
49c59
< This is the most common form of high/low split seven card stud.  Played as above, but the pot is split between the player with the highest hand and the player with the lowest hand, using the ace-to-five lowball values.  A 8-high hand or lower is required to win low.  Betting takes place as if playing standard high-hand stud; that is, low card pays the bring-in, if any, on the first round and subsequent rounds start the betting with the highest showing poker hand.  The showdown is ''cards speak'', i.e., there is no declaration for high and low.  Each player may choose a different subset of five cards to play for high and low.  For example, a player with A-A-8-6-6-4-3 can play a high hand of A-A-6-6-8, and a low hand of 8-6-4-3-A.  A player with K-9-8-7-6-5-4 can play a 9-high straight for his high hand, and 8-7-6-5-4 for low (which is the worst possible qualifying low, but it does qualify).  A player with K-9-8-7-7-6-5 can play the 9-high straight for high, but cannot play any low hand, because he cannot make an 8-high or lower.
---
> Also known as "seven-eight" or "stud-eight", this is the most common form of high/low split seven card stud.  Played as above, but the pot is split between the player with the highest hand and the player with the lowest hand, using the ace-to-five lowball values.  A 8-high hand or lower is required to win low.  Betting takes place as if playing standard high-hand stud; that is, low card pays the bring-in, if any, on the first round and subsequent rounds start the betting with the highest showing poker hand.  The showdown is ''cards speak'', i.e., there is no declaration for high and low.  Each player may choose a different subset of five cards to play for high and low.  For example, a player with A-A-8-6-6-4-3 can play a high hand of A-A-6-6-8, and a low hand of 8-6-4-3-A.  A player with K-9-8-7-6-5-4 can play a 9-high straight for his high hand, and 8-7-6-5-4 for low (which is the worst possible qualifying low, but it does qualify).  A player with K-9-8-7-7-6-5 can play the 9-high straight for high, but cannot play any low hand, because he cannot make an 8-high or lower.  If there is no qualifying low hand, high hand takes the entire pot.
52a63,68
> Six-card stud played 1-4-1 with a twist (also called "six-card option") is sometimes called English stud, as is London lowball.  The term can also apply to a seven-card stud game where both sixth street and seventh street are twist rounds.
> 
> <h3>Seven-card flip</h3>
> 
> Each player is dealt four cards face down, and chooses two of them to turn up.  All cards are turned up simulataneously after everyone has chosen.  As this point, the game proceeds as if it were standard seven-card stud starting on fourth street.
> 
55c71,73
< <h2>Mexican poker</h2>
---
> Initial deal as in standard seven-card stud.  After the first betting round, two upcards are dealt to each player, so each now has two down and three up.  A second betting round is followed by one more upcard and a third betting round.  Finally, the last card is dealt face up, so that each player ends with two downcards and five upcards.  Because eeach player has five upcards on the last round, strights, flushes, and full houses count as "high hand exposed" for the purpose of determining who must bet first.  This game is often played with a [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] more typical of [[Texas holdem]] than stud: in particular, fixed limit with the last two rounds double the limit of the first two.
> 
> <h2>Mexican stud (and Shifting Sands)</h2>
67a86,87
> 
> <h3>Show five</h3>
------
Making_Wikipedia_profitable/Talk|986860023
1a2,4
> 
> ----
> There's no need for any formal arrangements for a Wiki author to make money here.  Wikipedia is a great brewing pot for texts that can be used in many ways.  For example, most of the stuff I've been adding about poker is from a book project I never got around to finishing.  By putting it here, I get to add links to other related things, I get other authors to add their own details, I get feedback from people asking questions about it or commenting on it, etc.  At some point, I still might make a book out of it (or someone else might).  I had never intended to copyright it anyway, so that's no impediment.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Stud_poker|986862423
76a77,78
> <h3>Baseball</h2>
> 
------
Miscellaneous_poker|986862904
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stub page; topics I need to cover here:
> 
> Poker games that don't fit the big three categories: Guts, Indian, Auction...
> 
> Non-poker games commonly played at home poker sessions: Boure, 7-27, 0-55, best flush...
> 
> Poker rule variants applicable to many games: extra hands, bet-after-declare...
> 
------
Stud_poker|986864106
74a75,82
> Various forms of roll-your-own five card stud, often with a stripped deck and wild cards, are called "Mexican stud" or "Mexican poker".  One such variant played by the Casino San Pablo in northern California is has these rules: 8s, 9s, and 10s are stripped from the deck, and a single joker is added (the deck therefore contains 41 cards).  The 7-spot and jack become consecutive, so that 5-6-7-jack-queen, for example, is a straight.  Flush beats a full house (with fewer cards of each suit, they are harder to get).  The joker plays as a bug if it is face-up, and fully wild if it is face down.  The game is played as five-card stud choose-before roll your own.
> 
> <h2>Blind stud</h2>
> 
> Any stud game can also be played "blind", which is by having all cards dealt face down.  This was a common practice in California cardrooms until 1995.  The California gambling law makes specific games named by the law illegal, including twenty-one, faro, fantan, and "stud-horse poker".  Until 1995, the California attorney general's office interpreted this to mean that draw poker was legal and all forms of stud poker were not, so California cardrooms played exclusively draw poker (mostly lowball).  Because of this, blind stud was considered a form of draw--like draw, all cards are hidden.  Unlike draw, players do not discard cards they intend to replace.  In 1995, cardroom owners convinced the state that "stud-horse poker" was an obsolete house-banked game, and that all forms of modern poker were legal.  Today, the most popular game in the state is [[Texas holdem]].
> 
> Not constrained by obscure California law, home games generally do not play blind stud, though some of the games are challenging and well-balanced, including some of those previously offered by California cardrooms.  Some of them got very creative with blind stud games, so they could offer players some variety.  For example, a club in the Sacramento suburbs used to offer a seven-card high/low split blind stud game which was played 3-2-1-1, with two jokers in the deck acting as bugs, and with the double-ace flush rule.
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986870007
35c35,60
< A semi-brilliant way to generate keywords automatically: for each page, the page's keywords are defined by the set of the words in the titles of other pages that link to the page and of other pages to which the page links. --[[LMS]]
---
> A semi-brilliant way to generate keywords automatically: for each page, the page's keywords are defined by the set of the words in the titles of other pages that link to the page and of other pages to which the page links. --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> I think I'd probably stop contributing and telling my friends to contribute if we started running ads here.  I see an ad as a withdrawal from the social bank account.
> 
> RANT
> 
> Let me explain with a better example: door-to-door salesmen.  Once upon a time people had strong notions of hospitality when visitors came calling.  When someone came to see you in person, you invited them in, offered them your hospitality, and listened politely to them.
> 
> Some brilliant marketer decided that this was a great opportunity for him to exploit - he could act as if he were calling on people as friends, and give them a hard-sell for his pet product.  This gave him access to people who would not normally take time to hear his pitch, and in that population was a percentage who were pushed over the edge by this and bought his product.  That is, door-to-door sales worked.
> 
> Now, when was the last time you invited a salesman in and listened to what he had to say as if he were a "normal" guest?  Many people, myself included, have been taken once or twice on a product that wasn't really worth it, and now we're automatically suspicious of everything visitors have to say.
> 
> I haven't run the numbers, but I suspect that if I did I would see a decline in the effectiveness of door-to-door over time, as people wised up.  Somebody made a lot of money before that happened, and that's fine for him, right?  Well, I don't think so, because the by-product has been a less trusting and hospitable society overall.
> 
> I felt this personally when I did some church ministry work.  I had nothing to sell, and my goal was to share philosophies which I found effective with people who I considered to be spiritual brothers and sisters.  No hard sell, no ulterior motives, just that.  Yet virtually everyone I spoke with had that look which said "you're a salesman, and a nuisance by default".  Notably, immigrant populations who hadn't grown up in a door-to-door scam culture generally treated us much more like normal people, and we got along much better.
> 
> So the way I look at it, we all have ended up paying the tab for the sales that were made which shouldn't have otherwise happened. Remarkably enough, I got two phone calls while writing this response.  The caller ID reported "Unknown name", so each time I thought it might be my family calling, since they have caller ID blocked.  Each asked for a roommate by name, and I had to ask whether they were selling something.  Both were, as I had guessed by their I'm-reading-a-script voices.  So I figured "What the heck?" and asked them if they'd like to hear what I had written. At that point they began speaking much more like normal human beings and asked for the address of the wikipedia.  (Then I asked them nicely to put me on the do-not-call list).
> 
> Anyway, that's my general outlook on that kind of marketing.  My university drops magazine ads (whose content is quite opposed to the principles of the university) into my bookstore purchases.  They get money for that, and I have less respect for them in return.  Likewise, if I read an article on World War II in the pedia and see an ad for a set of books which turn out not to be that great, then I'm annoyed the next time I visit the wiki.  Perhaps a trivial amount of tarnish to the wiki's reputation, but in exchange for a likewise trivial amount of money.
> 
> /RANT
> 
> Anyway, if we did go to ads I'd be very tempted to fork the project to my own wiki.  I think it'd be worth it.  -J
> 
> 
------
Atlas_2091|986873392
9c9,11
< Welcome, Atlas!  Put that globe down for a while and write a bit for us!  ;-)  You certainly the only autodidact among us. --[[LMS]]
---
> Welcome, Atlas!  Put that globe down for a while and write a bit for us!  ;-)  You certainly the only autodidact among us. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Thank you!  Quite a place you've got here...like a bit from an early cyberpunk novel come true.  
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986874570
59a60
> ----
60a62
> I think something worth at least knowing is where the money is intended to go.  The above lists upgrading and maintaing wikipedia as sample destinations, but ''make money'' presumably means a lot of it is intended as a reward for creating the site.
------
Atlas_2091|986874660
6c6
< Interests include military history, computer programming, sketching,
---
> Interests include [[Military History]], computer programming, sketching,
------
Total_war|986874828
3c3
< The object of total war is to demoralize your enemy so that he surrenders.
---
> The object of total war is to [[morale|demoralize]] your enemy so that he [[surrender|surrenders]].
------
Video_game/Adventure|986875471
4c4
< The first adventure games to appear were text adventures, which typically use a verb-noun parser to interact with the user.  These were the first things to appear on mainframe computers after ''[[Space War]]'', evolving from early titles like ''[[Wump]]'' and ''[[Adventure]]'' (1972) to the widely popular ''[[Zork]]'' series (1979) which made its way onto the new [[Apple II]] personal computer.  A few text adventures are still played today, notably ''[[Nethack]]'' and [[MUD]]-like things.
---
> The first adventure games to appear were text adventures, which typically use a verb-noun parser to interact with the user.  These were the first things to appear on mainframe computers after ''[[Space War]]'', evolving from early titles like ''[[Wump]]'' and ''[[Adventure]]'' (1972) to the widely popular ''[[Zork]]'' series (1979) which made its way onto the new [[Apple II]] personal computer.  These blend very much into [[/RPG|RPGs]].
8c8
< Another variety of adventure game is the action adventure, which as far as I can tell was introduced by [[Nintendo]] with the very nice title ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1985).  In these, the player controls the character directly, but still gathers items and solves puzzles.  Both these and text adventures blend very much into [[/RPG|RPGs]].
---
> Another variety of adventure game is the action adventure, which as far as I can tell was introduced by [[Nintendo]] with the very nice title ''[[The Legend of Zelda]]'' (1985).  In these, the player controls the character directly, but still gathers items and solves puzzles.  Again, these are very close to RPGs.
------
Video_game/RPG|986875572
3c3
< Among the first computer titles (first?) was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known ''[[Ultima]]'' series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.
---
> Text RPGs evolved from text adventures, and including some titles still played today, such as [[Nethack]] and the various [[MUDs|MUD-like things]].  Among the first computer was ''[[Akalabeth]]'' (1978), which gave rise to the well-known ''[[Ultima]]'' series.  RPGs appeared on consoles somewhat later, starting with the starting with the NES titles ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (1986) and ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' (1987).  The latter, made by Square, is still one of the most prevalent titles today.
------
Northwest_Passage|986876546
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Northwest Passage is a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean through the Arctic archipelago of [[Canada]]. 
> 
> Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans]] attempted to establish this commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents.  
> 
> The Northwest Passage was not finally conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage in the converted 47-ton herring boat [[Gjöa]].  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
------
Northwest_Passage|986876567
3c3
< Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans]] attempted to establish this commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents.  
---
> Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans] attempted to establish this commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents.  
------
Northwest_Passage|986876597
5c5
< The Northwest Passage was not finally conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage in the converted 47-ton herring boat [[Gjöa]].  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
---
> The Northwest Passage was not finally conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage a converted 47-ton herring boat.  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
------
Northwest_Passage|986876648
3c3
< Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans] attempted to establish this commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents.  
---
> Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans] attempted to establish a commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents, calling this route the Nortwest Passage.  
------
Northwest_Passage|986876665
3c3
< Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [Europeans] attempted to establish a commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents, calling this route the Nortwest Passage.  
---
> Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century [[Europeans]] attempted to establish a commercial sea route north and west around the American Continents, calling this route the Nortwest Passage.  
------
Northwest_Passage|986876686
5c5
< The Northwest Passage was not finally conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage a converted 47-ton herring boat.  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
---
> The Northwest Passage was not conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage a converted 47-ton herring boat.  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
------
Northwest_Passage|986876703
5c5
< The Northwest Passage was not conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage a converted 47-ton herring boat.  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
---
> The Northwest Passage was not conquered by sea until 1906, when the [[Norwegian]] explorer [[Roald Amundsen]], who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed an three-year voyage in a converted 47-ton herring boat.  The first single-season passage was not accomplished until 1944, when a Royal Canadian Mounted Police schooner made it through.
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|986882255
3,4c3,4
<  [[/44 BC]]
<  [[/2000]]
---
>  [[/44 BC|44 BC]]
>  [[/2000|2000]]
6,7c6,7
< <b>February, 2001</b>
< :[[Dale Earnhardt]] -- [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
---
> <b>April, 2001</b>
> :[[Willie Stargell]] -- Baseball Hall of Famer (April 10)
10,14d9
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] -- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
< :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
< :[[Ann Sothern]] -- [[actress]] (March 15, 2001)
< :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
< :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
15a11,15
> :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
> :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
> :[[Ann Sothern]] -- [[actress]] (March 15, 2001)
> :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
> :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] -- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
16a17,18
> <b>February, 2001</b>
> :[[Dale Earnhardt]] -- [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
------
Colorado|986884459
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the western United States.  Famous for the Rocky Mountains, where the highest peaks of the range exist.  The state capital and largest city is Denver.
> 
> From west to east, the state consists of desert-like basins, turning into plateaus, then alpine mountains, and then grasslands.
> 
> Mount Elbert is the largest peak in the Rocky Mountains within the continental United States.
> 
> The famous Pikes Peak is just west of Colorado Springs.  Its lone peak is visible from the Kansas border on clear days.
------
Sweden/Kings|986885555
5,6c5,8
< ...
< *[[/Oscar II]] 1872 - 1907
---
> *[[/Karl XIV Johan]] 1818 - 1844
> *[[/Oskar I]] 1844 - 1859
> *[[Karl XV]] 1859 - 1872
> *[[/Oskar II]] 1872 - 1907
------
Sweden/Kings|986885767
2a3,20
> Pfalzisks
> 
> *[[/Karl X Gustav]] 1654 - 1660
> *[[/Karl XI]] 1660 - 1697
> *[[/Karl XII]] 1697 - 1718
> *[[/Ulrika Eleonora]] 1719 - 1720
> 
> Hessen
> 
> *[[/Fredrik I]] 1720 - 1751
> 
> Holstein-Gottorps
> 
> *[[/Adolf Fredrik]] 1751 - 1771
> *[[/Gustav III]] 1771 - 1792
> *[[/Gustav IV Adolf]] 1792 - 1809
> *[[/Karl XIII] 1809 - 1818
> 
7c25
< *[[Karl XV]] 1859 - 1872
---
> *[[/Karl XV]] 1859 - 1872
------
Sweden/Kings|986885837
0a1,2
> Here is a list of the kings of [[Sweden]] until present. I am working myself backwords, adding a few now and then.
> 
------
Popular_tourist_regions|986885931
1a2
> [[Gotland]]
------
Dungeon_Master|986885932
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dungeon Master is one of the first 3d realtime action RPG's. It was first published 1987 on Atari ST.
------
Dungeon_Master|986886058
1a2,3
> 
> ''The primary sense of "dungeonmaster" (or "dungeon master") is the organizer of an [[RPG]] (or so I always thought).''
------
City|986887175
8a9,12
> <b>[[Sweden]]</b>
> * [[Gothenburg]]
> * [[Stockholm]]
> 
17a22
> * [[Gothenburg]]
20a26
> * [[Stockholm]]
------
International_Wikipedia|986887584
23a24,27
> ----
> What a great idea to run parallell wikipedias for different languages! All maintenance problems solved, back-up work and enthusiasm immediatly benefit all the wikis.
> 
> For my own personal taste I would very much like a wikipedia in swedish. The best name for it would be svensk.wikipedia.com with the canonical sv.wikipedia.com as a complement. [[LinusTolke]]
------
Video_game/RPG|986888638
16a17
> * [[Wizardry]] series
------
Cladistics|986891063
16c16,18
< ''I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.''
---
> ''I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.''
> 
> ''Go ahead and fix it to your taste.  I don't have anything against the concept of cladistics, but the current practice violates a principle that it took a lot of painful experience to absorb.  Namely, if the practitioners of an art can't/won't speak in clear, simple language, that's usually a symptom of massive confusion on their part.  I do think the subject deserves an entry.  DJK''
------
Engineering|986893141
22a23
> *[[Social_engineering]]
------
Countries_of_the_World|986893354
1c1,107
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Countries and their capitals:
> 
> Africa:
>    * [Benin]
>    * [Burundi]
>    * [Burkina Faso]
>    * [Canary Islands]
>    * [Chad]
>    * [Egypt]
>    * [Eritrea]
>    * [Ethiopia]
>    * [Kenya] - Nairobi
>    * [Lesotho]
>    * [Liberia] 
>    * [Madagascar]
>    * [Mali]
>    * [Namibia]
>    * [Niger]
>    * [Nigeria]
>    * [Somalia] - Mogadishu
>    * [South Africa] - Capetown
>    * [Swaziland]
>    * [Tanzania] - Dar es Salaam
>    * [Togo]
>    * [Uganda]
>    * [Zimbabwe]
>    * [Zambia]
>    * [Zaire]
> 
> 
> North America:
>    * [Canada] - Ottowa
>    * [Haiti] 
>    * [Mexico] - Mexico City
>    * [United States] - Washington, D.C.
>    * [Trinidad and Tobago]
> 
> Central America:
>    * [Costa Rica]
>    * [Guatemala]
>    * [Panama] - Panama City
> 
> South America:
>    * [Argentina]
>    * [Brazil] - Rio de Janeiro
>    * [Chile] - Santiago
>    * [Colombia] 
>    * [French Guyana]
>    * [Guyana]
>    * [Paraguay]
>    * [Peru] - Lima
>    * [Suriname]
>    * [Uruguay]
>    * [Venezuela]
> 
> Asia and the Middle East:
>    * [Afghanistan]
>    * [China] - Beijing
>    * [India]
>    * [Indonesia]
>    * [Iran]
>    * [Iraq]
>    * [Israel]
>    * [Japan] - Tokyo
>    * [Korea]
>    * [Kuwait]
>    * [Laos]
>    * [Lebanon]
>    * [Mongolia]
>    * [Pakistan]
>    * [Qatar]
>    * [Russia]
>    * [Saudi Arabia]
>    * [Singapore]
>    * [Syria]
>    * [Tadjikistan]
>    * [Thailand]
>    * [Turkey]
>    * [Uzbekistan]
>    * [Vietnam] - Hanoi
> 
> Australia and Pacific Island Nations:
>    * [Australia] - Canberra
>    * [New Zealand]
>    
> 
> Europe:
>    * [Austria]
>    * [Denmark]
>    * [Estonia]
>    * [Finland] - Helsinki
>    * [France] - Paris
>    * [Germany] - Bonn
>    * [Greece] - Athens
>    * [Holland]
>    * [Iceland] - Rejkjavic
>    * [Italy] - Rome
>    * [Latvia] - Riga
>    * [Lithuania]
>    * [Norway]
>    * [Poland]
>    * [Portugal] - Lisbon
>    * [Sweden]
>    * [Switzerland] - Zurich
>    * [Spain]
>    * [United Kingdom] - London
>    * [Yugoslavia]
------
Carboniferous|986893395
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Carboniferous is a Geologic Period that extends from about 280 to 340  million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive coal beds from that age in England and Western Europe. The Carboniferous follows the [[Devonian]] Period and precedes the [[Permian]] Period.  In North America the first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] Period and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]].
> 
> Carboniferous rocks in Europe and Eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of limestone, sandstone, shale and coal beds.  The coal beds provided much of the power for the Industrial Revolution and are still of great economic importance.
> 
> Sea levels in the Carboniferous were lower than in the Devonian.  Extensive lowland swamps and forests in North America and Europe became the Carboniferous coal beds.  In Europe and Eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the late Carboniferous.  More diverse geology existed elsewhere of course.  Marine life is especially rich in crinoids and other echinoderms.  Brachiopods were abundant.  Trilobites became quite uncommon.  On land, large and diverse plant populations existed.  Land vertebrates included large amphibians.
> 
> The southern continents remained tied together into the Supercontinent [[Gondwana]] which collided with North America-Europe ([[Laurussia]]) along the present line of Eastern North America.  In the same time frame, much of present Eastern Eurasia welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains.  Most of the Mesozoic supercontinent of [[Pangea]] was now assembled although pieces of present East Asia still remained detached.
------
Carbon_Nanotubes|986893415
7c7
< Nanotubes can be opened and filled with materials such as biological molecules, raising the possibility of applications in biotechnology.  They can be used to dissipate heat from tiny computer chips.  The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in nanoengineering.
---
> Nanotubes can be opened and filled with materials such as biological molecules, raising the possibility of applications in biotechnology.  They can be used to dissipate heat from tiny computer chips.  The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in [[nanoengineering]].
------
Countries_of_the_World|986893475
64a65
>    * [Jordan]
------
Engineering|986893500
4c4
< *[[Electrical Engineering]]
---
> *[[ElectricalEngineering]]
12c12
< *[[Computer Science]]
---
> *[[Computer science]]
15a16,17
> *[[Social_engineering]]
> *[[Nanoengineering]]
22,23c24,27
< *[[reverse engineering]]
< *[[Social_engineering]]
---
> *[[Reverse engineering]]
> *[[Engineering_Statistics]]
> *[[SI_unit]]
> 
------
Carboniferous|986893527
5c5
< Sea levels in the Carboniferous were lower than in the Devonian.  Extensive lowland swamps and forests in North America and Europe became the Carboniferous coal beds.  In Europe and Eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the late Carboniferous.  More diverse geology existed elsewhere of course.  Marine life is especially rich in crinoids and other echinoderms.  Brachiopods were abundant.  Trilobites became quite uncommon.  On land, large and diverse plant populations existed.  Land vertebrates included large amphibians.
---
> Sea levels in the Carboniferous were lower than in the Devonian.  Extensive lowland swamps and forests in North America and Europe became the Carboniferous coal beds.  In Eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the late Carboniferous.  More diverse geology existed elsewhere of course.  Marine life is especially rich in crinoids and other echinoderms.  Brachiopods were abundant.  Trilobites became quite uncommon.  On land, large and diverse plant populations existed.  Land vertebrates included large amphibians.
------
Martin_Scorcese|986894579
8c8,9
< :[[King of Comedy]]
---
> :[[King of Comedy]]
> :[[Kundun]]
------
Requested_articles|986897801
24c24
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]] -- [[Frank Zappa]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]]
------
Gothic_language|986898220
1c1
< The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Chistian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
---
> The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Christian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
------
Gottlieb_Fichte/Talk|986904590
3c3,5
< Also, I think a number of claims here need to be made substantially clearer.  For example, "He picked up the problem of Dualism? where Kant? left it and sought to solve some of the epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]?."  So, where did Kant "leave" the problem of dualism, and just what does it mean to say Fichte "picked it up" there?  Also, just what are the "epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]"?  I can't tell, but I sure would like to know! --[[LMS]]
---
> Also, I think a number of claims here need to be made substantially clearer.  For example, "He picked up the problem of Dualism? where Kant? left it and sought to solve some of the epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]?."  So, where did Kant "leave" the problem of dualism, and just what does it mean to say Fichte "picked it up" there?  Also, just what are the "epistemological? and ethical? concerns of the [objective knowledge]? and the [subjective reason]"?  I can't tell, but I sure would like to know! --[[LMS]]
> ----
> ACK! Larry, must you make me go back and do research I've already done?  :-7  Don't have my notes with me now (at work).  I've got most of the warrants for my arguments written down somewhere's, but this was the short version of my write-up on Fichte.  I entered it because I couldn't find my elongated version complete with quotes from both Kant and Fichte.  Also, I doubt my Philosophy Prof was too concerned about my accuracy (disstressing).  Thanks for the critique!  --[[Invictus]]
------
Requested_articles|986906442
32c32
< <b>[[Folklore]]</b> (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.)
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]</b> [[Urban legend]]  (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.) 
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] 
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Cladistics|986906926
16c16
< ''I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.''
---
> I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.
18a19,22
> 
> I've seen some cladistics and as far as I can tell it uses no more jargon then any other field.  A lot of the terms, as stated, are used by other methodologists as well.  But more to the point, except for perhaps clade each of the words expresses a concept which doesn't really have a compact synonym in normal English.  So they're somewhat unavoidable, just like jargon like ''endoplasmic reticulum'' is unavoidable in protistology.
> 
> Aside from that, the article above seems fine, except perhaps for a negative image cast towards the subject.  But whether that's deserved or not I can't say; I am not a biologist, so have no idea about the objections you present.  As stated, most trees I've seen come out relatively close to earlier ones - and when they don't there are darn good reasons - and most recent sources on evolution I've seen are fairly pro-cladistics.  But I really don't know that much.
------
City|986906968
12a13,15
> <b>[[United Kingdom]]</b>
> * [[United Kingdom/London|London]]
> 
------
England|986907149
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the major divisions of the [[United Kingdom]] 
> 
> Its major administrative subdivisions are known as counties.
> 
> [[England/Counties]]
------
Frank_Zappa|986909086
5a6,71
> 
> After several more albums with the Mothers including the Doo Wop flavoured "Crusing With Ruben And The Jets", Zappa released the solo instrumental album "Hot Rats", featuring his free [[jazz]] inflected guitar playing, as well as a live set recorded at the Fillmore East and featuring [[John Lennon]].  He continued this high rate of production through the early 70s, including the excellent and accessible albums "One Size Fits All" and "Apostrophe", with a new versions of the Mothers.
> 
> After a break Zappa returned, and much of his later work was influenced by his use of the [[Synclavier]] as a compositional and performance tool and his mastery of studio techniques for producing specific instrumental effects.  His work was also more explicitly political satirising the rise of [[television evangelists]] and the [[Republican party]].
> 
> Discography:
> * Freak Out! (1966)
> * Absolutely Free (1967)
> * Lumpy Gravy (1967)
> * We're Only In It For The Money (1968)
> * Cruising With Ruben & The Jets (1968)
> * Uncle Meat (1969)
> * Mothermania (1969)
> * Hot Rats (1969)
> * Burnt Weeny Sandwich (1969)
> * Weasels Ripped My Flesh (1970)
> * Chunga's Revenge (1970)
> * Fillmore East - June 1971 (1971)
> * 200 Motels (1971)
> * Just Another Band From L.A. (1972)
> * Waka/Jawaka (1972)
> * The Grand Wazoo (1972)
> * Over-Nite Sensation (1973)
> * Apostrophe(1974)
> * Roxy & Elsewhere (1974)
> * One Size Fits All (1975)
> * Bongo Fury (1975)
> * Zoot Allures (1976)
> * Zappa In New York (1978)
> * Studio Tan (1978)
> * Sleep Dirt (1979)
> * Sheik Yerbouti (1979)
> * Orchestral Favorites (1979)
> * Joe's Garage (1979)
> * Tinseltown Rebellion (1981)
> * Shut Up 'N' Play Yer Guitar (1981)
> * You Are What You Is (1981)
> * Ship Arriving Too Late To Save A Drowning Witch (1982)
> * The Man From Utopia (1983)
> * Baby Snakes (1983)
> * London Symphony Orchestra vol 1 (1983)
> * The Perfect Stranger (1984)
> * Them Or Us (1984)
> * Thing-Fish (1984)
> * Francesco Zappa (1984)
> * FZ Meets The Mothers Of Prevention (1985)
> * Does Humor Belong In Music? (1986)
> * Jazz From Hell (1986)
> * London Symphony Orchestra vol 2 (1987)
> * Guitar (1988)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 1 (1988)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 2 (1988)
> * Broadway The Hard Way (1988)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 3 (1989)
> * The Best Band You Never Heard In Your Life (1991)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 4 (1991)
> * Make A Jazz Noise Here (1991)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 5 (1992)
> * You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore vol 6 (1992)
> * Playground Psychotics (1992)
> * Ahead Of Their Time (1993)
> * The Yellow Shark (1993)
> * Civilization, Phaze III (1994)
> * Strictly Commercial (1995)
> * The Lost Episodes (1996)
> * Läther (1996)
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986909812
59a60,61
> :I think a better analogy would be of someone renting a large hall for a community event, in exchange for advertising during the event.  If you can provide a better meeting place, please do it.  Reliable hosting for CPU-intensive services is not cheap.  (I went through two cheap hosting companies that couldn't handle even the minimal wiki traffic of usemod.com.)  Personally, I am greatly impressed by the openness of the Wikipedia.  Even most "free" sites don't allow users to copy the full content for another site.  --CliffordAdams (author of UseModWiki)
> 
62c64
< I think something worth at least knowing is where the money is intended to go.  The above lists upgrading and maintaing wikipedia as sample destinations, but ''make money'' presumably means a lot of it is intended as a reward for creating the site.
---
> I think something worth at least knowing is where the money is intended to go.  The above lists upgrading and maintaing wikipedia as sample destinations, but ''make money'' presumably means a lot of it is intended as a reward for creating the site.
------
Rush_Limbaugh/Dittoheads|986912816
1a2,3
> 
> 'Ditto' was started by Rush Limbaugh as a shorthand way for callers to say they liked the show and to save time.
------
Popular_tourist_regions|986913115
1c1
< [[Hawaii]]
---
> [[Bali]]
2a3,6
> [[Grand Canyon]]
> [[Hawaii]]
> [[Niagra Falls]]
> [[Yellowstone National Park]]
------
City|986913291
2a3,5
> <b>[[Czech Republic]]</b>
> * [[Prague]]
> 
17d19
< * [[City of New York|New York City]]
18a21,23
> * [[Dallas, Texas]]
> * [[Houston, Texas]]
> * [[City of New York|New York City]]
24a30
> * [[Dallas, Texas]]
25a32
> * [[Houston, Texas]]
------
Criminal_law|986913391
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Criminal law</b> simply is legal proceedings related to prosecution of crimes.
------
Criminal_law|986916811
1c1
< <b>Criminal law</b> simply is legal proceedings related to prosecution of crimes.
---
> <b>Criminal law</b> is the body of law relating to prosecution of crimes and defending against such prosecution.
------
France|986917611
5c5
< France is the home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tiranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their [[Constitution]], they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
---
> France is the home of the French revolution, loosely inspired by [[American Revolution]].  Their anthem is still about overthrowing tyranny, and their motto is "liberty, equality, fraternity". The capital city, [[Paris]], is home to the [[Eiffel Tower]], a really neat steel tower finished build in 1889.  They speak [[French language|French]] here. Instead of having amendments to their [[Constitution]], they make another one. Current one is the 5th, there are talks of making a 6th, and a few have not been counted.
------
SandBox|986918678
26c26
< What about pics? can ya' do that too? loretta
---
> What about pics? can u do that too? loretta
------
Countries_of_the_World|986919213
3,85c3,85
< Africa:
<    * [Benin]
<    * [Burundi]
<    * [Burkina Faso]
<    * [Canary Islands]
<    * [Chad]
<    * [Egypt]
<    * [Eritrea]
<    * [Ethiopia]
<    * [Kenya] - Nairobi
<    * [Lesotho]
<    * [Liberia] 
<    * [Madagascar]
<    * [Mali]
<    * [Namibia]
<    * [Niger]
<    * [Nigeria]
<    * [Somalia] - Mogadishu
<    * [South Africa] - Capetown
<    * [Swaziland]
<    * [Tanzania] - Dar es Salaam
<    * [Togo]
<    * [Uganda]
<    * [Zimbabwe]
<    * [Zambia]
<    * [Zaire]
< 
< 
< North America:
<    * [Canada] - Ottowa
<    * [Haiti] 
<    * [Mexico] - Mexico City
<    * [United States] - Washington, D.C.
<    * [Trinidad and Tobago]
< 
< Central America:
<    * [Costa Rica]
<    * [Guatemala]
<    * [Panama] - Panama City
< 
< South America:
<    * [Argentina]
<    * [Brazil] - Rio de Janeiro
<    * [Chile] - Santiago
<    * [Colombia] 
<    * [French Guyana]
<    * [Guyana]
<    * [Paraguay]
<    * [Peru] - Lima
<    * [Suriname]
<    * [Uruguay]
<    * [Venezuela]
< 
< Asia and the Middle East:
<    * [Afghanistan]
<    * [China] - Beijing
<    * [India]
<    * [Indonesia]
<    * [Iran]
<    * [Iraq]
<    * [Israel]
<    * [Japan] - Tokyo
<    * [Jordan]
<    * [Korea]
<    * [Kuwait]
<    * [Laos]
<    * [Lebanon]
<    * [Mongolia]
<    * [Pakistan]
<    * [Qatar]
<    * [Russia]
<    * [Saudi Arabia]
<    * [Singapore]
<    * [Syria]
<    * [Tadjikistan]
<    * [Thailand]
<    * [Turkey]
<    * [Uzbekistan]
<    * [Vietnam] - Hanoi
< 
< Australia and Pacific Island Nations:
<    * [Australia] - Canberra
<    * [New Zealand]
---
> [[Africa]]:
>    * [[Benin]]
>    * [[Burundi]]
>    * [[Burkina Faso]]
>    * [[Canary Islands]]
>    * [[Chad]]
>    * [[Egypt]]
>    * [[Eritrea]]
>    * [[Ethiopia]]
>    * [[Kenya]] - [[Nairobi]]
>    * [[Lesotho]]
>    * [[Liberia]] 
>    * [[Madagascar]]
>    * [[Mali]]
>    * [[Namibia][
>    * [[Niger]]
>    * [[Nigeria]]
>    * [[Somalia]] - [[Mogadishu]]
>    * [[South Africa]] - [[Capetown]]
>    * [[Swaziland]]
>    * [[Tanzania]] - [[Dar es Salaam]]
>    * [[Togo]]
>    * [[Uganda]]
>    * [[Zimbabwe]]
>    * [[Zambia]]
>    * [[Zaire]]
> 
> 
> [[North America]]:
>    * [[Canada]] - [[Ottowa]]
>    * [[Haiti]] 
>    * [[Mexico]] - [[Mexico City]]
>    * [[United States]] - [[Washington DC]]
>    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
> 
> [[Central America]]:
>    * [[Costa Rica]]
>    * [[Guatemala]]
>    * [[Panama]] - [[Panama City]]
> 
> [[South America]]:
>    * [[Argentina]]
>    * [[Brazil]] - [[Brasilia]]
>    * [[Chile]] - [[Santiago]]
>    * [[Colombia]] 
>    * [[French Guyana]]
>    * [[Guyana]]
>    * [[Paraguay]]
>    * [[Peru]] - [[Lima]]
>    * [[Suriname]]
>    * [[Uruguay]]
>    * [[Venezuela]]
> 
> [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]:
>    * [[Afghanistan]]
>    * [[China]] - [[Beijing]]
>    * [[India]]
>    * [[Indonesia]]
>    * [[Iran]]
>    * [[Iraq]]
>    * [[Israel]]
>    * [[Japan]] - [[Tokyo]]
>    * [[Jordan]]
>    * [[Korea]]
>    * [[Kuwait]]
>    * [[Laos]]
>    * [[Lebanon]]
>    * [[Mongolia]]
>    * [[Pakistan]]
>    * [[Qatar]]
>    * [[Russia]]
>    * [[Saudi Arabia]]
>    * [[Singapore]]
>    * [[Syria]]
>    * [[Tadjikistan]]
>    * [[Thailand]]
>    * [[Turkey]]
>    * [[Uzbekistan]]
>    * [[Vietnam]] - [[Hanoi]]
> 
> [[Australia]]and Pacific Island Nations:
>    * [[Australia]] - [[Canberra]]
>    * [[New Zealand]]
88,108c88,108
< Europe:
<    * [Austria]
<    * [Denmark]
<    * [Estonia]
<    * [Finland] - Helsinki
<    * [France] - Paris
<    * [Germany] - Bonn
<    * [Greece] - Athens
<    * [Holland]
<    * [Iceland] - Rejkjavic
<    * [Italy] - Rome
<    * [Latvia] - Riga
<    * [Lithuania]
<    * [Norway]
<    * [Poland]
<    * [Portugal] - Lisbon
<    * [Sweden]
<    * [Switzerland] - Zurich
<    * [Spain]
<    * [United Kingdom] - London
<    * [Yugoslavia]
---
> [[Europe]]:
>    * [[Austria]]
>    * [[Denmark]]
>    * [[Estonia]]
>    * [[Finland]] - [[Helsinki]]
>    * [[France]] - [[Paris]]
>    * [[Germany]] - [[Berlin]]
>    * [[Greece]] - [[Athens]]
>    * [[Holland]]
>    * [[Iceland]] - [[Rejkjavic]]
>    * [[Italy]] - [[Rome]]
>    * [[Latvia]] - [[Riga]]
>    * [[Lithuania]]
>    * [[Norway]] - [[Oslo]]
>    * [[Poland]] - [[Warsaw]]
>    * [[Portugal]] - [[Lisbon]]
>    * [[Sweden]]
>    * [[Switzerland]] - [[Zurich]]
>    * [[Spain]] - [[Madrid]]
>    * [[United Kingdom]] - [[London]]
>    * [[Yugoslavia]]
------
Countries_of_the_World|986919243
83c83
< [[Australia]]and Pacific Island Nations:
---
> [[Australia]] and Pacific Island Nations:
------
Countries_of_the_World|986919879
3a4,5
>    * [[Algeria]]
>    * [[Angola]]
4a7
>    * [[Botswana]]
7a11
>    * [[Cameroon]]
8a13,14
>    * [[Comoros]]
>    * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
11a18
>    * [[Ghana]]
17,18c24
<    * [[Namibia][
<    * [[Niger]]
---
>    * [[Namibia]]
28d33
<    * [[Zaire]]
31a37,39
>    * [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
>    * [[Barbados]]
>    * [[Bahamas]]
32a41,44
>    * [[Cuba]] - [[Havana]]
>    * [[Dominican Republic]]
>    * [[The Federation of St. Kitts and Nevis]]
>    * [[Grenada]]
33a46
>    * [[Jamaica]] - [[Kingston]]
34a48,50
>    * [[St. Lucia]]
>    * [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]]
>    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
38a55
>    * [[Belize]]
39a57
>    * [[El Salvador]]
40a59
>    * [[Honduras]]
41a61
>    * [[Nicaragua]]
------
Comoros|986920011
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Comoros (République Fédérale Islamique des Comores) is an independent country at the northern end of the [[Mozambique Channel]] in the [[Indian Ocean]].  Comoros has an estimated population of 580,000 in 2000.
------
Zambia|986920275
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zambia is a republic in south central [[Africa.]]  It borders the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Tanzania]] [[Malawi]] [[Mozambique]] [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]] and [[Angola]]. Zambia's capital and largest city is [[Lusaka]].
------
Countries_of_the_World|986920328
33c33
<    * [[Zambia]]
---
>    * [[Zambia]] - [[Lusaka]]
------
Lusaka|986920548
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lusaka is the capital city of [[Zambia]].  It is located in south central [[Zambia]] on a plateau at 4200 feet in altitude.
> 
> Lusaka was founded in 1905 by [[European]] settlers. In 1935 it replaced [[Livingstone]] as the capital of [[Northern Rhodesia]], a british colony.  In 1964 it became the capital of the newly independent [[Zambia]]. Population (1990) 982,362.
------
City|986920932
23d22
< * [[City of New York|New York City]]
24a24,26
> * [[City of New York|New York City]]
> * [[Portland Oregon]]
> 
26a29
> * [[Mexico City, Mexico]] - 9,800,000 / 16,900,000 metro area
------
City|986921067
25a26
> * [[San Francisco]]
------
City|986921514
29a30,31
> * [[Shanghai, China]] - 13,700,000 / 14,200,000 metro area
> * [[São Paulo, Brasil]] - 9,800,000 / 16,800,000 metro area
30a33,36
> * [[Tokyo, Japan]] - 7,800,000 / 27,000,000 metro area
> * [[City of New York|New York City]] - 7,400,000 / 20,000,000 metro area
> * [[London, England]] - ? / 7,000,000 metro area
> * [[Kolkata, India]] - 4,300,000 / 11,000,000 metro area
------
Atlas_2091|986922155
9a10,11
> 
> I don't see any verb in that sentence, Larry, but I assume you meant it to be "are not", in which case I agree.  I am another one of the autodidacts here (although I think I have a high school diploma in a drawer somewhere that I haven't seen in 20 years).  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Countries_of_the_World|986922608
0a1,2
> ''[[Countries of the world]] already exists, and can claim seniority.  :-)  Probably, this page should be moved to a different title (e.g., [[countries listed by continent]] or something like that).''
> 
------
Madagascar|986925684
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Madagascar</b> is a [[country]] and [[island]] located off of the eastern coast of [[Africa]].
> 
------
Frank_Zappa|986925834
5c5
< The Mothers were signed by well known producer Tom Wilson, and soon produced the double album "Freak Out" (1966) a mixture of often topical R'n'B and experimental sound collage.  The similarly eclectic "Absolutely Free" and "Lumpy Gravy" followed the next year.  Zappa also recorded "We're Only In It For The Money", a withering satire on both flower power and the prevailing mood of mainstream America, who's cover parodied that of [[The Beatles/Sgt Pepper|Sergeant Pepper]], replacing flowers with vegetables.
---
> The Mothers were signed by well known producer Tom Wilson, and soon produced the double album "Freak Out" (1966) a mixture of often topical R'n'B and experimental sound collage.  The similarly eclectic "Absolutely Free" and "Lumpy Gravy" followed the next year.  Zappa also recorded "We're Only In It For The Money", a withering satire on both [[flower power]] and the prevailing mood of mainstream America, who's cover parodied that of [[The Beatles/Sgt Pepper|Sergeant Pepper]], replacing flowers with vegetables.
------
Karl_Popper|986928413
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Emmanuel Kant]]'s critical philosphy which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
> 
> The rise of [[Nazism]], and particularly the German annexation of Austria in 1938, prompted Popper to also work on political and social philosophy, where he criticized popular social theories of the day in favor of a more scientific approach.  This led him to denounce authoritarian politics in such works as ''The Open Society and its Enemies''.
> 
> His scientific work was influenced by his study of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity, which he used to exemplify the difference between a truly scientific theory and the pseudo-scientific theories of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Sigmund Freud]].  In Popper's view, the difference was that theories such as Einstein's could be readily ''falsified'' by simple experiments.  This criterion of [[falsifiability]], and the practice of using experiments not to verify but to criticize scientific theories, are the cornerstones of true science in his view, in contrast to the common belief at he time (first proposed by [[Francis Bacon]]) that science was based on [[inductive reasoning]], and experimental verification.  His work ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'' (1959, an updated translation of ''Logik der Forschung'') is a classic in the field.
> 
> Works by Popper:
> 
> * ''Logik der Forschung'', 1934
> * ''The Open Society and its Enemies'', 1945
> * ''The Poverty of Historicism'', 1961
> * ''Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge'', 1963
> * ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', 1959
> * ''Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach'', 1972
> * ''Unended Quest; An Intellectual Autobiography'', 1976
> * ''The Self and Its Brain: An Argument for Interactionism'', 1977
> * ''The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism'', 1982
> * ''Realism and the Aim of Science'', 1982
> * ''The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality'', 1994
> * ''Knowledge and the Mind-Body Problem: In Defence of Interactionism'', 1994
> 
> Other works and collections:
> 
> * ''Critical Rationalism: A Re-Statement and Defence'' by David Miller, 1994
> * ''Popper Selections'' (Text by Popper, selected and edited by David Miller)
> * ''All Life Is Problem Solving'' (Text by Popper, translation by Patrick Camiller), 1999
> 
> External sources:
> 
> * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/popper/ Karl Popper] from [http://plato.stanford.edu/ Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
> * [http://www.eeng.dcu.ie/%7Etkpw/ The Karl Popper Web]
> 
------
Karl_Popper|986928462
1c1
< Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Emmanuel Kant]]'s critical philosphy which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
---
> Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s critical philosphy which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
------
Karl_Popper|986928703
1c1
< Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s critical philosphy which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
---
> Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[critical philosophy]] which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
------
Philosophy|986928903
18c18
< '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism -- GermanIdealism
---
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism -- GermanIdealism -- [[Critical philosophy]]
------
Critical_philosophy|986929620
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy'' movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosphy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
> 
------
Critical_philosophy|986929639
1c1
< Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy'' movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosphy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
---
> Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy''' movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosphy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986930390
58c58,59
< Anyway, if we did go to ads I'd be very tempted to fork the project to my own wiki.  I think it'd be worth it.  -J
---
> Anyway, if we did go to ads I'd be very tempted to fork the project to my own wiki. (I guess that sounds like a threat,
> which it really isn't intended to be.  I'd just hate to see the open content everyone's written be surrounded with a bunch of  advertising slogans from companies that are paying for banners precisely because they don't understand the wiki nature.) -J
60a62,67
> 
> To me, that still has the same kinds of problems, depending
> how it's done.  It's selling part of the pedia's reputation
> to a random company.  Especially when it's the kind of advertising that's like "Now Johnny will play 'America, the Beautiful' for us on this nice Kawai(tm) piano.  BTW, he keeps in top playing condition by eating Wheaties(tm), the breakfast of musical champions!" because Kawai and Wheaties were the highest bidders.  Something more like "this site sponsored by Andover.net" down at the bottom of the page seems, OTOH, to my twisted fancies much more acceptable - perhaps because it's more honest.  They help us out, and we're grateful.  But they're not demanding our attention or trying to manipulate our sensibilities.
> 
> How much does the pedia use in the way of system resources, anyway?  My friend at zayda.com who hosts my wikis originally turned me on to this site, and might be interested in having the pedia there.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|986932147
9a10
> * [[/Semantic disputes]]
32c33
< Great Job with the Poker pages!
---
> Great Job with the Poker pages!
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986932505
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On the Wikipedia [[semantic dispute]] page, it is pointed out that some people do not consider such disputes to be "genuine" disputes.  I am one of those people, so I'll explain why.
> 
> I do not mean to suggest that semantic disputes are unimportant; quite to the contrary, they can be matters of life and death.  Manufacturers of herbal medicines, for example, use phrases like "contains no drugs" to make the public believe that their products are safe.  This of course depends upon the confusion between the consumer's general understanding of what a "drug" is, in contrast with a more narrow deifinition used by the seller that excludes natural drugs.  Such deliberately deceptive use of language can be dangerous.
> 
> What I emphasize, rather, is that semantic disputes are all disputes about the use of words, which are arbitrary, and are not "real" disputes about the ''referents'' of those words.  If you have a semantic argument about the use of the word "drug" or "standard of living", you are arguing about the use of those words, but you are ''not'' arguing about drugs or standards of living.  Further, such disputes do not serve to improve one's knowledge of the real world at all, except one's knowledge of human language.  Semantic disputes are used more often as a rhetorical tactic to ''avoid'' arguing about actual propositions, and to convince others of a proposition which one might believe for reasons other than rational argument.
> 
> First, to me, the purpose of rational argument is to bring out points in favor of and against a proposition in order to more accurately judge the truth of the proposition.  Even if some person initiates an argument in order to convince others of a proposition rather than to investigate it himself, one presumes that argument is the means by which he has formerly arrived at the conclusion he wishes to support, and that once the argument is begun, participants may bring up ideas that will lead to re-evaluation.
> 
> Second, words are arbitrary.  Names of things do not contain any information about the things themselves.  Even though they may have ''connotations'' that contain information, their use in rational argument is restricted to their denotations.  For example, if you and I are walking in the park and I point to a bird and say "That is a finch", what do you now know about finches?  Absolutely nothing.  You might later point to a similar creature and ask "Is that a finch as well?" and I might answer "No, that's a sparrow", or "Yes, that's a finch", but you still don't know anything about finches.  You know something about speakers of the English language, namely that they call certain kinds of birds "finches", but nothing at all about finches themselves.  Now if I told you that finches were small songbirds, that they had strong short beaks for crushing seeds, that there are many different species with different markings, and that they are commonly domesticated, then you know some actual facts about finches.  You might use these facts in real life: if you see a small songbird with a short beak in a cage, you might offer it seeds, while if you saw one with a long skinny beak you might assume that it prefers soft worms or insects.
> 
> Words can have connotations with meaning, but they are still arbitrary.  If you heard the term "zebra finch", you might assume from the word's connotations that it is a finch with black and white markings, and you'd be correct in this case.  But you still don't know anything more about finches (if your assumption is verified you know that some of them have black and white markings, but still nothing else).  And you don't know anything at all about zebra finches other than what you already know about finches.  Do they have different eating or mating habits?  Do they live in certain locations?  You don't know--you only know the name.  Connotations can also mislead you: if you heard the term "goldfinch" you might assume that it is a finch that's mostly yellow, and you'd be wrong.  When you see an actual goldfinch, you'll see that it is brown with black, white, and bright yellow markings.  If you happened to call goldfinches "bananafinches", nothing at all about them would change; everything you know about those birds you'd still know, and every argument you had about them would be exactly the same.  If you and a friend argued about which word better described the bird, you would not be having an argument about the bird itself--the goldfinches (or bananafinches) won't change a bit during your argument, and you and your friend do not disagree about any fact you might know about them.
> 
> In the semantic dispute example given, Joshua and Tim argue about whether the United States has the highest standard of living, but they disagree about the use of that term.  What is the proposition being argued?  At first, it was "The US has the highest standard of living".  During that argument, the parties accept as factual that the US has the highest per capita income, but dispute whether that reflects "standard of living".  They now therefore have a semantic dispute about whether a particular measurement--per capita income--is an appropriate definition of "standard of living".  This dispute is not about the original porposition; it is a dispute about the proper use of language.  They are now arguing the entirely different proposition "per capita income is the best measure of standard of living".  This is a legitimate thing to argue, and many reasonable arguments can be made on both sides, but no matter how much you argue about how the term should be used, nothing at all will change about the US or any other country, and you won't learn anything about them by arguing what words to use.  In fact, you can use this semantic dispute to avoid arguing about the original proposition.  You may ask what purpose the term "standard of living" serves, what the majority of people think when they hear it, and these are legitimate concerns. It might be that that's really what you want to know after all: what is a good measure for quality of life?  This is a fine argument to have, but it is not related to the original proposition.
> 
> As an example of semantic dispute used to avoid argument, creationists dispute the proposition that "various species of living things evolved from other species".  When many speciation events were observed and documented by biologists, they found it difficult to support that proposition.  They then contended that "species" was not an appropriate term for their contention.   They admitted that "microevolution" and speciation could occur within "created kinds", but they contended that new created kinds could not evolve from other created kinds.  They can now either decline to define "created kind", or change their definition as needed to dance around any further evidence discovered for the original proposition.  This change of language didn't change any of the facts: the events called "speciation" still occur, and fossils still show what they show, but the creationists' use of language enables them to avoid the original proposition and its original intent while still appearing to be rigorous and scientific.
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986933079
15,16c15
< As an example of semantic dispute used to avoid argument, creationists dispute the proposition that "various species of living things evolved from other species".  When many speciation events were observed and documented by biologists, they found it difficult to support that proposition.  They then contended that "species" was not an appropriate term for their contention.   They admitted that "microevolution" and speciation could occur within "created kinds", but they contended that new created kinds could not evolve from other created kinds.  They can now either decline to define "created kind", or change their definition as needed to dance around any further evidence discovered for the original proposition.  This change of language didn't change any of the facts: the events called "speciation" still occur, and fossils still show what they show, but the creationists' use of language enables them to avoid the original proposition and its original intent while still appearing to be rigorous and scientific.
< 
---
> As an example of semantic dispute used to avoid argument, creationists dispute the proposition that "various species of living things evolved from other species".  When many speciation events were observed and documented by biologists, they found it difficult to support that proposition.  They then contended that "species" was not an appropriate term for their contention.   They admitted that "microevolution" and speciation could occur within "created kinds", but they contended that new created kinds could not evolve from other created kinds.  They can now either decline to define "created kind", or change their definition as needed to dance around any further evidence discovered for the original proposition.  This change of language didn't change any of the facts: the events called "speciation" still occur, and fossils still show what they show, but the creationists' use of language enables them to avoid the original proposition and its original intent while still appearing to be rigorous and scientific.
------
History_of_Spain|986933662
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Modern spanish history is anything else than the history of their nations. Spanish state has been constructed on the opression of these nations.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986934908
15c15,25
< As an example of semantic dispute used to avoid argument, creationists dispute the proposition that "various species of living things evolved from other species".  When many speciation events were observed and documented by biologists, they found it difficult to support that proposition.  They then contended that "species" was not an appropriate term for their contention.   They admitted that "microevolution" and speciation could occur within "created kinds", but they contended that new created kinds could not evolve from other created kinds.  They can now either decline to define "created kind", or change their definition as needed to dance around any further evidence discovered for the original proposition.  This change of language didn't change any of the facts: the events called "speciation" still occur, and fossils still show what they show, but the creationists' use of language enables them to avoid the original proposition and its original intent while still appearing to be rigorous and scientific.
---
> As an example of semantic dispute used to avoid argument, creationists dispute the proposition that "various species of living things evolved from other species".  When many speciation events were observed and documented by biologists, they found it difficult to support that proposition.  They then contended that "species" was not an appropriate term for their contention.   They admitted that "microevolution" and speciation could occur within "created kinds", but they contended that new created kinds could not evolve from other created kinds.  They can now either decline to define "created kind", or change their definition as needed to dance around any further evidence discovered for the original proposition.  This change of language didn't change any of the facts: the events called "speciation" still occur, and fossils still show what they show, but the creationists' use of language enables them to avoid the original proposition and its original intent while still appearing to be rigorous and scientific.
> ----
> ----
> Afred Korsybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of General Semantics, had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one whould never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
> 
> Social scientitsts have the steepest hill to climb in this regard.  There is no broad agreement on what the diescrete objects and phenomena of human and social behavior ''are,'' much less what to call them.  Consequently, in trying to solve human problems, and in trying to discuss the solving of human problems, there is a stumbling block which is never entirely out from under foot.  The confereees may use the same words during the discussion, but the words seldom, if ever, embody precisely the same understanding within the individual minds on either side of the table.
> 
> It is of some benefit to us, therefore, to try to form some general agreement both beforehand and then repeatedly during the course of discussion as to what significant terms ''mean''.  Assumptions in this regard are uniformly fatal to constructive dialogue.  ''(see my remarks under Socialism/Talk.)''  So, to some degree, there tends to be some undercurrent of greater or lesser semnatic dispute taking place in every discussion of human matters.  Its effect may be neglegible, or it may be determinative, depending on the subject matter and upon the degree of disparity between respective personal understandings of the definitions in use.
> 
> I note a particular state of affairs stemming from the paucity of verifiability (or falsifiability) of assumptions and propositions used in the social sciences.  The field in general is positively littered with a jumbled surfeit of one-man theories and schools of thought.  One sees a greater or lesser number of adherents to each of these schools, depending on the degree of publicity each has received, and the amount of scholarly agreement each has garnered, but you do not see three or four more or less unified schools of thought, each agreeing in the main but differing in certain particulars, and each supported by a staggeringly large body of experimental evidence.  So, debates in the sciences and debates in the humanities have, of a necessity, totally different characters.  And debates in the latter are much less frequently settled for the same reasons.  The antagonists not only come into the discussions speaking in different languages - they refuse during the course of same to reach agreement on what is being ''said'', much less what is being talked ''about''. -- AyeSpy
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986935087
22c22
< It is of some benefit to us, therefore, to try to form some general agreement both beforehand and then repeatedly during the course of discussion as to what significant terms ''mean''.  Assumptions in this regard are uniformly fatal to constructive dialogue.  ''(see my remarks under Socialism/Talk.)''  So, to some degree, there tends to be some undercurrent of greater or lesser semnatic dispute taking place in every discussion of human matters.  Its effect may be neglegible, or it may be determinative, depending on the subject matter and upon the degree of disparity between respective personal understandings of the definitions in use.
---
> It is of some benefit to us, therefore, to try to form some general agreement both beforehand and then repeatedly during the course of discussion as to what significant terms ''mean''.  Assumptions in this regard are uniformly fatal to constructive dialogue.  ''(see my remarks under [[Socialism/Talk]].)''  So, to some degree, there tends to be some undercurrent of greater or lesser semantic dispute taking place in every discussion of human matters.  Its effect may be neglegible, or it may be determinative, depending on the subject matter and upon the degree of disparity between respective personal understandings of the definitions in use.
------
Socialism/Talk|986935170
96c96
< '''As currently  propounded, neither argument (socialism works - no, it doesn't) can succeed.'''  Socialism is not a discrete thing which can be held to possess invariant properties.  Every socialist will give you a different definition of the ideology.  "Works" is nearly impossible to define.  Because "works" means "accomplishes a task or goal," and how many tasks and goals are there?  Which are more valid than others?  Whose goals are they?  If the discussion is to continue, and is to actually lead anywhere at all, it would be beneficial to agree on precise definitions of these things - which I predict will not happen.
---
> '''As currently  propounded, neither argument (socialism works - no, it doesn't) can succeed.'''  Socialism is not a discrete thing which can be held to possess invariant properties.  Every socialist will give you a different definition of the ideology.  "Works" is nearly impossible to define.  Because "works" means "accomplishes a task or goal," and how many tasks and goals are there?  Which are more valid than others?  Whose goals are they?  If the discussion is to continue, and is to actually lead anywhere at all, it would be beneficial to agree on precise definitions of these things - which I predict will not happen.  AyeSpy
100c100
< See, defnitions are the bugger, here.  Sweden is not a welfare state - it is a free enterprise economy with huge, huge taxes which are spent to create a very deep cushion of social support.  Within the last 20 years, some of the more burdensome taxes have been modified so that a person who makes too much cannot be taxed more than he earned (formerly possible)  I will check out the Mycenae contention...
---
> See, defnitions are the bugger, here.  Sweden is not a welfare state - it is a free enterprise economy with huge, huge taxes which are spent to create a very deep cushion of social support.  Within the last 20 years, some of the more burdensome taxes have been modified so that a person who makes too much cannot be taxed more than he earned (formerly possible)  I will check out the Mycenae contention... AyeSpy
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986935769
17d16
< ----
24,25c23
< I note a particular state of affairs stemming from the paucity of verifiability (or falsifiability) of assumptions and propositions used in the social sciences.  The field in general is positively littered with a jumbled surfeit of one-man theories and schools of thought.  One sees a greater or lesser number of adherents to each of these schools, depending on the degree of publicity each has received, and the amount of scholarly agreement each has garnered, but you do not see three or four more or less unified schools of thought, each agreeing in the main but differing in certain particulars, and each supported by a staggeringly large body of experimental evidence.  So, debates in the sciences and debates in the humanities have, of a necessity, totally different characters.  And debates in the latter are much less frequently settled for the same reasons.  The antagonists not only come into the discussions speaking in different languages - they refuse during the course of same to reach agreement on what is being ''said'', much less what is being talked ''about''. -- AyeSpy
< 
---
> I note a particular state of affairs stemming from the paucity of verifiability (or falsifiability) of assumptions and propositions used in the social sciences.  The field in general is positively littered with a jumbled surfeit of one-man theories and schools of thought.  One sees a greater or lesser number of adherents to each of these schools, depending on the degree of publicity each has received, and the amount of scholarly agreement each has garnered, but you do not see three or four more or less unified schools of thought, each agreeing in the main but differing in certain particulars, and each supported by a staggeringly large body of experimental evidence.  So, debates in the sciences and debates in the humanities have, of a necessity, totally different characters.  And debates in the latter are much less frequently settled for the same reasons.  The antagonists not only come into the discussions speaking in different languages - they refuse during the course of same to reach agreement on what is being ''said'', much less what is being talked ''about''. -- AyeSpy
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986936916
17c17
< Afred Korsybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of General Semantics, had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one whould never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
---
> Afred Korzybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of [[General Semantics]], had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one whould never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
23c23
< I note a particular state of affairs stemming from the paucity of verifiability (or falsifiability) of assumptions and propositions used in the social sciences.  The field in general is positively littered with a jumbled surfeit of one-man theories and schools of thought.  One sees a greater or lesser number of adherents to each of these schools, depending on the degree of publicity each has received, and the amount of scholarly agreement each has garnered, but you do not see three or four more or less unified schools of thought, each agreeing in the main but differing in certain particulars, and each supported by a staggeringly large body of experimental evidence.  So, debates in the sciences and debates in the humanities have, of a necessity, totally different characters.  And debates in the latter are much less frequently settled for the same reasons.  The antagonists not only come into the discussions speaking in different languages - they refuse during the course of same to reach agreement on what is being ''said'', much less what is being talked ''about''. -- AyeSpy
---
> I note a particular state of affairs stemming from the paucity of verifiability (or falsifiability) of assumptions and propositions used in the social sciences.  The field in general is positively littered with a jumbled surfeit of one-man theories and schools of thought.  One sees a greater or lesser number of adherents to each of these schools, depending on the degree of publicity each has received, and the amount of scholarly agreement each has garnered, but you do not see three or four more or less unified schools of thought, each agreeing in the main but differing in certain particulars, and each supported by a staggeringly large body of experimental evidence.  So, debates in the sciences and debates in the humanities have, of a necessity, totally different characters.  And debates in the latter are much less frequently settled for the same reasons.  The antagonists not only come into the discussions speaking in different languages - they refuse during the course of same to reach agreement on what is being ''said'', much less what is being talked ''about''. -- AyeSpy
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986936961
17c17
< Afred Korzybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of [[General Semantics]], had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one whould never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
---
> Afred Korzybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of [[General Semantics]], had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one should never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986937012
17c17
< Afred Korzybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of [[General Semantics]], had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one should never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
---
> Alfred Korzybski (AK to his friends and students), the founder of [[General Semantics]], had a favorite saying: "The map is not the territory."  In other words, talk about a thing is not the thing, words are not the obejcts they represent, etc.  While it is useful, especially in engineering-type applications to have a language, the behavior of which mimics the behavior of its referents, (mathematics does wonderfully in such a context), one should never fall into the trap of imagining that there is such a thing as a human language definintion which perfectly mirrors the thing defined.
------
Europe|986937912
1c1
< The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead.
---
> The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead. In fact, Europe is not a truly continent, but its forms part of Asia (Eurasia).
------
General_Semantics|986938044
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A school of thought founded by [[Alfred Korzybski]] in about 1933, in response to his observations that human and social discussions and problems were seldom well-defined, and almost never resolvable predictably into elements which were responsive to successful intervention or correction.
> 
> In contrast, he noted that Engineers could almost always successfully analyze a stuctural problem prosepctively or a failure of structure retprospectively, and arrive at a solution which first of all could be predicted to work and secondly could be observed to work.  He found especially significant the fact that engineers had a language which helped them to do this, in mathmatics.  The properties of mathmatics are such that it can be seen to mimic its referents, and therby simulate or emulate the behavior of the observed physical universe with some precision.  This gives physical scientists and engineers a valuable tool.
> 
> Korzybski also observed that the humanities lacked any parallel for mathmentics in their languages.  He set out to change that.  General Semantics, therefore, is the result of Alfred Korzybski's effort to introduce linguistic precision of a sort to the humanities.  In it, he attempted to make acurate observations with regard to the mechanisms of neural, bilogical, mental and emotional interactions between man, other organisms, and hie environement, and to describe these in terms which would admit themselves to prospective and retrospective rational analysis of human and social events smilar to that of which engineering was capable.
> 
> General Semantics never caught on as a majority school of thought within the humanities, but a tenacious and growing band of followers continues the effort today to apply and advance upon the results which Korzybski produced.
------
General_Semantics|986938160
5c5
< Korzybski also observed that the humanities lacked any parallel for mathmentics in their languages.  He set out to change that.  General Semantics, therefore, is the result of Alfred Korzybski's effort to introduce linguistic precision of a sort to the humanities.  In it, he attempted to make acurate observations with regard to the mechanisms of neural, bilogical, mental and emotional interactions between man, other organisms, and hie environement, and to describe these in terms which would admit themselves to prospective and retrospective rational analysis of human and social events smilar to that of which engineering was capable.
---
> Korzybski also observed that the humanities lacked any parallel for mathmentics in their languages.  He set out to change that.  General Semantics, therefore, is the result of Alfred Korzybski's effort to introduce linguistic precision of a sort to the humanities.  In it, he attempted to make acurate observations with regard to the mechanisms of neural, bilogical, mental and emotional interactions between man, other organisms, and his environement, and to describe these in terms which would admit themselves to prospective and retrospective rational analysis of human and social events similar to that of which engineering was capable.
------
European_Union|986938186
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Organization of European states. The foundational members were France, Germany, Italy, Nederlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. Other members are Ireland, Great Britain, Danemark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Finland, Sweeden and Austria. The main European Union common institutions are a Parliament (legislative) and a Comission (executive).
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986938298
19c19
< Social scientitsts have the steepest hill to climb in this regard.  There is no broad agreement on what the diescrete objects and phenomena of human and social behavior ''are,'' much less what to call them.  Consequently, in trying to solve human problems, and in trying to discuss the solving of human problems, there is a stumbling block which is never entirely out from under foot.  The confereees may use the same words during the discussion, but the words seldom, if ever, embody precisely the same understanding within the individual minds on either side of the table.
---
> Social scientitsts have the steepest hill to climb in this regard.  There is no broad agreement on what the discrete objects and phenomena of human and social behavior ''are,'' much less what to call them.  Consequently, in trying to solve human problems, and in trying to discuss the solving of human problems, there is a stumbling block which is never entirely out from under foot.  The confereees may use the same words during the discussion, but the words seldom, if ever, embody precisely the same understanding within the individual minds on either side of the table.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|986938384
21c21
< It is of some benefit to us, therefore, to try to form some general agreement both beforehand and then repeatedly during the course of discussion as to what significant terms ''mean''.  Assumptions in this regard are uniformly fatal to constructive dialogue.  ''(see my remarks under [[Socialism/Talk]].)''  So, to some degree, there tends to be some undercurrent of greater or lesser semantic dispute taking place in every discussion of human matters.  Its effect may be neglegible, or it may be determinative, depending on the subject matter and upon the degree of disparity between respective personal understandings of the definitions in use.
---
> It is of some benefit to us, therefore, to try to form some general agreement both beforehand and then repeatedly during the course of discussion as to what significant terms ''mean''.  Assumptions in this regard are uniformly fatal to constructive dialogue.  ''(see my remarks under [[Socialism/Talk]].)''  So, to some degree, there tends to be some undercurrent of greater or lesser semantic dispute taking place in every discussion of human matters.  Its effect may be negligible, or it may be determinative, depending on the subject matter and upon the degree of disparity between respective personal understandings of the definitions in use.
------
General_Semantics|986939193
1c1
< A school of thought founded by [[Alfred Korzybski]] in about 1933, in response to his observations that human and social discussions and problems were seldom well-defined, and almost never resolvable predictably into elements which were responsive to successful intervention or correction.
---
> A school of thought founded by [[Alfred Korzybski]] in about 1933, in response to his observations that human and social discussions and problems were seldom well-defined, and almost never resolvable predictably into elements that were responsive to successful intervention or correction.
3c3
< In contrast, he noted that Engineers could almost always successfully analyze a stuctural problem prosepctively or a failure of structure retprospectively, and arrive at a solution which first of all could be predicted to work and secondly could be observed to work.  He found especially significant the fact that engineers had a language which helped them to do this, in mathmatics.  The properties of mathmatics are such that it can be seen to mimic its referents, and therby simulate or emulate the behavior of the observed physical universe with some precision.  This gives physical scientists and engineers a valuable tool.
---
> In contrast, he noted that engineers could almost always successfully analyze a stuctural problem prospectively or a failure of structure retrospectively, and arrive at a solution which first of all could be predicted to work and secondly could be observed to work.  He found especially significant the fact that engineers had a language which helped them to do this, in mathematics.  The properties of mathematics are such that it can be seen to mimic its referents, and therby simulate or emulate the behavior of the observed physical universe with some precision.  This gives physical scientists and engineers a valuable tool.
5c5
< Korzybski also observed that the humanities lacked any parallel for mathmentics in their languages.  He set out to change that.  General Semantics, therefore, is the result of Alfred Korzybski's effort to introduce linguistic precision of a sort to the humanities.  In it, he attempted to make acurate observations with regard to the mechanisms of neural, bilogical, mental and emotional interactions between man, other organisms, and his environement, and to describe these in terms which would admit themselves to prospective and retrospective rational analysis of human and social events similar to that of which engineering was capable.
---
> Korzybski also observed that the humanities lacked any parallel for mathematics in their languages.  He set out to change that.  General Semantics, therefore, is the result of Alfred Korzybski's effort to introduce linguistic precision of a sort to the humanities.  In it, he attempted to make accurate observations with regard to the mechanisms of neural, biological, mental, and emotional interactions between man, other organisms, and the environment, and to describe these in terms which would admit themselves to prospective and retrospective rational analysis of human and social events similar to that of which engineering was capable.
7c7
< General Semantics never caught on as a majority school of thought within the humanities, but a tenacious and growing band of followers continues the effort today to apply and advance upon the results which Korzybski produced.
---
> General Semantics never caught on as a majority school of thought within the humanities, but a tenacious and growing band of followers continues the effort today to apply and advance upon the results which Korzybski produced.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986940102
68c68,69
< 
---
> ----
> Right now Wikipedia doesn't use a significant amount of significant resources--and it still couldn't generate very much ad revenue, either.  But eventually, it's quite possible that it will require several dedicated servers as well as a staff to run them and to keep the site running smoothly.  That, of course, will cost money.  I suspect Jimbo might, to help appease those who are morally opposed to ads (for whatever reason), make it possible to make a cookie setting so that ads are turned off or automatically minimized, or something like that.  That's just an idea.  Anyway, no, we aren't interested in having Wikipedia hosted anywhere else. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|986940398
69c69
< Right now Wikipedia doesn't use a significant amount of significant resources--and it still couldn't generate very much ad revenue, either.  But eventually, it's quite possible that it will require several dedicated servers as well as a staff to run them and to keep the site running smoothly.  That, of course, will cost money.  I suspect Jimbo might, to help appease those who are morally opposed to ads (for whatever reason), make it possible to make a cookie setting so that ads are turned off or automatically minimized, or something like that.  That's just an idea.  Anyway, no, we aren't interested in having Wikipedia hosted anywhere else. --[[LMS]]
---
> Right now Wikipedia doesn't use a significant amount of server resources (though it does use a significant amount of paid ''human'' resources :-) )--and it still couldn't generate very much ad revenue, either.  But eventually, it's quite possible that it will require several dedicated servers as well as a staff to run them and to keep the site running smoothly.  That, of course, will cost money.  I suspect Jimbo might, to help appease those who are morally opposed to ads (for whatever reason), make it possible to make a cookie setting so that ads are turned off or automatically minimized, or something like that.  That's just an idea.  Anyway, no, we aren't interested in having Wikipedia hosted anywhere else. --[[LMS]]
------
Karl_Popper|986940557
1c1
< Karl Raimund Popper was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died in 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[critical philosophy]] which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
---
> '''Karl Raimund Popper''' was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died on September 17, 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[critical philosophy]] which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
5a6,7
> 
> Popper won many awards and honors in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, Kings College London, and Darwin College Cambridge.  Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold.  [[Queen Elizabeth II]] [[knight]]ed Popper in 1965, and invested him with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.
------
Critical_philosophy|986940609
2a3
> 'Critical philosophy' is also just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.
------
History_of_Spain|986940799
1c1,4
< Modern spanish history is anything else than the history of their nations. Spanish state has been constructed on the opression of these nations.
---
> From a powerful monarchy and empire to fascism, Spain has a fascinating history.
> ----
> The following is a partisan comment of the sort that I ([[LMS]]) for one would like not to see on Wikipedia...
> :Modern spanish history is anything else than the history of their nations. Spanish state has been constructed on the opression of these nations.
------
Europe|986940881
1c1
< The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead. In fact, Europe is not a truly continent, but its forms part of Asia (Eurasia).
---
> The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead. Often, Europe is not considered a true continent, but a part of [[Eurasia]].
9c9
< Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocks. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Around 1990 the Eastern block broke up.  See HistoryOfEurope.
---
> Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Bronze Age]]. From the 15th century European nations, particularly [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], and [[Britain]], built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[America]], and [[Asia]]. The [[Industrialization]] started in 18th century from here. After [[World War II]] and in the ColdWar Europe was divided in two major political and economic blocks. [[Communist]] nations in Eastern Europe and [[Capitalism|capitalistic]] countries in Western Europe. Around 1990 the Eastern block broke up.  See HistoryOfEurope.
------
Europe|986941008
1,3c1
< The only continent on [[earth]] not starting with a [[capital]] [[A]], but a [[capital]] [[E]] instead. Often, Europe is not considered a true continent, but a part of [[Eurasia]].
< 
< Continent stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. From the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south to the [[North Pole]]. Europe is the western fifth of the [[Eurasian]] landmass.
---
> Continent stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. From the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south to the [[North Pole]].  With Asia, Europe forms the supercontinent [[Eurasia]]: Europe is the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.
------
Europe|986941035
1c1
< Continent stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. From the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south to the [[North Pole]].  With Asia, Europe forms the supercontinent [[Eurasia]]: Europe is the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.
---
> [[Continent]] stretching from the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. From the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the south to the [[North Pole]].  With Asia, Europe forms the supercontinent [[Eurasia]]: Europe is the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass.
------
Europe|986941084
57a58,59
> ----
> /Talk
------
Europe/Talk|986941172
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The notion that Europe is not truly a continent rests on a somewhat silly semantic dispute.  Let's put it this way: the word 'continent' is ''defined'' by its examples.  If, according to a definition of 'continent', ''Europe'' is not a continent, then that definition simply doesn't capture the ordinary use of the term. --[[LMS]]
------
Europe/Talk|986941837
1c1
< The notion that Europe is not truly a continent rests on a somewhat silly semantic dispute.  Let's put it this way: the word 'continent' is ''defined'' by its examples.  If, according to a definition of 'continent', ''Europe'' is not a continent, then that definition simply doesn't capture the ordinary use of the term. --[[LMS]]
---
> The notion that Europe is not truly a continent rests on a somewhat silly [[semantic dispute]].  Let's put it this way: the word 'continent' is ''defined'' by its examples.  If, according to a definition of 'continent', ''Europe'' is not a continent, then that definition simply doesn't capture the ordinary use of the term. --[[LMS]]
------
Critical_philosophy|986942018
1c1
< Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy''' movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosphy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
---
> Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy''' movement sees the primary task of philosophy as criticism rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosophy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.
3c3
< 'Critical philosophy' is also just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.
---
> 'Critical philosophy' is also just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986942303
9c9,17
< I think that both breadth and depth on Wikipedia are nearly inevitable.  As some of us exhaust the breadth of various subjects, others of us will have written stuff that, being more in-depth, appears to be more "intellectually respectable" to the aforementioned experts.  I think we've already come from the point where, to Nupedia, Wikipedia seems to be a silly game, to the point where we're now at least a source of abundant information, some of it surprisingly good.  And that's just in the space of three months.  In three years, if we and the many, many more who will arrive, keep at it, this is going to be just really quite an amazing resource.  --[[LMS]]
---
> I think that both breadth and depth on Wikipedia are nearly inevitable.  As some of us exhaust the breadth of various subjects, others of us will have written stuff that, being more in-depth, appears to be more "intellectually respectable" to the aforementioned experts.  I think we've already come from the point where, to Nupedia, Wikipedia seems to be a silly game, to the point where we're now at least a source of abundant information, some of it surprisingly good.  And that's just in the space of three months.  In three years, if we and the many, many more who will arrive, keep at it, this is going to be just really quite an amazing resource.  --[[LMS]]
> 
> -----
> 
> One is really taking advantage of the software by covering a topic, not with one big article, but with a network of smaller articles.  For example, one could write a long 10,000 word essay on some famous person like Ben Franklin, which is no different from a traditional print article.  Or, one could write an eight paragraph bio about Franklin, and then another article on each important aspect of his life: [[Ben Franklin/Childhood]], Ben Franklin/Printer]], [[Ben Franklin/Colonial representative in England]], [[Ben Franklin/Paris years]], [[Ben Franklin/Electricity]], [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]].  As these little articles are completed, they form a complete article, which is easier to reference because it is broken down into meaningful categories.  It is also easier to update since the parts are separate from the whole, so work can be done on one section without effecting the others.  And, it should be easier to create, because the work can be done piecemeal.  You can start with a brief overview, then outline the important subtopics, then come back to these as time permits, or let others follow up your lead.  We see this happening on the [[World War II]] page, where the major battles and figures of the era were listed.
> 
> This process of creating articles piecemeal is called [[Modular content creation]].
> 
> This relates to the breadth vs. depth debate, because it shows that breadth, if seeded properly, will grow its own depth.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986942690
17a18,19
> ----
> An example of this is in American football.  Each article is very short for the most part, consisting in many cases of only a definition of a term. If one already understands a term, he may read ahead in the body of one of the larger articles.  If not, he can skip over to the term and return, thus getting an ever-deeper, ever-broader understanding of the subject.  If one were to try to make a coherent whole of all that data in a single article and make it flow, it would be a daunting task.  Done in bits, however, it was cake. [[AyeSpy|AS]]
------
Feature_requests|986943777
2,4d1
< jjjjj
< <b>Misc:</b>
< * provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them.  Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.
5a3,4
> * Anchors and internal links <code>[[like#this]]</code>.
> * Provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them.  Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.
------
Extractor|986943816
2c2
< for any subset A of N of size at least K, choosing a random node in A and then following a random edge brings you to a node x on the right side with probability within e of 1/M. 
---
> for any subset A of N of size at least K, choosing a random node in A and then following a random edge brings you to a node x on the right side with probability within e of the uniform distribution. 
------
SandBox/Talk|986945436
3c3,6
< But it seems one cannot make sub-sub-pages.  Only sub-pages.
---
> But it seems one cannot make sub-sub-pages.  Only sub-pages.
> 
> ----
> I, for one, consider this an important feature rather than a bug.  It enables one to make scads of subpages with accidental links to their siblings without interfering with the top-level Wiki.  Since top-level pages can have topics as narrow as you might want, I don't seen any need for a more complex URL hierarchy.  I intend to make liberal use of this feature in my [[poker]] pages, so I hope it doesn't change.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Poker_hand|986946307
1c1,5
< The term <i>hand</i> in the [[game]] of [[poker]] is ambiguous, and means one of these related things:
---
> The word '''hand''' in the [[game]] of [[poker]] is used to mean any of the following:
> 
> # The set of cards held by an individual player during play.  ''Joe took another look at his hand when Virginia raised.''  The term '''holding''' can be used for less ambiguity.
> # The '''value''' of a player's hand(1), as determined by the rules of the game being played.  (see [[Poker/Hands]]) ''Karen's hand was a flush, but lost to Steve's full house.''  The term '''hand value''' can be used for less ambiguity.
> # A single instance of poker game play, also called a '''deal'''.  ''We played eight hands of draw poker, then eight hands of stud poker.''
3,5d6
< * The set of cards held by an individual player.  E.g., "Each player is dealt a hand of 5 cards."
< * The <i>value</i> of the cards held by a player.  E.g., "John's hand was a flush, but lost to my full house."  (see [[Poker/Hands]])
< * An instance of play of a particular game.  E.g., "We played four hands of draw and three hands of stud." This is also referred to as a <i>deal</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]).
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986946855
19a20,21
> 
> Yes, though parenthetically I might say these short articles should be subcategories, as [[American football/Down]] rather than [[football down]]. - [[TimShell|TS]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch|986947109
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A secluded refuge in a valley in Colorado where the men of ability have retreated to after relinquishing participation in American society.  Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early stikers to follow John Galt's call. This invitation was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters.
> 
> Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight.  He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance.  Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats between continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society.  Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people tend to live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit.
> 
> We are introduced to this place in the first chapter of the final section the Novel, the chapter titled Atlantis.  The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel - the appropriate values for a society of Mankind - philosophical, moral, econonmic, legal, esthetic, sexual, among others too numerous to mention.
> 
> We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation whatsoever.  Converserly, there is an absolute reverence for private property - everything trascated between each other is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley - they purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the airwave reflection device (giving the view from above the camoflouge of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. _______, who uses his invention of a portable X-Ray machine to initially dignose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskold, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch|986947254
8d7
< 
------
Oregon|986947663
65a66
> ----
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986948293
21a22,23
> 
> I agree--this also makes linking among sibling pages easier and more likely to be relevant.  I'm about to refactor some of my [[poker]] pages to take advantage of this.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch|986948730
1c1
< A secluded refuge in a valley in Colorado where the men of ability have retreated to after relinquishing participation in American society.  Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early stikers to follow John Galt's call. This invitation was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters.
---
> A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society.  Nicknamed "Galt's Gulch" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of "Midas" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters.
3c3
< Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight.  He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance.  Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats between continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society.  Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people tend to live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit.
---
> Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight.  He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance.  Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society.  Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit.
5c5
< We are introduced to this place in the first chapter of the final section the Novel, the chapter titled Atlantis.  The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel - the appropriate values for a society of Mankind - philosophical, moral, econonmic, legal, esthetic, sexual, among others too numerous to mention.
---
> We are introduced to this place in the first chapter of the final section the Novel, the chapter titled Atlantis.  The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel - the appropriate values for a society of Mankind - philosophical, moral, economic, legal, esthetic, sexual, among others too numerous to mention.
7c7
< We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation whatsoever.  Converserly, there is an absolute reverence for private property - everything trascated between each other is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley - they purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the airwave reflection device (giving the view from above the camoflouge of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. _______, who uses his invention of a portable X-Ray machine to initially dignose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskold, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
---
> We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation.  Conversely, there is a reverence for private property - everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley - they purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. _______, who uses his invention of a portable x-ray machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskold, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
------
Real_numbers|986949060
1c1
< The term <i>real number</i> is a [[retronym]] (coined in response to [[imaginary number]]) that denotes the kind of number one might use to represent a continuous quantity (including 0 and negatives).  [[Integer]]s, [[rational number]]s, [[algebraic number]]s, and [[transcendental number]]s are all subsets of real numbers.  [[Imaginary number]]s and [[complex number]]s are not real numbers, nor are things like [[vector]]s and [[tensor]]s.  What follows are more rigorous mathematical descriptions of the concept.
---
> The term <i>real number</i> is a [[retronym]] (coined in response to [[imaginary number]]) that denotes the kind of number one might use to represent a continuous quantity (including 0 and negatives).  The [[Integer]]s, [[rational number]]s, are all subsets of real numbers. [[Imaginary number]]s and  [[complex number]]s are not real numbers, nor are things like [[vector]]s and [[tensor]]s.  What follows are more rigorous mathematical descriptions of the concept.
9,10c9,15
< * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. (This is the property that differentiates the [[real numbers]] from the [[rational numbers]]. E.g., if S is the subset of the rational numbers defined such that the elements of S are less than or equal to 'pi' (that is not rational), S has an upper bound, but not a least upper bound.)
< <i>another exemple. Old memories, I may be wrong. let S= all x in Q
---
> * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. 
> 
> 
> The latter property is what differentiates the [[real numbers|reals]] from the [[rational numbers|rationals]]. For example, the set of the rationals less than or equal to 'pi' has an upper bound (e.g. 3.15), but no rational least upper bound. 
> 
> 
> <i>another example. Old memories, I may be wrong. let S= all x in Q
15c20,52
< The [[MathematicalLimit|limit]] of any convergent sequence of rational numbers is a real number.  The real numbers may be [[construction of real numbers|constructed]] from the [[IntegerNumbers|integers]] by considering equivalence classes of such sequences.
---
> The main reason for introducing the reals is that the reals contain all [[MathematicalLimit|limits]]. More technically the reals are are [[complete metric space |complete]]. This means the following. 
> 
> A [[sequence]] {x_n} of real numbers is called a [[Cauchy sequence]] if for all epsilon > 0 there is a number  N such that for all n,m >N the distance |x_n - x_m | < epsilon.
> 
> In other words a sequence is cauchy if the x_n eventually remain arbitrarily close to each other. 
> 
> A sequence of numbers {x_n} has a [[limit]] x if for all epsilon >0 there is a nunmber N such that for all n > N the difference |x_n - x | < epsilon. 
> 
> A sequence is convergent if it has a limit.
> 
> It is easy to see every convergent sequence is a cauchy sequence. 
> Now a space is [[complete]] if every cauchy sequence is convergent. Note that the rationals are not complete.
>  
> 
> The existence of limits of cauchy sequences is what makes [[analysis]] and the [[calculus]] work and is of great practical use. Also note that the standard numerical test if a sequence has a limit is to test that it is (or seems to be ) a cauchy sequence, as the limit is typically not known in advance. 
> 
> There is a standard trick to force cauchy sequences to converge (a process called [[completing]]). When applied to the [[rational numbers]] it gives the following useful [[construction of the real numbers]]. 
> 
> Let C be the [[set]] of Cauchy sequences of rational numbers. 
> Two Cauchy sequences {x_n} and {y_m} are equivalent if for all epsilon > 0 there is a number N such that for all n,m > N the distance |x_n - y_m| < epsilon. (note a patern here ?) It is easy to see that this really defines an [[equivalence relation]]. Let R be the set of [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]]. Then R is a model for the real numbers. 
> 
> A practical and concrete representative for an equivalence class representing a real number is provided by the representation to base b (usually 2 [[binary]], 10 [[decimal]] or 16 [[hexadecimal]]). For example the number 'pi' = 3.14159.... would correspond to the Cauchy sequence {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, ...}.
> A real number can have two representations. For example : 1 =0.99999 .... .  
> 
> The reals are [[uncountable]], that is there are stricly more real numbers than integers. In fact the [[cardinality]] of the reals is $2^{aleph_0}$, i.e. the cardinality of the set of subsets of the [[integers]]. The nonexistence of a subset of the reals with cardinality strictly in between that of the integers and the reals is known as the [[continuum hypothesis]]. This can neither be proved nor be disproved but is an independant axiom of set theory.   
> 
> The real numbers have many useful topological properties.
> The reals are a [[contractible]] (hence [[connected]]), [[locally compact]] [[seperable]] [[Haussdorff]] space, of [[Cohomological dimension for H_c|dimension]] 1, and are [[second category| everywhere dense]]. 
> 
> <i> RB: The dimension is actually difficult to define : 
> the best definition I know is that cohomology with compact support vanishes above dimension 2 and is non trivial in dimension 1. Fortunately others such as covering dimension are also 1</i> 
> 
> 
37c74
< 
---
> <i> RB: unfortunately not all algebraic numbers are real : for example i = sqrt(-1), is obviously algebraic. <i>
------
Welcome,_newcomers|986949735
1c1
< Hi!
---
> Hi there!
------
Equivalence_class|986950062
5c5,15
< The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing the rational and real numbers from the integers. 
---
> The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing sets out of already constructed ones. 
> 
> 
> examples: 
> *the [[rational numbers]] can be constructed as the set of equivalence classes of pairs of integers (a,b) under  the [equivalence relation]
> (a,b) ~ (a',b') iff ab' = a'b.
> 
> *The [[real numbers]] can be constructed as the set of equivalence classes on the set of cauchy sequences of rational numbers.
> 
> *the [[homotopy class]] of a continous map is the equivalence 
> class of all maps [[homotopic]] to f.
8a19
> *[[multiplicatively closed set]]
9a21
> *[[homotopy theory]]
------
Retronym|986951278
1c1
< A <i>retronym</i> is a term coined for a previously-existing object or concept whose original name became confusing because of its association with a new related object or concept that has become more common.  A lot of these are created by advances in technology.  Some examples:
---
> A '''retronym''' is a new word or phrase coined for an old object or concept whose original name became used for something else.  A lot of these are created by advances in technology.  Some examples:
3,11c3,11
< * <i>Black-and-white television</i>: Once called simply [[television]], now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly just called by the unadorned term.  Along the same lines: <i>broadcast television</i>, <i>silent movie</i>.
< * <i>Rotary-dial telephone</i>: The kind of [[telephone]] in common use before touch-tone telephones.
< * <i>Live poker</i>: What [[casino]]s call the kind of [[poker]] played with [[Playing cards|cards]] by people sitting at a table; what many still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from [[video poker]], which is far more common in casinos today.
< * <i>Day baseball</i>: [[Baseball]] played during the day, as all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
< * <i>Snail mail</i> or <i>Paper mail</i>: Non-electronic [[mail]]; the kind printed and delivered to your house.
< * <i>Meatspace</i>: All of physical reality, as distinguished from [[cyberspace]].
< * <i>Natural language</i>: A [[language]], used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer [[programming language]]s or [[artificial language]]s.
< * <i>Brick-and-mortar store</i>: A store with a building that customers can visit to examine its goods (which others might purchase at an online store).
< * <i>Face-to-face conference</i>: A conference, not involving telephones or video cameras.
---
> * ''Black-and-white television'': Once called simply [[television]], now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly referred to by the unadorned term.  Along the same lines: <i>broadcast television</i>, <i>silent movie</i>.
> * ''Rotary-dial telephone'': The kind of [[telephone]] in common use before touch-tone telephones.
> * ''Live poker''</i>: What [[casino]]s call the kind of [[poker]] played with [[Playing card|card]]s by people sitting at a table; what many others still just call "poker".  The term became necessary to distinguish it from [[video poker]], which is far more common in casinos today.
> * ''Day baseball'': [[Baseball]] played during the day, as all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
> * ''Snail mail'' or ''Paper mail'': Non-electronic [[mail]]; the kind printed and delivered to your house.
> * ''Meatspace'': All of physical reality, as distinguished from [[cyberspace]].
> * ''Natural language'': A [[language]], used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society.  Contrast with computer [[programming language]]s or [[artificial language]]s.
> * ''Brick-and-mortar store'': A store with a building that customers can visit to examine its goods (which others might purchase at an online store).
> * ''Face-to-face conference'': A conference, not involving telephones or video cameras.
14,16c14,16
< * <i>Conventional or Traditional X</i>: For example, <i>conventional (non-microwave) oven</i>.
< * <i>Analog X</i>: Non-digital devices: <i>analog clock</i>, <i>analog recording</i>.
< * <i>Acoustic X</i>: A musical instrument that produces human-audible sounds, without amplifier: <i>acoustic [[guitar]]</i>, <i>acoustic [[piano]]</i>.
---
> * ''Conventional'' or ''Traditional'' X: For example, ''conventional'' (non-microwave) ''oven''</i>.
> * ''Analog'' X: Non-digital devices: ''analog clock'', ''analog recording''.
> * ''Acoustic'' X: A musical instrument that produces human-audible sounds, without amplifier: ''acoustic [[guitar]]'', ''acoustic [[piano]]''.
------
Poker/High_card_by_suit|986952263
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order: '''clubs''' (lowest), followed by '''diamonds''', '''hearts''', and '''spades''' (highest).  Note that this is also the order of suits in the game of [[bridge]].  Cards are always compared by rank first, only then by suit (for example, the ace of clubs ranks higher than any king, but lower than the ace of diamonds.  This ranking of cards is called '''high card by suit'''.  It is ''never'' used to break ties between poker hands, but can be used in the following situations:
> 
> * Randomly selecting a player or players.
> :To randomly select a player to deal, to choose the game, to move to another table, or for other reasons, deal each player one card and the player with high card by suit is selected.  Multiple players can be selected this way.
> 
> * Assigning the bring-in.
> :In games such as [[/Seven-card stud]], where the player with the lowest-ranking face-up card is required to open the first betting round for a minimal amount, ties can be broken by suit.
> 
> * Awarding odd chips in a split pot
> :In [[/High-low split]] games, or when two players' hands tie, the pot must be [[/Pot splitting|split]] evenly between them.  When there is an odd amount of money in the pot that can't be split evenly, the odd low-denomination chip can be given to the player whose hand contains the high card by suit.
------
Poker/Bug|986952527
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''bug''' in [[poker]] is a limited form of [[/Wild card]].  One or both jokers are often added to the deck and played as bugs.  The bug is played as an ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a [[/Straight]], [[/Flush]], or [[/Straight flush]].  For example, the hand '''K-K-Joker-5-2''' is just a pair of kings (with an ace [[/Kicker]]), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a [[/Flush]], and a hand such as '''7-Joker-5-4-3''' msakes a straight.
> 
> 
------
Poker/Bug|986952596
1c1
< A '''bug''' in [[poker]] is a limited form of [[/Wild card]].  One or both jokers are often added to the deck and played as bugs.  The bug is played as an ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a [[/Straight]], [[/Flush]], or [[/Straight flush]].  For example, the hand '''K-K-Joker-5-2''' is just a pair of kings (with an ace [[/Kicker]]), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a [[/Flush]], and a hand such as '''7-Joker-5-4-3''' msakes a straight.
---
> A '''bug''' in [[poker]] is a limited form of [[/Wild card]].  One or both jokers are often added to the deck and played as bugs.  The bug is played as an ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a [[/Straight]], [[/Flush]], or [[/Straight flush]].  For example, the hand '''K-K-Joker-5-2''' is just a pair of kings (with an ace [[/Kicker]]), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a [[/Flush]], and a hand such as '''7-Joker-5-4-3''' makes a straight.
------
Poker/Wild_card|986952798
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Poker]] games may contain one or more cards designated as '''wild'''.  These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant).  There are two rules in common use regarding wildcards: '''fully wild''' cards and the '''bug'''.
> 
> A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes three of a kind.  The common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a [[/Bug]], which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a [[/Straight]], [[/Flush]], or [[/Straight flush]].  Under this rule, a hand such as '''K-K-Joker-5-2''' is just a pair of kings (with an ace [[/Kicker]]), but any four same-suit cards with a bug make a [[/Flush]], and a hand such as '''7-Joker-5-4-3''' makes a straight.
> 
> Two exceptions to standard poker practice sometimes seen in home games are the [[/Double-ace flush]] rule, and the '''natural wins''' rule.  The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins.  This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush).
> 
> There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish.  While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play.  In particular, [[/Five-card draw]] is traditionally played with a joker in California (which plays as a bug), and also plays well with deuces fully wild.  [[/Seven-card stud]] plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played [[/High-low split]].  Other games such as [[/Texas holdem]] and [[/Omaha]] do not play well with wild cards.
> 
------
Poker/Double-ace_flush|986952926
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some home [[poker]] games and some casinos play the '''double ace flush''' rule, in which a [[/Wild card]] in a [[/Flush]] always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand '''A-Wild-9-5-2''' (of one suit) would play as if it were '''A-A-9-5-2''', defeating '''A-K-Q-10-8''', whereas by the standard rules it would play as '''A-K-9-5-2''' and therefore lose (the opposing hand's '''Q''' outranks the former's '''9''').  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|986959123
5a6
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Things|986959131
6d5
< 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/United_States|986959539
2a3,4
> (This point is unconfirmed): In the novel, the United States is not refered to as America.
> 
------
Extractor|986962092
4,13c4
< These graphs are called "extractors" because they can be used to "extract" randomness from weak random sources. Here are some other uses of extractors:
< 
< Random sampling using few random bits
< 
< Simulating randomized algorithms using weak random sources
< 
< Expanders that beat the eigenvalue bound
< 
< Error-correcting codes with good list decoding properties.
< 
---
> These graphs are called "extractors" because they can be used to "extract" randomness from weak random sources. 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986962534
17a18,20
> 
> The grand and glorious modular content paradigm allows for and enourages a great deal of redundancy.  At first this might seem like a bad thing, like we are squandering electrons or something.  Then we remember that, unlike more traditional mediums, we are not confined by a limited number of pages, or even minutes, and so can be as redundant as we please.  Why would redundancy be pleasing?  Because the same fact or set of facts may have relevance in multiple contexts.  For example, Ben Franklin's activities in Paris should be discussed in a treatment of his role in the establishment of the United States, but should also, one suspects, be considered in a treatment of his philandering.  His work on electricity will have an important place in any treatment of his life, but also in articles about 18th century science, or late-colonial life.  In traditional mediums, one is forced to organize information according to one plan: one can write a chronological history of Franklin from birth to death, or one can treat different aspects of his life separately, but not both.  Here, we <b>can</b> do both, and anything else we think of.  If every module is self-contained, then readers can obtain information within only the contexts in which they are interested.  And the modules can be linked to and referenced only as needed, such that someone doing an article on the great philanderers could simply link to [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]] and ignore all that business about science and politics.
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986962826
13c13
< One is really taking advantage of the software by covering a topic, not with one big article, but with a network of smaller articles.  For example, one could write a long 10,000 word essay on some famous person like Ben Franklin, which is no different from a traditional print article.  Or, one could write an eight paragraph bio about Franklin, and then another article on each important aspect of his life: [[Ben Franklin/Childhood]], Ben Franklin/Printer]], [[Ben Franklin/Colonial representative in England]], [[Ben Franklin/Paris years]], [[Ben Franklin/Electricity]], [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]].  As these little articles are completed, they form a complete article, which is easier to reference because it is broken down into meaningful categories.  It is also easier to update since the parts are separate from the whole, so work can be done on one section without effecting the others.  And, it should be easier to create, because the work can be done piecemeal.  You can start with a brief overview, then outline the important subtopics, then come back to these as time permits, or let others follow up your lead.  We see this happening on the [[World War II]] page, where the major battles and figures of the era were listed.
---
> See [[Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation]]
15,26d14
< This process of creating articles piecemeal is called [[Modular content creation]].
< 
< This relates to the breadth vs. depth debate, because it shows that breadth, if seeded properly, will grow its own depth.
< 
< The grand and glorious modular content paradigm allows for and enourages a great deal of redundancy.  At first this might seem like a bad thing, like we are squandering electrons or something.  Then we remember that, unlike more traditional mediums, we are not confined by a limited number of pages, or even minutes, and so can be as redundant as we please.  Why would redundancy be pleasing?  Because the same fact or set of facts may have relevance in multiple contexts.  For example, Ben Franklin's activities in Paris should be discussed in a treatment of his role in the establishment of the United States, but should also, one suspects, be considered in a treatment of his philandering.  His work on electricity will have an important place in any treatment of his life, but also in articles about 18th century science, or late-colonial life.  In traditional mediums, one is forced to organize information according to one plan: one can write a chronological history of Franklin from birth to death, or one can treat different aspects of his life separately, but not both.  Here, we <b>can</b> do both, and anything else we think of.  If every module is self-contained, then readers can obtain information within only the contexts in which they are interested.  And the modules can be linked to and referenced only as needed, such that someone doing an article on the great philanderers could simply link to [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]] and ignore all that business about science and politics.
< 
< ----
< An example of this is in American football.  Each article is very short for the most part, consisting in many cases of only a definition of a term. If one already understands a term, he may read ahead in the body of one of the larger articles.  If not, he can skip over to the term and return, thus getting an ever-deeper, ever-broader understanding of the subject.  If one were to try to make a coherent whole of all that data in a single article and make it flow, it would be a daunting task.  Done in bits, however, it was cake. [[AyeSpy|AS]]
< 
< Yes, though parenthetically I might say these short articles should be subcategories, as [[American football/Down]] rather than [[football down]]. - [[TimShell|TS]]
< 
< I agree--this also makes linking among sibling pages easier and more likely to be relevant.  I'm about to refactor some of my [[poker]] pages to take advantage of this.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation|986962849
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One is really taking advantage of the software by covering a topic, not with one big article, but with a network of smaller articles.  For example, one could write a long 10,000 word essay on some famous person like Ben Franklin, which is no different from a traditional print article.  Or, one could write an eight paragraph bio about Franklin, and then another article on each important aspect of his life: [[Ben Franklin/Childhood]], Ben Franklin/Printer]], [[Ben Franklin/Colonial representative in England]], [[Ben Franklin/Paris years]], [[Ben Franklin/Electricity]], [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]].  As these little articles are completed, they form a complete article, which is easier to reference because it is broken down into meaningful categories.  It is also easier to update since the parts are separate from the whole, so work can be done on one section without effecting the others.  And, it should be easier to create, because the work can be done piecemeal.  You can start with a brief overview, then outline the important subtopics, then come back to these as time permits, or let others follow up your lead.  We see this happening on the [[World War II]] page, where the major battles and figures of the era were listed.
> 
> This process of creating articles piecemeal is called [[Modular content creation]].
> 
> This relates to the breadth vs. depth debate, because it shows that breadth, if seeded properly, will grow its own depth.
> 
> The grand and glorious modular content paradigm allows for and enourages a great deal of redundancy.  At first this might seem like a bad thing, like we are squandering electrons or something.  Then we remember that, unlike more traditional mediums, we are not confined by a limited number of pages, or even minutes, and so can be as redundant as we please.  Why would redundancy be pleasing?  Because the same fact or set of facts may have relevance in multiple contexts.  For example, Ben Franklin's activities in Paris should be discussed in a treatment of his role in the establishment of the United States, but should also, one suspects, be considered in a treatment of his philandering.  His work on electricity will have an important place in any treatment of his life, but also in articles about 18th century science, or late-colonial life.  In traditional mediums, one is forced to organize information according to one plan: one can write a chronological history of Franklin from birth to death, or one can treat different aspects of his life separately, but not both.  Here, we <b>can</b> do both, and anything else we think of.  If every module is self-contained, then readers can obtain information within only the contexts in which they are interested.  And the modules can be linked to and referenced only as needed, such that someone doing an article on the great philanderers could simply link to [[Ben Franklin/Bastard children]] and ignore all that business about science and politics.
> 
> ----
> An example of this is in American football.  Each article is very short for the most part, consisting in many cases of only a definition of a term. If one already understands a term, he may read ahead in the body of one of the larger articles.  If not, he can skip over to the term and return, thus getting an ever-deeper, ever-broader understanding of the subject.  If one were to try to make a coherent whole of all that data in a single article and make it flow, it would be a daunting task.  Done in bits, however, it was cake. [[AyeSpy|AS]]
> 
> Yes, though parenthetically I might say these short articles should be subcategories, as [[American football/Down]] rather than [[football down]]. - [[TimShell|TS]]
> 
> I agree--this also makes linking among sibling pages easier and more likely to be relevant.  I'm about to refactor some of my [[poker]] pages to take advantage of this.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986962902
13c13
< See [[Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation]]
---
> See [[Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation|Modular content creation]]
------
Philosophy|986965751
10c10
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] [[Alfred Korzybski]]
18c18
< '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism -- GermanIdealism -- [[Critical philosophy]]
---
> '''[[Philosophical Movements]]:'''FrenchMaterialism -- GermanIdealism -- [[Critical philosophy]] [[General Semantics]]
------
Alfred_Korzybski|986965834
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1879-1950.  Founder of [[General Semantics]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/A_pome_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...|986967843
9c9
< And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the in religion which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, there is danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
---
> And what threatens a man more than that we bid to remove his peace of mind?  How shall we remove it?  Invalidate his answers.  Tear down his religions and his philosophies.  Make as naught the tools upon which he relies to steer his course in life.  To prevent this, he would go to war.  And so the religion in which one society rests its foundation, inasmuch as it conflicts with the religion of a society newly met, poses the danger of instability and anarchy.  The 'other' religion must be stamped out before it gains a foothold and turns the world upon its head.
27c27
< [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
---
> [[AyeSpy|BrucieBaby]]
------
Las_Vegas|986969066
1c1
< The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled during the 1800's by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards who watered there while heading north and west from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, and with gambling legalized in the 1930's, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in the 1940s, when developers began building large hotels incorporating gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. The first such enterprises are widely reputed to have been backed by money from large crime syndicates based the in the eastern U.S.  
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled (for about nine years) in 1854 by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards in the Antonio Armijo party who watered there while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, and with gambling legalized in 1931, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in 1941, when developers began building large hotels incorporating gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. Several such early enterprises are widely reputed to have been backed by money from large crime syndicates based the in the eastern U.S.  
------
City|986969677
8a9,14
> <b>[[Germany]]</b>
> * [[Berlin]]
> 
> <b>[[Italy]]</b>
> * [[Rome]]
> 
40a47
> * [[Berlin]]
45a53
> * [[Rome]]
------
Hawaii/Hawaii|986970617
3a4,9
> 
> There is volcanic activity, including lava flows on the southern side of the island. Hawaii Volcano National Park encompasses the summits.
> 
> The leeward side is the Kona coast. 
> 
> The largest town is Hilo, on the windward coast.
------
PublicDomainResources|986975026
7c7
< * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia.
---
> * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia (although only Vol 1 of this seems to be available).
------
PublicDomainResources|986975076
7c7
< * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia (although only Vol 1 of this seems to be available).
---
> * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia (although only [ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext95/pge0112.txt Vol 1] of this seems to be available).
------
Las_Vegas|986977620
1c1
< The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled (for about nine years) in 1854 by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards in the Antonio Armijo party who watered there while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, and with gambling legalized in 1931, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in 1941, when developers began building large hotels incorporating gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. Several such early enterprises are widely reputed to have been backed by money from large crime syndicates based the in the eastern U.S.  
---
> The largest city in [[Nevada]]. First settled (for about nine years) in 1854 by [[Mormon]] farmers, Las Vegas already had been named by Spaniards in the Antonio Armijo party who watered there while heading north and west along the Old Spanish Trail from Texas.  At that time, various low areas of the Las Vegas Valley were replete with artesian springs which created extensive green areas in contrast to the surrounding desert, hence the name Las Vegas, Spanish for "The Meadows."  The [[Mormon]]s abandoned the site in 1857, and the U.S. Army built [[Fort Baker]] there in 1864.  Owing to the springs, Las Vegas was a water stop for first wagon trains and later railroads, on the trail between Los Angeles, California and points east such as [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]]. Though incorporated in 1911, and with gambling legalized in 1931, Las Vegas started its rise to world fame in 1941, when developers began building large hotels incorporating gambling casinos in the middle of the parched desert. Several such early enterprises are widely reputed to have been backed by money from large crime syndicates based the in the eastern U.S.  
------
City|986978117
29a30
> * [[Las Vegas]]
50a52
> * [[Las Vegas]]
------
New_topics|986978746
1c1,3
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 8th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 10th April, Wikipedia server time
> 
> I won't be doing any updates here until after the 20th or so.... feel free to update and amend as necessary. 
5,68c7,43
< [[20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk]] -- 
< [[Antiseptic_mouth_rinse]] -- 
< [[Atlas]] -- 
< [[Atlas_2091]] -- 
< [[BBC/Radio_1]] -- 
< [[BBC]] -- 
< [[Basil]] -- 
< [[Basis]] -- 
< [[Bay_leaf]] -- 
< [[Bjork]] -- 
< [[Burgess_shale]] -- 
< [[Chervil]] -- 
< [[Chives]] -- 
< [[Chris_Morris]] --
< [[Computer_Security]] -- 
< [[Dill]] -- 
< [[Disperser]] -- 
< [[Endocrine_system]] -- 
< [[Endocrinology]] -- 
< [[Expander]] -- 
< [[Extractor]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Destroy_All_Monsters]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Ghidorah_the_Three_Headed_Monster]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Gigantis_the_Fire_Monster]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla,_King_of_the_Monsters]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_on_Monster_Island]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Biollante]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Gigan]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_King_Ghidorah]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Megalon]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Cosmic_Monster]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Sea_Monster]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Smog_Monster]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_The_Thing]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Godzillas_Revenge]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/King_Kong_vs_Godzilla]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Monster_Zero]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Son_of_Godzilla]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/Terror_of_Mechagodzilla]] -- 
< [[Godzilla/The_Return_of_Godzilla]] -- 
< [[Godzilla]] -- [[Godzilla/Godzilla_vs_Mothra]] -- 
< [[Lavender]] -- 
< [[Lemon_balm]] -- 
< [[Macedonian_phalanx]] -- 
< [[Marjoram]] -- 
< [[Mars_Odyssey]] -- 
< [[Medicine]] -- 
< [[Military_History/Talk]] -- 
< [[Naraoidia]] -- 
< [[Oops_I_Did_It_Again]] -- 
< [[Peppermint]] -- 
< [[Pseudorandomness]] -- 
< [[Reverse_engineering]] -- 
< [[Rosemary]] -- 
< [[Sage]] -- 
< [[Savory]] -- 
< [[Scientology/Links]] -- 
< [[Silurian]] -- 
< [[Solar_system]] -- 
< [[Spearmint]] -- 
< [[Tank]] -- 
< [[Tarragon]] -- 
< [[The_best_mixes_from_the_album_debut_for_all_the_people_who_dont_buy_white-labels]] -- 
< [[Tisane]] -- 
---
> [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch]] -- 
> [[Carboniferous]] -- 
> [[Colorado]] -- 
> [[Comoros]] -- 
> [[Countries_of_the_World]] -- 
> [[Criminal_law]] -- 
> [[Critical_philosophy]] -- 
> [[Devonian]] -- 
> [[Dungeon_Master]] -- 
> [[Europe/Talk]] -- 
> [[European_Union]] -- 
> [[Frank_Zappa]] -- 
> [[Friedrich_Nietzche]] -- 
> [[Friedrich_Nietzsche]] -- 
> [[General_Semantics]] -- 
> [[Gottlieb_Fichte/Talk]] -- 
> [[Gottlieb_Fichte]] -- 
> [[History_of_Spain]] -- 
> [[Karl_Popper]] -- 
> [[Lusaka]] -- 
> [[Madagascar]] -- 
> [[Making_Wikipedia_profitable/Talk]] -- 
> [[Making_Wikipedia_profitable]] -- 
> [[Miscellaneous_poker]] -- 
> [[Northwest_Passage]] -- 
> [[OpenSourced]] -- 
> [[Poker/Bug]] -- 
> [[Poker/Double-ace_flush]] -- 
> [[Poker/High_card_by_suit]] -- 
> [[Poker/Wild_card]] -- 
> [[Rush_Limbaugh/Dittoheads]] -- 
> [[Rush_Limbaugh/Emotional_punditry]] -- 
> [[Rush_Limbaugh/Environmental_wacko]] -- 
> [[Semantic_dispute]] -- 
> [[Siege]] -- 
> [[Social_engineering]] -- 
> [[The_Coen_Brothers]] -- 
70,73c45,55
< [[Turmeric]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/A_poem_of_sorts_in_narrative_style...]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth]] --  
< [[World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor]]
---
> [[Total_war]] -- 
> [[USS_Arizona]] -- 
> [[United_Nations]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Akagi]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Hiryu]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Kaga]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Shokaku]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Soryu]] -- 
> [[World_War_II/Zuikaku]] -- 
> [[Zambia]] -- 
------
A.E._van_Vogt|986979159
8c8
< Null-A</i>' and '<i>The Pawns of Null-A'</i>. In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his writing more or less stopped for some years. He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
---
> Null-A</i>' and '<i>The Pawns of Null-A'</i>. In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his  writing more or less stopped for some years. He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
------
Echelon|986979680
3c3
< Participating countries: [[United States]], [[UK]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].
---
> Participating countries: [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]].
25c25
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Echelon/Talk|986980952
24c24,28
< :''Satan's greatest achievement was to to make humanity believe that he doesn't exist'' -- WojPob
---
> :''Satan's greatest achievement was to to make humanity believe that he doesn't exist'' -- WojPob
> 
> ----
> 
> I actually drove past GCHQ in Cheltenham (I'd got lost!) a few weeks back - this is the UK headquarters for this snooping -  and I was amazed at the scale of new building work going on there...it looks to be equal in size to all the existing buildings (so far as could been seen from the road)  British Telecom is one of the contractors, according to the builders notice board, so it looks like they'll soon have a lot of extra bandwidth to feed to the extra gear in all that new space. After all, if you want to sniff fiber optic packets, it's simpler to just get the major telcoms provider to run their  cables through a government installation than mess about with satellites....
------
BASIC|986987803
12c12
< The eight design principles where:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
---
> The eight design principles were:  1.  Be easy for beginners to use  2.  Be a general-purpose language  3.  Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners)  4.  Be interactive  5.  Provide clear and friendly error messages  6.  Respond fast for small programs  7.  Not require an understanding of computer hardware  8.  Shield the user from the operating system
------
Urban_legend|986988880
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <i>urban legend</i> is a type of modern folklore story, endlessly circulated by word of mouth, repeated in news stories
> and distributed by email. They are frequently recounted as having happened to a `friend of a friend'. Some of the stories are very old, having been only slightly modified over the years, as in the  story of a woman killed by spiders nesting in her elaborate hairdo. Others are new, as in the story of the man on a business trip being seduced by a woman, and waking up next morning with a kidney surgically removed for transplant. (but why would the organ thieves stop at a single kidney?)
> 
> Some urban legends are actually based on true events, such as the case of the young man doing target practice on a large [[saguaro cactus]] who was killed when his gunfire severed the trunk, resulting in his being crushed by the falling plant. Even when essentially true, however, the stories are often distorted by the many retellings from the original event.
> There is a thriving newsgroup, news:alt.folklore.urban that discusses these; their [http:www.urbanlegends.com//afu.faq Frequently Asked Questions] page summarises the truth or otherwise of thse stories, so far as this can be determined.
> 
> 
------
Role-playing_game|986996911
31c31,32
< 
---
> * [[Das Schwarze Auge]] in english the black eye a very popular german RPG
>  
------
Role-playing_game|986996937
31c31
< * [[Das Schwarze Auge]] in english the black eye a very popular german RPG
---
> * [[Das Schwarze Auge]] in english "the black eye" a very popular german RPG
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|986999061
11a12,13
> Bite sized chunks are the right size.  It forces review of previously written material, easier classification of articles, and easier cross-linking of the different meanings of a term.
> -----
------
Wargaming|986999982
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Wargaming</b> is simulating battles or entire wars.
> 
> A typical uncomputerized wargame consists of
> * playing board - usually a [[terrain]] is drawn/printed on the playing board
> * minatures - representing armies, military units or individual military personnel
> * dice
> 
> Wargaming should not be confused with [[real time strategy]] games because wargaming is [[turn based]].
> 
> Modern wargaming grew out of the [[military]] need to study [[warfare]] and to 'reenact' old battles for learning purposes.
> 
> [[HG Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargamming.
> 
> Wargames have existed for centuries, with [[chess]] as an ancient example.
> 
> One of the main difficulties with wargaming is complexity of rules and record keeping.  Extremely detailed wargame rule sets result in a slow game and have led to the rise of computerized turn based wargame programs such as Command and Conquer.
> 
> Computerized wargames have several distinct advantages over paper and pencil wargames:
> * no need to roll dice over and over again
> * no recordkeeping
> * ability to view the [[battlefield]] from many different viewpoints (thanks to modern 3d games)
> * ability start, stop and save the game at any time.
> 
> Disadvantages of computerized wargames:
> * computer stragegy may not be as good as a human opponent
> * lack of human interaction
------
Wargaming|987000518
26a27,50
> 
> 
> Types of military wargaming:
> * land battles
> * sea battles
> * air battles
> * combinations of land, sea, and/or air battles
> 
> Usually, military wargaming can be broken down based on what technology is available to the 'armies' involved in the wargame
> and what military era or war the 'army' is from.
> 
> Popular military wargame timeframes:
> * ancient
> * Greek
> * Roman
> * Middle Ages (no [[gunpowder]])
> * early gunpowder
> * [[Napoleonic]]
> * American civil war (first [[mechanized]] war)
> * [[World War I]]
> * [[World War II]]
> * [[Korean War]]
> * [[Vietnam War]]
> * modern war
------
Wargaming|987000595
12c12
< [[HG Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargamming.
---
> [[H.G. Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargamming.
------
Solar_system|987001414
3,4c3,10
< OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: for example, there are 9 planets: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]] and [[Pluto]], plus loads of other asteroids and comets too (and the [[Sun]] itself, of course.
< The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
---
> OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: 
> 
> * The [[Sun]] itself
> * The [[planet]]s: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]], [[Pluto]]
> * [[asteroids]]
> * [[comets]]
> 
> The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
------
Asteroids|987002202
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuyper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuyper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
> 
> The largest asteroid is [[Ceres]] with a diameter of 1003 km. It also was the first to be discovered by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] on January 1, 1801. Nowadays, over 9000 asteroids are known, some less than 1 km across. Two other large asteroids are [[Pallas]] and [[Vesta]].
> 
> The first nearby pictures of an asteroid were taken by the [[Galileo]] spacecraft of [[Gaspra]] and [[Ida]] in 1991, while [[NEAR Shoemaker]] landed on [[Eros]] in 2001.
------
Solar_system|987002224
8c8
< * [[comets]]
---
> * [[comet]]s
------
MetallicA/KillEmAll|987005759
1c1,4
< [[Metallica]]'s first album. Tracks:
---
> MetallicA's Debut album- orig. released on Megaforce-then Elektra
> 
> TRACKS:
> *=bonus tracks, on early Elektra issue
12a16,17
> *-Blitzkrieg
> *-Am I Evil?
------
Poker/Ace-to-six_low|987007691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This method evaluating [[lowball]] hands is common among home games in the eastern [[United States]], and also common in the [[United Kingdom]] (it is the traditional ranking of [[Poker/London lowball|London lowball]], a [[stud poker]] variant).  Aces are treated as low, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  The best possible hand is therefore '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-A''', etc.
------
Poker/Deuce-to-seven_low|987008151
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This method for evaluating [[/Low hand]]s is often called "Kansas City" low or just "low poker".  It is almost the direct opposite of standard poker: [[/High hand]] loses.  Aces are always high, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce-to-seven low because the best possible hand is '''7-5-4-3-2''', followed by '''7-6-4-3-2''', '''7-6-5-3-2''', '''7-6-5-4-2''', '''8-5-4-3-2''', '''8-6-4-3-2''', etc.  The one exception is that a [[/Wheel]] is not considered a straight; '''A-5-4-3-2''' is simply ace-high no pair (it would therefore lose to any king-high, but would defeat '''A-6-4-3-2''').
------
Poker/Ace-to-six_low|987008184
1c1
< This method evaluating [[lowball]] hands is common among home games in the eastern [[United States]], and also common in the [[United Kingdom]] (it is the traditional ranking of [[Poker/London lowball|London lowball]], a [[stud poker]] variant).  Aces are treated as low, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  The best possible hand is therefore '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-A''', etc.
---
> This method evaluating [[/Low hand]]s is common among home games in the eastern [[United States]], and also common in the [[United Kingdom]] (it is the traditional ranking of [[Poker/London lowball|London lowball]], a [[stud poker]] variant).  Aces are treated as low, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  The best possible hand is therefore '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-A''', etc.
------
Solar_system|987009229
10a11,13
> 
> ----
> That's not right. The Sun's gravity extends to infinity, whether the gravity forces an object to move round it depends on the velocity of the object.... I thought the heliopause was the boundary where the sun's atmosphere/solar wind stops and the interstellar medium takes over...
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|987009522
10d9
< 
14c13,14
< 
---
> With respect, I would point out that when it comes to very technical, specialized material, it is difficult to break discussions easily into parts.  See, e.g., the articles in [[mathematics]].  A great deal of specialized knowledge, e.g., in my own field of [[philosophy]], consists of what might be called "narratives"--that is, familiar accounts of problems, solutions, arguments on both sides, etc.  Parts of such accounts can be broken down (as I've started to do with [[Larrys Text]]) but then again, other parts just can't, without interrupting the "narrative."  --[[LMS]]
> ----
------
Poker/Ace-to-five_low|987009528
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Ace-to-five low''' is the most common method for evaluating [[/Low hand]]s in [[poker]], nearly universal in American casinos, especially in [[/High-low split]] games.
> 
> As in all [[lowball]] games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair
> hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the [[/High hand]] loses.  In ace-to-five low, [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es are ignored, and aces play as the lowest card.
> 
> For example, the hand '''8-5-4-3-2''' defeats '''9-7-6-4-3''', because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand '''7-6-5-4-3''' defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.  Aces are low, so '''8-5-4-3-A''' defeats '''8-5-4-3-2'''.  Also, '''A-A-9-5-3''' (a pair of aces) defeats '''2-2-5-4-3''' (a pair of deuces), but both of those would lose to any no-pair hand such as '''K-J-8-6-4'''.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): '''3-3-6-4-2''' defeats '''3-3-6-5-A'''.
> 
> This is called ace-to-five low because the lowest (and therefore best) possible hand is '''5-4-3-2-A''', called a [[/Wheel]] or "bicycle".  The next best possible hand is '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''6-5-4-3-2''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-1''', etc.
> 
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand '''8-6-5-4-2''' can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as '''8-7-5-4-A'''.
> 
> In [[/High-low split]] games, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is called a "steel wheel", '''5-4-3-2-A''' of one suit, which plays both as perfect low and a [[/Straight flush]] high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a mixed-suit wheel, and a third has a suited '''10-9-8-7-6''' for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.  Strange things can happen at poker tables.
> 
> Ace-to-five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand (in other words, it is a [[/Wild card]]): '''7-5-4-Joker-A''', for example, the joker plays as a '''2'''.  This can cause some interesting effects for high-low split games.  Let's say that Alice has '''6-5-4-3-2''' (called a "stright six")--a reasonably good hand for both high and low.  Burt has '''Joker-6-5-4-3'''.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a '''7''' for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his low hand is '''6-5-4-3-A''', lower than her straight six by one notch.  Jokers are very powerful in high-low split games.
> 
------
Poker/Ace-to-six_low|987010297
1c1,13
< This method evaluating [[/Low hand]]s is common among home games in the eastern [[United States]], and also common in the [[United Kingdom]] (it is the traditional ranking of [[Poker/London lowball|London lowball]], a [[stud poker]] variant).  Aces are treated as low, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  The best possible hand is therefore '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-A''', etc.
---
> '''Ace-to-six low''' is a method for evaluating [[/Low hand]]s in [[poker]].  It is not as commonly used as the [[/Ace-to-five low]] method, but it is common among home games in the eastern [[United States]], and also common in the [[United Kingdom]] (it is the traditional ranking of [[Poker/London lowball|London lowball]], a [[stud poker]] variant).
> 
> As in all [[lowball]] games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the [[/High hand]] loses.  In ace-to-six low, [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad), and aces play as the lowest card.
> 
> For example, the hand '''8-5-4-3-2''' defeats '''9-7-6-4-3''', because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand '''7-6-5-4-2''' defeats both, because seven-high is lower still.  The hand '''7-6-5-4-3''' would lose, because it is a straight.  Aces are low, so '''8-5-4-3-A''' defeats '''8-5-4-3-2'''.  Also, '''A-A-9-5-3''' (a pair of aces) defeats '''2-2-5-4-3''' (a pair of deuces), but both of those would lose to any no-pair hand such as '''K-J-8-6-4'''.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): '''3-3-6-4-2''' defeats '''3-3-6-5-A'''.
> 
> It is called ace-to-six low because the best possible hand is '''6-4-3-2-A''', followed by '''6-5-3-2-A''', '''6-5-4-2-A''', '''6-5-4-3-A''', '''7-4-3-2-A''', '''7-5-3-2-A''', etc.
> 
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand '''8-6-5-4-2''' can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as '''8-7-5-4-A'''.
> 
> A [[/Wild card]] plays as whatever rank would make the lowest hand.  Thus, in '''6-5-Joker-2-A''', the joker plays as a '''3''', while in '''Joker-5-4-3-2''' it would play as a '''7''' (an ace or six would make a straight).
> 
> [[/High-low split]] games with ace-to-six low are usually played with a [[/Declaration]].
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation|987010459
14a15,18
> ----
> I agree that this is a nice advantage of hypertext, and we should use it when appropriate, but I'd caution about taking small chunking ''too'' far.  As I said on [[Wikipedia commentary/Breadth and depth]] (in response to what someone else said), there are aspects of fields that consist of what might be called "narratives" that are rather difficult to break down into chunks.  I would add here that it's sometimes (not always, but ''sometimes'') very important, for understanding, that these chunks be kept together ''on the same page''--a lot of people won't follow hyperlinks for fear of losing the thread of the "main" article or for failing to see the relevance of the linked article to the "main" article.
> 
> I think the football articles are a fine example of how "modular content creation" can work well.  Another good example would be articles about basic technical terms in computer science and in biology.  I also totally agree about the importance of relatively small chunks in order to be able to organize those chunks into larger articles organized in different ways; the example of Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity is great.  It has a place in an article--no, a set of readings--about the American Revolution, but it also has a place in a set of readings about the history of scientific discovery.  Actually, though, I'd rather see it labelled [[Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity]] rather than [[Ben Franklin/Discovery of electricity]].  Generally, subpages are messy, and I've decided I don't much like 'em except for very limited uses (e.g., "talk" pages). --[[LMS]]
------
Asteroids|987010625
1c1,3
< Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuyper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuyper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
---
> Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuiper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuiper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
> 
> ''Would like to call this into serious question.  There's a second belt, of course, but I don't think the word asteroid is ever applied to them.  They're icy rather than rocky debris; comet is by and large a better term.  Maybe AstroNomer could confirm this one way or another?''
5c7
< The first nearby pictures of an asteroid were taken by the [[Galileo]] spacecraft of [[Gaspra]] and [[Ida]] in 1991, while [[NEAR Shoemaker]] landed on [[Eros]] in 2001.
---
> The first nearby pictures of an asteroid were taken by the [[Galileo]] spacecraft of [[Gaspra]] and [[Ida]] in 1991, while [[NEAR Shoemaker]] landed on [[Eros]] in 2001.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Modular_content_creation|987010667
18c18
< I think the football articles are a fine example of how "modular content creation" can work well.  Another good example would be articles about basic technical terms in computer science and in biology.  I also totally agree about the importance of relatively small chunks in order to be able to organize those chunks into larger articles organized in different ways; the example of Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity is great.  It has a place in an article--no, a set of readings--about the American Revolution, but it also has a place in a set of readings about the history of scientific discovery.  Actually, though, I'd rather see it labelled [[Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity]] rather than [[Ben Franklin/Discovery of electricity]].  Generally, subpages are messy, and I've decided I don't much like 'em except for very limited uses (e.g., "talk" pages). --[[LMS]]
---
> I think the football articles are a fine example of how "modular content creation" can work well.  Another good example would be articles about basic technical terms in computer science and in biology.  I also totally agree about the importance of relatively small chunks in order to be able to organize those chunks into larger articles organized in different ways; the example of Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity is great.  It has a place in an article--no, a set of readings--about the American Revolution, but it also has a place in a set of readings about the history of scientific discovery.  Actually, though, I'd rather see it labelled [[Ben Franklin's discovery of electricity]] rather than [[Ben Franklin/Discovery of electricity]].  Generally, subpages are messy, and I've decided I don't much like 'em except for very limited uses (e.g., "talk" pages).  But, by the way, Lee, I think your [[poker]] pages do show one way to use them that makes sense. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|987010735
11c11
< :[[/Breadth and depth]] (discussion)
---
> :[[/Breadth and depth]] ([[Larry Sanger]] and others)
14c14,15
< :[[/Making Wikipedia profitable]] ([[Neeklamy]])
---
> :[[/Making Wikipedia profitable]] ([[Neeklamy]] and others)
> :[[/Modular content creation]] ([[Tim Shell]] and others)
------
City|987010909
2a3,5
> <b>[[China]]</b>
> * [[Shanghai]]
> 
------
Cladistics|987010913
15,16d14
< ----
< I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.
18,22c16
< ''Go ahead and fix it to your taste.  I don't have anything against the concept of cladistics, but the current practice violates a principle that it took a lot of painful experience to absorb.  Namely, if the practitioners of an art can't/won't speak in clear, simple language, that's usually a symptom of massive confusion on their part.  I do think the subject deserves an entry.  DJK''
< 
< I've seen some cladistics and as far as I can tell it uses no more jargon then any other field.  A lot of the terms, as stated, are used by other methodologists as well.  But more to the point, except for perhaps clade each of the words expresses a concept which doesn't really have a compact synonym in normal English.  So they're somewhat unavoidable, just like jargon like ''endoplasmic reticulum'' is unavoidable in protistology.
< 
< Aside from that, the article above seems fine, except perhaps for a negative image cast towards the subject.  But whether that's deserved or not I can't say; I am not a biologist, so have no idea about the objections you present.  As stated, most trees I've seen come out relatively close to earlier ones - and when they don't there are darn good reasons - and most recent sources on evolution I've seen are fairly pro-cladistics.  But I really don't know that much.
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Poker/Deuce-to-seven_low|987010985
1c1,15
< This method for evaluating [[/Low hand]]s is often called "Kansas City" low or just "low poker".  It is almost the direct opposite of standard poker: [[/High hand]] loses.  Aces are always high, and [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce-to-seven low because the best possible hand is '''7-5-4-3-2''', followed by '''7-6-4-3-2''', '''7-6-5-3-2''', '''7-6-5-4-2''', '''8-5-4-3-2''', '''8-6-4-3-2''', etc.  The one exception is that a [[/Wheel]] is not considered a straight; '''A-5-4-3-2''' is simply ace-high no pair (it would therefore lose to any king-high, but would defeat '''A-6-4-3-2''').
---
> '''Deuce-to-seven low''' is a method for evaluating [[/Low hand]]s in poker.  It is often called "Kansas City" low or just "low poker".  It is almost the direct opposite of standard poker: [[/High hand]] loses.  It is not as commonly used as the [[/Ace-to-five low]] method.
> 
> As in all [[lowball]] games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the [[/High hand]] loses.  In deuce-to-seven low, [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es count for high (and are therefore bad).  Aces are always high (and therefore bad).
> 
> For example, the hand '''8-5-4-3-2''' defeats '''9-7-6-4-3''', because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand '''7-6-5-4-2''' defeats both, because seven-high is lower still.  The hand '''7-6-5-4-3''' would lose, because it is a straight.  Aces are high, so '''Q-8-5-4-3''' defeats '''A-8-5-4-3'''.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): '''3-3-6-4-2''' defeats '''3-3-6-5-2'''.
> 
> A special rule is that a [[/Wheel]] is not considered a straight: '''A-5-4-3-2''' is simply ace-high no pair (it would therefore lose to any king-high, but would defeat '''A-6-4-3-2''').
> 
> It's called deuce-to-seven low because the best possible hand is '''7-5-4-3-2''', followed by '''7-6-4-3-2''', '''7-6-5-3-2''', '''7-6-5-4-2''', '''8-5-4-3-2''', '''8-6-4-3-2''', etc.
> 
> When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand '''8-6-5-4-2''' can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as '''8-7-5-4-2'''.
> 
> [[/Wild card]]s are rarely used in deuce-to-seven games, but if used they play as whatever rank would make the lowest hand.  Thus, in '''7-6-Joker-3-2''', the joker plays as a '''4''', while in '''Joker-5-4-3-2''' it would play as a '''7''' (a six would make a straight, and an ace would make ace-five high).
> 
> [[/High-low split]] games with deuce-to-seven low are usually played with a [[/Declaration]].
------
China|987011059
1c1,106
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Asia 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 9,596,960 sq km 
> land: 9,326,410 sq km 
> water: 270,550 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 22,143.34 km 
> border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km 
> 
> Coastline: 14,500 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m 
> highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.) 
> 
> Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest) 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 10% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 43% 
> forests and woodland: 14% 
> other: 33% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts 
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
> 
> Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) 
> 
> 
> People 
> 
> [Top of Page] 
> 
> Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953) 
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673) 
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 71.38 years 
> male: 69.6 years 
> female: 73.33 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Chinese (singular and plural) 
> adjective: Chinese 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% 
> 
> Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) 
> note: officially atheist 
> 
> Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry) 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 81.5% 
> male: 89.9% 
> female: 72.7% (1995 est.) 
> 
------
Cladistics/Talk|987011079
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ----
> I don't think polyphyly, monophyly, and the like are really cladistics terms, are they?  After all they refer first and foremost to the evolution of the group in question; for instance the claim that the arthropods are polyphyletic is a hypothesis about their origins, which certainly cladistics have been used to help evaluate, but also more traditional lines of reasoning.  From what I have seen, to, the trees constructed usually come out reasonably close to one another.
> 
> ''Go ahead and fix it to your taste.  I don't have anything against the concept of cladistics, but the current practice violates a principle that it took a lot of painful experience to absorb.  Namely, if the practitioners of an art can't/won't speak in clear, simple language, that's usually a symptom of massive confusion on their part.  I do think the subject deserves an entry.  DJK''
> 
> I've seen some cladistics and as far as I can tell it uses no more jargon then any other field.  A lot of the terms, as stated, are used by other methodologists as well.  But more to the point, except for perhaps clade each of the words expresses a concept which doesn't really have a compact synonym in normal English.  So they're somewhat unavoidable, just like jargon like ''endoplasmic reticulum'' is unavoidable in protistology.
> 
> Aside from that, the article above seems fine, except perhaps for a negative image cast towards the subject.  But whether that's deserved or not I can't say; I am not a biologist, so have no idea about the objections you present.  As stated, most trees I've seen come out relatively close to earlier ones - and when they don't there are darn good reasons - and most recent sources on evolution I've seen are fairly pro-cladistics.  But I really don't know that much.
> 
> Ah, one more thing I noticed.  Cladistics is ''not'' a classification system, as stated on [[Linnaean Taxonomy/Talk]].  It's a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  Taxonomy has, for a long time, intended to reflect these (which also, btw, makes the point about continually changing classifications moot - it's a problem we already have), although cladistics people tend to make an insane amount of subclasses, infraclasses, subinfraclasses and so forth as they go through.
------
China|987011112
55,57c55
< People 
< 
< [Top of Page] 
---
> <b>People</b>
------
Poker/Ace-to-five_low|987011197
12c12
< In [[/High-low split]] games, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is called a "steel wheel", '''5-4-3-2-A''' of one suit, which plays both as perfect low and a [[/Straight flush]] high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a mixed-suit wheel, and a third has a suited '''10-9-8-7-6''' for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.  Strange things can happen at poker tables.
---
> [[/High-low split]] games with ave-to-five low are usually played [[/Cards speak]], that is, without a [[/Declaration]].  Frequently a qualifer is required for low (typically 8-high or 9-high).  Some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is called a "steel wheel", '''5-4-3-2-A''' of one suit, which plays both as perfect low and a [[/Straight flush]] high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a mixed-suit wheel, and a third has a suited '''10-9-8-7-6''' for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.  Strange things can happen at poker tables.
------
China|987011337
0a1,2
> [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo)
> 
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China|987011355
1c1,106
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo)
> 
> Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Asia 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 9,596,960 sq km 
> land: 9,326,410 sq km 
> water: 270,550 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 22,143.34 km 
> border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km 
> 
> Coastline: 14,500 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m 
> highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.) 
> 
> Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest) 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 10% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 43% 
> forests and woodland: 14% 
> other: 33% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts 
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
> 
> Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) 
> 
> 
> <b>People</b>
> 
> Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953) 
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673) 
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 71.38 years 
> male: 69.6 years 
> female: 73.33 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Chinese (singular and plural) 
> adjective: Chinese 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% 
> 
> Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) 
> note: officially atheist 
> 
> Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry) 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 81.5% 
> male: 89.9% 
> female: 72.7% (1995 est.) 
> 
------
China|987011407
1,106c1
< [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo)
< 
< Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Asia 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 9,596,960 sq km 
< land: 9,326,410 sq km 
< water: 270,550 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 22,143.34 km 
< border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km 
< 
< Coastline: 14,500 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< contiguous zone: 24 nm 
< continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north 
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m 
< highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.) 
< 
< Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest) 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 10% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 43% 
< forests and woodland: 14% 
< other: 33% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts 
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
< 
< Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) 
< 
< 
< <b>People</b>
< 
< Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953) 
< 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673) 
< 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 71.38 years 
< male: 69.6 years 
< female: 73.33 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Chinese (singular and plural) 
< adjective: Chinese 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% 
< 
< Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) 
< note: officially atheist 
< 
< Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry) 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 81.5% 
< male: 89.9% 
< female: 72.7% (1995 est.) 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Peoples Republic of China]] 
------
California|987011617
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> California is a state located in the western [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], and the country of [[Mexico]].
------
Cladistics/Talk|987012070
1d0
< ----
8c7
< Aside from that, the article above seems fine, except perhaps for a negative image cast towards the subject.  But whether that's deserved or not I can't say; I am not a biologist, so have no idea about the objections you present.  As stated, most trees I've seen come out relatively close to earlier ones - and when they don't there are darn good reasons - and most recent sources on evolution I've seen are fairly pro-cladistics.  But I really don't know that much.
---
> Ah, one more thing I noticed.  Cladistics is ''not'' a classification system, as stated on [[Linnaean Taxonomy/Talk]].  It's a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  Taxonomy ties in because cladists intend it to reflect the phylogeny of organisms.  However this intention is shared by pretty much the majority of biologists.  If you look at some of the more recent Linnaean schemes for, say, protists and flowers, you'd find everything up in the air for precisely these reasons.  So objections to the practice on these grounds have kind of been superceded.
10c9
< Ah, one more thing I noticed.  Cladistics is ''not'' a classification system, as stated on [[Linnaean Taxonomy/Talk]].  It's a methodology for elucidating evolutionary relationships.  Taxonomy has, for a long time, intended to reflect these (which also, btw, makes the point about continually changing classifications moot - it's a problem we already have), although cladistics people tend to make an insane amount of subclasses, infraclasses, subinfraclasses and so forth as they go through.
---
> On these grounds I think I'm going to take a stab at rewriting the article.  Please don't be insulted by this!  I'll try and leave all your points except the above, but move them to a criticisms paragraph down at the bottom, since that seems to be the standard way of presenting a neutral point of view.  Personally I think cladistics is neat, at least when it works, but takes forever to get used to. :)
------
Lowball|987012198
1c1
< <i>Lowball</i> (or <i>low poker</i>) refers to any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which traditional hand values are reversed, so that the lowest-valued hand wins.  There are several interpretations of this idea: see [[Poker/Hands]] for the specific methods used.
---
> The word '''Lowball''' has several senses:
3c3,5
< Also a class of alcoholic [[Beverage|beverage]]: an unmixed drink served on ice or water in a short glass.
---
> # Also known as '''low poker''', any of a number of [[poker variant]]s in which traditional hand values are reversed, so that the lowest-valued hand wins.  There are several interpretations of this idea: see [[Poker/Low hand]] for the specific methods used.
> # A class of alcoholic [[beverage]]: an unmixed drink served on ice or water in a short glass (a [[back-formation]] from [[highball]]).
> # As a verb, to underestimate or understate a price, for example in bargaining for a purchase.
------
Poker/Low_hand|987012879
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some forms of [[poker]], often called [[lowball]] or "low poker", reward poor poker hands (in the traditional sense).  There are three common variations on this idea, differing in whether aces are treated as high cards or low cards, and whether or not [[/Straight]]s and [[/Flush]]es are used.  The methods are:
> 
> * [[/Ace-to-five low]]: The most common method.  Aces are low and straights and flushes are ignored, so the best possible hand is '''5-4-3-2-A''', called a [[/Wheel]].
> * [[/Ace-to-six low]]: Aces are low and straights and flushes do count (as high), so the best possible hand is '''6-5-4-3-A'''.
> * [[/Deuce-to-seven low]]: Almost the direct inverse of traditional [[/High hand]] poker.  Aces are high and straights and flushes do count, so the best possible hand is '''7-5-4-3-2'''.  A wheel is not considered a straight, so '''A-5-4-3-2''' is just ace-high no pair.
> 
> Some games are played [[/High-low split]], where the player with the best traditional poker hand (called the [[/High hand]]) splits the pot with the best low hand (by one of the methods above).  Low hands tie more frequently than high hands, especially in [[/Community card]] games, so it is not uncommon for such a hand to win a small fraction of a poker pot.  For example, if one player has the high hand on [[/Showdown]], and two other players tie for the best low hand, the high hand wins half of the pot and each low hand wins only a quarter of the pot.
------
Poker/High_hand|987013277
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[poker]] term '''high hand''' means simply the best poker hand, using traditional poker hand rankings (see [[Poker/Hands]]).  It is a [[retronym]] coined in response to [[lowball]].  The term is used most commonly in [[/High-low split]] games.
> 
> 
------
Asteroids|987013467
7a8,11
> ----
> <b>Asteroids</b> is the name of a popular vector based video arcade game from 197?
> 
> The asteroids arcade game was in the [[science fiction]] movie [[Soylent Green]] which was released in 1970.
------
Mexico|987014082
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belieze]].
> 
> See also:
> * [[Mexican food]]
------
Poker|987014457
35a36,39
> 
> Games that use poker in the name:
> * Dollar bill poker
> * Pai Gaw? poker
------
City|987014804
2a3,22
> <b>[[Canada]]</b>
> * [[Calgary]]
> * [[Charlottetown]]
> * [[Fredericton]]
> * [[Iqaluit]]
> * [[Halifax]]
> * [[Moncton]]
> * [[Montreal]]
> * [[Ottawa]]
> * [[Quebec City]]
> * [[Regina]]
> * [[Saint John NB|Saint John (New Brunswick)]]
> * [[St Johns NF|St John's (Newfoundland)]]
> * [[Toronto]]
> * [[Winnipeg]]
> * [[Vancouver]]
> * [[Victoria BC|Victoria]]
> * [[Whitehorse]]
> * [[Yellowknife]]
> 
------
DeconstructionIsm|987015069
0a1,4
> <b>Deconstrictionism</b> is the process of breaking down something from a 'complex' state to more 'simple' state.
> 
> Deconstructing is sometime used to cut down, demorialize, or otherwise disparage a particular topic, theory, person, or opponent.
> ----
------
San_Francisco|987015233
11a12,14
> 
> Culturally and politically, San Francisco has always been more liberal than the rest of the United States.  This liberalism may be attributed to San Francisco's status as a major port and link to [[asia]].
> 
------
MetallicA|987015302
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Metallica]]
------
Poker/High-low_split|987015349
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In traditional [[poker]] games, the player with the best traditional hand (see [[Poker/Hands]]) wins the whole pot.  [[Lowball]] variations award the pot to the lowest hand, by any of several methods (see [[Poker/Low hand]]).  '''High-low split''' refers to games in which the pot is divided between the player with the best traditional hand (called the [[/High hand]]) and the player with the [[/Low hand]].
> 
> There are two common methods for playing high-low split games, called [[/Declaration]] and [[/Cards speak]].  In a declaration game, each player declares (either verbally or using markers such as chips) whether he wishes to contest for the high hand or the low hand.  The lowest hand among those who declared low wins that half of the pot, and the highest hand among those who declared high wins that half (for further details, see [[/Declaration]]).  In a cards speak game, all players simply reveal their cards at [[/Showdown]] and the hands are evaluated by all players; high hand wins half of the pot and low hand wins the other half.
> 
> Especially when using the [[Ace-to-five low]] method, it is possible for one player to have both the low hand and the high hand, and therefore win all of the pot (called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot).  In the event more than one player ties for either high or low, the pot can be further split into quarters or smaller fractions.  For example, if one player has the high hand on showdown, and two other players tie for the best low hand, the high hand wins half of the pot and each low hand wins only a quarter of the pot.
> 
> It is common, especially in cards speak games, to require a certain hand value or better to win the low half of the pot, called a '''qualifier'''.  For example in an "eight or better to qualify low" game, a player with an eight-high hand (or better low such as seven-high) is entitled to win the low half of the pot (assuming his hand defeats all other low hands), but a player with a 10-high or 9-high hand cannot win, even if his hand is the lowest.  In this case, the high hand wins the entire pot.  There is generally no qualifier to win high, although one common variant is '''any pair/no pair''', where a hand of at least a pair is required to win high and any hand with no pair is required to win low.
> 
> In high-low split games where each player is dealt more than five cards, each player chooses five of his cards to play as his high hand, and/or five of his cards to play as his low hand.  The sets may overlap: for example, in [[/Seven-card stud]] played high-low split, a player dealt '''7-7-6-4-4-3-2''' can play a high hand of '''7-7-4-4-6''' (two pair, sevens and fours) and a low hand of '''7-6-4-3-2''' (seven-high).
> 
> 
> Note that [[/Bluff]]s can be especially powerful in high-low split games, because a player making a successful bluff wins the whole pot rather than having to share it.  This fact also makes bluffs less likely to succeed.
> 
> For methods of splitting a pot, see [[Splitting poker pots]].
------
High-low_split_poker|987015397
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poker/High-low split]]
------
Metallica/Talk|987015405
3c3
< I think it is really interesting to see the shift in [[Metallica]]'s image since the whole [[Napster]] VsMetallica controversy erupted.  [[Metallica]] was always known as a band of the people -- a band that grew in popularity by touring a lot and connecting directly with the fans, with very little record company or MTV corporate support of any kind.
---
> I think it is really interesting to see the shift in [[Metallica]]'s image since the whole [[Napster]] VsMetallica controversy erupted.  [[Metallica]] was always known as a band of the people -- a band that grew in popularity by touring a lot and connecting directly with the fans, with very little record company or [[MTV]] corporate support of any kind.
------
Canada/Transportation|987015455
2c2
< * <i>total:</i> 36,114 km; note - there are two major transcontinental freight railway systems: Canadian National (privatized November 1995) and Canadian Pacific Railway; passenger service provided by government-operated firm VIA, which has no trackage of its own
---
> * <i>total:</i> 36,114 km; note - there are two major transcontinental freight railway systems: [[Canadian National Railway|Canadian National]] (privatized November 1995) and [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]; passenger service provided by government-operated firm [[VIA Rail|VIA]], which has no trackage of its own
10c10
< <b>Waterways:</b> 3,000 km, including Saint Lawrence Seaway
---
> <b>Waterways:</b> 3,000 km, including [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]
14c14
< <b>Ports and harbors:</b> Becancour (Quebec), Churchill, Halifax, Hamilton, Montreal, New Westminster, Prince Rupert, Quebec, Saint John (New Brunswick), St. John's (Newfoundland), Sept Isles, Sydney, Trois-Rivieres, Thunder Bay, Toronto, Vancouver, Windsor
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b> [[Becancour]] ([[Quebec]]), [[Churchill]], [[Halifax]], [[Hamilton]], [[Montreal]], [[New Westminster]], [[Prince Rupert]], [[Quebec City]], [[Saint John]] ([[New Brunswick]]), [[St Johns NF|St. John's]] ([[Newfoundland]]), [[Sept Isles]], [[Sydney]], [[Trois Rivieres|Trois-Rivieres]], [[Thunder Bay]], [[Toronto]], [[Vancouver]], [[Windsor]]
19c19
< * <i>note:</i> does not include ships used exclusively in the Great Lakes (1998 est.)
---
> * <i>note:</i> does not include ships used exclusively in the [[Great Lakes]] (1998 est.)
------
China|987015674
1c1,5
< #REDIRECT [[Peoples Republic of China]] 
---
> See [[Peoples Republic of China]]
> 
> ----
> 
> China is a 4000 year old civilization.  It merits an article independent from the PRC article.
------
Beavis_and_Butthead|987015728
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Beavis and Butthead</b> was an animated comedy show that aired on [[MTV]] from 199?-199? about two stupid high school males often satiring high school life and culture.
> 
> A full length movie (Beavis and Butthead Do America) was released in 199? 
> 
> Beavis and Butthead along with other mainstream cartoons such as [[Ren and Stimpy]] and the [[Simpsons]] pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children only.
> 
------
San_Francisco|987015829
12a13,14
> In San Francisco, red lights are considered mere suggestions.
> 
------
Canada/Transportation|987015834
37a38,39
> ----
> Somewhere it should be mentioned how the Canadian railway linking east and west Canada paralled the [[transcontinental railroad]] in the [[United States]].  Both of these were extremely important to the development of each country.
------
Saint_Lawrence_Seaway|987015840
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A major inland seaway between [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]. It consists of the [[Saint Lawrence River]], the [[Great Lakes]], and a system of locks and canals.
> 
> <i>To do: history, basic statistics, relationship of US and Canada concerning the seaway, etc</i>
------
Poker|987015878
17a18,24
> ** [[Poker-related game]]s (Non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker, or unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways)
> *** [[Seven-twenty-seven]]
> *** [[Caro Dots]]
> *** [[Boure]]
> *** [[Dollar bill poker]] (also called Liar's poker)
> *** [[Pai Gow poker]] (also called Double-hand poker
> *** [[Chinese poker]] (also called Russian poker, 13-card poker)
37,39c44
< Games that use poker in the name:
< * Dollar bill poker
< * Pai Gaw? poker
---
> 
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China|987015890
1c1
< [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo)
---
> [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>communist</b>
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China|987015900
1c1
< [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>communist</b>
---
> [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>communist</b>)
------
Great_Lakes|987016227
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Great Lakes are [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan]], [[Lake Huron]], [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]]. Each of the lakes straddle the [[US]]-[[Canada]] border, with the exception of Lake Michigan, which is entirely within the [[United States]].
------
Canada/History|987016365
1c1
< A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across an unfortified border. Its paramount political problem continues to be the relationship of the province of Quebec, with its French-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of the country.
---
> A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada became a self-governing [[dominion]] in 1867 while retaining ties to the [[British]] crown. Economically and technologically the nation has developed in parallel with the [[US]], its neighbor to the south across an unfortified border. Its paramount political problem continues to be the relationship of the province of [[Quebec]], with its [[French language|French]]-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of the country.
------
San_Francisco|987016468
15,16c15
< Culturally and politically, San Francisco has always been more liberal than the rest of the United States.  This liberalism may be attributed to San Francisco's status as a major port and link to [[asia]].
< 
---
> Culturally and politically, San Francisco has always been more liberal than the rest of the United States.  In particular, the San Francisco county Board of Supervisors consistently has a majority of liberal members, and passes many laws that would be unlikely anywhere else.  This liberalism may be attributed to ethnic diversity related to San Francisco's status as a major port and link to [[Asia]], as well as to its large and politically active [[homosexual]] community.
------
Canada/Geography|987016503
16c16
< * <i>border countries:</i> US 8,893 km (includes 2,477 km with Alaska)
---
> * <i>border countries:</i> US 8,893 km (includes 2,477 km with [[Alaska]])
50,51c50,51
< * <i>party to:</i> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
< * <i>signed, but not ratified:</i> Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
---
> * <i>party to:</i> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, [[Antarctic Treaty]], Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, [[Nuclear Test Ban]], Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> * <i>signed, but not ratified:</i> Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, [[Law of the Sea]], Marine Life Conservation
------
Great_Lakes|987016514
1c1
< The Great Lakes are [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan]], [[Lake Huron]], [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]]. Each of the lakes straddle the [[US]]-[[Canada]] border, with the exception of Lake Michigan, which is entirely within the [[United States]].
---
> The Great Lakes are [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan]], [[Lake Huron]], [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]]. Each of the lakes straddles the [[US]]-[[Canada]] border, with the exception of Lake Michigan, which is entirely within the [[United States]].
------
Cladistics|987016712
1,4c1
< A classification scheme that has somewhat replaced the traditional [[Linnaean taxonomy|Linnean System]] with its hierarchy of kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Weaknesses of the Linnean system include a lack of information on evolutionary history; substantial vagueness about the closeness of apparent relationships; lack of rigor in assigning relationships; and lack of tools for assessing the quality of alternative structures. 
< Cladistics arranges lifeforms into "cladograms" that attempt to relate animals back to ancestoral forms. A hierarchy over time rather than a hierarchy over physiology if you will. Cladograms are binary trees that attempt to show each evolutionary step in the differentiation of lifeforms.
<  
< Thus, for example, Linnean systemology shows dogs, wolves and coyotes as all being species within the Genus Canis.  A cladogram would show which canid evolved from which. Weaknesses of cladistics include mindnumbing jargon; difficulty in handling missing forms; problems in distinguishing inherited from separately evolved/lost characteristics; and a dependence of results on the choice of characters used to develop the cladogram. Cladistics uses the principle of parsimony -- the most compact possible arrangement is deemed to be correct. It also incorporates the concept of genetic distance -- the shortest number of nodes between two nodes. 
---
> Cladistics is a relatively recent method for uncovering the evolutionary relationships between living things, intended to provide explicit and testable hypotheses.  Different possibilities are presented on trees called ''cladograms'', as in the example
6c3,13
< It has not, ''so far as I know'', been shown that cladistics can effectively handle sparsely populated data sets such as those encountered in paleontology either in theory or practice. 
---
>         +--- Lizards and snakes
>         |
>     +---*
>     |   |
>     |   +--- Tuatara
>  ---*
>     |   +--- Crocodiles
>     |   |
>     +---*
>         |
>         +--- Birds
8c15
< Cladistic discussions tend to be conducted at high amplitude in quite incomprehnsible lingo and with a notable lack of fellowship, congeniality and good humor. 
---
> Unlike normal evolutionary trees all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary.  A correct cladogram would have all the organisms in each branch, or ''clade'', share a common ancestor which they do not share with the other organisms on the diagram.  Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the forms it diverged off of, called ''synapomorphies''.  For instance feathers are a synapomorphy of birds.
10c17
< There is a movement toward replacing Linnean species nomenclature with cladogram based nomenclature. There has been substantial resistance even among moderates who have doubts about the stability of the cladograms and concerns about the possibility of having to deal with a constantly changing nomenclature. 
---
> Typically an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering some outgroup of organisms we know are not too close to any of the organisms in question (for instance frogs would be a good outgroup for the above).  Only apomorphies are any use in characterising clades.
12c19
< Cladistics really has two applications. One is to molecular phylogeny which deals with changes in DNA. The second is for systemization of external morphology. It is often assumed that since DNA controls the morphology, these two concepts are fully interchangable. This may not be true.  It is possible that concepts that work in one of the two contexts may not work in the other. Cladistics uses a plethora of jargon. Key terms include: Polyphyly, Paraphyly, Monophyly, Clade, Apomorphy, Plesiomorphy, Synamorphy  
---
> Next different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated.  Clades are typically chosen to have as many synapomorphies as they can.  The idea is that a sufficiently large amount of characteristics should be large enough to overwhelm any examples of convergent evolution, and in practice neutral features like exact ultrastructure tend to do just that.  When equivalent possibilties turn up they are usually selected from according to the principle of parsimony: the most compact arrangement is likely the best.
14,16c21
< ''If anyone wants to go further in defining the elements of cladistics, feel free''
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
------
Canada|987016746
7c7
< Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The [[Native|Natives]] who were originally living there, the [[French]] who first settled there and the [[English]] who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with [[separatism]] and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.

---
> Canada was formed by three original ethnic groups. The [[Native|Natives]] who were originally living there, the [[French]] who first settled there and the [[English]] who defeated the French and captured the colony. Many of the country's problems with [[separatism]] and rights battles stem from this often violent and controversial birth.
23a24
> * [[/Culture|Culture]]
------
Cladistics|987016888
21c21
< Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
---
> Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
------
HomePage|987017179
30c30
< Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia version written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
---
> Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia versions written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
------
John_F._Kennedy|987017288
9a10,11
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Canada/Culture|987017311
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While the culture of [[Canada]] shares much with its English roots and American neighbors, it also has many unique elements, some influenced by attempts to integrate the French-Canadian minority and attempts to differentiate itself from English and American culture.
> 
> One of these is a unique sense of humor.  The comedy group [[Second City]] originated in Canada and produced many comedians that went on to success worldwide, including [[John Candy]], [[Rick Moranis]], [[Dave Thomas]], [[Katherine Ohara]], and others.  Their humor and something of their politics is further evidenced by the result of a contest held by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.  They asked people to submit a completion to the phrase "As Canadian as...".  The winning entry was "As Canadian as...possible under the circumstances."
------
John_F._Kennedy/Talk|987017437
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Assasinated by Lee Harvey Oswald? Listen, I have a another theory about that... -- Certainly-Not-[[STG]]
------
N64|987017487
8c8
< Apart from Nintendo's own in-house development, the second party developer, Rareware have also produced a steady stream of top quality titles. From their first, the exceptional Blast Corps., through GoldenEye, Banjo Tooie, Perfect Dark, Jet Force Gemini, [[Donkey Kong| Donky Kong 64]] to the more recent Conkers Bad Fur Day.
---
> Apart from Nintendo's own in-house development, the second party developer, Rareware have also produced a steady stream of top quality titles. From their first, the exceptional Blast Corps., through GoldenEye, Banjo Tooie, Perfect Dark, Jet Force Gemini, [[Donkey Kong| Donkey Kong 64]] to the more recent Conkers Bad Fur Day.
------
N64|987017670
5c5
< Whilst not being home to as many AAA games as the [[Super Nintendo|SNES]] and lacking the essential breath of life that is third party support, it still see's some of the finest videogaming events ever.
---
> Whilst not being home to as many AAA games as the [[Super Nintendo|SNES]] and lacking the essential breath of life that is third party support, it still sees some of the finest videogaming events ever.
8c8
< Apart from Nintendo's own in-house development, the second party developer, Rareware have also produced a steady stream of top quality titles. From their first, the exceptional Blast Corps., through GoldenEye, Banjo Tooie, Perfect Dark, Jet Force Gemini, [[Donkey Kong| Donkey Kong 64]] to the more recent Conkers Bad Fur Day.
---
> Apart from Nintendo's own in-house development, the second-party developer, Rareware has also produced a steady stream of top-quality titles. From their first, the exceptional Blast Corps., through GoldenEye, Banjo-Tooie, Perfect Dark, Jet Force Gemini, [[Donkey Kong| Donkey Kong 64]] to the more recent Conker's Bad Fur Day.
------
Beavis_and_Butthead|987018734
1c1,2
< <b>Beavis and Butthead</b> was an animated comedy show that aired on [[MTV]] from 199?-199? about two stupid high school males often satiring high school life and culture.
---
> <b>Beavis and Butthead</b> is an animated comedy show that aired originally on [[MTV]] from [[1993]] to [[1997]]
> Created by [[Mike Judge]], who later went on to write and produce [[King of the Hill]] (spot the Hank Hill prototype!)
3c4
< A full length movie (Beavis and Butthead Do America) was released in 199? 
---
> The format of the show involves Beavis and Butthead watching music videos and making lewd, stupid comments. Storys are advanced inbetween videos and targets for their carnal humour include authority, high school life and even themselves.
5c6
< Beavis and Butthead along with other mainstream cartoons such as [[Ren and Stimpy]] and the [[Simpsons]] pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children only.
---
> A full length movie, [[Beavis and Butthead Do America]] was released in [[1996]] 
6a8,10
> Beavis and Butthead along with other mainstream cartoons such as [[Ren and Stimpy]] and the [[The Simpsons]] pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children only.
> 
> Along with the usual merchandising, a comic was released and at least one [[video game]].
------
Global_Positioning_System|987019268
1c1
< The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally caled NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally named NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
11c11
< See also GeoCaching and DegreeConfluenceProject.
---
> See also [[GeoCaching]] and DegreeConfluenceProject.
------
Global_Positioning_System|987019376
1c1
< The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally named NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally named NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location almost anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
5c5
< In the past, the civilian signal was degraded, and a more accurate Precise Positioning Service was availble only to the United States military and other, mostly government users.  However, in May, 2000, [[Bill Clinton]] announced that this "Selective Availability" would be turned off, and so now all users enjoy the same level of access.
---
> In the past, the civilian signal was degraded, and a more accurate Precise Positioning Service was availble only to the United States military and other, mostly government users.  However, in May, 2000, [[Bill Clinton]] announced that this "Selective Availability" would be turned off, and so now all non-military users enjoy the same level of access.
11c11
< See also [[GeoCaching]] and DegreeConfluenceProject.
---
> See also GeoCaching and DegreeConfluenceProject.
------
John_F._Kennedy|987019601
1c1
< John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  He was, during the time he served, arguably the most popular and well-liked president in the history of the nation. This may have been due to a number of factors, not the least of which were his and his family's photogenicity, his seeming openness and public accessibility, and the fact that his administration marked a notable increase in direct media exposure of the president to the public at large - through television broadcasts from the [[Oval Office]], televised press conferences, and numerous photographic spreads in popular magazines. 
3c3,7
< He was assasinated by [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  
---
> Information released after his death leaves little doubt that he had at least one, and possibly several affairs while in office, including liaisons which took place in the [[White House]].  The political and media climate at the time was such that allegations of this sort would not have been brought contemporaneously with his official service to the country, however, and so how widely such knowledge may have been held at the time may never be known.
> 
> Kennedy's tenure in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the [[United States]]' role in the [[space race]], the [[Cuban missile crisis]], and the [[Bay of Pigs]].
> 
> He was assassinated in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]] in November, 1963.  [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was apprehended for the crime but was himself murdered by [[Jack Ruby]] before he could be formally charged or brought to trial.  Subsequent investigations by the [[FBI]] and by various committees under the auspices of the United States Congress have concluded that Oswald did commit the crime, and that he acted alone.  That conclusion, as well as the methodology and evidence used to arrive at same, has been strongly disputed by a number of sources, including some persons actually involved in the investigations.
7c11
< He served as a PT boat captain during [[World War II]].
---
> He served honorably as a PT boat captain in [[World War II]], during which service he sustained a back injury which plagued him the remainder of his life.
11c15
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Global_Positioning_System|987019906
1c1
< The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally named NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location almost anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS receiver receives transmissions from multiple satellites, and determines one's position by triangulating this data.
---
> The Global Positioning System, usually called GPS, and originally named NAVSTAR, is a satellite navigation system used for determining one's precise location almost anywhere on [[earth]].  A GPS unit receives time signal transmissions from multiple satellites, and calculates its position by triangulating this data.
9a10,11
> 
> The Russian counterpart to GPS is called GLONASS and is used as a backup by some commercial GPS receivers.
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|987019975
1c1
< The theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.
---
> <b>Metaphysical subjectivism</b> is the theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.
------
United_States/Department_of_Defense|987020323
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> United States Department of Defense
------
John_F._Kennedy/Talk|987020386
1a2,7
> 
> ----
> 
> Recent tests on audio recordings from the scene gave a 96.3% probability that there was a second gunman.
> 
> http://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010326/sc/britain_kennedy_dc_1.html
------
John_F._Kennedy|987020470
9c9
< He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  
---
> He was the last Democrat president to push for income tax cuts to improve the economy.  He was the last Northern Democrat to win the Presidency.
------
John_F._Kennedy|987020628
3c3
< Information released after his death leaves little doubt that he had at least one, and possibly several affairs while in office, including liaisons which took place in the [[White House]].  The political and media climate at the time was such that allegations of this sort would not have been brought contemporaneously with his official service to the country, however, and so how widely such knowledge may have been held at the time may never be known.
---
> Information released after his death leaves little doubt that he had at least one, and possibly several affairs while in office, including liaisons which took place in the [[White House]].  The American political and media climate at the time was such that allegations of this sort would not have been brought contemporaneously with his official service to the country, however, and so how widely such knowledge may have been held at the time may never be known.
5c5
< Kennedy's tenure in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the [[United States]]' role in the [[space race]], the [[Cuban missile crisis]], and the [[Bay of Pigs]].
---
> Kennedy's tenure in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the [[United States]]' role in the [[space race]], the beginning of the escalation of the American role in the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Cuban missile crisis]], and the [[Bay of Pigs]].
7c7
< He was assassinated in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]] in November, 1963.  [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was apprehended for the crime but was himself murdered by [[Jack Ruby]] before he could be formally charged or brought to trial.  Subsequent investigations by the [[FBI]] and by various committees under the auspices of the United States Congress have concluded that Oswald did commit the crime, and that he acted alone.  That conclusion, as well as the methodology and evidence used to arrive at same, has been strongly disputed by a number of sources, including some persons actually involved in the investigations.
---
> He was assassinated in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]] on November 22, 1963.  [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was apprehended for the crime but was himself murdered by [[Jack Ruby]] before he could be formally charged or brought to trial.  Subsequent investigations by the [[FBI]] and by various committees under the auspices of the United States Congress have concluded that Oswald did commit the crime, and that he acted alone.  That conclusion, as well as the methodology and evidence used to arrive at same, has been strongly disputed by a number of sources, including some persons actually involved in the investigations.
------
United_States/Department_of_Defense|987020656
1c1,2
< United States Department of Defense
---
> United States Department of Defense
> Originally named the War Department in 1789, the current organization founded by [[Congress]]in 1947 is based in the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, Marines and agencies such as the [[National Security Agency]] make up the DoD. Its annual budget is roughly $280 billion (~$1,000 per capita in case you do not have your calculator handy). Visit the DoD website at http://www.defenselink.mil
------
United_States/Department_of_Defense|987020838
1,2c1
< United States Department of Defense
< Originally named the War Department in 1789, the current organization founded by [[Congress]]in 1947 is based in the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, Marines and agencies such as the [[National Security Agency]] make up the DoD. Its annual budget is roughly $280 billion (~$1,000 per capita in case you do not have your calculator handy). Visit the DoD website at http://www.defenselink.mil
---
> United States Department of Defense was originally named the War Department in 1789. The current organization founded by [[Congress]]in 1947 is based in the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, Marines and agencies such as the [[National Security Agency]] comprise the Department. Its annual budget is roughly $280 billion (~$1,000 per capita). Web site at http://www.defenselink.mil
------
United_States/Department_of_Defense|987020888
1c1
< United States Department of Defense was originally named the War Department in 1789. The current organization founded by [[Congress]]in 1947 is based in the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, Marines and agencies such as the [[National Security Agency]] comprise the Department. Its annual budget is roughly $280 billion (~$1,000 per capita). Web site at http://www.defenselink.mil
---
> United States Department of Defense was originally named the War Department in 1789. The current organization founded by [[Congress]] in 1947 is based in the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. Army, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, Marines and agencies such as the [[National Security Agency]] comprise the Department. Its annual budget is roughly $280 billion (~$1,000 per capita). Web site at http://www.defenselink.mil
------
Global_Positioning_System|987021179
3c3
< The GPS was designed by and is controlled by the [[United States/Department of Defense|United States Department of Defense]].  It is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service free of charge.  
---
> The GPS was designed by and is controlled by the [[United States/Department of Defense | United States Department of Defense]].  It is used by countless civilians as well, who can use the GPS's Standard Positioning Service free of charge.  
------
Silvio_Berlusconi|987022449
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Silvio Berlusconi is an Italian entrepreneur and politician.  He is the owner of an Italian media empire, and is one of the wealthiest men in Italy.  He apparently used political pull throughout his business career, and is frequently occused of various sorts of corruption.  These accusations are dismissed by Berlusconi as political smears.
> 
> He became Prime Minister in 1994, but was quickly ousted from office by a coalition of opposition parties.  In 2001 he again ran for Prime Minister as leader of the center-right so-called House of Freedoms coalition.
------
Silvio_Berlusconi|987022560
1c1
< Silvio Berlusconi is an Italian entrepreneur and politician.  He is the owner of an Italian media empire, and is one of the wealthiest men in Italy.  He apparently used political pull throughout his business career, and is frequently occused of various sorts of corruption.  These accusations are dismissed by Berlusconi as political smears.
---
> Silvio Berlusconi is an Italian entrepreneur and politician.  He is the owner of an Italian media empire, and is one of the wealthiest men in Italy.  He apparently used political pull throughout his business career, and is frequently accused of various sorts of corruption.  These accusations are dismissed by Berlusconi as political smears.
------
SEGA|987023453
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Video game]] [[software]] and [[hardware]] developer.
> 
> SEGA, SErvice GAmes, is one of the best known and loved video game brands in the world, they are big in both [[arcades]] and the home console market.
> 
> The company is actually made up of various research and development teams, originally named [[/AM1]], [[/AM2]] etc. they now have more memorable monikers.
> :[[/AM1]] became [[/Wow Entertainment]] - 
> :[[/AM2]] - kept its name, so well known amongst gamers for the [[Virtua Fighter]] series of arcade games
> :[[/AM3]] became [[/Hitmaker]] -
> :[[/AM4]] became [[/Amusement Vision]] -
> :[[/AM5]] became [[/Sega Rosso]]
> :[[/AM6]] became [[/Smilebit]] -
> :[[/AM7]] became [[/OverWorks]] -
> :[[/Sonic Team]] - renamed themselves from [[/AM8]] many years ago, funnily enough, soon after the completed [[Sonic the Hedgehog]]
> :[[/AM9]] became [[/United Game Artists]] -
> :[[/Digital Media]] became [[Wave Master]] -
> 
> There is a healthy sense of competition between the various teams which has resulted in some of the most remarkable and innovative gaming events.
> 
> Unfortunately SEGA has fallen on hard times recently and is moving out of hardware manufacturing, at least in the home, the arcade /Naomi units are still being produced.
> Fortunately the company has knowledge aquired over several decades and hundreds of talentled developers to realise its video gaming dreams.
> 
> /Software
> 
> /Hardware
> 
> /Talk
------
Poker/No_pair|987026858
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/No pair2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
> 
> Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>'''
> * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;'''
> * '''7&spades; 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''7&clubs; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;'''
> 
> No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
> 
------
Poker/No_pair2|987026893
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/No pair|this page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
> 
> Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>'''
> * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;'''
> * '''7&spades; 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''7&clubs; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;'''
> 
> No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
> 
------
Poker/No_pair2|987027022
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>Kh</font> Jc 8c <font color=red>7d</font> 3s''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
9,11c9,11
< * '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>'''
< * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;'''
< * '''7&spades; 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''7&clubs; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;'''
---
> * '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c''' defeats '''Kc <font color=red>Qd</font> Jc <font color=red>8h 7h</font>'''
> * '''Ac Qc <font color=red>7d 5h</font> 2c''' defeats '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c'''
> * '''7s 6c 5c <font color=red>4d 2h</font>''' defeats '''7c <font color=red>6d 5d 3h</font> 2c'''
------
Poker/One_pair|987027229
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/One pair2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.
> 
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called '''kickers''' or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>
> * <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>
> * '''<font color=red>2&diams; 2&hearts;</font> 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''2&clubs; 2&spades; 8&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>'''
> 
> In some games, kickers become very important (typically [[/Community card]] games like [[/Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[/Draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
> 
> 
------
Poker/One_pair2|987027486
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/One pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4h</font> 4s Ks <font color=red>10d</font> 5s''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.
> 
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called '''kickers''' or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>''' defeats '''<font color=red>9h</font> 9c <font color=red>Ah Qd 10d</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>10h 10d Jd 3h</font> 2c''' defeats '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>2d 2h</font> 8s 5c 4c''' defeats '''2c 2s 8c <font color=red>5h 3h</font>'''
> 
> In some games, kickers become very important (typically [[/Community card]] games like [[/Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[/Draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
> 
> 
------
Washington|987027512
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Washington is a state located in the northwestern [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Idaho]] and the country of  [[Canada]].
------
Poker/One_pair|987027537
9,10c9,10
< * 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>
< * <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>
---
> * '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''<font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>'''
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|987027578
2a3,4
> This holding should not be confused with the stance that "all is illusion" or that "there is no such thing as reality."  Metaphysical subjectivists hold that reality is real enough, and that physical objects do exist.  They conceive, however, that the nature of reality as related to a given consciousness unit is created and governed by that consciouslness.
> 
------
Poker/No_pair2|987027596
1c1
< '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/No pair|this page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/No pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
------
Idaho|987027675
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Idaho is a state located in the northwestern [[United States]] bordering [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]] and the country of [[Canada]].
------
Nevada|987027787
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nevada is a state located in the western [[United States]] bordering [[Oregon]], [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], and [[Idaho]].
> 
> The capital is [[Carson City Nevada]].   The largest city is [[Las Vegas]].
------
Oregonian|987027843
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A resident of the state of [[Oregon]].
> ----
> The name of the daily newspaper in [[Portland Oregon]].
------
Anthophyta|987027930
1,153c1
< '''Monocots'''
< 
< * Commelinidae
< ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
< *** [[Barley]]
< *** [[Corn]]
< *** [[Millet]]
< *** [[Rice]]
< *** [[Wheat]]
< * Zingereridae
< ** Zingiberales - Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
< ** Zingiberales - Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
< *** [[Cardamom]]
< *** [[Ginger]]
< *** [[Turmeric]]
< * Liliidae - ''Don't know''
< ** Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
< *** [[Bluebell]]
< *** [[Chives]]
< *** [[Hyacinth]]
< *** [[Lily]]
< *** [[Tulip]]
< ** Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
< *** [[Vanilla]]
< 
< '''Eudicots'''
< 
< * Hamamelidae - ''paraphyletic''
< ** Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
< ** Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
< *** [[Beech]]
< *** [[Chestnut]]
< *** [[Oak]]
< * Rosidae - ''paraphyletic''
< **  Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
< *** [[Almond]]
< *** [[Apple]]
< *** [[Apricot]]
< *** [[Blackberry]]
< *** [[Cherry]]
< *** [[Hawthorn]]
< *** [[Peach]]
< *** [[Pear]]
< *** [[Plum]]
< *** [[Raspberry]]
< *** [[Rose]]
< *** [[Strawberry]]
< ** Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
< *** [[Bean]]
< *** [[Fenugreek]]
< *** [[Pea]]
< *** [[Peanut]]
< *** [[Tamarind]]
< ** Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
< *** [[Allspice]]
< *** [[Cloves]]
< *** [[Eucalyptus]]
< *** [[Myrtle]]
< ** Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
< ** Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
< ** Sapindales - Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
< ** Sapindales - Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
< *** [[Cashew]]
< *** [[Mango]]
< *** [[Pistachio]]
< *** [[Poison ivy]]
< *** [[Sumac]]
< ** Sapindales -Rutaceae (rue family)
< *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
< *** [[Rue]]
< ** Apiales - Araliaceae (ginseng family)
< *** [[Ginseng]]
< *** [[Ivy]]
< ** Apiales - Apiaceae (parsley family)
< *** [[Anise]]
< *** [[Caraway]]
< *** [[Carrot]]
< *** [[Celery]]
< *** [[Chervil]]
< *** [[Cumin]]
< *** [[Coriander]]
< *** [[Dill]]
< *** [[Fennel]]
< *** [[Hemlock]]
< *** [[Parsley]]
< *** [[Parsnip]]
< *** [[Sage]]
< * Asteridae
< ** Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
< *** [[Eggplant]]
< *** [[Nightshade]]
< *** [[Paprika]]
< *** [[Pepper]]
< *** [[Potato]]
< *** [[Tobacco]]
< *** [[Tomato]]
< ** Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
< *** [[Basil]]
< *** [[Catnip]]
< *** [[Hyssop]]
< *** [[Lavender]]
< *** [[Marjoram]]
< *** [[Mint]]
< *** [[Oregano]]
< *** [[Rosemary]]
< *** [[Sage]]
< *** [[Savory]]
< *** [[Thyme]]
< *** [[Woundwort]]
< ** Asterales - Asteraceae
< *** [[Aster]]
< *** [[Chrysanthemum]]
< *** [[Daisy]]
< *** [[Dandelion]]
< *** [[Lettuce]]
< *** [[Marigold]]
< *** [[Ragweed]]
< *** [[Sunflower]]
< *** [[Tarragon]]
< *** [[Thistle]]
< * Dillenidae - ''Seems to have been subsumed into the Rosidae''
< ** Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
< *** [[Cotton]]
< *** [[Hollyhock]]
< *** [[Mallow]]
< ** Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
< *** [[Gourd]]
< *** [[Pumpkin]]
< *** [[Squash]]
< *** [[Melon]]
< *** [[Watermelon]]
< ** Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
< *** [[Poplar]]
< *** [[Willow]]
< ** Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
< *** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
< *** [[Horseradish]]
< *** [[Mustard]]
< *** [[Radish]]
< *** [[Turnip]]
< ** Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
< *** [[Blueberry]]
< *** [[Heath]]
< *** [[Heather]]
< *** [[Rhododendron]]
< 
< '''Others'''
< 
< * Laurales - Lauraceae (laurel family)
< ** [[Advocado]]
< ** [[Cinnamon]]
< ** [[Laurel]]
< * Papaverales - Papaveraceae ([[poppy]] family)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Magnoliophyta]]
------
David_Thompson|987027970
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> David Thompson (1770-1857), was a [[Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[London]]. 
------
David_Thompson|987028054
1c1
< David Thompson (1770-1857), was a [[Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[London]]. 
---
> David Thompson (1770-1857), was a [[Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[United Kingdom/London|London]]. 
------
Magnoliophyta|987028131
1c1,156
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Pretty much all the classification below class level and above family level seems to have disintegrated; groups here are classified according to Cronquist, since his scheme seems to be the most prevalent, with the strong caveat that the subgroups are typically polyphyletic and differ considerably between authors.
> 
> '''Monocots'''
> 
> * Commelinidae
> ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
> *** [[Barley]]
> *** [[Corn]]
> *** [[Millet]]
> *** [[Rice]]
> *** [[Wheat]]
> * Zingereridae
> ** Zingiberales - Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
> ** Zingiberales - Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
> *** [[Cardamom]]
> *** [[Ginger]]
> *** [[Turmeric]]
> * Liliidae - ''Don't know''
> ** Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
> *** [[Bluebell]]
> *** [[Chives]]
> *** [[Hyacinth]]
> *** [[Lily]]
> *** [[Tulip]]
> ** Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
> *** [[Vanilla]]
> 
> '''Eudicots'''
> 
> * Hamamelidae - ''paraphyletic''
> ** Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
> ** Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
> *** [[Beech]]
> *** [[Chestnut]]
> *** [[Oak]]
> * Rosidae - ''paraphyletic''
> **  Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
> *** [[Almond]]
> *** [[Apple]]
> *** [[Apricot]]
> *** [[Blackberry]]
> *** [[Cherry]]
> *** [[Hawthorn]]
> *** [[Peach]]
> *** [[Pear]]
> *** [[Plum]]
> *** [[Raspberry]]
> *** [[Rose]]
> *** [[Strawberry]]
> ** Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
> *** [[Bean]]
> *** [[Fenugreek]]
> *** [[Pea]]
> *** [[Peanut]]
> *** [[Tamarind]]
> ** Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
> *** [[Allspice]]
> *** [[Cloves]]
> *** [[Eucalyptus]]
> *** [[Myrtle]]
> ** Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
> ** Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
> ** Sapindales - Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
> ** Sapindales - Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
> *** [[Cashew]]
> *** [[Mango]]
> *** [[Pistachio]]
> *** [[Poison ivy]]
> *** [[Sumac]]
> ** Sapindales -Rutaceae (rue family)
> *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
> *** [[Rue]]
> ** Apiales - Araliaceae (ginseng family)
> *** [[Ginseng]]
> *** [[Ivy]]
> ** Apiales - Apiaceae (parsley family)
> *** [[Anise]]
> *** [[Caraway]]
> *** [[Carrot]]
> *** [[Celery]]
> *** [[Chervil]]
> *** [[Cumin]]
> *** [[Coriander]]
> *** [[Dill]]
> *** [[Fennel]]
> *** [[Hemlock]]
> *** [[Parsley]]
> *** [[Parsnip]]
> *** [[Sage]]
> * Asteridae
> ** Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
> *** [[Eggplant]]
> *** [[Nightshade]]
> *** [[Paprika]]
> *** [[Pepper]]
> *** [[Potato]]
> *** [[Tobacco]]
> *** [[Tomato]]
> ** Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
> *** [[Basil]]
> *** [[Catnip]]
> *** [[Hyssop]]
> *** [[Lavender]]
> *** [[Marjoram]]
> *** [[Mint]]
> *** [[Oregano]]
> *** [[Rosemary]]
> *** [[Sage]]
> *** [[Savory]]
> *** [[Thyme]]
> *** [[Woundwort]]
> ** Asterales - Asteraceae
> *** [[Aster]]
> *** [[Chrysanthemum]]
> *** [[Daisy]]
> *** [[Dandelion]]
> *** [[Lettuce]]
> *** [[Marigold]]
> *** [[Ragweed]]
> *** [[Sunflower]]
> *** [[Tarragon]]
> *** [[Thistle]]
> * Dillenidae - ''Seems to have been subsumed into the Rosidae''
> ** Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
> *** [[Cotton]]
> *** [[Hollyhock]]
> *** [[Mallow]]
> ** Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
> *** [[Gourd]]
> *** [[Pumpkin]]
> *** [[Squash]]
> *** [[Melon]]
> *** [[Watermelon]]
> ** Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
> *** [[Poplar]]
> *** [[Willow]]
> ** Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
> *** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
> *** [[Horseradish]]
> *** [[Mustard]]
> *** [[Radish]]
> *** [[Turnip]]
> ** Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
> *** [[Blueberry]]
> *** [[Heath]]
> *** [[Heather]]
> *** [[Rhododendron]]
> 
> '''Others'''
> 
> * Laurales - Lauraceae (laurel family)
> ** [[Advocado]]
> ** [[Cinnamon]]
> ** [[Laurel]]
> * Papaverales - Papaveraceae ([[poppy]] family)
> 
------
Plantae|987028216
28c28
< * Division [[Anthophyta]]  (Flowering plants)
---
> * Division [[Magnoliophyta]]  (Flowering plants)
30c30
< These are often referred to as gymnosperms, except for the flowering plants, which are referred to as angiosperms.  The latter are the last major group of plants to have appeared, arising during the [[Cretaceous]] and quickly becoming predominant.
---
> These are often referred to as gymnosperms, except for the flowering plants, which are referred to as angiosperms.  The latter are the last major group of plants to have appeared, arising during the [[Cretaceous]] and quickly becoming predominant.
------
Oregon|987028328
21c21
< The [[Oregon Trail]] infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the [[United States]] sought to wrest control of the area from [[Great Britain]].  This controversy was resolved in 1846 when the Canadian boundary was set at the 49th parallel.
---
> The [[Oregon Trail]] infused the region with new settlers, starting in 1842-43, as the [[United States]] sought to wrest control of the area from [[Great Britain]].  This controversy was resolved in 1846 after a period of sabre rattling where it seemed that the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] would go to war a third time in 75 years.  Cooler heads prevailed, however, and the [[United States]]-[[Canada]] boundary was set at the 49th parallel.
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|987028371
1c1
< <b>Metaphysical subjectivism</b> is the theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.
---
> <b>Metaphysical subjectivism</b> is the theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.  This is in contrast to [[metaphysical objectivism]].
3c3
< This holding should not be confused with the stance that "all is illusion" or that "there is no such thing as reality."  Metaphysical subjectivists hold that reality is real enough, and that physical objects do exist.  They conceive, however, that the nature of reality as related to a given consciousness unit is created and governed by that consciouslness.
---
> The invention of machines that can "see", "hear", or otherwise observe and record events provides a [[thought experiment]] (offerred by [[Winston Churchill]], who is not otherwise known as a philospher) that is difficult for subjectivists to explain.  Let us set up automatic camera to record events in a place that no human (or other creature reasonably considered "conscious") can observe.  Say that it is set inside a volcano, for example.  The camera is later retrieved and its photographs, with date markings, are observed.  Did the events recorded in the photographs really happen even though no one consciously observed them?  Did the conscious observation of the photographs themselves somehow suddenly cause them to depict events that apparently happened at an earlier time?
5c5
< This is in contrast to [[objectivism]].
---
> This holding should not be confused with the stance that "all is illusion" or that "there is no such thing as reality."  Metaphysical subjectivists hold that reality is real enough, and that physical objects do exist.  They conceive, however, that the nature of reality as related to a given consciousness unit is created and governed by that consciouslness.
------
Magnoliophyta|987028491
30c30
< * Hamamelidae - ''paraphyletic''
---
> * Hamamelidae
36c36
< * Rosidae - ''paraphyletic''
---
> * Rosidae
123c123
< * Dillenidae - ''Seems to have been subsumed into the Rosidae''
---
> * Dillenidae
------
Magnoliophyta|987028514
12c12
< * Zingereridae
---
> * Zingeberidae
18c18
< * Liliidae - ''Don't know''
---
> * Liliidae
------
Poker/One_pair|987028614
5c5
< Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called '''kickers''' or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
---
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called [[/Kicker]]s or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
------
Poker/One_pair2|987028650
5c5
< Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called '''kickers''' or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
---
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the remaining cards in each hand (called [[/Kicker]]s or '''side cards''') are compared in the manner as no-pair hands.
------
David_Thompson|987028778
1c1,3
< David Thompson (1770-1857), was a [[Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[United Kingdom/London|London]]. 
---
> David Thompson (1770-1857), was a [[Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[United Kingdom/London|London]], and died in [[Montreal Canada]].
> 
> Thompson was the first white man to explore the Columbia River from source to mouth. 
------
David_Thompson|987028793
3c3
< Thompson was the first white man to explore the Columbia River from source to mouth. 
---
> Thompson was the first white man to explore the [[Columbia River]] from source to mouth. 
------
DegreeConfluenceProject|987028951
2a3,8
> Precise confluence location is determined using [[Global Positioning System]] receivers.
> 
> An estimate of the number of "confluences" is 41,253 (360 squared divided by pi) -- this is the same number of square degrees astronomers use to estimate [[constellation]] size.
> 
> Only confluences on land are included in the project, since the ocean area of the [[earth]] is 71%, this leaves roughly 12,000 points to be photographed.
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|987032509
5c5
< Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months (specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
75c75
< Thanks, Mr. President!  It's been a great honor to have you with us.  I'm sure if CliffordAdams is developing the White House wiki, he'll have plenty of people to satisfy [[Wikipedia]] feature requests.  So we don't mind at all!  All the best, Larry Sanger.
---
> Thanks, Mr. President!  It's been a great honor to have you with us.  I'm sure if CliffordAdams is developing the White House wiki, he'll have plenty of people to satisfy [[Wikipedia]] feature requests.  So we don't mind at all!  All the best, Larry Sanger.
------
Larry_Sanger|987032528
5c5
< Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months (specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months, specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
------
Columbia_River|987032592
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Columbia river is the largest river in volume flowing into the Pacific Ocean from North America. Its headwaters are located in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, and it  flows through the east-central portion of [[Washington]].  The last 300 miles (480 km) form the [[Washington]]-[[Oregon]] boundary.   It flows into the [[Pacific Ocean]] at [[Astoria Oregon]].
> 
> The Columbia is the a great source of hydroelectric power, hosting the [[Bonneville]] and [[Grand Coulee]] dams. 
------
Oregon|987032657
13c13
< [[Astoria Oregon]], [[Beaverton Oregon]], [[Lake Oswego Oregon]], [[Bend Oregon]], [[Baker City Oregon]], [[Klamath Falls Oregon]] and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
---
> [[Astoria Oregon]], [[Beaverton Oregon]], [[Bend Oregon]], [[Baker City Oregon]], [[Klamath Falls Oregon]] and [[Gladstone Oregon]].
------
Beavis_and_Butthead|987032746
8c8
< Beavis and Butthead along with other mainstream cartoons such as [[Ren and Stimpy]] and the [[The Simpsons]] pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children only.
---
> Beavis and Butthead along with other (arguably) mainstream cartoons such as [[Ren and Stimpy]] and the [[The Simpsons]] pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children only.
------
Poker/No_pair|987033918
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;''', in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.  Ranks below all other poker hands.
7,11c7
< Examples:
< 
< * '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>'''
< * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;'''
< * '''7&spades; 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''7&clubs; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;'''
---
> No-pair hands are often described by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high", or by as many cards as are necessary to break a tie.
13c9
< No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
---
> Examples:
14a11,13
> * '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' ("ace high") defeats '''K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>''' ("king high")
> * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("ace-queen") defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' ("ace-ten)
> * '''7&spades; 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&hearts;</font>''' ("seven-six-five-four") defeats '''7&clubs; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("seven-six-five-three")
------
HumanComputerInteraction|987035680
8a9,11
> The Spring '01 HCI class searched the web for examples of wearable computer technology.  Please add freely any examples you know of.
> ----
> 
------
Poker/No_pair2|987035681
1c1
< '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/No pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/No pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>Kh</font> Jc 8c <font color=red>7d</font> 3s''', which contains no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>Kh</font> Jc 8c <font color=red>7d</font> 3s''', in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Also known as "nothing" or "garbage", and many other derogatory terms.  Ranks below all other poker hands.
7,11c7
< Examples:
< 
< * '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c''' defeats '''Kc <font color=red>Qd</font> Jc <font color=red>8h 7h</font>'''
< * '''Ac Qc <font color=red>7d 5h</font> 2c''' defeats '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c'''
< * '''7s 6c 5c <font color=red>4d 2h</font>''' defeats '''7c <font color=red>6d 5d 3h</font> 2c'''
---
> No-pair hands are often described by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high", or by as many cards as are necessary to break a tie.
13c9
< No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
---
> Examples:
14a11,13
> * '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c''' ("ace high") defeats '''Kc <font color=red>Qd</font> Jc <font color=red>8h 7h</font>''' ("king high")
> * '''Ac Qc <font color=red>7d 5h</font> 2c''' ("ace-queen") defeats '''<font color=red>Ad 10d</font> 9s 5c 4c''' ("ace-ten")
> * '''7s 6c 5c <font color=red>4d 2h</font>''' ("seven-six-five-four") defeats '''7c <font color=red>6d 5d 3h</font> 2c''' ("seven-six-five-three")
------
Poker/No_pair|987035713
12c12
< * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("ace-queen") defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' ("ace-ten)
---
> * '''A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("ace-queen") defeats '''<font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' ("ace-ten")
------
HumanComputerInteraction|987035726
9c9
< The Spring '01 HCI class searched the web for examples of wearable computer technology.  Please add freely any examples you know of.
---
> The Spring '01 HCI class searched the web for examples of WeaRable computer technology.  Please add freely any examples you know of.
------
WeaRable|987035779
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wearable Computing on the Web in 2001!
------
Poker/One_pair|987035980
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Ranks above any [[/No pair]] hand, but below all other poker hands.
9,11c9,11
< * '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''<font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>'''
< * '''<font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' defeats '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>'''
< * '''<font color=red>2&diams; 2&hearts;</font> 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' defeats '''2&clubs; 2&spades; 8&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>'''
---
> * '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>''' ("pair of tens") defeats '''<font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>''' ("pair of nines")
> * '''<font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("tens with jack kicker") defeats '''10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>2&diams; 2&hearts;</font> 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;''' ("pair of deuces, eight-five-four") defeats '''2&clubs; 2&spades; 8&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>''' ("deuces, eight-five-three")
14,15d13
< 
< 
------
Poker/One_pair2|987036250
1c1
< '''Readers note:''' This pages uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/One pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/One pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4h</font> 4s Ks <font color=red>10d</font> 5s''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>4h</font> 4s Ks <font color=red>10d</font> 5s''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Ranks above any [[/No pair]] hand, but below all other poker hands.
9,11c9,11
< * '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>''' defeats '''<font color=red>9h</font> 9c <font color=red>Ah Qd 10d</font>'''
< * '''<font color=red>10h 10d Jd 3h</font> 2c''' defeats '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>'''
< * '''<font color=red>2d 2h</font> 8s 5c 4c''' defeats '''2c 2s 8c <font color=red>5h 3h</font>'''
---
> * '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>''' ("pair of tens") defeats '''<font color=red>9h</font> 9c <font color=red>Ah Qd 10d</font>''' ("pair of nines")
> * '''<font color=red>10h 10d Jd 3h</font> 2c''' ("tens with jack kicker") defeats '''10c 10s 6s <font color=red>4h 2h</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>2d 2h</font> 8s 5c 4c''' ("pair of deuces, eight-five-four") defeats '''2c 2s 8c <font color=red>5h 3h</font>''' ("deuces, eight-five-three")
14,15d13
< 
< 
------
Poker/Kicker|987036387
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''kicker''', also called a '''side card''', is a card in a [[poker hand]] that does not itself take part in determining the rank of the hand (see [[Poker/Hands]]), but that may be used to break ties between hands of the same rank.  For example, the hand '''Q-Q-10-5-2''' is ranked as a [[/One pair|pair]] of queens.  The '''10''', '''5''', and '''2''' are kickers.  This hand would defeat any hand with [[/No pair]], or with a lower-ranking pair, and lose to any higher-ranking hand.  But the kickers can be used to break ties between other hands that also have a pair of queens.  For example, '''Q-Q-K-3-2''' would win (because its '''K''' kicker outranks the '''10'''), but '''Q-Q-10-4-3''' would lose (because its '''4''' is outranked by the '''5''').
> 
> The term is also used in [[draw poker]] to denote an unmatched card (often an ace) retained by a player during the draw in the hope that either it will be paired on the draw, or else play as a kicker (in the first sense) on the [[/Showdown]].
> 
> 
------
WeaRable|987036448
1a2,5
> 
> FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables/abc2.jpg
> 
> A face recognition system I implemented as part of my face tracking system was showcased in wearable form using wireless transmission to an SGI O2. ABC covered it in their show Nightline - "Revolution in a Box", November 17th, 1997.
------
WeaRable|987036480
3,4c3
< FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables/abc2.jpg
< 
---
> FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition 
5a5,7
> 
> http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables/abc2.jpg
> 
------
Poker/Two_pair|987036494
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Two pair2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.
> 
> Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.  If both have the same '''top pair''', then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the [[/Kicker]] determines the winner.
> 
> These hands are be referred to in speech, for example, as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the latter is common in games where the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't need to be mentioned most of the time).  Two small pairs with ranks between '''2''' and '''9''' are also sometimes referred to by the two-digit number they make: sevens and fives, for example, might be called a "seventy-five".
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>K&hearts; K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams; J&hearts;</font>''' ("kings up") defeats '''<font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades;''' ("jacks up")
> * '''9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font>''' ("nines and sevens") defeats '''<font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams;</font> K&clubs;''' ("nines and fives" or "ninety-five")
> * '''4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts; K&diams;</font>''' ("fours and threes, king kicker") defeats '''<font color=red>4&hearts; 4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;''' ("fours and threes with a ten")
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards (see [[Poker/Hands]]) often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, '''10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>''', the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: '''10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts; Q&diams;</font>'''.  The extra '''4&clubs; 4&spades;''' are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
> 
> 
------
Poker/Two_pair2|987036663
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Two pair|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.  
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>Jd</font> Jc 4c 4s 9s''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Ranks above [[/One pair]] and below [[/Three of a kind]].
> 
> Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.  If both have the same '''top pair''', then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the [[/Kicker]] determines the winner.
> 
> These hands are be referred to in speech, for example, as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the latter is common in games where the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't need to be mentioned most of the time).  Two small pairs with ranks between '''2''' and '''9''' are also sometimes referred to by the two-digit number they make: sevens and fives, for example, might be called a "seventy-five".
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>Kh Kd</font> 2c <font color=red>2d Jh</font>''' ("kings up") defeats '''<font color=red>Jd</font> Js 10s 10c 9s''' ("jacks up")
> * '''9c <font color=red>9d 7d</font> 7s <font color=red>6h</font>''' ("nines and sevens") defeats '''<font color=red>9h</font> 9s <font color=red>5h 5d</font> Kc''' ("nines and fives" or "ninety-five")
> * '''4s 4c 3s <font color=red>3h Kd</font>''' ("fours and threes, king kicker") defeats '''<font color=red>4h 4d 3d</font> 3c 10s''' ("fours and threes with a ten")
> 
> Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards (see [[Poker/Hands]]) often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, '''10c <font color=red>10d 8d 8h</font> 4c 4s <font color=red>Qd</font>''', the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: '''10c <font color=red>10d 8d 8h Qd</font>'''.  The extra '''4c 4s''' are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
> 
------
Poker/Two_pair|987036697
3c3
< A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.
---
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;''', which contains two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Ranks above [[/One pair]] and below [[/Three of a kind]].
------
WeaRable|987036742
3c3,4
< FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition 
---
> FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables.html
> 
------
Poker/Three_of_a_kind|987036792
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Three of a kind2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;''', which contains three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set".  Ranks above [[/Two pair]] and below a [[/Straight]].
> 
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in games with [[/Wild card]]s or [[/Community card]]s), then the [[/Kicker]]s are compared to break the tie.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;''' ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats '''5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams; Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs;''' ("three fives")
> * '''8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font>''' ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats '''8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;''' ("three eights, five, three")
> 
> 
------
Poker/Three_of_a_kind2|987036889
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Three of a kind|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''<font color=red>2d</font> 2s <font color=red>2h</font> Ks 6s''', which contains three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set".  Ranks above [[/Two pair]] and below a [[/Straight]].
> 
> Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in games with [[/Wild card]]s or [[/Community card]]s), then the [[/Kicker]]s are compared to break the tie.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''8s <font color=red>8h 8d</font> 5s 3c''' ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats '''5c <font color=red>5h 5d Qd</font> 10c''' ("three fives")
> * '''8s <font color=red>8h 8d</font> Ac <font color=red>2d</font>''' ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats '''8s <font color=red>8h 8d</font> 5s 3c''' ("three eights, five, three")
> 
> 
------
Poker/Straight|987037056
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Straight2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts; 8&hearts;</font>''', which contains five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Ranks above [[/Three of a kind]] and below a [[/Flush]].
> 
> Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands in poker, especially in [[/Community card]] games).
> 
> Straights are often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight" or "straight to the queen".
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;''' ("eight-high straight") defeats '''<font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;''' ("six-high straight")
> * '''8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades;''' ties '''<font color=red>8&hearts; 7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>'''
> 
> Aces are a special case here: a hand such as '''A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades;''' is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as '''<font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&diams;</font>'''.  But the ace may also be played as a 1-spot in a hand such as '''5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;''', called a [[/Wheel]] or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight  '''6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>'''.  The ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: '''3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs;''' is not a straight, but just ace-high no pair.  The wrap-around  is, however, one of the [[/Unconventional hands]] used in some home games.
> 
> When [[/Wild card]]s are used, the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand '''<font color=red>J&diams;</font> 10&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7&spades;''', the wild card plays as an '''8''' (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand '''<font color=red>(Wild) 6&hearts; 5&diams; 4&hearts; 3&diams;</font>''', it plays as a '''7''' (even though a '''2''' would also make a straight).
> 
> The general rule about poker hands having only five cards (see [[Poker/Hands]]) may come into play here.  If playing a seven-card game you end up with '''K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;''', and your opponent has '''<font color=red>K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;''', your hands are tied.  The best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead '''<font color=red>A&hearts; K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;''', his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
> 
> In [[/Mexican stud]], because the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s are removed from the deck, a hand such as '''6-7-J-Q-K''' counts as a straight (to the king).
> 
> 
------
Poker/Straight2|987037115
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Straight|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Qc Js 10s <font color=red>9h 8h</font>''', which contains five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Ranks above [[/Three of a kind]] and below a [[/Flush]].
> 
> Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands in poker, especially in [[/Community card]] games).
> 
> Straights are often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight" or "straight to the queen".
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''8s 7s <font color=red>6h 5h</font> 4s''' ("eight-high straight") defeats '''<font color=red>6d</font> 5s <font color=red>4d 3h</font> 2c''' ("six-high straight")
> * '''8s 7s <font color=red>6h 5h</font> 4s''' ties '''<font color=red>8h 7d</font> 6c 5c <font color=red>4h</font>'''
> 
> Aces are a special case here: a hand such as '''Ac Kc <font color=red>Qd</font> Js 10s''' is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as '''<font color=red>Kh</font> Qs <font color=red>Jh 10h 9d</font>'''.  But the ace may also be played as a 1-spot in a hand such as '''5s <font color=red>4d 3d</font> 2s Ac''', called a [[/Wheel]] or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight  '''6s 5c 4c <font color=red>3h 2h</font>'''.  The ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: '''3c <font color=red>2d</font> As Ks Qc''' is not a straight, but just ace-high no pair.  The wrap-around  is, however, one of the [[/Unconventional hands]] used in some home games.
> 
> When [[/Wild card]]s are used, the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand '''<font color=red>Jd</font> 10s 9c <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7s''', the wild card plays as an '''8''' (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand '''<font color=red>(Wild) 6h 5d 4h 3d</font>''', it plays as a '''7''' (even though a '''2''' would also make a straight).
> 
> The general rule about poker hands having only five cards (see [[Poker/Hands]]) may come into play here.  If playing a seven-card game you end up with '''Ks Kc <font color=red>Kh</font> Qs <font color=red>Jd 10d</font> 9c''', and your opponent has '''<font color=red>Kd Qd Jh 10h</font> 9s 8s 7c''', your hands are tied.  The best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead '''<font color=red>Ah Kd Qd Jh 10h</font> 9s 8s''', his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
> 
> In [[/Mexican stud]], because the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s are removed from the deck, a hand such as '''6-7-J-Q-K''' counts as a straight (to the king).
> 
------
WeaRable|987037159
1c1,3
< Wearable Computing on the Web in 2001!
---
> Wearable computer technology is... [what?]
> 
> Links of interest:
8a11
> ''Congratulations!  Just bear in mind, please, that Wikipedia is not a forum for advertisement.  Since you are no doubt very well-versed about wearable technology, perhaps you could write a bona fide encyclopedia article about it?''
------
Poker/Wheel|987037181
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''wheel''' or '''bicycle''' is a the [[poker hand]] '''5-4-3-2-A'''.  In all casino games and nearly all home games, this plays as a five-high [[/Straight]].  Some home games may not recognize this as a valid straight, but this exception to common practice is not recommended.
> 
> This is also the best possible hand in [[/Ace-to-five low]] poker.
> 
> The origin of the name is unknown, but it is believed to have something to do with the popular bicycle-patterned [[playing card]]s issued by the [http://www.usplayingcard.com/ United States Playing Card Company].
> 
------
WeaRable|987037220
5c5
< FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables.html
---
> [http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables.html FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition]
7,11c7
< A face recognition system I implemented as part of my face tracking system was showcased in wearable form using wireless transmission to an SGI O2. ABC covered it in their show Nightline - "Revolution in a Box", November 17th, 1997.
< 
< http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables/abc2.jpg
< 
< ''Congratulations!  Just bear in mind, please, that Wikipedia is not a forum for advertisement.  Since you are no doubt very well-versed about wearable technology, perhaps you could write a bona fide encyclopedia article about it?''
---
> ''Congratulations.  Just bear in mind, please, that Wikipedia is not a forum for advertisement.  Since you are no doubt very well-versed about wearable technology, perhaps you could write a bona fide encyclopedia article about it?''
------
Poker/Flush|987037259
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Straight2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;''', which contains five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Ranks above a [[/Straight]] and below a [[/Full house]].
> 
> Two flushes are compared as if they were [[/No pair]] hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>''' ("ace-high flush") defeats '''K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades;''' ("king-high flush")
> * '''<font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; 7&diams; 6&diams; 2&diams;</font>''' ("flush, ace-king high") defeats '''<font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>''' ("flush, ace-queen high")
> * '''<font color=red>Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&hearts; 5&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>''' ("heart flush") ties '''Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;''' ("spade flush")
> 
> When [[/Wild card]]s are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present in the hand.  For example, in the hand '''<font color=red>(Wild) 10&hearts; 8&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts;</font>''', the wild card plays as the '''<font color=red>A&hearts;</font>''', but in the hand '''A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&clubs; 6&clubs;''', it plays as the '''Q&clubs;'''.
> 
> Some home games and some casinos play the [[/Double-ace flush]] rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand '''A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;''' would defeat '''<font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; Q&diams; 10&diams; 8&diams;</font>''' (the wild card playing as an imaginary second '''A&spades;'''), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a '''K&spades;''', the latter hand's '''<font color=red>Q&diams;</font>''' outranks the former's '''9&spades;''').  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> Some poker games are played with a deck that has been [[/Stripped deck|stripped]] of certain cards, usually low-ranking ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of [[/Manila]] uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed, and [[/Mexican stud]] removes the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
> 
> 
------
Poker/Flush|987037302
1c1
< '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Straight2|this page]].
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Flush2|this page]].
------
Poker/Flush2|987037334
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Flush|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Qc 10c 7c 6c 4c''', which contains five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Ranks above a [[/Straight]] and below a [[/Full house]].
> 
> Two flushes are compared as if they were [[/No pair]] hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>Ah Qh 10h 5h 3h</font>''' ("ace-high flush") defeats '''Ks Qs Js 9s 6s''' ("king-high flush")
> * '''<font color=red>Ad Kd 7d 6d 2d</font>''' ("flush, ace-king high") defeats '''<font color=red>Ah Qh 10h 5h 3h</font>''' ("flush, ace-queen high")
> * '''<font color=red>Qh 10h 9h 5h 2h</font>''' ("heart flush") ties '''Qs 10s 9s 5s 2s''' ("spade flush")
> 
> When [[/Wild card]]s are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present in the hand.  For example, in the hand '''<font color=red>(Wild) 10h 8h 5h 4h</font>''', the wild card plays as the '''<font color=red>Ah</font>''', but in the hand '''Ac Kc <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9c 6c''', it plays as the '''Qc'''.
> 
> Some home games and some casinos play the [[/Double-ace flush]] rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand '''As <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9s 5s 2s''' would defeat '''<font color=red>Ad Kd Qd 10d 8d</font>''' (the wild card playing as an imaginary second '''As'''), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a '''Ks''', the latter hand's '''<font color=red>Qd</font>''' outranks the former's '''9s''').  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
> 
> Some poker games are played with a deck that has been [[/Stripped deck|stripped]] of certain cards, usually low-ranking ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of [[/Manila]] uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed, and [[/Mexican stud]] removes the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
> 
------
Poker/Full_house|987037371
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Full house2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font>''', which contains three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Ranks above a [[/Flush]] and below [[/Four of a kind]].
> 
> Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in [[/Wild card]] and [[/Community card]] games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>''' ("tens full") defeats '''<font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs;''' ("nines full")
> * '''K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts; 3&diams;</font> 3&spades;''' defeats '''10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs;''' ("queens full of eights" or "full house, queens over eights") defeats '''<font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font>''' ("queens full of fives")
> 
> Some poker games are played with a deck that has been [[/Stripped deck|stripped]] of certain cards, usually low-ranking ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of [[/Manila]] uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed, and [[/Mexican stud]] removes the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
> 
------
Poker/Full_house2|987037412
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Full house|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''3c 3s <font color=red>3d</font> 6c <font color=red>6h</font>''', which contains three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Ranks above a [[/Flush]] and below [[/Four of a kind]].
> 
> Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in [[/Wild card]] and [[/Community card]] games), the hand with the higher pair wins.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''10s <font color=red>10h 10d</font> 4s <font color=red>4d</font>''' ("tens full") defeats '''<font color=red>9h</font> 9c 9s <font color=red>Ah</font> Ac''' ("nines full")
> * '''Ks Kc <font color=red>Kh 3d</font> 3s''' defeats '''10s <font color=red>10h 10d</font> 4s <font color=red>4d</font>'''
> * '''<font color=red>Qh Qd</font> Qc <font color=red>8h</font> 8c''' ("queens full of eights" or "full house, queens over eights") defeats '''<font color=red>Qh Qd</font> Qc 5s <font color=red>5h</font>''' ("queens full of fives")
> 
> Some poker games are played with a deck that has been [[/Stripped deck|stripped]] of certain cards, usually low-ranking ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of [[/Manila]] uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed, and [[/Mexican stud]] removes the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
> 
------
Poker/Four_of_a_kind|987037488
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Four of a kind2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts; J&hearts;</font>''', which contains four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Ranks above a [[/Full house]] and below a [[/Straight flush]].
> 
> Higher ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in [[/Wild card]] and [[/Community card]] games), the [[/Kicker]] determines the winner.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>''' ("four tens" or "quad tens") defeats '''<font color=red>6&diams; 6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;''' ("four sixes")
> * '''10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs;''' ("four tens, queen kicker") defeats '''10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>''' ("four tens with a five")
> 
------
Poker/Four_of_a_kind2|987037514
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Four of a kind|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''9c 9s <font color=red>9d 9h Jh</font>''', which contains four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Ranks above a [[/Full house]] and below a [[/Straight flush]].
> 
> Higher ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in [[/Wild card]] and [[/Community card]] games), the [[/Kicker]] determines the winner.
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''10c <font color=red>10d 10h</font> 10s <font color=red>5d</font>''' ("four tens" or "quad tens") defeats '''<font color=red>6d 6h</font> 6s 6c Ks''' ("four sixes")
> * '''10c <font color=red>10d 10h</font> 10s Qc''' ("four tens, queen kicker") defeats '''10c <font color=red>10d 10h</font> 10s <font color=red>5d</font>''' ("four tens with a five")
> 
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Poker/Straight_flush|987037549
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Straight flush2|this page]].
> 
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Straight flush|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;''', which contains five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Ranks above all other poker hands (unless [[/Wild card]]s are used, in which case it ranks below [[/Five of a kind]]).
> 
> Two such hands are compared by their high card in the same way as are [[/Straight]]s, and the same [[/Wild card]] rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: '''<font color=red>5&diams; 4&diams; 3&diams; 2&diams; A&diams;</font>''' is a '''5'''-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush such as '''A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs;''' is often called a '''royal flush''', and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>7&hearts; 6&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>''' defeats '''5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;'''
> * '''J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs;''' ties '''<font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams; 9&diams; 8&diams; 7&diams;</font>'''
> 
------
Poker/Straight_flush|987037591
3,4d2
< '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Straight flush|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
< 
------
Poker/Straight_flush2|987037616
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Straight flush|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''Qs Js 10s 9s 8s''', which contains five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Ranks above all other poker hands (unless [[/Wild card]]s are used, in which case it ranks below [[/Five of a kind]]).
> 
> Two such hands are compared by their high card in the same way as are [[/Straight]]s, and the same [[/Wild card]] rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: '''<font color=red>5d 4d 3d 2d Ad</font>''' is a '''5'''-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush such as '''Ac Kc Qc Jc 10c''' is often called a '''royal flush''', and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  
> 
> Examples:
> 
> * '''<font color=red>7h 6h 5h 4h 3h</font>''' defeats '''5s 4s 3s 2s As'''
> * '''Jc 10c 9c 8c 7c''' ties '''<font color=red>Jd 10d 9d 8d 7d</font>'''
> 
------
Poker/Five_of_a_kind|987037649
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Four of a kind2|this page]].
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; A&diams; (Wild)</font>''', which contains five cards of the same rank (only possible in [[/Wild card]] games).    Ranks above all other poker hands.
> 
> Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.  (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with ''way'' too many wild cards).
> 
> 
------
Poker/Five_of_a_kind|987037708
1c1
< '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Four of a kind2|this page]].
---
> '''Readers note:''' If your web browser does not display the card suit symbols below, see [[Poker/Five of a kind2|this page]].
------
Poker/Five_of_a_kind2|987037732
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Readers note:''' This page uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to indicate card suits.  [[Poker/Five of a kind|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> A [[poker hand]] such as '''As Ac <font color=red>Ah Ad (Wild)</font>''', which contains five cards of the same rank (only possible in [[/Wild card]] games).    Ranks above all other poker hands.
> 
> Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.  (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with ''way'' too many wild cards).
> 
------
Poker/Hands|987037842
1c1
< There are many [[Poker/Variants|variants]] of the game [[poker]], but nearly all of them rank combinations of cards as outlined below.  Poker games should specify if any variations of these hand rankings are used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]] for how to play the game itself and [[Poker]] for more information).
---
> There are many [[poker variant]]s, but unless otherwise specified in the rules of the variant being played, hands are evaluated using the traditional set of five-card hands.  These are, from worst to best:
3c3,12
< <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses card suit symbols that may not appear correctly on your web browser.  If that is the case, go to [[Poker/Hands2|this page]] which uses letters to represent suits.
---
> * [[/No pair]] (for example, '''A-Q-10-5-2''')
> * [[/One pair]] (for example, '''10-10-K-7-4''')
> * [[/Two pair]] (for example, '''K-K-9-9-J''')
> * [[/Three of a kind]] (for example, '''4-4-4-K-9''')
> * [[/Straight]] (for example, '''9-8-7-6-5''')
> * [[/Flush]] (for example, '''K-J-8-7-4''' of one suit)
> * [[/Full house]] (for example, '''2-2-2-Q-Q''')
> * [[/Four of a kind]] (for example, '''J-J-J-J-6''')
> * [[/Straight flush]] (for example, '''Q-J-10-9-8''' of one suit)
> * [[/Five of a kind]] (for example, '''6-6-6-6-(Wild)''', only possible in [[/Wild card]] games)
5,64c14
< <h2>General rules</h2>
< 
< * <b>A poker hand consists of five cards.</b>
< :Even in games where more than five cards are available to each player, hands are ranked by choosing some five-card subset according to the rules of the game, and comparing that five-card hand against the five-card hands of the other players.  Whatever cards remain after choosing the five to be played are of no consequence in determining the winner.
< 
< * <b>Hands are ranked by category first.</b>
< :That is, even the minimum qualifying hand in a certain category below defeats all hands in all lower categories.  The smallest two-pair hand, for example, defeats all hands with just one pair or no pair.
< 
< * <b>The order in which cards are dealt is unimportant</b>
< :For ease of explanation, hands are shown here neatly arranged, but a poker hand is the same no matter what order the cards are received in.
< 
< * <b>Suits have no value.</b>
< :The suits of the cards may be used in determining a hand (specifically the "flush" and "straight flush" hands), but never does a card or hand of cards rank above another solely because of suit.  If two players have hands that are identical except for suit, then they are tied and split the pot.
< 
< :Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, the Ace of clubs ranks higher than any King, but lower than the Ace of diamonds.  This ranking of cards is called "high card by suit", and can be used for determining who is required to pay a bring-in, who gets the odd chip in a split pot, and other uses, but <i>never</i> to break ties between poker hands themselves.
< 
< * <b>Individual cards are ranked.</b>
< :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
< 
< <h2>"High" hands</h2>
< 
< <h3>No Pair: <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> J&clubs; 8&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams;</font> 3&spades;</h3>
< 
< Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>A&diams;10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; defeats K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&hearts;</font>, and A&clubs; Q&clubs; <font color=red>7&diams; 5&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats <font color=red>A&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs;.
< 
< No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
< 
< <h3>One Pair: <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 4&spades; K&spades; <font color=red>10&diams;</font> 5&spades;</h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&diams; 10&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; J&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; 10&spades; 6&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>.
< 
< In some games, kickers become very important (typically community card games like [[Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
< 
< <h3>Two Pair: <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&clubs; 4&clubs; 4&spades; 9&spades;</h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.
< If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>K&hearts; K&diams;</font> 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams; J&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>J&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; 10&clubs; 9&spades; , 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 7&diams;</font> 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams;</font> K&clubs;, and 4&spades; 4&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts; K&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>4&hearts; 4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 10&spades;.
< 
< Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 4&spades; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font>, 
< the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 8&diams; 8&hearts; Q&diams;</font>.  The extra 4&clubs; 4&spades; are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
< 
< <h3>Three of a Kind: <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 2&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font> K&spades; 6&spades;</h3>
< 
< Three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set" (the latter term is more
< specific to community card games, where two of the set are in your hand and one in the community cards).  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in
< games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs; ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5&clubs; <font color=red>5&hearts; 5&diams; Q&diams;</font> 10&clubs; ("three fives"), and 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> A&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8&spades; <font color=red>8&hearts; 8&diams;</font> 5&spades; 3&clubs;
< 
< <h3>Straight: Q&clubs; J&spades; 10&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts; 8&hearts;</font></h3>
< 
< Five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight"
< or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; defeats <font color=red>6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&hearts;</font> 2&clubs;, and 8&spades; 7&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&spades; ties <font color=red>8&hearts; 7&diams;</font> 6&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font>.
< 
< Aces are a special case here: the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> J&spades; 10&spades; is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&diams;</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 2&spades; A&clubs;, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts; 2&hearts;</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> A&spades; K&spades; Q&clubs; is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
< 
< When "wild" cards are used (cards, often the joker, that may be designated as another card of the player's choice according
< to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>J&diams;</font> 10&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7&spades;, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 6&hearts; 5&diams; 4&hearts; 3&diams;</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
< 
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> Q&spades; <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams;</font> 9&clubs;, and your opponent has <font color=red>K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades; 7&clubs;, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>A&hearts; K&diams; Q&diams; J&hearts; 10&hearts;</font> 9&spades; 8&spades;, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
< 
< <h3>Flush: Q&clubs; 10&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; 4&clubs;</h3>
---
> These hands are called the '''traditional hands''' or '''high hands'''.
66c16
< Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats K&spades; Q&spades; J&spades; 9&spades; 6&spades; , <font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; 7&diams; 6&diams; 2&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>A&hearts; Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 5&hearts; 3&hearts;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts; 10&hearts; 9&hearts; 5&hearts; 2&hearts;</font> ties Q&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades;.
---
> Some games called [[lowball]] or '''low poker''' are played where players strive not for the highest ranking of the above combinations but for the lowest ranking hand.  There are three methods of ranking low hands, called [[/Ace-to-five low]], [[/Deuce-to-seven low]], and [[/Ace-to-six low]].  The '''ace-to-five''' method is most common.
68,69c18
< When wild cards are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present
< in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 10&hearts; 8&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts;</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>A&hearts;</font>, but in the hand A&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&clubs; 6&clubs;, it plays as Q&clubs;.
---
> Certain variants use hands of only three cards, either high or low.  Three-card low hands can be ranked by any of the three methods above, although with three cards they become '''ace-to-three''' (rather than ace-to-five), '''deuce-to-five''', and '''ace-to-four'''.  The ace-to-three method is the most common, just as the ace-to-five method is most common method for five cards.  Three-card high hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used such games as [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply '''no pair''', '''one pair''', and '''three of a kind'''.  If you add straights and flushes, the order of hands should be changed to reflect the correct probabilities: '''no pair''', '''one pair''', '''flush''', '''straight''', '''three of a kind''', '''straight flush'''.  This order is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
71c20
< Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand A&spades; <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9&spades; 5&spades; 2&spades; would defeat <font color=red>A&diams; K&diams; Q&diams; 10&diams; 8&diams;</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second A&spades;), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a K&spades;, the latter hand's <font color=red>Q&diams;</font> outranks the former's 9&spades;).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
---
> Some poker games are played with a deck that has been [[/Stripped deck|stripped]] of certain cards, usually low-ranking ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of [[/Manila]] uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of '''7''' are removed, and [[/Mexican stud]] removes the '''8'''s, '''9'''s, and '''10'''s.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
73c22
< <h3>Full House: 3&clubs; 3&spades; <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 6&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts;</font></h3>
---
> Some games add one or more [[/Unconventional hand]]s, or have special exceptions to the rules above.  For example, in the game of [[Pai Gow Poker]] as played in Nevada, a [[/Wheel]] ('''5-4-3-2-A''') ranks above a king-high straight, but below an ace-high straight.  This is not the case in California, where the nearly identical game is played under the name [[Double-hand poker]] using traditional hand values.
75,135c24
< Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>9&hearts;</font> 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>A&hearts;</font> A&clubs; , <td>K&spades; K&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts; 3&diams;</font> 3&spades; defeats 10&spades; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams;</font> 4&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font>, and <font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 8&clubs; defeats <font color=red>Q&hearts; Q&diams;</font> Q&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>5&hearts;</font>.
< 
< <h3>Four of a Kind: 9&clubs; 9&spades; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts; J&hearts;</font></h3>
< 
< Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font> defeats <font color=red>6&diams; 6&hearts;</font> 6&spades; 6&clubs; K&spades;, and 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; Q&clubs; defeats 10&clubs; <font color=red>10&diams; 10&hearts;</font> 10&spades; <font color=red>5&diams;</font>.
< 
< <h3>Straight Flush: Q&spades; J&spades; 10&spades; 9&spades; 8&spades;</h3>
< 
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5&diams; 4&diams; 3&diams; 2&diams; A&diams;</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush A&clubs; K&clubs; Q&clubs; J&clubs; 10&clubs; is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&hearts; 5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts;</font> defeats 5&spades; 4&spades; 3&spades; 2&spades; A&spades;, and J&clubs; 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; ties <font color=red>J&diams; 10&diams; 9&diams; 8&diams; 7&diams;</font>.
< 
< <h3>Five of a Kind: A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>A&hearts; A&diams; (Wild)</font></h3>
< 
< Five cards of the same rank (only possible in wild card games).  Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.
< (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with <em>way</em> too many wild cards).
< 
< <h2>"Low" hands</h2>
< 
< Some games called "lowball" or "low poker" are played where players strive not for the highest ranking of the above combinations but for the lowest ranking hand.  Some games are also played "high/low" or "high/low split", in which the high hand and the low hand split the pot upon showdown.  There are three methods of determining low hands.  The "Ace to Five" method is most common, especially in high/low games.
< 
< <h3>"California" or "ace to five" low</h3>
< 
< In all lowball games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair
< hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the "high" hand loses.  In ace to five low, straights and flushes are ignored, and aces play as the lowest card.
< 
< For example, the hand <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs;3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> defeats 9&spades;7&clubs; <font color=red>6&hearts; 4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs;, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7&hearts; 6&diams;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&hearts;</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
< Aces are low, so 8&spades; 5&clubs; 4&clubs; <font color=red>3&diams; A&diams;</font> defeats
< <font color=red>8&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>2&diams;</font>.
< Also, A&spades; A&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 5&diams;</font> 3&clubs; (a pair of aces) defeats 2&clubs; <font color=red>2&diams;</font> 5&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font> 8&spades; <font color=red>6&hearts; 4&diams;</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3&diams;</font> 3&clubs; 6&spades; 4&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts;</font>
< defeats <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 3&spades; <font color=red>6&diams; 5&hearts;</font> A&clubs;.
< 
< This is called ace to five low, because the lowest (and therefore best) possible hand is 5-4-3-2-A (suits irrelevant), called a "wheel" or "bicycle".  The next best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-A, then 6-5-4-2-A, etc.
< When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8&spades; 6&spades; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 2&diams;</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8&clubs; 7&spades; <font color=red>5&diams; 4&hearts;</font> A&spades;.
< 
< In games where the high and low hands split the winnings, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may
< be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre
< both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5&hearts; 4&hearts; 3&hearts; 2&hearts; A&hearts;</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams;</font> 2&clubs; A&spades;, and another has 10&clubs; 9&clubs; 8&clubs; 7&clubs; 6&clubs; for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
< half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.
< Strange things can happen at poker tables.
< 
< Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts; (Joker) A&diams;</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&hearts;</font> 3&clubs; 2&spades;--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker) 6&hearts; 5&hearts;</font> 4&clubs; 3&spades;.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
< 
< <h3>"Kansas City" or "deuce to seven" low</h3>
< 
< Kansas City low poker is almost the direct opposite of standard high poker: high poker hand loses.  Aces are always high, and straights and flushes count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce to seven low because the best possible hand is 7&clubs; 5&spades; <font color=red>4&diams;</font> 3&spades; 2&clubs; (of any mixed suits).
< Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that A&clubs; 5&clubs; <font color=red>4&diams; 3&diams; 2&hearts;</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
< 
< <h3>"Chicago" or "ace to six" low</h3>
< 
< This played in the eastern [[United States]] and elsewhere (and is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball, a [[stud poker]] game).  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
< 
< <h2>Wild cards</h2>
< 
< Poker games may contain one or more cards designated as "wild".  These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant).  There are two rules in common use regarding wildcards: fully "wild" cards and the "bug".
< 
< A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7&hearts; (Joker)</font> 5&clubs; 4&clubs; 3&spades; is a straight.
< 
< Two exceptions to standard practice sometimes seen in home games are the double-ace flush rule mentioned above (in the
< section on flushes), and the "natural wins" rule.  The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins.  This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush).
< 
< There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish.
< While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play.  In particular, 5-card draw, whether for high or low, is traditionally played with a Joker in California (which plays as a bug for high).  Seven-Card Stud plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played high/low.  Five-Card Draw and Stud even play well with deuces fully wild.  Other games like Texas Holdem and Omaha do not play well with wild cards.
---
> <h2>General rules</h2>
137c26
< <h2>Exceptions</h2>
---
> The following general rules apply to evaluating poker hands, whatever set of hand values are used.
139c28,29
< In certain games, special exceptions may be made.  In particular, some places play poker with a deck that has been stripped of certain cards, usually low ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of Manila uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of 7 are removed, and [[Mexican stud]] removes the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because with fewer cards of each suit available it is more difficult to get.  Other hands retain their normal values.  Also in Mexican stud, because the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards are removed, a hand such as <font color=red>6&hearts; 7&diams;</font> J&clubs; Q&clubs; K&spades; counts as a straight.
---
> * Individual cards are ranked '''A''' (high), '''K''', '''Q''', '''J''', '''10''', '''9''', '''8''', '''7''', '''6''', '''5''', '''4''', '''3''', '''2''' (low).
> :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no pairs or other special combinations, or to rank the '''side cards''' of otherwise equal hands.  The Ace is ranked low in ace-to-five and ace-to-six lowball games.
141c31,32
< There is a variant called Canadian stud in which a four-card straight ranks above one pair, a four-card flush above that, followed by two pair.
---
> * Suits have no value.
> :The suits of the cards may be used in determining whether a hand fits a certain category (specifically the [[/Flush]] and [[/Straight flush]] hands), but never does one poker hand rank above another solely because of suit.  If two players have hands that are identical except for suit, then they are tied and split the pot.
143c34
< In the game of [[Pai Gow Poker]] as played in Nevada, a wheel (5-4-3-2-A) ranks above a king-high straight, but below an ace-high straight.  This is not the case in California, where the nearly identical game is played under the name [[Double-hand poker]].
---
> :Sometimes a ranking called [[/High card by suit]] is used for things like randomly selecting a player to deal, but ''never'' to break ties between poker hands themselves.
145c36,37
< <h2>Three-card hands</h2>
---
> * A poker hand consists of five cards.
> :In games where more than five cards are available to each player, hands are ranked by choosing some five-card subset according to the rules of the game, and comparing that five-card hand against the five-card hands of the other players.  Whatever cards remain after choosing the five to be played are of no consequence in determining the winner.
147c39,40
< Certain [[poker variant]]s use only three cards.  Low hands can be ranked by any of the three methods, which therefore become ace-to-three (rather than ace-to-five), deuce-to-five, and ace-to-four.  The ace-to-three method is the most common, just as the ace-to-five method is most common for five cards.  When adapting a five-card ace-to-five high/low split game in which an 8-high hand or lower is required to win low, the rough equivalent three-card low is a 6-high.
---
> * Hands are ranked first by category, then by individual card ranks.
> :That is, even the minimum qualifying hand in a certain category defeats all hands in all lower categories.  The smallest [[/Two pair]] hand, for example, defeats all hands with just [[/One pair]] or [[/No pair]].  Only between two hands in the same category are card ranks used to break ties.
149c42,43
< High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add straights and flushes, the order of hands should be changed to reflect the correct probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This order is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
---
> * The order in which cards are dealt is unimportant.
> :For ease of explanation, hands are shown here neatly arranged, but a poker hand is the same no matter what order the cards are received in.
------
Poker/Hands|987037909
29c29
< :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no pairs or other special combinations, or to rank the '''side cards''' of otherwise equal hands.  The Ace is ranked low in ace-to-five and ace-to-six lowball games.
---
> :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no pairs or other special combinations, or to rank the [[/Kicker]]s of otherwise equal hands.  The Ace is ranked low in ace-to-five and ace-to-six lowball games.
------
Poker/Hands2|987038026
1,149c1
< There are many [[Poker/Variants|variants]] of the game [[poker]], but nearly all of them rank combinations of cards as outlined below.  Poker games should specify if any variations of these hand rankings are used.  (See [[Poker/Game play]] for how to play the game itself and [[Poker]] for more information).
< 
< <b>Readers note:</b> This pages uses the letters S, H, D, and C to represent card suits.  A more readable version that uses suit symbols is [[Poker/Hands|this page]], though it may not work in your browser.
< 
< <h2>General rules</h2>
< 
< * <b>A poker hand consists of five cards.</b>
< :Even in games where more than five cards are available to each player, hands are ranked by choosing some five-card subset according to the rules of the game, and comparing that five-card hand against the five-card hands of the other players.  Whatever cards remain after choosing the five to be played are of no consequence in determining the winner.
< 
< * <b>Hands are ranked by category first.</b>
< :That is, even the minimum qualifying hand in a certain category below defeats all hands in all lower categories.  The smallest two-pair hand, for example, defeats all hands with just one pair or no pair.
< 
< * <b>The order in which cards are dealt is unimportant</b>
< :For ease of explanation, hands are shown here neatly arranged, but a poker hand is the same no matter what order the cards are received in.
< 
< * <b>Suits have no value.</b>
< :The suits of the cards may be used in determining a hand (specifically the "flush" and "straight flush" hands), but never does a card or hand of cards rank above another solely because of suit.  If two players have hands that are identical except for suit, then they are tied and split the pot.
< 
< :Sometimes it is convenient to assign relative values to the suits for special purposes such as when drawing a card to decide who deals first.  In this case it is traditional to rank the suits in alphabetical order, with clubs lowest and spades highest (this is also the order of suits in [[bridge]]), though cards are always valued by rank first, only then by suit (for example, the Ace of clubs ranks higher than any King, but lower than the Ace of diamonds.  This ranking of cards is called "high card by suit", and can be used for determining who is required to pay a bring-in, who gets the odd chip in a split pot, and other uses, but <i>never</i> to break ties between poker hands themselves.
< 
< * <b>Individual cards are ranked.</b>
< :Individual card ranks are often used to evaluate hands that contain no special combinations, or that contain equal combinations and extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) used to break ties.  In these cases, the Ace is the highest ranking card, followed by the King, Queen, Jack, and then the spot cards in order from 10 (highest) to 2 (lowest).
< 
< <h2>"High" hands</h2>
< 
< <h3>No Pair: <font color=red>KH</font> JC 8C <font color=red>7D</font> 3S</h3>
< 
< Also known as "nothing" or "garbage".  A hand in which no two cards have the same rank, the five cards are not in sequence, and the five cards are not all the same suit.  Two such hands are ranked by comparing the highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the next highest ranking card; if those are equal, then the third highest ranking card, etc.  For example, <font color=red>AD10D</font> 9S 5C 4C defeats KC <font color=red>QD</font> JC <font color=red>8H 7H</font>, and AC QC <font color=red>7D 5H</font> 2C defeats <font color=red>AD 10D</font> 9S 5C 4C.
< 
< No-pair hands are often referred to by the one or two highest cards in the hand, such as "king high" or "ace-queen high".
< 
< <h3>One Pair: <font color=red>4H</font> 4S KS <font color=red>10D</font> 5S</h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus three unmatched cards.  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking pair wins.  If two hands have the same rank of pair, the extra cards (called <i>kickers</i>) are compared in the manner of no-pair hands.  For example, 10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H 2H</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9C <font color=red>AH QD 10D</font>, and <font color=red>10H 10D JD 3H</font> 2C defeats 10C 10S 6S <font color=red>4H 2H</font>.
< 
< In some games, kickers become very important (typically community card games like [[Texas holdem]]), while in other games (such as [[draw poker]]) they are almost never significant.  Nonetheless, they are always used if needed.
< 
< <h3>Two Pair: <font color=red>JD</font> JC 4C 4S 9S</h3>
< 
< Two cards of the same rank, plus two cards of another rank (that match each other but not the first pair), plus one unmatched card.  Between two such hands, the higher ranking pair of each is first compared, and the higher pair wins.
< If both have the same top pair, then the second pair of each is compared.  Finally, if both hands have the same two pairs, the kicker determines the winner.  The hand above could be referred to as "jacks and fours" or "jacks over fours" or just "jacks up" (the smaller pair is rarely needed to break ties, so it doesn't even need to be mentioned most of the time).  For example, <font color=red>KH KD</font> 2C <font color=red>2D JH</font> defeats <font color=red>JD</font> JS 10S 10C 9S , 9C <font color=red>9D 7D</font> 7S <font color=red>6H</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9S <font color=red>5H 5D</font> KC, and 4S 4C 3S <font color=red>3H KD</font> defeats <font color=red>4H 4D 3D</font> 3C 10S.
< 
< Note in particular here that the general rule about poker hands having only five cards often comes into play.  If you are playing a seven-card game and have, for example, 10C <font color=red>10D 8D 8H</font> 4C 4S <font color=red>QD</font>, 
< the highest poker hand you can make is two pair: 10C <font color=red>10D 8D 8H QD</font>.  The extra 4C 4S are of no consequence because you can't squeeze them into a five-card hand.
< 
< <h3>Three of a Kind: <font color=red>2D</font> 2S <font color=red>2H</font> KS 6S</h3>
< 
< Three cards of the same rank, plus two unmatched cards.  Also called "trips", or "a set" (the latter term is more
< specific to community card games, where two of the set are in your hand and one in the community cards).  Between two such hands, the hand with the higher ranking matched set wins.  If both have the same matched set (this is possible only in
< games with wild cards or community cards), then the kickers are compared as usual.  For example, 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> 5S 3C ("three eights" or "trip eights") defeats 5C <font color=red>5H 5D QD</font> 10C ("three fives"), and 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> AC <font color=red>2D</font> ("three eights, ace kicker") defeats 8S <font color=red>8H 8D</font> 5S 3C
< 
< <h3>Straight: QC JS 10S <font color=red>9H 8H</font></h3>
< 
< Five cards of sequential rank, of varying suits.  Often described by the highest card, as in "queen-high straight"
< or "straight to the queen".  Two straights are ranked by comparing the high card of each.  Two straights with the same high card are of equal value, and split any winnings (straights are the most commonly tied hands, especially in community card games).  For example, 8S 7S <font color=red>6H 5H</font> 4S defeats <font color=red>6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D 3H</font> 2C, and 8S 7S <font color=red>6H 5H</font> 4S ties <font color=red>8H 7D</font> 6C 5C <font color=red>4H</font>.
< 
< Aces are a special case here: the hand AC KC <font color=red>QD</font> JS 10S is an ace-high straight (or "broadway"), and ranks above a king-high straight such as <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JH 10H 9D</font>.  But the ace may also be played low in a hand such as 5S <font color=red>4D 3D</font> 2S AC, called a "wheel" or "bicycle" or five-high straight, which ranks below the six-high straight 6S 5C 4C <font color=red>3H 2H</font>.  The Ace may not "wrap around", or play both high and low in the same hand: 3C <font color=red>2D</font> AS KS QC is not a straight (just ace-high no pair).
< 
< When "wild" cards are used (cards, often the joker, that may be designated as another card of the player's choice according
< to the rules of the game), the wild card becomes whichever rank is necessary to complete the straight.  If two different ranks would complete a straight, it becomes the higher.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>JD</font> 10S 9C <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 7S, the wild card plays as an 8-spot (of any suit; it doesn't matter).  In the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 6H 5D 4H 3D</font>, it plays as a 7-spot (even though a 2-spot would also make a straight).
< 
< The five-card rule applies here: if playing a seven-card game you end up with KS KC <font color=red>KH</font> QS <font color=red>JD 10D</font> 9C, and your opponent has <font color=red>KD QD JH 10H</font> 9S 8S 7C, your hands are tied: the best five-card poker hand you can make is a king-high straight, and the best hand he can make is also a king-high straight.  The fact that you also have three kings and he also has a seven-card-long straight are both irrelevant.  Of course, if his hand were instead <font color=red>AH KD QD JH 10H</font> 9S 8S, his ace-high straight would defeat your king-high.
< 
< <h3>Flush: QC 10C 7C 6C 4C</h3>
< 
< Five cards of the same suit, not in rank sequence.  Two flushes are compared as if they were no-pair hands.  In other words, the highest ranking card of each is compared to determine the winner; if both have the same high card, then the second-highest ranking card is compared, etc.  The suits have no value: two flushes with the same five ranks of cards are tied.  For example, <font color=red>AH QH 10H 5H 3H</font> defeats KS QS JS 9S 6S , <font color=red>AD KD 7D 6D 2D</font> defeats <font color=red>AH QH 10H 5H 3H</font>, and <font color=red>QH 10H 9H 5H 2H</font> ties QS 10S 9S 5S 2S.
< 
< When wild cards are used, a wild card contained in a flush is considered to be of the highest rank not already present
< in the hand.  For example, in the hand <font color=red>(Wild) 10H 8H 5H 4H</font>, the wild card plays as <font color=red>AH</font>, but in the hand AC KC <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9C 6C, it plays as QC.
< 
< Some home games and some casinos play the "double ace" rule, in which a wild card in a flush always plays as an ace, even if one is already present.  In such a game, the hand AS <font color=red>(Wild)</font> 9S 5S 2S would defeat <font color=red>AD KD QD 10D 8D</font> (the wild card playing as an imaginary second AS), whereas by the standard rules it would lose (because even with the wild card playing as a KS, the latter hand's <font color=red>QD</font> outranks the former's 9S).  This rule is rare, and is an exception to standard practice, so it should be announced clearly if you intend to use it.
< 
< <h3>Full House: 3C 3S <font color=red>3D</font> 6C <font color=red>6H</font></h3>
< 
< Three matching cards of one rank, plus two matching cards of another rank.  Also called a "boat" or "tight".  Between two full houses, the one with the higher ranking set of trips wins.  If two have the same set of trips (possible in wild card and community card games), the hand with the higher pair wins.  For example, 10S <font color=red>10H 10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font> defeats <font color=red>9H</font> 9C 9S <font color=red>AH</font> AC , <td>KS KC <font color=red>KH 3D</font> 3S defeats 10S <font color=red>10H 10D</font> 4S <font color=red>4D</font>, and <font color=red>QH QD</font> QC <font color=red>8H</font> 8C defeats <font color=red>QH QD</font> QC 5S <font color=red>5H</font>.
< 
< <h3>Four of a Kind: 9C 9S <font color=red>9D 9H JH</font></h3>
< 
< Four cards of one rank, and an unmatched card.  Also called "quads".  Higer ranking quads defeat lower ranking ones.  Between two equal sets of quads (possible in wild card and community card games), kicker determines the winner.  For example, 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font> defeats <font color=red>6D 6H</font> 6S 6C KS, and 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S QC defeats 10C <font color=red>10D 10H</font> 10S <font color=red>5D</font>.
< 
< <h3>Straight Flush: QS JS 10S 9S 8S</h3>
< 
< Five cards in rank sequence, all of the same suit.  Two such hands are compared in the same way as are straights, and the same wild-card rules apply as for straights.  The ace rule also applies: <font color=red>5D 4D 3D 2D AD</font> is a 5-high straight flush.  An ace-high straight flush AC KC QC JC 10C is often called a "royal flush", and is the highest ranking poker hand possible without wild cards.  For example, <font color=red>7H 6H 5H 4H 3H</font> defeats 5S 4S 3S 2S AS, and JC 10C 9C 8C 7C ties <font color=red>JD 10D 9D 8D 7D</font>.
< 
< <h3>Five of a Kind: AS AC <font color=red>AH AD (Wild)</font></h3>
< 
< Five cards of the same rank (only possible in wild card games).  Higher ranking sets of five defeat lower ranking sets.
< (If this ever comes up in your game, you're playing with <em>way</em> too many wild cards).
< 
< <h2>"Low" hands</h2>
< 
< Some games called "lowball" or "low poker" are played where players strive not for the highest ranking of the above combinations but for the lowest ranking hand.  Some games are also played "high/low" or "high/low split", in which the high hand and the low hand split the pot upon showdown.  There are three methods of determining low hands.  The "Ace to Five" method is most common, especially in high/low games.
< 
< <h3>"California" or "ace to five" low</h3>
< 
< In all lowball games, pairs and trips are bad: that is, any hand with no pair defeats any hand with a pair; one pair
< hands defeat two pair or trips, etc.  No-pair hands are compared starting with the highest ranking card, just as in high poker, except that the "high" hand loses.  In ace to five low, straights and flushes are ignored, and aces play as the lowest card.
< 
< For example, the hand <font color=red>8H</font> 5C 4C3S <font color=red>2D</font> defeats 9S7C <font color=red>6H 4H</font> 3C, because eight-high is lower than nine-high.  The hand <font color=red>7H 6D</font> 5S <font color=red>4D 3H</font> defeats both, because seven-high is lower still, even though it would be a straight if played for high.
< Aces are low, so 8S 5C 4C <font color=red>3D AD</font> defeats
< <font color=red>8H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3S <font color=red>2D</font>.
< Also, AS AC <font color=red>9D 5D</font> 3C (a pair of aces) defeats 2C <font color=red>2D</font> 5S 4S <font color=red>3H</font> (a pair of deuces), but both would lose to KS <font color=red>JH</font> 8S <font color=red>6H 4D</font>.  In the rare event that hands with pairs tie, kickers are used just as in high poker (but reversed): <font color=red>3D</font> 3C 6S 4S <font color=red>2H</font>
< defeats <font color=red>3H</font> 3S <font color=red>6D 5H</font> AC.
< 
< This is called ace to five low, because the lowest (and therefore best) possible hand is 5-4-3-2-A (suits irrelevant), called a "wheel" or "bicycle".  The next best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-A, then 6-5-4-2-A, etc.
< When speaking, low hands are referred to by their highest ranking card or cards.  Any nine-high hand can be called "a nine", and is defeated by any "eight".  Two cards are frequently used: the hand 8S 6S 5C <font color=red>4D 2D</font> can be called "an eight-six" and will defeat "an eight-seven" such as 8C 7S <font color=red>5D 4H</font> AS.
< 
< In games where the high and low hands split the winnings, some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may
< be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre
< both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is <font color=red>5H 4H 3H 2H AH</font> (of any suit), called a "steel wheel", which plays both as perfect low and a straight flush high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a 5S <font color=red>4D 3D</font> 2C AS, and another has 10C 9C 8C 7C 6C for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high
< half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.
< Strange things can happen at poker tables.
< 
< Ace to five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand: in <font color=red>7H</font> 5S <font color=red>4H (Joker) AD</font>, for example, the joker plays as a 2-spot.  This can cause some interesting effects for high/low split games.  Let's say that Alice has 6C 5S <font color=red>4H</font> 3C 2S--a good hand for both high and low.  Burt has <font color=red>(Joker) 6H 5H</font> 4C 3S.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a 7-spot for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his ace is lower than her deuce, with all other cards equal.  Jokers are very powerful in high/low split games.
< 
< <h3>"Kansas City" or "deuce to seven" low</h3>
< 
< Kansas City low poker is almost the direct opposite of standard high poker: high poker hand loses.  Aces are always high, and straights and flushes count for high (and are therefore bad).  It's called deuce to seven low because the best possible hand is 7C 5S <font color=red>4D</font> 3S 2C (of any mixed suits).
< Otherwise, hands rank as for California low.  The one exception is that AC 5C <font color=red>4D 3D 2H</font> is not considered a straight in this game---it is just an ace-five high, and would therefore defeat, for example, a pair or an ace-ten high, but lose to any king-high or lower.
< 
< <h3>"Chicago" or "ace to six" low</h3>
< 
< This played in the eastern [[United States]] and elsewhere (and is the traditional hand ranking of "London" lowball, a [[stud poker]] game).  Aces are low cards, but straights and flushes count for high (and are threfore bad).  Therefore, the best possible hand is 6-4-3-2-A, followed by 6-5-3-2-1, etc.
< 
< <h2>Wild cards</h2>
< 
< Poker games may contain one or more cards designated as "wild".  These may be jokers, or they may be normal ranked and suited cards pressed into wild card duty ("deuces wild" is a common variant).  There are two rules in common use regarding wildcards: fully "wild" cards and the "bug".
< 
< A card that is fully wild can be designated by its holder to play as any card he chooses with no restrictions.  Under this rule, for example, a hand with any natural pair and a wild card becomes trips.  This is common in low-stakes home games.  The more common rule in casinos is that a wild card plays as a "bug", which is given the rank of ace unless designating it as a different card would complete a straight, flush, or straight flush.  Under this rule, a pair of kings with a bug is still just a pair of kings (with an ace kicker), but four clubs and a bug make a flush, and <font color=red>7H (Joker)</font> 5C 4C 3S is a straight.
< 
< Two exceptions to standard practice sometimes seen in home games are the double-ace flush rule mentioned above (in the
< section on flushes), and the "natural wins" rule.  The latter rule states that between hands that would otherwise tie, the hand with fewer wild cards wins.  This is not common in casinos and should be treated as an exception to standard practice (as is the double-ace flush).
< 
< There is a tendency among some players to regard wild cards as "impure" or treat wild card games as silly or amateurish.
< While it is certainly true that a game with too many wild cards can become so random that all skill is lost, the occasional use of wild cards is a good way to add variation to a game and add opportunities for skillful play.  In particular, 5-card draw, whether for high or low, is traditionally played with a Joker in California (which plays as a bug for high).  Seven-Card Stud plays well with one or two bugs, especially when played high/low.  Five-Card Draw and Stud even play well with deuces fully wild.  Other games like Texas Holdem and Omaha do not play well with wild cards.
< 
< <h2>Exceptions</h2>
< 
< In certain games, special exceptions may be made.  In particular, some places play poker with a deck that has been stripped of certain cards, usually low ones.  For example, the [[Australia]]n game of Manila uses a 32-card deck in which all cards below the rank of 7 are removed, and [[Mexican stud]] removes the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards.  In both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because with fewer cards of each suit available it is more difficult to get.  Other hands retain their normal values.  Also in Mexican stud, because the 8, 9, and 10-spot cards are removed, a hand such as <font color=red>6H 7D</font> JC QC KS counts as a straight.
< 
< There is a variant called Canadian stud in which a four-card straight ranks above one pair, a four-card flush above that, followed by two pair.
< 
< In the game of [[Pai Gow Poker]] as played in Nevada, a wheel (5-4-3-2-A) ranks above a king-high straight, but below an ace-high straight.  This is not the case in California, where the nearly identical game is played under the name [[Double-hand poker]].
< 
< <h2>Three-card hands</h2>
< 
< Certain [[poker variant]]s use only three cards.  Low hands can be ranked by any of the three methods, which therefore become ace-to-three (rather than ace-to-five), deuce-to-five, and ace-to-four.  The ace-to-three method is the most common, just as the ace-to-five method is most common for five cards.  When adapting a five-card ace-to-five high/low split game in which an 8-high hand or lower is required to win low, the rough equivalent three-card low is a 6-high.
< 
< High hands are ranked in one of two ways: either with or without straights and flushes.  Without (which is the most common, and used in games like [[Chinese poker]]), the hands are simply no pair, one pair, trips.  If you add straights and flushes, the order of hands should be changed to reflect the correct probabilities: no pair, one pair, flush, straight, trips, straight flush.  This order is used, for example, in [[Mambo stud]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poker/Hands]]
------
Cultural_anthropology/Talk|987039440
8c8,9
< 
---
> ************************
> Nope nope and nope... No arguments about Social psychology but Cultural anthropology and sociology are not distinguished by statics/cynamics.  Traditional (and equally wrong) distinctions would have anthropology looking at whatever  non-western and sociology looking at (yup) Western (euroamerican etc.) societies.  
------
Magnoliophyta|987042320
1c1
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Pretty much all the classification below class level and above family level seems to have disintegrated; groups here are classified according to Cronquist, since his scheme seems to be the most prevalent, with the strong caveat that the subgroups are typically polyphyletic and differ considerably between authors.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Pretty much all the classification below class level and above family level seems to have disintegrated; groups here are classified according to Cronquist, since his scheme seems to be the most prevalent, with the strong caveat that the subgroups are typically polyphyletic and differ considerably between authors.  This is especially the case for eudicots; elsewhere I'm looking for enough info to build a tree, so bear with me.  Not that anyone looks at this particular page anyways.
12c12
< * Zingeberidae
---
> * [[Zingeberidae]]
19c19
< ** Liliales - Liliaceae (lily family)
---
> ** [[Liliales]] - Liliaceae (lily family)
25c25
< ** Orchidales - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
---
> ** [[Orchidales]] - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
------
John_F._Kennedy/Talk|987042971
7c7,10
< http://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010326/sc/britain_kennedy_dc_1.html
---
> http://dailynews.yahoo.com/h/nm/20010326/sc/britain_kennedy_dc_1.html----
> I think "photogenicity" is an understatemnt of the attraction "The Kennedys" and "John F Kennedy," in particular had for a large part of the American public. I would say he had "charisma," at least.
> Further he was part of a social and political dynasty, sometimes, in the earlier days, referred to as "Camelot."
> 
------
Magnoliophyta|987043555
1c1
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Pretty much all the classification below class level and above family level seems to have disintegrated; groups here are classified according to Cronquist, since his scheme seems to be the most prevalent, with the strong caveat that the subgroups are typically polyphyletic and differ considerably between authors.  This is especially the case for eudicots; elsewhere I'm looking for enough info to build a tree, so bear with me.  Not that anyone looks at this particular page anyways.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" groups are marked with underlines, the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
4a5,13
> * <u>Alismatidae</u>
> * <u>Aridae</u>
> * <u>[[Liliales]]</u> (lilies and kin)
> * <u>[[Dioscoreales]]</u>
> * Asparagales
> * Iridales
> * Orchidales (orchids) with things like [[vanilla]]
> * <u>Arecidae</u>
> * <u>Zingiberidae = [[Zingiberales]]</u> (ginger and kin)
6,26c15,19
< ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grass family)
< *** [[Barley]]
< *** [[Corn]]
< *** [[Millet]]
< *** [[Rice]]
< *** [[Wheat]]
< * [[Zingeberidae]]
< ** Zingiberales - Musaceae ([[banana]] family)
< ** Zingiberales - Zingiberaceae (ginger family)
< *** [[Cardamom]]
< *** [[Ginger]]
< *** [[Turmeric]]
< * Liliidae
< ** [[Liliales]] - Liliaceae (lily family)
< *** [[Bluebell]]
< *** [[Chives]]
< *** [[Hyacinth]]
< *** [[Lily]]
< *** [[Tulip]]
< ** [[Orchidales]] - Orchidaceae (orchid family)
< *** [[Vanilla]]
---
> ** Commelinales
> ** Eriocaulales
> ** Restionales
> ** Juncales
> ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grasses) include things like [[Barley]], [[Corn]], [[Millet]], [[Rice]], [[Wheat]]
------
Zingiberales|987043751
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots.  Full list of families, with one or two examples:
> 
> * Family [[Muscaceae]] ([[banana]] family)
> * Family [[Strelitziaceae]]
> * Family [[Lowiaceae]]
> * Family [[Heliconaceae]]
> * Family [[Zingiberaceae]] (ginger family)
> ** [[Cardamom]]
> ** [[Ginger]]
> ** [[Turmeric]]
> * Family [[Costaceae]]
> * Family [[Cannaceae]]
> * Family [[Merantaceae]]
------
Magnoliophyta|987044312
14a15,31
> ** Commeliniflorae
> ** Bromeliflorae
> ** Glumiflorae
> *** <u>Typhales</u>
> *** <u>Juncales</u>
> *** <u>[[Cyperales]]</u> - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
> *** <u>[[Hyradetellales]]</u>
> *** <u>[[Eriocaulales]]</u>
> **** Eriocaulaceae
> **** Restionaceae
> **** Xyridaceae
> *** <u>[[Poales]] = Restionales - Restionaceae + Poaceae</u>
> **** Centrolepidaceae
> **** Flagellariaceae
> **** Joinvilleaceae
> **** Poaceae (grass family) - [[barley]], [[millet]], [[corn]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], etc
> 
------
Magnoliophyta|987044480
15,30c15,29
< ** Commeliniflorae
< ** Bromeliflorae
< ** Glumiflorae
< *** <u>Typhales</u>
< *** <u>Juncales</u>
< *** <u>[[Cyperales]]</u> - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
< *** <u>[[Hyradetellales]]</u>
< *** <u>[[Eriocaulales]]</u>
< **** Eriocaulaceae
< **** Restionaceae
< **** Xyridaceae
< *** <u>[[Poales]] = Restionales - Restionaceae + Poaceae</u>
< **** Centrolepidaceae
< **** Flagellariaceae
< **** Joinvilleaceae
< **** Poaceae (grass family) - [[barley]], [[millet]], [[corn]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], etc
---
> ** <u>[[Commelinales]]</u>
> ** <u>Bromeliales</u>
> ** <u>Typhales</u>
> ** <u>Juncales</u>
> ** <u>[[Cyperales]]</u> - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
> ** <u>[[Hydatellales]]</u>
> ** <u>[[Eriocaulales]]</u>
> *** Eriocaulaceae
> *** Restionaceae
> *** Xyridaceae
> ** <u>[[Poales]] = Restionales - Restionaceae + Poaceae</u>
> *** Centrolepidaceae
> *** Flagellariaceae
> *** Joinvilleaceae
> *** Poaceae (grass family) - [[barley]], [[millet]], [[corn]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], etc
32,36c31
< ** Commelinales
< ** Eriocaulales
< ** Restionales
< ** Juncales
< ** Cyperales - Poaceae (grasses) include things like [[Barley]], [[Corn]], [[Millet]], [[Rice]], [[Wheat]]
---
> Commelinales
------
Poales|987044936
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots including the Poaceae (grasses).  The other family have been classified with the Restionaceae in a separate order, but that group appears to have closer ties with the [[Eriocaulales]].  A list of current families, with a few examples:
> 
> * Family [[Centrolepidaceae]]
> * Family [[Flagellariaceae]]
> * Family [[Joinvilleaceae]]
> * Family [[Poaceae]] (grass family)
> ** [[Barley]]
> ** [[Corn]]
> ** [[Millet]]
> ** [[Rice]]
> ** [[Wheat]]
------
Commelinales|987045569
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots including the dayflower family (Commelinaceae).  Other than them the composition of the group has changed completely, and families once considered to belong here have since been moved to other related orders (Rapateaceae, Xyridaceae, Myaceae).  Instead the group has been populated with various refugees from the division of the [[Liliales]].  The division from the tree of life is
> 
> * [[Commelinaceae]]
> * [[Pontederiaceae]]
> * [[Hanguanaceae]]
> * [[Haemodoraceae]]
> * [[Philydraceae]]
------
Magnoliophyta|987045750
1c1
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" groups are marked with underlines, the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" groups are marked with underlines or wikied, the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
13,15c13,15
< * <u>Zingiberidae = [[Zingiberales]]</u> (ginger and kin)
< * Commelinidae
< ** <u>[[Commelinales]]</u>
---
> * <u>Zingiberidae</u> = [[Zingiberales]]
> * <u>Commelinidae</u>
> ** [[Commelinales]]
19,29c19,22
< ** <u>[[Cyperales]]</u> - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
< ** <u>[[Hydatellales]]</u>
< ** <u>[[Eriocaulales]]</u>
< *** Eriocaulaceae
< *** Restionaceae
< *** Xyridaceae
< ** <u>[[Poales]] = Restionales - Restionaceae + Poaceae</u>
< *** Centrolepidaceae
< *** Flagellariaceae
< *** Joinvilleaceae
< *** Poaceae (grass family) - [[barley]], [[millet]], [[corn]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], etc
---
> ** [[Cyperales]] - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
> ** [[Hydatellales]]
> ** [[Eriocaulales]]
> ** [[Poales]] (grasses and kin)
------
Liliales|987046525
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots including the lily family (Liliaceae).  Once a wide variety of forms were placed here, but since then the group has been divided up, with the various families being moved to other orders and creating two new ones, the [[Dioscoreales]] and [[Asparagales]].  Various parts of the Liliaceae themselves were also moved away or at least divided out.  A listing of the families left is:
> 
> * Family [[Liliaceae]] (lily family)
> ** ''[[Bluebell]]''
> ** ''[[Chives]]''
> ** [[Lily]]
> ** ''[[Tulip]]''
> * Family [[Alstroemariaceae]]
> * Family [[Colchicaceae]]
> * Family [[Smilacaceae]]
> * Family [[Uvulariaceae]]
> * Family [[Trillaceae]]
> 
> If you add an example, be careful to check that the source it comes from is post-division, or it might not belong here.  If you aren't sure, put it in italics just in case, and hopefully a botanist will come by and fix things (we could use that anyways ;).
------
Liliales|987046620
5d4
< ** ''[[Chives]]''
------
Dioscoreales|987046695
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]].  It only includes these three families:
> 
> * Family [[Dioscoreaceae]] (air potatoes)
> * Family [[Trichopodaceae]]
> * Family [[Taccaceae]] (bat flowers)
------
Magnoliophyta|987047627
1c1
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" groups are marked with underlines or wikied, the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" orders are wikied, although there is still much variation; the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
7,11c7,9
< * <u>[[Liliales]]</u> (lilies and kin)
< * <u>[[Dioscoreales]]</u>
< * Asparagales
< * Iridales
< * Orchidales (orchids) with things like [[vanilla]]
---
> * [[Liliales]] (lilies and kin)
> * [[Dioscoreales]]
> * [[Asparagales]]
16,18c14,16
< ** <u>Bromeliales</u>
< ** <u>Typhales</u>
< ** <u>Juncales</u>
---
> ** [[Bromeliales]]
> ** [[Typhales]]
> ** [[Juncales]]
------
Elvis_Presley|987048210
3c3
< Elvis Presley performed [[Rock and Roll]] music.
---
> Elvis Presley performed [[rock and roll]] music.
------
Asparagales|987048329
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]].  Sometimes various members placed here are separated out into the Orchidales and Iridiales, but since they are still closely related I'm taking this group in the broad sense, except in the subsequent list because family usage varies ''considerably'' and I forgot how to name suborders.
> 
> * Asparagales, narrow sense
> *** [[Asparagus]]
> *** [[Chives]]
> * Orchidales
> ** Family [[Geosiridaceae]]
> ** Family [[Burmanniaceae]]
> ** Family [[Corsiaceae]]
> ** Family [[Orchidaceae]] (orchid family)
> * Iridales
------
Liliales|987048391
1c1
< An order of monocots including the lily family (Liliaceae).  Once a wide variety of forms were placed here, but since then the group has been divided up, with the various families being moved to other orders and creating two new ones, the [[Dioscoreales]] and [[Asparagales]].  Various parts of the Liliaceae themselves were also moved away or at least divided out.  A listing of the families left is:
---
> An order of monocots including the lily family (Liliaceae).  Once a wide variety of forms were placed here, but since then the group has been divided up, with the various families being moved to other orders and creating two new ones, the [[Dioscoreales]] and [[Asparagales]].  Various parts of the Liliaceae themselves were also moved away or at least divided out.  One listing of the families left is:
13c13
< If you add an example, be careful to check that the source it comes from is post-division, or it might not belong here.  If you aren't sure, put it in italics just in case, and hopefully a botanist will come by and fix things (we could use that anyways ;).
---
> but unfortunately it varies considerably.  If you add an example, be careful to check that the source it comes from is post-division, or it might not belong here.  If you aren't sure, put it in italics just in case, and hopefully a botanist will come by and fix things (we could use that anyways ;).
------
Poales|987048496
11c11,13
< ** [[Wheat]]
---
> ** [[Wheat]]
> 
> Sometimes the group is taken in a broader sense to include all of the Commelinids except the [[Commelinales]] and [[Bromeliales]].
------
Magnoliophyta|987048871
5c5
< * <u>Alismatidae</u>
---
> * <u>Alismatidae</u> = [[Alismatales]]
------
Super_fluids|987049087
1c1
< Superfluids are fluids that exhibit zero viscosity.  Helium is a superfluid at low temperatures.  This is usually explained as being a result of [[Bose Einstien statistics]].
---
> Superfluids are fluids that exhibit zero viscosity.  Helium is a superfluid at low temperatures.  This is usually explained as being a result of [[Bose Einstein statistics]].
------
Alismatales|987049293
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The alismatids, a group of monocots.  At one point there were various distinct orders, but it seems they tended to be polyphyletic, and so the whole group has been mushed into a single order.  Families include
> 
> * Family [[Alismataceae]]
> * Family [[Limnocharitaceae]]
> * Family [[Butomaceae]]
> * Family [[Hydrocharitaceae]]
> * Family [[Najadaceae]]
> * Family [[Aponogetonaceae]]
> * Family [[Scheuchzeriaceae]]
> * Family [[Ruppiaceae]]
> * Family [[Cymodoceraceae]]
> * Family [[Posidoniaceae]]
> * Family [[Potamogetonaceae]]
> * Family [[Zannicelliaceae]]
> * Family [[Zosteraceae]]
> * Family [[Juncanginaceae]]
> 
> Cronquist also lists two additional families that I can't find...
------
Television|987049407
31a32
> :[[Star Trek]]
------
Magnoliophyta|987049971
4a5
> * [[Acorales]] (sweet flag)
6c7
< * <u>Aridae</u>
---
> * <u>Aridae</u> = [[Arales]]
9,11c10,13
< * [[Asparagales]]
< * <u>Arecidae</u>
< * <u>Zingiberidae</u> = [[Zingiberales]]
---
> * [[Asparagales]] (asparagus and kin)
> * [[Pandanales]] (screw-pines and panama hat plants)
> * <u>Arecidae</u> = [[Arecales]]
> * <u>Zingiberidae</u> = [[Zingiberales]] (ginger and kin)
13c15
< ** [[Commelinales]]
---
> ** [[Commelinales]] (dayflowers and kin)
17c19
< ** [[Cyperales]] - Cyperaceae (sedge family) without Poaceae
---
> ** [[Cyperales]] (sedge family) 
------
Alismatales|987050141
18c18
< Cronquist also lists two additional families that I can't find...
---
> The [[Triuridaceae]] and [[Petrosaviaceae]] have been placed here, but there actual affinities are not so clear.  The alismatids as are the sister group of the [[Arales]] and the latter have sometimes been included here.
------
Citizen_Kane|987050290
5c5
< It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnat, the real life Randolph Hearst. He was so angry about this movie that not a single newspaper or station of his media conglomerate was allowed to review the movie...
---
> It is loosely based on the life of the newspaper magnat, the real life [[Randolph Hearst]]. He was so angry about this movie that not a single newspaper or station of his media conglomerate was allowed to review the movie...
------
Magnoliophyta|987050352
6,7c6,7
< * <u>Alismatidae</u> = [[Alismatales]]
< * <u>Aridae</u> = [[Arales]]
---
> * [[Alismatales]]
> * [[Arales]]
12,13c12
< * <u>Arecidae</u> = [[Arecales]]
< * <u>Zingiberidae</u> = [[Zingiberales]] (ginger and kin)
---
> * [[Arecales]]
15a15
> ** [[Zingiberales]] (ginger and kin)
------
Zingiberales|987050400
1c1
< An order of monocots.  Full list of families, with one or two examples:
---
> An order of monocots, placed either among the commelinids or as a sister group to them.  Full list of families, with one or two examples:
13c13,15
< * Family [[Merantaceae]]
---
> * Family [[Merantaceae]]
> 
> 
------
Magnoliophyta|987050679
2a3,12
> '''Basal flowers'''
> 
> * [[Ceratophyllales]]
> * [[Nymphaeales]]
> * [[Piperales]]
> * [[Aristolochiales]]
> * [[Laurales]]
> * [[Winterales]]
> * [[Magnoliales]]
> 
24,25d33
< Commelinales
< 
146,154d153
< 
< '''Others'''
< 
< * Laurales - Lauraceae (laurel family)
< ** [[Advocado]]
< ** [[Cinnamon]]
< ** [[Laurel]]
< * Papaverales - Papaveraceae ([[poppy]] family)
< 
------
Winterales|987050799
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of [[Magnoliophyta|flowering plants]], comprising the older group called the Illiciales plus the Winteraceae, which had formerly been grouped with the [[Magnoliales]].
> 
> * Family [[Winteraceae]]
> * Family [[Illiciaceae]]
> * Family [[Schisandraceae]]
------
Laurales|987051024
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of [[Magnoliophyta|flowering plants]], comprising the families
> 
> * Family [[Lauraceae]] (laurel family)
> ** [[Advocado]]
> ** [[Cinnamon]]
> ** [[Laurel]]
> * Family [[Hernandiaceae]]
> * Family [[Gomortegaceae]]
> * Family [[Monimiaceae]]
> * Family [[Amborellaceae]]
> * Family [[Trimeniaceae]]
> * Family [[Austrobaileyaceae]]
> * Family [[Calycanthraceae]]
> 
> The family [[Chloranthaceae]], of mysterious position, may also belong here.
------
Magnoliophyta|987051170
1c1
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification is half dead and half alive, with the former predominating for the dicots.  I'm trying very hard to find what the current system is, so please bear with me!  "Good" orders are wikied, although there is still much variation; the rest are following Cronquist as a back-up.
---
> The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification varies considerably, especially the eudicots, which at present are listed according to a scheme that has proved to be fairly invalid.  I'm working on it, but a botanist would be better.  For the other forms I think the groups provided are monophyletic, comprehensive, and reasonably standard, so should suffice.
------
Objectivist_philosophy|987051686
17a18,19
> ----
> On Ward's wiki someone commented that objectivism has little creditibility among academic circles.  That seems somewhat surprising, since it is a fairly popular philosophy from what I can tell, although I guess pop phi and the real thing often have little in common.  Someone who knows about this sort of thing should probably add a critique of the above and explain the role of objectivism in philosophy today.
------
Objectivist_philosophy|987052622
19c19,21
< On Ward's wiki someone commented that objectivism has little creditibility among academic circles.  That seems somewhat surprising, since it is a fairly popular philosophy from what I can tell, although I guess pop phi and the real thing often have little in common.  Someone who knows about this sort of thing should probably add a critique of the above and explain the role of objectivism in philosophy today.
---
> On Ward's wiki someone commented that objectivism has little creditibility among academic circles.  That seems somewhat surprising, since it is a fairly popular philosophy from what I can tell, although I guess pop phi and the real thing often have little in common.  Someone who knows about this sort of thing should probably add a critique of the above and explain the role of objectivism in philosophy today.
> 
> There are a small number of scholarly journals, but it is true that Objectivism lacks credibility among professional philosophers.  This may be in part because they do not like Rand's ideas very much, but it probably has a lot to do with the fact the she did not present her ideas in the manner of academic philosophers: she did not use the same lingo, did not publish in the same journals, etc., and so she has been off their radar.  A recent flood of scholarly books (not to mention popular books and three movies) give reason to believe this may be changing - [[TimShell|TS]]
------
Zingiberales|987053080
1c1
< An order of monocots, placed either among the commelinids or as a sister group to them.  Full list of families, with one or two examples:
---
> An order of monocots including many familiar plants, like ginger and banana.  The Zingiberales are placed either among the Commelinidae or as a sister group, the Zingiberidae, but since there is some evidence suggesting they may not be basal the former is probably preferrable.  There are eight families:
12a13
> ** [[Canna]]
------
Commelinales|987053205
1c1
< An order of monocots including the dayflower family (Commelinaceae).  Other than them the composition of the group has changed completely, and families once considered to belong here have since been moved to other related orders (Rapateaceae, Xyridaceae, Myaceae).  Instead the group has been populated with various refugees from the division of the [[Liliales]].  The division from the tree of life is
---
> An order of monocots including the spiderwort family (Commelinaceae).  Other than them the composition of the group has changed completely, and families once considered to belong here have since been moved to other related orders (Rapateaceae, Xyridaceae, Mayaceae).  Instead the group has been populated with various refugees from the division of the [[Liliales]].  The division from the tree of life is
3c3
< * [[Commelinaceae]]
---
> * [[Commelinaceae]] (spiderwort family)
7c7
< * [[Philydraceae]]
---
> * [[Philydraceae]]
------
Eriocaulales|987053410
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Order of monocots, comprising just two tiny families:
> 
> * Family [[Eriocaulaceae]] (pipewort family)
> * Family [[Restionaceae]]
> 
> The second was formerly classified in its own order, the Restionales, along with various forms that have since been moved to the [[Poales]].
------
Cyperales|987053527
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots, consisting of a single family, the Cyperaceae or sedges.  Often the Poaceae have been placed here, too, but evidence suggests they belong in a separate order and so have been moved to the [[Poales]].
------
Bromeliales|987053818
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An order of monocots, formerly placed as the sister of the [[Zingiberales]] but likely closer related to the other Commelinidae.  There are two families:
> 
> * Family [[Bromeliaceae]] (bromeliad family)
> ** [[Pineapple]]
> * Family [[Rutaceae]] - formerly placed among the [[Commelinales]]
------
Magnoliophyta|987054912
5,9c5,9
< * [[Ceratophyllales]]
< * [[Nymphaeales]]
< * [[Piperales]]
< * [[Aristolochiales]]
< * [[Laurales]]
---
> * [[Ceratophyllales]] (hornworts)
> * [[Nymphaeales]] (water-lilies and kin)
> * [[Piperales]] (peppers and kin)
> * [[Aristolochiales]] (birthworts and kin)
> * [[Laurales]] (laurels and kin)
11c11
< * [[Magnoliales]]
---
> * [[Magnoliales]] (magnolias and kin)
16c16
< * [[Alismatales]]
---
> * [[Alismatales]] (water plantain and kin)
19c19
< * [[Dioscoreales]]
---
> * [[Dioscoreales]] (air potatoes and kin)
22c22
< * [[Arecales]]
---
> * [[Arecales]] (palms and kin)
24c24
< ** [[Commelinales]] (dayflowers and kin)
---
> ** [[Commelinales]] (spiderworts and kin)
26,29c26,29
< ** [[Bromeliales]]
< ** [[Typhales]]
< ** [[Juncales]]
< ** [[Cyperales]] (sedge family) 
---
> ** [[Bromeliales]] (bromeliads and kin)
> ** [[Typhales]] (cattails and kin)
> ** [[Juncales]] (rushes and kin)
> ** [[Cyperales]] (sedges) 
31c31
< ** [[Eriocaulales]]
---
> ** [[Eriocaulales]] (pipeworts and kin)
------
Asparagales|987055083
5a6,7
> *** [[Garlic]]
> *** [[Onion]]
11c13
< * Iridales
---
> * Iridales
------
Magnoliophyta|987055214
17c17
< * [[Arales]]
---
> * [[Arales]] (aroids)
------
Magnoliophyta|987061011
35a36,77
> * Ranunculales
> * Proteales
> * Vitales
> * Caryophyllanae
> ** Caryophyllales
> ** Polygonales
> * Saxifragales
> * Santanales
> * Rosidae
> ** Zygophyllales
> ** Geraniales
> ** Eurosids I
> *** Celastrales
> *** Malpighiales
> *** Oxalidales
> *** Fabales
> *** Rosales
> *** Cucurbitales
> *** Fagales
> ** Eurosids II
> *** Myrtales
> *** Brassicales
> *** Malvales
> *** Sapindales
> * Asteridae
> ** Cornales
> ** Ericales
> ** Euasterids I
> *** Garryales
> *** Solanales
> *** Gentianales
> *** Lamiales
> ** Euasterids II
> *** Aquifoliales
> *** Apiales
> *** Dipsacales
> *** Asterales
> 
> ----
> 
> Old list of eudicots grouped according to Cronquist with examples that I plan to integrate with the above once I figure out how everything sticks together.
> 
------
Magnoliophyta|987061265
68a69
> **** Icinaceae
69a71
> **** Aquifoliaceae
70a73,74
> **** Apiaceae
> **** Pittosporaceae
71a76,77
> **** Caprifoliaceae
> **** Adoxaceae
72a79,82
> **** Campanulaceae
> **** Asteraceae
> **** Menyathaceae
> **** Goodeniaceae
------
Magnoliophyta|987061766
17c17
< * [[Arales]] (aroids)
---
> * [[Arales]] (aroids) ''may want to join up''
36a37,39
> ** Ranunculaceae
> ** Berberidaceae
> ** Papaveraceae
37a41,47
> ** Menispermaceae
> ** Proteaceae
> ** Plantanaceae
> ** Nelumbonaceae
> ** Buxaceae
> * Dilleniaceae - ah, how the mighty have fallen...
> * Gunneraceae
38a49,50
> ** Vitaceae
> ** Leeaceae
42a55,61
> ** Paeoniaceae
> ** Saxifragaceae
> ** Crassulaceae
> ** Hamamelidaceae
> ** Altingiaceae
> ** Grossulariaceae
> ** Haloragidaceae
43a63,65
> ** Viscaceae
> ** Santanaceae*
> ** Olacaceae*
45a68
> *** Zygophyllaceae
46a70
> *** Geraniaceae
48a73
> **** Celastraceae
49a75,88
> **** Dichapetalaceae
> **** Erythroxylaceae
> **** Linaceae
> **** Ochnaceae
> **** Turneraceae
> **** Malpighiaceae
> **** Euphorbiaceae
> **** Clusiaceae
> **** Rhizophoraceae
> **** Violaceae
> **** Passifloraceae
> **** Salicaceae
> **** Chrysobalanaceae
> **** Flacourtiaceae*
------
Magnoliophyta|987062004
89a90,92
> **** Connaraceae
> **** Elaeocarpaceae
> **** Oxalidaceae
90a94,96
> **** Fabaceae
> **** Polygalaceae
> **** Surianaceae
91a98,106
> **** Eleagnaceae
> **** Rosaceae
> **** Rhamnaceae
> **** Ulmaceae
> **** Celtidaceae
> **** Moraceae
> **** Urticaceae
> **** Cecropiaceae
> **** Cannabaeaceae
92a108,111
> **** Coriariaceae
> **** Corynocarpaceae
> **** Cucurbitaceae
> **** Begoniaceae
93a113,117
> **** Fagaceae
> **** Betulaceae
> **** Casuarinaceae
> **** Myricaceae
> **** Juglandaceae
------
Magnoliophyta|987062427
1,2d0
< The angiosperms, or flowering plants.  Classification varies considerably, especially the eudicots, which at present are listed according to a scheme that has proved to be fairly invalid.  I'm working on it, but a botanist would be better.  For the other forms I think the groups provided are monophyletic, comprehensive, and reasonably standard, so should suffice.
< 
36,145c34,66
< * Ranunculales
< ** Ranunculaceae
< ** Berberidaceae
< ** Papaveraceae
< * Proteales
< ** Menispermaceae
< ** Proteaceae
< ** Plantanaceae
< ** Nelumbonaceae
< ** Buxaceae
< * Dilleniaceae - ah, how the mighty have fallen...
< * Gunneraceae
< * Vitales
< ** Vitaceae
< ** Leeaceae
< * Caryophyllanae
< ** Caryophyllales
< ** Polygonales
< * Saxifragales
< ** Paeoniaceae
< ** Saxifragaceae
< ** Crassulaceae
< ** Hamamelidaceae
< ** Altingiaceae
< ** Grossulariaceae
< ** Haloragidaceae
< * Santanales
< ** Viscaceae
< ** Santanaceae*
< ** Olacaceae*
< * Rosidae
< ** Zygophyllales
< *** Zygophyllaceae
< ** Geraniales
< *** Geraniaceae
< ** Eurosids I
< *** Celastrales
< **** Celastraceae
< *** Malpighiales
< **** Dichapetalaceae
< **** Erythroxylaceae
< **** Linaceae
< **** Ochnaceae
< **** Turneraceae
< **** Malpighiaceae
< **** Euphorbiaceae
< **** Clusiaceae
< **** Rhizophoraceae
< **** Violaceae
< **** Passifloraceae
< **** Salicaceae
< **** Chrysobalanaceae
< **** Flacourtiaceae*
< *** Oxalidales
< **** Connaraceae
< **** Elaeocarpaceae
< **** Oxalidaceae
< *** Fabales
< **** Fabaceae
< **** Polygalaceae
< **** Surianaceae
< *** Rosales
< **** Eleagnaceae
< **** Rosaceae
< **** Rhamnaceae
< **** Ulmaceae
< **** Celtidaceae
< **** Moraceae
< **** Urticaceae
< **** Cecropiaceae
< **** Cannabaeaceae
< *** Cucurbitales
< **** Coriariaceae
< **** Corynocarpaceae
< **** Cucurbitaceae
< **** Begoniaceae
< *** Fagales
< **** Fagaceae
< **** Betulaceae
< **** Casuarinaceae
< **** Myricaceae
< **** Juglandaceae
< ** Eurosids II
< *** Myrtales
< *** Brassicales
< *** Malvales
< *** Sapindales
< * Asteridae
< ** Cornales
< ** Ericales
< ** Euasterids I
< *** Garryales
< *** Solanales
< *** Gentianales
< *** Lamiales
< ** Euasterids II
< **** Icinaceae
< *** Aquifoliales
< **** Aquifoliaceae
< *** Apiales
< **** Apiaceae
< **** Pittosporaceae
< *** Dipsacales
< **** Caprifoliaceae
< **** Adoxaceae
< *** Asterales
< **** Campanulaceae
< **** Asteraceae
< **** Menyathaceae
< **** Goodeniaceae
---
> ''Still in progress, but I found someone much better to work off of.''
> 
> * [[Ranunculales]]
> * [[Proteales]]
> * [[Vitales]]
> * [[Caryophyllales]]
> * [[Saxifragales]]
> * [[Santanales]]
> * <u>Rosidae</u>
> ** [[Zygophyllales]]
> ** [[Geraniales]]
> ** [[Celastrales]]
> ** [[Malpighiales]]
> ** [[Oxalidales]]
> ** [[Fabales]]
> ** [[Rosales]]
> ** [[Cucurbitales]]
> ** [[Fagales]]
> ** [[Myrtales]]
> ** [[Brassicales]]
> ** [[Malvales]]
> ** [[Sapindales]]
> * <u>Asteridae</u>
> ** [[Cornales]]
> ** [[Ericales]]
> ** [[Garryales]]
> ** [[Solanales]]
> ** [[Gentianales]]
> ** [[Lamiales]]
> ** [[Aquifoliales]]
> ** [[Apiales]]
> ** [[Dipsacales]]
> ** [[Asterales]]
------
SandBox|987063722
84c84
< ''I'm better than you are!!!''
---
> ''I'm better than you are!!!'' Are you?
151c151
< Test emacs-w3-mode.
---
> Test emacs-w3-mode. ?
------
Urban_legend|987084107
5c5
< There is a thriving newsgroup, news:alt.folklore.urban that discusses these; their [http:www.urbanlegends.com//afu.faq Frequently Asked Questions] page summarises the truth or otherwise of thse stories, so far as this can be determined.
---
> There is a thriving newsgroup, news:alt.folklore.urban that discusses these; their [http://www.urbanlegends.com/afu.faq/  Frequently Asked Questions] page summarises the truth or otherwise of thse stories, so far as this can be determined.  A similar list may be found at [http://www.snopes.com snopes.com].
------
SandBox|987085062
0a1,21
> Will the [[Sprung Rhythm]] diacritics appear?
> 
> Pied Beauty
> 
> Glory be to God for dappled things—
> For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
> For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
> Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
> Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;
> And áll trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
> 
> All things counter, original, spáre, strange;
> Whatever is fickle, frecklèd (who knows how?)
> With swíft, slów; sweet, sóur; adázzle, dím;
> He fathers-forth whose beauty is pást change:
> Práise hím.
> 
> Gerard Manley Hopkins 1918 (1844-1889)
> 
> ---------------------------------
> 
------
Sprung_Rhythm|987085427
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural rhythm of [[English]] in folk songs and poetry, [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used single diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out and which uttered quickly. Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed feet, even [[free verse]].
> 
> Pied Beauty
> 
> Glory be to God for dappled things—
> 
> For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
> 
> For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
> 
> Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
> 
> Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;
> 
> And áll trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
> 
> All things counter, original, spáre, strange;
> 
> Whatever is fickle, frecklèd (who knows how?)
> 
> With swíft, slów; sweet, sóur; adázzle, dím;
> 
> He fathers-forth whose beauty is pást change:
> 
> Práise hím.
> 
> Gerard Manley Hopkins 1918 (1844-1889)
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987085671
11c11
< There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[card game]]</code>, it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
---
> There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[card game]]</code>, <br>it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
13c13
< Older versions of the Wiki software only made one-word links <code>LikeThis</code>, and didn't require the brackets to make them links.  You may encouter these as you edit older pages.  Please don't create new links like that, but you may want to leave the existing ones in place until you're more comfortable editing pages to fix them.  See [[Free Links]] for more information about those. The [[naming conventions]] page contains hints about useful page names.  For example, it is handy to use singular words like "game" rather than "games", because that makes it easier to create links in other pages.
---
> Older versions of the Wiki software only made one-word links <code>LikeThis</code>, and didn't require the brackets to make them links.  You may encounter these as you edit older pages.  Please don't create new links like that, but you may want to leave the existing ones in place until you're more comfortable editing pages to fix them.  See [[Free Links]] for more information about those. The [[naming conventions]] page contains hints about useful page names.  For example, it is handy to use singular words like "game" rather than "games", because that makes it easier to create links in other pages.
157c157
< Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
---
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
Sprung_Rhythm|987086993
1c1
< [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural rhythm of [[English]] in folk songs and poetry, [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used single diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out and which uttered quickly. Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed feet, even [[free verse]].
---
> [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken poetry, and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular [[feet]] like [[free verse]].
6,15c6,10
< 
< For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
< 
< For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
< 
< Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
< 
< Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;
< 
< And áll trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
---
> <br>For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
> <br>For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
> <br>Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
> <br>Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;
> <br>And áll trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
17a13,16
> <br>Whatever is fickle, frecklèd (who knows how?)
> <br>With swíft, slów; sweet, sóur; adázzle, dím;
> <br>He fathers-forth whose beauty is pást change:
> <br>Práise hím.
19,27c18
< Whatever is fickle, frecklèd (who knows how?)
< 
< With swíft, slów; sweet, sóur; adázzle, dím;
< 
< He fathers-forth whose beauty is pást change:
< 
< Práise hím.
< 
< Gerard Manley Hopkins 1918 (1844-1889)
---
> Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-1889)
------
Poetry|987087066
3a4
> * [[Sprung Rhythm]]
6c7
< :[[Udo of Aachen]]
---
> :[[Udo of Aachen]]
------
Sprung_Rhythm|987087133
1c1
< [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken poetry, and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular [[feet]] like [[free verse]].
---
> [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken [[poetry]], and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular [[feet]] like [[free verse]].
------
Sprung_Rhythm|987087188
1c1
< [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken [[poetry]], and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular [[feet]] like [[free verse]].
---
> [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken [[poetry]], and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular feet like free verse.
------
Limerick|987087521
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Limerick City]]
> * [[Limerick Poem]]
------
Limerick_City|987088129
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Limerick, a city and county seat in the SW Republic of [[Ireland]], 1991 pop. 56,083
> 
> WGS-84 Lat: 52.6652 Lon: -8.6238
> 
> See http://www.limerick-ireland.com (of course you must expect to see the required phrase "city of many contrasts").
------
Limerick|987088561
1c1
< * [[Limerick City]]
---
> * [[Limerick city|Limerick_City]]
------
Limerick|987088599
1c1
< * [[Limerick city|Limerick_City]]
---
> * [[Limerick_City|Limerick the city]]
------
Limerick|987088684
2c2
< * [[Limerick Poem]]
---
> * [[Limerick poem]]
------
HomePage|987088712
10c10
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education*]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Limerick|987088715
2c2
< * [[Limerick poem]]
---
> * [[limerick poem]]
------
HomePage|987088992
10c10
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education*]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
DeconstructionIsm|987089081
1c1
< <b>Deconstrictionism</b> is the process of breaking down something from a 'complex' state to more 'simple' state.
---
> <b>Deconstructionism</b> is the process of breaking down something from a 'complex' state to more 'simple' state.
------
Limerick_poem|987089129
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A limerick is a short, often humorous, sometimes ribald poem. The origin of the term is unknown. The rhyme scheme is usually aabbaa. [[Edward Lear]] is famous for his Nonsense Poems ISBN 0486280314
> 
> There was a young scholar named Vivian
> <br>Who collected editions of Livy. In
> <br>Shelf and in nook, she piled each book
> <br>Til her house was crushed into oblivion.
> 
------
Limerick|987089235
2c2
< * [[limerick poem]]
---
> * [[Limerick poem]]
------
SandBox|987089614
1c1
< Will the [[Sprung Rhythm]] diacritics appear?
---
> http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13
3d2
< Pied Beauty
5,18d3
< Glory be to God for dappled things—
< For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
< For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
< Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
< Landscape plotted and pieced—fold, fallow, and plough;
< And áll trades, their gear and tackle and trim.
< 
< All things counter, original, spáre, strange;
< Whatever is fickle, frecklèd (who knows how?)
< With swíft, slów; sweet, sóur; adázzle, dím;
< He fathers-forth whose beauty is pást change:
< Práise hím.
< 
< Gerard Manley Hopkins 1918 (1844-1889)
------
Limerick_City|987089699
3a4
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 | Map ]]
5c6
< See http://www.limerick-ireland.com (of course you must expect to see the required phrase "city of many contrasts").
---
> See http://www.limerick-ireland.com (of course you must expect to see the required phrase "city of many contrasts").
------
Limerick_City|987089766
4c4
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 | Map ]]
---
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13|map]]
------
Limerick_City|987089801
4c4
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13|map]]
---
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 |map]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987090131
79c79,80
< <br>Another external link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
---
> <br>Another external 
> link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
------
Limerick_City|987090193
4c4
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 |map]]
---
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 interactive map]]
------
Sapindales|987090289
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Sapindaceae]] - including Aceraceae
> ** [[Maple]]
> * Family [[Anacardiaceae]] (sumac family)
> ** [[Cashew]]
> ** [[Mango]]
> ** [[Pistachio]]
> ** [[Poison ivy]]
> ** [[Sumac]]
> * Family [[Rutaceae]] (rue family)
> ** [[Citrus]]
> ** [[Rue]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Malvales|987090405
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Malvaceae]] (mallow family) 
> ** [[Cotton]]
> ** [[Hollyhock]]
> ** [[Mallow]]
> * ''cetera''
> 
------
Limerick_City|987090418
4c4,5
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 interactive map]]
---
> 
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Interactive Map]]
------
SandBox|987090512
1c1
< http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13
---
> [[ http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Yikes ]]
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Brassicales|987090533
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Brassicaceae]] (mustard family) 
> ** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]... 
> ** [[Horseradish]]
> ** [[Mustard]]
> ** [[Radish]]
> ** [[Turnip]]
> * ''cetera''
------
SandBox|987090533
1c1
< [[ http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Yikes ]]
---
> [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Yikes]]
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SandBox|987090615
3c3
< 
---
> [[http://www.ford.com Ford Motors]]
------
Fagales|987090624
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Fagaceae]] (beech family) 
> ** [[Beech]]
> ** [[Chestnut]]
> ** [[Oak]]
> * ''cetera''
------
SandBox|987090666
1d0
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Yikes]]
3c2
< [[http://www.ford.com Ford Motors]]
---
> [http://www.ford.com Ford Motors]
------
Limerick_City|987090750
3c3
< WGS-84 Lat: 52.6652 Lon: -8.6238
---
> WGS-84 ([[GPS]]) Coordinates: Lat: 52.6652 Lon: -008.6238
5c5
< [[http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Interactive Map]]
---
> [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A10000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=Limerick&GAD4=Ireland&IC=52.6652%3A-8.6238%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=limerick&AD4=IRL&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A-8.6238%7CY%3A52.6652%7CLT%3A52.6652%7CLN%3A-8.6238%7CLS%3A10000000%7Cc%3ALimerick%7Cp%3AIRL&lv=9&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=48&myzoom.y=13 Interactive Map]
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Cucurbitales|987090770
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Cucurbitaceae]] (gourd family) 
> ** [[Gourd]]
> ** [[Pumpkin]]
> ** [[Squash]]
> ** [[Melon]]
> ** [[Watermelon]]
------
DegreeConfluenceProject|987091015
1c1
< The goal of the project is to visit each of the latitude and longitude integer degree intersections in the world, and to take pictures at each location.
---
> The goal of the project is to visit each of the latitude and longitude integer degree intersections in the world, and post photographs of each location on the web.
5c5
< An estimate of the number of "confluences" is 41,253 (360 squared divided by pi) -- this is the same number of square degrees astronomers use to estimate [[constellation]] size.
---
> The number of "confluences" is 41,253 (360 squared divided by pi) -- this is the same number of total square degrees on a sphere astronomers use to specify [[constellation]] areas.
7c7
< Only confluences on land are included in the project, since the ocean area of the [[earth]] is 71%, this leaves roughly 12,000 points to be photographed.
---
> Only confluences on land are included in the project. Since the ocean area of the [[earth]] is 71%, this leaves roughly 12,000 points to be photographed.
------
Limerick_City|987091068
3c3
< WGS-84 ([[GPS]]) Coordinates: Lat: 52.6652 Lon: -008.6238
---
> WGS-84 ([[Global Positioning System|GPS]]) Coordinates: Lat: 52.6652 Lon: -008.6238
------
Hobby|987091100
25a26,30
> **Planes
> ***[Gliders]
> ****[[Power]]
> ****[[[accesories]]]
> 
------
Rosales|987091103
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Formerly this order included a wide variety of mostly unrelated dicots, and it has been cut into various pieces accordingly.  I ''think'' the rose family (Rosaceae) has likewise been cut up, so members not confirmed to belong from an updated list are shown in italics.  The Urticales are also included here, following the revised scheme.
> 
> * Family [[Rosaceae]] (rose family)
> ** ''[[Almond]]''
> ** [[Apple]]
> ** ''[[Apricot]]''
> ** [[Blackberry]]
> ** ''[[Cherry]]''
> ** ''[[Hawthorn]]''
> ** ''[[Peach]]''
> ** [[Pear]]
> ** [[Plum]]
> ** [[Raspberry]]
> ** [[Rose]]
> ** [[Strawberry]]
> * Family [[Ulmaceae]] ([[elm]] family)
> * ''cetera''
------
Fabales|987091161
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Fabaceae]] (pea family) 
> ** [[Bean]]
> ** [[Fenugreek]]
> ** [[Pea]]
> ** [[Peanut]]
> ** [[Tamarind]]
------
Myrtales|987091245
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Myrtaceae]] (myrtle family) 
> ** [[Allspice]]
> ** [[Cloves]]
> ** [[Eucalyptus]]
> ** [[Myrtle]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Malpighiales|987091304
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Salicaceae]] (willow family) 
> ** [[Poplar]]
> ** [[Willow]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Ericales|987091391
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Ericaceae]] (heath family) 
> ** [[Blueberry]]
> ** [[Heath]]
> ** [[Heather]]
> ** [[Rhododendron]]
> * ''cetera''
> 
------
Solanales|987091467
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Solanaceae]] (nightshade family) 
> ** [[Eggplant]]
> ** [[Nightshade]]
> ** [[Paprika]]
> ** [[Pepper]]
> ** [[Potato]]
> ** [[Tobacco]]
> ** [[Tomato]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Lamiales|987091562
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Lamiaceae]] (mint family) 
> ** [[Basil]]
> ** [[Catnip]]
> ** [[Hyssop]]
> ** [[Lavender]]
> ** [[Marjoram]]
> ** [[Mint]]
> ** [[Oregano]]
> ** [[Rosemary]]
> ** [[Sage]]
> ** [[Savory]]
> ** [[Thyme]]
> ** [[Woundwort]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Apiales|987091690
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Apiaceae]] (parsley family)
> ** [[Anise]]
> ** [[Caraway]]
> ** [[Carrot]]
> ** [[Celery]]
> ** [[Chervil]]
> ** [[Cumin]]
> ** [[Coriander]]
> ** [[Dill]]
> ** [[Fennel]]
> ** [[Hemlock]]
> ** [[Parsley]]
> ** [[Parsnip]]
> ** [[Sage]]
> * Family [[Araliaceae]] (ginseng family)
> ** [[Ginseng]]
> ** [[Ivy]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Asterales|987091812
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Asteraceae]] (daisy family)
> ** [[Aster]]
> ** [[Chrysanthemum]]
> ** [[Daisy]] 
> ** [[Dandelion]]
> ** [[Lettuce]]
> ** [[Marigold]]
> ** [[Ragweed]]
> ** [[Sunflower]]
> ** [[Tarragon]]
> ** [[Thistle]]
> * ''cetera''
------
Magnoliophyta|987092143
1c1,3
< '''Basal flowers'''
---
> '''Systematics'''
> 
> <u>Basal flowers</u>
11c13
< '''Monocots'''
---
> <u>Monocots</u>
32c34
< '''Eudicots'''
---
> <u>Eudicots</u>
34c36
< ''Still in progress, but I found someone much better to work off of.''
---
> ''Still in progress, but this is roughly what the final version will look like.  In a few days I'm going to put in some family synopses, plus notes on where groups have gone relative to the more traditional classification schemes this has replaced, and maybe some revisions to the above orders too.''
38c40
< * [[Vitales]]
---
> * [[Vitales]] (grapes and kin)
48,54c50,56
< ** [[Fabales]]
< ** [[Rosales]]
< ** [[Cucurbitales]]
< ** [[Fagales]]
< ** [[Myrtales]]
< ** [[Brassicales]]
< ** [[Malvales]]
---
> ** [[Fabales]] (peas and kin)
> ** [[Rosales]] (roses and kin)
> ** [[Cucurbitales]] (gourd and kin)
> ** [[Fagales]] (beech and kin)
> ** [[Myrtales]] (myrtles and kin)
> ** [[Brassicales]]  (mustards and kin)
> ** [[Malvales]] (mallow and kin)
58c60
< ** [[Ericales]]
---
> ** [[Ericales]] (heath and kin)
60c62
< ** [[Solanales]]
---
> ** [[Solanales]] (nightshades and kin)
62,64c64,66
< ** [[Lamiales]]
< ** [[Aquifoliales]]
< ** [[Apiales]]
---
> ** [[Lamiales]] (mints and kin)
> ** [[Aquifoliales]] (hollies and kin)
> ** [[Apiales]] (parsley and kin)
66,189c68
< ** [[Asterales]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Old list of eudicots grouped according to Cronquist with examples that I plan to integrate with the above once I figure out how everything sticks together.
< 
< * Hamamelidae
< ** Urticales - Ulmaceae ([[elm]] family)
< ** Fagales - Fagaceae (beech family)
< *** [[Beech]]
< *** [[Chestnut]]
< *** [[Oak]]
< * Rosidae
< **  Rosales - Rosaceae (rose family)
< *** [[Almond]]
< *** [[Apple]]
< *** [[Apricot]]
< *** [[Blackberry]]
< *** [[Cherry]]
< *** [[Hawthorn]]
< *** [[Peach]]
< *** [[Pear]]
< *** [[Plum]]
< *** [[Raspberry]]
< *** [[Rose]]
< *** [[Strawberry]]
< ** Fabales - Fabaceae (pea family)
< *** [[Bean]]
< *** [[Fenugreek]]
< *** [[Pea]]
< *** [[Peanut]]
< *** [[Tamarind]]
< ** Myrtales - Myrtaceae (myrtle family)
< *** [[Allspice]]
< *** [[Cloves]]
< *** [[Eucalyptus]]
< *** [[Myrtle]]
< ** Celastrales - Aquifoliaceae ([[holly]] family)
< ** Rhamnales - Vitaceae ([[grape]] family)
< ** Sapindales - Aceraceae ([[maple]] family)
< ** Sapindales - Anarcadiaceae (sumac family)
< *** [[Cashew]]
< *** [[Mango]]
< *** [[Pistachio]]
< *** [[Poison ivy]]
< *** [[Sumac]]
< ** Sapindales -Rutaceae (rue family)
< *** [[Citrus]]: [[Orange]], [[Lemon]], [[Grapefruit]], [[Lime]], [[Tangerine]]
< *** [[Rue]]
< ** Apiales - Araliaceae (ginseng family)
< *** [[Ginseng]]
< *** [[Ivy]]
< ** Apiales - Apiaceae (parsley family)
< *** [[Anise]]
< *** [[Caraway]]
< *** [[Carrot]]
< *** [[Celery]]
< *** [[Chervil]]
< *** [[Cumin]]
< *** [[Coriander]]
< *** [[Dill]]
< *** [[Fennel]]
< *** [[Hemlock]]
< *** [[Parsley]]
< *** [[Parsnip]]
< *** [[Sage]]
< * Asteridae
< ** Solanales - Solanaceae (nightshade family)
< *** [[Eggplant]]
< *** [[Nightshade]]
< *** [[Paprika]]
< *** [[Pepper]]
< *** [[Potato]]
< *** [[Tobacco]]
< *** [[Tomato]]
< ** Lamiales - Lamiaceae (mint family)
< *** [[Basil]]
< *** [[Catnip]]
< *** [[Hyssop]]
< *** [[Lavender]]
< *** [[Marjoram]]
< *** [[Mint]]
< *** [[Oregano]]
< *** [[Rosemary]]
< *** [[Sage]]
< *** [[Savory]]
< *** [[Thyme]]
< *** [[Woundwort]]
< ** Asterales - Asteraceae
< *** [[Aster]]
< *** [[Chrysanthemum]]
< *** [[Daisy]]
< *** [[Dandelion]]
< *** [[Lettuce]]
< *** [[Marigold]]
< *** [[Ragweed]]
< *** [[Sunflower]]
< *** [[Tarragon]]
< *** [[Thistle]]
< * Dillenidae
< ** Malvales - Malvaceae (mallow family)
< *** [[Cotton]]
< *** [[Hollyhock]]
< *** [[Mallow]]
< ** Violales - Cucurbitaceae (gourd family)
< *** [[Gourd]]
< *** [[Pumpkin]]
< *** [[Squash]]
< *** [[Melon]]
< *** [[Watermelon]]
< ** Salicales - Salicaceae (willow family)
< *** [[Poplar]]
< *** [[Willow]]
< ** Capparales - Brassicaceae (mustard family)
< *** [[Cabbage]]: [[Broccoli]], [[Cauliflower]], [[Kohlrabi]]...
< *** [[Horseradish]]
< *** [[Mustard]]
< *** [[Radish]]
< *** [[Turnip]]
< ** Ericales - Ericaceae (heath family)
< *** [[Blueberry]]
< *** [[Heath]]
< *** [[Heather]]
< *** [[Rhododendron]]
---
> ** [[Asterales]] (daiseys and kin)
------
Magnoliophyta|987092195
68c68
< ** [[Asterales]] (daiseys and kin)
---
> ** [[Asterales]] (daisies and kin)
------
Cladistics|987092284
21a22,23
> 
> ''I don't really care, much, but any example that includes birds and isn't restricted to birds is almost sure to be controversial.  There is a vocal minority of paleontologists who are not at all happy about the birds _ are _ descended _ from _ dinosaurs theory.  This has resolved into a battle about whether the "enongated scales" on a critter called Longisquama are 'feathers'.  It looks to me like Longisquama would likely have the aerodynamics of a bowling ball with a few peacock feathers epoxied on, but the structures do look a lot more like 'feathers' than 'scales'.  An example from arthropods or mammals might be less likely to provoke a fight.''
------
Limerick_poem|987092348
1c1
< A limerick is a short, often humorous, sometimes ribald poem. The origin of the term is unknown. The rhyme scheme is usually aabbaa. [[Edward Lear]] is famous for his Nonsense Poems ISBN 0486280314
---
> A '''limerick''' is a short, often humorous, sometimes ribald poem.  The origin of the term is unknown.  The rhyme scheme is usually aabba, with a very rigid meter.  [[Edward Lear]] is famous for his ''Nonsense Poems'' ISBN 0486280314
5c5,6
< <br>Shelf and in nook, she piled each book
---
> <br>Shelf and in nook,
> <br>she piled each book
------
Carboniferous|987092516
3c3
< Carboniferous rocks in Europe and Eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of limestone, sandstone, shale and coal beds.  The coal beds provided much of the power for the Industrial Revolution and are still of great economic importance.
---
> Carboniferous rocks in Europe and Eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of limestone, sandstone, shale and coal beds.  In North America, the Early Carboniferous is largely marine limestone which accounts for the division of the Carboniferous into two periods by North American workers.  The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the power for the Industrial Revolution and are still of great economic importance.
------
Limerick_poem|987092527
3,7c3,7
< There was a young scholar named Vivian
< <br>Who collected editions of Livy. In
< <br>Shelf and in nook,
< <br>she piled each book
< <br>Til her house was crushed into oblivion.
---
> :There was a young scholar named Vivian
> :Who collected editions of Livy. In
> :Shelf and in nook,
> :she piled each book
> :Til her house was crushed into oblivion.
------
Cladistics|987093005
3,5c3,5
<         +--- Lizards and snakes
<         |
<     +---*
---
>     ,--- Beetles
>     |
>  ---+   ,--- Wasps, bees, ants
7,13c7,11
<     |   +--- Tuatara
<  ---*
<     |   +--- Crocodiles
<     |   |
<     +---*
<         |
<         +--- Birds
---
>     `---+   ,--- Butterflies, moths
>         |   |
>         `---+
>             |
>             `--- Flies
15c13
< Unlike normal evolutionary trees all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary.  A correct cladogram would have all the organisms in each branch, or ''clade'', share a common ancestor which they do not share with the other organisms on the diagram.  Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the forms it diverged off of, called ''synapomorphies''.  For instance feathers are a synapomorphy of birds.
---
> Unlike normal evolutionary trees all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary.  A correct cladogram would have all the organisms in each branch, or ''clade'', share a common ancestor which they do not share with the other organisms on the diagram.  Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the forms it diverged off of, called ''synapomorphies''.  For instance hardened front wings are a synapomorphy of beetles.
17c15
< Typically an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering some outgroup of organisms we know are not too close to any of the organisms in question (for instance frogs would be a good outgroup for the above).  Only apomorphies are any use in characterising clades.
---
> Typically an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering some outgroup of organisms we know are not too close to any of the organisms in question.  Only apomorphies are any use in characterising clades.
21,23c19
< Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
< 
< ''I don't really care, much, but any example that includes birds and isn't restricted to birds is almost sure to be controversial.  There is a vocal minority of paleontologists who are not at all happy about the birds _ are _ descended _ from _ dinosaurs theory.  This has resolved into a battle about whether the "enongated scales" on a critter called Longisquama are 'feathers'.  It looks to me like Longisquama would likely have the aerodynamics of a bowling ball with a few peacock feathers epoxied on, but the structures do look a lot more like 'feathers' than 'scales'.  An example from arthropods or mammals might be less likely to provoke a fight.''
---
> Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
------
Playing_card/Anglo-American|987093595
1c1
< A standard Anglo-American deck of [[playing card]]s is composed of 13 <i>ranks</i> in each of 4 <i>suits</i>, plus 2 <i>[[Playing card/Joker|jokers]]</i>, for a total of 54 cards.  The suits used are the French suits of spades and clubs, which are black, and diamonds and hearts, which are red.  In each suit there are 10 <i>spot cards</i>, each of which is identified by the number of suit symbols it shows, and three <i>court cards</i> of the Rouen design, also called <i>face cards</i>, that carry highly stylized depictions of persons.
---
> A standard Anglo-American deck of [[playing card]]s is composed of 13 '''ranks''' in each of 4 '''suits''', plus 2 [[Playing card/Joker|joker]]s, for a total of 54 cards.  The suits used are the French suits of '''spades''' and '''clubs''', which are black, and '''diamonds''' and '''hearts''', which are red.  In each suit there are 10 '''spot cards''', each of which is identified by the number of suit symbols it shows, and three '''court cards''' (also called '''face cards''') of the Rouen design that carry highly stylized depictions of persons.
3c3
< Modern playing cards carry index labels on opposite corners, to facilitate identifying the cards when they overlap.  The 1-spot card of each suit is called an <i>Ace</i>, and in many games is given the highest rank.  It carries the index label "A".  The next highest rank in most games is the court card called the <i>King</i>, followed by the other court cards, the <i>Queen</i> and <i>Jack</i> (also called <i>Knave</i>).  They carry index labels of "K", "Q", and "J", respectively.  Finally, the remaining spot cards ranking numerically from 10 (higest) to 2 (lowest).  Their index labels are simple numerals.  The 2-spot card is often called a <i>deuce</i>, and the 3-spot a <i>trey</i>.
---
> Modern playing cards carry index labels on opposite corners, to facilitate identifying the cards when they overlap.  The 1-spot card of each suit is called an '''ace''', and in many games is given the highest rank.  It carries the index label "A".  The next highest rank in most games is the court card called the '''king''', followed by the other court cards, the '''queen''' and '''jack''' (also called '''knave''').  They carry index labels of "K", "Q", and "J", respectively.  Finally, the remaining spot cards ranking numerically from 10 (higest) to 2 (lowest).  Their index labels are simple numerals.  The 2-spot card is often called a '''deuce''', and the 3-spot a '''trey'''.
7c7
< There is no standard ranking among the four suits, though many games do specify such a ranking.  For example, the game of [[Bridge]] ranks the spade suit highest, followed by hearts, diamonds, and clubs.
---
> There is no standard ranking among the four suits, though many games do specify such a ranking.  For example, the game of [[bridge]] ranks the spade suit highest, followed by hearts, diamonds, and clubs.
------
John_F._Kennedy|987094110
14a15,16
> Some critics of Kennedy argue that Kennedy passed little significant legislation during his term as President.
> 
------
Education|987094887
2a3,4
> [Disabilities]
> 
------
Bulletin_board_system|987094973
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>bulletin board system</b> or <b>BBS</b> is a [[computer]] system running software that allows users to dial into the builletin board system over phone lines.
> 
> A typical BBS has:
> * a computer
> * one or more [[modem]]s
> * a BBS [[software]] package
> * a [[sysop]] - system operator
> 
> The BBS software usually provided:
> * login screen
> * welcome screen
> * one or more [[message base]]s
> * file [[download]] area
> * file [[upload]] area (sometimes)
> * online games (usually single player or only a single active player at a given time)
> * a doorway to 3rd party online games
> * login/logout auditing capabilities
> 
> Most BBS were run as a hobby by the sysop and not for commercial purposes.
> 
> BBS grew in popularity from the [[1980s]] to the early [[1990s]] and have greatly declined in popularity with the rise of the [[internet]] in the middle/late 1990s.
> 
> BBS usually ran at acceptable speeds on 300 [[baud]] to 9600 baud  modems (30 characters per second - 1000 characters per second) because all information was represented as characters and [[ansi escape code]]s.
> 
> See also:
> * [[ansi escape code]]
> * bbs doors game -- is there a better term for this?
> * fido and fidonet
------
1980s|987095025
7a8
> * [[Bulletin board system]] popularity
------
Education|987095044
3c3
< [Disabilities]
---
> [[Disabilities]]
------
Folk_Dance|987095250
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[English Dance]]
> * [[Scottish Dance]]
> * [[Contradance]]
------
Contradance|987095548
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A New England '''contradance''' is an American traditional dance evolved from British and European [[Folk Dance|folk dances]].
> 
> Most contradances consist of a sequence of about six to twelve individual figures.
> 
> A figure is a short dance "step" or "move", sort of a choreographic building block. Each figure takes eight counts of music. 
> 
> Basic figures:
> 
> :Balance 
> :Swing Your Partner 
> :Allemande 
> :Star 
> :Do-si-do 
> :Ladies Chain 
> :Long Lines Forward & Back 
> :Right & Left Through 
> :Hey For Four 
> :Figure of Eight 
> :Promenade 
> :Hands Four 
> :Petronella Turn 
> :Courtesy Turn 
> :Circle of Four 
> :Turn as a Couple 
> :California Twirl 
> :Down the Hall Four In Line 
> :Box the Gnat 
> :Roll Away with a Half Sashay 
> :Contra Corners 
------
Edward_Sapir|987096180
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Edward Sapir [Pronunciation: suh PEER], 1884-1939 American enthnologist-linguist; a founder of [[structural linguistics]], 
> [ISBN: 0156482339|Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech] 
------
Disabilities|987096441
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [Behavior], Blind, Chronic, Communication, Deaf, Developmental, Learning, Mental, Mobility, Multiple, Temporary
------
Disabilities|987096626
1c1,2
< [Behavior], Blind, Chronic, Communication, Deaf, Developmental, Learning, Mental, Mobility, Multiple, Temporary
---
> 
> [[Behavior]], [[Blind]], [[Chronic]], [[Communication]], [[Deaf]], [[Developmental]], [[Learning]], [[Mental]], [[Mobility]], [[Multiple]], [[Temporary]].
------
Disabilities|987096772
2c2
< [[Behavior]], [[Blind]], [[Chronic]], [[Communication]], [[Deaf]], [[Developmental]], [[Learning]], [[Mental]], [[Mobility]], [[Multiple]], [[Temporary]].
---
> [[Behavior]], [[Blind]], [[Chronic]], [[Communicating]], [[Deaf]], [[Developmental]], [[Learning]], [[Mental]], [[Mobility]], [[Multiple]], [[Temporary]].
------
Edward_Sapir|987096785
1,2c1,3
< Edward Sapir [Pronunciation: suh PEER], 1884-1939 American enthnologist-linguist; a founder of [[structural linguistics]], 
< [ISBN: 0156482339|Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech] 
---
> '''Edward Sapir''' [Pronunciation: suh PEER], 1884-1939, American enthnologist-linguist; a founder of [[structural linguistics]]; author of ''Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (ISBN: 0156482339); Born in [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A3000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=LAUENBERG&GAD4=Germany&IC=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=lauenberg&AD4=DEU&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A9.75913%7CY%3A51.76742%7CLT%3A51.76742%7CLN%3A9.75913%7CLS%3A3000000%7Cc%3ALAUENBERG%7Cp%3ADEU&lv=8&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=295&myzoom.y=14 Lauenberg Germany].
> 
> See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|987097377
2,12c2,10
<  0 - - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
<  |    [[Neogene]]              | [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
<  |      [[Holocene]]           |               |               |
<  |      [[Pleistocene]]        |               |               |
<  |      [[Pliocene]]           |               |               |
<  |      [[Miocene]]            |               |               |
<  23- - - - - - - - - - - - -|               |               |
<  |    [[Palaeogene]]           |               |               |
<  |      [[Eocene]]             |               |               |
<  |      [[Paleocene]]          |               |               |
<  65- - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|               |
---
>  0 - - - - - - + - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
>  | [[Holocene]]   | [[Neogene]]   | [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
>  | [[Pleistocene]]|            |               |               |
>  | [[Pliocene]]   |            |               |               |
>  | [[Miocene]]    |            |               |               |
>  23- - - - - - + - - - - - -|               |               |
>  | [[Eocene]]     | [[Palaeogene]]|               |               |
>  | [[Paleocene]]  |            |               |               |
>  65- - - - - - + - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|               |
24,25c22,23
<  |    [[Pennsylvanian|Penn]]|                |               |               |
<  325 - - - | [[Carboniferous]]1|               |               |
---
>  |    [[Pennsylvanian|Penn]]| [[Carboniferous]]1 |               |               |
>  325 - - - |                |               |               |
28c26
<  |    [[Devonian]]             |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Devonian]]              |               |               |
30c28
<  |    [[Silurian]]             |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Silurian]]              |               |               |
32c30
<  |    [[Ordovician]]           |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Ordovician]]            |               |               |
36c34
<  544 - - - - - - - - - - - -+- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
---
>  544 - - - - - - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|- - - - - - - -|
------
Political_correctness|987097425
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Political correctness</b> is an overt political purge of people that do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from an organization or business.
> 
> Political correctness begin in the 19??s, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
> 
> Some tenants of political correctness (same tenants as modern liberalism):
> * pro affirmative action
> * pro women's rights
> * pro abortion
> * anti religion
> * pro bigger government
> * pro increased social spending
> * pro environment
> 
> Critics of political correctness argue that political correctness  amounts to thought control by the same liberals that denounce any mention of religion as forcing religious beliefs on other people.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|987097535
48c48
< 2) Discoveries in the past quarter century have substantially changed the view of geologic and paleontologic events immediately prior to the Cambrian.  The nomenclature has not stabilized the term [[Neoproterozoic]] is used here, but other writers might equally well have used one or more of the terms 'Ediacarian', 'Vendian', 'Varangian', 'PreCambrian', 'ProtoCambrian', 'EoCambrian', or might have extended the Cambrian further back in time. All of these terms are usually treated as a subset of the [[Proterozoic]] rather than a period between the [[Paleozoic]] and the [[Proterozoic]]
---
> 2) Discoveries in the past quarter century have substantially changed the view of geologic and paleontologic events immediately prior to the Cambrian.  The nomenclature has not stabilized the term [[Neoproterozoic]] is used here, but other writers might equally well have used one or more of the terms 'Ediacarian', 'Vendian', 'Varangian', 'Precambrian', 'Protocambrian', 'Eocambrian', or might have extended the Cambrian further back in time. All of these terms are usually treated as a subset of the [[Proterozoic]] rather than a period between the [[Paleozoic]] and the [[Proterozoic]].
50,58c50
< 3) Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiodating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for [[radiodating]] seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where we would most like to have them.
< 
< ''Josh -- if the above is OK, let's delete the commentary below.  If not, please fix it''
< 
< ''Hey, Don.  Thanks very much for adding - though I was kind of hoping for the spacing to reflect timing. ;) You had the neoproterozoic ending ~600 mya, but a quick search finds people tending to end it earlier, with the appearance of acritarchs and the assembly of Rodinia.  It seems to me that the era ~600-550 mya is called by most people the Ediacaran.  I changed this above, but you'd probably know better than me, so I'd like your ok.'' --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
< 
< ''Whatever you prefer.  The terminology seems to be pretty variable with different people prefering Vendian, Ediacarian, Cambrian, Neoproterozoic for the same rocks.  My personal preference is to keep the Cambrian boundary somewhere around the classic first trilobites, but it's the professionals that will make the decisions someday.  I think that Vendian and Ediacarian could reasonably be taken as faunal assemblege names that are conventionally used in parallel with Geologic designators?''
< 
< ''Everything I've seen has used Ediacaran and Vendian as synonyms for the geologic period itself, the animals always being referred to by nuisance constructions like Ediacaran fauna, Vendian biota, and so forth.  The term Neoproterozoic I've never seen before, but as I said, with some searching it appears to be somewhat longer.  But I'm not a palaeontologist, you shouldn't leave such decisions to me just because I got here first.''
---
> 3) Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiodating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for [[radiodating]] seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where we would most like to have them.
------
Poseidon|987097591
1c1
< The god of the sea, known to the Romans as [[Neptune]]. When the world was divided in three, [[Zeus]] received the earth and sky, [[Hades]] the underworld and [[Poseidon]] the sea. 
---
> [[Greek]]  god of the sea, known to the Romans as [[Neptune]]. When the world was divided in three, [[Zeus]] received the earth and sky, [[Hades]] the underworld and [[Poseidon]] the sea. 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987097967
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As cute as it is to have a politically incorrect article on the subject, it would be nice if the material stayed factual.  Atheism isn't conceivably part of a politically correct agenda, and neither big government, increased social spending, nor environment come into the movement at all.  It is about talking in a way such that noone can conceivably be offended, even if it means you aren't saying anything anymore.  The listed tenants are not necessarily for politically correctness, although it does draw support from their ranks.  
------
Poker/Game_play|987098324
3c3
< A session of poker consists of any number of <i>deals</i> (also called <i>hands</i>, but the former term is less ambiguous because <i>hand</i> also refers to the cards held by each player).  During each deal, players deal cards, make wagers into a central pot and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of the deal.
---
> A session of poker consists of any number of '''deals''' (also called "hands", but the former term is less ambiguous).  During each deal, players deal cards, make wagers into a central pot, and perform other actions of the game, the object of which is win the money in the pot at the end of the deal.
5c5
< A single deal (or hand) of poker consists of one or more <i>betting rounds</i>, during which players make bets into the central pot.  Between betting rounds, the players's hands <i>develop</i> in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt.
---
> A single deal of poker consists of one or more '''betting rounds''', during which players make bets into the central pot, or may drop out, forfeiting their interest in the pot.  Between betting rounds, the players's hands "develop" in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt.
7c7
< At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a <i>showdown</i> in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands.  The player with the best hands according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.  Some deals may not reach the showdown phase, as explained below.
---
> At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a [[/Showdown]] in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands (see [[Poker/Hands]]).  The player with the best hand according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.  Some deals may not reach the showdown phase if all palyers drop out but one, as explained below.
9c9
< At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a <i>buck</i> (any small item used as a marker).  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  
---
> At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a '''button''' (any small item used as a marker, also called a "buck").  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.
11c11
< Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called <i>forced bets</i>, and come in three forms: <i>antes</i>, <i>blinds</i>, and <i>bring-ins</i> (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).  After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first <i>round</i> of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular variant being played.
---
> Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called '''forced bets''', and come in three forms: [[/Ante]]s, [[/Blind]]s, and [[/Bring-in]]s (see [[Poker/Betting structure]] for more details).  After the forced bets have been paid, the dealer deals a first round of cards, one at a time, clockwise, beginning with the player to his left.  The manner and number of cards dealt varies with the particular variant being played.
13c13
< After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins.  During a round of betting, there will always be a <i>current bet amount</i>, which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called <i>splashing</i> the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.  Beginning with a player determined by the rules of the particular game, each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
---
> After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins.  During a round of betting, there will always be a '''current bet amount''', which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called "splashing" the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.  Beginning with a player determined by the rules of the particular game, each player in clockwise order may choose one of three actions:
15c15
< * <b>Fold:</b> The terms <i>drop</i> or <i>pass</i> are also used.  The player places no money in the pot, relinquishes his cards, and takes no further action in this deal.  This action forfeits the player's right to win the pot for this deal.
---
> * [[/Fold]]: The terms "drop" or "pass" are also used.  The player places no money in the pot, relinquishes his cards, and takes no further action in this deal.  This action forfeits the player's right to win the pot for this deal.
17c17
< * <b>Call:</b> The term <i>see</i> is also used.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a <i>check</i> or <i>pass</i>.  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more than once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to bring his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
---
> * [[/Call]]: The term "see" is also used.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called a [[/Check]] or "pass".  The player makes his total bet for this round equal the current bet amount.  For example, if he has not placed any money in the pot yet on this round, and the player to his right (who just acted before him) has placed a total of $5 in the pot, then the player must place $5 in the pot to call.  If the player whose turn it is to act has already placed $2 in the pot on this round (because the betting has gone around the table more than once, or because that player posted a blind bet), then he need only place an additional $3 to bring his total bet up to the current bet amount of $5.  A call maintains a the player's right to keep his cards and possibly win the pot.
19c19
< * <b>Raise:</b> If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a <i>bet</i>, or an <i>open</i>.  The player increases the current bet amount by betting more than the amount sufficient to call.  All remaining players (in order) are now required to call the new current bet amount to maintain their interest in the pot.  If a player raises, and every other remaining player folds, so that the raiser is the only player left who can win the pot, he takes the pot immediately and no cards are ever shown.
---
> * [[/Raise]]: If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a "bet", or an [[/Open]].  The player increases the current bet amount by betting more than the amount sufficient to call.  All remaining players (in order) are now required to call the new current bet amount to maintain their interest in the pot.  If a player raises, and every other remaining player folds, so that the raiser is the only player left who can win the pot, he takes the pot immediately and no cards are ever shown.
21c21
< Except in the case of a live blind (see [[Poker/Betting structure]]), a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is <i>closed</i> and no further betting may take place.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have bet an equal total amount.
---
> Except in the case of a '''live''' [[/Blind]], a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is '''closed''' and no further betting may take place in this round.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have bet an equal total amount.
23c23
< After the first betting round is complete because every player called an equal amount, there may be more rounds in which more cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, no more rounds are dealt, and the next deal begins.
---
> After the first betting round is complete because every player called an equal amount, there may be more rounds in which more cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, no more rounds are dealt, and the next deal begins.  This is what makes it possible to [[/Bluff]].
25c25
< After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains (that is, one player has made the last raise and one or more players called), then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  This is called a <i>showdown</i>.  In the case of ties, the pot is [[Splitting poker pots|split]] among the tied players.
---
> After the final round of betting as determined by the game, if more than one player remains, then all players' hands are exposed and the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] (as determined by th rules of the game) wins the pot.  This is called a [[/Showdown]].  In the case of ties, the pot is [[Splitting poker pots|split]] among the tied players.
31c31
< All players ante $1.  Alice deals five cards to each player one at a time, beginning with Bob, and ending with herself.  Bob has the first turn to bet, and there is no current bet amount, so he verbally declares "check"; this action calls the current bet amount of zero, so he keeps his cards.  Carol now bets $2, placing that amount in front of her toward the pot.  This is a raise, and makes the current bet amount $2.  David calls, by placing $2 in the pot (he did not have the option to check, because there was a non-zero bet amount facing him).  Alice now <i>reraises</i>, placing $10 in the pot.  This makes the current amount $10.  It it now Bob's turn again.  He folds, discarding his cards, and will take no further part in the action.  On this deal, he has lost $1, the amount of his ante.  Carol now calls Alice's raise by placing $8 more into the pot, which, along with the $2 bet she made earlier, matches Alice's $10.  David now folds, discarding his cards.  He has lost $3 on this deal: the $1 ante and his $2 call of Carol's first bet.  Because it is now Alice's turn, and she was the player who set the current amount, the betting round is closed (she cannot raise her own bet).  All remaining players (Alice and Carol) have now bet an equal amount ($10).  All of the bets are now gathered into the central pot, which is now $26.  A second round begins with Alice and Carol replacing one or more of their initial five cards with new ones from the remainder of the deck (they are playing a variant of [[draw poker]]).  It is Carol's turn to act first on this round (she is the first player to the dealer's left now that Bob has folded).  She checks, betting nothing.  Alice bets $10.  Carol calls, closing the second betting round.  The new bets are gathered into the pot, which now contains $46.  Because the game they are playing has only two rounds, the betting is now complete and Alice and Carol show their hands.  Carol has the best hand, so she wins the showdown and takes the $46 pot.  She has made a profit of $25 ($46 less the $21 she bet).  Alice has lost $21.
---
> All players ante $1.  Alice deals five cards to each player one at a time, beginning with Bob, and ending with herself.  Bob has the first turn to bet, and there is no current bet amount, so he verbally declares "check"; this action calls the current bet amount of zero, so he keeps his cards.  Carol now bets $2, placing that amount in front of her toward the pot.  This is a raise, and makes the current bet amount $2.  David calls, by placing $2 in the pot (he did not have the option to check, because there was a non-zero bet amount facing him).  Alice now '''reraises''', placing $10 in the pot.  This makes the current amount $10.  It it now Bob's turn again.  He folds, discarding his cards, and will take no further part in the action.  On this deal, he has lost $1, the amount of his ante.  Carol now calls Alice's raise by placing $8 more into the pot, which, along with the $2 bet she made earlier, matches Alice's $10.  David now folds, discarding his cards.  He has lost $3 on this deal: the $1 ante and his $2 call of Carol's first bet.  Because it is now Alice's turn, and she was the player who set the current amount, the betting round is closed (she cannot raise her own bet).  All remaining players (Alice and Carol) have now bet an equal amount ($10).  All of the bets are now gathered into the central pot, which is now $26.  A second round begins with Alice and Carol replacing one or more of their initial five cards with new ones from the remainder of the deck (they are playing a variant of [[draw poker]]).  It is Carol's turn to act first on this round (she is the first player to the dealer's left now that Bob has folded).  She checks, betting nothing.  Alice bets $10.  Carol calls, closing the second betting round.  The new bets are gathered into the pot, which now contains $46.  Because the game they are playing has only two rounds, the betting is now complete and Alice and Carol show their hands.  Carol has the best hand, so she wins the showdown and takes the $46 pot.  She has made a profit of $25 ($46 less the $21 she bet).  Alice has lost $21.
33c33
< On this second deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two <i>downcards</i> (dealt face down) and one <i>upcard</i>, as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a <i>bluff</i>, and was successful.
---
> On this second deal there is no ante.  Alice deals three cards to each player, two '''downcards''' (dealt face down) and one '''upcard''', as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[stud poker]]).  David is dealt the lowest-ranking upcard, so according to the betting structure of this game, he is required to post a bring-in of $1.  This is a forced bet under the game rules, so he may not check even though there is no current bet amount facing him.  He also has the option to bet more than the required bring-in if he desires, but he chooses to simply bet the required $1, which sets the current bet amount to $1.  It is now Alice's turn, and she can either call the $1, fold, or raise (she cannot check, because David's $1 set the current bet amount).  She folds, indicating this by turning her upcard face down and discarding her cards.  Bob now bets $5, setting the current amount to $5.  Carol folds.  David may now call by placing additional $4 with his initial $1 bring-in, but he chooses to fold, relinquishing his $1.  Bob is now the only remaining player, and so he wis the pot (which consists only of David's $1 and his own $5).  There is no showdown, but Bob chooses to voluntarily show his cards anyway, and shows a worthless hand.  Bob's bet was a [[/Bluff]], and was successful.
35c35
< On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called <i>checking her option</i>.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up <i>community cards</i> in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a <i>check-raise</i>).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now checks, and Carol checks.  The fourth betting round is thus <i>checked around</i>, and ends.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore [[Splitting poker pots|split]] the $26 between them, each getting $13.
---
> On this third deal there is no ante, but Bob posts a $1 blind and Carol posts a $2 blind.  Alice deals two downcards to each player.  It is now David's turn to act (because he is the first player after the big blind), and the current bet amount facing him is $2, so he cannot check.  He chooses to fold.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob also calls, placing an additional $1 with his small blind to bring it up to $2 total.  It is now Carol's turn.  She is the one who set the current bet amount of $2, so this would normally end the betting round; but because her $2 was a "live" forced blind and she has not had an opportunity to raise voluntarily, she is given the option to raise at this point.  She chooses not to, an action called '''checking her option'''.  This ends the first betting round, and the $6 pot is gathered into the center of the table.  Alice now deals three face-up [[/Community card]]s in the center of the table as called for by the game they are playing (a variant of [[Texas holdem]]).  It is now Bob's turn to act first, since he is on the dealer's left.  He checks (there is no current amount facing him on this betting round).  Carol bets $2.  Alice folds.  Bob calls, ending the round (the pot is now $10).  Alice now deals another community card, and a third betting round begins with Bob again.  He checks.  Carol bets $4.  Bob now raises, betting $8 (he has just made a deceptive play called a [[/Check-raise]]).  Carol calls, placing an additional $4 on her bet to match Bob's.  This closes round three, and the $26 pot is gathered.  Alice deals a final community card.  Bob now checks, and Carol checks.  The fourth betting round is thus '''checked around''', and ends.  This is a four-round game, so that ends all betting.  Bob and Carol show down their hands, and see that their hands are equal under the rules of their game.  They therefore [[Splitting poker pots|split]] the $26 between them, each getting $13.
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987098612
1a2,4
> 
> ----
> It's "tenets", and I agree.  This one needs a lot of work to be factual.  I'll see what I can do.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Political_correctness|987098679
1c1
< <b>Political correctness</b> is an overt political purge of people that do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from an organization or business.
---
> <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Users of the term refer to it as a coherent ultra-liberal movement, and blame it for everything from such socially laudatory programs as the Americans with Disabilities Act to overt political purges of people who do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from government, organizations and businesses.
5c5
< Some tenants of political correctness (same tenants as modern liberalism):
---
> Some positions ascribed to political correctness by those favoring the term (similar to tenets of modern liberalism):
8,11c8,17
< * pro abortion
< * anti religion
< * pro bigger government
< * pro increased social spending
---
> * pro gay rights
> * pro disabled rights
> * pro abortion rights
> * anti religious fundamentalism
> * anti moral definism
> * pro moral relativism
> * pro religious pluralism
> * pro cultural pluralism
> * pro government role in social progress
> * pro domestic social spending
12a19,24
> * anti big business
> * anti racist
> * anti sexist
> * anti traditional gender roles
> * anti English as an official language
> * pro multi-lingual education
------
Political_correctness|987098773
3c3
< Political correctness begin in the 19??s, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
---
> Political correctness began in the 19??s, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
------
Political_correctness|987099978
1c1,11
< <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Users of the term refer to it as a coherent ultra-liberal movement, and blame it for everything from such socially laudatory programs as the Americans with Disabilities Act to overt political purges of people who do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from government, organizations and businesses.
---
> <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Its chief use is in the field of utterances, especially public utterances by the media and in social contexts.  The most pointed accusation against politically correct verbiage is that it is so intent on being value-neutral that it far exceeds the bounds of common good sense, makes it nearly impossible to use commonly understood terminology, and results in ungainly and largely meaningless statements.
> 
> Users of the term refer to it as a coherent ultra-liberal movement, using value neutral language as a weapon of social reform, and blame it for everything from such socially laudatory programs as the Americans with Disabilities Act to overt political purges of people who do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from government, organizations and businesses.
> 
> Tendencies toward "politically corect" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessifly burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
> 
> Example:  In plain English, "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat."
> 
> In a satirically exaggerated example of "politically correct" speech, the sentence might look like this.  "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been a female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb or rest, and inflicted his own value judgements in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well-being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascension known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring the bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, all-uncaring how his display of physical prowess might injure the feelings of those differently-abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal and removed it to the ground against its will, whereupon it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
> 
> In fact, no serious narrator or journalist would subscribe to such an extreme example.  The point of those ascribing to the term "political correctness," however, hold that, taken to its logical conclusion, politically correct speech results in a similar degree of nonsense, interjected into otherwise harmless utterances, in a effort to spare the feelings of people who are in all probability completely comfortable with normal speech in the first place, and co not desire to be patronized.
------
Political_correctness|987100514
1c1
< <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Its chief use is in the field of utterances, especially public utterances by the media and in social contexts.  The most pointed accusation against politically correct verbiage is that it is so intent on being value-neutral that it far exceeds the bounds of common good sense, makes it nearly impossible to use commonly understood terminology, and results in ungainly and largely meaningless statements.
---
> <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Its chief use is in the field of utterances, especially public utterances by the media and in social contexts.  The most pointed accusation against politically correct verbiage is that it is so intent on being value-neutral and upon protecting the feelings of disadvantaged groups that it far exceeds the bounds of common good sense, makes it nearly impossible to use commonly understood terminology, and results in ungainly and largely meaningless statements.
5c5
< Tendencies toward "politically corect" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessifly burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
---
> Tendencies toward "politically corect" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessively burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
11c11
< In fact, no serious narrator or journalist would subscribe to such an extreme example.  The point of those ascribing to the term "political correctness," however, hold that, taken to its logical conclusion, politically correct speech results in a similar degree of nonsense, interjected into otherwise harmless utterances, in a effort to spare the feelings of people who are in all probability completely comfortable with normal speech in the first place, and co not desire to be patronized.
---
> In fact, no serious narrator or journalist would subscribe to such an extreme example.  The point of those ascribing to the term "political correctness" is that, taken to its logical conclusion, politically correct speech results in a similar degree of nonsense, interjected into otherwise harmless utterances, in a effort to spare the feelings of people who are in all probability completely comfortable with normal speech in the first place, and do not desire to be patronized.
15a16
> 
20a22
> * pro animal rights
22a25
> * anti gender discrimination
36c39
< Critics of political correctness argue that political correctness  amounts to thought control by the same liberals that denounce any mention of religion as forcing religious beliefs on other people.
---
> The term "political correctness" was coined by those who oppose the effect such speech is conceived to have on free thought and expression.  They argue that political correctness amounts to thought control by the same liberals who denounce any mention of religion as forcing religious beliefs on other people.
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987100588
4a5,6
> ----
> Made some changes.  [[AyeSpy|AS]]
------
Political_correctness|987100893
9c9
< In a satirically exaggerated example of "politically correct" speech, the sentence might look like this.  "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been a female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb or rest, and inflicted his own value judgements in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well-being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascension known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring the bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, all-uncaring how his display of physical prowess might injure the feelings of those differently-abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal and removed it to the ground against its will, whereupon it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
---
> In a satirically exaggerated example of "politically correct" speech, the sentence might look like this.  "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been a female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb or rest, and inflicted his own value judgements in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well-being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring the bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, all-uncaring how his display of physical prowess might injure the feelings of those differently-abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal and removed it to the ground against its will, whereupon it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
------
Political_correctness|987100911
5c5
< Tendencies toward "politically corect" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessively burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
---
> Tendencies toward "politically correct" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessively burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
------
Political_correctness|987101014
1c1
< <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Its chief use is in the field of utterances, especially public utterances by the media and in social contexts.  The most pointed accusation against politically correct verbiage is that it is so intent on being value-neutral and upon protecting the feelings of disadvantaged groups that it far exceeds the bounds of common good sense, makes it nearly impossible to use commonly understood terminology, and results in ungainly and largely meaningless statements.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
3c3
< Users of the term refer to it as a coherent ultra-liberal movement, using value neutral language as a weapon of social reform, and blame it for everything from such socially laudatory programs as the Americans with Disabilities Act to overt political purges of people who do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from government, organizations and businesses.
---
> The term is a generally pejorative, and was coined by opponents who consider many advocates to be overly zealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themslves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
5,39c5
< Tendencies toward "politically correct" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessively burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
< 
< Example:  In plain English, "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat."
< 
< In a satirically exaggerated example of "politically correct" speech, the sentence might look like this.  "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been a female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb or rest, and inflicted his own value judgements in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well-being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring the bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, all-uncaring how his display of physical prowess might injure the feelings of those differently-abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal and removed it to the ground against its will, whereupon it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
< 
< In fact, no serious narrator or journalist would subscribe to such an extreme example.  The point of those ascribing to the term "political correctness" is that, taken to its logical conclusion, politically correct speech results in a similar degree of nonsense, interjected into otherwise harmless utterances, in a effort to spare the feelings of people who are in all probability completely comfortable with normal speech in the first place, and do not desire to be patronized.
< 
< Political correctness began in the 19??s, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
< 
< Some positions ascribed to political correctness by those favoring the term (similar to tenets of modern liberalism):
< 
< * pro affirmative action
< * pro women's rights
< * pro gay rights
< * pro disabled rights
< * pro abortion rights
< * pro animal rights
< * anti religious fundamentalism
< * anti moral definism
< * anti gender discrimination
< * pro moral relativism
< * pro religious pluralism
< * pro cultural pluralism
< * pro government role in social progress
< * pro domestic social spending
< * pro environment
< * anti big business
< * anti racist
< * anti sexist
< * anti traditional gender roles
< * anti English as an official language
< * pro multi-lingual education
< 
< The term "political correctness" was coined by those who oppose the effect such speech is conceived to have on free thought and expression.  They argue that political correctness amounts to thought control by the same liberals who denounce any mention of religion as forcing religious beliefs on other people.
---
> Political correctness rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987101088
6a7,50
> 
> ----
> Here's the majority of the old text.  Some of this could be useful for the [[political liberal]] page, but doesn't belong here.  Also, I think the example is copyrighted, so I'll look for something similar.
> 
> <b>Political correctness</b> is a relatively new term, generally considered pejorative, and coined to denote what moderate and conservative political groups conceived to be overreaching in the arena of govermnent and corporate protection of individual rights, and censure of traditional white male-centric politics, business and social paradigms.  Its chief use is in the field of utterances, especially public utterances by the media and in social contexts.  The most pointed accusation against politically correct verbiage is that it is so intent on being value-neutral and upon protecting the feelings of disadvantaged groups that it far exceeds the bounds of common good sense, makes it nearly impossible to use commonly understood terminology, and results in ungainly and largely meaningless statements.
> 
> Users of the term refer to it as a coherent ultra-liberal movement, using value neutral language as a weapon of social reform, and blame it for everything from such socially laudatory programs as the Americans with Disabilities Act to overt political purges of people who do not believe in modern day [[liberal]] political viewpoints from government, organizations and businesses.
> 
> Tendencies toward "politically correct" speech can also be seen to result in legalistic sounding phrases excessively burdened with modifiers which detract from the direct meaning of what is said.
> 
> Example:  In plain English, "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat."
> 
> In a satirically exaggerated example of "politically correct" speech, the sentence might look like this.  "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been a female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb or rest, and inflicted his own value judgements in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well-being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring the bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, all-uncaring how his display of physical prowess might injure the feelings of those differently-abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal and removed it to the ground against its will, whereupon it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
> 
> In fact, no serious narrator or journalist would subscribe to such an extreme example.  The point of those ascribing to the term "political correctness" is that, taken to its logical conclusion, politically correct speech results in a similar degree of nonsense, interjected into otherwise harmless utterances, in a effort to spare the feelings of people who are in all probability completely comfortable with normal speech in the first place, and do not desire to be patronized.
> 
> Political correctness began in the 19??s, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
> 
> Some positions ascribed to political correctness by those favoring the term (similar to tenets of modern liberalism):
> 
> * pro affirmative action
> * pro women's rights
> * pro gay rights
> * pro disabled rights
> * pro abortion rights
> * pro animal rights
> * anti religious fundamentalism
> * anti moral definism
> * anti gender discrimination
> * pro moral relativism
> * pro religious pluralism
> * pro cultural pluralism
> * pro government role in social progress
> * pro domestic social spending
> * pro environment
> * anti big business
> * anti racist
> * anti sexist
> * anti traditional gender roles
> * anti English as an official language
> * pro multi-lingual education
> 
> The term "political correctness" was coined by those who oppose the effect such speech is conceived to have on free thought and expression.  They argue that political correctness amounts to thought control by the same liberals who denounce any mention of religion as forcing religious beliefs on other people.
> 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987101242
9c9
< Here's the majority of the old text.  Some of this could be useful for the [[political liberal]] page, but doesn't belong here.  Also, I think the example is copyrighted, so I'll look for something similar.
---
> Here's the majority of the old text.  Some of this could be useful for the [[political liberal]] page (I think I'll move the list of issues there now--that page is linked to by this one), but doesn't belong here.  Also, I think the example is copyrighted, so I'll look for something similar.
------
Sprung_Rhythm|987101303
6c6
< <br>For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
---
> <br>For skies of couple-colour as a brindled cow;
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987101479
9a10,14
> ----
> Not on your life.  I just now made up that example off the top of my head.
> 
> Was my rendering of the issue so bad it had to be excised?
> ----
------
Political_liberal|987101813
3c3,10
< In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.  
---
> In the [[United States]], starting with the increase in size of government with the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s, liberals advocated government programs as a solution to many economic and societal problems.  Modern American political liberals hold (or are perceived to hold) many of the following views:
> 
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and relious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
> * Support for animal rights.
> * Support for [[abortion]] rights.
> * Support for government social programs such as welfare, medical care, unemployment benefits, and retirement programs.
> * Support for strong environmental regulations.
> * Support for trade unions and strong regulation of business.
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987102062
13a14,15
> 
> ''No, just a bit sloppily written, and I had already written my version.  I'll put your example back (after cleaning up the grammar).  It just looked a lot like the old "politically correct little red riding hood" example, so I feared it might be from a similar source).''
------
Sheepshead|987102322
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <H2>Sheepshead</H2>
> 
> <B>History</B>
> 
> Sheepshead comes originally from Middle Europe in the late 1700's, and went by the German name of "Schafkopf".
> 
> <B>Preparation</B>
> 
> Take jokers and all cards 6 and below out of the deck. Sheepshead is played with all the cards 7 - Ace. Should be a total of 32 cards.
> 
> <B>Card Order</B>
> 
> Card order in Sheepshead is very unique and one of the most difficult things for some beginners to grasp.
> 
> 
> There are 14 trump cards, including all the Queens, Jacks, and Diamonds, listed here in order of stength to take tricks:
> * Q Clubs - Q Spades - Q Hearts - Q Diamonds
> * J Clubs - J Spades - J Hearts - J Diamonds
> * A Diamonds - 10 Diamonds - K Diamonds - 9, 8, 7
> 
> Also, there are 6 of each "fail" suit. (18 total)
> * A, 10, K, 9, 8, 7 of Clubs
> * A, 10, K, 9, 8, 7 of Spades
> * A, 10, K, 9, 8, 7 of Hearts
> 
> Clubs, Spades, and Hearts take no precedence over other fail suits. Whatever is lead wins.
> 
> 
> <B>Scoring Points</B>
> 
> Point scoring will also take some getting used to. I recommend making a chart ("cheat-sheet") for yourself the first time you play.
> 
> * Queens - 3 points
> * Jacks - 2 points
> * Aces - 11 points
> * Tens - 10 points
> * Kings - 4 points
> * 9,8,7 - 0 points
> 
> Note that the strongest cards (Queens and Jacks) are not worth the most points. This gives Sheepshead some of it's unique character.
> 
> <B>Play Variations</B>
> 
> There are a LOT of play variations for Sheepshead. Everything from 3 to 6 player. Scoring differences, leasters-doublers, Pick Parter-Jack of Diamonds partner.
> 
> I will begin by describing how to play "Five Handed, Leasters, Pick Partner", but will try to touch on the other variations during this article.
> 
> 
> 
> <B>The Deal</B>
------
Political_correctness|987102766
1c1
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture. Many assumptions of the movement rest upon acceptance of some form of the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]], the idea that language incluences thought and culture.
3a4,5
> 
> In a satirically exaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat." might look like this (using a set of [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s advocated by some groups: "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that sie just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to "own" the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
------
WeaRable|987102840
7c7
< ''Congratulations.  Just bear in mind, please, that Wikipedia is not a forum for advertisement.  Since you are no doubt very well-versed about wearable technology, perhaps you could write a bona fide encyclopedia article about it?''
---
> 
------
Political_correctness|987102852
5c5
< In a satirically exaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat." might look like this (using a set of [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s advocated by some groups: "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that sie just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to "own" the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
---
> In a satirically exaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat." might look like this: "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to "own" the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
------
SapirWhorfHypothesis|987103037
1,5c1
< The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the present and future community.
< 
< ----
< See Also:
< [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Edward Sapir]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]
------
Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis|987103051
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the present and future community.
> 
> ----
> See Also:
> [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Edward Sapir]]
> 
------
WeaRable|987103123
1,7c1
< Wearable computer technology is... [what?]
< 
< Links of interest:
< 
< [http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables.html FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wearable computer]]
------
Political_correctness|987103442
1c1
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture. Many assumptions of the movement rest upon acceptance of some form of the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]], the idea that language incluences thought and culture.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture. Many assumptions of the movement rest upon acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--constitutes reality itself.
------
Wearable_computer|987103443
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wearable computer is a computer that is subsumed into the personal space of the user, controlled by the user, and has both operational and interactional constancy, i.e. is always on
> and always accessible. Most notably, it is a device that is always with the user, and into which the user can always enter commands and execute a set of such entered commands, and in
> which the user can do so while walking around or doing other activities.  [http://wearcomp.org/wearcompdef.html Excerpted from Steve Mann's Definition]
> 
> Links of interest:
> 
> [http://jebara.www.media.mit.edu/people/jebara/wearables.html FACENAME Wearable Face Recognition]
> 
------
Wearable_computer|987103875
1,3c1,3
< A wearable computer is a computer that is subsumed into the personal space of the user, controlled by the user, and has both operational and interactional constancy, i.e. is always on
< and always accessible. Most notably, it is a device that is always with the user, and into which the user can always enter commands and execute a set of such entered commands, and in
< which the user can do so while walking around or doing other activities.  [http://wearcomp.org/wearcompdef.html Excerpted from Steve Mann's Definition]
---
> A '''wearable''' computer is a small portable [[computer]] that can be carried by a single person and used during other activities.  Wearables typically have some head-mounted display device, an input device that can be operated with one hand such as a [[chord keyboard]], and a processing unit and power supply attached to a belt or backpack.  They are usually powered by batteries or fuel cells, but some models may use solar power, or even some device to tap the mechanical power of the wearer.
> 
> Some may use a more specific definition, such as [http://wearcomp.org/wearcompdef.html Steve Mann's], which includes such properties as '''operational constancy''' (the property that the computer is always on and ready for use).
8d7
< 
------
Political_correctness|987103968
3c3
< The term is a generally pejorative, and was coined by opponents who consider many advocates to be overly zealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themslves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
---
> The term is a generally pejorative, and was coined by opponents who consider many advocates to be overly zealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themselves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
------
Political_correctness|987104184
1c1
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (and specifically the use of language) to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture. Many assumptions of the movement rest upon acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--constitutes reality itself.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
3c3
< The term is a generally pejorative, and was coined by opponents who consider many advocates to be overly zealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themselves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
---
> The term is now usually used pejoratively, particularly when used by opponents who consider many advocates to be overzealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themslves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
5c5,6
< In a satirically exaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat." might look like this: "The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to "own" the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear."
---
> In an absurd and satirically overexaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat" might look like this:
> :The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescue" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to 'own' the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear.
7c8
< Political correctness rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]] and declined in intensity in the late [[1990s]].
---
> Political correctness, both the movement and the term describing it, rose to broad usage in the early [[1980s]].  On the view of one conservative commentator, Bill Lind, however, the intellectual roots and attitudes associated with PC are [http://www.freerepublic.com/forum/a3810eb1e0d57.htm many decades old] and rooted in radical leftist movements.  Also, in a [http://www.linguistlist.org/issues/5/5-1230.html linguistics mailing list], there was discussion of the term used--sometimes quite straight-facedly--in the early and middle 1970s.
9c10,12
< [[/Talk]]
---
> Use of the terms "PC" and "politically correct" declined in the late [[1990s]], and the (arguably) repressive political attitudes associated with the associated movement have started to fall out of favor somewhat--though they are still very robust in universities and other institutions.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Political_liberal|987104234
5c5
< * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and relious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
---
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
------
Political_correctness|987104282
1c1
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement advocated by [[political liberal]]s encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement of [[leftist]]s (in the United States, [[political liberal]]s) encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
12c12
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Reverse_engineering|987104312
2,3c2,3
< Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) can be used to digitise your component and the information can be utilised in computer aided modelling. 
< New and improved techniques in reverse engineering include Laser Scanning which, as the name implies, uses laser beams to scan across the surface of components of any shape and display the results in real time. 
---
> [[Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)]] can be used to [[digitise]] your component and the information can be utilised in computer aided modelling. 
> New and improved techniques in reverse engineering include [[Laser Scanning]] which, as the name implies, uses laser beams to scan across the surface of components of any shape and display the results in real time. 
------
Reverse_engineering|987104355
2c2
< [[Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)]] can be used to [[digitise]] your component and the information can be utilised in computer aided modelling. 
---
> [[Co-ordinate Measuring Machines(CMM)]] can be used to [[digitise]] your component and the information can be utilised in computer aided modelling. 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987104532
0a1,2
> You evidently haven't spent much time in American universities if you believe that political correctness does ''not'' concern economic, political, and environmental thought.  It definitely does.  On my understanding, the origin of the term, in the 70s, was a relatively straightforward term describing various liberal-left positions.  If you're not convinced, follow the links I've provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
> 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987104605
1c1
< You evidently haven't spent much time in American universities if you believe that political correctness does ''not'' concern economic, political, and environmental thought.  It definitely does.  On my understanding, the origin of the term, in the 70s, was a relatively straightforward term describing various liberal-left positions.  If you're not convinced, follow the links I've provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
---
> You evidently haven't spent much time in American universities if you believe that political correctness does ''not'' concern economic, political, and environmental thought.  It definitely does.  On my understanding, the origin of the term was in the 70s, when it was used amongst leftists, a relatively straightforward (but often tongue-in-cheek) term describing liberal-left positions generally.  If you're not convinced, follow the links I've provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
------
Political_correctness|987104623
6c6
< :The firefighter (who happened to be male, not that it just as easily could not have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine on its own where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescue" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to 'own' the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear.
---
> :The firefighter (who happened to be male, but could just as easily have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine for itself where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to 'own' the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear.
------
Political_correctness|987104669
1c1
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement of [[leftist]]s (in the United States, [[political liberal]]s) encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement of [[leftist]]s (in the United States, [[political liberal]]s) encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), primarily to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987105575
2a3,4
> ''Admittedly I haven't spent considerable time in America anywhere.  However, I have seen considerable support for political correctness among activists who are otherwise on the very far right.  So if we have liberal detractors and anti-liberal supporters, I don't see how the claim that political correctness has to do with liberalism is anything other than false.  At best the one has a tendency to come with the other, which is a lot weaker than the link originally stated.''
> 
------
BruceMiller|987105700
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Contradance]]r and new [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]].
------
Edward_Sapir|987105886
1c1,2
< '''Edward Sapir''' [Pronunciation: suh PEER], 1884-1939, American enthnologist-linguist; a founder of [[structural linguistics]]; author of ''Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (ISBN: 0156482339); Born in [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A3000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=LAUENBERG&GAD4=Germany&IC=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=lauenberg&AD4=DEU&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A9.75913%7CY%3A51.76742%7CLT%3A51.76742%7CLN%3A9.75913%7CLS%3A3000000%7Cc%3ALAUENBERG%7Cp%3ADEU&lv=8&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=295&myzoom.y=14 Lauenberg Germany].
---
> '''Edward Sapir''' [Pronunciation: suh PEER], 1884-1939, American anthropologist-linguist; a leader in 
> American [[structural linguistics]]; author of ''Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (ISBN: 0156482339); Born in [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A3000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=LAUENBERG&GAD4=Germany&IC=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=lauenberg&AD4=DEU&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A9.75913%7CY%3A51.76742%7CLT%3A51.76742%7CLN%3A9.75913%7CLS%3A3000000%7Cc%3ALAUENBERG%7Cp%3ADEU&lv=8&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=295&myzoom.y=14 Lauenberg Germany]. Pupil of [[Boas]], teacher of [[Whorf]].
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987105910
4a5,6
> :The fact that something you happen to identify with the term 'political correctness' is supported by nonleftists does not entail that, in one well-established (and indeed older) sense of the term, 'political correctness' means 'strict support for leftist causes'.  In fact, Josh, it does mean that.  Again, please consult the links I provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
> 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987105958
5c5
< :The fact that something you happen to identify with the term 'political correctness' is supported by nonleftists does not entail that, in one well-established (and indeed older) sense of the term, 'political correctness' means 'strict support for leftist causes'.  In fact, Josh, it does mean that.  Again, please consult the links I provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
---
> :The fact that something you happen to identify with the term 'political correctness' is supported by nonleftists does not entail that, in one well-established (and indeed older) sense of the term, 'political correctness' ''does not'' mean 'strict support for leftist causes'.  In fact, Josh, it does mean that.  Again, please consult the links I provided in the article. --[[LMS]]
------
Edward_Sapir|987105983
2c2
< American [[structural linguistics]]; author of ''Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (ISBN: 0156482339); Born in [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A3000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=LAUENBERG&GAD4=Germany&IC=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=lauenberg&AD4=DEU&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A9.75913%7CY%3A51.76742%7CLT%3A51.76742%7CLN%3A9.75913%7CLS%3A3000000%7Cc%3ALAUENBERG%7Cp%3ADEU&lv=8&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=295&myzoom.y=14 Lauenberg Germany]. Pupil of [[Boas]], teacher of [[Whorf]].
---
> American [[structural linguistics]]; author of ''Language : An Introduction to the Study of Speech'' (ISBN: 0156482339); Born in [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=LFILL&CT=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A3000000&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=LAUENBERG&GAD4=Germany&IC=51.76742%3A9.75913%3A8%3A&apmenu=&apcode=&AD2_street=&AD2=&AD3=lauenberg&AD4=DEU&selCategory=&GMI=&noPrefs=&W=456&H=259&GC=X%3A9.75913%7CY%3A51.76742%7CLT%3A51.76742%7CLN%3A9.75913%7CLS%3A3000000%7Cc%3ALAUENBERG%7Cp%3ADEU&lv=8&serch=&FS=&MA=1&myzoom.x=295&myzoom.y=14 Lauenberg Germany]. Pupil of [[Boas]], teacher of [[Benjamin Whorf|Whorf]].
------
Benjamin_Whorf|987106094
5c5
< Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the [[Hopi]] language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis [[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
---
> Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of native American and Meso-American languages. He became quite well known for his work on the [[Hopi]] language, and developed a theory of linguistic relativity in conjunction with Sapir that became known as the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.
7c7
< Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
---
> Benjamin Lee Whorf died of illness at the relatively young age of 44.
------
Political_conservative|987106213
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
------
Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis|987106442
5c5
< [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Edward Sapir]]
---
> [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Edward Sapir]], [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] and [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]
------
Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder|987106716
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]] correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] that language determines thought.
------
Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder|987106775
1c1
< 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]] correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] that language determines thought.
---
> 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]] correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] -- that language determines thought.
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987106971
6a7,8
> :''All right, I certainly can't speak for all senses of the term.  If there is indeed such a significant distinction between the politically correct movement in general and the movement for politically correct speech, though, it should probably be made plain.  The way the page looks right now is that use of terms like chromosomally advantaged youth, which certainly is oft referred to as political correctness, is intrinsically something to do with liberalism, which is for instance something members of the Canadian Alliance are not noted for.  Btw, I would suggest that an article proclaiming such movements as the extension of a Marxist agenda to undermine western civilization might be a bit opinionated for an encyclopedia.''
> 
------
Wilhelm_von_Humboldt|987107093
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1767-1835, German linguist, government functionary, philosopher; founder of Humboldt University in [[Berlin]]; friend of [[Goethe]] and [[Schiller]].
> 
> See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hyphothesis]
------
Wilhelm_von_Humboldt|987107156
3c3
< See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hyphothesis]
---
> See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hyphothesis]]
------
Political_correctness|987107640
1c1,3
< '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement of [[leftist]]s (in the United States, [[political liberal]]s) encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), primarily to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women).  For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
---
> '''Political correctness''' refers to a social movement of [[leftist]]s (in the United States, [[political liberal]]s) encouraging cultural change (especially, but not only, the use of language), primarily to redress real or perceived persecution of minority groups (and women). 
> 
> For example, adherents of this movement may feel that one should use the politically correct (often abbreviated "PC") term "African-American" rather than "negro" or "black", to avoid offending blacks.  It can also include support for such political policies as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]]; some degree of support of [[environmentalism]] and opposition to [[capitalism]] are often regarded as politically correct as well.  Other targets of the movement include the gender-specific pronouns of English and other languages that are perceived to perpetuate aspects of male-centered culture.  The movement's adherents are concerned with language due, in many cases, to their acceptance of some form of [[linguistic relativism]] (e.g., the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]), the idea that language influences thought and culture, or even--in some sense--that it constitutes reality itself.
3a6,7
> 
> Many of those critical of Political Correcness use examples where perceived persecution of minority groups and women is enough for proponents to demand redress (even if no actual discrimination/persecution has been proven to take place).
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987107924
9a10,11
> ----
> <b>I'd beg to differ</b> most of the reactions/suggestions/demands from liberals in issues of political correctness involve increasing the role/size/regulation of government into everyday life.  Increasing the role or regulation almost always results in a larger government.  Also, political correctness advocates some restitution payments (in actual money or subsidies) for certain items.
------
Naming_conventions|987107999
63c63
< Examples of common names that should instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
---
> Examples of common names that should be used instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
------
Political_correctness|987108085
15a16,17
> A great example of anti-political correctness satire is the book ''Politically Correct Bedtime Stories'' in which, traditional fairy tales are rewritten from a political correct viewpoint and often reverse the roles of good and evil from the original version.  For example, Hansel, Grettal and their father are evil and the witch is good in the politically correct version of ''Hansel and Grettel''.
> 
------
What_is_a_wiki|987108191
9a10
> *[[How to start a page]]?
------
Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder|987108262
1c1
< 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]] correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] -- that language determines thought.
---
> 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]]'s correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] -- that language determines thought.
------
Wilhelm_von_Humboldt|987108326
1c1
< 1767-1835, German linguist, government functionary, philosopher; founder of Humboldt University in [[Berlin]]; friend of [[Goethe]] and [[Schiller]].
---
> 1767-1835, German linguist, government functionary, foreign diplomat, philosopher; founder of Humboldt University in [[Berlin]]; friend of [[Goethe]] and [[Schiller]].
------
Johann_Gottfried_von_Herder|987108381
1c1
< 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe]]'s correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] -- that language determines thought.
---
> 1744-1803, German philosopher, theologian, and [[Goethe|Goethe's]] correspondent. Along with [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] proposed what is now called the [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]] -- that language determines thought.
------
John_F._Kennedy|987108410
1c1
< John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  He was, during the time he served, arguably the most popular and well-liked president in the history of the nation. This may have been due to a number of factors, not the least of which were his and his family's photogenicity, his seeming openness and public accessibility, and the fact that his administration marked a notable increase in direct media exposure of the president to the public at large - through television broadcasts from the [[Oval Office]], televised press conferences, and numerous photographic spreads in popular magazines. 
---
> John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the president of the [[United States]] of [[America]] from 1960-1963.  First Catholic president of the Unites States.  He beat [[Richard Nixon]], vice president in the previous administration, in one of the more closely-contested presidential elections in America in modern history.  
3c3,5
< Information released after his death leaves little doubt that he had at least one, and possibly several affairs while in office, including liaisons which took place in the [[White House]].  The American political and media climate at the time was such that allegations of this sort would not have been brought contemporaneously with his official service to the country, however, and so how widely such knowledge may have been held at the time may never be known.
---
> Kennedy was, during the time he served, arguably the most popular and well-liked president in the history of the nation. This may have been due to a number of factors, not the least of which were his and his family's photogenicity, his seeming openness and public accessibility, and the fact that his administration marked a notable increase in direct media exposure of the president to the public at large - through television broadcasts from the [[Oval Office]], televised press conferences, and numerous photographic spreads in popular magazines.  The charisma, with its air of charm, ease and nobility projected to the public by Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" to the White House in its role as the Kennedy family home.
> 
> Information released after his death leaves little doubt that he had at least one, and probably several affairs while in office, including liaisons which took place in the [[White House]].  The American political and media climate at the time was such that allegations of this sort would not have been brought contemporaneously with his official service to the country, however, and so how widely such knowledge may have been held at the time may never be known.
------
How_to_start_a_page|987108461
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Essentially, each page should be concise as needed.  Often it is only necessary to enter a line or two of text for an entry.
> 
> Some thoughts:
> * A more strongly worded, yet [[on-topic]], initial version of a page causes more revisions and reaction and increases the probability that the end result will be well written.  See [[Political correctness]] revision history for a good example.
> 
> * Modifying random pages by adding/wikifying a new term and then adding a well written entry linked from that page are a great way to continually add new topics to Wikipedia.
> 
------
Political_correctness/Talk|987108687
12a13
> Most of the reactions from liberals in such issues.  But there are also conservatives concerned with such issues, and presumably they would approach the same goal through different means.  It's not surprising that liberal political correctness relates to liberalism, and it doesn't mean that political correctness does.  This is barring the above sense distinctions, since the comment you were replying to was as well (the chronology of this page is already backwards).
------
Political_liberal|987108704
5c5
< * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
---
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  This is opposed to [[Political conservative]]s who support treating everyone equally and not giving special priviledges to any group.
------
Sweden/Kings|987108857
21c21
< *[[/Karl XIII] 1809 - 1818
---
> *[[/Karl XIII]] 1809 - 1818
------
How_to_start_a_page|987108927
5a6,7
> :''This might not be such a good idea, though.  Yes, an article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existance of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is some kinda theory Einstein made.  But I don't think we really want baiting to be official policy.''
> 
------
Goethe|987109174
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Johann Wolfgang von Goethe''',
> 1749-1832, German writer, scientist, philosopher; author of ''Faust'' (ISBN: 0385031149), ''Theory of Colors'' (ISBN: 0262570211). He inspired Darwin with his independent discovery of the human premaxilla jaw bones.
> Born in Frankfurt am Main.
------
Goethe|987109335
3c3
< Born in Frankfurt am Main.
---
> Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de|Frankfurt am Main].
------
Political_conservative|987109361
1c1,20
< An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
---
> An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
> 
> 
> Basic principles of conservativism:
> * Everyone should be treated equally
> ** No one should be discriminated against
> ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings
> * Personal freedom should be protected and enhanced
> * Personal responsibility
> ** Earn your own living without government subsidy
> ** Obey the law (criminals should not be given special treatment based on background, upbringing, etc. except in cases of mental disabilities)
> * Laws should be enforced and enforced equally (no one is above the law - including politicians)
> * United States should
> ** Strong military
> ** Not help our enemys (mainly [[communist]], [[terrists]], or [[totalitarian]] regiems)
> ** Have a small but vigours government (limited government)
> *** Larger government == more regulation == less personal freedom
> *** Larger government == less economic product put into improving productivity == less economic work put into increasing standards of living == less personal freedom through less economic freedom
> 
> There's lots more to be added...
------
Goethe|987109377
3c3
< Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de|Frankfurt am Main].
---
> Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de |Frankfurt am Main].
------
Goethe|987109432
3c3
< Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de |Frankfurt am Main].
---
> Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de Frankfurt am Main].
------
Goethe|987109481
2c2
< 1749-1832, German writer, scientist, philosopher; author of ''Faust'' (ISBN: 0385031149), ''Theory of Colors'' (ISBN: 0262570211). He inspired Darwin with his independent discovery of the human premaxilla jaw bones.
---
> 1749-1832, German writer, scientist, philosopher; author of ''Faust'' (ISBN: 0385031149), ''Theory of Colors'' (ISBN: 0262570211), etc. He inspired Darwin with his independent discovery of the human premaxilla jaw bones.
------
Goethe|987109543
3c3
< Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de Frankfurt am Main].
---
> Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de/index-e.html Frankfurt am Main].
------
Political_conservative|987109577
7c7,8
< ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings
---
> *** This includes discriminating against people that had nothing to do with any past discrimination - Consider [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] which became states in the [[1950s]] yet are under the same affirmative action regulation as states where slavery was practiced.
> ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings (i.e., in effect, discriminating against groups that do not have the special privilidges).  Consider that one group has two government offices to file a discrimination complaint (i.e., two investigations) and another group can file a discrimination complaint at only one office (i.e, one investigation).
20c21
< There's lots more to be added...
---
> There's lots more to be added...
------
Political_conservative|987109599
21a22,23
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
How_to_start_a_page|987109672
4c4
< * A more strongly worded, yet [[on-topic]], initial version of a page causes more revisions and reaction and increases the probability that the end result will be well written.  See [[Political correctness]] revision history for a good example.
---
> * A more strongly worded, yet [[on-topic]], initial version of a page causes more revisions and reaction and increases the probability that the end result will be well written.  See [[Political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  On non-political topics, this should not be followed.
------
On-topic|987109744
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something is <b>on-topic</b> if it is within the bounds of the current discussion.
> 
> The opposite of on-topic is [[off topic]].
> 
------
Real_numbers|987110058
1c1
< The term <i>real number</i> is a [[retronym]] (coined in response to [[imaginary number]]) that denotes the kind of number one might use to represent a continuous quantity (including 0 and negatives).  The [[Integer]]s, [[rational number]]s, are all subsets of real numbers. [[Imaginary number]]s and  [[complex number]]s are not real numbers, nor are things like [[vector]]s and [[tensor]]s.  What follows are more rigorous mathematical descriptions of the concept.
---
> The term <i>real number</i> is a [[retronym]] (coined in response to [[imaginary number]]) that denotes the kind of number one might use to represent a continuous quantity (including 0 and negatives).  The [[Integer]]s, [[rational number]]s, are all subsets of real numbers. [[Imaginary number]]s and  [[complex number]]s are not real numbers, nor are things like [[vector]]s and [[tensor]]s. Floating point numbers are approximations of the real numbers that can be used by computers. What follows are more rigorous mathematical descriptions of the concept.
5c5
< * The set R is a [[Field]]
---
> * The set R is a [[Field]] (i.e. addition, multiplication and division are defined)
9c9
< * If S is non-empty subset of R and S has an [[upper bound]] in R, then there exists some z in R that is a [[supremum|least upper bound]] for S. 
---
> * Every non-empty subset S with an [[upper bound]] in R has a [supremum|least upper bound] in R.
10a11
> The latter property is what differentiates the [[real numbers|reals]] from the [[rational numbers|rationals]]. For example, the set of the rationals with square less than 2 has a rational upper bound (e.g. 1.5) but no least upperbound, because sqrt(2) is not rational.
12c13
< The latter property is what differentiates the [[real numbers|reals]] from the [[rational numbers|rationals]]. For example, the set of the rationals less than or equal to 'pi' has an upper bound (e.g. 3.15), but no rational least upper bound. 
---
> Every non negative real number has a [[square root]]. This shows that the order on R is determined by it algebraic structure.
13a15
> The real numbers are the unique field satisfying these properties.  There are various other properties that uniquely specify them; for instance, all unbounded, continuous, and separable order topologies are necessarily isomorphic to the reals. 
15,16c17
< <i>another example. Old memories, I may be wrong. let S= all x in Q
< so that x^2 <= 2. You have no y in Q so that, for any z in S, z <= y and for each epsilon >0, there exists a X in Q, so that y-X < epsilon. S has no upper bound (supremum?). y is sqrt(2), which doesn't belong to Q. <br> JB </i>
---
> The main reason for introducing the reals is that the reals contain all [[MathematicalLimit|limits]]. More technically the reals are [[complete metric space |complete]]. This means the following. 
18,22c19
< The real numbers are the unique field satisfying these properties.  There are various other properties that uniquely specify them; for instance, all unbounded, continuous, and separable order topologies are necessarily isomorphic to the reals.
< 
< The main reason for introducing the reals is that the reals contain all [[MathematicalLimit|limits]]. More technically the reals are are [[complete metric space |complete]]. This means the following. 
< 
< A [[sequence]] {x_n} of real numbers is called a [[Cauchy sequence]] if for all epsilon > 0 there is a number  N such that for all n,m >N the distance |x_n - x_m | < epsilon.
---
> A [[sequence]] {x_n} of real numbers is called a [[Cauchy sequence]] if there exists an integer valued function N = N(epsilon) on the positive real (or rational )numbers  such that for any epsilon >0, the distance  |x_n - x_m | < epsilon provided n,m >N(epsilon).
26c23,24
< A sequence of numbers {x_n} has a [[limit]] x if for all epsilon >0 there is a nunmber N such that for all n > N the difference |x_n - x | < epsilon. 
---
> A sequence of numbers {x_n} has a [[MathematicalLimit|limit]] x if there exists an integer valued fuction N = N(epsilon) on the positive real (or rational) numbers  such that for any epsilon >0 
> |x_n - x | < epsilon provided n > N(epsilon). 
30,31c28
< It is easy to see every convergent sequence is a cauchy sequence. 
< Now a space is [[complete]] if every cauchy sequence is convergent. Note that the rationals are not complete.
---
> It is easy to see that every convergent sequence is a cauchy sequence. Now a space is [[complete]] if conversely every cauchy sequence is convergent. Note that the rationals are not complete.
34c31,36
< The existence of limits of cauchy sequences is what makes [[analysis]] and the [[calculus]] work and is of great practical use. Also note that the standard numerical test if a sequence has a limit is to test that it is (or seems to be ) a cauchy sequence, as the limit is typically not known in advance. 
---
> The existence of limits of cauchy sequences is what makes [[analysis]] and the [[calculus]] work and is of great practical use. For example the standard series of the [[exponential function]] 
> ::       exp(x) = sum_{n=0}^infty x^n/n!
> converges to a real number because for every x the tail sum
> ::       sum_N^M x^n/n! 
> can be made arbitrarily small by choosing N sufficiently large.
> Also note that the standard numerical test if a sequence has a limit is to test that it is (or seems to be ) a cauchy sequence, as the limit is typically not known in advance. 
36c38
< There is a standard trick to force cauchy sequences to converge (a process called [[completing]]). When applied to the [[rational numbers]] it gives the following useful [[construction of the real numbers]]. 
---
> If we have a space where Cauchy sequences make sense (a so called [[metric space]]), there is a standard trick to force all cauchy sequences to converge by adding some new points to the space (a process called [[completing]]). When applied to the [[rational numbers]] it gives the following useful [[construction of the real numbers]]. 
39c41,46
< Two Cauchy sequences {x_n} and {y_m} are equivalent if for all epsilon > 0 there is a number N such that for all n,m > N the distance |x_n - y_m| < epsilon. (note a patern here ?) It is easy to see that this really defines an [[equivalence relation]]. Let R be the set of [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]]. Then R is a model for the real numbers. 
---
> Two Cauchy sequences {x_n} and {y_m} are equivalent if there exists an integer valued function N = N(epsilon) on the positive reals (or rationals) such that for any epsilon > 0 the distance |x_n - y_m| < epsilon provided n,m > N(epsilon). 
> 
> It is easy to see that this really defines an [[equivalence relation]]. Let R be the set of [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]]. Then R is a model for the real numbers. 
> 
> A practical and concrete representative for an equivalence class representing a real number is provided by the representation to base b (usually 2 ([[binary]]), 10 ([[decimal]]) or 16 ([[hexadecimal]])). For example the number 'pi' = 3.14159.... would correspond to the Cauchy sequence {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, ...}.
> A real number can have two representations. For example : 1 =0.99999.... .  
41,42c48
< A practical and concrete representative for an equivalence class representing a real number is provided by the representation to base b (usually 2 [[binary]], 10 [[decimal]] or 16 [[hexadecimal]]). For example the number 'pi' = 3.14159.... would correspond to the Cauchy sequence {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, ...}.
< A real number can have two representations. For example : 1 =0.99999 .... .  
---
> The reals are [[uncountable]], that is there are stricly more real numbers than integers. In fact the [[cardinality]] of the reals is $2^{aleph_0}$, i.e. the cardinality of the set of subsets of the [[integers]]. Since only a countable set of real numbers can be [[algebraic numbers|algebraic]], almost all real numbers are [[transcedental]] The nonexistence of a subset of the reals with cardinality strictly in between that of the integers and the reals is known as the [[continuum hypothesis]]. This can neither be proved nor be disproved but is an independant axiom of set theory.   
44d49
< The reals are [[uncountable]], that is there are stricly more real numbers than integers. In fact the [[cardinality]] of the reals is $2^{aleph_0}$, i.e. the cardinality of the set of subsets of the [[integers]]. The nonexistence of a subset of the reals with cardinality strictly in between that of the integers and the reals is known as the [[continuum hypothesis]]. This can neither be proved nor be disproved but is an independant axiom of set theory.   
47c52,61
< The reals are a [[contractible]] (hence [[connected]]), [[locally compact]] [[seperable]] [[Haussdorff]] space, of [[Cohomological dimension for H_c|dimension]] 1, and are [[second category| everywhere dense]]. 
---
> The reals are a [[contractible]] (hence [[connected]] and  [[simply connected]]), [[locally compact]] [[seperable]] [[Haussdorff]] space, of [[Cohomological dimension for H_c|dimension]] 1, and are [[first category|everywhere dense]]. The real numbers are not [[compact]].
> 
> <i> RB: The dimension is actually difficult to define : the reals have dimension 1 for pretty much any sensible definition but 
> the best definition I know is that cohomology with compact support is non trivial in dimension 1 and vanishes above it. </i> 
> 
> The reals are one of the two [[local fields]] of [[characteristic]] 0 (the other one being the [[complex numbers]]).
> 
> A [[number field]] is a [[real field]] if every embedding in the complex numbers is real.
> 
> The reals carry a canonical [[measure]], the [[Lebesgue measure]] which is the [[Haar measure]] normalised such that [[interval]] [0,1] has measure 1.
49,50d62
< <i> RB: The dimension is actually difficult to define : 
< the best definition I know is that cohomology with compact support vanishes above dimension 2 and is non trivial in dimension 1. Fortunately others such as covering dimension are also 1</i> 
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald|987110769
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Somewhat enigmatic figure and putative assassin of [[John F. Kennedy]].
> 
> Owsald was a former United States Marine who had served as a Russian language translator, and who lived in the USSR for a time, both during and after his military career.  He married a Russian national, Marina Oswald, and eventually made his permanent home in the U.S.
> 
> He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by Jack Ruby before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
------
Political_liberal|987110819
5c5
< * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].  This is opposed to [[Political conservative]]s who support treating everyone equally and not giving special priviledges to any group.
---
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
------
Political_liberal|987110873
5c5
< * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]].
---
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]], which may be interpreted as government favoritism toward such groups.
------
DegreeConfluenceProject|987111185
5c5
< The number of "confluences" is 41,253 (360 squared divided by pi) -- this is the same number of total square degrees on a sphere astronomers use to specify [[constellation]] areas.
---
> The number of confluences is 41,253 (360 squared divided by pi) -- this is the same number of total square degrees on a sphere astronomers use to specify [[constellation]] areas.
7c7
< Only confluences on land are included in the project. Since the ocean area of the [[earth]] is 71%, this leaves roughly 12,000 points to be photographed.
---
> Only confluences on land are included in the project. Since the ocean area of the [[earth]] is 71%, this leaves roughly 12,000 points to be photographed. Many confluence points north and south of 49 degrees are arbitrarily declared unofficial. Nevertheless, volunteer explorers, especially in Europe, continue to add both official and unofficial confluence points.
------
Complex_numbers|987111307
1c1
< Complex numbers are a natural extension of the [[real numbers]].  Firstly, we define the [[imaginary number]] i to be a root of the equation x<sup>2</sup>+1=0.  We may then form complex numbers by using the form a + i b, where a and b are real numbers.
---
> Complex numbers are a natural extension of the [[real numbers]] 
3c3
< Formally we may also define complex numbers as an ordered pair of real numbers (a,b) along with the operations:
---
> Formally we may define complex numbers as an ordered pair of [[real numbers]] (a,b) together with the operations:
8c8
< A most striking result is that all [[polynomial]]s of degree "n" have exactly "n" complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity).  This is known as the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]].
---
> This shows that the [[imaginary number]] i = (0,1) is a root of the equation x<sup>2</sup>+1=0.  All complex numbers can then be written as a + i b, where a and b are real numbers.
10c10
< The study of functions of complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has an enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics]].
---
> A most striking result is that all [[polynomial]]s of degree "n" have exactly "n" complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity). This is known as the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], and shows that the complex numbers are an [[algebraically closed field]].
12c12,17
< See also: [[Quaternions]]
---
> The study of functions of a complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics]]. 
>  
> See also: 
> *[[Quaternions]]
> *[[complex geometry]]
> *[[local fields]]
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald|987111360
3c3
< Owsald was a former United States Marine who had served as a Russian language translator, and who lived in the USSR for a time, both during and after his military career.  He married a Russian national, Marina Oswald, and eventually made his permanent home in the U.S.
---
> Owsald was a former United States Marine who had served as a Russian language translator, and who lived in the USSR for a time, both during and after his military career.  He married a Russian national, Marina (nee Nichilayeva) Oswald, and eventually made his permanent home in the U.S.
5c5
< He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by Jack Ruby before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
---
> He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by Jack Ruby before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
------
Complex_numbers|987111376
10c10
< A most striking result is that all [[polynomial]]s of degree "n" have exactly "n" complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity). This is known as the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], and shows that the complex numbers are an [[algebraically closed field]].
---
> A most striking result is that all [[polynomial|polynomials]] of degree "n" have exactly "n" complex roots (counting multiple roots according to their multiplicity). This is known as the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], and shows that the complex numbers are an [[algebraically closed field]].
12c12
< The study of functions of a complex [[variable]]s is known as [[complex analysis]] and has enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics]]. 
---
> The study of functions of a complex [[variable|variables]] is known as [[complex analysis]] and has enormous practical use in [[Applied Mathematics]]. 
17c17
< *[[local fields]]
---
> *[[local fields]]
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald|987111983
5c5
< He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by Jack Ruby before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
---
> He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by [[Jack Ruby]] before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald|987112039
1c1
< Somewhat enigmatic figure and putative assassin of [[John F. Kennedy]].
---
> This somewhat enigmatic figure was the putative assassin of [[John F. Kennedy]].
3c3
< Owsald was a former United States Marine who had served as a Russian language translator, and who lived in the USSR for a time, both during and after his military career.  He married a Russian national, Marina (nee Nichilayeva) Oswald, and eventually made his permanent home in the U.S.
---
> Owsald was a former United States Marine who had served as a Russian language translator, and who lived in the USSR for a time, both during and after his military career.  He married a Russian national, Marina (nee Nichilayeva) Oswald, and eventually made his permanent home in the U.S.  He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]].
5c5,7
< He was an axowed Marxist and supporter of [[Cuba]]'s [[Fidel Castro]], but denied having shot Kennedy.  He was murdered by [[Jack Ruby]] before the truth of the allegations against him could be ascertained.
---
> Oswald was apprehended shortly after the shooting.  He denied the shooting while in custody, shouting "I didn't shoot anyone" to reporters.  Oswald was shot and killed by Texas night club owner [[Jack Ruby]] while being transferred to county jail, before being brought to trial.  Many alternative theories of the assassination contend that he acted on behalf of others, or even that Oswald was not the actual assassin.  The [[Warren Commission]] was created by Congress to investigate the assassination, and it reported its conclusion that Oswald acted alone.  The proceedings of the commission were secret, and its files have yet to be released to the public, further fueling speculation about the assassination.
> 
> /Talk
------
How_to_start_a_page|987112042
6c6
< :''This might not be such a good idea, though.  Yes, an article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existance of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is some kinda theory Einstein made.  But I don't think we really want baiting to be official policy.''
---
> :''This might not be such a good idea, though.  Yes, an article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existance of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is some kinda theory Einstein made.  But I don't think we really want baiting to be official policy.  That applies to political topics, too; opinionated articles show a flagrant disregard for neutral point of view and I suggest should not be encouraged.''
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald|987112324
5c5
< Oswald was apprehended shortly after the shooting.  He denied the shooting while in custody, shouting "I didn't shoot anyone" to reporters.  Oswald was shot and killed by Texas night club owner [[Jack Ruby]] while being transferred to county jail, before being brought to trial.  Many alternative theories of the assassination contend that he acted on behalf of others, or even that Oswald was not the actual assassin.  The [[Warren Commission]] was created by Congress to investigate the assassination, and it reported its conclusion that Oswald acted alone.  The proceedings of the commission were secret, and its files have yet to be released to the public, further fueling speculation about the assassination.
---
> Oswald was apprehended shortly after the shooting.  He denied the shooting while in custody, shouting "I didn't shoot anyone" to reporters.  Oswald was shot and killed by Texas night club owner [[Jack Ruby]] while being transferred to county jail, before being brought to trial.  Many alternative theories of the assassination contend that he acted on behalf of others, or even that Oswald was not the actual assassin.  The [[Warren Commission]] was created by Congress to investigate the assassination, and it reported its conclusion that Oswald did assassinate Kennedy and further, that he acted alone.  The proceedings of the commission were secret, and its files have yet to be released to the public, further fueling speculation about the assassination.
------
Cultural_anthropology|987112720
2,8c2,8
< [Americans]
< 	
< [Eskimos]
< 	
< [hunters-gatherers]
< [nomads]
< [Romans]
---
> 
> *[[Americans]]
> *[[Eskimos]]
> *[[Native American]]
> *[[hunter-gatherers]]
> *[[nomads]]
> *[[Romans]]
------
Political_conservative/Talk|987112772
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's the original text, so one-sided it's quite funny.  I'm placing it here so it won't be lost while I come up with something reasonably informative to those not involved (remember, folks, our purpose here is to describe things in a way that someone who has no prior exposure whatever to the ideas might understand them).
> 
> An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
> 
> Basic principles of conservativism:
> * Everyone should be treated equally
> ** No one should be discriminated against
> *** This includes discriminating against people that had nothing to do with any past discrimination - Consider [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] which became states in the [[1950s]] yet are under the same affirmative action regulation as states where slavery was practiced.
> ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings (i.e., in effect, discriminating against groups that do not have the special privilidges).  Consider that one group has two government offices to file a discrimination complaint (i.e., two investigations) and another group can file a discrimination complaint at only one office (i.e, one investigation).
> * Personal freedom should be protected and enhanced
> * Personal responsibility
> ** Earn your own living without government subsidy
> ** Obey the law (criminals should not be given special treatment based on background, upbringing, etc. except in cases of mental disabilities)
> * Laws should be enforced and enforced equally (no one is above the law - including politicians)
> * United States should
> ** Strong military
> ** Not help our enemys (mainly [[communist]], [[terrists]], or [[totalitarian]] regiems)
> ** Have a small but vigours government (limited government)
> *** Larger government == more regulation == less personal freedom
> *** Larger government == less economic product put into improving productivity == less economic work put into increasing standards of living == less personal freedom through less economic freedom
> 
> There's lots more to be added...
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
Positive_tone|987112943
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A suggested extension to NeutralPointOfView.  Things should be presented in terms of facts rather than opinion, but an article can still radiate an implied stance through either selection of which facts to present, or more subtly their organization - refuting everything as one goes makes things look a lot worse than collecting them in an opinions-of-opponents section.  It seems to me that a fair bit of stuff ends up as fairly partisan commentary even while presenting both points of view.
> 
> Therefore I am suggesting that we avoid the problem altogether and not write articles from the tone that a position is a bad one.  We should instead start with the attitude that such and such is a good idea, except that the supporters of said view overlooked such and such a detail.  If you don't think you can do that, you are probably about to write with enough contempt that edits are going to have a hard time doing anything but veiling it.  This applies to articles not just in politics, but any field where there is considerably controversy and both sides have started on reasonable ground.
------
Isms|987113087
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> abolitionism
> absenteeism
> absolutism
> abstract expressionism
> ageism
> agnosticism
> agrarianism
> alarmism
> Albigensianism
> albinism
> alcoholism
> anarcho-syndicalism
> aneurism
> Anglicanism
> animalism
> animal magnetism
> animism
> anti-Semitism
> autism
> Bahaism
> baptism
> behaviorism
> Benthamism
> Big Brotherism
> bilateralism
> bilingualism
> bimetallism
> Buddhism
> Bullism
> capitalism
> careerism
> Cartesianism
> Catholicism
> charlatanism
> Chartism
> chauvinism
> checkbook journalism
> Communism
> Conservative Judaism
> consumerism
> criticism
> cronyism
> Darwinism
> despotism
> determinism
> do-goodism
> do-nothingism
> druidism
> dualism
> egocentrism
> egoism
> electromagnetism
> elitism
------
NeutralPointOfView|987113120
42a43
> See also [[Positive tone]].
------
Requested_articles|987113135
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[isms]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Socialism|987113305
7c7
< Critics have said that "socialism is a system in which everyone is equally poor", pointing out that because individuals are not rewarded more on the basis of supply and demand, there is less incentive for individual achievement, improving technology, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.  Socialists reply...[how?].
---
> Critics have said that "socialism is a system in which everyone is equally poor", pointing out that because individuals are not rewarded more on the basis of supply and demand, there is less incentive for individual achievement, improving technology, and other factors that result in a higher standard of living.
------
Native_American|987113460
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Indigenous peoples of the Americas, usually meant to refer to those of the North American Continent.
> 
> The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no realtioship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the sad misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]] upon arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent that he had reached the Indies. 
> 
> One minority view has been that a more accurate term might be "Asiatic Americans" because of the popular theory that such peoples migrated to the Americas from Asia accross an ice bridge covering the Bering Straits some 20,000 years ago.  There is competent fossil evidence that this may have been the case.  The strong tradition among Archaeologists and Anthropologists, however, is to indicate the geographic origins of a people as according to the region where they (or their remains) were first encountered by researchers.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987113820
66a67,73
> <b>I ([[Jimbo Wales]]) totally agree that for the Wikipedia, in-content advertising would be disastrous.  Also, it would be disastrous and a grave moral breech on my part if I did anything to violate the trust that the authors have placed in me.  The content needs to remain in the hands of the community, of which I am but one member.  If I added an advertisement to the content of the site, anyone could (and should!) delete it!
> 
> But consider a page about [[Ernest Hemingway]].  Why <i>not</i> link to places where interested readers can buy his books?  And why <i>not</i> have those be affiliate program links.  Even here, I would say that it only makes sense for me to try to avoid merchants who have offended the free content and free software community (Amazon, with their one-click patent nonsense, for example).
> 
> As to the expenses, the major expense of this site is, and will continue to be, Larry's salary.  I could fire Larry, and the site would still grow, more or less.  But I don't think it would be as good without his excellent full-time coaching of us all.
> </b>
> 
72a80,81
> 
> <b>The money will go first and foremost to pay Larry's salary.  Anything above and beyond that will go to support my extravagant lifestyle.  If you want, you can donate money to this cause, as well.  [http://www.bomis.com/tipjar The Bomis Tipjar] --[[Jimbo Wales]] (yes, this is humor)</b>
------
Political_conservative|987113976
1c1
< An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
---
> A '''political conservative''' is one who supports traditional views and values.  In the [[United States]], it is generally associated with the following views:
2a3,9
> * Support for Judeo-Christian moral values.
> * Support for strong law enforcement and strong penalties for crimes.
> * Restraint in taxation and regulation of businesses.
> * Support for a strong military, and well-defended closed borders.
> * Opposition to [[gun control]] laws.
> * Opposition to (or support for lessening) many social programs such as welfare and medical care (though many do favor the country's mandatory user-funded retirement benefits system).
> * Opposition to policies such as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]] which can be perceived as government favoritism of minority groups.
4,19c11
< Basic principles of conservativism:
< * Everyone should be treated equally
< ** No one should be discriminated against
< *** This includes discriminating against people that had nothing to do with any past discrimination - Consider [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] which became states in the [[1950s]] yet are under the same affirmative action regulation as states where slavery was practiced.
< ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings (i.e., in effect, discriminating against groups that do not have the special privilidges).  Consider that one group has two government offices to file a discrimination complaint (i.e., two investigations) and another group can file a discrimination complaint at only one office (i.e, one investigation).
< * Personal freedom should be protected and enhanced
< * Personal responsibility
< ** Earn your own living without government subsidy
< ** Obey the law (criminals should not be given special treatment based on background, upbringing, etc. except in cases of mental disabilities)
< * Laws should be enforced and enforced equally (no one is above the law - including politicians)
< * United States should
< ** Strong military
< ** Not help our enemys (mainly [[communist]], [[terrists]], or [[totalitarian]] regiems)
< ** Have a small but vigours government (limited government)
< *** Larger government == more regulation == less personal freedom
< *** Larger government == less economic product put into improving productivity == less economic work put into increasing standards of living == less personal freedom through less economic freedom
---
> Conservatives differ widely on some issues as well.  For example, many support open international trade, while some support some form of protection for domestic business such as import tariffs.
21,23c13
< There's lots more to be added...
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Political_conservative/Talk|987114198
24,25c24,25
< [[/Talk]]
< 
---
> ----
> It seems to me all of these liberal/conservative/libertarian/etc. pages, where the beliefs themselves and the practices of those who hold them is so inconsistent and ill-defined, might be better served with lost of '''examples''' of legislation rather than more rhetoric.  We certainly need a bit of defining text for foreign readers and such, but the real flavor should come though better with examples.
------
Nupedia|987114349
1a2,3
> 
> Please consider [[adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]].
------
Political_conservative/Talk|987114493
25a26,28
> ----
> 
> LDC, you rock.
------
Political_conservative|987114540
6a7
> * Support for [[drug prohibition]].
------
Political_liberal|987114542
5c5
< * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]], which may be interpreted as government favoritism toward such groups.
---
> * Support for the rights of women and minorities.  Particularly racial and religious minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals.  Some further support such programs as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]].
------
Political_conservative|987114643
1,12c1
< A '''political conservative''' is one who supports traditional views and values.  In the [[United States]], it is generally associated with the following views:
< 
< * Support for Judeo-Christian moral values.
< * Support for strong law enforcement and strong penalties for crimes.
< * Restraint in taxation and regulation of businesses.
< * Support for a strong military, and well-defended closed borders.
< * Support for [[drug prohibition]].
< * Opposition to [[gun control]] laws.
< * Opposition to (or support for lessening) many social programs such as welfare and medical care (though many do favor the country's mandatory user-funded retirement benefits system).
< * Opposition to policies such as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]] which can be perceived as government favoritism of minority groups.
< 
< Conservatives differ widely on some issues as well.  For example, many support open international trade, while some support some form of protection for domestic business such as import tariffs.
---
> A '''political conservative''' is one who supports [[political conservatism]].
------
Political_conservatism|987114708
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional views and values.  In the [[United States]] and western [[Europe]], it is generally associated with the following views:
> 
> * Support for Judeo-Christian moral values.
> * Support for strong law enforcement and strong penalties for crimes.
> * Restraint in taxation and regulation of businesses.
> * Support for a strong military, and well-defended closed borders.
> * Support for [[drug prohibition]].
> * Opposition to [[gun control]] laws.
> * Opposition to (or support for lessening) many social programs such as welfare and medical care (though many do favor the country's mandatory user-funded retirement benefits system).
> * Opposition to policies such as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]] which can be perceived as government favoritism of minority groups.
> 
> Conservatives differ widely on some issues as well.  For example, many support open international trade, while some support some form of protection for domestic business such as import tariffs.
------
Positive_tone|987114832
3c3,8
< Therefore I am suggesting that we avoid the problem altogether and not write articles from the tone that a position is a bad one.  We should instead start with the attitude that such and such is a good idea, except that the supporters of said view overlooked such and such a detail.  If you don't think you can do that, you are probably about to write with enough contempt that edits are going to have a hard time doing anything but veiling it.  This applies to articles not just in politics, but any field where there is considerably controversy and both sides have started on reasonable ground.
---
> Therefore I am suggesting that we avoid the problem altogether and not write articles from the tone that a position is a bad one.  We should instead start with the attitude that such and such is a good idea, except that the supporters of said view overlooked such and such a detail.  If you don't think you can do that, you are probably about to write with enough contempt that edits are going to have a hard time doing anything but veiling it.  This applies to articles not just in politics, but any field where there is considerably controversy and both sides have started on reasonable ground.
> ---
> 
> If I understand what you are saying, Josh, I agree completely. 
> (How's that for a really hedged statement? :-))
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Political_conservatism|987114897
3c3
< * Support for Judeo-Christian moral values.
---
> * Support for traditional religious (Judeo-Christian) moral values.
10c10
< * Opposition to policies such as [[Affirmative action]] and [[Multi-lingual education]] which can be perceived as government favoritism of minority groups.
---
> * Opposition to policies such as [[affirmative action]] and [[multi-lingual education]] which can be perceived as government favoritism of minority groups.
12c12,16
< Conservatives differ widely on some issues as well.  For example, many support open international trade, while some support some form of protection for domestic business such as import tariffs.
---
> Conservatives differ widely on some issues as well.  For example, many support open international trade, while some support some form of protection for domestic business such as import tariffs.
> 
> '''History of conservatism'''
> 
> '''Famous conservatives'''
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987114977
73a74,75
> ::''Larry immediately breaks into a cold sweat.''
> 
------
Native_American|987115638
3c3
< The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no realtioship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the sad misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]] upon arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent that he had reached the Indies. 
---
> The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no relationship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the sad misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]], arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent, that he had reached the Indies. 
5c5
< One minority view has been that a more accurate term might be "Asiatic Americans" because of the popular theory that such peoples migrated to the Americas from Asia accross an ice bridge covering the Bering Straits some 20,000 years ago.  There is competent fossil evidence that this may have been the case.  The strong tradition among Archaeologists and Anthropologists, however, is to indicate the geographic origins of a people as according to the region where they (or their remains) were first encountered by researchers.
---
> One minority view has been that a more accurate term might be "Asiatic Americans" because of the popular theory that such peoples migrated to the Americas from Asia accross an ice bridge covering the Bering Straits some 20,000 years ago.  There is competent fossil evidence that this may have been the case.  The strong tradition among Archaeologists and Anthropologists, however, is to indicate the geographic origins of a people as relating to the region where they (or their remains) were first encountered by researchers.
------
NeutralPointOfView|987115815
42a43,44
> See [[Creationism/Talk]] for ''lots'' more debate.
> 
------
Poker/Ante|987115831
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''forced bet''' in which each player places equal (and typically small) amount into the pot before the deal begins.
> 
> In a home game where the right to act as dealer rotates, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer must ante for everyone in his turn.  This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal.
> 
> 
------
Political_conservative/Talk|987115955
3c3
< An adherent of political [[conservatism]].
---
> An adherent of [[Political conservatism]].
28c28
< LDC, you rock.
---
> LDC, you rock.
------
Off_topic|987116010
1,6c1
< <b>Off topic</b> is a message in a discussion that is on a different topic than the main topic in the discussion.
< 
< Originally, off topic applied to [[newsgroup]] messages, but now applies to any discussion forum.
< 
< See also:
< * [[Internet troll]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Off-topic]]
------
Off-topic|987116021
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Off topic</b> is a message in a discussion that is on a different topic than the main topic in the discussion.
> 
> Originally, off topic applied to [[newsgroup]] messages, but now applies to any discussion forum.
> 
> See also:
> * [[Internet troll]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|987116110
8a9
> *[[How to start a page|How does one start a page]]?
10d10
< *[[How to start a page]]?
------
Poker/Blind|987116607
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also called a '''blind bet''', this is a '''forced bet''' placed into the pot by one or more players before the deal begins, in a way that simulates bets made during play.
> 
> For example, the first player to the dealer's left (who would normally be the first to bet after the cards are dealt) makes a blind bet of $1, and the next player in turn posts a '''big blind''' of $2.  After the cards are dealt, play continues with the next player in turn (third from the dealer), who acts just as if the $1 had been an [[/Open]]ing bet and the $2 had been a [[/Raise]], so he must either call $2, reraise, or fold.  When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, he acts just as if that had been the opening bet; he must equal the bet facing him (toward which he may count his $1), fold, or reraise.
> 
> An additional privilege is given to the player who posted the big blind to compensate for the fact that he is forced to bet.  If there have been no raises by the time his first turn to bet voluntarily comes (that is, the bet amount facing him is just the $2 he originally put in), then he is given the right to raise at that point, even though his right-hand opponent's call would normally have closed the betting round under other circumstances.  This "extra" right to raise (called a '''live blind''') occurs only once: if his raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes as usual.
> 
> For example, suppose there are only three players in a deal.  The player to the dealer's left blinds $1, and the next player blinds $2.  After the cards are dealt, the next player in turn (who is the dealer in this case) calls the $2.  Now it is the turn of the player who posted only $1, and he adds an additional $1 to bring his bet up to $2.  Now everyone has paid $2, and the round would be over if the big blind had been a voluntary bet, but because it was a forced bet, it is "live" and the player may now raise.  He can also '''check his option''', indicating that he does not wish to raise, and thereby end the betting round.  He chooses to raise to $4.  Now the dealer calls, and the player after him calls.  Now everyone has bet $4 and the round is over.  The player in the blind does not have the right to raise this time.
> 
> The most common use of blinds as a betting structure calls for two blinds: the player after the dealer blinds about half of what would be a normal bet, and the next player blinds what would be a whole bet.  One blind is also used, as is three.  In the case of three blinds (usually one quarter, one quater, and half a normal bet amount), the first blind goes "on the button", that is, is paid by the dealer.
------
Poker/Bring-in|987117109
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This '''forced bet''' occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action.  One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to [[/Open]] the betting by some small amount, after which players act after him in normal rotation.
> 
> The bring-in is normally assigned on the first betting round of a [[stud poker]] game to the player whose upcards indicate the poorest hand.  For example, in traditional [[/High hand]] stud games and [[/High-low split]] games, the player showing the lowest card pays the bring-in.  In [[/Low hand]] games, the player with the highest card showing pays the bring-in.  The [[/High card by suit]] order can be used to break ties if necessary.
> 
> In most [[/Fixed-limit]] and some [[/Spread-limit]] games the bring-in amount is less than the normal betting minimum.  The player forced to pay the bring-in may choose either to pay only what is required or to make a normal bet.  Players acting after a sub-minimum bring-in have to the right to call the bring-in as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called '''completing''' the bet.  For example, a game with a $5 fixed bet on the first round might have a bring-in of $2.  Players acting after the bring-in can either call the $2, or raise to $5.  After the bet is raised to $5, the next raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.
> 
> In a game where the bring-in is equal to the fixed bet (this is rare and not recommended), the game must either allow the bring-in player to optionally come in for a raise, or else the bring-in must be treated as '''live''' in the same way as a [[/Blind]].
> 
------
Poker/Community_card|987117328
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An exposed card that is shared by more than one player (usually all).  For example, if one individual player holds a hand of '''K-7-3-3''' and there is a '''K''' as a community card shared by all players, then that player's hand plays as [[/Two pair]] upon [[/Showdown]], '''K-K-3-3-7'''.  If another player on that same deal with the same shared '''K''' held cards of '''A-Q-J-10''', his hand upon showdown would be the ace-high [[/Straight]]] '''A-K-Q-J-10'''
> 
> Often several community cards are dealt to the table, shared by all players, and subject to variant-specific rules about how many and which of the cards may be used in each player's hand.  Such a set of community cards is often called a "board".  For example, the game [[/Texas holdem]] ends with each player holding two cards in his individual hand, and a board of five community cards shared by everyone.  Each player then plays the best five-card hand he can make out of the two in his hand combined with the five he shares.  In [[/Omaha holdem]], game rules restrict players to using exactly three (no more and no fewer) of the five community cards combined with exactly two of the four cards dealt to each player to make a hand.
> 
> [[Community card poker]] games can be strategically interesting because shared cards often give players hands of similar value.  For example, when the five community cards on a Texas hold'em board include four of one suit, any player with a card of that suit in his hand can play a [[/Flush]] (but the one with the highest-ranking card of that suit is likely to win).
------
Poker/Open|987117409
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The act of making the first non-zero bet in a betting round is called '''opening''' the round.   On the first betting round, it is also called '''opening the pot'''.  Some games may have special rules about opening a round that may not apply to other bets (for example, they may have a [[/Betting structure]] that specifies different allowable amounts for opening than for other bets, or they may require a player to hold certain cards to open).
> 
------
Poker/Showdown|987117490
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In all [[poker]] games, if more than one player remains after the last betting round, all of them expose and compare their hands to determine the winner or winners.
> 
> All players should expose their hands immediately, and each player is entitled to see every other player's hand, but because exposing a losing hand gives information to an opponent, many players are reluctant to expose their hands until after their opponents have done so.  To avoid this deadlock, [[casino]]s often have a rule specifying which player is required to show his hand first (usually the one who made the last [[/Raise]]), and then each player after that is required to show his hand in turn.  Some players may choose to discard their hand and forfeit their interest in the pot rather than show their losing hand.  If this happens, any other player involved in the showdown may demand that the hand be shown.
> 
------
Poker/Fold|987117618
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To discard one's hand and forfeit any further interest in the deal.  Also called "drop" or "pass" (the latter term is ambiguous, because it can also mean [[/Check]]).  This can be done verbally, or simply signalled by discarding one's hand into a the pile of other discards called the '''muck'''.  In [[stud poker]] played in the [[United States]], it is customary to signal folding by turning all of your cards face down.  In [[casino]]s in the [[United Kingdom]], a player folds by giving his hand as is to the "house" dealer, who will spread the hand's upcards for the other players to see before mucking them.
> 
> It is a serious breach of etiqette to fold '''out of turn''', that is, when it is not the folding player's turn to act, because this can harm other players.  For example, if there are three players remaining and the first player in turn bets, the third player folding out of turn  now would give valuable strategic information to the second player (who is '''in turn''' at this point), to the detriment of the bettor.  In some games, even folding in turn when you are entitled to check (because there is no bet facing you) is considered an out of turn fold since it gives away information to which players would otherwise not be entitled.  Finally, if a player folds out of turn in a [[stud poker]] game, the player in turn may demand that his upcards remain exposed until he has completed his turn.
> 
------
How_to_start_a_page|987117723
1c1
< Essentially, each page should be concise as needed.  Often it is only necessary to enter a line or two of text for an entry.
---
> This is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how odes one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally
3,6c3,5
< Some thoughts:
< * A more strongly worded, yet [[on-topic]], initial version of a page causes more revisions and reaction and increases the probability that the end result will be well written.  See [[Political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  On non-political topics, this should not be followed.
< 
< :''This might not be such a good idea, though.  Yes, an article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existance of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is some kinda theory Einstein made.  But I don't think we really want baiting to be official policy.  That applies to political topics, too; opinionated articles show a flagrant disregard for neutral point of view and I suggest should not be encouraged.''
---
> There are two basic ways to start a Wikipedia page:
> #As you're reading through already-existing Wikipedia articles, you'll see question marks that are clickable links.  You can click on a "?" link that appears after an article title, and you'll arrive at a page that says "Describe the new page here."  Just delete that text and replace it with the text of your article.  When you're finished, click the "Save" button at the bottom of the page.  (Use the "Preview" button if you want to see what the page will look like first.) -- Modifying arbitrary pages by adding/wikifying a new term and then adding a well-written entry linked from that page are a great way to continually add new topics to Wikipedia.
> #If you want to create a brand-new topic, probably the first thing to do is to use the "search" form (see the bottom of this page, for example) and see whether someone has not already created some very similar page.  If not, you can find some related topic (often a general category, like [[Philosophy]] or [[Biology]]), edit ''that'' page, and (in an appropriate place) add the title of the article you want to create between double brackets, <nowiki>[[like this]]</nowiki>.  When you're naming pages, you might bear in mind the suggestions in [[naming conventions]] and [[topic creation]]. -- Creating brand-new topics is a great way to help Wikipedia increase its breadth (and depth).
8c7
< * Modifying random pages by adding/wikifying a new term and then adding a well written entry linked from that page are a great way to continually add new topics to Wikipedia.
---
> '''Note!'''  Bear in mind that Wikipedia is an [[open content]] encyclopedia.  You are contributing to a free, publicly-usable database of information.  This information is not proprietary.  '''You should not have copied your article from any proprietary source,''' and of course if you want your own work to remain your own intellectual property, then you should not contribute it to Wikipedia.
9a9,15
> Some thoughts:
> * Often it is only necessary to enter a line or two of text for an entry.  Full-blown articles are not required.  Any (accurate, helpful) information to Wikipedia is useful!  Of course, if you can write more, that's all the better!
> * We strongly encourage you to add and adapt work you have created elsewhere, for other purposes, to Wikipedia.  For examples of this, see [[Larrys Text]] and [[Ernest Hemingway]].  We also encourage that you add information found in [[PublicDomainResources|public domain resources and other open content projects]].  But--again--we strongly forbid using copyrighted material!
> * How you word your articles will determine, to some extent, how likely it is other people will work on it.  Examples:
> **An article that leaves many intriguing-sounding links or leaves ellipses (...), etc., might invite other know-it-alls to fill in the blanks.
> **Straightforward requests for information in an article can lead to good articles.  For example, one might supply a rough description of a thing or a place, and then asks about its history, many people who the answer will find it difficult to pass up the opportunity to teach.
> **A strongly-worded initial version of a page will, probably, cause more revisions and reaction, and perhaps the end result will be well written.  See [[political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  This might not be such a good idea, though.  An article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existence of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is "some kinda theory Einstein made."  But as a habit, this is probably a bad idea, because we would like our articles to be written from a [[NeutralPointOfView|neutral point of view]].
------
Off-topic|987117740
1c1
< <b>Off topic</b> is a message in a discussion that is on a different topic than the main topic in the discussion.
---
> A message in a discussion is '''off topic''' if its topic is different from the main topic in the discussion.
6c6
< * [[Internet troll]]
---
> * [[Internet troll]]
------
How_to_start_a_page|987117743
1c1
< This is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how odes one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally
---
> This is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally
15c15
< **A strongly-worded initial version of a page will, probably, cause more revisions and reaction, and perhaps the end result will be well written.  See [[political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  This might not be such a good idea, though.  An article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existence of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is "some kinda theory Einstein made."  But as a habit, this is probably a bad idea, because we would like our articles to be written from a [[NeutralPointOfView|neutral point of view]].
---
> **A strongly-worded initial version of a page will, probably, cause more revisions and reaction, and perhaps the end result will be well written.  See [[political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  This might not be such a good idea, though.  An article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existence of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is "some kinda theory Einstein made."  But as a habit, this is probably a bad idea, because we would like our articles to be written from a [[NeutralPointOfView|neutral point of view]].
------
How_to_start_a_page|987117779
1c1
< This is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally
---
> Here is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally.
------
How_to_start_a_page|987117882
11c11
< * We strongly encourage you to add and adapt work you have created elsewhere, for other purposes, to Wikipedia.  For examples of this, see [[Larrys Text]] and [[Ernest Hemingway]].  We also encourage that you add information found in [[PublicDomainResources|public domain resources and other open content projects]].  But--again--we strongly forbid using copyrighted material!
---
> * We strongly encourage you to add and adapt work you have created elsewhere, for other purposes, to Wikipedia.  For examples of this, see [[Larrys Text]] and [[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]].  We also encourage that you add information found in [[PublicDomainResources|public domain resources and other open content projects]].  But--again--we strongly forbid using copyrighted material!
------
How_to_start_a_page|987118038
5c5
< #If you want to create a brand-new topic, probably the first thing to do is to use the "search" form (see the bottom of this page, for example) and see whether someone has not already created some very similar page.  If not, you can find some related topic (often a general category, like [[Philosophy]] or [[Biology]]), edit ''that'' page, and (in an appropriate place) add the title of the article you want to create between double brackets, <nowiki>[[like this]]</nowiki>.  When you're naming pages, you might bear in mind the suggestions in [[naming conventions]] and [[topic creation]]. -- Creating brand-new topics is a great way to help Wikipedia increase its breadth (and depth).
---
> #If you want to create a brand-new topic, probably the first thing to do is to use the "search" form (see the bottom of this page, for example) and see whether someone has not already created some very similar page.  If not, you can find some related topic (often a general category, like [[Philosophy]] or [[Biology]]), edit ''that'' page, and (in an appropriate place) add the title of the article you want to create between double brackets, <nowiki>[[like this]]</nowiki>.  (When you're naming pages, you might bear in mind the suggestions in [[naming conventions]] and [[topic creation]].)  Then press the "save" button at the bottom of the page.  On the page you just edited, you should see a clickable "?"; click on that and go to work on your new page! -- Creating brand-new topics is a great way to help Wikipedia increase its breadth (and depth).
------
How_to_start_a_page|987118082
1c1
< Here is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to ''edit'' a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally.
---
> Here is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to edit a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally.
------
How_to_start_a_page|987118211
10c10
< * Often it is only necessary to enter a line or two of text for an entry.  Full-blown articles are not required.  Any (accurate, helpful) information to Wikipedia is useful!  Of course, if you can write more, that's all the better!
---
> * If you like, you can enter just a line or two of text for an entry.  It's a start.  Full-blown articles are not required.  Any (accurate, helpful) information to Wikipedia is useful!  Of course, if you can write more, that's all the better; some people do, as a matter of habit, usually write more than just a few lines when they start a new article.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987118323
1c1,3
< It's very easy to edit a Wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit this page right now!" link at the top or bottom of a Wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that Wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!  (You can also preview your changes before saving if you like).
---
> You might want to learn simply [[how to start a page]].
> 
> It's very easy to edit a Wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit this page right now!" link at the top or bottom of a Wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that Wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!  (You can also preview your changes before saving if you like.)
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987118368
42a43,44
> See also [[how to start a page]].
> 
------
Poker/Call|987118667
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To make the total amount of one's bet equal to the amount of the immediately preceding bet (which will be the largest bet made in that round).  All players must eventually call an equal amount for the betting round to end, or else one player must bet an amount that no one calls, thus ending the entire deal and awarding him the pot.
> 
> When no one has yet [[/Open]]ed the betting round, one may [[/Check]], which is equivalent to calling the current bet of zero.
> 
> In public card rooms and [[casino]]s where verbal declarations in turn (and sometimes even out of turn) are binding, the word "call" is such a declaration.  In particular, the practice commonly seen in poker games on television and in moives of saying "I call, and raise $100" is considered a '''string [[/Raise]]''' and is not allowed in a serious poker game.  Saying "I call" commits you to the action of calling, and only calling.
> 
------
Goethe|987118723
3c3
< Born in [http://www.frankfurt.de/index-e.html Frankfurt am Main].
---
> Born in [[Frankfurt am Main]] (see [http://www.frankfurt.de/index-e.html Frankfurt am Main]).
------
Education|987119004
3,4d2
< [[Disabilities]]
< 
17c15
< [[teaching methods]] -- [[learning theories]] -- [[learning styles]]
---
> [[teaching method|teaching methods]] -- [[learning theories]] -- [[learning style]] -- [[learning disability|learning disabilities]]
21c19
< [[colleges and universities]]
---
> [[colleges and universities]]
------
Poker/Raise|987119024
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To make the amount of one's bet greater than the amount of the immediately preceding bet, forcing all subsequent players to [[/Call]] the new amount.
> 
> A universal rule in American casinos, and common in home games as well, is that any raise must at least equal the amount of the previous raise.  For example, if a player in a [[/Spread limit ]] or [[/No limit]] game bets $5, the next player may raise by another $5 or more, but he may not raise by only $2, even if that would otherwise conform to the game's [[/Betting structure]].  The primary purpose of this rule is to avoid game delays caused by "nuisance" raises (small raises of large bets that don't affect the bet amount much but that take time).  This rule is often overridden by [[/Table stakes rules]], so that a player may in fact raise a $5 bet by $2 if that $2 is his entire remaining stake.
> 
> In many casinos, there is a limit to the total number of raises allowed in a single betting round (typically three or four, not including the opening bet of a round).  For example in a casino with a three-raise rule, if one player opens the betting for $5, the next raises by $5 making it $10, a third player raises another $5, and a fourth player raises $5 again making the current bet $20, the betting is said to be '''capped''' at that point, and no further raises beyond the $20 level will be allowed on that round.  It is common to suspend this rule when there are only two players betting in the round (called being '''head up''').
> 
------
Education|987119029
1c1
< :'''Education''' is not guaranteed by ''teaching'' but is evidenced by ''learning''.
---
> '''Education''' is not guaranteed by ''teaching'' but is evidenced by ''learning''.
------
Poker/Check|987119381
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If no player has yet [[/Open]]ed a betting round, the player in turn may '''check''', indicating that he does not choose to open, but that he wishes to keep his cards and retain the right to call or raise later in the same round if some other player opens.  A common way to signify checking is to rap the table with an open hand or fist.
> 
> A player with a '''live''' [[/Blind]] who chooses not to take advantage of his right to [[/Raise]] is said to '''check his option''', which can be signified the same way.
> 
> The word '''check''' is also used for '''chip''', especially in '''casino'''s.
------
Hobby|987119864
1c1
< I would love someone to give us a good definition of ''hobby''.
---
> A ''hobby'' for a person is a spare-time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like.  Doing so can sometimes lead to acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience.  What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: for example, a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games.  Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun and not for remuneration is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinguished from a ''[[profession|professional]].''
3,9c3
< How about:
< 
< A spare time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  This may include activities that are in fact professions for others: for example, a computer game programmer may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy computer games.
< 
< While many hobbies seem, to an outsider, to be trivial and uninteresting, this is irrelevant to the hobbyist. It should be remembered that much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; and in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. 
< 
< Another def.: Hobby: The systematic and enduring pursuit of  leisure by engaging in collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like, doing so in a way that leads to long-term acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. Hobbyists, unlike amateurs, lack a professional counterpart, though they may have a commercial equivalent and often have a small public who takes an interest in what they do.
---
> While some hobbies seem to most people to be trivial and uninteresting, the hobbyist has found something compelling and entertaining about the activity.  Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; in the present day, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby.
12c6,7
< * Collecting
---
> * [[Collecting]]
> ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
18d12
< ** [http://www.insulators.com Glass insulators]
20c14
< ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
---
> ** ''this list needs to be continued!''
24c18,19
< * [[Music]]
---
> * [[Music-making]]
> ** [[Musical composition]]
26,29c21,22
< **Planes
< ***[Gliders]
< ****[[Power]]
< ****[[[accesories]]]
---
> ** [[Model airplane]]s
> ** [[Model ship]]s
52,53c45
< Etc.
< 
---
> '''Please add to this list!!'''
------
Poker/Bluff|987119893
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To [[/Open]] or [[/Raise]] while holding a hand that is likely to be inferior, hoping that all other players will [[/Fold]] and award you the pot without a [[/Showdown]].
> 
> In games with multiple betting rounds, to bluff on one round with an inferior hand that might become a much better one by chance in a later round is often called a '''semi-bluff'''.  For example, a player in a [[stud poker]] game with four spade-suited cards showing (but none among his downcards) on the penultimate round might raise, hoping that others believe he has a [[/Flush]] even though he doesn't.  If his bluff fails and he is called, he still might be dealt a spade on the final card and win the showdown (or he might be dealt another non-spade and try his bluff again, in which case it is a '''pure bluff''' rather than a semi-bluff.
> 
------
Hobby|987119934
1c1
< A ''hobby'' for a person is a spare-time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sport, adult education, and the like.  Doing so can sometimes lead to acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience.  What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: for example, a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games.  Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun and not for remuneration is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinguished from a ''[[profession|professional]].''
---
> A ''hobby'' for a person is a spare-time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sports, adult education, and the like.  Engaging in a hobby can sometimes lead to acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience.  What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: for example, a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games.  Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun and not for remuneration is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinguished from a ''[[profession|professional]].''
22a23
> * [[Sport]]s
------
Topology|987120111
1c1
< Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing exclusively with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a [[Set]] X is defined a [[Set]] T of [[SubSet]]s of X satisfying:
---
> Topology is a branch of mathematics dealing with properties of continuity.  Formally, a topology for a [[Set]] X is defined a [[Set]] T of [[SubSet]]s of X satisfying:
15c15,132
< The importance of [[Topology]] is, in part, that one can define different topological spaces with elements from [[Analysis]], [[Algebra]], or [[Geometry]] and then one can determine the properties of such spaces and prove theorems about them. Of equal importance, one can prove what is '''not''' true about such spaces. Thus, through Topology one can obtain results in Analysis, Algebra and Geometry. This makes Topology very powerful.
---
> The importance of [[Topology]] is that it gives a natural  definition of [[continuous map]]. 
> 
> A map between topological spaces  f: X to Y is continuous if the inverse image of on open set is open.
> 
> Topological spaces crop up naturally in [[Analysis]], [[Algebra]] and [[Geometry]]. This has made topology one of the great unifying ideas of mathematics.
> Pointset topology defines some very useful properties of spaces and maps.
> Algebraic topology is a powerful tool to study topological spaces, and the maps between them. In addition it is deep subject of itself. It associates "discrete" more computable invariants to maps and spaces, often functors. Ideas from algebraic topology have had strong influence on [[algebra]] and [[algebraic geometry]].
>  
> Some examples of topological spaces :
> 
> * Every set with the [[discrete topology]] (i.e. every set is open) (boring)
> * a set with the [[trivial topology]] (i.e. only the empty set and the whole set are open) (boring)
> * A point (very boring)
> * The real numbers R: the open sets are the sets that contain an open interval. This is in many ways the most basic topological space and the one that guides most of our human intuition. 
> * a subset of topological space. The open sets are the intersections of the opensets of the big space with the subset.
> In particular we have the 
> *intervals in R.
> * Products of topological spaces. The open sets are the sets that are the unions of  products of open sets. In particular we have 
> * R^n and closed cubes or equivalently closed balls, often called cells.
> * Quotients If f:X to Y is a map and X is a topological space than Y get a topology where a set is open if its [[inverse image]] is open.
> * [[CW-complexes]] glued together cells that inherit essentially the quotient topology.
> * [[Metric spaces]], spaces where the distance between points is defined. This includes useful infinite dimensional spaces like [[Hilbert Space]]
> * the [[Zariski topology]]. A purely algebraically defined topology on [[the spectrum of a Ring]] or a [[variety]]. On R^n or C^n the closed sets are just the complements of zero's of polynomial equations.
> 
>  
> There are a few more useful examples like the [[weak topology]] which is important in [[functional analysis]].
> 
> 
> Some useful notions from pointset  topology, that many working mathematicians are familiar with are the following.
> 
> [[homotopic maps]]:
> two continuous maps  f_0 : X to Y and f_1:  X to Y are homotopic, if there is a map F: X times [0,1] to Y, such that f_i = F restricted to X times {i}, i= 0,1.
>   
> [[connected space]]
> A topological space X is connected if it can not be decomposed in disjoint non empty open sets.
> 
> [[path connected space]]
> A space X is path connected if for every two points x,y in X, there is a path gamma from x to y ,i.e. a map
> :: gamma: [0,1] to X with gamma(0) = x, and gamma(1)  y. 
> 
> [[neighborhood of a point]]
> A subspace containing an open set that in turn contains the point.
> 
> [[Hausdorff space]]
> A topological space is Hausdorff if every two seperate points have seperate open neighborhoods, equivalently the diagonal is closed.
> 
> Hausdorff spaces have the nice property that the points are closed.
> 
> [[normal space]]
> A space is normal if two closed sets can be seperated by open neighborhoods.
> 
> [[open covering]]
> A collection {U_i} of open sets is a covering, if their union is the whole space.
> 
> [quasi compact space]]
> A space is quasi compact if every covering has a finite sub covering.  
> 
> [[compact space]]
> A space is compact if it is quasi compact and Hausdorff.
> 
> [[paracompact space]]
> A space is paracompact if every covering has a locally finite
> sub covering.
> 
> [[locally compact]]
> A space is locally compact if every point has a compact neighborhood.
> 
> [[base for a topology]]
> A set of open sets is a base for a topology if every open set is a union of finite intersections of sets in the base
> 
> [[seperable]]
> A space is seperable if it has countable base for its topology. 
> 
> 
> Some useful theorems:
> 
> *The closed interval is [[compact]] (Heine Borel)
> *The closed interval is [[connected]] (trivial)
> *A [[metric space]] is Hausdorff.
> *The image of a connected space is [[connected]].
> *A [[pathconnected]] space is [[connected]].
> *The (arbitrary) product of compact spaces is compact (Tichonov)
> *a compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed.
> *Every sequence of points on a compact space has a [[convergent subsequence]].
> *On a paracompact Hausdorff space every covering admits a [[partion of unity]] subordinate to the cover. (Urysohn + ????)
> 
> 
> Some useful notions from algebraic topology :
> 
> *fundamental group
> *Homology and cohomology --> betti numbers.
> *Nice applications : Brouwer fixed point,Ulam Barsuk (?)...
> *homotopy groups.
> *chern classes, stiefel whitney classes, pontryjagin classes
> 
> From here it gets rough :
> 
> *(Co)Fibre sequences -->Puppe sequence, computations
> *homotopy groups of spheres
> *obstuction theory
> *K-theory --> KO, algebraic K-theory
> *stable homotopy
> *Brown representability
> *(Co)bordism
> *signatures
> *BP and Morava K-theory, 
> *equivariant jazz
> *Surgery obstructions
> *H-spaces, infinite loop spaces, A_infty rings 
> *spektra and brave new anything jazz.
> *??????????????
> *homotopy theory of schemes
> *Intersection Cohomology
> *?????????????
> 
> This subject is deep.
>  
> 
------
Topic_creation|987120606
3a4
> * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to use a noun than an adjective.  For example, [[conservatism]] ''as a topic'' is to be preferred to [[conservative]] (as an adjective).  In a fully reticulated Wikipedia, though, we might want to use [[conservative]] (as a noun) for a general informational article on ''conservatives'' (i.e., the people called "conservatives"), as distinguished from the movement(s), [[conservatism]], in which they participate.  Similarly, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].
------
Topic_creation|987120661
4c4
< * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to use a noun than an adjective.  For example, [[conservatism]] ''as a topic'' is to be preferred to [[conservative]] (as an adjective).  In a fully reticulated Wikipedia, though, we might want to use [[conservative]] (as a noun) for a general informational article on ''conservatives'' (i.e., the people called "conservatives"), as distinguished from the movement(s), [[conservatism]], in which they participate.  Similarly, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].
---
> * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to create a topic described by a noun than by an adjective.  For example, [[conservatism]] ''as a topic'' is to be preferred to [[conservative]] (as an adjective).  In a fully reticulated Wikipedia, though, we might want to use [[conservative]] (as a noun) for a general informational article on ''conservatives'' (i.e., the people called "conservatives"), as distinguished from the movement(s), [[conservatism]], in which they participate.  Similarly, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].
------
Topic_creation|987120814
4c4
< * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to create a topic described by a noun than by an adjective.  For example, [[conservatism]] ''as a topic'' is to be preferred to [[conservative]] (as an adjective).  In a fully reticulated Wikipedia, though, we might want to use [[conservative]] (as a noun) for a general informational article on ''conservatives'' (i.e., the people called "conservatives"), as distinguished from the movement(s), [[conservatism]], in which they participate.  Similarly, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].
---
> * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to create a topic described by a noun than by an adjective.  For example, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].  Sometimes there is an interest in making terms of ''jargon'' into topics, and jargon sometimes occurs in adjectival form.  There's nothing wrong with that; we strongly encourage supplementing articles with explanations of jargon.
------
Topic_creation|987120855
4c4
< * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to create a topic described by a noun than by an adjective.  For example, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this: [[philosophy|philosophical]].  Sometimes there is an interest in making terms of ''jargon'' into topics, and jargon sometimes occurs in adjectival form.  There's nothing wrong with that; we strongly encourage supplementing articles with explanations of jargon.
---
> * While there are many exceptions to this, in general, it is better to create a topic described by a noun than by an adjective.  For example, we would prefer [[philosophy]] to [[philosophical]].  Of course, if one wanted to link "philosophical," that's easily done, like this: <code>[[philosophy|philosophical]]</code>.  The latter code will display like this -- [[philosophy|philosophical]] -- but links to the [[philosophy]] page.  Sometimes there is an interest in making terms of ''jargon'' into topics, and jargon sometimes occurs in adjectival form.  There's nothing wrong with that; we strongly encourage supplementing articles with explanations of jargon.
------
Topic_creation|987120892
6,8c6,8
< # Redirect from one topic to another; so, for example, make "spamming" redirect to "spam."
< # Make one page a very brief definition, followed by a pointer to the other page ("for more information, see [[spam]]").
< # Develop two separate articles.
---
> ## Redirect from one topic to another; so, for example, make "spamming" redirect to "spam."
> ## Make one page a very brief definition, followed by a pointer to the other page ("for more information, see [[spam]]").
> ## Develop two separate articles.
------
Poker/Check-raise|987120898
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A common deceptive play in [[poker]] is for a player whose turn to bet comes early in a betting round to [[/Check]], hoping someone else will [[/Open]], and then later [[/Raise]] when the turn to bet comes back to him.
> 
> This might be done, for example, when the first player believes that an opponent has an inferior hand and will not [[/Call]] a direct bet, but that he may attempt to [[/Bluff]], allowing the first player to win more money than he would by betting straightforwardly.
> 
> Of course, if no other player chooses to open, the betting will be '''checked around''' and the play will fail.
> 
> While it is an important part of poker strategy, in some home games and certain small-stakes [[casino]] games, this play is not allowed.  It is also frequently not allowed in the game of [[/California lowball]].
> 
------
HomePage|987120919
6c6
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
------
HomePage|987121032
10c10
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Brussee|987121093
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of our new [[Wikipedians]] who seems to know a thing or two about [[topology]] (a deep subject, we're told!).
> 
> Welcome! --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
HomePage|987121140
8c8
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
12c12
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
HomePage|987121232
4a5
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
6c7
< [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
8c9
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
10,12c11
< [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
< 
< [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Hobby|987121241
7c7,8
< ** Antiquing (what's the word?)
---
> ** [[Antique Collecting]]
> ** [[Art Collecting]]
8a10
> ** [[Bottle collecting]]
12a15,18
> ** [[Doll collecting]]
> ** [[Miniature collecting]]
> ** [[Coin collecting|Numismatics]]
> ** [[Stamp collecting|Philately]]
13a20
> 
21a29,30
> ** [[Model car]]s
> ** [[Model house]]s
22a32,33
> ** [[Model trains]]s
> 
28c39
< ** [[Minature wargaming]]
---
> ** [[Miniature wargaming]]
39a51
> ** [[Ceramics]]
46c58
< '''Please add to this list!!'''
---
> '''Please add to this list!!'''
------
Coin_collecting|987121518
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Coins may be collected for a number of reasons.  Some things that make coins special and therefore collectible are:
> 
> /[[Engraving errors]]
> /[[Stamping errors]]
> /[[Limited run]]
> /[[Discontinued]]
> /[[Foreign]]
> /[[Ancient]]
> /[[Defunct nation]]
------
Poker/Table_stakes_rules|987121531
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All [[casino]]s and many home games play by what are called '''table stakes''' rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and plays that deal with that stake.  He may not remove money from the table or add money from his pocket during the play of a hand.  Nor is a player allowed to hide the amount of his stake from other players; he must disclose the amount when asked.  This requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that he cannot call with his available stake.
> 
> When a player is faced with a current bet amount that he has insufficient remaining stake to [[/Call]], and he wishes to call (he may of course [[/Fold]] without the need of special rules), he bets the remainder of his stake and declares himself '''all in'''.  He may now hold onto his cards for the remainder of the deal as if he had called every bet, but he may not win any more money from any player above the amount of his bet.
> 
> For example, let's assume that the first player in a betting round opens for $20, and the next player to bet has only $5 remaining of his stake.  He bets the $5, declaring himself all in, and holds onto his cards.  The next player in turn still has the $20 bet facing him, and if he can cover it he must call $20 or fold.  If he calls $20, thus ending the betting round, instead of collecting all bets into the central pot as usual, the following procedure is applied: since there is an all in player with only $5 bet, his $5, and $5 from each of the other players, is collected into the central pot (now called the '''main pot'''), as if the final bet had been only $5.  This main pot (which may include any [[/Ante]]s or bets from previous rounds) is the most the all in player is eligible to win.  The remaining money from the still-active bettors, in this case $15 apiece, is collected into a '''side pot''' that only the players who contributed to it are eligible to win.  If there are further betting rounds, all bets are placed into the side pot while the all in player continues to hold his cards but does not participate in further betting.  Upon the [[/Showdown]], the players eligible for the side pot--and only those players--reveal their hands, and the winner among them takes the side pot, regardless of what the all in player holds (indeed, before he even shows).  After the side pot is awarded, the all in player then shows his hand, and if it is superior to all others shown, he wins the main pot (otherwise he loses as usual).
> 
> There is a strategic advantage to being all in: you cannot be [[/Bluff]]ed, because you are entitled to hold your cards and see the showdown without risking any more money.  The players who continue to bet after you are all in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to your advantage since they reduce your competition without risk to you.  But these advantages are more than offset by the disadvantage that you cannot win any more money than what your stake can cover.  After all, the object of poker is not to win hands--it is to win money.
> 
> If a player goes all in with a raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play.  There are two options in common use here: [[/Pot limit]] and [[/No limit]] games always use what is called the '''full bet rule''', while [[/Fixed limit]] or [[/Spread limit]] games use either the full bet rule or the '''half bet rule'''.  The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all in raise does not equal the full amount of the previous raise, it does not consitute a "real" raise, and therefore does not reopen the betting action.  The half bet rule states that if an all in raise is equal to or larger than half the bet being raised, it does constitute a raise and reopens the action.
> 
> For example, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $25.  He may raise to $25, declaring himself all in, but this doesn't consitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $25, and the first player's turn to act comes up, he must now call the additional $5, but he does not have the right to reraise further.  The all in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though he must still equalize the money by putting in the additional $5).  If the half bet rule were being used, and the all in player had raised to $30 instead of $25, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to reraise if he chose to (this would create a side pot for the amount of his reraise and the third player's call, if any).
> 
> Because these rules are complicated (especially when more than one player goes all in, or there are pots to be split because of ties), informal home games often allow players to temporarily borrow money to add to their stake during a hand when necessary, which is called '''going light'''.
> 
------
Hobby|987121544
1c1,5
< A ''hobby'' for a person is a spare-time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sports, adult education, and the like.  Engaging in a hobby can sometimes lead to acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience.  What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: for example, a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games.  Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun and not for remuneration is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinguished from a ''[[profession|professional]].''
---
> A ''hobby'' for a person is a spare-time pursuit, practiced for interest and enjoyment, rather than as paid work.  Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sports, adult education, and the like.  Engaging in a hobby can sometimes lead to acquisition of substantial skill, knowledge, and experience.
> 
> What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: for example, a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games.  Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun and not for remuneration is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinguished from a ''[[profession|professional]].''
> 
> An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinguished from a profession, is probably how easy it is to make a living at the thing.  Almost no one can make a living at [[stamp collecting]], but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby.
------
Hobby|987121571
5c5
< An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinguished from a profession, is probably how easy it is to make a living at the thing.  Almost no one can make a living at [[stamp collecting]], but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby.
---
> An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinguished from a profession, is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity.  Almost no one can make a living at [[stamp collecting]], but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby.
------
HomePage|987121588
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]].
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]].
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]].
11c11
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]].
------
HomePage|987121713
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]].
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]].
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]].
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
11c11
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]].
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Poker/No_limit|987121731
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A game played with a '''no limit''' [[/Betting structure]] allows any player to [[/Raise]] any amount of his stake at any time (subject to the [[/Table stakes rules]] and any other rules about raising).
> 
------
Poker/Pot_limit|987121861
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A game played with a '''pot limit''' [[/Betting structure]] allows any player to [[/Raise]] up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.
> 
> For example, let's assume that there is $10 in the pot at the start of a betting round.  The first player may [[/Open]] the betting for up to $10.  If he does in fact open for $10, the next player may raise to $40 (after calling the $10 bet, the total amount of the pot is $30, so he may raise $30).
> 
> 
------
Sociology|987121906
5c5,7
< [[Milgram experiment]]
---
> [[Milgram experiment]]
> 
> [[Disabilities]]
------
Poker/Fixed_limit|987122027
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In a game played with a '''fixed limit''' [[/Betting structure]], a player never chooses the amount bet, only whether to bet or not, and the amount is fixed by rule.  Commonly later betting rounds specify higher bets than earlier rounds; for example a four-round game called "20 and 40 limit" may specify that all bets on the first two rounds are $20, and on the third and fourth round $40.  This amount applies to each raise, not the total amount bet in a round, so a player may bet $20, be raised $20, and then reraise another $20, for a total bet of $60, in such a game.
> 
------
Disabilities|987122067
1,2c1,11
< 
< [[Behavior]], [[Blind]], [[Chronic]], [[Communicating]], [[Deaf]], [[Developmental]], [[Learning]], [[Mental]], [[Mobility]], [[Multiple]], [[Temporary]].
---
> ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be.  We invite experts to put this page in order!''
> :[[Behavioral disability]]
> :[[Blindness]]
> :[[Chronic disability]]
> :[[Communicative disability]]
> :[[Deafness]]
> :[[Developmental disability]]
> :[[Learning disability]]
> :[[Mental disability]]
> :[[Multiple disability]]
> :[[Temporary disability]]
------
Disabilities|987122101
1c1
< ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be.  We invite experts to put this page in order!''
---
> ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be.  We invite knowledgeable people to put this page in order!''
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|987122176
5c5
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
---
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
------
Asteroids|987122219
8a9
> [[Asteroid]]
------
Poker/Spread_limit|987122246
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A game played with a '''spread limit''' [[/Betting structure]] allows a player to [[/Raise]] any amount within a specified range.
> 
> For example, a game called "ome to five limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to other betting rules).  These limits are typically larger in later rounds of multi-round games.  For example, a game might be "one to five, ten on the end", meaning that early betting rounds allow bets of $1 to $5, and the last betting round allows bets of $1 to $10.
> 
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|987122389
25c25
< What a great idea to run parallell wikipedias for different languages! All maintenance problems solved, back-up work and enthusiasm immediatly benefit all the wikis.
---
> What a great idea to run parallel wikipedias for different languages! All maintenance problems solved, back-up work and enthusiasm immediatly benefit all the wikis.
------
Tribble|987122390
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the original [[television]] series, [[Star Trek]], there was an episode titled "The Trouble with Tribbles," in which Captain Kirk and his crew face the problem with small, furry, gentle, purring creatures known as "tribbles."  The trouble is that they reproduce far too quickly and threaten to clog up essential ship systems.
------
Tribble|987122470
1c1
< In the original [[television]] series, [[Star Trek]], there was an episode titled "The Trouble with Tribbles," in which Captain Kirk and his crew face the problem with small, furry, gentle, purring creatures known as "tribbles."  The trouble is that they reproduce far too quickly and threaten to clog up essential ship systems.
---
> In the original [[television]] series, [[Star Trek]], there was an episode titled "The Trouble with Tribbles," in which Captain Kirk and his crew face the problem with small, soft, furry, gentle, armless, legless, headless, purring, and altogether pleasant creatures known as "tribbles."  The trouble is that they reproduce far too quickly and threaten to clog up essential ship systems.
------
Star_Trek|987122605
3c3
< In 1987 a new series launched, [[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline.  While in the classic series the captain (James Kirk, played by [[William Shatner]]) often used "cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG) the [[Prime Directive]], which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' business, is given greater importance.  This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death.  The other spin-off series rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.
---
> In 1987 a new series launched, [[/Star Trek TNG|Star Trek: The Next Generation]], which featured a new crew and a new plotline.  While in the classic series the captain (James Kirk, played by [[William Shatner]]) often used "cowboy diplomacy", in The Next Generation (TNG) the [[Prime Directive]], which states that the Federation shouldn't get involved in less evolved species' business, is given greater importance.  This leads to a far more pacifist approach, which was gradually abandoned after Roddenberry's death.  The other spin-off series rely heavily on action and warfare, much like the original series.  An exception, of course, is the episode about [[tribble|tribbles]].
------
Tribble|987122649
1c1
< In the original [[television]] series, [[Star Trek]], there was an episode titled "The Trouble with Tribbles," in which Captain Kirk and his crew face the problem with small, soft, furry, gentle, armless, legless, headless, purring, and altogether pleasant creatures known as "tribbles."  The trouble is that they reproduce far too quickly and threaten to clog up essential ship systems.
---
> In the original [[television]] series, [[Star Trek]], there was an episode titled "The Trouble with Tribbles," in which Captain Kirk and his crew face a curious problem about small, soft, furry, gentle, armless, legless, headless, purring, and altogether pleasant creatures known as "tribbles."  The trouble is that they reproduce far too quickly and threaten to clog up essential ship systems.
------
Requested_articles|987122703
20c20
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[tribble]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
---
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
------
Lincoln,_Nebraska|987122770
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
>   Home of the University of Nebraska.
> At the confluence of the Platte and Missouri Rivers.
> Has a nice public radio station.
------
Poker/Betting_structure|987122998
1c1
< The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on a <i>betting struture</i>, which is a set of rules that determine what each player is allowed to bet or forced to bet in every game situation.  The term includes the amounts and rules of all <i>forced bets</i> (see [[Poker/Game play]]) and betting <i>limits</i>, which determine what bets may be made during play.
---
> The game of [[poker]] as played today requires that players agree before play on allowable amounts for betting (called '''limits'''), and the use and amount of '''forced bets'''.  These are collectively called the '''betting structure''' of the game.
5,13c5
< <h2>Forced bets</h2>
< 
< * <b>Antes:</b> Every player places an equal (typically small) amount into the pot before the deal begins.  In a home game where the right to act as dealer rotates, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer must ante for everyone in his turn.  This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal.
< 
< * <b>Blinds:</b> One or more players after the dealer in order open the betting before receiving their cards, but in the same manner as if they were opening the betting after the deal.  For example, the first player to the dealer's left blinds $1, and the next player blinds $2.  After the cards are dealt for the first round, betting continues with the third player to the dealer's left, who must call the $2 bet, raise, or fold, exactly as if that bet had been made during play rather than before.  When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, he acts just as if that had been the initial bet; he must equal the bet facing him (toward which he may count his $1), fold, or raise.  An additional privilege is given to the player who posted the $2 <i>big blind</i>: if there have been no raises by the time his first real turn to bet comes (that is, the bet amount facing him is just the $2 he originally put in), then he has the right to raise at that point, even though his right-hand opponent's call would normally have closed the betting round under other circumstances.  This "extra" right to raise (called a "live" blind) occurs only once: if his raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes.
< 
< * <b>Bring-ins:</b> This actually occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action.  One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to open the betting by some token amount, after which players act after him in normal rotation.
< 
< Home games typically use a small ante only.  Casino games typically use blinds for draw and community card games, and an ante plus bring-in for stud games (very small limit stud games may omit the ante).  A good balance is for the total of all forced bets to equal one or two times the betting limit for a game.  For example, if eight players play a game with a $2 betting limit, a $.25 or $.50 ante would make a well-balanced game, as would a game with $1 and $2 blinds, or a $.25 ante and $1 bring-in.
---
> Forced bets come in three forms: [[/Ante]]s, [[/Blind]]s, and [[/Bring-in]]s.  Home games typically use a small ante only.  [[Casino]] games typically use blinds for [[draw poker]] and [[community card poker]] games, and an ante plus bring-in for [[stud poker]] games (very small limit stud games may even omit the ante).  A good balance is for the total of all forced bets to equal one or two times the betting limit for a game.  For example, if eight players play a game with a $2 betting limit, a $.25 or $.50 ante would make a well-balanced game, as would a game with $1 and $2 blinds, or a $.25 ante and $1 bring-in.
17,49c9
< <h2>Betting limit types</h2>
< 
< * <b>No limit:</b> Any player may bet all of his stake at any time (subject to the <i>table stakes</i> and <i>equal raise</i> rules below).
< 
< * <b>Pot Limit</b> A player may raise up to an amount equal to the size of the whole pot before the raise.  For example, let's assume that there is $10 in the pot at the start of a betting round.  The first player may open the betting for up to $10.  If he does in fact open for $10, the next player may raise to $40 (after calling the $10 bet, the total amount of the pot is $30, so he may raise $30).
< 
< * <b>Fixed limit:</b> The player never chooses the amount bet, only whether to bet or not, and the amount is fixed by rule.  Commonly later betting rounds specify higher bets than earlier rounds; for example a four-round game called "2 and 4 limit" may specify that all bets on the first two rounds are $2, and on the third and fourth round $4.  This amount applies to each raise, not the total amount bet in a round, so a player may bet $2, be raised $2, and then reraise another $2, for a total bet of $6, in such a game.
< 
< * <b>Spread Limit:</b> The player make raise any amount within a specified range.  For example, a game called "1 to 5 limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to the rules below).  These also are typically larger in later rounds of multi-round games.
< 
< All such games have a minimum bet as well as the stated maximums, and also commonly a <i>betting unit</i>, which is the smallest denomination in which bets can be made.  For example, it is common for a games with $20 and $40 betting limits to have a minimum betting unit of $5, so that all bets must be in multiples of $5, to simplify game play.  It is also common for some games to have a bring-in that is less than the minimum for other bets.  In this case, players may either call the bring-in, or raise to the full amount of a normal bet, called <i>completing</i> the bet.
< 
< Outside of the [[United States]], pot limit and no limit games are the most common.  Most American home games are played with a spread limit, while casino games are played with spread or fixed limits, though larger casinos may have a high-stakes pot limit or no limit game as well.  Fixed limit and spread-limit games emphasise the skill of estimating odds, and are more influenced by chance.  Pot limit and no limit games emphasis the skills of game threory and psychology, and are far less influenced by chance.
< 
< <h2>Equal raise rule</h2>
< 
< A universal rule in American casinos, and common in home games as well, is that any raise must at least equal the amount of the previous raise.  For example, if a player in a spread limit or no limit game bets $5, the next player may raise by another $5 or more, but he may not raise by only $2, even if that would otherwise conform to the game's structure.  The primary purpose of this rule is to avoid game delays caused by "nuisance" raises (small raises of large bets that don't affect the bet amount much but that take time).  This rule is often overridden by table stakes rules (see below), so that a player may in fact raise a $5 bet by $2 if that $2 is his entire remaining stake.
< 
< <h2>Raise caps</h2>
< 
< In many casinos, there is a limit to the total number of raises allowed in a single betting round (typically 3 or 4, not including the opening bet of a round).  For example in a casino with a 3-raise rule, if one player opens the betting for $5, the next raises by $5 making it $10, a third player raises another $5, and a fourth player raises $5 again making the current bet $20, the betting is said to be <i>capped</i> at that point, and no further raises beyond the $20 level will be allowed on that round.  It is common to suspend this rule when there are only two players betting in the round (called being <i>head up</i>).
< 
< <h2>Table stakes rules</h2>
< 
< All casinos and many home games play by what are called <i>table stakes</i> rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and plays that deal with that stake.  He may not remove money from the table or add money from his pocket during the play of a hand.  This requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that he cannot call with his available stake.  A player also may not hide the amount of his stake from other players, and must disclose the amount when asked.
< 
< When a player is faced with a current bet amount that he has insufficient remaining stake to call, and he wishes to call (he may of course fold without the need of special rules), he bets the remainder of his stake and declares himself <i>all in</i>.  He may now hold onto his cards for the remainder of the deal as if he had called every bet, but he may not win any more money from any player above the amount of his bet.  For example, let's assume that the first player in a betting round opens for $20, and the next player to bet only has $5 remaining of his stake.  He bets the $5, declaring himself all in, and holds onto his cards.  The next player in turn still has the $20 bet facing him, and if he can cover it he must call $20 or fold.  If he calls $20, thus ending the betting round, instead of collecting all bets into the central pot as usual, the following procedure is applied: since there is an all in player with only $5 bet, his $5, and $5 from each of the other players, is collected into the central pot, now called the <i>main pot</i>, as if the final bet had been only $5.  This main pot (which may include any antes or bets from pervious rounds) is the most the all in player is eligible to win.  The remaining money from the still-active bettors, in this case $15 apiece, is collected into a <i>side pot</i> that only the players who contributed to it are eligible to win.  If there are further betting rounds, all bets are placed into the side pot while the all in player continues to hold his cards but does not participate in further betting.  Upon the showdown, the players eligible for the side pot--and only those players--reveal their hands, and the winner among them takes the side pot, regardless of what the all in player holds (indeed, before he even shows).  After the side pot is awarded, the all in player then shows his hand, and if it is superior to all others shown, he wins the main pot (otherwise he loses as usual).
< 
< There is a strategic advantage to being all in: you cannot be bluffed, because you are entitled to hold your cards and win the pot without risking any more money.  The players who continue to bet after you are all in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to your advantage since they reduce your competition without risk to you.  But these advantages are more than offset by the disadvantage that you cannot win any more money than what your stake can cover.  After all, the object of poker is not to win hands--it is to win money.
< 
< If a player goes all in with a raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play.  There are two options in common use here: pot limit and no limit games always use what is called the <i>full bet</i> rule, while smaller fixed or spread limit games use either the full bet rule or the <i>half bet</i> rule.  The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all in raise does not equal the full amount of the previous raise, it does not consitute a "real" raise, and therefore does not reopen the betting action.  The half bet rule states that if an all in raise is equal to or larger than half the bet being raised, it does constitute a raise and reopens the action.  For example, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $25.  He may raise to $25, declaring himself all in, but this doesn't consitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $25, and the first player's turn to act comes up, he must now call the additional $5, but he does not have the right to reraise further.  The all in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though he must still equalize the money by putting in the additional $5).  If the half bet rule were being used, and the all in player had raised to $30 instead of $25, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to reraise if he chose to (this would create a side pot for the amount of his reraise and the third player's call, if any).
< 
< Because these rules are complicated (especially when more than one player goes all in, or there are pots to be split because of ties), informal home games often allow players to temporarily borrow money to add to their stake during a hand when necessary, which is called <i>going light</i>.
---
> Betting limits apply to the amount a player may [[/Open]] or [[/Raise]], and come in four common forms: [[/No limit]], [[/Pot limit]] (the two collectively called '''big bet poker'''), [[/Fixed limit]], and [[/Spread limit]].
51c11
< See also [[Poker/Game play]].
---
> All such games have a minimum bet as well as the stated maximums, and also commonly a '''betting unit''', which is the smallest denomination in which bets can be made.  For example, it is common for a games with $20 and $40 betting limits to have a minimum betting unit of $5, so that all bets must be in multiples of $5, to simplify game play.  It is also common for some games to have a bring-in that is less than the minimum for other bets.  In this case, players may either call the bring-in, or raise to the full amount of a normal bet, called '''completing''' the bet.
52a13
> Outside of the [[United States]], pot limit and no limit games are the most common.  Most American home games are played with a spread limit, while casino games are played with spread or fixed limits, though larger casinos may have a high-stakes pot limit or no limit game as well.  Fixed limit and spread limit games emphasise the skill of estimating odds, and are more influenced by chance.  Pot limit and no limit games emphasize the skills of game threory and psychology, and are far less influenced by chance.
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|987123007
3c3
< OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright PatentNonsense, don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with BrilliantProse (and relegate the deletions to BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live [[Wikipedia]]!
---
> OK, you folks '''still''' don't understand, so let me make this clear: if someone writes an inferior or merely humorous article or article stub, or outright [[patent nonsense]], don't worry about their feelings.  Correct it, add to it, and if it's a total waste of time, outright replace it with [[brilliant prose]] (and relegate the deletions to [[bad jokes and other deleted nonsense]] or the corresponding <nowiki>/Talk</nowiki> page).  That's the nature of a WikiWiki, and long live [[Wikipedia]]!
5c5
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
---
> So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987123125
162a163,164
> 
> Then, go forth and [[be bold in updating pages]]!
------
Poker/Equipment|987123230
3c3
< * <b>Table:</b> It is convenient if every player (a typical poker game will have 2 to 10) can reach the center of the table where the <i>pot</i> is built, so tables are generally circular or only slighlty oblong.  It also helps if the table is padded with a soft material that makes it easy to pick up cards, coins, and chips.  Many tables sold as "poker tables" for home use have hard surfaces that are less convenient than a simple circular dining table with a soft blanket and tablecloth, and so are often not worth the price.
---
> * <b>Table:</b> It is convenient if every player (a typical poker game will have 2 to 10) can reach the center of the table where the '''pot''' is built, so tables are generally circular or only slighlty oblong.  It helps if the table is padded with a soft material that makes it easy to pick up cards, coins, and chips.  Many tables sold as "poker tables" for home use have hard surfaces that are less convenient than a simple circular dining table with a soft blanket and tablecloth, and so are often not worth the price.
7c7
< * <b>Chips:</b> Currency is difficult to handle, so most poker games are played with <i>chips</i>, which are coin-shaped tokens of uniform size and weight, often made of clay or other similarly-textured heavy material allowing them to be easily stacked and unstacked.  Inexpensive lightweight plastic chips are sold in many places, but these are nearly as difficult to use as currency.  Different colors of chips are usually used to represent different amounts of money.
---
> * <b>Chips:</b> Currency is difficult to handle, so most poker games are played with '''chips''', which are coin-shaped tokens of uniform size and weight, often made of clay or other heavy similarly-textured heavy material allowing them to be easily stacked and unstacked.  Inexpensive lightweight plastic chips are sold in many places, but these are nearly as difficult to use as currency.  Different colors of chips are usually used to represent different amounts of money.
9c9
< * <b>Lammers:</b> Miscellaneous plastic tokens with text markings are handy for various uses.  In a typical home game only one is used to mark the current dealer as the deal rotates (in which case it is called a <i>buck</i>).  In a casino they are used to remind players of which game variant is being played, who owes blinds or house commissions, and other uses.
---
> * <b>Lammers:</b> Miscellaneous plastic tokens with text markings are handy for various uses.  In a typical home game only one is used to mark the current dealer as the deal rotates (in which case it is called a '''button''' or '''buck''').  In a casino they are used to remind players of which game variant is being played, who owes blinds or house commissions, and other uses.
------
Anarres|987123301
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of our new [[Wikipedians]] who probably resides in [[Lincoln, Nebraska]].
> 
> Welcome! --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Lincoln,_Nebraska|987123314
1,2c1,3
<   Home of the University of Nebraska.
< At the confluence of the Platte and Missouri Rivers.
---
> Home of the [[ University of Nebraska ]].
> At the confluence of the [[ Platte River ]] 
> and the [[ Missouri River ]].
3a5
> Capital of the state of [[ Nebraska ]].
------
Asteroids|987123427
1,9d0
< Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuiper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuiper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
< 
< ''Would like to call this into serious question.  There's a second belt, of course, but I don't think the word asteroid is ever applied to them.  They're icy rather than rocky debris; comet is by and large a better term.  Maybe AstroNomer could confirm this one way or another?''
< 
< The largest asteroid is [[Ceres]] with a diameter of 1003 km. It also was the first to be discovered by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] on January 1, 1801. Nowadays, over 9000 asteroids are known, some less than 1 km across. Two other large asteroids are [[Pallas]] and [[Vesta]].
< 
< The first nearby pictures of an asteroid were taken by the [[Galileo]] spacecraft of [[Gaspra]] and [[Ida]] in 1991, while [[NEAR Shoemaker]] landed on [[Eros]] in 2001.
< ----
< [[Asteroid]]
12a4,5
> 
> See also [[Asteroid]].
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987123436
15c15
< There is more introductory information on these pages: [[what is a wiki]]; [[how does one edit a page]]; [[why Wikipedia is so great]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
---
> There is more introductory information: [[what is a wiki|what a wiki is]]; [[how to start a page]]; [[how does one edit a page|how to edit a page]]; [[why Wikipedia is so great]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
------
Asteroid|987123445
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuiper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuiper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
> 
> ''Would like to call this into serious question.  There's a second belt, of course, but I don't think the word asteroid is ever applied to them.  They're icy rather than rocky debris; comet is by and large a better term.  Maybe AstroNomer could confirm this one way or another?''
> 
> The largest asteroid is [[Ceres]] with a diameter of 1003 km. It also was the first to be discovered by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] on January 1, 1801. Nowadays, over 9000 asteroids are known, some less than 1 km across. Two other large asteroids are [[Pallas]] and [[Vesta]].
> 
> The first nearby pictures of an asteroid were taken by the [[Galileo]] spacecraft of [[Gaspra]] and [[Ida]] in 1991, while [[NEAR Shoemaker]] landed on [[Eros]] in 2001.
> 
------
HomePage|987123521
19c19
< * [[How does one edit a page]]?  ''Quick hint: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
---
> * [[How to start a page|How does one start a page]]?  And [[how does one edit a page]]?  ''It's really easy: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
------
Solar_system|987123641
7c7
< * [[asteroids]]
---
> * [[asteroid]]s
------
PowersthatBe|987123663
2a3
> ''Feature requests go on the [[feature requests]] page.  Pretty neat, huh?''
4d4
< 
6,10d5
< 
< ----
< 
< Curiosity more than anything. I happen to know there are at least 2 others who read what you and others have wrote. Me being one. 
< 
11a7
> Curiosity more than anything. I happen to know there are at least 2 others who read what you and others have wrote. Me being one. 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987123962
21,28d20
< '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
< 
< A. On Wikipedia, English.  But we can set up wikis in any language.  Please ask (or look to see if one has been created in your language) on [[international Wikipedia]].
< 
< '''Q. American English though, I presume, not British English?'''
< 
< A. Why presume that?  People are writing in all sorts of English.  This isn't necessarily a bad situation, either.  Anyway, of course, the Americans aren't going to adjust their usage for the Brits, and god knows the Brits won't adjust theirs for the Americans.  :-)
< ----
51c43,51
< A. [[CanWeAddNupediaArticlesToTheWiki|Sure]].
---
> A. Sure.  Please do [[Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia|add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]], but also [[Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia|add Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
> ----
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
> 
> A. On Wikipedia, English.  But we can set up wikis in any language.  Please ask (or look to see if one has been created in your language) on [[international Wikipedia]].
> 
> '''Q. American English though, I presume, not British English?'''
> 
> A. Why presume that?  People are writing in all sorts of English.  This isn't necessarily a bad situation, either.  Anyway, of course, the Americans aren't going to adjust their usage for the Brits, and god knows the Brits won't adjust theirs for the Americans.  :-)
53c53
< '''Q. What's the point of getting a user number?'''
---
> '''Q. What's the point of getting a user ID?'''
55c55
< A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
---
> A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you, on the RecentChanges page, with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
57c57
< Visit the [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=editprefs Preferences] page to create your "user number"
---
> Visit the [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=editprefs Preferences] page to create your user ID.
65c65
< A. Add it to the WikiPediaBugs page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
---
> A. Add it to the [[WikiPediaBugs|Wikipedia bugs]] page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
------
HomePage|987124194
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]:
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987124452
1c1
< Questions not answered in HowDoesOneEditaPage, WhatIsaWiki, WhatsaWikiFor, WhyOnEarthWouldIWantToContributeToaWiki, WhatsTheRelationshipBetweenWikipediaAndNupedia, or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
---
> Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
36a37,40
> '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
> 
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
> ----
67,74d70
< '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
< 
< A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
< ----
< '''Q. Can a hit counter be implemented on a WikiWiki page?'''
< 
< A. Sure, the PowersthatBe simply have to make it happen.  See the [[feature requests]] page.
< ----
79c75
< '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I recieved an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
---
> '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I received an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
88d83
< 
110c105
< A1. Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (March 2001) login procedure.
---
> A1. Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (April 2001) login procedure.
125,132d119
< '''Q. Can we link to Nupedia Pages that are not articles, say the Pronunciation Guides or part of the Guidelines, for example?'''
< 
< A. Yes, why not?  You can link to anything you want.  You can either type the URL in directly, or else in this format: [URL nameofpage].  This results in a link like this: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia.com].
< ----
< '''Q. Would [[wikipedes]] be [[WikiPedians]] or [[WikiPediaBugs]]?'''
< 
< A. Surely both.
< ----
139c126
< A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least, by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least (certain Wikipedia members are actually paid to help!)--by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
143c130
< A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
---
> A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
------
Topology|987124465
33a34
> * [[Manifold]]s
------
HowCanIExploreWikiPedia|987124486
1,14c1
< There are several ways to explore our wiki:
< 
< * Follow the links.
< * Use the search form (at the bottom of every page).
< * Click on "Recent Changes" (at the top and bottom of every page).
< * Go to NewTopics.
< * On the top of a page, click on the name of the article.  (This searches for all wiki pages that link to the page.  Can be useful and interesting, especially in a larger wiki.)
< * To see an alphabetical list of all entries follow [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index this link].
< 
< ----
< I'd like to see...
< * Listing of all topics edited by a given individual (if possible)
< 
< -- Bryce
---
> #REDIRECT [[How to explore Wikipedia]]
------
How_to_explore_Wikipedia|987124572
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are several ways to explore our wiki:
> 
> * Follow the links.
> * Use the search form (at the bottom of every page).
> * Click on "Recent Changes" (at the top and bottom of every page).
> * Go to [[new topics]].
> * On the top of a page, click on the name of the article.  (This searches for all wiki pages that contain those words.)
> * To see an alphabetical list of all entries follow [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index this link].
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987124616
1c1
< Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or HowCanIExploreWikiPedia.  See also WikiPediaProcess for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
---
> Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or [[how to explore Wikipedia]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
130c130
< A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
---
> A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
------
Star_Trek|987124675
29a30,33
> The Star Trek universe in general:
> 
> :[[Tribble]]
> 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987124725
1c1
< Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or [[how to explore Wikipedia]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
---
> Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a Wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or [[how to explore Wikipedia]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
------
HomePage|987124775
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]:
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]];
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987124874
15c15,22
< There is more introductory information: [[what is a wiki|what a wiki is]]; [[how to start a page]]; [[how does one edit a page|how to edit a page]]; [[why Wikipedia is so great]]; [[Wikipedia FAQ]]; [[Wikipedia policy]].
---
> There is more introductory information:
> *[[what is a wiki|what a wiki is]]
> *[[how to explore Wikipedia]]
> *[[how to start a page]]
> *[[how does one edit a page|how to edit a page]]
> *[[why Wikipedia is so great]]
> *[[Wikipedia FAQ]]
> *[[Wikipedia policy]]
------
HomePage|987124940
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]];
---
> [Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
HomePage|987125026
7c7
< [Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> ;[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
HomePage|987125098
7c7
< ;[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
Interlingua|987125134
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Interlingua is a constructed, or synthetic
> language (others are [[ Esperanto ]] and
> [[ Volapuk ]]).  Where the Esperanto vocabulary
> was drawn from [[romance language|Romance]], 
> [[germanic language|Germanic]] and
> [[slavic language|Slavic]] languages, and others,
> the vocabulary of Interlingua is drawn solely
> from Romance languages.  Where the [[ grammar ]]
> of Esperanto was designed, and contains
> grammatical elements from wildly disparate languages,
> the grammar of Interlingua is based solely on the
> grammar of Romance languages, with some simplification.
> Interlingua was intended to be, in essence, the
> "average" of all the existing Romance languages.
> 
> The grammar and vocabulary of Interlingua
> were complete by 1950.  [[Alexander Gode]] was
> one of the prime movers in this effort.  He published
> a survey of the grammar, a one-way dictionary
> (Interlingua to English), and an introductory book
> entitled <i>Interlingua a Prime Vista</i>,
> "Interlingua at First Sight".
> 
> Interlingua still has some enthusiastic supporters
> in the [[ United States of America| United States]],
> the [[Netherlands]], [[Russia]], and particularly
> [[Sweden]].  There are some Interlingua web-pages,
> and at least one monthly newsletter.
> 
> I have to admit that it took me longer to reach
> a given level of competence in Interlingua than
> to reach the same level in Esperanto.  Despite the
> claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to
> be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua
> is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be
> beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character
> of each Romance language has been washed out of it).
> Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening,
> reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it
> has far more potential usefulness spoken than  
> listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to
> Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French
> accent) [[ Quebecois ]], and they all understood me
> (they were very amused, but they understood me), though,
> of course, 
> When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or
> Quebecois, I couldn't understand them.
------
HomePage|987125161
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> .:[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
------
HomePage|987125255
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :1[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c7
< .:[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :2[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :3[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
11c11
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :4[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
CoSims|987125285
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "CoSims" is (probably) an abbreviation
> for [[Conflict Simulation]]s.
------
HomePage|987125395
5c5
< :1[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :1 [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c7
< :2[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :2 [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c9
< :3[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :3 [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
11c11
< :4[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :4 [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Game|987125591
1,2c1,3
< People throughout history have played games for many reasons, primarily for entertainment.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.  Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept "game" as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  While this covers most cases well, it does not quite fit with things like war games and sports that are often done not for entertainment but to build skills for later use.  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept "game" could not be defined.
< 
---
> People throughout history have played games for many reasons, primarily for entertainment.  They can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals.  Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept "game" as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it."  While this covers most cases well, it does not quite fit with things like war games and sports that are often done not for entertainment but to build skills for later use.  In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept "game" could not be defined.  [[Stephen Linhart]] said, "People say you
> have to choose between games and real life.  I think this
> claim that there's a dichotomy is very dangerous."
------
HomePage|987125619
5c5
< :1 [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c7
< :2 [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c9
< :3 [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
11c11
< :4 [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
39c39
< The content of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The content of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Board_game|987126092
12a13,27
> [[Wargame]]s:  Where strategy games are abstract,
> a wargame usually portrays a specific battle, war or
> other historical situation.  The game board is
> usually a map of the historical location, and the
> pieces usually represent the actual military units
> involved.
> And wargame rules are usually far more intricate
> than the rules of, say, Chess, in an effort to
> accurately simulate the situation in question.
> [[Risk]] is perhaps the most widely known wargame;
> some wargame aficionados would say that it is
> too simple to be included in the category.  I
> often explain wargames to the uninitiated as
> "Risk on [[steroid]]s".
> 
------
Computer_software|987126347
2a3,4
> ** [[art software|Art software]]
> *** [[MLCAD]]
------
MLCAD|987126467
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A program for building with [[LEGO]]s,
> something like the computer game
> [[LEGO Creator]].  You can download it
> from here.
> 
> 
------
CoSims|987126497
2a3,4
> 
> ''But do we really want merely probable truths when certainty is available...?''
------
MLCAD|987126827
4,6c4,6
< from here.
< 
< 
---
> from [http://www.mlcad.net here].  YOU
> MUST DOWNLOAD 
> [http://www.ldraw.net  L-Draw] FIRST.
------
TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints|987126886
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Disabilities]]
------
MLCAD|987126944
6c6
< [http://www.ldraw.net  L-Draw] FIRST.
---
> [http://www.ldraw.org  L-Draw] FIRST.
------
TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints|987127003
1c1
< [[Disabilities]]
---
> 1 [[Disabilities]]
------
MLCAD|987127027
4c4
< from [http://www.mlcad.net here].  YOU
---
> from [http://mlcad.ldraw.org/ here].  YOU
------
MLCAD|987127103
5,6c5,6
< MUST DOWNLOAD 
< [http://www.ldraw.org  L-Draw] FIRST.
---
> MUST DOWNLOAD [[L-Draw]] FIRST FROM
> [http://www.ldraw.org HERE].
------
Assistive_Technology|987127762
1,3c1
< Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user.---- 
< 
< The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
---
> 1. The Universal Accessibiltiy Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
------
Assistive_Technology|987127859
1c1
< 1. The Universal Accessibiltiy Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
------
Assistive_Technology|987128385
1c1,2
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design '''is''' universal design. 
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design. 
> ----
------
Assistive_Technology|987128589
1,2c1
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design. 
< ----
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.1
------
Assistive_Technology|987128691
1c1
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.1
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.1.
------
Assistive_Technology|987128722
1c1,2
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.1.
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.
> .1
------
Assistive_Technology|987128827
1,2c1,2
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of universally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.
< .1
---
> 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of unive rsally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.
> 1.
------
Assistive_Technology|987128856
2c2,3
< 1.
---
> 
> .1
------
World_War_I|987129953
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The apparent reason for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987131061
25c25
< A2. Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone write a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
---
> A2. Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone writes a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
------
HomePage|987131457
5c5
< :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> You may want to consider that this format below (with numbers is the only solution I have been able to find to make this wiki text field intelligible while navigating it. Otherwise, it is not sufficiently chunked so as to help a blind user navigate through the portions of subjects. If you do not want the numbers there, and you only want the double spaces between the chunked subjects, I suggest that you design the text field to work like that of a mainstream word processor. Such mainstream word processors somehow allow blind software to recognize a double space, allowing the blind user to use the paragraph keystroke (control + down arrow), to easily skip through the chunked links. This suggestion is in accordance with WW3 guidelines and those of the National Federation of the Blind. Thanks, keep it up.
7c7
< :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :1 [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
9c9
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :2 [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
11c11,13
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :3 [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
> 
> :4 [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
39c41
< The content of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
---
> The content of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU/FDL|GNU Free Documentation License]].
------
Board_game|987131458
36a37
> * [[Boggle]]
37a39
> * [[Crokinole]]
------
Christianity|987131949
11c11
< Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints, for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
---
> Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
------
The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|987132371
4a5,8
> -----
> [[Disabilities]]
> 
> 
------
Bulletin_board_system|987132490
24a25,28
> Before commercial internet access became common, networks of BBSes provided regional and international e-mail and message bases.  Some even provided gateways by which members could send/recieve e-mail to/from the internet.  Fairly elaborate schemes allowed users to download binary files, search [[gopher]]space, and interact with distant programs, all using plaintext e-mail.  Most BBS networks were not linked in real-time.  Instead, each would dial up the next in line, and/or a regional hub, at pre-set intervals to exchange files.
> 
> ''Did BBSes make shareware a viable business prospect?''
> 
------
World_War_I|987132787
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Osman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
------
World_War_I|987132982
3c3
< The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the casualties were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
---
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
------
Crokinole|987133025
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Crokinole is an action board game similar to [[carroms]] or [[squails]] in which players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces. Board dimensions vary with a playing surface approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. Players flick or fillip their pieces from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present. If no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center ring. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel.
> 
> The game is of uncertain origin. It is widely played in Canada, where it is also called Pichenottes. Many Americans own a set on the flip side of their Carom boards. The definitive book on the subject is ''The Crokinole Book'' (ISBN: 091978383X ) by Canadian historian Wayne Kelly.
> 
> See http://www.crokinole.com
------
Crokinole|987133125
1c1
< Crokinole is an action board game similar to [[carroms]] or [[squails]] in which players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces. Board dimensions vary with a playing surface approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. Players flick or fillip their pieces from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present. If no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center ring. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel.
---
> '''Crokinole''' is an action [[board game]] similar to [[carroms]] or [[squails]] in which players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces. Board dimensions vary with a playing surface approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. Players flick or fillip their pieces from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present. If no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center ring. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel.
------
Disabilities|987133512
1c1,4
< ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be.  We invite knowledgeable people to put this page in order!''
---
> ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be. We invite knowledgeable people to put this page in order!''
>  
> Hello, may I ask as politely as possible where you get your knowledge base on disabilities to say that this list is not conceptually well-organized? These are the major sections of disabilities. Did you want me to put further explanation after each term so that it would sound educated to your uneducated mind on this subject? So if you say this is not well-organized, but that you don't know and need someone mor knowledgeable, how did you know it is not well-organized? This seems nonsensical to me. This brings up another important and general question. How do the people of this Wiki jukge if something is scholarly or not, if you are not scholoars on everything? You must just look at it and think if it sounds good according to some loose and uneducated idea of waht "sounds" educated. Is this pride? I don't know, maybe you know something I don't, but then agon, how in that case, how would you know it was not well organized, and thus asked for someone knowledgeable on the subject. Interesting. How do you know it is not in order already? I wish I could give you my email address.
> 
11c14
< :[[Temporary disability]]
---
> :[[Temporary disability]]
------
Blindness|987133999
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Philosophy]]
> [[History]]
> [[Literature]]
> [[Technology]]
> [[Law]]
> [[Medical]]
> [[Organizations]]
> [[Education]]
------
Asteroid|987134098
1,3c1,5
< Asteroids are small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. Most asteroids have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], but some are found at other places of the [[solar system]], sometimes having orbits that come close to the [[Earth]]'s orbit. A second group of asteroids, called the [[Kuiper Belt]], has in recent times been discovered outside the orbit of [[Neptune]]. Some astronomers consider [[Pluto]] to be an asteroid from the Kuiper Belt rather than a full-blown planet.
< 
< ''Would like to call this into serious question.  There's a second belt, of course, but I don't think the word asteroid is ever applied to them.  They're icy rather than rocky debris; comet is by and large a better term.  Maybe AstroNomer could confirm this one way or another?''
---
> ''Asteroid'' is member of a group of small, planet-like bodies that are part of our solar system. They are believed to be remanents of the [[solar nebula]] that were not incorporated 
> into planets. One large group have orbits between the orbits of [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]], these couldn't form a planet due to
> the gravitational influence of Jupiter. Other important group is called [[Trojans]], that are in the orbit of Jupiter, on two
> [[Lagrangian point]]s. There is increasing interest on identifying asteroids whose orbit crosses the [[earth]]'s orbit,
> and that could, given enough time, collide with it. 
8a11,14
> Another group of object that didn't accrete to form planets
> (but are more icy, and are not usually called asteroids) are
> the [[Kuiper Belt]] objects, that are the origin about half
> of the [[comet]]'s that come to the inner solar system.
------
Blindness|987134123
1,8c1,8
< [[Philosophy]]
< [[History]]
< [[Literature]]
< [[Technology]]
< [[Law]]
< [[Medical]]
< [[Organizations]]
< [[Education]]
---
> [[Blind Philosophy]]
> [[Blind History]]
> [[Blind Literature]]
> [[Blind Technology]]
> [[Blind Law]]
> [[Blind Medical]]
> [[Blind Organizations]]
> [[Blind Education]]
------
GeoCaching|987134311
5a6,7
> 
> See also: [[letterboxing]]
------
World_War_I/Casualties|987134405
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[B.H. Liddell Hart]] was a Captain in the British army during the war.  He was horrified by the carnage and afterwards set about studying the war to determine why casualties had been so high.  His conclusions were published in a book called 'Strategy' (ISBN 0452010713), a book that was endorsed in words and actions by many of the leading commanders in World War II ([[Erwin Rommel]], for instance).
> 
> Liddell Hart's conclusion, basically, was that the heavy casualties suffered in World War I were due primarily to the incompetence of the officers in charge.
> 
> Most of the lessons needed to conduct this war effectively were revealed in the [[American Civil War]], which was the first major industrial war (machine guns, trains to move troops, ironclad ship, but more importantly, a war where the industrial base of a nation was recognized as a proper military target).  Tactics and strategies were developed in America that were suitable to mechanized warfare.  These lessons were ignored by the European officers, who looked back to the Napoleonic wars and [[Carl Von Clausewitz]] for guidance.  The Americans, when they arrived in 1917, were not blind to the lessons of their own history, and consequently conducted themselves a little more sensibly.
> 
> Here is a list of percentage of soldiers killed, for major participants of the war:
>  Romania                   44.76%
>  France                    16.36%
>  Germany                   16.12%
>  Austria-Hungary           15.38%
>  Russia                    14.17%
>  Italy                     11.58%
>  Turkey                    11.40%
>  Great Britain             10.20%
>  US                         2.89%
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
World_War_I/Casualties|987134547
18c18,19
< 
---
> *See also:
>  [http://www.worldwar1.com/tlcrates.htm Trenches on the Web]
------
World_War_I/Casualties|987134586
1c1
< [[B.H. Liddell Hart]] was a Captain in the British army during the war.  He was horrified by the carnage and afterwards set about studying the war to determine why casualties had been so high.  His conclusions were published in a book called 'Strategy' (ISBN 0452010713), a book that was endorsed in words and actions by many of the leading commanders in World War II ([[Erwin Rommel]], for instance).
---
> [[B.H. Liddell Hart]] was a Captain in the British army during the war.  He was horrified by the carnage and afterwards set about studying the war to determine why casualties had been so high.  His conclusions were published in a book called 'Strategy' <small>ISBN 0452010713</small>, a book that was endorsed in words and actions by many of the leading commanders in World War II ([[Erwin Rommel]], for instance).
------
Wargaming|987134654
4,5c4,5
< * playing board - usually a [[terrain]] is drawn/printed on the playing board
< * minatures - representing armies, military units or individual military personnel
---
> * map - showing the [[terrain]] over which the battle/war was fought
> * units - representing armies, military units or individual military personnel
7a8,9
> Board wargames typically use cardboard counters to represent the units, and  a printed mapboard as the playing surface.  Miniatures games typically use miniature plastic or metal models for the units and model scenery placed on a tabletop or floor as a playing surface.
> 
16c18
< One of the main difficulties with wargaming is complexity of rules and record keeping.  Extremely detailed wargame rule sets result in a slow game and have led to the rise of computerized turn based wargame programs such as Command and Conquer.
---
> One of the main difficulties with wargaming is complexity of rules and record keeping.  Extremely detailed wargame rule sets (some of which require hundreds of pages of small print and intensive recordkeeping) result in a slow game and have led to the rise of computerized turn based wargame programs such as Panzer General.
22c24,25
< * ability start, stop and save the game at any time.
---
> * ability to start, stop and save the game at any time.
> * easy to find opponents on the internet
25c28
< * computer stragegy may not be as good as a human opponent
---
> * computer strategy may not be as good as a human opponent
26a30,31
> * computer arbitration allows more complex rules, which can be more difficult to understand and analyze
> * ability to view only a small part of the battlefield in detail at a time
27a33
> Computer wargames are often played against human opponents via e-mail (by exchanging save-game files) to provide the human interaction and a more interesting opponent than that of the program.  This has the disadvantage of taking much longer to finish the game, depending upon how often the players check their e-mail.  It is still much quicker (and easier) than the previous method of playing board wargames by postal mail.
35,36c41
< Usually, military wargaming can be broken down based on what technology is available to the 'armies' involved in the wargame
< and what military era or war the 'army' is from.
---
> Usually, military wargaming can be broken down based on what technology is available to the 'armies' involved, what military era or war the 'army' is from, and the scale of the conflict.
50a56,62
> * hypothetical World War III
> 
> Scales:
> * '''Strategic''' - units are typically division, corps, or army size; they are rated based upon raw strength; economic production and diplomacy are significant; typically involves all branches, and often the entire forces of the nations involved; cover entire wars or long campaigns
> * '''Operational''' - units are typically battalion to divisional size, and are rated based on their average overall strengths and weaknesses, weather and logistics are significant; typically focuses on one branch, with others somewhat abstracted; usually covers a single campaign
> * '''Tactical''' - units range from individual vehicles and squads to platoons or companies, and are rated based on types and ranges of individual weaponry; almost always focuses on a single branch, occasionally with others abstracted; usually covers a single battle or part of a large battle
> * '''Skirmish''' - units represent individual soldiers; may keep track of wounds and ammunition; usually covers a small firefight
------
Letterboxing|987134661
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in [[Smithsonian]] Magazine. 
> 
> See [[geocaching]], [[orienteering]]
------
Solar_system|987134744
1c1,5
< A solar system is a star and all the matter that goes around it.
---
> The ''Solar system'' is composed of the [[sun]] and all the
> matter gravitationally bound to it.
> The components of the solar system are, by decreasing mass, 
> the [[Sun]] itself,
> the [[planet]]s: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]] and [[Pluto]] and their [[moon]]s and [[ring system]]s  [[asteroid]]s, [[comet]]s and [[Kuiper Belt]] objects, a theorized [[Oort Cloud]], and interplanetary dust and gas.
3,13d6
< OUR Solar System is everything that goes around our [[Sun]]: 
< 
< * The [[Sun]] itself
< * The [[planet]]s: [[Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], [[Mars]], [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]], [[Pluto]]
< * [[asteroid]]s
< * [[comet]]s
< 
< The boundary of our solar system is the [[heliopause]] - the point at which the [[Sun]]'s gravity no longer forces an object to go round it.
< 
< ----
< That's not right. The Sun's gravity extends to infinity, whether the gravity forces an object to move round it depends on the velocity of the object.... I thought the heliopause was the boundary where the sun's atmosphere/solar wind stops and the interstellar medium takes over...
------
Letterboxing|987134806
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in [[Smithsonian]] Magazine. 
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''[[Smithsonian]] Magazine''. 
3c3
< See [[geocaching]], [[orienteering]]
---
> See [[Geocaching]], [[Orienteering]]
------
Blindness|987134821
1c1
< [[Blind Philosophy]]
---
> [Blind Philosophy]
------
Letterboxing|987134865
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''[[Smithsonian]] Magazine''. 
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 
3c3
< See [[Geocaching]], [[Orienteering]]
---
> See [[GeoCaching]], [[Orienteering]]
------
The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|987134869
5,6d4
< -----
< [[Disabilities]]
------
Blindness|987134901
1c1
< [Blind Philosophy]
---
> [[Blind Philosophy]]
------
Letterboxing|987134907
3c3
< See [[GeoCaching]], [[Orienteering]]
---
> See [[GeoCaching]], [[Orienteering]], http://www.letterboxing.org
------
Letterboxing|987134946
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 
------
Letterboxing|987135422
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. 
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books, e.g. ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ISBN: 0950911429
3c3,5
< See [[GeoCaching]], [[Orienteering]], http://www.letterboxing.org
---
> See [[GeoCaching]], [[Orienteering]]
> 
> US Club at http://www.letterboxing.org
------
The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints|987135838
1c1
< The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also commonly referred to as the "Mormons". This nickname comes from the fact that along with the King James version of the [[TheBible|Bible]] the church accepts [[The Book of Mormon]] as scripture.
---
> The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also commonly referred to as the "[[Mormons]]". This nickname comes from the fact that along with the King James version of the [[TheBible|Bible]] the church accepts [[The Book of Mormon]] as scripture.
------
Letterboxing|987135909
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books, e.g. ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ISBN: 0950911429
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books, e.g. ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ISBN: 0950911429 [http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ISBN=0950911429 Amazon UK]
------
Wargaming|987135972
10c10
< Wargaming should not be confused with [[real time strategy]] games because wargaming is [[turn based]].
---
> Wargaming should not be confused with [[real time strategy]] games because wargaming is [[turn based]].  Wargames focus on the ability to analyze in-depth, plan, and make strategic decisions.  Real-time-strategy games focus more on reflexes, coordination, and the ability to make quick decisions with limited information.
14c14
< [[H.G. Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargamming.
---
> [[H.G. Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargaming.
31a32
> * players can't easily modify the rules or adapt them to similar situations
62a64,70
> 
> ----
> 
> External Link: <BR>
> James F. Dunnigan, one of the leading commercial wargame designers, has placed the 2nd edition of his book ''[[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm |The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' on-line.  It presents a broad view of wargames including professional military simulators, commercial simulations, and real-time-strategy games, as well as the turn-based wargames more commonly referred to as wargames.
> 
> 
------
Letterboxing|987135973
1c1
< '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books, e.g. ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ISBN: 0950911429 [http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ISBN=0950911429 Amazon UK]
---
> '''Letterboxing''' is an outdoor hobby which began on the moors of Dartmoor England. Letterboxers hide a small weatherproof box in publicly accessible places and post clues to its location. Traditionally, the clues are left in known letterboxes, but also on the Internet. Interest in letterboxing in the United States is generally considered to have started with a feature article in the [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues98/apr98/letterboxing.html April 1998] ''Smithsonian Magazine''. Anne Swinscow has written several popular guide books, e.g. ''Dartmoor Letterboxes'' ISBN 0950911429 [http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ISBN=0950911429 Amazon UK]
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|987136677
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia.  What should I do?</b>
> 
> First, make a list of everything you know.  Then, write an article for every item on that list.  If, for some reason, this is not practical, here are some other tips to help you get started.
> 
> Choose a topic that is of interest to you.  Find out what has been written about that topic so far.  Make improvements to the articles that already exist.  Fill in the gaps by creating new articles on aspects of the topic that have not been covered yet.
> 
> Visit a [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=random Random Page].  Find a link to an article on that page that hasn't been written yet.  These are the links that have [[little blue question marks]] after the words.  Click on the question mark, and add something about that topic.
> 
> Write about something you don't know about.  Use this as an excuse to research a new topic.  As you learn about it, write what you are learning here on Wikipedia.  This is actually a good study aid because it forces you to take notes, to organize information, and to put what you've learned into your own words.
> 
> Make a project!  Take a book a write a thourough chapter by chapter summary.  Make pages for all the characters.  Or do this with your favorite fictional universe ([[Star Wars]], [[Middle Earth]]).  Pick your favorite actor and review all his movies.  Pick your favorite city and build pages for all its best attractions.
> 
> Find a big topic (like [[World War II]] or [[Chinese history]]) and create a main page, and all the subcategory pages.  List all the topics that should be covered for a complete treatment.  You don't have to write articles for all these topics.  But if you build an outline and list everything that needs to be filled in, eventually someone will come along and start filling in!
> 
> You don't have to write to contribute.  Edit pages for spelling and grammatical errors.  Remove nonsense when you see it.  Correct false or misleading claims.  Wikify words (turn them into links).  Find redundant pages like [[Chicago]] and [[Chicago Illinois]] and combine them.
> 
> Tell your friends, your enemies, random strangers on the street.  Hire skywriters to write 'Wikipedia.com' across the sky.  Get the word out.
> 
> For more great Wikipedia advice, see [[Wikipedia policy]], which has links to all the important pages.
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|987136743
19c19
< For more great Wikipedia advice, see [[Wikipedia policy]], which has links to all the important pages.
---
> For more great Wikipedia advice, see [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia FAQ]], which have links to all the important pages.
------
Wikipedia|987136794
5c5
< Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]] (and in particular see the [[naming conventions]] page), and see the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.
---
> Let's discuss the mechanisms of Wikipedia on [[Wikipedia policy]] (and in particular see the [[naming conventions]] page), and see the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] for answers to many questions.  See [[Tips on contributing to Wikipedia]] for tips on contributing to Wikipedia.
9c9
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
------
LinkingToExternalImages|987136886
5c5,12
< I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
---
> I'd say just go get permission.  But then the article itself, since it doesn't concern HelL per se but is a very particular take on a particular question about HelL, should be saved under its own special (aptly-named) page.  That's '''my''' view, anyway.
> ----
> What's the proper syntax for a non-image external link?  I tried one on the [[Wargaming]] page, but it doesn't look right.  The pipe shows up.<br>  <code>''[[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm |The Complete Wargames Handbook]]''</code><br> 
> produces <br>
> ''[[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm |The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' <br>
> Without the space before the pipe it tries to include it and 'The' in the url: <br>
> ''[[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm|The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' <br>
> Is it even okay to link to things like this? -- Atlas_2091
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987136981
2a3,7
> '''Q. I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia. What should I do?'''
> 
> A. Visit [[How to start a page]],  [[How does one edit a page]], and [[Tips on contributing to Wikipedia]].
> ----
> 
------
LinkingToExternalImages|987137296
12a13,14
> 
> ''External links use a different syntax - the pipe is ignored (and so being considered part of the name or URL) and only one set of brackets is needed.  I'll fix it on said page, so you can look there....There's probably some other page this lives on.''
------
Wargaming|987137344
68c68
< James F. Dunnigan, one of the leading commercial wargame designers, has placed the 2nd edition of his book ''[[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm |The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' on-line.  It presents a broad view of wargames including professional military simulators, commercial simulations, and real-time-strategy games, as well as the turn-based wargames more commonly referred to as wargames.
---
> James F. Dunnigan, one of the leading commercial wargame designers, has placed the 2nd edition of his book ''[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' on-line.  It presents a broad view of wargames including professional military simulators, commercial simulations, and real-time-strategy games, as well as the turn-based wargames more commonly referred to as wargames.
------
Random_Page|987137373
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Random Page link allows you to visit a page at Wikipedia chosen at random by our [[Wikipedia gremlins]].  To enable this option, follow the Preferences link that is at the top of this and every Wikipedia page.  At the bottom of the Preferences page, under 'Misc.', check the box next to <b>'Add "Random Page" link to link bar'</b> and save.
------
Wargaming|987137414
68c68
< James F. Dunnigan, one of the leading commercial wargame designers, has placed the 2nd edition of his book ''[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm The Complete Wargames Handbook]]'' on-line.  It presents a broad view of wargames including professional military simulators, commercial simulations, and real-time-strategy games, as well as the turn-based wargames more commonly referred to as wargames.
---
> James F. Dunnigan, one of the leading commercial wargame designers, has placed the 2nd edition of his book ''[http://www.hyw.com/Books/WargamesHandbook/Contents.htm The Complete Wargames Handbook]'' on-line.  It presents a broad view of wargames including professional military simulators, commercial simulations, and real-time-strategy games, as well as the turn-based wargames more commonly referred to as wargames.
------
Wargame|987137648
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wargaming]]
------
Random_Page|987137734
1a2,3
> 
> If for some reason you don't feel like doing that - no idea what - you could also access this[http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=random via URL].
------
Star_Wars|987137775
2a3,4
> It has been noted, that in America it is now almost impossible to go for a full day without hearing some reference to Star Wars.  This is an a testament to the extraordinary popularity that the Star Wars films have enjoyed.
> 
------
FrequencyProbability|987137831
1c1
< see [[Frequency Probability]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Frequency Probability]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|987137866
1c1
< #REDIRECT /Betty_Pope
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
------
AtlasShrugged/BettyPope|987137892
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Betty Pope]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Betty Pope]]
------
Encyclopedia|987138112
11a12,13
> 
> We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)
------
HomePage|987138226
5,6d4
< You may want to consider that this format below (with numbers is the only solution I have been able to find to make this wiki text field intelligible while navigating it. Otherwise, it is not sufficiently chunked so as to help a blind user navigate through the portions of subjects. If you do not want the numbers there, and you only want the double spaces between the chunked subjects, I suggest that you design the text field to work like that of a mainstream word processor. Such mainstream word processors somehow allow blind software to recognize a double space, allowing the blind user to use the paragraph keystroke (control + down arrow), to easily skip through the chunked links. This suggestion is in accordance with WW3 guidelines and those of the National Federation of the Blind. Thanks, keep it up.
< 
41a40,41
> ----
> /Talk
------
Star_Wars|987138455
62c62
<  [[/R2D2]]
---
>  [[/R2-D2]]
71a72,99
> 
> * Planets and moons:
>  [[/Alderaan]]
>  [[/Bespin]]
>  [[/Coruscant]]
>  [[/Dagobah]]
>  [[/Death star]]...wait...that's no moon...
>  [[/Endor]]
>  [[/Hoth]]
>  [[/Naboo]]
>  [[/Tatooine]]
>  [[/Yavin 4]]
> 
> * Spaceships:
>  [[/X-wing]]
>  [[/Y-wing]]
>  [[/A-wing]]
>  [[/B-wing]]
>  [[/TIE Fighter]]
>  [[/TIE Interceptor]]
>  [[/TIE Bomber]]
>  [[/TIE Advanced]]
>  [[/Corellian Corvette]]
>  [[/Nebulon-B Frigate]]
>  [[/Mon Calamari Cruiser]]
>  [[/Star Destroyer]]
> 
> The Star Wars universe is pretty big, so it might not be wise to add everything from all the books and games and such...
------
AtlasShrugged/TaggartTranscontinental|987138532
1,3c1
< The railroad run by [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]].  Her committment to the railroad creates one of the book's major /Conflicts.
< 
< Taggart Transcontinental was founded by /NathanielTaggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  It's motto is, From Ocean to Ocean.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Taggart Transcontinental]]
------
American_Football_Conference|987138594
1c1
< One of the two conferences that compose the [[NationalFootballLeague]], the AFC was formed from the [[American Football League]] when it merged with the old [[NationalFootballLeague]]
---
> The American Football Conference (or AFC) is one of the two conferences that compose the [[National Football League]].  The AFC was formed from the [[American Football League]] when it merged with the old [[National Football League]]
------
National_Football_League|987138659
1c1
< An AmericaN [[Sports]] league, usually called the [[NFL]].
---
> An American [[Sports]] league, usually called the [[NFL]].
3c3
< The [[NFL]] is the largest and most popular AmericanFootball league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities except LosAngeles.
---
> The [[NFL]] is the largest and most popular [[American football]] league in the world.  It consists of 31 teams who represent most major American cities, but not [[Los Angeles]].
------
HomePage/Talk|987138665
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This was cut from the HomePage:
> 
> You may want to consider that this format below (with numbers is the only solution I have been able to find to make this wiki text field intelligible while navigating it. Otherwise, it is not sufficiently chunked so as to help a blind user navigate through the portions of subjects. If you do not want the numbers there, and you only want the double spaces between the chunked subjects, I suggest that you design the text field to work like that of a mainstream word processor. Such mainstream word processors somehow allow blind software to recognize a double space, allowing the blind user to use the paragraph keystroke (control + down arrow), to easily skip through the chunked links. This suggestion is in accordance with WW3 guidelines and those of the National Federation of the Blind. Thanks, keep it up.
> ----
> Thanks for finally clearing up why you kept changing the HomePage.  It's good to know you actually had a good reason for doing so!  I've created this /Talk page for discussion of issues about the HomePage.
> 
> I have given headings to each section.  I don't think the numbers make any sense from a semantic point of view.  I.e., they might make things ''a little'' more accessible for a blind person, but they actually make the page slightly more puzzling to the vast majority of the people who view the page.  (What, they will ask, are the numbers ''for''?)
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
HomePage|987138759
5c5,6
< :1 [[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
---
> :'''Philosophy, Mathematics, and Natural Science'''
> :[[Philosophy]] -- [[Mathematics]] -- [[Statistics]] -- [[Science]] -- [[Physics]] -- [[Chemistry]] -- [[Biology]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Earth Sciences]]
7c8,9
< :2 [[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
---
> :'''Social Sciences'''
> :[[Countries of the world]] -- [[History]] -- [[Linguistics]] & [[Language]] -- [[Politics]] -- [[Economics]] -- [[Geography]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Archaeology]] -- [[Psychology]] -- [[Sociology]] -- [[History of Science and Technology]] -- [[Anomalous Phenomena]]
9c11,12
< :3 [[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :'''Applied Arts and Sciences'''
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
11c14,15
< :4 [[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :'''Culture'''
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
41c45
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Los_Angeles|987138818
3c3
< The largest city, in terms of population, as of 2000.
---
> The largest city in California, and the second largest in the United States, in terms of population.
------
Dessert|987138933
1c1
< A course that typically comes at the end of a meal, usually consisting of food that is very sugary.
---
> A course that typically comes at the end of a meal, usually consisting of [[food]] that is very sugary.
4,8c4,12
<  [[Fudge]]
<  [[Pie]]
<  [[Ice cream]]
<  [[Cake]]
<  [[Cannoli]]
---
> *[[Fudge]]
> *[[Pie]]
> *[[Ice cream]]
> *[[Sorbet]]
> *[[Mousse]]
> *[[Cake]]
> *[[Cookies]]
> *[[Cannoli]]
> *[[Fruit desserts]]
------
Encyclopedia|987138943
13c13
< We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)
---
> We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)  ''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
------
Video_game/Adventure|987138958
9c9,10
< ''Text adventures''
---
> <br><br>
> ''Text adventures'' (aka ''Interactive Fiction'')
10a12
> * [[Hitchikers Guide to the Galaxy]] (1984)
13c15
< * [[King's Quest]] series (1984-)
---
> * [[Kings Quest]] series (1984-)
14a17
> * [[Police Quest]] series (1987-)
------
Disabilities|987139116
1,4d0
< ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be. We invite knowledgeable people to put this page in order!''
<  
< Hello, may I ask as politely as possible where you get your knowledge base on disabilities to say that this list is not conceptually well-organized? These are the major sections of disabilities. Did you want me to put further explanation after each term so that it would sound educated to your uneducated mind on this subject? So if you say this is not well-organized, but that you don't know and need someone mor knowledgeable, how did you know it is not well-organized? This seems nonsensical to me. This brings up another important and general question. How do the people of this Wiki jukge if something is scholarly or not, if you are not scholoars on everything? You must just look at it and think if it sounds good according to some loose and uneducated idea of waht "sounds" educated. Is this pride? I don't know, maybe you know something I don't, but then agon, how in that case, how would you know it was not well organized, and thus asked for someone knowledgeable on the subject. Interesting. How do you know it is not in order already? I wish I could give you my email address.
< 
14a11,12
> 
> /Talk
------
Los_Angeles|987139178
3c3
< The largest city in California, and the second largest in the United States, in terms of population.
---
> The largest city in California, and the second largest in the United States, in terms of population, with over 3 million people.  The Los Angeles metropolitan area (Los Angeles, [[Riverside]], [[Orange County]]) is home to over 16 million people.
------
Etymology|987139272
1c1
< Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Some words have been derived from other languages, others have been part of a language, either or not in changed shape. Through old texts and comparisons with other languages, etymologists try to reconstruct the history of words - when did they enter a language, from what source, and how did their form and meaning change?
---
> Etymology is the study of the origin of words. Some words have been derived from other [[language]]s, possibly in a changed form. Through old texts and comparisons with other languages, [[etymologist]]s try to reconstruct the history of words - when did they enter a language, from what source, and how did their form and meaning change?
3c3
< Etymologists will also try to reconstruct information of languages that are too old for any direct information (such as written texts) to be known. By comparing words in related languages, one can get information on their shared parent language. This way, 'word roots' have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of the [[Indo-European]] language family.
---
> Etymologists also try to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for any direct information (such as written texts) to be known. By comparing words in related languages, one can learn about their shared parent language. This way, 'word roots' have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of the [[Indo-European]] language family.
------
Capitalism|987139327
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
> 
> An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a FreeMarket, and the forces of the FreeMarket are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
> 
> A capitalist economy has many features, including both for-profit businesses and non-profit organizations, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
> 
> No economy in history has been purely capitalist in the sense of having a complete absence of political intervention.  In fact, the idea that an economy could be free of political intervention apparently did not occur to anyone until the late 18th century.  This makes capitalism one of the more radical ideas in human history.
> 
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM. In his work, Smith
> first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include Karl Marx, DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, JohnMaynardKeynes, PaulSamuelson, and MiltonFriedman. 
> 
> ---- 
> See CapitalismTalk
------
Aristotle|987139352
1c1
< Aristotle was a [[Greek]] Philosopher who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]] who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
CapitalisM|987139354
1,13c1
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
< 
< An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a FreeMarket, and the forces of the FreeMarket are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
< 
< A capitalist economy has many features, including both for-profit businesses and non-profit organizations, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
< 
< No economy in history has been purely capitalist in the sense of having a complete absence of political intervention.  In fact, the idea that an economy could be free of political intervention apparently did not occur to anyone until the late 18th century.  This makes capitalism one of the more radical ideas in human history.
< 
< Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM. In his work, Smith
< first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include Karl Marx, DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, JohnMaynardKeynes, PaulSamuelson, and MiltonFriedman. 
< 
< ---- 
< See CapitalismTalk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Capitalism]]
------
Aristotle|987139363
1c1
< Aristotle was a [[Greek]] [[Philosopher]] who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
---
> Aristotle was a [[Greek]] [[philosopher]] who lived from 384 to 322 B.C.  Along with [[Plato]], he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in western thought.  More needs to be said about him.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987139465
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Here is a partial list of disabilities, probably not as conceptually well-organized as it could be. We invite knowledgeable people to put this page in order!''
> ---- 
> Hello, may I ask as politely as possible where you get your knowledge base on disabilities to say that this list is not conceptually well-organized? These are the major sections of disabilities. Did you want me to put further explanation after each term so that it would sound educated to your uneducated mind on this subject? So if you say this is not well-organized, but that you don't know and need someone mor knowledgeable, how did you know it is not well-organized? This seems nonsensical to me. This brings up another important and general question. How do the people of this Wiki jukge if something is scholarly or not, if you are not scholoars on everything? You must just look at it and think if it sounds good according to some loose and uneducated idea of waht "sounds" educated. Is this pride? I don't know, maybe you know something I don't, but then agon, how in that case, how would you know it was not well organized, and thus asked for someone knowledgeable on the subject. Interesting. How do you know it is not in order already? I wish I could give you my email address.
> ----
> Comments about a page, especially when they get very lengthy, are put on "talk" pages like this page.
> 
> You seem to be new to Wikipedia.  Well, anyone can add anything they want to any page, and others can feel free to change it (or change it back!).  I suggest you read the [[welcome, newcomers|welcome page]] and follow the links.  If you want to spend very much time on Wikipedia, you'd better get used to other people editing what you do.  This requires thick skin.
> 
> The list didn't make any sense to me ''as'' a list of disabilities--that's all.  That was just my own opinion.  I don't know "the people of this Wiki" judge the scholarliness of anything; that's up to each of them individually.
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Capitalism|987139480
1c1
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, LibertariaN social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
3c3
< An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a FreeMarket, and the forces of the FreeMarket are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
---
> An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a [[Free Market]], and the forces of the free market are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
9,10c9
< Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by AdamSmith in 1776, in an attempt to refute MercantilisM. In his work, Smith
< first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to EconomicTheory.  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include Karl Marx, DavidRicardo, LudwigvonMises, FreidrichHayek, JohnMaynardKeynes, PaulSamuelson, and MiltonFriedman. 
---
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by [[Adam Smith]] in [[1776]], in an attempt to refute [[Mercantilism]]. In his work, Smith first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to [[Economic theory]].  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include [[Karl Marx]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Freidrich Hayek]], [[John Maynard Keynes]], [[Paul Samuelson]], and [[Milton Friedman]]. 
13c12
< See CapitalismTalk
---
> See [[/Talk]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987139499
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics.  Terms like ''capitalist economy'' are clearly used in the wrong context. This is a very biased, right-wing article,
> written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent
> economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very
> different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist).  This looks very much like a cut/paste job from a dodgy source. -- WojPob 
> ----
> When Milton Friedman wrote 'Economic Freedom, Human Freedom, Political Freedom', and 'Capitalism and Freedom', and 'Why Government Is the Problem', and when Friedrich Hayek wrote 'The Constitution of Liberty', and 'Law, Legislation and Liberty : The Political Order of a Free People', I think they were both indicating their willingness to involve themselves in a political discussion.
> ----
> WojPob, I suggest you simply change the article so that it's more accurate by your lights.  I am very curious to see how you would change it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> In an attempt to make the article appear to be less one-sided, I added some anti-capitalist theorists to the list of theorists.
> I think that the article is mostly good as it stands right now because it doesn't advocate for or against capitalism, but merely defines the term in a way that a broad spectrum of people can agree is accurate.  I say ''broad spectrum'' because I don't think that ''everyone'' will agree.
> 
> Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term? --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> As private ownership and private economic decision-making are the bedrock of capitalism, and not expressly mentioned in the article, I plugged that in.  Hope no one minds.
> ----
> 
> Not at all.  Indeed, in terms of a definition by essentials, this is probably much better than a definition based on 'intervention'.
------
CapitalismTalk|987139526
1,18c1
< CapitalisM? is a much overused political term, which has little to do with economics.  Terms like ''capitalist economy'' are clearly used in the wrong context. This is a very biased, right-wing article,
< written in a style that reminds me of Goebbels' propaganda. The theorists mentioned (Hayek, Friedman, etc.) are prominent
< economomisits. Their motives were far from involving themselves in a political discussion of this sort (Keynes had very
< different views to the gentlenmen mentioned above, but one cannot say that he was anti-capitalist).  This looks very much like a cut/paste job from a dodgy source. -- WojPob 
< ----
< When Milton Friedman wrote 'Economic Freedom, Human Freedom, Political Freedom', and 'Capitalism and Freedom', and 'Why Government Is the Problem', and when Friedrich Hayek wrote 'The Constitution of Liberty', and 'Law, Legislation and Liberty : The Political Order of a Free People', I think they were both indicating their willingness to involve themselves in a political discussion.
< ----
< WojPob, I suggest you simply change the article so that it's more accurate by your lights.  I am very curious to see how you would change it. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< In an attempt to make the article appear to be less one-sided, I added some anti-capitalist theorists to the list of theorists.
< I think that the article is mostly good as it stands right now because it doesn't advocate for or against capitalism, but merely defines the term in a way that a broad spectrum of people can agree is accurate.  I say ''broad spectrum'' because I don't think that ''everyone'' will agree.
< 
< Perhaps a revised version might acknowledge some other definitions of the term? --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< ----
< As private ownership and private economic decision-making are the bedrock of capitalism, and not expressly mentioned in the article, I plugged that in.  Hope no one minds.
< ----
< 
< Not at all.  Indeed, in terms of a definition by essentials, this is probably much better than a definition based on 'intervention'.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Capitalism/Talk]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987139610
7d6
< 
------
Double_jeopardy|987139816
1c1
< A legal phrase stemming from the United States constitutional edict that no man may be placed in jeopardy of lfe, limb or liberty for the same offense twice.
---
> A [[law|legal]] phrase stemming from the [[United States Constitution|United States constitutional]] edict that no one may be placed in jeopardy of life, limb, or liberty for the same offense twice.
3c3
< This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for murder once, and found not guilty, then he cannot be tried for the same crime again, even if later evidence comes to light proving his guilt beyond a doubt.
---
> This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for [[murder]] once, and found not guilty, then one cannot be tried for the same [[crime]] again, even if later evidence comes to light proving one's guilt beyond a doubt.
5c5
< In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for perjury, but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
---
> In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for [[perjury]], but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
7c7
< In another famous case, a man was tried again for murder after having been acquitted.  He had bribed the judge in his first trial, and this corrupt deception was later discovered.  It was ruled by the higher court in that case that a second trial for the same offense did not constitute double jeopardy, as "jeopardy had not attached" in the first trial.  In other words, since acquittal was a foregone conclusion in the first trial after the killer bribed the judge, it was not impermissible to give him a actual, just trial after the foregoing sham.
---
> In another famous case, a man was tried again for murder after having been acquitted.  He had bribed the judge in his first trial, and this corruption was later discovered.  It was ruled by the higher court in that case that a second trial for the same offense did not constitute double jeopardy, as "jeopardy had not attached" in the first trial.  In other words, since acquittal was a foregone conclusion in the first trial after the killer bribed the judge, it was not impermissible to give him a actual, just trial after the foregoing sham.
------
Precedent|987139896
1c1
< Precedent is the principle in law of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.  Precedent does not dictate how a new case should be decided, but it can be very important in establishing, by reference, how courts in general have viewed a particlar law or a type of circumstance viewed in a legal setting.
---
> Precedent is the principle in [[law]] of using the past in order to assist in current interpretation and decision-making.  Precedent does not dictate how a new case should be decided, but it can be very important in establishing, by reference, how courts in general have viewed a particlar law or a type of circumstance viewed in a legal setting.
------
Drew_Barrymore|987140000
1,2c1,4
<  /Biography 
<  /Filmography
---
> Drew Barrymore is...?
> 
> /Biography 
> /Filmography
------
Drew_Barrymore|987140011
3,4c3,4
< /Biography 
< /Filmography
---
> */Biography 
> */Filmography
------
Video_game/RPG|987140014
13a14
> * [[Rogue]] and 'Roguelikes'
17c18
< * [[Wizardry]] series
---
> * [[Wizardry]] series
------
Charles_Darwin|987140076
1c1
< British Naturalist (1809 -1882). Contrary to popular opinion, Darwin did not "discover" [[evolution]] as it was accepted by many since the beginning of the 1800's. Instead, he provided the first really coherent theory of how evolution occurs (via his mechanism of [[natural selection]]). Other important aspects of Darwin's overall theory were; [[common descent]], [[sexual selection]], [[gradualism]], and [[pangenesis]].
---
> [[Great Britain|British]] [[Naturalist]] (1809 -1882). Contrary to popular opinion, Darwin did not "discover" [[evolution]] as it was accepted by many since the beginning of the 1800's. Instead, he provided the first really coherent theory of how evolution occurs (via his mechanism of [[natural selection]]). Other important aspects of Darwin's overall theory were; [[common descent]], [[sexual selection]], [[gradualism]], and [[pangenesis]].
3c3
< Darwin's most famous work is [[The Origin of Species]].
---
> Darwin's most famous work is [[The Origin of Species]].
------
Italy|987140207
6c6
< The capital is [[Roma]] ([[Rome]]); the economic capital is Milano (Milan) in the north.
---
> The capital is [[Roma]] ([[Rome]]); the economic capital is [[Milano]] ([[Milan]]) in the north.
10,11c10,11
< Italy is also the country best known for its food (pizza, spaghetti, etc.) and the [[leaning tower of Pisa]].
< Pisa is a beautiful small town in [[Tuscany]], and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the thirteenth century.
---
> Italy is also well-known for its [[food]] ([[pizza]], [[pasta]], etc.) and the [[leaning tower of Pisa]].
> Pisa is a beautiful small town in [[Tuscany]], and the tower wasn't built to be leaning, but began leaning soon after they started construction around the [[thirteenth century]].
------
Assistive_Technology|987140852
1c1
< 1. The Universally Accessible Attitude (it simply includes everbody): Technology is a promising window of opportunity to people with disabilities and those who learn and assimilate information in a variety of ways. However, all too often, technology is created without regard to these people, and thus it becomes a barrier rather than an opportunity. Acessibility means excellent usability.  For example, a telephone is quite universally accessible. It is inexpensive for a user, so the poor can use it. It is usable. Think of something that is the most usable of all technologies. Think of something that is the most universally accessible. If you can think of what these things are, you know how to make a piece of technology mostly accessible. A telephone is very accessible for a poor person. It is simple and straightforward. Matched with an automated telephone system enough to present selections broken into simple menus and speech feedback, it is very accessible to the blind. However, it is not accessible to the deaf. But combine this with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, a deaf person could use it. Calculators are cheap, and the screens would be sufficient for the feedback of an automated telephone system. But wait, how would a mobility impaired person acccess this little device. A speech recognition piece of software could work for recognizing short commands, especially considering that this is already employed in many telephone systems. People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simpliciy, and so would everyone else for that matter. Therefore the benefites of unive rsally accessible technolgy end up yielding their greatest rewards to the normal user. The classic example of an Assistive Technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at crossings. While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags in doing the same activity. Good accessible design is universal design.
---
> ''Assistive technology'' is [[technology]], or enhancements to technology, or methods of using technology, that makes it possible for [[disability|disabled persons]] to use technology (or to use it easily) that they were formerly unable to use (or to use with only some difficulty).  Moreover, according to the advocates of assistive technology, all too often, technology is created without regard to disabled people, and thus barriers to new technology-created opportunities are thrown up.
3c3,9
< .1
---
> Universal (or broadened) accessibility means excellent usability, particularly for disabled people.  But, argue advocates of assistive technology, universally accessible technology yield great rewards to the normal user; good accessible design is universal design, they say.  The classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone's life is the "curb cuts" in the sidewalk at street crossings.  While these curb cuts surely enable mobility impaired pedestrians to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, travellers and workers with pull-type bags.
> 
> Consider an example of an assistive technology.  The modern telephone is, except for the deaf, universally accessible.  Combined with a visual feedback such as a calculator has, however, a deaf person can use a device like a telephone.
> 
> Another example: calculators are cheap, but a mobility-impaired person can have difficulty using them.  Speech recognition software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier.  People with mental disabilities would appreciate the simplicity; others would as well.
> 
> /Talk
------
Encyclopedia|987141085
13c13,16
< We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)  ''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
---
> We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)
> <br>''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
> <br>Ah, but etymology itself comes from the Greek ''etymos'' meaning true and ''logos'' meaning meaning, so clearly the etymology tells us the definition, by applying the logical technique of assuming the consequent (proof by assertion to mathematicians.  Oh, and a smiley frequently means I'm kidding. :)
> 
------
Encyclopedia|987141113
14,15c14,17
< <br>''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
< <br>Ah, but etymology itself comes from the Greek ''etymos'' meaning true and ''logos'' meaning meaning, so clearly the etymology tells us the definition, by applying the logical technique of assuming the consequent (proof by assertion to mathematicians.  Oh, and a smiley frequently means I'm kidding. :)
---
> 
> ''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
> 
> Ah, but etymology itself comes from the Greek ''etymos'' meaning true and ''logos'' meaning meaning, so clearly the etymology tells us the definition, by applying the logical technique of assuming the consequent (proof by assertion to mathematicians).  Oh, and a smiley frequently means I'm kidding. :)
------
Encyclopedia|987141146
1c1
< An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one meter (roughly one yard, for those of you still using the English system) of shelf space.
---
> An Encyclopedia is a traditionally a book containing a collection of information on almost all topics ordered by the words describing the items. It describes persons, places, products, companies, peoples, and much more. A traditional Encyclopedia occupies about one [[metre]] (roughly one yard, for those of you still using the English system) of shelf space.
13,18c13
< We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)
< 
< ''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
< 
< Ah, but etymology itself comes from the Greek ''etymos'' meaning true and ''logos'' meaning meaning, so clearly the etymology tells us the definition, by applying the logical technique of assuming the consequent (proof by assertion to mathematicians).  Oh, and a smiley frequently means I'm kidding. :)
< 
---
> We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.
------
Encyclopedia|987141147
13c13,18
< We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.
---
> We sure?  M-W lists the word as coming from the Greek ''enkyklios'' meaning something along the lines of course and ''paedeia'' meaning education or child-rearing.  Btw, that would also make LMS wrong when he says encyclopedias aren't for educating. ;)
> 
> ''Er, no, it wouldn't.  It would say something about the etymology of the word.''
> 
> Ah, but etymology itself comes from the Greek ''etymos'' meaning true and ''logos'' meaning meaning, so clearly the etymology tells us the definition, by applying the logical technique of assuming the consequent (proof by assertion to mathematicians).  Oh, and a smiley frequently means I'm kidding. :)
> 
------
Tank|987141274
25c25
< ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use barrel-launched ATGMs)''
---
> ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use barrel-launched ATGMs (M60A2, M551, T64, T72, T80, T90))''
------
Native_American|987141672
3c3
< The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no relationship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the sad misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]], arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent, that he had reached the Indies. 
---
> '''What to call these people'''
5c5,11
< One minority view has been that a more accurate term might be "Asiatic Americans" because of the popular theory that such peoples migrated to the Americas from Asia accross an ice bridge covering the Bering Straits some 20,000 years ago.  There is competent fossil evidence that this may have been the case.  The strong tradition among Archaeologists and Anthropologists, however, is to indicate the geographic origins of a people as relating to the region where they (or their remains) were first encountered by researchers.
---
> The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no relationship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]], arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent, that he had reached the Indies.  Of course, "Indian" and "American Indian" continue to be widely used in [[North America]], even by Native Americans themselves, many of whom are not offended by the terms.
> 
> One minority view has been that a more accurate term might be "Asiatic Americans" because of the popular theory that such peoples migrated to the Americas from Asia accross an ice bridge covering the Bering Straits some 20,000 years ago.  There is competent fossil evidence that this may have been the case.  The strong tradition among archaeologists and anthropologists, however, is to indicate the geographic origins of a people as relating to the region where they (or their remains) were first encountered by researchers.
> 
> '''Tribes'''
> 
> '''Cultural characteristics'''
------
Capitalism/Talk|987141747
17d16
< 
18a18,19
> ----
> It's been a while since this page has been regarded, but since the move brought it to the top again, I say open season.  It occurs to me that intervention can't possibly be a basis for a definition of capitalism, because there is a ''special term'' for a capitalism in which political intervention is minimal, namely [[laissez faire capitalism]].  I suggest that most of the page contents be moved there and something else be put up in its place.  Any objections?
------
Native_American|987141787
1c1
< Indigenous peoples of the Americas, usually meant to refer to those of the North American Continent.
---
> ''Native Americans'' are the people descended from the various peoples who lived in North America before European colonization.
11c11
< '''Cultural characteristics'''
---
> '''Cultural characteristics'''
------
Native_American|987141807
5c5
< The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[Political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no relationship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]], arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent, that he had reached the Indies.  Of course, "Indian" and "American Indian" continue to be widely used in [[North America]], even by Native Americans themselves, many of whom are not offended by the terms.
---
> The term "Native American," it has been suggested, may have been adopted in the interest of [[political correctness]].  Anthropologists originated the term, however, and prefer it to the former inaccurate apellation of "Indian" or "American Indian," as these terms bear no relationship to the actual origins of aboriginal Americans, and were born of the misapprehension on the part of [[Christopher Columbus]], arriving at islands off the east coast of the North American continent, that he had reached the Indies.  Of course, "Indian" and "American Indian" continue to be widely used in [[North America]], even by Native Americans themselves, many of whom are not offended by the terms.
------
Atlas_2091|987142087
13c13,15
< Thank you!  Quite a place you've got here...like a bit from an early cyberpunk novel come true.  
---
> Thank you!  Quite a place you've got here...like a bit from an early cyberpunk novel come true.
> ----
> Hey, Atlas.  Neat work on Military History, I put up a few pages of ancient stuff.  Maybe we could have enough that games could be played straight from the info here!  I was wondering, do chariots count as AFVs?  'Cause if so, they've been around a lot earlier than tractors. --[[Josh Grosse|JG]]
------
TheChurchOfJesusChristofLatterdaySaints|987142677
1c1
< 1 [[Disabilities]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
------
Mormons|987142717
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
---
> Mormons are adherents of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].
------
Health_Sciences|987154476
7a8
> :[[nontraditional medicine]] would be better phrased as [[alternative medicine]].
9c10
< (Please render the above fact-stating!)
---
> (Please render the above fact-stating!)
------
Medicine|987154533
3c3
< One can distinguish also : [[endocrinology]], [[nephrology]], [[gastroenterology]] and
---
> One can distinguish also : [[endocrinology]], [[nephrology]], [[gastroenterology]] [[infectious diseases]] and
54c54
< 
---
> * [[infectious diseases]]
------
World_War_I|987160811
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommission of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
------
World_War_I|987160984
7c7,9
< All of this lead to a huge trauma all participants had afterwards. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the [[Lost Generation]]" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For more details on the subject, you should read one of the great novels about the war. They include: 
---
> The experiencs of the war lead to a sort of collective
> national trauma afterwards for all the participating
> countries. The optimism of 1900 was entirely gone and those who fought in the war became what is known as "the [[Lost Generation]]" because they never fully recovered from their experiences. For more details on the subject, you should read one of the great novels about the war. They include: 
------
Wargaming|987161050
14c14
< [[H.G. Wells]] book ''Little Wars'' was about wargaming.
---
> [[H.G. Wells]]'s book ''Little Wars'' was about wargaming.
------
Wargaming|987161070
14c14
< [[H.G. Wells]]'s book ''Little Wars'' was about wargaming.
---
> [[H.G. Wells]]' book ''Little Wars'' was about wargaming.
------
World_War_I|987167512
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined, declaring war on the [[Entente]] powers: [[France]], [[Great Britain]], [[Russia]] and - towards the end of the war - the [[United States]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] & [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In 1917 [[Italy]] & the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]] & [[Russia]].
3c3
< The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces and tanks (which weren't used before at all), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
---
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces, tanks (which weren't used before at all) & new tactics (like the rolling barrage), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
7c7
< The experiencs of the war lead to a sort of collective
---
> The experiences of the war lead to a sort of collective
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald/Talk|987168216
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <RANT>
> 
> It is a terrible shame that Oswald can be termed a former Marine.  He was in the Wing (not a combat arms-type), was court-martialed twice (once for illegal possession of a firearm and another for assaulting a superior officer), his FitReps were deplorable (Marines dub this type a "shitbird"), he shot himself in the arm, and, fortunately for his fellow Marines, he applied for and received an "early out" in the form of a dependency discharge so he could go home and take care of mommy.  
> 
> This is one place in my life where I let my passion for something overtake my logic and desire for broader perspective.  I have always thought of [[Jack Ruby]] as a hero, not for shooting the man that assasinated POTUS, but for providing the early removal of a blot in the Marine Corps' vaunted history.  -[[Invictus]]
> 
> </RANT>
------
Capitalism/Talk|987168395
19c19,21
< It's been a while since this page has been regarded, but since the move brought it to the top again, I say open season.  It occurs to me that intervention can't possibly be a basis for a definition of capitalism, because there is a ''special term'' for a capitalism in which political intervention is minimal, namely [[laissez faire capitalism]].  I suggest that most of the page contents be moved there and something else be put up in its place.  Any objections?
---
> It's been a while since this page has been regarded, but since the move brought it to the top again, I say open season.  It occurs to me that intervention can't possibly be a basis for a definition of capitalism, because there is a ''special term'' for a capitalism in which political intervention is minimal, namely [[laissez faire capitalism]].  I suggest that most of the page contents be moved there and something else be put up in its place.  Any objections?
> 
> I think that logically, laissez-faire capitalism is pure capitalism, and anything else is diluted capitalism.  If we want to define our concepts in terms of essentials, then capitalism is a system based on non-intervention. - TS
------
Capitalism/Talk|987168796
16c16
< ----
---
> 
17a18,20
> 
> Incidentally, 'the absense of government intervention' and 'private economic decision-making' are identitical concepts.  By definition, decision-making is private when it is not governmental, whereas if the government intervenes, it can only be to alter the private decision-making that would have occured otherwise.  Drawing a distinction between the two is not useful. -TS
> 
------
Computing|987173564
22a23,24
> * [[Computer system]]
> 
------
Computer_system|987175189
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Computer system is a set of [[Computer hardware|hardware]] and [[Computer software|software]] that processes [[data]] in a meaningful way. A relatively symple computer system is a [[PC]]. A relatively complex computer system is Internet. Even the simplest computer is really a computer system because at least two components (hardware and software) have to work together. But the real meaning of computer system comes with interconnexion.
> 
> Many computer systems can interconnect, that is, join to become a bigger system. Interconnecting computer systems is tricky, in the best of cases, due to incompatibilities, sometimes hardware and sometimes software. We can say that the natural inclination of computer system is not to interconnect themselves. So you have to force them, you have to make them adhere to a set of rules and constraints, that precisely define the "outside view" of the system. This outside view effectively defines the way a system connects with another. If two systems define the same "outside view", they can interconnect themselves, and become a bigger system of sorts.
> 
> This "outside view" comes usually in the form of a standard, that is, a document explaining all the rules to be followed. If your system obeys with all the rules, it can be said to comply with the standard.
------
Lee_Harvey_Oswald/Talk|987176448
7c7,9
< </RANT>
---
> </RANT>
> 
> Jack Ruby was a feces dropping.  Calling him a hero is an insult to real heroes. - TS
------
Capitalism/Talk|987178936
24a25,30
> 
> Checking the quickest to grab sources.  Britannica starts out by equating capitalism with a free market but in the same breath says it has been dominant since the decline of feudalism.  Encarta mentions minimal gov intervention as ''one'' of the primary characteristics, but is talking mainly about modern capitalism, and elsewhere calls mercantilism a different kind.  M-W does the same.  And a book randomly grabbed off the shelf, ''A history of Early Modern Europe'', places the development of Commercial Capitalism from 1500-1650.  All of these care more about private ownership and, in the case of the last, the appearance of a merchant class, and clearly indicate that the system was in place well before Smith.  So I think that your definition is non-standard at best.
> 
> 
> 
> starts out by equating capitalism with a free market but in the same breath says it has been dominant since the fall of feudalism.  Encarta again mentions minimal gov intervention, 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987179011
27,30d26
< 
< 
< 
< starts out by equating capitalism with a free market but in the same breath says it has been dominant since the fall of feudalism.  Encarta again mentions minimal gov intervention, 
------
Political_liberal|987181246
13a14,15
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Double_jeopardy|987181476
1,3c1
< A [[law|legal]] phrase stemming from the [[United States Constitution|United States constitutional]] edict that no one may be placed in jeopardy of life, limb, or liberty for the same offense twice.
< 
< This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for [[murder]] once, and found not guilty, then one cannot be tried for the same [[crime]] again, even if later evidence comes to light proving one's guilt beyond a doubt.
---
> A [[law|legal]] phrase stemming from the [[United States Constitution|United States constitutional]] edict that no one may be placed in jeopardy of life, limb, or liberty for the same offense twice.  This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for [[murder]] once, and found not guilty, then one cannot be tried for the same [[crime]] again, even if later evidence comes to light proving one's guilt beyond a doubt.
7a6,7
> 
> Advocates of this principle argue that it is more important to avoid punishing innocent men that it is to punish guilty, and that without such a law in place someone (for instance a political opponent) could simply be re-sent to trial indefinately.  ''Someone who knows more about the topic should fill this out; this is an awfully negative article.''
------
Political_conservatism|987181515
1c1
< ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional views and values.  In the [[United States]] and western [[Europe]], it is generally associated with the following views:
---
> ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional views and values.  
2a3,9
> Two distinct groups of conservatives exist:
> * Fiscal conservative - one who believes in most all conservative values except religious and abortion related issues
> * Social conservative - one who believes in all conservative values including religious and abortion related issues
> 
> In the [[United States]] and western [[Europe]], it is generally associated with the following views:
> 
> * Personal responsibility
16c23
< '''Famous conservatives'''
---
> '''Famous conservatives'''
------
Interlingua|987181838
1,14c1
< Interlingua is a constructed, or synthetic
< language (others are [[ Esperanto ]] and
< [[ Volapuk ]]).  Where the Esperanto vocabulary
< was drawn from [[romance language|Romance]], 
< [[germanic language|Germanic]] and
< [[slavic language|Slavic]] languages, and others,
< the vocabulary of Interlingua is drawn solely
< from Romance languages.  Where the [[ grammar ]]
< of Esperanto was designed, and contains
< grammatical elements from wildly disparate languages,
< the grammar of Interlingua is based solely on the
< grammar of Romance languages, with some simplification.
< Interlingua was intended to be, in essence, the
< "average" of all the existing Romance languages.
---
> Interlingua is a constructed, or [[artificial language]] (such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Volapuk|Volapük]]).  Where the Esperanto vocabulary was drawn from [[romance language|Romance]], [[germanic language|Germanic]], and [[slavic language|Slavic]] languages and others, the vocabulary of Interlingua is drawn solely from Romance languages.  Where the [[grammar]] of Esperanto was designed, and contains grammatical elements from wildly disparate languages, the grammar of Interlingua is based solely on the grammar of Romance languages, with some simplification.  Interlingua was intended to be, in essence, the "average" of all the existing Romance languages.
16,22c3,4
< The grammar and vocabulary of Interlingua
< were complete by 1950.  [[Alexander Gode]] was
< one of the prime movers in this effort.  He published
< a survey of the grammar, a one-way dictionary
< (Interlingua to English), and an introductory book
< entitled <i>Interlingua a Prime Vista</i>,
< "Interlingua at First Sight".
---
> The grammar and vocabulary of Interlingua were complete by 1950.  [[Alexander Gode]] was one of the prime movers in this effort.  He published a survey of the grammar, a one-way dictionary (Interlingua to English), and an introductory book
> entitled ''Interlingua a Prime Vista'' ("Interlingua at First Sight").
24,28c6
< Interlingua still has some enthusiastic supporters
< in the [[ United States of America| United States]],
< the [[Netherlands]], [[Russia]], and particularly
< [[Sweden]].  There are some Interlingua web-pages,
< and at least one monthly newsletter.
---
> Interlingua still has some enthusiastic supporters in the [[United States]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Russia]], and particularly [[Sweden]].  There are some Interlingua web pages, and at least one monthly newsletter.
30,47c8
< I have to admit that it took me longer to reach
< a given level of competence in Interlingua than
< to reach the same level in Esperanto.  Despite the
< claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to
< be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua
< is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be
< beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character
< of each Romance language has been washed out of it).
< Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening,
< reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it
< has far more potential usefulness spoken than  
< listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to
< Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French
< accent) [[ Quebecois ]], and they all understood me
< (they were very amused, but they understood me), though,
< of course, 
< When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or
< Quebecois, I couldn't understand them.
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Interlingua/Talk|987181893
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This text is too valuable to delete, but I'm not sure how to make it reasonably encyclopedic:
> 
> I have to admit that it took me longer to reach a given level of competence in Interlingua than to reach the same level in Esperanto.  Despite the claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua
> is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character of each Romance language has been washed out of it).  Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening, reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it has far more potential usefulness spoken than listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French accent) [[Quebecois]], and they all understood me (they were very amused, but they understood me), though, of course,  When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or French, I couldn't understand them.
> 
------
Anarres/Interlingua|987181982
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I have to admit that it took me longer to reach a given level of competence in [[Interlingua]] than to reach the same level in [[Esperanto]].  Despite the claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character of each Romance language has been washed out of it).  Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening, reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it has far more potential usefulness spoken than listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French accent) [[Quebecois]], and they all understood me (they were very amused, but they understood me), though, of course,  When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or French, I couldn't understand them.
------
Political_conservative/Talk|987181999
0a1,20
> One fails to see how a set of viewpoints can be on both sides when defining one of the larger political groups.  Here's a rewrite:
> 
> Basic principles of conservativism:
> * Personal responsibility
> * Everyone should be treated equally
> ** No one should be discriminated against
> ** No group should have higher rights or special privlidges in government programs, regulation, or judical proceedings
> * Laws should be enforced
> * Laws should be enforced equally
> * Personal freedom should be protected and enhanced
> * Citizens should be self sufficient except in cases of severe disability
> * Citizens should obey the law
> * have a strong military
> * Not help our enemy
> * Have limited government
> 
> Religious principles of conservativism:
> * Moral values of Christanity should be followed
> 
> ----
------
Interlingua|987182098
7a8,9
> Reviews and personal experiences: [[Anarres/Interlingua|Anarres]].
> 
------
Positive_tone|987182171
8c8,10
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> ----
> Postive tone is a good idea except in cases where postive tone implies approval of generally bad things (e.g., slavery).
------
Interlingua/Talk|987182246
1,5c1
< This text is too valuable to delete, but I'm not sure how to make it reasonably encyclopedic:
< 
< I have to admit that it took me longer to reach a given level of competence in Interlingua than to reach the same level in Esperanto.  Despite the claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua
< is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character of each Romance language has been washed out of it).  Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening, reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it has far more potential usefulness spoken than listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French accent) [[Quebecois]], and they all understood me (they were very amused, but they understood me), though, of course,  When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or French, I couldn't understand them.
< 
---
> I moved a paragraph of personal experiences, which was too valuable to delete, to a "commentary" page under the name of its author.  That brings up a policy question: should one create commentary pages like that for others, or just suggest that they do it themselves?  I'm inclined toward the bolder option: do what you think is right, and let them fix it if they object.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Bulletin_board_system|987182461
27a28
> [[Shareware]] was started via sharing software through BBSes.  A notable example was Phil Katz's Pkarc.
------
Interlingua|987182722
1c1,3
< Interlingua is a constructed, or [[artificial language]] (such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Volapuk|Volapük]]).  Where the Esperanto vocabulary was drawn from [[romance language|Romance]], [[germanic language|Germanic]], and [[slavic language|Slavic]] languages and others, the vocabulary of Interlingua is drawn solely from Romance languages.  Where the [[grammar]] of Esperanto was designed, and contains grammatical elements from wildly disparate languages, the grammar of Interlingua is based solely on the grammar of Romance languages, with some simplification.  Interlingua was intended to be, in essence, the "average" of all the existing Romance languages.
---
> Interlingua is a constructed, or [[artificial language]] (such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Volapuk|Volapük]]).  
> 
> Where the Esperanto vocabulary was drawn from [[romance language|Romance]], [[germanic language|Germanic]], and [[slavic language|Slavic]] languages and others, the vocabulary of Interlingua is drawn solely from Romance languages.  Where the [[grammar]] of Esperanto was designed, and contains grammatical elements from wildly disparate languages, the grammar of Interlingua is based solely on the grammar of Romance languages, with some simplification.  Interlingua was intended to be, in essence, the "average" of all the existing Romance languages.
------
WikiPediaBugs|987182739
86a87,90
> 
> ----
> I have "Show Random Page Link" set in my preferences, but the link shows up on same pages and not in others.  I can't find any pattern; it seems to be missing about a third of the time.
> 
------
Interlingua/Talk|987182814
1a2,4
> 
> ----
> Where do manufactured languages created only to allow machine assisted inter-language translation fit in?
------
Positive_tone|987182836
5d4
< 
10a10,11
> 
> I still think the same general approach can be taken.  An article describing slavery as a sick degradation of human life and listing some of the worst instances would be deserved but not particularly informative anyways.  Instead one could begin by saying slavery was predominant throughout the ancient world and picked up again in early modern times, that the conditions under which slaves lived and worked varied but were generally dismal, and that for such reasons slavery is now considered a violation of human rights and has widely and thankfully been abolished.  That doesn't condone slavery but still presents the neutral (if not positive) first and comes off the better for it.
------
Random_Page|987182959
1,3c1
< The Random Page link allows you to visit a page at Wikipedia chosen at random by our [[Wikipedia gremlins]].  To enable this option, follow the Preferences link that is at the top of this and every Wikipedia page.  At the bottom of the Preferences page, under 'Misc.', check the box next to <b>'Add "Random Page" link to link bar'</b> and save.
< 
< If for some reason you don't feel like doing that - no idea what - you could also access this[http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=random via URL].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Random page]]
------
Random_page|987182972
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Random Page''' link allows you to visit a page at Wikipedia chosen at random by our [[Wikipedia gremlins]].  To enable this option, follow the '''Preferences''' link that is at the top of this and every Wikipedia page.  At the bottom of the Preferences page, under "Misc.", check the box next to "Add 'Random Page' link to link bar" and save.
> 
> If for some reason you don't feel like doing that, you could also access this [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=random via URL].
> 
------
Artificial_language|987182987
9a10,12
> Languages intended for translation purposes:
> ''None yet''
> 
------
How_to_explore_Wikipedia|987183003
8c8,9
< * To see an alphabetical list of all entries follow [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index this link].
---
> * To see an alphabetical list of all entries follow [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=index this link].
> * Explore [[random page]]s.
------
Interlingua/Talk|987183031
4a5,6
> 
> Added category on [[Artificial languages]] for these, feel free to add some.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987183183
11c11,13
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Q on disabilities: How do you place into the existing different categories self induced ones such as alcoholism (recognized by ADA)?
------
Positive_tone|987183230
4c4
< ---
---
> ----
11c11
< I still think the same general approach can be taken.  An article describing slavery as a sick degradation of human life and listing some of the worst instances would be deserved but not particularly informative anyways.  Instead one could begin by saying slavery was predominant throughout the ancient world and picked up again in early modern times, that the conditions under which slaves lived and worked varied but were generally dismal, and that for such reasons slavery is now considered a violation of human rights and has widely and thankfully been abolished.  That doesn't condone slavery but still presents the neutral (if not positive) first and comes off the better for it.
---
> I still think the same general approach can be taken.  An article describing slavery as a sick degradation of human life and listing some of the worst instances would be deserved but not particularly informative anyways.  Instead one could begin by saying slavery was predominant throughout the ancient world and picked up again in early modern times, that the conditions under which slaves lived and worked varied but were generally dismal, and that for such reasons slavery is now considered a violation of human rights and has widely and thankfully been abolished.  That doesn't condone slavery but still presents the neutral (if not positive) first and comes off the better for it.
------
Artificial_language|987183235
10c10
< Languages intended for translation purposes:
---
> Languages intended for machine assisted automatic translation purposes:
------
Artificial_language|987183325
23a24,26
> See also:
> * [[Language translation]]
> 
------
Language_translation|987183522
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Language translation</b> is the process of changing text from one language into another language with the goals of preserving the [[tone]] and [[meaning]] of the original text.
> 
> <b>Human translation</b>
> 
> <b>Machine translation</b>
------
Japan/Economy|987183696
91a92
> [[/History]]
------
Japan/Economy|987183769
92c92,93
< [[/History]]
---
> See also:
> * [[Cross ownership]]
------
Crokinole|987184036
1c1
< '''Crokinole''' is an action [[board game]] similar to [[carroms]] or [[squails]] in which players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces. Board dimensions vary with a playing surface approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. Players flick or fillip their pieces from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present. If no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center ring. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel.
---
> '''Crokinole''' is an action [[board game]] similar to [[carroms]],[[ShoveHaPenny|shove ha'penny]] or [[squails]] in which players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces. Board dimensions vary with a playing surface approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. Players flick or fillip their pieces from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present. If no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center ring. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel.
------
Chess/Board|987184261
1c1
< The board used in [[Chess]] consists of 8 rows and 8 columns of squares arranged in alternating colors, the most common version being [http://www.philagora.net/stendhal.htm red and black].  Also called a checker board, since it is used in many variations of [[Checkers]].
---
> The board used in [[Chess]] consists of 8 rows and 8 columns of squares arranged in alternating colors.  The colors are called "black" and "white", although the actual colors are dark green and buff for all boards used in competition.  Some play sets may use red and black, which is also used for [[Checkers]].  It is always placed so that the rightmost square on the row nearest each player is a "white" square.
3c3
< :In English commentary, the columns are labeled by the occupying piece in the original position of row 1 and the rows by the numbers 1 to 8 starting from the player's side. This means that each cell can be addressed in two ways, depending on the point of view establshed. Moves are described by indicating the piece moved and the destination cell.
---
> In all modern commentary, the columns (called '''files''') are labeled by the letters '''a''' to '''h''' fro left to right from the white player's point of view, and the rows (called '''ranks''') by numbers '''1''' to '''8''' from the white player's point of view, thus providing a standard notation called [[/Algebraic notation]].
5c5
< :In European commentary, the columns are labeled by the letters A to H and the rows by numbers 1 to 8, thus providing a standard notation. Moves are indicated by citing the origin and destination cells.
---
> In older English commentary, the files are labeled by the piece originally occupying the its first rank, and ranks by the numbers 1 to 8 from each player's point of view, depending on the move being described.  This is called [[/English notation]], and is no longer commonly used.
8,17c8,9
< *Row 1 (or 8)
< **[[Chess/Rook|Rook]]
< **[[Chess/Knight|Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Bishop|Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Queen|Queen]] (red) or [[Chess/King|King]] (black)
< **[[Chess/King|King]] (red) or [[Chess/Queen|Queen]] (black)
< **[[Chess/Bishop|Bishop]]
< **[[Chess/Knight|Knight]]
< **[[Chess/Rook|Rook]]
< *Row 2 (or 7) - filled entirely with [[Chess/Pawn|Pawns]]
---
> 
> Rank '''1''' contains [[/Rook]], [[/Knight]], [[/Bishop]] (called "queen's rook", etc.), [[/Queen]], [[/King]], ("king's") [[/Bishop]], [[/Knight]], and [[/Rook]].  Rank '''2''' contains 8 [[/Pawn]]s.  Black's pieces on ranks '''7''' and '''8''' are a mirror image of white's.  In particular, both kings share the same file (file '''5''' from white's point of view), as do both queens (on file '''4''').
------
Capitalism/Talk|987184412
26a27,28
> 
> What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept. - TS
------
Cross_ownership|987184598
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Cross ownership</b> is reinforcing business relationships by owning stock in the companies which a given company does business.
> 
> Some countries where cross onwership of shares is followed:
> * [[Japan]]
> * [[Germany]]
> 
> Positives of cross ownership:
> * Closely ties each business to the economic destiny of its business partners
> * Promotes a slow rate of economic change
> 
> Cross ownership of shares is critizied for:
> * Stagnating the economy
> * Wasting capital that could be used to improve productivity
> * Expanding economic downturns by preventing reallocation of capital
> 
> A major factor in cross ownership of shares is a high [[capital gains]] tax rate.  A company has less incentive to sell cross owned shares if taxes are high because of the immediate reduction in the value of the assets.
> 
> For example, a company owns $1000 of stock in another company that was originally purchased for $200.  If the capital gains tax rate is 50% (like Germany) and the company sells the stock,
> the company has $600 which is 40 percent less than before it sold the stock.
> 
> Long term cross ownership of shares combined with a high capital tax rate greatly increases both in time and severity periods of asset deflation.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Positive_tone|987184792
11a12,13
> 
> ''What got me thinking about slavery and positive tone was when Disney was trying to start a theme park in North Carolina (?) themed around colonial America where the press release read something like.... "Disney ? will make things like a, b, c, d, e, slavery, f, g, h, ... fun".
------
Double_jeopardy|987184987
7c7,10
< Advocates of this principle argue that it is more important to avoid punishing innocent men that it is to punish guilty, and that without such a law in place someone (for instance a political opponent) could simply be re-sent to trial indefinately.  ''Someone who knows more about the topic should fill this out; this is an awfully negative article.''
---
> Advocates of this principle argue that it is more important to avoid punishing innocent men that it is to punish guilty, and that without such a law in place someone (for instance a political opponent) could simply be re-sent to trial indefinately.  ''Someone who knows more about the topic should fill this out; this is an awfully negative article.''
> 
> See also:
> * [[Legal technicallity]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987185002
28c28
< What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept. - TS
---
> What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept.  If you stick other concepts under the umbrella of that word then you destroy the distinction between economically motivated and politically motivated action, which would be bad, because the distinction is relevant. One's understanding of the issues is significantly impaired if without it. - TS
------
Capitalism/Talk|987185046
28c28
< What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept.  If you stick other concepts under the umbrella of that word then you destroy the distinction between economically motivated and politically motivated action, which would be bad, because the distinction is relevant. One's understanding of the issues is significantly impaired if without it. - TS
---
> What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept.  If you stick other concepts under the umbrella of that word then you destroy the distinction between economically motivated and politically motivated action, which would be bad, because the distinction is relevant. One's understanding of the issues is significantly impaired without it. - TS
------
Legal_technicallity|987185116
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Legal technicallity</b> usually refers to a legal process or step that was followed incorrectly or omitted which allows a criminal prosecution to be thrown out of court or a criminal conviction to be overturned.
> 
> Can anyone give some easy examples?
------
Legal_technicallity|987185375
1,3c1
< <b>Legal technicallity</b> usually refers to a legal process or step that was followed incorrectly or omitted which allows a criminal prosecution to be thrown out of court or a criminal conviction to be overturned.
< 
< Can anyone give some easy examples?
---
> 
------
Double_jeopardy|987185445
10c10
< * [[Legal technicallity]]
---
> * [[Legal technicality]]
------
Legal_technicallity|987185562
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Legal technicality]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987185672
28a29,30
> 
> Incidentally, when Lenin attempted to equate capitalism with imperialism (in 'Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'), he was deliberately attempting to impair your understanding by destroying the aforementioned distinction.  Communism involves political control of the economy, likewise imperialism; capitalism does not.  So which go together?  Clearly communism and imperialism.  But Lenin wanted to advance communism as being opposed to imperialism, so the commonality between them had to be played down.  To do this he advanced a category scheme in which the distinction between the economic and the political was obliterated.  It is high time to undue Lenin's work, and restore a sensible category scheme that classifies by essentials. - TS
------
Legal_technicality|987186201
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term '''technicality''' is used to describe a highly specialized law or legal procedure.  
> 
> The term is often used by those who criticise the result of a trial or lawsuit decided on one of these rules, rather than on what the critic sees as more substantive issues.  For example, a criminal defendant may be acquitted because police failed to obey rules of investigative procedure, requiring the court to exclude evidence that a layman would consider valid.
------
Legal_technicality|987187049
1c1
< The term '''technicality''' is used to describe a highly specialized law or legal procedure.  
---
> <b>Legal technicality</b> usually refers to the technical niceties and exactitudes of legal procedure.  It is most generally used in a pejorative sense to denote aspects of legal procedure which, if not attended to or followed, can change the outcome of a legal proceeding, in ways seemingly contrary to the interests of justice.  Some legal technicalities restrict access to courts and legal procedures or limit the discretion of a court in handing down judgement.  In almost every case, well-established technical aspects of legal procedure have come into being and have been reinforced in a long tradition of appellate court decisions because of a perceived need to protect the rights of a class of persons who might otherwise suffer injustice at the hands of the legal system.
3c3,6
< The term is often used by those who criticise the result of a trial or lawsuit decided on one of these rules, rather than on what the critic sees as more substantive issues.  For example, a criminal defendant may be acquitted because police failed to obey rules of investigative procedure, requiring the court to exclude evidence that a layman would consider valid.
---
> Some examples of technical aspects of legal procedure would be:
> * Statutes of limitations
> * Miranda warning
> * Rules of evidence
------
Legal_technicality|987187289
2a3,4
> Constitutional guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from such things as unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes erroneously referred to as "technicalities."  These are, however, part and parcel of the very foundation of the American legal system and are therefore more properly viewed as a basis for law rather than an obscure fine point.
> 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987187353
30a31,32
> ----
> Apparently, capitalism as a topic should be generic and provide a list of short definitions of various different forms of capitalism with appropriate links to more detailed pages on each of the topics.
------
Double_jeopardy|987187382
1c1
< A [[law|legal]] phrase stemming from the [[United States Constitution|United States constitutional]] edict that no one may be placed in jeopardy of life, limb, or liberty for the same offense twice.  This means, for instance, that if one has been tried for [[murder]] once, and found not guilty, then one cannot be tried for the same [[crime]] again, even if later evidence comes to light proving one's guilt beyond a doubt.
---
> The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit [[barratry]] (the use of legal process for harrassment) by the government.
3c3
< In one such notable case, a man committed a rape/torture/murder which was photographed by an accomplice.  The photographs were not destroyed, but were successfully concealed by the murderer until after his acquittal.  When they were later discovered, he was tried and convicted and sentenced for [[perjury]], but is today a free man, having literally gotten away with murder.
---
> This law is occasionally referred to as a [[legal technicality]], especially when it is used as a criminal defense.  It is not uncommon, for example, for police to uncover new evidence proving the guilt of someone previously acquitted of a serious crime.  There is little they can do in this case, because the first acquittal is final and the defendant may not be tried again despite the new evidence.
5,10c5
< In another famous case, a man was tried again for murder after having been acquitted.  He had bribed the judge in his first trial, and this corruption was later discovered.  It was ruled by the higher court in that case that a second trial for the same offense did not constitute double jeopardy, as "jeopardy had not attached" in the first trial.  In other words, since acquittal was a foregone conclusion in the first trial after the killer bribed the judge, it was not impermissible to give him a actual, just trial after the foregoing sham.
< 
< Advocates of this principle argue that it is more important to avoid punishing innocent men that it is to punish guilty, and that without such a law in place someone (for instance a political opponent) could simply be re-sent to trial indefinately.  ''Someone who knows more about the topic should fill this out; this is an awfully negative article.''
< 
< See also:
< * [[Legal technicality]]
---
> Some conditions that might be seen as double jeopardy are not considered so by the courts.  For example, a [[mistrial]] does not constitute jeopardy, and separate offenses (perhaps in separate jurisdictions) arising from the same act may be prosecuted separately.  For example, a state might try a defendant for murder, after which the federal government might try the same defendant for a federal crime (perhaps a civil rights violation) related to the same act.  In another famous case, a man who bribed a judge was tried again for murder after having been acquitted.  The appeals court ruled that his first trial didn't really put him in jeopardy because of his bribe.
------
Legal_technicality|987187441
8a9,12
> * Sovereign immunity
> * Rules of appellate procedure
> * Time constraints
> * Creatures of statute
------
Law|987187554
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[order to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]]-- [[inquest]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[order to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] etc.
------
Legal_technicality|987187586
12a13,15
> 
> 
> A generic example of a legal technicality would be attempted prosecution of a 'crime' that was discovered by ilegally obtained evidence.  The case would be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the ilegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecutions's case.
------
Legal_technicality|987188330
1c1
< <b>Legal technicality</b> usually refers to the technical niceties and exactitudes of legal procedure.  It is most generally used in a pejorative sense to denote aspects of legal procedure which, if not attended to or followed, can change the outcome of a legal proceeding, in ways seemingly contrary to the interests of justice.  Some legal technicalities restrict access to courts and legal procedures or limit the discretion of a court in handing down judgement.  In almost every case, well-established technical aspects of legal procedure have come into being and have been reinforced in a long tradition of appellate court decisions because of a perceived need to protect the rights of a class of persons who might otherwise suffer injustice at the hands of the legal system.
---
> The term '''legal technicality''' refers to the technical niceties and exactitudes of legal procedure.  It is often used in a pejorative sense to denote aspects of legal procedure which, if not attended to or followed, can change the outcome of a legal proceeding in ways seemingly contrary to the interests of justice.  Some legal technicalities restrict access to courts and legal procedures or limit the discretion of a court in handing down judgement.  In almost every case, well-established technical aspects of legal procedure have come into being and have been reinforced in a long tradition of appellate court decisions because of a perceived need to protect the rights of a class of persons who might otherwise suffer injustice at the hands of the legal system.
3c3
< Constitutional guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from such things as unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes erroneously referred to as "technicalities."  These are, however, part and parcel of the very foundation of the American legal system and are therefore more properly viewed as a basis for law rather than an obscure fine point.
---
> [[United States Constitution|Constitutional]] guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes referred to as "technicalities" by critics of court decisions based on them, even though they are foundations of the American legal system rather than rather than obscure fine points.  A commonly cited example would be attempted prosecution of a crime that was discovered by ilegally obtained evidence.  Such cases may be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the ilegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecution's case.
5,12c5,11
< Some examples of technical aspects of legal procedure would be:
< * Statutes of limitations
< * Miranda warning
< * Rules of evidence
< * Sovereign immunity
< * Rules of appellate procedure
< * Time constraints
< * Creatures of statute
---
> Some examples of technical aspects of legal procedure are:
> * [[Time constraints]], including the [[Statute of limitations]]
> * [[Miranda warning]]
> * [[Rules of evidence]]
> * [[Sovereign immunity]]
> * [[Rules of appellate procedure]]
> * [[Creatures of statute]]
15d13
< A generic example of a legal technicality would be attempted prosecution of a 'crime' that was discovered by ilegally obtained evidence.  The case would be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the ilegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecutions's case.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987188393
24c24
< I think that logically, laissez-faire capitalism is pure capitalism, and anything else is diluted capitalism.  If we want to define our concepts in terms of essentials, then capitalism is a system based on non-intervention. - TS
---
> ''I think that logically, laissez-faire capitalism is pure capitalism, and anything else is diluted capitalism.  If we want to define our concepts in terms of essentials, then capitalism is a system based on non-intervention. - TS''
28c28
< What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept.  If you stick other concepts under the umbrella of that word then you destroy the distinction between economically motivated and politically motivated action, which would be bad, because the distinction is relevant. One's understanding of the issues is significantly impaired without it. - TS
---
> ''What we now call capitalism was first systematically proposed by Adam Smith for the specific purpose of refuting mercantlism.  So if the standard definition says mercantilism is a kind of capitalism, then the standard definition is wrong.  Economic activity can be either economically motivated (broadly defined), or politically motivated: either people act as they choose, or they act as they are compelled to act.  The distinction is relevant and should be addressed in the definition of the terms we use to refer to these concepts.  The concept 'economic activity that is  free of government intervention' is referred to using the word 'capitalism' because there is no other word in common usage for that concept.  If you stick other concepts under the umbrella of that word then you destroy the distinction between economically motivated and politically motivated action, which would be bad, because the distinction is relevant. One's understanding of the issues is significantly impaired without it. - TS''
30c30,34
< Incidentally, when Lenin attempted to equate capitalism with imperialism (in 'Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'), he was deliberately attempting to impair your understanding by destroying the aforementioned distinction.  Communism involves political control of the economy, likewise imperialism; capitalism does not.  So which go together?  Clearly communism and imperialism.  But Lenin wanted to advance communism as being opposed to imperialism, so the commonality between them had to be played down.  To do this he advanced a category scheme in which the distinction between the economic and the political was obliterated.  It is high time to undue Lenin's work, and restore a sensible category scheme that classifies by essentials. - TS
---
> Agreed, the distinction between Mercantilism and the system proposed by Adam Smith is important.  Therefore we should be careful to use the right words for each.  The latter is called laissez faire capitalism because, as is plainly evident from the examples, capitalism does not refer specifically to it.  Encarta mentions that the first use of the word ''capitalism'' was by Marx, who plainly intended it to cover all economic systems after feudalism, and as shown above that definition is still used in most sources today.  So you are claiming that the original and prevalent sense of the word is somehow wrong, and I think you can see how that's ridiculous.
> 
> ''Incidentally, when Lenin attempted to equate capitalism with imperialism (in 'Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism'), he was deliberately attempting to impair your understanding by destroying the aforementioned distinction.  Communism involves political control of the economy, likewise imperialism; capitalism does not.  So which go together?  Clearly communism and imperialism.  But Lenin wanted to advance communism as being opposed to imperialism, so the commonality between them had to be played down.  To do this he advanced a category scheme in which the distinction between the economic and the political was obliterated.  It is high time to undue Lenin's work, and restore a sensible category scheme that classifies by essentials. - TS''
> 
> I'm not particularly interested in getting in a political debate, but the above is just flawed reasoning.  Imperialism refers to a practice by which powerful nations exert control over weaker ones.  Obviously a government's control over its people is ''not'' an example of imperialism, whereas the mercantilist policies that were the most prominent form of capitalism at the time of Marx' writing ''are''.  Moreover note that imperialism involves control by nations or peoples, not necessarily the governments thereof - see the afformentioned sources as examples of the way the word is actually used - so the term also applies to control of other nations via privately owned corporations, which is still a prominent feature of capitalism today.
32c36,38
< Apparently, capitalism as a topic should be generic and provide a list of short definitions of various different forms of capitalism with appropriate links to more detailed pages on each of the topics.
---
> Apparently, capitalism as a topic should be generic and provide a list of short definitions of various different forms of capitalism with appropriate links to more detailed pages on each of the topics.
> 
> Agreed, and this is my point.
------
WikiPediaBugs|987188457
90a91
> :This is related to the caching problems above.  The caching code is extremely simple--it just prints a complete HTML page saved by a prior user.  If the first user (who generated the cached copy of the page) didn't have the random-page option on, the cached copy will not contain the random-page link.  Hopefully this behavior will be improved in a future release.  --CliffordAdams
------
Legal_technicality|987188565
3c3
< [[United States Constitution|Constitutional]] guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes referred to as "technicalities" by critics of court decisions based on them, even though they are foundations of the American legal system rather than rather than obscure fine points.  A commonly cited example would be attempted prosecution of a crime that was discovered by ilegally obtained evidence.  Such cases may be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the ilegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecution's case.
---
> [[United States Constitution|Constitutional]] guarantees such as those included in the Fourth and Fifth amendments to protect an accused from unreasonable search and seizure or from self-incrimination are sometimes referred to as "technicalities" by critics of court decisions based on them, even though they are foundations of the American legal system rather than obscure fine points.  A commonly cited example would be attempted prosecution of a crime that was discovered by illegally obtained evidence.  Such cases may be dismissed based on lack of evidence as the illegally obtained evidence would not be allowed to be the basis of the prosecution's case.
6c6
< * [[Time constraints]], including the [[Statute of limitations]]
---
> * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987188965
34a35,36
> 
> I should also mention that your last sentence, ''it is high time to undo Lenin's work'', is highly unsettling.  Terms like capitalism and imperialism have well-known meanings, and what you seem to be proposing is for us to change these away from the standard in order to reflect some particular opinion on what the essentials of different systems are.  Redefinition of words for the advancement of an agenda is '''propaganda''', and I would strongly encourage you to abandon such a program right now, because it is both in violent contrast with the goals of an encyclopedia and quite frankly offensive.
38c40
< Agreed, and this is my point.
---
> Agreed, and this is my point.
------
Miranda_warning|987189064
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The warning given by American policemen to suspects being arrested is called a '''Miranda warning''', because its use was mandated by the 1966 [[United States Supreme Court]] decision in the case of ''Miranda vs. Arizona''.
> 
> In 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested for robbery, kidnapping, and rape.  He was interrogated by police and confessed.  At trial, prosecutors offered only his confession as evidence and he was convicted.  The Supreme Court ruled that Mr. Miranda was intimidated by the interrogation and did not understand that he had the right not to incriminate himself and the right to have counsel, and they overturned his conviction.  Miranda was retried, and this time the police did not use the confession but called witnesses and used other evidence.  Miranda was convicted, and served 11 years.
> 
> Quote from the ruling: "...The person in custody must, prior to interrogation, be clearly informed that he has the right to remain silent, and that anything he says will be used against him in court; he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with a lawyer and to have the lawyer with him during interrogation, and that, if he is indigent, a lawyer will be appointed to represent him."
> 
> 
> 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987189097
36c36
< I should also mention that your last sentence, ''it is high time to undo Lenin's work'', is highly unsettling.  Terms like capitalism and imperialism have well-known meanings, and what you seem to be proposing is for us to change these away from the standard in order to reflect some particular opinion on what the essentials of different systems are.  Redefinition of words for the advancement of an agenda is '''propaganda''', and I would strongly encourage you to abandon such a program right now, because it is both in violent contrast with the goals of an encyclopedia and quite frankly offensive.
---
> I should also mention that your last sentence, ''it is high time to undo Lenin's work'', is highly unsettling.  Terms like capitalism and imperialism have well-known meanings, and what you seem to be proposing is for us to change these away from the standard in order to reflect some particular opinion on what the essentials of different systems are.  Redefinition of words for the advancement of an agenda is '''propaganda''', and I would strongly encourage you to abandon such a program right now, because it is both in violent contrast with the goals of an encyclopedia and is quite frankly offensive.
40c40
< Agreed, and this is my point.
---
> Agreed, and this is my point.  Capitalism should be defined the way it is everywhere else; laissez faire should be treated as a subtype.  If there is no reasonable disagreement I plan to make this change sometime later this week.
------
Double_jeopardy|987189260
1c1
< The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit [[barratry]] (the use of legal process for harrassment) by the government.
---
> The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit proscutorial abuse by the government in bringing repeated actions for the same offense as a means of harassment, oppression or retaliation.
------
Miranda_warning|987189380
7,8c7
< 
< 
---
> This principle of law, though under different names, has been adopted in jurisdictions throughout the English speaking world.
------
Double_jeopardy|987189473
1c1
< The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit proscutorial abuse by the government in bringing repeated actions for the same offense as a means of harassment, oppression or retaliation.
---
> The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit proscutorial abuse by the government in bringing repeated actions for the same offense as a means of harrassment, oppression or retaliation.
------
Card_game|987190223
3c3
< [[Trick-taking game]]s
---
> [[Trick-taking game]]s: [[Bridge]], [[Euchre]], [[Hearts]], [[Napolean]], [[Sheepshead]], [[Skat]], [[Spades]], [[Tarot]], [[Whist]]
5,11c5
< [[Gambling]] games
< * [[Poker]]
< * [[Boure]]
< * [[Blackjack]]
< * [[Panguingue]]
< * [[Red Dog]]
< * [[Pai Gow Poker]]
---
> [[Rummy game]]s: [[Canasta]], Gin, [[Gin Rummy]]
13,16c7
< [[Rummy games]]
< * [[Gin Rummy]]
< * [[Gin]]
< * [[Canasta]]
---
> [[Gambling]] games: [[Blackjack]], [[Boure]], [[Panguingue]], [[Poker]], [[Red Dog]]
18,26c9
< [[Solitaire]] or Patience games
< 
< Other games
< * [[Old Maid]]
< * [[Go Fish]]
< * [[Macchiavelli]]
< * [[Spit]]
< * [[Grass]]
< * [[Pinochle]]
---
> [[Solitaire]] or Patience games: 
27a11
> Other games: [[Go Fish]], [[Grass]], [[Macchiavelli]], [[Old Maid]], [[Pinochle]], [[Spit]]
------
Card_game|987190238
1c1
< The term <i>card game</i> generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[trading card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
---
> The term '''card game''' generally usually refers to [[game]]s using [[playing card]]s, but may also refer to [[trading card game]]s.  There are far more of the former, with some examples listed below.
------
Legal_technicality|987190598
6c6,7
< * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations]]
---
> * [[Time constraints]], including the [[Statute of limitations]]
> * [[Statute of frauds]]
9c10
< * [[Sovereign immunity]]
---
> * Various immunities, such as [[Sovereign immunity]], [[Diplomatic immunity]]
12d12
< 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987190651
35a36,37
> But mercantilism is very clearly a form of government control of "its" people.  If it is a form of imperialism, as the above seems to claim, then the mercantlist form of government control of "its" people is imperialism.  In capitalist theory, mercantilism is essentially the domestic corollary of imperialism. - TS
> 
36a39,41
> 
> You seem to be redefining [[Propaganda]] to suit your agenda.  Propaganda refers to information, not definition.  Also, the redefinition of words to serve an agenda is precisely what I accuse Lenin of doing, and what I would like to have undone.  This unsettles you, but then you accuse me of doing the same thing and say you would like to undue my definitions.  Is it ok to redefine words, but only if it advances a socialist agenda?  And what is my agenda, exactly? -TS
> 
------
The_Goon_Show|987191429
12c12
< * Bluebottle (Milligan)
---
> * Bluebottle (Sellers)
------
HomePage|987191647
4a5,6
> Ah, this chunking is much better. Maybe we could keep it this way for the purposes of usability, accessibility, and general common sense. Thanks.
> 
------
Capitalism|987191694
1c1
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987191891
45a46,48
> 
> ----
> Just made some changes.  Article is in [[Positive tone]] mode.  Challenges and overviews from differing perspectives will no doubt appear.  Should the socialist take on capitalism be at [[Socialism/Capitalism]] or at [[Capitalism/Socialist view of]]?
------
Poker|987191965
1c1
< The [[card game]] <i>poker</i> is the most popular of a class of games called <i>vying</i> games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central <i>pot</i>, after which is the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards.
---
> The [[card game]] '''poker''' is the most popular of a class of games called '''vying''' games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central '''pot''', after which is the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards.
3c3,5
< The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[France|French]] <i>poque</i>, which descended from the [[Germany|German]] <i>pocher</i>, but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persia|Persian]] game of <i>as nas</i>, but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of <i>primero</i> and the French <i>brelan</i>.  The [[Great Britain|English]] game <i>brag</i> clearly decended from <i>brelan</i> and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).  
---
> The basic rules of the game include [[/Game play]], [[/Hands]], and [[/Betting structure]].  Some knowledge of the [[/Equipment]] used to play is useful.  There are also many [[/Variants]] or poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games.
> 
> The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pocher''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persia]]n game of '''as nas''', but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''.  The [[English]] game '''brag''' clearly decended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).
7c9,19
< (This is an outline...I'm working on it)
---
> ----
> 
> Aspects of [[Poker strategy]] include [[/Probability]], [[/Bluffing]] and semi-bluffing, [[/Sandbagging]] and slow play, [[/Game theory]], and [[/Psychology]].
> 
> Methods of [[/Cheating]] are categorized into [[/Mechanics]] and [[/Collusion]].
> 
> Playing poker in [[casino]]s and public cardrooms requires knowledge of [[/Public cardroom rules]] and [[Public cardroom etiquette]].
> 
> Poker [[/Tournament]]s such as the [[World Series of Pooker]] are often [[/Tournament organization|organized]] by casinos and cardrooms, and have their own [[/Tournament strategy|strategy]] and [[/Tournament rules|rules]].
> 
> Poker has a large and growing [[/Jargon]].
9,42c21
< * [[/Equipment]]
< * [[/Game play]]
< * [[/Betting structure]]
< * [[/Hands]]
< * [[/Variants]]
< ** [[Draw poker]]
< ** [[Stud poker]]
< ** [[Community card poker]]
< ** [[Miscellaneous poker]]
< ** [[Poker-related game]]s (Non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker, or unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways)
< *** [[Seven-twenty-seven]]
< *** [[Caro Dots]]
< *** [[Boure]]
< *** [[Dollar bill poker]] (also called Liar's poker)
< *** [[Pai Gow poker]] (also called Double-hand poker
< *** [[Chinese poker]] (also called Russian poker, 13-card poker)
< * Strategy
< ** Probability
< ** Bluffing and semi-bluffing
< ** Sandbagging and slow play
< ** Game theory
< ** Psychology
< * Cheating
< ** Mechanics
< ** Collusion
< * Public casinos
< ** Rule variations
< ** Etiquette
< * Tournaments
< ** Organization
< ** Strategy
< * Jargon
< * Law
< * Culture
---
> Poker impacts [[/Law]] and [[/Culture]], especially in the United States.
43a23,24
> ----
> [[Poker-related game]]s include non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker such as [[Seven twenty-seven]], [[Zero Fifty-five]], [[Boure]], and [[Caro Dots]], and unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways such as [[Dollar bill poker]], [[Pai Gow poker]], [[Carribean stud]], [[Mambo stud]], and [[Chinese poker]].
------
Capitalism|987192159
5,6d4
< A capitalist economy has many features, including both for-profit businesses and non-profit organizations, large scale trade, and prices that fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.  Some people consider any economy that prominently exhibits such features to be a capitalist economy, regardless of the degree of political intervention.  Typically when people define capitalism in this way they are denying or not recognizing the distinction between politics and economics.
< 
------
Capitalism|987192844
4a5,6
> Modern defenders of capitalism claim it is the most efficient system for achieving economic ends.  An important reason for this is that capitalism solves the problem of coordinating knowledge that is widely distributed throughout society.  If most knowledge in society is [[Local knowledge|local knowledge]], then local, decentralized decision-making is necessary for the maximum utilization of knowledge, and capitalism, more than any other system, relies on decentralized decision-making.
> 
------
French|987192913
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When the word '''French''' is capitalized, it can have these meanings:
> 
> # From or related to [[France]]  ''The French city of Paris has many fine restaurants.''
> # The [[French language]]  ''Residents of Haiti generally speak French.''
> 
> The uncapitalized '''french''' can have these meanings:
> 
> # To cut into strips for cooking, e.g., ''frenched carrots'' (The term ''french fries'' is a further simplification from this meaning).
> # To remove fat and meat from the tips of a bone-in chop or roast, e.g., ''frenched rack of lamb''
> 
> The word also appears in many short phrases such as ''French doors'', ''French horn'', ''French toast'', etc., coined to imply origination in or association with France, not necessarily accurately.
------
German|987193076
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word '''German''' can mean:
> 
> # From or related to [[Germany]]
> # A German(1) person
> # The [[German language]]
------
English|987193154
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word '''English''' can mean:
> 
> # From or related to [[England]] or the [[United Kingdom]]
> # The [[English language]]
------
Statutes_of_limitations|987193288
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A statute of limitation is a law setting forth the maximun period of time during which legal proceedings may be instuted, after the event upon which they are based has occurred.
> 
> In all fifty states of the Unites States of America, there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder.  In other words, a prosecution for murder may commence at any time, no matter how long ago the murder occurred.
> 
> As to other causes of action, different states enforce different statutes of limitations for different matters.  
> 
> For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.
> 
> For civil actions, statutes of limitations usually vary between one and ten years.  In California, for example, the statute of limitations for most personal injury actions is one year.  In Nevada, it is two years, and in New Mexico, three.  A common statute of limitations for matters arising out of a contractural agreement is seven years.  One should consult the statutes of various states to find the specific limitations periods for various causes of action in specific states.
> 
> A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limite the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
> 
> There may be a number of factors which will affect the [[tolling]] of a statute of limitations.  In many cases, the discovery of the harm (as in a medical malpractice claim where the fact or the impact of the doctor's mistake is not immediately apparent) starts the statute running.  A [[tort]] committed against a minor will not toll the statute in most cases until the child reaches the age of majority.  A ten-year-old who is injured in a car accident might therefore be able to bring suit one, two or three years after he turns eighteen.
> 
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expcected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
------
Statutes_of_limitations|987193381
11c11
< A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limite the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
---
> A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limits the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
15c15
< The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expcected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
---
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expcected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
------
Legal_technicality|987193592
6c6
< * [[Time constraints]], including the [[Statute of limitations]]
---
> * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987193609
36c36,38
< But mercantilism is very clearly a form of government control of "its" people.  If it is a form of imperialism, as the above seems to claim, then the mercantlist form of government control of "its" people is imperialism.  In capitalist theory, mercantilism is essentially the domestic corollary of imperialism. - TS
---
> ''But mercantilism is very clearly a form of government control of "its" people.  If it is a form of imperialism, as the above seems to claim, then the mercantlist form of government control of "its" people is imperialism.  In capitalist theory, mercantilism is essentially the domestic corollary of imperialism. - TS''
> 
> What makes mercantilism imperialistic is not the government's control of trade, but the fact that under that system people were sailing off all over the world taking over and exploiting large chunks of land.  That's the definition of imperialism.  I suggest you learn it before you make statements about what is or is not imperialistic.
40c42,44
< You seem to be redefining [[Propaganda]] to suit your agenda.  Propaganda refers to information, not definition.  Also, the redefinition of words to serve an agenda is precisely what I accuse Lenin of doing, and what I would like to have undone.  This unsettles you, but then you accuse me of doing the same thing and say you would like to undue my definitions.  Is it ok to redefine words, but only if it advances a socialist agenda?  And what is my agenda, exactly? -TS
---
> ''You seem to be redefining [[Propaganda]] to suit your agenda.  Propaganda refers to information, not definition.  Also, the redefinition of words to serve an agenda is precisely what I accuse Lenin of doing, and what I would like to have undone.  This unsettles you, but then you accuse me of doing the same thing and say you would like to undue my definitions.  Is it ok to redefine words, but only if it advances a socialist agenda?  And what is my agenda, exactly? -TS''
> 
> You have announced that you would like to impose a new categorization of political systems, and intend to redefine words in the process.  But neither capitalism nor imperialism were ever redefined by socialists, they were coined that way, and should continue to have their original and prevalent meanings.  If you wish to express a different concept, do so by all means, but use different words!
41a46,48
> Redefining words is used primarily to add respectability to new ideas and to transfer their implications, and is actually a very common form of propaganda.  Thus the well-known word Aryan was misapplied by Hitler to make it seem as if his master race was an established concept, and thus the term democracy was occasionally applied by communists to their own systems to make them seem good.
> 
> Now you have announced that you intend to impose a new categorization of political systems, that is your agenda.  I personally suspect this is mainly with the intent of making certain systems seem more respectable and others seem worse, as in your needless redefinition of imperialism - something generally regarded as negative - from something that applies to capitalist systems to something that applies to communist ones, reminiscent of the above.  But that is neither here nor there: as an encyclopedia reports on things as they are and not as they should be, you should leave words with their original meanings.  Capitalism was never redefined by socialists, it was defined by them in the first place, and so expresses their particular view of the world, and ''should''.  If you want to express a different concept, then for heaven's sakes ''use different words!!!''
46d52
< 
48c54
< Just made some changes.  Article is in [[Positive tone]] mode.  Challenges and overviews from differing perspectives will no doubt appear.  Should the socialist take on capitalism be at [[Socialism/Capitalism]] or at [[Capitalism/Socialist view of]]?
---
> Just made some changes.  Article is in [[Positive tone]] mode.  Challenges and overviews from differing perspectives will no doubt appear.  Should the socialist take on capitalism be at [[Socialism/Capitalism]] or at [[Capitalism/Socialist view of]]?
------
SEGA/Sonic_Team|987193850
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of SEGAs most loved creatives, Sonic Team took their name from their phenomenally successful [[Sonic the Hedgehog]] series.
> 
> At the head of the development team is [[Yuji Naka]], producer and visionary, under his leadership they have realised some of the most beautiful gaming moments ever.
> 
> Softography
> 
> :[[Phantasy Star]]
> :[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]
> :[[Sonic the Hedgehog/2]]
> :[[NiGHTS Into Dreams]]
> :[[NiGHTS Into Dreams/Christmas NiGHTS|Christmas NiGHTS]]
> :[[Burning Rangers]]
> :[[ChuChu Rocket]]
> :[[Sonic Adventure]]
> :[[Samba di Amigo]]
> :[[Phantasy Star Online]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987193998
54a55,56
> 
> The main complaint here is not merely the tone, but that the article is using an inaccurate and propagandical definition, while brushing off as 'socialist' what is both the original meaning of the term and the variety found in all sources checked - and I would not consider Encarta a hotbed of socialist rhetoric.  In short, this is ''the'' meaning of the term, and if you think that it is fair to pass that off as a variant then you are writing partisan nonsense more appropriate for a party newsletter.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987194049
44,45d43
< You have announced that you would like to impose a new categorization of political systems, and intend to redefine words in the process.  But neither capitalism nor imperialism were ever redefined by socialists, they were coined that way, and should continue to have their original and prevalent meanings.  If you wish to express a different concept, do so by all means, but use different words!
< 
56c54
< The main complaint here is not merely the tone, but that the article is using an inaccurate and propagandical definition, while brushing off as 'socialist' what is both the original meaning of the term and the variety found in all sources checked - and I would not consider Encarta a hotbed of socialist rhetoric.  In short, this is ''the'' meaning of the term, and if you think that it is fair to pass that off as a variant then you are writing partisan nonsense more appropriate for a party newsletter.
---
> The main complaint here is not merely the tone, but that the article is using an inaccurate and propagandical definition, while brushing off as 'socialist' what is both the original meaning of the term and the variety found in all sources checked - and I would not consider Encarta a hotbed of socialist rhetoric.  In short, this is ''the'' meaning of the term, and if you think that it is fair to pass that off as a variant then you are writing partisan nonsense more appropriate for a party newsletter.
------
Statutes_of_limitations|987194109
7c7,9
< For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.
---
> For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.  Statutes of limitations for misdemeanors in most states are one, two or three years.
> 
> Different states do put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
15c17
< The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expcected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
---
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
------
Capitalism|987194143
0a1,2
> See [[/Talk]] first.  The contents of this article are strongly disputed and should be considered suspect until things are resolved there.
> ----
10,12d11
< 
< ---- 
< See [[/Talk]]
------
Capitalism|987195861
1,3c1
< See [[/Talk]] first.  The contents of this article are strongly disputed and should be considered suspect until things are resolved there.
< ----
< A system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> Capitalism, as defined by people who call themselves capitalists, is a system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
11a10,11
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Capitalism|987195895
1c1
< Capitalism, as defined by people who call themselves capitalists, is a system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> Capitalism, as defined by people who call themselves capitalists, is a system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most self-described capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
------
Statutes_of_limitations|987196247
1,17c1
< A statute of limitation is a law setting forth the maximun period of time during which legal proceedings may be instuted, after the event upon which they are based has occurred.
< 
< In all fifty states of the Unites States of America, there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder.  In other words, a prosecution for murder may commence at any time, no matter how long ago the murder occurred.
< 
< As to other causes of action, different states enforce different statutes of limitations for different matters.  
< 
< For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.  Statutes of limitations for misdemeanors in most states are one, two or three years.
< 
< Different states do put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
< 
< For civil actions, statutes of limitations usually vary between one and ten years.  In California, for example, the statute of limitations for most personal injury actions is one year.  In Nevada, it is two years, and in New Mexico, three.  A common statute of limitations for matters arising out of a contractural agreement is seven years.  One should consult the statutes of various states to find the specific limitations periods for various causes of action in specific states.
< 
< A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limits the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
< 
< There may be a number of factors which will affect the [[tolling]] of a statute of limitations.  In many cases, the discovery of the harm (as in a medical malpractice claim where the fact or the impact of the doctor's mistake is not immediately apparent) starts the statute running.  A [[tort]] committed against a minor will not toll the statute in most cases until the child reaches the age of majority.  A ten-year-old who is injured in a car accident might therefore be able to bring suit one, two or three years after he turns eighteen.
< 
< The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Statute of limitations]]
------
Time_constraints|987196267
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]]? Courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
> 
> The penalty for violating a legislative or court-imposed time constraint may be anything from a small fine to Judicial determination of an entire case against one's interests.
> 
> For example, if a complaining party files an action and then fails to cause the papers pertaining thereto to be served on the opposing party(ies) within the time established by local rules, and is unable to convince the court that there was good and sufficient reason for the delay, he risks having his action dismissed [[with prejudice]].
> 
> If the opposing party is served with the papers and fails to respond within the time limit provided for his answer, he risks having the the case decided against him by [[default]].
> 
> If one is aggrieved by the judicial outcome of an action and wishes to appeal, he may be forever barred from doing so if he fails to meet the deadline by which his appeal may be filed.
> 
> By court order, or by local rule, there may be other time constraints.  One may be required to answer [[interrogatories]] or a [[request to produce]] or other [[discovery]] [[pleading]]s within a given time.  He may be be required to give a certain number of days' advance notice before he intends to [[depose]] a [[party]] or [[witness]].  A court may order that there will be only a certain number of weeks or months allowed during which the parties to an action may conduct discovery.  There may be a limitation placed upon a [[deposition]], requiring that the party taking it conclude his questioning within a certain number of hours or days.
> 
> All of the time constraints applied to legal procedures are designed to accomplish one or both of two things:  1. Achieve speedy justice and/or 2. Prevent a party from evading a just result by introducing undue delay into the proceedings.
------
Statute_of_limitations|987196281
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''statute of limitation''' is a law setting forth the maximun period of time during which legal proceedings may be instuted, after the event upon which they are based has occurred.
> 
> In all fifty states of the Unites States of America, there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder.  In other words, a prosecution for murder may commence at any time, no matter how long ago the murder occurred.
> 
> As to other causes of action, different states enforce different statutes of limitations for different matters.  
> 
> For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.  Statutes of limitations for misdemeanors in most states are one, two or three years.
> 
> Different states do put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
> 
> For civil actions, statutes of limitations usually vary between one and ten years.  In California, for example, the statute of limitations for most personal injury actions is one year.  In Nevada, it is two years, and in New Mexico, three.  A common statute of limitations for matters arising out of a contractural agreement is seven years.  One should consult the statutes of various states to find the specific limitations periods for various causes of action in specific states.
> 
> A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limits the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
> 
> There may be a number of factors which will affect the [[tolling]] of a statute of limitations.  In many cases, the discovery of the harm (as in a medical malpractice claim where the fact or the impact of the doctor's mistake is not immediately apparent) starts the statute running.  A [[tort]] committed against a minor will not toll the statute in most cases until the child reaches the age of majority.  A ten-year-old who is injured in a car accident might therefore be able to bring suit one, two or three years after he turns eighteen.
> 
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
> 
------
Legal_technicality|987196339
6c6
< * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations]]
---
> * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations|Statute of limitations]]
------
Legal_technicality|987196355
6c6
< * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statutes of limitations|Statute of limitations]]
---
> * [[Time constraints]], including [[Statute of limitations|Statutes of limitations]]
------
Time_constraints|987196406
1,13c1
< In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]]? Courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
< 
< The penalty for violating a legislative or court-imposed time constraint may be anything from a small fine to Judicial determination of an entire case against one's interests.
< 
< For example, if a complaining party files an action and then fails to cause the papers pertaining thereto to be served on the opposing party(ies) within the time established by local rules, and is unable to convince the court that there was good and sufficient reason for the delay, he risks having his action dismissed [[with prejudice]].
< 
< If the opposing party is served with the papers and fails to respond within the time limit provided for his answer, he risks having the the case decided against him by [[default]].
< 
< If one is aggrieved by the judicial outcome of an action and wishes to appeal, he may be forever barred from doing so if he fails to meet the deadline by which his appeal may be filed.
< 
< By court order, or by local rule, there may be other time constraints.  One may be required to answer [[interrogatories]] or a [[request to produce]] or other [[discovery]] [[pleading]]s within a given time.  He may be be required to give a certain number of days' advance notice before he intends to [[depose]] a [[party]] or [[witness]].  A court may order that there will be only a certain number of weeks or months allowed during which the parties to an action may conduct discovery.  There may be a limitation placed upon a [[deposition]], requiring that the party taking it conclude his questioning within a certain number of hours or days.
< 
< All of the time constraints applied to legal procedures are designed to accomplish one or both of two things:  1. Achieve speedy justice and/or 2. Prevent a party from evading a just result by introducing undue delay into the proceedings.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Time constraint]]
------
Statute_of_limitations|987196407
17,18c17
< The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
< 
---
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
------
Time_constraint|987196420
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]]? Courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
> 
> The penalty for violating a legislative or court-imposed time constraint may be anything from a small fine to Judicial determination of an entire case against one's interests.
> 
> For example, if a complaining party files an action and then fails to cause the papers pertaining thereto to be served on the opposing party(ies) within the time established by local rules, and is unable to convince the court that there was good and sufficient reason for the delay, he risks having his action dismissed [[with prejudice]].
> 
> If the opposing party is served with the papers and fails to respond within the time limit provided for his answer, he risks having the the case decided against him by [[default]].
> 
> If one is aggrieved by the judicial outcome of an action and wishes to appeal, he may be forever barred from doing so if he fails to meet the deadline by which his appeal may be filed.
> 
> By court order, or by local rule, there may be other time constraints.  One may be required to answer [[interrogatories]] or a [[request to produce]] or other [[discovery]] [[pleading]]s within a given time.  He may be be required to give a certain number of days' advance notice before he intends to [[depose]] a [[party]] or [[witness]].  A court may order that there will be only a certain number of weeks or months allowed during which the parties to an action may conduct discovery.  There may be a limitation placed upon a [[deposition]], requiring that the party taking it conclude his questioning within a certain number of hours or days.
> 
> All of the time constraints applied to legal procedures are designed to accomplish one or both of two things:  1. Achieve speedy justice and/or 2. Prevent a party from evading a just result by introducing undue delay into the proceedings.
> 
------
Time_constraint|987196498
1c1
< In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]]? Courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
---
> In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]], courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987196631
45a46,47
> Definitions evolve as our understanding of underlying concepts evolve.  The concept of charge, as used by Franklin, who coined the term in physics, is very different from the concept as used by physicists today.  Should they abandon the term because they do not mean the same thing Franklin meant?  Economics has been extended to the study of human action in general.  Some people object to this on methodological grounds, but should we say it is wrong because that's not what someone 160 years ago meant by economics.  Our understanding of capitalism today is vastly superior to Say's or Marx's.  Why shouldn't our definition of the term change to reflect this improved understanding? -TS
> 
54a57,58
> 
> So for consistency's sake, Josh must argue we should only use the word 'liberal' to refer to a whig. -TS
------
Capitalism/Talk|987197334
58c58,63
< So for consistency's sake, Josh must argue we should only use the word 'liberal' to refer to a whig. -TS
---
> So for consistency's sake, Josh must argue we should only use the word 'liberal' to refer to a whig. -TS
> ----
> While I agree with Tim in spirit that definitions evolve and that we should not be constrained by forgotten historical uses of words, I think the purpose of Wikipedia (and any Encyclopedia) is best served by using the definition of a word that is ''in common use among generally educated people of the time.''  Here's the test: imagine that a foreign-born person in his fourth year of English lessons see the word "capitalist" in a newpaper article and wants to know what it means, because he's never seen it before.  A reference work should give him the meaning ''that was probably intended by the general-audience text that used the term'', not a specialized meaning that some experts might consider more accurate, but that doesn't reflect the general understanding of the public.  At this time (2001), I believe a majority of educated English-speaking persons (not necessarily economists) use the word "capitalist" to refer to economies characterized by private ownership of most means of production, whether heavily regulated or not; those same educated English speakers use "laissez-faire capitalism" to refer to lack of government intervention.
> 
> 
> 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987197362
60c60
< While I agree with Tim in spirit that definitions evolve and that we should not be constrained by forgotten historical uses of words, I think the purpose of Wikipedia (and any Encyclopedia) is best served by using the definition of a word that is ''in common use among generally educated people of the time.''  Here's the test: imagine that a foreign-born person in his fourth year of English lessons see the word "capitalist" in a newpaper article and wants to know what it means, because he's never seen it before.  A reference work should give him the meaning ''that was probably intended by the general-audience text that used the term'', not a specialized meaning that some experts might consider more accurate, but that doesn't reflect the general understanding of the public.  At this time (2001), I believe a majority of educated English-speaking persons (not necessarily economists) use the word "capitalist" to refer to economies characterized by private ownership of most means of production, whether heavily regulated or not; those same educated English speakers use "laissez-faire capitalism" to refer to lack of government intervention.
---
> While I agree with Tim in spirit that definitions evolve and that we should not be constrained by forgotten historical uses of words, I think the purpose of Wikipedia (and any Encyclopedia) is best served by using the definition of a word that is ''in common use among generally educated people of the time.''  Here's the test: imagine that a foreign-born person in his fourth year of English lessons see the word "capitalist" in a newpaper article and wants to know what it means, because he's never seen it before.  A reference work should give him the meaning ''that was probably intended by the general-audience text that used the term'', not a specialized meaning that some experts might consider more accurate, but that doesn't reflect the general understanding of the public.  At this time (2001), I believe a majority of educated English-speaking persons (not necessarily economists) use the word "capitalist" to refer to economies characterized by private ownership of most means of production, whether heavily regulated or not; those same educated English speakers use "laissez-faire capitalism" to refer to lack of government intervention. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
NiGHTS_Into_Dreams|987197825
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Sonic Team]], [[SEGA]], [[1996]]
> 
> An endlessly inventive and beautiful [[video game]].
> 
> Players take the role of either [[/Claris]] or [[/Eliot]] who in turn play as [[/NiGHTS]] a [[/Nightmaren]] out to save the world of [[/Nightopia]].
> Never before or since has such a magical game been created, as NiGHTS, the player flys over the many dream worlds, performing acrobatic stunts with the greatest of ease.
> Movement is natural and fluid, mulitple moves can be freeformly played and linked and all with such a simple control mechanic.
> 
> The goal of each level is to capture 20 blue chips to overload the [[/Ideya capture]] and take back the orb it holds.
> After playing through four stages, NiGHTS is transported to meet and defeat another [[/Nightmaren]].
> 
> Aside from the imediate game mission, there is the complex and involving [[artificial life]] creatures, [[/Pian|Pian's]] and their genetically modified counterparts, the [[/Mepian|Mepian's]].
> 
> 
> After the critical success of the original game, [[/Christmas NiGHTS|Christmas NiGHTS]] came to appease everyones demands for a sequel.
> To this day a sequel is still just as unlikely, with the nearest development being the [[DoCoMo]] [[mobile phone]] game.
------
SEGA/Sonic_Team|987197935
10c10
< :[[NiGHTS Into Dreams]]
---
> :[[NiGHTS_Into_Dreams]]
------
SEGA|987198045
13c13
< :[[/Sonic Team]] - renamed themselves from [[/AM8]] many years ago, funnily enough, soon after the completed [[Sonic the Hedgehog]]
---
> :[[/Sonic_Team]] - renamed themselves from [[/AM8]] many years ago, funnily enough, soon after the completed [[Sonic the Hedgehog]]
------
Poker/Probability|987198329
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page (in progress) is intended to cover aspects of [[probability]] that are specific to [[poker]], or that are explained in terms of poker.
> 
> For example:
> 
> The '''unseen cards principle''' states that to calculate the probability (from the point of view of a player about to act) that the next card dealt will be among a certain set, he must divide the number of cards in that set by the number of cards he has not seen, regardless of where those cards are.  For example, a player playing [[/Five-card draw]] who holds '''5-6-7-8-K''' wants to discard the '''K''' hoping to draw a '''4''' or '''9''' to complete a [[/Straight]].  He will calulate his probability of success as 8/49: Four '''4'''s and 4 '''9'''s make 8 useful cards, and 52 cards minus the 5 he has already seen make 49.  The fact that some of those unseen cards have already been dealt to other players is irrelevant, because he has no information about whether his desired cards are among the stub or his opponents' hands, and must act based only upon information he does have.  In a [[stud poker]] or [[community card poker]] game, cards that the player has seen because they are dealt face up ''are'' subtracted from the unseen card count (and from the set of desired cards as well if they are out of play).
------
Propaganda|987198728
11a12,15
> ----
> Could someone add a brief note with the etymology of the word?
> It comes from a Catholic Church congregation, the "Congregatio
> Propaganda something", the congragation for the propagation of faith. I don't do it myself because i don't remember the exact name.
------
The_Goon_Show|987198834
1c1
< British [[radio]] programme of the 1950s.  Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
---
> British [[radio]] programme of the [[1950s]].  Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
5,12c5,14
< * Neddy Seagoon (Secombe)
< * Eccles (Milligan)
< * Count Jim Moriarty (Milligan)
< * Major Dennis Bloodnok (Sellers)
< * Hercules Gryptpype-Thynne (Sellers)
< * Minnie Bannister (Sellers)
< * Henry Crun (Milligan)
< * Bluebottle (Sellers)
---
> * [[Harry Secombe]] as Neddy Seagoon
> * [[Spike Milligan]] as
> ** Eccles
> ** Count Jim Moriarty
> ** Henry Crun
> * [[Peter Sellers]] as
> ** Major Dennis Bloodnok
> ** Hercules Gryptpype-Thynne
> ** Minnie Bannister
> ** Bluebottle
------
Capitalism/Talk|987199498
46c46,48
< Definitions evolve as our understanding of underlying concepts evolve.  The concept of charge, as used by Franklin, who coined the term in physics, is very different from the concept as used by physicists today.  Should they abandon the term because they do not mean the same thing Franklin meant?  Economics has been extended to the study of human action in general.  Some people object to this on methodological grounds, but should we say it is wrong because that's not what someone 160 years ago meant by economics.  Our understanding of capitalism today is vastly superior to Say's or Marx's.  Why shouldn't our definition of the term change to reflect this improved understanding? -TS
---
> ''Definitions evolve as our understanding of underlying concepts evolve.  The concept of charge, as used by Franklin, who coined the term in physics, is very different from the concept as used by physicists today.  Should they abandon the term because they do not mean the same thing Franklin meant?  Economics has been extended to the study of human action in general.  Some people object to this on methodological grounds, but should we say it is wrong because that's not what someone 160 years ago meant by economics.  Our understanding of capitalism today is vastly superior to Say's or Marx's.  Why shouldn't our definition of the term change to reflect this improved understanding? -TS''
> 
> Our physics is superior to Franklin's, but charge still means the same thing it always did; our gravity is something different from Newton's, but it is still recognisably akin.  The change we are talking about here is of a different nature altogether, where both the fundamental idea behind and the circumscription of the concept are being changed completely - it is like redefining insect to mean ant because we now have a better understanding of what ants are like.  In any case, though, my point is not about the original use - see below.
54c56
< Just made some changes.  Article is in [[Positive tone]] mode.  Challenges and overviews from differing perspectives will no doubt appear.  Should the socialist take on capitalism be at [[Socialism/Capitalism]] or at [[Capitalism/Socialist view of]]?
---
> ''Just made some changes.  Article is in [[Positive tone]] mode.  Challenges and overviews from differing perspectives will no doubt appear.  Should the socialist take on capitalism be at [[Socialism/Capitalism]] or at [[Capitalism/Socialist view of]]?''
58c60,62
< So for consistency's sake, Josh must argue we should only use the word 'liberal' to refer to a whig. -TS
---
> ''So for consistency's sake, Josh must argue we should only use the word 'liberal' to refer to a whig. -TS''
> 
> If that were what people mean when they say liberal, I would argue such; but they do not.  Original meanings only came into things when you had the audacity to claim you had a right to adjust definitions because they were socialist propaganda (and strangely denying at the same time that definitions can be propagandical).  My main point, which is unaddressed, is that this also the prevalent current usage of the term, as evidenced by citations to a number of current sources.  Words are welcome to evolve, but noone decides when and how they should, and they are rarely forced to without propaganda as a motivating force; perhaps someday your definition will prevail, and then should be used here, but not until then.
------
Propaganda|987199648
15c15,17
< Propaganda something", the congragation for the propagation of faith. I don't do it myself because i don't remember the exact name.
---
> Propaganda something", the congragation for the propagation of faith. I don't do it myself because i don't remember the exact name.
> 
> ''Congregatio de propaganda fide''; propaganda is a future participle, meaning that which ought to be propagated.
------
Obituary|987199768
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[/2001]]
> :[[/2000]]
> ----
> This must be a better place to list deaths, [[Recent celebrity deaths]] and the year 44BC seem to be at odds, besides, was Julius Caeser really a celebrity ;-).
> One other thought, with this covering so many years (well, since time began let's say), it's obvious for starters that the 20th Century will be the most populated (or will it?) and it should probably get a page to itself. How about the other centuries/millennia?
> Much needs to be done.
------
Statute_of_limitations|987199811
1c1
< A '''statute of limitation''' is a law setting forth the maximun period of time during which legal proceedings may be instuted, after the event upon which they are based has occurred.
---
> A '''statute of limitations''' is a law setting forth the maximun period of time after certain events that legal proceedings based on those events may be begun.  For example, a state might have a statute limiting prosecution for misdemeanors to two years.  In such a state, if a person is discovered to have committed a misdemeanor three years ago, he cannot now be prosecuted for it.
3c3
< In all fifty states of the Unites States of America, there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder.  In other words, a prosecution for murder may commence at any time, no matter how long ago the murder occurred.
---
> A statute is said to have '''tolled''' when the event beginning its time limitation occurs.  Sometimes this is the event itself that is the subject of the suit (such as a crime or personal injury), but it may also be an event such as the ''discovery'' of a condition one wishes to redress, such as discovering a defect in a manufactured good.
5c5
< As to other causes of action, different states enforce different statutes of limitations for different matters.  
---
> The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being forced to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten.  Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.  They also serve to reduce court costs and case loads.
7c7
< For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years.  This means that if a person is discovered or believed to have committed a felony eight years ago, he may not now be prosecuted.  Statutes of limitations for misdemeanors in most states are one, two or three years.
---
> In all fifty states of the Unites States of America, there is no statute of limitations on the crime of murder.  In other words, a prosecution for murder may commence at any time, no matter how long ago the murder occurred.  Different states enforce different statutes of limitations for different matters.  For most felonies other than murder, the statute may be seven years. Statutes of limitations for misdemeanors in most states are one, two or three years.
9c9
< Different states do put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
---
> Different states do not put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
11c11
< For civil actions, statutes of limitations usually vary between one and ten years.  In California, for example, the statute of limitations for most personal injury actions is one year.  In Nevada, it is two years, and in New Mexico, three.  A common statute of limitations for matters arising out of a contractural agreement is seven years.  One should consult the statutes of various states to find the specific limitations periods for various causes of action in specific states.
---
> For civil actions, statutes of limitations usually range between one and ten years.  In California, for example, the statute of limitations for most personal injury actions is one year.  In Nevada it is two years, and in New Mexico, three.  A common statute of limitations for matters arising out of a contractural agreement is seven years.  One should consult the statutes of various states to find the specific limitations periods for various causes of action in specific states.
13c13
< A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limits the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be, for instance, that if a person is electricuted by a wiring defect which was incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
---
> A special case of the statute of limitations is a statute of repose.  This applies to buildings and properties, and limits the time during which an action may lie based upon defects or hazards connected to the construction of the building or premises.  An example of this would be that if a person is electrocuted by a wiring defect incorporated into a structure in, say, 1990, a state law may allow him or his heirs to sue only before 1997 in the case of an open (patent) defect, or before 2000 in the case of a hidden defect.
16,17d15
< 
< The reason for there being statutes of limitations is to prevent a person being dragged into court to answer criminal or civil complaints an unreasonably long time after he might have expected them to have been forgotten. Traditional notions of justice hold it to be unjust for a person to have to look over his shoulder and make allowances for events which are too long past.
------
Obituary/2001|987200212
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :April 11 -
> [[Harry Secombe]], aged 79, actor, presenter and comedian, [[The Goon Show]], [[Songs of Praise]].
> Sir Harry Secombe died of [[prostate cancer]] which wsa first diagnosed in [[1988]].
------
Obituary/2001|987200238
1c1
< :April 11 -
---
> April 11 -
------
The_Goon_Show|987201317
1c1
< British [[radio]] programme of the [[1950s]].  Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
---
> [[British]] [[radio]] programme of the [[1950s]], originally airing from [[1951]] to [[1960]].
2a3
> Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Larry Stephens]] under the watchfull eye of [[Jimmy Grafton]].
4,14c5,25
< Regular Characters:
< * [[Harry Secombe]] as Neddy Seagoon
< * [[Spike Milligan]] as
< ** Eccles
< ** Count Jim Moriarty
< ** Henry Crun
< * [[Peter Sellers]] as
< ** Major Dennis Bloodnok
< ** Hercules Gryptpype-Thynne
< ** Minnie Bannister
< ** Bluebottle
---
> It was performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
> 
> 
> Regular members
> *[[Harry Secombe]] as Neddie Seagoon
> *[[Spike Milligan]] as
> **Eccles
> **Miss Minnie Bannister
> **Count Jim Moriarty
> *[[Peter Sellers]] as
> **Major Dennis Bloodnok
> **Hercules Grytpype-Thynne
> **Henry Crun
> **Bluebottle
> **Willium "Mate" Cobblers
> 
> Other members
> *Wallace Greenslade - announcer, he opened and closed each show
> *Ray Ellignton - singer and drummer
> *Max Geldray - jazz harmonica player
> *Wally Scott Orchestra - the house band
------
Capitalism/Talk|987202548
62,64c62,64
< If that were what people mean when they say liberal, I would argue such; but they do not.  Original meanings only came into things when you had the audacity to claim you had a right to adjust definitions because they were socialist propaganda (and strangely denying at the same time that definitions can be propagandical).  My main point, which is unaddressed, is that this also the prevalent current usage of the term, as evidenced by citations to a number of current sources.  Words are welcome to evolve, but noone decides when and how they should, and they are rarely forced to without propaganda as a motivating force; perhaps someday your definition will prevail, and then should be used here, but not until then.
< ----
< While I agree with Tim in spirit that definitions evolve and that we should not be constrained by forgotten historical uses of words, I think the purpose of Wikipedia (and any Encyclopedia) is best served by using the definition of a word that is ''in common use among generally educated people of the time.''  Here's the test: imagine that a foreign-born person in his fourth year of English lessons see the word "capitalist" in a newpaper article and wants to know what it means, because he's never seen it before.  A reference work should give him the meaning ''that was probably intended by the general-audience text that used the term'', not a specialized meaning that some experts might consider more accurate, but that doesn't reflect the general understanding of the public.  At this time (2001), I believe a majority of educated English-speaking persons (not necessarily economists) use the word "capitalist" to refer to economies characterized by private ownership of most means of production, whether heavily regulated or not; those same educated English speakers use "laissez-faire capitalism" to refer to lack of government intervention. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> If that were what people mean when they say liberal, I would argue such; but they do not.  Original meanings only came into things when you had the audacity to claim you had a right to adjust definitions because they were socialist propaganda (and strangely denying at the same time that definitions can be propagandical)...
> 
> I did not call Lenin's wordplay 'propaganda'.  I wrote most of the [[Propaganda]] article so you can go see this is not what I mean by the term.  I deny the charge that I contradicted myself. - TS 
65a66
> ...My main point, which is unaddressed,...
66a68,72
> My justifications for this use of the word 'capitalism' are above, if you care to wade through this mess.  Also, as I added to the main page, it is a definition that is used by people who call themselves capitalists, which gives it a certain legitimacy. -TS
> 
> ... is that this also the prevalent current usage of the term, as evidenced by citations to a number of current sources.  Words are welcome to evolve, but noone decides when and how they should, and they are rarely forced to without propaganda as a motivating force; perhaps someday your definition will prevail, and then should be used here, but not until then.
> ----
> While I agree with Tim in spirit that definitions evolve and that we should not be constrained by forgotten historical uses of words, I think the purpose of Wikipedia (and any Encyclopedia) is best served by using the definition of a word that is ''in common use among generally educated people of the time.''  Here's the test: imagine that a foreign-born person in his fourth year of English lessons see the word "capitalist" in a newpaper article and wants to know what it means, because he's never seen it before.  A reference work should give him the meaning ''that was probably intended by the general-audience text that used the term'', not a specialized meaning that some experts might consider more accurate, but that doesn't reflect the general understanding of the public.  At this time (2001), I believe a majority of educated English-speaking persons (not necessarily economists) use the word "capitalist" to refer to economies characterized by private ownership of most means of production, whether heavily regulated or not; those same educated English speakers use "laissez-faire capitalism" to refer to lack of government intervention. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
67a74
> This as a policy could be problematic.  Take the definition we use for evolution, "the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time."  This is a more technical definition than the one educated laypersons might use, such as, "change in a species to keep it adapted to its environment."  Should we abandon the precise definition because it is not how most non-experts think of it?  I don't think that would be desirable.  I don't know exactly what the guidelines for other cases would be. -TS
------
Poker/Bluffing|987203103
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[/Bluff]] is an important part of [[/Strategy]] in any poker game, though it will come into play more in some games than in others.  Here are some general guidelines:
> 
> Don't be predictable.  If you always bluff in certain situations, your opponents will figure this out and start calling more.  If you never bluff, they'll figure that out too and stop calling your non-bluff bets.  The exact ideal bluffing frequency in each game situation is a complicated exercise in [[/Game theory]] that you won't be able to solve at the table, so you may have to rely on rules of thumb, prior analysis, experience, and intuition.  It also helps to have a randomizing device: for example, if your analysis or experience leads you to believe that you should bluff half of the time in a certain situation, use a device such as the color of the last card dealt, or the second hand on your watch, to make the choice.
> 
> Bluffs are more successful with fewer people in the pot.  Against only one or two opponents, your chances are good that no one has a hand good enough to call.  Against three or more opponents, at least one of them probably does, so bluffing is unlikely to succeed.  There is also social pressure to "play sheriff": if three people act behind you, and the first two fold to your bluff, the last player will feel more obligated to call because the others will complain if he doesn't.  If you have only one opponent, he won't have that problem.
> 
> Bluff much less in [[/High-low split]] games--some very weak hands will call hoping for half the pot.  In some games such as [[/Omaha high-low]], you would not be giving up much advantage if you never bluffed at all.
> 
> Opponents will call or fold to a bluff based on their own hands more than based on their perception of yours (even though this is not correct strategy).  For example, if you are playing [[/Seven-card stud]] and are dealt an upcard that makes it look as though you may have a flush (or some other "scare card"), bluffing against someone who you think has three of a kind will likely fail, because that's a strong hand for the game and a player is unlikely to fold it even though he suspects it won't win.  But bluffing against someone who probably has only a small pair is more likely to be successful, even if you have nothing that looks threatening about your own cards.
> 
> In games with many betting rounds, bluff in early rounds rather than late ones.  Once other players have put a lot of money into the pot, they are less likely to give up (this tendency goes beyond the correct strategy of calling more with larger pots).  One good play in such games is to "semi-bluff": betting a hand in an early round that probably isn't the best, but that might become the best with a lucky future card.  This play can win when either the bluff or the draw is successful.
> 
> On the last betting round, if you have a hand that might be good but that isn't very strong, you're probably better off checking and then calling a bet by your opponent rather than bluffing.  A player with a worse hand will probably not call if you bet, but your check might induce him to bluff, allowing your call to win more money.  A player with a better hand than yours will almost certainly call, and may raise.  You also don't need the protection of a bet.  Bet your strong hands for value, bluff with hands you're almost sure can't win any other way, and check the ones in between.
> 
> A raise, and especially a [[/Check-raise]], as a bluff is more psychologically intimidating than just opening.  Of course it also risks more of your money and makes the pot bigger (and therefore more likely to be called), so it must be used with care.
------
HomePage|987203269
5,6d4
< Ah, this chunking is much better. Maybe we could keep it this way for the purposes of usability, accessibility, and general common sense. Thanks.
< 
------
Political_conservatism|987203480
1c1
< ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional views and values.  
---
> ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional political views and values.  Consequently, what might be conservative in one society might be quite "progressive" in a different society.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987203505
74c74,79
< This as a policy could be problematic.  Take the definition we use for evolution, "the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time."  This is a more technical definition than the one educated laypersons might use, such as, "change in a species to keep it adapted to its environment."  Should we abandon the precise definition because it is not how most non-experts think of it?  I don't think that would be desirable.  I don't know exactly what the guidelines for other cases would be. -TS
---
> ''This as a policy could be problematic.  Take the definition we use for evolution, "the change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time."  This is a more technical definition than the one educated laypersons might use, such as, "change in a species to keep it adapted to its environment."  Should we abandon the precise definition because it is not how most non-experts think of it?  I don't think that would be desirable.  I don't know exactly what the guidelines for other cases would be. -TS''
> 
> Yes, I agree that there are times when the general public understanding of a term (even among educated persons) may be considered a misconception by experts.  I think in that case it's important to point this out immediately, e.g.:
> 
> "Many people use the term 'evolution' to mean the same thing biologists call 'adaptation', but it is more properly used to refer only to changes that occur over time, regardless of the reasons for those changes...."
> 
------
Political_conservatism|987204047
3,5c3,5
< Two distinct groups of conservatives exist:
< * Fiscal conservative - one who believes in most all conservative values except religious and abortion related issues
< * Social conservative - one who believes in all conservative values including religious and abortion related issues
---
> Conservatism, at least as it is often thought of in the [[United States]] (''only? anybody know?''), has two important aspects:
> * Fiscal conservatism: the support of a traditional economic system of a place (or of an idealized version of such a system, perhaps never fully realized).
> * Social conservatism: the support of traditional values, i.e., morality, and particularly of religious morality; of also, the support of governmental restrictions on personal behavior with an aim of upholding traditional values.
7c7,9
< In the [[United States]] and western [[Europe]], it is generally associated with the following views:
---
> It is possible for one to be a fiscal conservative but not a social conservative; this is the stance of [[libertarianism]].  It is also possible to be a social conservative but not a fiscal conservative.  This is a common political stance in, for example, [[Ireland]] and among some American [[leftist]]s.
> 
> In the [[United States]] and western [[Europe]], conservatism is generally associated with the following views:
------
Political_conservatism|987204111
5c5
< * Social conservatism: the support of traditional values, i.e., morality, and particularly of religious morality; of also, the support of governmental restrictions on personal behavior with an aim of upholding traditional values.
---
> * Social conservatism: the support of traditional values, i.e., morality, and particularly of religious morality; also, support of governmental restrictions on personal behavior with an aim of upholding traditional values.
------
Poker|987204143
3c3
< The basic rules of the game include [[/Game play]], [[/Hands]], and [[/Betting structure]].  Some knowledge of the [[/Equipment]] used to play is useful.  There are also many [[/Variants]] or poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games.
---
> The basic rules of the game include [[/Game play]], [[/Hands]], and [[/Betting structure]].  Some knowledge of the [[/Equipment]] used to play is useful.  There are also many [[/Variants]] or poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games.  The most commonly played games of the first three categories are [[Five-card draw]], [[Seven-card stud]], and [[Texas holdem]]; each of these makes a good starting point for learning games of the type.
5c5
< The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pocher''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persia]]n game of '''as nas''', but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''.  The [[English]] game '''brag''' clearly decended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).
---
> The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pocher''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persian]] game of '''as nas''', but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''.  The [[English]] game '''brag''' clearly decended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).
15c15
< Playing poker in [[casino]]s and public cardrooms requires knowledge of [[/Public cardroom rules]] and [[Public cardroom etiquette]].
---
> Playing poker in [[casino]]s and public cardrooms requires knowledge of [[/Public cardroom rules]] and [[/Public cardroom etiquette]].
17c17
< Poker [[/Tournament]]s such as the [[World Series of Pooker]] are often [[/Tournament organization|organized]] by casinos and cardrooms, and have their own [[/Tournament strategy|strategy]] and [[/Tournament rules|rules]].
---
> Poker [[/Tournament]]s such as the [[World Series of Poker]] are often [[/Tournament organization|organized]] by casinos and cardrooms, and have their own [[/Tournament strategy|strategy]] and [[/Tournament rules|rules]].
24c24
< [[Poker-related game]]s include non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker such as [[Seven twenty-seven]], [[Zero Fifty-five]], [[Boure]], and [[Caro Dots]], and unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways such as [[Dollar bill poker]], [[Pai Gow poker]], [[Carribean stud]], [[Mambo stud]], and [[Chinese poker]].
---
> [[Poker-related game]]s include non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker such as [[Seven twenty-seven]], [[Zero fifty-five]], [[Boure|Bouré]], and [[Caro Dots]], and unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways such as [[Dollar bill poker]], [[Pai Gow poker]], [[Carribean stud]], [[Mambo stud]], and [[Chinese poker]].
------
Poker|987204168
5c5
< The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pocher''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persian]] game of '''as nas''', but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italy|Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''.  The [[English]] game '''brag''' clearly decended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).
---
> The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game undoubtedly descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pocher''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker.  It also resembles the [[Persian]] game of '''as nas''', but the historical timeline makes it unlikely that this game contributed directly to poker.  It is more likely that poker evolved from the [[Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''.  The [[English]] game '''brag''' clearly decended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).
------
Political_conservatism|987204189
7c7
< It is possible for one to be a fiscal conservative but not a social conservative; this is the stance of [[libertarianism]].  It is also possible to be a social conservative but not a fiscal conservative.  This is a common political stance in, for example, [[Ireland]] and among some American [[leftist]]s.
---
> It is possible for one to be a fiscal conservative but not a social conservative; in the United States at present, this is the stance of [[libertarianism]].  It is also possible to be a social conservative but not a fiscal conservative.  At present, this is a common political stance in, for example, [[Ireland]] and among some American [[leftist]]s.
------
Political_conservatism|987204258
1c1
< ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional political views and values.  Consequently, what might be conservative in one society might be quite "progressive" in a different society.
---
> ''Political conservatism'' is, broadly speaking, support of traditional political views and values.  Consequently, what might be conservative in one society might be quite radical in a different society.
------
Italian|987204549
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word '''Italian''' can have these meanings:
> 
> # From or related to [[Italy]]
> # An Italian(1) person
> # The [[Italian language]]
> 
> It is also used as an abreviation for '''Italian dressing''' (a [[Vinaigrette]] with [[herb]]s), and '''Italian sandwich''' (more commonly called a [[Submarine sandwich]]).
------
Capitalism/Talk|987204746
79c79,80
< 
---
> ----
> LDC raises an interesting issue.  I'd say it's important, however else the problem is solved, that we at least ''describe'' the less enlightened uses/meanings of terms.  More information (properly organized, of course) is always better than less.  (Well, I think so, anyway.) --[[LMS]]
------
World_War_I|987205091
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] & [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In 1917 [[Italy]] & the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]] & [[Russia]].
---
> World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In 1917 [[Italy]] and the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Russia]].
3c3
< The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces, tanks (which weren't used before at all) & new tactics (like the rolling barrage), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
---
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces, tanks (which weren't used before at all) and new tactics (like the rolling barrage), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
------
Submarine_sandwich|987205098
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''submarine sandwich''' (or just '''submarine''' where context would exclude the sea vessel) is any of various [[sandwich]]es made on a long roll split lengthwise, especially those including meat, cheese, lettuce, tomato, and various condiments.
> 
> In regions of the [[United States]] there are many different terms for local variations on the idea: [[hoagie]] (eastern US), grinder, hero, [[Poor boy]] (or "po' boy", southern US), [[Cuban sandwich]], bomber, [[Italian]], wedge, torpedo, zep (New Jersey).
------
Submarine_sandwich|987205588
1c1
< A '''submarine sandwich''' (or just '''submarine''' where context would exclude the sea vessel) is any of various [[sandwich]]es made on a long roll split lengthwise, especially those including meat, cheese, lettuce, tomato, and various condiments.
---
> A '''submarine sandwich''' (or just '''submarine''' where context would exclude the sea vessel, or even just '''sub''') is any of various [[sandwich]]es made on a long roll split lengthwise, especially those including meat, cheese, lettuce, tomato, and various condiments.
------
Vinaigrette|987206335
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word '''vinaigrette''' can refer to:
> 
> # An unstable [[emulsion]] of [[vinegar]] (or sometimes [[lemon]] juice) and [[vegetable oil]], often flavored with [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, and other ingredients.  Vinaigrettes are used as [[sauce]]s in many [[cuisine]]s, and as [[salad dressing]]s.  This is the most common use of the word.
> # A small container with a perforated top, used to contain an aromatic substance such as vinegar or smelling salts (also called a '''vinegarette'''.
> # A [[bath chair]].
> 
> 
------
Vinaigrette|987206355
4c4
< # A small container with a perforated top, used to contain an aromatic substance such as vinegar or smelling salts (also called a '''vinegarette'''.
---
> # A small container with a perforated top, used to contain an aromatic substance such as vinegar or smelling salts (also called a '''vinegarette''').
------
Statute_of_limitations|987207077
9c9
< Different states do not put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws speicifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
---
> Different states do not put forth these limitations in any uniform manner.  Some states will have a law or laws specifically named "Limitation of actions" or similar, under which the limitations for several, but not all actions, will be listed.  Exceptions to the overall law will be peppered throughout the body of state law.  Other states may have no such single law, but will mention the subject of limitation as a sub-category of each law to which a limitation is applied.
------
Time_constraint|987207312
1c1
< In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]], courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timelines of legal actions and filings.
---
> In the interest of speedy justice and avoiding undue delays, and additionally to prevent the evasion of the ends of justice by waiting until a matter is [[moot]], courts and legislatures have instituted rules as to the timeliness of legal actions and filings.
------
Poker/Sandbagging|987208326
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Sandbagging''' (also called "slow play") is deceptive play in [[poker]] that is roughly the opposite of [[/Bluffing]]: betting weakly with a strong holding rather than betting strongly with a weak one.  The [[/Check-raise]] is one such play.
> 
> This might involve a check or call with a hand that you might otherwise raise with, to lure other players into the pot who might fold to a raise, or to lure them into betting more strongly than they would if you had bet or raised.  This is often dangerous because it sacrifices the [[/Protection]] that a bet or raise would give you, and it also risks losing the pot-building value of a bet if your opponents also check.  It can nonetheless be profitable to do this under circumstances that include the following:
> 
> * Your hand is so strong that protection isn't needed.
> * An opponent is likely to bet when you don't.
> * Opponents are likely to fold or just call if you bet.
> 
> Here's an example from a four-handed [[draw poker]] game among Alice, Bob, Carol, and David: After anteing, Alice looks at her hand to find a pair of aces, and opens the betting for $2.  Bob raises an additional $2, bringing the bet to $4.  Carol folds.  David calls the $4, and Alice puts in an additional $2 to match the raise.  Drawing three cards, she receives another ace, and a pair of fives.  Since her full house is nearly unbeatable, it does not need the protection of a bet (and this is the last betting round, where protection applies less anyway).  Also, Bob earlier raised, and David  called a raise, so they likely have strong hands and one of them will bet if Alice doesn't.  Finally, since Bob and David earlier showed strength, and they know that Alice knows this, Alice betting into them is a bold move likely to scare one or both of them off, especially if they weren't as strong as they seem.  This is a perfect place for a check-raise.  Alice checks.  As she hoped, Bob bets $2.  David thinks for a minute, then calls the $2.  Alice now springs the trap and raises $2.  Bob calls the additional $2, and David (who now realizes that he is probably beaten) folds.  Bob reveals three sixes, and surrenders the pot to Alice.  If Alice had just bet her hand on the second round, it is likely that Bob would just have called and David may or may not have called, earning Alice $2 to $4 on the second round.  But with the check-raise play, she earned $6.
>        
> Even in games (such as [[/California lowball]]) where the check-raise is not allowed, one can make other sandbagging plays such as just calling ("flat calling") instead of raising with a very strong hand and then later raising.
> 
> In games with many betting rounds, such as [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] games, one can make multiple-round sandbagging plays.  Let's say, for example, you are playing [[Seven-card stud]] and your first three cards are all fours.  An opponent with a king showing bets first, and you raise, getting two callers.  One the next round, the first bettor catches another king, and you miraculously catch the last four.  You suspect he has two pair or three kings, and he suspects that you have two pair or three fours (four of a kind is so unlikely that he will probably ignore the possibility, just as you can ignore the possibility that he has four kings).  He bets again, and you just call.  You should probably just call for next round or two, and maybe even check if no one bets, rather than raising, for several reasons.  Your hand is so strong that the chance of getting beaten is negligible, so you don't need protection.  Allowing other players to continue for smaller stakes might allow one of them to catch a hand such as a straight, flush, or full house that will call your final bets or possibly even raise you back.  Finally, keeping as many players in the game as possible will make a much bigger pot.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987208585
64c64
< I did not call Lenin's wordplay 'propaganda'.  I wrote most of the [[Propaganda]] article so you can go see this is not what I mean by the term.  I deny the charge that I contradicted myself. - TS 
---
> ''I did not call Lenin's wordplay 'propaganda'.  I wrote most of the [[Propaganda]] article so you can go see this is not what I mean by the term.  I deny the charge that I contradicted myself. - TS'' - Fair enough, I'll grant you that.
68c68,70
< My justifications for this use of the word 'capitalism' are above, if you care to wade through this mess.  Also, as I added to the main page, it is a definition that is used by people who call themselves capitalists, which gives it a certain legitimacy. -TS
---
> ''My justifications for this use of the word 'capitalism' are above, if you care to wade through this mess.  Also, as I added to the main page, it is a definition that is used by people who call themselves capitalists, which gives it a certain legitimacy. -TS''
> 
> The justifications given above are as far as I can tell entirely based upon the term capitalism as usually defined grouping together various systems which have little in common except private ownership and being coined by socialists.  Neither of those is a good reason for altering the definition of a word.  That capitalists themselves define the word such would be a much better argument - but are there not people who call themselves state capitalists, and do they not also determine what practitioners use the word to mean?
80c82
< LDC raises an interesting issue.  I'd say it's important, however else the problem is solved, that we at least ''describe'' the less enlightened uses/meanings of terms.  More information (properly organized, of course) is always better than less.  (Well, I think so, anyway.) --[[LMS]]
---
> LDC raises an interesting issue.  I'd say it's important, however else the problem is solved, that we at least ''describe'' the less enlightened uses/meanings of terms.  More information (properly organized, of course) is always better than less.  (Well, I think so, anyway.) --[[LMS]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987208926
80a81,82
> 
> ''Also note that the broader definition of capitalism is not just used by laypeople but also by economic and political historians, who presumably are those most interested in the variations of said field.  In short, by everyone except possibly certain capitalists themselves.''
------
World_War_I|987209886
6a7,14
> The war ended on 1918, but its consequences were long lasting.
> The [[treaty of Versailles]], that put official end to the war,
> along with heavy reparations to be paid by [[Germany]],
> included a clause to create a [[League of Nations]], an international organization that should prevent a new war.
> The US senate, however, never ratified the treaty, despite the
> campaigning by the US president, [[Woodrow Wilson]], originator of the idea.
> 
> 
------
JimmyKarza|987210535
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Annotated Bibliography for Jimmy's Wikipedia Article on Walt Disney 
> 
>  - - - - - - - - - - - - 
> 
> The Art of Walt Disney by Christopher Finch
> The definitive Disney book.
> 
> Walt Disney: An American Original by Bob Thomas
> The best biography of Disney I've ever read.  Explores his life as well as his film studio.
> 
> www.disneylandsource.com
> Quite simply, the best Disneyland site there is.
> 
> www.justdisney.com
> A surprisingly informative Disney reference source
> 
> 
> 
------
World_War_II|987210692
13a14,19
> Probably because of the example of [[WWI]], compensations were
> not asked from the defeated nations. On the contrary, a plan
> created by [[George Marshall]], the ''Economic Recovery Program'', better known as the [[Marshall Plan]], meant billions
> of dollars beeing destined by the US Congress for the reconstruction of Europe. The portion of Europe occupated by
> the [[Soviet Union]] did not participate on the plan.
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|987211008
75a76,80
> ----
> Question: How did you land the job of editor of Nupedia and wikipedia? Was there a competition, or are you a highschool buddy
> of [[Jimbo Wales]]? (or something in between?).
> ''Is none of your bussiness'' is a valid answer:).
> ----
------
Jimbo_Wales|987211243
32c32,41
< Thanks for your feedback; I'll take care - Mathijs
---
> Thanks for your feedback; I'll take care - Mathijs
> ----
> Couple of related questions (pure curiosity).
> 
> Has someone ever left money in the bomis tipjar?
> 
> I know you are aware of the Amazon patent bussiness, don't you
> plan to take away the tipjar (operated by Amazon) as part of
> the boicot against them?
> ----
------
Jimbo_Wales|987211438
41c41,47
< ----
---
> 
> And an unrelated request: would you like to set up
> castellano.wikipedia.com? alternatives names could be
> es.wikipedia.com and espanol.wikipedia.com
> 
> There is also a request of a swedish wikipedia on [[Internation Wikipedia]]
> ----
------
Jimbo_Wales|987211470
46c46,47
< There is also a request of a swedish wikipedia on [[Internation Wikipedia]]
---
> There is also a request of a swedish wikipedia on 
> [[International Wikipedia]]
------
Statute_of_limitations|987211804
1c1
< A '''statute of limitations''' is a law setting forth the maximun period of time after certain events that legal proceedings based on those events may be begun.  For example, a state might have a statute limiting prosecution for misdemeanors to two years.  In such a state, if a person is discovered to have committed a misdemeanor three years ago, he cannot now be prosecuted for it.
---
> A '''statute of limitations''' is a law setting forth the maximum period of time after certain events that legal proceedings based on those events may be begun.  For example, a state might have a statute limiting prosecution for misdemeanors to two years.  In such a state, if a person is discovered to have committed a misdemeanor three years ago, he cannot now be prosecuted for it.
3c3
< A statute is said to have '''tolled''' when the event beginning its time limitation occurs.  Sometimes this is the event itself that is the subject of the suit (such as a crime or personal injury), but it may also be an event such as the ''discovery'' of a condition one wishes to redress, such as discovering a defect in a manufactured good.
---
> A statute is said to have '''tolled''' when the event beginning its time limitation occurs.  Sometimes this is the event itself that is the subject of the suit or prosecution(such as a crime or personal injury), but it may also be an event such as the ''discovery'' of a condition one wishes to redress, such as discovering a defect in a manufactured good.
15c15
< There may be a number of factors which will affect the [[tolling]] of a statute of limitations.  In many cases, the discovery of the harm (as in a medical malpractice claim where the fact or the impact of the doctor's mistake is not immediately apparent) starts the statute running.  A [[tort]] committed against a minor will not toll the statute in most cases until the child reaches the age of majority.  A ten-year-old who is injured in a car accident might therefore be able to bring suit one, two or three years after he turns eighteen.
---
> There may be a number of factors which will affect the [[toll]]ing of a statute of limitations.  In many cases, the discovery of the harm (as in a medical malpractice claim where the fact or the impact of the doctor's mistake is not immediately apparent) starts the statute running.  A [[tort]] committed against a minor will not toll the statute in most cases until the child reaches the age of majority.  A ten-year-old who is injured in a car accident might therefore be able to bring suit one, two or three years after he turns eighteen.
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|987211849
1c1
< Astronomy, that etymologycaly mean ''measuring of stars'', is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
---
> Astronomy, that etymologycaly means ''measuring of stars'', is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
5c5
< the distinction between astronomy and astrophysics  almost doesn't exist.
---
> the distinction between astronomy and astrophysics  almost doesn't exist anymore.
14c14
< well as astronomers who works in several areas, are the rule more
---
> well as astronomers who work in several areas, are the rule more
19c19
< A triditional division of astronomy is given by the region of
---
> A traditional division of astronomy is given by the region of
23c23,28
< *[[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that  wavelegths of radiation). 
---
> *[[Radio Astronomy]] uses completely different techniques: to detect radiation of wavelengths of mm to cm, the receivers are similar to those used in radio broadcasting (that use that  wavelegths of radiation).
> 
> Optical and Radio astronomy can be done using ground based observatories, because the [[atmosphere]] is transparent in
> those wovelengths. Infrared light is heavely absorbed by
> [[water vapor]], so infrared observatories have to be located
> in high, dry places.
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|987212289
22c22,23
< *[[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelength]]s than can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm). *[[Infrared Astronomy]] deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
---
> *[[Optical Astronomy]] refers to the techniques used to detect and analize light in and slightly around the [[wavelength]]s than can be detected with the [[eye]]s (about 400 - 800 nm).
> *[[Infrared Astronomy]] deals with using infrared light (waveleghts shorter than the red).
29d29
< *(...X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy...UV astronomy..., all of this with [[space observatories]])
31c31,38
< *(Also neutrinos, and in the near future gravitons.
---
> For [[X-ray Astronomy]], [[gamma-ray Astronomy]], 
> [[UV Astronomy]] and [[Far Infrared Astronomy]], observations
> can be done only from balloons or [[space observatories]].
> 
> All the previous disciplines are based on the detection of
> [[photon]]s, but we also receive information from outside
> the earth carried by [[cosmic rays]], [[neutrino]]s, and,
> in the near future, [[graviton]]s (see [[LIGO]]).
49c56
< ''See also [[Astronomers and Astrophysicists]], [[Amateur Astronomy]]. 
---
> ''See also [[Astronomers and Astrophysicists]], [[Amateur Astronomy]].''
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|987212348
27c27
< those wovelengths. Infrared light is heavely absorbed by
---
> those wavelengths. Infrared light is heavely absorbed by
------
Tourism|987212442
2c2
< own usual place of residence, as an end in itself (different than, for example, [[bussiness travel]].
---
> own usual place of residence, as an end on itself (different than, for example, [[bussiness travel]]).
4c4
< The [[tourist]] can be interested (among other things) in the new place [[culture]]
---
> The [[tourist]] can be interested (among other things) in the new place's [[culture]]
------
Ellipse|987212681
1c1
< Mathematically, an <i>ellipse</i> is the locus of all points on a plane that share a fixed sum of distances from two given fixed points (called [[focus|foci]]).
---
> Mathematically, an <i>ellipse</i> is the locus of all points on a plane that share a fixed sum of distances from two given fixed points (called [[focus|foci]]). It is a [[conic section]].
------
Physics|987213297
1c1,2
< Physics is a very broad subject...
---
> Physics is the science that studies matter, its properties, and
> the four [[fundamental interactions]].
44c45
< * Particles and fields
---
> * [[Particles and fields]]
------
Amateur_Astronomy|987213400
1,6c1
< Also called [[Backyard Astronomy]], is a [[hobby]] whose cultors
< enjoy watching the night sky (and the day sky too, for sunspots),
< and the pletora of objects found in it, with (mainly) portable [[telescope]]s.
< 
< Even though scientific research is not their main goal, many
< amateur astronomers make a contribution to astronomy by monitoring variable stars, and discovering transient objects,
---
> Also called [[Backyard Astronomy]], is a [[hobby]] whose cultors enjoy watching the night sky (and the day sky too, for sunspots), and the pletora of objects found in it, mainly with portable [[telescope]]s and [[binocular]]s.  Even though scientific research is not their main goal, many amateur astronomers make a contribution to astronomy by monitoring variable stars, and discovering transient objects,
10a6,7
> 
> A good place to start exploring the night sky is with the more prominent [[constellation]]s which serve as markers for many binocular or telescopic objects, and with the [[Moon]] and [[planet]]s.
------
Zodiac|987213526
1c1
< Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses. Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
---
> Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses - actually it crosses a thirteenth, [[Ophiucus]], but this is traditionally excluded from the list.  Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
------
BioChemistry|987213799
1c1,2
< One should well start by something
---
> Biochemistry considers the chemical properties of biological systems.  Formally, biochemistry includes a description of the macromolecules, including [[proteins]], [[lipids]], [[polysaccharides]], and [[nucleic acids]], and small molecules present in cells.  The bulk of biochemical investigation focuses on the properties of [[proteins]], many of which are [[enzymes]].  
> For historical reasons, the biochemistry of [[metabolism]] has been one of the most extensively described aspect of the cell.  
3,4d3
< 
< AminoAcids - MetabolicCycles - NucleicAcids (DNA,RNA) - EnZymes - ProteinSynthesis - ...
------
United_States/History|987213825
6c6
< [[France]] all of its territories around the Mississipi River, and
---
> [[France]] all of its territories west of the Mississipi River, and
8c8
< [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah. and [[Nevada]]).  American settlers in [[Texas]] declared independence from Mexico in the 1830, won independence and joined the United States a decade later.
---
> [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as an state of the union, after american settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830 and joined the United States a decade later.
14a15
> 
18,19c19,25
< France and Italy won the war, an imposed severe penalties on
< Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]]
---
> France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe penalties on
> Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].
> 
> One decade after the war, a severe [[depression]] asolated the
> country, and despite the efforts of president [[F.D.Roosevelt]],
> reactivation was only complete with the participation of the
> US in [[WWII]].
------
Agnostida|987214191
1c1
< [[Trilobita]] that aren't entirely sure whether or not God exists.  Just kidding.  Seriously, the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
---
> An order of [[Trilobita]], the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
12,16d11
< ----
< ''How much longer are you keeping the joke at the begining?
< Permanently wouldn't be a good idea in an encyclopaedia.''
< 
< (Laugh) The joke at the beginning was put in on April 1 since nobody seemed to be doing anything for the occasion, and was lengthened since nobody seemed to be removing it.  I was honestly expecting it to be rewritten the moment somebody saw it.  You're welcome to do whatever you want with it, but it's not going to die by ''my'' hands.
------
Poker/Sandbagging|987214383
13c13,16
< In games with many betting rounds, such as [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] games, one can make multiple-round sandbagging plays.  Let's say, for example, you are playing [[Seven-card stud]] and your first three cards are all fours.  An opponent with a king showing bets first, and you raise, getting two callers.  One the next round, the first bettor catches another king, and you miraculously catch the last four.  You suspect he has two pair or three kings, and he suspects that you have two pair or three fours (four of a kind is so unlikely that he will probably ignore the possibility, just as you can ignore the possibility that he has four kings).  He bets again, and you just call.  You should probably just call for next round or two, and maybe even check if no one bets, rather than raising, for several reasons.  Your hand is so strong that the chance of getting beaten is negligible, so you don't need protection.  Allowing other players to continue for smaller stakes might allow one of them to catch a hand such as a straight, flush, or full house that will call your final bets or possibly even raise you back.  Finally, keeping as many players in the game as possible will make a much bigger pot.
---
> In games with many betting rounds, such as [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] games, one can make multiple-round sandbagging plays.  Let's say, for example, you are playing [[Seven-card stud]] and your first three cards are all fours.  An opponent with a king showing bets first, and you raise, getting two callers.  One the next round, the first bettor catches another king, and you miraculously catch the last four.  You suspect he has two pair or three kings, and he suspects that you have two pair or three fours (four of a kind is so unlikely that he will probably ignore the possibility, just as you can ignore the possibility that he has four kings).  He bets again, and you just call.  You should probably just call for next round or two, and maybe even check if no one bets, rather than raising, for several reasons.  Your hand is so strong that the chance of getting beaten is negligible, so you don't need protection.  If the bettor just has two pair and you act strongly, he may think you have three fours and fold if he doesn't improve.  Allowing other players to continue for smaller stakes might allow one of them to catch a hand such as a straight, flush, or full house that will call your final bets or possibly even raise you back, building a very big pot.  Finally, keeping as many players in the game as possible will make a bigger pot.  At some point you will have to "come out of the woodwork" and bet strongly.
> 
> Another common sandbagging play that occurs only on the last betting round is called "fishing for the overcall".  This occurs when the last card you are dealt makes you a very strong hand, a player in front of you bets, and there are more players to act behind you.  While you might normally raise with your hand, just calling may encourage the players behind you to overcall when they would fold to a raise.  This play is best when there are several players behind you, and they are the kind of player likely to call one bet but not a raise.  If there is only one player behind you, for example, then getting the overcall gains no more money than raising and having the initial bettor call (at least in a [[/Fixed limit]] game).  This play also sacrifices the profit you might have made from players who would have overcalled even the raise.
> 
------
Moot|987216183
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law, a matter is '''moot''' if further legal proceedings with regard to it can have no effect, or events have placed it beyond the reach of the law.  Thereby the matter has been deprived of practical significance or rendered purely academic
------
Cladistics|987217688
13c13
< Unlike normal evolutionary trees all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary.  A correct cladogram would have all the organisms in each branch, or ''clade'', share a common ancestor which they do not share with the other organisms on the diagram.  Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the forms it diverged off of, called ''synapomorphies''.  For instance hardened front wings are a synapomorphy of beetles.
---
> In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the endpoints, and each split is ideally binary.  A correct cladogram would have all the organisms in each branch, or ''clade'', share a common ancestor which they do not share with the other organisms on the diagram.  Each clade should be set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members but not in the forms it diverged off of, called ''synapomorphies''.  For instance hardened front wings are a synapomorphy of beetles.
19c19
< Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
---
> Cladistics has taken a while to settle in - a matter not helped by the variety of jargon used - and there is some questioning over in just what sort of circumstances cladistics is appliable.  In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data is often unavailable thanks to a sparsity in available forms or lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets, for instance structural versus genetic characteristics, may produce widely different trees.  However by and large cladistics has proven a useful and coherent extension of other methods and has gained general support.
------
Cladistics|987217910
15c15
< Typically an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering some outgroup of organisms we know are not too close to any of the organisms in question.  Only apomorphies are any use in characterising clades.
---
> Typically an analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question, and then deciding which versions were present in their common ancestor (''plesiomorphies'') and which have been derived since (''apomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering some outgroup of organisms we know are not too closely related to any of the organisms in question.  Only apomorphies are any use in characterising clades.
17c17
< Next different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated.  Clades are typically chosen to have as many synapomorphies as they can.  The idea is that a sufficiently large amount of characteristics should be large enough to overwhelm any examples of convergent evolution, and in practice neutral features like exact ultrastructure tend to do just that.  When equivalent possibilties turn up they are usually selected from according to the principle of parsimony: the most compact arrangement is likely the best.
---
> Next different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated.  Clades are typically chosen to have as many synapomorphies as they can.  The idea is that a sufficiently large number of characteristics should be large enough to overwhelm any examples of convergent evolution, and in practice neutral features like exact ultrastructure tend to do just that.  When equivalent possibilties turn up they are usually selected from according to the principle of parsimony: the most compact arrangement is likely the best.
------
Default|987219498
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Failure to do something required by, law or to appear at a required time in legal proceedings.  
> 
> In law, when a party has failed to file meanigful response to [[pleading]]s within the time allowed, with the result that only one side of a controversy has been presented to the court, the party who had pled and received no response may file a "Notice of Intent to Take Default" and serve it on the unresponsive party.  If this notice is not opposed, or no adequate justification for the delay or lack of response is presented, then the original pleading party may file a "Motion for Default Judgement" with the court, praying that the court declare that, unopposed, his case has been proven and that the court further enter judgement on his behalf.  Such a judgement is referred to as a "Default Judgement."
------
Assistive_Technology/Talk|987219819
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There seems to be some confusion here. Assistive technology is technology that is used in addition to regular technology to enable a disabled user to access, ideally with normal speed and in an integrated manner, what non-disabled people can access without such technology.
> 
> 
> For using the internet, asistive technology includes voice-enabled web browsersand read-back devices, braille readers and output devices, voice inout browsers, magnigying screen readers, etc.
> 
> 
> The other side of the coin is what web developers can to do make their content more accessible. In software design, this is called universal access design. This does not necessarily require the disabled user to acquire any assistive technology.
> Items included here are keyboard-only navigation, possible in Microsoft Windows and most of their other software, as well as, the Opera browser, proper formating of links, atlernate attributes in tags for images etc. Many of these design principles, however, do assume some assistive technology on the part of the disabled user, and try to insure that such assistive technology is allowed to function properly. For exampled, for a blind internet user, it is assumed that he/she will be using some assistive technology like a voice enabled browser, at least. Then, some of these principles of universal design, like  alternate attributes on images, do assume assistive technology. There are always additional advantages to such design, however, There are people with old enough, or weak enough computers that they can only access text only content. For them, such explanations of what an image describes is useful too.
>      In summmary, assistive technology should only include technology that supplements what the non-disabled user needs to access software, or even their computers at all.
> Another example-for those with with extreme mobility-impairments, breath-enabled controls for computers are available.
> (Opinion-If I am reaching a point that even one person is "beginning to feel uncomfortable at these details," I say, good!!!)
> 
------
Interrogatories|987219880
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law, a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of evidence and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case.
------
Depose|987220248
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law, to take sworn testimony outside of court.
> 
> see also ''deposition''.
------
Depose|987220280
3c3
< see also ''deposition''.
---
> see also [[deposition]].
------
HomePage|987221006
27c27
< Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  Read [[Wikipedia Announcements]] to stay on top of the latest developments.
---
> Other questions?  Just ask on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia-L]] (Wikipedia's mailing list!).  To stay on top of our latest developments read [[Wikipedia Announcements]]. 
35,37c35,37
< *[http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch] (German)
< *[http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
< *[http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo] (Japanese)
---
> *(German)  [http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch] 
> *(Catalan) [http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
> *(Japanese)[http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo] 
------
HomePage/Talk|987221578
9c9,10
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]----
> With all due respect, I don't think you have the slightest idea what a blind user experiences using this site. Ever use a voice-enabled browser with your eyes closed or at least not looking at the screen???? I can refer you to a free one-nah-forget that....  RoseParks
------
HomePage/Talk|987222269
10a11,12
> 
> Speaking of which, someone should probably go through some of the more potentially confusing pages and make sure they ''are'' potentially navigable.  How do things like [[Biology]] or [[Countries of the World]] stack up?
------
Deposition|987222498
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law, a deposition is the act or fact of taking sworn testimony of a witness outside of court, in certain well-defined circumstances.  It is a part of the [[discovery]] process whereby [[litigant]]s obtain information from each other in preparation trial.
> 
> In American judicial proceedings, certain conventions are almost always observed in the taking of a deposition.  The person to be [[depose]]d , known as the [[deponent]], is usually notified to appear at the appropriate time and place by means of a [[subpoena]].  A [[court reporter]], also known as a [[stenographic reporter]] (sometimes denoted "CSR" for Certified Stenographic Reporter) is present and begins the proceedings by administering the same oath that the deponent would take if the testimony were being given in court.  Thereafter, the court reporter makes a verbatim stenographic record of all that is said during the deposition, in the same manner that witness testimony is recorded in court.  Many CSR's nowadays also make a contemporaneous audio recording.
> 
> Attorneys for at least two, and often all of the litigants involved in the action are present to represent the interests of their respective clients.  The attorney who has ordered the deposition begins questioning of the deponent (this questioning is referred to as "[[direct examination]]" or "direct" for short).  Since nods and gestures cannot be recorded, the witness is instructed to answer all questions aloud.  After the direct examination, other attorneys present [[cross-examine]] the witness.  The first attorney may ask more questions at the end, in [[re-direct]], which may be followed by [[re-cross]].
> 
> During the course of the deposition, one attorney or another may [[object]] to questions asked.  The purpose of this is to preserve the objection for trial.  Usually, the deponent will still be instructed to answer the question, but between the time of the deposition and the time of trial, a judge may be asked to rule on objections made during the deposition.  Any objection which is upheld will result in the exclusion of evidence given in response to it from being presented at trial.
> 
> The chief value of a deposition, as with any discovery proceeding, is to give all litigant parties in a contested case a fair preview of the evidence so that a "level playing field" is achieved and surprise (traditionally regarded as an unfair tactic) is avoided at time of trial.  Another benefit of deposition is to preserve a witness' recollection while it is still fresh, though the trial may still be some time off.  In the event a witness dies or is otherwise unavailable for trial, his deposition testimony may be read into the record.
> 
> Some depositions are videotaped, in anticipation of the unavailability of a witness at trial, so that if necessary the videotape may be played for judge and jury.
> 
> Sometimes, after a number of witnesses have been deposed, the parties will have enough information that they can reasonably predict the outcome of a prospective trial, and may decide to arrive at a [[compromise settlement]], thus avoiding trial and preventing additional costs of litigation.
------
Deponent|987222572
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person who is [[depose]]d - that is, called to a [[deposition]] to give testimony.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987222781
13c13,14
< Q on disabilities: How do you place into the existing different categories self induced ones such as alcoholism (recognized by ADA)?
---
> Q on disabilities: How do you place into the existing different categories self induced ones such as alcoholism (recognized by ADA)?----
> Under [[Substance Abuse]]...:-). I believe this is only recognized as a disability "protected fully by the ADA," if the substance abuser is in treatment. The ADA defines "a disabiltiy as anything that interferes with one or more functions of every day living." Therefore, perceived disabilities, are counted too, like skin that is marked with many visisble large "strawberry" birthmarks. Can check on alcoholism...
------
Interrogatories|987223061
1c1,4
< In law, a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of evidence and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case.
---
> In law, a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of evidence and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case.
> 
> The vast majority of such questions are to find background information about the litigants that is not specific to each case, so it is common to use pre-printed forms containing standard questions that are generally relevant to the type of case at hand, called '''form interrogatories'''.  These may even be determined by statute or court rules.
> 
------
Brazil|987223383
3a4
> Other major cities from north to south that I have visited are Belem, Fortaleza, Manaus, Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Curitiba.   Iguacu Falls is in the words of Eleanor Roosevelt " makes Niagara Falls look like a leaky faucet".  It is worth the trip. From Iguacu you can visit Peru and Argentina easily.  Brasil is a country of the future and always will be. Almost the size of the U.S. it is rich in natural resources but the gap between the haves and have nots is tremendous.  Brasil has a small (10%) middle class. Contrary to what I have heard over and over again about Rio and danger is that nothing is further from the truth.  I have lived there about one year and felt safe everywhere I went. 
------
Deposition|987223535
1c1
< In law, a deposition is the act or fact of taking sworn testimony of a witness outside of court, in certain well-defined circumstances.  It is a part of the [[discovery]] process whereby [[litigant]]s obtain information from each other in preparation trial.
---
> In law, a deposition is the act or fact of taking sworn testimony of a witness outside of court, in certain well-defined circumstances.  It is a part of the [[discovery]] process whereby [[litigant]]s obtain information from each other in preparation for trial.
13c13
< Sometimes, after a number of witnesses have been deposed, the parties will have enough information that they can reasonably predict the outcome of a prospective trial, and may decide to arrive at a [[compromise settlement]], thus avoiding trial and preventing additional costs of litigation.
---
> Sometimes, after a number of witnesses have been deposed, the parties will have enough information that they can reasonably predict the outcome of a prospective trial, and may decide to arrive at a [[compromise settlement]], thus avoiding trial and preventing additional costs of litigation.
------
Deposition|987223738
13a14,15
> ----
> What about deposition, the procedure by which a figure of authority becomes a figure without?
------
Poker/Game_play|987223796
7c7
< At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a [[/Showdown]] in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards, and evaluate their hands (see [[Poker/Hands]]).  The player with the best hand according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.  Some deals may not reach the showdown phase if all palyers drop out but one, as explained below.
---
> At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a [[/Showdown]] in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their [[/Hands]].  The player with the best hand according to the [[poker variant]] being played wins the pot.  Some deals may not reach the showdown phase if all palyers drop out but one, as explained below.
9c9
< At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a '''button''' (any small item used as a marker, also called a "buck").  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.
---
> Someone must be selected to deal cards.  In a home game the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, often marked by a '''button''' (any small item used as a marker, also called a "buck").  In a [[casino]] with a "house" dealer, a buck is still often rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in some games.  At the beginning of each deal, the deck of cards is assembled and [[playing card/shuffle|shuffle]]d by the dealer, who offers the deck to the player on his right for a [[playing card/cut|cut]].  That player cuts the deck toward the dealer, who then reassembles it and prepares to deal.
21c21
< Except in the case of a '''live''' [[/Blind]], a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is '''closed''' and no further betting may take place in this round.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have bet an equal total amount.
---
> Except in the case of a '''live''' [[/Blind]], a player may not raise the current bet amount if he is the one who first set it.  If it is that player's turn to act who first set the current amount, the betting round is '''closed''' and no further betting may take place in this round.  This occurs when all other players have either called the amount or folded.  All remaining players will have bet an equal total amount (except for some rare cases covered by [[/Table stakes rules]]).
------
Deposition|987224095
14,15c14,15
< ----
< What about deposition, the procedure by which a figure of authority becomes a figure without?
---
> 
> /Talk
------
Poker/Call|987224111
4a5,8
> The second and subsequent calls of a particular bet amount are sometimes called '''overcalls'''.  That is, if one player bets, a second player calls, and a third player calls that same amount, this last call (and subsequent ones) are overcalls.
> 
> In a [[/Fixed limit]] or [[/Spread limit]] game, the act of calling a bet that includes two or more raises is called a '''cold call'''.  For example, if the first player opens, and a second player raises, any player with no money already in the pot must call that full amount, and is said to cold call the two bets.
> 
------
Poker/Raise|987224301
1c1,3
< To make the amount of one's bet greater than the amount of the immediately preceding bet, forcing all subsequent players to [[/Call]] the new amount.
---
> To make the amount of one's bet greater than the amount of the immediately preceding bet, forcing all subsequent players to [[/Call]] the new amount.  If the current bet amount is nothing, this action is called simply a "bet" or [[/Open]].
> 
> A player making the second (not counting the open) or subsequent raise of a betting round is often said to '''reraise'''.
------
Zero-sum|987224596
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zero-sum describes a situation in which a participant can only gain at the expense of another participant.  The concept was first developed in [[game theory]], so that zero-sum situations are often called [[Zero-sum game|zero-sum games]] regardless of whether the situation is a game.
> 
> Zero-sum situations exist only where there is a fixed supply of a resource.  Otherwise a situation is said to be [[Non-zero-sum|non-zero-sum]].  To treat a non-zero-sum situation as a zero-sum situtaion, or to beleive that all situations are zero-sum situations, is called the [[Zero-sum fallacy|zero-sum fallacy]].
> 
> Games provide a very good illustration of the zero-sum principle.  In many common games, one player or team can win only by making the other player or team lose.  In league sports, for instance, at any given moment in the season the number of wins must equal the number of losses - the league average must be .500 - because every win implies the loss on an opponent.  In a tennis tournament there is only one championship position.  A player can win the championship only by denying it to all other competitors.
> 
> Zero-sum situations are not limited to games.  The mating behavior of many animals is a zero-sum situation, because in any given breeding season the number of receptive members of the other sex is limited.  This is especially true of polygamous species, where one individual can successfully mate with numerous members of the other sex, thereby depriving numerous members of its own sex the opportunity to reproduce.
> 
> The economics of a purely hunter/gatherer society have zero-sum properties because the supply of goods such as food is fixed by what nature has to offer.  If one person suceeds in obtaining food, there is less food to go around for everyone else, so that one person's benefit implies a cost to others.
> 
> Certain financial markets display zero-sum characteristics.  In a [[futures market]], all trades at the end of the day must balance out, such that every dollar that is gained by one participant must have been lost by another.  This is not necessarily the full picture, however, as some participants may be [[hedgers]] whose loss in the futures market is essentially a cost paid to reduce risk elsewhere, which is a partially offsetting benefit.
------
Zero-sum|987224693
7c7
< Zero-sum situations are not limited to games.  The mating behavior of many animals is a zero-sum situation, because in any given breeding season the number of receptive members of the other sex is limited.  This is especially true of polygamous species, where one individual can successfully mate with numerous members of the other sex, thereby depriving numerous members of its own sex the opportunity to reproduce.
---
> Zero-sum situations are not limited to games.  The mating behavior of many animals is a zero-sum situation, because in any given breeding season the number of receptive members of the other sex is fixed.  This is especially true of polygamous species, where one individual can successfully mate with numerous members of the other sex, thereby depriving numerous members of its own sex the opportunity to reproduce.
------
Poker/Ace-to-five_low|987224778
12c12
< [[/High-low split]] games with ave-to-five low are usually played [[/Cards speak]], that is, without a [[/Declaration]].  Frequently a qualifer is required for low (typically 8-high or 9-high).  Some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is called a "steel wheel", '''5-4-3-2-A''' of one suit, which plays both as perfect low and a [[/Straight flush]] high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a mixed-suit wheel, and a third has a suited '''10-9-8-7-6''' for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.  Strange things can happen at poker tables.
---
> [[/High-low split]] games with ace-to-five low are usually played [[/Cards speak]], that is, without a [[/Declaration]].  Frequently a qualifer is required for low (typically 8-high or 9-high).  Some hands (particularly small straights and flushes) may be both the low hand and the high hand, and are particularly powerful (or particularly dangerous if they are mediocre both ways).  Winning both halves of the pot in a split-pot game is called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot.  The perfect hand in such a game is called a "steel wheel", '''5-4-3-2-A''' of one suit, which plays both as perfect low and a [[/Straight flush]] high.  Note that it is possible--though astronomically unlikely--to have this hand and still lose money!  If the pot has three players, and one other player has a mixed-suit wheel, and a third has a suited '''10-9-8-7-6''' for a higher straight flush, the higher straight flush wins the high half of the pot, and you and the other wheel split the low half, so you have won only a quarter of a three-way pot.  Strange things can happen at poker tables.
14c14
< Ace-to-five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand (in other words, it is a [[/Wild card]]): '''7-5-4-Joker-A''', for example, the joker plays as a '''2'''.  This can cause some interesting effects for high-low split games.  Let's say that Alice has '''6-5-4-3-2''' (called a "stright six")--a reasonably good hand for both high and low.  Burt has '''Joker-6-5-4-3'''.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a '''7''' for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his low hand is '''6-5-4-3-A''', lower than her straight six by one notch.  Jokers are very powerful in high-low split games.
---
> Ace-to-five lowball is often played with a joker added to the deck.  The joker always plays as the lowest card not already present in the hand (in other words, it is a [[/Wild card]]): '''7-5-4-Joker-A''', for example, the joker plays as a '''2'''.  This can cause some interesting effects for high-low split games.  Let's say that Alice has '''6-5-4-3-2''' (called a "straight six")--a reasonably good hand for both high and low.  Burt has '''Joker-6-5-4-3'''.  By applying the rule for wild cards in straights, Burt's joker plays as a '''7''' for high, giving him a seven-high straight to defeat Alice's six-high straight.  For low, the joker plays as an ace--the lowest card not in Burt's hand--and his hand also defeats Alice for low, because his low hand is '''6-5-4-3-A''', lower than her straight six by one notch.  Jokers are very powerful in high-low split games.
------
HomePage/Talk|987224829
12c12,20
< Speaking of which, someone should probably go through some of the more potentially confusing pages and make sure they ''are'' potentially navigable.  How do things like [[Biology]] or [[Countries of the World]] stack up?
---
> Speaking of which, someone should probably go through some of the more potentially confusing pages and make sure they ''are'' potentially navigable.  How do things like [[Biology]] or [[Countries of the World]] stack up?----
> Frankly, it is a little late to start with another browswer-but, yes I have one. I have no idea what it will make of the empty links, i.e. "?" and the astericks and pound signs for formatting.  On Biology, I do know that a main navigation should be on the top, or, second choice, on the bottom, clearly delineated. This might ruin your design. Then again ,maybe it should be redesigned. The best examples of accessible navigation are the WW3 consortium's Accessibility Guidelines pages, themselves. Also there is a program at www.cast.org  called Bobby, where you put your URL in, and they check it for accessibility. Unfortunately, there are many results in the error report that tell you to check your code yourself...:-).Wiki formatting is not what a voice-enabled browser is written to expect.
> 
> 
> There are actually 2 separate issues:
> 1). Can a say, blind, user use this Wiki?
> 2). Can a say, blind, writer, contribute to this Wiki?  When you think how we all learn new tricks by seeing some new type of code or format on a page, and hit "edit this page" to see the original entry and mentally compare it with the result..I think you can answer the question of how useful this is to a visually impaired person, yourself. How do they mentally bookmark that new code, so they can return to it.
> I will try to do cheack those pages with another browesr tomorrow.
> RoseParks
------
Zero-sum|987224873
11c11
< Certain financial markets display zero-sum characteristics.  In a [[futures market]], all trades at the end of the day must balance out, such that every dollar that is gained by one participant must have been lost by another.  This is not necessarily the full picture, however, as some participants may be [[hedgers]] whose loss in the futures market is essentially a cost paid to reduce risk elsewhere, which is a partially offsetting benefit.
---
> Certain financial markets display zero-sum characteristics.  In a [[futures market]], all trades at the end of the day must balance out, such that every dollar that is gained by one participant must have been lost by another.  This is not necessarily the full picture, however, as some participants may be [[hedgers]] whose loss in the futures market is essentially a cost paid to reduce risk elsewhere, which is a partially offsetting benefit.  Additionally, considerations of [[marginal utility]] show that a dollar need not be of equal value to all participants.
------
Deposition/Talk|987225313
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What about deposition, the procedure by which a figure of authority becomes a figure without?
> ----
> Yes, there's that.  There's also deposition meaning the process of leaving a mineral deposit.
> 
> Anyone is free to label my article "#1 - Law" and then do "#2 - politics" and so forth...
------
Miranda_warning|987225319
7c7,10
< This principle of law, though under different names, has been adopted in jurisdictions throughout the English speaking world.
---
> This principle of law, though under different names, has been adopted in jurisdictions throughout the English speaking world.
> 
> As a result, we have a new verb in the American vocabulary, "to mirandize" meaning to read
> to a suspect, held in custody, his Miranda rights.
------
Deposition/Talk|987225551
5a6,7
> 
> Of course we could also do a whole raft of sub-pages to [[Law]] but then, what a mess!
------
Language_translation|987226246
3c3
< <b>Human translation</b>
---
> * <b>Human translation</b>
5c5,6
< <b>Machine translation</b>
---
> *<b>Machine translation</b>----
> Your definition of Language Translation seems very limited. What do you think the activity of all those people at the UN General Assembly providing, say Russian to English conversion of <b>spoken</b> language, in close to real-time should be called? I'd say Language Translation.
------
Non-zero-sum|987226720
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Non-zero-sum describes situations in which one person's benefit does not necessarily come at the expense of someone else.  In many non-zero-sum situations, a person can benefit only when others benefit as well.
> 
> The concept was first developed in game theory, so that non-zero-sum situations are often called [non-zero-sum games]? regardless of whether the situation is a game.
> 
> Non-zero-sum situations exist where the supply of a resource is not fixed, or it is not limited at all.  Otherwise, the situation may be [[zero-sum]].
> 
> An example of a non-zero-sum situation is the enjoyment of a musical work.  You can not enjoy a song only if someone else doesn't enjoy it.  If you are enjoying a song, and someone else stops to enjoy it as well, that person's enjoyment does not necessarily detract from your own.  Likewise, you do not find a joke funny only if someone else finds it unfunny.
> 
> Knowledge is often a non-zero-sum commodity.  Someone who invents a better way to raise water from a well does not suffer if people from another village learn his new technique and adopt it for themselves.
> 
> Non-zero-sum situations are an important part of economic activity due to [[production]], [[marginal utility]] and [[value-subjectivity]].
> 
> If a farmer succeeds in raising a bumper crop, he will benefit by being able to sell more food and make more money.  The consumers he serves benefit as well, because there is more food to go around, so the price per unit of food will be lower.  Other farmers who have not had such a good crop might suffer somewhat due to these lower prices, but this cost to other farmers may very well be less than the benefits enjoyed by everyone else, such that overall the bumper crop has created a net benefit.  The same argument apply to other types of productive activity.
> 
> Trade is a non-zero-sum activity because all parties to a voluntary transaction believe that they will be better off after the trade then before, otherwise they would not participate.  It is possible that they are mistaken in this belief, but experience suggests that people are more often than not able to judge correctly when a transaction would leave them better off, and thus persist in trading throughout their lives.  It is not always the case that every participant will benefit equally.  However, a trade is still a non-zero-sum situation whenever the result is a net gain, regardless of how evenly or unevenly that gain is distributed.
> 
> It has been theorized that society becomes increasingly non-zero-sum as it becomes more complex, specialized, and interdependent.  As one supporter of this view states:
> 
> <i>The more complex societies get and the more complex the networks of interdependence within and beyond community and national borders get, the more people are forced in their own interests to find non-zero-sum solutions. That is, win-win solutions instead of win-lose solutions.... Because we find as our interdependence increases that, on the whole, we do better when other people do better as well - so we have to find ways that we can all win, we have to accommodate each other - </i>  [[Bill Clinton]], [[Wired]] interview, December [[2000]].
------
Law|987227448
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[order to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy sysyem]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] etc.
------
Law|987227521
3c3
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy sysyem]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] etc.
------
Non-zero-sum|987227523
3c3
< The concept was first developed in game theory, so that non-zero-sum situations are often called [non-zero-sum games]? regardless of whether the situation is a game.
---
> The concept was first developed in game theory, so that non-zero-sum situations are often called [[non-zero-sum games]] regardless of whether the situation is a game.
------
Deposition/Talk|987231673
7a8,14
> 
> ----
> Option 1: rename the pages "Legal deposition", "legal default", etc.  Makes accidental and ad-hoc linking more difficult, but the page titles are better, and the links that do get made are more direct.
>  
> Option 2: Many of those one-word terms like "deposition" and "moot" could be done as subpages of Law, and the top-level page pointed to them.  This also gives you the benefit of being able to cross-link those terms in other law pages easily; see how the [[poker]] pages are done, for example.
> 
> Option 3: Wait to see if Cliff gives us the parentheses as he said he would soon; then you'll be able to name the pages "Deposition (Law)", etc.  Same issues as #1.
------
Law|987231941
12a13,15
> ----
> My legal schooling probably isn't quite up to the task, but someone better versed might consider reorganizing this to actually reflect some hierarchy of legal disciplines rather than the simple list of jargon here.  My copy of [[Blacks Law Dictionary]] has over 1600 pages of terms, so this page might get a little unwieldy in its present form. ---[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Agnostida|987243446
3,9c3
< Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until the late Ordovician.  The Agnostida are divided into two suborders that are then divided into three suborders.  One suborder is the Pagetides which appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  The second, the Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  Members of the suborder Agnostina are generally referred to simply as 'Agnostids' even though they probably should be called 'Agnostines'. They have pygidia that look much like their cephalons and neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.  
< 
< ''suborder/family ... close.  I should get half credit.  Does the revised copy look OK?''
< 
< ''Doing a quick search found the Agnostids divided into two suborders - the Agnostina and the Eodiscina - both divided into many families, with ''Pagetides'' itself placed in the Eodiscidae.  That seems to be fairly recent, from 1977.  I can copy and paste it in if you want.''
< 
< ''In the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, the Eodiscina in turn are divided into two families -- Eodiscids and Pagetids.  I think that still reflects general usage.  BTW, I think we might have the endings ids, ins, es etc within the Order a bit scrambled.  I'll look at that Wednesday''
---
> Agnostida first appeared toward the end of the Lower Cambrian, and thrived in the Middle Cambrian.  The last agnostids held out until the late Ordovician.  The Agnostida are divided into two suborders that are then divided into a number of families.  One suborder is the Eodiscidae which has two families.  Pagetides appear to be normal trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax.  Eodiscids, look quite a bit like the Pagetids except that the cephalons lack eyes, free cheeks, and look somewhat untrilobite like.  Members of the suborder Agnostina are generally referred to simply as 'Agnostids' even though they probably should be called 'Agnostines'. They have pygidia that look much like their cephalons and neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites.  There has been more than one argument about which end is the 'head'.  
------
Zimbabwe/Communications|987243874
7c7
< outstanding requests for connection despite an equally large number of installed but unused main lines 
---
> outstanding requests for connection despite an equally large number of installed but unused main lines - in some areas reported intimidation of service engineers so they do not maintain white farmer's lines.
------
Mississippian|987244276
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A geologic (sub)Period lasting from roughly 345 million years before the present to 325 million years before the present.  In North America where the interval is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the [[Pennsylvanian]].  In Europe, the Mississippian and [[Pennsylvanian]] are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
------
Mississippian|987244712
1c1,3
< A geologic (sub)Period lasting from roughly 345 million years before the present to 325 million years before the present.  In North America where the interval is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the [[Pennsylvanian]].  In Europe, the Mississippian and [[Pennsylvanian]] are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
---
> A geologic (sub)Period lasting from roughly 340 million years before the present to 320 million years before the present.  In North America where the interval is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the [[Pennsylvanian]].  In Europe, the Mississippian and [[Pennsylvanian]] are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
> 
> ''There are discrepancies throughout between the articles on geologic periods and the timescale chart.  That's because no two sources agree on the exact dates for geologic periods.  I'll go through sometime in the next month or so and make them consistent [which is not the same as correct].''
------
Video_game/Developer|987250312
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The creators and visionary's behind each and every video game.
> 
> Alongside the three key consumer markets in [[Asia]], the [[United States]] and [[Europe]] are thousands of games developers, from the well established and respected likes of [[Nintendo]] and [[Bullfrog]] are many newer startups and break aways such as [[Lionhead]].
> ----
> -A-
> 
> [[Acclaim]]
> ----
> -B-
> 
> [[Bullfrog]]
> ----
> -C-
> 
> [[Capcom]]
> ----
> -D-
> 
> [[DMA Design]]
> ----
> -I-
> 
> [[ID Software]]
> ----
> -K-
> 
> [[Konami]]
> ----
> -L-
> 
> [[Lionhead]] - [[LucasArts]]
> ----
> -N-
> 
> [[Namco]] - [[Nintendo]]
> ----
> -O-
> 
> [[Origin]]
> ----
> -P-
> 
> [[Psygnosis]]
> ----
> -R-
> 
> [[Rareware]]
> ----
> -S-
> 
> [[SCEA]] - [[SCEE]] - [[SEGA]] - [[SNK]]
> ----
> -T-
> 
> [[Taito]]
> ----
> -W-
> 
> [[Westwood Studios]]
------
Semitic_languages|987250721
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic languages are:
> 
> Hebrew
> Arabic
> Maltese
> 
------
Semitic_languages|987251787
1c1
< Semitic languages are:
---
> Semitic languages include:
3,5c3,5
< Hebrew
< Arabic
< Maltese
---
> * [[Hebrew]]
> * [[Arabic]]
> * [[Maltese]]
------
Semitic_languages|987252805
1c1
< Semitic languages include:
---
> [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] include:
------
Semitic_languages|987252902
1c1
< [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] include:
---
> Semitic languages include:
------
HomePage/Talk|987254741
20c20,23
< RoseParks
---
> RoseParks----
> I have checked the Biology page using the WeMedia voice enabled browser. It is hard to descriibe this. The links like [[biology huh]] which have a question mark at the end,
> read as links "?" only, which in fact results in no voice. Also, as I suspected the navigation on the right is  accessible last. I thought this placment would be a problem. This browser is free from www.wemedia.com if you sign up as a member- no fee. Then you can download it. I believe it is only available for IE. 
>  RoseParks----
------
BioChemistry|987255324
1c1
< Biochemistry considers the chemical properties of biological systems.  Formally, biochemistry includes a description of the macromolecules, including [[proteins]], [[lipids]], [[polysaccharides]], and [[nucleic acids]], and small molecules present in cells.  The bulk of biochemical investigation focuses on the properties of [[proteins]], many of which are [[enzymes]].  
---
> Biochemistry considers the chemical properties of biological systems.  Formally, biochemistry includes a description of the macromolecules, including [[proteins]], [[lipids]], [[polysaccharides]], and [[nucleic acids]], and small molecules present in cells.  The bulk of biochemical investigation focuses on the properties of [[proteins]], many of which are [[enzyme]]s.  
------
HomePage/Talk|987255661
19c19
< I will try to do cheack those pages with another browesr tomorrow.
---
> I will try to do check those pages with another browesr tomorrow.
22c22
< read as links "?" only, which in fact results in no voice. Also, as I suspected the navigation on the right is  accessible last. I thought this placment would be a problem. This browser is free from www.wemedia.com if you sign up as a member- no fee. Then you can download it. I believe it is only available for IE. 
---
> read as links "?" only, which in fact results in no voice. Also, as I suspected the navigation on the right is  accessible last. I thought this placement would be a problem. This browser is free from www.wemedia.com if you sign up as a member- no fee. Then you can download it. I believe it is only available for IE. 
23a24,29
> The Countries of the World Page again, speaks numberous "?" links which result in no voice. Just link number, say, 15 reads "no voice." Further the formatting, i.e. the cities as part of the countries is entirely lost as well as the countries as part of the Continents. This is also what I suspected. You would have to put code in here to explain like:
> 
> 
> [[North America]] the countries included in the North American Continent are:
> * [[Canada]]
> * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
------
Law|987256365
3c3,4
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] etc.
---
> [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] --
> [[strike from the record]] -- [[deposition]] --  [[direct examination]] -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[rebuttal]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] --  [[immunity]] etc.
------
Deposition/Talk|987256866
14c14,16
< Option 3: Wait to see if Cliff gives us the parentheses as he said he would soon; then you'll be able to name the pages "Deposition (Law)", etc.  Same issues as #1.
---
> Option 3: Wait to see if Cliff gives us the parentheses as he said he would soon; then you'll be able to name the pages "Deposition (Law)", etc.  Same issues as #1.----
> There is a [[Law]] page. From here you could either organize it and then make links
> *//Like this   to other pages, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]]. I think you should check what are suggested topics on this page. They are not too difficult and I think you could probably fill almost all of them in, based on the pages you wrote already. The way this is organized now, one has to search for deposition to find it. With my suggestion, one could search either law or deposition and find this page. RoseParks
------
Deposition/Talk|987256946
16c16
< *//Like this   to other pages, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]]. I think you should check what are suggested topics on this page. They are not too difficult and I think you could probably fill almost all of them in, based on the pages you wrote already. The way this is organized now, one has to search for deposition to find it. With my suggestion, one could search either law or deposition and find this page. RoseParks
---
> *//[[Like this]]   to other pages, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]]. I think you should check what are suggested topics on this page. They are not too difficult and I think you could probably fill almost all of them in, based on the pages you wrote already. The way this is organized now, one has to search for deposition to find it. With my suggestion, one could search either law or deposition and find this page. RoseParks
------
Deposition/Talk|987257062
16c16,19
< *//[[Like this]]   to other pages, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]]. I think you should check what are suggested topics on this page. They are not too difficult and I think you could probably fill almost all of them in, based on the pages you wrote already. The way this is organized now, one has to search for deposition to find it. With my suggestion, one could search either law or deposition and find this page. RoseParks
---
> *//[[Deposition]]   to other pages, like yours, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]].
> 
> 
> I think you should check what are suggested topics on this page. They are not too difficult and I think you could probably fill almost all of them in, based on the pages you wrote already. The way this is organized now, one has to search for deposition to find it. With my suggestion, one could search either law or deposition and find this page. RoseParks
------
Deposition/Talk|987257172
16c16,17
< *//[[Deposition]]   to other pages, like yours, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]].
---
> *//[[Deposition]]   to other pages, like yours, which will show up as subpages of [[Law]],
> like this one, i.e. <code>Law/Deposition</code>.
------
Disabilities|987259626
12c12,95
< /Talk
---
> Alternate Scheme:
> : [[Physical Disability]]
> 
> 
> :: [[Mobility Impairment]]
> 
> 
> ::: [[Paralysis]]
> ::: [[Amputation]]
> ::: [[Multiple Sclerosis]]
> ::: [[Parkinsons Disease]]
> ::: [[Cerebral Palsy]]
> ::: [[Muscular Dystropy]]
> ::: [[Arthritis]]
> :::: [[Rheumatoid Arthitis]]
> :::: [[OsteoArthritis]]
> :::...
> 
> :: [[Visual Impairment]]
> ::: [[Blindness]]
> ::: [[Low Vision]]
> ::: [[Color Blindness]]
> ::: [[Cataract]]
> :::...
> 
> 
> :: [[Hearing Impairment]]
> 
> 
> :: [[Chronic Disease]]
> ::: [[Cancer]]
> ::: [[AIDS]]
> ::: [[Renal Failure]]
> ::: [[Cystic Fibrosis]]
> ::: [[Tuberculosis]]
> :::...
> 
> 
> :: [[Spinal Cord Injury]]
> :: [[Traumatic Brain Injury]]
> ::....
> 
> 
> : [[Mental Disabilty]]
> 
> 
> :: [[Phobia]]
> 
> 
> ::: [[Agoraphobia]]
> ::: [[Aleurophobia]]
> :::...
> 
> :: [[Anxiety Disorder]]
> :: [[Depression]]
> :: [[Bipolar Disorder]]
> :: [[Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]]
> :: [[Schizophrenia]]
> ::....
> 
> : [[Developmental Disability]]
> :: [[Dyslexia]]
> :: [[Downs Sydrome]]
> :: [[Attention Deficit Disorder]]
> :: [[Hyperactivity]]
> :: [[Autism]]
> ::....
> 
> : [[Other Disabilities]]
> 
> 
> ::[[Substance Abuse]]
> 
> 
> ::: [[Alcoholism]]
> ::: [[Illegal Drug Abuse]]
> ::: [[Perscription Drug Abuse]]
> :::...
> 
> :: [[Altzheimer's Syndrome]]
> :: [[Stroke]]
> :: [[Senility]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Disabilities|987259682
91c91
< :: [[Altzheimer's Syndrome]]
---
> :: [[Altzheimers Syndrome]]
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|987260272
39c39,40
< <tr><td>psukhos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>
---
> <tr><td>psukhos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>----
> The table is nice but eta had bben &eacute; and omega is usually &oacute;. based on Persues. Who changed this?
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|987260422
40c40
< The table is nice but eta had bben &eacute; and omega is usually &oacute;. based on Persues. Who changed this?
---
> The table is nice but eta, &eta;. had been &eacute; and omega, &omega; was &oacute;. based on Perseus. Who changed this?
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|987260484
40c40
< The table is nice but eta, &eta;. had been &eacute; and omega, &omega; was &oacute;. based on Perseus. Who changed this?
---
> The table is nice but eta, &eta;, had been &eacute; and omega, &omega;, was &oacute;. based on Perseus. Who changed this?
------
HomePage|987261520
12c12
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Environmental Science]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
HomePage|987261681
12c12
< :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Environmental Science]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
---
> :[[Technology]] -- [[Architecture]] -- [[Engineering]] -- [[Computing]] -- [[Transport]] -- [[Business and Industry]] -- [[Law]] -- [[Agriculture]] -- [[Education]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Library and Information Science]] -- [[Health Sciences]] -- [[Family and Consumer Science]] -- [[Public Affairs]]
------
Semitic_languages|987263987
6a7,8
> ''Why does this link not show up?''
> 
------
Semitic_languages|987264044
7,8c7
< ''Why does this link not show up?''
< 
---
> ''Why does this not show up as a link on [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]?
------
Isaac_Asimov/First_Galactic_Empire|987269256
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Where& when did Isaac Asimov was born? 
------
HomePage/Talk|987272382
1,29c1
< This was cut from the HomePage:
< 
< You may want to consider that this format below (with numbers is the only solution I have been able to find to make this wiki text field intelligible while navigating it. Otherwise, it is not sufficiently chunked so as to help a blind user navigate through the portions of subjects. If you do not want the numbers there, and you only want the double spaces between the chunked subjects, I suggest that you design the text field to work like that of a mainstream word processor. Such mainstream word processors somehow allow blind software to recognize a double space, allowing the blind user to use the paragraph keystroke (control + down arrow), to easily skip through the chunked links. This suggestion is in accordance with WW3 guidelines and those of the National Federation of the Blind. Thanks, keep it up.
< ----
< Thanks for finally clearing up why you kept changing the HomePage.  It's good to know you actually had a good reason for doing so!  I've created this /Talk page for discussion of issues about the HomePage.
< 
< I have given headings to each section.  I don't think the numbers make any sense from a semantic point of view.  I.e., they might make things ''a little'' more accessible for a blind person, but they actually make the page slightly more puzzling to the vast majority of the people who view the page.  (What, they will ask, are the numbers ''for''?)
< 
< --[[Larry Sanger]]----
< With all due respect, I don't think you have the slightest idea what a blind user experiences using this site. Ever use a voice-enabled browser with your eyes closed or at least not looking at the screen???? I can refer you to a free one-nah-forget that....  RoseParks
< 
< Speaking of which, someone should probably go through some of the more potentially confusing pages and make sure they ''are'' potentially navigable.  How do things like [[Biology]] or [[Countries of the World]] stack up?----
< Frankly, it is a little late to start with another browswer-but, yes I have one. I have no idea what it will make of the empty links, i.e. "?" and the astericks and pound signs for formatting.  On Biology, I do know that a main navigation should be on the top, or, second choice, on the bottom, clearly delineated. This might ruin your design. Then again ,maybe it should be redesigned. The best examples of accessible navigation are the WW3 consortium's Accessibility Guidelines pages, themselves. Also there is a program at www.cast.org  called Bobby, where you put your URL in, and they check it for accessibility. Unfortunately, there are many results in the error report that tell you to check your code yourself...:-).Wiki formatting is not what a voice-enabled browser is written to expect.
< 
< 
< There are actually 2 separate issues:
< 1). Can a say, blind, user use this Wiki?
< 2). Can a say, blind, writer, contribute to this Wiki?  When you think how we all learn new tricks by seeing some new type of code or format on a page, and hit "edit this page" to see the original entry and mentally compare it with the result..I think you can answer the question of how useful this is to a visually impaired person, yourself. How do they mentally bookmark that new code, so they can return to it.
< I will try to do check those pages with another browesr tomorrow.
< RoseParks----
< I have checked the Biology page using the WeMedia voice enabled browser. It is hard to descriibe this. The links like [[biology huh]] which have a question mark at the end,
< read as links "?" only, which in fact results in no voice. Also, as I suspected the navigation on the right is  accessible last. I thought this placement would be a problem. This browser is free from www.wemedia.com if you sign up as a member- no fee. Then you can download it. I believe it is only available for IE. 
<  RoseParks----
< The Countries of the World Page again, speaks numberous "?" links which result in no voice. Just link number, say, 15 reads "no voice." Further the formatting, i.e. the cities as part of the countries is entirely lost as well as the countries as part of the Continents. This is also what I suspected. You would have to put code in here to explain like:
< 
< 
< [[North America]] the countries included in the North American Continent are:
< * [[Canada]]
< * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
---
> See [[Making Wikipedia more accessible to the blind]]
------
Making_Wikipedia_more_accessible_to_the_blind|987272618
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This was cut from HomePage/Talk:
> ----
> This was cut from the HomePage:
> 
> You may want to consider that this format below (with numbers is the only solution I have been able to find to make this wiki text field intelligible while navigating it. Otherwise, it is not sufficiently chunked so as to help a blind user navigate through the portions of subjects. If you do not want the numbers there, and you only want the double spaces between the chunked subjects, I suggest that you design the text field to work like that of a mainstream word processor. Such mainstream word processors somehow allow blind software to recognize a double space, allowing the blind user to use the paragraph keystroke (control + down arrow), to easily skip through the chunked links. This suggestion is in accordance with WW3 guidelines and those of the National Federation of the Blind. Thanks, keep it up.
> ----
> Thanks for finally clearing up why you kept changing the HomePage.  It's good to know you actually had a good reason for doing so!  I've created this /Talk page for discussion of issues about the HomePage.
> 
> I have given headings to each section.  I don't think the numbers make any sense from a semantic point of view.  I.e., they might make things ''a little'' more accessible for a blind person, but they actually make the page slightly more puzzling to the vast majority of the people who view the page.  (What, they will ask, are the numbers ''for''?)
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]----
> With all due respect, I don't think you have the slightest idea what a blind user experiences using this site. Ever use a voice-enabled browser with your eyes closed or at least not looking at the screen???? I can refer you to a free one-nah-forget that....  RoseParks
> 
> Speaking of which, someone should probably go through some of the more potentially confusing pages and make sure they ''are'' potentially navigable.  How do things like [[Biology]] or [[Countries of the World]] stack up?----
> Frankly, it is a little late to start with another browswer-but, yes I have one. I have no idea what it will make of the empty links, i.e. "?" and the astericks and pound signs for formatting.  On Biology, I do know that a main navigation should be on the top, or, second choice, on the bottom, clearly delineated. This might ruin your design. Then again ,maybe it should be redesigned. The best examples of accessible navigation are the WW3 consortium's Accessibility Guidelines pages, themselves. Also there is a program at www.cast.org  called Bobby, where you put your URL in, and they check it for accessibility. Unfortunately, there are many results in the error report that tell you to check your code yourself...:-).Wiki formatting is not what a voice-enabled browser is written to expect.
> 
> 
> There are actually 2 separate issues:
> 1). Can a say, blind, user use this Wiki?
> 2). Can a say, blind, writer, contribute to this Wiki?  When you think how we all learn new tricks by seeing some new type of code or format on a page, and hit "edit this page" to see the original entry and mentally compare it with the result..I think you can answer the question of how useful this is to a visually impaired person, yourself. How do they mentally bookmark that new code, so they can return to it.
> I will try to do check those pages with another browesr tomorrow.
> RoseParks----
> I have checked the Biology page using the WeMedia voice enabled browser. It is hard to descriibe this. The links like [[biology huh]] which have a question mark at the end,
> read as links "?" only, which in fact results in no voice. Also, as I suspected the navigation on the right is  accessible last. I thought this placement would be a problem. This browser is free from www.wemedia.com if you sign up as a member- no fee. Then you can download it. I believe it is only available for IE. 
>  RoseParks----
> The Countries of the World Page again, speaks numberous "?" links which result in no voice. Just link number, say, 15 reads "no voice." Further the formatting, i.e. the cities as part of the countries is entirely lost as well as the countries as part of the Continents. This is also what I suspected. You would have to put code in here to explain like:
> 
> 
> [[North America]] the countries included in the North American Continent are:
> * [[Canada]]
> * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
------
Making_Wikipedia_more_accessible_to_the_blind|987272762
13a14,15
> :Excuse me, but I take strong issue with your comment, Ruth.  What knowledge do ''you'' have of what ''I'' know about blindness?  '''None.'''  So get off your moral high horse.  I really, really resent it. --[[LMS]]
> -----
------
Agnostida|987272918
1c1
< An order of [[Trilobita]], the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
---
> [[Trilobita]] that aren't entirely sure whether or not God exists. Just kidding. Seriously, the Agnostids were important as a sideline and as a major component of Ordovician plankton.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987273045
14a15,16
> 
> ''I suppose a recalcitrant spouse could be a disability, then...  (ducking)''
------
Assistive_Technology/Talk|987273155
9c9,10
<      In summmary, assistive technology should only include technology that supplements what the non-disabled user needs to access software, or even their computers at all.
---
> 
> In summmary, assistive technology should only include technology that supplements what the non-disabled user needs to access software, or even their computers at all.
12c13,14
< 
---
> ----
> I don't see why you didn't just edit the [[assistive technology]] article rather than write the above review.  --[[LMS]]
------
Isaac_Asimov/First_Galactic_Empire|987275381
1c1
< Where& when did Isaac Asimov was born? 
---
> 
------
Mississippian|987281979
1c1
< A geologic (sub)Period lasting from roughly 340 million years before the present to 320 million years before the present.  In North America where the interval is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the [[Pennsylvanian]].  In Europe, the Mississippian and [[Pennsylvanian]] are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
---
> A [[Geologic Timescale|geologic (sub)Period]] lasting from roughly 340 million years before the present to 320 million years before the present.  In North America where the interval is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the [[Pennsylvanian]].  In Europe, the Mississippian and [[Pennsylvanian]] are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
------
Carboniferous|987281998
1c1
< The Carboniferous is a Geologic Period that extends from about 280 to 340  million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive coal beds from that age in England and Western Europe. The Carboniferous follows the [[Devonian]] Period and precedes the [[Permian]] Period.  In North America the first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] Period and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]].
---
> The Carboniferous is a [[Geologic Period]] that extends from about 280 to 340  million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive coal beds from that age in England and Western Europe. The Carboniferous follows the [[Devonian]] Period and precedes the [[Permian]] Period.  In North America the first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] Period and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]].
------
Carboniferous|987282010
1c1
< The Carboniferous is a [[Geologic Period]] that extends from about 280 to 340  million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive coal beds from that age in England and Western Europe. The Carboniferous follows the [[Devonian]] Period and precedes the [[Permian]] Period.  In North America the first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] Period and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]].
---
> The Carboniferous is a [[Geologic Timescale|Geologic Period]] that extends from about 280 to 340  million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive coal beds from that age in England and Western Europe. The Carboniferous follows the [[Devonian]] Period and precedes the [[Permian]] Period.  In North America the first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] Period and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]].
------
Devonian|987282026
1c1
< The Devonian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 345 to 400 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Devonian is named for England's Devonshire area where Devonian Outcrops are common.  The Devonian follows the [[Silurian]] Period and precedes the [[Mississippian]] subperiod of the [[Carboniferous]] Period.
---
> The Devonian is a [[Geologic Timescale|Geologic Period]] that extends from about 345 to 400 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Devonian is named for England's Devonshire area where Devonian Outcrops are common.  The Devonian follows the [[Silurian]] Period and precedes the [[Mississippian]] subperiod of the [[Carboniferous]] Period.
7c7
< The southern continents remained tied together into the Supercontinent Gondwana.  In equatorial regions, North America and Europe formed a continent.  The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere.
---
> The southern continents remained tied together into the Supercontinent Gondwana.  In equatorial regions, North America and Europe formed a continent.  The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere.
------
Silurian|987282043
1c1
< The Silurian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 400 to 435 million Years before the present.  As with most other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Silurian period follows the [[Ordovician]] and is followed by the [[Devonian]].  The base of the Silurian is set at a major extinction event where 60% of marine species were wiped out.
---
> The Silurian is a [[Geologic Timescale|Geologic Period]] that extends from about 400 to 435 million Years before the present.  As with most other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years.  The Silurian period follows the [[Ordovician]] and is followed by the [[Devonian]].  The base of the Silurian is set at a major extinction event where 60% of marine species were wiped out.
------
Language_translation|987282273
5c5,6
< *<b>Machine translation</b>----
---
> *<b>Machine translation</b>
> ----
6a8,10
> ----
> Isn't that the difference between translator and interpreter?<br>
> In computer programming, translation is changing source code from the syntax and structure of one programming language to that of another while maintaining the end effect.  Interpretation is executing the source code during translation.
------
Music|987282876
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock music]] -- [[new wave music]]
65c65
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
Atlas_2091|987287250
15a16,20
> ----
> Good to see the work on the ancients section.  :)  I'd guess you're an ancients wargamer?  I'm sure we can get enough for games.  Since we can have depth and breadth both, it'll beat rummaging through dozens of references.
> <br>
> Hmm...  I think you're right.  Somehow chariots (along with cavalry, camelry, and knights) do deserve mention as predecessors of the AFV.  But I think that to just call them AFVs would have the wrong effect.  To me, that would be like saying that slings were the first missile launchers.<br>
> Technically okay by the definition of missile, but makes me picture an ancient Assyrian slinger twirling a horse-seeking anti-chariot guided missile around overhead.  <g>  What's a word without the "piece of mechanized equipment" connotation?  'Non-mechanized AFV'? 'Muscle-powered AFV'?
------
AtlasShrugged/SanSebastianLine|987294345
1,10c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that serves the /SanSebastianMines in Mexico.  The /SanSebastianLine is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.  When it is nationalized in /SectioN142, it is refered to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
< 
< It is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN142
<  /SectioN143
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/San Sebastian Line]]
------
Peregrin_Falcon|987294489
1c1
< See: [[Peregrine Falcon]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Peregrine Falcon]]
------
The_Beatles|987294658
14,16c14,16
< *[[Yellow Submarine]]
< *[[Abbey Road]]
< *[[Let It Be]]
---
> *[[/Yellow Submarine]]
> *[[/Abbey Road]]
> *[[/Let It Be]]
------
Entertainment|987294716
6c6
< :[[music]]
---
> :[[Music]]
------
Sammy_Sosa|987295624
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A professional Major League baseball player.
> 
> After years as a respected power hitter, Sammy Sosa emerged during the 1998 season as one of baseball's greats.  It was in this season that both Sosa and [[Mark McGwire]] broke [[Roger Maris|Roger Maris']] long-standing single season [[home run]] record of 61.  Sosa ended the season with 66, behind McGwire's 70.  The following season Sosa hit 63, again trailing Mark McGwire who hit 65.  Sosa, already a home run legend, finally claimed his first home rune championship by hitting 50 in the 2000 season.
> 
> Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the [[Texas Rangers]].  In his first season he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]] where he remained until being traded to the [[Chicago Cubs]] after the 1991 season.  He has spent most of his career as a right-fielder.  Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.
> 
> [[/Stats|Stats]]
> 
------
Sammy_Sosa|987296358
5c5,9
< Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the [[Texas Rangers]].  In his first season he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]] where he remained until being traded to the [[Chicago Cubs]] after the 1991 season.  He has spent most of his career as a right-fielder.  Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.
---
> Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the [[Texas Rangers]].  After being sent again to the minors, he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]].  After nearly two years with the White Sox, he was again sent down to the minors midseason 1991.  Recalled late in the season, he failed to impress the White Sox management, who dealt him away to the [[Chicago Cubs]] just prior to the 1992 season.  It was there that Sosa spent his glory years.
> 
> Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.
> 
> Sosa was born November 12, 1968 in San Pedro de Macoris, Dominican Republic, where he grew up in an abandoned hospital.  He originally signed with the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] at age 15, but this deal we not allowed by the League because of Sosa's age.  He signed with the Rangers in 1985.
------
Deposition/Talk|987297311
20a21,22
> ----
> As to the suggested topics on Law, I think I wrote all of those which are written, which is about 80% of the requested or suggested topics.  The way the page is now, it has no substance of its own - just links to sub-subjects, (and not by way of sub-pages - which ''I'' am not going to take the time to refactor at this point).  True, Deposition, Depose, Deponent and some others are not on there yet, but it's easier to add those links than anything else right now.  Of course if it were law/deposition at this point, no one could complain about the absence of non-legal definitions.  But - ya know what?  For now I will just try to get all the legal definitions linked on the Law page, concentrate on content.  Someone else will have to worry about the factoring unless/until I get time later.
------
Law|987297523
3,4c3,4
< [[case law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] --
< [[strike from the record]] -- [[deposition]] --  [[direct examination]] -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[rebuttal]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] --  [[immunity]] etc.
---
> [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[deposition]] -[[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[strike from the record]] 
> -- -  [[direct examination]] -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[rebuttal]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] --  [[immunity]] etc.[[vexatious litigation]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987304787
84a85,86
> ----
> There has been no further comment on the issue, but I'd like the record to show that I am not agreeing taking a consensus to have been reached, nor am at all happy with the page as it stands.  The prevalent definitions of terms should be given prevalence, or at the very least equality, and absolutely never shunted off as variants as presented here.  The language of wikipedia is English, and as mentioned above most English sources do not use this definition of the word, so pretending it is the more prominent flavor is very dishonest.  I would change it myself but I strongly suspect any such moves would simply be undone.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]], author of most of the above complaints.
------
Law|987305236
3,4c3
< [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[deposition]] -[[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[criminal law]]-- [[family law]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[justice]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[tort]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[appellate court]]-- [[Court of Appeals]]--[[Supreme court]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- -- [[sanctions]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[answer]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[bar]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[motion]]-- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[contempt of court]] --  [[advocacy system]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] --  [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[strike from the record]] 
< -- -  [[direct examination]] -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[rebuttal]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] --  [[immunity]] etc.[[vexatious litigation]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[bar]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
BioChemistry|987305568
1,2c1
< Biochemistry considers the chemical properties of biological systems.  Formally, biochemistry includes a description of the macromolecules, including [[proteins]], [[lipids]], [[polysaccharides]], and [[nucleic acids]], and small molecules present in cells.  The bulk of biochemical investigation focuses on the properties of [[proteins]], many of which are [[enzyme]]s.  
< For historical reasons, the biochemistry of [[metabolism]] has been one of the most extensively described aspect of the cell.  
---
> Biochemistry considers the chemical properties of biological systems.  Formally, biochemistry includes a description of the macromolecules, including [[proteins]], [[lipids]], [[polysaccharides]], and [[nucleic acids]], and small molecules present in cells.  The bulk of biochemical investigation focuses on the properties of [[proteins]], many of which are [[enzyme|enzymes]].  For historical reasons, the biochemistry of [[metabolism]] has been one of the most extensively described aspect of the cell.  
------
Atlas_2091|987305798
20a21,24
> ----
> Not really a wargamer, though I've played once or twice, but I have seen a lot of them.  It would be need to program one if I ever got the skills, and the mechanics are interesting.  My initial forays into military history have focused mostly on understanding climactic changes that are explained best through the topic, like the rise of Macedon or Rome.
> 
> You know that the usually name for slingers or archers irrespective is ''missile troops''? :) I don't really think chariots are in the same boat as AFVs, although they play roughly the same role in battle, but they do sort of fit the definition.  Maybe we should call the armored tractors the earliest motorized AFVs?
------
Feature_requests|987305799
12a13
> * A 'power search' page.  For example, a search for 'demon' will list all pages that use the word 'demonstrate' (case-insensitive substring match?).  That's okay now, but as the wikipedia grows the lists of false matches will get longer and more searches will be affected by it.  A power search would provide options for boolean expressions, exact-phrase, case-sensitivity, etc.  --[[Atlas_2091]]
69a71
> ----
------
DNA|987307414
7c7
< In bacteria there is a single main strand of DNA, copied over when the cell replicates.  There may also be small pieces of circular DNA called [[plasmids]] floating in the cytoplasm that can be exchanged between cells.  In [[eukaryote]]s there are typically multiple pieces of DNA contained in a central [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], separated out in cell division by a process called [[mitosis]].  There may be a single copy of the genome (whence the organism is [[haploid]]), two copies ([[diploid]]), or many copies ([[polyploid]]).
---
> In bacteria there is a single main strand of DNA, copied over when the cell replicates.  There may also be small pieces of circular DNA called [[plasmids]] floating in the cytoplasm that can be exchanged between cells.  In [[eukaryote]]s there are typically multiple pieces of DNA contained in a central [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], separated out in cell division by a process called [[mitosis]].  There may be a single copy of the genome (whence the organism is [[ploidy|haploid]]), two copies ([[ploidy|diploid]]), or many copies ([[ploidy|polyploid]]).
------
Ploidy|987307982
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ploidy indicates the number of repetitions of the basic number of chromosomes.
> 
> A haploid organism bears one set of chromosomes, a diploid organism bears two sets, and a polyploid organism bears many sets.  
> 
> The ploidy of cells can vary within an organism.  In human, most cells are diploid, though sperm and oocytes are haploid. 
------
DNA|987309176
9c9
< In [[Sexual Reproduction|sexual reproduction]], a diploid cell divides without the DNA being replicated, so as to form two haploid cells, which then divide again.  This process is called [[meiosis]].  Eventually some haploid cells unite together to form a new diploid cell ([[syngamy]]) with half its genome from each diploid ancestor.  When there are different versions of the same gene, their effects may be blended or a single version may be dominant.
---
> In preparation for [[Sexual Reproduction|sexual reproduction]], haploid cells are produced from a diploid precursor in a process called [[meiosis]].  Eventually some haploid cells unite together to form a new diploid cell ([[syngamy]]) with half its genome from each diploid ancestor.  When there are different versions of the same gene, their effects may be blended or a single version may be dominant.
------
Sammy_Sosa|987310806
4a5,6
> Sosa was born November 12, 1968 in San Pedro de Macoris, Dominican Republic, where he grew up in an abandoned hospital.  He originally signed with the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] at age 15, but this deal we not allowed by the League because of Sosa's age.  He signed with the Rangers in 1985.
> 
8,9d9
< 
< Sosa was born November 12, 1968 in San Pedro de Macoris, Dominican Republic, where he grew up in an abandoned hospital.  He originally signed with the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] at age 15, but this deal we not allowed by the League because of Sosa's age.  He signed with the Rangers in 1985.
------
Sammy_Sosa|987310852
5c5
< Sosa was born November 12, 1968 in San Pedro de Macoris, Dominican Republic, where he grew up in an abandoned hospital.  He originally signed with the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] at age 15, but this deal we not allowed by the League because of Sosa's age.  He signed with the Rangers in 1985.
---
> Sosa was born November 12, 1968 in San Pedro de Macoris, Dominican Republic, where he grew up in an abandoned hospital.  He originally signed with the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] at age 15, but this deal we not allowed by the League because of Sosa's age.  He signed with the [[Texas Rangers]] in 1985.
7c7
< Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the [[Texas Rangers]].  After being sent again to the minors, he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]].  After nearly two years with the White Sox, he was again sent down to the minors midseason 1991.  Recalled late in the season, he failed to impress the White Sox management, who dealt him away to the [[Chicago Cubs]] just prior to the 1992 season.  It was there that Sosa spent his glory years.
---
> Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the Texas Rangers.  After being sent again to the minors, he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]].  After nearly two years with the White Sox, he was again sent down to the minors midseason 1991.  Recalled late in the season, he failed to impress the White Sox management, who dealt him away to the [[Chicago Cubs]] just prior to the 1992 season.  It was there that Sosa spent his glory years.
------
Sammy_Sosa|987310896
7c7
< Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the Texas Rangers.  After being sent again to the minors, he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]].  After nearly two years with the White Sox, he was again sent down to the minors midseason 1991.  Recalled late in the season, he failed to impress the White Sox management, who dealt him away to the [[Chicago Cubs]] just prior to the 1992 season.  It was there that Sosa spent his glory years.
---
> Sosa began his Major League career in 1989 with the Rangers.  After being sent again to the minors, he was traded to the [[Chicago White Sox]].  After nearly two years with the White Sox, he was again sent down to the minors midseason 1991.  Recalled late in the season, he failed to impress the White Sox management, who dealt him away to the [[Chicago Cubs]] just prior to the 1992 season.  It was there that Sosa spent his glory years.
------
Sammy_Sosa|987310976
9c9
< Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.
---
> Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.  He owns numerous team records fot the Cubs, and holds the record for the most home runs hit in a month (20, in June 1998).
------
Sammy_Sosa|987310984
9c9
< Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.  He owns numerous team records fot the Cubs, and holds the record for the most home runs hit in a month (20, in June 1998).
---
> Known as a free-swinger in his early years, and as an easy strike-out candidate, Sosa has become an effective hitter for average, batting a career high .320 in 2000.  He owns numerous team records for the Cubs, and holds the record for the most home runs hit in a month (20, in June 1998).
------
Meiosis|987312360
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As part of the cycle of [[sexual reproduction]], haploid germ cells are produced from diploid cells.  During this process, a diploid cell undergoes a round of DNA replication, followed by not one but two rounds of cell division, resulting in four haploid cells.     
> 
> The mechanistic differences between [[mitosis]], which produces somatic cells, and meiosis, is best understood by considering the  case of mitosis first.  During a mitotic cell cycle, chromosomes are duplicated but remain closely aligned, and these twin copies are called sister chromatids.  Note that diploid cells have two homologous chromsomes, and that in the interval after DNA replication but before cell division, there is a pair of sister chromatids for each of two homologous chromosomes, adding up to four copies of each chromosome. At metaphase, sister chromatids align on the mitotic spindle.  At anaphase, these sister chromatids separate, each migrating toward an opposite pole of the mitotic spindle.  The two new cells that consequently form bear one copy of each homologous chromosome.
> 
> The initial stages of meiosis appear quite similar to the mitotic cell cycle: a diploid cell undergoes DNA replication, producing two sister chromatids for each of two homologous chromosomes.  However, the mechanism of chromosome partitioning is drastically different in the first meiotic cell division.  Each pair of homologous chromosomes, rather than one sister chromatid from each homologous chromosome, migrates toward a different pole.  The resulting cells have two copies of each chromosome, but correspond to the sister chromatid pair.  During the second meiotic division, DNA replication does not occur.  At cell division, the sister chromatids separate, and the resulting cells have one copy of each chromosome.
> 
>     
>       
------
Language_translation|987313980
7,10c7
< Your definition of Language Translation seems very limited. What do you think the activity of all those people at the UN General Assembly providing, say Russian to English conversion of <b>spoken</b> language, in close to real-time should be called? I'd say Language Translation.
< ----
< Isn't that the difference between translator and interpreter?<br>
< In computer programming, translation is changing source code from the syntax and structure of one programming language to that of another while maintaining the end effect.  Interpretation is executing the source code during translation.
---
> /Talk
------
Language_translation/Talk|987314254
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Your definition of Language Translation seems very limited. What do you think the activity of all those people at the UN General Assembly providing, say Russian to English conversion of <b>spoken</b> language, in close to real-time should be called? I'd say Language Translation.
> ----
> Isn't that the difference between translator and interpreter?<br>
> In computer programming, translation is changing source code from the syntax and structure of one programming language to that of another while maintaining the end effect.  Interpretation is executing the source code during translation.
> ----
> My $0.02: I think an article about "language translation" (or just "translation") should concern the translation of natural languages by people into other natural languages; only the briefest of mentions of machine translation should be on that page.  Machine translation is greatly interesting, particularly to Wikipedians (because so many Wikipedians are programmers), and a friend of mine makes a living designing machine translation systems.  But translation properly so called (i.e., done by human beings) is a much older, more widespread, and more important topic than machine translation.  Of course, we can (maybe already do?) have an article just on [[machine translation]] and the many interesting problems it poses.
> 
> Again, this is just my $0.02. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes/Talk|987315352
0a1,15
> I just had an interesting idea for an alternate category scheme.  Right now, the main page has things organized by ''discipline.''  Now, a discipline is an area of study, and since humans study most everything, it makes sense that a list of disciplines would result in a list of starting-pages to most everything.
> 
> But we could, in addition (in an alternative "official category scheme" have the names of things themselves listed--of course, the most general of them.  So, rather than [[Astronomy]], we'd have [[space]] or [[the universe]] or something like that.  Rather than [[Philosophy]], we would have [[being]], [[goodness]], [[knowledge]], and a number of other basic topics studied by philosophy.  Etc.
> 
> One interesting consideration about this idea is that, as in the case of philosophy, very many (perhaps all) disciplines cannot really be regarded as the study of just one thing--i.e., probably, for no discipline there is no one general category, C, such that the subject studied by that discipline is accurate and exhaustively described as 'the study of C'.  Therefore, [[Wikipedia arranged by topic]] would have to include many more entry points than the present HomePage does, in order to be (more or less directly) connected to the same material that the top-level discipline articles connect to.
> 
> This consideration was inspired in part by an article Nupedia's Zoology editor wrote about Zoology.  I replied that it seemed to be a really wonderful article ''about animals,'' and that we ought to rename the article "Animal."  She agreed.  A different article, about the study of animals, will be written about Zoology.  This then raised the question as to what the top-level article should be for Nupedia: "Animal" or "Zoology"?
> 
> Of course, the issue arises here on Wikipedia as well.
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> ----
> '''Older discussion''' (probably needs refactoring)
> 
------
Wikipedia_arranged_by_topic|987315419
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is something I'll work on sometime soon, but if anyone wants to make a start, please be my guest! --[[LMS]]
------
HomePage/Talk|987315767
1c1,3
< See [[Making Wikipedia more accessible to the blind]]
---
> See [[Wikipedia category schemes/Talk]] for discussion of the category scheme on Wikipedia's HomePage.
> 
> See also [[Making Wikipedia more accessible to the blind]].
------
Making_Wikipedia_more_accessible_to_the_blind|987315967
13,14d12
< 
< :Excuse me, but I take strong issue with your comment, Ruth.  What knowledge do ''you'' have of what ''I'' know about blindness?  '''None.'''  So get off your moral high horse.  I really, really resent it. --[[LMS]]
33c31
< * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
---
> * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
------
Music|987320500
59c59
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]]
65c65
< Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
---
> Feel free to add more topics; simply click the "Edit text of this page" link.
------
Beethoven|987321887
1c1,194
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
>  Opus 1 no 1 (1795) Piano Trio No. 1 in E flat major
>  Opus 1 no 2 (1795) Piano Trio No. 2 in G major
>  Opus 1 no 3 (1795) Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor
>  Opus 2 no 1 (1796) Piano Sonata No. 1 in F minor
>  Opus 2 no 2 (1796) Piano Sonata No. 2 in A major
>  Opus 2 no 3 (1796) Piano Sonata No. 3 in C major
>  Opus 3  (1794) String Trio No. 1 in E flat major
>  Opus 4  (1795) String Quintet in E flat major
>  Opus 5 no 1 (1796) Sonata for Piano and Violincello No. 1 in F major
>  Opus 5 no 2 (1796) Sonata for Piano and Violincello No. 2 in G minor
>  Opus 6  (1797) Piano Sonata for four hands
>  Opus 7  (1797) Piano Sonata No. 4 in E flat major
>  Opus 8  (1797) Serenade in D major for string trio
>  Opus 9 no 1 (1798) String Trio No. 2 in G major
>  Opus 9 no 2 (1798) String Trio No. 3 in D major
>  Opus 9 no 3 (1798) String Trio No. 4 in C minor
>  Opus 10 no 1 (1798) Piano Sonata No. 5 in C minor
>  Opus 10 no 2 (1798) Piano Sonata No. 6 in F major
>  Opus 10 no 3 (1798) Piano Sonata No. 7 in D major
>  Opus 11  (1798) Piano Trio No. 4 in B flat major
>  Opus 12 no 1 (1798) Violin Sonata No. 1 in D major
>  Opus 12 no 2 (1798) Violin Sonata No. 2 in A major
>  Opus 12 no 3 (1798) Violin Sonata No. 3 in E flat major
>  Opus 13  (1799) Piano Sonata No. 8 in C minor "Pathetique"
>  Opus 14 no 1 (1799) Piano Sonata No. 9 in E major
>  Opus 14 no 2 (1799) Piano Sonata No. 10 in G major
>  Opus 15  (1795) Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major
>  Opus 16  (1796) Quintet for Piano and Wind
>  Opus 17  (1800) Horn Sonata in F major
>  Opus 18 no 1 (1800) String Quartet No. 1 in F major
>  Opus 18 no 2 (1800) String Quartet No. 2 in G major
>  Opus 18 no 3 (1800) String Quartet No. 3 in D major
>  Opus 18 no 4 (1800) String Quartet No. 4 in C minor
>  Opus 18 no 5 (1800) String Quartet No. 5 in A major
>  Opus 18 no 6 (1800) String Quartet No. 6 in B flat major
>  Opus 19  (1795) Piano Concerto No. 2 in B flat major
>  Opus 20  (1799) Septet in E flat major
>  Opus 21  (1800) Symphony No. 1 in C major
>  Opus 22  (1800) Piano Sonata No. 11 in B flat major
>  Opus 23  (1801) Violin Sonata No. 4 in A minor
>  Opus 24  (1801) Violin Sonata No. 5 in F major "Spring"
>  Opus 25  (1801) Serenade in D major for Flute, Violin and Viola
>  Opus 26  (1801) Piano Sonata No. 12 in A flat major
>  Opus 27 no 1 (1801) Piano Sonata No. 13 in E flat major
>  Opus 27 no 2 (1801) Piano Sonata No. 14 in C sharp minor "Moonlight"
>  Opus 28  (1801) Piano Sonata No. 15 in D major
>  Opus 29  (1801) String Quintet in C major
>  Opus 30 no 1 (1803) Violin Sonata No. 6 in A major
>  Opus 30 no 2 (1803) Violin Sonata No. 7 in C minor
>  Opus 30 no 3 (1803) Violin Sonata No. 8 in G major
>  Opus 31 no 1 (1802) Piano Sonata No. 16 in G major
>  Opus 31 no 2 (1802) Piano Sonata No. 17 in D minor "Tempest"
>  Opus 31 no 3 (1802) Piano Sonata No. 18 in E flat major
>  Opus 32  (1805) Song - An die Hoffnung
>  Opus 33  (1802) Seven Bagatelles for piano
>  Opus 34  (1802) Six variations for piano on an original theme, F major
>  Opus 35  (1802) Fifteen variations and a fugue for piano on an original theme, E flat major "Eroica"
>  Opus 36  (1803) Symphony No. 2 in D major
>  Opus 37  (1803) Piano Concerto No. 3 in C minor
>  Opus 38  (1803) Piano Trio No. 8 (Arrangement of the Septet  Opus 20)
>  Opus 39  (1789) Two Preludes through all twelve major keys for piano
>  Opus 40  (1802) Romance for Violin in G major
>  Opus 41  (1803) Serenade for Paino and Flute or Violin in D major
>  Opus 42  (1803) Notturno for Viola and Piano in D major
>  Opus 43  (1801) The Creatures of Prometheus: Overture and Ballet music
>  Opus 44  (1792) Piano Trio No. 10 (Variations on an original theme in E flat major)
>  Opus 45  (1803) 3 Marches for Piano, 4 hands
>  Opus 46  (1795) Song - Adelaide
>  Opus 47  (1802) Violin Sonata No. 9 in A major "Kreutzer"
>  Opus 48 no 1 (1802) Song - Bitten
>  Opus 48 no 2 (1802) Song - Die Liebe des Naechsten
>  Opus 48 no 3 (1802) Song - Vom Tode
>  Opus 48 no 4 (1802) Song - Die Ehre Gottes aus der Natur
>  Opus 48 no 5 (1802) Song - Gottes Macht und Vorsehung
>  Opus 48 no 6 (1802) Song - Busslied
>  Opus 49 no 1 (1792) Piano Sonata No. 19 in G minor
>  Opus 49 no 2 (1792) Piano Sonata No. 20 in G major
>  Opus 50  (1798) Romance for Violin in F major
>  Opus 51 no 1 (1797) Rondo in C major for piano
>  Opus 51 no 2 (1798) Rondo in G major for piano
>  Opus 52 no 1 (1805) Song - Urians Reise um die Welt
>  Opus 52 no 2 (1805) Song - Feuerfab
>  Opus 52 no 3 (1805) Song - Das Liedchen von der Ruhe
>  Opus 52 no 4 (1805) Song - Maigesang
>  Opus 52 no 5 (1805) Song - Mollys Abschied
>  Opus 52 no 6 (1805) Song - Die Liebe
>  Opus 52 no 7 (1805) Song - Marmotte
>  Opus 52 no 8 (1805) Song - Das Bluemchen Wunderhold
>  Opus 53  (1803) Piano Sonata No. 21 in C major "Waldstein"
>  Opus 54  (1804) Piano Sonata No. 22 in F major
>  Opus 55  (1805) Symphony No. 3 in E flat major "Eroica"
>  Opus 56  (1805) Triple Concerto in C major
>  Opus 57  (1805) Piano Sonata No. 23 in F minor "Appassionata"
>  Opus 58  (1807) Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major
>  Opus 59 no 1 (1806) String Quartet No. 7 in F major "Rasumovsky 1"
>  Opus 59 no 2 (1806) String Quartet No. 8 in E minor "Rasumovsky 2"
>  Opus 59 no 3 (1806) String Quartet No. 9 in C major "Rasumovsky 3"
>  Opus 60  (1807) Symphony No. 4 in B flat major
>  Opus 61  (1808) Concerto for Violin and Orcestra in D major
>  Opus 62  (1807) Overture - Coriolan
>  Opus 63  (1806) Arrangement of String Quintet ( Opus 4) for Piano Trio
>  Opus 64  (1807) Arrangement of Piano Trio ( Opus 3) for Piano and Cello
>  Opus 65  (1796) Aria - Ah perfido!
>  Opus 66  (1796) Variations for Cello on Mozart's `Ein Maedchen oder Weibchen'
>  Opus 67  (1808) Symphony No. 5 in C minor
>  Opus 68  (1808) Symphony No. 6 in F major "Pastoral"
>  Opus 69  (1808) Sonata for Piano and Violincello No. 3 in A major
>  Opus 70 no 1 (1808) Piano Trio No. 5 in D major "Ghost"
>  Opus 70 no 2 (1808) Piano Trio No. 6 in E flat major
>  Opus 71  (1796) Wind sextet in E flat
>  Opus 72a  (1805) Opera - Leonore (with Overture Leonore No. 2)
>  Opus 72b  (1806) Opera - Leonore (with Overture Leonore No. 3)
>  Opus 72c  (1814) Opera - Fidelio
>  Opus 73  (1809) Piano Concerto No. 5 in E flat major "Emperor"
>  Opus 74  (1809) String Quartet No. 10 in E flat major "Harp"
>  Opus 75 no 1 (1809) Song - Mignon
>  Opus 75 no 2 (1809) Song - Neue Liebe, neues Leben
>  Opus 75 no 3 (1809) Song - Aus Goethes Faust: Es war einmal ein Koenig
>  Opus 75 no 4 (1809) Song - Gretels Warnung
>  Opus 75 no 5 (1809) Song - An die fernen Geliebten
>  Opus 75 no 6 (1809) Song - Der Zufriedene
>  Opus 76  (1809) Six variations for piano on an original theme, D major
>  Opus 77  (1809) Piano Fantasia
>  Opus 78  (1809) Piano Sonata No. 24 in F sharp major
>  Opus 79  (1809) Piano Sonata No. 25 in G major
>  Opus 80  (1808) Choral Fantasia
>  Opus 81a  (1809) Piano Sonata No. 26 in E flat major "Les Adieux"
>  Opus 81b  (1795) Sextet in E flat
>  Opus 82 no 1 (1809) Song - Hoffnung
>  Opus 82 no 2 (1809) Song - Liebes-Klage
>  Opus 82 no 3 (1809) Duet - L'amante impatiente
>  Opus 82 no 4 (1809) Song - L'amante impatiente
>  Opus 82 no 5 (1809) Song - Lebens-Genuss
>  Opus 83 no 1 (1810) Song - Wonne der Wehmut
>  Opus 83 no 2 (1810) Song - Sehnsucht
>  Opus 83 no 3 (1810) Song - Mit einem gemalten Band
>  Opus 84  (1810) Egmont (Overture and Incidental Music)
>  Opus 85  (1804) Christus am Olberge
>  Opus 86  (1807) Mass in C major
>  Opus 87  (1795) Trio for two Oboes and English Horn in C major
>  Opus 88  (1803) Song - Das Gluck der Freundschaft
>  Opus 89  (1814) Polonaise in C major
>  Opus 90  (1814) Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor
>  Opus 91  (1813) Wellington's Victory ("Battle" Symphony)
>  Opus 92  (1813) Symphony No. 7 in A major
>  Opus 93  (1814) Symphony No. 8 in F major
>  Opus 94  (1815) Song - An die Hoffnung
>  Opus 95  (1810) String Quartet No. 11 in F minor "Serioso"
>  Opus 96  (1812) Violin Sonata No. 10 in G major
>  Opus 97  (1811) Piano Trio No. 7 in B flat major "Archduke"
>  Opus 98  (1816) Song Cycle - An die ferne Geliebte
>  Opus 99  (1816) Song - Der Mann von Wort
>  Opus 100 (1814) Song - Merkenstein
>  Opus 101 (1816) Piano Sonata No. 28 in A major
>  Opus 102no 1 (1815) Sonata for Piano and Violincello No. 4 in C major
>  Opus 102no 2 (1815) Sonata for Piano and Violincello No. 5 in D minor
>  Opus 103 (1792) Wind octet in E flat
>  Opus 104 (1817) String Quintet (arrangement of Piano Trio No. 3)
>  Opus 105 (1819) Six sets of variations for Piano and Flute
>  Opus 106 (1818) Piano Sonata No. 29 in B flat major "Hammerklavier"
>  Opus 107 (1820) Ten sets of variations for Piano and Flute
>  Opus 108 (1818) Twenty-Five Scottish Songs
>  Opus 109 (1822) Piano Sonata No. 30 in E major
>  Opus 110 (1822) Piano Sonata No. 31 in A flat major
>  Opus 111 (1822) Piano Sonata No. 32 in C minor
>  Opus 112 (1815) Meeresstille und glueckliche Fahrt (for chorus and orchestra)
>  Opus 113 (1811) Singspiel - Die Ruinen von Athens (The ruins of Athens)
>  Opus 114 (1822) March and Chorus - Die Weihe des Hauses
>  Opus 115 (1815) Overture - Zur Namensfeier
>  Opus 116 (1802) Vocal Trio with Orchestra - Tramte, empi tremate
>  Opus 117 (1811) Singspiel - King Stephen
>  Opus 118 (1814) Eligischer Gesang (for chorus and orchestra)
>  Opus 119 (1822) Eleven new Bagatelles for piano
>  Opus 120 (1823) Thirty-three variations for piano on a waltz by Diabelli, C major
>  Opus 121a (1803) Piano Trio No. 11 (Variations on `Ich bin der Schneider Kakadu')
>  Opus 121b (1822) Opferlied (for chorus and orchestra)
>  Opus 122 (1824) Bundeslied (for chorus and orchestra)
>  Opus 123 (1822) Mass in D major (Missa Solemnis)
>  Opus 124 (1822) Overture - Die Weihe des Hauses
>  Opus 125 (1824) Symphony No. 9 in D minor "Choral"
>  Opus 126 (1824) Six Bagatelles for piano
>  Opus 127 (1825) String Quartet No. 12 in E flat major
>  Opus 128 (1822) Song - Der Kuss
>  Opus 129 (1795) Rondo Capriccio for piano in D major (Rage over a lost penny)
>  Opus 130 (1825) String Quartet No. 13 in B flat major
>  Opus 131 (1826) String Quartet No. 14 in C sharp minor
>  Opus 132 (1825) String Quartet No. 15 in A minor
>  Opus 133 (1826) Grosse Fuge in B flat major
>  Opus 134 (1826) Piano arrangement (4 hands) of Grosse Fuge
>  Opus 135 (1826) String Quartet No. 16 in F major
>  Opus 136 (1814) Cantata - Der glorreiche Augenblick
>  Opus 137 (1817) String Quintet (fugue) in D major
>  Opus 138 (1807) Overture - Leonore 1
------
Beethoven|987322498
1d0
< 
191c190
<  Opus 135 (1826) String Quartet No. 16 in F major
---
>  Opus 135 (1826) [[/String Quartet 16|String Quartet No. 16]] in F major
------
Beethoven/String_Quartet_16|987322654
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Betthoven's String Quartet No. 16 in F major (Opus 135) was written in 1826 and is among the last substantial work he finished.
> 
> I. Allegretto 
> II. Vivace 
> III. Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo 
> IV. Grave ma troppo tratto - Allegro 
------
Beethoven|987322868
189a190
> 
------
Beethoven|987322881
190d189
< 
------
Beethoven/String_Quartet_16|987322907
1c1
< Betthoven's String Quartet No. 16 in F major (Opus 135) was written in 1826 and is among the last substantial work he finished.
---
> Betthoven's String Quartet No. 16 in F major (Opus 135) was written in 1826 and is among the last substantial works he finished.
------
Beethoven|987324103
0a1,8
> Ludwig van Beethoven was a classical composer who lived from 1770-1827.
> 
> Many people believe Beethoven was the single greatest composer of all time.  He is undoubtedly one of the best known and most loved.  His most famous works include his[[/Symphony 5|5th Symphony]], [[/Symphony 9|9th Symphony]], and the [[/Piano Sonata 14| Moonlight Sonata]].
> 
> Beethoven was born in [[Bonn]], [[Germany]] and moved to [[Vienna]] when he was 22, where he studied under [[Haydn|Franz Joseph Haydn]].  In Vienna he earned a reputation as a piano virtuoso, and began publishing his own compositions soon after.  By the early 1800s he had established his reputation as a great and daring composer.
> 
> Beethoven began to lose his hearing at least by 1801.  He continued composing nonetheless, and his greatest work, the 9th Symphony, was composed after he had become totally deaf.
> 
------
Rebuttal|987324233
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In law, Evidence which is brought specifically to rebut (contradict or nullify) other evidence presented by an adverse party.
> 
> Special evidentiary rules apply to rebuttal.  Rebuttal evidence or rebuttal witnesses must be confined solely to the subject matter of the evidence rebutted.  New evidence on other subjects may not be brought in rebuttal.  However, rebuttal is one of the few vehicles whereby a party may introduce surprise evidence or witnesses.  How it works is this:  Both sides of a controversy are obliged to declare in advance of trial what witnesses they plan to call, and what each witness is expected to testify to.  When either a plaintiff (or prosecutor) or defendant brings direct evidence or testimony which was not anticipated, the other side may be granted a specific opportunity to rebut it.  In rebuttal, the rebutting party may generally bring witnesses and evidence which were never declared before, so long as they serve to rebut the prior evidence.
> 
> 
------
Plea_of_nolo_contendere|987324702
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Literally, Nolo Contendere means "I don't contest it."  This plea is often entered by a criminal defendant when he faces a realistic prospect of conviction, does not wish to undergo a trial, and yet is not willing to admit that he committed the offense.
> 
> Generally, a defendant pleading nolo contendere, or "nolo," will be found guilty of the offense by the court, as he has agreed not to contest the charge.  He will not, however, be made to [[allocute]] to the charges, and his plea (unlike a guilty plea) may not be used against him to establish [[negligence per se]], [[malice]], or even that he actually did the acts which resulted in the conviction, in later civil proceedings related to the same set of facts as the criminal prosecution.
------
Law|987325157
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[bar]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[jury trial]] --  [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[bar]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] --[[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
15c15,16
< 
---
> ----
> Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
------
Allocute|987325337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To state specifically and in detail what one did, usually in commission of a crime.  Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence.  Allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families, and it nearly always removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.
------
Law|987325521
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[bar]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] --[[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] --[[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
16c16
< Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
---
> Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
------
Sanctions|987325769
3c3,7
< This is only one sense of the word ''sanctions,'' even in a legal contect--no?
---
> Almost always used in the plural, even when it refers to a single event.  If a judge fines a party, it is not said that he imposed a sanction, but that he imposed sanctions.
> 
> See also [[sanction]]
> 
> This is only one sense of the word ''sanctions,'' even in a legal contect--no?
------
Sanction|987326100
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sanction is an interesting word, in that, depending on context, it can have diametrically opposing meanings.
> 
> A judge may "sanction" a party during a legal proceeding, by which it is meant that he imposes [[sanctions]] (penalties).
> 
> Conversely, the word may be used to mean "approve of," especially in an official sense.  "The law sanctions such behavior" would mean that the behavior spoken of enjoys the specific approval of law.
> 
> See also [[sanctions]]. 
------
Law|987326174
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] --[[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Language_translation/Talk|987342677
6c6,10
< My $0.02: I think an article about "language translation" (or just "translation") should concern the translation of natural languages by people into other natural languages; only the briefest of mentions of machine translation should be on that page.  Machine translation is greatly interesting, particularly to Wikipedians (because so many Wikipedians are programmers), and a friend of mine makes a living designing machine translation systems.  But translation properly so called (i.e., done by human beings) is a much older, more widespread, and more important topic than machine translation.  Of course, we can (maybe already do?) have an article just on [[machine translation]] and the many interesting problems it poses.
---
> My $0.02: I think an article about "language translation" (or just "translation") should concern the translation of natural languages by people into other natural languages; only the briefest of mentions of machine translation should be on that page.  Machine translation is greatly interesting, particularly to Wikipedians (because so many Wikipedians are programmers), and a friend of mine makes a living designing machine translation systems.  But translation properly so called (i.e., done by human beings) is a much older, more widespread, and more important topic than machine translation.  Of course, we can (maybe already do?) have an article just on [[machine translation]] and the many interesting problems it poses. Again, this is just my $0.02. [[LMS]]----
> When I read the page "Language Translation" and it referred to preserving the meaning and tone, I saw no reason to think this was a about "programming language translation." In fact, I still don't. That is why I remarked on translation of "spoken language." Call this
> interpretation if you want, it still belongs under natural language translation.
> I agree with [[LMS]], that this page should be about natural language translation. Machine translation of languages belongs somewhere else, or with a more specific title. Mind you, I spent a number of years on machine transaltion of languages, and yet, I never saw this page as related to that discipline. RoseParks
> 
8d11
< Again, this is just my $0.02. --[[LMS]]
------
Disabilities/Talk|987343018
16c16,17
< ''I suppose a recalcitrant spouse could be a disability, then...  (ducking)''
---
> ''I suppose a recalcitrant spouse could be a disability, then...  (ducking)''----
> <i>So could [[Wikipedia addiction]]...(running for his/her life</i>)----.
------
Making_Wikipedia_more_accessible_to_the_blind|987343886
31c31,48
< * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]
---
> * [[United States]] It's capital is [[Washington D.C.]]----
> <b> What can we all do.</b> <br>
> Put links at the end of sentences on the administrative pages like, the Home Page.<br>
> Incorrect:
> 
> 
> See [[Wikipedia News]] to get the latest breaking informations on new additions to wikipedia, new formating rules, new contributors.
> 
> 
> Correct:
> 
> To get the latest breaking informations on new additions to wikipedia, new formating rules, new contributors, see [[Wikipedia News]].
> 
> In the first case by the time a blind user decides to click on this link, he has passed it. All screen readers work in a linear fashion. To move to a different mode in a screen reader, that will highlight links only, may be a not small effort.
> Note: I have corrected the links on the Home Page and I am not even sure anyone even noticed.
> 
> 
> 
------
Assistive_Technology/Talk|987344534
14c14,15
< I don't see why you didn't just edit the [[assistive technology]] article rather than write the above review.  --[[LMS]]
---
> I don't see why you didn't just edit the [[assistive technology]] article rather than write the above review.  --[[LMS]]----
> Because that would be too simple...:-) RoseParks
------
Blindness|987344788
1,8c1,8
< [[Blind Philosophy]]
< [[Blind History]]
< [[Blind Literature]]
< [[Blind Technology]]
< [[Blind Law]]
< [[Blind Medical]]
< [[Blind Organizations]]
< [[Blind Education]]
---
> */[[Philosophy]]
> */[[History]]
> */[[Literature]]
> */[[Technology]]
> */[[Law]]
> */[[Medical]]
> */[[Organizations]]
> */[[Education]]
------
Blindness|987345786
1,8c1,24
< */[[Philosophy]]
< */[[History]]
< */[[Literature]]
< */[[Technology]]
< */[[Law]]
< */[[Medical]]
< */[[Organizations]]
< */[[Education]]
---
> Blindness is the condition of lacking one of the five senses <b>sight</b>.<br>
> One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.<br>
> The Blind, themselves refer to those with the advantage of sight as "<b>The Sighted</b>."<br>
> Other people included in discussions and sercives for the Blind are:
> *The Partially-Sighted
> *People with Low-Vision
> *The Color Blind
> ....
> 
> /[[Philosophy of Blindness]]
> 
> /[[History of Blindness]]
> 
> /[[Literature of the Blind]]
> 
> /[[Technology for the Blind]]
> 
> /[[Law concerning the Blind]]
> 
> /[[Medical Issues in Blindness]]
> 
> /[[Organizations for the Blind]]
> 
> /[[Education for the Blind]]
------
Blindness|987345948
3,4c3,4
< The Blind, themselves refer to those with the advantage of sight as "<b>The Sighted</b>."<br>
< Other people included in discussions and sercives for the Blind are:
---
> The Blind, themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "<b>The Sighted</b>."<br>
> Other people included in discussions and services for the Blind are:
24a25,26
> 
> /[[The Blind and the Deaf]]
------
Medicine|987349353
11,12c11,12
< ** [[Internist]]
< ** [[Cardiologist]]
---
> 
> ** [[Cardiology]]
------
Infectious_diseases|987349709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Infectious Diseases</b>
------
Cardiology|987349799
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Cardiology</b>
------
Easter_Sunday|987350696
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The other main religious ceremony in the [[Christianity|Christian]] calendar, the first being [[Christmas]].
> 
> Easter Sunday marks the rising of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of [[Lent]], the period of fasting.
> The date moves every year and is governed by the passage of the moon and is set as the Sunday following the full moon on or after the [[vernal equinox]].
> This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25.
> 
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is a much more commercial time, with big sales of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Easter_egg|987351094
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.
------
Easter_Sunday|987351529
4c4
< The date moves every year and is governed by the passage of the moon and is set as the Sunday following the full moon on or after the [[vernal equinox]].
---
> The date moves every year and is governed by the passage of the moon and is set as the Sunday following the full [[moon]] on or after the [[vernal equinox]].
------
Lionhead|987352913
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Video game]] developer headed up by industry visionary [[Peter Molyneux]].
> 
> Started as a break away from veteran developers and publishers [[Bullfrog]], their first game is the ground breaking [[Black and White]], a blend of [[artificial life]], [[Video game/Strategy|strategy]], [[Video game/Beat em up|beat 'em up]] and more (more genres here please!).
------
Capcom|987354536
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Video game]] developer and publisher.
> 
> Capcom have over many years created some of the biggest and longest running franchises.
> From the hugely important [[Mega Man]] series through the standards bearing [[Street Fighter]] [[Video game/Beat em ups|beat 'em ups]] to the new survival horror classic [[Resident Evil]].
> 
> Listing the complete softography is going to take some time and patience.. but here's a start, should this be chronologically ordered? perhaps on a subpage?
> ----
> Softography
> :[[Breath of Fire]] series
> :[[Dino Crisis]] series
> :[[Ghosts N Goblins]]
> :[[Ghouls N Ghosts]] series
> :[[Giga Wing]] series
> :[[Mega Man]] series
> :[[Onimusha Warlords]]
> :[[Power Stone]] series
> :[[Resident Evil]] series - known as Biohazard in [[Japan]]
> :[[Street Fighter]] series
> :[[Tech Romancer]]
------
Playboy|987359029
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Language_translation/Talk|987359235
6c6,7
< My $0.02: I think an article about "language translation" (or just "translation") should concern the translation of natural languages by people into other natural languages; only the briefest of mentions of machine translation should be on that page.  Machine translation is greatly interesting, particularly to Wikipedians (because so many Wikipedians are programmers), and a friend of mine makes a living designing machine translation systems.  But translation properly so called (i.e., done by human beings) is a much older, more widespread, and more important topic than machine translation.  Of course, we can (maybe already do?) have an article just on [[machine translation]] and the many interesting problems it poses. Again, this is just my $0.02. [[LMS]]----
---
> My $0.02: I think an article about "language translation" (or just "translation") should concern the translation of natural languages by people into other natural languages; only the briefest of mentions of machine translation should be on that page.  Machine translation is greatly interesting, particularly to Wikipedians (because so many Wikipedians are programmers), and a friend of mine makes a living designing machine translation systems.  But translation properly so called (i.e., done by human beings) is a much older, more widespread, and more important topic than machine translation.  Of course, we can (maybe already do?) have an article just on [[machine translation]] and the many interesting problems it poses. Again, this is just my $0.02. [[LMS]]
> ----
10,11c11,12
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I was just thrusting in my 2¢ on what real-time conversion would be called, in answer to the first question.  Long ago I had a multilingual teacher who described the difference in natural language terms, but I can barely remember that so I used the programming example.  --Atlas_2091
------
ProgrammingLanguage|987359829
1,5c1
< ''See ProgrammingLanguages''
< 
< This pages should just go away, now that I see that there is a ProgrammingLanugages page.
< 
< How do we do that page forwarding thing using #forward or whatever?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Programming Language]]
------
ProgrammingLanguage|987359862
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Programming Language]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Programming language]]
------
Linear_Algebra|987360230
0a1,13
> Linear Algebra is the study of vectors and [[Vector Space]]s, their properties, and structures, and processes that are extensions of these of these two basic concepts. 
> It is both a part of Abstract Algebra and Analysis, through its extension to Linear Spaces. Furthermore, it has a concrete representation in Analytic Geometry. Finally, Linear Algebra has extensive applications in the Pure Sciences and the Social Sciences.<br>
> 
> Linear Algebra had its foundation in the study of vectors in real 2-space and 3-space.
> A vector introduced the concept of <i>directed</i> line segment that had direction in addition to the usual properties a line segment, e.g. length, position, and slope. Vectors can be used then to represent physical entities such as forces, and the result of combining 2 or more forces.<br>
> 
> Linear Algebra today has been extended to consider n-space, since most of the useful results from 2 and 3-space can be extended to n-dimensional space. Although, one can not visualize vectors in n-space, such vectors or n-tuples are useful in representing data.  Since vectors, as n-tuples, are <i>ordered</i> lists of n components, one can summarize and manipulate data efficiently in this framework. For example, in Economics, one can create and use, say 8- dimensional vectors or 8-tuples to represent the Gross National Product of 8 countries. One can decide to display the GNP of 8 countries for a particular year, where the countries’ order is specified, for example, (USA, GB, France, Germany, Spain, India, Japan, Australia), by using a vector (v<sub>1</sub>,v<sub>2</sub>,v<sub>3</sub>,v<sub>4</sub>,v<sub>5</sub>,v<sub>6</sub>,v<sub>7,</sub>v<sub>8</sub>) where each countries’ GNP is in their respective position.<br>
> 
> Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[Group]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>----
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Linear_Algebra|987360371
9c9
< Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[Group]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>----
---
> Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[ GrouP]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>----
------
Easter_egg|987360514
1c1,5
< Hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.
---
> Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.
> 
> ''Does anyone know the history of decorating hen's eggs for Easter?  Is this, perhaps, a hold-over from some spring Pagan festival?''
> 
> Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.
------
Easter_Sunday|987360586
1,7c1
< The other main religious ceremony in the [[Christianity|Christian]] calendar, the first being [[Christmas]].
< 
< Easter Sunday marks the rising of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of [[Lent]], the period of fasting.
< The date moves every year and is governed by the passage of the moon and is set as the Sunday following the full [[moon]] on or after the [[vernal equinox]].
< This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25.
< 
< As with other Christian dates, Easter is a much more commercial time, with big sales of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
---
> The Sunday on which [[Easter]] falls, on any given year.
------
Linear_Algebra|987360830
9c9,20
< Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[ GrouP]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>----
---
> Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[ GrouP]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>
> 
> But, to begin at the beginning, one has to define some “elementary” objects and properties on which Linear Algebra is built and look at some examples. Included here are:<br>
> [[Vector Space]] <br>
> [[/Subspace]] <br>
> [[/Linear Combination]] <br>
> [[/Generating a Vector Space]] <br>
> [[/Linearly Independent Vectors]] <br>
> [[/Basis for a Vector Space]] <br>
> 
> 
> ----
------
Easter|987360893
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of two main religious holidays in the [[Christianity|Christian]] calendar, the first being [[Christmas]].
> 
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the rising of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty days of [[Lent]] (''correct??''), a period of fasting and atonement.
> 
> The date moves every year and is governed by the passage of the moon and is set as the Sunday following the full [[moon]] on or after the [[vernal equinox]].
> This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25.
> 
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987361218
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Before we define a Subspace, in the interests of simplicity we will revise some of the cumbersome notation used in the definition of a [[Vector Space]].
> 
> *1. If u,v are vectors of an arbitrary Vector Space, then we will write 
> *   u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
> *2. We shall use 0 to denote the number zero and use <i>0</i> to denote the additive
> *   identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
> *3. We shall denote the addition of multiple elements of V, say, u,v,w,z, by
> *   u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
> 
> 
> Definition : Let V be a vector space over a field K and let W be a subset of V. Then if  W  is a vector space, itself, is a <b>Subspace</b> of V over K.
> 
> To use this definition means that given a subset W of V, one would have to prove that
> all 10 properties of a Vector Space would hold for W. We can prove a theorem that 
> gives us an easier way to prove that a subset of a vector space, is a vector space itself.
> 
> Theorem: Let V be a vector space and let W be a subset of V. Assume that W satisfies the following 3 conditions:
> 
> 1. If u and v are elements of W, then the sum of u and v, u+v is an element of W.
> 2. If u is an element of W, and c is a member of K, the c*v is an element of W.
> 3. The element <i>0</i> of V is also an element of W.
> 
> Proof:  Looking at the definition of a [[Vector Space]] we see that  properties 1 and 2 above assure closure of W under addition and scalar multiplication in W. 
> Given that we have an additive identity, <i>0</i> in W, by property 3, since elements of W are necessarily elements of V, the other 8 properties of a [[Vector Space]] are satisfied <i>a fortiori</i>.
> 
> 
------
Language_translation|987361567
1c1
< <b>Language translation</b> is the process of changing text from one language into another language with the goals of preserving the [[tone]] and [[meaning]] of the original text.
---
> <b>Language translation</b> is the process of changing written text or speech from one language into another language with the goals of preserving the [[tone]] and [[meaning]] of the original text.
3c3,5
< * <b>Human translation</b>
---
> Live translation of speech is frequently called <b>interpretation</b>, which may be either ''consecutive'' or ''simultaneous''.  With consecutive interpretation, the speaker frequently pauses to allow the interpreter to translate what was just spoken.  With simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter, using headphones to listen to the speaker, voices the translation into another microphone immediately.
> 
> *<b>Human translation</b>
5a8,11
> 
> *<b>Difficulties in translation</b>
> 
> See also: [[Programming language/Translation]]
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987362057
4c4
< *   u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
---
> *    u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
6c6
< *   identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
---
> *    identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
8c8
< *   u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
---
> *    u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
24c24,54
< Given that we have an additive identity, <i>0</i> in W, by property 3, since elements of W are necessarily elements of V, the other 8 properties of a [[Vector Space]] are satisfied <i>a fortiori</i>.
---
> Given that we have an additive identity, <i>0</i> in W, by property 3, since elements of W are necessarily elements of V, the other 8 properties of a [[Vector Space]] are satisfied <i>a fortiori</i>.<br>
> 
> 
> <b>Example I:</b>
> 
> Let V=R<sup>n</sup> and let W be the set of all vectors in V whose last component is 0. Then W is a subspace of V.
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 1. Property 1: Given u,v in W, the u+(u1,u2,…,0) and v+(v1,v2,…,0). Then u+v=
>    (u1+v1,u2+v2,...,0+0)=(u1+v1,u2+v2,...,0). Then u+v is an element in W.<br>
> 2.  Property 2: Given u in W and c in <b>R</b>, then c*v=c*(u1,u2,...0)=
>    (c*u1, c*u2,…,c*0)=(c*u1,c*u2,...,0). Then c*u is an element of W. <br> 
> 3.  Property 3: Since (0,0,...,0) is an element of W, by definition, <i>0</i> is a
>     an element of W.<br>
> 
> <b>Example II:</b> Let us remember that the set of points in a line are points in a plane. Then for the set of points (x,y) of <b>R<sup>2</sup></b> such that x=y is a subspace of <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> 1. Property I: Let P=(p1, p2) and Q=(q1,q2) be elements of W, that is, points such that
>    p1=p2 and q1=q2. Then P+Q=(p1+q1,p2+q2).  Then since p1=p2 and q1=q2, P+Q=(p1+q1,p1+q1)=
>    (2p1,2q1). Then P+Q is an element of W.<br>
> 
> 2. Property 2: Let P=(p,q) be an element of W, that is, a point such that p=q, and let c
>    be an element of R. Then c*P=(c*p,c*q). Then since p=q, c*p=C*q and cP is an element
>    of W.<br>
> 
> 3. Property 3: Consider the point <b>0</b>= (0,0) in <b>R<sup>n</sup></b>.
>    Then, since 0=0,  <b>0</b> is an element of W.<br>
> 
> 
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987362597
53a54,76
> <b>Example III:</b> (Calulus required)
> 
> First let us define a vector space V. Let V be the vector space over R of all functions 
> from R into R. (Try and prove this is a vector space yourself.)
> 
> Let W be the subset of V of continuous functions. Then W is a subspace of V.
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> 1. Property 1: Let f and g be elements of W, that is, continuous functions from R into R.
>    Then we know from Calculus, that f+g is a continuous function from R into R.<br>
> 
> 2. Property 2: Let f be a element of W, that is, a continuous function from R into R,    
>    and let c be an element of R. Then we know from Calculus, that c*f is a continuous
>    function from R into R.<br>
> 
> 3. Property 3: Consider the function <I>0</I> from R into R, defined by <i>0</i>(x)=0 for
>    all x in R. This is called the <i>zero function</i> and we know from Calculus that it
>    is continuous from R into R. Then <i>0</i> is an element in W.<br>
> 
> Note: We can define U as the subset of W of differentiable functions. Then, basically, since every differentiable function is continuous, U is a subspace of W, which, in turn, is a subspace of V.<br>
> 
> 
------
Easter_egg|987362840
5c5,7
< Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.
---
> Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.----
> 
> Easter eggs are also hidden code in software, often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
------
Easter|987362975
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the rising of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty days of [[Lent]] (''correct??''), a period of fasting and atonement.
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty days of [[Lent]] (''correct??''), a period of fasting and atonement.
8c8
< As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
---
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Atlas_2091|987363137
24c24,26
< You know that the usually name for slingers or archers irrespective is ''missile troops''? :) I don't really think chariots are in the same boat as AFVs, although they play roughly the same role in battle, but they do sort of fit the definition.  Maybe we should call the armored tractors the earliest motorized AFVs?
---
> You know that the usually name for slingers or archers irrespective is ''missile troops''? :) I don't really think chariots are in the same boat as AFVs, although they play roughly the same role in battle, but they do sort of fit the definition.  Maybe we should call the armored tractors the earliest motorized AFVs?
> ----
> Yeah, that's why I mentioned it. :)
------
B.H._Liddell_Hart|987363204
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Basil H. Liddell Hart (1895-1970) was a military historian and is considered among the great military strategists of the 20th century.
> 
> Liddell Hart served as an officer in the British Army during [[World War I]] where he witnessed the horrors of a war led by incompetents.  He set out in the following years to discover why the [[World War I/Casualties|casualty rate]] had been so terribly high during the War, and arrived at a set of principles that he considered the basis of all good strategy, principles that, he claimed, were ignored by most commanders in World War I.
> 
> Liddell Hart's principles can be reduced to a single phrase, <b>the indirect approach</b>, and two fundamentals: 1) Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted, and 2) To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equillibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must done before the main attack can succeed.
> 
> In Liddell Hart's words, "<i>In strategy the longest way round is often the shortest way there- a direct approach to the object exhausts the attacker and hardens the resistance by compression, whereas an indirect approach loosens the defender's hold by upsetting his balance</i>."
> 
> He also claimed that "<i>The profoundest truth of war is that the issue of battle is usually decided in the minds of the opposing commanders, not in the bodies of their men</i>."  This argues that one succeeds by keeping one's enemy uncertain about the situation and one's intentions, and by delivering what he does not expect and is therefore not prepared for.
> 
> Liddell Hart published his theories during the 1920s.  They were well-received by many of the younger officers who would emerge as leaders in [[World War II]].  Paradoxically, Liddell Hart saw his theories successfully adopted by Germany and used against Britain and its allies.  His theories were a central part of the German [[blitzkrieg]] tactics which were designed to hit the enemy so fast and so hard that he would not be able to establish or maintain an equillibrium.  They were also openly endorsed by the German's most successful general, [[Erwin Rommell]].
> 
> He was retired from the British Army as a Captain in 1927 and spent the rest of his career as a writer.  He was initially a military analyst for various British newspapers.  Later he began publishing military histories and biographies of great commanders who, he thought, were great because they illustrated the principles of good strategy.  Among these were [[Scipio Africanus]], [[William T. Sherman]], and [[T.E. Lawrence]].
------
B.H._Liddell_Hart|987363425
10a11,12
> He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history and their victories.  He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied.
> 
------
B.H._Liddell_Hart|987363483
5c5
< Liddell Hart's principles can be reduced to a single phrase, <b>the indirect approach</b>, and two fundamentals: 1) Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted, and 2) To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equillibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must done before the main attack can succeed.
---
> These principles can be reduced to a single phrase, <b>the indirect approach</b>, and two fundamentals: 1) Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted, and 2) To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equillibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must done before the main attack can succeed.
------
B.H._Liddell_Hart|987363577
11c11
< He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history and their victories.  He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied.
---
> He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history and their victories.  He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied.  He also claimed the indirect approach was a valid strategy in other fields of endeavor, such as business, romance, etc.
------
Easter_egg|987363640
1c1
< Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.
---
> Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
5c5,7
< Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.----
---
> A quick search reveals that decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and rabbits are fairly clearly fertility symbols.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  There are some cute stories as to their origin, too - like an emperor claiming that the resurrection was as likely as eggs turning red, or even just that it was to celebrate the eating of eggs that was forbidden during lent.
> 
> ----
------
Easter|987363684
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty days of [[Lent]] (''correct??''), a period of fasting and atonement.
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days/ forty days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the  6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast and are days that commemorate Easter Sunday.
8c8
< As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]] and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
---
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Easter|987363873
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days/ forty days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the  6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast and are days that commemorate Easter Sunday.
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days that cover the of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the  6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday.
------
Allocute|987363882
1c1,5
< To state specifically and in detail what one did, usually in commission of a crime.  Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence.  Allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families, and it nearly always removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.
---
> Generally, to speak out formally.  In the field of [[apologetics]], allocution is generally done in defense of belief.  In politics one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue.  In law, it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did and/or why, often in relation to commission of a crime.
> 
> In most jurisdictions, a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute - that is, explain himself, before sentence is passed.  Some jurisdictions hold this as an abolute right, and in its absence, a sentence may potentially be overturned, with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held.
> 
> Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence.  In this instance, allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families, and it nearly always removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.
------
Easter_egg|987364069
6c6
< 
---
> Easter eggs are a widely polular symbol of new life in Polish and other Slavic counteries folk traditions. There are a lot of different techniques of decorationg eggs for Easter as well as numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes.
------
Deposition|987364164
1c1
< In law, a deposition is the act or fact of taking sworn testimony of a witness outside of court, in certain well-defined circumstances.  It is a part of the [[discovery]] process whereby [[litigant]]s obtain information from each other in preparation for trial.
---
> Literally, a "putting down."  
3c3,9
< In American judicial proceedings, certain conventions are almost always observed in the taking of a deposition.  The person to be [[depose]]d , known as the [[deponent]], is usually notified to appear at the appropriate time and place by means of a [[subpoena]].  A [[court reporter]], also known as a [[stenographic reporter]] (sometimes denoted "CSR" for Certified Stenographic Reporter) is present and begins the proceedings by administering the same oath that the deponent would take if the testimony were being given in court.  Thereafter, the court reporter makes a verbatim stenographic record of all that is said during the deposition, in the same manner that witness testimony is recorded in court.  Many CSR's nowadays also make a contemporaneous audio recording.
---
> The word has been used to refer to the removal of a person from a position of authority or power.  
> 
> It can also be used to refer to the leaving of a deposit (as in a mineral deposit) or the deposit itself.
> 
> In law, a deposition is the act or fact of taking sworn testimony of a witness outside of court, in certain well-defined circumstances.  It is a part of the [[discovery]] process whereby [[litigant]]s obtain information from each other in preparation for trial.  Some jurisdictions recognize an [[affidavit]] as a form of deposition.
> 
> In American judicial proceedings in most jurisdictions, however, certain conventions are almost always observed in the taking of a deposition.  The person to be [[depose]]d , known as the [[deponent]], is usually notified to appear at the appropriate time and place by means of a [[subpoena]].  A [[court reporter]], also known as a [[stenographic reporter]] (sometimes denoted "CSR" for Certified Stenographic Reporter) is present and begins the proceedings by administering the same oath that the deponent would take if the testimony were being given in court.  Thereafter, the court reporter makes a verbatim stenographic record of all that is said during the deposition, in the same manner that witness testimony is recorded in court.  Many CSR's nowadays also make a contemporaneous audio recording.
15c21
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987364207
17c17
< Theorem: Let V be a vector space and let W be a subset of V. Assume that W satisfies the following 3 conditions:
---
> Theorem: Let V be a vector space and let W be a subset of V. Assume that W satisfies the following 3 conditions:<br>
19,21c19,21
< 1. If u and v are elements of W, then the sum of u and v, u+v is an element of W.
< 2. If u is an element of W, and c is a member of K, the c*v is an element of W.
< 3. The element <i>0</i> of V is also an element of W.
---
> #  If u and v are elements of W, then the sum of u and v, u+v is an element of W.
> #  If u is an element of W, and c is a member of K, the c*v is an element of W.
> #  The element <i>0</i> of V is also an element of W.
------
Law|987364388
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987364521
1a2
> <pre>
3,9c4,10
< *1. If u,v are vectors of an arbitrary Vector Space, then we will write 
< *    u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
< *2. We shall use 0 to denote the number zero and use <i>0</i> to denote the additive
< *    identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
< *3. We shall denote the addition of multiple elements of V, say, u,v,w,z, by
< *    u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
< 
---
> 1.  If u,v are vectors of an arbitrary Vector Space, then we will write 
>     u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
> 2.  We shall use 0 to denote the number zero and use <i>0</i> to denote the additive
>     identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
> 3.  We shall denote the addition of multiple elements of V, say, u,v,w,z, by
>     u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
> </pre>
63,64c64,66
< 1. Property 1: Let f and g be elements of W, that is, continuous functions from R into R.
<    Then we know from Calculus, that f+g is a continuous function from R into R.<br>
---
> 1. Property 1: Let f and g be elements of W, that is, [[continuous]] functions from R
>    into  R. Then we know from Calculus, that f+g is a continuous function from R into
>    R.<br>
74c76
< Note: We can define U as the subset of W of differentiable functions. Then, basically, since every differentiable function is continuous, U is a subspace of W, which, in turn, is a subspace of V.<br>
---
> Note: We can define U as the subset of W of [[differentiable]] functions. Then, basically, since every differentiable function is continuous, U is a subspace of W, which, in turn, is a subspace of V.<br>
------
Easter_egg|987365342
1c1
< Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, various candy "eggs," such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
---
> Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionary]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
8,9c8
< 
< Easter eggs are also hidden code in software, often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
---
> Easter eggs are also hidden code in [[software]], often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
------
Easter|987365590
8c8
< As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of candy such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
---
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of confectionary such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Sanctions|987365670
4a5,6
> Sanctions can also be coercive measures adopted by a group of nations in an effort to influnce another nation into following international law or sumitting to judgement.
> 
------
Tank|987366031
3c3
< During [[World War I]], motorized vehicles were still relatively new and uncommon, but their use on the battlefield was imminent.  The earliest AFVs were tractors with metal plates bolted on to give some protection to the driver and passengers.  The British navy developed the idea into the first tanks (called 'landships') by fully-enclosing the armored area, adding a tracklaying suspension, and guns mounted in turrets.  Early tanks were large, had large crews, and moved about the same speed as marching infantry.  They were 'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament was a large cannon or multiple smaller machine guns.  The nickname 'tank' was a code-word used to confuse the enemy and maintain secrecy while they were being built and shipped to the front.
---
> During [[World War I]], motorized vehicles were still relatively new and uncommon, but their use on the battlefield was imminent.  The earliest motorized AFVs were tractors with metal plates bolted on to give some protection to the driver and passengers.  The British navy developed the idea into the first tanks (called 'landships') by fully-enclosing the armored area, adding a tracklaying suspension, and guns mounted in turrets.  Early tanks were large, had large crews, and moved about the same speed as marching infantry.  They were 'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament was a large cannon or multiple smaller machine guns.  The nickname 'tank' was a code-word used to confuse the enemy and maintain secrecy while they were being built and shipped to the front.
22,23c22
< Since WWII, most of the changes in tank design have been refinements to targeting, ranging, and stabilization equipment, and to communications, and crew comfort.  Armor has evolved to keep pace with
< improvements in weaponry, and guns have gotten bigger, but haven't fundamentally changed.
---
> Since WWII, most of the changes in tank design have been refinements to targeting, ranging, and stabilization equipment, and to communications, and crew comfort.  Armor has evolved to keep pace with improvements in weaponry, and guns have gotten bigger, but in most cases haven't fundamentally changed.
25c24,28
< ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor, attempts to use barrel-launched ATGMs (M60A2, M551, T64, T72, T80, T90))''
---
> During the latter half of the 20th century, some tanks were armed with [[ATGM]]s which could be launched through the main gun barrel.  In the U.S., the M60A2, M551 Sheridan, and prototype MBT-70, with 152mm barrel/launchers, used the Shillelagh infrared missile.  The MBT-70 was canceled prior to production due to high cost, and superseded by the M1 Abrams, which used a conventional gun.  Both the M551 and the M60A2 were widely considered failures; expensive, unreliable, and difficult to maintain.  They were replaced by M60A3's (using conventional guns) and M2 Bradleys.  ATGMs are currently mounted on lighter AFVs, such as the M901 ITV and the M2/M3 Bradley.
> 
> ''(Russian missile-armed tanks: T64, T72, T80, T90?)''
> 
> ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor)''
------
Peppermint|987366695
1c1
< A sterile hybrid [[mint]] with a high [[menthol]] content, often used in [[tea]] and [[candy]].
---
> A sterile hybrid [[mint]] with a high [[menthol]] content, often used in [[tea]] and [[confectionery]].
------
Easter|987366765
8c8
< As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of confectionary such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
---
> As with other Christian dates, Easter is also commercially important, with big sales of confectionery such as chocolate [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, and [[Greeting card|greeting cards]].
------
Easter_egg|987366827
1c1
< Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionary]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
---
> Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
------
Blindness|987372761
10c10
< /[[Philosophy of Blindness]]
---
> [[/Philosophy]]
12c12
< /[[History of Blindness]]
---
> [[/History]]
14c14
< /[[Literature of the Blind]]
---
> [[/Literature]]
16c16
< /[[Technology for the Blind]]
---
> [[/Technology]]
18c18
< /[[Law concerning the Blind]]
---
> [[/Law]]
20c20
< /[[Medical Issues in Blindness]]
---
> [[/Medical]]
22c22
< /[[Organizations for the Blind]]
---
> [[/Organizations]]
24c24
< /[[Education for the Blind]]
---
> [[/Education]]
26c26
< /[[The Blind and the Deaf]]
---
> [[/The Blind and the Deaf]]
------
Mathematics|987373261
15c15
< :[[Abstract algebra]] -- [[Analysis]] -- [[Topology]] -- [[Geometry]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
---
> :[[Abstract algebra]] -- [[Analysis]] -- [[Topology]] -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
18c18
< :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Tensors]]
---
> :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Tensors]]
------
Mathematics/Talk|987373478
28c28,30
< I am a student studying to be a mathematician. The mathematics section of Wikipedia looks like it could eventually be a good replacement for Mathworld. I think that MathML should be considered for the math section. Yes, I know that not many browsers other than Mozilla can render it, but someone could make a CGI script that converts pages that use MathML into pages that express mathematical expressions in plain text form. There are some things that cannot be easily expressed in plain text form and the alternative of using gifs for mathematical expressions is rather unappealing.
---
> I am a student studying to be a mathematician. The mathematics section of Wikipedia looks like it could eventually be a good replacement for Mathworld. I think that MathML should be considered for the math section. Yes, I know that not many browsers other than Mozilla can render it, but someone could make a CGI script that converts pages that use MathML into pages that express mathematical expressions in plain text form. There are some things that cannot be easily expressed in plain text form and the alternative of using gifs for mathematical expressions is rather unappealing.----
> This present scheme is developing problems. I just entered Linear Algebra under Structure and Change, I think. This should be more like a diagram where you can show subjects that
> cross two fields. I give up. RoseParks
------
Mathematics/Talk|987373583
29c29
< This present scheme is developing problems. I just entered Linear Algebra under Structure and Change, I think. This should be more like a diagram where you can show subjects that
---
> This present scheme is developing problems. I just entered Linear Algebra under Structure and Space, I think. This should be more like a diagram where you can show subjects that
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987373687
9c9,10
<     u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.<br>
---
>     u+v+w+z, while realizing that addition is still a binary operation.
> 
------
Contradance|987374008
29a30,31
> 
> Contra Dansing is available in almost every community in the United States.  Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you: <A HREF ="http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml">.
------
Contradance|987374040
31c31
< Contra Dansing is available in almost every community in the United States.  Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you: <A HREF ="http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml">.
---
> Contra Dansing is available in almost every community in the United States.  Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml.
------
Contradance|987374163
31c31,32
< Contra Dansing is available in almost every community in the United States.  Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml.
---
> Contra Dancing is available in almost every community in the United States. Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you
> http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml.
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987374578
36c36
< 2.  Property 2: Given u in W and c in <b>R</b>, then c*v=c*(u1,u2,...0)=
---
> 2. Property 2: Given u in W and c in <b>R</b>, then c*v=c*(u1,u2,...0)=
38c38
< 3.  Property 3: Since (0,0,...,0) is an element of W, by definition, <i>0</i> is a
---
> 3. Property 3: Since (0,0,...,0) is an element of W, by definition, <i>0</i> is a
45,47c45,51
< 1. Property I: Let P=(p1, p2) and Q=(q1,q2) be elements of W, that is, points such that
<    p1=p2 and q1=q2. Then P+Q=(p1+q1,p2+q2).  Then since p1=p2 and q1=q2, P+Q=(p1+q1,p1+q1)=
<    (2p1,2q1). Then P+Q is an element of W.<br>
---
> 1. Property I: Let P=(p<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>) and Q=(q<sub>1</sub>,q<sub>2</sub>) be 
>    elements of W, that is, points such that p<sub>1</sub>=p<sub>2</sub> and 
>    p<sub>1</sub>=q<sub>2</sub>. Then
>    P+Q=p<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>2</sub>+q<sub>2</sub>). Then since  
>    p<sub>1</sub>=p<sub>2</sub> and q<sub>1</sub>=q<sub>2</sub>, P+Q=
>    (p<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>1</sub>,p<sub>1</sub>+q<sub>1</sub>)=
>    (2p<sub>1</sub>,2q<sub>1</sub>). Then P+Q is an element of W.<br>
------
Sanctions|987374803
9c9
< This is only one sense of the word ''sanctions,'' even in a legal contect--no?
---
> This is only one sense of the word ''sanctions,'' even in a legal context--no?
------
RoseParks|987375168
26d25
< Re: [[ElementaryGroupTheory]]:  Looking at the diffs, I (sort of) understand now.  For some reason the primes on y' didn't originally show up on my browser (and were replaced by "spaces"), which were saved when I saved.  This is also why the original proof made no sense to me. The new primes are perfectly visible.  MeaCulpa. -- [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Easter|987375179
8a9,10
> 
> In the [[United States]], the Easter holiday has been secularized, so that the main holiday event for many Americans is the coloring of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], followed on Easter Sunday by an Easter egg hunt, in which young children gather the eggs that have been hidden in their homes or yards.  According to the children's stories, eggs and other treats are delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in the form of an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up on Easter Sunday.  The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified.  The association of a bunny with eggs is also somewhat mysterious.
------
Easter|987375332
10c10,11
< In the [[United States]], the Easter holiday has been secularized, so that the main holiday event for many Americans is the coloring of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], followed on Easter Sunday by an Easter egg hunt, in which young children gather the eggs that have been hidden in their homes or yards.  According to the children's stories, eggs and other treats are delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in the form of an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up on Easter Sunday.  The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified.  The association of a bunny with eggs is also somewhat mysterious.
---
> In the [[United States]], the Easter holiday has been secularized, so that the main holiday event for many Americans is the coloring of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], followed on Easter Sunday by an Easter egg hunt, in which young children gather the eggs that have been hidden in their homes or yards.  According to the children's stories, eggs and other treats are delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in the form of an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up on Easter Sunday.  The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified.  The association of a bunny with eggs is also somewhat mysterious.----
> Think fertility...
------
Tank|987384752
28c28,38
< ''(Chobham composite, reactive armor)''
---
> ''(HESH, HEAT, APDS/APFSDS, use of depleted uranium)''
> 
> Sloping and curving armor both increase the effective thickness, as a projectile striking at an angle must cut through more armor than one impacting perpendicularly.  They also increase the chances of deflecting projectiles.
> 
> Recent developments in tank armor have focused primarily on ways to defeat HEAT and other shaped-charge warheads.  
> 
> Spaced armor is simply leaving hollow spaces in the armor to dissipate the energy of a shaped-charge warhead.
> 
> Composite (aka Chobham) armor was developed in the 1970's by the British and first used on the German Leopard II.  It consists of layers of steel, ceramic, and plastic honeycomb, sometimes with layers of depleted uranium added.  Composite is effective against both kinetic and shaped-charge munitions.  Against kinetic penetrators, the brittle ceramic blunts the projectile while the softer steel layers absorb it's kinetic energy.  Still, it is significantly more effective against shaped-charge munitions, so the depleted uranium layers are added to provide extra protection against kinetic penetrators.
> 
> Reactive armor, developed by Israel, uses layers of high explosive sandwiched between steel plates.  When a shaped-charge warhead hits, the explosive detonates and pushes the steel plates into the warhead, disrupting the charge's plasma flow.  It is not effective against kinetic penetrators.
------
Meiosis|987389337
3c3
< The mechanistic differences between [[mitosis]], which produces somatic cells, and meiosis, is best understood by considering the  case of mitosis first.  During a mitotic cell cycle, chromosomes are duplicated but remain closely aligned, and these twin copies are called sister chromatids.  Note that diploid cells have two homologous chromsomes, and that in the interval after DNA replication but before cell division, there is a pair of sister chromatids for each of two homologous chromosomes, adding up to four copies of each chromosome. At metaphase, sister chromatids align on the mitotic spindle.  At anaphase, these sister chromatids separate, each migrating toward an opposite pole of the mitotic spindle.  The two new cells that consequently form bear one copy of each homologous chromosome.
---
> The mechanistic differences between [[mitosis]], which produces somatic cells, and meiosis, is best understood by considering the  case of mitosis first.  During a mitotic cell cycle, chromosomes are duplicated but remain closely aligned, and these twin copies are called sister chromatids.  Note that diploid cells have two sets of homologous chromsomes.  DNA replication generates sister chromatids from each chromosome, and in the interval between DNA replication and cell division, the cell bears four copies of each chromosome.  At metaphase, sister chromatids align on the mitotic spindle.  At anaphase, these sister chromatids separate, each migrating toward an opposite pole of the spindle.  The two new cells that result bear one copy of each homologous chromosome.
5c5
< The initial stages of meiosis appear quite similar to the mitotic cell cycle: a diploid cell undergoes DNA replication, producing two sister chromatids for each of two homologous chromosomes.  However, the mechanism of chromosome partitioning is drastically different in the first meiotic cell division.  Each pair of homologous chromosomes, rather than one sister chromatid from each homologous chromosome, migrates toward a different pole.  The resulting cells have two copies of each chromosome, but correspond to the sister chromatid pair.  During the second meiotic division, DNA replication does not occur.  At cell division, the sister chromatids separate, and the resulting cells have one copy of each chromosome.
---
> The initial stages of meiosis appear quite similar to the mitotic cell cycle: a diploid cell undergoes DNA replication, producing two sister chromatids for each of two homologous chromosomes.  However, the mechanism of chromosome partitioning is drastically different in the first meiotic cell division.  Each pair of homologous chromosomes, rather than one sister chromatid from each homologous chromosome, migrates toward a different pole.  The resulting cells have two copies of each chromosome, but correspond to the sister chromatid pair.  Prior to the second meiotic division, DNA replication does not occur.  At cell division, the sister chromatids separate, and the resulting cells have one copy of each chromosome.
------
Tank|987396988
2a3,7
> Key features of a tank:
> * Self propelled mobile artillery
> * Off road mobility through track based movement instead of wheel based
> * Armor protetection for tank crew and motor
> 
------
Dentistry|987397616
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Join CTContra.com In Its Fight To "Cure" Cancer (http://www.ctcontra.com)
> 
>  
> 
> Just about everyone on the planet has been effected by Cancer.  I have lost several relatives and friends to this wide spread disease.  I often feel helpless to sit back and watch Cancer take its course and there is nothing I can do about it.  The quest for a “cure” to different kinds of Cancer is often restricted to the amount of processing power available to researchers.  Yes, we give money to many Cancer organizations so they can buy computing power, but this is not enough.  Now there is more we can do to help.  All Personal Computers (PCs) today have far more processing power than we use.  Even power users today are not using their PCs to their full extent at all times.  Even as I write this email I am only using about 33% of my processing capabilities.  Most of this is the Operating System (Windows 98).  Word processing and email are not processing intensive.  There is a new project that started April 1, 2001 to create the largest supercomputer ever assembled by sharing this spare processing and combining it towards a Cancer “cure”.  And it doesn’t cost me a penny to “donate” the remaining 67% of my capacity to the greater good!  It is estimated that the time it will take to find a “cure” can be cut in HALF by sharing this capacity. 
> 
> Participating is easy.  Simply go to http://www.intel.com/cure and download the software.  Install and register the program.  Your computer will be assigned a task.  When your PC completes the task the result will be sent to the registrar.  The registrar will assimilate your results and assign you another task.  That is all there is to it.  This program will work with “always on” connections like Cable Modems and DSL connections as well as a dial up accounts like AOL or Mindspring.  If you have a dial up account the completed task will not be sent until you connect to the Internet again.  Everyone can participate.  
> 
> I have made a commitment to run the software on my office PC as well as one of my home PCs.  This program will run 24 hours a day 7 days a week 365 days a year on both machines.  Both machines are always on the Internet and will submit their results and obtain a new task without interruption.  It is the least I can do.  Yes it will cost a little more to have these 2 PCs on all of the time.  I doubt that it will cost more than $5 a month in electricity.  If you have an “always on” connection make sure you are running a personal firewall, especially if you are going to let the machine run when you are not there.  Remember, you do NOT have to leave your PC on all of the time.  You can simply use it the way you have always used it and let this program run in the background.  The most important act is to get the word out.  There is a mind numbing amount of PCs out there.  Now there is something I can do on an hourly basis to help find a “cure”.  This makes me feel better than the money I donate over the period of a year.  
> 
> The life you save is often someone you don’t know.  Then again it could be yours or mine.  Consider a “donation”!! 
> 
> Sincerely,
> 
> CTContra.com (Contact Webmaster with questions!!)
> 
>  
> 
> P. S. : To Join the CTContra.com team simply download the program and install, then come back to this page and select http://members.ud.com/services/teams/team.htm?id=6E0C54C4-D9F6-4842-9E57-96640687FC2F.
------
Dentistry|987398047
0a1,2
> Clearly this is not about Dentistry.  It is about fighting cancer.  Help me I can't find a way to change the heading "About Dentistry".  Thank you.
> 
------
Dentistry|987398090
1c1
< Clearly this is not about Dentistry.  It is about fighting cancer.  Help me I can't find a way to change the heading "About Dentistry".  Thank you.
---
> Clearly this is not about Dentistry.  It is about fighting cancer.  Help me I can't find a way to change the heading "Dentistry" or move it to an appropriate area.  Thank you.
------
Litigant|987398426
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A party involved in a lawsuit.  A litigant is a person suing or being sued, or otherwise calling upon the judicial process to determine the outcome of a suit.  This does not include witnesses or other persons who may be called to court during a trial - just the parties themselves.
------
Law|987398510
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Blindness|987400466
1,4c1
< Blindness is the condition of lacking one of the five senses <b>sight</b>.<br>
< One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.<br>
< The Blind, themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "<b>The Sighted</b>."<br>
< Other people included in discussions and services for the Blind are:
---
> Blindness is the condition of lacking one of the five senses <b>sight</b>.  One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.  The blind, themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "<b>the sighted</b>."  Other people included in discussions of and services for the blind are:
26c23
< [[/The Blind and the Deaf]]
---
> [[/The Blind and the Deaf]]
------
Blindness|987400546
1,4c1,4
< Blindness is the condition of lacking one of the five senses <b>sight</b>.  One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.  The blind, themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "<b>the sighted</b>."  Other people included in discussions of and services for the blind are:
< *The Partially-Sighted
< *People with Low-Vision
< *The Color Blind
---
> Blindness is the condition of lacking one the sense of sight.  One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.  The blind themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "the sighted."  Other people included in discussions of and services for the blind are:
> * The Partially-Sighted
> * People with Low-Vision
> * The Color Blind
------
Mathematics/Talk|987401183
30a31,32
> ----
> Since this is your own project, just bear in mind that whenever you say "I give up," what you really mean is "I don't have the time and energy to do personally what I think needs to be done, and I'm not going to try to persuade other people to do it."  That's understandable, sure.  But note, you cannot mean, "I'm giving up on you: you are to be blamed because you have failed my expectations, but there's nothing I can do about it because I'm not responsible."  Since you can change any page on Wikipedia, you could change it as you see fit, if you wanted to.  So you personally are just as responsible as anyone else here is.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Dentistry|987401574
1c1
< Clearly this is not about Dentistry.  It is about fighting cancer.  Help me I can't find a way to change the heading "Dentistry" or move it to an appropriate area.  Thank you.
---
> We need someone to write about dentistry here!
3c3
< Join CTContra.com In Its Fight To "Cure" Cancer (http://www.ctcontra.com)
---
> Here are some basic topics in no particular order:
5,21c5
<  
< 
< Just about everyone on the planet has been effected by Cancer.  I have lost several relatives and friends to this wide spread disease.  I often feel helpless to sit back and watch Cancer take its course and there is nothing I can do about it.  The quest for a “cure” to different kinds of Cancer is often restricted to the amount of processing power available to researchers.  Yes, we give money to many Cancer organizations so they can buy computing power, but this is not enough.  Now there is more we can do to help.  All Personal Computers (PCs) today have far more processing power than we use.  Even power users today are not using their PCs to their full extent at all times.  Even as I write this email I am only using about 33% of my processing capabilities.  Most of this is the Operating System (Windows 98).  Word processing and email are not processing intensive.  There is a new project that started April 1, 2001 to create the largest supercomputer ever assembled by sharing this spare processing and combining it towards a Cancer “cure”.  And it doesn’t cost me a penny to “donate” the remaining 67% of my capacity to the greater good!  It is estimated that the time it will take to find a “cure” can be cut in HALF by sharing this capacity. 
< 
< Participating is easy.  Simply go to http://www.intel.com/cure and download the software.  Install and register the program.  Your computer will be assigned a task.  When your PC completes the task the result will be sent to the registrar.  The registrar will assimilate your results and assign you another task.  That is all there is to it.  This program will work with “always on” connections like Cable Modems and DSL connections as well as a dial up accounts like AOL or Mindspring.  If you have a dial up account the completed task will not be sent until you connect to the Internet again.  Everyone can participate.  
< 
< I have made a commitment to run the software on my office PC as well as one of my home PCs.  This program will run 24 hours a day 7 days a week 365 days a year on both machines.  Both machines are always on the Internet and will submit their results and obtain a new task without interruption.  It is the least I can do.  Yes it will cost a little more to have these 2 PCs on all of the time.  I doubt that it will cost more than $5 a month in electricity.  If you have an “always on” connection make sure you are running a personal firewall, especially if you are going to let the machine run when you are not there.  Remember, you do NOT have to leave your PC on all of the time.  You can simply use it the way you have always used it and let this program run in the background.  The most important act is to get the word out.  There is a mind numbing amount of PCs out there.  Now there is something I can do on an hourly basis to help find a “cure”.  This makes me feel better than the money I donate over the period of a year.  
< 
< The life you save is often someone you don’t know.  Then again it could be yours or mine.  Consider a “donation”!! 
< 
< Sincerely,
< 
< CTContra.com (Contact Webmaster with questions!!)
< 
<  
< 
< P. S. : To Join the CTContra.com team simply download the program and install, then come back to this page and select http://members.ud.com/services/teams/team.htm?id=6E0C54C4-D9F6-4842-9E57-96640687FC2F.
---
> [[tooth]] -- [[gum disease]] -- [[toothbrush]] -- [[periodontics]] -- [[orthodontics]]
------
Easter_egg|987401840
1c1
< Easter eggs are hen's eggs, dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the easter bunny, for children to find on easter morning.
---
> Easter eggs are [[hen egg|hen's eggs]], dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.
3c3
< ''Does anyone know the history of decorating hen's eggs for Easter?  Is this, perhaps, a hold-over from some spring Pagan festival?''
---
> Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are fairly clearly [[fertility symbol]]s.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  There are some cute stories as to their origin, too - like an emperor claiming that the resurrection was as likely as eggs turning red, or even just that it was to celebrate the eating of eggs that was forbidden during lent.
5,6c5,7
< A quick search reveals that decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and rabbits are fairly clearly fertility symbols.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  There are some cute stories as to their origin, too - like an emperor claiming that the resurrection was as likely as eggs turning red, or even just that it was to celebrate the eating of eggs that was forbidden during lent.
< Easter eggs are a widely polular symbol of new life in Polish and other Slavic counteries folk traditions. There are a lot of different techniques of decorationg eggs for Easter as well as numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes.
---
> Easter eggs are a widely polular symbol of new life in Polish and other Slavic counteries [[folk tradition]]s. There are a lot of different techniques of decorating eggs for Easter as well as numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes.
> 
> ''This needs to be further edited and improved upon...''
8c9
< Easter eggs are also hidden code in [[software]], often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
---
> Easter eggs are also hidden code in [[software]], often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
------
Atlas_2091|987401966
9c9
< Welcome, Atlas!  Put that globe down for a while and write a bit for us!  ;-)  You certainly the only autodidact among us. --[[LMS]]
---
> Welcome, Atlas!  Put that globe down for a while and write a bit for us!  ;-)  You are certainly not the only autodidact among us. --[[LMS]]
------
Atlas_2091|987402019
11c11
< I don't see any verb in that sentence, Larry, but I assume you meant it to be "are not", in which case I agree.  I am another one of the autodidacts here (although I think I have a high school diploma in a drawer somewhere that I haven't seen in 20 years).  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> I agree.  I am another one of the autodidacts here (although I think I have a high school diploma in a drawer somewhere that I haven't seen in 20 years).  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Pennsylvanian|987416241
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Geologic Timescale|geologic (sub)Period]] lasting from roughly 320 million years before the present to 280 million years before the present.  In North America where the early Carboniferous is primarily marine limestones, it is treated as a full fledged Geologic Period between the [[Devonian]] and the Pennsylvanian.  The Pennsylvanian is the upper part of the [[Carboniferous]] in North America.  In Europe, the [[Mississippian]] and Pennsylvanian are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the [[Carboniferous]] Period.  Refer to the [[Carboniferous]] Period for more information.
> 
> ''There are discrepancies throughout between the articles on geologic periods and the timescale chart.  That's because no two sources agree on the exact dates for geologic periods.  I'll go through sometime in the next month or so and make them consistent [which is not the same as correct].''
------
United_States/History|987421525
8c8
< [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as an state of the union, after american settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830 and joined the United States a decade later.
---
> [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as a state of the union, after American settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830's and joined the United States a decade later.
10,11c10,11
< Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Licoln]], 
< several states from the south secceded from the union forming
---
> Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], 
> several states from the south seceded from the union forming
15,19c15,18
< 
< During the 20th century US was involved in two World Wars.
< It entered in  [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, one of its
< ships, was sunken by the germans. With its help, Great Britain,
< France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe penalties on
---
> During the 20th century the US was involved in two World Wars.
> It entered [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, a British ship
> carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With its help, Great Britain,
> France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on
22,24c21,22
< One decade after the war, a severe [[depression]] asolated the
< country, and despite the efforts of president [[F.D.Roosevelt]],
< reactivation was only complete with the participation of the
---
> One decade after the war, a severe [[Depression|depression]] isolated the country, and despite the efforts of President [[F.D.Roosevelt]], economic recovery
> was only completed with the participation of the
29,30c27,28
<  
< America remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
---
> The United States  
> remains a popular destination for immigrants, because of its economic prosperity and the high degree of freedom its citizens enjoy.
------
United_States/History|987425667
1c1,3
< The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, America tried but failed to expel the British from the continent (1812-4) and the two powers stalemated.
---
> The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by Great Britain's
> opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the United States and Britain essentially fought
> to a draw.
10,23c12,91
< Shortly after that, after the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], 
< several states from the south seceded from the union forming
< the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued,
< that ended with the political reunification of the country.
< 
< During the 20th century the US was involved in two World Wars.
< It entered [[World War I]] after the Lusitania, a British ship
< carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With its help, Great Britain,
< France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on
< Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].
< 
< One decade after the war, a severe [[Depression|depression]] isolated the country, and despite the efforts of President [[F.D.Roosevelt]], economic recovery
< was only completed with the participation of the
< US in [[WWII]].
---
> Shortly after that, in response to the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], most of the southern states seceded from the union, forming
> the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued.
> U.S. military leadership was mediocre, at first, compared to
> Confederate generals, particularly [[Robert E. Lee]]. But
> the Federal government managed after five years to invade the southern
> states, and defeat the Confederate army, by means of an 
> overwhelming advantage in materials and number of soldiers, 
> and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like [[Ulysses
> S. Grant]] and [[Sherman]].
> 
> The destructiveness of the Federal invasion and defeat of the
> South, followed by exploitive (and corruptly implemented) 
> Federal economic policies in the defeated region after the war,
> caused lasting bitterness among Southerners toward the U.S. government.  This failure of the Federal government to
> effectively reunite the country contributed to the government's failure for many decades to enforce the [[Civil Rights]] of the formerly enslaved [[African-Americans]] in the South.
> 
> During the 20th century the U.S. was involved in two World Wars.
> Firmly maintaining neutrality when [[World War I]] began in 1914,
> the United States eventually entered the war 
> after the Lusitania, a British ship
> carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With American help, Great Britain,
> France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].  The
> economic impact of the reparations mandated by the Treaty 
> were so severe, that [[Adolf Hitler]] was easily able to 
> convince them to elect him as their national
> leader in the early 1930's.
> 
> Disillusioned by the failure of the war to achieve the high
> ideals promised by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], the American
> people chose [[Isolationism]]:  that is, they turned their
> attention inward, away from international relations and 
> solely toward domestic affairs.
> 
> During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension
> of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the [[Stock
> Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
> 
> The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank
> into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels
> of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression
> were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted
> by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash,
> and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering
> from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
> 
> With work so difficult to come by, political ferment and discontent were greatly increased among the working classes.
> An unsympathetic or repressive response from the U.S. government
> might well have sparked a [[Socialist]] uprising, but President
> [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], elected in 1932, prevented this
> by implementing a number of somewhat Socialist
> programs to aid the poor and unemployed.  He skillfully
> improved the appeal of these programs to the American people,
> by refusing to label them "Socialist", or even admit
> that they were.
> He also contributed to the future stability of the economy
> by instituting new regulations in business, particularly banking.
> 
> Despite his skillful use of language to disguise the Socialist
> nature of these programs, the wealthy and the business
> interests were profoundly alarmed by [[FDR]]'s innovations, and
> opposed them resolutely.  But they were unable to prevent them,
> due to their widespread popularity with the working classes.
> 
> Despite these new programs, economic recovery was very slow.  
> The nadir
> of the Great Depression was about 1933, but the economy
> showed very little improvement until the end of the
> decade, when it benefited from the participation of the
> U.S. in [[WWII]].  
> 
> Isolationist sentiment in America had ebbed a little, but
> the United States at first declined to enter the war,
> limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to Great Britain and the Soviet Union.  American feeling changed drastically with
> the sudden Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the United
> States quickly joined the British-Soviet alliance against
> [[Japan]], Fascist Italy, and [[Nazi]] Germany, known as
> the "[[Axis]] Alliance".  Even with American participation,
> it took five years to defeat Germany and Japan.  Though the 
> Soviet Union suffered far more casualties than its allies, America's active involvement in the war was vital to
> preventing an eventual Axis victory.
------
United_States/History|987425715
19,20c19,20
< and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like [[Ulysses
< S. Grant]] and [[Sherman]].
---
> and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like 
> [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Sherman]].
------
United_States/History|987425783
36c36
< convince them to elect him as their national
---
> convince the German people to elect him as their national
------
United_States/History|987425839
45,47c45,46
< During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension
< of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the [[Stock
< Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
---
> During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension of credit to a dangerous 
> degree, including in the [[Stock Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
------
Dentistry|987426037
5c5,6
< [[tooth]] -- [[gum disease]] -- [[toothbrush]] -- [[periodontics]] -- [[orthodontics]]
---
> [[tooth]] -- [[endodontics]] -- [[toothbrush]] -- [[periodontics]] -- [[orthodontics]] --  
> [[implants]]
------
Dentistry|987426476
5,6c5,12
< [[tooth]] -- [[endodontics]] -- [[toothbrush]] -- [[periodontics]] -- [[orthodontics]] --  
< [[implants]]
---
> [[tooth]] -- [[endodontics]] -- [[periodontics]] -- [[orthodontics]] -- [[implants]] --  [[oral surgery]] --  [[temporormandibular joint disease]] --  [[prosthodontics]]  [[maxillofacial reconstruction?]] -- [[toothbrush]] --  [[waterpik]]  --  [[plaque remover]] 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> ----periodontists deal with diseases of the gums, so I left out gum diseae.
------
Mathematics/Talk|987426800
32c32,33
< Since this is your own project, just bear in mind that whenever you say "I give up," what you really mean is "I don't have the time and energy to do personally what I think needs to be done, and I'm not going to try to persuade other people to do it."  That's understandable, sure.  But note, you cannot mean, "I'm giving up on you: you are to be blamed because you have failed my expectations, but there's nothing I can do about it because I'm not responsible."  Since you can change any page on Wikipedia, you could change it as you see fit, if you wanted to.  So you personally are just as responsible as anyone else here is.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> Since this is your own project, just bear in mind that whenever you say "I give up," what you really mean is "I don't have the time and energy to do personally what I think needs to be done, and I'm not going to try to persuade other people to do it."  That's understandable, sure.  But note, you cannot mean, "I'm giving up on you: you are to be blamed because you have failed my expectations, but there's nothing I can do about it because I'm not responsible."  Since you can change any page on Wikipedia, you could change it as you see fit, if you wanted to.  So you personally are just as responsible as anyone else here is.  :-) --[[LMS]]----
> I am not the one who created this scheme, nor the one that chose it above the other/others. In fact I wish I did. You can fault me for being reluctant to radically change anothers work and, yes, of not having a great deal of time for this--other than that, well...:-).
------
Drew_Barrymore|987426834
1c1,4
< Drew Barrymore is...?
---
> Drew Barrymore is an American film actress born in
> 1975.  She is the granddaughter of the famous 
> stage and movie actor John Barrymore.
> 
------
Drew_Barrymore/Filmography|987427004
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Films she has acted in include
> 
> "Charlie's Angels"
> "Titan A.E."
> "Never Been Kissed"
> "Everyone Says I Love You"
> "Batman Forever"
> "E.T." (at age seven)
> 
> She has also produced more than half a dozen films,
> including "Charlie's Angels" and "Never Been Kissed."
------
Drew_Barrymore/Filmography|987427161
3,8c3,8
< "Charlie's Angels"
< "Titan A.E."
< "Never Been Kissed"
< "Everyone Says I Love You"
< "Batman Forever"
< "E.T." (at age seven)
---
> * "Charlie's Angels"
> * "Titan A.E."
> * "Never Been Kissed"
> * "Everyone Says I Love You"
> * "Batman Forever"
> * "E.T." (at age seven)
------
Mathematics/Talk|987427383
33c33
< I am not the one who created this scheme, nor the one that chose it above the other/others. In fact I wish I did. You can fault me for being reluctant to radically change anothers work and, yes, of not having a great deal of time for this--other than that, well...:-).
---
> I am not the one who created this scheme, nor the one that chose it above the other/others. In fact, I wish I did  know who put this particular scheme up above the other/others. You can fault me for being reluctant to radically change anothers work and, yes, of not having a great deal of time for this--other than that, well...:-). I CALL  ALERNATIVE SCHEMES TO ORGANIZE THE MATH PAGES!!!
------
Larry_Sanger|987427830
79,80c79,81
< ''Is none of your bussiness'' is a valid answer:).
< ----
---
> ''Is none of your bussiness'' is a valid answer:).----
> Do you pick at my pages, especially, or are you an equal opprtunity page-picker-ater? Anonymous Coward.
> ----
------
Larry_Sanger|987427889
80c80
< Do you pick at my pages, especially, or are you an equal opprtunity page-picker-ater? Anonymous Coward.
---
> Do you pick at my pages, especially, or are you an equal opprtunity page-picker-ater? AnonymousCoward.
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987428030
5c5
<     u+(-v) as u-v.<br>
---
>     u+(-v) as u-v.
7c7
<     identity, which is a vector not a number.<br>
---
>     identity, which is a vector not a number.
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|987428115
13c13
< Definition : Let V be a vector space over a field K and let W be a subset of V. Then if  W  is a vector space, itself, is a <b>Subspace</b> of V over K.
---
> Definition : Let V be a vector space over a field K and let W be a subset of V. Then if  W  is a vector space, itself, it is a <b>Subspace</b> of V over K.
16c16
< all 10 properties of a Vector Space would hold for W. We can prove a theorem that 
---
> all 10 properties of a Vector Space hold for W. We can prove a theorem that 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987430558
134a135,136
> ----
> '''Q. How do you pronounce faq'''
------
BruceMiller|987432909
1c1
< [[Contradance]]r and new [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]].
---
> New [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]].
------
Esperanto|987432921
3c3,24
< Approximately 1.6 million people speak Esperanto (to Foreign Service Level 3 ability) as of the year 2000.
---
> Approximately 1.6 million people speak Esperanto (to Foreign Service Level 3 ability) as of the year 2000.  Definition of Foreign Service Level 3 ability:
> 
>    Interagency Language Roundtable, level 3 (Professional Proficiency)
> 
>    Pronunciation:     Sometimes foreign but always intelligible
> 
>    Grammar:           Good control of most basic syntactic patterns;
>                       always conveys meaning accurately in reasonable
>                       complex sentences
> 
>    Vocabulary:        Adequate for participation in all general conversation
>                       and for professional discussions in a special field
> 
>    Fluency:           Rarely hesitant; always able to sustain conversation
>                       through circumlocution
> 
>    Comprehension:     Understands most of what is said to him;  can follow
>                       speeches, clear radio broadcasts, and most
>                       conversations between native speakers, but not in
>                       great detail.
> 
> Grammar examples:
------
Girth|987433005
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The girth of a graph is the size of the largest cycle contained in the graph.
> 
> For example, a 4-cycle (square) has girth 4. A grid has girth 4 as well, and a triangular mesh has girth 3.
------
Diameter|987433196
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Diameter of a circle: (please fill it in)
> 
> 
> Diameter of a graph: the distance between the two vertices which are furthest from each other. The distance between two vertices a and b is the minimum number of edges that one has to follow to get from a to b.
------
Easter_egg|987435409
1c1
< Easter eggs are [[hen egg|hen's eggs]], dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.
---
> Easter Eggs are [[hen egg|hen's eggs]], dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.
3c3
< Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are fairly clearly [[fertility symbol]]s.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  There are some cute stories as to their origin, too - like an emperor claiming that the resurrection was as likely as eggs turning red, or even just that it was to celebrate the eating of eggs that was forbidden during lent.
---
> Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are fairly clearly [[fertility symbol]]s.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  Easter Egg origin stories abound -- one has an emperor claiming that the [[Resurrection]] was as likely as eggs turning red; more prosaically the festival may have been to celebrate the eating of eggs forsaken for [[Lent]].
5c5,7
< Easter eggs are a widely polular symbol of new life in Polish and other Slavic counteries [[folk tradition]]s. There are a lot of different techniques of decorating eggs for Easter as well as numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes.
---
> Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries [[folk tradition]]s. A batik-like decorating process known as [[http://www.okana.net/pisanka.html Pisanki]] produces intricate brilliantly colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Faberge| Peter Carl Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter Eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.
> 
> There are many other decoration techniques and numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes.
7d8
< ''This needs to be further edited and improved upon...''
9c10
< Easter eggs are also hidden code in [[software]], often some kind of humor. One has to know how to access them. They are put in by the software programmers and hidden.
---
> Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
------
Negligence_per_se|987435997
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Latin phrase meaning "negligence as such."  It could be understood, in lay terms, to mean "negligence as a matter of law."
> 
> In civil litigation, when a party has pled guilty to or been found guilty of a violation of law in an act which directly relates to the cause of the event from which the civil litigation springs, he is considered to be negligent, per se.
> 
> This does not mean that he will be found at fault in the civil litigation, especially if someone else's conduct contributes more to the cause of the even in question than his own does.  However, as a matter of law, the judge will instruct the jury that they cannot find the convicted person to be negligence-free.
------
Easter_egg|987436408
3c3
< Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are fairly clearly [[fertility symbol]]s.  There doesn't seem to be much mention of them being correlated with the date before hand, though, so they were probably just absorbed from other festivals.  Easter Egg origin stories abound -- one has an emperor claiming that the [[Resurrection]] was as likely as eggs turning red; more prosaically the festival may have been to celebrate the eating of eggs forsaken for [[Lent]].
---
> Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are age-old [[fertility symbol]]s.  The [[Passover]]  [[Seder]] service uses a hard-cooked egg flavored with salt water as a symbol both of new life and the Temple service in [[Jerusalem]]. The Jewish tradition may have come from earlier Roman [[Spring]] feasts.
5c5,7
< Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries [[folk tradition]]s. A batik-like decorating process known as [[http://www.okana.net/pisanka.html Pisanki]] produces intricate brilliantly colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Faberge| Peter Carl Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter Eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.
---
> Easter Egg origin stories abound -- one has an emperor claiming that the [[Resurrection]] was as likely as eggs turning red; more prosaically the Easter Egg tradition may have celebrated the end of the privations of [[Lent]].
> 
> Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries [[folk tradition]]s. A batik-like decorating process known as [[http://www.okana.net/pisanka.html Pisanki]] produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Faberge| Peter Carl Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter Eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.
10c12
< Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
---
> Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
------
Res_ipsa_loquitur|987436514
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A legal phrase meaning, literally, "the thing speaks for itself."
> 
> The doctrine of res ipsa loquitur is applied to matters which, as a matter of law, do not have to be explained beyond the obvious facts.  For instance, Plaintiff Doe is injured when an elevator he has entered plunges several floors and stops abruptly.  Roe corporation built, and is responsible for maintaining the elevator.  Doe sues Roe and during the proceedings, Roe claims that Doe's complaint should be dismissed because he has never proved, or for that mater even offered, a theory as to why the elevator functioned incorectly.  Therefore, argues Roe, there is no evidence that they were at fault in the incident.  The court may hold that Doe does not have to prove anything beyond the fall itself.  The elevator malfunctioned, Roe was responsbile for the elevator in every respect, so they are responsible for the fall.  The thing speaks for itself.
------
Easter_egg|987436746
1c1
< Easter Eggs are [[hen egg|hen's eggs]], dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Also, many [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in foil and wrapped up with other chocolate confectionery.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.
---
> Easter Eggs are [[hen egg|hen's eggs]], dyed or otherwise decorated for the [[Easter]] holiday.  Some are [[confectionery]] "eggs", such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in brightly-colored foil. Some are delicately constructed of spun sugar and pastry decoration techniques. The ubiquitous jelly egg (or jelly bean) is made from sugar-coated pectin candy.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.
7c7
< Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries [[folk tradition]]s. A batik-like decorating process known as [[http://www.okana.net/pisanka.html Pisanki]] produces intricate, brilliantly colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Faberge| Peter Carl Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter Eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.
---
> Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries [[folk tradition]]s. A batik-like decorating process known as [[http://www.okana.net/pisanka.html Pisanki]] produces intricate, brilliantly-colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Faberge| Peter Carl Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter Eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.
12c12
< Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
---
> Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
------
Law|987436816
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[precedent]] -- [[product liability]] -- [[reversible error]] -- [[plea]] -- [[plea bargain]] -- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[plea of nolo contendere]] -- [[prima facie]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]] -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Direct_examination|987437174
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Direct examination is the questioning of a witness by the party who called him to the stand.  In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking [[leading question]]s.  This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to his own favorable witness.  An exception to this rule is when one has called a witness, but it is either understood, or soon becomes plain that the witness is hostile to the questioner's side of the controversy at issue.  The lawyer may then ask the court to declare to declare the person he has called to the stand a [[hostile witness]].  If the court does so, he may thereafter ply the witness with leading questions on direct examination.
------
Law|987437256
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Easter|987437343
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the resurrection of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days that cover the of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the  6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday.
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday.
10,11c10
< In the [[United States]], the Easter holiday has been secularized, so that the main holiday event for many Americans is the coloring of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], followed on Easter Sunday by an Easter egg hunt, in which young children gather the eggs that have been hidden in their homes or yards.  According to the children's stories, eggs and other treats are delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in the form of an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up on Easter Sunday.  The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified.  The association of a bunny with eggs is also somewhat mysterious.----
< Think fertility...
---
> In the [[United States]], the Easter holiday has been secularized, so that the main holiday event for many Americans is the coloring of [[Easter egg|Easter eggs]], followed on Easter Sunday by an Easter egg hunt, in which young children gather the eggs that have been hidden in their homes or yards.  According to the children's stories, eggs and other treats are delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in the form of an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up on Easter Sunday.  The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified.  The association of a bunny with eggs may be due to the Egyptian symbol of fertility, the desert [[hare]].
------
United_States/History|987437711
1,54c1,17
< The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by Great Britain's
< opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the United States and Britain essentially fought
< to a draw.
< 
< During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new
< states were added to the union. Two importants events were the
< [[Louisiana Purchase]], where the [[United States]] bought from
< [[France]] all of its territories west of the Mississipi River, and
< the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained
< [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as a state of the union, after American settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830's and joined the United States a decade later.
< 
< Shortly after that, in response to the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], most of the southern states seceded from the union, forming
< the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued.
< U.S. military leadership was mediocre, at first, compared to
< Confederate generals, particularly [[Robert E. Lee]]. But
< the Federal government managed after five years to invade the southern
< states, and defeat the Confederate army, by means of an 
< overwhelming advantage in materials and number of soldiers, 
< and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like 
< [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Sherman]].
< 
< The destructiveness of the Federal invasion and defeat of the
< South, followed by exploitive (and corruptly implemented) 
< Federal economic policies in the defeated region after the war,
< caused lasting bitterness among Southerners toward the U.S. government.  This failure of the Federal government to
< effectively reunite the country contributed to the government's failure for many decades to enforce the [[Civil Rights]] of the formerly enslaved [[African-Americans]] in the South.
< 
< During the 20th century the U.S. was involved in two World Wars.
< Firmly maintaining neutrality when [[World War I]] began in 1914,
< the United States eventually entered the war 
< after the Lusitania, a British ship
< carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With American help, Great Britain,
< France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].  The
< economic impact of the reparations mandated by the Treaty 
< were so severe, that [[Adolf Hitler]] was easily able to 
< convince the German people to elect him as their national
< leader in the early 1930's.
< 
< Disillusioned by the failure of the war to achieve the high
< ideals promised by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], the American
< people chose [[Isolationism]]:  that is, they turned their
< attention inward, away from international relations and 
< solely toward domestic affairs.
< 
< During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension of credit to a dangerous 
< degree, including in the [[Stock Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
< 
< The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank
< into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels
< of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression
< were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted
< by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash,
< and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering
< from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
---
> The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by Great Britain's opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the United States and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
> 
> During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new states were added to the Union. Two importants events were the [[Louisiana Purchase]], where the [[United States]] bought from [[France]] all of its territories west of the Mississipi River, and the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as a state of the union, after American settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830's and joined the United States a decade later.
> 
> Shortly after that, in response to the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], most of the southern states seceded from the union, forming the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued. U.S. military leadership was mediocre, at first, compared to Confederate generals, particularly [[Robert E. Lee]]. But the Union government managed after to invade the Southern states, and defeat the Confederate army, by means of an overwhelming advantage in materials and number of soldiers, and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[William T. Sherman]].
> 
> The destructiveness of the Union invasion and defeat of the South, followed by exploitive (and corruptly implemented) 
> economic policies in the defeated region after the war, caused lasting bitterness among Southerners toward the U.S. government.  This failure of the Federal government to effectively reunite the country contributed to the government's failure for many decades to enforce the [[Civil Rights]] of the formerly enslaved [[African-Americans]] in the South.
> 
> During the 20th century the U.S. was involved in two World Wars. Firmly maintaining neutrality when [[World War I]] began in 1914, the United States eventually entered the war after the [[Lusitania]], a British ship carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With American help, Great Britain, France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].  The economic impact of the reparations mandated by the Treaty were so severe, that [[Adolf Hitler]] was easily able to convince the German people to elect him as their national leader in the early 1930's.
> 
> Disillusioned by the failure of the war to achieve the high ideals promised by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], the American people chose [[Isolationism]]:  that is, they turned their attention inward, away from international relations and solely toward domestic affairs.
> 
> During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the [[Stock Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
> 
> The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression
> were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash, and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
57,90c20,30
< An unsympathetic or repressive response from the U.S. government
< might well have sparked a [[Socialist]] uprising, but President
< [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], elected in 1932, prevented this
< by implementing a number of somewhat Socialist
< programs to aid the poor and unemployed.  He skillfully
< improved the appeal of these programs to the American people,
< by refusing to label them "Socialist", or even admit
< that they were.
< He also contributed to the future stability of the economy
< by instituting new regulations in business, particularly banking.
< 
< Despite his skillful use of language to disguise the Socialist
< nature of these programs, the wealthy and the business
< interests were profoundly alarmed by [[FDR]]'s innovations, and
< opposed them resolutely.  But they were unable to prevent them,
< due to their widespread popularity with the working classes.
< 
< Despite these new programs, economic recovery was very slow.  
< The nadir
< of the Great Depression was about 1933, but the economy
< showed very little improvement until the end of the
< decade, when it benefited from the participation of the
< U.S. in [[WWII]].  
< 
< Isolationist sentiment in America had ebbed a little, but
< the United States at first declined to enter the war,
< limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to Great Britain and the Soviet Union.  American feeling changed drastically with
< the sudden Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the United
< States quickly joined the British-Soviet alliance against
< [[Japan]], Fascist Italy, and [[Nazi]] Germany, known as
< the "[[Axis]] Alliance".  Even with American participation,
< it took five years to defeat Germany and Japan.  Though the 
< Soviet Union suffered far more casualties than its allies, America's active involvement in the war was vital to
< preventing an eventual Axis victory.
---
> An unsympathetic or repressive response from the U.S. government might well have sparked a [[Socialist]] uprising, but President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], elected in 1932, prevented this by implementing a number of somewhat Socialist
> programs to aid the poor and unemployed.  He skillfully improved the appeal of these programs to the American people,
> by refusing to label them "Socialist", or even admit that they were. He also contributed to the future stability of the economy by instituting new regulations in business, particularly banking.
> 
> Despite his skillful use of language to disguise the Socialist nature of these programs, the wealthy and the business
> interests were profoundly alarmed by [[FDR]]'s innovations, and opposed them resolutely.  But they were unable to prevent them, due to their widespread popularity with the working classes.
> 
> Despite (or because of) these new programs, economic recovery was very slow.  The nadir of the Great Depression was about 1933, but the economy showed very little improvement through the end of the decade, and remained grim until it was dramatically reshaped through America's involvement in World War II.
> 
> Isolationist sentiment in America had ebbed a little, but the United States at first declined to enter the war,
> limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to Great Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.  American feeling changed drastically with the sudden Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the United States quickly joined the British-Soviet alliance against [[Japan]], Fascist Italy, and [[Nazi]] Germany, known as the "[[Axis]] Alliance".  Even with American participation, nearly four years to defeat Germany and Japan.  Though the Soviet Union suffered far more casualties than its allies, America's active involvement in the war was vital to preventing an eventual Axis victory.
------
Easter_egg|987439095
12c12
< Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eegs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
---
> Humorous digital Easter Eggs, so named because they contain a hidden surprise are often found in [[software]] code. Microsoft Excel has a well-known car racing game secreted inside. The [[Palm]] operating system has elaborately hidden animations and other surprises. See the [[http://www.eeggs.com Easter Egg Archive]] for up-to-date lists and discussions of digital Easter Eggs.
------
Political_conservatism|987439312
15c15
< * Support for a strong military, and well-defended closed borders.
---
> * Support for a strong military, and well-defended protected borders with regulated immigration
------
Blindness|987439542
23c23,27
< [[/The Blind and the Deaf]]
---
> [[/The Blind and the Deaf]]
> ----
> See also:
> * [[blind drunk]]
> * snowblind
------
Blindness|987439554
26,27c26,27
< * [[blind drunk]]
< * snowblind
---
> * blind drunk
> * snowblind
------
Law|987439884
16c16,21
< Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
---
> Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so 
> that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
> ----
> Are there terms for:
> * Organized coordinated legal action taken in many jurisdictions throughout the nation against a single industry or entity (e.g., tobacco)
> * Harassing someone via repeated lawsuits
------
AbbreviationS|987440390
468,487c468,487
<  ac.    acre.                  lb. or lb.  (libra), pound (weight).
<  bar.   barrel.                 m. or mi. mile, minute.
<  bus.   bushel.                 m. minim.
<  c.     cent.                  mo. month.
<  c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c.   na. nail.
<  cwt.   hundredweight.         oz. ounce.
<  d.     (denarius), penny. pk. peck.
<  deg.   degree.                po. pole.
<  dr.    drachm or dram.    pt. pint.
<  dwt.   pennyweight.            q. (quadrans), farthing.
<  f.     franc.                 qr. quarter.
<  fl.    florin.                qt. quart.
<  ft.    foot.                  ro. rood.
<  fur.   furlong.               Rs.4 rupees.
<  gal.   gallon.                 s. or / (solidus), shilling.
<  gr.    grain.                  s. or sec. second.
<  h. or hr. hour.           sc. or scr. scruple.
<  hhd.   hogshead.          sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c.
<  in.    inch.                  st. stone.
<  kilo.  kilometre.             yd. yard.
---
>  ac.    acre.
>  bar.   barrel.
>  bus.   bushel.
>  c.     cent.
>  c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c.
>  cwt.   Hundredweight.
>  d.     (denarius), penny.
>  deg.   degree.
>  dr.    drachm or dram.
>  dwt.   pennyweight.
>  f.     franc.
>  fl.    florin.
>  ft.    foot.
>  fur.   furlong.
>  gal.   gallon.
>  gr.    grain.
>  h. or hr. hour.
>  hhd.   hogshead.
>  in.    inch.
>  kilo.  kilometre.
489c489,510
<  
---
>  lb. or lb.  (libra), pound (weight).
>  m. or mi. mile, minute.
>  m. minim.
>  mo. month.
>  na. nail.
>  oz. ounce.
>  pk. peck.
>  po. pole.
>  pt. pint.
>  q. (quadrans), farthing.
>  qr. quarter.
>  qt. quart.
>  ro. rood.
>  Rs. 4 rupees.
>  s. or / (solidus), shilling.
>  s. or sec. second.
>  sc. or scr. scruple.
>  sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c.
>  st. stone.
>  yd. yard.
> 
> 
643c664
< 5It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. 
---
> 5 It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. 
------
Law|987441655
21c21,25
< * Harassing someone via repeated lawsuits
---
> * Harassing someone via repeated lawsuits
> ----
> As to the above questions:
> 
> I don't believe there is any specific term for the first.  For the second, see "barratry" and "vexatious litigation" above.
------
Law|987441722
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Barratry|987441857
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The act or practice of bringing repeated legal actions solely to harrass.   Usually, the actions brought lack merit.  This action has been declared a crime in some jurisdictions.
------
Law|987441858
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
Vexatious_litigation|987441985
4,5c4,5
< ----
< Is there a specific term for schronized filing of claims in courts throughout the country in order to harass a company?
---
> 
> See also [[barratry]].
------
Barratry|987442031
1c1,3
< The act or practice of bringing repeated legal actions solely to harrass.   Usually, the actions brought lack merit.  This action has been declared a crime in some jurisdictions.
---
> The act or practice of bringing repeated legal actions solely to harrass.   Usually, the actions brought lack merit.  This action has been declared a crime in some jurisdictions.
> 
> See also [[vexatious litigation]].
------
Frivolous_lawsuit|987442110
1c1,3
< This would be a lawsuit brought in spite of the fact that both the plaintiff and his lawyer knew that it had no merit.  Since it wastes the court's and the people's time and money, it may result in [[sanctions]] being levied by the court.
---
> This would be a lawsuit brought in spite of the fact that both the plaintiff and his lawyer knew that it had no merit.  Since it wastes the court's and the people's time and money, it may result in [[sanctions]] being levied by the court.
> 
> Compare [[barratry]] and [[vexatious litigation]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|987442198
1c1
< I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]].  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
---
> I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]] (specifically a devotee of [[Karl Popper]]).  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
3c3
< I am skeptical of the value of intellectual property law in general and copyrights in particular.  Because of this, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]] and related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
---
> Because I am skeptical of the value of intellectual property law in general and copyrights in particular, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]], [[poker]], and many related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
------
Affidavit|987442288
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]].
------
Law|987442412
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
------
AyeSpy|987442998
8,10c8
< Good to see some Vintage AyeSpy around here.   <grin>
< ----
< Why thank you.  I deleted the whining above... ;^)
---
> Good to see some Vintage AyeSpy around here.   <grin> [[Rob Salzman]]
21,22d18
< It isn't that the nomads don't have knowledge - it's just that they've never really shown the interest in this type of thing.  Be interesting to toss it out, though, wouldn't it...  
< ----
29,31c25
< Dang, guys...  <blush>
< ----
< And now, ducking from the onslaught of rotten eggs and tomatoes - Shakespeare never had it this tough...
---
> Dang, guys...  <blush>
------
Dentistry|987444153
12c12
< ----periodontists deal with diseases of the gums, so I left out gum diseae.
---
> ----periodontists deal with diseases of the gums, so I left out gum disease.
------
Affidavit|987445446
1c1,3
< A formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]].
---
> An <b>affidavit</b> is a formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]].
> 
> One use of affidavits is to allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants that may not be available to testify in person before the court.  In some countries, criminal defendants routinely execute anyone that testifies or will testify against them.
------
Law|987445645
25a26,30
> ----
> What about jurisdiction or locality whose laws apply?
> Where you sign a contract that is governed by the laws of another state so that the other party can take legal action locally.
> 
> Isn't there a term for this and for defeating a legal challenge by making it expensive for the other party due to the other party's location being in a remote area?
------
Napoleonic_Code|987445746
1c1
< The term Napoleonic Code stems from the original "Code Napoleon" (law of Napoleon) established at Napoleon's behest in [[France]] during his reign.  It applies to a jurisdiction which is ruled by "[[civil law]]" rather than customary law (such as English [[common law]]).  Civil law is law which seeks to deal with all legal issues through statute rather than custom, and where custom remains as a legal standard only where statute has not taken its place.  The statutory scheme is attempted to be developed along wholly rational lines, thereby providing a balance and consistency which may be lacking in some areas of custom.
---
> The term <b>Napoleonic Code</b> stems from the original "Code Napoleon" (law of Napoleon) established at Napoleon's behest in [[France]] during his reign.  It applies to a jurisdiction which is ruled by "[[civil law]]" rather than customary law (such as English [[common law]]).  Civil law is law which seeks to deal with all legal issues through statute rather than custom, and where custom remains as a legal standard only where statute has not taken its place.  The statutory scheme is attempted to be developed along wholly rational lines, thereby providing a balance and consistency which may be lacking in some areas of custom.
------
Cross-examine|987445919
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Cross-examine</b> is questioning in a legal proceeding of a witness by a [[lawyer]] representing the party that did not get the witness to testify.
------
Tank|987446083
51a52,56
> <b>Tank</b> also means:
> * a shallow man-made pond or lake
> * to decline or crash as in a stock declining rapidly in price
> * a container used to store compressed liquid or compressed gas
> ----
------
Statute_of_limitations|987446313
15a16,17
> ----
> For property ownership [[title defect]]s, is there ever any equivalent to a statue of limitations type of abandonment of ownership beyone which claims against the title cannot be made?
------
Law|987446369
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] 
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
------
Law/Tax|987446431
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Tax law</b> is the set of laws applying to taxation and tax collection.
> 
> See also:
> * [[1040]]
------
Capitalism/Talk|987446566
86c86,92
< There has been no further comment on the issue, but I'd like the record to show that I am not agreeing taking a consensus to have been reached, nor am at all happy with the page as it stands.  The prevalent definitions of terms should be given prevalence, or at the very least equality, and absolutely never shunted off as variants as presented here.  The language of wikipedia is English, and as mentioned above most English sources do not use this definition of the word, so pretending it is the more prominent flavor is very dishonest.  I would change it myself but I strongly suspect any such moves would simply be undone.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]], author of most of the above complaints.
---
> There has been no further comment on the issue, but I'd like the record to show that I am not agreeing taking a consensus to have been reached, nor am at all happy with the page as it stands.  The prevalent definitions of terms should be given prevalence, or at the very least equality, and absolutely never shunted off as variants as presented here.  The language of wikipedia is English, and as mentioned above most English sources do not use this definition of the word, so pretending it is the more prominent flavor is very dishonest.  I would change it myself but I strongly suspect any such moves would simply be undone.  --[[Josh Grosse|JG]], author of most of the above complaints.
> ----
> 
> Josh, I'm a little bit unclear about what you find problematic about the definition.  You seem to regard it as somehow ideological or politically motivated, but I don't see how it is.
> I'm not asking out of idle curiosity -- I want to attempt a rewrite that addresses your concerns, but <i>without</i> losing the essence of what Tim is after, either, i.e. a conceptually sound definition.
> 
> One improvement that I can see immediately is the recognition that 'capitalism' is a broader term than 'laissez-faire capitalism', with the latter being the purest form of the former, with the purity determined in precisely the way that Tim's definiton would lead us to suspect: i.e. 'capitalism' is a term applied to systems with <i>relatively</i> little political intervention into the economy, and 'laissez-faire capitalism' has <i>very</i> little political intervention into the economy.  Therefore, the U.S. is a predominantly capitalist system, but not purely so. 
------
1040|987446587
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Form <b>1040</b> is the starting form for personal [[income tax]]
> returns filed in the [[United States]].
> 
> Income taxes for one year are due by April 15th of the next year.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Drew_Barrymore/Filmography|987447402
3,8c3,9
< * "Charlie's Angels"
< * "Titan A.E."
< * "Never Been Kissed"
< * "Everyone Says I Love You"
< * "Batman Forever"
< * "E.T." (at age seven)
---
> * [[Charlies Angels|Charlie's Angels]]
> * [[Titan A.E.]]
> * [[The Wedding Singer]]
> * [[Never Been Kissed]]
> * [[Everyone Says I Love You]]
> * [[Batman Forever]]
> * [[E.T.]] (at age seven)
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987447986
64,66c64,67
<  This line is indented, but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) 
<    at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font.  
<   In other words, if you begin a paragraph with a space, that 
---
>  This line is indented by using an initial space,
>                but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) 
>    at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font such as "Courier".  
>   In other words, if you begin a paragraph with spaces, that 
68c69,71
<  (Also, this line will not wrap!  It will simply increase the width of your window.)
---
>  This is very useful for importing monospace formatted tabular materials, especially from sources like 
>  an unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain. 
>  Also, space-indented lines will not wrap!  They will simply increase the width of your window.
70c73
< ''This line is in italics.''
---
> ''This line is in italics.'' (Using double single quote marks!)
74,75c77,78
< '''This line is bold.'''
< <br><b>So is this one!</b>
---
> '''This line is bold.''' (Using triple single quote marks!)
> <br><b>So is this one!</b> (Using the standard html tag!)
94c97
<  #Notice, this line isn't numbered because it's not flush left.
---
>  #Notice, this line isn't numbered because it is not flush left.
103c106
< You can make a line on a page: ----
---
> You can make a horizontal "rule" (line) on a page: ----
164c167
< Then, go forth and [[be bold in updating pages]]!
---
> Then, go forth and [[be bold in updating pages]]!
------
World_Series_of_Poker|987448160
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The richest and most prestigious [[poker]] tournament in the world is the '''World Series of Poker''', held annually at [[Binions Horseshoe|Binion's Horseshoe]] [[casino]] in [[Las Vegas]], Nevada.  It has been held every year since 1970 (when it had seven entrants), and has grown in popularity since, the 2000 series having 4780 entrants in various events.  
> 
> The series consists of many events in different poker games, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event.  The 2001 series will have 25 events held from April 20 to May 18.  The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry No-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas Hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000.  The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's.
> 
> <h2>Champions</h2>
> 
> * 1970 Johnny Moss (awarded by peer vote)
> * 1971 Johnny Moss (won in competition, as are all subsequent)
> * 1972 "Amarillo Slim" Preston
> * 1973 Puggy Pearson
> * 1974 Johnny Moss
> * 1975 Sailor Roberts
> * 1976 Doyle Brunson
> * 1977 Doyle Brunson
> * 1978 Bobby Baldwin
> * 1979 Hal Fowler
> * 1980 Stu Ungar
> * 1981 Stu Ungar
> * 1982 Jack Strauss
> * 1983 Tom McEvoy
> * 1984 Jack Kellar
> * 1985 Bill Smith
> * 1986 Berry Johnston
> * 1987 Johnny Chan
> * 1988 Johnny Chan
> * 1989 Phil Helmuth, Jr.
> * 1990 Mansour Matloubi
> * 1991 Brad Daugherty
> * 1992 Hamid Dastmalchi
> * 1993 Jim Bechtel
> * 1994 Russ Hamilton
> * 1995 Dan Harrington
> * 1996 Huck Seed
> * 1997 Stu Ungar
> * 1998 Scotty Nguyen
> * 1999 Noel Furlong
> * 2000 Chris Ferguson
> 
> The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished in the money in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in Omaha and Hold'em events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".
> 
> Historical highlights include Strauss's win, a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament; Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine; and Chan's second-place finish to Helmuth the year after his repeat.
> 
> Winners in widely differing events include Ungar, who has gold bracelets in Deuce-to-seven draw poker and Seven-card stud in addition to his Texas Hold'em championships, as does Brunson, who further has bracelets in Seven-card stud high-low and Razz, and a second-place finish in 13-card Chinese poker, a remarkable accomplishment.
> 
> See [http://www.binions.com/wsop/main.html Binion's WSOP Site]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987448538
70,71c70,71
<  an unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain. 
<  Also, space-indented lines will not wrap!  They will simply increase the width of your window.
---
>  an unnamed [[BritannicaPublicDomain|encyclopedia]] from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain. 
>  Also note that space-indented lines will not wrap!  They will simply increase the width of your window.
74c74
< <br><i>And so is this one!</i> (Using different code!)
---
> <br><i>And so is this one!</i> (Using good old html tags!)
------
WikiIsNotPaper|987448865
15c15
< * <b>Style differences</b>:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think thik this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
---
> * <b>Style differences</b>:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
52c52
< Please add to this list and comment.
---
> Please add to this list and comment.
------
Calling_shotgun|987449943
21c21
< *the person that can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns
---
> *the person that can create the complete works of Shakespeare in Braile given enough roadsigns and enough shells for his shotgun
------
How_to_start_a_page|987450026
4c4
< #As you're reading through already-existing Wikipedia articles, you'll see question marks that are clickable links.  You can click on a "?" link that appears after an article title, and you'll arrive at a page that says "Describe the new page here."  Just delete that text and replace it with the text of your article.  When you're finished, click the "Save" button at the bottom of the page.  (Use the "Preview" button if you want to see what the page will look like first.) -- Modifying arbitrary pages by adding/wikifying a new term and then adding a well-written entry linked from that page are a great way to continually add new topics to Wikipedia.
---
> #As you're reading through already-existing Wikipedia articles, you'll see question marks that are clickable links.  You can click on a "?" link that appears after an article title, and you'll arrive at a page that says "Describe the new page here."  Just delete that text and replace it with the text of your article.  When you're finished, click the "Save" button at the bottom of the page.  (Use the "[[Preview]]" button if you want to see what the page will look like first.) -- Modifying arbitrary pages by adding/wikifying a new term and then adding a well-written entry linked from that page are a great way to continually add new topics to Wikipedia.
------
Preview|987450171
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Preview</b> is where output of a particual document, page, film, etc. is displayed before it is produced in its final output form.
> 
> In a [[computer]], one would preview a page of text before printing it.  This is known as <b>print preview</b>.
------
Cruftmanship|987450401
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Cruftmanship</b> is putting extremely poor workmanship into a computer program or mechanical system such that the computer programs or mechanical system works.
> 
> <b>Crufty</b> is how one refers to this solution.
> 
> See also:
> * hack
------
World_Series_of_Poker|987450502
6a7,8
> These are the winners of the final "championship" event, which is now No-limit Texas Hold'em.
> 
39c41,43
< The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished in the money in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in Omaha and Hold'em events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".
---
> The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".  
> 
> Historical highlights include Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine.
41c45
< Historical highlights include Strauss's win, a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament; Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine; and Chan's second-place finish to Helmuth the year after his repeat.
---
> Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second.  He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw.
43c47
< Winners in widely differing events include Ungar, who has gold bracelets in Deuce-to-seven draw poker and Seven-card stud in addition to his Texas Hold'em championships, as does Brunson, who further has bracelets in Seven-card stud high-low and Razz, and a second-place finish in 13-card Chinese poker, a remarkable accomplishment.
---
> Players who have won bracelets in a draw game, a stud game, and a community card game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card Chinese poker), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss , and Stu Ungar.
------
Kamakazi|987450511
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>kamakazi</b> is a Japanese suicide pilot during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing the [[airplane]] into the ship.
------
Kamakazi|987450587
1c1
< A <b>kamakazi</b> is a Japanese suicide pilot during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing the [[airplane]] into the ship.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Kamikaze]]
------
Shell_Shock|987450626
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Shell shock</b> is the old term for [[post tramautic stress]] caused by [[first hand]] exposure to [[military]] [[warfare]].
------
Kamikaze|987450647
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[airplane]] into the ship.
> 
> 
------
First_hand|987450697
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>First hand</b> is where one experiences something personally, in effect, within reach of ones hands.
> 
> See also:
> * second hand
------
Zuid_Africa|987450787
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Zuid Africa</b> is the Afrikaaner version of [[South Africa]].
> 
> See: [[South Africa]]
------
South_Africa|987450865
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>South Africa</b> is the southernmost country in [[Africa]].
> 
> South Africa is decended from the [[British South Africa Company]].
------
World_Series_of_Poker|987451085
4a5,14
> The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".
> 
> Historical highlights include Jack Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Stu Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine.
> 
> Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second.  He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw.
> 
> Players who have won bracelets in a draw game, a stud game, and a community card game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card Chinese poker), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss , and Stu Ungar.
> 
> See [http://www.binions.com/wsop/main.html Binion's WSOP Site]
> 
40,49d49
< 
< The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".  
< 
< Historical highlights include Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine.
< 
< Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second.  He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw.
< 
< Players who have won bracelets in a draw game, a stud game, and a community card game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card Chinese poker), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss , and Stu Ungar.
< 
< See [http://www.binions.com/wsop/main.html Binion's WSOP Site]
------
Infinite_Series|987451119
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An <b>infinite series</b> is a infinite mathematical sequence of [[term]]s.
> 
> Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation.  As more and more terms of the infinite series are included, the solution is approximated more and more closely.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987451211
92c92,98
< One improvement that I can see immediately is the recognition that 'capitalism' is a broader term than 'laissez-faire capitalism', with the latter being the purest form of the former, with the purity determined in precisely the way that Tim's definiton would lead us to suspect: i.e. 'capitalism' is a term applied to systems with <i>relatively</i> little political intervention into the economy, and 'laissez-faire capitalism' has <i>very</i> little political intervention into the economy.  Therefore, the U.S. is a predominantly capitalist system, but not purely so. 
---
> One improvement that I can see immediately is the recognition that 'capitalism' is a broader term than 'laissez-faire capitalism', with the latter being the purest form of the former, with the purity determined in precisely the way that Tim's definiton would lead us to suspect: i.e. 'capitalism' is a term applied to systems with <i>relatively</i> little political intervention into the economy, and 'laissez-faire capitalism' has <i>very</i> little political intervention into the economy.  Therefore, the U.S. is a predominantly capitalist system, but not purely so.
> 
> ----
> 
> The main complaint with the definition given is that it has very little resemblance to the definition of capitalism.  At least according to all the sources listed above, capitalism has been a dominant system since 15-1600 and includes mercantilism and state capitalism under its aegis - so clearly low gov intervention is not being considered a primary, let alone ''the'' primary, characteristic of the system.  Even with the acknowledgement that "other definitions" are used, it makes no sense to me why such a relatively uncommon definition would be given precedence, and no real reasons have been given.
> 
> What ''has'' been said is that the new definition ought to be given to help "undo Lenin's work", and it seems to me that implies an ideological program.  Redefinition of words to fulfil such is, if not propaganda in whatever sense we are using, at the very least spin doctoring and I sincerely hope nobody has any such intents.  However I honestly can't come up with any other way to read said sentiments (especially not with the strong misuse of imperialism above) and barring that do not understand why we would not use the word the same way other sources do.
------
Class_warfare|987451347
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Class warfare</b> is the term for pitting one economic class of people against another economic class of people.
> 
> Typically, the 'poor' are pitted against the 'rich' by creating [[class envy]] between them.
> 
> Class warfare is a highly political topic within the [[United States]].
> 
> One of the difficulties of class warfare is clearly dividing groups of people into classes.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Kamikaze|987451482
3c3
< 
---
> <b>Kamakazi</b> means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
------
Dirigible|987451715
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>dirgable</b> is a rigid lighter than air motorized craft.
> 
> Dirgables should not be confused with [[balloon]]s which are non-rigid.
> 
> The most famous dirgable is the [[zepplin]]
> 
> See also:
> * balloon
> * [[zepplin]]
------
First_hand|987451880
1c1
< <b>First hand</b> is where one experiences something personally, in effect, within reach of ones hands.
---
> <b>First hand</b> is where one experiences something personally, in effect, within reach of ones hands, also known as [[first person]].
3,4c3
< See also:
< * second hand
---
> Other [[points of view]] include [[second hand]] and [[third person]].
------
Sweden/Kings|987452079
7,10c7,10
< *[[/Karl X Gustav]] 1654 - 1660
< *[[/Karl XI]] 1660 - 1697
< *[[/Karl XII]] 1697 - 1718
< *[[/Ulrika Eleonora]] 1719 - 1720
---
> *[[Karl X Gustav]] 1654 - 1660
> *[[Karl XI]] 1660 - 1697
> *[[Karl XII]] 1697 - 1718
> *[[Ulrika Eleonora]] 1719 - 1720
14c14
< *[[/Fredrik I]] 1720 - 1751
---
> *[[Fredrik I]] 1720 - 1751
18,21c18,21
< *[[/Adolf Fredrik]] 1751 - 1771
< *[[/Gustav III]] 1771 - 1792
< *[[/Gustav IV Adolf]] 1792 - 1809
< *[[/Karl XIII]] 1809 - 1818
---
> *[[Adolf Fredrik]] 1751 - 1771
> *[[Gustav III]] 1771 - 1792
> *[[Gustav IV Adolf]] 1792 - 1809
> *[[Karl XIII]] 1809 - 1818
25,28c25,28
< *[[/Karl XIV Johan]] 1818 - 1844
< *[[/Oskar I]] 1844 - 1859
< *[[/Karl XV]] 1859 - 1872
< *[[/Oskar II]] 1872 - 1907
---
> *[[Karl XIV Johan]] 1818 - 1844
> *[[Oskar I]] 1844 - 1859
> *[[Karl XV]] 1859 - 1872
> *[[Oskar II]] 1872 - 1907
30,31c30,31
< *[[/Gustaf IV Adolf]] 1950 - 1973
< *[[/Carl XVI Gustaf]] 1973 - present
---
> *[[Gustaf IV Adolf]] 1950 - 1973
> *[[Carl XVI Gustaf]] 1973 - present
------
Disabilities|987452255
0a1,7
> A <b>disability</b> is some real or imagined limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality.
> 
> On the surface, disabilities can be divided into two broad groups:
> * [[birth defect]] disabilities
> * everything else
> 
> 
------
Birth_defect|987452451
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>birth defect</b> is a physical or mental abnormality present  at the time a child is born.
> 
> Birth defects range from minimal, such as a [[birthmark]], to very serious, such as [[cerebral palsy]]
------
Sweden|987452483
3c3,6
< [[Country]] ([[monarchy]]) in [[Scandinavia]]. Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
---
> [[Country]] in [[Scandinavia]]. 
> Inhabitants are called [[Swedes]]. 
> Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. 
> The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
13c16,17
< The Swedish [[Sweden/Kings|Kings]].
---
> Sweden is a [[monarchy]] and has been for almost a millenium. Since 1972 the [[monarch]] does not have any political power.
> The Swedish [[Sweden/Kings|Kings and Queens]].
------
Karl_XIV_Johan|987452750
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of [[Sweden]] between 1818 and 1844.
> First king of the Bernadottes.
> 
> Was originally one of [[Napoleon]]s officers but was approached by the swedish gouvernement for the position of king and accepted.
> 
> Did never learn how to speak [[Swedish]].
> 
> Married [[Queen Desideria]].
> 
> Had one son [[Oskar I]].
------
English_language|987452763
3a4,12
> 
> English has complexities that other languages (Chinese) lack:
> * posessive
> * verb tenses
> * plural
> * homonym - one or more words that sound the same yet have different meanings
> * [[Latin]] grammer rules and exceptions to them
> * spelling rules and exceptions to them
> 
------
Oskar_I|987452855
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of [[Sweden]] between 1844 and 1859.
> 
> Son of [[Karl XIV Johan]] and [[Queen Desideria]].
------
France|987452932
15a16
> *[[Famous French People]]
------
Famous_French_People|987452978
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> :[[Paul Heroult|Paul Héroult]] -- inventor
------
Karl_XIV_Johan|987453008
6c6
< Did never learn how to speak [[Swedish]].
---
> Did never learn how to speak [[Swedish language|Swedish]].
------
Paul_Heroult|987453063
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult  born in 1863- dead in 1914. 
> French inventor. 
> 
> Has invented the Aluminum electrolysis. 
> and the electric Steel furnace. 
> 
> Paul Héroult had none of the attributes of the traditional scholar. He was highstrung, unruly, occasionally hard and insolent; he did not fit the image of wise, disciplined men of science. He loved games, the company of women, travels by land and sea; he was a free spirit in an impetuous body. No comparison with the austere scientist, struggling with stubborn mysteries. 
> His discoveries were not the result of long sleepless nights spent in a laboratory, or of complicated scientific demonstrations. 
> 
> Héroult loved life, and could not have borne such restrictions. Instead, his inventions appeared suddenly, out of the blue, a stroke of common sense, or of genius, sometimes during a lively 
> game of billiards, his favorite pastime. 
> 
> Paul Héroult  studied the works of Henri Sainte-Claire Deville about aluminum making, when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminum was as expensive as silver. It was used, for instance, for luxury dishes... 
> 
> Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. What he succeeded in doing by the invention of electrolytic aluminum in 1886.  The same year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914) was inventing the same process. 
> 
> His second invention is the electric steel  arc furnace in 1900. It is a furnace which works with electrodes and a non-conductive bed plate. The kind of steel produced is good for all uses. 
> In 1905, Paul Héroult was called in the United States to become the engineer of several companies, and in particular of the United States Steel Corporation. 
> 
> Paul Héroult  invented others things. The most important is the self-sustained conduit.  He died on his yacht in 1914. 
------
Famous_French_People|987453080
1,2c1,3
< 
< :[[Paul Heroult|Paul Héroult]] -- inventor
---
> :[[Paul Heroult|Paul Héroult]] -- inventor
> :[[Victor Hugo]] -- author
> :[[Jules Verne]] -- author
------
Capitalism/Talk|987453445
98a99,100
> 
> The reasons for using this definition were given above.  They have nothing to do with Lenin.  -TS
------
Sweden|987453940
5c5
< Language spoken is [[Swedish language]]. 
---
> Language spoken is [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. 
------
Capitalism/Talk|987453951
98c98,99
< What ''has'' been said is that the new definition ought to be given to help "undo Lenin's work", and it seems to me that implies an ideological program.  Redefinition of words to fulfil such is, if not propaganda in whatever sense we are using, at the very least spin doctoring and I sincerely hope nobody has any such intents.  However I honestly can't come up with any other way to read said sentiments (especially not with the strong misuse of imperialism above) and barring that do not understand why we would not use the word the same way other sources do.
---
> <i>I disagree very strongly.  The definition is not at all 
> unusual, and it is the one that most economists use, implicitly or explicitly.</i>
100c101,107
< The reasons for using this definition were given above.  They have nothing to do with Lenin.  -TS
---
> What ''has'' been said is that the new definition ought to be given to help "undo Lenin's work", and it seems to me that implies an ideological program.  Redefinition of words to fulfil such is, if not propaganda in whatever sense we are using, at the very least spin doctoring and I sincerely hope nobody has any such intents.
> 
> <i>One might suppose that Lenin's definitions are explicitly and paradigmatically ideological in a bad way, and that avoiding them for that reason, in favor of a more conceptually clear system that is in current use by professionals would be a more in the right direction, no? --Jimbo</I>
> 
> However I honestly can't come up with any other way to read said sentiments (especially not with the strong misuse of imperialism above) and barring that do not understand why we would not use the word the same way other sources do.
> 
> The reasons for using this definition were given above.  They have nothing to do with Lenin.  -TS
------
Josh_Grosse|987454125
69a70,71
> 
> /Economics
------
Jimbo_Wales|987454161
48a49,50
> Yes, thats me! I am a enthusiastic pro-Swedish world citizen that try to promote Swedish wherever I go. ;-)
> I saw that you had added the DNS entries but not the database (or whatever it is) below. [[LinusTolke]]
------
Kamikaze|987454184
1c1
< The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[airplane]] into the ship.
---
> The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[Airplane|airplanes]] into the ships.
------
Kamikaze|987454203
1c1
< The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[WWII]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[Airplane|airplanes]] into the ships.
---
> The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[World War II]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[Airplane|airplanes]] into the ships.
------
Sweden|987454349
9,10c9,10
< [[Gothenburg]] ([[Göteborg]]),
< [[Malmo]] ([[Malmo|Malmö]]),
---
> [[Gothenburg|Göteborg]],
> [[Malmoe|Malmö]],
12c12
< [[Linköping]],
---
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]],
------
Jimbo_Wales|987454512
37a38,39
> (People have tried but we never bothered to finish setting it up.  It is more of a joke than an attempt at making money.)
> 
------
Poetry|987454533
6c6
< Some famous poets:
---
> Poets of note:
7a8,11
> :[[William Barnes]]
> :[[Basho]]
> :[[Gerard Manley Hopkins]]
> 
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987454837
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Josh,
> 
> First off, no offense intended here, please take these remarks in a kind spirit.  I'm writing over here, because my browser is getting mad at me when I try to edit the long talk pages, and I have a lot to say.  :-)
> 
> Whenever I read something by you about economics (see for example the [[Socialism/Talk]] and [[Capitalism/Talk]] debates), I feel the same way that I imagine biologists must feel when they read the works of naive but well-meaning people who are supportive of "Scientific Creationism".  Quite frankly, you don't know what you are talking about, and you appear to have been influenced by sources that are highly ideological and politically motivated.
> 
> Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning.  Scientists no longer need to take seriously (except when they are explaining themselves to the public) the more base claims of the religionists who are uncomfortable with the facts of evolution. 
> 
> Similarly, economists no longer need to seriously ask whether centralized control of an economy "works" in any serious sense.  The facts are in.  The theory and evidence are in accord, and only minor points remain for debate.
> 
> What is capitalism?  How is the term used, both by members of the public and professional economists?  Should we use that definition, or should we use one that comes straight out of leftist propaganda?
> 
> What I think we should do, in these cases, is to attempt to balance a few competing concerns.  First, we should not use an idiosyncratic (unpopular) definition as our primary definition, even if it is conceptually more clear.  I think that Tim may disagree with me on this point, but I think that concerns of exposition outweigh concerns of philosophical correctness.  (I can discuss this further.)  Second, we should avoid definitions which are grounded in a particular political perspective, in favor of definitions that are conceptually more clear and/or more popular.
> 
> Definitions of controversial terms should
> --seek to respect and clarify popular usage
> --be conceptually clear
> --avoid bias
> --either be used by professionals, or be simplifications of definitions used by professionals
> 
> This is not an exhaustive list, obviously.
> 
> I don't think you'll disagree with those principles.
> 
> But for me to sit still while an entry on socialism fails to note that <i>socialism doesn't work</i>, would be as remiss as it would be for you to sit still while an entry on creation science fails to not that <i>creationism is not scientific</i>.
> 
> You may feel that advocacy of socialism and advocacy of creation science are not comparable, but that's the scientific consensus, and we have to respect that.
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987454874
27c27
< You may feel that advocacy of socialism and advocacy of creation science are not comparable, but that's the scientific consensus, and we have to respect that.
---
> You may feel that advocacy of socialism and advocacy of creation science are not comparable, but that's the scientific consensus, and we have to respect that. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Kamikaze|987454945
3c3
< <b>Kamakazi</b> means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
---
> <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind) means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
------
Kamikaze|987454968
3c3
< <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind) means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
---
> <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind") means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987454981
7c7
< Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning.  Scientists no longer need to take seriously (except when they are explaining themselves to the public) the more base claims of the religionists who are uncomfortable with the facts of evolution. 
---
> Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning. 
8a9
> Scientists no longer need to take seriously (except when they are explaining themselves to the public) the more base claims of the religionists who are uncomfortable with the facts of evolution. 
------
Shell_Shock|987455050
1c1
< <b>Shell shock</b> is the old term for [[post tramautic stress]] caused by [[first hand]] exposure to [[military]] [[warfare]].
---
> <b>Shell shock</b> is the old term for [[post tramautic stress disorder]] caused by [[first hand]] exposure to the violence and horror of [[warfare]].
------
Capitalism/Talk|987455070
100a101,102
> All of the sources listed state capitalism has been around since the fall of feudalism.  It's not like they were selectively picked or anything - they're two very well known encyclopedias plus a book I picked up randomly since I didn't have a history of modern europe handy.  I would assume that ''laissez faire'' is simply understood in economic literature, just like numbers are assumed to be integers when counting - not implying that other things aren't examples, just that laissez faire capitalism is cumbersome to say.
> 
104a107,108
> An ideological classification might be replaced, sure, but an ideological definition should <b>not</b>.  If one doesn't like what the word means one should simply avoid using it altogether.  Trying to force a different meaning on top of the word is silly and confusing.  Example: Buddhism and Shamanism are both pagan religions, even though they have little in common; should the word ''pagan'' be redefined?
> 
107c111,117
< The reasons for using this definition were given above.  They have nothing to do with Lenin.  -TS
---
> ''The reasons for using this definition were given above.  They have nothing to do with Lenin.  -TS''
> 
> You claimed that the current system of political distinctions was advanced by him and ought to be abolished because it implies false relationships.  Looking back you applied that to imperialism rather than capitalism, but it's still suggests you have a strong agenda.  I can find no reasons above other than "that's what capitalism" and "that's what capitalists mean by the term", but as stated other sources use the term differently, and presumably state capitalists do not mean the term in such a manner.  If you have any others I would very much appreciate a bullet point recap, like:
> 
> * Capitalism is taken to have been the dominant system since the fall of feudalism by Britannica, Encarta, and ''A History of Early Modern Europe'', so this is probably standard usage;
> * Wikipedia uses standard English and so should use the standard meanings of words;
> * The definition given involves capitalism appearing much later and so can't be standard usage
------
William_Barnes|987455233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''William Barnes''' 1801-1886, English writer, poet, minister, and [[Philology|philologist]]. Friend of [[Thomas Hardy]] and [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]]. Known for his Dorset dialect poems. Despite his mastery of many languages, he paradoxically called for the purification of English by removal of Greek, Latin and foreign influences. For example, the word "photograph" (<Gk. light+writing) would become "sun-print" (<Saxon).
------
Capitalism|987455591
1c1,3
< Capitalism, as defined by people who call themselves capitalists, is a system based on the absence of political intervention in the economy, which rests on the assumption that politics and economics are distinct from one another.  Where this distinction is not made or not considered important, other definitions are used.  For example, capitalism is often used to mean simply [[Commercialism|commercialism]].  Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most self-described capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> Capitalism is a system based on individual rights, including rights to private ownership of property.  Since private ownership, in the full sense of the term, requires the absence of the initiation of force, systems may be characterized as more or less capitalist depending on the degree to which they keep individuals free from the initiation of force in the use or disposal of their property.  This includes both a lack of political intervention in the economy, as well as laws against theft, fraud, etc.
> 
> Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most self-described capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
------
Affidavit|987455742
3a4,7
> 
> In American jurisprudence, it is very unusual to allow an unsupported afidavit to be entered into evidence with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter [[at bar]].  Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of [[corroborating evidence]].  An formerly written affidatvit, which reflected a better grasp of the facts closer in time to the actual events, may be used to refresh a witness' recollection.  Materials used to refresh recollection are admissable as evidence.
> 
> Some types of motions will not be accepted by acourt unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion.  In such a case, the court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumtions are made, to wit:  The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes [[judicial economy]].  The lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including [[disbarment]].  The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit.
------
Capitalism/Talk|987455894
117c117,120
< * The definition given involves capitalism appearing much later and so can't be standard usage
---
> * The definition given involves capitalism appearing much later and so can't be standard usage
> ----
> 
> Those systems are regarded as capitalistic precisely <i>because</i> they involve lesser degrees of political intervention in the economy than previously.  I can explain this further if you like.  There is absolutely no conflict between saying that capitalism is about freedom from political intervention, *and* in saying that it has been dominant since the fall of feudalism.
------
England|987456613
1c1,2
< One of the major divisions of the [[United Kingdom]] 
---
> The largest and most densely populated country of the [[British Isles]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island]]
> Joined to the north with [[Scotland]] and to the west with [[Wales]].
3c4
< Its major administrative subdivisions are known as counties.
---
> The [[/Government|government]] and the [[British Royal Family]] reside in its capital city, [[London]].
5c6,12
< [[England/Counties]]
---
> The English flag is known as both the [[St Georges Cross|St George's Cross]] and the [[Union Flag]], not as is often wrongly said, the [[Union Jack]].
> 
> [[/City]]
> 
> [[/County]]
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Law|987456658
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[at bar]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
30a31,32
> ----
> fercryin'outloud wottamI doin here - teaching a law course?  Yes, there are rules about when and where contracts can be enforced, and when and where you can sue to enforce them or t seek damages for their being breached, which depend in part on where the parties were when the agreement was reached, upon the reasableness of dragging a person from one jurisdiction to another to file or respond to a contract controversy, and upon the subject matter of the contract.  There is no single term dealing with this.  The rules are not written in stone and are the subject of literally thousands of apellate decisions in both state and federal courts, which decisions are given more or less weight depending on the facts of the case, and the court hearing same.  Terms which may apply are privity of contract, lex fori, lex loci delicti, lex loci contractus, in personam jurisdiction, subject matter jurisdiction and more.
------
Law|987456737
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[at bar]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[at bar]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[corroborating evidence]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
------
Dirigible|987456960
1c1
< A <b>dirgable</b> is a rigid lighter than air motorized craft.
---
> The word '''dirgible''' means "steerable", but is used most often to refer to a steerable, rigid, lighter than air motorized craft.
3c3
< Dirgables should not be confused with [[balloon]]s which are non-rigid.
---
> Dirigibles should not be confused with [[balloon]]s which are non-rigid.
5c5
< The most famous dirgable is the [[zepplin]]
---
> The most famous dirigible is the [[zeppelin]]
9c9
< * [[zepplin]]
---
> * [[zeppelin]]
------
Turkey|987457192
3c3
< Ethnic background: Turkish 86%, Kurdish 11%, Arabic 2%.
---
> Ethnic background: Turkish 100%.
------
English_language|987457559
10,11c10,13
< * [[Latin]] grammer rules and exceptions to them
< * spelling rules and exceptions to them
---
> 
> English grammar is based on that of its Germanic roots, though some scholars during the 1700s and 1800s attempted to impose Latin grammar upon it, with little success.
> 
> English spelling is non-phonetic and inconsistent, for two primary reasons.  For one, spelling did not become fixed until after the spread of the printing press, by which time it was likely that words printed in industrial cities with presses were spelled as they were pronounced there, but regional pronunciations in most of the country were different.  Secondly, English generally borrows words from other languages by changing their pronunciation but not their spelling.
------
History|987457744
39a40
> ** [[History of Turkey]]
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987457875
28a29,30
> ----
> For reasons that sociologists know well, primarily the inability of any central authority to possess adequate information about all markets and users, and the fact that people stultify or rebel when denied freedom of choice, socialism ''on a macro scale'' does not work.  It has been seen to work famously on a ''micro'' scale, not exceeding a few thousand souls, especially when these souls all see eye to eye on a single, unifying political or religious ideology.  The unifying ideology means that this small knot of people (say, a kibbutz for instance) are already exercising freedom of choice by participating in the socialistic economy.  So, to just state flatly that it does not work may overstate the point a tad...
------
Law|987458209
8,32c8
< 
< 
< The work continues apace...
< 
< Wow!  If you build it, they will come!  :-)
< ----
< My legal schooling probably isn't quite up to the task, but someone better versed might consider reorganizing this to actually reflect some hierarchy of legal disciplines rather than the simple list of jargon here.  My copy of [[Blacks Law Dictionary]] has over 1600 pages of terms, so this page might get a little unwieldy in its present form. ---[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< ----
< Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so 
< that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
< ----
< Are there terms for:
< * Organized coordinated legal action taken in many jurisdictions throughout the nation against a single industry or entity (e.g., tobacco)
< * Harassing someone via repeated lawsuits
< ----
< As to the above questions:
< 
< I don't believe there is any specific term for the first.  For the second, see "barratry" and "vexatious litigation" above.
< ----
< What about jurisdiction or locality whose laws apply?
< Where you sign a contract that is governed by the laws of another state so that the other party can take legal action locally.
< 
< Isn't there a term for this and for defeating a legal challenge by making it expensive for the other party due to the other party's location being in a remote area?
< ----
< fercryin'outloud wottamI doin here - teaching a law course?  Yes, there are rules about when and where contracts can be enforced, and when and where you can sue to enforce them or t seek damages for their being breached, which depend in part on where the parties were when the agreement was reached, upon the reasableness of dragging a person from one jurisdiction to another to file or respond to a contract controversy, and upon the subject matter of the contract.  There is no single term dealing with this.  The rules are not written in stone and are the subject of literally thousands of apellate decisions in both state and federal courts, which decisions are given more or less weight depending on the facts of the case, and the court hearing same.  Terms which may apply are privity of contract, lex fori, lex loci delicti, lex loci contractus, in personam jurisdiction, subject matter jurisdiction and more.
---
> /Talk
------
Law/Talk|987458287
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> My legal schooling probably isn't quite up to the task, but someone better versed might consider reorganizing this to actually reflect some hierarchy of legal disciplines rather than the simple list of jargon here.  My copy of [[Blacks Law Dictionary]] has over 1600 pages of terms, so this page might get a little unwieldy in its present form. ---[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> ----
> Once tax season is behind us, I may have time to divvy it up so 
> that it at least makes a little more sense... [[AyeSpy|AS]]
> ----
> Are there terms for:
> * Organized coordinated legal action taken in many jurisdictions throughout the nation against a single industry or entity (e.g., tobacco)
> * Harassing someone via repeated lawsuits
> ----
> As to the above questions:
> 
> I don't believe there is any specific term for the first.  For the second, see "barratry" and "vexatious litigation" above.
> ----
> What about jurisdiction or locality whose laws apply?
> Where you sign a contract that is governed by the laws of another state so that the other party can take legal action locally.
> 
> Isn't there a term for this and for defeating a legal challenge by making it expensive for the other party due to the other party's location being in a remote area?
> ----
> fercryin'outloud wottamI doin here - teaching a law course?  Yes, there are rules about when and where contracts can be enforced, and when and where you can sue to enforce them or to seek damages for their being breached, which depend in part on where the parties were when the agreement was reached, upon the reasonableness of dragging a person from one jurisdiction to another to file or respond to a contract controversy, and upon the subject matter of the contract.  There is no single term dealing with this.  The rules are not written in stone and are the subject of literally thousands of apellate decisions in both state and federal courts, which decisions are given more or less weight depending on the facts of the case, and the court hearing same.  Terms which may apply are:  privity of contract, lex fori, lex loci delicti, lex loci contractus, in personam jurisdiction, subject matter jurisdiction and more.
------
Statute_of_limitations|987458346
17c17
< For property ownership [[title defect]]s, is there ever any equivalent to a statue of limitations type of abandonment of ownership beyone which claims against the title cannot be made?
---
> /Talk
------
Statute_of_limitations/Talk|987458435
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For property ownership [[title defect]]s, is there ever any equivalent to a statue of limitations type of abandonment of ownership beyone which claims against the title cannot be made?
> ----
> Yes, it is called the "doctrine of laches," which mainly stands for the proposition that if you wait too long to assert title and your delay results in another being harmed by your claim to title, then you may not be allowed to make your claim.
------
Politics|987458449
39a40
> [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
------
Law|987458502
3c3
< [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[at bar]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[corroborating evidence]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
---
> [[adversary system]] -- [[advocacy system]] -- [[affidavit]] -- [[allocute]] -- [[answer]] -- [[appeal]] -- [[appellate court]]  -- [[arbitration]] -- [[at bar]] -- [[bar]] -- [[barratry]] -- [[binding arbitration]] -- [[black letter law]] -- [[blue law]] -- [[case law]] -- [[cause of action]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[class action]] -- [[common law]] -- [[constitution]] -- [[corroborating evidence]] -- [[Court of Appeals]] -- [[criminal law]]  -- [[cross-examination]] -- [[deponent]] -- [[contempt of court]] -- [[depose]] -- [[deposition]] -- [[direct examination]] -- [[disbarment]] -- [[double jeopardy]] -- [[expert witnesss]] -- [[extra legal]] -- [[family law]] -- [[fifth amendment rights of witness]] -- [[frivolous lawsuit]] -- [[grand jury]] -- [[hostile witness]] --[[immunity]] -- [[indictment]] -- [[inquest]] -- [[judicial economy]] -- [[jurisprudence]] -- [[jury trial]] -- [[justice]] -- [[laches]] -- [[lawyer]] -- [[leading question]] -- [[Legal technicality]] -- [[litigant]] -- [[malpractice]] -- [[mediation]] -- [[motion]] -- [[motion to show cause]] -- [[Napoleonic Code]] -- [[negligence]] -- [[negligence per se]] -- [[notary public]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[plea]]-- [[plea bargain]]  -- [[plea of nolo contendere]]-- [[plea of temporary insanity]] -- [[precedent]]-- [[prima facie]]  -- [[product liability]] -- [[rebuttal]]  -- [[redirect examination]] -- [[res ipsa loquitur]]-- [[reversible error]]  -- [[sanction]] -- [[sanctions]] -- [[strike from the record]] -- [[statute of limitations]] --[[Supreme court]] -- [[statute]] -- [[statutory law]] -- [[time constraints]] -- [[tort]] -- [[trial de novo]] -- [[trial summary]] -- [[vexatious litigation]] -- [[William Marshall]] -- [[with prejudice]] -- [[Writ of Certiorari]] -- [[writ of habeas corpus]] -- [[/Tax]]
8c8,9
< /Talk
---
> 
> /Talk
------
At_bar|987458567
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In, concerning, or under consideration by a court or courts.
------
Politics|987458594
39,40c39
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]]
< [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] -- [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
------
History_of_Turkey|987458688
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Ottoman Empire was a Moslem Turkish state that encompassed Anatolia, Southeastern Europe, the Arab Middle East and North Africa from the 14C to the early 20C.
> 
> The Ottoman Empire succeeded both the Byzantine Empire (1453) and the Arab Caliphate, the mantle of descent from Mohammed after the conquest of Egypt (1517).
> 
> Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
> 
> The Ottoman Turks were descendants of Turkoman nomads who entered Anatolia in the 11C as mercenary soldiers for the Seljuks. At the end of the 13C, Osman I (from whom the name Ottoman is derived) asserted the independence of his small principality in Sogut near Bursa, which adjoined the decadent Byzantine Empire.
> 
> Gazis from all over Anatolia hitched themselves to Osman's rising star, following the usual custom of adopting the name of their leader and thus calling themselves Osmanli. Their fight for their religion, holy war, was called gaza, and was intended not to destroy but to subjugate the non-Moslem world.
> 
> Within a century the Osman Dynasty had extended its domains into an Empire stretching from the Danube to the Euphrates. In Bosnia, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia the conquered Christian princes were restored to their lands as vassals, while the subjects were left free to follow their own religions in return for loyalty. The Ottomans accepted submissive local nobility and military commanders into their service, along with their troops, instead of killing them.
> 
> The empire was temporarily disrupted by the invasion of the Tatar conqueror Timur, who defeated and captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezit I at the Battle of Ankara (1402). However, Mehmet I (1389-1421), the Restorer, succeeded in reuniting much of the Empire and it was reconstituted by Murat II and Mehmet II. In 1453, Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, the last Byzantine stronghold.
> 
> During the reigns of Murat II and Mehmet II the devsirme system of recruiting young Christians for conversion to Islam and service in the Ottoman army and administration was developed. The Christians in the army were organized into the elite infantry corps called the Janissaries. Urban families, those with particular skills vital to the local economy, or families with only one son were excluded in this devsirme system. From the poor families' point of view, it was a great chance for their sons to be offered a high level of education especially in the palace which would provide good future prospects.
> 
> The empire reached its peak in the 16C. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) conquered Egypt and Syria, gained control of the Arabian Peninsula and beat back the Safavid rulers of Iran at the Battle of Caldiran (1514). He was succeeded by Suleyman I (the Magnificent, r. 1520-66), who took Iraq, Hungary and Albania and established Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Suleyman codified and institutionalized the classic structure of the Ottoman state and society, making his dominions into one of the great powers of Europe.
> 
> Decline of the Ottoman Empire
> 
> The decline of the empire began late in the 16C. It was caused by a myriad of interdependent factors, among which the most important were the flight of the Turco-Islamic aristocracy and degeneration of the ability and honesty both of the sultans and of their ruling class. The devsirme divided into many political parties and fought for power, manipulated sultans and used the government for their own benefit. Corruption, nepotism, inefficiency and misrule spread.
> 
> Reform Attempts
> 
> Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) attempted to reform the Ottoman system by destroying the Janissary corps and replacing it with the Nizam-i Cedit (new order) army modeled after the new military institutions being developed in the West. This attempt so angered the Janissaries and others with a vested interest in the old ways that they overthrew him and massacred most of the reform leaders. Defeats at the hands of Russia and Austria, the success of national revolutions in Serbia and Greece and the rise of the powerful independent Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mohammed Ali, so discredited the Janissaries, however, that Sultan Mahmut II was able to massacre and destroy them in 1826.
> 
> Mahmut then inaugurated a new series of modern reforms, which involved the abolition of the traditional institutions and their replacement with new ones imported from the West. This affected every area of Ottoman life, not just the military. These reforms were continued and brought to their culmination during the Tanzimat reform era (1839-76) and the reign of Abdulhamit II (1876-1909). The scope of government was extended and centralized as reforms were made in administration, finance, education, justice, economy, communications and army.
> 
> Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the Empire, let alone its reforms. By this time the Ottoman Sultanate was known as the "Sick Man of Europe," and European diplomacy focused on the so-called Eastern Question how to dispose of the Sick Man's territories without upsetting the European balance of power. Abdulhamit II, however, rescued the empire, at least temporarily, by reforming the Ottoman financial system, manipulating the rivalries of the European powers and developing the pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic movements to undermine the empires of his enemies. The sultan granted a constitution and parliament in 1876, but he soon abandoned them and ruled autocratically so as to achieve his objectives as rapidly and efficiently as possible. He became so despotic that liberal opposition arose under the leadership especially in the palace which would provide good future prospects.
> 
> The empire reached its peak in the 16C. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) conquered Egypt and Syria, gained control of the Arabian Peninsula and beat back the Safavid rulers of Iran at the Battle of Caldiran (1514). He was succeeded by Suleyman I (the Magnificent, r. 1520-66), who took Iraq, Hungary and Albania and established Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Suleyman codified and institutionalized the classic structure of the Ottoman state and society, making his dominions into one of the great powers of Europe.
> 
> Decline of the Ottoman Empire
> 
> The decline of the empire began late in the 16C. It was caused by a myriad of interdependent factors, among which the most important were the flight of the Turco-Islamic aristocracy and degeneration of the ability and honesty both of the sultans and of their ruling class. The devsirme divided into many political parties and fought for power, manipulated sultans and used the government for their own benefit. Corruption, nepotism, inefficiency and misrule spread.
> 
> Reform Attempts
> 
> Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) attempted to reform the Ottoman system by destroying the Janissary corps and replacing it with the Nizam-i Cedit (new order) army modeled after the new military institutions being developed in the West. This attempt so angered the Janissaries and others with a vested interest in the old ways that they overthrew him and massacred most of the reform leaders. Defeats at the hands of Russia and Austria, the success of national revolutions in Serbia and Greece and the rise of the powerful independent Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mohammed Ali, so discredited the Janissaries, however, that Sultan Mahmut II was able to massacre and destroy them in 1826.
> 
> Mahmut then inaugurated a new series of modern reforms, which involved the abolition of the traditional institutions and their replacement with new ones imported from the West. This affected every area of Ottoman life, not just the military. These reforms were continued and brought to their culmination during the Tanzimat reform era (1839-76) and the reign of Abdulhamit II (1876-1909). The scope of government was extended and centralized as reforms were made in administration, finance, education, justice, economy, communications and army.
> 
> Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the tak
------
History_of_Turkey|987458690
43c43,92
< Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the tak
---
> Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the Empire, let alone its reforms. By this time the Ottoman Sultanate was known as the "Sick Man of Europe," and European diplomacy focused on the so-called Eastern Question how to dispose of the Sick Man's territories without upsetting the European balance of power. Abdulhamit II, however, rescued the empire, at least temporarily, by reforming the Ottoman financial system, manipulating the rivalries of the European powers and developing the pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic movements to undermine the empires of his enemies. The sultan granted a constitution and parliament in 1876, but he soon abandoned them and ruled autocratically so as to achieve his objectives as rapidly and efficiently as possible. He became so despotic that liberal opposition arose under the leadership of the Young Turks, many of whom had to leave the country from Abdulhamit's police.
> 
> Overthrow of the Ottoman Empire
> 
> In 1908 a revolution led by the Young Turks forced Abdulhamit to restore the parliament and constitution. After a few months of constitutional rule, however, a counterrevolutionary effort to restore the sultan's autocracy led the Young Turks to dethrone Abdulhamit completely in 1909. He was replaced by Mehmet (Resit) V (r. 1909-18), who was only a puppet of those controlling the government.
> 
> Rapid modernization continued during the Young Turk era (1908-18), with particular attention given to urbanization, agriculture, industry, communications, secularization of the state and the emancipation of women.
> 
> The empire was involved in World War I to take sides with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The defeat of these Central Powers led to the breakup and foreign occupation of the Ottoman Empire.
> 
> The Administration
> 
> The head of the empire was the sultan and the sultanate passed from father to son. The orders of the sultan were accepted as laws. His three major duties were commanding the army, appointing the statesmen and supervising the Divan, today's Cabinet. Members of the Divan were the chief vizier (prime minister), viziers (state ministers), kazasker (minister responsible for the military), two defterdars (finance ministers), nisanci (general secretary), seyhulislam (authorized head of the religious matters) and kaptan-i derya (Commander in chief of the fleet).
> 
> The functions of the ruling class were limited to exploiting the resources of the empire, largely for their own benefit; expanding and defending the state and maintaining order and preserving the faith and practice of Islam as well as the religions of all the subjects of the sultan.
> 
> The vast class of subjects were left to carry out all other functions of the state through autonomous religious communities, artisans' guilds, popular mystic orders and confederations, which together formed a substratum of popular society.
> 
> The Use of Land
> 
> In the Ottoman Empire the lands belonged to the state. The right to use the land was given to people and some revenue from the income received was given to the state. However, when people failed to use their land effectively for three consecutive years it had to be returned.
> 
> The lands in general were divided into two categories; Vakif and Dirlik. Vakif estates were spared for charity institutions and public use like mosques, hospitals, caravansaries and suchlike. Dirlik (fief) lands were given to statesmen according to their incomes; each of these lands was classified as Has, Zeamet, or Timar. Owners used some part of them for themselves and spared other parts for the expenses of a certain number of soldiers. With this system, the state had a powerful army without costs.
> 
> The Army
> 
> The Ottoman army was mainly divided into three classes:
> 
> a) Kapikulu soldiers were professionals who acted directly under the strict command of the sultan. They were not even allowed to marry. They did not have any connection to the land holding system as they worked for salaries. Ulufe was the name given to their salaries which they received every 3 months. The majority of these Kapikulu soldiers consisted of janissaries. There were both foot-soldiers and cavalrymen.
> 
> b) Eyalet soldiers were Dirlik-holding soldiers. The majority of the Ottoman army were Eyalet soldiers. They were the front line soldiers and like Kapikulu soldiers they were divided into both foot-soldiers and cavalrymen.
> 
> c) Reinforcements were soldiers who came from annexed rulers.
> 
> Education
> 
> The two main arteries of education were Enderun and Medrese.
> 
> Enderun was a royal school with a very high level of education. The aim of this school was to educate statesmen. Students were treated with considerable discipline and by the age of 30 approximately, they finished their schooling and attained their posts.
> 
> Although the medrese was originally a theological school, in the Ottoman period, education in the medrese was conducted in four faculties; 1-religion and law, 2-language and literature, 3-philosophy, 4-basic sciences. The language of education was Arabic. There was no set period, students had to finish particular books rather than years. Students lived in cells, ate in imarets (kitchens for the public, generally the poor) and received some pocket money from the school Foundations.
> The attempt of the victorious Allies to control the Anatolian territory led to the Turkish War of Independence (1918-23).
> 
> Following the occupation of Istanbul in 1920 by the British, Italian and French, a Greek army advanced from Izmir deep into Anatolia.
> 
> While the sultan offered no resistance, under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, the Turkish Nationalists overturned the postwar settlement embodied in the Treaty of Sévres (1920) and established the Republic of Turkey, formally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
> 
> Mustafa Kemal retired his military uniform and inspired the people to an even greater task: Transformation of the country into the democratic, secular Republic of Turkey.
> 
> In 1989 Turgut Ozal was chosen by parliament to succeed Evren. In 1993, Suleyman Demirel succeeded Ozal after his death. Since then coalition governments have been effective in the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
------
Politics|987458757
39c39
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] -- [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] --[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
------
Leading_question|987458765
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A question which contains or implies its own answer, and invites the witness to give the answer suggested by the attorney.  Generally only permitted in court when dealing engaging in [[cross-examination]] or dealing with a [[hostile witness]].
> 
> Example of a leading question:  "you knew where you were going, didn't you?"
------
Law|987458840
9a10,11
> 
> 
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987458899
30a31,36
> ----
> Well, I don't even agree on this, but all-in-all, I would say that this is mostly irrelevant to a general discussion.  The question is whether or not systems of centralized political control have faired better (under some broad measures of economic well-being) or worse, after controlling for other relevant variables, with or without a price system generated by individual freedom to trade.
> 
> Even small groups who agree on many things, would fare better economically under a system which permits people to register preferences via a price system.  There isn't really any realistic alternative to this.  One thing that should be noted, of course: if the goal is _not_ prosperity, then certainly an authoritarian political system can achieve other things quite nicely.
> 
> But that is not what is usually meant.
------
Politics|987458976
39,40c39,40
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] --[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
< 
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]]
> [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]  
------
Capitalism/Talk|987459055
120a121,124
> 
> ----
> Sorry Jimbo, but that rewrite just makes things much worse.  No one but you, me, and few other objectivists, libertarians, and others would recite that first paragraph with a straight face.  I am a devout Friedmanite myself, and believe every word of that paragraph with every fiber of being, but it would be a serious breach of simple honesty to say that that's what most people--or even many people--believe capitalism is about.  Let's face reality: capitalism is about private ownership of idustrial business, period.  It has nothing whatsoever to do with individual rights, except the right to own a business.  South Africa, for example, when whites could own property and blacks could not, was nonetheless unquestioningly a capitalist economy by any reasonable meaning of the term.  The also applies to heavily regulated industries in the US like telecommunications, airline travel, and power distribution (even before some of these were deregulated).  What makes them capitalist is not the lack of force, but the fact that their profits go to private owners, and those owners generally run things.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Politics|987459147
39,40c39,40
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]]
< [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]  
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] -- [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]
>  
------
Crokinole|987459187
2a3,4
> http://www.angelfire.com/ct2/letterbox/images/Crokold.gif
> 
------
History_of_Turkey|987459566
88c88
< While the sultan offered no resistance, under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk, the Turkish Nationalists overturned the postwar settlement embodied in the Treaty of Sévres (1920) and established the Republic of Turkey, formally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
---
> While the sultan offered no resistance, under the leadership of [[Kemal Ataturk]], the Turkish Nationalists overturned the postwar settlement embodied in the Treaty of Sévres (1920) and established the Republic of Turkey, formally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
------
Kemal_Ataturk|987459615
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic and itsfirst President, stands as a towering figure of the 20th Century. Among the great leadersof history, few have achieved so much in so short period, transformed the life of a nationas decisively, and given such profound inspiration to the world at large. 
> 
> Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, he became the charismaticleader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. He blazed across the worldscene in the early 1920s as a triumphant commander who crushed the invaders of hiscountry. Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation tofull independence. He put an end to the antiquated Ottoman dynasty whose tale had lastedmore than six centuries - and created the Republic of Turkey in 1923, establishing a newgovernment truly representative of the nation's will.
> 
> As President for 15 years, until his death in 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced abroad range of swift and sweeping reforms - in the political, social, legal, economic, andcultural spheres - virtually unparalleled in any other country.
> 
> His achievements in Turkey are an enduring monument to Atatürk. Emerging nationsadmire him as a pioneer of national liberation. The world honors his memory as a foremostpeacemaker who upheld the principles of humanism and the vision of a united humanity.Tributes have been offered to him through the decades by such world statesmen as LloydGeorge, Churchill, Roosevelt, Nehru, de Gaulle, Adenauer, Bourguiba, Nasser, Kennedy, andcountless others. A White House statement, issued on the occasion of "The AtatürkCentennial" in 1981, pays homage to him as "a great leader in times ofwar and peace". It is fitting that there should be high praise for Atatürk, anextraordinary leader of modern times, who said in 1933: "I look to the world withan open heart full of pure feelings and friendship". 
> 
------
Turkey|987459970
1c1
< Turkey (Türkiye) is a country placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]] (''see [[Asia Minor]]''). Spoken [[language]] is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
---
> When capitalized, the word '''Turkey''' refers to a country (Türkiye) placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]] (''see [[Asia Minor]]''). Spoken [[language]] is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
6a7,8
> ----
> Not capitalized, the word '''turkey''' can mean:
7a10,14
> # Any of a small number of large birds with fan-shaped tails and wattled necks commonly domesticated and used for [[poultry]].  Especially the North American ''Meleagris gallopavo'' and Central American ''Agriocharis ocellata''.  The "Australian turkey" ''Choriotis australis'' is more accurately called a bustard.
> # The meat of a turkey(1).
> # An failed event such as a theatrical production or scientific experiment.
> # An undesirable or annoying person.
> # In [[bowling]], three consecutive strikes.
------
History_of_Islam|987460198
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam went forth with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the Prophet's death, Islam had spread to three continents. Islam is not, as some imagine in the West, a religion of the sword nor did it spread primarily by means of war. It was only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry was rampant, that Islam was propagated by warring against those tribes which did not accept the message of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not forced to convert. Outside of Arabia also the vast lands conquered by the Arab armies in a short period became Muslim not by force of the sword but by the appeal of the new religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis upon His Mercy that brought vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam. The new religion did not coerce people to convert. Many continued to remain Jews and Christians and to this day important communities of the followers of these faiths are found in Muslim lands. 
> Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early expansion outside of Arabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam peacefully as did a large number of the people of the Indian subcontinent and the Malay-speaking world. In Africa also, Islam has spread during the past two centuries even under the mighty power of European colonial rulers. Today Islam continues to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America where Muslims now comprise a notable minority. 
> 
> The Rightly guided Caliphs
> Upon the death of the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the first adult male to embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by 'Umar who was caliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established the first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He established many of the basic practices of Islamic government. 
> 'Umar was succeeded by 'Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during which time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who had the definitive text of the Noble Quran copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by 'Ali who is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery. With his death the rule of the "rightly guided" caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims, came to an end. 
> 
> The Caliphate
> Umayyad
> The Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established. 
> Abbasids
> The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a vast world. 
> They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258, destroying much of the city including its incomparable libraries. 
> 
> While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The most important event in this area as far as the relation between Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders. 
> 
> North Africa And Spain
> When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers. 
> Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end. 
> 
> After the Mangol Invasion
> The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world. 
> Ottoman Empire
> From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their control. They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by the Westem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924. 
------
RecentChanges|987460479
3c3
< If you want to see the Wikipedia succeed, it's very important that you don't add material restricted by others' copyrights.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
---
> If you want to see the Wikipedia succeed, it's very important that you don't add material restricted by others' [[copyright]]s.  The legal liability could really hurt the project, so please don't do it.
------
Ottoman_Empire|987460692
1c1,200
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Early in the 14th century the Turkish tribal chieftain Othman, or Osman, founded an empire in western Anatolia (Asia Minor) that was to endure for almost six centuries. As this empire grew by conquering lands of the Byzantine Empire and beyond, it came to include at the height of its power all of Asia Minor; the countries of the Balkan Peninsula; the islands of the eastern Mediterranean; parts of Hungary and Russia; Iraq, Syria, the Caucasus, Palestine, and Egypt; part of Arabia; and all of North Africa through Algeria.
> 
> The Early Empire, 1300-1481
> The dynasty that Othman (1258-1326) founded was called Osmanli, meaning
> "sons of Osman." The name evolved in English into Ottoman. The Ottoman
> Empire was Islamic in religion. During the 11th century bands of nomadic
> Turks emerged from their home in Central Asia to raid lands to the west.
> The strongest of the Turkish tribes was the Seljuks. In time they
> established themselves in Asia Minor along with other groups of Turks.
> Following the defeat of the Seljuks by the Mongols in 1293, Othman emerged 
> as the leader of local Turks in the fight against the tottering Byzantine
> Empire. The final conquest of the Byzantines was not achieved until 1453
> with the fall of Constantinople (now Istanbul), but by that date all the
> surrounding territory was in Ottoman hands.
> 
> The initial areas of expansion under Othman I and his successors Orkhan
> (ruled 1326-59) and Murad I (ruled 1359-89) were western Asia Minor and
> southeastern Europe, primarily the Balkan Peninsula. During Orkhan's reign
> the practice began of exacting a tribute in children from Christian subjects.
> The boys were trained to become soldiers and administrators. As soldiers
> they filled the ranks of the infantry, called the Janizaries Janizaries (also spelled
> Janissaries), the most fearsome military force in Europe for centuries.
> 
> Murad I conquered Thrace, to the northwest of Constantinople, in 1361. He
> moved his capital to Adrianople (now Edirne), Thrace's capital and the
> second city of the Byzantine Empire. This conquest effectively cut off
> Constantinople from the outside world. Adrianople also controlled the
> principal invasion route through the Balkan Mountains, giving the Ottomans
> access to further expansion to the north.
> 
> During Murad I's last victorious battle against Balkan allies, he was killed.
> His successor, Bayezid I (ruled 1389-1402), was unable to make further
> European conquests. He was forced to devote his attention to eastern Asia
> Minor to deal with a growing Turkish principality, Karaman. He attacked and
> defeated Karaman in 1391, put down a revolt of his Balkan subjects, and
> returned to consolidate his gains in Asia Minor. His successes attracted
> the attention of Timur Lenk (Tamerlane). Encouraged by Turkish princes who
> had fled to his court from Bayezid I's incursions, Timur Lenk attacked and
> overwhelmed him in 1402. Taken captive by Timur Lenk, Bayezid died within a year.
> 
> Timur Lenk soon retired from Asia Minor, leaving Bayezid's sons to take up where
> their father had failed. The four sons fought for control until one of them,
> Mohammed I, killed the other three and took control. He reigned from 1413
> to 1421 and his successor, Murad II, from 1421 to 1451. Murad II suppressed
> Balkan resistance and eliminated all but two of the Turkish principalities
> in Asia Minor. The task of finishing the Balkan conquests and seizing all
> of Asia Minor fell to Murad II 's successor, Mohammed II (ruled 1451-81). It
> was he who completed the siege of Constantinople in 1453 and made it the
> capital of the Ottoman Empire. The whole Balkan Peninsula south of Hungary
> was incorporated as well as the Crimea on the north coast of the Black Sea.
> Asia Minor was completely subdued.
> 
> In addition to conquering a large empire, Mohammed II worked strenuously
> for consolidation and an adequate administrative and tax system. He was
> assisted by the fact that the whole Byzantine bureaucratic structure fell
> into his hands. Although Islamic, Ottoman sultans were not averse to using
> whatever talent they could attract or capture.
> 
> The Golden Age, 1481-1566
> Three sultans ruled the empire at its height: Bayezid II (1481-1512),
> Selim I (1512-20), and Suleyman I the Magnificent (1520-66). Bayezid
> extended the empire in Europe, added outposts along the Black Sea, and put
> down revolts in Asia Minor. He also turned the Ottoman fleet into a major
> Mediterranean naval power. Late in life he became a religious mystic and
> was displaced on the throne by his more militant son, Selim I.
> 
> Selim I's first task was to eliminate all competition for his position. He
> had his brothers, their sons, and all but one of his own sons killed. He
> thereby established control over the army, which had wanted to raise its
> own candidate to power. During his short reign the Ottomans moved south-
> and eastward into Syria, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Arabia, and Egypt. At Mecca,
> the chief shrine of Islam, he took the title of caliph, ruler of all
> Muslims. The Ottoman sultans were thereafter the spiritual heads of Islam
> thereby displacing the centuries-old caliphate of Baghdad.
> 
> By acquiring the holy places of Islam, Selim I cemented his position as the
> religion's most powerful ruler. This gave the Ottomans direct access to the
> rich cultural heritage of the Arab world. Leading Muslim intellectuals,
> artists, artisans, and administrators came to Constantinople from all parts
> of the Arab world. They made the empire much more of a traditional Islamic
> state than it had been.
> 
> An added benefit of Selim I's efforts was control of all Middle Eastern trade
> routes between Europe and the Far East. The growth of the empire had for
> some time been an impediment to European trade. In time this led European
> states to seek routes around Africa to China and India. It also impelled
> them to face westward and led directly to the discovery of the Americas.
> 
> Selim I's surviving son, Suleyman, came to the throne in an enviable
> situation. New revenues from the expanded empire left him with wealth and
> power unparalleled in Ottoman history. In his early campaigns he captured
> Belgrade (1521) and Rhodes (1522) and broke the military power of Hungary.
> In 1529 he laid siege to Vienna, Austria, but was forced to withdraw for
> lack of supplies. He also waged three campaigns against Persia. Algiers in
> North Africa fell to his navy in 1529 and Tripoli (now Libya) in 1551. In
> more peaceful pursuits he adorned the chief cities of Islam with mosques,
> aqueducts, bridges, and other public works. In Constantinople he had several
> mosques built, among them the magnificent Suleymaniye Cami named for him.
> 
> Imperial Decline, 1566-1807
> During Suleyman's long reign the Ottoman Empire was at the height of its
> political power and close to its maximum geographical extent. The seeds of
> decline, however, were already planted. As Suleyman grew tired of campaigns
> and retired to his harem, his viziers, or prime ministers, took more
> authority. After his death the army gained control of the sultanate and was
> able to use it for its own benefit. Few sultans after Suleyman had the
> ability to exercise real power when the need arose. This weakness at home
> was countered by a growing power in the west. The nation-states of Europe
> were emerging from the Middle Ages under strong monarchies. They were
> building armies and navies that were powerful enough to attack a decaying
> Ottoman military might.
> 
> In 1571 the combined fleets of Venice, Spain, and the Papal States of Italy
> defeated the Turks in the great naval battle of Lepanto, off the coast of
> Greece. This defeat, which dispelled the myth of the invincible Turk, took
> place during the reign of Selim II (ruled 1566-74). But the empire rebuilt
> its navy and continued to control the eastern Mediterranean for another
> century.
> 
> As the central government became weaker, large parts of the empire began to
> act independently, retaining only nominal loyalty to the sultan. The army
> was still strong enough, however, to prevent provincial rebels from
> asserting complete control. Under Murad III (ruled 1574-95) new campaigns
> were undertaken. The Caucasus was conquered, and Azerbaijan was seized.
> This brought the empire to the peak of its territorial extent.
> 
> Reform efforts undertaken by 17th-century sultans did little to deter the
> onset of decay. The Ottomans were driven out of the Caucasus and Azerbaijan
> in 1603 and out of Iraq in 1604. Iraq was retaken by Murad IV (
> (ruled 1623-40) in 1638, but Iran remained a persistent military threat in
> the east. A war with Venice (1645-69) exposed Constantinople to an attack 
> by the Venetian navy. In 1683 the last attempt to conquer Vienna failed.
> Russia and Austria fought the empire by direct military attack and by
> fomenting revolt by non-Muslim subjects of the sultan.
> 
> Beginning in 1683, with the attack on Vienna, the Ottomans were at war with
> European enemies for 41 years. As a result, the empire lost much of its
> Balkan territory and all the possessions on the shores of the Black Sea. In
> addition, the Austrians and Russians were allowed to intervene in the
> empire's affairs on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects.
> 
> The weakness of the central government, as manifested by its military
> decline, also showed itself in a gradual loss of control over most of the
> provinces. Local rulers, called notables, carved for themselves permanent
> regions in which they ruled directly, regardless of the wishes of the
> sultan in Constantinople. The notables were able to build their power bases
> because they knew of the sultan's military weakness and because local
> populations preferred their rule to the corrupt administration of the
> faraway capital. The notables formed their own armies and collected their
> own taxes, sending only nominal contributions to the imperial treasury.
> 
> Selim III (ruled 1789-1807) attempted to reform the empire and its army. He
> failed and was overthrown. When Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39) came to the
> throne, the empire was in desperate straits. Control of North Africa had
> passed to local notables. In Egypt Muhammad Ali was laying the foundation
> of an independent kingdom. Had the European nations cooperated, they could
> have destroyed the Ottoman Empire.
> 
> In 1826, five years after Greece began its fight for independence, the
> Janizaries revolted to stop reforms. Mahmud had them massacred and
> constructed a new military system in the style of European armies. He also
> reformed the administration and gained control over some of the provincial
> notables, with the exception of Egypt. By the time of Mahmud's death the
> empire was more consolidated and powerful, but it was still subject to
> European interference.
> 
> Mahmud's sons, Abdulmecid I (ruled 1839-61) and Abdulaziz (ruled 1861-76)
> carried out further reforms, especially in education and law. Nevertheless,
> by mid-century it was evident that the Ottoman cause was hopeless. Czar
> Nicholas I of Russia commented on the Ottoman Empire in 1853: "We have on
> our hands a sick man, a very sick man."
> 
> The Sick Man of Europe, 1850-1922
> The conflicting interests of European states propped up the Ottoman Empire
> until after World War I. Great Britain especially was determined to keep
> Russia from gaining direct access to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea.
> Britain, France, and Sardinia helped the Ottomans during the Crimean War
> (1854-56) to block the Russians.
> 
> The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 brought Russia almost to Constantinople.
> The Ottomans were forced to sign the harsh Treaty of San Stefano , which
> would have ended their rule in Europe except that the European states called
> the Congress of Berlin. It succeeded in propping up the old empire for a
> few decades more.
> 
> Abdulhamid II (ruled 1876-1909) developed strong ties with Germany, and the
> Ottomans fought on Germany's side in World War I. Russia hoped to use the
> war as an excuse to gain access to the Mediterranean and perhaps capture
> Constantinople. This aim was frustrated by the Russian Revolution of 1917
> and withdrawal from the war. Ottoman defeat in war inspired an already
> fervent Turkish nationalism. The postwar settlement outraged the
> nationalists. A new government under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal,
> known as Ataturk, emerged at Ankara. The last sultan,
> Mohammed VI, fled in 1922 after the sultanate had been abolished. All
> members of the Ottoman Dynasty were expelled from the country two years
> later. Turkey was proclaimed a republic, with Ataturk as its first
> president.
> 
> 
> 
------
William_Barnes|987460827
1a2,3
> 
> See ''The Rebirth of England and the English: The Vision of William Barnes'' by Andrew Phillips ISBN: 1898281173 
------
Kemal_Ataturk|987461632
1c1
< Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic and itsfirst President, stands as a towering figure of the 20th Century. Among the great leadersof history, few have achieved so much in so short period, transformed the life of a nationas decisively, and given such profound inspiration to the world at large. 
---
> '''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk''' was the founder of the Turkish Republic and its first President.
3,7c3
< Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, he became the charismaticleader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. He blazed across the worldscene in the early 1920s as a triumphant commander who crushed the invaders of hiscountry. Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation tofull independence. He put an end to the antiquated Ottoman dynasty whose tale had lastedmore than six centuries - and created the Republic of Turkey in 1923, establishing a newgovernment truly representative of the nation's will.
< 
< As President for 15 years, until his death in 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced abroad range of swift and sweeping reforms - in the political, social, legal, economic, andcultural spheres - virtually unparalleled in any other country.
< 
< His achievements in Turkey are an enduring monument to Atatürk. Emerging nationsadmire him as a pioneer of national liberation. The world honors his memory as a foremostpeacemaker who upheld the principles of humanism and the vision of a united humanity.Tributes have been offered to him through the decades by such world statesmen as LloydGeorge, Churchill, Roosevelt, Nehru, de Gaulle, Adenauer, Bourguiba, Nasser, Kennedy, andcountless others. A White House statement, issued on the occasion of "The AtatürkCentennial" in 1981, pays homage to him as "a great leader in times ofwar and peace". It is fitting that there should be high praise for Atatürk, anextraordinary leader of modern times, who said in 1933: "I look to the world withan open heart full of pure feelings and friendship". 
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Kemal_Ataturk/Talk|987461754
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The following was posted here on 04-16-01.  It appears to be taken verbatim from ataturk.com.  That site does not contain a clear copyright statement, so the text is presumed to be copyrighted.  It's also far too one-sided to be a serious encyclopedia entry.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Turkish Republic and its first President, stands as a towering figure of the 20th Century.  Among the great leaders of history, few have achieved so much in so short period, transformed the life of a nation as decisively, and given such profound inspiration to the world at large. 
> 
> Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, he became the charismatic leader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. He blazed across the world scene in the early 1920s as a triumphant commander who crushed the invaders of his country.  Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation to full independence.  He put an end to the antiquated Ottoman dynasty whose tale had lasted more than six centuries - and created the Republic of Turkey in 1923, establishing a new government truly representative of the nation's will.
> 
> As President for 15 years, until his death in 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced abroad range of swift and sweeping reforms - in the political, social, legal, economic, andcultural spheres - virtually unparalleled in any other country.
> 
> His achievements in Turkey are an enduring monument to Atatürk.  Emerging nations admire him as a pioneer of national liberation.  The world honors his memory as a foremost peacemaker who upheld the principles of humanism and the vision of a united humanity.  Tributes have been offered to him through the decades by such world statesmen as LloydGeorge, Churchill, Roosevelt, Nehru, de Gaulle, Adenauer, Bourguiba, Nasser, Kennedy, andcountless others.  A White House statement, issued on the occasion of "The Atatürk Centennial" in 1981, pays homage to him as "a great leader in times of war and peace".  It is fitting that there should be high praise for Atatürk, an extraordinary leader of modern times, who said in 1933: "I look to the world withan open heart full of pure feelings and friendship". 
> 
> 
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987462054
36c36,38
< But that is not what is usually meant.
---
> But that is not what is usually meant.
> ----
> The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was.
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987462082
38c38
< The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was.
---
> The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use of resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was. -TS
------
Stroke|987462215
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of brain disorders involving loss of brain functions that occur when the blood supply to any part of the brain is interrupted. 
------
ErdemTuzun|987462681
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Erdem Tüzün is a Turkish neurologist and web personality.
> e-mail: drerdem@yahoo.com
> web address: http://www.geocities.com/drerdem/mypage.html
> 
> Gender: Male 
> Born: ÝSTANBUL, TURKEY, 
> Birthdate: Nov. 11, 1971 
> Achievements: 
> One of first measurements of intracavernosal endothelin levels of impotent men, providing evidence for using nitric oxide (antagonist of endothelin) agonist drugs in male erectile dysfunction 
> Contributions to the detection of ganglioside levels of salivary glands 
> Contributions for the treatment of congenital penile deformity by a new surgical method  Contributions to demonstration of the presence of antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels in patients with limbic encephalitis 
> Contributions to identification of the autoimmune etiology of neuromyotonia and demonstration of the role of autoantibodies against thalamic structures as a causal factor for Morvan's syndrome; 
> Writings and creative works: Application of F tacheodispersion method in diabetes mellitus patients with subclinical neuropathy. Istanbul 2000.
> Military Activity: Commando Military Doctor (Private), Commando Military Hospital, Isparta, Turkey, 2000.
> Awards, Honors, Grants: 
> Third degree in Marmara Region in TÜBITAK Biology Competition , TÜBÝTAK, 1988-1989; 
> First degree award at Travel and Project Prize of Brain Research Organization, Turkey, Brain Research Organization, 1999; 
> Professional and club Membership: Member, EUROPEAN NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1998-2000; 
> 
------
History_of_Islam|987462761
0a1,2
> This text appears to be taken verbatim from http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/.  There is no copyright statement there, and the site appears to be clearly an advocacy site. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
ErdemTuzun|987463061
1d0
< 
20a20,21
> ----
> Welcome, Dr. Erdem.  I assume you're the source of the texts on Atatürk, History of Islam, etc., that were placed here recently.  Where these are taken from apparently copyrighted sources, I've noted that.  It would be great if you could rewrite those in a form we can use legally, and also from a [[NeutralPointOfView]].  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
ErdemTuzun|987463467
21a22,23
> ----
> Okay. I was not aware that they were taken from copyrighted sources. I will rewrite them as soon as possible. Now, you can delete these texts or wait for tomorrow for new legal forms.
------
History_of_Islam|987463668
1a2,3
> ----
> Lee, thanks for identifying this material as taken from other websites.  Such material should be summarily ''deleted'' from Wikipedia.  This is a strictly ''practical'' matter that, I hope we can all agree, does not depend on your personal notions of copyright.
3,26c5
< From the oasis cities of Makkah and Madinah in the Arabian desert, the message of Islam went forth with electrifying speed. Within half a century of the Prophet's death, Islam had spread to three continents. Islam is not, as some imagine in the West, a religion of the sword nor did it spread primarily by means of war. It was only within Arabia, where a crude form of idolatry was rampant, that Islam was propagated by warring against those tribes which did not accept the message of God--whereas Christians and Jews were not forced to convert. Outside of Arabia also the vast lands conquered by the Arab armies in a short period became Muslim not by force of the sword but by the appeal of the new religion. It was faith in One God and emphasis upon His Mercy that brought vast numbers of people into the fold of Islam. The new religion did not coerce people to convert. Many continued to remain Jews and Christians and to this day important communities of the followers of these faiths are found in Muslim lands. 
< Moreover, the spread of Islam was not limited to its miraculous early expansion outside of Arabia. During later centuries the Turks embraced Islam peacefully as did a large number of the people of the Indian subcontinent and the Malay-speaking world. In Africa also, Islam has spread during the past two centuries even under the mighty power of European colonial rulers. Today Islam continues to grow not only in Africa but also in Europe and America where Muslims now comprise a notable minority. 
< 
< The Rightly guided Caliphs
< Upon the death of the Prophet, Abu Bakr, the friend of the Prophet and the first adult male to embrace Islam, became caliph. Abu Bakr ruled for two years to be succeeded by 'Umar who was caliph for a decade and during whose rule Islam spread extensively east and west conquering the Persian empire, Syria and Egypt. It was 'Umar who marched on foot at the end of the Muslim army into Jerusalem and ordered the protection of Christian sites. 'Umar also established the first public treasury and a sophisticated financial administration. He established many of the basic practices of Islamic government. 
< 'Umar was succeeded by 'Uthman who ruled for some twelve years during which time the Islamic expansion continued. He is also known as the caliph who had the definitive text of the Noble Quran copied and sent to the four corners of the Islamic world. He was in turn succeeded by 'Ali who is known to this day for his eloquent sermons and letters, and also for his bravery. With his death the rule of the "rightly guided" caliphs, who hold a special place of respect in the hearts of Muslims, came to an end. 
< 
< The Caliphate
< Umayyad
< The Umayyad caliphate established in 661 was to last for about a century. During this time Damascus became the capital of an Islamic world which stretched from the western borders of China to southern France. Not only did the Islamic conquests continue during this period through North Africa to Spain and France in the West and to Sind, Central Asia and Transoxiana in the East, but the basic social and legal institutions of the newly founded Islamic world were established. 
< Abbasids
< The Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads, shifted the capital to Baghdad which soon developed into an incomparable center of learning and culture as well as the administrative and political heart of a vast world. 
< They ruled for over 500 years but gradually their power waned and they remained only symbolic rulers bestowing legitimacy upon various sultans and princes who wielded actual military power. The Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished when Hulagu, the Mongol ruler, captured Baghdad in 1258, destroying much of the city including its incomparable libraries. 
< 
< While the Abbasids ruled in Baghdad, a number of powerful dynasties such as the Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks held power in Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The most important event in this area as far as the relation between Islam and the Western world was concerned was the series of Crusades declared by the Pope and espoused by various European kings. The purpose, although political, was outwardly to recapture the Holy Land and especially Jerusalem for Christianity. Although there was at the beginning some success and local European rule was set up in parts of Syria and Palestine, Muslims finally prevailed and in 1187 Saladin, the great Muslim leader, recaptured Jerusalem and defeated the Crusaders. 
< 
< North Africa And Spain
< When the Abbasids captured Damascus, one of the Umayyad princes escaped and made the long journey from there to Spain to found Umayyad rule there, thus beginning the golden age of Islam in Spain. Cordoba was established as the capital and soon became Europe's greatest city not only in population but from the point of view of its cultural and intellectual life. The Umayyads ruled over two centuries until they weakened and were replaced by local rulers. 
< Meanwhile in North Africa, various local dynasties held sway until two powerful Berber dynasties succeeded in uniting much of North Africa and also Spain in the 12th and 13th centuries. After them this area was ruled once again by local dynasties such as the Sharifids of Morocco who still rule in that country. As for Spain itself, Muslim power continued to wane until the last Muslim dynasty was defeated in Granada in 1492 thus bringing nearly eight hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain to an end. 
< 
< After the Mangol Invasion
< The Mongols devastated the eastern lands of Islam and ruled from the Sinai Desert to India for a century. But they soon converted to Islam and became known as the Il-Khanids. They were in turn succeeded by Timur and his descendents who made Samarqand their capital and ruled from 1369 to 1500. The sudden rise of Timur delayed the formation and expansion of the Ottoman empire but soon the Ottomans became the dominant power in the Islamic world. 
< Ottoman Empire
< From humble origins the Turks rose to dominate over the whole of Anatolia and even parts of Europe. In 1453 Mehmet the Conqueror captured Constantinople and put an end to the Byzantine empire. The Ottomans conquered much of eastem Europe and nearly the whole of the Arab world, only Morocco and Mauritania in the West and Yemen, Hadramaut and parts of the Arabian peninsula remaining beyond their control. They reached their zenith of power with Suleyman the Magnificent whose armies reached Hungary and Austria. From the 17th century onward with the rise of Westem European powers and later Russia, the power of the Ottomans began to wane. But they nevertheless remained a force to be reckoned with until the First World War when they were defeated by the Westem nations. Soon thereafter Kamal Ataturk gained power in Turkey and abolished the six centuries of rule of the Ottomans in 1924. 
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Kemal_Ataturk/Talk|987463742
1,11c1
< The following was posted here on 04-16-01.  It appears to be taken verbatim from ataturk.com.  That site does not contain a clear copyright statement, so the text is presumed to be copyrighted.  It's also far too one-sided to be a serious encyclopedia entry.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< 
< Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Turkish Republic and its first President, stands as a towering figure of the 20th Century.  Among the great leaders of history, few have achieved so much in so short period, transformed the life of a nation as decisively, and given such profound inspiration to the world at large. 
< 
< Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, he became the charismatic leader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. He blazed across the world scene in the early 1920s as a triumphant commander who crushed the invaders of his country.  Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation to full independence.  He put an end to the antiquated Ottoman dynasty whose tale had lasted more than six centuries - and created the Republic of Turkey in 1923, establishing a new government truly representative of the nation's will.
< 
< As President for 15 years, until his death in 1938, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk introduced abroad range of swift and sweeping reforms - in the political, social, legal, economic, andcultural spheres - virtually unparalleled in any other country.
< 
< His achievements in Turkey are an enduring monument to Atatürk.  Emerging nations admire him as a pioneer of national liberation.  The world honors his memory as a foremost peacemaker who upheld the principles of humanism and the vision of a united humanity.  Tributes have been offered to him through the decades by such world statesmen as LloydGeorge, Churchill, Roosevelt, Nehru, de Gaulle, Adenauer, Bourguiba, Nasser, Kennedy, andcountless others.  A White House statement, issued on the occasion of "The Atatürk Centennial" in 1981, pays homage to him as "a great leader in times of war and peace".  It is fitting that there should be high praise for Atatürk, an extraordinary leader of modern times, who said in 1933: "I look to the world withan open heart full of pure feelings and friendship". 
< 
< 
---
> ''Deleted what is presumably copyrighted material.''
------
Ottoman_Empire|987463940
1,197c1
< Early in the 14th century the Turkish tribal chieftain Othman, or Osman, founded an empire in western Anatolia (Asia Minor) that was to endure for almost six centuries. As this empire grew by conquering lands of the Byzantine Empire and beyond, it came to include at the height of its power all of Asia Minor; the countries of the Balkan Peninsula; the islands of the eastern Mediterranean; parts of Hungary and Russia; Iraq, Syria, the Caucasus, Palestine, and Egypt; part of Arabia; and all of North Africa through Algeria.
< 
< The Early Empire, 1300-1481
< The dynasty that Othman (1258-1326) founded was called Osmanli, meaning
< "sons of Osman." The name evolved in English into Ottoman. The Ottoman
< Empire was Islamic in religion. During the 11th century bands of nomadic
< Turks emerged from their home in Central Asia to raid lands to the west.
< The strongest of the Turkish tribes was the Seljuks. In time they
< established themselves in Asia Minor along with other groups of Turks.
< Following the defeat of the Seljuks by the Mongols in 1293, Othman emerged 
< as the leader of local Turks in the fight against the tottering Byzantine
< Empire. The final conquest of the Byzantines was not achieved until 1453
< with the fall of Constantinople (now Istanbul), but by that date all the
< surrounding territory was in Ottoman hands.
< 
< The initial areas of expansion under Othman I and his successors Orkhan
< (ruled 1326-59) and Murad I (ruled 1359-89) were western Asia Minor and
< southeastern Europe, primarily the Balkan Peninsula. During Orkhan's reign
< the practice began of exacting a tribute in children from Christian subjects.
< The boys were trained to become soldiers and administrators. As soldiers
< they filled the ranks of the infantry, called the Janizaries Janizaries (also spelled
< Janissaries), the most fearsome military force in Europe for centuries.
< 
< Murad I conquered Thrace, to the northwest of Constantinople, in 1361. He
< moved his capital to Adrianople (now Edirne), Thrace's capital and the
< second city of the Byzantine Empire. This conquest effectively cut off
< Constantinople from the outside world. Adrianople also controlled the
< principal invasion route through the Balkan Mountains, giving the Ottomans
< access to further expansion to the north.
< 
< During Murad I's last victorious battle against Balkan allies, he was killed.
< His successor, Bayezid I (ruled 1389-1402), was unable to make further
< European conquests. He was forced to devote his attention to eastern Asia
< Minor to deal with a growing Turkish principality, Karaman. He attacked and
< defeated Karaman in 1391, put down a revolt of his Balkan subjects, and
< returned to consolidate his gains in Asia Minor. His successes attracted
< the attention of Timur Lenk (Tamerlane). Encouraged by Turkish princes who
< had fled to his court from Bayezid I's incursions, Timur Lenk attacked and
< overwhelmed him in 1402. Taken captive by Timur Lenk, Bayezid died within a year.
< 
< Timur Lenk soon retired from Asia Minor, leaving Bayezid's sons to take up where
< their father had failed. The four sons fought for control until one of them,
< Mohammed I, killed the other three and took control. He reigned from 1413
< to 1421 and his successor, Murad II, from 1421 to 1451. Murad II suppressed
< Balkan resistance and eliminated all but two of the Turkish principalities
< in Asia Minor. The task of finishing the Balkan conquests and seizing all
< of Asia Minor fell to Murad II 's successor, Mohammed II (ruled 1451-81). It
< was he who completed the siege of Constantinople in 1453 and made it the
< capital of the Ottoman Empire. The whole Balkan Peninsula south of Hungary
< was incorporated as well as the Crimea on the north coast of the Black Sea.
< Asia Minor was completely subdued.
< 
< In addition to conquering a large empire, Mohammed II worked strenuously
< for consolidation and an adequate administrative and tax system. He was
< assisted by the fact that the whole Byzantine bureaucratic structure fell
< into his hands. Although Islamic, Ottoman sultans were not averse to using
< whatever talent they could attract or capture.
< 
< The Golden Age, 1481-1566
< Three sultans ruled the empire at its height: Bayezid II (1481-1512),
< Selim I (1512-20), and Suleyman I the Magnificent (1520-66). Bayezid
< extended the empire in Europe, added outposts along the Black Sea, and put
< down revolts in Asia Minor. He also turned the Ottoman fleet into a major
< Mediterranean naval power. Late in life he became a religious mystic and
< was displaced on the throne by his more militant son, Selim I.
< 
< Selim I's first task was to eliminate all competition for his position. He
< had his brothers, their sons, and all but one of his own sons killed. He
< thereby established control over the army, which had wanted to raise its
< own candidate to power. During his short reign the Ottomans moved south-
< and eastward into Syria, Mesopotamia (Iraq), Arabia, and Egypt. At Mecca,
< the chief shrine of Islam, he took the title of caliph, ruler of all
< Muslims. The Ottoman sultans were thereafter the spiritual heads of Islam
< thereby displacing the centuries-old caliphate of Baghdad.
< 
< By acquiring the holy places of Islam, Selim I cemented his position as the
< religion's most powerful ruler. This gave the Ottomans direct access to the
< rich cultural heritage of the Arab world. Leading Muslim intellectuals,
< artists, artisans, and administrators came to Constantinople from all parts
< of the Arab world. They made the empire much more of a traditional Islamic
< state than it had been.
< 
< An added benefit of Selim I's efforts was control of all Middle Eastern trade
< routes between Europe and the Far East. The growth of the empire had for
< some time been an impediment to European trade. In time this led European
< states to seek routes around Africa to China and India. It also impelled
< them to face westward and led directly to the discovery of the Americas.
< 
< Selim I's surviving son, Suleyman, came to the throne in an enviable
< situation. New revenues from the expanded empire left him with wealth and
< power unparalleled in Ottoman history. In his early campaigns he captured
< Belgrade (1521) and Rhodes (1522) and broke the military power of Hungary.
< In 1529 he laid siege to Vienna, Austria, but was forced to withdraw for
< lack of supplies. He also waged three campaigns against Persia. Algiers in
< North Africa fell to his navy in 1529 and Tripoli (now Libya) in 1551. In
< more peaceful pursuits he adorned the chief cities of Islam with mosques,
< aqueducts, bridges, and other public works. In Constantinople he had several
< mosques built, among them the magnificent Suleymaniye Cami named for him.
< 
< Imperial Decline, 1566-1807
< During Suleyman's long reign the Ottoman Empire was at the height of its
< political power and close to its maximum geographical extent. The seeds of
< decline, however, were already planted. As Suleyman grew tired of campaigns
< and retired to his harem, his viziers, or prime ministers, took more
< authority. After his death the army gained control of the sultanate and was
< able to use it for its own benefit. Few sultans after Suleyman had the
< ability to exercise real power when the need arose. This weakness at home
< was countered by a growing power in the west. The nation-states of Europe
< were emerging from the Middle Ages under strong monarchies. They were
< building armies and navies that were powerful enough to attack a decaying
< Ottoman military might.
< 
< In 1571 the combined fleets of Venice, Spain, and the Papal States of Italy
< defeated the Turks in the great naval battle of Lepanto, off the coast of
< Greece. This defeat, which dispelled the myth of the invincible Turk, took
< place during the reign of Selim II (ruled 1566-74). But the empire rebuilt
< its navy and continued to control the eastern Mediterranean for another
< century.
< 
< As the central government became weaker, large parts of the empire began to
< act independently, retaining only nominal loyalty to the sultan. The army
< was still strong enough, however, to prevent provincial rebels from
< asserting complete control. Under Murad III (ruled 1574-95) new campaigns
< were undertaken. The Caucasus was conquered, and Azerbaijan was seized.
< This brought the empire to the peak of its territorial extent.
< 
< Reform efforts undertaken by 17th-century sultans did little to deter the
< onset of decay. The Ottomans were driven out of the Caucasus and Azerbaijan
< in 1603 and out of Iraq in 1604. Iraq was retaken by Murad IV (
< (ruled 1623-40) in 1638, but Iran remained a persistent military threat in
< the east. A war with Venice (1645-69) exposed Constantinople to an attack 
< by the Venetian navy. In 1683 the last attempt to conquer Vienna failed.
< Russia and Austria fought the empire by direct military attack and by
< fomenting revolt by non-Muslim subjects of the sultan.
< 
< Beginning in 1683, with the attack on Vienna, the Ottomans were at war with
< European enemies for 41 years. As a result, the empire lost much of its
< Balkan territory and all the possessions on the shores of the Black Sea. In
< addition, the Austrians and Russians were allowed to intervene in the
< empire's affairs on behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects.
< 
< The weakness of the central government, as manifested by its military
< decline, also showed itself in a gradual loss of control over most of the
< provinces. Local rulers, called notables, carved for themselves permanent
< regions in which they ruled directly, regardless of the wishes of the
< sultan in Constantinople. The notables were able to build their power bases
< because they knew of the sultan's military weakness and because local
< populations preferred their rule to the corrupt administration of the
< faraway capital. The notables formed their own armies and collected their
< own taxes, sending only nominal contributions to the imperial treasury.
< 
< Selim III (ruled 1789-1807) attempted to reform the empire and its army. He
< failed and was overthrown. When Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39) came to the
< throne, the empire was in desperate straits. Control of North Africa had
< passed to local notables. In Egypt Muhammad Ali was laying the foundation
< of an independent kingdom. Had the European nations cooperated, they could
< have destroyed the Ottoman Empire.
< 
< In 1826, five years after Greece began its fight for independence, the
< Janizaries revolted to stop reforms. Mahmud had them massacred and
< constructed a new military system in the style of European armies. He also
< reformed the administration and gained control over some of the provincial
< notables, with the exception of Egypt. By the time of Mahmud's death the
< empire was more consolidated and powerful, but it was still subject to
< European interference.
< 
< Mahmud's sons, Abdulmecid I (ruled 1839-61) and Abdulaziz (ruled 1861-76)
< carried out further reforms, especially in education and law. Nevertheless,
< by mid-century it was evident that the Ottoman cause was hopeless. Czar
< Nicholas I of Russia commented on the Ottoman Empire in 1853: "We have on
< our hands a sick man, a very sick man."
< 
< The Sick Man of Europe, 1850-1922
< The conflicting interests of European states propped up the Ottoman Empire
< until after World War I. Great Britain especially was determined to keep
< Russia from gaining direct access to the Mediterranean from the Black Sea.
< Britain, France, and Sardinia helped the Ottomans during the Crimean War
< (1854-56) to block the Russians.
< 
< The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 brought Russia almost to Constantinople.
< The Ottomans were forced to sign the harsh Treaty of San Stefano , which
< would have ended their rule in Europe except that the European states called
< the Congress of Berlin. It succeeded in propping up the old empire for a
< few decades more.
< 
< Abdulhamid II (ruled 1876-1909) developed strong ties with Germany, and the
< Ottomans fought on Germany's side in World War I. Russia hoped to use the
< war as an excuse to gain access to the Mediterranean and perhaps capture
< Constantinople. This aim was frustrated by the Russian Revolution of 1917
< and withdrawal from the war. Ottoman defeat in war inspired an already
< fervent Turkish nationalism. The postwar settlement outraged the
< nationalists. A new government under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal,
< known as Ataturk, emerged at Ankara. The last sultan,
< Mohammed VI, fled in 1922 after the sultanate had been abolished. All
< members of the Ottoman Dynasty were expelled from the country two years
< later. Turkey was proclaimed a republic, with Ataturk as its first
< president.
---
> '''The Ottoman Empire'''
198a3,4
> ----
> Material that previously appeared on this page is, according to
199a6
> http://www.sephardichouse.org/ottoemp.html
200a8
> copyrighted.  Please help us by (1) identifying and removing copyrighted materials from Wikipedia, and (2) supplying original articles in their place!
------
History_of_Turkey|987464097
1,92c1
< The Ottoman Empire was a Moslem Turkish state that encompassed Anatolia, Southeastern Europe, the Arab Middle East and North Africa from the 14C to the early 20C.
< 
< The Ottoman Empire succeeded both the Byzantine Empire (1453) and the Arab Caliphate, the mantle of descent from Mohammed after the conquest of Egypt (1517).
< 
< Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
< 
< The Ottoman Turks were descendants of Turkoman nomads who entered Anatolia in the 11C as mercenary soldiers for the Seljuks. At the end of the 13C, Osman I (from whom the name Ottoman is derived) asserted the independence of his small principality in Sogut near Bursa, which adjoined the decadent Byzantine Empire.
< 
< Gazis from all over Anatolia hitched themselves to Osman's rising star, following the usual custom of adopting the name of their leader and thus calling themselves Osmanli. Their fight for their religion, holy war, was called gaza, and was intended not to destroy but to subjugate the non-Moslem world.
< 
< Within a century the Osman Dynasty had extended its domains into an Empire stretching from the Danube to the Euphrates. In Bosnia, Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia the conquered Christian princes were restored to their lands as vassals, while the subjects were left free to follow their own religions in return for loyalty. The Ottomans accepted submissive local nobility and military commanders into their service, along with their troops, instead of killing them.
< 
< The empire was temporarily disrupted by the invasion of the Tatar conqueror Timur, who defeated and captured the Ottoman Sultan Bayezit I at the Battle of Ankara (1402). However, Mehmet I (1389-1421), the Restorer, succeeded in reuniting much of the Empire and it was reconstituted by Murat II and Mehmet II. In 1453, Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, the last Byzantine stronghold.
< 
< During the reigns of Murat II and Mehmet II the devsirme system of recruiting young Christians for conversion to Islam and service in the Ottoman army and administration was developed. The Christians in the army were organized into the elite infantry corps called the Janissaries. Urban families, those with particular skills vital to the local economy, or families with only one son were excluded in this devsirme system. From the poor families' point of view, it was a great chance for their sons to be offered a high level of education especially in the palace which would provide good future prospects.
< 
< The empire reached its peak in the 16C. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) conquered Egypt and Syria, gained control of the Arabian Peninsula and beat back the Safavid rulers of Iran at the Battle of Caldiran (1514). He was succeeded by Suleyman I (the Magnificent, r. 1520-66), who took Iraq, Hungary and Albania and established Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Suleyman codified and institutionalized the classic structure of the Ottoman state and society, making his dominions into one of the great powers of Europe.
< 
< Decline of the Ottoman Empire
< 
< The decline of the empire began late in the 16C. It was caused by a myriad of interdependent factors, among which the most important were the flight of the Turco-Islamic aristocracy and degeneration of the ability and honesty both of the sultans and of their ruling class. The devsirme divided into many political parties and fought for power, manipulated sultans and used the government for their own benefit. Corruption, nepotism, inefficiency and misrule spread.
< 
< Reform Attempts
< 
< Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) attempted to reform the Ottoman system by destroying the Janissary corps and replacing it with the Nizam-i Cedit (new order) army modeled after the new military institutions being developed in the West. This attempt so angered the Janissaries and others with a vested interest in the old ways that they overthrew him and massacred most of the reform leaders. Defeats at the hands of Russia and Austria, the success of national revolutions in Serbia and Greece and the rise of the powerful independent Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mohammed Ali, so discredited the Janissaries, however, that Sultan Mahmut II was able to massacre and destroy them in 1826.
< 
< Mahmut then inaugurated a new series of modern reforms, which involved the abolition of the traditional institutions and their replacement with new ones imported from the West. This affected every area of Ottoman life, not just the military. These reforms were continued and brought to their culmination during the Tanzimat reform era (1839-76) and the reign of Abdulhamit II (1876-1909). The scope of government was extended and centralized as reforms were made in administration, finance, education, justice, economy, communications and army.
< 
< Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the Empire, let alone its reforms. By this time the Ottoman Sultanate was known as the "Sick Man of Europe," and European diplomacy focused on the so-called Eastern Question how to dispose of the Sick Man's territories without upsetting the European balance of power. Abdulhamit II, however, rescued the empire, at least temporarily, by reforming the Ottoman financial system, manipulating the rivalries of the European powers and developing the pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic movements to undermine the empires of his enemies. The sultan granted a constitution and parliament in 1876, but he soon abandoned them and ruled autocratically so as to achieve his objectives as rapidly and efficiently as possible. He became so despotic that liberal opposition arose under the leadership especially in the palace which would provide good future prospects.
< 
< The empire reached its peak in the 16C. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) conquered Egypt and Syria, gained control of the Arabian Peninsula and beat back the Safavid rulers of Iran at the Battle of Caldiran (1514). He was succeeded by Suleyman I (the Magnificent, r. 1520-66), who took Iraq, Hungary and Albania and established Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Suleyman codified and institutionalized the classic structure of the Ottoman state and society, making his dominions into one of the great powers of Europe.
< 
< Decline of the Ottoman Empire
< 
< The decline of the empire began late in the 16C. It was caused by a myriad of interdependent factors, among which the most important were the flight of the Turco-Islamic aristocracy and degeneration of the ability and honesty both of the sultans and of their ruling class. The devsirme divided into many political parties and fought for power, manipulated sultans and used the government for their own benefit. Corruption, nepotism, inefficiency and misrule spread.
< 
< Reform Attempts
< 
< Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) attempted to reform the Ottoman system by destroying the Janissary corps and replacing it with the Nizam-i Cedit (new order) army modeled after the new military institutions being developed in the West. This attempt so angered the Janissaries and others with a vested interest in the old ways that they overthrew him and massacred most of the reform leaders. Defeats at the hands of Russia and Austria, the success of national revolutions in Serbia and Greece and the rise of the powerful independent Ottoman governor of Egypt, Mohammed Ali, so discredited the Janissaries, however, that Sultan Mahmut II was able to massacre and destroy them in 1826.
< 
< Mahmut then inaugurated a new series of modern reforms, which involved the abolition of the traditional institutions and their replacement with new ones imported from the West. This affected every area of Ottoman life, not just the military. These reforms were continued and brought to their culmination during the Tanzimat reform era (1839-76) and the reign of Abdulhamit II (1876-1909). The scope of government was extended and centralized as reforms were made in administration, finance, education, justice, economy, communications and army.
< 
< Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the Empire, let alone its reforms. By this time the Ottoman Sultanate was known as the "Sick Man of Europe," and European diplomacy focused on the so-called Eastern Question how to dispose of the Sick Man's territories without upsetting the European balance of power. Abdulhamit II, however, rescued the empire, at least temporarily, by reforming the Ottoman financial system, manipulating the rivalries of the European powers and developing the pan-Islamic and pan-Turkic movements to undermine the empires of his enemies. The sultan granted a constitution and parliament in 1876, but he soon abandoned them and ruled autocratically so as to achieve his objectives as rapidly and efficiently as possible. He became so despotic that liberal opposition arose under the leadership of the Young Turks, many of whom had to leave the country from Abdulhamit's police.
< 
< Overthrow of the Ottoman Empire
< 
< In 1908 a revolution led by the Young Turks forced Abdulhamit to restore the parliament and constitution. After a few months of constitutional rule, however, a counterrevolutionary effort to restore the sultan's autocracy led the Young Turks to dethrone Abdulhamit completely in 1909. He was replaced by Mehmet (Resit) V (r. 1909-18), who was only a puppet of those controlling the government.
< 
< Rapid modernization continued during the Young Turk era (1908-18), with particular attention given to urbanization, agriculture, industry, communications, secularization of the state and the emancipation of women.
< 
< The empire was involved in World War I to take sides with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The defeat of these Central Powers led to the breakup and foreign occupation of the Ottoman Empire.
< 
< The Administration
< 
< The head of the empire was the sultan and the sultanate passed from father to son. The orders of the sultan were accepted as laws. His three major duties were commanding the army, appointing the statesmen and supervising the Divan, today's Cabinet. Members of the Divan were the chief vizier (prime minister), viziers (state ministers), kazasker (minister responsible for the military), two defterdars (finance ministers), nisanci (general secretary), seyhulislam (authorized head of the religious matters) and kaptan-i derya (Commander in chief of the fleet).
< 
< The functions of the ruling class were limited to exploiting the resources of the empire, largely for their own benefit; expanding and defending the state and maintaining order and preserving the faith and practice of Islam as well as the religions of all the subjects of the sultan.
< 
< The vast class of subjects were left to carry out all other functions of the state through autonomous religious communities, artisans' guilds, popular mystic orders and confederations, which together formed a substratum of popular society.
< 
< The Use of Land
< 
< In the Ottoman Empire the lands belonged to the state. The right to use the land was given to people and some revenue from the income received was given to the state. However, when people failed to use their land effectively for three consecutive years it had to be returned.
< 
< The lands in general were divided into two categories; Vakif and Dirlik. Vakif estates were spared for charity institutions and public use like mosques, hospitals, caravansaries and suchlike. Dirlik (fief) lands were given to statesmen according to their incomes; each of these lands was classified as Has, Zeamet, or Timar. Owners used some part of them for themselves and spared other parts for the expenses of a certain number of soldiers. With this system, the state had a powerful army without costs.
< 
< The Army
< 
< The Ottoman army was mainly divided into three classes:
< 
< a) Kapikulu soldiers were professionals who acted directly under the strict command of the sultan. They were not even allowed to marry. They did not have any connection to the land holding system as they worked for salaries. Ulufe was the name given to their salaries which they received every 3 months. The majority of these Kapikulu soldiers consisted of janissaries. There were both foot-soldiers and cavalrymen.
< 
< b) Eyalet soldiers were Dirlik-holding soldiers. The majority of the Ottoman army were Eyalet soldiers. They were the front line soldiers and like Kapikulu soldiers they were divided into both foot-soldiers and cavalrymen.
< 
< c) Reinforcements were soldiers who came from annexed rulers.
< 
< Education
< 
< The two main arteries of education were Enderun and Medrese.
< 
< Enderun was a royal school with a very high level of education. The aim of this school was to educate statesmen. Students were treated with considerable discipline and by the age of 30 approximately, they finished their schooling and attained their posts.
< 
< Although the medrese was originally a theological school, in the Ottoman period, education in the medrese was conducted in four faculties; 1-religion and law, 2-language and literature, 3-philosophy, 4-basic sciences. The language of education was Arabic. There was no set period, students had to finish particular books rather than years. Students lived in cells, ate in imarets (kitchens for the public, generally the poor) and received some pocket money from the school Foundations.
< The attempt of the victorious Allies to control the Anatolian territory led to the Turkish War of Independence (1918-23).
< 
< Following the occupation of Istanbul in 1920 by the British, Italian and French, a Greek army advanced from Izmir deep into Anatolia.
< 
< While the sultan offered no resistance, under the leadership of [[Kemal Ataturk]], the Turkish Nationalists overturned the postwar settlement embodied in the Treaty of Sévres (1920) and established the Republic of Turkey, formally recognized by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
< 
< Mustafa Kemal retired his military uniform and inspired the people to an even greater task: Transformation of the country into the democratic, secular Republic of Turkey.
< 
< In 1989 Turgut Ozal was chosen by parliament to succeed Evren. In 1993, Suleyman Demirel succeeded Ozal after his death. Since then coalition governments have been effective in the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
---
> ''Deleted another article that was presumably copyrighted.''
------
Turkey|987464169
3c3
< Ethnic background: Turkish 100%.
---
> Ethnic background: Turkish 100%.  (This is patently false!!!)
------
ErdemTuzun|987464410
23c23,25
< Okay. I was not aware that they were taken from copyrighted sources. I will rewrite them as soon as possible. Now, you can delete these texts or wait for tomorrow for new legal forms.
---
> Okay. I was not aware that they were taken from copyrighted sources. I will rewrite them as soon as possible. Now, you can delete these texts or wait for tomorrow for new legal forms.
> ----
> Generally, we want original work here, i.e., work that you wrote and did not copy from another source.  Where not original, one must have determined very clearly in advance that the work has been released either into the public domain or according to an open content license that is consistent with Wikipedia's.  You might be interested in seeing [[GNU Free Documentation License]] as well as [[public domain resources]]. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Larry_Sanger|987464507
81a82
> I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
------
Larry_Sanger|987464592
79c79,81
< ''Is none of your bussiness'' is a valid answer:).----
---
> ''Is none of your business'' is a valid answer:).
> ----
> You're quite correct, it's none of your business.----
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987464869
136c136,142
< '''Q. How do you pronounce faq'''
---
> '''Q. How do you pronounce "FAQ"?'''
> 
> A. Some people pronounce it "fack" and some people pronounce it "eff-ay-cue."
> ----
> '''Q. What is the meaning of life?'''
> 
> A. Please see [[philosophy]], but don't expect to get a coherent answer.
------
Blindness|987465021
1c1
< Blindness is the condition of lacking one the sense of sight.  One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.  The blind themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "the sighted."  Other people included in discussions of and services for the blind are:
---
> Blindness is the condition of lacking the sense of sight.  One can distinguish between the <i>totally blind</i> and the <i>legally blind</i>.  The blind themselves refer to those with the sense of sight as "the sighted."  Other people included in discussions of and services for the blind are:
------
Blindness|987465077
26,27c26
< * blind drunk
< * snowblind
---
> * [[snowblind]]
------
Blindness|987465092
26c26
< * [[snowblind]]
---
> * [[snow blindness]]
------
Larry_Sanger|987465163
81c81
< You're quite correct, it's none of your business.----
---
> You're quite correct, it's none of your business.  (Unless you ask nicely.)----
------
Capitalism|987465357
1c1
< Capitalism is a system based on individual rights, including rights to private ownership of property.  Since private ownership, in the full sense of the term, requires the absence of the initiation of force, systems may be characterized as more or less capitalist depending on the degree to which they keep individuals free from the initiation of force in the use or disposal of their property.  This includes both a lack of political intervention in the economy, as well as laws against theft, fraud, etc.
---
> Capitalism is a system based on rights to private ownership of property, among other individual rights.  Since private ownership, in the full sense of the term, requires the absence of the initiation of force, systems may be characterized as more or less capitalist depending on the degree to which they keep individuals free from the initiation of force in the use or disposal of their property.  This includes both a lack of political intervention in the economy, as well as laws against theft, fraud, etc.
------
Poetry|987465634
0a1,2
> Are you a poet or a lover of poetry?  Why not whip this page into shape?
> 
------
Turkey|987465720
1c1
< When capitalized, the word '''Turkey''' refers to a country (Türkiye) placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]] (''see [[Asia Minor]]''). Spoken [[language]] is [[Turkish]]. Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
---
> When capitalized, the word '''Turkey''' refers to a country (Türkiye) placed between [[Europe]] and [[Middle East]] (''see [[Asia Minor]]'').  Official spoken [[language]] is [[Turkish]].  Capital city is [[Ankara]] (2.6m). Other important cities are [[Izmir]] (1.7m), [[Istanbul]] (6.6m), [[Bursa]] (0.835m)
3c3
< Ethnic background: Turkish 100%.  (This is patently false!!!)
---
> Ethnic background: Approximately 80% Turkish, 20% Kurdish.  Small numbers of Greek, Armenians, and others.
------
Blind_drunk|987466017
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A stage of drunkenness in which one is incapable of recognizing the persons and objects around onself.  The blind drunk stage is a later stage of drunkenness that usually precedes the stage of passing out.  People often arrive at the passing out stage without experiencing the blind drunk stage at all.  Controlled scientific tests might, conceivably, show this to be related to fatigue - a fatigued person would succumb to alchohol and passout before arriving at the blind drunk stage.  Consequently, blind drunkeness would be a state reserved for those who are well-rested.
------
How_to_start_a_page|987466728
10c10
< * If you like, you can enter just a line or two of text for an entry.  It's a start.  Full-blown articles are not required.  Any (accurate, helpful) information to Wikipedia is useful!  Of course, if you can write more, that's all the better; some people do, as a matter of habit, usually write more than just a few lines when they start a new article.
---
> * If you like, you can enter just a line or two of text for an entry.  It's a start.  Full-blown articles are not required.  Adding any (accurate, helpful) information to Wikipedia is welcome!  Of course, if you can write more, that's all the better; some people do, as a matter of habit, usually write more than just a few lines when they start a new article.
------
TimShell|987466857
5a6
> Leave it to Tim to tell us about getting [[blind drunk]]!  :-)
------
How_to_start_a_page|987467023
7c7
< '''Note!'''  Bear in mind that Wikipedia is an [[open content]] encyclopedia.  You are contributing to a free, publicly-usable database of information.  This information is not proprietary.  '''You should not have copied your article from any proprietary source,''' and of course if you want your own work to remain your own intellectual property, then you should not contribute it to Wikipedia.
---
> '''Note!'''  Bear in mind that Wikipedia is an [[open content]] encyclopedia.  You are contributing to a [[free]], publicly-usable database of information.  This information is not proprietary.  '''You should not have copied your article from any proprietary source,''' and of course if you want your own work to remain your own intellectual property, then you should not contribute it to Wikipedia.
------
Free|987467054
3c3
< Many English-speaking people in the Open Source community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
---
> Many English-speaking people in the [[Open Source]] community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
------
Feature_requests|987467117
13a14
> * I'm not sure if this is the right place to make this feature request, but I would be greatly pleased if we had a way to let ordinary folks ''upload'' files to the Wikipedia server--perhaps the uploads would first have to be hand-processed, to make sure they don't carry viruses and aren't too large.  But eventually, it seems to me we're going to need something like this.  (Perhaps it wouldn't have to be closely integrated with UseModWiki software, though.  We could just link to a Wikipedia upload page.) --[[LMS]]
------
Blind_drunk|987467122
1c1,6
< A stage of drunkenness in which one is incapable of recognizing the persons and objects around onself.  The blind drunk stage is a later stage of drunkenness that usually precedes the stage of passing out.  People often arrive at the passing out stage without experiencing the blind drunk stage at all.  Controlled scientific tests might, conceivably, show this to be related to fatigue - a fatigued person would succumb to alchohol and passout before arriving at the blind drunk stage.  Consequently, blind drunkeness would be a state reserved for those who are well-rested.
---
> <b>Blind drunk</b> is a stage of [[drunkenness]] in which one is incapable of recognizing the persons and objects around onself.  
> 
> The blind drunk stage is a later stage of drunkenness that usually precedes the stage of passing out.  People often arrive at the passing out stage without experiencing the blind drunk stage at all.  
> 
> Controlled scientific tests might, conceivably, show this to be related to fatigue - a fatigued person would succumb to alchohol and passout before arriving at the blind drunk stage.  
> Consequently, blind drunkeness would be a state reserved for those who are well-rested.
------
Feature_requests|987467143
14c14
< * I'm not sure if this is the right place to make this feature request, but I would be greatly pleased if we had a way to let ordinary folks ''upload'' files to the Wikipedia server--perhaps the uploads would first have to be hand-processed, to make sure they don't carry viruses and aren't too large.  But eventually, it seems to me we're going to need something like this.  (Perhaps it wouldn't have to be closely integrated with UseModWiki software, though.  We could just link to a Wikipedia upload page.) --[[LMS]]
---
> * I'm not sure if this is the right place to make this feature request, but I would be greatly pleased if we had a way to let ordinary folks ''upload'' files to the Wikipedia server--perhaps the uploads would first have to be hand-processed, to make sure they don't carry viruses and aren't too large.  But eventually, it seems to me we're going to need something like this.  (Perhaps it wouldn't have to be closely integrated with UseModWiki software, though.  We could just link to a Wikipedia upload page, which would run our own unique software.) --[[LMS]]
------
Blind_drunk|987467173
6a7,9
> 
> See also:
> * [[drunk]]
------
Drunk|987467255
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Drunk</b> in its most common usage, is being intoxicated with alcohol.
> 
> Slang terms for being drunk:
> * loaded
> * liquored up
> * tanked
> * smashed
> 
> See also:
> * [[blind drunk]]
------
Feature_requests|987467396
2a3
> * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. 
------
Drunk|987467655
1,10c1
< <b>Drunk</b> in its most common usage, is being intoxicated with alcohol.
< 
< Slang terms for being drunk:
< * loaded
< * liquored up
< * tanked
< * smashed
< 
< See also:
< * [[blind drunk]]
---
> <b>Drunk</b> in its most common usage, is the state of [[drunkenness]] (which see).
------
Drunkenness|987467946
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Drunkenness,</i> in its most common usage, is the state of being intoxicated with alcohol to a sufficient degree to impair mental and motor functioning.
> 
> Some societies, such as those of [[Russia]] and [[Ireland]], have cultural stereotypes associated with drunkenness--in such societies, the ability to drink vast quantities of alcohol without getting drunk is thought to be worthy of respect.  Arguably, of course, such an attitude, wherever it ''does'' in fact exist, can be regarded as pathological, leading as it often does to [[alcoholism]].
> 
> Slang terms for being drunk:
> * loaded
> * liquored up
> * tanked
> * smashed
> 
> See also:
> * [[alcoholism]]
> * [[blind drunk]]
------
Drunk|987468022
1c1
< <b>Drunk</b> in its most common usage, is the state of [[drunkenness]] (which see).
---
> See [[drunkenness]].
------
Dirigible|987468219
1c1
< The word '''dirgible''' means "steerable", but is used most often to refer to a steerable, rigid, lighter than air motorized craft.
---
> The word '''dirgible''' means "steerable", but is used most often to refer to a steerable, rigid, lighter than air motorized craft, such as the ill-fated [[Hindenburg]].
9c9
< * [[zeppelin]]
---
> * [[zeppelin]]
------
History_of_Turkey|987469684
1c1,4
< ''Deleted another article that was presumably copyrighted.''
---
> The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on Oct. 29, 1923, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as its first president. On March 3, 1924, the assembly abolished the ministry of sacred law, all schools were placed under the ministry of education and a new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years the process of secular westernization was established by Atatürk’s reforms. On May 24, 1928, the international numerals replaced the Arabic numerals.  
> After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar, the fanatically religious groups joined to well-intentioned liberals and consecutively widespread bloody disorders took place especially in the eastern territory. The liberal party was dissolved on Nov. 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932.
> Atatürk’s successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was Ismet Inönü. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during World War II, Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on Germany and Japan. Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 1952. 
> By the influences of liberal intellectuals and religious fanatics the multiparty government returned by 1950 elections. However, the load of expensive imports, economical fluctuations, high inflation rates and  consecutive social conflicts ended with army interventions on May 1960 and September 1980. After 1983 elections first The Motherland Party and then several coalitions remained in control of the government.
------
Ottoman_Empire|987469789
1,8c1
< '''The Ottoman Empire'''
< 
< ----
< Material that previously appeared on this page is, according to
< 
< http://www.sephardichouse.org/ottoemp.html
< 
< copyrighted.  Please help us by (1) identifying and removing copyrighted materials from Wikipedia, and (2) supplying original articles in their place!
---
> A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern Anatolia in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520–1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the Allies in World War I. 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|987469894
10a11
> * [[/The Perfect Martini]]
------
Drunkenness|987469909
3c3
< Some societies, such as those of [[Russia]] and [[Ireland]], have cultural stereotypes associated with drunkenness--in such societies, the ability to drink vast quantities of alcohol without getting drunk is thought to be worthy of respect.  Arguably, of course, such an attitude, wherever it ''does'' in fact exist, can be regarded as pathological, leading as it often does to [[alcoholism]].
---
> Some societies, such as those of [[Russia]] and [[Ireland]], have cultural stereotypes associated with drunkenness--in such societies, the ability to drink vast quantities of alcohol without getting drunk is thought to be worthy of respect.  Arguably, such an attitude, wherever it ''does'' in fact exist, can be regarded as pathological, leading as it often does to [[alcoholism]].
13c13
< * [[blind drunk]]
---
> * [[blind drunk]]
------
Kemal_Ataturk|987469911
1c1
< '''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk''' was the founder of the Turkish Republic and its first President.
---
> (1881–1938), Turkish soldier and statesman, the founder and first president of the Turkish republic. He was born in Salonika (now in Greece). He entered the military secondary school in Salonika in 1893 and the military academy at Monastir in 1895. He played a minor role in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and he gained a major victory by repulsing the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in 1915. After organizing the local resistance groups against the Ottoman sultan and the Allies in Anatolia into an army, he stopped the advances of enemy forces and consecutively founded the Republic of Turkey on Oct. 29, 1923. He began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Perfect_Martini|987469919
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <h2>Ingredients</h2>
> 
> The primary liquor should be a good quality strong (100 proof) London dry gin, or a good 100-proof vodka.  I prefer Tanqueray gin, but Bombay Sapphire also works well.  "Malacca" gins do not harmonize well with good vermouth, so should be avoided.  Ketel One vodka is the best vodka I have found, but Finlandia also works (it's not as flavorful as Ketel One, but some people prefer that).
> 
> Even though vermouth will be a small part of the total amount of liquid, its flavor and aroma contribute as much to the final result as the gin or vodka, so it should be premium--in other words, Martini &amp; Rossi extra dry white vermouth.  I personally believe that most people came to prefer extremely dry Martinis precisely because they use inferior-quality vermouth.  Yes, it's expensive (about twice the price of common vermouth), but there is really no substitute for genuine Martini &amp; Rossi.  If you use vermouth for cooking, Gallo or some other common variety will work fine for a soup; save the M&amp;R for drinking.
> 
> Finally, having experimented with every garnish I could think of from rare species of onions, lemons, and olives with various stuffings, I have settled for the tried-and-true queen size pimento-stuffed Spanish olive.  I think a Martini needs the saltiness, but if you don't, then by all means use a twist of lemon instead (don't use both--they don't get along well).  Lemon goes well with many vodkas.  Gin Martinis definitely work better with the olive.
> 
> <h2>Technique</h2>
> 
> The most important feature of a Martini is that it be bone-chillingly cold.  Before you begin mixing, bury the glass in crushed ice (use it to scoop some of the ice into the cocktail shaker, then leave it in the ice).  Crushed ice is necessary; cubes just don't have enough surface area either for mixing or for glass-chilling.
> 
> Into the shaker with some crushed ice, mix the liquor and vermouth.  A "dry" Martini should have about a 10:1 or 8:1 ratio of liquor to vermouth.  "Very dry" can be 16:1, and "sweet" can be as high as 4:1.  I prefer the "dry" range, though a particularly flavorful gin might do better a bit dryer.  Don't let anyone talk you into the absurdly small amounts of vermouth some bars use--sometimes mere drops in a drink.  Vermouth really does make a difference, so don't be afraid to use some, just not much.
> 
> James Bond notwithstanding, it makes not one iota of difference whether you shake or stir.  Do whatever is most convenient for your mixing tools.  The drink should be in the crushed ice for long enough to become very cold, but less than two minutes or it will pick up too much water from the ice.  You do want it to pick up some water, but it will pick up enough in the first few seconds the liquor is poured over the ice.  You may have to experient here because the size of the ice and its temperature will vary.  I use about 30 seconds most of the time.
> 
> The following order does make a difference: After mixing the drink, remove the glass from the ice, put in the olives (I like two queen sized olives per 4 ounce drink), and strain the drink into the glass, pouring it over the olives.  Use a Boston strainer or other course strainer--you want a few small ice pieces to make it through the strainer and float on the drink.  Pouring the mix over the olives is important to distribute some of their salitiness into the drink.
> 
> Serve immediately!
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Perfect_Martini|987470120
0a1,2
> Some things are just too important to be done badly.
> 
------
ErdemTuzun|987470215
1a2
> 
6c7
< Born: ÝSTANBUL, TURKEY, 
---
> Born: Ýstanbul, Turkey
7a9
> 
12a15
> 
14c17
< Military Activity: Commando Military Doctor (Private), Commando Military Hospital, Isparta, Turkey, 2000.
---
> 
25c28
< Generally, we want original work here, i.e., work that you wrote and did not copy from another source.  Where not original, one must have determined very clearly in advance that the work has been released either into the public domain or according to an open content license that is consistent with Wikipedia's.  You might be interested in seeing [[GNU Free Documentation License]] as well as [[public domain resources]]. --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Generally, we want original work here, i.e., work that you wrote and did not copy from another source.  Where not original, one must have determined very clearly in advance that the work has been released either into the public domain or according to an open content license that is consistent with Wikipedia's.  You might be interested in seeing [[GNU Free Documentation License]] as well as [[public domain resources]]. --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Requested_articles|987475487
14c14
< [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Infinite Series]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
18c18
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]  -- [[cruftmanship]] -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]  -- [[Search Engine]]
28c28
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Kamakazi]] -- [[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Shell Shock]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
30c30
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[dirigible]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
32c32
< <b>[[Folklore]]</b> [[Urban legend]]  (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.) 
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]</b> (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.) 
34c34
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[1040]] -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[Zuid Africa]]  -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[class warfare]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Contradance|987475661
31,32c31
< Contra Dancing is available in almost every community in the United States. Here is a great links page to find Contra dancing near you
< http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml.
---
> Contradances are held all across the United States. See affiliated groups at [[http://www.cdss.org Country Dance and Song Society]] and [[http://www.tiac.net/users/cseelig/contra/contralinks.shtml Contra Links]].
------
Disabilities|987477803
101a102,103
> ----I took my definition from US Law, the ADA. Where did you ever get this one? The ADA is vague. Your definition has no meaning to me. And this real or imagined disability is imagined by whom, may I ask. Please give a source for your definition. As for your 2 main categories, do you really think there is a big difference between a baby born blind and one who becomes so at a week old? RoseParks
> 
------
English_language|987480215
6c6
< * posessive
---
> * possessive
14c14,15
< 
---
> ----
> Since Chinese is made up of monsyllables only, I find it hard to believe Chinese has no homonyms. They must have very few words, then...:-). Further, in genral, all spoken languages are equally complex, because they are capable of expressing equally complex ideas. They just have different mechanisms for doing this. I could write a sentence or two on how Enlish lacks the complexities of Latin and Greek...but I would not believe it.
------
Dirigible|987484610
1c1
< The word '''dirgible''' means "steerable", but is used most often to refer to a steerable, rigid, lighter than air motorized craft, such as the ill-fated [[Hindenburg]].
---
> The word '''dirigible''' means "steerable", but is used most often to refer to a steerable, rigid, lighter than air motorized craft, such as the ill-fated [[Hindenburg]].
5c5,6
< The most famous dirigible is the [[zeppelin]]
---
> The most famous make of dirigible is the [[Zeppelin]], so named because it was designed by pioneer airship designer Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (B Kostantz, Baden, Germany April 8, 1838 - D March 8, 1917)
> 
9c10
< * [[zeppelin]]
---
> * [[Zeppelin]]
------
Blind_drunk|987485235
5,6c5,7
< Controlled scientific tests might, conceivably, show this to be related to fatigue - a fatigued person would succumb to alchohol and passout before arriving at the blind drunk stage.  
< Consequently, blind drunkeness would be a state reserved for those who are well-rested.
---
> Controlled scientific tests might, conceivably, show this to be related to fatigue - a fatigued person would succumb to alchohol and pass out before arriving at the blind drunk stage.  On the other hand, such tests might also draw a connection between alcohol tolerance and the ability to become incoherent and visually impaired without first becoming unconscious.
> 
> Consequently, blind drunkeness might be a state reserved for those who are well-rested, or it might be a state related to alcohol tolerance.
9c10
< * [[drunk]]
---
> * [[drunk]]
------
Drunk|987486129
1c1,5
< See [[drunkenness]].
---
> Adj.  Affected by [[drunkenness]].
> 
> n.  An informal term for one who is (often chronically) affected by [[drunkenness]].  Derogatory term used to refer to an [[alcoholic]].
> 
> See [[drunkenness]].
------
Libertarianism|987487980
3c3
< For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it hurts no one else.
---
> For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it does not vioalte the equal rights of others.
7c7
< Libertarians prefer not to be called RightWing, and libertarianism has significant differences with both ConservatisM and LiberalisM (as those terms are used in the [[United States]]): see PoliticalSpectrum.
---
> Libertarians prefer not to be called RightWing, and libertarianism has significant differences with both ConservatisM and LiberalisM (as those terms are used in the [[United States]]): see PoliticalSpectrum.  For rhetorical purposes, a libertarian can be defined as someone who opposes what liberals and conservatives have in common.
------
Libertarianism|987487994
3c3
< For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it does not vioalte the equal rights of others.
---
> For libertarians, there are no rights to food or shelter or health care; we only have rights to life and legal justice, and rights to do what we like with whatever we have at our disposal, so long as it does not violate the equal rights of others.
------
Drunk|987488534
1c1
< Adj.  Affected by [[drunkenness]].
---
> Affected by [[drunkenness]].  Also, an informal term for one who is (often chronically) affected by [[drunkenness]].  Derogatory term used to refer to an [[alcoholic]].
3,5c3
< n.  An informal term for one who is (often chronically) affected by [[drunkenness]].  Derogatory term used to refer to an [[alcoholic]].
< 
< See [[drunkenness]].
---
> See [[drunkenness]].
------
Bomber|987488587
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bomber is a military [[aircraft]] designed to attack ground targets.  
> 
> *Bombers are primarily designed for long-range strike missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, and shipyards.  Examples: B-52 Stratofortress, Tu-16 Badger
> 
> *Ground-Attack (or close-support) aircraft are designed to loiter over a battlefield and attack tactical targets, such as [[tank]]s, troop concentrations, etc.  Examples: A-10 Warthog, Su-25 Frogfoot
> 
> *Attack aircraft (aka fighter-bombers) are multirole combat aircraft which can be equipped for either air-to-air combat or air-to-ground combat.  Examples: F/A-18 Hornet
> 
> Bombers often have some defensive armament, but they are not designed to engage in combat with other aircraft.  They are relatively large, slow, and unmaneuverable.  If enemy air opposition is expected, bombers must be escorted.  Attack aircraft are smaller, faster, and more maneuverable, but still less-so than a [[fighter]] when armed for an air-to-ground mission, and they do not have enough air-to-air weaponry for protracted combat unless loaded-out for an air-to-air mission.  
> 
> ''(insert a bit here about the development of bombers)''
> 
> ''(dive-bombers, torpedo-bombers, strategic bombers, stealth bombers, low-level bombing, carpet-bombing, air-launched cruise-missiles)''
> 
> See also: [[Bomb]], [[Kamikaze]], [[Cruise Missile]]
------
Drunk|987488590
3c3,5
< See [[drunkenness]].
---
> See [[drunkenness]].
> 
> /Talk
------
Requested_articles|987488689
28c28
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Bomber]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- Bomber]]   -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
------
Drunk/Talk|987488749
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.  The only reason, as far as I can tell, for enumerating various senses that a word can have is to direct people to appropriate articles; I don't see how Wikipedia has an interest qua encyclopedia in enumerating senses of a word in the way that a dictionary does.  I'm certainly open to debate on this point; perhaps I'm not seeing things quite right. --[[LMS]]
------
ErdemTuzun|987489105
4c4
< web address: http://www.geocities.com/drerdem/mypage.html
---
> <br>web address: http://www.geocities.com/drerdem/mypage.html
7,8c7,8
< Born: Ýstanbul, Turkey
< Birthdate: Nov. 11, 1971 
---
> <br>Born: Ýstanbul, Turkey
> <br>Birthdate: Nov. 11, 1971 
11,14c11,14
< One of first measurements of intracavernosal endothelin levels of impotent men, providing evidence for using nitric oxide (antagonist of endothelin) agonist drugs in male erectile dysfunction 
< Contributions to the detection of ganglioside levels of salivary glands 
< Contributions for the treatment of congenital penile deformity by a new surgical method  Contributions to demonstration of the presence of antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels in patients with limbic encephalitis 
< Contributions to identification of the autoimmune etiology of neuromyotonia and demonstration of the role of autoantibodies against thalamic structures as a causal factor for Morvan's syndrome; 
---
> <br>One of first measurements of intracavernosal endothelin levels of impotent men, providing evidence for using nitric oxide (antagonist of endothelin) agonist drugs in male erectile dysfunction 
> <br>Contributions to the detection of ganglioside levels of salivary glands 
> <br>Contributions for the treatment of congenital penile deformity by a new surgical method  Contributions to demonstration of the presence of antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels in patients with limbic encephalitis 
> <br>Contributions to identification of the autoimmune etiology of neuromyotonia and demonstration of the role of autoantibodies against thalamic structures as a causal factor for Morvan's syndrome; 
19c19
< Third degree in Marmara Region in TÜBITAK Biology Competition , TÜBÝTAK, 1988-1989; 
---
> <br>Third degree in Marmara Region in TÜBITAK Biology Competition , TÜBÝTAK, 1988-1989; 
21c21
< Professional and club Membership: Member, EUROPEAN NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1998-2000; 
---
> <br>Professional and club Membership: Member, EUROPEAN NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1998-2000; 
28a29,30
> ----
> Erdem, thanks very much indeed for contributing your articles and for understanding our objections to using copyrighted sources.  I certainly appreciate it very much.  Welcome to Wikipedia!  --[[LMS]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987489868
19a20
> *[[tips on contributing to Wikipedia]]
22c23
< *[[Wikipedia policy]]
---
> *[[Wikipedia policy]]
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|987489959
18a19,20
> For more basic information on contributing to Wikipedia, see [[starting a Wikipedia page]] and [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
> 
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|987489994
19c19
< For more basic information on contributing to Wikipedia, see [[starting a Wikipedia page]] and [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
---
> For more basic information on contributing to Wikipedia, see [[how to start a page]] and [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987490149
1c1
< You might want to learn simply [[how to start a page]].
---
> You might want to learn simply [[how to start a page]], and you might want informal [[tips on contributing to Wikipedia]].  If you want the details about how to edit a Wikipedia page, though, you've come to the right place.
------
How_to_start_a_page|987490515
1c1
< Here is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to edit a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally.
---
> Here is how to ''start'' a Wikipedia page.  You can also read our page about [[how does one edit a page|how to edit a Wikipedia page]], for more advanced features generally, and [[tips on contributing to Wikipedia]] for general inspiration, guidance, and good advice.
------
Infinite_Series|987491048
3c3,5
< Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation.  As more and more terms of the infinite series are included, the solution is approximated more and more closely.
---
> Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation.  As more and more terms of the infinite series are included, the solution is approximated more and more closely.
> 
> /Talk
------
Infinite_Series/Talk|987491139
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In mathematics, are all infinite series indeed series of what mathematicians call [[term]]s?
> 
> This sentence, while no doubt true in some sense, makes little sense to me: "Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation."  Can someone elucidate, please?
------
Tank|987491298
4c4
< * Self propelled mobile artillery
---
> * Self propelled mobile gun
6c6
< * Armor protetection for tank crew and motor
---
> * All-around armor protetection for tank crew and motor
47,48c47,87
< ''(elaborate distinction between tanks and other AFVs)''
< 
---
> Other AFVs as distinguished from tanks:
> * <b>Tank</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked
> **Armament: Large multi-purpose gun
> **Purpose: Direct offensive and mobile defensive action
> * <b>Assault Guns</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked
> **Armament: A large direct-fire gun, but no traversable turret.  Usually has fixed armor surrounding the gun, but may have an open roof.
> **Purpose: Mobile defense, fortification-busting.
> * <b>Self-Propelled Anti-Tank</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
> **Armament: ATGM launcher or high-velocity Anti-Tank gun
> **Purpose: Long-range direct-fire anti-tank, primarily defensive
> * <b>Armored Cars</b>
> **Mobility: Wheels (usually 6 or 8 large off-road wheels) instead of tracks.
> **Armament: Usually just a machinegun, may have an autocannon or a small gun or even be unarmed
> **Purpose: Primarily reconnaissance, command, and observation/communications duties
> * <b>Self-Propelled Artillery</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked
> **Armament: A howitzer
> **Purpose: Long-range Bombardment Support
> * <b>MLRS</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
> **Armament: Rockets and tactical surface-to-surface missiles
> **Purpose: Long-range Bombardment Support
> * <b>Self-Propelled AAA</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
> **Armament: Rapid-fire multi-barreled gun or surface-to-air missiles
> **Purpose: Mobile air defense
> * <b>APC</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
> **Armament: Machine-gun (variants mount other weapons such as mortars)
> **Purpose: Infantry transport
> * <b>IFV</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked
> **Armament: ATGM launcher and autocannon or small gun
> **Purpose: Infantry transport and direct-fire support
> * <b>Engineering Vehicles</b>
> **Mobility: Tracked
> **Armament: May have a short-barreled demolitions gun
> **Purpose: Entrenching, breaching entrenchments, demolitions, and other engineering duties
54,55c93,95
< * to decline or crash as in a stock declining rapidly in price
< * a container used to store compressed liquid or compressed gas
---
> * to decline or crash as in a [[stock]] declining rapidly in price
> * a container used to store liquid or compressed gas
> * an [[aquarium]] or [[terrarium]]
------
Drunk/Talk|987491899
1c1,3
< Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.  The only reason, as far as I can tell, for enumerating various senses that a word can have is to direct people to appropriate articles; I don't see how Wikipedia has an interest qua encyclopedia in enumerating senses of a word in the way that a dictionary does.  I'm certainly open to debate on this point; perhaps I'm not seeing things quite right. --[[LMS]]
---
> Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.  The only reason, as far as I can tell, for enumerating various senses that a word can have is to direct people to appropriate articles; I don't see how Wikipedia has an interest qua encyclopedia in enumerating senses of a word in the way that a dictionary does.  I'm certainly open to debate on this point; perhaps I'm not seeing things quite right. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> What is the cost of a dictionary-like entry?  Is Wikipedia worse off for having them? -TS
------
TS|987491928
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[TimShell]]
------
History_of_Turkey|987493555
1,3c1,5
< The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on Oct. 29, 1923, with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as its first president. On March 3, 1924, the assembly abolished the ministry of sacred law, all schools were placed under the ministry of education and a new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years the process of secular westernization was established by Atatürk’s reforms. On May 24, 1928, the international numerals replaced the Arabic numerals.  
< After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar, the fanatically religious groups joined to well-intentioned liberals and consecutively widespread bloody disorders took place especially in the eastern territory. The liberal party was dissolved on Nov. 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the League of Nations in July 1932.
< Atatürk’s successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was Ismet Inönü. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during World War II, Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on Germany and Japan. Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 1952. 
---
> The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on Oct. 29, 1923, with [Kemal Ataturk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk] as its first president. On March 3, 1924, the assembly abolished the ministry of sacred law, all schools were placed under the ministry of education and a new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years the process of secular westernization was established by Atatürks reforms. On May 24, 1928, the international numerals replaced the Arabic numerals.  
> 
> After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar, the fanatically religious groups joined to well-intentioned liberals and consecutively widespread bloody disorders took place especially in the eastern territory. The liberal party was dissolved on Nov. 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the [League of Nations] in July 1932.
> Atatürks successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was [Ismet Inonu|Ismet Inönü]. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during [Second World War|World War II], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on [Germany] and [Japan]. Turkey joined the [NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)] on 1952. 
> 
------
History_of_Turkey|987493625
1c1
< The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on Oct. 29, 1923, with [Kemal Ataturk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk] as its first president. On March 3, 1924, the assembly abolished the ministry of sacred law, all schools were placed under the ministry of education and a new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years the process of secular westernization was established by Atatürks reforms. On May 24, 1928, the international numerals replaced the Arabic numerals.  
---
> The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on Oct. 29, 1923, with [[Kemal Ataturk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] as its first president. On March 3, 1924, the assembly abolished the ministry of sacred law, all schools were placed under the ministry of education and a new constitution was approved on April 20, 1924. For the next 10 years the process of secular westernization was established by Atatürks reforms. On May 24, 1928, the international numerals replaced the Arabic numerals.  
3,4c3,4
< After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar, the fanatically religious groups joined to well-intentioned liberals and consecutively widespread bloody disorders took place especially in the eastern territory. The liberal party was dissolved on Nov. 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the [League of Nations] in July 1932.
< Atatürks successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was [Ismet Inonu|Ismet Inönü]. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during [Second World War|World War II], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on [Germany] and [Japan]. Turkey joined the [NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)] on 1952. 
---
> After the foundation of the Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar, the fanatically religious groups joined to well-intentioned liberals and consecutively widespread bloody disorders took place especially in the eastern territory. The liberal party was dissolved on Nov. 17, 1930 and no further attempt for a multiparty democracy was made until 1945. Turkey was admitted to the [[League of Nations]] in July 1932.
> Atatürks successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was [[Ismet Inonu|Ismet Inönü]]. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during [[Second World War|World War II]], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]]. Turkey joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]] on 1952. 
------
History_of_Turkey|987493675
4c4
< Atatürks successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was [[Ismet Inonu|Ismet Inönü]]. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during [[Second World War|World War II]], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]]. Turkey joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]] on 1952. 
---
> Atatürks successor after his death on Nov.  10, 1938 was [[Ismet Inonu|Ismet Inönü]]. When all its western neighbours were under Axis occupation during [[World War II]], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until the end of war. On Feb 1945 it declared war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]]. Turkey joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)]] on 1952. 
------
Easter|987494563
1c1
< One of two main religious holidays in the [[Christianity|Christian]] calendar, the first being [[Christmas]].
---
> One of two main religious holidays in the [[Christianity|Christian]] calendar, the other being [[Christmas]].
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday.
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday. Easter is partly based on the Jewish [[Pascha]], which commemmorates the [[Exodus]], since it is during this holiday that Jesus was supposed to be resurrected. The days before Easter also are special in the Christian tradition - the Sunday before is [[Palm Easter]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Silent Saturday]]. Palm Easter, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemmorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]].
6c6
< This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25.
---
> This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25. A problem here is the difference between the western churches and the [[Orthodox Church]]. Partly because the latter still use the [[Julian calendar]], while the former use the [[Gregorian calendar]], Easter in most years is on different dates in the western and eastern churches.
------
Christianity|987495477
1c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that JesusChrist is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and somthing to teach.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and something to teach.
3c3
< Christians believe TheBible is the word of GoD, to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate TheBible is and how literally it should be taken).  TheBible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of JesusChrist.  It maintains that JesusChrist is the messiah which the Jews have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the Jewish faith.  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of GoD.
---
> Christians believe The [[Bible]] is the word of [[God]], to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate The Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of [[Jesus Christ]].  It maintains that Jesus Christ is the messiah which the [[Jews]] have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]].  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of [[God]].
5c5
< Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below).  BaptisT, MethodisT, LutheraN, and AnglicaN (ChurchOfEngland) churches are examples of Protestant faiths.  RomanCatholic and EasternOrthodox are the two primary divisions of Catholicism.  
---
> Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below). [[Baptists|Baptist]], [[Methodists|Methodist]], [[Lutherans|Lutheran]], and [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] ([[Church Of England]]) churches are examples of Protestant faiths. The two primary divisions of Catholicism are the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches.
11c11
< Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from GoD to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
---
> Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from God to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
24c24
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]]
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]]
------
Easter|987496040
6c6
< This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25. A problem here is the difference between the western churches and the [[Orthodox Church]]. Partly because the latter still use the [[Julian calendar]], while the former use the [[Gregorian calendar]], Easter in most years is on different dates in the western and eastern churches.
---
> This can place the date anywhere between March 22 and April 25. A problem here is the difference between the western churches and the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches. The former use the [[Gregorian Calendar]] to calculate the date of Easter, while the latter use the [[Julian Calendar]].
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987496110
7a8,9
> 
> /Talk
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987496152
3c3
< The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).  This is why the months named after the Latin numbers 7, 8, 9, and 10 (September, October, November, December) are now the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th month, respectively.
---
> The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).
------
Gregorian_Calendar/Talk|987496215
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An old version of this page said:
> 
> The Gregorian calendar also fixed the first day of the year as January 1, which was already the first day used in [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and other places, but not universally (the British Empire, for example, began the year on March 25).  This is why the months named after the Latin numbers 7, 8, 9, and 10 (September, October, November, December) are now the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th month, respectively.
> 
> I have removed this last line, because it is incorrect. The shift from March 1 to January 1 as the first day of the year was already made when the [[Julian Calendar]] was installed.
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987496412
1c1
< The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by [[Pope Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
---
> The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by Pope [[Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987496553
1c1
< The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by Pope [[Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
---
> The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian Calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by Pope [[Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
------
Julian_Calendar|987496627
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Julian Calendar was installed by [[Julius Caesar]] (except for a small change by emperor [[August]], who named the month August after himself and gave it an extra day, taking it from February). It contained the months as we now know them, with a leap day every fourth year.
> 
> The Julian Calendar was in general use in Europe from the times of the [[Roman Empire]] until 1582, when pope [[Gregory XII]] adopted the [[Gregorian Calendar]], which was soon followed by most Catholic countries. The Protestant Countries followed later, and the Eastern Orthodox ones yet later - [[Russia]] for example remained on the Julian Calendar until after the [[Russian Revolution]] (because of which it is called the 'October Revolution' but is celebrated in November - it occurred in October according to the Julian Calendar, but in November according to the Gregorian one). The [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches themselves kept with the Julian Calendar on 1923, and then went over to their own revised calender rather than the Gregorian one. Easter is still calculated according to the Julian Calendar in the Eastern Orthodox churches.
> 
------
ErdemTuzun|987497743
30c30,32
< Erdem, thanks very much indeed for contributing your articles and for understanding our objections to using copyrighted sources.  I certainly appreciate it very much.  Welcome to Wikipedia!  --[[LMS]]
---
> Erdem, thanks very much indeed for contributing your articles and for understanding our objections to using copyrighted sources.  I certainly appreciate it very much.  Welcome to Wikipedia!  --[[LMS]]
> ---
> My pleasure.
------
Turkey|987501449
3,5c3
< Ethnic background: Approximately 80% Turkish, 20% Kurdish.  Small numbers of Greek, Armenians, and others.
< 
< Religious background: [[Sunni Muslims]] 99%, [[Orthodox Christians]] 0.34%.
---
> Ethnic background: Approximately 80% Turkish, 20% Kurdish.  Small numbers of Greek, Armenian, Arabic, Jewish and others.
6a5
> Religious background: mostly [[Sunni Muslims]] 98% with [[Orthodox Christians]], Armenian Apostolic, Roman Catholic and Protestant minorities (2%).
------
Lithuania|987504488
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This country is situated next to Poland.
------
Jews|987505321
17a18,19
> 
> [/Talk]
------
Jews/Talk|987505517
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south)."
> 
> Is this correct? I thought Israel was in the south around Jerusalem and Bethlehem, etc, with Judah in the north around
> lake Galilee. Can someone check this out and correct if
> needed please?
------
Drunk/Talk|987518619
3a4,7
> ----
> For wiki to be most useful, a dictionary like stub article giving a short definition of a topic should be at the top of longer articles.  New topics may initially manifest as dictionary sized entries and eventually grow into full articles.
> 
> For [[drunkeness]], one could expand on the medical stages of how alcohol affects the body and medical/behavioral treatment for chronic alcholism.
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987518809
167a168,169
> 
> [[/Alternate version]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Alternate_version|987519062
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> You might want to learn simply [[how to start a page]], and you might want informal [[tips on contributing to Wikipedia]].  If you want the details about how to edit a Wikipedia page, though, you've come to the right place.
> 
> It's very easy to edit a Wiki page.  Simply click on the "edit this page right now!" link at the top or bottom of a Wiki page.  This will bring you to a page with a text box containing the text of that Wiki page.  Then type away, and press "Save" when finished!  (You can also preview your changes before saving if you like.)
> 
> What you see in the text box will be mostly plain text, but you will see some special things the Wiki software uses to create links, lists, and other effects.  The rest of this page is a demonstration of how to use these features.  After the first few sections, you will have to "teach yourself" by pressing the "edit" link (above or below) to see for yourself how various effects were achieved!  You can practice editing in the [[SandBox]] before taking on other pages if you like.
> 
> <font size=-1>Usemod wiki experts: please add to this page as new features are activated/discovered.  (There are varieties of wiki software.  Wikipedia is a "Usemod" wiki, courtesy CliffordAdams.)</font>
> 
> How to:
> * [[/Make a new page]]
> * [[/Name new pages]]
> * [[/Add links]]
> * [[/Format a page]]
> * [[/Redirect traffic from one page to another page]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Make_a_new_page|987519182
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <h2>Making a new page</h2>
> 
> There are two ways to make a new page:
> 
> # As mentioned above, while you're editing the text of an old page, you can just put something in brackets.  For example, you would type: <code>[[my page]]</code>.  When you save the page you're editing, if the link you included doesn't exist, you will see a question mark after the text.  Click on that question mark and you will be taken to a newly-created page that you can edit.  Replace "Describe the new page here." with whatever text you want to put on the page!
> #Type the URL of the new page in the "address" line of your browser and hit return.  The URL of the new page will be the text of a link, with the first letter uppercased and spaces replaced by underscores (see [[Wiki Canonization]] for more details about this). For example, in the URL above, you would replace
> <br><code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/How_does_one_edit_a_page</code>
> <br>with the new URL 
> <br><code>http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Name_of_your_new_page</code> 
> <br>and then hit return.
> 
> See also [[how to start a page]].
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Name_new_pages|987519247
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[naming conventions]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Add_links|987519546
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> <h2>Adding links</h2>
> 
> Let's say that you're editing a page about sports, and you mention soccer.  Well, there's probably a Wiki page about soccer (and if there isn't, there should be) and you want to make the word a link to that article.  Simple: type double square brackets around it <code>[[like this]]</code> and continue editing.  That's it!  If the page already exists, a link will be made to it.  If the page doesn't already exist, a link will be made that allows someone to create it.  Add links liberally--that's what makes Wikipedia powerful.
> 
> There are a few rules about making these links that you might run into.  Foreign characters and punctuation cannot be used in the text of a link, so if you want to make a link to "Plato's Republic", you'll have to leave out the apostrophe.  Also, the Wiki software will link to a page title that is the same as the text of your link, except that the first letter will be uppercased, and spaces may be condensed.   For example, if you type <code>[[card game]]</code>, <br>it will be linked to a page entitled "Card game".
> 
> Older versions of the Wiki software only made one-word links <code>LikeThis</code>, and didn't require the brackets to make them links.  You may encounter these as you edit older pages.  Please don't create new links like that, but you may want to leave the existing ones in place until you're more comfortable editing pages to fix them.  See [[Free Links]] for more information about those. The [[naming conventions]] page contains hints about useful page names.  For example, it is handy to use singular words like "game" rather than "games", because that makes it easier to create links in other pages.
> 
> Finally, sometimes the text you would like to make into a link just doesn't make a good page title.  In that case, you can specify both inside the brackets separated by a vertical bar like this: <code>[[Page link|text of link]]</code>.  This will appear as "text of link", but will link to a page entitled "Page link".
> 
> Examples of Good links:
> :<code>[[my new page]]</code>
> :<code>[[My new page]]</code>
> :<code>JimboWales</code>
> :<code>[[Platos Republic]]</code>
> :<code>[[Platos Republic|Plato's Republic]]</code>
> Bad links:
> :<code>[[my_new_page]]</code> (underscores not necessary)
> :<code>[[My_new_page]]</code> (underscores not necessary)
> :<code>jimbowales</code> (needs two capital letters or brackets)
> :<code>[[Plato's Republic]]</code> (will not link to the page you want it to link to)
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Redirect_traffic_from_one_page_to_another_page|987519778
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> If you want to redirect traffic going to one page to another page (with a better title, for example), then use the command <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> at the top of the page.  See LarrysText for an example.  We are planning to automate the conversion of links from the old style, LikeThis, to the new style, [[like this]].  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[pagename]]</code> function.  To look at the history of the old page, click on the "<code>(redirected from OldPageName)</code>" link at the top of the new page.
> 
> Practice editing pages in our SandBox!
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Format_a_page|987519840
1c1,118
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> <h2>Demonstration area</h2>
> 
> *What follows is an area for demonstrating the various effects possible using Wikipedia, such as bold, italics, numbered lists, etc., etc.
> *Click "edit" at the top or bottom of this page (i.e., the page you are now reading!) to see how these effects were achieved!!!
> *<b>If you don't click "edit" now you won't understand what's going on!!!</b>
> 
> New paragraphs are made by simply pressing the "enter" or "return" key twice.  If you press it just once, 
> like this,
> a new paragraph ''will not'' be made (as you can see).
> 
> Here is
> <br>the proper way
> <br>to make single-spaced lines.
> 
> :This line is indented.
> ::This line is indented even farther.
> :::Who knows how far it can go?
> 
>  This line is indented by using an initial space,
>                but since I didn't use a colon ( : ) 
>    at the beginning of the line, it appears as a monospace font such as "Courier".  
>   In other words, if you begin a paragraph with spaces, that 
>       line will be both indented and in a monospace font.
>  This is very useful for importing monospace formatted tabular materials, especially from sources like 
>  an unnamed [[BritannicaPublicDomain|encyclopedia]] from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain. 
>  Also note that space-indented lines will not wrap!  They will simply increase the width of your window.
> 
> ''This line is in italics.'' (Using double single quote marks!)
> <br><i>And so is this one!</i> (Using good old html tags!)
> <br><em>And this!</em> (Using still different code!  How versatile!  How confusing!  But any of them will do.)
> 
> '''This line is bold.''' (Using triple single quote marks!)
> <br><b>So is this one!</b> (Using the standard html tag!)
> 
> Here is a new style link: [[Larry Sanger]] (see [[Free Links]])
> <br>Here is an old style link: HomePage
> <br>Consider not capitalizing your page names: [[definition of philosophy]]; see [[naming conventions]]
> <br>[[HomePage|the text of this link is different from the name of the page it links to]]
> <br>[[HomePage|it really doesn't MatterWhat youType in the...link description.  It's all link&eacute;d!]]
> <br>An external link: http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml
> <br>Another external 
> link: [http://www.nupedia.com/about.shtml Nupedia about page]
> 
> If you type in the URL of a picture, it will be displayed rather than linked to:<br>http://www.wikipedia.com/wikia.gif
> 
> You don't have to create weird page titles, like [[Platos]], just to make the plural or possessive form of a name.  [[Plato's]] wouldn't work anyway.  You can write: [[Plato]]'s or (more cleverly) [[Plato|Plato's]].  In the old linking system you'd do it like this: JimboWales's homepage (using "").  (Just Say No to the old linking system; after all, you can now link to [[Jimbo Wales]]'s homepage!)  But it ''does'' look like you're stuck with [[Platos Republic]], because [[Plato's Republic]] doesn't work, as you can see, although if you want to type a bit more you can cleverly create [[Platos Republic|Plato's Republic]].
> 
> Here is a numbered list:
> #Item 1
> #Item 2
> #Item 8
>  #Notice, this line isn't numbered because it is not flush left.
> :#Neither is this line
> 
> Here is a bulleted list:
> *Here's an item
> * Here's another item
> **We can do bullets within bullets, as it were
> *** Pretty nifty, huh?
> 
> You can make a horizontal "rule" (line) on a page: ----
> Or two, if you wish: 
> ----
> ----
> 
> There are three ways to display, rather than parse, wiki code:
> #<code>you can use the <code> tag</code>
> #<pre>you can use the <pre> tag</pre>
> #<nowiki>you can use the <nowiki> tag</nowiki>
> The difference between <nowiki><code> and <pre></nowiki> is that the pre tag preserves line breaks, while the code tag does not.  The nowiki tag works like the <code><code></code> tag except that it doesn't use a monospace font.  (We made liberal use of the <code><code></code> tag on this page.)
> 
> You can create subpages: /Talk
> <br>Sorry, but you cannot create subsubpages: /Talk/TalkAboutTalk
> <br>You can link to other subpages: [[Charlize Theron/Filmography]] or even [[charlize Theron/Filmography]].
> 
> We can do tables:
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> Fancy table:
> <table border=1>
> <tr>
> <td>Item one</td>
> <td>Item two</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td rowspan=2>Item three</td>
> <td>Item four</td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
> <td>Item five</td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
> Here's another way to make a table:
> ||||||'''Heading'''|| 
> ||cell 1||cell2||cell 3|| 
> ||cell 1||||spanning 2 columns|| 
> <br>(We haven't implemented that way of doing tables, as you can see.)
> 
> Very often you might need to use special characters, like these: ü À &alpha;
> <br>See [[Wiki special characters]] for what you should and shouldn't do.
> 
> You can make <sup>superscripts</sup> and <sub>subscripts</sub> and you can control the font <font size=+1>size</font> and <font color=blue>color</font>!
> 
> *f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...
> 
> *<font size=+2 color=red>f(x) = a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub>x<sub>1</sub> + a<sub>2</sub>x<sub>2</sub><sup>2</sup> + a<sub>3</sub>x<sub>3</sub><sup>3</sup> + ...</font>
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Name_new_pages|987519950
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[naming conventions]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Naming conventions]]
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page/Alternate_version|987520028
0a1,3
> I broke this into different subtopics because it's easier to find the section you want.
> ----
> 
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987520122
169c169,170
< [[/Alternate version]]
---
> ----
> Here is a reorganized version [[/Alternate version]]
------
Gregorian_Calendar/Talk|987520315
5c5,7
< I have removed this last line, because it is incorrect. The shift from March 1 to January 1 as the first day of the year was already made when the [[Julian Calendar]] was installed.
---
> I have removed this last line, because it is incorrect. The shift from March 1 to January 1 as the first day of the year was already made when the [[Julian Calendar]] was installed.
> ----
> Isn't there something where rulers expanded the number of days in a year to add more festival days and therefore the calendar did not match the changing of the seasons?
------
Disabilities|987520436
1c1
< A <b>disability</b> is some real or imagined limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality.
---
> A <b>disability</b> is some physical or mental limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality.
4,5c4,5
< * [[birth defect]] disabilities
< * everything else
---
> * physical
> * mental
102a103,105
> ----
> I meant to use 'physical and mental' instead of 'real and imagined'.  That might have sidetracked you.
> ----
------
Poetry|987521252
12a13
> :[[Spenser]]
------
Spenser|987521560
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Be bold, Be bold, and everywhere, Be bold. ...[but,] Be not too bold;
> 
> Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) English Poet
> 
> ''Faerie Queene. Book iii. Canto xi. St. 54.''
> 
>  And as she lookt about, she did behold,
>  How ouer that same dore was likewise writ,
>  Be bold, be bold, and euery where Be bold,
>  That much she muz'd, yet could not construe it
>  By any ridling skill, or commune wit.
>  At last she spyde at that roomes vpper end,
>  Another yron dore, on which was writ,
>  Be not too bold; whereto though she did bend
>  Her earnest mind, yet wist not what it might intend.
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|987521850
1c1
< Wikis don't work if people aren't '''bold'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "[[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited|Why aren't these pages copyedited]]?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
---
> Wikis don't work if people aren't '''[[Spenser|bold]]'''.  You've got to get out there and make those changes, correct that grammar, add those facts, make that language precise, etc., etc.  It's OK.  It's what everyone expects.  So you should never ask, "[[Why Arent These Pages Copyedited|Why aren't these pages copyedited]]?"  Amazingly, it all works out.  It does require some amount of politeness, but it works.  You'll see.
5c5
< So I might have convinced you to be bold in updating pages, but now you want to know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
---
> So I might have convinced you to be [[Spenser|bold]] in updating pages, but now you want to know: [[How does one edit a page]]?
------
Spenser|987521923
1,3c1
< Be bold, Be bold, and everywhere, Be bold. ...[but,] Be not too bold;
< 
< Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) English Poet
---
> '''Edmund Spenser''' (1552-1599) English Poet
------
Disabilities|987522663
105a106,110
> I am still asking for the source of your definition. The ADA definition: A "disabled person" is one who can not perform one or more of the activities of daily living" is vague enough. Yours, "a disability is some physical or mental limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality." strikes me as meaningless. A person's ability to do what? 
> Further, some disabilities are both physical and mental or this distinction can not be made at this point. There is an entire school of psychiatry that would claim that many of the conditions that have been called mental, like "depression," are actually chemical imbalances in the brain. This is supported to a certain extent by the fact that medications that restore certain chemical imbalances in the brain, do return patients to a state of mental health. Example: All those new antidepressants one hears about in the Media, are SSRI's, that is selective seritonin reuptake inhibitors and serve to bring the level of seritonin, a neurotransmitter, to a normal levels, in a patient using them. This gives some credence to the hypothesis that atleast some mental disorders are, in fact, physical impairments.
> The Courts, in enforcing the ADA, and the Justice Department primarily, in setting guidelines based on the ADA, have separated them, simply because, physical disabilities require different accomodations from "mental" ones. 
> A person in a wheelchair, to be able to work, for instance, needs a workplace with wider doorways, aisles and turn space, air-pressure doors, lower shelves, possibly assistive equipment, etc.
> A person who is obssesive-compulsive, may need frequent breaks at work, to say, wash their hands or comb their hair, repeatedly.
------
Disabilities|987522887
111a112,116
> [[/Disability Etiquette]]
> 
> 
> [[/Bill of Rights of Disabled]]
> 
------
Disabilities|987523225
115a116,118
> ----
> The definition is my own and not from any dictionary or other reference work.
> ----
------
Spenser|987525238
6,7c6,7
<  How ouer that same dore was likewise writ,
<  Be bold, be bold, and euery where Be bold,
---
>  How over that same dore was likewise writ,
>  '''Be bold, be bold, and every where Be bold,'''
10c10
<  At last she spyde at that roomes vpper end,
---
>  At last she spyde at that roomes upper end,
12c12
<  Be not too bold; whereto though she did bend
---
>  '''Be not too bold;''' whereto though she did bend
------
How_does_one_edit_a_page|987525522
118c118
< <br>Sorry, but you cannot create subsubpages: /Talk/TalkAboutTalk
---
> <br>Sorry, but you cannot create sub-subpages: /Talk/TalkAboutTalk
------
Probability_Theory|987525760
14a15,16
> (in these equations, "+" means "or" and "*" means "and")
> 
------
AbbreviationS|987525906
30c30
<  A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.1
---
>  A.A.A.F.F. Auro argento acre flando feriundo.<sup>1</sup>
488c488
<  L.,3 L. ,2 or l. (libra), pound (money).
---
>  L.,<sup>3</sup> L. ,<sup>2</sup> or l. (libra), pound (money).
502c502
<  Rs. 4 rupees.
---
>  Rs. <sup>4</sup> rupees.
517c517
<  A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,5 or
---
>  A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,<sup>5</sup> or
657,659c657,659
< way; e.g. `` deg. '' for ``degrees, minutes, seconds'' (circular 
< measure); @, @, @ for ``ounces, drachms, scruples.'' @ is 
< probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ``oz.'' 
---
> way; e.g. "deg." for "degrees, minutes, seconds" (circular 
> measure); @, @, @ for "ounces, drachms, scruples." @ is 
> probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ":oz." 
667c667
< 6``Per cent.'' is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100." 
---
> 6 "Per cent." is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100." 
------
Probability|987526155
3c3
< :[[/Axioms]] -- [[/Theory]] -- [[/Applications]]
---
> :[[/Axioms]] -- [[/Theory]] -- [[/Applications]] (the latter is currently in  [[Probability_Applications]])
------
History_of_Islam|987526455
1,5c1
< This text appears to be taken verbatim from http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/.  There is no copyright statement there, and the site appears to be clearly an advocacy site. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< ----
< Lee, thanks for identifying this material as taken from other websites.  Such material should be summarily ''deleted'' from Wikipedia.  This is a strictly ''practical'' matter that, I hope we can all agree, does not depend on your personal notions of copyright.
< 
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Mohammed was born presumably between 570-580 A.D.. Both of his parents died at very early ages and he was grown up by his uncle Abu Talib. His fate changed when he married a wealthy widow, Hatice (Khadija) and continued his career as a trader. Between the ages of 30 and 40, he experienced his initial prophetic call, when he was alone in the hills above Mecca for meditation. He was reported that he had been chosen, like the prophets before him, as the agency of a sacred message. Being ignored and rejected at the beginning, he began to gain followers mainly from lower classes (slaves etc). The first wealthy men accepting his prophethood were Abu Bakr and Umar. He was severely opposed by the residents of Mecca for attacking the pagan gods of Arabic peninsula. As his opponents in Mecca (one of his uncles, Abu Lahab, was among his worst enemies) began to organize to give an end to his prophecy, he fleed with many of his followers to Medina. This migration is called the Hegira (or Hijra). After three major battles and one last battle with Mecca, almost all Arabia fell to Mohammed in 630 and great number of tribes established alliance with the Prophet. After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state. Following the reign of four caliphs, two major caliphal dynasties (respectively Umayyad and Abbasid) ruled and created the Islamic Empire, which extended from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the borders of China in the east. Although the power of this empire declined by the 13th century Mogul invasion and the Crusades, it reached to another peak during Ottoman Empire, which covered a great portion of all the Muslim people on the earth. In the 18th century there were three great Muslim empires: the Ottoman in Turkey, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean; the Safavid in Iran; and the Mogul in India. By the end of the 19th century, all three had been destroyed or weakened by massive influence of Western civilizations. In the 20th century this trend has been reversed and almost no Muslim country under political domination of outside powers has been left. This new vitality of Muslims have been accompanied by a religious awakening and cultural renaissance.   
------
Drunk/Talk|987526494
7c7,11
< For [[drunkeness]], one could expand on the medical stages of how alcohol affects the body and medical/behavioral treatment for chronic alcholism.
---
> For [[drunkeness]], one could expand on the medical stages of how alcohol affects the body and medical/behavioral treatment for chronic alcholism.
> 
> ----
> The distinction between "dictionary" and "encyclopedia" is imposed by the limitations of paper.  There is no reason we should obey such an arbitrary distinction when it is not useful.  Wikipedia is "A place to look up things you may have read but don't understand."  Certainly we want descriptive text in much greater detail than a dictionary because we don't suffer the size limitations, but there's no reason at all not to have the dictionary-like information as well, and in fact I think we should have more of it, and a standard way for presenting it.   --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987526765
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the <i>able</i>. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines:
> 
> 1. <b>Do not offer to help a disabled person.</b> Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.<br>
> 
> 2. <b>Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission.</b> This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.<br>
> 
> 3. <b>If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion.</b> The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more.
> 
> 4. <b> Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would.</b> Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?"<br>
> 
> 5. <b>It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself.</b> If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.<br>
> 
> 6. <b>Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way.</b> If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting <i>per se</i>. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.<br>
> 
> 6. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
> 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987527578
15c15
< 6. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
---
> 7. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
16a17
> [[/Talk]]
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987527619
17c17
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/EtiquetteTalk]]
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987527652
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Unattributed as this is, it seems more like commentary than neutral information.  Is this a consensus from some advocacy group for the disabled, or is it a personal opinion?  Some of these ("...want to be as independent as possible...") look to me like stereotypes no less than those fully-abled people might hold.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987528341
1a2,3
> ----
> LDC, a good start on a really sticky subject.
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987528425
0a1,2
> ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].''
> 
------
Disabilities|987528492
102,111d101
< ----I took my definition from US Law, the ADA. Where did you ever get this one? The ADA is vague. Your definition has no meaning to me. And this real or imagined disability is imagined by whom, may I ask. Please give a source for your definition. As for your 2 main categories, do you really think there is a big difference between a baby born blind and one who becomes so at a week old? RoseParks
< ----
< I meant to use 'physical and mental' instead of 'real and imagined'.  That might have sidetracked you.
< ----
< I am still asking for the source of your definition. The ADA definition: A "disabled person" is one who can not perform one or more of the activities of daily living" is vague enough. Yours, "a disability is some physical or mental limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality." strikes me as meaningless. A person's ability to do what? 
< Further, some disabilities are both physical and mental or this distinction can not be made at this point. There is an entire school of psychiatry that would claim that many of the conditions that have been called mental, like "depression," are actually chemical imbalances in the brain. This is supported to a certain extent by the fact that medications that restore certain chemical imbalances in the brain, do return patients to a state of mental health. Example: All those new antidepressants one hears about in the Media, are SSRI's, that is selective seritonin reuptake inhibitors and serve to bring the level of seritonin, a neurotransmitter, to a normal levels, in a patient using them. This gives some credence to the hypothesis that atleast some mental disorders are, in fact, physical impairments.
< The Courts, in enforcing the ADA, and the Justice Department primarily, in setting guidelines based on the ADA, have separated them, simply because, physical disabilities require different accomodations from "mental" ones. 
< A person in a wheelchair, to be able to work, for instance, needs a workplace with wider doorways, aisles and turn space, air-pressure doors, lower shelves, possibly assistive equipment, etc.
< A person who is obssesive-compulsive, may need frequent breaks at work, to say, wash their hands or comb their hair, repeatedly.
< 
116,118d105
< ----
< The definition is my own and not from any dictionary or other reference work.
< ----
------
Disabilities/Talk|987528539
17a18,29
> ----
> ----I took my definition from US Law, the ADA. Where did you ever get this one? The ADA is vague. Your definition has no meaning to me. And this real or imagined disability is imagined by whom, may I ask. Please give a source for your definition. As for your 2 main categories, do you really think there is a big difference between a baby born blind and one who becomes so at a week old? RoseParks
> ----
> I meant to use 'physical and mental' instead of 'real and imagined'.  That might have sidetracked you.
> ----
> I am still asking for the source of your definition. The ADA definition: A "disabled person" is one who can not perform one or more of the activities of daily living" is vague enough. Yours, "a disability is some physical or mental limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality." strikes me as meaningless. A person's ability to do what? 
> Further, some disabilities are both physical and mental or this distinction can not be made at this point. There is an entire school of psychiatry that would claim that many of the conditions that have been called mental, like "depression," are actually chemical imbalances in the brain. This is supported to a certain extent by the fact that medications that restore certain chemical imbalances in the brain, do return patients to a state of mental health. Example: All those new antidepressants one hears about in the Media, are SSRI's, that is selective seritonin reuptake inhibitors and serve to bring the level of seritonin, a neurotransmitter, to a normal levels, in a patient using them. This gives some credence to the hypothesis that atleast some mental disorders are, in fact, physical impairments.
> The Courts, in enforcing the ADA, and the Justice Department primarily, in setting guidelines based on the ADA, have separated them, simply because, physical disabilities require different accomodations from "mental" ones. 
> A person in a wheelchair, to be able to work, for instance, needs a workplace with wider doorways, aisles and turn space, air-pressure doors, lower shelves, possibly assistive equipment, etc.
> A person who is obssesive-compulsive, may need frequent breaks at work, to say, wash their hands or comb their hair, repeatedly.
> ----
> The definition is my own and not from any dictionary or other reference work.
------
Probability_Theory|987528615
4c4
< The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the [[Probability Axioms]] and [[Set Theory]]. 
---
> The basic theorems of probability can be developed easily from the [[Probability Axioms]] and [[Set Theory]].
6,8c6,8
< #The sum of the probabilities for all the ''elementary events'' is one.
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events, is given by the sum of the probabilities for all elementary events in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
< #For any arbitrary events, A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both, , is given by the sum of the probabilities of the two events minus the probability of both.
---
> #The sum of the probabilities of all the ''elementary events'' is one.
> #For any arbitrary events A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of both events is given by the sum of the probabilities for all elementary events in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>.  If the intersection is empty, then the probability is exactly zero.
> #For any arbitrary events A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>, the probability of either or both is given by the sum of the probabilities of the two events minus the probability of both.
12,13c12,13
< #<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. </font>
< #<font size=+1 color=red> Pr[A<sub>1</sub>+A<sub>2</sub>] = Pr[A<sub>1</sub>] + Pr[A<sub>2</sub>] - Pr[A<sub>1</sub>*A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
---
> #<font size=+1 color=red>Pr[A<sub>1</sub> * A<sub>2</sub>] = SUM of Pr[E<sub>i</sub>] for all E<sub>i</sub> in both A<sub>1</sub> and A<sub>2</sub>. </font>
> #<font size=+1 color=red> Pr[A<sub>1</sub> + A<sub>2</sub>] = Pr[A<sub>1</sub>] + Pr[A<sub>2</sub>] - Pr[A<sub>1</sub> * A<sub>2</sub>]</font>
18,19d17
< 
< 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987528682
1,19c1
< ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].''
< 
< Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the <i>able</i>. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines:
< 
< 1. <b>Do not offer to help a disabled person.</b> Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.<br>
< 
< 2. <b>Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission.</b> This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.<br>
< 
< 3. <b>If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion.</b> The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more.
< 
< 4. <b> Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would.</b> Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?"<br>
< 
< 5. <b>It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself.</b> If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.<br>
< 
< 6. <b>Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way.</b> If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting <i>per se</i>. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.<br>
< 
< 7. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
< 
< [[/EtiquetteTalk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987528714
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].''
> 
> ''On second thought, I'll tell you what: I'll just remove this to [[Wikipedia commentary]] and then, if and when it has been rendered into an encyclopedic style, someone can move it back to [[Disabilities/Disability etiquette]] (or some other appropriate name).''
> 
> Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the <i>able</i>. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines:
> 
> 1. <b>Do not offer to help a disabled person.</b> Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.<br>
> 
> 2. <b>Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission.</b> This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.<br>
> 
> 3. <b>If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion.</b> The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more.
> 
> 4. <b> Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would.</b> Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?"<br>
> 
> 5. <b>It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself.</b> If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.<br>
> 
> 6. <b>Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way.</b> If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting <i>per se</i>. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.<br>
> 
> 7. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
> 
> [[Disability/EtiquetteTalk]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary|987528803
15c15,16
< :[[/Modular content creation]] ([[Tim Shell]] and others)
---
> :[[/Modular content creation]] (TimShell and others)
> :[[/Disability Etiquette]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987528912
21c21
< [[Disability/EtiquetteTalk]]
---
> [[Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk]]
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987529364
3a4,5
> ----
> I agree, Lee.  I see absolutely nothing wrong with having practical advice and even, in some contexts and presented the right way, moral exhortation on Wikipedia.  Knowledge, which encyclopedias catalog, includes not just declarative knowledge (knowledge "that") but also procedural knowledge (knowledge "how").  Sometimes it can be of great interest to try to codify procedural knowledge in declarative (or imperative) sentences.
4a7,9
> The question of course (yes, yes, of course, Tim!!! :-) ) is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.  We could talk about this further on [[how to]].
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987529744
7c7
< The question of course (yes, yes, of course, Tim!!! :-) ) is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.  We could talk about this further on [[how to]].
---
> The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.  We could talk about this further on [[how to]].
------
How_to|987529805
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I see absolutely nothing wrong with having practical advice and even, in some contexts and presented the right way, moral exhortation on Wikipedia.  Knowledge, which encyclopedias catalog, includes not just declarative knowledge (knowledge "that") but also procedural knowledge (knowledge "how").  Sometimes it can be of great interest to try to codify procedural knowledge in declarative (or imperative) sentences.
> 
> The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.  We could talk about this further on [[how to]].
------
How_to|987529838
3c3
< The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.  We could talk about this further on [[how to]].
---
> The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.
------
Wikipedia_policy|987529951
11a12
> * [[How to]] - how to write "how to" articles
------
Cardiology|987529966
0a1,3
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > Cardiology
> 
> 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987529998
9c9,11
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Oh, I absolutely agree that unvarnished personal opinion is just as valuable as neutral information, and has a definite place here as long as it is properly attributed.  Articles about books and movies, for example, should contain pointers to reviews.  See also [[Lee Daniel Crocker/The Perfect Martini]]. 
------
Endocrinology|987530276
1,2c1,2
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
< system called [[hormones]].
---
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > Endocrinology
> 
3a4,5
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
> system called [[hormones]].
------
Infectious_diseases|987530578
0a1,3
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > Infectious Diseases
> 
> 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987531009
11a12,15
> ----
> A good example of this is a topic such as ''chess/strategy''.
> 
> Strategy in a game such as chess can largely be personal opinion.
------
Drunk/Talk|987531085
1,11c1
< Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.  The only reason, as far as I can tell, for enumerating various senses that a word can have is to direct people to appropriate articles; I don't see how Wikipedia has an interest qua encyclopedia in enumerating senses of a word in the way that a dictionary does.  I'm certainly open to debate on this point; perhaps I'm not seeing things quite right. --[[LMS]]
< ----
< What is the cost of a dictionary-like entry?  Is Wikipedia worse off for having them? -TS
< ----
< For wiki to be most useful, a dictionary like stub article giving a short definition of a topic should be at the top of longer articles.  New topics may initially manifest as dictionary sized entries and eventually grow into full articles.
< 
< For [[drunkeness]], one could expand on the medical stages of how alcohol affects the body and medical/behavioral treatment for chronic alcholism.
< 
< ----
< The distinction between "dictionary" and "encyclopedia" is imposed by the limitations of paper.  There is no reason we should obey such an arbitrary distinction when it is not useful.  Wikipedia is "A place to look up things you may have read but don't understand."  Certainly we want descriptive text in much greater detail than a dictionary because we don't suffer the size limitations, but there's no reason at all not to have the dictionary-like information as well, and in fact I think we should have more of it, and a standard way for presenting it.   --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Encyclopedia and or versus dictionary]]
------
HomePage|987531305
15c15
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]] -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game|Games]] -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sport]]s -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game]]s -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
How_to|987531457
3c3,19
< The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.
---
> The big question is ''how to'' formulate such how-tos.  (We need a how-to for how-tos.)  In keeping with Wikipedia's general interest in being unbiased, we want advice of a sort that is often given by experts, or in guide books.  Where different experts would give different advice, the differences should be noted.
> ----
> <b>How to create a how to</b>:
> 
> A <b>how to</b> is a set of instructions needed to complete a task or build something.
> 
> A how to should include:
> * A brief overview of the project being built or end result of the instructions
> * A list of materials, tools or prerequisits (if needed)
> * Time needed (if needed)
> * Appropriate safty warnings (if needed)
> * Instructions for the project
> * What to do after the project is finished (cleanup)
> * How to use the result or object constructed
> 
> A how to will almost always contain some degree of personal opinion in the form of helpful suggestions.  This is acceptable within reasonable bounds.
> 
------
Poker/Variants|987531612
5,7c5,7
< * [[Draw poker]]: Games in which players are dealt a complete hand, hidden, and then improve it by replacing cards.
< * [[Stud poker]]: Games in which each player receives a combination of face-up cards and face-down cards in multiple betting rounds).
< * [[Community card poker]]: Games in which each player's incomplete hidden hand is combined with shared face-up cards.
---
> * [[Draw poker]]: Games in which players are dealt a complete hand, hidden, and then improve it by replacing cards.  The most common of these is [[Five-card draw]].
> * [[Stud poker]]: Games in which each player receives a combination of face-up cards and face-down cards in multiple betting rounds.  The most common of these is [[Seven-card stud]].
> * [[Community card poker]]: Games in which each player's incomplete hidden hand is combined with shared face-up cards.  The most common of these is [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]].
------
Encyclopedia_and_or_versus_dictionary|987531878
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, not a dictionary.  The only reason, as far as I can tell, for enumerating various senses that a word can have is to direct people to appropriate articles; I don't see how Wikipedia has an interest qua encyclopedia in enumerating senses of a word in the way that a dictionary does.  I'm certainly open to debate on this point; perhaps I'm not seeing things quite right. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> What is the cost of a dictionary-like entry?  Is Wikipedia worse off for having them? -TS
> ----
> For wiki to be most useful, a dictionary like stub article giving a short definition of a topic should be at the top of longer articles.  New topics may initially manifest as dictionary sized entries and eventually grow into full articles.
> 
> For [[drunkeness]], one could expand on the medical stages of how alcohol affects the body and medical/behavioral treatment for chronic alcholism.
> ----
> The distinction between "dictionary" and "encyclopedia" is imposed by the limitations of paper.  There is no reason we should obey such an arbitrary distinction when it is not useful.  Wikipedia is "A place to look up things you may have read but don't understand."  Certainly we want descriptive text in much greater detail than a dictionary because we don't suffer the size limitations, but there's no reason at all not to have the dictionary-like information as well, and in fact I think we should have more of it, and a standard way for presenting it.   --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> ----
> Tim asks a good question, but I think he might have asked it thinking it was rhetorical.  But it has a good answer.  While I don't know if Wikipedia is ''worse'' off for having dictionary-like entries, in general, the cost of having ''many'' dictionary-like entries--which list several senses of a word or phrase and give no further information than the meaning of the word or phrase--is to give the impression that Wikipedia has no ambitions to being any ''more'' than a dictionary.  This makes Wikipedia seem to be much more boring than it could be; dictionaries are interesting but not half as interesting as an infinitely-expandable encyclopedia.  When new people stumble across Wikipedia and see that some significant percentage of entries are just definitions, they could easily form the misleading and damaging impression that we're building ''just'' a dictionary.  So I think writing article stubs that are ''no more than'' definitions is a bad habit to get into.
> 
> As I've said before myself (see [[Wikipedia commentary/Breadth and depth]]), I think there's nothing wrong with "stub" articles per se, and in fact I think it's great to have them.  I just wish that when you make them, they wouldn't consist ''just'' of lists of definitions of senses of the title word or phrase.
> 
> Lee also makes a good point, that we, ourselves, needn't distinguish between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  But there are two points to bear in mind.  First, while ''we'' might not make this distinction, ''most other people'' do--and when people see lots of mere definitions, listing multiple senses, some of which have little to do with any obvious encyclopedia topic, then our readers might conclude (reasonably) that we are doing what ''they'' would describe as writing a dictionary.  I think this would be a bad idea.
> 
> Second, there is a useful distinction to be made between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  They simply don't overlap entirely, nor should they, because they have different purposes.  The purpose of a dictionary is to give the meanings of words and short, common phrases; the purpose of an encyclopedia is to impart ''knowledge.''  Dictionaries help us to understand language; encyclopedias go far beyond that.  Fine, you say, but surely the meanings of words is one of the things at least required for knowledge--and with this I agree.  But if the ''focus'' of a project is on giving the meanings of words, then one ''focuses'' on stating multiple senses of words, including senses about which there is little specialized knowledge ''beyond'' what can be imparted by the definition.  This, as I said, creates the practical problem of making it seem that what the project is ''about'' is (limited to) giving definitions of words.  Even when we ''know'' that that's not what it's about, if we get into the habit of just enumerating senses of a word, without adding any further information (information not entailed by the typical dictionary definition(s) of the word), then de facto we are treating Wikipedia as a dictionary.  I think there's something wrong with that.
> 
> But why not just combine a dictionary and encyclopedia, so that we could use the one for the other?  The trouble with this proposal is just that encyclopedias provide ''more'' information than is typically needed.  It would be silly to come to Wikipedia if ''all'' you wanted to know is the meaning of the word--and usually, when we (as some of us often do) consult a dictionary, that ''is'' all we want to know.
> 
> So, I disagree with Lee when he says we should present information first in dictionary-type format.  I think we should let people consult dictionaries when they want definitions, and we on Wikipedia should ''focus'' not on perfecting our lexicography but on increasing and imparting our (a posteriori) knowledge.
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Perfect_Martini|987532016
19c19
< The following order does make a difference: After mixing the drink, remove the glass from the ice, put in the olives (I like two queen sized olives per 4 ounce drink), and strain the drink into the glass, pouring it over the olives.  Use a Boston strainer or other course strainer--you want a few small ice pieces to make it through the strainer and float on the drink.  Pouring the mix over the olives is important to distribute some of their salitiness into the drink.
---
> The following order does make a difference: After mixing the drink, remove the glass from the ice, put in the olives (I like two queen sized olives per 4 ounce drink), and strain the drink into the glass, pouring it over the olives.  Use a Boston strainer or other coarse strainer--you want a few small ice pieces to make it through the strainer and float on the drink.  Pouring the mix over the olives is important to distribute some of their salitiness into the drink.
------
Encyclopedia_and_or_versus_dictionary|987532292
15c15
< Lee also makes a good point, that we, ourselves, needn't distinguish between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  But there are two points to bear in mind.  First, while ''we'' might not make this distinction, ''most other people'' do--and when people see lots of mere definitions, listing multiple senses, some of which have little to do with any obvious encyclopedia topic, then our readers might conclude (reasonably) that we are doing what ''they'' would describe as writing a dictionary.  I think this would be a bad idea.
---
> Lee also makes a good point, that we, ourselves, needn't distinguish between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  But there are two points to bear in mind.  First, while ''we'' might not make this distinction, ''most other people'' do--and when people see lots of mere definitions, listing multiple senses, some of which have little to do with any obvious encyclopedia topic, then our readers might conclude (reasonably) that we are doing what ''they'' would describe as writing a dictionary.  I think this would be a bad thing.
17c17
< Second, there is a useful distinction to be made between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  They simply don't overlap entirely, nor should they, because they have different purposes.  The purpose of a dictionary is to give the meanings of words and short, common phrases; the purpose of an encyclopedia is to impart ''knowledge.''  Dictionaries help us to understand language; encyclopedias go far beyond that.  Fine, you say, but surely the meanings of words is one of the things at least required for knowledge--and with this I agree.  But if the ''focus'' of a project is on giving the meanings of words, then one ''focuses'' on stating multiple senses of words, including senses about which there is little specialized knowledge ''beyond'' what can be imparted by the definition.  This, as I said, creates the practical problem of making it seem that what the project is ''about'' is (limited to) giving definitions of words.  Even when we ''know'' that that's not what it's about, if we get into the habit of just enumerating senses of a word, without adding any further information (information not entailed by the typical dictionary definition(s) of the word), then de facto we are treating Wikipedia as a dictionary.  I think there's something wrong with that.
---
> Second, there is a useful distinction to be made between a dictionary and an encyclopedia.  They simply don't overlap entirely, nor should they, because they have different purposes.  The purpose of a dictionary is to give the meanings of words and short, common phrases; the purpose of an encyclopedia is to impart ''knowledge.''  Dictionaries help us to understand language; encyclopedias go far beyond that.  Fine, you say, but surely the meanings of words is one of the things at least required for knowledge--and with this I agree.  But if the ''focus'' of a project is on giving the meanings of words, then one ''focuses'' on stating multiple senses of words, including senses about which there is little specialized knowledge ''beyond'' what can be imparted by the definition.  This, as I said, creates the practical problem of making it seem that what the project is ''about'' is (limited to) giving definitions of words.  Even when we ''know'' that that's not what it's about, if we get into the habit of just enumerating senses of a word, without adding any further information (information not entailed by the typical dictionary definition(s) of the word), then de facto we are treating Wikipedia as a dictionary.  I think there's something wrong with that.  We could be doing and encouraging so much more than that.
19c19
< But why not just combine a dictionary and encyclopedia, so that we could use the one for the other?  The trouble with this proposal is just that encyclopedias provide ''more'' information than is typically needed.  It would be silly to come to Wikipedia if ''all'' you wanted to know is the meaning of the word--and usually, when we (as some of us often do) consult a dictionary, that ''is'' all we want to know.
---
> Why doesn't someone make http://www.wiktionary.com to make a wiki-based dictionary?  That would be interesting, and it could be useful, too.
21c21,25
< So, I disagree with Lee when he says we should present information first in dictionary-type format.  I think we should let people consult dictionaries when they want definitions, and we on Wikipedia should ''focus'' not on perfecting our lexicography but on increasing and imparting our (a posteriori) knowledge.
---
> But why not just combine a dictionary and encyclopedia, so that we could use the one for the other?  The trouble with this proposal is just that encyclopedias provide ''more'' information than is typically needed when one consults a dictionary.  It would be silly to come to Wikipedia if ''all'' you wanted to know is the meaning of the word--and usually, when we (as some of us often do) consult a dictionary, that ''is'' all we want to know.
> 
> So I think we should say that our sole purpose is to build an encyclopedia, and our habits should be consistent with this purpose.  Of course, one important habit to get into (that most of us already are in) is to define the sense of the word we use at the beginning of an encyclopedia article.  But that doesn't mean that our purpose is to create a dictionary.
> 
> So, I disagree with Lee when he says we should present information first in dictionary-type format.  I think we should let people consult dictionaries when they want definitions, and we on Wikipedia should ''focus'' not on perfecting our lexicography but on increasing and imparting our (a posteriori) knowledge.  I do think that we "perfect our lexicography" at the overall expense of our central purpose, of building an encyclopedia.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Breadth_and_depth|987532337
16c16
< 
---
> and [[encyclopedia and or versus dictionary]]
------
Linus_Torvalds|987532624
1c1,2
< Linus Torvalds developed (and continues to develop) [[Linux]] kernel. He was born in Helsinki, Finland in 1969.
---
> Linus Torvalds developed (and continues to develop) the [[Linux]] kernel. He was born in Helsinki, Finland in 1969. His personal mascot is the [[penguin]], widely adopted by the Linux community. 
> A tenet of the [[Open Source]] model attributed to Linus is "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow".
------
How_to|987532659
11c11
< * A list of materials, tools or prerequisits (if needed)
---
> * A list of materials, tools or prerequisites (if needed)
13c13
< * Appropriate safty warnings (if needed)
---
> * Appropriate safety warnings (if needed)
19c19,20
< 
---
> ----
> :-)  This is great!  My only nitpick is that personal opinion is actually to be avoided in ''Wikipedia'' how-tos; i.e., we would like even how-tos to be written from the NeutralPointOfView.
------
How_to|987532681
20c20
< :-)  This is great!  My only nitpick is that personal opinion is actually to be avoided in ''Wikipedia'' how-tos; i.e., we would like even how-tos to be written from the NeutralPointOfView.
---
> This is great!  :-)  My only nitpick is that personal opinion is actually to be avoided in ''Wikipedia'' how-tos; i.e., we would like even how-tos to be written from the NeutralPointOfView.
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987532749
11c11
< Maybe you think that Wikipedia would end up being a rather low-quality product, since it's open to everyone.  But perhaps it's the fact that it ''is'' open to everyone that makes a lot of these articles pretty good, and ever-improving.  To alter a now-famous catchphrase: "Given enough eyeballs, all errors are shallow."  We tend to cater to the ''highest'' common denominator--"lower denominators" tend politely not to touch articles they know nothing about!  There are a lot of Ph.D.'s and graduate students and other very smart and knowledgeable people at work here--but everyone is welcome.
---
> Maybe you think that Wikipedia would end up being a rather low-quality product, since it's open to everyone.  But perhaps it's the fact that it ''is'' open to everyone that makes a lot of these articles pretty good, and ever-improving.  To alter a now-famous [[Linus Torvalds|catchphrase]]: "Given enough eyeballs, all errors are shallow."  We tend to cater to the ''highest'' common denominator--"lower denominators" tend politely not to touch articles they know nothing about!  There are a lot of Ph.D.'s and graduate students and other very smart and knowledgeable people at work here--but everyone is welcome.
------
Five-card_draw|987532795
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Five-card draw''' is often the first [[poker variant]] learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now rare in [[casino]] and [[poker tournament|tournament]] play.  The [[lowball]] variations make more interesting games and are more commonly played in casinos.  Two to eight players can play.
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use [[Poker/Blind|blind]]s; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.  In home games, it is typical to use an [[Poker/Ante|ante]]; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, and the second round begins with the player who [[Poker/Open|open]]ed the first round.
> 
> Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.
> 
> Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first "before the draw" betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left (or to the left of the big blind if blinds are used).
> 
> If more than one player remains after the first round, the "draw" phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn beginning at the dealer's left is dealt from the stub the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.
> 
> A second "after the draw" betting round occurs after the draw phase, beginning with the player to the dealers left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds).  This is followed by a [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best [[Poker/Hands|hand]] wins the pot.
> 
> A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or [[Poker/Wild card|wild card]]).  This rule is only needed for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub.  In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used.  A rule that ''is'' used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck stub.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).
> 
> Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information.  If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players.  For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.
> 
> <h2>Sample deal</h2>
> 
> All four players ante $.25.  Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub (Note: in a player-dealt casino game there is often a rule that the dealer must discard before picking up the deck stub, but this is a home game so we won't worry about such details).  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a [[Poker/Flush|flush]], and Alice shows [[Poker/Two pair|two pair]], so David takes the pot.
> 
> <h2>Variations</h2>
> 
> 
> See also [[draw poker]].
------
Linus_Torvalds|987532819
2c2
< A tenet of the [[Open Source]] model attributed to Linus is "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow".
---
> A tenet of the [[Open source]] model attributed to Linus is "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow".
------
Disabilities|987533028
102c102
< [[/Disability Etiquette]]
---
> [[/Disability etiquette]] (for a draft of this [[how to]] article, please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
------
How_to|987533235
20c20,22
< This is great!  :-)  My only nitpick is that personal opinion is actually to be avoided in ''Wikipedia'' how-tos; i.e., we would like even how-tos to be written from the NeutralPointOfView.
---
> This is great!  :-)  My only nitpick is that personal opinion is actually to be avoided in ''Wikipedia'' how-tos; i.e., we would like even how-tos to be written from the NeutralPointOfView.
> ----
> The point is that it is sometimes not even ''possible'' for some how-tos to be neutral, and even when it is, sometimes the personal opinion is just as valuable information as the neutral information.  For example, [[Poker/Equipment]] expresses the opinion that high-quality cards and chips are worth the price but that "poker tables" generally aren't.  That's useful information to someone learning to play poker, so I wouldn't want it excluded.  It should be mentioned in the text above, though, that such opinion should be attributed if it is potentially controversial (if even with a wimpy attribution such as "many believe..." or "this author believes...").  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Infinite_Series/Talk|987533383
3c3,27
< This sentence, while no doubt true in some sense, makes little sense to me: "Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation."  Can someone elucidate, please?
---
> This sentence, while no doubt true in some sense, makes little sense to me: "Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation."  Can someone elucidate, please?----
> 
> The definition is given backward, stressing what the one of the purpose of a series is. That purpose is, given a function or constant, whose value is  not known, to define another function expressed as the limit of an infinite series, where the value of the infinite series approaches the value of the original function or constant, as the number of terms increases. 
> Now, circling back to your question, this infinite series is picked because it is clear from evaluating it for the first few terms, that it is approaching the the value of the function or constant. Then the sentence:
> "Typically, the first few terms in the infinite series nearly solve an equation."  means that: When one uses an infinite series to express the value of a function or cconstant, the first few terms will approximate the value of the function rather closely, and the more terms the closer the approximation.<br>
> 
> Note this definition is very limited. There are infinite series developed for functions <b>whose value is already known.</b>. For example, by a Taylor's expansion of a function or a Taylor series, a known function can be expressed by an infinite series which is a polynomial function. The purpose of finding a polynomial function or expansion of a known function is that the polynomial expansion may be a more useful expression of the original function.  
> 
> 
> In more detail:
> 
> A <b> finite series</b> is written a1+a2+...an, where a1,a2,..,an are called terms in the series for some positive integer n. The <i> sum</i> of the series is simply the sum the of n terms.
> For example, it can be proved that the sum of the squares of the first n numbers, where n is a positive integer is:
> 
>            n
>          &Sigma; = 1<sup>2</sup>+ 2<sup>2</sup>+...n<sup>2</sup>=(1/6)*n*(n+1)*(2n+1)
>           r=1
> 
> An <b>infinite series</b> is written a1+a2+a3+... , with terms a1,a2,a3,..., and one term corresponding to each positive integer. NOW, if s<sub>n</sub> is the <b>sum of the first n terms</b>, we look at the <b>sequences</b> s<sub>1</sub>,s<sub>2</sub>,s<sub>3</sub>,....
> If this <b>sequence</b> has a limit, say, <b>s</b>, as n goes to infinity, the original infinite series is said to have a <b>sum</b> = <b>s</b>. If there is no such limit, the infinite series has no sum.
> 
> Clear as mud..eh?
> 
> 
>      
------
How_to|987533843
22c22
< The point is that it is sometimes not even ''possible'' for some how-tos to be neutral, and even when it is, sometimes the personal opinion is just as valuable information as the neutral information.  For example, [[Poker/Equipment]] expresses the opinion that high-quality cards and chips are worth the price but that "poker tables" generally aren't.  That's useful information to someone learning to play poker, so I wouldn't want it excluded.  It should be mentioned in the text above, though, that such opinion should be attributed if it is potentially controversial (if even with a wimpy attribution such as "many believe..." or "this author believes...").  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> The point is that it is sometimes not practical or even ''possible'' for some how-tos to be neutral, and even when it is, sometimes the personal opinion is just as valuable information as the neutral information.  For example, [[Poker/Equipment]] expresses the opinion that high-quality cards and chips are worth the price but that "poker tables" generally aren't.  That's useful information to someone learning to play poker, so I wouldn't want it excluded.  It should be mentioned in the text above, though, that such opinion should be attributed if it is potentially controversial (if even with a wimpy attribution such as "many believe..." or "this author believes...").  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
How_to|987533917
22a23,26
> ----
> I agree entirely that what you call "personal opinion"--if it is ''expert'' or (where experts per se don't exist) ''well-justified'' opinion--is sometimes just as valuable as neutral information.  Please note that extremely opinionated stuff can be presented from the NeutralPointOfView.
> 
> I would be curious to learn why how-tos sometimes cannot be neutral.  There is more than one way to skin a cat, eh?  Wouldn't the neutral point of view have us report on all of them?  (First, get a cat; firmly grab it by its neck...) --[[LMS]]
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987533964
15c15,16
< Strategy in a game such as chess can largely be personal opinion.
---
> Strategy in a game such as chess can largely be personal opinion.----
> The information here is a synthesis of material from the "able" community, which I have used unteenth times and heard as many times in training staff at public events on how to interact with the disabled. Here, may I mention, the disabiltiy training for the staff at the Clearwater Revivial, Central Park Free Public Concerts, Summerstage a Central Park, the Achilles Runner's assistants at the NYC Marathon and private organizations who offer this info and training for money to businesses. Now I will be more than happy to remove this, if you think this is opinion. This is information developed by and used by the <b>Able</b> community.
------
Lithuania|987534176
1c1,5
< This country is situated next to Poland.
---
> Baltic state bordered by [[Poland]], [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]]. Capital Vilnius. Population (2000 est.) 3,620,756
> 
> [http://www.mapblast.com/myblast/map.mb?CMD=GEO&CT=&IC=&LV=&GMI=&GAD1=&GAD2=&GAD3=&GAD4=&AD2=&noPrefs=&req_action=crmap&skip=&serch=&PHONE=&noBRP=&remLoc=&AD4=LTU&AD2_street=&AD3=&apmenu=&apcode=&selCategory=&x=22&y=15 Interactive Map]
> 
> See: ''Lithuania: The Rebel Nation'' by Vytas Stanley Vardys, ISBN: 0813318394
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987534582
16a17,20
> 
> ----
> No one is doubting that it is valuable information, and we want it here.  The point is that the article itself should say where the information is from.  Is "able" as you use it above an organization of some kind, or a community of people and organizations from a certain area?  Say so; I'm sure their experience in this are is valuable, but that doesn't make the recommendations any less commentary.  If they are an informal group, start the article with something like "The following guidelines for dealing with the disabled are recommended by an informal consensus of American advocates for disabled causes:"  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987534705
20c20,21
< 
---
> ----
> Ruth, I'm not sure what you mean by "able community"--perhaps those people who are not disabled but are concerned about disability?  Anyway, if what you say is true, then perhaps this etiquette could be presented in an encyclopedic format rather than just as a set of rules.  Here are some questions, I imagine, that an (exhaustive) article about disability etiquette would include: what is it (generally); why think there is a need for it; who has been concerned in developing it; what items in the history/culture of how the disabled have been treated has led to the developing of a disability etiquette; are there professional associations, books, experts, etc., associated with the topic; and, of course, what some actual rules are that constitute or express a disability etiquette.  I think just having the rules without further ado, particularly when the rules aren't '''attributed''' to anyone, ''does'' look like just so much personal opinion. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987535985
1c1,4
< ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].''
---
> ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].'' And, pray, who around here has a neutral point of view.
> Unless, you mean pure ignorance of the subject...then I leave it to LMS or LDC to do this.
> May I remind you all that this became an encylclopedia on day, and I, for one, was not informed. I will say just what I am thinking as always.LMS- you want to include this in Nupedia and have suddenly gained the right to make any and all alterations to these pages. I do not approve. There is no consensus on this that I know about. The formal statemnt on Nupedia, was that this issue would wait three months to be discussed again. Not even a month has passed. Yet, all I see here is a new "boss" of wikipedia. And an oft-times missing Editor at Nupedia. So fire me... I know when I get back you will have done the copy edits you said you would try to get too. I know that Nupedia must come first to you LMS or do I?
> 
19a23,42
> 
> -----
> Alternative Approaches.
> 
> 1. <b> Hide disabled people from the public</b> This has been a popular approach for centruies. It has the notable advatages that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal.
> 
> 2. <b> Wait hand and foot on the disabled</b>. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutonalized..rah..
> 
> 3. <b> Ask the disabled nosy questions and stare.</b> This approach has the advantage of
> learning all the gruesome details of how a disabled person became one. Then you can tell them about your operation. Make them know they are special by following them with your eyes right until they leave yor range of vision. Watch particlularly how they use alternative means to talk, get around etc.
> 
> 4, <b> Ignore diabled people.<b> You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different, aren't they.
> 
> 5. <b> If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to he comapnion.</b>
> Consider the tough time such a companion is having. Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place- a burden on everyone else.
> 
> 6>.<b> If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out.</b> If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind them that sharing is important too.
> 
> 7. <b> Do not use words that refer to senses that the disabled person may not have</b>.
> If you should forget and use such a word, laugh profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are.
------
Flaming|987536140
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Flaming is the practice of posting messages that are deliberately hostile and insulting to a discussion board (usually on the Internet).  Such messages are called a flames.
> 
> A flame may have elements of a normal message, but is distinguished by its intent.  A flame is never intended to be constructive, to further or clarify a discussion, or to persuade other people.  The motive for flaming is never dialectic, but rather social or psychological.  The flamer wishes to assert his authority, or establish a position of superiority.  Occasionally, the flamer merely wishes to upset and offend other members of the forum, in which case he is a [[Internet troll|troll]].
> 
> Similary, a normal, non-flame message may have elements of a flame - it may be hostile, for example - but it is not a flame if it is seriously intended to advance the discussion.
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987536231
21c21,22
< Ruth, I'm not sure what you mean by "able community"--perhaps those people who are not disabled but are concerned about disability?  Anyway, if what you say is true, then perhaps this etiquette could be presented in an encyclopedic format rather than just as a set of rules.  Here are some questions, I imagine, that an (exhaustive) article about disability etiquette would include: what is it (generally); why think there is a need for it; who has been concerned in developing it; what items in the history/culture of how the disabled have been treated has led to the developing of a disability etiquette; are there professional associations, books, experts, etc., associated with the topic; and, of course, what some actual rules are that constitute or express a disability etiquette.  I think just having the rules without further ado, particularly when the rules aren't '''attributed''' to anyone, ''does'' look like just so much personal opinion. --[[LMS]]
---
> Ruth, I'm not sure what you mean by "able community"--perhaps those people who are not disabled but are concerned about disability?  Anyway, if what you say is true, then perhaps this etiquette could be presented in an encyclopedic format rather than just as a set of rules.  Here are some questions, I imagine, that an (exhaustive) article about disability etiquette would include: what is it (generally); why think there is a need for it; who has been concerned in developing it; what items in the history/culture of how the disabled have been treated has led to the developing of a disability etiquette; are there professional associations, books, experts, etc., associated with the topic; and, of course, what some actual rules are that constitute or express a disability etiquette.  I think just having the rules without further ado, particularly when the rules aren't '''attributed''' to anyone, ''does'' look like just so much personal opinion. --[[LMS]]----
> Able is as opposed to disabled. I should think you would realize that. What term do you use..normal?
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987536404
22c22
< Able is as opposed to disabled. I should think you would realize that. What term do you use..normal?
---
> Able is as opposed to disabled. Nothing more or less. This distinction divides, in a genral way, the whole population of the world. There is no implication that the able community is particularly concerned about the disabled. I should think you would realize that. What term do you use..normal?
------
Disabilities/Talk|987536598
29c29,30
< The definition is my own and not from any dictionary or other reference work.
---
> The definition is my own and not from any dictionary or other reference work.----
> Then if you don't mind I will replace it with a recognized one. RoseParks.
------
Five-card_draw|987536648
5,6d4
< Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.
< 
17a16,17
> 
> The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.
------
Logical_fallacy|987536679
31a32,75
> A taxonomy of fallacies:
>  [[/Ad Hominem|Ad Hominem]]
>  [[/Ad Hominem Tu Quoque|Ad Hominem Tu Quoque]]
>  [[/Appeal to Authority|Appeal to Authority]]
>  [[/Appeal to Belief|Appeal to Belief]]
>  [[/Appeal to Common Practice|Appeal to Common Practice]]
>  [[/Appeal to Consequences of a Belief|Appeal to Consequences of a Belief]]
>  [[/Appeal to Emotion|Appeal to Emotion]]
>  [[/Appeal to Fear|Appeal to Fear]]
>  [[/Appeal to Flattery|Appeal to Flattery]]
>  [[/Appeal to Novelty|Appeal to Novelty]]
>  [[/Appeal to Pity|Appeal to Pity]]
>  [[/Appeal to Popularity|Appeal to Popularity]]
>  [[/Appeal to Ridicule|Appeal to Ridicule]]
>  [[/Appeal to Spite|Appeal to Spite]]
>  [[/Appeal to Tradition|Appeal to Tradition]]
>  [[/Bandwagon|Bandwagon]]
>  [[/Begging the Question|Begging the Question]]
>  [[/Biased Sample|Biased Sample]]
>  [[/Burden of Proof|Burden of Proof]]
>  [[/Circumstantial Ad Hominem|Circumstantial Ad Hominem]]
>  [[/Composition|Composition]]
>  [[/Confusing Cause and Effect|Confusing Cause and Effect]]
>  [[/Division|Division]]
>  [[/False Dilemma|False Dilemma]]
>  [[/Gamblers Fallacy|Gambler's Fallacy]]
>  [[/Genetic Fallacy|Genetic Fallacy]]
>  [[/Guilt By Association|Guilt By Association]]
>  [[/Hasty Generalization|Hasty Generalization]]
>  [[/Ignoring A Common Cause|Ignoring A Common Cause]]
>  [[/Middle Ground|Middle Ground]]
>  [[/Misleading Vividness|Misleading Vividness]]
>  [[/Personal Attack|Personal Attack]]
>  [[/Poisoning the Well|Poisoning the Well]]
>  [[/Post Hoc|Post Hoc]]
>  [[/Questionable Cause|Questionable Cause]]
>  [[/Red Herring|Red Herring]]
>  [[/Relativist Fallacy|Relativist Fallacy]]
>  [[/Slippery Slope|Slippery Slope]]
>  [[/Special Pleading|Special Pleading]]
>  [[/Spotlight |Spotlight ]]
>  [[/Straw Man|Straw Man]]
>  [[/Two Wrongs Make A Right|Two Wrongs Make A Right]]
> 
------
Logical_fallacy|987536814
22c22
< Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
---
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[Ad Hominem/argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
24c24
< In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
---
> In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[/Appeal to Authority|argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
------
Disabilities|987536845
1,5c1
< A <b>disability</b> is some physical or mental limitation which prevents full utilization of a person's ability/functionality.
< 
< On the surface, disabilities can be divided into two broad groups:
< * physical
< * mental
---
> A <b>disabiled person</b> is one who has a disability that interferes with their abiltiy to perform one or more activities of everyday living. For example, locomotion, speech, getting dressed, going outside, communicating with others.
------
Logical_fallacy|987536906
22c22
< Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[Ad Hominem/argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
---
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[Ad Hominem|argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
------
Disabilities|987536953
1c1,3
< A <b>disabiled person</b> is one who has a disability that interferes with their abiltiy to perform one or more activities of everyday living. For example, locomotion, speech, getting dressed, going outside, communicating with others.
---
> A <b>disabiled person</b> is one who has a disability that interferes with their abiltiy to perform one or more activities of everyday living. For example, locomotion, speech, getting dressed, going outside, communicating with others.<br>
> Note:This definition is based on the one given in the Americans with Disabilities Act, a
> law in the USA, enacted in July 1990.
------
Logical_fallacy|987537246
1c1
< A ''fallacy'' is a way that an [[argument]] can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to achieve its purpose.  
---
> A ''fallacy'' is a way that an [[argument]] can go wrong and thereby fail to be [[validity|valid]], [[soundness|sound]], or otherwise fail to properly support its claim.  Arguments intended to persuade may be convincing to many listeners despite containing such fallacies, but they are nonetheless flawed.  Recognizing these fallacies is sometimes difficult.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|987537733
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The relativist fallacy, also known as [[polylogism]], is committed when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy applies only to objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.
> 
> The fallacy is often adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that by another equally valid logic the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally never introduced by people whose opinions stand up to logic to begin with.
> 
> The relativist fallacy was popularized in Western culture by [[Karl Marx]] who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  It is a common element of [[post-modernism|post-modern philosophy]] and of so-called [[radical feminism]].
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987537735
4a5,6
> ''None taken.  Probably those pages should be refactored, but in general it's a bad idea to refactor dialogues you were part of, and I suspect nobody wants to get anything on their hands.''
> 
7c9,17
< Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning. 
---
> ''Well, I do know some of what I am talking about. :) I have not read any of the economic literature, but I have read a fair bit of the historic - and very little of it has been leftist rhetoric as far as I can tell.  So opinions are my own, and I'm not ignorant of how things work.  The main disputed point from what I can tell is explained below.''
> 
> Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning.
> 
> ''Well, first of all I'm not entirely sure how one decides who is politically motivated.  Calling an argument socialist is sufficient denouncement in the US, less so here, but from what I understand isn't too much of an insult at all in Europe.  Such things give me the strong impression that things aren't nearly unanimous as claimed.  Indeed for instance I have seen you dismiss Chomsky (who I understand is strong left, but I don't know what he says) while others have acclaimed him.''
> 
> ''But in any case I would not try and push anything I am so unsure about on an encyclopedia, and if you look at [[Socialism/Talk]] you will note I did not.  When I said socialism conclusively works I gave examples, notably Sweden which is for whatever reason often called a "democratic socialism", and I argued precisely so long as people tried to refute fact with theory (which can't be done).  When it was finally pointed out that the use of the term in this case is a misnomer I stopped.''
> 
> ''Does this seem like a fair way to approach things?  Now for instance I would still claim that a centralized economy works fine for predominantly agricultural economies, because of the example of Mycenae.  Industrial economies are disputable and I would not go against consensus on them - although as stated I suspect there is more valid opposition then claimed.''
25a36,39
> ''Not at all, I am trying to expound those principles.  The definition I am asking for is clearly that found in most sources and that used by economic historians, and I think it is perfectly clear conceptually.  The thing is that it refers to a different concept than the variate Tim is using.''
> 
> ''Bias is a harder issue to deal with, since the sense given supposedly originated (along with the word) in the writings of Marx.  To this I would state that both capitalism and socialism are terms lumping fairly different systems together, and as noone has complained about the latter noone should complain about the former; in both cases the grouping is justified because all the systems share common characteristics, namely the basis of ownership.  Now it may be that such a primary split reflects a word view peculiar to Marx, but that is what the words mean, and as stated a different split should use different words.  Yet certainly none of the sources checked felt it necessary to use a different system, and they are clearly not Marxist.''
> 
38c52
< The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use of resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was. -TS
---
> The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use of resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was. -TS
------
RoseParks|987537982
25a26
> [[/Disability Etiquette]]
------
RoseParks/Disability_Etiquette|987538111
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the <i>able</i>. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines:
> 
> 1. <b>Do not offer to help a disabled person.</b> Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.<br>
> 
> 2. <b>Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission.</b> This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.<br>
> 
> 3. <b>If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion.</b> The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more.
> 
> 4. <b> Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would.</b> Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?"<br>
> 
> 5. <b>It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself.</b> If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.<br>
> 
> 6. <b>Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way.</b> If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting <i>per se</i>. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.<br>
> 
> 7. <b>Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different disabilities.</b> In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.
> 
> -----
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987538347
34c34
< 4, <b> Ignore diabled people.<b> You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different, aren't they.
---
> 4, <b> Ignore diabled people.</b> You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different, aren't they.
39c39
< 6>.<b> If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out.</b> If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind them that sharing is important too.
---
> 6. <b> If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out.</b> If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind them that sharing is important too.
------
Disabilities|987538442
100c100
< [[/Disability etiquette]] (for a draft of this [[how to]] article, please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
---
> please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987538460
46c46
< Well, I don't even agree on this, but all-in-all, I would say that this is mostly irrelevant to a general discussion.  The question is whether or not systems of centralized political control have faired better (under some broad measures of economic well-being) or worse, after controlling for other relevant variables, with or without a price system generated by individual freedom to trade.
---
> Well, I don't even agree on this, but all-in-all, I would say that this is mostly irrelevant to a general discussion.  The question is whether or not systems of centralized political control have faired better (under some broad measures of economic well-being) or worse, after controlling for other relevant variables, with or without a price system generated by individual freedom to trade. -- ''Adressed below''
52a53,54
> ----
> ''Something you people are definitely ignoring, though, is that Russia did fare better under the soviets than before or after.  The czars presided over an agricultural economy, and capitalism has accomplished sufficiently little that many wish to return to the old system, although to be fair it hasn't had much chance yet.  Yet under the first few decades of soviet rule the country was industrialized and pushed to a world power status never before enjoyed.  Such a system may have been doomed to collapse, and certainly proved unable to support a massively overdone military program like the US had, but you have to admit has ran better than par.''
------
Disabilities/Talk|987538562
30a31,43
> 
> Alternate Scheme:
> 
> :[[Behavioral disability]]
> :[[Blindness]]
> :[[Chronic disability]]
> :[[Communicative disability]]
> :[[Deafness]]
> :[[Developmental disability]]
> :[[Learning disability]]
> :[[Mental disability]]
> :[[Multiple disability]]
> :[[Temporary disability]]
------
Disabilities|987538589
5,17d4
< 
< :[[Behavioral disability]]
< :[[Blindness]]
< :[[Chronic disability]]
< :[[Communicative disability]]
< :[[Deafness]]
< :[[Developmental disability]]
< :[[Learning disability]]
< :[[Mental disability]]
< :[[Multiple disability]]
< :[[Temporary disability]]
< 
< Alternate Scheme:
------
Disabilities|987538625
90,91d89
< [[/Bill of Rights of Disabled]]
< 
------
RoseParks|987538728
26c26
< [[/Disability Etiquette]]
---
> [[/Disability Etiquette]]
------
RoseParks|987538772
26a27
> [[/Bill of Rights for the Disabled]]
------
RoseParks|987538801
26,27c26,27
< [[/Disability Etiquette]]
< [[/Bill of Rights for the Disabled]]
---
> [[/Disability Etiquette]]<br>
> [[/Bill of Rights for the Disabled]]
------
English_language|987539558
5,9c5,10
< English has complexities that other languages (Chinese) lack:
< * possessive
< * verb tenses
< * plural
< * homonym - one or more words that sound the same yet have different meanings
---
> English is a slightly [[inflected language]], retaining features like
> * Possessives
> * Verb tenses
> * Plurals
> * Accusative ''(rare)''
> but all in all is much less so then the bulk of [[Indo-European]] languages, placing more of the information in the word order.
------
Inflected_language|987539885
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A language in which words change form according to grammatical function.  For instance the ending of a verb may indicate number, person, time, and mood, or the ending of a noun may indicate number, case, and usually something called grammatical gender.
> 
> Contrast agglutinative languages, where the same information is usually presented by word order and helper words.  Of course all languages make use of these to some extent, but highly inflected languages tend to do so less.
------
Gregorian_Calendar/Talk|987539987
7c7,10
< Isn't there something where rulers expanded the number of days in a year to add more festival days and therefore the calendar did not match the changing of the seasons?
---
> Isn't there something where rulers expanded the number of days in a year to add more festival days and therefore the calendar did not match the changing of the seasons?
> ----
> That was before the [[Julian Calendar]]. [[Julius Caesar]] ended
> all that. What was remaining was an error of 8 days per millenium.
------
Infinite_Series/Talk|987540008
24a25,30
> ----
> The definition was a feeble attempt to explain an infinite series in layman terms and then give a formal mathematical definition.
> 
> A math adverse reader would be put off by the formal definition.
> 
> I know the formal definition but couldn't explain it well enough in plain words.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987540148
43a44,46
> ----
> 
> Can someone expand on how disabilities are treated differently in different cultures/countries?
------
Flaming|987540292
5a6,7
> 
> A sequence of flame messages is known as a <b>[[Flame war]]</b>.
------
Kamikaze|987540473
3c3
< <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind") means 'divine wind' in Japanese.
---
> <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind") means 'divine wind' in Japanese.  It refers to the wind which saved [[Japan]] from [[Mongol]] invasion.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987540769
83a84,87
> ----
> I just noticed that when someone writes ISBN something,
> like ISBN 0691004021, links to barnes & noble, amazon and pricescan appear, automatically. Is that part of "making
> wikipedia profitable"?
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987540833
1c1,3
< The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian Calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by Pope [[Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
---
> The <i>Gregorian Calendar</i>, a modification of the previously used [[Julian Calendar]], was first proposed by Neapolitan doctor Aloysius Lilius, and adopted by Pope [[Gregory XIII]].  The mean year in the Julian Calendar had exactly 365.25 days, but given that the real duration is approximately 365.2422, every thousand years the Julian date will be off by about 7.8 days.  
> 
> The church was interested in having Easter celebrated at the correct time, so it was decided that the calendar would be modified.  The fix was to define that years divisible by 100 will be [[leap year]]s only if they are divisible by 400 as well.  So, in the last millenium, 1200, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1100, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1700, 1800 and 1900 where not.  That gives a correction on 7 days.  This millenium will have 8 days corrected.
7a10,24
> 
> The Gregorian canendar is divided into 12 months:
> * January
> * February
> * March
> * April
> * May
> * June
> * July
> * August
> * September
> * October
> * November
> * October
> * December
------
Compressed|987541000
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[data compression]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987541223
87a88,89
> 
> <i>No, it isn't.  That's always been that way... Clifford put it in there.  I could change the software to make those links into affiliate program links, ad we'd make a little money off of them.  Maybe I should do that?  But, I'm very uncomfortable with any mixing of _content_ and _revenue_.  I don't want people to feel that there's a conflict of interest in the content part of the site.  Ads should be clearly marked and separate from the content, and should not impact the content at all.   That's crucial for the integrity f what we are all working towards here.</i>
------
Data_compression|987541552
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Data compression</b> is the process of encoding computer data so that it takes less storage space than if the data was not compressed.
> 
> Data compression is a fundamental [[computer science]] issue.
> 
> Compressed data is data that has been passed through a data compression software system.
> 
> Uncompressed data is data that has not been passed through a data compression software system.
> 
> Data compression topics:
> * lossy - some data is lost during compression/decompression
> * loss-less - no data is lost
> * entropy - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
> 
> A very simple data compresson alogrithm would be to replace
> all instances of the string 'this_is_a_long_string' with
> '514a' in a text file.
> 
> Closely allied with data compression is field of [[information coding]] and [[cryptography]].
> 
> See also:
> * Huffman coding
> * LZW
> * MP3
> * JPEG
> * Arithmetic coding
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Compressed|987541590
1c1
< see [[data compression]]
---
> See [[data compression]]
------
Computing|987541723
66a67
> ** [[Data compression]]
------
Compressed|987541743
1c1
< See [[data compression]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[data compression]]
------
Compressed|987541751
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[data compression]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Data compression]]
------
History_of_Islam|987542027
1c1,13
< Mohammed was born presumably between 570-580 A.D.. Both of his parents died at very early ages and he was grown up by his uncle Abu Talib. His fate changed when he married a wealthy widow, Hatice (Khadija) and continued his career as a trader. Between the ages of 30 and 40, he experienced his initial prophetic call, when he was alone in the hills above Mecca for meditation. He was reported that he had been chosen, like the prophets before him, as the agency of a sacred message. Being ignored and rejected at the beginning, he began to gain followers mainly from lower classes (slaves etc). The first wealthy men accepting his prophethood were Abu Bakr and Umar. He was severely opposed by the residents of Mecca for attacking the pagan gods of Arabic peninsula. As his opponents in Mecca (one of his uncles, Abu Lahab, was among his worst enemies) began to organize to give an end to his prophecy, he fleed with many of his followers to Medina. This migration is called the Hegira (or Hijra). After three major battles and one last battle with Mecca, almost all Arabia fell to Mohammed in 630 and great number of tribes established alliance with the Prophet. After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state. Following the reign of four caliphs, two major caliphal dynasties (respectively Umayyad and Abbasid) ruled and created the Islamic Empire, which extended from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the borders of China in the east. Although the power of this empire declined by the 13th century Mogul invasion and the Crusades, it reached to another peak during Ottoman Empire, which covered a great portion of all the Muslim people on the earth. In the 18th century there were three great Muslim empires: the Ottoman in Turkey, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean; the Safavid in Iran; and the Mogul in India. By the end of the 19th century, all three had been destroyed or weakened by massive influence of Western civilizations. In the 20th century this trend has been reversed and almost no Muslim country under political domination of outside powers has been left. This new vitality of Muslims have been accompanied by a religious awakening and cultural renaissance.   
---
> Mohammed was born presumably between 570-580 A.D.. Both of his parents died at very early ages and he was grown up by his uncle Abu Talib. His fate changed when he married a wealthy widow, Hatice (Khadija) and continued his career as a trader. Between the ages of 30 and 40, he experienced his initial prophetic call, when he was alone in the hills above Mecca for meditation. He was reported that he had been chosen, like the prophets before him, as the agency of a sacred message. Being ignored and rejected at the beginning, he began to gain followers mainly from lower classes (slaves etc). The first wealthy men accepting his prophethood were Abu Bakr and Umar. He was severely opposed by the residents of Mecca for attacking the pagan gods of Arabic peninsula. As his opponents in Mecca (one of his uncles, Abu Lahab, was among his worst enemies) began to organize to give an end to his prophecy, he fleed with many of his followers to Medina. This migration is called the Hegira (or Hijra). After three major battles and one last battle with Mecca, almost all Arabia fell to Mohammed in 630 and great number of tribes established alliance with the Prophet.
> 
> After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state.  The next three caliphs were all relatives of the prophet, but were succeeded by another household, a change not universally accepted, leading to the major division in the Islamic church between the majority of Sunnites and the minority of Shiites.  The new household was the first major caliphate dynasty, the Umayyads, who conquered the Sassanid empire (Persia) and the southern Byzantine provinces as far as Spain.
> 
> The majority of this new empire was of course non-Islamic, and aside from a protection tax (''jiszya'') the conquered people found their religions tolerated.  Nonetheless the new religion penetrated deeply, to the point where conversions had to be discouraged since they were undermining the tax system.  At the same time the Umayyads had dedidicated their prestige to conquering the Byzantine empire, and started running into real opposition from the Orthodox provinces.  Thus there was a revolution (6??) and a new dynasty, the Abbasids, took the caliphate, marking the transition to a more settled empire.
> 
> The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate almost immediately.  The emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of two rival caliphates: the Fatimids in north Africa, and the Umayyads in Spain (the emirs their being descended from an escaped member of that family).  Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the Buhyahid emirs.
> 
> Around this time a series of new invasions swept over the Islamic world.  First the newly converted [[Seljuk Turks]] swept across and conquered most of Islamic Asia, hoping to restore orthodox rule and defeat the Fatimids but soon falling prey to political decentralization themselves.  After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert (1071) the west launched a series of [[crusades]] and for a time captured Jerusalem.  [[Saladin]] however restored unity, defeated the Fatimids and recaptured the city, and later crusades accomplished little save the sack of Constantinople, leaving the Byzantine empire open to conquest.
> 
> Meanwhile, though, a second and far more serious invasion had arrived: that of the [[Mongols]], who conquered most territories up to the borders of Egypt, and permanently ended the Abbasid caliphate.  Their wanton destruction left the Islamic world damaged and confused.  However it reached a new peak under the Ottoman empire, a tiny state in Turkey that conquered the Byzantines and extended its influence over much of the Muslim peoples.
> 
> In the 18th century there were three great Muslim empires: the Ottoman in Turkey, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean; the Safavid in Iran; and the Mogul in India. By the end of the 19th century, all three had been destroyed or weakened by massive influence of Western civilizations. In the 20th century this trend has been reversed and almost no Muslim country under political domination of outside powers has been left. This new vitality of Muslims have been accompanied by a religious awakening and cultural renaissance.   
------
Gregorian_Calendar|987542759
23d22
< * October
------
Flame_war|987543093
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>flame war</b> is a series of [[flaming]] messages in a discussion group or message base.
------
Seven-card_stud|987544213
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Seven-card stud''' is the pimary [[poker variant]] played in home games across the [[United States]], and played in casinos in the eastern part of the country.  It is also played in some western American casinos, but [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] is far more popular there.  Two to eight players can play.
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use an [[Poker/Ante|ante]] and [[Poker/Bring-in|bring-in]].  In home games, it is typical to use an [[Poker/Ante|ante]] only.
> 
> The game begins with each player being dealt two cards face down and one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest-ranking upcard pays the bring-in, and betting proceeds after that in normal clockwise order.  The bring-in is considered an [[Poker/Open|open]], so the next player in turn may not check.  If two players have equally ranked low cards, suit may be used to break the tie and assign the bring-in (see [[Poker/High card by suit]]).  If there is no bring-in, then the first betting round begins with the player showing the highest-ranking upcard, who may check.  In this case, suit should not be used to break ties.  If two players have the same high upcard, the one first in clockwise rotation from the dealer acts first.
> 
> After the first betting round, another upcard is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], and starting at the dealer's left as will all subsequent rounds), followed by a second betting round beginning with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand.  Since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses will count for this purpose.  On this and all subsequent betting rounds, the player whose face-up cards make the best poker hand will act first, and may check or bet up to the game's limit.
> 
> The second round is followed by a third upcard and betting round, a fourth upcard and betting round, and finally a downcard, a fifth betting round, and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if necessary.  Seven-card stud can be summarized therefore as "two down, four up, one down".  Upon showdown, each player makes the best five-card poker hand he can out of the seven cards he was dealt.
> 
> You may note that seven cards to eight players plus four burn cards makes 60 cards, and there are only 52 in the deck.  In most games this is not a problem because several players will have folded in early betting rounds.  But there are certainly low-stakes home games where few if any players fold.  If this is the case in your game, you may want to limit the game to seven players.  If the deck does become exhausted during play, previously-dealt burn cards can be used when only a few cards are needed to complete the deal.  If even those are not sufficient, then on the final round instead of dealing a downcard to each player, a single [[Poker/Community card|community card]] is dealt to the center of the table, and is shared by everyone (that is, each player treats it as his seventh card).  Under no circumstances can any discarded card from a folded hand be "recycled" for later use.  Unlike draw poker, where no cards are ever seen before showdown, stud poker players use the information they get from face-up cards to make strategic decisions, and so a player who sees a certain card folded is entitled to make decisions knowing that the card will never appear in another opponent's hand.
> 
> <h2>Sample deal</h2>
> 
> The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.  If you cannot read the card suit symbols used below, [[Seven-card stud2|this page]] contains the same text using the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to represent suits.
> 
> All players ante $.25.  Alice deals each player two downcards and one upcard, beginning with Bob and ending with herself. Bob is dealt the '''4&spades;''', Carol the <font color=red>'''K&diams;'''</font>, David the <font color=red>'''4&diams;'''</font>, and Alice the '''9&clubs;'''.  Because they are playing with a $1 bring-in, David is required to start the betting with a $1 bring-in (his <font color=red>'''4&diams;'''</font> is lower than Bob's '''4&spades;''' by suit).  He had the option to open the betting for more, but he chose to bet only the required $1.  The bring-in sets the current bet amount to $1, so Alice cannot check.  She decides to call.  Bob folds, indicating this by turning his upcard face down and discarding his cards.  Carol raises to $3.  David folds, and Alice calls.
> 
> Alice now deals a second face-up card to each remaining player: Carol is dealt the '''J&clubs;''', and Alice the <font color=red>'''K&hearts;'''</font>.  Alice's two upcards make a poker hand of no pair, '''K-9'''-high, and Carol has '''K-J'''-high, so it is Carol's turn to bet.  She checks, as does Alice, ending the betting round.  Another face up card is dealt: Carol gets the <font color=red>'''10&hearts;'''</font>, and Alice gets the '''K&clubs;'''.  Alice now has a pair of kings showing, and Carol still has no pair, so Alice bets first.  She bets $5, and Carol calls.  On the next round, Carol receives the <font color=red>'''10&diams;'''</font>, making her upcards '''K-J-10-10'''.  Alice receives the '''3&spades;'''.  Alice's upcards are '''9-K-K-3'''; the pair of kings is still higher than Carol's pair of tens, so she bets $5 and Carol calls.  Each player now recieves a downcard.  It is still Alice's turn to bet because the downcard did not change either hand.  She checks, Carol bets $10, and Alice calls.
> 
> That closes the last betting round, and both players remain, so there is a showdown.  Alice shows her cards: '''<font color=red>9&hearts; 5&diams;</font> 9&clubs; <font color=red>K&hearts;</font> K&clubs; 3&spades; 5&spades;'''.  The best five-card poker hand she can play is '''K-K-9-9-5''', making [[Poker/Two pair|two pair]], kings and nines.  Carol shows '''Q&spades; <font color=red>2&hearts; K&diams;</font> J&clubs; <font color=red>10&hearts; 10&diams; A&diams;</font>'''.  She can play '''A-K-Q-J-10''', making an ace-high [[Poker/Straight|straight]], and so Carol wins the pot.
> 
> <h2>Variations</h2>
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987544254
22a23,31
> ----
> 
> As for me, I think that the page is great and could be moved out of commentary without much trouble at all.  I see that other
> people have the same idea that I have -- attribution can really help here.
> 
> Etiquette in general can be treated in an encyclopedic fashion, even though some aspects of etiquette are a matter of opinion or personal/group preference.
> 
> Attribution is one of the easiest in our bag of "encyclopedia-making" techniques.  It isn't that the Wikipedia advocates these rules of etiquette, although of course we probably generally do, it's that these are widely accepted, as evidenced by the such-and-such organization's promotion of them.
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Seven-card_stud2|987544431
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Seven-card stud''' is the pimary [[poker variant]] played in home games across the [[United States]], and played in casinos in the eastern part of the country.  It is also played in some western American casinos, but [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] is far more popular there.  Two to eight players can play.
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use an [[Poker/Ante|ante]] and [[Poker/Bring-in|bring-in]].  In home games, it is typical to use an [[Poker/Ante|ante]] only.
> 
> The game begins with each player being dealt two cards face down and one card face up.  If played with a bring-in, the player with the lowest-ranking upcard pays the bring-in, and betting proceeds after that in normal clockwise order.  The bring-in is considered an [[Poker/Open|open]], so the next player in turn may not check.  If two players have equally ranked low cards, suit may be used to break the tie and assign the bring-in (see [[Poker/High card by suit]]).  If there is no bring-in, then the first betting round begins with the player showing the highest-ranking upcard, who may check.  In this case, suit should not be used to break ties.  If two players have the same high upcard, the one first in clockwise rotation from the dealer acts first.
> 
> After the first betting round, another upcard is dealt to each player (after a [[burn card]], and starting at the dealer's left as will all subsequent rounds), followed by a second betting round beginning with the player whose upcards make the best poker hand.  Since fewer than five cards are face up, this means no straights, flushes, or full houses will count for this purpose.  On this and all subsequent betting rounds, the player whose face-up cards make the best poker hand will act first, and may check or bet up to the game's limit.
> 
> The second round is followed by a third upcard and betting round, a fourth upcard and betting round, and finally a downcard, a fifth betting round, and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if necessary.  Seven-card stud can be summarized therefore as "two down, four up, one down".  Upon showdown, each player makes the best five-card poker hand he can out of the seven cards he was dealt.
> 
> You may note that seven cards to eight players plus four burn cards makes 60 cards, and there are only 52 in the deck.  In most games this is not a problem because several players will have folded in early betting rounds.  But there are certainly low-stakes home games where few if any players fold.  If this is the case in your game, you may want to limit the game to seven players.  If the deck does become exhausted during play, previously-dealt burn cards can be used when only a few cards are needed to complete the deal.  If even those are not sufficient, then on the final round instead of dealing a downcard to each player, a single [[Poker/Community card|community card]] is dealt to the center of the table, and is shared by everyone (that is, each player treats it as his seventh card).  Under no circumstances can any discarded card from a folded hand be "recycled" for later use.  Unlike draw poker, where no cards are ever seen before showdown, stud poker players use the information they get from face-up cards to make strategic decisions, and so a player who sees a certain card folded is entitled to make decisions knowing that the card will never appear in another opponent's hand.
> 
> <h2>Sample deal</h2>
> 
> The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.  This text uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to represent card suits.  [[Seven-card stud|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display card suit symbols.
> 
> All players ante $.25.  Alice deals each player two downcards and one upcard, beginning with Bob and ending with herself. Bob is dealt the '''4s''', Carol the <font color=red>'''Kd'''</font>, David the <font color=red>'''4d'''</font>, and Alice the '''9c'''.  Because they are playing with a $1 bring-in, David is required to start the betting with a $1 bring-in (his <font color=red>'''4d'''</font> is lower than Bob's '''4s''' by suit).  He had the option to open the betting for more, but he chose to bet only the required $1.  The bring-in sets the current bet amount to $1, so Alice cannot check.  She decides to call.  Bob folds, indicating this by turning his upcard face down and discarding his cards.  Carol raises to $3.  David folds, and Alice calls.
> 
> Alice now deals a second face-up card to each remaining player: Carol is dealt the '''Jc''', and Alice the <font color=red>'''Kh'''</font>.  Alice's two upcards make a poker hand of no pair, '''K-9'''-high, and Carol has '''K-J'''-high, so it is Carol's turn to bet.  She checks, as does Alice, ending the betting round.  Another face up card is dealt: Carol gets the <font color=red>'''10h'''</font>, and Alice gets the '''Kc'''.  Alice now has a pair of kings showing, and Carol still has no pair, so Alice bets first.  She bets $5, and Carol calls.  On the next round, Carol receives the <font color=red>'''10d'''</font>, making her upcards '''K-J-10-10'''.  Alice receives the '''3s'''.  Alice's upcards are '''9-K-K-3'''; the pair of kings is still higher than Carol's pair of tens, so she bets $5 and Carol calls.  Each player now recieves a downcard.  It is still Alice's turn to bet because the downcard did not change either hand.  She checks, Carol bets $10, and Alice calls.
> 
> That closes the last betting round, and both players remain, so there is a showdown.  Alice shows her cards: '''<font color=red>9h 5d</font> 9c <font color=red>Kh</font> Kc 3s 5s'''.  The best five-card poker hand she can play is '''K-K-9-9-5''', making [[Poker/Two pair|two pair]], kings and nines.  Carol shows '''Qs <font color=red>2h Kd</font> Jc <font color=red>10h 10d Ad</font>'''.  She can play '''A-K-Q-J-10''', making an ace-high [[Poker/Straight|straight]], and so Carol wins the pot.
> 
> <h2>Variations</h2>
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987544572
89c89,91
< <i>No, it isn't.  That's always been that way... Clifford put it in there.  I could change the software to make those links into affiliate program links, ad we'd make a little money off of them.  Maybe I should do that?  But, I'm very uncomfortable with any mixing of _content_ and _revenue_.  I don't want people to feel that there's a conflict of interest in the content part of the site.  Ads should be clearly marked and separate from the content, and should not impact the content at all.   That's crucial for the integrity f what we are all working towards here.</i>
---
> <i>No, it isn't.  That's always been that way... Clifford put it in there.  I could change the software to make those links into affiliate program links, ad we'd make a little money off of them.  Maybe I should do that?  But, I'm very uncomfortable with any mixing of _content_ and _revenue_.  I don't want people to feel that there's a conflict of interest in the content part of the site.  Ads should be clearly marked and separate from the content, and should not impact the content at all.   That's crucial for the integrity f what we are all working towards here.</i>
> 
> I doubt commissions off of book sales would be offensive to that many people.  It has become an established custom on the net.  Any link to a book that does not meet standards of topicality would be deleted by random editors.  Links that add value to the content because of their topicality would persist.  Advertising is information and has the potential to be very useful - in a wealthy society with myriads of options we would be lost without mechanisms to make us aware of the options that exist.  The reason advertising is so annoying is because most of the time the information we receive is not wanted, because it is broadcast rather than targeted.  Well-targeted, topical ads, of which book links are a very good example, have legitimate information value.  I know from experience how little money we could hope to make from these links, so making money is not a good reason to add them.  Adding value for site users would be a good reason to add them. - [[TS]]
------
Poker/Community_card|987544591
1c1
< An exposed card that is shared by more than one player (usually all).  For example, if one individual player holds a hand of '''K-7-3-3''' and there is a '''K''' as a community card shared by all players, then that player's hand plays as [[/Two pair]] upon [[/Showdown]], '''K-K-3-3-7'''.  If another player on that same deal with the same shared '''K''' held cards of '''A-Q-J-10''', his hand upon showdown would be the ace-high [[/Straight]]] '''A-K-Q-J-10'''
---
> An exposed card that is shared by more than one player (usually all) is called a '''community card'''.  For example, if one individual player holds a hand of '''K-7-3-3''' and there is a '''K''' as a community card shared by all players, then that player's hand plays as [[/Two pair]] upon [[/Showdown]], '''K-K-3-3-7'''.  If another player on that same deal with the same shared '''K''' held cards of '''A-Q-J-10''', his hand upon showdown would be the ace-high [[/Straight]] '''A-K-Q-J-10'''
3c3
< Often several community cards are dealt to the table, shared by all players, and subject to variant-specific rules about how many and which of the cards may be used in each player's hand.  Such a set of community cards is often called a "board".  For example, the game [[/Texas holdem]] ends with each player holding two cards in his individual hand, and a board of five community cards shared by everyone.  Each player then plays the best five-card hand he can make out of the two in his hand combined with the five he shares.  In [[/Omaha holdem]], game rules restrict players to using exactly three (no more and no fewer) of the five community cards combined with exactly two of the four cards dealt to each player to make a hand.
---
> Often several community cards are dealt to the table, shared by all players, and subject to variant-specific rules about how many and which of the cards may be used in each player's hand.  Such a set of community cards is often called a "board".  For example, the game [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] ends with each player holding two cards in his individual hand, and a board of five community cards shared by everyone.  Each player then plays the best five-card hand he can make out of the two in his hand combined with the five he shares.  In [[/Omaha holdem]], game rules restrict players to using exactly three (no more and no fewer) of the five community cards combined with exactly two of the four cards dealt to each player to make a hand.
5c5
< [[Community card poker]] games can be strategically interesting because shared cards often give players hands of similar value.  For example, when the five community cards on a Texas hold'em board include four of one suit, any player with a card of that suit in his hand can play a [[/Flush]] (but the one with the highest-ranking card of that suit is likely to win).
---
> [[Community card poker]] games are often strategically interesting because shared cards can give players hands of similar value.  For example, when the five community cards on a Texas hold'em board include four of one suit, any player with a card of that suit in his hand can play a [[/Flush]] (but the one with the highest-ranking card of that suit is likely to have the best flush and win).
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987544791
1c1
< Josh,
---
> (I am taking a risk here and I deleted most of the previous commentary, because I don't think it has lasting importance.  We're just gently fussing here.)
3c3,4
< First off, no offense intended here, please take these remarks in a kind spirit.  I'm writing over here, because my browser is getting mad at me when I try to edit the long talk pages, and I have a lot to say.  :-)
---
> To Joshua: I just realized in writing about RoseParks essay on 
> Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk, that attribution can solve a great many woes.  In this way, the Wikipedia avoids many difficult to resolve arguments of the type we have been discussing on this page.
5,32c6
< ''None taken.  Probably those pages should be refactored, but in general it's a bad idea to refactor dialogues you were part of, and I suspect nobody wants to get anything on their hands.''
< 
< Whenever I read something by you about economics (see for example the [[Socialism/Talk]] and [[Capitalism/Talk]] debates), I feel the same way that I imagine biologists must feel when they read the works of naive but well-meaning people who are supportive of "Scientific Creationism".  Quite frankly, you don't know what you are talking about, and you appear to have been influenced by sources that are highly ideological and politically motivated.
< 
< ''Well, I do know some of what I am talking about. :) I have not read any of the economic literature, but I have read a fair bit of the historic - and very little of it has been leftist rhetoric as far as I can tell.  So opinions are my own, and I'm not ignorant of how things work.  The main disputed point from what I can tell is explained below.''
< 
< Questions like "Does Socialism Work?" have a consensus scientific answer, even if there are some lingering doubts among the politically or ideologically motivated.  To study the question seriously requires serious science, not casual observations grounded in bad reasoning.
< 
< ''Well, first of all I'm not entirely sure how one decides who is politically motivated.  Calling an argument socialist is sufficient denouncement in the US, less so here, but from what I understand isn't too much of an insult at all in Europe.  Such things give me the strong impression that things aren't nearly unanimous as claimed.  Indeed for instance I have seen you dismiss Chomsky (who I understand is strong left, but I don't know what he says) while others have acclaimed him.''
< 
< ''But in any case I would not try and push anything I am so unsure about on an encyclopedia, and if you look at [[Socialism/Talk]] you will note I did not.  When I said socialism conclusively works I gave examples, notably Sweden which is for whatever reason often called a "democratic socialism", and I argued precisely so long as people tried to refute fact with theory (which can't be done).  When it was finally pointed out that the use of the term in this case is a misnomer I stopped.''
< 
< ''Does this seem like a fair way to approach things?  Now for instance I would still claim that a centralized economy works fine for predominantly agricultural economies, because of the example of Mycenae.  Industrial economies are disputable and I would not go against consensus on them - although as stated I suspect there is more valid opposition then claimed.''
< 
< Scientists no longer need to take seriously (except when they are explaining themselves to the public) the more base claims of the religionists who are uncomfortable with the facts of evolution. 
< Similarly, economists no longer need to seriously ask whether centralized control of an economy "works" in any serious sense.  The facts are in.  The theory and evidence are in accord, and only minor points remain for debate.
< 
< What is capitalism?  How is the term used, both by members of the public and professional economists?  Should we use that definition, or should we use one that comes straight out of leftist propaganda?
< 
< What I think we should do, in these cases, is to attempt to balance a few competing concerns.  First, we should not use an idiosyncratic (unpopular) definition as our primary definition, even if it is conceptually more clear.  I think that Tim may disagree with me on this point, but I think that concerns of exposition outweigh concerns of philosophical correctness.  (I can discuss this further.)  Second, we should avoid definitions which are grounded in a particular political perspective, in favor of definitions that are conceptually more clear and/or more popular.
< 
< Definitions of controversial terms should
< --seek to respect and clarify popular usage
< --be conceptually clear
< --avoid bias
< --either be used by professionals, or be simplifications of definitions used by professionals
< 
< This is not an exhaustive list, obviously.
---
> ----
34c8
< I don't think you'll disagree with those principles.
---
> I left this part of the original page, because it hadn't gotten a response yet.
36c10
< ''Not at all, I am trying to expound those principles.  The definition I am asking for is clearly that found in most sources and that used by economic historians, and I think it is perfectly clear conceptually.  The thing is that it refers to a different concept than the variate Tim is using.''
---
> ''Something you people are definitely ignoring, though, is that Russia did fare better under the soviets than before or after.  The czars presided over an agricultural economy, and capitalism has accomplished sufficiently little that many wish to return to the old system, although to be fair it hasn't had much chance yet.  Yet under the first few decades of soviet rule the country was industrialized and pushed to a world power status never before enjoyed.  Such a system may have been doomed to collapse, and certainly proved unable to support a massively overdone military program like the US had, but you have to admit has ran better than par.''
38c12
< ''Bias is a harder issue to deal with, since the sense given supposedly originated (along with the word) in the writings of Marx.  To this I would state that both capitalism and socialism are terms lumping fairly different systems together, and as noone has complained about the latter noone should complain about the former; in both cases the grouping is justified because all the systems share common characteristics, namely the basis of ownership.  Now it may be that such a primary split reflects a word view peculiar to Marx, but that is what the words mean, and as stated a different split should use different words.  Yet certainly none of the sources checked felt it necessary to use a different system, and they are clearly not Marxist.''
---
> <b>I personally am not ignoring anything.  I'm talking about a very wide scientific consensus.  If I had to personally respond, I would say that the movement from totalitarian dictatorship under the Tzars to totalitarian dictatorship under the Soviets was much worse for the millions of people murdered by that regime, and that the growth in prosperity during the reign of the Soviets was due solely to technological gains in the West.  If the Soviet Union had been a free country for all those years, just think how much better off we would all be today.
40c14
< But for me to sit still while an entry on socialism fails to note that <i>socialism doesn't work</i>, would be as remiss as it would be for you to sit still while an entry on creation science fails to not that <i>creationism is not scientific</i>.
---
> And calling the current system of the former USSR "capitalism" is just a terrible, terrible stretch.  I wouldn't even call it capitalistic, really.  Freedom is still just a dream to the people there.
42,54c16
< You may feel that advocacy of socialism and advocacy of creation science are not comparable, but that's the scientific consensus, and we have to respect that. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< ----
< For reasons that sociologists know well, primarily the inability of any central authority to possess adequate information about all markets and users, and the fact that people stultify or rebel when denied freedom of choice, socialism ''on a macro scale'' does not work.  It has been seen to work famously on a ''micro'' scale, not exceeding a few thousand souls, especially when these souls all see eye to eye on a single, unifying political or religious ideology.  The unifying ideology means that this small knot of people (say, a kibbutz for instance) are already exercising freedom of choice by participating in the socialistic economy.  So, to just state flatly that it does not work may overstate the point a tad...
< ----
< Well, I don't even agree on this, but all-in-all, I would say that this is mostly irrelevant to a general discussion.  The question is whether or not systems of centralized political control have faired better (under some broad measures of economic well-being) or worse, after controlling for other relevant variables, with or without a price system generated by individual freedom to trade. -- ''Adressed below''
< 
< Even small groups who agree on many things, would fare better economically under a system which permits people to register preferences via a price system.  There isn't really any realistic alternative to this.  One thing that should be noted, of course: if the goal is _not_ prosperity, then certainly an authoritarian political system can achieve other things quite nicely.
< 
< But that is not what is usually meant.
< ----
< The economic argument against socialism is that there is no mechanism in a socialist economy to encourage the economically efficient use of resources, that is, the use of resources in a way that maximizes value.  This is true because there is no way to calculate value, due to the absense of meaningful prices which can only be determined in a market.  In a 'socialist experiment' this problem is dodged by trading with market economies and thereby obtaining price information indirectly.  Socialist planners could also simply observe conditions in market economies and make rough estimates for setting their own domestic prices.  These techniques would not be efficient compared to market economies, but they could be efficient enough to make it appear as if the system 'worked'.  However, if there were no market economies to borrow price signals from, then we would expect the system to collapse for the theoretical reasons given above (Albania and China during the Cultural Revolution seem illustrative here) regardless of how macro or micro the system was. -TS
< ----
< ''Something you people are definitely ignoring, though, is that Russia did fare better under the soviets than before or after.  The czars presided over an agricultural economy, and capitalism has accomplished sufficiently little that many wish to return to the old system, although to be fair it hasn't had much chance yet.  Yet under the first few decades of soviet rule the country was industrialized and pushed to a world power status never before enjoyed.  Such a system may have been doomed to collapse, and certainly proved unable to support a massively overdone military program like the US had, but you have to admit has ran better than par.''
---
> But, nevertheless, in forming general statements, we have to be led by the overall trend, appropriately qualified.  Uniformly, more freedom is better for prosperity, <i>ex ante</i>.  Perhaps the US would be wealthier in the short run if we made some brilliant person dictator of the economy (oh, we have, Greenspan ;-)), but that doesn't make the system better off.  Sometimes people play Russian Roulette and don't die... doesn't make it a good strategy for survival.</b>
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987544967
91a92,93
> 
> ''I agree, and these would be totally inoffensive if the words "Amazon" and "Pricescan" did not appear in the article itself.  But if the ISBN simply appeared as a link, linking to a local page describing an affiliate program where one could buy the book, that would be useful and totally appropriate.  In fact, I'd rather have the affiliate program link than have the advertising appear in the text.'' --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Encyclopedia_and_or_versus_dictionary|987545336
3a4,6
> 
> One cost is that I think that short dictionary-like entries "scratch an itch" prematurely.  That is, having no page will provoke someone to write one.  Having a too-short page, with just a definition, will not provoke someone to write more.  This is just a theory, which I offer without empirical evidence of any kind.  :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
27c30
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Texas_holdem|987546593
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Described by [[Doyle Brunson]] as "The Cadillac of poker games", '''Texas hold'em''' is now the most popular [[poker variant]] played in [[casino]]s in the western [[United States]], and the game played by the final event of the [[World Series of Poker]], widely recognized as the world championship of the game.  It is commonly played in the rest of the world as well, but [[Seven-card stud]] and other local games may be more popular in some places.  It is generally played with 2 to 10 players, but can be played with more (theoretically 23, but beyond 12 players the size of the table is the limiting factor).
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use two [[Poker/Blind|blind]]s, one for half of the first-round betting limit and one for a full bet.  The limit for the third and fourth betting rounds is generally double that of the first two rounds.  It is also not uncommon for the fourth bet to be larger still, and for the big blind to be less than the normal first-round bet, in which case it is treated the same way a sub-minimum [[Poker/Bring-in|bring-in]] is treated in [[stud poker]].  [[Poker/Ante|Ante]]s may be used instead of or in addition to blinds.  Most "live" games are played [[Poker/Fixed limit|fixed limit]], while many [[Poker/Tournament|tournament]]s (including the above mentioned World Series championship event) are played [[Poker/No limit|no limit]].
> 
> Play begins with each player being deal two cards face down.  A first "pre-flop" betting round now happens, beginning with the player to the left of the big blind (or the dealer, if no blinds are used).  Now the dealer deals a [[burn card]], followed by three face-up [[Poker/Community card|community card]]s called the "flop", followed by a second betting round.  Now a burn card and single comunity card called the "turn" are dealt, followed by a third betting round.  Finally, a burn and a single community card called the "river" are dealt, followed by a fourth betting round and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if more than one player remain.  On showdown, each player plays the best five-card [[Poker/Hands|hand]] he can make from the two in his own hand and the five community cards.
> 
> <h2>Sample deal</h2>
> 
> <h2>Variations</h2>
------
Poker/Blind|987546932
9c9,12
< The most common use of blinds as a betting structure calls for two blinds: the player after the dealer blinds about half of what would be a normal bet, and the next player blinds what would be a whole bet.  One blind is also used, as is three.  In the case of three blinds (usually one quarter, one quater, and half a normal bet amount), the first blind goes "on the button", that is, is paid by the dealer.
---
> The most common use of blinds as a betting structure calls for two blinds: the player after the dealer blinds about half of what would be a normal bet, and the next player blinds what would be a whole bet.  Sometimes only one blind is used, and sometimes three.  In the case of three blinds (usually one quarter, one quater, and half a normal bet amount), the first blind goes "on the button", that is, is paid by the dealer.
> 
> In some [[/Fixed limit]] and [[/Spread limit]] games the big blind amount is less than the normal betting minimum.   Players acting after a sub-minimum blind have to the right to call the blind as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called '''completing''' the bet.  For example, a game with a $5 fixed bet on the first round might have blinds of $1 and $2.  Players acting after the blind may either call the $2, or raise to $5.  After the bet is raised to $5, the next raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.
> 
------
Poker/Bring-in|987547034
5,7c5
< In most [[/Fixed-limit]] and some [[/Spread-limit]] games the bring-in amount is less than the normal betting minimum.  The player forced to pay the bring-in may choose either to pay only what is required or to make a normal bet.  Players acting after a sub-minimum bring-in have to the right to call the bring-in as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called '''completing''' the bet.  For example, a game with a $5 fixed bet on the first round might have a bring-in of $2.  Players acting after the bring-in can either call the $2, or raise to $5.  After the bet is raised to $5, the next raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.
< 
< In a game where the bring-in is equal to the fixed bet (this is rare and not recommended), the game must either allow the bring-in player to optionally come in for a raise, or else the bring-in must be treated as '''live''' in the same way as a [[/Blind]].
---
> In most [[/Fixed limit]] and some [[/Spread limit]] games the bring-in amount is less than the normal betting minimum.  The player forced to pay the bring-in may choose either to pay only what is required or to make a normal bet.  Players acting after a sub-minimum bring-in have to the right to call the bring-in as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called '''completing''' the bet.  For example, a game with a $5 fixed bet on the first round might have a bring-in of $2.  Players acting after the bring-in can either call the $2, or raise to $5.  After the bet is raised to $5, the next raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.
8a7
> In a game where the bring-in is equal to the fixed bet (this is rare and not recommended), the game must either allow the bring-in player to optionally come in for a raise, or else the bring-in must be treated as '''live''' in the same way as a [[/Blind]], so that the player is guaranteed his right to raise on the first betting round if he chooses.
------
Computing|987547604
14a15,18
> *** [[Speech]] ?? is that right ??
> *** [[Trackball]]
> *** [[Joystick]]
> *** [[Joypad]]
------
Poker|987547721
3c3
< The basic rules of the game include [[/Game play]], [[/Hands]], and [[/Betting structure]].  Some knowledge of the [[/Equipment]] used to play is useful.  There are also many [[/Variants]] or poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games.  The most commonly played games of the first three categories are [[Five-card draw]], [[Seven-card stud]], and [[Texas holdem]]; each of these makes a good starting point for learning games of the type.
---
> The basic rules of the game include [[/Game play]], [[/Hands]], and [[/Betting structure]].  Some knowledge of the [[/Equipment]] used to play is useful.  There are also many [[/Variants]] or poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games.  The most commonly played games of the first three categories are [[Five-card draw]], [[Seven-card stud]], and [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]]; each of these makes a good starting point for learning games of the type.
17c17
< Poker [[/Tournament]]s such as the [[World Series of Poker]] are often [[/Tournament organization|organized]] by casinos and cardrooms, and have their own [[/Tournament strategy|strategy]] and [[/Tournament rules|rules]].
---
> Poker [[/Tournament]]s such as the [[World Series of Poker]] are often organized by casinos and cardrooms, and have their own strategy and rules.  See [[Poker tournament strategy]].
19c19
< Poker has a large and growing [[/Jargon]].
---
> Poker has a large and growing [[Poker jargon|jargon]].
25d24
< 
------
Encyclopedia_and_or_versus_dictionary|987547769
30a31,36
> ----
> A fundamental restriction on encyclopedias is a lack of space for short entries.  Is a 40 word biography of someone a biographical dictionary article or an encyclopedia article?
> 
> Wiki should not suffer from a sprinkling of dictionary like stub entries.  Eventually, many of them will bloom into full entries.  
> 
> Maybe the correct tact is to enter the basic stub/dictionary entry and one or two questions which should eventually provoke a larger article.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987547860
89c89
< <i>No, it isn't.  That's always been that way... Clifford put it in there.  I could change the software to make those links into affiliate program links, ad we'd make a little money off of them.  Maybe I should do that?  But, I'm very uncomfortable with any mixing of _content_ and _revenue_.  I don't want people to feel that there's a conflict of interest in the content part of the site.  Ads should be clearly marked and separate from the content, and should not impact the content at all.   That's crucial for the integrity f what we are all working towards here.</i>
---
> <i>No, it isn't.  That's always been that way... Clifford put it in there.  I could change the software to make those links into affiliate program links, ad we'd make a little money off of them.  Maybe I should do that?  But, I'm very uncomfortable with any mixing of _content_ and _revenue_.  I don't want people to feel that there's a conflict of interest in the content part of the site.  Ads should be clearly marked and separate from the content, and should not impact the content at all.   That's crucial for the integrity of what we are all working towards here.</i>
93a94,97
> 
> :I generally agree with the ideas above.  The ISBN links go to booksellers because they are the best free source of information I could find for the links.  Originally I intended to allow the user to select where the ISBN link points to, but its a low-priority feature request.  One problem to consider with affiliate programs is that they are often exclusive--not what one would want in an encyclopedia.
> 
> :Perhaps a short-term simple fix would be to change the names of the additional links to "alternate" (for Amazon) and "search" (for pricewatch).  In fact, I just now made that change for the next UseModWiki release (0.92)--I was always uneasy about the "Amazon" text since I'm personally boycotting them.  --CliffordAdams
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987548140
97a98,99
> 
> Just in case someone doesn't know what boycott is Clifford talking about, see http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/amazon.html
------
Medicine|987548335
26c26
< ** ....
---
> ** [[Neurology]]
54c54
< * [[infectious diseases]]
---
> * [[infectious diseases]]
------
Medicine|987548605
54a55,59
> * [[neurologic diseases]]
>          [[neuromyotonia]]
>          [[stroke]] 
> 
> 
------
Encyclopedia_and_or_versus_dictionary|987549032
36c36,45
< Maybe the correct tact is to enter the basic stub/dictionary entry and one or two questions which should eventually provoke a larger article.
---
> Maybe the correct tact is to enter the basic stub/dictionary entry and one or two questions which should eventually provoke a larger article.
> ----
> Some stub articles will start out looking like dictionary definitions.
> 
> Many full encyclopedia articles will contain multiple words and phrases which are unfamiliar to the ordinary guy.  In such a case, an explanation of the word (be it definition or whatever) should be linked to, independent of the main body of the text to that you don't ruin the flow of an article with continual interruptions to explain yourself, and yet don't make the reader leave wikipedia to find out what the hell you just said.  Some of these word explanations may themselves grow to full articles in time.  If they don't, it will be for only one reason: there is no call for such an article, and you would never find it in any other regular encyclopedia, either.
> 
> Trying to stop people from writing definitions serves no useful purpose.  It is disingenous to imply that a project which contains some word definitions alongside thousands of fully developed encyclopedia articles will somehow be accidentally understood as being a dictionary.
> 
> Take this example from law:  In writing about "nolo contendere," I wind up using the word 'allocute.'  No one is going to get the sepcific legal meaning of that word in its two main senses, without prior education.  So, I link to a new page to explain the word, generating a three-paragraph article.  Guess what?  I checked six on-line ''legal'' dictionaries, three ''English'' language dictionaries, and every encyclopedia I can access online, and the word was not defined or discussed in any of them.  Two online thesaurus' had it.  So, even if I were not able expand discussion of the word into a full article and had to leave it at just a definition, should I have left the word undefined?
> 
------
Neuromyotonia|987549372
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Neuromyotonia is spontaneous muscular activity resulting from repetitive motor unit action potentials of peripheral origin. It develops as a result of both acquired or hereditary diseases. Acquired form is more frequent and is usually caused by antibodies against neuromuscular junction.
> Autoreactive antibodies can be detected in a variety of peripheral (e.g. myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome) and central nervous system (e.g. cerebellar ataxia, paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis) disorders. Their causative role has been established in some of these diseases but not all. Neuromyotonia is considered to be one of these with accumulating evidence for autoimmune origin over the last few years. Some neuromyotonia cases do not only improve after plasma exchange but they may also have antibodies in their serum samples against voltage gated potassium channels. Moreover, these antibodies have been demonstrated to reduce potassium channel function in neuronal cell lines. 
> As a result of muscular hyperactivity patients may present with muscle cramps, myotonia like symptoms, excessive sweating, myokimia and fasciculations. A very small proportion of cases with neuromyotonia may develop central nervous system findings in their clinical course, causing a disorder called Morvan's syndrome and they may also have antibodies against potassium channels in their serum samples. Sleep disorder is only one of a variety of clinical conditions observed in Morvan's syndrome cases ranging from confusion and memory loss to hallucinations and delusions.  
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987550191
31c31,32
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]----
> I don't know what more you want from me. Another place we used this training was the Good Will Games in NYC. If you want a statement from these organizations that they support these guidelines, you will wait a really long time. I, however, offer to remove the pages, because I am very tired of having my work moved and manipulated by pseudo-editors and pseudo-assistant editors, when we don't have any editors at all, that I know of. I will not engage in a p*ssing match with these people, by moving my pages back. Watch for my Wikipedia-Questions You Should Have Asked. This is not directed at you Jimmy.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987550285
36c36
< 5. <b> If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to he comapnion.</b>
---
> 5. <b> If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the comapnion.</b>
------
Texas_holdem|987550363
5c5,7
< Play begins with each player being deal two cards face down.  A first "pre-flop" betting round now happens, beginning with the player to the left of the big blind (or the dealer, if no blinds are used).  Now the dealer deals a [[burn card]], followed by three face-up [[Poker/Community card|community card]]s called the "flop", followed by a second betting round.  Now a burn card and single comunity card called the "turn" are dealt, followed by a third betting round.  Finally, a burn and a single community card called the "river" are dealt, followed by a fourth betting round and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if more than one player remain.  On showdown, each player plays the best five-card [[Poker/Hands|hand]] he can make from the two in his own hand and the five community cards.
---
> Play begins with each player being deal two cards face down.  A first "pre-flop" betting round now happens, beginning with the player to the left of the big blind (or the dealer, if no blinds are used).  Now the dealer deals a [[burn card]], followed by three face-up [[Poker/Community card|community card]]s called the "flop", followed by a second betting round.  This and all subsequent betting rounds begin with the player the dealer's left.  After this round, a burn card and single comunity card called the "turn" are dealt, followed by a third betting round.  Finally, a burn and a single community card called the "river" are dealt, followed by a fourth betting round and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if necessary.  On showdown, each player plays the best five-card [[Poker/Hands|hand]] he can make from the two in his own hand and the five community cards.
> 
> A player need not use any of his own cards: if the best five-card hand he can make is to play the five community cards, then he is said to be '''playing the board''', and is entitled to split the pot with others playing the board if no one has a better hand.  It is common for players to have closely-valued hands.  In particular, [[Poker/Kicker|kicker]]s often are needed to break ties (but one must be careful not to break the only-five-cards rule from [[Poker/Hands]]), straights often split the pot, and multiple flushes may occur (where the ranks of the cards in each flush must be counted carefully to determine a winner).
7a10,15
> 
> The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.  If you cannot read the card suit symbols used below, [[Texas holdem2|this page]] contains the same text using the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to represent suits.
> 
> Bob, to the dealer's left, posts a blind of $1, and Carol blinds $2.  Alice deals two cards face down to each player, beginning with Bob and ending with herself.  David must act first because he is the first player after the big blind.  He cannot check, since the $2 blinds plays as a bet, so he folds.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob puts an additional $1 with his $1 small blind to call the $2 total.  Carol's blind is '''live''' (see [[Poker/Blind]]), so she has the right to raise here, but she checks her option instead, ending the first betting round.
> 
> Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5&spades;'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the <font color=red>9&diams;</font>, making the final board '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>9&diams;</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''A&clubs; 7&clubs;'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Q&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts;</font> K&clubs; Q&spades;''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font>''', making her final hand '''K&clubs; K&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; J&hearts;</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
------
Texas_holdem2|987550489
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Texas hold'em
> 
> Described by [[Doyle Brunson]] as "The Cadillac of poker games", '''Texas hold'em''' is now the most popular [[poker variant]] played in [[casino]]s in the western [[United States]], and the game played by the final event of the [[World Series of Poker]], widely recognized as the world championship of the game.  It is commonly played in the rest of the world as well, but [[Seven-card stud]] and other local games may be more popular in some places.  It is generally played with 2 to 10 players, but can be played with more (theoretically 23, but beyond 12 players the size of the table is the limiting factor).
> 
> The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker/Game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Poker/Hands|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Poker/Betting structure|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use two [[Poker/Blind|blind]]s, one for half of the first-round betting limit and one for a full bet.  The limit for the third and fourth betting rounds is generally double that of the first two rounds.  It is also not uncommon for the fourth bet to be larger still, and for the big blind to be less than the normal first-round bet, in which case it is treated the same way a sub-minimum [[Poker/Bring-in|bring-in]] is treated in [[stud poker]].  [[Poker/Ante|Ante]]s may be used instead of or in addition to blinds.  Most "live" games are played [[Poker/Fixed limit|fixed limit]], while many [[Poker/Tournament|tournament]]s (including the above mentioned World Series championship event) are played [[Poker/No limit|no limit]].
> 
> Play begins with each player being deal two cards face down.  A first "pre-flop" betting round now happens, beginning with the player to the left of the big blind (or the dealer, if no blinds are used).  Now the dealer deals a [[burn card]], followed by three face-up [[Poker/Community card|community card]]s called the "flop", followed by a second betting round.  This and all subsequent betting rounds begin with the player the dealer's left.  After this round, a burn card and single comunity card called the "turn" are dealt, followed by a third betting round.  Finally, a burn and a single community card called the "river" are dealt, followed by a fourth betting round and [[Poker/Showdown|showdown]] if necessary.  On showdown, each player plays the best five-card [[Poker/Hands|hand]] he can make from the two in his own hand and the five community cards.
> 
> A player need not use any of his own cards: if the best five-card hand he can make is to play the five community cards, then he is said to be '''playing the board''', and is entitled to split the pot with others playing the board if no one has a better hand.  It is common for players to have closely-valued hands.  In particular, [[Poker/Kicker|kicker]]s often are needed to break ties (but one must be careful not to break the only-five-cards rule from [[Poker/Hands]]), straights often split the pot, and multiple flushes may occur (where the ranks of the cards in each flush must be counted carefully to determine a winner).
> 
> <h2>Sample deal</h2>
> 
> The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.  The text below uses the letters '''c''', '''d''', '''h''', and '''s''' to represent card suits.  [[Texas holdem|This page]] might be easier to read if your browser can display suit symbols.
> 
> Bob, to the dealer's left, posts a blind of $1, and Carol blinds $2.  Alice deals two cards face down to each player, beginning with Bob and ending with herself.  David must act first because he is the first player after the big blind.  He cannot check, since the $2 blinds plays as a bet, so he folds.  Alice calls the $2.  Bob puts an additional $1 with his $1 small blind to call the $2 total.  Carol's blind is '''live''' (see [[Poker/Blind]]), so she has the right to raise here, but she checks her option instead, ending the first betting round.
> 
> Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5s'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the <font color=red>9d</font>, making the final board '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font> 5s <font color=red>9d</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''Ac 7c'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Qs <font color=red>9h</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9c <font color=red>9d 9h</font> Kc Qs''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''Ks <font color=red>Jh</font>''', making her final hand '''Kc Ks 9c <font color=red>9d Jh</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
> 
> <h2>Variations</h2>
------
Disabilities/Talk|987550518
5c5,6
< Comments about a page, especially when they get very lengthy, are put on "talk" pages like this page.
---
> Comments about a page, especially when they get very lengthy, are put on "talk" pages like this page.----
> 
46c47,48
< Can someone expand on how disabilities are treated differently in different cultures/countries?
---
> Can someone expand on how disabilities are treated differently in different cultures/countries?----
> Do you really want to hear in how many countries they are simply killed or abandoned as children?
------
Texas_holdem2|987550570
17c17
< Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5s'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the <font color=red>9d</font>, making the final board '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font> 5s <font color=red>9d</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''Ac 7c'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Qs <font color=red>9h</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9c <font color=red>9d 9h</font> Kc Qs''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''Ks <font color=red>Jh</font>''', making her final hand '''Kc Ks 9c <font color=red>9d Jh</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
---
> Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5s'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the '''<font color=red>9d</font>''', making the final board '''9c Kc <font color=red>3h</font> 5s <font color=red>9d</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''Ac 7c'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Qs <font color=red>9h</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9c <font color=red>9d 9h</font> Kc Qs''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''Ks <font color=red>Jh</font>''', making her final hand '''Kc Ks 9c <font color=red>9d Jh</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
------
Texas_holdem|987550619
15c15
< Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5&spades;'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the <font color=red>9&diams;</font>, making the final board '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>9&diams;</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''A&clubs; 7&clubs;'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Q&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts;</font> K&clubs; Q&spades;''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font>''', making her final hand '''K&clubs; K&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; J&hearts;</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
---
> Alice now burns a card and deals the "flop" of three face-up community cards, '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font>'''.  On this round as on all subsequent, Bob begins the betting.  He checks, Carol [[Poker/Open|open]]s for $2, and Alice [[Poker/Raise|raise]]s another $2, making the total bet now facing Bob $4.  He calls.  Carol calls, putting in an additional $2.  Alice now burns and deals the "turn" card face up.  It is the '''5&spades;'''.  Bob checks, Carol checks, and Alice checks, ending the round.  After burning, Alice deals the final "river" card of the '''<font color=red>9&diams;</font>''', making the final board '''9&clubs; K&clubs; <font color=red>3&hearts;</font> 5&spades; <font color=red>9&diams;</font>'''.  Bob bets $4, Carol calls, and Alice folds (Alice's holding was '''A&clubs; 7&clubs;'''; she was hoping the river card would be a club to make her a flush).  Bob shows his hand of '''Q&spades; <font color=red>9&hearts;</font>''', so the best five-card hand he can make is '''9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; 9&hearts;</font> K&clubs; Q&spades;''', for three nines, king and queen kickers.  Carol shows her cards of '''K&spades; <font color=red>J&hearts;</font>''', making her final hand '''K&clubs; K&spades; 9&clubs; <font color=red>9&diams; J&hearts;</font>''' for two pair, kings and nines, with a jack kicker.  Bob wins the pot.
------
Disabilities/Talk|987550837
48a49,50
> 
> ''Of course we do!  What could possibly be a better use of an encyclopedia than to shed the harsh light of reality upon the practices of people across the planet so that they can be compared and hopefully changed where needed?''  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Easter|987551272
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday. Easter is partly based on the Jewish [[Pascha]], which commemmorates the [[Exodus]], since it is during this holiday that Jesus was supposed to be resurrected. The days before Easter also are special in the Christian tradition - the Sunday before is [[Palm Easter]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Silent Saturday]]. Palm Easter, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemmorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]].
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday. Easter is partly based on the Jewish <i>Pascha</i>[[Passover]], which commemmorates the [[Exodus]], since it is during this holiday that Jesus was supposed to be resurrected. The days before Easter also are special in the Christian tradition - the Sunday before is [[Palm Easter]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Silent Saturday]]. Palm Easter, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemmorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]].
------
Easter|987551310
3c3
< According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday. Easter is partly based on the Jewish <i>Pascha</i>[[Passover]], which commemmorates the [[Exodus]], since it is during this holiday that Jesus was supposed to be resurrected. The days before Easter also are special in the Christian tradition - the Sunday before is [[Palm Easter]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Silent Saturday]]. Palm Easter, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemmorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]].
---
> According to tradition, Easter, which falls on a Sunday, marks the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]] from the dead and the end of the forty-six days of the [[Lenten Season]], a period of fasting, penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends on Easter. The [[Lenten Season]] really comprises 40 days since the 6 Sundays during this period are excluded from the Lenten fast, and are days that set apart to commemorate Easter Sunday. Easter is partly based on the Jewish <i>Pascha</i>, in English [[Passover]], which commemmorates the [[Exodus]], since it is during this holiday that Jesus was supposed to be resurrected. The days before Easter also are special in the Christian tradition - the Sunday before is [[Palm Easter]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]], [[Good Friday]] and [[Silent Saturday]]. Palm Easter, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemmorate Jesus's entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]].
------
Computing|987551824
24a25
> *** [[Compilers]]
25a27,35
> ** [[Office Programs]]
> *** [[Text Processor]]
> *** [[Spreadsheet]]
> *** [[Data Base]]
> ** [[Graphics Programs]]
> ** [[Editors]]
> ** [[Utilites]]
> ** ...
> 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987551963
32a33,35
> 
> ----
> You clearly misunderstand our intentions here, Rose.  Jim, Larry, I, and I'm sure many others find this to be an accurate and useful piece of text that we want to include here, and have said so consistently.  We have never questioned your expertise in the matter or the value of your contribution.  It also happens to clash with the stated neutrality policy, so we suggested ways to remedy that, notably a simple attribution or introduction that doesn't even have to name names if you don't want to.  Something like "This is a set of rules that have been used successfully at..." would be wonderful.  I really don't understand what the problem is.  Also in accordance with Wikipedia policy, we made direct changes without a second thought, since the concept of "authorship" is rather flexible here.  Perhaps commentary pages placed under the author's name will discourage direct wholesale editing, or we could establish a policy to that effect.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987552515
1c1,2
< #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]]
---
> 
> In a minute I will be trying to edit the commentary page so that everyone will be happy with it here. [[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987552549
2a3,65
> 
> Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of
> the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the able. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and
> respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
> 
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled
> person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not
> want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled
> person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.
> 
> 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also
> includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is
> equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible.
> A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get
> around on his/her own.
> 
> 3. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion. The disabled person is a
> person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and
> talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and
> location, and much more. 
> 
> 4. Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would. Disabled people
> are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I
> mean?"
> 
> 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself. If you are traveling in
> an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where
> there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
> 
> 6. Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way. If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A
> disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting per se. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as
> individuals, just like able people.
> 
> 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different
> disabilities. In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other
> people's disabilies." This is quite true. 
> 
> 
> Alternative Approaches. 
> 
> 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centruies. It has the notable advatages that the family
> is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
> 
> 2. Wait hand and foot on the disabled. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't
> happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal
> society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutonalized..rah.. 
> 
> 3. Ask the disabled nosy questions and stare. This approach has the advantage of learning all the gruesome details of how a disabled
> person became one. Then you can tell them about your operation. Make them know they are special by following them with your eyes
> right until they leave yor range of vision. Watch particlularly how they use alternative means to talk, get around etc. 
> 
> 4, Ignore diabled people. You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are
> different, aren't they. 
> 
> 5. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the comapnion. Consider the tough time such a companion is having.
> Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place- a
> burden on everyone else. 
> 
> 6. If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out. If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind
> them that sharing is important too. 
> 
> 7. Do not use words that refer to senses that the disabled person may not have. If you should forget and use such a word, laugh
> profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are. 
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987552638
35a36,37
> 
> You, sir, are now one of the psuedo-editors I refer to. I suggest that you work on your own content. Who made you class monitor? I have already moved this page to my site. One more word of guidance from you and I will surely delete it. Is that clear? And, I believe I actually misunderstand <b>nothing</b> that is going on here at wikipedia. Maybe, you had better look around you, eyes wide opened. See a small set of self-appointed people who are here almost all day, checking each change for bias, commentary, clarity etc. Gee- I could swear I was writing for Nupedia- funny thing that.
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987552650
0a1
> Disability Etiqutte descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list is based on the 
2d2
< In a minute I will be trying to edit the commentary page so that everyone will be happy with it here. [[Jimbo Wales]]
4,6c4
< Disabiltiy Etiqutte descibes the correct way to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of
< the disabled. These rules are, however, often in conflict with the impulses of the able. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and
< respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
---
> These rules are, however, often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
------
World_Series_of_Poker|987552651
1c1
< The richest and most prestigious [[poker]] tournament in the world is the '''World Series of Poker''', held annually at [[Binions Horseshoe|Binion's Horseshoe]] [[casino]] in [[Las Vegas]], Nevada.  It has been held every year since 1970 (when it had seven entrants), and has grown in popularity since, the 2000 series having 4780 entrants in various events.  
---
> The richest and most prestigious [[poker]] tournament in the world is the '''World Series of Poker''', held annually at [[Binions Horseshoe|Binion's Horseshoe]] [[casino]] in [[Las Vegas]], Nevada.  It has been held every year since 1970 (when it had seven entrants), and has grown in popularity since, the year 2000 series having 4780 entrants in various events.
3c3
< The series consists of many events in different poker games, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event.  The 2001 series will have 25 events held from April 20 to May 18.  The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry No-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas Hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000.  The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's.
---
> The series consists of many events of different [[poker variant]]s, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event.  The 2001 series will have 25 events held from April 20 to May 18.  The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000.  The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's.
9c9
< Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second.  He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw.
---
> Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw poker event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second.  He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw.
11c11
< Players who have won bracelets in a draw game, a stud game, and a community card game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card Chinese poker), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss , and Stu Ungar.
---
> Players who have won bracelets in a [[draw poker]] event, a [[stud poker]] game, and a [[community card poker]] game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card [[Chinese poker]]), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss, and Stu Ungar.
32c32
< * 1983 Tom McEvoy
---
> * 1983 Tom <nowiki>McEvoy</nowiki>
------
Jimbo_Wales|987552859
52c52,53
< I saw that you had added the DNS entries but not the database (or whatever it is) below. [[LinusTolke]]
---
> I saw that you had added the DNS entries but not the database (or whatever it is) below. [[LinusTolke]]----
> Thank you Jimmy, for restoring my page. I was really beginning to blow there. RoseParks
------
Disabilities|987552959
87c87
< please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
---
> [[/Disability Etiquette]]please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
------
Disabilities|987553002
87c87
< [[/Disability Etiquette]]please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
---
> [[/Disability Etiquette]] for discussion please see [[Wikipedia commentary/Disability Etiquette]])
------
Disabilities|987553211
1c1
< A <b>disabiled person</b> is one who has a disability that interferes with their abiltiy to perform one or more activities of everyday living. For example, locomotion, speech, getting dressed, going outside, communicating with others.<br>
---
> A '''disabled''' person is one who has a disability that interferes with his or her abiltiy to perform one or more activities of everyday living.  For example, locomotion, speech, getting dressed, going outside, communicating with others.<br>
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987553246
1c1,3
< Disability Etiqutte descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list is based on the 
---
> Disability Etiqutte descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list (and close variants on it) are widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and is endorsed by a number of organizations.
> (See for example: 
> [http://www.etr.org/NSRC/rcv3n3/etiquette.html United Cerebral Palsy/ Access Americorps]
2a5
> One reason that it is important to read and understand these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
4c7
< These rules are, however, often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Nevertheless, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
---
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.   
6,20c9,11
< 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled
< person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not
< want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled
< person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.
< 
< 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also
< includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is
< equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible.
< A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get
< around on his/her own.
< 
< 3. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion. The disabled person is a
< person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and
< talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and
< location, and much more. 
---
> 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.  (See #1 on UCPA list.)
> 
> 3. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion. The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more. (See #2 on UCPA list.)
23,24c14
< are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I
< mean?"
---
> are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?" (See #7 on UCPA list.)
26,32c16
< 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself. If you are traveling in
< an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where
< there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
< 
< 6. Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way. If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A
< disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting per se. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as
< individuals, just like able people.
---
> 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself. If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
34,36c18
< 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different
< disabilities. In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other
< people's disabilies." This is quite true. 
---
> 6. Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way. If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting per se. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.
37a20,21
> 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different
> disabilities. In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.  (See #3 and #8 on UCPA list for similar ideas.)
39c23
< Alternative Approaches. 
---
> Alternative Approaches.  These are somewhat sarcastic in tone, primarily as an exercise to get you to think about what has been done wrong in the past and/or how your first impulses might be mistaken. 
41,42c25
< 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centruies. It has the notable advatages that the family
< is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
---
> 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centruies. It has the notable advatages that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
44,46c27
< 2. Wait hand and foot on the disabled. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't
< happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal
< society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutonalized..rah.. 
---
> 2. Wait hand and foot on the disabled. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutonalized..rah.. 
48,50c29
< 3. Ask the disabled nosy questions and stare. This approach has the advantage of learning all the gruesome details of how a disabled
< person became one. Then you can tell them about your operation. Make them know they are special by following them with your eyes
< right until they leave yor range of vision. Watch particlularly how they use alternative means to talk, get around etc. 
---
> 3. Ask the disabled nosy questions and stare. This approach has the advantage of learning all the gruesome details of how a disabled person became one. Then you can tell them about your operation. Make them know they are special by following them with your eyes right until they leave yor range of vision. Watch particlularly how they use alternative means to talk, get around etc. 
56,57c35
< Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place- a
< burden on everyone else. 
---
> Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place- a burden on everyone else. 
59,60c37
< 6. If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out. If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind
< them that sharing is important too. 
---
> 6. If a disabed person has an assistive device, take it and try it out. If they should fall or walk into a tree that way, well, remind them that sharing is important too. 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987553478
2,3c2,6
< (See for example: 
< [http://www.etr.org/NSRC/rcv3n3/etiquette.html United Cerebral Palsy/ Access Americorps]
---
> 
> (See these examples: 
> 
> :[http://www.etr.org/NSRC/rcv3n3/etiquette.html United Cerebral Palsy/ Access Americorps]
> :[http://www.easter-seals.org/resources/disabili.asp Easter Seals]
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987553526
3c3
< (See these examples: 
---
> See these examples of similar lists: 
------
RoseParks|987553651
27a28,34
> 
> ---
> 
> On this Etiquette page, I'm looking for examples from around the net of similar lists.  As you indicated in a comment, these rules of etiquette aren't really controversial, they are all over the place 'upteenth' times, in slightly different forms.
> 
> I think people might still be unhappy with the "Alternative Approaches" section, so maybe there's a way to tone it down?
> I tried to NOT tone it down, but to frame it with an explanation of why it has the tone it does -- to provoke thought.  I don't know if that's the right thing to do, though.
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987553790
6a7
> :[http://home.mem.net/~mcil/mcil/etiqu01.htm Memphis Center for Independent Living]
------
Gun|987553830
28c28
< See also: [[Gun law]], [[Saturday-night special]], [[Assault rifle]].
---
> See also: [[Gun law]], [[Saturday-night special]], [[Assault rifle]], [[Gun safety]].
------
Jews|987554202
5c5
< Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of [[Israel]]. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered [[Jerusalem]] (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
---
> Many Jews around the world are descended from the ancient Israelites (also known as Hebrews), a part-Semitic people that settled in the land of [[Israel]]. A kingship was established under Saul and continued under David and Solomon. King David conquered [[Jerusalem]] (first a Canaanite, then a Jebusite town) and made it his capital. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the south) and Judah (in the north). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early 6th century BCE. The Judahites were exiled to Babylonia, but later many returned to their homeland, henceforth known as Judea. An independent Jewish kingdom led by the Hasmonaean Dynasty existed between 165 and 63 BCE. This was followed by a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule. In 66 CE Judeans began to revolt against against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was smashed by the Roman emperors Vespasian and Titus. The Romans conquered the Temple in Jerusalem and stole the holy menorah. Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea. After 135 CE, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem.
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987554204
1c1
< Disability Etiqutte descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list (and close variants on it) are widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and is endorsed by a number of organizations.
---
> Disability Etiquette descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list (and close variants on it) is widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and is endorsed by a number of organizations.
11c11
< 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes-don't just drive in and help.   
---
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes--don't just dive in and help.   
13c13
< 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals, like seeing-eyed dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To do so is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm, without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around, without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.  (See #1 on UCPA list.)
---
> 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals such as seeing-eye dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To touch it is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.  (See #1 on UCPA list.)
17,18c17
< 4. Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would. Disabled people
< are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or " Do you see what I mean?" (See #7 on UCPA list.)
---
> 4. Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would. Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or "Do you see what I mean?" (See #7 on UCPA list.)
20c19
< 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive, him/herself. If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
---
> 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive him/herself. If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
24c23
< 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or can not do, based on steroetypes, you may hold, of different
---
> 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or cannot do based on stereotypes you may hold of different
29c28
< 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centruies. It has the notable advatages that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
---
> 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centuries. It has the notable advatages that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
31c30
< 2. Wait hand and foot on the disabled. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutonalized..rah.. 
---
> 2. Wait hand and foot on the disabled. This approach has the advantage that you can resolve some of your own guilt that this didn't happen to you. Also you can keep a disabled person quite dependent this way. That assures that they won't try to intrude on normal society . Hey, this approach might lead to their eventual institutionalization!
35,36c34
< 4, Ignore diabled people. You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are
< different, aren't they. 
---
> 4, Ignore diabled people. You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different, aren't they? 
38,39c36
< 5. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the comapnion. Consider the tough time such a companion is having.
< Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place- a burden on everyone else. 
---
> 5. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the companion. Consider the tough time such a companion is having. Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place--a burden on everyone else. 
43,44c40
< 7. Do not use words that refer to senses that the disabled person may not have. If you should forget and use such a word, laugh
< profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are. 
---
> 7. Do not use words that refer to senses that the disabled person may not have. If you should forget and use such a word, laugh profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are. 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987554385
28c28
< 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centuries. It has the notable advatages that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
---
> 1. Hide disabled people from the public This has been a popular approach for centuries. It has the notable advantage that the family is not embarassed by the disabilities of the family member, which may make that member look less than normal. 
------
Gun_safety|987554858
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While there are many different sets of "rules" of gun safety, some of them quite long, there is a general consensus among prominent firearms instructors that the following list of the cardinal 4 rules are primary.  This list is endorsed by such prominent gun experts as [[Jeff Cooper]] (who originated these rules), [[Masaad Ayoob]], [[Clint Smith]], [[Chuck Taylor]], and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
> 
> #1.  Treat all guns as if they are loaded.
> 
> #2.  Never let the muzzle of a gun point at anything you do not want to destroy.
> 
> #3.  Keep your finger off the trigger until you are ready to fire.
> 
> #4.  Be absolutely sure of your target and what is around and beyond your target.
> 
> Rule #1 is often modified to a more extreme version, to hammer home the essential point: "All guns are always loaded."  Gun enthusiasts generally act this way at all times.  People who are inexperienced with guns often violate this rule, thinking that since the gun is unloaded it is safe to "play" with it.  That's only true if the gun is <i>really</i> unloaded, and because human error is often the foremost factor in gun accidents, it is safer to make the extreme assumption.
> 
> Rule #2 applies to both loaded and unload weapons.  Remember rule #1.  Even when your gun is unloaded, and you know it is unloaded, you should carry it in such a fashion that the gun still doesn't point at anything you aren't willing to destroy.
> 
> Rule #3 is violated frequently by police and criminals in movies and television programs.  But properly trained police officers will only place their finger on the trigger when it is time to fire.  The time that it takes to slip the finger to the trigger is miniscule, as compared to the high degree of safety obtained by following this rule.  Modern guns never simply "go off".  It takes a finger on the trigger.
> 
> Rule #4 is self-explanatory.  You must know not only what you are shooting at, but what is beyond it and near it.  In some emergency situations (a hostage crisis) it might be necessary to take a risky shot -- but you must <i>know</i> what you are doing first, to be safe.
> 
> ----
> 
> Additionally, there are 4 rules of gun safety which can be taught to all children who are too young to learn to properly handle a weapon.
> 
> Stop!  Don't Touch. Leave the area.  Tell an adult.
------
Gun_safety|987555035
3c3
< #1.  Treat all guns as if they are loaded.
---
> #Treat all guns as if they are loaded.
5c5
< #2.  Never let the muzzle of a gun point at anything you do not want to destroy.
---
> #Never let the muzzle of a gun point at anything you do not want to destroy.
7c7
< #3.  Keep your finger off the trigger until you are ready to fire.
---
> #Keep your finger off the trigger until you are ready to fire.
9c9
< #4.  Be absolutely sure of your target and what is around and beyond your target.
---
> #Be absolutely sure of your target and what is around and beyond your target.
23c23,27
< Stop!  Don't Touch. Leave the area.  Tell an adult.
---
> Stop!  Don't Touch. Leave the area.  Tell an adult.
> 
> ----
> 
> /Talk
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987555232
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I almost put this link on the main page, but I realized that it might be construed as an inappropriate political statement.  (And it would be, I admit!)
> 
> [
> http://www.2ampd.net/Articles/difiElitist.htm Here is a photo] of [[Diane Feinstein]], a noted advocate of strict gun control, violating the safety rule about keeping your finger off the trigger.  One might suppose that an anti-gun Senator might be forgiven for not knowing much about guns, but Feinstein holds a California permit for concealed carry of a handgun (she is reported to carry a .38 special), which generally requires one to take an extensive course on gun safety.  There is virtually no chance that she was not taught the finger-on-the-trigger rule.
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987555260
3,4c3
< [
< http://www.2ampd.net/Articles/difiElitist.htm Here is a photo] of [[Diane Feinstein]], a noted advocate of strict gun control, violating the safety rule about keeping your finger off the trigger.  One might suppose that an anti-gun Senator might be forgiven for not knowing much about guns, but Feinstein holds a California permit for concealed carry of a handgun (she is reported to carry a .38 special), which generally requires one to take an extensive course on gun safety.  There is virtually no chance that she was not taught the finger-on-the-trigger rule.
---
> [http://www.2ampd.net/Articles/difiElitist.htm Here is a photo] of [[Diane Feinstein]], a noted advocate of strict gun control, violating the safety rule about keeping your finger off the trigger.  One might suppose that an anti-gun Senator might be forgiven for not knowing much about guns, but Feinstein holds a California permit for concealed carry of a handgun (she is reported to carry a .38 special), which generally requires one to take an extensive course on gun safety.  There is virtually no chance that she was not taught the finger-on-the-trigger rule.
------
BruceMiller|987555589
1a2,5
> 
> If you will email the image to me, I will put it on the server. A t some point, we'll invent some easy image uploading capability.  Copyright violations become a much more serious problem with images, though.  So until we ponder that for awhile, we can just do this on a simple ad-hoc basis.
> 
> We probably shouldn't link to outside images, if for no other reason than the unreliability of other hosts.
------
Gun_safety|987555919
1c1
< While there are many different sets of "rules" of gun safety, some of them quite long, there is a general consensus among prominent firearms instructors that the following list of the cardinal 4 rules are primary.  This list is endorsed by such prominent gun experts as [[Jeff Cooper]] (who originated these rules), [[Masaad Ayoob]], [[Clint Smith]], [[Chuck Taylor]], and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
---
> While there are many different sets of "rules" of gun safety, some of them quite long, there is a general consensus among prominent firearms instructors that the following list of the cardinal four rules are primary.  This list is endorsed by such prominent gun experts as [[Jeff Cooper]] (who originated these rules), [[Masaad Ayoob]], [[Clint Smith]], [[Chuck Taylor]], and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
4d3
< 
6d4
< 
8d5
< 
21c18
< Additionally, there are 4 rules of gun safety which can be taught to all children who are too young to learn to properly handle a weapon.
---
> Additionally, there are four rules of gun safety which can be taught to all children who are too young to learn to properly handle a weapon.
27c24
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
MariahCarey|987556701
1c1,4
< Woman with a beautiful voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Sings pop music.
---
> HAI MY NAME IS DORA CARRILLO I NIDE IFORMETION ABAUT YOU.
> MARIAH CAREY BECUAS I EM DUIN A SCHOOL PROIYET ABAUT YOU.
> PLES I NIDE INFOR MATION.
> TANCKYOU PLEIS CALLME AT [509]662 2079
3,5c6,9
< Most famous songs:
< * Vision of love
< * Emotions
---
> 
> 
> 
> YOU ARE COOL
------
MariahCarey|987558001
1,4c1
< HAI MY NAME IS DORA CARRILLO I NIDE IFORMETION ABAUT YOU.
< MARIAH CAREY BECUAS I EM DUIN A SCHOOL PROIYET ABAUT YOU.
< PLES I NIDE INFOR MATION.
< TANCKYOU PLEIS CALLME AT [509]662 2079
---
> Woman with a beautiful voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Sings pop music.
6,9c3,5
< 
< 
< 
< YOU ARE COOL
---
> Most famous songs:
> * Vision of love
> * Emotions
------
BruceMiller|987561619
1a2,3
> ------
> [[JimboWales]] wrote:
3c5
< If you will email the image to me, I will put it on the server. A t some point, we'll invent some easy image uploading capability.  Copyright violations become a much more serious problem with images, though.  So until we ponder that for awhile, we can just do this on a simple ad-hoc basis.
---
> If you will email the image<font size=+1 color=red><sub>''1''</sub></font> to me, I will put it on the server. At some point, we'll invent some easy image uploading capability.  Copyright violations become a much more serious problem with images, though.  So until we ponder that for awhile, we can just do this on a simple ad-hoc basis.
5c7,14
< We probably shouldn't link to outside images, if for no other reason than the unreliability of other hosts.
---
> We probably shouldn't link to outside images, if for no other reason than the unreliability<font size=+1 color=red><sub>''2''</sub></font> of other hosts.
> ------
> BruceMiller wrote:
> 
> ''1'' Do you mean the photo on the [[Crokinole]] page? Delighted to comply. Or feel free to simply download it directly. It currently lives in my angelfire image midden. I hereby release the picture into the public domain: "go little photo..."
> 
> ''2'' I agree.
> ------
------
Linux|987561776
1c1
< A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]].  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]] and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop and computer standards.
---
> A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]] in an attempt to provide a free Minix operating system that ran on [[Intel]] 386 processors.  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]] and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop and computer standards. 
3c3
< Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures.
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. Often, Windows users can migrate easily to Linux if they use desktop manages like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]].
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Linux|987561973
3c3
< Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. Often, Windows users can migrate easily to Linux if they use desktop manages like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]].
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
------
BruceMiller|987562102
1c1
< New [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]].
---
> New [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]. Wiki [[Nupedians|Nupedian]]
------
Linux|987562103
3c3
< Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[World Wide Web|WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
------
Jmlynch|987562164
3c3
< Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of Arizona State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], I have shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include [[Victorian]] responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "[[Argument from Design]]" as "[[Intelligent Design Theory]]". 
---
> Lecturer with Barrett Honors College of [[Arizona]] State University, and an Affiliate Professor with the Institute of Human Origins. Trained in [[evolution]]ary [[biology]], I have shifted into research in the history and cultural context of evolutionary thought. Particular interests include [[Victorian]] responses to evolutionary ideas and the resurgence of the "[[Argument from Design]]" as "[[Intelligent Design Theory]]". 
7c7
< I also edit the [[History of Science and Technology]] section and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the [[Nupedia]] Project.
---
> I also edit the [[History of Science and Technology]] section and a lead reviewer for [[biology]] and [[zoology]] within the [[Nupedia]] Project.
------
Linus_Torvalds|987562861
2c2
< A tenet of the [[Open source]] model attributed to Linus is "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow".
---
> A tenet of the [[Open source]] model attributed to Linus is "Given enough [[Welcome, newcomers|eyeballs]], all bugs are shallow".
------
Gun|987563118
9a10
> ::[[Machine Pistol]]
20d20
< ::[[Gatling gun]]
25c25,26
< ::[[Bazooka]]
---
> ::[[Autocannon]]
> ::[[Gatling gun]]
------
Nupedians|987563133
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Members of the [[Nupedia]] project.
------
NuPedians|987563474
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nupedians]]
------
Stockholm|987565339
1c1
< Capital and biggest city of [[Sweden]].
---
> The capital of largest city in [[Sweden]]. Stockholm has a population of around 700,000. It is pronounced stok'hôlm . 
------
StockholM|987565369
1c1
< The capital of largest city in SwedeN.  Stockholm has a population of around 700,000.  It is pronounced stok'hôlm .
---
> #REDIRECT [[Stockholm]]
------
Anchorage,_Alaska|987565406
3c3
< With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees [[latitude]] (about the same as Stockholm and St. Petersburg), -149 degrees [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaskan Panhandle]], and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], both of which are arms of the Cook Inlet.
---
> With about 247,000 residents according [http://www.muni.org/Services/Departments/Com/Research/popucvr.htm a 1998 estimate], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing a bit less than half of the state's population.  Anchorage is located in the south-central region of Alaska, 61 degrees [[latitude]] (about the same as [[Stockholm]] and [[St. Petersburg]]), -149 degrees [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaskan Panhandle]], and south of most everything else in the state (nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]]).  The city is situated on a triangular-shaped peninsula bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], both of which are arms of the Cook Inlet.
------
City|987566203
66c66
< * [[Kolkata, India]] - 4,300,000 / 11,000,000 metro area
---
> * [[Calcutta, India]] - 4,300,000 / 11,000,000 metro area
------
Kamikaze|987567310
1c1
< The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[World War II]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[Airplane|airplanes]] into the ships.
---
> The '''kamikaze''' were Japanese suicide pilots during [[World War II]] whose objective was to destroy [[United States]] ships by crashing their [[Airplane|airplanes]] into the ships.  About 40 U.S. ships were sunk, and hundreds damaged by kamikaze attacks.
3c3
< <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind") means 'divine wind' in Japanese.  It refers to the wind which saved [[Japan]] from [[Mongol]] invasion.
---
> <b>Kamikaze</b> (from Kami - "spirit" and kaze - "wind") means 'divine wind' in Japanese.  It refers to the typhoon which saved [[Japan]] from a [[Mongol]] invasion fleet in the 13th century.
------
Tank|987569095
4c4
< * Self propelled mobile gun
---
> * Self propelled mobile multipurpose gun
47,87c47,67
< Other AFVs as distinguished from tanks:
< * <b>Tank</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked
< **Armament: Large multi-purpose gun
< **Purpose: Direct offensive and mobile defensive action
< * <b>Assault Guns</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked
< **Armament: A large direct-fire gun, but no traversable turret.  Usually has fixed armor surrounding the gun, but may have an open roof.
< **Purpose: Mobile defense, fortification-busting.
< * <b>Self-Propelled Anti-Tank</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
< **Armament: ATGM launcher or high-velocity Anti-Tank gun
< **Purpose: Long-range direct-fire anti-tank, primarily defensive
< * <b>Armored Cars</b>
< **Mobility: Wheels (usually 6 or 8 large off-road wheels) instead of tracks.
< **Armament: Usually just a machinegun, may have an autocannon or a small gun or even be unarmed
< **Purpose: Primarily reconnaissance, command, and observation/communications duties
< * <b>Self-Propelled Artillery</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked
< **Armament: A howitzer
< **Purpose: Long-range Bombardment Support
< * <b>MLRS</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
< **Armament: Rockets and tactical surface-to-surface missiles
< **Purpose: Long-range Bombardment Support
< * <b>Self-Propelled AAA</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
< **Armament: Rapid-fire multi-barreled gun or surface-to-air missiles
< **Purpose: Mobile air defense
< * <b>APC</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked or Wheeled
< **Armament: Machine-gun (variants mount other weapons such as mortars)
< **Purpose: Infantry transport
< * <b>IFV</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked
< **Armament: ATGM launcher and autocannon or small gun
< **Purpose: Infantry transport and direct-fire support
< * <b>Engineering Vehicles</b>
< **Mobility: Tracked
< **Armament: May have a short-barreled demolitions gun
< **Purpose: Entrenching, breaching entrenchments, demolitions, and other engineering duties
---
> <b>Other AFVs</b>
> 
> [[APC]]s are lightly armored vehicles for the transport of infantry.  They usually have only a machinegun although variants carry [[recoilless rifle]]s, ATGMs, or [[mortar]]s.  They are not really designed to take part in a direct-fire battle, but to carry the troops to the battlefield safe from shrapnel and ambush.
> 
> [[IFV]]s are APCs with enhanced armament and armor, designed to give direct-fire support to infantry during a battle.  They're usually armed with an ATGM launcher and an autocannon or medium gun.
> 
> An assault gun is similar to a tank, but does not have a traversable turret.  It's main gun is mounted to fire forward, and usually surrounded by fixed panels of armor, but the roof may be open.
> 
> Self-propelled anti-tank vehicles primarily take a defensive role in destroying enemy tanks.  They may mount an [[ATGM]] launcher or a high-velocity dedicated anti-tank gun.
> 
> [[Armored car]]s have wheels (usually 6 or 8 large off-road wheels) instead of tracks, and light armor.  They may have a machinegun, an autocannon, or a small gun, or may even be unarmed.  Their primary purposes are reconnaissance, command/control, and communications. ([[C3I]] duties)
> 
> [[Artillery | Self-propelled artillery]] vehicles mount a large howitzer and are used for long-range indirect bombardment support.  Though lightly armored, and sometimes equipped with machineguns, they are not designed for direct-fire combat.
> 
> [[MLRS]] (Mobile Rocket Launch Systems) use rockets and tactical surface-to-surface missiles for bombardment support.  They may be mounted on a tracked, armored 
> chassis or a truck.
> 
> Self-propelled AAA vehicles may have either a tank or APC chassis, but mount rapid-fire multi-barrel guns designed for use against aircraft.
> 
> Combat engineering vehicles (CEVs) may be based on a tank chassis and have a turreted demolitions gun, but are not really intended for combat.  Their specialties are entrenching, demolitions, and breaching obstacles.  Other engineering vehicles are bridgelaying tanks, which replace the turret with a segmented hydraulic bridge.
> 
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOil|987577755
1,3c1
< The oil company run by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Wyatt's]] father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in /Colorado, but when [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned /Colorado into the leading economy in the country.
< 
< [[/WyattOil|Wyatt Oil]] traditionally relied on /TaggartTranscontinental's /RioNorteLine to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming /Colorado economy, [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] started using the small but well-managed /PhoenixDurango instead.  This prompted [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends in /Washington to shut the /PhoenixDurango down.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WyattOilFields|987577799
1,4c1
< The Wyatt Oil Fields are in Colorado.  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of Colorado.
< 
< The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in:
<  /SectioN111
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wyatt Oil Fields]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WorkerNumber1|987577818
1c1
< An unnamed worker at /ReardenSteel in /SectioN121.  He is on hand the night the first order of /ReardenMetal is poured, and smiles at [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] in acknowledgement of his accomplishment.  This is the only acknowledgement [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] recieves.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Worker Number 1]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WesleyMouch|987577837
1,4c1
< A member of the /Looters and [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] man in /Washington.  Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the /Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity.
< 
<  Wesley Mouch appears in:
<  /SectioN131
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wesley Mouch]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|987577858
1,6c1
< A luxurious hotel in /NewYork, it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.
< 
< The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN151
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wayne Falkland Hotel]]
------
AtlasShrugged/WayneFalklandHotel|987577871
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wayne Falkland Hotel]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Wayne-Falkland Hotel]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Washington|987577890
1,7c1
< Washington is the head of the government of the /UnitedStates.  Throughout AtlasShrugged it is portrayed as a corrupt center of bureaucratic looters.  Many directives that effect the plot are issued from Washington, but little to none of the book's action occurs there.
< 
< Washington is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN121
<  - /SectioN131
<  - /SectioN132
<  - /SectioN143
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Washington]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Valparaiso|987577909
1c1
< In /SectioN152 the harbor of Valparaiso is mentioned as a location for one of [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia's]] parties.  At this party, the guests wore bathing suits, and were showered with champagn throughout the night.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Valparaiso]]
------
AtlasShrugged/UnitedStates|987577930
1,4c1
< The United States is the setting of AtlasShrugged.  While almost every other nation has become a socialist "People's State", the United States remains the last country with some semblance of a free economy.  This is rapidly changing, and the book follows the United States as it gradually beomes a "People's State" itself.
< 
< The United States is mentioned in:
<  - /SectioN132
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/United States]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Things|987577953
1,22c1
<  /AntiDogEatDogRule
<  /Bracelet
<  /CubClub
<  /FriendsofGlobalProgress
<  /HalleysFifthConcerto
<  /HalleysFourthConcerto
<  /MoesDelicatessan
<  /NationalAllianceofRailroads
<  /NationalCouncilofMetalIndustries
<  /PatrickHenryUniversity
<  /Phaethon
<  /ReardenMetal
<  /RioNorteLine
<  /RockdaleStation
<  /SanSebastian
<  /SanSebastianLine
<  /SanSebastianMines
<  /TaggartBuilding
<  /TaggartComet
<  /TheVultureIsMolting
<  /WayneFalklandHotel
<  /WyattOilFields
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Things]]
------
AtlasShrugged/TheVultureIsMolting|987577972
1c1
< A best selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, The Vulture Is Molting is "a penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity."  The book is mentioned in /SectioN141 as one of the artifacts of popular culture that depress [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/The Vulture Is Molting]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Technology|987577991
1,10c1
< <b>Real-world technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
<  Airplanes
<  Automobile
<  Diesel engines
<  Phonograph records
<  Radio
<  Telephone
< 
< <b>Fictional technology in AtlasShrugged:</b>
<  /ReardenMetal
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Technology]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Section111|987578015
1,18c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
< 
< * Plot summary
< [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]], walking through downtown Manhattan, wonders why the world seems to be slowly falling apart.  He returns to the Taggart Transcontinental Building in order to tell [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]] the bad news about an unfulfilled steel order and another train wreck, and to make [[/James Taggart|Taggart]] see the seriousness of the situation the business is in because it can't get steel to replace its aging railroad tracks.
< ----
< * Setting
< Downtown New York, and in the Taggart Transcontinental Building.
< ----
< * Characters
<  /BumNumber1 - First and only appearance.
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] - Mentioned.
<  [[/James Taggart|James Taggart]]
<  /OrrenBoyle - Mentioned.
<  /PopHarper - First and only apearance.
< ----
< * Mysteries
< The question "Who is John Galt?" opens the book and is repeated over and over.  Who is John Galt?  Where did the phrase come from?  What does it mean?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section111]]
------
AtlasShrugged/SectioN151|987578034
1,10c1
< * Plot summary
< The government of Mexico nationalized the /SanSebastianMines thinking they would be a great new source of revenue for the state, only to discover that the mines were completely worthless.  Furthermore, there was never any chance of mining copper there, so [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] must have known all along the project was doomed to failure.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] shows the news report to [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], who tries to figure out how this could be, and finally tells [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] to get her an appointment with "the bastard," Francisco.  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie]] warns about meeting him in a way that indicates the emotional significance seeing Francisco will hold for [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]].
< 
< * Setting
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny's]] office at /TaggartTranscontinental.
< 
< * Characters
<  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]]
<  [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]]
<  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] - Mentioned.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Section151]]
------
AtlasShrugged/PresidentofULW|987578087
1,4c1
< The unnamed president of /UnitedLocomotiveWorks is an incompetent industrialist who considers directness a sign of ill-breeding.  When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] tries to find out why his company has failed to deliver an order, he refuses to give an answer, despite talking for hours.
< 
< He is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN141
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/President of ULW]]
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenSteel|987578120
1,7c1
< A company founded by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  Rearden bought and abandoned steel mill in /Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought such a venture would be hopeless.  he turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] struggle to save /TaggartTranscontinental she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.
< 
< Rearden Stell is mention in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Steel]]
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardenMetal|987578137
1,11c1
< A metal alloy invented by [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]].  It is lighter than traditional steel but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to iron.  It is described as greenish-blue.
< 
< Initially no one is willing to use Rearden because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying /RioNorteLine.
< 
< The first thing made from Rearden Metal is a /Bracelet.
< 
< Rearden Metal appears in:
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN121
<  /SectioN131
<  /SectioN148
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Rearden Metal]]
------
AtlasShrugged/ReardensMother|987578156
1,4c1
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in AtlasShrugged.  She lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in /Philadelphia.  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son /PhilipRearden.
< 
<  Rearden's mother appears in:
<  /SectioN121
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Reardens Mother]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Reardens_Mother|987578181
1c1
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed (I think) in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  She is a [[/Moochers|Moocher]] who lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] mother is unnamed in [[Atlas Shrugged]].  She is a [[/Moochers|Moocher]] who lives with [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] at his home in [[/Philadelphia|Philadelphia]].  She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] whenever she can.  She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child.  She dotes on her weak son [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]].
------
AtlasShrugged/RichardHalley|987578201
1,10c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph.
< 
< In  /SectioN141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer.  At age 24 his opera /Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it.  For years he wrote in obscurity.  After 19 years, /Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was recieved to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard.  It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval.  The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared.
< 
< Richard Halley appears in:
<  /SectioN112 - Mentioned prominently.
<  /SectioN114 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN133 - Mentioned.
<  /SectioN141 - Mentioned prominently.
<  /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Richard Halley]]
------
AtlasShrugged/RioNorteLine|987578221
1,12c1
< A branch of /TaggartTranscontinental that runs from Cheyenne, Wyoming to El Paso, Texas.
< 
< It is mentioned in:
<  /SectioN111
<  /SectioN114
<  /SectioN131 - Alluded to.
<  /SectioN132
<  /SectioN133
<  /SectioN141
<  /SectioN146
<  /SectioN147
<  /SectioN148
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Rio Norte Line]]
------
AtlasShrugged/Rockdale|987578241
1,3c1
< A town near the Taggart estate in upstate New York.  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] had her first position working for /TaggartTranscontinental at the /RockdaleStation, when she was 16.
< 
< The Taggart estate overlooks the /HudsonRiver.  Rockport, we are told, is five miles from the estate.  The actual town of Rockport, New York is more like 100 miles from the Hudson River.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Rockdale]]
------
AtlasShrugged/RockdaleStation|987578260
1,3c1
< A station on the /TaggartTranscontinental line, located five miles from the Taggart estate overlooking the /HudsonRiver.  It was the site of [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
< 
< It appears in /SectioN152
---
> #REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged/Rockdale Station]]
------
Disabilities|987592084
19a20
> ::: [[Stroke]]
47c48,49
< : [[Mental Disabilty]]
---
> : [[Mental Disability]]
> :: [[Alzheimers Disease]]
51,52d52
< 
< 
83,84d82
< :: [[Altzheimers Syndrome]]
< :: [[Stroke]]
------
Alzheimers_Disease|987592611
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alzheimer's Disease or senile dementia of Alzheimer's type is a disorder of loss of mental functions resulting from brain tissue changes of unknown cause. These changes include loss of brain tissue cells (mainly on the rear parts of the brain at the beginning) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain, whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of shrinking of brain tissue). Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent reason for dementia in the elderly and constitutes almost half of all patients with dementia. There is no known definitive treatment.  
------
Permian|987592743
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Carboniferous is a Geologic Period that extends from about 225 to 280 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Permian is named for extensive exposures in the region around the city of Perm in Russia.  There are also extensive Permian exposures in Central North America.  Permian exposures consist largely of continental redbeds and shallow water marine exposures.
> 
> Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of all major landmasses into a single continent -- [[Pangea]].  One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight small ones.  The Permian ends with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology.  90%-90% of marine species became extinct.  There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes to impact by a large meteor.  Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the earliest [[dinosaurs]].  Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods.  The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian.
> 
> During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses were collected into a single landmass known as [[Pangea]].  [[Pangea]] straddled the equator.  Deserts seem to have been widespread.
------
Permian|987593376
1c1
< The Carboniferous is a Geologic Period that extends from about 225 to 280 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Permian is named for extensive exposures in the region around the city of Perm in Russia.  There are also extensive Permian exposures in Central North America.  Permian exposures consist largely of continental redbeds and shallow water marine exposures.
---
> The Permian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 225 to 280 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Permian is named for extensive exposures in the region around the city of Perm in Russia.  The Permian follows the [[Carboniferous]] ([[Pennsylvanian]] in North America) and is followed by the [[Triassic  Permian exposures consist largely of continental redbeds and shallow water marine exposures.
3c3
< Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of all major landmasses into a single continent -- [[Pangea]].  One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight small ones.  The Permian ends with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology.  90%-90% of marine species became extinct.  There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes to impact by a large meteor.  Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the earliest [[dinosaurs]].  Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods.  The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian.
---
> Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- [[Pangea]].  One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight smaller ones.  The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology.  90%-90% of marine species became extinct.  There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes due to impact by a large meteor.  Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the ancestors of the [[dinosaurs]].  The first modern trees -- conifers -- appeared in the  Permian.  Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods.  The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian.
5c5
< During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses were collected into a single landmass known as [[Pangea]].  [[Pangea]] straddled the equator.  Deserts seem to have been widespread.
---
> During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses except portions of East Asia were collected into a single landmass known as [[Pangea]].  [[Pangea]] straddled the equator.  Deserts seem to have been widespread in [[Pangea]].
------
Permian|987593419
1c1
< The Permian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 225 to 280 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Permian is named for extensive exposures in the region around the city of Perm in Russia.  The Permian follows the [[Carboniferous]] ([[Pennsylvanian]] in North America) and is followed by the [[Triassic  Permian exposures consist largely of continental redbeds and shallow water marine exposures.
---
> The Permian is a Geologic Period that extends from about 225 to 280 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Permian is named for extensive exposures in the region around the city of Perm in Russia.  The Permian follows the [[Carboniferous]] ([[Pennsylvanian]] in North America) and is followed by the [[Triassic]]  Permian exposures consist largely of continental redbeds and shallow water marine exposures.
------
Permian|987593454
3c3
< Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- [[Pangea]].  One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight smaller ones.  The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology.  90%-90% of marine species became extinct.  There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes due to impact by a large meteor.  Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the ancestors of the [[dinosaurs]].  The first modern trees -- conifers -- appeared in the  Permian.  Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods.  The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian.
---
> Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- [[Pangea]].  One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight smaller ones.  The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology.  90%-95% of marine species became extinct.  There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes due to impact by a large meteor.  Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the ancestors of the [[dinosaurs]].  The first modern trees -- conifers -- appeared in the  Permian.  Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods.  The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian.
------
Famous_French_People|987594202
1c1,4
< :[[Paul Heroult|Paul Héroult]] -- inventor
---
> or french-speaking/writing people
> 
> :[[Voltaire]] -- author
> :[[Rousseau]] -- author
2a6
> :[[Charles Baudelaire]] -- author
3a8,25
> :[[Edmond Rostand]] -- author
> :[[Fermat]] -- scientist
> :[[Pascal]] -- scientist and author
> :[[Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
> :[[Ampere|Ampère]] -- scientist
> :[[Henri Poincare|Henri Poincaré]] -- scientist
> :[[Jeanne of Arc|Jeanne d'Arc]] -- stateman
> :[[Louis XIV]] -- stateman
> :[[Napoleon|Napoléon]] -- stateman
> :[[General de Gaulle|Général de Gaulle]] -- stateman
> :[[Marechal Petain|Maréchal Pétain]] -- stateman
> 
> ----
> 
> Not as Famous as They Deserve:
> 
> :[[Paul Heroult|Paul Héroult]] -- inventor
> 
------
England|987594790
6c6
< The English flag is known as both the [[St Georges Cross|St George's Cross]] and the [[Union Flag]], not as is often wrongly said, the [[Union Jack]].
---
> The English flag is known as both the [[St Georges Cross|St George's Cross]] is a red cross on a white background.
------
England|987594811
6c6
< The English flag is known as both the [[St Georges Cross|St George's Cross]] is a red cross on a white background.
---
> The English flag, known as the [[St Georges Cross|St George's Cross]] is a red cross on a white background.
------
Free|987607808
3c3
< Many English-speaking people in the [[Open Source]] community have taken to using two [[French]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
---
> Many English-speaking people in the [[Open Source]] community have taken to using two [[Spanish]] words for Free, as the English language is ambiguous in this regard.  One, [[libre]], is equivalent to 'unconstrained'.  The other, [[gratis]], is equivalent to 'without charge'.
------
Spanish|987608167
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A language that originated in the region of Castilla, in Spain.  The correct name should be, in fact, "castillian", but for ease of use it has been accepted as "spanish".  It is a language derived from the Latin, therefore pertaining to the same family of languages as French, Italian, and Portuguese, to name a few.
------
Libre|987608285
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Libre" is a term in spanish that denotes the state of being free, as in "having freedom".
------
Gratis|987608479
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Gratis" is a term in Spanish meaning that yuou don't have to pay a thing for getting something.
------
Constellation|987609088
46c46
< * [[Ophiucus]], the serpent-bearer - actually intersects the ecliptic
---
> * [[Ophiuchus]], the serpent-bearer - actually intersects the ecliptic
------
Zodiac|987609884
1c1,10
< Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses - actually it crosses a thirteenth, [[Ophiucus]], but this is traditionally excluded from the list.  Because the ecliptic correspond to the plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] are found always in some of these constellations.
---
> Name given to the twelve [[constellation]]s that the [[ecliptic]] crosses - actually it crosses a thirteenth, [[Ophiuchus]], but this is traditionally excluded from the list.  Because the ecliptic lies in the general plane of the [[solar system]], the [[Sun]] and [[planets]] seem to move through the Zodiacal constellations.
> 
> A traditional [[mnemonic]]:
> 
>  The Ram, the Bull, the Heavenly Twins,
>  And next' the Crab, the Lion shines,
>  The Virgin and the Scales.
>  The Scorpion, Archer, and the Goat,
>  The Man who holds the Watering Pot,
>  And Fish with glittering scales.
------
Gun_safety|987610556
2a3
> #Keep it unloaded until you are going to use it
------
Gratis|987610657
1c1
< "Gratis" is a term in Spanish meaning that yuou don't have to pay a thing for getting something.
---
> "Gratis" is a term in Spanish meaning that you don't have to pay a thing for getting something.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|987611000
18a19,24
> How about an Experts for Hire page?
> 
> So-called expert sites like guru.com and exp.com get a cut from the micropayments (think paypal.com) charged by their "volunteer" subject-matter experts.
> 
> See [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/03/technology/03info.html N.Y. Times] article by Lisa Guernsey, February 3, 2000  ''Suddenly, Everybody's an Expert on Everything: Sites Turn Questions and Answers Into a Free-for-All, but Sometimes the Facts Get Trampled'' for an unvarnished look at this idea.
> ----
------
Alzheimers_Disease|987611037
1c1,3
< Alzheimer's Disease or senile dementia of Alzheimer's type is a disorder of loss of mental functions resulting from brain tissue changes of unknown cause. These changes include loss of brain tissue cells (mainly on the rear parts of the brain at the beginning) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain, whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of shrinking of brain tissue). Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent reason for dementia in the elderly and constitutes almost half of all patients with dementia. There is no known definitive treatment.  
---
> <b>Alzheimer's Disease</b> or <b>senile dementia of Alzheimer's type</b> is a disorder of loss of mental functions resulting from brain tissue changes of unknown cause. 
> 
> These changes include loss of brain tissue cells (mainly on the rear parts of the brain at the beginning) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain, whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of shrinking of brain tissue). Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent reason for dementia in the elderly and constitutes almost half of all patients with dementia. There is no known definitive treatment.  
------
Disabilities|987611256
86a87,88
> See also:
> * [[sideshow]]
------
Aries|987611379
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ram.
> 
> continue...
------
Taurus|987611415
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The bull
> 
> continue...
------
Sideshow|987611615
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>sideshow</b> is an extra secondary production associated with a [[circus]].
> 
> Old time sideshows were a mix of:
> * physical features different than normal
> * exotic animals
> * physical talents
> 
> At one time, a sideshow was the only way many disabled persons could earn a living.
> 
> ----
> any history here?
> 
> how about the 1960s where people tried to 'free' the performers at sideshows because they did not like people singling out 'freaks of nature'?
> 
> 
------
Alzheimers_Disease|987612553
1c1
< <b>Alzheimer's Disease</b> or <b>senile dementia of Alzheimer's type</b> is a disorder of loss of mental functions resulting from brain tissue changes of unknown cause. 
---
> <b>Alzheimer's Disease</b> or <b>senile dementia of Alzheimer's type</b> is a disorder of loss of mental functions resulting from brain tissue changes of unknown cause. Alzheimer's disease is also manifested in behavorial changes, like sudden periods of defiance, abusive behavior, violence, etc. in people who have no previous history of such behavior. Thus, Alzheimer's disease presents a problem in patient management, as well.
3c3,5
< These changes include loss of brain tissue cells (mainly on the rear parts of the brain at the beginning) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain, whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of shrinking of brain tissue). Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent reason for dementia in the elderly and constitutes almost half of all patients with dementia. There is no known definitive treatment.  
---
> These changes include loss of brain tissue cells (mainly on the rear parts of the brain at the beginning) and collection of specific inclusions such as neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. It is not yet certain, whether these changes are primary (the cause of the disease) or secondary (the result of shrinking of brain tissue). Alzheimer's disease is the most frequent reason for dementia in the elderly and constitutes almost half of all patients with dementia. There is no known definitive treatment. 
> 
> Unfortunately, a definitive diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease must await an autopsy, at present. 
------
Linux|987612602
3c3
< Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] (sounds like "new") [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[World Wide Web|WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[World Wide Web|WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Linux|987612816
1c1
< A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]] in an attempt to provide a free Minix operating system that ran on [[Intel]] 386 processors.  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Windows operating system]] and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop and computer standards. 
---
> A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]] in an attempt to provide a free Minix operating system that ran on [[Intel]] 386 processors.  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop computer standards. 
3c3,5
< Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[World Wide Web|WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of '[[hacker]]' or '[[geek]]'. With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
---
> Linux is available under the terms of the [[GNU]] [[GPL]] (version 2) for a multitude of platforms and architectures, and has proven highly popular in the server market being utilized for [[World Wide Web|WWW]] and database servers. Linux users have traditionally been more technologically capable than those of Windows and MacOS, often revelling in the tag of "[[hacker]]" or "[[geek]]". With the adoption of the OS by several large PC manufacturers, Linux has come to make inroads in the desktop market for less tehnologically savvy users. At the present time, Windows and Mac users can easily migrate to Linux if they use desktop managers like [[KDE]] or [[Gnome]], and many free software packages offer the functionality of programs available on the other operating systems.
> 
> The term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A Linux '''distribution''', for example [[Red Hat]], [[SuSE]], [[Debian]], [[Caldera]] etc. is a collection of free, and sometimes non-free software created by individuals, groups and organisations from around the world.  Linux distributions are often called GNU/Linux because much of the software they contain was created by the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s [[GNU]] project.
5d6
< The term Linux should refer only to the [[Linux kernel]].  A distribution, for example [[Red Hat]], [[SuSE]], [[Debian]], [[Caldera]] etc. is a collection of free, and sometimes non-free software created by individuals, groups and organisations from around the world.  Linux distributions should be called GNU/Linux for this sole reason, afterall, there would be no Linux if it weren't for the [[GPL]] [[GNU]] [[copyleft]] licences.
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987613142
3a4,10
> 
> ----
> An anonymous user added
> 
> # Keep it unloaded until you are going to use it
> 
> to the list, without changing any of the rest of the text.  For one thing, this makes the text describe "four" rules with a list of five, it makes all the references to the rules wrong, and it implies that the people listed as endorsing the original four also endorse this one.  For these reasons, I have removed it, and placed it as a separate paragraph.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Gun_safety|987613217
3d2
< #Keep it unloaded until you are going to use it
16a16
> Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.
------
Mexico|987613709
1c1
< <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belieze]].
---
> <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].
4c4
< * [[Mexican food]]
---
> * [[Mexican food]]
------
Jimbo_Wales|987613980
53c53,59
< Thank you Jimmy, for restoring my page. I was really beginning to blow there. RoseParks
---
> Thank you Jimmy, for restoring my page. I was really beginning to blow there. RoseParks----
> I made that page of alternative approaches to interacting with the disabled, because I was accused of writing a biased entry that did not include other approaches, and that was merely my personal opinion. As you see, even on the internet there are similar guidelines and this info is really mainstream, that is, fairly widely accepted...not my personal opinion. I would guess these pages you found are not from this year either.
> On the other hand the alternative approaches does kind of serve a purpose. For every guideline there is more or less a guideline advocating the opposite approach. The results are pretty ludicrous and even funny in a way to me. Perhaps they should be added as a separate page to the main guidelines, or rephrased or introduced differently. What do you think? As you know this material has a personal meaning to me, I would not have posted that entry if I thought it was opinion.<br>
> My other problem is that there is a so-called "Bill of Rights" for the disabled that was 
> developed by the disability community. The original draft was drawn by The American Coalition for People with Disabilities (ACCD) and has been endorsed by many groups of disabled people. It actually is not a particularly radical statement and most of the rights seem almost obvious. I do know whether this belongs on wikipedia at all. And if so, is it commentary?
> 
>  RoseParks
------
Metallica/Talk|987614805
21c21
< * Geezer rock former superstar status - no audience - only media fluff pieces - make the rounds at guest appearance shows - no new material - please, be charitable, become a recluse on a remote South Pacific island.
---
> * Geezer rock former superstar status - no audience - only media [[fluff]] pieces - make the rounds at guest appearance shows - no new material - please, be charitable, become a recluse on a remote South Pacific island.
------
Fluff|987614904
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Fluff</b> is information, article, or news item containing no real [[content]] and usually containing faint praise for the idea, person, or thing.
> 
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987614969
10c10,12
< to the list, without changing any of the rest of the text.  For one thing, this makes the text describe "four" rules with a list of five, it makes all the references to the rules wrong, and it implies that the people listed as endorsing the original four also endorse this one.  For these reasons, I have removed it, and placed it as a separate paragraph.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> to the list, without changing any of the rest of the text.  For one thing, this makes the text describe "four" rules with a list of five, it makes all the references to the rules wrong, and it implies that the people listed as endorsing the original four also endorse this one.  For these reasons, I have removed it, and placed it as a separate paragraph.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]----
> I find this page biased, in the sense that many advocate that the right to own firearms for personal use, like hunting, protection, hobby, should be abolished. I see nothing about
> the restriction of firearms on your page. The one of greatest assurances of gun safety is not to own one. That just leaves the problem of gun safety to those very limited people, like law enforcement, to worry about. And that is no small problem either. And my name, by the way, is Ms. Ruth Ifcher. RoseParks
------
Gun_safety|987615409
2a3,4
> Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.  Furthermore, there are many advocates for banning the private ownership of guns altogether, or restricting ownership to police, the military, and other limited groups.
> 
16d17
< Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987615524
10c10,11
< to the list, without changing any of the rest of the text.  For one thing, this makes the text describe "four" rules with a list of five, it makes all the references to the rules wrong, and it implies that the people listed as endorsing the original four also endorse this one.  For these reasons, I have removed it, and placed it as a separate paragraph.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]----
---
> to the list, without changing any of the rest of the text.  For one thing, this makes the text describe "four" rules with a list of five, it makes all the references to the rules wrong, and it implies that the people listed as endorsing the original four also endorse this one.  For these reasons, I have removed it, and placed it as a separate paragraph.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> ----
12a14,16
> ----
> I added statements to that effect, and moved that paragraph up for a more balanced reading.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Billiards|987615529
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Billards</b> is a game consisting of three or more billard balls, one or more cue sticks, and a billard/pool table.
> 
> Some billard games by type of table:
> * billard table (no pockets)
> ** three cusion billards
> * snooker table
> ** snooker
> * pool table
> ** straight pool
> ** eight ball
> ** nine ball
> * bumper pool table
> 
> ---
> need to add in basic rules for three cusion, snooker, ...
------
Gun_safety|987615545
3c3
< Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.  Furthermore, there are many advocates for banning the private ownership of guns altogether, or restricting ownership to police, the military, and other limited groups.
---
> Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.  Furthermore, there are many advocates for banning the private ownership of guns altogether, or restricting ownership to police, the military, and other limited groups.  See [[Gun control]].
------
Gun_safety|987615584
1c1
< While there are many different sets of "rules" of gun safety, some of them quite long, there is a general consensus among prominent firearms instructors that the following list of the cardinal four rules are primary.  This list is endorsed by such prominent gun experts as [[Jeff Cooper]] (who originated these rules), [[Masaad Ayoob]], [[Clint Smith]], [[Chuck Taylor]], and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
---
> While there are many different sets of "rules" of gun safety, some of them quite long, there is a general consensus among prominent firearms instructors that the following list of the cardinal four rules is primary.  This list is endorsed by such prominent gun experts as [[Jeff Cooper]] (who originated these rules), [[Masaad Ayoob]], [[Clint Smith]], [[Chuck Taylor]], and [[Ignatius Piazza]].
------
Bulldogging|987615888
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Bulldogging</b> is a [[rodeo]] sport where a [[cattle/steer]] is released from a chute and a horse mounted rider chases the steer, jumps off of the horse next to the steer, and wrestles the steer to the ground by twisting its horns.
> 
> Bill Picket invented the sport of bulldogging in 19??.
> 
------
Mexico|987615899
1c1,16
< <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].
---
> <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].<br>Its capital is Mexico City (Federal District).  Important cities include Monterrey (northeastern Mexico), and Guadalajara (western Mexico).<br>It is divided into 31 states and 1 Federal District (Distrito Federal).<BR>
> The form of government is a Republic, and it is also a Federation.  The official name of the country is "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States or United States of Mexico).<BR>
> The current president is Vicente Fox Quezada.<br>
> <b>Quick History</b>
> <br>
> Mexico was originally conquered by Spain, in 1521.  The conquerors were led by Hernan Cortes, who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The aztecs, dominant native people in the country, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the mestizo culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "Nueva España" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the United States of America.  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "Guadalupe Victoria" was the first president.  Guadalupe Victoria was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
> <BR>
> Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a monarchical form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as Maximilaino de Habsburgo (wife Carlota de Habsburgo).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the Cerro de la Campana, Queretaro, by the conservatives (led by Gral. Miramon).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the Heroic Military College fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
> <br>
> During the period (mid 1800s), the French Army was the strongest one.  The French were interested in claiming Mexico as part of their territory, so they came to Mexico and invaded it.  The cinco de mayo (may 5th, 1862) battle took place precisely when mexicans were defending their territory from the French interests.  The general that led the defense was Ignacio Zaragoza.<br>
> There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was Benito Juarez.  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called Nuevo Leon), so there was a guy, Porfirio Diaz, who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the inestments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the Porfiriato.  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was atracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
> Not happy with this, a guy named Francisco I. Madero prepared the Plan de San Luis, in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Diaz on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated, but his plan took effect.  This is the period where Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in Paris in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of Venustiano Carranza got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
> <br>
> To be continued...
> <br>
> 
------
Bulldogging|987615921
1c1
< <b>Bulldogging</b> is a [[rodeo]] sport where a [[cattle/steer]] is released from a chute and a horse mounted rider chases the steer, jumps off of the horse next to the steer, and wrestles the steer to the ground by twisting its horns.
---
> <b>Bulldogging</b> is a [[rodeo]] sport where a [[steer]] is released from a chute and a horse mounted rider chases the steer, jumps off of the horse next to the steer, and wrestles the steer to the ground by twisting its horns.
------
Gun|987616066
30a31
> /Politics
------
Gun/Politics|987616106
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page is a catch - all for political aspects of guns.
------
Gun_safety|987616166
0a1,3
> Political issues involving guns are at [[Gun/Politics]].
> 
> ----
------
Gun_safety|987616196
1c1
< Political issues involving guns are at [[Gun/Politics]].
---
> Political issues including ''gun control'' involving guns are at [[Gun/Politics]].
------
Gun_safety|987616228
1c1
< Political issues including ''gun control'' involving guns are at [[Gun/Politics]].
---
> Political issues involving guns (''gun control'') are at [[Gun/Politics]].
------
Gemini|987616284
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The twins
> 
> continue...
------
Gun_safety|987616296
3a4,5
> This page is intended to discuss how to handle a gun safely.
> 
------
Linux|987616333
1c1
< A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]] in an attempt to provide a free Minix operating system that ran on [[Intel]] 386 processors.  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop computer standards. 
---
> A computer operating system kernel first developed by [[Linus Torvalds]] in an attempt to provide a free [[Minix]] operating system that ran on [[Intel]] 386 processors.  Linux became popular in the mid to late 1990s as a free alternative to the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system and [[MacOS]] that have dominated desktop computer standards. 
------
Cancer|987616432
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The crab
> 
> continue...
------
Minix|987616477
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Minix</b> was a commercial stripped down version of [[unix]] that ran on Intel 386 processors in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]].
> 
> Source code was included with Minix.
> 
> [[Linux]] was influenced by Minix.
------
Zodiac/signs|987616592
11c11
< Modern [[astrology]] tries to dress itself with the garments of real [[science]], using computers and in same cases adding more recently found planets and other objests to make its "predictions". However, it should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an [[art]]), one that is followed by millions of people worldwide.
---
> Modern [[astrology]] tries to dress itself with the garments of real [[science]], using computers and in some cases adding more recently found planets and other objects to make its evaluations and predictions. However, astrology should be regarded as an entertainment (or in the best of cases an [[art]]) - one that is followed by millions of people worldwide.
13c13
< [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpius]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricornus]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
---
> [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpio]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricorn]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
------
Leo|987616656
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The lion
> 
> continue...
------
Virgo|987616700
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The virgin
> 
> continue...
------
MetallicA/Discography|987616710
13c13
< The band also contibuted a track (Disappear) to the MissionImpossibleTwo Soundtrack.
---
> The band also contributed a track (Disappear) to the MissionImpossibleTwo Soundtrack.
------
Libra|987616758
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The scales
> 
> continue...
------
Scorpio|987616803
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The scorpion
> 
> continue...
------
Intel|987616895
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Intel</b> is a [[United States]] corporation that makes [[microprocessor]]s and specialized integrated circuits.
> 
> Microprocessors made by Intel:
> * 8088 (8 [[bit]])
> * 8086 (16 bit)
> * 80286 (16 bit with 24 bit virtual address)
> * 80386 (32 bit with 32 bit virtual address)
> * 80486 (32 bit)
> * Pentium (32 bit)
> * Pentium II (32 bit)
> * Pentium III (32 bit)
> * Pentium IV (32 bit)
> 
> Some Intel related terms:
> * x86 - refers to 8086, 80286, 80386 or 80486 - it sometimes refers to the [[instruction set]] of the original 8086 processor
> * 286 - refers to 80286
> * 386 - refers to 80386
> * 486 - refers to 80486
> * Pentium - refers to Pentium I, II, III, or IV
> * Wintel - refers to a computer running [[Microsoft]] windows on an Intel processor
> 
> ----
> can anyone add the megahertz and year introduced for each of the processors.
> 
------
Sagittarius|987616905
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Archer - depicted as a [[centaur]] drawing a bow
> 
> continue...
------
Capricorn|987617007
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The goat
> 
> continue
------
Aquarius|987617087
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The water bearer
> 
> continue...
------
Copyright|987617769
1c1
< Copyright
---
> A '''copyright''' is a set of exclusive rights granted by a government to the author of a creative work, including the exclusive right to make and sell copies of the work, and to make derivative works.
3c3,4
< Origins of copyright
---
> While governments had previously granted monopoly rights to publishers to sell printed works, the modern concept of copyright originated in 1710 with the British [[Statute of Anne]].  This statute first recognized that authors, 
> rather than publishers, should be the primary beneficiary of such laws, and it included protections for consumers of printed work ensuring that publishers could not control their use after sale.  It also limited the duration of such exclusive rights to 28 years, after which all works would pass into the [[public domain]].
5c6
< the [[Berne Convention]]
---
> The [[United States Constitution]] granted congress the power to enact copyright and patent laws in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]], which states that "The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;"  Congress passed the first such copyright law in 1790.  It has been modified many times since to encompass new technologies such as music recording, to extend the duration of protection, and to make other changes.
7c8
< the [[DMCA]]
---
> The [[Berne Convention]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations.  The United States became a Berne signatory in 1988.
8a10
> Fair use doctrine...
10c12,14
< [[/talk]]
---
> The [[DMCA]]...
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Intel|987617861
9a10
> * Pentium Pro (32 bit)
------
Pisces|987618207
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The fish
> 
> continue...
------
Minix|987619141
1c1
< <b>Minix</b> was a commercial stripped down version of [[unix]] that ran on Intel 386 processors in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]].
---
> <b>Minix</b> was a commercial stripped down version of [[unix]] that ran on [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC/AT]]processors in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]].
3c3
< Source code was included with Minix.
---
> [[Linux]] was influenced by Minix.
5c5,11
< [[Linux]] was influenced by Minix.
---
> Minix was written by [[Andrew S. Tannenbaum]] from Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands as an appendix or example in the book "Operating Systems: Design and Implementation" (ISBN 0-13-637331-3). The whole 12000 lines of source code of the kernel, memory manager and file system is printed in the book.
> 
> Minix distributions has the following ISBN numbers. They all contain all the source:
> #A set of disks for IBM PC with 640K RAM - ISBN 0-13-583873-8. Can be used with 512K computers if you adjust some program sizes.
> #A set of disks for IBM PC with 256K RAM - ISBN 0-13-583881-9. Does not include the C compiler since it is not runnable.
> #A set of disks for IBM PC/AT with at least 512K RAM. ISBN 0-13-583865-7. 1.2M diskettes are used instead of 360K diskettes.
> #Nine-track, industry standard 1600 bpi magnetic tape in UNIX "tar" format. ISBN 0-13-583899-1. Includes an IBM PC simulator and some libraries and programs that make it possible to run the MINIX file system on a VAX or other minicomputer running UNIX.
------
Minix|987619525
11a12,19
> ----
> A point of contention here: 
> 
> Andrew Tannenbaum is a faculty member of a university and invaringly the actual operating system code was not written by him but by his graduate students.
> 
> This is a real big whitewash and false attribution that happens every day in academia.
> 
> A common practice is to have the thesis/dissertation advisor sign onto every paper published by any graduate student he advises and thus gain recognition for the student's work and contribute little to the published work.
------
Minix|987619650
19c19,22
< A common practice is to have the thesis/dissertation advisor sign onto every paper published by any graduate student he advises and thus gain recognition for the student's work and contribute little to the published work.
---
> A common practice is to have the thesis/dissertation advisor sign onto every paper published by any graduate student he advises and thus gain recognition for the student's work and contribute little to the published work.
> ----
> A second point of contention is that Minix is a historical operating system and should not necessarily be used for research/hobby purposes.  Linux or a modern stripped down unix like os would be better than minix.
> 
------
Woodworking|987619950
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Woodworking</b> is the process of building something or carving something using wood.
> 
> Tools used in woodworking:
> * clamp
> * drill
> * gouge
> * hammer
> * lathe
> * sander
> * saw
> 
------
Mexico|987619977
14c14
< To be continued...
---
> In the 20s and 30s there was another civil war called "la Guerra Cristera"; it was based on religious issues.  The new government (a party called the PNR, later called PRI, who would "rule" for about 70 years) wanted to supress catholicism, to which the people (majoritarily catholic) reacted with a war. In 1938, the oil companies were nationalized (March 18, 1938, by Lazaro Cardenas, president).
16c16,18
< 
---
> The 40s, 50s, and 60s were a period of economical prosperity and peace in Mexico.  During the WWII, the "apagones" were made very famous.  The "apagones" consisted of turning off all the lights of the city, to avoid to be spotted by "enemy" countries (but Mexico remained neutral all the way through the end).  This period was also a period where movies were big in Mexico (called the golden age of mexican cinema "epoca de oro del cine mexicano), giving artists like Maria Felix, Agustin Lara, Consuelo Velazquez, Pedro Infante, Jorge Negrete, Dolores del Rio...
> <br>
> In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituo Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now Vicente Fox Quezada.  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
------
Vatican_City|987620322
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A tiny country within the City of Rome, Italy, where the human authorities of the Roman Catholics are situated; the Pope lives there.  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes artists like Michaelangelo and Da Vinci.<BR>
> It has an official website that anyone can visit at: <a href="http://www.vatican.va"> http://www.vatican.va</a>.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|987620361
1c1
< I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]] (specifically a devotee of [[Karl Popper]]).  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com].
---
> I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]] (specifically a devotee of [[Karl Popper]]).  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com], or to [mailto:lcrocker@nupedia.com lcrocker@nupedia.com] (Please use the latter address for Wikipedia and Nupedia related matters).
3c3
< Because I am skeptical of the value of intellectual property law in general and copyrights in particular, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the public domain.  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]], [[poker]], and many related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
---
> Because I am skeptical of the value of [[intellectual property]] law in general and [[copyright]]s in particular, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the [[public domain]].  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]], [[poker]], and many related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
------
Vatican_City|987620407
2c2
< It has an official website that anyone can visit at: <a href="http://www.vatican.va"> http://www.vatican.va</a>.
---
> It has an official website that anyone can visit at:  <http://www.vatican.va>.
------
Vatican_City|987620429
2c2
< It has an official website that anyone can visit at:  <http://www.vatican.va>.
---
> It has an official website that anyone can visit at:  http://www.vatican.va
------
Vatican_City|987620570
1,2c1,3
< A tiny country within the City of Rome, Italy, where the human authorities of the Roman Catholics are situated; the Pope lives there.  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes artists like Michaelangelo and Da Vinci.<BR>
< It has an official website that anyone can visit at:  http://www.vatican.va
---
> A tiny country within the city of Rome, Italy, where the human authorities of the Roman Catholics are situated (including the [[Pope]]).  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes works by artists such as Michaelangelo and Da Vinci.
> 
> It has an offical website at [http://www.vatican.va/ www.vatican.va].
------
Mexican_food|987620637
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Food originally from Mexico.
> <BR>
> Mexico is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food is varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
> <BR>
> Traditional dishes include "mole", "tacos", "quesadillas", and "tamales".
------
Mexican_food|987620666
3c3
< Mexico is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food is varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
---
> Mexico is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
5c5
< Traditional dishes include "mole", "tacos", "quesadillas", and "tamales".
---
> Traditional dishes include "mole", "tacos", "quesadillas", and "tamales".
------
Mexican_food|987620742
1c1
< Food originally from Mexico.
---
> Mexican food is food originally from Mexico.
------
Mexico|987621312
1,3c1,3
< <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].<br>Its capital is Mexico City (Federal District).  Important cities include Monterrey (northeastern Mexico), and Guadalajara (western Mexico).<br>It is divided into 31 states and 1 Federal District (Distrito Federal).<BR>
< The form of government is a Republic, and it is also a Federation.  The official name of the country is "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States or United States of Mexico).<BR>
< The current president is Vicente Fox Quezada.<br>
---
> <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].<br>Its capital is [Mexico City] (Federal District).  Important cities include [Monterrey] (northeastern Mexico), and [Guadalajara] (western Mexico).<br>It is divided into 31 states and 1 Federal District (Distrito Federal).<BR>
> The form of government is a [Republic], and it is also a [Federation].  The official name of the country is "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States or United States of Mexico).<BR>
> The current president is [Vicente Fox Quezada].<br>
6c6
< Mexico was originally conquered by Spain, in 1521.  The conquerors were led by Hernan Cortes, who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The aztecs, dominant native people in the country, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the mestizo culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "Nueva España" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the United States of America.  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "Guadalupe Victoria" was the first president.  Guadalupe Victoria was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
---
> Mexico was originally conquered by [Spain], in 1521.  The conquerors were led by [Hernan Cortes], who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The [aztecs], dominant native people in the country, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked [Tenochtitlan], capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the [mestizo] culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "[Nueva España]" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the [United States of America].  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "[Guadalupe Victoria]" was the first president.  [Guadalupe Victoria] was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of [Our Lady of Guadalupe], and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
8c8
< Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a monarchical form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as Maximilaino de Habsburgo (wife Carlota de Habsburgo).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the Cerro de la Campana, Queretaro, by the conservatives (led by Gral. Miramon).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the Heroic Military College fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
---
> Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a [monarchical] form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as [Maximiliano de Habsburgo] (wife [Carlota de Habsburgo]).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the [Cerro de la Campana], [Queretaro], by the conservatives (led by [Gral. Miguel Miramon]).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the [Heroic Military College] fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
10,12c10,12
< During the period (mid 1800s), the French Army was the strongest one.  The French were interested in claiming Mexico as part of their territory, so they came to Mexico and invaded it.  The cinco de mayo (may 5th, 1862) battle took place precisely when mexicans were defending their territory from the French interests.  The general that led the defense was Ignacio Zaragoza.<br>
< There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was Benito Juarez.  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called Nuevo Leon), so there was a guy, Porfirio Diaz, who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the inestments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the Porfiriato.  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was atracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
< Not happy with this, a guy named Francisco I. Madero prepared the Plan de San Luis, in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Diaz on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated, but his plan took effect.  This is the period where Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata, and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in Paris in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of Venustiano Carranza got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
---
> During the period (mid 1800s), the French Army was the strongest one.  The French were interested in claiming Mexico as part of their territory, so they came to Mexico and invaded it.  The [cinco de mayo] (may 5th, 1862) battle took place precisely when mexicans were defending their territory from the French interests.  The general that led the defense was [Ignacio Zaragoza].<br>
> There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was [Benito Juarez].  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called Nuevo Leon), so there was a guy, [Porfirio Diaz], who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the [Plan de Tuxtepec] (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the investments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the [Porfiriato].  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was atracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
> Not happy with this, a guy named [Francisco I. Madero] prepared the [Plan de San Luis], in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Diaz on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated in San Antonio Texas, but his plan took effect in spite of being in jail.  This is the period where [Pancho Villa], [Emiliano Zapata], and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in [Paris] in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of [Venustiano Carranza] got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
16c16
< The 40s, 50s, and 60s were a period of economical prosperity and peace in Mexico.  During the WWII, the "apagones" were made very famous.  The "apagones" consisted of turning off all the lights of the city, to avoid to be spotted by "enemy" countries (but Mexico remained neutral all the way through the end).  This period was also a period where movies were big in Mexico (called the golden age of mexican cinema "epoca de oro del cine mexicano), giving artists like Maria Felix, Agustin Lara, Consuelo Velazquez, Pedro Infante, Jorge Negrete, Dolores del Rio...
---
> The 40s, 50s, and 60s were a period of economical prosperity and peace in Mexico.  During the [WWII], the "apagones" were made very famous.  The "apagones" consisted of turning off all the lights of the city, to avoid to be spotted by "enemy" countries (but Mexico remained neutral all the way through the end).  This period was also a period where movies were big in Mexico (called the golden age of mexican cinema "epoca de oro del cine mexicano), giving artists like [Maria Felix], [Agustin Lara], [Consuelo Velazquez], [Pedro Infante], [Jorge Negrete], [Dolores del Rio]...
18c18
< In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituo Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now Vicente Fox Quezada.  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
---
> In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now [Vicente Fox Quezada].  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
------
Mexican_food|987621376
1c1
< Mexican food is food originally from Mexico.
---
> Mexican food is food originally from [[Mexico]].
3c3
< Mexico is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
---
> [[Mexico]] is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
5c5
< Traditional dishes include "mole", "tacos", "quesadillas", and "tamales".
---
> Traditional dishes include "[[mole]]", "[[tacos]]", "[[quesadillas]]", and "[[tamales]]".
------
Mole|987621427
0a1,2
> (Not to be confused with "mole" the mexican food dish.)
> 
------
Mole|987621502
1c1
< (Not to be confused with "mole" the mexican food dish.)
---
> (Not to be confused with "mole" the mexican food dish, or the rodent.)
3c3
< Mole is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 [[kilogram]] of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified. Entities may be:
---
> A '''mole''' is one of the seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 [[kilogram]] of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified. Entities may be:
------
Mexican_food|987621544
5c5
< Traditional dishes include "[[mole]]", "[[tacos]]", "[[quesadillas]]", and "[[tamales]]".
---
> Traditional dishes include "[[mole]]", "[[taco]]s", "[[quesadilla]]s", and "[[tamale]]s".
------
Mexico|987621847
1,3c1,3
< <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].<br>Its capital is [Mexico City] (Federal District).  Important cities include [Monterrey] (northeastern Mexico), and [Guadalajara] (western Mexico).<br>It is divided into 31 states and 1 Federal District (Distrito Federal).<BR>
< The form of government is a [Republic], and it is also a [Federation].  The official name of the country is "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States or United States of Mexico).<BR>
< The current president is [Vicente Fox Quezada].<br>
---
> <b>Mexico</b> is a country located in [[North America]] south of the [[United States]] and north of [[Guatemala]] and north of [[Belize]].<br>Its capital is [[Mexico City]] (Federal District).  Important cities include [[Monterrey]] (northeastern Mexico), and [[Guadalajara]] (western Mexico).<br>It is divided into 31 states and 1 Federal District (Distrito Federal).<BR>
> The form of government is a [[Republic]], and it is also a [[Federation]].  The official name of the country is "Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (United Mexican States or United States of Mexico).<BR>
> The current president is [[Vicente Fox Quezada]].<br>
6c6
< Mexico was originally conquered by [Spain], in 1521.  The conquerors were led by [Hernan Cortes], who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The [aztecs], dominant native people in the country, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked [Tenochtitlan], capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the [mestizo] culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "[Nueva España]" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the [United States of America].  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "[Guadalupe Victoria]" was the first president.  [Guadalupe Victoria] was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of [Our Lady of Guadalupe], and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
---
> Mexico was originally conquered by [[Spain]], in 1521.  The conquerors were led by [[Hernan Cortes]], who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The [[aztecs]], dominant native people in the country back then, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked [[Tenochtitlan]], capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the [[mestizo]] culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "[[Nueva España]]" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the [[United States of America]].  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "[[Guadalupe Victoria]]" was the first president.  [[Guadalupe Victoria]] was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]], and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
8c8
< Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a [monarchical] form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as [Maximiliano de Habsburgo] (wife [Carlota de Habsburgo]).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the [Cerro de la Campana], [Queretaro], by the conservatives (led by [Gral. Miguel Miramon]).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the [Heroic Military College] fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
---
> Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a [[monarchical]] form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as [[Maximiliano de Habsburgo]] (wife [[Carlota de Habsburgo]]).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the [[Cerro de la Campana]], [[Queretaro]], by the conservatives (led by [[Gral. Miguel Miramon]]).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the [[Heroic Military College]] fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
10,12c10,12
< During the period (mid 1800s), the French Army was the strongest one.  The French were interested in claiming Mexico as part of their territory, so they came to Mexico and invaded it.  The [cinco de mayo] (may 5th, 1862) battle took place precisely when mexicans were defending their territory from the French interests.  The general that led the defense was [Ignacio Zaragoza].<br>
< There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was [Benito Juarez].  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called Nuevo Leon), so there was a guy, [Porfirio Diaz], who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the [Plan de Tuxtepec] (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the investments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the [Porfiriato].  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was atracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
< Not happy with this, a guy named [Francisco I. Madero] prepared the [Plan de San Luis], in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of Porfirio Diaz on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated in San Antonio Texas, but his plan took effect in spite of being in jail.  This is the period where [Pancho Villa], [Emiliano Zapata], and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in [Paris] in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of [Venustiano Carranza] got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
---
> During the period (mid 1800s), the French Army was the strongest one.  The French were interested in claiming Mexico as part of their territory, so they came to Mexico and invaded it.  The [[cinco de mayo]] (may 5th, 1862) battle took place precisely when mexicans were defending their territory from the French interests.  The general that led the defense was [[Ignacio Zaragoza]].<br>
> There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was [[Benito Juarez]].  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called [[Nuevo Leon]]), so there was a guy, [[Porfirio Diaz]], who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the [[Plan de Tuxtepec]] (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the investments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the [[Porfiriato]].  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was attracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
> Not happy with this, a guy named [[Francisco I. Madero]] prepared the [[Plan de San Luis]], in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of [[Porfirio Diaz]] on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]], but his plan took effect in spite of being in jail.  This is the period where [[Pancho Villa]], [[Emiliano Zapata]], and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in [[Paris]], [[France]] in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of [[Venustiano Carranza]] got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
16c16
< The 40s, 50s, and 60s were a period of economical prosperity and peace in Mexico.  During the [WWII], the "apagones" were made very famous.  The "apagones" consisted of turning off all the lights of the city, to avoid to be spotted by "enemy" countries (but Mexico remained neutral all the way through the end).  This period was also a period where movies were big in Mexico (called the golden age of mexican cinema "epoca de oro del cine mexicano), giving artists like [Maria Felix], [Agustin Lara], [Consuelo Velazquez], [Pedro Infante], [Jorge Negrete], [Dolores del Rio]...
---
> The 40s, 50s, and 60s were a period of economical prosperity and peace in Mexico.  During the [[WWII]], the "apagones" were made very famous.  The "apagones" consisted of turning off all the lights of the city, to avoid to be spotted by "enemy" countries (but Mexico remained neutral all the way through the end).  This period was also a period where movies were big in Mexico (called the golden age of mexican cinema "epoca de oro del cine mexicano), which gave opportunities to artists like [[Maria Felix]], [[Agustin Lara]], [[Consuelo Velazquez]], [[Pedro Infante]], [[Jorge Negrete]], [[Dolores del Rio]]... (although not all the mentioned above are actors).
18c18
< In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now [Vicente Fox Quezada].  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
---
> In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now [[Vicente Fox Quezada]].  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
------
Taco|987621945
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''taco''' is a traditional [[Mexican]] dish comprising a folded [[tortilla]] filled with meat (generally grilled beef or variety meats such as tongue and brains), chile sauce, and garnishes such as [[pico de gallo]] and [[cilantro]].  
> Americanized versions may use a deep-fried crispy tortilla shell, and include ingredients such as lettuce and cheese.
------
Venezuela|987622066
1a2,3
> <BR>
> It is widely known for beautiful women (many girls there have won the Miss Universe contest) and the vast production of oil.
------
Vatican_City|987622122
1c1
< A tiny country within the city of Rome, Italy, where the human authorities of the Roman Catholics are situated (including the [[Pope]]).  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes works by artists such as Michaelangelo and Da Vinci.
---
> A tiny country within the city of [[Rome]], [[Italy]], where the human authorities of the [[Roman Catholics]] are situated (including the [[Pope]]).  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes works by artists such as [[Michaelangelo]] and [[Da Vinci]].
------
Spanish_language|987622400
6a7,8
> Regulated by the RAE (Real Academia de la Lengua Española).
> 
------
KDE|987622407
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> KDE is an [[Open Source]] graphical desktop environment for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
> 
> According to the KDE website; "KDE is a network transparent contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT."
------
KDE|987622506
1c1
< KDE is an [[Open Source]] graphical desktop environment for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
---
> KDE is an [[OpenSource|Open Source]] graphical desktop environment for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
3c3
< According to the KDE website; "KDE is a network transparent contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT."
---
> According to the KDE website; "KDE is a network transparent contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT."
------
Mexican_food|987622813
3c3,7
< [[Mexico]] is a country with a lot of traditions.  Its food varies according to the region.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
---
> It's origin is a complex mixture of the traditions of the
> original inhabitants ([[aztec]]s, mainly), with the culinary
> trends brought by the spanish [[conquistador]]es.
> The food varies according to the region, depending on the original population, and the influences, spaniard and others,
> to which it was exposed.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
------
Mexican_food|987623299
2,6c2,5
< <BR>
< It's origin is a complex mixture of the traditions of the
< original inhabitants ([[aztec]]s, mainly), with the culinary
< trends brought by the spanish [[conquistador]]es.
< The food varies according to the region, depending on the original population, and the influences, spaniard and others,
---
> 
> It's origin is a complex mixture of the traditions of the original inhabitants (mainly [[Aztec]]s) with the culinary
> trends brought by the Spanish [[conquistador]]es.
> The food varies according to the region, depending on the original population, and the influence by Spaniards and others,
8c7
< <BR>
---
> 
------
KDE|987624473
1c1
< KDE is an [[OpenSource|Open Source]] graphical desktop environment for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
---
> KDE is an [[OpenSource|Open Source]] graphical desktop environment and framework built with TrollTech's [[QT Toolkit]] for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. The "K" may or may not stand for "Kool". KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
3c3
< According to the KDE website; "KDE is a network transparent contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT."
---
> According to the [http://www.kde.org/ KDE website]; "KDE is a network transparent contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT."
------
Intel|987624918
20,21c20,27
< * Pentium - refers to Pentium I, II, III, or IV
< * Wintel - refers to a computer running [[Microsoft]] windows on an Intel processor
---
> * Pentium - 80586
> * Pentium MMX - 80586 ?
> * Pentium II - 80686, codenamed Klamath
> * Pentium III - 80686
> * Pentium IV - 80686, codenamed Willamette ?
> * Wintel - refers to a computer running a [[Microsoft]] [[Windows operating system]] on an Intel processor
> * ia32 - Intel architecture, 32 bit
> * ia64
------
Poker|987625940
22a23,25
> Also related:
> * bad beat
> 
------
Minix|987626499
19a20,21
> 
> I do not understand what invaringly means but I can say that in this case [[Andrew S. Tannenbaum]] states in the Preface of the book that: "Although I personally wrote the entire 12,000 lines of the operating system proper, a number of other people have contributed utility programs that are included in the distribution." ... I think this is enough to give him credit as author. [[LinusTolke]]
------
Video_game|987626552
2a3,4
> Video games are made by [[/Developer|developers]], made up of directors, artists, programmers, musicians and other technicians. Many teams easily number into the hundreds on larger projects such as [[SEGA]]s [[Shenmue]]. But most are stll made up of no more than a dozen closely working developers, [[ID Software]] is a good example of the smaller, more tightly focused developer.
> 
5,12c7,14
< * [[/Adventure|ADVENTURE]] just six examples:
< ** [[Day of the Tentacle]]
< ** [[Maniac Mansion]]
< ** [[Zork]] series
< ** [[Sam and Max]]
< ** [[Monkey Island]] series
< ** [[Tomb Raider]] series
< * [[/Adventure|more...]]
---
> [[/Adventure|ADVENTURE]]
> :[[Day of the Tentacle]]
> :[[Maniac Mansion]]
> :[[Zork]] series
> :[[Sam and Max]]
> :[[Monkey Island]] series
> :[[Tomb Raider]] series
> :[[/Adventure|more]]
14,22c16,23
< 
< * [[/RPG|ROLE PLAYING]] (RPG) just six examples:
< ** [[Dungeon Master]] series
< ** [[Hack]]
< ** [[Ultima]] series
< ** [[Final Fantasy]] series
< ** [[Pokemon]] series
< ** [[Diablo]] series
< * [[/RPG|more...]]
---
> [[/RPG|ROLE PLAYING]] (RPG)
> :[[Dungeon Master]] series
> :[[Hack]]
> :[[Ultima]] series
> :[[Final Fantasy]] series
> :[[Pokemon]] series
> :[[Diablo]] series
> :[[/RPG|more]]
23a25
> [[/Shoot em ups|SHOOT 'EM UPS]]
25,41c27,43
< * [[/Shoot em ups|SHOOT 'EM UPS]]
< ** [[/Scrolling shooters|SCROLLING]] just six examples:
< *** [[Space Invaders]]
< *** [[R-Type]] series
< *** [[Gradius]] series
< *** [[Radiant Silvergun]]
< *** [[Bangai-O]]
< *** [[Mr Heli]]
< ** [[/Scrolling shooters|more...]]
< ** [[/FPS|FIRST PERSON SHOOTERS]] (FPS) just six examples:
< *** [[Quake]] series
< *** [[Unreal]] series
< *** [[Half Life]]
< *** [[Doom]] series
< *** [[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
< *** [[Duke Nukem 3D]] series
< ** [[/FPS|more...]]
---
> [[/Scrolling shooters|SCROLLING]]
> :[[Space Invaders]]
> :[[R-Type]] series
> :[[Gradius]] series
> :[[Radiant Silvergun]]
> :[[Bangai-O]]
> :[[Mr Heli]]
> :[[/Scrolling shooters|more]]
> 
> [[/FPS|FIRST PERSON SHOOTERS]] (FPS)
> :[[Quake]] series
> :[[Unreal]] series
> :[[Half Life]]
> :[[Doom]] series
> :[[Castle Wolfenstein]] series
> :[[Duke Nukem 3D]] series
> :[[/FPS|more]]
42a45
> [[/Strategy|STRATEGY]]
44,56c47,59
< * [[/Strategy|STRATEGY]]
< ** [[/Turn based|TURN BASED]] just three examples:
< *** [[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
< *** [[Battle Isle]] series
< *** [[Alpha Centauri/Videogame|Alpha Centauri]]
< ** [[/Real time|REAL TIME]] (RTS) just six examples:
< *** [[Dune/Videogame|Dune]] series
< *** [[Command and Conquer]]
< *** [[Red Alert]]
< *** [[Dark Reign]]
< *** [[Populous]] series
< *** [[StarCraft]]
< ** [[/Real time|more...]]
---
> [[/Turn based|TURN BASED]]
> :[[Civilization/video game|Civilization]] series
> :[[Battle Isle]] series
> :[[Alpha Centauri/Videogame|Alpha Centauri]]
> 
> [[/Real time|REAL TIME]] (RTS)
> :[[Dune/Videogame|Dune]] series
> :[[Command and Conquer]]
> :[[Red Alert]]
> :[[Dark Reign]]
> :[[Populous]] series
> :[[StarCraft]]
> :[[/Real time|more]]
58,66c61,68
< 
< * [[/Platform|PLATFORM]] just six examples:
< ** [[Super Mario]] series
< ** [[Sonic|Sonic the Hedgehog]] series
< ** [[Lionheart]]
< ** [[Wario Land]] series
< ** [[Metroid]]
< ** [[Mega Man]]
< * [[/Platform|more...]]
---
> [[/Platform|PLATFORM]]
> :[[Super Mario]] series
> :[[Sonic|Sonic the Hedgehog]] series
> :[[Lionheart]]
> :[[Wario Land]] series
> :[[Metroid]]
> :[[Mega Man]]
> :[[/Platform|more]]
68,76c70,77
< 
< * [[/Puzzle|PUZZLE]] just six examples:
< ** [[Tetris]]
< ** [[ChuChu Rocket]]
< ** [[Mr Driller]]
< ** [[Snakes/Videogame|Snakes]]
< ** [[Bust A Move]]
< ** [[Columns]]
< * [[/Puzzle|more...]]
---
> [[/Puzzle|PUZZLE]]
> :[[Tetris]]
> :[[ChuChu Rocket]]
> :[[Mr Driller]]
> :[[Snake/Videogame|Snakes]]
> :[[Bust A Move]]
> :[[Columns]]
> :[[/Puzzle|more]]
78,86c79,86
< 
< * [[/Beat em ups|BEAT 'EM UPS]] just six examples:
< ** [[Street Fighter]] series
< ** [[Virtua Fighter]] series
< ** [[King of the Monsters]] series
< ** [[Mortal Kombat]]
< ** [[Powerstone]]
< ** [[Tekken]]
< * [[/Beat em ups|more...]]
---
> [[/Beat em ups|BEAT 'EM UPS]]
> :[[Street Fighter]] series
> :[[Virtua Fighter]] series
> :[[King of the Monsters]] series
> :[[Mortal Kombat]]
> :[[Powerstone]]
> :[[Tekken]]
> :[[/Beat em ups|more]]
------
Mexican_food|987626736
3,6c3,4
< It's origin is a complex mixture of the traditions of the original inhabitants (mainly [[Aztec]]s) with the culinary
< trends brought by the Spanish [[conquistador]]es.
< The food varies according to the region, depending on the original population, and the influence by Spaniards and others,
< to which it was exposed.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
---
> Its origin is a complex mixture of the traditions of the original inhabitants (mainly [[Aztec]]s) with the culinary trends brought by the Spanish [[conquistador]]es.
> The food varies according to the region, depending on the original population, and the influence by Spaniards and others, to which such regions were exposed.  For example, the north of Mexico is known for its beef production and meat dishes.
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987626917
16c16,22
< But, nevertheless, in forming general statements, we have to be led by the overall trend, appropriately qualified.  Uniformly, more freedom is better for prosperity, <i>ex ante</i>.  Perhaps the US would be wealthier in the short run if we made some brilliant person dictator of the economy (oh, we have, Greenspan ;-)), but that doesn't make the system better off.  Sometimes people play Russian Roulette and don't die... doesn't make it a good strategy for survival.</b>
---
> But, nevertheless, in forming general statements, we have to be led by the overall trend, appropriately qualified.  Uniformly, more freedom is better for prosperity, <i>ex ante</i>.  Perhaps the US would be wealthier in the short run if we made some brilliant person dictator of the economy (oh, we have, Greenspan ;-)), but that doesn't make the system better off.  Sometimes people play Russian Roulette and don't die... doesn't make it a good strategy for survival.</b>
> 
> ''There are two different things to consider here, though - that the USSR was socialist and that it was totalitarian.  Most of the evils of that country can be attributed to the latter, but we are discussing the former, so as noone has offered an example of a democratic socialism we should try and dissociate the two.''
> 
> ''Now you have claimed that the industrialization of the country was due to the technological advancement of the west.  But the west had been industrialized for a century or two already, and Russia remained largely agragarian - why is it that only after Stalin came to power did this have any effect?  It certainly is not that Stalin was a brilliant dictator, because even placing his mass slaughters aside, he was merely competent at best.  If socialism is non-workable you should offer some sort of reason as to why such advancements were timed precisely with its inception.''
> 
> ''As for the current system of the former USSR, what is non-capitalist about it?  And as capitalism was obviously the intent, what went wrong?''
------
Zodiac/signs|987626998
13c13
< [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpio]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricorn]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
---
> [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpius]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricorn]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
------
Scorpio|987627074
1,3c1
< The scorpion
< 
< continue...
---
> Latin for scorpion, and thereby the traditional name of one of the [[constellation]]s.  The IAU, however, has officially (though for little apparent reason) changed the name to [[Scorpius]].
------
Scorpius|987627107
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The scorpion, formerly called [[Scorpio]].
------
Multiple_Sclerosis|987627392
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A disorder of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which is charactherised by decreased nerve function due to myelin loss and secondary axonal damage. 
> Symptoms of multiple sclerosis develop as a result of multiple lesions in the brain and spinal cord and the gradual destruction of myelin, a fatty substance that covers the nerve fibers. The patients’ symptoms vary depending on the areas of the brain or spinal cord affected. It is diagnosed most frequently between 20 to 40 years old and is one of the major causes of disability in adults. 
> The disease usually progresses in a stepwise fashion and complete recoveries are quite typical at the beginning. However, a great majority of patients end up with permanent disability due to accumulating myelin loss and axonal damage. 
> Myelin destruction is now known to occur due to an autoimmune attack (a kind of inflammation resulting from antibodies or lymphocytes that the body produces against its own tissues). The exact cause of this inflammation is not known. Patients may present with a wide variety of symptoms, such as loss of vision, double vision, nystagmus, difficulty with speech, tremors, unsteady gait or numbness. 
> The reasons of disability are not only the neurologic symptoms but also various complications such as muscle spasticity, fatigue, urinary incontinence and depression.
> There is no known definite cure for multiple sclerosis. Treatment is aimed maintaining the maximum quality of life. Medications to stop autoimmunity include corticosteroids, azathioprin and interferon beta.
------
Gratis|987627444
1c1
< "Gratis" is a term in Spanish meaning that you don't have to pay a thing for getting something.
---
> "Gratis" is a term in Latin and various derivative languages (eg Spanish, French) meaning free, in the sense that you don't have to pay a thing for getting something.
------
Poker|987627493
22,25d21
< 
< Also related:
< * bad beat
< 
------
Libre|987627507
1c1
< "Libre" is a term in spanish that denotes the state of being free, as in "having freedom".
---
> "Libre" is a term in various [[romance languages]], eg spanish and french (but not Latin itself, where the spelling is ''Liber'') that denotes the state of being free, as in "having freedom".
------
Zodiac/signs|987627585
13c13
< [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpius]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricorn]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
---
> [[Zodiac]] signs: [[Aries]] -- [[Taurus]] -- [[Gemini]] -- [[Cancer]] -- [[Leo]] -- [[Virgo]] -- [[Libra]] -- [[Scorpius]] -- [[Sagittarius]] -- [[Capricornus]] -- [[Aquarius]] -- [[Pisces]]
------
Capricorn|987627636
1,3c1
< The goat
< 
< continue
---
> #REDIRECT [[Capricornus]]
------
Capricornus|987627684
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
------
Poker_jargon|987627687
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The large and growing jargon of [[poker]] includes these terms:
> 
> '''Bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.
> 
> 
> 
------
Poker_jargon|987627776
3c3,4
< '''Bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.
---
> '''Bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.  '''Bad beat stories''' are frequent topics of conversation at poker tables.  [[Lou Krieger]] started a tradition among some players of charging $1 to listen to one.
> 
------
Poker_jargon|987627907
1,4c1
< The large and growing jargon of [[poker]] includes these terms:
< 
< '''Bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.  '''Bad beat stories''' are frequent topics of conversation at poker tables.  [[Lou Krieger]] started a tradition among some players of charging $1 to listen to one.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Poker/Jargon]]
------
Bulldogging|987628421
3c3,7
< Bill Picket invented the sport of bulldogging in 19??.
---
> The preferred method of wrestling the steer to the ground is to lean from the galloping horse which is running beside the steer, transferring the weight of the upper body to the neck of the steer, with one hand on the near horn of the steer and the far horn grasped in the crook of the other elbow.  One then drops one's feet from the horse, digging the heels into the ground in front of the steer, to cause a braking action to bring the animal to a stop.  Twisting the head of the steer toward one by pushing down with the near hand and pulling up and in with the far elbow, causes the steer to become unbalanced and fall to the ground.
> 
> Rules of the sport include:  The bulldogger's horse must not break the rope barrier in front of it at the beginning of a run, but must wait for the animal escaping from the adjacent chute to release the rope.  If the steer stumbles or falls before the bulldogger brings it down, he must either wait for it to rise or help it up before wrestling it to the ground.
> 
> Bill Picket invented the sport of bulldogging in 19??.  
------
Scheme|987628442
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scheme is a computer language of the Lisp family.  -- [Marco Maggesi]
> 
------
Marco_Maggesi|987628762
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Personal Details'''
> 
> * Name: Marco Maggesi
> * Home page: http://www.math.unifi.it/~maggesi/
> * Email: maggesi ''at'' math.unifi.it
> 
> '''Diary'''
> 
> * 2001/04/18:  Created this page and [[Scheme]].
------
Poker/Jargon|987628864
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The large and growing jargon of [[poker]] includes many terms.  Not included below are those terms whose meanings are obvious or not specifically poker-related.  Also varous [[poker hand]]s have been given many names, and these are listed in [[Slang poker hand names]].
> 
> ----
> 
> '''A-B-C''', '''A-B-C-D''': a sequence of the lowest cards in a [[lowball]] game.  For example, the hand '''8-6-3-2-A''' might be called "eight-six-a-b-c".
> 
> '''aces and spaces''': A hand with [[/One pair]] of aces, and nothing else.  Used in a derogatory sense, especially in games such as [[Seven-card stud]] where [[/Two pair]] is a typical winning hand.
> 
> '''action player''': A less skillful player who bets and calls frequently with inferior hands.
> 
> '''advertising''': To make an obvious bad play to give opponents a mistaken impression of your skills or habits.
> 
> '''air''': In a [[lowball]] game, "giving air" is letting an opponent know that you intend to draw one or more cards to induce him to call.
> 
> '''all blue/all pink''': A [[/Flush]], "blue" usually referring to black suits and "pink" to red ones.  Occasionally one sees "all green" and "all purple".
> 
> '''ammo''', '''ammunition''': Chips.
> 
> '''angle''': A legal, but borderline unethical, play.  For example, an intentional [[/String raise]], or deliberately miscalling one's ownhand to induce a fold.  A player employing such tacticts is called an '''angle shooter'''.
> 
> ----
> 
> '''bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.  '''Bad beat stories''' are frequent topics of conversation at poker tables.  [[Lou Krieger]] started a tradition among some players of charging $1 to listen to one.
> 
------
Scheme|987628913
1c1
< Scheme is a computer language of the Lisp family.  -- [Marco Maggesi]
---
> Scheme is a dialect of [[Lisp]].
------
Scheme|987629251
1c1
< Scheme is a dialect of [[Lisp]].
---
> Scheme is a [[dialect]] of [[Lisp]].
------
Seljuk_Turks|987630754
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Seljuks are originally Turkish tribespeople, who migrated into western Asia in the 10th century by fighting with various tribes on their way. They accepted Sunni Islam and founded dynasties in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia. The Seljuk Empire’s lands covered approximately today’s Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Turkey, all Middle East and a part of Arabian peninsula. The founder of the dynasty Seljuk and his tribe belonged to Oghuz (Oðuz) Turks which can be regarded as the ancestors of Western Turks (today’s Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan). They and their descendants (e.g. Ottoman Empire) played a major role in medieval ages by setting a barrier against the Mongol onslaught, defending Islamic world against Crusaders and giving an end to the Byzantium Empire. The fact that they embraced Sunni Islam and defended it with an irresistable power is one of the reasons why this branch is the major and most populous division of Islam.
------
Poker/Jargon|987631076
9c9
< '''action player''': A less skillful player who bets and calls frequently with inferior hands.
---
> '''action player''': Euphemism for a less skillful player who bets and calls frequently with inferior hands.
15c15
< '''all blue/all pink''': A [[/Flush]], "blue" usually referring to black suits and "pink" to red ones.  Occasionally one sees "all green" and "all purple".
---
> '''all blue/all pink''': A [[/Flush]], "blue" usually referring to black suits and "pink" to red ones.  Occasionally one hears "all green" or "all purple".
19c19
< '''angle''': A legal, but borderline unethical, play.  For example, an intentional [[/String raise]], or deliberately miscalling one's ownhand to induce a fold.  A player employing such tacticts is called an '''angle shooter'''.
---
> '''angle''': A legal, but borderline unethical, play.  For example, deliberately miscalling one's own hand to induce a fold.  A player employing such tacticts is called an '''angle shooter'''.
22a23,26
> '''baby''': A low-ranked card, usually used in [[lowball]] games.
> 
> '''backdoor''': A draw requiring two or more rounds to fill.  For example, catching two consecutive cards in two rounds of [[Seven-card stud]] or [[Texas holdem]] to fill a [[/Straight]] or [[/Flush]].  The term can also apply to a hand made other than the had the player intended to make: ''I started with four hearts hoping for a flush, but I backdoored two kings and my trips won.''
> 
23a28,46
> 
> '''belly buster''': Also called a '''gut shot''' or '''inside straight'''; a drawing hand such as '''K-Q-10-9''', which only one rank of card (in this case, a '''J''') can complete to a [[/Straight]].  Compare with '''bobtail'''.
> 
> '''bicycle''', '''bicycle wheel''': A [[/Wheel]].
> 
> '''blank''': Also '''brick'''; a card, frequently a [[/Community card]], of no apparent value.  ''I suspected Margaret had a good draw, but the river card was a blank, so I bet again.''
> 
> '''bobtail''': A outside [[/Straight]] draw such as '''10-9-8-7''', that can be filled by either of two ranks.  Occasionally used to refer to a four-card [[/Flush]] draw as well.
> 
> '''boxed card''': A card encountered face-up in the assembled deck during the deal.
> 
> '''break''': In a [[draw poker]] game, to discard cards that make a hand in the hope of making a much better one.  For example, a player with '''J-J-10-9-8''' may wish to break his jacks to draw for the straight, and a [[lowball]] player may break his 9-high '''9-5-4-2-A''' to draw for the [[/Wheel]].
> 
> '''brick''': A '''blank'', though more often used in the derogatory sense of a card that is undesirable rather than merely inconsequential.
> 
> '''broadway''': An ace-high [[/Straight]].  A '''broadway card''' is any card that might make such a straight, namely a '''10''', '''J''', '''Q''', '''K''', or '''A'''.
> 
> 
> 
------
Poker/Jargon|987631135
41c41
< '''brick''': A '''blank'', though more often used in the derogatory sense of a card that is undesirable rather than merely inconsequential.
---
> '''brick''': A '''blank''', though more often used in the derogatory sense of a card that is undesirable rather than merely inconsequential.
------
Seljuk_Turks|987631278
1c1,4
< Seljuks are originally Turkish tribespeople, who migrated into western Asia in the 10th century by fighting with various tribes on their way. They accepted Sunni Islam and founded dynasties in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia. The Seljuk Empire’s lands covered approximately today’s Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Turkey, all Middle East and a part of Arabian peninsula. The founder of the dynasty Seljuk and his tribe belonged to Oghuz (Oðuz) Turks which can be regarded as the ancestors of Western Turks (today’s Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan). They and their descendants (e.g. Ottoman Empire) played a major role in medieval ages by setting a barrier against the Mongol onslaught, defending Islamic world against Crusaders and giving an end to the Byzantium Empire. The fact that they embraced Sunni Islam and defended it with an irresistable power is one of the reasons why this branch is the major and most populous division of Islam.
---
> Seljuks are originally Turkish tribespeople, who migrated into western Asia in the 10th century by fighting with various tribes on their way. They accepted Sunni Islam and founded dynasties in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria and Anatolia. The Seljuk Empire’s lands covered approximately today’s Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Turkey, all Middle East and a part of Arabian peninsula. The founder of the dynasty Seljuk and his tribe belonged to Oghuz (Oðuz) Turks which can be regarded as the ancestors of Western Turks (today’s Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan). They and their descendants (e.g. Ottoman Empire) played a major role in medieval ages by setting a barrier against the Mongol onslaught, defending Islamic world against Crusaders and giving an end to the Byzantium Empire. The fact that they embraced Sunni Islam and defended it with an irresistable power is one of the reasons why this branch is the major and most populous division of Islam.
> 
> /Talk
> 
------
Seljuk_Turks/Talk|987631434
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What is the second letter of "Oðuz" supposed to be?  As encoded, it appears as the Icelandic/Old English letter "eth", but I wasn't aware that this letter was used in Turkish.  Perhaps your computer uses a non-ISO character set?
------
Minix|987632558
21a22,23
> 
> ok - retracted.
------
Seljuk_Turks/Talk|987632590
1a2,5
> 
> Nevermind, I found a good resource [http://www.turkishlingua.com/alphabet.html here].  I'll add a paragraph about Turkish to the [[Wiki special characters]] page.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> 
------
Slang_poker_hand_names|987632623
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>dead man's hand</b> - 10 J Q K A all spades
------
Minix|987632805
13d12
< A point of contention here: 
15,24d13
< Andrew Tannenbaum is a faculty member of a university and invaringly the actual operating system code was not written by him but by his graduate students.
< 
< This is a real big whitewash and false attribution that happens every day in academia.
< 
< A common practice is to have the thesis/dissertation advisor sign onto every paper published by any graduate student he advises and thus gain recognition for the student's work and contribute little to the published work.
< 
< I do not understand what invaringly means but I can say that in this case [[Andrew S. Tannenbaum]] states in the Preface of the book that: "Although I personally wrote the entire 12,000 lines of the operating system proper, a number of other people have contributed utility programs that are included in the distribution." ... I think this is enough to give him credit as author. [[LinusTolke]]
< 
< ok - retracted.
< ----
------
Minix|987632823
14c14
< A second point of contention is that Minix is a historical operating system and should not necessarily be used for research/hobby purposes.  Linux or a modern stripped down unix like os would be better than minix.
---
> A point of contention is that Minix is a historical operating system and should not necessarily be used for research/hobby purposes.  Linux or a modern stripped down unix like os would be better than minix.
------
Scheme|987632872
1c1,3
< Scheme is a [[dialect]] of [[Lisp]].
---
> Scheme is a programming language derrived off of and similar to  [[Lisp]].
> 
> 
------
Scheme|987632886
1c1
< Scheme is a programming language derrived off of and similar to  [[Lisp]].
---
> Scheme is a [[programming language]] derrived off of and similar to  [[Lisp]].
------
Poker/Jargon|987632992
27a28
> In some casinos, there is a bad beat jackpot that will be won by the player that loses in a bad beat.  Usually, a bad beat jackpot is won by a player holding 4 of a kind and is beat by a royal straight flush.
------
Scheme|987633021
1c1
< Scheme is a [[programming language]] derrived off of and similar to  [[Lisp]].
---
> Scheme is a [[programming language]] derived from and similar to  [[Lisp]].
------
Slang_poker_hand_names|987633218
1c1,3
< <b>dead man's hand</b> - 10 J Q K A all spades
---
> Many individual cards and hands have slang names in [[poker]].  Some examples:
> 
> ''dead man's hand'': Two pair, aces and eights.  This is the hand held by "Wild" Bill Hickok when he was shot and killed.  The fifth card is unclear in historical records.
------
Slang_poker_hand_names|987633231
3c3
< ''dead man's hand'': Two pair, aces and eights.  This is the hand held by "Wild" Bill Hickok when he was shot and killed.  The fifth card is unclear in historical records.
---
> '''dead man's hand''': Two pair, aces and eights.  This is the hand held by "Wild" Bill Hickok when he was shot and killed.  The fifth card is unclear in historical records.
------
Poker/Jargon|987633385
27,28c27
< '''bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.  '''Bad beat stories''' are frequent topics of conversation at poker tables.  [[Lou Krieger]] started a tradition among some players of charging $1 to listen to one.
< In some casinos, there is a bad beat jackpot that will be won by the player that loses in a bad beat.  Usually, a bad beat jackpot is won by a player holding 4 of a kind and is beat by a royal straight flush.
---
> '''bad beat''': An event in which a player with a high expectation of winning the pot loses.  This expectation may be based on having an unusually strong hand beaten by and even stronger one, or by having an opposing player make an extremely unlikely draw.  '''Bad beat stories''' are frequent topics of conversation at poker tables.  [[Lou Krieger]] started a tradition among some players of charging $1 to listen to one.  In some casinos there is a '''bad beat jackpot''' awarded to a player who suffers a particular beat, for example, having [[/Four of a kind]] beaten.
------
Alaska|987633480
12a13,14
> 
> The National Statuary Hall of the United States of America is part of the Capitol in Washington, DC.  Each state selected distinguished citizens and provided statues.  Most states have two.  Alaska has one.  The statue is of E.L. (Bob) Bartlett  (1904-68) one of the original U S senators from Alaska.  He was the territorial delegate to the US Congress from 1944 to 1958, and was elected as the fist senior US senator in 1958 and re-elected in 1964.  There are streets, buildings, and even the first state ferry also named for him.
------
Wiki_special_characters|987633651
6a7,8
> Generally speaking, Western European languages such as Spanish, French, and German pose few problems.  For specific details about other langauges, see: [[/Turkish]] (more will be added to this list as contributors in other languages appear).
> 
------
Marco_Maggesi|987634545
9a10,12
> 
> '''Wikipedia Bookmarks'''
> * [[Scheme]]
------
Seljuk_Turks/Talk|987634982
5c5,6
< 
---
> -----------------
> Good idea. This letter is named as soft G in Turkish. It is not possible to describe its pronunciation, because there is no sound like it in English. On the other hand it can not be pronounced alone without a concomitant vowel. It is half a vowel and half a consonent. You can imitate this sound, if you imagine how you gargle water in your throat. It also resembles R in the way French people pronounce it. --[[ErdemTuzun]]
------
Scheme|987635240
4a5,13
> From http://www.swiss.ai.mit.edu/projects/scheme/
> 
> 
> : Scheme is a [[statically scoped]] and properly [[tail-recursive|tail recursive]] dialect of the [[Lisp]] [[programming language]] invented by [[Guy Lewis Steele Jr.]] and [[Gerald Jay Sussman]]. It was designed to have an exceptionally clear and simple semantics and few different ways to form expressions. A wide variety of [[programming paradigm]]s, including imperative, functional, and message passing styles, find convenient expression in Scheme. 
> 
> : Scheme was one of the first programming languages to incorporate [[first class procedure]]s as in the [[lambda calculus]], thereby proving the usefulness of [[static scope rules]] and block structure in a [[dynamically typed language]]. Scheme was the first major dialect of Lisp to distinguish procedures from [[lambda expressions and symbol]]s, to use a single lexical environment for all variables, and to evaluate the operator position of a procedure call in the same way as an operand position. By relying entirely on procedure calls to express iteration, Scheme emphasized the fact that tail-recursive procedure calls are essentially goto's that pass arguments. Scheme was the first widely used programming language to embrace first class [[escape procedure]]s, from which all previously known sequential control structures can be synthesized. More recently, building upon the design of generic arithmetic in [[Common Lisp]], Scheme introduced the concept of exact and inexact numbers. 
> 
> : Scheme recently became the first programming language to support [[hygienic macros]], which permit the syntax of a block-structured language to be extended reliably. 
> 
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987635317
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [http://www.turkishlingua.com/alphabet.html Turkish alphabet] contains six letters not present in standard ISO 8859-1, and that will therefore present problems for Wikipedia use: Dotted uppercase "I", dotless lowercase "i", upper- and lowercase "G" with breve accent, and upper- and lowercase "S" with cedilla.
> 
> Turkish computers frequently use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters eth, thorn, and y with acute accent are replaced with the needed turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
> 
> Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit numeric character entity references, which do not work well in any browser that I am aware of, despite being the official standard.  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes:
> 
> <code><pre>
>   &amp;#x011E;    Uppercase "G" with breve accent
>   &amp;#x0130;    Uppercase dotted "I"
>   &amp;#x015E;    Uppercase "S" with cedilla
>   &amp;#x011F;    Lowercase "g" with breve accent
>   &amp;#x0131;    Lowercase dotless "i"
>   &amp;#x015F;    Lowercase "s" with cedilla
> </pre></code>
> 
> 
------
Seljuk_Turks/Talk|987635477
6a7,10
> 
> ----
> Is there a standard way to anglicize the six problematic letters mentioned in [[Wiki special characters/Turkish]]?  If so, please add that there--I know character sets well, but I don't know enough about the language to make appropriate recommendations.
> 
------
Marco_Maggesi|987635551
12a13,14
> ** [[call-with-current-continuation]]
> 
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987635674
3c3
< Turkish computers frequently use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters eth, thorn, and y with acute accent are replaced with the needed turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
---
> Turkish computers frequently use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters "eth", "thorn", and "y with acute accent" are replaced with the needed Turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987635708
5c5
< Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit numeric character entity references, which do not work well in any browser that I am aware of, despite being the official standard.  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes:
---
> Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in any browser that I am aware of, despite being the official standard.  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes:
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987635869
3c3
< Turkish computers frequently use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters "eth", "thorn", and "y with acute accent" are replaced with the needed Turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
---
> Turkish computers may use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters "eth", "thorn", and "y with acute accent" are replaced with the needed Turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
------
Seljuk_Turks/Talk|987636276
10a11,17
> ------
> I am not aware of a standard way. I'll look for it. But shortly, there are no easy ways for anglicizing the uppercase or lowercase letters g with breve accent and lowercase dotless i.
> Uppercase and lowercase s with cedilla are pronounced in the same way and it can be written as "sh" (like the last sound of English). Uppercase dotted i is simply pronounced like English letter "e".--[[ErdemTuzun]]
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Jimbo_Wales|987637303
59a60,61
> 
> Well, my thinking is that the Wikipedia obviously can't endorse this bill of rights, but I don't see any reason why we can't report on it.
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987637770
13a14,18
> 
> <i>Well, I disagree.  There is nothing on this page about the right to own guns.  Nor should there be anything on this page about politics.  It isn't that sort of page.
> 
> I disagree very strongly, not that it is relevant here, that "one of the greatest assurances of gun safety is not to own one."  Particularly for those who are more likely to be victimized by violent crime (including women and the disabled, for example) a gun is an excellent tool for self-defense.  But, this page isn't the right place for me to make that kind of claim. --[[Jimbo Wales]]</i>
> 
16c21,24
< 
---
> ----
> I'm going to rewrite it some more, in an attempt to justify moving all aspects of the political debate away from this page.
> But please, all, regard my changes as provisional (of course!), and change it back if you feel that my rendering is not fair.
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Gun_safety|987638032
1,3d0
< Political issues involving guns (''gun control'') are at [[Gun/Politics]].
< 
< ----
4a2,3
> It presumes that you have a gun, which may or may not be loaded.  
> That is, <i>if</i> you have a gun, <i>then</i> these rules apply.  The choice of whether or not to have a gun is beyond the scope of this page.  Political issues involving guns ("gun rights" versus "gun control") are at [[Gun/Politics]].
7,8d5
< 
< Some may advise other safety rules, such as always keeping a gun unloaded until one is ready to use it.  Furthermore, there are many advocates for banning the private ownership of guns altogether, or restricting ownership to police, the military, and other limited groups.  See [[Gun control]].
------
Gun_safety/Talk|987638208
10a11,19
> 
> <i>I just omitted this one altogether.  I don't think it should be omitted altogether, but I fear that including it, along with my explanation of it, will be more controversial than just leaving it out.  I seek advise on this.
> 
> I would like to say:
> 
> "Another rule which is sometimes suggested is that a gun ought to be kept unloaded until you are going to use it.  This is very good advice, if understood broadly.  For example, just as a smoke detector is constantly 'in use' in a sense, even when there is no fire, a gun carried or kept in the home for self-defense is also constantly 'in use' even when there is no criminal attack underway.  Such guns should be stored and handled safely, but loaded."
> 
> Like I say, I think that would be more controversial than just leaving it out, even though it is good advice.  :-(
> 
------
Gun/Politics|987638494
1c1,9
< This page is a catch - all for political aspects of guns.
---
> 
> I will kick off this page with a few prominent names of academic researchers into the effects of guns on crime and safety.
> 
> :[[Gary Kleck]]
> :[[Arthur Kellerman]]
> :[[John Lott]]
> :[[David Mustard]]
> :[[Michael Bellesiles]]
> 
------
Gun/Politics|987639374
1d0
< 
8a8,16
> 
> Might as well link to the major combatants until we have more of our own stuff:
> 
> :[http://www.handguncontrol.org/ Handgun Control]
> :[http://www.cphv.org/ Center to Prevent Handgun Violence]
> :[http://www.nra.org/ National Rifle Association]
> :[http://www.rkba.org/ rkba.org]
> 
> 
------
Bulldogging|987640922
7c7
< Bill Picket invented the sport of bulldogging in 19??.  
---
> Bill Pickett invented the sport of bulldogging near the end of the 1800's, and introduced it to the world as a part of his act in the 101 Wild West Show in 1905.  His version of the sport was performed on longhorn steers.  After having grasped the horns of the fleeing animal, he would twist its head skyward and bite its upper lip in order to subdue it, af ther the fashion of the cowdog breed known as bulldogs.  This is where the sport got its name.  Pickett died at age 70, after having been kicked in the head while working horses at the 101 Ranch.  Will Rogers announced his funeral on the radio.
------
Bulldogging|987641116
1c1
< <b>Bulldogging</b> is a [[rodeo]] sport where a [[steer]] is released from a chute and a horse mounted rider chases the steer, jumps off of the horse next to the steer, and wrestles the steer to the ground by twisting its horns.
---
> <b>Bulldogging</b> is a [[rodeo]] sport where a [[steer]] is released from a chute and a horse-mounted rider chases the steer, jumps off of the horse next to the steer, and wrestles the steer to the ground by twisting its horns.
------
Bulldogging|987641205
7c7
< Bill Pickett invented the sport of bulldogging near the end of the 1800's, and introduced it to the world as a part of his act in the 101 Wild West Show in 1905.  His version of the sport was performed on longhorn steers.  After having grasped the horns of the fleeing animal, he would twist its head skyward and bite its upper lip in order to subdue it, af ther the fashion of the cowdog breed known as bulldogs.  This is where the sport got its name.  Pickett died at age 70, after having been kicked in the head while working horses at the 101 Ranch.  Will Rogers announced his funeral on the radio.
---
> Bill Pickett invented the sport of bulldogging near the end of the 1800's, and introduced it to the world as a part of his act in the 101 Wild West Show in 1905.  His version of the sport was performed on longhorn steers.  After having grasped the horns of the fleeing animal, he would twist its head skyward and bite its upper lip in order to subdue it, after the fashion of the cowdog breed known as bulldogs.  This is where the sport got its name.  Pickett died at age 70, after having been kicked in the head while working horses at the 101 Ranch.  Will Rogers announced his funeral on the radio.
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987641936
5c5
< Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in any browser that I am aware of, despite being the official standard.  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes:
---
> You can check what your browser displays for these six positions in the standard ISO set here: '''&#xD0; &#xDD; &#xDE; &#xF0; &#xFD; &#xFE;''' ''should'' appear as Eth, Y-acute, Thorn, eth, y-acute, thorn.  If your system is using the Turkish 8859-9 set and ignoring the server instructions, these will appear as G-breve, I-dot, S-cedilla, g-breve, dotless-i, s-cedilla.
7,14c7
< <code><pre>
<   &amp;#x011E;    Uppercase "G" with breve accent
<   &amp;#x0130;    Uppercase dotted "I"
<   &amp;#x015E;    Uppercase "S" with cedilla
<   &amp;#x011F;    Lowercase "g" with breve accent
<   &amp;#x0131;    Lowercase dotless "i"
<   &amp;#x015F;    Lowercase "s" with cedilla
< </pre></code>
---
> Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in most browsers that I am aware of, despite being the official standard (IE 5.0 on Windows NT does display these using the standard supplied font).  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes (the characters themselves appear after each code so you can see what your browser does with them):
15a9,10
> <code><pre>
>  HTML code      Description
16a12,18
>   &amp;#x11E;   &#x011E;   Uppercase "G" with breve accent
>   &amp;#x130;   &#x0130;   Uppercase dotted "I"
>   &amp;#x15E;   &#x015E;   Uppercase "S" with cedilla
>   &amp;#x11F;   &#x011F;   Lowercase "g" with breve accent
>   &amp;#x131;   &#x0131;   Lowercase dotless "i"
>   &amp;#x15F;   &#x015F;   Lowercase "s" with cedilla
> </pre></code>
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987642021
7c7
< Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in most browsers that I am aware of, despite being the official standard (IE 5.0 on Windows NT does display these using the standard supplied font).  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes (the characters themselves appear after each code so you can see what your browser does with them):
---
> Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in most browsers that I am aware of, despite being the official standard (IE 5.0 on Windows NT does display these using the standard supplied Unicode fonts).  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes (the characters themselves appear after each code so you can see what your browser does with them):
------
Wiki_special_characters/Turkish|987642656
3c3
< Turkish computers may use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters "eth", "thorn", and "y with acute accent" are replaced with the needed Turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so these characters may not appear correctly.  This may be acceptable for occasional use, such as listing a Turkish name in parentheses after the anglicized name used elsewhere in the article; use your judgment.
---
> Turkish computers may use character set ISO 8859-9 ("Latin 5"), which is identical to Latin 1 except that the rarely-used Icelandic characters "eth", "thorn", and "y with acute accent" are replaced with the needed Turkish characters.  If you are reading Turkish text in Wikipedia, when you see these Icelandic characters they are probably meant to be the Turkish ones (users with Turkish computers may or may not see them properly).  If you are entering Turkish text into Wikipedia, be aware that the Bomis server identifies web pages as ISO 8859-1, and there is no way to override this, so even if these characters appear correct to you, they are not properly encoded from the point of view of a non-Turkish Wiki reader.
5c5
< You can check what your browser displays for these six positions in the standard ISO set here: '''&#xD0; &#xDD; &#xDE; &#xF0; &#xFD; &#xFE;''' ''should'' appear as Eth, Y-acute, Thorn, eth, y-acute, thorn.  If your system is using the Turkish 8859-9 set and ignoring the server instructions, these will appear as G-breve, I-dot, S-cedilla, g-breve, dotless-i, s-cedilla.
---
> You can check what your browser displays for these six positions in the standard ISO set here: '''&#xD0; &#xDD; &#xDE; &#xF0; &#xFD; &#xFE;''' ''should'' appear as Eth, Y-acute, Thorn, eth, y-acute, thorn.  If your system is using the Turkish 8859-9 set and ignoring the server instructions, these will appear as G-breve, I-dot, S-cedilla, g-breve, dotless-i, s-cedilla.  Ironically, if these characters do appear to you as Turkish letters, it means they are incorrectly encoded.
7c7
< Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in most browsers that I am aware of, despite being the official standard (IE 5.0 on Windows NT does display these using the standard supplied Unicode fonts).  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes (the characters themselves appear after each code so you can see what your browser does with them):
---
> Further, [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] does not specify named character entities for these characters, so they cannot be entered into Wikipedia text in any portable way except 16-bit [[Unicode]] numeric character entity references, which do not work well in most browsers that I am aware of, despite being the official standard.  Consider anglicizing these characters.  If you really must enter Turkish words with these characters into Wikipedia, to maintain data integrity at the expense of readability, use the following codes (the characters themselves appear after each code so you can see what your browser does with them):
18a19,20
> 
> These codes will probably appear incorrectly on most browsers, even though they are according to standards.  They are, however, totally unambiguous, and so will appear correctly as users upgrade to more compliant software.  IE 5.0 on Windows NT, for example, does display these using the standard supplied Unicode fonts.  Their incorrect appearance on older browsers may be acceptable in some situations, such as when an anglicized name is followed by a parenthesized Turkish equivalent as extra information not crucial to the article itself.
------
Cheese|987656400
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia is better with cheese.  Types of cheese include:
> 
>  [[/Austrian|Austrian]]
>  [[/Bel Paese|Bel Paese]]
>  [[/Bres Bleu|Bres Bleu]]
>  [[/Brie|Brie]]
>  [[/Bruson|Bruson]]
>  [[/Caerphilly|Caerphilly]]
>  [[/Camenbert|Camenbert]]
>  [[/Carrier de lest|Carrier de lest]]
>  [[/Case Ness|Case Ness]]
>  [[/Cheddar|Cheddar]]
>  [[/Cheshire|Cheshire]]
>  [[/Czech sheeps milk|Czech sheep's milk]]
>  [[/Danish Bimbo|Danish Bimbo]]
>  [[/Danish Brew|Danish Brew]]
>  [[/Dorset Bluveny|Dorset Bluveny]]
>  [[/Double Goucester|Double Goucester]]
>  [[/Edam|Edam]]
>  [[/Ementhal|Ementhal]]
>  [[/Gorgonzola|Gorgonzola]]
>  [[/Gouda|Gouda]]
>  [[/Greek Feta|Greek Feta]]
>  [[/Gruyere|Gruyere]]
>  [[/Illchester|'Illchester]]
>  [[/Japanese Sage Darby|Japanese Sage Darby]]
>  [[/Lancashire|Lancashire]]
>  [[/Leicester|Leicester]]
>  [[/Limburger|Limburger]]
>  [[/Lipta|Lipta]]
>  [[/Mozarella|Mozarella]]
>  [[/Norweigan Jarlsburg|Norweigan Jarlsburg]]
>  [[/Paper Cramer|Paper Cramer]]
>  [[/Parmesan|Parmesan]]
>  [[/Paulin|Paulin]]
>  [[/Pol le Veq|Pol le Veq]]
>  [[/Port Salut|Port Salut]]
>  [[/Red Windsor|Red Windsor]]
>  [[/Roquefort|Roquefort]]
>  [[/Saint|Saint]]
>  [[/Savoy Aire|Savoy Aire]]
>  [[/Smoked|Smoked]]
>  [[/Stilton|Stilton]]
>  [[/Tilsit|Tilsit]]
>  [[/Venezuelan Beaver Cheese|Venezuelan Beaver Cheese]]
>  [[/Wensleydale|Wensleydale]]
>  [[/White Stilton|White Stilton]]
------
Scheme|987658781
1,13c1
< Scheme is a [[programming language]] derived from and similar to  [[Lisp]].
< 
< 
< 
< From http://www.swiss.ai.mit.edu/projects/scheme/
< 
< 
< : Scheme is a [[statically scoped]] and properly [[tail-recursive|tail recursive]] dialect of the [[Lisp]] [[programming language]] invented by [[Guy Lewis Steele Jr.]] and [[Gerald Jay Sussman]]. It was designed to have an exceptionally clear and simple semantics and few different ways to form expressions. A wide variety of [[programming paradigm]]s, including imperative, functional, and message passing styles, find convenient expression in Scheme. 
< 
< : Scheme was one of the first programming languages to incorporate [[first class procedure]]s as in the [[lambda calculus]], thereby proving the usefulness of [[static scope rules]] and block structure in a [[dynamically typed language]]. Scheme was the first major dialect of Lisp to distinguish procedures from [[lambda expressions and symbol]]s, to use a single lexical environment for all variables, and to evaluate the operator position of a procedure call in the same way as an operand position. By relying entirely on procedure calls to express iteration, Scheme emphasized the fact that tail-recursive procedure calls are essentially goto's that pass arguments. Scheme was the first widely used programming language to embrace first class [[escape procedure]]s, from which all previously known sequential control structures can be synthesized. More recently, building upon the design of generic arithmetic in [[Common Lisp]], Scheme introduced the concept of exact and inexact numbers. 
< 
< : Scheme recently became the first programming language to support [[hygienic macros]], which permit the syntax of a block-structured language to be extended reliably. 
< 
---
> Scheme is a [[programming language]] derived from and similar to  [[Lisp]].
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987659487
4a5,13
> :I think you are misinterpreting the social dynamic that's going on here, as well as some facts.  First, I thought it was clear from the ''very beginning'' that Wikipedia was intended to be an encyclopedia project.  Your claims are the very first that I've heard that it might ''not'' be an encyclopedia project.  If you thought otherwise, you're simply misinformed.
> 
> :Second, the social dynamic.  I ''don't care'' if you approve or not.  I don't mean this as rudeness in stating it, though: what ''difference'' does it make if you approve or not?  You're failing to appreciate the fact that if you don't ''like'' something, then ''change it back''!  This is a ''wiki''!  So, instead of sitting there ''complaining'' about your ill-treatment, ''do something about it.''
> 
> :Third, I have commented to you privately about your comments about Nupedia.  Basically, you're very understandably confused on a number of points.
> 
> :Fourth, if you ''really'' have an objection to the widely-endorsed (by many Wikipedians, that is) tenets found at NeutralPointOfView, why don't you debate them there?
> 
> :I would appreciate it if you would remove this discussion (or I'll do so, if you don't) when you've read it.  I don't think it's constructive to anyone to have it up.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987659505
13c13
< :I would appreciate it if you would remove this discussion (or I'll do so, if you don't) when you've read it.  I don't think it's constructive to anyone to have it up.
---
> :I would appreciate it if you would remove this discussion (or I'll do so, if you don't) when you've read it.  I don't think it's constructive to anyone to have it up. --[[LMS]]
------
Aikido|987660737
5a6,9
> 
> Aikido is not a sport; competition is not allowed in traditional aikido. Partners work together so each can perfect their technique. Aikido training can be a very vigorous cardiovascular workout and improves flexibility.
> 
> Aikidoists train together as partners. One person is the attacker or uke and the other person (nage) performs the aikido technique against uke. Aikdo attacks include various strikes and grabs. There are generally 3 parts to an aikido technique. First nage avoids the attack by either moving away from nage or inside the attack, close to uke. Second, nage takes uke's balance away from him. Third, nage either throws uke or uses a wrist or arm lock to bring uke down to the mat. In practice, uke generally attacks nage 4 times and then the roles are reversed and uke becomes nage for 4 times. In a 1 hour training session,  5 or 6 techniques are practiced.
------
Napoleon|987661689
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Emperor of [[France]] after the revolution (of 1789).
> 
> Tried to occupy most of [[Europe]] with his military power.
> Had for periods of time control of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Preussia]], [[LIthuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]] and [[Russia]] (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed in keeping control over his Empire because of (most importantly) the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom that resisted.
> 
> He was emprisoned by the british at the end of the war and put as a prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
------
Napoleon_Bonaparte|987661818
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Napoleon]].
> ----
> Perhaps it should be the other way around...
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987661819
1,8c1
< ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].'' And, pray, who around here has a neutral point of view.
< Unless, you mean pure ignorance of the subject...then I leave it to LMS or LDC to do this.
< May I remind you all that this became an encylclopedia on day, and I, for one, was not informed. I will say just what I am thinking as always.LMS- you want to include this in Nupedia and have suddenly gained the right to make any and all alterations to these pages. I do not approve. There is no consensus on this that I know about. The formal statemnt on Nupedia, was that this issue would wait three months to be discussed again. Not even a month has passed. Yet, all I see here is a new "boss" of wikipedia. And an oft-times missing Editor at Nupedia. So fire me... I know when I get back you will have done the copy edits you said you would try to get too. I know that Nupedia must come first to you LMS or do I?
< 
< :I think you are misinterpreting the social dynamic that's going on here, as well as some facts.  First, I thought it was clear from the ''very beginning'' that Wikipedia was intended to be an encyclopedia project.  Your claims are the very first that I've heard that it might ''not'' be an encyclopedia project.  If you thought otherwise, you're simply misinformed.
< 
< :Second, the social dynamic.  I ''don't care'' if you approve or not.  I don't mean this as rudeness in stating it, though: what ''difference'' does it make if you approve or not?  You're failing to appreciate the fact that if you don't ''like'' something, then ''change it back''!  This is a ''wiki''!  So, instead of sitting there ''complaining'' about your ill-treatment, ''do something about it.''
< 
---
> ''This page should be rewritten to reflect NeutralPointOfView or else removed to [[Wikipedia commentary]].'' 
10,13d2
< 
< :Fourth, if you ''really'' have an objection to the widely-endorsed (by many Wikipedians, that is) tenets found at NeutralPointOfView, why don't you debate them there?
< 
< :I would appreciate it if you would remove this discussion (or I'll do so, if you don't) when you've read it.  I don't think it's constructive to anyone to have it up. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Disability_Etiquette|987661867
2,3d1
< :Third, I have commented to you privately about your comments about Nupedia.  Basically, you're very understandably confused on a number of points.
< 
------
Famous_French_People|987663096
10,11c10,11
< :[[Pascal]] -- scientist and author
< :[[Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
---
> :[[Blaise Pascal]] -- scientist and author
> :[[Ren&eacute; Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
------
Napoleon|987663388
4c4
< Had for periods of time control of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Preussia]], [[LIthuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]] and [[Russia]] (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed in keeping control over his Empire because of (most importantly) the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom that resisted.
---
> Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Preussia]], [[LIthuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]] (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed in keeping control over his Empire because,(most importantly) of the resistence of the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom.
6c6
< He was emprisoned by the british at the end of the war and put as a prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
---
> He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held as a prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
------
Napoleon|987663584
4c4
< Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Preussia]], [[LIthuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]] (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed in keeping control over his Empire because,(most importantly) of the resistence of the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom.
---
> Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Prussia]], [[Lithuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]]. (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed to keep control over his Empire because,(most importantly) the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom resisted.
6c6
< He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held as a prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
---
> He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
------
Aikido|987664092
9c9,12
< Aikidoists train together as partners. One person is the attacker or uke and the other person (nage) performs the aikido technique against uke. Aikdo attacks include various strikes and grabs. There are generally 3 parts to an aikido technique. First nage avoids the attack by either moving away from nage or inside the attack, close to uke. Second, nage takes uke's balance away from him. Third, nage either throws uke or uses a wrist or arm lock to bring uke down to the mat. In practice, uke generally attacks nage 4 times and then the roles are reversed and uke becomes nage for 4 times. In a 1 hour training session,  5 or 6 techniques are practiced.
---
> Aikidoists train together as partners. One person is the attacker or uke and the other person (nage) performs the aikido technique against uke. Aikdo attacks include various strikes and grabs. There are generally 3 parts to an aikido technique. First nage avoids the attack by either moving away from nage or inside the attack, close to uke. Second, nage takes uke's balance away from him. Third, nage either throws uke or uses a wrist or arm lock to bring uke down to the mat. In practice, uke generally attacks nage 4 times and then the roles are reversed and uke becomes nage for 4 times. In a 1 hour training session,  5 or 6 techniques are practiced.----
> That first step has an error somewhere-
> "First nage avoids the attack by either moving away from nage or inside the attack, close to uke." 
> 
------
Muscular_Dystropy|987675016
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic and hereditary myopathies that are characterized by progressive muscle weakness and loss of muscle tissue and caused by defects in structural muscle proteins.
> Major types are Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies, myotonic dystrophy, limb-girdle dystrophy, fascioscapulohumeral muscle dystrophy and severe childhood autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy.
> The most frequent symptoms are muscle weakness (frequent falls, walking problems, eyelid drooping), skeletal and muscle deformities. Neurologic examination often reveals loss of muscle tissue (wasting), muscle contracture, pseudohypertrophy and weakness. Diagnosis is usually established by muscle biopsy, elevated serum CK levels and electromyography examination, which is consistent with myogenic involvement. Some types of muscular dystrophy may present with additional cardiac disease, intellectual deterioration and infertility.
> There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Inactivity (such as bedrest and even sitting for long periods) can worsen the disease. Physical therapy and orthopedic instruments (e.g. wheelchairs) may be helpful. 
------
C_language|987680305
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[programming language]] designed by [[Dennis Ritchie]] during the early 1970s and immediately used to reimplement [[Unix]]; so called because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.
> ----
> Wikified from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].  Public Domain. [[Gareth Owen]]
------
GNU/Emacs|987680428
1c1
< Emacs is an extremely versitile editor originally written by [[Richard Stallman]].
---
> Emacs is an extremely versatile editor originally written by [[Richard Stallman]].
3c3,5
< See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
---
> Referring to itself as the "extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time display editor", the design of emacs is based around a [[lisp]] interpreter (itself written in the [[C language|C]]) with the bulk of the functionality then written in lisp.  Because of this design, it is easy for programmers to add functionality to GNU Emacs.  Many have done, and Emacs can be used to surf the web, read [[email]] and [[Usenet]], play [[tetris]] and provide basic [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[psychoanalysis]].
> 
> See also: [[GNU]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
Texas_Chainsaw_Massacre|987680442
1c1
< A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The film was banned in [[Great Britain]] and in [[Germany]].
---
> A low budget production about a family of [[cannibals]] in [[Texas]], who abducted people while they stopped at their gas station. One of the main characters - Leatherface - killed his victims by assaulting them with a chainsaw. Based on a true story. The film was banned in [[Great Britain]], [[Germany]] and in [[India]].
------
United_Kingdom|987684786
1c1,136
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and the [[Channel Islands]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].  It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]].  It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]].  The head of state is the monarch, presently [[Queen Elizabeth II]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the 12 counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
> 
> It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crown in 1952.
> 
> British Monarchs
> 
> Egbert, King of Wessex  802-839
> 
> Ethelwulf	  839-856
> 
> Ethelbald  856-860
> 
> Ethelbert	  860-866
> 
> Ethelred  866-871
> 
> Alfred the Great  871-899
> 
> Edward the Elder  899-924
> 
> Athelstan	  924-939
> 
> Edmund I  939-946
> 
> Edred  946-955
> 
> Edwy  955-959
> 
> Edgar  959-975
> 
> Edward II the Martyr  975-979
> 
> Ethelred the Unready  979-1013 and 1014-1016
> 
> Sweyn  1013-1014
> 
> Edmund II Ironside  Apr-Nov 1016
> 
> Canute the Great  1016-1035
> 
> Harold Harefoot  1037-1040
> 
> Hardicanute  1040-1042
> 
> Edward the Confessor  1042-1066
> 
> Harold II	  Jan-Oct 1066
> 
> Edgar Atheling  Oct-Dec 1066
> 
> William the Conqueror  1066-1087
> 
> William II Rufus  1087-1100
> 
> Henry I Beauclerc  1100-1135
> 
> Stephen  1135-1154
> 
> Henry II Curtmantle  1154-1189
> 
> Richard Coeur de Lion  1189-1199
> 
> John Lackland  1199-1216
> 
> Henry III	  1216-1272
> 
> Edward I Longshanks  1272-1307
> 
> Edward II	  1307-1327
> 
> Edward III  1327-1377
> 
> Richard II  1377-1399
> 
> Henry IV  1399-1413
> 
> Henry V  1413-1422
> 
> Henry VI  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
> 
> Edward IV	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
> 
> Edward V  Apr-June 1483
> 
> Richard III  1483-1485
> 
> Henry VII	  1485-1509
> 
> Henry VIII  1509-1547
> 
> Edward VI	  1547-1553
> 
> Jane  1553
> 
> Mary I  1553-1558
> 
> Elizabeth I  1558-1603
> 
> James I  1603-1625
> 
> Charles I	 1625-1649
> 
> Charles II  1649-1685
> 
> James II  1685-1689
> 
> Mary II
> William III  jointly 1689-1694
> 
> William III  1694-1702
> 
> Anne  1702-1714
> 
> George I  1714-1727
> 
> George II  1727-1760
> 
> George III  1760-1820
> 
> George IV	  1820-1830
> 
> William IV  1830-1837
> 
> Victoria  1837-1901
> 
> Edward VII  1901-1910
> 
> George V  1910-1936
> 
> Edward VIII  Jan-Dec 1936
> 
> George VI  1936-1952	
> 
> Elizabeth II  1952- onwards
> 
> Current line of succession: Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince Harry, Prince Andrew
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|987684875
10a11,12
> ----
> Just added list of monarchs if anyone would like to run over it.
------
Cancer|987685942
3c3
< continue...
---
> Because this sign has a name with negatove connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
------
Paul_Robeson|987686261
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American actor, singer, writer and political and civil rights activist.
> 
> 
> Robeson was born in 1898 in New Jersey.  After the early death of his mother, he was raised by his father, a preacher and escaped slave, who impressed upon him the need for self improvement through education.  Taking this to heart, he won a scholarship to Rutgers University where he excelled in both academic and sporting fields, and went on to earn a law degree at Columbia University.
> 
> It was as an actor and singer he found fame though, including acclaimed performances in "Emperor Jones", "Porgy and Bess" and as, in 1930, [[Othello]] in [[England]], when no US company would employ him for the role.  He reprised the role in New York in 1943.  His repertoire of [[African-American]] folk songs helped bring these to much wider attention both inside the US and abroad.
> 
> On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communist]] and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[National Eisteddfod]] conducted over the telephone.
> 
> Prior to his passport's return in 1958, he wrote a book, "Here I Stand", which eloquently makes an empassioned case for concerted action to right the inequities of the [[Jim Crow]] system.  Sadly the remainder of his life was plagued by ill health and depression and his appearances were relatively few, prior to his death in 1976.
------
Cancer|987686450
3c3
< Because this sign has a name with negatove connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
---
> Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
------
Paul_Robeson|987686754
8c8
< On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communist]] and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[National Eisteddfod]] conducted over the telephone.
---
> On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[National Eisteddfod]] conducted over the telephone.
------
Paul_Robeson|987686846
8c8
< On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[National Eisteddfod]] conducted over the telephone.
---
> On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/index.en.html National Eisteddfod] conducted over the telephone.
------
United_Kingdom/Talk|987687566
5c5,7
< 
---
> ----
> Crown dependencies don't usually count in Great Britain. See [http://www.genfair.com/greenpages/counties.htm]
> ----
------
United_Kingdom|987687667
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the 12 counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
------
Football|987688012
19c19,20
< In the [[United States]], the previous definition corresponds to SocceR. 
---
> In the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], the previous definition corresponds to [[Soccer]]. 
> 
30c31,32
< 
---
> ----
> In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|987690860
9c9
< This, like the Battle of [[Concord]], was a comparatively minor battle that had history-altering consequences.  It drew the [[United States]] into World War II and led to the demise of the [[Japanese Empire]] and [[Nazi Germany]] as well.  America's ultimate victory in this war and its emergence as a world power has shaped international politics ever since.
---
> This, like the Battle of [[Concord]], was a comparatively minor battle that had history-altering consequences.  It drew the [[United States]] into World War II and led to the demise of the [[Japanese Empire]] and [[Nazi Germany]] as well.   The Allied forces' ultimate victory in this war and America's emergence as a world power has shaped international politics ever since.
------
Actors/Talk|987691411
1c1
< Also, I still see some girls here on the boys page.
---
> Also, I still see some girls here on the boys pages.
------
Joseph_Stalin|987691786
1d0
< 
2a2
> the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]].  It is believed that Stalin's purges were responsible for the death of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
4,6c4
< the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
< 
< Joseph Stalin presided over the most genocidal government in history and ordered the execution of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [{Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back as far as Berlin itself.
7a6
> Following [[World War II]] Stalin exerted ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953, and his excesses largely tolerated by his political appointees.
------
Joseph_Stalin|987691803
4c4
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [{Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back as far as Berlin itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back as far as Berlin itself.
6c6
< Following [[World War II]] Stalin exerted ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953, and his excesses largely tolerated by his political appointees.
---
> Following [[World War II]] Stalin exerted ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953, and his excesses largely tolerated by his political appointees.
------
MariahCarey|987693436
1c1
< Woman with a beautiful voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Sings pop music.
---
> Woman with a beautiful voice (capable of spanning seven octaves). Sings pop music.  She is one of the most talented, beautiful women out there today.
5a6,7
> 
> And a long list of other songs.  She has had 13 number one singles (hence, the "Ones" album).  That is the most of any female artist today.  She also has the record for the most weeks at number one with her single "One Sweet Day", featuring Boyz 2 Men.  
------
Vatican_City|987694646
1c1
< A tiny country within the city of [[Rome]], [[Italy]], where the human authorities of the [[Roman Catholics]] are situated (including the [[Pope]]).  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes works by artists such as [[Michaelangelo]] and [[Da Vinci]].
---
> A tiny country within the city of [[Rome]], [[Italy]], where the human authorities of the [[Roman Catholic]] church are situated (including the [[Pope]]).  It has one of the biggest and most beautiful art collections, which includes works by artists such as [[Michaelangelo]] and [[Da Vinci]].
------
Napoleon|987695856
4c4
< Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Prussia]], [[Lithuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]]. (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed to keep control over his Empire because,(most importantly) the Russian Tsar and the United Kingdom resisted.
---
> Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Prussia]], [[Lithuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]]. (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed to keep control over his Empire because,(most importantly) the Russian Czar and the United Kingdom resisted.
------
Scheme|987696068
1c1
< Scheme is a [[programming language]] derived from and similar to  [[Lisp]].
---
> Scheme is a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
------
Cancer|987696361
1c1
< The crab
---
> Cancer refers to two different things.  Firstly, cancer is a disease where some of the body's own cells have been damaged in such a way that they are no longer prevented from splitting, and thus quickly form a tumor or propagate throughout the body.  Cancer is caused by exposure to radiation or chemicals called [[carcinogen]] and has become an important problem with the raise in life expectancies; although certain progress has been made no surefire treatment has developed.
3c3
< Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
---
> Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look a heck of a lot like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the beehive cluster.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
------
Joseph_Stalin|987696427
4c4
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back as far as Berlin itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
------
Ismet_Inonu|987697340
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mustafa Ismet Inönü (1884-1973) was a soldier, statesman and the second president of Turkey. He was born in Izmir, finished the Military Academy in 1903 and received his first military assignment in Ottoman army. He won his first military victories by suppressing two major revolts against struggling Ottoman Empire, first in Roumelia and second in Yemen. During the First World War, he fought in the East fronts (in Syria) and then he was appointed as the commander of the western fronts. He was promoted to brigadier general after Inönü Wars, in which he succesfully defended the central Anatolia territory against the Greek Army. He made a career change by being chosen as the chief of the Turkish team in the Lausanne Negotiations. After the death of Atatürk he was the only name to replace him and he was elected as the second President. He died in 25th December 1973.
------
Rosales|987697739
1c1
< Formerly this order included a wide variety of mostly unrelated dicots, and it has been cut into various pieces accordingly.  I ''think'' the rose family (Rosaceae) has likewise been cut up, so members not confirmed to belong from an updated list are shown in italics.  The Urticales are also included here, following the revised scheme.
---
> Formerly this order included a wide variety of mostly unrelated dicots, and it has been cut into various pieces accordingly.  I ''think'' the rose family (Rosaceae) has likewise been cut up, so be careful in addding example members!  The Urticales are also included here, following the revised scheme.
2a3
> * Family [[Eleagnaceae]]
4d4
< ** ''[[Almond]]''
6d5
< ** ''[[Apricot]]''
8,10d6
< ** ''[[Cherry]]''
< ** ''[[Hawthorn]]''
< ** ''[[Peach]]''
15a12
> * Family [[Rhamnaceae]]
17c14,19
< * ''cetera''
---
> * Family [[Celtidaceae]]
> * Family [[Moraceae]]
> * Family [[Urticaceae]] ([[nettle]] family)
> * Family [[Cecriopiaceae]]
> * Family [[Cannabaceae]] ([[hemp]] family)
> * ...
------
Medicine|987698177
59c59
< 
---
> \Talk
------
Medicine|987698251
59c59
< \Talk
---
> [[Medicine\Talk]]
------
Medicine|987698313
57,59c57
<          [[stroke]] 
< 
< [[Medicine\Talk]]
---
>          [[stroke]] 
------
Muscular_Dystropy|987698845
1,4c1
< The muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic and hereditary myopathies that are characterized by progressive muscle weakness and loss of muscle tissue and caused by defects in structural muscle proteins.
< Major types are Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies, myotonic dystrophy, limb-girdle dystrophy, fascioscapulohumeral muscle dystrophy and severe childhood autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy.
< The most frequent symptoms are muscle weakness (frequent falls, walking problems, eyelid drooping), skeletal and muscle deformities. Neurologic examination often reveals loss of muscle tissue (wasting), muscle contracture, pseudohypertrophy and weakness. Diagnosis is usually established by muscle biopsy, elevated serum CK levels and electromyography examination, which is consistent with myogenic involvement. Some types of muscular dystrophy may present with additional cardiac disease, intellectual deterioration and infertility.
< There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Inactivity (such as bedrest and even sitting for long periods) can worsen the disease. Physical therapy and orthopedic instruments (e.g. wheelchairs) may be helpful. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Muscular dystrophy]]
------
Muscular_dystrophy|987698863
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic and hereditary myopathies that are characterized by progressive muscle weakness and loss of muscle tissue and caused by defects in structural muscle proteins.
> Major types are Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies, myotonic dystrophy, limb-girdle dystrophy, fascioscapulohumeral muscle dystrophy and severe childhood autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy.
> The most frequent symptoms are muscle weakness (frequent falls, walking problems, eyelid drooping), skeletal and muscle deformities. Neurologic examination often reveals loss of muscle tissue (wasting), muscle contracture, pseudohypertrophy and weakness. Diagnosis is usually established by muscle biopsy, elevated serum CK levels and electromyography examination, which is consistent with myogenic involvement. Some types of muscular dystrophy may present with additional cardiac disease, intellectual deterioration and infertility.
> There is no known cure for muscular dystrophy. Inactivity (such as bedrest and even sitting for long periods) can worsen the disease. Physical therapy and orthopedic instruments (e.g. wheelchairs) may be helpful. 
> 
------
Cancer|987699500
1c1
< Cancer refers to two different things.  Firstly, cancer is a disease where some of the body's own cells have been damaged in such a way that they are no longer prevented from splitting, and thus quickly form a tumor or propagate throughout the body.  Cancer is caused by exposure to radiation or chemicals called [[carcinogen]] and has become an important problem with the raise in life expectancies; although certain progress has been made no surefire treatment has developed.
---
> Cancer refers to two different things.  Firstly, cancer is a general term for any of a number of different diseases where some of the body's own cells have been damaged in such a way that they are no longer prevented from splitting, and thus quickly form a tumor or propagate throughout the body.  Some cancers may be caused by exposure to radiation or chemicals called [[carcinogen]]s, while the causes of most are unknown.  Cancer has become an important problem with the rise in life expectancies; although great progress in treatment has been made, most cancers remain incurable.
3c3
< Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look a heck of a lot like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the beehive cluster.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called <i>Moon Children.</i>
---
> Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look much like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the beehive cluster.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called ''Moon Children''.
------
Joseph_Stalin|987699995
2c2
< the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]].  It is believed that Stalin's purges were responsible for the death of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
---
> the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]]).  It is believed that Stalin's purges were responsible for the death of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
4c4
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
------
C_language|987700071
1c1,17
< A [[programming language]] designed by [[Dennis Ritchie]] during the early 1970s and immediately used to reimplement [[Unix]]; so called because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.
---
> A [[programming language]] designed by [[Dennis Ritchie]] during the early [[1970s]] to be used for [[operating system]] implementation and other low level programming tasks.
> 
> It was used immediately to reimplement [[Unix]].
> 
> It was called 'C' because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) 
> 
> C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.
> 
> Bjarne Stroustrup and others at [[Bell Labs]] worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
> and created [[c++]].
> 
> See also:
> * algol
> * cpl
> * bcpl
> * c++
> 
------
C_language|987700101
9c9
< Bjarne Stroustrup and others at [[Bell Labs]] worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
---
> Bjarne Stroustrup and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
------
C_language|987700190
3c3
< It was used immediately to reimplement [[Unix]].
---
> It was used immediately to reimplement the [[Unix]] operating system.
------
1970s|987700250
8a9
> * [[Unix]] created along with [[C]] programming language
------
1970s|987700270
9c9
< * [[Unix]] created along with [[C]] programming language
---
> * [[Unix]] created along with [[C|C language]] programming language
------
1970s|987700294
9c9
< * [[Unix]] created along with [[C|C language]] programming language
---
> * [[Unix]] created along with [[C language|C]] programming language
------
Bulldogging|987701122
7c7
< Bill Pickett invented the sport of bulldogging near the end of the 1800's, and introduced it to the world as a part of his act in the 101 Wild West Show in 1905.  His version of the sport was performed on longhorn steers.  After having grasped the horns of the fleeing animal, he would twist its head skyward and bite its upper lip in order to subdue it, after the fashion of the cowdog breed known as bulldogs.  This is where the sport got its name.  Pickett died at age 70, after having been kicked in the head while working horses at the 101 Ranch.  Will Rogers announced his funeral on the radio.
---
> [[Bill Pickett]] invented the sport of bulldogging near the end of the 1800's, and introduced it to the world as a part of his act in the [[101 Wild West Show]] in 1905.  His version of the sport was performed on longhorn steers.  After having grasped the horns of the fleeing animal, he would twist its head skyward and bite its upper lip in order to subdue it, after the fashion of the cowdog breed known as bulldogs.  This is where the sport got its name.  Pickett died at age 70, after having been kicked in the head while working horses at the 101 Ranch.  [[Will Rogers]] announced his funeral on the radio.
------
Metaphysics/Introduction|987702345
3c3
< Imagine now that we are in a nice bright room, and in the middle of this room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy red apple.  We can ask many <i>metaphysical</i> questions about this apple.  This will, hopefully, help us understand better what metaphysics is.
---
> Imagine now that we are in a room, and in the middle of this room there is a table, and in the middle of the table there is a big, fresh, juicy red apple.  We can ask many <i>metaphysical</i> questions about this apple.  This will, hopefully, help us understand better what metaphysics is.
------
Ursa_Major|987702873
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Constellation visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means Great Bear.  It is also known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  On an almost straight line upward from the two stars forming the upright distal end of the dipper, one can find Polaris, also known as the North Star or Pole Star.
> 
> This is an important star in navigation because it is a steady point of reference.  It is the star which demarks the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper, or [[Ursa Minor]] (Lesser Bear), which see.
------
Medicine|987703341
57c57,59
<          [[stroke]] 
---
>          [[stroke]] 
> 
> /Talk
------
Medicine/Talk|987703448
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Whoever wants to contribute to [[Medicine]] branch of wikipedia
> 
> Please share your views ideas how to organize.
------
ReiniUrban|987703654
1,2c1,2
< does a lot of computer related stuff, but is really into television and movies than anything else.
< See http://xarch.tu-graz.ac.at/home/rurban/
---
> does a lot of computer related stuff, but he is more into television and movies than anything else.
> http://xarch.tu-graz.ac.at/home/rurban/
------
Neurology|987706634
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > Neurology
> 
> Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of central and
> peripherial nervous system.
------
Actors/Talk|987706833
0a1,4
> How about <b>Actors/Actors and Actresses</b>?
> 
> [[smile]]
> ----
------
Actors/Talk|987706855
3c3
< [[smile]]
---
> .
------
Capitalism|987707978
1c1
< Capitalism is a system based on rights to private ownership of property, among other individual rights.  Since private ownership, in the full sense of the term, requires the absence of the initiation of force, systems may be characterized as more or less capitalist depending on the degree to which they keep individuals free from the initiation of force in the use or disposal of their property.  This includes both a lack of political intervention in the economy, as well as laws against theft, fraud, etc.
---
> '''Capitalism''' is an economic system in which the major productive businesses (agriculture, manufacturing, and others) in the economy are owned by private citizens or corporations who are free to determine prices, wages, investments, production, and distribution based on market competition.  Economies can be more or less capitalistic based on the degree to which such businesses are created solely with private investment and run for private benefit rather than receiving government support or bearing heavy government regulation.  Contrast with [[Socialism]].
3c3
< Socialists consider the private ownership of the means of production to be the essential feature of capitalism, and thus use the term to refer to any system that displays this feature, including systems, such as imperialism, that most self-described capitalists oppose.  Often, the term 'laissez-faire capitalism' is used when one wishes to emphasize the absense of political intervention and draw a distinction between other uses of the term.  Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[Libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.
---
> Some supporters of the modern capitalist theory first formalized by [[Adam Smith]] in 1776 insist that "pure" capitalism (often called '''laissez-faire capitalism''') is characterized by the complete absence of political intervention in the economy, where the government's role is limited to such tasks as protecting private property rights, enforcing contracts, settling lawsuits, and punishing crimes.  Supporters of this view distinguish true capitalism from systems such as [[mercantilism]] and [[imperialism]] that feature government support or regulation of business.  Others may refer to these systems as "capitalist" in the more general sense, using criticisms of those systems to criticize capitalism in general.  Such [[semantic dispute]]s are frequent among economic theorists and often contentious.  Another problem with such arguments is that no major economy in history has been purely capitalist in the narrower sense, so there is little empirical data on what such a system would be like (indeed the idea that such a system might be possible is a recent one).
5c5
< An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a [[Free Market]], and the forces of the free market are driven by the aforesaid factors.  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
---
> Recently, capitalism has often been discussed in the context of a wider, [[libertarian]] social theory that advocates the absence of political intervention in most aspects of society.  In particular, [[Ayn Rand]] and [[David Friedman]] have expressed such views, though they disagree on many details.
7c7
< Modern defenders of capitalism claim it is the most efficient system for achieving economic ends.  An important reason for this is that capitalism solves the problem of coordinating knowledge that is widely distributed throughout society.  If most knowledge in society is [[Local knowledge|local knowledge]], then local, decentralized decision-making is necessary for the maximum utilization of knowledge, and capitalism, more than any other system, relies on decentralized decision-making.
---
> An integral element of capitalist theory is the private ownership of property, and privately made decisions regarding  employment, sales, purchases, savings and investments.  This private ownership and these privately made decisions are said to constitute a [[Free market]], and the forces of the free market are driven by the aforesaid factors that Smith called the "invisible hand".  Historically, capitalist economies have been characterized by the potential for rapid accumulation of personal and corporate wealth, high national productivity, and potentially highly unequal distribution of wealth, resulting in extreme differences between the very wealthy and the very poor among private citizens.
9c9
< No economy in history has been purely capitalist in the sense of having a complete absence of political intervention.  In fact, the idea that an economy could be free of political intervention apparently did not occur to anyone until the late 18th century.  This makes capitalism one of the more radical ideas in human history.
---
> Modern defenders of capitalism claim it is the most efficient system for achieving economic ends.  An important reason for this is that capitalism solves the problem of coordinating knowledge that is widely distributed throughout society.  If most knowledge in society is [[Local knowledge|local knowledge]], then local, decentralized decision-making is necessary for the maximum utilization of knowledge; and capitalism, more than any other system, relies on decentralized decision-making.
11c11
< Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by [[Adam Smith]] in [[1776]], in an attempt to refute [[Mercantilism]]. In his work, Smith first presented his idea of MarkeT, that is central to [[Economic theory]].  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include [[Karl Marx]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Freidrich Hayek]], [[John Maynard Keynes]], [[Paul Samuelson]], and [[Milton Friedman]]. 
---
> Capitalist economic theory was first formalized by [[Adam Smith]] in his [[1776]] book ''The Wealth of Nations'', in an attempt to refute [[mercantilism]].  In this work, Smith first presented his idea of the [[market]] that is central to [[Economic theory]].  Other theorists who have written about capitalism include [[Karl Marx]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Freidrich Hayek]], [[John Maynard Keynes]], [[Paul Samuelson]], and [[Milton Friedman]]. 
------
David_Friedman|987709204
1c1
< David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom.''  More information can be found at [http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/ his personal website].
---
> David D. Friedman, economist and professor of law, became a leading figure in [[AnarchoCapitalism]] with the publication of his book ''The Machinery of Freedom'' (ISBN 0812690699).  More information can be found at [http://www.best.com/%7Eddfr/ his personal website].
3c3
< David Friedman is the son of [[Nobel Prize]] winning economist [[Milton Friedman]].
---
> David Friedman is the son of [[Nobel Prize]] winning economist [[Milton Friedman]].
------
Capitalism/Talk|987712951
124a125
> <i>Yeah, yeah, I see your point.  However, I do think it is necessary to put the word 'right' back in there somehow.  And the separation of political and economic decision making is important, too.  What we want to avoid is an unconceptual listing of inessential characteristics as the _sole_ definition.</i>
------
Disabilities/EtiquetteTalk|987713103
37c37,39
< You, sir, are now one of the psuedo-editors I refer to. I suggest that you work on your own content. Who made you class monitor? I have already moved this page to my site. One more word of guidance from you and I will surely delete it. Is that clear? And, I believe I actually misunderstand <b>nothing</b> that is going on here at wikipedia. Maybe, you had better look around you, eyes wide opened. See a small set of self-appointed people who are here almost all day, checking each change for bias, commentary, clarity etc. Gee- I could swear I was writing for Nupedia- funny thing that.
---
> You, sir, are now one of the psuedo-editors I refer to. I suggest that you work on your own content. Who made you class monitor? I have already moved this page to my site. One more word of guidance from you and I will surely delete it. Is that clear? And, I believe I actually misunderstand <b>nothing</b> that is going on here at wikipedia. Maybe, you had better look around you, eyes wide opened. See a small set of self-appointed people who are here almost all day, checking each change for bias, commentary, clarity etc. Gee- I could swear I was writing for Nupedia- funny thing that.
> ----
> Ruth, one of the things I ''like'' about Wikipedia is that there are any number of self-appointed editors who go about editing other people's stuff, including yours. --[[LMS]]
------
Sheepshead|987714102
1c1
< <H2>Sheepshead</H2>
---
> <H1>Sheepshead</H1>
3c3
< <B>History</B>
---
> <H2>History</H2>
7c7
< <B>Preparation</B>
---
> <H2>Preparation</H2>
11c11,17
< <B>Card Order</B>
---
> <H2>Play Variations</H2>
> 
> There are a LOT of play variations for Sheepshead. Everything from 3 to 6 player. Scoring differences, leasters-doublers, Pick Parter-Jack of Diamonds partner.
> 
> I will begin by describing how to play "Five Handed, Leasters, Pick Partner", but will try to touch on the other variations during this article.
> 
> <H2>Card Order</H2>
26c32
< Clubs, Spades, and Hearts take no precedence over other fail suits. Whatever is lead wins.
---
> Clubs, Spades, and Hearts take no precedence over other fail suits.  Trump always take fail.  The lead suit must be followed if possible.  
29c35
< <B>Scoring Points</B>
---
> <H2>Card Point Values</H2>
40c46
< Note that the strongest cards (Queens and Jacks) are not worth the most points. This gives Sheepshead some of it's unique character.
---
> Note that the strongest cards (Queens and Jacks) are not worth the most points. This gives Sheepshead some of it's unique character.  
42c48
< <B>Play Variations</B>
---
> There is a total of 120 points in the deck.
44d49
< There are a LOT of play variations for Sheepshead. Everything from 3 to 6 player. Scoring differences, leasters-doublers, Pick Parter-Jack of Diamonds partner.
46c51,97
< I will begin by describing how to play "Five Handed, Leasters, Pick Partner", but will try to touch on the other variations during this article.
---
> <H2>Keeping Score</H2>
> 
> I will describe how to keep score using points, but you will often play for nickels or quarters.
> 
> If you are the picker, your goal is to take 61 points.  If picker gets 60, that's a tie and picker loses.  
> 
> Here are two charts to make it easier.  One chart is for a picker going alone, the other is for a picker who choose a partner.  (Details about choosing partners/going alone will be discussed further).
> 
> <H3>Picker Playing Alone</H3>
> Picker's card count is:
> * 120       - took all the tricks, receives 12 points (3 from each of the 4 opponents)
> * 91 to 119 - receives 8 points (2 from each)
> * 61 to 90  - receives 4 points
> * 31 to 60  - loses 4 point
> * 1 to 30   - loses 8 points
> * 0         - loses 12 points
> 
> <H3>Picker Playing with Partner</H3>
> Picker and partner combined total is:
> * 120       - Picker gets 6 points, partner gets 3 (opponents lose 3 each)
> * 91 to 119 - Picker gets 4 points, partner gets 2 (opponents lose 2 each)
> * 61 to 90  - Picker gets 2 points, partner gets 1
> * 31 to 60  - Picker looses 2 points, partner looses 1
> * 1 to 30   - Picker looses 4 points, partner looses 2
> * 0         - Picker looses 6 points, partner looses 3
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> <H2>The Deal</H2>
> 
> Dealer deals 3 cards at a time to each person, starting with the player to dealer's left.  After dealing everyone 3 cards, 2 cards are put face down in a separate pile (the "blind").  Then deal the rest of the cards, 3 at a time around the table again.  
> 
> When done, each person should have 6 cards with 2 cards in the blind.
> 
> 
> <H2>The Blind</H2>
> 
> The player to the left of the dealer gets first choice to take the blind.  If he passes, the option is given to the next player (in clockwise order).  
> 
> If the blind goes all the way around, a leaster is played.  (If you are playing doublers instead of leasters, the points are doubled and a new hand is dealt.)
> 
> Whoever decides to take the blind is called the "picker".  The picker adds the 2 cards to his hand, then must choose two cards to lay down, or "bury".  The buried cards are automatically added to the picker's score.
> 
> Now, picker must choose... he can either play alone (picker against 4 opponents) or can choose a partner (picker/partner against 3 opponents).  
47a99
> <H2>Getting a Partner</H2>
48a101
> <H3>Called Ace</H3>
50c103
< <B>The Deal</B>
---
> <H3>Jack of Diamonds</H3>
------
Capitalism|987716148
1c1
< '''Capitalism''' is an economic system in which the major productive businesses (agriculture, manufacturing, and others) in the economy are owned by private citizens or corporations who are free to determine prices, wages, investments, production, and distribution based on market competition.  Economies can be more or less capitalistic based on the degree to which such businesses are created solely with private investment and run for private benefit rather than receiving government support or bearing heavy government regulation.  Contrast with [[Socialism]].
---
> '''Capitalism''' is an economic system in which the major productive businesses (agriculture, manufacturing, and others) in the economy are owned by private citizens or corporations who are free to determine prices, wages, investments, production, and distribution based on market competition.  Economies can be described as more or less capitalistic based on the degree to which they grant citizens the right to create, invest in, control, and profit from business rather than having business supported by or heavily regulated by the government.  Contrast with [[Socialism]].
------
Ursa_Minor|987716777
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Constellation in the Northern sky, whose name means the "Lesser Bear."  Colloquially known as the Little Dipper because its stars are easily traced to form a ladle, or dipper shape, its northernmost star (at the end of the dipper handle) is Polaris.  Polaris can be found by drawing a line straight north, or "upward," through the two stars which form the end of the "bowl" of the Big Dipper, or [[Ursa Major]].  Polaris is also known as the North Star, or the Pole star.
> 
> Because it lies in a direct line with the axis of the [[Earth]]'s rotation and direclty "above" the [[North Pole]], Polaris is apparently motionless from the [[Earth]], and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.  Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for [[celestial navigation]].
------
Ursa_Minor|987717219
3c3
< Because it lies in a direct line with the axis of the [[Earth]]'s rotation and direclty "above" the [[North Pole]], Polaris is apparently motionless from the [[Earth]], and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.  Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for [[celestial navigation]].
---
> Because it lies in a direct line with the axis of the [[Earth]]'s rotation and directly "above" the [[North Pole]], Polaris is apparently motionless from the [[Earth]], and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.  Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for [[celestial navigation]].
------
Napoleon|987717549
1c1
< Emperor of [[France]] after the revolution (of 1789).
---
> Emperor of [[France]] after the [[French revolution]] (of 1789).
6c6
< He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
---
> He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987720552
1c1
< Disability Etiquette descibes the generally accepted ways that one ought to interact with a disabled person. These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  This particular list (and close variants on it) is widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and is endorsed by a number of organizations.
---
> Disability Etiquette descibes the generally accepted ways in which one may best interact with disabled persons.  These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  Lists such as the following, and close variants of it, are widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and are endorsed by a number of organizations.
9c9
< One reason that it is important to read and understand these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person one would be wise to consider the following guidelines: 
---
> Am important reason for reading and understanding these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person is wise to consider the following guidelines: 
11c11
< 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person, needing help, who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, want to be as independent as possible. They do not want people hovering over them to take care of everything little thing for them. In any case, always offer first and respect the disabled person's wishes--don't just dive in and help.   
---
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person needing help who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, naturally desire to be independent. Constant hovering avout and offering to take care of every little thing, including taking over tasks they have begun, can be an uncomfortable reminder that they are perceived as bein gunable to care for their own needs. In any case, if a real need for help is perceived, one is wise to always ''offer'' first, and then respect the disabled person's wishes - don't just dive in and help.   
13c13
< 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals such as seeing-eye dogs. A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To touch it is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.  (See #1 on UCPA list.)
---
> 2. Do not touch a disabled person's assistive devices without permission. This includes wheelchairs, canes, crutches, etc. This also includes service animals such as seeing-eye dogs (whose discharge of their duties can be impaired by extraneous input from persons other than their owners). A disabled person's assistive equipment is part of his/her personal space. To touch it is equivalent to grabbing an able person's leg or arm without permission. Again, disabled people prefer to be as independent as possible. A person in a wheelchair does not want someone pushing them around without permission. Such a person is trying very hard to get around on his/her own.  (See #1 on UCPA list.)
15c15
< 3. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion. The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing yourself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify your voice and location, and much more. (See #2 on UCPA list.)
---
> 3. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, do not interact solely, or mainly, with such a companion. The disabled person is a person too. Do whatever is necessary to communicate with the disabled person. This includes kneeling down to make eye contact and talk to a person in a wheelchair, introducing onesself to a blind person and speaking enough to let them identify one's voice and location, and much more. (See #2 on UCPA list.)
17c17
< 4. Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would. Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if you say, "It looks like it is going to rain," or "Do you see what I mean?" (See #7 on UCPA list.)
---
> 4. Speak normally to a disabled person, using words like "see," "hear," "walk," etc., as you normally would. Disabled people are used to normal English. A blind person will not be insulted if one says, "It looks like it is going to rain," or "Do you see what I mean?" (See #7 on UCPA list.)
19c19
< 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive him/herself. If you are traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where you are at different points to a blind person. If you are at a place where there is music or unusual noise, offer to describe it to a deaf person.
---
> 5. It is considered polite to offer to describe to a disabled person what he/she cannot perceive him/herself. If one is traveling in an unfamiliar place, offer to describe the scenery and where one is at different points to a blind person. If one is at a place where there is music or unusual noise, it is polite to offer to describe it to a deaf person.
21c21
< 6. Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way. If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting per se. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, just like able people.
---
> 6. Do not ask a disabled person how they got that way. If a disabled person chooses to share this information he/she will do so. A disabled person has the right to believe that he/she is interesting per se. In other words, they want to be judged by what they are, as individuals, in the same manner as able people.
23,24c23
< 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or cannot do based on stereotypes you may hold of different
< disabilities. In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.  (See #3 and #8 on UCPA list for similar ideas.)
---
> 7. Do not make assumptions about what a disabled person can or cannot do based on stereotypes of different disabilities. In some ways this rule should come first. There is a saying that "We are all disabled by the stereotypes we hold of other people's disabilies." This is quite true.  (See #3 and #8 on UCPA list for similar ideas.)
26c25
< Alternative Approaches.  These are somewhat sarcastic in tone, primarily as an exercise to get you to think about what has been done wrong in the past and/or how your first impulses might be mistaken. 
---
> Alternative Approaches.  These are somewhat sarcastic in tone, primarily as an exercise to get one to think about what has been done wrong in the past and/or how one's first impulses might be mistaken. 
34c33
< 4, Ignore diabled people. You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different, aren't they? 
---
> 4, Ignore diabled people. You clearly have nothing in common with them. Anyway, who says they are entitled to anything. They are different from us, aren't they? 
36c35
< 5. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the companion. Consider the tough time such a companion is having. Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person in their place--a burden on everyone else. 
---
> 5. If a disabled person has an escort or aide, talk only to the companion. Consider the tough time such a companion is having. Discuss the problems they are having with their charge right in front of them. That should keep the disabled person conscious of their role and place in life - that of a burden on everyone else. 
40c39
< 7. Do not use words that refer to senses that the disabled person may not have. If you should forget and use such a word, laugh profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are. 
---
> 7. Do not use words that refer to senses or abilities that the disabled person may not have. If you should forget and use such a word, laugh profusely at your faux pas, indicating that you do know just how different they are. 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987720584
9c9
< Am important reason for reading and understanding these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person is wise to consider the following guidelines: 
---
> An important reason for reading and understanding these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person is wise to consider the following guidelines: 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987720623
9c9
< An important reason for reading and understanding these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person is wise to consider the following guidelines: 
---
> An important reason to read and understand these guidlines is that they are often in conflict with the (often benevolent but misguided) impulses of the able. Therefore, if one wants to show concern and respect for a disabled person is wise to consider the following guidelines: 
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987720676
11c11
< 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person needing help who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, naturally desire to be independent. Constant hovering avout and offering to take care of every little thing, including taking over tasks they have begun, can be an uncomfortable reminder that they are perceived as bein gunable to care for their own needs. In any case, if a real need for help is perceived, one is wise to always ''offer'' first, and then respect the disabled person's wishes - don't just dive in and help.   
---
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person needing help who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, naturally desire to be independent. Constant hovering about and offering to take care of every little thing, including taking over tasks they have begun, can be an uncomfortable reminder that they are perceived as bein gunable to care for their own needs. In any case, if a real need for help is perceived, one is wise to always ''offer'' first, and then respect the disabled person's wishes - don't just dive in and help.   
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987720789
11c11
< 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person needing help who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, naturally desire to be independent. Constant hovering about and offering to take care of every little thing, including taking over tasks they have begun, can be an uncomfortable reminder that they are perceived as bein gunable to care for their own needs. In any case, if a real need for help is perceived, one is wise to always ''offer'' first, and then respect the disabled person's wishes - don't just dive in and help.   
---
> 1. Do not offer to help a disabled person. Wait for him/her to ask for help or possibly not ask at all. This does not apply to a disabled person needing help who cannot express this need. Disabled people, in general, naturally desire to be independent. Constant hovering about and offering to take care of every little thing, including taking over tasks they have begun, can be an uncomfortable reminder that they are perceived as being unable to care for their own needs. In any case, if a real need for help is perceived, one is wise to always ''offer'' first, and then respect the disabled person's wishes - don't just dive in and help.   
------
Neurology|987720868
3,4c3
< Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of central and
< peripherial nervous system.
---
> Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
------
Sheepshead|987723971
1,2d0
< <H1>Sheepshead</H1>
< 
------
World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor|987724279
9c9
< This, like the Battle of [[Concord]], was a comparatively minor battle that had history-altering consequences.  It drew the [[United States]] into World War II and led to the demise of the [[Japanese Empire]] and [[Nazi Germany]] as well.   The Allied forces' ultimate victory in this war and America's emergence as a world power has shaped international politics ever since.
---
> This, like the Battle of [[Concord]], was a comparatively minor battle that had history-altering consequences.  It drew the [[United States]] into World War II and led to the demise of the [[Japanese Empire]] and [[Nazi Germany]] as well.   America's ultimate victory in this war and its emergence as a world power has shaped international politics ever since.
------
Capricornus|987724314
1c1,3
< One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
> 
> ''But the English name for the constellation is "Capricorn"...''
------
Disabilities/Disability_Etiquette|987724384
1c1
< Disability Etiquette descibes the generally accepted ways in which one may best interact with disabled persons.  These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled.  Lists such as the following, and close variants of it, are widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and are endorsed by a number of organizations.
---
> Disability Etiquette descibes the generally accepted ways in which one may best interact with disabled persons.  These rules have been developed based on the needs of the disabled, and to combat misconceptions widely held by the able community.  Lists such as the following, and close variants of it, are widely used in training people who deal with the general public (including people with disabilities) and are endorsed by a number of organizations.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|987724869
6c6
< *[[Hittite Empire]]
---
> *[[Hittites]]
------
Joseph_Stalin|987724961
2c2,3
< the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]]).  It is believed that Stalin's purges were responsible for the death of an estimated 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
---
> the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]]).  Stalin terrorized large segments of the Soviet population, such as the [[Kulaks]], a term for prosperous farmers who were disinherited when agriculture was collectivized.  He also orchestrated a massive famine in the Ukraine in which an estimaed 5 million people died.
> It is believed that with the purges, forced famines, state terrorism, labor camps, and forced migrations, Stalin was responsible for the death of as many as 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
4c5
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which led to the latter's annexation of Eastern Europe and military successes in Western Europe.  In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which divided Eastern Europe between the two powers. In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
6c7
< Following [[World War II]] Stalin exerted ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953, and his excesses largely tolerated by his political appointees.
---
> Following [[World War II]] Stalin continued his genocidal policies while exerting ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953.
------
Hittites|987725009
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Hittites were one of a several Indo-European speaking people, who were located on Asia Minor and Mesopotomia (today’s central, eastern and southern Turkey and northern parts of Middle East) on the 2nd millennium B.C. Their capital (which is still remaining as a historical place and open to visit) was Hattusas (or Hattushash) in central Anatolia near today’s Turkish village of Bogazköy. They probably migrated from Balkans to Anatolia to found a mighty and dominant kingdom in central Anatolia. Their prosperity was largely depending  on the control of trade routes and metal sources. For this reason, all the kings’ reigns passed mainly by struggles and wars with neighbouring Assyrians, Hurrians and Egyptians, especially when Hittites began to extend their lands to Mesopotomia. Not surprisingly, they signed the first-ever treaty in history with Egyptians known as Kadesh (or Qadesh) treaty (about 1286 – 1300 B.C.) after endless and unsuccessful fights against Egyptian forces commanded by Ramses II. After this date their power began to diminish temporarily and they were pushed back by Assyrians and Egyptians. However, the end of the kingdom came from the assaults of nomadic and warrior tribes migrating from Northern territories. The Hittite people, language and culture remained as late as 5th century A.D., as they went on living as discrete and diverse small independent states in central and southeastern Anatolia. 
>  
> Old Hittite Kingdom (1750-1500 B.C.)		Hattusas became the capital
> Middle Hittite Kingdom (1500-1450 B.C.) 
> New Hittite Kingdom (Empire) (1450-1180 B.C.)	Suppiluliumas I conquers Syria
> 						Mutawalli attacks Egyptians (Kadesh treaty)
------
Joseph_Stalin|987725114
2,3c2
< the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]]).  Stalin terrorized large segments of the Soviet population, such as the [[Kulaks]], a term for prosperous farmers who were disinherited when agriculture was collectivized.  He also orchestrated a massive famine in the Ukraine in which an estimaed 5 million people died.
< It is believed that with the purges, forced famines, state terrorism, labor camps, and forced migrations, Stalin was responsible for the death of as many as 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
---
> the second leader of the [[Soviet Union]].  By the time of [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Stalin was the de facto leader of the Soviet Union and consolidated his power base with purges against his political and ideological opponents, motivated by a paranoid distrust of intellectuals.  Measures used against them ranged from imprisonment in work camps (Gulags) to assassination (such as that of [[Leon Trotsky]]).  Stalin terrorized large segments of the Soviet population, such as the [[Kulaks]], a term for prosperous farmers who were disinherited when agriculture was collectivized.  He also orchestrated a massive famine in the Ukraine in which an estimated 5 million people died.  It is believed that with the purges, forced famines, state terrorism, labor camps, and forced migrations, Stalin was responsible for the death of as many as 40 million people within the borders of the Soviet Union.
7c6
< Following [[World War II]] Stalin continued his genocidal policies while exerting ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953.
---
> Following [[World War II]] Stalin continued his genocidal policies while exerting ruthless control over the Soviet Union and its satellite states until his death in 1953.
------
Hittites|987725175
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
6c8,9
< 						Mutawalli attacks Egyptians (Kadesh treaty)
---
> 						
>                                                 Mutawalli attacks Egyptians (Kadesh treaty)
------
Joseph_Stalin|987725230
6a7,8
> 
> ''Mention of the ol' five-year plans would be apropos...''
------
Joseph_Stalin|987725613
4c4
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which divided Eastern Europe between the two powers. In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union.  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing Nazi forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past Berlin itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which divided Eastern Europe between the two powers. In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the [[Soviet Union]] (see [[Operation Barbarossa]]).  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing [[Nazi}} forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past [[Berlin]] itself.
------
Literature|987725711
45a46
> * [[William Gibson]]
------
William_Gibson|987726307
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of science fiction and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer stimulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are Burning Chrome, Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine(with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, Hugo, and Philip K. Dick).
------
Joseph_Stalin|987726384
4c4
< In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which divided Eastern Europe between the two powers. In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the [[Soviet Union]] (see [[Operation Barbarossa]]).  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing [[Nazi}} forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past [[Berlin]] itself.
---
> In 1939 Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with [[Nazi Germany]] which divided Eastern Europe between the two powers. In 1941, however, [[Adolf Hitler]] broke the pact and invaded the [[Soviet Union]] (see [[Operation Barbarossa]]).  Under Stalin's leadership the Soviet [[Red Army]] put up fierce resistance to the advancing [[Nazi]] forces.  Following a campaign the Soviet forces were able to regain their lost territory and push their over-stretched enemy back past [[Berlin]] itself.
------
Hittites|987726538
7,9c7,8
< New Hittite Kingdom (Empire) (1450-1180 B.C.)	Suppiluliumas I conquers Syria
< 						
<                                                 Mutawalli attacks Egyptians (Kadesh treaty)
---
> New Hittite Kingdom (Empire) (1450-1180 B.C.)	Suppiluliumas I conquers Syria,
> Mutawalli attacks Egyptians (Kadesh)
------
WikiIsNotPaper|987726996
12a13,14
> A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The onyl problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets to big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
> 
------
JapaneseAnime|987727332
1d0
< 
2a2,3
> 
> Anime is known for it's variety of genres and unique artistic style. Anime, unlike most cartoons, are not strictly for children (although there is a lot of children's anime). Anime is also for both genders, with there being well defined shonen (boys) and shoujo (girls) genres. In the US, most translated anime tends to belong to the shonen genre, including titles like Tenchi Muyo, Gundam, Trigun, etc.
------
Mongols|987727660
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Mongols are the people of Mongolia, a land north of [[China]] comprised largely of arid plains.
> 
> The Mongols played an important part in early modern history, rising under the leadership of [[Genghis Khan]] to conquer and rule most of the civilzations of [[Asia]] and Eastern [[Europe]].  They conquered [[China]], [[Russia]], [[India]], and most of the Asian cities of [[Islam]].  They failed to reach [[Egypt]], Western Europe, and [[Japan]].
> 
> The ancient Mongols were a nomadic people who in the 13th century found themselves encompassed by the world's great civilizations. China and India lay to the south, Islam to the southwest, and Russia to the west, with Europe beyond. Genghis (or Jinghiz) Khan, feared that the spread of the civilizations would destroy the Mongol way of life, and so set out to destroy them first. His goal was not conquest, but destruction. He dreamed of pasturing the Mongol horses in the ruins of the world's cities.  However, once the civilizations had been conquered and Mongol rulers placed in charge, this policy was abandoned.
> 
> The Mongols employed terror as a weapon during their conquests.  Entire cities were wiped out.  Often, the populous would be lined up, the Mongols would pull out the skilled craftsmen to serve as slaves, and the rest were systematically slaughtered, their cleaned skulls piled into pyramids outside the walls of the empty cities. In the [[Persia|Persian]] city of [[Nishapur]], in 1221, an estimated 1.7 million people were slaughtered. That same year in [[Merv]], an estimated 1.3 million were killed at the hands of the Mongols, and in [[Meru Chahjan]] nearly as many again. In the city of [[Rayy]], an estimated 1.6 million died. 
> 
> In 1226, Genghis Khan launched a genocidal war against the [[Tanguts]], a people of China. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad and killed and estimated 800,000 people. [[Kubla Khan]], the Mongol emperor of China, murdered a reported 18 million Chinese over a forty year reign. 
> 
> Before the rise of the Mongol empire, the Chinese and Islamic civilizations surpassed the West in power and sophistication. When Mongol power finally waned, Western Europe had surpassed the east. The destruction wrought by the Mongols on the Eastern civilizations, and Western Europe's immunity to it, likely played a large part bringing about this change.
> 
> Today, there are over 2.5 million Mongols living in Mongolia.  They are, by and large, much nicer than their genocidal ancestors, though Genghis Khan is still considered a national hero.
------
Mongols|987728021
9c9
< In 1226, Genghis Khan launched a genocidal war against the [[Tanguts]], a people of China. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad and killed and estimated 800,000 people. [[Kubla Khan]], the Mongol emperor of China, murdered a reported 18 million Chinese over a forty year reign. 
---
> In 1226, Genghis Khan launched a genocidal war against the [[Tanguts]], a people of China. In 1258 the Mongols took Baghdad and killed and estimated 800,000 people. [[Kubla Khan]], the Mongol emperor of China, murdered a reported 18 million Chinese over a forty year reign.  What's worse, he invented central banking.
13c13
< Today, there are over 2.5 million Mongols living in Mongolia.  They are, by and large, much nicer than their genocidal ancestors, though Genghis Khan is still considered a national hero.
---
> Today, there are over 2.5 million Mongols living in Mongolia.  They are, by and large, much nicer than their genocidal ancestors, though Genghis Khan is still considered a national hero.
------
Manga|987728091
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Manga is the Japanese equivalent of comics. However, though they share many similarities, they are also very different.
> 
> Most Manga is printed in Manga Magazines, which are huge magazines the size of phonebooks printed on cheap paper that come out usually on a weekly basis (although monthly and even bimonthly manga magazines exist). The pages are similar to newsprint, and the comics are usually printed in black and white except for an occasional few color pages at the beginning. These manga magazines are quite cheap, have wide circulations, and have target audiences from young girls to the working man.
> 
> Manga Magazines usually have certain series that run in them, in which you get about 30-40 pages of that series each issue. Manga magazines also have one-shot comics, and various four-panel manga (equivalent to newspaper comics). Manga series can run for years and years if they are succesful. 
> 
> When a series has been running for awhile, the stories are collected and printed in book-sized volumes containing only that series. These volumes have higher quality paper, and are good for those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can read them in the magazines.
> 
> Manga is translated into many different languages in different countries including China, France, Italy, and many more. In the USA, manga is still a rather small industry, especially compared to the animated form of manga: anime. The leading manga publisher in America is Viz (www.viz.com), they have many popular titles such as Neon Genesis Evangelion, Dragonball, and the various works of Rumiko Takahashi.
> 
> 
------
GNU/Emacs|987728341
3c3
< Referring to itself as the "extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time display editor", the design of emacs is based around a [[lisp]] interpreter (itself written in the [[C language|C]]) with the bulk of the functionality then written in lisp.  Because of this design, it is easy for programmers to add functionality to GNU Emacs.  Many have done, and Emacs can be used to surf the web, read [[email]] and [[Usenet]], play [[tetris]] and provide basic [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[psychoanalysis]].
---
> Referring to itself as the "extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time display editor", the design of emacs is based around a [[lisp]] interpreter (itself written in the [[C language|C]]) with the bulk of the functionality then written in lisp.  Because of this design, it is easy for programmers to add functionality to GNU Emacs.  Many have done so, and Emacs can be used to surf the web, read [[email]] and [[Usenet]], play [[tetris]] and provide basic [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[psychoanalysis]].
------
Vicente_Fox_Quezada|987729287
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Current President of Mexico.  His presidential period ends in 2006.  He belongs to the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional).  He has an important "historical value", since he is the first president of opposition in over 70 years.
------
United_Kingdom|987730333
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
3c3
< It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crown in 1952.
---
> It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in 1952.
5c5
< British Monarchs
---
>  '''British Monarchs'''
7,134c7,70
< Egbert, King of Wessex  802-839
< 
< Ethelwulf	  839-856
< 
< Ethelbald  856-860
< 
< Ethelbert	  860-866
< 
< Ethelred  866-871
< 
< Alfred the Great  871-899
< 
< Edward the Elder  899-924
< 
< Athelstan	  924-939
< 
< Edmund I  939-946
< 
< Edred  946-955
< 
< Edwy  955-959
< 
< Edgar  959-975
< 
< Edward II the Martyr  975-979
< 
< Ethelred the Unready  979-1013 and 1014-1016
< 
< Sweyn  1013-1014
< 
< Edmund II Ironside  Apr-Nov 1016
< 
< Canute the Great  1016-1035
< 
< Harold Harefoot  1037-1040
< 
< Hardicanute  1040-1042
< 
< Edward the Confessor  1042-1066
< 
< Harold II	  Jan-Oct 1066
< 
< Edgar Atheling  Oct-Dec 1066
< 
< William the Conqueror  1066-1087
< 
< William II Rufus  1087-1100
< 
< Henry I Beauclerc  1100-1135
< 
< Stephen  1135-1154
< 
< Henry II Curtmantle  1154-1189
< 
< Richard Coeur de Lion  1189-1199
< 
< John Lackland  1199-1216
< 
< Henry III	  1216-1272
< 
< Edward I Longshanks  1272-1307
< 
< Edward II	  1307-1327
< 
< Edward III  1327-1377
< 
< Richard II  1377-1399
< 
< Henry IV  1399-1413
< 
< Henry V  1413-1422
< 
< Henry VI  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
< 
< Edward IV	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
< 
< Edward V  Apr-June 1483
< 
< Richard III  1483-1485
< 
< Henry VII	  1485-1509
< 
< Henry VIII  1509-1547
< 
< Edward VI	  1547-1553
< 
< Jane  1553
< 
< Mary I  1553-1558
< 
< Elizabeth I  1558-1603
< 
< James I  1603-1625
< 
< Charles I	 1625-1649
< 
< Charles II  1649-1685
< 
< James II  1685-1689
< 
< Mary II
< William III  jointly 1689-1694
< 
< William III  1694-1702
< 
< Anne  1702-1714
< 
< George I  1714-1727
< 
< George II  1727-1760
< 
< George III  1760-1820
< 
< George IV	  1820-1830
< 
< William IV  1830-1837
< 
< Victoria  1837-1901
< 
< Edward VII  1901-1910
< 
< George V  1910-1936
< 
< Edward VIII  Jan-Dec 1936
< 
< George VI  1936-1952	
< 
< Elizabeth II  1952- onwards
---
>  Egbert, King of Wessex 802-839
>  Ethelwulf	839-856
>  Ethelbald  856-860
>  Ethelbert	860-866
>  Ethelred  866-871
>  Alfred the Great  871-899
>  Edward the Elder  899-924
>  Athelstan	924-939
>  Edmund I  939-946
>  Edred  946-955
>  Edwy  955-959
>  Edgar  959-975
>  Edward II the Martyr  975-979
>  Ethelred the Unready  979-1013 and 1014-1016
>  Sweyn  1013-1014
>  Edmund II Ironside  Apr-Nov 1016
>  Canute the Great  1016-1035
>  Harold Harefoot  1037-1040
>  Hardicanute  1040-1042
>  Edward the Confessor  1042-1066
>  Harold II	  Jan-Oct 1066
>  Edgar Atheling  Oct-Dec 1066
>  William the Conqueror  1066-1087
>  William II Rufus  1087-1100
>  Henry I Beauclerc  1100-1135
>  Stephen  1135-1154
>  Henry II Curtmantle  1154-1189
>  Richard Coeur de Lion  1189-1199
>  John Lackland  1199-1216
>  Henry III	  1216-1272
>  Edward I Longshanks  1272-1307
>  Edward II	  1307-1327
>  Edward III  1327-1377
>  Richard II  1377-1399
>  Henry IV  1399-1413
>  Henry V  1413-1422
>  Henry VI  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
>  Edward IV	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
>  Edward V  Apr-June 1483
>  Richard III 1483-1485
>  Henry VII	1485-1509
>  Henry VIII 1509-1547
>  Edward VI	1547-1553
>  Jane  1553
>  Mary I  1553-1558
>  Elizabeth I  1558-1603
>  James I  1603-1625
>  Charles I	 1625-1649
>  Charles II  1649-1685
>  James II  1685-1689
>  Mary II & William III  jointly 1689-1694
>  William III  1694-1702
>  Anne  1702-1714
>  George I  1714-1727
>  George II  1727-1760
>  George III  1760-1820
>  George IV	 1820-1830
>  William IV  1830-1837
>  Victoria  1837-1901
>  Edward VII  1901-1910
>  George V  1910-1936
>  Edward VIII  Jan-Dec 1936
>  George VI  1936-1952	
>  Elizabeth II  1952-
------
JapaneseAnime|987731173
1,8c1
< Anime refers to [[Japan]]ese animated cartoons.  It should be pronounced "Ah-Nee-May".  (Perhaps someone more competent than me should consult the Nupedia pronunciation guide for a better representation of this?)
< 
< Anime is known for it's variety of genres and unique artistic style. Anime, unlike most cartoons, are not strictly for children (although there is a lot of children's anime). Anime is also for both genders, with there being well defined shonen (boys) and shoujo (girls) genres. In the US, most translated anime tends to belong to the shonen genre, including titles like Tenchi Muyo, Gundam, Trigun, etc.
< 
< Examples of anime include [[Dragon Ball Z]].
< 
< See also:
< *[[Manga]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Anime]]
------
Anime|987731187
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Anime''' refers to [[Japan]]ese animated cartoons.  It should be pronounced "Ah-Nee-May".  (Perhaps someone more competent than me should consult the Nupedia pronunciation guide for a better representation of this?)
> 
> Anime is known for it's variety of genres and unique artistic style. Anime, unlike most cartoons, are not strictly for children (although there is a lot of children's anime). Anime is also for both genders, with there being well defined shonen (boys) and shoujo (girls) genres. In the US, most translated anime tends to belong to the shonen genre, including titles like Tenchi Muyo, Gundam, Trigun, etc.
> 
> Examples of anime include [[Dragon Ball Z]].
> 
> See also:
> *[[Manga]]
> 
------
Paul_Robeson|987733149
4c4
< Robeson was born in 1898 in New Jersey.  After the early death of his mother, he was raised by his father, a preacher and escaped slave, who impressed upon him the need for self improvement through education.  Taking this to heart, he won a scholarship to Rutgers University where he excelled in both academic and sporting fields, and went on to earn a law degree at Columbia University.
---
> Robeson was born in 1898 in New Jersey.  After the early death of his mother, he was raised by his father, a preacher and escaped slave, who impressed upon him the need for self improvement through education.  Taking this to heart, he won a scholarship to Rutgers University where he excelled in both academic and sporting fields (he made All-American in American Football), and went on to earn a law degree at Columbia University.
6c6
< It was as an actor and singer he found fame though, including acclaimed performances in "Emperor Jones", "Porgy and Bess" and as, in 1930, [[Othello]] in [[England]], when no US company would employ him for the role.  He reprised the role in New York in 1943.  His repertoire of [[African-American]] folk songs helped bring these to much wider attention both inside the US and abroad.
---
> It was as an actor and singer he found fame though, including acclaimed performances in "Emperor Jones", "Porgy and Bess" and as, in 1930, [[Othello]] in [[England]], when no US company would employ him for the role.  He reprised the role in New York in 1943.  His repertoire of [[African-American]] folk songs helped bring these to much wider attention both inside the US and abroad - in particular his stunning rendition of '[[Go Down Moses]]'.
8c8
< On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport.  Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/index.en.html National Eisteddfod] conducted over the telephone.
---
> On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport. This largely stemmed from his belief that the African-American slaves shared a common bond with the per-revolutionary serfs of Russia. Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/index.en.html National Eisteddfod] conducted over the telephone.
10c10
< Prior to his passport's return in 1958, he wrote a book, "Here I Stand", which eloquently makes an empassioned case for concerted action to right the inequities of the [[Jim Crow]] system.  Sadly the remainder of his life was plagued by ill health and depression and his appearances were relatively few, prior to his death in 1976.
---
> Prior to his passport's return in 1958, he wrote a book, "Here I Stand", which eloquently makes an empassioned case for concerted action to right the inequities of the [[Jim Crow]] system.  Sadly the remainder of his life was plagued by ill health and depression and his appearances were relatively few, prior to his death in 1976.
------
Go_Down_Moses|987733354
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> African-American [[spiritual]], made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, attained the status of the voice of God.
> 
> When Israel was in Egypt's land
> Let my people go
> Oppressed so hard they could not stand
> Let my people go
> 
> Go down, Moses, way down in Egypt's land
> Tell old Pharaoh, Let my people go
> 
> So Moses went to Egypt's land
> Let my people go
> To make old Pharaoh understand
> Let my people go
> 
> Thus spake the Lord, bold Moses said,
> "Let my people go,
> If not, I'll strike your first born dead
> "Let my people go"
------
Go_Down_Moses|987733396
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
5a8
> 
7a11
> 
8a13
> 
10a16
> 
11a18
> 
12a20
> 
13a22
> 
16a26
> 
17a28
> 
19c30,31
< "Let my people go"
---
> 
> "Let my people go"
------
Go_Down_Moses|987733420
1c1
< African-American [[spiritual]], made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, attained the status of the voice of God.
---
> [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, attained the status of the voice of [[God]].
4d3
< 
6d4
< 
8d5
< 
11d7
< 
13d8
< 
16d10
< 
18d11
< 
20d12
< 
22d13
< 
26d16
< 
28d17
< 
30d18
< 
------
Go_Down_Moses|987733453
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
7a10
> 
8a12
> 
11a16
> 
12a18
> 
13a20
> 
16a24
> 
17a26
> 
18a28
> 
------
Go_Down_Moses|987733488
7a8
> 
14a16
> 
21a24
> 
------
Capricornus|987734508
3c3,5
< ''But the English name for the constellation is "Capricorn"...''
---
> ''But the English name for the constellation is "Capricorn"...''
> 
> All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).
------
Ursa_Minor|987734727
1,3c1
< Constellation in the Northern sky, whose name means the "Lesser Bear."  Colloquially known as the Little Dipper because its stars are easily traced to form a ladle, or dipper shape, its northernmost star (at the end of the dipper handle) is Polaris.  Polaris can be found by drawing a line straight north, or "upward," through the two stars which form the end of the "bowl" of the Big Dipper, or [[Ursa Major]].  Polaris is also known as the North Star, or the Pole star.
< 
< Because it lies in a direct line with the axis of the [[Earth]]'s rotation and directly "above" the [[North Pole]], Polaris is apparently motionless from the [[Earth]], and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.  Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for [[celestial navigation]].
---
> [[Constellation]] in the Northern sky, whose name means the "Lesser Bear" in Latin.  It contains an [[asterism]] colloquially known as the [[Little Dipper]] because its brightest stars seem to form a ladle, or dipper shape. The star at the end of the dipper handle is [[Polaris]], the North or Pole Star.  Polaris can also be found by following a line through the two stars which form the end of the "bowl" of the [[Big Dipper]], a nearby asterism found in the constellation [[Ursa Major]].  
------
Little_Dipper|987734767
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ursa Minor]]
------
Polaris|987735090
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Polaris is also known as the North Star, or the Pole star.
> 
> Because it lies nearly in a direct line with the axis of the [[Earth]]'s rotation "above" the [[North Pole]], Polaris is apparently motionless from the [[Earth]], and all the stars of the Northern sky appear to rotate around it.  Therefore, it makes an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for [[celestial navigation]].
> 
> Due to various wobbles and wanderings in the Earth's orbit and rotation, other stars in the Northern hemisphere have been and will likely again become the North star over thousands of years.
------
Asterism|987735281
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Asterisms are patterns of stars seen in Earth's sky which are not official constellations.
> 
> Examples are the [[Big Dipper]], [[Little Dipper]], the [[Pleiades]], and the Teapot in [[Sagittarius]].
------
Big_Dipper|987735319
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #redirect [[Ursa Major]]
------
Capricornus|987735344
5c5,6
< All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).
---
> All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).-----
> I think these pages belong under some higher level page, as subpages, like Constellations of the Zodiac. Already the "Cancer" page is being filled in with medical info and the zodiac part is on the bottom. RoseParks
------
Big_Dipper|987735346
1c1
< #redirect [[Ursa Major]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ursa Major]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987735706
142c142,144
< A. Please see [[philosophy]], but don't expect to get a coherent answer.
---
> A. Please see [[philosophy]], but don't expect to get a coherent answer.
> <br>
> A'. Life is simply the reification of the process of living - [[Ernst Mayr]]
------
RulesToConsider|987735857
67c67,71
< [[/Establish Context]] Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
---
> '''[[Establish Context|/Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
> 
> ----
> 
> '''[[Define and Describe|/Define and Describe]]'''
------
RulesToConsider|987735886
67c67
< '''[[Establish Context|/Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
---
> '''[[/Establish Context|Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
71c71
< '''[[Define and Describe|/Define and Describe]]'''
---
> '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]'''
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987736054
143,144c143
< <br>
< A'. Life is simply the reification of the process of living - [[Ernst Mayr]]
---
> A'. Life is the reification of the process of living - [[Ernst Mayr]]
------
Ursa_Major|987736469
1c1
< Constellation visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means Great Bear.  It is also known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  On an almost straight line upward from the two stars forming the upright distal end of the dipper, one can find Polaris, also known as the North Star or Pole Star.
---
> [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England is is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the cup end of the dipper.
3c3
< This is an important star in navigation because it is a steady point of reference.  It is the star which demarks the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper, or [[Ursa Minor]] (Lesser Bear), which see.
---
> Mizar and Alcor are a [[binary star]] in the middle of the handle of the Big Dipper. The ability to see Alcor is a legendary test of eyesight.
------
BruceMiller|987736538
1c1
< New [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]. Wiki [[Nupedians|Nupedian]]
---
> [[Nu]] [[Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]. [[Wiki]] [[Nupedians|Nupedian]]
------
BruceMiller|987736580
11c11
< ''1'' Do you mean the photo on the [[Crokinole]] page? Delighted to comply. Or feel free to simply download it directly. It currently lives in my angelfire image midden. I hereby release the picture into the public domain: "go little photo..."
---
> ''1'' Do you mean the photo on the [[Crokinole]] page? Delighted to comply. Or feel free to simply download it directly. It currently lives in my angelfire image [[midden]]. I hereby release the picture into the public domain: "go little photo..."
------
BruceMiller|987736631
13c13
< ''2'' I agree.
---
> ''2'' You are right.
------
BruceMiller|987736696
11c11
< ''1'' Do you mean the photo on the [[Crokinole]] page? Delighted to comply. Or feel free to simply download it directly. It currently lives in my angelfire image [[midden]]. I hereby release the picture into the public domain: "go little photo..."
---
> ''1'' The photo on the [[Crokinole]] page? Will do, please post your email. Or you can download it directly. It currently lives in my angelfire image [[midden]]. I hereby release the picture into the public domain: "go little photo..."
------
Nu|987736822
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Greek alphabet]] letter thirteen.
> 
> Looks like "N" and "''v''"
------
Nu|987737443
3a4,7
> 
> Country code for the New Zealand dependency of [[Niue]].
> 
> General [[Yiddish]] interrogative.
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987737556
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whenever a topic is amenable to definition, the article should begin with a conceptually sound definition and then proceed with a description.
> 
> To define a concept means, essentially, to make it finite.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
> 
> The description differs from the definition in that is shows the properties of the concept, rather than how the concept relates to others of the same class.  Description without definition is mere anecdote.
> 
> For example, an article on fiat money could begin: ''Fiat money is money in which the government gets to pick whose face appears on each bill.''  This is true enough, but it is a rather poor definition, since it fails to show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class.  A conceptually sound definition be: ''Fiat money is money issued by a government that has value because that government legally requires people to treat it as having value, rather than because it is backed by specie.''  One could then elaborate with a description: ''Fiat money is said to be backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing government.  The value of the money fluctuates with the credibility of the government...etc.''
> 
> If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
------
Niue|987737756
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Niue''' Polynesian dependency of [[New Zealand]] in the [[Cook Islands]]. Main town Alofi.
> 
> [http://www.expedia.com/pub/agent.dll?qscr=mmvw&msds=E38F5AA7$BC4Ew$80$27Ew94002!701000!4$FF!P0!4$FF000!8$FF.0Niue.$28dependency$29$2C.Pacific.Ocean00$0A0dependencyB$35$D2$10$5D$0C$33$C0j$9FT$1C$C3$3Ae$C0$E83!60$0E000$AB!80$14000!4$FF!K0 Map]
------
Nu|987738113
5c5
< Country code for the New Zealand dependency of [[Niue]].
---
> "NU" is the [[ISO]] 3166 Digraph [two-letter] country code for the New Zealand dependency of [[Niue]].
7c7
< General [[Yiddish]] interrogative.
---
> General [[Yiddish]] interrogative as in "Nu, bubele?"
------
Nu|987738162
3c3
< Looks like "N" and "''v''"
---
> Written "N" and "''v''"
------
Artificial_language|987738849
1c1
< The term  <i>artificial</i> or <i>constructed</i> [[language]] describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication, secrecy, use in fiction, or just linguistic experimentation.
---
> The term  <i>artificial</i> or <i>constructed</i> [[language]] ([[ConLang]]) describes a language designed for human communication which was created by the work of one or more persons, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a culture.  These are often created for a special purpose such as international communication, secrecy, use in fiction, or just linguistic experimentation.
29a30
> * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/5555/conlang.htm ConLang Yellow Pages]
------
ConLang|987738875
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial Language]]
------
ConLang|987738904
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial Language]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial Languages]]
------
ConLang|987738922
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial Languages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial languages]]
------
Religion|987738972
5c5
< [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- ScientologY 
---
> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- ScientologY 
------
ConLang|987739078
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial languages]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial_language]]
------
Artificial_language|987739330
22a23
> * [[Ubbi Dubbi]] see [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/zoom/music/rap.html Zoom]
------
Artificial_language|987739582
23c23
< * [[Ubbi Dubbi]] see [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/zoom/music/rap.html Zoom]
---
> * [[Ubbi Dubbi]] see [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Zoom] on [[PBS]]
------
Ubbi_Dubbi|987739744
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ubbi Dubbi language is a game created on the long-running Public Broadcasting Service television show ''Zoom''.
> 
> [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Translator]
------
Ubbi_Dubbi|987739784
3c3,5
< [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Translator]
---
> Ububbubi Dububbubi lubanguubage ubis uba gubame crubeubatubed ubon thube lubong-rubunnubing Pubublubic Bruboadcubastubing Subervubice tubelevubisiubon shubow ''Zuboom''.
> 
> [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Translator]
------
Ubbi_Dubbi|987739925
2a3,4
> By adding the sound "ub" before non-silent vowels, a humorous [[Pig Latin]]-like [[Artificial Language]] results.
> 
5c7
< [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Translator]
---
> [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Translator]
------
Artificial_languages|987739999
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial language]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial_language]]
------
Artificial_languages|987740064
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial_language]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial language]]
------
Artificial_language|987740138
23c23
< * [[Ubbi Dubbi]] see [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/wgbh/zoom/ubbidubbi.txt.cgi Zoom] on [[PBS]]
---
> * [[Ubbi Dubbi]]
------
Ubbi_Dubbi|987740189
3c3
< By adding the sound "ub" before non-silent vowels, a humorous [[Pig Latin]]-like [[Artificial Language]] results.
---
> By adding the sound "ub" before non-silent vowels, a humorous [[Pig latin]]-like [[Artificial language]] results.
------
Monterrey|987740617
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, in Mexico.  It is currently the second most important city in Mexico, and it has always been known for its industry.  The industries that figure out the most are the beer, glass, and steel.  Carta Blanca, Bohemia, Casta, Indio, Chipinque, and NocheBuena are examples of the beers produced there.  Vitro figures as one of the most important glass factories.ñ
> 
> Monterrey is located in northeastern Mexico, and has about 4.5 million inhabitants.  It is surrounded by other towns, which together form the metro area.  These towns are San Pedro Garza Garcia, San Nicolas de los Garza, Apodaca, Guadalupe, Escobedo, Santa Catarina.
> 
> Brief History:
> 
> Monterrey was founded on September 20, 1596, by Don Diego de Montemayor, next to a water spring called "Ojos de Agua de Santa Lucia".  On the site where these springs are, the Museo Nacional de Historia Mexicana is now.
> 
> Monterrey is "commercially" known as "La ciudad de las Montañas" or City of Mountains.  Legendarily, it is known as "Sultana del Norte" (Northern Sultana).
------
Music|987741244
7,8c7,8
< ** Flute
< ** Jug
---
> ** [[Flute]]
> ** [[Jug]]
10,15c10,15
< ** Saxophone
< ** Horn
< *** Trumpet
< *** Tuba
< *** French Horn
< *** Trombone
---
> ** [[Saxophone]]
> ** [[Horn]]
> *** [[Trumpet]]
> *** [[Tuba]]
> *** [[French Horn]]
> *** [[Trombone]]
17,18c17,18
< ** Banjo
< ** Cello
---
> ** [[Banjo]]
> ** [[Cello]]
21,29c21,31
< ** Guitar
< *** Guitar/Bass
< *** Guitar/Classical
< *** Guitar/Slide
< *** Guitar/Steel
< ** Harp
< ** Lute
< ** Mandolin
< ** Washtub
---
> ** [[Guitar]]
> *** [[Guitar/Bass]]
> *** [[Guitar/Classical]]
> *** [[Guitar/Slide]]
> *** [[Guitar/Steel]]
> ** [[Harp]]
> ** [[Lute]]
> ** [[Mandolin]]
> ** [[Washtub]]
> ** [[Balalaika]]
> ** [[Ukulele]]
31,33c33,35
< ** Harpsichord
< ** Piano
< ** Pipe Organ
---
> ** [[Harpsichord]]
> ** [[Piano]]
> ** [[Pipe Organ]]
35,51c37,53
< ** Bell
< ** Chimes
< ** Cymbals
< *** Crash
< *** Ride
< *** Hi-Hat
< *** Splash
< ** Drum
< *** Kettle Drum
< *** Timpani
< *** Bass Drum
< *** Tom-Tom
< *** Snare
< ** Marimba
< ** Triangle
< ** Washboard
< ** Xylophone
---
> ** [[Bell]]
> ** [[Chimes]]
> ** [[Cymbals]]
> *** [[Crash]]
> *** [[Ride]]
> *** [[Hi-Hat]]
> *** [[Splash]]
> ** [[Drum]]
> *** [[Kettle Drum]]
> *** [[Timpani]]
> *** [[Bass Drum]]
> *** [[Tom-Tom]]
> *** [[Snare]]
> ** [[Marimba]]
> ** [[Triangle]]
> ** [[Washboard]]
> ** [[Xylophone]]
53,54c55,56
< ** Moog
< ** Theremin
---
> ** [[Moog]]
> ** [[Theremin]]
59c61
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Pucci]]
63c65
< '''Miscellaneous:''' [[learning music by ear]] -- [[traditional music]] -- [[folk music]] -- [[harmonic accompaniment]] -- [[melody]] -- [[dance music]]
---
> '''Miscellaneous:''' [[learning music by ear]] -- [[traditional music]] -- [[folk music]] -- [[harmonic accompaniment]] -- [[melody]] -- [[dance music]] --  [[Mexican Corridos]]
------
Saxophone|987741561
1c1,9
< A musical instrument of the [[brass instrument]] family.
---
> A musical instrument considered of both [[reed instrument]] family and the [[brass instrument]] family.
> 
> It is considered of both, because it is made of brass, but as the [[clarinet]], [[bassoon]], and [[oboe]], it depends on a reed to be able to play.
> 
> This instrument was created in the mid 1800s by Adolphe Sax.
> 
> It has different modalities.  Soprano, alto, tenor, and bass are the most common, however, there are at least 16 different types of saxophone.
> 
> This instrument is used in marching bands, philarmonic orchestras, jazz bands, and blues, among others.
------
Flute|987741775
1c1,7
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. Is a open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of instrumentalist.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. It is an open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of the instrumentalist.
> 
> There are different types of flutes, for example, the transverse flute, and the baroque flute.
> 
> The transverse flute is divided into several subcategories, being the two most common the B-flat flute, and the piccolo (which produces <b>very</b> high-pitched tones.
> 
> The sound of the flute is characteristic because of its sweetness.
------
Frank_Lloyd_Wright|987742015
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous american architect that created, among many other buildings, the [[Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York City]], [[New York]].
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987742426
23a24,26
> 
> 
> What is that about setting [[preferences]] ?
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987742579
26c26
< What is that about setting [[preferences]] ?
---
> What is that about setting [[preferences]] ?  How do you set a user name, and what is that about a password?
------
Cardiology|987743201
4c4,11
< :<b>Cardiology</b>
---
> :<b>Cardiology</b>
> 
> Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart.
> 
> Important diseases of the heart:
> *[[Coronary heart disease]]
> *[[Cardiac arrhythmia]]s
> *[[Cardiac insuffiziency]]
------
Welcome,_newcomers|987743605
23,26c23
< *[[Wikipedia policy]]
< 
< 
< What is that about setting [[preferences]] ?  How do you set a user name, and what is that about a password?
---
> *[[Wikipedia policy]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|987743733
1,143c1,147
< Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a Wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or [[how to explore Wikipedia]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
< ----
< '''Q. I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia. What should I do?'''
< 
< A. Visit [[How to start a page]],  [[How does one edit a page]], and [[Tips on contributing to Wikipedia]].
< ----
< '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
< 
< A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
< ----
< '''Q. When did the [[Wikipedia]] start?'''
< 
< A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with Ben Kovitz on the evening of January 2.
< ----
< '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?'''
< 
< A. Well, that's an interesting question.  The owner of the server, the domain name, and the ultimate copyright of Wikipedia materials is [http://www.bomis.com Bomis], Inc.  But the articles are released under the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, so the articles are [[open content]].  So it is a bit misleading to say that the owner of Wikipedia articles is Bomis; Bomis doesn't own them in any ''traditional'' sense of ownership.  (Bomis CEO and President [[Jimbo Wales]] might want to elaborate this reply.)
< ----
< '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with [[Wikipedia]].  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
< 
< A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
< 
< Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
< ----
< '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
< 
< A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...and you can make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
< 
< A2. Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone writes a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
< 
< In this way, accidental linking is maximized.  I think that this plan fits the [[principle of least astonishment]].
< ----
< '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
< 
< A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
< ----
< '''Q.  Is it possible for a vandal to delete all Wikipedia pages?'''
< 
< A. Not really.  You need to be a wiki administrator (with a special password) to permanently and totally delete pages.  Any other users could remove the text of a page, but any other user could restore the text from the "kept pages" archive (which is kept for at least 2 weeks in the default wiki setup).  If someone did an extensive attack, they could be blocked from further editing by the admins.  (In the future a new feature may also allow an admin to undo all recent edits from a particular user or IP address.)  Moreover, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
< ----
< '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
< 
< A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
< ----
< '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
< 
< A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
< ----
< '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
< 
< A. Sure.  Please do [[Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia|add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]], but also [[Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia|add Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
< ----
< '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
< 
< A. On Wikipedia, English.  But we can set up wikis in any language.  Please ask (or look to see if one has been created in your language) on [[international Wikipedia]].
< 
< '''Q. American English though, I presume, not British English?'''
< 
< A. Why presume that?  People are writing in all sorts of English.  This isn't necessarily a bad situation, either.  Anyway, of course, the Americans aren't going to adjust their usage for the Brits, and god knows the Brits won't adjust theirs for the Americans.  :-)
< ----
< '''Q. What's the point of getting a user ID?'''
< 
< A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you, on the RecentChanges page, with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
< 
< Visit the [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=editprefs Preferences] page to create your user ID.
< ----
< '''Q. Are Wikipedia articles [[open content]]?  What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
< 
< A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
< ----
< '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
< 
< A. Add it to the [[WikiPediaBugs|Wikipedia bugs]] page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
< ----
< '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT.  Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
< 
< A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.  You could always make a request on the [[feature requests]] page.
< ----
< '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I received an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
< 
< A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
< 
< (Added note by [mailto:ralphcf@home.com Zephyr]) The best way to put in math would probably be to write it in TeX (or LaTeX) and then use [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH].  This will generate an HTML file with all of the math symbols in text form (no images).  Here is an [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example1.html example], and here is [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example2.html another].
< TeX is almost inarguably the standard for mathematical writing.
< 
< As much as I admire Knuth, I must disagree totally.  MathML should be the ultimate standard, not TeX.  For one thing, TeX is more display-oriented and MathML is more semantics-oriented.  MathML is also the standard supported by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium], and will therefore likely be supported by browsers (Mozilla and Microsoft are committed to it, for example).  TeX is used by a few academics, but they don't represent the real world.
< 
< It really comes down to WYSIWYG (What You See is What You Get) vs WYSIWYM (What You Say is What You Mean).  First of all, I would like to say that TeX is used almost exclusively by anyone writing up math.  Can you show me any major publication which does not require submissions to be in some variant of TeX?  A popular thing about TeX is that (if you so wish) you do not need to worry about formatting, you can just say "this is a section, format it for me".  You can still have this flexibility by setting the templates.  Have you looked at MathML lately?  I was looking at some MathML examples and it seems that TeX is much more straightforward to write.  $x^2-4=2$ becomes &lt;math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
< &lt;mrow>
< &lt;msup>&lt;mi>x&lt;/mi>&lt;mrow>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>
< &lt;/msup>
< &lt;mo>-&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>4&lt;/mn>&lt;mo>=&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>&lt;/math>.  I cannot speak much for this, everybody is entitled to their opinion, but I think that MathML would have a very tough time overthrowing TeX (although it would be good for the TeX to MathML convertor).
< 
< ----
< '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
< 
< A. Good question.  Wiki software does use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
< 
< Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
< 
< There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<code><html><h1>Header</h1></html></code>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
< 
< The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, em, b, strong, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The "code" tag acts like a combination of the tt and nowiki tags.  The latest release (0.91) adds a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).
< 
< The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams  <i>(Later, the Wikipedia maintainers have added support for several extra tags like h1, font, sub, sup, font, table, and a few others.  Eventually the documentation will be updated.)</i>
< ----
< <b>Q. How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?</b>
< 
< A1. Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (April 2001) login procedure.
< 
< A2. If you really want to log in, here is the procedure:
< # Go to the Preferences page and write down your "User ID number" (near the top).
< # While you are on the Preferences page, enter a password into the "Set Password" field.  Save your preferences.
< # On your other computer/browser, visit http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=login
< # Type in your "User ID number" and the password you set in step 2, then click the "Login" button.
< # The other computer/browser will then receive a copy of the first computer/browser's cookie.
< 
< Note that you must set a password <i>before</i> trying to login from another system.
< ----
< '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
< 
< A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
< ----
< '''Q. How can I help publicize Wikipedia?'''
< 
< A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
< ----
< '''Q. Why is wikipedia.org redirected to wikipedia.com and not the other way around?'''
< 
< A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least (certain Wikipedia members are actually paid to help!)--by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
< ----
< '''Q. What happens if two (or more) people are editing the same page more-or-less simultaneously, and both submit modified versions that don't include the other's changes?'''
< 
< A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
< ----
< '''Q. How do you pronounce "FAQ"?'''
< 
< A. Some people pronounce it "fack" and some people pronounce it "eff-ay-cue."
< ----
< '''Q. What is the meaning of life?'''
< 
< A. Please see [[philosophy]], but don't expect to get a coherent answer.
< A'. Life is the reification of the process of living - [[Ernst Mayr]]
---
> Questions not answered in [[how to start a page]], [[how does one edit a page]], [[what is a wiki]], [[what is a Wiki for]], [[why on Earth would I want to contribute to a wiki]], [[how does Wikipedia relate to Nupedia]], or [[how to explore Wikipedia]].  See also [[Wikipedia policy]] for discussion of unsettled and unsettling questions about Wikipedia.
> ----
> '''Q. I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia. What should I do?'''
> 
> A. Visit [[How to start a page]],  [[How does one edit a page]], and [[Tips on contributing to Wikipedia]].
> ----
> '''Q. Why are some of the links scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis, while others aren't?'''
> 
> A. The original wiki standard was to treat anything scrunched together and capitalized LikeThis as a link.  In an encyclopedia, though, this frankly looks ridiculous.  So we have updated our software recently; we can now create so-called [[Free Links]].  We are in the process of converting our old-style links to new-style links.  "Pardon our dust," as they say!
> ----
> '''Q. When did the [[Wikipedia]] start?'''
> 
> A. January 15, 2001.  An earlier version of the wiki (including original versions of some of these pages) was briefly hosted on Nupedia.com (first posted January 10).  The idea of a Nupedia-sponsored wiki originated out of a conversation [[Larry Sanger]] had with Ben Kovitz on the evening of January 2.
> ----
> '''Q. Who owns Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Well, that's an interesting question.  The owner of the server, the domain name, and the ultimate copyright of Wikipedia materials is [http://www.bomis.com Bomis], Inc.  But the articles are released under the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense, so the articles are [[open content]].  So it is a bit misleading to say that the owner of Wikipedia articles is Bomis; Bomis doesn't own them in any ''traditional'' sense of ownership.  (Bomis CEO and President [[Jimbo Wales]] might want to elaborate this reply.)
> ----
> '''Q. This is a wiki, anyone with a browser can edit any page.  This is not true of either print or on-line encyclopediae.  With a non-editable encyclopedia I can be reasonably sure who wrote what I'm reading, can check their credentials, and form an opinion regarding their reliability.  I can't do any of those things with [[Wikipedia]].  Why then would I give any credence to anything I read here?'''
> 
> A. You should not give credence to anything you read here.
> 
> Less flippantly, you should realize that this is, quite self-consciously, an experiment in public collaboration quite unlike any print or online encyclopedia, and therefore it will be difficult to project the results, in terms of their credibility, until the project is farther along.  But even then, you'll have to judge the results based on the articles themselves, rather than the credentials of their writers (which is itself often an unreliable way to determine credibility, as you know).
> ----
> '''Q. Can you delete a page from the wiki?  Especially your own?'''
> 
> A. Yes, in fact you can.  Consideration for others demands that you exercise extreme caution in doing so, if the page in question ''isn't'' one that you started, or is one to which many others have contributed something of interest.  But strictly speaking there's nothing stopping you: all you have to do is remove the text from the page.  You can also click on the name of the page (at the top of the page) to see what other pages link to the deleted page, and delete links to it.  Again, extreme caution is advised...and you can make use of the BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense page.
> 
> A2. Usually (but not always), rather than deleting a page, the page should be redirected somewhere useful.  If someone writes a nice article on 'JFK' it should be moved to 'John F Kennedy' (or similar) and a redirect put in place.  If someone writes a nice article 'Lincoln' (about Abraham Lincoln) then it should be moved to 'Abraham Lincoln' and then 'Lincoln' should be a page which lets people select from [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] or [[Abraham Lincoln]].
> 
> In this way, accidental linking is maximized.  I think that this plan fits the [[principle of least astonishment]].
> ----
> '''Q. If you delete all the text from a Page does it become a PaGe? again?'''
> 
> A. If you delete all the text on a Page, the page remains as a PaGe.  It does not go back to PaGe?. Only the administrators can completely delete a page.
> ----
> '''Q.  Is it possible for a vandal to delete all Wikipedia pages?'''
> 
> A. Not really.  You need to be a wiki administrator (with a special password) to permanently and totally delete pages.  Any other users could remove the text of a page, but any other user could restore the text from the "kept pages" archive (which is kept for at least 2 weeks in the default wiki setup).  If someone did an extensive attack, they could be blocked from further editing by the admins.  (In the future a new feature may also allow an admin to undo all recent edits from a particular user or IP address.)  Moreover, we are keeping backups of the server itself.  For more discussion see [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WikiWipeout this discussion of "wiki wipeouts."]
> ----
> '''Q. Is there any way to learn about changes to certain topics without having to go there from time to time?'''
> 
> A. Yes, click on the RecentChanges link at the top and bottom of every page.
> ----
> '''Q. How do you change the entry heading for a topic?  TheLaw is a topic and should be [[Law]].'''
> 
> A. Only system administrators can do that, so you'd ask [[Jimbo Wales]] or [[Larry Sanger]] (we might just set up a "change request page" for this purpose).  In the meantime, you can use the <code>#REDIRECT [[new page name]]</code> command.  On this, please see [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
> ----
> '''Q. Can you add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Sure.  Please do [[Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia|add Nupedia articles to Wikipedia]], but also [[Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia|add Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]!
> ----
> '''Q. Which languages are--from a technical or a social point of view--desirable?'''
> 
> A. On Wikipedia, English.  But we can set up wikis in any language.  Please ask (or look to see if one has been created in your language) on [[international Wikipedia]].
> 
> '''Q. American English though, I presume, not British English?'''
> 
> A. Why presume that?  People are writing in all sorts of English.  This isn't necessarily a bad situation, either.  Anyway, of course, the Americans aren't going to adjust their usage for the Brits, and god knows the Brits won't adjust theirs for the Americans.  :-)
> ----
> '''Q. What's the point of getting a user ID?'''
> 
> A. It's not required, but it allows you to tell wiki to save your settings and thereby have Wikipedia be displayed in the same way each time you return.  It also credits you, on the RecentChanges page, with changes you make, instead of a meaningless IP number.
> 
> Visit the [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=editprefs Preferences] page to create your user ID.
> 
> '''Q. Huh?  What's that about setting preferences?  How do you set a user name, and what is that about a password?'''
> 
> A.
> ----
> '''Q. Are Wikipedia articles [[open content]]?  What is the license agreement on the contents of [[Wikipedia]]?'''
> 
> A. The contents of the [[Wikipedia]] is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
> ----
> '''Q. What do I do if I find that something isn't working properly?'''
> 
> A. Add it to the [[WikiPediaBugs|Wikipedia bugs]] page.  If whatever's happened is so serious that you can't even do that, well, someone will notice it soon enough.
> ----
> '''Q. Is there a wiki <i>spell check</i> of sorts? For things as; InTernet, InterNet, InterneT.  Several pages could inadvertently be created on the same subject.'''
> 
> A.  You can use the search feature to find similar pages.  (The search is not case-sensitive, so a search for "internet" would find any of the pages above.) In Ward Cunningham's [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki/ wiki], there is a spelling checker, but it has caused some concerns.  You could always make a request on the [[feature requests]] page.
> ----
> '''Q. I am asking this again, because I do not feel I received an adequate answer, last time. To write pages on Math, the authors need to be able to include a large number of math symbols, graphs, etc. This is not a question of linking to someone else's images. These are items we need to be able to use freely and in our own original way. It would require, at present, uploading the content to one's own websites, assuming we have them ,and linking to this. For example, to discuss differentiation and integration in Calculus, one needs to have: an Integral sign, a summmation sign, a symbolism for limits, etc.  Somehow, writing, the limit of sin(x)/x as x goes to infinity, just doesn't cut it.  Already we are all missing the small epsilon for "belongs to," the symbol for "is a subset of," and many more in the Abstract Algebra entries. I think this will impede the addition of much material in the Math area.'''
> 
> A. This is a difficult problem.  Part of the problem is that html web pages don't do math symbols very well at all.  So almost any solution will be a crutch.  Within the next couple of years, browsers should be able to render MathML.  This will be a time of much joy.  Between now and then, I'm open to suggestions, but I think this is a really hard problem.
> 
> (Added note by [mailto:ralphcf@home.com Zephyr]) The best way to put in math would probably be to write it in TeX (or LaTeX) and then use [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH].  This will generate an HTML file with all of the math symbols in text form (no images).  Here is an [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example1.html example], and here is [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/tth_example2.html another].
> TeX is almost inarguably the standard for mathematical writing.
> 
> As much as I admire Knuth, I must disagree totally.  MathML should be the ultimate standard, not TeX.  For one thing, TeX is more display-oriented and MathML is more semantics-oriented.  MathML is also the standard supported by the [http://www.w3.org/ World Wide Web Consortium], and will therefore likely be supported by browsers (Mozilla and Microsoft are committed to it, for example).  TeX is used by a few academics, but they don't represent the real world.
> 
> It really comes down to WYSIWYG (What You See is What You Get) vs WYSIWYM (What You Say is What You Mean).  First of all, I would like to say that TeX is used almost exclusively by anyone writing up math.  Can you show me any major publication which does not require submissions to be in some variant of TeX?  A popular thing about TeX is that (if you so wish) you do not need to worry about formatting, you can just say "this is a section, format it for me".  You can still have this flexibility by setting the templates.  Have you looked at MathML lately?  I was looking at some MathML examples and it seems that TeX is much more straightforward to write.  $x^2-4=2$ becomes &lt;math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">
> &lt;mrow>
> &lt;msup>&lt;mi>x&lt;/mi>&lt;mrow>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>
> &lt;/msup>
> &lt;mo>-&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>4&lt;/mn>&lt;mo>=&lt;/mo>&lt;mn>2&lt;/mn>&lt;/mrow>&lt;/math>.  I cannot speak much for this, everybody is entitled to their opinion, but I think that MathML would have a very tough time overthrowing TeX (although it would be good for the TeX to MathML convertor).
> 
> ----
> '''Q.  Why don't we simply use <em>html</em>?'''
> 
> A. Good question.  Wiki software does use <i>some</i> html, but not all of it.  One reason is for simplicity when typing--for instance this text is indented because I typed a : character at the start of the line.  In order to do that in HTML, I would have to type much more.  The wiki syntax also prevents many common errors, like not closing a bold-tag and making all the following text be bold.
> 
> Another reason for not using raw html is security--several old versions of popular browsers have security problems that can be triggered by arbitrary "malicious HTML".  Even without considering security, malicious users could do things like Javascript popup windows or page redirects if they had full HTML ability.  Several "experimental" sites that allowed full-HTML editing have suffered such attacks, including a couple other wikis that allowed arbitrary HTML.
> 
> There is a "raw-HTML" option in the wiki code, but it is defaulted to "off" for the public release.  I <b>strongly</b> recommend leaving it off for public wikis.  (If that option was enabled, you could type "<code><html><h1>Header</h1></html></code>" to create a header.)  See the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?RawHtmlWiki Meatball Wiki RawHtmlWiki page] for earlier discussion of these issues.
> 
> The HTML tags directly supported in the current version are i, em, b, strong, tt, and pre.  There is also a pseudo-tag "nowiki" which you can use to prevent the wiki from formatting your text (like <nowiki>NotALink</nowiki>--edit to see the tags).  The "code" tag acts like a combination of the tt and nowiki tags.  The latest release (0.91) adds a new wiki-syntax for h1-h6 (h1 is =text=, h2 is ==text==, etc...).
> 
> The [[Wikipedia]] may have different needs than the typical wiki.  The formatting rules are easy to change, and I am willing to try new things for this wiki if the maintainers of this site want changes.  --CliffordAdams  <i>(Later, the Wikipedia maintainers have added support for several extra tags like h1, font, sub, sup, font, table, and a few others.  Eventually the documentation will be updated.)</i>
> ----
> <b>Q. How do I keep from getting new user numbers every time I use a different machine?  I have an 'account', such as it is, but I keep getting new IDs every time I use a different machine or browser to work on this.  The same problem would happen if I deleted cookies, wouldn't it?</b>
> 
> A1. Don't worry about different user numbers.  It's often easier to set up your different IDs than to use the current (April 2001) login procedure.
> 
> A2. If you really want to log in, here is the procedure:
> # Go to the Preferences page and write down your "User ID number" (near the top).
> # While you are on the Preferences page, enter a password into the "Set Password" field.  Save your preferences.
> # On your other computer/browser, visit http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=login
> # Type in your "User ID number" and the password you set in step 2, then click the "Login" button.
> # The other computer/browser will then receive a copy of the first computer/browser's cookie.
> 
> Note that you must set a password <i>before</i> trying to login from another system.
> ----
> '''Q. Is this safe? I mean, I could start defaming people.  Then the legal implications of this could become a problem to the provider of this service.'''
> 
> A. Good question.  Why not write on TheLegalImplicationsOfWikis?  (It's probably already been done on [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors Ward Cunningham's original wiki].)
> ----
> '''Q. How can I help publicize Wikipedia?'''
> 
> A. Good question.  See [[publicize Wikipedia]].
> ----
> '''Q. Why is wikipedia.org redirected to wikipedia.com and not the other way around?'''
> 
> A. I'm afraid it's for precisely the reason you fear: the people who are organizing this view it partly, from ''their'' point of view, as a business.  They hope to recoup their costs, at the very least (certain Wikipedia members are actually paid to help!)--by placing banner ads, someday in the possibly-distant future.  It would, thus, be dishonest of them to use .org.  Of course, if you don't like this, it will be possible to export all the contents of Wikipedia for use elsewhere, since the contents of Wikipedia are covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].
> ----
> '''Q. What happens if two (or more) people are editing the same page more-or-less simultaneously, and both submit modified versions that don't include the other's changes?'''
> 
> A. The second person (and later persons) to save the page will receive an "edit conflict" message, and the opportunity to merge their changes into the most-currently-saved version.  The wiki will also check for a conflict if you are editing and do a preview of the edit.  Multiple consecutive conflicts are noticed, and will generate a slightly different message.  Note that the wiki ignores edit conflicts between two edits with the same user-ID number (if you set your preferences), or the same IP address (if neither editor has a preferences cookie).  (These same-user "conflicts" are usually the result of using the back-page browser function to re-edit a page.)  To test the conflicts by yourself you will need either two different browsers (with different cookies), or two different systems.
> ----
> '''Q. How do you pronounce "FAQ"?'''
> 
> A. Some people pronounce it "fack" and some people pronounce it "eff-ay-cue."
> ----
> '''Q. What is the meaning of life?'''
> 
> A. Please see [[philosophy]], but don't expect to get a coherent answer.
> A'. Life is the reification of the process of living - [[Ernst Mayr]]
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987744089
1c1
< Whenever a topic is amenable to definition, the article should begin with a conceptually sound definition and then proceed with a description.
---
> Whenever a topic is amenable to [[definition]], the article should begin with a [[fallacies of definition|conceptually sound]] definition and then proceed with a description.
3c3
< To define a concept means, essentially, to make it finite.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
---
> To define a concept means, essentially, to make it clear.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
9c9
< If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
---
> If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
------
RulesToConsider|987744184
71c71
< '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]'''
---
> '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]''' Supporters include (at least) TimShell and [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Ursa_Major|987745289
1c1
< [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England is is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the cup end of the dipper.
---
> [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England is is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the end of the dipper cup, up and away from the dipper.
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987746049
3c3
< To define a concept means, essentially, to make it clear.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
---
> To define a concept means, essentially, to make it finite.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
9c9
< If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
---
> If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
------
Digitizing_Tablet|987757669
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A digitizing tablet is a flat input device, used for drawings. The most common kinds project a weak magnetic field about an inch from their surface, in which they can detect a special pointing device, normally a stylus or puck. Digitizing tablets are popular for technical drawings, as one can put a paper on them without interfering with their function, and for art, since the stylus can be equipped with a pressure sensitive tip, making it a quite natural way to paint.
> Touch screens are operated in similar ways, but they usually use either optical grids or a pressure sensitive film instead. Therefore they do not need a special stylus.
------
Paul_Robeson|987758089
8c8
< On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport. This largely stemmed from his belief that the African-American slaves shared a common bond with the per-revolutionary serfs of Russia. Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/index.en.html National Eisteddfod] conducted over the telephone.
---
> On his frequent trips overseas he was highly critical of the conditions experienced by black Americans, especially in the segregated southern states, and this outspokenness, together with sympathies expressed towards the people of the [[Soviet Union]] found him branded a [[communism|communist]] by the McCarthyite [[HUAC]] committee and the US State Department denied him a passport. This largely stemmed from his belief that the African-American slaves shared a common bond with the pre-revolutionary serfs of Russia. Undeterred, he still occasionally sang overseas, including a performance at the [[Wales|Welsh]] [http://www.eisteddfod.org.uk/index.en.html National Eisteddfod] conducted over the telephone.
10c10
< Prior to his passport's return in 1958, he wrote a book, "Here I Stand", which eloquently makes an empassioned case for concerted action to right the inequities of the [[Jim Crow]] system.  Sadly the remainder of his life was plagued by ill health and depression and his appearances were relatively few, prior to his death in 1976.
---
> Prior to his passport's return in 1958, he wrote a book, "Here I Stand", which eloquently makes an empassioned case for concerted action to right the inequities of the [[Jim Crow]] system.  Sadly the remainder of his life was plagued by ill health and depression and his appearances were relatively few, prior to his death in 1976.
------
Istanbul|987758726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The largest city of Turkey, former capital of the Ottoman empire and under the name of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine empire. The old city is mainly located on the Bosporus strait, which separates Europe from Asia and the Black Sea from the Marmara Sea. However, the modern city is much more larger and covers both European and Asian sides of Bosporus. The famous touristic places are Sariyer, Eyüp, Taksim on the European side, Beykoz, Üsküdar, Kadiköy, Moda, Bostanci the Princes' Islands on the Asian side. Although Istanbul is no longer the capital of Turkey, it is still the major city in Turkey's industry, commerce and culture and the most important import and export center.
------
Ankara|987758815
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ankara (formerly known as Angora) is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city. Ankara is an important commercial city as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous before being a capital for its long-haired goats and their wool (Angora wool). Being a capital of Galatia from the 2nd century B.C., it gradually became a minor city after being conquered respectively by Romans, Persians, Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ankara was chosen as the capital during the indepence war (after World War I) led by [[Kemal Atatürk]] because of its central location in Anatolia and as an uprising against Ottoman Empire and its capital Istanbul.
------
Ankara|987758870
1c1
< Ankara (formerly known as Angora) is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city. Ankara is an important commercial city as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous before being a capital for its long-haired goats and their wool (Angora wool). Being a capital of Galatia from the 2nd century B.C., it gradually became a minor city after being conquered respectively by Romans, Persians, Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ankara was chosen as the capital during the indepence war (after World War I) led by [[Kemal Atatürk]] because of its central location in Anatolia and as an uprising against Ottoman Empire and its capital Istanbul.
---
> Ankara (formerly known as Angora) is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city. Ankara is an important commercial city as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous before being a capital for its long-haired goats and their wool (Angora wool). Being a capital of Galatia from the 2nd century B.C., it gradually became a minor city after being conquered respectively by Romans, Persians, Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ankara was chosen as the capital during the indepence war (after World War I) led by Kemal Atatürk because of its central location in Anatolia and as an uprising against Ottoman Empire and its capital Istanbul.
------
Izmir|987759023
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The second-largest port (after Istanbul) and the third most populous city of Turkey (formerly known as Smyrna) is located on the Aegean Sea near the Gulf of Izmir. The city was settled on 3rd milennium B.C and was an important city ýf Ionians. Being an important center for traders and merchants during Seljuk and Ottoman period, the city was completely destroyed in the independence war of Turkey and was rebuilt after 1922.
------
Bursa|987759104
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bursa (formerly known as Brusa) is a city in nortwestern Turkey. Formerly a major city located on the westernmost extension of the famous Silk Road and the capital of Ottoman Empire in the 14th and 15th centuries, the city is now famous for its ski resorts (on Uludag), the mausoleums of Ottoman sultans and fertile plain. The city also has a special fame for Turkish people as an important location for Turkish couisine (especially chestnut deserts and a delicious meat dish called iskender kebap).
------
Computing|987759215
8a9
> *** [[Touch Screen]]
------
Turkish|987759256
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkish is a member of Turkic family of languages, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former Soviet Union states) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammer and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today’s Turkic languages.
> The charactheristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
> 
------
Music|987761063
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock music]] -- [[new wave music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]]
------
Turkish|987762042
1,2c1,2
< Turkish is a member of Turkic family of languages, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former Soviet Union states) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammer and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today’s Turkic languages.
< The charactheristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
---
> Turkish is a member of Turkic family of languages, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former Soviet Union states) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammer and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today s Turkic languages.
> The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
------
The_Penguins|987762870
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[Doo wop]] group of the 1950s and 60s, best remembered for the hit "Earth Angel".  One of a number of doo wop groups of the period named after birds (such as [[The Orioles]], [[The Flamingos]], [[The Crows]] and others.)
> 
> 
> A picture of them may be seen [http://icdweb.cc.purdue.edu/~murraypm/penguins.html here].
------
The_Big_Lebowski|987763537
0a1,3
> [[Coen brothers]] film (1998), a comedy based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book.  Starring [[Jeff Bridges]] as "The Dude", the plot, triggered by a case of mistaken identity, revolves around kidnap, drugs and [[ten pin bowling]].
> 
> ----
------
The_Big_Lebowski|987763596
1c1
< [[Coen brothers]] film (1998), a comedy based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book.  Starring [[Jeff Bridges]] as "The Dude", the plot, triggered by a case of mistaken identity, revolves around kidnap, drugs and [[ten pin bowling]].
---
> [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film (1998).  The Big Lebowski is a comedy based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book.  Starring [[Jeff Bridges]] as "The Dude", the plot, triggered by a case of mistaken identity, revolves around kidnap, drugs and [[ten pin bowling]].
------
Constellation|987770270
97c97
< There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big dipper]] and [[Little dipper]].
---
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big Dipper]] and [[Little Dipper]].
------
Arabic_language|987777310
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Ursa_Major|987781579
1c1
< [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England is is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the end of the dipper cup, up and away from the dipper.
---
> [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England it is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the end of the dipper cup, through those stars and up and away from the dipper.
------
Parabola|987781669
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[conic section]] generated by a the intersection  of a cone and a plane parallel to the cone's axis.  A parabola may also be considered to be the set of points such that the distances of each point from a given point (the focus) and a given straight line (the directrix) are equal.
> 
> In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <it>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</it>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
------
Requested_articles|987781754
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Napoleon]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
11c11
< <b>Religion: </b>[[history of Islam]] -- [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
---
> <b>Religion: </b> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
15c15
< [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Parabola]] --
---
> [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
------
Turkish|987785008
1c1
< Turkish is a member of Turkic family of languages, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former Soviet Union states) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammer and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today s Turkic languages.
---
> Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today s Turkic languages.
------
Digitizing_Tablet|987786477
1c1
< A digitizing tablet is a flat input device, used for drawings. The most common kinds project a weak magnetic field about an inch from their surface, in which they can detect a special pointing device, normally a stylus or puck. Digitizing tablets are popular for technical drawings, as one can put a paper on them without interfering with their function, and for art, since the stylus can be equipped with a pressure sensitive tip, making it a quite natural way to paint.
---
> A digitizing tablet is a flat [[input device]], used for drawings. The most common kinds project a weak magnetic field about an inch from their surface, in which they can detect a special pointing device, normally a stylus or puck. Digitizing tablets are popular for technical drawings, as one can put a paper on them without interfering with their function, and for art, since the stylus can be equipped with a pressure sensitive tip, making it a quite natural way to paint.
------
Input_device|987786580
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Any of a number of devices used for communicating with a machine, typically a computer.
> 
> Examples:
> * [[Keyboard]]
> * [[Mouse]]
> * [[Trackball]]
> * [[Digitizing Tablet]]
------
Go_Down_Moses|987787090
1c1
< [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, attained the status of the voice of [[God]].
---
> [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] (book??, chapters ??), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].
3c3
< When Israel was in Egypt's land
---
> The song was made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, attained the status of the voice of [[God]].
4a5
> When Israel was in Egypt's land
6d6
< 
8d7
< 
11d9
< 
13d10
< 
16d12
< 
18d13
< 
20d14
< 
22d15
< 
24,25d16
< 
< 
27d17
< 
29d18
< 
31,32c20
< 
< "Let my people go"
---
> Let my people go"
------
Go_Down_Moses|987787316
1c1
< [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] (book??, chapters ??), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].
---
> [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] (Exodus, chapters 3-12), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].
------
Ursa_Major|987787388
1c1
< [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England it is known as Charles's Wain [wagon]. To find [[Polaris]], the North Star, measure a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the end of the dipper cup, through those stars and up and away from the dipper.
---
> [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England it is known as Charles's Wain [wagon].
3c3,7
< Mizar and Alcor are a [[binary star]] in the middle of the handle of the Big Dipper. The ability to see Alcor is a legendary test of eyesight.
---
> From the bowl to the handle, the stars in the Big Dipper are called Dubhe, Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth, Mizar, and Alkaid (Benetnash), and are given Bayer designations of &alpha;-&eta; Ursa Majoris.
> 
> The star [[Polaris]], the North Star, can be found by measuring a line five times the angular distance between the two ''pointer'' stars Dubhe and Merak forming the end of the dipper cup, through those stars and up and away from the dipper.  The dipper also points the way to other stars, for instance by sweeping down from the handle one reaches [[Arcturus]] and [[Spica]].
> 
> Mizar and Alcor are an [[optical binary]] in the middle of the handle of the Big Dipper. The ability to see Alcor unaided is a legendary test of eyesight.
------
Go_Down_Moses|987787413
5,7c5,10
< When Israel was in Egypt's land
< Let my people go
< Oppressed so hard they could not stand
---
> ----
> <b>Usual lyrics</b>
> 
> When Israel was in Egypt's land<br>
> Let my people go<br>
> Oppressed so hard they could not stand<br>
10c13
< Go down, Moses, way down in Egypt's land
---
> Go down, Moses, way down in Egypt's land<br>
13,19c16,22
< So Moses went to Egypt's land
< Let my people go
< To make old Pharaoh understand
< Let my people go
< Thus spake the Lord, bold Moses said,
< "Let my people go,
< If not, I'll strike your first born dead
---
> So Moses went to Egypt's land<br>
> Let my people go<br>
> To make old Pharaoh understand<br>
> Let my people go<br>
> Thus spake the Lord, bold Moses said,<br>
> "Let my people go,<br>
> If not, I'll strike your first born dead<br>
20a24,25
> 
> (Public Domain)
------
Go_Down_Moses|987787558
1c1
< [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] (Exodus, chapters 3-12), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].
---
> [[African-American]] [[spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] ([[Christian Bible/Exodus|Exodus]], chapters 3-12), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].
------
Input_device|987787689
5c5
< * [[Mouse]]
---
> * [[Computer Mouse|Mouse]]
------
Capricornus|987787706
6a7,8
> 
> It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
------
Rosales|987787841
5,11c5,10
< ** [[Apple]]
< ** [[Blackberry]]
< ** [[Pear]]
< ** [[Plum]]
< ** [[Raspberry]]
< ** [[Rose]]
< ** [[Strawberry]]
---
> ** ''Rosa'' - [[Rose]]
> ** ''Fragaria'' - [[Strawberry]]
> ** ''Rubus'' - [[Raspberry]], [[Blackberry]]
> ** ''Prunus'' - [[Plum]], [[Cherry]], [[Peach]], [[Almond]], [[Apricot]], [[Nectarine]]
> ** ''Malus'' - [[Apple]]
> ** ''Pyrus'' - [[Pear]]
19c18
< * ...
---
> * ...
------
Double_jeopardy|987790467
1c1
< The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit proscutorial abuse by the government in bringing repeated actions for the same offense as a means of harrassment, oppression or retaliation.
---
> The [[law|legal]] phrase '''double jeopardy''' stems from the [[Fifth amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]]: "...nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;..."  This was meant to limit prosecutorial abuse by the government in bringing repeated actions for the same offense as a means of harrassment, oppression or retaliation.
------
Polar_coordinates|987791615
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Any of a number of co-ordinate systems in which a point is identified by parameters identifiable as a distance from some fixed feature in space and one or more subtended angles.
> 
> Sub types include:
> 
> <i>Circular Polar Coordinates</i>
> 
> A two-dimensional coordinate system in which a point is located by its distance from some predefined point (known as the origin) and the angle made by a line joining from the origin to the point and some fixed axis.  The angle is typically denoted &theta; and the distance '<i>r</i>' (for radius).
> 
> <i>Cylindrical Polar Coordinates</i>
> 
> A three-dimenional sytem similar to circular polar coordinates except the angle and radius are measured relative a fixed straight axis in space, and a third co-ordinate is used, which measures the vertical height above some fixed plane normal to this axis.
------
Cardiology|987792315
11c11
< *[[Cardiac insuffiziency]]
---
> *[[Cardiac insuffiziency]] I'd say [[Heart failure]]
------
Folk_music/Talk|987792435
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Someone wrote:<br>
> <i>More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called rock and roll called [folk rock]? or simply "folk," which included performers such as [Joan Baez]?, Bob Dylan, Simon and Garfunkel, [The Mamas and the Papas]?, and many others. </i>
> 
> I've tried to clarify this.  "Folk rock" is used very specifically and is typically far more recognised by instrumentation than form.  Many folk musicians of the 60s (Tom Paxton, Phil Ochs etc) sang new, topical material (which distinguished them from traditional folk musicians) but in the folk idiom (acoustic instruments, traditional arrangements and often traditional melodies.)
------
Folk_music|987792485
3c3,7
< Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  More recognizable, perhaps, is a type of what is generally called [[rock and roll]] called [[folk rock]] or simply "folk," which included performers such as [[Joan Baez]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
---
> Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  By the mid 1960s, however the term "folk music", or often just "folk" came to be applied singers and songwriters, such as [[Bob Dylan]], [[Joan Baez]] and [[Phil Ochs]] who used folk musics forms and idioms (and often borrowed traditional melodies) but with new, non-traditional and frequently politically topical lyrics.
> 
> Traditional folk music forms were also merged with [[rock and roll]] to form the hybrid generally called called [[folk rock]] which included performers such as [[The Byrds]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others.  Some of these performers, of which Joan Baez is an excellent example, began their commercial music careers performing traditional music in a traditional idiom, but soon transformed their style and accompaniment to suit popular tastes.  A similar stylistic shift, without using the "folk music" name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which Celtic languages are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Folk_music|987792569
3c3
< Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  By the mid 1960s, however the term "folk music", or often just "folk" came to be applied singers and songwriters, such as [[Bob Dylan]], [[Joan Baez]] and [[Phil Ochs]] who used folk musics forms and idioms (and often borrowed traditional melodies) but with new, non-traditional and frequently politically topical lyrics.
---
> Some examples of this transformation have occurred with [[bluegrass]] (a development of American [[old time music]]), which is often referred to as a kind of folk music, as well as with the use of traditional music in [[country music]] (itself a development of both bluegrass and old time music).  By the mid 1960s, however the term "folk music", or often just "folk" came to be applied singers and songwriters, such as [[Bob Dylan]], [[Joan Baez]] and [[Phil Ochs]] who used folk music's forms and idioms (and often borrowed traditional melodies) but with new, non-traditional and frequently politically topical lyrics.
------
Folk_music/Talk|987792607
4c4,7
< I've tried to clarify this.  "Folk rock" is used very specifically and is typically far more recognised by instrumentation than form.  Many folk musicians of the 60s (Tom Paxton, Phil Ochs etc) sang new, topical material (which distinguished them from traditional folk musicians) but in the folk idiom (acoustic instruments, traditional arrangements and often traditional melodies.)
---
> I've tried to clarify this.  "Folk rock" is used very specifically and is typically far more recognised by instrumentation than form.  Many folk musicians of the 60s (Tom Paxton, Phil Ochs etc) sang new, topical material (which distinguished them from traditional folk musicians) but in the folk idiom (acoustic instruments, traditional arrangements and often traditional melodies.)
> 
> Re: the comment about "marketers" in the first paragraph.  If language reflects common usage, what is now called "folk music" has as much right to the name as any other form.
> <br>[[Gareth Owen]]
------
Wiki_special_characters|987794339
103d102
< 
112c111
< Speical care should be taken with characters that do exist in the native character set of popular machines but not in the above set.  These are not safe, even theough they may display correctly to you when you use them.  Characters from Windows code page 1252 not in ISO-8859-1 include the euro sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), dagger and double dagger (<code>&amp;dagger;, &amp;Dagger;</code>), bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>), typeset-style punctuation (see below), per mille sign (<code>&amp;permil;</code>), some Eastern European caron-accented letters, and the oe ligatures.  Characters from the Macintosh Roman set not in ISO-8859-1 include dagger and double dagger, bullet, trade mark sign, a few math symbols such as infinity (<code>&amp;infin;</code>) and not equal (<code>&amp;ne;</code>), a few commonly-used Greek letters such as pi (<code>&amp;pi;</code>), ligatures like oe and fl, typeset-style punctuation, per mille sign, and lone accents such as the breve, onogek, and caron.
---
> Special care should be taken with characters that do exist in the native character set of popular machines but not in the above set.  These are not safe, even though they may display correctly to you when you use them.  Characters from Windows code page 1252 not in ISO-8859-1 include the euro sign (<code>&amp;euro;</code>), dagger and double dagger (<code>&amp;dagger;, &amp;Dagger;</code>), bullet (<code>&amp;bull;</code>), trade mark sign (<code>&amp;trade;</code>), typeset-style punctuation (see below), per mille sign (<code>&amp;permil;</code>), some Eastern European caron-accented letters, and the oe ligatures.  Characters from the Macintosh Roman set not in ISO-8859-1 include dagger and double dagger, bullet, trade mark sign, a few math symbols such as infinity (<code>&amp;infin;</code>) and not equal (<code>&amp;ne;</code>), a few commonly-used Greek letters such as pi (<code>&amp;pi;</code>), ligatures like oe and fl, typeset-style punctuation, per mille sign, and lone accents such as the breve, onogek, and caron.
114c113
< Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by popular languages include the upper and lowercase OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>), uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>), Eastern European characters with onogek, caron, breve, and double acute accents (for example <code>&amp;Scaron;</code>), accented Z and C, T and R with cedilla, L with stroke, and others.  These are also unsafe, though if they entered as HTML named character entity references, they may display on some machines.
---
> [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/ HTML 4.0] defines named character entities for some Latin characters not in ISO-8859-1 that are used by popular languages, such as OE ligature (<code>&amp;OElig;, &amp;oelig;</code>) and uppercase Y with diaeresis (<code>&amp;Yuml;</code>).  These are also unsafe, though if they entered as HTML named character entity references, they may display on some machines.
------
HungarianLanguage|987796768
5c5
< Hungarian /VocabularY contains many words derived from TurkishLanguage, GermanLanguage, SlavicLanguages but is quite original and colorful.
---
> Hungarian /VocabularY contains many words derived from [[Turkish]] language, GermanLanguage, SlavicLanguages but is quite original and colorful.
------
Folk_music/Talk|987797298
7c7,9
< <br>[[Gareth Owen]]
---
> <br>[[Gareth Owen]]
> ----
> To the latter: fair enough, but does the first paragraph actually imply otherwise? --[[LMS]]
------
Capricorn|987797376
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Capricornus]]
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.  See [[Capricornus]].
------
Capricornus|987797573
5c5,7
< All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).-----
---
> All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).
> :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.
> -----
8c10
< It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
---
> It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
------
Capricornus|987797700
6c6,8
< :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.
---
> :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.  See, for example, these pages:
> :http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/constellations.html
> :http://www.frostydrew.org/observatory/courses/myths/booklet.htm#Capr
------
Capricornus|987797723
1,12c1
< One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
< 
< ''But the English name for the constellation is "Capricorn"...''
< 
< All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).
< :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.  See, for example, these pages:
< :http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/constellations.html
< :http://www.frostydrew.org/observatory/courses/myths/booklet.htm#Capr
< -----
< I think these pages belong under some higher level page, as subpages, like Constellations of the Zodiac. Already the "Cancer" page is being filled in with medical info and the zodiac part is on the bottom. RoseParks
< 
< It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
---
> #REDIRECT [[Capricorn]]
------
Capricorn|987797737
1c1,3
< One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.  See [[Capricornus]].
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
> 
> /Talk
------
Capricorn/Talk|987797748
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
> 
> ''But the English name for the constellation is "Capricorn"...''
> 
> All the constellation names are Latin. ;) ''Capricorn'' is a variant of Capricornus, and I think that in such cases we should follow the International Astronomical Union, even though every now and then its form is less common (the other being Scorpius).
> :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.  See, for example, these pages:
> :http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/constellations.html
> :http://www.frostydrew.org/observatory/courses/myths/booklet.htm#Capr
> -----
> I think these pages belong under some higher level page, as subpages, like Constellations of the Zodiac. Already the "Cancer" page is being filled in with medical info and the zodiac part is on the bottom. RoseParks
> 
> It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
------
Capricorn|987797802
1c1
< One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.
---
> One of the constellations of the zodiac, the sea-goat.  Latin ''Capricornus.''
3c3
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Constellation|987798045
14c14
< * [[Capricornus]], the sea goat
---
> * [[Capricorn]], the sea goat
------
Constellation|987798365
12c12
< * [[Scorpius]] - formerly Scorpio, the scorpion
---
> * [[Scorpio]] - now often identified as [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
14c14
< * [[Capricorn]], the sea goat
---
> * [[Capricorn]], or [[Capricornus]], the sea goat
------
Constellation|987798384
12c12
< * [[Scorpio]] - now often identified as [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
---
> * [[Scorpio]], or [[Scorpius]], the scorpion
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987798521
9a10,11
> ----
> [[Define and Describe/Talk]]
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987798531
11c11
< [[Define and Describe/Talk]]
---
> [[Define and Describe Talk]]
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987798676
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim, "to make finite" as a definition of "definition" is surely totally inadequate.  That might (I suppose, I don't know & don't care) be the ''etymology'' of the word, but the word itself doesn't mean to make something finite, unless we're speaking metaphorically, which we shouldn't do in definitions.  I mean, what does it ''mean'' to make a word or a concept or a thing (all three are sometimes said to be the subjects of definition) "finite"? --Larry
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987798815
3c3
< To define a concept means, essentially, to make it finite.  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
---
> To define a concept means, essentially, to make its meaning [[ambiguity|unambiguous]] and adequately [[vagueness|precise]].  To do this you must show not only what a concept is, but what it isn't.  You must show how the concept relates to other concepts of the same class, thereby establishing the limits of the concept.
11c11
< [[Define and Describe Talk]]
---
> [[Define and Describe Talk]]
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987799039
1c1,3
< Tim, "to make finite" as a definition of "definition" is surely totally inadequate.  That might (I suppose, I don't know & don't care) be the ''etymology'' of the word, but the word itself doesn't mean to make something finite, unless we're speaking metaphorically, which we shouldn't do in definitions.  I mean, what does it ''mean'' to make a word or a concept or a thing (all three are sometimes said to be the subjects of definition) "finite"? --Larry
---
> Tim, "to make finite" as a definition of "definition" is surely totally inadequate.  That might (I suppose, I don't know & don't care) be the ''etymology'' of the word, but the word itself doesn't mean to make something finite, unless we're speaking metaphorically, which we shouldn't do in definitions.  I mean, what does it ''mean'' to make a word or a concept or a thing (all three are sometimes said to be the subjects of definition) "finite"? 
> 
> See [[fallacies of definition]], last item, "Obscurity." --Larry
------
Learning_music_by_ear|987799173
1c1
< [[Music]] can be learned by direct imitation of what one hears.  This is typically how [[traditional music]], as distinguished from [[classical music]], is passed on from generation to generation.
---
> [[Music]] can be learned by direct imitation of what one hears.  This is typically how [[traditional music]], as distinguished from [[classical music]], is passed on from generation to generation.  Classical musicians do essentially the same thing, albeit more systematically, when they practice [[ear training]].
------
Dance_music|987799263
1c1
< [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For younger people who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]].
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]].
------
Definition|987799524
1c1
< Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) a brief account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], or [[concept]].  See also [[definition in graphic arts]].
---
> Though highly [[ambiguity|ambiguous]], a ''definition'' is (in the most usual sense) a brief account of the [[meaning]] of a [[word]], [[phrase]], [[concept]], or sometimes a thing, such as a [[natural kind]].  See also [[definition in graphic arts]].
------
Polar_coordinates|987799742
11c11
< A three-dimenional sytem similar to circular polar coordinates except the angle and radius are measured relative a fixed straight axis in space, and a third co-ordinate is used, which measures the vertical height above some fixed plane normal to this axis.
---
> A three-dimenional sytem similar to circular polar coordinates except the angle and radius are measured relative a fixed straight axis in space, and a third co-ordinate is used, which measures the vertical height above some fixed plane normal to this axis.
------
Parabola|987799898
3c3
< In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <it>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</it>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
---
> In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <t>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</i>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
------
Parabola|987799922
3c3
< In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <t>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</i>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
---
> In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <i>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</i>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
------
Requested_articles|987799996
14c14
< [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
------
Requested_articles|987800056
14c14
< [[Polar Coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|987800367
9c9
< If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedent.
---
> If a topic is not a concept, then a conceptually sound definition may not be possible.  For example, [[Chester Arthur]] is not amenable to definition.  One can only describe him and his place in history.  Care should be made to describe in such a way that the factors likely to be considered important are given precedence.
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|987800598
15c15
< There are many philosophers today, following [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], who claim that existence is not a property, or that 'exists' is not a predicate.  Typically, the discussions in which this claim arises are discussions of the existence of physical objects.  So, for example, the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  This is a true claim; what makes it true?  One would like to be able to say that it is the fact that the Eiffel Tower has the property of existence.  It <i>seems</i> that the claim asserts that existence is a property of the Eiffel Tower.  Yet the philosophers listed--with qualifications we perhaps need not go into right now--deny that existence is a property.  In fact, this is the common view among philosophers today.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], who claim that existence is not a property, or that 'exists' is not a predicate.  (Sometimes they say that 'exists' is a second-order predicate; or they make other sorts of claims about it, such as that it is a unique sort of predicate.)  Typically, the discussions in which this claim arises are discussions of the existence of physical objects.  So, for example, the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  This is a true claim; what makes it true?  One would like to be able to say that it is the fact that the Eiffel Tower has the property of existence.  It <i>seems</i> that the claim asserts that existence is a property of the Eiffel Tower.  Yet the philosophers listed--with qualifications we perhaps need not go into right now--deny that existence is a property.  In fact, this is the common view among philosophers today.
17c17
< One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>is not</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not as it has been defined here.  The foregoing definition of 'exists' is incorrect just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.
---
> One might wonder why it matters at all whether or not existence is a property.  Consider: if existence <i>is not</i> a property, then the concept of existence cannot be defined, or at least, not as it has been defined here.  The foregoing definition of 'exists' is incorrect, many philosophers would say, just because the definition <i>does</i> treat existence as a property.
21c21
< :By whatever and by however many predicates we may think a thing--even if we completely determine it--we do not make the least addition to the thing when we further declare that this thing is. Otherwise, it would not be exactly the same thing that exists, but something more than we had thought in the concept; and we could not, therefore, say that the exact object of my concept exists. If we think in a thing every feature of reality except one, the missing reality is not added by my saying that this defective thing exists. On the contrary, it exists with the same defect with which I have thought it, since otherwise what exists would be something different from what I thought. (''Critique of Pure Reason,'' B627-8)
---
> :By whatever and by however many predicates we may think a thing--even if we completely determine it--we do not make the least addition to the thing when we further declare that this thing is.  Otherwise, it would not be exactly the same thing that exists, but something more than we had thought in the concept; and we could not, therefore, say that the exact object of my concept exists.  If we think in a thing every feature of reality except one, the missing reality is not added by my saying that this defective thing exists.  On the contrary, it exists with the same defect with which I have thought it, since otherwise what exists would be something different from what I thought. (''Critique of Pure Reason,'' B627-8)
23c23
< Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of an apple sitting on a table.  It is red, it has a stem, it is four inches wide, it is juicy, it is on the table, it is in a room, and so on.  CONTINUE WIKIFICATION FROM HERE  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try saying that the apple <i>exists</i>.  But that wouldn't add any new property to the thing, Kant says.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple?s properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence isn't another property over and above all the other properties.
---
> Suppose one listed out all the properties and relations of an apple sitting on a table.  It is red, it has a stem, it is four inches wide, it is juicy, it is on the table, it is in a room, and so on.  Kant says, then, once one has listed out all the properties and relations of the apple, one could try claiming that the apple <i>exists</i> (or "is," as he says).  But that, Kant says, does not add any new property to the thing.  Therefore, existence is not <i>another</i> property over and above all these.  So in other words, Kant argues as follows: a complete list of an apple's properties would not be <i>expanded</i> by adding another property, namely existence; therefore, existence is not another property over and above all the other properties.
25c25
< So -- does that mean that existence is not a property at all?  Well, no.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include "being located in the universe with which we are in contact."  That particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what makes the apple exist.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so then consider this claim of Kant's, that existence isn't another property over and above all its other properties.  Well, that's right, it's not <i>another</i> property.  But that by itself doesn't mean that existence <i>isn't</i> a property <i>at</i> <i>all</i>!  So Kant's argument just doesn?t appear to prove its alleged conclusion.
---
> Of this view, one might ask: does this entail that existence is not a property ''at all''?  It seems not.  If one lists out all the properties of the apple, the list <i>would</i> include 'being located in the universe with which we are in contact'.  An advocate of the definability of 'existence' for physical objects mightclaim that that particular property <i>just</i> <i>is</i> what constitutes the apple's existence.  That property would, of course, be included in a list of all of the apple's properties; so Kant's claim, that existence is not another property over and above all its other properties, seems true enough, but that by itself does not mean that existence is not a property at all.
27,33c27
< Consider also how [John Hospers] interprets Kant's argument.  Maybe Hospers can make Kant look better.  To quote Hospers:
< 
< "If we say that a horse has a mane, a tail, four legs, and hoofs, we are attributing <i>properties</i> to the horse; but if we go on to say that the horse <i>exists</i>, we are not adding another property: we are saying that the thing we conceived as having these properties <i>also</i> <i>exists</i>.  We are not adding to our concept of the thing: we are asserting a relation between the concept and the world." 
< 
< Hospers says here that when we say that a horse exists, we aren't attributing a property to the horse; we are "asserting a relation between the concept," the concept of the horse, "and the world."  That's what he says; but on further reflection, one can see that it's not quite right.  To say the horse exists isn't to assert something about the relation between the <i>concept</i> of the horse and the world; it is to assert something about the relation between, well, the <i>horse</i> and the world!  Namely, that the horse is <i>in</i> the world!  And one can have a concept of a particular horse that exists, and that concept would have that horse located in the observable world; and one can also have a concept of a particular horse that doesn't exist, and that concept would have that horse not being located in the observable world.  So again, Hospers' argument apparently isn't valid.  It just doesn't prove that existence isn't a property.  All that it proves -- and it does prove <i>this</i> -- is that existence isn't a <i>different</i> property from the other properties of a thing.
< 
< But the dialectic definitely doesn't end there.  Much more can be said on both sides.  To really get to the heart of why so many philosophers these days think that existence can't be defined, one would have to explore much more logic.  Present time and space do not permit this.  
---
> The dialectic definitely does not end there; in fact, we have barely scratched the surface.  Much more can be said on both sides.  (And we invite ontologists to dive in and supply the missing details.)
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|987800962
11c11
< This definition would seem to express a common sense notion of existence.  Interestingly enough, though, only a few philosophers have given such definitions.  [Bruce Aune], for example, in an introductory philosophy textbook, gives a definition much like this one.
---
> This definition would seem to express a common sense notion of existence.  Interestingly enough, though, only a few philosophers have given such definitions (unless one would wish to construe [[materialism]] as a theory of the meaning of 'existence' which it normally is not).  But Bruce Aune, for example, in an introductory philosophy textbook, gives a definition much like this one.
15c15
< There are many philosophers today, following [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], who claim that existence is not a property, or that 'exists' is not a predicate.  (Sometimes they say that 'exists' is a second-order predicate; or they make other sorts of claims about it, such as that it is a unique sort of predicate.)  Typically, the discussions in which this claim arises are discussions of the existence of physical objects.  So, for example, the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  This is a true claim; what makes it true?  One would like to be able to say that it is the fact that the Eiffel Tower has the property of existence.  It <i>seems</i> that the claim asserts that existence is a property of the Eiffel Tower.  Yet the philosophers listed--with qualifications we perhaps need not go into right now--deny that existence is a property.  In fact, this is the common view among philosophers today.
---
> There are many philosophers today, following [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], who claim that existence is not a property, or that 'exists' is not a predicate.  Sometimes they say that 'exists' is a [[second-order predicate]] (or "second-level" predicate); or they make other sorts of claims about it, such as that it is a unique sort of predicate.  Typically, the discussions in which this claim arises are discussions of the existence of physical objects.  So, for example, the [[Eiffel Tower]] exists.  This is a true claim; what makes it true?  One would like to be able to say that it is the fact that the Eiffel Tower has the property of existence.  It <i>seems</i> that the claim asserts that existence is a property of the Eiffel Tower.  Yet the philosophers listed--with qualifications the philosophical Wikipedian is encouraged to elaborate--deny that existence is a property.  In fact, this is the common view among philosophers today.
------
Thomas_Reid|987801341
1c1
< Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[common sense]]--this term is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[direct realism]], or [[common sense realism]], and inveighed strongly against the so-called [[Theory of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the influence of [[G. E. Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
---
> Thomas Reid (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]].  He believed that [[common sense]]--this term is used in a special philosophical sense--is or should be at the foundation of all philosophical inquiry.  He advocated [[direct realism]], or [[common sense realism]], and inveighed strongly against the so-called [[Theory of Ideas]] advocated by [[John Locke]], [[Descartes]], and (in varying forms) nearly all [[Early Modern philosophers]] who came after them.  He wrote a number of important philosophical works, including ''Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense,'' the ''Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man,'' and the ''Essays on the Active Powers of Man.''  He played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].  In his day and for some years into the 19th century, he was regarded as more important than [[David Hume]].  His reputation waned after attacks on the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] by [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[John Stuart Mill]].  His reputation has arisen again in the wake of the advocacy of common sense as a philosophical method or criterion by [[G. E. Moore]], particularly due to attention given Reid by the likes of [[William Alston]] and [[Alvin Plantinga]].
------
CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus|987801705
1,31c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
< 
< OK, we’ve gone through all four parts of the definition of "epistemology" I’ve given you.  I want to spend a few minutes on a topic that is closely related, and which sheds light on a lot of things we’ve talked about.
< 
< Here’s another problem, that goes back to ancient times, to one of the first skeptics, named Sextus Empiricus.  Sextus’ problem is called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>criterion</i>.  You will soon see why I’m raising this problem now.  It goes like this.  Suppose I want to say that a proposition, P, is true.  But in order to claim that P is true, I have to have a <i>criterion</i> of truth.  What is a criterion of truth?  Well, it’s something that will let us determine whether a given claim is true or false.  An example of a criterion of truth would be: If I very clearly and distinctly understand that P, then P is true.  (That was actually a criterion that Descartes gave, but I’m only telling it to you to give you an example.)
< 
< So suppose I’ve said that P, and I’ve offered some criterion, call the criterion C, that tells me that P is true.  So what more does Sextus want?  He says: but look, your criterion, C, is <i>another</i> <i>claim</i>.  And so it, too, can be judged true or false only by a criterion.  And look, if I apply the criterion to itself, I’m arguing in a circle; I’m begging the question.  That is, if I say that C is true because it meets the criterion C, then I have presupposed just what I was trying to prove.  And what good is that?  That’s begging the question, which is off-limits.  So, Sextus said, you’d have to use some <i>other</i> criterion -- criterion D, say.  But then D is yet <i>another</i> claim, and you need some <i>other</i> criterion to judge <i>it</i>.  Like criterion E.  Well, you can see where <i>this</i> is going.  It’s another regress and it looks like it can’t stop.
< 
< Well, let’s go back to the original claim, that P, and the original criterion that we used to judge it, namely C.  Maybe we could say: a bunch of propositions are all known to be true; since criterion C just summarizes why they’re all true.  They are all very clearly and distinctly understood, say; so criterion C says, "<i>Whatever</i> is very clearly and distinctly understood is true."  Then we have argued for criterion C without using another criterion -- we’ve just used a lot of individual claims.
< 
< I think you might very rightly find this confusing.  If criterion C does summarize why a lot of individual claims are true, how does that show that we still don’t need a criterion to know that C is true?  In fact here’s a good idea of what that particular criterion might be: "If a criterion summarizes why a lot of propositions are true, then the criterion is true."  That’s a criterion of truth that applies to criteria of truth!
< 
< It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
< 
< Now this view is, I think, philosophical <i>poison</i>.  It’s really insidious.  If you think you <i>must</i> have a criterion, or some sort of standard that you use to judge claims true, in order to be justified in saying something is true, then you’re going to end up facing skepticism.  I want to give you what I, and quite a few other philosophers regard as the antidote to this poison.  The antidote is due to two philosophers we’ve encountered before: Thomas Reid, and G. E. Moore.  And this is called the method of <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.
< 
< Reid pointed out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming something <i>else</i>.  So since we know <i>in</i> <i>advance</i> that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
< 
< Now bear in mind, by "common sense" I don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  I mean much, much more basic claims than that.  I mean claims like: "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet," and so on.  Or: "The world has a ground and a sky."  Or: "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors."  Or: "2+2=4."  Or: "I am conscious and alive right now."  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.  They are, you might say, the <i>principles</i> of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make <i>some</i> assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
< 
< This is a very, very powerful thought, because it has the potential to undercut a lot of philosophical silliness and nonsense.  There have been some people who have said, for example, that time does not <i>really</i> exist; it is ultimately only a complex illusion.  I’m not making that up, some philosophers have actually said that, that time is an illusion.  Now, what does common sense have to say about that?  Basically, that we can reject that theory out of hand.  We scarcely need to <i>argue</i> against it: because any sophisticated philosophical premises that you would use, in order to establish that time does not exist, are not nearly as obviously true, and as legitimately assumable, as the very claim in question, namely, that time does indeed exist.  In other words, if we have to make a choice between, on the one hand, some rather dubious, sophisticated assumptions, that you’d have to make in order show that time doesn’t exist; and, on the other hand, a principle of common sense, that time exists; if we have to make that choice, then there’s no contest.  We go with common sense and reject sophisticated silliness every time.  That’s how Reid and Moore both approached a lot of problems.
< 
< Now Moore is famous for applying common sense to skepticism.  I won’t go into his argument in any detail, but I’ll bet you can guess how it goes.  Very roughly, he said: "I know that this is a hand; and I know that this is another; therefore I know that two things exist in the external world; therefore I know that there is an external world."  That’s the gist of his argument.  How does that answer the skeptic, though, you might ask?  Couldn’t Moore be <i>dreaming</i> that he was seeing his hand?  Couldn’t he be seeing mere hand <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i> and no actual hand at all?  No, said Moore: those possibilities may be ruled out because it’s as obvious as anything can be that I know that this is a hand.  That’s a principle of common sense.  It can’t be rejected, certainly not based on any sort of sophisticated philosophical assumptions.  So definitely, Moore thought, he <i>is</i> permitted to assume, without argument, that he knows that he has two hands; and he is permitted to use such ordinary, everyday assumptions to reject sophisticated philosophical theories, such as skepticism about the external world.
< 
< I don’t know about you, but I find the method of common sense refreshing.  I would be remiss if I did not mention, however, that some philosophers regard it as naïve.  But believe me, there have been some extremely intelligent, well-respected philosophers who have given some very sophisticated defenses of the method of common sense.
< 
< Now, I said that the method of common sense is the "antidote" to the problem of the criterion.  How so?  Well, like this: if the method of common sense is correct, then in philosophy, as in every day life, we may take the principles of common sense for granted, without argument.  And we <i>do</i> not need criteria, not <i>always</i>, in order to judge whether a proposition is true or not.  And for that matter, we can also take some criteria of truth for granted, according to common sense.  Because definitely, some criteria of truth <i>are</i> principles of common sense.  I mean that they are <i>really</i> <i>obviously</i> <i>true</i>.
< 
< Here’s an example: If it seems to me that I am seeing myself in the mirror, and I have no serious reason to doubt this, then it’s <i>true</i> that I’m seeing myself in the mirror.  I claim that that’s a principle of common sense: it is one of the sorts of things that we all take for granted, and never seriously in doubt; and if we do doubt it, the doubt is bound to seem just absurd.  I could give lots of other examples, but I don’t think that will be necessary.
< 
< Anyway, then, if the method of common sense is right, we can start our philosophical investigations with common sense, making particular claims about what is true, and also making generalizations, or stating criteria, about when claims are true.  Because both the truth-claims and the criteria-claims can both be principles of common sense.  Moreover, it’s a principle of common sense that our basic faculties are reliable.  Armed with those assumptions, that way, we can immediately reply to various kinds of skepticism, without wasting time thinking about skeptical doubts about dreaming and such.  And that way, too, we can get around Sextus’ problem of the criterion: there is no infinite regress or circle of criteria, because the buck stops with the principles of common sense.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Common sense and the Diallelus]]
------
Common_sense_and_the_Diallelus|987801717
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is encouraged>
> 
> OK, we’ve gone through all four parts of the definition of "epistemology" I’ve given you.  I want to spend a few minutes on a topic that is closely related, and which sheds light on a lot of things we’ve talked about.
> 
> Here’s another problem, that goes back to ancient times, to one of the first skeptics, named Sextus Empiricus.  Sextus’ problem is called the <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>criterion</i>.  You will soon see why I’m raising this problem now.  It goes like this.  Suppose I want to say that a proposition, P, is true.  But in order to claim that P is true, I have to have a <i>criterion</i> of truth.  What is a criterion of truth?  Well, it’s something that will let us determine whether a given claim is true or false.  An example of a criterion of truth would be: If I very clearly and distinctly understand that P, then P is true.  (That was actually a criterion that Descartes gave, but I’m only telling it to you to give you an example.)
> 
> So suppose I’ve said that P, and I’ve offered some criterion, call the criterion C, that tells me that P is true.  So what more does Sextus want?  He says: but look, your criterion, C, is <i>another</i> <i>claim</i>.  And so it, too, can be judged true or false only by a criterion.  And look, if I apply the criterion to itself, I’m arguing in a circle; I’m begging the question.  That is, if I say that C is true because it meets the criterion C, then I have presupposed just what I was trying to prove.  And what good is that?  That’s begging the question, which is off-limits.  So, Sextus said, you’d have to use some <i>other</i> criterion -- criterion D, say.  But then D is yet <i>another</i> claim, and you need some <i>other</i> criterion to judge <i>it</i>.  Like criterion E.  Well, you can see where <i>this</i> is going.  It’s another regress and it looks like it can’t stop.
> 
> Well, let’s go back to the original claim, that P, and the original criterion that we used to judge it, namely C.  Maybe we could say: a bunch of propositions are all known to be true; since criterion C just summarizes why they’re all true.  They are all very clearly and distinctly understood, say; so criterion C says, "<i>Whatever</i> is very clearly and distinctly understood is true."  Then we have argued for criterion C without using another criterion -- we’ve just used a lot of individual claims.
> 
> I think you might very rightly find this confusing.  If criterion C does summarize why a lot of individual claims are true, how does that show that we still don’t need a criterion to know that C is true?  In fact here’s a good idea of what that particular criterion might be: "If a criterion summarizes why a lot of propositions are true, then the criterion is true."  That’s a criterion of truth that applies to criteria of truth!
> 
> It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
> 
> Now this view is, I think, philosophical <i>poison</i>.  It’s really insidious.  If you think you <i>must</i> have a criterion, or some sort of standard that you use to judge claims true, in order to be justified in saying something is true, then you’re going to end up facing skepticism.  I want to give you what I, and quite a few other philosophers regard as the antidote to this poison.  The antidote is due to two philosophers we’ve encountered before: Thomas Reid, and G. E. Moore.  And this is called the method of <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.
> 
> Reid pointed out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming something <i>else</i>.  So since we know <i>in</i> <i>advance</i> that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
> 
> Now bear in mind, by "common sense" I don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  I mean much, much more basic claims than that.  I mean claims like: "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet," and so on.  Or: "The world has a ground and a sky."  Or: "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors."  Or: "2+2=4."  Or: "I am conscious and alive right now."  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up <i>common</i> <i>sense</i>.  They are, you might say, the <i>principles</i> of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make <i>some</i> assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
> 
> This is a very, very powerful thought, because it has the potential to undercut a lot of philosophical silliness and nonsense.  There have been some people who have said, for example, that time does not <i>really</i> exist; it is ultimately only a complex illusion.  I’m not making that up, some philosophers have actually said that, that time is an illusion.  Now, what does common sense have to say about that?  Basically, that we can reject that theory out of hand.  We scarcely need to <i>argue</i> against it: because any sophisticated philosophical premises that you would use, in order to establish that time does not exist, are not nearly as obviously true, and as legitimately assumable, as the very claim in question, namely, that time does indeed exist.  In other words, if we have to make a choice between, on the one hand, some rather dubious, sophisticated assumptions, that you’d have to make in order show that time doesn’t exist; and, on the other hand, a principle of common sense, that time exists; if we have to make that choice, then there’s no contest.  We go with common sense and reject sophisticated silliness every time.  That’s how Reid and Moore both approached a lot of problems.
> 
> Now Moore is famous for applying common sense to skepticism.  I won’t go into his argument in any detail, but I’ll bet you can guess how it goes.  Very roughly, he said: "I know that this is a hand; and I know that this is another; therefore I know that two things exist in the external world; therefore I know that there is an external world."  That’s the gist of his argument.  How does that answer the skeptic, though, you might ask?  Couldn’t Moore be <i>dreaming</i> that he was seeing his hand?  Couldn’t he be seeing mere hand <i>sense</i>-<i>data</i> and no actual hand at all?  No, said Moore: those possibilities may be ruled out because it’s as obvious as anything can be that I know that this is a hand.  That’s a principle of common sense.  It can’t be rejected, certainly not based on any sort of sophisticated philosophical assumptions.  So definitely, Moore thought, he <i>is</i> permitted to assume, without argument, that he knows that he has two hands; and he is permitted to use such ordinary, everyday assumptions to reject sophisticated philosophical theories, such as skepticism about the external world.
> 
> I don’t know about you, but I find the method of common sense refreshing.  I would be remiss if I did not mention, however, that some philosophers regard it as naïve.  But believe me, there have been some extremely intelligent, well-respected philosophers who have given some very sophisticated defenses of the method of common sense.
> 
> Now, I said that the method of common sense is the "antidote" to the problem of the criterion.  How so?  Well, like this: if the method of common sense is correct, then in philosophy, as in every day life, we may take the principles of common sense for granted, without argument.  And we <i>do</i> not need criteria, not <i>always</i>, in order to judge whether a proposition is true or not.  And for that matter, we can also take some criteria of truth for granted, according to common sense.  Because definitely, some criteria of truth <i>are</i> principles of common sense.  I mean that they are <i>really</i> <i>obviously</i> <i>true</i>.
> 
> Here’s an example: If it seems to me that I am seeing myself in the mirror, and I have no serious reason to doubt this, then it’s <i>true</i> that I’m seeing myself in the mirror.  I claim that that’s a principle of common sense: it is one of the sorts of things that we all take for granted, and never seriously in doubt; and if we do doubt it, the doubt is bound to seem just absurd.  I could give lots of other examples, but I don’t think that will be necessary.
> 
> Anyway, then, if the method of common sense is right, we can start our philosophical investigations with common sense, making particular claims about what is true, and also making generalizations, or stating criteria, about when claims are true.  Because both the truth-claims and the criteria-claims can both be principles of common sense.  Moreover, it’s a principle of common sense that our basic faculties are reliable.  Armed with those assumptions, that way, we can immediately reply to various kinds of skepticism, without wasting time thinking about skeptical doubts about dreaming and such.  And that way, too, we can get around Sextus’ problem of the criterion: there is no infinite regress or circle of criteria, because the buck stops with the principles of common sense.
------
Class_envy|987802236
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Class envy</b> is a political rhetoric tactic where one pits one econmic group against another.
> 
> Typically, the lower income people are encouraged to desire the material possesions of higher income people.
> 
> One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that the higher income people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  
> 
> Critics of class envy tactics point out that most all of the higher income people earned the money themselves.
> 
> Some cliches of class envy:
> * he won life's lottery
> * referring only low income people as 'working people' and never stating that higher income people 'work'
> *
> 
> more suggestions?
------
Common_sense|987802258
1c1
< See also CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus
---
> In [[Philosophy]], 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes [[belief]]s or [[proposition]]s that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a [[definition]] of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in [[epistemology]] and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include [[philosophical intuition|intuition]]s, [[pre-theoretic belief]], [[ordinary language philosophy|ordinary language]], [[foundational belief]]s, ''[[endoxa]],'' and [[axiom]]s.
3c3
< In [[Philosophy]], 'common sense' (or 'commonsense') describes BeLiefs or ProPositions that seem, to most people, to be as obviously true as any beliefs can be.  This, however, cannot be considered a DeFinition of 'common sense'; the issue of what common sense ''is'' is vexed, and its vexedness is one reason why many philosophers eschew the word altogether.  Whatever it does mean, it does not mean homespun (and sometimes dubious) truths such as "Chicken soup is good for colds."  Nonetheless, common sense is a perennial topic in EpistemOlogy and widely used or referred to, in one form or another, by very many philosophers.  Some related concepts include InTuitions, OrdinaryLanguage, FoundationalBeliefs, ''EnDoxa,'' and AxIoms.
---
> Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: [[Thomas Reid]] and [[G. E. Moore]].
5,7c5
< Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: [[Thomas Reid]] and GeorgeEMoore.
< 
< The great Scottish philosopher [[Thomas Reid]], a contemporary of Hume and the founder of the so-called ScottishSchoolofCommonSense, devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
---
> The great Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of [[David Hume|Hume]] and the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]], devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se,'' he does offer a number of so-called "earmarks" of common sense (which he sometimes calls "principles of common sense"), such as:
15c13,15
< The British philosopher G. E. Moore, who did important work in EpistemOlogy, EthIcs, and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense."  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body," "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings," and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim Moore ascribes to Whitehead).
---
> The British philosopher [[G. E. Moore]], who did important work in [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, "A Defence of Common Sense."  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as "There exists at this time a living human body which is my body," "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings," and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim of [[A. N. Whitehead]]'s).
> 
> Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute [[skepticism]].
17c17
< Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute SkepticIsm.
---
> Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called [[epistemological particularism]] (the appelation comes from Roderick Chisholm), which orientation is contrasted with [[epistemological methodism]].  The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory.  (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.)  Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive.  Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic mehodists.  Methodist methodology tends to toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume).  Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 
19c19
< Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called epistemological particularism (the appelation comes from Roderick Chisholm), which orientation is contrasted with epistemological methodism. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic mehodists. Methodist methodology tends to toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 
---
> An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed.  For instance, it seems impossible to do logic, metaphysics and epistemology without beginning with some assumptions of common sense.  However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation.  Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
21c21
< An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed. For instance, it seems impossible to do logic, metaphysics and epistemology without beginning with some assumptions of common sense. However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation. Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?
---
> The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy of language]] called "[[meta-philosophy]]."  Various questions might be raised in a meta-philosophical discussion of common sense: what is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as '[[intuition]' play such a role?  In general, are there "[[philosophical starting point]]s," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
23c23
< The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to EpistemOlogy and PhilosophyOfLanguage called "MetaPhilosophy."  What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as that of 'InTuitions' play such a role?  In general, are there "PhilosophicalStartingPoints," and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to HoldComeWhatMay, are there some we ought to HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast?
---
> See also [[common sense and the Diallelus]]; [[Thomas Reid]]; [[G. E. Moore]].
------
HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeast|987802301
1,3c1
< On WVOQuinE's conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection)or HoldComeWhatMay. However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs. Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects. Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences. It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles. Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
< ----
< HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hold more stubbornly at least]]
------
Hold_more_stubbornly_at_least|987802400
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On [[W. V. Quine]]'s conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection) or [[hold come what may]].  However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs.  Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects.  Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences.  It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles.  Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
> 
> See [[hold come what may]]; [[W. V. Quine]].
> ----
> HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk
------
Hold_more_stubbornly_at_least|987802422
3,5c3
< See [[hold come what may]]; [[W. V. Quine]].
< ----
< HoldMoreStubbornlyAtLeastTalk
---
> See [[hold come what may]]; [[W. V. Quine]].
------
Hold_more_stubbornly_at_least|987802489
1c1
< On [[W. V. Quine]]'s conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection) or [[hold come what may]].  However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implicated by a large number of beliefs.  Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects.  Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences.  It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles.  Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
---
> On [[W. V. Quine]]'s conception of a person's set of beliefs as a "seamless web," there is no proposition one could not in principle give up (if there were, there would be a "seam" in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection) or [[hold come what may]].  However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implied by a large number of beliefs.  Examples might be laws of logic, or the belief in an external world of physical objects.  Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences.  It is better to alter auxilliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles.  Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.
3c3
< See [[hold come what may]]; [[W. V. Quine]].
---
> See [[hold come what may]]; [[W. V. Quine]].
------
Television/Stations|987802588
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alphabetically listed
> :[[ABC]] - Australian Broadcasting Coroporation
> :[[BBC]] - British Broadcasting Corporation
> :[[Channel 4/UK|Channel 4]] - Channel 4, UK
> :[[Channel 5/UK|Channel 5]] - Channel 5, UK
> :[[CNN]]
> :[[Fox Television]]
> :[[ITV]] - Independent Television (?)
> :[[MTV]] - Music Television
> :[[PBS]] - Public Broadcasting Service
> :[[BSkyB|Sky]]
> :add your local stations!
> 
> Is it realistic to list every TV station/network here?
------
Television|987802929
9a10,11
> Programming is broadcast on television [[/Stations|stations]] (sometimes called channels) that are often targeted towards a certain audience. There are many news, sports and film stations and stations such as the [[MTV]] and [[BBC]] networks are seen throughout many countries.
> 
------
Television/Stations|987803348
14a15,16
> 
> ''In the U.S., these are called networks, not stations.''
------
Flute|987804046
5c5
< The transverse flute is divided into several subcategories, being the two most common the B-flat flute, and the piccolo (which produces <b>very</b> high-pitched tones.
---
> The transverse flute is divided into several subcategories, being the two most common the B-flat flute, and the piccolo (which produces <b>very</b> high-pitched tones).
------
Television/Stations|987804121
16c16,18
< ''In the U.S., these are called networks, not stations.''
---
> ''In the U.S., these are called networks, not stations.''
> 
> I was under the impression that a television network was something more than a station (singular), that with syndication, different states and so on...?
------
Mexico|987805150
6c6
< Mexico was originally conquered by [[Spain]], in 1521.  The conquerors were led by [[Hernan Cortes]], who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The [[aztecs]], dominant native people in the country back then, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked [[Tenochtitlan]], capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the [[mestizo]] culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "[[Nueva España]]" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the [[United States of America]].  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "[[Guadalupe Victoria]]" was the first president.  [[Guadalupe Victoria]] was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]], and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
---
> Mexico was originally conquered by [[Spain]], in 1521.  The conquerors were led by [[Hernan Cortes]], who entered the country in 1517 from the port known back then as Puerto de la Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz.  The [[aztecs]], dominant native people in the country back then, believed (according to the historical myth) that the Spanish conquerors were people sent by the gods, so they obeyed them.  The spanish conquerors sacked [[Tenochtitlan]], capital of the Aztec Empire.  A new culture was being born:  the [[mestizo]] culture, in which spanish people were marrying native mexicans, and mixing all the culture.  During 1500 to 1800 (approx.), Mexico was known as "[[Nueva Espana|Nueva España]]" or "New Spain".  The territories included about half the actual territory of the [[United States of America]].  The war for independence started in 1810, and finished in 1821.  Its independence was first proclaimed in September 16, 1810, but the republic was not established until 1824.  The first form of government was a monarchy, with Agustin de Iturbide as emperor, but that plan failed (1821).  Finally, in 1824, a president, a guy who went by the name of "[[Guadalupe Victoria]]" was the first president.  [[Guadalupe Victoria]] was not his real name, but it was a name specially chosen:  Guadalupe for the protection of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]], and Victoria which means Victory.  The first constitution was made.
21c21
< * [[Mexican food]]
---
> * [[Mexican food]]
------
Linear_Algebra/Linear_Combination|987805537
1c1,64
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Definition: Let V be an arbitrary vector space over a field K. Let {v1,…,vn} belong to V. Then, given a1,a2,a3,…,an, elements of K, an expression of the type:
>              a1v1+a2v2+a3v3+…+anvn is called a <b>linear combination</b> of the vectors {v1,v2,…vn}.<br>
> 
> This definition, alone, is not too useful. The next question is, what can we say about
> a set of vectors and all their linear combinations. Do {v1,v2,…,vn} form a [[subspace]] of
> V?
> 
> First, there are many examples of linear combinations of vectors from a vector space.
> 
> <b>Example I:</b><br>
> 
> Given the vector space <b>R<sup>3</sup></b>, consider the elements of <b>R<sup>3</sup></b>, {E1,E2,E3} where E1=(1,0,0), E2=(0,1,0) and E3=(0,0,1). Given any vector in <b>R<sup>3</sup></b>, say (a1,a2,a3), it is a linear combination of E1,E2, and E3.<br>
> 
> Proof: Given (a1,a2,a3) in <b>R<sup>3</sup></b>, we can find {x1,x2,x3} in R such that (a1,a2,a3)= x1E1+x2E2+x3E3.<br> Since a1=a1E1=a1(1,0,0)=a1  and, similarly, with a2 and a3, then
> (a1,a2,a3)=a1*E1+a2*E2+a3*E3. So x1=a1,x2=a2, and x3=a3.<br>
> 
> <b>Example 2:</b><br>
> 
> Given the vector space of functions from R into R, F:R->R. Denote this vector space F(R). Consider two functions f, g that are elements of F(R), f(t)=e<sup>t</sup> and f(t)=e<sup>2t</sup>. What are some of the linear combinations of f and g? <br>
> 3e<sup>t</sup>+5e<sup>2t</sup>, 2e<sup>t</sup>+&pi;e<sup>2t</sup> and in fact all functions h(t)=ae<sup>t</sup>+be<sup>t2</sup> where a,b are elements of R.<br>
> This includes the zero function, <i>0</i>, since 0*et+0*et2 is a linear combination of f and g.<br>
> 
> <b>Example 3:</b> Consider the vector space P<sub>3</sub>=all polynomials of degree less than equal to 3 with real coefficients.<br>
> (Prove yourself that P<sub>3</sub> is a vector space.)<br>
> Given the polynomial,  –1+x<sup>2</sup>, in P<sub>3</sub>, show that it is a linear combination of the polynomials, p=1+x+x<sup>3</sup> and q=-x-x<sup>2</sup>-x<sup>3</sup>, elements of P<sub>3</sub>.<br>
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> Find a,b be real numbers such that a*(1+x+x<sup>3</sup>)+b(-x-x<sup>2</sup>-x<sup>3</sup>)=-1+x<sup>2</sup>.<br>
> Then, a+ax+ax<sup>3</sup>-bx-bx<sup>2</sup>-bx<sup>3</sup>=-1+x<sup>2</sup>.<br>
> And, a+(a-b)x-bx<sup>2</sup>+(a-b)x<sup>3</sup>=-1+x2. <br>
> Equating coefficients of the same powers,<br> 
>   a=-1, a-b=0, -b=1, a-b=0.<br>
> Then a=b=-1.<br>
> Hence, -1*p-1*q=-1+x<sup>2</sup>.<br>
> 
> Now for the proof that given a subset of a vector space and all of the linear combinations of the elements of this subset, one has a [[subspace]].<br>
> 
> <b>Theorem:</b> Let V be an arbitrary [[vector space]] over a field K, and let v1,v2,…,vn be elements of V. Then  the set of all linear combinations of v1,v2,…,vn is a [[subspace]] W of V.
> <br>
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> Property I:<br>
> 
> Let x1,x2,…,xn and y1,y2,…,yn be elements of K.  Then S=(x1v1,x2v2,…xnvn)  and T=(y1v1,y2v2,…ynvn) are  elements of W.<br> 
> S+T=(x1v1+x2v2+…xnvn)+(y1v1+y2v2+…ynvn)= ((x1+y1)v1,(x2+y2)v2,…(xn+yn)vn).<br>
> Since K is a field, xi+yi is an element of K, for all i={1,2,…n}, so S+T=((x1+y1)v1,(x2+y2)v2,…,(xn+yn)vn) is a linear combination of v1,v2,…vn and is an element of W.<br>
> 
> Property 2:<br>
> 
> Let c be an element of K and S=(x1v1,x2v2,…,xnvn).<br>
> Then c*S=c*(x1v1,x2v2,…,vn)=(c*x1v1,c*x2v2,…c*xnvn).<br>
> Since K is a field, cxi is an element of K for all i={1,2,…n}.<br>
> Then c*T= (cx1v1,cx2v2,…cxnvn) is a linear combination of v1,v2,…vn and
> is an element of W.<br>
> 
> Property 3:<br>
> 
> Since K is a field, K has an additive identity, 0. Let T=(v1,v2,…vn).<br> 
> Consider 0*T= 0*(v1,v2,…,vn)=(0v1,0v2,…0vn).<br> 
> Since K is a field, 0*vi=0 for all I+{1,2,…n}.<br>
> Then 0*T=(0, 0,…0)= <i>0</i>. So <i>0</i> is an element of W.<br>
> 
------
Class_envy|987805989
1c1
< <b>Class envy</b> is a political rhetoric tactic where one pits one econmic group against another.
---
> <b>Class envy</b> is a tool or tactic of political rhetoric where one pits one econmic group against another.
12c12,13
< *
---
> * he was born with a silver spoon in his mouth - he's rich because his parents' were.
> * ...
14c15
< more suggestions?
---
> more suggestions?
------
Television/Stations|987806179
18a19
> ----Stations are members of networks or are independent in the U.S.A.
------
Worldcon|987806203
10c10
< * [[filking]]
---
> * [[filk music]]
------
Filk_music|987806463
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originally "filk music" was a typo for [[folk music]] in a never-published essay on the influence of [[Science Fiction]] and  [[Fantasy]] on folk music.
> 
> Fandom being what it was (and is), the term was adopted for the songs, and musical parodies enjoyed by SF conventioneers.
> 
> See: http://www.filker.org
------
Science_fiction|987806656
4,5c4,5
< Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as MaryShelley's Gothic novel `[[Frankenstein]]', or the ModernPrometheus (1818) and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
< Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas [[Bram Stoker]]'s ``[[Dracula]]'' (1897), based as it is purely on the SupernaturaL, is not.
---
> Such literature may consist of a careful and informed extrapolation of scientific facts and principles, or it may range into far-fetched areas flatly contradictory of such facts and principles. In either case, plausibility based on science is a requisite, so that such precursors of the genre as [[Mary Shelley]]'s Gothic novel ''[[Frankenstein]]', or the Modern Prometheus'' (1818) and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
> Hyde (1886) are science fiction, whereas [[Bram Stoker]]'s ``[[Dracula]]'' (1897), based as it is purely on the [[Supernatural]], is not.
8c8
< to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in Voltaire's ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of JulesVerne, whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
---
> to the moon or to other planets in the 18th century and space travel in [[Voltaire]]'s ''Micromégas'' (1752), alien cultures in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), and science fiction elements in the 19th-century stories of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and Fitz-James O'Brien. Science fiction proper began, however, toward the end of the 19th century with the scientific romances of [[Jules Verne]], whose science was rather on the level of invention, as well as the science-oriented novels of social criticism by [[H.G. Wells]].
------
Cardiology|987806676
11c11
< *[[Cardiac insuffiziency]] I'd say [[Heart failure]]
---
> *[[Cardiac insufficiency]] I'd say [[Heart failure]]
------
Nu|987806816
7c7
< General [[Yiddish]] interrogative as in "Nu, bubele?"
---
> General [[Yiddish]] interrogative as in "So, nu?"
------
Filk_music|987806889
3c3
< Fandom being what it was (and is), the term was adopted for the songs, and musical parodies enjoyed by SF conventioneers.
---
> Fandom being what it was (and is), the term was adopted for the songs, and musical parodies enjoyed by [[SF]] conventioneers.
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987806921
3a4,7
> 
> ----
> 
> A definition establishes the boundaries of the concept being defined.  Finite means having limits, and to define means to establish those limits. - [[TS]]
------
SF|987807011
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science fiction]]
------
Class_envy|987807061
1c1
< <b>Class envy</b> is a tool or tactic of political rhetoric where one pits one econmic group against another.
---
> <b>Class envy</b> is a tool or tactic of political rhetoric where one pits one economic group against another.
------
Monterrey|987807106
6a7
> In the mid 1500s, the area where monterrey is located was part of the Valle de Extremadura.  Several expeditions by Alberto del Canto that tried to colonize the desertic area had been unfruitful.  An expedition by Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva tried to establish something in the area, but it was unfruitful as well.  A third expedition, by Diego de Montemayor, along with 12 other families, was the definite expedition to found it.
9c10,21
< Monterrey is "commercially" known as "La ciudad de las Montañas" or City of Mountains.  Legendarily, it is known as "Sultana del Norte" (Northern Sultana).
---
> Monterrey is "commercially" known as "La Ciudad de las Montañas" or City of Mountains.  Legendarily, it is known as "Sultana del Norte" (Northern Sultana).
> 
> Typical food:
> 
> Typical food from Monterrey includes "machacado con huevo", a dish prepared with dry beef, eggs, and salsa; but, perhaps, the most traditional dish from Monterrey is the Cabrito al Pastor.  Cabrito al Pastor is "baby goat", cooked to the heat of embers.  It resembles a jewish form of preparing goat to eat.
> 
> Sports:
> It has two soccer teams, one called "Tigres" (home stadium is the stadium of the Universdad Autónoma de Nuevo León), and the other one is "Rayados" (home stadium is the stadium of the Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey).
> 
> There is a third soccer team, indoor soccer, called "La Raza".
> 
> It has one baseball team, called "Los Sultanes de Monterrey".  Their field boasts as the biggest baseball stadium in Latin America.
------
Class_envy|987807152
5c5
< One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that the higher income people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  
---
> One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that the higher income people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  Another way it to state or imply that the higher income people became so only by depriving the lower income people.
------
NocheBuena|987807209
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Term in Spanish for the night before Christmas.
> 
> The brand of a mexican beer produced in Monterrey, that is only produced during the Christmas period.
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987807378
7c7
< A definition establishes the boundaries of the concept being defined.  Finite means having limits, and to define means to establish those limits. - [[TS]]
---
> A definition establishes the boundaries of the concept being defined.  Finite means having limits, and to define means to establish those limits.  If a concept is not finite, if you don't know where it ends or where it begins, then you have not arrived at an adequate definition.  - [[TS]]
------
Mexico_City|987807551
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[Mexico]].  It is a federal district.  The current governor for this federal district is Andrés Manuel López Obrador, from a party called PRD (Partido de la Revolución Democrática).
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987808525
7c7,9
< A definition establishes the boundaries of the concept being defined.  Finite means having limits, and to define means to establish those limits.  If a concept is not finite, if you don't know where it ends or where it begins, then you have not arrived at an adequate definition.  - [[TS]]
---
> A definition establishes the boundaries of the concept being defined.  Finite means having limits, and to define means to establish those limits.  If a concept is not finite, if you don't know where it ends or where it begins, then you have not arrived at an adequate definition.  - [[TS]]----
> To [[LMS]]:
> Why are we arguing about a criterion for a definition when we know what it is by [[common sense]]...:-).
------
Tenochtitlan|987809288
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of the Aztec Empire.  It was founded in 1425 and "fell" in 1521.
------
Nu|987809480
7a8,9
> 
> "nu" stands for "naked" in [[French_language|French]].
------
Diallelus|987809618
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[philosophy]] (and more specifically [[epistemology]]), the '''diallelus''' or '''problem of the criterion''' is an argument attributed to [[Sextus Empiricus]].  Briefly, he states that whatever argument I may offer to justify some belief, I must offer another in turn to justify my contention that this argument justifies the belief, and then offer another to justify ''that'' argument, and so on to infinite regress.
> 
> Suppose we want to assert a proposition ''P''.  In order to claim that ''P'' is true, I must have some ''criterion'' by which to judge its truth; some test or measure that we can use to determine if our belief in ''P'' is justified or not.  Many such criteria are possible: one might be "''P'' is true if I directly observe ''P'' with my own senses."  Another might be "''P'' is true if it is believed by the vast majority of people''".
> 
> But suppose we offer such a criterion (let's call it ''C'').  Does it really justify the belief?  Our claim that it does is in fact another claim; the claim (let's call it ''Q'') that "Criterion ''C'' justifies our belief in ''P''".  Mustn't we now justify claim ''Q'', with yet another criterion?  If we apply the same criterion ''C'' to judge the truth of ''Q'', we are engaging in [[circular argument]], because ''Q'' contains ''C'' as part of itself, so we must use a new criterion, and so on.
> 
> It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
> 
> Because of this argument, the view that one must have a criterion of truth to be justified in believing a proposition leads inevitably to [[skepticism]].  There are several proposed methods to escape the problem, including '''common sense''' and '''critical philosophy'''.
> 
> The method of common sense espoused by such philosophers as as [[Thomas Reid]] and [[G. E. Moore]] points out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming ''something else''.  So since we know ''in advance'' that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
> 
> Now bear in mind, by "common sense" here these philosophers don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  They mean much, much more basic claims than that.  Claims like "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet" and so on.  Or "The world has a ground and a sky" or "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors" or  "I am conscious and alive right now".  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up ''common sense''.  They are, you might say, the ''principles'' of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make ''some'' assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
> 
> Another escape from the diallelus is [[critical philosophy]], which denies that beliefs should ever be ''justified'' at all.  Rather, the job of philosophers is to subject all beliefs (including beliefs about truth criteria) to ''criticism'', attempting to discredit them rather than justifying them.  Then, these philosophers say, it is rational to act on those beliefs that have best withstood criticism, whether or not they meet any specific criterion of truth.  [[Karl Popper]] expanded on this idea to include a ''quantitative'' measurement he called '''verisimilitude''', or truth-likeness.  He showed that even if one could never justify a particular claim, one ''can'' compare the verisimilitude of two competing claims by criticism to judge which is superior to the other.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Diallelus/Talk|987809645
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Larry, much of this is from your "Common sense and the Diallelus", but made a bit more encyclopedic and with less detail on Reid's views.  I think it makes a better ad-hoc link with the one-word title.  You might want to edit your article on Reid to cross-link them, and I will produce a more detailed treatment of Popper.
> 
------
Diallelus/Talk|987809699
1c1,3
< Larry, much of this is from your "Common sense and the Diallelus", but made a bit more encyclopedic and with less detail on Reid's views.  I think it makes a better ad-hoc link with the one-word title.  You might want to edit your article on Reid to cross-link them, and I will produce a more detailed treatment of Popper.
---
> Larry, much of this is from your "Common sense and the Diallelus", but made a bit more encyclopedic and with less detail on Reid's views.  I think it makes a better ad-hoc link with the one-word title.  You might want to edit your article on Reid to cross-link them, and I will produce a more detailed treatment of Popper.  I am also of mixed mind as to whether "diallelus" should be capitalized.
> 
> 
------
Define_and_Describe_Talk|987810191
9a10,13
> ----
> RI, good point.  Nonetheless, I can't resist.
> 
> "Establish boundary" is itself metaphorical and is surely not clearer than "define" itself.  It is not as though undefined concepts are in danger of being infinite somehow (which is what your view, literally interpreted, seems to amount to).  My complaint is not in the substance of what you say--it sounds right to me--but in how you state it (i.e., its clarity).  You can probably state the gist of what you want to say just by stating: "A concept's definition describes all and only the items in the [[extension]] of the concept." --[[LMS]]
------
Diallelus/Talk|987810407
2,4c2,3
< 
< 
< 
---
> ----
> I'd prefer "problem of the criterion" as the title for most of the content of an article on this general subject; I'll fiddle with it anyway later...off to dinner and concert here in Boston!  --[[LMS]]
------
Capricorn/Talk|987810803
6c6,7
< :Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.  See, for example, these pages:
---
> 
> Look it up in a dictionary.  The IAU, as I understand it, gives the names of the constellations ''in Latin,'' which is perfectly understandable.  But we're using English here, not Latin.  See, for example, these pages:
8a10,12
> 
> As said, all the constellation names - both versions - are Latin or some slight alteration thereof.  In some cases the IAU form is in fact not the original Latin (Scorpius vs Scorpio).  Nonetheless they are supposed to be the official versions, for any language, and if you pick up most astronomy texts or star atlases ''Capricornus'' is what you will find marked.  The dictionary has never been particularly interested in naming all the constellations (you won't find Lacerta) and is giving a form more common thanks to its use in astrology, which has never been that interested in accuracy anyways.  Your choice, but I would again suggest that we follow the literature.
> 
12c16
< It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
---
> It would be a shame to segregate the zodiac from the rest of the constellations.  Other than Cancer, I think the only constellations that will collide are those with heroes for namesakes, and that isn't too bad.  And don't we think something like Ursa Major deserves a top level page?
------
Ursa_Major|987811667
3c3
< From the bowl to the handle, the stars in the Big Dipper are called Dubhe, Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth, Mizar, and Alkaid (Benetnash), and are given Bayer designations of &alpha;-&eta; Ursa Majoris.
---
> From the bowl to the handle, the stars in the Big Dipper are called Dubhe, Merak, Phecda, Megrez, Alioth, Mizar, and Alkaid (Benetnash), and are given Bayer designations of &alpha;-&eta; Ursae Majoris.  Except for the first and last these all share a common origin, coming from the Ursa Major stream.
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|987811806
6a7
> :[[Joey Ramone]] -- lead singer for [[The Ramones]] (April 15)
------
Aztecs|987812043
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A native mexican tribe.  "Aztec" means "someone who comes from Aztlán".
> 
> This people founded their city, Tenochtitlan, on top of a lake called Lago de Texcoco.
> 
> They arrived to the Lago de Texcoco on a journey proposed by Quetzalcoatl from Aztlán.  
------
Monterrey|987812123
1c1
< Capital of the state of Nuevo Leon, in Mexico.  It is currently the second most important city in Mexico, and it has always been known for its industry.  The industries that figure out the most are the beer, glass, and steel.  Carta Blanca, Bohemia, Casta, Indio, Chipinque, and NocheBuena are examples of the beers produced there.  Vitro figures as one of the most important glass factories.ñ
---
> (See also [[Monterrey, California]])
3c3
< Monterrey is located in northeastern Mexico, and has about 4.5 million inhabitants.  It is surrounded by other towns, which together form the metro area.  These towns are San Pedro Garza Garcia, San Nicolas de los Garza, Apodaca, Guadalupe, Escobedo, Santa Catarina.
---
> Capital of the state of Nuevo León, in Mexico.  It is currently the second most important city in Mexico, and it has always been known for its industry, particularly beer, glass, and steel.  Carta Blanca, Bohemia, Casta, Indio, Chipinque, and NocheBuena are examples of the beers produced there.  Vitro figures as one of the most important glass factories.
5c5
< Brief History:
---
> Monterrey is located in northeastern Mexico, and has about 4.5 million inhabitants.  It is surrounded by other towns, which together form the metro area.  These towns are San Pedro Garza Garcia, San Nicolas de los Garza, Apodaca, Guadalupe, Escobedo, and Santa Catarina.
7,8c7,9
< In the mid 1500s, the area where monterrey is located was part of the Valle de Extremadura.  Several expeditions by Alberto del Canto that tried to colonize the desertic area had been unfruitful.  An expedition by Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva tried to establish something in the area, but it was unfruitful as well.  A third expedition, by Diego de Montemayor, along with 12 other families, was the definite expedition to found it.
< Monterrey was founded on September 20, 1596, by Don Diego de Montemayor, next to a water spring called "Ojos de Agua de Santa Lucia".  On the site where these springs are, the Museo Nacional de Historia Mexicana is now.
---
> <h2>Brief History</h2>
> 
> In the mid 1500s, the area where Monterrey is located was part of the Valle de Extremadura.  Several expeditions by Alberto del Canto that tried to colonize the desert area had been unfruitful.  An expedition by Luis Carvajal y de la Cueva tried to establish something in the area, but it was unfruitful as well.  A third expedition, by Diego de Montemayor, along with 12 other families, was the expedition to found it.  Monterrey was founded on September 20, 1596, by Don Diego de Montemayor, next to a water spring called "Ojos de Agua de Santa Lucia".  On the site where these springs are, the Museo Nacional de Historia Mexicana is now.
12c13,15
< Typical food:
---
> <h2>Food</h2>
> 
> Typical food from Monterrey includes "machacado con huevo", a dish prepared with dry beef, eggs, and salsa; but perhaps the most traditional dish from Monterrey is the Cabrito al Pastor.  Cabrito al Pastor is "baby goat", cooked in the heat of embers.  It resembles a Jewish form of preparing goat to eat.
14c17
< Typical food from Monterrey includes "machacado con huevo", a dish prepared with dry beef, eggs, and salsa; but, perhaps, the most traditional dish from Monterrey is the Cabrito al Pastor.  Cabrito al Pastor is "baby goat", cooked to the heat of embers.  It resembles a jewish form of preparing goat to eat.
---
> <h2>Sports</h2>
16,17c19
< Sports:
< It has two soccer teams, one called "Tigres" (home stadium is the stadium of the Universdad Autónoma de Nuevo León), and the other one is "Rayados" (home stadium is the stadium of the Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey).
---
> It has two soccer teams, one called "Tigres" (home stadium is the stadium of the Universdad Autónoma de Nuevo León), and the other one is "Rayados" (home stadium is the stadium of the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey).
------
Diallelus|987812339
1,17c1
< In [[philosophy]] (and more specifically [[epistemology]]), the '''diallelus''' or '''problem of the criterion''' is an argument attributed to [[Sextus Empiricus]].  Briefly, he states that whatever argument I may offer to justify some belief, I must offer another in turn to justify my contention that this argument justifies the belief, and then offer another to justify ''that'' argument, and so on to infinite regress.
< 
< Suppose we want to assert a proposition ''P''.  In order to claim that ''P'' is true, I must have some ''criterion'' by which to judge its truth; some test or measure that we can use to determine if our belief in ''P'' is justified or not.  Many such criteria are possible: one might be "''P'' is true if I directly observe ''P'' with my own senses."  Another might be "''P'' is true if it is believed by the vast majority of people''".
< 
< But suppose we offer such a criterion (let's call it ''C'').  Does it really justify the belief?  Our claim that it does is in fact another claim; the claim (let's call it ''Q'') that "Criterion ''C'' justifies our belief in ''P''".  Mustn't we now justify claim ''Q'', with yet another criterion?  If we apply the same criterion ''C'' to judge the truth of ''Q'', we are engaging in [[circular argument]], because ''Q'' contains ''C'' as part of itself, so we must use a new criterion, and so on.
< 
< It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
< 
< Because of this argument, the view that one must have a criterion of truth to be justified in believing a proposition leads inevitably to [[skepticism]].  There are several proposed methods to escape the problem, including '''common sense''' and '''critical philosophy'''.
< 
< The method of common sense espoused by such philosophers as as [[Thomas Reid]] and [[G. E. Moore]] points out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming ''something else''.  So since we know ''in advance'' that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
< 
< Now bear in mind, by "common sense" here these philosophers don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  They mean much, much more basic claims than that.  Claims like "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet" and so on.  Or "The world has a ground and a sky" or "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors" or  "I am conscious and alive right now".  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up ''common sense''.  They are, you might say, the ''principles'' of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make ''some'' assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
< 
< Another escape from the diallelus is [[critical philosophy]], which denies that beliefs should ever be ''justified'' at all.  Rather, the job of philosophers is to subject all beliefs (including beliefs about truth criteria) to ''criticism'', attempting to discredit them rather than justifying them.  Then, these philosophers say, it is rational to act on those beliefs that have best withstood criticism, whether or not they meet any specific criterion of truth.  [[Karl Popper]] expanded on this idea to include a ''quantitative'' measurement he called '''verisimilitude''', or truth-likeness.  He showed that even if one could never justify a particular claim, one ''can'' compare the verisimilitude of two competing claims by criticism to judge which is superior to the other.
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Problem of the criterion]]
------
Problem_of_the_criterion|987812378
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[philosophy]] (and more specifically [[epistemology]]), the '''diallelus''' or '''problem of the criterion''' is an argument attributed to [[Sextus Empiricus]].  Briefly, he states that whatever argument I may offer to justify some belief, I must offer another in turn to justify my contention that this argument justifies the belief, and then offer another to justify ''that'' argument, and so on to infinite regress.
> 
> Suppose we want to assert a proposition ''P''.  In order to claim that ''P'' is true, I must have some ''criterion'' by which to judge its truth; some test or measure that we can use to determine if our belief in ''P'' is justified or not.  Many such criteria are possible: one might be "''P'' is true if I directly observe ''P'' with my own senses."  Another might be "''P'' is true if it is believed by the vast majority of people''".
> 
> But suppose we offer such a criterion (let's call it ''C'').  Does it really justify the belief?  Our claim that it does is in fact another claim; the claim (let's call it ''Q'') that "Criterion ''C'' justifies our belief in ''P''".  Mustn't we now justify claim ''Q'', with yet another criterion?  If we apply the same criterion ''C'' to judge the truth of ''Q'', we are engaging in [[circular argument]], because ''Q'' contains ''C'' as part of itself, so we must use a new criterion, and so on.
> 
> It looks like there’s no way out of using a criterion of truth, if we ever want to argue for a criterion of truth!  And if Sextus Empiricus is right, we always have to use a criterion of truth if we want to be justified in saying that a particular claim is true.  But then we are faced with circularity or regress.  Either we argue in a circle and say that a criterion applies to itself, or we say there’s an infinite regress of criteria.
> 
> Because of this argument, the view that one must have a criterion of truth to be justified in believing a proposition leads inevitably to [[skepticism]].  There are several proposed methods to escape the problem, including [[common sense]] and [[critical philosophy]].
> 
> The method of common sense espoused by such philosophers as as [[Thomas Reid]] and [[G. E. Moore]] points out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.  There isn’t any way to avoid that.  If you try to support your assumptions with reasons, you’re going to end up assuming ''something else''.  So since we know ''in advance'' that we are going to have to make some assumptions, whenever we do philosophy, then what we have to do is clear: we have to assume those things that are most obvious, the matters of common sense that no one ever seriously doubts.
> 
> Now bear in mind, by "common sense" here these philosophers don’t mean old adages like "Chicken soup is good for colds."  They mean much, much more basic claims than that.  Claims like "Human beings typically have two eyes, two ears, two hands, two feet" and so on.  Or "The world has a ground and a sky" or "Plants and animals come in a wide variety of sizes and colors" or  "I am conscious and alive right now".  These are all the absolutely most obvious sorts of claims that one could possibly make; and, said Reid and Moore, these are the claims that make up ''common sense''.  They are, you might say, the ''principles'' of common sense.  And once again, the point is that since we know we are going to have to make ''some'' assumptions, then we might as well assume what is most obvious, namely the principles of common sense.
> 
> Another escape from the diallelus is [[critical philosophy]], which denies that beliefs should ever be ''justified'' at all.  Rather, the job of philosophers is to subject all beliefs (including beliefs about truth criteria) to ''criticism'', attempting to discredit them rather than justifying them.  Then, these philosophers say, it is rational to act on those beliefs that have best withstood criticism, whether or not they meet any specific criterion of truth.  [[Karl Popper]] expanded on this idea to include a ''quantitative'' measurement he called '''verisimilitude''', or truth-likeness.  He showed that even if one could never justify a particular claim, one ''can'' compare the verisimilitude of two competing claims by criticism to judge which is superior to the other.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
Critical_philosophy|987812485
3c3
< 'Critical philosophy' is also just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.
---
> "Critical philosophy" is also used as just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.
------
Problem_of_the_criterion|987812514
17c17
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[Diallelus/Talk /Talk]]
------
Problem_of_the_criterion|987812541
17c17
< [[Diallelus/Talk /Talk]]
---
> [[Diallelus/Talk]]
------
Class_envy|987812570
5c5
< One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that the higher income people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  Another way it to state or imply that the higher income people became so only by depriving the lower income people.
---
> One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that higher income, higher status, or higher rank (as in hereditray nobility) people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  Another way it to state or imply that the higher income people became so only by depriving the lower income people.  As the tactic is based in part on at least a grain of truth, it can be quite effective.
7c7,13
< Critics of class envy tactics point out that most all of the higher income people earned the money themselves.
---
> Historically, nobility and land owners in feudal societies literally were a leisure class and made their living off the backs of the tenants of their land.  Land ownership was a matter of fiat, and could only be enjoyed at the sufferance of royalty or of hereditary nobles, whose titles ran with their lands, and vice-versa.  
> 
> With the advent of capitalism in the West, another sort of baronetcy was born, that of the robber barons - captains of industry.  These were often unscrupulous individuals who took criminal advantage of employees, customers, competitors and the mechanisms of government regulation through tactics which included indentureship, slave wages, usurious loans (often to their own employees and their families), monopolies, price fixing, bribery, unfair competition (such as selling in large volume at deficit pricing which only they were financially stong enough to survive, until competitors were forced to close or sell out), etc.  
> 
> Modern government regulation has largely put an end to the reign of the robber barons, but the sting of the injury that they inflicted on their fellow man lingers on.  Consequently, the heirs to these monied families and others whose accumulation of wealth resembles such dynasties are easy public relations targets for those who would take advantage of the greed and envy of the less fortunate.
> 
> Critics of class envy tactics point out that modernly, the majority of higher income people earned the money themselves.
11,13c17,20
< * referring only low income people as 'working people' and never stating that higher income people 'work'
< * he was born with a silver spoon in his mouth - he's rich because his parents' were.
< * ...
---
> * referring to low income people as 'working people' and not stating that higher income people also work.
> * he was born with a silver spoon in his mouth - he's rich because his parents were.
> * blue-blood (as a derogatory term)
> * referring to all business leaders as robber-barons.
------
Taurus|987813041
1c1
< The bull
---
> Taurus, the bull, one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac.  It sits a large and prominent in the winter sky, between [[Aries]] to the west and [[Gemini]] to the east; to the north lie [[Perseus]] and [[Auriga]], to the southwest [[Orion]], and to the southeast [[Eridanus]] and [[Cetus]].
3c3,20
< continue...
---
> One of the few first magnitude stars in the sky, the bright red [[Aldebaran]], sits in the middle of this constellation.  Behind it lie the Hyades, the nearest distinct open cluster, that with it form a V in the sky marking the bull's head.  The horns stretch off to the west, marked by Elnath (Beta Tauri, traditionally shared with Auriga) and Zeta Tauri.
> 
> In the east of the constellation lies one of the best known open clusters, easily visible to the eye, the [[Pleiades]].  Another well-known telescopic object is the [[crab nebula]], a dim supernova remnant just northeast of Zeta.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
>  Taurus is large and prominent, belonging to the winter sky.  It includes the red giant Aldebaran, one of the brightest stars in the sky.  Behind that are the [[Hyades]], a nearby open cluster that with it form a clear V, marking the bull's head.  The horns extend west, the southern one marked by Zeta Tauri and near the [[crab nebula]], and the northern one marked by Elnath (Beta Tauri) which has also been considered as part of [[Auriga]].  To the east lies another beautiful open cluster, easily visible to the unaided eye, the [[Pleiades]].
> 
> Taurus lies 
------
Taurus|987813066
3,20c3
< One of the few first magnitude stars in the sky, the bright red [[Aldebaran]], sits in the middle of this constellation.  Behind it lie the Hyades, the nearest distinct open cluster, that with it form a V in the sky marking the bull's head.  The horns stretch off to the west, marked by Elnath (Beta Tauri, traditionally shared with Auriga) and Zeta Tauri.
< 
< In the east of the constellation lies one of the best known open clusters, easily visible to the eye, the [[Pleiades]].  Another well-known telescopic object is the [[crab nebula]], a dim supernova remnant just northeast of Zeta.
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
<  Taurus is large and prominent, belonging to the winter sky.  It includes the red giant Aldebaran, one of the brightest stars in the sky.  Behind that are the [[Hyades]], a nearby open cluster that with it form a clear V, marking the bull's head.  The horns extend west, the southern one marked by Zeta Tauri and near the [[crab nebula]], and the northern one marked by Elnath (Beta Tauri) which has also been considered as part of [[Auriga]].  To the east lies another beautiful open cluster, easily visible to the unaided eye, the [[Pleiades]].
< 
< Taurus lies 
---
> One of the few first magnitude stars in the sky, the bright red [[Aldebaran]], sits in the middle of this constellation.  Behind it lie the Hyades, the nearest distinct open cluster, that with it form a V in the sky marking the bull's head.  The horns stretch off to the west, marked by Elnath (Beta Tauri, traditionally shared with Auriga) and Zeta Tauri.  In the east of the constellation lies one of the best known open clusters, easily visible to the eye, the [[Pleiades]].  Another well-known telescopic object is the [[crab nebula]], a dim supernova remnant just northeast of Zeta.
------
Film_Noir|987813107
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A genre of film based in large part on the hard-boiled detective novels that grew out of naturalism, a movement in literature based on realism and concerned largely with the economic side effects of capitalism.  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include The Maltese Falcon, The Postman Always Rings Twice, Touch of Evil, Laura, and The Big Sleep.  More recent, modernized examples include Blood Simple, Blue Velvet, Taxi Driver, L.A. Confidential, and Blade Runner.
------
Taurus|987813284
3a4,5
> 
> Taurus is associated with the bull-form [[Zeus]] took in order to win [[Europa]], a Phoenician princess.
------
Gemini|987813847
1c1
< The twins
---
> Gemini, the twins, one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac.  It is part of the winter sky, lying between [[Taurus]] to the west and the dim [[Cancer]] to the east, with [[Auriga]] and the near-invisible [[Lynx]] to the north and [[Monoceros]] and [[Canis Minor]] to the south.
3c3
< continue...
---
> Gemini includes two bright stars, named after the two twins, who correspond to the [[Dioscuri]] in [[Greek mythology]] - [[Castor]] (&alpha;), a pretty telescopic [[binary star|binary]], and [[Pollux]] (&beta;), which is brighter and more southwesterly.  The other stars are relatively dim - only one, Alhena (&gamma;) is ever seen from a large city - and trace out a rectangle to the southeast.
------
Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show|987813932
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Campy,emphatically kinky but hilarious film in which a straight-laced couple with a flat tire stop at a castle in the woods to use the phone.  In the castle, Dr. Frank N Furter, a gender-bending scientist from another planet, is giving a party to celebrate the creation of a male playmate.  Features Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N Furter and Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick as the straight-laced and initially horrified couple.  The film was based on a long-running play.
------
Cancer|987813972
3c3
< Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look much like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the beehive cluster.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called ''Moon Children''.
---
> Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look much like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the [[beehive cluster]].  It lies between [[Gemini]] to the west and [[Leo]] to the west, [[Lynx]] to the north and [[Hydra]] and [[Canis Minor]] to the south.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called ''Moon Children''.
------
Cancer|987814173
3c3
< Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look much like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the [[beehive cluster]].  It lies between [[Gemini]] to the west and [[Leo]] to the west, [[Lynx]] to the north and [[Hydra]] and [[Canis Minor]] to the south.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called ''Moon Children''.
---
> Cancer also refers to one of the [[constellation]]s of the zodiac, the crab.  It's small and dim and doesn't look much like what it's supposed to, and is best noted among stargazers as the home of the [[beehive cluster]].  It lies between [[Gemini]] to the west and [[Leo]] to the west, [[Lynx]] to the north and [[Canis Minor]] and [[Hydra]] to the south.  In [[Greek mythology]], this corresponds to a brave little crab who tried to stop [[Hercules]] from defeating the [[Hydra]] and was squished for his efforts.  Because this sign has a name with negative connotations, for a while in the 1980s, people born under this sign were called ''Moon Children''.
------
Greek_alphabet|987814467
42c42,44
< During the Middle ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter &sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the ime.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronounciation.
---
> During the Middle ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter &sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the ime.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronounciation.
> 
> /Talk
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987814549
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1991 film in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by Jonathan Demme, the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  Jodie Foster and Anthony Hopkins both won Oscars (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. Hannibal Lecter, respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by Thomas Harris; this is actually the second book featuring Dr. Lecter: the first was Red Dragon, made into the film Manhunter by Michael Mann; the third was Hannibal, made into the film of the same name by Ridley Scott.
------
Greek_alphabet/Talk|987814575
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All I see on [[Greek alphabet]] are html tags with Netscape 4.7x on Mac or PC....
> 
> Same on [[Wiki special characters]].
> 
> Help!
------
Parabola|987814692
3c3
< In [[cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <i>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</i>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
---
> In [[Cartesian coordinates]] a parabola has the equation <i>y=a x<sup>2</sup> + c</i>, with respect to some suitable coordinates.
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987814834
1c1,2
< *2000 [[Steven Soderbergh]] - [[Traffic]]
---
> *1995 [[Braveheart]]
> *2000 [[Steven Soderbergh]] - [[Traffic]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987815174
1c1,10
< *1995 [[Braveheart]]
---
> *1990 [[Kevin Costner]] - [[Dancing with Wolves]]
> *1991 [[Jonathan Demme]] - [[Silence of the Lambs]]
> *1992 [[Clint Eastwood]] - [[Unforgiven]]
> *1993 [[Steven Spielberg]] - [[Schindler's List]]
> *1994 [[Robert Zemeckis]] - [[Forrest Gump]]
> *1995 [[Mel Gibson]] - [[Braveheart]]
> *1996 [[Anthony Minghella]] - [[The English Patient]]
> *1997 [[James Cameron]] - [[Titanic]]
> *1998 [[John Madden]] - [[Shakespeare in Love]]
> *1999 [[Sam Mendes]] - [[American Beauty]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987815699
0a1,10
> *1980 [[Robert Redford]] - [[Ordinary People]]
> *1981 [[Hugh Hudson]] - [[Chariots of Fire]]
> *1982 [[Richard Attenborough]] - [[Gandhi]]
> *1983 [[James L. Brooks]] - [[Terms of Endearment]]
> *1984 [[Milos Forman]] - [[Amadeus]]
> *1985 [[Sydney Pollack]] - [[Out of Africa]]
> *1986 [[Oliver Stone]] - [[Platoon]]
> *1987 [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] - [[The Last Emperor]]
> *1988 [[Barry Levinson]] - [[Rain Man]]
> *1989 [[Bruce Beresford]] - [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987815773
1,20d0
< *1980 [[Robert Redford]] - [[Ordinary People]]
< *1981 [[Hugh Hudson]] - [[Chariots of Fire]]
< *1982 [[Richard Attenborough]] - [[Gandhi]]
< *1983 [[James L. Brooks]] - [[Terms of Endearment]]
< *1984 [[Milos Forman]] - [[Amadeus]]
< *1985 [[Sydney Pollack]] - [[Out of Africa]]
< *1986 [[Oliver Stone]] - [[Platoon]]
< *1987 [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] - [[The Last Emperor]]
< *1988 [[Barry Levinson]] - [[Rain Man]]
< *1989 [[Bruce Beresford]] - [[Driving Miss Daisy]]
< *1990 [[Kevin Costner]] - [[Dancing with Wolves]]
< *1991 [[Jonathan Demme]] - [[Silence of the Lambs]]
< *1992 [[Clint Eastwood]] - [[Unforgiven]]
< *1993 [[Steven Spielberg]] - [[Schindler's List]]
< *1994 [[Robert Zemeckis]] - [[Forrest Gump]]
< *1995 [[Mel Gibson]] - [[Braveheart]]
< *1996 [[Anthony Minghella]] - [[The English Patient]]
< *1997 [[James Cameron]] - [[Titanic]]
< *1998 [[John Madden]] - [[Shakespeare in Love]]
< *1999 [[Sam Mendes]] - [[American Beauty]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987816528
1a2,11
> *1999 [[Sam Mendes]] - [[American Beauty]]
> *1998 [[Steven Spielberg]] - [[Saving Private Ryan]]
> *1997 [[James Cameron]] - [[Titanic]]
> *1996 [[Anthony Minghella]] - [[The English Patient]]
> *1995 [[Mel Gibson]] - [[Braveheart]]
> *1994 [[Robert Zemeckis]] - [[Forrest Gump]]
> *1993 [[Steven Spielberg]] - [[Schindlers List]]
> *1992 [[Clint Eastwood]] - [[Unforgiven]]
> *1991 [[Jonathan Demme]] - [[Silence of the Lambs]]
> *1990 [[Kevin Costner]] - [[Dances with Wolves]]
------
Class_envy|987816564
5c5
< One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that higher income, higher status, or higher rank (as in hereditray nobility) people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  Another way it to state or imply that the higher income people became so only by depriving the lower income people.  As the tactic is based in part on at least a grain of truth, it can be quite effective.
---
> One way this is done is to somehow imply or overtly state that higher income, higher status, or higher rank (as in hereditray nobility) people 'won the lottery' and therefore don't deserve what they own.  Another way it to state or imply that the higher income people became so only by depriving the lower income people.
7,11c7
< Historically, nobility and land owners in feudal societies literally were a leisure class and made their living off the backs of the tenants of their land.  Land ownership was a matter of fiat, and could only be enjoyed at the sufferance of royalty or of hereditary nobles, whose titles ran with their lands, and vice-versa.  
< 
< With the advent of capitalism in the West, another sort of baronetcy was born, that of the robber barons - captains of industry.  These were often unscrupulous individuals who took criminal advantage of employees, customers, competitors and the mechanisms of government regulation through tactics which included indentureship, slave wages, usurious loans (often to their own employees and their families), monopolies, price fixing, bribery, unfair competition (such as selling in large volume at deficit pricing which only they were financially stong enough to survive, until competitors were forced to close or sell out), etc.  
< 
< Modern government regulation has largely put an end to the reign of the robber barons, but the sting of the injury that they inflicted on their fellow man lingers on.  Consequently, the heirs to these monied families and others whose accumulation of wealth resembles such dynasties are easy public relations targets for those who would take advantage of the greed and envy of the less fortunate.
---
> Frequently throughout history, nobility and land owners in feudal societies were literally a leisure class and made their living by exploiting the tenants of their land.  Land ownership was a matter of fiat, and could only be enjoyed at the sufferance of royalty or of hereditary nobles, whose titles ran with their lands, and vice-versa.  
------
Greek_alphabet/Talk|987817653
5c5,13
< Help!
---
> Help!
> 
> ----
> I hate the "get a new browser" excuse, because it's mostly used by people who don't have a clue what the standards are to bully people into using software they like instead of what the user wants.  But I'm afraid that's the only advice I can give here.
> 
> Both of those pages are encoded in the way that best complies with available web standards for maximum portability.  Unfortunately as you have discovered, much web browsing software that came out before those standards were worked out is still in use.  Netscape 4.7 is an old product.  You might also verify that a font with Greek letters is available to your OS, but that's almost certainly the case for both Windows (using the "Symbol" font) and MacOS.  It's most likely just the browser.  Later versions of both IE and Netscape (including Mozilla) should work better.  I haven't looked at Opera, but I hear it is very standards-compliant as well.
> 
> Yes, the pages could be changed to use an encoding method that would work for you (e.g., <code><font name="Symbol">abc</font></code>), but then they would fail on other machines.  Sorry I can't be of more help. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Popular_Music|987818582
7c7
< *[[Electronic music]]
---
> *[[Electronic_music]]
------
Popular_Music|987818792
7c7
< *[[Electronic_music]]
---
> *[[Electronic music]]
------
Literature|987820558
19c19
< * [[Jane Austin]]
---
> * [[Jane Austen]]
------
ErnestHemingway|987820847
8c8
< Pullitzer Price 1953
---
> Pullitzer Price 1953 (for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
10c10
< Nobel Price for Literature 1954
---
> Nobel Price for Literature 1954 (also for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
------
Optical_binary|987823575
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An astronomical term for a pair of stars that appear to be close together, but are actually just along the same line of sight, and are nowhere near each other in space.  The most famous of these, and the first telescopic double discovered (1650), are Mizar and Alcor.  Contrast with [[binary stars]], which are gravitationally bound to one another.
------
Constellation|987823695
97c97
< There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big Dipper]] and [[Little Dipper]].
---
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big Dipper]] and [[Little Dipper]].  Note that in any of these figures the stars rarely have anything to do with one another - they are just along roughly the same lines of sight, and are typically very far apart.
------
Constellation|987823701
97c97
< There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called asterisms, such as the [[Big Dipper]] and [[Little Dipper]].  Note that in any of these figures the stars rarely have anything to do with one another - they are just along roughly the same lines of sight, and are typically very far apart.
---
> There were also other constellations that didn't make the cut, most notably Quadrans Muralis (now part of [[Bootes]]) for which the [[quadrantid meteors]] are named.  Various other less official patterns have existed alongside the constellations called [[asterism]]s, such as the [[Big Dipper]] and [[Little Dipper]].  Note that in any of these figures the stars rarely have anything to do with one another - they are just along roughly the same lines of sight, and are typically very far apart.
------
Asterism|987823816
1,3c1
< Asterisms are patterns of stars seen in Earth's sky which are not official constellations.
< 
< Examples are the [[Big Dipper]], [[Little Dipper]], the [[Pleiades]], and the Teapot in [[Sagittarius]].
---
> Asterisms are patterns of stars seen in Earth's sky which are not official [[constellation]]s.  Examples include the [[Big Dipper|Big]] and [[Little Dipper]]s and the Teapot in [[Sagittarius]].  One ancient asterism, [[Coma Berenices]], had its status upgraded to constellation when things were finalized.
------
SandBox|987825175
0a1,10
> <font name="Symbol">
>   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (')
>   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth
>   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel
>   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h)
>   F       Waw       w       6        Waw
>   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain
>   &Eta; &eta;     Eta 
> </font>
1a12
> ------------
------
SandBox|987825309
1,10c1,9
< <font name="Symbol">
<   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (')
<   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth
<   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel
<   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth
<   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h)
<   F       Waw       w       6        Waw
<   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain
<   &Eta; &eta;     Eta 
< </font>
---
> <font name="Symbol">&Alpha;</font>
> 
>   &Alpha; &alpha;
>   &Beta; &beta;   
>   &Gamma; &gamma;  
>   &Delta; &delta; 
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon; 
>   &Zeta; &zeta;
>   &Eta; &eta; 
------
Greek_alphabet/Talk|987825503
12a13,14
> ------------------
> Thanks. Fired up Explorer 5.50 and it worked perfectly.
------
Nu|987825724
3c3
< Written "N" and "''v''"
---
> Written &Nu; &nu; (or for older browsers, approximately "N" and "''v''")
------
Nu|987825831
1c1
< [[Greek alphabet]] letter thirteen.
---
> [[Greek alphabet]] letter. Greek numeral value of 50.
3c3
< Written &Nu; &nu; (or for older browsers, approximately "N" and "''v''")
---
> Written &Nu; and &nu; (or for older browsers, approximately "N" and "''v''")
------
India|987826526
1c1,4
< India, located in the south of [[Asia]], is the second most populous [[country]] in the word and is the world's largest [[democracy]] with about a billion people.  
---
> India, located in the south of [[Asia]], is the second most populous [[country]] in the word and is the world's largest [[democracy]] with about a billion people and a thousand plus languages.
> The cradle of one of the worlds first ivilizations an be loated here, the Indus valley. 
> India used to be a great colonial master herself, the days of Emperor Ashoka and Raja hola saw Indias empire extend as far as Indonesia and everything in between.  
> but this diminished with the fall of the empire and india herself became a colony of the british. indias wealth attracted many invaders. The Moghuls, the Portuguese, the British all wanted a piece of the treasures of India.
------
Amir|987833122
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It's me!
------
JavaScript|987833499
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A scripting language that is compliant with the ECMA-262 standard. Originally developed by Netscape, it is an object-oriented scripting language for use on both the server-side (web servers) and the client side (Internet browsers). JavaScript is mostly used on the client-side to create powerful dynamic web page applications.
------
Palaeozoic|987836409
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paleozoic.  One of four (sometimes more) Geologic Eras.  The division of time into Eras dates to the 18th Century. ''anyone know who defined the eras and when?''.  The eras are the highest division of the [[Geologic Time Scale]].  Palaeozoic is an accepted alternate spelling for Paleozoic.
> 
> The Paleozoic includes six Geologic Periods.  From oldest to youngest -- [[Cambrian]], [[Ordovician]], [[Silurian]], [[Devonian]], [[Carboniferous]] ([[Mississippian]] and [[Pennsylvanian]] in North America), and Permian.  It extended from roughly 545 million years before present to roughly 245 million years.  It follows the [[PreCambrian]] Era and is followed by the [[Mesozoic]] Era.
> 
> The Paleozoic covers the time from the first appearance of abundant, hard shelled fossils to the period when the continents were first dominated by large, relatively sophisticated reptiles and relatively modern plant types.  The lower (oldest) boundary was classically set at the first appearance of creatures known as [[trilobites]] and [[archeocyathids]].  The upper (youngest) boundary is set at a major extinction event 300 million years later.  Modern practice sets the lower boundary at the first appearance of a distinctive feeding trace fossil called ''Phycodes pedum''.
> 
> Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Rodinia, and the end of a global ice age.  See [[Varanger glaciation]] and [[Snowball Earth]].  Throughout the Early Paleozoic, the earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents.  Toward the end of the Era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent [[Pangea]] including most of the Earth's land area.
> 
> At the start of the Era, life was confined to bacteria, algae, sponges and a variety of somewhat enigmatic forms known collectively as the [[Ediacarian]] fauna.  A large number of body plans appeared nearly simultaneously at the start of the Era -- a phenomenon known as the [[Cambrian Explosion]].  There is some evidence that simple life may already have invaded the land at the start of the Paleozoic, but substantial plants and animals did not take to the land until the [[Silurian]] and did not thrive until the [[Devonian]].  Although primitive vertebrates are known from very close to the start of the Paleozoic, animal forms were dominated by invertebrates until the mid-Paleozoic.  Fish populations exploded in the [[Devonian]].  During the late Paleozoic, great forests of primitive plants thrived on land forming the great coal beds of Europe and Eastern North America.  By the end of the Era, the first large sophisticated reptiles and the first modern plants ([[conifers]]) had developed.
------
Computing|987837462
67a68,72
> *** [[IMAP]]
> *** [[SMTP]]
> *** [[HTTP]]
> *** [[FTP]]
> *** [[LDAP]]
------
JavaScript|987840886
1c1
< A scripting language that is compliant with the ECMA-262 standard. Originally developed by Netscape, it is an object-oriented scripting language for use on both the server-side (web servers) and the client side (Internet browsers). JavaScript is mostly used on the client-side to create powerful dynamic web page applications.
---
> '''JavaScript''' is a [[scripting language]] now specified by the ECMA-262 standard.  Originally developed by [[Netscape Communications]] under the name '''LiveScript''', it was later renamed and modified to give it a syntax closer to that of the [[Sun Microsystems]] [[Java language]] at roughly the same time Netscape was including support for Java in their browser.  It is an object-oriented scripting language for use on both the server-side (web servers) and the client side (Internet browsers) of internet applications.  JavaScript is mostly used on the client side to create powerful dynamic web applications.
------
Jews/Talk|987841770
2,5c2
< 
< Is this correct? I thought Israel was in the south around Jerusalem and Bethlehem, etc, with Judah in the north around
< lake Galilee. Can someone check this out and correct if
< needed please?
---
> (above problem now fixed, by someone who hopefully knows for sure. Thanks.)
------
Requested_articles|987842190
13,14c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- 
< [[Polar coordinates]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
34c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[class envy]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
LALR|987842289
5c5
< It's a computer science algorithm, used for parsing forammlly grammatical things, especially computer languages. But it's a long time since i looked at this stuff, so i can't really remember why it's different to other parsing algorithms such as LL-n and LR-n.
---
> It's a computer science algorithm, used for parsing formally grammatical things, especially computer languages. But it's a long time since i looked at this stuff, so i can't really remember why it's different to other parsing algorithms such as LL-n and LR-n.
------
India|987847114
1,4c1,2
< India, located in the south of [[Asia]], is the second most populous [[country]] in the word and is the world's largest [[democracy]] with about a billion people and a thousand plus languages.
< The cradle of one of the worlds first ivilizations an be loated here, the Indus valley. 
< India used to be a great colonial master herself, the days of Emperor Ashoka and Raja hola saw Indias empire extend as far as Indonesia and everything in between.  
< but this diminished with the fall of the empire and india herself became a colony of the british. indias wealth attracted many invaders. The Moghuls, the Portuguese, the British all wanted a piece of the treasures of India.
---
> India, located in the south of [[Asia]], is the second most populated [[country]] in the word and is the world's largest [[democracy]] with about a billion people and a thousand plus languages.
> The cradle of one of the worlds first civilizations can be located here, the Indus valley.
6,8c4,5
< See [http://goidirectory.nic.in/ Directory of official websites of Government of India].
< 
< [[/Talk|talk]]
---
> India used to be a great colonial master herself, the days of Emperor Ashoka and Raja hola saw India's empire extend as far as Indonesia and everything in between.
> But this diminished with the fall of the empire and India herself became a colony of the [[British Empire]]. India's wealth attracted many invaders, The [[Moghuls]], the [[Portuguese]], the British all wanted a piece of the treasures of India.
9a7
> See [http://goidirectory.nic.in/ Directory of official websites of Government of India].
10a9
> /Talk
------
Anarres|987850490
1c1
< One of our new [[Wikipedians]] who probably resides in [[Lincoln, Nebraska]].
---
> "One of our new [[Wikipedians]] who probably resides in [[Lincoln, Nebraska]].
3c3,7
< Welcome! --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Welcome! --[[Larry Sanger]]"
> 
> ;)  No, actually I live in [[New England]].  I've just
> returned from a ten-year exile in [[Colorado]], and
> I've driven through Lincoln, Nebraska a few times.
------
Anarres/Interlingua|987850763
1c1
< I have to admit that it took me longer to reach a given level of competence in [[Interlingua]] than to reach the same level in [[Esperanto]].  Despite the claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character of each Romance language has been washed out of it).  Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening, reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it has far more potential usefulness spoken than listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French accent) [[Quebecois]], and they all understood me (they were very amused, but they understood me), though, of course,  When they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or French, I couldn't understand them.
---
> I have to admit that it took me longer to reach a given level of competence in [[Interlingua]] than to reach the same level in [[Esperanto]].  Despite the claims of other Esperantists, I find Esperanto to be an ugly language (though useful); Interlingua is almost beautiful, in contrast (failing to be beautiful, perhaps, only because the individual character of each Romance language has been washed out of it).  Where Esperanto is equally useful in speaking, listening, reading and writing, Interlingua is "asymmetric"--it has far more potential usefulness spoken than listened to, read or written.  I have spoken it to Italians, Brazilians and (with a heavy French accent) [[Quebecois]], and they all understood me (they were very amused, but they understood me), though, of course, when they answered me in Italian, Portuguese or French, I couldn't understand them.
------
Frisian_language|987851027
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100,000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
------
Russia|987851254
3c3
< Russia is a very large country, it has immense territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea. The land and [[sea|seas]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has an immense expanse of territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea. The land and [[sea|seas]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
9c9
< Thickest population is in European part of Russia, in Ural Mountains area, and in south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with over a million of population are not uncommon, especially in European part.
---
> The densest population is in the European part of Russia, in the Ural Mountains area, and in the south-eastern part of Asia. Cities with a population of over a million are not uncommon, especially in European part.
22c22
< Funny enough, but (almost) all Russian websites can be 
---
> Humorously enough, almost all Russian websites can be 
------
Soviet_Union|987852578
1c1,5
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  It was formally called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but was usually just called [[Russia|Russia]], as Russia was the largest and most dominant Republic within the Soviet Union.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (citizens of the U.S. often 
> referred to it as just [[Russia]]).
> [[Russia]], officially named "the Russian Soviet Federated
> Socialist Republic" was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
> dominated it politically.
3c7
< The first leader of the Soviet Union was [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]], who led the [[Communists|Communists]] (then called [[Bolsheviks|Bolsheviks]]) to power in the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of [[Joseph Stalin|Joseph Stalin]], who led the Soviet Union until his death in 1953.  Later Soviet leaders such as [[Nikita Khrushchev|Nikita Khrushchev]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mikhail Gorbachev]] became head of the Soviet Union in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing [[Communist|Communist]] regime by reducing tensions with the [[United States|United States]] and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core Communist tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the [[Collapse Of The Soviet Union]] occured in 1991.
---
> The first leader of the Soviet Union was [[Vladimir Lenin]], who led the [[Communists]] (then called [[Bolsheviks]]) to power in the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917.  After Lenin died in 1924, power gradually consolidated in the hands of [[Joseph Stalin]], who led the Soviet Union until his death in 1953.  Later Soviet leaders such as [[Nikita Khrushchev]] and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] were unable to consolidate power as Stalin had done, and served more as functionaries of the state rather than as dictators.  [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became head of the Soviet Union in 1985 and attempted to preserve the collapsing [[Communist]] regime by reducing tensions with the [[United States]] and lessening the extent of political persecution, but without abandoning the core Communist tenet of centralized bureaucratic control of the economy.  These attempts failed, and the [[Collapse Of The Soviet Union]] occurred in 1991.
5c9,23
< The Soviet Union was the most [[Genocide|genocidal]] regime in human [[history]], murdering an estimated 62 million people.  The majority of these, some 42 million, were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
---
> Like many governments of prominent nations,
> the government of the Soviet Union was responsible at
> times for the murder of large numbers of people, one
> estimate being a total of 62 million.  Some of these deaths
> were the result of Soviet armed suppression of uprisings of
> non-Russian nationalities, both within the Soviet Union
> and in less powerful neigboring countries, nominally independent but essentially subjugated by the Soviets (these nations were
> sometimes referred to as the "Eastern Bloc").
> 
> About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953,
> some victims of his apparently paranoid political tendencies, and
> some "incidental" casualties of sweeping forced migrations
> and civil engineering projects
> intended to very quickly expand and modernize the Soviet economy.
> After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
------
Soviet_Union|987852626
2c2
< referred to it as just [[Russia]]).
---
> referred to it as just "Russia").
------
Soviet_Union|987852643
4c4
< Socialist Republic" was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
---
> Socialist Republic", was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
------
Esperanto|987852972
1c1,2
< Most-spoken of the [[Artificial languages]].  Created by LudovicLazarusZamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary draws mainly off [[Romance languages]], spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
---
> Most widely spoken of the [[Artifial languages|artificial languages]].  Created by Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin
> and Greek.  Spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
------
Esperanto|987853002
1c1
< Most widely spoken of the [[Artifial languages|artificial languages]].  Created by Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin
---
> Most widely spoken of the [[Artifial languages|artificial languages]].  Created by Ludovic Lazarus [[Zamenhof]] in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin
------
Esperanto|987853495
1,2c1,5
< Most widely spoken of the [[Artifial languages|artificial languages]].  Created by Ludovic Lazarus [[Zamenhof]] in 1887 as an attempt at a world language.  So far, best attempt yet.  An [[Inflected language]], with no genders and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin
< and Greek.  Spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn.
---
> Most widely spoken of the [[Artifial languages|artificial languages]].  Ludovic Lazarus [[Zamenhof]] completed the creation of the initial version in 1887.  His intention was to create a
> language that is very easy to learn, to serve as the universal <i>second</i> language for everyone in the world (not, as is
> widely supposed, to <i>replace</i>all existing languages in
> the world).  An [[agglutinative language]], with no grammatical genders, no distinct verb conjugations by person and number, and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin and Greek.  Spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn (due in large part to luck, as Zamenhof was not a professional linguist, but
> rather an ophthalmologist).
------
Esperanto|987854133
5c5,12
< rather an ophthalmologist).
---
> rather an ophthalmologist). 
> 
> Esperanto has proven to be a good
> deal easier to learn as a second language than any of the natural
> languages (and, of course, far easier to learn than highly
> irregular and/or non-phonetic languages such as English, French
> and Chinese).  There is also evidence that studying Esperanto
> before studying any other second language speeds and improves learning, because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first, while Esperanto lessens the "first foreign language" learning hurdle.  In one study, a group of high school students studied Esperanto for six months, then French for a year and a half, and ended up with a better command of the language than the control group, who studied only French during those two years.
42c49
<    ''[[EsperantujO|esperantujo]]''        Land of hopers
---
>    ''[[Esperantujo|esperantujo]]''        Land of hopers
44c51
< There was also another language, [[Ido]], based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900s.  
---
> There was also another language, [[Ido]], based on Esperanto that enjoyed a brief popularity in the early 1900's.  
------
Esperanto|987854175
3c3
< widely supposed, to <i>replace</i>all existing languages in
---
> widely supposed, to <i>replace</i> all existing languages in
------
Esperanto|987854252
49c49
<    ''[[Esperantujo|esperantujo]]''        Land of hopers
---
>    ''[[Esperantio]]''        Land of hopers
------
Esperanto|987854300
44c44
<    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective
---
>    ''esperantaj(n)''      Hoping - nominative (accusative) adjective, plural
46c46
<    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun
---
>    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun, plural
------
Esperanto|987854335
46c46
<    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun, plural
---
>    ''esperantoj(n)''      Hopers - nominative (accusative) noun
------
Esperanto|987854479
41a42
>    ''epserus''            Were to hope, would hope (subjunctive and conditional)
------
Esperanto|987854504
42c42
<    ''epserus''            Were to hope, would hope (subjunctive and conditional)
---
>    ''esperus''            Were to hope, would hope (subjunctive and conditional)
------
Cardiology|987855007
6c6
< Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart.
---
> Branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart and blood vessels.
11a12,14
> *[[Valvular heart disease]]
> *[[Myocarditis]]
> *[[Cardiomyopathia]]s
------
New_England|987864705
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Maine]] make up the region of the [[United States]] known as New England.
------
What_is_a_wiki|987865877
5c5
< Perhaps you would like to know the answers to the following questions.
---
> Perhaps you would also like to know the answers to the following questions.
------
Soviet_Union|987871260
1,4c1,2
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (citizens of the U.S. often 
< referred to it as just "Russia").
< [[Russia]], officially named "the Russian Soviet Federated
< Socialist Republic", was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (citizens of the U.S. often referred to it as just "Russia").
> [[Russia]], officially named "the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic" (CCCP), was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
------
Soviet_Union|987875169
1,3c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (citizens of the U.S. often referred to it as just "Russia").
< [[Russia]], officially named "the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic" (CCCP), was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also
< dominated it politically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics".  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically.
7,21c5
< Like many governments of prominent nations,
< the government of the Soviet Union was responsible at
< times for the murder of large numbers of people, one
< estimate being a total of 62 million.  Some of these deaths
< were the result of Soviet armed suppression of uprisings of
< non-Russian nationalities, both within the Soviet Union
< and in less powerful neigboring countries, nominally independent but essentially subjugated by the Soviets (these nations were
< sometimes referred to as the "Eastern Bloc").
< 
< About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953,
< some victims of his apparently paranoid political tendencies, and
< some "incidental" casualties of sweeping forced migrations
< and civil engineering projects
< intended to very quickly expand and modernize the Soviet economy.
< After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
---
> The government of the Soviet Union was responsible for the murder of large numbers of people, with estimates ranging from 30 million to 130 million killed.  Of these, nearly 50% were killed in the Soviet labor camps, around 25% were civilians and prisoners killed during war, and the remainder died due to state terrorism, forced famine, or deportations.  About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
30,32c14
< <b>Related topics:</b>  [[Communism]] -- [[Kishka]]
< 
< 
---
> <b>Related topics:</b>  [[Communism]] -- [[Kishka]] -- [[World War II]]
------
Soviet_Union|987875357
5c5
< The government of the Soviet Union was responsible for the murder of large numbers of people, with estimates ranging from 30 million to 130 million killed.  Of these, nearly 50% were killed in the Soviet labor camps, around 25% were civilians and prisoners killed during war, and the remainder died due to state terrorism, forced famine, or deportations.  About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
---
> The government of the Soviet Union was responsible for the murder of large numbers of people, with estimates ranging from 30 million to 130 million killed, making it among the most [[genocide|genocidal]] governments in history.  Of these, nearly 50% were killed in the Soviet labor camps, around 25% were civilians and prisoners killed during war, and the remainder died due to state terrorism, forced famine, or deportations.  About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987875693
11c11,31
< *1990 [[Kevin Costner]] - [[Dances with Wolves]]
---
> *1990 [[Kevin Costner]] - [[Dances with Wolves]]
> *1989 [[Oliver Stone]] - [[Born on the Fourth of July]]
> *1988 [[Barry Levinson]] - [[Rain Man]]
> *1987 [[Bernardo Bertolucci]] - [[The Last Emperor]]
> *1986 [[Oliver Stone]] - [[Platoon]]
> *1985 [[Sydney Pollack]] - [[Out of Africa]]
> *1984 [[Milos Forman]] - [[Amadeus]]
> *1983 [[James L. Brooks]] - [[Terms of Endearment]]
> *1982 [[Richard Attenborough]] - [[Gandhi]]
> *1981 [[Warren Beatty]] - [[Reds]]
> *1980 [[Robert Redford]] - [[Ordinary People]]
> *1979 [[Robert Benton]] - [[Kramer vs. Kramer]]
> *1978 [[Michael Cimino]] - [[The Deer Hunter]]
> *1977 [[Woody Allen]] - [[Annie Hall]]
> *1976 [[John G. Avildsen]] - [[Rocky]]
> *1975 [[Milos Forman]] - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
> *1974 [[Francis Ford Coppola]] - [[The Godfather, Part 2]]
> *1973 [[George Roy Hill]] - [[The Sting]]
> *1972 [[Bob Fosse]] - [[Cabaret]]
> *1971 [[William Friedkin]] - [[The French Connection]]
> *1970 [[Franklin J. Schaffner]] - [[Patton]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987875955
31a32,41
> *1969 [[John Schlesinger]] - [[Midnight Cowboy]]
> *1968 [[Carol Reed]] - [[Oliver!]]
> *1967 [[Mike Nichols]] - [[The Graduate]]
> *1966 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[A Man for All Seasons]]
> *1965 [[Robert Wise]] - [[The Sound of Music]]
> *1964 [[George Cukor]] - [[My Fair Lady]]
> *1963 [[Tony Richardson]] - [[Tom Jones]]
> *1962 [[David Lean]] - [[Lawrence of Arabia]]
> *1961 [[Robert Wise]] - [[West Side Story]]
> *1960 [[Billy Wilder]] - [[The Apartment]]
------
Steven_Spielberg|987876480
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American director whose films range from fantasy to historical drama to horror.  Noted for the patriotism evident in his work and also, in recent years, for his willingness to tackle so called "important" issues.  Consistent theme in his work is the abuse of others, whether it's a father abusing his children (physically or verbally), or capitalism or a government agency abusing an entire class of people.  His most famous films include
> * [[Schindlers List]]
> * [[Saving Private Ryan]]
> * [[Jaws]]
> * [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]
> * [[Jurassic Park]]
> * [[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
> * [[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]
> * [[Amistad]]
> * [[The Color Purple]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987876733
41a42,52
> *1959 [[William Wyler]] - [[Ben-Hur]]
> *1958 [[Wincente Minnelli]] - [[Gigi]]
> *1957 [[David Lean]] - [[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]
> *1956 [[George Stevens]] - [[Giant]]
> *1955 [[Delbert Mann]] - [[Marty]]
> *1954 [[Elia Kazan]] - [[On the Waterfront]]
> *1953 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[From Here to Eternity]]
> *1952 [[John Ford]] - [[The Quiet Man]]
> *1951 [[George Stevens]] - [[A Place in the Sun]]
> *1950 [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]] - [[All About Eve]]
> *1949 [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]] - [[A Letter to Three Wives]]
------
Woody_Allen|987877244
1c1
< Woody Allen was born on December 1, 1935 in Brooklyn, NYC as Stewart Allen Konigsberg. His parents Martin and Nettie lived in Flatbush, where he attended a Hebrew school for eight years. After that, he went to Public Shool 99 and then to Midwood High, where "Red", as he was called for his distinctive red hair impressed students with his extraordinary talent for card games. To raise some money, he began writing gags for the agency David O. Alber, who sold them to newspaper columnists. With sixteen years, he started writing for show stars like [[Sid Cesar]] and started calling himself Woody Allen.
---
> Woody Allen was born on December 1, 1935 in Brooklyn, NYC as Stewart Allen Konigsberg. His parents Martin and Nettie lived in Flatbush, where he attended a Hebrew school for eight years. After that, he went to Public Shool 99 and then to Midwood High, where "Red", as he was called for his distinctive red hair impressed students with his extraordinary talent for card games. To raise some money, he began writing gags for the agency David O. Alber, who sold them to newspaper columnists. At sixteen, he started writing for show stars like [[Sid Cesar]] and started calling himself Woody Allen.
3c3
< After school, he went to New York University, where he took Communication Arts Course, but soon dropped out. With nineteen, he married Harlene Rosen and he started writing scripts for [[The Ed Sullivan Show]], [[The Tonight Show]] and others. In 1957, he won hs first Emmy Award, roughly at the same time, he divorced Harlene.
---
> After school, he went to New York University, where he took Communication Arts Course, but soon dropped out. At nineteen, he married Harlene Rosen and he started writing scripts for [[The Ed Sullivan Show]], [[The Tonight Show]] and others. In 1957, he won hs first Emmy Award; at roughly the same time, he divorced Harlene.
5c5
< He started writing prose and plays, and in 1960, he started a new career as a stand up comedian. It went horribly wrong, but together with his managers he turned his weaknesses into his strengths and developed the neurotic, nervous and shy figure we all know from his later movies.
---
> He started writing prose and plays, and in 1960, he started a new career as a [[stand-up comedian]]. It went horribly wrong, but together with his managers he turned his weaknesses into his strengths and developed the neurotic, nervous and shy figure we all know from his later movies.
7c7
< His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965, the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969), some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. They mainly relied on slapstick and one-liners, with 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four [[Academy Awards]]), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]). 
---
> His first movie production was "What's New, Pussycat?" in 1965; the first movie he directed was [[Take The Money and Run]] (1969); some of his early films include [[Bananas]], [[Everything You Always Wanted To Know About Sex]], [[Sleeper]], and [[Love and Death]]. These films relied mainly on slapstick and one-liners. With 1976's [[Annie Hall]], he turned to more sophisticated humor (the movie won four [[Academy Awards]]), and even did some serious dramas, like [[Interiors]]. His most successful movies were the New York trilogy ([[Annie Hall]], [[Manhattan]] and [[Stardust Memories]]).
9c9
< In the 1980ies, his movies are compared to Russian and Polish films, most of his comedies now have sad ends, like [[The Purple Rose of Cairo]], his dramas, like [[September]] are often said to imitate European Auteurs, most of all [[Ingmar Bergmann]]. 
---
> His 1980s films are compared to Russian and Polish films; most of them have sad ends, like [[The Purple Rose of Cairo]].  His dramas, like [[September]], are often said to imitate European Auteurs, most of all [[Ingmar Bergman]]. 
11c11
< In the 1990ies, he returns to lighter movies, and to Happy Ends ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he split from long term partner Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that proved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated much interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the split). 
---
> In the 1990s, he returned to lighter movies, and to happy endings: ([[Bullets Over Broadway]], [[Everyone Says I love You]], and others). In 1992, there was much upheaval when he split from long term partner Mia Farrow, after she discovered his secret affair with their adopted daughter, Soon Yi. Farrow accused him of being a pedophile and of abusing their seven year old daughter Dylan. None of that proved true, but made Woody Allen disappear from the screen for a while and stimulated much interpretation of his later movies, especially of [[Husbands and Wives]] which describes how the crises of a long-married couple, with Farrow and Allen in the main roles (the movie was shot prior to the split). 
13c13
< Woody Allen continues his successful career to the present day, his recent movies include [[Small Time Crooks]] and [[Celebrity]]. 
---
> Woody Allen continues his successful career to the present day; his recent movies include [[Small Time Crooks]] and [[Celebrity]]. 
------
Apocalypse_Now|987877912
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Viet Nam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.  Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola rereleased the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s fascinating documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991
> 
------
Apocalypse_Now|987878002
1c1,3
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Viet Nam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.  Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola rereleased the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s fascinating documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Viet Nam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
> 
> Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola re-released the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s fascinating documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991.
------
Apocalypse_Now|987878064
1c1
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Viet Nam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
------
Hideki_Tojo|987878341
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hideki Tojo was a Japanese general and politician who led the Japanese government during much of [[World War II]].  Tojo was a member of the military clique that pushed Japan into war in the late 1930s.  As War Minister in 1940 he was instrumental in leading Japan into the [[Axis Alliaance]] with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Italy]].  By 1941 he was in command of the entire Japanese military, which so dominated Japan at the time that he was virtually the nation's dictator.  He was removed from command in 1944 following a series of military disasters.  After the war, he was tried for war crimes and executed.  Because of the crimes committed under his authority, Tojo is considered responsible for the murder of perhaps 4 million people.
------
Hideki_Tojo|987878419
1c1
< Hideki Tojo was a Japanese general and politician who led the Japanese government during much of [[World War II]].  Tojo was a member of the military clique that pushed Japan into war in the late 1930s.  As War Minister in 1940 he was instrumental in leading Japan into the [[Axis Alliaance]] with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Italy]].  By 1941 he was in command of the entire Japanese military, which so dominated Japan at the time that he was virtually the nation's dictator.  He was removed from command in 1944 following a series of military disasters.  After the war, he was tried for war crimes and executed.  Because of the crimes committed under his authority, Tojo is considered responsible for the murder of perhaps 4 million people.
---
> Hideki Tojo was a Japanese general and politician who led the Japanese government during much of [[World War II]].  Tojo was a member of the military clique that pushed Japan into war in the late 1930s.  As War Minister in 1940 he was instrumental in leading Japan into the [[Axis Alliance]] with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Italy]].  By 1941 he was in command of the entire Japanese military, which so dominated Japan at the time that he was virtually the nation's dictator.  He was removed from command in 1944 following a series of military disasters.  After the war, he was tried for war crimes and executed.  Because of the crimes committed under his authority, Tojo is considered responsible for the murder of perhaps 4 million people.
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987878471
52a53,71
> *1948 [[John Huston]] - [[Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]
> *1947 [[Elia Kazan]] - [[Gentleman's Agreement]]
> *1946 [[William Wyler]] - [[The Best Years of Our Lives]]
> *1945 [[Billy Wilder]] - [[The Lost Weekend]]
> *1944 [[Leo McCarey]] - [[Going My Way]]
> *1943 [[Michael Curtiz]] - [[Casablanca]]
> *1942 [[William Wyler]] - [[Mrs. Miniver]]
> *1941 [[John Ford]] - [[How Green Was My Valley]]
> *1940 [[John Ford]] - [[The Grapes of Wrath]]
> *1939 [[Victor Fleming]] - [[Gone with the Wind]]
> *1938 [[Frank Capra]] - [[You Can't Take It with You]]
> *1937 [[Leo McCarey]] - [[The Awful Truth]]
> *1936 [[Frank Capra]] - [[Mr. Deeds Goes to Town]]
> *1935 [[John Ford]] - [[The Informer]]
> *1934 [[Frank Capra]] - [[It Happened One Night]]
> *1933 [[Frank Lloyd]] - [[Cavalcade]]
> *1932 none given
> *1931 none given
> *1930 [[Lewis Milestone]] - [[All Quiet on the Western Front]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|987878533
26c26
< *1975 [[Milos Forman]] - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]
---
> *1975 [[Milos Forman]] - [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest]]
71c71
< *1930 [[Lewis Milestone]] - [[All Quiet on the Western Front]]
---
> *1930 [[Lewis Milestone]] - [[All Quiet on the Western Front]]
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987878983
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randall Patric McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for Best Actor for [[Jack Nicholson]], Best Actress for [[Louise Fletcher]], Best Director for [[Milos Forman]], as well as Best Picture and Best Adapted Screenplay.  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879205
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randall Patric McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for Best Actor for [[Jack Nicholson]], Best Actress for [[Louise Fletcher]], Best Director for [[Milos Forman]], as well as Best Picture and Best Adapted Screenplay.  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Actor in a Leading Role]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Actress in a Leading Role]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Best Picture]] and [[Writing - Screenplay - Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879356
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Actor in a Leading Role]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Actress in a Leading Role]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Best Picture]] and [[Writing - Screenplay - Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879579
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Best Actor|Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879595
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Best Actor|Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Best Actor | Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879632
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Best Actor | Academy Awards/Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|987879684
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|Best Direction]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Best Adapted Screenplay]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
------
Bahamas|987880344
1c1,303
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking and investment management. By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for drug trafficking, particularly shipments to the US.
> 
> ----
> 
> Location: Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 24 15 N, 76 00 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 13,940 sq km
> land: 10,070 sq km
> water: 3,870 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Connecticut
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 3,542 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
> 
> Terrain: long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
> 
> Natural resources: salt, aragonite, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 1%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 32%
> other: 67% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
> 
> Environment - current issues: coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain
> 
> ----
> 
> Population: 294,982
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)
> 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)
> 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.01% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 19.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 6.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 16.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 71.07 years
> male: 68.25 years
> female: 73.94 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bahamian(s)
> adjective: Bahamian
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3%
> 
> Religions: Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2%
> 
> Languages: English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98.2%
> male: 98.5%
> female: 98% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> 
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas
> conventional short form: The Bahamas
> 
> Data code: BF
> 
> Government type: constitutional parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Nassau
> 
> Administrative divisions: 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
> 
> Independence: 10 July 1973 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 10 July (1973)
> 
> Constitution: 10 July 1973
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)
> head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; magistrate's courts
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM]; Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER
> chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
> FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
> consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER
> embassy: Queen Street, Nassau
> mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370
> telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181
> FAX: [1] (242) 356-0222
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side
> 
> ----
> 
> Economy - overview: The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.58 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3% (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $20,000 (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 3%
> industry: 5%
> services: 92% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.3% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 148,000 (1996)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: tourism 40%, other services 50%, industry 5%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 9% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $766 million
> expenditures: $845 million, including capital expenditures of $97 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Industries: tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.246 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: citrus, vegetables; poultry
> 
> Exports: $362.8 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products
> 
> Exports - partners: US 22.3%, Switzerland 15.6%, UK 15%, Denmark 7.4% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.74 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics
> 
> Imports - partners: US 27.3%, Italy 26.5%, Japan 10%, Denmark 4.2% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $349 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $9.8 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate pegged to the dollar)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
> 
> ----
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 77,000 (1994)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,400 (1993)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed
> international: tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 215,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 67,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
> 
> ----
> 
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 2,693 km
> paved: 1,546 km
> unpaved: 1,147 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which are Norway 177, Greece 141, UK 113, US 61, Denmark 39, Finland 27, Japan 25, Sweden 24, France 22, and Italy 22 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 62 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 33
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
> 914 to 1,523 m: 12
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 29
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 7
> under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> 
> Military branches: Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $20 million (FY95/96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> ----
> 
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering
------
Bahamas|987880400
0a1,3
> the following comes from the CIA factbook and is public domain:
> ----
> 
------
Bahrain|987880738
1c1,323
< Describe the new page here.
---
> the following comes from the CIA factbook and is public domain:
> ----
> Background: Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Possessing minimal oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining, and has transformed itself into an international banking center. The new amir is pushing economic and political reforms, and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 26 00 N, 50 33 E
> 
> Map references: Middle East
> 
> Area:
> total: 620 sq km
> land: 620 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 161 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: extending to boundaries to be determined
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
> highest point: Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
> 
> Natural resources: oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 1%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 6%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 92% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: periodic droughts; dust storms
> 
> Environment - current issues: desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 634,137
> note: includes 228,424 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 96,240; female 93,846)
> 15-64 years: 67% (male 252,767; female 173,072)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 9,270; female 8,942) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.78% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 3.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 1.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.46 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 1.04 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.3 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 20.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 72.98 years
> male: 70.58 years
> female: 75.45 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bahraini(s)
> adjective: Bahraini
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bahraini 63%, Asian 19%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%
> 
> Religions: Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25%
> 
> Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 85.2%
> male: 89.1%
> female: 79.4% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: State of Bahrain
> conventional short form: Bahrain
> local long form: Dawlat al Bahrayn
> local short form: Al Bahrayn
> 
> Data code: BA
> 
> Government type: traditional monarchy
> 
> Capital: Manama
> 
> Administrative divisions: 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah
> note: all municipalities administered from Manama
> 
> Independence: 15 August 1971 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 16 December (1971)
> 
> Constitution: 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
> 
> Legal system: based on Islamic law and English common law
> 
> Suffrage: none
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 6 March 1999); Heir Apparent Crown Prince SALMAN bin Hamad (son of the monarch, born 21 October 1969)
> head of government: Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since NA 1971)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the monarch
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
> 
> Judicial branch: High Civil Appeals Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: political parties prohibited
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Shi'a activists have fomented unrest sporadically since late 1994, demanding the return of an elected National Assembly and an end to unemployment; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
> 
> International organization participation: ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Muhammad ABD AL-GHAFFAR Abdallah
> chancery: 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 342-0741
> FAX: [1] (202) 362-2192
> consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Johnny YOUNG
> embassy: Building Number 979, Road 3119 (next to Al-Ahli Sports Club), Block 311, Zinj District, Manama
> mailing address: American Embassy Manama, PSC 451, FPO AE 09834-5100; International Mail: American Embassy, Box 26431, Manama
> telephone: [973] 273-300
> FAX: [973] 272-594
> 
> Flag description: red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $13,700 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1%
> industry: 46%
> services: 53% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 295,000 (1998 est.)
> note: 44% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry, commerce, and service 79%, government 20%, agriculture 1% (1997 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 15% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $1.5 billion
> expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> 
> Industries: petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 3.4% (1995)
> 
> Electricity - production: 4.77 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.09 billion kWh (1999)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
> 
> Exports: $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
> 
> Exports - partners: India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
> 
> Imports - partners: Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $2 billion (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $48.4 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
> 
> Exchange rates: Bahraini dinars (BD) per US$1 - 0.3760 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections
> domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones
> international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 338,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 3,164 km
> paved: 2,433 km
> unpaved: 731 km (1998 est.)
> note: there is a paved causeway connecting Bahrain to Saudi Arabia
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 56 km; petroleum products 16 km; natural gas 32 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 228,273 GRT/304,654 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 3, container 2, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 2
> over 3,047 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 15 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 221,109 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 121,442 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 5,699 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $318 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.2% (FY99)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: the territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary dispute with Qatar are currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
> 
------
Bahamas|987880856
7c7,8
< 
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> Geography
> ----
60c61,62
< 
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> People
> ----
110c112,113
< 
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> Government
> ----
166c169,170
< 
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> Economy
> ----
197a202
> 
241c246,247
< 
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> Communications
> ----
261c267,268
< 
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> Transportation
> ----
295c302,303
< 
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> Military
> ----
303c311,312
< 
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> Transnational Issues
> ----
------
Countries_of_the_world|987880893
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
Pakistan|987880914
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A nation in south-central Asia bordering Iran, Afghanistan, China, India, and the Arabian Sea.
> 
> '''People and economy'''
> 
> Pakistan is home to around 140 million people, most of whom are Muslim, which is the state religion.  It is a relatively poor nation in which 50% of men and 75% of women are illiterate.  Child labor is common, including what many people would consider child slave labor.  A full 25% of the government's revenue comes from foreign aid, but all of this and more is needed to pay off the interest on previous loans.
> 
> '''Government'''
> 
> Though calling itself a federal republic, Pakistan is in fact an unstable state in which political succession is often arbitrary and haphazzard.  In October 1999, General [[Pervez Musharraf]] overthrew the civilian government and assumed executive authority, though he has not attempted to establish a military dictatorship.  Because of the government's dependence on foreign aid and the nation's desperate need of foreign investment, Musharraf is probably reluctant to risk offending world opinion by becoming a dictator.
> 
> '''Recent History'''
> 
> Pakistan was formerly a part of British [[India]].  When the [[United Kingdom]] left India in 1947, Pakistan split from [[Hindu]] India to form a separate [[Muslim]] nation.  From 1947 through 1971 the nation consisted of West Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated from on another by India.  In 1971 East Pakistan rebelled, and with the help of India became the independent state of [[Bangladesh]].  Since 1947 there have been tensions between India and Pakistan over control of the state of [[Kashmir]].  These disputes have led to war on three occasions, including the 1971 war.  During the [[cold war]], Pakistan was wary of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] expansion (especially after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan).  Consequently Pakistan built a strong alliance with [[China]], which also was wary of the Soviets and which had border disputes with India as well.  India countered by allying itself with the Soviets, a security arrangement that remains largely in tact despite the Soviet collapse.  Both India and Pakistan used their powerful friends to help acquire atomic weapons.
> 
> '''1971 Civil War'''
> 
> Though Muslim, the ethnic composition of the former East Pakistan differed from that of West Pakistan.  The government of Pakistan before 1971 was dominated by West Pakistan, with the East Pakistani's being discrimnated against in government.  Consequently, East Pakistan demanded independence, which led to civil war in 1971.  In that war, troops of West Pakistan, under [[Yahya Khan]], massacred an estimated 1.5 million people in an attempt to subdue the rebellion.
------
Baker_Island|987881038
1c1,93
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Geography
> ----
> 
> Location: Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 0 13 N, 176 31 W
> 
> Map references: Oceania
> 
> Area:
> total: 1.4 sq km
> land: 1.4 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 4.8 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
> 
> Terrain: low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
> highest point: unnamed location 8 m
> 
> Natural resources: guano (deposits worked until 1891)
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 100%
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> 
> Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources
> 
> Geography - note: treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: uninhabited
> note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Baker Island
> 
> Data code: FQ
> 
> Dependency status: unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> 
> Legal system: NA
> 
> Flag description: the flag of the US is used
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: no economic activity
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
> 
> Airports: 1 abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m, completely covered with vegetation and unusable
> 
> Transportation - note: there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Bangladesh|987881314
1c1,321
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information came from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 24 00 N, 90 00 E
> 
> Map references: Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 144,000 sq km
> land: 133,910 sq km
> water: 10,090 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Wisconsin
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 4,246 km
> border countries: Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
> 
> Coastline: 580 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 18 nm
> continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m
> 
> Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 73%
> permanent crops: 2%
> permanent pastures: 5%
> forests and woodland: 15%
> other: 5% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 31,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
> 
> Environment - current issues: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 129,194,224 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 36% (male 24,055,675; female 22,918,354)
> 15-64 years: 60% (male 39,924,040; female 37,992,459)
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 2,342,134; female 1,961,562) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.59% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 25.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 1.19 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 71.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 60.16 years
> male: 60.4 years
> female: 59.91 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bangladeshi(s)
> adjective: Bangladesh
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million
> 
> Religions: Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2%
> 
> Languages: Bangla (official), English
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 38.1%
> male: 49.4%
> female: 26.1% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh
> conventional short form: Bangladesh
> former: East Pakistan
> 
> Data code: BG
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Dhaka
> 
> Administrative divisions: 5 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi
> note: there may be one additional division named Sylhet
> 
> Independence: 16 December 1971 (from Pakistan)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 26 March (1971)
> 
> Constitution: 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Shahabuddin AHMED (since 9 October 1996); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections
> head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996)
> cabinet: Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president
> elections: president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president
> election results: Shahabuddin AHMED elected president without opposition; percent of National Parliament vote - NA
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> election results: percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held for 1 seat; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA Wajed]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIAur Rahman]; Jamaat-E-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiyo Party or JP [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Khwaja Mohammad SHEHABUDDIN
> chancery: 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> telephone: [1] (202) 342-8372
> consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador John C. HOLZMAN
> embassy: Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212
> mailing address: G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000
> telephone: [880] (2) 884700 through 884722
> FAX: [880] (2) 883744
> 
> Flag description: green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. The economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the country's reliance on large-scale international aid. So far the East Asian financial crisis has not had major impact on the economy.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $187 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,470 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 30%
> industry: 17%
> services: 53% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 35.6% (FY95/96 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 4.1%
> highest 10%: 23.7% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 56 million (1995-96)
> note: extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, Malaysia, and Singapore
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 63%, services 26%, industry 11% (FY95/96)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 35.2% (1996)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $4.3 billion
> expenditures: $6.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 2.5% (1997 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 12.5 billion kWh (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 98%
> hydro: 2%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1999)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 11.039 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1999)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1999)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit
> 
> Exports: $5.1 billion (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood
> 
> Exports - partners: US 33%, Germany 10%, UK 9%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $8.01 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food, crude oil and petroleum products, cement
> 
> Imports - partners: India 12%, China 9%, Japan 7%, Hong Kong 6%, South Korea 6% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $16.5 billion (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.475 billion (FY96/97)
> 
> Currency: 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha
> 
> Exchange rates: taka (Tk) per US$1 - 51.000 (January 2000), 49.085 (1999), 46.906 (1998), 43.892 (1997), 41.794 (1996), 40.278 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 470,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 41,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave, and some fiber-optic cable in cities
> international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 6.15 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 15 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 770,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 6 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 2,745 km
> broad gauge: 923 km 1.676-m gauge
> narrow gauge: 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (1998 est.)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 201,182 km
> paved: 19,112 km
> unpaved: 182,070 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 5,150-8,046 km navigable waterways (includes 2,575-3,058 km main cargo routes)
> 
> Pipelines: natural gas 1,220 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 36 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 284,489 GRT/405,845 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 28, container 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 16 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 16
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 34,683,414 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 20,565,193 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $559 million (FY96/97)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96/97)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New Moore Island
> 
> Illicit drugs: transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
> 
------
Pakistan|987881402
13c13
< Pakistan was formerly a part of British [[India]].  When the [[United Kingdom]] left India in 1947, Pakistan split from [[Hindu]] India to form a separate [[Muslim]] nation.  From 1947 through 1971 the nation consisted of West Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated from on another by India.  In 1971 East Pakistan rebelled, and with the help of India became the independent state of [[Bangladesh]].  Since 1947 there have been tensions between India and Pakistan over control of the state of [[Kashmir]].  These disputes have led to war on three occasions, including the 1971 war.  During the [[cold war]], Pakistan was wary of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] expansion (especially after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan).  Consequently Pakistan built a strong alliance with [[China]], which also was wary of the Soviets and which had border disputes with India as well.  India countered by allying itself with the Soviets, a security arrangement that remains largely in tact despite the Soviet collapse.  Both India and Pakistan used their powerful friends to help acquire atomic weapons.
---
> Pakistan was formerly a part of British [[India]].  When the [[United Kingdom]] left India in 1947, Pakistan split from [[Hindu]] India to form a separate [[Muslim]] nation.  From 1947 through 1971 the nation consisted of West Pakistan and East Pakistan, separated from on another by India.  In 1971 East Pakistan rebelled, and with the help of India became the independent state of [[Bangladesh]].  Since 1947 there have been tensions between India and Pakistan over control of the state of [[Kashmir]].  These disputes have led to war on three occasions, including the 1971 war.  During the [[cold war]], Pakistan was wary of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] expansion (especially after the Soviets invaded Afghanistan).  Consequently Pakistan built a strong alliance with [[China]], which also was wary of the Soviets and which had border disputes with India as well.  India countered by allying itself with the Soviets, a security arrangement that remains largely intact despite the Soviet collapse.  Both India and Pakistan used their powerful friends to help acquire atomic weapons.
17c17
< Though Muslim, the ethnic composition of the former East Pakistan differed from that of West Pakistan.  The government of Pakistan before 1971 was dominated by West Pakistan, with the East Pakistani's being discrimnated against in government.  Consequently, East Pakistan demanded independence, which led to civil war in 1971.  In that war, troops of West Pakistan, under [[Yahya Khan]], massacred an estimated 1.5 million people in an attempt to subdue the rebellion.
---
> Though Muslim, the ethnic composition of the former East Pakistan differed from that of West Pakistan.  The government of Pakistan before 1971 was dominated by West Pakistan, with the East Pakistanis being discrimnated against in government.  Consequently, East Pakistan demanded independence, which led to civil war in 1971.  In that war, troops of West Pakistan, under [[Yahya Khan]], massacred an estimated 1.5 million people in an attempt to subdue the rebellion.
------
Barbados|987881593
1c1,309
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: The island was uninhabited when first settled by the British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 10 N, 59 32 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 430 sq km
> land: 430 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 97 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to October)
> 
> Terrain: relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, fish, natural gas
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 37%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 5%
> forests and woodland: 12%
> other: 46% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity
> 
> Geography - note: easternmost Caribbean island
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 274,540 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 22% (male 30,687; female 30,172)
> 15-64 years: 69% (male 92,241; female 96,866)
> 65 years and over: 9% (male 9,506; female 15,068) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.55% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 14.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 8.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 12.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 73 years
> male: 70.43 years
> female: 75.6 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial)
> adjective: Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 80%, white 4%, other 16%
> 
> Religions: Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, other 12%
> 
> Languages: English
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
> total population: 97.4%
> male: 98%
> female: 96.8% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Barbados
> 
> Data code: BB
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy; independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth
> 
> Capital: Bridgetown
> 
> Administrative divisions: 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas
> note: the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
> 
> Independence: 30 November 1966 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
> 
> Constitution: 30 November 1966
> 
> Legal system: English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996)
> head of government: Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: House of Assembly - last held 20 January 1999 (next to be held by January 2004)
> election results: House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 26, DLP 2
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Judicature (judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service)
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Barbados Workers Union [Leroy TROTMAN]; Clement Payne Labor Union [David COMMISSIONG]; People's Progressive Movement [Eric SEALY]; Worker's Party of Barbados [Dr. George BELLE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Courtney N. BLACKMAN
> chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200
> consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
> consulate(s): Los Angeles
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d' Affairs Roland BULLEN
> embassy: Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown
> mailing address: P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055
> telephone: [1] (246) 436-4950
> FAX: [1] (246) 429-5246
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.4% (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $11,200 (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 4.9%
> industry: 15.6%
> services: 79.5% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.7% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 136,000 (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 12% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $725.5 million
> expenditures: $750.6 million, including capital expenditures of $126.3 million (FY97/98 est.)
> 
> Industries: tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 0.8% (1996)
> 
> Electricity - production: 672 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 625 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
> 
> Exports: $211.2 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 14.8%, US 11.6%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.6%, Venezuela 6.1%, Jamaica 5.8% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.01 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components
> 
> Imports - partners: US 30.7%, Trinidad and Tobago 10.2%, Japan 8.3%, UK 7.7%, Canada 2.2% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $550 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $9.1 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Barbadian dollars (Bds$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate pegged to the US dollar)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 90,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,614 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: island-wide automatic telephone system
> international: satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 237,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus two cable channels) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 76,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 1,600 km
> paved: 1,578 km
> unpaved: 22 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bridgetown, Speightstown (Port Charles Marina)
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 47 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 654,580 GRT/1,103,780 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 10, cargo 29, combination bulk 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Canada owns 2 ships, Hong Kong 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 77,789 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 53,472 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
------
Countries_of_the_world|987881703
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
Bassas_da_India|987881851
1c1,86
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 21 30 S, 39 50 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 0.2 sq km
> land: 0.2 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 35.2 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical
> 
> Terrain: volcanic rock
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
> highest point: unnamed location 2.4 m
> 
> Natural resources: none
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 100% (all rock)
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Bassas da India
> 
> Data code: BS
> 
> Dependency status: possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> 
> Flag description: the flag of France is used
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: no economic activity
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: claimed by Madagascar
------
Belarus|987882080
1c1,329
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to implement the accord.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Eastern Europe, east of Poland
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 53 00 N, 28 00 E
> 
> Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
> 
> Area:
> total: 207,600 sq km
> land: 207,600 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Kansas
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 3,098 km
> border countries: Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
> 
> Terrain: generally flat and contains much marshland
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Nyoman River 90 m
> highest point: Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
> 
> Natural resources: forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 29%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 15%
> forests and woodland: 34%
> other: 21% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change, Law of the Sea
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 10,366,719 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 19% (male 982,959; female 942,062)
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 3,411,684; female 3,614,453)
> 65 years and over: 13% (male 466,929; female 948,632) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: -0.17% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 9.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 13.96 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 3.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.49 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 68 years
> male: 61.83 years
> female: 74.48 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Belarusian(s)
> adjective: Belarusian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9%
> 
> Religions: Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.)
> 
> Languages: Byelorussian, Russian, other
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98%
> male: 99%
> female: 97% (1989 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Belarus
> conventional short form: Belarus
> local long form: Respublika Byelarus'
> local short form: none
> former: Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic
> 
> Data code: BO
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Minsk
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk)
> note: voblasti have the administrative center name following in parentheses
> 
> Independence: 25 August 1991 (Belarusian Supreme Soviet declaration of independence from the Soviet Union)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 3 July (1944); note - represents Minsk liberation from German occupation
> 
> Constitution: 30 March 1994; revised by national referendum of 24 November 1996 giving the presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994)
> head of government: Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 2 December 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997), Ural LATYPOV (since 30 December 1997), Gennadiy NOVITSKIY (since 11 February 1997), Leonid KOZIK (since 4 February 1997), Aleksandr POPKOV (since 10 November 1998)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA; according to the 1994 constitution, the next election should have been held in 1999, however LUKASHENKO extended his term to 2001 via the November 1996 referendum); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president
> election results: Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15%
> note: first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki (64 seats; eight appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the former Supreme Soviet which LUKASHENKO disbanded in November 1996)
> elections: last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; disbanded after the November 1996 referendum; next to be held NA)
> election results: after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, acting chairman]; Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Green Party or BPZ [Mikalay KARTASH, chairman]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Vintsuk VYACHORKA, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hramada [Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Socialist Party [Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairperson]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Party of Communists Belarusian or PKB [Sergei KALYAKIN, chairman]; Party of Popular Accord or PPA [Leanid SECHKA]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatoliy NETYLKIN, chairman]; Women's Party Nadezhda [Valentina POLEVIKOVA, chairperson]
> 
> International organization participation: CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Valery TSEPAKO
> chancery: 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> telephone: [1] (202) 986-1604
> FAX: [1] (202) 986-1805
> consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Daniel V. SPECKHARD
> embassy: Starovilenskaya #46-220002, Minsk
> mailing address: use embassy street address
> telephone: [375] (17) 231-5000
> FAX: [375] (17) 234-7853
> 
> Flag description: red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears the Belarusian national ornament in red
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO re-imposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 23%
> industry: 28%
> services: 49% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 22% (1995 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 4.9%
> highest 10%: 19.4% (1993)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 295% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.3 million (1998)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry and construction NA%, agriculture and forestry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 2.3% officially registered unemployed (December 1998); large number of underemployed workers
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $4 billion
> expenditures: $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earth movers, motorcycles, TV sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 21.893 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 99.89%
> hydro: 0.11%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 28.66 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 2.3 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 10.6 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
> 
> Exports: $6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
> 
> Exports - partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania (1998)
> 
> Imports: $6.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, foodstuffs
> 
> Imports - partners: Russia 54%, Ukraine, Germany, Poland, Lithuania (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.1 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $194.3 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: Belarusian rubel (BR)
> 
> Exchange rates: Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 730,000 (15 December 1999), 139,000 (25 January 1999), 46,080 (2nd qtr 1998), 25,964 (1997), 15,500 (yearend 1996), 11,500 (yearend 1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 2.537 million (1997)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 8,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly
> domestic: local - Minsk has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational
> international: Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 3.02 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 17 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 2.52 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 5,563 km
> broad gauge: 5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 63,355 km
> paved: 60,567 km
> unpaved: 2,788 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: NA km; note - Belarus has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Mazyr
> 
> Airports: 118 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 36
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 18
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
> under 914 m: 11 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 82
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
> 914 to 1,523 m: 9
> under 914 m: 62 (1996 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 2,714,420 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 2,126,655 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 82,720 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $156 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY98)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to and via Russia, and to the Baltics and Western Europe
------
Belgium|987882311
29a30,368
> 
> ----
> more information on Belgium, from the public-domain CIA World Factbook:
> ----
> Background: Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 50 50 N, 4 00 E
> 
> Map references: Europe
> 
> Area:
> total: 30,510 sq km
> land: 30,230 sq km
> water: 280 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about the size of Maryland
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 1,385 km
> border countries: France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
> 
> Coastline: 66 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> continental shelf: median line with neighbors
> exclusive fishing zone: median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast)
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy
> 
> Terrain: flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: North Sea 0 m
> highest point: Signal de Botrange 694 m
> 
> Natural resources: coal, natural gas
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 24%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 20%
> forests and woodland: 21%
> other: 34%
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
> 
> Environment - current issues: the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 10,241,506 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 18% (male 919,445; female 877,896)
> 15-64 years: 66% (male 3,386,193; female 3,334,081)
> 65 years and over: 16% (male 701,842; female 1,022,049) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.18% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 10.91 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 10.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 77.8 years
> male: 74.47 years
> female: 81.3 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Belgian(s)
> adjective: Belgian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25%
> 
> Languages: Dutch 58%, French 32%, German 10%, legally bilingual
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98%
> male: NA%
> female: NA%
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Kingdom of Belgium
> conventional short form: Belgium
> local long form: Royaume de Belgique/Koninkrijk Belgie
> local short form: Belgique/Belgie
> 
> Data code: BE
> 
> Government type: federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch
> 
> Capital: Brussels
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant Wallon, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, Vlaams Brabant, West-Vlaanderen
> note: the Brussels Capital Region is not included within the 10 provinces
> 
> Independence: 4 October 1830 (from the Netherlands)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD I to the throne in 1831)
> 
> Constitution: 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
> 
> Legal system: civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the monarch
> head of government: Prime Minister Guy VERHOFSTADT (since 13 July 1999)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch and approved by Parliament
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch and then approved by Parliament
> note: government coalition - VLD, PRL, PS, SP, AGALEV, and ECOLO
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Dutch, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected by popular vote, 31 are indirectly elected; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Dutch, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> elections: Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held in NA 2003)
> election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - VLD 15.4%, CVP 14.7%, PRL 10.6%, PS 9.7%, VB 9.4%, SP 8.9%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.1%, PSC 6.0%, VU 5.1%; seats by party - VLD 11, CVP 10, PS 10, PRL 9, VB 6, SP 6, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, PSC 5, VU 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - VLD 14.3%, CVP 14.1%, PS 10.2%, PRL 10.1%, VB 9.9%, SP 9.5%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.0%, PSC 5.9%, VU 5.6%; seats by party - VLD 23, CVP 22, PS 19, PRL 18, VB 15, SP 14, ECOLO 11, PSC 10, AGALEV 9, VU 8, FN 1
> note: as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Dutch, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch
> 
> Political parties and leaders: AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [Wilfried BERVOETS]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Stefaan DE CLERCK, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Karel DE GUCHT, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Patrick JANSSENS, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Joelle MILQUET, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Daniel DUCARME, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Elio DI RUPO, president]; National Front or FN [Dr. FERET]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Frank VANHECKE]; Volksunie or VU [Geert BOURGEOIS, president]; other minor parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Alexis REYN
> chancery: 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 333-6900
> FAX: [1] (202) 333-3079
> consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Paul CEJAS
> embassy: 27 Boulevard du Regent, B-1000 Brussels
> mailing address: PSC 82, Box 002, APO AE 09710
> telephone: [32] (2) 508-2111
> FAX: [32] (2) 511-2725
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 122% of GDP in 1998 and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. The dioxin crisis - beginning in June 1999 with the discovery of a cancer-causing substance in animal feed - constituted a serious blow to the food-processing industry, both domestically and internationally. This crisis slowed down GDP growth with recovery expected in the year 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $243.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 1.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $23,900 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1.4%
> industry: 27%
> services: 71.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 4%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 3.7%
> highest 10%: 20.2% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.341 million (1999)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 73%, industry 25%, agriculture 2% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 9% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $116.5 billion
> expenditures: $119 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.7 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> Industries: engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 78.702 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 42.48%
> hydro: 0.49%
> nuclear: 55.72%
> other: 1.31% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 74.543 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 7.75 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk
> 
> Exports: $187.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 76% (Germany 19%, France 18%, Netherlands 12%, UK 10%) (1998)
> 
> Imports: $172.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products
> 
> Imports - partners: EU 71% (Germany 18%, Netherlands 17%, France 14%, UK 9%) (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $28.3 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - donor: ODA, $764 million (1997)
> 
> Currency: 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Belgian francs (BF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.229 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995)
> note: on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 Belgian francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 4.632 million (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 664,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities
> domestic: nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network
> international: 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 8.075 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 24 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 4.72 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 51 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track)
> standard gauge: 3,437 km 1.435-m gauge (1998)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 145,850 km
> paved: 117,701 km (including 1,682 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 28,149 km (1998)
> 
> Waterways: 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use)
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT
> ships by type: cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 42 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 24
> over 3,047 m: 6
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 18
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2
> under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 2,527,752 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 2,090,800 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 64,165 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.8 billion (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe
------
Belize|987882845
1c1,327
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 15 N, 88 45 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 22,960 sq km
> land: 22,800 sq km
> water: 160 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Massachusetts
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 516 km
> border countries: Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
> 
> Coastline: 386 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
> 
> Climate: tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
> 
> Terrain: flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
> highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160 m
> 
> Natural resources: arable land potential, timber, fish, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 2%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 2%
> forests and woodland: 92%
> other: 3% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 249,183 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 43% (male 54,009; female 51,945)
> 15-64 years: 54% (male 68,052; female 66,366)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,298; female 4,513) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.75% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 32.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 4.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 70.91 years
> male: 68.66 years
> female: 73.28 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Belizean(s)
> adjective: Belizean
> 
> Ethnic groups: mestizo 44.1%, Creole 31%, Maya 9.2%, Garifuna 6.2%, other 9.5%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980)
> 
> Languages: English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib), Creole
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 70.3%
> male: 70.3%
> female: 70.3% (1991 est.)
> note: other sources list the literacy rate as high as 75%
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Belize
> former: British Honduras
> 
> Data code: BH
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Belmopan
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
> 
> Independence: 21 September 1981 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 21 September (1981)
> 
> Constitution: 21 September 1981
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993)
> head of government: Prime Minister Said MUSA (since 27 August 1998); Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO (since 1 September 1998)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; governor general appoints the member of the House of Representatives who is leader of the majority party to be prime minister
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (eight members, five appointed on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general; members are appointed for five-year terms); and the House of Representatives (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: House of Representatives - last held 27 August 1998 (next to be held NA August 2003)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 26, UDP 3
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
> 
> Political parties and leaders: People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR [Assad SHOMAN]; United Worker's Front
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador James Schofield MURPHY
> chancery: 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636
> FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888
> consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Carolyn CURIEL
> embassy: Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City
> mailing address: P. O. Box 286, Unit 7401, APO AA 34025
> telephone: [501] (2) 77161 through 77163
> FAX: [501] (2) 30802
> 
> Flag description: blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $740 million (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 22%
> industry: 22%
> services: 56% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.9% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 71,000
> note: shortage of skilled labor and all types of technical personnel (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 38%, industry 32%, services 30% (1994)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14.3% (1998)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $140 million
> expenditures: $180 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: garment production, food processing, tourism, construction
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -4.4% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production: 175 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 57.14%
> hydro: 42.86%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 163 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp
> 
> Exports: $150 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: sugar, bananas, citrus fruits, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood
> 
> Exports - partners: US 45.5%, UK 30%, EU 10%, Caricom 4.2%, Mexico 3.4%, Canada 3.3% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $320 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
> 
> Imports - partners: US 52%, Mexico 13%, UK 5% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $380 million (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $23.4 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Belizean dollars (Bz$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 29,600 (1996)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,237 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: above-average system
> domestic: trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 133,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 41,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 2,872 km
> paved: 488 km
> unpaved: 2,384 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 825 km river network used by shallow-draft craft; seasonally navigable
> 
> Ports and harbors: Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,647,452 GRT/2,339,134 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 36, cargo 275, chemical tanker 7, container 9, liquified gas 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 51, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 7 countries: Cuba 2, Cyprus 1, Greece 1, Singapore 2, UAE 12, UK 1, and US 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 44 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 3
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 41
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 10
> under 914 m: 30 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 60,482 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 35,874 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 2,735 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $15 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY97/98)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|987883315
22c22,43
< ''As for the current system of the former USSR, what is non-capitalist about it?  And as capitalism was obviously the intent, what went wrong?''
---
> ''As for the current system of the former USSR, what is non-capitalist about it?  And as capitalism was obviously the intent, what went wrong?''
> ----
> Perhaps we should try to identify differences between a supposed democratic socialism and a totalitarian socialism.  But the central causes of failure of socialistic systems is the absence of a real price system for accurately communicating information about costs and benefits to decisionmakers, resulting in a failure to properly incentivize economic behavior (including entrepreneurialism, etc.)  One need not go all the way to support for libertarian capitalism to comprehend the essence of the problem.  
> 
> Voting for democratic leaders who are supposed to decide what the people want, without a price system, is simply not workable.
> 
> Notice that I have said nothing here about the tyranny of democratic decisionmaking outside a framework of inviolable
> individual rights.  That's a totally different issue that might make a person view democratic socialism as morally repulsive.  I'm only talking about the liklihood that a system in which leaders are elected to centrally plan an economy without a price system will 'work' in any serious sense.  The evidence strongly suggests otherwise.
> 
> As for the former Soviet Union, we have to keep in mind that <i>the</i> central defining feature of capitalism is individual rights, including rights to property.  This is genetically dependent upon the rule of law, upon a stable system of courts which respects individual rights to a large degree, etc.  My understanding is that the current situation over there doesn't qualify in the least.  Massive degrees of corruption means that whoever has the most money, power, and guns makes the rules -- quite frequently without regard to individual rights.
> 
> My understanding, and I can try to find a reference if you're
> interested, is that for many fledgling businesses in Russia, taxes that are supposed to be paid are higher than *revenues*.
> Not higher than *profits*, mind you, but higher than *revenues*. This means that it is literally impossible for a business to be run in compliance with the law.  This means that the honest business owner can't exist... you have to cheat on your taxes to survive, period, and therefore you are at the mercy of the local officialdom.  Of course, a sensible solution to all of this is bribery, which in turn leads, in successful cases, to government backed monopolies... those impossible tax laws are enforced unevenly, with the politically connected succeeding at the expense of those who merely provide a better service at a better price.
> 
> The central idea of a free market is that every person has an equal right to trade value for value with others.  Where that right doesn't exist, a free market doesn't exist.  What does exist in the ex-USSR is a disorganized gangster state, absent
> the rule of law.
> 
> As to what went wrong, well, that's a question quite beyond my knowledge, I'm afraid.  I don't think a lot is known about how to properly transition a nation from totaliarian communism to freedom.  Among the problems are failures to understand that the essence of capitalism <i>is</i> individual rights... so attempts to replicate the forms (with privately owned large corporations) without the structure of justice, leads to all sorts of trouble.
> 
> Please do me a favor and go read that Hayek essay.  It's really important.  When I was in grad school, studying what was then (circa 1995) cutting edge theory on financial price systems and signalling, I came across this Hayek article for the first time and I was stunned.  All the subtle nuances of current theory are represented there, all the questions of cost and signalling.  It's really important stuff.  Quite separate from rights and morality, which I think clearly show that democratic socialism is a hopelessly immoral system (it is wrong for you to take my home, if you act individually, but somehow right if a big enough gang votes on it?), there are very solid economic reasons, both theretical and proven in the best empirical research, to say that it just doesn't work.
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Perfect_Martini|987883426
17c17
< James Bond notwithstanding, it makes not one iota of difference whether you shake or stir.  Do whatever is most convenient for your mixing tools.  The drink should be in the crushed ice for long enough to become very cold, but less than two minutes or it will pick up too much water from the ice.  You do want it to pick up some water, but it will pick up enough in the first few seconds the liquor is poured over the ice.  You may have to experient here because the size of the ice and its temperature will vary.  I use about 30 seconds most of the time.
---
> James Bond notwithstanding, it makes not one iota of difference whether you shake or stir.  Do whatever is most convenient for your mixing tools.  The drink should be in the crushed ice for long enough to become very cold, but less than two minutes or it will pick up too much water from the ice.  You do want it to pick up some water, but it will pick up enough in the first few seconds the liquor is poured over the ice.  You may have to experiment here because the size of the ice and its temperature will vary.  I use about 30 seconds most of the time.
------
Koyaanisqatsi|987883508
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Koyaanisqatsi.
> 
> I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
------
Benin|987883731
1c1,326
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> ----
> Background: Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 9 30 N, 2 15 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 112,620 sq km
> land: 110,620 sq km
> water: 2,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 1,989 km
> border countries: Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
> 
> Coastline: 121 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> territorial sea: 200 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Mont Sokbaro 658 m
> 
> Natural resources: small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 13%
> permanent crops: 4%
> permanent pastures: 4%
> forests and woodland: 31%
> other: 48% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 100 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
> 
> Environment - current issues: recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: no natural harbors
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 6,395,919
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,531,636; female 1,503,552)
> 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,551,867; female 1,660,845)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 63,717; female 84,302) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.03% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 44.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 90.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 50.18 years
> male: 49.24 years
> female: 51.16 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Beninese (singular and plural)
> adjective: Beninese
> 
> Ethnic groups: African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15%
> 
> Languages: French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 37%
> male: 48.7%
> female: 25.8% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Benin
> conventional short form: Benin
> local long form: Republique du Benin
> local short form: Benin
> former: Dahomey
> 
> Data code: BN
> 
> Government type: republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
> 
> Capital: Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou
> note: six additional provinces have been reported but not confirmed; they are Alibori, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, and Plateau; moreover, the term "province" may have been changed to "department"
> 
> Independence: 1 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 1 August (1990)
> 
> Constitution: December 1990
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001)
> election results: Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> elections: last held 28 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRB 27, PRD 11, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 9, MADEPO 6, Alliance Etoile 4, Alliance IPD 4, CAR-DUNYA 3, MERCI 2, other 7
> 
> Judicial branch: Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice
> 
> Political parties and leaders: African Movement for Democracy and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN]; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjou Sylvain AKINDES]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Benin Renaissance Party or PRB [Nicephore SOGLO]; Cameleon Alliance or AC [leader NA]; Car-DUNYA [leader NA]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal FANTONDJI, first secretary]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI]; Front for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA; Impulse for Progress and Democracy or IPD [Bertin BORNA]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening or MERCI [Severin ADJOVI]; New Generation for the Republic or NG [leader NA]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Francois Odjo TANKPINON]; Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism or RDP [Dominique HOYMINOU, Dr. Giles Auguste MINONTIN]; The Star Alliance (Alliance E'toile) [leader NA]; Union for National Democracy and Solidarity or UDS [Adamou N'Diaye MAMA]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN
> chancery: 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656
> FAX: [1] (202) 265-1996
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. FELDER
> embassy: Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou
> mailing address: B. P. 2012, Cotonou
> telephone: [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92
> FAX: [229] 30-14-39, 30-19-74
> 
> Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1990-95 and 5% in 1996-99. Rapid population growth has offset much of this growth in output. Inflation has subsided over the past three years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a structural adjustment program since 1991.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 34%
> industry: 14%
> services: 52% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 33% (1995 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $299 million
> expenditures: $445 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 6 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 276 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 270 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock
> 
> Exports: $396 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
> 
> Exports - partners: Brazil 32%, Libya, Indonesia, Spain (1998)
> 
> Imports: $566 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods
> 
> Imports - partners: France 22%, China 16%, UK, Netherlands (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.6 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $281.2 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> note: from 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 28,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,050 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: fair system of open wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 4 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 620,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (one privately-owned) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 60,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 578 km (single track)
> narrow gauge: 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 6,787 km
> paved: 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 5,430 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: navigable along small sections, important only locally
> 
> Ports and harbors: Cotonou, Porto-Novo
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 5 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 3
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,402,566
> females age 15-49: 1,445,082
> note: both sexes are liable for military service (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 717,289
> females age 15-49: 732,196 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 69,065
> females: 67,961 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $27 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY96)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
------
Countries_of_the_world|987883789
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
Koyaanisqatsi|987884507
3a4,10
> 
> ----
> It is a great film.  Unfortunately I may have done it a disservice by choosing this user name; I did not assume that a wiki would be created for each user and I would much prefer that the Wiki contain only information about the film, which is likely to be of greater lasting interest.  :-)  Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
> 
> 
> Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-laps footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a mesmerizing score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") certainly give some clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is currently unfinished for lack of funds.
> 
------
Koyaanisqatsi|987884587
9c9
< Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-laps footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a mesmerizing score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") certainly give some clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is currently unfinished for lack of funds.
---
> Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a mesmerizing score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is currently unfinished for lack of funds.
------
Jimbo_Wales|987885395
0a1,4
> Hi, after making some contributions to the movies section I decided to set up an account; unfortunately i chose a username that is the same as a movie which deserves its own wiki, separate from mine.  (I did not know then that users have wikis created about them).  Is there some way to change my username?  I have checked the FAQ, but I don't wish to redirect a request; I'd like to separate the entries. It would seem that that is something I can not do.  Currently my username is koyaanisqatsi--any appendage of numbers or letters would be sufficient to distinguish it from the film.  Apologies for the confusion.
> --koyaanisqatsi
> 
> ----
61c65
< Well, my thinking is that the Wikipedia obviously can't endorse this bill of rights, but I don't see any reason why we can't report on it.
---
> Well, my thinking is that the Wikipedia obviously can't endorse this bill of rights, but I don't see any reason why we can't report on it.
------
Jimbo_Wales|987885582
1,4d0
< Hi, after making some contributions to the movies section I decided to set up an account; unfortunately i chose a username that is the same as a movie which deserves its own wiki, separate from mine.  (I did not know then that users have wikis created about them).  Is there some way to change my username?  I have checked the FAQ, but I don't wish to redirect a request; I'd like to separate the entries. It would seem that that is something I can not do.  Currently my username is koyaanisqatsi--any appendage of numbers or letters would be sufficient to distinguish it from the film.  Apologies for the confusion.
< --koyaanisqatsi
< 
< ----
13a10,13
> 
> ----
> Hi, after making some contributions to the movies section I decided to set up an account; unfortunately i chose a username that is the same as a movie which deserves its own wiki, separate from mine.  (I did not know then that users have wikis created about them).  Is there some way to change my username?  I have checked the FAQ, but I don't wish to redirect a request; I'd like to separate the entries. It would seem that that is something I can not do.  Currently my username is koyaanisqatsi--any appendage of numbers or letters would be sufficient to distinguish it from the film.  Apologies for the confusion.
> --koyaanisqatsi
------
Apocalypse_Now|987886181
1c1
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features outstanding performances by [[Martin Sheen]], [[Marlon Brando]], and [[Dennis Hopper]].  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporte (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
3c3
< Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola re-released the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s fascinating documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991.
---
> Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola re-released the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991.
------
Apocalypse_Now|987886232
1c1
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporte (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Marlow (Captain Willard, in the movie) is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow, in the novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporter (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Captain Willard is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
------
Bermuda|987886434
1c1,296
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the folowing information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has developed into highly successful offshore financial center. A referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 32 20 N, 64 45 W
> 
> Map references: North America
> 
> Area:
> total: 58.8 sq km
> land: 58.8 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 103 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
> 
> Terrain: low hills separated by fertile depressions
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Town Hill 76 m
> 
> Natural resources: limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 6%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 94% (55% developed, 39% rural/open space) (1997 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes (June to November)
> 
> Environment - current issues: asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
> 
> Geography - note: consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 62,997 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 20% (male 6,107; female 6,212)
> 15-64 years: 70% (male 21,620; female 22,171)
> 65 years and over: 10% (male 2,972; female 3,915) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.75% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 12.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 7.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 76.94 years
> male: 74.89 years
> female: 78.86 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bermudian(s)
> adjective: Bermudian
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 58%, white 36%, other 6%
> 
> Religions: non-Anglican Protestant 39%, Anglican 27%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 19%
> 
> Languages: English (official), Portuguese
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98%
> male: 98%
> female: 99% (1970 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Bermuda
> 
> Data code: BD
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
> 
> Government type: parliamentary British overseas territory with internal self-government
> 
> Capital: Hamilton
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
> 
> Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> National holiday: Bermuda Day, 24 May
> 
> Constitution: 8 June 1968, amended 1989
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since NA June 1997)
> head of government: Premier Jennifer SMITH (since 10 November 1998)
> cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; governor invites leader of largest party in Parliament to form a government as premier
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 9 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2003)
> election results: percent of vote by party - PLP 54%, UBP 44%, NLP 1%, independents 1%; seats by party - PLP 26, UBP 14
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Bermuda Industrial Union or BIU [Derrick BURGESS]; Bermuda Public Services Association or BPSA [Betty CHRISTOPHER]
> 
> International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Consul General Lawrence OWEN
> consulate(s) general: Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton
> mailing address: P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; American Consulate General Hamilton, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-5300
> telephone: [1] (441) 295-1342
> FAX: [1] (441) 295-1592
> 
> Flag description: red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $31,500 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1%
> industry: 10%
> services: 89% (1995 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2% (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 35,296 (1997)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NEGL% (1995)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $504.6 million
> expenditures: $537 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Industries: tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 420 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 391 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products
> 
> Exports: $32 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: reexports of pharmaceuticals
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 29.5%, US 9.8% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $624 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food and live animals
> 
> Imports - partners: US 34%, UK 9%, Mexico 8% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $NA
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $27.9 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 48,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 6,324 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: modern, fully automatic telephone system
> international: 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 82,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 66,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 225 km
> paved: 225 km
> unpaved: 0 km (1997 est.)
> note: in addition, there are 232 km of paved and unpaved roads that are privately owned
> 
> Ports and harbors: Hamilton, Saint George
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 115 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,536,975 GRT/11,337,483 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 27, cargo 4, chemical tanker 2, container 17, liquified gas 7, petroleum tanker 33, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are UK 24, Canada 12, Hong Kong 11, US 11, Nigeria 4, Sweden 4, Norway 3, and Switzerland 2 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Bhutan|987886638
1c1,309
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Asia, between China and India
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 27 30 N, 90 30 E
> 
> Map references: Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 47,000 sq km
> land: 47,000 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about half the size of Indiana
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 1,075 km
> border countries: China 470 km, India 605 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m
> highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
> 
> Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 2%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 6%
> forests and woodland: 66%
> other: 26% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 340 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 2,005,222
> note: other estimates range as low as 800,000 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 40% (male 417,627; female 387,927)
> 15-64 years: 56% (male 576,533; female 544,076)
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 40,081; female 38,978) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.19% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 36.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 110.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 52.4 years
> male: 52.79 years
> female: 51.99 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 5.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bhutanese (singular and plural)
> adjective: Bhutanese
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15%
> 
> Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
> 
> Languages: Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 42.2%
> male: 56.2%
> female: 28.1% (1995 est.)
> 
> People - note: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan
> conventional short form: Bhutan
> 
> Data code: BT
> 
> Government type: monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
> 
> Capital: Thimphu
> 
> Administrative divisions: 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
> 
> Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
> 
> Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights
> note: Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers
> 
> Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972)
> head of government: Foreign Minister Jigme Yoeser THINLEY (since NA June 1998)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms
> note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the monarch
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 give the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms)
> elections: last held NA (next to be held NA)
> election results: NA
> 
> Judicial branch: the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High Court, judges appointed by the monarch
> 
> Political parties and leaders: no legal parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled)
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
> consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
> 
> Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 38%
> industry: 37%
> services: 25% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> note: massive lack of skilled labor
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $146 million
> expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
> note: the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
> 
> Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.788 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 0.39%
> hydro: 99.61%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 345 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 1.339 billion kWh
> note: exports electricity to India (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 21 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
> 
> Exports: $111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
> 
> Exports - partners: India 94%, Bangladesh
> 
> Imports: $136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
> 
> Imports - partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
> 
> Debt - external: $120 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $73.8 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
> 
> Exchange rates: ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use
> international: international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 37,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 11,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transporations
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 3,285 km
> paved: 1,994 km
> unpaved: 1,291 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 491,427 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 262,316 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 20,374 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
------
Bolivia|987886863
1c1,332
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area:
> total: 1,098,580 sq km
> land: 1,084,390 sq km
> water: 14,190 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 6,743 km
> border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
> 
> Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m
> highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
> 
> Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 2%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 24%
> forests and woodland: 53%
> other: 21% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
> 
> Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 8,152,620 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 39.11% (male 1,624,404; female 1,564,057)
> 15-64 years: 56.42% (male 2,247,013; female 2,352,824)
> 65 years and over: 4.47% (male 164,473; female 199,849) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.83% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 28.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 8.36 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 60.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 63.7 years
> male: 61.19 years
> female: 66.34 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bolivian(s)
> adjective: Bolivian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
> 
> Languages: Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 83.1%
> male: 90.5%
> female: 76% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Bolivia
> conventional short form: Bolivia
> local long form: Republica de Bolivia
> local short form: Bolivia
> 
> Data code: BL
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
> 
> Independence: 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
> 
> Constitution: 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
> 
> Legal system: based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
> elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
> election results: Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PDC
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
> election results: Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for 10-year terms by National Congress
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; Bolivian Renovating Alliance or ARBOL [Marcelo FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB [leader NA]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; Civic Solidarity Union or UCS [Johnny FERNANDEZ]; Conscience of the Fatherland or CONDEPA [Remedios LOZA Alvarado]; Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Front of Katarista Unity or FULKA [Genaro FLORES]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Katarismo National Unity or KND [Filepe KITTELSON]; Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Movement Towards Socialism-Popular Instrument for Solidarity with the People or MAS-IPSP [leader Evo MORALES]; Nationalist Democratic Action or ADN [Enrique TORO]; Nationalist Katarista Movement or MKN [Fernando UNTOJA]; Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]; New Republican Force or NFR [Manfred REYES VILLA]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; Popular Patriotic Movement or MPP [Julio MANTILLA]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Socialist Party One or PS-1 [leader NA]; Solidarity and Democracy or SYD [leader NA]; Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement or MRTK-L [Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Unity and Progress Movement or MUP [Ivo KULJIS]
> note: political blocs include: left - MBL, EJE-P, VR-9, ASD, FRI, PCB, IU, FSN, PS-1, FSB, and MAS; center left - MIR, PDC, and New Youth Force; center - MNR; center right - ADN and NFR; populist - UCS, CONDEPA, SYD, MUP, and MPP; evangelical - ARBOL; indigenous - MRTK-L, MKN, and KND
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Cocalero Group
> 
> International organization participation: CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado
> chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 483-4410
> FAX: [1] (202) 328-3712
> consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK
> embassy: Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz
> mailing address: P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032
> telephone: [591] (2) 430251
> FAX: [591] (2) 433900
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $24.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 16.6%
> industry: 35.5%
> services: 47.9% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 70% (1999 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 2.3%
> highest 10%: 31.7% (1990)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 2.5 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $2.7 billion
> expenditures: $2.7 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> 
> Industries: mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1995 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.576 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 42.43%
> hydro: 55.75%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 1.82% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.412 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 4 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 20 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
> 
> Exports: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, chemicals, petroleum, food
> 
> Imports - partners: US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $5.7 billion (1999)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $588 million (1997)
> 
> Currency: 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: bolivianos ($B) per US$1 - 6.0065 (January 2000), 5.8124 (1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 368,874 (1996)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 7,229 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities
> domestic: primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 171, FM 73, shortwave 77 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 5.25 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 48 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 900,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transporation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 3,691 km (single track)
> narrow gauge: 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 52,216 km
> paved: 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 49,344 km (1995 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 116,373 GRT/182,283 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 3, cargo 17, chemical tanker 3, container 1, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1,109 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 13
> over 3,047 m: 4
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1,096
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
> 914 to 1,523 m: 219
> under 914 m: 807 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,949,267 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 1,269,228 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 86,863 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $147 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY99)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 21,800 hectares under cultivation in 1999, a 45% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1998 levels; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina|987887088
1c1,336
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence from the former Yugoslavia in February of 1992. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place, with troop levels to be reduced to about 19,000 by spring 2000.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 44 00 N, 18 00 E
> 
> Map references: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
> 
> Area:
> total: 51,129 sq km
> land: 51,129 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than West Virginia
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 1,459 km
> border countries: Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
> 
> Coastline: 20 km
> 
> Maritime claims: NA
> 
> Climate: hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
> 
> Terrain: mountains and valleys
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
> highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
> 
> Natural resources: coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 14%
> permanent crops: 5%
> permanent pastures: 20%
> forests and woodland: 39%
> other: 22% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 3,835,777
> note: all data dealing with population are subject to considerable error because of the dislocations caused by military action and ethnic cleansing (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 20% (male 401,554; female 379,303)
> 15-64 years: 71% (male 1,403,618; female 1,323,307)
> 65 years and over: 9% (male 138,173; female 189,822) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.1% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 12.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 7.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 25.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 71.49 years
> male: 68.78 years
> female: 74.38 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s)
> adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Serb 31%, Bosniak 44%, Croat 17%, Yugoslav 5.5%, other 2.5% (1991)
> note: Bosniak has replaced muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam
> 
> Religions: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10%
> 
> Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: NA
> total population: NA%
> male: NA%
> female: NA%
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Bosnia and Herzegovina
> local long form: none
> local short form: Bosna i Hercegovina
> 
> Data code: BK
> 
> Government type: emerging democracy
> 
> Capital: Sarajevo
> 
> Administrative divisions: there are two first-order administrative divisions - the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska; note - Brcko in northeastern Bosnia is a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska
> 
> Independence: NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
> 
> National holiday: Bosnia and Herzegovina - BiH National Day, 25 November
> 
> Constitution: the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system
> 
> Suffrage: 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (chairman since 14 February 2000, presidency member since 14 March 1996 - Bosniak); other members of the three-member rotating (every 8 months) presidency: Zivko RADISIC (since 13 October 1998 - Serb) and Ante JELAVIC (since NA September 1998 - Croat)
> head of government: vacant; note - in February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated
> cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen
> note: President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 28 December 1999; Vice President Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 28 December 1999); note - president and vice president rotate every year; President of the Republika Srpska: vacant since Nikola POPLASEN was removed by the Office of the High Representative on 5 March 1999 (see Government note)
> elections: the three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term; the member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2002); the cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the presidency
> election results: percent of vote - Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first 8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote followed RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZETBEGOVIC with 87% of the Bosniak vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was ineligible to serve a second term until RADISIC and JELAVIC had each served a first term as Chairman of the Presidency
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Bosniak; members elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members elected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms)
> elections: National House of Representatives - elections last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held in fall 2000); House of Peoples - last constituted 4 December 1998 (next to be constituted in fall 2000)
> election results: National House of Representatives - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1; House of Peoples - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - NA
> note: the Bosniak/Croat Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of a House of Representatives (140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1; and a House of Peoples (72 seats - 30 Bosniak, 30 Croat, and 12 others); last constituted November 1998; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1; as of January 1999, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a permanent election law; a draft law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures
> 
> Judicial branch: Constitutional Court, consists of nine members: four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP [leader NA]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Bosnian Patriotic Party or BPS [Sefer HALILOVIC]; Center Coalition or KC (includes LBO, RS) [leader NA]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Coalition for King and Fatherland or KKO (Dubravko Prstojevic]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BIH or KCD [Alija IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA and SBH]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH or HDZ-BiH [Ante JELAVIC]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRSTIC]; Croatian Peasants Party of BiH or HSS-BiH [Ilija SIMIC]; Democratic Party for Banja Luka and Krajina [Nikola SPIRIC]; Democratic Party of Pensioners or DSP [Alojz KNEZOVIC]; Democratic Peoples Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosnia Organization or MBO [Dzevad HADZIAVDIC]; New Croatian Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Party for Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Party of Democratic Progress of the Republika Srpska [Mladen IVANIC]; Party of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Radical Party Republika Srpska of RSRS [Miroslav RADOVANOVIC]; Republican Party or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Coalition for Republika Srpska or SKRS [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; Serb Democratic Party or Serb Lands or SDS [Dragan KALINIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Serb Radical Party-Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Nikola POPLASEN] (banned by the Office of the High Representative - see Government note - from participation in the April elections); Sloga or Unity [Zivko RADISIC] (includes SNS, SPRS, SNSD); Social Democratic Party BIH or SDP-BiH [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: NA
> 
> International organization participation: CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ; note - Igor DAVIDOVIC should become ambassador in early 2000
> chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
> telephone: [1] (202) 337-1500
> FAX: [1] (202) 337-1502
> consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas J. MILLER
> embassy: Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo
> mailing address: use street address
> telephone: [387] (71) 445-700
> FAX: [387] (71) 659-722
> 
> Flag description: a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
> 
> Government - note: The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on 14 December 1995, retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities - a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS) - each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. In 1999, the convertible mark - the national currency introduced in 1998 - gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, faltered in both areas. Banking reform is also lagging. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $6.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 19%
> industry: 23%
> services: 58% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 1.026 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 35%-40% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $NA
> expenditures: $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> 
> Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 5%-10% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.22 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 32.43%
> hydro: 67.57%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.065 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
> 
> Exports: $450 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: NA
> 
> Exports - partners: NA
> 
> Imports: $2.95 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: NA
> 
> Imports - partners: NA
> 
> Debt - external: $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
> 
> Currency: 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
> 
> Exchange rates: convertible marks per US$1 - 1.9 (1999)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 238,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
> domestic: NA
> international: no satellite earth stations
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 940,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
> 
> Televisions: NA
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam until grids are repaired)
> standard gauge: 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
> 
> Highways:
> total: 21,846 km
> paved: 11,425 km
> unpaved: 10,421 km (1996 est.)
> note: roads need maintenance and repair
> 
> Waterways: NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 27 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 9
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
> under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 18
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 7
> under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 4 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosniak elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note - within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,114,180 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 886,464 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 29,325 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina
> 
> Illicit drugs: minor transit point for marijuana and opiate trafficking routes to Western Europe
------
Botswana|987887263
1c1,317
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is dominated by cattle raising and mining.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Africa, north of South Africa
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 22 00 S, 24 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 600,370 sq km
> land: 585,370 sq km
> water: 15,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 4,013 km
> border countries: Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
> 
> Terrain: predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m
> highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
> 
> Natural resources: diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 1%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 46%
> forests and woodland: 47%
> other: 6% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
> 
> Environment - current issues: overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 1,576,470
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 41% (male 321,766; female 318,304)
> 15-64 years: 55% (male 417,734; female 453,947)
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 26,436; female 38,283) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.76% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 29.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 61.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 39.27 years
> male: 38.63 years
> female: 39.93 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
> adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
> 
> Ethnic groups: Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
> 
> Languages: English (official), Setswana
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 69.8%
> male: 80.5%
> female: 59.9% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Botswana
> conventional short form: Botswana
> former: Bechuanaland
> 
> Data code: BC
> 
> Government type: parliamentary republic
> 
> Capital: Gaborone
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
> 
> Independence: 30 September 1966 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
> 
> Constitution: March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
> 
> Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
> head of government: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
> elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president
> election results: Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 61.3%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms)
> elections: National Assembly - elections last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004)
> election results: percent of vote by party - BDP 61.3%, other 38.7%; seats by party - BDP 33, other 7
> 
> Judicial branch: High Court; Court of Appeal
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana Congress Party or BCP [Michael DINGAKE]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE]
> note: main parties are: BDP, BNF, BCP; other minor parties joined forces in 1999 to form the Botswana Alliance Movement or BAM [Kenneth KOMA, chairman] but did not capture any parliamentary seats; the BAM parties are: the United Action Party [Ephraim Lepetu SETSHWAELO], the Social Democratic Union, the Independence Freedom Party [Motsamai MPHO], and the Botswana Progressive Union [Gideon KAELO]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV
> chancery: 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> telephone: [1] (202) 244-4990
> FAX: [1] (202) 244-4164
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador John E. LANGE
> embassy: address NA, Gaborone
> mailing address: P. O. Box 90, Gaborone
> telephone: [267] 353982
> FAX: [267] 356947
> 
> Flag description: light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 6.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 4%
> industry: 46% (including 36% mining)
> services: 50% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 47% (1999 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.7% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 235,000 formal sector employees (1995)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 20%-40% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $1.6 billion
> expenditures: $1.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $560 million (FY96/97)
> 
> Industries: diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4.6% (FY92/93)
> 
> Electricity - production: 1 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.619 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 689 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sorghum, corn, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock
> 
> Exports: $2.36 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: diamonds 72%, vehicles, copper, nickel, meat (1998)
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 21%, Zimbabwe 3% (1996)
> 
> Imports: $2.05 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products
> 
> Imports - partners: Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 78%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% (1996)
> 
> Debt - external: $651 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $73 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe
> 
> Exchange rates: pulas (P) per US$1 - 4.6168 (January 2000), 4.6244 (1999), 4.2259 (1998), 3.6508 (1997), 3.3242 (1996), 2.7722 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 78,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system: sparse system
> domestic: small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations
> international: two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 237,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 971 km
> narrow gauge: 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 18,482 km
> paved: 4,343 km
> unpaved: 14,139 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 92 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 10
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 7
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 82
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
> 914 to 1,523 m: 57
> under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 373,990 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 196,572 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 19,132 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $61 million (FY99/00)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99/00)
> 
> ----
> Transnational issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested
------
Brazil|987887458
4c4,345
< Other major cities from north to south that I have visited are Belem, Fortaleza, Manaus, Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Curitiba.   Iguacu Falls is in the words of Eleanor Roosevelt " makes Niagara Falls look like a leaky faucet".  It is worth the trip. From Iguacu you can visit Peru and Argentina easily.  Brasil is a country of the future and always will be. Almost the size of the U.S. it is rich in natural resources but the gap between the haves and have nots is tremendous.  Brasil has a small (10%) middle class. Contrary to what I have heard over and over again about Rio and danger is that nothing is further from the truth.  I have lived there about one year and felt safe everywhere I went. 
---
> Other major cities from north to south that I have visited are Belem, Fortaleza, Manaus, Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Curitiba.   Iguacu Falls is in the words of Eleanor Roosevelt " makes Niagara Falls look like a leaky faucet".  It is worth the trip. From Iguacu you can visit Peru and Argentina easily.  Brasil is a country of the future and always will be. Almost the size of the U.S. it is rich in natural resources but the gap between the haves and have nots is tremendous.  Brasil has a small (10%) middle class. Contrary to what I have heard over and over again about Rio and danger is that nothing is further from the truth.  I have lived there about one year and felt safe everywhere I went.
> 
> ----
> note:  the following information came from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> ----
> Background: Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
> 
> ----
> Location: Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 10 00 S, 55 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area:
> total: 8,511,965 sq km
> land: 8,456,510 sq km
> water: 55,455 sq km
> note: includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 14,691 km
> border countries: Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
> 
> Coastline: 7,491 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: 200 nm
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: mostly tropical, but temperate in south
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
> 
> Natural resources: bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 5%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 22%
> forests and woodland: 58%
> other: 14% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 28,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
> note: President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 172,860,370
> note: Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 29% (male 25,607,074; female 24,670,960)
> 15-64 years: 66% (male 55,793,005; female 57,598,489)
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 3,727,912; female 5,462,930) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.94% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 18.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 9.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 38.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 62.94 years
> male: 58.54 years
> female: 67.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Brazilian(s)
> adjective: Brazilian
> 
> Ethnic groups: white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
> 
> Languages: Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 83.3%
> male: 83.3%
> female: 83.2% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Federative Republic of Brazil
> conventional short form: Brazil
> local long form: Republica Federativa do Brasil
> local short form: Brasil
> 
> Data code: BR
> 
> Government type: federative republic
> 
> Capital: Brasilia
> 
> Administrative divisions: 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
> 
> Independence: 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
> 
> Constitution: 5 October 1988
> 
> Legal system: based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
> elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
> election results: Fernando Henrique CARDOSO reelected president; percent of vote - 53%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> elections: Federal Senate - last held 4 October 1998 for one-third of Senate (next to be held NA October 2002 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
> election results: Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PMDB 27, PFL 20, PSDB 16, PT 7, PPB 5, PSB 3, PDT 2, PPS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PFL 106, PSDB 99, PMDB 82, PPB 60, PT 58, PTB 31, PDT 25, PSB 19, PL 12, PCdoB 7, other 14
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Jader BARBALHO, president]; Brazilian Labor Party or PTB [Jose Carlos MARTINEZ, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Teotinho VILELA Filho, president]; Brazilian Socialist Party or PSB [Miguel ARRAES, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Paulo MALUF, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Valdemar COSTA Neto, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Worker's Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions allied to leftist Worker's Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB, BIS, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA
> chancery: 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 238-2700
> FAX: [1] (202) 238-2827
> consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Anthony S. HARRINGTON
> embassy: Avenida das Nacoes, Quadra 801, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal Cep 70403-900 Brazil
> mailing address: Unit 3500, APO AA 34030
> telephone: [55] (61) 321-7272
> FAX: [55] (61) 225-9136
> consulate(s) general: Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo
> consulate(s): Recife
> 
> Flag description: green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The Real Plan, instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Real Plan. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy is expected to push growth up to 3% in 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.057 trillion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 0.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $6,150 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 14%
> industry: 36%
> services: 50% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 17.4% (1990 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 0.8%
> highest 10%: 47.9% (1995)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
> 
> Labor force: 74 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $151 billion
> expenditures: $149 billion, including capital expenditures of $36 billion (1998)
> 
> Industries: textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -2.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 316.927 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 4.92%
> hydro: 91.02%
> nuclear: 0.99%
> other: 3.07% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 336.242 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 41.5 billion kWh
> note: imports electricity from Paraguay (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
> 
> Exports: $46.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: manufactures, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee
> 
> Exports - partners: US 18%, Argentina 13%, Germany 5%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 4% (1999)
> 
> Imports: $48.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemical products, oil, electricity
> 
> Imports - partners: US 23%, Argentina 12%, Germany 10%, Japan 5%, Italy 5% (1999)
> 
> Debt - external: $200 billion (1999)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.012 billion (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: reals (R$) per US$1 - 1.804 (January 2000), 1.815 (1999), 1.161 (1998), 1.078 (1997), 1.005 (1996), 0.918 (1995)
> note: from October 1994 through 14 January 1999, the official rate was determined by a managed float; since 15 January 1999, the official rate floats independently with respect to the US$
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 19 million (1997)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4 million (1997)
> 
> Telephone system: good working system
> domestic: extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations
> international: 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1,365, FM 296, shortwave 161 (of which 91 are collocated with AM stations) (1999)
> 
> Radios: 71 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 138 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 36.5 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 197 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail
> broad gauge: 4,057 km 1.600-m gauge
> narrow gauge: 23,489 km 1.000-m gauge
> dual gauge: 336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 1.98 million km
> paved: 184,140 km
> unpaved: 1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 50,000 km navigable
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 2,980 km; petroleum products 4,762 km; natural gas 4,246 km (1998)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3,277 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 541
> over 3,047 m: 5
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 138
> 914 to 1,523 m: 346
> under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 2,736
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 73
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1,306
> under 914 m: 1,357 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes naval air and marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
> 
> Illicit drugs: limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian, Colombian, and Peruvian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling
------
Countries_of_the_world|987887501
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
Bouvet_Island|987887673
1c1,92
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 54 26 S, 3 24 E
> 
> Map references: Antarctic Region
> 
> Area:
> total: 58.5 sq km
> land: 58.5 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 29.6 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> territorial sea: 4 nm
> 
> Climate: antarctic
> 
> Terrain: volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 m; coast is mostly inaccessible
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Southern Ocean 0 m
> highest point: unnamed location 780 m
> 
> Natural resources: none
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 100% (93% ice)
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: covered by glacial ice; declared a nature reserve
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Bouvet Island
> 
> Data code: BV
> 
> Dependency status: territory of Norway; administered by the Polar Department of the Ministry of Justice and Police from Oslo
> 
> Flag description: the flag of Norway is used
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Communications - note: automatic meteorological station
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Countries_of_the_world|987887711
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[Brazil]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory|987887865
1c1,138
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 71 30 E
> 
> Map references: World
> 
> Area:
> total: 60 sq km
> land: 60 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> note: includes the entire Chagos Archipelago
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 698 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 3 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds
> 
> Terrain: flat and low (most areas do not exceed four meters in elevation)
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
> highest point: unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
> 
> Natural resources: coconuts, fish
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: NA%
> other: NA%
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: no indigenous inhabitants
> note: approximately 3,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or Ilois, were evacuated to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in 1995, there were approximately 1,700 UK and US military personnel and 1,500 civilian contractors living on the island (July 2000 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: British Indian Ocean Territory
> conventional short form: none
> abbreviation: BIOT
> 
> Data code: IO
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK; administered by a commissioner, resident in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London
> 
> Legal system: NA
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> head of government: Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK
> cabinet: NA
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; commissioner and administrator appointed by the monarch
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Flag description: white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
> 
> Electricity - production: NA kWh
> note: electricity supplied by the US military
> 
> Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: NA
> 
> Telephone system: separate facilities for military and public needs are available
> domestic: all commercial telephone services are available, including connection to the Internet
> international: international telephone service is carried by satellite (2000)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: NA
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: NA
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Highways:
> total: NA km
> paved: short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia
> unpaved: NA km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Diego Garcia
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
------
Countries_of_the_world|987887908
6c6
< <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] - [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
---
> <font size=+2>B</font><br> [[Bahamas]] - [[Bahrain]] - [[Baker Island]] - [[Bangladesh]] - [[Barbados]] - [[Bassas da India]] - [[Belarus]] - [[Belgium]] - [[Belize]] - [[Benin]] - [[Bermuda]] - [[Bhutan]] - [[Bolivia]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] - [[Botswana]] - [[Bouvet Island]] - [[Brazil]] - [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] - [[British Virgin Islands]]- [[Brunei]] - [[Bulgaria]] - [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Burma]] - [[Burundi]]
------
Cardiology|987888040
9c9
< *[[Coronary heart disease]]
---
> *[[Coronary heart disease]] and [[Myocardial infarct]]
14c14,15
< *[[Cardiomyopathia]]s
---
> *[[Cardiomyopathia]]s
> *[[Endocarditis]]
------
British_Virgin_Islands|987888119
1c1,286
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 18 30 N, 64 30 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 150 sq km
> land: 150 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> note: includes the island of Anegada
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 80 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 3 nm
> 
> Climate: subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
> 
> Terrain: coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
> highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
> 
> Natural resources: NEGL
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 20%
> permanent crops: 7%
> permanent pastures: 33%
> forests and woodland: 7%
> other: 33% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
> 
> Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
> 
> Geography - note: strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 19,615 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 20% (male 2,022; female 1,975)
> 15-64 years: 75% (male 7,517; female 7,102)
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 545; female 454) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.34% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 1.2 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 75.44 years
> male: 74.57 years
> female: 76.35 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: British Virgin Islander(s)
> adjective: British Virgin Islander
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 90%, white, Asian
> 
> Religions: Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981)
> 
> Languages: English (official)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 97.8% (1991 est.)
> male: NA%
> female: NA%
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: British Virgin Islands
> abbreviation: BVI
> 
> Data code: VI
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
> 
> Government type: NA
> 
> Capital: Road Town
> 
> Administrative divisions: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> National holiday: Territory Day, 1 July
> 
> Constitution: 1 June 1977
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Francis J. SAVAGE (since NA)
> head of government: Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT)
> cabinet: Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, one member from each of 9 electoral districts, four at-large members; members serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
> 
> Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal; (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court); Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; Court of Summary Jurisdiction
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL]; United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
> 
> International organization participation: Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1.8%
> industry: 6.2%
> services: 92% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5.3% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 4,911 (1980)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 3% (1995)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $121.5 million
> expenditures: $115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1985)
> 
> Electricity - production: 42 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 39 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish
> 
> Exports: $6 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
> 
> Exports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> 
> Imports: $175 million (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
> 
> Imports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> 
> Debt - external: $36.1 million (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2.6 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: US currency is used
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 9,000 (1994)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system: worldwide telephone service
> domestic: NA
> international: submarine cable to Bermuda
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 9,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus one cable company) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 4,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 113 km (1995 est.)
> paved: NA km
> unpaved: NA km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Road Town
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 2
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Brunei|987888295
1c1,323
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Although greatly reduced in size since its heyday of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Brunei sits atop extensive petroleum and natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the less developed countries.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 4 30 N, 114 40 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 5,770 sq km
> land: 5,270 sq km
> water: 500 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Delaware
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 381 km
> border countries: Malaysia 381 km
> 
> Coastline: 161 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm or to median line
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; hot, humid, rainy
> 
> Terrain: flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
> highest point: Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 1%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 1%
> forests and woodland: 85%
> other: 12% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
> 
> Environment - current issues: seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 336,376 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 31% (male 53,812; female 51,628)
> 15-64 years: 66% (male 118,207; female 103,819)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,317; female 4,593) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.17% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 4.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.14 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 14.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 73.58 years
> male: 71.23 years
> female: 76.06 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bruneian(s)
> adjective: Bruneian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Malay 62%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 17%
> 
> Religions: Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
> 
> Languages: Malay (official), English, Chinese
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 88.2%
> male: 92.6%
> female: 83.4% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Negara Brunei Darussalam
> conventional short form: Brunei
> 
> Data code: BX
> 
> Government type: constitutional sultanate
> 
> Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
> 
> Administrative divisions: 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong
> 
> Independence: 1 January 1984 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 23 February (1984)
> 
> Constitution: 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas
> 
> Suffrage: none
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the monarch; deals with executive matters
> note: there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the monarch) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the monarch) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the monarch) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the monarch)
> elections: last held in March 1962
> note: in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the monarch; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the monarch for three-year terms
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Brunei Solidarity National Party or PPKB in Malay [Haji Mohd HATTA bin Haji Zainal Abidin, president]; the PPKB is the only legal political party in Brunei; it was registered in 1985, but became largely inactive after 1988, it was revived in 1995 and again in 1998; it has less than 200 registered party members; other parties include Brunei People's Party or PRB (banned in 1962) and Brunei National Democratic Party (registered in May 1965, deregistered by the Brunei Government in 1988)
> 
> International organization participation: APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam
> chancery: 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 342-0159
> FAX: [1] (202) 342-0158
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Sylvia Gaye STANFIELD
> embassy: Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan
> mailing address: PSC 470 (BSB), FPO AP 96507
> telephone: [673] (2) 229670
> FAX: [673] (2) 225293
> 
> Flag description: yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 5%
> industry: 46%
> services: 49% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 144,000 (1995 est.); note - includes foreign workers and military personnel
> note: temporary residents make up 41% of labor force (1991)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 4.9% (1995 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $2.5 billion
> expenditures: $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $768 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1997 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.56 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.381 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo
> 
> Exports: $2.04 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products
> 
> Exports - partners: Japan 51%, UK 14%, US 10%, Singapore 8%, Thailand 3% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore 32%, UK 17%, Malaysia 12%, France 12%, US 5% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $0
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $4.3 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.6733 (January 2000), 1.6950 (1999), 1.6736 (1998), 1.4848 (1997), 1.4100 (1996), 1.4174 (1995); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 68,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 57,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: service throughout country is excellent; international service good to Europe, US, and East Asia
> domestic: NA
> international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean); digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 319,408 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 196,009 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 13 km (private line)
> narrow gauge: 13 km 0.610-m gauge
> 
> Highways:
> total: 1,150 km
> paved: 399 km
> unpaved: 751 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 135 km; petroleum products 418 km; natural gas 920 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT
> ships by type: liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 104,447 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 60,395 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 2,957 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $343 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.1% (FY98)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island
------
Myocardial_infarct|987888371
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > [[Cardiology]] > Myocardial infarct
------
Bulgaria|987888488
1a2,336
> 
> ----
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> ----
> Background: Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, and Bulgaria began the contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward eventual integration into the EU and NATO.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 43 00 N, 25 00 E
> 
> Map references: Europe
> 
> Area:
> total: 110,910 sq km
> land: 110,550 sq km
> water: 360 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Tennessee
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 1,808 km
> border countries: Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
> 
> Coastline: 354 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
> highest point: Musala 2,925 m
> 
> Natural resources: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 43%
> permanent crops: 2%
> permanent pastures: 14%
> forests and woodland: 38%
> other: 3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 12,370 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: earthquakes, landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 7,796,694 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 16% (male 623,285; female 591,655)
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 2,610,573; female 2,685,190)
> 65 years and over: 16% (male 546,029; female 739,962) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: -1.16% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 8.06 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -5.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 15.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 70.91 years
> male: 67.45 years
> female: 74.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bulgarian(s)
> adjective: Bulgarian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bulgarian 83%, Turk 8.5%, Roma 2.6%, Macedonia, Armenian, Tatar, Gagauz, Circassian, others (1998)
> 
> Religions: Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%, Muslim 13%, Roman Catholic 1.5%, Jewish 0.8%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 1% (1998)
> 
> Languages: Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98%
> male: 99%
> female: 98% (1999)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Bulgaria
> conventional short form: Bulgaria
> 
> Data code: BU
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Sofia
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
> 
> Independence: 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 3 March (1878)
> 
> Constitution: adopted 12 July 1991
> 
> Legal system: civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997)
> head of government: Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan KOSTOV (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Minister Petur ZHOTEV (since 21 December 1999)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly
> elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president; deputy prime ministers nominated by the prime minister
> election results: Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> elections: last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001)
> election results: percent of vote by party - UtdDF 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UtdDF 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12; note - seating as of May 1997: UtdDF 126, DL 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 17, PU 11, independents 9
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for nine-year terms
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS) [Ahmed DOGAN]; Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Democratic Left of DL [leader NA]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS (member of LDU) [Ahmed DOGAN]; People's Union or PU [Anastasiya MOZER]; Union of Democratic Forces or UtdDF (an alliance of pro-democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: agrarian movement; Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United or BZNS; Bulgarian Democratic Center; Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB; Democratic Alliance for the Republic or DAR; Gergiov Den; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization or IMRO; New Union for Democracy or NUD; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Philip DIMITROV
> chancery: 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 387-0174, 387-0365, 483-1386
> FAX: [1] (202) 234-7973
> consulate(s): New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Richard MILES
> embassy: 1 Saborna Street, Sofia
> mailing address: American Embassy Sofia, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5740
> telephone: [359] (2) 980-52-41 through 48
> FAX: [359] (2) 981-89-77
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control)
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: In April 1997, the current ruling Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official consumer price increase of 6.2% in 1999. Following declines in GDP in both 1996 and 1997, the economy grew an officially estimated 3.5% in 1998 and 2.5% in 1999. In September 1998, the IMF approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility, which provides credits worth approximately $900 million, designed to support Bulgaria's reform efforts. In 1999, an unfavorable international environment - primarily caused by the Kosovo conflict - and structural reforms slowed economic growth, but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $34.9 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 21%
> industry: 29%
> services: 50% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 3.3%
> highest 10%: 24.7% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 6.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 3.82 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 26%, industry 31%, services 43% (1998 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 15% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $4.69 billion
> expenditures: $5.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> 
> Industries: machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, nuclear fuel
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 38.423 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 52.34%
> hydro: 7.35%
> nuclear: 40.31%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 35.493 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 2 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 1.76 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wine, wheat, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets
> 
> Exports: $3.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing (1998)
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 13%, Germany 10%, Greece 9%, Turkey 8%, Russia (1998)
> 
> Imports: $5.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
> 
> Imports - partners: Russia 20%, Germany 14%, Italy 8%, Greece 6%, US 4% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $10 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA
> 
> Currency: 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
> 
> Exchange rates: leva (Lv) per US$1 - 1.9295 (January 2000), 1.8364 (1999), 1,760.36 (1998), 1,681.88 (1997), 177.89 (1996), 67.17 (1995)
> note: on 5 July 1999 the lev was re-denominated; the post-5 July 1999 lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-5 July 1999 leva
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 3.186 million (1999)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 300,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: more than two-thirds of the lines are residential
> domestic: extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages; a more modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital microwave
> international: direct dialing to 58 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); 2 Intelsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 24, FM 93, shortwave 2 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 4.51 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 33 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 3.31 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 20 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 4,294 km
> standard gauge: 4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track)
> narrow gauge: 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 36,759 km
> paved: 33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 2,941 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 470 km (1987)
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products 525 km; natural gas 1,500 km (1999)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 216 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 129
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 19
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 93 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 87
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
> 914 to 1,523 m: 10
> under 914 m: 75 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops, Railway and Construction Troops
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,913,857 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 1,599,379 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 57,461 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $379 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY99)
> 
> Military - note: the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a Rapid Reaction Force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Illicit drugs: major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals
------
Burkina_Faso|987888686
1c1,318
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and as such is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> 
> Location: Western Africa, north of Ghana
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 2 00 W
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 274,200 sq km
> land: 273,800 sq km
> water: 400 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Colorado
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 3,192 km
> border countries: Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m
> highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m
> 
> Natural resources: manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 13%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 22%
> forests and woodland: 50%
> other: 15% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 200 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recurring droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 11,946,065
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,866,361; female 2,822,990)
> 15-64 years: 49% (male 2,808,797; female 3,097,048)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 149,474; female 201,395) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 17.04 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 108.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 46.73 years
> male: 46.29 years
> female: 47.18 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural)
> adjective: Burkinabe
> 
> Ethnic groups: Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%
> 
> Languages: French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 19.2%
> male: 29.5%
> female: 9.2% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Burkina Faso
> former: Upper Volta
> 
> Data code: UV
> 
> Government type: parliamentary
> 
> Capital: Ouagadougou
> 
> Administrative divisions: 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo
> note: a new electoral code was approved by the National Assembly in January 1997; the number of administrative provinces was increased from 30 to 45 (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo), however, this change has not yet been approved by the US Board on Geographic Names
> 
> Independence: 5 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
> 
> Constitution: 2 June 1991 approved by referendum; 11 June 1991 formally adopted
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law system and customary law
> 
> Suffrage: universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987)
> head of government: Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the president may serve unlimited terms; election last held 15 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature
> election results: Blaise COMPAORE reelected president with 88% percent of the vote, with 56% of voter turnout
> note: despite his reelection, President COMPAORE faces a growing political crisis due to his mishandling of an investigation into the assassination of a newspaper editor and pressure for political reform
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (178 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms)
> elections: National Assembly election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Appeals Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: African Democratic Rally or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO, Clement SANOU]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO]; Group for Progressive Democrats or GDP [Issa TIENDREBEOGO]; Movement for Tolerance and Progress or MTP [Noyabtigungu Congo KABORE]; Party for African Independence or PAI [leader NA]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS [leader NA]; Union of Greens for the Development of Burkina Faso or UVDB [Ram OVEDRAGO]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA
> chancery: 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 332-5577
> FAX: [1] (202) 667-1882
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Jimmy J. KOLKER
> embassy: Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou
> mailing address: 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou
> telephone: [226] 306723 through 306725
> FAX: [226] 303890
> 
> Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2000-2001 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 36%
> industry: 20%
> services: 44% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.679 million (persons 10 years old and over, according to a sample survey taken in 1991)
> note: a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $277 million
> expenditures: $492 million, including capital expenditures of $233 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4.2% (1995)
> 
> Electricity - production: 225 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 64.44%
> hydro: 35.56%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 209 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock
> 
> Exports: $311 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cotton, animal products, gold
> 
> Exports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, Taiwan, France, Colombia, Italy, Mali
> 
> Imports: $572 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery, food products, petroleum
> 
> Imports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, US
> 
> Debt - external: $1.3 billion (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $484.1 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF franc is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 30,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: all services only fair
> domestic: microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 370,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 100,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the Cote d'Ivoire border and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya)
> narrow gauge: 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 12,506 km
> paved: 2,001 km
> unpaved: 10,505 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 33 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 2
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 31
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 13
> under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 2,500,962 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 1,282,483 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $66 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY96)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Burma|987888895
1c1,345
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG San Suu Kyi, under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, continues to have her activities restricted; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 22 00 N, 98 00 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 678,500 sq km
> land: 657,740 sq km
> water: 20,760 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 5,876 km
> border countries: Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
> 
> Coastline: 1,930 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
> 
> Terrain: central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Andaman Sea 0 m
> highest point: Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 15%
> permanent crops: 1%
> permanent pastures: 1%
> forests and woodland: 49%
> other: 34% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10,680 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 41,734,853
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 6,341,546; female 6,086,650)
> 15-64 years: 65% (male 13,565,379; female 13,764,242)
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 885,583; female 1,091,453) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.64% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 12.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 75.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 54.91 years
> male: 53.6 years
> female: 56.29 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Burmese (singular and plural)
> adjective: Burmese
> 
> Ethnic groups: Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5%
> 
> Religions: Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%
> 
> Languages: Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 83.1%
> male: 88.7%
> female: 77.7% (1995 est.)
> note: these are official statistics; estimates of functional literacy are likely closer to 30% (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Union of Burma
> conventional short form: Burma
> local long form: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar)
> local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw
> former: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
> 
> Data code: BM
> 
> Government type: military regime
> 
> Capital: Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
> 
> Administrative divisions: 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon*
> 
> Independence: 4 January 1948 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 4 January (1948)
> 
> Constitution: 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
> 
> Legal system: does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet
> elections: none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> elections: last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79
> 
> Judicial branch: limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
> 
> Political parties and leaders: National League for Democracy or NLD [AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary]; National Unity Party or NUP (proregime) [THA KYAW]; Union Solidarity and Development Association or USDA (proregime, a social and political organization) [THAN AUNG, general secretary]; and eight minor legal parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: All Burma Student Democratic Front or ABSDF; Kachin Independence Army or KIA; Karen National Union or KNU; National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma or NCGUB [Dr. SEIN WIN] consists of individuals legitimately elected to the People's Assembly but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; several Shan factions; United Wa State Army or UWSA
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador TIN WINN
> chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 332-9044
> FAX: [1] (202) 332-9046
> consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Permanent Charge d'Affaires Priscilla A. CLAPP
> embassy: 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon (GPO 521)
> mailing address: Box B, APO AP 96546
> telephone: [95] (1) 282055, 282182
> FAX: [95] (1) 280409
> 
> Flag description: red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last 11 years, 1989-99, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success. State enterprises remain highly inefficient and privatization efforts have stalled. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. The short-term outlook is for continued sluggish growth because of poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment, and the large trade deficit.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $59.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 59%
> industry: 11%
> services: 30% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 23% (1997 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 38% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 19.7 million (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 65%, industry 10%, services 25% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7.1% (official FY97/98 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $7.9 billion
> expenditures: $12.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.7 billion (FY96/97)
> 
> Industries: agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 4.31 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 61.72%
> hydro: 38.28%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 4.008 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood
> 
> Exports: $1.2 billion (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: pulses and beans, prawns, fish, rice; teak, opiates
> 
> Exports - partners: India 13%, China 11%, Singapore 10%, Thailand 8% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $2.5 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore 31%, Japan 12%, Thailand 12%, China 9%, Malaysia 8% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $5.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $99 million (FY98/99)
> 
> Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas
> 
> Exchange rates: kyats (K) per US$1 - official rate - 6.2665 (January 2000), 6.2858 (1999), 6.3432 (1998), 6.2418 (1997), 5.9176 (1996), 5.6670 (1995); kyats (K) per US$1 - market exchange rate - 330 (yearend 1999)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 158,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,007 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good
> domestic: NA
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 4.2 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1998)
> 
> Televisions: 260,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 0 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 3,991 km
> narrow gauge: 3,991 km 1.000-m gauge
> 
> Highways:
> total: 28,200 km
> paved: 3,440 km
> unpaved: 24,760 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 12,800 km; 3,200 km navigable by large commercial vessels
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,343 km; natural gas 330 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 472,284 GRT/716,533 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 13, cargo 20, container 2, passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 80 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 10
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 70
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13
> 914 to 1,523 m: 22
> under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 11,865,696
> females age 15-49: 11,894,661
> note: both sexes liable for military service (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 6,334,750
> females age 15-49: 6,334,937 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 483,964
> females: 468,221 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.1% (FY97/98)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: sporadic conflict with Thailand over alignment of border
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan (potential production in 1999 - 1,090 metric tons, down 38% due to drought; cultivation in 1999 - 89,500 hectares, a 31% decline from 1998); surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort; becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption
------
Burundi|987889435
1c1,317
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> Background: Between 1993 and 1999, ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds of thousands of refugees and left at least 250,000 dead. Although many refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued ethnic strife has forced others to flee. Burundian troops, seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 3 30 S, 30 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 27,830 sq km
> land: 25,650 sq km
> water: 2,180 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 974 km
> border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January
> 
> Terrain: hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Lake Tanganyika 772 m
> highest point: Mount Heha 2,670 m
> 
> Natural resources: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 44%
> permanent crops: 9%
> permanent pastures: 36%
> forests and woodland: 3%
> other: 8% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: flooding, landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 6,054,714
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,442,585; female 1,411,908)
> 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,485,177; female 1,541,754)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 71,998; female 101,292) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.15% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 40.46 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 16.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 7.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 71.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 46.18 years
> male: 45.23 years
> female: 47.16 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Burundian(s)
> adjective: Burundi
> 
> Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
> 
> Religions: Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
> 
> Languages: Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 35.3%
> male: 49.3%
> female: 22.5% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Burundi
> conventional short form: Burundi
> local long form: Republika y'u Burundi
> local short form: Burundi
> 
> Data code: BY
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Bujumbura
> 
> Administrative divisions: 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi
> note: there may be a new province named Mwaro
> 
> Independence: 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
> 
> Constitution: 13 March 1992; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on 6 June 1998 by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
> 
> Legal system: based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: NA years of age; universal adult
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> head of government: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by president
> elections: NA; current president assumed power following a coup on 25 July 1996 in which former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 29 June 1993 (next was scheduled to be held in 1998, but suspended by presidential decree in 1996)
> election results: percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71.04%, UPRONA 21.4%, other 7.56%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16, various other parties 40
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Luc RUKINGAMA, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president]
> note: opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Loosely organized Tutsi militias
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA
> chancery: Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> telephone: [1] (202) 342-2574
> FAX: [1] (202) 342-2578
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Mary Catlin YATES
> embassy: Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura
> mailing address: B. P. 1720, Bujumbura
> telephone: [257] (2) 223454
> FAX: [257] (2) 222926
> 
> Flag description: divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantely agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $730 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 46%
> industry: 17%
> services: 37% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 36.2% (1990 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 26% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 1.9 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, government 4%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $125 million
> expenditures: $176 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> 
> Industries: light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 127 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 1.57%
> hydro: 98.43%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 153 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 35 million kWh
> note: imports some electricity from Democratic Republic of the Congo (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides
> 
> Exports: $56 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, hides
> 
> Exports - partners: UK, Germany, Benelux, Switzerland (1998)
> 
> Imports: $108 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs
> 
> Imports - partners: Benelux, France, Zambia, Germany, Kenya, Japan (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.247 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Currency: 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Burundi francs (FBu) per US$1 - 626.79 (January 2000), 563.56 (1999), 477.77 (1998), 352.35 (1997), 302.75 (1996), 249.76 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 17,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 343 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: primitive system
> domestic: sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 440,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 25,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 14,480 km
> paved: 1,028 km
> unpaved: 13,452 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: Lake Tanganyika
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bujumbura
> 
> Airports: 4 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 3
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 16 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,344,177 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 701,367 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 76,866 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $25 million (FY93)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY93)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: none
------
Film_Noir|987889999
1c1
< A genre of film based in large part on the hard-boiled detective novels that grew out of naturalism, a movement in literature based on realism and concerned largely with the economic side effects of capitalism.  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include The Maltese Falcon, The Postman Always Rings Twice, Touch of Evil, Laura, and The Big Sleep.  More recent, modernized examples include Blood Simple, Blue Velvet, Taxi Driver, L.A. Confidential, and Blade Runner.
---
> A genre of film based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
------
Film_Noir|987890063
1c1
< A genre of film based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
---
> A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|987891113
5c5
< *2000 [[Russel Crowe]] - [[Gladiator]]
---
> *2000 [[Russell Crowe]] - [[Gladiator]]
------
Actors|987891243
2a3
> :[[F"." Murray Abraham]]
3a5
> :[[Roberto Benigni]]
12a15
> :[[Russell Crowe]]
29a33,34
> :[[William Hurt]]
> :[[Jeremy Irons]]
32a38
> :[[Daniel Day Lewis]]
40a47
> :[[Al Pacino]]
49a57,58
> :[[Geoffrey Rush]]
> :[[Kevin Spacey]]
------
Actors|987891402
3c3
< :[[F"." Murray Abraham]]
---
> :[[F Murray Abraham]]
7a8
> :[[Marlon Brando]]
11a13
> :[[Art Carney]]
16a19
> :[[Robert De Niro]]
18a22,23
> :[[Richard Dreyfuss]]
> :[[Robert Duvall]]
19a25
> :[[Peter Finch]]
27a34
> :[[Gene Hackman]]
35a43
> :[[Ben Kingsley]]
57a66
> :[[George C Scott]]
61a71
> :[[Jon Voight]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|987892136
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).  (But I did not)
------
What_is_a_wiki|987892182
1c1
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).  (But I did not)
---
> A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
------
Robert_De_Niro|987892265
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American actor who frequently appears in [[Martin Scorsese]] films.  Noted for his commitment to his roles, De Niro gained over 40 pounds for his portrayal of [[Jake Lamotta]] in [[Raging Bull]] and learned to play the [[saxophone]] for Scorsese's film [[New York, New York]].  Also noted for being one of two people winning an Oscar for portraying the same person:  he won for playing Vito Corleone in [[The Godfather, Part II]], whereas [[Marlon Brando]] won for the portrayal in [[The Godfather]].
------
Film_Genres|987892413
10c10
< :[[Film Noir]]
---
> :[[Film_Noir]]
------
Musical_Film|987892625
4,5d3
< :[[South Pacific]]
< :[[Oklahoma]]
7,8c5,6
< :[[Kiss Me Kate]]
< :[[The King and I]]
---
> :[[Everyone Says I love You]]
> :[[Fame]]
9a8,11
> :[[The King and I]]
> :[[Kiss Me Kate]]
> :[[My Fair Lady]]
> :[[Oklahoma]]
10a13,15
> :[[Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show]]
> :[[Saturday Night Fever]]
> :[[Singing in the Rain]]
11a17,18
> :[[South Pacific]]
> :[[Top Hat]]
13,17c20
< :[[My Fair Lady]]
< :[[Saturday Night Fever]]
< :[[Fame]]
< :[[Everyone Says I love You]]
< :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
---
> 
------
Documentary_Film|987893189
16a17,24
> 
> Contemporary Documentary filmmakers:
> * [[Errol Morris]] ([[The Thin Blue Line]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]])
> * [[Michael Moore]] ([[The Big One]], [[Roger and Me]])
> * [[Barbar Kopple]] ([[Wild Man Blues]], [[Harlan County U.S.A.]])
> * [[Steve James]] ([[Hoop Dreams]])
> * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brother's Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
> 
------
Documentary_Film|987893307
23c23
< * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brother's Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
---
> * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
------
Documentary_Film|987893335
23c23
< * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
---
> * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost-- The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
------
The_Simpsons/Bart|987894119
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Son of [[/Homer]] and [[/Marge]], Bart is a self-proclaimed underachiever who begins the show writing sentences on the blackboard.  Brother of [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]], Bart's interests include skateboarding, comic books, terrorizing his sisters, and prank calling [[/Moe]] at his tavern.
------
The_Simpsons/Marge|987894240
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], and being supportive of her children.  Briefly held a position as police officer.
------
The_Simpsons/Marge|987894292
1c1
< Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], and being supportive of her children.  Briefly held a position as police officer.
---
> Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], being supportive of [[/Lisa]], and either disciplining [[/Bart]] or defending him from Homer's rage.  Briefly held a position as police officer.
------
The_Simpsons/Marge|987894505
1c1
< Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], being supportive of [[/Lisa]], and either disciplining [[/Bart]] or defending him from Homer's rage.  Briefly held a position as police officer.
---
> Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], being supportive of [[/Lisa]], and either disciplining [[/Bart]] or defending him from Homer's rage.  Sisters include [[/Patty]] and [[/Selma]].  Briefly held a position as police officer.
------
Cambodia|987896943
1c1,332
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note: the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
> 
> ----
> Background: Following a five-year struggle, [[communist]] [[Khmer Rouge]] forces captured [[Phnom Penh]] in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 [[Vietnam]]ese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of fighting. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 105 00 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 181,040 sq km
> land: 176,520 sq km
> water: 4,520 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oklahoma
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 2,572 km
> border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
> 
> Coastline: 443 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: 200 nm
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
> 
> Terrain: mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
> highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
> 
> Natural resources: timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 13%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 11%
> forests and woodland: 66%
> other: 10% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 920 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> 
> Geography - note: a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 12,212,306
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 42% (male 2,610,009; female 2,505,932)
> 15-64 years: 55% (male 3,132,198; female 3,542,655)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 173,179; female 248,333) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.27% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 33.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 10.79 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 66.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 56.53 years
> male: 54.44 years
> female: 58.74 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Cambodian(s)
> adjective: Cambodian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
> 
> Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%
> 
> Languages: Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 35%
> male: 48%
> female: 22% (1990 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia
> conventional short form: Cambodia
> local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea
> local short form: Kampuchea
> 
> Data code: CB
> 
> Government type: multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
> 
> Capital: Phnom Penh
> 
> Administrative divisions: 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev
> note: there may be a new municipality called Pailin
> 
> Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
> 
> Constitution: promulgated 21 September 1993
> 
> Legal system: primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993)
> head of government: Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 30 November 1998)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch
> elections: none; the monarch is chosen by a Royal Throne Council; prime minister appointed by the monarch after a vote of confidence by the National Assembly
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral consists of the National Assembly (122 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; two members appointed by the monarch, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by "functional constituencies"; members serve five-year terms
> elections: National Assembly - last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); Senate - last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> election results: National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 41%, FUNCINPEC 32%, SRP 14%, other 13%; seats by party - CPP 64, FUNCINPEC 43, SRP 15; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CPP 31, FUNCINPEC 21, SRP 7
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997; a Supreme Court and lower courts exercise judicial authority
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Buddhist Liberal Party or BLP [IENG MOULY]; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Khmer Citizen Party or KCP [NGUON SOEUR]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP) [SAM RANGSI]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Roland ENG
> chancery: 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
> telephone: [1] (202) 726-7742
> FAX: [1] (202) 726-8381
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Kent M. WIEDEMANN
> embassy: 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh
> mailing address: Box P, APO AP 96546
> telephone: [855] (23) 216-436, 216-438
> FAX: [855] (23) 216-811
> 
> Flag description: three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 43%
> industry: 20%
> services: 37% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 36% (1997 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 6 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 80% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 2.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $327 million
> expenditures: $393 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> 
> Industries: garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 210 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 59.52%
> hydro: 40.48%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 195 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables
> 
> Exports: $821 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish
> 
> Exports - partners: US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US
> 
> Imports: $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand
> 
> Debt - external: $829 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $470 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors
> 
> Currency: 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen
> 
> Exchange rates: new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 21,800 (mid-1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 34,880 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service
> domestic: NA
> international: adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 1.34 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 94,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 603 km
> narrow gauge: 603 km 1.000-m gauge
> 
> Highways:
> total: 35,769 km
> paved: 4,165 km
> unpaved: 31,604 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 3,700 km navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing 1.8 m or less
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 211 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 953,105 GRT/1,345,766 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 19 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 6
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
> 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 13
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
> 914 to 1,523 m: 11 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), including Army, Navy, and Air Force - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies
> note: there are also resistance forces comprised of the Khmer Rouge (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate royalist resistance movement
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 2,763,568 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 1,547,078 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 156,119 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $85 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.4% (FY98)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin; possible money laundering; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market
------
Apocalypse_Now|987897057
1c1
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]]s [[Vietnam war]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the jungle and isolated from "civilization," has turned to cannibalism and murder, and is taken to be some sort of god.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow, in the novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporter (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Captain Willard is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the Cambodian jungle, has turned to cannibalism and murder and is worshipped by the natives.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow, in the novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporter (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Captain Willard is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death; also Marlow is sent here to Cambodia, not to the African Congo.
------
Apocalypse_Now|987897098
1c1
< [[Francis Ford Coppola]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the Cambodian jungle, has turned to cannibalism and murder and is worshipped by the natives.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow, in the novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporter (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Captain Willard is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death; also Marlow is sent here to Cambodia, not to the African Congo.
---
> [[Francis Ford Coppola]] film, based on [[Joseph Conrad]]s [[Heart of Darkness]], in which a taciturn soldier is sent to terminate an American colonel "with extreme prejudice."  The colonel, deep in the Cambodian jungle, has turned to cannibalism and murder and is worshipped by the natives.  Features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Willard (Marlow, in the novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Col. Kurtz, and [[Dennis Hopper]] as the reporter (the harlequin).  Deviates from the book in that Captain Willard is not sent to investigate, but to kill, and that Col. Kurtz does not die a natural though mysterious death; also Marlow is sent here to [[Cambodia]], not the [[African Congo]].
------
Cameroon|987897321
1c1,326
< Describe the new page here.
---
> note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
> 
> ----
> Background: The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.
> 
> ----
> Geography
> ----
> Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 N, 12 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 475,440 sq km
> land: 469,440 sq km
> water: 6,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 4,591 km
> border countries: Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
> 
> Coastline: 402 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> territorial sea: 50 nm
> 
> Climate: varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
> 
> Terrain: diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Fako 4,095 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 13%
> permanent crops: 2%
> permanent pastures: 4%
> forests and woodland: 78%
> other: 3% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 210 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
> 
> Environment - current issues: water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
> 
> ----
> People
> ----
> Population: 15,421,937
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 43% (male 3,326,334; female 3,251,402)
> 15-64 years: 54% (male 4,181,038; female 4,153,680)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 235,741; female 273,742) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 36.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 11.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 70.87 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 54.82 years
> male: 54.01 years
> female: 55.64 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.88 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Cameroonian(s)
> adjective: Cameroonian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
> 
> Languages: 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 63.4%
> male: 75%
> female: 52.1% (1995 est.)
> 
> ----
> Government
> ----
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Cameroon
> conventional short form: Cameroon
> former: French Cameroon
> 
> Data code: CM
> 
> Government type: unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
> note: preponderance of power remains with the president
> 
> Capital: Yaounde
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
> 
> Independence: 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration), 1 October 1961 (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 20 May (1972)
> 
> Constitution: 20 May 1972 approved by referendum; 2 June 1972 formally adopted
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982)
> head of government: Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
> election results: President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
> elections: last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled
> note: the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]; Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]; Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]; Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]; Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA
> chancery: 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 265-8790
> FAX: [1] (202) 387-3826
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador John M. YATES
> embassy: Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde
> mailing address: B. P. 817, Yaounde; pouch: American Embassy, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2520
> telephone: [237] 23-45-52
> FAX: [237] 23-07-53
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
> 
> ----
> Economy
> ----
> Economy - overview: Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $31.5 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 42%
> industry: 22%
> services: 36% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 40% (1984 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 70%, industry and commerce 13%, other 17%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 30% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $2.23 billion
> expenditures: $2.23 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
> 
> Industries: petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 3.285 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 2.59%
> hydro: 97.41%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 3.055 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber
> 
> Exports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 25%, Spain 20%, France 16%, Netherlands 7% (1997 est.)
> 
> Imports: $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machines and electrical equipment, transport equipment, fuel, food
> 
> Imports - partners: France 25%, Nigeria 8%, US 8%, Germany 6% (1997 est.)
> 
> Debt - external: $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $606.1 million (1995); note - France signed two loan agreements totaling $55 million in September 1997, and the Paris Club agreed in October 1997 to reduce the official debt by 50% and to reschedule it on favorable terms with a consolidation of payments due through 2000
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
> 
> ----
> Communications
> ----
> Telephones - main lines in use: 60,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,800 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: available only to business and government
> domestic: cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
> international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 2.27 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1998)
> 
> Televisions: 450,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
> 
> ----
> Transportation
> ----
> Railways:
> total: 1,104 km
> narrow gauge: 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 34,300 km
> paved: 4,288 km
> unpaved: 30,012 km (1995 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 2,090 km; of decreasing importance
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko
> 
> Airports: 50 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 11
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 39
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
> 914 to 1,523 m: 20
> under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.)
> 
> ----
> Military
> ----
> Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 3,653,548 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 1,847,871 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 169,661 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $155 million (FY98/99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (FY98/99)
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues
> ----
> Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone.
------
Bahamas|987897548
1,2c1
< the following comes from the CIA factbook and is public domain:
< ----
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
4,315c3,11
< Background: Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking and investment management. By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for drug trafficking, particularly shipments to the US.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 24 15 N, 76 00 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:
< total: 13,940 sq km
< land: 10,070 sq km
< water: 3,870 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Connecticut
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 3,542 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
< 
< Terrain: long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
< 
< Natural resources: salt, aragonite, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 1%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 32%
< other: 67% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
< 
< Environment - current issues: coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 294,982
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)
< 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)
< 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.01% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 19.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 6.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 16.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 71.07 years
< male: 68.25 years
< female: 73.94 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bahamian(s)
< adjective: Bahamian
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3%
< 
< Religions: Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2%
< 
< Languages: English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98.2%
< male: 98.5%
< female: 98% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas
< conventional short form: The Bahamas
< 
< Data code: BF
< 
< Government type: constitutional parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Nassau
< 
< Administrative divisions: 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
< 
< Independence: 10 July 1973 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 10 July (1973)
< 
< Constitution: 10 July 1973
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)
< head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; magistrate's courts
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM]; Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER
< chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
< FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
< consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER
< embassy: Queen Street, Nassau
< mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370
< telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181
< FAX: [1] (242) 356-0222
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.58 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 3% (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $20,000 (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 3%
< industry: 5%
< services: 92% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.3% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 148,000 (1996)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: tourism 40%, other services 50%, industry 5%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 9% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $766 million
< expenditures: $845 million, including capital expenditures of $97 million (FY97/98)
< 
< 
< Industries: tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.246 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: citrus, vegetables; poultry
< 
< Exports: $362.8 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products
< 
< Exports - partners: US 22.3%, Switzerland 15.6%, UK 15%, Denmark 7.4% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.74 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics
< 
< Imports - partners: US 27.3%, Italy 26.5%, Japan 10%, Denmark 4.2% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $349 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $9.8 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate pegged to the dollar)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 77,000 (1994)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,400 (1993)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed
< international: tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 215,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 67,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 2,693 km
< paved: 1,546 km
< unpaved: 1,147 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which are Norway 177, Greece 141, UK 113, US 61, Denmark 39, Finland 27, Japan 25, Sweden 24, France 22, and Italy 22 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 62 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 33
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
< 914 to 1,523 m: 12
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 29
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 7
< under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $20 million (FY95/96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering
---
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Bahamas/History|987897574
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking and investment management. By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for drug trafficking, particularly shipments to the US.
------
AlbaniaCommunications|987897646
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 810,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 405,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
------
Albania|987897715
13c13
< AlbaniaTransportations
---
> [[Albania/Transportation|Transportation]]
18,80d17
< 
< 
<                                        Communications
< 
<  
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999) 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist
< government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences 
< international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999) 
< 
< Radios: 810,000 (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999) 
< 
< Televisions: 405,000 (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999) 
< 
<                                         Transportation
< 
<  
< 
< Railways: 
< total: 670 km 
< standard gauge: 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1996) 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 18,000 km 
< paved: 5,400 km 
< unpaved: 12,600 km (1998 est.) 
< 
< Waterways: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Lake Ohrid, and Lake Prespa (1990) 
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 145 km; petroleum products 55 km; natural gas 64 km (1991) 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore 
< 
< Merchant marine: 
< total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 10,907 GRT/16,101 DWT 
< ships by type: cargo 6 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 10 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 3 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 7 
< over 3,047 m: 1 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 
< under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
------
Albania/Transportation|987897730
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 670 km standard gauge: 670 km 1.435-m gauge (1996)
> 
> Highways: total: 18,000 km paved: 5,400 km unpaved: 12,600 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 43 km plus Albanian sections of Lake Scutari, Lake Ohrid, and Lake Prespa (1990)
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 145 km; petroleum products 55 km; natural gas 64 km (1991)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Durres, Sarande, Shengjin, Vlore
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 10,907 GRT/16,101 DWT ships by type: cargo 6 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 10 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 3 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 7 over 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Albania|987897804
15c15,17
< AlbaniaMilitary
---
> [[Albania/Military|Military]]
> 
> [[Albania//Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
17d18
< AlbaniaTransnationalIssues
------
Albania/Military|987897820
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 856,820 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 701,194 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 35,508 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY99)
------
Albania|987897840
17c17
< [[Albania//Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
---
> [[Albania/Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Albania/Transnational_Issues|987897859
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government
> 
> Illicit drugs: increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route and - to a far lesser extent - cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production; ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe
------
Albania/Transnational_Issues|987897891
1c1
<  Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government
---
> Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government
------
Albania|987897926
17,51c17
< [[Albania/Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
< 
<                                           Military
< 
<  
< 
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards 
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 856,820 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 701,194 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
< males: 35,508 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $42 million (FY99) 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.5% (FY99) 
< 
<                                       Transnational Issues
< 
< 
< 
< Disputes - international: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but
< has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks
< independence from Serbian Republic; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education,
< access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government 
< 
< Illicit drugs: increasingly active transshipment point for Southwest Asian opiates, hashish, and cannabis transiting the Balkan route
< and - to a far lesser extent - cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe; limited opium and cannabis production;
< ethnic Albanian narcotrafficking organizations active and rapidly expanding in Europe 
---
> [[Albania/Transnational_Issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Bahamas/Geography|987898024
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 24 15 N, 76 00 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 13,940 sq km
> land: 10,070 sq km
> water: 3,870 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Connecticut
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 3,542 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
> 
> Terrain: long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
> 
> Natural resources: salt, aragonite, timber
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 1%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 32%
> other: 67% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
> 
> Environment - current issues: coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain
------
Bahamas/People|987898058
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 294,982
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)
> 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)
> 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.01% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 19.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 6.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 16.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 71.07 years
> male: 68.25 years
> female: 73.94 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Bahamian(s)
> adjective: Bahamian
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3%
> 
> Religions: Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2%
> 
> Languages: English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 98.2%
> male: 98.5%
> female: 98% (1995 est.)
------
Bahamas/Government|987898097
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas
> conventional short form: The Bahamas
> 
> Data code: BF
> 
> Government type: constitutional parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Nassau
> 
> Administrative divisions: 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
> 
> Independence: 10 July 1973 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 10 July (1973)
> 
> Constitution: 10 July 1973
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)
> head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; magistrate's courts
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM]; Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER
> chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
> FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
> consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER
> embassy: Queen Street, Nassau
> mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370
> telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181
> FAX: [1] (242) 356-0222
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side
------
Bahamas/Economy|987898136
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.58 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 3% (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $20,000 (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 3%
> industry: 5%
> services: 92% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.3% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 148,000 (1996)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: tourism 40%, other services 50%, industry 5%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 9% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $766 million
> expenditures: $845 million, including capital expenditures of $97 million (FY97/98)
> 
> 
> Industries: tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.246 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: citrus, vegetables; poultry
> 
> Exports: $362.8 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products
> 
> Exports - partners: US 22.3%, Switzerland 15.6%, UK 15%, Denmark 7.4% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.74 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics
> 
> Imports - partners: US 27.3%, Italy 26.5%, Japan 10%, Denmark 4.2% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $349 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $9.8 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate pegged to the dollar)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
------
Bahamas/Communications|987898171
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 77,000 (1994)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,400 (1993)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed
> international: tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 215,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 67,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Bahamas/Transportation|987898207
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 2,693 km
> paved: 1,546 km
> unpaved: 1,147 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which are Norway 177, Greece 141, UK 113, US 61, Denmark 39, Finland 27, Japan 25, Sweden 24, France 22, and Italy 22 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 62 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 33
> over 3,047 m: 2
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
> 914 to 1,523 m: 12
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 29
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 7
> under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bahamas/Military|987898241
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $20 million (FY95/96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
------
Bahamas/Transnational_issues|987898265
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering
------
Bahrain|987898319
1,2c1,12
< the following comes from the CIA factbook and is public domain:
< ----
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
Bahrain/History|987898337
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Background: Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Possessing minimal oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining, and has transformed itself into an international banking center. The new amir is pushing economic and political reforms, and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community.
> 
------
Bahrain/Geography|987898371
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 26 00 N, 50 33 E
> 
> Map references: Middle East
> 
> Area: total: 620 sq km land: 620 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 161 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: extending to boundaries to be determined territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m highest point: Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
> 
> Natural resources: oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
> 
> Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 6% forests and woodland: 0% other: 92% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: periodic droughts; dust storms
> 
> Environment - current issues: desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean
------
Bahrain|987898405
13d12
< Background: Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Possessing minimal oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining, and has transformed itself into an international banking center. The new amir is pushing economic and political reforms, and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community.
15,71d13
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 26 00 N, 50 33 E
< 
< Map references: Middle East
< 
< Area:
< total: 620 sq km
< land: 620 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 161 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: extending to boundaries to be determined
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
< highest point: Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
< 
< Natural resources: oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 1%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 6%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 92% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: periodic droughts; dust storms
< 
< Environment - current issues: desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
------
Bahrain/People|987898430
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 634,137 note: includes 228,424 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 96,240; female 93,846) 15-64 years: 67% (male 252,767; female 173,072) 65 years and over: 3% (male 9,270; female 8,942) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.78% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 3.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 1.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.46 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.04 male(s)/female total population: 1.3 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 20.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 72.98 years male: 70.58 years female: 75.45 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bahraini(s) adjective: Bahraini
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bahraini 63%, Asian 19%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%
> 
> Religions: Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25%
> 
> Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 85.2% male: 89.1% female: 79.4% (1995 est.)
------
Bahrain/Government|987898471
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: State of Bahrain conventional short form: Bahrain local long form: Dawlat al Bahrayn local short form: Al Bahrayn
> 
> Data code: BA
> 
> Government type: traditional monarchy
> 
> Capital: Manama
> 
> Administrative divisions: 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah note: all municipalities administered from Manama
> 
> Independence: 15 August 1971 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 16 December (1971)
> 
> Constitution: 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
> 
> Legal system: based on Islamic law and English common law
> 
> Suffrage: none
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 6 March 1999); Heir Apparent Crown Prince SALMAN bin Hamad (son of the monarch, born 21 October 1969) head of government: Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since NA 1971) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
> 
> Judicial branch: High Civil Appeals Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: political parties prohibited
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Shi'a activists have fomented unrest sporadically since late 1994, demanding the return of an elected National Assembly and an end to unemployment; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
> 
> International organization participation: ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Muhammad ABD AL-GHAFFAR Abdallah chancery: 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 342-0741 FAX: [1] (202) 362-2192 consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Johnny YOUNG embassy: Building Number 979, Road 3119 (next to Al-Ahli Sports Club), Block 311, Zinj District, Manama mailing address: American Embassy Manama, PSC 451, FPO AE 09834-5100; International Mail: American Embassy, Box 26431, Manama telephone: [973] 273-300 FAX: [973] 272-594
> 
> Flag description: red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side
------
Bahrain|987898505
13,124d12
< 
< Population: 634,137
< note: includes 228,424 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 96,240; female 93,846)
< 15-64 years: 67% (male 252,767; female 173,072)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 9,270; female 8,942) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.78% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 3.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 1.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.46 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 1.04 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.3 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 20.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 72.98 years
< male: 70.58 years
< female: 75.45 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bahraini(s)
< adjective: Bahraini
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bahraini 63%, Asian 19%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%
< 
< Religions: Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25%
< 
< Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 85.2%
< male: 89.1%
< female: 79.4% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: State of Bahrain
< conventional short form: Bahrain
< local long form: Dawlat al Bahrayn
< local short form: Al Bahrayn
< 
< Data code: BA
< 
< Government type: traditional monarchy
< 
< Capital: Manama
< 
< Administrative divisions: 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah
< note: all municipalities administered from Manama
< 
< Independence: 15 August 1971 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 16 December (1971)
< 
< Constitution: 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
< 
< Legal system: based on Islamic law and English common law
< 
< Suffrage: none
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 6 March 1999); Heir Apparent Crown Prince SALMAN bin Hamad (son of the monarch, born 21 October 1969)
< head of government: Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since NA 1971)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the monarch
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
< 
< Judicial branch: High Civil Appeals Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: political parties prohibited
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Shi'a activists have fomented unrest sporadically since late 1994, demanding the return of an elected National Assembly and an end to unemployment; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
< 
< International organization participation: ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Muhammad ABD AL-GHAFFAR Abdallah
< chancery: 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 342-0741
< FAX: [1] (202) 362-2192
< consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Johnny YOUNG
< embassy: Building Number 979, Road 3119 (next to Al-Ahli Sports Club), Block 311, Zinj District, Manama
< mailing address: American Embassy Manama, PSC 451, FPO AE 09834-5100; International Mail: American Embassy, Box 26431, Manama
< telephone: [973] 273-300
< FAX: [973] 272-594
< 
< Flag description: red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
------
Bahrain/Economy|987898530
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $13,700 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 46% services: 53% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 295,000 (1998 est.) note: 44% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry, commerce, and service 79%, government 20%, agriculture 1% (1997 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 15% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $1.5 billion expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> 
> Industries: petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 3.4% (1995)
> 
> Electricity - production: 4.77 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.09 billion kWh (1999)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
> 
> Exports: $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
> 
> Exports - partners: India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
> 
> Imports - partners: Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $2 billion (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $48.4 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
> 
> Exchange rates: Bahraini dinars (BD) per US$1 - 0.3760 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Bahrain/Transportation|987898561
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 338,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Bahrain/Communications|987898610
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 338,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Bahrain/Transportation|987898648
1c1
< Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
---
> Railways: 0 km
3c3
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
---
> Highways: total: 3,164 km paved: 2,433 km unpaved: 731 km (1998 est.) note: there is a paved causeway connecting Bahrain to Saudi Arabia
5c5
< Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
---
> Pipelines: crude oil 56 km; petroleum products 16 km; natural gas 32 km
7c7
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
---
> Ports and harbors: Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah
9c9
< Radios: 338,000 (1997)
---
> Merchant marine: total: 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 228,273 GRT/304,654 DWT ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 3, container 2, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
11c11
< Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
---
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
13c13
< Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
---
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 over 3,047 m: 2 (1999 est.)
15c15,17
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bahrain/Military|987898689
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 15 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 221,109 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 121,442 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 5,699 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $318 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.2% (FY99)
------
Bahrain/Transnational_issues|987898727
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: the territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary dispute with Qatar are currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
------
Bahrain|987898748
12,163d11
< 
< Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.6 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $13,700 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 1%
< industry: 46%
< services: 53% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 295,000 (1998 est.)
< note: 44% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: industry, commerce, and service 79%, government 20%, agriculture 1% (1997 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 15% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $1.5 billion
< expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
< 
< Industries: petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 3.4% (1995)
< 
< Electricity - production: 4.77 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.09 billion kWh (1999)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
< 
< Exports: $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
< 
< Exports - partners: India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
< 
< Imports - partners: Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $2 billion (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $48.4 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
< 
< Exchange rates: Bahraini dinars (BD) per US$1 - 0.3760 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections
< domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones
< international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 338,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 3,164 km
< paved: 2,433 km
< unpaved: 731 km (1998 est.)
< note: there is a paved causeway connecting Bahrain to Saudi Arabia
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 56 km; petroleum products 16 km; natural gas 32 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 228,273 GRT/304,654 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 3, container 2, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 2
< over 3,047 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 15 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 221,109 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 121,442 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 5,699 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $318 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.2% (FY99)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: the territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary dispute with Qatar are currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
< 
------
Baker_Island|987898781
0a1,12
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
Baker_Island/Geography|987898808
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 0 13 N, 176 31 W
> 
> Map references: Oceania
> 
> Area: total: 1.4 sq km land: 1.4 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 4.8 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
> 
> Terrain: low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 8 m
> 
> Natural resources: guano (deposits worked until 1891)
> 
> Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100%
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> 
> Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources
> 
> Geography - note: treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
------
Baker_Island/People|987898825
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Population: uninhabited note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Baker_Island/Government|987898846
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Baker Island
> 
> Data code: FQ
> 
> Dependency status: unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> 
> Legal system: NA
> 
> Flag description: the flag of the US is used
------
Baker_Island/Economy|987898880
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: no economic activity
------
Baker_Island/Transportation|987898892
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
> 
> Airports: 1 abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m, completely covered with vegetation and unusable
> 
> Transportation - note: there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
------
Baker_Island/Military|987898920
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
------
Baker_Island/Transnational_issues|987898932
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
Baker_Island/Communications|987898995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]]s report
------
Baker_Island/Communications|987899037
1c1
< <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]]s report
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]]s report</i>
------
Baker_Island/History|987899049
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]]s report</i>
------
Baker_Island|987899109
12,105d11
< 
< Geography
< ----
< 
< Location: Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 0 13 N, 176 31 W
< 
< Map references: Oceania
< 
< Area:
< total: 1.4 sq km
< land: 1.4 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 4.8 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
< 
< Terrain: low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
< highest point: unnamed location 8 m
< 
< Natural resources: guano (deposits worked until 1891)
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 100%
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
< 
< Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources
< 
< Geography - note: treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: uninhabited
< note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Baker Island
< 
< Data code: FQ
< 
< Dependency status: unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
< 
< Legal system: NA
< 
< Flag description: the flag of the US is used
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: no economic activity
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
< 
< Airports: 1 abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m, completely covered with vegetation and unusable
< 
< Transportation - note: there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Bangladesh|987899154
1c1,11
< note:  the following information came from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Bangladesh/History|987899181
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
------
Bangladesh/History|987899200
1c1
<  Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
---
> Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
------
Bangladesh/Geography|987899228
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 24 00 N, 90 00 E
> 
> Map references: Asia
> 
> Area: total: 144,000 sq km land: 133,910 sq km water: 10,090 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Wisconsin
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 4,246 km border countries: Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
> 
> Coastline: 580 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 18 nm continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m
> 
> Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber
> 
> Land use: arable land: 73% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 15% other: 5% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 31,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
> 
> Environment - current issues: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
> 
------
Bangladesh/People|987899255
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 129,194,224 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 36% (male 24,055,675; female 22,918,354) 15-64 years: 60% (male 39,924,040; female 37,992,459) 65 years and over: 4% (male 2,342,134; female 1,961,562) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.59% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 25.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.19 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 71.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.16 years male: 60.4 years female: 59.91 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bangladeshi(s) adjective: Bangladesh
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million
> 
> Religions: Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2%
> 
> Languages: Bangla (official), English
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 38.1% male: 49.4% female: 26.1% (1995 est.)
------
Bangladesh/Government|987899289
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh conventional short form: Bangladesh former: East Pakistan
> 
> Data code: BG
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Dhaka
> 
> Administrative divisions: 5 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi note: there may be one additional division named Sylhet
> 
> Independence: 16 December 1971 (from Pakistan)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 26 March (1971)
> 
> Constitution: 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Shahabuddin AHMED (since 9 October 1996); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996) cabinet: Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president elections: president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president election results: Shahabuddin AHMED elected president without opposition; percent of National Parliament vote - NA
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms) elections: last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001) election results: percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held for 1 seat; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA Wajed]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIAur Rahman]; Jamaat-E-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiyo Party or JP [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB? , C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Khwaja Mohammad SHEHABUDDIN chancery: 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007 telephone: [1] (202) 342-8372 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John C. HOLZMAN embassy: Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212 mailing address: G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000 telephone: [880] (2) 884700 through 884722 FAX: [880] (2) 883744
> 
> Flag description: green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam
------
Bangladesh|987899317
13,180d12
< Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 24 00 N, 90 00 E
< 
< Map references: Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 144,000 sq km
< land: 133,910 sq km
< water: 10,090 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Wisconsin
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 4,246 km
< border countries: Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
< 
< Coastline: 580 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 18 nm
< continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m
< 
< Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 73%
< permanent crops: 2%
< permanent pastures: 5%
< forests and woodland: 15%
< other: 5% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 31,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
< 
< Environment - current issues: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 129,194,224 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 36% (male 24,055,675; female 22,918,354)
< 15-64 years: 60% (male 39,924,040; female 37,992,459)
< 65 years and over: 4% (male 2,342,134; female 1,961,562) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.59% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 25.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 1.19 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 71.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 60.16 years
< male: 60.4 years
< female: 59.91 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bangladeshi(s)
< adjective: Bangladesh
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million
< 
< Religions: Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2%
< 
< Languages: Bangla (official), English
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 38.1%
< male: 49.4%
< female: 26.1% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh
< conventional short form: Bangladesh
< former: East Pakistan
< 
< Data code: BG
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Dhaka
< 
< Administrative divisions: 5 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi
< note: there may be one additional division named Sylhet
< 
< Independence: 16 December 1971 (from Pakistan)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 26 March (1971)
< 
< Constitution: 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Shahabuddin AHMED (since 9 October 1996); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections
< head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996)
< cabinet: Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president
< elections: president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president
< election results: Shahabuddin AHMED elected president without opposition; percent of National Parliament vote - NA
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
< election results: percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held for 1 seat; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA Wajed]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIAur Rahman]; Jamaat-E-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiyo Party or JP [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Khwaja Mohammad SHEHABUDDIN
< chancery: 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
< telephone: [1] (202) 342-8372
< consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador John C. HOLZMAN
< embassy: Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212
< mailing address: G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000
< telephone: [880] (2) 884700 through 884722
< FAX: [880] (2) 883744
< 
< Flag description: green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
------
Bangladesh/Economy|987899373
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. The economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the country's reliance on large-scale international aid. So far the East Asian financial crisis has not had major impact on the economy.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $187 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,470 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 30% industry: 17% services: 53% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 35.6% (FY95/96 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 4.1% highest 10%: 23.7% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 56 million (1995-96) note: extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, Malaysia, and Singapore
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 63%, services 26%, industry 11% (FY95/96)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 35.2% (1996)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $4.3 billion expenditures: $6.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 2.5% (1997 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 12.5 billion kWh (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 98% hydro: 2% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1999)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 11.039 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1999)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1999)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit
> 
> Exports: $5.1 billion (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood
> 
> Exports - partners: US 33%, Germany 10%, UK 9%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $8.01 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food, crude oil and petroleum products, cement
> 
> Imports - partners: India 12%, China 9%, Japan 7%, Hong Kong 6%, South Korea 6% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $16.5 billion (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.475 billion (FY96/97)
> 
> Currency: 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha
> 
> Exchange rates: taka (Tk) per US$1 - 51.000 (January 2000), 49.085 (1999), 46.906 (1998), 43.892 (1997), 41.794 (1996), 40.278 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
------
Bangladesh/Communications|987899384
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 470,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 41,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave, and some fiber-optic cable in cities international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 6.15 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 15 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 770,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 6 (1999)
------
Bangladesh/Transportation|987899457
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 2,745 km broad gauge: 923 km 1.676-m gauge narrow gauge: 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (1998 est.)
> 
> Highways: total: 201,182 km paved: 19,112 km unpaved: 182,070 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 5,150-8,046 km navigable waterways (includes 2,575-3,058 km main cargo routes)
> 
> Pipelines: natural gas 1,220 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 36 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 284,489 GRT/405,845 DWT ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 28, container 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 16 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 16 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
------
Bangladesh/Military|987899491
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 34,683,414 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 20,565,193 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $559 million (FY96/97)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96/97)
------
Bangladesh/Transnational_issues|987899518
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New? Moore Island
> 
> Illicit drugs: transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
------
Bangladesh|987899529
12,162d11
< 
< Economy - overview: Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. The economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the country's reliance on large-scale international aid. So far the East Asian financial crisis has not had major impact on the economy.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $187 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,470 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 30%
< industry: 17%
< services: 53% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 35.6% (FY95/96 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 4.1%
< highest 10%: 23.7% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 56 million (1995-96)
< note: extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, Malaysia, and Singapore
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 63%, services 26%, industry 11% (FY95/96)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 35.2% (1996)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $4.3 billion
< expenditures: $6.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 2.5% (1997 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 12.5 billion kWh (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 98%
< hydro: 2%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1999)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 11.039 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1999)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1999)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit
< 
< Exports: $5.1 billion (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood
< 
< Exports - partners: US 33%, Germany 10%, UK 9%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $8.01 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food, crude oil and petroleum products, cement
< 
< Imports - partners: India 12%, China 9%, Japan 7%, Hong Kong 6%, South Korea 6% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $16.5 billion (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.475 billion (FY96/97)
< 
< Currency: 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha
< 
< Exchange rates: taka (Tk) per US$1 - 51.000 (January 2000), 49.085 (1999), 46.906 (1998), 43.892 (1997), 41.794 (1996), 40.278 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 470,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 41,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave, and some fiber-optic cable in cities
< international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 6.15 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 15 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 770,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 6 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 2,745 km
< broad gauge: 923 km 1.676-m gauge
< narrow gauge: 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (1998 est.)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 201,182 km
< paved: 19,112 km
< unpaved: 182,070 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 5,150-8,046 km navigable waterways (includes 2,575-3,058 km main cargo routes)
< 
< Pipelines: natural gas 1,220 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 36 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 284,489 GRT/405,845 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 28, container 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 16 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 16
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 34,683,414 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 20,565,193 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $559 million (FY96/97)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96/97)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New Moore Island
< 
< Illicit drugs: transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
< 
------
Barbados|987899565
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Barbados/History|987899629
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: The island was uninhabited when first settled by the British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
------
Barbados/Geography|987899649
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 10 N, 59 32 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area: total: 430 sq km land: 430 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 97 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to October)
> 
> Terrain: relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, fish, natural gas
> 
> Land use: arable land: 37% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 12% other: 46% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity
> 
> Geography - note: easternmost Caribbean island
------
Barbados/People|987899693
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 274,540 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 22% (male 30,687; female 30,172) 15-64 years: 69% (male 92,241; female 96,866) 65 years and over: 9% (male 9,506; female 15,068) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.55% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 14.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 8.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 12.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73 years male: 70.43 years female: 75.6 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial) adjective: Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 80%, white 4%, other 16%
> 
> Religions: Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, other 12%
> 
> Languages: English
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 97.4% male: 98% female: 96.8% (1995 est.)
------
Barbados/Government|987899714
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Barbados
> 
> Data code: BB
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy; independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth
> 
> Capital: Bridgetown
> 
> Administrative divisions: 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas note: the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
> 
> Independence: 30 November 1966 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
> 
> Constitution: 30 November 1966
> 
> Legal system: English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996) head of government: Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: House of Assembly - last held 20 January 1999 (next to be held by January 2004) election results: House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 26, DLP 2
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Judicature (judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service)
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Barbados Workers Union [Leroy TROTMAN]; Clement Payne Labor Union [David COMMISSIONG]; People's Progressive Movement [Eric SEALY]; Worker's Party of Barbados [Dr. George BELLE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Courtney N. BLACKMAN chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200 consulate(s) general: Miami and New York consulate(s): Los Angeles
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d' Affairs Roland BULLEN embassy: Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown mailing address: P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055 telephone: [1] (246) 436-4950 FAX: [1] (246) 429-5246
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
------
Barbados/Economy|987899751
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
>  Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.4% (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $11,200 (1998 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4.9% industry: 15.6% services: 79.5% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.7% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 136,000 (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 12% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $725.5 million expenditures: $750.6 million, including capital expenditures of $126.3 million (FY97/98 est.)
> 
> Industries: tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 0.8% (1996)
> 
> Electricity - production: 672 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 625 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
> 
> Exports: $211.2 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 14.8%, US 11.6%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.6%, Venezuela 6.1%, Jamaica 5.8% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.01 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components
> 
> Imports - partners: US 30.7%, Trinidad and Tobago 10.2%, Japan 8.3%, UK 7.7%, Canada 2.2% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $550 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $9.1 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Barbadian dollars (Bds$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate pegged to the US dollar)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
Barbados/Communications|987899763
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 90,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,614 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: island-wide automatic telephone system international: satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 237,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus two cable channels) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 76,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Barbados/Transportation|987899775
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 1,600 km paved: 1,578 km unpaved: 22 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bridgetown, Speightstown (Port Charles Marina)
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 47 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 654,580 GRT/1,103,780 DWT ships by type: bulk 10, cargo 29, combination bulk 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Canada owns 2 ships, Hong Kong 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Barbados/Military|987899803
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 77,789 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 53,472 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
------
Barbados/Transnational_issues|987899816
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
------
Barbados|987899839
12,318d11
< 
< Background: The island was uninhabited when first settled by the British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 10 N, 59 32 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:
< total: 430 sq km
< land: 430 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 97 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to October)
< 
< Terrain: relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, fish, natural gas
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 37%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 5%
< forests and woodland: 12%
< other: 46% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
< signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity
< 
< Geography - note: easternmost Caribbean island
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 274,540 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 22% (male 30,687; female 30,172)
< 15-64 years: 69% (male 92,241; female 96,866)
< 65 years and over: 9% (male 9,506; female 15,068) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.55% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 14.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 12.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 73 years
< male: 70.43 years
< female: 75.6 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial)
< adjective: Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 80%, white 4%, other 16%
< 
< Religions: Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, other 12%
< 
< Languages: English
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
< total population: 97.4%
< male: 98%
< female: 96.8% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Barbados
< 
< Data code: BB
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy; independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth
< 
< Capital: Bridgetown
< 
< Administrative divisions: 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas
< note: the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
< 
< Independence: 30 November 1966 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
< 
< Constitution: 30 November 1966
< 
< Legal system: English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996)
< head of government: Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: House of Assembly - last held 20 January 1999 (next to be held by January 2004)
< election results: House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 26, DLP 2
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Judicature (judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service)
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Barbados Workers Union [Leroy TROTMAN]; Clement Payne Labor Union [David COMMISSIONG]; People's Progressive Movement [Eric SEALY]; Worker's Party of Barbados [Dr. George BELLE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Courtney N. BLACKMAN
< chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200
< consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
< consulate(s): Los Angeles
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d' Affairs Roland BULLEN
< embassy: Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown
< mailing address: P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055
< telephone: [1] (246) 436-4950
< FAX: [1] (246) 429-5246
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4.4% (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $11,200 (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 4.9%
< industry: 15.6%
< services: 79.5% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.7% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 136,000 (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 12% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $725.5 million
< expenditures: $750.6 million, including capital expenditures of $126.3 million (FY97/98 est.)
< 
< Industries: tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 0.8% (1996)
< 
< Electricity - production: 672 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 625 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
< 
< Exports: $211.2 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 14.8%, US 11.6%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.6%, Venezuela 6.1%, Jamaica 5.8% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.01 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components
< 
< Imports - partners: US 30.7%, Trinidad and Tobago 10.2%, Japan 8.3%, UK 7.7%, Canada 2.2% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $550 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $9.1 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Barbadian dollars (Bds$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate pegged to the US dollar)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 90,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,614 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: island-wide automatic telephone system
< international: satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 237,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus two cable channels) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 76,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 1,600 km
< paved: 1,578 km
< unpaved: 22 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bridgetown, Speightstown (Port Charles Marina)
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 47 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 654,580 GRT/1,103,780 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 10, cargo 29, combination bulk 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Canada owns 2 ships, Hong Kong 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 77,789 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 53,472 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
------
Bassas_da_India|987899869
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Belarus|987899898
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Belgium|987899924
0a1,12
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
Belize|987899964
1c1,11
< note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Benin|987899989
1,2c1,12
< note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
< ----
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
Bermuda|987900007
1c1,11
< note:  the folowing information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Bhutan|987900035
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Bolivia|987900049
1c1,11
< note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina|987900075
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Botswana|987900096
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Bouvet_Island|987900126
1c1,11
< note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
------
Brazil|987900157
0a1,12
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
281a294
> 
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory|987900170
1c1,12
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
3d13
< ----
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British_Virgin_Islands|987900199
1c1,11
< note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
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Brunei|987900211
1c1,11
< note:  the following comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
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Bulgaria|987900236
3,5c3,14
< ----
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
< ----
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
Burkina_Faso|987900268
1c1,11
< note:  the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and as such is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
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Burma|987900280
1c1,11
< note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
268a278
> 
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Burundi|987900292
1c1,11
< note: the following information comes from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cambodia|987900325
1c1,11
< note: the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
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Cameroon|987900338
1c1,11
< note:  the following information is from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
3d12
< ----
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Bahrain/History|987900403
1c1
<  Background: Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Possessing minimal oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining, and has transformed itself into an international banking center. The new amir is pushing economic and political reforms, and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community.
---
> Background: Bahrain's small size and central location among Persian Gulf countries require it to play a delicate balancing act in foreign affairs among its larger neighbors. Possessing minimal oil reserves, Bahrain has turned to petroleum processing and refining, and has transformed itself into an international banking center. The new amir is pushing economic and political reforms, and has worked to improve relations with the Shi'a community.
------
Bahrain/Economy|987900481
1c1
<  Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
---
> Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
------
Baker_Island/People|987900538
1c1,2
<  Population: uninhabited note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
---
> Population: uninhabited
> note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Baker_Island/People|987900556
1a2
> 
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Bangladesh/Military|987900627
1c1
<  Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
------
Barbados/Economy|987900672
1c1
<  Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
---
> Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
------
Bassas_da_India/History|987900729
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]]s report</i>
------
Bassas_da_India/Geography|987900806
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 21 30 S, 39 50 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 0.2 sq km land: 0.2 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 35.2 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical
> 
> Terrain: volcanic rock
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 2.4 m
> 
> Natural resources: none
> 
> Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (all rock)
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
------
Bassas_da_India/People|987900817
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Bassas_da_India/Government|987900831
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bassas da India
> 
> Data code: BS
> 
> Dependency status: possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> 
> Flag description: the flag of France is used
------
Bassas_da_India/Economy|987900870
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: no economic activity
------
Bassas_da_India/Transportation|987900886
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
------
Bassas_da_India/Military|987900897
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
------
Bassas_da_India/Transnational_issues|987900907
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: claimed by Madagascar
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Belarus/History|987900981
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to implement the accord.
------
Belarus/Geography|987901001
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Eastern Europe, east of Poland
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 53 00 N, 28 00 E
> 
> Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
> 
> Area: total: 207,600 sq km land: 207,600 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Kansas
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 3,098 km border countries: Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
> 
> Terrain: generally flat and contains much marshland
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Nyoman River 90 m highest point: Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
> 
> Natural resources: forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
> 
> Land use: arable land: 29% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 15% forests and woodland: 34% other: 21% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change, Law of the Sea
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
------
Belarus/People|987901025
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 10,366,719 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 19% (male 982,959; female 942,062) 15-64 years: 68% (male 3,411,684; female 3,614,453) 65 years and over: 13% (male 466,929; female 948,632) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: -0.17% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 9.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 13.96 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 3.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.49 male(s)/female total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 68 years male: 61.83 years female: 74.48 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Belarusian(s) adjective: Belarusian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9%
> 
> Religions: Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.)
> 
> Languages: Byelorussian, Russian, other
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 99% female: 97% (1989 est.)
------
Belarus/Government|987901056
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Belarus conventional short form: Belarus local long form: Respublika Byelarus' local short form: none former: Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic
> 
> Data code: BO
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Minsk
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk) note: voblasti have the administrative center name following in parentheses
> 
> Independence: 25 August 1991 (Belarusian Supreme Soviet declaration of independence from the Soviet Union)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 3 July (1944); note - represents Minsk liberation from German occupation
> 
> Constitution: 30 March 1994; revised by national referendum of 24 November 1996 giving the presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994) head of government: Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 2 December 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997), Ural LATYPOV (since 30 December 1997), Gennadiy NOVITSKIY (since 11 February 1997), Leonid KOZIK (since 4 February 1997), Aleksandr POPKOV (since 10 November 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA; according to the 1994 constitution, the next election should have been held in 1999, however LUKASHENKO extended his term to 2001 via the November 1996 referendum); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president election results: Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15% note: first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki (64 seats; eight appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the former Supreme Soviet which LUKASHENKO disbanded in November 1996) elections: last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; disbanded after the November 1996 referendum; next to be held NA) election results: after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, acting chairman]; Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Green Party or BPZ [Mikalay KARTASH, chairman]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Vintsuk VYACHORKA, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hramada [Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Socialist Party [Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairperson]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Party of Communists Belarusian or PKB [Sergei KALYAKIN, chairman]; Party of Popular Accord or PPA [Leanid SECHKA]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatoliy NETYLKIN, chairman]; Women's Party Nadezhda [Valentina POLEVIKOVA, chairperson]
> 
> International organization participation: CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO? (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Valery TSEPAKO chancery: 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009 telephone: [1] (202) 986-1604 FAX: [1] (202) 986-1805 consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Daniel V. SPECKHARD embassy: Starovilenskaya #46-220002, Minsk mailing address: use embassy street address telephone: [375] (17) 231-5000 FAX: [375] (17) 234-7853
> 
> Flag description: red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears the Belarusian national ornament in red
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Belarus/Economy|987901086
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO re-imposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 23% industry: 28% services: 49% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 22% (1995 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 4.9% highest 10%: 19.4% (1993)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 295% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.3 million (1998)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: industry and construction NA%, agriculture and forestry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 2.3% officially registered unemployed (December 1998); large number of underemployed workers
> 
> Budget: revenues: $4 billion expenditures: $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earth movers, motorcycles, TV sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 21.893 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 99.89% hydro: 0.11% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 28.66 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 2.3 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 10.6 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
> 
> Exports: $6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
> 
> Exports - partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania (1998)
> 
> Imports: $6.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, foodstuffs
> 
> Imports - partners: Russia 54%, Ukraine, Germany, Poland, Lithuania (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.1 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $194.3 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: Belarusian rubel (BR)
> 
> Exchange rates: Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 730,000 (15 December 1999), 139,000 (25 January 1999), 46,080 (2nd qtr 1998), 25,964 (1997), 15,500 (yearend 1996), 11,500 (yearend 1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
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Belarus/Communications|987901105
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 2.537 million (1997)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 8,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly domestic: local - Minsk has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational international: Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 3.02 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 17 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 2.52 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
> 
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Belarus/Transportation|987901124
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 5,563 km broad gauge: 5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
> 
> Highways: total: 63,355 km paved: 60,567 km unpaved: 2,788 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: NA km; note - Belarus has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Mazyr
> 
> Airports: 118 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 36 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 18 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 under 914 m: 11 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 82 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 9 under 914 m: 62 (1996 est.)
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Belarus/Military|987901142
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,714,420 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 2,126,655 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 82,720 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $156 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY98)
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Belarus/Transnational_issues|987901155
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to and via Russia, and to the Baltics and Western Europe
------
Belgium/History|987901295
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> Background: Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.
------
Belgium/Geography|987901314
1c1,35
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> Location: Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 50 50 N, 4 00 E
> 
> Map references: Europe
> 
> Area: total: 30,510 sq km land: 30,230 sq km water: 280 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about the size of Maryland
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 1,385 km border countries: France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
> 
> Coastline: 66 km
> 
> Maritime claims: continental shelf: median line with neighbors exclusive fishing zone: median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast) territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy
> 
> Terrain: flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: North Sea 0 m highest point: Signal de Botrange 694 m
> 
> Natural resources: coal, natural gas
> 
> Land use: arable land: 24% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 20% forests and woodland: 21% other: 34%
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
> 
> Environment - current issues: the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO
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Belgium/People|987901343
1c1,29
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---
> Population: 10,241,506 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 18% (male 919,445; female 877,896) 15-64 years: 66% (male 3,386,193; female 3,334,081) 65 years and over: 16% (male 701,842; female 1,022,049) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.18% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 10.91 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 10.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 77.8 years male: 74.47 years female: 81.3 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Belgian(s) adjective: Belgian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25%
> 
> Languages: Dutch 58%, French 32%, German 10%, legally bilingual
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: NA% female: NA%
------
Belgium/Government|987901499
1c1,37
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> Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Belgium conventional short form: Belgium local long form: Royaume de [[Belgique/Koninkrijk]] Belgie local short form: [[Belgique/Belgie]]
> 
> Data code: BE
> 
> Government type: federal parliamentary [[democracy]] under a constitutional monarch
> 
> Capital: Brussels
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant Wallon, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, Vlaams Brabant, West-Vlaanderen note: the Brussels Capital Region is not included within the 10 provinces
> 
> Independence: 4 October 1830 (from the Netherlands)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD I to the throne in 1831)
> 
> Constitution: 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
> 
> Legal system: civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the monarch head of government: Prime Minister Guy VERHOFSTADT (since 13 July 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch and approved by Parliament elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch and then approved by Parliament note: government coalition - VLD, PRL, PS, SP, AGALEV, and ECOLO
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Dutch, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected by popular vote, 31 are indirectly elected; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Dutch, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held in NA 2003) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - VLD 15.4%, CVP 14.7%, PRL 10.6%, PS 9.7%, VB 9.4%, SP 8.9%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.1%, PSC 6.0%, VU 5.1%; seats by party - VLD 11, CVP 10, PS 10, PRL 9, VB 6, SP 6, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, PSC 5, VU 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - VLD 14.3%, CVP 14.1%, PS 10.2%, PRL 10.1%, VB 9.9%, SP 9.5%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.0%, PSC 5.9%, VU 5.6%; seats by party - VLD 23, CVP 22, PS 19, PRL 18, VB 15, SP 14, ECOLO 11, PSC 10, AGALEV 9, VU 8, FN 1 note: as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Dutch, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch
> 
> Political parties and leaders: AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [Wilfried BERVOETS]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Stefaan DE CLERCK, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Karel DE GUCHT, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Patrick JANSSENS, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Joelle MILQUET, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Daniel DUCARME, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Elio DI RUPO, president]; National Front or FN [Dr. FERET]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Frank VANHECKE]; Volksunie or VU [Geert BOURGEOIS, president]; other minor parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]] , Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, [[WTrO]], ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Alexis REYN chancery: 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 333-6900 FAX: [1] (202) 333-3079 consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Paul CEJAS embassy: 27 Boulevard du Regent, B-1000 Brussels mailing address: PSC 82, Box 002, APO AE 09710 telephone: [32] (2) 508-2111 FAX: [32] (2) 511-2725
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France
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Belgium/Economy|987901536
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> Economy - overview: This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 122% of GDP in 1998 and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. The dioxin crisis - beginning in June 1999 with the discovery of a cancer-causing substance in animal feed - constituted a serious blow to the food-processing industry, both domestically and internationally. This crisis slowed down GDP growth with recovery expected in the year 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $243.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 1.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $23,900 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1.4% industry: 27% services: 71.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 4%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.7% highest 10%: 20.2% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.341 million (1999)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 73%, industry 25%, agriculture 2% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 9% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $116.5 billion expenditures: $119 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.7 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> Industries: engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 78.702 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 42.48% hydro: 0.49% nuclear: 55.72% other: 1.31% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 74.543 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 7.75 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk
> 
> Exports: $187.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 76% (Germany 19%, France 18%, Netherlands 12%, UK 10%) (1998)
> 
> Imports: $172.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products
> 
> Imports - partners: EU 71% (Germany 18%, Netherlands 17%, France 14%, UK 9%) (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $28.3 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - donor: ODA, $764 million (1997)
> 
> Currency: 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Belgian francs (BF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.229 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995) note: on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 Belgian francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
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Belgium/Communications|987901566
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 4.632 million (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 664,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities domestic: nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network international: 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 8.075 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 24 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 4.72 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 51 (1999)
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Belgium/Transportation|987901588
1c1,19
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> Railways: total: 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track) standard gauge: 3,437 km 1.435-m gauge (1998)
> 
> Highways: total: 145,850 km paved: 117,701 km (including 1,682 km of expressways) unpaved: 28,149 km (1998)
> 
> Waterways: 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use)
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT ships by type: cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 42 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 24 over 3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 18 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
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Belgium/Military|987901605
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> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,527,752 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 2,090,800 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 64,165 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.8 billion (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
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Belgium/Transnational_issues|987901626
1c1,3
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> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe
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Belgium|987901657
42,380d41
< 
< ----
< more information on Belgium, from the public-domain CIA World Factbook:
< ----
< Background: Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 50 50 N, 4 00 E
< 
< Map references: Europe
< 
< Area:
< total: 30,510 sq km
< land: 30,230 sq km
< water: 280 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about the size of Maryland
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 1,385 km
< border countries: France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
< 
< Coastline: 66 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< continental shelf: median line with neighbors
< exclusive fishing zone: median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast)
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy
< 
< Terrain: flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: North Sea 0 m
< highest point: Signal de Botrange 694 m
< 
< Natural resources: coal, natural gas
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 24%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 20%
< forests and woodland: 21%
< other: 34%
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
< 
< Environment - current issues: the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 10,241,506 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 18% (male 919,445; female 877,896)
< 15-64 years: 66% (male 3,386,193; female 3,334,081)
< 65 years and over: 16% (male 701,842; female 1,022,049) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.18% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 10.91 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 10.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 77.8 years
< male: 74.47 years
< female: 81.3 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Belgian(s)
< adjective: Belgian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25%
< 
< Languages: Dutch 58%, French 32%, German 10%, legally bilingual
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98%
< male: NA%
< female: NA%
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Kingdom of Belgium
< conventional short form: Belgium
< local long form: Royaume de Belgique/Koninkrijk Belgie
< local short form: Belgique/Belgie
< 
< Data code: BE
< 
< Government type: federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch
< 
< Capital: Brussels
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant Wallon, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, Vlaams Brabant, West-Vlaanderen
< note: the Brussels Capital Region is not included within the 10 provinces
< 
< Independence: 4 October 1830 (from the Netherlands)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD I to the throne in 1831)
< 
< Constitution: 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
< 
< Legal system: civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the monarch
< head of government: Prime Minister Guy VERHOFSTADT (since 13 July 1999)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch and approved by Parliament
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch and then approved by Parliament
< note: government coalition - VLD, PRL, PS, SP, AGALEV, and ECOLO
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Dutch, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected by popular vote, 31 are indirectly elected; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Dutch, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
< elections: Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held in NA 2003)
< election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - VLD 15.4%, CVP 14.7%, PRL 10.6%, PS 9.7%, VB 9.4%, SP 8.9%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.1%, PSC 6.0%, VU 5.1%; seats by party - VLD 11, CVP 10, PS 10, PRL 9, VB 6, SP 6, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, PSC 5, VU 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - VLD 14.3%, CVP 14.1%, PS 10.2%, PRL 10.1%, VB 9.9%, SP 9.5%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.0%, PSC 5.9%, VU 5.6%; seats by party - VLD 23, CVP 22, PS 19, PRL 18, VB 15, SP 14, ECOLO 11, PSC 10, AGALEV 9, VU 8, FN 1
< note: as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Dutch, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch
< 
< Political parties and leaders: AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [Wilfried BERVOETS]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Stefaan DE CLERCK, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Karel DE GUCHT, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Patrick JANSSENS, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Joelle MILQUET, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Daniel DUCARME, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Elio DI RUPO, president]; National Front or FN [Dr. FERET]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Frank VANHECKE]; Volksunie or VU [Geert BOURGEOIS, president]; other minor parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Alexis REYN
< chancery: 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 333-6900
< FAX: [1] (202) 333-3079
< consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Paul CEJAS
< embassy: 27 Boulevard du Regent, B-1000 Brussels
< mailing address: PSC 82, Box 002, APO AE 09710
< telephone: [32] (2) 508-2111
< FAX: [32] (2) 511-2725
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 122% of GDP in 1998 and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. The dioxin crisis - beginning in June 1999 with the discovery of a cancer-causing substance in animal feed - constituted a serious blow to the food-processing industry, both domestically and internationally. This crisis slowed down GDP growth with recovery expected in the year 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $243.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 1.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $23,900 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 1.4%
< industry: 27%
< services: 71.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 4%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 3.7%
< highest 10%: 20.2% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.341 million (1999)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 73%, industry 25%, agriculture 2% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 9% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $116.5 billion
< expenditures: $119 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.7 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< Industries: engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 78.702 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 42.48%
< hydro: 0.49%
< nuclear: 55.72%
< other: 1.31% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 74.543 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 7.75 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk
< 
< Exports: $187.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products
< 
< Exports - partners: EU 76% (Germany 19%, France 18%, Netherlands 12%, UK 10%) (1998)
< 
< Imports: $172.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products
< 
< Imports - partners: EU 71% (Germany 18%, Netherlands 17%, France 14%, UK 9%) (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $28.3 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - donor: ODA, $764 million (1997)
< 
< Currency: 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Belgian francs (BF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.229 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995)
< note: on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 Belgian francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 4.632 million (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 664,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities
< domestic: nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network
< international: 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 8.075 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 24 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 4.72 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 51 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track)
< standard gauge: 3,437 km 1.435-m gauge (1998)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 145,850 km
< paved: 117,701 km (including 1,682 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 28,149 km (1998)
< 
< Waterways: 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use)
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT
< ships by type: cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 42 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 24
< over 3,047 m: 6
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 18
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2
< under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 2,527,752 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 2,090,800 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 64,165 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.8 billion (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe
------
Belarus|987901706
12,338d11
< 
< Background: After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to implement the accord.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Eastern Europe, east of Poland
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 53 00 N, 28 00 E
< 
< Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
< 
< Area:
< total: 207,600 sq km
< land: 207,600 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Kansas
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 3,098 km
< border countries: Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
< 
< Terrain: generally flat and contains much marshland
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Nyoman River 90 m
< highest point: Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
< 
< Natural resources: forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 29%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 15%
< forests and woodland: 34%
< other: 21% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 1,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change, Law of the Sea
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 10,366,719 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 19% (male 982,959; female 942,062)
< 15-64 years: 68% (male 3,411,684; female 3,614,453)
< 65 years and over: 13% (male 466,929; female 948,632) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: -0.17% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 9.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 13.96 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 3.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.49 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 68 years
< male: 61.83 years
< female: 74.48 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Belarusian(s)
< adjective: Belarusian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9%
< 
< Religions: Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.)
< 
< Languages: Byelorussian, Russian, other
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98%
< male: 99%
< female: 97% (1989 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Belarus
< conventional short form: Belarus
< local long form: Respublika Byelarus'
< local short form: none
< former: Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic
< 
< Data code: BO
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Minsk
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk)
< note: voblasti have the administrative center name following in parentheses
< 
< Independence: 25 August 1991 (Belarusian Supreme Soviet declaration of independence from the Soviet Union)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 3 July (1944); note - represents Minsk liberation from German occupation
< 
< Constitution: 30 March 1994; revised by national referendum of 24 November 1996 giving the presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996
< 
< Legal system: based on civil law system
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994)
< head of government: Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 2 December 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997), Ural LATYPOV (since 30 December 1997), Gennadiy NOVITSKIY (since 11 February 1997), Leonid KOZIK (since 4 February 1997), Aleksandr POPKOV (since 10 November 1998)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA; according to the 1994 constitution, the next election should have been held in 1999, however LUKASHENKO extended his term to 2001 via the November 1996 referendum); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president
< election results: Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15%
< note: first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki (64 seats; eight appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the former Supreme Soviet which LUKASHENKO disbanded in November 1996)
< elections: last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; disbanded after the November 1996 referendum; next to be held NA)
< election results: after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, acting chairman]; Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Green Party or BPZ [Mikalay KARTASH, chairman]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Vintsuk VYACHORKA, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hramada [Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Socialist Party [Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairperson]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Party of Communists Belarusian or PKB [Sergei KALYAKIN, chairman]; Party of Popular Accord or PPA [Leanid SECHKA]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatoliy NETYLKIN, chairman]; Women's Party Nadezhda [Valentina POLEVIKOVA, chairperson]
< 
< International organization participation: CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Valery TSEPAKO
< chancery: 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
< telephone: [1] (202) 986-1604
< FAX: [1] (202) 986-1805
< consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Daniel V. SPECKHARD
< embassy: Starovilenskaya #46-220002, Minsk
< mailing address: use embassy street address
< telephone: [375] (17) 231-5000
< FAX: [375] (17) 234-7853
< 
< Flag description: red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears the Belarusian national ornament in red
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO re-imposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 23%
< industry: 28%
< services: 49% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 22% (1995 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 4.9%
< highest 10%: 19.4% (1993)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 295% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.3 million (1998)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: industry and construction NA%, agriculture and forestry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 2.3% officially registered unemployed (December 1998); large number of underemployed workers
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $4 billion
< expenditures: $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earth movers, motorcycles, TV sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 8% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 21.893 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 99.89%
< hydro: 0.11%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 28.66 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 2.3 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 10.6 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
< 
< Exports: $6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
< 
< Exports - partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania (1998)
< 
< Imports: $6.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, foodstuffs
< 
< Imports - partners: Russia 54%, Ukraine, Germany, Poland, Lithuania (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.1 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $194.3 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: Belarusian rubel (BR)
< 
< Exchange rates: Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 730,000 (15 December 1999), 139,000 (25 January 1999), 46,080 (2nd qtr 1998), 25,964 (1997), 15,500 (yearend 1996), 11,500 (yearend 1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 2.537 million (1997)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 8,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly
< domestic: local - Minsk has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational
< international: Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 3.02 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 17 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 2.52 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 5,563 km
< broad gauge: 5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 63,355 km
< paved: 60,567 km
< unpaved: 2,788 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: NA km; note - Belarus has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Mazyr
< 
< Airports: 118 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 36
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 18
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
< under 914 m: 11 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 82
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
< 914 to 1,523 m: 9
< under 914 m: 62 (1996 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 2,714,420 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 2,126,655 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 82,720 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $156 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY98)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to and via Russia, and to the Baltics and Western Europe
------
Belize/History|987901847
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
------
Belize/Geography|987901870
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 15 N, 88 45 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area: total: 22,960 sq km land: 22,800 sq km water: 160 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Massachusetts
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 516 km border countries: Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
> 
> Coastline: 386 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
> 
> Climate: tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
> 
> Terrain: flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160 m
> 
> Natural resources: arable land potential, timber, fish, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 2% forests and woodland: 92% other: 3% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean
------
Belize/People|987901899
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 249,183 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 43% (male 54,009; female 51,945) 15-64 years: 54% (male 68,052; female 66,366) 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,298; female 4,513) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.75% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 32.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 4.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.91 years male: 68.66 years female: 73.28 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Belizean(s) adjective: Belizean
> 
> Ethnic groups: mestizo 44.1%, Creole 31%, Maya 9.2%, Garifuna 6.2%, other 9.5%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980)
> 
> Languages: English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib), Creole
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 70.3% male: 70.3% female: 70.3% (1991 est.) note: other sources list the literacy rate as high as 75%
------
Belize/Government|987901920
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Belize former: British Honduras
> 
> Data code: BH
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Belmopan
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
> 
> Independence: 21 September 1981 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 21 September (1981)
> 
> Constitution: 21 September 1981
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993) head of government: Prime Minister Said MUSA (since 27 August 1998); Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO (since 1 September 1998) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; governor general appoints the member of the House of Representatives who is leader of the majority party to be prime minister
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (eight members, five appointed on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general; members are appointed for five-year terms); and the House of Representatives (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: House of Representatives - last held 27 August 1998 (next to be held NA August 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 26, UDP 3
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
> 
> Political parties and leaders: People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR [Assad SHOMAN]; United Worker's Front
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador James Schofield MURPHY chancery: 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636 FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Carolyn CURIEL embassy: Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City mailing address: P. O. Box 286, Unit 7401, APO AA 34025 telephone: [501] (2) 77161 through 77163 FAX: [501] (2) 30802
> 
> Flag description: blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland
------
Belize/Economy|987901938
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $740 million (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 22% industry: 22% services: 56% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.9% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 71,000 note: shortage of skilled labor and all types of technical personnel (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 38%, industry 32%, services 30% (1994)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14.3% (1998)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $140 million expenditures: $180 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: garment production, food processing, tourism, construction
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -4.4% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production: 175 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 57.14% hydro: 42.86% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 163 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp
> 
> Exports: $150 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: sugar, bananas, citrus fruits, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood
> 
> Exports - partners: US 45.5%, UK 30%, EU 10%, Caricom 4.2%, Mexico 3.4%, Canada 3.3% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $320 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
> 
> Imports - partners: US 52%, Mexico 13%, UK 5% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $380 million (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $23.4 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Belizean dollars (Bz$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
Belize/Communications|987901955
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 29,600 (1996)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,237 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: above-average system domestic: trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 133,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 41,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Belize/Transportation|987901975
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 2,872 km paved: 488 km unpaved: 2,384 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 825 km river network used by shallow-draft craft; seasonally navigable
> 
> Ports and harbors: Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,647,452 GRT/2,339,134 DWT ships by type: bulk 36, cargo 275, chemical tanker 7, container 9, liquified gas 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 51, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 7 countries: Cuba 2, Cyprus 1, Greece 1, Singapore 2, UAE 12, UK 1, and US 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 44 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 41 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 30 (1999 est.)
------
Belize/Military|987901991
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 60,482 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 35,874 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 2,735 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $15 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY97/98)
------
Belize/Transnational_issues|987902006
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
------
Belize|987902025
12,336d11
< 
< Background: Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 17 15 N, 88 45 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:
< total: 22,960 sq km
< land: 22,800 sq km
< water: 160 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Massachusetts
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 516 km
< border countries: Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
< 
< Coastline: 386 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
< 
< Climate: tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
< 
< Terrain: flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
< highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160 m
< 
< Natural resources: arable land potential, timber, fish, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 2%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 2%
< forests and woodland: 92%
< other: 3% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 249,183 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 43% (male 54,009; female 51,945)
< 15-64 years: 54% (male 68,052; female 66,366)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,298; female 4,513) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.75% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 32.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 4.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 70.91 years
< male: 68.66 years
< female: 73.28 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Belizean(s)
< adjective: Belizean
< 
< Ethnic groups: mestizo 44.1%, Creole 31%, Maya 9.2%, Garifuna 6.2%, other 9.5%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980)
< 
< Languages: English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib), Creole
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 70.3%
< male: 70.3%
< female: 70.3% (1991 est.)
< note: other sources list the literacy rate as high as 75%
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Belize
< former: British Honduras
< 
< Data code: BH
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Belmopan
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
< 
< Independence: 21 September 1981 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 21 September (1981)
< 
< Constitution: 21 September 1981
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993)
< head of government: Prime Minister Said MUSA (since 27 August 1998); Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO (since 1 September 1998)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; governor general appoints the member of the House of Representatives who is leader of the majority party to be prime minister
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (eight members, five appointed on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general; members are appointed for five-year terms); and the House of Representatives (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: House of Representatives - last held 27 August 1998 (next to be held NA August 2003)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 26, UDP 3
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
< 
< Political parties and leaders: People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR [Assad SHOMAN]; United Worker's Front
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador James Schofield MURPHY
< chancery: 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636
< FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888
< consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Carolyn CURIEL
< embassy: Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City
< mailing address: P. O. Box 286, Unit 7401, APO AA 34025
< telephone: [501] (2) 77161 through 77163
< FAX: [501] (2) 30802
< 
< Flag description: blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $740 million (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 22%
< industry: 22%
< services: 56% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.9% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 71,000
< note: shortage of skilled labor and all types of technical personnel (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 38%, industry 32%, services 30% (1994)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 14.3% (1998)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $140 million
< expenditures: $180 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: garment production, food processing, tourism, construction
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -4.4% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production: 175 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 57.14%
< hydro: 42.86%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 163 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp
< 
< Exports: $150 million (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: sugar, bananas, citrus fruits, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood
< 
< Exports - partners: US 45.5%, UK 30%, EU 10%, Caricom 4.2%, Mexico 3.4%, Canada 3.3% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $320 million (c.i.f., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
< 
< Imports - partners: US 52%, Mexico 13%, UK 5% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $380 million (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $23.4 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Belizean dollars (Bz$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 29,600 (1996)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,237 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: above-average system
< domestic: trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 133,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 41,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 2,872 km
< paved: 488 km
< unpaved: 2,384 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 825 km river network used by shallow-draft craft; seasonally navigable
< 
< Ports and harbors: Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,647,452 GRT/2,339,134 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 36, cargo 275, chemical tanker 7, container 9, liquified gas 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 51, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 7 countries: Cuba 2, Cyprus 1, Greece 1, Singapore 2, UAE 12, UK 1, and US 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 44 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 3
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 41
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 10
< under 914 m: 30 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 60,482 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 35,874 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 2,735 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $15 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY97/98)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
------
Benin/History|987902214
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
> 
------
Benin/Geography|987902234
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 9 30 N, 2 15 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 112,620 sq km land: 110,620 sq km water: 2,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 1,989 km border countries: Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
> 
> Coastline: 121 km
> 
> Maritime claims: territorial sea: 200 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Mont Sokbaro 658 m
> 
> Natural resources: small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
> 
> Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 4% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 31% other: 48% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 100 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
> 
> Environment - current issues: recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: no natural harbors
------
Benin/People|987902254
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 6,395,919 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,531,636; female 1,503,552) 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,551,867; female 1,660,845) 65 years and over: 3% (male 63,717; female 84,302) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.03% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 44.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 90.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 50.18 years male: 49.24 years female: 51.16 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Beninese (singular and plural) adjective: Beninese
> 
> Ethnic groups: African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15%
> 
> Languages: French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 37% male: 48.7% female: 25.8% (1995 est.)
------
Benin/Government|987902275
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Benin conventional short form: Benin local long form: Republique du Benin local short form: Benin former: Dahomey
> 
> Data code: BN
> 
> Government type: republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
> 
> Capital: Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou note: six additional provinces have been reported but not confirmed; they are Alibori, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, and Plateau; moreover, the term "province" may have been changed to "department"
> 
> Independence: 1 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 1 August (1990)
> 
> Constitution: December 1990
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001) election results: Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 28 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRB 27, PRD 11, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 9, MADEPO 6, Alliance Etoile 4, Alliance IPD 4, CAR-DUNYA 3, MERCI 2, other 7
> 
> Judicial branch: Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice
> 
> Political parties and leaders: African Movement for Democracy and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN]; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjou Sylvain AKINDES]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Benin Renaissance Party or PRB [Nicephore SOGLO]; Cameleon Alliance or AC [leader NA]; Car-DUNYA [leader NA]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal FANTONDJI, first secretary]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI]; Front for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA; Impulse for Progress and Democracy or IPD [Bertin BORNA]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening or MERCI [Severin ADJOVI]; New Generation for the Republic or NG [leader NA]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Francois Odjo TANKPINON]; Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism or RDP [Dominique HOYMINOU, Dr. Giles Auguste MINONTIN]; The Star Alliance (Alliance E'toile) [leader NA]; Union for National Democracy and Solidarity or UDS [Adamou N'Diaye MAMA]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN chancery: 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656 FAX: [1] (202) 265-1996
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. FELDER embassy: Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou mailing address: B. P. 2012, Cotonou telephone: [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92 FAX: [229] 30-14-39, 30-19-74
> 
> Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side
------
Benin/Economy|987902290
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1990-95 and 5% in 1996-99. Rapid population growth has offset much of this growth in output. Inflation has subsided over the past three years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a structural adjustment program since 1991.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 34% industry: 14% services: 52% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 33% (1995 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget: revenues: $299 million expenditures: $445 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 6 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 276 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 270 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock
> 
> Exports: $396 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
> 
> Exports - partners: Brazil 32%, Libya, Indonesia, Spain (1998)
> 
> Imports: $566 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods
> 
> Imports - partners: France 22%, China 16%, UK, Netherlands (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.6 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $281.2 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: from 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Benin/Communications|987902310
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 28,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,050 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: fair system of open wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 4 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 620,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (one privately-owned) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 60,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Benin/Transportation|987902329
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 578 km (single track) narrow gauge: 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways: total: 6,787 km paved: 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways) unpaved: 5,430 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: navigable along small sections, important only locally
> 
> Ports and harbors: Cotonou, Porto-Novo
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 5 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
------
Benin/Military|987902340
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,402,566 females age 15-49: 1,445,082 note: both sexes are liable for military service (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 717,289 females age 15-49: 732,196 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 69,065 females: 67,961 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $27 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY96)
------
Benin/Transnational_issues|987902352
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
> 
------
Benin|987902370
12,336d11
< 
< Background: Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 9 30 N, 2 15 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 112,620 sq km
< land: 110,620 sq km
< water: 2,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 1,989 km
< border countries: Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
< 
< Coastline: 121 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< territorial sea: 200 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Mont Sokbaro 658 m
< 
< Natural resources: small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 13%
< permanent crops: 4%
< permanent pastures: 4%
< forests and woodland: 31%
< other: 48% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 100 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
< 
< Environment - current issues: recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: no natural harbors
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 6,395,919
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,531,636; female 1,503,552)
< 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,551,867; female 1,660,845)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 63,717; female 84,302) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.03% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 44.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 90.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 50.18 years
< male: 49.24 years
< female: 51.16 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Beninese (singular and plural)
< adjective: Beninese
< 
< Ethnic groups: African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15%
< 
< Languages: French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 37%
< male: 48.7%
< female: 25.8% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Benin
< conventional short form: Benin
< local long form: Republique du Benin
< local short form: Benin
< former: Dahomey
< 
< Data code: BN
< 
< Government type: republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
< 
< Capital: Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou
< note: six additional provinces have been reported but not confirmed; they are Alibori, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, and Plateau; moreover, the term "province" may have been changed to "department"
< 
< Independence: 1 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 1 August (1990)
< 
< Constitution: December 1990
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001)
< election results: Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
< elections: last held 28 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRB 27, PRD 11, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 9, MADEPO 6, Alliance Etoile 4, Alliance IPD 4, CAR-DUNYA 3, MERCI 2, other 7
< 
< Judicial branch: Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice
< 
< Political parties and leaders: African Movement for Democracy and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN]; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjou Sylvain AKINDES]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Benin Renaissance Party or PRB [Nicephore SOGLO]; Cameleon Alliance or AC [leader NA]; Car-DUNYA [leader NA]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal FANTONDJI, first secretary]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI]; Front for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA; Impulse for Progress and Democracy or IPD [Bertin BORNA]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening or MERCI [Severin ADJOVI]; New Generation for the Republic or NG [leader NA]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Francois Odjo TANKPINON]; Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism or RDP [Dominique HOYMINOU, Dr. Giles Auguste MINONTIN]; The Star Alliance (Alliance E'toile) [leader NA]; Union for National Democracy and Solidarity or UDS [Adamou N'Diaye MAMA]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN
< chancery: 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656
< FAX: [1] (202) 265-1996
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. FELDER
< embassy: Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou
< mailing address: B. P. 2012, Cotonou
< telephone: [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92
< FAX: [229] 30-14-39, 30-19-74
< 
< Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1990-95 and 5% in 1996-99. Rapid population growth has offset much of this growth in output. Inflation has subsided over the past three years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a structural adjustment program since 1991.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 34%
< industry: 14%
< services: 52% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 33% (1995 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $299 million
< expenditures: $445 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 6 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 276 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 270 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock
< 
< Exports: $396 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
< 
< Exports - partners: Brazil 32%, Libya, Indonesia, Spain (1998)
< 
< Imports: $566 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods
< 
< Imports - partners: France 22%, China 16%, UK, Netherlands (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.6 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $281.2 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
< note: from 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 28,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,050 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: fair system of open wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 4 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 620,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (one privately-owned) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 60,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 578 km (single track)
< narrow gauge: 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 6,787 km
< paved: 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 5,430 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: navigable along small sections, important only locally
< 
< Ports and harbors: Cotonou, Porto-Novo
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 5 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 3
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,402,566
< females age 15-49: 1,445,082
< note: both sexes are liable for military service (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 717,289
< females age 15-49: 732,196 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 69,065
< females: 67,961 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $27 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY96)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
------
Bermuda/History|987902444
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has developed into highly successful offshore financial center. A referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.
------
Bermuda/Geography|987902459
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 32 20 N, 64 45 W
> 
> Map references: North America
> 
> Area: total: 58.8 sq km land: 58.8 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 103 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
> 
> Terrain: low hills separated by fertile depressions
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Town Hill 76 m
> 
> Natural resources: limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
> 
> Land use: arable land: 6% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 94% (55% developed, 39% rural/open space) (1997 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes (June to November)
> 
> Environment - current issues: asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
> 
> Geography - note: consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995
------
Bermuda/People|987902480
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 62,997 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 6,107; female 6,212) 15-64 years: 70% (male 21,620; female 22,171) 65 years and over: 10% (male 2,972; female 3,915) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.75% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 12.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 7.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76.94 years male: 74.89 years female: 78.86 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bermudian(s) adjective: Bermudian
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 58%, white 36%, other 6%
> 
> Religions: non-Anglican Protestant 39%, Anglican 27%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 19%
> 
> Languages: English (official), Portuguese
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 98% female: 99% (1970 est.)
------
Bermuda/Government|987902515
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bermuda
> 
> Data code: BD
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
> 
> Government type: parliamentary British overseas territory with internal self-government
> 
> Capital: Hamilton
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
> 
> Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> National holiday: Bermuda Day, 24 May
> 
> Constitution: 8 June 1968, amended 1989
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since NA June 1997) head of government: Premier Jennifer SMITH (since 10 November 1998) cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; governor invites leader of largest party in Parliament to form a government as premier
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: last held 9 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - PLP 54%, UBP 44%, NLP 1%, independents 1%; seats by party - PLP 26, UBP 14
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Bermuda Industrial Union or BIU [Derrick BURGESS]; Bermuda Public Services Association or BPSA [Betty CHRISTOPHER]
> 
> International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Consul General Lawrence OWEN consulate(s) general: Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton mailing address: P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; American Consulate General Hamilton, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-5300 telephone: [1] (441) 295-1342 FAX: [1] (441) 295-1592
> 
> Flag description: red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag
------
Bermuda/Economy|987902534
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $31,500 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 10% services: 89% (1995 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2% (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 35,296 (1997)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NEGL% (1995)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $504.6 million expenditures: $537 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Industries: tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 420 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 391 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products
> 
> Exports: $32 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: reexports of pharmaceuticals
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 29.5%, US 9.8% (1997)
> 
> Imports: $624 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food and live animals
> 
> Imports - partners: US 34%, UK 9%, Mexico 8% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $NA
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $27.9 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
Bermuda/Communications|987902563
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 48,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 6,324 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: modern, fully automatic telephone system international: 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 82,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 66,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Bermuda/Transportation|987902575
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 225 km paved: 225 km unpaved: 0 km (1997 est.) note: in addition, there are 232 km of paved and unpaved roads that are privately owned
> 
> Ports and harbors: Hamilton, Saint George
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 115 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,536,975 GRT/11,337,483 DWT ships by type: bulk 27, cargo 4, chemical tanker 2, container 17, liquified gas 7, petroleum tanker 33, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are UK 24, Canada 12, Hong Kong 11, US 11, Nigeria 4, Sweden 4, Norway 3, and Switzerland 2 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bermuda/Military|987902586
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Bermuda/Transnational_issues|987902613
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none 
------
Bermuda|987902660
12,306d11
< 
< ----
< Background: Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has developed into highly successful offshore financial center. A referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 32 20 N, 64 45 W
< 
< Map references: North America
< 
< Area:
< total: 58.8 sq km
< land: 58.8 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 103 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
< 
< Terrain: low hills separated by fertile depressions
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Town Hill 76 m
< 
< Natural resources: limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 6%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 94% (55% developed, 39% rural/open space) (1997 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes (June to November)
< 
< Environment - current issues: asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
< 
< Geography - note: consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 62,997 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 20% (male 6,107; female 6,212)
< 15-64 years: 70% (male 21,620; female 22,171)
< 65 years and over: 10% (male 2,972; female 3,915) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.75% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 12.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 7.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 76.94 years
< male: 74.89 years
< female: 78.86 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bermudian(s)
< adjective: Bermudian
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 58%, white 36%, other 6%
< 
< Religions: non-Anglican Protestant 39%, Anglican 27%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 19%
< 
< Languages: English (official), Portuguese
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98%
< male: 98%
< female: 99% (1970 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Bermuda
< 
< Data code: BD
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
< 
< Government type: parliamentary British overseas territory with internal self-government
< 
< Capital: Hamilton
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
< 
< Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< National holiday: Bermuda Day, 24 May
< 
< Constitution: 8 June 1968, amended 1989
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since NA June 1997)
< head of government: Premier Jennifer SMITH (since 10 November 1998)
< cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; governor invites leader of largest party in Parliament to form a government as premier
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 9 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2003)
< election results: percent of vote by party - PLP 54%, UBP 44%, NLP 1%, independents 1%; seats by party - PLP 26, UBP 14
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Bermuda Industrial Union or BIU [Derrick BURGESS]; Bermuda Public Services Association or BPSA [Betty CHRISTOPHER]
< 
< International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Consul General Lawrence OWEN
< consulate(s) general: Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton
< mailing address: P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; American Consulate General Hamilton, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-5300
< telephone: [1] (441) 295-1342
< FAX: [1] (441) 295-1592
< 
< Flag description: red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $31,500 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 1%
< industry: 10%
< services: 89% (1995 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2% (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 35,296 (1997)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NEGL% (1995)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $504.6 million
< expenditures: $537 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Industries: tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 420 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 391 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products
< 
< Exports: $32 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: reexports of pharmaceuticals
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 29.5%, US 9.8% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $624 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food and live animals
< 
< Imports - partners: US 34%, UK 9%, Mexico 8% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $NA
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $27.9 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 48,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 6,324 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: modern, fully automatic telephone system
< international: 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 82,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 66,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 225 km
< paved: 225 km
< unpaved: 0 km (1997 est.)
< note: in addition, there are 232 km of paved and unpaved roads that are privately owned
< 
< Ports and harbors: Hamilton, Saint George
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 115 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,536,975 GRT/11,337,483 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 27, cargo 4, chemical tanker 2, container 17, liquified gas 7, petroleum tanker 33, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are UK 24, Canada 12, Hong Kong 11, US 11, Nigeria 4, Sweden 4, Norway 3, and Switzerland 2 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Bhutan/History|987902728
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid.
------
Bhutan/Geography|987902794
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Asia, between China and India
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 27 30 N, 90 30 E
> 
> Map references: Asia
> 
> Area: total: 47,000 sq km land: 47,000 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about half the size of Indiana
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 1,075 km border countries: China 470 km, India 605 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
> 
> Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
> 
> Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 6% forests and woodland: 66% other: 26% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 340 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
------
Bhutan/People|987902807
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 2,005,222 note: other estimates range as low as 800,000 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 40% (male 417,627; female 387,927) 15-64 years: 56% (male 576,533; female 544,076) 65 years and over: 4% (male 40,081; female 38,978) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.19% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 36.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 110.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 52.4 years male: 52.79 years female: 51.99 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 5.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bhutanese (singular and plural) adjective: Bhutanese
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15%
> 
> Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
> 
> Languages: Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 42.2% male: 56.2% female: 28.1% (1995 est.)
> 
> People - note: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
------
Bhutan/Government|987902822
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan conventional short form: Bhutan
> 
> Data code: BT
> 
> Government type: monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
> 
> Capital: Thimphu
> 
> Administrative divisions: 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
> 
> Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
> 
> Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights note: Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers
> 
> Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972) head of government: Foreign Minister Jigme Yoeser THINLEY (since NA June 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 give the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms) elections: last held NA (next to be held NA) election results: NA
> 
> Judicial branch: the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High Court, judges appointed by the monarch
> 
> Political parties and leaders: no legal parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled)
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB? , CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
> 
> Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
------
Bhutan/Economy|987902839
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 38% industry: 37% services: 25% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: NA note: massive lack of skilled labor
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget: revenues: $146 million expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.) note: the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
> 
> Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.788 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0.39% hydro: 99.61% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 345 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 1.339 billion kWh note: exports electricity to India (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 21 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
> 
> Exports: $111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
> 
> Exports - partners: India 94%, Bangladesh
> 
> Imports: $136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
> 
> Imports - partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
> 
> Debt - external: $120 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $73.8 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
> 
> Exchange rates: ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
------
Bhutan/Communications|987902881
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use international: international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 37,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 11,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Bhutan/Transportation|987902895
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 3,285 km paved: 1,994 km unpaved: 1,291 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bhutan/Military|987902909
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 491,427 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 262,316 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 20,374 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
------
Bhutan/Transnational_issues|987902921
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal 
------
Bhutan|987902946
12,318d11
< 
< Background: Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Asia, between China and India
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 27 30 N, 90 30 E
< 
< Map references: Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 47,000 sq km
< land: 47,000 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about half the size of Indiana
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 1,075 km
< border countries: China 470 km, India 605 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m
< highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
< 
< Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 2%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 6%
< forests and woodland: 66%
< other: 26% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 340 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 2,005,222
< note: other estimates range as low as 800,000 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 40% (male 417,627; female 387,927)
< 15-64 years: 56% (male 576,533; female 544,076)
< 65 years and over: 4% (male 40,081; female 38,978) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.19% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 36.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 110.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 52.4 years
< male: 52.79 years
< female: 51.99 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 5.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bhutanese (singular and plural)
< adjective: Bhutanese
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15%
< 
< Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
< 
< Languages: Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 42.2%
< male: 56.2%
< female: 28.1% (1995 est.)
< 
< People - note: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan
< conventional short form: Bhutan
< 
< Data code: BT
< 
< Government type: monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
< 
< Capital: Thimphu
< 
< Administrative divisions: 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
< 
< Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
< 
< Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights
< note: Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers
< 
< Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972)
< head of government: Foreign Minister Jigme Yoeser THINLEY (since NA June 1998)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms
< note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the monarch
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 give the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms)
< elections: last held NA (next to be held NA)
< election results: NA
< 
< Judicial branch: the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High Court, judges appointed by the monarch
< 
< Political parties and leaders: no legal parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled)
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
< consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
< 
< Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 38%
< industry: 37%
< services: 25% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< note: massive lack of skilled labor
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $146 million
< expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
< note: the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
< 
< Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.788 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 0.39%
< hydro: 99.61%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 345 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 1.339 billion kWh
< note: exports electricity to India (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 21 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
< 
< Exports: $111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
< 
< Exports - partners: India 94%, Bangladesh
< 
< Imports: $136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
< 
< Imports - partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
< 
< Debt - external: $120 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $73.8 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
< 
< Exchange rates: ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use
< international: international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 37,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 11,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transporations
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 3,285 km
< paved: 1,994 km
< unpaved: 1,291 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 491,427 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 262,316 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 20,374 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
------
Bolivia/History|987903003
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.
------
Bolivia/People|987903017
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area: total: 1,098,580 sq km land: 1,084,390 sq km water: 14,190 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 6,743 km border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
> 
> Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
> 
> Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 24% forests and woodland: 53% other: 21% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
> 
> Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
------
Bolivia/Geography|987903036
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area: total: 1,098,580 sq km land: 1,084,390 sq km water: 14,190 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 6,743 km border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
> 
> Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
> 
> Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 24% forests and woodland: 53% other: 21% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
> 
> Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
------
Bolivia/People|987903059
1c1
< Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
---
> Population: 8,152,620 (July 2000 est.)
3c3
< Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
---
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 39.11% (male 1,624,404; female 1,564,057) 15-64 years: 56.42% (male 2,247,013; female 2,352,824) 65 years and over: 4.47% (male 164,473; female 199,849) (2000 est.)
5c5
< Map references: South America
---
> Population growth rate: 1.83% (2000 est.)
7c7
< Area: total: 1,098,580 sq km land: 1,084,390 sq km water: 14,190 sq km
---
> Birth rate: 28.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
9c9
< Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
---
> Death rate: 8.36 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
11c11
< Land boundaries: total: 6,743 km border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
---
> Net migration rate: -1.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
13c13
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
---
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
15c15
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
---
> Infant mortality rate: 60.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
17c17
< Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
---
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 63.7 years male: 61.19 years female: 66.34 years (2000 est.)
19c19
< Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
---
> Total fertility rate: 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
21c21
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
---
> Nationality: noun: Bolivian(s) adjective: Bolivian
23c23
< Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
---
> Ethnic groups: Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
25c25
< Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 24% forests and woodland: 53% other: 21% (1993 est.)
---
> Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
27c27
< Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
---
> Languages: Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official)
29,35c29
< Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
< 
< Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
---
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.1% male: 90.5% female: 76% (1995 est.)
------
Bolivia/Government|987903080
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Bolivia conventional short form: Bolivia local long form: Republica de Bolivia local short form: Bolivia
> 
> Data code: BL
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
> 
> Independence: 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
> 
> Constitution: 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
> 
> Legal system: based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) election results: Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PDC
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) election results: Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for 10-year terms by National Congress
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; Bolivian Renovating Alliance or ARBOL [Marcelo FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB [leader NA]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; Civic Solidarity Union or UCS [Johnny FERNANDEZ]; Conscience of the Fatherland or CONDEPA [Remedios LOZA Alvarado]; Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Front of Katarista Unity or FULKA [Genaro FLORES]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Katarismo National Unity or KND [Filepe KITTELSON]; Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Movement Towards Socialism-Popular Instrument for Solidarity with the People or MAS-IPSP [leader Evo MORALES]; Nationalist Democratic Action or ADN [Enrique TORO]; Nationalist Katarista Movement or MKN [Fernando UNTOJA]; Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]; New Republican Force or NFR [Manfred REYES VILLA]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; Popular Patriotic Movement or MPP [Julio MANTILLA]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Socialist Party One or PS-1 [leader NA]; Solidarity and Democracy or SYD [leader NA]; Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement or MRTK-L [Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Unity and Progress Movement or MUP [Ivo KULJIS] note: political blocs include: left - MBL, EJE-P, VR-9, ASD, FRI, PCB, IU, FSN, PS-1, FSB, and MAS; center left - MIR, PDC, and New Youth Force; center - MNR; center right - ADN and NFR; populist - UCS, CONDEPA, SYD, MUP, and MPP; evangelical - ARBOL; indigenous - MRTK-L, MKN, and KND
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Cocalero Group
> 
> International organization participation: CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 483-4410 FAX: [1] (202) 328-3712 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK embassy: Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz mailing address: P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032 telephone: [591] (2) 430251 FAX: [591] (2) 433900
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band
------
Bolivia/Economy|987903097
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $24.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 16.6% industry: 35.5% services: 47.9% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 70% (1999 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.3% highest 10%: 31.7% (1990)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 2.5 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
> 
> Budget: revenues: $2.7 billion expenditures: $2.7 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> 
> Industries: mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1995 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.576 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 42.43% hydro: 55.75% nuclear: 0% other: 1.82% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.412 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 4 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 20 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
> 
> Exports: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
> 
> Exports - partners: UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, chemicals, petroleum, food
> 
> Imports - partners: US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $5.7 billion (1999)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $588 million (1997)
> 
> Currency: 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: bolivianos ($B) per US$1 - 6.0065 (January 2000), 5.8124 (1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Bolivia/Communications|987903112
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 368,874 (1996)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 7,229 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities domestic: primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 171, FM 73, shortwave 77 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 5.25 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 48 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 900,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (1999)
> 
------
Bolivia/Transportation|987903128
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 3,691 km (single track) narrow gauge: 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995)
> 
> Highways: total: 52,216 km paved: 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways) unpaved: 49,344 km (1995 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 116,373 GRT/182,283 DWT ships by type: bulk 3, cargo 17, chemical tanker 3, container 1, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1,109 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 13 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1,096 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67 914 to 1,523 m: 219 under 914 m: 807 (1999 est.)
------
Bolivia/Military|987903149
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,949,267 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,269,228 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 86,863 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $147 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY99)
------
Bolivia/Transnational_issues|987903170
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 21,800 hectares under cultivation in 1999, a 45% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1998 levels; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
> 
------
Bolivia|987903199
12,341d11
< 
< Background: Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
< 
< Map references: South America
< 
< Area:
< total: 1,098,580 sq km
< land: 1,084,390 sq km
< water: 14,190 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 6,743 km
< border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
< 
< Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m
< highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
< 
< Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 2%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 24%
< forests and woodland: 53%
< other: 21% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
< 
< Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 8,152,620 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 39.11% (male 1,624,404; female 1,564,057)
< 15-64 years: 56.42% (male 2,247,013; female 2,352,824)
< 65 years and over: 4.47% (male 164,473; female 199,849) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.83% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 28.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.36 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 60.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 63.7 years
< male: 61.19 years
< female: 66.34 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bolivian(s)
< adjective: Bolivian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
< 
< Languages: Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 83.1%
< male: 90.5%
< female: 76% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Bolivia
< conventional short form: Bolivia
< local long form: Republica de Bolivia
< local short form: Bolivia
< 
< Data code: BL
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
< 
< Independence: 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
< 
< Constitution: 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
< 
< Legal system: based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
< elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
< election results: Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PDC
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
< election results: Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for 10-year terms by National Congress
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; Bolivian Renovating Alliance or ARBOL [Marcelo FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB [leader NA]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; Civic Solidarity Union or UCS [Johnny FERNANDEZ]; Conscience of the Fatherland or CONDEPA [Remedios LOZA Alvarado]; Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Front of Katarista Unity or FULKA [Genaro FLORES]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Katarismo National Unity or KND [Filepe KITTELSON]; Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Movement Towards Socialism-Popular Instrument for Solidarity with the People or MAS-IPSP [leader Evo MORALES]; Nationalist Democratic Action or ADN [Enrique TORO]; Nationalist Katarista Movement or MKN [Fernando UNTOJA]; Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]; New Republican Force or NFR [Manfred REYES VILLA]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; Popular Patriotic Movement or MPP [Julio MANTILLA]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Socialist Party One or PS-1 [leader NA]; Solidarity and Democracy or SYD [leader NA]; Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement or MRTK-L [Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Unity and Progress Movement or MUP [Ivo KULJIS]
< note: political blocs include: left - MBL, EJE-P, VR-9, ASD, FRI, PCB, IU, FSN, PS-1, FSB, and MAS; center left - MIR, PDC, and New Youth Force; center - MNR; center right - ADN and NFR; populist - UCS, CONDEPA, SYD, MUP, and MPP; evangelical - ARBOL; indigenous - MRTK-L, MKN, and KND
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Cocalero Group
< 
< International organization participation: CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado
< chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 483-4410
< FAX: [1] (202) 328-3712
< consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK
< embassy: Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz
< mailing address: P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032
< telephone: [591] (2) 430251
< FAX: [591] (2) 433900
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $24.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 16.6%
< industry: 35.5%
< services: 47.9% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 70% (1999 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 2.3%
< highest 10%: 31.7% (1990)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 2.5 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $2.7 billion
< expenditures: $2.7 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
< 
< Industries: mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1995 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.576 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 42.43%
< hydro: 55.75%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 1.82% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.412 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 4 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 20 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
< 
< Exports: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, chemicals, petroleum, food
< 
< Imports - partners: US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $5.7 billion (1999)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $588 million (1997)
< 
< Currency: 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: bolivianos ($B) per US$1 - 6.0065 (January 2000), 5.8124 (1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 368,874 (1996)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 7,229 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities
< domestic: primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 171, FM 73, shortwave 77 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 5.25 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 48 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 900,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transporation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 3,691 km (single track)
< narrow gauge: 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 52,216 km
< paved: 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 49,344 km (1995 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 116,373 GRT/182,283 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 3, cargo 17, chemical tanker 3, container 1, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1,109 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 13
< over 3,047 m: 4
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1,096
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
< 914 to 1,523 m: 219
< under 914 m: 807 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,949,267 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 1,269,228 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 86,863 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $147 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY99)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 21,800 hectares under cultivation in 1999, a 45% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1998 levels; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
------
Anarres|987903991
5c5
< ;)  No, actually I live in [[New England]].  I've just
---
> ;)  No, actually I live in [[New england|New England]].  I've just
------
Anarres|987904058
5c5
< ;)  No, actually I live in [[New england|New England]].  I've just
---
> ;)  No, actually I live in [[New England|New England]].  I've just
------
New_England|987905642
1c1
< [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Maine]] make up the region of the [[United States]] known as New England.
---
> [[Massachusetts]], [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Maine]] make up the region of the [[United States]] known as New England.
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Blindness/History|987910310
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
------
Blindness/History|987910461
1c1
< [[http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
---
> [Walking Alone Marching Together: A History fo the Organized Blind Movement by Floyd Madsen][[http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
------
Blindness/History|987910555
1c1
< [Walking Alone Marching Together: A History fo the Organized Blind Movement by Floyd Madsen][[http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
---
> [[Walking Alone Marching Together: A History fo the Organized Blind Movement by Floyd Madsen http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/History|987910948
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence from the former Yugoslavia in February of 1992. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat?  Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place, with troop levels to be reduced to about 19,000 by spring 2000.
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Geography|987910964
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> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 44 00 N, 18 00 E
> 
> Map references: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
> 
> Area: total: 51,129 sq km land: 51,129 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than West Virginia
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 1,459 km border countries: Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
> 
> Coastline: 20 km
> 
> Maritime claims: NA
> 
> Climate: hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
> 
> Terrain: mountains and valleys
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
> 
> Natural resources: coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 14% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 20% forests and woodland: 39% other: 22% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Bosniak/Croat? Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
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Blindness/Literature|987910970
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> Persoanl Narratives http://www.nfb.org/books/kernel1/kernels.htm
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/People|987910992
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> Population: 3,835,777 note: all data dealing with population are subject to considerable error because of the dislocations caused by military action and ethnic cleansing (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 401,554; female 379,303) 15-64 years: 71% (male 1,403,618; female 1,323,307) 65 years and over: 9% (male 138,173; female 189,822) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.1% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 12.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 7.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 25.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.49 years male: 68.78 years female: 74.38 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Serb 31%, Bosniak 44%, Croat 17%, Yugoslav 5.5%, other 2.5% (1991) note: Bosniak has replaced muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam
> 
> Religions: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10%
> 
> Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
> 
> Literacy: definition: NA total population: NA% male: NA% female: NA%
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Government|987911061
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> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bosnia and Herzegovina local long form: none local short form: Bosna i Hercegovina
> 
> Data code: BK
> 
> Government type: emerging democracy
> 
> Capital: Sarajevo
> 
> Administrative divisions: there are two first-order administrative divisions - the Bosniak/Croat? Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska; note - Brcko in northeastern Bosnia is a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska
> 
> Independence: NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
> 
> National holiday: Bosnia and Herzegovina - BiH? National Day, 25 November
> 
> Constitution: the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force
> 
> Legal system: based on civil law system
> 
> Suffrage: 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (chairman since 14 February 2000, presidency member since 14 March 1996 - Bosniak); other members of the three-member rotating (every 8 months) presidency: Zivko RADISIC (since 13 October 1998 - Serb) and Ante JELAVIC (since NA September 1998 - Croat) head of government: vacant; note - in February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen note: President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 28 December 1999; Vice President Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 28 December 1999); note - president and vice president rotate every year; President of the Republika Srpska: vacant since Nikola POPLASEN was removed by the Office of the High Representative on 5 March 1999 (see Government note) elections: the three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term; the member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2002); the cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the presidency election results: percent of vote - Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first 8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote followed RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZETBEGOVIC with 87% of the Bosniak vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was ineligible to serve a second term until RADISIC and JELAVIC had each served a first term as Chairman of the Presidency
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Bosniak; members elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members elected by the Bosniak/Croat? Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms) elections: National House of Representatives - elections last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held in fall 2000); House of Peoples - last constituted 4 December 1998 (next to be constituted in fall 2000) election results: National House of Representatives - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH? 6, SDP-BiH? 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1; House of Peoples - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - NA note: the Bosniak/Croat? Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of a House of Representatives (140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH? 28, SDP-BiH? 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1; and a House of Peoples (72 seats - 30 Bosniak, 30 Croat, and 12 others); last constituted November 1998; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH? 1, NHI 1; as of January 1999, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a permanent election law; a draft law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures
> 
> Judicial branch: Constitutional Court, consists of nine members: four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat? Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP [leader NA]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Bosnian Patriotic Party or BPS [Sefer HALILOVIC]; Center Coalition or KC (includes LBO, RS) [leader NA]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Coalition for King and Fatherland or KKO (Dubravko Prstojevic]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BIH or KCD [Alija IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA and SBH]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH? or HDZ-BiH? [Ante JELAVIC]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRSTIC]; Croatian Peasants Party of BiH? or HSS-BiH? [Ilija SIMIC]; Democratic Party for Banja Luka and Krajina [Nikola SPIRIC]; Democratic Party of Pensioners or DSP [Alojz KNEZOVIC]; Democratic Peoples Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosnia Organization or MBO [Dzevad HADZIAVDIC]; New Croatian Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Party for Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Party of Democratic Progress of the Republika Srpska [Mladen IVANIC]; Party of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Radical Party Republika Srpska of RSRS [Miroslav RADOVANOVIC]; Republican Party or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Coalition for Republika Srpska or SKRS [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; Serb Democratic Party or Serb Lands or SDS [Dragan KALINIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Serb Radical Party-Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Nikola POPLASEN] (banned by the Office of the High Representative - see Government note - from participation in the April elections); Sloga or Unity [Zivko RADISIC] (includes SNS, SPRS, SNSD); Social Democratic Party BIH or SDP-BiH? [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: NA
> 
> International organization participation: CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ; note - Igor DAVIDOVIC should become ambassador in early 2000 chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037 telephone: [1] (202) 337-1500 FAX: [1] (202) 337-1502 consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas J. MILLER embassy: Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo mailing address: use street address telephone: [387] (71) 445-700 FAX: [387] (71) 659-722
> 
> Flag description: a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
> 
> Government - note: The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on 14 December 1995, retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities - a joint Bosniak/Croat? Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS) - each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Economy|987911086
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> Economy - overview: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. In 1999, the convertible mark - the national currency introduced in 1998 - gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, faltered in both areas. Banking reform is also lagging. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $6.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 19% industry: 23% services: 58% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 1.026 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 35%-40% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> 
> Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 5%-10% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.22 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 32.43% hydro: 67.57% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.065 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
> 
> Exports: $450 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: NA
> 
> Exports - partners: NA
> 
> Imports: $2.95 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: NA
> 
> Imports - partners: NA
> 
> Debt - external: $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
> 
> Currency: 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
> 
> Exchange rates: convertible marks per US$1 - 1.9 (1999)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Communications|987911108
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 238,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics domestic: NA international: no satellite earth stations
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 940,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
> 
> Televisions: NA
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transportation|987911125
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> Railways: total: 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam until grids are repaired) standard gauge: 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
> 
> Highways: total: 21,846 km paved: 11,425 km unpaved: 10,421 km (1996 est.) note: roads need maintenance and repair
> 
> Waterways: NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 27 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 9 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 18 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 4 (1999 est.)
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Military|987911142
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> Military branches: Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosniak elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note - within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,114,180 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 886,464 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 29,325 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
> 
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Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transnational_issues|987911158
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> Disputes - international: disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina
> 
> Illicit drugs: minor transit point for marijuana and opiate trafficking routes to Western Europe
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Botswana/History|987911370
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> Background: Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is dominated by cattle raising and mining.
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Botswana/Geography|987911511
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> Location: Southern Africa, north of South Africa
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 22 00 S, 24 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 600,370 sq km land: 585,370 sq km water: 15,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 4,013 km border countries: Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
> 
> Terrain: predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
> 
> Natural resources: diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
> 
> Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 46% forests and woodland: 47% other: 6% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
> 
> Environment - current issues: overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
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Botswana/People|987911526
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> Population: 1,576,470 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 41% (male 321,766; female 318,304) 15-64 years: 55% (male 417,734; female 453,947) 65 years and over: 4% (male 26,436; female 38,283) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.76% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 29.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 61.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 39.27 years male: 38.63 years female: 39.93 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 3.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural) adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
> 
> Ethnic groups: Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
> 
> Languages: English (official), Setswana
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 69.8% male: 80.5% female: 59.9% (1995 est.)
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Botswana/Government|987911542
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> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Botswana conventional short form: Botswana former: Bechuanaland
> 
> Data code: BC
> 
> Government type: parliamentary republic
> 
> Capital: Gaborone
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
> 
> Independence: 30 September 1966 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
> 
> Constitution: March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
> 
> Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president head of government: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president election results: Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 61.3%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms) elections: National Assembly - elections last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004) election results: percent of vote by party - BDP 61.3%, other 38.7%; seats by party - BDP 33, other 7
> 
> Judicial branch: High Court; Court of Appeal
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana Congress Party or BCP [Michael DINGAKE]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE] note: main parties are: BDP, BNF, BCP; other minor parties joined forces in 1999 to form the Botswana Alliance Movement or BAM [Kenneth KOMA, chairman] but did not capture any parliamentary seats; the BAM parties are: the United Action Party [Ephraim Lepetu SETSHWAELO], the Social Democratic Union, the Independence Freedom Party [Motsamai MPHO], and the Botswana Progressive Union [Gideon KAELO]
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, AfDB? , C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV chancery: 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 244-4990 FAX: [1] (202) 244-4164
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John E. LANGE embassy: address NA, Gaborone mailing address: P. O. Box 90, Gaborone telephone: [267] 353982 FAX: [267] 356947
> 
> Flag description: light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
------
Botswana/Economy|987911566
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 6.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 46% (including 36% mining) services: 50% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 47% (1999 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.7% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 235,000 formal sector employees (1995)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 20%-40% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $1.6 billion expenditures: $1.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $560 million (FY96/97)
> 
> Industries: diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4.6% (FY92/93)
> 
> Electricity - production: 1 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.619 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 689 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: sorghum, corn, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock
> 
> Exports: $2.36 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: diamonds 72%, vehicles, copper, nickel, meat (1998)
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 21%, Zimbabwe 3% (1996)
> 
> Imports: $2.05 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products
> 
> Imports - partners: Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 78%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% (1996)
> 
> Debt - external: $651 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $73 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe
> 
> Exchange rates: pulas (P) per US$1 - 4.6168 (January 2000), 4.6244 (1999), 4.2259 (1998), 3.6508 (1997), 3.3242 (1996), 2.7722 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
Botswana/Communications|987911582
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 78,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system: sparse system domestic: small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations international: two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 237,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
------
Botswana/Transportation|987911596
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 971 km narrow gauge: 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
> 
> Highways: total: 18,482 km paved: 4,343 km unpaved: 14,139 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 92 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 10 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 7 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 82 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 57 under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
------
Botswana/Military|987911612
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 373,990 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 196,572 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 19,132 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $61 million (FY99/00)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99/00)
------
Botswana/Transnational_issues|987911697
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested 
------
Blindness/Technology|987912220
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.freedomscientific.com/
> 
> http://www.humanware.com/C/C-frm.html
> 
> http://www.w3.org/Consortium/
> 
> 
> 
------
Blindness/Technology|987912353
0a1
> Hardware and Software
2d2
< 
4a5
> Webpage Accessibility
------
Blindness/Technology|987912392
2c2
< http://www.freedomscientific.com/
---
> http://www.freedomscientific.com/ and 
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina|987917936
12,345d11
< 
< Background: Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence from the former Yugoslavia in February of 1992. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place, with troop levels to be reduced to about 19,000 by spring 2000.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 44 00 N, 18 00 E
< 
< Map references: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
< 
< Area:
< total: 51,129 sq km
< land: 51,129 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than West Virginia
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 1,459 km
< border countries: Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
< 
< Coastline: 20 km
< 
< Maritime claims: NA
< 
< Climate: hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
< 
< Terrain: mountains and valleys
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
< highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
< 
< Natural resources: coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 14%
< permanent crops: 5%
< permanent pastures: 20%
< forests and woodland: 39%
< other: 22% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 3,835,777
< note: all data dealing with population are subject to considerable error because of the dislocations caused by military action and ethnic cleansing (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 20% (male 401,554; female 379,303)
< 15-64 years: 71% (male 1,403,618; female 1,323,307)
< 65 years and over: 9% (male 138,173; female 189,822) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.1% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 12.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 7.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 25.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 71.49 years
< male: 68.78 years
< female: 74.38 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s)
< adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Serb 31%, Bosniak 44%, Croat 17%, Yugoslav 5.5%, other 2.5% (1991)
< note: Bosniak has replaced muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam
< 
< Religions: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10%
< 
< Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: NA
< total population: NA%
< male: NA%
< female: NA%
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Bosnia and Herzegovina
< local long form: none
< local short form: Bosna i Hercegovina
< 
< Data code: BK
< 
< Government type: emerging democracy
< 
< Capital: Sarajevo
< 
< Administrative divisions: there are two first-order administrative divisions - the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska; note - Brcko in northeastern Bosnia is a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska
< 
< Independence: NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
< 
< National holiday: Bosnia and Herzegovina - BiH National Day, 25 November
< 
< Constitution: the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force
< 
< Legal system: based on civil law system
< 
< Suffrage: 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (chairman since 14 February 2000, presidency member since 14 March 1996 - Bosniak); other members of the three-member rotating (every 8 months) presidency: Zivko RADISIC (since 13 October 1998 - Serb) and Ante JELAVIC (since NA September 1998 - Croat)
< head of government: vacant; note - in February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated
< cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen
< note: President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 28 December 1999; Vice President Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 28 December 1999); note - president and vice president rotate every year; President of the Republika Srpska: vacant since Nikola POPLASEN was removed by the Office of the High Representative on 5 March 1999 (see Government note)
< elections: the three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term; the member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2002); the cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the presidency
< election results: percent of vote - Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first 8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote followed RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZETBEGOVIC with 87% of the Bosniak vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was ineligible to serve a second term until RADISIC and JELAVIC had each served a first term as Chairman of the Presidency
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Bosniak; members elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members elected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms)
< elections: National House of Representatives - elections last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held in fall 2000); House of Peoples - last constituted 4 December 1998 (next to be constituted in fall 2000)
< election results: National House of Representatives - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1; House of Peoples - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - NA
< note: the Bosniak/Croat Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of a House of Representatives (140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1; and a House of Peoples (72 seats - 30 Bosniak, 30 Croat, and 12 others); last constituted November 1998; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1; as of January 1999, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a permanent election law; a draft law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures
< 
< Judicial branch: Constitutional Court, consists of nine members: four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP [leader NA]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Bosnian Patriotic Party or BPS [Sefer HALILOVIC]; Center Coalition or KC (includes LBO, RS) [leader NA]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Coalition for King and Fatherland or KKO (Dubravko Prstojevic]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BIH or KCD [Alija IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA and SBH]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH or HDZ-BiH [Ante JELAVIC]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRSTIC]; Croatian Peasants Party of BiH or HSS-BiH [Ilija SIMIC]; Democratic Party for Banja Luka and Krajina [Nikola SPIRIC]; Democratic Party of Pensioners or DSP [Alojz KNEZOVIC]; Democratic Peoples Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosnia Organization or MBO [Dzevad HADZIAVDIC]; New Croatian Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Party for Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Party of Democratic Progress of the Republika Srpska [Mladen IVANIC]; Party of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Radical Party Republika Srpska of RSRS [Miroslav RADOVANOVIC]; Republican Party or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Coalition for Republika Srpska or SKRS [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; Serb Democratic Party or Serb Lands or SDS [Dragan KALINIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Serb Radical Party-Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Nikola POPLASEN] (banned by the Office of the High Representative - see Government note - from participation in the April elections); Sloga or Unity [Zivko RADISIC] (includes SNS, SPRS, SNSD); Social Democratic Party BIH or SDP-BiH [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: NA
< 
< International organization participation: CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ; note - Igor DAVIDOVIC should become ambassador in early 2000
< chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
< telephone: [1] (202) 337-1500
< FAX: [1] (202) 337-1502
< consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas J. MILLER
< embassy: Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo
< mailing address: use street address
< telephone: [387] (71) 445-700
< FAX: [387] (71) 659-722
< 
< Flag description: a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
< 
< Government - note: The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on 14 December 1995, retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities - a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS) - each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. In 1999, the convertible mark - the national currency introduced in 1998 - gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, faltered in both areas. Banking reform is also lagging. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $6.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 19%
< industry: 23%
< services: 58% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 1.026 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 35%-40% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $NA
< expenditures: $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
< 
< Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 5%-10% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.22 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 32.43%
< hydro: 67.57%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.065 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
< 
< Exports: $450 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: NA
< 
< Exports - partners: NA
< 
< Imports: $2.95 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: NA
< 
< Imports - partners: NA
< 
< Debt - external: $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
< 
< Currency: 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
< 
< Exchange rates: convertible marks per US$1 - 1.9 (1999)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 238,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
< domestic: NA
< international: no satellite earth stations
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 940,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
< 
< Televisions: NA
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam until grids are repaired)
< standard gauge: 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
< 
< Highways:
< total: 21,846 km
< paved: 11,425 km
< unpaved: 10,421 km (1996 est.)
< note: roads need maintenance and repair
< 
< Waterways: NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 27 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 9
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
< under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 18
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 7
< under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 4 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosniak elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note - within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,114,180 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 886,464 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 29,325 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina
< 
< Illicit drugs: minor transit point for marijuana and opiate trafficking routes to Western Europe
------
Botswana|987918022
12,326d11
< 
< Background: Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is dominated by cattle raising and mining.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Africa, north of South Africa
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 22 00 S, 24 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 600,370 sq km
< land: 585,370 sq km
< water: 15,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 4,013 km
< border countries: Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
< 
< Terrain: predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m
< highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
< 
< Natural resources: diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 1%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 46%
< forests and woodland: 47%
< other: 6% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
< 
< Environment - current issues: overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 1,576,470
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 41% (male 321,766; female 318,304)
< 15-64 years: 55% (male 417,734; female 453,947)
< 65 years and over: 4% (male 26,436; female 38,283) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.76% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 29.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 61.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 39.27 years
< male: 38.63 years
< female: 39.93 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 3.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
< adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
< 
< Ethnic groups: Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
< 
< Languages: English (official), Setswana
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 69.8%
< male: 80.5%
< female: 59.9% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Botswana
< conventional short form: Botswana
< former: Bechuanaland
< 
< Data code: BC
< 
< Government type: parliamentary republic
< 
< Capital: Gaborone
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
< 
< Independence: 30 September 1966 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
< 
< Constitution: March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
< 
< Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
< head of government: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
< elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president
< election results: Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 61.3%
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms)
< elections: National Assembly - elections last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004)
< election results: percent of vote by party - BDP 61.3%, other 38.7%; seats by party - BDP 33, other 7
< 
< Judicial branch: High Court; Court of Appeal
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana Congress Party or BCP [Michael DINGAKE]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE]
< note: main parties are: BDP, BNF, BCP; other minor parties joined forces in 1999 to form the Botswana Alliance Movement or BAM [Kenneth KOMA, chairman] but did not capture any parliamentary seats; the BAM parties are: the United Action Party [Ephraim Lepetu SETSHWAELO], the Social Democratic Union, the Independence Freedom Party [Motsamai MPHO], and the Botswana Progressive Union [Gideon KAELO]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV
< chancery: 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
< telephone: [1] (202) 244-4990
< FAX: [1] (202) 244-4164
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador John E. LANGE
< embassy: address NA, Gaborone
< mailing address: P. O. Box 90, Gaborone
< telephone: [267] 353982
< FAX: [267] 356947
< 
< Flag description: light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 6.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 4%
< industry: 46% (including 36% mining)
< services: 50% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 47% (1999 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.7% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 235,000 formal sector employees (1995)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 20%-40% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $1.6 billion
< expenditures: $1.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $560 million (FY96/97)
< 
< Industries: diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4.6% (FY92/93)
< 
< Electricity - production: 1 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.619 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 689 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sorghum, corn, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock
< 
< Exports: $2.36 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: diamonds 72%, vehicles, copper, nickel, meat (1998)
< 
< Exports - partners: EU 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 21%, Zimbabwe 3% (1996)
< 
< Imports: $2.05 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products
< 
< Imports - partners: Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 78%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% (1996)
< 
< Debt - external: $651 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $73 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe
< 
< Exchange rates: pulas (P) per US$1 - 4.6168 (January 2000), 4.6244 (1999), 4.2259 (1998), 3.6508 (1997), 3.3242 (1996), 2.7722 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 78,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system: sparse system
< domestic: small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations
< international: two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 237,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 971 km
< narrow gauge: 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 18,482 km
< paved: 4,343 km
< unpaved: 14,139 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 92 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 10
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 7
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 82
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
< 914 to 1,523 m: 57
< under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 373,990 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 196,572 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 19,132 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $61 million (FY99/00)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99/00)
< 
< ----
< Transnational issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested
------
Bouvet_Island/History|987918089
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> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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Bouvet_Island/Geography|987918179
1c1,33
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> Location: Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 54 26 S, 3 24 E
> 
> Map references: Antarctic Region
> 
> Area: total: 58.5 sq km land: 58.5 sq km water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 29.6 km
> 
> Maritime claims: territorial sea: 4 nm
> 
> Climate: antarctic
> 
> Terrain: volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 m; coast is mostly inaccessible
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Southern Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 780 m
> 
> Natural resources: none
> 
> Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (93% ice)
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: covered by glacial ice; declared a nature reserve
------
Bouvet_Island/People|987918195
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> Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Bouvet_Island/Government|987918214
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> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bouvet Island
> 
> Data code: BV
> 
> Dependency status: territory of Norway; administered by the Polar Department of the Ministry of Justice and Police from Oslo
> 
> Flag description: the flag of Norway is used
------
Bouvet_Island/Economy|987918227
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> Economy - overview: no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
------
Bouvet_Island/Communications|987918236
1c1
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> Communications - note: automatic meteorological station
------
Bouvet_Island/Transportation|987918251
1c1
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> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
------
Bouvet_Island/Military|987918260
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---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
------
Bouvet_Island/Transnational_issues|987918271
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
------
Bouvet_Island|987918329
12,101d11
< 
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 54 26 S, 3 24 E
< 
< Map references: Antarctic Region
< 
< Area:
< total: 58.5 sq km
< land: 58.5 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 29.6 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< territorial sea: 4 nm
< 
< Climate: antarctic
< 
< Terrain: volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 m; coast is mostly inaccessible
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Southern Ocean 0 m
< highest point: unnamed location 780 m
< 
< Natural resources: none
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 100% (93% ice)
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: covered by glacial ice; declared a nature reserve
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Bouvet Island
< 
< Data code: BV
< 
< Dependency status: territory of Norway; administered by the Polar Department of the Ministry of Justice and Police from Oslo
< 
< Flag description: the flag of Norway is used
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Communications - note: automatic meteorological station
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Brazil/History|987918398
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> Background: Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
------
Brazil/Geography|987918423
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 10 00 S, 55 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area: total: 8,511,965 sq km land: 8,456,510 sq km water: 55,455 sq km note: includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 14,691 km border countries: Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
> 
> Coastline: 7,491 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: mostly tropical, but temperate in south
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
> 
> Natural resources: bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
> 
> Land use: arable land: 5% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 58% other: 14% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 28,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities note: President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
------
Brazil/People|987918592
1c1,29
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---
> Population: 172,860,370 note: Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 29% (male 25,607,074; female 24,670,960) 15-64 years: 66% (male 55,793,005; female 57,598,489) 65 years and over: 5% (male 3,727,912; female 5,462,930) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.94% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 18.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 9.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 38.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 62.94 years male: 58.54 years female: 67.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Brazilian(s) adjective: Brazilian
> 
> Ethnic groups: white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
> 
> Languages: Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.3% male: 83.3% female: 83.2% (1995 est.)
------
Brazil/Government|987918613
1c1,37
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> Country name: conventional long form: Federative Republic of Brazil conventional short form: Brazil local long form: Republica Federativa do Brasil local short form: Brasil
> 
> Data code: BR
> 
> Government type: federative republic
> 
> Capital: Brasilia
> 
> Administrative divisions: 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
> 
> Independence: 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
> 
> Constitution: 5 October 1988
> 
> Legal system: based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002) election results: Fernando Henrique CARDOSO reelected president; percent of vote - 53%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Federal Senate - last held 4 October 1998 for one-third of Senate (next to be held NA October 2002 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002) election results: Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PMDB 27, PFL 20, PSDB 16, PT 7, PPB 5, PSB 3, PDT 2, PPS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PFL 106, PSDB 99, PMDB 82, PPB 60, PT 58, PTB 31, PDT 25, PSB 19, PL 12, PCdoB? 7, other 14
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Jader BARBALHO, president]; Brazilian Labor Party or PTB [Jose Carlos MARTINEZ, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Teotinho VILELA Filho, president]; Brazilian Socialist Party or PSB [Miguel ARRAES, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Paulo MALUF, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB? [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Valdemar COSTA Neto, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Worker's Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions allied to leftist Worker's Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB? , BIS, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA chancery: 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 238-2700 FAX: [1] (202) 238-2827 consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Anthony S. HARRINGTON embassy: Avenida das Nacoes, Quadra 801, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal Cep 70403-900 Brazil mailing address: Unit 3500, APO AA 34030 telephone: [55] (61) 321-7272 FAX: [55] (61) 225-9136 consulate(s) general: Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo consulate(s): Recife
> 
> Flag description: green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
------
Brazil/Economy|987918634
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The Real Plan, instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Real Plan. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy is expected to push growth up to 3% in 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.057 trillion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 0.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $6,150 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 14% industry: 36% services: 50% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 17.4% (1990 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 0.8% highest 10%: 47.9% (1995)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
> 
> Labor force: 74 million (1997 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $151 billion expenditures: $149 billion, including capital expenditures of $36 billion (1998)
> 
> Industries: textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -2.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 316.927 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 4.92% hydro: 91.02% nuclear: 0.99% other: 3.07% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 336.242 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 41.5 billion kWh note: imports electricity from Paraguay (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
> 
> Exports: $46.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: manufactures, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee
> 
> Exports - partners: US 18%, Argentina 13%, Germany 5%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 4% (1999)
> 
> Imports: $48.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemical products, oil, electricity
> 
> Imports - partners: US 23%, Argentina 12%, Germany 10%, Japan 5%, Italy 5% (1999)
> 
> Debt - external: $200 billion (1999)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.012 billion (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: reals (R$) per US$1 - 1.804 (January 2000), 1.815 (1999), 1.161 (1998), 1.078 (1997), 1.005 (1996), 0.918 (1995) note: from October 1994 through 14 January 1999, the official rate was determined by a managed float; since 15 January 1999, the official rate floats independently with respect to the US$
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Brazil/Communications|987918650
1c1,15
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 19 million (1997)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 4 million (1997)
> 
> Telephone system: good working system domestic: extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations international: 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1,365, FM 296, shortwave 161 (of which 91 are collocated with AM stations) (1999)
> 
> Radios: 71 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 138 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 36.5 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 197 (1999)
------
Brazil/Transportation|987918707
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> Railways: total: 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail broad gauge: 4,057 km 1.600-m gauge narrow gauge: 23,489 km 1.000-m gauge dual gauge: 336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
> 
> Highways: total: 1.98 million km paved: 184,140 km unpaved: 1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 50,000 km navigable
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 2,980 km; petroleum products 4,762 km; natural gas 4,246 km (1998)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT ships by type: bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3,277 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 541 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20 1,524 to 2,437 m: 138 914 to 1,523 m: 346 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 2,736 1,524 to 2,437 m: 73 914 to 1,523 m: 1,306 under 914 m: 1,357 (1999 est.)
------
Brazil/Military|987918725
1c1,13
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> Military branches: Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes naval air and marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)
------
Brazil/Transnational_issues|987918750
1c1,4
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---
> Disputes - international: two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
> 
> Illicit drugs: limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian, Colombian, and Peruvian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling
> 
------
Brazil|987918844
18,358d17
< ----
< note:  the following information came from the CIA World Factbook and is public domain.
< ----
< Background: Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
< 
< ----
< Location: Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 10 00 S, 55 00 W
< 
< Map references: South America
< 
< Area:
< total: 8,511,965 sq km
< land: 8,456,510 sq km
< water: 55,455 sq km
< note: includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 14,691 km
< border countries: Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
< 
< Coastline: 7,491 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: 200 nm
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: mostly tropical, but temperate in south
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
< 
< Natural resources: bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 5%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 22%
< forests and woodland: 58%
< other: 14% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 28,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
< note: President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 172,860,370
< note: Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 29% (male 25,607,074; female 24,670,960)
< 15-64 years: 66% (male 55,793,005; female 57,598,489)
< 65 years and over: 5% (male 3,727,912; female 5,462,930) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.94% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 18.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 9.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 38.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 62.94 years
< male: 58.54 years
< female: 67.56 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Brazilian(s)
< adjective: Brazilian
< 
< Ethnic groups: white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
< 
< Languages: Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 83.3%
< male: 83.3%
< female: 83.2% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Federative Republic of Brazil
< conventional short form: Brazil
< local long form: Republica Federativa do Brasil
< local short form: Brasil
< 
< Data code: BR
< 
< Government type: federative republic
< 
< Capital: Brasilia
< 
< Administrative divisions: 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
< 
< Independence: 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
< 
< Constitution: 5 October 1988
< 
< Legal system: based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
< elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
< election results: Fernando Henrique CARDOSO reelected president; percent of vote - 53%
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
< elections: Federal Senate - last held 4 October 1998 for one-third of Senate (next to be held NA October 2002 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
< election results: Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PMDB 27, PFL 20, PSDB 16, PT 7, PPB 5, PSB 3, PDT 2, PPS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PFL 106, PSDB 99, PMDB 82, PPB 60, PT 58, PTB 31, PDT 25, PSB 19, PL 12, PCdoB 7, other 14
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Jader BARBALHO, president]; Brazilian Labor Party or PTB [Jose Carlos MARTINEZ, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Teotinho VILELA Filho, president]; Brazilian Socialist Party or PSB [Miguel ARRAES, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Paulo MALUF, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Valdemar COSTA Neto, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Worker's Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions allied to leftist Worker's Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
< 
< International organization participation: AfDB, BIS, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA
< chancery: 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 238-2700
< FAX: [1] (202) 238-2827
< consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Anthony S. HARRINGTON
< embassy: Avenida das Nacoes, Quadra 801, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal Cep 70403-900 Brazil
< mailing address: Unit 3500, APO AA 34030
< telephone: [55] (61) 321-7272
< FAX: [55] (61) 225-9136
< consulate(s) general: Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo
< consulate(s): Recife
< 
< Flag description: green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The Real Plan, instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Real Plan. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy is expected to push growth up to 3% in 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.057 trillion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 0.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $6,150 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 14%
< industry: 36%
< services: 50% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 17.4% (1990 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 0.8%
< highest 10%: 47.9% (1995)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
< 
< Labor force: 74 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 7.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $151 billion
< expenditures: $149 billion, including capital expenditures of $36 billion (1998)
< 
< Industries: textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -2.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 316.927 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 4.92%
< hydro: 91.02%
< nuclear: 0.99%
< other: 3.07% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 336.242 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 41.5 billion kWh
< note: imports electricity from Paraguay (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
< 
< Exports: $46.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: manufactures, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee
< 
< Exports - partners: US 18%, Argentina 13%, Germany 5%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 4% (1999)
< 
< Imports: $48.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemical products, oil, electricity
< 
< Imports - partners: US 23%, Argentina 12%, Germany 10%, Japan 5%, Italy 5% (1999)
< 
< Debt - external: $200 billion (1999)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.012 billion (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: reals (R$) per US$1 - 1.804 (January 2000), 1.815 (1999), 1.161 (1998), 1.078 (1997), 1.005 (1996), 0.918 (1995)
< note: from October 1994 through 14 January 1999, the official rate was determined by a managed float; since 15 January 1999, the official rate floats independently with respect to the US$
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 19 million (1997)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4 million (1997)
< 
< Telephone system: good working system
< domestic: extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations
< international: 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1,365, FM 296, shortwave 161 (of which 91 are collocated with AM stations) (1999)
< 
< Radios: 71 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 138 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 36.5 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 197 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< 
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail
< broad gauge: 4,057 km 1.600-m gauge
< narrow gauge: 23,489 km 1.000-m gauge
< dual gauge: 336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 1.98 million km
< paved: 184,140 km
< unpaved: 1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 50,000 km navigable
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 2,980 km; petroleum products 4,762 km; natural gas 4,246 km (1998)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3,277 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 541
< over 3,047 m: 5
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 138
< 914 to 1,523 m: 346
< under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 2,736
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 73
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1,306
< under 914 m: 1,357 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes naval air and marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
< 
< Illicit drugs: limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian, Colombian, and Peruvian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/History|987919018
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Geography|987919039
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 71 30 E
> 
> Map references: World
> 
> Area: total: 60 sq km land: 60 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes the entire Chagos Archipelago
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 698 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds
> 
> Terrain: flat and low (most areas do not exceed four meters in elevation)
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
> 
> Natural resources: coconuts, fish
> 
> Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: NA% other: NA%
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: NA
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/People|987919057
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: no indigenous inhabitants note: approximately 3,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or Ilois, were evacuated to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in 1995, there were approximately 1,700 UK and US military personnel and 1,500 civilian contractors living on the island (July 2000 est.)
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Government|987919087
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: British Indian Ocean Territory conventional short form: none abbreviation: BIOT
> 
> Data code: IO
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK; administered by a commissioner, resident in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London
> 
> Legal system: NA
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952) head of government: Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK cabinet: NA elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; commissioner and administrator appointed by the monarch
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Flag description: white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Economy|987919109
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
> 
> Electricity - production: NA kWh note: electricity supplied by the US military
> 
> Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Communications|987919121
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: NA
> 
> Telephone system: separate facilities for military and public needs are available domestic: all commercial telephone services are available, including connection to the Internet international: international telephone service is carried by satellite (2000)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: NA
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: NA
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transportation|987919284
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Highways: total: NA km paved: short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia unpaved: NA km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Diego Garcia
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Military|987919300
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transnational_issues|987919313
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory|987919334
12,148d11
< 
< 
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 71 30 E
< 
< Map references: World
< 
< Area:
< total: 60 sq km
< land: 60 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< note: includes the entire Chagos Archipelago
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 698 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 3 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds
< 
< Terrain: flat and low (most areas do not exceed four meters in elevation)
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
< highest point: unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
< 
< Natural resources: coconuts, fish
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: NA%
< other: NA%
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: no indigenous inhabitants
< note: approximately 3,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or Ilois, were evacuated to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in 1995, there were approximately 1,700 UK and US military personnel and 1,500 civilian contractors living on the island (July 2000 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: British Indian Ocean Territory
< conventional short form: none
< abbreviation: BIOT
< 
< Data code: IO
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK; administered by a commissioner, resident in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London
< 
< Legal system: NA
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
< head of government: Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK
< cabinet: NA
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; commissioner and administrator appointed by the monarch
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Flag description: white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
< 
< Electricity - production: NA kWh
< note: electricity supplied by the US military
< 
< Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: NA
< 
< Telephone system: separate facilities for military and public needs are available
< domestic: all commercial telephone services are available, including connection to the Internet
< international: international telephone service is carried by satellite (2000)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: NA
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: NA
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Highways:
< total: NA km
< paved: short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia
< unpaved: NA km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Diego Garcia
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
------
British_Virgin_Islands/History|987919727
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Geography|987919743
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 18 30 N, 64 30 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area: total: 150 sq km land: 150 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes the island of Anegada
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 80 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
> 
> Climate: subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
> 
> Terrain: coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
> 
> Natural resources: NEGL
> 
> Land use: arable land: 20% permanent crops: 7% permanent pastures: 33% forests and woodland: 7% other: 33% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
> 
> Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
> 
> Geography - note: strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
------
British_Virgin_Islands/People|987919766
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 19,615 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 2,022; female 1,975) 15-64 years: 75% (male 7,517; female 7,102) 65 years and over: 5% (male 545; female 454) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.34% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.2 male(s)/female total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 75.44 years male: 74.57 years female: 76.35 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: British Virgin Islander(s) adjective: British Virgin Islander
> 
> Ethnic groups: black 90%, white, Asian
> 
> Religions: Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981)
> 
> Languages: English (official)
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.8% (1991 est.) male: NA% female: NA%
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Government|987919801
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: British Virgin Islands abbreviation: BVI
> 
> Data code: VI
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
> 
> Government type: NA
> 
> Capital: Road Town
> 
> Administrative divisions: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> National holiday: Territory Day, 1 July
> 
> Constitution: 1 June 1977
> 
> Legal system: English law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Francis J. SAVAGE (since NA) head of government: Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT) cabinet: Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, one member from each of 9 electoral districts, four at-large members; members serve five-year terms) elections: last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
> 
> Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal; (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court); Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; Court of Summary Jurisdiction
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL]; United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
> 
> International organization participation: Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Economy|987919870
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1.8% industry: 6.2% services: 92% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5.3% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 4,911 (1980)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 3% (1995)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $121.5 million expenditures: $115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1985)
> 
> Electricity - production: 42 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 39 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish
> 
> Exports: $6 million (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
> 
> Exports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> 
> Imports: $175 million (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
> 
> Imports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> 
> Debt - external: $36.1 million (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2.6 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: US currency is used
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Communications|987919955
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 9,000 (1994)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
> 
> Telephone system: worldwide telephone service domestic: NA international: submarine cable to Bermuda
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 9,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus one cable company) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 4,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Transportation|987919966
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 113 km (1995 est.) paved: NA km unpaved: NA km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Road Town
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Military|987919975
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Transnational_issues|987919985
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
British_Virgin_Islands|987920015
12,295d11
< 
< Background: First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 18 30 N, 64 30 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:
< total: 150 sq km
< land: 150 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< note: includes the island of Anegada
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 80 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 3 nm
< 
< Climate: subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
< 
< Terrain: coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
< highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
< 
< Natural resources: NEGL
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 20%
< permanent crops: 7%
< permanent pastures: 33%
< forests and woodland: 7%
< other: 33% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
< 
< Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
< 
< Geography - note: strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 19,615 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 20% (male 2,022; female 1,975)
< 15-64 years: 75% (male 7,517; female 7,102)
< 65 years and over: 5% (male 545; female 454) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.34% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 1.2 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 75.44 years
< male: 74.57 years
< female: 76.35 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: British Virgin Islander(s)
< adjective: British Virgin Islander
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 90%, white, Asian
< 
< Religions: Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981)
< 
< Languages: English (official)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 97.8% (1991 est.)
< male: NA%
< female: NA%
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: British Virgin Islands
< abbreviation: BVI
< 
< Data code: VI
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
< 
< Government type: NA
< 
< Capital: Road Town
< 
< Administrative divisions: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< National holiday: Territory Day, 1 July
< 
< Constitution: 1 June 1977
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Francis J. SAVAGE (since NA)
< head of government: Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT)
< cabinet: Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, one member from each of 9 electoral districts, four at-large members; members serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
< 
< Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal; (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court); Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; Court of Summary Jurisdiction
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL]; United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
< 
< International organization participation: Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 1.8%
< industry: 6.2%
< services: 92% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5.3% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 4,911 (1980)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 3% (1995)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $121.5 million
< expenditures: $115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1985)
< 
< Electricity - production: 42 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 39 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish
< 
< Exports: $6 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
< 
< Exports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
< 
< Imports: $175 million (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
< 
< Imports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
< 
< Debt - external: $36.1 million (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $2.6 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: US currency is used
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 9,000 (1994)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system: worldwide telephone service
< domestic: NA
< international: submarine cable to Bermuda
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 9,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus one cable company) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 4,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 113 km (1995 est.)
< paved: NA km
< unpaved: NA km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Road Town
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 2
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Brunei/History|987920282
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Although greatly reduced in size since its heyday of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Brunei sits atop extensive petroleum and natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the less developed countries.
------
Brunei/Geography|987920298
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 4 30 N, 114 40 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area: total: 5,770 sq km land: 5,270 sq km water: 500 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Delaware
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 381 km border countries: Malaysia 381 km
> 
> Coastline: 161 km
> 
> Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm or to median line territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; hot, humid, rainy
> 
> Terrain: flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m highest point: Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, timber
> 
> Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 85% other: 12% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
> 
> Environment - current issues: seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia
------
Brunei/People|987920316
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 336,376 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 31% (male 53,812; female 51,628) 15-64 years: 66% (male 118,207; female 103,819) 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,317; female 4,593) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.17% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 4.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.14 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 14.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73.58 years male: 71.23 years female: 76.06 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bruneian(s) adjective: Bruneian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Malay 62%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 17%
> 
> Religions: Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
> 
> Languages: Malay (official), English, Chinese
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 88.2% male: 92.6% female: 83.4% (1995 est.)
------
Brunei/Government|987920364
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Negara Brunei Darussalam conventional short form: Brunei
> 
> Data code: BX
> 
> Government type: constitutional sultanate
> 
> Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
> 
> Administrative divisions: 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong
> 
> Independence: 1 January 1984 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 23 February (1984)
> 
> Constitution: 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas
> 
> Suffrage: none
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the monarch; deals with executive matters note: there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the monarch) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the monarch) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the monarch) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises elections: none; the monarch is hereditary
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the monarch) elections: last held in March 1962 note: in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the monarch; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the monarch for three-year terms
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Brunei Solidarity National Party or PPKB in Malay [Haji Mohd HATTA bin Haji Zainal Abidin, president]; the PPKB is the only legal political party in Brunei; it was registered in 1985, but became largely inactive after 1988, it was revived in 1995 and again in 1998; it has less than 200 registered party members; other parties include Brunei People's Party or PRB (banned in 1962) and Brunei National Democratic Party (registered in May 1965, deregistered by the Brunei Government in 1988)
> 
> International organization participation: APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam chancery: 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 342-0159 FAX: [1] (202) 342-0158
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Sylvia Gaye STANFIELD embassy: Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan mailing address: PSC 470 (BSB), FPO AP 96507 telephone: [673] (2) 229670 FAX: [673] (2) 225293
> 
> Flag description: yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands
------
Brunei/Economy|987920382
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 5% industry: 46% services: 49% (1996 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 144,000 (1995 est.); note - includes foreign workers and military personnel note: temporary residents make up 41% of labor force (1991)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 4.9% (1995 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $2.5 billion expenditures: $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $768 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1997 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 2.56 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 2.381 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo
> 
> Exports: $2.04 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products
> 
> Exports - partners: Japan 51%, UK 14%, US 10%, Singapore 8%, Thailand 3% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore 32%, UK 17%, Malaysia 12%, France 12%, US 5% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $0
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $4.3 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.6733 (January 2000), 1.6950 (1999), 1.6736 (1998), 1.4848 (1997), 1.4100 (1996), 1.4174 (1995); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Brunei/Communications|987920394
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 68,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 57,000 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: service throughout country is excellent; international service good to Europe, US, and East Asia domestic: NA international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean); digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 319,408 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 196,009 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
------
Brunei/Transportation|987920429
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 13 km (private line) narrow gauge: 13 km 0.610-m gauge
> 
> Highways: total: 1,150 km paved: 399 km unpaved: 751 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 135 km; petroleum products 418 km; natural gas 920 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT ships by type: liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
------
Brunei/Military|987920453
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 104,447 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 60,395 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 2,957 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $343 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.1% (FY98)
------
Brunei/Transnational_issues|987920644
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island 
------
Brunei|987920673
12,332d11
< 
< Background: Although greatly reduced in size since its heyday of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Brunei sits atop extensive petroleum and natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the less developed countries.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 4 30 N, 114 40 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 5,770 sq km
< land: 5,270 sq km
< water: 500 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Delaware
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 381 km
< border countries: Malaysia 381 km
< 
< Coastline: 161 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm or to median line
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; hot, humid, rainy
< 
< Terrain: flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
< highest point: Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 1%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 1%
< forests and woodland: 85%
< other: 12% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
< 
< Environment - current issues: seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 336,376 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 31% (male 53,812; female 51,628)
< 15-64 years: 66% (male 118,207; female 103,819)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,317; female 4,593) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.17% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 4.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.14 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 14.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 73.58 years
< male: 71.23 years
< female: 76.06 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bruneian(s)
< adjective: Bruneian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Malay 62%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 17%
< 
< Religions: Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
< 
< Languages: Malay (official), English, Chinese
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 88.2%
< male: 92.6%
< female: 83.4% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Negara Brunei Darussalam
< conventional short form: Brunei
< 
< Data code: BX
< 
< Government type: constitutional sultanate
< 
< Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
< 
< Administrative divisions: 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong
< 
< Independence: 1 January 1984 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 23 February (1984)
< 
< Constitution: 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas
< 
< Suffrage: none
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the monarch; deals with executive matters
< note: there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the monarch) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the monarch) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the monarch) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the monarch)
< elections: last held in March 1962
< note: in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the monarch; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the monarch for three-year terms
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Brunei Solidarity National Party or PPKB in Malay [Haji Mohd HATTA bin Haji Zainal Abidin, president]; the PPKB is the only legal political party in Brunei; it was registered in 1985, but became largely inactive after 1988, it was revived in 1995 and again in 1998; it has less than 200 registered party members; other parties include Brunei People's Party or PRB (banned in 1962) and Brunei National Democratic Party (registered in May 1965, deregistered by the Brunei Government in 1988)
< 
< International organization participation: APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam
< chancery: 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 342-0159
< FAX: [1] (202) 342-0158
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Sylvia Gaye STANFIELD
< embassy: Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan
< mailing address: PSC 470 (BSB), FPO AP 96507
< telephone: [673] (2) 229670
< FAX: [673] (2) 225293
< 
< Flag description: yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 5%
< industry: 46%
< services: 49% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 144,000 (1995 est.); note - includes foreign workers and military personnel
< note: temporary residents make up 41% of labor force (1991)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 4.9% (1995 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $2.5 billion
< expenditures: $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $768 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1997 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.56 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.381 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo
< 
< Exports: $2.04 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products
< 
< Exports - partners: Japan 51%, UK 14%, US 10%, Singapore 8%, Thailand 3% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore 32%, UK 17%, Malaysia 12%, France 12%, US 5% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $0
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $4.3 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.6733 (January 2000), 1.6950 (1999), 1.6736 (1998), 1.4848 (1997), 1.4100 (1996), 1.4174 (1995); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 68,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 57,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: service throughout country is excellent; international service good to Europe, US, and East Asia
< domestic: NA
< international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean); digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 319,408 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 196,009 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 13 km (private line)
< narrow gauge: 13 km 0.610-m gauge
< 
< Highways:
< total: 1,150 km
< paved: 399 km
< unpaved: 751 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 135 km; petroleum products 418 km; natural gas 920 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT
< ships by type: liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 104,447 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 60,395 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 2,957 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $343 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.1% (FY98)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island
------
Bulgaria/History|987920767
1c1,2
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---
> Background: Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, and Bulgaria began the contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward eventual integration into the EU and NATO.
> 
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Bulgaria/Geography|987920858
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 43 00 N, 25 00 E
> 
> Map references: Europe
> 
> Area: total: 110,910 sq km land: 110,550 sq km water: 360 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Tennessee
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 1,808 km border countries: Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
> 
> Coastline: 354 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m highest point: Musala 2,925 m
> 
> Natural resources: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
> 
> Land use: arable land: 43% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 14% forests and woodland: 38% other: 3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 12,370 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: earthquakes, landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia
------
Bulgaria/People|987920878
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 7,796,694 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 16% (male 623,285; female 591,655) 15-64 years: 68% (male 2,610,573; female 2,685,190) 65 years and over: 16% (male 546,029; female 739,962) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: -1.16% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 8.06 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -5.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 15.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.91 years male: 67.45 years female: 74.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Bulgarian(s) adjective: Bulgarian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Bulgarian 83%, Turk 8.5%, Roma 2.6%, Macedonia, Armenian, Tatar, Gagauz, Circassian, others (1998)
> 
> Religions: Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%, Muslim 13%, Roman Catholic 1.5%, Jewish 0.8%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 1% (1998)
> 
> Languages: Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 99% female: 98% (1999)
------
Bulgaria/Government|987920906
1c1,37
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> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Bulgaria conventional short form: Bulgaria
> 
> Data code: BU
> 
> Government type: parliamentary democracy
> 
> Capital: Sofia
> 
> Administrative divisions: 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
> 
> Independence: 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 3 March (1878)
> 
> Constitution: adopted 12 July 1991
> 
> Legal system: civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997) head of government: Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan KOSTOV (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Minister Petur ZHOTEV (since 21 December 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president; deputy prime ministers nominated by the prime minister election results: Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) election results: percent of vote by party - UtdDF? 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UtdDF? 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12; note - seating as of May 1997: UtdDF? 126, DL 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 17, PU 11, independents 9
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for nine-year terms
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS) [Ahmed DOGAN]; Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Democratic Left of DL [leader NA]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS (member of LDU) [Ahmed DOGAN]; People's Union or PU [Anastasiya MOZER]; Union of Democratic Forces or UtdDF? (an alliance of pro-democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: agrarian movement; Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United or BZNS; Bulgarian Democratic Center; Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB; Democratic Alliance for the Republic or DAR; Gergiov Den; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization or IMRO; New Union for Democracy or NUD; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?, ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Philip DIMITROV chancery: 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 387-0174, 387-0365, 483-1386 FAX: [1] (202) 234-7973 consulate(s): New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Richard MILES embassy: 1 Saborna Street, Sofia mailing address: American Embassy Sofia, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5740 telephone: [359] (2) 980-52-41 through 48 FAX: [359] (2) 981-89-77
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control)
------
Bulgaria/Economy|987920960
1c1,61
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> Economy - overview: In April 1997, the current ruling Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official consumer price increase of 6.2% in 1999. Following declines in GDP in both 1996 and 1997, the economy grew an officially estimated 3.5% in 1998 and 2.5% in 1999. In September 1998, the IMF approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility, which provides credits worth approximately $900 million, designed to support Bulgaria's reform efforts. In 1999, an unfavorable international environment - primarily caused by the Kosovo conflict - and structural reforms slowed economic growth, but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $34.9 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 21% industry: 29% services: 50% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.3% highest 10%: 24.7% (1992)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 6.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 3.82 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 26%, industry 31%, services 43% (1998 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 15% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $4.69 billion expenditures: $5.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> 
> Industries: machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, nuclear fuel
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 38.423 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 52.34% hydro: 7.35% nuclear: 40.31% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 35.493 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 2 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 1.76 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wine, wheat, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets
> 
> Exports: $3.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing (1998)
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 13%, Germany 10%, Greece 9%, Turkey 8%, Russia (1998)
> 
> Imports: $5.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
> 
> Imports - partners: Russia 20%, Germany 14%, Italy 8%, Greece 6%, US 4% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $10 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA
> 
> Currency: 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
> 
> Exchange rates: leva (Lv) per US$1 - 1.9295 (January 2000), 1.8364 (1999), 1,760.36 (1998), 1,681.88 (1997), 177.89 (1996), 67.17 (1995) note: on 5 July 1999 the lev was re-denominated; the post-5 July 1999 lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-5 July 1999 leva
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Bulgaria/Communications|987920980
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 3.186 million (1999)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 300,000 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: more than two-thirds of the lines are residential domestic: extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages; a more modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital microwave international: direct dialing to 58 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); 2 Intelsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 24, FM 93, shortwave 2 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 4.51 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 33 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 3.31 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 20 (1999)
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Bulgaria/Transportation|987921006
1c1,17
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> Railways: total: 4,294 km standard gauge: 4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track) narrow gauge: 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
> 
> Highways: total: 36,759 km paved: 33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways) unpaved: 2,941 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 470 km (1987)
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products 525 km; natural gas 1,500 km (1999)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT ships by type: bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 216 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 129 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 19 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 93 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 87 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 75 (1999 est.)
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Bulgaria/Military|987921021
1c1,15
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> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops, Railway and Construction Troops
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,913,857 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,599,379 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 57,461 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $379 million (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY99)
> 
> Military - note: the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a Rapid Reaction Force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades
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Bulgaria/Transnational_issues|987921036
1c1
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> Illicit drugs: major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals
------
Bulgaria|987921204
14,345d13
< 
< Background: Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, and Bulgaria began the contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward eventual integration into the EU and NATO.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 43 00 N, 25 00 E
< 
< Map references: Europe
< 
< Area:
< total: 110,910 sq km
< land: 110,550 sq km
< water: 360 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Tennessee
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 1,808 km
< border countries: Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
< 
< Coastline: 354 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
< highest point: Musala 2,925 m
< 
< Natural resources: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 43%
< permanent crops: 2%
< permanent pastures: 14%
< forests and woodland: 38%
< other: 3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 12,370 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: earthquakes, landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 7,796,694 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 16% (male 623,285; female 591,655)
< 15-64 years: 68% (male 2,610,573; female 2,685,190)
< 65 years and over: 16% (male 546,029; female 739,962) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: -1.16% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 8.06 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -5.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 15.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 70.91 years
< male: 67.45 years
< female: 74.56 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Bulgarian(s)
< adjective: Bulgarian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bulgarian 83%, Turk 8.5%, Roma 2.6%, Macedonia, Armenian, Tatar, Gagauz, Circassian, others (1998)
< 
< Religions: Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%, Muslim 13%, Roman Catholic 1.5%, Jewish 0.8%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 1% (1998)
< 
< Languages: Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98%
< male: 99%
< female: 98% (1999)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Bulgaria
< conventional short form: Bulgaria
< 
< Data code: BU
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Sofia
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
< 
< Independence: 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 3 March (1878)
< 
< Constitution: adopted 12 July 1991
< 
< Legal system: civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997)
< head of government: Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan KOSTOV (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Minister Petur ZHOTEV (since 21 December 1999)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly
< elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president; deputy prime ministers nominated by the prime minister
< election results: Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
< elections: last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001)
< election results: percent of vote by party - UtdDF 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UtdDF 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12; note - seating as of May 1997: UtdDF 126, DL 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 17, PU 11, independents 9
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for nine-year terms
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS) [Ahmed DOGAN]; Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Democratic Left of DL [leader NA]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS (member of LDU) [Ahmed DOGAN]; People's Union or PU [Anastasiya MOZER]; Union of Democratic Forces or UtdDF (an alliance of pro-democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: agrarian movement; Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United or BZNS; Bulgarian Democratic Center; Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB; Democratic Alliance for the Republic or DAR; Gergiov Den; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization or IMRO; New Union for Democracy or NUD; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Philip DIMITROV
< chancery: 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 387-0174, 387-0365, 483-1386
< FAX: [1] (202) 234-7973
< consulate(s): New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Richard MILES
< embassy: 1 Saborna Street, Sofia
< mailing address: American Embassy Sofia, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5740
< telephone: [359] (2) 980-52-41 through 48
< FAX: [359] (2) 981-89-77
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control)
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: In April 1997, the current ruling Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official consumer price increase of 6.2% in 1999. Following declines in GDP in both 1996 and 1997, the economy grew an officially estimated 3.5% in 1998 and 2.5% in 1999. In September 1998, the IMF approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility, which provides credits worth approximately $900 million, designed to support Bulgaria's reform efforts. In 1999, an unfavorable international environment - primarily caused by the Kosovo conflict - and structural reforms slowed economic growth, but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $34.9 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 21%
< industry: 29%
< services: 50% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 3.3%
< highest 10%: 24.7% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 6.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 3.82 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 26%, industry 31%, services 43% (1998 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 15% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $4.69 billion
< expenditures: $5.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
< 
< Industries: machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, nuclear fuel
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 38.423 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 52.34%
< hydro: 7.35%
< nuclear: 40.31%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 35.493 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 2 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 1.76 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wine, wheat, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets
< 
< Exports: $3.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing (1998)
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 13%, Germany 10%, Greece 9%, Turkey 8%, Russia (1998)
< 
< Imports: $5.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
< 
< Imports - partners: Russia 20%, Germany 14%, Italy 8%, Greece 6%, US 4% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $10 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA
< 
< Currency: 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
< 
< Exchange rates: leva (Lv) per US$1 - 1.9295 (January 2000), 1.8364 (1999), 1,760.36 (1998), 1,681.88 (1997), 177.89 (1996), 67.17 (1995)
< note: on 5 July 1999 the lev was re-denominated; the post-5 July 1999 lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-5 July 1999 leva
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 3.186 million (1999)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 300,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: more than two-thirds of the lines are residential
< domestic: extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages; a more modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital microwave
< international: direct dialing to 58 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); 2 Intelsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 24, FM 93, shortwave 2 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 4.51 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 33 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 3.31 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 20 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 4,294 km
< standard gauge: 4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track)
< narrow gauge: 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 36,759 km
< paved: 33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 2,941 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 470 km (1987)
< 
< Pipelines: petroleum products 525 km; natural gas 1,500 km (1999)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 216 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 129
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 19
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 93 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 87
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
< 914 to 1,523 m: 10
< under 914 m: 75 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops, Railway and Construction Troops
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,913,857 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 1,599,379 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 57,461 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $379 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY99)
< 
< Military - note: the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a Rapid Reaction Force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Illicit drugs: major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals
------
Burkina_Faso/History|987921361
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
> 
------
Burkina_Faso/Geography|987921382
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Western Africa, north of Ghana
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 2 00 W
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 274,200 sq km land: 273,800 sq km water: 400 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Colorado
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 3,192 km border countries: Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
> 
> Terrain: mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m
> 
> Natural resources: manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
> 
> Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 50% other: 15% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 200 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recurring droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
------
Burkina_Faso/People|987921420
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 11,946,065 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,866,361; female 2,822,990) 15-64 years: 49% (male 2,808,797; female 3,097,048) 65 years and over: 3% (male 149,474; female 201,395) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 17.04 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 108.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 46.73 years male: 46.29 years female: 47.18 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural) adjective: Burkinabe
> 
> Ethnic groups: Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%
> 
> Languages: French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 19.2% male: 29.5% female: 9.2% (1995 est.)
------
Burkina_Faso/Government|987921476
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Burkina Faso former: Upper Volta
> 
> Data code: UV
> 
> Government type: parliamentary
> 
> Capital: Ouagadougou
> 
> Administrative divisions: 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo note: a new electoral code was approved by the National Assembly in January 1997; the number of administrative provinces was increased from 30 to 45 (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo), however, this change has not yet been approved by the US Board on Geographic Names
> 
> Independence: 5 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
> 
> Constitution: 2 June 1991 approved by referendum; 11 June 1991 formally adopted
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law system and customary law
> 
> Suffrage: universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987) head of government: Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the president may serve unlimited terms; election last held 15 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature election results: Blaise COMPAORE reelected president with 88% percent of the vote, with 56% of voter turnout note: despite his reelection, President COMPAORE faces a growing political crisis due to his mishandling of an investigation into the assassination of a newspaper editor and pressure for political reform
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (178 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms) elections: National Assembly election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Appeals Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: African Democratic Rally or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO, Clement SANOU]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO]; Group for Progressive Democrats or GDP [Issa TIENDREBEOGO]; Movement for Tolerance and Progress or MTP [Noyabtigungu Congo KABORE]; Party for African Independence or PAI [leader NA]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS [leader NA]; Union of Greens for the Development of Burkina Faso or UVDB [Ram OVEDRAGO]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA chancery: 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-5577 FAX: [1] (202) 667-1882
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Jimmy J. KOLKER embassy: Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou mailing address: 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou telephone: [226] 306723 through 306725 FAX: [226] 303890
> 
> Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Burkina_Faso/Economy|987921492
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2000-2001 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 36% industry: 20% services: 44% (1997)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 4.679 million (persons 10 years old and over, according to a sample survey taken in 1991) note: a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget: revenues: $277 million expenditures: $492 million, including capital expenditures of $233 million (1995 est.)
> 
> Industries: cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 4.2% (1995)
> 
> Electricity - production: 225 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 64.44% hydro: 35.56% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 209 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock
> 
> Exports: $311 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cotton, animal products, gold
> 
> Exports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, Taiwan, France, Colombia, Italy, Mali
> 
> Imports: $572 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery, food products, petroleum
> 
> Imports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, US
> 
> Debt - external: $1.3 billion (1997)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $484.1 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF franc is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Burkina_Faso/Communications|987921507
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 30,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: all services only fair domestic: microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 370,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 100,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
------
Burkina_Faso/Transportation|987921528
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the Cote d'Ivoire border and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya) narrow gauge: 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways: total: 12,506 km paved: 2,001 km unpaved: 10,505 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 33 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 31 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 13 under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
------
Burkina_Faso/Military|987921542
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,500,962 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,282,483 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $66 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY96)
------
Burkina_Faso/Transnational_issues|987921552
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
Burkina_Faso|987921596
12,327d11
< 
< Background: Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< 
< Location: Western Africa, north of Ghana
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 2 00 W
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 274,200 sq km
< land: 273,800 sq km
< water: 400 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Colorado
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 3,192 km
< border countries: Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m
< highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m
< 
< Natural resources: manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 13%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 22%
< forests and woodland: 50%
< other: 15% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 200 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recurring droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 11,946,065
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,866,361; female 2,822,990)
< 15-64 years: 49% (male 2,808,797; female 3,097,048)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 149,474; female 201,395) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 17.04 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 108.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 46.73 years
< male: 46.29 years
< female: 47.18 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural)
< adjective: Burkinabe
< 
< Ethnic groups: Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%
< 
< Languages: French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 19.2%
< male: 29.5%
< female: 9.2% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Burkina Faso
< former: Upper Volta
< 
< Data code: UV
< 
< Government type: parliamentary
< 
< Capital: Ouagadougou
< 
< Administrative divisions: 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo
< note: a new electoral code was approved by the National Assembly in January 1997; the number of administrative provinces was increased from 30 to 45 (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo), however, this change has not yet been approved by the US Board on Geographic Names
< 
< Independence: 5 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
< 
< Constitution: 2 June 1991 approved by referendum; 11 June 1991 formally adopted
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law system and customary law
< 
< Suffrage: universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987)
< head of government: Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the president may serve unlimited terms; election last held 15 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature
< election results: Blaise COMPAORE reelected president with 88% percent of the vote, with 56% of voter turnout
< note: despite his reelection, President COMPAORE faces a growing political crisis due to his mishandling of an investigation into the assassination of a newspaper editor and pressure for political reform
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (178 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms)
< elections: National Assembly election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Appeals Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: African Democratic Rally or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO, Clement SANOU]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO]; Group for Progressive Democrats or GDP [Issa TIENDREBEOGO]; Movement for Tolerance and Progress or MTP [Noyabtigungu Congo KABORE]; Party for African Independence or PAI [leader NA]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS [leader NA]; Union of Greens for the Development of Burkina Faso or UVDB [Ram OVEDRAGO]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA
< chancery: 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 332-5577
< FAX: [1] (202) 667-1882
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Jimmy J. KOLKER
< embassy: Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou
< mailing address: 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou
< telephone: [226] 306723 through 306725
< FAX: [226] 303890
< 
< Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2000-2001 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 36%
< industry: 20%
< services: 44% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.679 million (persons 10 years old and over, according to a sample survey taken in 1991)
< note: a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $277 million
< expenditures: $492 million, including capital expenditures of $233 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4.2% (1995)
< 
< Electricity - production: 225 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 64.44%
< hydro: 35.56%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 209 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock
< 
< Exports: $311 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cotton, animal products, gold
< 
< Exports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, Taiwan, France, Colombia, Italy, Mali
< 
< Imports: $572 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery, food products, petroleum
< 
< Imports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, US
< 
< Debt - external: $1.3 billion (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $484.1 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
< note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF franc is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 30,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: all services only fair
< domestic: microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 370,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 100,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the Cote d'Ivoire border and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya)
< narrow gauge: 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 12,506 km
< paved: 2,001 km
< unpaved: 10,505 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 33 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 2
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 31
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 13
< under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 2,500,962 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 1,282,483 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $66 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY96)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Burma/History|987921666
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG San Suu Kyi, under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, continues to have her activities restricted; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.
> 
------
Burma/Geography|987921685
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 22 00 N, 98 00 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area: total: 678,500 sq km land: 657,740 sq km water: 20,760 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 5,876 km border countries: Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
> 
> Coastline: 1,930 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
> 
> Terrain: central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Andaman Sea 0 m highest point: Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 15% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 49% other: 34% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 10,680 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes
------
Burma/People|987921704
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 41,734,853 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 6,341,546; female 6,086,650) 15-64 years: 65% (male 13,565,379; female 13,764,242) 65 years and over: 5% (male 885,583; female 1,091,453) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.64% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 12.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 75.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 54.91 years male: 53.6 years female: 56.29 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Burmese (singular and plural) adjective: Burmese
> 
> Ethnic groups: Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5%
> 
> Religions: Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%
> 
> Languages: Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.1% male: 88.7% female: 77.7% (1995 est.) note: these are official statistics; estimates of functional literacy are likely closer to 30% (1999 est.)
------
Burma/Government|987921731
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Union of Burma conventional short form: Burma local long form: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar) local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw former: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
> 
> Data code: BM
> 
> Government type: military regime
> 
> Capital: Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
> 
> Administrative divisions: 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon*
> 
> Independence: 4 January 1948 (from UK)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 4 January (1948)
> 
> Constitution: 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
> 
> Legal system: does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet elections: none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened election results: percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79
> 
> Judicial branch: limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
> 
> Political parties and leaders: National League for Democracy or NLD [AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary]; National Unity Party or NUP (proregime) [THA KYAW]; Union Solidarity and Development Association or USDA (proregime, a social and political organization) [THAN AUNG, general secretary]; and eight minor legal parties
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: All Burma Student Democratic Front or ABSDF; Kachin Independence Army or KIA; Karen National Union or KNU; National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma or NCGUB [Dr. SEIN WIN] consists of individuals legitimately elected to the People's Assembly but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; several Shan factions; United Wa State Army or UWSA
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB? , ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador TIN WINN chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-9044 FAX: [1] (202) 332-9046 consulate(s) general: New York
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Permanent Charge d'Affaires Priscilla A. CLAPP embassy: 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon (GPO 521) mailing address: Box B, APO AP 96546 telephone: [95] (1) 282055, 282182 FAX: [95] (1) 280409
> 
> Flag description: red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions
------
Burma/Economy|987921765
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last 11 years, 1989-99, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success. State enterprises remain highly inefficient and privatization efforts have stalled. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. The short-term outlook is for continued sluggish growth because of poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment, and the large trade deficit.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $59.4 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 59% industry: 11% services: 30% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 23% (1997 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 38% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 19.7 million (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 65%, industry 10%, services 25% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7.1% (official FY97/98 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $7.9 billion expenditures: $12.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.7 billion (FY96/97)
> 
> Industries: agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 4.31 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 61.72% hydro: 38.28% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 4.008 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood
> 
> Exports: $1.2 billion (1998)
> 
> Exports - commodities: pulses and beans, prawns, fish, rice; teak, opiates
> 
> Exports - partners: India 13%, China 11%, Singapore 10%, Thailand 8% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $2.5 billion (1998)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore 31%, Japan 12%, Thailand 12%, China 9%, Malaysia 8% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $5.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $99 million (FY98/99)
> 
> Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas
> 
> Exchange rates: kyats (K) per US$1 - official rate - 6.2665 (January 2000), 6.2858 (1999), 6.3432 (1998), 6.2418 (1997), 5.9176 (1996), 5.6670 (1995); kyats (K) per US$1 - market exchange rate - 330 (yearend 1999)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
------
Burma/Communications|987921776
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 158,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,007 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good domestic: NA international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 4.2 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1998)
> 
> Televisions: 260,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 0 (1999)
------
Burma/Transportation|987921788
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 3,991 km narrow gauge: 3,991 km 1.000-m gauge
> 
> Highways: total: 28,200 km paved: 3,440 km unpaved: 24,760 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 12,800 km; 3,200 km navigable by large commercial vessels
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 1,343 km; natural gas 330 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 472,284 GRT/716,533 DWT ships by type: bulk 13, cargo 20, container 2, passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 80 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 10 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 70 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 22 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Burma/Military|987921804
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 11,865,696 females age 15-49: 11,894,661 note: both sexes liable for military service (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 6,334,750 females age 15-49: 6,334,937 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 483,964 females: 468,221 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY97/98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.1% (FY97/98)
------
Burma/Transnational_issues|987921818
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: sporadic conflict with Thailand over alignment of border
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan (potential production in 1999 - 1,090 metric tons, down 38% due to drought; cultivation in 1999 - 89,500 hectares, a 31% decline from 1998); surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort; becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption
------
Burma|987921836
12,355d11
< 
< Background: Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG San Suu Kyi, under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, continues to have her activities restricted; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 22 00 N, 98 00 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 678,500 sq km
< land: 657,740 sq km
< water: 20,760 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 5,876 km
< border countries: Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
< 
< Coastline: 1,930 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
< 
< Terrain: central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Andaman Sea 0 m
< highest point: Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 15%
< permanent crops: 1%
< permanent pastures: 1%
< forests and woodland: 49%
< other: 34% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10,680 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 41,734,853
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 6,341,546; female 6,086,650)
< 15-64 years: 65% (male 13,565,379; female 13,764,242)
< 65 years and over: 5% (male 885,583; female 1,091,453) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.64% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 12.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 75.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 54.91 years
< male: 53.6 years
< female: 56.29 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Burmese (singular and plural)
< adjective: Burmese
< 
< Ethnic groups: Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5%
< 
< Religions: Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%
< 
< Languages: Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 83.1%
< male: 88.7%
< female: 77.7% (1995 est.)
< note: these are official statistics; estimates of functional literacy are likely closer to 30% (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Union of Burma
< conventional short form: Burma
< local long form: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar)
< local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw
< former: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
< 
< Data code: BM
< 
< Government type: military regime
< 
< Capital: Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
< 
< Administrative divisions: 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon*
< 
< Independence: 4 January 1948 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 4 January (1948)
< 
< Constitution: 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
< 
< Legal system: does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet
< elections: none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
< elections: last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79
< 
< Judicial branch: limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
< 
< Political parties and leaders: National League for Democracy or NLD [AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary]; National Unity Party or NUP (proregime) [THA KYAW]; Union Solidarity and Development Association or USDA (proregime, a social and political organization) [THAN AUNG, general secretary]; and eight minor legal parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: All Burma Student Democratic Front or ABSDF; Kachin Independence Army or KIA; Karen National Union or KNU; National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma or NCGUB [Dr. SEIN WIN] consists of individuals legitimately elected to the People's Assembly but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; several Shan factions; United Wa State Army or UWSA
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador TIN WINN
< chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 332-9044
< FAX: [1] (202) 332-9046
< consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Permanent Charge d'Affaires Priscilla A. CLAPP
< embassy: 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon (GPO 521)
< mailing address: Box B, APO AP 96546
< telephone: [95] (1) 282055, 282182
< FAX: [95] (1) 280409
< 
< Flag description: red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last 11 years, 1989-99, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success. State enterprises remain highly inefficient and privatization efforts have stalled. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. The short-term outlook is for continued sluggish growth because of poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment, and the large trade deficit.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $59.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 59%
< industry: 11%
< services: 30% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 23% (1997 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 38% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 19.7 million (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 65%, industry 10%, services 25% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 7.1% (official FY97/98 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $7.9 billion
< expenditures: $12.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.7 billion (FY96/97)
< 
< Industries: agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 4.31 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 61.72%
< hydro: 38.28%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 4.008 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood
< 
< Exports: $1.2 billion (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: pulses and beans, prawns, fish, rice; teak, opiates
< 
< Exports - partners: India 13%, China 11%, Singapore 10%, Thailand 8% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $2.5 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore 31%, Japan 12%, Thailand 12%, China 9%, Malaysia 8% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $5.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $99 million (FY98/99)
< 
< Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas
< 
< Exchange rates: kyats (K) per US$1 - official rate - 6.2665 (January 2000), 6.2858 (1999), 6.3432 (1998), 6.2418 (1997), 5.9176 (1996), 5.6670 (1995); kyats (K) per US$1 - market exchange rate - 330 (yearend 1999)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 158,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,007 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good
< domestic: NA
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 4.2 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1998)
< 
< 
< Televisions: 260,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 0 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 3,991 km
< narrow gauge: 3,991 km 1.000-m gauge
< 
< Highways:
< total: 28,200 km
< paved: 3,440 km
< unpaved: 24,760 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 12,800 km; 3,200 km navigable by large commercial vessels
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,343 km; natural gas 330 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 472,284 GRT/716,533 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 13, cargo 20, container 2, passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 80 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 10
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 70
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13
< 914 to 1,523 m: 22
< under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 11,865,696
< females age 15-49: 11,894,661
< note: both sexes liable for military service (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 6,334,750
< females age 15-49: 6,334,937 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 483,964
< females: 468,221 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.1% (FY97/98)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: sporadic conflict with Thailand over alignment of border
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan (potential production in 1999 - 1,090 metric tons, down 38% due to drought; cultivation in 1999 - 89,500 hectares, a 31% decline from 1998); surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort; becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption
------
Burundi/History|987921896
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Between 1993 and 1999, ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds of thousands of refugees and left at least 250,000 dead. Although many refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued ethnic strife has forced others to flee. Burundian troops, seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
> 
------
Burundi/Geography|987921910
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 3 30 S, 30 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 27,830 sq km land: 25,650 sq km water: 2,180 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 974 km border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January
> 
> Terrain: hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Lake Tanganyika 772 m highest point: Mount Heha 2,670 m
> 
> Natural resources: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 44% permanent crops: 9% permanent pastures: 36% forests and woodland: 3% other: 8% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: flooding, landslides
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed
------
Burundi/People|987921923
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 6,054,714 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,442,585; female 1,411,908) 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,485,177; female 1,541,754) 65 years and over: 3% (male 71,998; female 101,292) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.15% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 40.46 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 16.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 7.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 71.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 46.18 years male: 45.23 years female: 47.16 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Burundian(s) adjective: Burundi
> 
> Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
> 
> Religions: Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
> 
> Languages: Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 35.3% male: 49.3% female: 22.5% (1995 est.)
------
Burundi/Government|987921944
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Burundi conventional short form: Burundi local long form: Republika y'u Burundi local short form: Burundi
> 
> Data code: BY
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Bujumbura
> 
> Administrative divisions: 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi note: there may be a new province named Mwaro
> 
> Independence: 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
> 
> Constitution: 13 March 1992; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on 6 June 1998 by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
> 
> Legal system: based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: NA years of age; universal adult
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by president elections: NA; current president assumed power following a coup on 25 July 1996 in which former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms) elections: last held 29 June 1993 (next was scheduled to be held in 1998, but suspended by presidential decree in 1996) election results: percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71.04%, UPRONA 21.4%, other 7.56%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16, various other parties 40
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Luc RUKINGAMA, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president] note: opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Loosely organized Tutsi militias
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA chancery: Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007 telephone: [1] (202) 342-2574 FAX: [1] (202) 342-2578
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Mary Catlin YATES embassy: Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura mailing address: B. P. 1720, Bujumbura telephone: [257] (2) 223454 FAX: [257] (2) 222926
> 
> Flag description: divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
------
Burundi/Economy|987921967
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantely agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $730 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 46% industry: 17% services: 37% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 36.2% (1990 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 26% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 1.9 million
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, government 4%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget: revenues: $125 million expenditures: $176 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> 
> Industries: light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 127 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 1.57% hydro: 98.43% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 153 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 35 million kWh note: imports some electricity from Democratic Republic of the Congo (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides
> 
> Exports: $56 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, hides
> 
> Exports - partners: UK, Germany, Benelux, Switzerland (1998)
> 
> Imports: $108 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs
> 
> Imports - partners: Benelux, France, Zambia, Germany, Kenya, Japan (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $1.247 billion (1997 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Currency: 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Burundi francs (FBu) per US$1 - 626.79 (January 2000), 563.56 (1999), 477.77 (1998), 352.35 (1997), 302.75 (1996), 249.76 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Burundi/Communications|987921989
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 17,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 343 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: primitive system domestic: sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 440,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 25,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Burundi/Transportation|987922001
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
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> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways: total: 14,480 km paved: 1,028 km unpaved: 13,452 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: Lake Tanganyika
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bujumbura
> 
> Airports: 4 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Burundi/Military|987922010
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 16 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,344,177 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 701,367 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 76,866 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $25 million (FY93)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY93)
------
Burundi/Transnational_issues|987922021
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
Burundi|987922049
12,327d11
< 
< Background: Between 1993 and 1999, ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds of thousands of refugees and left at least 250,000 dead. Although many refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued ethnic strife has forced others to flee. Burundian troops, seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 3 30 S, 30 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 27,830 sq km
< land: 25,650 sq km
< water: 2,180 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 974 km
< border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January
< 
< Terrain: hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Lake Tanganyika 772 m
< highest point: Mount Heha 2,670 m
< 
< Natural resources: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 44%
< permanent crops: 9%
< permanent pastures: 36%
< forests and woodland: 3%
< other: 8% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: flooding, landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 6,054,714
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,442,585; female 1,411,908)
< 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,485,177; female 1,541,754)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 71,998; female 101,292) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.15% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 40.46 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 16.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 7.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 71.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 46.18 years
< male: 45.23 years
< female: 47.16 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Burundian(s)
< adjective: Burundi
< 
< Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
< 
< Religions: Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
< 
< Languages: Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 35.3%
< male: 49.3%
< female: 22.5% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Burundi
< conventional short form: Burundi
< local long form: Republika y'u Burundi
< local short form: Burundi
< 
< Data code: BY
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Bujumbura
< 
< Administrative divisions: 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi
< note: there may be a new province named Mwaro
< 
< Independence: 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
< 
< Constitution: 13 March 1992; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on 6 June 1998 by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
< 
< Legal system: based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: NA years of age; universal adult
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
< head of government: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by president
< elections: NA; current president assumed power following a coup on 25 July 1996 in which former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 29 June 1993 (next was scheduled to be held in 1998, but suspended by presidential decree in 1996)
< election results: percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71.04%, UPRONA 21.4%, other 7.56%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16, various other parties 40
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Luc RUKINGAMA, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president]
< note: opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Loosely organized Tutsi militias
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA
< chancery: Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
< telephone: [1] (202) 342-2574
< FAX: [1] (202) 342-2578
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Mary Catlin YATES
< embassy: Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura
< mailing address: B. P. 1720, Bujumbura
< telephone: [257] (2) 223454
< FAX: [257] (2) 222926
< 
< Flag description: divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantely agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $730 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 46%
< industry: 17%
< services: 37% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 36.2% (1990 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 26% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 1.9 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, government 4%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $125 million
< expenditures: $176 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
< 
< Industries: light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 127 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 1.57%
< hydro: 98.43%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 153 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 35 million kWh
< note: imports some electricity from Democratic Republic of the Congo (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides
< 
< Exports: $56 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, hides
< 
< Exports - partners: UK, Germany, Benelux, Switzerland (1998)
< 
< Imports: $108 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs
< 
< Imports - partners: Benelux, France, Zambia, Germany, Kenya, Japan (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.247 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Currency: 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Burundi francs (FBu) per US$1 - 626.79 (January 2000), 563.56 (1999), 477.77 (1998), 352.35 (1997), 302.75 (1996), 249.76 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 17,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 343 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: primitive system
< domestic: sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 440,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 25,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 14,480 km
< paved: 1,028 km
< unpaved: 13,452 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: Lake Tanganyika
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bujumbura
< 
< Airports: 4 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 3
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 16 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,344,177 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 701,367 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 76,866 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $25 million (FY93)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY93)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: none
------
Cambodia/History|987922165
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: Following a five-year struggle, [[communist]] [[Khmer Rouge]] forces captured [[Phnom Penh]]  in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 [[Vietnam]]ese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of fighting. [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.
------
Cambodia/Geography|987922217
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 105 00 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area: total: 181,040 sq km land: 176,520 sq km water: 4,520 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oklahoma
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 2,572 km border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
> 
> Coastline: 443 km
> 
> Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
> 
> Terrain: mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
> 
> Natural resources: timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
> 
> Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 11% forests and woodland: 66% other: 10% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 920 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> 
> Geography - note: a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap
------
Cambodia/People|987922231
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 12,212,306 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 42% (male 2,610,009; female 2,505,932) 15-64 years: 55% (male 3,132,198; female 3,542,655) 65 years and over: 3% (male 173,179; female 248,333) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.27% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 33.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 10.79 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 66.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 56.53 years male: 54.44 years female: 58.74 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Cambodian(s) adjective: Cambodian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
> 
> Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%
> 
> Languages: Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 35% male: 48% female: 22% (1990 est.)
------
Cambodia/Government|987922245
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia conventional short form: Cambodia local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea local short form: Kampuchea
> 
> Data code: CB
> 
> Government type: multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
> 
> Capital: Phnom Penh
> 
> Administrative divisions: 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev note: there may be a new municipality called Pailin
> 
> Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
> 
> Constitution: promulgated 21 September 1993
> 
> Legal system: primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993) head of government: Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 30 November 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is chosen by a Royal Throne Council; prime minister appointed by the monarch after a vote of confidence by the National Assembly
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral consists of the National Assembly (122 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; two members appointed by the monarch, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by "functional constituencies"; members serve five-year terms elections: National Assembly - last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); Senate - last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004) election results: National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 41%, FUNCINPEC 32%, SRP 14%, other 13%; seats by party - CPP 64, FUNCINPEC 43, SRP 15; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CPP 31, FUNCINPEC 21, SRP 7
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997; a Supreme Court and lower courts exercise judicial authority
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Buddhist Liberal Party or BLP [IENG MOULY]; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Khmer Citizen Party or KCP [NGUON SOEUR]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP) [SAM RANGSI]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, AsDB? , ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO? (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Roland ENG chancery: 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011 telephone: [1] (202) 726-7742 FAX: [1] (202) 726-8381
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Kent M. WIEDEMANN embassy: 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh mailing address: Box P, APO AP 96546 telephone: [855] (23) 216-436, 216-438 FAX: [855] (23) 216-811
> 
> Flag description: three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band
------
Cambodia/Economy|987922276
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.2 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 43% industry: 20% services: 37% (1998 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 36% (1997 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 6 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 80% (1999 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 2.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $327 million expenditures: $393 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> 
> Industries: garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 210 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 59.52% hydro: 40.48% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 195 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables
> 
> Exports: $821 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish
> 
> Exports - partners: US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US
> 
> Imports: $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles
> 
> Imports - partners: Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand
> 
> Debt - external: $829 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $470 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors
> 
> Currency: 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen
> 
> Exchange rates: new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Cambodia/Communications|987922296
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 21,800 (mid-1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 34,880 (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service domestic: NA international: adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 1.34 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 94,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
------
Cambodia/Transportation|987922409
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: total: 603 km narrow gauge: 603 km 1.000-m gauge
> 
> Highways: total: 35,769 km paved: 4,165 km unpaved: 31,604 km (1997 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 3,700 km navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing 1.8 m or less
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh
> 
> Merchant marine: total: 211 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 953,105 GRT/1,345,766 DWT ships by type: bulk 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 19 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 13 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 11 (1999 est.)
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
------
Cambodia/Military|987922426
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), including Army, Navy, and Air Force - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies note: there are also resistance forces comprised of the Khmer Rouge (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate royalist resistance movement
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,763,568 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,547,078 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 156,119 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $85 million (FY98)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.4% (FY98)
------
Cambodia/Transnational_issues|987922440
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
> 
> Illicit drugs: transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin; possible money laundering; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market
------
Cambodia|987922468
12,341d11
< 
< Background: Following a five-year struggle, [[communist]] [[Khmer Rouge]] forces captured [[Phnom Penh]] in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 [[Vietnam]]ese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of fighting. UN-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 105 00 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 181,040 sq km
< land: 176,520 sq km
< water: 4,520 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oklahoma
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 2,572 km
< border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
< 
< Coastline: 443 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: 200 nm
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
< 
< Terrain: mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
< highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
< 
< Natural resources: timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 13%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 11%
< forests and woodland: 66%
< other: 10% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 920 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
< 
< Geography - note: a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 12,212,306
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 42% (male 2,610,009; female 2,505,932)
< 15-64 years: 55% (male 3,132,198; female 3,542,655)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 173,179; female 248,333) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.27% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 33.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 10.79 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 66.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 56.53 years
< male: 54.44 years
< female: 58.74 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Cambodian(s)
< adjective: Cambodian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
< 
< Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%
< 
< Languages: Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 35%
< male: 48%
< female: 22% (1990 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia
< conventional short form: Cambodia
< local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea
< local short form: Kampuchea
< 
< Data code: CB
< 
< Government type: multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
< 
< Capital: Phnom Penh
< 
< Administrative divisions: 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev
< note: there may be a new municipality called Pailin
< 
< Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
< 
< Constitution: promulgated 21 September 1993
< 
< Legal system: primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993)
< head of government: Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 30 November 1998)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch
< elections: none; the monarch is chosen by a Royal Throne Council; prime minister appointed by the monarch after a vote of confidence by the National Assembly
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral consists of the National Assembly (122 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; two members appointed by the monarch, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by "functional constituencies"; members serve five-year terms
< elections: National Assembly - last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); Senate - last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
< election results: National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 41%, FUNCINPEC 32%, SRP 14%, other 13%; seats by party - CPP 64, FUNCINPEC 43, SRP 15; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CPP 31, FUNCINPEC 21, SRP 7
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997; a Supreme Court and lower courts exercise judicial authority
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Buddhist Liberal Party or BLP [IENG MOULY]; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Khmer Citizen Party or KCP [NGUON SOEUR]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP) [SAM RANGSI]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Roland ENG
< chancery: 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
< telephone: [1] (202) 726-7742
< FAX: [1] (202) 726-8381
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Kent M. WIEDEMANN
< embassy: 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh
< mailing address: Box P, APO AP 96546
< telephone: [855] (23) 216-436, 216-438
< FAX: [855] (23) 216-811
< 
< Flag description: three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 43%
< industry: 20%
< services: 37% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 36% (1997 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 6 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 80% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 2.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $327 million
< expenditures: $393 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
< 
< Industries: garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 210 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 59.52%
< hydro: 40.48%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 195 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables
< 
< Exports: $821 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish
< 
< Exports - partners: US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US
< 
< Imports: $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand
< 
< Debt - external: $829 million (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $470 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors
< 
< Currency: 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen
< 
< Exchange rates: new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 21,800 (mid-1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 34,880 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service
< domestic: NA
< international: adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 1.34 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 94,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 603 km
< narrow gauge: 603 km 1.000-m gauge
< 
< Highways:
< total: 35,769 km
< paved: 4,165 km
< unpaved: 31,604 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 3,700 km navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing 1.8 m or less
< 
< Ports and harbors: Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 211 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 953,105 GRT/1,345,766 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 19 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 6
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
< 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 13
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
< 914 to 1,523 m: 11 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), including Army, Navy, and Air Force - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies
< note: there are also resistance forces comprised of the Khmer Rouge (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate royalist resistance movement
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 2,763,568 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 1,547,078 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 156,119 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $85 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.4% (FY98)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin; possible money laundering; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market
------
Cameroon/History|987922523
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.
------
Cameroon/Geography|987922541
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 6 00 N, 12 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area: total: 475,440 sq km land: 469,440 sq km water: 6,000 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 4,591 km border countries: Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
> 
> Coastline: 402 km
> 
> Maritime claims: territorial sea: 50 nm
> 
> Climate: varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
> 
> Terrain: diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Fako 4,095 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
> 
> Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 78% other: 3% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 210 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
> 
> Environment - current issues: water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
------
Cameroon/People|987922563
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 15,421,937 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 43% (male 3,326,334; female 3,251,402) 15-64 years: 54% (male 4,181,038; female 4,153,680) 65 years and over: 3% (male 235,741; female 273,742) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 36.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 11.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 70.87 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 54.82 years male: 54.01 years female: 55.64 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.88 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality: noun: Cameroonian(s) adjective: Cameroonian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
> 
> Languages: 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official)
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 63.4% male: 75% female: 52.1% (1995 est.)
------
Cameroon/Government|987922584
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Cameroon conventional short form: Cameroon former: French Cameroon
> 
> Data code: CM
> 
> Government type: unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990) note: preponderance of power remains with the president
> 
> Capital: Yaounde
> 
> Administrative divisions: 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
> 
> Independence: 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration), 1 October 1961 (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 20 May (1972)
> 
> Constitution: 20 May 1972 approved by referendum; 2 June 1972 formally adopted
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch: chief of state: President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982) head of government: Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president election results: President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature) elections: last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled note: the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]; Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]; Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]; Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]; Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA chancery: 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 265-8790 FAX: [1] (202) 387-3826
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John M. YATES embassy: Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde mailing address: B. P. 817, Yaounde; pouch: American Embassy, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2520 telephone: [237] 23-45-52 FAX: [237] 23-07-53
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Cameroon/Economy|987922609
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $31.5 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 42% industry: 22% services: 36% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 40% (1984 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 70%, industry and commerce 13%, other 17%
> 
> Unemployment rate: 30% (1998 est.)
> 
> Budget: revenues: $2.23 billion expenditures: $2.23 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
> 
> Industries: petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 3.285 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.59% hydro: 97.41% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 3.055 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber
> 
> Exports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 25%, Spain 20%, France 16%, Netherlands 7% (1997 est.)
> 
> Imports: $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machines and electrical equipment, transport equipment, fuel, food
> 
> Imports - partners: France 25%, Nigeria 8%, US 8%, Germany 6% (1997 est.)
> 
> Debt - external: $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $606.1 million (1995); note - France signed two loan agreements totaling $55 million in September 1997, and the Paris Club agreed in October 1997 to reduce the official debt by 50% and to reschedule it on favorable terms with a consolidation of payments due through 2000
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
------
Cameroon/Communications|987922646
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 60,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,800 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: available only to business and government domestic: cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 2.27 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1998)
> 
> Televisions: 450,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Cameroon/Transportation|987922661
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
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> Railways: total: 1,104 km narrow gauge: 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> 
> Highways: total: 34,300 km paved: 4,288 km unpaved: 30,012 km (1995 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 2,090 km; of decreasing importance
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko
> 
> Airports: 50 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: total: 11 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 39 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 20 under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.)
------
Cameroon/Military|987922695
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 3,653,548 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,847,871 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 169,661 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $155 million (FY98/99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (FY98/99)
------
Cameroon/Transnational_issues|987922709
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone. 
------
Cameroon|987922779
12,335d11
< 
< Background: The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 6 00 N, 12 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 475,440 sq km
< land: 469,440 sq km
< water: 6,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 4,591 km
< border countries: Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
< 
< Coastline: 402 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< territorial sea: 50 nm
< 
< Climate: varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
< 
< Terrain: diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Fako 4,095 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 13%
< permanent crops: 2%
< permanent pastures: 4%
< forests and woodland: 78%
< other: 3% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 210 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
< 
< Environment - current issues: water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
< signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: 15,421,937
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 43% (male 3,326,334; female 3,251,402)
< 15-64 years: 54% (male 4,181,038; female 4,153,680)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 235,741; female 273,742) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 36.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 11.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 70.87 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 54.82 years
< male: 54.01 years
< female: 55.64 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.88 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Cameroonian(s)
< adjective: Cameroonian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
< 
< Languages: 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 63.4%
< male: 75%
< female: 52.1% (1995 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Cameroon
< conventional short form: Cameroon
< former: French Cameroon
< 
< Data code: CM
< 
< Government type: unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
< note: preponderance of power remains with the president
< 
< Capital: Yaounde
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
< 
< Independence: 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration), 1 October 1961 (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 20 May (1972)
< 
< Constitution: 20 May 1972 approved by referendum; 2 June 1972 formally adopted
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982)
< head of government: Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
< election results: President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
< elections: last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled
< note: the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]; Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]; Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]; Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]; Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA
< chancery: 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 265-8790
< FAX: [1] (202) 387-3826
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador John M. YATES
< embassy: Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde
< mailing address: B. P. 817, Yaounde; pouch: American Embassy, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2520
< telephone: [237] 23-45-52
< FAX: [237] 23-07-53
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $31.5 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 42%
< industry: 22%
< services: 36% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 40% (1984 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 70%, industry and commerce 13%, other 17%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 30% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $2.23 billion
< expenditures: $2.23 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
< 
< Industries: petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 3.285 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 2.59%
< hydro: 97.41%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 3.055 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber
< 
< Exports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 25%, Spain 20%, France 16%, Netherlands 7% (1997 est.)
< 
< Imports: $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machines and electrical equipment, transport equipment, fuel, food
< 
< Imports - partners: France 25%, Nigeria 8%, US 8%, Germany 6% (1997 est.)
< 
< Debt - external: $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $606.1 million (1995); note - France signed two loan agreements totaling $55 million in September 1997, and the Paris Club agreed in October 1997 to reduce the official debt by 50% and to reschedule it on favorable terms with a consolidation of payments due through 2000
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
< note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
< 
< ----
< Communications
< ----
< Telephones - main lines in use: 60,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,800 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: available only to business and government
< domestic: cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
< international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 2.27 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1998)
< 
< Televisions: 450,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Railways:
< total: 1,104 km
< narrow gauge: 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 34,300 km
< paved: 4,288 km
< unpaved: 30,012 km (1995 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 2,090 km; of decreasing importance
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko
< 
< Airports: 50 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 11
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 39
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
< 914 to 1,523 m: 20
< under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.)
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 3,653,548 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 1,847,871 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 169,661 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $155 million (FY98/99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (FY98/99)
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone.
------
Blindness/History|987922935
1c1
< [[Walking Alone Marching Together: A History fo the Organized Blind Movement by Floyd Madsen http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm]]
---
> [[Walking Alone Marching Together: A History for the Organized Blind Movement]] by [[Floyd Madsen]] http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm
------
Blindness/History|987922955
1c1
< [[Walking Alone Marching Together: A History for the Organized Blind Movement]] by [[Floyd Madsen]] http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm
---
> [[Walking Alone Marching Together-- A History for the Organized Blind Movement]] by [[Floyd Madsen]] http://www.nfb.org/books/books1/wamtc.htm
------
Film_Directors|987925286
2c2
< :[[Ingmar Bergmann]]
---
> :[[Ingmar Bergman]]
6c6
< :[[The Cohen Brothers]]
---
> :[[The Coen Brothers]]
28c28
< :[[Stephen Spielberg]]
---
> :[[Steven Spielberg]]
------
Film_Directors|987925576
17a18
> :[[Buster Keaton]]
18a20
> :[[Akira Kurosawa]]
21a24
> :[[Louis Malle]]
22a26
> :[[Roman Polanski]]
31a36
> :[[Francois Truffaut]]
------
Roman_Polanski|987925644
5c5,6
< :[[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
---
> :[[Chinatown]]
> :[[Knife in the Water]]
7c8,10
< :[[The Ninth Gate]]
---
> :[[The Ninth Gate]]
> :[[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
> 
------
Roman_Polanski|987925673
5c5
< :[[Chinatown]]
---
> :[[Chinatown/Polanski|Chinatown]]
------
Film_Directors|987925719
15a16
> :[[Milos Forman]]
17a19
> :[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
21a24
> :[[Spike Lee]]
------
Alfred_Hitchcock|987926634
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British director (13 August 1899 - 29 April 1980) got his start in film in 1920 designing the titles for silent films.  His films tend to feature innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or even understanding; a common theme of his movies is the hidden guilt of his characters.
> 
> Famous films
> :[[The Birds]]
> :[[Dial M for Murder]]
> :[[Foreign Correspondent]]
> :[[The Lodger]]
> :[[North by Northwest]]
> :[[Psycho]]
> :[[Rear Window]]
> :[[Rebecca]]
> :[[Rope]]
> :[[Shadow of a Doubt]]
> :[[The 39 Steps]]
> :[[Vertigo/Hitchcock]]
------
Alfred_Hitchcock|987926795
15c15
< :[[Vertigo/Hitchcock]]
---
> :[[Vertigo/Hitchcock|Vertigo]]
------
Spike_Lee|987927102
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> African-American director director noted for his bold, overtly political films.
> 
> :[[Clockers]]
> :[[Do the Right Thing]]
> :[[Get on the Bus]]
> :[[He Got Game]]
> :[[Jungle Fever/spike lee|Jungle Fever]]
> :[[Malcolm X/spike lee|Malcolm X]]
> :[[The Original Kings of Comedy]]
> :[[School Daze]]
------
Anaconda|987927631
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The anaconda is an aquatic [[boa]], inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical South America. It is the largest of all modern [[snake]]s, said to attain over 30 ft. in length. The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered.
------
United_States/History|987928340
1c1
< The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in Philadelphia and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by Great Britain's opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the United States and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
---
> The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by [[Great Britain]]'s opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
7,8c7
< The destructiveness of the Union invasion and defeat of the South, followed by exploitive (and corruptly implemented) 
< economic policies in the defeated region after the war, caused lasting bitterness among Southerners toward the U.S. government.  This failure of the Federal government to effectively reunite the country contributed to the government's failure for many decades to enforce the [[Civil Rights]] of the formerly enslaved [[African-Americans]] in the South.
---
> The destructiveness of the Union invasion and defeat of the South, followed by exploitive (and corruptly implemented) economic policies in the defeated region after the war, caused lasting bitterness among Southerners toward the U.S. government.  This failure of the Federal government to effectively reunite the country contributed to the government's failure for many decades to enforce the [[Civil Rights]] of the formerly enslaved [[African-Americans]] in the South.
16,17c15
< The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression
< were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash, and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
---
> The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash, and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
19,21c17
< With work so difficult to come by, political ferment and discontent were greatly increased among the working classes.
< An unsympathetic or repressive response from the U.S. government might well have sparked a [[Socialist]] uprising, but President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], elected in 1932, prevented this by implementing a number of somewhat Socialist
< programs to aid the poor and unemployed.  He skillfully improved the appeal of these programs to the American people,
---
> With work so difficult to come by, political ferment and discontent were greatly increased among the working classes.  An unsympathetic or repressive response from the U.S. government might well have sparked a [[Socialist]] uprising, but President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], elected in 1932, prevented this by implementing a number of somewhat Socialist programs to aid the poor and unemployed.  He skillfully improved the appeal of these programs to the American people,
------
United_States/History|987928676
1c1
< The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, triggered by [[Great Britain]]'s opposition to [[Napoleon]]'s attempt to conquer all of [[Europe]], the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
---
> The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
------
Film_Directors|987928822
8a9
> :[[Vittorio De Sica]]
9a11,12
> :[[Jonathan Demme]]
> :[[Carl Theodore Dreyer]]
12a16
> :[[Federico Fellini]]
16a21,22
> :[[John Frankenheimer]]
> :[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
18a25
> :[[Werner Herzog]]
19a27
> :[[Elia Kazan]]
22a31
> :[[David Lean]]
25c34,35
< :[[George Lucas]]
---
> :[[George Lucas]
> :[[Sydney Lumet]]
28a39
> :[[Mike Nichols]]
32a44,45
> :[[John Sayles]]
> :[[John Schlesinger]]
39a53
> :[[King Vidor]]
41a56
> :[[Billy Wilder]]
42a58,59
> :[[William Wyler]]
> :[[Fred Zinnemann]]
------
Spike_Lee|987936741
1c1
< African-American director director noted for his bold, overtly political films.
---
> African-American [[film]] director noted for his bold, overtly political films.
7,8c7,8
< :[[Jungle Fever/spike lee|Jungle Fever]]
< :[[Malcolm X/spike lee|Malcolm X]]
---
> :[[Jungle Fever/Film|Jungle Fever]]
> :[[Malcolm X/Film|Malcolm X]]
------
David_Cronenberg|987937474
6a7
> :[[Crash]]
------
Documentary_Film|987937488
1c1
< Documentary Film is an incredibly broad category of cinematic expression.  Traditionally, the only common characteristic to all documentary films is that it is meant to be non-fiction.
---
> An incredibly broad category of cinematic expression, traditionally, the only common characteristic to all documentary films is that it is meant to be non-fiction.
5c5
< However, it wasn't until [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s [[Nanook of the North]] in the 1920s that documentary filmmaking had matured.
---
> However, it wasn't until [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s [[Nanook of the North]] in the 1920s that documentary film making had matured.
7,16c7,16
< 1922-1927 (Silent Era)
< * [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
< * [[Merian C. Cooper]] and [[Ernest B. Schoedsack]]
< * [[Dziga Vertov]]
< 
< 1927-  (Early Sound Era)
< * [[John Grierson]]
< * [[EMB Film Unit]]
< * [[Leni Riefenstahl]]
< * [[The March of Time]]
---
> [[1922]]-[[1927]] (Silent Era)
> :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> :[[Merian C. Cooper]] and [[Ernest B. Schoedsack]]
> :[[Dziga Vertov]]
> 
> [[1927]]-present day  (Early Sound Era)
> :[[John Grierson]]
> :[[EMB Film Unit]]
> :[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
> :[[The March of Time]]
19,24c19,23
< * [[Errol Morris]] ([[The Thin Blue Line]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]])
< * [[Michael Moore]] ([[The Big One]], [[Roger and Me]])
< * [[Barbar Kopple]] ([[Wild Man Blues]], [[Harlan County U.S.A.]])
< * [[Steve James]] ([[Hoop Dreams]])
< * [[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost-- The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
< 
---
> :[[Errol Morris]] ([[The Thin Blue Line]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]])
> :[[Michael Moore]] ([[The Big One]], [[Roger and Me]])
> :[[Barbar Kopple]] ([[Wild Man Blues]], [[Harlan County U.S.A.]])
> :[[Steve James]] ([[Hoop Dreams]])
> :[[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost-- The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
------
Anaconda|987937533
1c1
< The anaconda is an aquatic [[boa]], inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical South America. It is the largest of all modern [[snake]]s, said to attain over 30 ft. in length. The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered.
---
> The anaconda is an aquatic [[boa]], inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical [[South America]]. It is the largest of all modern [[snake]]s, said to attain over 30 ft. in length. The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered.
------
Alfred_Hitchcock|987937681
1c1
< British director (13 August 1899 - 29 April 1980) got his start in film in 1920 designing the titles for silent films.  His films tend to feature innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or even understanding; a common theme of his movies is the hidden guilt of his characters.
---
> British director (13 August 1899 - 29 April 1980) got his start in film in 1920 designing the titles for silent [[film]]s.  His films tend to feature innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or even understanding; a common theme of his movies is the hidden guilt of his characters.
------
The_Simpsons/Bart|987937743
1c1
< Son of [[/Homer]] and [[/Marge]], Bart is a self-proclaimed underachiever who begins the show writing sentences on the blackboard.  Brother of [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]], Bart's interests include skateboarding, comic books, terrorizing his sisters, and prank calling [[/Moe]] at his tavern.
---
> Son of [[/Homer]] and [[/Marge]], Bart is a self-proclaimed underachiever who begins each show writing detention lines on the blackboard.  Brother of [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]], Bart's interests include skateboarding, comic books, terrorizing his sisters, [[Dickensian]] chimney sweeps and prank calling [[/Moe Szyslak]] at his tavern.
------
Quentin_Tarantino|987937769
7a8
> :[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]
------
Bjork|987946013
1c1,17
< Bjork Gudmundsdottir, singer, [[Icelandic]]
---
> Singer, her full name is Bjork Gudmundsdottir, although you won't see that much nowadays, originally from [[Iceland]], she now lives extensively in [[London]].
> 
> Bjork's first recording was an album of classic [[Icelandic]] songs at the age of 11.
> 
> She was part of the Bad Taste group that produced art, poems, performances and music.
> A number of the group went on to form [[The Sugarcubes]], often namechecked as being one of the best Euro pop groups.
> 
> The Sugarcubes did many collaborations with DJs and other musicians who would remix their work, something that has been seen to great effect in Bjork's later work.
> 
> After The Sugarcubes split in the early [[1990s]], Bjork launched her new solo career, something that is as strong and vibrant as it was with [[/Debut]] album.
> 
> Since then she has produced an even greater range of diverse music, taking in the simple pop aesthetics of [[/Debut]], to the [[Jazz]] musings on [[Gling Glo]] to the divine beats and loops on two remix albums, [[/Telegram]] and the uniquely named ''[[The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who dont buy white-labels|The best mixes from the album debut for all the people who don't buy white-labels]]'' album.
> 
> In the [[2000]] she recieved critical acclaim for her portrayal of a blind woman in the [[Lars von Trier]] film, [[Dancer in the Dark]] and her exceptional sound track album, [[/SelmaSongs]] set new standards for film music.
> 
> [[2001]] see's no slow down, with a new album due later this year, along with yet more music videos from the likes of [[Chris Cuningham]] ([[/All is full of love]]), and a possibly (please oh please!) another team up with [[Spike Jonze]] ([[/It's Oh So Quiet]])
> 
------
Bjork|987946170
16c16
< [[2001]] see's no slow down, with a new album due later this year, along with yet more music videos from the likes of [[Chris Cuningham]] ([[/All is full of love]]), and a possibly (please oh please!) another team up with [[Spike Jonze]] ([[/It's Oh So Quiet]])
---
> [[2001]] see's no slow down, with a new album due later this year, along with yet more music videos from the likes of [[Chris Cuningham]] ([[/All is full of love]]), and possibly (please oh please!) another team up with [[Spike Jonze]] ([[/Its Oh So Quiet|It's Oh So Quiet]])
------
Spike_Jonze|987946913
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Music video and as of [[2000]]s [[Being John Malkovitch]], [[film]] director.
> 
> Best known music videos include those for the [[Beastie Boys]].
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987950047
1c1
< 1991 film in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by Jonathan Demme, the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  Jodie Foster and Anthony Hopkins both won Oscars (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. Hannibal Lecter, respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by Thomas Harris; this is actually the second book featuring Dr. Lecter: the first was Red Dragon, made into the film Manhunter by Michael Mann; the third was Hannibal, made into the film of the same name by Ridley Scott.
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won Oscars (''see [[Academy Awards]]'') (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]]; this is actually the second book featuring Dr. Lecter: the first was [[Red Dragon]], made into the film [[Manhunter]] by [[Michael Mann]]; the third was [[Hannibal]], made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987950166
1c1,4
< 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won Oscars (''see [[Academy Awards]]'') (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]]; this is actually the second book featuring Dr. Lecter: the first was [[Red Dragon]], made into the film [[Manhunter]] by [[Michael Mann]]; the third was [[Hannibal]], made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won Oscars (''see [[Academy Awards]]'') (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
> 
> * [[Red Dragon]] - first [[Hannibal Lecter]] book, made into the film [[Manhunter]] by [[Michael Mann]]
> * [[Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
HolyTrinity|987956121
1c1
< Historically, as evidenced by the Nicene and Apostle's Creeds used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to what Christians say are the three aspects of [[God]], the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
---
> Historically, as evidenced by the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene]] and [[Apostle's Creed|Apostle's Creeds]] used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to what Christians say are the three aspects of [[God]], the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
------
BPM|987956203
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Beats Per Minute, a term used in electronic [[dance music]].
------
BPM|987956592
1c1
< Beats Per Minute, a term used in electronic [[dance music]].
---
> Beats Per Minute, a term used in electronic [[dance music]] and for measuring the pulse, the number of heart beats per minute.
------
HolyTrinity|987956784
1c1
< Historically, as evidenced by the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene]] and [[Apostle's Creed|Apostle's Creeds]] used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to what Christians say are the three aspects of [[God]], the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
---
> Historically, as evidenced by the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene]] and [[Apostles Creed|Apostle's Creeds]] used by most of Christianity, the Holy Trinity refers to what Christians say are the three aspects of [[God]], the Father, the Son, and the [[Holy Spirit]].
7c7
< The [[Holy Spirit]] is the essence of God embodied as divine or inspired wisdom in people's lives, telling them the proper way to deal with the universe.  It is within everyone, the part of God that communicates directly with humans.
---
> The [[Holy Spirit]] is the essence of God embodied as divine or inspired wisdom in people's lives, telling them the proper way to deal with the [[universe]].  It is within everyone, the part of God that communicates directly with humans.
10,11d9
< 
< 
------
Film_Directors|987956882
26a27
> :[[Spike Jonze]]
------
Film_Directors|987958428
1a2
> :[[Hal Ashby]]
48a50
> :[[Steven Soderbergh]]
------
Film_Directors|987958582
57a58,60
> :[[Erich von Stroheim]]
> :[[Lars von Trier]]
> :[[Andrzej Wajda]]
------
Spike_Jonze|987958709
1c1
< Music video and as of [[2000]]s [[Being John Malkovitch]], [[film]] director.
---
> Music video and as of [[2000]]s [[Being John Malkovich]], [[film]] director.
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987959018
1c1,2
< 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won Oscars (''see [[Academy Awards]]'') (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for screenplay, direction, and best picture.  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing
> |direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987959054
1,2c1
< 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing
< |direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
------
Music|987961338
49a50
> *** [[Tabla]]
56c57
< ** [[Theremin]]
---
> ** [[Theramin]]
------
Music|987961371
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]]
------
Blues|987961612
22,24c22,23
< * [[BB King]]
< * [[Elmore James]]
< * [[Son House]]
---
> 
> * [[Blind Lemon]]
25a25,31
> * [[Son House]]
> * [[Elmore James]]
> * [[Robert Johnson]]
> * [[BB King]]
> * [[Leadbelly]]
> * [[Taj Mahal]]
> * [[Keb Mo]]
26a33
> * [[Howlin Wolf]]
------
PopularMusic|987965455
30a31,32
> * [[Macy Gray]]
> 
------
JavaScript|987971748
1c1
< '''JavaScript''' is a [[scripting language]] now specified by the ECMA-262 standard.  Originally developed by [[Netscape Communications]] under the name '''LiveScript''', it was later renamed and modified to give it a syntax closer to that of the [[Sun Microsystems]] [[Java language]] at roughly the same time Netscape was including support for Java in their browser.  It is an object-oriented scripting language for use on both the server-side (web servers) and the client side (Internet browsers) of internet applications.  JavaScript is mostly used on the client side to create powerful dynamic web applications.
---
> '''JavaScript''' is a [[scripting language]] now specified by the ECMA-262 standard.  Originally developed by [[Netscape Communications]] under the name '''LiveScript''', it was later renamed and modified to give it a [[syntax]] closer to that of the [[Sun Microsystems]] [[Java language]] at roughly the same time Netscape was including support for Java in their browser.  It is an object-oriented scripting language for use on both the server-side ([[web servers]]) and the client side ([[Internet browsers]]) of [[internet]] applications.  JavaScript is mostly used on the client side to create powerful dynamic web applications.
------
Programming_language|987971914
8c8
< ScriptingLanguages or interpreted languages
---
> [[Scripting language|Scripting languages]] or interpreted languages
9a10
> * JavaScript
42,43d42
< 
< ----
------
Internet|987972097
2a3,4
> [[/History|History of the Internet]]
> 
------
Esperanto|987974589
4c4
< the world).  An [[agglutinative language]], with no grammatical genders, no distinct verb conjugations by person and number, and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin and Greek.  Spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn (due in large part to luck, as Zamenhof was not a professional linguist, but
---
> the world).  An [[inflective language]], with no grammatical genders, no distinct verb conjugations by person and number, and two cases, nominative and accusative.  The vocabulary is drawn from many European languages, chiefly English, German and the [[Romance languages]], with a few words from Slavic languages, and Latin and Greek.  Spelling is phonetic, and the morphology is of course extremely regular and easy to learn (due in large part to luck, as Zamenhof was not a professional linguist, but
57a58
> ----
58a60
> Esperanto isn't an agglutinative language since it inflects: it has different cases as numbers distinguished by different suffices.
------
Visual_Basic|987974781
1c1
< Visual Basic (VB) is a Basic derivative developed by Microsoft. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine and enables rapid developement of GUI applications.
---
> A [[BASIC]] programming language derivative developed by [[Microsoft]]. It's centered around a very powerful forms engine and enables rapid developement of [[GUI]] applications.
------
Java|987974878
7c7
< Java is a [[programming language]] not to be confused with [[javascript]] and some other variety of java the name of which a programmer will now promptly supply.  :-)
---
> Java is also a [[programming language]] not to be confused with [[JavaScript]] and some other variety of Java the name of which a programmer will now promptly supply.  :-)
------
Scheme|987974946
1c1
< Scheme is a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
---
> Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
------
Perl|987975176
1c1
< The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C]] programming.
---
> The Practical Extraction and Report Language (or the Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister) is a scripting language written by [[Larry Wall]]. Perl has its roots in shell scripting, [[Awk]] and [[C language|C]] programming.
------
Internet|987976022
24a25
> * [[cybering]]
------
All_Saints|987976891
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[British]] all woman group.
> 
> Members were sisters, [[Nicole Appleton|Nicole]] and [[Natalie Appleton]] with [[Melanie Blatt]] amd [[Shaznay Lewis]].
> 
> They got together in [[1993]] and highlights include a cover of [[Red Hot Chilli Peppers]] [[Under the Bridge]] and their collaboration with [[William Orbit]] on their [[/Saints and Sinners]] album.
> Lowlights include the universally panned film, [[Honest/Film]] directed by ex-[[Eurythmics]] [[Dave Stewart]].
> 
> They split in [[2001] after much speculation and rumour.
------
AllSaints|987976951
1,11c1
< Band Members:
< 
< Bio(s):
< 
< Musical Style:
< 
< Influence & Influences:
< 
< Discography:
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[All Saints]]
------
All_Saints|987977762
6c6
< Lowlights include the universally panned film, [[Honest/Film]] directed by ex-[[Eurythmics]] [[Dave Stewart]].
---
> Lowlights include the universally panned film, [[Honest/Film|Honest]] directed by ex-[[Eurythmics]] [[Dave Stewart]].
------
Holiday|987978200
14,15c14,15
< :[[All Saints]]
< ...
---
> :[[All Saints Day]]
> ...
------
Nirvana/Grunge_band|987979399
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[Grunge music|Grunge band]] from [[Seattle]] (late [[1980s|80's]] early [[1990s|90's]]). Their first
> album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell
> well, but the second, [[/Nevermind]], recorded for the much larger [[Geffen]] label
> was a major breakthrough. The highly infectious single [[/Smells Like Teen Spirit]]
> received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making Grunge
> mainstream. The follow up [[/In Utero]], released [[1993]], was less accessible to the
> mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
> 
> Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]] but,
> plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and
> an alleged heroin addict. Cobain commited suicide in [[1994]], after which the band
> split. [[Drummer Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
> albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on MTV's Unplugged were later
> released.
> 
> Kurt Cobain was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of
> Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's
> demise.
> 
> Discography:
> 
> :Bleach (1989)
> :Nevermind (1991)
> :Hormoaning(1992 - Australia and Japan only)
> :Incesticide (1992)
> :In Utero (1993)
> :MTV Unplugged in New York (1994)
> :From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
> 
> /Talk
------
Nirvana|987979488
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/Grunge band|The grunge band from Seattle]]
> 
> There was another Nirvana band many years ago, sometime in the 60s, details someone please!
> ----
> An [[English]] transliteration/spelling of a [[Sanskrit]] term meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle). Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.
> 
> [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua Encyclopedia Britannia] for a more detailed definition.
> 
> Many of the Pali language Buddhist scriptures use a word translated as "nibbana", which appears to describe the same word/concept.
------
NirvanA|987979492
1,7c1
< The term NirvanA refers to more than one thing:
< 
< NirvanaBand - The grunge band from Seattle.
< 
< NirvanaBuddhism - The state of perfect harmony that results from ego-extinction.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nirvana]]
------
PopularMusic|987979549
36a37
> * [[Masive Attack]]
39c40
< * [[Nirvana]]
---
> * [[Nirvana/Grunge band|Nirvana]]
40a42
> * [[Shirehorses]]
42a45
> * [[The Sugarcubes]]
------
Nirvana|987979664
9a10,11
> 
> /Talk
------
NirvanaBuddhism|987979790
1,21c1
< Nirvana is an English transliteration/spelling of a Sanskrit term meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle).  Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.  See the EncyclopaediaBritannica [http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/8/0,5716,57318+1+55914,00.html?kw=nirvaunua entry for nirvana] for a more detailed definition.
< 
< Many of the Pali language Buddhist scriptures use a word translated as "nibbana", which appears to describe the same word/concept.  See [http://here-and-now.org/IMSOC/old/nibbana.html this article] for a (Therevada) Buddhist's commentary on "nibbana/nirvana".
< 
< ----
< 
< Do "nirvana" and "nibbana" actually denote the same thing?  In English, "nirvana" seems to have won out. But what about the words in other forms of Buddhist text in many other languages, in different alphabets yet again?  Do the standard transliterations of these terms in Chinese translations of earlier Pali and Sanskrit texts use the same transliteration for each, for example?  
< 
< :From [http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/longview/socsci/philosophy/world/buddhism.htm notes of a World Philosophy class]: "The Mahayana scriptures were written in Sanskrit not Pali (which is the language of the Theravada scriptures). This accounts for the differences in spellings: Nirvana instead of Nibbana, Sutra instead of Sutta, etc."  Many sources equate the two terms, as in this [http://www.google.com/search?q=nirvana+nibbana Google search].
< 
< :The use of "nirvana" in English may have occurred because of the greater popularity of Sanskrit over Pali in early Western accounts of "Eastern religions/philosophy".  (Sanskrit is also important in Hindu scriptures.)  Some of the most popular early books on Buddhism had a strong bias towards the Mahayana school.  (For instance, some books used the pejorative term "Hinayana" to refer to the Theravada school.)
< 
< ----
< ----
< '''Old text, to be deleted:'''
< 
< :Serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer "nibbana"... [remaining text deleted by author]
< 
< :: The sources listed above are all from a site that explicitly deals only with Theravada Buddhism, which is a very particular branch of Buddhism that is based on the Pali Canon.  That is why they use the phrase "nibbana"; it is not because "serious students of Buddhist texts seem to prefer" that word.  The question of whether "nibbana" and "nirvana" really denote the same thing is best considered as a question regarding the differing ''conceptions'' Theravada and other branches (Mahayana and Vajrayana, to name the main ones) posses of the single ''concept'' nirvana.   
< 
< :My apologies.  Further study revealed that you are correct.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Nirvana]]
------
Biology/Talk|987987239
22c22,25
< I think that in this case, the sidebar is mostly superfluous.  But it might also be a good place to put pictures, if we ever get any.
---
> I think that in this case, the sidebar is mostly superfluous.  But it might also be a good place to put pictures, if we ever get any.
> 
> ----
> Maybe something should be said about different classification systems, besides Linnean taxonomy, like the three domain system and nine kingdom system?
------
PopularMusic|987989855
10a11
> * [[The Beatles]]
30a32,33
> * [[En Vogue]]
> 
33a37,38
> * [[Billy Joel]]
> * [[Elton John]]
44a50
> * [[Cat Stevens]]
45a52,53
> 
> * [[Talking Heads]]
------
StarCraft|987990586
3c3
< Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play. See also [[Command And Conquer]] and [[Red Alert]].
---
> Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.  Warcraft, while advanced for its time, featured the noted weakness of having character parallel across the two races: each unit had a corresponding unit in the other race, and the tech tree was similar for both.  Starcraft avoided this by having units without parallels in the other two races, and by having dramatically different technologies for each race. See also [[Command And Conquer]] and [[Red Alert]].
------
Civilization/video_game|987991101
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Sid Meier]] game in which the player is the ruler of a civilization of her choice, starting the game with nothing but an explorer and building an empire according to her wishes.  The game requires a fair amount of micromanagement (though less than any of the Sim games), requiring the player to choose which improvements or units to put in each city, as well as where to build new cities, and allowing transformation of the landscape in later years.  The player's towns are harassed periodically by "barbarians"; the game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by being the first civilization to colonize space.
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|987991283
1,2c1,485
< A full list can be found 
< [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/index.html here].
---
> List of Nobel laureates in physics 1901-2000. Detailed explanations are found at the Nobel foundation's website: www.nobel.se
> 
>  The quotations are from www.nobel.se; Copyright problems?
> 
> :<code>1901</code>
> :<b>Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays subsequently named after him"</i>
> 
> :<code>1902</code>
> :<b>Hendrik Antoon Lorentz</b>
> :<b>Pieter Zeeman</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of the extraordinary service they rendered by their researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena"</i>
> 
> :<code>1903</code>
> :<b>Antoine Henri Becquerel</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity"</i>
> :<b>Pierre Curie</b>
> :<b>Marie Curie</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel"</i>
> 
> :1904
> :Lord (John William Strutt) Rayleigh
> ::"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
> 
> :1905
> :Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
> ::"for his work on cathode rays"
> 
> :1906
> :Sir Joseph John Thomson
> ::"in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
> 
> :1907
> :Albert Abraham Michelson
> ::"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid"
> 
> :1908
> :Gabriel Lippmann
> ::"for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
> 
> :1909
> :Guglielmo Marconi
> :Carl Ferdinand Braun
> ::"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
> 
> :1910
> :Johannes Diderik van der Waals
> ::"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids"
> 
> :1911
> :Wilhelm Wien
> ::"for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat"
> 
> :1912
> :Nils Gustaf Dalén
> ::"for his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys"
> 
> :1913
> :Heike Kamerlingh-Onnes
> ::"for his investigations on the properties of matter at low temperatures which led, inter alia, to the production of liquid helium"
> 
> :1914
> :Max von Laue
> ::"for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals"
> 
> :1915
> :Sir William Henry Bragg
> :William Lawrence Bragg
> ::"for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays"
> 
> :1916
> ::The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1917
> :Charles Glover Barkla
> ::"for his discovery of the characteristic Röntgen radiation of the elements"
> 
> :1918
> :Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
> ::"in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his discovery of energy quanta"
> 
> :1919
> :Johannes Stark
> ::"for his discovery of the Doppler effect in canal rays and the splitting of spectral lines in electric fields"
> 
> :1920
> :Charles Edouard Guillaume
> ::"in recognition of the service he has rendered to precision measurements in Physics by his discovery of anomalies in nickel steel alloys"
> 
> :1921
> :Albert Einstein
> ::"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
> 
> :1922
> :Niels Henrik David Bohr
> ::"for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them"
> 
> :1923
> :Robert Andrews Millikan
> ::"for his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the photoelectric effect"
> 
> :1924
> :Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn
> ::"for his discoveries and research in the field of X-ray spectroscopy"
> 
> :1925
> :James Franck
> :Gustav Ludwig Hertz
> ::"for their discovery of the laws governing the impact of an electron upon an atom"
> 
> :1926
> :Jean Baptiste Perrin
> ::"for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter, and especially for his discovery of sedimentation equilibrium"
> 
> :1927
> :Arthur Holly Compton
> ::"for his discovery of the effect named after him"
> :Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
> ::"for his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation of vapour"
> 
> :1928
> :Owen Willans Richardson
> ::"for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him"
> 
> :1929
> :Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie
> ::"for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons"
> 
> :1930
> :Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman
> ::"for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him"
> 
> :1931
> ::The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1932
> :Werner Karl Heisenberg
> ::"for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen"
> 
> :1933
> :Erwin Schrödinger
> :Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac
> ::"for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory"
> 
> :1934
> ::The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1935
> :James Chadwick
> ::"for the discovery of the neutron"
> 
> :1936
> :Victor Franz Hess
> ::"for his discovery of cosmic radiation"
> :Carl David Anderson
> ::"for his discovery of the positron"
> 
> :1937
> :Clinton Joseph Davisson
> :George Paget Thomson
> ::"for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals"
> 
> :1938
> :Enrico Fermi
> ::"for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons"
> 
> :1939
> :Ernest Orlando Lawrence
> ::"for the invention and development of the cyclotron and for results obtained with it, especially with regard to artificial radioactive elements"
> 
> :1940
> ::The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1941
> ::The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1942
> ::The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
> 
> :1943
> :Otto Stern
> ::"for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton"
> 
> :1944
> :Isidor Isaac Rabi
> ::"for his resonance method for recording the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei"
> 
> :1945
> :Wolfgang Pauli
> ::"for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle, also called the Pauli Principle"
> 
> :1946
> :Percy Williams Bridgman
> ::"for the invention of an apparatus to produce extremely high pressures, and for the discoveries he made therewith in the field of high pressure physics"
> 
> :1947
> :Sir Edward Victor Appleton
> ::"for his investigations of the physics of the upper atmosphere especially for the discovery of the so-called Appleton layer"
> 
> :1948
> :Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett
> ::"for his development of the Wilson cloud chamber method, and his discoveries therewith in the fields of nuclear physics and cosmic radiation"
> 
> :1949
> :Hideki Yukawa
> ::"for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces"
> 
> :1950
> :Cecil Frank Powell
> ::"for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method"
> 
> :1951
> :Sir John Douglas Cockcroft
> :Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton
> ::"for their pioneer work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles"
> 
> :1952
> :Felix Bloch
> :Edward Mills Purcell
> ::"for their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements and discoveries in connection therewith"
> 
> :1953
> :Frits (Frederik) Zernike
> ::"for his demonstration of the phase contrast method, especially for his invention of the phase contrast microscope"
> 
> :1954
> :Max Born
> ::"for his fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially for his statistical interpretation of the wavefunction"
> :Walther Bothe
> ::"for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith"
> 
> :1955
> :Willis Eugene Lamb
> ::"for his discoveries concerning the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum"
> :Polykarp Kusch
> ::"for his precision determination of the magnetic moment of the electron"
> 
> :1956
> :William Bradford Shockley
> :John Bardeen
> :Walter Houser Brattain
> ::"for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect"
> 
> :1957
> :Chen Ning Yang
> :Tsung-Dao Lee
> ::"for their penetrating investigation of the so-called parity laws which has led to important discoveries regarding the elementary particles"
> 
> :1958
> :Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov
> :Il´ja Mikhailovich Frank
> :Igor Yergenyevich Tamm
> ::"for the discovery and the interpretation of the Cherenkov effect"
> 
> :1959
> :Emilio Gino Segrè
> :Owen Chamberlain
> ::"for their discovery of the antiproton"
> 
> :1960
> ::Donald Arthur Glaser
> ::"for the invention of the bubble chamber"
> 
> :1961
> :Robert Hofstadter
> ::"for his pioneering studies of electron scattering in atomic nuclei and for his thereby achieved discoveries concerning the stucture of the nucleons"
> :Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer
> ::"for his researches concerning the resonance absorption of gamma radiation and his discovery in this connection of the effect which bears his name"
> 
> :1962
> :Lev Davidovich Landau
> ::"for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium"
> 
> :1963
> :Eugene Paul Wigner
> ::"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles"
> :Maria Goeppert-Mayer
> :J. Hans D. Jensen
> ::"for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure"
> 
> :1964
> :Charles Hard Townes
> :Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov
> :Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov
> ::"for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle"
> 
> :1965
> :Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
> :Julian Schwinger
> :Richard P. Feynman
> ::"for their fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics, with deep-ploughing consequences for the physics of elementary particles"
> 
> :1966
> :Alfred Kastler
> ::"for the discovery and development of optical methods for studying Hertzian resonances in atoms"
> 
> :1967
> :Hans Albrecht Bethe
> ::"for his contributions to the theory of nuclear reactions, especially his discoveries concerning the energy production in stars"
> 
> :1968
> :Luis Walter Alvarez
> ::"for his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonance states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chamber and data analysis"
> 
> :1969
> :Murray Gell-Mann
> ::"for his contributions and discoveries concerning the classification of elementary particles and their interactions"
> 
> :1970
> :Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén
> ::"for fundamental work and discoveries in magneto-hydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics"
> :Louis Eugène Félix Néel
> ::"for fundamental work and discoveries concerning antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism which have led to important applications in solid state physics"
> 
> :1971
> :Dennis Gabor
> ::"for his invention and development of the holographic method"
> 
> :1972
> :John Bardeen
> :Leon Neil Cooper
> :John Robert Schrieffer
> ::"for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory"
> 
> :1973
> :Leo Esaki
> :Ivar Giaever
> ::"for their experimental discoveries regarding tunneling phenomena in semiconductors and superconductors, respectively"
> :Brian David Josephson
> ::"for his theoretical predictions of the properties of a supercurrent through a tunnel barrier, in particular those phenomena which are generally known as the Josephson effects"
> 
> :1974
> :Sir Martin Ryle
> :Antony Hewish
> ::"for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars"
> 
> :1975
> :Aage Niels Bohr
> :Ben Roy Mottelson
> :Leo James Rainwater
> ::"for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection"
> 
> :1976
> :Burton Richter
> :Samuel Chao Chung Ting
> ::"for their pioneering work in the discovery of a heavy elementary particle of a new kind"
> 
> :1977
> :Philip Warren Anderson
> :Sir Nevill Francis Mott
> :John Hasbrouck van Vleck
> ::"for their fundamental theoretical investigations of the electronic structure of magnetic and disordered systems"
> 
> :1978
> :Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa
> ::"for his basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics"
> :Arno Allan Penzias
> :Robert Woodrow Wilson
> ::"for their discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation"
> 
> :1979
> :Sheldon Lee Glashow
> :Abdus Salam
> :Steven Weinberg
> ::"for their contributions to the theory of the unified weak and electromagnetic interaction between elementary particles, including, inter alia, the prediction of the weak neutral current"
> 
> :1980
> :James Watson Cronin
> :Val Logsdon Fitch
> ::"for the discovery of violations of fundamental symmetry principles in the decay of neutral K-mesons"
> 
> :1981
> :Nicolaas Bloembergen
> :Arthur Leonard Schawlow
> ::"for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy"
> :Kai M. Siegbahn
> ::"for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy"
> 
> :1982
> :Kenneth G. Wilson
> ::"for his theory for critical phenomena in connection with phase transitions"
> 
> :1983
> :Subramanyan Chandrasekhar
> ::"for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars"
> :William Alfred Fowler
> ::"for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe"
> 
> :1984
> :Carlo Rubbia
> :Simon van der Meer
> ::"for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction"
> 
> :1985
> :Klaus von Klitzing
> ::"for the discovery of the quantized Hall effect"
> 
> :1986
> :Ernst Ruska
> ::"for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope"
> :Gerd Binnig
> :Heinrich Rohrer
> ::"for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope"
> 
> :1987
> :J. Georg Bednorz
> :K. Alexander Müller
> ::"for their important break-through in the discovery of superconductivity in ceramic materials"
> 
> :1988
> :Leon M. Lederman
> :Melvin Schwartz
> :Jack Steinberger
> ::"for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino"
> 
> :1989
> :Norman F. Ramsey
> ::"for the invention of the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in the hydrogen maser and other atomic clocks"
> :Hans G. Dehmelt
> :Wolfgang Paul
> ::"for the development of the ion trap technique"
> 
> :1990
> :Jerome I. Friedman
> :Henry W. Kendall
> :Richard E. Taylor
> ::"for their pioneering investigations concerning deep inelastic scattering of electrons on protons and bound neutrons, which have been of essential importance for the development of the quark model in particle physics"
> 
> :1991
> :Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
> ::"for discovering that methods developed for studying order phenomena in simple systems can be generalized to more complex forms of matter, in particular to liquid crystals and polymers"
> 
> :1992
> :Georges Charpak
> ::"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber"
> 
> :1993
> :Russell A. Hulse
> :Joseph H. Taylor Jr.
> ::"for the discovery of a new type of pulsar, a discovery that has opened up new possibilities for the study of gravitation"
> 
> :1994
> ::"for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter"
> :Bertram N. Brockhouse
> ::"for the development of neutron spectroscopy"
> :Clifford G. Shull
> ::"for the development of the neutron diffraction technique"
> 
> :1995
> ::"for pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics"
> :Martin L. Perl
> ::"for the discovery of the tau lepton"
> :Frederick Reines
> ::"for the detection of the neutrino"
> 
> :1996
> :David M. Lee
> :Douglas D. Osheroff
> :Robert C. Richardson
> ::"for their discovery of superfluidity in helium-3"
> 
> :1997
> :Steven Chu
> :Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
> :William D. Phillips
> ::"for development of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light"
> 
> :1998
> :Robert B. Laughlin
> :Horst L. Störmer
> :Daniel C. Tsui
> ::"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations"
> 
> :1999
> :Gerardus 't Hooft
> :Martinus J.G. Veltman
> ::"for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions in physics"
> 
> :<code>2000</code>
> ::<i>"for basic work on information and communication technology"</i>
> :<b>Zhores I Alferov</b>
> :<b>Herbert Kroemer</b>
> ::<i>"for developing semiconductor heterostuctures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics"</i>
> :<b>Jack S Kilby</b>
> ::<i>"for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit"</i>
4,7d486
< *2000 - ZhoresIAlferov, HerbertKroemer, JackSKilby
< *1999 - GerardusTHooft, MartinusJGVeltman
< *1998 - RobertBLaughlin, HorstLStormer, DanielCTsui
< *1997 - StevenChu, ClaudeCohenTannoudji, WilliamDPhillips
------
Webcam|987994160
1c1
< A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mainly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting and video conferences over the [[internet]].
---
> A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mainly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the [[internet]].
------
Euphoria|987997590
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Euphoria is an acronym for 'End User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'
> 
> Euphoria is a language with designed for following qualities:
> #<b>Simplicity</b> - Easier to learn and use than BASIC, with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
> #<b>Power</b> - A full-power language with low-level capabilities for professional development, but much more structured and less terse than, for example, C
> #<b>Safety</b> - Extensive debugging support and run-time error-handling
> #<b>Flexibility</b> - Free-form user-defined type support, so that variables can be as loosely or strictly typed as desired.  Object-oriented programming is easily accomplished by defining objects as types (subsets of the sequence, which is a general-purpose collection).
> #<b>Ease of Development</b> - Interpreted, with automatic memory management and garbage collection.
> #<b>Speed</b> - Fastest interpreted language
> 
> v1.0 was released in July 1993 by Robert Craig (Rapid Deployment Software).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native machine code.
------
Academy_Awards/Film_Editing|987997652
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An Academy Award that those in the know argue should not exist.  In deciding the award winner, the Academy does not view the entire film stock used to make a film and so in all honesty has no frame of reference to determine what the "best editing" job is.  For instance, it may be that a 2 hour film has over 1,000 hours of raw footage; in this case it would not be hard to imagine that, no matter how good the film, a better edit could always exist (as well as a near-infinite number of worse edits).  Many directors film several takes of a scene from each camera angle, improvising on the lot and choosing to edit the film in the cutting room.  Other directors, such as [[the Coen brothers]], storyboard their films extensively, and film very little extra.  The Coen brothers take this approach to secure the budget they want and to help themselves stay under it. [[Sydney Lumet]] films only the takes he thinks are necessary to allow the film's editors as little deviation from his vision as possible.  And [[Clint Eastwood]] does only one take of each camera angle, leaving even less for the editors to work with.
> 
> Additionally, many edits are suggested in a film's screenplay.  For instance, in [[Silence of the Lambs]], the [[intercuts]] between the SWAT team ringing the doorbell of one house and Buffalo Bill in a panic in the basement of another, were indicated as early as the second draft of the screenplay, as was the [[split edit]] between Clarice Starling's conversation with Jack Crawford and her conversation with Dr. Frederick Chilton.  Therefore these edits represent no genius of editing, unless following instructions can be called ingenious.
------
Euphoria|987997744
6c6
< #<b>Safety</b> - Extensive debugging support and run-time error-handling
---
> #<b>Safety</b> - Extensive debugging support and run-time error-handling; automatic subscript checking, type-checking, and memory handling.
11c11
< v1.0 was released in July 1993 by Robert Craig (Rapid Deployment Software).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native machine code.
---
> v1.0 was released in July 1993 by Robert Craig ([http://www.rapideuphoria.com Rapid Deployment Software]).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native machine code.
------
StandardOfLiving|987997864
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The standard of living sucks me
------
Euphoria|987997934
3,5c3,5
< Euphoria is a language with designed for following qualities:
< #<b>Simplicity</b> - Easier to learn and use than BASIC, with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
< #<b>Power</b> - A full-power language with low-level capabilities for professional development, but much more structured and less terse than, for example, C
---
> Euphoria is a PC [[programming language]] with designed for following qualities:
> #<b>Simplicity</b> - Easier to learn and use than [[BASIC]], with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
> #<b>Power</b> - A full-power language with low-level capabilities for professional development, but much more structured and less terse than, for example, [[C]]
9c9
< #<b>Speed</b> - Fastest interpreted language
---
> #<b>Speed</b> - Fastest [[interpreted language]]
11c11
< v1.0 was released in July 1993 by Robert Craig ([http://www.rapideuphoria.com Rapid Deployment Software]).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native machine code.
---
> Originally released in July 1993 by Robert Craig ([http://www.rapideuphoria.com Rapid Deployment Software]).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native [[machine code]].
------
StandardOfLiving|987998056
1c1
< The standard of living sucks me
---
> 
------
Programming_language|987998341
16d15
< * [[Euphoria]]
35a35
> * [[Euphoria]]
------
Academy_Awards/Film_Editing|987998745
1c1
< An Academy Award that those in the know argue should not exist.  In deciding the award winner, the Academy does not view the entire film stock used to make a film and so in all honesty has no frame of reference to determine what the "best editing" job is.  For instance, it may be that a 2 hour film has over 1,000 hours of raw footage; in this case it would not be hard to imagine that, no matter how good the film, a better edit could always exist (as well as a near-infinite number of worse edits).  Many directors film several takes of a scene from each camera angle, improvising on the lot and choosing to edit the film in the cutting room.  Other directors, such as [[the Coen brothers]], storyboard their films extensively, and film very little extra.  The Coen brothers take this approach to secure the budget they want and to help themselves stay under it. [[Sydney Lumet]] films only the takes he thinks are necessary to allow the film's editors as little deviation from his vision as possible.  And [[Clint Eastwood]] does only one take of each camera angle, leaving even less for the editors to work with.
---
> An Academy Award that perhaps should not exist.  In deciding the award winner, the Academy does not view the entire film stock used to make a film and so in all honesty has no frame of reference to determine what the "best editing" job is.  For instance, it may be that a 2 hour film has over 1,000 hours of raw footage; in this case it would not be hard to imagine that, no matter how good the film, a better edit could always exist (as well as a near-infinite number of worse edits).  Many directors film several takes of a scene from each camera angle, improvising while filming and choosing to edit the film in the cutting room.  Other directors, such as [[the Coen brothers]], storyboard their films extensively, and film very little extra; they take this approach to secure the budget they want and to help themselves stay under it. [[Sydney Lumet]] films only the takes he thinks are necessary, with the purpose of allowing the film's editors as little deviation from his vision as possible.  And [[Clint Eastwood]] does only one take of each camera angle, leaving even almost no variation in how the film can be edited.
3c3
< Additionally, many edits are suggested in a film's screenplay.  For instance, in [[Silence of the Lambs]], the [[intercuts]] between the SWAT team ringing the doorbell of one house and Buffalo Bill in a panic in the basement of another, were indicated as early as the second draft of the screenplay, as was the [[split edit]] between Clarice Starling's conversation with Jack Crawford and her conversation with Dr. Frederick Chilton.  Therefore these edits represent no genius of editing, unless following instructions can be called ingenious.
---
> Additionally, many edits are suggested in a film's [[screenplay]].  For instance, in [[Silence of the Lambs]], the [[intercut]]s between the SWAT team ringing the doorbell of one house and Buffalo Bill in a panic in the basement of another, were indicated as early as the second draft of the screenplay, as was the [[split edit]] between Clarice Starling's conversation with Jack Crawford and her conversation with Dr. Frederick Chilton.  Therefore these edits represent no genius of editing on the part of the editor, but of the author of the screenplay.
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987998830
1c1
< 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|adapted screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987999137
4c4
< * [[Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
---
> * [[Hannibla/ridley scoot|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987999152
4c4
< * [[Hannibla/ridley scoot|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
---
> * [[Hannibal/ridley scott|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|987999190
4c4
< * [[Hannibal/ridley scott|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
---
> * [[Hannibal/Ridley Scott|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
Euphoria|987999482
11a12,14
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
Euphoria/Talk|987999662
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm sure this is a worthy subject, but claims like "easier to learn than BASIC" and "fastest interpreted language" are just advertising mumbo-jumbo.  Sure, you want to have who designed it and what their goals were, but if I'm looking at an enecylopedia article about a programming language, I want to know who uses it and for what, what it looks like (maybe some sample code?), what actual features it has in plain English, and a link to their website if any.
> 
------
Musical_Film|987999742
15c15
< :[[Singing in the Rain]]
---
> :[[Singing' in the Rain]]
------
Musical_Film|987999767
15c15
< :[[Singing' in the Rain]]
---
> :[[Singin"'" in the Rain]]
------
Musical_Film|987999781
15c15
< :[[Singin"'" in the Rain]]
---
> :[[Singin in the Rain]]
------
Singin_in_the_Rain|988000205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1952 Gene Kelly film chronicling Hollywood's transition from silent films to "talkies."  Kelly plays Don Lockwood, who frequently stars with Lina Lamont ([[Lena Horne]]s character), who has a voice grating beyond description and thinks their acted romance is real.  At the urging of Lockwood and his partner, the studio turns their current film The Dueling Cavaliers into a musical and overdubs Lamont's voice; meanwhile Lockwood falls in love with the overdub artist and Lamont does everything possible to sabatoge the romance.
------
Singin_in_the_Rain|988000348
1c1
< 1952 Gene Kelly film chronicling Hollywood's transition from silent films to "talkies."  Kelly plays Don Lockwood, who frequently stars with Lina Lamont ([[Lena Horne]]s character), who has a voice grating beyond description and thinks their acted romance is real.  At the urging of Lockwood and his partner, the studio turns their current film The Dueling Cavaliers into a musical and overdubs Lamont's voice; meanwhile Lockwood falls in love with the overdub artist and Lamont does everything possible to sabatoge the romance.
---
> 1952 [[Gene Kelly]] film chronicling Hollywood's transition from silent films to "[[talkie]]s."  Kelly plays Don Lockwood, who frequently stars with Lina Lamont ([[Jean Hagen]]s character), who has a voice grating beyond description and thinks their acted romance is real.  At the urging of Lockwood and his partner, the studio turns their current film The Dueling Cavaliers into a [[Musical_Film|musical]] and overdubs Lamont's voice; meanwhile Lockwood falls in love with the overdub artist ([[Debbie Reynolds]]) and Lamont does everything possible to sabatoge the romance.
------
Euphoria/Talk|988000382
2c2,3
< 
---
> ----
> Actually not just ad mumbo-jumbo, I believe those were specific design goals of the language.  There are benchmarks and such, but I didn't want to get into technicalities.  There's a link to the website at the bottom.  If you want sample code, I can accomodate.  :)
------
Musical_Film|988000423
15c15
< :[[Singin in the Rain]]
---
> :[[Singin_in_the_Rain]]
------
Euphoria|988001177
1d0
< Euphoria is an acronym for 'End User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'
3,4c2,3
< Euphoria is a PC [[programming language]] with designed for following qualities:
< #<b>Simplicity</b> - Easier to learn and use than [[BASIC]], with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
---
> Euphoria is a PC [[programming language]] created with the following design goals:
> #<b>Simplicity</b> - To be easier to learn and use than [[BASIC]], with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
10a10,11
> The name Euphoria is an acronym for 'End User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'
> 
12a14,15
> Euphoria is primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes.  The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing.  It has been used to implement other interpreted languages along with translators and compilers, in[[artificial intelligence]] experiments, in the study of mathematics, to teach programming, and implementing fonts involving thousands of [[characters]].
> ----
------
Euphoria|988002965
1d0
< 
8c7
< #<b>Speed</b> - Fastest [[interpreted language]]
---
> #<b>Speed</b> - To be fast enough to rival [[compiled language]]s for usefulness, despite being an [[interpreted language]]
14a14,33
> 
> As a brief example, the following code 
> <pre>
> global function replace( object old, object new, sequence group )
>    old = find( old, group )
>    if old then
>       group = group[1..old - 1] & new & group[old + 1..length( group )]
>    end if
>    return( group )
> end function
> </pre>
> looks for an old item in a group of items.  If found, it replaces it with a new item.  The group is then returned.  
> 
> Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates it's constructs with words.  Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see things like 'end if' and 'end function'.
> 
> Flexibility is present; the items could be strings, numbers, images, or whole sequences of data themselves.  A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types.  This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries.  
> 
> Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked.  Thus the function cannot access memory that it shouldn't, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory.  There is no need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory, and no chance of a leak.
> 
> The line <code>group = group[1..old - 1] & new & group[old + 1..length( group )]</code> shows some of the collection handling facilities.  Collections of any type can be sliced and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions.  
------
Euphoria|988003377
2,3c2,3
< #<b>Simplicity</b> - To be easier to learn and use than [[BASIC]], with higher-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and arbitrary limits.
< #<b>Power</b> - A full-power language with low-level capabilities for professional development, but much more structured and less terse than, for example, [[C]]
---
> #<b>Simplicity</b> - To be easier to learn and use than [[BASIC]], with more-consistent high-level constructs.  Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and size/addressing limits.
> #<b>Power</b> - To provide low-level capabilities needed to access the OS and BIOS for professional development, but be more structured and less terse than a low-level language, making low-level programming less dangerous.
5c5
< #<b>Flexibility</b> - Free-form user-defined type support, so that variables can be as loosely or strictly typed as desired.  Object-oriented programming is easily accomplished by defining objects as types (subsets of the sequence, which is a general-purpose collection).
---
> #<b>Flexibility</b> - User-defined type support, with variables as loosely or strictly typed as desired.  Object-oriented programming can be accomplished by defining objects as types (subsets of the sequence, which is a general-purpose collection).
------
Euphoria|988003538
33c33
< The line <code>group = group[1..old - 1] & new & group[old + 1..length( group )]</code> shows some of the collection handling facilities.  Collections of any type can be sliced and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions.  
---
> The line <code>group = group[1..old - 1] & new & group[old + 1..length( group )]</code> shows some of the collection handling facilities.  Collections of any type can be sliced ('slice' means to take a subset of the data in a collection) and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions.  
------
Euphoria|988003833
13c13
< Euphoria is primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes.  The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing.  It has been used to implement other interpreted languages along with translators and compilers, in[[artificial intelligence]] experiments, in the study of mathematics, to teach programming, and implementing fonts involving thousands of [[characters]].
---
> Euphoria is primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes.  The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult.  It has been used in [[artificial intelligence]] experiments, the study of mathematics, for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of [[characters]].
27c27
< Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates it's constructs with words.  Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see things like 'end if' and 'end function'.
---
> Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates it's constructs with words.  Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see phrases like 'if..then', 'end if', and 'end function'.
29c29
< Flexibility is present; the items could be strings, numbers, images, or whole sequences of data themselves.  A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types.  This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries.  
---
> Flexibility is present; the items 'old' and 'new' could be strings, numbers, images, or whole collections of data themselves.  A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types.  This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries.  
31c31
< Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked.  Thus the function cannot access memory that it shouldn't, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory.  There is no need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory, and no chance of a leak.
---
> Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked.  Thus the function cannot access memory out-of-bounds, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory.  There is no need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory, and no chance of a leak.
------
Euphoria/Talk|988003955
3c3,4
< Actually not just ad mumbo-jumbo, I believe those were specific design goals of the language.  There are benchmarks and such, but I didn't want to get into technicalities.  There's a link to the website at the bottom.  If you want sample code, I can accomodate.  :)
---
> Actually not just ad mumbo-jumbo, I believe those were specific design goals of the language...I'm having a bit of difficulty wording them objectively though.  There are benchmarks and such, but I didn't want to get into technicalities.  There's a link to the website at the bottom.  If you want sample code, I can accomodate.  :)
> Is it a bit better now?
------
Euphoria|988004197
9c9
< The name Euphoria is an acronym for 'End User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'
---
> The name Euphoria is an acronym for 'End-User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications'.  It was originally released in July 1993 by Robert Craig ([http://www.rapideuphoria.com Rapid Deployment Software]) for the [[DOS]] operating system.  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, [[Windows]], and [[Linux]].  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into [[C]] for compilation to native [[machine code]].
11,13c11
< Originally released in July 1993 by Robert Craig ([http://www.rapideuphoria.com Rapid Deployment Software]).  Current versions support 32-bit DOS, Windows, and Linux.  There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into C for compilation to native [[machine code]].
< 
< Euphoria is primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes.  The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult.  It has been used in [[artificial intelligence]] experiments, the study of mathematics, for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of [[characters]].
---
> Euphoria is primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes.  The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult in many languages.  It has been used in [[artificial intelligence]] experiments, the study of [[mathematics]], for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of characters.
33a32,33
> ----
> External link: [http://www.rapideuphoria.com Euphoria website]
------
William_Gibson|988017259
1c1
< William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of science fiction and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer stimulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are Burning Chrome, Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine(with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, Hugo, and Philip K. Dick).
---
> William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of science fiction and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer stimulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are the short story collection `Burning Chrome', and the novels Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine (with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, Hugo, and Philip K. Dick).
------
Ursa_Major|988017769
1c1
< [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England it is known as Charles's Wain [wagon].
---
> [[Constellation]] visible throughout the year in the northern hemisphere.  Its name means "Great Bear" in Latin.  It contains a famous [[asterism]] of seven bright stars known in the United States as the Big Dipper, because the major stars can be seen to follow the rough outline of a large ladle, or dipper.  The Big Dipper is recognized as a grouping of stars in many cultures and eras. In England it is commonly known as the Plough, and was sometimes formerly called King Charles's Wain [wagon].
------
Geologic_Timescale|988022871
20c20
<  |    [[Permian]]              | [[Palaeozoic]]   |               |
---
>  |    [[Permian]]               | [[Palaeozoic]]   |               |
22c22
<  |    [[Pennsylvanian|Penn]]| [[Carboniferous]]1 |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Pennsylvanian|Penn]]| [[Carboniferous]]1  |               |               |
24c24
<  |    [[Mississippian|Miss]]|                |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Mississippian|Miss]]|                 |               |               |
50c50
< 3) Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiodating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for [[radiodating]] seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where we would most like to have them.
---
> 3) Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiodating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for [[radiodating]] seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where we would most like to have them.
------
Triassic|988024364
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Triassic is a Geologic Period that extends from about 195 to 225 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Triassic was named in 1834 by Freidrich Von Alberti for the three distinct layers of redbeds, capped by chalk, followed by black shales that is found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe. The Triassic follows the [[Permian]] and is followed by the [[Jurassic]].  Both the start and end of the Triassic are marked by major extinction events.
> 
> The Triassic is the first Era of the [[Mesozoic]] Era -- the Age of Dinosaurs.
> 
> During the Triassic, almost all the Earth's land mass remained concentrated into one Supercontinent -- [[Pangea]].  Climates were warm with no evidence of glaciation.  (As far as can be determined, there was no land near either pole.  Because of the limited shoreline of one continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are relatively rare despite their prominence in Western Europe.  In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the West.
> 
> During the Triassic marine life reached a more or less stable state with the "highest" life forms being fish and marine reptiles.  Among invertebrates brachiopods and mollusks remained common.  Shelled cephalopods in particular were common and diverse.  On land, large sophisticated reptiles became dominant.  The first Angiosperms (flowering plants) may have evolved during the Triassic as did the first flying vertebrates although the latter appear to be flying reptiles, not ancestors of birds.
> 
> The Triassic was a Hot House world, with no evidence of ice at the poles.
> Pangea was fully assembled and remained so through the Triassic.
> 
> The Triassic was critical for Terrestrial life because all of the living dominant groups of tetrapods evolved by its end. These include - 
> SALAMANDERS
> FROGS
> TURTLES
> DINOSAURS (now surviving as birds)
> MAMMALS
> CROCODILES
> LIZARDS (incl. sphenodonts & snakes)
> ALSO PTEROSAURS
> ORIGIN OF ANGIOSPERMS (possibly)
> The end-Permian mass extinction brought an end to the Paleozoic Era and marked the beginning of the Mesozoic Era that would last from 245-65 million years ago. This was the "Age of Dinosaurs".
> 
> The first period of the Mesozoic Era is the Triassic Period, which lasted from 245 to 202 million years ago.
>  
> Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- Pangea?. One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight smaller ones. The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology. 90%-95% of marine species became extinct. There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes due to impact by a large meteor. Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the ancestors of the dinosaurs?. The first modern trees -- conifers -- appeared in the Permian. Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods. The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian. 
> 
> During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses except portions of East Asia were collected into a single landmass known as Pangea?. Pangea? straddled the equator. Deserts seem to have been widespread in Pangea?. 
------
Triassic|988024504
8,28d7
< 
< The Triassic was a Hot House world, with no evidence of ice at the poles.
< Pangea was fully assembled and remained so through the Triassic.
< 
< The Triassic was critical for Terrestrial life because all of the living dominant groups of tetrapods evolved by its end. These include - 
< SALAMANDERS
< FROGS
< TURTLES
< DINOSAURS (now surviving as birds)
< MAMMALS
< CROCODILES
< LIZARDS (incl. sphenodonts & snakes)
< ALSO PTEROSAURS
< ORIGIN OF ANGIOSPERMS (possibly)
< The end-Permian mass extinction brought an end to the Paleozoic Era and marked the beginning of the Mesozoic Era that would last from 245-65 million years ago. This was the "Age of Dinosaurs".
< 
< The first period of the Mesozoic Era is the Triassic Period, which lasted from 245 to 202 million years ago.
<  
< Sea levels in the Permian were low and near shore environments were limited by the collection of almost all major landmasses into a single continent -- Pangea?. One continent -- even a large continent -- has less shoreline than six to eight smaller ones. The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology. 90%-95% of marine species became extinct. There is very modest evidence that the extinction was caused by weather changes due to impact by a large meteor. Land life in the Permian included diverse plants, large amphibians and large reptiles including the ancestors of the dinosaurs?. The first modern trees -- conifers -- appeared in the Permian. Permian marine deposits are rich in mollusks, echinoderms and brachiopods. The last trilobites died out before the end of the Permian. 
< 
< During the Permian, all the Earth's major land masses except portions of East Asia were collected into a single landmass known as Pangea?. Pangea? straddled the equator. Deserts seem to have been widespread in Pangea?. 
------
Triassic|988024618
1c1
< The Triassic is a Geologic Period that extends from about 195 to 225 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Triassic was named in 1834 by Freidrich Von Alberti for the three distinct layers of redbeds, capped by chalk, followed by black shales that is found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe. The Triassic follows the [[Permian]] and is followed by the [[Jurassic]].  Both the start and end of the Triassic are marked by major extinction events.
---
> The Triassic is a Geologic Period that extends from about 195 to 225 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Triassic was named in 1834 by Freidrich Von Alberti for the three distinct layers of redbeds, capped by chalk, followed by black shales that are found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe. The Triassic follows the [[Permian]] and is followed by the [[Jurassic]].  Both the start and end of the Triassic are marked by major extinction events.
------
Cape_Verde|988032342
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cape_Verde/History|988032411
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a trading center for African slaves. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups. Independence was achieved in 1975.
------
Cape_Verde/Geography|988032431
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Western Africa, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 16 00 N, 24 00 W
> 
> Map references: World
> 
> Area:
> total: 4,033 sq km
> land: 4,033 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly larger than Rhode Island
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 965 km
> 
> Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic
> 
> Terrain: steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Mt. Fogo 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island)
> 
> Natural resources: salt, basalt rock, pozzuolana (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), limestone, kaolin, fish
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 11%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 6%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 83% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 30 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: prolonged droughts; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active
> 
> Environment - current issues: overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; overfishing
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site
------
Cape_Verde/People|988032449
1c1,46
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 401,343 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 44% (male 88,202; female 86,630)
> 15-64 years: 50% (male 95,079; female 105,928)
> 65 years and over: 6% (male 10,043; female 15,461) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.98% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 29.67 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 7.38 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -12.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 54.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 68.91 years
> male: 65.63 years
> female: 72.29 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.19 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Cape Verdean(s)
> adjective: Cape Verdean
> 
> Ethnic groups: Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic (infused with indigenous beliefs); Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene)
> 
> Languages: Portuguese, Crioulo (a blend of Portuguese and West African words)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 71.6%
> male: 81.4%
> female: 63.8% (1995 est.)
------
Cape_Verde/Government|988032473
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Cape Verde
> conventional short form: Cape Verde
> local long form: Republica de Cabo Verde
> local short form: Cabo Verde
> 
> Data code: CV
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Praia
> 
> Administrative divisions: 14 districts (concelhos, singular - concelho); Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Nicolau, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal
> note: there may be a new administrative structure of 16 districts (Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Domingos, Sao Nicolau, Sao Filipe, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal)
> 
> Independence: 5 July 1975 (from Portugal)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 5 July (1975)
> 
> Constitution: new constitution came into force 25 September 1992
> 
> Legal system: derived from the legal system of Portugal
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (since 22 March 1991)
> head of government: Prime Minister Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA (since 13 January 1991)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president
> election results: Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro reelected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> election results: percent of vote by party - MPD 61.3%, PAICV 29.8%, PCD 6.7%, other 2.2%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justia
> 
> Political parties and leaders: African Party for Independence of Cape Verde or PAICV [Pedro Verona Rodrigues PIRES, chairman]; Movement for Democracy or MPD [Prime Minister Carlos VEIGA, founder and president]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Dr. Eurico MONTEIRO, president]; Party of Work and Solidarity or PTS [Dr. Oresimo SILVEIRA, president]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Ferdinand Amilcar Spencer LOPES
> chancery: 3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> telephone: [1] (202) 965-6820
> FAX: [1] (202) 965-1207
> consulate(s) general: Boston
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Lawrence Neal BENEDICT
> embassy: Rua Abilio Macedo 81, Praia
> mailing address: C. P. 201, Praia
> telephone: [238] 61 56 16
> FAX: [238] 61 13 55
> 
> Flag description: three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands
------
Cape_Verde/Economy|988032491
1c1,70
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> Economy - overview: Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 1998 was only 13%, of which fishing accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $618 million (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,500 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 13%
> industry: 19%
> services: 68% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $188 million
> expenditures: $228 million, including capital expenditures of $116 million (1996)
> 
> Industries: food and beverages, fish processing, shoes and garments, salt mining, ship repair
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 40 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 37 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: bananas, corn, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish
> 
> Exports: $38 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: fuel, shoes, garments, fish, bananas, hides
> 
> Exports - partners: Portugal, Germany, Spain, France, UK, Malaysia
> 
> Imports: $225 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, industrial products, transport equipment, fuels
> 
> Imports - partners: Portugal, Netherlands, France, UK, Spain, US
> 
> Debt - external: $220 million (1998)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $111.3 million (1995)
> 
> Currency: 1 Cape Verdean escudo (CVEsc) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: Cape Verdean escudos (CVEsc) per US$1 - 107.280 (December 1999), 102.700 (1999), 98.158 (1998), 93.177 (1997), 82.591 (1996), 76.853 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Cape_Verde/Communications|988032506
1c1,17
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 22,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system which was scheduled for completion in 1998
> international: 2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 73,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 2,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Cape_Verde/Transportation|988032522
1c1,19
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> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 1,100 km
> paved: 858 km
> unpaved: 242 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Mindelo, Praia, Tarrafal
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 9,523 GRT/11,795 DWT
> ships by type: cargo 4, chemical tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 6 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 6
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 5 (1999 est.)
------
Cape_Verde/Military|988032535
1c1,11
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> MMilitary branches: single branch that includes both ground and naval elements
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 86,675 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 49,069 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $4 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96)
------
Cape_Verde/Transnational_issues|988032546
1c1,3
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---
> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe
------
Countries_of_the_world|988032646
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Cayman_Islands|988032698
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cayman_Islands/History|988032757
1c1
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> Background: The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries. Administered by Jamaica from 1863, they remained a British dependency after 1962 when the former became independent.
------
Cayman_Islands/Geography|988032772
1c1,45
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---
> Location: Caribbean, island group in Caribbean Sea, nearly one-half of the way from Cuba to Honduras
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 19 30 N, 80 30 W
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
> 
> Area:
> total: 259 sq km
> land: 259 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 160 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April)
> 
> Terrain: low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
> highest point: The Bluff 43 m
> 
> Natural resources: fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 8%
> forests and woodland: 23%
> other: 69% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes (July to November)
> 
> Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment
> 
> Geography - note: important location between Cuba and Central America
------
Cayman_Islands/People|988032789
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 34,763 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 22.36% (male 3,769; female 4,005)
> 15-64 years: 69.84% (male 11,864; female 12,416)
> 65 years and over: 7.79% (male 1,241; female 1,468) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 2.22% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 14.21 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 5.09 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 13.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> note: major destination for Cubans trying to migrate to the US
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 0.86 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.85 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 10.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 78.88 years
> male: 76.1 years
> female: 81.27 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Caymanian(s)
> adjective: Caymanian
> 
> Ethnic groups: mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20%
> 
> Religions: United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant
> 
> Languages: English
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
> total population: 98%
> male: 98%
> female: 98% (1970 est.)
------
Cayman_Islands/Government|988032809
1c1,46
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---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Cayman Islands
> 
> Data code: CJ
> 
> Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
> 
> Government type: British crown colony
> 
> Capital: George Town
> 
> Administrative divisions: 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western
> 
> Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> National holiday: Constitution Day (first Monday in July)
> 
> Constitution: 1959, revised 1972 and 1992
> 
> Legal system: British common law and local statutes
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> head of government: Governor and President of the Executive Council Peter SMITH (since 5 May 1999)
> cabinet: Executive Council (three members appointed by the governor, four members elected by the Legislative Assembly)
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; the governor is appointed by the monarch
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Assembly (18 seats, three official members and 15 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
> elections: last held 20 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 2000)
> election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - National Team coalition 9, independents 6
> 
> Judicial branch: Summary Court; Grand Court; Cayman Islands Court of Appeal
> 
> Political parties and leaders: no formal political parties
> note: the National Team, an organization formed in 1992 to oppose some proposals in the constitutional draft, continues to exert legislative power
> 
> International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
> 
> Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS
------
Cayman_Islands/Economy|988032829
1c1,72
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> Economy - overview: With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 1997, including almost 600 banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. A stock exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.2 million visitors in 1997. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $930 million (1997 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1997 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $24,500 (1997 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 1.4%
> industry: 3.2%
> services: 95.4% (1994 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1998)
> 
> Labor force: 19,820 (1995)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 5.1% (1996)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $265.2 million
> expenditures: $248.9 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> 
> Industries: tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 290 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 270 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruit; livestock, turtle farming
> 
> Exports: $2.17 million (1997)
> 
> Exports - commodities: turtle products, manufactured consumer goods
> 
> Exports - partners: mostly US
> 
> Imports: $432 million (1997)
> 
> Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods
> 
> Imports - partners: US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan
> 
> Debt - external: $70 million (1996)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA
> 
> Currency: 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 (3 November 1995), 0.85 (22 November 1993)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
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Cayman_Islands/Communications|988032842
1c1,17
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 19,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,534 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: NA
> international: 1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 36,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: NA
> 
> Televisions: 7,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
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Cayman_Islands/Transportation|988032873
1c1,23
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> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 406 km
> paved: 304 km
> unpaved: 102 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Cayman Brac, George Town
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,139,740 GRT/1,693,212 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 18, cargo 10, chemical tanker 14, container 4, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 26, roll-on/roll-off 6, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are: Greece 15, US 5, UK 5, Cyprus 2, Denmark 2, Norway 3 (1998 est.)
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 2
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
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Cayman_Islands/Military|988032889
1c1,3
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> Military branches: Royal Cayman Islands Police Force (RCIPF)
> 
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
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Cayman_Islands/Transnational_issues|988032903
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
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> Disputes - international: none
> 
> Illicit drugs: vulnerable to drug money laundering and drug transshipment
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Central_African_Republic|988032961
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Central_African_Republic/History|988033021
1c1
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> Background: The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments - a civilian government was installed in 1993.
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Central_African_Republic/Geography|988033037
1c1,49
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> Location: Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 7 00 N, 21 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 622,984 sq km
> land: 622,984 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 5,203 km
> border countries: Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers
> 
> Terrain: vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Oubangui River 335 m
> highest point: Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m
> 
> Natural resources: diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 3%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 5%
> forests and woodland: 75%
> other: 17% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common
> 
> Environment - current issues: tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa
------
Central_African_Republic/People|988033053
1c1,48
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> Population: 3,512,751
> note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 43% (male 768,550; female 757,710)
> 15-64 years: 53% (male 909,463; female 946,083)
> 65 years and over: 4% (male 58,224; female 72,721) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.77% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 37.52 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 18.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -1.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 106.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 44.02 years
> male: 42.26 years
> female: 45.84 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 4.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Central African(s)
> adjective: Central African
> 
> Ethnic groups: Baya 34%, Banda 27%, Sara 10%, Mandjia 21%, Mboum 4%, M'Baka 4%, Europeans 6,500 (including 1,500 French)
> 
> Religions: indigenous beliefs 24%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%, other 11%
> note: animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority
> 
> Languages: French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 60%
> male: 68.5%
> female: 52.4% (1995 est.)
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Central_African_Republic/Government|988033370
1c1,58
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> Country name:
> conventional long form: Central African Republic
> conventional short form: none
> local long form: Republique Centrafricaine
> local short form: none
> former: Central African Empire
> abbreviation: CAR
> 
> Data code: CT
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Bangui
> 
> Administrative divisions: 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga
> 
> Independence: 13 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 1 December (1958) (proclamation of the republic)
> 
> Constitution: passed by referendum 29 December 1994; adopted 7 January 1995
> 
> Legal system: based on French law
> 
> Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Ange-Felix PATASSE (since 22 October 1993)
> head of government: Prime Minister Anicet Georges DOLOGUELE (since 4 January 1999)
> cabinet: Council of Ministers
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 19 September 1999 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> election results: Ange-Felix PATASSE reelected president; percent of vote - Ange-Felix PATASSE 51.63%, Andre KOLINGBA 19.38%, David DACKO 11.15%
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (109 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - there were 85 seats in the National Assembly before the 1998 election)
> elections: last held 22-23 November and 13 December 1998 (next to be held NA 2003)
> election results: percent of vote by party - MLPC 43%, RDC 18%, MDD 9%, FPP 6%, PSD 5%, ADP 4%, PUN 3%, FODEM 2%, PLD 2%, UPR 1%, FC 1%, independents 6%; seats by party - MLPC 47, RDC 20, MDD 8, FPP 7, PSD 6, ADP 5, PUN 3, FODEM 2, PLD 2, UPR 1, FC 1, independents 7; note - results of election are being contested
> note: the National Assembly is advised by the Economic and Regional Council or Conseil Economique et Regional; when they sit together they are called the Congress or Congres
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [leader NA]; Central African Democratic Assembly or RDC [Andre KOLINGBA]; Civic Forum or FC [Gen. Timothee MALENDOMA]; Democratic Forum or FODEM [Charles MASSI]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Nestor KOMBO-NAGUEMON]; Movement for Democracy and Development or MDD [David DACKO]; Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People or MLPC [the party of the president, Ange-Felix PATASSE]; Patriotic Front for Progress or FPP [Abel GOUMBA]; People's Union for the Republic or UPR [leader NA]; National Unity Party or PUN [Jean-Paul NGOUPANDE]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Enoch LAKOUE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Henri KOBA
> chancery: 1618 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 483-7800
> FAX: [1] (202) 332-9893
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. PERRY
> embassy: Avenue David Dacko, Bangui
> mailing address: B. P. 924, Bangui
> telephone: [236] 61 26 21
> FAX: [236] 61 44 94
> 
> Flag description: four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; there is a yellow five-pointed star on the hoist side of the blue band
------
Central_African_Republic/Economy|988033390
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> Economy - overview: Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government. The IMF approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 2.5% inflation for 2000-2001.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 53%
> industry: 21%
> services: 26% (1997 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Unemployment rate: 6% (1993)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $638 million
> expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $888 million (1994 est.)
> 
> Industries: diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: 105 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 19.05%
> hydro: 80.95%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 98 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, corn, bananas; timber
> 
> Exports: $195 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: diamonds, timber, cotton, coffee, tobacco
> 
> Exports - partners: Benelux 36%, Cote d'Ivoire 5%, Spain 4%, Egypt 3%, France (1997)
> 
> Imports: $170 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products
> 
> Imports - partners: France 30%, Cote d'Ivoire 18%, Cameroon 11%, Germany 4%, Japan (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $790 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Central_African_Republic/Communications|988033412
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 8,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 79 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: fair system
> domestic: network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 283,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: NA
> 
> Televisions: 18,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Central_African_Republic/Transportation|988033442
1c1,24
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> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 23,810 km
> paved: 429 km
> unpaved: 23,381 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 800 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river
> 
> Ports and harbors: Bangui, Nola
> 
> Airports: 52 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 3
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 49
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 10
> 914 to 1,523 m: 23
> under 914 m: 15 (1999 est.)
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Central_African_Republic/Military|988033464
1c1,11
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> Military branches: Central African Armed Forces (includes Republican Guard and Air Force), Presidential Guard, National Gendarmerie, Police Force
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 804,941 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 420,619 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $29 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.2% (FY96)
------
Central_African_Republic/Transnational_issues|988033476
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> Disputes - international: none
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Countries_of_the_world|988033557
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman_Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Chad|988033578
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Chad/History|988033655
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> Background: Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured three decades of ethnic warfare as well as invasions by Libya before a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. A transitional government eventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-military groups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable to Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multiparty presidential and National Assembly elections in 1996 and 1997 respectively. In 1998 a new rebellion broke out in northern Chad, which continued to escalate throughout 1999. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.
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Chad/Geography|988033676
1c1,49
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> Location: Central Africa, south of Libya
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 15 00 N, 19 00 E
> 
> Map references: Africa
> 
> Area:
> total: 1.284 million sq km
> land: 1,259,200 sq km
> water: 24,800 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly more than three times the size of California
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 5,968 km
> border countries: Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
> 
> Climate: tropical in south, desert in north
> 
> Terrain: broad, arid plains in center, desert in north, mountains in northwest, lowlands in south
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Djourab Depression 160 m
> highest point: Emi Koussi 3,415 m
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum (unexploited but exploration under way), uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Lake Chad)
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 3%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 36%
> forests and woodland: 26%
> other: 35% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues
> 
> Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked; Lake Chad is the most significant water body in the Sahel
------
Chad/People|988033695
1c1,47
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> Population: 8,424,504 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,022,339; female 1,994,978)
> 15-64 years: 49% (male 1,964,216; female 2,204,902)
> 65 years and over: 3% (male 99,459; female 138,610) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.31% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 48.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 15.71 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.89 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 96.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 50.49 years
> male: 48.5 years
> female: 52.56 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 6.63 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Chadian(s)
> adjective: Chadian
> 
> Ethnic groups: Muslims, commonly referred to as "northerners" or "gorane" (Arabs, Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba); non-Muslims, commonly referred to as "southerners" (Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, Massa) including nonindigenous 150,000 (of whom 1,000 are French)
> note: ethnicity and regional background more commonly used to identify Chadians than religious affiliation
> 
> Religions: Muslim 50%, Christian 25%, indigenous beliefs (mostly animism) 25%
> 
> Languages: French (official), Arabic (official), Sara and Sango (in south), more than 100 different languages and dialects
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic
> total population: 48.1%
> male: 62.1%
> female: 34.7% (1995 est.)
------
Chad/Government|988033714
1c1,56
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> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Chad
> conventional short form: Chad
> local long form: Republique du Tchad
> local short form: Tchad
> 
> Data code: CD
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: N'Djamena
> 
> Administrative divisions: 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile
> 
> Independence: 11 August 1960 (from France)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 11 August (1960)
> 
> Constitution: passed by referendum 31 March 1995
> 
> Legal system: based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since 4 December 1990)
> head of government: Prime Minister Nagdum YAMASSOUM (since 13 December 1999)
> cabinet: Council of State, members appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> elections: president elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held 2 June and 11 July 1996 (next to be held June 2001); prime minister appointed by the president
> election results: in the first round of voting none of the 15 candidates received the required 50% of the total vote; percent of vote, first round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 43.8%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 12.4%; percent of vote, second round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 69.1%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 30.9%
> note: government coalition - MPS, UNDR, and URD
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly (125 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms); replaces the Higher Transitional Council or the Conseil Superieur de Transition
> elections: National Assembly - last held in two rounds on 5 January and 23 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); in the first round of voting some candidates won clear victories by receiving 50% or more of the vote; where that did not happen, the two highest scoring candidates stood for a second round of voting
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MPS 65, URD 29, UNDR 15, RDP 3, others 13
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts
> 
> Political parties and leaders: National Union for Development and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO]; Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Maldom Bada ABBAS, chairman] (originally in opposition but now the party in power and the party of the president); Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lal Mahamat CHOUA]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE]
> 
> International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Hassaballah Abdelhadi Ahmat SOUBIANE
> chancery: 2002 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> telephone: [1] (202) 462-4009
> FAX: [1] (202) 265-1937
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Christopher GOLDTHWAIT
> embassy: Avenue Felix Eboue, N'Djamena
> mailing address: B. P. 413, N'Djamena
> telephone: [235] (51) 70-09, (51) 90-52, (51) 92-33
> FAX: [235] (51) 56-54
> 
> Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
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Chad/Economy|988033737
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> EEconomy - overview: Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from it's geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the Doba Basin oil fields, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially delayed.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $7.6 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 0.6% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 38%
> industry: 14%
> services: 48% (1998)
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 12% (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 85% (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $198 million
> expenditures: $218 million, including capital expenditures of $146 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Industries: cotton textiles, meat packing, beer brewing, natron (sodium carbonate), soap, cigarettes, construction materials
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 5% (1995)
> 
> Electricity - production: 100 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 100%
> hydro: 0%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 93 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels
> 
> Exports: $288 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Exports - commodities: cotton, cattle, textiles
> 
> Exports - partners: Portugal 30%, Germany 14%, Thailand, Costa Rica, South Africa, France (1997)
> 
> Imports: $359 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, industrial goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs, textiles
> 
> Imports - partners: France 41%, Nigeria 10%, Cameroon 7%, India 6% (1997)
> 
> Debt - external: $1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $238.3 million (1995); note - $125 million committed by Taiwan (August 1997); $30 million committed by African Development Bank
> 
> Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> 
> Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine Francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
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Chad/Communications|988033752
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: primitive system
> domestic: fair system of radiotelephone communication stations
> international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 5 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 1.67 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 10,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
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Chad/Transportation|988033779
1c1,26
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> Railways: 0 km
> 
> Highways:
> total: 33,400 km
> paved: 267 km
> unpaved: 33,133 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 2,000 km navigable
> 
> Ports and harbors: none
> 
> Airports: 49 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 7
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 42
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13
> 914 to 1,523 m: 19
> under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
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Chad/Military|988033801
1c1,16
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> Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, Rural and Nomadic Guard (GNNT)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 20 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 1,749,033 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 915,664 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 79,596 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY96)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.5% (FY96)
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Chad/Transnational_issues|988033816
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> Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
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Chile|988033848
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Chile/History|988033928
1c1
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> Background: A three-year-old Marxist government was overthrown in 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET, which ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies, first implemented by the PINOCHET dictatorship, led to unprecedented growth in 1991-97 and have helped secure the country's commitment to democratic and representative government. Growth slowed in 1998-99, but will likely recover in 2000.
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Chile/Geography|988033944
1c1,54
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> Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, between Argentina and Peru
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 30 00 S, 71 00 W
> 
> Map references: South America
> 
> Area:
> total: 756,950 sq km
> land: 748,800 sq km
> water: 8,150 sq km
> note: includes Easter Island (Isla de Pascua) and Isla Sala y Gomez
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than twice the size of Montana
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 6,171 km
> border countries: Argentina 5,150 km, Bolivia 861 km, Peru 160 km
> 
> Coastline: 6,435 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: 200/350 nm
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: temperate; desert in north; Mediterranean in central region; cool and damp in south
> 
> Terrain: low coastal mountains; fertile central valley; rugged Andes in east
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m
> 
> Natural resources: copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum, hydropower
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 5%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 18%
> forests and woodland: 22%
> other: 55% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 12,650 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location relative to sea lanes between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage); Atacama Desert is one of world's driest regions
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Chile/People|988033963
1c1,46
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> Population: 15,153,797 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 28% (male 2,137,826; female 2,044,546)
> 15-64 years: 65% (male 4,919,060; female 4,958,030)
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 453,234; female 641,101) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 1.17% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 17.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 5.52 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
> total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 9.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 75.74 years
> male: 72.43 years
> female: 79.22 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.2 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Chilean(s)
> adjective: Chilean
> 
> Ethnic groups: white and white-Amerindian 95%, Amerindian 3%, other 2%
> 
> Religions: Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 11%, Jewish NEGL
> 
> Languages: Spanish
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 95.2%
> male: 95.4%
> female: 95% (1995 est.)
------
Chile/Government|988033980
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Republic of Chile
> conventional short form: Chile
> local long form: Republica de Chile
> local short form: Chile
> 
> Data code: CI
> 
> Government type: republic
> 
> Capital: Santiago
> 
> Administrative divisions: 13 regions (regiones, singular - region); Aisen del General Carlos Ibanez del Campo, Antofagasta, Araucania, Atacama, Bio-Bio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Los Lagos, Magallanes y de la Antartica Chilena, Maule, Region Metropolitana (Santiago), Tarapaca, Valparaiso
> note: the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
> 
> Independence: 18 September 1810 (from Spain)
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 18 September (1810)
> 
> Constitution: 11 September 1980, effective 11 March 1981; amended 30 July 1989 and in 1993
> 
> Legal system: based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> head of government: President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
> elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 12 December 1999, with runoff election held 16 January 2000 (next to be held NA December 2005)
> election results: Ricardo LAGOS Escobar elected president; percent of vote - Ricardo LAGOS Escobar 51.32%, Joaquin LAVIN 48.68%
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (48 seats, 38 elected by popular vote and 10 appointed (all former presidents are senators for life); members serve eight-year terms - one-half elected every four years) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> elections: Senate - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001); Chamber of Deputies - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001)
> election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - CPD (PDC 14, PS 4, PPD 2), UPP 17 (RN 7, UDI 10), Chile 2000 (UCCP) 1, independents 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - CPD 50.55% (PDC 22.98%, PS 11.10%, PPD 12.55%, PRSD 3.13%), UPP 36.23% (RN 16.78%, UDI 14.43%); seats by party - CPD 70 (PDC 39, PPD 16, PRSD 4, PS 11), UPP 46 (RN 24, UDI 21, Party of the South 1), right-wing independents 4
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, judges are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself, the president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court; Constitutional Tribunal
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Chile 2000 - main party is UCCP [Alejandro GARCIA-HUIDBORO]; Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Gutenberg MARTINEZ]; Coalition of Parties for Democracy ("Concertacion") or CPD [Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle] - including PDC, PS, PPD, PRSD; Independent Democratic Union or UDI [Pablo LONGUEIRA]; National Renewal or RN [Alberto CARDEMIL]; Party for Democracy or PPD [Sergio BITAR]; Party of the South or PS [leader NA]; Progressive Center-Center Union or UCCP [Francisco Javier ERRAZURIZ]; Radical Social Democratic Party or PRSD [Anselmo SULE]; Socialist Party or PS [Ricardo NUNEZ]; Union for the Progress of Chile ("Alliance for Chile") or UPP [Arturo ALESSANDRI Besa] - including RN and UDI
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: revitalized university student federations at all major universities; Roman Catholic Church; United Labor Central or CUT includes trade unionists from the country's five largest labor confederations
> 
> International organization participation: APEC, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Mario ARTAZA
> chancery: 1732 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> telephone: [1] (202) 785-1746
> FAX: [1] (202) 887-5579
> consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador John O'LEARY
> embassy: Avenida Andres Bello 2800, Santiago
> mailing address: APO AA 34033
> telephone: [56] (2) 232-2600
> FAX: [56] (2) 330-3710
> 
> Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center; design was based on the US flag
------
Chile/Economy|988034000
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
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> Economy - overview: Chile has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio AYLWIN - which took over from the military in 1990 - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the current account deficit in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. A severe drought exacerbated the recession in 1999, reducing crop yields and causing hydroelectric shortfalls and rationing, and Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover, and a return to strong growth in 2000 is likely. The inauguration of Ricardo LAGOS in March 2000, succeeding Eduardo FREI, will keep the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $185.1 billion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $12,400 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 6%
> industry: 33%
> services: 61% (1999)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 22% (1998 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 1.2%
> highest 10%: 41.3% (1998)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3.4% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 5.8 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 14%, industry 27%, services 59% (1997 est.)
> 
> Unemployment rate: 9% (1999)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $17 billion
> expenditures: $17 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> 
> Industries: copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: -1.3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 37.49 billion kWh (1999)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 50%
> hydro: 50%
> nuclear: 0%
> other: 0% (December 1999)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 26.665 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; fish; timber
> 
> Exports: $15.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: copper, fish, fruits, paper and pulp, chemicals
> 
> Exports - partners: EU 27%, US 16%, Japan 14%, Brazil 6%, Argentina 5% (1998)
> 
> Imports: $13.9 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods, chemicals, motor vehicles, fuels, electrical machinery, heavy industrial machinery, food
> 
> Imports - partners: US 24%, EU 23%, Argentina 11%, Brazil 6%, Japan 6%, Mexico 5% (1998)
> 
> Debt - external: $39 billion (1999)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: ODA, $50.3 million (1996 est.)
> 
> Currency: 1 Chilean peso (Ch$) = 100 centavos
> 
> Exchange rates: Chilean pesos (Ch$) per US$1 - 520.45 (January 2000), 508.78 (1999), 460.29 (1998), 419.30 (1997), 412.27 (1996), 396.77 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Chile/Communications|988034019
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> Telephones - main lines in use: 2.603 million (1998)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 197,300 (1995)
> 
> Telephone system: modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities
> domestic: extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations
> international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 180 (eight inactive), FM 64, shortwave 17 (one inactive) (1998)
> 
> Radios: 5.18 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 3.15 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 26 (1999)
------
Chile/Transportation|988034041
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways:
> total: 6,782 km
> broad gauge: 3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified)
> narrow gauge: 116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995)
> 
> Highways:
> total: 79,800 km
> paved: 11,012 km
> unpaved: 68,788 km (1996 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 725 km
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 755 km; petroleum products 785 km; natural gas 320 km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Antofagasta, Arica, Chanaral, Coquimbo, Iquique, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, San Antonio, San Vicente, Talcahuano, Valparaiso
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 45 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 580,749 GRT/860,034 DWT
> ships by type: bulk 11, cargo 9, chemical tanker 8, container 2, liquified gas 2, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 4, roll-on/roll-off 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 370 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 62
> over 3,047 m: 6
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 20
> 914 to 1,523 m: 20
> under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 308
> over 3,047 m: 1
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12
> 914 to 1,523 m: 68
> under 914 m: 223 (1999 est.)
------
Chile/Military|988034055
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
> note: normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 4,012,900 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 2,973,246 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 136,912 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.5 billion (FY99)
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.1% (FY99)
------
Chile/Transnational_issues|988034069
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
> 
> Illicit drugs: a growing transshipment country for cocaine destined for the US and Europe; economic prosperity has made Chile more attractive to traffickers seeking to launder drug profits; imported precursors passed on to Bolivia; domestic cocaine consumption is rising
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China|988034195
1c1
< [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>communist</b>)
---
> [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>[communist]]</b>)
3,105c3
< Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Asia 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 9,596,960 sq km 
< land: 9,326,410 sq km 
< water: 270,550 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 22,143.34 km 
< border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km 
< 
< Coastline: 14,500 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< contiguous zone: 24 nm 
< continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north 
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m 
< highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.) 
< 
< Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest) 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 10% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 43% 
< forests and woodland: 14% 
< other: 33% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts 
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling 
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban 
< 
< Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US) 
< 
< 
< <b>People</b>
< 
< Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953) 
< 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673) 
< 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 71.38 years 
< male: 69.6 years 
< female: 73.33 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Chinese (singular and plural) 
< adjective: Chinese 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1% 
< 
< Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.) 
< note: officially atheist 
< 
< Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry) 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 81.5% 
< male: 89.9% 
< female: 72.7% (1995 est.) 
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
106a5,13
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/History|988034277
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> Background: For centuries China has stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the first half of the 20th century, China was beset by major famines, civil unrest, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established a dictatorship that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping decentralized economic decision making. Output quadrupled in the next 20 years and China now has the world's second largest GDP. Political controls remain tight even while economic controls continue to weaken.
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Geography|988034308
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E
> 
> Map references: Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 9,596,960 sq km
> land: 9,326,410 sq km
> water: 270,550 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
> 
> Land boundaries:
> total: 22,143.34 km
> border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km
> 
> Coastline: 14,500 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 24 nm
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m
> highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
> 
> Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest)
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 10%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 43%
> forests and woodland: 14%
> other: 33% (1993 est.)
> 
> Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.)
> 
> Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts
> 
> Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species
> 
> Environment - international agreements:
> party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban
> 
> Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/People|988034320
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953)
> 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673)
> 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.)
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> 
> Sex ratio:
> at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female
> under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female
> 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
> 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: 71.38 years
> male: 69.6 years
> female: 73.33 years (2000 est.)
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Chinese (singular and plural)
> adjective: Chinese
> 
> Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1%
> 
> Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.)
> note: officially atheist
> 
> Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry)
> 
> Literacy:
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write
> total population: 81.5%
> male: 89.9%
> female: 72.7% (1995 est.)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Government|988034340
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: People's Republic of China
> conventional short form: China
> local long form: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
> local short form: Zhong Guo
> abbreviation: PRC
> 
> Data code: CH
> 
> Government type: Communist state
> 
> Capital: Beijing
> 
> Administrative divisions: 23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Chongqing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang
> note: China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entries for the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau
> 
> Independence: 221 BC (unification under the Qin or Ch'in Dynasty 221 BC; Qing or Ch'ing Dynasty replaced by the Republic on 12 February 1912; People's Republic established 1 October 1949)
> 
> National holiday: National Day, 1 October (1949)
> 
> Constitution: most recent promulgation 4 December 1982
> 
> Legal system: a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) and Vice President HU Jintao (since 16 March 1998)
> head of government: Premier ZHU Rongji (since 18 March 1998); Vice Premiers QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993), LI Lanqing (29 March 1993), WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995), and WEN Jiabao (since 18 March 1998)
> cabinet: State Council appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC)
> elections: president and vice president elected by the National People's Congress for five-year terms; elections last held 16-18 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); premier nominated by the president, confirmed by the National People's Congress
> election results: JIANG Zemin reelected president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,882 votes (36 delegates voted against him, 29 abstained, and 32 did not vote); HU Jintao elected vice president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,841 votes (67 delegates voted against him, 39 abstained, and 32 did not vote)
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,979 seats; members elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses to serve five-year terms)
> elections: last held NA December 1997-NA February 1998 (next to be held late 2002-NA March 2003)
> election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - NA
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme People's Court, judges appointed by the National People's Congress
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Chinese Communist Party or CCP [JIANG Zemin, General Secretary of the Central Committee]; eight registered small parties controlled by CCP
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: no substantial political opposition groups exist, although the government has identified the Falungong sect and the China Democracy Party as potential rivals
> 
> International organization participation: AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OPCW, PCA, UN, UN Security Council, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant), ZC
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador LI Zhaoxing
> chancery: 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> telephone: [1] (202) 328-2500
> consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US:
> chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph W. PRUEHER
> embassy: Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600 Beijing
> mailing address: PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002
> telephone: [86] (10) 6532-3831
> FAX: [86] (10) 6532-6422
> consulate(s) general: Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang
> 
> Flag description: red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Economy|988034358
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been moving the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $3,800 per capita, China became the second largest economy in the world after the US. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy". In 1995-99 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which had been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 50 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development. The next few years will witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.8 trillion (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,800 (1999 est.)
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: 15%
> industry: 35%
> services: 50% (1999 est.)
> 
> Population below poverty line: 10% (1999 est.)
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: 2.2%
> highest 10%: 30.9% (1995)
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): -1.3% (1999 est.)
> 
> Labor force: 700 million (1998 est.)
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 50%, industry 24%, services 26% (1998)
> 
> Unemployment rate: urban unemployment roughly 10%; substantial unemployment and underemployment in rural areas (1999 est.)
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $NA
> expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> 
> Industries: iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, automobiles, consumer electronics, telecommunications
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 8.8% (1999 est.)
> 
> Electricity - production: 1.16 trillion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: 80.31%
> hydro: 18.46%
> nuclear: 1.23%
> other: 0% (1998)
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 1.014 trillion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - exports: 7.935 billion kWh (1998)
> 
> Electricity - imports: 89 million kWh (1998)
> 
> Agriculture - products: rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed; pork; fish
> 
> Exports: $194.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> 
> Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; textiles and clothing, footwear, toys and sporting goods; mineral fuels, chemicals
> 
> Exports - partners: US 22%, Hong Kong 19%, Japan 17%, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, UK, Singapore, Taiwan (1999)
> 
> Imports: $165.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, plastics, chemicals, iron and steel, mineral fuels
> 
> Imports - partners: Japan 20%, US 12%, Taiwan 12%, South Korea 10%, Germany, Hong Kong, Russia, Singapore (1999)
> 
> Debt - external: $159 billion (1998 est.)
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA
> 
> Currency: 1 yuan = 10 jiao
> 
> Exchange rates: yuan per US$1 - 8.2793 (January 2000), 8.2783 (1999), 8.2790 (1998), 8.2898 (1997), 8.3142 (1996), 8.3514 (1995)
> note: beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Communications|988034380
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 110 million (1999 est.)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 23.4 million (1998)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and many towns
> domestic: interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place
> international: satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 369, FM 259, shortwave 45 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 417 million (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 3,240 (of which 209 are operated by China Central Television, 31 are provincial TV stations and nearly 3,000 are local city stations) (1997)
> 
> Televisions: 400 million (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transportation|988034412
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways:
> total: 65,650 km (including 5,400 km of provincial "local" rails)
> standard gauge: 62,050 km 1.435-m gauge (12,150 km electrified; 20,250 km double track)
> narrow gauge: 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.)
> note: a new total of 68,000 km has been estimated for early 1999
> 
> Highways:
> total: 1.21 million km
> paved: 271,300 km (with at least 24,474 km of expressways)
> unpaved: 938,700 km (1998 est.)
> 
> Waterways: 110,000 km navigable (1999)
> 
> Pipelines: crude oil 9,070 km; petroleum products 560 km; natural gas 9,383 km (1998)
> 
> Ports and harbors: Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang
> 
> Merchant marine:
> total: 1,746 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,637,023 GRT/24,552,567 DWT
> ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk 325, cargo 840, chemical tanker 21, combination bulk 11, combination ore/oil 1, container 125, liquified gas 20, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 8, passenger/cargo 46, petroleum tanker 251, refrigerated cargo 24, roll-on/roll-off 21, short-sea passenger 43, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 206 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 192
> over 3,047 m: 18
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 65
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 90
> 914 to 1,523 m: 13
> under 914 m: 6 (1996 est.)
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways:
> total: 14
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
> 914 to 1,523 m: 5
> under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Military|988034428
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime)
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
> 
> Military manpower - availability:
> males age 15-49: 363,050,980 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service:
> males age 15-49: 199,178,361 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
> males: 10,839,039 (2000 est.)
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $12.608 billion (FY99); note - Western analysts believe that China's real defense spending is several times higher than the official figure because a number of significant items are funded elsewhere
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transnational_issues|988034441
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: boundary with India in dispute; dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; portions of the boundary with Tajikistan are indefinite; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; agreement on land border with Vietnam was signed in December 1999, but details of alignment have not yet been made public
> 
> Illicit drugs: major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China|988034461
1,2d0
< [[Peoples Republic of China]] (Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo) (<b>[communist]]</b>)
< 
------
Countries_of_the_world|988034566
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman_Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman_Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Christmas_Island|988034600
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Christmas_Island/History|988034670
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Background: This island was annexed by the UK in 1888, following the discovery of phosphate rock.
------
Christmas_Island/Geography|988034686
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 10 30 S, 105 40 E
> 
> Map references: Southeast Asia
> 
> Area:
> total: 135 sq km
> land: 135 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 138.9 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> contiguous zone: 12 nm
> exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 3 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical; heat and humidity moderated by trade winds
> 
> Terrain: steep cliffs along coast rise abruptly to central plateau
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Murray Hill 361 m
> 
> Natural resources: phosphate
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: NA%
> permanent crops: NA%
> permanent pastures: NA%
> forests and woodland: NA%
> other: NA%
> note: mainly tropical rainforest of which 60%-70% is in a national park
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km
> 
> Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: located along major sea lanes of Indian Ocean
------
Christmas_Island/People|988034699
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 2,564 (July 2000 est.)
> 
> Age structure:
> 0-14 years: NA
> 15-64 years: NA
> 65 years and over: NA
> 
> Population growth rate: 7.77% (2000 est.)
> 
> Birth rate: NA births/1,000 population
> 
> Death rate: NA deaths/1,000 population
> 
> Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> 
> Infant mortality rate: NA deaths/1,000 live births
> 
> Life expectancy at birth:
> total population: NA years
> male: NA years
> female: NA years
> 
> Total fertility rate: NA children born/woman
> 
> Nationality:
> noun: Christmas Islander(s)
> adjective: Christmas Island
> 
> Ethnic groups: Chinese 61%, Malay 25%, European 11%, other 3%, no indigenous population
> 
> Religions: Buddhist 55%, Christian 15%, Muslim 10%, other 20% (1991)
> 
> Languages: English, Chinese, Malay
------
Christmas_Island/Government|988034724
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: Territory of Christmas Island
> conventional short form: Christmas Island
> 
> Data code: KT
> 
> Dependency status: territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> 
> Government type: NA
> 
> Capital: The Settlement
> 
> Administrative divisions: none (territory of Australia)
> 
> Independence: none (territory of Australia)
> 
> National holiday: NA
> 
> Constitution: Christmas Island Act of 1958
> 
> Legal system: under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law
> 
> Executive branch:
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general
> head of government: Administrator (acting) Graham NICHOLLS (since NA)
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
> 
> Legislative branch: unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council (9 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve one-year terms)
> elections: last held NA December 1999 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 9
> 
> Judicial branch: Supreme Court
> 
> Political parties and leaders: none
> 
> International organization participation: none
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of Australia)
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of Australia)
> 
> Flag description: the flag of Australia is used
------
Christmas_Island/Economy|988034747
1c1,72
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by union workers. With the support of the government, Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $34 million casino on Christmas Island, which opened in 1993. As of yearend 1999, gaming facilities at the casino were temporarily closed but were expected to reopen in early 2000. Another economic prospect is the possible location of a space-launching site on the island.
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $NA
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA%
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $NA
> 
> GDP - composition by sector:
> agriculture: NA%
> industry: NA%
> services: NA%
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA%
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:
> lowest 10%: NA%
> highest 10%: NA%
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
> 
> Labor force: NA
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: tourism 400 people, mining 100 people (1995)
> 
> Unemployment rate: NA%
> 
> Budget:
> revenues: $NA
> expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> 
> Industries: tourism, phosphate extraction (near depletion)
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: NA%
> 
> Electricity - production: NA kWh
> 
> Electricity - production by source:
> fossil fuel: NA%
> hydro: NA%
> nuclear: NA%
> other: NA%
> 
> Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
> 
> Electricity - exports: NA kWh
> 
> Electricity - imports: NA kWh
> 
> Agriculture - products: NA
> 
> Exports: $NA
> 
> Exports - commodities: phosphate
> 
> Exports - partners: Australia, NZ
> 
> Imports: $NA
> 
> Imports - commodities: consumer goods
> 
> Imports - partners: principally Australia
> 
> Debt - external: $NA
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $NA
> 
> Currency: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> 
> Exchange rates: Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
------
Christmas_Island/Communications|988034760
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Celephones - main lines in use: NA
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system:
> domestic: NA
> international: external telephone and telex services are provided by Intelsat satellite
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> 
> Radios: 1,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: NA
> 
> Televisions: 600 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
------
Christmas_Island/Transportation|988034774
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 24 km to serve phosphate mines
> 
> Highways:
> total: NA km
> paved: NA km
> unpaved: NA km
> 
> Ports and harbors: Flying Fish Cove
> 
> Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
> 
> Airports - with paved runways:
> total: 1
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Paul_Heroult|988034774
1d0
< 
3,6c2,4
< French inventor. 
< 
< Has invented the Aluminum electrolysis. 
< and the electric Steel furnace. 
---
> French SCIENTIST.
> He is the inventor of aluminum electrolysis and of the electric steel
> furnace.
8c6
< Paul Héroult had none of the attributes of the traditional scholar. He was highstrung, unruly, occasionally hard and insolent; he did not fit the image of wise, disciplined men of science. He loved games, the company of women, travels by land and sea; he was a free spirit in an impetuous body. No comparison with the austere scientist, struggling with stubborn mysteries. 
---
> "Paul Héroult had none of the attributes of the traditional scholar. He was highstrung, unruly, occasionally hard and insolent; he did not fit the image of wise, disciplined men of science. He loved games, the company of women, travels by land and sea; he was a free spirit in an impetuous body. No comparison with the austere scientist, struggling with stubborn mysteries. 
12,16c10
< game of billiards, his favorite pastime. 
< 
< Paul Héroult  studied the works of Henri Sainte-Claire Deville about aluminum making, when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminum was as expensive as silver. It was used, for instance, for luxury dishes... 
< 
< Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. What he succeeded in doing by the invention of electrolytic aluminum in 1886.  The same year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914) was inventing the same process. 
---
> game of billiards, his favorite pastime."(*) 
18,19c12,33
< His second invention is the electric steel  arc furnace in 1900. It is a furnace which works with electrodes and a non-conductive bed plate. The kind of steel produced is good for all uses. 
< In 1905, Paul Héroult was called in the United States to become the engineer of several companies, and in particular of the United States Steel Corporation. 
---
> Paul Héroult read Henri Sainte-Claire Deville's treatise on aluminum ,
> when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminum was as expensive as
> silver. It was used  mostly for luxury items and jewellery...
> Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. He succeeded in doing  so when he
> discovered the electrolytic aluminum process in 1886. Strangely enough, the same
> year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914) was
> discovering  the very same process.
> 
> 
> HÉROULT'S second most important invention is the electric arc furnace
> for stellin 1900. The HÉROULT furnace gradually replaced the giant
> smelters for the production of a variaty of steels.
> In 1905, Paul Héroult was invited to the United States as a technical advisor
> to several companies, and in particular to United States Steel
> Corporation.
> 
> Paul Héroult is reknown for other ùmajor invnetions among which a
> self-sustained conduit  still used to bring water down from montain
> heights
> and across rivers to hydraulic power plants, avoiding the need to 
> build expensive bridges.                                                                                               (*)Christian Bickert , US Representative for Aluminium Péchiney, New
> Orleans,  1986
21d34
< Paul Héroult  invented others things. The most important is the self-sustained conduit.  He died on his yacht in 1914. 
------
Christmas_Island/Military|988034784
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Australia
------
Christmas_Island/Transnational_issues|988034794
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
Countries_of_the_world|988034872
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman_Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[democratic republic of the Congo]] - [[republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Clipperton_Island|988034897
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Paul_Heroult|988034949
22,23c22,23
< for stellin 1900. The HÉROULT furnace gradually replaced the giant
< smelters for the production of a variaty of steels.
---
> for steel in 1900. The HÉROULT furnace gradually replaced the giant
> smelters for the production of a variety of steels.
25c25
< to several companies, and in particular to United States Steel
---
> to several companies, and in particular to the United States Steel
28c28
< Paul Héroult is reknown for other ùmajor invnetions among which a
---
> Paul Héroult is reknown for other major inventions among which a
------
Clipperton_Island/History|988034962
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Clipperton_Island/Geography|988034985
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Middle America, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, 1,120 km southwest of Mexico
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 10 17 N, 109 13 W
> 
> Map references: World
> 
> Area:
> total: 7 sq km
> land: 7 sq km
> water: 0 sq km
> 
> Area - comparative: about 12 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km
> 
> Coastline: 11.1 km
> 
> Maritime claims:
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
> territorial sea: 12 nm
> 
> Climate: tropical, humid, average temperature 20-32 degrees C, rains May-October
> 
> Terrain: coral atoll
> 
> Elevation extremes:
> lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
> highest point: Rocher Clipperton 29 m
> 
> Natural resources: none
> 
> Land use:
> arable land: 0%
> permanent crops: 0%
> permanent pastures: 0%
> forests and woodland: 0%
> other: 100% (all coral)
> 
> Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
> 
> Natural hazards: subject to tornadoes
> 
> Environment - current issues: NA
> 
> Geography - note: reef about 8 km in circumference
------
Clipperton_Island/People|988034994
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Clipperton_Island/Government|988035006
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name:
> conventional long form: none
> conventional short form: Clipperton Island
> local long form: none
> local short form: Ile Clipperton
> former: sometimes called Ile de la Passion
> 
> Data code: IP
> 
> Dependency status: possession of France; administered by France from French Polynesia by a high commissioner of the Republic
> 
> Flag description: the flag of France is used
------
Clipperton_Island/Economy|988035019
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is tuna fishing.
------
Clipperton_Island/Communications|988035031
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
------
Clipperton_Island/Communications|988035071
1c1
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Clipperton_Island/Transportation|988035085
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
------
Clipperton_Island/Military|988035093
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
------
Clipperton_Island/Transnational_issues|988035101
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: none
------
Bahamas/Government|988035200
1,2c1,2
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas
---
> Country name:<br>
> conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas<br>
------
Bahamas/Government|988035328
23,26c23,26
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)
< head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation
---
> Executive branch:<br>
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)<br>
> head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)<br>
> cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation<br>
29,30c29,30
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
---
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)<br>
> elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)<br>
39,43c39,43
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER
< chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
< FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
---
> Diplomatic representation in the US:<br>
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER<br>
> chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008<br>
> telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660<br>
> FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668<br>
46,50c46,50
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER
< embassy: Queen Street, Nassau
< mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370
< telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181
---
> Diplomatic representation from the US:<br>
> chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER<br>
> embassy: Queen Street, Nassau<br>
> mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370<br>
> telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181<br>
------
Bahamas/Geography|988035441
7,10c7,10
< Area:
< total: 13,940 sq km
< land: 10,070 sq km
< water: 3,870 sq km
---
> Area:<br>
> total: 13,940 sq km<br>
> land: 10,070 sq km<br>
> water: 3,870 sq km<br>
18,21c18,21
< Maritime claims:
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
---
> Maritime claims:<br>
> continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation<br>
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm<br>
> territorial sea: 12 nm<br>
27,29c27,29
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
---
> Elevation extremes:<br>
> lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m<br>
> highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m<br>
34,37c34,37
< arable land: 1%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 32%
---
> arable land: 1%<br>
> permanent crops: 0%<br>
> permanent pastures: 0%<br>
> forests and woodland: 32%<br>
46,47c46,47
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
---
> Environment - international agreements:<br>
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands<br>
------
Bahamas/People|988035516
1c1
< Population: 294,982
---
> Population: 294,982<br>
4,7c4,7
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)
< 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)
< 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)
---
> Age structure:<br>
> 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)<br>
> 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)<br>
> 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)<br>
17,21c17,21
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
---
> Sex ratio:<br>
> at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female<br>
> under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female<br>
> 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female<br>
> 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female<br>
26,28c26,28
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 71.07 years
< male: 68.25 years
---
> Life expectancy at birth:<br>
> total population: 71.07 years<br>
> male: 68.25 years<br>
33,34c33,34
< Nationality:
< noun: Bahamian(s)
---
> Nationality:<br>
> noun: Bahamian(s)<br>
43,46c43,46
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 98.2%
< male: 98.5%
---
> Literacy:<br>
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write<br>
> total population: 98.2%<br>
> male: 98.5%<br>
------
Bahamas/Economy|988035573
9,11c9,11
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 3%
< industry: 5%
---
> GDP - composition by sector:<br>
> agriculture: 3%<br>
> industry: 5%<br>
16,17c16,17
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
---
> Household income or consumption by percentage share:<br>
> lowest 10%: NA%<br>
28,29c28,29
< Budget:
< revenues: $766 million
---
> Budget:<br>
> revenues: $766 million<br>
39,42c39,42
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
---
> Electricity - production by source:<br>
> fossil fuel: 100%<br>
> hydro: 0%<br>
> nuclear: 0%<br>
------
Bahamas/Communications|988035604
5,6c5,6
< Telephone system:
< domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed
---
> Telephone system:<br>
> domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed<br>
------
New_topics|988035619
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 10th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 22nd April, Wikipedia server time
3c3
< I won't be doing any updates here until after the 20th or so.... feel free to update and amend as necessary. 
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: (mostly, a huge datadump of basic geographical information!)
5c5,286
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days:
---
> [[Albania/Military]] -- 
> [[Albania/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
> [[Albania/Transportation]] -- 
> [[AlbaniaCommunications]] -- 
> [[Alfred_Hitchcock]] -- 
> [[All_Saints]] -- 
> [[Amir]] -- 
> [[Anaconda]] -- 
> [[Apocalypse_Now]] -- 
> [[BPM]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Government]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/History]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Military]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/People]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bahamas/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bahamas]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Government]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/History]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Military]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/People]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bahrain/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bahrain]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Baker_Island]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Government]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/History]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Military]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/People]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bangladesh]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Communications]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Economy]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Geography]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Government]] -- 
> [[Barbados/History]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Military]] -- 
> [[Barbados/People]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Barbados/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Barbados]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Government]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/History]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Military]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/People]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Communications]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Economy]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Geography]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Government]] -- 
> [[Belarus/History]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Military]] -- 
> [[Belarus/People]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Belarus/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Belarus]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Economy]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Geography]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Government]] -- 
> [[Belgium/History]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Military]] -- 
> [[Belgium/People]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Belgium/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Belize/Communications]] -- 
> [[Belize/Economy]] -- 
> [[Belize/Geography]] -- 
> [[Belize/Government]] -- 
> [[Belize/History]] -- 
> [[Belize/Military]] -- 
> [[Belize/People]] -- 
> [[Belize/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Belize/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Belize]] -- 
> [[Benin/Communications]] -- 
> [[Benin/Economy]] -- 
> [[Benin/Geography]] -- 
> [[Benin/Government]] -- 
> [[Benin/History]] -- 
> [[Benin/Military]] -- 
> [[Benin/People]] -- 
> [[Benin/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Benin/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Benin]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Government]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/History]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Military]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/People]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bermuda/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bermuda]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Government]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/History]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Military]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/People]] -- 
> [[Bhutan/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bhutan]] -- [[Bhutan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Blindness/History]] -- 
> [[Blindness/Literature]] -- 
> [[Blindness/Technology]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Government]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/History]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Military]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/People]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bolivia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bolivia]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Government]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/History]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Military]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/People]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Communications]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Economy]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Geography]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Government]] -- 
> [[Botswana/History]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Military]] -- 
> [[Botswana/People]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Botswana/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Botswana]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Bouvet_Island]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Communications]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Economy]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Geography]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Government]] -- 
> [[Brazil/History]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Military]] -- 
> [[Brazil/People]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Brazil/Transportation]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Communications]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Economy]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Geography]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Government]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/History]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Military]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/People]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transportation]] -- 
> [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[British_Virgin_Islands]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Communications]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Economy]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Geography]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Government]] -- 
> [[Brunei/History]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Military]] -- 
> [[Brunei/People]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Brunei/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Brunei]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Communications]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Economy]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Geography]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Government]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/History]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Military]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/People]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Bulgaria/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Communications]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Economy]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Geography]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Government]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/History]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Military]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/People]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Burkina_Faso]] -- 
> [[Burma/Communications]] -- 
> [[Burma/Economy]] -- 
> [[Burma/Geography]] -- 
> [[Burma/Government]] -- 
> [[Burma/History]] -- 
> [[Burma/Military]] -- 
> [[Burma/People]] -- 
> [[Burma/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Burma/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Burma]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Communications]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Economy]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Geography]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Government]] -- 
> [[Burundi/History]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Military]] -- 
> [[Burundi/People]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Burundi/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Burundi]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Government]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/History]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Military]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/People]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cambodia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cambodia]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Government]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/History]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Military]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/People]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cameroon/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cameroon]] -- 
> [[Civilization/video_game]] -- 
> [[Hideki_Tojo]] -- 
> [[Koyaanisqatsi]] -- 
> [[New_England]] -- 
> [[Nirvana/Grunge_band]] -- 
> [[Nirvana]] -- 
> [[One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest]] -- 
> [[Optical_binary]] -- 
> [[Pakistan]] -- 
> [[Palaeozoic]] -- 
> [[Robert_De_Niro]] -- 
> [[Spike_Jonze]] -- 
> [[Spike_Lee]] -- 
> [[Steven_Spielberg]] -- 
> [[The_Simpsons/Bart]] -- 
> [[The_Simpsons/Marge]]
7,55d287
< [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch]] -- 
< [[Carboniferous]] -- 
< [[Colorado]] -- 
< [[Comoros]] -- 
< [[Countries_of_the_World]] -- 
< [[Criminal_law]] -- 
< [[Critical_philosophy]] -- 
< [[Devonian]] -- 
< [[Dungeon_Master]] -- 
< [[Europe/Talk]] -- 
< [[European_Union]] -- 
< [[Frank_Zappa]] -- 
< [[Friedrich_Nietzche]] -- 
< [[Friedrich_Nietzsche]] -- 
< [[General_Semantics]] -- 
< [[Gottlieb_Fichte/Talk]] -- 
< [[Gottlieb_Fichte]] -- 
< [[History_of_Spain]] -- 
< [[Karl_Popper]] -- 
< [[Lusaka]] -- 
< [[Madagascar]] -- 
< [[Making_Wikipedia_profitable/Talk]] -- 
< [[Making_Wikipedia_profitable]] -- 
< [[Miscellaneous_poker]] -- 
< [[Northwest_Passage]] -- 
< [[OpenSourced]] -- 
< [[Poker/Bug]] -- 
< [[Poker/Double-ace_flush]] -- 
< [[Poker/High_card_by_suit]] -- 
< [[Poker/Wild_card]] -- 
< [[Rush_Limbaugh/Dittoheads]] -- 
< [[Rush_Limbaugh/Emotional_punditry]] -- 
< [[Rush_Limbaugh/Environmental_wacko]] -- 
< [[Semantic_dispute]] -- 
< [[Siege]] -- 
< [[Social_engineering]] -- 
< [[The_Coen_Brothers]] -- 
< [[ToriAmos]] -- 
< [[Total_war]] -- 
< [[USS_Arizona]] -- 
< [[United_Nations]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Akagi]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Hiryu]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Kaga]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Shokaku]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Soryu]] -- 
< [[World_War_II/Zuikaku]] -- 
< [[Zambia]] -- 
------
Bahamas/Transportation|988035653
3,5c3,5
< Highways:
< total: 2,693 km
< paved: 1,546 km
---
> Highways:<br>
> total: 2,693 km<br>
> paved: 1,546 km<br>
10,12c10,12
< Merchant marine:
< total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)
---
> Merchant marine:<br>
> total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT<br>
> ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)<br>
17,22c17,22
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 33
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15
< 914 to 1,523 m: 12
---
> Airports - with paved runways:<br>
> total: 33<br>
> over 3,047 m: 2<br>
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2<br>
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15<br>
> 914 to 1,523 m: 12<br>
25,28c25,28
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 29
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 7
---
> Airports - with unpaved runways:<br>
> total: 29<br>
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1<br>
> 914 to 1,523 m: 7<br>
------
Bahrain/Geography|988035866
1,35c1,61
< Location: Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 26 00 N, 50 33 E
< 
< Map references: Middle East
< 
< Area: total: 620 sq km land: 620 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 161 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: extending to boundaries to be determined territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m highest point: Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
< 
< Natural resources: oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
< 
< Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 6% forests and woodland: 0% other: 92% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: periodic droughts; dust storms
< 
< Environment - current issues: desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, archipelago in the Persian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 26 00 N, 50 33 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 620 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 620 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 3.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 161 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> extending to boundaries to be determined
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> arid; mild, pleasant winters; very hot, humid summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low desert plain rising gently to low central escarpment
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Persian Gulf 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> oil, associated and nonassociated natural gas, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 92% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts; dust storms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> close to primary Middle Eastern petroleum sources; strategic location in Persian Gulf which much of Western world's petroleum must transit to reach open ocean
------
Bahrain/People|988035922
1,29c1,61
< Population: 634,137 note: includes 228,424 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 96,240; female 93,846) 15-64 years: 67% (male 252,767; female 173,072) 65 years and over: 3% (male 9,270; female 8,942) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.78% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 3.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 1.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.46 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.04 male(s)/female total population: 1.3 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 20.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 72.98 years male: 70.58 years female: 75.45 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bahraini(s) adjective: Bahraini
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bahraini 63%, Asian 19%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%
< 
< Religions: Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25%
< 
< Languages: Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 85.2% male: 89.1% female: 79.4% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 634,137
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 228,424 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30% (male 96,240; female 93,846)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 252,767; female 173,072)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 9,270; female 8,942) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.78% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 3.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 1.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.46 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.3 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 20.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 72.98 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.58 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.45 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bahraini(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bahraini
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bahraini 63%, Asian 19%, other Arab 10%, Iranian 8%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Shi'a Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim 25%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic, English, Farsi, Urdu
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 85.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 89.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.4% (1995 est.)
------
Bahrain/Government|988035977
1,37c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: State of Bahrain conventional short form: Bahrain local long form: Dawlat al Bahrayn local short form: Al Bahrayn
< 
< Data code: BA
< 
< Government type: traditional monarchy
< 
< Capital: Manama
< 
< Administrative divisions: 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah note: all municipalities administered from Manama
< 
< Independence: 15 August 1971 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 16 December (1971)
< 
< Constitution: 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
< 
< Legal system: based on Islamic law and English common law
< 
< Suffrage: none
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 6 March 1999); Heir Apparent Crown Prince SALMAN bin Hamad (son of the monarch, born 21 October 1969) head of government: Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since NA 1971) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
< 
< Judicial branch: High Civil Appeals Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: political parties prohibited
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Shi'a activists have fomented unrest sporadically since late 1994, demanding the return of an elected National Assembly and an end to unemployment; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
< 
< International organization participation: ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Muhammad ABD AL-GHAFFAR Abdallah chancery: 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 342-0741 FAX: [1] (202) 362-2192 consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Johnny YOUNG embassy: Building Number 979, Road 3119 (next to Al-Ahli Sports Club), Block 311, Zinj District, Manama mailing address: American Embassy Manama, PSC 451, FPO AE 09834-5100; International Mail: American Embassy, Box 26431, Manama telephone: [973] 273-300 FAX: [973] 272-594
< 
< Flag description: red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> State of Bahrain
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bahrain
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Dawlat al Bahrayn
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Bahrayn
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> traditional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Manama
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 12 municipalities (manatiq, singular - mintaqah); Al Hadd, Al Manamah, Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Al Mintaqah al Wusta, Al Mintaqah ash Shamaliyah, Al Muharraq, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, Jidd Hafs, Madinat Hamad, Madinat 'Isa, Juzur Hawar, Sitrah
> <br><i>note:</i>
> all municipalities administered from Manama
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 August 1971 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 16 December (1971)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 26 May 1973, effective 6 December 1973
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law and English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Amir HAMAD bin Isa Al Khalifa (since 6 March 1999); Heir Apparent Crown Prince SALMAN bin Hamad (son of the monarch, born 21 October 1969)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister KHALIFA bin Salman Al Khalifa (since NA 1971)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly was dissolved 26 August 1975 and legislative powers were assumed by the Cabinet; appointed Advisory Council established 16 December 1992
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Civil Appeals Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> political parties prohibited
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Shi'a activists have fomented unrest sporadically since late 1994, demanding the return of an elected National Assembly and an end to unemployment; several small, clandestine leftist and Islamic fundamentalist groups are active
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Dr. Muhammad ABD AL-GHAFFAR Abdallah
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-0741
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 362-2192
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Johnny YOUNG
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Building Number 979, Road 3119 (next to Al-Ahli Sports Club), Block 311, Zinj District, Manama
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Manama, PSC 451, FPO AE 09834-5100; International Mail: American Embassy, Box 26431, Manama
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [973] 273-300
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [973] 272-594
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a white serrated band (eight white points) on the hoist side
------
Bahrain/Economy|988036028
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.6 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $13,700 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 46% services: 53% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 295,000 (1998 est.) note: 44% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: industry, commerce, and service 79%, government 20%, agriculture 1% (1997 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 15% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $1.5 billion expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
< 
< Industries: petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 3.4% (1995)
< 
< Electricity - production: 4.77 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.09 billion kWh (1999)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
< 
< Exports: $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
< 
< Exports - partners: India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
< 
< Imports - partners: Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $2 billion (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $48.4 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
< 
< Exchange rates: Bahraini dinars (BD) per US$1 - 0.3760 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $13,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 53% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 295,000 (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> 44% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry, commerce, and service 79%, government 20%, agriculture 1% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.4% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 4.77 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.09 billion kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> nonoil 59%, crude oil 41%
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $48.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Bahraini dinars (BD) per US$1 - 0.3760 (fixed rate)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Bahrain/Communications|988036081
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 141,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 130,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< Telephone system: modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections domestic: modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones international: tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 338,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 4 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 275,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 141,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 130,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern system; good domestic services and excellent international connections
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> modern fiber-optic integrated services; digital network with rapidly growing use of mobile cellular telephones
> <br><i>international:</i>
> tropospheric scatter to Qatar and UAE; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; submarine cable to Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 338,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 4 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 275,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
------
Bahrain/Transportation|988036128
1,17c1,34
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 3,164 km paved: 2,433 km unpaved: 731 km (1998 est.) note: there is a paved causeway connecting Bahrain to Saudi Arabia
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 56 km; petroleum products 16 km; natural gas 32 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 228,273 GRT/304,654 DWT ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 3, container 2, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 over 3,047 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,164 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 2,433 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 731 km (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is a paved causeway connecting Bahrain to Saudi Arabia
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 56 km; petroleum products 16 km; natural gas 32 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Manama, Mina' Salman, Sitrah
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 228,273 GRT/304,654 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, cargo 3, container 2, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bahrain/Military|988036166
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 15 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 221,109 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 121,442 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 5,699 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $318 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.2% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 15 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 221,109 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 121,442 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 5,699 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $318 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5.2% (FY99)
------
Bahrain/Transnational_issues|988036197
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: the territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary dispute with Qatar are currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> the territorial dispute with Qatar over the Hawar Islands and the maritime boundary dispute with Qatar are currently before the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
------
Bahamas/History|988036296
1c1
< Background: Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking and investment management. By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for drug trafficking, particularly shipments to the US.
---
> <b>Background:</b> Since attaining independence from the UK in 1973, The Bahamas have prospered through tourism and international banking and investment management. By the early 1980s, the islands had become a major center for drug trafficking, particularly shipments to the US.
------
Bahamas/Geography|988036342
1,50c1,61
< Location: Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 24 15 N, 76 00 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:<br>
< total: 13,940 sq km<br>
< land: 10,070 sq km<br>
< water: 3,870 sq km<br>
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Connecticut
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 3,542 km
< 
< Maritime claims:<br>
< continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation<br>
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm<br>
< territorial sea: 12 nm<br>
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
< 
< Terrain: long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
< 
< Elevation extremes:<br>
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m<br>
< highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m<br>
< 
< Natural resources: salt, aragonite, timber
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 1%<br>
< permanent crops: 0%<br>
< permanent pastures: 0%<br>
< forests and woodland: 32%<br>
< other: 67% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
< 
< Environment - current issues: coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
< 
< Environment - international agreements:<br>
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands<br>
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, chain of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Florida
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 24 15 N, 76 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13,940 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 10,070 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 3,870 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3,542 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; moderated by warm waters of Gulf Stream
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> long, flat coral formations with some low rounded hills
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> salt, aragonite, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 67% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes and other tropical storms that cause extensive flood and wind damage
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location adjacent to US and Cuba; extensive island chain
------
Paul_Heroult|988036369
1c1
< Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult  born in 1863- dead in 1914. 
---
> Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult  born in 1863- died in 1914. 
------
Bahamas/People|988036387
1,47c1,61
< Population: 294,982<br>
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:<br>
< 0-14 years: 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)<br>
< 15-64 years: 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)<br>
< 65 years and over: 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)<br>
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.01% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 19.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 6.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:<br>
< at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female<br>
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female<br>
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female<br>
< 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female<br>
< total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 16.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:<br>
< total population: 71.07 years<br>
< male: 68.25 years<br>
< female: 73.94 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:<br>
< noun: Bahamian(s)<br>
< adjective: Bahamian
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3%
< 
< Religions: Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2%
< 
< Languages: English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants)
< 
< Literacy:<br>
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write<br>
< total population: 98.2%<br>
< male: 98.5%<br>
< female: 98% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 294,982
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30% (male 44,339; female 43,667)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64% (male 93,072; female 96,457)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 7,298; female 10,149) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.01% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 19.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.72 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 16.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.07 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.25 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.94 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bahamian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bahamian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 85%, white 12%, Asian and Hispanic 3%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Creole (among Haitian immigrants)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1995 est.)
------
Bahamas/Government|988036423
1,53c1,68
< Country name:<br>
< conventional long form: Commonwealth of The Bahamas<br>
< conventional short form: The Bahamas
< 
< Data code: BF
< 
< Government type: constitutional parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Nassau
< 
< Administrative divisions: 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
< 
< Independence: 10 July 1973 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 10 July (1973)
< 
< Constitution: 10 July 1973
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:<br>
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)<br>
< head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)<br>
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation<br>
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)<br>
< elections: last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)<br>
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; magistrate's courts
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM]; Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:<br>
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER<br>
< chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008<br>
< telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660<br>
< FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668<br>
< consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:<br>
< chief of mission: Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER<br>
< embassy: Queen Street, Nassau<br>
< mailing address: local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370<br>
< telephone: [1] (242) 322-1181<br>
< FAX: [1] (242) 356-0222
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Commonwealth of The Bahamas
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> The Bahamas
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BF
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Nassau
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 21 districts; Acklins and Crooked Islands, Bimini, Cat Island, Exuma, Freeport, Fresh Creek, Governor's Harbour, Green Turtle Cay, Harbour Island, High Rock, Inagua, Kemps Bay, Long Island, Marsh Harbour, Mayaguana, New Providence, Nicholls Town and Berry Islands, Ragged Island, Rock Sound, Sandy Point, San Salvador and Rum Cay
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 10 July 1973 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 10 July (1973)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 10 July 1973
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Orville TURNQUEST (since 2 January 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM (since 19 August 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Frank WATSON (since December 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the prime minister's recommendation
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (16-member body appointed by the governor general upon the advice of the prime minister and the opposition leader for a five-year term) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 14 March 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FNM 35, PLP 5
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; magistrate's courts
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Free National Movement or FNM [Hubert Alexander INGRAHAM]; Progressive Liberal Party or PLP [Perry CHRISTIE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Arlington Griffith BUTLER
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 319-2660
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 319-2668
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Miami and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Arthur SCHECHTER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Queen Street, Nassau
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> local or express mail address: P. O. Box N-8197, Nassau; stateside address: American Embassy Nassau, P. O. Box 599009, Miami, FL 33159-9009; pouch address: Nassau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-3370
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (242) 322-1181
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (242) 356-0222
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of aquamarine (top), gold, and aquamarine, with a black equilateral triangle based on the hoist side
------
Bahamas/Economy|988036467
1,73c1,80
< Economy - overview: The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.58 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 3% (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $20,000 (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:<br>
< agriculture: 3%<br>
< industry: 5%<br>
< services: 92% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:<br>
< lowest 10%: NA%<br>
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.3% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 148,000 (1996)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: tourism 40%, other services 50%, industry 5%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 9% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget:<br>
< revenues: $766 million<br>
< expenditures: $845 million, including capital expenditures of $97 million (FY97/98)
< 
< 
< Industries: tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:<br>
< fossil fuel: 100%<br>
< hydro: 0%<br>
< nuclear: 0%<br>
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.246 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: citrus, vegetables; poultry
< 
< Exports: $362.8 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products
< 
< Exports - partners: US 22.3%, Switzerland 15.6%, UK 15%, Denmark 7.4% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.74 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics
< 
< Imports - partners: US 27.3%, Italy 26.5%, Japan 10%, Denmark 4.2% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $349 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $9.8 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate pegged to the dollar)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute less than 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued income growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.58 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $20,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 92% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.3% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 148,000 (1996)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> tourism 40%, other services 50%, industry 5%, agriculture 5% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $766 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $845 million, including capital expenditures of $97 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, banking, cement, oil refining and transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.246 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> citrus, vegetables; poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $362.8 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> pharmaceuticals, cement, rum, crawfish, refined petroleum products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 22.3%, Switzerland 15.6%, UK 15%, Denmark 7.4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.74 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, manufactured goods, crude oil, vehicles, electronics
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 27.3%, Italy 26.5%, Japan 10%, Denmark 4.2% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $349 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $9.8 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Bahamian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Bahamian dollar (B$) per US$1 - 1.000 (fixed rate pegged to the dollar)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Bahamas/Communications|988036495
1,17c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 77,000 (1994)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,400 (1993)
< 
< Telephone system:<br>
< domestic: totally automatic system; highly developed<br>
< international: tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 215,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 67,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 77,000 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,400 (1993)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> totally automatic system; highly developed
> <br><i>international:</i>
> tropospheric scatter and submarine cable to Florida; 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 215,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 67,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
------
Bahamas/Transportation|988036535
1,31c1,44
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:<br>
< total: 2,693 km<br>
< paved: 1,546 km<br>
< unpaved: 1,147 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau
< 
< Merchant marine:<br>
< total: 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT<br>
< ships by type: bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)<br>
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which are Norway 177, Greece 141, UK 113, US 61, Denmark 39, Finland 27, Japan 25, Sweden 24, France 22, and Italy 22 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 62 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:<br>
< total: 33<br>
< over 3,047 m: 2<br>
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2<br>
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15<br>
< 914 to 1,523 m: 12<br>
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:<br>
< total: 29<br>
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1<br>
< 914 to 1,523 m: 7<br>
< under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,693 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,546 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,147 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Freeport, Matthew Town, Nassau
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,075 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,630,674 GRT/44,111,353 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 201, cargo 233, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 15, combination ore/oil 25, container 59, liquified gas 35, livestock carrier 1, passenger 68, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 177, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 129, roll-on/roll-off 51, short-sea passenger 12, specialized tanker 3, vehicle carrier 23 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which are Norway 177, Greece 141, UK 113, US 61, Denmark 39, Finland 27, Japan 25, Sweden 24, France 22, and Italy 22 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 62 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 29
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 21 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bahamas/Military|988036568
1,5c1,6
< Military branches: Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $20 million (FY95/96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Bahamas Defense Force (Coast Guard only), Royal Bahamas Police Force
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $20 million (FY95/96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Bahamas/Transnational_issues|988036604
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering
---
> ><b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering
------
Bahamas/Transnational_issues|988036622
1c1
< ><b>Disputes - international:</b>
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
------
Baker_Island/Geography|988036775
1,33c1,59
< Location: Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 0 13 N, 176 31 W
< 
< Map references: Oceania
< 
< Area: total: 1.4 sq km land: 1.4 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 4.8 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
< 
< Terrain: low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 8 m
< 
< Natural resources: guano (deposits worked until 1891)
< 
< Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100%
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
< 
< Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources
< 
< Geography - note: treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 13 N, 176 31 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.4 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.4 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 2.5 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 4.8 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low, nearly level coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 8 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano (deposits worked until 1891)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no natural fresh water resources
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> treeless, sparse, and scattered vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, and low growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited
> <br><i>note:</i>
> American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Baker_Island/Geography|988036815
55,59d54
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Population:</b>
< uninhabited
< <br><i>note:</i>
< American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Baker_Island/People|988036919
1,3c1,4
< Population: uninhabited
< 
< note: American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited
> <br><i>note:</i>
> American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Baker_Island/Government|988036951
1,9c1,13
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Baker Island
< 
< Data code: FQ
< 
< Dependency status: unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
< 
< Legal system: NA
< 
< Flag description: the flag of the US is used
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Baker Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Baker_Island/Economy|988037001
1c1
< Economy - overview: no economic activity
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b> no economic activity
------
Baker_Island/Transportation|988037053
1,5c1,6
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
< 
< Airports: 1 abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m, completely covered with vegetation and unusable
< 
< Transportation - note: there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 abandoned World War II runway of 1,665 m, completely covered with vegetation and unusable
> <p><b>Transportation - note:</b>
> there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
------
Baker_Island/Military|988037086
1c1
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
---
> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
------
Baker_Island/Transnational_issues|988037113
1c1
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Bangladesh/History|988037216
1c1,2
< Background: Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. A third of this desperately poor country annually floods during the monsoon rainy season, hampering normal economic development.
------
Bangladesh/Geography|988037258
1,34c1,64
< Location: Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 24 00 N, 90 00 E
< 
< Map references: Asia
< 
< Area: total: 144,000 sq km land: 133,910 sq km water: 10,090 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Wisconsin
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 4,246 km border countries: Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
< 
< Coastline: 580 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 18 nm continental shelf: up to the outer limits of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m
< 
< Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber
< 
< Land use: arable land: 73% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 15% other: 5% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 31,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
< 
< Environment - current issues: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
< 
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, bordering the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and India
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 24 00 N, 90 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 144,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 133,910 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 10,090 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Wisconsin
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,246 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Burma 193 km, India 4,053 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 580 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 18 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> up to the outer limits of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat alluvial plain; hilly in southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Keokradong 1,230 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> natural gas, arable land, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 73%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 5% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 31,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> droughts, cyclones; much of the country routinely flooded during the summer monsoon season
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; limited access to potable water; water-borne diseases prevalent; water pollution especially of fishing areas results from the use of commercial pesticides; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation; deforestation; severe overpopulation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
------
Bangladesh/People|988037297
1,29c1,59
< Population: 129,194,224 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 36% (male 24,055,675; female 22,918,354) 15-64 years: 60% (male 39,924,040; female 37,992,459) 65 years and over: 4% (male 2,342,134; female 1,961,562) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.59% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 25.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.19 male(s)/female total population: 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 71.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.16 years male: 60.4 years female: 59.91 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bangladeshi(s) adjective: Bangladesh
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million
< 
< Religions: Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2%
< 
< Languages: Bangla (official), English
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 38.1% male: 49.4% female: 26.1% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 129,194,224 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 36% (male 24,055,675; female 22,918,354)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 60% (male 39,924,040; female 37,992,459)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 2,342,134; female 1,961,562) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.59% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 25.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.19 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 71.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 60.16 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 60.4 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 59.91 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bangladeshi(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bangladesh
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bengali 98%, Biharis 250,000, tribals less than 1 million
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, other 1.2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Bangla (official), English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 38.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 26.1% (1995 est.)
------
Bangladesh/Government|988037346
1,35c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: People's Republic of Bangladesh conventional short form: Bangladesh former: East Pakistan
< 
< Data code: BG
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Dhaka
< 
< Administrative divisions: 5 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi note: there may be one additional division named Sylhet
< 
< Independence: 16 December 1971 (from Pakistan)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 26 March (1971)
< 
< Constitution: 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Shahabuddin AHMED (since 9 October 1996); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996) cabinet: Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president elections: president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president election results: Shahabuddin AHMED elected president without opposition; percent of National Parliament vote - NA
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms) elections: last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001) election results: percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held for 1 seat; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA Wajed]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIAur Rahman]; Jamaat-E-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiyo Party or JP [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB? , C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Khwaja Mohammad SHEHABUDDIN chancery: 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007 telephone: [1] (202) 342-8372 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John C. HOLZMAN embassy: Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212 mailing address: G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000 telephone: [880] (2) 884700 through 884722 FAX: [880] (2) 883744
< 
< Flag description: green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> People's Republic of Bangladesh
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bangladesh
> <br><i>former:</i>
> East Pakistan
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Dhaka
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 5 divisions; Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be one additional division named Sylhet
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 16 December 1971 (from Pakistan)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 26 March (1971)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 4 November 1972, effective 16 December 1972, suspended following coup of 24 March 1982, restored 10 November 1986, amended many times
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Shahabuddin AHMED (since 9 October 1996); note - the president's duties are normally ceremonial, but with the 13th amendment to the constitution ("Caretaker Government Amendment"), the president's role becomes significant at times when Parliament is dissolved and a caretaker government is installed - at presidential direction - to supervise the elections
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed (since 23 June 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by National Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 24 July 1996 (next to be held by NA October 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually appointed prime minister by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Shahabuddin AHMED elected president without opposition; percent of National Parliament vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Parliament or Jatiya Sangsad (330 seats; 300 elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies, 30 seats reserved for women; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 12 June 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - AL 33.87%, BNP 30.87%; seats by party - AL 178, BNP 113, JP 33, JI 3, other 2, election still to be held for 1 seat; note - the elections of 12 June 1996 brought to power an Awami League government for the first time in twenty-one years; held under a neutral, caretaker administration, the elections were characterized by a peaceful, orderly process and massive voter turnout, ending a bitter two-year impasse between the former BNP and opposition parties that had paralyzed National Parliament and led to widespread street violence
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, the Chief Justices and other judges are appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Awami League or AL [Sheikh HASINA Wajed]; Bangladesh Communist Party or BCP [Saifuddin Ahmed MANIK]; Bangladesh Nationalist Party or BNP [Khaleda ZIAur Rahman]; Jamaat-E-Islami or JI [Motiur Rahman NIZAMI]; Jatiyo Party or JP [Hussain Mohammad ERSHAD]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Khwaja Mohammad SHEHABUDDIN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-8372
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John C. HOLZMAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> G. P. O. Box 323, Dhaka 1000
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [880] (2) 884700 through 884722
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [880] (2) 883744
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> green with a large red disk slightly to the hoist side of center; the red sun of freedom represents the blood shed to achieve independence; the green field symbolizes the lush countryside, and secondarily, the traditional color of Islam
------
Bangladesh/Economy|988037400
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. The economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the country's reliance on large-scale international aid. So far the East Asian financial crisis has not had major impact on the economy.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $187 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,470 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 30% industry: 17% services: 53% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 35.6% (FY95/96 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 4.1% highest 10%: 23.7% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 56 million (1995-96) note: extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, Malaysia, and Singapore
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 63%, services 26%, industry 11% (FY95/96)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 35.2% (1996)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $4.3 billion expenditures: $6.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 2.5% (1997 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 12.5 billion kWh (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 98% hydro: 2% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1999)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 11.039 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1999)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1999)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit
< 
< Exports: $5.1 billion (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood
< 
< Exports - partners: US 33%, Germany 10%, UK 9%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $8.01 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food, crude oil and petroleum products, cement
< 
< Imports - partners: India 12%, China 9%, Japan 7%, Hong Kong 6%, South Korea 6% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $16.5 billion (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.475 billion (FY96/97)
< 
< Currency: 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha
< 
< Exchange rates: taka (Tk) per US$1 - 51.000 (January 2000), 49.085 (1999), 46.906 (1998), 43.892 (1997), 41.794 (1996), 40.278 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. The economy is largely agricultural, with the cultivation of rice the single most important activity in the economy. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, the inefficiency of state-owned enterprises, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), inadequate power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA Wajed's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets; for example, it has negotiated with foreign firms for oil and gas exploration, better countrywide distribution of cooking gas, and the construction of natural gas pipelines and power plants. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups. The especially severe floods of 1998 increased the country's reliance on large-scale international aid. So far the East Asian financial crisis has not had major impact on the economy.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $187 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,470 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 53% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 35.6% (FY95/96 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.1%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 23.7% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9% (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 56 million (1995-96)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> extensive export of labor to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Oman, Qatar, Malaysia, and Singapore
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 63%, services 26%, industry 11% (FY95/96)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 35.2% (1996)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4.3 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $6.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, paper newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 12.5 billion kWh (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 11.039 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes; beef, milk, poultry, tobacco, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruit
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $5.1 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> garments, jute and jute goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 33%, Germany 10%, UK 9%, France 6%, Italy 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.01 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food, crude oil and petroleum products, cement
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> India 12%, China 9%, Japan 7%, Hong Kong 6%, South Korea 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $16.5 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.475 billion (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 taka (Tk) = 100 poisha
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> taka (Tk) per US$1 - 51.000 (January 2000), 49.085 (1999), 46.906 (1998), 43.892 (1997), 41.794 (1996), 40.278 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Bangladesh/Communications|988037439
1,15c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 470,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 41,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave, and some fiber-optic cable in cities international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 6.15 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 15 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 770,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 6 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 470,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 41,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> modernizing; introducing digital systems; trunk systems include VHF and UHF microwave, and some fiber-optic cable in cities
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); international radiotelephone communications and landline service to neighboring countries
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 12, FM 12, shortwave 2 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 6.15 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 15 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 770,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
------
Bangladesh/Transportation|988037467
1,15c1,40
< Railways: total: 2,745 km broad gauge: 923 km 1.676-m gauge narrow gauge: 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (1998 est.)
< 
< Highways: total: 201,182 km paved: 19,112 km unpaved: 182,070 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 5,150-8,046 km navigable waterways (includes 2,575-3,058 km main cargo routes)
< 
< Pipelines: natural gas 1,220 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 36 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 284,489 GRT/405,845 DWT ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 28, container 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 16 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 16 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,745 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 923 km 1.676-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 1,822 km 1.000-m gauge (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 201,182 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 19,112 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 182,070 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 5,150-8,046 km navigable waterways (includes 2,575-3,058 km main cargo routes)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 1,220 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 284,489 GRT/405,845 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, cargo 28, container 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
------
Bangladesh/Military|988037495
1,9c1,12
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 34,683,414 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 20,565,193 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $559 million (FY96/97)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96/97)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force, paramilitary forces (includes Bangladesh Rifles, Bangladesh Ansars, Village Defense Parties, National Cadet Corps), Armed Police battalions
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 34,683,414 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 20,565,193 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $559 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.8% (FY96/97)
------
Bangladesh/Transnational_issues|988037539
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New? Moore Island
< 
< Illicit drugs: transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New Moore Island
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transit country for illegal drugs produced in neighboring countries
------
Barbados/History|988037604
1c1,2
< Background: The island was uninhabited when first settled by the British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The island was uninhabited when first settled by the British in 1627. Its economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
------
Barbados/Geography|988037647
1,35c1,59
< Location: Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 10 N, 59 32 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area: total: 430 sq km land: 430 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 97 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; rainy season (June to October)
< 
< Terrain: relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, fish, natural gas
< 
< Land use: arable land: 37% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 5% forests and woodland: 12% other: 46% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity
< 
< Geography - note: easternmost Caribbean island
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Venezuela
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 10 N, 59 32 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 430 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 430 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 97 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; rainy season (June to October)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> relatively flat; rises gently to central highland region
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Hillaby 336 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, fish, natural gas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 37%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 46% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Biodiversity
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> easternmost Caribbean island
------
Barbados/People|988037681
1,29c1,59
< Population: 274,540 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 22% (male 30,687; female 30,172) 15-64 years: 69% (male 92,241; female 96,866) 65 years and over: 9% (male 9,506; female 15,068) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.55% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 14.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 12.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73 years male: 70.43 years female: 75.6 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial) adjective: Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 80%, white 4%, other 16%
< 
< Religions: Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, other 12%
< 
< Languages: English
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 97.4% male: 98% female: 96.8% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 274,540 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 22% (male 30,687; female 30,172)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 69% (male 92,241; female 96,866)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 9% (male 9,506; female 15,068) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.55% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.63 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 12.37 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.43 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.6 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Barbadian(s) or Bajan (colloquial)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Barbadian or Bajan (colloquial)
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 80%, white 4%, other 16%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 67% (Anglican 40%, Pentecostal 8%, Methodist 7%, other 12%), Roman Catholic 4%, none 17%, other 12%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97.4%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 96.8% (1995 est.)
------
Barbados/Government|988037720
1,37c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Barbados
< 
< Data code: BB
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy; independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth
< 
< Capital: Bridgetown
< 
< Administrative divisions: 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas note: the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
< 
< Independence: 30 November 1966 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
< 
< Constitution: 30 November 1966
< 
< Legal system: English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996) head of government: Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: House of Assembly - last held 20 January 1999 (next to be held by January 2004) election results: House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 26, DLP 2
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Judicature (judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service)
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Barbados Workers Union [Leroy TROTMAN]; Clement Payne Labor Union [David COMMISSIONG]; People's Progressive Movement [Eric SEALY]; Worker's Party of Barbados [Dr. George BELLE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Courtney N. BLACKMAN chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200 consulate(s) general: Miami and New York consulate(s): Los Angeles
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d' Affairs Roland BULLEN embassy: Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown mailing address: P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055 telephone: [1] (246) 436-4950 FAX: [1] (246) 429-5246
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Barbados
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BB
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy; independent sovereign state within the Commonwealth
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bridgetown
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 11 parishes; Christ Church, Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint James, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Lucy, Saint Michael, Saint Peter, Saint Philip, Saint Thomas
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the city of Bridgetown may be given parish status
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 30 November 1966 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 30 November (1966)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 30 November 1966
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English common law; no judicial review of legislative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Clifford Straughn HUSBANDS (since 1 June 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Owen Seymour ARTHUR (since 6 September 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Billie MILLER (since 6 September 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (21-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Assembly (28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Assembly - last held 20 January 1999 (next to be held by January 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - BLP 26, DLP 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Judicature (judges are appointed by the Service Commissions for the Judicial and Legal Service)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Barbados Labor Party or BLP [Owen ARTHUR]; Democratic Labor Party or DLP [David THOMPSON]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Richard HAYNES]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Barbados Workers Union [Leroy TROTMAN]; Clement Payne Labor Union [David COMMISSIONG]; People's Progressive Movement [Eric SEALY]; Worker's Party of Barbados [Dr. George BELLE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Courtney N. BLACKMAN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-9200
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Miami and New York
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Los Angeles
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant); Charge d' Affairs Roland BULLEN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce Building, Broad Street, Bridgetown
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 302, Bridgetown; FPO AA 34055
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (246) 436-4950
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (246) 429-5246
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), gold, and blue with the head of a black trident centered on the gold band; the trident head represents independence and a break with the past (the colonial coat of arms contained a complete trident)
------
Barbados/Economy|988037763
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4.4% (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $11,200 (1998 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4.9% industry: 15.6% services: 79.5% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.7% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 136,000 (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 12% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $725.5 million expenditures: $750.6 million, including capital expenditures of $126.3 million (FY97/98 est.)
< 
< Industries: tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 0.8% (1996)
< 
< Electricity - production: 672 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 625 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
< 
< Exports: $211.2 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 14.8%, US 11.6%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.6%, Venezuela 6.1%, Jamaica 5.8% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.01 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components
< 
< Imports - partners: US 30.7%, Trinidad and Tobago 10.2%, Japan 8.3%, UK 7.7%, Canada 2.2% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $550 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $9.1 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Barbadian dollars (Bds$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate pegged to the US dollar)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-99. Offshore finance and informatics are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce the unacceptably high unemployment rate, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.4% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $11,200 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4.9%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 15.6%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 79.5% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.7% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 136,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 75%, industry 15%, agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 12% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $725.5 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $750.6 million, including capital expenditures of $126.3 million (FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, sugar, light manufacturing, component assembly for export
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.8% (1996)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 672 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 625 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, vegetables, cotton
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $211.2 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> sugar and molasses, rum, other foods and beverages, chemicals, electrical components, clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK 14.8%, US 11.6%, Trinidad and Tobago 7.6%, Venezuela 6.1%, Jamaica 5.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.01 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> consumer goods, machinery, foodstuffs, construction materials, chemicals, fuel, electrical components
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 30.7%, Trinidad and Tobago 10.2%, Japan 8.3%, UK 7.7%, Canada 2.2% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $550 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $9.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Barbadian dollar (Bds$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Barbadian dollars (Bds$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate pegged to the US dollar)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Barbados/Communications|988037793
1,15c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 90,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,614 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: island-wide automatic telephone system international: satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 237,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus two cable channels) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 76,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 90,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,614 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> island-wide automatic telephone system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Trinidad and Saint Lucia
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 237,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus two cable channels) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 76,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
------
Barbados/Transportation|988037820
1,11c1,25
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 1,600 km paved: 1,578 km unpaved: 22 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bridgetown, Speightstown (Port Charles Marina)
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 47 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 654,580 GRT/1,103,780 DWT ships by type: bulk 10, cargo 29, combination bulk 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Canada owns 2 ships, Hong Kong 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,600 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,578 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 22 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bridgetown, Speightstown (Port Charles Marina)
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 47 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 654,580 GRT/1,103,780 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 10, cargo 29, combination bulk 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Canada owns 2 ships, Hong Kong 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Barbados/Military|988037841
1,9c1,12
< Military branches: Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 77,789 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 53,472 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Barbados Defense Force (includes Ground Forces and Coast Guard), Royal Barbados Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 77,789 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 53,472 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Barbados/Transnational_issues|988037875
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe
------
Bassas_da_India/Geography|988037962
1,31c1,52
< Location: Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 21 30 S, 39 50 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 0.2 sq km land: 0.2 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 35.2 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical
< 
< Terrain: volcanic rock
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 2.4 m
< 
< Natural resources: none
< 
< Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (all rock)
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 21 30 S, 39 50 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 0.2 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 0.2 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 35.2 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic rock
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 2.4 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (all rock)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
------
Bassas_da_India/People|988037994
1c1,2
< Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Bassas_da_India/Government|988038020
1,7c1,11
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bassas da India
< 
< Data code: BS
< 
< Dependency status: possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
< 
< Flag description: the flag of France is used
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bassas da India
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BS
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Bassas_da_India/Economy|988038045
1c1,2
< Economy - overview: no economic activity
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
------
Bassas_da_India/Communications|988038068
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Bassas_da_India/Transportation|988038099
1c1,2
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Bassas_da_India/Military|988038121
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Bassas_da_India/Transnational_issues|988038145
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: claimed by Madagascar
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claimed by Madagascar
------
Bassas_da_India|988038165
12,96d11
< 
< ----
< Geography
< ----
< Location: Southern Africa, islands in the southern Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from Madagascar to Mozambique
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 21 30 S, 39 50 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 0.2 sq km
< land: 0.2 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about one-third the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 35.2 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical
< 
< Terrain: volcanic rock
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
< highest point: unnamed location 2.4 m
< 
< Natural resources: none
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 100% (all rock)
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: maritime hazard since it is usually under water during high tide and surrounded by reefs; subject to periodic cyclones
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< ----
< People
< ----
< Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
< 
< ----
< Government
< ----
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Bassas da India
< 
< Data code: BS
< 
< Dependency status: possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
< 
< Flag description: the flag of France is used
< 
< ----
< Economy
< ----
< Economy - overview: no economic activity
< 
< ----
< Transportation
< ----
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
< 
< ----
< Military
< ----
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues
< ----
< Disputes - international: claimed by Madagascar
------
Belarus/History|988038697
1c1,2
< Background: After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to implement the accord.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> After seven decades as a constituent republic of the USSR, Belarus attained its independence in 1991. It has retained closer political and economic ties to Russia than any of the other former Soviet republics. Belarus and Russia signed a treaty on a two-state union on 8 December 1999 envisioning greater political and economic integration but, to date, neither side has actively sought to implement the accord.
------
Belarus/Geography|988038740
1,35c1,57
< Location: Eastern Europe, east of Poland
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 53 00 N, 28 00 E
< 
< Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
< 
< Area: total: 207,600 sq km land: 207,600 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Kansas
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 3,098 km border countries: Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
< 
< Terrain: generally flat and contains much marshland
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Nyoman River 90 m highest point: Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
< 
< Natural resources: forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
< 
< Land use: arable land: 29% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 15% forests and woodland: 34% other: 21% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 1,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change, Law of the Sea
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Europe, east of Poland
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 53 00 N, 28 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Commonwealth of Independent States
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 207,600 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 207,600 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Kansas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,098 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Latvia 141 km, Lithuania 502 km, Poland 605 km, Russia 959 km, Ukraine 891 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> cold winters, cool and moist summers; transitional between continental and maritime
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> generally flat and contains much marshland
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Nyoman River 90 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 21% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change, Law of the Sea
------
Belarus/Geography|988038787
57a58,59
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Belarus/People|988038861
1,29c1,59
< Population: 10,366,719 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 19% (male 982,959; female 942,062) 15-64 years: 68% (male 3,411,684; female 3,614,453) 65 years and over: 13% (male 466,929; female 948,632) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: -0.17% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 9.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 13.96 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 3.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.49 male(s)/female total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 68 years male: 61.83 years female: 74.48 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Belarusian(s) adjective: Belarusian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9%
< 
< Religions: Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.)
< 
< Languages: Byelorussian, Russian, other
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 99% female: 97% (1989 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,366,719 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 19% (male 982,959; female 942,062)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 3,411,684; female 3,614,453)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 13% (male 466,929; female 948,632) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.17% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.96 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.49 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.83 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.48 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Belarusian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Belarusian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Byelorussian 77.9%, Russian 13.2%, Polish 4.1%, Ukrainian 2.9%, other 1.9%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Eastern Orthodox 80%, other (including Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, and Muslim) 20% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Byelorussian, Russian, other
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 97% (1989 est.)
------
Paul_Heroult|988038900
21c21
< HÉROULT'S second most important invention is the electric arc furnace
---
> Héroult's second most important invention is the electric arc furnace
------
Belarus/Government|988038912
1,35c1,80
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Belarus conventional short form: Belarus local long form: Respublika Byelarus' local short form: none former: Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic
< 
< Data code: BO
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Minsk
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk) note: voblasti have the administrative center name following in parentheses
< 
< Independence: 25 August 1991 (Belarusian Supreme Soviet declaration of independence from the Soviet Union)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 3 July (1944); note - represents Minsk liberation from German occupation
< 
< Constitution: 30 March 1994; revised by national referendum of 24 November 1996 giving the presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996
< 
< Legal system: based on civil law system
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994) head of government: Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 2 December 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997), Ural LATYPOV (since 30 December 1997), Gennadiy NOVITSKIY (since 11 February 1997), Leonid KOZIK (since 4 February 1997), Aleksandr POPKOV (since 10 November 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA; according to the 1994 constitution, the next election should have been held in 1999, however LUKASHENKO extended his term to 2001 via the November 1996 referendum); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president election results: Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15% note: first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki (64 seats; eight appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the former Supreme Soviet which LUKASHENKO disbanded in November 1996) elections: last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; disbanded after the November 1996 referendum; next to be held NA) election results: after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, acting chairman]; Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Green Party or BPZ [Mikalay KARTASH, chairman]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Vintsuk VYACHORKA, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hramada [Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Socialist Party [Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairperson]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Party of Communists Belarusian or PKB [Sergei KALYAKIN, chairman]; Party of Popular Accord or PPA [Leanid SECHKA]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatoliy NETYLKIN, chairman]; Women's Party Nadezhda [Valentina POLEVIKOVA, chairperson]
< 
< International organization participation: CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO? (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Valery TSEPAKO chancery: 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009 telephone: [1] (202) 986-1604 FAX: [1] (202) 986-1805 consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Daniel V. SPECKHARD embassy: Starovilenskaya #46-220002, Minsk mailing address: use embassy street address telephone: [375] (17) 231-5000 FAX: [375] (17) 234-7853
< 
< Flag description: red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears the Belarusian national ornament in red
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Belarus
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Belarus
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Respublika Byelarus'
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Belorussian (Byelorussian) Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Minsk
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 voblastsi (singular - voblasts') and one municipality* (harady, singular - horad); Brestskaya (Brest), Homyel'skaya (Homyel'), Horad Minsk*, Hrodzyenskaya (Hrodna), Mahilyowskaya (Mahilyow), Minskaya, Vitsyebskaya (Vitsyebsk)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> voblasti have the administrative center name following in parentheses
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 25 August 1991 (Belarusian Supreme Soviet declaration of independence from the Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 3 July (1944); note - represents Minsk liberation from German occupation
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 30 March 1994; revised by national referendum of 24 November 1996 giving the presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Aleksandr LUKASHENKO (since 20 July 1994)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Sergey LING (acting since 18 November 1996, confirmed 19 February 1997); First Deputy Prime Minister Vasiliy DOLGOLEV (since 2 December 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir ZAMETALIN (since 15 July 1997), Ural LATYPOV (since 30 December 1997), Gennadiy NOVITSKIY (since 11 February 1997), Leonid KOZIK (since 4 February 1997), Aleksandr POPKOV (since 10 November 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 24 June and 10 July 1994 (next to be held NA; according to the 1994 constitution, the next election should have been held in 1999, however LUKASHENKO extended his term to 2001 via the November 1996 referendum); prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Aleksandr LUKASHENKO elected president; percent of vote - Aleksandr LUKASHENKO 85%, Vyacheslav KEBICH 15%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> first presidential elections took place in June-July 1994
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Natsionalnoye Sobranie consists of the Council of the Republic or Soviet Respubliki (64 seats; eight appointed by the president and 56 indirectly elected by deputies of local councils for four-year terms) and the Chamber of Representatives or Palata Pretsaviteley (110 seats; note - present members came from the former Supreme Soviet which LUKASHENKO disbanded in November 1996)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held May and November-December 1995 (two rounds, each with a run-off; disbanded after the November 1996 referendum; next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> after the November 1996 referendum, seats for the Chamber of Representatives were filled by former Supreme Soviet members as follows: PKB 24, Agrarian 14, Party of Peoples Concord 5, LDPB 1, UPNAZ 1, Green World Party 1, Belarusian Social Sports Party 1, Ecological Party 1, Republican Party of Labor and Justice 1, independents 61; 58 of the 64 seats in the Council of the Republic have been appointed/elected
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, half of the judges appointed by the president and half appointed by the Chamber of Representatives
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Agrarian Party [Aleksandr PAVLOV, acting chairman]; Belarusian Communist Party or KPB [Viktor CHIKIN, chairman]; Belarusian Green Party or BPZ [Mikalay KARTASH, chairman]; Belarusian Labor Party or BPP [Aleksandr BUKHVOSTOV, chairman]; Belarusian Patriotic Movement (Belarusian Patriotic Party) or BPR [Anatoliy BARANKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Popular Front or BNF [Vintsuk VYACHORKA, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democrat or SDBP [Nikolay STATKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social-Democratic Party Hramada [Stanislav SHUSHKEVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Social Sports Party or BSSP [Aleksandr ALEKSANDROVICH, chairman]; Belarusian Socialist Party [Vyacheslav KUZNETSOV]; Civic Accord Bloc (United Civic Party) or CAB [Stanislav BOGDANKEVICH, chairman]; Ecological Party or BEP [Liudmila YELIZAROVA, chairperson]; Liberal-Democratic Party or LDPB [Sergei GAYDUKEVICH, chairman]; Party of All-Belarusian Unity and Concord or UPNAZ [Dmitriy BULAKOV, chairman]; Party of Communists Belarusian or PKB [Sergei KALYAKIN, chairman]; Party of Popular Accord or PPA [Leanid SECHKA]; Republican Party of Labor and Justice or RPPS [Anatoliy NETYLKIN, chairman]; Women's Party Nadezhda [Valentina POLEVIKOVA, chairperson]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CCC, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Valery TSEPAKO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 986-1604
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 986-1805
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Daniel V. SPECKHARD
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Starovilenskaya #46-220002, Minsk
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [375] (17) 231-5000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [375] (17) 234-7853
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red horizontal band (top) and green horizontal band one-half the width of the red band; a white vertical stripe on the hoist side bears the Belarusian national ornament in red
------
Belarus/Economy|988038947
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO re-imposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 23% industry: 28% services: 49% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 22% (1995 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 4.9% highest 10%: 19.4% (1993)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 295% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.3 million (1998)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: industry and construction NA%, agriculture and forestry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 2.3% officially registered unemployed (December 1998); large number of underemployed workers
< 
< Budget: revenues: $4 billion expenditures: $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Industries: metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earth movers, motorcycles, TV sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 8% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 21.893 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 99.89% hydro: 0.11% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 28.66 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 2.3 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 10.6 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
< 
< Exports: $6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
< 
< Exports - partners: Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania (1998)
< 
< Imports: $6.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, foodstuffs
< 
< Imports - partners: Russia 54%, Ukraine, Germany, Poland, Lithuania (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.1 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $194.3 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: Belarusian rubel (BR)
< 
< Exchange rates: Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 730,000 (15 December 1999), 139,000 (25 January 1999), 46,080 (2nd qtr 1998), 25,964 (1997), 15,500 (yearend 1996), 11,500 (yearend 1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO re-imposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $55.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 28%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 49% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 22% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 19.4% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 295% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.3 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry and construction NA%, agriculture and forestry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.3% officially registered unemployed (December 1998); large number of underemployed workers
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $4.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $180 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> metal-cutting machine tools, tractors, trucks, earth movers, motorcycles, TV sets, chemical fibers, fertilizer, textiles, radios, refrigerators
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 21.893 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 99.89%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.11%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 28.66 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 2.3 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 10.6 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia 66%, Ukraine, Poland, Germany, Lithuania (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $6.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> mineral products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 54%, Ukraine, Germany, Poland, Lithuania (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.1 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $194.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> Belarusian rubel (BR)
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Belarusian rubels per US$1 - 730,000 (15 December 1999), 139,000 (25 January 1999), 46,080 (2nd qtr 1998), 25,964 (1997), 15,500 (yearend 1996), 11,500 (yearend 1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Belarus/Communications|988038978
1,16c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 2.537 million (1997)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 8,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly domestic: local - Minsk has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational international: Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 3.02 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 17 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 2.52 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
< 
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2.537 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 8,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> local - Minsk has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational
> <br><i>international:</i>
> Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to Latvia, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik earth stations
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.02 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 17 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2.52 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Belarus/Transportation|988039011
1,15c1,44
< Railways: total: 5,563 km broad gauge: 5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
< 
< Highways: total: 63,355 km paved: 60,567 km unpaved: 2,788 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: NA km; note - Belarus has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Mazyr
< 
< Airports: 118 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 36 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 18 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 under 914 m: 11 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 82 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 9 under 914 m: 62 (1996 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,563 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 63,355 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 60,567 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 2,788 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> NA km; note - Belarus has extensive and widely used canal and river systems
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Mazyr
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 118 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 11 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 82
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 62 (1996 est.)
------
Belarus/Military|988039038
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,714,420 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 2,126,655 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 82,720 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $156 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY98)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Interior Ministry Troops, Border Guards
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,714,420 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,126,655 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 82,720 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $156 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY98)
------
Belarus/Transnational_issues|988039062
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to and via Russia, and to the Baltics and Western Europe
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for the domestic market; transshipment point for illicit drugs to and via Russia, and to the Baltics and Western Europe
------
Belgium/History|988039192
1c1,2
< Background: Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.
------
Belgium/Geography|988039236
1,35c1,64
< Location: Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 50 50 N, 4 00 E
< 
< Map references: Europe
< 
< Area: total: 30,510 sq km land: 30,230 sq km water: 280 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about the size of Maryland
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 1,385 km border countries: France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
< 
< Coastline: 66 km
< 
< Maritime claims: continental shelf: median line with neighbors exclusive fishing zone: median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast) territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy
< 
< Terrain: flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: North Sea 0 m highest point: Signal de Botrange 694 m
< 
< Natural resources: coal, natural gas
< 
< Land use: arable land: 24% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 20% forests and woodland: 21% other: 34%
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
< 
< Environment - current issues: the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between France and the Netherlands
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 50 50 N, 4 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30,510 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 30,230 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 280 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about the size of Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,385 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> France 620 km, Germany 167 km, Luxembourg 148 km, Netherlands 450 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 66 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> median line with neighbors
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> median line with neighbors (extends about 68 km from coast)
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; mild winters, cool summers; rainy, humid, cloudy
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat coastal plains in northwest, central rolling hills, rugged mountains of Ardennes Forest in southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> North Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Signal de Botrange 694 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, natural gas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 34%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding is a threat in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> crossroads of Western Europe; majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of Brussels which is the seat of both the EU and NATO
------
Belgium/People|988039261
1,29c1,59
< Population: 10,241,506 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 18% (male 919,445; female 877,896) 15-64 years: 66% (male 3,386,193; female 3,334,081) 65 years and over: 16% (male 701,842; female 1,022,049) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.18% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 10.91 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 10.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 4.76 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 77.8 years male: 74.47 years female: 81.3 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Belgian(s) adjective: Belgian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25%
< 
< Languages: Dutch 58%, French 32%, German 10%, legally bilingual
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: NA% female: NA%
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,241,506 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 919,445; female 877,896)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 3,386,193; female 3,334,081)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 16% (male 701,842; female 1,022,049) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.18% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 10.91 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 4.76 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.8 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.47 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.3 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Belgian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Belgian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Fleming 58%, Walloon 31%, mixed or other 11%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 75%, Protestant or other 25%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Dutch 58%, French 32%, German 10%, legally bilingual
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Belgium/Government|988039302
1,37c1,80
< Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Belgium conventional short form: Belgium local long form: Royaume de [[Belgique/Koninkrijk]] Belgie local short form: [[Belgique/Belgie]]
< 
< Data code: BE
< 
< Government type: federal parliamentary [[democracy]] under a constitutional monarch
< 
< Capital: Brussels
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant Wallon, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, Vlaams Brabant, West-Vlaanderen note: the Brussels Capital Region is not included within the 10 provinces
< 
< Independence: 4 October 1830 (from the Netherlands)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD I to the throne in 1831)
< 
< Constitution: 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
< 
< Legal system: civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the monarch head of government: Prime Minister Guy VERHOFSTADT (since 13 July 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch and approved by Parliament elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch and then approved by Parliament note: government coalition - VLD, PRL, PS, SP, AGALEV, and ECOLO
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Dutch, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected by popular vote, 31 are indirectly elected; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Dutch, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held in NA 2003) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - VLD 15.4%, CVP 14.7%, PRL 10.6%, PS 9.7%, VB 9.4%, SP 8.9%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.1%, PSC 6.0%, VU 5.1%; seats by party - VLD 11, CVP 10, PS 10, PRL 9, VB 6, SP 6, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, PSC 5, VU 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - VLD 14.3%, CVP 14.1%, PS 10.2%, PRL 10.1%, VB 9.9%, SP 9.5%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.0%, PSC 5.9%, VU 5.6%; seats by party - VLD 23, CVP 22, PS 19, PRL 18, VB 15, SP 14, ECOLO 11, PSC 10, AGALEV 9, VU 8, FN 1 note: as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Dutch, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch
< 
< Political parties and leaders: AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [Wilfried BERVOETS]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Stefaan DE CLERCK, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Karel DE GUCHT, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Patrick JANSSENS, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Joelle MILQUET, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Daniel DUCARME, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Elio DI RUPO, president]; National Front or FN [Dr. FERET]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Frank VANHECKE]; Volksunie or VU [Geert BOURGEOIS, president]; other minor parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]] , Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, [[WTrO]], ZC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Alexis REYN chancery: 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 333-6900 FAX: [1] (202) 333-3079 consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Paul CEJAS embassy: 27 Boulevard du Regent, B-1000 Brussels mailing address: PSC 82, Box 002, APO AE 09710 telephone: [32] (2) 508-2111 FAX: [32] (2) 511-2725
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Belgium
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Belgium
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Royaume de Belgique/Koninkrijk Belgie
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Belgique/Belgie
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BE
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Brussels
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 provinces (French: provinces, singular - province; Flemish: provincien, singular - provincie); Antwerpen, Brabant Wallon, Hainaut, Liege, Limburg, Luxembourg, Namur, Oost-Vlaanderen, Vlaams Brabant, West-Vlaanderen
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Brussels Capital Region is not included within the 10 provinces
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 4 October 1830 (from the Netherlands)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 21 July (ascension of King LEOPOLD I to the throne in 1831)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 7 February 1831, last revised 14 July 1993; parliament approved a constitutional package creating a federal state
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system influenced by English constitutional theory; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King ALBERT II (since 9 August 1993); Heir Apparent Prince PHILIPPE, son of the monarch
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Guy VERHOFSTADT (since 13 July 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch and approved by Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch and then approved by Parliament
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - VLD, PRL, PS, SP, AGALEV, and ECOLO
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of a Senate or Senaat in Dutch, Senat in French (71 seats; 40 members are directly elected by popular vote, 31 are indirectly elected; members serve four-year terms) and a Chamber of Deputies or Kamer van Volksvertegenwoordigers in Dutch, Chambre des Representants in French (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate and Chamber of Deputies - last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held in NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - VLD 15.4%, CVP 14.7%, PRL 10.6%, PS 9.7%, VB 9.4%, SP 8.9%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.1%, PSC 6.0%, VU 5.1%; seats by party - VLD 11, CVP 10, PS 10, PRL 9, VB 6, SP 6, ECOLO 6, AGALEV 5, PSC 5, VU 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - VLD 14.3%, CVP 14.1%, PS 10.2%, PRL 10.1%, VB 9.9%, SP 9.5%, ECOLO 7.4%, AGALEV 7.0%, PSC 5.9%, VU 5.6%; seats by party - VLD 23, CVP 22, PS 19, PRL 18, VB 15, SP 14, ECOLO 11, PSC 10, AGALEV 9, VU 8, FN 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> as a result of the 1993 constitutional revision that furthered devolution into a federal state, there are now three levels of government (federal, regional, and linguistic community) with a complex division of responsibilities; this reality leaves six governments each with its own legislative assembly; for other acronyms of the listed parties see Political parties and leaders
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Justice or Hof van Cassatie in Dutch, Cour de Cassation in French, judges are appointed for life by the Belgian monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> AGALEV (Flemish Greens) [Wilfried BERVOETS]; ECOLO (Francophone Greens) [no president]; Flemish Christian Democrats or CVP (Christian People's Party) [Stefaan DE CLERCK, president]; Flemish Liberal Democrats or VLD [Karel DE GUCHT, president]; Flemish Socialist Party or SP [Patrick JANSSENS, president]; Francophone Christian Democrats or PSC (Social Christian Party) [Joelle MILQUET, president]; Francophone Democratic Front or FDF [Olivier MAINGAIN, president]; Francophone Liberal Reformation Party or PRL [Daniel DUCARME, president]; Francophone Socialist Party or PS [Elio DI RUPO, president]; National Front or FN [Dr. FERET]; Vlaams Blok or VB [Frank VANHECKE]; Volksunie or VU [Geert BOURGEOIS, president]; other minor parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Christian and Socialist Trade Unions; Federation of Belgian Industries; numerous other associations representing bankers, manufacturers, middle-class artisans, and the legal and medical professions; various organizations represent the cultural interests of Flanders and Wallonia; various peace groups such as the Flemish Action Committee Against Nuclear Weapons and Pax Christi
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNRWA, UNTSO, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Alexis REYN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 333-6900
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 333-3079
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Paul CEJAS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 27 Boulevard du Regent, B-1000 Brussels
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 82, Box 002, APO AE 09710
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [32] (2) 508-2111
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [32] (2) 511-2725
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of black (hoist side), yellow, and red; the design was based on the flag of France
------
Belgium/Economy|988039338
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 122% of GDP in 1998 and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. The dioxin crisis - beginning in June 1999 with the discovery of a cancer-causing substance in animal feed - constituted a serious blow to the food-processing industry, both domestically and internationally. This crisis slowed down GDP growth with recovery expected in the year 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $243.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 1.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $23,900 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1.4% industry: 27% services: 71.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 4%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.7% highest 10%: 20.2% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.341 million (1999)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 73%, industry 25%, agriculture 2% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 9% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $116.5 billion expenditures: $119 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.7 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< Industries: engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 78.702 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 42.48% hydro: 0.49% nuclear: 55.72% other: 1.31% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 74.543 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 7.75 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk
< 
< Exports: $187.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products
< 
< Exports - partners: EU 76% (Germany 19%, France 18%, Netherlands 12%, UK 10%) (1998)
< 
< Imports: $172.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products
< 
< Imports - partners: EU 71% (Germany 18%, Netherlands 17%, France 14%, UK 9%) (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $28.3 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - donor: ODA, $764 million (1997)
< 
< Currency: 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Belgian francs (BF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.229 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995) note: on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 Belgian francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt fell from 127% of GDP in 1996 to 122% of GDP in 1998 and the government is trying to control its expenditures to bring the figure more into line with other industrialized countries. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. The dioxin crisis - beginning in June 1999 with the discovery of a cancer-causing substance in animal feed - constituted a serious blow to the food-processing industry, both domestically and internationally. This crisis slowed down GDP growth with recovery expected in the year 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $243.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1.4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 71.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 4%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.7%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 20.2% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.341 million (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 73%, industry 25%, agriculture 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $116.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $119 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.7 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> engineering and metal products, motor vehicle assembly, processed food and beverages, chemicals, basic metals, textiles, glass, petroleum, coal
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 78.702 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 42.48%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.49%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 55.72%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 1.31% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 74.543 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 7.75 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugar beets, fresh vegetables, fruits, grain, tobacco; beef, veal, pork, milk
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $187.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, diamonds, metals and metal products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 76% (Germany 19%, France 18%, Netherlands 12%, UK 10%) (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $172.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals and metal products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 71% (Germany 18%, Netherlands 17%, France 14%, UK 9%) (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $28.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $764 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Belgian franc (BF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Belgian francs (BF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.229 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 Belgian francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Belgium/Communications|988039366
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 4.632 million (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 664,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities domestic: nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network international: 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 8.075 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 24 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 4.72 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 51 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 4.632 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 664,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 8.075 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 24 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4.72 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 51 (1999)
------
Belgium/Transportation|988039416
1,19c1,47
< Railways: total: 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track) standard gauge: 3,437 km 1.435-m gauge (1998)
< 
< Highways: total: 145,850 km paved: 117,701 km (including 1,682 km of expressways) unpaved: 28,149 km (1998)
< 
< Waterways: 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use)
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT ships by type: cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 42 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 24 over 3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 6 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 18 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 3,437 km 1.435-m gauge (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 145,850 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 117,701 km (including 1,682 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 28,149 km (1998)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,043 km (1,528 km in regular commercial use)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Antwerp (one of the world's busiest ports), Brugge, Gent, Hasselt, Liege, Mons, Namur, Oostende, Zeebrugge
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 42 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 24
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Belgium/Military|988039438
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,527,752 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 2,090,800 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 64,165 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.8 billion (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,527,752 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,090,800 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 64,165 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $2.8 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY99)
------
Belgium/Transnational_issues|988039486
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> source of precursor chemicals for South American cocaine processors; transshipment point for cocaine, heroin, hashish, and marijuana entering Western Europe
------
Belgium|988039563
21,22c21,22
< Currency: Euro (since 1999, before that the Belgian Franc)<BR>
< (as seen on www.fgov.be)
---
> Currency: [[Euro]] (since 1999, before that the Belgian Franc)<BR>
> (as seen on http://www.fgov.be)
27c27
< Belgium is divided into 10 provinces; Antwerp, Limburg, East-Flanders, West-Flanders, Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant, Namur, Liège, Hainaut and Province of Luxemburg.
---
> Belgium is divided into 10 provinces; [[Antwerp]], [[Limburg]], [[East-Flanders]], [[West-Flanders]], [[Flemish Brabant]], [[Walloon Brabant]], [[Namur]], [[Liège]], [[Hainaut]] and [[Province of Luxemburg]].
39c39
< go to www.fgov.be for more information.
---
> go to http://www.fgov.be for more information.
------
Belize/History|988039699
1c1,2
< Background: Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
------
Belize/Geography|988039749
1,35c1,62
< Location: Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 17 15 N, 88 45 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area: total: 22,960 sq km land: 22,800 sq km water: 160 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Massachusetts
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 516 km border countries: Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
< 
< Coastline: 386 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
< 
< Climate: tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
< 
< Terrain: flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160 m
< 
< Natural resources: arable land potential, timber, fish, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 2% forests and woodland: 92% other: 3% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Mexico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 17 15 N, 88 45 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22,960 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 22,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 160 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Massachusetts
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 516 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guatemala 266 km, Mexico 250 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 386 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm in the north, 3 nm in the south; note - from the mouth of the Sarstoon River to Ranguana Cay, Belize's territorial sea is 3 nm; according to Belize's Maritime Areas Act, 1992, the purpose of this limitation is to provide a framework for the negotiation of a definitive agreement on territorial differences with Guatemala
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; very hot and humid; rainy season (May to February)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat, swampy coastal plain; low mountains in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Victoria Peak 1,160 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> arable land potential, timber, fish, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 92%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent, devastating hurricanes (September to December) and coastal flooding (especially in south)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Marine Dumping, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> only country in Central America without a coastline on the North Pacific Ocean
------
Belize/People|988039803
1,29c1,61
< Population: 249,183 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 43% (male 54,009; female 51,945) 15-64 years: 54% (male 68,052; female 66,366) 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,298; female 4,513) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.75% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 32.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 4.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.91 years male: 68.66 years female: 73.28 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Belizean(s) adjective: Belizean
< 
< Ethnic groups: mestizo 44.1%, Creole 31%, Maya 9.2%, Garifuna 6.2%, other 9.5%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980)
< 
< Languages: English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib), Creole
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 70.3% male: 70.3% female: 70.3% (1991 est.) note: other sources list the literacy rate as high as 75%
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 249,183 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 54,009; female 51,945)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 68,052; female 66,366)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 4,298; female 4,513) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.75% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 32.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.81 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.91 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.66 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.28 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Belizean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Belizean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo 44.1%, Creole 31%, Maya 9.2%, Garifuna 6.2%, other 9.5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 30% (Anglican 12%, Methodist 6%, Mennonite 4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Pentecostal 2%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6% (1980)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Spanish, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib), Creole
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70.3% (1991 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> other sources list the literacy rate as high as 75%
------
Belize/Government|988039843
1,37c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Belize former: British Honduras
< 
< Data code: BH
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Belmopan
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
< 
< Independence: 21 September 1981 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 21 September (1981)
< 
< Constitution: 21 September 1981
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993) head of government: Prime Minister Said MUSA (since 27 August 1998); Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO (since 1 September 1998) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; governor general appoints the member of the House of Representatives who is leader of the majority party to be prime minister
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (eight members, five appointed on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general; members are appointed for five-year terms); and the House of Representatives (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: House of Representatives - last held 27 August 1998 (next to be held NA August 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 26, UDP 3
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
< 
< Political parties and leaders: People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR [Assad SHOMAN]; United Worker's Front
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador James Schofield MURPHY chancery: 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636 FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Carolyn CURIEL embassy: Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City mailing address: P. O. Box 286, Unit 7401, APO AA 34025 telephone: [501] (2) 77161 through 77163 FAX: [501] (2) 30802
< 
< Flag description: blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Belize
> <br><i>former:</i>
> British Honduras
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BH
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Belmopan
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 districts; Belize, Cayo, Corozal, Orange Walk, Stann Creek, Toledo
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 21 September 1981 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 21 September (1981)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 21 September 1981
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Colville YOUNG (since 17 November 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Said MUSA (since 27 August 1998); Deputy Prime Minister John BRICENO (since 1 September 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; governor general appoints the member of the House of Representatives who is leader of the majority party to be prime minister
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (eight members, five appointed on the advice of the prime minister, two on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general; members are appointed for five-year terms); and the House of Representatives (29 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Representatives - last held 27 August 1998 (next to be held NA August 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 26, UDP 3
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, the chief justice is appointed by the governor general on advice of the prime minister
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> People's United Party or PUP [Said MUSA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Manuel ESQUIVEL, Dean BARROW]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Society for the Promotion of Education and Research or SPEAR [Assad SHOMAN]; United Worker's Front
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James Schofield MURPHY
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-9636
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-6888
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Carolyn CURIEL
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Gabourel Lane and Hutson Street, Belize City
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 286, Unit 7401, APO AA 34025
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [501] (2) 77161 through 77163
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [501] (2) 30802
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with a narrow red stripe along the top and the bottom edges; centered is a large white disk bearing the coat of arms; the coat of arms features a shield flanked by two workers in front of a mahogany tree with the related motto SUB UMBRA FLOREO (I Flourish in the Shade) on a scroll at the bottom, all encircled by a green garland
------
Belize/Economy|988039880
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $740 million (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 22% industry: 22% services: 56% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.9% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 71,000 note: shortage of skilled labor and all types of technical personnel (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 38%, industry 32%, services 30% (1994)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 14.3% (1998)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $140 million expenditures: $180 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: garment production, food processing, tourism, construction
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -4.4% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production: 175 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 57.14% hydro: 42.86% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 163 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp
< 
< Exports: $150 million (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: sugar, bananas, citrus fruits, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood
< 
< Exports - partners: US 45.5%, UK 30%, EU 10%, Caricom 4.2%, Mexico 3.4%, Canada 3.3% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $320 million (c.i.f., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
< 
< Imports - partners: US 52%, Mexico 13%, UK 5% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $380 million (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $23.4 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Belizean dollars (Bz$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $740 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 56% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -0.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 71,000
> <br><i>note:</i>
> shortage of skilled labor and all types of technical personnel (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 38%, industry 32%, services 30% (1994)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 14.3% (1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $140 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $180 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> garment production, food processing, tourism, construction
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -4.4% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 175 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 57.14%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 42.86%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 163 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, coca, citrus, sugarcane; lumber; fish, cultured shrimp
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $150 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> sugar, bananas, citrus fruits, clothing, fish products, molasses, wood
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 45.5%, UK 30%, EU 10%, Caricom 4.2%, Mexico 3.4%, Canada 3.3%  (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $320 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transportation equipment, manufactured goods, food, fuels, chemicals, pharmaceuticals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 52%, Mexico 13%, UK 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $380 million (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $23.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Belizean dollar (Bz$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Belizean dollars (Bz$) per US$1 - 2.0000 (fixed rate)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Belize/Communications|988039958
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 29,600 (1996)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,237 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: above-average system domestic: trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 133,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 41,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 29,600 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,237 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> above-average system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> trunk network depends primarily on microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 133,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 41,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Belize/Transportation|988039988
1,15c1,38
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 2,872 km paved: 488 km unpaved: 2,384 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 825 km river network used by shallow-draft craft; seasonally navigable
< 
< Ports and harbors: Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,647,452 GRT/2,339,134 DWT ships by type: bulk 36, cargo 275, chemical tanker 7, container 9, liquified gas 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 51, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 7 countries: Cuba 2, Cyprus 1, Greece 1, Singapore 2, UAE 12, UK 1, and US 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 44 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 41 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 30 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,872 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 488 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 2,384 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 825 km river network used by shallow-draft craft; seasonally navigable
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Belize City, Big Creek, Corozol, Punta Gorda
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,647,452 GRT/2,339,134 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 36, cargo 275, chemical tanker 7, container 9, liquified gas 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 51, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 7 countries: Cuba 2, Cyprus 1, Greece 1, Singapore 2, UAE 12, UK 1, and US 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 44 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 41
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 30 (1999 est.)
------
Belize/Military|988040015
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 60,482 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 35,874 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 2,735 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $15 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY97/98)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Belize Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Maritime Wing, Air Wing, and Volunteer Guard), Belize National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 60,482 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 35,874 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 2,735 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $15 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY97/98)
------
Belize/Transnational_issues|988040037
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine; small-scale illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; minor money-laundering center
------
Benin/History|988040148
1,2c1,2
< Background: Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
< 
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
------
Benin/Geography|988040184
1,35c1,60
< Location: Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 9 30 N, 2 15 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 112,620 sq km land: 110,620 sq km water: 2,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 1,989 km border countries: Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
< 
< Coastline: 121 km
< 
< Maritime claims: territorial sea: 200 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Mont Sokbaro 658 m
< 
< Natural resources: small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
< 
< Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 4% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 31% other: 48% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 100 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
< 
< Environment - current issues: recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: no natural harbors
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 9 30 N, 2 15 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 112,620 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 110,620 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 2,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,989 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 121 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid in south; semiarid in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to undulating plain; some hills and low mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Sokbaro 658 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 48% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 100 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north in winter
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> recent droughts have severely affected marginal agriculture in north; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> no natural harbors
------
Benin/People|988040248
1,29c1,61
< Population: 6,395,919 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,531,636; female 1,503,552) 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,551,867; female 1,660,845) 65 years and over: 3% (male 63,717; female 84,302) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.03% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 44.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 90.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 50.18 years male: 49.24 years female: 51.16 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Beninese (singular and plural) adjective: Beninese
< 
< Ethnic groups: African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15%
< 
< Languages: French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 37% male: 48.7% female: 25.8% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,395,919
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 47% (male 1,531,636; female 1,503,552)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 1,551,867; female 1,660,845)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 63,717; female 84,302) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.03% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 44.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 90.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.18 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.24 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.16 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Beninese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Beninese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> African 99% (42 ethnic groups, most important being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans 5,500
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 70%, Muslim 15%, Christian 15%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Fon and Yoruba (most common vernaculars in south), tribal languages (at least six major ones in north)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 37%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 25.8% (1995 est.)
------
Benin/Government|988040284
1,35c1,76
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Benin conventional short form: Benin local long form: Republique du Benin local short form: Benin former: Dahomey
< 
< Data code: BN
< 
< Government type: republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
< 
< Capital: Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou note: six additional provinces have been reported but not confirmed; they are Alibori, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, and Plateau; moreover, the term "province" may have been changed to "department"
< 
< Independence: 1 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 1 August (1990)
< 
< Constitution: December 1990
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001) election results: Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 28 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRB 27, PRD 11, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 9, MADEPO 6, Alliance Etoile 4, Alliance IPD 4, CAR-DUNYA 3, MERCI 2, other 7
< 
< Judicial branch: Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice
< 
< Political parties and leaders: African Movement for Democracy and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN]; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjou Sylvain AKINDES]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Benin Renaissance Party or PRB [Nicephore SOGLO]; Cameleon Alliance or AC [leader NA]; Car-DUNYA [leader NA]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal FANTONDJI, first secretary]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI]; Front for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA; Impulse for Progress and Democracy or IPD [Bertin BORNA]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening or MERCI [Severin ADJOVI]; New Generation for the Republic or NG [leader NA]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Francois Odjo TANKPINON]; Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism or RDP [Dominique HOYMINOU, Dr. Giles Auguste MINONTIN]; The Star Alliance (Alliance E'toile) [leader NA]; Union for National Democracy and Solidarity or UDS [Adamou N'Diaye MAMA]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN chancery: 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656 FAX: [1] (202) 265-1996
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. FELDER embassy: Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou mailing address: B. P. 2012, Cotonou telephone: [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92 FAX: [229] 30-14-39, 30-19-74
< 
< Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Benin
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Benin
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique du Benin
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Benin
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Dahomey
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BN
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic under multiparty democratic rule; dropped Marxism-Leninism December 1989; democratic reforms adopted February 1990; transition to multiparty system completed 4 April 1991
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Porto-Novo is the official capital; Cotonou is the seat of government
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 provinces; Atakora, Atlantique, Borgou, Mono, Oueme, Zou
> <br><i>note:</i>
> six additional provinces have been reported but not confirmed; they are Alibori, Collines, Couffo, Donga, Littoral, and Plateau; moreover, the term "province" may have been changed to "department"
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 1 August (1990)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> December 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Mathieu KEREKOU (since 4 April 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Mathieu KEREKOU elected president; percent of vote - Mathieu KEREKOU 52.49%, Nicephore SOGLO 47.51%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (83 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 28 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRB 27, PRD 11, FARD-ALAFIA 10, PSD 9, MADEPO 6, Alliance Etoile 4, Alliance IPD 4, CAR-DUNYA 3, MERCI 2, other 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court or Cour Constitutionnelle, Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, High Court of Justice
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> African Movement for Democracy and Progress or MADEP [Sefou FAGBOHOUN]; Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [Adekpedjou Sylvain AKINDES]; Alliance of the Social Democratic Party or PSD and the National Union for Solidarity and Progress or UNSP [Bruno AMOUSSOU]; Benin Renaissance Party or PRB [Nicephore SOGLO]; Cameleon Alliance or AC [leader NA]; Car-DUNYA [leader NA]; Communist Party of Benin or PCB [Pascal FANTONDJI, first secretary]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Adrien HOUNGBEDJI]; Front for Renewal and Development or FARD-ALAFIA; Impulse for Progress and Democracy or IPD [Bertin BORNA]; Liberal Democrats' Rally for National Reconstruction-Vivoten or RDL-Vivoten [Severin ADJOVI]; Movement for Citizens' Commitment and Awakening or MERCI [Severin ADJOVI]; New Generation for the Republic or NG [leader NA]; Our Common Cause or NCC [Francois Odjo TANKPINON]; Rally for Democracy and Pan-Africanism or RDP [Dominique HOYMINOU, Dr. Giles Auguste MINONTIN]; The Star Alliance (Alliance E'toile) [leader NA]; Union for National Democracy and Solidarity or UDS [Adamou N'Diaye MAMA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-6656
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-1996
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Robert C. FELDER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Caporal Bernard Anani, Cotonou
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 2012, Cotonou
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [229] 30-06-50, 30-05-13, 30-17-92
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [229] 30-14-39, 30-19-74
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and red with a vertical green band on the hoist side
------
Benin/Economy|988040317
1,59c1,80
< Economy - overview: The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1990-95 and 5% in 1996-99. Rapid population growth has offset much of this growth in output. Inflation has subsided over the past three years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a structural adjustment program since 1991.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 34% industry: 14% services: 52% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 33% (1995 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget: revenues: $299 million expenditures: $445 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 6 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 276 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 270 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock
< 
< Exports: $396 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
< 
< Exports - partners: Brazil 32%, Libya, Indonesia, Spain (1998)
< 
< Imports: $566 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods
< 
< Imports - partners: France 22%, China 16%, UK, Netherlands (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.6 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $281.2 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: from 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a sound 4% in 1990-95 and 5% in 1996-99. Rapid population growth has offset much of this growth in output. Inflation has subsided over the past three years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. The government, still burdened with money-losing state enterprises and a bloated civil service, has been gradually implementing a structural adjustment program since 1991.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 52% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 33% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $299 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $445 million, including capital expenditures of $14 million (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles, cigarettes; beverages, food; construction materials, petroleum
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 276 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 270 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> corn, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, rice, cotton, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $396 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cotton, crude oil, palm products, cocoa
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Brazil 32%, Libya, Indonesia, Spain (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $566 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, tobacco, petroleum products, capital goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 22%, China 16%, UK, Netherlands (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.6 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $281.2 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> from 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Benin/Communications|988040340
1,15c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 28,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,050 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: fair system of open wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 4 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 620,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (one privately-owned) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 60,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 28,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,050 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fair system of open wire, microwave radio relay, and cellular connections
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); submarine cable
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 620,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (one privately-owned) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 60,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Benin/Transportation|988040365
1,15c1,34
< Railways: total: 578 km (single track) narrow gauge: 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways: total: 6,787 km paved: 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways) unpaved: 5,430 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: navigable along small sections, important only locally
< 
< Ports and harbors: Cotonou, Porto-Novo
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 5 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 578 km (single track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 578 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,787 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,357 km (including 10 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 5,430 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> navigable along small sections, important only locally
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cotonou, Porto-Novo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
------
Euphoria/Talk|988040383
4a5,6
> ----
> Looks better to me anyway.  We can also soon put this under [[euphoria (programming language)]] or perhaps [[euphoria (prog. language)]], because CliffordAdams has just come out with the latest version of [[UseModWiki|UseMod]]. --[[LMS]]
------
Benin/Military|988040391
1,13c1,25
< Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,402,566 females age 15-49: 1,445,082 note: both sexes are liable for military service (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 717,289 females age 15-49: 732,196 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 69,065 females: 67,961 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $27 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY96)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), National Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,402,566
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 1,445,082
> <br><i>note:</i>
> both sexes are liable for military service (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 717,289
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 732,196 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 69,065
> <br><i>females:</i>
> 67,961 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $27 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY96)
------
Benin/Transnational_issues|988040413
1,4c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
< 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for narcotics associated with Nigerian trafficking organizations and most commonly destined for Western Europe and the US
------
Bermuda/History|988040530
1c1,2
< Background: Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has developed into highly successful offshore financial center. A referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Bermuda was first settled in 1609 by shipwrecked English colonists headed for Virginia. Tourism to the island to escape North American winters first developed in Victorian times. Bermuda has developed into a highly successful offshore financial center. A referendum on independence was soundly defeated in 1995.
------
Bermuda/Geography|988040578
1,33c1,54
< Location: North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 32 20 N, 64 45 W
< 
< Map references: North America
< 
< Area: total: 58.8 sq km land: 58.8 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 103 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
< 
< Terrain: low hills separated by fertile depressions
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Town Hill 76 m
< 
< Natural resources: limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
< 
< Land use: arable land: 6% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 94% (55% developed, 39% rural/open space) (1997 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes (June to November)
< 
< Environment - current issues: asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
< 
< Geography - note: consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> North America, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, east of North Carolina (US)
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 32 20 N, 64 45 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> North America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 58.8 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 58.8 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 103 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical; mild, humid; gales, strong winds common in winter
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low hills separated by fertile depressions
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Town Hill 76 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> limestone, pleasant climate fostering tourism
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 94% (55% developed, 39% rural/open space) (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes (June to November)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> consists of about 360 small coral islands with ample rainfall, but no rivers or freshwater lakes; some land, reclaimed and otherwise, was leased by US Government from 1941 to 1995
------
Bermuda/People|988040612
1,29c1,59
< Population: 62,997 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 6,107; female 6,212) 15-64 years: 70% (male 21,620; female 22,171) 65 years and over: 10% (male 2,972; female 3,915) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.75% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 12.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 7.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.76 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76.94 years male: 74.89 years female: 78.86 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bermudian(s) adjective: Bermudian
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 58%, white 36%, other 6%
< 
< Religions: non-Anglican Protestant 39%, Anglican 27%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 19%
< 
< Languages: English (official), Portuguese
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 98% female: 99% (1970 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 62,997 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 6,107; female 6,212)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 70% (male 21,620; female 22,171)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 2,972; female 3,915) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.75% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.67 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.94 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.89 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.86 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bermudian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bermudian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 58%, white 36%, other 6%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> non-Anglican Protestant 39%, Anglican 27%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 19%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Portuguese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1970 est.)
------
Bermuda/Government|988040645
1,39c1,63
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bermuda
< 
< Data code: BD
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
< 
< Government type: parliamentary British overseas territory with internal self-government
< 
< Capital: Hamilton
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
< 
< Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< National holiday: Bermuda Day, 24 May
< 
< Constitution: 8 June 1968, amended 1989
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since NA June 1997) head of government: Premier Jennifer SMITH (since 10 November 1998) cabinet: Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; governor invites leader of largest party in Parliament to form a government as premier
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: last held 9 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2003) election results: percent of vote by party - PLP 54%, UBP 44%, NLP 1%, independents 1%; seats by party - PLP 26, UBP 14
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Bermuda Industrial Union or BIU [Derrick BURGESS]; Bermuda Public Services Association or BPSA [Betty CHRISTOPHER]
< 
< International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Consul General Lawrence OWEN consulate(s) general: Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton mailing address: P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; American Consulate General Hamilton, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-5300 telephone: [1] (441) 295-1342 FAX: [1] (441) 295-1592
< 
< Flag description: red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bermuda
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BD
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary British overseas territory with internal self-government
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Hamilton
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 parishes and 2 municipalities*; Devonshire, Hamilton, Hamilton*, Paget, Pembroke, Saint George*, Saint Georges, Sandys, Smiths, Southampton, Warwick
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Bermuda Day, 24 May
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 8 June 1968, amended 1989
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Thorold MASEFIELD (since NA June 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Premier Jennifer SMITH (since 10 November 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet nominated by the premier, appointed by the governor
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; governor invites leader of largest party in Parliament to form a government as premier
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (an 11-member body appointed by the governor) and the House of Assembly (40 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 9 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PLP 54%, UBP 44%, NLP 1%, independents 1%; seats by party - PLP 26, UBP 14
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> National Liberal Party or NLP [Charles JEFFERS]; Progressive Labor Party or PLP [Jennifer SMITH]; United Bermuda Party or UBP [Pamela GORDON]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Bermuda Industrial Union or BIU [Derrick BURGESS]; Bermuda Public Services Association or BPSA [Betty CHRISTOPHER]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Caricom (observer), CCC, ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Consul General Lawrence OWEN
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Crown Hill, 16 Middle Road, Devonshire, Hamilton
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box HM325, Hamilton HMBX; American Consulate General Hamilton, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-5300
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (441) 295-1342
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (441) 295-1592
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Bermudian coat of arms (white and blue shield with a red lion holding a scrolled shield showing the sinking of the ship Sea Venture off Bermuda in 1609) centered on the outer half of the flag
------
Koyaanisqatsi|988040678
10c10,11
< 
---
> ----
> Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
------
Bermuda/Economy|988040687
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $31,500 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1% industry: 10% services: 89% (1995 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2% (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 35,296 (1997)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NEGL% (1995)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $504.6 million expenditures: $537 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Industries: tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 420 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 391 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products
< 
< Exports: $32 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: reexports of pharmaceuticals
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 29.5%, US 9.8% (1997)
< 
< Imports: $624 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food and live animals
< 
< Imports - partners: US 34%, UK 9%, Mexico 8% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $NA
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $27.9 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $31,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 89% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 35,296 (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> clerical 23%, services 22%, laborers 17%, professional and technical 17%, administrative and managerial 12%, sales 7%, agriculture and fishing 2% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NEGL% (1995)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $504.6 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $537 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, finance, insurance, structural concrete products, paints, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, ship repairing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 420 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 391 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, vegetables, citrus, flowers; dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $32 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> reexports of pharmaceuticals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK 29.5%, US 9.8% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $624 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, chemicals, food and live animals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 34%, UK 9%, Mexico 8% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $27.9 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Bermudian dollar (Bd$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Bermudian dollar (Bd$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (fixed rate)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Bermuda/Communications|988040734
1,15c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 48,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 6,324 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: modern, fully automatic telephone system international: 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 82,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 3 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 66,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 48,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 6,324 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> modern, fully automatic telephone system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 82,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 66,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
------
Bermuda/Transportation|988040755
1c1,27
< Railways: 0 km
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 225 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 225 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1997 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition, there are 232 km of paved and unpaved roads that are privately owned
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Hamilton, Saint George
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 115 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,536,975 GRT/11,337,483 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 27, cargo 4, chemical tanker 2, container 17, liquified gas 7, petroleum tanker 33, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are UK 24, Canada 12, Hong Kong 11, US 11, Nigeria 4, Sweden 4, Norway 3, and Switzerland 2 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
3,11d28
< Highways: total: 225 km paved: 225 km unpaved: 0 km (1997 est.) note: in addition, there are 232 km of paved and unpaved roads that are privately owned
< 
< Ports and harbors: Hamilton, Saint George
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 115 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,536,975 GRT/11,337,483 DWT ships by type: bulk 27, cargo 4, chemical tanker 2, container 17, liquified gas 7, petroleum tanker 33, refrigerated cargo 14, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are UK 24, Canada 12, Hong Kong 11, US 11, Nigeria 4, Sweden 4, Norway 3, and Switzerland 2 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bermuda/Military|988040833
1,7c1,8
< Military branches: Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Bermuda Regiment, Bermuda Police Force, Bermuda Reserve Constabulary
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Bermuda/Transnational_issues|988040859
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Bhutan/History|988040936
1c1,2
< Background: Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Under British influence a monarchy was set up in 1907; three years later a treaty was signed whereby the country became a British protectorate. Independence was attained in 1949, with India subsequently guiding foreign relations and supplying aid.
------
Bhutan/Geography|988040977
1,35c1,59
< Location: Southern Asia, between China and India
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 27 30 N, 90 30 E
< 
< Map references: Asia
< 
< Area: total: 47,000 sq km land: 47,000 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about half the size of Indiana
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 1,075 km border countries: China 470 km, India 605 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
< 
< Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
< 
< Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 6% forests and woodland: 66% other: 26% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 340 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, between China and India
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 27 30 N, 90 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 47,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 47,000 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about half the size of Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,075 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 470 km, India 605 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies; tropical in southern plains; cool winters and hot summers in central valleys; severe winters and cool summers in Himalayas
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountainous with some fertile valleys and savanna
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Drangme Chhu 97 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Kula Kangri 7,553 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, hydropower, gypsum, calcium carbide
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 66%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 26% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 340 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> violent storms coming down from the Himalayas are the source of the country's name which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil erosion; limited access to potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; strategic location between China and India; controls several key Himalayan mountain passes
------
Bhutan/People|988041010
1,31c1,63
< Population: 2,005,222 note: other estimates range as low as 800,000 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 40% (male 417,627; female 387,927) 15-64 years: 56% (male 576,533; female 544,076) 65 years and over: 4% (male 40,081; female 38,978) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.19% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 36.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.03 male(s)/female total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 110.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 52.4 years male: 52.79 years female: 51.99 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 5.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bhutanese (singular and plural) adjective: Bhutanese
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15%
< 
< Religions: Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
< 
< Languages: Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 42.2% male: 56.2% female: 28.1% (1995 est.)
< 
< People - note: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,005,222
> <br><i>note:</i>
> other estimates range as low as 800,000 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 40% (male 417,627; female 387,927)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 56% (male 576,533; female 544,076)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 40,081; female 38,978) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.19% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 36.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 110.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 52.4 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 52.79 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.99 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bhutanese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bhutanese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bhote 50%, ethnic Nepalese 35%, indigenous or migrant tribes 15%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Lamaistic Buddhist 75%, Indian- and Nepalese-influenced Hinduism 25%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Dzongkha (official), Bhotes speak various Tibetan dialects, Nepalese speak various Nepalese dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 42.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 56.2%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 28.1% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>People - note:</b>
> refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
------
Bhutan/Government|988041040
1,37c1,58
< Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Bhutan conventional short form: Bhutan
< 
< Data code: BT
< 
< Government type: monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
< 
< Capital: Thimphu
< 
< Administrative divisions: 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
< 
< Independence: 8 August 1949 (from India)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
< 
< Constitution: no written constitution or bill of rights note: Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers
< 
< Legal system: based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: each family has one vote in village-level elections
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972) head of government: Foreign Minister Jigme Yoeser THINLEY (since NA June 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms note: there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 give the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms) elections: last held NA (next to be held NA) election results: NA
< 
< Judicial branch: the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High Court, judges appointed by the monarch
< 
< Political parties and leaders: no legal parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled)
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB? , CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
< 
< Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Bhutan
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bhutan
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> monarchy; special treaty relationship with India
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Thimphu
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 districts (dzongkhag, singular and plural); Bumthang, Chhukha, Chirang, Daga, Geylegphug, Ha, Lhuntshi, Mongar, Paro, Pemagatsel, Punakha, Samchi, Samdrup Jongkhar, Shemgang, Tashigang, Thimphu, Tongsa, Wangdi Phodrang
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 8 August 1949 (from India)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 17 December (1907) (Ugyen WANGCHUCK became first hereditary king)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> no written constitution or bill of rights
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Bhutan uses 1953 Royal decree for the Constitution of the National Assembly; on 7 July 1998, a Royal edict was ratified giving the National Assembly additional powers
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Indian law and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> each family has one vote in village-level elections
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King Jigme Singye WANGCHUCK (since 24 July 1972)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Foreign Minister Jigme Yoeser THINLEY (since NA June 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers (Lhengye Shungtsog) nominated by the monarch, approved by the National Assembly; members serve fixed, five-year terms
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Royal Advisory Council (Lodoi Tsokde), members nominated by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary, but democratic reforms in July 1998 give the National Assembly authority to remove the monarch with two-thirds vote
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Tshogdu (150 seats; 105 elected from village constituencies, 10 represent religious bodies, and 35 are designated by the monarch to represent government and other secular interests; members serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> the Supreme Court of Appeal is the monarch; High Court, judges appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> no legal parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Buddhist clergy; ethnic Nepalese organizations leading militant antigovernment campaign; Indian merchant community; United Front for Democracy (exiled)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US and Bhutan have no formal diplomatic relations, although informal contact is maintained between the Bhutanese and US Embassy in New Delhi (India)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper triangle is yellow and the lower triangle is orange; centered along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side
------
Bhutan/Economy|988041079
1,61c1,86
< Economy - overview: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 38% industry: 37% services: 25% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: NA note: massive lack of skilled labor
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget: revenues: $146 million expenditures: $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.) note: the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
< 
< Industries: cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 9.3% (1996 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.788 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 0.39% hydro: 99.61% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 345 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 1.339 billion kWh note: exports electricity to India (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 21 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
< 
< Exports: $111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
< 
< Exports - partners: India 94%, Bangladesh
< 
< Imports: $136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
< 
< Imports - partners: India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
< 
< Debt - external: $120 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $73.8 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
< 
< Exchange rates: ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of GDP. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 37%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 25% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> massive lack of skilled labor
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $146 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 9.3% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.788 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0.39%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 99.61%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 345 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 1.339 billion kWh
> <br><i>note:</i>
> exports electricity to India (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 21 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $111 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> India 94%, Bangladesh
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $136 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> India 77%, Japan, UK, Germany, US
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $120 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $73.8 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Bhutan/Communications|988041102
1,15c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use international: international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 37,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 11,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 5,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> domestic telephone service is very poor with few telephones in use
> <br><i>international:</i>
> international telephone and telegraph service is by landline through India; a satellite earth station was planned (1990)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 37,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 11,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Bhutan/Transportation|988041122
1,11c1,23
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 3,285 km paved: 1,994 km unpaved: 1,291 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,285 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,994 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,291 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Bhutan/Military|988041143
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 491,427 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 262,316 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 20,374 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Bhutan Army, Palace Guard, Militia, Royal Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 491,427 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 262,316 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 20,374 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Bhutan/Transnational_issues|988041165
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
------
Bolivia/History|988041252
1c1,2
< Background: Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simon BOLIVAR, broke away from Spanish rule in 1825; much of its subsequent history has consisted of a series of nearly 200 coups and counter-coups. Comparatively democratic civilian rule was established in the 1980s, but leaders have faced difficult problems of deep-seated poverty, social unrest, and drug production. Current goals include attracting foreign investment, strengthening the educational system, continuing the privatization program, and waging an anti-corruption campaign.
------
Bolivia/Geography|988041285
1,35c1,59
< Location: Central South America, southwest of Brazil
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 17 00 S, 65 00 W
< 
< Map references: South America
< 
< Area: total: 1,098,580 sq km land: 1,084,390 sq km water: 14,190 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Montana
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 6,743 km border countries: Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
< 
< Terrain: rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
< 
< Natural resources: tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 24% forests and woodland: 53% other: 21% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
< 
< Environment - current issues: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central South America, southwest of Brazil
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 17 00 S, 65 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,098,580 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,084,390 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 14,190 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than three times the size of Montana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,743 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Argentina 832 km, Brazil 3,400 km, Chile 861 km, Paraguay 750 km, Peru 900 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies with altitude; humid and tropical to cold and semiarid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rugged Andes Mountains with a highland plateau (Altiplano), hills, lowland plains of the Amazon Basin
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Rio Paraguay 90 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> tin, natural gas, petroleum, zinc, tungsten, antimony, silver, iron, lead, gold, timber, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 53%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 21% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,750 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cold, thin air of high plateau is obstacle to efficient fuel combustion, as well as to physical activity by those unaccustomed to it from birth; flooding in the northeast (March-April)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; shares control of Lago Titicaca, world's highest navigable lake (elevation 3,805 m), with Peru
------
Bolivia/People|988041318
1,29c1,59
< Population: 8,152,620 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 39.11% (male 1,624,404; female 1,564,057) 15-64 years: 56.42% (male 2,247,013; female 2,352,824) 65 years and over: 4.47% (male 164,473; female 199,849) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.83% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 28.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 8.36 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 60.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 63.7 years male: 61.19 years female: 66.34 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bolivian(s) adjective: Bolivian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
< 
< Languages: Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official)
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.1% male: 90.5% female: 76% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 8,152,620 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 39.11% (male 1,624,404; female 1,564,057)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 56.42% (male 2,247,013; female 2,352,824)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4.47% (male 164,473; female 199,849) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.83% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 28.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.36 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.82 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 60.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.7 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.19 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 66.34 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bolivian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bolivian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Quechua 30%, Aymara 25%, mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) 30%, white 15%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 95%, Protestant (Evangelical Methodist)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish (official), Quechua (official), Aymara (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 90.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76% (1995 est.)
------
Bolivia/Government|988041354
1,37c1,78
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Bolivia conventional short form: Bolivia local long form: Republica de Bolivia local short form: Bolivia
< 
< Data code: BL
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
< 
< Independence: 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
< 
< Constitution: 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
< 
< Legal system: based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) election results: Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PDC
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002) election results: Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for 10-year terms by National Congress
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; Bolivian Renovating Alliance or ARBOL [Marcelo FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB [leader NA]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; Civic Solidarity Union or UCS [Johnny FERNANDEZ]; Conscience of the Fatherland or CONDEPA [Remedios LOZA Alvarado]; Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Front of Katarista Unity or FULKA [Genaro FLORES]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Katarismo National Unity or KND [Filepe KITTELSON]; Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Movement Towards Socialism-Popular Instrument for Solidarity with the People or MAS-IPSP [leader Evo MORALES]; Nationalist Democratic Action or ADN [Enrique TORO]; Nationalist Katarista Movement or MKN [Fernando UNTOJA]; Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]; New Republican Force or NFR [Manfred REYES VILLA]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; Popular Patriotic Movement or MPP [Julio MANTILLA]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Socialist Party One or PS-1 [leader NA]; Solidarity and Democracy or SYD [leader NA]; Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement or MRTK-L [Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Unity and Progress Movement or MUP [Ivo KULJIS] note: political blocs include: left - MBL, EJE-P, VR-9, ASD, FRI, PCB, IU, FSN, PS-1, FSB, and MAS; center left - MIR, PDC, and New Youth Force; center - MNR; center right - ADN and NFR; populist - UCS, CONDEPA, SYD, MUP, and MPP; evangelical - ARBOL; indigenous - MRTK-L, MKN, and KND
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Cocalero Group
< 
< International organization participation: CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 483-4410 FAX: [1] (202) 328-3712 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK embassy: Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz mailing address: P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032 telephone: [591] (2) 430251 FAX: [591] (2) 433900
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Bolivia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bolivia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Bolivia
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Bolivia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BL
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> La Paz (seat of government); Sucre (legal capital and seat of judiciary)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, Beni, La Paz, Oruro, Pando, Potosi, Santa Cruz, Tarija
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 August 1825 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 6 August (1825)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 2 February 1967; revised in August 1994
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Spanish law and Napoleonic Code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age, universal and compulsory (married); 21 years of age, universal and compulsory (single)
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Hugo BANZER Suarez (since 6 August 1997); Vice President Jorge Fernando QUIROGA Ramirez (since 6 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Hugo BANZER Suarez elected president; percent of vote - Hugo BANZER Suarez (ADN) 22%; Jaime PAZ Zamora (MIR) 17%, Juan Carlos DURAN (MNR) 18%, Ivo KULJIS (UCS) 16%, Remedios LOZA (CONDEPA) 17%; no candidate received a majority of the popular vote; Hugo BANZER Suarez won a congressional runoff election on 5 August 1997 after forming a "megacoalition" with MIR, UCS, CONDEPA, NFR and PDC
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of Chamber of Senators or Camara de Senadores (27 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (130 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Chamber of Senators and Chamber of Deputies - last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held June 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Chamber of Senators - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 11, MIR 7, MNR 4, CONDEPA 3, UCS 2; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADN 32, MNR 26, MIR 23, UCS 21, CONDEPA 19, MBL 5, IU 4
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges appointed for 10-year terms by National Congress
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alternative of Democratic Socialism or ASD [Jerjes JUSTINIANO]; April 9 Revolutionary Vanguard or VR-9 [Carlos SERRATE]; Bolivian Communist Party or PCB [Marcos DOMIC]; Bolivian Renovating Alliance or ARBOL [Marcelo FERNANDEZ, Hugo VILLEGAS]; Bolivian Socialist Falange or FSB [leader NA]; Christian Democrat or PDC [Benjamin MIGUEL]; Civic Solidarity Union or UCS [Johnny FERNANDEZ]; Conscience of the Fatherland or CONDEPA [Remedios LOZA Alvarado]; Free Bolivia Movement or MBL [Antonio ARANIBAR]; Front of Katarista Unity or FULKA [Genaro FLORES]; Front of National Salvation or FSN [Manual MORALES Davila]; Katarismo National Unity or KND [Filepe KITTELSON]; Movement of the Revolutionary Left or MIR [Oscar EID]; Movement Towards Socialism-Popular Instrument for Solidarity with the People or MAS-IPSP [leader Evo MORALES]; Nationalist Democratic Action or ADN [Enrique TORO]; Nationalist Katarista Movement or MKN [Fernando UNTOJA]; Nationalist Revolutionary Movement or MNR [Gonzalo SANCHEZ DE LOZADA]; New Republican Force or NFR [Manfred REYES VILLA]; New Youth Force [Alfonso SAAVEDRA Bruno]; Patriotic Axis of Convergence or EJE-P [Ramiro BARRANECHEA]; Popular Patriotic Movement or MPP [Julio MANTILLA]; Revolutionary Front of the Left or FRI [Oscar ZAMORA]; Socialist Party One or PS-1 [leader NA]; Solidarity and Democracy or SYD [leader NA]; Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement or MRTK-L [Victor Hugo CARDENAS Conde]; United Left or IU [Marcos DOMIC]; Unity and Progress Movement or MUP [Ivo KULJIS]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> political blocs include: left - MBL, EJE-P, VR-9, ASD, FRI, PCB, IU, FSN, PS-1, FSB, and MAS; center left - MIR, PDC, and New Youth Force; center - MNR; center right - ADN and NFR; populist - UCS, CONDEPA, SYD, MUP, and MPP; evangelical - ARBOL; indigenous - MRTK-L, MKN, and KND
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Cocalero Group
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), MONUC, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-4410
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-3712
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Donna Jean HRINAK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida Arce 2780, San Jorge, La Paz
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 425, La Paz; APO AA 34032
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [591] (2) 430251
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [591] (2) 433900
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with the coat of arms centered on the yellow band; similar to the flag of Ghana, which has a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band
------
Bolivia/Economy|988041384
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $24.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 16.6% industry: 35.5% services: 47.9% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 70% (1999 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.3% highest 10%: 31.7% (1990)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 2.5 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
< 
< Budget: revenues: $2.7 billion expenditures: $2.7 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
< 
< Industries: mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1995 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.576 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 42.43% hydro: 55.75% nuclear: 0% other: 1.82% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.412 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 4 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 20 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
< 
< Exports: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
< 
< Exports - partners: UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, chemicals, petroleum, food
< 
< Imports - partners: US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $5.7 billion (1999)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $588 million (1997)
< 
< Currency: 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: bolivianos ($B) per US$1 - 6.0065 (January 2000), 5.8124 (1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $24.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 16.6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 35.5%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 47.9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 70% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 31.7% (1990)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.5 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 11.4% (1997) with widespread underemployment
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.7 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.7 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> mining, smelting, petroleum, food and beverages, tobacco, handicrafts, clothing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.576 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 42.43%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 55.75%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 1.82% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.412 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 4 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 20 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> capital goods, raw materials and semi-manufactures, chemicals, petroleum, food
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $5.7 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $588 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> bolivianos ($B) per US$1 - 6.0065 (January 2000), 5.8124 (1999), 5.5101 (1998), 5.2543 (1997), 5.0746 (1996), 4.8003 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Bolivia/Communications|988041410
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 368,874 (1996)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 7,229 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities domestic: primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 171, FM 73, shortwave 77 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 5.25 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 48 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 900,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 5 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 368,874 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 7,229 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> new subscribers face bureaucratic difficulties; most telephones are concentrated in La Paz and other cities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> primary trunk system, which is being expanded, employs digital microwave radio relay; some areas are served by fiber-optic cable; mobile cellular systems are being expanded
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 171, FM 73, shortwave 77 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 5.25 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 48 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 900,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
------
Bolivia/Transportation|988041446
1,17c1,47
< Railways: total: 3,691 km (single track) narrow gauge: 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995)
< 
< Highways: total: 52,216 km paved: 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways) unpaved: 49,344 km (1995 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 116,373 GRT/182,283 DWT ships by type: bulk 3, cargo 17, chemical tanker 3, container 1, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1,109 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 13 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1,096 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67 914 to 1,523 m: 219 under 914 m: 807 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,691 km (single track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,652 km 1.000-m gauge; 39 km 0.760-m gauge (13 km electrified) (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 52,216 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 2,872 km (including 27 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 49,344 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 10,000 km of commercially navigable waterways
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,800 km; petroleum products 580 km; natural gas 1,495 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; however, Bolivia has free port privileges in the maritime ports of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Paraguay
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 116,373 GRT/182,283 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 3, cargo 17, chemical tanker 3, container 1, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1,109 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,096
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 67
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 219
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 807 (1999 est.)
------
Bolivia/Military|988041470
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,949,267 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,269,228 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 86,863 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $147 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (Ejercito Boliviano), Navy (Fuerza Naval Boliviana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Boliviana), National Police Force (Policia Nacional de Bolivia)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,949,267 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,269,228 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 86,863 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $147 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.8% (FY99)
------
Bolivia/Transnational_issues|988041503
1,4c1,4
< Disputes - international: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 21,800 hectares under cultivation in 1999, a 45% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1998 levels; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
< 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> world's third-largest cultivator of coca (after Peru and Colombia) with an estimated 21,800 hectares under cultivation in 1999, a 45% decrease in overall cultivation of coca from 1998 levels; intermediate coca products and cocaine exported to or through Colombia, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to the US and other international drug markets; alternative crop program aims to reduce illicit coca cultivation
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/History|988041595
1c1,2
< Background: Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence from the former Yugoslavia in February of 1992. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat?  Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place, with troop levels to be reduced to about 19,000 by spring 2000.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October of 1991, was followed by a referendum for independence from the former Yugoslavia in February of 1992. The Bosnian Serbs - supported by neighboring Serbia - responded with armed resistance aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas to form a "greater Serbia." In March 1994, Bosnia's Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 21 November 1995, in Dayton, Ohio, the warring parties signed a peace agreement that brought to a halt the three years of interethnic civil strife (the final agreement was signed in Paris on 14 December 1995). The Dayton Agreement divides Bosnia and Herzegovina roughly equally between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska. In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force (IFOR) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement. IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force (SFOR) whose mission is to deter renewed hostilities. SFOR remains in place, with troop levels to be reduced to about 19,000 by spring 2000.
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Geography|988041633
1,35c1,59
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 44 00 N, 18 00 E
< 
< Map references: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
< 
< Area: total: 51,129 sq km land: 51,129 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than West Virginia
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 1,459 km border countries: Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
< 
< Coastline: 20 km
< 
< Maritime claims: NA
< 
< Climate: hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
< 
< Terrain: mountains and valleys
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
< 
< Natural resources: coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 14% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 20% forests and woodland: 39% other: 22% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Bosniak/Croat? Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 44 00 N, 18 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 51,129 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 51,129 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,459 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Croatia 932 km, Serbia and Montenegro 527 km (312 km with Serbia, 215 km with Montenegro)
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 20 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mountains and valleys
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Adriatic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Maglic 2,386 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 22% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> destructive earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> within Bosnia and Herzegovina's recognized borders, the country is divided into a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation (about 51% of the territory) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska [RS] (about 49% of the territory); the region called Herzegovina is contiguous to Croatia and traditionally has been settled by an ethnic Croat majority
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/People|988041661
1,29c1,63
< Population: 3,835,777 note: all data dealing with population are subject to considerable error because of the dislocations caused by military action and ethnic cleansing (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 401,554; female 379,303) 15-64 years: 71% (male 1,403,618; female 1,323,307) 65 years and over: 9% (male 138,173; female 189,822) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.1% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 12.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 7.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 25.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female total population: 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.49 years male: 68.78 years female: 74.38 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s) adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Serb 31%, Bosniak 44%, Croat 17%, Yugoslav 5.5%, other 2.5% (1991) note: Bosniak has replaced muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam
< 
< Religions: Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10%
< 
< Languages: Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
< 
< Literacy: definition: NA total population: NA% male: NA% female: NA%
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,835,777
> <br><i>note:</i>
> all data dealing with population are subject to considerable error because of the dislocations caused by military action and ethnic cleansing (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 401,554; female 379,303)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 71% (male 1,403,618; female 1,323,307)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 9% (male 138,173; female 189,822) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.1% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 25.92 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.73 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 25.17 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.49 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.78 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.38 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bosnian, Herzegovinian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Serb 31%, Bosniak 44%, Croat 17%, Yugoslav 5.5%, other 2.5% (1991)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Bosniak has replaced muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, Protestant 4%, other 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Government|988041705
1,39c1,82
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bosnia and Herzegovina local long form: none local short form: Bosna i Hercegovina
< 
< Data code: BK
< 
< Government type: emerging democracy
< 
< Capital: Sarajevo
< 
< Administrative divisions: there are two first-order administrative divisions - the Bosniak/Croat? Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska; note - Brcko in northeastern Bosnia is a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska
< 
< Independence: NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
< 
< National holiday: Bosnia and Herzegovina - BiH? National Day, 25 November
< 
< Constitution: the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force
< 
< Legal system: based on civil law system
< 
< Suffrage: 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (chairman since 14 February 2000, presidency member since 14 March 1996 - Bosniak); other members of the three-member rotating (every 8 months) presidency: Zivko RADISIC (since 13 October 1998 - Serb) and Ante JELAVIC (since NA September 1998 - Croat) head of government: vacant; note - in February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated cabinet: Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen note: President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 28 December 1999; Vice President Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 28 December 1999); note - president and vice president rotate every year; President of the Republika Srpska: vacant since Nikola POPLASEN was removed by the Office of the High Representative on 5 March 1999 (see Government note) elections: the three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term; the member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2002); the cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the presidency election results: percent of vote - Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first 8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote followed RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZETBEGOVIC with 87% of the Bosniak vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was ineligible to serve a second term until RADISIC and JELAVIC had each served a first term as Chairman of the Presidency
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Bosniak; members elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members elected by the Bosniak/Croat? Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms) elections: National House of Representatives - elections last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held in fall 2000); House of Peoples - last constituted 4 December 1998 (next to be constituted in fall 2000) election results: National House of Representatives - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH? 6, SDP-BiH? 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1; House of Peoples - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - NA note: the Bosniak/Croat? Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of a House of Representatives (140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH? 28, SDP-BiH? 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1; and a House of Peoples (72 seats - 30 Bosniak, 30 Croat, and 12 others); last constituted November 1998; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH? 1, NHI 1; as of January 1999, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a permanent election law; a draft law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures
< 
< Judicial branch: Constitutional Court, consists of nine members: four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat? Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP [leader NA]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Bosnian Patriotic Party or BPS [Sefer HALILOVIC]; Center Coalition or KC (includes LBO, RS) [leader NA]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Coalition for King and Fatherland or KKO (Dubravko Prstojevic]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BIH or KCD [Alija IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA and SBH]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH? or HDZ-BiH? [Ante JELAVIC]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRSTIC]; Croatian Peasants Party of BiH? or HSS-BiH? [Ilija SIMIC]; Democratic Party for Banja Luka and Krajina [Nikola SPIRIC]; Democratic Party of Pensioners or DSP [Alojz KNEZOVIC]; Democratic Peoples Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosnia Organization or MBO [Dzevad HADZIAVDIC]; New Croatian Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Party for Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Party of Democratic Progress of the Republika Srpska [Mladen IVANIC]; Party of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Radical Party Republika Srpska of RSRS [Miroslav RADOVANOVIC]; Republican Party or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Coalition for Republika Srpska or SKRS [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; Serb Democratic Party or Serb Lands or SDS [Dragan KALINIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Serb Radical Party-Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Nikola POPLASEN] (banned by the Office of the High Representative - see Government note - from participation in the April elections); Sloga or Unity [Zivko RADISIC] (includes SNS, SPRS, SNSD); Social Democratic Party BIH or SDP-BiH? [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: NA
< 
< International organization participation: CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ; note - Igor DAVIDOVIC should become ambassador in early 2000 chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037 telephone: [1] (202) 337-1500 FAX: [1] (202) 337-1502 consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas J. MILLER embassy: Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo mailing address: use street address telephone: [387] (71) 445-700 FAX: [387] (71) 659-722
< 
< Flag description: a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
< 
< Government - note: The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on 14 December 1995, retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities - a joint Bosniak/Croat? Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS) - each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Bosna i Hercegovina
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> emerging democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Sarajevo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> there are two first-order administrative divisions - the Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosna i Hercegovina) and the Bosnian Serb-led Republika Srpska; note - Brcko in northeastern Bosnia is a self-governing administrative unit under the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina; it is not part of either the Federation or Republika Srpska
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> NA April 1992 (from Yugoslavia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina - BiH National Day, 25 November
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> the Dayton Agreement, signed 14 December 1995, included a new constitution now in force
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 16 years of age, if employed; 18 years of age, universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Chairman of the Presidency Alija IZETBEGOVIC (chairman since 14 February 2000, presidency member since 14 March 1996 - Bosniak); other members of the three-member rotating (every 8 months) presidency: Zivko RADISIC (since 13 October 1998 - Serb) and Ante JELAVIC (since NA September 1998 - Croat)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> vacant; note - in February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure is being negotiated
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers nominated by the council chairmen
> <br><i>note:</i>
> President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ejup GANIC (since 28 December 1999; Vice President Ivo ANDRIC-LUZANIC (since 28 December 1999); note - president and vice president rotate every year; President of the Republika Srpska: vacant since Nikola POPLASEN was removed by the Office of the High Representative on 5 March 1999 (see Government note)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the three members of the presidency (one Bosniak, one Croat, one Serb) are elected by popular vote for a four-year term; the member with the most votes becomes the chairman unless he or she was the incumbent chairman at the time of the election; election last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2002); the cochairmen of the Council of Ministers are appointed by the presidency
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - Zivko RADISIC with 52% of the Serb vote was elected chairman of the collective presidency for the first 8 months; Ante JELAVIC with 52% of the Croat vote followed RADISIC in the rotation; Alija IZETBEGOVIC with 87% of the Bosniak vote won the highest number of votes in the election but was ineligible to serve a second term until RADISIC and JELAVIC had each served a first term as Chairman of the Presidency
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliamentary Assembly or Skupstina consists of the National House of Representatives or Vijece Opcina (42 seats - 14 Serb, 14 Croat, and 14 Bosniak; members elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms) and the House of Peoples or Vijece Gradanstvo (15 seats - 5 Bosniak, 5 Croat, 5 Serb; members elected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives and the Republika Srpska's National Assembly to serve two-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National House of Representatives - elections last held 12-13 September 1998 (next to be held in fall 2000); House of Peoples - last constituted 4 December 1998 (next to be constituted in fall 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National House of Representatives - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1; House of Peoples - percent of vote by party/coalition - NA; seats by party/coalition - NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Bosniak/Croat Federation has a bicameral legislature that consists of a House of Representatives (140 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1; and a House of Peoples (72 seats - 30 Bosniak, 30 Croat, and 12 others); last constituted November 1998; the Republika Srpska has a National Assembly (83 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms); elections last held fall 1998 (next to be held fall 2000); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1; as of January 1999, Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have a permanent election law; a draft law specifies four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court, consists of nine members: four members are selected by the Bosniak/Croat Federation's House of Representatives, two members by the Republika Srpska's National Assembly, and three non-Bosnian members by the president of the European Court of Human Rights
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Bosnian Party of Rights or BSP [leader NA]; Bosnian Party or BOSS [Mirnes AJANOVIC]; Bosnian Patriotic Party or BPS [Sefer HALILOVIC]; Center Coalition or KC (includes LBO, RS) [leader NA]; Civic Democratic Party or GDS [Ibrahim SPAHIC]; Coalition for King and Fatherland or KKO (Dubravko Prstojevic]; Coalition for a United and Democratic BIH or KCD [Alija IZETBEGOVIC; includes SDA and SBH]; Croatian Democratic Union of BiH or HDZ-BiH [Ante JELAVIC]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Zdravko HRSTIC]; Croatian Peasants Party of BiH or HSS-BiH [Ilija SIMIC]; Democratic Party for Banja Luka and Krajina [Nikola SPIRIC]; Democratic Party of Pensioners or DSP [Alojz KNEZOVIC]; Democratic Peoples Union or DNZ [Fikret ABDIC]; Liberal Bosniak Organization or LBO [Muhamed FILIPOVIC]; Liberal Party or LS [Rasim KADIC, president]; Muslim-Bosnia Organization or MBO [Dzevad HADZIAVDIC]; New Croatian Initiative or NHI [Kresimir ZUBAK]; Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina or SBH [Haris SILAJDZIC]; Party for Democratic Action or SDA [Alija IZETBEGOVIC]; Party of Democratic Progress of the Republika Srpska [Mladen IVANIC]; Party of Independent Social Democrats or SNSD [Milorad DODIK]; Radical Party Republika Srpska of RSRS [Miroslav RADOVANOVIC]; Republican Party or RS [Stjepan KLJUIC]; Serb Coalition for Republika Srpska or SKRS [Predrag LAZAREVIC]; Serb Democratic Party or Serb Lands or SDS [Dragan KALINIC]; Serb National Alliance or SNS [Biljana PLAVSIC]; Serb Radical Party-Republika Srpska or SRS-RS [Nikola POPLASEN] (banned by the Office of the High Representative - see Government note - from participation in the April elections); Sloga or Unity [Zivko RADISIC] (includes SNS, SPRS, SNSD); Social Democratic Party BIH or SDP-BiH [Zlatko LAGUMDZIJA]; Socialist Party of Republika Srpska or SPRS [Zivko RADISIC]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CE (guest), CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Sven ALKALAJ; note - Igor DAVIDOVIC should become ambassador in early 2000
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-1500
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-1502
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Thomas J. MILLER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Alipasina 43, 71000 Sarajevo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [387] (71) 445-700
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [387] (71) 659-722
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow isosceles triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag; the remainder of the flag is medium blue with seven full five-pointed white stars and two half stars top and bottom along the hypotenuse of the triangle
> <p><b>Government - note:</b>
> The Dayton Agreement, signed in Paris on 14 December 1995, retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy. The Dayton Agreement also recognized a second tier of government, comprised of two entities - a joint Bosniak/Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bosnian Serb Republika Srpska (RS) - each presiding over roughly one-half the territory. The Federation and RS governments are charged with overseeing internal functions. The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the High Representative (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Economy|988041735
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. In 1999, the convertible mark - the national currency introduced in 1998 - gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, faltered in both areas. Banking reform is also lagging. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $6.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 19% industry: 23% services: 58% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 1.026 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 35%-40% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
< 
< Industries: steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 5%-10% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.22 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 32.43% hydro: 67.57% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.065 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
< 
< Exports: $450 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: NA
< 
< Exports - partners: NA
< 
< Imports: $2.95 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: NA
< 
< Imports - partners: NA
< 
< Debt - external: $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
< 
< Currency: 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
< 
< Exchange rates: convertible marks per US$1 - 1.9 (1999)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture has been almost all in private hands, farms have been small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally has been a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. In 1999, the convertible mark - the national currency introduced in 1998 - gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, faltered in both areas. Banking reform is also lagging. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,770 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 58% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.026 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 35%-40% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (much of capacity damaged or shut down) (1995)
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5%-10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.22 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 32.43%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 67.57%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.065 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $450 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.95 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.2 billion (1997 pledged)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 convertible marka (KM) = 100 convertible pfenniga
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> convertible marks per US$1 - 1.9 (1999)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Communications|988041780
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 238,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics domestic: NA international: no satellite earth stations
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 940,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
< 
< Televisions: NA
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 238,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> no satellite earth stations
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 940,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transportation|988041812
1,19c1,44
< Railways: total: 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam until grids are repaired) standard gauge: 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
< 
< Highways: total: 21,846 km paved: 11,425 km unpaved: 10,421 km (1996 est.) note: roads need maintenance and repair
< 
< Waterways: NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 27 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 9 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 18 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 4 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,021 km (electrified 795 km; operating as diesel or steam until grids are repaired)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21,846 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 11,425 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 10,421 km (1996 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> roads need maintenance and repair
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 27 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 4 (1999 est.)
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Military|988041836
1,14c1,17
< Military branches: Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosniak elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note - within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,114,180 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 886,464 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 29,325 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA%
< 
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Federation Army or VF (composed of both Croatian and Bosniak elements), Army of the Serb Republic (composed of Bosnian Serb elements); note - within both of these forces air and air defense are subordinate commands
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,114,180 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 886,464 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 29,325 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transnational_issues|988041858
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina
< 
< Illicit drugs: minor transit point for marijuana and opiate trafficking routes to Western Europe
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> disputes with Serbia over Serbian populated areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> minor transit point for marijuana and opiate trafficking routes to Western Europe
------
Botswana/History|988042197
1c1,2
< Background: Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is dominated by cattle raising and mining.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is dominated by cattle raising and mining.
------
Botswana/Geography|988042237
1,35c1,59
< Location: Southern Africa, north of South Africa
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 22 00 S, 24 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 600,370 sq km land: 585,370 sq km water: 15,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 4,013 km border countries: Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
< 
< Terrain: predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
< 
< Natural resources: diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
< 
< Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 46% forests and woodland: 47% other: 6% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 20 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
< 
< Environment - current issues: overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, north of South Africa
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 00 S, 24 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 600,370 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 585,370 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 15,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,013 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Namibia 1,360 km, South Africa 1,840 km, Zimbabwe 813 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland; Kalahari Desert in southwest
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> diamonds, copper, nickel, salt, soda ash, potash, coal, iron ore, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 47%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 6% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
------
Botswana/People|988042263
1,29c1,61
< Population: 1,576,470 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 41% (male 321,766; female 318,304) 15-64 years: 55% (male 417,734; female 453,947) 65 years and over: 4% (male 26,436; female 38,283) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.76% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 29.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 61.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 39.27 years male: 38.63 years female: 39.93 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 3.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural) adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
< 
< Ethnic groups: Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
< 
< Languages: English (official), Setswana
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 69.8% male: 80.5% female: 59.9% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,576,470
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 41% (male 321,766; female 318,304)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 417,734; female 453,947)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 26,436; female 38,283) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.76% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 29.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 22.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 61.68 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 39.27 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 38.63 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 39.93 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Setswana
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.8%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 80.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 59.9% (1995 est.)
------
Botswana/Government|988042309
1,35c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Botswana conventional short form: Botswana former: Bechuanaland
< 
< Data code: BC
< 
< Government type: parliamentary republic
< 
< Capital: Gaborone
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
< 
< Independence: 30 September 1966 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
< 
< Constitution: March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
< 
< Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president head of government: President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president election results: Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 61.3%
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms) elections: National Assembly - elections last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004) election results: percent of vote by party - BDP 61.3%, other 38.7%; seats by party - BDP 33, other 7
< 
< Judicial branch: High Court; Court of Appeal
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana Congress Party or BCP [Michael DINGAKE]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE] note: main parties are: BDP, BNF, BCP; other minor parties joined forces in 1999 to form the Botswana Alliance Movement or BAM [Kenneth KOMA, chairman] but did not capture any parliamentary seats; the BAM parties are: the United Action Party [Ephraim Lepetu SETSHWAELO], the Social Democratic Union, the Independence Freedom Party [Motsamai MPHO], and the Botswana Progressive Union [Gideon KAELO]
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, AfDB? , C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV chancery: 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: [1] (202) 244-4990 FAX: [1] (202) 244-4164
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John E. LANGE embassy: address NA, Gaborone mailing address: P. O. Box 90, Gaborone telephone: [267] 353982 FAX: [267] 356947
< 
< Flag description: light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Botswana
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Botswana
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Bechuanaland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BC
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Gaborone
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 30 September 1966 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 30 September (1966)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> March 1965, effective 30 September 1966
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Festus MOGAE (since 1 April 1998) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since NA April 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; vice president KHAMA is on a one-year leave of absence, effective 1 January 2000, but retains the title of vice president
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 61.3%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly - elections last held 16 October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - BDP 61.3%, other 38.7%; seats by party - BDP 33, other 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court; Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Botswana Democratic Party or BDP [Festus MOGAE]; Botswana National Front or BNF [Kenneth KOMA]; Botswana Congress Party or BCP [Michael DINGAKE]; Botswana People's Party or BPP [Knight MARIPE]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> main parties are: BDP, BNF, BCP; other minor parties joined forces in 1999 to form the Botswana Alliance Movement or BAM [Kenneth KOMA, chairman] but did not capture any parliamentary seats; the BAM parties are: the United Action Party [Ephraim Lepetu SETSHWAELO], the Social Democratic Union, the Independence Freedom Party [Motsamai MPHO], and the Botswana Progressive Union [Gideon KAELO]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 244-4990
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 244-4164
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John E. LANGE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> address NA, Gaborone
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 90, Gaborone
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [267] 353982
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [267] 356947
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center
------
Botswana/Economy|988042346
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 6.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 46% (including 36% mining) services: 50% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 47% (1999 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.7% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 235,000 formal sector employees (1995)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 20%-40% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $1.6 billion expenditures: $1.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $560 million (FY96/97)
< 
< Industries: diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4.6% (FY92/93)
< 
< Electricity - production: 1 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.619 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 689 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: sorghum, corn, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock
< 
< Exports: $2.36 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: diamonds 72%, vehicles, copper, nickel, meat (1998)
< 
< Exports - partners: EU 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 21%, Zimbabwe 3% (1996)
< 
< Imports: $2.05 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products
< 
< Imports - partners: Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 78%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% (1996)
< 
< Debt - external: $651 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $73 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe
< 
< Exchange rates: pulas (P) per US$1 - 4.6168 (January 2000), 4.6244 (1999), 4.2259 (1998), 3.6508 (1997), 3.3242 (1996), 2.7722 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 6.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 46% (including 36% mining)
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 47% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 7.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 235,000 formal sector employees (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> 100,000 public sector; 135,000 private sector, including 14,300 who are employed in various mines in South Africa; most others engaged in cattle raising and subsistence agriculture (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 20%-40% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.6 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.8 billion, including capital expenditures of $560 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> diamonds, copper, nickel, coal, salt, soda ash, potash; livestock processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4.6% (FY92/93)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.619 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 689 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sorghum, corn, millet, pulses, groundnuts (peanuts), beans, cowpeas, sunflower seed; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.36 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> diamonds 72%, vehicles, copper, nickel, meat (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 74%, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 21%, Zimbabwe 3% (1996)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.05 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, textiles, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Southern African Customs Union (SACU) 78%, Europe 8%, Zimbabwe 6% (1996)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $651 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $73 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 pula (P) = 100 thebe
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> pulas (P) per US$1 - 4.6168 (January 2000), 4.6244 (1999), 4.2259 (1998), 3.6508 (1997), 3.3242 (1996), 2.7722 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Botswana/Communications|988042371
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 78,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system: sparse system domestic: small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations international: two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 237,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 78,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> sparse system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 237,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 31,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Botswana/Transportation|988042395
1,11c1,34
< Railways: total: 971 km narrow gauge: 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
< 
< Highways: total: 18,482 km paved: 4,343 km unpaved: 14,139 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 92 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 10 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 7 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 82 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 914 to 1,523 m: 57 under 914 m: 21 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 971 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18,482 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,343 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 14,139 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 92 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 82
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 57
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 21 (1999 est.)
------
Botswana/Military|988042421
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 373,990 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 196,572 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 19,132 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $61 million (FY99/00)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99/00)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Botswana Defense Force (includes Army and Air Wing), Botswana National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 373,990 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 196,572 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 19,132 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $61 million (FY99/00)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY99/00)
------
Botswana/Transnational_issues|988042448
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> dispute with Namibia over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested
------
Bouvet_Island/Geography|988042565
1,33c1,52
< Location: Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 54 26 S, 3 24 E
< 
< Map references: Antarctic Region
< 
< Area: total: 58.5 sq km land: 58.5 sq km water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 29.6 km
< 
< Maritime claims: territorial sea: 4 nm
< 
< Climate: antarctic
< 
< Terrain: volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 m; coast is mostly inaccessible
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Southern Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 780 m
< 
< Natural resources: none
< 
< Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (93% ice)
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: covered by glacial ice; declared a nature reserve
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the South Atlantic Ocean, south-southwest of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa)
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 54 26 S, 3 24 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Antarctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 58.5 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 58.5 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 29.6 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 4 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> antarctic
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic; maximum elevation about 800 m; coast is mostly inaccessible
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Southern Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 780 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (93% ice)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> covered by glacial ice; declared a nature reserve
------
Bouvet_Island/People|988042594
1c1
< Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Bouvet_Island/Government|988042617
1,7c1,11
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Bouvet Island
< 
< Data code: BV
< 
< Dependency status: territory of Norway; administered by the Polar Department of the Ministry of Justice and Police from Oslo
< 
< Flag description: the flag of Norway is used
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bouvet Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BV
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Norway; administered by the Polar Department of the Ministry of Justice and Police from Oslo
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Norway is used
------
Bouvet_Island/Economy|988042639
1c1,2
< Economy - overview: no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
------
Bouvet_Island/Communications|988042659
1c1,2
< Communications - note: automatic meteorological station
---
> <b>Communications - note:</b>
> automatic meteorological station
------
Bouvet_Island/Transportation|988042680
1c1,2
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Bouvet_Island/Military|988042706
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Norway
------
Bouvet_Island/Transnational_issues|988042744
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Norway
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Brazil/History|988042832
1c1,2
< Background: Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
------
Brazil/Geography|988042867
1,35c1,70
< Location: Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 10 00 S, 55 00 W
< 
< Map references: South America
< 
< Area: total: 8,511,965 sq km land: 8,456,510 sq km water: 55,455 sq km note: includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 14,691 km border countries: Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
< 
< Coastline: 7,491 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: mostly tropical, but temperate in south
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
< 
< Natural resources: bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
< 
< Land use: arable land: 5% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 58% other: 14% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 28,000 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities note: President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern South America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 10 00 S, 55 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8,511,965 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 8,456,510 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 55,455 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, Ilha da Trindade, Ilhas Martin Vaz, and Penedos de Sao Pedro e Sao Paulo
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than the US
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14,691 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Argentina 1,224 km, Bolivia 3,400 km, Colombia 1,643 km, French Guiana 673 km, Guyana 1,119 km, Paraguay 1,290 km, Peru 1,560 km, Suriname 597 km, Uruguay 985 km, Venezuela 2,200 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 7,491 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> mostly tropical, but temperate in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to rolling lowlands in north; some plains, hills, mountains, and narrow coastal belt
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, gold, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, platinum, tin, uranium, petroleum, hydropower, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 58%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 28,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
> <br><i>note:</i>
> President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador
------
Brazil/People|988042900
1,29c1,61
< Population: 172,860,370 note: Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 29% (male 25,607,074; female 24,670,960) 15-64 years: 66% (male 55,793,005; female 57,598,489) 65 years and over: 5% (male 3,727,912; female 5,462,930) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.94% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 18.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 9.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 38.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 62.94 years male: 58.54 years female: 67.56 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Brazilian(s) adjective: Brazilian
< 
< Ethnic groups: white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
< 
< Languages: Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.3% male: 83.3% female: 83.2% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 172,860,370
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 29% (male 25,607,074; female 24,670,960)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 55,793,005; female 57,598,489)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 3,727,912; female 5,462,930) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.94% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 18.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.37 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.68 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 38.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 62.94 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 58.54 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.56 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Brazilian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Brazilian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 83.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 83.2% (1995 est.)
------
Brazil/Government|988042942
1,37c1,80
< Country name: conventional long form: Federative Republic of Brazil conventional short form: Brazil local long form: Republica Federativa do Brasil local short form: Brasil
< 
< Data code: BR
< 
< Government type: federative republic
< 
< Capital: Brasilia
< 
< Administrative divisions: 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
< 
< Independence: 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
< 
< Constitution: 5 October 1988
< 
< Legal system: based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002) election results: Fernando Henrique CARDOSO reelected president; percent of vote - 53%
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Federal Senate - last held 4 October 1998 for one-third of Senate (next to be held NA October 2002 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002) election results: Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PMDB 27, PFL 20, PSDB 16, PT 7, PPB 5, PSB 3, PDT 2, PPS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PFL 106, PSDB 99, PMDB 82, PPB 60, PT 58, PTB 31, PDT 25, PSB 19, PL 12, PCdoB? 7, other 14
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Jader BARBALHO, president]; Brazilian Labor Party or PTB [Jose Carlos MARTINEZ, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Teotinho VILELA Filho, president]; Brazilian Socialist Party or PSB [Miguel ARRAES, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Paulo MALUF, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB? [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Valdemar COSTA Neto, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Worker's Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions allied to leftist Worker's Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
< 
< International organization participation: AfDB? , BIS, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA chancery: 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 238-2700 FAX: [1] (202) 238-2827 consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Anthony S. HARRINGTON embassy: Avenida das Nacoes, Quadra 801, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal Cep 70403-900 Brazil mailing address: Unit 3500, APO AA 34030 telephone: [55] (61) 321-7272 FAX: [55] (61) 225-9136 consulate(s) general: Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo consulate(s): Recife
< 
< Flag description: green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Federative Republic of Brazil
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Brazil
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica Federativa do Brasil
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Brasil
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> federative republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Brasilia
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 26 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Acre, Alagoas, Amapa, Amazonas, Bahia, Ceara, Distrito Federal*, Espirito Santo, Goias, Maranhao, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Para, Paraiba, Parana, Pernambuco, Piaui, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte, Rio Grande do Sul, Rondonia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe, Tocantins
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 7 September 1822 (from Portugal)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 7 September (1822)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 5 October 1988
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Roman codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Fernando Henrique CARDOSO (since 1 January 1995); Vice President Marco MACIEL (since 1 January 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Fernando Henrique CARDOSO reelected president; percent of vote - 53%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara dos Deputados (513 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Federal Senate - last held 4 October 1998 for one-third of Senate (next to be held NA October 2002 for two-thirds of the Senate); Chamber of Deputies - last held 4 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Federal Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PMDB 27, PFL 20, PSDB 16, PT 7, PPB 5, PSB 3, PDT 2, PPS 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PFL 106, PSDB 99, PMDB 82, PPB 60, PT 58, PTB 31, PDT 25, PSB 19, PL 12, PCdoB 7, other 14
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Federal Tribunal, 11 judges are appointed for life by the president and confirmed by the Senate
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Brazilian Democratic Movement Party or PMDB [Jader BARBALHO, president]; Brazilian Labor Party or PTB [Jose Carlos MARTINEZ, president]; Brazilian Social Democracy Party or PSDB [Teotinho VILELA Filho, president]; Brazilian Socialist Party or PSB [Miguel ARRAES, president]; Brazilian Progressive Party or PPB [Paulo MALUF, president]; Communist Party of Brazil or PCdoB [Joao AMAZONAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party or PDT [Leonel BRIZOLA, president]; Liberal Front Party or PFL [Jorge BORNHAUSEN, president]; Liberal Party or PL [Valdemar COSTA Neto, president]; Popular Socialist Party or PPS [Roberto FREIRE, president]; Worker's Party or PT [Jose DIRCEU, president]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions allied to leftist Worker's Party are critical of government's social and economic policies
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, BIS, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 238-2700
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 238-2827
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Anthony S. HARRINGTON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida das Nacoes, Quadra 801, Lote 3, Brasilia, Distrito Federal Cep 70403-900 Brazil
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 3500, APO AA 34030
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [55] (61) 321-7272
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [55] (61) 225-9136
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Recife
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed stars (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the night sky over Brazil; the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress)
------
Brazil/Economy|988042971
1,61c1,84
< Economy - overview: Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The Real Plan, instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Real Plan. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy is expected to push growth up to 3% in 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $1.057 trillion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 0.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $6,150 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 14% industry: 36% services: 50% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 17.4% (1990 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 0.8% highest 10%: 47.9% (1995)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
< 
< Labor force: 74 million (1997 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 7.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $151 billion expenditures: $149 billion, including capital expenditures of $36 billion (1998)
< 
< Industries: textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -2.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 316.927 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 4.92% hydro: 91.02% nuclear: 0.99% other: 3.07% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 336.242 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 41.5 billion kWh note: imports electricity from Paraguay (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
< 
< Exports: $46.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: manufactures, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee
< 
< Exports - partners: US 18%, Argentina 13%, Germany 5%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 4% (1999)
< 
< Imports: $48.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, chemical products, oil, electricity
< 
< Imports - partners: US 23%, Argentina 12%, Germany 10%, Japan 5%, Italy 5% (1999)
< 
< Debt - external: $200 billion (1999)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.012 billion (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: reals (R$) per US$1 - 1.804 (January 2000), 1.815 (1999), 1.161 (1998), 1.078 (1997), 1.005 (1996), 0.918 (1995) note: from October 1994 through 14 January 1999, the official rate was determined by a managed float; since 15 January 1999, the official rate floats independently with respect to the US$
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The Real Plan, instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the Real Plan. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy is expected to push growth up to 3% in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.057 trillion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6,150 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 17.4% (1990 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.8%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 47.9% (1995)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 74 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 42%, agriculture 31%, industry 27%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 7.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $151 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $149 billion, including capital expenditures of $36 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles, shoes, chemicals, cement, lumber, iron ore, tin, steel, aircraft, motor vehicles and parts, other machinery and equipment
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -2.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 316.927 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 4.92%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 91.02%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0.99%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3.07% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 336.242 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 41.5 billion kWh
> <br><i>note:</i>
> imports electricity from Paraguay (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $46.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> manufactures, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 18%, Argentina 13%, Germany 5%, Netherlands 5%, Japan 4% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $48.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemical products, oil, electricity
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 23%, Argentina 12%, Germany 10%, Japan 5%, Italy 5% (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $200 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.012 billion (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 real (R$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> reals (R$) per US$1 - 1.804 (January 2000), 1.815 (1999), 1.161 (1998), 1.078 (1997), 1.005 (1996), 0.918 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> from October 1994 through 14 January 1999, the official rate was determined by a managed float; since 15 January 1999, the official rate floats independently with respect to the US$
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Brazil/Communications|988042998
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 19 million (1997)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 4 million (1997)
< 
< Telephone system: good working system domestic: extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations international: 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1,365, FM 296, shortwave 161 (of which 91 are collocated with AM stations) (1999)
< 
< Radios: 71 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 138 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 36.5 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 197 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 19 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> good working system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1,365, FM 296, shortwave 161 (of which 91 are collocated with AM stations) (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 71 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 138 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 36.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 197 (1999)
------
Brazil/Transportation|988043031
1,17c1,51
< Railways: total: 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail broad gauge: 4,057 km 1.600-m gauge narrow gauge: 23,489 km 1.000-m gauge dual gauge: 336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
< 
< Highways: total: 1.98 million km paved: 184,140 km unpaved: 1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 50,000 km navigable
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 2,980 km; petroleum products 4,762 km; natural gas 4,246 km (1998)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT ships by type: bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3,277 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 541 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 20 1,524 to 2,437 m: 138 914 to 1,523 m: 346 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 2,736 1,524 to 2,437 m: 73 914 to 1,523 m: 1,306 under 914 m: 1,357 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 4,057 km 1.600-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 23,489 km 1.000-m gauge
> <br><i>dual gauge:</i>
> 336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.98 million km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 184,140 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,795,860 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 50,000 km navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 2,980 km; petroleum products 4,762 km; natural gas 4,246 km (1998)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Belem, Fortaleza, Ilheus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranagua, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos, Vitoria
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3,277 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 541
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 138
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 346
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 32 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,736
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 73
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1,306
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1,357 (1999 est.)
------
Brazil/Military|988043059
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes naval air and marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Brazilian Army, Brazilian Navy (includes naval air and marines), Brazilian Air Force, Federal Police (paramilitary)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 47,732,285 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 32,029,873 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 1,830,195 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $13.408 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.9% (FY99)
------
Brazil/Transnational_issues|988043081
1,4c1,4
< Disputes - international: two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
< 
< Illicit drugs: limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian, Colombian, and Peruvian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling
< 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - Arroio Invernada (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the Rio Quarai (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the Uruguay River
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> limited illicit producer of cannabis, minor coca cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for Bolivian, Colombian, and Peruvian cocaine headed for the US and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling
------
Soviet_Union|988043174
10c10
< [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]]
---
> [[Czechoslovakia]] -- [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] -- [[Hungary]] -- [[Poland]] -- [[Romania]] -- [[Bulgaria]] -- [[Cuba]]
------
Brazil|988043185
16c16
< Other major cities from north to south that I have visited are Belem, Fortaleza, Manaus, Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo, Curitiba.   Iguacu Falls is in the words of Eleanor Roosevelt " makes Niagara Falls look like a leaky faucet".  It is worth the trip. From Iguacu you can visit Peru and Argentina easily.  Brasil is a country of the future and always will be. Almost the size of the U.S. it is rich in natural resources but the gap between the haves and have nots is tremendous.  Brasil has a small (10%) middle class. Contrary to what I have heard over and over again about Rio and danger is that nothing is further from the truth.  I have lived there about one year and felt safe everywhere I went.
---
> Other major cities from north to south that I have visited are [[Belem]], [[Fortaleza]], [[Manaus]], [[Belo Horizonte]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Sao Paolo]], [[Curitiba]].   [[Iguacu]] Falls is in the words of [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] " makes [[Niagara Falls]] look like a leaky faucet".  It is worth the trip. From Iguacu you can visit Peru and Argentina easily.  Brasil is a country of the future and always will be. Almost the size of the U.S. it is rich in natural resources but the gap between the haves and have nots is tremendous.  Brasil has a small (10%) middle class. Contrary to what I have heard over and over again about Rio and danger is that nothing is further from the truth.  I have lived there about one year and felt safe everywhere I went.
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Geography|988043229
1,33c1,56
< Location: Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 6 00 S, 71 30 E
< 
< Map references: World
< 
< Area: total: 60 sq km land: 60 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes the entire Chagos Archipelago
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 698 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds
< 
< Terrain: flat and low (most areas do not exceed four meters in elevation)
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
< 
< Natural resources: coconuts, fish
< 
< Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: NA% other: NA%
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: NA
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, archipelago in the Indian Ocean, about one-half the way from Africa to Indonesia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 6 00 S, 71 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> World
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 60 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 60 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the entire Chagos Archipelago
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 698 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat and low (most areas do not exceed four meters in elevation)
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coconuts, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> archipelago of 2,300 islands; Diego Garcia, largest and southernmost island, occupies strategic location in central Indian Ocean; island is site of joint US-UK military facility
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/People|988043258
1c1,4
< Population: no indigenous inhabitants note: approximately 3,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or Ilois, were evacuated to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in 1995, there were approximately 1,700 UK and US military personnel and 1,500 civilian contractors living on the island (July 2000 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> approximately 3,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or Ilois, were evacuated to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in 1995, there were approximately 1,700 UK and US military personnel and 1,500 civilian contractors living on the island (July 2000 est.)
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Government|988043285
1,15c1,28
< Country name: conventional long form: British Indian Ocean Territory conventional short form: none abbreviation: BIOT
< 
< Data code: IO
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK; administered by a commissioner, resident in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London
< 
< Legal system: NA
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952) head of government: Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK cabinet: NA elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; commissioner and administrator appointed by the monarch
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Flag description: white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> British Indian Ocean Territory
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> BIOT
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IO
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK; administered by a commissioner, resident in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in London
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Commissioner David Ross MACLENNAN (since NA 1994); Administrator Don CAIRNS (since NA); note - both reside in the UK
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; commissioner and administrator appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with six blue wavy horizontal stripes; the flag of the UK is in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the striped section bears a palm tree and yellow crown centered on the outer half of the flag
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Economy|988043308
1,5c1,8
< Economy - overview: All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
< 
< Electricity - production: NA kWh note: electricity supplied by the US military
< 
< Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <br><i>note:</i>
> electricity supplied by the US military
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Communications|988043330
1,13c1,18
< Telephones - main lines in use: NA
< 
< Telephone system: separate facilities for military and public needs are available domestic: all commercial telephone services are available, including connection to the Internet international: international telephone service is carried by satellite (2000)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: NA
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: NA
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> separate facilities for military and public needs are available
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> all commercial telephone services are available, including connection to the Internet
> <br><i>international:</i>
> international telephone service is carried by satellite (2000)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transportation|988043355
1,7c1,16
< Highways: total: NA km paved: short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia unpaved: NA km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Diego Garcia
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> short stretch of paved road of NA km between port and airfield on Diego Garcia
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Diego Garcia
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Military|988043376
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transnational_issues|988043402
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
------
British_Virgin_Islands/History|988043507
1c1,2
< Background: First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> First settled by the Dutch in 1648, the islands were soon after (1672) annexed by the English. The economy is closely tied to the larger and more populous US Virgin Islands to the west; the US dollar is the legal currency.
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Geography|988043551
1,33c1,56
< Location: Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 18 30 N, 64 30 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area: total: 150 sq km land: 150 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes the island of Anegada
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 80 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
< 
< Climate: subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
< 
< Terrain: coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
< 
< Natural resources: NEGL
< 
< Land use: arable land: 20% permanent crops: 7% permanent pastures: 33% forests and woodland: 7% other: 33% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
< 
< Environment - current issues: limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
< 
< Geography - note: strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Puerto Rico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 30 N, 64 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 150 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 150 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the island of Anegada
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 80 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Sage 521 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 33% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strong ties to nearby US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
------
British_Virgin_Islands/People|988043580
1,29c1,59
< Population: 19,615 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 20% (male 2,022; female 1,975) 15-64 years: 75% (male 7,517; female 7,102) 65 years and over: 5% (male 545; female 454) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.34% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1.2 male(s)/female total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 75.44 years male: 74.57 years female: 76.35 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: British Virgin Islander(s) adjective: British Virgin Islander
< 
< Ethnic groups: black 90%, white, Asian
< 
< Religions: Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981)
< 
< Languages: English (official)
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97.8% (1991 est.) male: NA% female: NA%
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 19,615 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 2,022; female 1,975)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 75% (male 7,517; female 7,102)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 545; female 454) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.34% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.2 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.44 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.57 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.35 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> British Virgin Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> British Virgin Islander
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 90%, white, Asian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 86% (Methodist 45%, Anglican 21%, Church of God 7%, Seventh-Day Adventist 5%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 2%), Roman Catholic 6%, none 2%, other 6% (1981)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97.8% (1991 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Government|988043612
1,37c1,54
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: British Virgin Islands abbreviation: BVI
< 
< Data code: VI
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
< 
< Government type: NA
< 
< Capital: Road Town
< 
< Administrative divisions: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< National holiday: Territory Day, 1 July
< 
< Constitution: 1 June 1977
< 
< Legal system: English law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Francis J. SAVAGE (since NA) head of government: Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT) cabinet: Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, one member from each of 9 electoral districts, four at-large members; members serve five-year terms) elections: last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
< 
< Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal; (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court); Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; Court of Summary Jurisdiction
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL]; United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
< 
< International organization participation: Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> British Virgin Islands
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> BVI
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> VI
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Road Town
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Territory Day, 1 July
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1 June 1977
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Francis J. SAVAGE (since NA)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Minister Ralph T. O'NEAL (since 15 May 1995; appointed after the death of former Chief Minister H. Lavity STOUTT)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council appointed by the governor from members of the Legislative Council
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council (13 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, one member from each of 9 electoral districts, four at-large members; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 February 1995 (next to be held NA February 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VIP 6, CCM 2, UP 2, independents 3
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, consisting of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal; (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court); Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; Court of Summary Jurisdiction
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM [E. Walwyn BREWLEY]; Independent People's Movement or IPM [Omar HODGE and Allen O'NEAL]; United Party or UP [Conrad MADURO]; Virgin Islands Party or VIP [Ralph T. O'NEAL]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Caricom (associate), CDB, ECLAC (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, OECS (associate), UNESCO (associate)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Virgin Islander coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms depicts a woman flanked on either side by a vertical column of six oil lamps above a scroll bearing the Latin word VIGILATE (Be Watchful)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Economy|988043638
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 6.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 1.8% industry: 6.2% services: 92% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5.3% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 4,911 (1980)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 3% (1995)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $121.5 million expenditures: $115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1985)
< 
< Electricity - production: 42 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 39 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish
< 
< Exports: $6 million (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
< 
< Exports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
< 
< Imports: $175 million (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
< 
< Imports - partners: Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
< 
< Debt - external: $36.1 million (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $2.6 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: US currency is used
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy, one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 6.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1.8%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 6.2%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 92% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5.3% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4,911 (1980)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 3% (1995)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $121.5 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, light industry, construction, rum, concrete block, offshore financial center
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1985)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 42 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 39 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fruits, vegetables; livestock, poultry; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $6 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $175 million (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $36.1 million (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $2.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> US currency is used
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Communications|988043661
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 9,000 (1994)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA
< 
< Telephone system: worldwide telephone service domestic: NA international: submarine cable to Bermuda
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 9,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (plus one cable company) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 4,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 9,000 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> worldwide telephone service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> submarine cable to Bermuda
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 9,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus one cable company) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Transportation|988043681
1,13c1,27
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 113 km (1995 est.) paved: NA km unpaved: NA km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Road Town
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 113 km (1995 est.)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Road Town
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Military|988043705
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
British_Virgin_Islands/Transnational_issues|988043732
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Istanbul|988044117
1c1,3
< The largest city of Turkey, former capital of the Ottoman empire and under the name of Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine empire. The old city is mainly located on the Bosporus strait, which separates Europe from Asia and the Black Sea from the Marmara Sea. However, the modern city is much more larger and covers both European and Asian sides of Bosporus. The famous touristic places are Sariyer, Eyüp, Taksim on the European side, Beykoz, Üsküdar, Kadiköy, Moda, Bostanci the Princes' Islands on the Asian side. Although Istanbul is no longer the capital of Turkey, it is still the major city in Turkey's industry, commerce and culture and the most important import and export center.
---
> The largest city of [[Turkey]]. Founded by the Roman emperor [[Constantine]], and called [[Constantinople]] after him (only in 1930 became the name 'Istanbul' official), it became the eastern capital of the [[Roman Empire]] and later the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. After the [[Fall of Byzantium]] (1453) it became part of and soon capital of the Turkish [[Ottoman Empire]]. During the Byzantine period it was also known as [[Byzantium]].
> 
> The old city is mainly located on the [[Bosporus]] strait, which separates [[Europe]] from [[Asia]] and the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Marmara Sea]]. However, the modern city is much larger and covers both European and Asian sides of Bosporus. The famous touristic places are Sariyer, Eyüp and Taksim on the European side, and Beykoz, Üsküdar, Kadiköy, Moda and Bostanci the Princes' Islands on the Asian side. Although Istanbul is no longer the capital of Turkey, it is still the major city in Turkey's industry, commerce and culture and the most important import and export center.
------
Brunei/History|988044339
1c1,2
< Background: Although greatly reduced in size since its heyday of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Brunei sits atop extensive petroleum and natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the less developed countries.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Although greatly reduced in size since its heyday of the 16th century, the Sultanate of Brunei sits atop extensive petroleum and natural gas fields, the source of one of the highest per capita GDPs in the less developed countries.
------
Eiffel_Tower|988044346
1c1
< The Eiffel Tower is the most recognizable landmark in [[Paris]], and is known worldwide as a symbol for [[France]].  It is a premier tourist destination, with over 5 1/2 million visitors per year.
---
> The Eiffel Tower is the most recognizable landmark in [[Paris]], and is known worldwide as a symbol for [[France]].  It is a premier tourist destination, with over 5 1/2 million visitors per year. It is named after its designer, [[Gustave Eiffel]].
------
Brunei/Geography|988044371
1,35c1,62
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 4 30 N, 114 40 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area: total: 5,770 sq km land: 5,270 sq km water: 500 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Delaware
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 381 km border countries: Malaysia 381 km
< 
< Coastline: 161 km
< 
< Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone: 200 nm or to median line territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; hot, humid, rainy
< 
< Terrain: flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m highest point: Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, timber
< 
< Land use: arable land: 1% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 85% other: 12% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
< 
< Environment - current issues: seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and Malaysia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 4 30 N, 114 40 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,770 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 5,270 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 500 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Delaware
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 381 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Malaysia 381 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 161 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm or to median line
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid, rainy
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat coastal plain rises to mountains in east; hilly lowland in west
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> South China Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 85%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 12% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia
------
Brunei/People|988044401
1,29c1,59
< Population: 336,376 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 31% (male 53,812; female 51,628) 15-64 years: 66% (male 118,207; female 103,819) 65 years and over: 3% (male 4,317; female 4,593) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.17% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 4.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.14 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.94 male(s)/female total population: 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 14.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 73.58 years male: 71.23 years female: 76.06 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bruneian(s) adjective: Bruneian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Malay 62%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 17%
< 
< Religions: Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
< 
< Languages: Malay (official), English, Chinese
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 88.2% male: 92.6% female: 83.4% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 336,376 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 31% (male 53,812; female 51,628)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 118,207; female 103,819)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 4,317; female 4,593) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.17% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 4.25 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.14 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73.58 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 71.23 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.06 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bruneian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bruneian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Malay 62%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 17%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Malay (official), English, Chinese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 88.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 92.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 83.4% (1995 est.)
------
Brunei/Government|988044436
1,35c1,68
< Country name: conventional long form: Negara Brunei Darussalam conventional short form: Brunei
< 
< Data code: BX
< 
< Government type: constitutional sultanate
< 
< Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan
< 
< Administrative divisions: 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong
< 
< Independence: 1 January 1984 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 23 February (1984)
< 
< Constitution: 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas
< 
< Suffrage: none
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the monarch; deals with executive matters note: there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the monarch) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the monarch) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the monarch) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises elections: none; the monarch is hereditary
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the monarch) elections: last held in March 1962 note: in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the monarch; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the monarch for three-year terms
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Brunei Solidarity National Party or PPKB in Malay [Haji Mohd HATTA bin Haji Zainal Abidin, president]; the PPKB is the only legal political party in Brunei; it was registered in 1985, but became largely inactive after 1988, it was revived in 1995 and again in 1998; it has less than 200 registered party members; other parties include Brunei People's Party or PRB (banned in 1962) and Brunei National Democratic Party (registered in May 1965, deregistered by the Brunei Government in 1988)
< 
< International organization participation: APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam chancery: 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 342-0159 FAX: [1] (202) 342-0158
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Sylvia Gaye STANFIELD embassy: Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan mailing address: PSC 470 (BSB), FPO AP 96507 telephone: [673] (2) 229670 FAX: [673] (2) 225293
< 
< Flag description: yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Negara Brunei Darussalam
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Brunei
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BX
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional sultanate
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bandar Seri Begawan
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 4 districts (daerah-daerah, singular - daerah); Belait, Brunei and Muara, Temburong, Tutong
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 January 1984 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 23 February (1984)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 29 September 1959 (some provisions suspended under a State of Emergency since December 1962, others since independence on 1 January 1984)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law; for Muslims, Islamic Shari'a law supersedes civil law in a number of areas
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Sultan and Prime Minister His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji HASSANAL Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah (since 5 October 1967); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Cabinet Ministers appointed and presided over by the monarch; deals with executive matters
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Religious Council (members appointed by the monarch) that advises on religious matters, a Privy Council (members appointed by the monarch) that deals with constitutional matters, and the Council of Succession (members appointed by the monarch) that determines the succession to the throne if the need arises
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council or Majlis Masyuarat Megeri (a privy council that serves only in a consultative capacity; NA seats; members appointed by the monarch)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held in March 1962
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in 1970 the Council was changed to an appointive body by decree of the monarch; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, chief justice and judges are sworn in by the monarch for three-year terms
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Brunei Solidarity National Party or PPKB in Malay [Haji Mohd HATTA bin Haji Zainal Abidin, president]; the PPKB is the only legal political party in Brunei; it was registered in 1985, but became largely inactive after 1988, it was revived in 1995 and again in 1998; it has less than 200 registered party members; other parties include Brunei People's Party or PRB (banned in 1962) and Brunei National Democratic Party (registered in May 1965, deregistered by the Brunei Government in 1988)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, ASEAN, C, CCC, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-0159
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-0158
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Sylvia Gaye STANFIELD
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Third Floor, Teck Guan Plaza, Jalan Sultan, Bandar Seri Begawan
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 470 (BSB), FPO AP 96507
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [673] (2) 229670
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [673] (2) 225293
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> yellow with two diagonal bands of white (top, almost double width) and black starting from the upper hoist side; the national emblem in red is superimposed at the center; the emblem includes a swallow-tailed flag on top of a winged column within an upturned crescent above a scroll and flanked by two upraised hands
------
Brunei/Economy|988044468
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 5% industry: 46% services: 49% (1996 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 144,000 (1995 est.); note - includes foreign workers and military personnel note: temporary residents make up 41% of labor force (1991)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 4.9% (1995 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $2.5 billion expenditures: $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $768 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1997 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 2.56 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 2.381 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo
< 
< Exports: $2.04 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products
< 
< Exports - partners: Japan 51%, UK 14%, US 10%, Singapore 8%, Thailand 3% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore 32%, UK 17%, Malaysia 12%, France 12%, US 5% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $0
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $4.3 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.6733 (January 2000), 1.6950 (1999), 1.6736 (1998), 1.4848 (1997), 1.4100 (1996), 1.4174 (1995); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 49% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 144,000 (1995 est.); note - includes foreign workers and military personnel
> <br><i>note:</i>
> temporary residents make up 41% of labor force (1991)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> government 48%, production of oil, natural gas, services, and construction 42%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 4.9% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $768 million (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, petroleum refining, liquefied natural gas, construction
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.56 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.381 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, cassava (tapioca), bananas; water buffalo
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.04 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil, liquefied natural gas, petroleum products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 51%, UK 14%, US 10%, Singapore 8%, Thailand 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.38 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Singapore 32%, UK 17%, Malaysia 12%, France 12%, US 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $0
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $4.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Bruneian dollar (B$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Bruneian dollars (B$) per US$1 - 1.6733 (January 2000), 1.6950 (1999), 1.6736 (1998), 1.4848 (1997), 1.4100 (1996), 1.4174 (1995); note - the Bruneian dollar is at par with the Singapore dollar
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Brunei/Communications|988044502
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 68,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 57,000 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: service throughout country is excellent; international service good to Europe, US, and East Asia domestic: NA international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean); digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 319,408 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 196,009 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 68,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 57,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> service throughout country is excellent; international service good to Europe, US, and East Asia
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean); digital submarine cable links to Malaysia, Singapore, and Philippines
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 319,408 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 196,009 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Brunei/Transportation|988044547
1d0
< Railways: total: 13 km (private line) narrow gauge: 13 km 0.610-m gauge
3,19c2,38
< Highways: total: 1,150 km paved: 399 km unpaved: 751 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 135 km; petroleum products 418 km; natural gas 920 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT ships by type: liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13 km (private line)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 13 km 0.610-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,150 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 399 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 751 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 135 km; petroleum products 418 km; natural gas 920 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bandar Seri Begawan, Kuala Belait, Muara, Seria, Tutong
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Brunei/Military|988044571
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 104,447 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 60,395 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 2,957 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $343 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 5.1% (FY98)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 104,447 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 60,395 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 2,957 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $343 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5.1% (FY98)
------
Brunei/Transnational_issues|988044590
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island
------
Bulgaria/History|988044623
1,2c1,2
< Background: Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, and Bulgaria began the contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward eventual integration into the EU and NATO.
< 
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Having fought on the losing side in both World Wars, Bulgaria fell within the Soviet sphere of influence and became a People's Republic in 1946. Communist domination ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, and Bulgaria began the contentious process of moving toward political democracy and a market economy while combating inflation, unemployment, corruption, and crime. Today, reforms and democratization keep Bulgaria on a path toward eventual integration into the EU and NATO.
------
Bulgaria/Geography|988044650
1,35c1,64
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 43 00 N, 25 00 E
< 
< Map references: Europe
< 
< Area: total: 110,910 sq km land: 110,550 sq km water: 360 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Tennessee
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 1,808 km border countries: Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
< 
< Coastline: 354 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m highest point: Musala 2,925 m
< 
< Natural resources: bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
< 
< Land use: arable land: 43% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 14% forests and woodland: 38% other: 3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 12,370 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: earthquakes, landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Romania and Turkey
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 43 00 N, 25 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 110,910 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 110,550 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 360 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Tennessee
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,808 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Greece 494 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 148 km, Romania 608 km, Serbia and Montenegro 318 km (all with Serbia), Turkey 240 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 354 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; cold, damp winters; hot, dry summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains with lowlands in north and southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Black Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Musala 2,925 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, coal, timber, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 43%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 12,370 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes, landslides
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location near Turkish Straits; controls key land routes from Europe to Middle East and Asia
------
Bulgaria/People|988044674
1,29c1,59
< Population: 7,796,694 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 16% (male 623,285; female 591,655) 15-64 years: 68% (male 2,610,573; female 2,685,190) 65 years and over: 16% (male 546,029; female 739,962) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: -1.16% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 8.06 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 14.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -5.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 15.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.91 years male: 67.45 years female: 74.56 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Bulgarian(s) adjective: Bulgarian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Bulgarian 83%, Turk 8.5%, Roma 2.6%, Macedonia, Armenian, Tatar, Gagauz, Circassian, others (1998)
< 
< Religions: Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%, Muslim 13%, Roman Catholic 1.5%, Jewish 0.8%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 1% (1998)
< 
< Languages: Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 99% female: 98% (1999)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 7,796,694 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 16% (male 623,285; female 591,655)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 2,610,573; female 2,685,190)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 16% (male 546,029; female 739,962) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -1.16% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 8.06 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -5.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.74 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 15.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.91 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67.45 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.56 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Bulgarian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Bulgarian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bulgarian 83%, Turk 8.5%, Roma 2.6%, Macedonia, Armenian, Tatar, Gagauz, Circassian, others (1998)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Bulgarian Orthodox 83.5%, Muslim 13%, Roman Catholic 1.5%, Jewish 0.8%, Uniate Catholic 0.2%, Protestant, Gregorian-Armenian, and other 1% (1998)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Bulgarian, secondary languages closely correspond to ethnic breakdown
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1999)
------
Bulgaria/Government|988044704
1,37c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Bulgaria conventional short form: Bulgaria
< 
< Data code: BU
< 
< Government type: parliamentary democracy
< 
< Capital: Sofia
< 
< Administrative divisions: 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
< 
< Independence: 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 3 March (1878)
< 
< Constitution: adopted 12 July 1991
< 
< Legal system: civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997) head of government: Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan KOSTOV (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Minister Petur ZHOTEV (since 21 December 1999) cabinet: Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly elections: president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president; deputy prime ministers nominated by the prime minister election results: Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001) election results: percent of vote by party - UtdDF? 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UtdDF? 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12; note - seating as of May 1997: UtdDF? 126, DL 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 17, PU 11, independents 9
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for nine-year terms
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS) [Ahmed DOGAN]; Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Democratic Left of DL [leader NA]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS (member of LDU) [Ahmed DOGAN]; People's Union or PU [Anastasiya MOZER]; Union of Democratic Forces or UtdDF? (an alliance of pro-democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: agrarian movement; Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United or BZNS; Bulgarian Democratic Center; Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB; Democratic Alliance for the Republic or DAR; Gergiov Den; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization or IMRO; New Union for Democracy or NUD; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?, ZC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Philip DIMITROV chancery: 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 387-0174, 387-0365, 483-1386 FAX: [1] (202) 234-7973 consulate(s): New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Richard MILES embassy: 1 Saborna Street, Sofia mailing address: American Embassy Sofia, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5740 telephone: [359] (2) 980-52-41 through 48 FAX: [359] (2) 981-89-77
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control)
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Bulgaria
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Bulgaria
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Sofia
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 provinces (oblasti, singular - oblast); Burgas, Grad Sofiya, Khaskovo, Lovech, Montana, Plovdiv, Ruse, Sofiya, Varna
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 22 September 1908 (from Ottoman Empire)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 3 March (1878)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 12 July 1991
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law and criminal law based on Roman law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Petar STOYANOV (since 22 January 1997); Vice President Todor KAVALDZHIEV (since 22 January 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) Ivan KOSTOV (since 19 May 1997); Deputy Prime Minister Petur ZHOTEV (since 21 December 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 27 October and 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2001); chairman of the Council of Ministers (prime minister) nominated by the president; deputy prime ministers nominated by the prime minister
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Petar STOYANOV elected president; percent of vote - Petar STOYANOV 59.73%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Narodno Sobranie (240 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 19 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - UtdDF 52%, BSP 22%, ANS 7%, Euro-left 5.5%, BBB 4.95%; seats by party - UtdDF 137, BSP 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 14, BBB 12; note - seating as of May 1997: UtdDF 126, DL 58, ANS 19, Euro-left 17, PU 11, independents 9
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, chairman appointed for a seven-year term by the president; Constitutional Court, 12 justices appointed or elected for nine-year terms
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for National Salvation or ANS (coalition led mainly by Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS) [Ahmed DOGAN]; Bulgarian Business Bloc or BBB [Georgi GANCHEV]; Bulgarian Socialist Party or BSP [Georgi PURVANOV, chairman]; Democratic Left of DL [leader NA]; Euro-left [Aleksandur TOMOV]; Movement for Rights and Freedoms or DPS (member of LDU) [Ahmed DOGAN]; People's Union or PU [Anastasiya MOZER]; Union of Democratic Forces or UtdDF (an alliance of pro-democratic parties) [Ivan KOSTOV]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> agrarian movement; Bulgarian Agrarian National Union - United or BZNS; Bulgarian Democratic Center; Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria or CITUB; Democratic Alliance for the Republic or DAR; Gergiov Den; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization or IMRO; New Union for Democracy or NUD; "Nikola Petkov" Bulgarian Agrarian National Union; Podkrepa Labor Confederation; numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Philip DIMITROV
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-0174, 387-0365, 483-1386
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-7973
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Richard MILES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 1 Saborna Street, Sofia
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Sofia, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5740
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [359] (2) 980-52-41 through 48
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [359] (2) 981-89-77
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of white (top), green, and red; the national emblem formerly on the hoist side of the white stripe has been removed - it contained a rampant lion within a wreath of wheat ears below a red five-pointed star and above a ribbon bearing the dates 681 (first Bulgarian state established) and 1944 (liberation from Nazi control)
------
Bulgaria/Economy|988044738
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: In April 1997, the current ruling Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official consumer price increase of 6.2% in 1999. Following declines in GDP in both 1996 and 1997, the economy grew an officially estimated 3.5% in 1998 and 2.5% in 1999. In September 1998, the IMF approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility, which provides credits worth approximately $900 million, designed to support Bulgaria's reform efforts. In 1999, an unfavorable international environment - primarily caused by the Kosovo conflict - and structural reforms slowed economic growth, but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $34.9 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 21% industry: 29% services: 50% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.3% highest 10%: 24.7% (1992)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 6.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 3.82 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 26%, industry 31%, services 43% (1998 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 15% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $4.69 billion expenditures: $5.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
< 
< Industries: machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, nuclear fuel
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 38.423 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 52.34% hydro: 7.35% nuclear: 40.31% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 35.493 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 2 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 1.76 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wine, wheat, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets
< 
< Exports: $3.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing (1998)
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 13%, Germany 10%, Greece 9%, Turkey 8%, Russia (1998)
< 
< Imports: $5.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
< 
< Imports - partners: Russia 20%, Germany 14%, Italy 8%, Greece 6%, US 4% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $10 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA
< 
< Currency: 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
< 
< Exchange rates: leva (Lv) per US$1 - 1.9295 (January 2000), 1.8364 (1999), 1,760.36 (1998), 1,681.88 (1997), 177.89 (1996), 67.17 (1995) note: on 5 July 1999 the lev was re-denominated; the post-5 July 1999 lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-5 July 1999 leva
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In April 1997, the current ruling Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official consumer price increase of 6.2% in 1999. Following declines in GDP in both 1996 and 1997, the economy grew an officially estimated 3.5% in 1998 and 2.5% in 1999. In September 1998, the IMF approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility, which provides credits worth approximately $900 million, designed to support Bulgaria's reform efforts. In 1999, an unfavorable international environment - primarily caused by the Kosovo conflict - and structural reforms slowed economic growth, but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $34.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24.7% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.82 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 26%, industry 31%, services 43% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4.69 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $5.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> machine building and metal working, food processing, chemicals, construction materials, ferrous and nonferrous metals, nuclear fuel
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 38.423 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 52.34%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 7.35%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 40.31%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 35.493 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 2 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 1.76 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vegetables, fruits, tobacco, livestock, wine, wheat, barley, sunflowers, sugar beets
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $3.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Italy 13%, Germany 10%, Greece 9%, Turkey 8%, Russia (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $5.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 20%, Germany 14%, Italy 8%, Greece 6%, US 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $10 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> leva (Lv) per US$1 - 1.9295 (January 2000), 1.8364 (1999), 1,760.36 (1998), 1,681.88 (1997), 177.89 (1996), 67.17 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 5 July 1999 the lev was re-denominated; the post-5 July 1999 lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-5 July 1999 leva
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Bulgaria/Communications|988044766
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 3.186 million (1999)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 300,000 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: more than two-thirds of the lines are residential domestic: extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages; a more modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital microwave international: direct dialing to 58 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); 2 Intelsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 24, FM 93, shortwave 2 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 4.51 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 33 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 3.31 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 20 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.186 million (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 300,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> more than two-thirds of the lines are residential
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> extensive but antiquated transmission system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; telephone service is available in most villages; a more modern digital cable trunk line now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital microwave
> <br><i>international:</i>
> direct dialing to 58 countries; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); 2 Intelsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 24, FM 93, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.51 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 33 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.31 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 20 (1999)
------
Bulgaria/Transportation|988044795
1,17c1,49
< Railways: total: 4,294 km standard gauge: 4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track) narrow gauge: 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
< 
< Highways: total: 36,759 km paved: 33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways) unpaved: 2,941 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 470 km (1987)
< 
< Pipelines: petroleum products 525 km; natural gas 1,500 km (1999)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT ships by type: bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 216 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 129 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 19 1,524 to 2,437 m: 15 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 93 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 87 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 10 under 914 m: 75 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,294 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36,759 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 2,941 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 470 km (1987)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 525 km; natural gas 1,500 km (1999)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Burgas, Lom, Nesebur, Ruse, Varna, Vidin
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 216 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 129
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 93 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 87
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 75 (1999 est.)
------
Bulgaria/Military|988044816
1,15c1,19
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops, Railway and Construction Troops
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,913,857 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,599,379 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 57,461 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $379 million (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY99)
< 
< Military - note: the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a Rapid Reaction Force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Border Troops, Internal Troops, Railway and Construction Troops
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,913,857 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,599,379 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 57,461 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $379 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.7% (FY99)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a Rapid Reaction Force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades
------
Bulgaria/Transnational_issues|988044833
1c1,2
< Illicit drugs: major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals
---
> <b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major European transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and, to a lesser degree, South American cocaine for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals
------
Burkina_Faso/History|988044883
1,2c1,2
< Background: Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
< 
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Independence from France came to Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana.
------
Burkina_Faso/Geography|988044912
1,35c1,59
< Location: Western Africa, north of Ghana
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 2 00 W
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 274,200 sq km land: 273,800 sq km water: 400 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Colorado
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 3,192 km border countries: Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
< 
< Terrain: mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m
< 
< Natural resources: manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
< 
< Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 22% forests and woodland: 50% other: 15% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 200 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recurring droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, north of Ghana
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 00 N, 2 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 274,200 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 273,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 400 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Colorado
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,192 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Tena Kourou 749 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 15% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 200 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> recurring droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Burkina_Faso/People|988044940
1,29c1,61
< Population: 11,946,065 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,866,361; female 2,822,990) 15-64 years: 49% (male 2,808,797; female 3,097,048) 65 years and over: 3% (male 149,474; female 201,395) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 17.04 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 108.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 46.73 years male: 46.29 years female: 47.18 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural) adjective: Burkinabe
< 
< Ethnic groups: Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%
< 
< Languages: French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 19.2% male: 29.5% female: 9.2% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 11,946,065
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 48% (male 2,866,361; female 2,822,990)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 49% (male 2,808,797; female 3,097,048)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 149,474; female 201,395) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.71% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 17.04 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.74 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 108.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 46.73 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 46.29 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 47.18 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Burkinabe (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Burkinabe
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 19.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 29.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 9.2% (1995 est.)
------
Burkina_Faso/Government|988044972
1,37c1,76
< Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Burkina Faso former: Upper Volta
< 
< Data code: UV
< 
< Government type: parliamentary
< 
< Capital: Ouagadougou
< 
< Administrative divisions: 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo note: a new electoral code was approved by the National Assembly in January 1997; the number of administrative provinces was increased from 30 to 45 (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo), however, this change has not yet been approved by the US Board on Geographic Names
< 
< Independence: 5 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
< 
< Constitution: 2 June 1991 approved by referendum; 11 June 1991 formally adopted
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law system and customary law
< 
< Suffrage: universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987) head of government: Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the president may serve unlimited terms; election last held 15 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature election results: Blaise COMPAORE reelected president with 88% percent of the vote, with 56% of voter turnout note: despite his reelection, President COMPAORE faces a growing political crisis due to his mishandling of an investigation into the assassination of a newspaper editor and pressure for political reform
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (178 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms) elections: National Assembly election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Appeals Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: African Democratic Rally or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO, Clement SANOU]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO]; Group for Progressive Democrats or GDP [Issa TIENDREBEOGO]; Movement for Tolerance and Progress or MTP [Noyabtigungu Congo KABORE]; Party for African Independence or PAI [leader NA]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS [leader NA]; Union of Greens for the Development of Burkina Faso or UVDB [Ram OVEDRAGO]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA chancery: 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-5577 FAX: [1] (202) 667-1882
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Jimmy J. KOLKER embassy: Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou mailing address: 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou telephone: [226] 306723 through 306725 FAX: [226] 303890
< 
< Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Burkina Faso
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Upper Volta
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> UV
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Ouagadougou
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 30 provinces; Bam, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houe, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komoe, Kossi, Kouritenga, Mouhoun, Namentenga, Naouri, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Sanguie, Sanmatenga, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Yatenga, Zoundweogo
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a new electoral code was approved by the National Assembly in January 1997; the number of administrative provinces was increased from 30 to 45 (Bale, Bam, Banwa, Bazega, Bougouriba, Boulgou, Boulkiemde, Comoe, Ganzourgou, Gnagna, Gourma, Houet, Ioba, Kadiogo, Kenedougou, Komandjari, Kompienga, Kossi, Koupelogo, Kouritenga, Kourweogo, Leraba, Loroum, Mouhoun, Nahouri, Namentenga, Nayala, Naumbiel, Oubritenga, Oudalan, Passore, Poni, Samentenga, Sanguie, Seno, Sissili, Soum, Sourou, Tapoa, Tuy, Yagha, Yatenga, Ziro, Zondomo, Zoundweogo), however, this change has not yet been approved by the US Board on Geographic Names
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 5 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Revolution, 4 August (1983)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 2 June 1991 approved by referendum; 11 June 1991 formally adopted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Captain Blaise COMPAORE (since 15 October 1987)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Kadre Desire OUEDRAOGO (since 6 February 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; the president may serve unlimited terms; election last held 15 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Blaise COMPAORE reelected president with 88% percent of the vote, with 56% of voter turnout
> <br><i>note:</i>
> despite his reelection, President COMPAORE faces a growing political crisis due to his mishandling of an investigation into the assassination of a newspaper editor and pressure for political reform
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral; consists of a National Assembly or Assemblee des Deputes Populaires (ADP) (111 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the purely consultative Chamber of Representations or Chambre des Representants (178 seats; members are appointed to serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDP 101, PDP 6, RDA 2, ADF 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Appeals Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> African Democratic Rally or RDA [Gerard Kango OUEDRAOGO, Clement SANOU]; Alliance for Democracy and Federation or ADF [Herman YAMEOGO]; Congress for Democracy and Progress or CDP [Din Salif SAWADAGO]; Group for Progressive Democrats or GDP [Issa TIENDREBEOGO]; Movement for Tolerance and Progress or MTP [Noyabtigungu Congo KABORE]; Party for African Independence or PAI [leader NA]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Joseph KI-ZERBO]; Party for Progress and Social Development or PPDS [leader NA]; Union of Greens for the Development of Burkina Faso or UVDB [Ram OVEDRAGO]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor or CGTB; Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights or HBDHP; Group of 14 February; National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers or CNTB; National Organization of Free Unions or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-5577
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-1882
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jimmy J. KOLKER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenue Raoul Follerau, Ouagadougou
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> 01 B. P. 35, Ouagadougou
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [226] 306723 through 306725
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [226] 303890
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a yellow five-pointed star in the center; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Burkina_Faso/Economy|988045002
1,61c1,84
< Economy - overview: One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2000-2001 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 36% industry: 20% services: 44% (1997)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 4.679 million (persons 10 years old and over, according to a sample survey taken in 1991) note: a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget: revenues: $277 million expenditures: $492 million, including capital expenditures of $233 million (1995 est.)
< 
< Industries: cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 4.2% (1995)
< 
< Electricity - production: 225 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 64.44% hydro: 35.56% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 209 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock
< 
< Exports: $311 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cotton, animal products, gold
< 
< Exports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, Taiwan, France, Colombia, Italy, Mali
< 
< Imports: $572 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery, food products, petroleum
< 
< Imports - partners: Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, US
< 
< Debt - external: $1.3 billion (1997)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $484.1 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF franc is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2000-2001 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $12.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 44% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.679 million (persons 10 years old and over, according to a sample survey taken in 1991)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a large part of the male labor force migrates annually to neighboring countries for seasonal employment
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $277 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $492 million, including capital expenditures of $233 million (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> cotton lint, beverages, agricultural processing, soap, cigarettes, textiles, gold
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4.2% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 225 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 64.44%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 35.56%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 209 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, cotton, sorghum, millet, corn, rice; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $311 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cotton, animal products, gold
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Cote d'Ivoire, Taiwan, France, Colombia, Italy, Mali
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $572 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, food products, petroleum
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Togo, Nigeria, US
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.3 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $484.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF franc is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Burkina_Faso/Communications|988045025
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 30,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: all services only fair domestic: microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 370,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 100,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 30,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> all services only fair
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 370,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 100,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Burkina_Faso/Transportation|988045048
1,11c1,34
< Railways: total: 622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the Cote d'Ivoire border and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya) narrow gauge: 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways: total: 12,506 km paved: 2,001 km unpaved: 10,505 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 33 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 31 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 13 under 914 m: 16 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the Cote d'Ivoire border and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,506 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 2,001 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 10,505 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 33 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 31
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 16 (1999 est.)
------
Burkina_Faso/Military|988045069
1,9c1,12
< Military branches: Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,500,962 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,282,483 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $66 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2% (FY96)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,500,962 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,282,483 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $66 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY96)
------
Burkina_Faso/Transnational_issues|988045087
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Burma/History|988045198
1,2c1,2
< Background: Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader and Nobel Peace Prize recipient AUNG San Suu Kyi, under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, continues to have her activities restricted; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.
< 
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Despite multiparty elections in 1990 that resulted in the main opposition party winning a decisive victory, the military junta ruling the country refused to hand over power. Key opposition leader and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] recipient [[AUNG San Suu Kyi]], under house arrest from 1989 to 1995, continues to have her activities restricted; her supporters are routinely harassed or jailed.
------
Burma/Geography|988045229
1,35c1,66
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 22 00 N, 98 00 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area: total: 678,500 sq km land: 657,740 sq km water: 20,760 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 5,876 km border countries: Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
< 
< Coastline: 1,930 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
< 
< Terrain: central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Andaman Sea 0 m highest point: Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 15% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 49% other: 34% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 10,680 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, bordering the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Bangladesh and Thailand
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 00 N, 98 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 678,500 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 657,740 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 20,760 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,876 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Bangladesh 193 km, China 2,185 km, India 1,463 km, Laos 235 km, Thailand 1,800 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,930 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> central lowlands ringed by steep, rugged highlands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Andaman Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, some marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 49%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 34% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10,680 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes
------
Burma/People|988045260
1,29c1,63
< Population: 41,734,853 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 6,341,546; female 6,086,650) 15-64 years: 65% (male 13,565,379; female 13,764,242) 65 years and over: 5% (male 885,583; female 1,091,453) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.64% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 12.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.81 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 75.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 54.91 years male: 53.6 years female: 56.29 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Burmese (singular and plural) adjective: Burmese
< 
< Ethnic groups: Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5%
< 
< Religions: Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%
< 
< Languages: Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.1% male: 88.7% female: 77.7% (1995 est.) note: these are official statistics; estimates of functional literacy are likely closer to 30% (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 41,734,853
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30% (male 6,341,546; female 6,086,650)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 13,565,379; female 13,764,242)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 885,583; female 1,091,453) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.64% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 12.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 75.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 54.91 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 53.6 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 56.29 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Burmese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Burmese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Burman 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Mon 2%, Indian 2%, other 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Buddhist 89%, Christian 4% (Baptist 3%, Roman Catholic 1%), Muslim 4%, animist 1%, other 2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Burmese, minority ethnic groups have their own languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 88.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.7% (1995 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> these are official statistics; estimates of functional literacy are likely closer to 30% (1999 est.)
------
Burma/Government|988045293
1,37c1,76
< Country name: conventional long form: Union of Burma conventional short form: Burma local long form: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar) local short form: Myanma Naingngandaw former: Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
< 
< Data code: BM
< 
< Government type: military regime
< 
< Capital: Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
< 
< Administrative divisions: 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon*
< 
< Independence: 4 January 1948 (from UK)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 4 January (1948)
< 
< Constitution: 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
< 
< Legal system: does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet elections: none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened election results: percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79
< 
< Judicial branch: limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
< 
< Political parties and leaders: National League for Democracy or NLD [AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary]; National Unity Party or NUP (proregime) [THA KYAW]; Union Solidarity and Development Association or USDA (proregime, a social and political organization) [THAN AUNG, general secretary]; and eight minor legal parties
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: All Burma Student Democratic Front or ABSDF; Kachin Independence Army or KIA; Karen National Union or KNU; National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma or NCGUB [Dr. SEIN WIN] consists of individuals legitimately elected to the People's Assembly but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; several Shan factions; United Wa State Army or UWSA
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB? , ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador TIN WINN chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-9044 FAX: [1] (202) 332-9046 consulate(s) general: New York
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Permanent Charge d'Affaires Priscilla A. CLAPP embassy: 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon (GPO 521) mailing address: Box B, APO AP 96546 telephone: [95] (1) 282055, 282182 FAX: [95] (1) 280409
< 
< Flag description: red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Union of Burma
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Burma
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (translated by the US Government as Union of Myanma and by the Burmese as Union of Myanmar)
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Myanma Naingngandaw
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BM
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> military regime
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Rangoon (regime refers to the capital as Yangon)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 7 divisions* (yin-mya, singular - yin) and 7 states (pyine-mya, singular - pyine); Chin State, Ayeyarwady*, Bago*, Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State, Magway*, Mandalay*, Mon State, Rakhine State, Sagaing*, Shan State, Tanintharyi*, Yangon*
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 4 January 1948 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 4 January (1948)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 3 January 1974 (suspended since 18 September 1988); national convention started on 9 January 1993 to draft a new constitution; chapter headings and three of 15 sections have been approved
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. THAN SHWE (since 23 April 1992); note - the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> State Peace and Development Council (SPDC); military junta, so named 15 November 1997, which initially assumed power 18 September 1988 under the name State Law and Order Restoration Council; the SPDC oversees the cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the prime minister assumed power upon resignation of the former prime minister
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral People's Assembly or Pyithu Hluttaw (485 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 27 May 1990, but Assembly never convened
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NLD 396, NUP 10, other 79
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> limited; remnants of the British-era legal system in place, but there is no guarantee of a fair public trial; the judiciary is not independent of the executive
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> National League for Democracy or NLD [AUNG SHWE, chairman, AUNG SAN SUU KYI, general secretary]; National Unity Party or NUP (proregime) [THA KYAW]; Union Solidarity and Development Association or USDA (proregime, a social and political organization) [THAN AUNG, general secretary]; and eight minor legal parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> All Burma Student Democratic Front or ABSDF; Kachin Independence Army or KIA; Karen National Union or KNU; National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma or NCGUB [Dr. SEIN WIN] consists of individuals legitimately elected to the People's Assembly but not recognized by the military regime; the group fled to a border area and joined with insurgents in December 1990 to form a parallel government; several Shan factions; United Wa State Army or UWSA
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador TIN WINN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-9044
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-9046
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Permanent Charge d'Affaires Priscilla A. CLAPP
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 581 Merchant Street, Rangoon (GPO 521)
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Box B, APO AP 96546
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [95] (1) 282055, 282182
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [95] (1) 280409
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing, all in white, 14 five-pointed stars encircling a cogwheel containing a stalk of rice; the 14 stars represent the 14 administrative divisions
------
Burma/Economy|988045321
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last 11 years, 1989-99, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success. State enterprises remain highly inefficient and privatization efforts have stalled. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. The short-term outlook is for continued sluggish growth because of poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment, and the large trade deficit.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $59.4 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 59% industry: 11% services: 30% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 23% (1997 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 38% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 19.7 million (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 65%, industry 10%, services 25% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 7.1% (official FY97/98 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $7.9 billion expenditures: $12.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.7 billion (FY96/97)
< 
< Industries: agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 4.31 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 61.72% hydro: 38.28% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 4.008 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood
< 
< Exports: $1.2 billion (1998)
< 
< Exports - commodities: pulses and beans, prawns, fish, rice; teak, opiates
< 
< Exports - partners: India 13%, China 11%, Singapore 10%, Thailand 8% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $2.5 billion (1998)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore 31%, Japan 12%, Thailand 12%, China 9%, Malaysia 8% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $5.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $99 million (FY98/99)
< 
< Currency: 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas
< 
< Exchange rates: kyats (K) per US$1 - official rate - 6.2665 (January 2000), 6.2858 (1999), 6.3432 (1998), 6.2418 (1997), 5.9176 (1996), 5.6670 (1995); kyats (K) per US$1 - market exchange rate - 330 (yearend 1999)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the last 11 years, 1989-99, has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Thus, private activity has markedly increased; foreign investment has been encouraged, so far with moderate success. State enterprises remain highly inefficient and privatization efforts have stalled. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. The short-term outlook is for continued sluggish growth because of poor government planning, internal unrest, minimal foreign investment, and the large trade deficit.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $59.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 59%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 30% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 23% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 38% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 19.7 million (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 65%, industry 10%, services 25% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 7.1% (official FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $7.9 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $12.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $5.7 billion (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> agricultural processing; textiles and footwear; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 4.31 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 61.72%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 38.28%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 4.008 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> paddy rice, corn, oilseed, sugarcane, pulses; hardwood
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.2 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> pulses and beans, prawns, fish, rice; teak, opiates
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> India 13%, China 11%, Singapore 10%, Thailand 8% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.5 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, transport equipment, construction materials, food products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Singapore 31%, Japan 12%, Thailand 12%, China 9%, Malaysia 8% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $5.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $99 million (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 kyat (K) = 100 pyas
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> kyats (K) per US$1 - official rate - 6.2665 (January 2000), 6.2858 (1999), 6.3432 (1998), 6.2418 (1997), 5.9176 (1996), 5.6670 (1995); kyats (K) per US$1 - market exchange rate - 330 (yearend 1999)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Burma/Communications|988045342
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 158,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,007 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good domestic: NA international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 4.2 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1998)
< 
< Televisions: 260,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 0 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 158,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,007 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service for business and government; international service is good
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.2 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 260,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 0 (1999)
------
Burma/Transportation|988045403
1,19c1,53
< Railways: total: 3,991 km narrow gauge: 3,991 km 1.000-m gauge
< 
< Highways: total: 28,200 km paved: 3,440 km unpaved: 24,760 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 12,800 km; 3,200 km navigable by large commercial vessels
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 1,343 km; natural gas 330 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 472,284 GRT/716,533 DWT ships by type: bulk 13, cargo 20, container 2, passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 80 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 10 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 70 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 914 to 1,523 m: 22 under 914 m: 32 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,991 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,991 km 1.000-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28,200 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 3,440 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 24,760 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 12,800 km; 3,200 km navigable by large commercial vessels
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,343 km; natural gas 330 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bassein, Bhamo, Chauk, Mandalay, Moulmein, Myitkyina, Rangoon, Akyab (Sittwe), Tavoy
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 472,284 GRT/716,533 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 13, cargo 20, container 2, passenger/cargo 3, petroleum tanker 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Japan owns 2 ships, US 3 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 80 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 70
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 32 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Burma/Military|988045459
1,13c1,25
< Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 11,865,696 females age 15-49: 11,894,661 note: both sexes liable for military service (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 6,334,750 females age 15-49: 6,334,937 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 483,964 females: 468,221 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY97/98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.1% (FY97/98)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 11,865,696
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 11,894,661
> <br><i>note:</i>
> both sexes liable for military service (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 6,334,750
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 6,334,937 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 483,964
> <br><i>females:</i>
> 468,221 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $39 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.1% (FY97/98)
------
Burma/Transnational_issues|988045480
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: sporadic conflict with Thailand over alignment of border
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan (potential production in 1999 - 1,090 metric tons, down 38% due to drought; cultivation in 1999 - 89,500 hectares, a 31% decline from 1998); surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort; becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> sporadic conflict with Thailand over alignment of border
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> world's second largest producer of illicit opium, after Afghanistan (potential production in 1999 - 1,090 metric tons, down 38% due to drought; cultivation in 1999 - 89,500 hectares, a 31% decline from 1998); surrender of drug warlord KHUN SA's Mong Tai Army in January 1996 was hailed by Rangoon as a major counternarcotics success, but lack of government will and ability to take on major narcotrafficking groups and lack of serious commitment against money laundering continues to hinder the overall antidrug effort; becoming a major source of methamphetamines for regional consumption
------
Burundi/History|988045888
1,2c1,2
< Background: Between 1993 and 1999, ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds of thousands of refugees and left at least 250,000 dead. Although many refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued ethnic strife has forced others to flee. Burundian troops, seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
< 
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Between 1993 and 1999, ethnic violence between Hutu and Tutsi factions in Burundi created hundreds of thousands of refugees and left at least 250,000 dead. Although many refugees have returned from neighboring countries, continued ethnic strife has forced others to flee. Burundian troops, seeking to secure their borders, have intervened in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
------
Burundi/Geography|988045917
1,35c1,59
< Location: Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 3 30 S, 30 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 27,830 sq km land: 25,650 sq km water: 2,180 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 974 km border countries: Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January
< 
< Terrain: hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Lake Tanganyika 772 m highest point: Mount Heha 2,670 m
< 
< Natural resources: nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 44% permanent crops: 9% permanent pastures: 36% forests and woodland: 3% other: 8% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: flooding, landslides
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Africa, east of Democratic Republic of the Congo
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 3 30 S, 30 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27,830 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 25,650 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 2,180 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 974 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, Rwanda 290 km, Tanzania 451 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees centigrade but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 150 cm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Lake Tanganyika 772 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Heha 2,670 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 44%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 140 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding, landslides
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; straddles crest of the Nile-Congo watershed
------
Burundi/People|988045944
1,29c1,61
< Population: 6,054,714 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 47% (male 1,442,585; female 1,411,908) 15-64 years: 50% (male 1,485,177; female 1,541,754) 65 years and over: 3% (male 71,998; female 101,292) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.15% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 40.46 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 16.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 7.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 71.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 46.18 years male: 45.23 years female: 47.16 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Burundian(s) adjective: Burundi
< 
< Ethnic groups: Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
< 
< Religions: Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
< 
< Languages: Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 35.3% male: 49.3% female: 22.5% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,054,714
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 47% (male 1,442,585; female 1,411,908)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 1,485,177; female 1,541,754)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 71,998; female 101,292) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.15% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 40.46 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 16.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 7.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 71.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 46.18 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 45.23 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 47.16 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Burundian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Burundi
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 35.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 22.5% (1995 est.)
------
Burundi/Government|988045980
1,37c1,76
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Burundi conventional short form: Burundi local long form: Republika y'u Burundi local short form: Burundi
< 
< Data code: BY
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Bujumbura
< 
< Administrative divisions: 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi note: there may be a new province named Mwaro
< 
< Independence: 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
< 
< Constitution: 13 March 1992; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on 6 June 1998 by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
< 
< Legal system: based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: NA years of age; universal adult
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government head of government: President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by president elections: NA; current president assumed power following a coup on 25 July 1996 in which former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms) elections: last held 29 June 1993 (next was scheduled to be held in 1998, but suspended by presidential decree in 1996) election results: percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71.04%, UPRONA 21.4%, other 7.56%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16, various other parties 40
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Luc RUKINGAMA, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president] note: opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Loosely organized Tutsi militias
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA chancery: Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007 telephone: [1] (202) 342-2574 FAX: [1] (202) 342-2578
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Mary Catlin YATES embassy: Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura mailing address: B. P. 1720, Bujumbura telephone: [257] (2) 223454 FAX: [257] (2) 222926
< 
< Flag description: divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Burundi
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Burundi
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republika y'u Burundi
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Burundi
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BY
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bujumbura
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be a new province named Mwaro
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 July 1962 (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 1 July (1962)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 13 March 1992; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on 6 June 1998 by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> NA years of age; universal adult
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Pierre BUYOYA (interim president since 27 September 1996, officially sworn in 11 June 1998), First Vice President Frederic BAMVUGINYUMVIRA (since NA May 1998), Second Vice President Mathias SINAMENYA (since NA May 1998); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> NA; current president assumed power following a coup on 25 July 1996 in which former President NTIBANTUNGANYA was overthrown
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 29 June 1993 (next was scheduled to be held in 1998, but suspended by presidential decree in 1996)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - FRODEBU 71.04%, UPRONA 21.4%, other 7.56%; seats by party - FRODEBU 65, UPRONA 16, various other parties 40
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Unity for National Progress or UPRONA [Luc RUKINGAMA, president]; Burundi Democratic Front or FRODEBU [Jean MINANI, president]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Loosely organized Tutsi militias
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-2574
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 342-2578
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Mary Catlin YATES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenue des Etats-Unis, Bujumbura
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 1720, Bujumbura
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [257] (2) 223454
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [257] (2) 222926
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)
------
Burundi/Economy|988046010
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantely agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $730 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 46% industry: 17% services: 37% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 36.2% (1990 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 26% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 1.9 million
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 93%, government 4%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget: revenues: $125 million expenditures: $176 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
< 
< Industries: light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 127 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 1.57% hydro: 98.43% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 153 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 35 million kWh note: imports some electricity from Democratic Republic of the Congo (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides
< 
< Exports: $56 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, hides
< 
< Exports - partners: UK, Germany, Benelux, Switzerland (1998)
< 
< Imports: $108 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs
< 
< Imports - partners: Benelux, France, Zambia, Germany, Kenya, Japan (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $1.247 billion (1997 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Currency: 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Burundi francs (FBu) per US$1 - 626.79 (January 2000), 563.56 (1999), 477.77 (1998), 352.35 (1997), 302.75 (1996), 249.76 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantely agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $730 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 37% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 36.2% (1990 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 26% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.9 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 93%, government 4%, industry and commerce 1.5%, services 1.5% (1983 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $125 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $176 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 127 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 1.57%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 98.43%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 153 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 35 million kWh
> <br><i>note:</i>
> imports some electricity from Democratic Republic of the Congo (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, cotton, tea, corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $56 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, tea, sugar, cotton, hides
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK, Germany, Benelux, Switzerland (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $108 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> capital goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Benelux, France, Zambia, Germany, Kenya, Japan (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.247 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Burundi franc (FBu) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Burundi francs (FBu) per US$1 - 626.79 (January 2000), 563.56 (1999), 477.77 (1998), 352.35 (1997), 302.75 (1996), 249.76 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Burundi/Communications|988046033
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 17,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 343 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: primitive system domestic: sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 440,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 25,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 17,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 343 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> primitive system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 440,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 25,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Burundi/Transportation|988046056
1,13c1,27
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways: total: 14,480 km paved: 1,028 km unpaved: 13,452 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: Lake Tanganyika
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bujumbura
< 
< Airports: 4 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 over 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14,480 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,028 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 13,452 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> Lake Tanganyika
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bujumbura
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Burundi/Military|988046075
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 16 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,344,177 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 701,367 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 76,866 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $25 million (FY93)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY93)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 16 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,344,177 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 701,367 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 76,866 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $25 million (FY93)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.6% (FY93)
------
Burundi/Transnational_issues|988046095
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Cambodia/History|988046203
1c1
< Background: Following a five-year struggle, [[communist]] [[Khmer Rouge]] forces captured [[Phnom Penh]]  in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 [[Vietnam]]ese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of fighting. [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.
---
> <b>Background:</b> Following a five-year struggle, [[communist]] [[Khmer Rouge]] forces captured [[Phnom Penh]]  in 1975 and ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns; over 1 million displaced people died from execution or enforced hardships. A 1978 [[Vietnam]]ese invasion drove the Khmer Rouge into the countryside and touched off 13 years of fighting. [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy, as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces.
------
Cambodia/Geography|988046222
1,35c1,66
< Location: Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 13 00 N, 105 00 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area: total: 181,040 sq km land: 176,520 sq km water: 4,520 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oklahoma
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 2,572 km border countries: Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
< 
< Coastline: 443 km
< 
< Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
< 
< Terrain: mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
< 
< Natural resources: timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
< 
< Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 11% forests and woodland: 66% other: 10% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 920 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
< 
< Geography - note: a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, bordering the Gulf of Thailand, between Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 00 N, 105 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 181,040 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 176,520 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 4,520 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Oklahoma
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,572 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Laos 541 km, Thailand 803 km, Vietnam 1,228 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 443 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; rainy, monsoon season (May to November); dry season (December to April); little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low, flat plains; mountains in southwest and north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Gulf of Thailand 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese, phosphates, hydropower potential
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 66%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 920 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> a land of paddies and forests dominated by the Mekong River and Tonle Sap
------
Cambodia/People|988046267
1,29c1,61
< Population: 12,212,306 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 42% (male 2,610,009; female 2,505,932) 15-64 years: 55% (male 3,132,198; female 3,542,655) 65 years and over: 3% (male 173,179; female 248,333) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.27% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 33.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 10.79 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 66.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 56.53 years male: 54.44 years female: 58.74 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Cambodian(s) adjective: Cambodian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
< 
< Religions: Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%
< 
< Languages: Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 35% male: 48% female: 22% (1990 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 12,212,306
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 2,610,009; female 2,505,932)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 3,132,198; female 3,542,655)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 173,179; female 248,333) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.27% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 33.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.79 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.7 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 66.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 56.53 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 54.44 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 58.74 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cambodian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cambodian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Khmer 90%, Vietnamese 5%, Chinese 1%, other 4%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Theravada Buddhist 95%, other 5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Khmer (official) 95%, French, English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 22% (1990 est.)
------
Cambodia/Government|988046297
1,35c1,72
< Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Cambodia conventional short form: Cambodia local long form: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea local short form: Kampuchea
< 
< Data code: CB
< 
< Government type: multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
< 
< Capital: Phnom Penh
< 
< Administrative divisions: 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev note: there may be a new municipality called Pailin
< 
< Independence: 9 November 1953 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
< 
< Constitution: promulgated 21 September 1993
< 
< Legal system: primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993) head of government: Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 30 November 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch elections: none; the monarch is chosen by a Royal Throne Council; prime minister appointed by the monarch after a vote of confidence by the National Assembly
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral consists of the National Assembly (122 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; two members appointed by the monarch, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by "functional constituencies"; members serve five-year terms elections: National Assembly - last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); Senate - last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004) election results: National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 41%, FUNCINPEC 32%, SRP 14%, other 13%; seats by party - CPP 64, FUNCINPEC 43, SRP 15; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CPP 31, FUNCINPEC 21, SRP 7
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997; a Supreme Court and lower courts exercise judicial authority
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Buddhist Liberal Party or BLP [IENG MOULY]; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Khmer Citizen Party or KCP [NGUON SOEUR]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP) [SAM RANGSI]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, AsDB? , ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO? (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Roland ENG chancery: 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011 telephone: [1] (202) 726-7742 FAX: [1] (202) 726-8381
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Kent M. WIEDEMANN embassy: 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh mailing address: Box P, APO AP 96546 telephone: [855] (23) 216-436, 216-438 FAX: [855] (23) 216-811
< 
< Flag description: three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Cambodia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cambodia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Kampuchea
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CB
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> multiparty liberal democracy under a constitutional monarchy established in September 1993
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Phnom Penh
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 20 provinces (khett, singular and plural) and 3 municipalities* (krong, singular and plural); Banteay Mean Cheay, Batdambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Spoe, Kampong Thum, Kampot, Kandal, Kaoh Kong, Keb*, Krachen, Mondol Kiri, Otdar Mean Cheay, Phnum Penh*, Pouthisat, Preah Seihanu* (Sihanoukville), Preah Vihear, Prey Veng, Rotanah Kiri, Siem Reab, Stoeng Treng, Svay Rieng, Takev
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be a new municipality called Pailin
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 9 November 1953 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 9 November (1953)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> promulgated 21 September 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King Norodom SIHANOUK (reinstated 24 September 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister HUN SEN (since 30 November 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is chosen by a Royal Throne Council; prime minister appointed by the monarch after a vote of confidence by the National Assembly
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral consists of the National Assembly (122 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Senate (61 seats; two members appointed by the monarch, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 elected by "functional constituencies"; members serve five-year terms
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly - last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); Senate - last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National Assembly - percent of vote by party - CPP 41%, FUNCINPEC 32%, SRP 14%, other 13%; seats by party - CPP 64, FUNCINPEC 43, SRP 15; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CPP 31, FUNCINPEC 21, SRP 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Council of the Magistracy, provided for in the constitution, was formed in December 1997; a Supreme Court and lower courts exercise judicial authority
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Buddhist Liberal Party or BLP [IENG MOULY]; Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party or CPP [CHEA SIM]; Khmer Citizen Party or KCP [NGUON SOEUR]; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia or FUNCINPEC [Prince NORODOM RANARIDDH]; Sam Rangsi Party or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP) [SAM RANGSI]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Roland ENG
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-7742
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-8381
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kent M. WIEDEMANN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 27 EO Street 240, Phnom Penh
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Box P, APO AP 96546
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [855] (23) 216-436, 216-438
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [855] (23) 216-811
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (double width), and blue with a white three-towered temple representing Angkor Wat outlined in black in the center of the red band
------
Cambodia/Economy|988046326
1,61c1,80
< Economy - overview: After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $8.2 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 4% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 43% industry: 20% services: 37% (1998 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 36% (1997 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4.5% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 6 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 80% (1999 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 2.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $327 million expenditures: $393 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
< 
< Industries: garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 210 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 59.52% hydro: 40.48% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 195 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, rubber, corn, vegetables
< 
< Exports: $821 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish
< 
< Exports - partners: US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US
< 
< Imports: $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles
< 
< Imports - partners: Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand
< 
< Debt - external: $829 million (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $470 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors
< 
< Currency: 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen
< 
< Exchange rates: new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 43%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 37% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 36% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 6 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 80% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $327 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $393 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 210 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 59.52%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 40.48%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 195 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, rubber, corn, vegetables
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $821 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $829 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $470 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Cambodia/Communications|988046348
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 21,800 (mid-1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 34,880 (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service domestic: NA international: adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 1.34 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 5 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 94,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 21,800 (mid-1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 34,880 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate landline and/or cellular service in Phnom Penh and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.34 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 5 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 94,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Cambodia/Transportation|988046373
1,17c1,43
< Railways: total: 603 km narrow gauge: 603 km 1.000-m gauge
< 
< Highways: total: 35,769 km paved: 4,165 km unpaved: 31,604 km (1997 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 3,700 km navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing 1.8 m or less
< 
< Ports and harbors: Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh
< 
< Merchant marine: total: 211 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 953,105 GRT/1,345,766 DWT ships by type: bulk 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.) note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 19 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 13 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 11 (1999 est.)
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 603 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 603 km 1.000-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 35,769 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,165 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 31,604 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 3,700 km navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing 1.8 m or less
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville), Kampot, Krong Kaoh Kong, Phnom Penh
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 211 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 953,105 GRT/1,345,766 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 20, cargo 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: Aruba 1, Cyprus 7, Egypt 1, South Korea 1, Malta 1, Panama 1, Russia 5, Singapore 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 19 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 11 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Cambodia/Military|988046395
1,13c1,19
< Military branches: Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), including Army, Navy, and Air Force - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies note: there are also resistance forces comprised of the Khmer Rouge (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate royalist resistance movement
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 2,763,568 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,547,078 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 156,119 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $85 million (FY98)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.4% (FY98)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF), including Army, Navy, and Air Force - created in 1993 by the merger of the Cambodian People's Armed Forces and the two noncommunist resistance armies
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there are also resistance forces comprised of the Khmer Rouge (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate royalist resistance movement
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,763,568 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,547,078 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 156,119 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $85 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.4% (FY98)
------
Cambodia/Transnational_issues|988046423
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
< 
< Illicit drugs: transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin; possible money laundering; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> offshore islands and sections of the boundary with Vietnam are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment site for Golden Triangle heroin; possible money laundering; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale opium, heroin, and amphetamine production; large producer of cannabis for the international market
------
Cameroon/History|988046504
1c1,2
< Background: The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The former French Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present country. Cameroon has generally enjoyed stability, which has permitted the development of agriculture, roads, and railways, as well as a petroleum industry. Despite movement toward democratic reform, political power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic oligarchy.
------
Cameroon/Geography|988046531
1,35c1,60
< Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 6 00 N, 12 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area: total: 475,440 sq km land: 469,440 sq km water: 6,000 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than California
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 4,591 km border countries: Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
< 
< Coastline: 402 km
< 
< Maritime claims: territorial sea: 50 nm
< 
< Climate: varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
< 
< Terrain: diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Fako 4,095 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
< 
< Land use: arable land: 13% permanent crops: 2% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 78% other: 3% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 210 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
< 
< Environment - current issues: water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 6 00 N, 12 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 475,440 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 469,440 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 6,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than California
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,591 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Central African Republic 797 km, Chad 1,094 km, Republic of the Congo 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, Gabon 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 402 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 50 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> diverse, with coastal plain in southwest, dissected plateau in center, mountains in west, plains in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Fako 4,095 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, bauxite, iron ore, timber, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 78%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 210 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> recent volcanic activity with release of poisonous gases
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
------
Cameroon/People|988046567
1,29c1,61
< Population: 15,421,937 note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 43% (male 3,326,334; female 3,251,402) 15-64 years: 54% (male 4,181,038; female 4,153,680) 65 years and over: 3% (male 235,741; female 273,742) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.47% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 36.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 11.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 70.87 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 54.82 years male: 54.01 years female: 55.64 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.88 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality: noun: Cameroonian(s) adjective: Cameroonian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
< 
< Languages: 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official)
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 63.4% male: 75% female: 52.1% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 15,421,937
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 3,326,334; female 3,251,402)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 4,181,038; female 4,153,680)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 235,741; female 273,742) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.47% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 36.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 11.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.86 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 70.87 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 54.82 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 54.01 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 55.64 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.88 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cameroonian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cameroonian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> 24 major African language groups, English (official), French (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.4%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.1% (1995 est.)
------
Cameroon/Government|988046602
1,37c1,76
< Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Cameroon conventional short form: Cameroon former: French Cameroon
< 
< Data code: CM
< 
< Government type: unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990) note: preponderance of power remains with the president
< 
< Capital: Yaounde
< 
< Administrative divisions: 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
< 
< Independence: 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration), 1 October 1961 (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 20 May (1972)
< 
< Constitution: 20 May 1972 approved by referendum; 2 June 1972 formally adopted
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch: chief of state: President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982) head of government: Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996) cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president election results: President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature) elections: last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled note: the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]; Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]; Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]; Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]; Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB? , BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO?, WTrO?
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA chancery: 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 265-8790 FAX: [1] (202) 387-3826
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador John M. YATES embassy: Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde mailing address: B. P. 817, Yaounde; pouch: American Embassy, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2520 telephone: [237] 23-45-52 FAX: [237] 23-07-53
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Cameroon
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cameroon
> <br><i>former:</i>
> French Cameroon
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CM
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> preponderance of power remains with the president
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Yaounde
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 January 1960 (from UN trusteeship under French administration), 1 October 1961 (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 20 May (1972)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 20 May 1972 approved by referendum; 2 June 1972 formally adopted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Paul BIYA (since 6 November 1982)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Peter Mafany MUSONGE (since 19 September 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 12 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul BIYA 92.6%; note - supporters of the opposition candidates boycotted the elections, making a comparison of vote shares relatively meaningless
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 109, SDF 43, UNDP 13, UDC 5, UPC-K 1, MDR 1, MLJC 1; note - results from 7 contested seats were cancelled by the Supreme Court and have yet to be filled
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]; Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]; Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]; Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]; Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]; Social Democratic Front or SDF [John FRU NDI]; Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]; Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]; Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, C, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, PCA, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-8790
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-3826
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John M. YATES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Nachtigal, Yaounde
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 817, Yaounde; pouch: American Embassy, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2520
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [237] 23-45-52
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [237] 23-07-53
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Cameroon/Economy|988046639
1,61c1,82
< Economy - overview: Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $31.5 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5.2% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 42% industry: 22% services: 36% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 40% (1984 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.1% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 70%, industry and commerce 13%, other 17%
< 
< Unemployment rate: 30% (1998 est.)
< 
< Budget: revenues: $2.23 billion expenditures: $2.23 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
< 
< Industries: petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 3.285 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.59% hydro: 97.41% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 3.055 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber
< 
< Exports: $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 25%, Spain 20%, France 16%, Netherlands 7% (1997 est.)
< 
< Imports: $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machines and electrical equipment, transport equipment, fuel, food
< 
< Imports - partners: France 25%, Nigeria 8%, US 8%, Germany 6% (1997 est.)
< 
< Debt - external: $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $606.1 million (1995); note - France signed two loan agreements totaling $55 million in September 1997, and the Paris Club agreed in October 1997 to reduce the official debt by 50% and to reschedule it on favorable terms with a consolidation of payments due through 2000
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government, however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997; the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $31.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 36% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 40% (1984 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 70%, industry and commerce 13%, other 17%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 30% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.23 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.23 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum production and refining, food processing, light consumer goods, textiles, lumber
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 3.285 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 2.59%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 97.41%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 3.055 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil and petroleum products, lumber, cocoa beans, aluminum, coffee, cotton
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Italy 25%, Spain 20%, France 16%, Netherlands 7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machines and electrical equipment, transport equipment, fuel, food
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 25%, Nigeria 8%, US 8%, Germany 6% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $606.1 million (1995); note - France signed two loan agreements totaling $55 million in September 1997, and the Paris Club agreed in October 1997 to reduce the official debt by 50% and to reschedule it on favorable terms with a consolidation of payments due through 2000
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25  (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Cameroon/Communications|988046665
1,15c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 60,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,800 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: available only to business and government domestic: cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 2.27 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1998)
< 
< Televisions: 450,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 60,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,800 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> available only to business and government
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> cable, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.27 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 450,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Cameroon/Transportation|988046691
1,13c1,40
< Railways: total: 1,104 km narrow gauge: 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
< 
< Highways: total: 34,300 km paved: 4,288 km unpaved: 30,012 km (1995 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 2,090 km; of decreasing importance
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko
< 
< Airports: 50 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: total: 11 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 39 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 20 under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,104 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 34,300 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,288 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 30,012 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,090 km; of decreasing importance
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bonaberi, Douala, Garoua, Kribi, Tiko
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 50 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 11 (1999 est.)
------
Cameroon/Military|988046727
1,13c1,17
< Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 3,653,548 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,847,871 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 169,661 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $155 million (FY98/99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.4% (FY98/99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,653,548 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,847,871 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 169,661 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $155 million (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.4% (FY98/99)
------
Cameroon/Transnational_issues|988046762
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone. 
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone
------
Cape_Verde/History|988046934
1c1
< Background: The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a trading center for African slaves. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups. Independence was achieved in 1975.
---
> <b>Background:</b> The uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a trading center for African slaves. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups. Independence was achieved in 1975.
------
Cape_Verde/Geography|988046998
1,50c1,62
< Location: Western Africa, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 16 00 N, 24 00 W
< 
< Map references: World
< 
< Area:
< total: 4,033 sq km
< land: 4,033 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly larger than Rhode Island
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 965 km
< 
< Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic
< 
< Terrain: steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Mt. Fogo 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island)
< 
< Natural resources: salt, basalt rock, pozzuolana (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), limestone, kaolin, fish
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 11%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 6%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 83% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 30 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: prolonged droughts; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active
< 
< Environment - current issues: overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; overfishing
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Senegal
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 16 00 N, 24 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> World
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,033 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 4,033 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Rhode Island
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 965 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mt. Fogo 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island)
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> salt, basalt rock, pozzuolana (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), limestone, kaolin, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 83% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 30 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> prolonged droughts; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; overfishing
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site
------
Cape_Verde/People|988047026
1,46c1,59
< Population: 401,343 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 44% (male 88,202; female 86,630)
< 15-64 years: 50% (male 95,079; female 105,928)
< 65 years and over: 6% (male 10,043; female 15,461) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.98% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 29.67 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 7.38 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -12.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 54.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 68.91 years
< male: 65.63 years
< female: 72.29 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.19 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Cape Verdean(s)
< adjective: Cape Verdean
< 
< Ethnic groups: Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic (infused with indigenous beliefs); Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene)
< 
< Languages: Portuguese, Crioulo (a blend of Portuguese and West African words)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 71.6%
< male: 81.4%
< female: 63.8% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 401,343 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 44% (male 88,202; female 86,630)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 95,079; female 105,928)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 10,043; female 15,461) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.98% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 29.67 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.38 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -12.49 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.65 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 54.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68.91 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 65.63 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 72.29 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.19 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cape Verdean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cape Verdean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic (infused with indigenous beliefs); Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese, Crioulo (a blend of Portuguese and West African words)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 81.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 63.8% (1995 est.)
------
Cape_Verde/Government|988047059
1,57c1,76
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Cape Verde
< conventional short form: Cape Verde
< local long form: Republica de Cabo Verde
< local short form: Cabo Verde
< 
< Data code: CV
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Praia
< 
< Administrative divisions: 14 districts (concelhos, singular - concelho); Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Nicolau, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal
< note: there may be a new administrative structure of 16 districts (Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Domingos, Sao Nicolau, Sao Filipe, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal)
< 
< Independence: 5 July 1975 (from Portugal)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 5 July (1975)
< 
< Constitution: new constitution came into force 25 September 1992
< 
< Legal system: derived from the legal system of Portugal
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (since 22 March 1991)
< head of government: Prime Minister Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA (since 13 January 1991)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president
< election results: Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro reelected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held NA December 2000)
< election results: percent of vote by party - MPD 61.3%, PAICV 29.8%, PCD 6.7%, other 2.2%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justia
< 
< Political parties and leaders: African Party for Independence of Cape Verde or PAICV [Pedro Verona Rodrigues PIRES, chairman]; Movement for Democracy or MPD [Prime Minister Carlos VEIGA, founder and president]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Dr. Eurico MONTEIRO, president]; Party of Work and Solidarity or PTS [Dr. Oresimo SILVEIRA, president]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Ferdinand Amilcar Spencer LOPES
< chancery: 3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
< telephone: [1] (202) 965-6820
< FAX: [1] (202) 965-1207
< consulate(s) general: Boston
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Lawrence Neal BENEDICT
< embassy: Rua Abilio Macedo 81, Praia
< mailing address: C. P. 201, Praia
< telephone: [238] 61 56 16
< FAX: [238] 61 13 55
< 
< Flag description: three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Cape Verde
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cape Verde
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Cabo Verde
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Cabo Verde
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CV
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Praia
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 districts (concelhos, singular - concelho); Boa Vista, Brava, Fogo, Maio, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Nicolau, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be a new administrative structure of 16 districts (Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paul, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, Sao Domingos, Sao Nicolau, Sao Filipe, Sao Vicente, Tarrafal)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 5 July 1975 (from Portugal)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 5 July (1975)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> new constitution came into force 25 September 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> derived from the legal system of Portugal
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (since 22 March 1991)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA (since 13 January 1991)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 18 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro reelected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - MPD 61.3%, PAICV 29.8%, PCD 6.7%, other 2.2%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justia
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> African Party for Independence of Cape Verde or PAICV [Pedro Verona Rodrigues PIRES, chairman]; Movement for Democracy or MPD [Prime Minister Carlos VEIGA, founder and president]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Dr. Eurico MONTEIRO, president]; Party of Work and Solidarity or PTS [Dr. Oresimo SILVEIRA, president]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ferdinand Amilcar Spencer LOPES
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 965-6820
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 965-1207
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Lawrence Neal BENEDICT
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rua Abilio Macedo 81, Praia
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> C. P. 201, Praia
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [238] 61 56 16
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [238] 61 13 55
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands
------
Cape_Verde/Economy|988047087
1,70c1,78
< Economy - overview: Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 1998 was only 13%, of which fishing accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $618 million (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,500 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 13%
< industry: 19%
< services: 68% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1999)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $188 million
< expenditures: $228 million, including capital expenditures of $116 million (1996)
< 
< Industries: food and beverages, fish processing, shoes and garments, salt mining, ship repair
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 40 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 37 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: bananas, corn, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish
< 
< Exports: $38 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: fuel, shoes, garments, fish, bananas, hides
< 
< Exports - partners: Portugal, Germany, Spain, France, UK, Malaysia
< 
< Imports: $225 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, industrial products, transport equipment, fuels
< 
< Imports - partners: Portugal, Netherlands, France, UK, Spain, US
< 
< Debt - external: $220 million (1998)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $111.3 million (1995)
< 
< Currency: 1 Cape Verdean escudo (CVEsc) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: Cape Verdean escudos (CVEsc) per US$1 - 107.280 (December 1999), 102.700 (1999), 98.158 (1998), 93.177 (1997), 82.591 (1996), 76.853 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 1998 was only 13%, of which fishing accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $618 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 68% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $188 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $228 million, including capital expenditures of $116 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food and beverages, fish processing, shoes and garments, salt mining, ship repair
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 40 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 37 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, corn, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $38 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fuel, shoes, garments, fish, bananas, hides
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Portugal, Germany, Spain, France, UK, Malaysia
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $225 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, industrial products, transport equipment, fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Portugal, Netherlands, France, UK, Spain, US
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $220 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $111.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Cape Verdean escudo (CVEsc) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Cape Verdean escudos (CVEsc) per US$1 - 107.280 (December 1999), 102.700 (1999), 98.158 (1998), 93.177 (1997), 82.591 (1996), 76.853 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Cape_Verde/Communications|988047107
1,17c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 22,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system which was scheduled for completion in 1998
< international: 2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 73,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 2,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 22,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system which was scheduled for completion in 1998
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 6, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 73,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Cape_Verde/Transportation|988047132
1,19c1,25
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 1,100 km
< paved: 858 km
< unpaved: 242 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Mindelo, Praia, Tarrafal
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 9,523 GRT/11,795 DWT
< ships by type: cargo 4, chemical tanker 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 6 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 6
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 5 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,100 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 858 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 242 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Mindelo, Praia, Tarrafal
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 9,523 GRT/11,795 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 4, chemical tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
Cape_Verde/Military|988047151
1,11c1,12
< MMilitary branches: single branch that includes both ground and naval elements
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 86,675 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 49,069 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $4 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.8% (FY96)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> single branch that includes both ground and naval elements
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 86,675 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 49,069 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $4 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.8% (FY96)
------
Cape_Verde/Transnational_issues|988047181
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from Latin America and Africa destined for Western Europe
------
Cayman_Islands/History|988047245
1c1
< Background: The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries. Administered by Jamaica from 1863, they remained a British dependency after 1962 when the former became independent.
---
> <b>Background:</b> The Cayman Islands were colonized from Jamaica by the British during the 18th and 19th centuries. Administered by Jamaica from 1863, they remained a British dependency after 1962 when the former became independent.
------
Cayman_Islands/Geography|988047263
1,45c1,54
< Location: Caribbean, island group in Caribbean Sea, nearly one-half of the way from Cuba to Honduras
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 19 30 N, 80 30 W
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
< 
< Area:
< total: 259 sq km
< land: 259 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 160 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April)
< 
< Terrain: low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
< highest point: The Bluff 43 m
< 
< Natural resources: fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 8%
< forests and woodland: 23%
< other: 69% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes (July to November)
< 
< Environment - current issues: no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment
< 
< Geography - note: important location between Cuba and Central America
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island group in Caribbean Sea, nearly one-half of the way from Cuba to Honduras
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 19 30 N, 80 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 259 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 259 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 160 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> The Bluff 43 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, climate and beaches that foster tourism
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 69% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes (July to November)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> important location between Cuba and Central America
------
Cayman_Islands/People|988047286
1,47c1,61
< Population: 34,763 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 22.36% (male 3,769; female 4,005)
< 15-64 years: 69.84% (male 11,864; female 12,416)
< 65 years and over: 7.79% (male 1,241; female 1,468) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 2.22% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 14.21 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 5.09 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 13.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< note: major destination for Cubans trying to migrate to the US
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 0.86 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.85 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 10.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 78.88 years
< male: 76.1 years
< female: 81.27 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Caymanian(s)
< adjective: Caymanian
< 
< Ethnic groups: mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20%
< 
< Religions: United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant
< 
< Languages: English
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school
< total population: 98%
< male: 98%
< female: 98% (1970 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 34,763 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 22.36% (male 3,769; female 4,005)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 69.84% (male 11,864; female 12,416)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7.79% (male 1,241; female 1,468) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.22% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.21 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.09 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 13.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> major destination for Cubans trying to migrate to the US
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 0.86 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.85 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 10.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.88 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.1 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.27 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Caymanian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Caymanian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1970 est.)
------
Cayman_Islands/Government|988047327
1,46c1,54
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Cayman Islands
< 
< Data code: CJ
< 
< Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
< 
< Government type: British crown colony
< 
< Capital: George Town
< 
< Administrative divisions: 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western
< 
< Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< National holiday: Constitution Day (first Monday in July)
< 
< Constitution: 1959, revised 1972 and 1992
< 
< Legal system: British common law and local statutes
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
< head of government: Governor and President of the Executive Council Peter SMITH (since 5 May 1999)
< cabinet: Executive Council (three members appointed by the governor, four members elected by the Legislative Assembly)
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; the governor is appointed by the monarch
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Assembly (18 seats, three official members and 15 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
< elections: last held 20 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 2000)
< election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - National Team coalition 9, independents 6
< 
< Judicial branch: Summary Court; Grand Court; Cayman Islands Court of Appeal
< 
< Political parties and leaders: no formal political parties
< note: the National Team, an organization formed in 1992 to oppose some proposals in the constitutional draft, continues to exert legislative power
< 
< International organization participation: Caricom (observer), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
< 
< Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cayman Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CJ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> British crown colony
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> George Town
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 8 districts; Creek, Eastern, Midland, South Town, Spot Bay, Stake Bay, West End, Western
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Constitution Day (first Monday in July)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1959, revised 1972 and 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> British common law and local statutes
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Governor and President of the Executive Council Peter SMITH (since 5 May 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council (three members appointed by the governor, four members elected by the Legislative Assembly)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; the governor is appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Assembly (18 seats, three official members and 15 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - National Team coalition 9, independents 6
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Summary Court; Grand Court; Cayman Islands Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> no formal political parties
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the National Team, an organization formed in 1992 to oppose some proposals in the constitutional draft, continues to exert legislative power
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Caricom (observer), CDB, Interpol (subbureau), IOC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Caymanian coat of arms on a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms includes a pineapple and turtle above a shield with three stars (representing the three islands) and a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto HE HATH FOUNDED IT UPON THE SEAS
------
Cayman_Islands/Economy|988047356
1,72c1,79
< Economy - overview: With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 1997, including almost 600 banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. A stock exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.2 million visitors in 1997. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $930 million (1997 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1997 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $24,500 (1997 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 1.4%
< industry: 3.2%
< services: 95.4% (1994 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3% (1998)
< 
< Labor force: 19,820 (1995)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 5.1% (1996)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $265.2 million
< expenditures: $248.9 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
< 
< Industries: tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 290 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 270 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: vegetables, fruit; livestock, turtle farming
< 
< Exports: $2.17 million (1997)
< 
< Exports - commodities: turtle products, manufactured consumer goods
< 
< Exports - partners: mostly US
< 
< Imports: $432 million (1997)
< 
< Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, manufactured goods
< 
< Imports - partners: US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan
< 
< Debt - external: $70 million (1996)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA
< 
< Currency: 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 (3 November 1995), 0.85 (22 November 1993)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 1997, including almost 600 banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. A stock exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.2 million visitors in 1997. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $930 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $24,500 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1.4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 3.2%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 95.4% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 19,820 (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.1% (1996)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $265.2 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $248.9 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, furniture
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 290 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 270 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vegetables, fruit; livestock, turtle farming
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.17 million (1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> turtle products, manufactured consumer goods
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> mostly US
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $432 million (1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, manufactured goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $70 million (1996)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 (3 November 1995), 0.85 (22 November 1993)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
------
Cayman_Islands/Economy|988047376
79a80
>  1 April - 31 March
------
Cayman_Islands/Communications|988047403
1,17c1,19
< Telephones - main lines in use: 19,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,534 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: NA
< international: 1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 36,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: NA
< 
< Televisions: 7,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 19,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,534 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 36,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 7,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Cayman_Islands/Transportation|988047439
1,23c1,30
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 406 km
< paved: 304 km
< unpaved: 102 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Cayman Brac, George Town
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,139,740 GRT/1,693,212 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 18, cargo 10, chemical tanker 14, container 4, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 26, roll-on/roll-off 6, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
< note: a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are: Greece 15, US 5, UK 5, Cyprus 2, Denmark 2, Norway 3 (1998 est.)
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 2
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 406 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 304 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 102 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cayman Brac, George Town
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,139,740 GRT/1,693,212 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 18, cargo 10, chemical tanker 14, container 4, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 26, roll-on/roll-off 6, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 11 countries among which are: Greece 15, US 5, UK 5, Cyprus 2, Denmark 2, Norway 3 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Cayman_Islands/Military|988047477
1,3c1,4
< Military branches: Royal Cayman Islands Police Force (RCIPF)
< 
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Cayman Islands Police Force (RCIPF)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Cayman_Islands/Transnational_issues|988047495
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: none
< 
< Illicit drugs: vulnerable to drug money laundering and drug transshipment
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> vulnerable to drug money laundering and drug transshipment
------
Central_African_Republic/History|988047625
1c1
< Background: The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments - a civilian government was installed in 1993.
---
> <b>Background:</b> The former French colony of Ubangi-Shari became the Central African Republic upon independence in 1960. After three tumultuous decades of misrule - mostly by military governments - a civilian government was installed in 1993.
------
Central_African_Republic/Geography|988047642
1,49c1,59
< Location: Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 7 00 N, 21 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 622,984 sq km
< land: 622,984 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 5,203 km
< border countries: Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers
< 
< Terrain: vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Oubangui River 335 m
< highest point: Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m
< 
< Natural resources: diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 3%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 5%
< forests and woodland: 75%
< other: 17% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common
< 
< Environment - current issues: tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 7 00 N, 21 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 622,984 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 622,984 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,203 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Cameroon 797 km, Chad 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 467 km, Sudan 1,165 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Oubangui River 335 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, oil, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 75%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 17% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa
------
Central_African_Republic/People|988047667
1,48c1,63
< Population: 3,512,751
< note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 43% (male 768,550; female 757,710)
< 15-64 years: 53% (male 909,463; female 946,083)
< 65 years and over: 4% (male 58,224; female 72,721) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.77% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 37.52 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 18.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -1.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 106.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 44.02 years
< male: 42.26 years
< female: 45.84 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 4.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Central African(s)
< adjective: Central African
< 
< Ethnic groups: Baya 34%, Banda 27%, Sara 10%, Mandjia 21%, Mboum 4%, M'Baka 4%, Europeans 6,500 (including 1,500 French)
< 
< Religions: indigenous beliefs 24%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%, other 11%
< note: animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority
< 
< Languages: French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 60%
< male: 68.5%
< female: 52.4% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,512,751
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 768,550; female 757,710)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 53% (male 909,463; female 946,083)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 58,224; female 72,721) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.77% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 37.52 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 18.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.8 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 106.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 44.02 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 42.26 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 45.84 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Central African(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Central African
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Baya 34%, Banda 27%, Sara 10%, Mandjia 21%, Mboum 4%, M'Baka 4%, Europeans 6,500 (including 1,500 French)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 24%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%, other 11%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 60%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.4% (1995 est.)
------
Central_African_Republic/Government|988047703
1,58c1,78
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Central African Republic
< conventional short form: none
< local long form: Republique Centrafricaine
< local short form: none
< former: Central African Empire
< abbreviation: CAR
< 
< Data code: CT
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Bangui
< 
< Administrative divisions: 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga
< 
< Independence: 13 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 1 December (1958) (proclamation of the republic)
< 
< Constitution: passed by referendum 29 December 1994; adopted 7 January 1995
< 
< Legal system: based on French law
< 
< Suffrage: 21 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Ange-Felix PATASSE (since 22 October 1993)
< head of government: Prime Minister Anicet Georges DOLOGUELE (since 4 January 1999)
< cabinet: Council of Ministers
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 19 September 1999 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
< election results: Ange-Felix PATASSE reelected president; percent of vote - Ange-Felix PATASSE 51.63%, Andre KOLINGBA 19.38%, David DACKO 11.15%
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (109 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - there were 85 seats in the National Assembly before the 1998 election)
< elections: last held 22-23 November and 13 December 1998 (next to be held NA 2003)
< election results: percent of vote by party - MLPC 43%, RDC 18%, MDD 9%, FPP 6%, PSD 5%, ADP 4%, PUN 3%, FODEM 2%, PLD 2%, UPR 1%, FC 1%, independents 6%; seats by party - MLPC 47, RDC 20, MDD 8, FPP 7, PSD 6, ADP 5, PUN 3, FODEM 2, PLD 2, UPR 1, FC 1, independents 7; note - results of election are being contested
< note: the National Assembly is advised by the Economic and Regional Council or Conseil Economique et Regional; when they sit together they are called the Congress or Congres
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [leader NA]; Central African Democratic Assembly or RDC [Andre KOLINGBA]; Civic Forum or FC [Gen. Timothee MALENDOMA]; Democratic Forum or FODEM [Charles MASSI]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Nestor KOMBO-NAGUEMON]; Movement for Democracy and Development or MDD [David DACKO]; Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People or MLPC [the party of the president, Ange-Felix PATASSE]; Patriotic Front for Progress or FPP [Abel GOUMBA]; People's Union for the Republic or UPR [leader NA]; National Unity Party or PUN [Jean-Paul NGOUPANDE]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Enoch LAKOUE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Henri KOBA
< chancery: 1618 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 483-7800
< FAX: [1] (202) 332-9893
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Robert C. PERRY
< embassy: Avenue David Dacko, Bangui
< mailing address: B. P. 924, Bangui
< telephone: [236] 61 26 21
< FAX: [236] 61 44 94
< 
< Flag description: four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; there is a yellow five-pointed star on the hoist side of the blue band
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Central African Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique Centrafricaine
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Central African Empire
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> CAR
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bangui
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 13 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 1 December (1958) (proclamation of the republic)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> passed by referendum 29 December 1994; adopted 7 January 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Ange-Felix PATASSE (since 22 October 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Anicet Georges DOLOGUELE (since 4 January 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 19 September 1999 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Ange-Felix PATASSE reelected president; percent of vote - Ange-Felix PATASSE 51.63%, Andre KOLINGBA 19.38%, David DACKO 11.15%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (109 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - there were 85 seats in the National Assembly before the 1998 election)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 22-23 November and 13 December 1998 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - MLPC 43%, RDC 18%, MDD 9%, FPP 6%, PSD 5%, ADP 4%, PUN 3%, FODEM 2%, PLD 2%, UPR 1%, FC 1%, independents 6%; seats by party - MLPC 47, RDC 20, MDD 8, FPP 7, PSD 6, ADP 5, PUN 3, FODEM 2, PLD 2, UPR 1, FC 1, independents 7; note - results of election are being contested
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the National Assembly is advised by the Economic and Regional Council or Conseil Economique et Regional; when they sit together they are called the Congress or Congres
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Democracy and Progress or ADP [leader NA]; Central African Democratic Assembly or RDC [Andre KOLINGBA]; Civic Forum or FC [Gen. Timothee MALENDOMA]; Democratic Forum or FODEM [Charles MASSI]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Nestor KOMBO-NAGUEMON]; Movement for Democracy and Development or MDD [David DACKO]; Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People or MLPC [the party of the president, Ange-Felix PATASSE]; Patriotic Front for Progress or FPP [Abel GOUMBA]; People's Union for the Republic or UPR [leader NA]; National Unity Party or PUN [Jean-Paul NGOUPANDE]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Enoch LAKOUE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Henri KOBA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1618 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-7800
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-9893
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Robert C. PERRY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenue David Dacko, Bangui
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 924, Bangui
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [236] 61 26 21
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [236] 61 44 94
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> four equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, green, and yellow with a vertical red band in center; there is a yellow five-pointed star on the hoist side of the blue band
------
Central_African_Republic/Economy|988047734
1,71c1,80
< Economy - overview: Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government. The IMF approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 2.5% inflation for 2000-2001.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 5% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 53%
< industry: 21%
< services: 26% (1997 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Unemployment rate: 6% (1993)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $638 million
< expenditures: $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $888 million (1994 est.)
< 
< Industries: diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: 105 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 19.05%
< hydro: 80.95%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 98 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, corn, bananas; timber
< 
< Exports: $195 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: diamonds, timber, cotton, coffee, tobacco
< 
< Exports - partners: Benelux 36%, Cote d'Ivoire 5%, Spain 4%, Egypt 3%, France (1997)
< 
< Imports: $170 million (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products
< 
< Imports - partners: France 30%, Cote d'Ivoire 18%, Cameroon 11%, Germany 4%, Japan (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $790 million (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
< note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government. The IMF approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 2.5% inflation for 2000-2001.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 53%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 26% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6% (1993)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $638 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $888 million (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> diamond mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 105 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 19.05%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 80.95%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 98 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, corn, bananas; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $195 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> diamonds, timber, cotton, coffee, tobacco
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Benelux 36%, Cote d'Ivoire 5%, Spain 4%, Egypt 3%, France (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $170 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 30%, Cote d'Ivoire 18%, Cameroon 11%, Germany 4%, Japan (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $790 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Central_African_Republic/Communications|988047763
1,17c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 8,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 79 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: fair system
< domestic: network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 283,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: NA
< 
< Televisions: 18,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 8,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 79 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fair system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 283,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 18,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Central_African_Republic/Transportation|988047787
1,24c1,33
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 23,810 km
< paved: 429 km
< unpaved: 23,381 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 800 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river
< 
< Ports and harbors: Bangui, Nola
< 
< Airports: 52 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 3
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 49
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 10
< 914 to 1,523 m: 23
< under 914 m: 15 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 23,810 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 429 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 23,381 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 800 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bangui, Nola
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 52 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 49
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 23
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 15 (1999 est.)
------
Central_African_Republic/Military|988047808
1,11c1,12
< Military branches: Central African Armed Forces (includes Republican Guard and Air Force), Presidential Guard, National Gendarmerie, Police Force
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 804,941 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 420,619 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $29 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.2% (FY96)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Central African Armed Forces (includes Republican Guard and Air Force), Presidential Guard, National Gendarmerie, Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 804,941 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 420,619 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $29 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.2% (FY96)
------
Central_African_Republic/Transnational_issues|988047846
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Chad/History|988047900
1c1,2
< Background: Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured three decades of ethnic warfare as well as invasions by Libya before a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. A transitional government eventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-military groups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable to Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multiparty presidential and National Assembly elections in 1996 and 1997 respectively. In 1998 a new rebellion broke out in northern Chad, which continued to escalate throughout 1999. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Chad, part of France's African holdings until 1960, endured three decades of ethnic warfare as well as invasions by Libya before a semblance of peace was finally restored in 1990. A transitional government eventually suppressed or came to terms with most political-military groups, settled a territorial dispute with Libya on terms favorable to Chad, drafted a democratic constitution, and held multiparty presidential and National Assembly elections in 1996 and 1997 respectively. In 1998 a new rebellion broke out in northern Chad, which continued to escalate throughout 1999. Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.
------
Chad/Geography|988047930
1,49c1,59
< Location: Central Africa, south of Libya
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 15 00 N, 19 00 E
< 
< Map references: Africa
< 
< Area:
< total: 1.284 million sq km
< land: 1,259,200 sq km
< water: 24,800 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly more than three times the size of California
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 5,968 km
< border countries: Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
< 
< Climate: tropical in south, desert in north
< 
< Terrain: broad, arid plains in center, desert in north, mountains in northwest, lowlands in south
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Djourab Depression 160 m
< highest point: Emi Koussi 3,415 m
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum (unexploited but exploration under way), uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Lake Chad)
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 3%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 36%
< forests and woodland: 26%
< other: 35% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 140 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues
< 
< Environment - current issues: inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
< signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked; Lake Chad is the most significant water body in the Sahel
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Africa, south of Libya
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 00 N, 19 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.284 million sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,259,200 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 24,800 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than three times the size of California
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,968 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Cameroon 1,094 km, Central African Republic 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, Niger 1,175 km, Nigeria 87 km, Sudan 1,360 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical in south, desert in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> broad, arid plains in center, desert in north, mountains in northwest, lowlands in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Djourab Depression 160 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Emi Koussi 3,415 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum (unexploited but exploration under way), uranium, natron, kaolin, fish (Lake Chad)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 26%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 35% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 140 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; Lake Chad is the most significant water body in the Sahel
------
Chad/People|988047960
1,47c1,61
< Population: 8,424,504 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 48% (male 2,022,339; female 1,994,978)
< 15-64 years: 49% (male 1,964,216; female 2,204,902)
< 65 years and over: 3% (male 99,459; female 138,610) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.31% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 48.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 15.71 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.89 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 96.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 50.49 years
< male: 48.5 years
< female: 52.56 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 6.63 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Chadian(s)
< adjective: Chadian
< 
< Ethnic groups: Muslims, commonly referred to as "northerners" or "gorane" (Arabs, Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba); non-Muslims, commonly referred to as "southerners" (Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, Massa) including nonindigenous 150,000 (of whom 1,000 are French)
< note: ethnicity and regional background more commonly used to identify Chadians than religious affiliation
< 
< Religions: Muslim 50%, Christian 25%, indigenous beliefs (mostly animism) 25%
< 
< Languages: French (official), Arabic (official), Sara and Sango (in south), more than 100 different languages and dialects
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic
< total population: 48.1%
< male: 62.1%
< female: 34.7% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 8,424,504 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 48% (male 2,022,339; female 1,994,978)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 49% (male 1,964,216; female 2,204,902)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 99,459; female 138,610) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.31% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 48.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 15.71 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.89 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.72 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 96.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.49 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48.5 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.56 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.63 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Chadian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Chadian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Muslims, commonly referred to as "northerners" or "gorane" (Arabs, Toubou, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Kanembou, Baguirmi, Boulala, Zaghawa, and Maba); non-Muslims, commonly referred to as "southerners" (Sara, Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye, Moundang, Moussei, Massa) including nonindigenous 150,000 (of whom 1,000 are French)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> ethnicity and regional background more commonly used to identify Chadians than religious affiliation
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 50%, Christian 25%, indigenous beliefs (mostly animism) 25%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Arabic (official), Sara and Sango (in south), more than 100 different languages and dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 48.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 62.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 34.7% (1995 est.)
------
Chad/Government|988047990
1,56c1,74
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Chad
< conventional short form: Chad
< local long form: Republique du Tchad
< local short form: Tchad
< 
< Data code: CD
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: N'Djamena
< 
< Administrative divisions: 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile
< 
< Independence: 11 August 1960 (from France)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 11 August (1960)
< 
< Constitution: passed by referendum 31 March 1995
< 
< Legal system: based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since 4 December 1990)
< head of government: Prime Minister Nagdum YAMASSOUM (since 13 December 1999)
< cabinet: Council of State, members appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
< elections: president elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held 2 June and 11 July 1996 (next to be held June 2001); prime minister appointed by the president
< election results: in the first round of voting none of the 15 candidates received the required 50% of the total vote; percent of vote, first round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 43.8%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 12.4%; percent of vote, second round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 69.1%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 30.9%
< note: government coalition - MPS, UNDR, and URD
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly (125 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms); replaces the Higher Transitional Council or the Conseil Superieur de Transition
< elections: National Assembly - last held in two rounds on 5 January and 23 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); in the first round of voting some candidates won clear victories by receiving 50% or more of the vote; where that did not happen, the two highest scoring candidates stood for a second round of voting
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MPS 65, URD 29, UNDR 15, RDP 3, others 13
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts
< 
< Political parties and leaders: National Union for Development and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO]; Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Maldom Bada ABBAS, chairman] (originally in opposition but now the party in power and the party of the president); Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lal Mahamat CHOUA]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE]
< 
< International organization participation: ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Hassaballah Abdelhadi Ahmat SOUBIANE
< chancery: 2002 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
< telephone: [1] (202) 462-4009
< FAX: [1] (202) 265-1937
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Christopher GOLDTHWAIT
< embassy: Avenue Felix Eboue, N'Djamena
< mailing address: B. P. 413, N'Djamena
< telephone: [235] (51) 70-09, (51) 90-52, (51) 92-33
< FAX: [235] (51) 56-54
< 
< Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Chad
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Chad
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique du Tchad
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Tchad
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CD
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> N'Djamena
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 11 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 11 August (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> passed by referendum 31 March 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since 4 December 1990)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Nagdum YAMASSOUM (since 13 December 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of State, members appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held 2 June and 11 July 1996 (next to be held June 2001); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> in the first round of voting none of the 15 candidates received the required 50% of the total vote; percent of vote, first round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 43.8%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 12.4%; percent of vote, second round - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 69.1%, Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE 30.9%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - MPS, UNDR, and URD
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (125 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms); replaces the Higher Transitional Council or the Conseil Superieur de Transition
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly - last held in two rounds on 5 January and 23 February 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); in the first round of voting some candidates won clear victories by receiving 50% or more of the vote; where that did not happen, the two highest scoring candidates stood for a second round of voting
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MPS 65, URD 29, UNDR 15, RDP 3, others 13
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> National Union for Development and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO]; Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Maldom Bada ABBAS, chairman] (originally in opposition but now the party in power and the party of the president); Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lal Mahamat CHOUA]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Hassaballah Abdelhadi Ahmat SOUBIANE
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2002 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-4009
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-1937
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Christopher GOLDTHWAIT
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenue Felix Eboue, N'Djamena
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 413, N'Djamena
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [235] (51) 70-09, (51) 90-52, (51) 92-33
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [235] (51) 56-54
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France
------
Chad/Economy|988048027
1,73c1,82
< EEconomy - overview: Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from it's geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the Doba Basin oil fields, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially delayed.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $7.6 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 0.6% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 38%
< industry: 14%
< services: 48% (1998)
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 12% (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 85% (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $198 million
< expenditures: $218 million, including capital expenditures of $146 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Industries: cotton textiles, meat packing, beer brewing, natron (sodium carbonate), soap, cigarettes, construction materials
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 5% (1995)
< 
< Electricity - production: 100 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 100%
< hydro: 0%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 93 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels
< 
< Exports: $288 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Exports - commodities: cotton, cattle, textiles
< 
< Exports - partners: Portugal 30%, Germany 14%, Thailand, Costa Rica, South Africa, France (1997)
< 
< Imports: $359 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and transportation equipment, industrial goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs, textiles
< 
< Imports - partners: France 41%, Nigeria 10%, Cameroon 7%, India 6% (1997)
< 
< Debt - external: $1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $238.3 million (1995); note - $125 million committed by Taiwan (August 1997); $30 million committed by African Development Bank
< 
< Currency: 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
< 
< Exchange rates: Communaute Financiere Africaine Francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
< note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from it's geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the Doba Basin oil fields, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially delayed.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 48% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 12% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 85% (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $198 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $218 million, including capital expenditures of $146 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> cotton textiles, meat packing, beer brewing, natron (sodium carbonate), soap, cigarettes, construction materials
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 100 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 93 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $288 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cotton, cattle, textiles
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Portugal 30%, Germany 14%, Thailand, Costa Rica, South Africa, France (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $359 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transportation equipment, industrial goods, petroleum products, foodstuffs, textiles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 41%, Nigeria 10%, Cameroon 7%, India 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $238.3 million (1995); note - $125 million committed by Taiwan (August 1997); $30 million committed by African Development Bank
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine Francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Chad/Communications|988048053
1,17c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 5,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: primitive system
< domestic: fair system of radiotelephone communication stations
< international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 5 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 1.67 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 10,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 5,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> primitive system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fair system of radiotelephone communication stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 5 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.67 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 10,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Chad/Transportation|988048090
1,26c1,37
< Railways: 0 km
< 
< Highways:
< total: 33,400 km
< paved: 267 km
< unpaved: 33,133 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 2,000 km navigable
< 
< Ports and harbors: none
< 
< Airports: 49 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 7
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 42
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13
< 914 to 1,523 m: 19
< under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 267 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 33,133 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,000 km navigable
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 49 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 42
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
------
Chad/Military|988048115
1,16c1,17
< Military branches: Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, Rural and Nomadic Guard (GNNT)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 20 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 1,749,033 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 915,664 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 79,596 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $39 million (FY96)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.5% (FY96)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, Air Force, and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, Rural and Nomadic Guard (GNNT)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,749,033 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 915,664 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 79,596 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $39 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.5% (FY96)
------
Chad/Transnational_issues|988048142
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
------
Chile/History|988048204
1c1
< Background: A three-year-old Marxist government was overthrown in 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by Augusto PINOCHET, which ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies, first implemented by the PINOCHET dictatorship, led to unprecedented growth in 1991-97 and have helped secure the country's commitment to democratic and representative government. Growth slowed in 1998-99, but will likely recover in 2000.
---
> <b>Background:</b> A three-year-old [[Marxist]] government was overthrown in 1973 by a dictatorial military regime led by [[Augusto Pinochet]], which ruled until a freely elected president was installed in 1990. Sound economic policies, first implemented by the Pinochet dictatorship, led to unprecedented growth in 1991-97 and have helped secure the country's commitment to democratic and representative government. Growth slowed in 1998-99, but will likely recover in 2000.
------
Chile/Geography|988048225
1,54c1,68
< Location: Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, between Argentina and Peru
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 30 00 S, 71 00 W
< 
< Map references: South America
< 
< Area:
< total: 756,950 sq km
< land: 748,800 sq km
< water: 8,150 sq km
< note: includes Easter Island (Isla de Pascua) and Isla Sala y Gomez
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than twice the size of Montana
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 6,171 km
< border countries: Argentina 5,150 km, Bolivia 861 km, Peru 160 km
< 
< Coastline: 6,435 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: 200/350 nm
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: temperate; desert in north; Mediterranean in central region; cool and damp in south
< 
< Terrain: low coastal mountains; fertile central valley; rugged Andes in east
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m
< 
< Natural resources: copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum, hydropower
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 5%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 18%
< forests and woodland: 22%
< other: 55% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 12,650 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location relative to sea lanes between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage); Atacama Desert is one of world's driest regions
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern South America, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, between Argentina and Peru
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 30 00 S, 71 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 756,950 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 748,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 8,150 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Easter Island (Isla de Pascua) and Isla Sala y Gomez
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than twice the size of Montana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,171 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Argentina 5,150 km, Bolivia 861 km, Peru 160 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 6,435 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200/350 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; desert in north; Mediterranean in central region; cool and damp in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low coastal mountains; fertile central valley; rugged Andes in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Cerro Aconcagua 6,962 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> copper, timber, iron ore, nitrates, precious metals, molybdenum, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 55% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 12,650 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> severe earthquakes; active volcanism; tsunamis
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location relative to sea lanes between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Strait of Magellan, Beagle Channel, Drake Passage); Atacama Desert is one of world's driest regions
------
Chile/People|988048251
1,46c1,59
< Population: 15,153,797 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 28% (male 2,137,826; female 2,044,546)
< 15-64 years: 65% (male 4,919,060; female 4,958,030)
< 65 years and over: 7% (male 453,234; female 641,101) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 1.17% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 17.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 5.52 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 9.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 75.74 years
< male: 72.43 years
< female: 79.22 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.2 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Chilean(s)
< adjective: Chilean
< 
< Ethnic groups: white and white-Amerindian 95%, Amerindian 3%, other 2%
< 
< Religions: Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 11%, Jewish NEGL
< 
< Languages: Spanish
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 95.2%
< male: 95.4%
< female: 95% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 15,153,797 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 28% (male 2,137,826; female 2,044,546)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 4,919,060; female 4,958,030)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7% (male 453,234; female 641,101) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.17% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 17.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.52 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.74 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.43 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.22 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.2 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Chilean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Chilean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> white and white-Amerindian 95%, Amerindian 3%, other 2%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 11%, Jewish NEGL
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 95.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 95% (1995 est.)
------
Chile/Government|988048284
1,59c1,78
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Republic of Chile
< conventional short form: Chile
< local long form: Republica de Chile
< local short form: Chile
< 
< Data code: CI
< 
< Government type: republic
< 
< Capital: Santiago
< 
< Administrative divisions: 13 regions (regiones, singular - region); Aisen del General Carlos Ibanez del Campo, Antofagasta, Araucania, Atacama, Bio-Bio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Los Lagos, Magallanes y de la Antartica Chilena, Maule, Region Metropolitana (Santiago), Tarapaca, Valparaiso
< note: the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
< 
< Independence: 18 September 1810 (from Spain)
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 18 September (1810)
< 
< Constitution: 11 September 1980, effective 11 March 1981; amended 30 July 1989 and in 1993
< 
< Legal system: based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< head of government: President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
< cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president
< elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 12 December 1999, with runoff election held 16 January 2000 (next to be held NA December 2005)
< election results: Ricardo LAGOS Escobar elected president; percent of vote - Ricardo LAGOS Escobar 51.32%, Joaquin LAVIN 48.68%
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (48 seats, 38 elected by popular vote and 10 appointed (all former presidents are senators for life); members serve eight-year terms - one-half elected every four years) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
< elections: Senate - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001); Chamber of Deputies - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001)
< election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - CPD (PDC 14, PS 4, PPD 2), UPP 17 (RN 7, UDI 10), Chile 2000 (UCCP) 1, independents 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - CPD 50.55% (PDC 22.98%, PS 11.10%, PPD 12.55%, PRSD 3.13%), UPP 36.23% (RN 16.78%, UDI 14.43%); seats by party - CPD 70 (PDC 39, PPD 16, PRSD 4, PS 11), UPP 46 (RN 24, UDI 21, Party of the South 1), right-wing independents 4
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, judges are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself, the president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court; Constitutional Tribunal
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Chile 2000 - main party is UCCP [Alejandro GARCIA-HUIDBORO]; Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Gutenberg MARTINEZ]; Coalition of Parties for Democracy ("Concertacion") or CPD [Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle] - including PDC, PS, PPD, PRSD; Independent Democratic Union or UDI [Pablo LONGUEIRA]; National Renewal or RN [Alberto CARDEMIL]; Party for Democracy or PPD [Sergio BITAR]; Party of the South or PS [leader NA]; Progressive Center-Center Union or UCCP [Francisco Javier ERRAZURIZ]; Radical Social Democratic Party or PRSD [Anselmo SULE]; Socialist Party or PS [Ricardo NUNEZ]; Union for the Progress of Chile ("Alliance for Chile") or UPP [Arturo ALESSANDRI Besa] - including RN and UDI
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: revitalized university student federations at all major universities; Roman Catholic Church; United Labor Central or CUT includes trade unionists from the country's five largest labor confederations
< 
< International organization participation: APEC, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Mario ARTAZA
< chancery: 1732 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
< telephone: [1] (202) 785-1746
< FAX: [1] (202) 887-5579
< consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador John O'LEARY
< embassy: Avenida Andres Bello 2800, Santiago
< mailing address: APO AA 34033
< telephone: [56] (2) 232-2600
< FAX: [56] (2) 330-3710
< 
< Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center; design was based on the US flag
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Chile
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Chile
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Chile
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Chile
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Santiago
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 13 regions (regiones, singular - region); Aisen del General Carlos Ibanez del Campo, Antofagasta, Araucania, Atacama, Bio-Bio, Coquimbo, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Los Lagos, Magallanes y de la Antartica Chilena, Maule, Region Metropolitana (Santiago), Tarapaca, Valparaiso
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 18 September 1810 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 18 September (1810)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 11 September 1980, effective 11 March 1981; amended 30 July 1989 and in 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Code of 1857 derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by French and Austrian law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Ricardo LAGOS Escobar (since 11 March 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 12 December 1999, with runoff election held 16 January 2000 (next to be held NA December 2005)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Ricardo LAGOS Escobar elected president; percent of vote - Ricardo LAGOS Escobar 51.32%, Joaquin LAVIN 48.68%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (48 seats, 38 elected by popular vote and 10 appointed (all former presidents are senators for life); members serve eight-year terms - one-half elected every four years) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (120 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001); Chamber of Deputies - last held 11 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - CPD (PDC 14, PS 4, PPD 2), UPP 17 (RN 7, UDI 10), Chile 2000 (UCCP) 1, independents 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - CPD 50.55% (PDC 22.98%, PS 11.10%, PPD 12.55%, PRSD 3.13%), UPP 36.23% (RN 16.78%, UDI 14.43%); seats by party - CPD 70 (PDC 39, PPD 16, PRSD 4, PS 11), UPP 46 (RN 24, UDI 21, Party of the South 1), right-wing independents 4
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, judges are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself, the president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court; Constitutional Tribunal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Chile 2000 - main party is UCCP [Alejandro GARCIA-HUIDBORO]; Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Gutenberg MARTINEZ]; Coalition of Parties for Democracy ("Concertacion") or CPD [Eduardo FREI Ruiz-Tagle] - including PDC, PS, PPD, PRSD; Independent Democratic Union or UDI [Pablo LONGUEIRA]; National Renewal or RN [Alberto CARDEMIL]; Party for Democracy or PPD [Sergio BITAR]; Party of the South or PS [leader NA]; Progressive Center-Center Union or UCCP [Francisco Javier ERRAZURIZ]; Radical Social Democratic Party or PRSD [Anselmo SULE]; Socialist Party or PS [Ricardo NUNEZ]; Union for the Progress of Chile ("Alliance for Chile") or UPP [Arturo ALESSANDRI Besa] - including RN and UDI
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> revitalized university student federations at all major universities; Roman Catholic Church; United Labor Central or CUT includes trade unionists from the country's five largest labor confederations
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, Mercosur (associate), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOGIP, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Mario ARTAZA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1732 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 785-1746
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 887-5579
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John O'LEARY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida Andres Bello 2800, Santiago
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AA 34033
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [56] (2) 232-2600
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [56] (2) 330-3710
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center; design was based on the US flag
------
Chile/Economy|988048311
1,72c1,80
< Economy - overview: Chile has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio AYLWIN - which took over from the military in 1990 - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the current account deficit in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. A severe drought exacerbated the recession in 1999, reducing crop yields and causing hydroelectric shortfalls and rationing, and Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover, and a return to strong growth in 2000 is likely. The inauguration of Ricardo LAGOS in March 2000, succeeding Eduardo FREI, will keep the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $185.1 billion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: -1% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $12,400 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 6%
< industry: 33%
< services: 61% (1999)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 22% (1998 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 1.2%
< highest 10%: 41.3% (1998)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 3.4% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 5.8 million (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 14%, industry 27%, services 59% (1997 est.)
< 
< Unemployment rate: 9% (1999)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $17 billion
< expenditures: $17 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
< 
< Industries: copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: -1.3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 37.49 billion kWh (1999)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 50%
< hydro: 50%
< nuclear: 0%
< other: 0% (December 1999)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 26.665 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; fish; timber
< 
< Exports: $15.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: copper, fish, fruits, paper and pulp, chemicals
< 
< Exports - partners: EU 27%, US 16%, Japan 14%, Brazil 6%, Argentina 5% (1998)
< 
< Imports: $13.9 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: consumer goods, chemicals, motor vehicles, fuels, electrical machinery, heavy industrial machinery, food
< 
< Imports - partners: US 24%, EU 23%, Argentina 11%, Brazil 6%, Japan 6%, Mexico 5% (1998)
< 
< Debt - external: $39 billion (1999)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: ODA, $50.3 million (1996 est.)
< 
< Currency: 1 Chilean peso (Ch$) = 100 centavos
< 
< Exchange rates: Chilean pesos (Ch$) per US$1 - 520.45 (January 2000), 508.78 (1999), 460.29 (1998), 419.30 (1997), 412.27 (1996), 396.77 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Chile has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio AYLWIN - which took over from the military in 1990 - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the current account deficit in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. A severe drought exacerbated the recession in 1999, reducing crop yields and causing hydroelectric shortfalls and rationing, and Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover, and a return to strong growth in 2000 is likely. The inauguration of Ricardo LAGOS in March 2000, succeeding Eduardo FREI, will keep the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $185.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $12,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 61% (1999)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 22% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 41.3% (1998)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 5.8 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 14%, industry 27%, services 59% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9% (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $17 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $17 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 37.49 billion kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (December 1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 26.665 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; fish; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $15.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> copper, fish, fruits, paper and pulp, chemicals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 27%, US 16%, Japan 14%, Brazil 6%, Argentina 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $13.9 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> consumer goods, chemicals, motor vehicles, fuels, electrical machinery, heavy industrial machinery, food
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 24%, EU 23%, Argentina 11%, Brazil 6%, Japan 6%, Mexico 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $39 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> ODA, $50.3 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Chilean peso (Ch$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Chilean pesos (Ch$) per US$1 - 520.45 (January 2000), 508.78 (1999), 460.29 (1998), 419.30 (1997), 412.27 (1996), 396.77 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Chile/Communications|988048333
1,17c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 2.603 million (1998)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 197,300 (1995)
< 
< Telephone system: modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities
< domestic: extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations
< international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 180 (eight inactive), FM 64, shortwave 17 (one inactive) (1998)
< 
< Radios: 5.18 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 3.15 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 26 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2.603 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 197,300 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 180 (eight inactive), FM 64, shortwave 17 (one inactive) (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 5.18 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.15 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 26 (1999)
------
Chile/Transportation|988048364
1,37c1,53
< Railways:
< total: 6,782 km
< broad gauge: 3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified)
< narrow gauge: 116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995)
< 
< Highways:
< total: 79,800 km
< paved: 11,012 km
< unpaved: 68,788 km (1996 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 725 km
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 755 km; petroleum products 785 km; natural gas 320 km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Antofagasta, Arica, Chanaral, Coquimbo, Iquique, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, San Antonio, San Vicente, Talcahuano, Valparaiso
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 45 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 580,749 GRT/860,034 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 11, cargo 9, chemical tanker 8, container 2, liquified gas 2, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 4, roll-on/roll-off 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 370 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 62
< over 3,047 m: 6
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 20
< 914 to 1,523 m: 20
< under 914 m: 10 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 308
< over 3,047 m: 1
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12
< 914 to 1,523 m: 68
< under 914 m: 223 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,782 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 79,800 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 11,012 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 68,788 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 725 km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 755 km; petroleum products 785 km; natural gas 320 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Antofagasta, Arica, Chanaral, Coquimbo, Iquique, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas, San Antonio, San Vicente, Talcahuano, Valparaiso
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 45 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 580,749 GRT/860,034 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 11, cargo 9, chemical tanker 8, container 2, liquified gas 2, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 4, roll-on/roll-off 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 370 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 62
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 308
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 68
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 223 (1999 est.)
------
Chile/Military|988048388
1,17c1,19
< Military branches: Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
< note: normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 19 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 4,012,900 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 2,973,246 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 136,912 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $2.5 billion (FY99)
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 3.1% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
> <br><i>note:</i>
> normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,012,900 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,973,246 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 136,912 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $2.5 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.1% (FY99)
------
Chile/Transnational_issues|988048410
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
< 
< Illicit drugs: a growing transshipment country for cocaine destined for the US and Europe; economic prosperity has made Chile more attractive to traffickers seeking to launder drug profits; imported precursors passed on to Bolivia; domestic cocaine consumption is rising
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> a growing transshipment country for cocaine destined for the US and Europe; economic prosperity has made Chile more attractive to traffickers seeking to launder drug profits; imported precursors passed on to Bolivia; domestic cocaine consumption is rising
------
Countries_of_the_world|988048581
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton_Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988048597
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton_Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/History|988048655
1c1
< Background: For centuries China has stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the first half of the 20th century, China was beset by major famines, civil unrest, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established a dictatorship that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping decentralized economic decision making. Output quadrupled in the next 20 years and China now has the world's second largest GDP. Political controls remain tight even while economic controls continue to weaken.
---
> <b>Background:</b> For centuries China has stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the first half of the 20th century, China was beset by major famines, civil unrest, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under MAO Zedong established a dictatorship that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, his successor DENG Xiaoping decentralized economic decision making. Output quadrupled in the next 20 years and China now has the world's second largest GDP. Political controls remain tight even while economic controls continue to weaken.
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Geography|988048676
1,52c1,64
< Location: Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 35 00 N, 105 00 E
< 
< Map references: Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 9,596,960 sq km
< land: 9,326,410 sq km
< water: 270,550 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than the US
< 
< Land boundaries:
< total: 22,143.34 km
< border countries: Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km
< 
< Coastline: 14,500 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 24 nm
< continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m
< highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
< 
< Natural resources: coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest)
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 10%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 43%
< forests and woodland: 14%
< other: 33% (1993 est.)
< 
< Irrigated land: 498,720 sq km (1993 est.)
< 
< Natural hazards: frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts
< 
< Environment - current issues: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species
< 
< Environment - international agreements:
< party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
< signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban
< 
< Geography - note: world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US)
---
> ><b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Asia, bordering the East China Sea, Korea Bay, Yellow Sea, and South China Sea, between North Korea and Vietnam
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 35 00 N, 105 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9,596,960 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 9,326,410 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 270,550 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than the US
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22,143.34 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Afghanistan 76 km, Bhutan 470 km, Burma 2,185 km, Hong Kong 30 km, India 3,380 km, Kazakhstan 1,533 km, North Korea 1,416 km, Kyrgyzstan 858 km, Laos 423 km, Macau 0.34 km, Mongolia 4,673 km, Nepal 1,236 km, Pakistan 523 km, Russia (northeast) 3,605 km, Russia (northwest) 40 km, Tajikistan 414 km, Vietnam 1,281 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 14,500 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> extremely diverse; tropical in south to subarctic in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains, high plateaus, deserts in west; plains, deltas, and hills in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Turpan Pendi -154 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, iron ore, petroleum, natural gas, mercury, tin, tungsten, antimony, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, magnetite, aluminum, lead, zinc, uranium, hydropower potential (world's largest)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 43%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 33% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 498,720 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent typhoons (about five per year along southern and eastern coasts); damaging floods; tsunamis; earthquakes; droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> world's fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada, and US)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Geography|988048721
1c1
< ><b>Location:</b>
---
> <b>Location:</b>
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/People|988048748
1,47c1,61
< Population: 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953)
< 15-64 years: 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673)
< 65 years and over: 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.)
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.9% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Death rate: 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Net migration rate: -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< 
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.15 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.1 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: 71.38 years
< male: 69.6 years
< female: 73.33 years (2000 est.)
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Chinese (singular and plural)
< adjective: Chinese
< 
< Ethnic groups: Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1%
< 
< Religions: Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.)
< note: officially atheist
< 
< Languages: Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry)
< 
< Literacy:
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write
< total population: 81.5%
< male: 89.9%
< female: 72.7% (1995 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,261,832,482 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 25% (male 168,040,006; female 152,826,953)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 439,736,737; female 413,454,673)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7% (male 41,200,297; female 46,573,816) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.9% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.15 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 28.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.38 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 69.6 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.33 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Chinese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Chinese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Han Chinese 91.9%, Zhuang, Uygur, Hui, Yi, Tibetan, Miao, Manchu, Mongol, Buyi, Korean, and other nationalities 8.1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Daoist (Taoist), Buddhist, Muslim 2%-3%, Christian 1% (est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> officially atheist
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Standard Chinese or Mandarin (Putonghua, based on the Beijing dialect), Yue (Cantonese), Wu (Shanghaiese), Minbei (Fuzhou), Minnan (Hokkien-Taiwanese), Xiang, Gan, Hakka dialects, minority languages (see Ethnic groups entry)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 81.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 89.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 72.7% (1995 est.)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Government|988048782
1,60c1,80
< Country name:
< conventional long form: People's Republic of China
< conventional short form: China
< local long form: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
< local short form: Zhong Guo
< abbreviation: PRC
< 
< Data code: CH
< 
< Government type: Communist state
< 
< Capital: Beijing
< 
< Administrative divisions: 23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Chongqing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang
< note: China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entries for the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau
< 
< Independence: 221 BC (unification under the Qin or Ch'in Dynasty 221 BC; Qing or Ch'ing Dynasty replaced by the Republic on 12 February 1912; People's Republic established 1 October 1949)
< 
< National holiday: National Day, 1 October (1949)
< 
< Constitution: most recent promulgation 4 December 1982
< 
< Legal system: a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) and Vice President HU Jintao (since 16 March 1998)
< head of government: Premier ZHU Rongji (since 18 March 1998); Vice Premiers QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993), LI Lanqing (29 March 1993), WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995), and WEN Jiabao (since 18 March 1998)
< cabinet: State Council appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC)
< elections: president and vice president elected by the National People's Congress for five-year terms; elections last held 16-18 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); premier nominated by the president, confirmed by the National People's Congress
< election results: JIANG Zemin reelected president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,882 votes (36 delegates voted against him, 29 abstained, and 32 did not vote); HU Jintao elected vice president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,841 votes (67 delegates voted against him, 39 abstained, and 32 did not vote)
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,979 seats; members elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses to serve five-year terms)
< elections: last held NA December 1997-NA February 1998 (next to be held late 2002-NA March 2003)
< election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - NA
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme People's Court, judges appointed by the National People's Congress
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Chinese Communist Party or CCP [JIANG Zemin, General Secretary of the Central Committee]; eight registered small parties controlled by CCP
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: no substantial political opposition groups exist, although the government has identified the Falungong sect and the China Democracy Party as potential rivals
< 
< International organization participation: AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OPCW, PCA, UN, UN Security Council, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant), ZC
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador LI Zhaoxing
< chancery: 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
< telephone: [1] (202) 328-2500
< consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US:
< chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph W. PRUEHER
< embassy: Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600 Beijing
< mailing address: PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002
< telephone: [86] (10) 6532-3831
< FAX: [86] (10) 6532-6422
< consulate(s) general: Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang
< 
< Flag description: red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner
---
> ><b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> People's Republic of China
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> China
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Zhong Guo
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> PRC
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CH
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> Communist state
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Beijing
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 23 provinces (sheng, singular and plural), 5 autonomous regions* (zizhiqu, singular and plural), and 4 municipalities** (shi, singular and plural); Anhui, Beijing**, Chongqing**, Fujian, Gansu, Guangdong, Guangxi*, Guizhou, Hainan, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol*, Ningxia*, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanghai**, Shanxi, Sichuan, Tianjin**, Xinjiang*, Xizang* (Tibet), Yunnan, Zhejiang
> <br><i>note:</i>
> China considers Taiwan its 23rd province; see separate entries for the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 221 BC (unification under the Qin or Ch'in Dynasty 221 BC; Qing or Ch'ing Dynasty replaced by the Republic on 12 February 1912; People's Republic established 1 October 1949)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 1 October (1949)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> most recent promulgation 4 December 1982
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> a complex amalgam of custom and statute, largely criminal law; rudimentary civil code in effect since 1 January 1987; new legal codes in effect since 1 January 1980; continuing efforts are being made to improve civil, administrative, criminal, and commercial law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993) and Vice President HU Jintao (since 16 March 1998)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Premier ZHU Rongji (since 18 March 1998); Vice Premiers QIAN Qichen (since 29 March 1993), LI Lanqing (29 March 1993), WU Bangguo (since 17 March 1995), and WEN Jiabao (since 18 March 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> State Council appointed by the National People's Congress (NPC)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected by the National People's Congress for five-year terms; elections last held 16-18 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); premier nominated by the president, confirmed by the National People's Congress
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> JIANG Zemin reelected president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,882 votes (36 delegates voted against him, 29 abstained, and 32 did not vote); HU Jintao elected vice president by the Ninth National People's Congress with a total of 2,841 votes (67 delegates voted against him, 39 abstained, and 32 did not vote)
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National People's Congress or Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui (2,979 seats; members elected by municipal, regional, and provincial people's congresses to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA December 1997-NA February 1998 (next to be held late 2002-NA March 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme People's Court, judges appointed by the National People's Congress
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Chinese Communist Party or CCP [JIANG Zemin, General Secretary of the Central Committee]; eight registered small parties controlled by CCP
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> no substantial political opposition groups exist, although the government has identified the Falungong sect and the China Democracy Party as potential rivals
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OPCW, PCA, UN, UN Security Council, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant), ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador LI Zhaoxing
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-2500
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joseph W. PRUEHER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600 Beijing
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 461, Box 50, FPO AP 96521-0002
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [86] (10) 6532-3831
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [86] (10) 6532-6422
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenyang
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a large yellow five-pointed star and four smaller yellow five-pointed stars (arranged in a vertical arc toward the middle of the flag) in the upper hoist-side corner
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Government|988048803
1c1
< ><b>Country name:</b>
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Economy|988048830
1,73c1,82
< Economy - overview: Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been moving the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $3,800 per capita, China became the second largest economy in the world after the US. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy". In 1995-99 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which had been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 50 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development. The next few years will witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $4.8 trillion (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 7% (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $3,800 (1999 est.)
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: 15%
< industry: 35%
< services: 50% (1999 est.)
< 
< Population below poverty line: 10% (1999 est.)
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: 2.2%
< highest 10%: 30.9% (1995)
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): -1.3% (1999 est.)
< 
< Labor force: 700 million (1998 est.)
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 50%, industry 24%, services 26% (1998)
< 
< Unemployment rate: urban unemployment roughly 10%; substantial unemployment and underemployment in rural areas (1999 est.)
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $NA
< expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
< 
< Industries: iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, automobiles, consumer electronics, telecommunications
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 8.8% (1999 est.)
< 
< Electricity - production: 1.16 trillion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: 80.31%
< hydro: 18.46%
< nuclear: 1.23%
< other: 0% (1998)
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 1.014 trillion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - exports: 7.935 billion kWh (1998)
< 
< Electricity - imports: 89 million kWh (1998)
< 
< Agriculture - products: rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed; pork; fish
< 
< Exports: $194.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
< 
< Exports - commodities: machinery and equipment; textiles and clothing, footwear, toys and sporting goods; mineral fuels, chemicals
< 
< Exports - partners: US 22%, Hong Kong 19%, Japan 17%, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, UK, Singapore, Taiwan (1999)
< 
< Imports: $165.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, plastics, chemicals, iron and steel, mineral fuels
< 
< Imports - partners: Japan 20%, US 12%, Taiwan 12%, South Korea 10%, Germany, Hong Kong, Russia, Singapore (1999)
< 
< Debt - external: $159 billion (1998 est.)
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA
< 
< Currency: 1 yuan = 10 jiao
< 
< Exchange rates: yuan per US$1 - 8.2793 (January 2000), 8.2783 (1999), 8.2790 (1998), 8.2898 (1997), 8.3142 (1996), 8.3514 (1995)
< note: beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been moving the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people but a GDP of just $3,800 per capita, China became the second largest economy in the world after the US. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy". In 1995-99 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which had been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 50 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development. The next few years will witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.8 trillion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 30.9% (1995)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 700 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 50%, industry 24%, services 26% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> urban unemployment roughly 10%; substantial unemployment and underemployment in rural areas (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, automobiles, consumer electronics, telecommunications
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 8.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.16 trillion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 80.31%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 18.46%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 1.23%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.014 trillion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 7.935 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 89 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed; pork; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $194.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment; textiles and clothing, footwear, toys and sporting goods; mineral fuels, chemicals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 22%, Hong Kong 19%, Japan 17%, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, UK, Singapore, Taiwan (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $165.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, plastics, chemicals, iron and steel, mineral fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Japan 20%, US 12%, Taiwan 12%, South Korea 10%, Germany, Hong Kong, Russia, Singapore (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $159 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 yuan = 10 jiao
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> yuan per US$1 - 8.2793 (January 2000), 8.2783 (1999), 8.2790 (1998), 8.2898 (1997), 8.3142 (1996), 8.3514 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Communications|988048853
1,17c1,20
< Telephones - main lines in use: 110 million (1999 est.)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 23.4 million (1998)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and many towns
< domestic: interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place
< international: satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 369, FM 259, shortwave 45 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 417 million (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 3,240 (of which 209 are operated by China Central Television, 31 are provincial TV stations and nearly 3,000 are local city stations) (1997)
< 
< Televisions: 400 million (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (1999)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 110 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 23.4 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and many towns
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 369, FM 259, shortwave 45 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 417 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3,240 (of which 209 are operated by China Central Television, 31 are provincial TV stations and nearly 3,000 are local city stations) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 400 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transportation|988048883
1,36c1,51
< Railways:
< total: 65,650 km (including 5,400 km of provincial "local" rails)
< standard gauge: 62,050 km 1.435-m gauge (12,150 km electrified; 20,250 km double track)
< narrow gauge: 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.)
< note: a new total of 68,000 km has been estimated for early 1999
< 
< Highways:
< total: 1.21 million km
< paved: 271,300 km (with at least 24,474 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 938,700 km (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 110,000 km navigable (1999)
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 9,070 km; petroleum products 560 km; natural gas 9,383 km (1998)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 1,746 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,637,023 GRT/24,552,567 DWT
< ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk 325, cargo 840, chemical tanker 21, combination bulk 11, combination ore/oil 1, container 125, liquified gas 20, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 8, passenger/cargo 46, petroleum tanker 251, refrigerated cargo 24, roll-on/roll-off 21, short-sea passenger 43, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 206 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 192
< over 3,047 m: 18
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 65
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 90
< 914 to 1,523 m: 13
< under 914 m: 6 (1996 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 14
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8
< 914 to 1,523 m: 5
< under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 65,650 km (including 5,400 km of provincial "local" rails)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 62,050 km 1.435-m gauge (12,150 km electrified; 20,250 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a new total of 68,000 km has been estimated for early 1999
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.21 million km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 271,300 km (with at least 24,474 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 938,700 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 110,000 km navigable (1999)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 9,070 km; petroleum products 560 km; natural gas 9,383 km (1998)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,746 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,637,023 GRT/24,552,567 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> barge carrier 2, bulk 325, cargo 840, chemical tanker 21, combination bulk 11, combination ore/oil 1, container 125, liquified gas 20, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 8, passenger/cargo 46, petroleum tanker 251, refrigerated cargo 24, roll-on/roll-off 21, short-sea passenger 43, specialized tanker 2, vehicle carrier 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 206 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 192
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 65
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 90
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1996 est.)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Military|988048909
1,16c1,17
< Military branches: People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime)
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
< 
< Military manpower - availability:
< males age 15-49: 363,050,980 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service:
< males age 15-49: 199,178,361 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
< males: 10,839,039 (2000 est.)
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $12.608 billion (FY99); note - Western analysts believe that China's real defense spending is several times higher than the official figure because a number of significant items are funded elsewhere
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.2% (FY99)
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 363,050,980 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 199,178,361 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 10,839,039 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $12.608 billion (FY99); note - Western analysts believe that China's real defense spending is several times higher than the official figure because a number of significant items are funded elsewhere
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY99)
------
Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transnational_issues|988048931
1,3c1,4
< Disputes - international: boundary with India in dispute; dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; portions of the boundary with Tajikistan are indefinite; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; agreement on land border with Vietnam was signed in December 1999, but details of alignment have not yet been made public
< 
< Illicit drugs: major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> boundary with India in dispute; dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; portions of the boundary with Tajikistan are indefinite; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; agreement on land border with Vietnam was signed in December 1999, but details of alignment have not yet been made public
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem
------
Christmas_Island/History|988049179
1c1
< Background: This island was annexed by the UK in 1888, following the discovery of phosphate rock.
---
> <b>Background:</b> This island was annexed by the UK in 1888, following the discovery of phosphate rock.
------
Christmas_Island/Geography|988049198
1,47c1,58
< Location: Southeastern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 10 30 S, 105 40 E
< 
< Map references: Southeast Asia
< 
< Area:
< total: 135 sq km
< land: 135 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 138.9 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< contiguous zone: 12 nm
< exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 3 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical; heat and humidity moderated by trade winds
< 
< Terrain: steep cliffs along coast rise abruptly to central plateau
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Murray Hill 361 m
< 
< Natural resources: phosphate
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: NA%
< permanent crops: NA%
< permanent pastures: NA%
< forests and woodland: NA%
< other: NA%
< note: mainly tropical rainforest of which 60%-70% is in a national park
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km
< 
< Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: located along major sea lanes of Indian Ocean
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 10 30 S, 105 40 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 135 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 135 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 138.9 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; heat and humidity moderated by trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> steep cliffs along coast rise abruptly to central plateau
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Murray Hill 361 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphate
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> mainly tropical rainforest of which 60%-70% is in a national park
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> located along major sea lanes of Indian Ocean
------
Christmas_Island/People|988049223
1,33c1,39
< Population: 2,564 (July 2000 est.)
< 
< Age structure:
< 0-14 years: NA
< 15-64 years: NA
< 65 years and over: NA
< 
< Population growth rate: 7.77% (2000 est.)
< 
< Birth rate: NA births/1,000 population
< 
< Death rate: NA deaths/1,000 population
< 
< Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
< 
< Infant mortality rate: NA deaths/1,000 live births
< 
< Life expectancy at birth:
< total population: NA years
< male: NA years
< female: NA years
< 
< Total fertility rate: NA children born/woman
< 
< Nationality:
< noun: Christmas Islander(s)
< adjective: Christmas Island
< 
< Ethnic groups: Chinese 61%, Malay 25%, European 11%, other 3%, no indigenous population
< 
< Religions: Buddhist 55%, Christian 15%, Muslim 10%, other 20% (1991)
< 
< Languages: English, Chinese, Malay
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,564 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 7.77% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> NA births/1,000 population
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 population
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 live births
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA years
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> NA children born/woman
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Christmas Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Christmas Island
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chinese 61%, Malay 25%, European 11%, other 3%, no indigenous population
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Buddhist 55%, Christian 15%, Muslim 10%, other 20% (1991)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Chinese, Malay
------
Christmas_Island/Government|988049255
1,42c1,48
< Country name:
< conventional long form: Territory of Christmas Island
< conventional short form: Christmas Island
< 
< Data code: KT
< 
< Dependency status: territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
< 
< Government type: NA
< 
< Capital: The Settlement
< 
< Administrative divisions: none (territory of Australia)
< 
< Independence: none (territory of Australia)
< 
< National holiday: NA
< 
< Constitution: Christmas Island Act of 1958
< 
< Legal system: under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law
< 
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general
< head of government: Administrator (acting) Graham NICHOLLS (since NA)
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
< 
< Legislative branch: unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council (9 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve one-year terms)
< elections: last held NA December 1999 (next to be held NA December 2000)
< election results: percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 9
< 
< Judicial branch: Supreme Court
< 
< Political parties and leaders: none
< 
< International organization participation: none
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of Australia)
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of Australia)
< 
< Flag description: the flag of Australia is used
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of Christmas Island
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Christmas Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KT
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> The Settlement
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Christmas Island Act of 1958
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Administrator (acting) Graham NICHOLLS (since NA)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council (9 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve one-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA December 1999 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 9
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Australia is used
------
Christmas_Island/Economy|988049292
1,72c1,80
< Economy - overview: Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by union workers. With the support of the government, Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $34 million casino on Christmas Island, which opened in 1993. As of yearend 1999, gaming facilities at the casino were temporarily closed but were expected to reopen in early 2000. Another economic prospect is the possible location of a space-launching site on the island.
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $NA
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: NA%
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $NA
< 
< GDP - composition by sector:
< agriculture: NA%
< industry: NA%
< services: NA%
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA%
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share:
< lowest 10%: NA%
< highest 10%: NA%
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
< 
< Labor force: NA
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: tourism 400 people, mining 100 people (1995)
< 
< Unemployment rate: NA%
< 
< Budget:
< revenues: $NA
< expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
< 
< Industries: tourism, phosphate extraction (near depletion)
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: NA%
< 
< Electricity - production: NA kWh
< 
< Electricity - production by source:
< fossil fuel: NA%
< hydro: NA%
< nuclear: NA%
< other: NA%
< 
< Electricity - consumption: NA kWh
< 
< Electricity - exports: NA kWh
< 
< Electricity - imports: NA kWh
< 
< Agriculture - products: NA
< 
< Exports: $NA
< 
< Exports - commodities: phosphate
< 
< Exports - partners: Australia, NZ
< 
< Imports: $NA
< 
< Imports - commodities: consumer goods
< 
< Imports - partners: principally Australia
< 
< Debt - external: $NA
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $NA
< 
< Currency: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
< 
< Exchange rates: Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by union workers. With the support of the government, Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $34 million casino on Christmas Island, which opened in 1993. As of yearend 1999, gaming facilities at the casino were temporarily closed but were expected to reopen in early 2000. Another economic prospect is the possible location of a space-launching site on the island.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> tourism 400 people, mining 100 people (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, phosphate extraction (near depletion)
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> phosphate
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia, NZ
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> principally Australia
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Christmas_Island/Communications|988049323
1,17c1,19
< Celephones - main lines in use: NA
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 0 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system:
< domestic: NA
< international: external telephone and telex services are provided by Intelsat satellite
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
< 
< Radios: 1,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: NA
< 
< Televisions: 600 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> external telephone and telex services are provided by Intelsat satellite
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 600 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Christmas_Island/Transportation|988049366
1,16c1,20
< Railways: 24 km to serve phosphate mines
< 
< Highways:
< total: NA km
< paved: NA km
< unpaved: NA km
< 
< Ports and harbors: Flying Fish Cove
< 
< Merchant marine: none (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 1 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 1
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 24 km to serve phosphate mines
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Flying Fish Cove
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Christmas_Island/Military|988049411
1c1
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of Australia
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>defense is the responsibility of Australia
------
Christmas_Island/Transnational_issues|988049432
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Clipperton_Island/Geography|988049488
1,45c1,54
< Location: Middle America, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, 1,120 km southwest of Mexico
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 10 17 N, 109 13 W
< 
< Map references: World
< 
< Area:
< total: 7 sq km
< land: 7 sq km
< water: 0 sq km
< 
< Area - comparative: about 12 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km
< 
< Coastline: 11.1 km
< 
< Maritime claims:
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
< territorial sea: 12 nm
< 
< Climate: tropical, humid, average temperature 20-32 degrees C, rains May-October
< 
< Terrain: coral atoll
< 
< Elevation extremes:
< lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
< highest point: Rocher Clipperton 29 m
< 
< Natural resources: none
< 
< Land use:
< arable land: 0%
< permanent crops: 0%
< permanent pastures: 0%
< forests and woodland: 0%
< other: 100% (all coral)
< 
< Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
< 
< Natural hazards: subject to tornadoes
< 
< Environment - current issues: NA
< 
< Geography - note: reef about 8 km in circumference
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, 1,120 km southwest of Mexico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 10 17 N, 109 13 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> World
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 7 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 12 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 11.1 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical, humid, average temperature 20-32 degrees C, rains May-October
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coral atoll
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Rocher Clipperton 29 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (all coral)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> subject to tornadoes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> reef about 8 km in circumference
------
Clipperton_Island/People|988049519
1c1
< Population: uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
---
> <b>Population:</b> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Clipperton_Island/Government|988049546
1,12c1,17
< Country name:
< conventional long form: none
< conventional short form: Clipperton Island
< local long form: none
< local short form: Ile Clipperton
< former: sometimes called Ile de la Passion
< 
< Data code: IP
< 
< Dependency status: possession of France; administered by France from French Polynesia by a high commissioner of the Republic
< 
< Flag description: the flag of France is used
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Clipperton Island
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ile Clipperton
> <br><i>former:</i>
> sometimes called Ile de la Passion
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IP
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by France from French Polynesia by a high commissioner of the Republic
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Clipperton_Island/Economy|988049565
1c1,3
< Economy - overview: Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is tuna fishing.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is tuna fishing.
> 
------
Clipperton_Island/Transportation|988049593
1c1,2
< Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Clipperton_Island/Military|988049614
1c1,2
< Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Clipperton_Island/Transnational_issues|988049643
1c1,2
< Disputes - international: none
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Cocos_Islands|988049677
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cocos_Islands|988049770
0a1,2
> <b>note:</b> also known as the Keeling Islands.
> 
------
Cocos_Islands/History|988049796
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> A possession of the UK since 1857, the islands were transferred to Australia in 1955.
------
Cocos_Islands/Geography|988049813
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia, about one-half of the way from Australia to Sri Lanka
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 12 30 S, 96 50 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 14 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the two main islands of West Island and Home Island
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 24 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2.6 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> pleasant, modified by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year; moderate rainfall
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat, low-lying coral atolls
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 5 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cyclones may occur in the early months of the year
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> two coral atolls thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation
------
Cocos_Islands/People|988049828
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 635 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.21% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> NA births/1,000 population
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 population
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 live births
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA years
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> NA children born/woman
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cocos Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cocos Islander
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Europeans, Cocos Malays
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Sunni Muslim 57%, Christian 22%, other 21% (1981 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Malay
------
Cocos_Islands/Government|988049849
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cocos (Keeling) Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CK
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> West Island
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act of 1955
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based upon the laws of Australia and local laws
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Administrator (acting) Maureen ELLIS (since NA)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council (NA seats)
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Australia is used
------
Cocos_Islands/Economy|988049871
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Grown throughout the islands, coconuts are the sole cash crop. Copra and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> the Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations; tourism employs others
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> copra products and tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vegetables, bananas, pawpaws, coconuts
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> copra
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Cocos_Islands/Communications|988049883
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> telephone, telex, and facsimile communications with Australia and elsewhere via satellite; 1 satellite earth station of NA type
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 300 (1992)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Cocos_Islands/Transportation|988049894
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; lagoon anchorage only
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Cocos_Islands/Military|988049904
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Australia
------
Cocos_Islands/Transnational_issues|988049914
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
PublicDomainResources|988050390
14a15
> * [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ The Jargon File] Eric S. Raymond's definitive work on geek-speak.
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|988050503
11c11
< Make a project!  Take a book a write a thourough chapter by chapter summary.  Make pages for all the characters.  Or do this with your favorite fictional universe ([[Star Wars]], [[Middle Earth]]).  Pick your favorite actor and review all his movies.  Pick your favorite city and build pages for all its best attractions.
---
> Make a project!  Take a book and write a thourough chapter by chapter summary.  Make pages for all the characters.  Or do this with your favorite fictional universe ([[Star Wars]], [[Middle Earth]]).  Pick your favorite actor and review all his movies.  Pick your favorite city and build pages for all its best attractions.
------
StarCraft|988050918
3,5c3
< Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.  Warcraft, while advanced for its time, featured the noted weakness of having character parallel across the two races: each unit had a corresponding unit in the other race, and the tech tree was similar for both.  Starcraft avoided this by having units without parallels in the other two races, and by having dramatically different technologies for each race. See also [[Command And Conquer]] and [[Red Alert]].
< 
< ''What does StarCraft have to do with C&C, other than the fact that they are both real-time strategy games?  As well to add a reference to Dune II, which they all are in debt to.''
---
> Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.  Warcraft, while advanced for its time, featured the noted weakness of having characters parallel across the two races: each unit had a corresponding unit in the other race, and the tech trees were similar.  Starcraft avoided this by having units without parallels in the other two races, and by having dramatically different technologies for each race. See also [[Command And Conquer]], [[Red Alert]] and [[Dune II]].
------
StarCraft|988051000
3c3
< Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.  Warcraft, while advanced for its time, featured the noted weakness of having characters parallel across the two races: each unit had a corresponding unit in the other race, and the tech trees were similar.  Starcraft avoided this by having units without parallels in the other two races, and by having dramatically different technologies for each race. See also [[Command And Conquer]], [[Red Alert]] and [[Dune II]].
---
> Real-time strategy game produced by [[Blizzard Entertainment|Blizzard]], similar to their previous hit [[Warcraft]] but with improved gameplay, notably featuring different races with different advantages and weaknesses and internet play.  Warcraft, while advanced for its time, featured the noted weakness of having characters parallel across the two races: each unit had a corresponding unit in the other race, and the tech trees were similar.  Starcraft avoided this by having units without parallels in the other two races, and by having dramatically different technologies for each race. See also [[Command And Conquer]], [[Red Alert]] and [[Dune II]].
------
Blindness|988051048
6c6
< 
---
> IPT 515R linkPresentation Link]]
26c26
< * [[snow blindness]]
---
> * [[snow blindness]]
------
Blindness/Philosophy|988051099
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here's the new page.
> 
> Her is my assignment for my teacher.
------
Chile/Military|988051272
19a20,21
> <i> To put this number in perspective, this includes the expenditures of Carabineros and Investigaciones, the only police
> forces in the country</i>
------
Internet_Movie_Database|988051372
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An online database of movies, television shows, and shorts, allowing any user to contribute information about a work.  The IMDb has an extensive amount of information on works, including basic details such as actors and directors, as well as more esoteric information such as trivia, soundtrack listings, aspect ratios, and alternate versions.  Any person with an e-mail account and a browser that accepts cookies can submit information and vote on movies.  The IMDb can be found at http://www.imdb.com
------
Internet_Movie_Database|988051486
1c1
< An online database of movies, television shows, and shorts, allowing any user to contribute information about a work.  The IMDb has an extensive amount of information on works, including basic details such as actors and directors, as well as more esoteric information such as trivia, soundtrack listings, aspect ratios, and alternate versions.  Any person with an e-mail account and a browser that accepts cookies can submit information and vote on movies.  The IMDb can be found at http://www.imdb.com
---
> An online database of movies, television shows, cartoons, and shorts.  The IMDb has an extensive amount of information on works, including basic details such as actors and directors, as well as more esoteric information such as trivia, soundtrack listings, aspect ratios, and alternate versions.  Any person with an e-mail account and a browser that accepts cookies can set up an account, then submit information and vote on works.  The IMDb can be found at http://www.imdb.com
------
Chile/Geography|988051625
15a16,18
> 
> It doesn't include chilean claim to antartica, of 1,250,000,000 sq km, that overlaps with argentinian claim, and british claim.
> Claims are freezed under the [[Antartic treaty]].
61c64
< air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage
---
> air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; excesive cutting of native forest.
------
Koyaanisqatsi|988051882
11c11,17
< Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
---
> Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> If you want to use another name, simply sign in with a different one, move the relevant information from this page to a new one, 
> and that's it. You don't need the intervention of anybody else.
> One posible name is KoyaaNisqatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
> AstroNomer.
------
Internet_Movie_Database|988052099
1a2,5
> 
> Though it started as a leisure project of a few movie enthusiasts, it was bought by Amazon.com, who owns the copyright
> of the information contained there, so it is ''not'' a source for
> copy and paste.
------
Chile/Transnational_issues|988052387
2c2,3
< Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
---
> Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims; segment of border with Argentina,
> over southern glaciars (Campos de Hielo) still not delimited.
------
Chile|988053936
1c1,17
< <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
---
> La ''Rep&uacute;blica de Chile'', ''Republic of Chile'' is located in the southern west coast of [[South America]].
> 
> A spanish colony until the 1810's, after gaining it's independence it has had a remarkably stable institutional life,
> with only a handful of interruptions, the longest and most recent
> being the government of [[Augusto Pinochet]].
> 
> The population is mostly mestizo, with some remaining of the original ethnias still living in the south, and contribution of some more recent european migration.
> 
> The climate is very varied, from subtropical in the north, passing by the most arid desert in the world, the [[Atacama Desert]], throug a fertil valley in the center, to a cold and damp south, originally covered by forest. The mediterranean quality of the center valley made it ideal for the cultive of table fruits, that are one of the main exports, and the production of wine, also a growing export.
> 
> The level of education is high, and chileans are proud of
> having two winners of the [[Nobel Prize]] in Literature: [[Gabriela Mistral]] and [[Pablo Neruda]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
>  <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
------
Countries_of_the_world|988054001
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos_Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988054018
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos_Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Cardiology|988054050
15c15,17
< *[[Endocarditis]]
---
> *[[Endocarditis]]
> 
> Diagnostic tests and procedures :
------
Endocrinology|988054074
5c5
< system called [[hormones]].
---
> system called [[hormone]]s.
------
Cardiology|988054122
17c17
< Diagnostic tests and procedures :
---
> /Diagnostic tests and procedures
------
Cardiology|988054145
17c17
< /Diagnostic tests and procedures
---
> /[[Diagnostic tests and procedures]]
------
Koyaanisqatsi|988054351
1,8d0
< Welcome, Koyaanisqatsi.
< 
< I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
< 
< ----
< It is a great film.  Unfortunately I may have done it a disservice by choosing this user name; I did not assume that a wiki would be created for each user and I would much prefer that the Wiki contain only information about the film, which is likely to be of greater lasting interest.  :-)  Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
< 
< 
10,11d1
< ----
< Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
13,17d2
< ----
< If you want to use another name, simply sign in with a different one, move the relevant information from this page to a new one, 
< and that's it. You don't need the intervention of anybody else.
< One posible name is KoyaaNisqatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
< AstroNomer.
------
Koyaansqatsi2350|988054476
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Koyaanisqatsi.
> 
> I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
> 
> ----
> It is a great film.  Unfortunately I may have done it a disservice by choosing this user name; I did not assume that a wiki would be created for each user and I would much prefer that the Wiki contain only information about the film, which is likely to be of greater lasting interest.  :-)  Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
> 
> ----
> Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> If you want to use another name, simply sign in with a different one, move the relevant information from this page to a new one, and that's it. You don't need the intervention of anybody else.
> One posible name is KoyaaNisqatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
> AstroNomer.
> 
> ----
> thank you for the welcome, LMS.  I'm glad to help.  And thank you, AstroNomer, for the suggestion.  that had not occurred to me.  And Newsweek just put out an article about how IQs are rising.  :-)
------
Jimbo_Wales|988054702
12,15d11
< Hi, after making some contributions to the movies section I decided to set up an account; unfortunately i chose a username that is the same as a movie which deserves its own wiki, separate from mine.  (I did not know then that users have wikis created about them).  Is there some way to change my username?  I have checked the FAQ, but I don't wish to redirect a request; I'd like to separate the entries. It would seem that that is something I can not do.  Currently my username is koyaanisqatsi--any appendage of numbers or letters would be sufficient to distinguish it from the film.  Apologies for the confusion.
< --koyaanisqatsi
< 
< ----
------
Jimbo_Wales|988054862
34d33
< Couple of related questions (pure curiosity).
36,44c35
< Has someone ever left money in the bomis tipjar?
< 
< (People have tried but we never bothered to finish setting it up.  It is more of a joke than an attempt at making money.)
< 
< I know you are aware of the Amazon patent bussiness, don't you
< plan to take away the tipjar (operated by Amazon) as part of
< the boicot against them?
< 
< And an unrelated request: would you like to set up
---
> request: would you like to set up
------
Greek_alphabet|988055753
38c38
< The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter one out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
---
> The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter won out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
------
Greek_alphabet|988055866
42c42
< During the Middle ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter &sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the ime.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronounciation.
---
> During the Middle ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Roman alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually [[minuscule letter|minuscule]] hands came to dominate.  The letter &sigma; is even written &sigmaf; at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the long and short s at the time.  [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] also introduced the process of accenting Greek letters for easier pronounciation.
------
Greek_alphabet/Talk|988055946
1,15c1
< All I see on [[Greek alphabet]] are html tags with Netscape 4.7x on Mac or PC....
< 
< Same on [[Wiki special characters]].
< 
< Help!
< 
< ----
< I hate the "get a new browser" excuse, because it's mostly used by people who don't have a clue what the standards are to bully people into using software they like instead of what the user wants.  But I'm afraid that's the only advice I can give here.
< 
< Both of those pages are encoded in the way that best complies with available web standards for maximum portability.  Unfortunately as you have discovered, much web browsing software that came out before those standards were worked out is still in use.  Netscape 4.7 is an old product.  You might also verify that a font with Greek letters is available to your OS, but that's almost certainly the case for both Windows (using the "Symbol" font) and MacOS.  It's most likely just the browser.  Later versions of both IE and Netscape (including Mozilla) should work better.  I haven't looked at Opera, but I hear it is very standards-compliant as well.
< 
< Yes, the pages could be changed to use an encoding method that would work for you (e.g., <code><font name="Symbol">abc</font></code>), but then they would fail on other machines.  Sorry I can't be of more help. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< ------------------
< Thanks. Fired up Explorer 5.50 and it worked perfectly.
< 
---
> 
------
Greek_alphabet|988055965
43,44d42
< 
< /Talk
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988057919
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * 1949 The Bicycle Thief - Vittorio De Sica
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988059233
1c1,28
< * 1949 The Bicycle Thief - Vittorio De Sica
---
> : 
> : 1975 [[Dersu Uzala]] - [[Akira Kurosawa]]
> : 1974 [[Amarcord]] - [[Federico Fellini]]
> : 1973 [[Day for Night]] - [[Francois Truffaut|Fran&ccedil;ois Truffaut]]
> : 1972 [[The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie]] - [[Luis Bunuel|Luis Bu&ntilde;el]]
> : 1971 [[The Garden of the Finzi-Continis]] - [[Vittorio De Sica]]
> : 1970 none given
> : 1969 [[Z]] - [[Constantin Costa-Gavras]]
> : 1968 [[War and Peace]] - [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]
> : 1967 [[Closely Watched Trains]] - [[Jiri Menzel]]
> : 1966 [[A Man and a Woman]] - [[Claude Lelouch]]
> : 1965 [[The Shop on Main Street]] - [[Jan Kadar]]
> : 1964 [[Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow]] - [[Vittorio De Sica]]
> : 1963 [[8 1/2]] - [[Federico Fellini]]
> : 1962 [[Sundays & Cybele]] - [[Serge Bourguignon]]
> : 1961 [[Through a Glass Darkly]] - [[Ingmar Bergman]]
> : 1960 [[The Virgin Spring]] - [[Ingmar Bergman]]
> : 1959 [[Black Orpheus]] - [[Marcel Camus]]
> : 1958 [[Mon Oncle]] - [[Jacques Tati]]
> : 1957 [[Nights of Cabiria]] - [[Federico Fellini]]
> : 1956 [[La Strada]] - [[Federico Fellini]]
> : 1955 [[Samurai 1: Musashi Miyamoto]] - [[Hiroshi Inagaki]]
> : 1954 [[Gate of Hell]] - [[Teinosuke Kinugasa]]
> : 1953 none given
> : 1952 [[Forbidden Games]] - [[Rene Clement]]
> : 1951 [[Rashomon]] - [[Akira Kurosawa]]
> : 1950 none given
> : 1949 [[The Bicycle Thief]] - [[Vittorio De Sica]]
------
Internet_Movie_Database|988059283
5c5,9
< copy and paste.
---
> copy and paste.
> 
> ----
> They don't own the copyright on the information itself--just the way it is collected and presented.  You can't cut and paste, you can't use their descriptions, but you can certainly use it as a source of information about who did what and when.  See USSC ''Feist v. Rural'' [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
United_States/History|988060081
1c1
< The United States were founded from colonies established or taken over along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
---
> The United States of America founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
------
United_States/History|988060095
1c1
< The United States of America founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
---
> The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060181
1c1,26
< : 
---
> 
> : 2000
> : 1999
> : 1998
> : 1997
> : 1996
> : 1995 [[Antonia's Line]] - [[Marleen Gorris]]
> : 1994 [[Burnt by the Sun]] - [[Nikita Mikhalkov]]
> : 1993 [[Belle Epoque]] - [[Fernando Trueba]]
> : 1992 [[Indochine]] - [[Regis Wargnier]]
> : 1991 [[Mediterraneo]] - [[Gabriele Salvatores]]
> : 1990 [[Journey of Hope]] - [[Xavier Koller]]
> : 1989 [[Cinema Paradiso]] - [[Giuseppe Tornatore]]
> : 1988 [[Pelle the Conqueror]] - [[Bille August]]
> : 1987 [[Babette's Feast]] - [[Gabriel Axel]]
> : 1986 [[The Assault]] - [[Fons Rademakers]]
> : 1985 [[The Official Story]] - [[Luis Puenzo]]
> : 1984 [[Dangerous Moves]] - [[Richard Dembo]]
> : 1983 [[Fanny and Alexander]] - [[Ingmar Bergman]]
> : 1982 none given
> : 1981 [[Mephisto/Szabo|Mephisto]] - [[Istvan Szabo]]
> : 1980 [[Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears]] - [[Vladimir Menshov]]
> : 1979 [[The Tin Drum]] - [[Jean-Claude Carriere]]
> : 1978 [[Get Out Your Handkerchiefs]] - [[Bertrand Blier]]
> : 1977 [[Madame Rosa]] - [[Moshe Mizrahi]]
> : 1976 [[Black and White in Color]] - [[Jean-Jacques Annaud]]
7c32
< : 1970 none given
---
> : 1970 <i>none given</i>
24c49
< : 1953 none given
---
> : 1953 <i>none given</i>
27c52
< : 1950 none given
---
> : 1950 <i>none given</i>
------
United_States/History|988060215
1c1
< The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw.
---
> The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw, although the Americans (under General Andrew Jackson) handed the British their worse defeat in history at the Battle of New Orleans.
------
United_States/History|988060239
1c1
< The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw, although the Americans (under General Andrew Jackson) handed the British their worse defeat in history at the Battle of New Orleans.
---
> The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw, although the Americans (under General Andrew Jackson) handed the British their worse defeat in their history at the Battle of New Orleans.
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060633
1,6c1,5
< 
< : 2000
< : 1999
< : 1998
< : 1997
< : 1996
---
> : 2000 [[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]] - [[Ang Lee]]
> : 1999 [[All About My Mother]] - [[Pedro Almodovar|Pedro Almod&oacute;var]]
> : 1998 [[Life is Beautiful]] - [[Roberto Benigni]]
> : 1997 [[Character]] - [[Mike van Diem]]
> : 1996 [[Kolya]] - [[Jan Sverak|Jan Sver&aacute;k]]
20c19
< : 1982 none given
---
> : 1982 <i>none given</i>
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060689
4c4
< : 1997 [[Character]] - [[Mike van Diem]]
---
> : 1997 [[Character/van Diem|Charachter]] - [[Mike van Diem]]
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060710
4c4
< : 1997 [[Character/van Diem|Charachter]] - [[Mike van Diem]]
---
> : 1997 [[Character/van Diem|Character]] - [[Mike van Diem]]
------
Internet_Movie_Database|988060751
2c2
< 
---
> ----
9c9,10
< 
---
> ----
> Could you elaborate on ''Feist v. Rural''? I don't even know where to begin to search for that information. Also, how would you modify the previous paragraph to make it correct?
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060784
6c6
< : 1995 [[Antonia's Line]] - [[Marleen Gorris]]
---
> : 1995 [[Antonias Line]] - [[Marleen Gorris]]
32,33c32,33
< : 1969 [[Z]] - [[Constantin Costa-Gavras]]
< : 1968 [[War and Peace]] - [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]
---
> : 1969 [[Z/costa-Gavras|Z]] - [[Constantin Costa-Gavras]]
> : 1968 [[War and Peace/Bondarchuk|War and Peace]] - [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988060860
39c39
< : 1962 [[Sundays & Cybele]] - [[Serge Bourguignon]]
---
> : 1962 [[Sundays &amp; Cybele]] - [[Serge Bourguignon]]
46c46
< : 1955 [[Samurai 1: Musashi Miyamoto]] - [[Hiroshi Inagaki]]
---
> : 1955 [[Samurai 1-- Musashi Miyamoto]] - [[Hiroshi Inagaki]]
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|988061122
6c6
< : 1995 [[Antonias Line]] - [[Marleen Gorris]]
---
> : 1995 [[Antonias Line|Antonia&rsquo;s Line]] - [[Marleen Gorris]]
9,10c9,10
< : 1992 [[Indochine]] - [[Regis Wargnier]]
< : 1991 [[Mediterraneo]] - [[Gabriele Salvatores]]
---
> : 1992 [[Indochine/Wargnier|Indochine]] - [[Regis Wargnier]]
> : 1991 [[Mediterraneo/salvatores|Mediterraneo]] - [[Gabriele Salvatores]]
14c14
< : 1987 [[Babette's Feast]] - [[Gabriel Axel]]
---
> : 1987 [[Babettes Feast|Babette&rsquo;s Feast]] - [[Gabriel Axel]]
39c39
< : 1962 [[Sundays &amp; Cybele]] - [[Serge Bourguignon]]
---
> : 1962 [[Sundays and Cybele]] - [[Serge Bourguignon]]
------
Cardiology|988064498
17c17
< /[[Diagnostic tests and procedures]]
---
> [[/Diagnostic tests and procedures]]
------
Hormone|988064534
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Hormone
------
Welcome,_newcomers|988064562
9c9
< Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more highly readable.  '''But''' this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as we can.
---
> Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more readable.  '''But''' this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as you can.
23c23
< *[[Wikipedia policy]]
---
> *[[Wikipedia policy]]
------
Endocrine_system|988064571
2c2
< produce, and output [[hormones]] into the bloodstream. [[Hormones]] are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and tissues where they can act.
---
> produce, and output [[hormone]]s into the bloodstream. [[Hormone]]s are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and tissues where they can act.
------
Diagnostic_tests_and_procedures|988064615
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :Diagnostic tests and procedures.
> ::Cardiology
------
Welcome,_newcomers|988064629
9c9
< Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more readable.  '''But''' this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as you can.
---
> Humor in articles is fine, and can make this project more fun and more readable.  '''But''' this is intended to become an important basic resource on all areas of human knowledge, so please don't treat it as one big joke.  Entries should be lively and readable, and they should also explain things as clearly as they can.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|988068436
4c4
< [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects n the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]]).  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and the he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
---
> [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] watches triumphantly as the first order of [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] is poured.  He reflects on the ten years of struggle to produce [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]], and as he walks home he reviews his life.  To celebrate his triumph, [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] makes a [[/Bracelet|Bracelet]] out of the first [[/Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]] that is poured and gives it to his wife, [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]].  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] cannot appreciate the triumph this gift symbolizes and uses the occassion to ridicule her husband's sentimentalism.  She makes a big deal about [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] attending a party she is throwing in three months time (see [[/Section161|Section161]]).  Also at the Rearden home are his brother [[/Philip Rearden|Philip Rearden]], his [[/Reardens Mother|mother]], and a friend, [[/Paul Larkin|Paul Larkin]], who has come to warn Rearden of possible trouble in [[/Washington|Washington]].  His family insults and criticizes Rearden for the crime of being able to support them.  He tries to understand their behavior but cannot come to acknowledge the depths of their depravity.  He believes they are expressing the same concerns that he feels, but only in a different way, and that he is morally required to tolerate them because they are weaker than he is.  This is the first glimpse of the [[/Sanction of the Victim|Sanction of the Victim]], which is a central concept of [[Atlas Shrugged]].  The abuse [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] receives from his family in the second part of this scene creates a stark contrast to the triumphant achievement at the mill in the first part of the scene.
------
Music|988069199
35a36
> ** [[Hammond Organ]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Norway|988069368
1c1
< The People's State of Norway was the home of [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]] who can no longer return their because they have put a million-dollar price on his head.
---
> The People's State of Norway was the home of [[/Ragnar Danneskjold|Ragnar Danneskjold]], who can no longer return there because they have put a million-dollar price on his head.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|988069904
1c1
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], who she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens to the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], whom she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
------
Hammond_Organ|988069965
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <h1>The Hammond Organ</h1>
> 
> The Hammond tonewheel organ, first introduced by Laurens Hammond in April 1935, is the one against which all contenders are measured. For this reason its technology is outlined below, and not the technology used in more recently manufactured (non-tonewheel) Hammond organs.
> 
> All Hammond console organs includes two 61-key manuals; the lower, or ''great'', and upper, or ''swell'', and a pedal clavier consisting of 25 keys. The concert models have a 32-key pedal clavier.
> 
> The secret of the Hammond tonewheel organ lies in its method of tone production. The ToneGenerator assembly consists of an AC synchronous motor connected to a geartrain which drives a series of tonewheels, each of which rotates adjacent to a magnet and coil assembly (similar to an electric guitar pickup). The number of bumps on each wheel in combination with the rotational speed determines the pitch produced by a particular tonewheel assembly. The pitches ''approximate'' even-tempered tuning, (it's done with integer (rational?) math after all).
> 
> A note on the organ consists of the fundamental and a number of ''harmonics'', or multiples of that frequency. In the Hammond organ the fundamental and up to eight harmonics are available and are controlled by means of ''drawbars'' and ''preset'' keys or buttons. The setting at any particular time is applicable to one manual, either ''great'' or ''swell''. (Harmonic content adjustment is provided for each manual independently.) The Hammond organ creates its tone colors through additive synthesis.
> 
> Other Hammond innovations which are important parts of the character of the Hammond Organ are ''vibrato'', ''percussion'' and ''harmonic foldback''.  ''Key-click'', originally an unwanted side-effect, has also become a sought after part of the "Hammond Sound".
------
Hammond_Organ|988070685
4a5,6
> Hammond organs were originally intended to be an affordable substitute for [[Pipe Organ]]s.  While today, no one would consider them a serious contender in that market, their distinctive sound is popular (indeed, sought after) in many styles of music, including [[Jazz]], [[Blues]], [[Rock and roll]], and [[Popular Music]].
> 
7c9
< The secret of the Hammond tonewheel organ lies in its method of tone production. The ToneGenerator assembly consists of an AC synchronous motor connected to a geartrain which drives a series of tonewheels, each of which rotates adjacent to a magnet and coil assembly (similar to an electric guitar pickup). The number of bumps on each wheel in combination with the rotational speed determines the pitch produced by a particular tonewheel assembly. The pitches ''approximate'' even-tempered tuning, (it's done with integer (rational?) math after all).
---
> The secret of the Hammond tonewheel organ lies in its method of tone production. The ''tone generator'' assembly consists of an AC synchronous motor (Hammond made electric clocks before he made organs) connected to a geartrain which drives a series of tonewheels, each of which rotates adjacent to a magnet and coil assembly (similar to an electric guitar pickup). The number of bumps on each wheel in combination with the rotational speed determines the pitch produced by a particular tonewheel assembly. The pitches ''approximate'' even-tempered tuning, (it's done with integer (rational?) math after all).
11a14,16
> 
> -------
> Also see: [[HammondWiki:WhatIsAHammondOrgan]].
------
Hammond_Organ|988070867
5c5
< Hammond organs were originally intended to be an affordable substitute for [[Pipe Organ]]s.  While today, no one would consider them a serious contender in that market, their distinctive sound is popular (indeed, sought after) in many styles of music, including [[Jazz]], [[Blues]], [[Rock and roll]], and [[Popular Music]].
---
> Hammond organs were originally intended to be an affordable substitute for [[Pipe Organ]]s.  While today, no one would consider them a serious contender in that market, their distinctive sound is popular (indeed, sought after) in nearly every style of [[Popular Music]], particularly [[Jazz]], [[Blues]], and [[Rock and roll]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|988071020
7c7
< When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], much to her [[/Dagnys Mother|mother's]] chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled as joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
---
> When [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] was sixteen she began working at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], much to her [[/Dagnys Mother|mother's]] chagrin.  Her mother was worried that [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] showed no interest in boys, or in feminine things in general.  She decided to throw [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] a coming out party at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] loved the idea, and went there with the eager expectation of finding people who were as filled with joy as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], but instead she found they were just as bored and unhappy as in everyday life.  In later years [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] would discover her vision of the future was mistaken in the same way, and she would often think back to this party and wonder why people seemed incapable of living life in joy, why they lived instead with a constant undertone of fear and unhappiness.  Where were the men of joy?  Where were the men who were appropriate for life on earth?
11c11
< The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
---
> The romance continued for eight years, as [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] rose to become head of [[/DAnconia Copper|D'Anconia Copper]] and [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] finished college and began her rise at [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]]. Then, when she was 24, [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] invited her to his room at the [[/Wayne-Falkland Hotel|Wayne-Falkland Hotel]].  She was shocked to see, for the first time, pain in his face, and that he was torn by the obvious struggle within him that he could not explain to her.  He warns her that he will have reasons for things he does, and tells her not to wait for him.
13c13
< After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love - another man for whom life was joy.
---
> After that night, she did not hear anything about [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] for a year, and then she began to hear the stories of a new [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], a worthless, irresponsible playboy, with no apparent interest in his work.  At first she could not believe these things, but as the years passed and the stories piled up, she had no choice.  Time deadened her pain, but she never found another man to love -- another man for whom life was joy.
------
Sport|988071067
20c20
< * Sailing / Yahting
---
> * Sailing / Yachting
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|988071542
2c2
< After the anniversary party, late in the evening, [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] enters his wife's bedroom in order to have sex with her.  He does this reluctantly - he wishes he did not have these feelings, but he cannot resist the urge.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] accedes perfunctorily, and starts talking about the party, because talking is what people are supposed to do before making love.  As she jabbers, Rearden wonders why she married him, and recalls the details of their courtship and early marriage.  He thinks about how unfulfilling his sex with Lillian has been, and how is marriage has been a torture.  By the time she is done talking, Rearden has lost his desire, and returns to his own room.  It is his first glimpse of the premise, from Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|sexual theory]], that one's sexual desires are an expression of one's values.
---
> After the anniversary party, late in the evening, [[/Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]] enters his wife's bedroom in order to have sex with her.  He does this reluctantly - he wishes he did not have these feelings, but he cannot resist the urge.  [[/Lillian Rearden|Lillian]] accedes perfunctorily, and starts talking about the party, because talking is what people are supposed to do before making love.  As she jabbers, Rearden wonders why she married him, and recalls the details of their courtship and early marriage.  He thinks about how unfulfilling his sex with Lillian has been, and how his marriage has been a torture.  By the time she is done talking, Rearden has lost his desire and returns to his own room.  It is his first glimpse of the premise, from Rand's [[/Theory of Sex|sexual theory]], that one's sexual desires are an expression of one's values.
16c16
<  [[/Simons|Simons]] - Mentioned.
---
>  [[/Simons|Simons]] - Mentioned.
------
Sport|988071675
61a62,69
> (Disc sports:)
> * [[Disc Golf]]
> * [[Durango Boot]]
> * [[Double Disc Court]]
> * [[Freestyle]]
> * [[Guts]]
> * [[Ultimate]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|988071698
2c2
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and the he respects her.  [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[/Rearden Metal bridge|Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[/Section161|party]] had never happened.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits the construction site of the [[/Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] near the [[/Wyatt Oil Fields|Wyatt oil fields]].  Construction is being supervised by [[/Ben Nealy|Ben Nealy]], who is incompetent but the best contractor Dagny could find.  She meets [[/Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]] who indicates he now knows what she is, and that he respects her.  [[/Hank Rearden|Rearden]] is also on hand, designing a [[/Rearden Metal bridge|Rearden Metal bridge]] to show off his new metal.  The two get along as they always had, as if the [[/Section161|party]] had never happened.
4c4
< Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[/Minnesota|Minnesota]] before heading to [[/New York|New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying - that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
---
> Rearden mentions he is flying back east, and Dagny asks if she can go back with him.  He tells her no, because he is flying to [[/Minnesota|Minnesota]] before heading to [[/New York|New York]].  Later at the airfield, Dagny discovers Rearden was lying -- that he did fly straight to New York.  Dagny has no clue why Rearden would flat out lie to her.
------
Durango_Boot|988071722
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> ---------
> See also http://www.mindspring.com/~dansteuer/boot.htm.
------
Durango_Boot|988072597
0a1
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|988076923
53a54,187
> '''Countries listed by continent:'''
> 
> [Moved from old "Countries of the World" (capitalized-World) as part of wiki-canonization of page names.  Please feel free to find a better name.]
> 
> Countries and their capitals:
> 
> [[Africa]]:
>    * [[Algeria]]
>    * [[Angola]]
>    * [[Benin]]
>    * [[Botswana]]
>    * [[Burundi]]
>    * [[Burkina Faso]]
>    * [[Canary Islands]]
>    * [[Cameroon]]
>    * [[Chad]]
>    * [[Comoros]]
>    * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
>    * [[Egypt]]
>    * [[Eritrea]]
>    * [[Ethiopia]]
>    * [[Ghana]]
>    * [[Kenya]] - [[Nairobi]]
>    * [[Lesotho]]
>    * [[Liberia]] 
>    * [[Madagascar]]
>    * [[Mali]]
>    * [[Namibia]]
>    * [[Nigeria]]
>    * [[Somalia]] - [[Mogadishu]]
>    * [[South Africa]] - [[Capetown]]
>    * [[Swaziland]]
>    * [[Tanzania]] - [[Dar es Salaam]]
>    * [[Togo]]
>    * [[Uganda]]
>    * [[Zimbabwe]]
>    * [[Zambia]] - [[Lusaka]]
> 
> 
> [[North America]]:
>    * [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
>    * [[Barbados]]
>    * [[Bahamas]]
>    * [[Canada]] - [[Ottowa]]
>    * [[Cuba]] - [[Havana]]
>    * [[Dominican Republic]]
>    * [[The Federation of St. Kitts and Nevis]]
>    * [[Grenada]]
>    * [[Haiti]] 
>    * [[Jamaica]] - [[Kingston]]
>    * [[Mexico]] - [[Mexico City]]
>    * [[St. Lucia]]
>    * [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]]
>    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
>    * [[United States]] - [[Washington DC]]
>    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
> 
> [[Central America]]:
>    * [[Belize]]
>    * [[Costa Rica]]
>    * [[El Salvador]]
>    * [[Guatemala]]
>    * [[Honduras]]
>    * [[Panama]] - [[Panama City]]
>    * [[Nicaragua]]
> 
> [[South America]]:
>    * [[Argentina]]
>    * [[Brazil]] - [[Brasilia]]
>    * [[Chile]] - [[Santiago]]
>    * [[Colombia]] 
>    * [[French Guyana]]
>    * [[Guyana]]
>    * [[Paraguay]]
>    * [[Peru]] - [[Lima]]
>    * [[Suriname]]
>    * [[Uruguay]]
>    * [[Venezuela]]
> 
> [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]:
>    * [[Afghanistan]]
>    * [[China]] - [[Beijing]]
>    * [[India]]
>    * [[Indonesia]]
>    * [[Iran]]
>    * [[Iraq]]
>    * [[Israel]]
>    * [[Japan]] - [[Tokyo]]
>    * [[Jordan]]
>    * [[Korea]]
>    * [[Kuwait]]
>    * [[Laos]]
>    * [[Lebanon]]
>    * [[Mongolia]]
>    * [[Pakistan]]
>    * [[Qatar]]
>    * [[Russia]]
>    * [[Saudi Arabia]]
>    * [[Singapore]]
>    * [[Syria]]
>    * [[Tadjikistan]]
>    * [[Thailand]]
>    * [[Turkey]]
>    * [[Uzbekistan]]
>    * [[Vietnam]] - [[Hanoi]]
> 
> [[Australia]] and Pacific Island Nations:
>    * [[Australia]] - [[Canberra]]
>    * [[New Zealand]]
>    
> 
> [[Europe]]:
>    * [[Austria]]
>    * [[Denmark]]
>    * [[Estonia]]
>    * [[Finland]] - [[Helsinki]]
>    * [[France]] - [[Paris]]
>    * [[Germany]] - [[Berlin]]
>    * [[Greece]] - [[Athens]]
>    * [[Holland]]
>    * [[Iceland]] - [[Rejkjavic]]
>    * [[Italy]] - [[Rome]]
>    * [[Latvia]] - [[Riga]]
>    * [[Lithuania]]
>    * [[Norway]] - [[Oslo]]
>    * [[Poland]] - [[Warsaw]]
>    * [[Portugal]] - [[Lisbon]]
>    * [[Sweden]]
>    * [[Switzerland]] - [[Zurich]]
>    * [[Spain]] - [[Madrid]]
>    * [[United Kingdom]] - [[London]]
>    * [[Yugoslavia]]
> 
> ----
------
Countries_of_the_World|988076989
1c1
< ''[[Countries of the world]] already exists, and can claim seniority.  :-)  Probably, this page should be moved to a different title (e.g., [[countries listed by continent]] or something like that).''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Countries of the world]]
3,130c3
< Countries and their capitals:
< 
< [[Africa]]:
<    * [[Algeria]]
<    * [[Angola]]
<    * [[Benin]]
<    * [[Botswana]]
<    * [[Burundi]]
<    * [[Burkina Faso]]
<    * [[Canary Islands]]
<    * [[Cameroon]]
<    * [[Chad]]
<    * [[Comoros]]
<    * [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
<    * [[Egypt]]
<    * [[Eritrea]]
<    * [[Ethiopia]]
<    * [[Ghana]]
<    * [[Kenya]] - [[Nairobi]]
<    * [[Lesotho]]
<    * [[Liberia]] 
<    * [[Madagascar]]
<    * [[Mali]]
<    * [[Namibia]]
<    * [[Nigeria]]
<    * [[Somalia]] - [[Mogadishu]]
<    * [[South Africa]] - [[Capetown]]
<    * [[Swaziland]]
<    * [[Tanzania]] - [[Dar es Salaam]]
<    * [[Togo]]
<    * [[Uganda]]
<    * [[Zimbabwe]]
<    * [[Zambia]] - [[Lusaka]]
< 
< 
< [[North America]]:
<    * [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
<    * [[Barbados]]
<    * [[Bahamas]]
<    * [[Canada]] - [[Ottowa]]
<    * [[Cuba]] - [[Havana]]
<    * [[Dominican Republic]]
<    * [[The Federation of St. Kitts and Nevis]]
<    * [[Grenada]]
<    * [[Haiti]] 
<    * [[Jamaica]] - [[Kingston]]
<    * [[Mexico]] - [[Mexico City]]
<    * [[St. Lucia]]
<    * [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]]
<    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
<    * [[United States]] - [[Washington DC]]
<    * [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
< 
< [[Central America]]:
<    * [[Belize]]
<    * [[Costa Rica]]
<    * [[El Salvador]]
<    * [[Guatemala]]
<    * [[Honduras]]
<    * [[Panama]] - [[Panama City]]
<    * [[Nicaragua]]
< 
< [[South America]]:
<    * [[Argentina]]
<    * [[Brazil]] - [[Brasilia]]
<    * [[Chile]] - [[Santiago]]
<    * [[Colombia]] 
<    * [[French Guyana]]
<    * [[Guyana]]
<    * [[Paraguay]]
<    * [[Peru]] - [[Lima]]
<    * [[Suriname]]
<    * [[Uruguay]]
<    * [[Venezuela]]
< 
< [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]:
<    * [[Afghanistan]]
<    * [[China]] - [[Beijing]]
<    * [[India]]
<    * [[Indonesia]]
<    * [[Iran]]
<    * [[Iraq]]
<    * [[Israel]]
<    * [[Japan]] - [[Tokyo]]
<    * [[Jordan]]
<    * [[Korea]]
<    * [[Kuwait]]
<    * [[Laos]]
<    * [[Lebanon]]
<    * [[Mongolia]]
<    * [[Pakistan]]
<    * [[Qatar]]
<    * [[Russia]]
<    * [[Saudi Arabia]]
<    * [[Singapore]]
<    * [[Syria]]
<    * [[Tadjikistan]]
<    * [[Thailand]]
<    * [[Turkey]]
<    * [[Uzbekistan]]
<    * [[Vietnam]] - [[Hanoi]]
< 
< [[Australia]] and Pacific Island Nations:
<    * [[Australia]] - [[Canberra]]
<    * [[New Zealand]]
<    
< 
< [[Europe]]:
<    * [[Austria]]
<    * [[Denmark]]
<    * [[Estonia]]
<    * [[Finland]] - [[Helsinki]]
<    * [[France]] - [[Paris]]
<    * [[Germany]] - [[Berlin]]
<    * [[Greece]] - [[Athens]]
<    * [[Holland]]
<    * [[Iceland]] - [[Rejkjavic]]
<    * [[Italy]] - [[Rome]]
<    * [[Latvia]] - [[Riga]]
<    * [[Lithuania]]
<    * [[Norway]] - [[Oslo]]
<    * [[Poland]] - [[Warsaw]]
<    * [[Portugal]] - [[Lisbon]]
<    * [[Sweden]]
<    * [[Switzerland]] - [[Zurich]]
<    * [[Spain]] - [[Madrid]]
<    * [[United Kingdom]] - [[London]]
<    * [[Yugoslavia]]
---
> (part of wiki name canonization)
------
MetallicA/Discography|988077420
11a12
> * /???? due out in Fall of 2001
------
Germany/People|988078911
16,22c16,22
< Sex ratio:
< at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
< under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
< 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
< 65 years and over: 0.62 male(s)/female
< total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< 
---
> Sex ratio:<table>
> <tr><td>at birth:</td><td> 1.06 male(s)/female</td></tr>
> <tr><td>under 15 years:</td><td> 1.05 male(s)/female</td></tr>
> <tr><td>15-64 years:</td><td> 1.03 male(s)/female</td></tr>
> <tr><td>65 years and over:</td><td> 0.62 male(s)/female</td></tr>
> <tr><td>total population:</td><td> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)</td></tr>
> </table>
------
Germany/People|988078949
16c16
< Sex ratio:<table>
---
> Sex ratio:<table border>
------
Germany/People|988079086
22a23
> 
26,28c27,31
< total population: 77.44 years
< male: 74.3 years
< female: 80.75 years (2000 est.)
---
> <table border>
> <tr><td>total population:</td><td> 77.44 years</td></tr>
> <tr><td>male:</td><td> 74.3 years</td></tr>
> <tr><td>female:</td><td> 80.75 years (2000 est.)</td></tr>
> </table>
------
Martin_Scorcese|988084638
3,4c3
< :[[Raging Bull]]
< :[[Goodfellas]]
---
> :[[Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]
6,7c5
< :[[Taxi Driver]]
< :[[Breakfast of Champions]]
---
> :[[Goodfellas]]
9c7,11
< :[[Kundun]]
---
> :[[Kundun]]
> :[[Mean Streets]]
> :[[Raging Bull]]
> :[[Taxi Driver]]
> 
------
Martin_Scorcese|988084822
3c3
< :[[Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore]]
---
> :[[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore]]
4a5
> :[[Casino]]
------
Martin_Scorcese|988084906
5c5
< :[[Casino]]
---
> :[[Casino Scorsese|Casino]]
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|988093810
43a44,48
> ''Good points on Russia.  Some notes about the rest.''
> 
> ''Capitalism is not about individual rights, except for right to property, which other can be grafted over top of.  However, many socialists claim that a capitalist structure defies certain rights which come first, and so property is not an inaliable right.  In that case you would have to provide some sort of absolute moral framework - not easy - to defend claims of immorality, especially since when everything is publically owned you didn't own your house in the first place.  On the one hand this is no different from a housing monopoly (not encouraged, but permitted by a free market) evicting you from its property; on the other hand, there is no guarantee it could even happen, since even socialist democracies can still have rights, and one of them could be that to a certain minimum caliber shelter.''
> 
> ''Sorry, I found Hayek's essay is long and not particularly interesting.  As far as I can tell he seems to be saying simply that markets are too complex to ever be handled by a single body.  It seems to me that that same argument says that nothing complex could ever be governed, and as experience is quite otherwise that does not up my enthusiasm for the piece.  However, I will try and develop enough energy later to slosh through it.''
------
Wine|988105180
4c4
< Alcoholic beverage made primarily from fermented fuit, usually grapes.  Hence, WinE, from Latin ''Vin'', grape.
---
> Alcoholic beverage made primarily from fermented fruit, usually grapes.  Hence, Wine, from Latin ''Vin'', grape.
12c12
< :MerloT
---
> :[[Merlot]]
14c14
< :ZinfandeL
---
> :[[Zinfandel]]
18,20c18,20
< :PorT
< :SherrY
< :BrandY
---
> :[[Port]]
> :[[Sherry]]
> :[[Brandy]]
25c25
< :ChardonnaY
---
> :[[Chardonnay]]
27c27
< :LiebFrauMilch
---
> :[[Liebfraumilch]]
33c33
< :DucK
---
> :[[Duck]]
38c38
< :ChamPagne
---
> :[[Champagne]]
------
Merlot|988105275
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A variety of [[Wine]] grape that is used to create Merlot wine. Merlot is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in [[France]] and [[California]], and on a lesser scale in [[Australia]], [[Italy, and [[South Africa]].
> ----
> Merlot is also the name of an [[XML]] Editor...:-).
> 
------
Merlot|988105382
1c1
< A variety of [[Wine]] grape that is used to create Merlot wine. Merlot is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in [[France]] and [[California]], and on a lesser scale in [[Australia]], [[Italy, and [[South Africa]].
---
> A variety of [[Wine]] grape that is used to create Merlot wine. Merlot is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in [[France]] and [[California]], and on a lesser scale in [[Australia]], [[Italy]], and [[South Africa]].
------
MerloT|988105411
1,3c1
< A variety of [[Wine]] grape that is used to create MerloT wine.  MerloT is a popular variety of red wine.  It is produced primarily in FrancE and CaliforniA, and on a lesser scale in AustraliA, ItalY, and SouthAfrica.
< ----
< MerloT is also the name of an XML Editor...:-).
---
> #REDIRECT Merlot
------
Nu|988105664
9c9
< "nu" stands for "naked" in [[French_language|French]].
---
> "nu" stands for "naked" in [[French_language|French]] and for "now" in [[Dutch]].
------
French_language|988105937
1c1,2
< Primary language spoken in [[France]], former French colonies, as well as international organizations such as the [[United Nations]] and [[Universal Postal Union]].
---
> Primary language spoken in [[France]], former French colonies, as well as international organizations such as the [[United Nations]] and [[Universal Postal Union]]. French is also the language of the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Quebec]], of southern and eastern [[Belgium]] and of western [[Switzerland]].
> 
2a4
> 
5c7
< Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in the french of today.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic ([[frank]]) origin. 
---
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in the french of today.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic ([[frank]]) origin. Originally, many quite different dialects were spoken throughout France, but through the times the dialect of [[Ile de France]] (the region around [[Paris]]) has almost surplanted the others in the rest of France as well, and is the basis for the official French language.
------
LowGerman|988106233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Low German (also called Lower Saxon) is a language consisting of the [[Dialect|dialects]] of the northern part of [[Germany]] and some border provinces of the [[Netherlands]]. Although a variation of [[German]], in many aspects it is closer related to [[Dutch]], which started life as a Low German dialect - German as we now know it is a mixture of dialects, but mostly HighGerman.
------
Webcam|988113948
1c1
< A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mainly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the [[internet]].
---
> A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mostly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the [[internet]].
------
Soviet_Union|988114803
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that lasted from 1917 until 1991.  The official name of the country was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics".  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a large country that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically.
5c5
< The government of the Soviet Union was responsible for the murder of large numbers of people, with estimates ranging from 30 million to 130 million killed, making it among the most [[genocide|genocidal]] governments in history.  Of these, nearly 50% were killed in the Soviet labor camps, around 25% were civilians and prisoners killed during war, and the remainder died due to state terrorism, forced famine, or deportations.  About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
---
> The government of the Soviet Union was responsible for the murder of large numbers of people, with estimates ranging from 30 million to 130 million killed, making it among the most [[genocide|genocidal]] governments in history.  Of these, nearly 50% were killed in the Soviet labour camps, around 25% were civilians and prisoners killed during war, and the remainder died due to state terrorism, forced famine, or deportations.  About 42 million were murdered by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] between 1929 and 1953.  After Stalin, the Soviet regime murdered over 6 million people within its own borders.  Perhaps the final Soviet act of murder was the [[Vilnius Massacre]], in which 14 people were killed by gunfire and tanks in Vilnius, [[Lithuania]].  Mikhail Gorbachev ordered the killings just months after being awarded the [[NobelPrize|Nobel Peace Prize]].
------
Soviet_Union|988114905
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a large country that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a large country that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
------
Kishka|988115024
3c3
< Kishka is also a type of prison cell used in Soviet political prisons.  The cell was named after the gut, in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney.  The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down.  In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisonor was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces.  In some cases the cells were never cleaned.  Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.  This practice was intended to soften the prisoner so that he would make a 'voluntary' confession. 
---
> Kishka is also a type of prison cell used in [[USSR|Soviet]] political prisons.  The cell was named after the gut, in that it was tall and narrow, like an intestine, but more like a chimney.  The prisoner had room to stand, but could not sit or kneel, let alone lie down.  In some Soviet prisons there was no drainage and the prisonor was forced to excrete standing up and to stand in his own urine and feces.  In some cases the cells were never cleaned.  Prisoners could be held in these cells for months at a time.  This practice was intended to soften the prisoner so that he would make a 'voluntary' confession. 
------
Hormone|988130142
1c1,27
< :Hormone
---
> :Hormone
> 
> Chemical substance that is produced by a specialized tissue formation called an
> [[Endocrine system|endocrine gland]]. The substance is secreted directly into
> blood-stream, other body fluids or into adjacent tissues. The purpose of
> [[hormone]]s is to regulate metabolic activity of some other organs or tissues
> of the body.
> <br>The rate of production of a given [[hormone]] is most commonly regulated
> by a mechanism called a [[negative feedback loop]].
> <br>The notion &quot;endocrine&quot; is contrasted with &quot;exocrine&quot;
> which means a specialized gland with a distinct secretory duct. Examples
> of exocrine are salivary or sweat glands and of endocrine glands are thyroid and adrenal glands.
> <br>The most important hormones :
> * [[adrenaline]] - synonymous with [[epinephrine]]
> * [[noradrenaline]] - synonymous with [[norepinephrine]]
> * [[insulin]]
> * [[glucagone]]
> * [[growth hormone]]
> * [[testosterone]]
> * [[cortisone]]
> * [[thyroxine]]
> 
> Some special group of [[hormone]]s are trophic [[hormone]]s that act as
> stimulants of [[hormone]] production of other [[endocrine system|endocrine
> glands]]. For example thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and
> increased activity of another [[endocrine system|endocrine gland]] - thyroid,
> hence increasing output of thyroid [[hormone]]s.
------
Hormone|988130578
1c1
< :Hormone
---
> A '''hormone''' is any of a number of chemical substances produced by specialized tissue formations called [[endocrine gland]]s.  The substances are secreted directly into the bloodstream, other body fluids, or into adjacent tissues.  The purpose of hormones is to regulate metabolic activity of some other organs or tissues of the body.
3,13c3,7
< Chemical substance that is produced by a specialized tissue formation called an
< [[Endocrine system|endocrine gland]]. The substance is secreted directly into
< blood-stream, other body fluids or into adjacent tissues. The purpose of
< [[hormone]]s is to regulate metabolic activity of some other organs or tissues
< of the body.
< <br>The rate of production of a given [[hormone]] is most commonly regulated
< by a mechanism called a [[negative feedback loop]].
< <br>The notion &quot;endocrine&quot; is contrasted with &quot;exocrine&quot;
< which means a specialized gland with a distinct secretory duct. Examples
< of exocrine are salivary or sweat glands and of endocrine glands are thyroid and adrenal glands.
< <br>The most important hormones :
---
> The rate of production of a given hormone is most commonly regulated by a mechanism called a [[negative feedback]] loop.
> 
> The notion "endocrine" is contrasted with "exocrine", which means a specialized gland with a distinct secretory duct.  Examples of exocrine glands are salivary or sweat glands; examples of endocrine glands are thyroid and adrenal glands.
> 
> The most important hormones:
23,27c17
< Some special group of [[hormone]]s are trophic [[hormone]]s that act as
< stimulants of [[hormone]] production of other [[endocrine system|endocrine
< glands]]. For example thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and
< increased activity of another [[endocrine system|endocrine gland]] - thyroid,
< hence increasing output of thyroid [[hormone]]s.
---
> One special group of hormones are [[trophic hormone]]s that act as stimulants of hormone production of other [[endocrine system|endocrine glands]].  For example thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland--the thyroid--hence increasing output of thyroid hormones.
------
Hormone|988134460
7c7
< The most important hormones:
---
> The most important hormones in humans include:
------
United_States/History|988134850
1c1,3
< The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts and the rapid expelling of British troops from the region between Georgia and the St Lawrence Valley of Quebec.  In 1776, thirteen of the North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared independence.  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  In a second war from 1812 to 1814, caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy), the [[United States]] and Britain essentially fought to a draw, although the Americans (under General Andrew Jackson) handed the British their worse defeat in their history at the Battle of New Orleans.
---
> The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts.  In 1776, representatives of the thirteen North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared their independence in remarkable document authored by [[Thomas Jefferson]], the [[Declaration of Indepedence]].  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  
> 
> In 1812, the United states entered a second war with the British Empire, known as the [[War of 1812]].  It was caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy).   Though the British held the upper hand in most engagements, several of the battles entered the American mythos - including the Battle of New Orleans, when General [[Andrew Jackson]] handed the British one of their worse defeats in their history at the [[Battle of New Orleans]].  Ironically, the battle was fought two weeks after the peace treaty of Ghent, which ended the hostilities, and restored pre-war conditions.
------
United_States/History|988134940
3c3
< In 1812, the United states entered a second war with the British Empire, known as the [[War of 1812]].  It was caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy).   Though the British held the upper hand in most engagements, several of the battles entered the American mythos - including the Battle of New Orleans, when General [[Andrew Jackson]] handed the British one of their worse defeats in their history at the [[Battle of New Orleans]].  Ironically, the battle was fought two weeks after the peace treaty of Ghent, which ended the hostilities, and restored pre-war conditions.
---
> In 1812, the United states entered a second war with the British Empire, known as the [[War of 1812]].  It was caused in large part by the Britsh policy of Impressment (the forcable seizure of American seamen for service in the British Navy).   Though the British held the upper hand in most engagements, several of the battles entered the American mythos - including the [[Battle of New Orleans]], when General [[Andrew Jackson]] handed the British one of their worse defeats in their history.  Ironically, the battle was fought two weeks after the peace [[Treaty of Ghent]], which ended the hostilities, and restored pre-war conditions.
------
Soviet_Union|988136917
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a large country that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
------
Tips_on_contributing_to_Wikipedia|988137985
11c11
< Make a project!  Take a book and write a thourough chapter by chapter summary.  Make pages for all the characters.  Or do this with your favorite fictional universe ([[Star Wars]], [[Middle Earth]]).  Pick your favorite actor and review all his movies.  Pick your favorite city and build pages for all its best attractions.
---
> Make a project!  Take a book and write a thorough chapter-by-chapter summary.  Make pages for all the characters.  Or do this with your favorite fictional universe ([[Star Wars]], [[Middle Earth]]).  Pick your favorite actor and review all his movies.  Pick your favorite city and build pages for all its best attractions.
19c19
< For more basic information on contributing to Wikipedia, see [[how to start a page]] and [[how does one edit a page|our page editing instructions]].
---
> For more basic information on contributing to Wikipedia, see [[how to start a page]] and [[how does one edit a page|our page-editing instructions]].
21c21
< For more great Wikipedia advice, see [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia FAQ]], which have links to all the important pages.
---
> For more great Wikipedia advice, see [[Wikipedia policy]] and [[Wikipedia FAQ]], which have links to all the important pages.
------
Durango_Boot|988138216
0a1
> A game that makes use of a [[frisbee]], apparently similar to [[ultimate frisbee]].
2c3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''This clearly needs to be elaborated...''
------
Ultimate_frisbee|988138630
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A play similar to [[soccer]], but played with a [[frsbee]]. There are two teams, and they have to throw the frisbee to each other, until the frisbee pass between the goal posts of the other team. Player can not walk (or run) with the frisbee, and if a pass fails, the other team will restart with control of the frisbee.
------
Ultimate_frisbee|988138831
1c1
< A play similar to [[soccer]], but played with a [[frsbee]]. There are two teams, and they have to throw the frisbee to each other, until the frisbee pass between the goal posts of the other team. Player can not walk (or run) with the frisbee, and if a pass fails, the other team will restart with control of the frisbee.
---
> A play similar to [[soccer]], but played with a [[frisbee]]. There are two teams, and they have to throw the frisbee to each other, until the frisbee pass between the goal posts of the other team. Player can not walk (or run) with the frisbee, and if a pass fails, the other team will restart with control of the frisbee.
------
Webcam|988138834
1c1
< A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to a [[computer]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mostly of its owner). Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the [[internet]].
---
> A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to any [[computer]] that is attached to the [[Internet]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mostly of its owner).  Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the Internet.
------
Frisbee|988139011
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disk, usually plastic, that flies when thrown, and can be catched (with some skill). It is used as a toy, to be thrown to pets, or
> between people (''see e.g. [[Ultimate frisbee]]'').
------
EucliD|988139663
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> He wrote the ELements
------
EucliD|988140468
1c1
< He wrote the ELements
---
> #REDIRECT [[Euclid]]
------
Euclid|988140844
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Euclid'' was a greek mathematician that lived in the 3rd century B.C.
> His most famous work is the ''Elements of Geometry''(complete name?), where he deducts the properties of geometrical elements from a set of [[axiom]]s.
> 
> The fifth [[postulate]] defines an euclidean geometry (of a "plane" space), its negation leads to [[non-euclidean geometries]], like the ones developed by [[Lobatchevsky]] and [[Riemann]].
------
Frisbee|988141153
1,2c1,9
< Disk, usually plastic, that flies when thrown, and can be catched (with some skill). It is used as a toy, to be thrown to pets, or
< between people (''see e.g. [[Ultimate frisbee]]'').
---
> While the word '''Frisbee''' is claimed as a trademark of the [[Wham-O]] toy company, the term is often used generically to describe flying discs similar to those made by that company.  They are generally plastic, roughly 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and designed to be thrown and caught by hand.
> 
> A model originally invented by Walter Frederick Morrison (and possibly Warren Franscioni) in 1947 was unsuccessful, but a later model made by Morrison in 1952 and sold as the "Pluto Platter" was bought by Wham-O.  Wham-O renamed the toy "Frisbee", a (probably deliberate) misspelling of the name of the Frisbie Pie Company of Bridgeport, Connecticut, whose pie tins had been used by college students in the area for similar purposes.
> 
> Many games are based on the use of these flying discs:
> 
> * [[Ultimate frisbee]]
> * [[Guts frisbee]]
> * [[Frisbee golf]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|988141857
34a35,36
> ----
> I have a question for you on the [[Internet Movie Database]] page.  --AstroNomer
------
Paul_heroult|988143157
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult (1863- 1914): French scientist.
> He is the inventor of aluminum electrolysis and of the electric steel
> furnace.
> 
> "Paul Héroult had none of the attributes of the traditional scholar. He
> was highstrung, unruly, occasionally hard and
> insolent; he did not fit the image of wise, disciplined men of science.
> He loved games, the company of women, travels
> by land and sea; he was a free spirit in an impetuous body. No
> comparison with the austere scientist, struggling with
> stubborn mysteries. His discoveries were not the result of long
> sleepless nights spent in a laboratory, or of complicated scientific
> demonstrations.
> Héroult loved life, and could not have borne such restrictions. Instead,
> his inventions appeared suddenly, out of the blue, a stroke of common
> sense, or of genius, sometimes during a lively game of billiards, his
> favorite pastime. " (*)
> 
> Paul Héroult read Henri Sainte-Claire Deville's treatise on aluminum ,
> when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminum was as expensive as
> silver. It was used mostly for luxury items and jewellery..
> Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. He succeeded in doing so when he discovered
> the electrolytic aluminum process in 1886. Strangely enough, the same
> year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914) was
> discovering  the very same process.
> 
> Héroult's second most important invention is the electric arc furnace
> for steel in 1902. The HEROULT furnace gradually replaced the giant
> smelters for the production of a variety of steels.
> In 1905, Paul Héroult was invited to the United States as a technical
> advisor to several companies, and in particular to the United States Steel
> Corporation.
> 
> Paul Héroult is reknown for other major inventions, among which a
> self-sustained conduit still used to bring water down from mountain heights,
> and across rivers to hydraulic power plants, avoiding the need to
> build expensive bridges.
> 
> (*) Christian Bickert , US Representative for Aluminium Péchiney, New
> Orleans, 1986
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|988144468
5c5
< Presently living in [[Las Vegas]] for a few months and then it's on to [[Russia]] for a few more months, specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Has lived in many places after leaving Anchorage, especially [[Portland, Oregon]] and [[Columbus, Ohio]].  Lived [[Las Vegas]] for a few months (Jan.-April 2001).  Currently in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], and soon to reside temporarily in [[Russia]] for a few more months, specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
84c84
< I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
---
> I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
------
Larry_Sanger|988145176
77,82c77,80
< Question: How did you land the job of editor of Nupedia and wikipedia? Was there a competition, or are you a highschool buddy
< of [[Jimbo Wales]]? (or something in between?).
< ''Is none of your business'' is a valid answer:).
< ----
< You're quite correct, it's none of your business.  (Unless you ask nicely.)----
< Do you pick at my pages, especially, or are you an equal opprtunity page-picker-ater? AnonymousCoward.
---
> Better choice of words this time:
> Would you tell us how did you became editor in chief of Nupedia
> and instigator of Wikipedia?----
> Do you pick at my pages, especially, or are you an equal opportunity page-picker-ater? AnonymousCoward.
------
Nu|988145700
9a10,11
> 
> Also used as a short form of new, as in [[Nu Metal]], [[Nu Jazz]], and (I guess so) [[Nupedia]]
------
Charlemagne|988145738
1c1
< Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in [[Latin language|Latin]]), king of the [[Frank]]s at the height of their power.  Charlemagne was the son of [[Pepin the short]], and ascended to the throne in 768.  He did all sorts of stuff, including the conquest of north [[Lombardy]], [[Saxony]] and [[Bavaria]].
---
> Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus in [[Latin language|Latin]]), king of the [[Frank]]s at the height of their power.  Charlemagne was the son of [[Pepin the short]], and ascended to the throne in 768.  Among his successes were the conquest of north [[Lombardy]], [[Saxony]] and [[Bavaria]].
------
Ridley_Scott|988146214
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Movies:
> 
> :[[Blade Runner]]
> :[[Alien]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|988146341
36c36,38
< I have a question for you on the [[Internet Movie Database]] page.  --AstroNomer
---
> I have a question for you on the [[Internet Movie Database]] page.  --AstroNomer
> 
> Yes, I'm working on updates to [[copyright]] and related pages, and I'll certain cover ''Feist'' and related cases, but I'm waiting until Clifford finishes updating to 0.92 so I can have my parentheses.
------
Oliver_Stone|988146389
1c1
< American [[film director]]
---
> American [[film director]]. Won two [[Academy Awards]] as best dirctor for [[Platoon]] and [[Born on the 4th of July]]
11a12
> :[[Born on the 4th of July]]
16c17
< We've got to rename these pages (perhaps /JFK, /Nixon, etc., or [[JFK the film]], etc.), because the names of the movies overlap with subjects of encyclopedia articles...
---
> We've got to rename these pages (perhaps /JFK, /Nixon, etc., or [[JFK the film]], etc.), because the names of the movies overlap with subjects of encyclopedia articles...
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|988146478
38a39,40
> 
> P.S. You, or anyone else with a question about something I might have mentioned here, are welcome to email me at either address above.
------
Ridley_Scott|988146553
4c4,6
< :[[Alien]]
---
> :[[Alien]]
> :[[Thelma and Louise]]
> :[[Gladiator]]
------
John_Ford|988146569
1c1
< One of the most accomplished Western directors
---
> One of the most accomplished Western directors. Won four [[Academy Awards]] as best director for [[The Informer]], [[The Grapes of Wrath]], [[How Green Was My Valley]] and [[The Quiet Man]]  
4c4,8
< :[[Stage Coach]]
---
> :[[Stage Coach]]
> :[[The Informer]]
> :[[The Grapes of Wrath]]
> :[[How Green Was My Valley]] 
> :[[The Quiet Man]]  
------
Steven_Spielberg|988146684
1c1
< American director whose films range from fantasy to historical drama to horror.  Noted for the patriotism evident in his work and also, in recent years, for his willingness to tackle so called "important" issues.  Consistent theme in his work is the abuse of others, whether it's a father abusing his children (physically or verbally), or capitalism or a government agency abusing an entire class of people.  His most famous films include
---
> American director whose films range from fantasy to historical drama to horror.  Noted for the patriotism evident in his work and also, in recent years, for his willingness to tackle so called "important" issues.  Consistent theme in his work is the abuse of others, whether it's a father abusing his children (physically or verbally), or capitalism or a government agency abusing an entire class of people. He won two [[Academy Awards]] as Best Director for [[Schindlers List]] and [[Saving Private Ryan]] His most famous films include
10c10
< * [[The Color Purple]]
---
> * [[The Color Purple]]
------
Academy_Awards|988146872
29c29
< *[[/Writing Screenplay Original|Writing - Screenplay - Original]]
---
> *[[/Writing Screenplay Original|Writing - Screenplay - Original]]
------
Paul_Heroult|988146901
3c3
< He is the inventor of aluminum electrolysis and of the electric steel
---
> He is the inventor of the aluminum electrolysis and of the electric steel
29c29
< self-sustained conduit  still used to bring water down from montain
---
> self-sustained conduit  still used to bring water down from mountain
------
John_Ford|988153687
4c4
< :[[Stage Coach]]
---
> :[[Stagecoach]]
8c8
< :[[The Quiet Man]]  
---
> :[[The Quiet Man]]  
------
Titanic_Thompson|988157313
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Titanic Thompson is a character created by Alvin Clarense Thompson and detailed in the ludicrous book entitled "Unsinkable Titanic Thompson", by Carlton Stowers.
> 
> Nowadays, the Titanic Thompson name is carried only primarily by a corporate entity with the gall to try to sell baseball caps for $100.  You too can be scammed in the name of the greatest hustler of the century!
------
John_Ford|988158536
4,6c4,6
< :[[Stagecoach]]
< :[[The Informer]]
< :[[The Grapes of Wrath]]
---
> :[[Donovans Reef]]
> :[[The Fugitive John Ford|The Fugitive]]
> :[[The Grapes of Wrath/john ford|The Grapes of Wrath]]
8c8,17
< :[[The Quiet Man]]  
---
> :[[The Informer John Ford|The Informer]]
> :[[The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance]]
> :[[Mister Roberts]] (replaced by [[Mervyn LeRoy]] during filming)
> :[[My Darling Clementine]]
> :[[The Quiet Man]]
> :[[Rio Grande John Ford|Rio Grande]]
> :[[The Searchers]
> :[[Stagecoach]]
> 
> <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the </i>The Grapes of Wrath,<i> as it is likely to be considered in the context of the novel, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --Koyaanisqatsi2350
------
John_Ford|988158615
17c17
< <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the </i>The Grapes of Wrath,<i> as it is likely to be considered in the context of the novel, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --Koyaanisqatsi2350
---
> <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --Koyaanisqatsi2350
------
John_Ford|988158744
14c14
< :[[The Searchers]
---
> :[[The Searchers]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/Semantic_disputes|988159646
3c3
< I do not mean to suggest that semantic disputes are unimportant; quite to the contrary, they can be matters of life and death.  Manufacturers of herbal medicines, for example, use phrases like "contains no drugs" to make the public believe that their products are safe.  This of course depends upon the confusion between the consumer's general understanding of what a "drug" is, in contrast with a more narrow deifinition used by the seller that excludes natural drugs.  Such deliberately deceptive use of language can be dangerous.
---
> I do not mean to suggest that semantic disputes are unimportant; quite to the contrary, they can be matters of life and death.  Manufacturers of herbal medicines, for example, use phrases like "contains no drugs" to make the public believe that their products are safe.  This of course depends upon the confusion between the consumer's general understanding of what a "drug" is, in contrast with a more narrow deifinition used by the seller that excludes natural drugs.  Such deliberately deceptive use of language can be dangerous, and therefore arguing about the appropriate use of language can be important.
------
What_is_a_wiki|988160009
1c1,2
< A <I>wiki</I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
---
> A <I>Mohamed El-Gohary ....The Babe
> </I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
------
Guadalajara|988165786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Third most important city in Mexico.  It is the capital of the state of Jalisco.
------
Mexico|988166306
4c4
< <b>Quick History</b>
---
> <b>Quick History</b> - Told in plain English, and quite informally.
8c8
< Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a [[monarchical]] form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as [[Maximiliano de Habsburgo]] (wife [[Carlota de Habsburgo]]).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the [[Cerro de la Campana]], [[Queretaro]], by the conservatives (led by [[Gral. Miguel Miramon]]).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the [[Heroic Military College]] fought against experienced soldiers (september 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
---
> Many presidents came and went, and there was a period of instability.  Many people preferred a [[monarchical]] form of government (conservatives), while others preferred a democracy/republic (liberals).  In the middle of all this, conservatives "imported" an archduke of Austria, known as [[Maximiliano de Habsburgo]] (wife [[Carlota de Habsburgo]]).  But such a thing backfired the conservatives, because Maximiliano de Habsburgo favored the establishment of a Republic, and a "liberal" way of government.  Poor Maximiliano was killed by the conservatives in the [[Cerro de la Campana]], [[Queretaro]], by the conservatives (led by [[Gral. Miguel Miramon]]).  In this period, many of the territories in the north were lost to the USA.  They were either sold dirt cheap, or lost in bloody battles against the USA.  One of the memorable battles is when the USA invaded Mexico in 1847, and the [[Heroic Military College]] fought against experienced soldiers (September 13, 1847).  In 1857, the republic was restored, and a new constitution was written.  
11,12c11,12
< There was a president who apparently did a lot of good stuff.  His name was [[Benito Juarez]].  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called [[Nuevo Leon]]), so there was a guy, [[Porfirio Diaz]], who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the [[Plan de Tuxtepec]] (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president.  Porfirio Diaz was the president of Mexico for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the investments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the [[Porfiriato]].  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was attracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
< Not happy with this, a guy named [[Francisco I. Madero]] prepared the [[Plan de San Luis]], in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of [[Porfirio Diaz]] on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  Madero was incarcerated in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]], but his plan took effect in spite of being in jail.  This is the period where [[Pancho Villa]], [[Emiliano Zapata]], and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", and died in [[Paris]], [[France]] in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a guy who went by the name of [[Venustiano Carranza]] got together with a bunch of other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
---
> There was a president who apparently did a lot of good to the newly restored nation.  His name was [[Benito Juarez]].  He was a president of Mexico.  But after so much power, he was becoming more and more corrupt (he had a particular hate against a state called [[Nuevo Leon]]), so there was a man, [[Porfirio Diaz]], who tried to fix that.  With the proclamation of the [[Plan de Tuxtepec]] (1876), a small war against the president started.  Porfirio Diaz became the new president; he was in power for about 30 years.  During this period of about 30 years (1876 - 1911), Mexico progressed a lot with the investments of other countries.  This period of prosperity and relative peace is called the [[Porfiriato]].  But the people was not happy with the form of government in the porfiriato:  It was attracting investors because the pay for workers was dirt cheap, which made a very steep social division:  only a small bunch of investors (national and international) were super rich, but the grand majority of the people was super poor.<br>
> Not happy with this, a man named [[Francisco I. Madero]] prepared the [[Plan de San Luis]], in which he called the mexican people to take their weapons and fight against the government of [[Porfirio Diaz]] on November 20, 1910, at 18:00hrs.  This started what is known as the Mexican Revolution (Revolucion Mexicana).  Madero was incarcerated in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]], but his plan took effect in spite of being in jail.  This is the period where [[Pancho Villa]], [[Emiliano Zapata]], and other important people figure.  Porfirio Diaz "abdicated" for the "sake of the peace of the nation", left for France (in a boat named "Ipiranga") and died in [[Paris]], [[France]] in May 1911, but there seemed to be much more problems with Mexico, and the war lasted more than 10 years.  However, a man who went by the name of [[Venustiano Carranza]] got together with other people, and promulgated the Constitution on February 5, 1917 (and became president).  This is the constitution that still rules Mexico.
18c18
< In the 70s things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now [[Vicente Fox Quezada]].  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
---
> In the 70s, things started to look not-so-bright, and the banks were nationalized.  The mexican peso devaluated, and ever since, it was normal to expect a big devaluation and recession period after each presidential period ended (every 6 years).  People started getting tired of the corruption of the PRI, party in power for about 70 years.  How did they stay in power for so long, if leaders are elected through general vote?  They always "fixed" the elections somehow, so they would win.  As a measure to deter this, the IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral - Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 90s, and it is run by normal citizens.  As a result of this, in 2000, the PAN (Partido Accion Nacional) the actual strongest party won the federal elections, and the president is now [[Vicente Fox Quezada]].  As a curious fact, with the change of powers, there hasn't been any devaluation.
21c21
< * [[Mexican food]]
---
> * [[Mexican food]]
------
Texas|988166642
9,10c9
< It's economy (circa 2000) is largely based on information technology, with Dallas - Fort Worth being the largest [[IT]]
< labor market in the [[United States]], oil and natural gas, energy exploration and energy trading, agriculture, and manufacturing.
---
> It's economy (circa 2000) is largely based on information technology, with Dallas - Fort Worth being the largest [[IT]] labor market in the [[United States]], oil and natural gas, energy exploration and energy trading, agriculture, and manufacturing.
12c11
< It passed [[New York]] in the 1990s to become the second largest state in population after [[California]] largely due to the availability of jobs, low cost of living, high living standard, lack of a state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), good weather, and friendly people.
---
> It passed [[New York]] in the 1990s to become the second largest state in population after [[California]] largely due to the availability of jobs, low cost of living, high living standard, lack of a state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), warm weather, and friendly people.
14,15c13
< It was the only state in the [[United States]] to be a sovereign
< nation before joing the [[United States]]. (? How does the kingom of [[Hawaii]] fit in?)
---
> It was the only state in the [[United States]] to be a sovereign nation before joining the [[United States]]. (? How does the kingom of [[Hawaii]] fit in?)
19c17
< Austin, [[Dallas]], [[Fort Worth]], [[Houston]], and [[San Antonio]] are its largest cities.
---
> Austin, [[Dallas]], [[Fort Worth]], [[Houston]], and [[San Antonio]] are its largest cities.  Other important cities include [[El Paso]], [[Eagle Pass]], and [[Laredo]]; these are very important because of their location at the borderline with Mexico, making them important trade points.
21,22c19
< Texas has a large immigrant population of mainly Spanish speaking 
< people from [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[South America]].  Texas has been largely fortunate in avoiding the racial problems found in many southern states and large cities of the northeast.
---
> Texas has a large immigrant population of mainly Spanish speaking people from [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[South America]].  Texas has been largely fortunate in avoiding the racial problems found in many southern states and large cities of the northeast.
------
John_Quincy_Adams|988166738
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Son of John Adams.
------
Euclid|988168944
4c4
< The fifth [[postulate]] defines an euclidean geometry (of a "plane" space), its negation leads to [[non-euclidean geometries]], like the ones developed by [[Lobatchevsky]] and [[Riemann]].
---
> The fifth [[postulate]], called the <i>Parallel Postulate</i>, that states that any two lines either intersect or are parallel, defines an euclidean geometry (of a "plane" space). Its negation leads to [[non-euclidean geometries]], like the ones developed by [[Lobatchevsky]] and [[Riemann]].
------
Blindness/Literature|988169149
1c1
< Persoanl Narratives http://www.nfb.org/books/kernel1/kernels.htm
---
> Personal Narratives http://www.nfb.org/books/kernel1/kernels.htm
------
LowGerman|988170992
1c1
< Low German (also called Lower Saxon) is a language consisting of the [[Dialect|dialects]] of the northern part of [[Germany]] and some border provinces of the [[Netherlands]]. Although a variation of [[German]], in many aspects it is closer related to [[Dutch]], which started life as a Low German dialect - German as we now know it is a mixture of dialects, but mostly HighGerman.
---
> Low German (also called Lower Saxon) is a language consisting of the [[Dialect|dialects]] of the northern part of [[Germany]] and some border provinces of the [[Netherlands]]. Although a variation of [[German]], in many aspects it is more closely related to [[Dutch]], which started life as a Low German dialect - German as we now know it is a mixture of dialects, but mostly HighGerman.
------
History_of_the_Petroleum_Industry/Early_uses_of_petroleum|988176751
1c1
< [[Petroleum]] in an unrefined state has been utilized by ''homo sapiens'' for over 5000 years.  Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper echelons of their society.  Ancient Chinese were also known to burn skimmed oil for light.
---
> [[Petroleum]] in an unrefined state has been utilized by ''Homo sapiens'' for over 5000 years.  Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper echelons of their society.  Ancient Chinese were also known to burn skimmed oil for light.
3c3
< The Early 19th Century ushered in petroleum's usefulness as a [[medicine]] and lubricant.  But, it first successful uses proved to be lighting and heating.
---
> The Early 19th Century ushered in petroleum's usefulness as a [[medicine]] and lubricant.  But, it first successful uses proved to be lighting and heating.
------
Endocrine_system|988188419
1,2c1,16
< Throughout the body there are formations of special secretory tissues that forms glands. The glands function is to
< produce, and output [[hormone]]s into the bloodstream. [[Hormone]]s are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and tissues where they can act.
---
> :<b>ENDOCRINE GLANDS</b>
> Throughout the body there are formations of special secretory tissues that form glands. Function of the glands is to produce and output [[hormone]]s into the
> bloodstream. [[Hormone]]s are transported to (sometimes) distant organs and
> tissues where they can act regulating various aspects of their metabolic
> activity.
> 
> The main human endocrine glands are :
> * [[hypothalamus]]
> * [[pituitary gland]]
> * [[thyroid gland]]
> * [[parathyroid gland]]s
> * islets of the [[pancreas]]
> * [[adrenal gland]]s
> * [[testicle|testes]]
> * [[ovary|ovaries]]
> * [[placenta]] (during [[pregnancy]])
------
Endocrine_system|988188768
1c1
< :<b>ENDOCRINE GLANDS</b>
---
> :<b>ENDOCRINE SYSTEM</b>
------
Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz|988199914
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> witam i pozdrawiam;-) -- WojPob
------
Jurassic|988201669
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Jurassic is a Geologic Period that extends from about 135 to 195 million Years before the present. As with most older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by 5-10 million years. The Jurassic was named by Alexandre Brongniart for extensive marine limestone exposures in the Jura Mountains in the region where Germany, France and Switzerland meet. The Jurassic follows the [[Triassic]] and is followed by the [[Cretaceous]].  The start of the Jurassic is marked by a major extinction event. 
> 
> The Jurassic is the middle Era of the [[Mesozoic]] Era -- the Age of Dinosaurs. 
> 
> During the Early Jurassic, the supercontinent of [[Pangea]] broke up into North America, Eurasia and Gondwanaland. But the early Atlantic and [[Tethyan]] seas were relatively narrow.  In the late Jurassic, the Southern Continent -- [[Gondwanaland]] started to break up.  Climates were warm with no evidence of glaciation.  As in the [[Triassic]], there was apparently no land near either pole.  Jurassic marine deposits are well exposed in Western Europe.  Marine beds are found along the West Coast.  A shallow sea was present in parts of the northern plains of the US and Canada.  Most Jurassic exposures in North America are continental.  Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, and Australasia.
> 
> During the Jurassic marine life continued the more or less stable state reached in the [[Triassic]] with the "highest" life forms being fish and marine reptiles. Among invertebrates brachiopods and mollusks remained common. Shelled cephalopods in particular were common and diverse. On land, large sophisticated reptiles remained dominant. Angiosperms (flowering plants) started to appear.  The first birds may have evolved during the Jurassic. 
> 
------
New_topics|988202763
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 22nd April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 24th April, Wikipedia server time
3,286c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: (mostly, a huge datadump of basic geographical information!)
< 
< [[Albania/Military]] -- 
< [[Albania/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
< [[Albania/Transportation]] -- 
< [[AlbaniaCommunications]] -- 
< [[Alfred_Hitchcock]] -- 
< [[All_Saints]] -- 
< [[Amir]] -- 
< [[Anaconda]] -- 
< [[Apocalypse_Now]] -- 
< [[BPM]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Government]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/History]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Military]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/People]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bahamas/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bahamas]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Government]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/History]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Military]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/People]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bahrain/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bahrain]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Communications]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Economy]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Geography]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Government]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/History]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Military]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/People]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Baker_Island]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Government]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/History]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Military]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/People]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bangladesh]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Communications]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Economy]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Geography]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Government]] -- 
< [[Barbados/History]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Military]] -- 
< [[Barbados/People]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Barbados/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Barbados]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Government]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/History]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Military]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/People]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Communications]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Economy]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Geography]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Government]] -- 
< [[Belarus/History]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Military]] -- 
< [[Belarus/People]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Belarus/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Belarus]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Economy]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Geography]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Government]] -- 
< [[Belgium/History]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Military]] -- 
< [[Belgium/People]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Belgium/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Belize/Communications]] -- 
< [[Belize/Economy]] -- 
< [[Belize/Geography]] -- 
< [[Belize/Government]] -- 
< [[Belize/History]] -- 
< [[Belize/Military]] -- 
< [[Belize/People]] -- 
< [[Belize/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Belize/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Belize]] -- 
< [[Benin/Communications]] -- 
< [[Benin/Economy]] -- 
< [[Benin/Geography]] -- 
< [[Benin/Government]] -- 
< [[Benin/History]] -- 
< [[Benin/Military]] -- 
< [[Benin/People]] -- 
< [[Benin/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Benin/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Benin]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Government]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/History]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Military]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/People]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bermuda/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bermuda]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Government]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/History]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Military]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/People]] -- 
< [[Bhutan/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bhutan]] -- [[Bhutan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Blindness/History]] -- 
< [[Blindness/Literature]] -- 
< [[Blindness/Technology]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Government]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/History]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Military]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/People]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bolivia/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bolivia]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Government]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/History]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Military]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/People]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bosnia_and_Herzegovina]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Communications]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Economy]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Geography]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Government]] -- 
< [[Botswana/History]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Military]] -- 
< [[Botswana/People]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Botswana/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Botswana]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Government]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/History]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Military]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/People]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Bouvet_Island]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Communications]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Economy]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Geography]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Government]] -- 
< [[Brazil/History]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Military]] -- 
< [[Brazil/People]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Brazil/Transportation]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Communications]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Economy]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Geography]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Government]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/History]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Military]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/People]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transportation]] -- 
< [[British_Indian_Ocean_Territory]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Communications]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Economy]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Geography]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Government]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/History]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Military]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/People]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[British_Virgin_Islands]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Communications]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Economy]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Geography]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Government]] -- 
< [[Brunei/History]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Military]] -- 
< [[Brunei/People]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Brunei/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Brunei]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Communications]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Economy]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Geography]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Government]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/History]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Military]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/People]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Bulgaria/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Communications]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Economy]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Geography]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Government]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/History]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Military]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/People]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Burkina_Faso]] -- 
< [[Burma/Communications]] -- 
< [[Burma/Economy]] -- 
< [[Burma/Geography]] -- 
< [[Burma/Government]] -- 
< [[Burma/History]] -- 
< [[Burma/Military]] -- 
< [[Burma/People]] -- 
< [[Burma/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Burma/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Burma]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Communications]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Economy]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Geography]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Government]] -- 
< [[Burundi/History]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Military]] -- 
< [[Burundi/People]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Burundi/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Burundi]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Government]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/History]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Military]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/People]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cambodia/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cambodia]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Government]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/History]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Military]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/People]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cameroon/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cameroon]] -- 
< [[Civilization/video_game]] -- 
< [[Hideki_Tojo]] -- 
< [[Koyaanisqatsi]] -- 
< [[New_England]] -- 
< [[Nirvana/Grunge_band]] -- 
< [[Nirvana]] -- 
< [[One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest]] -- 
< [[Optical_binary]] -- 
< [[Pakistan]] -- 
< [[Palaeozoic]] -- 
< [[Robert_De_Niro]] -- 
< [[Spike_Jonze]] -- 
< [[Spike_Lee]] -- 
< [[Steven_Spielberg]] -- 
< [[The_Simpsons/Bart]] -- 
< [[The_Simpsons/Marge]]
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( another large datadump of basic geographical information!)
287a5,107
> [[Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film]] -- 
> [[Bassas_da_India/Communications]] -- 
> [[Blindness/Philosophy]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Government]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/History]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/People]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cape_Verde]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cayman_Islands]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Communications]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Economy]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Geography]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Government]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/History]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Military]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/People]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Central_African_Republic]] -- 
> [[Chad/Communications]] -- 
> [[Chad/Economy]] -- 
> [[Chad/Geography]] -- 
> [[Chad/Government]] -- 
> [[Chad/History]] -- 
> [[Chad/Military]] -- 
> [[Chad/People]] -- 
> [[Chad/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Chad/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Chad]] -- 
> [[Chile/Communications]] -- 
> [[Chile/Economy]] -- 
> [[Chile/Geography]] -- 
> [[Chile/Government]] -- 
> [[Chile/History]] -- 
> [[Chile/Military]] -- 
> [[Chile/People]] -- 
> [[Chile/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Chile/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Chile]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Christmas_Island]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Clipperton_Island]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cocos_Islands]] -- 
> [[Durango_Boot]] -- 
> [[Euclid]] -- 
> [[Frisbee]] -- 
> [[Guadalajara]] -- 
> [[Hammond_Organ]] -- 
> [[Hormone]] -- 
> [[Internet_Movie_Database]] -- 
> [[LowGerman]] -- 
> [[Paul_heroult]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Communications]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Economy]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Geography]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Government]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/History]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Military]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/People]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Ridley_Scott]] -- 
> [[Triassic]] -- 
> [[Ultimate_frisbee]]
------
Day_of_the_Triffids|988205488
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by the British [[science fiction]] author [[John Wyndham]].
> 
> It descibes a world where a genetically engineered plant, the `Triffid' of the title is a major crop, due to its invaluable edible oils and proteins, even though it has some major disadvantages for a crop plant - a degree of mobility, soem rudimentary animal like reflexes, and a whip-like poisonous 
> sting (!) - the sting is normally removed in cultivation.
> 
> The book opens with the hero in hospital, with his eyes bandaged after having  been hit by an uncropped triffid, discovering thet while he had been blindfolded, the unusual meteor shower that had been occuring (or possibly some space-based weapons system) had blinded most people on earth. The handful of sighted survivors escape the general collapse, to be faced by the growing numbers of free, undocked triffids...
> 
> Later made into a film, in which the triffids arrived as spores in the same meteor shower that blinded almost everyone on earth,
> which at least simplified the number of assumptions required to amke the plot work, 
------
John_Wyndham|988207273
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Wyndham
> 
> Pen name used by the British [[science fiction]] writer John Beynon Parkes Lucas Harris. In his earlier writings, he  used various combinations of his names, and in one example, `<i>The Outward urge</i>' actually pretended to be two collaborating authors.
> 
> His book [[Day of the Triffids|The Day of the Triffids]] was possibly the origin of the style of British science fiction described as the `cosy catastrophe' in which everyone is killed but a handful of middle-class survivors. Though this was his most famous book, adding the word "Triffid" to the english language, several of his other books are proving to be more durable:
> 
> <i>The Midwich Cuckoos</i> depicted a small village in which, during 24 hours when the inhabitants are unconscious, and the village is cut off from the outside world, all the women of child-bearing age mysteriously become pregnant, eventually giving birth to golden eyed children with telepathic abilities. It was filmed as "Village of the Damned", with (unusually for a science fiction film) the plot being kept exactly as in the book.
> 
> 
> <i>The Chrysalids</i> depicted a rural community in Newfoundland, several centuries after some nuclear war, with a religious obsession about eliminating those born with any genetic abnormalities - it follows a small group of cousins who realise their telepathic abilities have to be hidden, and their troubles when these are discovered. 
> 
> Other books:
> 
> * Sleepers of Mars (by "John Beynon")
> * The outward Urge (by "John Wyndham" and "Lucas Parkes")
> * The Kraken Wakes
> * Trouble with Lichen
> * Chocky
------
Day_of_the_Triffids|988207345
9c9,10
< which at least simplified the number of assumptions required to amke the plot work, 
---
> which at least simplified the number of assumptions required to make the plot work. 
> 
------
Science_Fiction_Film|988208448
11a12
> :[[Jouney to the Center of the Earth]], [[1959]]
14c15
< :[[2001 A Space Odyssey]] (1968)
---
> :[[2001 A Space Odyssey]] [[1968]]
19c20
< :[[Outland]], [[1981)
---
> :[[Outland]], [[1981]]
23d23
< :[[Jouney to the Center of the Earth]], [[1959]]
------
Newspeak|988209419
1c1
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say or think anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.(see also the <i>[[SapirWhorfHypothesis]]</i>)
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say or think anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.(see also the <i>[[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]</i>)
------
HugoPrize|988210523
1c1
< Science Fiction fans award
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hugo award]]
------
Hugo_award|988210877
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Named for [[Hugo Gernsback]], the Hugo award is given every year for the best science fiction stories of the previous year. It is chosen by votes of science fiction fans themselves, at the World Science fiction Conventions.
> 
> For a listing of the winners of Hugo awards, see
> http://www.hugo.org/hugos.html 
------
Popular_tourist_regions|988210893
6a7,8
> [[Acapulco]]
> [[CanCun]]
------
Hugo_award|988210900
1c1
< Named for [[Hugo Gernsback]], the Hugo award is given every year for the best science fiction stories of the previous year. It is chosen by votes of science fiction fans themselves, at the World Science fiction Conventions.
---
> Named for [[Hugo Gernsback]], the Hugo award is given every year for the best [[science fiction]] stories of the previous year. It is chosen by votes of science fiction fans themselves, at the World Science fiction Conventions.
------
William_Gibson|988211043
1c1
< William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of science fiction and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer stimulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are the short story collection `Burning Chrome', and the novels Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine (with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, Hugo, and Philip K. Dick).
---
> William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of [[science fiction]] and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer simulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are the short story collection `Burning Chrome', and the novels Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine (with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, [[Hugo award|Hugo]], and Philip K. Dick).
------
Architecture|988212265
2a3,4
> Architecture is also the managing of spaces and colors to create moods.
> 
------
Phonology|988212396
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Study of the sounds.
------
What_is_a_wiki|988212576
1,2c1
< A <I>Mohamed El-Gohary ....The Babe
< </I> is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
------
What_is_a_wiki|988212596
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below (it's true, I just did it).
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.
------
Charlemagne|988213370
2a3,4
> Was responsible for stopping the [[Muslim]] expansion in [[Spain]].
> 
3a6
> 
------
Napoleon|988213922
6c6
< He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[St. Helena]] where he died.
---
> He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[Saint Helena]] where he died.
------
Country_codes|988214178
3,4c3,4
<  AC - Ascension Island 
<  AD - Andorra 
---
>  AC - [[Ascension Island]] 
>  AD - [[Andorra]] 
6c6
<  AF - Afghanistan 
---
>  AF - [[Afghanistan]] 
8,23c8,23
<  AI - Anguilla 
<  AL - Albania 
<  AM - Armenia 
<  AN - Netherlands Antilles 
<  AO - Angola 
<  AQ - Antarctica 
<  AR - Argentina 
<  AS - American Samoa 
<  AT - Austria 
<  AU - Australia 
<  AW - Aruba 
<  AZ - Azerbaijan
< 
<  BA - Bosnia and Herzegovina 
<  BB - Barbados 
<  BD - Bangladesh 
---
>  AI - [[Anguilla]] 
>  AL - [[Albania]] 
>  AM - [[Armenia]] 
>  AN - [[Netherlands Antilles]] 
>  AO - [[Angola]] 
>  AQ - [[Antarctica]] 
>  AR - [[Argentina]] 
>  AS - [[American Samoa]] 
>  AT - [[Austria]] 
>  AU - [[Australia]]
>  AW - [[Aruba]] 
>  AZ - [[Azerbaijan]]
> 
>  BA - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
>  BB - [[Barbados]] 
>  BD - [[Bangladesh]] 
61c61
<  DE - Germany 
---
>  DE - [[Germany]]
63c63
<  DK - Denmark 
---
>  DK - [[Denmark]]
73c73
<  ES - Spain 
---
>  ES - [[Spain]]
76c76
<  FI - Finland 
---
>  FI - [[Finland]]
81c81
<  FR - France 
---
>  FR - [[France]]
211c211
<  SE - Sweden 
---
>  SE - [[Sweden]] 
213c213
<  SH - St. Helena 
---
>  SH - [[Saint Helena|St. Helena]] 
------
Saint_Helena|988214375
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Island outside of [[Africa]] belongong to [[British Commonwealth]].
> 
> Historically it has been under [[British]] ruling.
> 
> Has probably acted as a strategic Island for ships on their way to the [[Indian ocean]] before the [[Suez canal]] was built.
------
RefactoringPolicy|988216061
5c5
< View 1.  As often as one sees something incorrect, obviously biased/partisan.  It is better to change a page immediately, when one sees something perceived to be a problem, rather than to discuss changes that need to be made.  Adherents of this view: [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> View 1.  As often as one sees something incorrect, obviously biased/partisan.  It is better to change a page immediately, when one sees something perceived to be a problem, rather than to discuss changes that need to be made.  Adherents of this view: [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]]
15c15,16
< 
---
> The immediate work with other peoples articles are best used with a respect for other peoples views, contributions, and work. I believe that all contributers to wikipedia, i.e. all that have enough enthusiasm and courage to press "edit this page right now" followed by "Save" also has the required respect for other people. If that would not be the case, the whole wiki-pedia idea is doomed and in order to get anything out of it we would at least need to rethink the whole authorisation handling in order only to allow a selected set of people the editing rights. As long as we need not do this, there is no point in hindering the creative spirit in any way. [[LinusTolke]]
> ----
20c21
< View 2.  On a *Talk or *Discussion page, always (or almost always).  Adherents of this view: [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> View 2.  On a *Talk or *Discussion page, always (or almost always).  Adherents of this view: [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]]
29c30
< View 1.  There is one main purpose to refactoring and editing pages in general, and that is to create good encyclopedia articles.  Adherents: [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> View 1.  There is one main purpose to refactoring and editing pages in general, and that is to create good encyclopedia articles.  Adherents: [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]]
45a47,48
> ----
> I'd say you're wrong, Josh. If an article is biased or incorrect, a discussion on whether or not it is biased or incorrect and how does not improve the article itself. The best thing to do, instead of commenting it, is to rewrite it in order to remove the bias or incorrect things. The second best thing, if you don't trust yourself with writing an unbiased version of the article, would be to add another version of the article. In that case we don't have "Biased article + Discussion" but instead we have "Biased article (bias 1) + Biased article (bias 2)" and that would much better server the purpose of alarming glancing users of the page's status. Furthermore it is far better source for a later refactoring by someone who trusts himself to be unbiased. [[LinusTolke]]
------
AlwaysLeaveSomethingUndoneDebate|988216887
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is best if it is done in a manner that does not totally destroy the entry or article itself. I prefer not to leave uncompleted sentences but instead leave things hanging like, what happens then. [[LinusTolke]]
------
RulesToConsider|988216900
18d17
< 
23c22
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]] [[Invictus]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]] [[Invictus]] [[LinusTolke]]
24a24
> ''See AlwaysLeaveSomethingUndoneDebate''
32d31
< 
40d38
< 
45c43
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[LinusTolke]]
48d45
< 
56d52
< 
64d59
< 
67c62
< '''[[/Establish Context|Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell
---
> '''[[/Establish Context|Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell [[LinusTolke]]
71c66
< '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]''' Supporters include (at least) TimShell and [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]''' Supporters include (at least) TimShell and [[Larry Sanger]] [[LinusTolke]]
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|988217474
21c21,22
< Loosely based upon the original story, in this version, the aliens are repelled not by the natural germs on Earth, but by [[yodelling]]
---
> A more humourous treatment, and <i>very</i> loosely based upon the original story, the title, and the appearance of the Martians derives from a series of bubble-gum cards issued in the [[1950]]s. In this version, the aliens are repelled not by the natural germs on Earth, but by [[yodelling]]
> 
------
Science_Fiction_Film|988217606
11a12
> :[[This Island Earth]]
16a18
> :[[Rollerball]], [[1975]]
25d26
< :[[Rollerball]], [[1975]]
------
Day_of_the_Triffids|988218118
3,4c3,4
< It descibes a world where a genetically engineered plant, the `Triffid' of the title is a major crop, due to its invaluable edible oils and proteins, even though it has some major disadvantages for a crop plant - a degree of mobility, soem rudimentary animal like reflexes, and a whip-like poisonous 
< sting (!) - the sting is normally removed in cultivation.
---
> It describes a world where a genetically engineered plant, the `Triffid' of the title is a major crop, due to its invaluable edible oils and proteins, even though it has some major disadvantages for a crop plant - a degree of mobility, some rudimentary animal like reflexes, and a whip-like poisonous 
> sting (!) - though the sting is normally removed in cultivation.
6c6
< The book opens with the hero in hospital, with his eyes bandaged after having  been hit by an uncropped triffid, discovering thet while he had been blindfolded, the unusual meteor shower that had been occuring (or possibly some space-based weapons system) had blinded most people on earth. The handful of sighted survivors escape the general collapse, to be faced by the growing numbers of free, undocked triffids...
---
> The book opens with the hero in hospital, with his eyes bandaged after having  been hit by an uncropped triffid, discovering that while he had been blindfolded, an unusually bright meteor shower that had been in the news (or possibly some space-based weapons system) had blinded most people on earth. The handful of sighted survivors escape the general collapse, to be faced by the growing numbers of free, undocked triffids...
------
Country_codes|988219046
24,39c24,39
<  BE - Belgium 
<  BF - Burkina Faso 
<  BG - Bulgaria 
<  BH - Bahrain 
<  BI - Burundi 
<  BJ - Benin 
<  BM - Bermuda 
<  BN - Brunei Darussalam 
<  BO - Bolivia 
<  BR - Brazil 
<  BS - Bahamas 
<  BT - Bhutan 
<  BV - Bouvet Island 
<  BW - Botswana 
<  BY - Belarus 
<  BZ - Belize 
---
>  BE - [[Belgium]] 
>  BF - [[Burkina Faso]] 
>  BG - [[Bulgaria]] 
>  BH - [[Bahrain]] 
>  BI - [[Burundi]] 
>  BJ - [[Benin]] 
>  BM - [[Bermuda]] 
>  BN - [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] 
>  BO - [[Bolivia]] 
>  BR - [[Brazil]] 
>  BS - [[Bahamas]] 
>  BT - [[Bhutan]] 
>  BV - [[Bouvet Island]] 
>  BW - [[Botswana]] 
>  BY - [[Belarus]] 
>  BZ - [[Belize]] 
41c41
<  CA - Canada 
---
>  CA - [[Canada]] 
44c44
<  CF - Central African Republic 
---
>  CF - [[Central African Republic]] 
48,49c48,49
<  CK - Cook Islands 
<  CL - Chile 
---
>  CK - Cook Islands
>  CL - [[Chile]] 
51,52c51,52
<  CN - China 
<  CO - Colombia 
---
>  CN - [[Peoples Republic of China|China]] 
>  CO - [[Colombia]] 
66c66
<  DZ - Algeria 
---
>  DZ - [[Algeria]] 
70c70
<  EG - Egypt 
---
>  EG - [[Egypt]] 
96c96
<  GR - Greece 
---
>  GR - [[Greece]] 
118c118
<  IT - Italy 
---
>  IT - [[Italy]] 
176c176
<  NL - Netherlands 
---
>  NL - [[Netherlands]] 
238c238
<  TR - Turkey 
---
>  TR - [[Turkey]] 
246c246
<  UK - United Kingdom 
---
>  UK - [[United Kingdom]] 
------
Countries_of_the_world|988220288
193a194
> * [[Country codes]]
------
Island|988220515
41a42
> * [[Saint Helena]]
------
Philip_K._Dick|988222965
1c1
< Philip K. Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound affect on the genre.  He was hailed by and friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Philip Kendred Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound affect on the genre.  He was hailed by and friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
9a10,11
> *[[/The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch]]
> *[[/A Scanner Darkly]]
------
Endocrine_system|988223119
1d0
< :<b>ENDOCRINE SYSTEM</b>
16c15
< * [[placenta]] (during [[pregnancy]])
---
> * [[placenta]] (during [[pregnancy]])
------
Blindness/Literature|988225201
0a1,2
> Perhaps someone could sum up the literature about blindness here?  (Of course, we don't want to make Wikipedia into yet another collection of links.)
> 
------
Country_codes|988226243
5c5
<  AE - United Arab Emirates 
---
>  AE - [[United Arab Emirates]] 
7c7
<  AG - Antigua and Barbuda 
---
>  AG - [[Antigua and Barbuda]] 
42,43c42,43
<  CC - Cocos (Keeling) Islands 
<  CD - Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) 
---
>  CC - [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] 
>  CD - [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (formerly [[Zaire]]) 
45,48c45,48
<  CG - Congo 
<  CH - Switzerland 
<  CI - Cote D'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) 
<  CK - Cook Islands
---
>  CG - [[Congo]] 
>  CH - [[Switzerland]] 
>  CI - [[Cote D'Ivoire]] ([[Ivory Coast]]) 
>  CK - [[Cook Islands]]
50c50
<  CM - Cameroon 
---
>  CM - [[Cameroon]] 
53,59c53,59
<  CR - Costa Rica 
<  CS - Czechoslovakia (former) 
<  CU - Cuba 
<  CV - Cape Verde 
<  CX - Christmas Island 
<  CY - Cyprus 
<  CZ - Czech Republic 
---
>  CR - [[Costa Rica]] 
>  CS - [[Czechoslovakia]] (former) 
>  CU - [[Cuba]] 
>  CV - [[Cape Verde]] 
>  CX - [[Christmas Island]] 
>  CY - [[Cyprus]] 
>  CZ - [[Czech Republic]] 
62c62
<  DJ - Djibouti 
---
>  DJ - [[Djibouti]] 
64,65c64,65
<  DM - Dominica 
<  DO - Dominican Republic 
---
>  DM - [[Dominica]] 
>  DO - [[Dominican Republic]] 
68,69c68,69
<  EC - Ecuador 
<  EE - Estonia 
---
>  EC - [[Ecuador]]
>  EE - [[Estonia]] 
71,72c71,72
<  EH - Western Sahara 
<  ER - Eritrea 
---
>  EH - [[Western Sahara]] 
>  ER - [[Eritrea]] 
74c74
<  ET - Ethiopia  
---
>  ET - [[Ethiopia]]  
77,80c77,80
<  FJ - Fiji 
<  FK - Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 
<  FM - Micronesia 
<  FO - Faroe Islands 
---
>  FJ - [[Fiji]] 
>  FK - [[Falkland Islands]] ([[Malvinas]]) 
>  FM - [[Micronesia]] 
>  FO - [[Faroe Islands]] 
82c82
<  FX - France, Metropolitan 
---
>  FX - [[France, Metropolitan]] 
84,95c84,95
<  GA - Gabon 
<  GB - Great Britain (UK) 
<  GD - Grenada 
<  GE - Georgia 
<  GF - French Guiana 
<  GH - Ghana 
<  GI - Gibraltar 
<  GL - Greenland 
<  GM - Gambia 
<  GN - Guinea 
<  GP - Guadeloupe 
<  GQ - Equatorial Guinea 
---
>  GA - [[Gabon]] 
>  GB - [[Great Britain]] ([[UK]]) 
>  GD - [[Grenada]] 
>  GE - [[Georgia]] 
>  GF - [[French Guiana]] 
>  GH - [[Ghana]] 
>  GI - [[Gibraltar]] 
>  GL - [[Greenland]] 
>  GM - [[Gambia]] 
>  GN - [[Guinea]] 
>  GP - [[Guadeloupe]] 
>  GQ - [[Equatorial Guinea]] 
97,108c97,108
<  GS - S. Georgia & S. Sandwich Islands 
<  GT - Guatemala 
<  GU - Guam 
<  GW - Guinea-Bissau 
<  GY - Guyana 
< 
<  HK - Hong Kong 
<  HM - Heard and McDonald Islands 
<  HN - Honduras 
<  HR - Croatia (Hrvatska) 
<  HT - Haiti 
<  HU - Hungary 
---
>  GS - [[South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands|S. Georgia and S. Sandwich Islands]] 
>  GT - [[Guatemala]] 
>  GU - [[Guam]]
>  GW - [[Guinea-Bissau]] 
>  GY - [[Guyana]] 
> 
>  HK - [[Hong Kong]] 
>  HM - [[Heard and McDonald Islands]] 
>  HN - [[Honduras]] 
>  HR - [[Croatia]] (Hrvatska) 
>  HT - [[Haiti]] 
>  HU - [[Hungary]] 
111,117c111,117
<  IE - Ireland 
<  IL - Israel 
<  IN - India 
<  IO - British Indian Ocean Territory 
<  IQ - Iraq 
<  IR - Iran 
<  IS - Iceland 
---
>  IE - [[Ireland]] 
>  IL - [[Israel]] 
>  IN - [[India]] 
>  IO - [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] 
>  IQ - [[Iraq]] 
>  IR - [[Iran]] 
>  IS - [[Iceland]] 
120,146c120,146
<  JM - Jamaica 
<  JO - Jordan 
<  JP - Japan 
< 
<  KE - Kenya 
<  KG - Kyrgyzstan 
<  KH - Cambodia 
<  KI - Kiribati 
<  KM - Comoros 
<  KN - Saint Kitts and Nevis 
<  KP - Korea (North) 
<  KR - Korea (South) 
<  KW - Kuwait 
<  KY - Cayman Islands 
<  KZ - Kazakhstan 
< 
<  LA - Laos 
<  LB - Lebanon 
<  LC - Saint Lucia 
<  LI - Liechtenstein 
<  LK - Sri Lanka 
<  LR - Liberia 
<  LS - Lesotho 
<  LT - Lithuania 
<  LU - Luxembourg 
<  LV - Latvia 
<  LY - Libya 
---
>  JM - [[Jamaica]] 
>  JO - [[Jordan]] 
>  JP - [[Japan]] 
> 
>  KE - [[Kenya]] 
>  KG - [[Kyrgyzstan]] 
>  KH - [[Cambodia]] 
>  KI - [[Kiribati]] 
>  KM - [[Comoros]] 
>  KN - [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] 
>  KP - [[North Korea]] 
>  KR - [[South Korea]] 
>  KW - [[Kuwait]] 
>  KY - [[Cayman Islands]] 
>  KZ - [[Kazakhstan]] 
> 
>  LA - [[Laos]] 
>  LB - [[Lebanon]] 
>  LC - [[Saint Lucia]] 
>  LI - [[Liechtenstein]] 
>  LK - [[Sri Lanka]] 
>  LR - [[Liberia]] 
>  LS - [[Lesotho]] 
>  LT - [[Lithuania]] 
>  LU - [[Luxembourg]] 
>  LV - [[Latvia]]
>  LY - [[Libya]] 
------
Island|988226356
1c1
< An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks, are called [[islet]]s.  Here is a list of the largest islands of the world:
---
> An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands--say, islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks--are called [[islet]]s.  Here is a list of the largest islands of the world:
------
Larrys_Text|988226543
11c11
< ::[[Metaphysics/Introduction|introduction to metaphysics]] -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[ontology]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] --[[abstract]] -- [[concrete]] -- TheExistenceOfPhysicalObjects -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
---
> ::[[Metaphysics/Introduction|introduction to metaphysics]] -- [[metaphysics]] -- [[ontology]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] --[[abstract]] -- [[concrete]] -- [[the existence of physical objects]] -- [[nonexistence]] -- ProblemOfSubstance -- ProblemOfUniversals -- IdentityAndChange
------
Island|988226622
58a59
> * [[Tierra del Fuego]] ([[Argentina]],[[Chile]])
------
Adolf_Hitler|988227296
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.A conspiracy theory suggests that the bodies that were allegedly Hitler's and Braun's were actually people employed by the Nazis and Hitler to fake their deaths so they could therefore escape unharmed.
------
ProblemOfSubstance|988227356
1,59c1
< <The following is a portion of LarrysText, wikification is invited> 
< 
< Let’s move onto the next issue, <i>the</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>substance</i>.  Now we face another, perhaps more fundamental problem: What <i>are</i> objects anyway?  Is it possible to say anything enlightening about the meaning of talk of objects, of things, of bodies, of substances (I’m going to use these terms interchangeably)?  You might not think anything interesting could be said about this question, but we did manage to say something enlightening about the meaning of existence.  So let’s give it a try.
< 
< Let’s go back to our example of the apple.  I propose to ask: What is <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>itself</i>?  First of all, you might wonder now what it is that we’re supposed to be confused about.  You know what apples and tables and trees, and other bodies, are; you eat and bump into them all the time.  So maybe the notion of an object is <i>primitive</i>: it can’t be explained any further.  <i>Primitive</i>, that’s a term that is useful to introduce when we’re doing metaphysics.  A word is primitive if it is meaningful but not capable of being defined.  But at least we should try to see if the notion of a body can be explained in terms of <i>something</i> <i>else</i>.
< 
< So you might say: what about fundamental particles, maybe quarks?  Don’t they explain the notion of a body, since fundamental particles make up bodies?  Well, that’s not what I mean.  Fundamental particles are, after all, <i>other</i> <i>bodies</i>.  So the question is, is there any other <i>category</i> <i>of</i> <i>being</i> that can be used to explain what physical objects are?
< 
< And so here you might say: I have <i>no</i> <i>idea</i> what other category of being could be used to explain the notion of a body.  But sure you do.  What about properties and relations?  Bodies have properties and relations, and it seems that we can describe bodies only by mentioning their properties and relations.  The <i>only</i> way we can talk about the apple, it seems, is by describing its properties, or how it is related to other things.  For example, we can say the fact that it is an apple is a property of the object on the table; its redness is a property; its size and composition are properties; its being on the table is a relation; its being in the room, and being bigger than other apples, are also relations.  So it appears that the only way we have of talking about the apple is to mention its properties and relations.  And similarly with all other bodies.
< 
< So let’s go back to the question: "What <i>are</i> objects anyway?"  Now we can say what general sort of answer we’re looking for: we want to know how objects, or bodies, or whatever you want to call them, are related to their properties and relations.  Let’s leave aside relations now for simplicity.  So I’m just going to ask this: What is the relationship between objects and their properties?  This is supposed to tell us better exactly what objects <i>are</i>.
< 
< And this question, "What is the relationship between objects and their properties?" can be explained further.  As follows: "Are objects just <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> a collection of properties, or are objects not the same as, but <i>different</i> <i>from</i> their properties?"  This appears to be a fairly strict dichotomy: either objects <i>are</i> the same as collections of properties, or they are <i>not</i> the same.  And so there are two theories of the nature of objects.  The <i>bundle</i> <i>theory</i>, on the one hand, holds that objects are nothing more than collections of properties.  The <i>substance</i> <i>theory</i>, on the other hand, holds that objects are something over and above their properties, namely substances.  So let me explain each of these two theories a little bit better.  Then after I explain each one briefly, we’ll look at some arguments for and against each theory.
< 
< According to the substance theory, a physical object is something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> the properties that inhere in it.  That’s philosopher’s talk -- to speak of properties as "inhering" in a thing.  It just means that the thing has those properties.  Anyway, according to the substance theory, in at least <i>some</i> sense the substance can exist <i>without</i> its properties.  Even if it’s physically impossible that a substance would lack any properties at all, we can speak of the substance itself <i>as</i> <i>distinguished</i> <i>from</i> its properties.  Now the substance considered all by itself, considered without any reference to its properties, is what has been called a "bare particular."  It’s "bare" because it is considered without any properties, and it’s "particular" because it’s not abstract.  More about "bare particulars" in a minute.  So there you have a very basic introduction to what the substance theory says.  It says there’s a basic difference between substances, or bare particulars, and the properties that inhere in those substances.
< 
< Now for an equally basic introduction to the bundle theory.  According to the bundle theory a physical object is a bundle, or collection, of properties.  Hence, you cannot even <i>conceive</i> of a propertyless object: the object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> its properties, and so if you take away its properties you take away the object itself.  Think of the apple: but don’t think of its color; don’t think of its shape; don’t think of the fact that it’s a kind of fruit; don’t think of the cells that its made of; don’t think of its taste; and so on.  Think of the apple, but <i>don’t</i> think of any of its properties.  Is that <i>possible</i>?  The bundle theorist says: No!  Not possible!  So the apple is no more than a collection of properties.  There isn’t any more to the apple than that.  In particular there is no "substance" that these properties "inhere in."
< 
< So which theory of objects is correct, the substance theory or the bundle theory?  Well, let’s look at some arguments on both sides.  First, for the substance theory.  Let’s begin with something we might call the <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>grammar</i>.  This has as its conclusion that the substance theory is correct.  The argument goes something like this.  When we say, for example, "Snow is white," there is a subject, <i>snow</i>, and we are saying of <i>it</i> that it is white.  It makes no grammatical sense to speak of "whiteness" disembodied, without snow (or <i>some</i> subject) that <i>is</i> white.  The only way to make a meaningful claim about anything is to speak of a subject, and we predicate various properties <i>of</i> this subject.  When we talk about physical objects, at least, this subject of predication is called the <i>substance</i>.  So in order to make meaningful claims about physical objects, we have to refer to substances; but we make meaningful claims about objects all the time; therefore, substances exist.
< 
< Now, I suspect that this argument from grammar is no good.  The bundle theorist definitely would reject it.  Let me explain why.  The argument says: <i>just</i> <i>because</i> there is a <i>grammatical</i> subject in a sentence, we are referring to what might be called a <i>metaphysical</i> subject, a substance.  But how does that follow?  It doesn’t seem to follow.  Well, OK, the argument from grammar gets at least the following right: in order to make meaningful statements about bodies, we have to talk about subjects.  But why couldn’t a subject in a meaningful statement refer to a bundle of properties?  For example, consider the statement, "Snow is white."  Why couldn’t we be saying that a field of snow is just a bundle of properties like being made up of ice crystals, being cold, being a few feet deep, etc.  And then we say of something about this bundle of properties, that it <i>includes</i> the property of being white.  That seems like a reasonable way of understanding this claim that snow is white.  And we don’t have to talk about any substances.  So that’s a way to show that we can make meaningful statements about bodies <i>without</i> referring to substances.
< 
< Here’s a second argument for the substance theory.  It would go like this.  Whenever we conceive of one of an object’s properties, like the redness of the apple, we <i>have</i> to conceive of the object that <i>has</i> that property.  You can’t conceive of redness, or any other property, <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i>.  The point is that whenever you think of a property, you have to think of it as a property <i>of</i> something.  And well, what it’s a property <i>of</i> is just a substance.  There is no conceivable thing such as redness all by itself, or being four inches wide all by itself -- that’s nonsense.  It’s always a <i>substance</i> that is red, or that is four inches wide.  Therefore, substances exist.
< 
< This might be a slightly better argument, but it also doesn’t seem to be valid.  The main claim in the argument is that, since -- here’s the big premise -- we can’t think of properties all by themselves; therefore -- here’s the conclusion -- they must be properties <i>of</i> <i>substances</i>.  But does that conclusion follow from the premise?  I don’t think so.  Why couldn’t we say: they just have to be associated with a bundle of other properties, which bundle we call an object, or a body?  Do you see the point?  An individual property, we might concede, can’t exist by itself.  But that doesn’t mean that substances have to exist: maybe these bodies that exist are just bundles of properties, and an individual property can’t exist <i>separately</i> <i>from</i> <i>such</i> <i>a</i> <i>bundle</i>.
< 
< Philosophers are pretty sophisticated in their own way and they can think up all sorts of ways to defend their views.  So the substance theorist might have some ways of backing up these arguments.  But we don’t have time to get into it too deeply, so let’s move on and consider some arguments <i>against</i> the substance theory.
< 
< First, there’s the problem of knowing what the relation is between a substance and its properties.  For example, what’s the relation between the apple, considered as a substance, and its redness?  The substance theorist may say: well, a property <i>inheres</i> in a substance.  That’s the word he uses: "inheres."  A property’s inherence in a substance is kind of like being part of the substance.  But it’s definitely different from just being a part.  When I say, for example, that the apple is red, I’m saying that redness inheres in the apple.  But then what is inherence?  How much sense does that make?  It seems all I can say is that it’s what I mean when I say the apple is red!  But that’s not very helpful.  So what exactly is the relation between the substance, an apple, and its property, the redness?  That’s the first problem.
< 
< Well, here the substance theorist may just say that the name of the relation is "inherence," and that inherence is a primitive concept.  It can’t be explained any further, but it doesn’t need to be explained any further.  It’s like this: we know what it means to say that the apple has the property of redness, or the property of being juicy.  It doesn’t matter that we can’t explain what this talk of a substance "having" properties, or a property "inhering in" a substance, amounts to in any <i>other</i> terms.  We have to start somewhere -- we can’t define everything, or if we try we’ll run out of words!
< 
< So suppose the substance theorist manages to wriggle out of that problem.  But here’s a second problem, which is probably more serious.  We might say that the very notion of a thing with no properties, a "bare particular," as I said, is absurd.  We just cannot conceive of a thing without any properties.  As soon as we get the fuzziest notion of a thing in mind, we are thinking of <i>some</i> property or other!  The problem isn’t just that it’s physically impossible that we might stumble across a bare particular, or a propertyless thing on our way to class.  The point is that the very <i>notion</i> of a propertyless thing is impossible: we just have no such notion.
< 
< That at least is what the bundle theory’s advocate might say.  And we are now getting into arguments <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  In fact we can say that the second argument <i>against</i> the substance theory is just our main argument <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  I’m just going to make one argument for the bundle theory, and it’s at least a lot like this second argument I gave against the substance theory.
< 
< So the argument for the bundle theory goes like this.  The basic idea is that <i>however</i> <i>we</i> <i>might</i> <i>choose</i> <i>to</i> <i>conceive</i> <i>of</i>, <i>or</i> <i>describe</i> <i>a</i> <i>thing</i>, it will be a conception, or a description, of a <i>property</i> of a thing.  In other words, <i>there</i> <i>is</i> <i>nothing</i> <i>that</i> <i>can</i> <i>be</i> <i>described</i>, or even conceived, about a thing, which is not a property of the thing.  (Or a relation of the thing, but remember we’re ignoring relations for simplicity’s sake.)  We cannot have the slightest idea of any aspect of the thing which is <i>not</i> a property of it.
< 
< So what does that imply?  It implies that we cannot have any conception whatsoever of a "bare particular."  As the English philosopher John Locke said, a substance by itself, apart from its properties, is something "I-know-not-what."  The only way that we can conceive of an object is by conceiving of its properties.
< 
< Therefore to conceive of an object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> to conceive of a bundle of properties.  The only conception we <i>can</i> have of an object is as a bundle of properties.  The bundle theory wins out, on this view, simply because it’s the only game in town: the only way we can conceive of things is <i>as</i> bundles of properties.  We couldn’t imagine a bare particular, a propertyless substance, even if we tried.  So the bundle theory is correct and the substance theory is wrong.
< 
< I and I think most philosophers these days think this argument, or one a lot it, is a very powerful argument.  How could the substance theorist reply?  How could we hold onto the substance theory if we have no conception of substance <i>as</i> <i>distinct</i> <i>from</i> properties and relations?
< 
< Well, as far as I can tell, the best that we can do is that we can say we have a very basic sort of idea of substance.  Namely, substance is the subject in which properties inhere.  There’s a basic idea we can have.  So the substance theorist might say this: all right, fine, we conceive of substances by conceiving of their properties, but I the substance theorist continue to say that the thing we are conceiving <i>of</i> is the <i>thing</i> <i>that</i> <i>has</i> <i>those</i> <i>properties</i>.  And that thing is different from the properties.  So we can have a notion of a substance as "the subject in which properties inhere."  The substance theorist would maintain that we should just content ourselves that we are surrounded by lots of examples of subjects in which properties inhere.  All the bodies around us are subjects in which properties inhere.  I’m sure the bundle theorist would not at all be satisfied with that, but let’s just leave it at that.
< 
< Finally, let’s consider what arguments might be raised against the bundle theory.  There are several, but I’m going to bring up just one.  It’s about what it means to talk about a <i>bundle</i> <i>of</i> <i>properties</i>.  You have to admit that when you first hear it, it sounds kind of mysterious.  The apple is supposed to be a <i>bundle</i> of properties, redness, being four inches wide, juicyness, and so on.  But if there isn’t a substance that underlies all these properties, then what exactly is the relation supposed to be between the properties of a thing?  The apple is both red and juicy, right?  According to the bundle theorist, there is no <i>substance</i> that is the apple.  There’s just a "bundle" of properties like being red and being juicy.  So how does it happen that all of the properties of the apple on the table happen to be found together?  The bundle theorist says they are "bundled" together, that they are a <i>collection</i>.  But how are they tied together?  What collects them together?  Why should it be that redness and juicyness just happen to be found together on top of the table?
< 
< The substance theory can explain this but the bundle theory doesn’t seem to be able to.  The substance theory says: redness and juicyness are two properties that are found together on top of the table, because <i>it’s</i> <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>that’s</i> <i>red</i> <i>and</i> <i>juicy</i>.  And the apple is a substance in which those two properties inhere.  If we like the bundle theory, it seems we have to throw up our hands and say, "I <i>don’t</i> <i>know</i> why bunches of properties are found associated together."
< 
< Well, to be honest with you I’m sure <i>actual</i> bundle theorists would have something clever to say in reply.  But we’ll have to cut them off in the interests of time.
< 
< If you have found all of this stuff about the problem of substance baffling, let me see if I can make it a little bit clearer by giving a <i>completely</i> <i>different</i> sort of example.  A concluding example, I’m not going to spend too much time on this.  Have you ever wondered what your mind, or your soul, is?  You can identify individual thoughts, individual feelings, in your mind.  But do you know what the mind is, that has these thoughts and feelings?  You can imagine all sorts of mental goings on, but can you imagine <i>the</i> <i>mind</i> <i>itself</i>?  I don’t think so.  The only way we have of understanding, by introspection, what our minds are is by considering various particular thoughts, feelings, decisions, and so forth <i>in</i> our minds.
< 
< So then suppose someone comes up and says: well, you really don’t have a mind, or a soul -- at least, you don’t have any mind or soul that is distinct from your thoughts.  So all there are is a series of thoughts and feelings that are associated with your body.  There’s no mind that’s something over and above your thoughts and feelings.  This would be the view of someone who held a bundle theory about the mind.  The Scottish philosopher David Hume held a theory of mind like this.
< 
< Now I think some of you might want to protest strongly and say, "I most certainly do have a mind, or soul, which is distinct from my thoughts and feelings -- why, that mind is just exactly what I call my <i>self</i>.  Hume seems to want to deny that I have a self!  That’s absurd, and even a little offensive!"  Now if you have this reaction, then you have a substance theory of mind.  You think that there is something -- you may not know what but <i>something</i>  -- which <i>has</i> the thoughts and feelings, and the thoughts and feelings are <i>in</i> your mind, in about the same way that properties inhere in a substance.
< 
< Philosophers have talked, as you might have guessed, about both <i>physical</i> substances, or bodies, and <i>mental</i> substance, or minds.  And as I think you can see, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.  I’m going to have to leave the discussion there, as difficult as it is.
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> #REDIRECT [[Objecthood]]
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Objecthood|988227407
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>The</i> <i>problem</i> <i>of</i> <i>substance</i> is one way of summing up the set of problems associated with the question, "What <i>are</i> objects?"  Is it possible to say anything enlightening about the meaning of talk of [[physical object]]s (things, bodies, "substances")?
> 
> Maybe the notion of an object is ''primitive'': it cannot be explained any further.  A ''word'' is [[primitive term|primitive]] if it is meaningful but not capable of being defined.  Moreover, if the ''notion'' of objecthood cannot be explained in terms of <i>something</i> <i>else</i>, then, given that it is a genuine notion at all, then it is a [[primitive concept]].
> 
> It will not do to suggest that physical objecthood can be understood in terms of [[fundamental particle]]s, such as [[quark]]s.  Presumably, from a metaphysical point of view, the notion of a fundamental particles are if anything ''more'' mysterious than the notion of an ordinary physical body; moreover, if particles are treated ''as'' bodies themselves, then of course they are no help in explaining what bodies are.
> 
> The suggestion that physical objecthood can be understood in terms of fundamental particles belies a misunderstanding of the problem.  It can be summed up, in a way to prevent this misunderstanding, as follows: is there any other <i>[[category of being]]</i> that can be used to explain what physical objects are?
> 
> ----
> Continue Wikification here.
> 
> And so here you might say: I have <i>no</i> <i>idea</i> what other category of being could be used to explain the notion of a body.  But sure you do.  What about properties and relations?  Bodies have properties and relations, and it seems that we can describe bodies only by mentioning their properties and relations.  The <i>only</i> way we can talk about the apple, it seems, is by describing its properties, or how it is related to other things.  For example, we can say the fact that it is an apple is a property of the object on the table; its redness is a property; its size and composition are properties; its being on the table is a relation; its being in the room, and being bigger than other apples, are also relations.  So it appears that the only way we have of talking about the apple is to mention its properties and relations.  And similarly with all other bodies.
> 
> So let’s go back to the question: "What <i>are</i> objects anyway?"  Now we can say what general sort of answer we’re looking for: we want to know how objects, or bodies, or whatever you want to call them, are related to their properties and relations.  Let’s leave aside relations now for simplicity.  So I’m just going to ask this: What is the relationship between objects and their properties?  This is supposed to tell us better exactly what objects <i>are</i>.
> 
> And this question, "What is the relationship between objects and their properties?" can be explained further.  As follows: "Are objects just <i>the</i> <i>same</i> <i>as</i> a collection of properties, or are objects not the same as, but <i>different</i> <i>from</i> their properties?"  This appears to be a fairly strict dichotomy: either objects <i>are</i> the same as collections of properties, or they are <i>not</i> the same.  And so there are two theories of the nature of objects.  The <i>bundle</i> <i>theory</i>, on the one hand, holds that objects are nothing more than collections of properties.  The <i>substance</i> <i>theory</i>, on the other hand, holds that objects are something over and above their properties, namely substances.  So let me explain each of these two theories a little bit better.  Then after I explain each one briefly, we’ll look at some arguments for and against each theory.
> 
> According to the substance theory, a physical object is something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> the properties that inhere in it.  That’s philosopher’s talk -- to speak of properties as "inhering" in a thing.  It just means that the thing has those properties.  Anyway, according to the substance theory, in at least <i>some</i> sense the substance can exist <i>without</i> its properties.  Even if it’s physically impossible that a substance would lack any properties at all, we can speak of the substance itself <i>as</i> <i>distinguished</i> <i>from</i> its properties.  Now the substance considered all by itself, considered without any reference to its properties, is what has been called a "bare particular."  It’s "bare" because it is considered without any properties, and it’s "particular" because it’s not abstract.  More about "bare particulars" in a minute.  So there you have a very basic introduction to what the substance theory says.  It says there’s a basic difference between substances, or bare particulars, and the properties that inhere in those substances.
> 
> Now for an equally basic introduction to the bundle theory.  According to the bundle theory a physical object is a bundle, or collection, of properties.  Hence, you cannot even <i>conceive</i> of a propertyless object: the object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> its properties, and so if you take away its properties you take away the object itself.  Think of the apple: but don’t think of its color; don’t think of its shape; don’t think of the fact that it’s a kind of fruit; don’t think of the cells that its made of; don’t think of its taste; and so on.  Think of the apple, but <i>don’t</i> think of any of its properties.  Is that <i>possible</i>?  The bundle theorist says: No!  Not possible!  So the apple is no more than a collection of properties.  There isn’t any more to the apple than that.  In particular there is no "substance" that these properties "inhere in."
> 
> So which theory of objects is correct, the substance theory or the bundle theory?  Well, let’s look at some arguments on both sides.  First, for the substance theory.  Let’s begin with something we might call the <i>argument</i> <i>from</i> <i>grammar</i>.  This has as its conclusion that the substance theory is correct.  The argument goes something like this.  When we say, for example, "Snow is white," there is a subject, <i>snow</i>, and we are saying of <i>it</i> that it is white.  It makes no grammatical sense to speak of "whiteness" disembodied, without snow (or <i>some</i> subject) that <i>is</i> white.  The only way to make a meaningful claim about anything is to speak of a subject, and we predicate various properties <i>of</i> this subject.  When we talk about physical objects, at least, this subject of predication is called the <i>substance</i>.  So in order to make meaningful claims about physical objects, we have to refer to substances; but we make meaningful claims about objects all the time; therefore, substances exist.
> 
> Now, I suspect that this argument from grammar is no good.  The bundle theorist definitely would reject it.  Let me explain why.  The argument says: <i>just</i> <i>because</i> there is a <i>grammatical</i> subject in a sentence, we are referring to what might be called a <i>metaphysical</i> subject, a substance.  But how does that follow?  It doesn’t seem to follow.  Well, OK, the argument from grammar gets at least the following right: in order to make meaningful statements about bodies, we have to talk about subjects.  But why couldn’t a subject in a meaningful statement refer to a bundle of properties?  For example, consider the statement, "Snow is white."  Why couldn’t we be saying that a field of snow is just a bundle of properties like being made up of ice crystals, being cold, being a few feet deep, etc.  And then we say of something about this bundle of properties, that it <i>includes</i> the property of being white.  That seems like a reasonable way of understanding this claim that snow is white.  And we don’t have to talk about any substances.  So that’s a way to show that we can make meaningful statements about bodies <i>without</i> referring to substances.
> 
> Here’s a second argument for the substance theory.  It would go like this.  Whenever we conceive of one of an object’s properties, like the redness of the apple, we <i>have</i> to conceive of the object that <i>has</i> that property.  You can’t conceive of redness, or any other property, <i>all</i> <i>by</i> <i>itself</i>.  The point is that whenever you think of a property, you have to think of it as a property <i>of</i> something.  And well, what it’s a property <i>of</i> is just a substance.  There is no conceivable thing such as redness all by itself, or being four inches wide all by itself -- that’s nonsense.  It’s always a <i>substance</i> that is red, or that is four inches wide.  Therefore, substances exist.
> 
> This might be a slightly better argument, but it also doesn’t seem to be valid.  The main claim in the argument is that, since -- here’s the big premise -- we can’t think of properties all by themselves; therefore -- here’s the conclusion -- they must be properties <i>of</i> <i>substances</i>.  But does that conclusion follow from the premise?  I don’t think so.  Why couldn’t we say: they just have to be associated with a bundle of other properties, which bundle we call an object, or a body?  Do you see the point?  An individual property, we might concede, can’t exist by itself.  But that doesn’t mean that substances have to exist: maybe these bodies that exist are just bundles of properties, and an individual property can’t exist <i>separately</i> <i>from</i> <i>such</i> <i>a</i> <i>bundle</i>.
> 
> Philosophers are pretty sophisticated in their own way and they can think up all sorts of ways to defend their views.  So the substance theorist might have some ways of backing up these arguments.  But we don’t have time to get into it too deeply, so let’s move on and consider some arguments <i>against</i> the substance theory.
> 
> First, there’s the problem of knowing what the relation is between a substance and its properties.  For example, what’s the relation between the apple, considered as a substance, and its redness?  The substance theorist may say: well, a property <i>inheres</i> in a substance.  That’s the word he uses: "inheres."  A property’s inherence in a substance is kind of like being part of the substance.  But it’s definitely different from just being a part.  When I say, for example, that the apple is red, I’m saying that redness inheres in the apple.  But then what is inherence?  How much sense does that make?  It seems all I can say is that it’s what I mean when I say the apple is red!  But that’s not very helpful.  So what exactly is the relation between the substance, an apple, and its property, the redness?  That’s the first problem.
> 
> Well, here the substance theorist may just say that the name of the relation is "inherence," and that inherence is a primitive concept.  It can’t be explained any further, but it doesn’t need to be explained any further.  It’s like this: we know what it means to say that the apple has the property of redness, or the property of being juicy.  It doesn’t matter that we can’t explain what this talk of a substance "having" properties, or a property "inhering in" a substance, amounts to in any <i>other</i> terms.  We have to start somewhere -- we can’t define everything, or if we try we’ll run out of words!
> 
> So suppose the substance theorist manages to wriggle out of that problem.  But here’s a second problem, which is probably more serious.  We might say that the very notion of a thing with no properties, a "bare particular," as I said, is absurd.  We just cannot conceive of a thing without any properties.  As soon as we get the fuzziest notion of a thing in mind, we are thinking of <i>some</i> property or other!  The problem isn’t just that it’s physically impossible that we might stumble across a bare particular, or a propertyless thing on our way to class.  The point is that the very <i>notion</i> of a propertyless thing is impossible: we just have no such notion.
> 
> That at least is what the bundle theory’s advocate might say.  And we are now getting into arguments <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  In fact we can say that the second argument <i>against</i> the substance theory is just our main argument <i>for</i> the bundle theory.  I’m just going to make one argument for the bundle theory, and it’s at least a lot like this second argument I gave against the substance theory.
> 
> So the argument for the bundle theory goes like this.  The basic idea is that <i>however</i> <i>we</i> <i>might</i> <i>choose</i> <i>to</i> <i>conceive</i> <i>of</i>, <i>or</i> <i>describe</i> <i>a</i> <i>thing</i>, it will be a conception, or a description, of a <i>property</i> of a thing.  In other words, <i>there</i> <i>is</i> <i>nothing</i> <i>that</i> <i>can</i> <i>be</i> <i>described</i>, or even conceived, about a thing, which is not a property of the thing.  (Or a relation of the thing, but remember we’re ignoring relations for simplicity’s sake.)  We cannot have the slightest idea of any aspect of the thing which is <i>not</i> a property of it.
> 
> So what does that imply?  It implies that we cannot have any conception whatsoever of a "bare particular."  As the English philosopher John Locke said, a substance by itself, apart from its properties, is something "I-know-not-what."  The only way that we can conceive of an object is by conceiving of its properties.
> 
> Therefore to conceive of an object <i>just</i> <i>is</i> to conceive of a bundle of properties.  The only conception we <i>can</i> have of an object is as a bundle of properties.  The bundle theory wins out, on this view, simply because it’s the only game in town: the only way we can conceive of things is <i>as</i> bundles of properties.  We couldn’t imagine a bare particular, a propertyless substance, even if we tried.  So the bundle theory is correct and the substance theory is wrong.
> 
> I and I think most philosophers these days think this argument, or one a lot it, is a very powerful argument.  How could the substance theorist reply?  How could we hold onto the substance theory if we have no conception of substance <i>as</i> <i>distinct</i> <i>from</i> properties and relations?
> 
> Well, as far as I can tell, the best that we can do is that we can say we have a very basic sort of idea of substance.  Namely, substance is the subject in which properties inhere.  There’s a basic idea we can have.  So the substance theorist might say this: all right, fine, we conceive of substances by conceiving of their properties, but I the substance theorist continue to say that the thing we are conceiving <i>of</i> is the <i>thing</i> <i>that</i> <i>has</i> <i>those</i> <i>properties</i>.  And that thing is different from the properties.  So we can have a notion of a substance as "the subject in which properties inhere."  The substance theorist would maintain that we should just content ourselves that we are surrounded by lots of examples of subjects in which properties inhere.  All the bodies around us are subjects in which properties inhere.  I’m sure the bundle theorist would not at all be satisfied with that, but let’s just leave it at that.
> 
> Finally, let’s consider what arguments might be raised against the bundle theory.  There are several, but I’m going to bring up just one.  It’s about what it means to talk about a <i>bundle</i> <i>of</i> <i>properties</i>.  You have to admit that when you first hear it, it sounds kind of mysterious.  The apple is supposed to be a <i>bundle</i> of properties, redness, being four inches wide, juicyness, and so on.  But if there isn’t a substance that underlies all these properties, then what exactly is the relation supposed to be between the properties of a thing?  The apple is both red and juicy, right?  According to the bundle theorist, there is no <i>substance</i> that is the apple.  There’s just a "bundle" of properties like being red and being juicy.  So how does it happen that all of the properties of the apple on the table happen to be found together?  The bundle theorist says they are "bundled" together, that they are a <i>collection</i>.  But how are they tied together?  What collects them together?  Why should it be that redness and juicyness just happen to be found together on top of the table?
> 
> The substance theory can explain this but the bundle theory doesn’t seem to be able to.  The substance theory says: redness and juicyness are two properties that are found together on top of the table, because <i>it’s</i> <i>the</i> <i>apple</i> <i>that’s</i> <i>red</i> <i>and</i> <i>juicy</i>.  And the apple is a substance in which those two properties inhere.  If we like the bundle theory, it seems we have to throw up our hands and say, "I <i>don’t</i> <i>know</i> why bunches of properties are found associated together."
> 
> Well, to be honest with you I’m sure <i>actual</i> bundle theorists would have something clever to say in reply.  But we’ll have to cut them off in the interests of time.
> 
> If you have found all of this stuff about the problem of substance baffling, let me see if I can make it a little bit clearer by giving a <i>completely</i> <i>different</i> sort of example.  A concluding example, I’m not going to spend too much time on this.  Have you ever wondered what your mind, or your soul, is?  You can identify individual thoughts, individual feelings, in your mind.  But do you know what the mind is, that has these thoughts and feelings?  You can imagine all sorts of mental goings on, but can you imagine <i>the</i> <i>mind</i> <i>itself</i>?  I don’t think so.  The only way we have of understanding, by introspection, what our minds are is by considering various particular thoughts, feelings, decisions, and so forth <i>in</i> our minds.
> 
> So then suppose someone comes up and says: well, you really don’t have a mind, or a soul -- at least, you don’t have any mind or soul that is distinct from your thoughts.  So all there are is a series of thoughts and feelings that are associated with your body.  There’s no mind that’s something over and above your thoughts and feelings.  This would be the view of someone who held a bundle theory about the mind.  The Scottish philosopher David Hume held a theory of mind like this.
> 
> Now I think some of you might want to protest strongly and say, "I most certainly do have a mind, or soul, which is distinct from my thoughts and feelings -- why, that mind is just exactly what I call my <i>self</i>.  Hume seems to want to deny that I have a self!  That’s absurd, and even a little offensive!"  Now if you have this reaction, then you have a substance theory of mind.  You think that there is something -- you may not know what but <i>something</i>  -- which <i>has</i> the thoughts and feelings, and the thoughts and feelings are <i>in</i> your mind, in about the same way that properties inhere in a substance.
> 
> Philosophers have talked, as you might have guessed, about both <i>physical</i> substances, or bodies, and <i>mental</i> substance, or minds.  And as I think you can see, the problem of substance arises in both the physical and the mental realms.  I’m going to have to leave the discussion there, as difficult as it is.
------
Nazi_Germany|988228332
5c5
< In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the Low Countries, while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
---
> In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
26c26
<  [[Niels Bohr]]
---
>  [[Niels Bohr]]
------
Country_codes|988228847
148,175c148,175
<  MA - Morocco 
<  MC - Monaco 
<  MD - Moldova 
<  MG - Madagascar 
<  MH - Marshall Islands 
<  MK - Macedonia 
<  ML - Mali 
<  MM - Myanmar 
<  MN - Mongolia 
<  MO - Macau 
<  MP - Northern Mariana Islands 
<  MQ - Martinique 
<  MR - Mauritania 
<  MS - Montserrat 
<  MT - Malta 
<  MU - Mauritius 
<  MV - Maldives 
<  MW - Malawi 
<  MX - Mexico 
<  MY - Malaysia 
<  MZ - Mozambique 
< 
<  NA - Namibia 
<  NC - New Caledonia 
<  NE - Niger 
<  NF - Norfolk Island 
<  NG - Nigeria 
<  NI - Nicaragua 
---
>  MA - [[Morocco]] 
>  MC - [[Monaco]] 
>  MD - [[Moldova]] 
>  MG - [[Madagascar]] 
>  MH - [[Marshall Islands]] 
>  MK - [[Macedonia]] 
>  ML - [[Mali]] 
>  MM - [[Myanmar]] 
>  MN - [[Mongolia]] 
>  MO - [[Macau]] 
>  MP - [[Northern Mariana Islands]] 
>  MQ - [[Martinique]] 
>  MR - [[Mauritania]] 
>  MS - [[Montserrat]] 
>  MT - [[Malta]] 
>  MU - [[Mauritius]] 
>  MV - [[Maldives]] 
>  MW - [[Malawi]] 
>  MX - [[Mexico]] 
>  MY - [[Malaysia]] 
>  MZ - [[Mozambique]] 
> 
>  NA - [[Namibia]] 
>  NC - [[New Caledonia]] 
>  NE - [[Niger]] 
>  NF - [[Norfolk Island]] 
>  NG - [[Nigeria]] 
>  NI - [[Nicaragua]] 
177,210c177,210
<  NO - Norway 
<  NP - Nepal 
<  NR - Nauru 
<  NT - Neutral Zone 
<  NU - Niue 
<  NZ - New Zealand (Aotearoa) 
< 
<  OM - Oman 
< 
<  PA - Panama 
<  PE - Peru 
<  PF - French Polynesia 
<  PG - Papua New Guinea 
<  PH - Philippines 
<  PK - Pakistan 
<  PL - Poland 
<  PM - St. Pierre and Miquelon 
<  PN - Pitcairn 
<  PR - Puerto Rico 
<  PT - Portugal 
<  PW - Palau 
<  PY - Paraguay 
< 
<  QA - Qatar 
< 
<  RE - Reunion 
<  RO - Romania 
<  RU - Russia 
<  RW - Rwanda 
< 
<  SA - Saudi Arabia 
<  SB - Solomon Islands 
<  SC - Seychelles 
<  SD - Sudan 
---
>  NO - [[Norway]] 
>  NP - [[Nepal]] 
>  NR - [[Nauru]] 
>  NT - [[Neutral Zone]] 
>  NU - [[Niue]] 
>  NZ - [[New Zealand]] (Aotearoa) 
> 
>  OM - [[Oman]] 
> 
>  PA - [[Panama]] 
>  PE - [[Peru]] 
>  PF - [[French Polynesia]] 
>  PG - [[Papua New Guinea]] 
>  PH - [[Philippines]] 
>  PK - [[Pakistan]] 
>  PL - [[Poland]] 
>  PM - [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]] 
>  PN - [[Pitcairn]] 
>  PR - [[Puerto Rico]] 
>  PT - [[Portugal]] 
>  PW - [[Palau]] 
>  PY - [[Paraguay]] 
> 
>  QA - [[Qatar]] 
> 
>  RE - [[Reunion]] 
>  RO - [[Romania]] 
>  RU - [[Russia]] 
>  RW - [[Rwanda]] 
> 
>  SA - [[Saudi Arabia]] 
>  SB - [[Solomon Islands]] 
>  SC - [[Seychelles]] 
>  SD - [[Sudan]] 
212c212
<  SG - Singapore 
---
>  SG - [[Singapore]] 
214,237c214,237
<  SI - Slovenia 
<  SJ - Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands 
<  SK - Slovak Republic 
<  SL - Sierra Leone 
<  SM - San Marino 
<  SN - Senegal 
<  SO - Somalia 
<  SR - Surinam 
<  ST - Sao Tome and Principe 
<  SV - El Salvador 
<  SY - Syria 
<  SZ - Swaziland 
< 
<  TC - Turks and Caicos Islands 
<  TD - Chad 
<  TF - French Southern Territories 
<  TG - Togo 
<  TH - Thailand 
<  TJ - Tajikistan 
<  TK - Tokelau 
<  TM - Turkmenistan 
<  TN - Tunisia 
<  TO - Tonga 
<  TP - East Timor 
---
>  SI - [[Slovenia]] 
>  SJ - [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands]] 
>  SK - [[Slovak Republic]] 
>  SL - [[Sierra Leone]] 
>  SM - [[San Marino]] 
>  SN - [[Senegal]] 
>  SO - [[Somalia]] 
>  SR - [[Surinam]] 
>  ST - [[Sao Tome and Principe]] 
>  SV - [[El Salvador]] 
>  SY - [[Syria]] 
>  SZ - [[Swaziland]] 
> 
>  TC - [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] 
>  TD - [[Chad]] 
>  TF - [[French Southern Territories]] 
>  TG - [[Togo]] 
>  TH - [[Thailand]] 
>  TJ - [[Tajikistan]] 
>  TK - [[Tokelau]] 
>  TM - [[Turkmenistan]] 
>  TN - [[Tunisia]] 
>  TO - [[Tonga]] 
>  TP - [[East Timor]] 
239,242c239,242
<  TT - Trinidad and Tobago 
<  TV - Tuvalu 
<  TW - Taiwan 
<  TZ - Tanzania 
---
>  TT - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 
>  TV - [[Tuvalu]] 
>  TW - [[Taiwan]] 
>  TZ - [[Tanzania]] 
244,245c244,245
<  UA - Ukraine 
<  UG - Uganda 
---
>  UA - [[Ukraine]] 
>  UG - [[Uganda]] 
247,270c247,270
<  UM - US Minor Outlying Islands 
<  US - United States 
<  UY - Uruguay 
<  UZ - Uzbekistan 
< 
<  VA - Vatican City State (Holy See) 
<  VC - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 
<  VE - Venezuela 
<  VG - Virgin Islands (British) 
<  VI - Virgin Islands (U.S.) 
<  VN - Viet Nam 
<  VU - Vanuatu 
< 
<  WF - Wallis and Futuna Islands 
<  WS - Samoa 
< 
<  YE - Yemen 
<  YT - Mayotte 
<  YU - Yugoslavia 
< 
<  ZA - South Africa 
<  ZM - Zambia 
<  ZR - Zaire (now CD - Democratic Republic of Congo) 
<  ZW - Zimbabwe 
---
>  UM - [[US Minor Outlying Islands]] 
>  US - [[United States]] 
>  UY - [[Uruguay]] 
>  UZ - [[Uzbekistan]] 
> 
>  VA - [[Vatican City State]] (Holy See) 
>  VC - [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] 
>  VE - [[Venezuela]] 
>  VG - [[Virgin Islands]] (British) 
>  VI - [[Virgin Islands]] (U.S.) 
>  VN - [[Viet Nam]] 
>  VU - [[Vanuatu]] 
> 
>  WF - [[Wallis and Futuna Islands]] 
>  WS - [[Samoa]] 
> 
>  YE - [[Yemen]] 
>  YT - [[Mayotte]] 
>  YU - [[Yugoslavia]] 
> 
>  ZA - [[South Africa]] 
>  ZM - [[Zambia]] 
>  ZR - [[Zaire]] (now CD - Democratic Republic of Congo) 
>  ZW - [[Zimbabwe]] 
------
Larry_Sanger|988228922
78,79c78,89
< Would you tell us how did you became editor in chief of Nupedia
< and instigator of Wikipedia?----
---
> <br>Would you tell us how did you became editor-in-chief of [[Nupedia]] and instigator of [[Wikipedia]]?
> ----
> Certainly!  [[Jimbo Wales]] originally thought of the idea for Nupedia, he tells me, I believe in the fall of 1999.  I was looking for a way to supplement the income I was making from teaching [[fiddle]] (a very pleasant, but non-lucrative occupation that left me even more time to pursue serious [[philosophy]] than does managing Nupedia).  I suggested (by e-mail) to various people that they look at a website I was considering starting--a bit of background here--I had already had excellent success with the "objective" Y2K news summary [http://www.sangersreview.com Sanger's Review of Y2K News Reports]--but I had handed over work on that website to an associate in spring 1999.  Jimbo--an Internet acquaintance from years back, whom I had met offline a couple times, and who had followed the success of Sanger's Review--saw this website proposal (it was to be a review of ''cultural'' news) and, reflecting on the fact that he was looking for someone to manage his new encyclopedia project, asked me to start it up for him.  So, I did, and the rest is (very recent) history.
> 
> As to Wikipedia, I was chatting (offline) with another Internet acquaintance of mine, a Ward's wiki regular, Ben Kovitz, over dinner last January 5, I think it was.  Ben was telling me all about how wikis work.  I had been thinking about ways to ''supplement'' Nupedia's work with something more wild-and-woolly, but also less bureaucratically cumbersome.  (I had made several, I forget how many, proposals of such projects both on and off Nupedia mailing lists.)  When Ben suggested the wiki concept, it occurred to me that such a format would be a wonderful and easy way to implement the wild-and-woolly encyclopedia idea.
> 
> You might or might not know that there has most recently been a new chapter in this story: the remarkable success of Wikipedia inspired me to suggest to Nupedia's advisory board that we change our (Nupedia's) editorial process to emulate a wiki's.  I don't think Nupedia and Wikipedia will merge (except insofar as people transfer articles back and forth between the projects)--at least, not in the foreseeable future.  But I do think that Nupedia's slow, bottleneck-ridden, but rigorous editing system can be improved by our adopting a wiki system in which the same rigor is combined with a wiki's freedom of development (if you will).
> 
> One way or another, I'm quite determined to see to it that Nupedia becomes the hugely popular and useful resource I know it can be.  I am rather sure that Wikipedia will achieve great success as well.
> 
> So, there you have it.
> ----
82c92
< I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
---
> I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
------
Role-playing_game|988229089
58a59
> * [[Castle Falkenstein]]
78c79
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Hugo_Award|988229502
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> # REDIRECT [[Hugo award]]
------
Hugo_Award|988229590
1c1
< # REDIRECT [[Hugo award]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hugo award]]
------
Role-playing_games|988229630
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Role playing games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Role playing game]]
------
Role-playing_games|988229648
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Role playing game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Role-playing game]]
------
Josh_Grosse/Economics|988229933
48c48,49
< ''Sorry, I found Hayek's essay is long and not particularly interesting.  As far as I can tell he seems to be saying simply that markets are too complex to ever be handled by a single body.  It seems to me that that same argument says that nothing complex could ever be governed, and as experience is quite otherwise that does not up my enthusiasm for the piece.  However, I will try and develop enough energy later to slosh through it.''
---
> ''I read through Hayek's essay - it wasn't as bad as I thought!  It does not seem to me, though, that it precludes the possibility of socialism.  Current markets are not dominated by small opportunists, but rather by large corporations, which as centrally controlled organizations should suffer all the same disabilities, but seem not to.  Thus either momentary circumstances play far less of a role than he has stated, or more likely there are simply ways which even large central bureaucracies can take advantage of them, and either way effective government control is not ruled out by at least this line of reasoning.''
> 
------
Charlemagne|988230076
3,4d2
< Was responsible for stopping the [[Muslim]] expansion in [[Spain]].
< 
------
Artificial_languages|988230193
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Artificial language]]
---
> #REDIRECT Artificial language
------
Artificial_languages|988230227
1c1
< #REDIRECT Artificial language
---
> #REDIRECT [Artificial language]
------
Artificial_languages|988230308
1c1
< #REDIRECT [Artificial language]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Artificial_language]]
------
Endocrine_system|988231024
0a1
> :<b>ENDOCRINE SYSTEM</b>
15a17,23
> 
> [[Hormone]]s are chemical messengers that maintain a perfect equilibrium
> of numerous metabolic processes.
> <br>There are a few terms that need to be clarified :
> * [[/target organs]]
> * [[/receptors]]
> * [[/releasing hormone]]s
------
WojPob|988231426
3c3
< A MSc student at the ViennaUniversityOfEconomics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare. 
---
> A MSc student at the ViennaUniversityOfEconomics and Business Administration. He's got a huge amount of time to spare.
24c24,31
< [[/Sandbox]]
---
> 
> Rowniez pozdrawiam. Wikipedia to swietna zabawa. ;-)
> Greetings. Wikipedia is great fun.
> <br>[[Krzysztof P. Jasiutowicz]]
> Hope to contribute more in [[Medicine]] section.
> 
> ----
> [[/Sandbox]]
------
Adolf_Hitler|988234831
9c9,11
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.A conspiracy theory suggests that the bodies that were allegedly Hitler's and Braun's were actually people employed by the Nazis and Hitler to fake their deaths so they could therefore escape unharmed.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Endocrine_system|988234903
1d0
< :<b>ENDOCRINE SYSTEM</b>
23c22
< * [[/releasing hormone]]s
---
> * [[/releasing hormone]]s
------
Adolf_Hitler/Talk|988234953
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A conspiracy theory suggests that the bodies that were allegedly Hitler's and Braun's were actually people employed by the Nazis and Hitler to fake their deaths so they could therefore escape unharmed.
> 
> There are conspiracy theories about everything, and unless there is some sort of reason to suppose they have an ounce of truth, I don't think they need be mentioned.
------
World_Series_of_Poker|988243158
4a5,8
> In April of 2001, Binion's casino barred two world-class players, Paul Phillips and Richard Tatalovich (the current United States champion at the time), from the casino apparently in retaliation for negative comments they made about the casino to a Las Vegas newspaper.  This prompted some other notable tournament players to boycott the event, so many players will less inclined to value the results of that year.
> 
> <h2>History</h2>
> 
------
Laws_of_physics|988243430
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Law of physics]]
------
World_Series_of_Poker|988243685
5c5
< In April of 2001, Binion's casino barred two world-class players, Paul Phillips and Richard Tatalovich (the current United States champion at the time), from the casino apparently in retaliation for negative comments they made about the casino to a Las Vegas newspaper.  This prompted some other notable tournament players to boycott the event, so many players will less inclined to value the results of that year.
---
> In April of 2001, Binion's casino barred two world-class players, Paul Phillips and Richard Tatalovich (the current United States champion at the time), from the casino apparently in retaliation for negative comments they made about the casino to a Las Vegas newspaper.  This prompted some other notable tournament players to boycott the event, so many players will be less inclined to value the results of that year.
------
Blindness|988244483
26a27
> * [[Braille alphabet]]
------
Law_of_physics|988245889
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> A ''Law of physics'' is a mathematical relationship between
> measurable quantities that describe the physical state and 
> properties of bodies.
> 
> A famous example is Newton's [[law of gravity]]. A law is
> valid over a range of values, and sometimes ceases to be valid
> outside it. For example, said Newton's law is not completely
> accurate for high masses, where [[Einstein]]'s [[General relativity]] has to be used. 
------
General_relativity|988246988
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Theory published by [[Albert Einstein]] in 1915. It gives a geometrical explanation of [[gravity]], where the energy-matter
> content of the universe determines its curvature, and a particle
> subject to no non-gravitational forces the shortest path in that curved surface. The way the energy-matter content and the 
> curvature relate to each other is given by the field equations,
> 
> :R_ik - 1/2 g_ik R + lambda g_ik = 8 pi G /c^4  T_ik
> 
> g_ik is a [[symmetric tensor]] of 4 x 4, so it has 10 components.
> Given the freedom of choice of coordinates the independent
> equations reduce to 6.
> 
> In the case of no energy-matter (i.e., no curvature) the theory
> reduces itself to [[special relativity]], published by Einstein 
> a decade before.
> 
> A consecuence (not realized by Einstein at the time) is that a 
> non-empty static universe in his thory is unstable, so it 
> should be either expanding or contracting. [[Edwin Hubble]]
> proved a decade later the former to be the case.
------
Symmetric_tensor|988247390
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[tensor]] <strong>A</strong> of components A<sub>ij</sub>
> is said to be symmetric if
> 
> :A<sub>ij</sub>=A<sub>ji</sub>
> 
> for all i,j.
> 
> 
------
General_relativity|988247845
6c6
< :R_ik - 1/2 g_ik R + lambda g_ik = 8 pi G /c^4  T_ik
---
> :R<sub>ik</sub> - 1/2 g<sub>ik</sub> R + &lambda; g<sub>ik</sub> = 8 &pi; G/c<sup>4</sup>  T<sub>ik</sub>
8c8
< g_ik is a [[symmetric tensor]] of 4 x 4, so it has 10 components.
---
> g<sub>ik</sub> is a [[symmetric tensor]] of 4 x 4, so it has 10 components.
------
Law_of_physics|988247913
1d0
< 
6c5
< A famous example is Newton's [[law of gravity]]. A law is
---
> A famous example is Newton's law of [[gravity]]. A law is
9c8
< accurate for high masses, where [[Einstein]]'s [[General relativity]] has to be used. 
---
> accurate for high masses, where [[Einstein]]'s [[General relativity]] has to be used. 
------
Laws_of_physics|988248034
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Law of physics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Law of physics]]
------
Astronomy_and_Astrophysics|988248236
1c1
< Astronomy, that etymologycaly means ''measuring of stars'', is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]]
---
> Astronomy, that etymologycaly means ''measuring of stars'', is the science whose subject is the observation an explanation of events outside the earth. Once it was understood that the elements that made the "celestial objects" were the same that made the [[earth]], and that the same [[Laws of physics]]
------
World_War_II|988248405
5c5
< Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolf Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, seizing [[Austria]] and the [[Sudetenland]] before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolf Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, annexing Austria, and then seizing first the [[Sudetenland]], and then the remainder of Czecholslovzkia, before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
7c7
< Shortly thereafter, Russia invaded Poland from the east.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]] states and invaded Finland, while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
---
> Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as had been agreed to between Hitler's Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, and his Soviet counterpart, Molotov.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]], while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, vbleaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
22a23
>  [[Canada]]
25c26,27
<  [[Russia]]
---
>  [[New Zealand]]
>  [[Soviet Union]]
28a31
> 
30c33
<  [[Finland]]
---
>  
48a52,54
>  [[Kursk]]
>  [[Iwo Jima]]
>   [[Okinawa]]
63a70,71
>  [[Alan Brooke]
>  [[Lord Alexander]]
------
World_War_II|988248450
5c5
< Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolf Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, annexing Austria, and then seizing first the [[Sudetenland]], and then the remainder of Czecholslovzkia, before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
---
> Its origins can be traced to the end of [[World War I]]. In the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Germany was punished with the payment of reparations of war to the victorious nations. This, among other causes, led to a serious economic crisis,  [[hyperinflation]], and civil unrest that made possible the rise of the [[Nazi]] Party.  Germany, under [[Adolf Hitler]], began asserting itself in Europe, annexing Austria, and then seizing first the [[Sudetenland]], and then the remainder of Czechoslovakia, before launching full-scale war on September 1, 1939 with the invasion of Poland.
------
Seasons|988250408
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Periods of time in which is the year is divided, and that in
> places away from the [[equator]] are easily distinguished by
> changes in the weather and vegetation.
> 
> The cause of the seasons is the inclination that the axis of
> the [[earth]] has respect to the axis of its orbit around the 
> [[sun]]. As a consequence, the angle with which the sun's rays
> impact the surface of the earth varies with the position of the
> earth in its orbit.
> 
> (more later)
------
World_War_II|988250737
37d36
<  [[Romania]]
38a38,42
>  *Minor Axis Powers
>  [[Romania]]
>  [[Finland]]
>  [[Hungary]]
>  [[Bulgary]]
------
Napoleon|988251097
6c6,12
< He was imprisoned by the British at the end of the war and held prisoner on [[Saint Helena]] where he died.
---
> After beeing defeated in the battle of ?? it was relegated to
> ??, a small island in the Mediterranean that he could govern
> maintaining the title of Emperor. He grew restless, and returned
> to the mainland, where the armies sent to stop him received him
> as leader, and arrived at Paris and governed by 100 days.
> 
> After is final defeat in Waterloo (?), he was imprisoned by the British and held prisoner on [[Saint Helena]] where he dedicated his last years to writing his memoires, and died.
------
PigLatin|988254440
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Pig latin]]
---
> atalie-nay is-way a-way itchbay 
------
Nu|988267769
9c9
< "nu" stands for "naked" in [[French_language|French]] and for "now" in [[Dutch]].
---
> "nu" stands for "naked" in [[French_language|French]] and for "now" in [[Dutch]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]].
11c11
< Also used as a short form of new, as in [[Nu Metal]], [[Nu Jazz]], and (I guess so) [[Nupedia]]
---
> Also used as a short form of new, as in [[Nu Metal]], [[Nu Jazz]], and (I guess so) [[Nupedia]]
------
Swedish_language|988267822
1c1
< Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. One of the [[GermanicLanguages]].
---
> Language spoken in [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]. One of the [[Germanic languages]].
------
World_War_II|988274877
42c42
<  [[Bulgary]]
---
>  [[Bulgaria]]
58c58
<   [[Okinawa]]
---
>  [[Okinawa]]
------
World_War_II|988274978
17,18c17,18
< of dollars beeing destined by the US Congress for the reconstruction of Europe. The portion of Europe occupated by
< the [[Soviet Union]] did not participate on the plan.
---
> of dollars being destined by the US Congress for the reconstruction of Europe. The portion of Europe occupied by
> the [[Soviet Union]] did not participate in the plan.
------
Physics|988277685
13a14
> ** [[General relativity]]
------
The_War_of_the_Worlds|988285696
5c5
< The original novel by [[H.G. Wells]], describing the invasion of earth from [[Mars]]. Mars having become progressively more uninhabitable to life, the [[Martians]] are desperate to colonise Earth, and have no compunctions about using their vastly superior weaponry (poison gas, and a heat ray bearing a strong resemblance to a high-power infra-red [[laser]])
---
> The original novel by [[H.G. Wells]], describing the invasion of earth from [[Mars]]. Mars having become progressively more inhospitable to life, the [[Martians]] are desperate to colonise Earth, and have no compunctions about using their vastly superior weaponry (poison gas, and a heat ray bearing a strong resemblance to a high-power infra-red [[laser]])
6a7
> 
10a12
> 
21c23
< A more humourous treatment, and <i>very</i> loosely based upon the original story, the title, and the appearance of the Martians derives from a series of bubble-gum cards issued in the [[1950]]s. In this version, the aliens are repelled not by the natural germs on Earth, but by [[yodelling]]
---
> A more humorous treatment, and <i>very</i> loosely based upon the original story. The title comes from a series of bubble-gum cards issued in the [[1950]]s; the appearance of the Martians in the cards and in the film appears to be derived from the `mutant' in the film [[This Island Earth]]. In the film version, the aliens are repelled not by the natural germs on Earth, but by [[yodelling]]
28a31
> 
------
Dystopia|988286307
8c8,9
< Dystopias are frequently written as warnings, or as [[Satire|satires]], showing current trends carried on to their conclusion. In this, they frequently differ from utopias; utopias have no roots in todays's society, being in some other place or time, or after some major discontinuity in history (e.g. see [[H.G. Wells]]' utopias, such as <i>The World Set Free</i>). A dystopia is all too closely connected to current-day society. Naturally, there is a considerable number of near-future [[science fiction]] stories using a dystopian setting.
---
> Dystopias are frequently written as warnings, or as [[Satire|satires]], showing current trends carried on to their conclusion. In this, they frequently differ from utopias; utopias have no roots in todays's society, being in some other place or time, or after some major discontinuity in history (e.g. see [[H.G. Wells]]' utopias, such as <i>The World Set Free</i>). A dystopia is all too closely connected to current-day society. A considerable number of near-future [[science fiction]] stories of the type described as `[[cyberpunk]]' use dystopian settings of a high-technology corporate dominated world where national governments are becoming steadily more irrelevant.
> 
------
Cantors_Diagonal_argument|988288880
12c12,18
< The diagonal argument is an example of [[reductio ad absurdum]].  It is also called the diagonalization argument or the diagonal slash argument.
---
> The diagonal argument is an example of [[reductio ad absurdum]].  It is also called the diagonalization argument or the diagonal slash argument.
> 
> In a more general form, the same argument can be used to prove for <b>every</b> [[Set]] S that the set of all subsets of S is larger than S itself.
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm glad there is an article on this in Wikipedia. Cantor's Diagonal argument is my favourite piece of [[Mathematics]] - [[Andre Engels]]
------
The_Shockwave_Rider|988289087
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[science fiction]] novel by [[John Brunner]], originally published in 1975.
> 
> Based on the ideas in the book [[Future Shock]] by [[Alvin Toffler]], the novel shows a [[dystopia|dystopian]] early 21st century America dominated by computer networks, and is considered by some critics to be an early ancestor of the `[[cyberpunk]]' genre. The hero, Nick Halflinger, is a runaway from a government program intended to find, educate and indoctrinate highly gifted children to ensure they pose no threat to the ever growing powers of the state. Nick gradually realises this, and growing more and more disenchanted, eventually goes on the run, using stolen computer access codes to cover his data trails and create new identities for himself.
> 
> The novel is set in the weeks following his recapture after several years on the run, alternating between moral aguments with his interrogator, who is trying to discover why the program's star pupil had absconded, and flashbacks of his career. The interrogator, a later graduate of the same program, gradually comes to realise that he has more sympathy with Nick's views than his employer's, and eventually absconds himself, giving Nick computer access so that Nick can make his own escape.
> 
> This time round, Nick has another plan, and rather than running and hiding, spends a number of months travelling the country, aided by an `invisble college' of academics that he's encountered, picking their brains for information and access codes, and steadily refining a program that he's loading onto the computer networks. (Brunner invented the term `worm' for this program, as a self-replicating program that propagates across a computer network - the term was later adopted by computer researchers as the name for this type of program.)
> 
> The worm is eventually activated, and the details of all the government's dark secrets (clandestine genetic experimentation that produces crippled children, bribes and kickbacks from corporations, concealed crimes of high public officials) now become accessible from anywhere on the network - in fact, those most affected by a particular crime of a government official are emailed with the full details. The book ends optimistically, with there being no more privileged hiding of information, no more secret conspiracies of the rich and powerful.
> 
> 
------
The_Shockwave_Rider|988289147
4c4
< 
---
>  
------
Cantors_Diagonal_argument|988289378
10c10,12
< x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers.  This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
---
> x is clearly a real number, but it differs in the nth decimal place from r<sub>n</sub>, so x is not in our enumeration of the real numbers, which thus is not an enumeration. Because this procedure can be used on any supposed enumeration of real numbers, there exists no enumeration of the real numbers, and thus they are not countably infinite.
> 
> This contradicts our supposition that the reals are countably infinite, and therefore our supposition is false.
------
Turkish|988289473
1,2c1,2
< Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to today s Turkic languages.
< The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
---
> Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to todays Turkic languages.
> The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Aslan), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
------
Countably_infinite|988289944
14a15,23
> Likewise, pairs of natural numbers are countably infinite through the following mapping:
> *(1,1) maps to 1
> *(2,1) maps to 2
> *(1,2) maps to 3
> *(3,1) maps to 4
> *(2,2) maps to 5
> *(1,3) maps to 6
> *etcetera
> 
16c25,26
< This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers.
---
> This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the [[rational numbers]] can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers through p/q maps to (p,q).
> 
18c28,29
< There are other, uncountable infinites.  It is easy to show, for instance, that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[Cantors Diagonal argument|diagonal argument]].  The countable infinite is the smallest one.
---
> 
> There are other, uncountable infinites.  It is easy to show, for instance, that the set of [[real numbers]] is not countably infinite, using [[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s [[Cantors Diagonal argument|diagonal argument]]. The size of the countable infinite sets is the smallest infinity.
------
Countably_infinite|988289970
25c25
< This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the [[rational numbers]] can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers through p/q maps to (p,q).
---
> This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the [[Rational numbers]] can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers through p/q maps to (p,q).
------
Countably_infinite|988290316
4c4
< can be made between it and the [[natural numbers]] or a subset of the natural numbers.
---
> can be made between it and the [[integers]] or a subset of the integers.
6c6
< For example, positive even numbers are countably infinite
---
> For example, the even integers are countably infinite
9,11c9,11
< *2 maps to 1
< *4 maps to 2
< *6 maps to 3
---
> *0 maps to 0
> *4 maps to 1
> *21maps to 2
13c13
< *N maps to (N/2) where N is a positive [[even number]]
---
> *N maps to (N/2) where N is an [[even number]]
15,22c15,23
< Likewise, pairs of natural numbers are countably infinite through the following mapping:
< *(1,1) maps to 1
< *(2,1) maps to 2
< *(1,2) maps to 3
< *(3,1) maps to 4
< *(2,2) maps to 5
< *(1,3) maps to 6
< *etcetera
---
> Likewise, pairs of integers are countably infinite through the following mapping:
> *(0,0) maps to 0
> *(0,1) maps to 1
> *(1,0) maps to 2
> *(0,2) maps to 3
> *(1,2) maps to 4
> *(2,0) maps to 5
> *...
> *(m,n) maps to 0.5*k*(k+1)+m, where k=m+n
25c26
< This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the [[Rational numbers]] can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers through p/q maps to (p,q).
---
> This is where you map the set you want to show as countably infinite to another set.  You then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the [[Rational numbers]] can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of integers through p/q maps to (p,q).
------
Integers|988290589
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The integers are all whole numbers greater than or equal to zero, that is, the set {0,1,2,...}. The integers differ from the [[natural numbers]] in that [[zero]] is an integer.
> 
> Formally, the integers can be defined as a [[Set]] with the following properties:
> * 0 is in the set
> * If n is in the set, then so is the successor of n (that is, n+1)
> * 0 is not the successor of any number
> * No 2 numbers have the same successor
> * The integers are the smallest possible set with these properties
------
PigLatin|988290698
1c1
< atalie-nay is-way a-way itchbay 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pig Latin]]
------
PigLatin|988290745
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Pig Latin]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pig latin]]
------
Lojban|988292220
2c2
< <br>An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, formerly called Loglan.  The idea here is to explore the SapirWhorfHypothesis.  A lot more information can be found at http://lojban.org/.
---
> <br>An artifical language largely inspired by PredicateLogic, formerly called Loglan.  The idea here is to explore the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]].  A lot more information can be found at http://lojban.org/.
------
Wilhelm_von_Humboldt|988292282
3c3
< See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hyphothesis]]
---
> See [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]
------
AfghanistanHistory|988292670
1,4c1
< AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
< supplied and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, but the fundamentalist Islamic
< Taliban movement has been able to seize most of the country. In addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffers from enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure,
< and widespread live mines. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/History]]
------
Afghanistan/History|988292697
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
> supplied and trained by the US, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and others. Fighting subsequently continued among the various mujahidin factions, but the fundamentalist Islamic
> Taliban movement has been able to seize most of the country. In addition to the continuing civil strife, the country suffers from enormous poverty, a crumbling infrastructure,
> and widespread live mines. 
------
Afghanistan/History|988292734
1c1
< AfGhanistan was invaded and occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
---
> [[Afghanistan]] was invaded and occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1979. The USSR was forced to withdraw 10 years later by anti-communist mujahidin forces
------
AfghanistanGeography|988292785
1,50c1
< Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 65 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Asia 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 652,000 sq km 
< land: 652,000 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas 
< 
< Land boundaries: 
< total: 5,529 km 
< border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km 
< 
< Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
< 
< Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
< 
< Climate: arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers 
< 
< Terrain: mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m 
< highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m 
< 
< Natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 12% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 46% 
< forests and woodland: 3% 
< other: 39% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 30,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding 
< 
< Environment - current issues: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials);
< desertification 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban 
< signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation 
< 
< Geography - note: landlocked
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Geography]]
------
Afghanistan/Geography|988292808
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southern Asia, north and west of Pakistan, east of Iran 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 33 00 N, 65 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Asia 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 652,000 sq km 
> land: 652,000 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Texas 
> 
> Land boundaries: 
> total: 5,529 km 
> border countries: China 76 km, Iran 936 km, Pakistan 2,430 km, Tajikistan 1,206 km, Turkmenistan 744 km, Uzbekistan 137 km 
> 
> Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) 
> 
> Maritime claims: none (landlocked) 
> 
> Climate: arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers 
> 
> Terrain: mostly rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m 
> highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m 
> 
> Natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, zinc, iron ore, salt, precious and semiprecious stones 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 12% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 46% 
> forests and woodland: 3% 
> other: 39% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 30,000 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding 
> 
> Environment - current issues: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials);
> desertification 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban 
> signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation 
> 
> Geography - note: landlocked
------
AfghanistanGovernement|988293004
1,68c1
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
< conventional short form: Afghanistan 
< local long form: Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan 
< local short form: Afghanestan 
< former: Republic of Afghanistan 
< 
< Data code: AF 
< 
< Government type: no functioning central government, administered by factions 
< 
< Capital: Kabul 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat,
< Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol 
< note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst 
< 
< Independence: 19 August 1919 (from UK control over Afghan foreign affairs) 
< 
< National holiday: Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August 
< 
< Constitution: none 
< 
< Legal system: a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) 
< 
< Suffrage: NA; previously males 15-50 years of age 
< 
< Executive branch: on 27 September 1996, the ruling members of the Afghan Government were displaced by members of the Islamic Taliban movement; the Islamic State
< of Afghanistan has no functioning government at this time, and the country remains divided among fighting factions 
< note: the Taliban have declared themselves the legitimate government of Afghanistan; however, the UN still recognizes the government of Burhanuddin RABBANI; the
< Organization of the Islamic Conference has left the Afghan seat vacant until the question of legitimacy can be resolved through negotiations among the warring factions; the
< country is essentially divided along ethnic lines; the Taliban controls the capital of Kabul and approximately two-thirds of the country including the predominately ethnic
< Pashtun areas in southern Afghanistan; opposing factions have their stronghold in the ethnically diverse north 
< 
< Legislative branch: non-functioning as of June 1993 
< 
< Judicial branch: non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) [Mohammed Asif MOHSENI]; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement)
< [Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI]; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party) [Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction]; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party) [Yunis KHALIS
< faction]; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Mohammad Akbar AKBARI]; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of
< Afghanistan) [Abdul Rasul SAYYAF]; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front) [Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI]; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami
< (National Islamic Front) [Sayed Ahamad GAILANI]; Taliban (Religious Students Movement) [Mohammad OMAR]; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan
< comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement) [Abdul Rashid DOSTAM]; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) [Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad
< Shah MASOOD]; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Abdul Karim KHALILI] 
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
< NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
< represent traditional Pashtun leadership; Writers Union of Free Afghanistan or WUFA [A. Rasul AMIN] 
< 
< International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC,
< IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< note: embassy operations suspended 21 August 1997 
< chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
< chancery: 2341 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
< telephone: [1] (202) 234-3770 
< FAX: [1] (202) 328-3516 
< consulate(s) general: New York 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
< 
< Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like
< structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two
< crossed scimitars 
< note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag or a white flag with the shahada, see http://fotw.digibel.be/flags/af.html
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Government]]
------
Afghanistan/Government|988293024
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
> conventional short form: Afghanistan 
> local long form: Dowlat-e Eslami-ye Afghanestan 
> local short form: Afghanestan 
> former: Republic of Afghanistan 
> 
> Data code: AF 
> 
> Government type: no functioning central government, administered by factions 
> 
> Capital: Kabul 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 30 provinces (velayat, singular - velayat); Badakhshan, Badghis, Baghlan, Balkh, Bamian, Farah, Faryab, Ghazni, Ghowr, Helmand, Herat,
> Jowzjan, Kabol, Kandahar, Kapisa, Konar, Kondoz, Laghman, Lowgar, Nangarhar, Nimruz, Oruzgan, Paktia, Paktika, Parvan, Samangan, Sar-e Pol, Takhar, Vardak, Zabol 
> note: there may be two new provinces of Nurestan (Nuristan) and Khowst 
> 
> Independence: 19 August 1919 (from UK control over Afghan foreign affairs) 
> 
> National holiday: Victory of the Muslim Nation, 28 April; Remembrance Day for Martyrs and Disabled, 4 May; Independence Day, 19 August 
> 
> Constitution: none 
> 
> Legal system: a new legal system has not been adopted but all factions tacitly agree they will follow Shari'a (Islamic law) 
> 
> Suffrage: NA; previously males 15-50 years of age 
> 
> Executive branch: on 27 September 1996, the ruling members of the Afghan Government were displaced by members of the Islamic Taliban movement; the Islamic State
> of Afghanistan has no functioning government at this time, and the country remains divided among fighting factions 
> note: the Taliban have declared themselves the legitimate government of Afghanistan; however, the UN still recognizes the government of Burhanuddin RABBANI; the
> Organization of the Islamic Conference has left the Afghan seat vacant until the question of legitimacy can be resolved through negotiations among the warring factions; the
> country is essentially divided along ethnic lines; the Taliban controls the capital of Kabul and approximately two-thirds of the country including the predominately ethnic
> Pashtun areas in southern Afghanistan; opposing factions have their stronghold in the ethnically diverse north 
> 
> Legislative branch: non-functioning as of June 1993 
> 
> Judicial branch: non-functioning as of March 1995, although there are local Shari'a (Islamic law) courts throughout the country 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Harakat-i-Islami (Islamic Movement) [Mohammed Asif MOHSENI]; Harakat-Inqilab-i-Islami (Islamic Revolutionary Movement)
> [Mohammad Nabi MOHAMMADI]; Hizbi Islami-Gulbuddin (Islamic Party) [Gulbuddin HIKMATYAR faction]; Hizbi Islami-Khalis (Islamic Party) [Yunis KHALIS
> faction]; Hizbi Wahdat-Akbari faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Mohammad Akbar AKBARI]; Ittihad-i-Islami Barai Azadi Afghanistan (Islamic Union for the Liberation of
> Afghanistan) [Abdul Rasul SAYYAF]; Jabha-i-Najat-i-Milli Afghanistan (Afghanistan National Liberation Front) [Sibghatullah MOJADDEDI]; Mahaz-i-Milli-Islami
> (National Islamic Front) [Sayed Ahamad GAILANI]; Taliban (Religious Students Movement) [Mohammad OMAR]; United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan
> comprised of Jumbesh-i-Melli Islami (National Islamic Movement) [Abdul Rashid DOSTAM]; Jamiat-i-Islami (Islamic Society) [Burhanuddin RABBANI and Ahmad
> Shah MASOOD]; and Hizbi Wahdat-Khalili faction (Islamic Unity Party) [Abdul Karim KHALILI] 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
> NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
> represent traditional Pashtun leadership; Writers Union of Free Afghanistan or WUFA [A. Rasul AMIN] 
> 
> International organization participation: AsDB, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, IOC,
> IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> note: embassy operations suspended 21 August 1997 
> chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant) 
> chancery: 2341 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 
> telephone: [1] (202) 234-3770 
> FAX: [1] (202) 328-3516 
> consulate(s) general: New York 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
> 
> Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and black with a gold emblem centered on the three bands; the emblem features a temple-like
> structure with Islamic inscriptions above and below, encircled by a wreath on the left and right and by a bolder Islamic inscription above, all of which are encircled by two
> crossed scimitars 
> note: the Taliban uses a plain white flag or a white flag with the shahada, see http://fotw.digibel.be/flags/af.html
> 
> 
------
AfghanistanPeople|988293102
1,48c1
< Population: 25,838,797 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 42.37% (male 5,598,403; female 5,371,054) 
< 15-64 years: 54.86% (male 7,362,961; female 6,839,914) 
< 65 years and over: 2.77% (male 378,741; female 337,724) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 3.54% (2000 est.) 
< note: this rate reflects the continued return of refugees from Iran 
< 
< Birth rate: 41.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 18.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: 11.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 1.12 male(s)/female 
< total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 149.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 45.88 years 
< male: 46.62 years 
< female: 45.1 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 5.87 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Afghan(s) 
< adjective: Afghan 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) 
< 
< Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% 
< 
< Languages: Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much
< bilingualism 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
< total population: 31.5% 
< male: 47.2% 
< female: 15% (1999 est.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/People]]
------
Afghanistan/People|988293122
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 25,838,797 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 42.37% (male 5,598,403; female 5,371,054) 
> 15-64 years: 54.86% (male 7,362,961; female 6,839,914) 
> 65 years and over: 2.77% (male 378,741; female 337,724) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 3.54% (2000 est.) 
> note: this rate reflects the continued return of refugees from Iran 
> 
> Birth rate: 41.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 18.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: 11.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 1.12 male(s)/female 
> total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 149.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 45.88 years 
> male: 46.62 years 
> female: 45.1 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 5.87 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Afghan(s) 
> adjective: Afghan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Pashtun 38%, Tajik 25%, Uzbek 6%, Hazara 19%, minor ethnic groups (Aimaks, Turkmen, Baloch, and others) 
> 
> Religions: Sunni Muslim 84%, Shi'a Muslim 15%, other 1% 
> 
> Languages: Pashtu 35%, Afghan Persian (Dari) 50%, Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%, much
> bilingualism 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
> total population: 31.5% 
> male: 47.2% 
> female: 15% (1999 est.)
> 
------
Afghanistan|988293221
3,6c3,6
<  AfghanistanHistory
<  AfghanistanGeography
<  AfghanistanPeople
<  AfghanistanGovernement
---
>  [[/History|History]]
>  [[Geography|Geography]]
>  [[/People|People]]
>  [[/Government|Government]]
------
AfghanistanEconomy|988293416
1,80c1
< Economy - overview: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations
< have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February
< 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 1999, 1.2
< million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor
< and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation
< remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. The
< economic situation did not improve in 1998-99, as internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are
< likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 1999, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $800 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 53% 
< industry: 28.5% 
< services: 18.5% (1990) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
< 
< Labor force: 8 million (1997 est.) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 68%, industry 16%, services 16% (1980 est.) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 8% (1995 est.) 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $NA 
< expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA 
< 
< Industries: small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper 
< 
< Electricity - production: 430 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 41.86% 
< hydro: 58.14% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 510 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: opium poppies, wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton 
< 
< Exports: $80 million (does not include opium) (1996 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems 
< 
< Exports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic 
< 
< Imports: $150 million (1996 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and petroleum products; most consumer goods 
< 
< Imports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany 
< 
< Debt - external: $5.5 billion (1996 est.) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN
< programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons 
< 
< Currency: 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls 
< 
< Exchange rates: afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019
< (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar
< until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 
< 
< Fiscal year: 21 March - 20 March 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Economy]]
------
Afghanistan/Economy|988293433
1c1,81
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations
> have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February
> 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 1999, 1.2
> million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor
> and capital and the disruption of trade and transport. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation
> remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. The
> economic situation did not improve in 1998-99, as internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are
> likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 1999, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $21 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: NA% 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $800 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 53% 
> industry: 28.5% 
> services: 18.5% (1990) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA% 
> 
> Labor force: 8 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 68%, industry 16%, services 16% (1980 est.) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 8% (1995 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $NA 
> expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA 
> 
> Industries: small-scale production of textiles, soap, furniture, shoes, fertilizer, and cement; handwoven carpets; natural gas, oil, coal, copper 
> 
> Electricity - production: 430 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 41.86% 
> hydro: 58.14% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 510 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 110 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: opium poppies, wheat, fruits, nuts, karakul pelts; wool, mutton 
> 
> Exports: $80 million (does not include opium) (1996 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: opium, fruits and nuts, handwoven carpets, wool, cotton, hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems 
> 
> Exports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Germany, India, UK, Belgium, Luxembourg, Czech Republic 
> 
> Imports: $150 million (1996 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: capital goods, food and petroleum products; most consumer goods 
> 
> Imports - partners: FSU, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Singapore, India, South Korea, Germany 
> 
> Debt - external: $5.5 billion (1996 est.) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN
> programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons 
> 
> Currency: 1 afghani (AF) = 100 puls 
> 
> Exchange rates: afghanis (Af) per US$1 - 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019
> (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar
> until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 
> 
> Fiscal year: 21 March - 20 March 
> 
------
AfghanistanCommunications|988293498
1,21c1
< Telephones - main lines in use: 31,200 (1983); note - there were 21,000 main lines in use in Kabul in 1998 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: very limited telephone and telegraph service; in 1997, telecommunications links were established between Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul
< through satellite and microwave systems 
< international: satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); commercial satellite telephone center in
< Ghazni 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 7 (6 are inactive; the active station is in Kabul), FM 1, shortwave 1 (broadcasts in Pushtu, Dari, Urdu, and English) (1999) 
< 
< Radios: 167,000 (1999) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: at least 10 (one government run central television station in Kabul and regional stations in nine of the 30 provinces; the regional stations
< operate on a reduced schedule; also, in 1997, there was a station in Mazar-e Sharif reaching four northern Afghanistan provinces) (1998) 
< 
< Televisions: 100,000 (1999) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Communications]]
------
Afghanistan/Communications|988293518
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 31,200 (1983); note - there were 21,000 main lines in use in Kabul in 1998 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: very limited telephone and telegraph service; in 1997, telecommunications links were established between Mazar-e Sharif, Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, and Kabul
> through satellite and microwave systems 
> international: satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) linked only to Iran and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region); commercial satellite telephone center in
> Ghazni 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 7 (6 are inactive; the active station is in Kabul), FM 1, shortwave 1 (broadcasts in Pushtu, Dari, Urdu, and English) (1999) 
> 
> Radios: 167,000 (1999) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: at least 10 (one government run central television station in Kabul and regional stations in nine of the 30 provinces; the regional stations
> operate on a reduced schedule; also, in 1997, there was a station in Mazar-e Sharif reaching four northern Afghanistan provinces) (1998) 
> 
> Televisions: 100,000 (1999) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
> 
------
AfghanistanTransportations|988293587
1,34c1
< Railways: 
< total: 24.6 km 
< broad gauge: 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1.524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on
< south bank of Amu Darya 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 21,000 km 
< paved: 2,793 km 
< unpaved: 18,207 km (1998 est.) 
< 
< Waterways: 1,200 km; chiefly Amu Darya, which handles vessels up to about 500 DWT 
< 
< Pipelines: petroleum products - Uzbekistan to Bagram and Turkmenistan to Shindand; natural gas 180 km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Kheyrabad, Shir Khan 
< 
< Airports: 46 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 14 
< over 3,047 m: 3 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 1 
< under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 32 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
< 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
< under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Heliports: 3 (1999 est.) 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Transportation]]
------
Afghanistan/Transportation|988293605
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Railways: 
> total: 24.6 km 
> broad gauge: 9.6 km 1.524-m gauge from Gushgy (Turkmenistan) to Towraghondi; 15 km 1.524-m gauge from Termiz (Uzbekistan) to Kheyrabad transshipment point on
> south bank of Amu Darya 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 21,000 km 
> paved: 2,793 km 
> unpaved: 18,207 km (1998 est.) 
> 
> Waterways: 1,200 km; chiefly Amu Darya, which handles vessels up to about 500 DWT 
> 
> Pipelines: petroleum products - Uzbekistan to Bagram and Turkmenistan to Shindand; natural gas 180 km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Kheyrabad, Shir Khan 
> 
> Airports: 46 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 14 
> over 3,047 m: 3 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 4 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 32 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 
> 1,524 to 2,437 m: 13 
> 914 to 1,523 m: 3 
> under 914 m: 11 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Heliports: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
------
AfghanistanMilitary|988293682
1,18c1
< Military branches: NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border
< Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups 
< 
< Military manpower - military age: 22 years of age 
< 
< Military manpower - availability: 
< males age 15-49: 6,401,980 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - fit for military service: 
< males age 15-49: 3,432,236 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
< males: 244,958 (2000 est.) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Military]]
------
Afghanistan/Military|988293701
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Military branches: NA; note - the military does not exist on a national basis; some elements of the former Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, National Guard, Border
> Guard Forces, National Police Force (Sarandoi), and tribal militias still exist but are factionalized among the various groups 
> 
> Military manpower - military age: 22 years of age 
> 
> Military manpower - availability: 
> males age 15-49: 6,401,980 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - fit for military service: 
> males age 15-49: 3,432,236 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military manpower - reaching military age annually: 
> males: 244,958 (2000 est.) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
> 
> 
------
AfghanistanTransnationalIssues|988293756
1,5c1
< Disputes - international: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN 
< 
< Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
< increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
< from drug trade 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Afghanistan/Transnational Issues]]
------
Afghanistan/Transnational_Issues|988293773
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Disputes - international: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN 
> 
> Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
> increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
> from drug trade 
> 
------
Afghanistan|988293859
7,11c7,11
<  AfghanistanEconomy
<  AfghanistanCommunications
<  AfghanistanTransportations
<  AfghanistanMilitary
<  AfghanistanTransnationalIssues
---
>  [[/Economy|Economy]]
>  [[/Communications|Communications]]
>  [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
>  [[/Military|Military]]
>  [[/Transnational Issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Altaic_languages|988295534
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Family of languages found mostly around central Asia, which has been distributed by the many invasions out of that corridor.
> 
> * [[Turkic languages]]
> * [[Mongolic languages]]
> * [[Tunguzic languages]]
------
Altaic_languages|988295559
3a4
> ** [[Turkish language]]
5c6
< * [[Tunguzic languages]]
---
> * [[Tunguzic languages]]
------
Turkish|988295586
1,3c1
< Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of Ural-Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to todays Turkic languages.
< The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Aslan), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Turkish language]]
------
Turkish_language|988295613
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of the Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to todays Turkic languages.
> The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Aslan), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
> 
------
Physics|988295699
8a9,11
> * [[Fluid Dynamics]]
> ** [[Rheology]]
> ** [[Hydrodynamics]]
17d19
< * [[Hydrodynamics]]
62d63
< * [[Rheology]]
------
General_relativity|988297416
16,19c16
< A consecuence (not realized by Einstein at the time) is that a 
< non-empty static universe in his thory is unstable, so it 
< should be either expanding or contracting. [[Edwin Hubble]]
< proved a decade later the former to be the case.
---
> A consequence is that a non-empty static universe in his theory is unstable, so it should be either expanding or contracting.  This sufficiently distressed Einstein that he put an extra tweak in the model, the [[cosmological constant]], to adjust for this.  A decade later, though, [[Edwin Hubble]] proved the former to be the case, and the adjustment was gladly abandoned, although many cosmologists see evidence to reintroduce it.
------
AlbaniaPeople|988297837
1,33c1
< Population: 3,490,435 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 545,329; female 507,589) 15-64 years: 63% (male 1,056,583; female 1,141,664) 65 years and
< over: 7% (male 104,086; female 135,184) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 19.47 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -10.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77
< male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 41.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.57 years male: 68.75 years female: 74.59 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: noun: Albanian(s) adjective: Albanian 
< 
< Ethnic groups: Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) note: in 1989, other
< estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) 
< 
< Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% note: all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and
< religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing private religious practice 
< 
< Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek 
< 
< Literacy: definition: age 9 and over can read and write total population: 93% (1997 est.) male: NA% female: NA% 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/People]]
------
Albania/People|988297862
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Population: 3,490,435 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 545,329; female 507,589) 15-64 years: 63% (male 1,056,583; female 1,141,664) 65 years and
> over: 7% (male 104,086; female 135,184) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.26% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 19.47 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 6.5 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -10.36 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: at birth: 1.08 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77
> male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 41.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.57 years male: 68.75 years female: 74.59 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 2.37 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: noun: Albanian(s) adjective: Albanian 
> 
> Ethnic groups: Albanian 95%, Greeks 3%, other 2% (Vlachs, Gypsies, Serbs, and Bulgarians) (1989 est.) note: in 1989, other
> estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) 
> 
> Religions: Muslim 70%, Albanian Orthodox 20%, Roman Catholic 10% note: all mosques and churches were closed in 1967 and
> religious observances prohibited; in November 1990, Albania began allowing private religious practice 
> 
> Languages: Albanian (Tosk is the official dialect), Greek 
> 
> Literacy: definition: age 9 and over can read and write total population: 93% (1997 est.) male: NA% female: NA% 
> 
------
AlbaniaGeography|988297939
1,37c1
< Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 41 00 N, 20 00 E 
< 
< Map references: Europe 
< 
< Area: total: 28,748 sq km land: 27,398 sq km water: 1,350 sq km 
< 
< Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
< 
< Land boundaries: total: 720 km border countries: Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and
< Montenegro 287 km (114 km with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) 
< 
< Coastline: 362 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter 
< 
< Terrain: mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast 
< 
< Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m 
< 
< Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel, hydropower 
< 
< Land use: arable land: 21% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 15% forests and woodland: 38% other: 21% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: 3,410 sq km (1993 est.) 
< 
< Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast 
< 
< Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection,
< Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
< 
< Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/Geography]]
------
Albania/Geography|988297955
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea, between Greece and Serbia and Montenegro 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 41 00 N, 20 00 E 
> 
> Map references: Europe 
> 
> Area: total: 28,748 sq km land: 27,398 sq km water: 1,350 sq km 
> 
> Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland 
> 
> Land boundaries: total: 720 km border countries: Greece 282 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 151 km, Serbia and
> Montenegro 287 km (114 km with Serbia, 173 km with Montenegro) 
> 
> Coastline: 362 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: mild temperate; cool, cloudy, wet winters; hot, clear, dry summers; interior is cooler and wetter 
> 
> Terrain: mostly mountains and hills; small plains along coast 
> 
> Elevation extremes: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m 
> 
> Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, timber, nickel, hydropower 
> 
> Land use: arable land: 21% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 15% forests and woodland: 38% other: 21% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: 3,410 sq km (1993 est.) 
> 
> Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast 
> 
> Environment - current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection,
> Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> Geography - note: strategic location along Strait of Otranto (links Adriatic Sea to Ionian Sea and Mediterranean Sea) 
> 
------
Albania|988298008
3c3
< AlbaniaGeography
---
> [[/Geography|Geography]]
5c5
< AlbaniaPeople
---
> [[/People|People]]
------
AlbaniaEconomy|988298105
1,72c1
< Economy - overview: An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more
< open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous
< centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the
< election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse
< of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population -
< triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The
< new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.
< The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy.
< These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992,
< substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 7% in 1999.
< International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 8% (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,650 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 54% industry: 25% services: 21% (1998) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: 19.6% (1996 est.) 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Labor force: 1.692 million (including 352,000 emigrant workers and 261,000 domestically unemployed) (1994 est.) 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49.5%, industry and services 50.5% 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 14% (October 1997) officially, but may be as high as 28% 
< 
< Budget: revenues: $393 million expenditures: $676 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) 
< 
< Industries: food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Electricity - production: 5.15 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.91% hydro: 97.09% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 5.29 billion kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products 
< 
< Exports: $242 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco 
< 
< Exports - partners: Italy 63%, Greece 12%, Germany 6%, Netherlands, Belgium, US (1998) 
< 
< Imports: $925 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals 
< 
< Imports - partners: Italy 43%, Greece 29%, Turkey 4%, Germany 4%, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1998) 
< 
< Debt - external: $820 million (1998) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: EU pledged $100 million to share with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999) 
< 
< Currency: 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars 
< 
< Exchange rates: leke (L) per US$1 - 135.31 (December 1999), 137.69 (1999), 150.63 (1998), 148.93 (1997), 104.50 (1996), 92.70
< (1995) 
< 
< Fiscal year: calendar year 
---
> #REDIRECt [[Albania/Economy]]
------
AlbaniaEconomy|988298120
1c1
< #REDIRECt [[Albania/Economy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/Economy]]
------
Albania/Economy|988298136
1c1,73
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Economy - overview: An extremely poor country by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more
> open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the collapse of the previous
> centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the
> election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12%. The collapse
> of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population -
> triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and an 8% drop in GDP. The
> new government, installed in July 1997, has taken strong measures to restore public order and to revive economic activity and trade.
> The economy continues to be bolstered by remittances of some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy.
> These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992,
> substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 8% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 7% in 1999.
> International aid has helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $5.6 billion (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $1,650 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 54% industry: 25% services: 21% (1998) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: 19.6% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.5% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 1.692 million (including 352,000 emigrant workers and 261,000 domestically unemployed) (1994 est.) 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 49.5%, industry and services 50.5% 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 14% (October 1997) officially, but may be as high as 28% 
> 
> Budget: revenues: $393 million expenditures: $676 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.) 
> 
> Industries: food processing, textiles and clothing; lumber, oil, cement, chemicals, mining, basic metals, hydropower 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 5.15 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 2.91% hydro: 97.09% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 5.29 billion kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 500 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, fruits, sugar beets, grapes; meat, dairy products 
> 
> Exports: $242 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: textiles and footwear; asphalt, metals and metallic ores, crude oil; vegetables, fruits, tobacco 
> 
> Exports - partners: Italy 63%, Greece 12%, Germany 6%, Netherlands, Belgium, US (1998) 
> 
> Imports: $925 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, textiles, chemicals 
> 
> Imports - partners: Italy 43%, Greece 29%, Turkey 4%, Germany 4%, Bulgaria, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1998) 
> 
> Debt - external: $820 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: EU pledged $100 million to share with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1999) 
> 
> Currency: 1 lek (L) = 100 qintars 
> 
> Exchange rates: leke (L) per US$1 - 135.31 (December 1999), 137.69 (1999), 150.63 (1998), 148.93 (1997), 104.50 (1996), 92.70
> (1995) 
> 
> Fiscal year: calendar year 
> 
------
AlbaniaCommunications|988298238
1,15c1
< Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995)
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999)
< 
< Telephone system: domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999)
< 
< Radios: 810,000 (1997)
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999)
< 
< Televisions: 405,000 (1997)
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Albania/Communications]]
------
Albania/Communications|988298256
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telephones - main lines in use: 42,000 (1995)
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,100 (1999)
> 
> Telephone system: domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 16, FM 3, shortwave 2 (1999)
> 
> Radios: 810,000 (1997)
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 13 (1999)
> 
> Televisions: 405,000 (1997)
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (1999)
> 
------
Albania|988298290
9c9
< AlbaniaEconomy
---
> [[/Economy|Economy]]
11c11
< AlbaniaCommunications
---
> [[/Communications|Communications]]
------
Stamp_collecting|988298389
10a11
> * Postage Due stamps
14c15
< * non-stamp items picturing postage stamps
---
> * non-stamp items picturing postage stamps
------
Conspiracy_theory|988298692
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A conspiracy theory is a theory where one supposes that some group has supressed most or all evidence of something occuring.  This sort of thing does happen a lot of the time, and so a few of these are right.  However, most often they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a conspiracy to excuse that.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
> 
> Just about anything associated with governments, nazis, communists, ancient civilizations, or aliens has a conspiracy theory attached.  They're very popular and form the basis of many popular books, movies, and TV shows.
------
Adolf_Hitler/Talk|988298727
1c1
< A conspiracy theory suggests that the bodies that were allegedly Hitler's and Braun's were actually people employed by the Nazis and Hitler to fake their deaths so they could therefore escape unharmed.
---
> A [[conspiracy theory]] suggests that the bodies that were allegedly Hitler's and Braun's were actually people employed by the Nazis and Hitler to fake their deaths so they could therefore escape unharmed.
3c3
< There are conspiracy theories about everything, and unless there is some sort of reason to suppose they have an ounce of truth, I don't think they need be mentioned.
---
> There are conspiracy theories about everything, and unless there is some sort of reason to suppose they have an ounce of truth, I don't think they need be mentioned.
------
Dystopia|988299399
5,6c5
< is as it should be, hence the converse "dys-topia" for a place where this 
< is certainly not the case.
---
> is as it should be, hence the converse "dys-topia" for a place where this is certainly not the case.
------
Genealogy|988299802
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Genealogy can be considered a form of collecting - the collecting of ancestors and relatives.
>      Genealogists search written records, collect oral histories and preserve family stories 
>        to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists attempt to understand not just
>        where and when people lived but also how and why they made the life they lived. 
>      The search for ancestors involves searching original records and published sources to
>        establish relationships and family connections. This often requires knowledge of antique law,
>        old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions. Even an
>        unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.
>      The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and 
>        of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by immigration,
>        foster homes and adoption... The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive.  
------
Spinning|988301523
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spinning is the process of creation of yarn (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber material.
>  Several fibers are twisted together to bind them into a strong, long yarn. Characteristics of the yarn
>  vary based on the material used, fiber length and alignment, quantity of fiber used and degree of twist.
>  The earliest spinning probably involved simply twisted the fibers in the hand. Later the use of a stick
>  to help twist the fiber was introduced. Drop spinning involves the use of a stick with a whorl or weight
>  to stabilizes the spinning of the stick. This is called a spindle and is spun and hangs supported by the
>  yarn as more fiber is introduced. This introduced fiber picks up the twist and becomes yarn. Later the
>  spinning wheel was developed which allowed a continuous and faster yarn production. Spinning wheel are
>  either foot or hand powered. Modern powered spinning, originally done by water or steam power but
>  now done by electricity, is vastly faster than hand-spinning.
> 
> Hobby spinners spin their own yarn in order to control specific yarn qualities and produce yarn not
> commercially available. They also may spin for self-sufficiency, sense of accomplishment or 
> sense of connection to history and the land. And, of course, for the meditative qualities of spinning.         
> 
> Materials that can be used to create yarn fall into three broad classes: plant, animal, and synthetic. 
>      Plant materials include: cotton, flax (to produce linen), hemp, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, ...  
>      Animal materials:        wool, goat (angora or cashmere), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, camel
>                               silk, ...
>      Synthetic materials:     nylon, rayon, acetate, mylar, ...
------
Feature_requests|988301850
24a25
> * I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existant page, more or less the opposite. [[LinusTolke]]
------
NupediaWikiFaq|988302268
1c1
< Nupedia doesn't actually have a wiki. [[Wikipedia]] is where NuPedians go to have their wiki needs satisfied.  Probably what you're looking for is the WikiPediaFaq.
---
> [[Nupedia]] doesn't actually have a wiki. [[Wikipedia]] is where [[Nupedians]] go to have their wiki needs satisfied.  Probably what you're looking for is the [[Wikipedia FAQ]].
------
Conspiracy_theory|988302515
1c1
< A conspiracy theory is a theory where one supposes that some group has supressed most or all evidence of something occuring.  This sort of thing does happen a lot of the time, and so a few of these are right.  However, most often they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a conspiracy to excuse that.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
---
> A conspiracy theory is a theory where one supposes that some group has been involved with others in a plan, and has supressed most or all evidence of the plan or their involvement in it.  The plan may be anything from manipulating governments, economies or the legal system, to hiding important information of cultural or scientific significance.  Proven conspiracies have taken place throughout history.  At any given time, hundreds or thousands of conspiracies of greater or lesser scope are afoot.  Consequently, even in the absence of hard evidence, a conspiracy theorist may advance a theory which is supported by facts of which even he is unaware.  A conspiracy, once proven, is no longer a theory.  Hence, conspiracy therories are necessarily unproven - and the majority of such theories are eventually disproved.  Most often, they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a supposed consipracy to justify both their conclusion and the fact that they cannot support it with evidence - which, naturally, the conspirators are actively concealing.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
3c3
< Just about anything associated with governments, nazis, communists, ancient civilizations, or aliens has a conspiracy theory attached.  They're very popular and form the basis of many popular books, movies, and TV shows.
---
> Just about anything associated with governments, nazis, communists, ancient civilizations, or aliens has a conspiracy theory attached.  They're very popular and form the basis of many popular books, movies, and TV shows.
------
Conspiracy_theory|988302612
1c1
< A conspiracy theory is a theory where one supposes that some group has been involved with others in a plan, and has supressed most or all evidence of the plan or their involvement in it.  The plan may be anything from manipulating governments, economies or the legal system, to hiding important information of cultural or scientific significance.  Proven conspiracies have taken place throughout history.  At any given time, hundreds or thousands of conspiracies of greater or lesser scope are afoot.  Consequently, even in the absence of hard evidence, a conspiracy theorist may advance a theory which is supported by facts of which even he is unaware.  A conspiracy, once proven, is no longer a theory.  Hence, conspiracy therories are necessarily unproven - and the majority of such theories are eventually disproved.  Most often, they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a supposed consipracy to justify both their conclusion and the fact that they cannot support it with evidence - which, naturally, the conspirators are actively concealing.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
---
> A conspiracy theory is a theory wherein one supposes that some group has been involved in a plan, and has supressed most or all evidence of the plan or their involvement in it.  The plan may be anything from manipulating governments, economies or the legal system, to hiding important information of cultural or scientific significance.  Proven conspiracies have taken place throughout history.  At any given time, hundreds or thousands of conspiracies of greater or lesser scope are afoot.  Consequently, even in the absence of hard evidence, a conspiracy theorist may advance a theory which is supported by facts of which even he is unaware.  A conspiracy, once proven, is no longer a theory.  Hence, conspiracy therories are necessarily unproven - and the majority of such theories are eventually disproved.  Most often, they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a supposed consipracy to justify both their conclusion and the fact that they cannot support it with evidence - which, naturally, the conspirators are actively concealing.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
------
CountrY|988302659
1c1
< A country is a geographical area with its own governement, administration, laws, police, tax rules, and people.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Country]]
------
Conspiracy_theory|988302685
1c1,3
< A conspiracy theory is a theory wherein one supposes that some group has been involved in a plan, and has supressed most or all evidence of the plan or their involvement in it.  The plan may be anything from manipulating governments, economies or the legal system, to hiding important information of cultural or scientific significance.  Proven conspiracies have taken place throughout history.  At any given time, hundreds or thousands of conspiracies of greater or lesser scope are afoot.  Consequently, even in the absence of hard evidence, a conspiracy theorist may advance a theory which is supported by facts of which even he is unaware.  A conspiracy, once proven, is no longer a theory.  Hence, conspiracy therories are necessarily unproven - and the majority of such theories are eventually disproved.  Most often, they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a supposed consipracy to justify both their conclusion and the fact that they cannot support it with evidence - which, naturally, the conspirators are actively concealing.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
---
> A conspiracy theory is a theory wherein one supposes that some group has been involved in a plan, and has supressed most or all evidence of the plan or their involvement in it.  The plan may be anything from manipulating governments, economies or the legal system, to hiding important information of cultural or scientific significance.  Proven conspiracies have taken place throughout history.  At any given time, hundreds or thousands of conspiracies of greater or lesser scope are afoot.  Consequently, even in the absence of hard evidence, a conspiracy theorist may advance a theory which is supported by facts of which even he is unaware.  
> 
> A conspiracy, once proven, is no longer a theory.  Hence, conspiracy therories are necessarily unproven - and the majority of such theories are eventually disproved.  Most often, they are employed by people who would like to believe some conclusion but have no evidence for it, and so use a supposed consipracy to justify both their conclusion and the fact that they cannot support it with evidence - which, naturally, the conspirators are actively concealing.  Thus conspiracy theories should always be taken with a fair bit of salt.
------
Austria|988303086
5c5
< Language Spoken: GermanLanguage and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
---
> Language Spoken: [[German language]] and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
------
HungarianLanguage|988303123
5c5
< Hungarian /VocabularY contains many words derived from [[Turkish]] language, GermanLanguage, SlavicLanguages but is quite original and colorful.
---
> Hungarian /VocabularY contains many words derived from [[Turkish]] language, [[German language]], SlavicLanguages but is quite original and colorful.
------
MartinaHingis|988303159
6c6
< Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: CzechLanguage, GermanLanguage (in particular SwissGerman), EnglishLanguage, and some FrenchLanguage.
---
> Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: CzechLanguage, [[German language|German]] (in particular SwissGerman), EnglishLanguage, and some FrenchLanguage.
------
Austria|988303179
5c5
< Language Spoken: [[German language]] and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
---
> Language Spoken: [[German language|German]] and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo|988304046
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/History|988304086
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Since 1994 the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC; formerly called Zaire) has been rent by ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees from the fighting in Rwanda and Burundi. Troops from Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Angola, and Namibia have intervened in this devastating conflict. A cease-fire was signed on 10 July 1999, but skirmishing continues.
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Geography|988304162
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Africa, northeast of Angola
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 00 N, 25 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,345,410 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2,267,600 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 77,810 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,744 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Angola 2,511 km, Burundi 233 km, Central African Republic 1,577 km, Republic of the Congo 2,410 km, Rwanda 217 km, Sudan 628 km, Tanzania 473 km, Uganda 765 km, Zambia 1,930 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 37 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> boundaries with neighbors
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator - wet season November to March, dry season April to October
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> cobalt, copper, cadmium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, coal, hydropower, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 77%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 13% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 100 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts in south; volcanic activity
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees who arrived in mid-1994 were responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching in the eastern part of the country (most of those refugees were repatriated in November and December 1996)
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> straddles Equator; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower Congo river and is only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/People|988304208
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 51,964,999
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 48% (male 12,597,444; female 12,490,279)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 49% (male 12,503,440; female 13,037,527)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 567,823; female 768,486) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.19% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 46.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 15.38 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.82 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in 1994, about a million refugees fled into Zaire (now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo or DROC), to escape the fighting between the Hutus and the Tutsis in Rwanda and Burundi; the outbreak of widespread fighting in the DROC between rebels and government forces in October 1996 spurred about 875,000 refugees to return to Rwanda in late 1996 and early 1997; an additional 173,000 Rwandan refugees disappeared in early 1997 and are assumed to have been killed by DROC forces; fighting renewed in August 1998 and has continued sporadically into 2000 resulting in further internal displacement and refugee movements within the Great Lakes region
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.74 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 101.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 48.75 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 46.72 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 50.83 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.92 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Congolese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Congolese or Congo
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> over 200 African ethnic groups of which the majority are Bantu; the four largest tribes - Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic) make up about 45% of the population
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Kiswahili or Swahili), Kikongo, Tshiluba
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 86.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.7% (1995 est.)
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Economy|988304344
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - a nation endowed with vast potential wealth - has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The new government instituted a tight fiscal policy that initially curbed inflation and currency depreciation, but these small gains were quickly reversed when the foreign-backed rebellion in the eastern part of the country began in August 1998. The war has dramatically reduced government revenue, and increased external debt. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict and because of increased government harassment and restrictions. Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold. Assuming moderate peace, annual growth is likely to increase to nearly 5% in 2000-01, but inflation will continue to be a problem.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $35.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 58%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 25% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 46% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 14.51 million (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 65%, industry 16%, services 19% (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $269 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $244 million, including capital expenditures of $24 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> mining, mineral processing, consumer products (including textiles, footwear, cigarettes, processed foods and beverages), cement, diamonds
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 5.74 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 2.61%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 97.39%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.488 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 150 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 300 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber, tea, quinine, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, bananas, root crops, corn, fruits; wood products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $530 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> diamonds, copper, coffee, cobalt, crude oil
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Benelux 52%, US 14%, South Africa 9%, Finland 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $460 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, mining and other machinery, transport equipment, fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South Africa 25%, Benelux 14%, Nigeria 7%, Kenya 5%, China (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $12.3 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $195.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> Congolese franc (CF)
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Congolese francs (CF) per US$1 - 4.5 (January 2000), 2.5 (January 1999); new zaires (Z) per US$1 - 115,000 (January 1998), 83,764 (October 1996), 7,024 (1995), 1,194 (1994)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 30 June 1998 the Congolese franc (CF) was introduced, replacing the new zaire; 1 Congolese franc (CF) = 100,000 new zaires
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Government|988304464
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Democratic Republic of the Congo
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique Democratique du Congo
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Belgian Congo, Congo/Leopoldville, Congo/Kinshasa, Zaire
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> DROC
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> dictatorship; presumably  undergoing a transition to representative government
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kinshasa
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville); Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Equateur, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Katanga, Kinshasa*, Maniema, Nord-Kivu, Orientale, Sud-Kivu
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 30 June 1960 (from Belgium)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> anniversary of independence from Belgium, 30 June (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 24 June 1967, amended August 1974, revised 15 February 1978, amended April 1990; transitional constitution promulgated in April 1994; following successful rebellion the new government announced on 29 May 1997 a program of constitutional reform and, in November 1998, a draft constitution was approved by President KABILA and awaits ratification by national referendum
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Belgian civil law system and tribal law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Laurent Desire KABILA (since 17 May 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Laurent Desire KABILA (since 17 May 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> National Executive Council, appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> before Laurent Desire KABILA seized power, the president was elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 29 July 1984 (next was scheduled to be held in May 1997); formerly, the prime minister was elected by the High Council of the Republic; note - the term of the former government expired in 1991, elections were not held, and former President MOBUTU continued in office until his government was militarily defeated by KABILA on 17 May 1997
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> results of the last election before the coup were: MOBUTU Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga reelected president in 1984 without opposition
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Marshal MOBUTU Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga was president from 24 November 1965 until forced into exile on 16 May 1997 when his government was overthrown militarily by Laurent Desire KABILA, who immediately assumed governing authority; in his 29 May 1997 inaugural address, President KABILA announced a two-year time table for political reform leading to elections by April 1999; subsequently, in December 1998, President KABILA announced that elections would be postponed until all foreign military forces attempting his overthrow had withdrawn from the country
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> legislative activity has been suspended pending the establishment of KABILA's promised constitutional reforms and the elections to be held by April 1999 (now postponed indefinitely)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the country's first multi-party presidential and legislative elections had been scheduled for May 1997 but were not held; instead KABILA overthrew the MOBUTU government and seized control of the country
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> sole legal party until January 1991 - Popular Movement of the Revolution or MPR [Catherine NZUZI]; other parties include Democratic Social Christian Party or PDSC [Andre BO-BOLIKO]; Unified Lumumbast Party or PALU [Antoine GIZENGA]; Union for Democracy and Social Progress or UDPS [Etienne TSHISEKEDI wa Mulumba]; Union of Federalists and Independent Republicans or UFERI [Maitre LUKAMBA Michel]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> President KABILA, who lifted an 18-month ban on political party activity in January 1999, dissolved his Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire or AFDL just before  his government's self-imposed two-year mandate expired; he then created People's Power Committees
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Faida MITIFU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1800 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-7690, 7691
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 237-0748
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador William Lacy SWING
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 310 Avenue des Aviateurs, Kinshasa
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 31550, APO AE 09828
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [243] (12) 21028, 21959
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [243] (88) 43805 43467
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> light blue with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center and a columnar arrangement of six small yellow five-pointed stars along the hoist side
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications|988304538
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 36,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 10,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 12, shortwave 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 18.03 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 20 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 6.478 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation|988304583
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,138 km (1995); note - severely reduced route-distance in use because of damage to facilities by civil strife
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,987 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); 125 km 1.000-m gauge; 1,026 km 0.600-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 157,000 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km (including 30 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 15,000 km including the Congo, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 390 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Banana, Boma, Bukavu, Bumba, Goma, Kalemie, Kindu, Kinshasa, Kisangani, Matadi, Mbandaka
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 232 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 24
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 208
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 96
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 92 (1999 est.)
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Military|988304627
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Presidential Security Group, Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 11,218,992 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,712,265 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $250 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 4.6% (FY97)
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Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues|988304649
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> the Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with Uganda and Rwanda supporting the rebel movement which occupies much of the eastern portion of the state; most of the Congo river boundary with the Republic of the Congo is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the Pool Malebo/Stanley Pool area)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for domestic consumption
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Republic_of_the_Congo|988304873
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Republic_of_the_Congo/History|988304932
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Upon independence in 1960, the former French region of Middle Congo became the Republic of the Congo. A quarter century of experimentation with Marxism was abandoned in 1990 and a democratically elected government installed in 1992. A brief civil war in 1997 restored former Marxist President SASSOU-NGUESSO.
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Republic_of_the_Congo/Geography|988304979
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and Gabon
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 1 00 S, 15 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 342,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 341,500 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 500 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Montana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,504 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Angola 201 km, Cameroon 523 km, Central African Republic 467 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,410 km, Gabon 1,903 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 169 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; rainy season (March to June); dry season (June to October); constantly high temperatures and humidity; particularly enervating climate astride the Equator
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plain, southern basin, central plateau, northern basin
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Berongou 903 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, timber, potash, lead, zinc, uranium, copper, phosphates, natural gas, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 62%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 9% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> seasonal flooding
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage; tap water is not potable; deforestation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> about 70% of the population lives in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, or along the railroad between them
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Republic_of_the_Congo/People|988305047
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,830,961
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 605,546; female 596,971)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 748,217; female 785,278)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 38,170; female 56,779) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.23% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.61 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 16.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.67 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 101.55 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 47.43 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 44.49 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 50.47 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.06 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Congolese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Congolese or Congo
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Kongo 48%, Sangha 20%, M'Bochi 12%, Teke 17%, Europeans NA%; note - Europeans estimated at 8,500, mostly French, before the 1997 civil war; may be half of that in 1998, following the widespread destruction of foreign businesses in 1997
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 50%, animist 48%, Muslim 2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Lingala and Monokutuba (lingua franca trade languages), many local languages and dialects (of which Kikongo has the most users)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 74.9%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 83.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.2% (1995 est.)
------
AustriaLanguage|988305167
1,12c1
< AustriA has nearly an infinite number of dialects. The main ones are:
< 
< 1. Wienerisch - spoken in ViennA. Most Austrians detest it because they think that the Viennese people are annoying. It is the most comprehensible one for the German speakers.
< 
< 2. Tirolerisch - spoken in the state of Tirol. Very hard to understand.
< 
< 3. Vorarlbergerisch - spoken in the state of Vorarlberg. IMPOSSIBLE to understand - sounds like the Schwitzerdeutsch that is spoken by the Swiss.
< 
< Each of the three dialects has many variations. Other ones (Kärnterisch, Burgenländerisch, etc.) are easier to understand and harder to distinguish. Please note that the whole of AustriA has less inhabitants than NYC. Most Austrians can easily switch from "normal" German to their home dialect (especially noticeable when students living in ViennA are phoning home to their parents), but a few do have problems in writing proper German.
< 
< ----
< ''The author of this article (WojPob) is a foreign student living in AustriA.''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Austria/Language]]
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Government|988305184
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of the Congo
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique du Congo
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Middle Congo, Congo/Brazzaville, Congo
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CF
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Brazzaville
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 regions (regions, singular - region) and 1 commune*; Bouenza, Brazzaville*, Cuvette, Kouilou, Lekoumou, Likouala, Niari, Plateaux, Pool, Sangha
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Congolese National Day, 15 August (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> new constitution approved by referendum March 1992 but is now being redrafted by President SASSOU-NGUESSO
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO (since 25 October 1997, following the civil war in which he toppled elected president Pascal LISSOUBA); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO (since 25 October 1997, following the civil war in which he toppled elected president Pascal LISSOUBA); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 16 August 1992 (next was to be held 27 July 1997 but will be delayed for several years pending the drafting of a new constitution)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Pascal LISSOUBA elected president in 1992; percent of vote - Pascal LISSOUBA 61.3%, Bernard KOLELAS 38.7%; note - LISSOUBA was deposed in 1997, replaced by Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Transitional Council (75 seats, members elected by reconciliation forum of 1,420 delegates on NA January 1998); note - the National Transitional Council replaced the bicameral Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Transitional Council - last held NA January 1998 (next to be held NA 2001); note - at that election the National Transitional Council is to be replaced by a bicameral assembly
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National Transitional Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> the most important of the many parties are the Congolese Labor Party or PCT [Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO, president]; Association for Democracy and Social Progress or RDPS [Jean-Pierre Thystere TCHICAYA, president]; Congolese Movement for Democracy and Integral Development or MCDDI [Michel MAMPOUYA]; Pan-African Union for Social Development or UPADS [Martin MBERI]; Union of Democratic Forces or UFD [Sebastian EBAO]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Congolese Trade Union Congress or CSC; General Union of Congolese Pupils and Students or UGEEC; Revolutionary Union of Congolese Women or URFC; Union of Congolese Socialist Youth or UJSC
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> (vacant); Charge d'Affaires ad interim Serge MOMBOULI
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 4891 Colorado Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20011
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-5500
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-1860
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador David H. KAEUPER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [242] 81-14-73 (temporary)
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [242] 88-40524 (temporary)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the embassy is temporarily collocated with the US Embassy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (US Embassy Kinshasa, 310 Avenue des Aviateurs, Kinshasa)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> divided diagonally from the lower hoist side by a yellow band; the upper triangle (hoist side) is green and the lower triangle is red; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Economy|988305214
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based largely on oil, support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing. Oil has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy, providing a major share of government revenues and exports. In the early 1980s, rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with GDP growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest rates in Africa. Moreover, the government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its oil earnings, contributing to the government's shortage of revenues. The 12 January 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies by 50% resulted in inflation of 61% in 1994 but inflation has subsided since. Economic reform efforts continued with the support of international organizations, notably the World Bank and the IMF. The reform program came to a halt in June 1997 when civil war erupted. Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO, who returned to power when the war ended in October 1997, publicly expressed interest in moving forward on economic reforms and privatization and in renewing cooperation with international financial institutions. However, economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices in 1998, which worsened the Republic of the Congo's budget deficit. A second blow was the resumption of armed conflict in December 1998. Even with high world oil prices, Congo is unlikely to realize growth of more than 5% in 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.15 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,530 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 59%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 31% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $870 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $970 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum extraction, cement kilning, lumbering, brewing, sugar milling, palm oil, soap, cigarette making
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 503 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0.6%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 99.4%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 588 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 120 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cassava (tapioca), sugar, rice, corn, peanuts, vegetables, coffee, cocoa; forest products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum 50%, lumber, plywood, sugar, cocoa, coffee, diamonds
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 23%, Benelux 14%, Germany, Italy, Taiwan, China (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $770 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum products, capital equipment, construction materials, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 23%, US 9%, Belgium 8%, UK 7%, Italy (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $5 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $159.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications|988305237
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 21,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> services barely adequate for government use; key exchanges are in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, and Loubomo; intercity lines frequently out-of-order
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> primary network consists of microwave radio relay and coaxial cable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 341,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 33,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation|988305272
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 795 km (includes 285 km private track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 795 km 1.067-m gauge (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,800 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,242 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 11,558 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> the Congo and Ubangi (Oubangui) rivers provide 1,120 km of commercially navigable water transport; other rivers are used for local traffic only
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 25 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Brazzaville, Impfondo, Ouesso, Oyo, Pointe-Noire
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 36 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Military|988305290
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, Navy, Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 668,163 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 339,687 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 30,775 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $110 million (FY93)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.8% (FY93)
------
Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues|988305308
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> most of the Congo river boundary with the Democratic Republic of the Congo is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the Stanley Pool/Pool Malebo area)
------
Countries_of_the_world|988305346
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Cook_Island|988305364
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Austria/Language|988305450
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Austria]] has nearly an infinite number of dialects. The main ones are:
> 
> 1. Wienerisch - spoken in [[Vienna]]. Most Austrians detest it because they think that the Viennese people are annoying. It is the most comprehensible one for the German speakers.
> 
> 2. Tirolerisch - spoken in the state of [[Tirol]]. Very hard to understand.
> 
> 3. Vorarlbergerisch - spoken in the state of [[Vorarlberg]]. IMPOSSIBLE to understand - sounds like the Schwitzerdeutsch that is spoken by the Swiss.
> 
> Each of the three dialects has many variations. Other ones (Kärnterisch, Burgenländerisch, etc.) are easier to understand and harder to distinguish. Please note that the whole of Austria has less inhabitants than NYC. Most Austrians can easily switch from "normal" German to their home dialect (especially noticeable when students living in Vienna are phoning home to their parents), but a few do have problems in writing proper German.
> 
> ----
> ''The author of this article (WojPob) is a foreign student living in Austria.''
> 
> ''can you clarify? These are dialects of the German language?''
------
Cook_Island/History|988305476
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Named after Captain Cook, who sighted them in 1770, the islands became a British protectorate in 1888. By 1900, administrative control was transferred to New Zealand; in 1965 residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand. The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and government deficits are continuing problems.
------
Cook_Island/Geography|988305497
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, group of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 21 14 S, 159 46 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 240 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 240 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 1.3 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 120 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; moderated by trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low coral atolls in north; volcanic, hilly islands in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Te Manga 652 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 78% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons (November to March)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
------
Cook_Island/People|988305515
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 20,407 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.6% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 22.18 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.2 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 24.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.14 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 69.2 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.1 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cook Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cook Islander
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Polynesian (full blood) 81.3%, Polynesian and European 7.7%, Polynesian and non-European 7.7%, European 2.4%, other 0.9%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian (majority of populace are members of the Cook Islands Christian Church)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Maori
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Cook_Island/Government|988305539
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cook Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CW
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> self-governing in free association with New Zealand; Cook Islands is fully responsible for internal affairs; New Zealand retains responsibility for external affairs, in consultation with the Cook Islands
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> self-governing parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Avarua
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (became self-governing in free association with New Zealand on 4 August 1965 and has the right at any time to move to full independence by unilateral action)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Constitution Day, 4 August (1965)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 4 August 1965
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on New Zealand law and English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> NA years of age; universal adult
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Apenera SHORT (since NA); New Zealand High Commissioner Jon JONESSEN (since NA January 1998), representative of New Zealand
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Dr. Terepai MAOATE (since 18 November 1999); Deputy Prime Minister Norman GEORGE (since NA)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet chosen by the prime minister; collectively responsible to Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; the UK representative is appointed by the monarch; the New Zealand high commissioner is appointed by the New Zealand Government; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats usually becomes prime minister
> <br><i>note:</i>
> ten years of rule by the Cook Islands Party (CIP) came to an end 18 November 1999 with the resignation of Prime Minister Joe WILLIAMS; WILLIAMS had led a minority government since October 1999 when the New Alliance Party (NAP) left the government coalition and joined the main opposition Democratic Alliance Party (DAP); on 18 November 1999, DAP leader Dr. Terepai MAOATE was sworn in as prime minister
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament (25 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA June 1999 (next to be held by NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CIP 12, DAP 12, NAP 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the House of Arikis (chiefs) advises on traditional matters, but has no legislative powers
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Cook Islands Party or CIP [Joe WILLIAMS]; Democratic Alliance Party or DAP [Terepai MAOATE]; New Alliance Party or NAP [leader NA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, ESCAP (associate), FAO, ICAO, ICFTU, IFAD, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UNESCO, WHO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (self-governing in free association with New Zealand)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (self-governing in free association with New Zealand)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and a large circle of 15 white five-pointed stars (one for every island) centered in the outer half of the flag
------
Cook_Island/Economy|988305564
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Like many other South Pacific island nations, the Cook Islands' economic development is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate infrastructure. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of copra and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit-processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from New Zealand. Efforts to exploit tourism potential, encourage offshore banking, and expand the mining and fishing industries have been partially successful in stimulating investment and growth.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $112 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,600 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 73% (1995)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.6% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 6,601 (1993)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 29%, industry 15%, services 56% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fruit processing, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 15 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 14 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> copra, citrus, pineapples, tomatoes, beans, pawpaws, bananas, yams, taro, coffee
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $4.2 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> copra, papayas, fresh and canned citrus fruit, coffee; fish; pearls and pearl shells; clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> NZ 80%, Japan, Hong Kong (1993)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $85 million (c.i.f., 1994)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, textiles, fuels, timber, capital goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> NZ 49%, Italy, Australia (1993)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $141 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $13.1 million (1995); note - New Zealand furnishes the greater part
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Cook_Island/Communications|988305584
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 4,180 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and VHF and HF radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 14,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Cook_Island/Transportation|988305603
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 187 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 35 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 152 km (1980 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Avarua, Avatiu
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,310 GRT/2,181 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Cook_Island/Military|988305619
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of New Zealand, in consultation with the Cook Islands and at its request
------
Cook_Island/Transnational_issues|988305664
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
German_language|988305667
5c5
<    AustroBavarian - see AustriaLanguage
---
>    AustroBavarian - see [[Austria/Language]]
------
Austria/Language|988305705
14d13
< ''can you clarify? These are dialects of the German language?''
------
Countries_of_the_world|988305908
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Coral Sea Islands]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Afghanistan/Transnational_Issues|988305987
3,4c3,4
< Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit opium producer, surpassing Burma (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
< increase over 1998); a major source of hashish; increasing number of heroin-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
---
> Illicit drugs: world's largest illicit [[opium]] producer, surpassing [[Burma/Transnational issues|Burma]] (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 51,500 hectares, a 23%
> increase over 1998); a major source of [[hashish]]; increasing number of [[heroin]]-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit
------
Coral_Sea_Islands|988305999
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/History|988306110
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
> 
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Geography|988306162
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, islands in the Coral Sea, northeast of Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 00 S, 152 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> less than 3 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> less than 3 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes numerous small islands and reefs scattered over a sea area of about 1 million sq km, with the Willis Islets the most important
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3,095 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> sand and coral reefs and islands (or cays)
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Cato Island 6 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (mostly grass or scrub cover)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional, tropical cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no permanent fresh water resources
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> important nesting area for birds and turtles
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/People|988306277
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is a staff of three to four at the meteorological station (July 2000 est.)
------
Canada/Government|988306302
7c7
< <b>[[Government]] type:</b> [[confederation]] with [[Paliamentary democracy/parliamentary democracy]]
---
> <b>[[Government]] type:</b> [[confederation]] with [[parliamentary democracy]]
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Government|988306343
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Coral Sea Islands Territory
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Coral Sea Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CR
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> the laws of Australia, where applicable, apply
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> administered from Canberra by the Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Australia is used
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Economy|988306389
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Comm">Communications</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Communications - note:</b>
> there are automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs relaying data to the mainland
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Economy|988306438
3,8d2
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Comm">Communications</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Communications - note:</b>
< there are automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs relaying data to the mainland
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
< none; offshore anchorage only
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Communications|988306468
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <p><b>Communications - note:</b>
> there are automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs relaying data to the mainland
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Transportation|988306500
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Military|988306588
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Australia; visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy; Australia has control over the activities of visitors
------
Coral_Sea_Islands/Transnational_issues|988306605
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Costa_Rica|988306740
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Costa_Rica/History|988306802
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Costa Rica is a Central American success story: since the late 19th century, only two brief periods of violence have marred its democratic development. Although still a largely agricultural country, it has achieved a relatively high standard of living. Land ownership is widespread. Tourism is a rapidly expanding industry.
------
Costa_Rica/Geography|988306833
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Nicaragua and Panama
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 10 00 N, 84 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 51,100 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 50,660 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 440 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Isla del Coco
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 639 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Nicaragua 309 km, Panama 330 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,290 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical and subtropical; dry season (December to April); rainy season (May to November); cooler in highlands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plains separated by rugged mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Cerro Chirripo 3,810 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 12% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,200 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional earthquakes, hurricanes along Atlantic coast; frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active volcanoes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil erosion; water pollution (rivers); fisheries protection; solid waste management
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
------
Costa_Rica/People|988306862
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,710,558 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 32% (male 609,051; female 581,302)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 1,177,262; female 1,150,673)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 89,541; female 102,729) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.69% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.69 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.87 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 11.49 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.82 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.3 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.47 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.52 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Costa Rican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Costa Rican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> white (including mestizo) 94%, black 3%, Amerindian 1%, Chinese 1%, other 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 85%, Evangelical Protestant, approximately 14%, other less than 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish (official), English spoken around Puerto Limon
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 94.8%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 94.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 95% (1995 est.)
------
Costa_Rica/Government|988306891
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Costa Rica
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Costa Rica
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Costa Rica
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Costa Rica
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CS
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> democratic republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> San Jose
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limon, Puntarenas, San Jose
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 7 November 1949
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ (since 8 May 1998); First Vice President Astrid FISCHEL Volio (since 8 May 1998), Second Vice President Elizabeth ODIO Benito (since 8 May 1998); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ (since 8 May 1998); First Vice President Astrid FISCHEL Volio (since 8 May 1998), Second Vice President Elizabeth ODIO Benito (since 8 May 1998); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet selected by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice presidents elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 1 February 1998 (next to be held 2 February 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ elected president; percent of vote - Miguel Angel RODRIGUEZ (PUSC) 46.6%, Jose Miguel CORRALES (PLN) 44.6%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Assembly or Asamblea Legislativa (57 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 1 February 1998 (next to be held 2 February 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PUSC 41%, PLN 35%, minority parties 24%; seats by party - PUSC 27, PLN 23, minority parties 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), justices are elected for eight-year terms by the Legislative Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Agriculture Labor Action or PALA [Carlos Alberto SOLIS Blanco]; Costa Rican Renovation Party or PRC [Carlos AVENDANO Calvo]; Democratic Force Party or PFD [Jose NUNEZ]; Libertarian Movement Party or PML [Otto GUEVARA]; National Christian Alliance Party or ANC [Alejandro MADRIGAL Benavides]; National Independent Party or PNI [Jorge GONZALEZ Marten]; National Integration Party or PIN [Walter MUNOZ Cespedes]; National Liberation Party or PLN [Sonia PICADO]; Social Christian Unity Party or PUSC [Luis Manuel CHACON]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> mainly a two-party system - PUSC and PLN; numerous small parties share less than 25% of population's support
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Authentic Confederation of Democratic Workers or CATD (Communist Party affiliate); Chamber of Coffee Growers; Confederated Union of Workers or CUT (Communist Party affiliate); Costa Rican Confederation of Democratic Workers or CCTD (Liberation Party affiliate); Federation of Public Service Workers or FTSP; Free Costa Rica Movement or MCRL (rightwing militants); National Association for Economic Development or ANFE; National Association of Educators or ANDE
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jaime DAREMBLUM
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2114 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-2945
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-4795
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Albuquerque, Atlanta, Chicago, Durham, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and Tampa
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Austin
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Thomas J. DODD
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Pavas Road, San Jose
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AA 34020
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [506] 220-3939
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [506] 220-2305
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white disk on the hoist side of the red band
------
Costa_Rica/Economy|988306923
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Costa Rica's basically stable economy depends on tourism, agriculture, and electronics exports. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong social safety net has been put into place. Economic growth has rebounded from -0.9% in 1996 to 4% in 1997, 6% in 1998, and 7% in 1999. Inflation rose to 22.5% in 1995, dropped to 11.1% in 1997, 12% in 1998, and 11% in 1999. Large government deficits - fueled by interest payments on the massive internal debt - have undermined efforts to maintain the quality of social services. Curbing inflation, reducing the deficit, and improving public sector efficiency remain key challenges to the government. Political resistance to privatization has stalled liberalization efforts.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $26 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 64% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 34.7% (1996)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 10.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.377 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 20%, industry 22%, services 58% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.6% (1998 est.); 7.5% underemployment
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.93 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.27 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> microprocessors, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 24.5% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 5.742 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 9.28%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 80.62%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.267 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 77 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 4 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes; beef; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $6.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, bananas, sugar; textiles, electronic components, electricity
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 49%,  EU 22%, Central America 10% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $6.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum, electricity
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 41%, Japan 8.1%, Mexico 7.3%, Venezuela 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.9 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $107.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Costa Rican colon (C) = 100 centimos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Costa Rican colones (C) per US$1 - 299.63 (February 2000), 285.68 (1999), 257.23 (1998), 232.60 (1997), 207.69 (1996), 179.73 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Costa_Rica/Communications|988306940
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 451,000 (525,700 main lines installed) (yearend 1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 46,500 (December 1996)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> very good domestic telephone service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> point-to-point and point-to-multi-point microwave, fiber-optic and coaxial cable link rural areas; Internet service is available
> <br><i>international:</i>
> connected to Central American Microwave System; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); two submarine cables (1999)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 50, FM 43, shortwave 19 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 980,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (plus 11 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 525,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Costa_Rica/Transportation|988306960
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 950 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 950 km 1.067-m gauge (260 km electrified)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 37,273 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 7,827 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 29,446 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> about 730 km, seasonally navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 176 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Caldera, Golfito, Moin, Puerto Limon, Puerto Quepos, Puntarenas
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 155 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 127
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 29
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 98 (1999 est.)
------
Costa_Rica/Military|988306977
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Coast Guard, Air Section, Ministry of Public Security Force (Fuerza Publica);
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,010,087 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 676,691 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 38,043 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $55 million (FY95)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY95)
------
Costa_Rica/Transnational_issues|988306994
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment country for cocaine and heroin from South America; illicit production of cannabis on small, scattered plots; domestic cocaine consumption has risen
------
Countries_of_the_world|988307060
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Coral Sea Islands]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Coral_Sea_Islands]] - [[Costa_Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988307094
8c8
< <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Coral_Sea_Islands]] - [[Costa_Rica]] - [[CoteDIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
---
> <font size=+2>C</font><br> [[Cambodia]] - [[Cameroon]] - [[Canada]] - [[Cape Verde]] - [[Cayman Islands]] - [[Central African Republic]] - [[Chad]] - [[Chile]] - [[China]] - [[Christmas Island]] - [[Clipperton Island]] - [[Cocos Islands]] - [[Colombia]] - [[Comoros]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] - [[Cook Island]] - [[Coral Sea Islands]] - [[Costa Rica]] - [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] - [[Croatia]] - [[Cuba]] - [[Cyprus]] - [[Czech republic]]
------
Linguistics|988308872
9a10
> * [[cognitive linguistics]]
14a16
> * [[computational linguistics]]
23a26
> * [[cognitive science]]
------
Computational_linguistics|988308965
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of Natural Language Programming (NLP) as done by computer programs.
> 
------
Cardiac_arrhythmia|988311618
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Health Sciences > [[Medicine]] > [[Cardiology]] > Cardiac Arrhythmias
> 
> <b>Cardiac arrhytmias</b> is a term applied to disturbances of :
> * frequency of heart beats
> * regularity of heart beats
> * origin of heart beats impulse
> 
> :Frequency
> Increased frequency is described as [[/tachycardia]]
> <br>Decreased frequency is described as  [[/bradycardia]]
> 
> :Regularity
> Irregularity may be absolute - for example [[atrial fibrillation]] or
> with a pattern - for example [[bigeminia]] or [[trigeminia]].
> 
> :Origin
> In normal conditions heart beat impulses are generated in [[sinoatrial node]].
> If the impulse is generated in other parts of the heart it is regarded as a
> pathological phenomenon.
> 
> :Diagnosis
> The most simple and effective diagnostic test for assesment of heart rhythm is
> [[electrocardiogram]] ( abbreviated <b>ECG</b> or <b>EKG</b>.
------
Disabilities|988312850
39a40,41
> ::: [[Diabetes]]
> :::: [[Hypoglycemia]]
------
Hypoglycemia|988313171
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hypoglycemia is a disease caused by the overproduction of insulin, resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include fatigue, depression, nervousness, anxiety, constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, delirium, dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss, and insomnia.  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce coma.
------
Hypoglycemia|988318946
1c1,6
< Hypoglycemia is a disease caused by the overproduction of insulin, resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include fatigue, depression, nervousness, anxiety, constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, delirium, dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss, and insomnia.  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce coma.
---
> Hypoglycemia is a symptom of excessive amount of [[insulin]],
> resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include fatigue, depression,
> nervousness, anxiety, constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet,
> delirium, dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss,
> and insomnia.  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental
> illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce coma.
------
Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz|988318997
1c1,4
< witam i pozdrawiam;-) -- WojPob
---
> <b>Krzysztof P. Jasiutowicz</b> - a busy GP, Linux user (console
> version), would-be Wikipedian...
> 
> witam i pozdrawiam;-) -- WojPob
------
Hypoglycemia|988319038
2,6c2,6
< resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include fatigue, depression,
< nervousness, anxiety, constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet,
< delirium, dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss,
< and insomnia.  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental
< illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce coma.
---
> resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]],
> nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, 
> [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss,
> and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental
> illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce [[coma]].
------
Hypoglycemia|988319105
1c1
< Hypoglycemia is a symptom of excessive amount of [[insulin]],
---
> Hypoglycemia is caused by the overproduction of [[insulin]],
------
Endocrinology|988319486
3,5c3,17
<  
< Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and specific secrections of the
< system called [[hormone]]s.
---
> Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with [[Endocrine system]] and
> specific secrections of the system called [[hormone]]s.
> 
> More common endocrinological diseases are :
> * [[Hyperthyroidism ]] and [[Graves-Basedow disease]]
> * [[Diabetes ]]
> * [[Diabetes insipidus ]]
> * [[Hypothyroidism ]]
> * [[Conns Syndrome|Conn's Syndrome]]
> * [[Cushings disease|Cushing's disease]]
> * [[Addisons disease|Addison's disease]]
> * [[Adrenogenital syndrome]]
> * [[Gigantism]]
> * [[Acromegaly]]
> * [[Insulinoma]]
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988321857
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Inorganic chemistry is the study of molecules that contain any combination of elements except carbon. 
>  Major branches include:
>  * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, ...
>  * Metals, like iron, copper, aluminum, brass, bronze...
>  * Non-metallic compounds, like silicon, phosphorus...
>  Some important inorganic products are silicon chips, transistors, LCD screens, and fiber optics.
> 
> Inorganic chemistry often overlaps with analytical chemistry, environmental chemistry, and physical chemistry. Organometallic chemistry is combination of carbon-based chemistry and metallic chemistry. Hemoglobin is an important organometallic compound, containing both iron and carbon. 
> 
> Adding to the confusion, mixtures or minerals containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitrous oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988321906
10c10
< Adding to the confusion, mixtures or minerals containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitrous oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
---
> Adding to the confusion, mixtures or minerals containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitrous oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
------
Chemistry|988322047
5a6,7
> * [[Physical chemistry]] which ties into [[computational chemistry]]
> * [[Analytical chemistry]] which ties into [[environmental chemistry]]
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988322131
3c3
<  * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, ...
---
>  * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, chlorine gas...
------
Religion|988322375
5c5
< [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- ScientologY 
---
> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] 
------
Religion|988322406
8c8
< [[Bible]] -- TheKoran -- [[Torah]] -- [[Bhagavadgita]] -- [[Upanishads]] -- [[Vedas]] -- [[Palicanon]] -- [[The Book of Mormon]]
---
> [[Bible]] -- The Koran -- [[Torah]] -- [[Bhagavadgita]] -- [[Upanishads]] -- [[Vedas]] -- [[Palicanon]] -- [[The Book of Mormon]]
------
Christianity|988322455
3c3
< Christians believe The [[Bible]] is the word of [[God]], to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate The Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of [[Jesus Christ]].  It maintains that Jesus Christ is the messiah which the [[Jews]] have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]].  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of TheBible to be the word of [[God]].
---
> Christians believe The [[Bible]] is the word of [[God]], to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate The Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of [[Jesus Christ]].  It maintains that Jesus Christ is the messiah which the [[Jews]] have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]].  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of The Bible to be the word of [[God]].
------
Christianity|988323069
1c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more moderate sects he was simply someone who was had new insights and something to teach.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more liberal sects he was simply someone who had new insights and something to teach.
3c3
< Christians believe The [[Bible]] is the word of [[God]], to some degree or another (that is, many christians disagree about how accurate The Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of [[Jesus Christ]].  It maintains that Jesus Christ is the messiah which the [[Jews]] have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]].  Christians and Jews both consider the first five books of The Bible to be the word of [[God]].
---
> Christians believe the [[Bible]] is the word of [[God]], to some degree or another (that is, many Christians disagree about how accurate the Bible is and how literally it should be taken).  The Bible is the most widely regarded source of information on the life of [[Jesus Christ]].  It maintains that Jesus Christ is the messiah which the [[Jews]] have long awaited; thus Christianity could be considered (at least by Christians) the continuation or fulfillment of the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]].  Christians and Jews both consider the first 39 books of the Bible to be the word of [[God]].
9c9
< Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of JohnCalvin and MartinLuther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had GoD's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
---
> Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of John Calvin and Martin Luther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had God's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
11c11
< Several other faiths which also believe in JesusChrist claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from God to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
---
> Several other faiths, which also believe in Jesus Christ, claim not to be descended from either of these groups directly.  [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], for instance, while often grouped with Protestant religions, believes that it alone has authority from God to perform religous rites, much like the Catholics' belief.
24c24
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]]
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]] -- [[Pentacostal]] --[[Coptic]]
26c26
< Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [[Jehovas Witnesses]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]]
---
> Related Christian Movements: [[Mormonism]] -- [[Jehovas Witnesses]] -- [[Seventh Day Adventists]] -- [[Unification Church]] -- [[Unitarianism]]
------
Religion|988323152
5c5
< [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] 
---
> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] -- [[Zoarastrianism]]
------
Koyaansqatsi2350|988323877
6c6
< It is a great film.  Unfortunately I may have done it a disservice by choosing this user name; I did not assume that a wiki would be created for each user and I would much prefer that the Wiki contain only information about the film, which is likely to be of greater lasting interest.  :-)  Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
---
> Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
------
Island|988324105
36a37
> * [[Cook Island]]
------
Koyaansqatsi2350|988324347
1d0
< Welcome, Koyaanisqatsi.
3,17d1
< I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
< 
< ----
< Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
< 
< ----
< Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
< 
< ----
< If you want to use another name, simply sign in with a different one, move the relevant information from this page to a new one, and that's it. You don't need the intervention of anybody else.
< One posible name is KoyaaNisqatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
< AstroNomer.
< 
< ----
< thank you for the welcome, LMS.  I'm glad to help.  And thank you, AstroNomer, for the suggestion.  that had not occurred to me.  And Newsweek just put out an article about how IQs are rising.  :-)
------
KoyaanisQatsi|988324376
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Koyaanisqatsi.
> 
> I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
> 
> ----
> Thanks for the welcome; I'm glad to have found the resource.
> 
> ----
> Yes, welcome!  Thanks for putting all this CIA factbook info into Wikipedia! --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> If you want to use another name, simply sign in with a different one, move the relevant information from this page to a new one, and that's it. You don't need the intervention of anybody else.
> One posible name is KoyaaisQatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
> AstroNomer.
> 
> ----
> thank you for the welcome, LMS.  I'm glad to help.  And thank you, AstroNomer, for the suggestion.  that had not occurred to me.  And Newsweek just put out an article about how IQs are rising.  :-)
> 
------
KoyaanisQatsi|988324402
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< One posible name is KoyaaisQatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
---
> One posible name is KoyaanisQatsi (or some other old style wikification), that's how I difference [[astronomer]] from
------
Cote_DIvoire|988327372
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cote_DIvoire/History|988327390
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Close ties to France since independence in 1960, diversification of agriculture for export, and encouragement of foreign investment have made Cote d'Ivoire the most prosperous of the tropical African states. About 20% of the population are workers from neighboring countries. On 25 December 1999, a military coup - the first ever in Cote d'Ivoire's history - overthrew the government. The new regime has promised to return the country to democratic rule in 2000.
------
Cote_DIvoire/Geography|988327436
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Ghana and Liberia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 8 00 N, 5 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 322,460 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 318,000 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 4,460 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than New Mexico
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,110 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Burkina Faso 584 km, Ghana 668 km, Guinea 610 km, Liberia 716 km, Mali 532 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 515 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical along coast, semiarid in far north; three seasons - warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), hot and wet (June to October)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to undulating plains; mountains in northwest
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Gulf of Guinea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Nimba 1,752 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, diamonds, manganese, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite, copper, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 41%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 25% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 680 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> coast has heavy surf and no natural harbors; during the rainy season torrential flooding is possible
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Cote_DIvoire/People|988327460
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 15,980,950
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 46.45% (male 3,726,388; female 3,696,462)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 51.36% (male 4,222,333; female 3,985,249)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2.19% (male 175,606; female 174,912) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.58% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 40.78 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 16.57 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 1.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> after Liberia's civil war started in 1990, more than 350,000 refugees fled to Cote d'Ivoire; by the end of 1999 all Liberian refugees were assumed to have returned; the 2000 rate reflects labor in migration
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 95.06 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 45.15 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 43.72 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 46.63 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Ivorian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Ivorian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Baoule 23%, Bete 18%, Senoufou 15%, Malinke 11%, Agni, Africans from other countries (mostly Burkinabe and Malians, about 3 million), non-Africans 130,000 to 330,000 (French 30,000 and Lebanese 100,000 to 300,000)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 60%, Christian 22%, indigenous 18% (some of these are also numbered among the Christians and Muslims)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), 60 native dialects with Dioula the most widely spoken
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 48.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 57%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 40%
------
Cote_DIvoire/Government|988327489
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Cote d'Ivoire
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cote d'Ivoire
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique de Cote d'Ivoire
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Cote d'Ivoire
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Ivory Coast
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IV
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic; multiparty presidential regime established 1960
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Yamoussoukro
> <br><i>note:</i>
> although Yamoussoukro has been the capital since 1983, Abidjan remains the administrative center; the US, like other countries, maintains its Embassy in Abidjan
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 50 departments (departements, singular - departement); Abengourou, Abidjan, Aboisso, Adzope, Agboville, Agnibilekrou, Bangolo, Beoumi, Biankouma, Bondoukou, Bongouanou, Bouafle, Bouake, Bouna, Boundiali, Dabakala, Daloa, Danane, Daoukro, Dimbokro, Divo, Duekoue, Ferkessedougou, Gagnoa, Grand-Lahou, Guiglo, Issia, Katiola, Korhogo, Lakota, Man, Mankono, Mbahiakro, Odienne, Oume, Sakassou, San-Pedro, Sassandra, Seguela, Sinfra, Soubre, Tabou, Tanda, Tingrela, Tiassale, Touba, Toumodi, Vavoua, Yamoussoukro, Zuenoula
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Cote d'Ivoire may have a new administrative structure consisting of 58 departments; the following additional departments have been reported but not yet confirmed by the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN); Adiake', Ale'pe', Dabon, Grand Bassam, Jacqueville, Tiebissou, Toulepleu, Bocanda
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 7 August (1960) (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 7 August
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 3 November 1960; has been amended numerous times, last time July 1998
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Gen. Robert GUEI (since 25 December 1999); note - took power following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan BEDIE; president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Gen. Robert GUEI (since 25 December 1999); note - took power following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan BEDIE; president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> prior to the coup, president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 22 October 1995 (next was scheduled to be held by October 2000); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> results of the last election prior to the coup were: Henri Konan BEDIE elected president; percent of vote - Henri Konan BEDIE 95.25%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (175 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> elections last held 27 November 1995 (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDCI 150, RDR 13, FPI 12
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a Senate will be created in the next election
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Party of Cote d'Ivoire or PDCI [Jean Konan BANNY, acting head]; Ivorian Popular Front or FPI [Laurent GBAGBO]; Ivorian Worker's Party or PIT [Francis WODIE]; Rally of the Republicans or RDR [Henriette DAGRI-DIABATE]; over 20 smaller parties
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Koffi Moise KOUMOUE-KOFFI
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3421 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 797-0300
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador George MU
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> 01 B. P. 1712, Abidjan
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [225] 21 09 79, 21 46 72
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [225] 22 32 59
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the flag of France
------
Cote_DIvoire/Economy|988327511
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Cote d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of coffee, cocoa beans, and palm oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products and to weather conditions. Despite attempts by the government to diversify the economy, it is still largely dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 68% of the population. After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in 1994, due to the devaluation of the CFA franc and improved prices for cocoa and coffee, growth in nontraditional primary exports such as pineapples and rubber, limited trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and France. The 50% devaluation of Franc Zone currencies on 12 January 1994 caused a one-time jump in the inflation rate to 26% in 1994, but the rate fell sharply in 1996-99. Moreover, government adherence to donor-mandated reforms led to a jump in growth to 5% annually in 1996-99. Growth may slow in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $25.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,600 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.8%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 28.5% (1988)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.3 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $640 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> foodstuffs, beverages; wood products, oil refining, automobile assembly, textiles, fertilizer, construction materials, electricity
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 15% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 3.36 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 35.71%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 64.29%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 3.165 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 40 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, corn, rice, manioc (tapioca), sweet potatoes, sugar, cotton, rubber; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $3.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cocoa 37%, coffee, tropical woods, petroleum, cotton, bananas, pineapples, palm oil, cotton, fish (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 17%, Netherlands 12%, US 9%, Italy 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, consumer goods; capital goods, fuel, transport equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 29%, US 5%, Italy 5%, Germany 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $16.8 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> ODA, $1 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Cote_DIvoire/Communications|988327527
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 182,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> more than 60,000 (December 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> well-developed by African standards but operating well below capacity
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> open-wire lines and microwave radio relay; 90% digitalized
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); 2 coaxial submarine cables (June 1999)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.26 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 14 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 900,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Cote_DIvoire/Transportation|988327545
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 660 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 660 km 1.000-meter gauge; 25 km double track (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 50,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,889 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 45,511 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 980 km navigable rivers, canals, and numerous coastal lagoons
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Abidjan, Aboisso, Dabou, San-Pedro
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,200 GRT/1,500 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 36 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 29
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 9 (1999 est.)
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Cote_DIvoire/Military|988327561
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Gendarmerie, Republican Guard (includes Presidential Guard), Sapeur-Pompier (Military Fire Group)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,743,353 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,952,882 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 182,936 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $94 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY96)
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Cote_DIvoire/Transnational_issues|988327577
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for local consumption; minor transshipment point for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin to Europe and occasionally to the US, and for Latin American cocaine destined for Europe
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Croatia|988327658
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Croatia/History|988327684
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> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1918, the Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes formed a kingdom known after 1929 as Yugoslavia. Following World War II, Yugoslavia became an independent communist state under the strong hand of Marshal TITO. Although Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, it took four years of sporadic, but often bitter, fighting before occupying Serb armies were mostly cleared from Croatian lands. Under UN supervision the last Serb-held enclave in eastern Slavonia was returned to Croatia in 1998.
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Croatia/Geography|988327705
1c1,62
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea, between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 45 10 N, 15 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 56,538 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 56,410 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 128 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,197 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Bosnia and Herzegovina 932 km, Hungary 329 km, Serbia and Montenegro 266 km (241 km with Serbia; 25 km with Montenegro), Slovenia 670 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 5,790 km (mainland 1,778 km, islands 4,012 km)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean and continental; continental climate predominant with hot summers and cold winters; mild winters, dry summers along coast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> geographically diverse; flat plains along Hungarian border, low mountains and highlands near Adriatic coastline and islands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Adriatic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Dinara 1,830 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> oil, some coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 19% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 30 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent and destructive earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution (from metallurgical plants) and resulting acid rain is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; widespread casualties and destruction of infrastructure in border areas affected by civil strife
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> controls most land routes from Western Europe to Aegean Sea and Turkish Straits
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Croatia/People|988327727
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,282,216 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 396,484; female 376,267)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,445,101; female 1,420,159)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 238,853; female 405,352) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.93% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 11.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 7.98 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.59 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.35 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73.67 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.04 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.51 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.94 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Croat(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Croatian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Croat 78.1%, Serb 12.2%, Muslim 0.9%, Hungarian 0.5%, Slovenian 0.5%, Czech 0.4%, Albanian 0.3%, Montenegrin 0.3%, Roma 0.2%, others 6.6% (1991)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 76.5%, Orthodox 11.1%, Muslim 1.2%, Protestant 0.4%, others and unknown 10.8% (1991)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Croatian 96%, other 4% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and German)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 95% (1991 est.)
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Croatia/Government|988327749
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Croatia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Croatia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republika Hrvatska
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Hrvatska
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> presidential/parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Zagreb
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 20 counties (zupanije, zupanija - singular), 1 city (grad -singular)*: Bjelovarsko-Bilogorska Zupanija, Brodsko-Posavska Zupanija, Dubrovacko-Neretvanska Zupanija, Istarska Zupanija, Karlovacka Zupanija, Koprivnicko-Krizevacka Zupanija, Krapinsko-Zagorska Zupanija, Licko-Senjska Zupanija, Medimurska Zupanija, Osjecko-Baranjska Zupanija, Pozesko-Slavonska Zupanija, Primorsko-Goranska Zupanija, Sibensko-Kninska Zupanija, Sisacko-Moslavacka Zupanija, Splitsko-Dalmatinska Zupanija, Varazdinska Zupanija, Viroviticko-Podravska Zupanija, Vukovarsko-Srijemska Zupanija, Zadarska Zupanija, Zagreb*, Zagrebacka Zupanija
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 25 June 1991 (from Yugoslavia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Statehood Day, 30 May (1990)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted on 22 December 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal (16 years of age, if employed)
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Stjepan (Stipe) MESIC (since 18 February 2000)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Ivica RACAN (since 27 January 2000); Deputy Prime Ministers Goran GRANIC (since NA February 2000), Zeljka ANTUNOVIC (since NA February 2000), Slavko LINIC (since NA February 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers named by the prime minister and approved by the president and the House of Representatives
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 7 February 2000 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Stjepan MESIC elected president; percent of vote - Stjepan MESIC (HNS) 56%, Drazen BUDISA (HSLS) 44%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - SDP, HSLS, HSS, LP, HNS, IDS
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Assembly or Sabor consists of the House of Counties or Zupanijski Dom (68 seats - 63 directly elected by popular vote, 5 appointed by the president; members serve four-year terms) and House of Representatives or the Zastupnicki Dom (151 seats, members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Counties - last held 13 April 1997 (next to be held NA 2001); House of Representatives - last held 2-3 January 2000 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Counties - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - HDZ 42, HDZ/HSS 11, HSS 2, IDS 2, SDP/PGS/HNS 2, SDP/HNS 2, HSLS/HSS/HNS 1, HSLS 1; note - in some districts certain parties ran as coalitions, while in others they ran alone; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - HDZ 46, SDP 44, HSLS 24, HSS 17, HSP/HKDU 5, IDS 4, HNS 2, independents 4, others 5
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed for eight-year terms by the Judicial Council of the Republic, which is elected by the House of Representatives; Constitutional Court, judges appointed for eight-year terms by the Judicial Council of the Republic, which is elected by the House of Representatives
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action of the Social Democrats of Croatia or ASH [Silvije DEGEN]; Alliance of Croatian Coast and Mountains Department or PGS [Luciano SUSANJ]; Croatian Christian Democratic Union or HKDU [Marko VESELICA, president]; Croatian Democratic Independents or HND [Josip MANOLIC, president]; Croatian Democratic Union or HDZ [Vladimir SEKS, acting president]; Croatian Party of Rights or HSP [Anto DJAPIC]; Croatian Party of Rights 1861 or HSP 1861 [Dobrislav PARAGA]; Croatian Peasant Party or HSS [Zlatko TOMCIC]; Croatian People's Party or HNS [Radimir CACIC, president]; Croatian Social Liberal Party or HSLS [Drazen BUDISA, president]; Independent Democratic Serb Party or SDSS [Vojislav STANIMIROVIC]; Istrian Democratic Assembly or IDS [Ivan JAKOVCIC]; Liberal Party or LP [Vlado GOTOVAC, president]; Party of Democratic Action or SDA [Semso TANKOVIC]; Primorje Gorski Kotar Alliance [leader NA]; Serbian National Party or SNS [Milan DJUKIC]; Slanvonsko-Baranja Croatian Party or SBHS [Damir JURIC]; Social Democratic Party of Croatia or SDP [Ivica RACAN]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Social Democratic Party or SDP and the Croatian Social Liberal Party or HSLS formed a coalition as did the HSS, HNS, LP, and IDS, which together defeated the Croatian Democratic Union or HDZ in the 2000 lower house parliamentary election
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BIS, CCC, CE, CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Miomir ZUZUL
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2343 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 588-5899
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 588-8936
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador William D. MONTGOMERY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Andrije Hebranga 2, Zagreb
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [385] (1) 455-55-00
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [385] (1) 455-85-85
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red, white, and blue horizontal bands with Croatian coat of arms (red and white checkered)
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Croatia/Economy|988327771
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Before the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Croatia faces considerable economic problems stemming from: the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy; damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and the disruption of economic ties. Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, would help restore the economy. The government has been successful in some reform efforts - partially macroeconomic stabilization policies - and it has normalized relations with its creditors. Yet it still is struggling with privatization of large state enterprises and with bank reform. The recession that began at the end of 1998 continued through most of 1999, and GDP growth for the year was flat. Inflation remained in check and the kuna was stable. The death of President TUDJMAN in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Coatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 has ushered in a new government committed to economic reform but faced with the challenge of halting the economic decline.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 66% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.4% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.65 million (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 20% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $6 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $4.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> chemicals and plastics, machine tools, fabricated metal, electronics, pig iron and rolled steel products, aluminum, paper, wood products, construction materials, textiles, shipbuilding, petroleum and petroleum refining, food and beverages; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 9.515 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 42.72%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 57.28%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 12.949 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 900 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 5 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seed, alfalfa, clover, olives, citrus, grapes, vegetables; livestock, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $4.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> textiles, chemicals, foodstuffs, fuels
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Italy 21%, Germany 18%, Bosnia and Herzegovina 15%, Slovenia 12% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.4 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany 20%, Italy 19%, Slovenia 8%, Austria 8% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $8.1 billion (October 1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Croatian kuna (HRK) = 100 lipas
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Croatian kuna per US$1 - 7.591 (January 2000), 7.112 (1999), 6.362 (1998), 6.157 (1997), 5.434 (1996), 5.230 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Croatia/Communications|988327787
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.477 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 187,000 (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> reconstruction plan calls for replacement of all analog circuits with digital and enlarging the network; a backup will be included in the plan for the main trunk
> <br><i>international:</i>
> digital international service is provided through the main switch in Zagreb; Croatia participates in the TEL project which consists of two fiber-optic trunk connections with Slovenia and a fiber-optic trunk line from Rijeka to Split and Dubrovnik; Croatia is also investing in ADRIA 1, a joint fiber-optic project with Germany, Albania, and Greece (2000)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 16, FM 98, shortwave 5 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.51 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 36 (plus 321 repeaters) (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.22 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 4 (1999)
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Croatia/Transportation|988327814
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,296 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 2,296 km 1.435-m gauge (983 km electrified)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> some lines remain inoperative or not in use; disrupted by territorial dispute (1997)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27,840 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 23,497 km (including 330 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 4,343 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 785 km perennially navigable; large sections of Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 670 km; petroleum products 20 km; natural gas 310 km (1992); note - under repair following territorial dispute
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Dubrovnik, Dugi Rat, Omisalj, Ploce, Pula, Rijeka, Sibenik, Split, Vukovar (inland waterway port on Danube), Zadar
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 65 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 818,887 GRT/1,232,803 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 15, cargo 25, chemical tanker 1, combination bulk 5, container 5, liquified gas 1, multi-functional large load carrier 3, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 4, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 67 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 8 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 45
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 36 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Croatia/Military|988327830
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Frontier Guard, Home Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,086,805 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 860,023 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 30,022 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $950 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5% (FY99)
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Croatia/Transnational_issues|988327847
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Eastern Slavonia, which was held by ethnic Serbs during the ethnic conflict between the Croats and the Serbs, was returned to Croatian control by the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia on 15 January 1998; Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from World War II over property and ethnic minority rights; significant progress has been made with Slovenia toward resolving a maritime border dispute over direct access to the sea in the Adriatic; Serbia and Montenegro is disputing Croatia's claim to the Prevlaka Peninsula in southern Croatia because it controls the entrance to Boka Kotorska in Montenegro; Prevlaka is currently under observation by the UN Military Observer Mission in Prevlaka (UNMOP)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transit point along the Balkan route for Southwest Asian heroin to Western Europe; a minor transit point for maritime shipments of South American cocaine bound for Western Europe
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Cuba|988327948
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Cuba/History|988327963
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Fidel CASTRO led a rebel army to victory in 1959; his iron will has held the country together since. Cuba's communist revolution, with Soviet support, was exported throughout Latin America and Africa during the 1960s, 70s, and 80s. The country is now slowly recovering from a severe economic recession following the withdrawal of former Soviet subsidies, worth $4 billion to $6 billion annually, in 1990. Havana blames its difficulties on the US embargo in place since 1962.
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Cuba/Geography|988328002
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, south of Florida
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 21 30 N, 80 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 110,860 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 110,860 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 29 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay 29 km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Guantanamo Naval Base is leased by the US and thus remains part of Cuba
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3,735 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; moderated by trade winds; dry season (November to April); rainy season (May to October)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to rolling plains, with rugged hills and mountains in the southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Pico Turquino 2,005 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> cobalt, nickel, iron ore, copper, manganese, salt, timber, silica, petroleum, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 18% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 9,100 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the east coast is subject to hurricanes from August to October (in general, the country averages about one hurricane every other year); droughts are common
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> pollution of Havana Bay; overhunting threatens wildlife populations; deforestation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> largest country in Caribbean
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Population:</b>
> 11,141,997 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 21% (male 1,221,602; female 1,157,846)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 69% (male 3,849,135; female 3,829,599)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 503,711; female 580,104) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.39% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.87 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.21 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.84 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.73 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.6 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cuban(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cuban
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mulatto 51%, white 37%, black 11%, Chinese 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> nominally 85% Roman Catholic prior to CASTRO assuming power; Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and Santeria are also represented
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 96.2%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 95.3% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>People - note:</b>
> illicit migration is a continuing problem; Cubans attempt to depart the island and enter the US using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsified visas; some 3,800 Cubans took to the Florida Straits in 1999; the US Coast Guard interdicted about 40% of these migrants
------
Cuba/Government|988328035
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Cuba
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cuba
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Cuba
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Cuba
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> Communist state
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Havana
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 special municipality* (municipio especial); Camaguey, Ciego de Avila, Cienfuegos, Ciudad de La Habana, Granma, Guantanamo, Holguin, Isla de la Juventud*, La Habana, Las Tunas, Matanzas, Pinar del Rio, Sancti Spiritus, Santiago de Cuba, Villa Clara
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 20 May 1902 (from Spain 10 December 1898; administered by the US from 1898 to 1902)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Rebellion Day, 26 July (1953); Liberation Day, 1 January (1959)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 24 February 1976, amended July 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Spanish and American law, with large elements of Communist legal theory; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 16 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Fidel CASTRO Ruz (prime minister from February 1959 until 24 February 1976, when office was abolished; president since 2 December 1976); First Vice President of the Council of State and First Vice President of the Council of Ministers Gen. Raul CASTRO Ruz (since 2 December 1976); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Fidel CASTRO Ruz (prime minister from February 1959 until 24 February 1976 when office was abolished; president since 2 December 1976); First Vice President of the Council of State and First Vice President of the Council of Ministers Gen. Raul CASTRO Ruz (since 2 December 1976); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers proposed by the president of the Council of State, appointed by the National Assembly
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Council of State whose members are elected by the National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected by the National Assembly; election last held 24 February 1998 (next election unscheduled)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Fidel CASTRO Ruz elected president; percent of legislative vote - 100%; Raul CASTRO Ruz elected vice president; percent of legislative vote - 100%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly of People's Power or Asemblea Nacional del Poder Popular (601 seats, elected directly from slates approved by special candidacy commissions; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 January 1998 (next to be held in 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - PCC 94.39%; seats - PCC 601
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> People's Supreme Court or Tribunal Supremo Popular; president, vice president, and other judges are elected by the National Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> only party - Cuban Communist Party or PCC [Fidel CASTRO Ruz, first secretary]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IAEA, ICAO, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, NAM, OAS (excluded from formal participation since 1962), OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - Cuba has an Interests Section in the Swiss Embassy, headed by Principal Officer Fernando REMIREZ DE ESTENOZ; address: Cuban Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, 2630 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009; telephone: [1] (202) 797-8518
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none; note - the US has an Interests Section in the Swiss Embassy, headed by Principal Officer Vicki HUDDLESTON; address: USINT, Swiss Embassy, Calzada between L and M Streets, Vedado Seccion, Havana; telephone: 33-3551 through 3559 and 33-3543 through 3547 (operator assistance required); FAX: 33-3700; protecting power in Cuba is Switzerland
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> five equal horizontal bands of blue (top and bottom) alternating with white; a red equilateral triangle based on the hoist side bears a white, five-pointed star in the center
------
Cuba/Geography|988328071
65,126d64
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Population:</b>
< 11,141,997 (July 2000 est.)
< <p><b>Age structure:</b>
< <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
< 21% (male 1,221,602; female 1,157,846)
< <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
< 69% (male 3,849,135; female 3,829,599)
< <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
< 10% (male 503,711; female 580,104) (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
< 0.39% (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
< 12.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Death rate:</b>
< 7.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
< -1.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
< <br><i>at birth:</i>
< 1.06 male(s)/female
< <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
< 1.06 male(s)/female
< <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
< 1.01 male(s)/female
< <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
< 0.87 male(s)/female
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
< 7.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 76.21 years
< <br><i>male:</i>
< 73.84 years
< <br><i>female:</i>
< 78.73 years (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
< 1.6 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Nationality:</b>
< <br><i>noun:</i>
< Cuban(s)
< <br><i>adjective:</i>
< Cuban
< <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
< mulatto 51%, white 37%, black 11%, Chinese 1%
< <p><b>Religions:</b>
< nominally 85% Roman Catholic prior to CASTRO assuming power; Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and Santeria are also represented
< <p><b>Languages:</b>
< Spanish
< <p><b>Literacy:</b>
< <br><i>definition:</i>
< age 15 and over can read and write
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 95.7%
< <br><i>male:</i>
< 96.2%
< <br><i>female:</i>
< 95.3% (1995 est.)
< <p><b>People - note:</b>
< illicit migration is a continuing problem; Cubans attempt to depart the island and enter the US using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsified visas; some 3,800 Cubans took to the Florida Straits in 1999; the US Coast Guard interdicted about 40% of these migrants
------
Cuba/People|988328086
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 11,141,997 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 21% (male 1,221,602; female 1,157,846)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 69% (male 3,849,135; female 3,829,599)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 503,711; female 580,104) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.39% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.87 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.21 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.84 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.73 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.6 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cuban(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cuban
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mulatto 51%, white 37%, black 11%, Chinese 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> nominally 85% Roman Catholic prior to CASTRO assuming power; Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, Jews, and Santeria are also represented
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 96.2%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 95.3% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>People - note:</b>
> illicit migration is a continuing problem; Cubans attempt to depart the island and enter the US using homemade rafts, alien smugglers, or falsified visas; some 3,800 Cubans took to the Florida Straits in 1999; the US Coast Guard interdicted about 40% of these migrants
------
Cuba/Economy|988328113
1c1,82
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The state under the durable dictatorship of Fidel CASTRO plays the primary role in the domestic economy and controls practically all foreign trade. The government has undertaken several reforms in recent years to stem excess liquidity, increase labor incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services. The liberalized agricultural markets introduced in October 1994, at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at unrestricted prices, have broadened legal consumption alternatives and reduced black market prices. Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official exchange rate for the Cuban peso to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by yearend 1999. New taxes introduced in 1996 have helped drive down the number of self-employed workers from 208,000 in January 1996. Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93, the result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The drop in GDP apparently halted in 1994, when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in 1997 and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. Growth recovered again in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP, due to the continued growth of tourism. Central control is complicated by the existence of the informal economy, much of which is denominated in dollars. Living standards for the average (dollarless) Cuban remain at a depressed level compared with 1990. The continuation of gradual economic reforms and increase in tourism suggest growth of 4% to 5% in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $18.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 6.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 7.4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 36.5%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 56.1% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.5 million economically active population
> <br><i>note:</i>
> state sector 76%, non-state sector 24% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 23%, industry 24%, services 53%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6% (December 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $13.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $14.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> sugar, petroleum, food, tobacco, textiles, chemicals, paper and wood products, metals (particularly nickel), cement, fertilizers, consumer goods, agricultural machinery
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 6% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 15.274 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 89.52%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.65%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 9.83% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 14.205 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> sugar, nickel, tobacco, shellfish, medical products, citrus, coffee
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia 25%, Netherlands 23%, Canada 16% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $3.2 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Spain 16%, Venezuela 15%, Mexico 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $11.2 billion (convertible currency, 1998); another $20 billion owed to Russia (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $68.2 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Cuban peso (Cu$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Cuban pesos (Cu$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (nonconvertible, official rate, linked to the US dollar)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Cuba/Communications|988328131
1c1,19
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 353,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,939 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> principal trunk system, end to end of country, is coaxial cable; fiber-optic distribution in Havana and on Isla de la Juventud; 2 microwave radio relay installations (one is old, US-built; the other newer, Soviet-built); both analog and digital mobile cellular service established
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 169, FM 55, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.9 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 58 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2.64 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Cuba/Transportation|988328151
1c1,45
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,807 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 4,807 km 1.435-m gauge (147 km electrified)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a large amount of track is in private use by sugar plantations
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 60,858 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 29,820 km (including 638 km of expressway)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 31,038 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 240 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cienfuegos, Havana, Manzanillo, Mariel, Matanzas, Nuevitas, Santiago de Cuba
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 63,269 GRT/90,228 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 7, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 170 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 77
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 35 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 93
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 32
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 61 (1999 est.)
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Cuba/Military|988328168
1c1,25
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) includes ground forces, Revolutionary Navy (MGR), Air and Air Defense Force (DAAFAR), Territorial Troops Militia (MTT), and Youth Labor Army (EJT); the Border Guard (TGF) is controlled by the Interior Ministry
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,079,352
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 3,022,063 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,906,172
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 1,865,369 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 80,771
> <br><i>females:</i>
> 76,819 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> roughly 4% (FY95 est.)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> Moscow, for decades the key military supporter and supplier of Cuba, cut off almost all military aid by 1993
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Cuba/Transnational_issues|988328184
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased to US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> territorial waters and air space serve as transshipment zone for cocaine bound for the US and Europe; established the death penalty for certain drug-related crimes in 1999
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Cyprus|988328257
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Cyprus/History|988328272
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Independence from the UK was approved in 1960 with constitutional guarantees by the Greek Cypriot majority to the Turkish Cypriot minority. In 1974 a Greek-sponsored attempt to seize the government was met by military intervention from Turkey, which soon controlled almost 40% of the island. In 1983 the Turkish-held area declared itself the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, but it is recognized only by Turkey. Cyprus talks resumed in December 1999 to prepare the ground for a comprehensive settlement.
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Cyprus/Geography|988328295
1c1,57
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Turkey
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 35 00 N, 33 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9,250 sq km (of which 3,355 sq km are in the Turkish Cypriot area)
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 9,240 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 10 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.6 times the size of Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 648 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate, Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and cool, winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> central plain with mountains to north and south; scattered but significant plains along southern coast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Olympus 1,951 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> copper, pyrites, asbestos, gypsum, timber, salt, marble, clay earth pigment
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 70% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 390 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> moderate earthquake activity
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifer, increased salination in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
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Cyprus/People|988328314
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 758,363 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 91,075; female 86,832)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 252,252; female 247,464)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11% (male 35,149; female 45,591) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.6% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 13.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.68 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.44 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.77 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 8.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.71 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.43 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.1 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Cypriot(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Cypriot
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Greek 78% (99.5% of the Greeks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.5% of the Greeks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), Turkish 18% (1.3% of the Turks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 98.7% of the Turks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), other 4% (99.2% of the other ethnic groups live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.8% of the other ethnic groups live in the Turkish Cypriot area)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Greek Orthodox 78%, Muslim 18%, Maronite, Armenian Apostolic, and other 4%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Greek, Turkish, English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 94%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 91% (1987 est.)
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Cyprus/Government|988328343
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Cyprus
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Cyprus
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Turkish Cypriot area refers to itself as the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CY
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a disaggregation of the two ethnic communities inhabiting the island began after the outbreak of communal strife in 1963; this separation was further solidified following the Turkish intervention in July 1974 following a Greek junta-based coup attempt, which gave the Turkish Cypriots de facto control in the north; Greek Cypriots control the only internationally recognized government; on 15 November 1983 Turkish Cypriot "President" Rauf DENKTASH declared independence and the formation of a "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" (TRNC), which has been recognized only by Turkey; both sides publicly call for the resolution of intercommunal differences and creation of a new federal system (Greek Cypriot position) or confederate system (Turkish Cypriot position) of government
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Nicosia
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Turkish Cypriot area's capital is Lefkosa (Nicosia)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 districts; Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Nicosia, Paphos; note - Turkish Cypriot area's administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta, and small parts of Lefkosa (Nicosia) and Larnaca
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 16 August 1960 (from UK)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Turkish Cypriot area proclaimed self-rule on 13 February 1975 from Republic of Cyprus
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 1 October; note - Turkish Cypriot area celebrates 15 November as Independence Day
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 16 August 1960; negotiations to create the basis for a new or revised constitution to govern the island and to better relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots have been held intermittently; in 1975 Turkish Cypriots created their own constitution and governing bodies within the "Turkish Federated State of Cyprus," which was renamed the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus" in 1983; a new constitution for the Turkish Cypriot area passed by referendum on 5 May 1985
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on common law, with civil law modifications
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Glafcos CLERIDES (since 28 February 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Glafcos CLERIDES (since 28 February 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed jointly by the president and vice president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 February 1998 (next to be held NA February 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Glafcos CLERIDES reelected president; percent of vote - Glafcos CLERIDES 50.8%, George IAKOVOU 49.2%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Rauf R. DENKTASH has been "president" of the Turkish Cypriot area since 13 February 1975 ("president" elected by popular vote for a five-year term); elections last held 15 and 22 April 1995 (next to be held NA April 2000); results - Rauf R. DENKTASH reelected president; pecent of vote - Rauf R. DENKTASH 62.5%, Dervis EROGLU 37.5%; Dervis EROGLU has been "prime minister" of the Turkish Cypriot area since 16 August 1996; there is a Council of Ministers (cabinet) in the Turkish Cypriot area
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral - Greek Cypriot area: House of Representatives or Vouli Antiprosopon (80 seats; 56 assigned to the Greek Cypriots, 24 to Turkish Cypriots; note - only those assigned to Greek Cypriots are filled; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms); Turkish Cypriot area: Assembly of the Republic or Cumhuriyet Meclisi (50 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area: last held 26 May 1996 (next to be held May 2001); Turkish Cypriot area: last held 6 December 1998 (next to be held December 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area: House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - DISY 34.5%, AKEL (Communist) 33.0%, DIKO 16.4%, EDEK 8.1%, KED 3.7%, others 4.3%; seats by party - DISY 20, AKEL (Communist) 19, DIKO 10, EDEK 5, KED 2; Turkish Cypriot area: Assembly of the Republic - percent of vote by party - UBP 40.3%, DP 22.6%, TKP 15.4%, CTP 13.4%, UDP 4.6%, YBH 2.5%, BP 1.2%; seats by party - UBP 24, DP 13, TKP 7, CTP 6
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the Supreme Council of Judicature
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Supreme Court in the Turkish Cypriot area
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: Democratic Party or DIKO [Spyros KYPRIANOU]; Democratic Rally or DISY [Nikos ANASTASIADHIS]; Ecologists [Yeoryios PERDHIKIS]; New Horizons [Nikolaos KOUTSOU, secretary general]; Restorative Party of the Working People or AKEL (Communist Party) [Dimitrios CHRISTOFIAS]; United Democratic Union of Cyprus or EDEK [Vassos LYSSARIDIS]; United Democrats Movement or EDI (formerly Free Democrats Movement or KED) [George VASSILIOU]; Turkish Cypriot area: Communal Liberation Party or TKP [Mustafa AKINCI]; Democratic Party or DP [Serdar DENKTASH]; National Birth Party or UDP [Enver EMIN]; National Unity Party or UBP [Dervis EROGLU]; Our Party or BP [Okyay SADIKOGLU]; Patriotic Unity Movement or YBH [Ozker OZGUR]; Republican Turkish Party or CTP [Mehmet ALI TALAT]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Confederation of Cypriot Workers or SEK (pro-West); Confederation of Revolutionary Labor Unions or Dev-Is; Federation of Turkish Cypriot Labor Unions or Turk-Sen; Pan-Cyprian Labor Federation or PEO (Communist controlled)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> C, CCC, CE, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS (associate), IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Erato KOZAKOU-MARCOULLIS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2211 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-5772
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-6710
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <br><i>note:</i>
> representative of the Turkish Cypriot area in the US is Ahmet ERDENGIZ; office at 1667 K Street NW, Washington, DC; telephone [1] (202) 887-6198
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Donald K. BANDLER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> corner of Metochiou and Ploutarchou Streets, Engomi, Nicosia
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 4536, FPO AE 09836
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [357] (2) 776400
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [357] (2) 780944
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a copper-colored silhouette of the island (the name Cyprus is derived from the Greek word for copper) above two green crossed olive branches in the center of the flag; the branches symbolize the hope for peace and reconciliation between the Greek and Turkish communities
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Turkish Cypriot flag has a horizontal red stripe at the top and bottom between which is a red crescent and red star on a white field
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Cyprus/Economy|988328370
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic affairs are dominated by the division of the country into the southern (Greek) area controlled by the Cyprus Government and the northern Turkish Cypriot-administered area. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe. Economic policy in the south is focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the EU. As in the Turkish sector, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to tourism, education, industry, etc.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $9 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $820 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 3.0%; Turkish Cypriot area: 5.3% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $15,400; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $5,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: agriculture 6.3%, industry 22.4%, services 71.3%; Turkish Cypriot area: agriculture 11.8%, industry 20.5%, services 67.7% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 2.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 66% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 289,400; Turkish Cypriot area: 80,200 (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: services 66.6%, industry 23.2%, agriculture 10.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: services 55.4%, industry 21.6%, agriculture 23% (1997)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 3.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 6.4% (1997)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area - $2.9 billion (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $171 million (1997 est.)
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area - $3.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $345 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $306 million, including capital expenditures of $56.8 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metal products, tourism, wood products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 2.4% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 5.1% (1997)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 2.675 billion kWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 2.488 billion kWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> potatoes, citrus, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, vegetables
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $63.9 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: citrus, potatoes, grapes, wine, cement, clothing and shoes; Turkish Cypriot area: citrus, potatoes, textiles (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: UK 14.5%, Russia 14.5%, Greece 9.8%, Lebanon 5.5%, UAE 4.9%; Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 47%, UK 26%, other EU 15% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $374 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: consumer goods, petroleum and lubricants, food and feed grains, machinery (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: food, minerals, chemicals, machinery (1997)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: US 12.5%, UK 11.3%, Italy 9.4%, Germany 8.5%, Greece 8.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 56.4%, UK 13.5%, other EU 12.2% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: $1.27 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area - $17 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $700 million from Turkey in grants and loans (1990-97) that are usually forgiven
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 1 Cypriot pound = 100 cents; Turkish Cypriot area: 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Cypriot pounds per US$1 - 0.5688 (January 2000), 0.5423 (1999), 0.5170 (1998), 0.5135 (1997), 0.4663 (1996), 0.4522 (1995); Turkish liras (TL) per US$1 - 545,584 (January 2000), 418,783 (1999), 260,724 (1998), 151,865 (1997), 81,405 (1996), 45,845.1 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Cyprus/Communications|988328386
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 405,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,845 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 68,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> excellent in both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot areas
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> open wire, fiber-optic cable, and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> tropospheric scatter; 3 coaxial and 5 fiber-optic submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean), 2 Eutelsat, 2 Intersputnik, and 1 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: AM 7, FM 60, shortwave 1 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: AM 3, FM 11, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 310,000 (1997); Turkish Cypriot area: 56,450 (1994)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 4 plus 225 low-power repeaters; Turkish Cypriot area: 4 plus 5 repeaters (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: 248,000 (1997); Turkish Cypriot area: 52,300 (1994)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
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Cyprus/Transportation|988328413
1c1,40
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area: 10,663 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 2,350 km (1996 est.)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area: 6,249 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 1,370 km (1996 est.)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> Greek Cypriot area: 4,414 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 980 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos, Vasilikos
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 23,497,776 GRT/37,331,506 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> barge carrier 2, bulk 442, cargo 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container 144, liquified gas 6, passenger 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 37 countries among which are Greece 611, Germany 129, Russia 49, Latvia 278, Netherlands 20, Japan 28, Cuba 16, China 15, Hong Kong 13, and Poland 15 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 15 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 6 (1999 est.)
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Cyprus/Military|988328445
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Greek Cypriot area: Greek Cypriot National Guard (GCNG; includes air and naval elements), Hellenic Forces Regiment on Cyprus (ELDYK), Greek Cypriot Police; Turkish Cypriot area: Turkish Cypriot Security Force (TCSF), Turkish mainland army units
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 196,317 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 134,865 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 6,541 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $320 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5% (FY99)
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Cyprus/Transnational_issues|988328461
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> 1974 hostilities divided the island into two de facto autonomous areas, a Greek Cypriot area controlled by the internationally recognized Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a Turkish-Cypriot area (37% of the island), that are separated by a UN buffer zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> minor transit point for heroin and hashish via air routes and container traffic to Europe, especially from Lebanon and Turkey; some cocaine transits as well
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Czech_republic|988328527
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Czech_republic/History|988328540
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> <b>Background:</b>
> After World War II, Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrations the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its freedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993, the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national components, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Now a member of NATO, the Czech Republic has moved toward integration in world markets, a development that poses both opportunities and risks.
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Czech_republic/Geography|988328560
1c1,59
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Europe, southeast of Germany
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 49 45 N, 15 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 78,866 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 77,276 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,590 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than South Carolina
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,881 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Austria 362 km, Germany 646 km, Poland 658 km, Slovakia 215 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; cool summers; cold, cloudy, humid winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> Bohemia in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; Moravia in the east consists of very hilly country
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Elbe River 115 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Snezka 1,602 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 41%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 12% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 240 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia and in northern Moravia around Ostrava present health risks; acid rain damaging forests
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the Danube in central Europe
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Czech_republic/People|988328582
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,272,179 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 16% (male 866,754; female 823,795)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 70% (male 3,579,454; female 3,577,919)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 547,462; female 876,795) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.08% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.1 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.95 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.62 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 74.51 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 71.01 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.22 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.18 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Czech(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Czech
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Czech 81.2%, Moravian 13.2%, Slovak 3.1%, Polish 0.6%, German 0.5%, Silesian 0.4%, Roma 0.3%, Hungarian 0.2%, other 0.5% (March 1991)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> atheist 39.8%, Roman Catholic 39.2%, Protestant 4.6%, Orthodox 3%, other 13.4%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Czech
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99.9% (1999 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Czech_republic/Government|988328606
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Czech Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Czech Republic
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Ceska Republika
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ceska Republika
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Prague
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 73 districts (okresi, singular - okres) and 4 municipalities* (mesta, singular - mesto); Benesov, Beroun, Blansko, Breclav, Brno*, Brno-Venkov, Bruntal, Ceske Budejovice, Ceska Lipa, Cesky Krumlov, Cheb, Chomutov, Chrudim, Decin, Domazlice, Frydek-Mistek, Havlickuv Brod, Hodonin, Hradec Kralove, Jablonec nad Nisou, Jesenik, Jicin, Jihlava, Jindrichuv Hradec, Karlovy Vary, Karvina, Kladno, Klatovy, Kolin, Kromeriz, Kutna Hora, Liberec, Litomerice, Louny, Melnik, Mlada Boleslav, Most, Nachod, Novy Jicin, Nymburk, Olomouc, Opava, Ostrava*, Pardubice, Pelhrimov, Pisek, Plzen*, Plzen-Jih, Plzen-Sever, Prachatice, Praha*, Praha-Vychod, Praha Zapad, Prerov, Pribram, Prostejov, Rakovnik, Rokycany, Rychnov nad Kneznou, Semily, Sokolov, Strakonice, Sumperk, Svitavy, Tabor, Tachov, Teplice, Trebic, Trutnov, Uherske Hradiste, Usti nad Labem, Usti nad Orlici, Vsetin, Vyskov, Zdar nad Sazavou, Zlin, Znojmo
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 January 1993 (Czechoslovakia split into the Czech and Slovak Republics)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Liberation Day, 8 May; Founding of the Republic, 28 October
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> ratified 16 December 1992; effective 1 January 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction; legal code modified to bring it in line with Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) obligations and to expunge Marxist-Leninist legal theory
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Vaclav HAVEL (since 2 February 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Milos ZEMAN (since 17 July 1998); Deputy Prime Ministers Vladimir SPIDLA (since 17 July 1998), Pavel RYCHETSKY (since 17 July 1998), Pavel MERTLIK (since 17 July 1998), Jan KAZAN (since 8 December 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 20 January 1998 (next to be held NA January 2003); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Vaclav HAVEL reelected president; Vaclav HAVEL received 47 of 81 votes in the Senate and 99 out of 200 votes in the Chamber of Deputies (second round of voting)
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (81 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve staggered two-, four-, and six-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Poslanecka Snemovna (200 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 13-14 and 20-21 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000 - to replace/reelect 20 senators serving two-year terms); Chamber of Deputies - last held 19-20 June 1998 (next to be held by NA June 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CSSD 23, ODS 25, KDU-CSL 16, KCSM 4, ODA 7, US 4, DEU 1, independent 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CSSD 74, ODS 63, KDU-CSL 20, US 19, KCSM 24
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, chairman and deputy chairmen are appointed by the president for life; Constitutional Court, chairman and deputy chairmen are appointed by the president for life
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Assembly for the Republic or SPR-RSC [Miroslav SLADEK, chairman]; Christian Democratic Union-Czechoslovak People's Party or KDU-CSL [Jan KASAL, chairman]; Civic Democratic Alliance or ODA [Daniel KROUPA, chairman]; Civic Democratic Party or ODS [Vaclav KLAUS, chairman]; Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia or KSCM [Miroslav GREBENICEK, chairman]; Czech Social Democrats or CSSD [Milos ZEMAN, chairman]; Democratic Union or DEU [Ratibor MAJZLIK, chairman]; Freedom Union or US [Karel KUEHUL, acting chairman]; Quad Coalition [Richard FALBR, chairman] (includes KDU-CSL, US, ODA, DEU)
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> "Thanks, Now Go"; Impulse 99; Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UPU, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Alexsandr VONDRA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3900 Spring of Freedom Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 363-6315
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-8540
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John SHATTUCK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Trziste 15, 11801 Prague 1
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [420] (2) 5753-0663
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [420] (2) 5753-0583
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side (almost identical to the flag of the former Czechoslovakia)
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Czech_republic/Economy|988328630
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Political and financial crises in 1997 shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The currency was forced out of its fluctuation band as investors worried that the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of GDP in 1996, would become unsustainable. After expending $3 billion in vain to support the currency, the central bank let it float. The growing current account imbalance reflected a surge in domestic demand and poor export performance, as wage increases outpaced productivity. The government was forced to introduce two austerity packages later in the spring which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, -2.3% in 1998, and -0.5% in 1999. The basic transition problem continues to be too much direct and indirect government influence on the privatized economy. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program - to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities include accelerating legislative convergence with EU norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatizing banks and utilities. The economy, fueled by increased export growth and investment, is expected to recover in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $120.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -0.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $11,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 53% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 23.5% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 5.203 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 32%, agriculture 5.6%, construction 8.7%, transport and communications 6.9%, services 46.8% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $16.4 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $17.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fuels, ferrous metallurgy, machinery and equipment, coal, motor vehicles, glass, armaments
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 61.466 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 75.54%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 2.55%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 20.37%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 1.54% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 54.733 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 10.8 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 8.37 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grains, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit; pigs, cattle, poultry; forest products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $26.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment 41%, other manufactured goods 40%, chemicals 8%, raw materials and fuel 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 42%, Slovakia 8%, Austria 6%, Poland 6%, France 4% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $29 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment 39%, other manufactured goods 21%, chemicals 12%, raw materials and fuels 10%, food 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany 34%, Slovakia 6%, Russia 6%, Austria 6%, France 5% (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $24.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $351.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 koruna (Kc) = 100 haleru
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> koruny (Kcs) per US$1 - 35.630 (December 1999), 34.569 (1999), 32.281 (1998), 31.698 (1997), 27.145 (1996), 26.541 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Czech_republic/Communications|988328645
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3,741,492 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 965,476 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> 70% of exchanges now digital; existing copper subscriber systems now being enhanced with Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) equipment to accommodate Internet and other digital signals; trunk systems include fiber-optic cable and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions), 1 Intelsat, 1 Eutelsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 21, FM 199, shortwave 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3,173,856 (December 1999)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 102 (of which 35 are low power stations), plus about 500 repeaters (1988)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3,428,817 (December 1999)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 35 (1999)
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Czech_republic/Transportation|988328667
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9,435 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 9,341 km 1.435-m standard gauge (2,946 km electrified at three voltages; 1,868 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 94 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 127,693 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 127,693 km (including 498 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 677 km; the Elbe (Labe) is the principal river
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 53,000 km (1998)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Decin, Prague, Usti nad Labem
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 114 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 43
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 71
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 28
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 42 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Czech_republic/Military|988328682
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air and Air Defense Forces, Civil Defense, Railroad Units
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,669,505 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,035,194 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 70,674 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1.2 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.9% (FY99)
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Czech_republic/Transnational_issues|988328698
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Liechtenstein claims restitution for 1,600 sq km of land in the Czech Republic confiscated from its royal family in 1918; the Czech Republic insists that restitution does not go back before February 1948, when the communists seized power; individual Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II; agreement with Slovakia signed 24 November 1998 resolves issues of redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal land - approval by both parliaments is expected in 2000
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and minor transit point for Latin American cocaine to Western Europe; domestic consumption - especially of locally produced synthetic drugs - on the rise
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Denmark|988328801
1c1
< The kingdom of Denmark is a country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[København]], Swedish: [[Köpenhamn]]).
---
> The kingdom of Denmark is a country in Nothern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula and a number of islands north of [[Germany]]. Constitutional monarchy.  Capital [[Copenhagen]] (Danish: [[Kobenhavn|København]], Swedish: [[Kopenhamn|Köpenhamn]]).
6a7,17
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Denmark/History|988328819
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation that is participating in the political and economic integration of Europe. So far, however, the country has opted out of some aspects of the European Union's Maastricht Treaty, including the new joint monetary system.
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Denmark/Geography|988328844
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, on a peninsula north of Germany
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 56 00 N, 10 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 43,094 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 42,394 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 700 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Massachusetts
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 68 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Germany 68 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 7,314 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; humid and overcast; mild, windy winters and cool summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low and flat to gently rolling plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Lammefjord -7 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Ejer Bavnehoj 173 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, stone, gravel and sand
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 60%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 25% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 4,350 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> controls Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in Copenhagen
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Denmark/People|988328866
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,336,394 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 505,820; female 479,815)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,802,665; female 1,755,633)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 330,055; female 462,406) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.31% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.16 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 11 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 1.95 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.11 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.54 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.95 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.27 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.73 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Dane(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Danish
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Scandinavian, Inuit, Faroese, German
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran 97%, other Protestant and Roman Catholic, other
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Danish, Faroese, Greenlandic (an Inuit dialect), German (small minority)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> English is the predominant second language
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Denmark/Government|988328892
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Denmark
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Denmark
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Kongeriget Danmark
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Danmark
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> DA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Copenhagen
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> metropolitan Denmark - 14 counties (amter, singular - amt) and 2 kommunes*; Arhus, Bornholm, Fredericksberg*, Frederiksborg, Fyn, Kobenhavn, Kobenhavns*, Nordjylland, Ribe, Ringkobing, Roskilde, Sonderjylland, Storstrom, Vejle, Vestsjalland, Viborg
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition there are 275 local kommunes not considered first-order administrative units; see separate entries for the Faroe Islands and Greenland, which are part of the Kingdom of Denmark and are self-governing administrative divisions
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> first organized as a unified state in 10th century; in 1849 became a constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1849 was the original constitution; there was a major overhaul 5 June 1953, allowing for a unicameral legislature and a female chief of state
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen MARGRETHE II (since 14 January 1972); Heir Apparent Crown Prince FREDERIK, elder son of the monarch (born 26 May 1968)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN (since 25 January 1993)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Folketing (179 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - progovernment parties: Social Democratic Party 65, Socialist People's Party 13, Radical Liberal Party 7, Unity Party 5; opposition: Liberal Party 43, Conservative Party 17, Danish People's Party 13, Center Democratic Party 8, Christian People's Party 4, Progress Party 4
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the monarch for life
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Center Democratic Party [Mimi JAKOBSEN]; Christian People's Party [Jann SJURSEN]; Conservative Party [Bendt BENDTSEN]; Conservative People's Party [Pia Christmas MOLLER]; Danish People's Party [Pia KJAERSGAARD]; Liberal Party [Anders Fogh RASMUSSEN]; Progress Party [Aage BRUSGAARD]; Radical Liberal Party [Marianne JELVED]; Social Democratic Party [Poul Nyrup RASMUSSEN]; Social Liberal Party [Johannes LEBECH]; Socialist People's Party [Holger K. NIELSEN]; Unity Party [no leader]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTAET, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Knud-Erik TYGESEN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3200 Whitehaven Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-4300
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-1470
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Edward E. ELSON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Dag Hammarskjolds Alle 24, 2100 Copenhagen
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 73, APO AE 09716
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [45] 35 55 31 44
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [45] 35 43 02 23
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a white cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side, and that design element of the Dannebrog (Danish flag) was subsequently adopted by the other Nordic countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden
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Denmark/Economy|988328917
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of food. The center-left coalition government is concentrating on reducing the unemployment rate and the budget deficit as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. The coalition also vows to maintain a stable currency. The coalition has lowered marginal income tax rates while maintaining overall tax revenues; boosted industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms; increased research and development funds; and improved welfare services for the neediest while cutting paperwork and delays. Denmark chose not to join the 11 other EU members who launched the euro on 1 January 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $127.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 69% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 20.5% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.896 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 71%, industry 25%, agriculture 4% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $59.7 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $57.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, machinery and equipment, textiles and clothing, chemical products, electronics, construction, furniture, and other wood products, shipbuilding
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 40.277 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 90.8%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.07%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 9.13% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 33.037 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 7.1 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 2.68 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain, potatoes, rape, sugar beets; beef, dairy products; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $49.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and instruments, meat and meat products, fuels, dairy products, ships, fish, chemicals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 66.6% (Germany 21.4%, Sweden 11.2%, UK 9.2%, France 5.3%, Netherlands 4.5%), Norway 6.0%, US 4.7% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $43.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, petroleum, chemicals, grain and foodstuffs, textiles, paper
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 72.5% (Germany 22.5%, Sweden 12.9%, UK 7.9%, France 5.9%), Norway 4.6%, US 4.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $44 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $1.6 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Denmark/Communications|988328955
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.203 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1.347 million (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> excellent telephone and telegraph services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> buried and submarine cables and microwave radio relay form trunk network, 4 cellular radio communications systems
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 18 submarine fiber-optic cables linking Denmark with Norway, Sweden, Russia, Poland, Germany, Netherlands, UK, Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Canada; satellite earth stations - 6 Intelsat, 10 Eutelsat, 1 Orion, 1 Inmarsat (Blaavand-Atlantic-East); note - the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) share the Danish earth station and the Eik, Norway, station for world-wide Inmarsat access
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 355, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 6.02 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 42 (plus 44 repeaters) (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.121 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 12 (1999)
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Denmark/Transportation|988328978
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,859 km (508 km privately owned and operated)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 2,859 km 1.435-m gauge (600 km electrified; 760 km double track) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 71,437 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 71,437 km (including 843 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 417 km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 110 km; petroleum products 578 km; natural gas 700 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Alborg, Arhus, Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Fredericia, Grena, Koge, Odense, Struer
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 336 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,190,227 GRT/6,815,128 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 12, cargo 132, chemical tanker 22, container 70, liquified gas 26, livestock carrier 6, petroleum tanker 24, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 13, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 8, specialized tanker 3 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Denmark has created its own internal register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS); DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations, and they amount to a flag of convenience within the Danish register (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 118 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
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Denmark/Transportation|988329009
40a41,49
> <b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 90
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 82 (1999 est.)
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Denmark/Military|988329031
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Danish Army, Royal Danish Navy, Royal Danish Air Force, Home Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,299,250 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,113,378 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 30,471 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $2.822 billion (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.7% (FY98)
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Denmark/Transnational_issues|988329061
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Iceland, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
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Djibouti|988329086
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Djibouti/History|988329108
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became Djibouti in 1977. A peace accord in 1994 ended a three-year uprising by Afars rebels.
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Djibouti/Geography|988329130
1c1,64
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Africa, bordering the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, between Eritrea and Somalia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 11 30 N, 43 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 21,980 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 20 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Massachusetts
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 508 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Eritrea 113 km, Ethiopia 337 km, Somalia 58 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 314 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; torrid, dry
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plain and plateau separated by central mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Lac Assal -155 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Moussa Ali 2,028 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> geothermal areas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 91% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; mostly wasteland
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Djibouti/People|988329149
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 451,442 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 96,482; female 96,025)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 130,264; female 116,270)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2% (male 6,426; female 5,975) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.45% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 40.98 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -11.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.12 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 103.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.82 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.01 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.68 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Djiboutian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Djiboutian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Somali 60%, Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and Italian 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 94%, Christian 6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 46.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 60.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 32.7% (1995 est.)
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Djibouti/Government|988329170
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Djibouti
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Djibouti
> <br><i>former:</i>
> French Territory of the Afars and Issas, French Somaliland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> DJ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Djibouti
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 5 districts (cercles, singular - cercle); 'Ali Sabih, Dikhil, Djibouti, Obock, Tadjoura
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 27 June 1977 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 27 June (1977)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> multiparty constitution approved by referendum 4 September 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system, traditional practices, and Islamic law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> NA years of age; universal adult
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President GUELLEH Ismail Omar (since NA 1999);
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister BARKAT Gourad Hamadou (since 30 September 1978)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers responsible to the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 9 April 1999 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> GUELLEH Ismail Omar elected president; percent of vote - GUELLEH Ismail Omar 74.4%, IDRIS Moussa Ahmed 25.6%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Chamber of Deputies or Chambre des Deputes (65 seats; members elected by popular vote for five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 19 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - RPP 65; note - RPP (the ruling party) dominated the election
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour Supreme
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic National Party or PND [ADEN Robleh Awaleh]; Democratic Renewal Party or PRD [Mohamed Jama ELABE]; People's Progress Assembly or RPP [Hassan GOULED Aptidon] - the governing party
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy or FRUD and affiliates; Movement for Unity and Democracy or MUD
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Olhaye Oudine ROBLE
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 515, 1156 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 331-0270
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 331-0302
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Lange SCHERMERHORN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Plateau du Serpent, Boulevard Marechal Joffre, Djibouti
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 185, Djibouti
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [253] 35 39 95
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [253] 35 39 40
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of light blue (top) and light green with a white isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a red five-pointed star in the center
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Djibouti/Economy|988329204
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees). Also, renewed fighting between Ethiopia and Eritrea has disturbed normal external channels of commerce. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $550 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 77% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 282,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 75%, industry 11%, services 14% (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 40%-50% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $156 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $175 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 177 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 165 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $260 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> reexports, hides and skins, coffee (in transit)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Somalia 53%, Yemen 23%, Ethiopia 5%, (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $440 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 13%, Ethiopia 12%, Italy 9%, Saudi Arabia 6%, UK 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $350 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $106.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Djiboutian francs (DF) per US$1 - 177.721 (fixed rate since 1973)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Djibouti/Communications|988329240
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 8,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telephone facilities in the city of Djibouti are adequate as are the microwave radio relay connections to outlying areas of the country
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay network
> <br><i>international:</i>
> submarine cable to Jiddah, Suez, Sicily, Marseilles, Colombo, and Singapore; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat; Medarabtel regional microwave radio relay telephone network
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 52,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus 5 low-power repeaters) (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 28,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Djibouti/Transportation|988329269
1c1,39
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 100 km (Djibouti segment of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 100 km 1.000-m gauge
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Djibouti and Ethiopia plan to revitalize the century-old railroad that links their capitals by 2003
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,890 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 364 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 2,526 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Djibouti
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,369 GRT/3,030 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
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Djibouti/Military|988329287
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Djibouti National Army (includes Navy and Air Force)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 106,287 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 62,496 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $23 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 4.5% (FY97)
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Djibouti/Transnational_issues|988329306
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Dominica|988329371
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Dominica/History|988329389
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Dominica was the last of the Caribbean islands to be colonized by Europeans, due chiefly to the fierce resistance of the native Caribs. France ceded possession to Great Britain in 1763, which made the island a colony in 1805. In 1980, two years after independence, Dominica's fortunes improved when a corrupt and tyrannical administration was replaced by that of Mary Eugenia CHARLES, the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who remained in office for 15 years.
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Dominica/Geography|988329413
1c1,59
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of the way from Puerto Rico to Trinidad and Tobago
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 25 N, 61 20 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 754 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 754 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than four times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 148 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; moderated by northeast trade winds; heavy rainfall
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rugged mountains of volcanic origin
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Morne Diablatins 1,447 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, hydropower, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 67%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Dominica/People|988329436
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 71,540 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 29% (male 10,556; female 10,254)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 23,151; female 21,984)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 8% (male 2,294; female 3,301) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -1.14% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 18.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -22.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 17.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73.35 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.5 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.36 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Dominican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Dominican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black, Carib Amerindian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 77%, Protestant 15% (Methodist 5%, Pentecostal 3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Baptist 2%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), French patois
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 94%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 94%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 94% (1970 est.)
------
Dominica/Government|988329461
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Commonwealth of Dominica
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Dominica
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> DO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy; republic within the Commonwealth
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Roseau
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 parishes; Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 3 November 1978 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 3 November (1978)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 3 November 1978
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Vernon Lorden SHAW (since 7 October 1998)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Roosevelt DOUGLAS (since 2 February 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the House of Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 7 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2003); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Vernon Lorden SHAW elected president; percent of legislative vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Assembly (30 seats, 9 appointed senators, 21 elected by popular vote representatives; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 31 January 2000 (next to be held by NA 2005)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - LPD 10, UWP 9, DFP 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (located in Saint Lucia), one of the six judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Dominica Freedom Party or DFP [Charles SAVARIN]; Labor Party of Dominica or LPD [Rosie DOUGLAS]; United Workers Party or UWP [Edison JAMES]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Dominica Liberation Movement or DLM (a small leftist party)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Nicholas J. O. LIVERPOOL (resident in Dominica)
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 364-6781
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 364-6791
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Dominica; US interests are served by the embassy in Bridgetown, Barbados
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> green, with a centered cross of three equal bands - the vertical part is yellow (hoist side), black, and white and the horizontal part is yellow (top), black, and white; superimposed in the center of the cross is a red disk bearing a sisserou parrot encircled by 10 green, five-pointed stars edged in yellow; the 10 stars represent the 10 administrative divisions (parishes)
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Dominica/Economy|988329482
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy depends on agriculture and is highly vulnerable to climatic conditions, notably tropical storms. Agriculture, primarily bananas, accounts for 21% of GDP and employs 40% of the labor force. Development of the tourist industry remains difficult because of the rugged coastline, lack of beaches, and the lack of an international airport. Hurricane Luis devastated the country's banana crop in September 1995; tropical storms had wiped out one-quarter of the crop in 1994 as well. The economy's recovery continued in 1998, fueled by increases in construction, soap production, and tourist arrivals. The government is attempting to develop an offshore financial industry in order to diversify the island's production base.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $225 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,400 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 16%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 63% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 25,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 40%, industry and commerce 32%, services 28%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 20% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $72 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $79.9 million, including capital expenditures of $11.5 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> soap, coconut oil, tourism, copra, furniture, cement blocks, shoes
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -10% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 40 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 37 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, citrus, mangoes, root crops, coconuts, cocoa; forest and fishery potential not exploited
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $60.8 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> bananas 50%, soap, bay oil, vegetables, grapefruit, oranges
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Caricom countries 47%, UK 36%, US 7% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $120.4 million (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, food, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 41%, Caricom countries 25%, UK 13%, Netherlands, Canada (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $90 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $24.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Dominica/Communications|988329501
1c1,19
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 18,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fully automatic network
> <br><i>international:</i>
> microwave radio relay and SHF radiotelephone links to Martinique and Guadeloupe; VHF and UHF radiotelephone links to Saint Lucia
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 46,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (however, there is one cable television company) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 6,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Dominica/Transportation|988329518
1c1,20
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 780 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 393 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 387 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Portsmouth, Roseau
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Dominica/Military|988329535
1c1,6
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force (includes Special Service Unit, Coast Guard)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Dominica/Transnational_issues|988329552
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; minor cannabis producer; banking industry is vulnerable to money laundering
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Dominican_Republic|988329606
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Dominican_Republic/History|988329623
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> A legacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative, rule for much of the 20th century was brought to an end in 1996 when free and open elections ushered in a new government.
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Dominican_Republic/Geography|988329644
1c1,66
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east of Haiti
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 19 00 N, 70 40 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 48,730 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 48,380 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 350 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of New Hampshire
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 275 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Haiti 275 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,288 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 6 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Lago Enriquillo -46 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Pico Duarte 3,175 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> nickel, bauxite, gold, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 43%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 15% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 2,300 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; Hurricane Georges damage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, western one-third is Haiti)
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Dominican_Republic/People|988329662
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 8,442,533 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34% (male 1,486,902; female 1,422,977)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 61% (male 2,609,934; female 2,518,330)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 192,254; female 212,136) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.64% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 25.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.72 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -4.04 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 35.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73.2 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 71.12 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.38 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Dominican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Dominican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> white 16%, black 11%, mixed 73%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 95%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 82.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 82%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.2% (1995 est.)
------
Dominican_Republic/Government|988329689
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Dominican Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica Dominicana
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> DR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> representative democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Santo Domingo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 29 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia) and 1 district* (distrito); Azua, Baoruco, Barahona, Dajabon, Distrito Nacional*, Duarte, Elias Pina, El Seibo, Espaillat, Hato Mayor, Independencia, La Altagracia, La Romana, La Vega, Maria Trinidad Sanchez, Monsenor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Monte Plata, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Salcedo, Samana, Sanchez Ramirez, San Cristobal, San Juan, San Pedro de Macoris, Santiago, Santiago Rodriguez, Valverde
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 27 February 1844 (from Haiti)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 27 February (1844)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 November 1966
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil codes
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age, universal and compulsory; married persons regardless of age
> <br><i>note:</i>
> members of the armed forces and police cannot vote
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (since 16 August 1996); Vice President Jaime David FERNANDEZ Mirabal (since 16 August 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (since 16 August 1996); Vice President Jaime David FERNANDEZ Mirabal (since 16 August 1996); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet nominated by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term; election last held 16 May 1996, runoff election held 30 June 1996 (next to be held 16 May 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna elected president; percent of vote - Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna (PLD) 51.25%, Jose Francisco PENA Gomez (PRD) 48.75%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional consists of the Senate or Senado (30 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camara de Diputados (149 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 16 May 1998 (next to be held NA May 2002); Chamber of Deputies - last held 16 May 1998 (next to be held NA May 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRD 24, PLD 3, PRSC 3; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRD 83, PLD 49, PRSC 17
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, judges are elected by a Council made up of legislative and executive members with the president presiding
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Democracy Party or APD [Maximilano Rabelais PUIG Miller, Nelsida MARMOLEJOS, Vicente BENGOA]; Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Union or UPA [Ignacio RODRIGUEZ Chiappini]; Democratic Quisqueyan Party or PQD [Elias WESSIN Chavez]; Democratic Union or UD [Fernando ALVAREZ Bogaert]; Dominican Communist Party or PCD [Narciso ISA Conde]; Dominican Liberation Party or PLD [Jose Tomas PEREZ]; Dominican Revolutionary Party or PRD [Hatuey DE CAMPS]; Dominican Worker's Party or PTD [Ivan RODRIGUEZ]; Independent Revolutionary Party or PRI [leader NA]; Liberal Party of the Dominican Republic or PLRD [Andres Van Der HORST]; National Progressive Force or FNP [Pelegrin CASTILLO]; National Veterans and Civilian Party or PNVC [Juan Rene BEAUCHAMPS Javier]; Popular Christian Party or PPC [Rogelio DELGADO Bogaert]; Social Christian Reformist Party or PRSC [Joaquin BALAGUER Ricardo]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in 1983 several leftist parties, including the PCD, joined to form the Dominican Leftist Front or FID; however, they still retain individual party structures
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Collective of Popular Organizations or COP
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, Caricom (observer), ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Roberto Bienvenido SALADIN Selin
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1715 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-6280
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-8057
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, Chicago, Mayaguez (Puerto Rico), Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Detroit, Houston, Jacksonville, Mobile, and Ponce (Puerto Rico)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Charles MANATT
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> corner of Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson and Calle Leopoldo Navarro, Santo Domingo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 5500, APO AA 34041-5500
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (809) 221-2171
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (809) 686-7437
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms is at the center of the cross
------
Dominican_Republic/Economy|988329714
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In December 1996, incoming President FERNANDEZ presented a bold reform package for this Caribbean economy - including the devaluation of the peso, income tax cuts, a 50% increase in sales taxes, reduced import tariffs, and increased gasoline prices - in an attempt to create a market-oriented economy that can compete internationally. Even though most reforms are stalled in the legislature - including the intellectual property rights bill, social security reform, and a new electricity law first submitted in 1993 - the economy has grown vigorously under FERNANDEZ's administration. Construction, tourism and telecommunications are leading the advance. The government is working to increase electric generating capacity, a key to continued economic growth; the state electricity company was finally privatized following numerous delays. The continuation of this vigorous growth in 2000 will depend on the policies adopted by the new administration.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $43.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 8.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 13.6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30.8%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 55.6% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 25% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 39.6% (1989)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5.1% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.3 million to 2.6 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services and government 58.7%, industry 24.3%, agriculture 17% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 13.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.3 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $867 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 6.3% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 8.476 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 72.04%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 27.62%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.34% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 7.883 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $5.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> ferronickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 61.6%, Belgium 11.1%, Asia 5.9%, Canada 2.9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 56%, Venezuela 23%, Mexico 9%, Japan 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $239.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Dominican peso (RD$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Dominican pesos (RD$) per US$1 - 16.161 (January 2000), 16.033 (1999), 15.267 (1998), 14.265 (1997), 13.775 (1996), 13.597 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Dominican_Republic/Communications|988329728
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 569,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 33,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> relatively efficient system based on islandwide microwave radio relay network
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 120, FM 56, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.44 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 25 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 770,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Dominican_Republic/Transportation|988329754
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 757 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 375 km 1.435-m gauge (Central Romana Railroad)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 142 km 0.762-m gauge (Dominican Republic Government Railway); 240 km operated by sugar companies in various gauges (0.558-m, 0.762-m, 1.067-m gauges) (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,600 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 6,224 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 6,376 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 96 km; petroleum products 8 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Barahona, La Romana, Puerto Plata, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,587 GRT/1,165 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 28 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 9 (1999 est.)
------
Dominican_Republic/Military|988329773
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,239,309 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,405,845 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 86,569 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $180 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.1% (FY98)
------
Dominican_Republic/Transnational_issues|988329809
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the US and Europe
------
Ang_Lee|988331207
5a6
> :[[Sense and Sensibility Ang Lee|Sense and Sensibility]]
------
Ang_Lee|988331229
6c6
< :[[Sense and Sensibility Ang Lee|Sense and Sensibility]]
---
> :[[Sense and Sensibility/Ang Lee|Sense and Sensibility]]
------
Insert|988332185
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A close-up of an object, filmed at a separate time from the main take it is inserted into, hence the name.  Inserts are mostly used to indicate what a character sees or interacts with, thought they may also show what a character fails to see or interact with.  For instance, an insert may show the contents of a box that a character is opening, or a private letter falling on the floor behind a character and remaining there in plain sight.
> 
> Inserts are sometimes vexacious for inexperienced directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same.  One example of an insert being used deliberately to break continuity, for comedic effect, appears in Shoot the Piano Player (Tirez sur le pianiste), by Francois Truffaut: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection.
> 
------
Point_of_View_Shot|988332414
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing.
------
Point_of_View_Shot|988332542
1c1
< A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing.
---
> A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing (see [[Shot Reverse Shot]])
------
Film_Criticism|988332671
13a14
> *  [[Peter Bogdanovich]]
------
Musical_Film|988332748
9a10
> :[[Little Shop of Horrors]]
------
Musical_Film|988332771
14c14
< :[[Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show]]
---
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
16c16
< :[[Singin_in_the_Rain]]
---
> :[[Singin in the Rain]]
------
The_Thin_Blue_Line|988333261
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Documentary concerning the murder of a police officer in Texas who had stopped a car for a routine traffic citation.  The police are presented with two suspects, one a local underaged boy with a criminal record ([[David Harris]], a boy who returned to his hometown boasting that he had murdered a policeman) and the other a 38-year-old taciturn drifter with no criminal record whatsoever ([[Randall Dale Adams]]).  The documentary presents testimony suggesting that the police altered, fabricated, and suppressed evidence to convict the man they wanted to be guilty, in spite of evidence to the contrary.  They succeded, but with the help of [[Errol Morris]], the film's director (who had, incidentally, spent some years before the filming as a private investigator), the man they convicted was finally granted a retrial and released, after 11 years in prison.
> 
> The title comes from the prosecutor's comment to the trial judge that the police are the "thin blue line" separating society from [[anarchy]].
------
Errol_Morris|988333635
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American documentary director, born February 5, 1948.  Morris gained fame after the release of [[The Thin Blue Line]], a film arguing that a man convicted of murder in Dallas County, Texas had been convicted wrongfully; the film submitted as evidence for the retrial which led to the man's release.  Morris is also noted for directing [[Gates of Heaven]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[A Brief History of Time/Morris|A Brief History of Time]], [[Fast, Cheap, and Out of Control]], and [[Mr. Death--the Rise and Fall of Fred A Leuchter, Jr]]
------
Academy_Awards/Film_Editing|988338057
1,3c1
< An Academy Award that perhaps should not exist.  In deciding the award winner, the Academy does not view the entire film stock used to make a film and so in all honesty has no frame of reference to determine what the "best editing" job is.  For instance, it may be that a 2 hour film has over 1,000 hours of raw footage; in this case it would not be hard to imagine that, no matter how good the film, a better edit could always exist (as well as a near-infinite number of worse edits).  Many directors film several takes of a scene from each camera angle, improvising while filming and choosing to edit the film in the cutting room.  Other directors, such as [[the Coen brothers]], storyboard their films extensively, and film very little extra; they take this approach to secure the budget they want and to help themselves stay under it. [[Sydney Lumet]] films only the takes he thinks are necessary, with the purpose of allowing the film's editors as little deviation from his vision as possible.  And [[Clint Eastwood]] does only one take of each camera angle, leaving even almost no variation in how the film can be edited.
< 
< Additionally, many edits are suggested in a film's [[screenplay]].  For instance, in [[Silence of the Lambs]], the [[intercut]]s between the SWAT team ringing the doorbell of one house and Buffalo Bill in a panic in the basement of another, were indicated as early as the second draft of the screenplay, as was the [[split edit]] between Clarice Starling's conversation with Jack Crawford and her conversation with Dr. Frederick Chilton.  Therefore these edits represent no genius of editing on the part of the editor, but of the author of the screenplay.
---
> [[:/talk|talk]]
------
Academy_Awards/Film_Editing|988338122
1c1
< [[:/talk|talk]]
---
> [[Academy_Awards/Film_Editing/talk|talk]]
------
Academy_Awards/Film_Editing|988338231
1c1
< [[Academy_Awards/Film_Editing/talk|talk]]
---
> 
------
Literary_Art|988341225
1,5c1
< [[Literature]] -- [[Poetry]] -- [[Drama]] (see also [[Theater]]) -- [[The Novel]] -- [[Science Fiction]]
< 
< See also LiteraryArtTalk
< 
< ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[literature]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
---
> #REDIRECT Literature
------
LiteraryArtTalk|988341274
1,19c1
< ScienceFiction as a separate [[Literary Art]] form?
< That doesn't sound right to me....
< If it's good, it fits in literature, if not, it doesn't even fit in art...
< 
< Also, Literature separated from TheNovel? I'm not sure who made that list knows what is he/she talking about...I don't correct it
< because i don't feel competent enough.
< 
< Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
< 
< Here's a suggestion...
< *Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
< *Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
< *Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
< (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
< 
< -----
< 
< What's the difference between Literary Art and Literature?
< Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
---
> #REDIRECT LiteratureTalk
------
LiteratureTalk|988341307
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ScienceFiction as a separate [[Literary Art]] form?
> That doesn't sound right to me....
> If it's good, it fits in literature, if not, it doesn't even fit in art...
> 
> Also, Literature separated from TheNovel? I'm not sure who made that list knows what is he/she talking about...I don't correct it
> because i don't feel competent enough.
> 
> Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
> 
> Here's a suggestion...
> *Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
> *Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
> *Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
> (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
> 
> -----
> 
> What's the difference between Literary Art and Literature?
> Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
> 
> -----
> well, i made a stab at it.  seemed a reasonable enough suggestion, so i took it.
------
Literature|988341413
1,3c1
< <b>Literature</b> is written works.
< 
< Literature usually refers to works of ficton (usually novels) but can also mean the written works for a particular topic.
---
> "Literature" refers to works of ficton (usually novels) but can also mean the written works for a particular topic.
10a9,14
> Forms
> :[[The novel]]
> :[[The play]] <i>(see also [[Theater]])</i>
> :[[The short story]]
> :[[Poetry]]
> 
11a16,17
> :[[Bildungsroman]]
> :[[Biography]]
14a21,34
> :The [[Gothic novel]]
> 
> Literary figures <i>(note that many of these figures will fit in more than one category.  If an author is not listed in every relevant place, please feel free to correct it)</i>
> :[[Novelists]]
> :[[Poets]]
> :[[Dramatists]]
> :[[Critics]]
> 
> Literary movements
> :[[Naturalism]]
> :[[Realism]]
> :[[Romanticism]]
> 
> <i>the section on literary movements is <b>by no means</b> exhaustive; it is there merely as a placeholder, as it seemed another reasonable means of categorizing literature.  again, please feel free to edit it vigorously.</i>
16,46c36
< [[Authors]].
< * [[Douglas Adams]]
< * [[Isaac Asimov]]
< * [[Jane Austen]]
< * [[Samuel Beckett]]
< * [[Albert Camus]]
< * [[Philip K. Dick]]
< * [[Charles Dickens]]
< * [[John Dos Passos]]
< * [[FScottFitzgerald|F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
< * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
< * ErnestHemingway
< * [[Aldous Huxley]]
< * [[James Joyce]]
< * [[Stephen King]]
< * [[Arthur Koestler]]
< * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
< * [[C.S. Lewis]]
< * [[George Orwell]]
< * [[Ezra Pound]]
< * [[Ayn Rand]]
< * [[Marquis de Sade]]
< * [[J.D. Salinger]]
< * [[Jean Paul Sartre]]
< * [[Gertrude Stein]]
< * [[Jonathan Swift]]
< * [[Hunter S Thompson|Hunter S. Thompson]]
< * [[JRR Tolkien]] 
< * [[Mark Twain]]
< * [[H.G. Wells]]
< * [[William Gibson]]
---
> :[[/Talk]]
48d37
< ''We want some literary type to show up and put this page and the [[Literary Art]] page into proper order (and perhaps to eliminate one of the pages!).''
------
Novelists|988341477
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * [[Douglas Adams]]
> * [[Isaac Asimov]]
> * [[Jane Austen]]
> * [[Samuel Beckett]]
> * [[Albert Camus]]
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
> * [[Charles Dickens]]
> * [[John Dos Passos]]
> * [[FScottFitzgerald|F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
> * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
> * [[ErnestHemingway]]
> * [[Aldous Huxley]]
> * [[James Joyce]]
> * [[Stephen King]]
> * [[Arthur Koestler]]
> * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * [[C.S. Lewis]]
> * [[George Orwell]]
> * [[Ayn Rand]]
> * [[Marquis de Sade]]
> * [[J.D. Salinger]]
> * [[Jean Paul Sartre]]
> * [[Gertrude Stein]]
> * [[Jonathan Swift]]
> * [[Hunter S Thompson|Hunter S. Thompson]]
> * [[JRR Tolkien]] 
> * [[Mark Twain]]
> * [[H.G. Wells]]
> * [[William Gibson]]
------
LiteratureTalk|988341537
1,3d0
< ScienceFiction as a separate [[Literary Art]] form?
< That doesn't sound right to me....
< If it's good, it fits in literature, if not, it doesn't even fit in art...
5,22d1
< Also, Literature separated from TheNovel? I'm not sure who made that list knows what is he/she talking about...I don't correct it
< because i don't feel competent enough.
< 
< Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
< 
< Here's a suggestion...
< *Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
< *Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
< *Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
< (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
< 
< -----
< 
< What's the difference between Literary Art and Literature?
< Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
< 
< -----
< well, i made a stab at it.  seemed a reasonable enough suggestion, so i took it.
------
Literature/Talk|988341555
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ScienceFiction as a separate [[Literary Art]] form?
> That doesn't sound right to me....
> If it's good, it fits in literature, if not, it doesn't even fit in art...
> 
> Also, Literature separated from TheNovel? I'm not sure who made that list knows what is he/she talking about...I don't correct it
> because i don't feel competent enough.
> 
> Well, the list was obviously just thrown up there for you to edit!
> 
> Here's a suggestion...
> *Literary styles: Novel, Poety, Short Story, Dramatic Literature (see theatre)
> *Literary Genres: Buldingsroman, science fiction, biography, etc.
> *Literary figures: authors, poets, critics, dramatists, etc.
> (I would throw this in there myself, but I am not sure how to rename a page without losing its contents.  Sorry-still learning.)
> 
> -----
> 
> What's the difference between Literary Art and Literature?
> Seems the same to me....I think there is some serious renaming-refactoring to be done.
> 
> -----
> well, i made a stab at it.  seemed a reasonable enough suggestion, so i took it.  --koyaanisQatsi
------
Poets|988341987
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Ezra Pound]]
> :[[TSEliot|T.S. Eliot]]
> :[[Robert Frost]]
> :[[Anthony Hecht]]
> :[[William Carlos Williams]]
> :[[Emily Dickinson]]
> :[[Langston Hughes]]
> :[[Wallace Stevens]]
> :[[Amy Lowell]]
> :[[Elizabeth Bishop]]
> :[[John Berryman]]
> :[[Robert Lowell]]
> :[[Adrienne Rich]]
> :[[Audre Lorde]]
> :[[Sylvia Plath]]
> :[[Anne Sexton]]
> :[[Gwendolyn Brooks]]
> :[[Frank OHara|Frank O'Hara]]
> :[[John Ashberry]]
> :[[Randall Jarrell]]
> :[[Allen Ginsberg]]
> 
------
Literature/Talk|988342026
22c22
< well, i made a stab at it.  seemed a reasonable enough suggestion, so i took it.  --koyaanisQatsi
---
> well, i made a stab at it.  seemed a reasonable enough suggestion, so i took it.  --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Literature|988342270
15a16
> :[[Autobiography]]
17a19
> :The [[Detective novel]]
29a32
> :The [[Harlem Renaissance]]
------
Dramatists|988342790
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[David Mamet]]
> :[[Tom Stoppard]]
> :[[Jean Cocteau]]
> :[[Samuel Becket]]
> :[[Shakespeare]]
> :[[Eugene ONeill|Eugene O'Neill]]
> :[[Tennessee Williams]]
> :[[Sam Shepard]]
> :[[Moliere]]
> :[[George Bernard Shaw]]
> :[[Bertolt Brecht]]
> :[[Aristophanes]]
> :[[Aeschylus]]
> :[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]]
> :[[Edward Albee]]
> :[[Jean Racine]]
> :[[Preston Sturges]]
> :[[Oscar Wilde]]
> :[[Henrik Ibsen]]
> 
> 
------
LiteratureTalk|988342847
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT Literature/Talk
------
Literature|988343226
28a29
> :[[Short story authors]]
------
Koyaanisqatsi|988343413
1c1
< Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a mesmerizing score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is currently unfinished for lack of funds.
---
> Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is, as of April 2001, unfinished for lack of funds.
------
Koyaanisqatsi|988343756
1,2c1
< Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] and consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which is, as of April 2001, unfinished for lack of funds.
< 
---
> Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] which consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which, as of April 2001, remained unfinished for lack of funds.
------
LiteratureTalk|988343823
1c1
< #REDIRECT Literature/Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Literature/Talk]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/The_Problem_of_Defining_Sanity|988344126
3c3
< "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, and other definitions, some of which have been developed from time to time in the interest of policital expediency (of which, more later).
---
> "SanIty" has been variously defined as; the quality of a sound or healthy mind, rationality, the ability to discern right and wrong, and other definitions, some of which have been developed from time to time in the interest of political expediency (of which, more later).
------
Countably_infinite|988344642
10,11c10,11
< *4 maps to 1
< *21maps to 2
---
> *2 maps to 1
> *4 maps to 2
------
Game_of_life|988345502
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> John Horton Conway's Game of Life is a [[cellular automaton]] running on a grid, where is cell can be either "alive" or "dead". The transitions depend only on the number of live neighbors (out of the 8 immediate neighbors of each cell):
> 
> * A dead cell with exactly three live neighbors becomes alive.
> * A live cell with fewer than two live neighbors dies.
> * A live cell with more than three live neighbors dies.
> 
> 
> The game of life was invented in 1970 (which day?). It has spurred a lot of interest because of the almost impredictable ways the patterns evolve.
------
Unclassified_game|988345635
4c4
< 
---
> * The [[Game of life]]
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Media_Bias|988345803
29c29,32
< It is very possible to put aside our own views, in order to present a balanced presentation of all views.  Will it ever be perfect?  Perhaps not.  But if it is not possible <i>at all</i> then perhaps the fault is with your conception of what a lack of bias actually is.
---
> It is very possible to put aside our own views, in order to present a balanced presentation of all views.  Will it ever be perfect?  Perhaps not.  But if it is not possible <i>at all</i> then perhaps the fault is with your conception of what a lack of bias actually is.
> ----
> just to throw in my two cents' worth (maybe less):  i agree with the position above that all media is biased, and that the real problem is not the bias but recognizing its existence.  if you're looking to write an article on it, you might look into finding the documentaries _fear and favor in the newsroom_ (http://us.imdb.com/Title?0116286
> ), which offers specific and overt examples of censorship, as well as _Spin_ (http://us.imdb.com/Title?0114512), which consists of outtakes from satellite feeds, made during sound checks and commercials.  _Spin_ includes various pundits' racist jokes, homophobic comments, and casual dismissals of genocide, as well as larry king's assertion to Bill Clinton in 1992 that he should talk to Ted Turner because Turner likes him and "would, ah, *serve* you, if you know what i mean."  if you're brave of heart, you might try to read _manufacturing consent_, which is dense and exhaustively documented, and impenetrable even to most radicals (i certainly never finished it).  a virtual beer to you if you can.  :-D  --KoyaanisQatsi
------
HomePage|988346524
15c15
< :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sport]]s -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game]]s -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
---
> :[[Entertainment]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Literature]] -- [[Religion]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sport]]s -- [[Classics]] -- [[Critical Theory]] -- [[Visual Arts and Design]] -- [[Painting]] -- [[Sculpture]] -- [[Performing Arts]] -- [[Theater and Drama]] -- [[Game]]s -- [[Hobby|Hobbies]] -- [[Tourism]]
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|988346570
11c11
< * '''Imagination''' :  [[Architecture]] -- [[Arts and Entertainment]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Literary Art]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]]
---
> * '''Imagination''' :  [[Architecture]] -- [[Arts and Entertainment]] -- [[Dance]] -- [[Literature]] -- [[Music]] -- [[Recreation]] -- [[Sports]]
------
Search_Engine|988346910
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A search engine is a program designed to help the user access documents, typically on the World Wide Web. For example see http://www.altavista.com or http://www.google.com.
> 
> Search engines work by indexing a large number of web pages which they retrieve from the WWW itself. These pages are retrieved by what we call a [[Web crawler]], basically an automated web browser which follows every link it sees.
> 
> The contents of the pages is then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words are extracted from the title or special fields called [[meta tags]]).
> 
> The data is then ready to be used. When a user comes to the search engine and makes a query (typically by giving some key words), the engine looks up the index and provides a listing of possibly relevant web pages, possibly with a short summary of at least the document's title.
> 
> Challenges faced by search engines
> 
> * The web is growing fast, and it may be difficult for the engines to keep up with it.
> * Many web pages are updated frequently, which forces the search engine to revisit them periodically.
> * The queries one can make are currently limited to searching for key words, which may results in many false positives.
> * Some search engines do not order the results by relevance, but rather according to how much money the sites have paid them. 
------
Film_History|988347181
38c38
< Directors:
---
> [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
46,47c46
< Actors:
< *  [[Shirley Temple]]
---
> [[Actors]]:
49,50d47
< *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
< *  [[Carole Lombard]]
54a52,56
> [[Actresses]]
> *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
> *  [[Carole Lombard]]
> *  [[Elizabeth Taylor]]
> *  [[Shirley Temple]]
------
Web_crawler|988347328
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A web crawler (also known as web spider) is a program which browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner. Web crawlers typically keep a copy of all the visited pages for later processing - for example by a [[Search Engine]].
> 
> In general, the web crawler starts with a list of URL to visit. As it visits these URLS, it identifies all the links in the page and adds them to the list of URLS to visit. The process is either ended manually, of after a certain number of links have been followed.
> 
> Web crawlers typically take great care to spread their visits to a particular site over a period of time, because they access many more pages than the normal (human) user and therefore can make the site appear slow to the other users if they access the same site repeatedly.
> 
> For similar reasons, web crawlers must obey the [[robots.txt protocol]], with which web site owners can indicate which pages should not be spidered.
------
Computational_linguistics|988347819
1c1,2
< The study of Natural Language Programming (NLP) as done by computer programs.
---
> The study of natural language, as done by computer programs. Typically, this means a program trying to understand [[English language|English]] (or [[French language|French]], or any other natural language) typed or spoken by a person. This field is also known as Natural Language Processing (NLP).
> 
------
Computational_linguistics|988347942
1c1
< The study of natural language, as done by computer programs. Typically, this means a program trying to understand [[English language|English]] (or [[French language|French]], or any other natural language) typed or spoken by a person. This field is also known as Natural Language Processing (NLP).
---
> The study of [[Natural language|natural language]], as done by computer programs. Typically, this means a program trying to understand [[English language|English]] (or [[French language|French]], or any other natural language) typed or spoken by a person. This field is also known as Natural Language Processing (NLP).
------
Acronym/List|988348066
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> List of acronyms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
> 
> IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
> NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
> YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
> 
------
Acronym|988348217
2a3
> [[/List|List of acronyms]]
------
Acronym/List|988348334
1c1
< List of acronyms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
---
> List of acronyms/initialisms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
3,5c3,13
< IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
< NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
< YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
---
> * DND - Do Not Disturb
> * GNU - GNU's Not Unix
> * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
> * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
> * IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
> * LOL - Laughing Out Loud
> * MHZ - Megahertz
> * NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
> * NLP - Natural Language Processing
> * TLA - Three-Letters Acronym
> * YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
6a15
> Back to [[Acronym]].
------
Acronym/List|988348440
2a3
> * CD - Compact Disk
------
Australia|988352301
1,3c1,3
< Australia is sometimes called the Wide Brown Land, and also described as the Land Down Under it is to the west of [[New Zealand]], and somewhat south-east of [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]].
< It is the seventh and smallest of the [[continent]]s, being both an [[island]] and a [[continent]].
< Australia has a population of roughly 19 million people, living in two territories, [[Australian Captial Territory]], [[Northern Territory Australia]], and six states, [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Queensland Australia]], [[New South Wales Australia]], [[Victoria Australia]] and [[Tasmania]].
---
> Australia is the Land Down Under.
> * It is to the west of [[New Zealand]], and south of [[Indonesia]].
> * It is both the largest [[island]] and the smallest [[continent]].
5c5
< Australia's [[capital]] is [[Canberra]], situated roughly equidistantly between its two largest cities (I think...), [[Melbourne]], and [[Sydney]], who were fierce rivals for the position of capital at one stage.
---
> Australia has been populated for over 40,000 years. Its earliest human inhabitants crossed the Torres Strait from the lands that currently make up Indonesia and New Guinea. Then the Torres and Bass straits were land bridges.
7c7
< [[Great Britain]] originally used it as a prison colony.
---
> [[Great Britain]] used it as a prison colony.
9c9
< Australia's economy is largely based on natural resources.
---
> Australia has a population of about 18 million people, living in two territories, [[Australian Captial Territory]] and [[Northern Territory Australia]], and six states, [[Western Australia]], [[South Australia]], [[Queensland Australia]], [[New South Wales Australia]], [[Victoria Australia]] and [[Tasmania]].
11c11
< Australia and its territories is sometimes referred to as the <b>Australian Commonwealth</b>.
---
> Australia's [[capital]] is [[Canberra]] (population 320,000), situated between its two largest and rival cities, [[Melbourne]] and [[Sydney]].
13c13
< ----
---
> Australia's economy is largely based on natural resources.
15c15
< Hmm... seeing that there isn't anything here yet, I think that I'll blather on a bit and see if that will motivate someone else to correct me...
---
> Australia is sometimes referred to as the <b>Commonwealth of Australia</b>.
------
Afghanistan/Government|988353420
1,2c1,3
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: Islamic State of Afghanistan; note - the self-proclaimed Taliban government refers to the country as Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan 
---
> * At the present time there exists one government, called the Taliban, which occupies 95% of the territory, called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.
> * The remaining 5% belongs to the Islamic State of Afghanistan.
> 
62c63
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US embassy in Kabul has been closed since January 1989 due to security concerns 
---
> Diplomatic representation: the only embassy in Kabul is the Chechen (rebel) embassy.
------
Game_of_life|988355973
8c8
< The game of life was invented in 1970 (which day?). It has spurred a lot of interest because of the almost impredictable ways the patterns evolve.
---
> The game of life was invented in 1970 (which day?).  It has spurred a lot of interest because of the surprising ways the patterns can evolve.
------
Game_of_life|988356002
1c1
< John Horton Conway's Game of Life is a [[cellular automaton]] running on a grid, where is cell can be either "alive" or "dead". The transitions depend only on the number of live neighbors (out of the 8 immediate neighbors of each cell):
---
> [[John Horton Conway]]'s Game of Life is a [[cellular automaton]] running on a grid, where is cell can be either "alive" or "dead". The transitions depend only on the number of live neighbors (out of the 8 immediate neighbors of each cell):
------
Web_crawler|988356160
1c1
< A web crawler (also known as web spider) is a program which browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner. Web crawlers typically keep a copy of all the visited pages for later processing - for example by a [[Search Engine]].
---
> A web crawler (also known as web spider) is a program which browses the [[World Wide Web]] in a methodical, automated manner. Web crawlers typically keep a copy of all the visited pages for later processing - for example by a [[Search Engine]].
3c3
< In general, the web crawler starts with a list of URL to visit. As it visits these URLS, it identifies all the links in the page and adds them to the list of URLS to visit. The process is either ended manually, of after a certain number of links have been followed.
---
> In general, the web crawler starts with a list of [[URL]] to visit. As it visits these URLs, it identifies all the links in the page and adds them to the list of URLs to visit. The process is either ended manually, of after a certain number of links have been followed.
------
Search_Engine|988356628
1c1
< A search engine is a program designed to help the user access documents, typically on the World Wide Web. For example see http://www.altavista.com or http://www.google.com.
---
> A search engine is a program designed to help the user access documents stored on a computer, for example on the World Wide Web, by allowing the user to ask for documents meeting certain criteria (typically those containing a given word or phrase) and retrieving documents that meet those criteria.  Unlike an index document that organizes documents in a predetermined way, a search engine looks for documents only after the user has entered search criteria.  For example see http://www.altavista.com or http://www.google.com.
3c3
< Search engines work by indexing a large number of web pages which they retrieve from the WWW itself. These pages are retrieved by what we call a [[Web crawler]], basically an automated web browser which follows every link it sees.
---
> Search engines work by storing information about a large number of web pages which they retrieve from the WWW itself. These pages are retrieved by what we call a [[Web crawler]]--basically an automated web browser which follows every link it sees.  The contents of each page are then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words are extracted rom the titles, headings, or special fields called [[meta tags]]).
5,7c5
< The contents of the pages is then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words are extracted from the title or special fields called [[meta tags]]).
< 
< The data is then ready to be used. When a user comes to the search engine and makes a query (typically by giving some key words), the engine looks up the index and provides a listing of possibly relevant web pages, possibly with a short summary of at least the document's title.
---
> When a user comes to the search engine and makes a query (typically by giving some key words), the engine looks up the index and provides a listing of possibly relevant web pages, possibly with a short summary of at least the document's title.
11c9
< * The web is growing fast, and it may be difficult for the engines to keep up with it.
---
> * The web is growing much faster than any present-technology search engine can possibly index.
------
World_War_II|988358680
1c1
< The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb.  The conflict was wrought on civilizan populations to a greater extent than in previous wars of the modern era, and served as a backdrop for [[Genocide|genocidal killings]] by [[Germany]], the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Japan]].
---
> The largest armed conflict the world has ever seen, with a huge scope - for the first time spanning the world - and fought with powerful new weapons, culminating in the atomic bomb.  The conflict was wrought on civilian populations to a greater extent than in previous wars of the modern era, and served as a backdrop for [[Genocide|genocidal killings]] by [[Germany]], the [[Soviet Union]], and [[Japan]].
7c7
< Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as had been agreed to between Hitler's Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, and his Soviet counterpart, Molotov.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]], while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, vbleaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
---
> Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as had been agreed to between Hitler's Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, and his Soviet counterpart, Molotov.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]], while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chased the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
------
Hypoglycemia|988359834
1,6c1,10
< Hypoglycemia is caused by the overproduction of [[insulin]],
< resulting in low blood sugar.  Its symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]],
< nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, 
< [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss,
< and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental
< illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce [[coma]].
---
> Brain metabolism depends entirely on glucose as energetic material. All states
> that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome that is a
> reaction to that phenomenon. It is called hypoglycemia.
> <br>There are drug related and non-drug related causes of hypoglycemia.
> Its symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]],
> nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet,
> confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle
> pain, memory loss, and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble
> various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce
> [[coma]].
------
Austria|988368000
5c5
< Language Spoken: [[German language|German]] and a large number of dialects.  See AustriaLanguage.
---
> Language Spoken: [[German language|German]] and a large number of dialects.  See [[Austria/Language]].
------
Sprung_Rhythm|988372376
1c1
< [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken [[poetry]], and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he had merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular feet like free verse.
---
> [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] claimed to have discovered a previously unnamed poetic rhythm in the natural patterns of [[English]] in folk songs, spoken [[poetry]], and [[Shakespeare]], [[Milton]] et. al. He used diacritical marks on syllables to indicate which should be drawn out (acute e.g. á ) and which uttered quickly (grave e.g. è ). Some critics believe he merely coined a name for poems with mixed, irregular feet like free verse.
------
Genealogy|988372568
2,11c2,7
<      Genealogists search written records, collect oral histories and preserve family stories 
<        to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists attempt to understand not just
<        where and when people lived but also how and why they made the life they lived. 
<      The search for ancestors involves searching original records and published sources to
<        establish relationships and family connections. This often requires knowledge of antique law,
<        old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions. Even an
<        unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.
<      The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and 
<        of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by immigration,
<        foster homes and adoption... The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive.  
---
> 
> Genealogists search written records, collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also how and why they made the life they lived.
> 
> The search for ancestors involves searching original records and published sources to establish relationships and family connections. This often requires knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions.
> 
> Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.  The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by immigration, foster homes and adoption... The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive.
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988373526
2,6c2,6
<  Major branches include:
<  * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, chlorine gas...
<  * Metals, like iron, copper, aluminum, brass, bronze...
<  * Non-metallic compounds, like silicon, phosphorus...
<  Some important inorganic products are silicon chips, transistors, LCD screens, and fiber optics.
---
> Major branches include:
> * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, silicates, chlorine gas...
> * Metals, like iron, copper, aluminum, brass, bronze...
> * Non-metallic compounds, like silicon, phosphorus...
> Some important inorganic products are silicon chips, transistors, LCD screens, and fiber optics.
10c10
< Adding to the confusion, mixtures or minerals containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitrous oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
---
> Adding to the confusion, the oxides of carbon, carbonate salts, and materials containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitric oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988373614
8c8
< Inorganic chemistry often overlaps with analytical chemistry, environmental chemistry, and physical chemistry. Organometallic chemistry is combination of carbon-based chemistry and metallic chemistry. Hemoglobin is an important organometallic compound, containing both iron and carbon. 
---
> Inorganic chemistry often overlaps with [[analytical chemistry]], environmental chemistry, and [[physical chemistry]]. [[Organometallic chemistry]] is the combination of carbon-based chemistry and metallic chemistry. [[Hemoglobin]] is an important organometallic compound, containing both iron and carbon. 
------
New_topics|988374254
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 24th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 26th April, Wikipedia server time
3c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( another large datadump of basic geographical information!)
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIa factbook continues to dominate)
5,107c5,189
< [[Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film]] -- 
< [[Bassas_da_India/Communications]] -- 
< [[Blindness/Philosophy]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Government]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/History]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/People]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cape_Verde]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Government]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/History]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Military]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/People]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cayman_Islands]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Communications]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Economy]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Geography]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Government]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/History]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Military]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/People]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Central_African_Republic]] -- 
< [[Chad/Communications]] -- 
< [[Chad/Economy]] -- 
< [[Chad/Geography]] -- 
< [[Chad/Government]] -- 
< [[Chad/History]] -- 
< [[Chad/Military]] -- 
< [[Chad/People]] -- 
< [[Chad/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Chad/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Chad]] -- 
< [[Chile/Communications]] -- 
< [[Chile/Economy]] -- 
< [[Chile/Geography]] -- 
< [[Chile/Government]] -- 
< [[Chile/History]] -- 
< [[Chile/Military]] -- 
< [[Chile/People]] -- 
< [[Chile/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Chile/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Chile]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Communications]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Economy]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Geography]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Government]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/History]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Military]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/People]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Christmas_Island]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Communications]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Economy]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Geography]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Government]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/History]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Military]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/People]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Clipperton_Island]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Government]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/History]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Military]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/People]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cocos_Islands]] -- 
< [[Durango_Boot]] -- 
< [[Euclid]] -- 
< [[Frisbee]] -- 
< [[Guadalajara]] -- 
< [[Hammond_Organ]] -- 
< [[Hormone]] -- 
< [[Internet_Movie_Database]] -- 
< [[LowGerman]] -- 
< [[Paul_heroult]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Communications]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Economy]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Geography]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Government]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/History]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Military]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/People]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Peoples_Republic_of_China/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Ridley_Scott]] -- 
< [[Triassic]] -- 
< [[Ultimate_frisbee]]
---
> [[Adolf_Hitler/Talk]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Communications]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Economy]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Geography]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Government]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/History]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Military]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/People]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
> [[Afghanistan/Transportation]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanCommunications]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanEconomy]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanGeography]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanMilitary]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanPeople]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanTransnationalIssues]] -- 
> [[AfghanistanTransportations]] -- 
> [[Albania/Communications]] -- 
> [[Albania/Economy]] -- 
> [[Albania/Geography]] -- 
> [[Albania/People]] -- 
> [[AlbaniaEconomy]] -- 
> [[AlbaniaGeography]] -- 
> [[AlbaniaPeople]] -- 
> [[Altaic_languages]] -- 
> [[AlwaysLeaveSomethingUndoneDebate]] -- 
> [[Austria/Language]] -- [[Cook_Island]] -- 
> [[Cardiac_arrhythmia]] -- 
> [[Computational_linguistics]] -- 
> [[Conspiracy_theory]] -- [[Spinning]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cook_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Economy]] -- [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Coral_Sea_Islands]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Communications]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Economy]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Geography]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Government]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/History]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Military]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/People]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Costa_Rica]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/History]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Military]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/People]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cote_DIvoire]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Government]] -- 
> [[Croatia/History]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Military]] -- 
> [[Croatia/People]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Croatia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Croatia]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Government]] -- 
> [[Cuba/History]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Military]] -- 
> [[Cuba/People]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cuba/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cuba]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Communications]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Economy]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Geography]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Government]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/History]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Military]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/People]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Cyprus/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Cyprus]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Communications]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Economy]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Geography]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Government]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/History]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Military]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/People]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Czech_republic]] -- 
> [[Day_of_the_Triffids]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Government]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Military]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/People]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Communications]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Economy]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Geography]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Government]] -- 
> [[Denmark/History]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Military]] -- 
> [[Denmark/People]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Denmark/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Communications]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Economy]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Geography]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Government]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/History]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Military]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/People]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Djibouti/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Djibouti]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Communications]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Economy]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Geography]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Government]] -- 
> [[Dominica/History]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Military]] -- 
> [[Dominica/People]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Dominica/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Dominica]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Communications]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Economy]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Geography]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Government]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/History]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Military]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/People]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Dominican_Republic]] -- 
> [[Errol_Morris]] -- 
> [[Genealogy]] -- 
> [[General_relativity]] -- 
> [[Hugo_Award]] -- 
> [[Hugo_award]] -- 
> [[Hypoglycemia]] -- 
> [[Inorganic_chemistry]] -- 
> [[Insert]] -- 
> [[Integers]] -- 
> [[John_Wyndham]] -- 
> [[Jurassic]] -- 
> [[Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz]] --
> [[Law_of_physics]] -- 
> [[Laws_of_physics]] -- 
> [[Objecthood]] -- 
> [[Phonology]] -- 
> [[Point_of_View_Shot]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Economy]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Geography]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Government]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/History]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Military]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/People]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Republic_of_the_Congo]] -- 
> [[Saint_Helena]] -- 
> [[Seasons]] -- 
> [[Symmetric_tensor]] -- 
> [[The_Thin_Blue_Line]] -- 
> [[Turkish_language]] -- 
------
New_topics|988374275
3c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIa factbook continues to dominate)
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook continues to dominate)
------
Inorganic_chemistry|988377925
1c1
< Inorganic chemistry is the study of molecules that contain any combination of elements except carbon. 
---
> Inorganic chemistry is the branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the study of molecules that contain any combination of elements except carbon. 
------
Planetary_Sciences|988378526
5a6
>  Sometimes called Planetology.
------
Computing|988379208
59,72d58
< ** [[Email]]
< ** [[Newsgroup]]
< ** [[Authoring]]
< *** [[HTML]]
< *** [[XML]]
< *** [[JavaScript]]
< ** [[Protocols]]
< *** [[TCP-IP]]
< *** [[POP3]]
< *** [[IMAP]]
< *** [[SMTP]]
< *** [[HTTP]]
< *** [[FTP]]
< *** [[LDAP]]
------
Internet|988379554
5,18c5,32
< Some of these facilities are:
< * [[email]]
< * [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s
< * [[World Wide Web]] - [[website]]s
< * [[FTP]]
< * [[IRC]]
< * [[MUD]]
< * [[MUSH]]
< * [[Finger]]
< * [[Gopher]]
< * [[Proprietary]] [[Instant messenger]]s
< ** [[ICQ]]
< ** [[AIM]]
< ** [[Yahoo]]
---
> Some of the facilities mentioned above are:
> ** [[Email]]
> ** [[Newsgroup]] -- [[Usenet]]
> ** [[World Wide Web]]
> *** [[Search Engine]]
> *** [[Web crawler]]
> ** [[Authoring]]
> *** [[HTML]]
> *** [[XML]]
> *** [[JavaScript]]
> ** [[Protocols]]
> *** [[TCP-IP]]
> *** [[POP3]]
> *** [[IMAP]]
> *** [[SMTP]]
> *** [[HTTP]]
> *** [[FTP]]
> *** [[LDAP]]
> *** [[Gopher]]
> *** [[Finger]]
> ** Chatting and interaction:
> *** [[IRC]]
> *** [[MUD]]
> *** [[MUSH]]
> *** Proprietary systems: [[ICQ]] -- [[AIM]]
> 
> 
> 
------
Internet|988379630
6,32c6,30
< ** [[Email]]
< ** [[Newsgroup]] -- [[Usenet]]
< ** [[World Wide Web]]
< *** [[Search Engine]]
< *** [[Web crawler]]
< ** [[Authoring]]
< *** [[HTML]]
< *** [[XML]]
< *** [[JavaScript]]
< ** [[Protocols]]
< *** [[TCP-IP]]
< *** [[POP3]]
< *** [[IMAP]]
< *** [[SMTP]]
< *** [[HTTP]]
< *** [[FTP]]
< *** [[LDAP]]
< *** [[Gopher]]
< *** [[Finger]]
< ** Chatting and interaction:
< *** [[IRC]]
< *** [[MUD]]
< *** [[MUSH]]
< *** Proprietary systems: [[ICQ]] -- [[AIM]]
< 
< 
< 
---
> * [[Email]]
> * [[Newsgroup]] -- [[Usenet]]
> * [[World Wide Web]]
> ** [[Search Engine]]
> ** [[Web crawler]]
> * [[Authoring]]
> ** [[HTML]]
> ** [[XML]]
> ** [[JavaScript]]
> * [[Protocols]]
> ** [[TCP-IP]]
> ** [[POP3]]
> ** [[IMAP]]
> ** [[SMTP]]
> ** [[HTTP]]
> ** [[FTP]]
> ** [[PPP]] - [[SLIP]]
> ** [[LDAP]]
> ** [[Gopher]]
> ** [[Finger]]
> * Chatting and interaction:
> ** [[IRC]]
> ** [[MUD]]
> ** [[MUSH]]
> ** Proprietary systems: [[ICQ]] -- [[AIM]]
------
Acronym/List|988379666
2a3,35
> * AA - Anti-Aliasing
> * AAC - Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2 standard)  
> * ACL - Access Control List
> * ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union
> * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
> * ADC - Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
> * ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL
> * ADT - Atlantic Daylight Time (UTC-3 hours)
> * AFAIK - As far as I know
> * AFJ - April Fool's Joke 
> * AFK - Away from keyboard
> * AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port, sometimes used with a suffix indicating the port's bandwidth, like APG4x
> * AI - Amnesty International; Artificial Intelligence
> * AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
> * AIM - AOL Instant Messenger
> * aka - also known as
> * AKDT - Alaska Standard Daylight Saving Time (UTC-8 hours)
> * AKST - Alaska Standard Time (UTC-9 hours)
> * AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
> * AMR - Audio Modem Riser
> * ANSI - American National Standards Institute
> * AOL - America Online 
> * AP - Associated Press
> * API - Application Programming Interface
> * apm - Advanced Power Management
> * ASAP - as soon as possible
> * ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
> * ASP - Application service provider 
> * AST - Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4 hours)
> * AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
> * AVI - Audio Video Interleaved
> * AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System
>        
16c49
< Back to [[Acronym]].
---
> Back to [[Acronym]].
------
Planetary_Sciences|988379858
6c6
<  Sometimes called Planetology.
---
> Sometimes called [[Planetology]].
------
Acronym/List|988380078
45a46
> * SNAFU - Situation Normal All F****d Up
49c50
< Back to [[Acronym]].
---
> Back to [[Acronym]].
------
Soviet_Union|988380260
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist dictatorship that existed  from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist country that existed as a totalitarian regime from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
------
Conspiracy_theory|988380605
5a6,18
> 
> Popular elements of conspiracy theories include:
> :[[Bavarian Illuminati]]
> :[[Knights Templar]]
> :[[Rosicrucians]]
> :[[New World Order]]
> :[[UFO]]s
> :[[Men in Black]], aka [[Majestic 12]]
> :[[Freemason]]
> :[[Unknown Superiors]]
> :[[Alternative 3]]
> :[[Area 51]]
> 
------
Soviet_Union|988380608
1c1,3
< The Soviet Union was a communist country that existed as a totalitarian regime from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist country that existed as a totalitarian regime from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]). The country strecthed from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[Black Sea|Black Seas]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. In its final years it consisted of 15 [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] (SSR's).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
> 
> During the period of its existence, the Soviet Union was by area the world's largest [[country]]. It was also one of the most diverse, with more than 100 distinct nationalities living within its borders. 
------
Soviet_Socialist_Republics|988380865
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In its final years of existence, the [[Soviet Union]] consisted of 15 Socialist Republics, many of which are now independent countries.
> 
> * [[Armenia]]
> * [[Azerbaijan]]
> * [[Belorussia]] (now [[Belarus]])
> * [[Estonia]]
> * [[Georgia]]
> * [[Kazakstan]]
> * [[Kirgiziya]] (now [[Kyrgyzstan]])
> * [[Latvia]]
> * [[Lithuania]]
> * [[Moldavia]] (now [[Moldova]])
> * [[Russia]]
> * [[Tajikistan]]
> * [[Turkmenistan]]
> * [[Ukraine]]
> * [[Uzbekistan]]
------
Soviet_Union|988380907
9,10d8
< Former members of the Soviet Union, which are now independent [[country|countries]]: [[Russia]] -- [[Kazakhstan]] -- [[Ukraine]] -- [[Latvia]] -- [[Lithuania]] -- [[Estonia]] -- [[Belarus]] -- [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- [[Uzbekistan]] -- [[Turkmenistan]] -- [[Tajikistan]] -- [[Armenia]] -- [[Moldova]] -- [[Georgia]]
< 
------
Soviet_Union|988380946
1c1
< The Soviet Union was a communist country that existed as a totalitarian regime from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]). The country strecthed from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[Black Sea|Black Seas]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. In its final years it consisted of 15 [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] (SSR's).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
---
> The Soviet Union was a communist country that existed as a totalitarian regime from 1917 until 1991.  The official name was "The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" ([[USSR]]). The country stretched from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[Black Sea|Black Seas]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. In its final years it consisted of 15 [[Soviet Socialist Republics]] (SSR's).  [[Russia]] was by far the largest Republic in the Soviet Union in terms of both land area and population, and also dominated it politically and economically.
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|988381030
22a23
> *[[Republic of San Marino]] capital: [[Venice]]
39c40
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|988381085
14a15
> *[[Egyptian Empire]]
------
Game_of_life|988382001
7,8c7
< 
< The game of life was invented in 1970 (which day?).  It has spurred a lot of interest because of the surprising ways the patterns can evolve.
---
> The game of life was invented in 1970 (which day?).  It has spurred a lot of interest because of the surprising ways the patterns can evolve.  From a theoretical point of view it is interesting because it has the power of a [[universal computer]], that is, anything that can be computed algorithmically can be done so within the game of life.
------
Catholicism|988382425
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Catholicism is the largest and one of the oldest and surviving branches of the Christian religion.
>  Also known as the Roman Catholic church or Roman rite to indicate its headquarters in Rome.
>  The early Christian church became organized under approximately five patriachs, those at Rome,
>  descending in authority from St. Peter. The second most influential patriach in
>  Constantinople (Byzantium) lead the split in the church in 1054 which started the Orthodox
>  churches. The next major split from the Catholic church occured in the 1500's in the 
>  Reformation, where all of the Protestant (protesting) denominations began.
> The head of the Catholic church is known as the Pope. The church is orgined in a hierarchical structure,
>  in descending order - pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, priest. These offices 
>  constitute the priesthood, and can only be occupied by unmarried men, except in unusual instances. 
>  The pope is elected by the college of cardinals and continues in office until death or rarely
>  until he steps down. 
> The practice of Catholic church consists of seven sacraments - Eucharist, marriage, holy orders,
> extreme unction, confession, baptism, and confirmation.
>  The first is Eucharist (communion), the celebration of the sacrifice of Christ, marked by the
>  communal eating of bread and drinking of wine. Holy orders is the entering into the priesthood
>  and involves a vow of chastity. Extreme Unction is also known as last rites or blessing the sick
>  and involves the annointing with oil of the sick and dying. Confession involves admitting sins to
>  a priest and receiving penance. Baptism is given to infants and upon entering adulthood, the 
>  baptised make a personal commitment in the sacrement of confirmation.
> Historically, the church service was conducted entirely in Latin but the reorganization of the Church
> in the 1960's, local languages came into use. The local churches are organized into geographic 
> districts, called parishes. All Catholics are expected to attend and support their local parish
> church. The Catholic church supports many orders (groups) of monks and nuns who are mainly
> non-priests living lives specially devouted to serving God. This sometimes involves separation
> from the world for meditation and sometimes exceptional participation in the world, often in medical
> or educational work.
>  
> The Catholics believe in the Trinity of God, the Godhood of Jesus, and the salvation through Jesus Christ.
>  Catholic views differ from Orthodox on several points including whether one can rejoin the Church 
>  after denying it. Catholics allow this. Catholics differ from Protestants in several other points, 
>  including the necessity of penance and the meaning of communion.   
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988382758
2a3,6
> '''April 27, 2001'''
> 
> Stats update: 5041 pages, 3281 "comma" pages, 912 ''#REDIRECT'' pages -- WojPob 
> 
------
Catholicism|988382856
2,7c2,8
<  Also known as the Roman Catholic church or Roman rite to indicate its headquarters in Rome.
<  The early Christian church became organized under approximately five patriachs, those at Rome,
<  descending in authority from St. Peter. The second most influential patriach in
<  Constantinople (Byzantium) lead the split in the church in 1054 which started the Orthodox
<  churches. The next major split from the Catholic church occured in the 1500's in the 
<  Reformation, where all of the Protestant (protesting) denominations began.
---
> Also known as the Roman Catholic church or Roman rite to indicate its headquarters in Rome.
> The early Christian church became organized under approximately five patriachs, those at Rome,
> descending in authority from St. Peter. The second most influential patriach in
> Constantinople (Byzantium) lead the split in the church in 1054 which started the Orthodox
> churches. The next major split from the Catholic church occured in the 1500's in the 
> Reformation, where all of the Protestant (protesting) denominations began.
> 
9,12c10,14
<  in descending order - pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, priest. These offices 
<  constitute the priesthood, and can only be occupied by unmarried men, except in unusual instances. 
<  The pope is elected by the college of cardinals and continues in office until death or rarely
<  until he steps down. 
---
> in descending order - pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, priest. These offices 
> constitute the priesthood, and can only be occupied by unmarried men, except in unusual instances. 
> The pope is elected by the college of cardinals and continues in office until death or rarely
> until he steps down. 
> 
14,20c16,20
< extreme unction, confession, baptism, and confirmation.
<  The first is Eucharist (communion), the celebration of the sacrifice of Christ, marked by the
<  communal eating of bread and drinking of wine. Holy orders is the entering into the priesthood
<  and involves a vow of chastity. Extreme Unction is also known as last rites or blessing the sick
<  and involves the annointing with oil of the sick and dying. Confession involves admitting sins to
<  a priest and receiving penance. Baptism is given to infants and upon entering adulthood, the 
<  baptised make a personal commitment in the sacrement of confirmation.
---
> extreme unction, confession, baptism, and confirmation. The first is Eucharist (communion), the celebration of the sacrifice of Christ, marked by the communal eating of bread and drinking of wine. Holy orders is the entering into the priesthood and involves a vow of chastity. Extreme Unction is also known as last rites or blessing the sick
> and involves the annointing with oil of the sick and dying. Confession involves admitting sins to
> a priest and receiving penance. Baptism is given to infants and upon entering adulthood, the 
> baptised make a personal commitment in the sacrement of confirmation.
> 
30,32c30,32
<  Catholic views differ from Orthodox on several points including whether one can rejoin the Church 
<  after denying it. Catholics allow this. Catholics differ from Protestants in several other points, 
<  including the necessity of penance and the meaning of communion.   
---
> Catholic views differ from Orthodox on several points including whether one can rejoin the Church 
> after denying it. Catholics allow this. Catholics differ from Protestants in several other points, 
> including the necessity of penance and the meaning of communion.   
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988382916
5c5
< Stats update: 5041 pages, 3281 "comma" pages, 912 ''#REDIRECT'' pages -- WojPob 
---
> Stats update: 5041 pages, 3281 "comma" pages, 912 ''#REDIRECT''  pages -- WojPob 
------
Historical_revisionism|988383008
3c3
< Historical revisionism is often controversial, and sometimes has the elements of a conspiracy theory.  An example is the theory that [[Franklin Roosevelt]] had prior knowledge about the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and allowed it to happen.
---
> Historical revisionism is often controversial, and sometimes has the elements of a [[conspiracy theory]].  An example is the theory that [[Franklin Roosevelt]] had prior knowledge about the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and allowed it to happen.
------
Anglican_Church|988383090
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Church of England also called the Anglican Church was begun by Henry III
> after he was denied a divorce by the Pope. This was however at a time of major 
> religious upheaval in Western Europe called the Reformation and some split was 
> probably inevitable. As it is the Church of England retained a form of worship
> closer to the Catholic form than other Protestant churches. For example, the
> church has a hierarchical organization. The Church of England congregations in America
> call themselves Episcopalian. The "High Church" form of the Church of England 
> uses a worship style similar to the Catholic...
------
Catholicism|988383269
9,10c9,10
< The head of the Catholic church is known as the Pope. The church is orgined in a hierarchical structure,
< in descending order - pope, cardinal, archbishop, bishop, priest. These offices 
---
> The head of the Catholic church is known as the [[Pope]]. The church is orgined in a hierarchical structure,
> in descending order - [[pope]], cardinal, archbishop, bishop, priest. These offices 
------
Roman_Catholic|988383315
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Catholicism]]
------
Anglican_Church|988383421
2,3c2,3
< after he was denied a divorce by the Pope. This was however at a time of major 
< religious upheaval in Western Europe called the Reformation and some split was 
---
> after he was denied a divorce by the [[Pope]]. This was however at a time of major 
> religious upheaval in Western [[Europe]] called the [[Reformation]] and some split was 
5,6c5,6
< closer to the Catholic form than other Protestant churches. For example, the
< church has a hierarchical organization. The Church of England congregations in America
---
> closer to the Catholic form than other [[Protestant]] churches. For example, the
> church has a hierarchical organization. The Church of England congregations in [[America]]
8c8
< uses a worship style similar to the Catholic...
---
> uses a worship style similar to [[Catholicism]]...
------
Catholicism|988384276
8a9,10
> ''Questioning the accuracy here.  The partriarch of Rome was not supreme in the early Church, and simply never managed to assert his authority over the east.  The split in churches came about mainly because the pope did not recognise the supremacy of the emperor in ecclesiastical matters, and so should be more attributed to the west than the east, although for the most part it was just a reflection of the differences that had developed between the two areas.  On this note, on [[Christianity]] it lists the orthodox church as a sort of catholicism - we should probably adopt either separating or grouping them conistently to avoid confusion.''
> 
------
Protestantism|988384927
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Protestant generally trace their separation from the the Roman Catholic church in the 1500's. This is the time the most successful refomers effected a permantant, substantial break in the church. Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517. Other reformers included Zwingli, John Calvin, Hus, ...
> 
> Protestant's major theological differences with the Catholics include the belief in the sufficiency of faith alone for salvation, the figurative presence of Christ in the bread and wine of communion, and the lack of need for penance or indulgences.    
> 
> Protestant refer to groups of churches as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church, although some denominations are less accepting of others and some are so unorthodox as to be questioned by most. All denominations consider all others to have some points of doctrine wrong. These theological differences are sometimes very small. 
------
Games/TableTop|988385210
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Table top games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Table-top game]]
------
Grunge_Music|988385605
1c1
< A much more commercially successful offshoot of [[Punk rock]] and [[Hardcore Punk Music]] in the late, late 1980s and early 1990s.
---
> A much more commercially successful offshoot of [[Punk rock]] and [[Hardcore Punk Music]] in the late, late 1980s and early 1990s. It was bands from [[Seattle]] that made grunge popular with a large audience.
7a8
> * [[Pearl Jam]]
------
Black_Sea|988385951
1c1,3
< An inland sea between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] by the [[Bosphorus Straits]]. 
---
> An inland sea between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] by the [[Bosporus]] and the [[Marmara Sea]].
> 
> Countries bordering on the Black Sea are [[Turkey]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]] and [[Georgia]].
------
Goedels_Incompleteness_Theorem|988386509
4c4
< The combined work of Goedel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
---
> The combined work of Goedel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[AxiomOfChoice|axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
------
AxiomOfChoice|988387213
1,31c1
< The AxiomOfChoice was formulated about a century ago by [[Ernst Zermelo]], and was quite controversial at the time.  It states the following:
< 
< Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can ''choose'' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
< 
< Hmmm - seems obvious doesn't it?  I mean if you've got a bunch of boxes lying around each with at least one item in each of them, the axiom simply states that you can choose one item out of each box.  Where's the controversy?
< 
< Well, the controversy was over what it meant to ''choose'' something from these sets.  As an example, let us look at some sample sets.
< 
< :1. Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
< :: Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
< :: (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
< :2. Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
< :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
< :3. Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
< :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
< :4. Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
< :: Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
< 
< And therein lies the crux of the AxiomOfChoice.  All it states is that there is some function f that can ''choose'' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existence.
< 
< There are no contradictions if you choose not to accept the AxiomOfChoice, however, most mathematicians (who aren't set theorists or logicians) accept either it, or a weakened variant of it, because it makes their jobs ''easier''.  There are many variants of the AxiomOfChoice (for example the AxiomOfCountableChoice, which permits a sequence of choices).
< 
< One of the reasons that some mathematicians don't particularly like the AxiomOfChoice is the fact that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition which amounts to saying that it is possible to "carve-up" the closed unit sphere into finitely many pieces, and using only rotation and translation, reform the pieces into 2 spheres each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the "proof" given in the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition is an existence proof only, it does not tell you how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells you that it can be done.
< 
< One of the most interesting aspects of the AxiomOfChoice is the sheer number of places that it pops up.  It has quite far reaching impact, and shows up in many different branches of mathematics (often implicitly, as opposed to explicitly).  There are also a remarkable number of concepts that are equivalent to the Axiom of Choice, among them the WellOrderingPrinciple and ZornsLemma.
< 
< Jerry Bona once said: "The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the Well Ordering Principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's Lemma?".  In truth, all three of these are mathematically equivalent, but the statement was amusing because it underscored the fact that most mathematicians find the AxiomOfChoice to be intuitive, the WellOrderingPrinciple to be counterintuitive, and ZornsLemma to be too complex to form any intuitive feeling about.
< 
< There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU]
< 
< --RaviDesai
---
> #REDIRECT [[Axiom of choice]]
------
Axiom_of_choice|988387388
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The axiom of choice was formulated about a century ago by [[Ernst Zermelo]], and was quite controversial at the time.  It states the following:
> 
> Let X be a collection of non-empty sets.  Then we can ''choose'' a member from each set in that collection.  Stated more formally, there exists a function f such that for each set S in X, f(S) is an element of S.
> 
> Hmmm - seems obvious doesn't it?  I mean if you've got a bunch of boxes lying around each with at least one item in each of them, the axiom simply states that you can choose one item out of each box.  Where's the controversy?
> 
> Well, the controversy was over what it meant to ''choose'' something from these sets.  As an example, let us look at some sample sets.
> 
> :1. Let X be any finite collection of non-empty sets.
> :: Then f can be stated explicitly (out of set A, choose a...), since the number of sets is finite.
> :: (Here the AxiomOfChoice is not needed, you can simply use the rules of formal logic.)
> :2. Let X be the collection of all subsets of the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, ... }.
> :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the smallest element in each set.
> :3. Let X be the collection of all sub-intervals of (0,1) with a length greater than 0.
> :: Then f can be the function that ''chooses'' the midpoint of each interval.
> :4. Let X be the collection of ''all'' subsets of the reals.
> :: Now we have a problem.  There is no obvious definition of f that will guarantee you success.
> 
> And therein lies the crux of the axiom.  All it states is that there is some function f that can ''choose'' an element out of each set in the collection.  It gives you no indication about how the function would be defined, it simply mandates its existence.
> 
> There are no contradictions if you choose not to accept the axiom of choice, however, most mathematicians (who aren't set theorists or logicians) accept either it, or a weakened variant of it, because it makes their jobs ''easier''.  There are many variants of the axiom of choice (for example the [[axiom of countable choice]], which permits a sequence of choices).
> 
> One of the reasons that some mathematicians don't particularly like the AxiomOfChoice is the fact that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition which amounts to saying that it is possible to "carve-up" the closed unit sphere into finitely many pieces, and using only rotation and translation, reform the pieces into 2 spheres each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the "proof" given in the BanachTarskiParadoxicalDecomposition is an existence proof only, it does not tell you how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells you that it can be done.
> 
> One of the most interesting aspects of the AxiomOfChoice is the sheer number of places that it pops up.  It has quite far reaching impact, and shows up in many different branches of mathematics (often implicitly, as opposed to explicitly).  There are also a remarkable number of concepts that are equivalent to the Axiom of Choice, among them the [[well-ordering principle]] and [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]].
> 
> Jerry Bona once said: "The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the well-ordering principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's Lemma?".  In truth, all three of these are mathematically equivalent, but the statement was amusing because it underscored the fact that most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-orderingPrinciple to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex to form any intuitive feeling about.
> 
> There are many people still doing work on the AxiomOfChoice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU]
> 
> --RaviDesai
------
Goedels_Incompleteness_Theorem|988387445
4c4
< The combined work of Goedel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[AxiomOfChoice|axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
---
> The combined work of Goedel and [[Paul Cohen]] has shown that in standard Set Theory the truth or falsity of the [[axiom of choice]] and [[continuum hypothesis]] are similarly undecidable.  
------
Black_Sea|988388221
3a4,5
> 
> The most important cities along the coast are: [[Istanbul]] -- [[Burgas]] -- [[Varna]] -- [Odessa]] -- [[Sevastopol]]
------
Black_Sea|988388236
5c5
< The most important cities along the coast are: [[Istanbul]] -- [[Burgas]] -- [[Varna]] -- [Odessa]] -- [[Sevastopol]]
---
> The most important cities along the coast are: [[Istanbul]] -- [[Burgas]] -- [[Varna]] -- [[Odessa]] -- [[Sevastopol]]
------
Grunge_Music|988388276
7,8c7,8
< * [[NirvanaBand]]
< * [[Pearl Jam]]
---
> * [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
> * [[Pearl Jam]]
------
Carbon_Nanotubes|988388897
9a10,11
> 
> In April of 2001, [[IBM]] announced it had developed a technique for automatically developing pure semiconductor surfaces from nanotubes.
------
Hypoglycemia|988390500
2,7c2,3
< that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome that is a
< reaction to that phenomenon. It is called hypoglycemia.
< <br>There are drug related and non-drug related causes of hypoglycemia.
< Its symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]],
< nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet,
< confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle
---
> that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome, or group of symptoms, that is a reaction to that phenomenon. This syndrome is called <i>hypoglycemia.</i>
> <br> Hypoglycemia is usually divided into "relative hypoglycemia" and "functional hypoglycemis." "Relative hypoglicemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by external influences, like diet and medication use. This type is more amenable to management or cure. Functional hypoglycemai refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by a malfunction, possibly metabolic, within the sufferer. This type is harder to manage. Hypoglycemia's symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]], nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle
10c6,7
< [[coma]].
---
> [[coma]].<br>
> Some members of the medical community believe that functional hypoglycemia does not actually exist, as a disease, at all.
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988393429
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of U.S. Public Law 101-336, signed into law on July 26, 1990. It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which makes discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics, illegal.<br>
> The Americans with Disabilities Act, commonly referred to as the <b>ADA</b>, consists of
> three introductory sections and five titles:
> *Introductory Sections
> **Table of Contents
> **[[/Findings and Purposes]]
> **[[/Definitions]]
> *Main Section
> **Title I - Employment
> **Title II - Public Services (and public transportation)
> **Title III - Public Accommodations
> **Title IV - Telecommunications
> **Title V - Miscellaneous 
> <br>
> The ADA did not eliminate such discrimination upon it's passage or even today. In fact, the ADA could stand on the books, so to speak, forever, and nothing would change. This is because the ADA is <i>complaint-driven</i>. Unless an individual or group institutes a complaint or a law suit claiming discrimination based on the ADA, nothing will change.
> This has resulted in very slow progress in the enforcement of the ADA.<br>
> Each titles has a governmental agency or person that was assigned the duty of issuing implementing regulations for each title or part thereof. Under each title there are a number of bodies to make a complaint of discrimination to, ranging from bodies of the federal executive branch to local civil rights enforcement agencies. Further, individuals 
> under each title have the "private right of action," that is the right to privately sue the alleged discriminating person or body.
>  
------
Hypoglycemia|988394023
1,6c1,3
< Brain metabolism depends entirely on glucose as energetic material. All states
< that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome, or group of symptoms, that is a reaction to that phenomenon. This syndrome is called <i>hypoglycemia.</i>
< <br> Hypoglycemia is usually divided into "relative hypoglycemia" and "functional hypoglycemis." "Relative hypoglicemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by external influences, like diet and medication use. This type is more amenable to management or cure. Functional hypoglycemai refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by a malfunction, possibly metabolic, within the sufferer. This type is harder to manage. Hypoglycemia's symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]], nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle
< pain, memory loss, and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble
< various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce
< [[coma]].<br>
---
> Brain metabolism depends primarily on glucose as energetic material.  States
> that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome, or group of symptoms, that is a reaction to that phenomenon.  This syndrome is called <i>hypoglycemia.</i>
> <br> Hypoglycemia is usually divided into "relative hypoglycemia" and "functional hypoglycemia."  Relative hypoglicemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by external influences, like diet and medication use.  This type is more amenable to management or cure.  Functional hypoglycemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by a malfunction, possibly metabolic, within the sufferer.  This type is harder to manage.  Hypoglycemia's symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]], nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss, and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce [[coma]].<br>
------
Game_of_life|988394188
1c1
< [[John Horton Conway]]'s Game of Life is a [[cellular automaton]] running on a grid, where is cell can be either "alive" or "dead". The transitions depend only on the number of live neighbors (out of the 8 immediate neighbors of each cell):
---
> [[John Horton Conway]]'s '''Game of Life''' is a [[cellular automaton]] running on a grid, where each cell can be either "alive" or "dead".  The transitions depend only on the number of live neighbors (out of the 8 immediate neighbors of each cell):
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988397936
1c1,2
< <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of U.S. Public Law 101-336, signed into law on July 26, 1990. It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which makes discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics, illegal.<br>
---
> <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt U.S. Public Law 101-336], signed into law on July 26, 1990.  It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1964, which made discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics  illegal.  It further requires government agencies and places of public accommodation such as hotels and restaurants to take reasonable steps to remove barriers to access for the diabled, for example by installing wheelchair ramps or special theater seats.
> 
14,19c15,19
< <br>
< The ADA did not eliminate such discrimination upon it's passage or even today. In fact, the ADA could stand on the books, so to speak, forever, and nothing would change. This is because the ADA is <i>complaint-driven</i>. Unless an individual or group institutes a complaint or a law suit claiming discrimination based on the ADA, nothing will change.
< This has resulted in very slow progress in the enforcement of the ADA.<br>
< Each titles has a governmental agency or person that was assigned the duty of issuing implementing regulations for each title or part thereof. Under each title there are a number of bodies to make a complaint of discrimination to, ranging from bodies of the federal executive branch to local civil rights enforcement agencies. Further, individuals 
< under each title have the "private right of action," that is the right to privately sue the alleged discriminating person or body.
<  
---
> 
> Some complain that the ADA has made little progress in eliminating such discrimination because it is primarily ''complaint-driven''.  That is, individuals must make complaints of discrimination under the act to the person or agency charged with handling such complaints, only after which the agency may take action.  Each title of the act created an agency to handle such complaints, ranging from bodies of the federal executive branch to local civil rights enforcement agencies.  Further, individuals under each title have the "private right of action"; that is, the right to privately sue the alleged discriminating person or body.  Many of these lawsuits have helped to clarify provisions of the act by forcing courts to interpret the law for specific cases, creating a body of legal precedent.
> 
> (Link to some of the big legal cases would be good here).
> 
------
Disease|988397973
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Types of disease:
> 
>  [[Alzheimers Disease]]
>  [[Cancer]]
>  [[Hypoglycemia]]
>  [[Multiple Sclerosis]]
>  [[Muscular dystrophy]]
> 
> * [[infectious diseases]]
> * [[neurologic diseases]]
>          [[Neuromyotonia]]
>          [[Stroke]] 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Findings_and_Purposes|988398117
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This section sets out the finding of Congress on the historical and current (1990) state of 
> the disability community wiithin the larger community of the United States population, in general. The next section, below, sets forth the goals of this act. It is important to appreciate that this is not a statement from the disabled community, but one drafted and approved by the U.S. Congress and then approved by the U.S. Senate.  
> 
> SEC. 2. FINDINGS AND PURPOSES. 42USC 12101.
> 
> (a) Findings. The Congress finds that<br> 
> 
> (1) some 43,000,000 Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and this number is increasing as the population as a whole is growing older; <br>
> 
> (2) historically, society has tended to isolate and segregate individuals with disabilities, and, despite some improvements, such forms of discrimination against individuals with disabilities continue to be a serious and pervasive social problem;<br> 
> 
> (3) discrimination against individuals with disabilities persists in such critical areas as employment, housing, public accommodations, education, transportation, communication, recreation, institutionalization, health services, voting, and access to public services;<br> 
> 
> (4) unlike individuals who have experienced discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, religion, or age, individuals who have experienced discrimination on the basis of disability have often had no legal recourse to redress such discrimination;<br> 
> 
> (5) individuals with disabilities continually encounter various forms of discrimination, including outright intentional exclusion, the discriminatory effects of architectural, transportation, and communication barriers, overprotective rules and policies, failure to make modifications to existing facilities and practices, exclusionary qualification standards and criteria, segregation, and relegation to lesser services, programs, activities, benefits, jobs, or other opportunities;<br> 
> 
> (6) census data, national polls, and other studies have documented that people with disabilities, as a group, occupy an inferior status in our society, and are severely disadvantaged socially, vocationally, economically, and educationally;<br> 
> 
> (7) individuals with disabilities are a discrete and insular minority who have been faced with restrictions and limitations, subjected to a history of purposeful unequal treatment, and relegated to a position of political powerlessness in our society, based on characteristics that are beyond the control of such individuals and resulting from stereotypic assumptions not truly indicative of the individual ability of such individuals to participate in, and contribute to, society;<br> 
> 
> (8) the Nations proper goals regarding individuals with disabilities are to assure equality of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic self-sufficiency for such individuals;<br>  
> 
> (9) the continuing existence of unfair and unnecessary discrimination and prejudice denies people with disabilities the opportunity to compete on an equal basis and to pursue those opportunities for which our free society is justifiably famous, and costs the United States billions of dollars in unnecessary expenses resulting from dependency and nonproductivity.
> <br> 
> 
> (b) Purpose. It is the purpose of this Act <br> 
> 
> (1) to provide a clear and comprehensive national mandate for the elimination of discrimination against individuals with disabilities; <br>
> 
> (2) to provide clear, strong, consistent, enforceable standards addressing discrimination against individuals with disabilities;<br> 
> 
> (3) to ensure that the Federal Government plays a central role in enforcing the standards established in this Act on behalf of individuals with disabilities;<br>  
> 
> (4) to invoke the sweep of congressional authority, including the power to enforce the fourteenth amendment and to regulate commerce, in order to address the major areas of discrimination faced day-to-day by people with disabilities.<br> 
> 
> 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988398275
1c1
< <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt U.S. Public Law 101-336], signed into law on July 26, 1990.  It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1964, which made discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics  illegal.  It further requires government agencies and places of public accommodation such as hotels and restaurants to take reasonable steps to remove barriers to access for the diabled, for example by installing wheelchair ramps or special theater seats.
---
> <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt U.S. Public Law 101-336], signed into law on July 26, 1990.  It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1964, which made discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics  illegal.  
------
Disease|988398343
7a8
>  [[Scleroderma]]
12c13
<          [[Stroke]] 
---
>          [[Stroke]] 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988398842
18a19,21
> ----
> I fully intend to summarize each section and provide a number of cases that are important to the implementation of this act. For this reason, I removed the remarks about public accommodations, which are only a small part of this act, but the most visible. Further, public accomodation has to be defined and this is not that simple. I ask that everyone be patient, or base their entries on the act itself and other "ADA" documents.
> The most important recent case, here, is one decided this year, that, incredibly enough, the Supreme Court, by one vote, found that the states immune from lawsuits against them under the ADA. This means that if a state facility is inaccessible to a job applicant and he cannot work there, he cannot sue on the grounds of discrimination.
------
Scleroderma|988399106
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scleroderma is a chronic disease characterized by excessive deposits of collagen.  Progressive systemic scleroderma, the serious type of the disease, which can be fatal.  The local type of the disease is not serioues.
> 
> 
> Scleroderma effects the skin, and in serious, life-threatening cases it effects the blood vessels and internal organs.  The most evident symptom is the hardening of the skin.  There is discoloration of the hands and feet in response to cold.  The serious of the disease depends on which organs, if any, are effected.  If the heart, lungs, or kidneys are effected, the disease is generally fatal.
> 
> There is no cure for scleroderma, though there is treatment for some of the symptoms, including drugs that soften the skin and reduce inflammation.  Patients often benefit from exposure to heat.
> 
> The cause of the disease is unknown.  The overproduction of collagen is thought to from an autoimmune dysfunction.
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988399610
10,14c10,14
< **Title I - Employment
< **Title II - Public Services (and public transportation)
< **Title III - Public Accommodations
< **Title IV - Telecommunications
< **Title V - Miscellaneous 
---
> **[[/Title I]] - Employment
> **[[/Title II]] - Public Services (and public transportation)
> **[[/Title III]] - Public Accommodations
> **[[/Title IV]] - Telecommunications
> **[[/Title V]] - Miscellaneous 
21c21
< The most important recent case, here, is one decided this year, that, incredibly enough, the Supreme Court, by one vote, found that the states immune from lawsuits against them under the ADA. This means that if a state facility is inaccessible to a job applicant and he cannot work there, he cannot sue on the grounds of discrimination.
---
> The most important recent case, here, is one decided this year, that, incredibly enough, the Supreme Court, by one vote, found that the states immune from lawsuits against them under the ADA. This means that if a state facility is inaccessible to a job applicant and he cannot work there, he cannot sue on the grounds of discrimination. If the same thing happened at a city faility, or even, your public library, that would be grounds for a suit. That was one step backward, that was provided by the courts. They may be forced to act, but not necessarily in everyone's best interest.
------
Scleroderma|988399846
1c1
< Scleroderma is a chronic disease characterized by excessive deposits of collagen.  Progressive systemic scleroderma, the serious type of the disease, which can be fatal.  The local type of the disease is not serioues.
---
> Scleroderma is a chronic disease characterized by excessive deposits of collagen.  Progressive systemic scleroderma, the serious type of the disease, can be fatal.  The local type of the disease is not serious.
4c4
< Scleroderma effects the skin, and in serious, life-threatening cases it effects the blood vessels and internal organs.  The most evident symptom is the hardening of the skin.  There is discoloration of the hands and feet in response to cold.  The serious of the disease depends on which organs, if any, are effected.  If the heart, lungs, or kidneys are effected, the disease is generally fatal.
---
> Scleroderma affects the skin, and in serious, life-threatening cases it affects the blood vessels and internal organs.  The most evident symptom is the hardening of the skin.  There is discoloration of the hands and feet in response to cold.  The seriousness of the disease depends on which organs, if any, are affected.  If the heart, lungs, or kidneys are affected, the disease is generally fatal.
------
Scleroderma|988400238
8c8,12
< The cause of the disease is unknown.  The overproduction of collagen is thought to from an autoimmune dysfunction.
---
> The cause of the disease is unknown.  The overproduction of collagen is thought to rsult from an autoimmune dysfunction.
> 
> Scleroderma effects approximately 300,000 people in the United States.  It is four times as common in women than men.
> 
> The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scelroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those whoa re afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
------
Scleroderma|988400293
12c12
< The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scelroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those whoa re afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
---
> The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scleroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those whoa re afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988402125
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Title III. Public Accommodations:
> 
> Summary:<br>
> 
> The ADA mandates that, by January 26, 1998, the public accommodations provisions of the act bar discrimnation based on disability, in the full amd equal enjoyment of goods, services, facilities, priviledges, advantages, or accommodations of any public business or service
> operated by private entities. Goods services, and accommodations must be offered in the most appropriate, intergrated setting.<br>
> 
> Definition of A Public Accomodation:<br>
> 
> Based on the definition in the ADA itself, "places of public accommodation" can include:
> 
> <br>
> hotels, motels, or inns (except one in which the proprietor lives and five or fewer rooms are rented); food and drink establishments; theaters, concert halls, stadiums and other places of exhibition and entertainment;  auditoriums, convention centers, lecture halls;
> bakeries, groceries, clothing and hardware stores, shopping centers and other sales and rental establishments; such service establishments as laundromats. banks, barber and beauty shops, funeral parlors, gas stations, accountant and lawyer offices, hospitals and healthcare providers offices.
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988402470
14c14,16
< bakeries, groceries, clothing and hardware stores, shopping centers and other sales and rental establishments; such service establishments as laundromats. banks, barber and beauty shops, funeral parlors, gas stations, accountant and lawyer offices, hospitals and healthcare providers offices.
---
> bakeries, groceries, clothing and hardware stores, shopping centers and other sales and rental establishments; such service establishments as laundromats. banks, barber and beauty shops, funeral parlors, gas stations, accountant and lawyer offices, hospitals and healthcare providers offices.<br>
> 
> Also, transportation terminals and stations; museums, galleries, libraries, parks, zoos, amusement parks; nursery and elementary through post-graduate private schools, and other places of education; day-care and senior citizen centers; homeless shelters; food banks, adoption agencies, and social service centers; gymnasiums, health spas, bowling alleys, golf courses and other exercise and recreational places.
------
Hypoglycemia|988403287
1,3c1,2
< Brain metabolism depends primarily on glucose as energetic material.  States
< that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome, or group of symptoms, that is a reaction to that phenomenon.  This syndrome is called <i>hypoglycemia.</i>
< <br> Hypoglycemia is usually divided into "relative hypoglycemia" and "functional hypoglycemia."  Relative hypoglicemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by external influences, like diet and medication use.  This type is more amenable to management or cure.  Functional hypoglycemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by a malfunction, possibly metabolic, within the sufferer.  This type is harder to manage.  Hypoglycemia's symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]], nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss, and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce [[coma]].<br>
---
> Brain metabolism depends primarily on glucose as energetic material.  States that lead to decreased blood glucose levels can cause a syndrome, or group of symptoms, that is a reaction to that phenomenon.  This syndrome is called <i>hypoglycemia.</i>
> <br> Hypoglycemia is usually divided into "relative hypoglycemia" and "functional hypoglycemia."  Relative hypoglycemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by external influences, like diet and medication use.  This type is more amenable to management or cure.  Functional hypoglycemia refers to hypoglycemia that is caused by a malfunction, possibly metabolic, within the sufferer.  This type is harder to manage.  Hypoglycemia's symptoms can include [[fatigue]], [[depression]], nervousness, [[anxiety]], constant hunger, cold sweats, cold hands or feet, confusion, [[delirium]], dizziness, fainting, trembling, headaches, muscle pain, memory loss, and [[insomnia]].  In severe cases the symptoms can resemble various mental illnesses; when left untreated the condition can even induce [[coma]].<br>
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988403586
1c1
< <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt U.S. Public Law 101-336], signed into law on July 26, 1990.  It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1964, which made discrimination based race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics  illegal.  
---
> <i>The American with Disabilities Act of 1990</i> is the short title of [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt U.S. Public Law 101-336], signed into law on July 26, 1990.  It is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to the disabled as the [[Civil Rights Act]] of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics  illegal.  
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988404039
3c3
< Summary:<br>
---
> <b>Summary:</b><br>
8c8,20
< Definition of A Public Accomodation:<br>
---
> It is discriminatory not to remove architextural and communications barriers in an existing facility if it is "readily achievable" - that us, able to be accomplished without much difficulty or expense. Factors taken into consideration include the nature and the coost of the structural modification, and the size, financial resources, and type of the business.
> If the barrier cannot be removed readily, the goods and services must be made available through alternative methods.<br>
> 
> It is also discriminatory to fail to reasonably modify policies, practices, and proceedures that would allow individuals with disabilities equal access and opportunity to goods, services, and priviledges. <br>
> 
> <i>The Attorney General was ordered to issue implementing regulations, for the above law.</i><br>
> 
> Private entities, except airlines, that are primarily in the business of transporting people
> are required to purchase or lease only accessible fixed-route vehicles, unless the vehicle seats less than eight. And, more.<br> 
> 
> <i>The Secretary of Transportation was ordered to issue implementing regulations.</i> <br>
> 
> <b>Definition of A Public Accomodation:</b><br>
------
Sheepshead|988404062
91c91
< If the blind goes all the way around, a leaster is played.  (If you are playing doublers instead of leasters, the points are doubled and a new hand is dealt.)
---
> If the blind goes all the way around, a leaster is played.  (If you are playing doublers instead of leasters, the points are doubled, the deal moves one to the left, and a new hand is dealt.)
98a99,100
> One of the more intriguing aspects of Sheepshead is that you have different teams with each hand.  Generally you will not know who your partner is until specific cards are played.
> 
99a102,119
> 
> If you pick the blind and decide that your hand isn't good enough to "go it alone", you must select a <B>called ace suit</B>.  Some notes about choosing the called suit:
> 
> Basically, when the picker calls a suit, whoever has the Ace of that suit is the partner.
> 
> * Called suit must be a fail suit (clubs, spades or hearts).
> * Picker must have at least one of the fail suit in his/her hand.  (Special case:  an UNKNOWN can be played IF you have no fail suits--ie. all trump--see below)
> * Picker cannot call a suit for which he has the Ace
> * If the picker has all 3 fail Aces (it happens occasionally), he can "call a 10" instead of the Ace.
> * UNKNOWN.  If the picker has no fail suit to use for the called suit, he can pick a card to "act as the called suit".  Example:  picker has all trump.  Picker can take a low diamond (9 diamonds lets say) and lay it face down on the table, and call (for example) Spades.  That 9 of diamonds stays face down until Spades is lead (or until nothing else can be laid down).  That particular 9 of diamonds, since it was designated an "unknown", has no power to take tricks.
> 
> <B>Examples of Picker Hands: Taking the blind, Burying, and Selecting partner</B>
> 
> Hand 1: Q Clubs, Q Spades, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, A hearts, K Hearts
> 
> <B>UNKNOWN</B>Hand 3:  Q Hearts, J Spades, J Hearts, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, 7 Diamonds
> 
> That hand isn't good enough to go alone, so he should take a partner.  For this example, picker decides to call Spades.  Picker says "unknown spades" and lays the 7 of diamonds face down on the table in front of him.  Whichever player has the Ace of spades will be partner.  
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988404427
12a13,15
> New facilities occupied after January 26, 1993 must be accessible, unless accessibility is impossible to achieve. Requirements apply to new altered facilities as well. <br>
> 
> 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988404506
1c1
< Title III. Public Accommodations:
---
> <b>Title III. Public Accommodations:</b>
------
Scleroderma|988405795
12c12
< The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scleroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those whoa re afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
---
> The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scleroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
------
Germany/People|988406175
39c39
< Ethnic groups: German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Russian, Greek, Polish, Spanish. There is a Danish minority in the most northern state (Schlewig-Holstein) and a Sorbic minority in Saxony.
---
> Ethnic groups: German 91.5%, Turkish 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Russian, Greek, Polish, Spanish. There is a Danish minority in the most northern state (Schleswig-Holstein) and a Sorbic minority in Saxony.
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988407340
22a23,26
> ----
> I added the link to the law itself, but if you intend (as seems apparent) to wikify the whole text of the law that would of course be much better.  The public accommodations part may be a "small part" (by some measure) of the law, but it is indeed very visible and often talked about, and should be prominently mentioned in the article for precisely that reason; perhaps saying exactly that would be best, e.g., "a small but controversial part of the law..." etc.  I will "be patient" as you suggest and let you finish before commenting further.
> 
> I share your revulsion at the very concept of "sovereign immunity" on which the decision you mention was based.  It has led to many greater injustices than discrimination as well.
------
Marmara_Sea|988412769
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Marmara Sea is an inland sea that separates the Black Sea from the Aegean Sea (thus Asian part of Turkey from European part) by Bosporus and Dardanelles. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (Greek of marble is marmaros).
------
Disease|988413042
3d2
<  [[Alzheimers Disease]]
6,7d4
<  [[Multiple Sclerosis]]
<  [[Muscular dystrophy]]
13a11,13
>          [[Alzheimers Disease]]
>          [[Multiple sclerosis]]
>          [[Muscular dystrophy]]
------
Disease|988413229
1c1
< Types of disease:
---
> In common usage, a '''disease''' is any abnormal condition of the body or mind that causes discomfort or dysfunction.  Often used metaphorically for pathological conditions of other things, as in ''disease of society''.  Stricter medical usage sometimes distinguishes a disease, which has a known specific cause or causes (called its '''etiology'''), from a [[syndrome]], which is a collection of [[symptom]]s that often occur together but for which there is no known cause.  Also, many medical terms that describe '''symptoms''' are often called "diseases", especially when the cause of the symptom is unknown.
3,5c3,22
<  [[Cancer]]
<  [[Hypoglycemia]]
<  [[Scleroderma]]
---
> The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, and [[prion]]s.  There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
> 
> See [http://www.pdr.net/ Physician's Desk Reference]
> 
> * Infectious diseases
> ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysintery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease, ...
> * Genetic diseases
> ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, Muscular dystrophies, Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
> * Toxic diseases
> ** Argyria, Alcoholic hepatitis, Iron poisoning, Lead poisoning, ...
> * Nutritional diseases
> ** Beriberi, Rickets, Scurvy, Iron-deficiency Anemia, ...
> * Conditions of injury, malformation, or disuse
> *** Stroke, Atherosclerosis, Atrophy, Myopia, Osteoarthritis, ...
> * Auto-immune diseases
> ** Rheumatoid arthritis, [[Scleroderma]]
> * Psychogenic illness
> ** Multiple chemical sensitivity, ...
> * Syndromes and diseases of unknown etiology, or of mixed causes
> ** [[Alzheimers Disease]], [[Cancer]], [[Hypoglycemia]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]], many neurological and psychiatric disorders, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Acquired [[Neuromyotonia]] (Isaac's syndrome)
7,13d23
< * [[infectious diseases]]
< * [[neurologic diseases]]
<          [[Neuromyotonia]]
<          [[Stroke]] 
<          [[Alzheimers Disease]]
<          [[Multiple sclerosis]]
<          [[Muscular dystrophy]]
------
Disease|988413276
16c16
< *** Stroke, Atherosclerosis, Atrophy, Myopia, Osteoarthritis, ...
---
> ** Stroke, Atherosclerosis, Atrophy, Myopia, Osteoarthritis, ...
------
Marmara_Sea|988413317
1c1
< Marmara Sea is an inland sea that separates the Black Sea from the Aegean Sea (thus Asian part of Turkey from European part) by Bosporus and Dardanelles. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (Greek of marble is marmaros).
---
> Marmara Sea is an inland [[sea]] that separates the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Aegean Sea]] (thus Asian part of [[Turkey]] from European part) by Bosporus and Dardanelles. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (Greek of marble is marmaros).
------
Neurologic_diseases|988413736
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Neurologic diseases are a group of disorders that involve central nervous system (brain, brainstem and cerebellum), peripheral nervous system (including cranial nerves) and autonomic nervous system (parts of which are located in both central and peripheral nervous system). Major branches are headache, stupor and coma, dementia, seizure, sleep disorders, trauma, infections, neoplasms, neuroophthalmology, movement disorders, demyelinating diseases, spinal cord disorders, disorders of peripheral nerve, muscle and neuromuscular junction. 
------
Scleroderma|988413943
12c12
< The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scleroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.  It's national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
---
> The [http://www.scleroderma.org/ Scleroderma Foundation] is a leading organization dedicated to raising awareness of the disease and assisting those who are afflicted.  Its national spokesperson is [[Jason Alexander]].
------
Disease|988414113
10c10
< ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, Muscular dystrophies, Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
---
> ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
------
Bosporus|988414706
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bosporus (Bogazici) is a strait, which separates the European part of Istanbul from the Asian part by uniting the Marmara Sea with the Black Sea. There are two bridges across the strait: Bogazici (Bosporus I) Bridge (1,074 m; completed in 1973) and the Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Bosporus II) Bridge (1,090 m, completed in 1988). Having a strategic importance for the defense of Istanbul, Ottoman sultans have constructed two castles on both sides of the strait (Anadoluhisari, Rumelihisari).
------
Disease|988415019
8c8
< ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysintery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease, ...
---
> ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysintery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, ...
16c16
< ** Stroke, Atherosclerosis, Atrophy, Myopia, Osteoarthritis, ...
---
> ** [[Stroke]], Atherosclerosis, Atrophy, Myopia, Osteoarthritis, ...
------
Literature|988424989
13c13
< :[[Poetry]]
---
> :[[Poetry|The poem]]
21a22
> :The [[Slave narrative]]
36a38
> :[[Transcendentalism]]
38c40
< <i>the section on literary movements is <b>by no means</b> exhaustive; it is there merely as a placeholder, as it seemed another reasonable means of categorizing literature.  again, please feel free to edit it vigorously.</i>
---
> <i>the section on literary movements is <b>by no means</b> exhaustive; it is there merely as a placeholder, as it seemed another reasonable means of categorizing literature.  it could, for instance, be expanded to include all literary movements in the U.S. under one heading, with the eras and key figures of the movements in the U.K. under another; and of course additional sections on the literary movements in non-English speaking countries would prove interesting and provide some balance.  again, please feel free to edit vigorously.</i>
------
Slave_narrative|988425166
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[William Wells Brown]]
> :[[Frederick Douglass]]
> :[[John Andrew Jackson]]
> :[[Solomon Northrup]]
> :[[Booker T Washington|Booker T. Washington]]
------
The_short_story|988425570
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Kate Chopin]]
> :[[Flannery OConnor|Flannery O'Connor]]
> :[[Ray Bradbury]]
> :[[Mark Twain]]
> :[[O Henry|O. Henry]]
> :[[Shirley Jackson]]
------
Novelists|988425637
8a9
> * [[Louise Erdrich]]
13a15,16
> * [[Jack Kerouac]]
> * [[Jerzy Kosinski]]
------
The_short_story|988425671
1,6c1
< :[[Kate Chopin]]
< :[[Flannery OConnor|Flannery O'Connor]]
< :[[Ray Bradbury]]
< :[[Mark Twain]]
< :[[O Henry|O. Henry]]
< :[[Shirley Jackson]]
---
> 
------
Short_story_authors|988425685
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Kate Chopin]]
> :[[Flannery OConnor|Flannery O'Connor]]
> :[[Ray Bradbury]]
> :[[Mark Twain]]
> :[[O Henry|O. Henry]]
> :[[Shirley Jackson]]
> 
------
Novelists|988426094
10a11
> * [[William Gibson]]
12a14
> * [[Zora Neale Hurston]]
13a16
> * [[Henry James]]
16d18
< * [[Jerzy Kosinski]]
18a21
> * [[Jerzy Kosinski]]
20a24,27
> * [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez|Gabriel Garc&iacute;a M&aacute;rquez
> * [[Henry Miller]]
> * [[Toni Morrison]]
> * [[Vladimir Nabokov]]
22a30
> * [[Tom Robbins]]
27a36
> * [[Amy Tan]]
30a40
> * [[Kurt Vonnegut]]
32d41
< * [[William Gibson]]
------
Novelists|988426125
24c24
< * [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez|Gabriel Garc&iacute;a M&aacute;rquez
---
> * [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez|Gabriel Garc&iacute;a M&aacute;rquez]]
------
Turkish_language|988426333
1c1
< Turkish is a member of Turkic family of [[language]]s, a subclass of the Altaic languages. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to todays Turkic languages.
---
> Turkish is a member of [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] family of [[language]]s, a subclass of the [[Altaic languages]]. Thus, such living languages as Mongolian, Korean, Japanese, Bulgarian and Hungarian are close or distant relatives of Turkish. Although the languages of other Turkic countries (former [[Soviet Union]] republics) are quite similar to Turkish (especially those of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan), there are many major differences of dialect, grammar and the vocabulary used. The languages used by former Central Asian people (e.g. Huns) are assumed to be considerably close to todays Turkic languages.
------
Animalia|988428322
19c19
< In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Reptilia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last five have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.  When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were included as an animal phylum or subkingdom, but as they are generally unrelated and often as similar to plants as animals, a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], was devised to hold them.
---
> In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus']] original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Insecta]], [[Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[Aves]], and [[Mammalia]].  Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out.  When they were first discovered, the Protozoa were included as an animal phylum or subkingdom, but as they are generally unrelated and often as similar to plants as animals, a new kingdom, the [[Protista]], was devised to hold them.
------
Benito_Mussolini|988431498
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> His full name was Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini. His byname, "Il Duce," meant "The Leader."
> 
> The first of Europe's fascist dictators. Ruled of Italy from 1922 to 1943.
------
Benito_Mussolini|988437645
3c3
< The first of Europe's fascist dictators. Ruled of Italy from 1922 to 1943.
---
> The first of [[Europe]]'s [[Fascism|fascist]] dictators. Ruled of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943.
------
Benito_Mussolini|988437678
3c3
< The first of [[Europe]]'s [[Fascism|fascist]] dictators. Ruled of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943.
---
> The first of [[Europe]]'s [[Fascism|fascist]] dictators to come to power. Ruled of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943.
------
American_Revolutionary_War|988447689
23a24
>  [[John Burgoyne]]
30a32
>  [[John Stark]]
------
Ethan_Allen|988452749
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A guerilla leader in Vermont -- a lightly populated region known prior to 1780 as the Hampshire Grants.  Allen was born in 1738 in Litchfield, Conneticut.  He was the first child of a large family.  His brother Ira figured prominently in the early history of Vermont.  Ethan Allen was leader a rebellious group of land ownres/speculators who held New Hampshire title to land grants in the Hampshire Grants.  New York, which held substantial claim to the grants refused to honor or acknowledge the New Hampshire titles and sold competing titles to different people -- who generally did not live in Vermont.  Not suprisingly, this led to open rebellion among the population in much of Vermont.
> 
> Allen was well over six feet tall in time when most men were a foot shorter.  He was outspoken and apparently quite articulate.  As a young man, he served in the colonial militia in the French and Indian war.  He was married and had five children.  In the early 1770s he emerged as the military leader of Anti-New York dissidents in the Hampshire Grants known as the [[Green Mountain Boys]].  He was apparently reasonably effective in that role.  A warrant was issued for his arrest by the government of New York and a substantial reward (100 pounds) was offered for his arrest.  
> 
> In the Spring of 1775, Allen and [[Benedict Arnold]] led a raid agianst Fort Ticoneroga.  The relative roles of Allen and Arnold are not entirely clear.  Neither is it clear to what extent the campaign was formulated by the strongly anti-British faction in Conneticut; to what extent it was the idea of the [[Green Mountain Boys]] headquartered at the Catamount Tavern in Bennington; and how much of the enthusiasm was fueled by alcohol rather than patriotism.  What is clear is that the rebels moved North, managed to get a few dozen men across Lake Champlain (They had considerable trouble finding a boat and the one they found was quite small).  In a dawn attack, Ticonderoga was taken from the 22 British troops that held it and who were not aware that a war was in progress.  Allen/Arnold's rebels also quickly captured forts at Crown Point, Fort Ann on Isle La Motte near the present Canadian border, and (temporarily) the town of St John (now St Jean) Quebec.  The comic opera aspects of this campaign notwithstanding, the huge stores of cannon and powder siezed at Ticonderoga allowed the American rebels to put in place an effective siege of Boston which caused the British to evacuate in October of 1775.
> 
> The [[Green Mountain Boys]] elected Allen's cousin Seth Warner as leader, however, Allen commanded a small military force in the American rebel's campaign in Quebec in 1775.  As a result of miscommunication or misjudgement he attacked Montreal with a handful of men and was captured by the British.  He was shipped to England where he suffered considerable mistreatment.  He was later transferred to New York where he was eventually paroled in a prisoner exchange.  
> 
> Allen then moved back to Vermont which had become a hotbed of anti-everyone sentiment harboring little affection for either England or for the nasceant United States and harboring a significant number of deserters from the armies of both.  Allen settled a homestead in the delta of the Winooski river near the modern city of Burlington.  Allen remained active in Vermont politics and was appointed general in the Army of the independent state of Vermont.  He was one of the participants in a failed attempt to bring Vermont back into the British Empire and thereby separate Vermont from New York permanently.  Allen's first wife died in 1783 and he remarried in that year.  Allen died in 1789 of a stroke at the age of 57.
------
Cretaceous|988455449
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cretaceous is a Geologic Period that extends from about 65 to 135 million Years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are uncertain by a few million years.  The Cretaceous was named for the extensive beds of chalk found in the Upper Cretaceous of England and adjacent Europe.  The Cretaceous follows the [[Jurassic]] and is followed by the [[Paleocene]].  The Cretaceous is the last period of the [[Mesozoic]].
> 
> The end of the Cretaceous is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event.  The end of the Cretaceous is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna.  There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred.  Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicility of Yucatan.  A minority think the extensive volcanic activity in India known as the Deccan Traps, may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction.
> 
> During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic supercontinent of [[Pangea]] completed its breakup into modern continents although their positions were substantially different than the present.  The Atlantic Ocean widened, Gondwana broke up into [[Antarctica]], [[Australia]], [[Africa]] and [[South America]].  [[India]] and [[Madagascar]] remained attached to [[Africa]].  Within the continents, a broad shallow sea advanced across central [[North America]] and then started to recede leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between economically important coal beds.  Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in [[Europe]], and [[China]].
> 
> On land, plants became quite modern although the now ubiquitous grasses did not evolve until the end of the period.  Flowering plants were widespread.  Conifers thrived -- as they do today.  The first representatives of many modern trees -- figs, sycamore, magnolia for example, appear in the Cretaceous.  On land, mammals were small and a relatively minor component of the fauna.  The fauna was dominated by reptiles and especially by dinosaurs.  In the seas, rays, modern sharks and fish became common.  Modern birds evolved.  Marine reptiles thrived.  Although many elements of the marine faunas looked more or less modern, a number of forms including most shelled cephalopods (all ammonites, most nautilids) as well as reef forming rudist clams disappeared at or near the end of the Cretaceous.  Among the larger animals, the dinosaurs, and all marine reptiles except turtles and crocodiles disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous.
------
Acronym/List|988465282
1,50c1,52
< List of acronyms/initialisms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
< 
< * AA - Anti-Aliasing
< * AAC - Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2 standard)  
< * ACL - Access Control List
< * ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union
< * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
< * ADC - Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
< * ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL
< * ADT - Atlantic Daylight Time (UTC-3 hours)
< * AFAIK - As far as I know
< * AFJ - April Fool's Joke 
< * AFK - Away from keyboard
< * AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port, sometimes used with a suffix indicating the port's bandwidth, like APG4x
< * AI - Amnesty International; Artificial Intelligence
< * AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
< * AIM - AOL Instant Messenger
< * aka - also known as
< * AKDT - Alaska Standard Daylight Saving Time (UTC-8 hours)
< * AKST - Alaska Standard Time (UTC-9 hours)
< * AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
< * AMR - Audio Modem Riser
< * ANSI - American National Standards Institute
< * AOL - America Online 
< * AP - Associated Press
< * API - Application Programming Interface
< * apm - Advanced Power Management
< * ASAP - as soon as possible
< * ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
< * ASP - Application service provider 
< * AST - Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4 hours)
< * AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
< * AVI - Audio Video Interleaved
< * AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System
<        
< * CD - Compact Disk
< * DND - Do Not Disturb
< * GNU - GNU's Not Unix
< * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
< * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
< * IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
< * LOL - Laughing Out Loud
< * MHZ - Megahertz
< * NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
< * NLP - Natural Language Processing
< * SNAFU - Situation Normal All F****d Up
< * TLA - Three-Letters Acronym
< * YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
< 
< Back to [[Acronym]].
---
> List of acronyms/initialisms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
> 
> * AA - Alcholics Anoynmous / Automobile Association / Anti-Aliasing
> * AAC - Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2 standard)  
> * ACL - Access Control List
> * ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union
> * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
> * ADC - Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
> * ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL
> * ADT - Atlantic Daylight Time (UTC-3 hours)
> * AFAIK - As far as I know
> * AFJ - April Fool's Joke 
> * AFK - Away from keyboard
> * AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port, sometimes used with a suffix indicating the port's bandwidth, like APG4x
> * AI - Amnesty International; Artificial Intelligence
> * AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
> * AIM - AOL Instant Messenger
> * aka - also known as
> * AKDT - Alaska Standard Daylight Saving Time (UTC-8 hours)
> * AKST - Alaska Standard Time (UTC-9 hours)
> * AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
> * AMR - Audio Modem Riser
> * ANSI - American National Standards Institute
> * AOL - America Online 
> * AP - Associated Press
> * API - Application Programming Interface
> * apm - Advanced Power Management
> * ASAP - as soon as possible
> * ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
> * ASP - Application service provider 
> * AST - Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4 hours)
> * AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
> * AVI - Audio Video Interleaved
> * AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System
>        
> * CD - Compact Disk
> * DND - Do Not Disturb
> * FWIW - For What It's Worth
> * GNU - GNU's Not Unix
> * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
> * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
> * IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
> * LOL - Laughing Out Loud
> * MHZ - Megahertz
> * NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
> * NLP - Natural Language Processing
> * SCUBA - Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
> * SNAFU - Situation Normal All F****d Up
> * TLA - Three-Letters Acronym
> * YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
> 
> Back to [[Acronym]].
------
MM|988465338
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Maximum Medicine
> * My Medcine
> * Modern Medicine
> * Multimedia Medicine
------
Acronym|988465609
3a4
> [[/Medical List|List of medical acronyms]]
------
Acronym|988465658
4c4
< [[/Medical List|List of medical acronyms]]
---
> <br>[[/Medical List|List of medical acronyms]]
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988466789
2a3,8
> This title of the ADA has been made very visible by the large amount of complaints and law suits it has generated, and some of the much-publicized decisions that have resulted therefrom.<br> 
> An example would be the court decision that Yankee Stadium must offer a fair number of accessible seats, affording an equal view of a baseball game as a regular seat, at a comparable price, and in an integrated setting. As a result of this decision, Yankee Stadium found that, based on the existing structure of the stadium, the most economical remedy would be to offer:
> *Acessible seats, to be constructed in more expensive areas of the stadium, at equal price to bleachers seats.
> *An accessible seating area, at least triple the size of the that required for diabled viewers, to allow them to sit with non-disabled friends and family, under the ruling that access to be disabled be in an integrated setting.<br>
> (to be added to)<br>
> 
31c37,48
< Also, transportation terminals and stations; museums, galleries, libraries, parks, zoos, amusement parks; nursery and elementary through post-graduate private schools, and other places of education; day-care and senior citizen centers; homeless shelters; food banks, adoption agencies, and social service centers; gymnasiums, health spas, bowling alleys, golf courses and other exercise and recreational places.
---
> Also, transportation terminals and stations; museums, galleries, libraries, parks, zoos, amusement parks; nursery and elementary through post-graduate private schools, and other places of education; day-care and senior citizen centers; homeless shelters; food banks, adoption agencies, and social service centers; gymnasiums, health spas, bowling alleys, golf courses and other exercise and recreational places.<br>
> 
> <b>Exemptions:</b><br>
> 
> *private clubs or establishments covered under the [[Civil Rights Law of 1964]]
> *religious organizations or entities controlled by religious organizations, inculding places of worshup<br>
> 
> <b>Limited Exemption:</b><br>
> Historic Landmarks - historic landmarks are given broader guidelines, based on the principles that if an modification required for accessibility would ruin the "basic nature"
> of the landmark, this modification may not be required.<br>
> 
> 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988466892
44a45
> 
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988466974
5,6c5,6
< *Acessible seats, to be constructed in more expensive areas of the stadium, at equal price to bleachers seats.
< *An accessible seating area, at least triple the size of the that required for diabled viewers, to allow them to sit with non-disabled friends and family, under the ruling that access to be disabled be in an integrated setting.<br>
---
> *acessible seats, to be constructed in more expensive areas of the stadium, at equal price to bleachers seats.
> *an accessible seating area, at least triple the size of the that required for diabled viewers, to allow them to sit with non-disabled friends and family, under the ruling that access to be disabled be in an integrated setting.<br>
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Title_III|988467078
5c5
< *acessible seats, to be constructed in more expensive areas of the stadium, at equal price to bleachers seats.
---
> *acessible seats, to be constructed in more expensive areas of the stadium, at equal price to bleachers seats, and
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990|988467808
26c26,28
< I share your revulsion at the very concept of "sovereign immunity" on which the decision you mention was based.  It has led to many greater injustices than discrimination as well.
---
> I share your revulsion at the very concept of "sovereign immunity" on which the decision you mention was based.  It has led to many greater injustices than discrimination as well.----
> I am not entering the entire law here. It is available on line. I am trying rather to summarzie the 5 titles and later offer the most important or controversial decsions that 
> have resulted from lawsuits, orders by the doj, eeoc, etc., under each title. Also, I intend to put up a page on how to make an ADA complaint, which is much easier than most people think. I am actually working from paper copies of all relevant laws which I have had for, well, 10 years, including The Fair Housing Act, the Rehabilitation Act, etc. Since 1990, bodies like the Architextural Guidelines Board have been established. Their regulations take up many books, are quite technical, and probably not of interest to the average reader. They can simply be linked to, as I believe they are online too.
------
Acronym/Medical_List|988471246
1c1,388
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * 5-HT [[serotonine]]  [[5-Hydroxytryptamine]]
> * AA [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
> * ABMT [[Autologous Bone Marrow Transplantation]]
> * ABVD [[doxorubicin]] [[bleomycin]] [[vinblastine]] [[dacarbazine]]
> * ACE [[Angiotensine Conversion Enzyme]]
> * ACEI [[Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors]]
> * ACTH [[Adrenocorticoid Hormone]]
> * ADH [[Antidiuretic Hormone]]
> * ADP adnenozynodwufosforan
> * AF [[atrial fibrillation]]
> * AFP [[Alpha Fetal Protein]]
> * AHA [[American Heart Association]]
> * AHF [[Antihemophilic Factor]]
> * AHG [[Antihemophilic Globuline]]
> * AI [[Artificial Insemination]]
> * AICD [[Automatic Implanted Cardiac Defibrillator]]
> * AIDS [[Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome]]
> * ALG [[Antilymphocytic Globuline]]
> * ALL [[Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia]]
> * ALS [[Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis]]
> * ALT [[Alanine Transferase]]
> * AMA [[American Medical Association]]
> * AMA [[Anti-mitochondrial Antibodies]]
> * AML [[Acute Myelocytic Leukemia]]
> * AMP Adenosine Monophosphate
> * ANA [[Anti-Nuclear Antibodies]]
> * ANP [[Atrial Natriuretic Peptide]]
> * ANCA [[Anti-Neutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibodies]]
> * ANF [[Antinatriuretic Factor]]
> * ANP [[Antinatriuretic Peptide]]
> * AP [[Alcaline Phosphatase]]
> * APGAR [[American Pediatric Gross Assessment Record]]
> * APSAC [[Anisoylated plasminogen streptokinase activator complex]]
> * APTT [[Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time]]
> * ARA [[American Rheumatological Association]]
> * ARC [[AIDS related complex]]
> * ARDS [[Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome]]
> * AS [[Aortic Stenosis]]
> * ASA [[Acetylsalicylic acid]]
> * ASD [[Atrial Septal Defect]]
> * ASO Antistreptolisine O
> * AST [[Asparagine Transferase]]
> * ATG [[Antithymic Globuline]]
> * AT-III [[Antithrombine]] III
> * ATP [[Adenosine Triphosphate]]
> * AVR [[Aortic Valve Replacement]]
> * AZT [[azidothymidine]]
> * BAL [[Brocho-alveolar Lavage]]
> * BAL [[British Anti-Lewisite]]
> * BAO [[Basic Acid Output]])
> * BCG [[Bacillus Calmette Guerain]]
> * BE [[Base Excess]]
> * BK [[Bacterium Koch]]
> * BMC [[Bone Mass Content]]
> * BMD [[Bone Mass Density]]
> * BMR [[Basal Metabolic Rate]]
> * BP [[Blood Pressure]]
> * BPH [[Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia]]
> * BPM [[Beats Per Minute ]]
> * BMT [[Bone Marrow Transplantation]]
> * BNP [[Brain Natriuretic Peptide]]
> * BSE [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]]
> * BSP [[Bromsulphtalein]]
> * BUN [[Blood Urea Nitrogen]]
> * CABG [[Coronary Arterial Bypass Graft]]
> * cAMP [[cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate]]
> * Ca [[Carcinoma]]
> * Ca [[Calcium]]
> * CAH [[Chronic Active Hepatitis]]
> * CAH [[Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia]]
> * CAT [[computed axial tomography]]
> * CAPD [[Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis]]
> * CCS [[Canadian Cardiology Society]]
> * CDC [[Center for Disease Control]]
> * CEA [[Carcinoembryonic Antigen]]
> * CF [[Cystis Fibrosis]]
> * cGMP [[cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate]]
> * ChE [[Cholinesterase]]
> * CHE [[Cholinesterase]]
> * CHF [[Congestive heart failure]]
> * CI [[Confidence Interval]]
> * CI [[Confidence Interval]]
> * CJD [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]
> * CK [[Creatine Kinase]]
> * CLL [[Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia]]
> * CML [[Chronic Myelocytic Leukemia]]
> * CMML [[Chronic Myelomonocytic Leukemia]]
> * CMV [[Cytomegalovirus]]
> * COLD [[Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease]]
> * COPD [[Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease]]
> * CO [[Cardiac Output]]
> * CO [[Carbon Monoxide]]
> * COX-1 [[Cyclooxigenase 1]]
> * COX-2 [[Cyclooxigenase 2]]
> * CPAP [[Continuous Positive Airway Pressure]]
> * CPK [[Creatine Phosphokinase]]
> * CPR [[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]
> * CREST Calcinosis Raynaud Esophagus Sclerosis Teleangiectasiae
> * CRH [[Corticotropin Releasing Hormone]]
> * CRF [[Corticotropin Releasing Factor]]
> * CRP C Reactive Protein
> * CR [[Complete Remission]]
> * CsA [[Cyclosporin]] A
> * CSF [[Cerebral Spinal Fluid]]
> * CT [[computed {axial} tomography]]
> * CVA [[Cerebrovascular Accident]]
> * CVP [[Central Venous Pressure]]
> * CVID [[Common Variable ImmunoDeficiency]]
> * DBP [[Diastolic Blood Pressure]]
> * DCM [[Dilated Cardiomyopathy]]
> * DDD [[Daily Defined Doses]]
> * DHEA-S [[Dehydoepiandrosterone sulphate]]
> * DHE [[Dihydoergotamine]]
> * DIC [[Disseminated Intravacular Coagulation]]
> * DPT [[Diphteria]] [[Pertussis]] [[Tetanus]]
> * DiPerTe [[Diphteria]] [[Pertussis]] [[Tetanus]]
> * DiTe [[Diphteria]] [[Tetanus]]
> * DNA [[Desoxyribonucleic Acid]]
> * DTP [[Diphteria]] [[Tetanus]] [[Pertussis]]
> * DT [[Diphteria]] [[Tetanus]]
> * DVT Deep Vein [[Thrombosis]]
> * DEXA [[Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry]]
> * EACA [[Epsilon-Aminocaproic Acid]]
> * EBM [[Evidence Based Medicine]]
> * ECG [[Electrocardiogram]]
> * EKG [[Electrocardiogram]]
> * ECPW endoskopowa cholangiopankreatografia wsteczna
> * E [[Erythrocyte]]s
> * EF [[Ejection Fraction]]
> * EGF [[Epidermal Growth Factor]]
> * ELISA [[Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay]]
> * EMC [[Encephalomyocarditis]]
> * EMF [[Endomyocardial Fibrosis]]
> * EMG [[Electromyography]]
> * EPH Edema Proteinuria Hypertension
> * EPO [[Erythropoetin]]
> * ERCP [[Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography]]
> * ESR [[Erythocyte sedimentation rate]]
> * ESWL [[Extracorporal Shockwave Lithotripsy]]
> * ET [[Endothelin]]
> * EUS [[Endoscopic Ultrasonography]]
> * FDA [[Food and Drug Administration]]
> * FDP [[Fibrinogen Degradation Products]]
> * FEV1 [[Forced Expiratory Volume 1-second]]
> * Fe [[Ferrum]]
> * FFA [[Free Fatty Acids]]
> * FFP [[Fresh Frozen Plasma]]
> * FHR [[Fetal Heart Rate]]
> * FHT [[Fetal Heart Tones]]
> * FPG [[Fasting Plasma Glucose]]
> * FSH [[Folicule Stimulating Hormone]]
> * FTA-ABS [[Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody Absorption]]
> * FTA [[Fluorescent Treponemal Antibody]]
> * G6PD [[Glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase]]
> * G-6-PD [[Glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase]]
> * GABA [[gamma-aminobutyric acid]]
> * GCS [[Glasgow Coma Scale]]
> * GDLH [[Glutamate dehydrogenase]]
> * GERD [[Gastro-esophageal  Reflux Disease]]
> * GFR [[Glomerular filtrate rate]]
> * GGTP Gamma Glutamyltranspeptidase
> * GH [[Growth Hormone]]
> * GHRF [[Growth Hormone]]
> * GITS [[Gastrointestinal therapeutic system]]
> * GIFT [[Gamete intrafallopian transfer]]
> * GORD [[Gastro-oesophageal Reflux Disease]]
> * GOT [[glutamic-oxalacetic transaminase]]
> * GPT [[glutamic-pyruvic transaminase]]
> * GvH [[Graft-versus-Host]]
> * GvHD [[Graft-versus-Host Disease]]
> * HA [[Hypertonia arterialis]]
> * HAV [[Hepatitis A Virus]]
> * HBG [[Hemoglobin]]
> * HB [[Hemoglobin]]
> * HBV [[Hepatitis B Virus]]
> * HCG [[Human Chorion Gonadotropine]]
> * HCT [[Hematocrit]]
> * HCV [[Hepatitis C Virus]]
> * HDL [[High Density Lipoprotein]]
> * HDL-C [[High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol]]
> * HGB [[Hemoglobin]]
> * Hib [[Hemophilus influenzae]] B
> * HIV [[Human immunodeficiency virus]]
> * HL [[Hepatic Lipase]]
> * HLA [[Human Leucocyte Antigens]]
> * HOCM [[Hypertrophic Obstructive Cardiomyopathy]]
> * HR [[Heart Rate]]
> * HRT [[Hormone Replacement Therapy]]
> * HSG histerosalpingografia
> * HSV [[Herpes Simplex Virus]]
> * HTLV [[Human T Lymphocyte Leukemia Virus
> * IABP [[Intra-aortic Balloon Pumping]]
> * ICD-9 [[International Classification of Diseases 9th Revision]]
> * ICD [[Implanted cardiac defibrillator]]
> * ICU [[Intensive care unit]]
> * IDDM [[Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus]]
> * IDL [[Intermediate Density Lipoprotein]]
> * IFG [[Impaired Fasting Glucose]]
> * Ig [[Immunoglobulin]]
> * INF [[Interferon]]
> * INR [[International Normalized Ratio]]
> * IPPV [[Intermittent postive pressure ventilation]]
> * IQ [[Intelligence Quotient]]
> * ISA [[Intrinsic Sympathomimetic Activity]]
> * ISDN [[Isosorbide dinitrate]]
> * ISH [[Isolated Systolic Hypertension]]
> * ITP [[Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura]]
> * IUCD [[intrauterine contraceptive device]]
> * IUD [[intrauterine device]]
> * IU [[International Units]]
> * IVF [[In vitro fertalization]]
> * IUI [[Intra-uterine Insemination]]
> * IVP [[Intravenous pyelogram]]
> * JAMA [[Journal of the American Medical Association]]
> * K [[Kalium]]
> * LAD [[Left Artery Descendens]]
> * LAS [[Lymphadenopathy Syndrome]]
> * LBBB [[Left Bundle Branch Block]]
> * LCM [[Lymphocytic Meninigitis]]
> * LDH [[Lactic Dedydrogenase]]
> * LDL [[Low Density Lipoprotein]]
> * LDL-C [[Low Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol]]
> * L-DOPA [[DihydrOxyPhenylAlanine]]
> * LES [[Lower Esophageal Sphincter]]
> * LES [[Lupus erythematodes systemicus]]
> * LE [[Lupus erythematodes]]
> * leu [[Leukocyte]]s
> * LGL [[Lown-Ganong-Levine syndrome]]
> * LGM [[Lymphogranulomatosis maligna]]
> * L [[Leukocytes]]
> * LM [[Left Main]]
> * Lp [[Lipoprotein]]
> * LPL [[Lipoprotein Lipase]]
> * LVEDP [[Left ventricular end diastolic pressure]]
> * LVEF [[Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction]]
> * LVF [[Left Ventricular Failure]]
> * LVH [[Left Ventricular Hypertrophy]]
> * LV [[Left ventricle]]
> * LVOT [[Left Ventricular Outflow Track]]
> * Ly [[Lymphocytes]]
> * MAO [[ Mono-Amine Oxydase]]
> * MAS [[Morgani-Adams-Stokes]]
> * MCHC [[Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration]]
> * MCH [[Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin]]
> * mCi [[ dawka promieniowania]]
> * MCV [[Mean Corpuscular Volume]]
> * MD [[Medicinae doctor]]
> * MDS [[Myelodysplastic Syndrome]]
> * Mg [[Magnesium]]
> * MIC [[Morbus Ischaemicus Cordis]]
> * MIC [[minimal Inhibitory Concentration]]
> * MLA [[Myelosis Leucemica Acuta]]
> * MM [[Myeloma multiplex]]
> * MODY [[Maturity Onset Diabetes in Youth]]
> * Mo [[Monocytes]]
> * MPV [[Mean Platlet Volume]]
> * MRI [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]]
> * MR [[Modified Release]]
> * MRSA [[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus]]
> * MSH [[Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone]]
> * MSSA [[Methicillin Sensitive Staphylococcus Aureus]]
> * MS [[multiple sclerosis ]]
> * MTX [[Methotrexate]]
> * MVPS [[Mitral Valve Prolapse Syndrome]]
> * MVP [[Mitral Valve Prolapse]]
> * Na [[Natrium]]
> * NEJM [[New England Journal of Medicine]]
> * Ne [[Neutrophiles]]
> * Neo [[Neoplasma]]
> * NHL [[Non Hodgkin Lymphoma]]
> * NIDDM [[Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus]]
> * NK [[Natural Killers]]
> * NMR [[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance]]
> * NOS [[Nitric Oxide Synthetase]]
> * NO [[Nitric Oxide]]
> * Npl [[Neoplasma]]
> * n.s [[not significant]]
> * NSAID [[Non-Steriodal Anti-Inflammatory Drug]]
> * NSE [[Neurospecific enolase]]
> * NTG [[Nitroglycerin]]
> * NYHA [[New York Heart Association]]
> * OGTT [[Oral Glucose Tolerance Test]]
> * PAF [[Platlet Activating Factor]]
> * PAI-1 [[Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1]]
> * PAO [[Peak Acid Output]]
> * PAP [[PAPanicolaou]]
> * PA [[posterior-anterior]]
> * PA [[Pulmonary Artery]]
> * PAT [[Paroxysmal atrial tachycardia]]
> * PCR [[Polymerase Chain Reaction]]
> * PDA [[Patent Ductus Arteriosus]]
> * PDE [[Phosphodiesterase]]
> * PEEP [[Positive Endexpiratory Pressure]]
> * PEFR [[Peak Expiratory Flow Rate]]
> * PEF [[Peak Expiratory Flow]]
> * PET [[Positron Emission Tomography]]
> * P [[Phosphorus]]
> * PID [[Pelvic Inflammatory Disease]]
> * PKA [[Protein Kinase A]]
> * PKU [[Phenylketonuria]]
> * PLT [[platlet]]s
> * PMR [[Percutaneous Myocardial Revascularisation]]
> * POX [[Peroxidase]]
> * PRA [[Plasma Renin Activity]]
> * PRIND [[Prolonged Reversible Ischemic Neurologic Deficit]]
> * PSA [[Prostatic Specific Antigen]]
> * PSP [[Phenylsulphtalein]]
> * PTA [[Percutaneous Transluminal Angioplasty]]
> * PTCA [[Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty]]
> * PT [[prothrombin time]]
> * PTH [[Parathormon]]
> * PTT [[Partial Thromboplastin Time]]
> * PUVA Psoralen UV A
> * PVR [[Pulmonary Vascular Resistance]]
> * PWP [[Pulmonary Wedge Pressure]]
> * RA [[Refractory Anaemia]]
> * RBBB [[Right Bundle Branch Block]]
> * RBC [[Red Blood Cells]]
> * RCA [[Right Coronary Artery]]
> * REM [[Rapid Eye Movement]]
> * RF [[Rheumatic factor]]
> * Rh [[Rhesus factor]]
> * RIA [[Radioimmune Assay]]
> * RIBA [[Radioimmoblotting Assay]]
> * RIND [[Reversible Ischemic Neurologic Deficit]]
> * RNA [[Ribonucleic Acid]]
> * RNV [[Radionuclear Ventriculography]]
> * RSV [[Respiratory Syncitial Virus]]
> * RV [[Residual Volume]]
> * RV [[Right Ventricle]]
> * SBP [[Systolic Blood Pressure]]
> * SCC [[Squamous Cell Carciona]]
> * SCID [[Severe Combined ImmunoDeficiency]]
> * s.c [[sub cutis]]
> * SD [[Standard Deviation]]
> * SHBG [[Sex Hormone Binding Globuline]]
> * SIADH [[Syndrome of Inadequate ADH]]
> * SIDS [[Sudden Infant Death Syndrome]]
> * SK [[Streptokinase]]
> * SLE [[Sytemic Lupus Erythematosis]]
> * SM [[Sclerosis multiplex]]
> * SPET [[Single Photon Emission Tomography]]
> * SR [[Slow Release]]
> * SSSS [[Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome]]
> * SSS [[Sick Sinus Syndrome]]
> * STD [[Sexually Transmitted Diseases]]
> * STH [[Somatotropic Hormone]]
> * SVT [[Supraventricular tachycardia]]
> * SXA [[Single energy X-ray absorptiometer]]
> * TBC [[tuberculosis]]
> * TB [[tuberculosis]]
> * TBI [[Total Body Irradiation]]
> * TEE [[Transesophageal echocardiogram]]
> * TGA [[Transposition of the Great Arteries]]
> * TG [[Triglyceride]]s
> * TIA [[Transient Ischemic Attack]]
> * TIBC [[Total Iron Binding Capacity]]
> * TLC [[Total Lung Capacity]]
> * TNF [[Tumor Necrosis Factor]]
> * TNM [[Tumor-Nodes-Metastases]]
> * TPA [[Tissue plasminogen activator]]
> * TRH [[Thyreotropic Releasing Hormone]]
> * TSH [[Thyreotropic Stimulating Hormone]]
> * TS [[Tricuspid Stenosis]]
> * TT [[thrombin time]]
> * TTS [[Transdermal Therapeutic System]]
> * Tu [[Tumor]]
> * TUR [[Transurethral resection]]
> * UBT [[Urea Breath Test]]
> * UKPDS [[United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study]]
> * USG [[Ultrasonography]]
> * USR [[Unheated Serum Reagin]]
> * UVAL [[Ultraviolet Argon Laser]]
> * VAD vincristine adriblastine dexamethasone
> * VAMP vincristine adriblastine methylprednisone
> * VC [[Vital Capacity]]
> * VDRL [[Venereal Diseases Research Laboratory]]
> * VEB [[Vetricular Ectopic Beat]]
> * VF [[Ventricular Fibrillation]]
> * VIP [[Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide]]
> * VLDL [[Very Low Density Lipoprotein]]
> * VMA [[Vanillylmandelic Acid]]
> * VSD [[Ventricular Septal Defect]]
> * VT [[Ventricular Tachycardia]]
> * WBC [[White Blood Cells]]
> * WHO [[World Health Organization]]
> * WPW [[Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome]]
> * ZIFT [[Zygote intrafallopian transfer]]
------
Cretaceous|988473369
3c3
< The end of the Cretaceous is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event.  The end of the Cretaceous is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna.  There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred.  Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicility of Yucatan.  A minority think the extensive volcanic activity in India known as the Deccan Traps, may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction.
---
> The end of the Cretaceous is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event.  The end of the Cretaceous is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna.  There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred.  Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicility of Yucatan.  A minority think the extensive volcanic activity in India known as the Deccan Traps, may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction - it has also been suggested that this is a secondary impact thanks to the impact.  A few attribute other causes, such as an astronomical catastrophe, but such positions are considerably less supported.
7c7
< On land, plants became quite modern although the now ubiquitous grasses did not evolve until the end of the period.  Flowering plants were widespread.  Conifers thrived -- as they do today.  The first representatives of many modern trees -- figs, sycamore, magnolia for example, appear in the Cretaceous.  On land, mammals were small and a relatively minor component of the fauna.  The fauna was dominated by reptiles and especially by dinosaurs.  In the seas, rays, modern sharks and fish became common.  Modern birds evolved.  Marine reptiles thrived.  Although many elements of the marine faunas looked more or less modern, a number of forms including most shelled cephalopods (all ammonites, most nautilids) as well as reef forming rudist clams disappeared at or near the end of the Cretaceous.  Among the larger animals, the dinosaurs, and all marine reptiles except turtles and crocodiles disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous.
---
> On land, plants became quite modern although the now ubiquitous grasses did not evolve until the end of the period.  Flowering plants were widespread.  Conifers thrived -- as they do today.  The first representatives of many modern trees -- figs, sycamore, magnolia for example, appear in the Cretaceous.  On land, mammals were small and a relatively minor component of the fauna.  The fauna was dominated by reptiles and especially by dinosaurs.  In the seas, rays, modern sharks and fish became common.  Modern birds evolved.  Marine reptiles thrived.  Although many elements of the marine faunas looked more or less modern, a number of forms including most shelled cephalopods (all ammonites, most nautilids) as well as reef forming rudist clams disappeared at or near the end of the Cretaceous.  Among the larger animals, the dinosaurs, and all marine reptiles except turtles and crocodiles disappeared at the end of the Cretaceous.
------
Cretaceous|988473402
3c3
< The end of the Cretaceous is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event.  The end of the Cretaceous is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna.  There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred.  Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicility of Yucatan.  A minority think the extensive volcanic activity in India known as the Deccan Traps, may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction - it has also been suggested that this is a secondary impact thanks to the impact.  A few attribute other causes, such as an astronomical catastrophe, but such positions are considerably less supported.
---
> The end of the Cretaceous is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event.  The end of the Cretaceous is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna.  There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred.  Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicility of Yucatan.  A minority think the extensive volcanic activity in India known as the Deccan Traps, may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction - it has also been suggested that this is a secondary effect of the impact.  A few attribute other causes, such as an astronomical catastrophe, but such positions are considerably less supported.
------
Rosales|988473648
14c14,16
< * Family [[Moraceae]]
---
> * Family [[Moraceae]] (mulberry family)
> ** [[Mulberry]]
> ** [[Fig]]
------
Poales|988473925
13c13
< Sometimes the group is taken in a broader sense to include all of the Commelinids except the [[Commelinales]] and [[Bromeliales]].
---
> Sometimes the group is taken in a broader sense to include all of the Commelinids except the [[Commelinales]], [[Bromeliales]], and [[Zingiberales]] (if they were included in the first place).
------
Wiki_special_characters|988474205
136c136
< Web standards for writing about mathematics are very recent (in fact MathML 2.0 was just released in February of 2001), so many browsers made before these standards were in place try to compensate by at least allowing characters commonly used in mathematics, including most of the Greek alphabet.  These are necessarily entered as character entity references.  Browsers often render these by switching to a "Symbol" font or something similar.
---
> Web standards for writing about mathematics are very recent (in fact MathML 2.0 was just released in February of 2001), so many browsers made before these standards were in place try to compensate by at least allowing characters commonly used in mathematics, including most of the [[Greek alphabet]].  These are necessarily entered as character entity references.  Browsers often render these by switching to a "Symbol" font or something similar.
------
Jerzy_Kosinski|988477385
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Born into a Jewish family in Lodz, [[Poland]], on June 14, 1933, Kosinski wandered the countryside during [[World War II]].  He was reunited with his parents after WWII and earned degrees in history and political science in Poland before coming to the United States in 1957.  Kosinski is perhaps best known for his novels [[The Painted Bird]], which he suggested was based on his experiences during World War II, and for [[Being There]], later made into a movie directed by [[Hal Ashby]] and starring [[Peter Sellers]].  Towards the end of his life, Kosinski was accused of taking much of his work from Polish sources with which English-speakers were unfamiliar, and also of having his "assistant editors" write much of his work without receiving credit.  The critics making these charges often point to the wild differences in the styles of prose from one novel to the next, as if that in itself were conclusive, and neglecting the stylistic differences apparent in the work of almost any artist who has produced work for more than a few years.  Kosinski committed suicide in 1991.
------
Jerzy_Kosinski|988480081
1a2,3
> 
> ''Out of curiosity, is there a connection between the last two things?''
------
Mollusca|988482138
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The molluscs are a large and diverse phylum of [[Animalia]], including a variety of familiar creatures, well-known for their decorative shells or as sea food.  These range from tiny snails and clams to the giant squid, the largest and one of the most intelligent invertebrates.
> 
> Molluscs are triploblastic protostomes.  The principle body cavity is a blood-filled hemocoel, with an actual coelom present but reduced to vestiges around the hearts, gonads, and kidneys.  The body is divided into a head, often with eyes or tentacles, a muscular foot and a visceral mass housing the organs.  Covering the body is a thick sheet called the ''mantle'', which in most forms secretes a calcareous shell.
> 
> Development passes through one or two trocophore stages, one of which (the veliger) is unique to the group.  These suggest a close relationship between the molluscs and various other protostomes, notably the [[Annelida]].  Mollusc fossils are some of the best known and are found from the [[Cambrian]] onwards.
> 
> Molluscs are divided into eight classes, unless I am missing some fossil groups.  If anyone knows about the relationships between these, I would love to hear from them.
> 
> * Class [[Caudofoveata]]
> * Class [[Aplacophora]] (solenogasters)
> * Class [[Monoplacophora]]
> * Class [[Polyplacophora]] (chitons)
> * Class [[Gastropoda]] (snails and slugs)
> * Class [[Bivalvia]] (clams, oysters, etc)
> * Class [[Scaphopoda]] (tusk shells)
> * Class [[Gastropoda]] (squids, octopi, etc)
------
Mollusca|988482351
5,7c5
< Development passes through one or two trocophore stages, one of which (the veliger) is unique to the group.  These suggest a close relationship between the molluscs and various other protostomes, notably the [[Annelida]].  Mollusc fossils are some of the best known and are found from the [[Cambrian]] onwards.
< 
< Molluscs are divided into eight classes, unless I am missing some fossil groups.  If anyone knows about the relationships between these, I would love to hear from them.
---
> Development passes through one or two trocophore stages, one of which (the veliger) is unique to the group.  These suggest a close relationship between the molluscs and various other protostomes, notably the [[Annelida]].  Mollusc fossils are some of the best known and are found from the [[Cambrian]] onwards.  They are divided into eight classes, unless I am missing some extinct groups:
13d10
< * Class [[Gastropoda]] (snails and slugs)
16c13,16
< * Class [[Gastropoda]] (squids, octopi, etc)
---
> * Class [[Gastropoda]] (snails and slugs)
> * Class [[Cephalopoda]] (squids, octopi, etc)
> 
> Brusca & Brusca suggest that the bivalves and scaphopods are sister groups, and otherwise the above sequence represents an evolutionary progression.  I haven't seen anything more recent.
------
Mollusca|988482486
9d8
< * Class [[Monoplacophora]]
10a10
> * Class [[Monoplacophora]]
16c16
< Brusca & Brusca suggest that the bivalves and scaphopods are sister groups, and otherwise the above sequence represents an evolutionary progression.  I haven't seen anything more recent.
---
> Brusca & Brusca suggest that the bivalves and scaphopods are sister groups, and otherwise the above sequence represents an evolutionary progression.  I haven't seen anything more recent.
------
Jerzy_Kosinski|988482519
3c3,5
< ''Out of curiosity, is there a connection between the last two things?''
---
> ''Out of curiosity, is there a connection between the last two things?''
> 
> Josh, I really don't know.  I'd speculate that he committed suicide because of a number of things, since depressed people become tend to become overwhelmed and every challenge seems magnified.  The drubbing he was taking critically certainly wouldn't have helped.  Also, survivor's guilt is a well-documented phenomenon, so that may have had something to do with it, since he survived WWII in Poland.  But I haven't looked into it to see if he left any sort of explanation as to why.  I suppose that would be in order to fill out the entry....
------
Technology|988485194
5c5
< *** [[Atomic clock]] 
---
> *** [[Atomic clock]]
27a28,32
> ** [[Amplifier tube]]
> ** [[Diode]]
> ** [[Transistor]]
> ** [[Very Large System Integration]]
> ** [[System-on-a-chip]]
39c44
< (we need some way to cover for example, both the <i>technology</i> of television and the 
---
> (we need some way to cover for example, both the <i>technology</i> of television and the
42c47
< <i>How about a "Mass Media" catagory? It would also cover radio, printing press, etc.</i>
---
> <i>How about a "Mass Media" catagory? It would also cover radio, printing press, etc.</i>
------
Modus_ponens|988490790
9c9
< :If love conquers all, then love conquers Attila the Hun.
---
> :If love conquers all, then love conquers [[Attila the Hun]].
------
Attila_the_Hun|988490843
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Scourge of God) a.d. 406?–453, king of the Huns who invaded Europe. Formerly a group of nomadic people living beyond the Volga river in separate tribes presumably without a general leader or king, Huns were first united under a single king Rua by 432. In 434, Attila, the nephew of Rua, gained control over all Hun tribes together with his brother Bleda, whom he murdered in 445.  They invaded the Balkans in 441, when Roman armies were busy with Vandals and Persians. After a short period of peace, Attila captured Gaul with an army of almost half a million, but was defeated by Aetius at Maurica. Attila then turned back and began to invade Italy. He withdrew from capturing Rome possibly because of shortage of goods and a pestilence. He died after a nasal hemorrhage and his empire was divided among his sons. After his death, he went on living as a legendary figure and Etzel in the Nibelungenlied legend is possibly Attila. 
------
Attila_the_Hun|988501799
1c1
< (Scourge of God) a.d. 406?–453, king of the Huns who invaded Europe. Formerly a group of nomadic people living beyond the Volga river in separate tribes presumably without a general leader or king, Huns were first united under a single king Rua by 432. In 434, Attila, the nephew of Rua, gained control over all Hun tribes together with his brother Bleda, whom he murdered in 445.  They invaded the Balkans in 441, when Roman armies were busy with Vandals and Persians. After a short period of peace, Attila captured Gaul with an army of almost half a million, but was defeated by Aetius at Maurica. Attila then turned back and began to invade Italy. He withdrew from capturing Rome possibly because of shortage of goods and a pestilence. He died after a nasal hemorrhage and his empire was divided among his sons. After his death, he went on living as a legendary figure and Etzel in the Nibelungenlied legend is possibly Attila. 
---
> (Scourge of God) a.d. 406?–453, king of the Huns who invaded Europe. Formerly a group of nomadic people living beyond the Volga river in separate tribes presumably without a general leader or king, Huns were first united under a single king Rua by 432. In 434, Attila, the nephew of Rua, gained control over all Hun tribes together with his brother Bleda, whom he murdered in 445.  They invaded the Balkans in 441, when Roman armies were busy with Vandals and Persians. After a short period of peace, Attila captured Gaul with an army of almost half a million, but was defeated by Aetius at Maurica. Attila then turned back and began to invade Italy. He withdrew from capturing Rome possibly because of shortage of goods and a pestilence. He died after a nasal hemorrhage and his empire was divided among his sons. After his death, he went on living as a legendary figure and Etzel in the Nibelungenlied is possibly Attila. 
------
Ecuador|988520482
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Ecuador/History|988520611
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The "Republic of the Equator" was one of three countries that emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Colombia and Venezuela). Between 1904 and 1942, Ecuador lost territories in a series of conflicts with its neighbors. A border war with Peru that flared in 1995 was resolved in 1999.
------
Ecuador/Geography|988520641
1c1,64
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, between Colombia and Peru
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 2 00 S, 77 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 283,560 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 276,840 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 6,720 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Galapagos Islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Nevada
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,010 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Colombia 590 km, Peru 1,420 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,237 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> claims continental shelf between mainland and Galapagos Islands
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical along coast, becoming cooler inland at higher elevations; tropical in Amazonian jungle lowlands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plain (costa), inter-Andean central highlands (sierra), and flat to rolling eastern jungle (oriente)
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Chimborazo 6,267 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, fish, timber, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 56%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 15% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 5,560 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution; pollution from oil production wastes
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> Cotopaxi in Andes is highest active volcano in world
------
Ecuador/People|988520662
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 12,920,092 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 36.23% (male 2,379,541; female 2,301,543)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 59.4% (male 3,794,515; female 3,880,367)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4.37% (male 262,701; female 301,425) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.04% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 26.51 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.52 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.56 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.87 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 35.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.06 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.26 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.99 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.18 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Ecuadorian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Ecuadorian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish) 65%, Amerindian 25%, Spanish and others 7%, black 3%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 95%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quechua)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 90.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 92%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 88.2% (1995 est.)
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Ecuador/Government|988520688
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Ecuador
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Ecuador
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica del Ecuador
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ecuador
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EC
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Quito
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 22 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Azuay, Bolivar, Canar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, El Oro, Esmeraldas, Galapagos, Guayas, Imbabura, Loja, Los Rios, Manabi, Morona-Santiago, Napo, Orellana, Pastaza, Pichincha, Sucumbios, Tungurahua, Zamora-Chinchipe
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 24 May 1822 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 10 August (1809) (independence of Quito)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 10 August 1998
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal, compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65, optional for other eligible voters
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Gustavo NOBOA (since 22 January 2000) following coup which deposed President MAHUAD; Vice President Pedro PINTO (since 28 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Gustavo NOBOA (since 22 January 2000) following coup which deposed President MAHUAD; Vice President Pedro PINTO (since 28 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term (no reelection); election last held 31 May 1998; runoff election held 12 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> results of the last election prior to the coup were: Jamil MAHUAD elected president; percent of vote - 51%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a military-indigenous coup toppled democratically elected President Jamil MAHAUD on 21 January 2000; the military quickly handed power over to Vice President Gustavo NOBOA on 22 January; Congress then elected a new vice president from a slate of candidates submitted by NOBOA; the new administration is scheduled to complete the remainder of MAHAUD's term, due to expire in January 2003
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional (121 seats; 79 members are popularly elected at-large nationally to serve four-year terms; 42 members are popularly elected by province - two per province - for four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 31 May 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - DP 32, PSC 27, PRE 24, ID 18, P-NP 9, FRA 5, PCE 3, MPD 2, CFP 1; note - defections by members of National Congress are commonplace, resulting in frequent changes in the numbers of seats held by the various parties
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, new justices are elected by the full Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Concentration of Popular Forces or CFP [Averroes BUCARAM]; Democratic Left or ID [Rodrigo BORJA Cevallos]; Ecuadorian Conservative Party or PCE [Freddy BRAVO]; Pachakutik-New Country or P-NP [Nina PACARI and Freddy EHLERS]; Popular Democracy or DP [Ramiro RIVERA]; Popular Democratic Movement or MPD [Jaime HURTADO Gonzalez]; Radical Alfarista Front or FRA [Fabian ALARCON, director]; Roldosist Party or PRE [Abdala BUCARAM Ortiz, director]; Social Christian Party or PSC [Jaime NEBOT Saadi, president]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> political blocs include: far left - MPD; populist - CFP and P-NP; populist left - PRE; center left - ID, DP, and FRA; center right - PSC and PCE
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador or CONAIE [Antonio VARGAS]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CAN, ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ivonne A-BAKI
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2535 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-7200
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-3482
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Newark, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Gwen CLARE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida 12 de Octubre y Avenida Patria, Quito
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AA 34039
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [593] (2) 562-890
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [593] (2) 502-052
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Guayaquil
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of yellow (top, double width), blue, and red with the coat of arms superimposed at the center of the flag; similar to the flag of Colombia which is shorter and does not bear a coat of arms
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Ecuador/Economy|988520711
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Ecuador has substantial oil resources and rich agricultural areas. Because the country exports primary products such as oil, bananas, and shrimp, fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Ecuador joined the World Trade Organization in 1996, but has failed to comply with many of its accession commitments. In recent years, growth has been uneven due to ill-conceived fiscal stabilization measures. The aftermath of El Nino and depressed oil market of 1997-98 drove Ecuador's economy into a free-fall in 1999. The beginning of 1999 saw the banking sector collapse, which helped precipitate an unprecedented default on external loans later that year. Continued economic instability drove a 70% depreciation of the currency throughout 1999, which eventually forced a desperate government to dollarize the currency regime in 2000. The move stabilized the currency, but did not stave off the ouster of the government. The new president, Gustavo NOBOA has yet to complete negotiations for a long sought IMF accord. He will find it difficult to push through the reforms necessary to make dollarization work in the long-run.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $54.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 50% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 37.6% (1994)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 59.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.2 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 30%, industry 25%, services 45% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 12% with widespread underemployment (November 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> planned $5.1 billion (not including revenue from potential privatizations)
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $5.1 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, food processing, textiles, metal work, paper products, wood products, chemicals, plastics, fishing, lumber
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.4% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 9.657 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 27.96%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 72.04%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 8.981 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, coffee, cocoa, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca), plantains, sugarcane; cattle, sheep, pigs, beef, pork, dairy products; balsa wood; fish, shrimp
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $4.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, bananas, shrimp, coffee, cocoa, cut flowers, fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 39%, Colombia 7%, Italy 6%, Peru 5%, Chile 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, raw materials, fuels; consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 39%, Colombia 11%, Japan 9%, Venezuela 5%, Mexico 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $15.3 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $695.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 sucre (S/) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> sucres (S/) per US$1 - 24,860.7 (January 2000), 11,786.8 (1999), 5,446.6 (1998), 3,988.3 (1997), 3,189.5 (1996), 2,564.5 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Ecuador/Communications|988520727
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 748,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 49,776 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> facilities generally inadequate and unreliable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 392, FM 27, shortwave 29 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.15 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 15 (including one station on the Galapagos Islands) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.55 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 8 (1999)
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Ecuador/Transportation|988520744
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 812 km (single track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 812 km 1.067-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 43,197 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 8,165 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 35,032 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,500 km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 800 km; petroleum products 1,358 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, La Libertad, Manta, Puerto Bolivar, San Lorenzo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 29 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 233,151 GRT/388,750 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> chemical tanker 2, liquified gas 1, passenger 4, petroleum tanker 22 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 182 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 57
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 20 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 125
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 89 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Ecuador/Military|988520762
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (Ejercito Ecuatoriano), Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Ecuatoriana), National Police (Policia Nacional)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,296,678 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,224,033 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 130,869 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $720 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.4% (FY98)
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Ecuador/Transnational_issues|988520782
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> demarcation of the agreed-upon border with Peru was completed in May 1999
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> significant transit country for cocaine and derivatives of coca originating in Colombia and Peru; importer of precursor chemicals used in production of illicit narcotics; important money-laundering hub; increased activity on frontiers by trafficking groups and Colombian insurgents
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Egypt|988520876
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Egypt/History|988520897
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Nominally independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world) will continue to stress Egyptian society and overtax resources as the country enters the new millennium.
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Egypt/Geography|988520913
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 27 00 N, 30 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,001,450 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 995,450 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 6,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,689 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 255 km, Libya 1,150 km, Sudan 1,273 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,450 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Qattara Depression -133 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Catherine 2,629 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 98% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 32,460 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides, volcanic activity; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, shortest sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics
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Egypt/People|988520936
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 68,359,979 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 35% (male 12,260,343; female 11,701,253)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 61% (male 21,111,615; female 20,714,511)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 1,131,760; female 1,440,497) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.72% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 25.38 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.83 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.79 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 62.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.33 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.29 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 65.47 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.15 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Egyptian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Egyptian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Eastern Hamitic stock (Egyptians, Bedouins, and Berbers) 99%, Greek, Nubian, Armenian, other European (primarily Italian and French) 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim (mostly Sunni) 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 51.4%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 63.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 38.8% (1995 est.)
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Egypt/Government|988520963
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Arab Republic of Egypt
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Egypt
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Misr
> <br><i>former:</i>
> United Arab Republic (with Syria)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Cairo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayyum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma'iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, Ash Sharqiyah, As Suways, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa'id, Dumyat, Janub Sina', Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina', Suhaj
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 28 February 1922 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Revolution, 23 July (1952)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 11 September 1971
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Atef OBEID (since 5 October 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president nominated by the People's Assembly for a six-year term, the nomination must then be validated by a national, popular referendum; national referendum last held 26 September 1999 (next to be held NA October 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> national referendum validated President MUBARAK's nomination by the People's Assembly to a fourth term
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura - which functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve NA-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> People's Assembly - last held 29 November 1995 (next to be held NA November 2000); Advisory Council - last held 7 June 1995 (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NDP 72%, independents 25%, opposition 3%; seats by party - NDP 317, independents 114, NWP 6, NPUG 5, Nasserist Arab Democratic Party 1, LSP 1; Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NDP 99%, independents 1%; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Constitutional Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Unionist Party [Mohammed 'Abd-al-Mun'im TURK]; Green Party [Kamal KIRAH]; Misr al-Fatah Party (Young Egypt Party) [leader NA]; Nasserist Arab Democratic Party [Dia' al-din DAWUD]; National Democratic Party or NDP [President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK, leader] - governing party; National Progressive Unionist Grouping or NPUG [Khalid MUHI AL-DIN]; New Wafd Party or NWP [Fu'ad SIRAJ AL-DIN]; Social Justice Party [Muhammad 'ABDAL-'AL]; Socialist Labor Party or SLP [Ibrahim SHUKRI]; Socialist Liberal Party or LSP [Mustafa Kamal MURAD]; Umma Party [Ahmad al-SABAHI]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> formation of political parties must be approved by government
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes MUBARAK's potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACC, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, BSEC (observer), CAEU, CCC, EBRD, ECA, ESCWA, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Nabil FAHMY
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 895-5400
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 244-4319, 5131
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Daniel C. KURTZER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> (North Gate) 8, Kamel El-Din Salah Street, Garden City, Cairo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 64900, APO AE 09839-4900
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [20] (2) 3557371
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [20] (2) 3573200
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden eagle facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars, and to the flag of Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band
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Egypt/Economy|988520984
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> A series of IMF arrangements - coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf war coalition - helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance during the 1990s. Through sound fiscal and monetary policies, Cairo tamed inflation, slashed budget deficits, and built up foreign reserves. Although the pace of structural reforms - such as privatization and new business legislation - has been slower than the IMF envisioned, Egypt's steps toward a more market-oriented economy have prompted increased foreign investment. Lower combined hard currency inflows - from tourism, worker remittances, oil revenues, and Suez Canal tolls - in 1998 and the first half of 1999 resulted in pressure on the Egyptian pound and sporadic dollar shortages, but external payments were not in crisis. Despite ample reserves, the Central Bank did not provide sufficient hard currency to commercial banks and Cairo restricted imports for a short period; these developments confirmed to some investors and currency traders that government financial operations lack sufficient coordination and openness. Monetary pressures have since eased, however, with the continued oil price recovery starting in mid-1999 and a moderate rebound in tourism. Increased gas exports are a major plus factor in future growth.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $200 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 51% (1999)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 26.7% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.7% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 19 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 40%, services 38%, industry 22% (1990 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 11.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $20.7 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $22.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, petroleum, construction, cement, metals
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 57.8 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 78.72%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 21.28%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 53.754 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $4.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 47%, US 14%, Turkey 8% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $15.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 42%, US 16%, Japan 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $30 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> ODA, $2.25 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Egyptian pound = 100 piasters
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Egyptian pounds per US$1 - market rate - 3.4050 (January 2000), 3.4050 (1999), 3.3880 (1998), 3.3880 (1997), 3.3880 (1996), 3.3900 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Egypt/Communications|988521016
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.168 million (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 380,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> large system by Third World standards but inadequate for present requirements and undergoing extensive upgrading; Internet access available
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; 5 coaxial submarine cables; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel and a signatory to Project Oxygen (a global submarine fiber-optic cable system)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 42 (plus 15 repeater stations), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 20.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 51 (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 7.7 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 31 (1999)
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Egypt/Transportation|988521037
1c1,51
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,955 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 4,955 km 1,435-m gauge (42 km electrified; 1,560 km double track)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 64,000 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 49,984 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 14,016 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 3,500 km (including the Nile, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in the delta); Suez Canal, 193.5 km (including approaches), used by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 16.1 m of water
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,171 km; petroleum products 596 km; natural gas 460 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Alexandria, Al Ghardaqah, Aswan, Asyut, Bur Safajah, Damietta, Marsa Matruh, Port Said, Suez
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 180 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,348,148 GRT/2,014,483 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 25, cargo 63, container 1, liquified gas 1, passenger 57, petroleum tanker 14, roll-on/roll-off 16, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 90 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 71
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 9 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Egypt/Military|988521051
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 18,164,353 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 11,766,949 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 704,373 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $3.28 billion (FY95/96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 8.2% (FY95/96)
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Egypt/Transnational_issues|988521075
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Egypt asserts its claim to the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km under partial Sudanese administration that is defined by an administrative boundary which supersedes the treaty boundary of 1899
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> a transit point for Southwest Asian and Southeast Asian heroin and opium moving to Europe, Africa, and the US; popular transit stop for Nigerian couriers
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El_Salvador|988521103
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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El_Salvador/History|988521129
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> El Salvador achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and from the Central American Federation in 1839. A 12-year civil war, which cost the lives of some 75,000 people, was brought to a close in 1992 when the government and leftist rebels signed a treaty that provided for military and political reforms.
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El_Salvador/Geography|988521149
1c1,60
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Guatemala and Honduras
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 50 N, 88 55 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21,040 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 20,720 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 320 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Massachusetts
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 545 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 307 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April); tropical on coast; temperate in uplands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Cerro El Pital 2,730 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> hydropower, geothermal power, petroleum, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 31% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,200 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes; Hurricane Mitch damage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> smallest Central American country and only one without a coastline on Caribbean Sea
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El_Salvador/People|988521171
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,122,515 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 38% (male 1,186,328; female 1,141,245)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 57% (male 1,652,083; female 1,833,998)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 139,919; female 168,942) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.87% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 29.02 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -4.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.83 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 29.22 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.74 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 66.14 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.52 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.38 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Salvadoran(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Salvadoran
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo 90%, Amerindian 1%, white 9%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 86%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is extensive activity by Protestant groups throughout the country; by the end of 1992, there were an estimated 1 million Protestant evangelicals in El Salvador
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish, Nahua (among some Amerindians)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 10 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 69.8% (1995 est.)
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El_Salvador/Government|988521197
1c1,81
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of El Salvador
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> El Salvador
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de El Salvador
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> El Salvador
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> ES
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> San Salvador
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Ahuachapan, Cabanas, Chalatenango, Cuscatlan, La Libertad, La Paz, La Union, Morazan, San Miguel, San Salvador, Santa Ana, San Vicente, Sonsonate, Usulutan
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 23 December 1983
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil and Roman law, with traces of common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Legislative Assembly passed landmark judicial reforms in 1996
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Francisco FLORES Perez (since 1 June 1999); Vice President Carlos QUINTANILLA Schmidt (since 1 June 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Francisco FLORES Perez (since 1 June 1999); Vice President Carlos QUINTANILLA Schmidt (since 1 June 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for five-year terms; election last held 7 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Francisco FLORES Perez elected president; percent of vote - Francisco FLORES (ARENA) 52%, Facundo GUARDADO (FMLN) 29%, Ruben ZAMORA (CDU) 7.5%, other (no individual above 3%) 11.5%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Assembly or Asamblea Legislativa (84 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 16 March 1997 (next to be held 12 March 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - ARENA 35.4%, FMLN 34.3%, PCN 8.1%, PDC 7.9%, CD 3.8%, PRSC 3.4%, PLD 3.2%, MU 2.1%, PD 1.0%, other 0.8%; seats by party - ARENA 28, FMLN 27, PCN 9, PDC 8, PRSC 3, CD 2, PLD 2, MU 1, PD 1, independent 3
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), judges are selected by the Legislative Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Rene AGUILUZ, secretary general]; Democratic Convergence or CD [Ruben ZAMORA, secretary general]; Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front or FMLN [Jose Fabio CASTILLO]; Liberal Democratic Party or PLD [Kirio Waldo SALGADO, president]; National Conciliation Party or PCN [Ciro CRUZ Zepeda, secretary general]; National Republican Alliance or ARENA [Walter ARAUJO]; Popular Labor Party or PPL [Ernesto VILANOVA, secretary general]; Social Christian Union or USC [Abraham RODRIGUEZ, president]; Social Democratic Party or PD [Jorge MELENDEZ and Juan MEDRANO]; United Democratic Center or CDU [Ruben ZAMORA], bloc includes CD and PD formed by merger of Christian Social Renewal Party or PRSC, National Solidarity Movement or MSN, and the Unity Movement or MU
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> <br><i>labor organizations:</i>
> Association of Agricultural Producers or APROAS; Electrical Industry Union of El Salvador or SIES; Federation of the Construction Industry, Similar Transport and other activities, or FESINCONTRANS; National Confederation of Salvadoran Workers or CNTS; National Union of Salvadoran Workers or UNTS; Port Industry Union of El Salvador or SIPES; Salvadoran Workers Central or CTS; Workers Union of Electrical Corporation or STCEL
> <br><i>business organizations:</i>
> National Association of Small Enterprise or ANEP; Salvadoran Assembly Industry Association or ASIC; Salvadoran Industrial Association or ASI
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Rene Antonio LEON Rodriguez
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2308 California Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-9671
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Boston
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Anne W. PATTERSON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Final Boulevard Santa Elena, Antiguo Cuscatlan, San Salvador
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 3116, APO AA 34023
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [503] 278-4444
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [503] 278-6011
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL; similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which has a different coat of arms centered in the white band - it features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
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El_Salvador/Economy|988521219
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> El Salvador is a poor Central American economy which has been suffering from a weak tax collection system, factory closings, the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, and weak world coffee prices. On the bright side, in recent years inflation has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially. The substantial trade deficit has been offset by remittances from the large number of Salvadorans living abroad and from external aid.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $18.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 66% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 48% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 38.3% (1995)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.35 million (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 30%, industry 15%, services 55% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 7.7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.73 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, beverages, petroleum, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, furniture, light metals
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 4.1 billion kWh (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 49.32%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 36.46%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14.22% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 4.17 billion kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 30 million kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 65 million kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, sugarcane, corn, rice, beans, oilseed, cotton, sorghum; beef, dairy products; shrimp
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> offshore assembly exports, coffee, sugar, shrimp, textiles, chemicals, electricity
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 59%, Guatemala 12%, Germany 6%, Costa Rica 4%, Honduras (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $4.15 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods, fuels, foodstuffs, petroleum, electricity
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 51%, Guatemala 9%, Mexico 6%, Japan 3%, Costa Rica (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> total $252 million; $57 million from US (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Salvadoran colon (C) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Salvadoran colones (C) per US$1 (end of period) - 8.755 fixed rate since 1993
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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El_Salvador/Communications|988521235
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 380,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 13,475 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> nationwide microwave radio relay system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); connected to Central American Microwave System
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 61 (plus 24 repeaters), FM 30, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 5 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 600,000 (1990)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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El_Salvador/Transportation|988521260
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 602 km (single track; note - some sections abandoned, unusable, or operating at reduced capacity)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 602 km 0.914-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,029 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,986 km (including 327 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 8,043 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> Rio Lempa partially navigable
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Acajutla, Puerto Cutuco, La Libertad, La Union, Puerto El Triunfo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 85 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 81
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 64 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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El_Salvador/Military|988521280
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,428,974 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 906,656 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 67,181 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $105 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.9% (FY98)
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El_Salvador/Transnational_issues|988521299
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> the Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine; marijuana produced for local consumption; domestic drug abuse on the rise
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Equatorial_Guinea|988521402
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Equatorial_Guinea/History|988521424
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Composed of a mainland portion and five inhabited islands, Equatorial Guinea has been ruled by ruthless leaders who have badly mismanaged the economy since independence from 190 years of Spanish rule in 1968. Although nominally a constitutional democracy since 1991, the 1996 presidential and 1999 legislative elections were widely seen as being flawed.
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Equatorial_Guinea/Geography|988521443
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Cameroon and Gabon
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 2 00 N, 10 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28,051 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 28,051 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 539 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Cameroon 189 km, Gabon 350 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 296 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; always hot, humid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Pico Basile 3,008 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> oil, petroleum, timber, small unexploited deposits of gold, manganese, uranium
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 41% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> violent windstorms, flash floods
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> tap water is not potable; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> insular and continental regions rather widely separated
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Equatorial_Guinea/People|988521462
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 474,214 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 101,724; female 100,787)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 121,290; female 132,581)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 7,960; female 9,872) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.47% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 94.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 53.56 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 51.53 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 55.65 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.94 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Equatorial Guinean(s) or Equatoguinean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Equatorial Guinean or Equatoguinean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bioko (primarily Bubi, some Fernandinos), Rio Muni (primarily Fang), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly Spanish
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> nominally Christian and predominantly Roman Catholic, pagan practices
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish (official), French (official), pidgin English, Fang, Bubi, Ibo
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 89.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 68.1% (1995 est.)
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Equatorial_Guinea/Government|988521486
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Equatorial Guinea
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Equatorial Guinea
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guinea Ecuatorial
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Spanish Guinea
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Malabo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 12 October 1968 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 12 October (1968)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> approved by national referendum 17 November 1991; amended January 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal adult
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO (since 3 August 1979 when he seized power in a military coup)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Serafin Seriche DOUGAN (since NA April 1996); First Vice Prime Minister and Agriculture Minister Miguel OYONO NDONG (since NA January 1998); Second Vice Prime Minister for Internal Affairs Demetrio Elo NDONG NZE FUMU (since NA January 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote to a seven-year term; election last held 25 February 1996 (next to be held NA February 2003); prime minister and vice prime ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO reelected with 98% of popular vote in elections marred by widespread fraud
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of People's Representatives or Camara de Representantes del Pueblo (80 seats; members directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 7 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PDGE 80%, UP 6%, CPDS 5%; seats by party - PDGE 75, UP 4 and CPDS 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> opposition parties have refused to take up their seats in the House to protest widespread irregularities in the 1999 legislative elections
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Tribunal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Convergence Party for Social Democracy or CPDS [Placido Miko ABOGO]; Democratic Party for Equatorial Guinea or PDGE (ruling party) [Augustin Nse NFUMU]; Party for Progress of Equatorial Guinea or PPGE [Severo MOTO]; Popular Action of Equatorial Guinea or APGE [Miguel Esono EMAN]; Popular Union or UP [Fabian MUSA, general secretary]; Progressive Democratic Alliance or ADP [Victorino Bolekia BONAY, mayor of Malabo]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Pastor Micha ONDO BILE
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1712 I Street NW, Suite 410, Washington, DC 20006
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 296-4174
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 296-4195
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John M. YATES
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the US does not have an embassy in Equatorial Guinea (embassy closed September 1995); US relations with Equatorial Guinea are handled through the US Embassy in Yaounde, Cameroon; the US State Department is considering opening a Consulate Agency in Malabo
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice)
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Equatorial_Guinea/Economy|988521551
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The discovery and exploitation of large oil reserves have contributed to dramatic economic growth in recent years. Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth. A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of the government's gross corruption and mismanagement. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold. The country responded favorably to the devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994. Boosts in production, along with high world oil prices, should further stimulate growth in 2000-2001.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $960 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 60%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 20% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 30% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $47 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $43 million, including capital expenditures of $7 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, fishing, sawmilling, natural gas
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 7.4% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 21 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 85.71%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 14.29%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 20 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts; livestock; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $555 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, timber, cocoa
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 62%, Spain 17%, China 9%, France 3%, Japan 3%, (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $300 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, manufactured goods and equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 35%, France 15%, Spain 10%, Cameroon 10%, UK 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $290 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $33.8 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
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Equatorial_Guinea/Communications|988521570
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor system with adequate government services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> international communications from Bata and Malabo to African and European countries; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 2, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 180,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Equatorial_Guinea/Transportation|988521587
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,880 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 0 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 2,880 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bata, Luba, Malabo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 25,907 GRT/26,812 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 8, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Equatorial_Guinea/Military|988521604
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 105,420 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 53,564 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $3 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.6% (FY97/98)
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Equatorial_Guinea/Transnational_issues|988521619
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> exclusive maritime economic zone boundary dispute with Cameroon is presently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay; maritime boundary dispute with Nigeria and Cameroon because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea
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Eritrea|988521648
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Eritrea/History|988521662
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Eritrea was awarded to Ethiopia in 1952 as part of a federation. Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as a province 10 years later sparked a 30-year struggle for independence that ended in 1991 with Eritrean rebels defeating governmental forces; independence was overwhelmingly approved in a 1993 referendum. A border war with Ethiopia that erupted in 1998 remains unresolved.
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Eritrea/Geography|988521683
1c1,59
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Djibouti and Sudan
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 00 N, 39 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 121,320 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 121,320 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Pennsylvania
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,630 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Djibouti 113 km, Ethiopia 912 km, Sudan 605 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 61 cm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except in coastal desert
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> near Kulul within the Denakil depression -75 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Soira 3,018 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, possibly oil and natural gas, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 49%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 32% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 280 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent droughts and locust storms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon de jure independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993
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Eritrea/People|988521703
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,135,933 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 888,573; female 883,939)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 1,104,082; female 1,122,683)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 69,518; female 67,138) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.86% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 42.71 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 12.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 8.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> according to the UNHCR, about 150,000 Eritrean refugees in Sudan have registered for voluntary repatriation, following the restoration of diplomatic relations between Eritrea and Sudan in January 2000
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 76.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 55.79 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 53.36 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 58.29 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Eritrean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Eritrean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%, Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim, Coptic Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Afar, Amharic, Arabic, Tigre and Kunama, Tigrinya, other Cushitic languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Eritrea/Government|988521727
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> State of Eritrea
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Eritrea
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Hagere Ertra
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ertra
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> ER
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> transitional government
> <br><i>note:</i>
> following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 23-25 April 1993, a National Assembly, composed entirely of the People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; a Constitutional Commission was also established to draft a constitution; ISAIAS Afworki was elected president by the transitional legislature; the constitution, ratified in August 1997, did not enter into effect, pending parliamentary and presidential elections; those elections have been postponed indefinitely following the start of the border conflict with Ethiopia
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Asmara (formerly Asmera)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 8 provinces (singular - awraja); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in May 1995 the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed Southern Red Sea, Northern Red Sea, Anseba, Gash-Barka, Southern, and Central
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 23-25 April 1993 referendum was held with vote for independence as the outcome; 24 May 1993 (from Ethiopia; formerly the Eritrea Autonomous Region)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day (independence from Ethiopia), 24 May (1993)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> the transitional constitution, decreed on 19 May 1993, was replaced by a new constitution adopted on 23 May 1997, but not yet implemented
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> operates on the basis of transitional laws that incorporate pre-independence statutes of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, revised Ethiopian laws, customary laws, and post independence enacted laws
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President ISAIAS Afworki (since 8 June 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> State Council is the collective executive authority
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the president is head of the State Council and National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the National Assembly; election last held 8 June 1993 (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> ISAIAS Afworki elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - ISAIAS Afworki 95%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (150 seats; term limits not established)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> in May 1997, following the adoption of the new constitution, 75 members of the PFDJ Central Committee (the old Central Committee of the EPLF), 60 members of the 527-member Constituent Assembly which had been established in 1997 to discuss and ratify the new constitution, and 15 representatives of Eritreans living abroad were formed into a Transitional National Assembly to serve as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections to a National Assembly are held; only 75 members will be elected to the National Assembly - the other 75 will be members of the Central Committee of the PFDJ
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; 10 provincial courts; 29 district courts
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> People's Front for Democracy and Justice or PFDJ, the only party recognized by the government [ISAIAS Afworki, PETROS Solomon]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Eritrean Islamic Jihad or EIJ; Eritrean Liberation Front or ELF [ABDULLAH Muhammed]; Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council or ELF-RC [Ahmed NASSER]; Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization or ELF-UO [Mohammed Said NAWD]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador SEMERE Russom
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1708 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 319-1991
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 319-1304
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador William D. CLARKE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Franklin D. Roosevelt Street, Asmara
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 211, Asmara
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [291] (1) 120004
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [291] (1) 127584
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle
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Eritrea/Economy|988521747
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> With independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993, Eritrea faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. The economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. The small industrial sector consists mainly of light industries with outmoded technologies. Domestic output (GDP) is substantially augmented by worker remittances from abroad. Government revenues come from custom duties and taxes on income and sales. Road construction is a top domestic priority. In the long term, Eritrea may benefit from the development of offshore oil, offshore fishing, and tourism. Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems, e.g., by reducing illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy. The most immediate threat to the economy, however, is the possible expansion of the border conflict with Ethiopia, which broke out in May 1998. The hostilities have drained away substantial resources vital to Eritrea's economic development.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $750 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 62% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 80%, industry and commerce 20%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $283.9 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $351.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, beverages, clothing and textiles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 177.6 million kWh (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 177.6 million kWh (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1997)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1997)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sorghum, lentils, vegetables, corn, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sisal; livestock, goats; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $52.9 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> livestock, sorghum, textiles, food, small manufactures
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Ethiopia 64%, Sudan 17%, Italy 5%, Saudi Arabia 2%, US, Yemen (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $489.4 million (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> processed goods, machinery, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Saudi Arabia 16%, Italy 14%, UAE 13%, Ethiopia  9%, Germany 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $76 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $123.1 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 nafka = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> nakfa per US$1 = 9.5 (January 2000), 7.6 (January 1999), 7.2 (March 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Eritrea/Communications|988521762
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 23,578 (2000)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> very inadequate; most telephones are in Asmara; government is seeking international tenders to improve the system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 2 (2000)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 345,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (2000)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Eritrea/Transportation|988521784
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 317 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 317 km 0.950-m gauge (1999)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> links Ak'ordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 km stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994; rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock is under way
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,010 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 874 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 3,136 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Assab (Aseb), Massawa (Mits'iwa)
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,069 GRT/19,549 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 1, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 21 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Eritrea/Military|988521799
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $196 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 28.6% (FY97)
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Eritrea/Transnational_issues|988521816
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> dispute over alignment of boundary with Ethiopia led to armed conflict in 1998, which is still unresolved despite arbitration efforts
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Estonia|988521857
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Estonia/History|988521890
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> <b>Background:</b>
> After centuries of Swedish and Russian rule, Estonia attained independence in 1918. Forcibly incorporated into the USSR in 1940, it regained its freedom in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western Europe.
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Estonia/Geography|988521909
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland, between Latvia and Russia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 59 00 N, 26 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 45,226 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 43,211 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 2,015 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than New Hampshire and Vermont combined
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 633 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Latvia 339 km, Russia 294 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3,794 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> limits fixed in coordination with neighboring states
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> maritime, wet, moderate winters, cool summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> marshy, lowlands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Baltic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Suur Munamagi 318 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> shale oil (kukersite), peat, phosphorite, amber, cambrian blue clay, limestone, dolomite, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 44%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 20% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 110 sq km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding occurs frequently in the spring
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
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Estonia/People|988521928
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,431,471 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 129,204; female 124,269)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 466,960; female 503,233)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 67,781; female 140,024) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.59% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 8.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.79 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.48 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.87 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 12.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.45 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 63.4 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.79 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.19 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Estonian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Estonian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Estonian 65.1%, Russian 28.1%, Ukrainian 2.5%, Byelorussian 1.5%, Finn 1%, other 1.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, Estonian Orthodox, Baptist, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Word of Life, Jewish
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Estonian (official), Russian, Ukrainian, English, Finnish, other
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 100% (1998 est.)
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Estonia/Government|988521955
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Estonia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Estonia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Eesti Vabariik
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Eesti
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EN
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Tallinn
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 15 counties (maakonnad, singular - maakond): Harjumaa (Tallinn), Hiiumaa (Kardla), Ida-Virumaa (Johvi), Jarvamaa (Paide), Jogevamaa (Jogeva), Laanemaa (Haapsalu), Laane-Virumaa (Rakvere), Parnumaa (Parnu), Polvamaa (Polva), Raplamaa (Rapla), Saaremaa (Kuessaare), Tartumaa (Tartu), Valgamaa (Valga), Viljandimaa (Viljandi), Vorumaa (Voru)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> counties have the administrative center name following in parentheses
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 24 February (1918)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 28 June 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal for all Estonian citizens
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Lennart MERI (since 5 October 1992)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Mart LAAR (since 29 March 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister, approved by Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament for a five-year term; if he or she does not secure two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an electoral assembly (made up of Parliament plus members of local governments) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes; election last held August-September 1996 (next to be held fall 2001); prime minister nominated by the president and approved by Parliament
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Lennart MERI reelected president by an electoral assembly after Parliament was unable to break a deadlock between MERI and RUUTEL; percent of electoral assembly vote - Lennart MERI 61%, Arnold RUUTEL 39%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Riigikogu (101 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 7 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Center Party 28, Union of Pro Patria (Fatherland League) 18, Reform Party 18, Moderates 17, Country People's Party (Agrarians) 7, Coalition Party 7, UPPE 6,
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> National Court, chairman appointed by Parliament for life
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Center Party or K [Edgar SAVISAAR, chairman]; Coalition Party and Rural Union or KMU [Andrus OOVEL, chairman]; Country People's Party [Arnold RUUTEL]; Moderates or M [Andres TARAND]; Reform Party or RE [Siim KALLAS, chairman]; Union of Pro Patria or Fatherland League (Isamaaliit) [Mart LAAR, chairman]; United People's Party or UPPE [Viktor ANDREJEV, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Sven JURGENSON
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2131 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 588-0101
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 588-0108
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Melissa WELLS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Kentmanni 20, Tallinn EE 0001
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [372] (6) 312-021
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [372] (6) 312-025
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> pre-1940 flag restored by Supreme Soviet in May 1990 - three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), black, and white
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Estonia/Economy|988521974
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In 1999, Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in 1991 largely because of the impact of the August 1998 Russian financial crisis. Estonia joined the WTO in November 1999 - the second Baltic state to join - and continued its EU accession talks. GDP is forecast to grow 4% in 2000. Privatization of energy, telecommunications, railways, and other state-owned companies will continue in 2000. Estonia expects to complete its preparations for EU membership by the end of 2002.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -0.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,600 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3.6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30.7%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 65.7% (1999)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 6.3% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 28.5% (1996)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 785,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 20%, agriculture and forestry 11%, services 69% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 11.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.37 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.37 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> oil shale, shipbuilding, phosphates, electric motors, excavators, cement, furniture, clothing, textiles, paper, shoes, apparel
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 8.742 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 99.98%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.02%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 7.58 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 700 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 150 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> potatoes, fruits, vegetables; livestock and dairy products; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and appliances 19%, wood products 15%, textiles 13%, food products 12%, metals 10%, chemical products 8% (1999)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Sweden 19.3%, Finland 18.8%, Russia 8.8%, Latvia 8.8%, Germany 7.3%, US 2.5% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $3.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and appliances 26%, foodstuffs 15%, chemical products 10%, metal products 9%, textiles 8% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Finland 23%, Russia 13.2%, Sweden 10%, Germany 9.1%, US 4.7 (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $270 million (January 1996)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $137.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Estonian kroon (EEK) = 100 sents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> krooni (EEK) per US$1 - 15.417 (January 2000), 4.678 (1999), 14.075 (1998), 13.882 (1997), 12.034 (1996), 11.465 (1995); note - krooni are tied to the German deutsche mark at a fixed rate of 8 to 1
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Estonia/Communications|988521990
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 476,078 (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 246,000 (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> foreign investment in the form of joint business ventures greatly improved telephone service; Internet services available throughout most of the country; about 150,000 unfilled subscriber requests
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> local - the Ministry of Transport and Communications is expanding cellular telephone services to form rural networks; intercity - highly developed fiber-optic backbone (double loop) system presently serving at least 16 major cities (1998)
> <br><i>international:</i>
> fiber-optic cables to Finland, Sweden, Latvia, and Russia provide worldwide packet switched service; two international switches are located in Tallinn
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3 (all AM stations inactive since July 1998), FM 82, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.01 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 31 (plus five repeaters) (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 605,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
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Estonia/Transportation|988522005
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,018 km common carrier lines only; does not include dedicated industrial lines
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 1,018 km 1.520-m gauge (132 km electrified) (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 49,480 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 10,935 km (including 75 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 38,545 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 320 km perennially navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 420 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Haapsalu, Kunda, Muuga, Paldiski, Parnu, Tallinn
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 50 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 306,264 GRT/293,083 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 3, cargo 20, combination bulk 1, container 5, petroleum tanker 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3 (1997 est.)
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Estonia/Military|988522021
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Navy/Coast Guard, Air and Air Defense Force (not officially sanctioned), Maritime Border Guard, Volunteer Defense League (Kaitseliit), Security Forces (internal and border troops)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 359,764 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 282,456 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 10,965 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $70 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY99)
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Estonia/Transnational_issues|988522041
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996 which has not been signed or ratified as of 1 January 2000
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for opiates and cannabis from Southwest Asia and the Caucasus via Russia, cocaine from Latin America to Western Europe and Scandinavia, and synthetic drugs from Western Europe to Scandinavia; possible precursor manufacturing and/or trafficking
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Ethiopia|988522201
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Ethiopia/History|988522223
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exception being the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile SALASSIE (who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was finally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty elections were held in 1995. A border war with Eritrea that erupted in May 1998 has strengthened the ruling coalition, but has hurt the nation's economy.
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Ethiopia/Geography|988522243
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Africa, west of Somalia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 8 00 N, 38 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,127,127 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,119,683 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 7,444 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,311 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Djibouti 337 km, Eritrea 912 km, Kenya 830 km, Somalia 1,626 km, Sudan 1,606 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical monsoon with wide topographic-induced variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> high plateau with central mountain range divided by Great Rift Valley
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Denakil -125 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Ras Dashen Terara 4,620 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> small reserves of gold, platinum, copper, potash, natural gas, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 22% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,900 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> geologically active Great Rift Valley susceptible to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions; frequent droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked - entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 24 May 1993
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Ethiopia/People|988522264
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 64,117,452
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 47% (male 15,167,395; female 14,977,346)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 16,195,637; female 15,987,089)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 816,011; female 973,974) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.76% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 45.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 17.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.14 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> repatriation of Ethiopians who fled to Sudan for refuge from war and famine in earlier years is expected to continue for several years; small numbers of Sudanese and Somali refugees, who fled to Ethiopia from the fighting or famine in their own countries, continue to return to their homes
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.84 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 101.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 45.17 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 44.41 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 45.94 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 7.07 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Ethiopian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Ethiopian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigre 32%, Sidamo 9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage 2%, other 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%-8%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Amharic, Tigrinya, Orominga, Guaraginga, Somali, Arabic, other local languages, English (major foreign language taught in schools)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 35.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 45.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 25.3% (1995 est.)
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Ethiopia/Government|988522287
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Ethiopia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Ityop'iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ityop'iya
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> FDRE
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> ET
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> federal republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Addis Ababa
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (astedader akababiwach, singular - astedader akabibi) and 2 chartered cities*: Addis Ababa*; Afar; Amhara, Benishangul/Gumaz; Dire Dawa*; Gambela; Harar; Oromia; Somali; Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region; Tigray
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> oldest independent country in Africa and one of the oldest in the world - at least 2,000 years
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 28 May (1991) (defeat of MENGISTU regime)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> ratified December 1994; effective 22 August 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> currently transitional mix of national and regional courts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President NEGASSO Gidada (since 22 August 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister MELES Zenawi (since NA August 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers as provided for in the December 1994 constitution; ministers are selected by the prime minister and approved by the House of People's Representatives
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the House of People's Representatives for a six-year term; election last held NA June 1995 (next to be held NA May 2001); prime minister designated by the party in power following legislative elections
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> NEGASSO Gidada elected president; percent of vote by the House of People's Representatives - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Federation or upper chamber (117 seats; members are chosen by state assemblies to serve five-year terms) and the House of People's Representatives or lower chamber (548 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote from single-member districts to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> regional and national popular elections were held in May and June 1995 (next to be held NA May 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - EPRDF 483, regional political groupings 46, independents 8; note - 11 seats unconfirmed
> <br><i>note:</i>
> many opposition groups, including the Oromo Liberation Front, boycotted the election
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Federal Supreme Court; the president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the House of People's Representatives for appointment
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> All-Amhara People's Organization or AAPO [Dr. ASRAT  Woldeyes]; Coalition of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy or CAFPD [leader NA]; Ethiopian Democratic Union or EDU [leader NA]; Ethiopian Movement for Democracy, Peace, and Unity or EMDPU [GOSHU Walde]; Ethiopian National Democratic Party or ENDP [NEBIYU Samuel, FEKADU Gedamu]; Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front or EPRDF [MELES Zenawi]; Oromo Liberation Front or OLF [GELASA Dilbo]; dozens of small parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition; numerous small, ethnically based groups have formed since the defeat of the former MENGISTU regime in 1991, including several Islamic militant groups
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador BERHANE Gebre-Christos
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2134 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-2281
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-7950
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Tibor P. NAGY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Entoto Street, Addis Ababa
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [251] (1) 550666
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [251] (1) 551328
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and red with a yellow pentagram and single yellow rays emanating from the angles between the points on a light blue disk centered on the three bands; Ethiopia is the oldest independent country in Africa, and the colors of her flag were so often adopted by other African countries upon independence that they became known as the pan-African colors
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Ethiopia/Economy|988522312
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Ethiopia's economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, 90% of exports, and 80% of total employment. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent periods of drought and poor cultivation practices, and as many as 4.6 million people need food assistance annually. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy, and Ethiopia earned $267 million in 1999 by exporting 105,000 metric tons. According to current estimates, coffee contributes 10% of Ethiopia's GDP. More than 15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector. Other exports include live animals, hides, gold, and qat. In December 1999, Ethiopia signed a $1.4 billion joint venture deal to develop a huge natural gas field in the Somali Regional State. The war with Eritrea has forced the government to spend scarce resources on the military and forced the government to scale back ambitious development plans. Foreign investment has declined significantly. Government taxes imposed in late 1999 to raise money for the war will depress an already weak economy. The war has forced the government to improve roads and other parts of the previously neglected infrastructure, but only certain regions of the nation have benefited.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $33.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $560 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 42% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture and animal husbandry 80%, government and services 12%, industry and construction 8% (1985)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.48 billion, including capital expenditures of $415 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metals processing, cement
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.36 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 7.35%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 89.34%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3.31% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.265 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseed, sugarcane, potatoes; hides, cattle, sheep, goats
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $420 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, gold, leather products, oilseeds
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 22%, Japan 12%, Italy 9%, UK 5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.25 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food and live animals, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, machinery, motor vehicles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Italy 10%, US 9%, Japan 8%, Jordan 5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $10 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $367 million (FY95/96)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 birr (Br) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> birr (Br) per US$1 (end of period) - 8.2 (January 2000), 7.5030 (1998), 6.8640 (1997), 6.4260 (1996), 6.3200 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since May 1993, the birr market rate has been determined in an interbank market supported by weekly wholesale auction; prior to that date, the official rate was pegged to US$1 = 5.000 birr
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 8 July - 7 July
------
Ethiopia/Communications|988522345
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 365,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> open wire and microwave radio relay system adequate for government use
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the HF, VHF, and UHF frequencies; two domestic satellites provide the national trunk service
> <br><i>international:</i>
> open wire to Sudan and Djibouti; microwave radio relay to Kenya and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 2 Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 0, shortwave 2 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 11.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 25 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 320,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Ethiopia/Transportation|988522365
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 681 km (Ethiopian segment of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 681 km 1.000-m gauge
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in April 1998, Djibouti and Ethiopia announced plans to revitalize the century-old railroad that links their capitals; since May 1998 Ethiopia has expended considerable effort to repair and maintain the lines
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28,500 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,275 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 24,225 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with Eritrea using the ports of Assab and Massawa; since the border dispute with Eritrea flared, Ethiopia has used the port of Djibouti for nearly all of its imports
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 84,915 GRT/112,634 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 7, container 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 85 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 74
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 35
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 19 (1999 est.)
------
Ethiopia/Military|988522384
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Air Force, Police, Militia
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Ethiopia is landlocked and has no navy; following the independence of Eritrea, Ethiopian naval facilities remained in Eritrean possession and ships which belonged to the former Ethiopian Navy and based at Djibouti have been sold
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 14,184,072 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 7,392,677 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 686,801 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $138 million (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.5% (FY98/99)
------
Ethiopia/Transnational_issues|988522399
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line; territorial dispute with Somalia over the Ogaden; dispute over alignment of boundary with Eritrea led to armed conflict in 1998, which is still unresolved despite arbitration efforts
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transit hub for heroin originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America as well as cocaine destined for markets in southern Africa; cultivates qat (chat) for local use and regional export, principally to Djibouti and Somalia
------
Countries_of_the_world|988522451
12c12
< <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Egypt]] - [[El Salvador]] - [[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Eritrea]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]]
---
> <font size=+2>E</font><br> [[Ecuador]] - [[Egypt]] - [[El Salvador]] - [[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Eritrea]] - [[Estonia]] - [[Ethiopia]] - [[Europa Island]]
------
Europa_Island|988522468
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Europa_Island/History|988522485
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Europa_Island/Geography|988522508
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from southern Madagascar to southern Mozambique
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 20 S, 40 22 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 28 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.16 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 22.2 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low and flat
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 24 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> wildlife sanctuary
------
Europa_Island/People|988522526
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is a small French military garrison (July 2000 est.)
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Europa Island
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ile Europa
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EU
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Europa_Island/People|988522549
5,20d4
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Country name:</b>
< <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
< none
< <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
< Europa Island
< <br><i>local long form:</i>
< none
< <br><i>local short form:</i>
< Ile Europa
< <p><b>Data code:</b>
< EU
< <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
< possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
< <p><b>Flag description:</b>
< the flag of France is used
------
Europa_Island/Government|988522573
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Europa Island
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ile Europa
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EU
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
> 
------
Europa_Island/Economy|988522595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b> no economic activity
------
Europa_Island/Communications|988522615
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Communications - note:</b> 1 meteorological station
------
Europa_Island/Transportation|988522630
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Europa_Island/Military|988522651
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Europa_Island/Transnational_issues|988522668
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> claimed by Madagascar
------
Countries_of_the_world|988522912
4c4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988522985
4c4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Afghanistan|988523040
4c4
<  [[Geography|Geography]]
---
>  [[/Geography|Geography]]
------
Film_History/France|988524105
14a15,16
> 
> "I'm not sure what to make of the section above--Truffaut's last film was completed in 1983, and Godard finished one last year (2000).  Do you mean that these were influential personalities during that era?  Why in that era specifically? What did they do?  Would they be as influential now, with later generations continuing to discover their work at revival houses and on video?  Also, could I add Louis Malle? ([[Au Revoir Les Enfants]], [[Damage]], [[My Dinner With Andre]])
------
Film_History/France|988524131
16c16
< "I'm not sure what to make of the section above--Truffaut's last film was completed in 1983, and Godard finished one last year (2000).  Do you mean that these were influential personalities during that era?  Why in that era specifically? What did they do?  Would they be as influential now, with later generations continuing to discover their work at revival houses and on video?  Also, could I add Louis Malle? ([[Au Revoir Les Enfants]], [[Damage]], [[My Dinner With Andre]])
---
> <i>I'm not sure what to make of the section above--Truffaut's last film was completed in 1983, and Godard finished one last year (2000).  Do you mean that these were influential personalities during that era?  Why in that era specifically? What did they do?  Would they be as influential now, with later generations continuing to discover their work at revival houses and on video?  Also, could I add Louis Malle? ([[Au Revoir Les Enfants]], [[Damage]], [[My Dinner With Andre]])</i>
------
Film_History/Germany|988524673
2a3,4
> *[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
> *[[Werner Herzog]]
4c6,7
< *[[Friedrich Murnau]]
---
> *[[Friedrich Murnau|F.W. Murnau]]
> *[[Wim Wenders]]
------
Film_History/Italy|988525067
4c4
< *[[Vitorio De Sica]]
---
> *[[Vittorio De Sica]]
8,9c8
< *[[Jacques Tati]]
< *[[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
---
> *[[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
------
Film_History/France|988525140
14a15
> *[[Jacques Tati]]
------
Film_History/Canada|988525177
1,2c1,2
< 
< *[[John Grierson]]
---
> *[[John Grierson]]
> *[[Atom Egoyan]]
------
Creutzfeld-Jacob_Disease|988540770
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence is about 2/1000000 and the disease usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and it does not contain a genetic code or genes that is required for reproduction of any living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to the other and they increase in number rapidly in the organism that they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms and their physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes the disease is a defective one with a wrong aminoacid sequence and shape, which make it impossible to be dissolved in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of the normal protein and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in the cell (a phenomenon we usually observe in zombi films). This load of proteins disrupts the cell functions and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can either be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from the parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual. 
> The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and typical electroencephalography findings. There are no treatments for the disease. 
> The new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is different from the classical type by its early onset (usually 20s), the dominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof for this association, as yet.
> There are many wrong ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers are not matching current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and probably they were suffering a completely different disorder.
------
Prion|988540948
1c1
< Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[Stanley B. Prusiner|Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
---
> Discovered in 1982 by Dr. [[Stanley B. Prusiner|Stanley B. Prusiner]] of [[UCSF]], <i>prions</i> are a class of infectious agents composed of nothing but protein.  Dr. Prusiner was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for medicine in 1997 for the discovery.  Though their exact mechanisms of action and reproduction are still unknown, it is now commonly accepted that they are responsible for a number of previously known but little-understood diseases including [[scrapie]] (a disease of sheep), [[kuru]] (a disease of human cannibals), [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]] (a neurological disorder), and [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] ("Mad Cow Disease").
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988541151
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence is about 2/1000000 and the disease usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and it does not contain a genetic code or genes that is required for reproduction of any living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to the other and they increase in number rapidly in the organism that they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms and their physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes the disease is a defective one with a wrong aminoacid sequence and shape, which make it impossible to be dissolved in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of the normal protein and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in the cell (a phenomenon we usually observe in zombi films). This load of proteins disrupts the cell functions and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can either be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from the parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual. 
> The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and typical electroencephalography findings. There are no treatments for the disease. 
> The new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is different from the classical type by its early onset (usually 20s), the dominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof for this association, as yet.
> There are many wrong ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers are not matching current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and probably they were suffering a completely different disorder.
------
Creutzfeld-Jacob_Disease|988541278
1,5c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence is about 2/1000000 and the disease usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
< The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and it does not contain a genetic code or genes that is required for reproduction of any living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to the other and they increase in number rapidly in the organism that they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms and their physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes the disease is a defective one with a wrong aminoacid sequence and shape, which make it impossible to be dissolved in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of the normal protein and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in the cell (a phenomenon we usually observe in zombi films). This load of proteins disrupts the cell functions and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can either be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from the parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual. 
< The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and typical electroencephalography findings. There are no treatments for the disease. 
< The new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is different from the classical type by its early onset (usually 20s), the dominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof for this association, as yet.
< There are many wrong ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers are not matching current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and probably they were suffering a completely different disorder.
---
> See Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
------
WikiIsNotPaper|988545004
13c13
< A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The onyl problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets to big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
---
> A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The only problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets to big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
------
Creutzfeld-Jacob_Disease|988554791
1c1
< See Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
---
> #REDIRECT  [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988558325
14c14
< <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]]
---
> <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French Guinea]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
16c16
< <font size=+2>G</font><br> [[Gabon]] - [[Gambia]] - [[Georgia]] - [[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Greece]] - [[Grenada]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guinea]] - [[Guinea-Bissau]] - [[Guyana]]
---
> <font size=+2>G</font><br> [[Gabon]] - [[Gambia]] - [[Gaza Strip]] - [[Georgia]] - [[Germany]] - [[Ghana]] - [[Gibraltar]] - [[Glorioso Islands]] - [[Greece]] - [[Greenland]] - [[Grenada]] - [[Guadaloupe]] - [[Guam]] - [[Guatemala]] - [[Guernsey]] - [[Guinea]] - [[Guinea-Bissau]] - [[Guyana]]
------
Falkland_Islands|988558435
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Falkland_Islands/History|988558501
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Discovered in the 16th century and settled in the mid-18th century, the islands have since been the subject of a territorial dispute, first between Britain and Spain, then between Britain and Argentina. The UK asserted its claim to the islands by establishing a naval garrison there in 1833. Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982. The British responded with an expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce fighting forced Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982.
------
Falkland_Islands/Geography|988558525
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern South America, islands in the South Atlantic Ocean, east of southern Argentina
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 51 45 S, 59 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,173 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 12,173 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the two main islands of East and West Falkland and about 200 small islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,288 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> cold marine; strong westerly winds, cloudy, humid; rain occurs on more than half of days in year; occasional snow all year, except in January and February, but does not accumulate
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rocky, hilly, mountainous with some boggy, undulating plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Usborne 705 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, wildlife
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 1% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> strong winds persist throughout the year
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> deeply indented coast provides good natural harbors; short growing season
------
Falkland_Islands/People|988558543
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,826 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.44% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> NA births/1,000 population
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 population
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 live births
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA years
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> NA children born/woman
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Falkland Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Falkland Island
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> British
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> primarily Anglican, Roman Catholic, United Free Church, Evangelist Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutheran, Seventh-Day Adventist
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English
------
Falkland_Islands/Government|988558566
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FA
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK, also claimed by Argentina
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Stanley
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK; also claimed by Argentina)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK; also claimed by Argentina)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Liberation Day, 14 June (1982)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 3 October 1985; amended 1997
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Governor Donald LAMONT (since NA May 1999); Chief Executive A. M. GURR (since NA); Financial Secretary D. F. HOWATT (since NA)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council; three members elected by the Legislative Council, two ex officio members (chief executive and the financial secretary), and the governor
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council (10 seats - 2 ex officio, 8 elected by popular vote, members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 9 October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 8
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, chief justice is a nonresident
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none; all independents
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ICFTU
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK; also claimed by Argentina)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK; also claimed by Argentina)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Falkland Island coat of arms in a white disk centered on the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms contains a white ram (sheep raising is the major economic activity) above the sailing ship Desire (whose crew discovered the islands) with a scroll at the bottom bearing the motto DESIRE THE RIGHT
------
Falkland_Islands/Economy|988558592
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, but today fishing contributes the bulk of economic activity. In 1987 the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year, which goes to support the island's health, education, and welfare system. Squid accounts for 75% of the fish taken. Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defense. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day; to date no exploitable site has been identified. An agreement between Argentina and the UK in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.6% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1,100 (est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 95% (mostly sheepherding and fishing)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> full employment; labor shortage
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $66.1 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $66.8 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> wool and fish processing; sale of stamps and coins
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 12 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 11 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fodder and vegetable crops; sheep, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $7.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> wool, hides, meat
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK, Japan
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $24.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuel, food and drink, building materials, clothing
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK, Japan
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Falkland pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Falkland pound per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Falkland pound is at par with the British pound
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Falkland_Islands/Communications|988558608
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> government-operated radiotelephone and private VHF/CB radiotelephone networks provide effective service to almost all points on both islands
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) with links through London to other countries
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 7, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (operated by the British Forces Broadcasting Service) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Falkland_Islands/Transportation|988558628
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 348 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 83 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 265 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Stanley
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Falkland_Islands/Military|988558650
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> British Forces Falkland Islands (includes Army, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, and Royal Marines), Police Force
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Falkland_Islands/Transnational_issues|988558682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> claimed by Argentina
------
Faroe_Islands|988558732
2c2,14
< [[Iceland]]. They are a territory of [[Denmark]]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
---
> [[Iceland]]. They are a territory of [[Denmark]]. Since approximately 1948 they have had self-government in almost all matters except defence and foreign affairs.
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Faroe_Islands/History|988558769
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The population of the Faroe Islands is largely descended from Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th century. The islands have been connected politically to Denmark since the 14th century. A high degree of self-government was attained in 1948.
------
Faroe_Islands/Geography|988558791
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, island group between the Norwegian Sea and the north Atlantic Ocean, about one-half of the way from Iceland to Norway
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 62 00 N, 7 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,399 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,399 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km (some lakes and streams)
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> eight times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,117 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> mild winters, cool summers; usually overcast; foggy, windy
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Slaettaratindur 882 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, whales, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 94% (1996)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> archipelago of 17 inhabited islands and one uninhabited island, and a few uninhabited islets; strategically located along important sea lanes in northeastern Atlantic; precipitous terrain limits habitation to small coastal lowlands
------
Faroe_Islands/People|988558812
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 45,296 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 5,233; female 5,163)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 15,270; female 13,382)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 2,788; female 3,460) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.83% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 13.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.7 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.14 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.94 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.43 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.96 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.92 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Faroese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Faroese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Scandinavian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Faroese (derived from Old Norse), Danish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> similar to Denmark proper
------
Faroe_Islands/Government|988558837
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Faroe Islands
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Foroyar
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FO
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since 1948
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Torshavn
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 5 June 1953 (Danish constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> Danish
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen MARGRETHE II of Denmark (since 14 January 1972), represented by High Commissioner Bente KLINTE, chief administrative officer (since NA)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Anfinn KALLSBERG (since 9 May 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Landsstyri elected by the Faroese Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; high commissioner appointed by the monarch; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually elected prime minister by the Faroese Parliament; election last held 30 April 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Anfinn KALLSBERG elected prime minister; percent of parliamentary vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Faroese Parliament or Logting (32 seats; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis from the seven constituencies to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 30 April 1998 (next to be held by NA July 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Republican Party 23.8%, People's Party 21.3%, Social Democratic Party 21.9%, Coalition Party (Union Party, Labor Front, Home Rule Party) 18%; seats by party - Republican Party 8, People's Party 8, Social Democratic Party 7, Coalition Party 6, other parties 3
> <br><i>note:</i>
> election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament was last held on 11 March 1998 (next to be held by NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Social Democratic Party 1, People's Party 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Center Party [Tordur NICLASEN]; Christian People's Party [Niels Pauli DANIELSEN]; Home Rule Party [Helena Dam A. NEYSTABO]; Labor Front [leader NA]; People's Party [Oli BRECKMANN]; Republican Party [Finnbogi ISAKSON]; Social Democratic Party [Joannes EIDESGAARD]; The Faroese Party [Olavur CHRISTIANSEN]; Union Party [Edmund JOENSEN]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> NC, NIB
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a red cross outlined in blue that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag)
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Faroe_Islands/Economy|988558863
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> After the severe economic troubles of the early 1990s, brought on by a drop in the vital fish catch, the Faroe Islands have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-1998. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economic base by building new fish-processing plants. Oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity. The Faroese are supported by a substantial annual subsidy from Denmark.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $700 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 6% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $16,000 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 16%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 64% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.8% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 20,500 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> largely engaged in fishing, manufacturing, transportation, commerce
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $467 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $468 million, including capital expenditures of $11 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fishing, shipbuilding, construction, handicrafts
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 186 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 53.76%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 45.7%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.54% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 173 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> milk, potatoes, vegetables; sheep; salmon, other fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $362 million (f.o.b., 1995)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish and fish products 92%, animal feedstuffs, transport equipment (ships)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Denmark 31%, UK 25%, Germany 9%, France 7%, Spain 6%, US 2% (1996)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $315.6 million (c.i.f., 1995)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment 17.0%, consumer goods 33%, raw materials and semi-manufactures 26.9%, fuels 11.4%, fish and salt 6.7%
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Denmark 33%, Norway 18%, UK 8% Germany 9%, Sweden 5%, US 2% (1996)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $767 million (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $150 million (annual subsidy from Denmark) (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1966), 5.602 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Faroe_Islands/Communications|988558880
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 22,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,558 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> good international communications; good domestic facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> digitalization was to have been completed in 1998
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 1 Orion; 1 fiber-optic submarine cable linking the Faroe Islands with Denmark and Iceland
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 26,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 7 (plus 51 low-power repeaters) (September 1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 15,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Faroe_Islands/Transportation|988558897
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 458 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 450 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 8 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Torshavn, Klaksvik, Tvoroyri, Runavik, Fuglafjorour
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 22,853 GRT/13,481 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Faroe_Islands/Military|988558913
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> no organized native military forces; only a small Police Force and Coast Guard are maintained
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Denmark
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Faroe_Islands/Transnational_issues|988558937
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Fiji|988558961
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Fiji/History|988559006
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Fiji became independent in 1970, after nearly a century as a British colony. Democratic rule was interrupted by two military coups in 1987, caused by concern over a government perceived as dominated by the Indian community (descendants of contract laborers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century). A 1990 constitution favored native Melanesian control of Fiji, but led to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority. Amendments enacted in 1997 made the constitution more equitable. Free and peaceful elections in 1999 resulted in a government led by an Indo-Fijian. Fiji has been a major contributor to UN peacekeeping missions in various parts of the world.
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Fiji/Geography|988559028
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 00 S, 175 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18,270 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 18,270 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than New Jersey
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,129 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation; rectilinear shelf claim added
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; only slight seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains of volcanic origin
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Tomanivi 1,324 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, fish, gold, copper, offshore oil potential, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 65%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 11% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cyclonic storms can occur from November to January
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> includes 332 islands of which approximately 110 are inhabited
------
Fiji/People|988559049
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 832,494 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 33% (male 141,779; female 136,212)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 263,127; female 262,686)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 13,405; female 15,285) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.41% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 23.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.78 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -3.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.45 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 67.94 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 65.54 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70.45 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.89 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Fijian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Fijian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Fijian 51% (predominantly Melanesian with a Polynesian admixture), Indian 44%, European, other Pacific Islanders, overseas Chinese, and other 5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 52% (Methodist 37%, Roman Catholic 9%), Hindu 38%, Muslim 8%, other 2%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Fijians are mainly Christian, Indians are Hindu, and there is a Muslim minority (1986)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Fijian, Hindustani
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 91.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 93.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 89.3% (1995 est.)
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Fiji/Government|988559083
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of the Fiji Islands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Fiji
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FJ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <br><i>note:</i>
> military coup leader Maj. Gen. Sitiveni RABUKA formally declared Fiji a republic on 6 October 1987
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Suva
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 4 divisions and 1 dependency*; Central, Eastern, Northern, Rotuma*, Western
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 10 October 1970 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 10 October (1970)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 10 October 1970 (suspended 1 October 1987); a new constitution was proposed on 23 September 1988 and promulgated on 25 July 1990; amended 25 July 1997 to allow nonethnic Fijians greater say in government and to make multiparty government mandatory; entered into force 28 July 1998; note - the May 1999 election was the first test of the amended constitution and introduced open voting - not racially prescribed - for the first time at the national level
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on British system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Ratu Sir Kamisese MARA (acting president since 15 December 1993, president since 12 January 1994); Vice President Ratu Josefa Iloilo ULUIVUDA (since 18 January 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Mahendra CHAUDHRY (since 18 May 1999); Deputy Prime Ministers Tupeni BABA (since NA 1999) and Adi Kuini Vuikaba SPEED (since NA 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the prime minister from among the members of Parliament and is responsible to Parliament
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Presidential Council that advises the president on matters of national importance and a Great Council of Chiefs which consists of the highest ranking members of the traditional chiefly system
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the Great Council of Chiefs for a five-year term; prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Ratu Sir Kamisese MARA elected president; percent of Great Council of Chiefs vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (32 seats; 14 appointed by the Great Council of Chiefs, nine appointed by the prime minister, eight appointed by the leader of the opposition, and one appointed by the council of Rotuma) and the House of Representatives (71 seats; 23 reserved for ethnic Fijians, 19 reserved for ethnic Indians, three reserved for other ethnic groups, one reserved for the Rotuman constituency encompassing the whole of Fiji, and 25 open; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Representatives - last held 11 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Fiji Labor Party 37, others 34
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Fellowship Party (Veitokani ni Lewenivanua Vakarisito Party) or VLV (primarily Methodist Fijian) [leader NA]; Conservative Party of Fiji or CPF [leader NA]; Fiji Conservative Party or FCP [leader NA]; Fiji Independent Labor (Muslim) [leader NA]; Fiji Indian Congress Party [leader NA]; Fiji Indian Liberal Party [leader NA]; Fiji Labor Party or FLP [Mahendra CHAUDHRY]; Fijian Association Party or FAP [Adi Kuini SPEED]; Fijian Nationalist Party or FNP [Sakeasi BUTADROKA]; Fijian Political Party or SVT (primarily Fijian) [Maj. Gen. Sitiveni RABUKA]; Four Corners Party [leader NA]; General Electors' Association [David PICKERING]; General Voters Party or GVP [Leo SMITH]; National Federation Party or NFP (primarily Indian) [Jai Ram REDDY]; National Unity Party [Apisai TORA]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in early 1995, ethnic Fijian members of the All National Congress or ANC merged with the Fijian Association or FA; the remaining members of the ANC have renamed their party the General Electors' Association
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, OPCW, PCA, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador "Ratu" Napolioni MASIREWA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 240, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-8320
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-1996
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Osman SIDDIQUE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 31 Loftus Street, Suva
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 218, Suva
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [679] 314466
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [679] 300081
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> light blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Fijian shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield depicts a yellow lion above a white field quartered by the cross of Saint George featuring stalks of sugarcane, a palm tree, bananas, and a white dove
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Fiji/Economy|988559107
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Sugar exports and a growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Roughly 300,000 tourists visit each year, including thousands of Americans following the start of regularly scheduled non-stop air service from Los Angeles. Fiji's growth slowed in 1997 because the sugar industry suffered from low world prices and rent disputes between farmers and landowners. Drought in 1998 further damaged the sugar industry, but its recovery in 1999 contributed to robust GDP growth. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 7.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 16.5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 25.5%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 58% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 235,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> subsistence agriculture 67%, wage earners 18%, salary earners 15% (1987)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $540.65 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $742.65 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, sugar, clothing, copra, gold, silver, lumber, small cottage industries
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.9% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 550 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 80%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 512 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, coconuts, cassava (tapioca), rice, sweet potatoes, bananas; cattle, pigs, horses, goats; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $393 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> sugar 32%, clothing, gold, processed fish, lumber
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia 34%, UK 18%, other Pacific island countries 11%, US 11%, NZ 5%, Japan 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $612 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, food, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia 45%, NZ 15%, Japan 7%, US 5%, Singapore 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $213 million (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $40.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Fijian dollar (F$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Fijian dollars (F$) per US$1 - 1.9654 (January 2000), 1.9696 (1999), 1.9868 (1998), 1.4437 (1997), 1.4033 (1996), 1.4063 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Fiji/Communications|988559126
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 65,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,300 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio communications center
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> access to important cable links between US and Canada as well as between NZ and Australia; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 13, FM 40, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 500,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 21,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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Fiji/Transportation|988559144
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 597 km; note - belongs to the government-owned Fiji Sugar Corporation
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 597 km 0.610-m gauge (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,440 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,692 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,748 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-metric-ton barges
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Labasa, Lautoka, Levuka, Savusavu, Suva
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 11,870 GRT/14,787 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> chemical tanker 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 25 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 17 (1999 est.)
------
Fiji/Military|988559160
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF; includes ground and naval forces)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 223,496 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 123,051 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 9,426 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $24 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.1% (FY98)
------
Fiji/Transnational_issues|988559178
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Finland|988559216
14a15,26
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Finland/History|988559304
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Ruled by Sweden from the 12th to the 19th centuries and by Russia from 1809, Finland finally won its independence in 1917. During World War II, it was able to successfully defend its freedom and fend off invasions by the Soviet Union and Germany. In the subsequent half century, the Finns have made a remarkable transformation from a farm/forest economy to a diversified modern industrial economy; per capita income is now on par with Western Europe. As a member of the European Union, Finland was the only Nordic state to join the euro system at its initiation in January 1999.
------
Finland/Geography|988559327
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, Gulf of Bothnia, and Gulf of Finland, between Sweden and Russia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 64 00 N, 26 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 337,030 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 305,470 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 31,560 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Montana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,628 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Norway 729 km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,126 km (excludes islands and coastal indentations)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 6 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm (in the Gulf of Finland - 3 nm)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> cold temperate; potentially subarctic, but comparatively mild because of moderating influence of the North Atlantic Current, Baltic Sea, and more than 60,000 lakes
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low, flat to rolling plains interspersed with lakes and low hills
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Baltic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Haltiatunturi 1,328 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 76%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 16% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 640 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> long boundary with Russia; Helsinki is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain
------
Finland/People|988559348
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,167,486 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 478,497; female 459,646)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,747,738; female 1,712,058)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 295,177; female 474,370) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.17% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 10.8 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.73 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.62 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 3.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.41 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.74 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.2 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Finn(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Finnish
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Finn 93%, Swede 6%, Lapp 0.11%, Roma 0.12%, Tatar 0.02%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran 89%, Greek Orthodox 1%, none 9%, other 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Finnish 93.4% (official), Swedish 5.9% (official), small Lapp- and Russian-speaking minorities
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100% (1980 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Finland/Government|988559375
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Finland
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Finland
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Suomen Tasavalta
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Suomi
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Helsinki
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 provinces (laanit, singular - laani); Aland, Etela-Suomen Laani, Ita-Suomen Laani, Lansi-Suomen Laani, Lappi, Oulun Laani
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 December 1917 (from Russia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 6 December (1917)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 17 July 1919
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system based on Swedish law; Supreme Court may request legislation interpreting or modifying laws; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Tarja HALONEN (since 1 March 2000)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Paavo LIPPONEN (since 13 April 1995) and Deputy Prime Minister Sauli NIINISTO (since 13 April 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of State or Valtioneuvosto appointed by the president, responsible to Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 6 February 2000 (next to be held NA February 2006); prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed from the majority party by the president after parliamentary elections
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Tarja HALONEN elected president; percent of vote - Tarja HALONEN (SDP) 51.6%, Esco AHO (Kesk) 48.4%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - SFP, Kok, Leftist Alliance (People's Democratic Union and Democratic Alternative), SFP, and Green Union
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Eduskunta (200 seats; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 21 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - SDP 22.9%, Kesk 22.5%, Kok 21.0%, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 10.9%, SFP 5.1%, Green Union 7.2%, SKL 4.2%; seats by party - SDP 51, Kesk 48, Kok 46, Leftist Alliance (Communist) 20, SFP 11, Green Union 11, SKL 10, other 3
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Korkein Oikeus, judges appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Center Party or Kesk [Esko AHO]; Ecological Party or EPV [Eugen PARKATTI]; Finnish Christian Union or SKL [C. P. Bjarne KALLIS]; Green Union [Satu HASSI]; Leftist Alliance (Communist) composed of People's Democratic League and Democratic Alternative [Claes ANDERSSON]; Liberal People's Party or LKP [Pekka RYTILA]; National Coalition (conservative) Party or Kok [Sauli NIINISTO]; Rural Party or SMP [Raimo VISTBACKA]; Social Democratic Party or SDP [Paavo LIPPONEN]; Swedish People's Party or SFP [(Johan) Ole NORRBACK]; Young Finns [Risto PENTTILA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Communist Workers Party [Timo LAHDENMAKI]; Constitutional Rightist Party; Finnish Communist Party-Unity [Yrjo HAKANEN]; Finnish Pensioners Party
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNMOP, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jaakko Tapani LAAJAVA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3301 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 298-5800
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 298-6030
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Eric EDELMAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Itainen Puistotie 14A, FIN-00140, Helsinki
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AE 09723
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [358] (9) 171931
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [358] (9) 174681
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a blue cross that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag)
------
Finland/Economy|988559395
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Finland has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy, with per capita output roughly that of the UK, France, Germany, and Italy. Its key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications, and electronics industries. Trade is important, with exports equaling more than one-third of GDP. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. The economy has come back from the recession of 1990-92, which had been caused by economic overheating, depressed foreign markets, and the dismantling of the barter system between Finland and the former Soviet Union. Rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe - Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the euro monetary system (EMU) on 1 January 1999 - will dominate the economic picture over the next several years. Growth in 2000 will probably be at the same level as in 1999, enough to continue the decline in unemployment from its current high level.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $108.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $21,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 63% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 21.6% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.533 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> public services 32%, industry 22%, commerce 14%, finance, insurance, and business services 10%, agriculture and forestry 8%, transport and communications 8%, construction 6%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $41 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $41 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> metal products, shipbuilding, pulp and paper, copper refining, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4.8% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 75.299 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 41.62%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 19.59%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 27.59%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 11.2% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 79.278 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 300 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 9.55 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cereals, sugar beets, potatoes; dairy cattle; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $43 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals; timber, paper, and pulp
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 56% (Germany 12%, UK 9%, Sweden 9%, France 5%), US 7%, Russia 6%, Japan (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $30.7 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, transport equipment, iron and steel, machinery, textile yarn and fabrics, fodder grains
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 60% (Germany 15%, Sweden 12%, UK 7%), US 8%, Russia 7%, Japan 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $30 billion (December 1993)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $379 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 markka (FMk) or Finmark = 100 pennia
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); markkaa (FMk) per US$1 - 5.3441 (1998), 5.1914 (1997), 4.5936 (1996), 4.3667 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 5.94573 markkaa per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Finland/Communications|988559413
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2.861 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,162,574 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern system with excellent service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> cable, microwave radio relay, and an extensive cellular net take provide of domestic needs
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 1 submarine cable; satellite earth stations - access to Intelsat transmission service via a Swedish satellite earth station, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Finland shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 186, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 7.7 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 130 (plus 385 repeaters) (1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.2 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 36 (1999)
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Finland/Transportation|988559436
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,865 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 5,865 km 1.524-m gauge (2,192 km electrified; 480 km double- or multiple-track) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 77,895 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 49,853 km (including 473 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 28,042 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 6,675 km total (including Saimaa Canal); 3,700 km suitable for steamers
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 580 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Hamina, Helsinki, Kokkola, Kotka, Loviisa, Oulu, Pori, Rauma, Turku, Uusikaupunki, Varkaus
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 101 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,185,966 GRT/1,153,089 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 9, cargo 23, chemical tanker 6, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 11, rail car carrier 1, roll-on/roll-off 38, short-sea passenger 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 157 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 69
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 26
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 88
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 82 (1999 est.)
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Finland/Military|988559453
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Frontier Guard (includes Sea Guard)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,262,526 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,041,795 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 34,651 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1.8 billion (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY98)
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Finland/Transnational_issues|988559474
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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France|988559529
10a11,23
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
16c29
< *[[Famous French People]]
---
> *[[Famous French People]]
------
France/History|988559552
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank as a dominant nation-state. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracy resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentary democracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of Europe, including the advent of the euro in January 1999. Today, France is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European defense and security apparatus.
------
France/Geography|988559575
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, bordering the Bay of Biscay and English Channel, between Belgium and Spain, southeast of the UK; bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Italy and Spain
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 46 00 N, 2 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 547,030 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 545,630 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,400 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes only metropolitan France, but excludes the overseas administrative divisions
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Colorado
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,889 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Andorra 56.6 km, Belgium 620 km, Germany 451 km, Italy 488 km, Luxembourg 73 km, Monaco 4.4 km, Spain 623 km, Switzerland 573 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3,427 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm (does not apply to the Mediterranean)
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat plains or gently rolling hills in north and west; remainder is mountainous, especially Pyrenees in south, Alps in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Rhone River delta -2 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Blanc 4,807 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, iron ore, bauxite, fish, timber, zinc, potash
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 18% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 16,300 sq km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding; avalanches
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> some forest damage from acid rain (major forest damage occurred as a result of severe December 1999 windstorm); air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, agricultural runoff
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> largest West European nation; occasional strong, cold, dry, north-to-northwesterly wind known as mistral
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France/People|988559600
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 59,329,691 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 19% (male 5,719,502; female 5,448,608)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 19,345,269; female 19,322,902)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 16% (male 3,849,783; female 5,643,627) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.38% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.14 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.66 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.68 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 4.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.76 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.85 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.89 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.75 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Frenchman(men), Frenchwoman(women)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> French
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, North African, Indochinese, Basque minorities
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 90%, Protestant 2%, Jewish 1%, Muslim (North African workers) 1%, unaffiliated 6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French 100%, rapidly declining regional dialects and languages (Provencal, Breton, Alsatian, Corsican, Catalan, Basque, Flemish)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1980 est.)
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France/Government|988559632
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> French Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> France
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique Francaise
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> France
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Paris
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 22 regions (regions, singular - region); Alsace, Aquitaine, Auvergne, Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne, Bretagne, Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Corse, Franche-Comte, Haute-Normandie, Ile-de-France, Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin, Lorraine, Midi-Pyrenees, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la Loire, Picardie, Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur, Rhone-Alpes
> <br><i>note:</i>
> metropolitan France is divided into 22 regions (including the "territorial collectivity" of Corse or Corsica) and is subdivided into 96 departments; see separate entries for the overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Reunion) and the overseas territorial collectivities (Mayotte, Saint Pierre and Miquelon)
> <p><b>Dependent areas:</b>
> Bassas da India, Clipperton Island, Europa Island, French Polynesia, French Southern and Antarctic Lands, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, New Caledonia, Tromelin Island, Wallis and Futuna
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the US does not recognize claims to Antarctica
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 486 (unified by Clovis)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958, amended concerning election of president in 1962, amended to comply with provisions of EC Maastricht Treaty in 1992; amended to tighten immigration laws 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system with indigenous concepts; review of administrative but not legislative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Lionel JOSPIN (since 3 June 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the suggestion of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 23 April and 7 May 1995 (next to be held by May 2002); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly majority and appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Jacques CHIRAC elected president; percent of vote, second ballot - Jacques CHIRAC (RPR) 52.64%, Lionel JOSPIN (PS) 47.36%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Parlement consists of the Senate or Senat (321 seats - 296 for metropolitan France, 13 for overseas departments and territories, and 12 for French nationals abroad; members are indirectly elected by an electoral college to serve nine-year terms; elected by thirds every three years) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (577 seats; members are elected by popular vote under a single-member majoritarian system to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held September 2001); National Assembly - last held 25 May-1 June 1997 (next to be held NA May 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 99, UDC 52, DL 47, PS 78, PCF 16, other 29; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PS 245, RPR 140, UDF 109, PCF 37, PRS 13, MEI 8, MDC 7, LDI-MPF 1, FN 1, various left 9, various right 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Appeals or Cour de Cassation, judges are appointed by the president from nominations of the High Council of the Judiciary; Constitutional Council or Conseil Constitutionnel, three members appointed by the president, three members appointed by the president of the National Assembly, and three appointed by the president of the Senate; Council of State or Conseil d'Etat
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Citizens Movement or MdC [Jean Pierre CHEVENEMENT]; Democratic Force or FD [leader NA]; Ecology Gereration or GE [Brice LALONDE]; French Communist Party or PCF [Robert HUE]; Independent Ecological Movement or MEI [Jenevieve ANDUEZA]; Left Radical Party or PRG (previously Radical Socialist Party or PRS and  the Left Radical Movement or MRG) [Jean-Michel BAYLET]; Liberal Democracy or DL (originally Republican Party or PR) [Alain MADELIN]; Movement for France or LDI-MPF [Philippe DEVILLIERS]; National Center of Independents and Peasants or CNIP [Jean PERRIN]; National Front or FN [Jean-Marie LE PEN]; National Front-National Movement [Bruno MEGRET]; Popular Party for French Democracy or PPDF [Herve de CHARETTE]; Radical Party or RRRS [Thierry CORNILLET]; Rally for the Republic or RPR [Michelle ALLIOT-MARIE]; Reformers' Movement or MR [Jean-Pierre SOISSON]; Socialist Party or PS [Francois HOLLANDE]; The Greens (Les Verts) [Jean-Luc BENNAHMIAS]; The Right (La Droite) [Charles MILLON]; Union for French Democracy or UDF (coalition of UDC, FD, RRRS, PPDF) [Francois LEOTARD]; Union of the Center or UDC [leader NA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Communist-controlled labor union (Confederation Generale du Travail) or CGT, nearly 2.4 million members (claimed); independent labor union or Force Ouvriere, 1 million members (est.); independent white-collar union or Confederation Generale des Cadres, 340,000 members (claimed); National Council of French Employers (Conseil National du Patronat Francais) or CNPF or Patronat; Socialist-leaning labor union (Confederation Francaise Democratique du Travail) or CFDT, about 800,000 members (est.)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECA (associate), ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, ESCAP, EU, FAO, FZ, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, InOC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SPC, UN, UN Security Council, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WCL, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Francois V. BUJON DE L'ESTANG
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 4101 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 944-6000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 944-6166
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Felix G. ROHATYN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 2 Avenue Gabriel, 75382 Paris Cedex 08
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 116, APO AE 09777
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [33] (1) 43-12-22-22
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [33] (1) 42 66 97 83
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Marseille, Strasbourg
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the French Tricouleur (Tricolor); the design and colors are similar to a number of other flags, including those of Belgium, Chad, Ireland, Cote d'Ivoire, and Luxembourg; the official flag for all French dependent areas
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France/Economy|988559653
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> France's economy combines modern capitalistic methods with extensive, but declining, government intervention. The government retains considerable influence over key segments of each sector, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunication firms. It has been gradually relaxing its control over these sectors since the early 1990s. The government is slowly selling off holdings in France Telecom, in Air France, and in the insurance, banking, and defense industries. Meanwhile, large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer in Western Europe. Persistently high unemployment will continue to pose a major problem for the government; a 35-hour work week is being introduced. France has shied away from cutting exceptionally generous social welfare benefits or the enormous state bureaucracy, preferring to pare defense spending and raise taxes to keep the deficit down. France joined 10 other EU members to launch the euro on 1 January 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.373 trillion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3.3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 26.1%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 70.6% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.5%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24.9% (1989)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 25.4 million (1994)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 69%, industry 26%, agriculture 5% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 11% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $325 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $360 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> steel, machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metallurgy, aircraft, electronics, mining; textiles, food processing; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 480.972 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 10.77%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 12.45%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 76.24%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.54% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 389.254 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 62 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 3.95 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, cereals, sugar beets, potatoes, wine grapes; beef, dairy products; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $304.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, iron and steel products; agricultural products, textiles and clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 63% (Germany 16%, UK 10%, Italy 9%, Spain 9%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8%), US 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $280.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil, machinery and equipment, chemicals; agricultural products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 62% (Germany 17%, Italy 10%, Belgium-Luxembourg 8%, UK 8%, Spain 7%), US 9% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $117.6 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $6.3 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 6.55957 French francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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France/Communications|988559675
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 34.86 million (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 11.078 million (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> highly developed
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> extensive cable and microwave radio relay; extensive introduction of fiber-optic cable; domestic satellite system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (with total of 5 antennas - 2 for Indian Ocean and 3 for Atlantic Ocean), NA Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 41, FM about 3,500 (this figure is an approximation and includes many repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 55.3 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 574 (plus 9,634 repeaters) (1995)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 34.8 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 128 (1999)
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France/Transportation|988559700
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 31,939 km (31,940 km are operated by French National Railways (SNCF); 14,176 km of SNCF routes are electrified and 12,132 km are double- or multiple-tracked)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 31,840 km 1.435-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 99 km 1.000-m gauge (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 893,300 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 893,300 km (including 10,300 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 14,932 km; 6,969 km heavily traveled
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 3,059 km; petroleum products 4,487 km; natural gas 24,746 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bordeaux, Boulogne, Cherbourg, Dijon, Dunkerque, La Pallice, Le Havre, Lyon, Marseille, Mullhouse, Nantes, Paris, Rouen, Saint Nazaire, Saint Malo, Strasbourg
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 55 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,155,286 GRT/1,693,030 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 3, cargo 5, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 1, container 5, liquified gas 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 16, roll-on/roll-off 6, short-sea passenger 4, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> France also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in Iles Kerguelen (French Southern and Antarctic Lands) (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 474 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 267
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 30
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 92
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 74
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 57 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 207
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 76
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 127 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
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France/Military|988559719
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (includes Marines), Navy (includes Naval Air), Air Force (includes Air Defense), National Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 14,619,317 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 12,167,421 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 402,987 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $39.831 billion (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.5% (FY97)
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France/Transnational_issues|988559743
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Madagascar claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island; Comoros claims Mayotte; Mauritius claims Tromelin Island; territorial dispute between Suriname and French Guiana; territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land); Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia claimed by France and Vanuatu
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for and consumer of South American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin
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French_Guinea|988559782
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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French_Guinea/History|988559796
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> <b>Background:</b>
> First settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana was the site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The European Space Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.
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French_Guinea/Geography|988559814
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 4 00 N, 53 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 91,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 89,150 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,850 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,183 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 378 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Bellevue de l'Inini 851 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> mostly an unsettled wilderness
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French_Guinea/People|988559834
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 172,605 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 31% (male 27,116; female 25,902)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64% (male 59,690; female 50,621)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 4,694; female 4,582) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.93% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 22.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 11.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.18 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 13.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.1 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.77 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.6 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.21 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> French Guianese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> French Guianese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black or mulatto 66%, white 12%, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian 12%, other 10%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 84%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82% (1982 est.)
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French_Guinea/Government|988559859
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Department of Guiana
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> French Guiana
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guyane
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FG
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas department of France
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Cayenne
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> French legal system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Dominique VIAN (since NA January 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the General Council Andre LECANTE (since NA March 1998); President of the Regional Council Antoine KARAM (since 22 March 1992)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; presidents of the General and Regional Councils are appointed by the members of those councils
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> General Council - last held 20-27 March 1994 (next to be held NA 2000); Regional Council - last held 15 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PSG 8, FDG 4, RPR 1, other left 2, other right 2, other 2; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - PS 28.28%, various left parties 22.56%, RPR 15.91%, independents 8.6%, Walwari Committee 6%; seats by party - PS 11, various left parties 9, RPR 6, independents 3, Walwari Committee 2
> <br><i>note:</i>
> one seat was elected to the French Senate on 27 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; 2 seats were elected to the French National Assembly on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, PSG 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action Democrate Guiana or ADG [Andre LECANTE]; Democratic and European Rally of the Senate or RDSE [leader NA]; Guianese Socialist Party or PSG [Marie-Claude VERDAN]; Guyana Democratic Forces or FDG [Georges OTHILY]; Nationalist Popular Party of Guyana (Parti Nationaliste Populaire Guiana) or PNPG [Jose DORCY]; Rally for the Republic or RPR [Roland HO-WEN-SZE]; Socialist Party or PS [Pierre RIBARDIERE] (may be a subset of PSG); Union for French Democracy or UDF [R. CHOW-CHINE]; Union of Social Democrats (Union des Socialistes Democates) or USD [Theodore ROUMILLAC] (umbrella group of RPR and UDF); Walwari Committee [Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> FZ, WCL, WFTU
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
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French_Guinea/Economy|988559881
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; rice and manioc are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1992)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 58,800 (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services, government, and commerce 60.6%, industry 21.2%, agriculture 18.2% (1980)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 21.4% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $225 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> construction, shrimp processing, forestry products, rum, gold mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 430 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, manioc (tapioca), sugar, cocoa, vegetables, bananas; cattle, pigs, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $155 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> shrimp, timber, gold, rum, rosewood essence, clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 62%, Switzerland 7%, US 2% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $625 million (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 52%, US 14%, Trinidad and Tobago 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.2 billion (1988)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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French_Guinea/Communications|988559896
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 47,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fair open wire and microwave radio relay system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 14 (including 6 repeaters), shortwave 6 (including 5 repeaters) (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 104,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 30,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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French_Guinea/Transportation|988559911
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,817 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 727 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,090 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 460 km, navigable by small oceangoing vessels and river and coastal steamers; 3,300 km navigable by native craft
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cayenne, Degrad des Cannes, Saint-Laurent du Maroni
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 11 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
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French_Guinea/Military|988559926
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French Forces, Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 48,445 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 31,367 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
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French_Guinea/Transnational_issues|988559941
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Suriname claims area between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> small amount of marijuana grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to Europe
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French_Polynesia|988559970
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
French_Polynesia/History|988559993
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The French annexed various Polynesian island groups during the 19th century. In September 1995, France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the Mururoa atoll after a three-year moratorium. The tests were suspended in January 1996.
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French_Polynesia/Geography|988560011
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from South America to Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 00 S, 140 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,167 sq km (118 islands and atolls)
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 3,660 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 507 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than one-third the size of Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,525 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical, but moderate
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Orohena 2,241 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, fish, cobalt, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 57% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional cyclonic storms in January
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> includes five archipelagoes; Makatea in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Nauru
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French_Polynesia/People|988560029
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 249,110 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30% (male 38,736; female 37,197)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 83,986; female 76,973)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 6,127; female 6,091) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.78% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 19.01 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.41 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.14 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.09 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 74.79 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.47 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.22 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.28 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> French Polynesian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> French Polynesian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Polynesian 78%, Chinese 12%, local French 6%, metropolitan French 4%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 54%, Roman Catholic 30%, other 16%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Tahitian (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 14 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1977 est.)
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French_Polynesia/Government|988560050
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of French Polynesia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> French Polynesia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Territoire de la Polynesie Francaise
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Polynesie Francaise
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FP
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of France since 1946
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Papeete
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 5 archipelagic divisions named Archipel des Marquises, Archipel des Tuamotu, Archipel des Tubuai, Iles du Vent, and Iles Sous-le-Vent
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Clipperton Island is administered by France from French Polynesia
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by High Commissioner of the Republic Paul RONCIERE (since NA 1994)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the Territorial Government of French Polynesia Gaston FLOSSE (since 4 April 1991); President of the Territorial Assembly Justin ARAPARI (since 13 May 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers; president submits a list of members of the Territorial Assembly for approval by them to serve as ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; high commissioner appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; president of the Territorial Government and the president of the Territorial Assembly are elected by the members of the assembly
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Territorial Assembly or Assemblee Territoriale (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 12 May 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 22, Independent Front for the Liberation of Polynesia 10, New Fatherland Party 5, other 4
> <br><i>note:</i>
> one seat was elected to the French Senate on 24 September 1989 (next to be held NA September 1998); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UC 1; two seats were elected to the French National Assembly on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - People's Rally for the Republic (Gaullist) 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; Court of the First Instance or Tribunal de Premiere Instance; Court of Administrative Law or Tribunal Administratif
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Centrist Union or UC [leader NA]; Entente Polynesian [Arthur CHUNG]; Haere i Mua [Alexandre LEONTIEFF]; Independent Front for the Liberation of Polynesia (Tavini Huiraatira) [Oscar TEMARU]; Independent Party (Ia Mana Te Nunaa) [Jacques DROLLET]; New Fatherland Party (Ai'a Api) [Emile VERNAUDON]; People's Rally for the Republic (Tahoeraa Huiraatira) [Gaston FLOSSE]; Polynesian Union Party (includes Te Tiarama and Pupu Here Ai'a Party) [Jean JUVENTIN]; Pupu Taina [Michel LAW]; Te Aratia Ote Nunaa (Tinomana Ebb); Te e'a No Maohi Nui [Jean-Marius RAAPOTO]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP (associate), FZ, ICFTU, SPC, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two narrow red horizontal bands encase a wide white band; centered on the white band is a disk with blue and white wave pattern on the lower half and gold and white ray pattern on the upper half; a stylized red, blue and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the French flag is used for official occasions
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French_Polynesia/Economy|988560074
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry. Tourism accounts for about one-fourth of GDP and is a primary source of hard currency earnings. The small manufacturing sector primarily processes agricultural products. The territory benefited from a five-year (1994-98) development agreement with France aimed principally at creating new jobs.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.6 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10,800 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 78% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.5% (1994)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 118,744 (of which 70,044 are employed) (1988)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 13%, industry 19%, services 68% (1997)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $900 million, including capital expenditures of $185 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, pearls, agricultural processing, handicrafts
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 360 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 59.72%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 40.28%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 335 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits; poultry, beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $212 million (f.o.b., 1996)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cultured pearls 50%, coconut products, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, shark meat (1997)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 11%, France 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $860 million (c.i.f., 1996)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuels, foodstuffs, equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 44.7%, US 13.9% (1994)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $450.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the rate of 18.18 CFPFs to the French franc
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
French_Polynesia/Communications|988560091
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 32,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 14, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 128,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 7 (plus 17 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 40,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
French_Polynesia/Transportation|988560110
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 792 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 792 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Mataura, Papeete, Rikitea, Uturoa
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,240 GRT/7,765 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1, passenger/cargo 2, refrigerated cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 45 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
------
French_Polynesia/Military|988560129
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
French_Polynesia/Transnational_issues|988560164
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands|988560190
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/History|988560205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Geography|988560225
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> south of Africa, islands in the southern Indian Ocean, about equidistant between Africa, Antarctica, and Australia; note - French Southern and Antarctic Lands includes Ile Amsterdam, Ile Saint-Paul, Iles Crozet, and Iles Kerguelen in the southern Indian Ocean, along with the French-claimed sector of Antarctica, "Adelie Land"; the US does not recognize the French claim to "Adelie Land"
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 43 00 S, 67 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Antarctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,781 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 7,781 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Ile Amsterdam, Ile Saint-Paul, Iles Crozet and Iles Kerguelen; excludes "Adelie Land" claim of about 500,000 sq km in Antarctica that is not recognized by the US
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than 1.3 times the size of Delaware
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,232 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm from Iles Kerguelen only
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> antarctic
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Ross on Iles Kerguelen 1,850 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, crayfish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul are extinct volcanoes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> remote location in the southern Indian Ocean
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/People|988560242
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in 1997, there were about 100 researchers whose numbers vary from winter (July) to summer (January) (July 2000 est.)
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Government|988560258
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> French Southern and Antarctic Lands
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Territoire des Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FS
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of France since 1955; administered from Paris by High Commissioner of the Republic Brigitte GIRARDIN (since 25 March 1998), assisted by Secretary General Jean-Yves HERMOSO (since NA)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 3 districts named Ile Crozet, Iles Kerguelen, and Iles Saint-Paul et Amsterdam; excludes "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica that is not recognized by the US
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Economy|988560275
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The fish catches landed on Iles Kerguelen by foreign ships are exported to France and Reunion.
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $18 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transportation|988560303
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 72 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,892,911 GRT/5,165,713 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 7, cargo 5, chemical tanker 10, container 9, liquified gas 6, petroleum tanker 24, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 10
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a subset of the French register allowing French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> none
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Communications|988560355
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Military|988560381
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of France
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transnational_issues|988560400
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica is not recognized by the US
------
United_States/History|988564765
1c1
< The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts.  In 1776, representatives of the thirteen North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared their independence in remarkable document authored by [[Thomas Jefferson]], the [[Declaration of Indepedence]].  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  
---
> The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts.  In 1776, representatives of the thirteen North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared their independence in remarkable document primarily authored by [[Thomas Jefferson]], the [[Declaration of Indepedence]].  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  
------
American_Revolutionary_War|988564914
1c1
< A war fought between colonial citizens in North America and the British Crown from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 Southernmost of the British American colonies as well as lightly settled territories West to the Mississippi River.
---
> A war fought between the British Crown and its colonies in North America from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 southernmost of the colonies, as well as lightly settled territories west to the Mississippi River.
3c3
< The revolution started in April 1775 when British Troops quartered in Boston attempted to seize munitions stored by colonial militias at [[Concord]], [[Massachusetts]].  Conflict spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly defeated.  Ft. Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City.
---
> The revolution started in April 1775 when British troops quartered in Boston attempted to seize munitions stored by colonial militias at [[Concord]], [[Massachusetts]].  Conflict spread and the outnumbered British garrisons in the 13 Southernmost colonies were quickly defeated.  Ft. Ticonderoga fell in May, Montreal in August.  Boston was evacuated by British troops in October.  By the end of 1775 Britain's holdings in North America had been reduced to the Canadian Maritimes and a besieged garrison at Quebec City.
------
Greek_Mythology|988569536
1c1
< The legends and religion of Hellenic (Greek) civilization (see GreekCivilization).  These stories were familiar to all ancient Greeks, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
---
> The legends and religion of Hellenic (Greek) civilization (see [[Greek Civilization]]).  These stories were familiar to all ancient Greeks, even if they did not believe them, and provided the people with both rituals and history.
5c5
< The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology (see, for example, TheIliad and TheOdyssey).  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
---
> The world of Greek mythology is expectedly difficult.  It is full of monsters, wars, intrigue, and meddling gods.  And there are heroes to help overcome these problems.  Men and women were much greater in those days, of course, though the Greeks did not see any wide gulf between their history and their mythology (see, for example, [[The Iliad]] and [[The Odyssey]]).  All in all it makes for some wonderful stories.
------
Prometheus|988570179
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Prometheus is the titan who stole fire from the gods and brought it to mortals for their use. As punishment, he was chained to a rock where a vulture would eat out his liver; it would grow back each day and the vulture would eat it again.
------
Countries_of_the_world|988573103
14c14
< <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French Guinea]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
---
> <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French_Guinea]] - [[French_Polynesia]] - [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|988573141
14c14
< <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French_Guinea]] - [[French_Polynesia]] - [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands]]
---
> <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French Guinea]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
------
Film_Directors|988573702
4a5
> :[[Jane Campion]]
36c37
< :[[George Lucas]
---
> :[[George Lucas]]
------
Spinning|988575459
20a21
>      Mineral:                 asbestos, but not very often
------
American_Revolutionary_War|988575999
5c5
< In 1776, King George III assembled the largest army seen in Western Europe since roman times and sent 75,000 troops to North America.  The colonists met in Philadelphia in June of 1776 and declared independence from England on July 4, 1776.  The colonial army proved no match for the well armed British and suffered an embarassing series of defeats in New York, and New Jersey.  By the end of 1776, Quebec, New York City and much of New Jersey were in British hands.  However, during Christmas week, general Washington who had retreated into Pennsylvania crossed the Deleware River back into New Jersey and rolled up outlying British garrisons at Trenton and Princeton.  This established a pattern that held for the rest of the war.  The British controlled the territory they occupied with major forces -- primarily New York City and Philadelphia.  The colonists controlled everything else.
---
> In 1776, King George III assembled the largest army seen in Western Europe since Roman times and sent 75,000 troops to North America.  The colonists met in Philadelphia in June of 1776 and declared independence from England on July 4, 1776.  The colonial army proved no match for the well armed British and suffered an embarassing series of defeats in New York, and New Jersey.  By the end of 1776, Quebec, New York City and much of New Jersey were in British hands.  However, during Christmas week, General Washington who had retreated into Pennsylvania crossed the Deleware River back into New Jersey and rolled up outlying British garrisons at Trenton and Princeton.  This established a pattern that held for the rest of the war.  The British controlled the territory they occupied with major forces -- primarily New York City and Philadelphia.  The colonists controlled everything else.
11c11
< In 1781, the British strategy de jour placed a force of about 7000 troops under General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Tidewater Virginia.  Accounts of what happened next are remarkably diverse -- possibly due to a desire by some American authors to minimize the French role in the events.  All sources agree that French naval forces defeated the British Navy on September 5th at the Battle of The Virginia Capes cutting off Cornwallis' supplies and transport.  A combined Colonial-French force of 16000 or 17000 troops was assembled and commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown]] on October 6, 1781.  Cornwallis position quickly became untenable.  On October 19th a substantial British Army once again surrendered to the Colonials.
---
> In 1781, the British strategy de jour placed a force of about 7000 troops under General Cornwallis at Yorktown in Tidewater Virginia.  Accounts of what happened next are remarkably diverse -- possibly due to a desire by some American authors to minimize the French role in the events.  All sources agree that French naval forces defeated the British Navy on September 5th at the Battle of the Virginia Capes cutting off Cornwallis' supplies and transport.  A combined Colonial-French force of 16000 or 17000 troops was assembled and commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown]] on October 6, 1781.  Cornwallis position quickly became untenable.  On October 19th a substantial British Army once again surrendered to the Colonials.
------
Netherlands/history|988576634
1c1
< The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
---
> The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[Ice Age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
9c9
< Through inheritance, the area became a possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
---
> Through inheritance, the area became a possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] of Spain in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
11c11
< In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brazil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
---
> In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brazil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), South Africa, St. Maarten, etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
15c15
< After the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
---
> After the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence in 1830. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
23c23
< Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands increased in wealth fast. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
---
> Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands quickly increased in wealth. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|988581391
1c1,2
< #REDIRECT [[United States/Presidents]]
---
> #REDIRECT United States/President
> 
------
PresidentOfTheUnitedStates|988581418
1c1
< #REDIRECT United States/President
---
> #REDIRECT United_States/President
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988582604
1,5c1,10
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence is about 2/1000000 and the disease usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
< The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and it does not contain a genetic code or genes that is required for reproduction of any living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to the other and they increase in number rapidly in the organism that they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms and their physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes the disease is a defective one with a wrong aminoacid sequence and shape, which make it impossible to be dissolved in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of the normal protein and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in the cell (a phenomenon we usually observe in zombi films). This load of proteins disrupts the cell functions and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can either be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from the parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual. 
< The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and typical electroencephalography findings. There are no treatments for the disease. 
< The new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is different from the classical type by its early onset (usually 20s), the dominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof for this association, as yet.
< There are many wrong ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers are not matching current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and probably they were suffering a completely different disorder.
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the deisease is about 2/1000000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
> 
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and they do not contain a genetic code or genes that are required for reproduction of any known living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to another and they increase in number rapidly in the organism to which they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms, but their normal physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob is an abnormal one with an incorrect aminoacid sequence and configuration, which make it insoluble in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of normal prions, and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
> 
> Diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and certain characteristic atypical electroencephalography findings.  Biopsy of living brain tissue is definitive.  There is no treatment for the disease. 
> 
> A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually th 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so-called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
> 
> 
> There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering a completely different disorder.
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988582651
1c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the deisease is about 2/1000000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the disease is about 2/1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou|988582886
1c1
< <b>O Brother, Where Art Thou</b> is a [[movie]] about a [[convict]] who escapes [[prision]] to stop his ex-wife from remarrying.  
---
> <b>O Brother, Where Art Thou</b> is a [[comedy]] directed by [[The Coen Brothers|Joel and Ethan Coen]] about a [[convict]] who escapes [[prision]] to stop his ex-wife from remarrying.  It stars [[George Clooney]], [[John Turturro]], [[Tim Blake Nelson]], [[John Goodman]], and [[Holly Hunter]] and is based loosely on [[The Odyssey]] by [[Homer]].
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988583823
3c3,7
< The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions. These proteins are not similar to any pathogenic microorganism (bacteria, virus etc) formerly identified and they do not contain a genetic code or genes that are required for reproduction of any known living thing. However they can still be transmitted from one animal to another and they increase in number rapidly in the organism to which they are transmitted. Prions are normal proteins that are produced in the cells of healthy organisms, but their normal physiologic function remains unknown. The prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob is an abnormal one with an incorrect aminoacid sequence and configuration, which make it insoluble in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. The defective prion protein is assumed to change the three dimensional structure of normal prions, and every changed prion affects another normal prion protein. So, the defective prion proteins increase exponentially ending with a huge load of undissolved prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
---
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions.  The term 'Prion' was first used to denote poorly understood infectious agents responsible for neurodegenerative diseases found in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. The word is derived from a combination of the words "proteinaceous infectious particle."  It refers to the hypothesis (widely discounted when first proposed) that infectious agents causing such diseases consisted only of protein, with no nucleic acids.  All pathogens known prior to that time (bacteria, viruses, etc.) contain nucleic acids, which enable reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain why the mysterious infectious agent resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids) but responded to agents that disrupt proteins. 
> 
> A breakthrough occurred when researchers discovered that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a protein like that found in the membranes of normal cells (The function of the protein is not known.) but with an altered configuration. It was hypothesized that the distorted protein bound to other proteins of the same type and induced them to change their conformation as well, producing a chain reaction that both propagated the disease and generated new infectious material. Since then, a gene for prions has been successfully cloned, and studies using genetically altered mice bolstered the prion hypothesis. The evidence in support of the hypothesis is quite strong now, but not incontrovertible. 
>  
> The prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob is one with an amino acid sequence and configuration which makes it insoluble in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. So, as the defective prion proteins increase exponentially, the process leads to a huge load of insoluble prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
------
O_Henry|988598756
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sidney Porter used the pen name of O. Henry to write his famous stories.  Set in American towns and cities early in the 20th century, the stories often have surprise endings.  His story of lovers giving gifts at great personal sacrifice (The Gift of the Magi) is a great favorite.  
> 
> 
------
Pig_latin|988598964
30a31,33
> --
> PigLatin is a spoken code.  American Blacks used the language to hide intentions from hostile overseers.  Nowadays it is taught as a game, but it helped people survive.
> 
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou|988610668
3a4,5
> 
> [[/ReviewSummaries]]
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries|988610722
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [Used by permission from [http://movies.bomis.com Bomis Movie Report] -- I ([[Jimbo Wales]]) say feel free to use anything from there on Wikipedia.]
> 
> This is great news for all the [[Coen brothers]] fans out there in internet land. A new one from the finest young American film
> makers. It's called "O Brother, Where Art Thou" and if you
> don't like it.. there must be something wrong with you, so see it
> again until you get it.
> 
> Reelviews' reviewer says he is a fan of the C-bros, but that this movie isn't among their best. It's quirky and has funny moments, but the road portion of the movie just takes too long.
> 
> [[Variety]] doesn't think it'll gross a whole hell of a lot, but they do admire the film, calling it a 'modest technical marvel'. Not too much is said about the singing, however.
> 
> The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, blues, and bluegrass dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
------
O_Brother_Where_Are_Thou/ReviewSummaries|988610740
1,12c1
< [Used by permission from [http://movies.bomis.com Bomis Movie Report] -- I ([[Jimbo Wales]]) say feel free to use anything from there on Wikipedia.]
< 
< This is great news for all the [[Coen brothers]] fans out there in internet land. A new one from the finest young American film
< makers. It's called "O Brother, Where Art Thou" and if you
< don't like it.. there must be something wrong with you, so see it
< again until you get it.
< 
< Reelviews' reviewer says he is a fan of the C-bros, but that this movie isn't among their best. It's quirky and has funny moments, but the road portion of the movie just takes too long.
< 
< [[Variety]] doesn't think it'll gross a whole hell of a lot, but they do admire the film, calling it a 'modest technical marvel'. Not too much is said about the singing, however.
< 
< The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, blues, and bluegrass dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
---
> # REDIRECT [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries]]
------
The_Coen_Brothers|988610860
1d0
< 
4c3
< :[[O Brother Where Are Thou]]
---
> :[[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]]
8a8,9
> :[[Miller's Crossing]]
> :[[Blood Simple]] (possibly the only film in history which was later rereleased in a shorter version because the director thought he should go in and "take out some of the boring parts")
------
The_Coen_Brothers|988610881
8c8
< :[[Miller's Crossing]]
---
> :[[Millers Crossing|Miller's Crossing]]
------
O_Brother_Where_Are_Thou|988611005
1,3c1
< A film made in 2000 by the [[Coen Brothers]].
< 
< /ReviewSummaries
---
> #REDIRECT [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]]
------
2000|988611030
11c11
< The latest [[Coen Brothers]] film, [[O Brother Where Are Thou]] was released to much criticial acclaim.
---
> The latest [[Coen Brothers]] film, [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]] was released to much criticial acclaim.
------
O_Brother_Where_Are_Thou/ReviewSummaries|988611118
1c1
< # REDIRECT [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries]]
------
The_Cohen_Brothers|988611219
1c1
< You are probably looking for [[The Coen Brothers]], the directors of such famous films as [[Raising Arizona]], [[O Brother Where Are Thou]], and [[The Big Lebowski]].
---
> You are probably looking for [[The Coen Brothers]], the directors of such famous films as [[Raising Arizona]], [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]], and [[The Big Lebowski]].
------
2000|988611261
11c11
< The latest [[Coen Brothers]] film, [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]] was released to much criticial acclaim.
---
> The latest [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film, [[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]] was released to much criticial acclaim.
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou|988611302
1c1
< <b>O Brother, Where Art Thou</b> is a [[comedy]] directed by [[The Coen Brothers|Joel and Ethan Coen]] about a [[convict]] who escapes [[prision]] to stop his ex-wife from remarrying.  It stars [[George Clooney]], [[John Turturro]], [[Tim Blake Nelson]], [[John Goodman]], and [[Holly Hunter]] and is based loosely on [[The Odyssey]] by [[Homer]].
---
> <b>O Brother, Where Art Thou</b> is a [[comedy]] directed by [[The Coen Brothers|Joel and Ethan Coen]] about a [[convict]] who escapes [[prison]] to stop his ex-wife from remarrying.  It stars [[George Clooney]], [[John Turturro]], [[Tim Blake Nelson]], [[John Goodman]], and [[Holly Hunter]] and is based loosely on [[The Odyssey]] by [[Homer]].
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988612128
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *1950 
> *1949 
> *1948 
> *1947 Great Expectations (B&W) // [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
> *1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W) // The Yearling (Color)
> *1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W) // <i>none given</i>
> *1944 Laura (B&W) // Wilson (Color)
> *1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W) // The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
> *1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W) // The Black Swan (Color)
> *1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W) // Blood and Sand (Color)
> *1940 Rebecca (B&W) // <i>none given</i>
> *1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W) // Gone with the Wind (Color)
> *1938 <i>none given</i>
> *1937 The Good Earth
> *1936 Anthony Adverse
> *1935 A Midsummer Night's Dream
> *1934 Cleopatra
> *1933 A Farewell to Arms
> *1932 Shanghai Express
> *1931 Tabu: A Story of the South Seas
> *1930 <i>none given</i>
> *1929 <i>none given</i>
> *1928 Sunrise
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988612433
1c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures due to rapid loss of cerebral cells from transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the disease is about 2/1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures, due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the disease is about 2/1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
5c5
< A breakthrough occurred when researchers discovered that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a protein like that found in the membranes of normal cells (The function of the protein is not known.) but with an altered configuration. It was hypothesized that the distorted protein bound to other proteins of the same type and induced them to change their conformation as well, producing a chain reaction that both propagated the disease and generated new infectious material. Since then, a gene for prions has been successfully cloned, and studies using genetically altered mice bolstered the prion hypothesis. The evidence in support of the hypothesis is quite strong now, but not incontrovertible. 
---
> A breakthrough occurred when researchers discovered that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a protein like that found in the membranes of normal cells (the precise function of which is not known) but with an altered configuration. It was hypothesized that the distorted protein bound to normal proteins of the same type and induced them to change their conformation as well, producing a chain reaction that both propagated the disease and generated new infectious material. Since the original hypothosis was proposed, a gene for prions has been successfully cloned, and studies using genetically altered mice have bolstered the prion hypothesis. The evidence in support of the hypothesis is quite strong now, but not incontrovertible. 
7c7
< The prion that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob is one with an amino acid sequence and configuration which makes it insoluble in water, while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. So, as the defective prion proteins increase exponentially, the process leads to a huge load of insoluble prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or be inherited from parents (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
---
> The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob exhibits an amino acid sequence and configuration which makes it insoluble in water - while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. So, as the numbers of defective prion proteins propogate and increase exponentially, the process leads to a huge load of insoluble prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or it can be inherited (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
11c11
< A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually th 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are estimated to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so-called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
---
> A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so-called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
13,14c13
< 
< There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the patients’ clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering a completely different disorder.
---
> There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering from a completely different disorder.
------
Black_Narcissus_Michael_Powell_Emeric_Pressburger|988612786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British film about a group of Anglican nuns who travel to a remote location in the Himalayas to set up a school and hospital, only to find themselves increasingly distracted by the beauty of their surroundings.  Tensions mount when one of the nuns develops a crush on the smug and disrespectful Englishman whom they use to communicate with the indigenous people.
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988613597
1,12c1,32
< *1950 
< *1949 
< *1948 
< *1947 Great Expectations (B&W) // [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
< *1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W) // The Yearling (Color)
< *1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W) // <i>none given</i>
< *1944 Laura (B&W) // Wilson (Color)
< *1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W) // The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
< *1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W) // The Black Swan (Color)
< *1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W) // Blood and Sand (Color)
< *1940 Rebecca (B&W) // <i>none given</i>
< *1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W) // Gone with the Wind (Color)
---
> *1970 Ryan's Daughter
> *1969 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
> *1968 Romeo and Juliet
> *1967 Bonnie & Clyde
> *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (B&W)   //   A Man for All Seasons (Color)
> *1965 Ship of Fools (B&W)   //   Doctor Zhivago (Color)
> *1964 Zorba the Greek (B&W)   //   My Fair Lady (Color)
> *1963 Hud (B&W)   //   Cleopatra (Color)
> *1962 The Longest Day (B&W)   //   Lawrence of Arabia (Color)
> *1961 The Hustler (B&W)   //   West Side Story (Color)
> *1960 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   Spartacus (Color)
> *1959 The Diary of Anne Frank (B&W)   //   Ben-Hur (Color)
> *1958 The Defiant Ones (B&W)   //   Gigi (Color)
> *1957 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   The Bridge on the River Kwai (Color)
> *1956 Somebody Up There Likes Me (B&W)   //   Around the World in 80 Days (Color)
> *1955 The Rose Tattoo (B&W)   //   To Catch a Thief (Color)
> *1954 On the Waterfront (B&W)   //   Three Coins in the Fountain (Color)
> *1953 From Here to Eternity  (B&W)   //   Shane (Color)
> *1952 The Bad and the Beautiful (B&W)   //   The Quiet Man (Color)
> *1951 A Place in the Sun (B&W)   //   An American in Paris (Color)
> *1950 The Third Man (B&W)   //   King Solomon's Mines (Color)
> *1949 Battleground (B&W)   //   She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Color)
> *1948 The Naked City (B&W)   //   Joan of Arc (Color)
> *1947 Great Expectations (B&W)  //  [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
> *1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W)  //  The Yearling (Color)
> *1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W)  //  Leave Her to Heaven
> *1944 Laura (B&W)  //  Wilson (Color)
> *1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W)  //  The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
> *1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W)  //  The Black Swan (Color)
> *1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W)  //  Blood and Sand (Color)
> *1940 Rebecca (B&W)  //  <i>none given</i> (Color)
> *1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W)  //  Gone with the Wind (Color)
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988613677
5,6c5,6
< *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (B&W)   //   A Man for All Seasons (Color)
< *1965 Ship of Fools (B&W)   //   Doctor Zhivago (Color)
---
> *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? <b>(B&W)</b>   //   A Man for All Seasons (Color)
> *1965 Ship of Fools <b>(B&W)</b>   //   Doctor Zhivago (Color)
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988613736
5,6c5,8
< *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? <b>(B&W)</b>   //   A Man for All Seasons (Color)
< *1965 Ship of Fools <b>(B&W)</b>   //   Doctor Zhivago (Color)
---
> *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (B&W)
> :A Man for All Seasons (Color)
> *1965 Ship of Fools (B&W)
> :Doctor Zhivago (Color)
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988613987
1,45c1,45
< *1970 Ryan's Daughter
< *1969 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
< *1968 Romeo and Juliet
< *1967 Bonnie & Clyde
< *1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (B&W)
< :A Man for All Seasons (Color)
< *1965 Ship of Fools (B&W)
< :Doctor Zhivago (Color)
< *1964 Zorba the Greek (B&W)   //   My Fair Lady (Color)
< *1963 Hud (B&W)   //   Cleopatra (Color)
< *1962 The Longest Day (B&W)   //   Lawrence of Arabia (Color)
< *1961 The Hustler (B&W)   //   West Side Story (Color)
< *1960 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   Spartacus (Color)
< *1959 The Diary of Anne Frank (B&W)   //   Ben-Hur (Color)
< *1958 The Defiant Ones (B&W)   //   Gigi (Color)
< *1957 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   The Bridge on the River Kwai (Color)
< *1956 Somebody Up There Likes Me (B&W)   //   Around the World in 80 Days (Color)
< *1955 The Rose Tattoo (B&W)   //   To Catch a Thief (Color)
< *1954 On the Waterfront (B&W)   //   Three Coins in the Fountain (Color)
< *1953 From Here to Eternity  (B&W)   //   Shane (Color)
< *1952 The Bad and the Beautiful (B&W)   //   The Quiet Man (Color)
< *1951 A Place in the Sun (B&W)   //   An American in Paris (Color)
< *1950 The Third Man (B&W)   //   King Solomon's Mines (Color)
< *1949 Battleground (B&W)   //   She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Color)
< *1948 The Naked City (B&W)   //   Joan of Arc (Color)
< *1947 Great Expectations (B&W)  //  [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
< *1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W)  //  The Yearling (Color)
< *1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W)  //  Leave Her to Heaven
< *1944 Laura (B&W)  //  Wilson (Color)
< *1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W)  //  The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
< *1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W)  //  The Black Swan (Color)
< *1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W)  //  Blood and Sand (Color)
< *1940 Rebecca (B&W)  //  <i>none given</i> (Color)
< *1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W)  //  Gone with the Wind (Color)
< *1938 <i>none given</i>
< *1937 The Good Earth
< *1936 Anthony Adverse
< *1935 A Midsummer Night's Dream
< *1934 Cleopatra
< *1933 A Farewell to Arms
< *1932 Shanghai Express
< *1931 Tabu: A Story of the South Seas
< *1930 <i>none given</i>
< *1929 <i>none given</i>
< *1928 Sunrise
---
> :1970 Ryan's Daughter
> :1969 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid
> :1968 Romeo and Juliet
> :1967 Bonnie & Clyde
> :1966 Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (B&W)
> ::A Man for All Seasons (Color)
> :1965 Ship of Fools (B&W)
> ::Doctor Zhivago (Color)
> :1964 Zorba the Greek (B&W)   //   My Fair Lady (Color)
> :1963 Hud (B&W)   //   Cleopatra (Color)
> :1962 The Longest Day (B&W)   //   Lawrence of Arabia (Color)
> :1961 The Hustler (B&W)   //   West Side Story (Color)
> :1960 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   Spartacus (Color)
> :1959 The Diary of Anne Frank (B&W)   //   Ben-Hur (Color)
> :1958 The Defiant Ones (B&W)   //   Gigi (Color)
> :1957 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   The Bridge on the River Kwai (Color)
> :1956 Somebody Up There Likes Me (B&W)   //   Around the World in 80 Days (Color)
> :1955 The Rose Tattoo (B&W)   //   To Catch a Thief (Color)
> :1954 On the Waterfront (B&W)   //   Three Coins in the Fountain (Color)
> :1953 From Here to Eternity  (B&W)   //   Shane (Color)
> :1952 The Bad and the Beautiful (B&W)   //   The Quiet Man (Color)
> :1951 A Place in the Sun (B&W)   //   An American in Paris (Color)
> :1950 The Third Man (B&W)   //   King Solomon's Mines (Color)
> :1949 Battleground (B&W)   //   She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Color)
> :1948 The Naked City (B&W)   //   Joan of Arc (Color)
> :1947 Great Expectations (B&W)  //  [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
> :1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W)  //  The Yearling (Color)
> :1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W)  //  Leave Her to Heaven
> :1944 Laura (B&W)  //  Wilson (Color)
> :1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W)  //  The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
> :1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W)  //  The Black Swan (Color)
> :1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W)  //  Blood and Sand (Color)
> :1940 Rebecca (B&W)  //  <i>none given</i> (Color)
> :1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W)  //  Gone with the Wind (Color)
> :1938 <i>none given</i>
> :1937 The Good Earth
> :1936 Anthony Adverse
> :1935 A Midsummer Night's Dream
> :1934 Cleopatra
> :1933 A Farewell to Arms
> :1932 Shanghai Express
> :1931 Tabu: A Story of the South Seas
> :1930 <i>none given</i>
> :1929 <i>none given</i>
> :1928 Sunrise
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|988614129
9,34c9,60
< :1964 Zorba the Greek (B&W)   //   My Fair Lady (Color)
< :1963 Hud (B&W)   //   Cleopatra (Color)
< :1962 The Longest Day (B&W)   //   Lawrence of Arabia (Color)
< :1961 The Hustler (B&W)   //   West Side Story (Color)
< :1960 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   Spartacus (Color)
< :1959 The Diary of Anne Frank (B&W)   //   Ben-Hur (Color)
< :1958 The Defiant Ones (B&W)   //   Gigi (Color)
< :1957 <i>none given</i> (B&W)   //   The Bridge on the River Kwai (Color)
< :1956 Somebody Up There Likes Me (B&W)   //   Around the World in 80 Days (Color)
< :1955 The Rose Tattoo (B&W)   //   To Catch a Thief (Color)
< :1954 On the Waterfront (B&W)   //   Three Coins in the Fountain (Color)
< :1953 From Here to Eternity  (B&W)   //   Shane (Color)
< :1952 The Bad and the Beautiful (B&W)   //   The Quiet Man (Color)
< :1951 A Place in the Sun (B&W)   //   An American in Paris (Color)
< :1950 The Third Man (B&W)   //   King Solomon's Mines (Color)
< :1949 Battleground (B&W)   //   She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Color)
< :1948 The Naked City (B&W)   //   Joan of Arc (Color)
< :1947 Great Expectations (B&W)  //  [[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
< :1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W)  //  The Yearling (Color)
< :1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W)  //  Leave Her to Heaven
< :1944 Laura (B&W)  //  Wilson (Color)
< :1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W)  //  The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
< :1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W)  //  The Black Swan (Color)
< :1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W)  //  Blood and Sand (Color)
< :1940 Rebecca (B&W)  //  <i>none given</i> (Color)
< :1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W)  //  Gone with the Wind (Color)
---
> :1964 Zorba the Greek (B&W)
> ::My Fair Lady (Color)
> :1963 Hud (B&W)
> ::Cleopatra (Color)
> :1962 The Longest Day (B&W)
> ::Lawrence of Arabia (Color)
> :1961 The Hustler (B&W)
> ::West Side Story (Color)
> :1960 <i>none given</i> (B&W)
> ::Spartacus (Color)
> :1959 The Diary of Anne Frank (B&W)
> ::Ben-Hur (Color)
> :1958 The Defiant Ones (B&W)
> ::Gigi (Color)
> :1957 <i>none given</i> (B&W)
> ::The Bridge on the River Kwai (Color)
> :1956 Somebody Up There Likes Me (B&W)
> ::Around the World in 80 Days (Color)
> :1955 The Rose Tattoo (B&W)
> ::To Catch a Thief (Color)
> :1954 On the Waterfront (B&W)
> ::Three Coins in the Fountain (Color)
> :1953 From Here to Eternity  (B&W)
> ::Shane (Color)
> :1952 The Bad and the Beautiful (B&W)
> ::The Quiet Man (Color)
> :1951 A Place in the Sun (B&W)
> ::An American in Paris (Color)
> :1950 The Third Man (B&W)
> ::King Solomon's Mines (Color)
> :1949 Battleground (B&W)
> ::She Wore a Yellow Ribbon (Color)
> :1948 The Naked City (B&W)
> ::Joan of Arc (Color)
> :1947 Great Expectations (B&W)
> ::[[Black Narcissus Michael Powell Emeric Pressburger|Black Narcissus]] (Color)
> :1946 Anna and the King of Siam (B&W)
> ::The Yearling (Color)
> :1945 Picture of Dorian Gray (B&W)
> ::Leave Her to Heaven
> :1944 Laura (B&W)
> ::Wilson (Color)
> :1943 The Song of Bernadette (B&W)
> ::The Phantom of the Opera (Color)
> :1942 Mrs. Miniver (B&W)
> ::The Black Swan (Color)
> :1941 How Green Was My Valley (B&W)
> ::Blood and Sand (Color)
> :1940 Rebecca (B&W)
> ::<i>none given</i> (Color)
> :1939 Wuthering Heights (B&W)
> ::Gone with the Wind (Color)
------
Literature|988614929
19a20
> ::The [[Hard-boiled detective novel]]
------
Literature|988614973
20c20
< ::The [[Hard-boiled detective novel]]
---
> ::The [[Detective novel/Hard-boiled|Hard-boiled detective novel]]
------
Stephen_King|988616053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner]] and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.  King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks"; the experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.  King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King]], [[The Shining]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80's work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90's work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
------
Disease|988619853
8c8
< ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysintery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, ...
---
> ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysentery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, ...
10c10
< ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
---
> ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
------
Phenylketonuria|988621342
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Phenylketonuria is a human genetic disease found in about 1 in 100 000 births, and is caused by a faulty gene for the [[enzyme]] <i>phenylalanine hydroxylase</i>. 
> 
> This enzyme normally converts the [[amino acid]] [[phenylalanine]] to [[tyrosine]]. If, due to a faulty or missing enzyme, this reaction does not take place, levels of phenylalanine in the body can be far higher than normal, and levels of tyrosine lower than normal. Excess phenylalanine in the blood harms brain development in the child, leading to mental retardation; low levels of tyrosine leads to lowered production of the pigment [[melanin]], so children with this condition tend to be fair haired and blue eyed. The excess phenylalanine is converted instead into phenylketones, which are excreted in the urine - hence the name for this condition. The sweat and urine of an affected child has a musty odour due to these ketones.
> 
> The problem is readily detectable within days of birth from a small blood sample, so screening for phenylketonuria is done routinely in most industrialised countries. If diagnosed early enough, an affected child can grow up with normal brain development, by feeding with a diet low in phenylalanine.
> 
> 
> -----
> <i>Need to check if that's the right enzyme...</i>
> 
------
Disease|988621575
10c10
< ** Cystic Fibrosis, Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
---
> ** Cystic Fibrosis, [[Homocystinuria]], Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
14a15
> * [[Endocrinology|Endocrine diseases]]
------
Disease|988622318
10c10
< ** Cystic Fibrosis, [[Homocystinuria]], Huntington's Chorea, [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], Tay-Sachs Disease, ...
---
> ** [[Cystic Fibrosis]], [[Homocystinuria]], [[Huntington's Chorea]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], [[Sickle-cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]], [[Thalassaemia]]...
------
Disease|988622363
10c10
< ** [[Cystic Fibrosis]], [[Homocystinuria]], [[Huntington's Chorea]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], [[Sickle-cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]], [[Thalassaemia]]...
---
> ** [[Cystic Fibrosis]], [[Homocystinuria]], [[Huntingtons Chorea]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], [[Sickle-cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]], [[Thalassaemia]]...
------
Paleocene|988623568
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Paleocene is a Geologic Epoch that extends from about 58 to 65 million Years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are somewhat uncertain. Note the change from [[Period]] used in the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Paleozoic]] [[Era]]s to the term [[Epoch]] for the shorter subdivisions of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].  The name Paleocene was refers to the "old(er)-new faunas that arose after the demise of the dinosaurs and prior to the emergence of modern mammalian orders in the [[Eocene]]. The Paleocene follows the [[Cretaceous]] Period and is followed by the [[Eocene]] [[Epoch]].  The Paleocene is the first [[Epoch]] of the Tertiary Era.
> 
> The end of the [[Cretaceous]]/start of the Paleocene is marked by a major, and extensively studied, extinction event. It is marked over much of the Earth by a discontinuity with high Iridium levels, and an abrupt change in flora and fauna. There is some evidence that a substantial, but very short lived, climactic change may have occurred in the very early decades of the Paleocene. Majority opinion is that the changes are related to the impact of a large extraterrestrial object in the vicinity of Yucatan. The end of the Paleocene is marked by the emergence of modern orders of mammals.
> 
> During the Paleocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.  The mid continent sea receded from North America.  Climates remained warm.
> 
> On land, plants became quite modern.  Paleocene and later plant fossils generally are attributed to modern genera or to closely related taxa.  Marine faunas also came to resemble modern faunas with only the marine mammals and the Charcharinid sharks missing.  The major area of fast faunal evolution was among the land mammals which -- largely freed from reptile competition for niches -- exploded in size and diversity during the Paleocene.
------
Bosporus|988628730
1c1
< Bosporus (Bogazici) is a strait, which separates the European part of Istanbul from the Asian part by uniting the Marmara Sea with the Black Sea. There are two bridges across the strait: Bogazici (Bosporus I) Bridge (1,074 m; completed in 1973) and the Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Bosporus II) Bridge (1,090 m, completed in 1988). Having a strategic importance for the defense of Istanbul, Ottoman sultans have constructed two castles on both sides of the strait (Anadoluhisari, Rumelihisari).
---
> Bosporus (Bogazici) is a strait, which separates the European part of [[Istanbul]] from the Asian part by uniting the [[Marmara Sea]] with the [[Black Sea]]. There are two bridges across the strait: Bogazici (Bosporus I) Bridge (1,074 m; completed in 1973) and the Fatih Sultan Mehmed (Bosporus II) Bridge (1,090 m, completed in 1988). Having a strategic importance for the defense of Istanbul, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultans have constructed two castles on both sides of the strait (Anadoluhisari, Rumelihisari).
------
Marmara_Sea|988628806
1c1
< Marmara Sea is an inland [[sea]] that separates the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Aegean Sea]] (thus Asian part of [[Turkey]] from European part) by Bosporus and Dardanelles. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (Greek of marble is marmaros).
---
> Marmara Sea is an inland [[sea]] that separates the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Aegean Sea]] (thus Asian part of [[Turkey]] from European part) by [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]]. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (''marmaros'' is the [[Greek]] word for marble).
------
Marmara_Sea|988628858
1c1
< Marmara Sea is an inland [[sea]] that separates the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Aegean Sea]] (thus Asian part of [[Turkey]] from European part) by [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]]. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of marble and gives the sea its name (''marmaros'' is the [[Greek]] word for marble).
---
> Marmara Sea is an inland [[sea]] that separates the [[Black Sea]] from the [[Aegean Sea]] (thus Asian part of [[Turkey]] from European part) by [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]]. There are two major island groups known as Prince and Marmara islands. The latter group is rich in sources of [[marble]] and gives the sea its name (''marmaros'' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for marble).
------
New_topics|988629289
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 26th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 29th April, Wikipedia server time
3,189c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook continues to dominate)
< 
< [[Adolf_Hitler/Talk]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Communications]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Economy]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Geography]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Government]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/History]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Military]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/People]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Transnational_Issues]] -- 
< [[Afghanistan/Transportation]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanCommunications]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanEconomy]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanGeography]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanMilitary]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanPeople]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanTransnationalIssues]] -- 
< [[AfghanistanTransportations]] -- 
< [[Albania/Communications]] -- 
< [[Albania/Economy]] -- 
< [[Albania/Geography]] -- 
< [[Albania/People]] -- 
< [[AlbaniaEconomy]] -- 
< [[AlbaniaGeography]] -- 
< [[AlbaniaPeople]] -- 
< [[Altaic_languages]] -- 
< [[AlwaysLeaveSomethingUndoneDebate]] -- 
< [[Austria/Language]] -- [[Cook_Island]] -- 
< [[Cardiac_arrhythmia]] -- 
< [[Computational_linguistics]] -- 
< [[Conspiracy_theory]] -- [[Spinning]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Government]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/History]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Military]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/People]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cook_Island/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Communications]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Economy]] -- [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Government]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Geography]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/History]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Military]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/People]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Coral_Sea_Islands]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Communications]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Economy]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Geography]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Government]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/History]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Military]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/People]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Costa_Rica]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/History]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Military]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/People]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cote_DIvoire]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Communications]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Economy]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Geography]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Government]] -- 
< [[Croatia/History]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Military]] -- 
< [[Croatia/People]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Croatia/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Croatia]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Government]] -- 
< [[Cuba/History]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Military]] -- 
< [[Cuba/People]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cuba/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cuba]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Communications]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Economy]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Geography]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Government]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/History]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Military]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/People]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Cyprus/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Cyprus]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Communications]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Economy]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Geography]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Government]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/History]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Military]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/People]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Czech_republic]] -- 
< [[Day_of_the_Triffids]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Government]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Military]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/People]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Communications]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Economy]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Geography]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Government]] -- 
< [[Denmark/History]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Military]] -- 
< [[Denmark/People]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Denmark/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Communications]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Economy]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Geography]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Government]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/History]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Military]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/People]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Djibouti/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Djibouti]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Communications]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Economy]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Geography]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Government]] -- 
< [[Dominica/History]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Military]] -- 
< [[Dominica/People]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Dominica/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Dominica]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Communications]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Economy]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Geography]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Government]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/History]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Military]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/People]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Dominican_Republic]] -- 
< [[Errol_Morris]] -- 
< [[Genealogy]] -- 
< [[General_relativity]] -- 
< [[Hugo_Award]] -- 
< [[Hugo_award]] -- 
< [[Hypoglycemia]] -- 
< [[Inorganic_chemistry]] -- 
< [[Insert]] -- 
< [[Integers]] -- 
< [[John_Wyndham]] -- 
< [[Jurassic]] -- 
< [[Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz]] --
< [[Law_of_physics]] -- 
< [[Laws_of_physics]] -- 
< [[Objecthood]] -- 
< [[Phonology]] -- 
< [[Point_of_View_Shot]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Communications]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Economy]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Geography]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Government]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/History]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Military]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/People]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Republic_of_the_Congo]] -- 
< [[Saint_Helena]] -- 
< [[Seasons]] -- 
< [[Symmetric_tensor]] -- 
< [[The_Thin_Blue_Line]] -- 
< [[Turkish_language]] -- 
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook moves further down the alphabet)
190a5,170
> [[Acronym/Medical_List]] -- 
> [[Attila_the_Hun]] -- 
> [[Cretaceous]] -- 
> [[Creutzfeld-Jacob_Disease]] -- 
> [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Communications]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Economy]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Geography]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Government]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/History]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Military]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/People]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Ecuador/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Ecuador]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Communications]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Economy]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Geography]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Government]] -- 
> [[Egypt/History]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Military]] -- 
> [[Egypt/People]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Egypt/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Egypt]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Communications]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Economy]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Geography]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Government]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/History]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Military]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/People]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[El_Salvador]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Communications]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Economy]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Geography]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Government]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/History]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Military]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/People]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Equatorial_Guinea]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Communications]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Economy]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Geography]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Government]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/History]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Military]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/People]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Eritrea/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Eritrea]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Government]] -- 
> [[Estonia/History]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Military]] -- 
> [[Estonia/People]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Estonia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Estonia]] -- 
> [[Ethan_Allen]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Government]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/History]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Military]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/People]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Ethiopia]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Communications]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Economy]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Geography]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Government]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/History]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Military]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/People]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Europa_Island]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Falkland_Islands]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Faroe_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Communications]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Economy]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Geography]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Government]] -- 
> [[Fiji/History]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Military]] -- 
> [[Fiji/People]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Fiji/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Fiji]] -- 
> [[Finland/Communications]] -- 
> [[Finland/Economy]] -- 
> [[Finland/Geography]] -- 
> [[Finland/Government]] -- 
> [[Finland/History]] -- 
> [[Finland/Military]] -- 
> [[Finland/People]] -- 
> [[Finland/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Finland/Transportation]] -- 
> [[France/Communications]] -- 
> [[France/Economy]] -- 
> [[France/Geography]] -- 
> [[France/Government]] -- 
> [[France/History]] -- 
> [[France/Military]] -- 
> [[France/People]] -- 
> [[France/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[France/Transportation]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Communications]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Economy]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Geography]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Government]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/History]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Military]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/People]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea/Transportation]] -- 
> [[French_Guinea]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Communications]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Economy]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Geography]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Government]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/History]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Military]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/People]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[French_Polynesia]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Communications]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Economy]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Geography]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Government]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/History]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Military]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/People]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands]] -- 
> [[Jerzy_Kosinski]] -- 
> [[Mollusca]] -- 
> [[O_Henry]] -- 
> [[Prometheus]] 
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988629531
2a3
> :[[Lolita]]
4a6
> :[[Spartacus]]
------
Lolita|988629906
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a fim by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
------
Lolita|988629930
1c1
< A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a fim by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
---
> A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|988630033
9c9
< <tr><td>arachnê</td><td>spider</td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>arakhnê</td><td>spider</td></tr>
13a14
> <tr><td>demos</td><td>people</td></tr>
25a27
> <tr><td>melanos </td><td>pigmented, black</td></tr>
30c32,33
< <tr><td>paedos </td><td>boy, child </td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>homoios</td><td>equal</td>
> <tr><td>pais </td><td>boy, child </td></tr>
34a38,39
> <tr><td>pan</td><td>
> <tr><td>peri</td><td>around</td></tr>
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|988630296
38c38
< <tr><td>pan</td><td>
---
> <tr><td>pan</td><td>all, complete</td></tr>
------
Clockwork_Orange|988630629
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Title of a book and a film: the book, entitled <i>A Clockwork Orange</i>, by [[Anthony Burgess]], was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as its anti-hero Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
> 
> 
> The film caused some controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death. 
> 
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988630717
7c7
< :[[Clockwork Orange]]
---
> :[[Clockwork Orange]] 
------
Requested_articles|988634568
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] -- [[Egypt]] -- [[Greece]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] --  [[Greece]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
11c11
< <b>Religion: </b> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
---
> <b>Religion: </b> [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
17c17
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]  -- [[Search Engine]]
---
> <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]
------
Ashmore_And_Cartier_Islands|988634798
2c2
< Politically, they are an external territory of Australia.
---
> Politically, they are now part of the Northern Territory, which is part of [[Australia]].
------
Ashmore_And_Cartier_Islands|988635880
1,2c1,2
< Two groups of small low lying unihabited islands in the Indian Ocean situated north-west of Australia and south of Indonesia. <P>
< Politically, they are now part of the Northern Territory, which is part of [[Australia]].
---
> Two groups of small low lying unihabited islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] situated north-west of Australia and south of [[Indonesia]]. <P>
> Politically, they are now part of the Northern Territory, which is part of [[Australia]].
------
The_Shining|988637634
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by [[Stephen King]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]]
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988637674
8c8
< :[[The Shining]]
---
> :[[The Shining]] 
------
Stephen_King|988637742
1c1
< Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner]] and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.  King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks"; the experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.  King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King]], [[The Shining]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80's work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90's work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
---
> Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner]]</i> and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.  King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks"; the experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.  King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King]], [[The Shining]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80's work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90's work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
------
Spartacus|988638083
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spartacus was the name of a Roman slave who led a large slave uprising.
> 
> 
> A historical novel of that name about him, by [[Howard Fast]] 
> was filmed by [[Stanley Kubrick]], starring [[Kirk Douglas]]
> 
------
Actors|988638240
20a21
> :[[Kirk Douglas]]
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|988643954
233c233
< MOLLUSCA  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them.
---
> [[MOLLUSCA]]  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them.
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Glossary|988643986
233c233
< [[MOLLUSCA]]  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them.
---
> [[Mollusca|MOLLUSCA]]  One of the great divisions of the Animal Kingdom, including those animals which have a soft body, usually furnished with a shell, and in which the nervous ganglia, or centres, present no definite general arrangement. They are generally known under the denomination of `shell-fish;' the cuttle-fish, and the common snails, whelks, oysters, mussels, and cockles, may serve as examples of them.
------
Larry_Sanger|988644058
5c5
< Has lived in many places after leaving Anchorage, especially [[Portland, Oregon]] and [[Columbus, Ohio]].  Lived [[Las Vegas]] for a few months (Jan.-April 2001).  Currently in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], and soon to reside temporarily in [[Russia]] for a few more months, specifically, [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
---
> Has lived in many places after leaving Anchorage, especially [[Portland, Oregon]] and [[Columbus, Ohio]].  Lived [[Las Vegas]] for a few months (Jan.-April 2001).  Currently in [[Izhevsk, Russia]]--see also [http://www.udm.ru/geograph.html Izhevsk, Udmurtia]; possibly [[Ireland]] after that, because Larry is a fiend for [[Irish traditional music]], who plays [[fiddle]] roughly in the [[Donegal fiddle tradition]].  Larry can move around like this because he works online.  You should be envious.  He would be if he weren't he.
92c92
< I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
---
> I pick at all pages equally, as you can see by looking at the RecentChanges log.  And I shamelessly enjoy it, too! --LMS
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries|988647812
12c12
< The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, blues, and bluegrass dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
---
> The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, [[blues]], and [[bluegrass]] dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
------
O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou/ReviewSummaries|988647860
12c12
< The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic country, [[blues]], and [[bluegrass]] dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
---
> The L.A. Times thinks the music is the real star of the film. Contemporary takes on classic [[country music|country]], [[blues]], and [[bluegrass]] dominate the soundtrack and make it perhaps 'their warmest production'. 
------
Dardanelles|988647861
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dardanelles (Turkish Çanakkale Bogazi) is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Marmara Sea]]. Just like [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates Europe (the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of Asia. The major city neighbouring the strait is Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means castle).  The strait has always had a strategic place in history (e.g. Troy was defended from this point). First the Persian army of Xerxes I and then the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade eachother’s lands. Having a vital importance for the Ottoman fleet for their domination over the eastern Mediterranean region, the strait was finally forced by the Allies during World War I.
------
Celtic_music|988648027
1c1
< The term "Celtic music" usually combines IrishTraditionalMusic with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of Scotland and the Shetland Islands; Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada; Wales; the Isle of Man; Northumberland, northern England; Brittany, northwest FrancE; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern SpaiN. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
---
> The term "Celtic music" usually combines [[Irish traditional music]] with various other TraditionalMusic''''s, including those of [[Scotland]] and the [[Shetland Islands]]; [[Cape Breton Island]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]; [[Wales]]; the [[Isle of Man]]; Northumberland, northern [[England]]; [[Brittany]], northwest [[France]]; and sometimes Galicia in northwestern [[Spain]]. The term, though widely used, is eschewed by many traditionalists.
3c3
< An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is OpenContent.
---
> An earlier version of the above article was posted on [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Irish+traditional+music/ Nupedia]. This article is Open Content.
------
Dardanelles|988648152
1c1
< Dardanelles (Turkish Çanakkale Bogazi) is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Marmara Sea]]. Just like [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates Europe (the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of Asia. The major city neighbouring the strait is Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means castle).  The strait has always had a strategic place in history (e.g. Troy was defended from this point). First the Persian army of Xerxes I and then the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade eachother’s lands. Having a vital importance for the Ottoman fleet for their domination over the eastern Mediterranean region, the strait was finally forced by the Allies during World War I.
---
> Dardanelles (Turkish: ''Çanakkale Bogazi'') is a narrow strait in northwestern [[Turkey]] connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Marmara Sea]]. Just like [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates Europe (the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of Asia. The major city neighbouring the strait is Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means castle).  The strait has always had a strategic place in history (e.g. Troy was defended from this point). First the Persian army of Xerxes I and then the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade eachother’s lands. Having a vital importance for the Ottoman fleet for their domination over the eastern Mediterranean region, the strait was finally forced by the Allies during [[World War I]].
------
Dardanelles|988648192
1c1
< Dardanelles (Turkish: ''Çanakkale Bogazi'') is a narrow strait in northwestern [[Turkey]] connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Marmara Sea]]. Just like [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates Europe (the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of Asia. The major city neighbouring the strait is Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means castle).  The strait has always had a strategic place in history (e.g. Troy was defended from this point). First the Persian army of Xerxes I and then the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade eachother’s lands. Having a vital importance for the Ottoman fleet for their domination over the eastern Mediterranean region, the strait was finally forced by the Allies during [[World War I]].
---
> Dardanelles (Turkish: ''Çanakkale Bogazi'') is a narrow strait in northwestern [[Turkey]] connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Marmara Sea]]. Just like [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates [[Europe]] (the Gallipoli peninsula) and the mainland of [[Asia]]. The major city neighbouring the strait is Çanakkale (which takes its name from its famous castles; kale means castle).  The strait has always had a strategic place in history (e.g. Troy was defended from this point). First the Persian army of Xerxes I and then the Greek army of Alexander the Great crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade eachother’s lands. Having a vital importance for the Ottoman fleet for their domination over the eastern Mediterranean region, the strait was finally forced by the Allies during [[World War I]].
------
Disease|988648276
8c8
< ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysentery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, ...
---
> ** AIDS, Cholera, Dysentery, Influenza, Tuberculosis, [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]], ...
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988648409
1c1,3
< Famous Films:
---
> '''(July 26, 1928, New York, U.S. - died March 7, 1999, Hertfordshire, England) '''
> 
> Famous [[Films|Film]]:
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988648432
3c3
< Famous [[Films|Film]]:
---
> Famous [[Film|Films]]:
------
Lolita|988648715
1c1
< A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
---
> A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It takes the point of view of a man who falls in love with a 12 year old girl, marries her mother, and when the mother dies, starts a sexual relationship with her. Despite the controversial theme of the book (or maybe because of it), it is Nabokov's most famous work and considered a literary masterpiece.
------
Aegean_Sea|988650078
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Aegean Sea (Greek Aigaion, Turkish Ege) is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea and it is located between Greek peninsula and Anatolia (Asia Minor) of Turkey. It is connected to the Marmara and Black Seas by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. As the birthplace of two ancient great civilizations (Crete and Greece), the Aegean Sea was later inhabited by Romans, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. In ancient ages, the Aegean islands have made the area the craddle of civilization and a sample model for today’s democratic states, by providing opportunity for sea travels, trade and exchange of knowledge. The combination of several diverse civilizations of Eastern Mediterranean region has thus been possible with this special geographic feature. The islands can be simply divided into seven groups: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands, the Dodecanese and Crete. 
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988652050
1c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture and seizures, due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prions]]. The incidence of the disease is about 2/1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture, and seizures due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prion]]s.  The incidence of the disease is about 2 per 1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|988652484
1c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture, and seizures due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prion]]s.  The incidence of the disease is about 2 per 1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an avarage disease onset age of 50. 
---
> A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture, and seizures due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prion]]s.  The incidence of the disease is about 2 per 1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an average disease onset age of 50. 
------
ElectricalEngineering|988657536
1,2c1,21
< Electrical Engineering may be defined as the practical application of electrical technology.  Electrical engineers
< develop, construct and test all manner of devices, from common household appliances (microwave ovens, etc.) to high tech medical imaging devices (MRI, etc.)
---
> Electrical Engineering may be defined as turning the theory of electromagnetism into practice.  As a consequence, electrical engineers develop, construct and test all manner of electrical devices.  These devices range from common household appliances, such as microwave ovens and cell phones to high tech imaging devices, such as MRI and radar.
> 
> The field of Electrical Engineering is very broad and overlaps many other engineering disciplines.  An electrical engineer is expected to knowledge in the following domains.
> 
> * Model building
> ** Measurement and Control
> ** Electrical networks
> ** Power distribution
> 
> * Information manipulation
> ** Telecommunication
> ** Signal processing
> ** Computer science
> 
> * Physics
> ** Power generation
> ** Microelectronics
> ** Electromagnetism
> ** Quantum mechanics
> 
> ----
------
Stephen_King|988658178
1c1,5
< Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner]]</i> and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.  King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks"; the experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.  King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King]], [[The Shining]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80's work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90's work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
---
> Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner|Stand By Me]]</i> and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.
> 
> King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks." The experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.
> 
> King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King|Carrie]], [[The Shining]], as well as much of the work in [[Night Shift Stephen King|Night Shift]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80s work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90s work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
------
Taxi_Driver|988660052
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1976 [[Martin Scorsese]] film in which [[Robert De Niro]] plays [[Travis Bickle]], an alienated insomniac taxi driver.  Bickle spends his spare time watching pornos in seedy theaters and driving purposelessly at night, horrified by what he sees as the moral decay around him; when a 14-year-old prostitute rushes into his cab begging him to drive away, he becomes obsessed with saving her, although she returns to her pimp and later seems uninterested in being saved.  Also stars [[Harvey Keitel]], [[Jodie Foster]], [[Cybill Shepherd]], and [[Albert Brooks]].  Scored by [[Bernard Herrmann]], noted for his work with [[Alfred Hitchcock]] (especially [[Psycho Hitchcock|Psycho]]).
------
ThrillerFilm|988660090
1c1
< :Psycho
---
> :[[Psycho Hitchcock|Psycho]]
------
Alfred_Hitchcock|988660166
9c9
< :[[Psycho]]
---
> :[[Psycho Hitchcock|Psycho]]
------
The_Shining|988660952
1c1,3
< A novel by [[Stephen King]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]]
---
> A novel by [[Stephen King]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]].  In the novel, Jack Torrance, a temperamental failed writer who had a drinking problem he's trying to forget, moves with his wife and young son to a sprawling hotel to maintain it over the winter.  The hotel apparently is haunted and seems to feed off people with psychic powers; Torrance's son, who is mildly telepathic, begins seeing ghosts and strange occurences, which, in spite of his wishes, turn out to be realp; Jack, frustrated with his inability to work, begins drinking again and becomes increasingly unstable.
> 
> King reported that he was unhappy with the filming of his work, in large part because [[Jack Nicholson]] had just finished [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest]] and he suspected that audiences would assume him crazy to begin with.  He wrote another screenplay of the novel and had it refilmed in the late 90s.
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|988661556
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|Best Direction]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Best Adapted Screenplay]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|Best Direction]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Best Adapted Screenplay]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet_Movie_Database]]. 
------
Requested_articles|988662786
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[parallax]]
------
Actinopterygii|988667039
1c1
< This group includes the ray-finned fish, the dominant group of vertebrates, ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments.  Traditionally the Actinopterygii have been divided into three grades: the Chondrostei, Holostei, and Teleostei, but the middle group has kind of gone out of style.  I don't feel like putting any details right now - a good classification was hard enough to sort out.
---
> This group includes the ray-finned fish, the dominant group of vertebrates, ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments.  Traditionally the Actinopterygii have been divided into three grades: the Chondrostei, Holostei, and Teleostei, but the middle group has kind of gone out of style.  I don't feel like putting any details right now - a good classification was hard enough to sort out.  The groups below, down to the superorder level, are arranged in what is believed to be the evolutionary sequence.
13,16c13,16
< *** [[Elopiformes]]  (tarpons, etc)
< *** [[Albuliformes]]  (bonefishes)
< *** [[Notacanthiformes]]  (spiny eels)
< *** [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels, gulpers)
---
> *** Order [[Elopiformes]]  (tarpons, etc)
> *** Order [[Albuliformes]]  (bonefishes)
> *** Order [[Notacanthiformes]]  (spiny eels)
> *** Order [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels, gulpers)
------
Parallax|988667214
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Parallax is the optical illusion that two stationary points change in position relative to each other, due to a difference in position of the person viewing same.
> 
> The two points in question will be different distances from the observer and the illusion of parallax is caused by the fact that vision, like light, follows straight lines.  When the observer views the nearer point, The line of his vision toward that point is at a given angle within the full arc of his vision.  For example let us say that the view straigh ahead is zero degrees, and one point, nearer the observer, is at minus five degrees while a point which is farther away is at minus two degrees.  The apparent angular distance between the points is a subjective three degrees to the viewer.  If the viewer moves ten meters to his right, the angular direction to the nearer object, as it is on a shorter radius, will change more than the angular direction to the farther object.  So, for instance, when the angular direction to the nearer object is at minus ten degrees, the father object may only have moved to minus three degrees.  Now the subjective angular difference in position is seven degrees.  The object appear to have moved relative to each other.
> 
> On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.
> 
> On a micro scale, the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements.  One is always cautioned in science classes to "avoid parallax."  By this it is meant that one should always take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler, so that the thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements.
------
Parallax|988667555
5c5
< On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.
---
> On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer starts are determined.
7c7
< On a micro scale, the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements.  One is always cautioned in science classes to "avoid parallax."  By this it is meant that one should always take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler, so that the thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements.
---
> On a micro scale, the thickness of a ruler can create parallax in fine measurements.  One is always cautioned in science classes to "avoid parallax."  By this it is meant that one should always take measurements with one's eye on a line directly perpendicular to the ruler, so that the thickness of the ruler does not create error in positioning for fine measurements.
------
Parallax|988667572
5c5
< On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer starts are determined.
---
> On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer [[star]]s are determined.
------
Disease|988671983
3c3
< The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, and [[prion]]s.  There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
---
> The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, fungi and [[prion]]s.  Closely related though not infectious diseases sensu stricto are pathological states caused by protoza and worms ([[parasitic diseases]]). There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
23,24c23
< ** [[Alzheimers Disease]], [[Cancer]], [[Hypoglycemia]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]], many neurological and psychiatric disorders, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Acquired [[Neuromyotonia]] (Isaac's syndrome)
< 
---
> ** [[Alzheimers Disease]], [[Cancer]], [[Hypoglycemia]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]], many neurological and psychiatric disorders, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Acquired [[Neuromyotonia]] (Isaac's syndrome)
------
Disease|988673673
3c3
< The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, fungi and [[prion]]s.  Closely related though not infectious diseases sensu stricto are pathological states caused by protoza and worms ([[parasitic diseases]]). There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
---
> The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], fungi, [[parasite]]s, [[virus]]es, and [[prion]]s.  Closely related though not infectious diseases sensu stricto are pathological states caused by protoza and worms ([[parasitic diseases]]). There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
23c23
< ** [[Alzheimers Disease]], [[Cancer]], [[Hypoglycemia]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]], many neurological and psychiatric disorders, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Acquired [[Neuromyotonia]] (Isaac's syndrome)
---
> ** [[Alzheimers Disease]], [[Cancer]], [[Hypoglycemia]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]], many neurological and psychiatric disorders, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Acquired [[Neuromyotonia]] (Isaac's syndrome)
------
Literature|988674081
1c1,2
< "Literature" refers to works of ficton (usually novels) but can also mean the written works for a particular topic.
---
> The word literature in a general sense means the collection
> of all written word about a subject.
7a9,15
> 
> However, as an art form, literature is written art: works, either
> on verse or prose, that stem from a creative process.
> 
> As with every art form, what is and is not art is matter of debate, and changes with time and space, so the listing that 
> follows doesn't mean that ''every'' work in that category is a 
> work of art.
------
Euclidean_geometry|988674307
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Geometry as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based
> on five axioms, including the fifth postulate, that states that
> through a pont outside a rect line, one and only one parallel
> rect line can pass.
> 
> The negation of that postulate gives rise to [[non-euclidean geometries]]
------
Non-euclidean_geometries|988674349
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Non-euclidean geometry]]
------
Non-euclidean_geometry|988675922
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Geometries resulting from the negation of the fifth postulate
> (see ''[[euclidean geometry]]''.
> 
> The postulate is replaced by a postulate that reads
> 
> :Through a point outside a rect line, no parallel line passes.
> 
> for one type of geometry, or
> 
> :Through a point outiside a rect line, infinite parallel lines
> pass.
------
SandBox|988676246
1,11d0
< <font name="Symbol">&Alpha;</font>
< 
<   &Alpha; &alpha;
<   &Beta; &beta;   
<   &Gamma; &gamma;  
<   &Delta; &delta; 
<   &Epsilon; &epsilon; 
<   &Zeta; &zeta;
<   &Eta; &eta; 
< 
< ------------
14,15c3
< ---------------------------------
< 
---
> ----
75a64
> 
80a70,82
>   &Alpha; &alpha;
>   &Beta; &beta;   
>   &Gamma; &gamma;  
>   &Delta; &delta; 
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon; 
>   &Zeta; &zeta;
>   &Eta; &eta; 
> 
> Infinty: &infin;
> Integral: &int;
> Pi: &pi;
> Degrees: 35&deg;
> 
113a116,117
> 
> Still don't have parens.  Guess we haven't upgreaded to 0.92 yet.
142,158c146
< Infinty: Yes
< 
< 
< &infin;
< 
< Integral:Yes
< 
< 
< &int;
< 
< 
< Pi: Yes
< 
< 
< &pi;
< 
< Degrees: Yes
---
> Test emacs-w3-mode. ?
160c148
< 35&deg;
---
> [[Some system]] testing done. Trivial.
166,168d153
< Test emacs-w3-mode. ?
< 
< [[Some system]] testing done. Trivial.
------
Metaphysics|988676862
5c5
< What might be called the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of <i>[[ontology]],</i> "the science of being <i>qua</i> being" (see the [[ontology]] article for an explanation of what this means).
---
> <BR>What might be called the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of <i>[[ontology]],</i> "the science of being <i>qua</i> being" (see the [[ontology]] article for an explanation of what this means).
6a7
> [Robert A. Heinlein], in his book <I>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</I> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <I>you are not allowed to answer the questions</I>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into religion.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <I>opinion</I>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.
28c29
< :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
---
> :[[abstract]] -- [[being]] -- [[category of being]] -- [[concrete]] ...etc.!
------
Metaphysics|988676923
5c5
< <BR>What might be called the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of <i>[[ontology]],</i> "the science of being <i>qua</i> being" (see the [[ontology]] article for an explanation of what this means).
---
> What might be called the <i>core</i> metaphysical problems would be the ones which have <i>always</i> been considered metaphysical and which have <i>never</i> been considered <i>not</i> metaphysical.  What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of <i>[[ontology]],</i> "the science of being <i>qua</i> being" (see the [[ontology]] article for an explanation of what this means).
------
Metaphysics|988676950
7c7
< [Robert A. Heinlein], in his book <I>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</I> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <I>you are not allowed to answer the questions</I>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into religion.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <I>opinion</I>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.
---
> [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <I>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</I> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <I>you are not allowed to answer the questions</I>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into religion.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <I>opinion</I>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.
------
Robert_A._Heinlein|988677037
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Probably considered the greatest [[Science Fiction]] authors of all time.  Wrote a number of books including [[Stranger in a Strange Land]], [[The Puppet Masters]], and what I consider his greatest work, [[Starship Troopers]].
------
Robert_A._Heinlein|988677057
1c1
< Probably considered the greatest [[Science Fiction]] authors of all time.  Wrote a number of books including [[Stranger in a Strange Land]], [[The Puppet Masters]], and what I consider his greatest work, [[Starship Troopers]].
---
> Probably considered the greatest [[Science Fiction]] author of all time.  Wrote a number of books including [[Stranger in a Strange Land]], [[The Puppet Masters]], and what I consider his greatest work, [[Starship Troopers]].
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Mexico|988677356
1c1
< Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation.  It is the home of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] and of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
---
> Mexico, formally the People's State of Mexico, is a poor, corrupt third-world nation. (Just as it is in this world, too!)  It is the home of the [[/San Sebastian Mines|San Sebastian Mines]] and of [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] [[/San Sebastian Line|San Sebastian Line]].  After millions of investment dollars are poured into these projects, they are nationalized by the Mexican government.
10c10
<  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
---
>  - [[/Section152|Section152]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|988677717
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2: [[Back|/Section131]] [[Forward|/Section133]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|988677753
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2: [[Back|/Section131]] [[Forward|/Section133]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2: [[/Section131|Back]] [[/Section133|Forward]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section132|988677795
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2: [[/Section131|Back]] [[/Section133|Forward]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 2:&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section131|Previous]] [[/Section133|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section133|988677845
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section132|Previous]] [[/Section134|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section133|988677860
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section132|Previous]] [[/Section134|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section132|Previous]] [[/Section141|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|988677917
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section133|Previous]] [[/Section142|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section142|988677957
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section141|Previous]] [[/Section143|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section143|988677985
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section142|Previous]] [[/Section144|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section144|988678032
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 4: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section143|Previous]] [[/Section145|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section143|988678052
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section142|Previous]] [[/Section144|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section142|Previous]] [[/Section144|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section142|988678075
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section141|Previous]] [[/Section143|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 2: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section141|Previous]] [[/Section143|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|988678115
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section133|Previous]] [[/Section142|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section133|Previous]] [[/Section142|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|988678148
2a3,4
> * Plot Summary
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|988678200
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section124|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|988678213
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section124|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section123|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|988678223
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section123|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section122|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section131|988678234
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section122|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 3, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section121|Previous]] [[/Section132|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section121|988678298
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 2, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section114|Previous]] [[/Section131|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section114|988678345
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 4: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section113|Previous]] [[/Section121|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section113|988678384
1,2c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3:
< 
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 3: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section112|Previous]] [[/Section114|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section112|988678444
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 2: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section111|Previous]] [[/Section113|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section111|988678528
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1:
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Atlas Shrugged|Previous]] [[/Section112|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section111|988679207
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[Atlas Shrugged|Previous]] [[/Section112|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 1, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Structure|Previous]] [[/Section112|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section145|988679288
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 5: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section144|Previous]] [[/Section146|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section146|988679313
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 6: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section145|Previous]] [[/Section147|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section147|988679342
0a1
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 7: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section146|Previous]] [[/Section148|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section148|988679548
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section147|Previous]] [[/Section149|Next]]
> 
5a8,9
> 
> (I would argue that the above writer is incorrect, because either in that section or later, Dagny has an argument with her brother when he mentions he tries to purchase the rail from Dan Conway, who states that not one foot of his rail will ever be sold to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].)
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section148|988679646
9c9
< (I would argue that the above writer is incorrect, because either in that section or later, Dagny has an argument with her brother when he mentions he tries to purchase the rail from Dan Conway, who states that not one foot of his rail will ever be sold to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].)
---
> (I would argue that the above writer is incorrect about this being a "plot hole", because either in that section or later, [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] has an argument with [[/James Taggart|her brother]] when he mentions he tries to purchase the rail from Dan Conway, who states in anger that not one foot of his rail will ever be sold to [[/Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].)
10a11
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section147|Previous]] [[/Section149|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section148|988679702
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section147|Previous]] [[/Section149|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section147|Previous]] [[/Section151|Next]]
11d10
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section147|Previous]] [[/Section149|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section151|988679737
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section148|Previous]] [[/Section152|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|988679766
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section151|Previous]] [[/Section153|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|988679790
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section151|Previous]] [[/Section153|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section151|Previous]] [[/Section161|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|988679822
0a1,2
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section154|Previous]] [[/Section162|Next]]
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|988679855
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section154|Previous]] [[/Section162|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section152|Previous]] [[/Section162|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|988679886
0a1
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section161|Previous]] [[/Section163|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|988679905
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section161|Previous]] [[/Section163|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section161|Previous]] [[/Section171|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|988679939
0a1
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 7, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section162|Previous]] [[/Section172|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section171|988679961
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 7, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section162|Previous]] [[/Section172|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 7, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section162|Previous]] [[/Section181|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section162|988679990
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section161|Previous]] [[/Section171|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 6, section 2: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section161|Previous]] [[/Section171|Next]]
------
Parallax|988680530
3c3
< The two points in question will be different distances from the observer and the illusion of parallax is caused by the fact that vision, like light, follows straight lines.  When the observer views the nearer point, The line of his vision toward that point is at a given angle within the full arc of his vision.  For example let us say that the view straigh ahead is zero degrees, and one point, nearer the observer, is at minus five degrees while a point which is farther away is at minus two degrees.  The apparent angular distance between the points is a subjective three degrees to the viewer.  If the viewer moves ten meters to his right, the angular direction to the nearer object, as it is on a shorter radius, will change more than the angular direction to the farther object.  So, for instance, when the angular direction to the nearer object is at minus ten degrees, the father object may only have moved to minus three degrees.  Now the subjective angular difference in position is seven degrees.  The object appear to have moved relative to each other.
---
> The two points in question will be different distances from the observer and the illusion of parallax is caused by the fact that vision, like light, follows straight lines.  When the observer views the nearer point, The line of his vision toward that point is at a given angle within the full arc of his vision.  For example let us say that the view straigh ahead is zero degrees, and one point, nearer the observer, is at minus five degrees while a point which is farther away is at minus two degrees.  The apparent angular distance between the points is a subjective three degrees to the viewer.  If the viewer moves ten meters to his right, the angular direction to the nearer object, as it is on a shorter radius, will change more than the angular direction to the farther object.  So, for instance, when the angular direction to the nearer object is at minus ten degrees, the father object may only have moved to minus three degrees.  Now the subjective angular difference in position is seven degrees.  The objects appear to have moved relative to each other.
5c5,7
< On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer [[star]]s are determined.
---
> On a macro scale, this effect is responsible for the fact that, in a moving car, one can look at distant mountains and see them seem to move (retard) in position beneath a seeminly motionless moon.  The moon is at such a distance that the subjective angular change in position relative to an earth-bound observer is extremely slight, even as many miles are covered.  The mountains, much closer, exhibit a much greater seeming change in angular position.  
> 
> On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the starts to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer [[star]]s are determined.
------
Epic_poetry|988683207
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[The Iliad]]
> *[[The Odyssey]]
------
Literature|988683567
27,28c27
< :The [[Detective novel]]
< ::The [[Detective novel/Hard-boiled|Hard-boiled detective novel]]
---
> :[[Detective fiction|Detective]]
33c32
< :The [[Gothic novel]]
---
> :[[Gothic]]
------
Science_Fiction_Film|988683871
4c4
< :[[Metropolis]], [[1926]]
---
> :[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[1927]]
------
Metropolis_Fritz_Lang|988684219
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Silent film|Silent]] science fiction film by [[Fritz Lang]] in which society has been divided into two rigid castes: one of planners, who live above the earth in wealth, and another of workers who live underground in poverty.  One of the workers ventures belowground and is astonished by what she sees; she makes efforts to reconcile the two ways of life.  Features special effects and set design that still impress audiences nearly 80 years later.
------
Silent_film|988685520
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some notable silent films, with director and year of release:
> 
> *[[Birth of a Nation]], [[DW Griffith]], 1915
> *[[Intolerance]], [[DW Griffith]], 1916
> *[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]], [[Marshall Neilan]], 1917
> *[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]], [[Robert Wiene]], 1920
> *[[Sherlock, Jr]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1924
> *[[Battleship Potemkin]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], 1925
> *[[The Gold Rush]], [[Charlie Chaplin]], 1925
> *[[Greed]], [[Erich von Stroheim]], 1925
> *[[The Lodger]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], 1926
> *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1927
> *[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[Fritz Lang]], 1927
> *[[The Passion of Joan of Arc]], [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]], 1928
> *[[Pandoras Box GW Pabst|Pandora's Box]], [[GW Pabst]], 1929
------
Film_Genres|988685606
18a19
> :[[Silent Film]]
------
Silent_film|988685634
1,15c1
< Some notable silent films, with director and year of release:
< 
< *[[Birth of a Nation]], [[DW Griffith]], 1915
< *[[Intolerance]], [[DW Griffith]], 1916
< *[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]], [[Marshall Neilan]], 1917
< *[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]], [[Robert Wiene]], 1920
< *[[Sherlock, Jr]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1924
< *[[Battleship Potemkin]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], 1925
< *[[The Gold Rush]], [[Charlie Chaplin]], 1925
< *[[Greed]], [[Erich von Stroheim]], 1925
< *[[The Lodger]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], 1926
< *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1927
< *[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[Fritz Lang]], 1927
< *[[The Passion of Joan of Arc]], [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]], 1928
< *[[Pandoras Box GW Pabst|Pandora's Box]], [[GW Pabst]], 1929
---
> #REDIRECT Silent Film
------
Silent_film|988685655
1c1,15
< #REDIRECT Silent Film
---
> Some notable silent films, with director and year of release:
> 
> *[[Birth of a Nation]], [[DW Griffith]], 1915
> *[[Intolerance]], [[DW Griffith]], 1916
> *[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]], [[Marshall Neilan]], 1917
> *[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]], [[Robert Wiene]], 1920
> *[[Sherlock, Jr]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1924
> *[[Battleship Potemkin]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], 1925
> *[[The Gold Rush]], [[Charlie Chaplin]], 1925
> *[[Greed]], [[Erich von Stroheim]], 1925
> *[[The Lodger]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], 1926
> *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]], [[Buster Keaton]], 1927
> *[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[Fritz Lang]], 1927
> *[[The Passion of Joan of Arc]], [[Carl Theodor Dreyer]], 1928
> *[[Pandoras Box GW Pabst|Pandora's Box]], [[GW Pabst]], 1929
------
Film_Genres|988685675
19c19
< :[[Silent Film]]
---
> :[[Silent film|Silent Film]]
------
Robert_A._Heinlein|988687108
1c1
< Probably considered the greatest [[Science Fiction]] author of all time.  Wrote a number of books including [[Stranger in a Strange Land]], [[The Puppet Masters]], and what I consider his greatest work, [[Starship Troopers]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Robert Heinlein]]
------
Requested_articles|988693096
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[parallax]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Requested_articles|988693126
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]] --  [[Euclidean geometry]]  -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
------
Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States|988693253
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[United States Supreme Court]]
------
Birth_of_a_Nation|988696235
3c3
< The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man. Griffith was surprised by the harsh criticism and his next major project, [[Intolerance]] tried to address the issues raised.
---
> The controversy of the film revolves around its premise of a post-Civil War America where the [[Klu Klux Klan]] successfully redeems the South from carpet baggers and evil mulattos.  Even at the time of the film's release, riots protested the film.  However, the success of the film made Griffith a wealthy man. Griffith was surprised by the harsh criticism and his next major project, [[Intolerance]] tried to address the issues raised.
------
Metaphysics|988698866
7,8d6
< [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <I>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</I> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <I>you are not allowed to answer the questions</I>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into religion.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <I>opinion</I>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.
< 
------
Robert_Heinlein|988699270
11,15c11
< This theme is taken to its furthest in the related books '[[/Time Enough For Love]]',
< '[[/The Number of the Beast]]', and '[[/To Sail Beyond the Sunset]]'.  We are left to wonder, what
< would humanity be in the absence of all customs? How would our humanity be expressed if
< we did not develop under the soul-squashing influence of culture? We would be
< individuals. We would have self-made souls.
---
> ''The themes of Heinlein's fiction''
17c13,23
< Other recurring themes uniting Heinlein's works include individual dignity and the supreme value of personal liberty, the virtue of independence, science as a liberating factor, the perniciousness of bureaucrats, the hypocrisy of organized religion and the silliness of mysticism. 
---
> The theme of self-making is taken to its furthest in the related books '[[/Time Enough For Love]]', '[[/The Number of the Beast]]', and '[[/To Sail Beyond the Sunset]]'.  We are left to wonder, what would humanity be in the absence of all customs? How would our humanity be expressed if we did not develop under the soul-squashing influence of culture? We would be individuals. We would have self-made souls.
> 
> Other recurring themes uniting Heinlein's works include individual dignity and the supreme value of personal liberty, the virtue of independence, science as a liberating factor, the perniciousness of bureaucrats, the hypocrisy of organized religion and the silliness of mysticism.
> 
> '''Heinlein's philosophy'''
> 
> As in the work of other authors, in Heinlein's work there is little clear distinction between the themes of his work and the sort of philosophical views that he propagated.
> 
> ''Heinlein was a [[libertarianism|libertarian]], wasn't he?''
> 
> In his book <I>To Sail Beyond the Sunset,</I> Heinlein has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of [[metaphysics]] is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <I>you are not allowed to answer the questions</I>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into religion.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <I>[[opinion]]</I>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.
------
Robert_Heinlein|988699287
11c11
< ''The themes of Heinlein's fiction''
---
> '''The themes of Heinlein's fiction'''
------
Euclidean_geometry|988700023
0a1
> Geometry as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based on five axioms, including the famous fifth postulate, called the "parallel postulate," that states that through a point not on a straight line, one and only one parallel line can be drawn.
2,5c3
< Geometry as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based
< on five axioms, including the fifth postulate, that states that
< through a pont outside a rect line, one and only one parallel
< rect line can pass.
---
> In the 19th century, one of the most important discoveries of mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy, was the discovery of so-called [[non-euclidean geometries]], i.e., geometries that are built on denials of the parallel postulate: either that an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or that none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  The "discovery" really consists of the discovery that these alternate geometries are logically self-consistent.
7c5
< The negation of that postulate gives rise to [[non-euclidean geometries]]
---
> It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
------
Euclidean_geometry|988700073
3c3
< In the 19th century, one of the most important discoveries of mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy, was the discovery of so-called [[non-euclidean geometries]], i.e., geometries that are built on denials of the parallel postulate: either that an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or that none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  The "discovery" really consists of the discovery that these alternate geometries are logically self-consistent.
---
> In the 19th century, one of the most important discoveries of mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy, was the discovery of so-called [[non-euclidean geometries]], i.e., geometries that are built on denials of the parallel postulate: either that an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or that none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  The "discovery" was that these alternate geometries are logically self-consistent.
------
Non-euclidean_geometry|988700157
1,12c1
< 
< Geometries resulting from the negation of the fifth postulate
< (see ''[[euclidean geometry]]''.
< 
< The postulate is replaced by a postulate that reads
< 
< :Through a point outside a rect line, no parallel line passes.
< 
< for one type of geometry, or
< 
< :Through a point outiside a rect line, infinite parallel lines
< pass.
---
> Geometries resulting from the negation of the fifth postulate (see ''[[euclidean geometry]]'').
------
Lolita|988700574
1c1
< A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It takes the point of view of a man who falls in love with a 12 year old girl, marries her mother, and when the mother dies, starts a sexual relationship with her. Despite the controversial theme of the book (or maybe because of it), it is Nabokov's most famous work and considered a literary masterpiece.
---
> A novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It takes the point of view of a man who falls in love with a 12 year old girl, marries her mother, and when the mother dies, starts a sexual relationship with the girl. Despite the controversial theme of the book (or maybe because of it), it is Nabokov's most famous work and considered a literary masterpiece.
------
Clockwork_Orange|988700693
1,5c1
< Title of a book and a film: the book, entitled <i>A Clockwork Orange</i>, by [[Anthony Burgess]], was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as its anti-hero Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
< 
< 
< The film caused some controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death. 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[A Clockwork Orange]]
------
A_Clockwork_Orange|988700706
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Title of a book and a film: the book, entitled <i>A Clockwork Orange</i>, by [[Anthony Burgess]], was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as its anti-hero Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
> 
> The film caused some controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death.
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988700824
9c9
< :[[Clockwork Orange]] 
---
> :[[A Clockwork Orange]] 
------
Protestantism|988701881
1c1
< Protestant generally trace their separation from the the Roman Catholic church in the 1500's. This is the time the most successful refomers effected a permantant, substantial break in the church. Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517. Other reformers included Zwingli, John Calvin, Hus, ...
---
> ''Protestantism'' means any of the religions (or religious sects), of Western European origin, that broke with the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] as a result of the influence of [[Martin Luther]], founder of [[Lutheranism]], and [[John Calvin]], founder of [[Calvinism]].
3c3
< Protestant's major theological differences with the Catholics include the belief in the sufficiency of faith alone for salvation, the figurative presence of Christ in the bread and wine of communion, and the lack of need for penance or indulgences.    
---
> Protestants generally trace their separation from the the Roman Catholic church to the 1500's.  This is the time the most successful refomers effected a permanent, substantial break with the church.  Luther nailed his 95 theses on the door of the church at Wittenberg in 1517, and Calvin was active a generation after him.  Other reformers included [[Ulrich Zwingli]] and [[Jan Hus]].
5c5,7
< Protestant refer to groups of churches as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church, although some denominations are less accepting of others and some are so unorthodox as to be questioned by most. All denominations consider all others to have some points of doctrine wrong. These theological differences are sometimes very small. 
---
> Protestant's major theological differences with the Catholics include the belief in the sufficiency of faith alone for salvation, the figurative (rather than real) presence of Christ in the bread and wine of communion, and the lack of need for penance or indulgences.  Generally speaking, Protestants thought and think that it is above all most important that one have a personal relationship with the divine, unmediated by a priesthood or church.
> 
> Protestants refer to particular protestantism sects as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church, although some denominations are less accepting of others and some are so unorthodox as to be questioned by most.  All denominations consider all others to have some points of doctrine wrong.  These theological differences are sometimes very small.
------
Historical_revisionism|988702021
1c1
< Historical revisionism is a type of research that aims to change people's understanding of specific historical events.  Historical revisionism thus includes legitimate historical research as well as crank theories such as [[Holocaust]] denial.
---
> Historical revisionism is a type of research that aims to change the conventional, most widely-accepted understanding of specific historical events.  Historical revisionism thus includes legitimate historical research as well as crank theories such as [[Holocaust]] denial.
3c3
< Historical revisionism is often controversial, and sometimes has the elements of a [[conspiracy theory]].  An example is the theory that [[Franklin Roosevelt]] had prior knowledge about the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and allowed it to happen.
---
> Historical revisionism is often controversial, and sometimes has the elements of a [[conspiracy theory]].  An example is the theory that [[Franklin Roosevelt]] had prior knowledge about the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and allowed it to happen.
------
Soviet_Socialist_Republics|988702107
1c1
< In its final years of existence, the [[Soviet Union]] consisted of 15 Socialist Republics, many of which are now independent countries.
---
> In its final decades of its existence, the [[Soviet Union]] consisted of 15 Socialist Republics, most of which are now independent countries, only very loosely organized under the heading [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
------
Soviet_Socialist_Republics|988702212
2a3,4
> ''What we'd like to have here is information about what was the legal/political status of a Soviet Socialist Republic vis-a-vis the central Soviet government.''
> 
------
Soviet_Socialist_Republics|988705811
3c3
< ''What we'd like to have here is information about what was the legal/political status of a Soviet Socialist Republic vis-a-vis the central Soviet government.''
---
> The USSR was a highly centralised and authoritarian entity. Under the constitution adopted in the 1930s and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the [[Soviet Union]] was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, located in [[Moscow]]. The role of the Soviets in the individual republics and other territories was primarily to put into effect the decisions made by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
19a20,24
> 
> ----
> ''What we'd like to have here is information about what was the legal/political status of a Soviet Socialist Republic vis-a-vis the central Soviet government.''
> 
> :''Any better [[LMS]]?? -- WojPob
------
Soviet_Socialist_Republics|988705850
24c24
< :''Any better [[LMS]]?? -- WojPob
---
> :''Any better [[LMS]]??'' -- WojPob
------
FilmEditing|988705907
1c1
< One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After DwGriffith's BirthofaNation and Intolerance, the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the KuleshovExperiment.)
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] and [[Intolerance]], the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the KuleshovExperiment.)
------
Silent_film|988706022
3,4c3,4
< *[[Birth of a Nation]], [[DW Griffith]], 1915
< *[[Intolerance]], [[DW Griffith]], 1916
---
> *[[Birth of a Nation]], [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]], 1915
> *[[Intolerance]], [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]], 1916
------
David_Griffith|988706414
9c9
< The Birth of a Nation (1915)
---
> [[The Birth of a Nation]] (1915)
11c11
< Intolerance (1916)
---
> [[Intolerance]] (1916)
13c13
< Broken Blossoms (1919)
---
> [[Broken Blossoms]] (1919)
15c15
< America (1924)
---
> [[America]] (1924)
17c17
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith's contributions can be categorized as [[Mise en Scene]] and editing ([[Film Editing]].). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no Point-of-View Shots.
---
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various ([[Film Editing]] techniques to film grammar.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
19c19
< Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  While highly popular at the time of its release, his film [[Birth of a Nation]] (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the [[Klu Klux Klan]] in the United States.
---
> Griffith has been a highly controversial figure.  Although popular at the time of its release, his film [[Birth of a Nation]] (1915) was also considered responsible for the resurgence of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the United States.
23c23
< Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with CrossCutting, camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced [[Birth of a Nation]], and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, [[Intolerance]] . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks]].
---
> Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright, but failed.  He soon found his way as an actor.  Finding his way into the motion picture business he soon began to direct a huge body of work.  Between 1907 and 1913 (the years he directed for the American Biograph Company), Griffith produced an astounding 450 short films.  Such output allowed him to experiment with [[Cross Cutting]], camera movement, close-ups, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  Convinced that longer films (then called "Features") could be financially viable, he became a co-founder of Triangle (1915), which produced [[Birth of a Nation]], and later, as a reaction to the criticism Birth of a Nation received, his most ambitious project, [[Intolerance]] . The film was a flop, and Triangle went bancrupt in 1917, so he went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-20). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks]].
------
David_Griffith|988706517
9c9
< [[The Birth of a Nation]] (1915)
---
> [[Birth of a Nation]] (1915)
------
David_Griffith|988706574
15c15
< [[America]] (1924)
---
> [[America David Griffith|America]] (1924)
------
KoyaanisQatsi|988708227
18a19,21
> ----
> I just wanted to say i think this is an awesome resource; i love it when i come back to an entry i made and find improvements to it, especially when there are free links added, or when a link i made to a non-existing page has been filled in.  :-D  ---KoyaanisQatsi
> 
------
FilmEditing|988708716
1c1
< One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] and [[Intolerance]], the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the KuleshovExperiment.)
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] and [[Intolerance]], the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the Kuleshov Experiment.)
------
David_Griffith|988708921
17c17
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various ([[Film Editing]] techniques to film grammar.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
---
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various ([[FilmEditing|film editing]] techniques to film grammar.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
------
David_Griffith|988708948
17c17
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various ([[FilmEditing|film editing]] techniques to film grammar.). That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
---
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various [[FilmEditing|film editing]] techniques to film grammar. That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|988710007
29a30,35
> 
> ----
> 
> As arbitrary a classification scheme as you can find: [[Historical anniversaries|This day in History]]
> 
> 
------
Historical_anniversaries|988710706
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Historical Anniversaries
> 
> Events on these particular days in history. About the most arbitrary classification scheme that could be imagined.
> 
> 
> January 
> 
> :[[/January 1|1]] [[/January 2|2]] [[/January 3|3]] [[/January 4|4]] [[/January 5|5]] [[/January 6|6]] [[/January 7|7]] [[/January 8|8]] [[/January 9|9]] [[/January 10|10]]
> :[[/January 11|11]] [[/January 12|12]] [[/January 13|13]] [[/January 14|14]] [[/January 15|15]] [[/January 16|16]] [[/January 17|17]] [[/January 18|18]] [[/January 19|19]] [[/January 20|20]]
> :[[/January 21|21]] [[/January 22|22]] [[/January 23|23]] [[/January 24|24]]  [[/January 25|25]] [[26|26]]  [[/January 27|27]]  [[/January 28|28]]  [[/January 29|29]]  [[/January 30|30]] 
> :[[/January 31|31]] 
> 
> February
> 
> :[[/February 1|1]] [[/February 2|2]] [[/February 3|3]] [[/February 4|4]] [[/February 5|5]] [[/February 6|6]] [[/February 7|7]] [[/February 8|8]] [[/February 9|9]] [[/February 10|10]]
> :[[/February 11|11]] [[/February 12|12]] [[/February 13|13]] [[/February 14|14]] [[/February 15|15]] [[/February 16|16]] [[/February 17|17]] [[/February 18|18]] [[/February 19|19]] [[/February 20|20]] 
> :[[/February 21|21]] [[/February 22|22]] [[/February 23|23]] [[/February 24|24]]  [[/February 25|25]] [[/February 26|26]]  [[/February 27|27]]  [[/February 28|28]] [[/February 29|29]]  
> 
> March 
> 
> :[[/March 1|1]] [[/March 2|2]] [[/March 3|3]] [[/March 4|4]] [[/March 5|5]] [[/March 6|6]] [[/March 7|7]] [[/March 8|8]] [[/March 9|9]] [[/March 10|10]] 
> :[[/March 11|11]] [[/March 12|12]] [[/March 13|13]] [[/March 14|14]] [[/March 15|15]] [[/March 16|16]] [[/March 17|17]] [[/March 18|18]] [[/March 19|19]] [[/March 20|20]] 
> :[[/March 21|21]] [[/March 22|22]] [[/March 23|23]] [[/March 24|24]]  [[/March 25|25]] [[/March 26|26]]  [[/March 27|27]]  [[/March 28|28]]  [[/March 29|29]]  [[/March 30|30]] 
> :[[/March 31|31]] 
> 
> April
> 
> :[[/April 1|1]] [[/April 2|2]] [[/April 3|3]] [[/April 4|4]] [[/April 5|5]] [[/April 6|6]] [[/April 7|7]] [[/April 8|8]] [[/April 9|9]] [[/April 10|10]] 
> :[[/April 11|11]] [[/April 12|12]] [[/April 13|13]] [[/April 14|14]] [[/April 15|15]] [[/April 16|16]] [[/April 17|17]] [[/April 18|18]] [[/April 19|19]] [[/April 20|20]] 
> :[[/April 21|21]] [[/April 22|22]] [[/April 23|23]] [[/April 24|24]]  [[/April 25|25]] [[/April 26|26]]  [[/April 27|27]]  [[/April 28|28]]  [[/April 29|29]]  [[/April 30|30]] 
> 
> May
> 
> :[[/May 1|1]] [[/May 2|2]] [[/May 3|3]] [[/May 4|4]] [[/May 5|5]] [[/May 6|6]] [[/May 7|7]] [[/May 8|8]] [[/May 9|9]] [[/May 10|10]] 
> :[[/May 11|11]] [[/May 12|12]] [[/May 13|13]] [[/May 14|14]] [[/May 15|15]] [[/May 16|16]] [[/May 17|17]] [[/May 18|18]] [[/May 19|19]] [[/May 20|20]] 
> :[[/May 21|21]] [[/May 22|22]] [[/May 23|23]] [[/May 24|24]]  [[/May 25|25]] 
>  [[/May 26|26]]  [[/May 27|27]]  [[/May 28|28]]  [[/May 29|29]]  [[/May 30|30]] 
> :[[/May 31|31]] 
> 
> June
> 
> :[[/June 1|1]] [[/June 2|2]] [[/June 3|3]] [[/June 4|4]] [[/June 5|5]] [[/June 6|6]] [[/June 7|7]] [[/June 8|8]] [[/June 9|9]] [[/June 10|10]] 
> :[[/June 11|11]] [[/June 12|12]] [[/June 13|13]] [[/June 14|14]] [[/June 15|15]] [[/June 16|16]] [[/June 17|17]] [[/June 18|18]] [[/June 19|19]] [[/June 20|20]] 
> :[[/June 21|21]] [[/June 22|22]] [[/June 23|23]] [[/June 24|24]]  [[/June 25|25]] 
>  [[/June 26|26]]  [[/June 27|27]]  [[/June 28|28]]  [[/June 29|29]]  [[/June 30|30]]
> 
> July 
> 
> [[/July 1|1]] [[/July 2|2]] [[/July 3|3]] [[/July 4|4]] [[/July 5|5]] [[/July 6|6]] [[/July 7|7]] [[/July 8|8]] [[/July 9|9]] [[/July 10|10]] 
> :[[/July 11|11]] [[/July 12|12]] [[/July 13|13]] [[/July 14|14]] [[/July 15|15]] [[/July 16|16]] [[/July 17|17]] [[/July 18|18]] [[/July 19|19]] [[/July 20|20]] 
> :[[/July 21|21]] [[/July 22|22]] [[/July 23|23]] [[/July 24|24]]  [[/July 25|25]] [[/July 26|26]]  [[/July 27|27]]  [[/July 28|28]]  [[/July 29|29]]  [[/July 30|30]]  
> :[[/July 31|31]] 
> 
> August
> 
> :[[/August 1|1]] [[/August 2|2]] [[/August 3|3]] [[/August 4|4]] [[/August 5|5]] [[/August 6|6]] [[/August 7|7]] [[/August 8|8]] [[/August 9|9]] [[/August 10|10]] 
> :[[/August 11|11]] [[/August 12|12]] [[/August 13|13]] [[/August 14|14]] [[/August 15|15]] [[/August 16|16]] [[/August 17|17]] [[/August 18|18]] [[/August 19|19]] [[/August 20|20]] 
> :[[/August 21|21]] [[/August 22|22]] [[/August 23|23] [[/August 24|24]]  [[/August 25|25]]  [[/August 26|26]]  [[/August 27|27]]  [[/August 28|28]]  [[/August 29|29]]  [[/August 30|30]]  :[[/August 31|31]] 
> 
> September
> 
> :[[/September 1|1]] [[/September 2|2]] [[/September 3|3]] [[/September 4|4]] [[/September 5|5]] [[/September 6|6]] [[/September 7|7]] [[/September 8|8]] [[/September 9|9]] [[/September 10|10]] [[/September 11|11]] [[/September 12|12]] [[/September 13|13]] [[/September 14|14]] [[/September 15|15]] [[/September 16|16]] [[/September 17|17]] [[/September 18|18]] [[/September 19|19]] [[/September 20|20]] [[/September 21|21]] [[/September 22|22]] [[/September 23|23] [[/September 24|24]]  [[/September 25|25]] 
>  [[/September 26|26]]  [[/September 27|27]]  [[/September 28|28]]  [[/September 29|29]]  [[/September 30|30]]
> 
> October
> 
> [[/October 1|1]] [[/October 2|2]] [[/October 3|3]] [[/October 4|4]] [[/October 5|5]] [[/October 6|6]] [[/October 7|7]] [[/October 8|8]] [[/October 9|9]] [[/October 10|10]] [[/October 11|11]] [[/October 12|12]] [[/October 13|13]] [[/October 14|14]] [[/October 15|15]] [[/October 16|16]] [[/October 17|17]] [[/October 18|18]] [[/October 19|19]] [[/October 20|20]] [[/October 21|21]] [[/October 22|22]] [[/October 23|23] [[/October 24|24]]  [[/October 25|25]] 
>  [[/October 26|26]]  [[/October 27|27]]  [[/October 28|28]]  [[/October 29|29]]  [[/October 30|30]]  [[/October 31|31]] 
> 
> November
> 
> [[/November 1|1]] [[/November 2|2]] [[/November 3|3]] [[/November 4|4]] [[/November 5|5]] [[/November 6|6]] [[/November 7|7]] [[/November 8|8]] [[/November 9|9]] [[/November 10|10]] [[/November 11|11]] [[/November 12|12]] [[/November 13|13]] [[/November 14|14]] [[/November 15|15]] [[/November 16|16]] [[/November 17|17]] [[/November 18|18]] [[/November 19|19]] [[/November 20|20]] [[/November 21|21]] [[/November 22|22]] [[/November 23|23] [[/November 24|24]]  [[/November 25|25]] 
>  [[/November 26|26]]  [[/November 27|27]]  [[/November 28|28]]  [[/November 29|29]]  [[/November 30|30]] 
> 
> 
> December
> [[/December 1|1]] [[/December 2|2]] [[/December 3|3]] [[/December 4|4]] [[/December 5|5]] [[/December 6|6]] [[/December 7|7]] [[/December 8|8]] [[/December 9|9]] [[/December 10|10]] [[/December 11|11]] [[/December 12|12]] [[/December 13|13]] [[/December 14|14]] [[/December 15|15]] [[/December 16|16]] [[/December 17|17]] [[/December 18|18]] [[/December 19|19]] [[/December 20|20]] [[/December 21|21]] [[/December 22|22]] [[/December 23|23] [[/December 24|24]]  [[/December 25|25]] 
>  [[/December 26|26]]  [[/December 27|27]]  [[/December 28|28]]  [[/December 29|29]]  [[/December 30|30]]  [[/December 31|31]] 
------
Historical_anniversaries/February_1|988710750
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1966 Death of [[Buster Keaton]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_12|988710812
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1961 [[Yuri Gagarin]] is the first man in space.
> 
------
Historical_anniversaries/November_9|988710907
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1989 - The [[Berlin Wall]] is opened, and people pass freely between East and West berlin for the first time since 1961
------
Historical_anniversaries/November_9|988710937
1,2c1
< 
< 1989 - The [[Berlin Wall]] is opened, and people pass freely between East and West berlin for the first time since 1961
---
> 1989 - The [[Berlin Wall]] is opened, and people pass freely between East and West Berlin for the first time since 1961
------
Historical_anniversaries/December_15|988710991
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1966 - Death of [[Walt Disney]]
------
Historical_anniversaries|988711354
36,37c36
< :[[/May 21|21]] [[/May 22|22]] [[/May 23|23]] [[/May 24|24]]  [[/May 25|25]] 
<  [[/May 26|26]]  [[/May 27|27]]  [[/May 28|28]]  [[/May 29|29]]  [[/May 30|30]] 
---
> :[[/May 21|21]] [[/May 22|22]] [[/May 23|23]] [[/May 24|24]]  [[/May 25|25]]  [[/May 26|26]]  [[/May 27|27]]  [[/May 28|28]]  [[/May 29|29]]  [[/May 30|30]] 
44,45c43
< :[[/June 21|21]] [[/June 22|22]] [[/June 23|23]] [[/June 24|24]]  [[/June 25|25]] 
<  [[/June 26|26]]  [[/June 27|27]]  [[/June 28|28]]  [[/June 29|29]]  [[/June 30|30]]
---
> :[[/June 21|21]] [[/June 22|22]] [[/June 23|23]] [[/June 24|24]]  [[/June 25|25]]  [[/June 26|26]]  [[/June 27|27]]  [[/June 28|28]]  [[/June 29|29]]  [[/June 30|30]]
49c47
< [[/July 1|1]] [[/July 2|2]] [[/July 3|3]] [[/July 4|4]] [[/July 5|5]] [[/July 6|6]] [[/July 7|7]] [[/July 8|8]] [[/July 9|9]] [[/July 10|10]] 
---
> :[[/July 1|1]] [[/July 2|2]] [[/July 3|3]] [[/July 4|4]] [[/July 5|5]] [[/July 6|6]] [[/July 7|7]] [[/July 8|8]] [[/July 9|9]] [[/July 10|10]] 
57,58c55,56
< :[[/August 11|11]] [[/August 12|12]] [[/August 13|13]] [[/August 14|14]] [[/August 15|15]] [[/August 16|16]] [[/August 17|17]] [[/August 18|18]] [[/August 19|19]] [[/August 20|20]] 
< :[[/August 21|21]] [[/August 22|22]] [[/August 23|23] [[/August 24|24]]  [[/August 25|25]]  [[/August 26|26]]  [[/August 27|27]]  [[/August 28|28]]  [[/August 29|29]]  [[/August 30|30]]  :[[/August 31|31]] 
---
> :[[/August 11|11]] [[/August 12|12]] [[/August 13|13]] [[/August 14|14]] [[/August 15|15]] [[/August 16|16]] [[/August 17|17]] [[/August 18|18]] [[/August 19|19]] [[/August 20|20]]  
> :[[/August 21|21]] [[/August 22|22]] [[/August 23|23]] [[/August 24|24]]  [[/August 25|25]]  [[/August 26|26]]  [[/August 27|27]]  [[/August 28|28]]  [[/August 29|29]]  [[/August 30|30]]  :[[/August 31|31]] 
62,63c60,62
< :[[/September 1|1]] [[/September 2|2]] [[/September 3|3]] [[/September 4|4]] [[/September 5|5]] [[/September 6|6]] [[/September 7|7]] [[/September 8|8]] [[/September 9|9]] [[/September 10|10]] [[/September 11|11]] [[/September 12|12]] [[/September 13|13]] [[/September 14|14]] [[/September 15|15]] [[/September 16|16]] [[/September 17|17]] [[/September 18|18]] [[/September 19|19]] [[/September 20|20]] [[/September 21|21]] [[/September 22|22]] [[/September 23|23] [[/September 24|24]]  [[/September 25|25]] 
<  [[/September 26|26]]  [[/September 27|27]]  [[/September 28|28]]  [[/September 29|29]]  [[/September 30|30]]
---
> :[[/September 1|1]] [[/September 2|2]] [[/September 3|3]] [[/September 4|4]] [[/September 5|5]] [[/September 6|6]] [[/September 7|7]] [[/September 8|8]] [[/September 9|9]] [[/September 10|10]] 
> :[[/September 11|11]] [[/September 12|12]] [[/September 13|13]] [[/September 14|14]] [[/September 15|15]] [[/September 16|16]] [[/September 17|17]] [[/September 18|18]] [[/September 19|19]] [[/September 20|20]] 
> :[[/September 21|21]] [[/September 22|22]] [[/September 23|23]] [[/September 24|24]]  [[/September 25|25]]  [[/September 26|26]]  [[/September 27|27]]  [[/September 28|28]]  [[/September 29|29]]  [[/September 30|30]]
67,68c66,69
< [[/October 1|1]] [[/October 2|2]] [[/October 3|3]] [[/October 4|4]] [[/October 5|5]] [[/October 6|6]] [[/October 7|7]] [[/October 8|8]] [[/October 9|9]] [[/October 10|10]] [[/October 11|11]] [[/October 12|12]] [[/October 13|13]] [[/October 14|14]] [[/October 15|15]] [[/October 16|16]] [[/October 17|17]] [[/October 18|18]] [[/October 19|19]] [[/October 20|20]] [[/October 21|21]] [[/October 22|22]] [[/October 23|23] [[/October 24|24]]  [[/October 25|25]] 
<  [[/October 26|26]]  [[/October 27|27]]  [[/October 28|28]]  [[/October 29|29]]  [[/October 30|30]]  [[/October 31|31]] 
---
> :[[/October 1|1]] [[/October 2|2]] [[/October 3|3]] [[/October 4|4]] [[/October 5|5]] [[/October 6|6]] [[/October 7|7]] [[/October 8|8]] [[/October 9|9]] [[/October 10|10]] 
> :[[/October 11|11]] [[/October 12|12]] [[/October 13|13]] [[/October 14|14]] [[/October 15|15]] [[/October 16|16]] [[/October 17|17]] [[/October 18|18]] [[/October 19|19]] [[/October 20|20]] 
> :[[/October 21|21]] [[/October 22|22]] [[/October 23|23]] [[/October 24|24]]  [[/October 25|25]]  [[/October 26|26]]  [[/October 27|27]]  [[/October 28|28]]  [[/October 29|29]]  [[/October 30|30]]  
> :[[/October 31|31]] 
72,73c73,75
< [[/November 1|1]] [[/November 2|2]] [[/November 3|3]] [[/November 4|4]] [[/November 5|5]] [[/November 6|6]] [[/November 7|7]] [[/November 8|8]] [[/November 9|9]] [[/November 10|10]] [[/November 11|11]] [[/November 12|12]] [[/November 13|13]] [[/November 14|14]] [[/November 15|15]] [[/November 16|16]] [[/November 17|17]] [[/November 18|18]] [[/November 19|19]] [[/November 20|20]] [[/November 21|21]] [[/November 22|22]] [[/November 23|23] [[/November 24|24]]  [[/November 25|25]] 
<  [[/November 26|26]]  [[/November 27|27]]  [[/November 28|28]]  [[/November 29|29]]  [[/November 30|30]] 
---
> :[[/November 1|1]] [[/November 2|2]] [[/November 3|3]] [[/November 4|4]] [[/November 5|5]] [[/November 6|6]] [[/November 7|7]] [[/November 8|8]] [[/November 9|9]] [[/November 10|10]] 
> :[[/November 11|11]] [[/November 12|12]] [[/November 13|13]] [[/November 14|14]] [[/November 15|15]] [[/November 16|16]] [[/November 17|17]] [[/November 18|18]] [[/November 19|19]] [[/November 20|20]] 
> :[[/November 21|21]] [[/November 22|22]] [[/November 23|23]] [[/November 24|24]]  [[/November 25|25]]  [[/November 26|26]]  [[/November 27|27]]  [[/November 28|28]]  [[/November 29|29]]  [[/November 30|30]] 
77,78c79,82
< [[/December 1|1]] [[/December 2|2]] [[/December 3|3]] [[/December 4|4]] [[/December 5|5]] [[/December 6|6]] [[/December 7|7]] [[/December 8|8]] [[/December 9|9]] [[/December 10|10]] [[/December 11|11]] [[/December 12|12]] [[/December 13|13]] [[/December 14|14]] [[/December 15|15]] [[/December 16|16]] [[/December 17|17]] [[/December 18|18]] [[/December 19|19]] [[/December 20|20]] [[/December 21|21]] [[/December 22|22]] [[/December 23|23] [[/December 24|24]]  [[/December 25|25]] 
<  [[/December 26|26]]  [[/December 27|27]]  [[/December 28|28]]  [[/December 29|29]]  [[/December 30|30]]  [[/December 31|31]] 
---
> :[[/December 1|1]] [[/December 2|2]] [[/December 3|3]] [[/December 4|4]] [[/December 5|5]] [[/December 6|6]] [[/December 7|7]] [[/December 8|8]] [[/December 9|9]] [[/December 10|10]] 
> :[[/December 11|11]] [[/December 12|12]] [[/December 13|13]] [[/December 14|14]] [[/December 15|15]] [[/December 16|16]] [[/December 17|17]] [[/December 18|18]] [[/December 19|19]] [[/December 20|20]] 
> :[[/December 21|21]] [[/December 22|22]] [[/December 23|23]] [[/December 24|24]]  [[/December 25|25]]  [[/December 26|26]]  [[/December 27|27]]  [[/December 28|28]]  [[/December 29|29]]  [[/December 30|30]] 
> :[[/December 31|31]] 
------
Wikipedia_category_schemes|988711588
33c33
< As arbitrary a classification scheme as you can find: [[Historical anniversaries|This day in History]]
---
> As arbitrary a classification scheme as you can find: [[Historical anniversaries|This day in History]] 
------
Historical_anniversaries|988711731
3c3
< Events on these particular days in history. About the most arbitrary classification scheme that could be imagined.
---
> Events on these particular days in history. About the most arbitrary classification scheme (other than alphabetic ordering)  that could be imagined.
------
Historical_anniversaries|988714102
82a83,84
> 
> ''What a great page--thanks!''
------
Naming_conventions|988714330
3,4d2
< ''Please vote at "Names of persons," below!''
< 
------
Naming_conventions|988714384
13c13
< Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called 'Jazz', not 'Jazz music', because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  If we ignore potential ambiguity, the ideal of simplicity can be at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
---
> Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called "Jazz", not "Jazz music", because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  If we ignore potential ambiguity, the ideal of simplicity can be at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
------
A_Clockwork_Orange|988716771
1c1,6
< Title of a book and a film: the book, entitled <i>A Clockwork Orange</i>, by [[Anthony Burgess]], was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as its anti-hero Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
---
> Title of a book and a film: the book, by [[Anthony Burgess]], set a few years in the future, follows the career of a teenager, Alex. His main pleasures in life are classical music and random acts of violence: he tells his story in a teenage  slang called `<i>Nadsat</i>' (invented by Burgess with a number of borrowings from the [[Russian language]]). Eventually he is caught, and  `rehabilitated' by a program of [[aversion therapy]], which though rendering him incapable of violence (even in self-defence), also makes him unable to enjoy music. 
> The moral question of the book, is that Alex is now `good', but his ability to choose this has been taken away from him, his `goodness' is as artificial as the clockwork orange of the title.
> Eventually Alex falls foul of some of his former victims, and the political fuss that ensues results in the state removing his conditioning; the book ends with him listening joyfully to music again, and eagerly anticipating his return to creating havoc. 
> 
> It was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
> The film caused controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death.
3d7
< The film caused some controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death.
------
Geometry|988730166
3c3
< The central notion in geometry is that of ''congruence''.  In Euclidean geometry, two figures are said to be congruent if they are related by a series of reflections, rotations, and translations.  For instance:
---
> The central notion in geometry is that of ''congruence''.  In [[Euclidean geometry]], two figures are said to be congruent if they are related by a series of reflections, rotations, and translations.  For instance:
17c17
< [[Conic sections]]
---
> [[Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Conic sections]] -- [[Non-euclidean geometry]]
------
Euclidean_geometry|988730183
1c1
< Geometry as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based on five axioms, including the famous fifth postulate, called the "parallel postulate," that states that through a point not on a straight line, one and only one parallel line can be drawn.
---
> [[Geometry]] as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based on five axioms, including the famous fifth postulate, called the "parallel postulate," that states that through a point not on a straight line, one and only one parallel line can be drawn.
5c5
< It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
---
> It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
------
Epic_poetry|988730251
0a1
> *[[The Epic of Gilgamesh]]
2a4,5
> *[[The Ramayana]]
> *[[Le Chanson de Roland]]
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|988738181
1c1,3
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The believe is that the [[Film Techniques]] of [[Shot Reverse Shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align themselves with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[Shot Reverse Shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
> 
> :[[/Talk]]
------
Parallax|988738238
7c7
< On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the starts to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit are how the distances to the closer [[star]]s are determined.
---
> On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit is one reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s.
------
Parallax|988738579
7c7
< On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit is one reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s.
---
> On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit is one reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s. -- ''Do you know of any others?  I was under the impression that parallax was the only direct method, and the basis on which other scales are calibrated.''
------
Feminist_Film_Theory/Talk|988738701
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I don't know what to make of this summary.  I haven't paid much attention to film theory because, honestly, most of it bores me, so take the following with a grain of salt.  But: is it the case that feminisit film critics often argue that Shot/Reverse Shot <i>forces</i> the viewer to align him- or herself with the point of view of the protagonist?  If so, I would argue that the critics making that charge are definitely overstating the case.  I think anyone who's had more than a few discussions about any controversial topic should know that you can not force anyone to understand anything; people are too much like horses before the proverbial stream.  So I'd have to argue that this technique <i>encourages</i> identification with the protagonist, but that the viewer can always balk at such identification, as do these feminist critics.  I believe the difference is significant, because a feminist criticism of being forced to think anything would belie the notion of self-empowerment through consciousness-raising, which is certainly one of the main tenets of feminist philosophy.
------
Cerebral_Palsy|988738917
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of disorders that are related with the injuries of brain that occur during fetal development or birth time. The incidence is about 2-4/1000 births. Major causes are hypoxia of brain (recent researchs have demonstrated that this is not the most important cause as it was considered to be), central nervous system infections, birth trauma and consecutive hematoma. The classical findings are spasticity, paralysis, seizures, unsteady gait, dysarthria and mental retardation. The treatment is usually symptomatic and the development of extensive care units for newborns has not resulted in a dramatic decrease in the incidence. This is suggestive of the fact that the people suffering from this disease are genetically susceptible and can only have some benefit from a life-long care. The expected length of life does not seem to be affected.
------
Parallax|988739007
7c7
< On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit is one reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s. -- ''Do you know of any others?  I was under the impression that parallax was the only direct method, and the basis on which other scales are calibrated.''
---
> On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s, and remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. 
------
Cerebral_Palsy|988739785
1c1
< A group of disorders that are related with the injuries of brain that occur during fetal development or birth time. The incidence is about 2-4/1000 births. Major causes are hypoxia of brain (recent researchs have demonstrated that this is not the most important cause as it was considered to be), central nervous system infections, birth trauma and consecutive hematoma. The classical findings are spasticity, paralysis, seizures, unsteady gait, dysarthria and mental retardation. The treatment is usually symptomatic and the development of extensive care units for newborns has not resulted in a dramatic decrease in the incidence. This is suggestive of the fact that the people suffering from this disease are genetically susceptible and can only have some benefit from a life-long care. The expected length of life does not seem to be affected.
---
> A group of disorders that are related with the injuries of brain that occur during fetal development or birth time. The incidence is about 2-4/1000 births. Major causes are hypoxia of brain (recent research has demonstrated that this is not the most important cause as it was once considered to be), central nervous system infections, birth trauma and consecutive hematoma. The classical findings are spasticity, paralysis, seizures, unsteady gait, dysarthria and mental retardation. The treatment is usually symptomatic and the development of extensive care units for newborns has not resulted in a dramatic decrease in the incidence. This is suggestive of the fact that the people suffering from this disease are genetically susceptible and can only have some benefit from a life-long care. The expected length of life does not seem to be affected.
------
Gabon|988742637
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Gabon/History|988742659
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Ruled by autocratic presidents since independence from France in 1960, Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new constitution in the early 1990s that allowed for a more transparent electoral process and for reforms of governmental institutions. A small population, abundant natural resources, and foreign private investment have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous black African countries.
------
Gabon/Geography|988742680
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean at the Equator, between Republic of the Congo and Equatorial Guinea
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 1 00 S, 11 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 267,667 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 257,667 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 10,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Colorado
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,551 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Cameroon 298 km, Republic of the Congo 1,903 km, Equatorial Guinea 350 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 885 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; always hot, humid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; savanna in east and south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Iboundji 1,575 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, manganese, uranium, gold, timber, iron ore, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 77%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 40 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; poaching
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Gabon/People|988742706
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,208,436
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 33% (male 201,737; female 200,764)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 61% (male 371,359; female 364,982)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 34,478; female 35,116) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.08% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 27.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 16.83 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 96.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.08 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48.94 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.26 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.73 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Gabonese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Gabonese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Bantu tribes including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, Bateke), other Africans and Europeans 154,000, including 6,000 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 55%-75%, Muslim less than 1%, animist
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Fang, Myene, Bateke, Bapounou/Eschira, Bandjabi
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 53.3% (1995 est.)
------
Gabon/Government|988742728
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Gabonese Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Gabon
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique Gabonaise
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Gabon
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GB
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Libreville
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 provinces; Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, Nyanga, Ogooue-Ivindo, Ogooue-Lolo, Ogooue-Maritime, Woleu-Ntem
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 17 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 17 August (1960) (Gabon granted full independence from France)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 14 March 1991
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; compulsory ICJ jurisdiction not accepted
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President El Hadj Omar BONGO (since 2 December 1967)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jean-Francois NTOUTOUME-EMANE (since 23 January 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 6 December 1998 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President El Hadj Omar BONGO reelected; percent of vote - El Hadj Omar BONGO 66.6%, Pierre MAMBOUNDOU 16.5%, Fr. Paul M'BA-ABESSOLE 13.4%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (91 seats) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats); members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly - last held 15 and 29 December 1996 (next to be held NA December 2001); Senate - last held 26 January and 9 February 1997 (next to be held in January 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 89, PGP 9, RNB 6, CLR 3, UPG 2, USG 2, independents 4, others 5; Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PDG 53, RNB 20, PGP 4, ADERE 3, RDP 1, CLR 1, independents 9
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consisting of three chambers - Judicial, Administrative, and Accounts; Constitutional Court; Courts of Appeal; Court of State Security; County Courts
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> African Forum for Reconstruction or FAR [leader NA]; Circle of Liberal Reformers or CLR [General Jean Boniface ASSELE]; Democratic and Republican Alliance or ADERE [Divungui-di-Ndinge DIDJOB]; Gabonese Democratic Party or PDG, former sole party [Simplice Nguedet MANZELA, secretary general]; Gabonese Party for Progress or PGP [Pierre-Louis AGONDJO-OKAWE, president]; Gabonese People's Union or UPG [Pierre MAMBOUNDOU]; Gabonese Socialist Union or USG [leader NA]; National Rally of Woodcutters (Bucherons) or RNB [Fr. Paul M'BA-ABESSOLE]; People's Unity Party or PUP [Louis Gaston MAYILA]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [leader NA]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Pierre Claver MAGANGA-MOUSSAVOU]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS (associate), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Paul BOUNDOUKOU-LATHA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 200, 2034 20th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 797-1000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-0668
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James V. LEDESMA
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Boulevard de la Mer, Libreville
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 4000, Libreville
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [241] 76 20 03 through 76 20 04, 74 34 92
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [241] 74 55 07
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, and blue
------
Gabon/Economy|988742777
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. This has supported a sharp decline in extreme poverty; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Despite the abundance of natural wealth, the economy is hobbled by poor fiscal management. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its Francophone currency by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time inflationary surge, to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The IMF provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year Enhanced Financing Facility (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in privatization and fiscal discipline. France provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, overborrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. With support from higher oil prices, growth will move up in 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 60%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 30% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 600,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 60%, services and government 25%, industry and commerce 15%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 21% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $302 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food and beverage; textile; lumbering and plywood; cement; petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, uranium, and gold mining; chemicals; ship repair
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.3% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.025 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 27.8%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 72.2%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 953 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil 75%, timber, manganese, uranium (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 68%, China 9%, France 8%, Japan 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum products, construction materials
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 39%, US 6%, Cameroon 5%, Netherlands 5%, Cote d'Ivoire, Japan (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $331 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Gabon/Communications|988742796
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 32,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> adequate system of cable, microwave radio relay, tropospheric scatter, radiotelephone communication stations, and a domestic satellite system with 12 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 6, FM 7, shortwave 6 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 208,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 4 (plus five low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 63,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Gabon/Transportation|988742818
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 649 km (Gabon State Railways or OCTRA)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 649 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,670 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 629 km (including 30 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 7,041 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,600 km perennially navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cap Lopez, Kango, Lambarene, Libreville, Mayumba, Owendo, Port-Gentil
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,419 GRT/3,205 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 61 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 50
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 25 (1999 est.)
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Gabon/Military|988742835
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Republican Guard (charged with protecting the president and other senior officials), National Gendarmerie, National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 278,251 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 143,278 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 11,291 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $91 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.6% (FY96)
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Gabon/Transnational_issues|988742858
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay
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Gambia|988742880
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Gambia/History|988742914
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Gambia gained its independence from the UK in 1965; it formed a short-lived federation of Senegambia with Senegal between 1982 and 1989. In 1991 the two nations signed a friendship and cooperation treaty. A military coup in 1994 overthrew the president and banned political activity, but a new 1996 constitution and presidential elections, followed by parliamentary balloting in 1997, have completed a nominal return to civilian rule. The Gambia recently emerged from its isolation to accept a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council during 1998-99.
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Gambia/Geography|988742935
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and Senegal
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 28 N, 16 34 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11,300 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 10,000 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,300 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Delaware
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 740 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Senegal 740 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 80 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 18 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> not specified
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, rainy season (June to November); cooler, dry season (November to May)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flood plain of the Gambia river flanked by some low hills
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 53 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 28%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 45% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 150 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> rainfall has dropped by 30% in the last 30 years
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; desertification; water-borne diseases prevalent
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> almost an enclave of Senegal; smallest country on the continent of Africa
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Gambia/People|988742954
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,367,124 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 45% (male 311,293; female 308,570)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 52% (male 352,765; female 358,258)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 19,099; female 17,139) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 42.28 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.21 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.97 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.11 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 79.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 53.2 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 51.29 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 55.16 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.76 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Gambian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Gambian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fula 18%, Wolof 16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-African 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 90%, Christian 9%, indigenous beliefs 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, other indigenous vernaculars
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 38.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 52.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 24.9% (1995 est.)
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Gambia/Government|988742988
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of The Gambia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> The Gambia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic under multiparty democratic rule
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Banjul
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 5 divisions and 1 city*; Banjul*, Lower River, Central River, North Bank, Upper River, Western
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 18 February 1965 (from UK); note - The Gambia and Senegal signed an agreement on 12 December 1981 that called for the creation of a loose confederation to be known as Senegambia, but the agreement was dissolved on 30 September 1989
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 18 February (1965)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 24 April 1970; suspended July 1994; rewritten and approved by national referendum 8 August 1996; reestablished in January 1997
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on a composite of English common law, Koranic law, and customary law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH (since 12 October 1996); Vice President Isatou Njie SAIDY (since 20 March 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH (since 18 October 1996); Vice President Isatou Njie SAIDY (since 20 March 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet is appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the number of terms is not restricted; election last held 26 September 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH elected president; percent of vote - Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH 55.8%, Ousainou DARBOE 35.8%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (49 seats; 45 elected by popular vote, 4 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last popular election held 2 January 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - APRC 33, UDP 7, NRP 2, PDOIS 1, independents 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction or APRC [Yahya A. J. J. JAMMEH]; National Reconciliation Party or NRP [Hamat N. K. BAH]; People's Democratic Organization for Independence and Socialism or PDOIS [Sidia JATTA]; United Democratic Party or UDP [Ousainou DARBOE]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in August 1996 the government banned the following from participation in the elections of 1996: People's Progressive Party or PPP [former President Dawda K. JAWARA (in exile)], and two opposition parties - the National Convention Party or NCP [former Vice President Sheriff DIBBA] and the Gambian People's Party or GPP [Hassan Musa CAMARA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John P. BOJANG
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 1000, 1155 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 785-1399
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 785-1430
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador George W. HALEY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Fajara, Kairaba Avenue, Banjul
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. M. B. No. 19, Banjul
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [220] 392856, 392858, 391970, 391971
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [220] 392475
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue with white edges, and green
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Gambia/Economy|988743009
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Gambia has no important mineral or other natural resources and has a limited agricultural base. About 75% of the population depends on crops and livestock for its livelihood. Small-scale manufacturing activity features the processing of peanuts, fish, and hides. Reexport trade normally constitutes a major segment of economic activity, but the 50% devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994 made Senegalese goods more competitive and hurt the reexport trade. The Gambia has benefited from a rebound in tourism after its decline in response to the military's takeover in July 1994. Short-run economic progress remains highly dependent on sustained bilateral and multilateral aid and on responsible government economic management as forwarded by IMF technical help and advice. Annual GDP growth is expected to fall to less than 4% over 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,030 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 64% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 400,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 75%, industry, commerce, and services 19%, government 6%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $88.6 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $98.2 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> processing peanuts, fish, and hides; tourism; beverages; agricultural machinery assembly, woodworking, metalworking; clothing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 75 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 70 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> peanuts, millet, sorghum, rice, corn, cassava (tapioca), palm kernels; cattle, sheep, goats; forest and fishery resources not fully exploited
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $132 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> peanuts and peanut products, fish, cotton lint, palm kernels
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Benelux 78%, Japan, UK, Hong Kong, France, Spain (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $201 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, manufactures, fuel, machinery and transport equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Hong Kong, UK, Netherlands, Cote d'Ivoire, France, Senegal, Belgium (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $430 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $45.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 dalasi (D) = 100 butut
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> dalasi (D) per US$1 - 11.626 (November 1999), 10.643 (1998), 10.200 (1997), 9.789 (1996), 9.546 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Gambia/Communications|988743031
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 22,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,485 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> adequate network of microwave radio relay and open wire
> <br><i>international:</i>
> microwave radio relay links to Senegal and Guinea-Bissau; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 196,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (government-owned) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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Gambia/Transportation|988743088
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,700 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 956 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,744 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 400 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Banjul
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Gambia/Military|988743111
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (includes marine unit), National Police, National Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 306,359 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 154,432 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY96/97)
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Gambia/Transnational_issues|988743132
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> short section of boundary with Senegal is indefinite
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Gaza_Strip|988743180
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Gaza_Strip/History|988743238
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements (the DOP), signed in Washington on 13 September 1993, provides for a transitional period not exceeding five years of Palestinian interim self-government in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the Palestinian Authority, which includes a Palestinian Legislative Council elected in January 1996, as part of interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza Strip and Jericho took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area and in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO 28 September 1995 Interim Agreement, the Israel-PLO 15 January 1997 Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron, the Israel-PLO 23 October 1998 Wye River Memorandum, and the 4 September 1999 Sharm el-Sheikh Agreement. The DOP provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for external security and for internal security and public order of settlements and Israeli citizens. Permanent status is to be determined through direct negotiations, which resumed in September 1999 after a three-year hiatus.
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Gaza_Strip/Geography|988743258
1c1,54
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Israel
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 31 25 N, 34 20 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 360 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 360 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 62 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Egypt 11 km, Israel 51 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 40 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate, mild winters, dry and warm to hot summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat to rolling, sand- and dune-covered coastal plain
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Abu 'Awdah (Joz Abu 'Auda) 105 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 26% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 120 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> there are 24 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Gaza Strip (August 1999 est.)
------
Gaza_Strip/People|988743354
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,132,063
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition, there are some 6,500 Israeli settlers in the Gaza Strip (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 50% (male 289,954; female 275,628)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 47% (male 271,365; female 263,197)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 13,792; female 18,127) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.97% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 43.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.83 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 25.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.82 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 69.58 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 72.11 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.55 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Palestinian Arab and other 99.4%, Jewish 0.6%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim (predominantly Sunni) 98.7%, Christian 0.7%, Jewish 0.6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic, Hebrew (spoken by Israeli settlers and many Palestinians), English (widely understood)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Gaza_Strip/Government|988743401
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Gaza Strip
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Qita Ghazzah
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GZ
------
Gaza_Strip/Economy|988743424
1c1,71
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic conditions in the Gaza Strip - under the responsibility of the Palestinian Authority since the Cairo Agreement of May 1994 - have deteriorated since the early 1990s. Real per capita GDP for the West Bank and Gaza Strip (WBGS) declined 36% between 1992 and 1996 owing to the combined effect of falling aggregate incomes and robust population growth. The downturn in economic activity was largely the result of Israeli closure policies - the imposition of generalized border closures in response to security incidents in Israel - which disrupted previously established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the WBGS. The most serious negative social effect of this downturn has been the emergence of chronic unemployment; average unemployment rates in the WBGS during the 1980s were generally under 5%; by the mid-1990s this level had risen to over 20%. Since 1997 Israel's use of comprehensive closures has decreased and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of Palestinian goods and labor. In October 1999, Israel permitted the opening of a safe passage between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank in accordance with the 1995 Interim Agreement. These changes to the conduct of economic activity have fueled a moderate economic recovery in 1998-99.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.17 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 42% (1995 est., includes West Bank)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (includes West Bank) (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 66%, industry 21%, agriculture 13% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 14.5% (includes West Bank) (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.6 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.73 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes West Bank (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> generally small family businesses that produce textiles, soap, olive-wood carvings, and mother-of-pearl souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in an industrial center
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by Israel
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> olives, citrus, vegetables; beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $682 million (includes West Bank) (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> citrus, flowers
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Israel, Egypt, West Bank
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.5 billion (c.i.f., 1998 est.) (includes West Bank)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, consumer goods, construction materials
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Israel, Egypt, West Bank
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $108 million (includes West Bank) (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $800 million pledged (includes West Bank) (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 new Israeli shekel (NIS) = 100 new agorot
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> new Israeli shekels (NIS) per US$1 - 4.2260 (November 1999), 3.8001 (1998), 3.4494 (1997), 3.1917 (1996), 3.0113 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Gaza_Strip/Communications|988743440
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 95,729 (total for Gaza Strip and West Bank) (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> rudimentary telephone services provided by an open wire system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 0, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA; note - most Palestinian households have radios (1999)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (operated by the Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA; note - most Palestinian households have televisions (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
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Gaza_Strip/Transportation|988743457
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km; note - one line, abandoned and in disrepair, little trackage remains
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> small, poorly developed road network
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Gaza
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Gaza International Airport that opened on 24 November 1998 as part of agreements stipulated in the September 1995 Oslo II Accord and the 23 October 1998 Wye River Memorandum
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Gaza_Strip/Military|988743480
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Gaza_Strip/Transnational_issues|988743498
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation
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Georgia|988743520
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Georgia/History|988743563
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR until the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Russian troops remain garrisoned at four military bases and as peacekeepers in the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The country continues to move toward a market economy and greater integration with Western institutions.
------
Georgia/Geography|988743581
1c1,57
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southwestern Asia, bordering the Black Sea, between Turkey and Russia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 42 00 N, 43 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Commonwealth of Independent States
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 69,700 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 69,700 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than South Carolina
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,461 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Armenia 164 km, Azerbaijan 322 km, Russia 723 km, Turkey 252 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 310 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> warm and pleasant; Mediterranean-like on Black Sea coast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> largely mountainous with Great Caucasus Mountains in the north and Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the south; Kolkhet'is Dablobi (Kolkhida Lowland) opens to the Black Sea in the west; Mtkvari River Basin in the east; good soils in river valley flood plains, foothills of Kolkhida Lowland
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Black Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mt'a Mqinvartsveri (Gora Kazbek) 5,048 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> forests, hydropower, manganese deposits, iron ore, copper, minor coal and oil deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important tea and citrus growth
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 28% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 4,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Georgia/People|988743600
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,019,538 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 517,829; female 497,155)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,630,814; female 1,755,323)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 13% (male 238,090; female 380,327) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.62% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 10.87 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.52 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.57 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.63 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 52.94 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 64.48 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 60.9 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 68.23 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.41 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Georgian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Georgian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Georgian 70.1%, Armenian 8.1%, Russian 6.3%, Azeri 5.7%, Ossetian 3%, Abkhaz 1.8%, other 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Georgian Orthodox 65%, Muslim 11%, Russian Orthodox 10%, Armenian Apostolic 8%, unknown 6%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Georgian 71% (official), Russian 9%, Armenian 7%, Azeri 6%, other 7%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Abkhaz (official in Abkhazia)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1989 est.)
------
Georgia/Government|988743624
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Georgia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Sak'art'velo
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> T'bilisi
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 53 rayons (raionebi, singular - raioni), 9 cities* (k'alak'ebi, singular - k'alak'i), and 2 autonomous republics** (avtomnoy respubliki, singular - avtom respublika); Abashis, Abkhazia or Ap'khazet'is Avtonomiuri Respublika** (Sokhumi), Adigenis, Ajaria or Acharis Avtonomiuri Respublika** (Bat'umi), Akhalgoris, Akhalk'alak'is, Akhalts'ikhis, Akhmetis, Ambrolauris, Aspindzis, Baghdat'is, Bolnisis, Borjomis, Chiat'ura*, Ch'khorotsqus, Ch'okhatauris, Dedop'listsqaros, Dmanisis, Dushet'is, Gardabanis, Gori*, Goris, Gurjaanis, Javis, K'arelis, Kaspis, Kharagaulis, Khashuris, Khobis, Khonis, K'ut'aisi*, Lagodekhis, Lanch'khut'is, Lentekhis, Marneulis, Martvilis, Mestiis, Mts'khet'is, Ninotsmindis, Onis, Ozurget'is, P'ot'i*, Qazbegis, Qvarlis, Rust'avi*, Sach'kheris, Sagarejos, Samtrediis, Senakis, Sighnaghis, T'bilisi*, T'elavis, T'erjolis, T'et'ritsqaros, T'ianet'is, Tqibuli*, Ts'ageris, Tsalenjikhis, Tsalkis, Tsqaltubo*, Vanis, Zestap'onis, Zugdidi*, Zugdidis
> <br><i>note:</i>
> administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 9 April 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 26 May (1991)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 17 October 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Eduard Amvrosiyevich SHEVARDNADZE (previously elected chairman of the Government Council 10 March 1992, Council has since been disbanded; previously elected chairman of Parliament 11 October 1992; president since 26 November 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Eduard Amvrosiyevich SHEVARDNADZE (previously elected chairman of the Government Council 10 March 1992, Council has since been disbanded; previously elected chairman of Parliament 11 October 1992; president since 26 November 1995); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 5 November 1995 (next to be held 9 April 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Eduard SHEVARDNADZE elected president; percent of vote - Eduard SHEVARDNADZE 74%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Supreme Council (commonly referred to as Parliament) or Umaghiesi Sabcho (235 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 31 October 1999 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - CUG 41.85%, AGUR 25.65%, IWSG 7.8%, all other parties received less than 7% each; seats by party - CUG 130, AGUR 59, IWSG 15, Abkhaz deputies 12, independents 14, other 5
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges elected by the Supreme Council on the president's recommendation; Constitutional Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Citizen's Union of Georgia or CUG [Eduard SHEVARDNADZE]; Georgian United Communist Party or UCPG [Panteleimon GIORGADZE, chairman]; Greens Party [Giorgi GACHECHILADZE]; Industry Will Save Georgia or IWSG [Georgi Topadze]; Labor Party [Shalva NATELASHVILI]; National Democratic Party or NDP [Irina SARISHVILI-CHANTURIA]; National Independent Party or NIP [Irakli TSERETELI, chairman]; People's Party [Mamuka GIORGADZE]; Socialist Party or SPG [Vakhtang RCHEULISHVILI]; Union for "Revival" Party or AGUR [Alsan ABASHIDZE]; Union of Traditionalists or UGT [Akaki ASATIANI]; United Republican Party or URP [Nodar NATADZE, chairman]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Georgian refugees from Abkhazia (Abkhaz faction in Georgian Parliament); separatist elements in the breakaway region of Abkhazia; supporters of the late ousted President Zviad GAMSAKHURDYA remain a source of opposition
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BSEC, CCC, CE, CE (guest), CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Tedo JAPARIDZE
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 300, 1615 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-2390
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 393-4537
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kenneth S. YALOWITZ
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> #25 Antoneli Street, T'bilisi 380026
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [995] (32) 989-967
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [995] (32) 933-759
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> maroon field with small rectangle in upper hoist side corner; rectangle divided horizontally with black on top, white below
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Georgia/Economy|988743647
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism; cultivation of citrus fruits, tea, and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and output of a small industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural gas and oil products. Its only sizable internal energy resource is hydropower. Despite the severe damage the economy has suffered due to civil strife, Georgia, with the help of the IMF and World Bank, made substantial economic gains since 1995, increasing GDP growth and slashing inflation. The Georgian economy continues to experience large budget deficits due to a failure to collect tax revenues. Georgia also still suffers from energy shortages; it privatized the distribution network in 1998, and deliveries are steadily improving. Georgia is pinning its hopes for long-term recovery on the development of an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of P'ot'i and Bat'umi. The growing trade deficit, continuing problems with tax evasion and corruption, and political uncertainties cloud the short-term economic picture. However, revived investment could spur higher economic growth in 2000, perhaps up to 6%.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $11.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 45% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 60% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 19% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.08 million (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry and construction 20%, agriculture and forestry 40%, services 40% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 14.5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $364 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $568 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> steel, aircraft, machine tools, electric locomotives, trucks, tractors, textiles, shoes, chemicals, wood products, wine
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -0.3% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.96 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 14.66%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 85.34%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 6.123 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 700 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 350 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> citrus, grapes, tea, vegetables, potatoes; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $330 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> citrus fruits, tea, wine, other agricultural products; diverse types of machinery and metals; chemicals; fuel reexports; textiles
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia 27%, Turkey 20%, Azerbaijan 10%, Armenia 8% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $840 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuel, grain and other foods, machinery and parts, transport equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 22%, Russia 15%, Turkey 12%, Azerbaijan 12%, US 7% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.8 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $212.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 lari (GEL) = 100 tetri
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> lari per US$1 (end of period) - 1.9503 (December 1999), 2.0245 (1999), 1.3898 (1998), 1.2975 (1997), 1.2628 (1996), 1.24 (December 1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Georgia/Communications|988743664
1c1,19
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 554,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 150 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> local - T'bilisi and K'ut'aisi have cellular telephone networks with about 10,000 customers total; urban areas 20 telephones/100 people; rural areas 4 telephones/100 people; intercity - a fiber-optic line connects T'bilisi to K'ut'aisi (Georgia's second largest city); nationwide pager service
> <br><i>international:</i>
> Georgia and Russia are working on a fiber-optic line between P'ot'i and Sochi (Russia); present international service is available by microwave, landline, and satellite through the Moscow switch; international electronic mail and telex service available
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 7, FM 12, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.02 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 12 (plus repeaters) (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2.57 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
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Georgia/Transportation|988743682
1c1,51
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,583 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 1,583 km 1.520-m gauge (1993)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 20,700 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 19,354 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,346 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 370 km; refined products 300 km; natural gas 440 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bat'umi, P'ot'i, Sokhumi
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 17 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 103,080 GRT/158,803 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, petroleum tanker 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 28 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Transportation - note:</b>
> transportation network is in poor condition and disrupted by ethnic conflict, criminal activities, and fuel shortages; network lacks maintenance and repair
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Georgia/Military|988743700
1c1,19
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Forces, Naval Forces, National Guard, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,291,190 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,021,072 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 40,694 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $27 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY99)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> a CIS peacekeeping force consisting of Russian troops is deployed in the Abkhazia region of Georgia together with a UN military observer group; a Russian peacekeeping battalion is deployed in South Ossetia
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Georgia/Transnational_issues|988743717
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> limited cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for domestic consumption; used as transshipment point for opiates via Central Asia to Western Europe and Russia
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Ghana|988743835
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Ghana/History|988743927
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first country in colonial Africa to gain its independence. A long series of coups resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring multiparty politics, was approved in 1992.
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Ghana/Geography|988743949
1c1,66
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Cote d'Ivoire and Togo
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 8 00 N, 2 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 238,540 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 230,020 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 8,520 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Oregon
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,093 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Burkina Faso 548 km, Cote d'Ivoire 668 km, Togo 877 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 539 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; warm and comparatively dry along southeast coast; hot and humid in southwest; hot and dry in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low plains with dissected plateau in south-central area
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Afadjato 880 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 24% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 60 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dry, dusty, harmattan winds occur from January to March; droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> recent drought in north severely affecting agricultural activities; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> Lake Volta is the world's largest artificial lake; northeasterly harmattan wind (January to March)
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Ghana/People|988743970
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 19,533,560
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 4,120,240; female 4,063,960)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 5,290,675; female 5,391,175)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 318,890; female 348,620) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.87% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 29.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.22 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 57.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 57.42 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 56.07 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 58.82 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Ghanaian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Ghanaian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black African 99.8% (major tribes - Akan 44%, Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%), European and other 0.2%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 38%, Muslim 30%, Christian 24%, other 8%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), African languages (including Akan, Moshi-Dagomba, Ewe, and Ga)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 64.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 53.5% (1995 est.)
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Ghana/Government|988743997
1c1,72
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Ghana
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Ghana
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Gold Coast
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GH
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Accra
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 regions; Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo, Central, Eastern, Greater Accra, Northern, Upper East, Upper West, Volta, Western
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 March 1957 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 6 March (1957)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> new constitution approved 28 April 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jerry John RAWLINGS (since 7 January 1993); Vice President John Evans Atta MILLS (since 7 January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Jerry John RAWLINGS (since 7 January 1993); Vice President John Evans Atta MILLS (since 7 January 1993); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers; president nominates members subject to approval by Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 7 December 1996 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Jerry John RAWLINGS reelected president; percent of vote - RAWLINGS 57.2%, John KUFUOR 39.8%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament (200 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 7 December 1996 (next to be held NA December 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NDC 133, NPP 61, PCP 5, PNC 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Every Ghanaian Living Everywhere or EGLE [Owuraku AMOFA, chairman]; National Convention Party or NCP [Sarpong KUMA-KUMA]; National Democratic Congress or NDC [Dr. Huudu YAHAYA, general secretary]; New Patriotic Party or NPP [Peter Ala ADJETY]; People's Convention Party or PCP [P. K. DONKOH-AYIFI, acting chairman]; People's Heritage Party or PHP [Emmanuel Alexander ERSKINE]; People's National Convention or PNC [Edward MAHAMA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNTAET, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kobena KOOMSON
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3512 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 686-4520
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 686-4527
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kathryn Dee ROBINSON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Ring Road East, East of Danquah Circle, Accra
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 194, Accra
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [233] (21) 775348
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [233] (21) 776008
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), yellow, and green with a large black five-pointed star centered in the yellow band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Bolivia, which has a coat of arms centered in the yellow band
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Ghana/Economy|988744019
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical assistance. Gold, timber, and cocoa production are major sources of foreign exchange. The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 40% of GDP and employs 60% of the work force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the IMF. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. A rebound in gold prices is likely to push growth over 5% in 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $35.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 30% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 31.4% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.4%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 27.3% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 12.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 60%, industry 15%, services 25% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 20% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.39 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.47 billion, including capital expenditures of $370 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminum smelting, food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4.2% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.206 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0.1%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 99.9%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.437 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 65 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> gold, cocoa, timber, tuna, bauxite, aluminum, manganese ore, diamonds
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Togo, UK, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, US, France (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> capital equipment, petroleum, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK, Nigeria, US, Germany, Italy, Spain (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $6 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $477.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 new cedi (C) = 100 pesewas
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> new cedis per US$1 - 3,466.60 (December 1999), 2,647.32 (1999), 2,314.15 (1998), 2,050.17 (1997), 1,637.23 (1996), 1,200.43 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Ghana/Communications|988744037
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 200,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 30,000 (yearend 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor to fair system; Internet accessible; many rural communities not yet connected; expansion of services is underway
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> primarily microwave radio relay; wireless local loop has been installed
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); microwave radio relay link to Panaftel system connects Ghana to its neighbors
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 18, shortwave 3 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.4 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 11 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.73 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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Ghana/Transportation|988744059
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 953 km (undergoing major rehabilitation)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 953 km 1.067-m gauge (32 km double track) (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 39,409 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 11,653 km (including 30 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 27,756 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> Volta, Ankobra, and Tano Rivers provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters; Lake Volta provides 1,125 km of arterial and feeder waterways
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Takoradi, Tema
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 13,484 GRT/18,583 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Ghana/Military|988744077
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Force, Palace Guard, Civil Defense
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,739,526 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,629,954 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 196,549 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $53 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.7% (FY99)
------
Ghana/Transnational_issues|988744099
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Europe and the US
------
Gibraltar|988744123
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Gibraltar/History|988744154
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Strategically important Gibraltar was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in 1713. In a 1967 referendum, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly to remain a British dependency.
------
Gibraltar/Geography|988744173
1c1,55
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southwestern Europe, bordering the Strait of Gibraltar, which links the Mediterranean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southern coast of Spain
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 36 11 N, 5 22 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6.5 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 6.5 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 11 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.2 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Spain 1.2 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 12 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean with mild winters and warm summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> a narrow coastal lowland borders the Rock of Gibraltar
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Rock of Gibraltar 426 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural freshwater resources; large concrete or natural rock water catchments collect rain water
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location on Strait of Gibraltar that links the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
------
Gibraltar/People|988744192
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 29,481 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 21% (male 3,167; female 3,013)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 10,141; female 8,925)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 1,769; female 2,466) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.91% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.45 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.14 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.72 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.95 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.09 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.96 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.15 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Gibraltarian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Gibraltar
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Italian, English, Maltese, Portuguese, Spanish
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 76.9%, Church of England 6.9%, Muslim 6.9%, Jewish 2.3%, none or other 7% (1991)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (used in schools and for official purposes), Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Russian
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> above 80%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Gibraltar/Government|988744215
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Gibraltar
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GI
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Gibraltar
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Commonwealth Day (second Monday of March)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 30 May 1969
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal, plus other UK subjects who have been residents six months or more
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor and Commander-in-Chief, the Right Honorable Sir Richard LUCE (since 24 February 1997); note - a new governor has been appointed and will arrive in March 2000
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Minister Peter CARUANA (since 17 May 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed from among the 15 elected members of the House of Assembly by the governor in consultation with the chief minister
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Gibraltar Council that advises the governor
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Assembly (18 seats - 15 elected by popular vote, one appointed for the Speaker, and two ex officio members; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 10 February 2000 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - SD 54%, GSLA 40%; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Gibraltar Labor Party/Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights or GCL/AACR [Adolfo CANEPA]; Gibraltar Liberal Party or GLP (has become the Gibraltar National Party or NP) [Joe GARCIA]; Gibraltar Social Democrats or SD [Peter CARUANA]; Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party or SL [Joe BOSSANO]; Gibraltar Socialist Liberal Alliance or GSLA [Joe BOSSANO] (includes SL and GLP)
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Chamber of Commerce; Gibraltar Representatives Organization; Housewives Association
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Interpol (subbureau)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two horizontal bands of white (top, double width) and red with a three-towered red castle in the center of the white band; hanging from the castle gate is a gold key centered in the red band
------
Gibraltar/Economy|988744251
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 20% of GDP; tourism (almost 6 million visitors in 1998), shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have a major impact on the level of employment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $500 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $17,500 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 14,800 (including non-Gibraltar laborers)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 13.5% (1996)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $119.3 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $122.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, banking and finance, ship-building and repairing; support to large UK naval and air bases; tobacco, mineral water, beer, canned fish
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 90 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 84 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $81.1 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> (principally reexports) petroleum 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8%
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK, Morocco, Portugal, Netherlands, Spain, US, Germany
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $492 million (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK, Spain, Japan, Netherlands
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Gibraltar pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Gibraltar pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Gibraltar pound is at par with the British pound
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Gibraltar/Communications|988744286
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>17,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,161 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate, automatic domestic system and adequate international facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> automatic exchange facilities
> <br><i>international:</i>
> radiotelephone; microwave radio relay; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 37,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus three low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 10,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Gibraltar/Transportation|988744313
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km; 1.000-m gauge system in dockyard area only
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 49.9 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 49.9 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Gibraltar
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 26 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 477,183 GRT/752,644 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 2, chemical tanker 2, container 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 13, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Gibraltar/Military|988744352
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> British Army, Royal Navy, Royal Air Force<p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Gibraltar/Transnational_issues|988744377
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> source of friction between Spain and the UK
------
Countries_of_the_world|988744384
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).  
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
78c78
<    * [[Liberia]] 
---
>    * [[Liberia]]
102c102
<    * [[Haiti]] 
---
>    * [[Haiti]]
124c124
<    * [[Colombia]] 
---
>    * [[Colombia]]
163c163
<    
---
> 
173c173
<    * [[Holland]]
---
>    * [[Holland]] - [[Amsterdam]]
196c196
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mathematics|988744401
9c9
< :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
---
> :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- HyperReal numbers -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
------
Glorioso_Islands|988744413
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Glorioso_Islands/History|988744437
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Mathematics|988744449
9c9
< :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- HyperReal numbers -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
---
> :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- [[HyperReal numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
------
Glorioso_Islands/Geography|988744461
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, northwest of Madagascar
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 11 30 S, 47 20 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 5 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Ile Glorieuse, Ile du Lys, Verte Rocks, Wreck Rock, and South Rock
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about eight times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 35.2 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low and flat
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 12 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano, coconuts
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (all lush vegetation and coconut palms)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
------
Glorioso_Islands/People|988744488
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Glorioso_Islands/Government|988744517
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Glorioso Islands
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Iles Glorieuses
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GO
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (possession of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (possession of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Glorioso_Islands/Economy|988744547
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b> no economic activity
------
Glorioso_Islands/Communications|988744573
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Glorioso_Islands/Transportation|988744594
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Glorioso_Islands/Military|988744622
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Glorioso_Islands/Transnational_issues|988744646
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> claimed by Madagascar
------
Countries_of_the_world|988744832
166,167c166,168
<    * [[Austria]]
<    * [[Denmark]]
---
>    * [[Austria]] - [[Vienna]]
>    * [[Belgium]] - [[Brussels]]
>    * [[Denmark]] - [[Kopenhagen]]
177a179
>    * [[Luxembourg]] - [[Luxembourg]]
181,182c183,184
<    * [[Sweden]]
<    * [[Switzerland]] - [[Zurich]]
---
>    * [[Sweden]] - [[Stockholm]]
>    * [[Switzerland]] - [[Bern]]
------
Amsterdam|988745092
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[Holland]].
> 
> The city is well known for its red light district, [[de Wallen]], its numerous [[coffee shop]]s, the [[Rijksmuseum]].
------
Brussels|988745539
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The capital of [[Belgium]].
> 
> The [[European Commission]] resides in Brussels as well as all major ministries of the European Administration.
> 
> The language frontier divides Brussels into a northern, [[Flamish]] speaking, part and a southern, [[French]] speaking, part.
> 
> Highlights: [[Manneke Pis]], Belgian cuisine
------
HyperReal_numbers|988745815
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The hyperreals are defined in a particular way. ''Everything'' which can be expressed about the real numbers using logical formulae and every last conceivable and inconceivable function upon them, is held to be constant. For example, if it is the case that for every real number there is another number greater than it, then this must also hold for the hyperreals. The difference lies in things which cannot be expressed in logical formulae. In the hyperreal number system, there is a number greater than every real number. Infinite numbers exist as actual numbers which can be pinpointed rather than symbolizing an undefined concept.
> 
> Since everything which holds for the reals must hold for the hyperreals, if you add 1 to an infinite number, you must get a different and greater infinite number. If you multiply an infinite number by 2 then you get another infinite number. If you take the reciprocal of an infinite number then you get an infinitesimal. And that's why the hyperreals were invented; the infinitesimals.
> 
> Infinitesimals exist ''between'' the reals. However, in any finite interval between two reals there must be another real so the infinitesimals seem to exist in no space at all. No real space certainly. This has led some mathematicians to describe the infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed numbers.
> 
> When calculus was first invented, infinitesimals were the natural and intuitive way in which it was expressed. It took many decades for mathematicians to invent the epsilon-delta definition of a limit but it took longer for a rigorous definition of infinitesimals. Unfortunately, the intuitive notion of an infinitesimal needed the invention of mathematical logic to be rigorously defined. And now that we have such a definition, calculus students are still taught that infinitesimals do not exist. For all its comparative simplicity, few people learn of non-standard analysis and the hyperreal number system *R.
------
Manneke_Pis|988745953
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Statue in the streets of [[Brussels]], depicting a little boy urinating.
> 
> In (when), Brussels was under siege by a foreign power (which?).  The city had held their ground for quite some time.  The attackers had thought of a plan to place explosive charges (where?).  A little boy from Brussels happened to be spying on them as they were preparing.  He urinated on the burning fuse and thus saved the city.
------
Theorem-proving|988746415
6a7,10
> A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of Modus Ponens. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying Modus Ponens to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
> 
> Closely related to theorem proving is AutomatedTheoremProving.
> 
------
Business_and_Industry|988746660
7a8
> * [[consumer electronics]]
22c23
< See also: [[Economics]]
---
> See also: [[Economics]]
------
Psychology|988746826
4a5,6
> * [[Alice Miller]]
> * [[Lloyd deMause]]
------
Psychology|988746957
16a17
> * [[psychohistory]]
------
Theorem-proving|988747958
7c7
< A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of Modus Ponens. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying Modus Ponens to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
---
> A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of [[Modus Ponens]]. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying Modus Ponens to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
9c9
< Closely related to theorem proving is AutomatedTheoremProving.
---
> Closely related to theorem proving is [[automated theorem proving]].
11c11
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Cosmology|988748010
6c6
< * [[Inflation]]
---
> * [[/Inflation]]
------
Theorem-proving|988748170
7c7
< A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of [[Modus Ponens]]. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying Modus Ponens to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
---
> A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of [[modus ponens]]. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying [[modus ponens]] to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
------
Modus_ponens|988748239
19a20,23
> 
> ----
> 
> See also: [[modus tollens]].
------
Modus_tollens|988748327
20a21,24
> 
> ----
> 
> See also: [[modus ponens]].
------
Cosmology/Inflation|988748952
1,4c1,9
< Idea that the universe passes through a phase of exponential
< expansion, driven by some [[potential]]. After this expansion,
< all our observable universe comes from an initially [[causally connected]] region. Also, [[quatum fluctuation]]s are amplified,
< and become the seed for the growing of structure (''See [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]'')
---
> Inflation is the idea that the universe passes through a phase of exponential
> expansion, driven by a positive vacuum energy density. After this expansion,
> all our observable universe comes from an initially [[causally connected]] region. Also, [[quatum fluctuation]]s are amplified, and become the seeds for the growth of structures (''See [[Galaxy Formation and Evolution]]'')
> 
> Inflation resolves many problems in cosmology. Among these are its observed flatness, homogeneity and the lack of any observed topological defects. Topological defects (kinks in a massless scalar field) such as monopoles, cosmic strings and domain walls are predicted by most Grand Unified Theories.
> 
> There are few viable alternatives to Inflation. A new (2001) candidate is a theory produced from work in the field formerly known as superstrings (now called M-theory). Its proponents claim that a multi-dimensional membrane collision could produce the Big Bang.
> 
> Membrane collisions are inevitable in M-theory, but Inflation is also inevitable with a massless scalar field such as is predicted by most GUTs.
------
NobelPrize/EconomicSciences|988749008
16,38c16,35
< 
< (we need to continue reformatting the following names into free links)
< 
< *1988 -- MauriceAllais
< *1987 -- RobertSolow
< *1986 -- JamesBuchananJr
< *1985 -- FrancoModigliani
< *1984 -- RichardStone
< *1983 -- GerardDebreu
< *1982 -- GeorgeStigler
< *1981 -- JamesTobin
< *1980 -- LawrenceKlein
< *1979 -- TheodoreSchultz, ArthurLewis
< *1978 -- HerbertSimon
< *1977 -- BertilOhlin, JamesMeade
< *1976 -- MiltonFriedman
< *1975 -- LeonidKantorovich, TjallingKoopmans
< *1974 -- GunnarMyrdal, FriedrichHayek
< *1973 -- WassilyLeontief
< *1972 -- JohnHicks, KennethArrow
< *1971 -- SimonKuznets
< *1970 -- PaulSamuelson
< *1969 -- RagnarFrisch, JanTinbergen
---
> *1988 -- [[Maurice Allais]]
> *1987 -- [[Robert Solow]]
> *1986 -- [[James Buchanan Jr]]
> *1985 -- [[Franco Modigliani]]
> *1984 -- [[Richard Stone]]
> *1983 -- [[Gerard Debreu]]
> *1982 -- [[George Stigler]]
> *1981 -- [[James Tobin]]
> *1980 -- [[Lawrence Klein]]
> *1979 -- [[Theodore Schultz]], [[Arthur Lewis]]
> *1978 -- [[Herbert Simon]]
> *1977 -- [[Bertil Ohlin]], [[James Meade]]
> *1976 -- [[Milton Friedman]]
> *1975 -- [[Leonid Kantorovich]], [[Tjalling Koopmans]]
> *1974 -- [[Gunnar Myrdal]], [[Friedrich Hayek]]
> *1973 -- [[Wassily Leontief]]
> *1972 -- [[John Hicks]], [[Kenneth Arrow]]
> *1971 -- [[Simon Kuznets]]
> *1970 -- [[Paul Samuelson]]
> *1969 -- RagnarFrisch, JanTinbergen
------
City|988749096
2a3,6
> 
> <b>[[Belgium]]</b>
> * [[Brussels]]
> 
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|988749724
21,52c21,52
< :1904
< :Lord (John William Strutt) Rayleigh
< ::"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"
< 
< :1905
< :Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard
< ::"for his work on cathode rays"
< 
< :1906
< :Sir Joseph John Thomson
< ::"in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"
< 
< :1907
< :Albert Abraham Michelson
< ::"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid"
< 
< :1908
< :Gabriel Lippmann
< ::"for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
< 
< :1909
< :Guglielmo Marconi
< :Carl Ferdinand Braun
< ::"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"
< 
< :1910
< :Johannes Diderik van der Waals
< ::"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids"
< 
< :1911
< :Wilhelm Wien
< ::"for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat"
---
> :<code>1904</code>
> :<b>Lord (John William Strutt) Rayleigh</b>
> ::<i>"for his investigations of the densities of the most important gases and for his discovery of argon in connection with these studies"</i>
> 
> :<code>1905</code>
> :<b>Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard</b>
> ::<i>"for his work on cathode rays"</i>
> 
> :<code>1906</code>
> :<b>Sir Joseph John Thomson</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of the great merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases"</i>
> 
> :<code>1907</code>
> :<b>Albert Abraham Michelson</b>
> ::<i>"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid"</i>
> 
> :<code>1908</code>
> :<b>Gabriel Lippmann</b>
> ::<i>"for his method of reproducing colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"</i>
> 
> :<code>1909</code>
> :<b>Guglielmo Marconi</b>
> :<b>Carl Ferdinand Braun</b>
> ::<i>"in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy"</i>
> 
> :<code>1910</code>
> :<b>Johannes Diderik van der Waals</b>
> ::<i>"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids"</i>
> 
> :<code>1911</code>
> :<b>Wilhelm Wien</b>
> ::<i>"for his discoveries regarding the laws governing the radiation of heat"</i>
90,92c90,92
< :1921
< :Albert Einstein
< ::"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"
---
> :<code>1921</code>
> :<b>[[Albert Einstein]]</b>
> ::<i>"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect"</i>
------
Euclidean_geometry|988753884
5c5,6
< It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
---
> In world models based on [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]]  space can be Riemannian, Lobachevskian or Euclidean, depending on the matter-energy density of the universe
> being greater, smaller, or equal to a critical value, respectively. 
------
Parallax|988754218
7c7,11
< On a cosmic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closer [[star]]s, and remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods. 
---
> On a galactic scale, parallax created by the different orbital positions of the earth causes the stars to seem to move.  Measurements in parallax as the Earth goes through its orbit was the first reliable way to determine the distances to the closest [[star]]s, and remains the standard for calibrating other measurement methods (after the size of the orbit or the earth
> is measured by radar reflection on other planets). In the 90's,
> a space telescope called "Hipparcus" was launched with the only
> purpose of obtaining parallaxes and [[proper motion]]s of nearby
> stars, increasing the reach of the method ten-fold.
------
Euclidean_geometry|988758269
5,6c5
< In world models based on [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]]  space can be Riemannian, Lobachevskian or Euclidean, depending on the matter-energy density of the universe
< being greater, smaller, or equal to a critical value, respectively. 
---
> It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
------
Galaxy_Formation_and_Evolution|988758278
1,6c1
< It is now widely accepted that the [[universe]] had a period
< in the past when it was extremely hot and dense, and remarkable
< homogeneous, and since then expansion has decreased its density
< and lowered it's temperature. The homogeneity 
< can be observed in the [[microwave cosmic backgroud]], whose
< fluctuations are smaller than 1 in 10^5.
---
> It is now widely accepted that the [[universe]] had a period in the past when it was extremely hot and dense, and remarkably homogeneous, and since then expansion has decreased its density and lowered its temperature. The homogeneity can be observed in the [[microwave cosmic backgroud]], whose fluctuations are smaller than 1 in 10^5.
8,10c3
< The questions of galaxy formation and evolutions is ''How, from
< such a homogeneous universe, we obtained the very inhomogeneous 
< one we live on?'', ''How did galaxies form?'', ''How have they changed in the past''.
---
> The questions of galaxy formation and evolution are ''How, from such a homogeneous universe, did we obtain the very inhomogeneous one we live in?'', ''How did galaxies form?'', ''How have galaxies changed in the past?''
12,17c5,6
< The most accepted view is that all the structure we observe today
< was formed as a consequence of the growing of primordial fluctuations by gravitational instability.
< Galaxies have formed in a "bottom up" process in which smaller
< units merge and form larger units.
< In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ("clusters")
< are still assembling.
---
> The most accepted view is that all the structure we observe today was formed as a consequence of the growing of primordial fluctuations by gravitational instability.
> Galaxies have formed in a "bottom up" process in which smaller units merge and form larger units.  In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ("clusters") are still assembling.
------
Theorem-proving|988758857
7c7
< A theorem in mathematical logic is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of [[modus ponens]]. It would be more natural to define a theorem as a binary tree where all leaf nodes are assumptions or tautologies and all internal nodes follow from applying [[modus ponens]] to the branches. But this is math we're talking about, not computer science.
---
> In mathematical logic, a derivation is defined as a sequence of statements, each of which is either 1) an assumption, 2) a tautology, or 3) follows from two previous statements by the rule of [[modus ponens]] - the idea is that the statements form a tree, with assumptions and tautologies at the leaves.  A theorem is any statement which has a derivation.
11c11
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
HyperReal_numbers|988761576
7c7,11
< When calculus was first invented, infinitesimals were the natural and intuitive way in which it was expressed. It took many decades for mathematicians to invent the epsilon-delta definition of a limit but it took longer for a rigorous definition of infinitesimals. Unfortunately, the intuitive notion of an infinitesimal needed the invention of mathematical logic to be rigorously defined. And now that we have such a definition, calculus students are still taught that infinitesimals do not exist. For all its comparative simplicity, few people learn of non-standard analysis and the hyperreal number system *R.
---
> When calculus was first invented, infinitesimals were the natural and intuitive way in which it was expressed. It took many decades for mathematicians to invent the epsilon-delta definition of a limit but it took longer for a rigorous definition of infinitesimals. Unfortunately, the intuitive notion of an infinitesimal needed the invention of mathematical logic to be rigorously defined. And now that we have such a definition, calculus students are still taught that infinitesimals do not exist. For all its comparative simplicity, few people learn of non-standard analysis and the hyperreal number system *R.
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't think epsilon-delta definitions are really that unintuitive, and they have the advantage of working entirely within R, where infinitesimals don't exist.  But they're still very cumbersome and tend to give miraculous results that should be obvious with a better set up.  I've heard of hyperreals but never seen a treatment - any chance you could augment the above with a formal construction and/or axiomatization?  Thanks!
------
HyperReal_numbers|988761609
11c11
< I don't think epsilon-delta definitions are really that unintuitive, and they have the advantage of working entirely within R, where infinitesimals don't exist.  But they're still very cumbersome and tend to give miraculous results that should be obvious with a better set up.  I've heard of hyperreals but never seen a treatment - any chance you could augment the above with a formal construction and/or axiomatization?  Thanks!
---
> I don't think epsilon-delta definitions are really that unintuitive, and they have the advantage of working entirely within the reals, where infinitesimals truly ''don't'' exist.  But they're still very cumbersome and tend to give miraculous results that should be obvious with a better set up.  I've heard of hyperreals but never seen a treatment - any chance you could augment the above with a formal construction and/or axiomatization?  Thanks!
------
HyperReal_numbers|988761677
11c11
< I don't think epsilon-delta definitions are really that unintuitive, and they have the advantage of working entirely within the reals, where infinitesimals truly ''don't'' exist.  But they're still very cumbersome and tend to give miraculous results that should be obvious with a better set up.  I've heard of hyperreals but never seen a treatment - any chance you could augment the above with a formal construction and/or axiomatization?  Thanks!
---
> I don't think epsilon-delta definitions are really that unintuitive, and they have the advantage of working entirely within the reals, where infinitesimals truly ''don't'' exist.  But they're still very cumbersome and tend to give miraculous results that should be obvious with a better set up.  The only formal construction I've seen of differentials is as members of a cotangent space, which is no help at all.  I've heard of hyperreals but never seen a treatment - any chance you could augment the above with a formal construction and/or axiomatization for us less enlightened?  Thanks!
------
Cosmology|988762050
2a3,4
> ''We sure about this last one - souldn't creationism count as a cosmogony rather than a cosmology per se?  At least I remember some books not counting simple creationism as a cosmology while still including models like neptunism.''
> 
------
Martin_Scorcese|988768276
1,12c1
< Famous Films:
< 
< :[[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore]]
< :[[Bringing out the Dead]]
< :[[Casino Scorsese|Casino]]
< :[[Goodfellas]]
< :[[King of Comedy]]
< :[[Kundun]]
< :[[Mean Streets]]
< :[[Raging Bull]]
< :[[Taxi Driver]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT Martin Scorsese
------
Martin_Scorcese|988768293
1c1
< #REDIRECT Martin Scorsese
---
> #REDIRECT [[Martin Scorsese]]
------
Martin_Scorsese|988768305
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore]]
> :[[Bringing out the Dead]]
> :[[Casino Scorsese|Casino]]
> :[[Goodfellas]]
> :[[King of Comedy]]
> :[[Kundun]]
> :[[Mean Streets]]
> :[[Raging Bull]]
> :[[Taxi Driver]]
------
Film_Directors|988768365
49c49
< :[[Martin Scorcese]]
---
> :[[Martin Scorsese]]
------
Raging_Bull|988769022
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scorsese film in which [[Robert De Niro]] plays [[Jake La Motta]], a temperamental and paranoid but tenacious boxer who alienates himself from his friends and family.
------
Euclidean_geometry|988769916
1c1
< [[Geometry]] as described in the ''Elements'' of [[Euclid]], based on five axioms, including the famous fifth postulate, called the "parallel postulate," that states that through a point not on a straight line, one and only one parallel line can be drawn.
---
> The [[geometry]] described by [[Euclid]] in the ''Elements''.  Euclid based his work on five axioms, including as fifth the ''parallel postulate'', stating that through a point not on a straight line, one and only one parallel line can be drawn.  The parallel postulate seems less obvious then the others and many geometers tried in vain to prove it from them. 
3c3
< In the 19th century, one of the most important discoveries of mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy, was the discovery of so-called [[non-euclidean geometries]], i.e., geometries that are built on denials of the parallel postulate: either that an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or that none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  The "discovery" was that these alternate geometries are logically self-consistent.
---
> In the 19th century, though, it was discovered that this could not be done by constructing [[non-euclidean geometries]] where the parallel postulate is false, and either an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  That other geometries could be logically consistent was one of the most important discoveries in mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy.  Indeed, [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrates that actual space is non-euclidan. ''(Doesn't Riemann imply isotropy?)''
5c5,7
< It is said that [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrated that actual space is Riemannian, rather than Euclidean or Lobachevskian.
---
> Another thing that was noticed at the time was that Euclid's five axioms are actually fairly incomplete.  For instance one of his theorems is that any line segment is part of a triangle, which he constructs in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection and them as three corners.  However, his axioms do not guarantee that the circles actually do intersect!  [[Hilbert]] gave a revised list containing no fewer than 23 separate axioms.
> 
> Nowadays Euclidean geometry is usually constructed rather than axiomatized, by means of analytic geometry.  Details pending, oo the excitement.
------
Euclidean_geometry|988770714
7c7,15
< Nowadays Euclidean geometry is usually constructed rather than axiomatized, by means of analytic geometry.  Details pending, oo the excitement.
---
> Nowadays Euclidean geometry is usually constructed rather than axiomatized, by means of analytic geometry.  A rectangular coordinate system maps each point in Euclidean space with a unique list of n real numbers (x1,...,xn), so we can define it to be the set of all such lists (R<sup>n</sup>).  We also define our metric (distance function) d by
> 
> d(x,y)<sup>2</sup> = (x1 - y1)<sup>2</sup> + ... + (xn - yn)<sup>2</sup>
> 
> which you might recognise as an application of the Pythagorean theorem.  Maps that preserve the distance between all pairs of points are called ''isometries'', and include reflections, rotations, translations, and compositions thereof.  In matrix notation any of these have the form
> 
> x' = Ax + b
> 
> where A is a [[special orthogonal matrix]] and b is a column vector.  Isometries are taken as the congruences of Euclidean geometry - that is, we only consider properties preserved by them.  That way we do not have to worry about the precise origin or axes, but still consider distances, angles, and so forth.
------
Mean_Streets|988770726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Martin Scorsese|Scorsese]] film in which [[Harvey Keitel]] plays Charlie, a man who is trying to move up in the crime world and who is hampered by his responsibility towards his dimwitted cousin (played by [[Robert De Niro]].  Charlie is in love with a woman who has epilepsy and works for his uncle collecting debts; his uncle disapproves of his girlfriend <i>because</i> she has epilepsy; and Charlie is probably too forgiving in general to get far in the mafia.   Scorsese's feature film debut, after his student film project [[Whos That Knocking at My Door]], Mean Streets was based on events Scorsese saw growing up in Little Italy. Released in 1973; features a memorable early 60s soundtrack.  De Niro won the [[National Society of Film Critics]] award for Best Actor for his role as Johnny Boy Cervello.
------
Cosmology|988777292
3,4d2
< ''We sure about this last one - souldn't creationism count as a cosmogony rather than a cosmology per se?  At least I remember some books not counting simple creationism as a cosmology while still including models like neptunism.''
< 
------
Cosmology|988777455
12a13,14
> 
> /Talk
------
Cosmology/Talk|988777758
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Any notion that cosmology is limited to the branch of ''physics'' called 'cosmology' belies an ignorance of the ''millennia-long'' traditions of cosmology in religion and philosophy which in turn belies a lack of grounding in the liberal arts.
> 
> Please see these web pages:
> :http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04413a.htm
> :http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04405c.htm
> 
> Probably, we will want separate articles, "cosmology (physics)" (if 'cosmology' is indeed the usual, most technical, hip, and up-to-date term for the study of the origins of the universe) and "cosmology (religion and philosophy)."
> 
> --Larry
------
Geologic_Timescale|988787013
8,9c8,9
<  | [[Eocene]]     | [[Palaeogene]]|               |               |
<  | [[Paleocene]]  |            |               |               |
---
>  | [[Eocene]]      | [[Palaeogene]]|               |               |
>  | [[Paleocene]]   |            |               |               |
11c11
<  |    [[Cretaceous]]           | [[Mesozoic]]     |               |
---
>  |    [[Cretaceous]]            | [[Mesozoic]]     |               |
15c15
<  |    [[Jurassic]]             |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Jurassic]]              |               |               |
18c18
<  |    [[Triassic]]             |               |               |
---
>  |    [[Triassic]]              |               |               |
20c20
<  |    [[Permian]]               | [[Palaeozoic]]   |               |
---
>  |    [[Permian]]               | [[Palaeozoic]]    |               |
------
Eocene|988787231
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Eocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 36 million to 58 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The name Eocene refers to the dawn of modern ('new') mammalian faunas that appeared during the epoch.  The Eocene follows the [[Paleocene]] [[Epoch]] and is followed by the [[Oligocene]] [[Epoch]]. The Eocene is the second epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
>  
> The start of the Eocene is marked by the emergence of the first modern mammals.  The End is set at a major extinction event that may be related to the impact of large extraterrestrial objects in Siberia and/or near Chesapeake Bay.
> 
> Continents continued to drift toward their present positions.  Climates remained warm although slow global cooling that eventual led to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations started around  end of the Eocene.  Mountain building in Western North America started in the late Eocene.  There appears to have been a land bridge between North America and Europe as the faunas of the two regions are very similar.  Important Eocene land faunas are found in Western North America, Europe, Patagonia, Egypt and SouthEast Asia.  Marine faunas are best known from South Asia and the SouthEast United States. 
> 
> During the Eocene plants and marine faunas became quite modern.  The first Charcharinid sharks appeared as did early marine mammals.  On land, early forms of many modern mammalian orders appeared including [[ungulates]], [[bats]], [[probiscidians]], [[prtimates]], and [[rodents]].  Older forms declined.  Many modern orders of birds first appear in the Eocene.
------
City|988788186
48a49,51
> <b>[[Turkey]]</b>
> * [[Istanbul]]
> 
------
Aegean_Sea|988788425
1c1
< Aegean Sea (Greek Aigaion, Turkish Ege) is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea and it is located between Greek peninsula and Anatolia (Asia Minor) of Turkey. It is connected to the Marmara and Black Seas by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. As the birthplace of two ancient great civilizations (Crete and Greece), the Aegean Sea was later inhabited by Romans, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. In ancient ages, the Aegean islands have made the area the craddle of civilization and a sample model for today’s democratic states, by providing opportunity for sea travels, trade and exchange of knowledge. The combination of several diverse civilizations of Eastern Mediterranean region has thus been possible with this special geographic feature. The islands can be simply divided into seven groups: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands, the Dodecanese and Crete. 
---
> Aegean Sea (Greek Aigaion, Turkish Ege) is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea and it is located between Greek peninsula and Anatolia (Asia Minor) of Turkey. It is connected to the Marmara and Black Seas by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. As the birthplace of two ancient great civilizations (Crete and Greece), the Aegean Sea was later inhabited by Persians, Romans, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]. In ancient ages, the Aegean islands have made the area the craddle of civilization and a sample model for today’s democratic states, by providing opportunity for sea travels, trade and exchange of knowledge. The combination of several diverse civilizations of Eastern Mediterranean region has thus been possible with this special geographic feature. The islands can be simply divided into seven groups: the Thracian Sea group, the East Aegean group, the Northern Sporades, the Cyclades, the Saronic Islands, the Dodecanese and Crete. 
------
A_Clockwork_Orange|988791240
7a8
> /Talk
------
A_Clockwork_Orange/Talk|988791375
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Malcolm, you removed the following from the article:
> :The film caused some controversy at the time in Britain for its violence, with the press blaming an attack on a homeless person on the influence of the film: the outcry annoyed Kubrick so much that he personally withdrew the film from distribution in the United Kingdom. As a result, the film could not be seen in Britain for some 27 years, until after Kubrick's death.
> Seems to be useful information if true.  Why not include it? --[[LMS]]
------
HyperReal_numbers|988791727
11a12,13
> ----
> Is there some reason this page is named "HyperReal numbers" rather than "Hyperreal numbers"?
------
Marcel_Achard|988791749
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Marcel Achard</b> 1899 -- 1974
> 
> French playwright and scriptwriter.
------
Huntingtons_Chorea|988792031
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Huntingtons disease or Huntingtons chorea is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body movements called chorea and loss of memory. The incidence is about 1/200000. The causative gene (which is one of the first identified to cause an inherited disease) is located on chromosome 4. The product of this gene is called as huntingtin and the continous accumulation of this protein in neuronal cells gives rise to cell death especially in frontal lobes and basal ganglia (mainly in the caudate nucleus) by some unknown mechanism. The symptoms usually start in the 4th decade and include loss of cognitive functions, personality changes, quick jerking movements of face and body and unsteady gate. The diagnosis is established by neurological examination findings and the demonstration of cell loss especially in the caudate nucleus by a cranial CT or MRI scan is supportive. Although dopamine receptor blockers may have restricted benefits, there is no definite treatment for disease.
------
A_Clockwork_Orange/Talk|988794311
3c3,5
< Seems to be useful information if true.  Why not include it? --[[LMS]]
---
> Seems to be useful information if true.  Why not include it? --[[LMS]]
> 
> Oops...I must have deleted it accidentally when I added the plot summary. And, yes, it's true. I saw it when it was released, I remember the press outcry shortly after (as if teenage males have ever required <i>any</i> reason other than alcohol for unprovoked assaults) , and I remember it being almost totally impossible to see it in the Uk for all that time, barring a few unauthorised showings here and there.  When it  finally became available on video in the UK last year, it hit the bestseller charts for some weeks.- [[Malcolm Farmer]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/December_7|988794659
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1941 - The Japanese attack on [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] brings America officially into World War II
------
Historical_anniversaries|988794709
10c10
< :[[/January 21|21]] [[/January 22|22]] [[/January 23|23]] [[/January 24|24]]  [[/January 25|25]] [[26|26]]  [[/January 27|27]]  [[/January 28|28]]  [[/January 29|29]]  [[/January 30|30]] 
---
> :[[/January 21|21]] [[/January 22|22]] [[/January 23|23]] [[/January 24|24]]  [[/January 25|25]] [[26|26]]  [[/January 27|27]]  [[/January 28|28]]  [[/January 29|29]]  [[/January 30|30]]
84c84
< ''What a great page--thanks!''
---
> ''What a great page--thanks!''
------
A_Clockwork_Orange/Talk|988795335
5a6,11
> 
> And an afterthought:
> 
> http://www.telegraph.co.uk:80/et?ac=004904839349933&rtmo=3SnBxHuM&atmo=rrrrrrrq&pg=/et/99/9/13/wfil113.html 
> 
> which matches my memory of events, other than I got the year wrong!
------
A_Clockwork_Orange|988795357
5c5
< It was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1973, starring Malcolm McDowell as Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
---
> It was adapted into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in 1971, starring Malcolm McDowell as Alex. (It would appear, from one of Burgess' later novels, <i>The Clockwork testament</i>, that Burgess himself may not have been too pleased by the adaptation that made it to the screen)
8c8
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Stanley_Kubrick|988796340
9a10
> :[[Barry Lyndon]]
------
Paralysis|988796941
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The complete loss of muscle function. Major causes are [[stroke]], trauma, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), botulism and Guillain-Barre syndrome. It may be localized (in a disorder called Bell's palsy only the nerve responsible from the movements of the facial muscles is affacted) or generalized (stroke patients may present with the paralysis of one or both sides of the body).
------
Roman_Empire|988798083
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This term is used for three different concepts: 
> 1. The lands of ancient Rome. 
> 2. The government and empire established in ancient Rome in 27 BC, the [Early Empire (27BC–284AD) and the Later Empire (284–476AD)]. 
> 3. A later empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, established as the continuum of the ancient Roman Empire on its easternmost territories after the division of the empire as Western and Eastern Roman Empire in 395AD. 
------
Roman_Empire|988799273
3,4c3,4
< 2. The government and empire established in ancient Rome in 27 BC, the [Early Empire (27BC–284AD) and the Later Empire (284–476AD)]. 
< 3. A later empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire, established as the continuum of the ancient Roman Empire on its easternmost territories after the division of the empire as Western and Eastern Roman Empire in 395AD. 
---
> 2. The government and empire established in ancient Rome in 27 BC, the [Early Empire (27BC-284AD) and the Later Empire (284-476AD)]. 
> 3. A later empire, also known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], established as the continuum of the ancient Roman Empire on its easternmost territories after the division of the empire as Western and Eastern Roman Empire in 395AD. 
------
Amsterdam|988799619
1c1
< Capital of [[Holland]].
---
> Capital of the [[Netherlands]], about 800,000 inhabitants.
3c3
< The city is well known for its red light district, [[de Wallen]], its numerous [[coffee shop]]s, the [[Rijksmuseum]].
---
> The city is well known for its red light district, [[de Wallen]], its numerous [[coffee shop]]s, the [[Rijksmuseum]].
------
Netherlands|988799754
9c9
< The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller towns of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Lutjebroek]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
---
> The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
------
Cerebrovascular_Accident|988800114
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cerebrovascular accident (CVA or [[stroke]]) is the loss of brain functions due to the disruption of blood supply to a part of brain. It is mainly caused either by the occlusion(ischemic stroke) or the rupture (hemorrhagic stroke) of a cerebral vessel. The ischemic stroke is usually caused by atherosclerosis (hardening) of blood vessels, embolus (a piece of blood clot originating from atherosclerotic plaque or heart) or small artery disease (the occlusion of small cerebral vessels by the influence of such presumed factors as diabetes mellitus, elevated blood lipid levels, hypertension and cigarette smoling).
------
Sunni_Muslims|988801954
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Members of one of the two major divisions of Islam (also known as Sunnite). They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammad and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammad) is a major source of religion. On the contrary Shiites consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
------
Sunni_Muslims|988802253
1c1
< Members of one of the two major divisions of Islam (also known as Sunnite). They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammad and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammad) is a major source of religion. On the contrary Shiites consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
---
> Members of one of the two major divisions of Islam (also known as Sunnite). They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammed (or [[Muhammad]]) and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammed) is a major source of religion. On the contrary [[Shiites]] consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
------
Shiites|988802428
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Members of the second largest division of Islam (approximately %10-15 of all Muslims). They accept Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, as the legal successor of Muhammad and disregard three of other four caliphs who succeeded him. 
------
Amsterdam|988810326
1c1
< Capital of the [[Netherlands]], about 800,000 inhabitants.
---
> Capital of the [[Netherlands]], about 800,000 inhabitants, built around a pattern of semicircular canals. Second capital of the country is Den Haag (The Hague). 
3c3
< The city is well known for its red light district, [[de Wallen]], its numerous [[coffee shop]]s, the [[Rijksmuseum]].
---
> The city is well known for its red light district, [[de Wallen]], its numerous [[coffee shop]]s with legalized marijuana, the [[Rijksmuseum]], Van Gogh Museum, Rembrandt House Museum, Anne Frank's house.
------
Netherlands|988811045
1c1
< Better known as [[Holland]], the Netherlands is a country in the 
---
> Also known as [[Holland]], the Netherlands is a country in the 
4,5c4
< It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, having 16 million inhabitants on a piece of land of about 300 by 150 kilometers. One remarkable aspect of the Netherlands is the flatness of the country. About half the country is less than 1 meter above sea level, some parts of it are actually below sea level. The highest point, the [[Vaalserberg]] is only 321m high.
< Much of the land has been reclaimed from the sea - these areas of reclaimed land are known as [[polders]]
---
> It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, having 16 million inhabitants on a piece of land of about 300 by 150 kilometers. One remarkable aspect of the Netherlands is the flatness of the country. About half the country is less than 1 meter above sea level, some parts of it are actually below sea level. The highest point, the [[Vaalserberg]] is only 321m high. These low areas are protected by dikes and sea walls. Much of the land has been reclaimed from the sea - these areas of reclaimed land are known as [[polders]]
9c8
< The capital of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch) and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
---
> The capitals of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]] and [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch), other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [['s Gravenhage]] and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
11c10,12
< The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade.
---
> The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade, tulips, windmills and wooden shoes. Other famous Dutch manufactures are cheese (Edam, Gouda, Leiden, Limburger) and Delftware pottery. 
> 
> Major religions of the Netherlands include the Reformed Church, Roman Catholic,...
------
GNU/GPL|988813066
13c13
<  of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
---
>  of this license document, but cahnging it is not allowed.
------
Richard_Stallman|988813313
3c3
< See [[GNU]]
---
> See [[GNU]] and [http://www.stallman.org his personal page].
------
Disease|988813588
19c19
< ** Rheumatoid arthritis, [[Scleroderma]]
---
> ** Rheumatoid arthritis, [[Scleroderma]], [[myasthenia gravis]]
------
Myasthenia_gravis|988814541
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A disorder of neuromuscular transmission leading to fluctuating weakness and fatigue. A myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis and assisted ventilation may be required. It is one of the best known autoimmune diseases and the antigens and disease mechanisms have well been identified. Weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is a chemical substance that sustains muscle contraction by stimulating the muscle fibers by binding to its receptors. The immunologic reaction against these receptors and consecutive damage of the neuromuscular endplate give rise to deficient stimulation of muscle fibers. Patients frequently present with restricted movements of eye muscles and eyelids, difficulty swallowing and speaking, generalized weakness and faritgue. Myasthenia gravis is usually treated by cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, thymectomy and plasma exchange. Although the term gravis means grave, recent developments in disease treatment  have made the prognosis more favourable. However a considerable portion of patients still apply to the intensive care units for assisted ventilation. 
------
Myasthenia_gravis|988814831
1c1
< A disorder of neuromuscular transmission leading to fluctuating weakness and fatigue. A myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis and assisted ventilation may be required. It is one of the best known autoimmune diseases and the antigens and disease mechanisms have well been identified. Weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is a chemical substance that sustains muscle contraction by stimulating the muscle fibers by binding to its receptors. The immunologic reaction against these receptors and consecutive damage of the neuromuscular endplate give rise to deficient stimulation of muscle fibers. Patients frequently present with restricted movements of eye muscles and eyelids, difficulty swallowing and speaking, generalized weakness and faritgue. Myasthenia gravis is usually treated by cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, thymectomy and plasma exchange. Although the term gravis means grave, recent developments in disease treatment  have made the prognosis more favourable. However a considerable portion of patients still apply to the intensive care units for assisted ventilation. 
---
> A disorder of neuromuscular transmission leading to fluctuating weakness and fatigue. A myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis and assisted ventilation may be required. It is one of the best known autoimmune diseases and the antigens and disease mechanisms have well been identified. Weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is a chemical substance that sustains muscle contraction by stimulating the muscle fibers by binding to its receptors. The immunologic reaction against these receptors and consecutive damage of the neuromuscular endplate give rise to deficient stimulation of muscle fibers. Patients frequently present with restricted movements of eye muscles and eyelids, difficulty swallowing and speaking, generalized weakness and fatigue. Myasthenia gravis is usually treated by cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, thymectomy and plasma exchange. Although the term gravis means grave, recent developments in disease treatment  have made the prognosis more favourable. However a considerable portion of patients still apply to the intensive care units for assisted ventilation. 
------
Cosmology/Talk|988816715
9c9,13
< --Larry
---
> --Larry
> 
> ----
> 
> Ok.  I wasn't ignoring the traditions, I just figured the term cosmology didn't apply to them.  There is a second word, cosmogony, floating around and if cosmology isn't inherently a branch of science (I wasn't figuring inherently physics) then I'm not sure what the distinction is.  Someone should put up a [[cosmogony]] page and explain it.
------
History_of_Islam|988816781
3c3
< After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state.  The next three caliphs were all relatives of the prophet, but were succeeded by another household, a change not universally accepted, leading to the major division in the Islamic church between the majority of Sunnites and the minority of Shiites.  The new household was the first major caliphate dynasty, the Umayyads, who conquered the Sassanid empire (Persia) and the southern Byzantine provinces as far as Spain.
---
> After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state.  The next three caliphs were all relatives of the prophet, but were succeeded by another household, a change not universally accepted, leading to the major division in the Islamic church between the majority of [[Sunni Muslim|Sunnite]]s and the minority of [[Shiite]]s.  The new household was the first major caliphate dynasty, the Umayyads, who conquered the Sassanid empire (Persia) and the southern Byzantine provinces as far as Spain.
------
Sunni_Muslims|988816824
1c1
< Members of one of the two major divisions of Islam (also known as Sunnite). They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammed (or [[Muhammad]]) and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammed) is a major source of religion. On the contrary [[Shiites]] consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sunnite]]
------
Sunnite|988816860
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Suni muslims, or Sunnites, are members of one of the two major divisions of Islam.  They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammed (or [[Muhammad]]) and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammed) is a major source of religion. On the contrary [[Shiites]] consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
------
Sunnite|988816870
1c1
< Suni muslims, or Sunnites, are members of one of the two major divisions of Islam.  They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammed (or [[Muhammad]]) and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammed) is a major source of religion. On the contrary [[Shiites]] consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
---
> Sunni muslims, or Sunnites, are members of one of the two major divisions of Islam.  They consider the first four caliphs as the legal successors of Mohammed (or [[Muhammad]]) and believe that Sunna (the words and acts of Mohammed) is a major source of religion. On the contrary [[Shiites]] consider the fourth caliph (Ali) as the legal successor of Mohammed.
------
History_of_Islam|988816888
3c3
< After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state.  The next three caliphs were all relatives of the prophet, but were succeeded by another household, a change not universally accepted, leading to the major division in the Islamic church between the majority of [[Sunni Muslim|Sunnite]]s and the minority of [[Shiite]]s.  The new household was the first major caliphate dynasty, the Umayyads, who conquered the Sassanid empire (Persia) and the southern Byzantine provinces as far as Spain.
---
> After Mohammed's death on June 8, 632, Abu Bakr was accepted as head of the Islamic state.  The next three caliphs were all relatives of the prophet, but were succeeded by another household, a change not universally accepted, leading to the major division in the Islamic church between the majority of [[Sunnite]]s and the minority of [[Shiite]]s.  The new household was the first major caliphate dynasty, the Umayyads, who conquered the Sassanid empire (Persia) and the southern Byzantine provinces as far as Spain.
------
Shiites|988816911
1c1
< Members of the second largest division of Islam (approximately %10-15 of all Muslims). They accept Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, as the legal successor of Muhammad and disregard three of other four caliphs who succeeded him. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Shiite]]
------
Shiite|988816921
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Members of the second largest division of Islam (approximately %10-15 of all Muslims). They accept Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, as the legal successor of Muhammad and disregard three of other four caliphs who succeeded him. 
------
Netherlands|988817128
8c8
< The capitals of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]] and [[The Hague]] (Den Haag in Dutch), other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [['s Gravenhage]] and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
---
> The capitals of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], but the seat of government is in  [[The Hague]] (Den Haag or 's Gravenhage in Dutch), other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
------
Amsterdam|988817363
1c1
< Capital of the [[Netherlands]], about 800,000 inhabitants, built around a pattern of semicircular canals. Second capital of the country is Den Haag (The Hague). 
---
> Capital of the [[Netherlands]] (although the actual seat of government is in [[The Hague]], about 800,000 inhabitants. The older part of the city is built around a pattern of semicircular canals.
------
Cerebrovascular_Accident|988820021
1c1
< Cerebrovascular accident (CVA or [[stroke]]) is the loss of brain functions due to the disruption of blood supply to a part of brain. It is mainly caused either by the occlusion(ischemic stroke) or the rupture (hemorrhagic stroke) of a cerebral vessel. The ischemic stroke is usually caused by atherosclerosis (hardening) of blood vessels, embolus (a piece of blood clot originating from atherosclerotic plaque or heart) or small artery disease (the occlusion of small cerebral vessels by the influence of such presumed factors as diabetes mellitus, elevated blood lipid levels, hypertension and cigarette smoling).
---
> Cerebrovascular accident (CVA or [[stroke]]) is the disruption of blood supply to a part of brain, causing loss of brain function in the affected area. It is mainly caused either by the occlusion (ischemic stroke) or the rupture (hemorrhagic stroke) of a cerebral vessel. The ischemic stroke is usually caused by atherosclerosis (hardening) of blood vessels, embolus (a piece of blood clot originating from atherosclerotic plaque or heart) or small artery disease (the occlusion of small cerebral vessels by the influence of such presumed factors as diabetes mellitus, elevated blood lipid levels, hypertension and cigarette smoking).
------
George_Henri_Pire|988825955
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> babo
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988831254
1a2,4
> '''May 2, 2001'''
> 
> Wikipedia is moving!  We are going to move wikipedia to a newer server on May 2.  You can expect wikipedia to be unavailable for a period of about a half an hour, sometime between 11:00am and 2:00pm PST.  During this period, I will be copying the current data to the new server.  The outage is simply to protect the loss of any changes that might have been made during that time.
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988831275
5a6,7
> Jason Richey
> 
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988831298
1a2
> 
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988831403
5c5
< Wikipedia is moving!  We are going to move wikipedia to a newer server on May 2.  You can expect wikipedia to be unavailable for a period of about a half an hour, sometime between 11:00am and 2:00pm PST.  During this period, I will be copying the current data to the new server.  The outage is simply to protect the loss of any changes that might have been made during that time.
---
> Wikipedia is moving!  We are going to move wikipedia to a newer server on May 3.  You can expect wikipedia to be unavailable for a period of about a half an hour, sometime between 11:00am and 2:00pm PST.  During this period, I will be copying the current data to the new server.  The outage is simply to protect the loss of any changes that might have been made during that time.
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|988834736
9,15d8
< '''April 27, 2001'''
< 
< Stats update: 5041 pages, 3281 "comma" pages, 912 ''#REDIRECT''  pages -- WojPob 
< 
< '''April 1, 2001'''
< 
< [http://www.google.com Google] has been crawling through Wikipedia and including pages in their database rather slowly.  For example, though the Wikipedia [[History of Levant]] page is the #1 item for the search "History of Levant", the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/History_of_Levant+%22History+of+Levant%22&hl=en cached version] is from way back on February 19 and the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Ethical_egoism+%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en cached version] of [[ethical egoism]] is from March 2.  Despite the delay, we have a slowly-growing source of traffic--and therefore more contributors, and therefore (very possibly, anyway) an increasing rate of article-writing--from Google and Google-using search engines like Yahoo! and Netscape.  The news then, though it's surely not great news to many, is that on Wikipedia "the rich (will) get richer"; or "if we build it, they will come" and in greater and greater numbers.
19a13
> <br>[[/April 2001]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements/April_2001|988834756
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''April 27, 2001'''
> 
> Stats update: 5041 pages, 3281 "comma" pages, 912 ''#REDIRECT''  pages -- WojPob 
> 
> '''April 1, 2001'''
> 
> [http://www.google.com Google] has been crawling through Wikipedia and including pages in their database rather slowly.  For example, though the Wikipedia [[History of Levant]] page is the #1 item for the search "History of Levant", the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/History_of_Levant+%22History+of+Levant%22&hl=en cached version] is from way back on February 19 and the [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:www.wikipedia.com/wiki/Ethical_egoism+%22ethical+egoism%22&hl=en cached version] of [[ethical egoism]] is from March 2.  Despite the delay, we have a slowly-growing source of traffic--and therefore more contributors, and therefore (very possibly, anyway) an increasing rate of article-writing--from Google and Google-using search engines like Yahoo! and Netscape.  The news then, though it's surely not great news to many, is that on Wikipedia "the rich (will) get richer"; or "if we build it, they will come" and in greater and greater numbers.
------
Cosmology/Talk|988835144
13c13,22
< Ok.  I wasn't ignoring the traditions, I just figured the term cosmology didn't apply to them.  There is a second word, cosmogony, floating around and if cosmology isn't inherently a branch of science (I wasn't figuring inherently physics) then I'm not sure what the distinction is.  Someone should put up a [[cosmogony]] page and explain it.
---
> Ok.  I wasn't ignoring the traditions, I just figured the term cosmology didn't apply to them.  There is a second word, cosmogony, floating around and if cosmology isn't inherently a branch of science (I wasn't figuring inherently physics) then I'm not sure what the distinction is.  Someone should put up a [[cosmogony]] page and explain it.
> ----
> 
> Does someone have one of those dictionaries where the date of
> the first use of a word is recorded? If the first one to use
> that word was an astronomer or physicist, I would consider it 
> licit to reserve that word for that purpose...another word
> should exist that applies to the millenia of thinking. If, on the
> other hand, cosmology is an old word, probably brought long
> ago from latin and used in other contexts, I'll agree with Larry.
------
Cosmology/Talk|988836617
13,15d12
< Ok.  I wasn't ignoring the traditions, I just figured the term cosmology didn't apply to them.  There is a second word, cosmogony, floating around and if cosmology isn't inherently a branch of science (I wasn't figuring inherently physics) then I'm not sure what the distinction is.  Someone should put up a [[cosmogony]] page and explain it.
< ----
< 
22a20,21
> 
> Checking Webster - the first recorded date is 1656, which is somewhat difficult to call.  It conveniently enough lists both definitions (osmogony refers to a theory of creation rather than of creation and development, so I was very wrong there).  A quick search shows that scientists tend to restrict the term to scientific stuff (although still including things like Neptunism) while people dealing with religion and mythology don't mind using the term either way.  What a mess.
------
Cosmology/Talk|988837302
21c21
< Checking Webster - the first recorded date is 1656, which is somewhat difficult to call.  It conveniently enough lists both definitions (osmogony refers to a theory of creation rather than of creation and development, so I was very wrong there).  A quick search shows that scientists tend to restrict the term to scientific stuff (although still including things like Neptunism) while people dealing with religion and mythology don't mind using the term either way.  What a mess.
---
> Checking Webster - the first recorded date in English is 1656, coming over from New Latin (i.e. Late Medieval or Early Modern), so it is somewhat difficult to call.  It conveniently enough lists both definitions (osmogony refers to a theory of creation rather than of creation and development, so I was very wrong there).  A quick search shows that scientists tend to restrict the term to scientific stuff (although still including things like Neptunism) while people dealing with religion and mythology don't mind using the term either way.  What a mess.
------
Paths_of_Glory|988846411
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1957 [[Stanley Kubrick]] film in which, in [[World War I|WWI]], a French general seeking a promotion orders a small number of soldiers to take a position on a hill which they clearly can not take.  Most of them die; of those who survive and escape back to their own lines, three are chosen arbitrarily and put on trial for treason, punishable by death.  Stars [[Kirk Douglas]] as Colonel Dax, who defends the three men at their trial, and [[George Macready]] as the general who orders the impossible assault.  Based on a true story.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|988846996
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged]], written by [[Ayn Rand]] in 1957, is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
------
Ayn_Rand|988847066
5c5
< Rand released ''The Night of January 16th'', a play, in 1934, and published two commercially unsuccessful novels, ''We The Living'' (1936), and ''Anthem'' (1938). 
---
> Rand released ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'', a play, in 1934, and published two commercially unsuccessful novels, ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem]]'' (1938). 
13c13
< Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through non-fiction works.
---
> Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her [[Objectivist philosophy]] through non-fiction works.
------
Ayn_Rand|988847124
15c15
< Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.  The [http://www.aynrand.org/ Ayn Rand Institute], which she founded, is now being run by Leonard Peikoff, her partner after Branden and author of ''Objectivism: The Philosopy of Ayn Rand''.
---
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.  The [http://www.aynrand.org/ Ayn Rand Institute], which she founded, is now being run by [[Leonard Peikoff]], her partner after Branden and author of ''[[Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]]''.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section161|988847238
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section152|Previous]] [[/Section162|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 6, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section152|Previous]] [[/Section162|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section152|988847260
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section151|Previous]] [[/Section161|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 5, section 2: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section151|Previous]] [[/Section161|Next]]
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section151|988847278
1c1
< Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 4, section 8: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section148|Previous]] [[/Section152|Next]]
---
> Atlas Shrugged, Part 1, Chapter 5, section 1: &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; [[/Section148|Previous]] [[/Section152|Next]]
------
Dramatists|988849086
13a14
> :[[Euripides]]
19a21,23
> :[[Jean Genet]]
> :[[Arthur Miller]]
> :[[Thornton Wilder]]
------
Poets|988849419
22c22,23
< 
---
> :[[E e cummings]] ouch
> :[[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
------
Protozoa|988850962
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Protozoa are single-celled creatures with nuclei, usually showing some animal-like characteristics such as heterotrophy and motility and so originally classified in that kingdom.  There was never really a sharp dividing line between them and the plant-like [[alga]]e, though, so many forms were included in both.  Now it is understood that Protozoa and [[alga]]e are neither plants nor animals, and they are given their own kingdom,  the [[Protista]].
------
Protista|988851009
6c6
< * Animal-lie forms, the Protozoa, generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into:
---
> * Animal-lie forms, the [[Protozoa]], generally divided on the basis of morphology and locomotion into:
------
Protozoa|988851232
1c1,10
< Protozoa are single-celled creatures with nuclei, usually showing some animal-like characteristics such as heterotrophy and motility and so originally classified in that kingdom.  There was never really a sharp dividing line between them and the plant-like [[alga]]e, though, so many forms were included in both.  Now it is understood that Protozoa and [[alga]]e are neither plants nor animals, and they are given their own kingdom,  the [[Protista]].
---
> Protozoa are single-celled creatures with nuclei, usually showing some animal-like characteristics such as heterotrophy and motility and so originally classified in that kingdom.  There was never really a sharp dividing line between them and the plant-like [[alga]]e, though, so many forms were included in both.  Now it is understood that Protozoa and [[alga]]e are neither plants nor animals, and they are given their own kingdom,  the [[Protista]].
> 
> Traditionally protozoa have been divided into four groups on the basis of movement:
> 
> * [[Flagellate]]s
> * [[Amoeboid]]s
> * [[Sporozoa]]ns
> * [[Ciliophora|Ciliate]]s
> 
> Except for the ciliates, these are no longer believed to represent true relationships, but there are so many different groups of protozoa that they are as good a place as any to start.
------
Disease|988851315
3c3
< The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], fungi, [[parasite]]s, [[virus]]es, and [[prion]]s.  Closely related though not infectious diseases sensu stricto are pathological states caused by protoza and worms ([[parasitic diseases]]). There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
---
> The largest and best-known category, '''infectious''' diseases are those caused by transmissible infectious agents such as [[bacteria]], [[fungi]], [[parasite]]s, [[virus]]es, and [[prion]]s.  Closely related though not infectious diseases sensu stricto are pathological states caused by [[protozoa]] and [[worm]]s ([[parasitic diseases]]). There are also genetic diseases caused by the presence or absence of genes in the affected person's DNA; toxic diseases caused by exposure to environmental toxins such as heavy metals; diseases caused by lack or deficiency in certain nutrients; conditions caused by injury, malformation, or disuse of parts of the body; diseases caused by immune system attacks on the body's own tissue; diseases caused by the patient's own beliefs; and diseases causes by combinations of these, and of course totally unknown causes.
------
Poets|988851522
2c2
< :[[TSEliot|T.S. Eliot]]
---
> :[[T. S. Eliot]]
14a15,16
> :[[Edna St. Vincent Millay]]
> :[[Ogden Nash]]
22c24
< :[[E e cummings]] ouch
---
> :[[E. E. Cummings]]
------
Protozoa|988851962
3c3
< Traditionally protozoa have been divided into four groups on the basis of movement:
---
> The traditional division of protozoans is on the basis of movement, and while this is no longer believed to represent true relationships, it's still a useful way of organizing the many different groups:
10c10
< Except for the ciliates, these are no longer believed to represent true relationships, but there are so many different groups of protozoa that they are as good a place as any to start.
---
> Protozoa are common throughout aqueous environments and play an important role in soil ecology.  The majority are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but can easily be found under the microscope.
------
Protozoa|988852241
10c10
< Protozoa are common throughout aqueous environments and play an important role in soil ecology.  The majority are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but can easily be found under the microscope.
---
> Most protozoans are too small to be seen with the naked eye - most are around 0.01-0.05 mm, although forms up to 0.5 mm are still fairly common - but can easily be found under a microscope.  Protozoa are ubiquitous throught aqueous environments and the soil, and play an important role in their ecology.  A few are also important parasites.
------
Flagellate|988853198
1c1
< The flagellates comprise those [[Protista]] that support one or more [[flagella]], whip-like [[organelle|organelles]] used primarily for locomotion.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Mastigophora'', but the many separate flagellate lines are not particularly related to each other.  The ancestral eukaryotes, in fact, may have been flagellates.
---
> Flagellates are single-celled [[protista]] with one or more flagella, a whip-like organelle often used for propulsion.  Originally they were grouped together as the ''Mastigophora'', but the different lines do not appear particularly closely related.  
3c3
< The main groups of flagellates that I care to recall at the moment are:
---
> It is quite possible the ancestral eukaryote was a flagellate, and if not they appeared fairly early on.  The animals, fungi, and plants are all derived from various lines of flagellates - something reflected in the presence of flagellated cells in most forms, whose ultrastructure is a useful guide to determining relatioships.  Flagellate protists include:
21d20
< Flagellate cells also occur in multicellular forms, especially as gametes.  Similarities in the structure of flagella give us a good idea of some relationships, for instance, the kinetoplastids and euglenids (euglenozoa) or the [[Animalia]], [[Fungi]], and choanoflagellates.
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_4|988865953
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr]]. assassinated while standing on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee.
------
Nobel_Prize/Peace|988866004
127c127
< <dd>[[Martin Luther King]], campaigner for civil rights.
---
> <dd>[[Martin Luther King Jr]], campaigner for civil rights.
------
Historical_anniversaries/December_7|988871487
1c1
< 1941 - The Japanese attack on [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] brings America officially into World War II
---
> 1941 - The [[Japan|Japanese]] attack on [[World War II/Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] brings America officially into [[World War II]]
------
Ayn_Rand|988872760
15c15
< Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.  The [http://www.aynrand.org/ Ayn Rand Institute], which she founded, is now being run by [[Leonard Peikoff]], her partner after Branden and author of ''[[Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]]''.
---
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.
17c17
< She died March 6, 1982.
---
> She died March 6, 1982.
------
Ayn_Rand|988872787
15c15
< Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid cross-accusations of infidelity.
---
> Rand broke with Branden in 1968 amid accusations of infidelity.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Structure|988872888
1c1
< [[Atlas Shrugged]], written by [[Ayn Rand]] in 1957, is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
---
> [[Atlas Shrugged]] is divided into three parts, with ten chapters in each part.  Chapters are divided into any number of sections.
------
Konrad_Adenauer|988884351
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Konrad Adenauer</b> 1876 -- 1967
> 
> German politician. Bundeskanzler during 1949-1963. Co-founder of CDU party.
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_4|988884593
1c1
< Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr]]. assassinated while standing on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee.
---
> 1968 - Dr. [[Martin Luther King Jr]]. assassinated while standing on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee.
------
Historical_anniversaries/January_15|988884710
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1929 - Birth of the American civil rights leader, [[Martin Luther King]] jnr.
------
Historical_anniversaries/June_7|988884975
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1954 - Death by cyanide poisoning of the english mathematician and pioneer computer scientist [[Alan Turing]]
------
Netherlands|988892886
1c1
< Also known as [[Holland]], the Netherlands is a country in the 
---
> Also known as [[Holland]], the Netherlands is a country in the
8c8
< The capitals of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], but the seat of government is in  [[The Hague]] (Den Haag or 's Gravenhage in Dutch), other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], and [[Utrecht]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Eindhoven]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
---
> The capitals of the Netherlands is [[Amsterdam]], but the seat of government is in  [[The Hague]] (Den Haag or 's Gravenhage in Dutch), other large cities are [[Rotterdam]], [[Utrecht]] and [[Eindhoven]]. Smaller cities of note are [[Alkmaar]], [[Almere]], [[Arnhem]], [[Assen]], [[Breda]], [[Delft]], [[Den Bosch]], [[Deventer]], [[Dordrecht]], [[Enschede]], [[Haarlem]], [[Harderwijk]], [[Hilversum]], [[Groningen]], [[Leeuwarden]], [[Leiden]], [[Lelystad]], [[Maastricht]], [[Middelburg]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Tilburg]], [[Vlissingen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Zwolle]]
10c10
< The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade, tulips, windmills and wooden shoes. Other famous Dutch manufactures are cheese (Edam, Gouda, Leiden, Limburger) and Delftware pottery. 
---
> The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade, tulips, windmills and wooden shoes. Other famous Dutch manufactures are cheese (Edam, Gouda, Leiden, Limburger) and Delftware pottery.
18,19c18,19
< *[[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]] 
< *[[/Talk]]
---
> *[[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]]
> *[[/Talk]]
------
Netherlands|988892995
10c10
< The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken.The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade, tulips, windmills and wooden shoes. Other famous Dutch manufactures are cheese (Edam, Gouda, Leiden, Limburger) and Delftware pottery.
---
> The country is a democratic monarchy. The national language is [[Dutch]], while in the northern province of Friesland, [[Frisian language]] is also spoken. The Dutch are known as a tolerant people, and are famous for their trade, tulips, windmills and wooden shoes. Other famous Dutch manufactures are cheese (Edam, Gouda, Leiden, Limburger) and Delftware pottery.
------
Huntingtons_Chorea|988896635
1c1
< Huntingtons disease or Huntingtons chorea is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body movements called chorea and loss of memory. The incidence is about 1/200000. The causative gene (which is one of the first identified to cause an inherited disease) is located on chromosome 4. The product of this gene is called as huntingtin and the continous accumulation of this protein in neuronal cells gives rise to cell death especially in frontal lobes and basal ganglia (mainly in the caudate nucleus) by some unknown mechanism. The symptoms usually start in the 4th decade and include loss of cognitive functions, personality changes, quick jerking movements of face and body and unsteady gate. The diagnosis is established by neurological examination findings and the demonstration of cell loss especially in the caudate nucleus by a cranial CT or MRI scan is supportive. Although dopamine receptor blockers may have restricted benefits, there is no definite treatment for disease.
---
> Huntingtons disease or Huntingtons chorea is an inherited disorder characterized by abnormal body movements called chorea and loss of memory. The incidence is about 1/200000. The causative gene (which is one of the first identified to cause an inherited disease) is located on chromosome 4. The product of this gene is referred to as huntingtin and the continous accumulation of this protein in neuronal cells gives rise to cell death, especially in the frontal lobes and the basal ganglia (mainly in the caudate nucleus) by some unknown mechanism. The symptoms usually start in the 4th decade of life and include loss of cognitive functions, personality changes, quick jerking movements of face and body and unsteady gate. The diagnosis is established by neurological examination findings and the demonstration of cell loss, especially in the caudate nucleus, supported by a cranial CT or MRI scan findings. Although dopamine receptor blockers may have restricted benefits, there is no definite treatment for disease.
------
Myasthenia_gravis|988897054
1c1
< A disorder of neuromuscular transmission leading to fluctuating weakness and fatigue. A myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis and assisted ventilation may be required. It is one of the best known autoimmune diseases and the antigens and disease mechanisms have well been identified. Weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is a chemical substance that sustains muscle contraction by stimulating the muscle fibers by binding to its receptors. The immunologic reaction against these receptors and consecutive damage of the neuromuscular endplate give rise to deficient stimulation of muscle fibers. Patients frequently present with restricted movements of eye muscles and eyelids, difficulty swallowing and speaking, generalized weakness and fatigue. Myasthenia gravis is usually treated by cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, thymectomy and plasma exchange. Although the term gravis means grave, recent developments in disease treatment  have made the prognosis more favourable. However a considerable portion of patients still apply to the intensive care units for assisted ventilation. 
---
> A disorder of neuromuscular transmission leading to fluctuating weakness and fatigue. A myasthenic crisis may give rise to a generalized paralysis and assisted ventilation may be required. It is one of the best known autoimmune diseases and the antigens and disease mechanisms have well been identified. Weakness is caused by circulating antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine is a chemical substance that sustains muscle contraction by stimulating the muscle fibers by binding to its receptors. The immunologic reaction against these receptors and consecutive damage of the neuromuscular endplate give rise to deficient stimulation of muscle fibers. Patients frequently present with restricted movements of eye muscles and eyelids, difficulty swallowing and speaking, generalized weakness and fatigue. Myasthenia gravis is usually treated by cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, thymectomy and plasma exchange. Although the term gravis means grave, recent developments in disease treatment  have made the prognosis more favourable. However a considerable portion of patients still find it neccessary to seek admission to the intensive care units for assisted ventilation. 
------
Paralysis|988897161
1c1
< The complete loss of muscle function. Major causes are [[stroke]], trauma, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), botulism and Guillain-Barre syndrome. It may be localized (in a disorder called Bell's palsy only the nerve responsible from the movements of the facial muscles is affacted) or generalized (stroke patients may present with the paralysis of one or both sides of the body).
---
> The complete loss of muscle function. Major causes are [[stroke]], trauma, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), botulism and Guillain-Barre syndrome. It may be localized (in a disorder called Bell's palsy only the nerve responsible from the movements of the facial muscles is affected) or generalized (stroke patients may present with the paralysis of one or both sides of the body).
------
Sigmund_Freud|988898015
2a3,6
> 
> It should ne noted that Freud, himself, suffered from [[agoraphobia]], broadly speaking, a fear of the marketplace, or wide open spaces. Pictures of him outside, usually indicate
> he had a companion by his side.
> 
------
Psychology|988898182
8a9
> * [[behavioral psychology]]
15c16
< * [[psychotherapy]]
---
> * [[psychotherapy]] a branch of [[psychiatry]] as well.
------
American_Revolutionary_War|988900069
1c1
< A war fought between the British Crown and its colonies in North America from 1775 to 1883.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 southernmost of the colonies, as well as lightly settled territories west to the Mississippi River.
---
> A war fought between the British Crown and its colonies in North America from 1775 to 1783.  The eventual outcome was the recognition of independence of the 13 southernmost of the colonies, as well as lightly settled territories west to the Mississippi River.
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_30|988900360
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1946 Birth of Swedish king [[Carl XVI Gustav]]
> 
------
Carl_XVI_Gustaf|988900438
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of Sweden.
------
Carl_XVI_Gustaf|988900510
1c1
< King of Sweden.
---
> King of [[Sweden]].
------
Wim_Wenders|988900735
1c1
< Famous Movies:
---
> German-born (1945- ) film director.
2a3,16
> Films:
> 
> :[[Summer in the City]] 1970
> :Die Angst des Tormanns beim Elfmeter] (the Goalkeeper's fear of the Penalty) 1972 
> :[[Der scharlachrochte Buchstabe]] (the Scarlet Letter) 1972. Adapted from the novel by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]
> :[[Alice in den Stadten]] (Alice in the Cities) 1974
> :[[Flassche Bewegung]] (Wrong Movement) 1975
> :[[Im Lauf der Zeit]] (Kings of the Road) 1976
> :[[Der Amerikanische Freund]] (the American Friend) 1977
> :[[Hammett]] 
> :[[The State of Things]] 1982
> :Reverse Angle:NYC  (1982 - a documentary about his disputes with [[Francis Ford Coppola]] while filming <i>Hammett</i>
> :[[Chambre 666]] 1983
> :[[Paris, Texas]]
6c20
< :[[Wings of Desire]]
---
> :[[Wings of Desire]] 1987
------
Programming_language|988901853
29c29
< HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to [[Byte Code]] and executed by an [[Interpreter]]
---
> HybridLanguages - e.g. compiled to [[byte code]] and executed by an [[Interpreter]]
------
Morse_code|988902270
134a135,148
> 
> Special meaning characters:
>  + *-*-* stop
>  @ ***-*- end
>  SOS ***---*** international destress call. Used first time ever by the [[Titanic]].
> 
> It is a common missunderstanding that the SOS is three symbols but the correct way of sending it is as one morse symbol.
> 
> Swedish extensions to the Morse Code:
> 
>  å *--*-
>  ä *-*-
>  ö ---*
>  ! **--*
------
Wings_of_Desire|988903680
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1987 film by the German-born director, [[Wim Wenders]]
> 
> Set in 1980s Berlin, the first part of the film is mainly in black and white. It  follows two angels as they roam the city, unseen and unheard by the people, observing and listening to the thoughts of all they see. They have always been in Berlin; they have been in that location since before there was a city, possibly before there were any humans.
> 
> Although they are pure observers, incapable of any physical interaction with our world, one angel, Damiel, ([[Bruno Ganz]])  falls in love with a circus trapeze artist ([[Solveig Dommartin]]. Another section of the film follows an actor ([[Peter Falk]]) who has arrived in Berlin to make a film: it transpires that he was once an angel, and had renounced his immortal observing to become a mortal participant in the world.
> Eventually, Damiel too becomes a mortal human, being able to touch and fully interact with the world, (the film switches to colour at this point), and is finally united with the girl he had desired for so long. 
> 
> The film won the prize for Best Direction at the 1987 [[Cannes Film Festival]]
> 
> ----
> 
> <i>I think there was a later film that was essentially a remake of this, set in America - was it `City of Angels?'</i>
------
Wim_Wenders|988903751
16c16
< :[[Paris, Texas]]
---
> :[[Paris, Texas]] 
------
Ingmar_Bergman|988904299
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous films:
> 
> :[[Fanny and Alexander]] (1982) (Fanny och Alexander)
> :[[Autumn Sonata]] (1978) (Höstsonaten)
> :[[Scenes from a Marriage]] (1973) (Scener ur ett äktenskap)
> :[[The Passion of Anna]] (1969) (En Passion)
> :[[Shame Ingmar Bergman|Shame]] (1968) (Skammen)
> :[[Persona]] (1966)
> :[[Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
> :[[The Seventh Seal]] (1957) (Sjunde inseglet, Det)
> :[[Smiles of a Summer Night]] (1955) (Sommarnattens leende)
> :[[To Joy]] (1950) (Till glädje)
> 
------
Morse_code|988907488
4c4
< International Morse Code
---
> International Morse [[Code]]
130c130
< Some common punctuation:
---
> Common punctuation:
136c136,137
< Special meaning characters:
---
> Special characters:
> 
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_30|988907626
1c1
< 1946 Birth of Swedish king [[Carl XVI Gustav]]
---
> 1946 -- Birth of the [[Sweden/Kings|Swedish king]] [[Carl XVI Gustav]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/April_30|988907697
1c1
< 1946 -- Birth of the [[Sweden/Kings|Swedish king]] [[Carl XVI Gustav]]
---
> 1946 -- Birth of the [[Sweden/Kings|Swedish king]] [[Carl XVI Gustaf]]
------
Psychology|988908487
0a1,3
> 
> Psychology is the science of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. The related sciences with psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. In earlier ages, psychology was also considered to be related with paranormal states and features of the soul.    
> 
------
Road_Transport|988917985
9c9,18
< For many years, the British and the Americans drove on the other side of the road.  In American cars, the driver sits on the left and the car goes on the right side of the road. 
---
> For many years, the British and the Americans drove on the other side of the road.  In American cars, the driver sits on the left and the car goes on the right side of the road.  The author C. Northcote Parkinson has presented a proof that the British way of driving (on the left side of the road) is the natural one.
> 
> Sweden used to drive on the left side of the road (like the British), even though the cars had the steering wheel on the right side.  Several experts suggested that changing to driving
> on the right side (like America) would reduce accidents, because
> drivers would have a better view of the road ahead. A referendum
> was held in 1956, but rejected the change. Finally in 1967 the
> parliament decided (against the referendum) to change to driving
> on the right side.  Mortal car-to-car and car-to-pedestrian
> accidents dropped sharply as a result.
> 
------
Road_Transport|988918192
11c11
< Sweden used to drive on the left side of the road (like the British), even though the cars had the steering wheel on the right side.  Several experts suggested that changing to driving
---
> Sweden used to drive on the left side of the road (like the British), even though the cars had the steering wheel on the left side.  Several experts suggested that changing to driving
------
Road_Transport|988918270
9c9
< For many years, the British and the Americans drove on the other side of the road.  In American cars, the driver sits on the left and the car goes on the right side of the road.  The author C. Northcote Parkinson has presented a proof that the British way of driving (on the left side of the road) is the natural one.
---
> For many years, the British and the Americans drove on the other side of the road.  In American cars, the driver sits on the left and the car goes on the right side of the road.  The author [[C. Northcote Parkinson]] has presented a proof that the British way of driving (on the left side of the road) is the natural one.
------
C._Northcote_Parkinson|988918445
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> 
> The British 20th century author C. Northcote Parkinson wrote humoristic satire and is perhaps best known for "Parkinson's law and other studies". This is a collection of short stories explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, why driving on the left side of the road (see [[Road transport]]) is natural, etc.
> 
------
C._Northcote_Parkinson|988918478
3c3
< The British 20th century author C. Northcote Parkinson wrote humoristic satire and is perhaps best known for "Parkinson's law and other studies". This is a collection of short stories explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, why driving on the left side of the road (see [[Road transport]]) is natural, etc.
---
> The British 20th century author C. Northcote Parkinson wrote humoristic satire and is perhaps best known for "Parkinson's law and other studies". This is a collection of short stories explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, why driving on the left side of the road (see [[Road Transport]]) is natural, etc.
------
Satire|988918585
6a7
> *[[C. Northcote Parkinson]] was a British 20th century writer of satire.
------
Eindhoven|988918656
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Eindhoven is the fifth largest city in the Netherlands with over 200000 inhabitants.  The city has four districts: Gestel, Stratum, Tongelre and Woensel.  A fifth district, Meerhoven, has recently been completed.
> 
> Eindhoven has grown from a little village in 1900 to the biggest city in the south of the Netherlands today.  Much of its growth is due to Philips and DAF.  Today, Eindhoven serves as a focal point of technology in the south of the Netherlands.
> 
> During Carnaval, Eindhoven is renamed to Lampegat (Lamp Place).
> 
> 
> Schools: [[Eindhoven University of Technology]], [[Fontys]], [[Design Academy]]
> 
> Football club: [[PSV]].
> 
> Museums: Van Abbe museum, Prehistoric village, DAF museum.
> 
> Sports: Tongelreep, numerous sport facilities in Woensel and Tongelre.
> 
> Shopping: the Heuvelgalerie, weekly markets.
> 
> Theatre: Zuidelijk Toneel, Philips Music Centre.
> 
> Going out: numerous bars located on Stratumseind, the Dommelstraat and throughout the city, the Effenaar, the Danssalon, Pop-Ei.
> 
> Architectural highlights: Philips Stadion, Evoluon, numerous buildings have been declared Industrial Heritage.
> 
> Activities in the region: Dynamo Open Air, Fiësta del Sol, Virus Festival.
> 
> Eindhoven on the Internet: http://www.eindhoven.nl
------
Amsterdam|988918716
3a4,5
> 
> Amsterdam on the Internet: http://www.amsterdam.nl
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_5|988918330
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1945  Germany capitulated.  World War II ends.
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_5|988918356
1c1
< 1945  Germany capitulated.  World War II ends.
---
> 1945  Germany capitulates.  World War II ends.
------
Law_of_nature|988918479
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Laws of nature are different from legal code.  Legal code is the creation of man, sometimes perhaps inspired by higher beings.  Laws of nature are conclusions from scientific experiments.
> See [[Science]].  Some of the more famous laws of nature are
> Newton's theories of (now) classical mechanics, presented in his Principia Mathematica and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
> 
> 
> 
------
Law_of_nature|988918568
3c3
< Newton's theories of (now) classical mechanics, presented in his Principia Mathematica and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
---
> Isaac Newton's theories of (now) [[Classical Mechanics]], presented in his Principia Mathematica and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
------
Law_of_nature|988918623
3c3
< Isaac Newton's theories of (now) [[Classical Mechanics]], presented in his Principia Mathematica and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
---
> [[Isaac Newton]]'s theories of (now) [[Classical Mechanics]], presented in his Principia Mathematica and [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity.
------
Law_of_nature|988918657
3c3
< [[Isaac Newton]]'s theories of (now) [[Classical Mechanics]], presented in his Principia Mathematica and [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity.
---
> [[Isaac Newton]]'s theories of (now) [[Classical Mechanics]], presented in his Principia Mathematica and [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].
------
Isaac_Newton|988918871
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Isaac Newton was a British 18th century philosopher, mathetmatician, and physician who published a thesis [[Principia Mathematica]] where he described the laws of gravity (see [[Law of nature]]) and [[Classical Mechanics]].
> 
> 
> Tradition has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, and this made him understand how gravity really is a special case of accelleration.
------
Law_of_nature|988918898
1c1
< Laws of nature are different from legal code.  Legal code is the creation of man, sometimes perhaps inspired by higher beings.  Laws of nature are conclusions from scientific experiments.
---
> Laws of nature are different from legal code (see [[Law]]).  Legal code is the creation of man, sometimes perhaps inspired by higher beings.  Laws of nature are conclusions from scientific experiments.
------
Law|988918950
8a9,12
> ----
> 
> Not quite law: [[Law of nature]] -- [[Murphys law]] -- [[Parkinsons law]]
> 
------
Zoology|988919027
1c1,3
< That area of [[biology]] which studies animal life.
---
> That area of [[biology]] which studies animal life.
> 
> Famous zoologists: [[Desmond Morris]]
------
Parkinsons_law|988919046
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Parkinson's law was presented by the author [[C. Northcote Parkinson]].  It rules that every bureaucratic organization will expand to fill the available space or consume the available resources.  This is not a [[Law]] in the legal meaning of the word, more of a [[Satire]] of a [[Law of nature]].
------
C._Northcote_Parkinson|988919091
3c3
< The British 20th century author C. Northcote Parkinson wrote humoristic [[Satire]] and is perhaps best known for "Parkinson's law and other studies". This is a collection of short stories explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, why driving on the left side of the road (see [[Road Transport]]) is natural, etc.
---
> The British 20th century author C. Northcote Parkinson wrote humoristic [[Satire]] and is perhaps best known for "[[Parkinsons law|Parkinson's law]] and other studies". This is a collection of short stories explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, why driving on the left side of the road (see [[Road Transport]]) is natural, etc.
------
Theory_of_relativity|988919328
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The most famous expression of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity is the equotion
> 
> e = mc2
> 
> which means that energy corresponds to the mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light.
> 
> The most practical result of this theory is that it puts an upper limit to the laws (see [[Law of nature]]) of [[Classical Mechanics]] formed by [[Isaac Newton]] at the speed of light.  Nothing can move faster than this speed.  As an object accellerate, approaching the speed of light, it's mass will increase making it infinitely hard to reach the speed of light.  Only photons that have no mass can actually achieve this speed, which is 300,000 kilometers per second.
> 
------
Theory_of_relativity|988919528
8a9
> See also [[general relativity]] and [[special relativity]]
------
Special_relativity|988919634
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Would someone with a physics degree plz write sumthing here?)
> 
> 
> 
> See also [[General relativity]] and [[Albert Einstein]].
> 
> 
------
Theory_of_relativity|988919694
7c7
< The most practical result of this theory is that it puts an upper limit to the laws (see [[Law of nature]]) of [[Classical Mechanics]] formed by [[Isaac Newton]] at the speed of light.  Nothing can move faster than this speed.  As an object accellerate, approaching the speed of light, it's mass will increase making it infinitely hard to reach the speed of light.  Only photons that have no mass can actually achieve this speed, which is 300,000 kilometers per second.
---
> The most practical result of this theory is that it puts an upper limit to the laws (see [[Law of nature]]) of [[Classical Mechanics]] and [[gravity]] formed by [[Isaac Newton]] at the speed of light.  Nothing can move faster than this speed.  As an object accellerate, approaching the speed of light, it's mass will increase making it infinitely hard to reach the speed of light.  Only photons that have no mass can actually achieve this speed, which is 300,000 kilometers per second.
------
Theory_of_relativity|988919779
3c3
< e = mc2
---
> e = mc<sup>2</sup>
------
Linkoeping|988920571
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
> 
> The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala ström]] and [[Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
> This road was part of the [[Eriksgata]] route that the newly elected king had to travel according to medieval Swedish [[Law]].  In the 20th century road system, it was first called [[Riksettan]] (national highway No. 1).  It is currently called [[E4an]] (European route No. 4) and has been redirected to pass outside the city on the north side.
> 
> See also the website of Linköping municipality,
> http://www.linkoping.se/
> 
------
Linkoeping|988920608
3c3
< The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala ström]] and [[Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
---
> The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stangan|Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
------
Linkoeping|988920719
1c1
< Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
---
> Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
4c4
< This road was part of the [[Eriksgata]] route that the newly elected king had to travel according to medieval Swedish [[Law]].  In the 20th century road system, it was first called [[Riksettan]] (national highway No. 1).  It is currently called [[E4an]] (European route No. 4) and has been redirected to pass outside the city on the north side.
---
> This road was part of the [[Eriksgata]] route that the newly elected king had to travel according to medieval Swedish [[Law]].  In the 20th century road system, it was first called [[Riksettan]] (national highway No. 1).  It is currently called E4 ([[European route E4]]) and has been redirected to pass outside the city on the north side.
------
European_route_E4|988920766
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Within [[Sweden]], route E4 goes from [[Stockholm]] to [[Helsingborg]].
> 
> See also the system of [[European routes]].
> 
> 
------
European_routes|988920842
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just like the American system of interstate highways, Europe has a system of European routes that are numbered E1 and up.
> 
> See [[European route E4]].
> 
> See also [[Road Transport]].
------
Linkoeping|988920943
3c3
< The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stangan|Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
---
> The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmo|Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stangan|Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
------
Lake_Roxen|988920975
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roxen is a medium sized lake in south central Sweden, east of lake [[Vattern|Vättern]], part of the waterpath [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]].  South of lake Roxen is the city [[Linkoeping|Linköping]].
> 
> See also the [[Roxen webserver]].
> 
> 
------
Motala_strom|988921126
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Motala ström is the river system that drains lake [[Vattern|Vättern]] (the second largest lake in [[Sweden]]) into the [[Baltic Sea]].  It is named from the city [[Motala]] where it begins.  In the early 19th century, [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]] was constructed as a parallel to Motala ström.
> 
> 
------
Baltic_Sea|988921363
15c15
< 
---
> Water paths that end up in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]: [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] (at [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]]), [[Stockholm strom|Stockholm ström]] (at [[Stockholm]]), [[Ume alv|Ume älv]], [[Lule alv|Lule älv]] (at [[Lulea|Luleå]]), [[Kalix alv|Kalix älv]] (at [[Haparanda]], [[Ule alv|Ule älv]] (at [[Oulo]], [[Neva]] (at [[St Petersburg]]), [[Daugava]] (at [[Riga]])
------
Baltic_Sea|988922207
15c15,36
< Water paths that end up in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]: [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] (at [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]]), [[Stockholm strom|Stockholm ström]] (at [[Stockholm]]), [[Ume alv|Ume älv]], [[Lule alv|Lule älv]] (at [[Lulea|Luleå]]), [[Kalix alv|Kalix älv]] (at [[Haparanda]], [[Ule alv|Ule älv]] (at [[Oulo]], [[Neva]] (at [[St Petersburg]]), [[Daugava]] (at [[Riga]])
---
> Water paths that end up in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]:
> *[[Svartan-Svarte|Svartån]] (at [[Svarte]] near [[Ystad]]),
> *[[Tommarpaan|Tommarpaån]] (at [[Simrishamn]]),
> *[[Helgean|Helgeån]] (at [[Nyehusen]] near [[Kristianstad]]),
> *[[Heman|Hemån]] (at [[Karlskrona]]),
> *[[Ljungbyan|Ljungbyån]] (at [[Ljungby]] near [[Kalmar]]),
> *[[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]] (at [[Mem]]),
> *[[Motala strom|Motala ström]] (at [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]]),
> *[[Stockholm strom|Stockholm ström]] (at [[Stockholm]]),
> *[[Dalalven|Dalälven]] (at [[Gavle|Gävle]]),
> *[[Ume alv|Ume älv]],
> *[[Lule alv|Lule älv]] (at [[Lulea|Luleå]]),
> *[[Kalix alv|Kalix älv]] (at [[Kalix]]),
> *[[Torne alv|Torne älv]] (at [[Haparanda]]),
> *[[Ule alv|Ule älv]] (at [[Oulo]]),
> *??? (at [[Jakobstad]]),
> *[[Neva]] (at [[St Petersburg]]),
> *??? (at [[Tallinn]]),
> *[[Daugava]] (at [[Riga]]),
> *??? (at [[Gdansk]])
> *??? (at [[Lubeck|Lübeck]])
> 
------
Baltic_Sea|988922254
21c21
< *[[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]] (at [[Mem]]),
---
> *[[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]] (at [[Mem]] near [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]]),
------
Baltic_Sea|988922444
15c15
< Water paths that end up in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]:
---
> Water paths that drain into in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]:
24a25,26
> *[[Indalsalven|Indalsälven]] (at [[Sundsvall]]),
> *[[Angermanalven|Ångermanälven]] (at [[Harnosand|Härnösand]]),
25a28
> *[[Skellefte alv|Skellefte älv]] (at [[Skelleftea|Skellefteå]]),
------
Estonia/Geography|988922656
2c2
< Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland, between Latvia and Russia
---
> Eastern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and [[Gulf of Finland]], between [[Latvia]] and [[Russia]]
17c17
< slightly smaller than New Hampshire and Vermont combined
---
> slightly smaller than [[New Hampshire]] and [[Vermont]] combined
38c38
< Suur Munamagi 318 m
---
> [[Suur Munamagi]] 318 m
57c57
< air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations
---
> air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from [[oil-shale]] burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with [[petroleum]] products, chemicals at former [[Soviet]] military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations
62c62
< Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
---
> Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
------
Famous_Physicists|988922679
7a8
> * [[Isaac Newton]]
------
Physics|988922794
16c16,17
< * [[Relativity]]
---
> * [[Theory of relativity]]
> ** [[Special relativity]]
------
Gulf_of_Finland|988922807
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Gulf of Finland is a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]] that extends between [[Finland]] (to the north) and [[Estonia]] (to the south) all the way to the city of [[St Petersburg]] in [[Russia]], where the river [[Neva]] drains into it.  Major cities around the gulf are also [[Helsinki]] and [[Tallinn]].
> 
> 
------
St_Petersburg|988923000
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The city of St Petersburg is the major sea port of [[Russia]].  The city was founded by [[czar]] [[Peter the Great]] in the 18th century and named after St Peter, the apostle.  It is situated in the former marshlands where river [[Neva]] drains into the [[Gulf of Finland]].
> 
> A famous sight in St Petersburg is the [[Eremitage]] palace.
> 
> 
------
Neva|988923054
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> River Neva drains into the [[Gulf of Finland]] at the city of [[St Petersburg]] in [[Russia]].
> 
> 
------
Riga|988923183
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Riga is the capital of [[Latvia]].  Population circa 1 million.
> 
> In the 17th century, when parts of Latvia belonged to the kingdom of [[Sweden]], Riga was Sweden's biggest city, bigger than [[Stockholm]].
> 
> 
------
Latvia|988923263
1c1
< Small and nice country in [Eastern Europe].
---
> Small and nice country in [[Eastern Europe]].  Capital [[Riga]].  Latvia borders on [[Estonia]], [[Russia]], [[Lithuania]], and the [[Baltic Sea]].
------
Saint_Petersburg|988923288
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[St Petersburg]].
> 
> 
------
City|988923312
3d2
< 
46a46
> * [[Linkoeping]]
72c72
< * [[London, England]] - ? / 7,000,000 metro area
---
> * [[United Kingdom/London|London, England]] - ? / 7,000,000 metro area
82a83
> * [[Linkoeping]]
------
Russia|988923453
5c5,7
< The capital of Russia is [[Moscow]].  Other important cities include [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Astrakhan]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Cheboksary]], [[Penza]], [[Ryazan]], and [[Khabarovsk]].
---
> The capital of Russia is [[Moscow]].  Other important cities include [[St Petersburg]], [[Astrakhan]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Cheboksary]], [[Penza]], [[Ryazan]], and [[Khabarovsk]].
> 
> Russia borders on (counter-clockwise): [[Finland]], the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], the [[Black Sea]], and other countries.
------
Russia|988923539
3c3
< Russia is a very large country, it has an immense expanse of territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea. The land and [[sea|seas]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
---
> Russia is a very large country, it has an immense expanse of territory, which spans both [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. The traditional dividing line between the two continents runs through the [[Ural Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea]]. The land and [[sea|seas]] contain a wealth of natural resources. However, much of the territory has harsh climatic conditions and is almost uninhabited. Russia is well-known for its cold winters, but hot summers are equally common there.
------
Riga|988923604
2a3,4
> At Riga, the river [[Daugava]] drains into the [[Baltic Sea]].
> 
------
General_relativity|988923614
16c16,20
< A consequence is that a non-empty static universe in his theory is unstable, so it should be either expanding or contracting.  This sufficiently distressed Einstein that he put an extra tweak in the model, the [[cosmological constant]], to adjust for this.  A decade later, though, [[Edwin Hubble]] proved the former to be the case, and the adjustment was gladly abandoned, although many cosmologists see evidence to reintroduce it.
---
> Einstein realized that his original formulation didn't have a
> static solution, the universe should be either expanding or contracting.  This sufficiently distressed Einstein that he put an extra tweak in the model, the [[cosmological constant]], to adjust for this, but even with that additional term the static
> solution is unstable. A decade later, though, [[Edwin Hubble]] proved that the universe is indeed expanding, and the adjustment was gladly abandoned. Since then, the cosmological constant have
> been in and out of fashion. As of this writtin (beginings of 2001), there seems to be increasing experimental evidence that
> the cosmological constant is needed to explain observations.
------
Daugava|988923635
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> River Daugava drains into the [[Baltic Sea]] at the city of [[Riga]] in [[Latvia]].
> 
> 
------
Gdansk|988923737
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gdansk is a city in [[Poland]], on the [[Baltic Sea]].
> Its old German name is Danzig.
> 
> 
------
Psychology|988923740
1,2c1
< 
< Psychology is the science of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. The related sciences with psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. In earlier ages, psychology was also considered to be related with paranormal states and features of the soul.    
---
> Psychology is the science of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. The related sciences with psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Although the root of the word psychology (psyche) means soul in Greek and psychology was considered as a science of the soul in earlier ages, today this concept is completely out of the study field of psychology.  
------
Poland|988923809
1c1
< Officially Republic of Poland, in Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of [[Poland]] is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its [[capital]] is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).
---
> Officially Republic of Poland, in Polish ''Polska'', or ''Rzeczpospolita Polska'', country lying at the physical centre of the European continent, approximately between latitudes 49º and 55º N and longitudes 14º and 24º E. Except for its southern mountainous regions, the country consists almost entirely of lowlands within the North European Plain. The total area of [[Poland]] is 120,728 square miles (312,685 square kilometres). Its [[capital]] is [[Warsaw]] ([[Warszawa]]).  Other major cities include [[Gdansk]], [[Gdynia]], and [[Krakow]].
------
Norrkoping|988924292
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The city of Norrköping in [[Sweden]] was once known for its textile industry.  The city has two nicknames: Sweden's [[Manchester]], and [[Peking]].  The city is situated where the river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] drains into [[Slatbaken|Slätbaken]], a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]].  Water power from this river and the good harbour was the foundation of the once industrial city.  In the latter decades of the 20th century, Norrköping suffered hard from closing down of several big industries, causing unemployment in large numbers.
> 
> Around the turn of the millennium 2000, Norrköping is coming back strong, now as a center of culture and education.  The city has a famous public library (http://www.nsb.norrkoping.se/), a campus of [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]], a Museum of Labour ([[Arbetets museum]]), and a high-tech industry park called [[Pronova]].
> 
> See also the website of the municipality of Norrköping,
> http://www.norrkoping.se/
> 
------
Special_relativity|988924380
1c1,17
< (Would someone with a physics degree plz write sumthing here?)
---
> Theory by [[Albert Einstein]] that describes the motion of
> objects in the absence of gravitational fields.
> 
> The main assumtion of the theory is that in any
> [[inertial frame of reference]] the form of the laws of nature
> are the same, in particular, the velocity of
> light, has the same, constant value in any of these systems, 
> that move with a constant velocity with respect to each other.
> 
> The consecuences of this postulate are far reaching: 
> simultaneity between to events depends on the frame of reference,
> and time ceases to have an absolute meaning, it depends, too,
> on the frame of reference where it is being measured.
> Intervals, both of space (lengths) and of time, are measured
> to be smaller when measured in a different frame of reference.
> 
> 
------
Astronomy|988924544
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
------
Linkoping_University|988924690
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Linköping University was founded in 1969 in the city of [[Linkoeping|Linköping]] in [[Sweden]].
> 
> See the university's website, http://www.liu.se/
> 
> See also the website of [[Lysator]], http://www.lysator.liu.se/
> 
------
Linkoeping|988924791
3c3
< The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Malmo|Malmö]] crosses the river [[Stangan|Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
---
> The city is situated south of [[lake Roxen]] (which is part of the historically important water paths [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]]) where the main road from [[Stockholm]] to [[Helsingborg]] crosses the river [[Stangan|Stångån]] (and [[Kinda Kanal]]).
------
Special_relativity|988924851
4c4
< The main assumtion of the theory is that in any
---
> The main assumption of the theory is that in any
7c7
< light, has the same, constant value in any of these systems, 
---
> light has the same, constant value in any of these systems, 
14,15c14,15
< Intervals, both of space (lengths) and of time, are measured
< to be smaller when measured in a different frame of reference.
---
> (See ''[[Time dilation]]'' and ''[[Lorentz contraction]]'').
> 
------
Theory_of_relativity|988925085
1c1
< The most famous expression of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity is the equotion
---
> The most famous expression from [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of relativity is the equation
3c3
< e = mc<sup>2</sup>
---
> E = mc<sup>2</sup>
5c5
< which means that energy corresponds to the mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light.
---
> which means that energy corresponds to the mass multiplied by the square of the speed of light.  Here energy refers to a sort of energy of existance, and mass refers to invariant mass - or, less commonly, energy refers to kinetic energy and mass to relativistic mass (a concept physicists no longer use, thanks to the equivalence).
------
Helsingborg|988925101
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Helsingborg is a city in southern [[Sweden]], the closest point to [[Denmark]] (and the Danish city [[Elsinore]]).
> 
> See also [[European route E4]] and the website of the municipality of Helsingborg, http://www.helsingborg.se/
> 
> 
------
Elsinore|988925171
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Elsinore is the English name for the [[Denmark|Danish]] city named [[Helsingor|Helsingør]].  It is known from the theatre play [[Hamlet]] by [[William Shakespeare]].
> 
> 
------
Graviton|988925200
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Elementary particle of [[spin]] 2 (a [[boson]]) that is believed
> to be responsible for the propagation of the
>  [[gravitational interaction]]. It's rest mass is zero, so it
> moves at the velocity of light, and the interaction has infinite
> reach.
------
Graviton|988925219
3c3
<  [[gravitational interaction]]. It's rest mass is zero, so it
---
> [[gravitational interaction]]. It's rest mass is zero, so it
5c5
< reach.
---
> reach.
------
Elsinore|988925286
2a3
> Across the short water distance of [[Oresund|Øresund]] is the [[Sweden|Swedish]] city of [[Helsingborg]].  Through both cities, and the ferry between them, goes [[European route E4]].
------
Isaac_Newton|988925332
4c4
< Tradition has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, and this made him understand how gravity really is a special case of accelleration.
---
> Tradition has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, and this made him understand that earthly and celestial gravitation are the same.
------
European_route_E4|988925403
1c1,11
< Within [[Sweden]], route E4 goes from [[Stockholm]] to [[Helsingborg]].
---
> Within [[Sweden]], route E4 passes through the cities
> [[Stockholm]],
> [[Nykoping|Nyköping]],
> [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]],
> [[Jonkoping|Jönköping]],
> [[Ljungby]],
> [[Helsingborg]].
> 
> Within [[Denmark]], it passes through the city
> [[Elsinore]].
------
Arbetets_museum|988925515
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The museum of labour (Arbetets Museum) in the city of [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]] in [[Sweden]] has its own
> website at 
> http://www.arbetetsmuseum.se/
------
Arbetets_museum|988925535
1c1
< The museum of labour (Arbetets Museum) in the city of [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]] in [[Sweden]] has its own
---
> The museum of work (Arbetets Museum) in the city of [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]] in [[Sweden]] has its own
------
Norrkoping|988925562
1c1
< The city of Norrköping in [[Sweden]] was once known for its textile industry.  The city has two nicknames: Sweden's [[Manchester]], and [[Peking]].  The city is situated where the river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] drains into [[Slatbaken|Slätbaken]], a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]].  Water power from this river and the good harbour was the foundation of the once industrial city.  In the latter decades of the 20th century, Norrköping suffered hard from closing down of several big industries, causing unemployment in large numbers.
---
> The city of Norrköping in [[Sweden]] was once known for its textile industry.  The city has two nicknames: Sweden's [[Manchester]], and [[Peking]].  The city is situated where the river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] drains into  [[Slatbaken|Slätbaken]], a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]].  Water power from this river and the good harbour was the foundation of the once industrial city.  In the latter decades of the 20th century, Norrköping suffered hard from closing down of several big industries, causing unemployment in large numbers.
------
Parkinsons_Disease|988925737
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A disorder of central nervous system that is characterized by tremor, muscle rigidity, stiffness, difficulty beginning to walk, walking with small steps, loss of balance and frequent falls. Depression and dementia usually accompany the disease. Parkinsons disease is a disorder of the extrapyramidal system, which controls and adjusts our movements. The disease is caused by deficient production of dopamin in the pathway projecting from substantia nigra to globus pallidus both of which are major components of the extrapyramidal system. There is no definite cure for the disease and medications are usually used to control the symptoms and to improve the quality of life. The drugs used for this purpose aim at replacing the lacking dopamin and are either its precursor (levodopa) or agonists (substances that bind to the same receptors with dopamin and evoke similar effects). Secondary parkinsonism is a term used for a symptom constellation that is similar to that of Parkinsons disease but is caused by other disorders or medications. Major reasons for secondary parkinsonism are stroke, encephalitis, narcotics, toxins and carbonmonoxide poisoning. There are other idiopathic (of unknown cause) conditions as Parkinson’s disease that may cause parkinsonism. In these conditions the problem is not the deficient production of dopamin but the inefficient binding of dopamin to its receptors located on globus pallidus.
------
Gota_Kanal|988925775
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Göta Kanal is sometimes called the blue ribbon of [[Sweden]].
> This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of [[railroad]]s, the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
> 
> See the canal's own website at http://www.gotakanal.se/
> 
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|988925836
5c5
< *[[Galileo]]
---
> *[[Galileo Galilei]]
------
Canal|988925871
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Canals are man-made waterpaths used for [[Transport]]ation.
> 
> See [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]] (in [[Sweden]]).
> 
> 
------
Canal|988926003
1c1
< Canals are man-made waterpaths used for [[Transport]]ation.
---
> Canals are man-made inland waterway used for [[Transport|transportation]].
------
Rail_Transport|988926041
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rail Transport has a long history, including systems with man or horse power and rails of wood or stone.
> 
> Modern railroads with iron rails and steam-powered locomotives played an important part in the [[industrial revolution]].  One pioneer was [[Stephenson]] with his locomotive, [[The Rocket]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Canal|988926067
2a3,7
> Famous canals:
> 
> * [[Suez canal]] -- [[Egypt]]
> * [[Panama canal]]
> 
------
Canal|988926082
1c1
< Canals are man-made inland waterway used for [[Transport|transportation]].
---
> Canals are man-made inland waterways used for [[Transport|transportation]].
------
Industrial_revolution|988926090
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> See [[History]] and the [[History of science and technology]].
> 
> 
> See also [[Rail transport]].
> 
------
Industrial_revolution|988926129
1a2
> See [[History]] and the [[History of Science and Technology]].
3d3
< See [[History]] and the [[History of science and technology]].
5,6c5
< 
< See also [[Rail transport]].
---
> See also [[Rail Transport]].
------
Rail_Transport|988926174
1c1
< Rail Transport has a long history, including systems with man or horse power and rails of wood or stone.
---
> Rail [[Transport]] has a long history, including systems with man or horse power and rails of wood or stone.
------
Rail_Transport|988926342
4c4
< 
---
> In the 19th century, railroads soon replaced earlier technologies such as [[Canal]]s.  In the 20th century, railroads in turn was replaced by motorized [[Road Transport]].
------
Gota_Kanal|988926422
2c2
< This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of [[railroad]]s, the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
---
> This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transportation]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
------
Gota_Kanal|988926438
2c2
< This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transportation]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
---
> This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transport]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
------
The_Rocket|988926547
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Rocket was the name of an early (the first?) steam powered railroad [[locomotive]], built by [[Stephenson]] in the early 19th century.
> 
> See [[Rail Transport]], [[industrial revolution]], [[History of Science and Technology]].
> 
> 
------
Locomotive|988926626
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A locomotive is a pulling [[vehicle]] for [[Rail Transport]].
> 
> See also [[The Rocket]].
> 
> 
------
Stephenson|988926705
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stephenson was a British inventor who designed the first steam powered [[locomotive]], named [[The Rocket]].
> 
> See also the [[History of Science and Technology]].
> 
------
Vehicle|988926889
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vehicles are non-living means for transportation (see [[Transport]]).  They are most often man-made ([[car]]s, [[locomotive]]s, [[ship]]s), but also non-man-made means for transportations can be called vehicles, including icebergs and floating tree trunks.  Animals, though used as means for transportation, are not called vehicles.
> 
> 
> 
------
Car|988926976
1c1,6
< A wheeled vehicle, abbreviation of "carriage", to carry people or goods.
---
> A wheeled [[vehicle]], abbreviation of "carriage", to carry people or goods.  This can be an [[automobile]] (see [[Road Transport]] or a railroad car (see [[Rail Transport]]).
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Automobile|988927415
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An automobile is a self-powered (carrying its own [[engine]]), wheeled [[vehicle]].
> 
> The typical automobile has an internal combustion engine and four wheels, and comes in configurations such as [[sedan]], [[station waggon]], [[sports coupe]], and [[SUV]].  As an invention, this modern automobile is as old as the 20th century, even though early steam powered models exist.  The large scale manufacturing of affordable automobiles was developed by [[Henry Ford]] in the 1910s.
> 
> Some well-known brands of automobiles (in alphabetic order) include:
> [[Alfa Romeo]],
> [[Audi]],
> [[BMW]],
> [[Chrysler]],
> [[DAF]]
> [[Daimler]],
> [[Datsun]],
> [[DKW]],
> [[Ford]],
> [General Motors]],
> [[MAN]],
> [[Mercedes]],
> [[Nissan]],
> [[Saab]],
> [[Scania]],
> [[Seat]],
> [[Skoda]],
> [[Trabant]],
> [[Toyota]],
> [[Volkswagen]],
> [[Vabis]],
> [[Volvo]]
> 
------
Automobile|988927441
15c15
< [General Motors]],
---
> [[General Motors]],
------
Automobile|988927525
7a8,9
> [[Bentley]],
> [[Benz]],
15a18
> [[Jaguar]],
17a21
> [[Mitsubishi]],
18a23,24
> [[Opel]],
> [[Rolls Royce]],
------
Sedan|988927696
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sedan is the most common configuration of the modern [[automobile]], having a higher passenger compartment between the lower hood (called a [[bonnet]] in [[British English]]) covering the [[engine]] in the front, and the trunk at the rear.
> 
> 
------
Particle_physics|988927737
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Particle physics is ...
> 
> Some particles:
> * [[electron]]
> * [[positron]]
> * ...
> * [[graviton]]
------
SUV|988927828
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the 1990s, the Sports Utility Vehicle has become an ever more popular configuration of the modern [[automobile]].  Combining the flexibility of the [[sedan]] with the size of the [[minibus]] or [[station waggon]] and the ruggedness of the [[jeep]], it is a natural choice for the young and well-off family with children.
> 
------
Jeep|988927960
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Jeep was invented by American armed forces as a "general purpose" [[automobile]] in [[World War II]].  More comfortable versions have been launched as farm or family [[vehicle]] (e.g. British [[Land Rover]]), and has been the main inspiration for the 1990s' [[SUV]] trend.
> 
------
Saab|988928132
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Saab was founded as a Swedish Aircraft industry in 1937 in the city of [[Linkoping|Linköping]] in [[Sweden]].  After [[World War II]], the company started to look for ways to diversify its business and started to manufacture [[automobile]]s in the early 1950s and computers ([[Datasaab]]) in the late 1950s.  Later, Saab also acquired truck maker [[Scania]] and for some time the company was called Saab-Scania.
> 
> Saab Automobile was sold to General Motors in the 1990s.
> 
> 
------
Saab|988928177
1c1
< Saab was founded as a Swedish Aircraft industry in 1937 in the city of [[Linkoping|Linköping]] in [[Sweden]].  After [[World War II]], the company started to look for ways to diversify its business and started to manufacture [[automobile]]s in the early 1950s and computers ([[Datasaab]]) in the late 1950s.  Later, Saab also acquired truck maker [[Scania]] and for some time the company was called Saab-Scania.
---
> Saab was founded as a Swedish [[aircraft]] industry in 1937 in the city of [[Linkoping|Linköping]] in [[Sweden]].  After [[World War II]], the company started to look for ways to diversify its business and started to manufacture [[automobile]]s in the early 1950s (in the city of [[Trollhattan|Trollhättan]] and computers ([[Datasaab]]) in the late 1950s.  Later, Saab also acquired truck maker [[Scania]] and for some time the company was called Saab-Scania.
3c3
< Saab Automobile was sold to General Motors in the 1990s.
---
> Saab Automobile was sold to [[General Motors]] in the 1990s.
------
General_Motors|988928270
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> General Motors is a conglomerate of [[US]] [[automobile]] makers, representing many brands, including [[Saab]].
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.gm.com/
> 
------
Scania|988928404
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Scania is the name of a truck maker in [[Sweden]].  Originally founded in [[Malmo|Malmö]] in the southern region Skåne (in latin, Scania), it later merged with [[Vabis]] and the head quarters have since been in [[Sodertalje|Södertälje]] south of [[Stockholm]].
> 
> For some time, Scania was a part of [[Saab]] using the name Saab-Scania.
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.scania.se/
> 
> 
------
Vabis|988928492
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originally named Vagn-Aktiebolaget i Södertälje, this [[automobile]] and [[truck]] maker in [[Sweden]] later merged with [[Scania]].  For some time, the company was named Scania-Vabis.
> 
> See truck maker [[Scania]].
> 
> 
------
Saab|988928635
4a5,7
> See the websites of Saab Aircraft, http://www.saab.se/
> 
> and Saab Cars, http://www.saab.com/
------
Alchemy|988928799
33c33
< mystics and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap
---
> [[mystics]] and fakes who were obsessed with the idea of turning cheap
------
Volvo|988928846
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Car maker Volvo was founded in 1935 in the city of [[Gothenburg]] in [[Sweden]], as a spin-off from roller ball bearing maker [[SKF]].  In the late 1990s, the [[automobile]] business of Volvo was acquired by [[Ford]] Motors, but continues to use the Volvo trademark.  The [[truck]] business of Volvo is still Swedish.
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.volvo.com/
> 
------
Ford|988928912
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Automobile]] maker Ford was founded by [[Henry Ford]], who radically reformed the methods for large-scale manufacturing of affordable cars.
> 
> 
------
Datsun|988928961
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Datsun is a trademark used for some time by the [[Japan]]ese [[automobile]] maker [[Nissan]].
------
Nissan|988929060
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nissan is a [[Japan]]ese [[automobile]] maker.  For some time they also used the trademark [[Datsun]].
> 
> The Nissan and Datsun [[Z-cars]] are affordable sports cars modelled after the German [[Porsche]] and British [[Jaguar]].
> 
> 
------
Automobile|988929143
11a12
> [[Daewoo]],
15a17,18
> [[Ferrari]],
> [[Fiat]],
23a27
> [[Porsche]],
28a33
> [[Suzuki]],
32a38
> [[Volga]],
------
Henry_Ford|988929310
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Founder of the [[Ford]] Motor company and [[inventor]] of the modern industrial [[assembly line]] for mass production of affordable [[automobile]]s.
------
Inventor|988929442
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some famous inventors are (in alphabetic order by surname):
> [[Thomas Edison]],
> [[Henry Ford]],
> [[Alfred Nobel]]
> 
> See also the [[History of Science and Technology]].
> 
------
Opel|988929561
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Opel is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], part of [[General Motors]].
> 
> 
------
Skoda|988929596
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Skoda is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Czechia]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
> 
> 
------
Czechia|988929619
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See the [[Czech republic]].
------
Skoda|988929645
1c1
< Skoda is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Czechia]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
---
> Skoda is an [[automobile]] maker in the [[Czech republic]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
------
Volkswagen|988929683
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Volkswagen is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], founded in the 1930s.  See also [[Audi]], [[Seat]], and [[Skoda]].
> 
> 
------
Audi|988929712
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Audi is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
> 
> 
------
Seat|988929743
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Seat is an [[automobile]] maker in Spain, part of [[Volkswagen]].
> 
------
Seat|988929756
1c1
< Seat is an [[automobile]] maker in Spain, part of [[Volkswagen]].
---
> Seat is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Spain]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
------
Spain|988929793
1c1
< Country located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders [[France]], from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]]. [[cdani]]
---
> Country located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It shares the [[Iberian Peninsula]] with [[Portugal]]. In the northeast it borders [[France]], from which it is separated by the tiny principality of [[Andorra]]. [[cdani]]
3c3
< See also: [[History of Spain]]
---
> See also: [[History of Spain]]
------
Iberian_Peninsula|988929905
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Iberian [[Peninsula]] is a part of the [[Europe]]an [[continent]]
> containing the countries [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], approaching [[Africa]] at [[Gibraltar]] and divided from [[France]] by the mountain range (named what?).
> 
------
Mystics|988929907
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mystics are people who are putting themselves into direct relation with God. The students of mysticism must confine themselves to the experiences of mystics, the God or any absolute truth that they ar trying to reach or understand.
> Some samples for Christian mystics 
> Clement of Alexandria 
> St. Augustine 
> St. Gregory I 
> St. Anselm 
> Hugh of Saint Victor 
> St. Thomas Aquinas 
> St. Bridget of Sweden 
> St. Joan of Arc.  
> Some samples for Muslim mystics (also called sufi)
> al-Ghazali 
> [[Jalal ad-Din Rumi]] 
> Hafiz 
> Sadi
> [[Yunus Emre]] 
>  
> 
> 
------
Mystics|988929981
2c2
< Some samples for Christian mystics 
---
> Some samples for Christian mystics are
9c9
< St. Bridget of Sweden 
---
> St. Bridget of Sweden and
11c11
< Some samples for Muslim mystics (also called sufi)
---
> Some samples for Muslim mystics (also called sufi) are
15c15
< Sadi
---
> Sadi and
------
Peninsula|988930061
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A peninsula is a geographical formation extending so that it is surrounded by water on three sides.
> 
> Famous peninsulae include:
> * [[Italy]]
> * The [[Iberian Peninsula]] (with [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]),
> * The [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] (with  [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]]),
> * The [[San Francisco Peninsula]] separating the [San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]].
> 
------
Norway|988930131
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]], known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
> 
> 
------
Scandinavian_Peninsula|988930333
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Scandinavian [[peninsula]] extends from the Euro-Asian continent towards the [[Europe]]an [[continent]], containing the countries [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]].  It is named from the [[Scandinavian mountain range]] separating the two countries.  [[Scandinavia]] is used as a common name for the the three countries Sweden, Norway, and [[Denmark]] and their languages [[Swedish]], [[Norwegian]] and [[Danish]].
> 
> When [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]] is included into this group, it is more correct to speak about the [[Nordic countries]].
> 
> See the Nordic FAQ at http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/
------
Peninsula|988930363
7c7
< * The [[San Francisco Peninsula]] separating the [San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]].
---
> * The [[San Francisco Peninsula]] separating the [[San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]].
------
Psychology|988930370
1c1,3
< Psychology is the science of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. The related sciences with psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Although the root of the word psychology (psyche) means soul in Greek and psychology was considered as a science of the soul in earlier ages, today this concept is completely out of the study field of psychology.  
---
> Psychology is the study of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. Sciences related to psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was considered a study of matters of the soul (psyche) in earlier ages, [[experimental pshychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Liepzig University in Germany, eliminated spritual or religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today such concepts are foreign to the field of psychology. 
> 
> Since the advent of Wundt and his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of metrialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology has slowly but steadily moved out of the classification of philosophy, and sought to establish itself as a science.  Most universities today include psychology in their science departments, and not under philosophy.  Both psychology and its sister study psychiatry are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles as pseudo-sciences, the chief criticisms being that their theories, diagnoses and treatments do not hold up under the rigor of the scientific method, and that they are not falsifiable.
------
San_Francisco_Bay|988930575
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The San Francisco Bay is a gulf of the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the [[US]] state of [[California]], surrounded by a contiguous region known as the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], dominated by the big cities [[San Francisco]], [[Oakland]], and [[San Jose]].
> 
> The southern part of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] including the city of [[San Jose]] is known as the [[Silicon Valley]] for its high concentration of high-tech, semiconductor and computer-related industry.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_5|988930628
1c1
< 1945  Germany capitulates.  World War II ends.
---
> 1945  Germany capitulates.  World War II in Europe ends.
------
San_Francisco|988930634
1c1
< San Francisco is the fourth largest city in the state of [[California]], situated at the tip of the [[penninsula]] that forms [[San Franciso Bay]].
---
> San Francisco is the fourth largest city in the state of [[California]], situated at the tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] that forms [[San Francisco Bay]].
------
San_Francisco_Peninsula|988930736
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The San Francisco [[peninsula]] separates the [[San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]].  On its northern tip is the city of [[San Francisco]] and the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] leading over to the northern shores.
------
Golden_Gate_Bridge|988930828
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Golden Gate Bridge was built in the 1930s between the city of [[San Francisco]] on the northern tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] and the norther shores.  This bridge spans the sound between the [[San Francisco Bay]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Peninsula|988930937
1c1
< A peninsula is a geographical formation extending so that it is surrounded by water on three sides.
---
> A peninsula is a geographical formation extending so that it is surrounded by water on three sides. 
------
Italy|988930963
1c1
< Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of [[Europe]]. It is a boot-shaped peninsula with two big islands in the
---
> Italia (Italy) is a republic in the south of [[Europe]]. It is a boot-shaped [[peninsula]] with two big islands in the
------
Mystics|988931033
3,8c3,8
< Clement of Alexandria 
< St. Augustine 
< St. Gregory I 
< St. Anselm 
< Hugh of Saint Victor 
< St. Thomas Aquinas 
---
> Clement of Alexandria, 
> St. Augustine, 
> St. Gregory I, 
> St. Anselm, 
> Hugh of Saint Victor, 
> St. Thomas Aquinas, 
12,14c12,14
< al-Ghazali 
< [[Jalal ad-Din Rumi]] 
< Hafiz 
---
> al-Ghazali, 
> [[Jalal ad-Din Rumi]], 
> Hafiz, 
------
San_Francisco|988931072
1c1
< San Francisco is the fourth largest city in the state of [[California]], situated at the tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] that forms [[San Francisco Bay]].
---
> San Francisco is the fourth largest city in the state of [[California]], situated at the tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] that forms [[San Francisco Bay]].  See also the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and [[Silicon Valley]].
------
San_Francisco_Bay_Area|988931155
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All around the [[San Francisco Bay]] is a contiguous, populated area known as the SF Bay Area, dominated by the big cities [[San Francisco]], [[San Jose]], and [[Oakland]].  Here is also the [[Silicon Valley]].
> 
> 
------
Silicon_Valley|988931315
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Silicon Valley is the nickname of the southern half of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]], reaching approximately from [[Menlo Park]] down to [[San Jose]].  It got its name from the high concentration of semiconductor and computer related industry.
> 
> Industries include (in alphabetic order):
> [[Hewlett-Packard]],
> [[Oracle]],
> [[Sun Microsystems]]
> 
> Cities include (in alphabetic order):
> [[Atherton]],
> [[Menlo Park]],
> [[Palo Alto]],
> [[San Jose]],
> [[Sunnyvale]]
> 
------
Ingmar_Bergman|988931455
0a1,12
> Swedish director, born July 14, 1918.  His films tend to deal with questions of mortality, loneliness, and faith; though they are sometimes criticized as being relentlessly bleak, his works in fact make uplifting implications about the necessities of love, honesty, and generosity.
> 
> As a director, he favors intuition over intellect, and chooses to be unaggressive in dealing with actors.  Bergman sees himself as having a great responsibility towards his actors, whom he view as collaborators in a psychologically vulnerable position, stating that a director must be both honest and supportive to allow others to do their best work.
> 
> Bergman writes his own scripts, thinking about them for months or years before starting the actual process of writing, which he views as somewhat tedious.  He reports that his characters sometimes start wanting to do things different from what he had intended, and that he lets them, calling the results "disastrous" when he doesn't.  He encourages young directors not to direct any film that does not have a "message," but to wait until one comes along that does.
> 
> Bergman consistently works with a small group of actors, including [[Max von Sydow]], [[Bibi Andersson]], [[Ingrid Thulin]], [[Harriet Andersson]], [[Gunnar Bjornstrand|Gunnar Björnstrand]], and [[Liv Ullmann]].  Bergman has worked with [[Sven Nykvist]], his cinematographer, since 1953; the two of them have sufficient rapport to allow Bergman not to worry about the composition of a shot until the day before it is filmed.  On the morning of the shoot, he speaks to Nykvist briefly about the mood and composition he hopes for, and then leaves him to work without interruption or comment until they discuss the next day's work.
> 
> When viewing [[daily rushes]], Bergman stresses the importance of being critical but unemotional, claiming that he asks himself not if the work is great or terrible, but if it is sufficient or if it needs to be reshot.
> 
> By Bergman's own accounts, he has never had a problem with funding; he cites two reasons for it: 1, that he does not live in the United States, which he views as obsessed with box-office earnings; and 2, that his films tend to be low-budget affairs.  ([[Cries and Whispers]], for instance, was finished for about $450,000; while [[Scenes from a Marriage]]--a six-episode television feature--cost only $200,000.)  Bergman left [[Sweden]] for [[Munich]] when accused of tax evasion; though he was later cleared of the charges, he remained in Munich and did not film again in Sweden until 1982.  In 1982 he directed [[Fanny and Alexander]]; he reported that the film would be his last, and that afterwards he would focus on directing theater.  Since then he has directed a number of television specials, and at least four more feature films, though he does continue to work in theater.
> 
------
Palo_Alto|988931496
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Palo Alto is a city on the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] (part of the [[Silicon Valley]], home to [[Stanford University]] and several successful computer industries.
> 
> Palo Alto's sister city in [[Sweden]] is [[Linkoeping|Linköping]].
> 
> A good description of high-tech life in Palo Alto around 1995 is found in the novel by [[Douglas Coupland]], "[[Microserfs]]".  One visible trend at the time was people moving to live in [[San Francisco]] but driving down the 280 to work in the valley.
> 
> 
> 
------
Palo_Alto|988931519
1c1
< Palo Alto is a city on the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] (part of the [[Silicon Valley]], home to [[Stanford University]] and several successful computer industries.
---
> Palo Alto is a city on the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] (part of the [[Silicon Valley]]), home to [[Stanford University]] and several successful computer industries.
------
Stanford_University|988931591
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stanford University is one of the [[United States]]' most prestigous universities, situated in [[Palo Alto]] on the [[San Francisco Peninsula]].
> 
> See the university's own website, http://www.stanford.edu/
> 
------
Douglas_Coupland|988931643
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Canadian-born author.
> 
> 
------
Douglas_Coupland|988931821
1c1,5
< Canadian-born author.
---
> Canadian-born author.  His breakthrough was the novel [[Generation X]] (1990).
> 
> His novel [[Microserfs]] (1995) contains descriptions of high-tech life in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]], and [[Palo Alto]], [[California]].
> 
> 
------
Seattle|988931887
1c1,3
< A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].
---
> A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].  Home to [[Washington University]], [[Boeing]], and [[Microsoft]].
> 
> 
------
Yunus_Emre|988931926
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 13th century Turkish poet and mystic, who has an immense influence on Turkish literature. He was the leading representative of mysticism in Anatolia. Under the influence of Mongol onslaught in the 13th century, the Islamic mystic (sufi) literature reached to its zenith and Yunus Emre became one of the most distinguished poets by his simple and pure style and his ability to easily describe even the most difficult mystic concepts in a few simple sentences. He is still a popular figure in a group of countries located on a broad geography from Azerbaijan to Balkans. His poems, written by using traditional methods of Anatolian folk poetry, are mainly about the divine love and human destiny.
> 
> "Yunus Emre the mystic" is my name, 
> Each passing day fans and rouses my flame,
> What I desire in both worlds in the same: 
> You're the one I need, you're the one I crave.
------
Boeing|988931927
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Aircraft]] maker headquartered in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]].
> 
> 
------
Aircraft|988931988
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also [[Transport]].
> 
> Some well-known  aircraft makers include (in alphabetic order):
> 
> [[Airbus]],
> [[Boeing]],
> [[Saab]]
> 
------
Air_Transport|988932024
2a3,4
> See [[aircraft]].
> 
------
Aircraft|988932038
1c1
< See also [[Transport]].
---
> See also [[Air Transport]].
------
Microsoft|988932093
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Computer software producer in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]].
> 
> See also the novel by [[Douglas Coupland]], "[[Microserfs]]".
> 
------
Microserfs|988932183
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Novel by [[Douglas Coupland]], circa 1995.  Contains descriptions of contemporary high-tech life in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]] (i.e. at [[Microsoft]]), and [[Palo Alto]], [[California]].
> 
> 
------
Silicon_Valley|988932184
1c1
< The Silicon Valley is the nickname of the southern half of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]], reaching approximately from [[Menlo Park]] down to [[San Jose]].  It got its name from the high concentration of semiconductor and computer related industry.
---
> The Silicon Valley is a nickname of the southern half of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]], reaching approximately from [[Menlo Park]] down to [[San Jose]], centered roughly on [[Sunnyvale]].  It was named for the high concentration of semiconductor and computer related industry in the area.  The term may also be applied to surrounding areas on both sides of the bay into which many of these industries have expanded.
3,6c3
< Industries include (in alphabetic order):
< [[Hewlett-Packard]],
< [[Oracle]],
< [[Sun Microsystems]]
---
> Industries include (in alphabetic order): [[Apple Computer]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Oracle]], [[Sun Microsystems]].
8,13c5
< Cities include (in alphabetic order):
< [[Atherton]],
< [[Menlo Park]],
< [[Palo Alto]],
< [[San Jose]],
< [[Sunnyvale]]
---
> Cities include (in alphabetic order): [[Alviso]], [[Atherton]], [[Cupertino]], [[Fremont]], [[Menlo Park]], [[Milpitas]], [[Newark]], [[Palo Alto]], [[San Jose]], [[Saratoga]], [[Sunnyvale]], [[Union City]]
------
Daily_rushes|988932194
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The footage shot on a set during a given day, without soundtrack or adjustment.  The rushes for a given day may consist of, for instance, footage of a conversation taken from two different cameras, without the [[insert]]s, [[cutaway]]s, or [[closeup]]s that may later be edited in.  Frequently the rushes from a given day will consist of short segments from completely different points in the film, making it more challenging to maintain [[continuity]].  For instance, the weather may make it impossible to film according to schedule, or a location may be available only for a certain amount of time, making it necessary to film all of the scenes at that place at the same time, regardless of their place within the story.  For this reason rushes are presented without final context and are typically not a good indicator of how the film might turn out.
------
Washington|988932213
1c1,5
< Washington is a state located in the northwestern [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Idaho]] and the country of  [[Canada]].
---
> Washington is a state located in the northwestern [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Idaho]] and the country of  [[Canada]].
> 
> Capital [[Seattle]].
> 
> 
------
Washington_University|988932239
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See the university's own website, http://www.washington.edu/
> 
> 
------
Aphex_Twin|988932251
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Real name: Richard D. James
> Born: Cornwall, UK
> 
> Records:
> * Analogue Bubblebath I
> * Analogue Bubblebath II
> * Analogue Bubblebath III
> * Analogue Bubblebath IV
> * Analogue Bubblebath V
> * Surfing on Sine Waves
> * Selected Ambient Works I
> * Selected Ambient Works II
> * Come to Daddy
------
Washington_University|988932268
1c1
< See the university's own website, http://www.washington.edu/
---
> See the [[University of Washington]].
------
Seattle|988932292
1c1
< A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].  Home to [[Washington University]], [[Boeing]], and [[Microsoft]].
---
> A large city in the state of [[Washington]] in the [[United States]].  Home to [[University of Washington]], [[Boeing]], and [[Microsoft]].
------
University_of_Washington|988932324
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Situated in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]].
> 
> See the university's own website,
> http://www.washington.edu/
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|988932492
13c13
< [[Stanford University]] ([[Stanford, California]])
---
> [[Stanford University]] ([[Palo Alto]], [[California]])
17a18,20
> 
> [[University of Washington]] ([[Seattle]], [[Washington]])
> 
------
ErdemTuzun|988932556
3c3
< e-mail: drerdem@yahoo.com
---
> <br>e-mail: drerdem@yahoo.com
13c13,14
< <br>Contributions for the treatment of congenital penile deformity by a new surgical method  Contributions to demonstration of the presence of antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels in patients with limbic encephalitis 
---
> <br>Contributions for the treatment of congenital penile deformity by a new surgical method  
> <br>Contributions to demonstration of the presence of antibodies against voltage-gated potassium channels in patients with limbic encephalitis 
18,29c19
< Awards, Honors, Grants: 
< <br>Third degree in Marmara Region in TÜBITAK Biology Competition , TÜBÝTAK, 1988-1989; 
< First degree award at Travel and Project Prize of Brain Research Organization, Turkey, Brain Research Organization, 1999; 
< <br>Professional and club Membership: Member, EUROPEAN NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1998-2000; 
< 
< ----
< Welcome, Dr. Erdem.  I assume you're the source of the texts on Atatürk, History of Islam, etc., that were placed here recently.  Where these are taken from apparently copyrighted sources, I've noted that.  It would be great if you could rewrite those in a form we can use legally, and also from a [[NeutralPointOfView]].  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
< ----
< Okay. I was not aware that they were taken from copyrighted sources. I will rewrite them as soon as possible. Now, you can delete these texts or wait for tomorrow for new legal forms.
< ----
< Generally, we want original work here, i.e., work that you wrote and did not copy from another source.  Where not original, one must have determined very clearly in advance that the work has been released either into the public domain or according to an open content license that is consistent with Wikipedia's.  You might be interested in seeing [[GNU Free Documentation License]] as well as [[public domain resources]]. --[[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
---
> ---
32c22
< My pleasure.
---
> My pleasure.
------
Nobel_Prize|988932604
1c1
< The <b>Nobel Prize</b> is an award given to people that have done outstanding research or made outstanding contributions to society.
---
> Instituted by the final will of [[Alfred Nobel]], the [[inventor]] of [[Dynamite]], the <b>Nobel Prize</b> is an award given to people that have done outstanding research or made outstanding contributions to society.
24c24
< For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the Nobel Prize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
---
> For other disciplines, there are prizes that are deemed equivalent to the Nobel Prize, such as the FieldsMedal in mathematics.
------
Dynamite|988932704
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An explosive that is safer than gun powder, because it doesn't explode by accident.  Dynamite was invented by [[Alfred Nobel]] of [[Sweden]] in the 19th century, and laid the foundation for an enormous fortune, which was the basis for the [[Nobel Prize]].
------
Alfred_Nobel|988932780
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alfred Noble was the [[inventor]] of [[Dynamite]] in the 19th century.  In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]].
> 
> 
------
Alfred_Nobel|988932798
1c1
< Alfred Noble was the [[inventor]] of [[Dynamite]] in the 19th century.  In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]].
---
> Alfred Nobel was the Swedish [[inventor]] of [[Dynamite]] in the 19th century.  In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]].
------
San_Jose|988933047
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> San Jose is a major city in [[California]] at the south side of the [[San Francisco Bay]], considered part of the [[Silicon Valley]].
------
Silicon_Valley|988933151
6a7,8
> Many cities, regions, and nations around the world have tried to copy the success of the Silicon Valley.  Some of them are:
> *[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden], wants to be known as the [[Wireless Valley]].
------
Silicon_Valley|988933171
8c8
< *[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden], wants to be known as the [[Wireless Valley]].
---
> *[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], wants to be known as the [[Wireless Valley]].
------
Wireless_Valley|988933241
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This name for [[Stockholm]], the capital of [[Sweden]], has been suggested in an attempt to copy the success of [[California]]'s [[Silicon Valley]].
> 
> 
------
Audi|988933291
1,2c1
< Audi is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
< 
---
> Now part of [[Volkswagen]], '''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]].
------
Wireless_Valley|988933306
2a3,6
> Hi-tech companies included under this name are (in alphabetic order):
> 
> [[Ericsson]]
> 
------
Ericsson|988933551
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish [[telephone]] equipment manufacturer founded in 1876 (as a telegraph equipment repair shop) by [[Lars Magnus Ericsson]].  In the early 20th century, Ericsson dominated the world market for manual telephone exchanges and was late to introduce automatic equipment.  The worlds ever largest manual telephone exchange, serving 60,000 lines, was installed by Ericsson in [[Moscow]] in 1916.  Throughout the 1990s, Ericsson has held a 35--40 % market share of installed cell phone systems.
> 
> Headquartered in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], Ericsson is considered to be part of the so-called [[Wireless Valley]].
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.ericsson.com/
> 
> 
------
Metaphysics|988933847
6a7,10
> Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.
> 
> [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
> 
------
Telephone|988933923
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Technical invention to transmit speech by means of electric signals.  Generally attributed to [[Graham Bell]], 1876.  The history of additional inventions and improvements include the carbon microphone, the manual switchboard, the rotary dial, the automatic telephone exchange, the computer-controlled telephone exchange, the digitization of sound, cell phone systems, digital cell phone systems, and the third generation cell phone systems that promise to allow high-speed packet data transfer.
> 
> The industry was early on divided into telephone equipment manufacturers and telephone network operators (telcos), the latter often holding a national monopoly.  Some well-known company names (in alphabetic order) include:
> [[AT&T]],
> [[Bell]],
> [[Bell Labs]],
> [[British Telecom]],
> [[Deutsche Telekom]],
> [[Ericsson]],
> [[GTE]],
> [[ITT]],
> [[Lucent]],
> [[Motorola]],
> [[Nokia]],
> [[Nortel]],
> [[Telefonica]],
> [[Telia]],
> [[Verizon]]
> 
> 
------
Ontology|988933963
20,21c20,21
< * What is ExistencE?
< * Is ExistencE is a property?
---
> * What is Existence?
> * Is Existence is a property?
------
Ontology|988933990
20c20
< * What is Existence?
---
> * What is [[Existence]]?
------
Ontology|988934047
23c23
< * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are ObjectS ultimately bundles of properties or instead SubstancE''''s?
---
> * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are [[Objects]] ultimately bundles of properties or instead [[Substance]]''''s?
------
Rail_Transport|988934057
4c4
< In the 19th century, railroads soon replaced earlier technologies such as [[Canal]]s.  In the 20th century, railroads in turn was replaced by motorized [[Road Transport]].
---
> In the 19th century, railroads soon replaced earlier technologies such as [[Canal]]s.  In the 20th century, railroads were replaced  to a large extent by motorized [[Road Transport]], although they are still serve in some transport of bulk goods and people (especialy municipal subways and the newer bullet trains).
------
Telephone|988934092
1c1
< Technical invention to transmit speech by means of electric signals.  Generally attributed to [[Graham Bell]], 1876.  The history of additional inventions and improvements include the carbon microphone, the manual switchboard, the rotary dial, the automatic telephone exchange, the computer-controlled telephone exchange, the digitization of sound, cell phone systems, digital cell phone systems, and the third generation cell phone systems that promise to allow high-speed packet data transfer.
---
> Technical invention to transmit speech by means of electric signals.  Generally attributed to the [[US]] [[inventor]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]], 1876.  The history of additional inventions and improvements include the carbon [[microphone]], the manual [[switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized telephone exchange, touch-tone dialing ([[DTMF]]), the digitization of sound ([[PCM]]), [[DTMF]], [[ISDN]], [[DSL]], [[cell phone]] systems, digital cell phone systems, and the [[third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to allow high-speed packet data transfer.
------
Inventor|988934132
1a2
> [[Alexander Graham Bell]],
3a5
> [[Guglielmo Marconi]],
------
Substance|988934208
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A substance is something that exists as a quantity of [[matter]] but not as a specific identifiable object.  Water is a substance.  Air is a substance.  Sand is a substance.  Ice is a substance.  So is cement.  But if you mix water, sand and concrete into a solid block, it is not a substance because the block is directly identifiable.
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|988934251
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]].
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|988934372
1c1
< Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]].
---
> Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.
------
Substance|988934398
1c1,5
< A substance is something that exists as a quantity of [[matter]] but not as a specific identifiable object.  Water is a substance.  Air is a substance.  Sand is a substance.  Ice is a substance.  So is cement.  But if you mix water, sand and concrete into a solid block, it is not a substance because the block is directly identifiable.
---
> A substance is something that exists as a quantity of [[matter]] but not as a specific identifiable object.  Water is a substance.  Air is a substance.  Sand is a substance.  Ice is a substance.  So is cement.  
> 
> But if you mix water, sand and cement into a solid block, it is not a substance because the block is directly identifiable as an object.
> <HR>
> Go back to [[Ontology]], or to [[Existence]], [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]].
------
Substance|988934428
5c5
< Go back to [[Ontology]], or to [[Existence]], [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]].
---
> Go back to [[Ontology]], or to [[Existence]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]].
------
Ontology|988934486
1c1
< ''Ontology,'' the most fundamental branch of [[metaphysics]], is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|basic categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  'Be' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundamental or [[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
---
> ''Ontology,'' the most fundamental branch of [[metaphysics]], is the study of [[being]] or [[existence]] as well as the [[category of being|basic categories]] thereof.  A <i>[[being]]</i> is anything that can be said to 'be' <i>in</i> <i>various</i> <i>senses</i> <i>of</i> <i>the</i> <i>word</i> '<i>be.'</i>  '[[Be]]' is a word, like many other words, that [[ambiguity|has different senses]].  So there are different senses of the word "be," and accordingly, one might say, there are different "kinds" of beings, or ways of being.  In [[Aristotle]]'s phrase, ontology is "the science of being <i>qua</i> being."  The word '<i>qua</i>' means 'with regard to the aspect of'.  So ontology is the science of being with regard to the aspect of being--so it is the study of <i>beings</i> insofar as they exist.  More precisely, ontology concerns determines what ''[[category of being|categories of being]]'' are fundamental or [[reduction|irreducible]] and asks whether, and in what sense, the items in those categories can be said to "be."
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|988934550
10,11c10,11
< :<b>Hendrik Antoon Lorentz</b>
< :<b>Pieter Zeeman</b>
---
> :<b>[[Hendrik Antoon Lorentz]]</b>
> :<b>[[Pieter Zeeman]]</b>
15c15
< :<b>Antoine Henri Becquerel</b>
---
> :<b>[[Antoine Henri Becquerel]]</b>
17,18c17,18
< :<b>Pierre Curie</b>
< :<b>Marie Curie</b>
---
> :<b>[[Pierre Curie]]</b>
> :<b>[[Marie Curie]]</b>
26c26
< :<b>Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard</b>
---
> :<b>[[Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard]]</b>
30c30
< :<b>Sir Joseph John Thomson</b>
---
> :<b>[[Sir Joseph John Thomson]]</b>
34c34
< :<b>Albert Abraham Michelson</b>
---
> :<b>[[Albert Abraham Michelson]]</b>
38c38
< :<b>Gabriel Lippmann</b>
---
> :<b>[[Gabriel Lippmann]]</b>
42,43c42,43
< :<b>Guglielmo Marconi</b>
< :<b>Carl Ferdinand Braun</b>
---
> :<b>[[Guglielmo Marconi]]</b>
> :<b>[[Carl Ferdinand Braun]]</b>
------
Be|988934608
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word 'be' is the singlular present tense of the word '[[is]]'.
------
Be|988934659
1a2
> <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].
------
Ontology|988934785
3c3
< Different philosophers make different lists of the fundamental categories of being; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
---
> Different [[philosophers]] make different lists of the fundamental [[categories of being]]; and one of the basic questions of ontology is: "Just what are the fundamental categories of being?"
5c5
< So here are some examples of ontological questions:
---
> So here are some examples of ontological [[questions]]:
8,10c8,10
< #What are physical objects anyway?
< #What are an object's properties or relations and how are they related to the object itself?
< #When does an object go <i>out</i> of existence, as opposed to merely <i>changing</i>?
---
> #What are [[physical objects]] anyway?
> #What are an object's [[properties]] or relations and how are they related to the object itself?
> #When does an object go <i>out</i> of [[existence]], as opposed to merely <i>[[changing]]</i>?
22,23c22,23
< * The ProblemOfUniversals
< * The ProblemOfSubstance: Are [[Objects]] ultimately bundles of properties or instead [[Substance]]''''s?
---
> * The [[ProblemOfUniversals]]
> * The [[ProblemOfSubstance]]: Are [[Objects]] ultimately bundles of properties or instead [[Substance]]''''s?
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|988934897
1c1,3
< Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.
---
> Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics.
> 
> 
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|988934938
1c1
< Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics.
---
> Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
------
Radio|988934985
1c1
< Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.  The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guillermo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  
---
> Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.  The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|988935032
1c1
< Suppose that 'exists' does have different senses, so that, if it could be defined (analyzed, explicated), one might define it for physical objects, for properties, for relations, for facts, for possibilia, etc.
---
> Suppose that '[[exists]]' does have different [[senses]], so that, if it could be defined ([[analyzed]], [[explicated]]), one might define it for [[physical object]]s, for [[properties]], for [[relations]], for facts, for possibilia, etc.
3c3
< In that case, what does it mean to say that a <i>physical</i> <i>object</i> exists?  One might try to fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."
---
> In that case, what does it mean to say that a <i>[[physical object]]</i> exists?  One might try to fill in the blank in the following: "An object exists, if and only if, it ... ."
7c7
< Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> <i>with</i>?  There are different kinds of [[nonexistence]].  So it has been proposed that the existence of physical objects is an "excluder" concept, as it were a purely negative concept: an item is actually in the world, it is not fictional; it is real, not imaginary; it is an actual phenomenon, it is not part of a false hypothesis; and it is located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.  
---
> Here is a starting point for this assumption.  What is existence <i>constrasted</i> with?  There are different kinds of [[nonexistence]].  So it has been proposed that the existence of physical objects is an "excluder" concept, as it were a purely negative concept: an item is actually in the world, it is not fictional; it is real, not imaginary; it is an actual phenomenon, it is not part of a false hypothesis; and it is located at the present time, not just at a past, or a future time.  
9c9
< Common sense would seem to have it, however, that there ''is'' one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
---
> Common sense would seem to have it, however, that there ''[[is]]'' one basic sense in which physical objects actually <i>do</i> exist, and that is as an object that belongs to the space-time system that is the world with which people are in direct contact.  If one can bump into it, it exists.  So one might boldly give this following definition:
11c11
< This definition would seem to express a common sense notion of existence.  Interestingly enough, though, only a few philosophers have given such definitions (unless one would wish to construe [[materialism]] as a theory of the meaning of 'existence' which it normally is not).  But Bruce Aune, for example, in an introductory philosophy textbook, gives a definition much like this one.
---
> This definition would seem to express a common sense notion of existence.  Interestingly enough, though, only a few philosophers have given such definitions (unless one would wish to construe [[materialism]] as a theory of the meaning of 'existence' which it normally is not).  But [[Bruce Aune]], for example, in an introductory [[philosophy]] textbook, gives a definition much like this one.
19c19
< Kant wrote:
---
> [[Immanuel Kant]] wrote:
21c21
< :By whatever and by however many predicates we may think a thing--even if we completely determine it--we do not make the least addition to the thing when we further declare that this thing is.  Otherwise, it would not be exactly the same thing that exists, but something more than we had thought in the concept; and we could not, therefore, say that the exact object of my concept exists.  If we think in a thing every feature of reality except one, the missing reality is not added by my saying that this defective thing exists.  On the contrary, it exists with the same defect with which I have thought it, since otherwise what exists would be something different from what I thought. (''Critique of Pure Reason,'' B627-8)
---
> :By whatever and by however many predicates we may think a thing--even if we completely determine it--we do not make the least addition to the thing when we further declare that this thing is.  Otherwise, it would not be exactly the same thing that exists, but something more than we had thought in the concept; and we could not, therefore, say that the exact object of my concept exists.  If we think in a thing every feature of reality except one, the missing reality is not added by my saying that this defective thing exists.  On the contrary, it exists with the same defect with which I have thought it, since otherwise what exists would be something different from what I thought. (<I>''[[Critique of Pure Reason]],''</I> B627-8)
------
Marconi|988935099
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Radio]] and telecommunications equipment manufacturing company,
> founded by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
> 
> See the company's own website,
> http://www.marconi.com/
> 
------
Alexander_Graham_Bell|988935141
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Inventor]] of the [[telephone]].
> 
> 
------
The_existence_of_physical_objects|988935146
29a30
> <BR>Go on to [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]], [[Philosophy]]
------
Alexander_Graham_Bell|988935169
1c1
< [[Inventor]] of the [[telephone]].
---
> [[Inventor]] of the [[telephone]] and founder of the [[Bell]] telephone company.
------
Immanuel_Kant|988935214
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Immanuel_Kant|988935224
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
------
Bell|988935241
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Bell telephone company, founded by
> [[Alexander Graham Bell]].
> 
> See also [[AT&T]] and [[Lucent]].
> 
> 
------
Bell|988935255
4c4
< See also [[AT&T]] and [[Lucent]].
---
> See also [[ATT|AT&T]] and [[Lucent]].
------
Bell|988935283
4c4
< See also [[ATT|AT&T]] and [[Lucent]].
---
> See also [[telephone]], [[ATT|AT&T]], [[Bell Labs]], and [[Lucent]].
------
Immanuel_Kant|988935315
1c1,2
< 
---
> 
> <HR>Go back to: [Metaphysics], [Philosophy], [Ontology]
------
Bell_Labs|988935316
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The research and development laboratories of the [[Bell]] telephone company.  See also [[Lucent]].
------
Immanuel_Kant|988935333
2c2
< <HR>Go back to: [Metaphysics], [Philosophy], [Ontology]
---
> <HR>Go back to: [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]]
------
Bell_Labs|988935390
1a2,4
> 
> Bell Labs was the original home to the [[UNIX]] operating system and the [[C]] programming language, developed by [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s.
> 
------
Lucent|988935433
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the 1990s, parts of [[Bell Labs]] were renamed to Lucent.
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.lucent.com/
> 
> 
------
Substance|988935471
5c5
< Go back to [[Ontology]], or to [[Existence]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]].
---
> Go back to  [[Epistemiology]], [[Existence]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]], [[Philosophy]].
------
Substance|988935512
5c5
< Go back to  [[Epistemiology]], [[Existence]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]], [[Philosophy]].
---
> Go back to  [[Epistemology]], [[Existence]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]], [[Philosophy]].
------
Epistemology|988935568
7c7
< One might wonder: <i>What</i> <i>do</i> <i>I</i> <i>have</i> <i>to</i> <i>do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
---
> One might wonder: <i>What do I have to do</i>, to be sure that I <i>do</i> have the truth?  <i>How</i> can I be sure that my beliefs are true?  Is there some sort of guarantee available to me -- some sort of criterion I might use, in order to decide, as rationally and as carefully as I possibly could, that indeed what I believe <i>is</i> true?
------
UNIX|988935578
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> UNIX is a portable operating system, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
> 
------
Metaphysics|988935609
7c7
< Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.
---
> &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.>
------
UNIX|988935614
1c1
< UNIX is a portable operating system, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
---
> UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
------
Operating_system|988935690
10c10
< Unix (Aix, HP-UX, Solaris, Linux)
---
> [[UNIX]] ([[AIX]], [[HP-UX]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]])
------
Metaphysics|988935768
31a32,33
> <HR>
> See Also: [Philosophy], [Epistemology], [Ontology], [Ethics], [Reason]
------
Metaphysics|988935797
33c33
< See Also: [Philosophy], [Epistemology], [Ontology], [Ethics], [Reason]
---
> See Also: [[Philosophy]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ontology]], [[Ethics]], [[Reason]]
------
UNIX|988935837
2a3,6
> 
> Spreading first to a few universities, including the [[University of California at Berkeley]], UNIX has been offered in many different versions and dialects, including
> [[AIX]], [[BSD]], [[FreeBSD]], [[HP-UX]], [[Linux]], [[NetBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], [[SCO UNIX]], [[Solaris]],  [[SunOS]]
> 
------
Metaphysics|988935895
7,10d6
< &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.>
< 
< [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
< 
33a30,31
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
UNIX|988935923
1c1
< UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
---
> UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C langauge|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
------
UNIX|988936001
1c1
< UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C langauge|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
---
> UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C language|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
------
Bell_Labs|988936066
3c3
< Bell Labs was the original home to the [[UNIX]] operating system and the [[C]] programming language, developed by [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s.
---
> Bell Labs was the original home to the [[UNIX]] operating system and the [[C language|C]] programming language, developed by [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s, aswell as the [[C++]] programming language developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] in the 1980s.
------
UNIX|988936092
1c1
< UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C language|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by Brian Kernighan and Ken Thompson in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
---
> UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C language|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
------
Bell_Labs|988936097
3c3
< Bell Labs was the original home to the [[UNIX]] operating system and the [[C language|C]] programming language, developed by [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s, aswell as the [[C++]] programming language developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] in the 1980s.
---
> Bell Labs was the original home to the [[UNIX]] operating system and the [[C language|C]] programming language, developed by [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]], and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s, aswell as the [[C Plus Plus|C++]] programming language developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] in the 1980s.
------
C_Plus_Plus|988936158
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Object-oriented]] [[programming language]] based on [[C language|C]], developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] at [[Bell Labs]] in the 1980s.
------
Ethics|988936193
3c3
< <i>Ethics</i> is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into at least four different subjects, including <i>meta</i>-<i>ethics</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>conduct</i>, and <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
---
> <i>Ethics</i> is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into at least four different subjects, including <i>meta-ethics</i>, the <i>theory of value</i>, the <i>theory of conduct</i>, and <i>applied ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
5c5
< But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>ethical</i> <i>sentence</i>.  Another word for it might be <i>normative</i> <i>statement</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally</i> <i>evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
---
> But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>[[ethical sentence]]</i>.   Another word for it might be <i>[[normative statement]]</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
11c11
< The second topic, the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>value</i>, asks: "What sorts of things, and situations, are good?"  Notice, the goodness we’re talking about here is primarily the goodness, or desirability, or the value, of <i>things</i> -- not of people or actions.  The goodness of people and their actions is studied under the <i>next</i> heading, the heading of the theory of conduct.
---
> The second topic, the <i>theory of value</i>, asks: "What sorts of things, and situations, are good?"  Notice, the goodness we’re talking about here is primarily the goodness, or desirability, or the value, of <i>things</i> -- not of people or actions.  The goodness of people and their actions is studied under the <i>next</i> heading, the heading of the theory of conduct.
13c13
< I’m sure you can see the difference I mean here.  Obviously, there <i>is</i> a difference between calling a banana split "good" and calling a human being "good."  The theory of value is more concerned about the sense in which objects like banana splits, or situations like a well-paying job, or mental states like pleasure, are good.  That’s not to say, however, that ultimately, the sense in which we call a human being "good" can’t ultimately be reduced to the sense in which objects and mental states and situations can be good.  I mean, maybe that’s the case -- maybe ultimately we <i>will</i> be able to define what it means to be a good person in terms of that person’s tendency to create good things and situations for himself and other people.  In other words, maybe what we mean by calling someone "a good person" is, very roughly speaking, "a person who creates a lot of good for the world."  We’ll examine such possibilities next time, when we talk about the theory of conduct.
---
> I’m sure you can see the difference I mean here.  Obviously, there <i>is</i> a difference between calling a banana split "good" and calling a human being "good."  The [[theory of value]] is more concerned about the sense in which objects like banana splits, or situations like a well-paying job, or mental states like pleasure, are good.  That’s not to say, however, that ultimately, the sense in which we call a human being "good" can’t ultimately be reduced to the sense in which objects and mental states and situations can be good.  I mean, maybe that’s the case -- maybe ultimately we <i>will</i> be able to define what it means to be a good person in terms of that person’s tendency to create good things and situations for himself and other people.  In other words, maybe what we mean by calling someone "a good person" is, very roughly speaking, "a person who creates a lot of good for the world."  We’ll examine such possibilities next time, when we talk about the [[theory of conduct]].
17c17
< There is a fourth area is called <i>applied</i> <i>ethics</i>, and this is an area that we will not have time to discuss, although it’s very interesting.  Basically, it’s just as its name suggests: it is the application of ethical theories to particular ethical problems.  Actually, most of the ethical problems you’ll study if you study applied ethics are about ethical questions public policy implications.  Such as: Is getting an abortion ever moral?  Is euthanasia ever moral?  What are the ethical underpinnings of affirmative action policies?  And so forth.
---
> There is a fourth area is called <i>[[applied ethics]]</i>, and this is an area that we will not have time to discuss, although it’s very interesting.  Basically, it’s just as its name suggests: it is the application of ethical theories to particular ethical problems.  Actually, most of the ethical problems you’ll study if you study applied ethics are about ethical questions public policy implications.  Such as: Is getting an [[abortion]] ever moral?  Is [[euthanasia]] ever moral?  What are the ethical underpinnings of [[affirmative action]] policies?  And so forth.
19c19
< But not <i>all</i> questions studied in applied ethics have immediate public policy implications.  For example, one such question is: What is lying and is lying always wrong?  If not, when is lying permissible?
---
> But not <i>all</i> questions studied in applied ethics have immediate public policy implications.  For example, one such question is: What is [[lying]] and is lying always [[wrong]]?  If not, when is lying permissible?
21c21,23
< And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of applied ethics, which examine ethical problems of different professions.  There are business ethics, medical ethics, and legal ethics, which examine the moral dilemmas faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
---
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of [[applied ethics]], which examine [[ethical problems]] of different professions.  There are [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], and [[legal ethics]], which examine the [[moral dilemmas]] faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
> <HR>
> See Also: [[Philosophy]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ontology]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Reason]]
------
Bjarne_Stroustrup|988936209
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Danish-born computer scientist, developer of the [[C Plus Plus|C++]] [[programming language]] at [[Bell Labs]].
> 
------
Ethics|988936235
3c3
< <i>Ethics</i> is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into at least four different subjects, including <i>meta-ethics</i>, the <i>theory of value</i>, the <i>theory of conduct</i>, and <i>applied ethics</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
---
> <i>Ethics</i> is, to put it very roughly, the study of the nature of goodness and of what is morally right.  Ethics is typically broken into at least four different subjects, including <i>[[meta-ethics]]</i>, the <i>[[theory of value]]</i>, the <i>[[theory of conduct]]</i>, and <i>[[applied ethics]]</i>.  By way of introduction, let me say a little bit about each of these areas.
------
Programming_language|988936297
23c23
< * [[C Plus Plus|C++|CPP]]
---
> * [[C Plus Plus|C++]]
------
Ethics|988936320
5c5,9
< But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>[[ethical sentence]]</i>.   Another word for it might be <i>[[normative statement]]</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.  So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
---
> But first I need to introduce a piece of terminology -- without spending too much time on trying to make it very precise, which shouldn’t be necessary for our purposes.  The piece of terminology is <i>[[ethical sentence]]</i>.   Another word for it might be <i>[[normative statement]]</i>.  But to be consistent with our reading, we’ll stick with "ethical sentence."  An ethical sentence is a sentence which contains the words "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," or any other such word.  In other words, these are words that we use to <i>morally evaluate</i> people, intentions, actions, and other sorts of things.
> 
> N.B. Here I think what the writer was trying to say was that an [[ethical sentence]] is something that contains a [[value judgement]].
> 
> So here are a few examples of ethical sentences: "Sally is a good person"; "it is wrong to steal"; "it is totally evil to do what they are contemplating"; "the senator’s actions were thoroughly unethical."  And correspondingly a <i>non</i>-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does <i>not</i> contain one of these terms of moral evaluation.  Examples would include: "That flower is red"; "Norman is six foot three"; "Juneau is the capital of Alaska"; and so forth.
------
Metaphysics/Talk|988936354
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Text included in an earlier version:
> 
> Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.
> 
> [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
> 
> ----
> Larry deleted the above the first time, this time I'm deleting it and I'll attempt to justify.  First of all, I fon't give a damn about authority or credentials either.  I quoted Churchill in an article on subjectivism and he's not known as a philosopher either.  I also happen to like Heinlein a lot; ''The Moon is a Harsh Mistress'' is the best work on politics around.  The paragraph above, though, is out of place because it's largely wrong, totally biased, and unhelpful to any reader seriously interested in metaphysics.  Preumably someone reading an encyclopedia article on metaphysics and philosophy wants to know what most philosophers actually do, and what their general consensus is, not what one single author thinks they do.
> 
> It might be acceptable if properly prefaced: "It is popular among some to make fun of metaphysics or to compare it to religion.  For example Heinlein..."  Then it is clearly marked as an example of a minority opinion, which it is.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Fortran|988936355
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Programming language]] developed by [[IBM]] in the 1950s.
> The name is short for Formula Translation.
> Several revisions of the language have appeared, including
> Fortran IV and Fortran 90.
> 
------
IBM|988936400
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> International Business Machines corporation,
> for long times the world's biggest computer company.
> 
------
Telephone|988936483
4c4
< [[AT&T]],
---
> [[ATT|AT&T]],
------
Metaphysics|988936508
28a29
> &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into <a href="/wiki/Religion">religion</a>.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
------
Metaphysics/Talk|988936514
8c8
< Larry deleted the above the first time, this time I'm deleting it and I'll attempt to justify.  First of all, I fon't give a damn about authority or credentials either.  I quoted Churchill in an article on subjectivism and he's not known as a philosopher either.  I also happen to like Heinlein a lot; ''The Moon is a Harsh Mistress'' is the best work on politics around.  The paragraph above, though, is out of place because it's largely wrong, totally biased, and unhelpful to any reader seriously interested in metaphysics.  Preumably someone reading an encyclopedia article on metaphysics and philosophy wants to know what most philosophers actually do, and what their general consensus is, not what one single author thinks they do.
---
> Larry deleted the above the first time, this time I'm deleting it and I'll attempt to justify.  First of all, I don't give a damn about authority or credentials either.  I quoted Churchill in an article on subjectivism and he's not known as a philosopher either.  I also happen to like Heinlein a lot; ''The Moon is a Harsh Mistress'' is the best work on politics around.  The paragraph above, though, is out of place because it's largely wrong, biased, and unhelpful to any reader seriously interested in metaphysics.  Presumably someone reading an encyclopedia article on metaphysics and philosophy wants to know what most philosophers actually do and what their general consensus is, not what one single author thinks they do.
------
Telia|988936535
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish now-privatized national telecom.
> 
> See the company's own website,
> http://www.telia.com/
> and http://www.telia.se/
> 
> 
------
Metaphysics|988936541
29c29
< &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into <a href="/wiki/Religion">religion</a>.  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
---
> &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
------
Metaphysics|988936587
29c29
< &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
---
> &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back, as I have the last 3 times that it was deleted.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
------
Nokia|988936598
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Telephone]] equipment manufacturer in [[Finland]].
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.nokia.com/
> 
------
Ingmar_Bergman|988936622
21,22c21,22
< :[[Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
< :[[The Seventh Seal]] (1957) (Sjunde inseglet, Det)
---
> :[[Wild Strawberries Ingmar Bergman|Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
> :[[The Seventh Seal]] (1957) (Det Sjunde inseglet)
------
PCM|988936703
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is the technology used to
> digitally encode an analog signal, as used in digital
> [[telephone]] systems or for digital audio recording
> on compact discs [[CD]].
> 
> 
------
Metaphysics|988936869
6a7,8
> There is considerable disagreement over what exactly is metaphysics and where it ends.  Some would include almost anything in the subject related to existence and perhaps even beyond it.  And others would not.  For example, [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with their God or gods.<br>
> 
29d30
< &LT;Earlier, someone disagreed with the following paragraph and deleted it but failed to give a justification for the disagreement, therefore I presume they are unable to justify.  Note that if you delete the following without a reasonable explanation I will put it back, as I have the last 3 times that it was deleted.  Just because YOU think someone isn't a good source for metaphysics does not mean your argument is correct.&gt;<br> <br> [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with to their God or gods.<br>
------
Telephone|988936872
1c1
< Technical invention to transmit speech by means of electric signals.  Generally attributed to the [[US]] [[inventor]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]], 1876.  The history of additional inventions and improvements include the carbon [[microphone]], the manual [[switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized telephone exchange, touch-tone dialing ([[DTMF]]), the digitization of sound ([[PCM]]), [[DTMF]], [[ISDN]], [[DSL]], [[cell phone]] systems, digital cell phone systems, and the [[third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to allow high-speed packet data transfer.
---
> Technical invention to transmit speech by means of electric signals.  Generally attributed to the [[US]] [[inventor]] [[Alexander Graham Bell]], 1876.  The history of additional inventions and improvements include the carbon [[microphone]], the manual [[switchboard]], the [[rotary dial]], the [[automatic telephone exchange]], the computerized telephone exchange, touch-tone dialing ([[DTMF]]), the digitization of sound ([[PCM]]), [[ISDN]], [[DSL]], [[cell phone]] systems, digital cell phone systems, and the [[third generation cell phone]] systems that promise to allow high-speed packet data transfer.
------
Nortel|988936902
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Telephone]] equipment manufacturer.
> 
> See the company's own website,
> http://www.nortel.com/
> 
------
Wild_Strawberries_Ingmar_Bergman|988936936
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1957 [[Ingmar Bergman]] film about a medical doctor who is forced by nightmares and daydreams to reevaluate his life on a drive with his daughter-in-law to receive an honorary degree.  He finds himself to be a cold and unwelcoming person and his life to be alienated and empty.  Stars [[Victor Sjostrom|Victor Sjöström]], [[Bibi Andersson]], [[Ingrid Thulin]], and [[Gunnar Bjornstrand|Gunnar Björnstrand]].
------
Metaphysics|988936954
7c7
< There is considerable disagreement over what exactly is metaphysics and where it ends.  Some would include almost anything in the subject related to existence and perhaps even beyond it.  And others would not.  For example, [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</a>, in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with their God or gods.<br>
---
> There is considerable disagreement over what exactly is metaphysics and where it ends.  Some would include almost anything in the subject related to existence and perhaps even beyond it.  And others would not.  For example, [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with their God or gods.<br>
------
Nortel|988936979
1c1,2
< [[Telephone]] equipment manufacturer.
---
> [[Telephone]] equipment manufacturer,
> headquartered in [[Canada]].
------
Metaphysics|988937086
8a9,10
> The above statement applies to itself as well: every opinion as to what is or isn't valid within metaphysics is merely the opinion of whoever wrote it.  Each person must judge for themselves and decide whether or not they agree with a particular philosopher's opinions.
> 
------
Telefonica|988937092
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> National [[telephone]] network operator in [[Spain]].
> 
> See the company's own website,
> http://www.telefonica.es/
> 
------
Metaphysics|988937121
9c9
< The above statement applies to itself as well: every opinion as to what is or isn't valid within metaphysics is merely the opinion of whoever wrote it.  Each person must judge for themselves and decide whether or not they agree with a particular philosopher's opinions.
---
> The above statement applies to itself as well: every claim as to what is or isn't valid within metaphysics is merely the opinion of whoever wrote it.  Each person must judge for themselves and decide whether or not they agree with a particular philosopher's opinions.
------
Lars_Magnus_Ericsson|988937217
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Founder of [[telephone]] equipment manufacturer [[Ericsson]]
> (formally named Telefon Aktiebolaget L M Ericsson).
> 
------
Metaphysics|988937264
33,34c33
< See Also: [[Philosophy]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ontology]], [[Ethics]], [[Reason]]
< 
---
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], Metaphysics, [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
Moscow|988937270
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of [[Russia]].
> 
------
Metaphysics/Talk|988937345
11a12,14
> I have revised the statement to more adequately reference it as a minority opinion and to point out the obvious: that the statement applies to itself as well.
> [[Paul Robinson]]
> 
------
Sun_Microsystems|988937422
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Silicon Valley]]-based computer and software manufacturer.
> Sun's products include computer servers and workstations based on the [[SPARC]] processor, the [[SunOS]] and [[Solaris]] operating system, and the [[NFS]] network file system.
> 
> 
------
Metaphysics|988937503
13c13
< The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote a number of books which together were called the <i>Physics</i>.  An early edition of the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that there was another set of books that were placed right after the <i>Physics.</i>  These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the (books that come) after the (books about) physics."  That, then, is the origin of the word 'metaphysics'.
---
> The ancient Greek philosopher [[Aristotle]] wrote a number of books which together were called the <i>Physics</i>.  An early edition of the works of Aristotle were organized in such a way that there was another set of books that were placed right after the <i>Physics.</i>  These books seemed to concern a basic, fundamental area of philosophical inquiry, which at the time did not have a name.  So early Aristotle scholars called those books "ta meta ta physika," which means "the (books that come) after the (books about) physics."  That, then, is the origin of the word 'metaphysics'.
15c15
< Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics is the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So, etymologically, what 'metaphysics' means is 'the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about'.
---
> Hence, [[etymologically]] speaking, metaphysics is the subject of those books by Aristotle which were called, collectively, the <i>Metaphysics</i>.  So, etymologically, what 'metaphysics' means is 'the subject that the <i>Metaphysics</i> of Aristotle is about'.
17c17
< What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) [[ontology]], (2) [[Aristotelian theology|theology]], and (3) [[universal science]].  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of [[existence]]; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of [[being]] <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of [[God]] or the [[gods]] and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  A particular apple cannot both exist and not exist at the same time.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
---
> What were those books by Aristotle about?  The ''Metaphysics'' was divided into three parts, called (1) [[ontology]], (2) [[Aristotelian theology|theology]], and (3) [[universal science]].  So ontology, theology, and universal science are regarded as the three traditional branches of metaphysics.  (1) 'Ontology' is the study of [[existence]]; it has been traditionally defined as 'the science of [[being]] <i>qua</i> being'.  (2) 'Theology' means, here, the study of [[God]] or the [[gods]] and of questions about the divine.  (3) 'Universal science' is supposed to be the study of so-called [[Aristotelian first principles|first principle]]s, which underlie all other inquiries; an example of such a principle is the [[law of non-contradiction]]: "A thing cannot both be and not be at the same time, and in the same respect."  A particular apple cannot both exist and not exist at the same time.  It can't be all red and all green at the same time.  So that was the Aristotelian conception of metaphysics.
34c34
< [[/Talk]]
---
> <BR>[[/Talk]]
------
Solaris|988937537
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Solaris is the name of the [[UNIX]] dialect from [[Sun Microsystems]].
> 
> Early versions, based on [[BSD]] UNIX, were called [[SunOS]].
> The shift to a [[System V]] code base in SunOS 5 was marked
> by changing the name to Solaris 2.
> 
> 
------
BSD|988937621
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BSD is the name of the [[UNIX]] dialects distributed already in the 1970s from the [[University of California at Berkeley]] (UCB).  BSD is short for the Berkeley Software Distribution.
> 
> Versions of UNIX that originate from BSD include [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[SunOS]].
------
BSD|988937635
3c3
< Versions of UNIX that originate from BSD include [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[SunOS]].
---
> Versions of UNIX that descend from BSD include [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[SunOS]].
------
BSD|988937667
1c1
< BSD is the name of the [[UNIX]] dialects distributed already in the 1970s from the [[University of California at Berkeley]] (UCB).  BSD is short for the Berkeley Software Distribution.
---
> BSD is the name of the [[UNIX]] dialects distributed already in the 1970s from the University of California at Berkeley ([[UCB]]).  BSD is short for the Berkeley Software Distribution.
------
Epistemology|988937734
29a30,31
> <HR>
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
Epistemology|988937759
31c31
< See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
---
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], Epistemology, [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
UCB|988937772
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The University of California at Berkeley (UCB) is UC's main campus, situated in [[Berkeley]] north of [[Oakland]] in the
> [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
> 
> The [[BSD]] dialect(s) of the UNIX operating system originate
> from the computer science lab at UCB.
> 
> See the university's own website,
> http://www.berkeley.edu/
> 
> 
------
Oakland|988937859
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]].
> 
> 
------
Epistemology|988937910
9c9
< Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used logic, you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at</i> <i>least</i> <i>some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason</i> <i>to</i> <i>think</i> <i>the</i> <i>belief</i> <i>is</i> <i>true</i>.
---
> Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used [logic], you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at least some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason to think the belief is true</i>.
19c19
< Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory</i> <i>of</i> <i>knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
---
> Now I can describe to you the field of <i>epistemology</i>, which is also called the <i>theory of knowledge</i>. Here is a definition:
------
Berkeley|988937911
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Berkeley is a city in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]],
> north of [[Oakland]], home to the main campus of the University of California ([[UCB]]).
> 
> 
------
Ethics|988937953
27c27
< See Also: [[Philosophy]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ontology]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Reason]]
---
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], Ethics, [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
UCB|988937984
1c1
< The University of California at Berkeley (UCB) is UC's main campus, situated in [[Berkeley]] north of [[Oakland]] in the
---
> The University of California at Berkeley (UCB) is [[UC]]'s main campus, situated in [[Berkeley]] north of [[Oakland]] in the
------
UC|988938034
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The University of California (UC) has several campuses around
> the state.  The main campus is in Berkeley ([[UCB]]).  Other
> sites include: [[UCLA]], [[UCSF]]
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|988938169
6a7,8
> [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] ([[Linkoping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]])
> 
15c17,23
< [[University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley, California]])
---
> [[UC|University of California]]:
> 
> [[UCB|University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley, California]])
> 
> [[UCLA]]
> 
> [[UCSF]]
------
Colleges_and_universities|988938217
19,21c19,21
< [[UCB|University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley, California]])
< 
< [[UCLA]]
---
> [[UCB|University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley]], [[California]])
>  
> [[UCLA]] ([[Los Angeles]], [[California]])
23c23
< [[UCSF]]
---
> [[UCSF]]  ([[San Francisco]], [[California]])
------
UC|988938245
4a5,6
> 
> See also [[Universities and colleges]]
------
UC|988938268
6c6
< See also [[Universities and colleges]]
---
> See also [[Colleges and universities]]
------
Los_Angeles|988938292
6a7,8
> * [[UCLA]]
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|988938325
7c7
< [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] ([[Linkoping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]])
---
> [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] ([[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]])
------
Linkoping_University|988938421
6a7
> See also [[Colleges and universities]].
------
Sweden|988938584
9a10
> [[Helsingborg]],
13c14,16
< [[Lund]], and
---
> [[Lund]],
> [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
>  and
------
Be|988938586
1c1,2
< The word 'be' is the singlular present tense of the word '[[is]]'.
---
> The verb ''to be'' is a copulative, indicating that two things are the same, that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
> 
------
Sweden|988938612
16c16
<  and
---
> and
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|988938665
3c3
< 
---
> ''Actually, the radio supposedly predates Marconi, although I don't remember the original inventor's name.''
------
UNIX|988939163
1c1
< UNIX is a portable operating system, mostly written in the [[C language|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
---
> UNIX is a portable [[operating system]], mostly written in the [[C language|C]] programming language, originally developed at [[Bell Labs]] by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Ken Thompson]] in the early 1970s.  The first published description of the system's inner workings was a book by an Australian university teacher, the so-called [[Lions book]].
------
Sun_Microsystems|988939214
2c2,4
< Sun's products include computer servers and workstations based on the [[SPARC]] processor, the [[SunOS]] and [[Solaris]] operating system, and the [[NFS]] network file system.
---
> Sun's products include computer servers and workstations based on the [[SPARC]] processor, the [[SunOS]] and [[Solaris]] operating system, the [[NFS]] network file system, and the [[Java]] programming language.
> 
> 
------
Earth_Sciences|988939329
1c1
< Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Natural geography]] (as opposed to political [[geography]]), [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
3c3
< Arguably, Earth Sciences can be regarded as a branch of [[Planetary Sciences]].
---
> Arguably, Earth Sciences can be regarded as a branch of [[Planetary Sciences]].
------
Earth_Sciences|988939449
1c1
< Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Natural geography]] (as opposed to political [[geography]]), [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
---
> Includes [[Geology]], [[Meteorology]], [[Physical geography]] (as opposed to [[human geography]]), [[Paleontology]], and other sciences.  [[Marine Sciences]] and [[Environmental Sciences]] are highly interdisciplinary branches of earth sciences.
------
Physical_geography|988939588
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Physical geography is one of the [[earth sciences]], as opposed to [[human geopgraphy]], which is one of the [[social sciences]].
> 
> Terms used in physical geopgraphy include:
> [[city]],
> [[continent]],
> [[island]],
> [[lake]]
> [[mountain]],
> [[ocean]],
> [[peninsula]],
> [[river]]
> 
------
Physical_geography|988939604
3c3
< Terms used in physical geopgraphy include:
---
> Terms used in physical geography include:
------
Physical_geography|988939630
5a6
> [[gulf]],
------
Gulf|988939722
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A gulf or bay is a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides.
> 
> Well-known bays and gulfs (in alphabetic order) include:
> The [[Gulf of Finland]],
> The [[San Francisco Bay]]
> 
> See also [[Physical geography]]
> 
> 
------
Lake|988939829
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lake is a large collection of water, on all sides surrounded by land.  Lakes normally have non-salt water.
> 
> Well-known lakes include:
> [[Ladoga]],
> [[Lake Superior]],
> [[lake Roxen|Roxen]],
> [[Vanern|Vänern]],
> [[Vattern|Vättern]]
> 
> See also [[Physical geography]].
------
Vattern|988939882
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vättern is the 2nd largest [[lake]] in [[Sweden]],
> drained by [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] into the [[Baltic Sea]].
> 
> 
------
Vanern|988939931
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vänern is the biggest [[lake]] in [[Sweden]], drained
> by [[Gota alv|Göta älv]] into the [[North Sea]] at
> the city of [[Gothenburg]].
> 
> 
------
Gota_alv|988939991
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Göta älv is a [[river]] that drains lake [[Vanern|Vänern]]
> into the [[North Sea]] at the city of [[Gothenburg]]
> on the west coast of [[Sweden]].
> 
> 
------
River|988940066
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A river is a big, natural waterpath.
> 
> Well-known rivers (in alphabetic order) include:
> [[Amazon]],
> [[Mississippi]],
> the [[Nile]],
> [[Volga]]
> 
> See also [[Physical geography]].
> 
> 
------
Island|988940107
1c1,3
< An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands--say, islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks--are called [[islet]]s.  Here is a list of the largest islands of the world:
---
> An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands--say, islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks--are called [[islet]]s.  See also [[physical geography]].
> 
> Here is a list of the largest islands of the world:
------
Island|988940143
1c1
< An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands--say, islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks--are called [[islet]]s.  See also [[physical geography]].
---
> An island is any piece of land smaller than a [[continent]] and larger than a [[rock]] that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands--say, islands smaller than necessary for any useful purpose, but still larger than rocks--are called [[islet]]s.
67c67,69
< See also [[atoll]]; [[reef]]; [[volcanic island]]; [[archipelago]].
---
> See also [[atoll]]; [[reef]]; [[volcanic island]]; [[archipelago]],
> [[physical geography]].
> 
------
Physical_geography|988940169
3a4
> [[atoll]],
7a9
> [[islet]],
------
Psychology|988940188
1c1
< Psychology is the study of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. Sciences related to psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was considered a study of matters of the soul (psyche) in earlier ages, [[experimental pshychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Liepzig University in Germany, eliminated spritual or religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today such concepts are foreign to the field of psychology. 
---
> Psychology is the study of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. Sciences related to psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was considered a study of matters of the soul in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Liepzig University in Germany, eliminated spritual or religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today such concepts are foreign to the field of psychology. 
3c3
< Since the advent of Wundt and his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of metrialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology has slowly but steadily moved out of the classification of philosophy, and sought to establish itself as a science.  Most universities today include psychology in their science departments, and not under philosophy.  Both psychology and its sister study psychiatry are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles as pseudo-sciences, the chief criticisms being that their theories, diagnoses and treatments do not hold up under the rigor of the scientific method, and that they are not falsifiable.
---
> Since the advent of Wundt and his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of materialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology has slowly but steadily moved out of the classification of philosophy, and sought to establish itself as a science.  Most universities today include psychology in their science departments, and not under philosophy.  Both psychology and its sister study psychiatry are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles as pseudo-sciences, the chief criticisms being that their theories, diagnoses and treatments do not hold up under the rigor of the scientific method, and that they are not falsifiable.
------
Physical_geography|988940225
3a4
> [[archipelago]],
14c15,19
< [[river]]
---
> [[plain]],
> [[reef]],
> [[ridge]],
> [[river]],
> [[valley]]
------
Plain|988940257
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[rain]] in [[Spain]] falls mainly in the plains.
> 
> See also [[physical geography]].
> 
> 
------
Valley|988940339
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A flat land surrounded by higher areas, such as [[ridge]]s, [[mountain]]s, or [[hill]]s.
> 
> 
> Famouse valleys include:
> [[Death Valley]],
> [[Silicon Valley]],
> [[Wireless Valley]]
> 
> See also [[physical geography]].
> 
------
Physical_geography|988940413
1c1
< Physical geography is one of the [[earth sciences]], as opposed to [[human geopgraphy]], which is one of the [[social sciences]].
---
> Physical geography is one of the [[Earth Sciences]], as opposed to [[human geopgraphy]], which is one of the [[Social Sciences]].
------
Physical_geography|988940428
1c1
< Physical geography is one of the [[Earth Sciences]], as opposed to [[human geopgraphy]], which is one of the [[Social Sciences]].
---
> Physical geography is one of the [[Earth Sciences]], as opposed to [[human geography]], which is one of the [[Social Sciences]].
------
Human_geography|988940507
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Human or political geography deals with states, nations, unions and other non-physical parts of [[geography]].
> 
> See also [[physical geography]].
> 
------
Nile|988940642
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Denial is a [[river]] in [[Egypt]].
> 
> 
------
Volga|988940678
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Volga is a [[river]] in [[Russia]].
> 
> 
------
Volga|988940717
3a4
> It is also the name of an (old [[Soviet]]) brand of cars, see [[automobile]].
------
Soviet|988940834
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> From the [[Bolshevik]] revolution or coup in the fall of 1917 until the early or mid 1990s, [[Russia]] and some neighboring countries and regions were under communist rule in the so-called Soviet Union.
> 
> 
> See also [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]].
> 
------
Soviet|988940867
1c1
< From the [[Bolshevik]] revolution or coup in the fall of 1917 until the early or mid 1990s, [[Russia]] and some neighboring countries and regions were under communist rule in the so-called Soviet Union.
---
> From the [[Bolshevik]] revolution or coup in the fall of 1917 until the early or mid 1990s, [[Russia]] and some neighboring countries and regions were under communist rule in the so-called [[Soviet Union]].
------
Soviet|988940889
1,5c1
< From the [[Bolshevik]] revolution or coup in the fall of 1917 until the early or mid 1990s, [[Russia]] and some neighboring countries and regions were under communist rule in the so-called [[Soviet Union]].
< 
< 
< See also [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]].
< 
---
> See the [[Soviet Union]].
------
Volga|988940937
4c4
< It is also the name of an (old [[Soviet]]) brand of cars, see [[automobile]].
---
> In the era of the [[Soviet Union]], it is also the name of a brand of [[automobile]]s.
------
Industry/Secondary_Sector|988941314
1c1,9
< The manufacturing sector of [[Industry|industry]]. 
---
> The manufacturing sector of [[Industry|industry]]. 
> 
> Divisions of this sector include:
> [[Aircraft]],
> [[Automobile]],
> [[Radio]],
> [[Telephone]]
> 
> 
------
Archaeology|988941566
11a12,13
> *[[Gustaf VI Adolf]]
> 
------
Gustaf_VI_Adolf|988941593
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of Sweden and a devoted amateur archaeologist.
> 
> See [[archaeology]].
------
Sweden/Kings|988941646
30c30
< *[[Gustaf IV Adolf]] 1950 - 1973
---
> *[[Gustaf VI Adolf]] 1950 - 1973
------
Gustaf_VI_Adolf|988941669
1c1
< King of Sweden and a devoted amateur archaeologist.
---
> King of Sweden (1950--1973) and a devoted amateur archaeologist.
------
Gustaf_VI_Adolf|988941701
3c3
< See [[archaeology]].
---
> See [[archaeology]] and [[Sweden/Kings]].
------
Library_and_Information_Science|988942400
15a16,22
> 
> ----
> 
> The earliest important attempt to organize knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia was made by [[Diderot]], creator and editor of the great French [[encyclopedia]], in the 18th century.  He and his colleagues, the encyclopedists, made many mistakes that wikipedia enthusiasts are bound to repeat unless they read up on the history of the trade.
> 
> 
> 
------
Library_and_Information_Science|988942492
19c19
< The earliest important attempt to organize knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia was made by [[Diderot]], creator and editor of the great French [[encyclopedia]], in the 18th century.  He and his colleagues, the encyclopedists, made many mistakes that wikipedia enthusiasts are bound to repeat unless they read up on the history of the trade.
---
> The earliest important attempt to organize knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia was made by [[Dennis Diderot]], creator and editor of the great French [[encyclopedia]], in the 18th century.  He and his colleagues, the encyclopedists, made many mistakes that wikipedia enthusiasts are bound to repeat unless they read up on the history of the trade.
------
Adding_stuff_to_Wikipedia|988942633
1a2
> See also [[encyclopedia]].
------
Encyclopedia|988942718
4a5,7
> 
> See also [[Library and Information Science]], the [[History of Science and Technology]], and [[Literature]].
> 
------
Greece|988943306
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Greece/History|988943467
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and territories with Greek-speaking populations. Following the defeat of communist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military dictatorship, which in 1967 had suspended many political liberties and forced the king to flee the country, was itself overthrown seven years later. Democratic elections in 1974 abolished the monarchy and created a parliamentary republic; Greece joined the EU in 1981.
------
Greece/Geography|988943489
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Europe, bordering the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea, between Albania and Turkey
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 39 00 N, 22 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 131,940 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 130,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,140 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Alabama
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,210 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Albania 282 km, Bulgaria 494 km, Turkey 206 km, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 228 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 13,676 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 6 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; mild, wet winters; hot, dry summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains with ranges extending into the sea as peninsulas or chains of islands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Olympus 2,917 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, lignite, magnesite, petroleum, marble, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 41%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 12% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 13,140 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> severe earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution; water pollution
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location dominating the Aegean Sea and southern approach to Turkish Straits; a peninsular country, possessing an archipelago of about 2,000 islands
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Greece/People|988943507
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,601,527 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 15% (male 828,585; female 779,902)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 3,580,079; female 3,574,788)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 18% (male 815,247; female 1,022,926) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.21% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.82 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.64 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 1.97 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.8 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.51 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.44 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.89 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.16 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Greek(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Greek
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Greek 98%, other 2%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Greek Government states there are no ethnic divisions in Greece
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Greek Orthodox 98%, Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Greek 99% (official), English, French
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 93% (1991 est.)
------
Greece/Government|988943530
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Hellenic Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Greece
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Elliniki Dhimokratia
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ellas or Ellada
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Kingdom of Greece
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary republic; monarchy rejected by referendum 8 December 1974
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Athens
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 51 prefectures (nomoi, singular - nomos)and 1 autonomous region*; Ayion Oros* (Mt. Athos), Aitolia kai Akarnania, Akhaia, Argolis, Arkadhia, Arta, Attiki, Dhodhekanisos, Drama, Evritania, Evros, Evvoia, Florina, Fokis, Fthiotis, Grevena, Ilia, Imathia, Ioannina, Irakleion, Kardhitsa, Kastoria, Kavala, Kefallinia, Kerkyra, Khalkidhiki, Khania, Khios, Kikladhes, Kilkis, Korinthia, Kozani, Lakonia, Larisa, Lasithi, Lesvos, Levkas, Magnisia, Messinia, Pella, Pieria, Preveza, Rethimni, Rodhopi, Samos, Serrai, Thesprotia, Thessaloniki, Trikala, Voiotia, Xanthi, Zakinthos
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1829 (from the Ottoman Empire)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 25 March (1821) (proclamation of the war of independence)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 11 June 1975; amended March 1986
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on codified Roman law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Konstandinos (Kostis) STEPHANOPOULOS (since 10 March 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Konstandinos SIMITIS (since 19 January 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 8 February 2000 (next to be held by NA March 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Konstandinos STEPHANOPOULOS reelected president; percent of Parliament vote - 90%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Vouli ton Ellinon (300 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> elections last held 9 April 2000 (next to be held by NA April 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PASOK 43.8%, ND 42.7%, KKE 5.5%, Coalition of the Left and Progress 3.2%; seats by party - PASOK 158, ND 125, KKE 11, Coalition of the Left and Progress 6
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Judicial Court, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council; Special Supreme Tribunal, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Coalition of the Left and Progress (Synaspismos) [Nikolaos KONSTANDOPOULOS]; Communist Party of Greece or KKE [Aleka PAPARIGA]; Democratic Social Movement or DIKKI [Dhimitrios TSOVOLAS]; Liberal Party [Stephanos MANOS]; New Democracy or ND (conservative) [Konstandinos KARAMANLIS]; Panhellenic Socialist Movement or PASOK [Konstandinos SIMITIS]; Political Spring [Andonis SAMARAS]; Rainbow Coalition [Pavlos VOSKOPOULOS]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EU, FAO, G- 6, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Alexandros PHILON
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2221 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-5800
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-5824
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Atlanta, Houston, and New Orleans
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador R. Nicholas BURNS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 91 Vasilissis Sophias Boulevard, 10160 Athens
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 108, APO AE 09842-0108
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [30] (1) 721-2951
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [30] (1) 645-6282
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Thessaloniki
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; there is a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country
------
Greece/Economy|988943550
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Greece has a mixed capitalist economy with the public sector accounting for about half of GDP. The government plans to privatize some leading state enterprises. Tourism is a key industry, providing a large portion of GDP and foreign exchange earnings. Greece is a major beneficiary of EU aid, equal to about 4% of GDP. The economy has improved steadily over the last few years, as the government has tightened policy with the goal of qualifying Greece to join the EU's single currency (the euro) in 2001. In particular, Greece has cut its budget deficit below 2% of GDP and tightened monetary policy, with the result that inflation fell below 4% by the end of 1998 - the lowest rate in 26 years - and averaged only 2.6% in 1999. Further restructuring of the economy and the reduction of unemployment remain major challenges.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $149.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $13,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 8.3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 27.3%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 64.4% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.32 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 59.2%, agriculture 19.8%, industry 21% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $45 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $47.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism; food and tobacco processing, textiles; chemicals, metal products; mining, petroleum
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 43.677 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 8.26%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 91.24%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 42.18 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 900 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 2.46 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, corn, barley, sugar beets, olives, tomatoes, wine, tobacco, potatoes; beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $12.4 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> manufactured goods, food and beverages, fuels (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 56% (Germany 25%, Italy 11%, UK 8%, France 6%), US 16% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $27.7 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> manufactured goods, foodstuffs, fuels, chemicals (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 61% (Italy 16%, Germany 16%, France 8%, UK 7%, Netherlands 5%) US 11% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $41.9 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $5.4 billion from EU (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 drachma (Dr) = 100 lepta
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> drachmae (Dr) per US$1 - 326.59 (January 2000), 305.65 (1999), 295.53 (1998), 273.06 (1997), 240.71 (1996), 231.66 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Greece/Communications|988943568
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 5.431 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 328,500 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate, modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 26, FM 88, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 5.02 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 64 (plus about 1,000 low-power repeaters); also two stations in the US Armed Forces Network (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2.54 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 23 (1999)
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Greece/Transportation|988943589
1c1,53
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,548 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 1,565 km 1.435-m gauge (36 km electrified; 23 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 961 km 1.000-m gauge; 22 km 0.750-m gauge (a rack type railway for steep grades)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 117,000 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 107,406 km (including 470 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,594 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 80 km; system consists of three coastal canals; including the Corinth Canal (6 km) which crosses the Isthmus of Corinth connecting the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf and shortens the sea voyage from the Adriatic to Peiraiefs (Piraeus) by 325 km; and three unconnected rivers
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 26 km; petroleum products 547 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Alexandroupolis, Elefsis, Irakleion (Crete), Kavala, Kerkyra, Chalkis, Igoumenitsa, Lavrion, Patrai, Peiraiefs (Piraeus), Thessaloniki, Volos
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 779 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 24,744,872 GRT/43,734,138 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 273, cargo 60, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 5, combination ore/oil 8, container 43, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 12, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 245, refrigerated cargo 3, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 75, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 80 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 64
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 8 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Greece/Military|988943608
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Hellenic Army, Hellenic Navy, Hellenic Air Force, National Guard, Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 21 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,674,571 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,043,414 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 78,448 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $4.04 billion (FY98 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Greece/Transnational_issues|988943625
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Turkey in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question with Turkey; dispute with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia over its name
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> a gateway to Europe for traffickers smuggling cannabis and heroin from the Middle East and Southwest Asia to the West and precursor chemicals to the East; some South American cocaine transits or is consumed in Greece
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Greenland|988943711
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Greenland/History|988943809
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The world's largest island, about 84% ice-capped, Greenland was granted self-government in 1978 by the Danish parliament. The law went into effect the following year.
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Greenland/Geography|988943829
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern North America, island between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, northeast of Canada
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 72 00 N, 40 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Arctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,175,600 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2,175,600 sq km (341,700 sq km ice-free, 1,833,900 sq km ice-covered) (est.)
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than three times the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 44,087 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> arctic to subarctic; cool summers, cold winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat to gradually sloping icecap covers all but a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Gunnbjorn 3,700 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> zinc, lead, iron ore, coal, molybdenum, gold, platinum, uranium, fish, seals, whales
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 99% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the island
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> protection of the arctic environment; preservation of the Inuit traditional way of life, including whaling; note - Greenland participates actively in Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC)
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> dominates North Atlantic Ocean between North America and Europe; sparse population confined to small settlements along coast; world's second largest ice cap
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Greenland/People|988943849
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 56,309 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 27% (male 7,718; female 7,483)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 20,860; female 17,272)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 1,332; female 1,644) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.09% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.85 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -8.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.21 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 18.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68.07 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 64.52 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 71.69 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.45 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Greenlander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Greenlandic
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Greenlander 87% (Inuit and Greenland-born whites), Danish and others 13%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Greenlandic (East Inuit), Danish, English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> similar to Denmark proper
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Greenland/Government|988943868
1c1,62
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Greenland
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Kalaallit Nunaat
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GL
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since 1979
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Nuuk (Godthab)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 3 districts (landsdele); Avannaa (Nordgronland), Tunu (Ostgronland), Kitaa (Vestgronland)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (part of the Kingdom of Denmark; self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since 1979)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Birthday of the Queen, 16 April (1940)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 5 June 1953 (Danish constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> Danish
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen MARGRETHE II of Denmark (since 14 January 1972), represented by High Commissioner Gunnar MARTENS (since NA 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jonathan MOTZFELDT (since NA September 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Landsstyre is formed from the Parliament on the basis of the strength of parties
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; high commissioner appointed by the monarch; prime minister is elected by Parliament (usually the leader of the majority party); election last held 11 March 1999 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Jonathan MOTZFELDT reelected prime minister, receiving 23 out of 31 votes
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - Siumut and Atassut
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Landsting (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 17 February 1999 (next to be held by NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Siumut 35.2%, Inuit Ataqatigiit 22%, Atassut Party 25.2%, Candidate's League 12.3%; seats by party - Siumut 11, Atassut Party 8, Inuit Ataqatigiit 7, Candidate's League 4, independent 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> two representatives were elected to the Danish Parliament or Folketing on NA March 1998 (next to be held by NA 2002); percent of vote by party - Siumut 35.6%, Atassut 35.2%; seats by party - Siumut 1, Atassut 1; Greenlandic representatives are affiliated with Danish political parties
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court or Landsret
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Akulliit Party [Bjarne KREUTZMANN]; Atassut Party (Solidarity, a conservative party that favors continuing close relations with Denmark) [Daniel SKIFTE]; Candidate's League [leader NA]; Inuit Ataqatigiit or IA (Eskimo Brotherhood, a Marxist-Leninist party that favors complete independence from Denmark rather than home rule) [Josef MOTZFELDT]; Issituup (Polar Party) [Nicolai HEINRICH]; Siumut (Forward Party, a moderate socialist party that advocates more distinct Greenlandic identity and greater autonomy from Denmark) [Lars Emil JOHANSEN, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> NC, NIB
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center - the top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white
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Greenland/Economy|988943888
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late 1980s which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on fishing and fish exports; the shrimp fishery is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and minerals exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement of GDP.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $945 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0.6% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $16,100 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 24,500 (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 10.5% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $706 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $697 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fish processing (mainly shrimp), handicrafts, furs, small shipyards
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 245 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 228 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> forage crops, garden vegetables; sheep, reindeer; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $363.4 million (f.o.b., 1995)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish and fish products 95%
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Denmark 89%, Japan 5%, UK 5%
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $421 million (c.i.f., 1995)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food and live animals, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Denmark 7.5%, Iceland 3.8%, Japan 3.3%, Norway 3.1%, US 2.4%, Germany 2.4%, Sweden 1.8%
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $243 million (1995)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $427 million (annual subsidy from Denmark) (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Greenland/Communications|988943903
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 20,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,308 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate domestic and international service provided by cables and microwave radio relay; totally digitalized in 1995
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 2 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 27,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 publicly-owned station, some local low-power stations, and three AFRTS (US Air Force) stations (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 22,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Greenland/Transportation|988943921
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 150 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 60 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 90 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Kangerluarsoruseq, Kangerlussuaq, Nanortalik, Narsarsuaq, Nuuk (Godthab), Sisimiut
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 14 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Greenland/Military|988943938
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> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of Denmark
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Greenland/Transnational_issues|988943972
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Grenada|988944006
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Grenada/History|988944018
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The smallest independent country in the western hemisphere, Grenada was seized by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later the island was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbean nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundreds of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the following year.
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Grenada/Geography|988944037
1c1,59
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 12 07 N, 61 40 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 340 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 340 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> twice the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 121 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; tempered by northeast trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic in origin with central mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Saint Catherine 840 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, tropical fruit, deepwater harbors
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 55% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> the administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada
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Grenada/People|988944056
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 89,018 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 38% (male 17,106; female 16,634)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 58% (male 27,267; female 24,356)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 1,653; female 2,002) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.36% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.02 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -16.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.12 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.83 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 64.52 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 62.74 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 66.31 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.42 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Grenadian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Grenadian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 82% some South Asians (East Indians) and Europeans, trace Arawak/Carib Amerindian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 53%, Anglican 13.8%, other Protestant 33.2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), French patois
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1970 est.)
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Grenada/Government|988944078
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Grenada
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GJ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy with Westminster-style parliament
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Saint George's
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 parishes and 1 dependency*; Carriacou and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 7 February 1974 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 7 February (1974)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 19 December 1973
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Daniel WILLIAMS (since 9 August 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Keith MITCHELL (since 22 June 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; prime minister appointed by the governor general from among the members of the House of Assembly
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (a 13-member body, 10 appointed by the government and three by the leader of the opposition) and the House of Representatives (15 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 18 January 1999 (next to be held by NA October 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NNP 15
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> West Indies Associate States Supreme Court (an associate judge resides in Grenada)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Grenada United Labor Party or GULP [Herbert PREUDHOMME]; Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement or MBPM [Terrence MARRYSHOW]; National Democratic Congress or NDC [George BRIZAN]; New National Party or NNP [Keith MITCHELL]; The Democratic Labor Party or DLP [Francis ALEXIS]; The National Party or TNP [Ben JONES]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Denis G. ANTOINE
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1701 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-2561
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> the ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Grenada; Charge d'Affairs Lloyd MOSS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Point Salines, Saint George's
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 54, Saint George's, Grenada, West Indies
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (473) 444-1173 through 1176
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (473) 444-4820
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a rectangle divided diagonally into yellow triangles (top and bottom) and green triangles (hoist side and outer side), with a red border around the flag; there are seven yellow, five-pointed stars with three centered in the top red border, three centered in the bottom red border, and one on a red disk superimposed at the center of the flag; there is also a symbolic nutmeg pod on the hoist-side triangle (Grenada is the world's second-largest producer of nutmeg, after Indonesia); the seven stars represent the seven administrative divisions
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Grenada/Economy|988944102
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In this island economy progress in fiscal reforms and prudent macroeconomic management have boosted annual growth to 5%-6% in 1998-99. The increase in economic activity has been led by construction and trade. Tourist facilities are being expanded; tourism is the leading foreign exchange earner. Major short-term concerns are the rising fiscal deficit and the deterioration in the external account balance. Grenada shares a common central bank and a common currency with seven other members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $360 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 9.7%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 75.3% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.3% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 42,300 (1996)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 62%, agriculture 24%, industry 14% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% (1997)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $85.8 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $102.1 million, including capital expenditures of $28 million (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food and beverages, textiles, light assembly operations, tourism, construction
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 105 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 98 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, citrus, avocados, root crops, sugarcane, corn, vegetables
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $26.8 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> bananas, cocoa, nutmeg, fruit and vegetables, clothing, mace
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Caricom 32.3%, UK 20%, US 13%, Netherlands 8.8% (1991)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $200 million (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, fuel (1989)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 31.2%, Caricom 23.6%, UK 13.8%, Japan 7.1% (1991)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $89.2 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $8.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Grenada/Communications|988944120
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 23,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 400 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> automatic, islandwide telephone system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> interisland VHF and UHF radiotelephone links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> new SHF radiotelephone links to Trinidad and Tobago and Saint Vincent; VHF and UHF radio links to Trinidad
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 57,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 33,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Grenada/Transportation|988944138
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,040 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 638 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 402 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Grenville, Saint George's
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Grenada/Military|988944155
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Grenada Police Force (includes Special Service Unit), Coast Guard
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Grenada/Transnational_issues|988944171
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> small-scale cannabis cultivation; lesser transshipment point for marijuana and cocaine to US
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Guadaloupe|988944204
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Guadaloupe/History|988944225
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Guadeloupe has been a French possession since 1635. The island of Saint-Martin is divided with the Netherlands (whose southern portion is named Sint Maarten and is part of the Netherlands Antilles).
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Guadaloupe/Geography|988944243
1c1,57
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, islands in the eastern Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 16 15 N, 61 35 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,780 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,706 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 74 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Guadeloupe is an archipelago of nine inhabited islands, including Basse-Terre, Grande-Terre, Marie-Galante, La Desirade, Iles des Saintes (2), Saint-Barthelemy, Iles de la Petite Terre, and Saint-Martin (French part of the island of Saint Martin
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 10 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10.2 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Netherlands Antilles (Sint Maarten) 10.2 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 306 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin with interior mountains; Grande-Terre is low limestone formation; most of the seven other islands are volcanic in origin
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Soufriere 1,467 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> cultivable land, beaches and climate that foster tourism
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 29% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 30 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes (June to October); Soufriere is an active volcano
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
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Guadaloupe/People|988944260
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 426,493 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 25% (male 54,603; female 52,339)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 139,640; female 142,706)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 9% (male 15,647; female 21,558) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.11% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 17.25 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.73 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.99 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.82 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.3 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guadeloupian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guadeloupe
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black or mulatto 90%, white 5%, East Indian, Lebanese, Chinese less than 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 95%, Hindu and pagan African 4%, Protestant 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official) 99%, Creole patois
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 90% (1982 est.)
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Guadaloupe/Government|988944281
1c1,62
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Department of Guadeloupe
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guadeloupe
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Departement de la Guadeloupe
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guadeloupe
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GP
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas department of France
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Basse-Terre
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> French legal system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Jean FEDINI (since NA 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the General Council Marcellin LUBETH (since NA March 1998); President of the Regional Council Lucette MICHAUX-CHEVRY (since 22 March 1992)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General Council or Conseil General (42 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> General Council - last held 22 March 1998 (next to be held by NA 2004); Regional Council - last held 15 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - diverse left parties 11, PS 8, RPR 8, PPDG 6, diverse right parties 5, PCG 3, UDF 1; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - RPR 48.03%, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 24.49%, PCG 5.29%, diverse right parties 5.73%; seats by party - RPR 25, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 12, PCG 2, diverse right parties 2
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Guadeloupe elects two representatives to the French Senate; elections last held NA September 1995 (next to be held NA September 2004); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, FGPS 1; Guadeloupe elects four representatives to the French National Assembly; elections last held 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FGPS 2, RPR 1, PPDG 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe, French Guiana, and Martinique
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG; Communist Party of Guadeloupe or PCG [Christian CELESTE]; diverse left parties [Jacques GILLOT]; diverse right parties [Simon IBO]; FGPS Dissidents or FRUI.G [Dominique LARIFLA]; Movement for an Independent Guadeloupe or MPGI [Luc REINETTE]; Popular Union for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or UPLG [Lucien PERRUTIN]; Progressive Democratic Party or PPDG [Henri BANGOU]; Rally for the Republic or RPR [Aldo BLAISE]; Socialist Party or PS [Abdon SAMAN]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [Marcel ESDRAS]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG; General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers or CGT-G; General Union of Guadeloupe Workers or UGTG; Movement for Independent Guadeloupe or MPGI
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> FZ, WCL, WFTU
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands, a narrow green band (top), a wide red band, and a narrow green band; the green bands are separated from the red band by two narrow white stripes; a gold five-pointed star is centered in the red band toward the hoist side; the flag of France is used for official occasions
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Guadaloupe/Economy|988944312
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy depends on agriculture, tourism, light industry, and services. It also depends on France for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional sugarcane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, and flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features sugar and rum production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3.7 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9,000 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 85% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 125,900 (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 15%, industry 17%, services 68% (1997)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 27.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $225 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> construction, cement, rum, sugar, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.22 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.135 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, sugarcane, tropical fruits and vegetables; cattle, pigs, goats
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $140 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> bananas, sugar, rum
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 60%, Martinique 18%, US 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.7 billion (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 63%, Germany 4%, US 3%, Japan 2%, Netherlands Antilles 2% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA; note - substantial annual French subsidies
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155(1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Guadaloupe/Communications|988944330
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 159,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 814 (1990)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic facilities inadequate
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); microwave radio relay to Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, and Martinique
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 17, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 113,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 5 (plus several low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 118,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Guadaloupe/Transportation|988944346
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km; privately-owned, narrow-gauge plantation lines
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,082 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,742 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 340 km (1985 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in 1996 there were a total of 3,200 km of roads
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Basse-Terre, Gustavia (on Saint Barthelemy), Marigot, Pointe-a-Pitre
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,240 GRT/109 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 9 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Guadaloupe/Military|988944359
1c1,4
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French Forces, Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
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Guadaloupe/Transnational_issues|988944375
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Guam|988944409
2a3
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
3a5,13
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Guam/History|988944448
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The military installation on the island is one of the most strategically important US bases in the Pacific.
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Guam/Geography|988944466
1c1,54
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 28 N, 144 47 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 541.3 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 541.3 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> three times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 125.5 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic origin, surrounded by coral reefs; relatively flat coralline limestone plateau (source of most fresh water), with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Lamlam 406 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fishing (largely undeveloped), tourism (especially from Japan)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 45% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive typhoons (especially in August)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> extirpation of native bird population by the rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake, an exotic species
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> largest and southernmost island in the Mariana Islands archipelago; strategic location in western North Pacific Ocean
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Guam/People|988944484
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 154,623 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34.9% (male 28,233; female 25,727)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 59.09% (male 48,126; female 43,238)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6.01% (male 4,680; female 4,619) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.67% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 26.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.16 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -5.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.14 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.11 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.78 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.51 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.37 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.96 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guamanian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guamanian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chamorro 47%, Filipino 25%, white 10%, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and other 18%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 85%, other 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Chamorro, Japanese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1990 est.)
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Guam/Government|988944505
1c1,56
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of Guam
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guam
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> organized, unincorporated territory of the US with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Insular Affairs, US Department of the Interior
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Hagatna (Agana)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (territory of the US)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (territory of the US)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Guam Discovery Day (first Monday in March) (1521); Liberation Day, 21 July (1944)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Organic Act of 1 August 1950
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> modeled on US; US federal laws apply
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal; US citizens, but do not vote in US presidential elections
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President William Jefferson CLINTON of the US (since 20 January 1993); Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20 January 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Governor Carl GUTIERREZ (since 8 November 1994) and Lieutenant Governor Madeleine BORDALLO (since 8 November 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> executive departments; heads appointed by the governor with the consent of the Guam legislature
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for a four-year term; governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Carl GUTIERREZ reelected governor; percent of vote - Carl GUTIERREZ (Democrat) 53.2%, Joseph ADA (Republican) 46.8%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislature (15 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican 12, Democratic 3
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Guam elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held 3 November 1998 (next to be held NA November 2000); results - Robert UNDERWOOD was reelected as delegate; percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Democratic 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Federal District Court (judge is appointed by the president); Territorial Superior Court (judges appointed for eight-year terms by the governor)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Party (party of the Governor) [leader NA]; Republican Party (controls the legislature) [leader NA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of the US)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of the US)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; US flag is the national flag
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Guam/Economy|988944530
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy depends mainly on US military spending and on tourist revenue. Over the past 20 years, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, creating a construction boom for new hotels and the expansion of older ones. More than 1 million tourists visit Guam each year. The industry suffered a setback in 1998 because of the continuing Japanese recession; the Japanese normally make up almost 90% of the tourists. Most food and industrial goods are imported. Guam faces the problem of building up the civilian economic sector to offset the impact of military downsizing.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $19,000 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 65,660 (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> federal and territorial government 31%, private 69% (trade 21%, services 33%, construction 12%, other 3%) (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $524.3 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $361.4 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> US military, tourism, construction, transshipment services, concrete products, printing and publishing, food processing, textiles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 800 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 744 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fruits, copra, vegetables; eggs, pork, poultry, beef
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $86.1 million (f.o.b., 1992)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> mostly transshipments of refined petroleum products, construction materials, fish, food and beverage products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 25%
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $202.4 million (c.i.f., 1992)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum and petroleum products, food, manufactured goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 23%, Japan 19%, other 58%
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA; note - although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the US Federal Treasury into which Guamanians pay no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guam Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> US currency is used
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
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Guam/Communications|988944551
1c1,19
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 82,669 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 55,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); submarine cables to US and Japan
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 4, FM 7, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 221,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 5 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 106,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
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Guam/Transportation|988944569
1c1,31
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 885 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 675 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 210 km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is another 685 km of roads classified non-public, including roads located on federal government installations
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Apra Harbor
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Guam/Military|988944582
1c1,2
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
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Guam/Transnational_issues|988944597
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Guatemala|988944635
1c1,11
< Country in Latin America. Language spoken is Spanish. The capital is [[Guatemala City]]. 
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Guatemala/History|988944649
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Guatemala was freed of Spanish colonial rule in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced a variety of military and civilian governments as well as a 36-year guerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement formally ending the conflict, which had led to the death of more than 100,000 people and had created some 1 million refugees.
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Guatemala/Geography|988944667
1c1,64
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Honduras and Belize and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Mexico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 30 N, 90 15 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 108,890 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 108,430 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 460 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Tennessee
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,687 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belize 266 km, El Salvador 203 km, Honduras 256 km, Mexico 962 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 400 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid in lowlands; cooler in highlands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains with narrow coastal plains and rolling limestone plateau (Peten)
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Volcan Tajumulco 4,211 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, nickel, rare woods, fish, chicle, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 54%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 5% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,250 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast subject to hurricanes and other tropical storms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; Hurricane Mitch damage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> no natural harbors on west coast
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Guatemala/People|988944688
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 12,639,939 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 2,735,107; female 2,622,412)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 3,411,575; female 3,413,932)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 213,791; female 243,122) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.63% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 35.05 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.92 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 47.03 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 66.18 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 63.53 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 68.96 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guatemalan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guatemalan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish or assimilated Amerindian - in local Spanish called Ladino), approximately 56%, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian, approximately 44%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous Mayan beliefs
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (more than 20 Amerindian languages, including Quiche, Cakchiquel, Kekchi, Mam, Garifuna, and Xinca)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 55.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 62.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 48.6% (1995 est.)
------
Guatemala/Government|988944728
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Guatemala
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guatemala
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Guatemala
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guatemala
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional democratic republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Guatemala
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 22 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Alta Verapaz, Baja Verapaz, Chimaltenango, Chiquimula, El Progreso, Escuintla, Guatemala, Huehuetenango, Izabal, Jalapa, Jutiapa, Peten, Quetzaltenango, Quiche, Retalhuleu, Sacatepequez, San Marcos, Santa Rosa, Solola, Suchitepequez, Totonicapan, Zacapa
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 31 May 1985, effective 14 January 1986
> <br><i>note:</i>
> suspended 25 May 1993 by former President SERRANO; reinstated 5 June 1993 following ouster of president; amended November 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal (active duty members of the armed forces may not vote)
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Alfonso Antonio PORTILLO Cabreras (since 14 January 2000); Vice President Juan Francisco REYES Lopez (since 14 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Alfonso Antonio PORTILLO Cabreras (since 14 January 2000); Vice President Juan Francisco REYES Lopez (since 14 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers named by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 7 November 1999; runoff held 26 December 1999 (next to be held NA November 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Alfonso Antonio PORTILLO Cabreras elected president; percent of vote - Alfonso Antonio PORTILLO Cabreras (FRG) 68%, Oscar BERGER Perdomo(PAN) 32%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Congress of the Republic or Congreso de la Republica (113 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 7 November 1999 (next to be held in November 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FRG 63, PAN 37, ANN 9, DCG 2, UD/LOV 1, PLP 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> for the 7 November 1999 election, the number of congressional seats was increased from 80 to 113
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia; additionally the Court of Constitutionality is presided over by the president of the Supreme Court, judges are elected for a five-year term by Congress
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Democratic Party or DCG [Vinicio CEREZO Arevalo]; Democratic Union or UD [Jose CHEA Urruela]; Green Party or LOV [leader NA]; Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union or URNG [Jorge SOTO]; Guatemalan Republican Front or FRG [Efrain RIOS Montt]; National Advancement Party or PAN [Hector CIFUENTES]; New Guatemalan Democratic Front or FDNG [Rafael ARRIAGA Martinez]; New Nation Alliance or ANN [leader NA]; Progressive Liberator Party or PLP [leader NA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Agrarian Owners Group or UNAGRO; Alliance Against Impunity or AAI; Committee for Campesino Unity or CUC; Coordinating Committee of Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associations or CACIF; Mutual Support Group or GAM
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BCIE, CACM, CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant)
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2220 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 745-4952
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 745-1908
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Prudence BUSHNELL
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 7-01 Avenida de la Reforma, Zone 10, Guatemala City
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AA 34024
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [502] (2) 31-15-41
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [502] (2) 33-48-77
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red quetzal (the national bird) and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles and a pair of crossed swords and framed by a wreath
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Guatemala/Economy|988944748
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The agricultural sector accounts for one-fourth of GDP, two-thirds of exports, and half of the labor force. Coffee, sugar, and bananas are the main products. Manufacturing and construction account for one-fifth of GDP. Since assuming office in January 1996, former President ARZU worked to implement a program of economic liberalization and political modernization. The signing of the peace accords in December 1996, which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused relatively little damage to Guatemala compared to its neighbors. Remaining challenges include beefing up government revenues, negotiating further assistance from international donors, and increasing the efficiency and openness of both government and private financial operations. Growth should remain at the same level in 2000 provided world agricultural prices do not plunge.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $47.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 57% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 75%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 46.6% (1989)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.32 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 50%, industry 15%, services 35% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 7.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> sugar, textiles and clothing, furniture, chemicals, petroleum, metals, rubber, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 3.085 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 26.42%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 66.61%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 6.97% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.914 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 6 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 51 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, corn, bananas, coffee, beans, cardamom; cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, sugar, bananas, fruits and vegetables, meat, apparel, petroleum, electricity
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 48%, El Salvador 10%, Honduras 6%, Germany 5%, Costa Rica 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $4.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuels, machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, grain, fertilizers, electricity
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 46%, Mexico 13%, El Salvador 5%, Venezuela 5%, Japan 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.4 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $212 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 quetzal (Q) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> quetzales (Q) per US$1 - 7.8829 (January 2000), 7.3856 (1999), 6.3947 (1998), 6.0653 (1997), 6.0495 (1996), 5.8103 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Guatemala/Communications|988944763
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 342,000 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 29,999 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fairly modern network centered in the city of Guatemala
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> connected to Central American Microwave System; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 101, FM 32, shortwave 15 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 835,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (plus 17 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 640,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 7 (1999)
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Guatemala/Transportation|988944781
1c1,44
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 884 km (102 km privately owned)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 884 km 0.914-m gauge (single track)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13,100 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 3,616 km (including 140 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,484 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 260 km navigable year round; additional 730 km navigable during high-water season
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 275 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Champerico, Puerto Barrios, Puerto Quetzal, San Jose, Santo Tomas de Castilla
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 477 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 466
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 124
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 332 (1999 est.)
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Guatemala/Military|988944796
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,000,599 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,959,050 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 137,607 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $124 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.7% (FY98)
------
Guatemala/Transnational_issues|988944811
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transit country for cocaine shipments; minor producer of illicit opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program in 1996 effectively eliminated the cannabis crop; proximity to Mexico makes Guatemala a major staging area for drugs (cocaine shipments)
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Guernsey|988944871
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Guernsey/History|988944890
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway in both France and England. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
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Guernsey/Geography|988944909
1c1,56
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, islands in the English Channel, northwest of France
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 49 28 N, 2 35 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 194 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 194 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Alderney, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, and some other smaller islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 50 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate with mild winters and cool summers; about 50% of days are overcast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly level with low hills in southwest
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Sark 114 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> cropland
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> large, deepwater harbor at Saint Peter Port
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Guernsey/People|988944928
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 64,080 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 16% (male 5,302; female 5,167)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 21,171; female 21,523)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 17% (male 4,480; female 6,437) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.42% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 10.17 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.85 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.9 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.7 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 79.65 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.65 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.75 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.35 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Channel Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Channel Islander
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> UK and Norman-French descent
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Baptist, Congregational, Methodist
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, French, Norman-French dialect spoken in country districts
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total  population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Guernsey/Government|988944946
1c1,52
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Bailiwick of Guernsey
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guernsey
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GK
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> British crown dependency
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Saint Peter Port
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Liberation Day, 9 May (1945)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> unwritten; partly statutes, partly common law and practice
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law and local statute; justice is administered by the Royal Court
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Lieutenant Governor Sir John COWARD (since NA 1994) and Bailiff De Vic G. CAREY (since NA)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Advisory and Finance Committee appointed by the Assembly of the States
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; lieutenant governor appointed by the monarch; bailiff appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly of the States (59 voting members - 12 councilors serving six-year terms, half elected every three years; 33 deputies elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years; 10 representatives from parish authorities; 2 representatives from Aldenay; the bailiff and deputy bailiff; and 2 non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 April 1994 (next to be held NA 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - all independents
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Royal Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none; all independents
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross
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Guernsey/Economy|988944965
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Financial services - banking, fund management, insurance, etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny Channel Island economy. Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, have been declining. Light tax and death duties make Guernsey a popular tax haven. The evolving economic integration of the EU nations is changing the rules of the game under which Guernsey operates.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.15 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.3% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $18,100 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 86% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 0.5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $300.8 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $298.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, banking
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> tomatoes, greenhouse flowers, sweet peppers, eggplant, fruit; Guernsey cattle
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> tomatoes, flowers and ferns, sweet peppers, eggplant, other vegetables
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK (regarded as internal trade)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> coal, gasoline, oil, machinery and equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK (regarded as internal trade)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Guernsey pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Guernsey pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Guernsey pound is at par with the British pound
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Guernsey/Communications|988944983
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 41,850 (1983)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 1 submarine cable
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Guernsey/Transportation|988945008
1c1,22
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Saint Peter Port, Saint Sampson
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Guernsey/Military|988945021
1c1,2
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
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Guernsey/Transnational_issues|988945033
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Guinea|988945063
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Guinea/History|988945081
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Independent from France since 1958, Guinea did not hold democratic elections until 1993 when Gen. Lansana CONTE (head of the military government) was elected president in disputed balloting. Security clampdowns continue, although not as severe as in earlier decades. Reelected in 1998, the president faced growing criticism in 1999 for his jailing of a major opposition leader and widespread economic malaise. Unrest in Sierra Leone also continued to threaten Guinea's stability.
------
Guinea/Geography|988945098
1c1,60
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 11 00 N, 10 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 245,857 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 245,857 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Oregon
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,399 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Cote d'Ivoire 610 km, Guinea-Bissau 386 km, Liberia 563 km, Mali 858 km, Senegal 330 km, Sierra Leone 652 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 320 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Nimba 1,752 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, iron ore, diamonds, gold, uranium, hydropower, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 59%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 17% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 930 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
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Guinea/People|988945121
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 7,466,200 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43.38% (male 1,614,789; female 1,623,691)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 53.95% (male 1,966,929; female 2,060,877)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2.68% (male 82,376; female 117,538) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.95% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 40.08 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 17.86 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.68 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> over the years Guinea has received several hundred thousand refugees from the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone; by the end of 1999 all Liberian refugees were assumed to have returned; refugees from Sierra Leone are assumed to be returning
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.7 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 130.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 45.56 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 43.16 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 48.02 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.46 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guinean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guinean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Peuhl 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%, smaller ethnic groups 10%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 85%, Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), each ethnic group has its own language
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 35.9%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 21.9% (1995 est.)
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Guinea/Government|988945142
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Guinea
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guinea
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique de Guinee
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guinee
> <br><i>former:</i>
> French Guinea
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GV
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Conakry
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 4 administrative regions (regions administrative, singular - region administrative) and 1 special zone (zone speciale)*; Conakry*, Guinee, Guinee-Forestiere, Haute-Guinee, Moyen-Guinee
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 2 October 1958 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Second Republic, 3 April (1984)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 23 December 1990 (Loi Fundamentale)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; legal codes currently being revised; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Lansana CONTE (head of military government since 5 April 1984, elected president 19 December 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Lamine SIDIME (since 8 March 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president; election last held 14 December 1998 (next to be held NA December 2003); the prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Lansana CONTE reelected president; percent of vote - Lansana CONTE (PUP) 56.1%, Mamadou Boye BA (UNR-PRP) 24.6%, Alpha CONDE (RPG) 16.6%,
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral People's National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale Populaire (114 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 June 1995 (next to be held NA 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 71, RPG 19, PRP 9, UNR 9, UPG 2, PDG 1, UNPG 1, PDG-RDA 1, other 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Party of Guinea or PDG-AST [Marcel CROS]; Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally or PDG-RDA [El Hadj Ismael Mohamed Gassim GUSHEIN]; Party for Unity and Progress or PUP [Lansana CONTE] - the governing party; Party for Renewal and Progress or PRP [Siradiou DIALLO]; Rally for the Guinean People or RPG [Alpha CONDE]; Union for Progress of Guinea or UPG [Jean-Marie DORE, secretary-general]; Union for the New Republic or UNR [Mamadou Boye BA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Mohamed Aly THIAM
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2112 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-9420
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-8688
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joyce E. LEADER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Ka 038, Conakry
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 603, Conakry
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [224] 41 15 20, 41 15 21, 41 15 23
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [224] 41 15 22
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of Rwanda, which has a large black letter R centered in the yellow band
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Guinea/Economy|988945165
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Guinea possesses major mineral, hydropower, and agricultural resources, yet remains a poor underdeveloped nation. The agricultural sector employs 80% of the work force. Guinea possesses over 25% of the world's bauxite reserves and is the second largest bauxite producer. The mining sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1998. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. The government made encouraging progress in budget management in 1997-99. Even with a recovery in prices for some of Guinea's main commodity exports, annual GDP is unlikely to increase by more than 5% in 2000-2001.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 45% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 31.7% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.4 million (1983)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 80%, industry and commerce 11%, services 5.4%, civil service 3.6%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $553 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $652 million, including capital expenditures of $317 million (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> bauxite, gold, diamonds; alumina refining; light manufacturing and agricultural processing industries
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 535 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 63.55%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 36.45%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 498 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava (tapioca), bananas, sweet potatoes; cattle, sheep, goats; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $695 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> bauxite, alumina, gold, diamonds, coffee, fish, agricultural products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia, US, Benelux, Ukraine, Ireland, Spain (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $560 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, grain and other foodstuffs (1997)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France, Cote d'Ivoire, US, Benelux, Hong Kong (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.15 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $433.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Guinean franc (FG) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Guinean francs (FG) per US$1 - 1,292.5 (January 1999), 1,236.8 (1998), 1,095.3 (1997), 1,004.0 (1996), 991.4 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Guinea/Communications|988945186
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 11,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 950 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor to fair system of open-wire lines, small radiotelephone communication stations, and new microwave radio relay system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay and radiotelephone communication
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 4, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 357,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 85,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Guinea/Transportation|988945203
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,086 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 279 km 1.435-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 807 km 1.000-m gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30,500 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,033 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 25,467 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,295 km navigable by shallow-draft native craft
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Boke, Conakry, Kamsar
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 15 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Guinea/Military|988945218
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Republican Guard, Presidential Guard, paramilitary National Gendarmerie, National Police Force (Surete National)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,721,941 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 869,442 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $56 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.4% (FY96)
------
Guinea/Transnational_issues|988945233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Guinea-Bissau|988945278
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Guinea-Bissau/History|988945289
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal, the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising that triggered a bloody civil war in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The president was ousted by a military junta in May 1999. An interim government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader Koumba YALLA took office following two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy will be complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war and the military's predilection for governmental meddling.
------
Guinea-Bissau/Geography|988945307
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Guinea and Senegal
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 12 00 N, 15 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36,120 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 28,000 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 8,120 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than three times the size of Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 724 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 350 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly harmattan winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low coastal plain rising to savanna in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, timber, phosphates, bauxite, unexploited deposits of petroleum
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 12% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 17 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Guinea-Bissau/People|988945325
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,285,715 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 271,100; female 272,304)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 335,150; female 370,667)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 16,574; female 19,920) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.4% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 39.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 15.62 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.83 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 112.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 49.04 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 46.77 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.37 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guinean (s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guinean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fula 20%, Manjaca 14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European and mulatto less than 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese (official), Crioulo, African languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 53.9%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 40.7% (1997 est.)
------
Guinea-Bissau/Government|988945345
1c1,67
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Guinea-Bissau
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guinea-Bissau
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica da Guine-Bissau
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guine-Bissau
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Portuguese Guinea
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> PU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic, multiparty since mid-1991
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bissau
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 regions (regioes, singular - regiao); Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, Tombali
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Bolama may have been renamed Bolama/Bijagos
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 24 September 1973 (unilaterally declared by Guinea-Bissau); 10 September 1974 (recognized by Portugal)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 24 September (1973)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 16 May 1984, amended 4 May 1991, 4 December 1991, 26 February 1993, 9 June 1993, and 1996
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Koumba YALLA (since 18 February 2000)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Caetana N'TCHAMA (since NA February 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 28 November 1999 and 16 January 2000 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Koumba YALLA elected president; percent of vote, second ballot - Koumba YALLA (PRS) 72%, Malan Bacai SANHA (PAIGC) 28%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National People's Assembly or Assembleia Nacional Popular (100 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve a maximum of four years)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 28 November 1999 (next to be held by NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRS 37, RGB 27, PAIGC 25, 11 remaining seats went to 5 of the remaining 10 parties that fielded candidates
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Supremo Tribunal da Justica, consists of nine justices who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure, final court of appeals in criminal and civil cases; Regional Courts, one in each of nine regions, first court of appeals for sectoral court decisions, hear all felony cases and civil cases valued at over $1,000; 24 Sectoral Courts, judges are not necessarily trained lawyers, hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde or PAIGC [Malan Bacai SANHA]; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea or FLING [Jose Katengul M. ENDES]; Guinea-Bissau Resistance-Ba Fata Movement or RGB-MB [Domingos FERNANDES Gomes]; Guinean Civic Forum or FCG [Antonieta Rosa GOMES]; International League for Ecological Protection or LIPE [Alhaje Bubacar DJALO, president]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Abubacer BALDE, secretary general]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Victor MANDINGA]; Social Renovation Party or PRS [Koumba YALLA]; Union for Change or UM [Jorge MANDINGA, president, Dr. Anne SAAD, secretary general]; United Social Democratic Party or PUSD [Victor Sau'de MARIA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Mario LOPES DA ROSA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 519, 1511 K Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 347-3950
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 347-3954
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US Embassy suspended operations on 14 June 1998 in the midst of violent conflict between forces loyal to then President VIEIRA and military-led junta
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
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Guinea-Bissau/Economy|988945368
1c1,79
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> One of the 20 poorest countries in the world, Guinea-Bissau depends mainly on farming and fishing. Cashew crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country now ranks sixth in cashew production. Guinea-Bissau exports fish and seafood along with small amounts of peanuts, palm kernels, and timber. Rice is the major crop and staple food. However, intermittent fighting between Senegalese-backed government troops and a military junta destroyed much of the country's infrastructure and caused widespread damage to the economy in 1998; the civil war led to a 28% drop in GDP that year, with partial recovery in 1999. Before the war, trade reform and price liberalization were the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship. The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector had also begun to reinvigorate the economy. Because of high costs, the development of petroleum, phosphate, and other mineral resources is not a near-term prospect. However, unexploited off-shore oil reserves could provide much-needed revenue in the long run.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 9.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 54%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 35% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 50% (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.5%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 42.4% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5.5% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 480,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 78%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> agricultural products processing, beer, soft drinks
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.6% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 40 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 37 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, corn, beans, cassava (tapioca), cashew nuts, peanuts, palm kernels, cotton; timber; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $26.8 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cashew nuts 70%, shrimp, peanuts, palm kernels, sawn lumber (1996)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> India 59%, Singapore 12%, Italy 10% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $22.9 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products (1996)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Portugal 26%, France 8%, Senegal 8%, Netherlands 7% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $921 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $115.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997); Guinea-Bissauan pesos (PG) per US$1 - 26,373 (1996), 18,073 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> as of 1 May 1997, Guinea-Bissau adopted the CFA franc as the national currency following its membership in BCEAO; since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Guinea-Bissau/Communications|988945381
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 13,120 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> small system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> combination of microwave radio relay, open-wire lines, radiotelephone, and cellular communications
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 49,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Guinea-Bissau/Transportation|988945397
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 453 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 3,947 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> several rivers are accessible to coastal shipping
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bissau, Buba, Cacheu, Farim
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 30 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 22 (1999 est.)
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Guinea-Bissau/Military|988945410
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> People's Revolutionary Armed Force (FARP; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 296,482 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 168,930 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $8 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.8% (FY96)
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Guinea-Bissau/Transnational_issues|988945425
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Guyana|988945495
1c1
< A country in Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]]. 
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
3,7c3,11
< Guyana totals 214970 sq km, which is slightly smaller then Idaho.  It shares borders with [[Brazil]], [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]]. 
< 
< It has a climate which is tropical; hot, humid, moderated by northeast trade winds, with two rainy seasons (May to mid-August, mid-November to mid-January).
< 
< Information source: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gy.html
---
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Guyana/History|988945508
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966 and became a republic in 1970. In 1989 Guyana launched an Economic Recovery Program, which marked a dramatic reversal from a state-controlled, socialist economy towards a more open, free market system. Results through the first decade have proven encouraging.
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Guyana/Geography|988945526
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Suriname and Venezuela
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 5 00 N, 59 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 214,970 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 196,850 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 18,120 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Idaho
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,462 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Brazil 1,119 km, Suriname 600 km, Venezuela 743 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 459 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the outer edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; two rainy seasons (May to mid-August, mid-November to mid-January)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly rolling highlands; low coastal plain; savanna in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Roraima 2,835 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood timber, shrimp, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 84%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,300 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flash floods are a constant threat during rainy seasons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution from sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals; deforestation
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
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Guyana/People|988945552
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 697,286
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 29% (male 102,463; female 98,492)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 232,857; female 229,598)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 15,170; female 18,706) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.1% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 17.94 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.42 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -10.48 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 39.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 64.04 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.08 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.15 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.11 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Guyanese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Guyanese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> East Indian 51%, black 30%, mixed 14%, Amerindian 4%, white and Chinese 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 50%, Hindu 33%, Muslim 9%, other 8%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Amerindian dialects, Creole, Hindi, Urdu
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 97.5% (1995 est.)
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Guyana/Government|988945569
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Co-operative Republic of Guyana
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Guyana
> <br><i>former:</i>
> British Guiana
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> GY
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic within the Commonwealth
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Georgetown
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 regions; Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica, East Berbice-Corentyne, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Demerara-Berbice, Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 26 May 1966 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Republic Day, 23 February (1970)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 6 October 1980
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Bharrat JAGDEO (since NA August 1999); note - assumed presidency after resignation of President JAGAN
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Samuel HINDS (since NA December 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president, responsible to the legislature
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the majority party in the National Assembly following legislative elections, which must be held at least every five years; elections last held 15 December 1997 (next to be held by January 2001); prime minister appointed by the president
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (65 seats, 53 popularly elected; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 15 December 1997 (next to be held by January 2001; this date was part of a negotiated settlement between the two main political parties following a dispute over the December elections)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PPP 54%, PNC 41%, AFG 1%, TUF 1%; seats by party - PPP 29, PNC 22, AFG 1, TUF 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Judicature; Judicial Court of Appeal; High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Guyana or AFG [Rupert ROOPNARINE]; Democratic Labor Movement or DLM [Paul TENNASSEE]; For a Good and Green Guyana or GGG [Hamilton GREEN]; Guyana Democratic Party or GDP [Asgar ALLY]; Guyana Labor Party or GLP [leader NA]; Guyanese Organization for Liberty and Democracy Party or GOLD [Anthony MEKDECI]; National Democratic Front or NDF [Joseph BACCHUS]; National Republican Party or NRP [Robert GANGADEEN]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Llewellyn JOHN]; People's National Congress or PNC [Hugh Desmond HOYTE]; People's Progressive Party or PPP [leader NA]; The United Force or TUF [Manzoor NADIR]; Working People's Alliance or WPA [leader NA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Civil Liberties Action Committee or CLAC; Guyana Council of Indian Organizations or GCIO; Trades Union Congress or TUC
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the GCIO and the CLAC are small and active but not well organized
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Dr. Ali Odeen ISHMAEL
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2490 Tracy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-6900
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James F. MACK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 99-100 Young and Duke Streets, Kingston, Georgetown
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 10507, Georgetown
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [592] (2) 54900 through 54909, 57960 through 57969
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [592] (2) 59497
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green
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Guyana/Economy|988945588
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Severe drought and political turmoil contributed to Guyana's negative growth of -1.8% for 1998 following six straight years of growth of 5% or better. Growth came back to a positive 1.8% in 1999. Underlying growth factors have included expansion in the key agricultural and mining sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiative, a more realistic exchange rate, a moderate inflation rate, and  continued support by international organizations. President JAGDEO, the former finance minister, is taking steps to reform the economy,  including drafting an investment code and restructuring the inefficient and unresponsive public sector. Problems include a shortage of skilled labor and an inadequate and poorly maintained transportation system. Also, electricity has been in short supply; the privatization of the sector in August 1999 is expected to improve prospects. The government must persist in efforts to manage its sizable external debt and extend its privatization program.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.86 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 34.7%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 32.5%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 32.8% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 245,492 (1992)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 12% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $220.1 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $286.4 million, including capital expenditures of $86.6 million (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> bauxite, sugar, rice milling, timber, fishing (shrimp), textiles, gold mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 7.1% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 325 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 98.46%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 1.54%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 302 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugar, rice, wheat, vegetable oils; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products; forest and fishery potential not exploited
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $574 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> sugar, gold, bauxite/alumina, rice, shrimp, molasses, rum, timber
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 25%, Canada 24%, UK 19%, Netherlands Antilles 11%, Jamaica 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $620 million (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> manufactures, machinery, petroleum, food
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 28%, Trinidad and Tobago 21%, Netherlands Antilles 14%, UK 7%, Japan 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.4 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $84 million (1995), Heavily Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC) $253 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Guyanese dollar (G$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Guyanese dollars (G$) per US$1 - 180.4 (December 1999), 178.0 (1999), 150.5 (1998), 142.4 (1997), 140.4 (1996), 142.0 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Guyana/Communications|988945602
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 45,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,243 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fair system for long-distance calling
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay network for trunk lines
> <br><i>international:</i>
> tropospheric scatter to Trinidad; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 420,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (one public station; two private stations which relay US satellite services) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 46,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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Guyana/Transportation|988945626
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 187 km (all dedicated to ore transport)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 139 km 1.435-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 48 km 0.914-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,970 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 590 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 7,380 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 5,900 km total of navigable waterways; Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo Rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km, respectively
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bartica, Georgetown, Linden, New Amsterdam, Parika
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,023 GRT/1,972 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 51 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 46
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 37 (1999 est.)
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Guyana/Military|988945639
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Guyana Defense Force (GDF; includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Corps), Guyana People's Militia (GPM), Guyana National Service (GNS), Guyana Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 203,742 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 153,530 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $7 million (FY94)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.7% (FY94)
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Lucent|988945650
1c1
< In the 1990s, parts of [[Bell Labs]] were renamed to Lucent.
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> In the 1990s, parts of [[AT&T]] were renamed to Lucent.
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Guyana/Transnational_issues|988945653
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> all of the area west of the Essequibo River claimed by Venezuela; Suriname claims area between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Kutari [Koetari] Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for narcotics from South America - primarily Venezuela - to Europe and the US; producer of cannabis
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Lucent|988945701
1c1
< In the 1990s, parts of [[AT&T]] were renamed to Lucent.
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> In the 1990s, parts of [[ATT|AT&T]] were renamed to Lucent.
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Countries_of_the_world|988945901
18c18
< <font size=+2>H</font><br> [[Haiti]] - [[Honduras]] -- [[Hungary]]
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> <font size=+2>H</font><br> [[Haiti]] - [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - [[Holy See (Vatican City)]] - [[Honduras]] - [[Hong Kong]] - [[Howland Island]] - [[Hungary]]
20c20
< <font size=+2>I</font><br> [[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
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> <font size=+2>I</font><br> [[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indian Ocean]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
198c198
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
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Countries_of_the_world|988946190
14c14
< <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French Guinea]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
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> <font size=+2>F</font><br> [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] - [[Faroe Islands]] - [[Fiji]] - [[Finland]] - [[France]] - [[French Guiana]] - [[French Polynesia]] - [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
125c125
<    * [[French Guyana]]
---
>    * [[French Guiana]]
179a180
> 
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French_Guiana|988946207
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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French_Guiana/History|988946226
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> <b>Background:</b>
> First settled by the French in 1604, French Guiana was the site of notorious penal settlements until 1951. The European Space Agency launches its communication satellites from Kourou.
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French_Guiana/Geography|988946250
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 4 00 N, 53 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> South America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 91,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 89,150 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,850 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,183 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 378 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Bellevue de l'Inini 851 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, timber, gold (widely scattered), cinnabar, kaolin, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> mostly an unsettled wilderness
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French_Guiana/People|988946301
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 172,605 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 31% (male 27,116; female 25,902)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64% (male 59,690; female 50,621)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 4,694; female 4,582) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.93% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 22.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 11.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.18 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 13.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.1 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.77 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.6 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.21 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> French Guianese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> French Guianese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black or mulatto 66%, white 12%, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian 12%, other 10%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 84%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82% (1982 est.)
------
French_Guiana/Government|988946320
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Department of Guiana
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> French Guiana
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Guyane
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FG
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas department of France
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Cayenne
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> French legal system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Dominique VIAN (since NA January 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the General Council Andre LECANTE (since NA March 1998); President of the Regional Council Antoine KARAM (since 22 March 1992)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; presidents of the General and Regional Councils are appointed by the members of those councils
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> General Council - last held 20-27 March 1994 (next to be held NA 2000); Regional Council - last held 15 March 1998 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PSG 8, FDG 4, RPR 1, other left 2, other right 2, other 2; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - PS 28.28%, various left parties 22.56%, RPR 15.91%, independents 8.6%, Walwari Committee 6%; seats by party - PS 11, various left parties 9, RPR 6, independents 3, Walwari Committee 2
> <br><i>note:</i>
> one seat was elected to the French Senate on 27 September 1998 (next to be held NA September 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; 2 seats were elected to the French National Assembly on 25 May - 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, PSG 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action Democrate Guiana or ADG [Andre LECANTE]; Democratic and European Rally of the Senate or RDSE [leader NA]; Guianese Socialist Party or PSG [Marie-Claude VERDAN]; Guyana Democratic Forces or FDG [Georges OTHILY]; Nationalist Popular Party of Guyana (Parti Nationaliste Populaire Guiana) or PNPG [Jose DORCY]; Rally for the Republic or RPR [Roland HO-WEN-SZE]; Socialist Party or PS [Pierre RIBARDIERE] (may be a subset of PSG); Union for French Democracy or UDF [R. CHOW-CHINE]; Union of Social Democrats (Union des Socialistes Democates) or USD [Theodore ROUMILLAC] (umbrella group of RPR and UDF); Walwari Committee [Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> FZ, WCL, WFTU
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
French_Guiana/Economy|988946340
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; rice and manioc are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.5% (1992)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 58,800 (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services, government, and commerce 60.6%, industry 21.2%, agriculture 18.2% (1980)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 21.4% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $225 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> construction, shrimp processing, forestry products, rum, gold mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 430 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, manioc (tapioca), sugar, cocoa, vegetables, bananas; cattle, pigs, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $155 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> shrimp, timber, gold, rum, rosewood essence, clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 62%, Switzerland 7%, US 2% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $625 million (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 52%, US 14%, Trinidad and Tobago 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.2 billion (1988)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
French_Guiana/Communications|988946354
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 47,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fair open wire and microwave radio relay system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 14 (including 6 repeaters), shortwave 6 (including 5 repeaters) (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 104,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 30,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
French_Guiana/Transportation|988946372
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,817 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 727 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,090 km (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 460 km, navigable by small oceangoing vessels and river and coastal steamers; 3,300 km navigable by native craft
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cayenne, Degrad des Cannes, Saint-Laurent du Maroni
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 11 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
French_Guiana/Military|988946387
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French Forces, Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 48,445 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 31,367 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
French_Guiana/Transnational_issues|988946403
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Suriname claims area between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> small amount of marijuana grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to Europe
------
French_Guinea|988946448
1,11c1
< <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
< 
< * [[/History|History]]
< * [[/Geography|Geography]]
< * [[/People|People]]
< * [[/Government|Government]]
< * [[/Economy|Economy]]
< * [[/Communications|Communications]]
< * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
< * [[/Military|Military]]
< * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[French Guiana]]
------
Lunar_Society|988959896
10a11,12
> A special purpose wiki has recently been constructed to continue the tradition of the Lunar_Society: http://www.greencheese.org
> 
------
Peter_Altenberg|988963238
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Peter Altenberg</b> 1859 -- 1919
> 
> Austrian writer.
------
Psychology|988983801
1c1
< Psychology is the study of mental states and processes and behavioral patterns of humans and animals. Psychologists also study the interactions between individuals and interactions with the environment. Sciences related to psychology are sociology, anthropology and biology. Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was considered a study of matters of the soul in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Liepzig University in Germany, eliminated spritual or religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today such concepts are foreign to the field of psychology. 
---
> Psychology is the experimental study of mental states and processes, and related behavioral patterns of humans and to an extent of animals as well (though the study of animal behavior, [[ethology]], is more properly regarded a branch of [[biology]] than of psychology).  Psychologists also study the psychological influences on interactions between individuals and on interactions with the environment.  Disciplines closely related to psychology are sociology, anthropology, biology, and philosophy.  Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of matters of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today, experimental psychology is focused on observable behavior and the evidence it provides about mental processes and therefore has little to say specifically about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul.
3c3,5
< Since the advent of Wundt and his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of materialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology has slowly but steadily moved out of the classification of philosophy, and sought to establish itself as a science.  Most universities today include psychology in their science departments, and not under philosophy.  Both psychology and its sister study psychiatry are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles as pseudo-sciences, the chief criticisms being that their theories, diagnoses and treatments do not hold up under the rigor of the scientific method, and that they are not falsifiable.
---
> Psychology was until about the beginning of the twentieth century regarded as a branch of philosophy.  With the work of Wundt and of his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of materialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology was slowly but steadily established as a science independent of philosophy.  Of course, like all sciences which have broken off from philosophy, many purely philosophical questions about the mind are studied--the name of the philosophical subdiscipline which studies those questions is ''[[philosophy of mind]].''  Most universities, journals, and researchers today treat psychology as among the experimental sciences and not as a branch of philosophy.
> 
> Both psychology and its sister study [[psychiatry]] are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles as pseudo-sciences, the chief criticisms being that their theories, diagnoses and treatments do not hold up under the rigor of the scientific method and that they are not falsifiable.  A related view is promulgated by a minority of philosophers under the label [[eliminative materialism]].  These sorts of concerns seek to replace psychology, or some aspects of the study of psychology, with [[cognitive science]], [[neuroscience]], and other disciplines.
22c24
< * [[psychohistory]]
---
> * [[psychohistory]]
------
Psychology|988983867
1c1
< Psychology is the experimental study of mental states and processes, and related behavioral patterns of humans and to an extent of animals as well (though the study of animal behavior, [[ethology]], is more properly regarded a branch of [[biology]] than of psychology).  Psychologists also study the psychological influences on interactions between individuals and on interactions with the environment.  Disciplines closely related to psychology are sociology, anthropology, biology, and philosophy.  Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of matters of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today, experimental psychology is focused on observable behavior and the evidence it provides about mental processes and therefore has little to say specifically about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul.
---
> Psychology is the experimental study of mental states and processes, and related behavioral patterns of humans and to an extent of animals as well (though the study of animal behavior, [[ethology]], is more often regarded a branch of [[biology]] than of psychology).  Psychologists also study the psychological influences on interactions between individuals and on interactions with the environment.  Disciplines closely related to psychology are sociology, anthropology, biology, and philosophy.  Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of matters of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today, experimental psychology is focused on observable behavior and the evidence it provides about mental processes and therefore has little to say specifically about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul.
------
Psychology|988984046
3c3
< Psychology was until about the beginning of the twentieth century regarded as a branch of philosophy.  With the work of Wundt and of his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of materialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology was slowly but steadily established as a science independent of philosophy.  Of course, like all sciences which have broken off from philosophy, many purely philosophical questions about the mind are studied--the name of the philosophical subdiscipline which studies those questions is ''[[philosophy of mind]].''  Most universities, journals, and researchers today treat psychology as among the experimental sciences and not as a branch of philosophy.
---
> Psychology was until about the beginning of the twentieth century regarded as a branch of philosophy.  With the work of Wundt and of his contemporary experimental psychologist [[William James]] (who, himself, questioned the veracity of materialistic psychology in his later work), the field of psychology was slowly but steadily established as a science independent of philosophy.  Of course, like all sciences which have broken off from philosophy, purely philosophical questions about the mind are still studied by philosophers; the name of the philosophical subdiscipline which studies those questions is ''[[philosophy of mind]].''  Most universities, journals, and researchers today treat psychology as among the experimental sciences and not as a branch of philosophy.
24c24,31
< * [[psychohistory]]
---
> * [[psychohistory]]
> 
> See also:
> * [[cognitive science]]
> * [[computer science]]
> * [[brain science]]
> * [[ethology]]
> * [[neuroscience]]
------
Psychology|988984062
31c31,32
< * [[neuroscience]]
---
> * [[neuroscience]]
> * [[philosophy of mind]]
------
Adding_stuff_to_Wikipedia|988984815
1,2c1
< The most addictive hobby of all.
< See also [[encyclopedia]].
---
> The most addictive hobby of all.  See [[Wikipedia]].
------
Library_and_Information_Science|988985047
17,21d16
< ----
< 
< The earliest important attempt to organize knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia was made by [[Dennis Diderot]], creator and editor of the great French [[encyclopedia]], in the 18th century.  He and his colleagues, the encyclopedists, made many mistakes that wikipedia enthusiasts are bound to repeat unless they read up on the history of the trade.
< 
< 
------
Encyclopedia|988985114
5a6,7
> The earliest important attempt to organize knowledge in the form of an encyclopedia was made by [[Dennis Diderot]], creator and editor of the great French [[Encyclopedie]], in the 18th century.
> 
------
Plain|988985312
1c1
< The [[rain]] in [[Spain]] falls mainly in the plains.
---
> A flat, largely treeless expanse of land.  Famous plains can be found in [[North America]] and in [[Russia]].
------
Valley|988985807
1c1
< A flat land surrounded by higher areas, such as [[ridge]]s, [[mountain]]s, or [[hill]]s.
---
> An area of land, typically at least a few square miles (kilometers) but often hundreds or even thousands of square miles (kilometers), surrounded by higher areas, [[mountain]]s, or [[hill]]s.
2a3,9
> Famous valleys include:
> :[[Death Valley]]
> :[[Grand Canyon]]
> :[[Great Rift Valley]]
> :[[Napa Valley]]
> :[[Rhone Valley]]
> :[[Valley of the Kings]]
4,10c11
< Famouse valleys include:
< [[Death Valley]],
< [[Silicon Valley]],
< [[Wireless Valley]]
< 
< See also [[physical geography]].
< 
---
> See also [[physical geography]].
------
Metaphysics|988985919
7,10d6
< There is considerable disagreement over what exactly is metaphysics and where it ends.  Some would include almost anything in the subject related to existence and perhaps even beyond it.  And others would not.  For example, [[Robert A. Heinlein]], in his book <i>To Sail Beyond the Sunset</i> has the main character, Maureen, state that the purpose of metaphysics is to ask questions:&nbsp; Why are we here? &nbsp; Where are we going after we die? (and so on), and that <i>you are not allowed to answer the questions</i>.  Asking the questions is the point for metaphysics but answering them is not because once you answer them you cross the line into [[religion]].  He doesn't really say why but the answer as to 'why' is obvious: because any answer is an <i>opinion</i>.  It may be a good opinion, or a bad one, but it's only what the person who wrote the opinion believes. Such opinions cannot be validated, e.g. you can't ask the person to show you what it's like after death or provide for a personal audience with their God or gods.<br>
< 
< The above statement applies to itself as well: every claim as to what is or isn't valid within metaphysics is merely the opinion of whoever wrote it.  Each person must judge for themselves and decide whether or not they agree with a particular philosopher's opinions.
< 
32,34c28,29
< <HR>
< See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], Metaphysics, [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
< <BR>[[/Talk]]
---
> 
> /Talk
------
Metaphysics/Talk|988986778
8c8
< Larry deleted the above the first time, this time I'm deleting it and I'll attempt to justify.  First of all, I don't give a damn about authority or credentials either.  I quoted Churchill in an article on subjectivism and he's not known as a philosopher either.  I also happen to like Heinlein a lot; ''The Moon is a Harsh Mistress'' is the best work on politics around.  The paragraph above, though, is out of place because it's largely wrong, biased, and unhelpful to any reader seriously interested in metaphysics.  Presumably someone reading an encyclopedia article on metaphysics and philosophy wants to know what most philosophers actually do and what their general consensus is, not what one single author thinks they do.
---
> Larry deleted the above the first time, this time I'm deleting it and I'll attempt to justify.  First of all, I don't give a damn about authority or credentials either.  I quoted Churchill in an article on [[subjectivism]] and he's not known as a philosopher either.  I also happen to like Heinlein a lot; ''The Moon is a Harsh Mistress'' is the best work on politics around.  The paragraph above, though, is out of place because it's largely wrong, biased, and unhelpful to any reader seriously interested in metaphysics.  Presumably someone reading an encyclopedia article on metaphysics and philosophy wants to know what most philosophers actually do and what their general consensus is, not what one single author thinks they do.
13a14,15
> ----
> The reason I deleted it and will continue deleting it is very simple.  Heinlein is not a metaphysician and his opinions about metaphysics, whether true or false, don't matter.  They don't matter any more than ''your'' opinions, i.e., you nonmetaphysicians, regardless of whether ''they'' are true or not.  Famous metaphysicians, whose opinions about metaphysics are worth mentioning in an article about metaphysics, would include [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Rene Descartes]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], and many other historical figures, as well as [[Bertrand Russell]], [[G. E. Moore]], [[W. V. O. Quine]], [[Donald Davidson]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[D. M. Armstrong]], [[David Lewis]], and many others among more recent philosophers.  In this context, the claim that you give a damn about authority is silly.  An encyclopedia, insofar as it is about reliable information, ''requires'' that we pay attention to authority.  An encyclopedia that treats Heinlein as an authority (by mentioning him as giving an important opinion about metaphysics) loses credibility thereby.  Metaphysics has a very, ''very'' long and distinguished history, and if you're going to start mentioning names in an encyclopedia article, then for chrissakes mention a ''metaphysician.''  Mentioning Heinlein makes the article (and by extension, Wikipedia) look like a silly dilettante's game, which it isn't.
14a17
> Pick the scientific discipline you know most about.  Suppose someone were to add a quotation from someone who knows virtually nothing about that discipline to the article about that discipline.  Why should anyone get upset when someone who ''does'' know a thing or two about discipline comes along, sees the quote, and summarily deletes it? --[[LMS]]
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|988987090
5a6,7
> 
> ''I think the above view of what subjectivism might represent the caricature of subjectivism that people sometimes bandy about, but I don't see how it's philosophically interesting.  I'll have to work on this article at some later date.  See [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22metaphysical+subjectivism%22 this link] to get an idea of how little this phrase, 'metaphysical subjectivism', is even used.  The view described is closer to what is known by philosophers as '[[phenomenalism]]' or '[[subjective idealism]]'.  Any discussion of ''that'' view should mention Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hume before Churchill. --[[LMS]]''
------
Metaphysical_subjectivism|988987143
7c7
< ''I think the above view of what subjectivism might represent the caricature of subjectivism that people sometimes bandy about, but I don't see how it's philosophically interesting.  I'll have to work on this article at some later date.  See [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22metaphysical+subjectivism%22 this link] to get an idea of how little this phrase, 'metaphysical subjectivism', is even used.  The view described is closer to what is known by philosophers as '[[phenomenalism]]' or '[[subjective idealism]]'.  Any discussion of ''that'' view should mention Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hume before Churchill. --[[LMS]]''
---
> ''I think the above view of what subjectivism might represent the caricature of subjectivism that people sometimes bandy about, but I don't see how it's philosophically interesting.  I'll have to work on this article at some later date.  See [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22metaphysical+subjectivism%22 this link] to get an idea of how little this phrase, 'metaphysical subjectivism', is even used.  The view described is similar to (but a caricature of) what is known by philosophers as '[[phenomenalism]]' or '[[subjective idealism]]'.  Any discussion of ''that'' view should mention Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hume before Churchill. --[[LMS]]''
------
Ethics|988987281
25,27c25
< And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of [[applied ethics]], which examine [[ethical problems]] of different professions.  There are [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], and [[legal ethics]], which examine the [[moral dilemmas]] faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
< <HR>
< See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], Ethics, [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
---
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of [[applied ethics]], which examine [[ethical problems]] of different professions.  There are [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], and [[legal ethics]], which examine the [[moral dilemmas]] faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
------
History_of_Germany|988987849
1c1
< The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1989, the year of reunification of the [[socialist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1990, the year of reunification of the [[socialist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_3|988988050
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :1469 - Birth of [[Niccolo Machiavelli]]
> :1898 - Birth in [[Kiev]] of [[Golda Meir]], Prime Minister of [[Israel]] from 1964-1974
> :1921 - Birth of the boxer [[Sugar Ray Robinson]]
------
Haiti|988988359
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Haiti/History|988988386
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> One of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by political violence for most of its history. Over three decades of dictatorship followed by military rule ended in 1990 when Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE was elected president. Most of his term was usurped by a military takeover, but he was able to return to office in 1994 and oversee the installation of a close associate to the presidency in 1996.
------
Haiti/Geography|988988406
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, western one-third of the island of Hispaniola, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Dominican Republic
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 19 00 N, 72 25 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27,750 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 27,560 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 190 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 275 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Dominican Republic 275 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,771 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> to depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly rough and mountainous
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Chaine de la Selle 2,680 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, gold, marble, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 44% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 750 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> shares island of Hispaniola with Dominican Republic (western one-third is Haiti, eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic)
------
Haiti/People|988988426
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,867,995
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 41% (male 1,430,018; female 1,393,665)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 1,814,964; female 1,945,165)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 138,533; female 145,650) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.39% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 31.97 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 15.13 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.97 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 97.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 49.21 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 47.46 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.06 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.5 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Haitian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Haitian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 95%, mulatto plus white 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% (Baptist 10%, Pentecostal 4%, Adventist 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% (1982)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> roughly one-half of the population also practices Voodoo
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Creole (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 45%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 42.2% (1995 est.)
------
Haiti/Government|988988455
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Haiti
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Haiti
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique d'Haiti
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Haiti
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> elected government
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Port-au-Prince
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 departments (departements, singular - departement); Artibonite, Centre, Grand'Anse, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 January 1804 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 1 January (1804)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> approved March 1987; suspended June 1988, with most articles reinstated March 1989; in October 1991, government claimed to be observing the constitution; return to constitutional rule, October 1994
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Rene Garcia PREVAL (since 7 February 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jacques-Edouard ALEXIS (since NA March 1999); ALEXIS was appointed by President PREVAL, filling the post that had been vacant since the resignation of Rosny SMARTH in June 1997
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held by December 2000); prime minister appointed by the president, ratified by the Congress
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Rene Garcia PREVAL elected president; percent of vote - Rene Garcia PREVAL 88%, Leon JEUNE 2.5%, Victor BENOIT 2.3%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale consists of the Senate (27 seats; members serve six-year terms; one-third elected every two years) and the Chamber of Deputies (83 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 25 June 1995, with reruns on 13 August and runoffs on 17 September, and an election for nine seats 6 April 1997 but results were disputed; next election for two-thirds of Senate postponed until May 2000; Chamber of Deputies - last held 25 June 1995, with reruns on 13 August and runoffs on 17 September (next Senate and Chamber of Deputies elections postponed until May 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - OPL 7, FL-leaning 7, independents 3, vacant 10; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - OPL 32, antineoliberal bloc 24, minor parties and independents 22, vacant 5
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour de Cassation
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for the Liberation and Advancement of Haiti or ALAH [Reynold GEORGES]; Assembly of Progressive National Democrats or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT]; Confederation for Democratic Unity or KID [Evans PAUL]; Democratic Consultation Group coalition or ESPACE [Evans PAUL] composed of the following parties: Confederation for Democratic Unity  KONAKOM, PANPRA, Generation 2004, and Haiti Can or Ayiti Kapab; Generation 2004 [Claude ROUMAIN]; Haiti Can or Ayiti Kapab [Ernst VERDIEU]; Haitian Christian Democratic Party or PDCH [Fritz PIERRE]; Haitian Democratic Party or PADEMH [Clark PARENT]; Lavalas Family or FL [Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE]; Mobilization for National Development or MDN [Hubert DE RONCERAY]; Movement for National Reconstruction or MRN [Rene THEODORE]; Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti or MIDH [Marc BAZIN]; Movement for the Organization of the Country or MOP [Gesner COMEAU and Jean MOLIERE]; National Alliance for Democracy and Progress [leader NA]; National Congress of Democratic Movements or KONAKOM [Victor BENOIT]; National Front for Change and Democracy or FNCD [Evans PAUL and Turneb DELPE]; National Progressive Revolutionary Party or PANPRA [Serge GILLES]; Open the Gate Party or PLB [Renaud BERNARDIN]; Struggling People's Organization or OPL [Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES]; Union of Patriotic Democrats or UPD [Rockefeller GUERRE]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Autonomous Haitian Workers or CATH; Confederation of Haitian Workers or CTH; Federation of Workers Trade Unions or FOS; National Popular Assembly or APN; Papaye Peasants Movement or MPP; Popular Organizations Gathering Power or PROP; Roman Catholic Church
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, Caricom (observer), CCC, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Louis Harold JOSEPH
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2311 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-4090
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 745-7215
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, Chicago, Miami, New York, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affairs Les ALEXANDER to be temporary chief of mission until new ambassador is confirmed
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 5 Harry Truman Boulevard, Port-au-Prince
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 1761, Port-au-Prince
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [509] 22-0354, 22-0368, 22-0200, 22-0612
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [509] 23-1641
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a centered white rectangle bearing the coat of arms, which contains a palm tree flanked by flags and two cannons above a scroll bearing the motto L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE (Union Makes Strength)
------
Haiti/Economy|988988472
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> About 80% of the population lives in abject poverty. Nearly 70% of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming and employs about two-thirds of the economically active work force. The country has experienced little job creation since President PREVAL took office in February 1996, although the informal economy is growing. Failure to reach agreements with international sponsors have denied Haiti badly needed budget and development assistance. Meeting aid conditions in 2000 will be especially challenging in the face of mounting popular criticism of reforms.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,340 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 48% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 80% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.6 million (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> shortage of skilled labor, unskilled labor abundant (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 66%, services 25%, industry 9%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 70%; widespread underemployment; more than two-thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $323 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $363 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> sugar refining, flour milling, textiles, cement, tourism, light assembly industries based on imported parts
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.6% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 728 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 55.63%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 41.62%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 2.75% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 677 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, rice, corn, sorghum; wood
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $322 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> manufactures, coffee, oils, mangoes
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 86%, EU 11% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $762 million (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, machinery and transport equipment, fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 60%, EU 12% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $730.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 gourde (G) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> gourdes (G) per US$1 - 18.262 (January 2000), 17.965 (1999), 16.505 (1998), 17.311 (1997), 15.093 (1996), 16.160 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
------
Haiti/Communications|988988490
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 60,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic facilities barely adequate; international facilities slightly better
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> coaxial cable and microwave radio relay trunk service
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 41, FM 26, shortwave 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 415,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (plus a cable TV service) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 38,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
------
New_topics|988988505
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< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 29th April, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 3rd May, Wikipedia server time
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< [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/People]] -- 
< [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands]] -- 
< [[Jerzy_Kosinski]] -- 
< [[Mollusca]] -- 
< [[O_Henry]] -- 
< [[Prometheus]] 
---
> [[Aircraft]] -- 
> [[Alexander_Graham_Bell]] -- 
> [[Alfred_Nobel]] -- 
> [[Aphex_Twin]] -- 
> [[Arbetets_museum]] -- 
> [[Audi]] -- 
> [[Automobile]] -- 
> [[BSD]] -- 
> [[Be]] -- 
> [[Bell]] -- 
> [[Bell_Labs]] -- 
> [[Berkeley]] -- 
> [[Bjarne_Stroustrup]] -- 
> [[Boeing]] -- 
> [[C._Northcote_Parkinson]] -- 
> [[C_Plus_Plus]] -- 
> [[Canal]] -- 
> [[Carl_XVI_Gustaf]] -- 
> [[Cerebrovascular_Accident]] -- 
> [[Czechia]] -- 
> [[Daily_rushes]] -- 
> [[Datsun]] -- 
> [[Daugava]] -- 
> [[Douglas_Coupland]] -- 
> [[Dynamite]] -- 
> [[Eindhoven]] -- 
> [[Elsinore]] -- 
> [[Eocene]] -- 
> [[Ericsson]] -- 
> [[European_route_E4]] -- 
> [[European_routes]] -- 
> [[Ford]] -- 
> [[Fortran]] -- 
> [[Gdansk]] -- 
> [[General_Motors]] -- 
> [[George_Henri_Pire]] -- 
> [[Golden_Gate_Bridge]] -- 
> [[Gota_Kanal]] -- 
> [[Gota_alv]] -- 
> [[Graviton]] -- 
> [[Greece/Communications]] -- 
> [[Greece/Economy]] -- 
> [[Greece/Geography]] -- 
> [[Greece/Government]] -- 
> [[Greece/History]] -- 
> [[Greece/Military]] -- 
> [[Greece/People]] -- 
> [[Greece/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Greece/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Greece]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Communications]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Economy]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Geography]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Government]] -- 
> [[Greenland/History]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Military]] -- 
> [[Greenland/People]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Greenland/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Greenland]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Communications]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Economy]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Geography]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Government]] -- 
> [[Grenada/History]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Military]] -- 
> [[Grenada/People]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Grenada/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Grenada]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Communications]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Economy]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Geography]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Government]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/History]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Military]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/People]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Guadaloupe]] -- 
> [[Guam/Communications]] -- 
> [[Guam/Economy]] -- 
> [[Guam/Geography]] -- 
> [[Guam/Government]] -- 
> [[Guam/History]] -- 
> [[Guam/Military]] -- 
> [[Guam/People]] -- 
> [[Guam/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Guam/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Guatemala/Geography]] -- 
> [[Guatemala/History]] -- 
> [[Guatemala/People]] -- 
> [[Guglielmo_Marconi]] -- 
> [[Gulf]] -- 
> [[Gulf_of_Finland]] -- 
> [[Gustaf_VI_Adolf]] -- 
> [[Helsingborg]] -- 
> [[Henry_Ford]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/April_30]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/April_4]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/December_7]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/January_15]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/June_7]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/May_5]] -- 
> [[Human_geography]] -- 
> [[Huntingtons_Chorea]] -- 
> [[IBM]] -- 
> [[Iberian_Peninsula]] -- 
> [[Immanuel_Kant]] -- 
> [[Industrial_revolution]] -- 
> [[Ingmar_Bergman]] -- 
> [[Inventor]] -- 
> [[Isaac_Newton]] -- 
> [[Jeep]] -- 
> [[Konrad_Adenauer]] -- 
> [[Lake]] -- 
> [[Lake_Roxen]] -- 
> [[Lars_Magnus_Ericsson]] -- 
> [[Law_of_nature]] -- 
> [[Linkoeping]] -- 
> [[Linkoping_University]] -- 
> [[Locomotive]] -- 
> [[Lucent]] -- 
> [[Marcel_Achard]] -- 
> [[Marconi]] -- 
> [[Metaphysics/Talk]] -- 
> [[Microserfs]] -- 
> [[Microsoft]] -- 
> [[Moscow]] -- 
> [[Motala_strom]] -- 
> [[Myasthenia_gravis]] -- 
> [[Mystics]] -- 
> [[Neva]] -- 
> [[Nile]] -- 
> [[Nissan]] -- 
> [[Nokia]] -- 
> [[Norrkoping]] -- 
> [[Nortel]] -- 
> [[Norway]] -- 
> [[Oakland]] -- 
> [[Opel]] -- 
> [[PCM]] -- 
> [[Palo_Alto]] -- 
> [[Paralysis]] -- 
> [[Parkinsons_Disease]] -- 
> [[Parkinsons_law]] -- 
> [[Particle_physics]] -- 
> [[Paths_of_Glory]] -- 
> [[Peninsula]] -- 
> [[Physical_geography]] -- 
> [[Plain]] -- 
> [[Protozoa]] -- 
> [[Rail_Transport]] -- 
> [[Riga]] -- 
> [[River]] -- 
> [[Roman_Empire]] -- 
> [[SUV]] -- 
> [[Saab]] -- 
> [[Saint_Petersburg]] -- 
> [[San_Francisco_Bay]] -- 
> [[San_Francisco_Bay_Area]] -- 
> [[San_Francisco_Peninsula]] -- 
> [[San_Jose]] -- 
> [[Scandinavian_Peninsula]] -- 
> [[Scania]] -- 
> [[Seat]] -- 
> [[Sedan]] -- 
> [[Shiites]] -- 
> [[Silicon_Valley]] -- 
> [[Skoda]] -- 
> [[Solaris]] -- 
> [[Soviet]] -- 
> [[Special_relativity]] -- 
> [[St_Petersburg]] -- 
> [[Stanford_University]] -- 
> [[Stephenson]] -- 
> [[Substance]] -- 
> [[Sun_Microsystems]] -- 
> [[Sunni_Muslims]] -- 
> [[Telefonica]] -- 
> [[Telephone]] -- 
> [[Telia]] -- 
> [[The_Rocket]] -- 
> [[Theory_of_relativity]] -- 
> [[UCB]] -- 
> [[UC]] -- 
> [[UNIX]] -- 
> [[University_of_Washington]] -- 
> [[Vabis]] -- 
> [[Valley]] -- 
> [[Vanern]] -- 
> [[Vattern]] -- 
> [[Vehicle]] -- 
> [[Volga]] -- 
> [[Volkswagen]] -- 
> [[Volvo]] -- 
> [[Washington_University]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_Announcements/April_2001]] -- 
> [[Wild_Strawberries_Ingmar_Bergman]] -- 
> [[Wings_of_Desire]] -- 
> [[Wireless_Valley]] -- 
> [[Yunus_Emre]] -- 
> 
> 
------
Haiti/Transportation|988988507
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40 km (single track; privately owned industrial line) - closed in early 1990s
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 40 km 0.760-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,160 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,011 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 3,149 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> NEGL; less than 100 km navigable
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cap-Haitien, Gonaives, Jacmel, Jeremie, Les Cayes, Miragoane, Port-au-Prince, Port-de-Paix, Saint-Marc
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 13 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
Haiti/Military|988988529
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Haitian National Police (HNP)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the regular Haitian Army, Navy, and Air Force have been demobilized but still exist on paper until constitutionally abolished
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,579,897 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 857,666 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 83,863 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA ; note - mainly for police and security activities
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> the Haitian Armed Forces have been demobilized and replaced by the Haitian National Police
------
Haiti/Transnational_issues|988988544
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims US-administered Navassa Island
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major Caribbean transshipment point for cocaine en route to the US and Europe
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands|988988590
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/History|988988611
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Geography|988988627
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, islands in the Indian Ocean, about two-thirds of the way from Madagascar to Antarctica
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 53 06 S, 72 31 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Antarctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 412 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 412 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than 2 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 101.9 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> antarctic
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> Heard Island - bleak and mountainous, with a quiescent volcano; McDonald Islands - small and rocky
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Southern Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Big Ben 2,745 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> Heard Island is dominated by a dormant volcano called Big Ben
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> primarily used for research stations
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/People|988988642
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Government|988988656
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Heard Island and McDonald Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HM
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Australia is used
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Economy|988988669
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Communications|988988687
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Transportation|988988698
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Military|988988711
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Australia
------
Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands/Transnational_issues|988988724
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Countries_of_the_world|988988810
18c18
< <font size=+2>H</font><br> [[Haiti]] - [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - [[Holy See (Vatican City)]] - [[Honduras]] - [[Hong Kong]] - [[Howland Island]] - [[Hungary]]
---
> <font size=+2>H</font><br> [[Haiti]] - [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - [[Holy See]] - [[Honduras]] - [[Hong Kong]] - [[Howland Island]] - [[Hungary]]
------
Holy_See|988988831
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Vatican City]]
------
Vatican_City|988988854
3a4,15
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Vatican_City/History|988988873
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Popes in their secular role ruled much of the Italian peninsula, including Rome, for more than a thousand years, until 1870. Disputes between a series of popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of Vatican City out of the former Papal States and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy. In 1984, a concordat between the Vatican and Italy modified certain of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the Holy See include the failing health of Pope John Paul II, who turns 80 on 20 May 2000, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and the adjustment of church doctrine in an era of rapid change. About 1 billion people worldwide profess the Catholic faith.
------
Vatican_City/Geography|988988890
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Europe, an enclave of Rome (Italy)
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 41 54 N, 12 27 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 0.44 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 0.44 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3.2 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Italy 3.2 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; mild, rainy winters (September to mid-May) with hot, dry summers (May to September)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low hill
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> unnamed location 19 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 75 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (urban area)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution, Environmental Modification
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> urban; landlocked; enclave of Rome, Italy; world's smallest state; outside the Vatican City, 13 buildings in Rome and Castel Gandolfo (the pope's summer residence) enjoy extraterritorial rights
------
Vatican_City/People|988988907
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 880 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.15% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> none
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> none
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Italians, Swiss, other
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Italian, Latin, various other languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Vatican_City/Government|988988924
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> The Holy See (State of the Vatican City)
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Holy See (Vatican City)
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Santa Sede (Stato della Citta del Vaticano)
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Santa Sede (Citta del Vaticano)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> VT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> monarchical-sacerdotal state
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Vatican City
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 11 February 1929 (from Italy)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Installation Day of the Pope (John Paul II), 22 October (1978)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Apostolic Constitution of 1967 (effective 1 March 1968)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> limited to cardinals less than 80 years old
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Pope JOHN PAUL II (since 16 October 1978)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Secretary of State Cardinal Angelo SODANO (since 2 December 1990)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Pontifical Commission appointed by the pope
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> pope elected for life by the College of Cardinals; election last held 16 October 1978 (next to be held after the death of the current pope); secretary of state appointed by the pope
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Karol WOJTYLA elected pope
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Pontifical Commission
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> none; normally handled by Italy
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> none (exclusive of influence exercised by church officers)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> IAEA, ICFTU, Intelsat, IOM (observer), ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, UN (observer), UNCTAD, UNHCR, UPU, WIPO, WToO (observer)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Apostolic Nuncio Archbishop Gabriele MONTALVO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3339 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 333-7121
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Corrine C. BOGGS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Villa Domiziana, Via delle Terme Deciane 26, 00153 Rome
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 59, Box F, APO AE 09624
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [39] (06) 46741-3428
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [39] (06) 5758346, 57300682
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two vertical bands of yellow (hoist side) and white with the crossed keys of Saint Peter and the papal miter centered in the white band
------
Vatican_City/Economy|988988944
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> This unique, noncommercial economy is supported financially by contributions (known as Peter's Pence) from Roman Catholics throughout the world, the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The incomes and living standards of lay workers are comparable to, or somewhat better than, those of counterparts who work in the city of Rome.
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%; note - dignitaries, priests, nuns, guards, and 3,000 lay workers live outside the Vatican
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $209.6 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $198.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> printing and production of a small amount of mosaics and staff uniforms; worldwide banking and financial activities
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by Italy
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Vatican lira (VLit) = 100 centesimi
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Vatican lire (VLit) per US$1 - 1,688.7 (January 1998), 1,736.2 (1998), 1,703.1 (1997), 1,542.9 (1996), 1,628.9 (1995); note - the Vatican lira is at par with the Italian lira which circulates freely
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Vatican_City/Communications|988988960
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> automatic exchange
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> tied into Italian system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> uses Italian system
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1996)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Vatican_City/Transportation|988988974
1c1,13
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 862 m; note - connects to Italy's network at Rome's Saint Peter's station
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 862 m 1.435-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> none; all city streets
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Vatican_City/Military|988988992
1c1,2
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Italy; Swiss Papal Guards are posted at entrances to the Vatican City
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Vatican_City/Transnational_issues|988989008
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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Honduras|988989036
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Honduras/History|988989100
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras became as independent nation in 1821. After two and one-half decades of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan government and an ally to Salvadoran government forces fighting against leftist guerrillas.
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Honduras/Geography|988989118
1c1,64
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Guatemala and Nicaragua and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between El Salvador and Nicaragua
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 00 N, 86 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 112,090 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 111,890 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 200 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Tennessee
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,520 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guatemala 256 km, El Salvador 342 km, Nicaragua 922 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 820 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> natural extension of territory or to 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical in lowlands, temperate in mountains
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains in interior, narrow coastal plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 54%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 740 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; damaging hurricanes and floods along Caribbean coast
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> urban population expanding; deforestation results from logging and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes; further land degradation and soil erosion hastened by uncontrolled development and improper land use practices such as farming of marginal lands; mining activities polluting Lago de Yojoa (the country's largest source of fresh water) as well as several rivers and streams with heavy metals; severe Hurricane Mitch damage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
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Honduras/People|988989133
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,249,598
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 1,361,259; female 1,303,041)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 1,665,406; female 1,699,680)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 104,469; female 115,743) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.52% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 32.65 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.17 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 31.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.93 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67.91 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 72.06 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.26 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Honduran(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Honduran
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European) 90%, Amerindian 7%, black 2%, white 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant minority
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish, Amerindian dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 72.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 72.7% (1995 est.)
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Honduras/Government|988989153
1c1,76
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Honduras
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Honduras
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Honduras
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Honduras
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> democratic constitutional republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Tegucigalpa
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); Atlantida, Choluteca, Colon, Comayagua, Copan, Cortes, El Paraiso, Francisco Morazan, Gracias a Dios, Intibuca, Islas de la Bahia, La Paz, Lempira, Ocotepeque, Olancho, Santa Barbara, Valle, Yoro
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 11 January 1982, effective 20 January 1982; amended 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> rooted in Roman and Spanish civil law with increasing influence of English common law; recent judicial reforms include abandoning Napoleonic legal codes in favor of the oral adversarial system; accepts ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse (since 27 January 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse (since 27 January 1998); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 30 November 1997 (next to be held 30 November 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse elected president; percent of vote - Carlos Roberto FLORES Facusse (PL) 50%, Nora de MELGAR (PNH) 40%, other 10%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Congress or Congreso Nacional (128 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 30 November 1997 (next to be held 30 November 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PL 46%, PN 38%, PINU-SD 4%, PDC 2%, PUD 2%; seats by party - PL 67, PN 55, PINU-SD 3, PDC 2, PUD 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia, judges are elected for four-year terms by the National Congress
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Democratic Party or PDC [Arturo CORRALES Alvarez, president]; Democratic Unification Party or PUD [Gustavo GARCIA Espana, president]; Honduran National Party or PNH [leader NA]; Liberal Party or PL [Jorge REINA, president]; National Innovation and Unity Party-Social Democratic Party or PINU-SD [Olban VALLADARES, president]; National Party of Honduras or PN [Porfirio LOBO Sega, president]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras or CODEH; Confederation of Honduran Workers or CTH; Coordinating Committee of Popular Organizations or CCOP; General Workers Confederation or CGT; Honduran Council of Private Enterprise or COHEP; National Association of Honduran Campesinos or ANACH; National Union of Campesinos or UNC; United Federation of Honduran Workers or FUTH
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Hugo NOE PINO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3007 Tilden Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-7702
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-9751
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), Tampa
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Boston, Detroit, and Jacksonville
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Frank ALMAGUER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida La Paz, Apartado Postal No. 3453, Tegucigalpa
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy, APO AA 34022, Tegucigalpa
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [504] 238-5114, 326-9320
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [504] 236-9037
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Honduras/Government|988989185
76a77,78
> <b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with five blue five-pointed stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band; the stars represent the members of the former Federal Republic of Central America - Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua; similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Nicaragua, which features a triangle encircled by the word REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom, centered in the white band
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Honduras/Economy|988989217
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Honduras spent 1999 primarily recovering from Hurricane Mitch, which killed more than 5,000 people and caused about $3 billion in damage. Although it is slated to receive about $2.76 billion in international aid, the economy shrank 3% with widening current account and fiscal deficits in 1999. It nevertheless met most of its macroeconomic targets, and 2000 should see economic recovery as reconstruction projects make progress and the agricultural sector recovers. Honduras may also get relief from its $4.4 billion external debt under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $14.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,050 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 55% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 50% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 42.1% (1996)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 14% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.3 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 29%, industry 21%, services 60% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 12% (1999); underemployed 30% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $980 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.15 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 9% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.904 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 34.44%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 65.56%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.742 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 16 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 57 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> bananas, coffee, citrus; beef; timber; shrimp
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, bananas, shrimp, lobster, meat; zinc, lumber
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 73%, Japan 4%, Germany 4%, Belgium, Spain (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, industrial raw materials, chemical products, fuels, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 60%, Guatemala 5%, Netherlands Antilles, Japan, Germany, Mexico, El Salvador (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.4 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $557.8 million (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 lempira (L) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> lempiras (L) per US$1 - 14.5744 (January 2000), 14.5039 (1999), 13.8076 (1998), 13.0942 (1997), 12.8694 (1996), 10.3432 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Honduras/Communications|988989233
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 190,200 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> inadequate system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); connected to Central American Microwave System
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 241, FM 53, shortwave 12 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.45 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 11 (plus 17 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 570,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 14 (1999)
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Honduras/Transportation|988989265
1c1,45
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 595 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 349 km 1.067-m gauge; 246 km 0.914-m gauge (1999)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 3,126 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 12,274 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 465 km navigable by small craft
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> La Ceiba, Puerto Castilla, Puerto Cortes, San Lorenzo, Tela, Puerto Lempira
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 306 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 848,150 GRT/980,995 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 26, cargo 187, chemical tanker 5, container 7, livestock carrier 1, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 4, petroleum tanker 43, refrigerated cargo 15, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 5, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; Russia owns 6 ships, Vietnam 1, Singapore 3, North Korea 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 119 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 107
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 21
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 84 (1999 est.)
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Honduras/Military|988989281
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,467,615 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 874,053 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 70,636 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $33 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.6% (FY98)
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Honduras/Transnational_issues|988989295
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> the Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Nicaragua in the Caribbean Sea
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for drugs and narcotics; illicit producer of cannabis, cultivated on small plots and used principally for local consumption; corruption is a major problem
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Hong_Kong|988989336
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Hong_Kong/History|988989397
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 1 July 1997. In this agreement, China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in Hong Kong and that Hong Kong will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs for the next 50 years.
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Hong_Kong/Geography|988989417
1c1,55
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 15 N, 114 10 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,092 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,042 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 50 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> six times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 30 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 733 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical monsoon; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> hilly to mountainous with steep slopes; lowlands in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> South China Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Tai Mo Shan 958 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> outstanding deepwater harbor, feldspar
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 72% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional typhoons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air and water pollution from rapid urbanization
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> more than 200 islands
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Hong_Kong/People|988989433
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 7,116,302 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 676,756; female 602,434)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 71% (male 2,520,473; female 2,563,355)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11% (male 342,942; female 410,342) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.35% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 11.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.93 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 8.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.12 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.84 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 79.54 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.85 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.41 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Chinese
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Chinese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chinese 95%, other 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> eclectic mixture of local religions 90%, Christian 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Chinese (Cantonese), English; both are official
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 92.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 96%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 88.2% (1996 est.)
------
Be|988989437
1c1,11
< The verb ''to be'' is a copulative, indicating that two things are the same, that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
---
> Exist:  "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough.""
> 
> Exist as a particular person, thing or identity; have particular identity attributes:  "I only want to ''be'' myself."  "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake."  "Only a person who has attained age 35 or better may ''be'' President of the United states."  "Who knew that when he grew up, he would ''be'' Bob Dylan?"
> 
> Exist as a member of a set or class.  "I wonder what it's like to ''be'' a Sunni Muslim."
> 
> Exist as or while possessing a particular attribute or attributes.  "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"
> 
> Exist as or while performing a certain act or action.  "I will ''be'' running in the marathon tomorrow."  In this usage, the verb 'to be' is considered a "helper verb," modifying the tense or case of the verb with which it appears.
> 
> The verb ''to be'' is a copulative, indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
------
Hong_Kong/Government|988989451
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Hong Kong
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Xianggang Tebie Xingzhengqu
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Xianggang
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> HK
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HK
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> special administrative region of China
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 1-2 October; note - 1 July 1997 is celebrated as Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Establishment Day
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Basic Law approved in March 1990 by China's National People's Congress is Hong Kong's "mini-constitution"
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> direct election 18 years of age; universal for permanent residents living in the territory of Hong Kong for the past seven years; indirect election limited to about 100,000 members of functional constituencies and an 800-member election committee drawn from broad regional groupings, municipal organizations, and central government bodies
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President of China JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Executive TUNG Chee-hwa (since 1 July 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council consists of three ex-officio members and 10 appointed members; ex-officio members are: Chief Secretary Anson CHAN (since 29 November 1993), Financial Secretary Donald TSANG (since 7 March 1995), and Secretary of Justice Elsie LEUNG (since 1 July 1997)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council or LEGCO (60 seats; 30 indirectly elected by functional constituencies, 20 elected by popular vote, and 10 elected by an 800-member election committee; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 25 May 1998 (early elections scheduled to be held in September 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Democratic Party 13, Liberal Party 9, Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong 9, Hong Kong Progressive Alliance 5, Frontier Party 3, Citizens Party 1, independents 20
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> The Court of Final Appeal in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood [Frederick FUNG Kin-kee, chairman]; Citizens Party [Christine LOH Kung-wai, chairwoman]; Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong [Jasper TSANG Yok-sing, chairman]; Democratic Party [Martin LEE Chu-ming, chairman]; Frontier Party [Emily LAU Wai-hing, chairwoman]; Hong Kong Progressive Alliance [Ambrose LAU Hon-chuen]; Liberal Party [James TIEN Pei-chun, chairman]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> political blocs include: pro-democracy - Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood, Citizens Party, Democratic Party, Frontier Party; pro-Beijing - Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Progressive Alliance, Liberal Party
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Chinese General Chamber of Commerce (pro-China); Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong; Confederation of Trade Unions (pro-democracy) [LEE Cheuk-yan, chairman]; Federation of Hong Kong Industries; Federation of Trade Unions (pro-China) [LEE Chark-tim, president]; Hong Kong Alliance in Support of the Patriotic Democratic Movement in China [Szeto WAH, chairman]; Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council (pro-Taiwan); Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce; Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union [CHEUNG Man-kwong, president]; Liberal Democratic Federation [HU Fa-kuang, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, AsDB, BIS, CCC, ESCAP (associate), ICFTU, IMO (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, ISO (correspondent), WCL, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Consul General Richard A. BOUCHER
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> 26 Garden Road, Hong Kong
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 464, Box 30, FPO AP 96522-0002
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [852] 2523-9011
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [852] 2845-1598
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a stylized, white, five-petal bauhinia flower in the center
------
Hong_Kong/Economy|988989469
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Hong Kong has a bustling free market economy highly dependent on international trade. Natural resources are limited, and food and raw materials must be imported. Indeed, imports and exports, including reexports, each exceed GDP in dollar value. Even before Hong Kong reverted to Chinese administration on 1 July 1997 it had extensive trade and investment ties with China. Per capita GDP compares with the level in the four big countries of Western Europe. GDP growth averaged a strong 5% in 1989-97. The widespread Asian economic difficulties in 1998 hit this trade-dependent economy quite hard, with GDP down 5%. The economy is recovering, with growth of 1.8% in 1999 to be followed by projected growth of 3.7% in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $158.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 0.1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 14.7%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 85.2% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.36 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels 31.9%, social services 9.9%, manufacturing 9.2%, financing, insurance, and real estate 13.1%, transport and communications 5.7%, construction 2.6%, other 27.6% (October 1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $23.1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $25.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles, clothing, tourism, electronics, plastics, toys, watches, clocks
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -8.7% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 29.529 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 34.612 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 610 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 7.76 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fresh vegetables; poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $169.98 billion (including reexports; f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> clothing, textiles, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clocks, toys
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> China 34%, US 23%, Japan 5%, Germany 4%, UK 4%, Singapore 2% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $174.4 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, transport equipment, raw materials, semimanufactures, petroleum; a large share is reexported
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> China 41%, Japan 13%, US 8%, Taiwan 7%, South Korea 5%, Singapore 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $48.1 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Hong Kong dollar (HK$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Hong Kong dollars (HK$) per US$ - 7.7780 (January 2000), 7.7575 (1999), 7.7453 (1998), 7.7427 (1997), 7.730 (1996), 7.800 (1995); note - Hong Kong became a special administrative region of China on 1 July 1997; before then, linked to the US dollar at the rate of about 7.8 HK$ per 1 US$
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Hong_Kong/Communications|988989485
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.708 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2.4 million (July 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern facilities provide excellent domestic and international services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay links and extensive fiber-optic network
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Pacific Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean); coaxial cable to Guangzhou, China; access to 5 international submarine cables providing connections to ASEAN member nations, Japan, Taiwan, Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 7, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.45 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 4 (plus two repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.84 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 49 (1999)
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 34 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 34 km 1.435-m gauge (all electrified) (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,831 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,831 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1997)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Hong Kong
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 271 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 7,942,646 GRT/13,101,275 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> barge carrier 1, bulk 157, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination bulk 2, container 53, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 2, petroleum tanker 14, short-sea passenger 1, vehicle carrier 3 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 13 countries among which are UK 16, South Africa 3, China 9, Japan 6, Bermuda 2, Germany 3, Canada 2, Cyprus 1, Belgium 1, and Norway 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
------
Hong_Kong/Communications|988989513
21,53d20
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Railways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 34 km
< <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
< 34 km 1.435-m gauge (all electrified) (1996 est.)
< <p><b>Highways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 1,831 km
< <br><i>paved:</i>
< 1,831 km
< <br><i>unpaved:</i>
< 0 km (1997)
< <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
< Hong Kong
< <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 271 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 7,942,646 GRT/13,101,275 DWT
< <br><i>ships by type:</i>
< barge carrier 1, bulk 157, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination bulk 2, container 53, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 2, petroleum tanker 14, short-sea passenger 1, vehicle carrier 3 (1999 est.)
< <br><i>note:</i>
< a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 13 countries among which are UK 16, South Africa 3, China 9, Japan 6, Bermuda 2, Germany 3, Canada 2, Cyprus 1, Belgium 1, and Norway 1 (1998 est.)
< <p><b>Airports:</b>
< 3 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 3
< <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
< 2
< <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
< 1 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Heliports:</b>
< 2 (1999 est.)
------
Hong_Kong/Transportation|988989534
1c1,32
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 34 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 34 km 1.435-m gauge (all electrified) (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,831 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,831 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1997)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Hong Kong
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 271 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 7,942,646 GRT/13,101,275 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> barge carrier 1, bulk 157, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination bulk 2, container 53, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 2, petroleum tanker 14, short-sea passenger 1, vehicle carrier 3 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 13 countries among which are UK 16, South Africa 3, China 9, Japan 6, Bermuda 2, Germany 3, Canada 2, Cyprus 1, Belgium 1, and Norway 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
------
Hong_Kong/Military|988989548
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Hong Kong garrison of China's People's Liberation Army (PLA) including elements of the PLA Ground Forces, PLA Navy, and PLA Air Force; these forces are under the direct leadership of the Central Military Commission in Beijing and under administrative control of the adjacent Guangzhou Military Region
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,012,203 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,516,533 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 46,485 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA; note - separate budget for Hong Kong not established by China
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of China
------
Hong_Kong/Transnational_issues|988989566
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> a hub for Southeast Asian heroin trade; transshipment and money-laundering center; increasing indigenous amphetamine abuse
------
Howland_Island|988989606
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Howland_Island/History|988989627
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Howland_Island/Geography|988989647
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 48 N, 176 38 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.6 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.6 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about three times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 6.4 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> equatorial; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low-lying, nearly level, sandy, coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef; depressed central area
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 3 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano (deposits worked until late 1800s)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 95%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1998)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no natural fresh water resources
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> almost totally covered with grasses, prostrate vines, and low-growing shrubs; small area of trees in the center; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
------
Howland_Island/People|988989662
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited
> <br><i>note:</i>
> American civilians evacuated in 1942 after Japanese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by US military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Howland_Island/Government|988989676
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Howland Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Howland_Island/Economy|988989690
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
------
Howland_Island/Communications|988989710
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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Howland_Island/Transportation|988989722
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> airstrip constructed in 1937 for scheduled refueling stop on the round-the-world flight of Amelia EARHART and Fred NOONAN - they left Lae, New Guinea, for Howland Island, but were never seen again; the airstrip is no longer serviceable
> <p><b>Transportation - note:</b>
> Earhart Light is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast that was partially destroyed during World War II, but has since been rebuilt; named in memory of famed aviatrix Amelia EARHART
------
Howland_Island/Military|988989735
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
------
Howland_Island/Transnational_issues|988989753
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Hungary|988989820
5a6,17
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Hungary/History|988989840
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Hungary was part of the polyglot Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed in World War I. It fell under communist rule following World War II. A revolt in 1956 and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact was met with massive military intervention by Moscow. In the more open GORBACHEV years, Hungary led the movement to dissolve the Warsaw Pact and steadily shifted toward multiparty democracy and a market-oriented economy. Following the collapse of the USSR in 1991, Hungary developed close political and economic ties to Western Europe. It joined NATO in 1999 and is a frontrunner in a future expansion of the EU.
------
Hungary/Geography|988989857
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Europe, northwest of Romania
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 47 00 N, 20 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 93,030 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 92,340 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 690 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,009 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Austria 366 km, Croatia 329 km, Romania 443 km, Serbia and Montenegro 151 km (all with Serbia), Slovakia 515 km, Slovenia 102 km, Ukraine 103 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; cold, cloudy, humid winters; warm summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to rolling plains; hills and low mountains on the Slovakian border
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Tisza River 78 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Kekes 1,014 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 51%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3.6%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 12.4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1999)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 2,060 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> the approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin
------
Hungary/People|988989873
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,138,844 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 17% (male 878,661; female 834,607)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 3,407,368; female 3,535,818)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 548,672; female 933,718) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.33% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.34 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.73 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.59 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.37 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.05 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Hungarian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Hungarian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Hungarian 89.9%, Roma 4%, German 2.6%, Serb 2%, Slovak 0.8%, Romanian 0.7%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 67.5%, Calvinist 20%, Lutheran 5%, atheist and other 7.5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Hungarian 98.2%, other 1.8%
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1980 est.)
------
Hungary/Government|988989894
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Hungary
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Hungary
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Magyar Koztarsasag
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Magyarorszag
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> HU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Budapest
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 19 counties (megyek, singular - megye), 20 urban counties* (singular - megyei varos), and 1 capital city** (fovaros); Bacs-Kiskun, Baranya, Bekes, Bekescsaba*, Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen, Budapest**, Csongrad, Debrecen*, Dunaujvaros*, Eger*, Fejer, Gyor*, Gyor-Moson-Sopron, Hajdu-Bihar, Heves, Hodmezovasarhely*, Jasz-Nagykun-Szolnok, Kaposvar*, Kecskemet*, Komarom-Esztergom, Miskolc*, Nagykanizsa*, Nograd, Nyiregyhaza*, Pecs*, Pest, Somogy, Sopron*, Szabolcs-Szatmar-Bereg, Szeged*, Szekesfehervar*, Szolnok*, Szombathely*, Tatabanya*, Tolna, Vas, Veszprem, Veszprem*, Zala, Zalaegerszeg*
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1001 (unification by King Stephen I)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Saint Stephen's Day, 20 August (commemorates the coronation of King Stephen I in 1000 AD)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 18 August 1949, effective 20 August 1949, revised 19 April 1972; 18 October 1989 revision ensured legal rights for individuals and constitutional checks on the authority of the prime minister and also established the principle of parliamentary oversight; 1997 amendment streamlined the judicial system
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> rule of law based on Western model
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Arpad GONCZ (since 3 August 1990; previously interim president since 2 May 1990)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Viktor ORBAN (since 6 July 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 19 June 1995 (next to be held before August 2000); prime minister elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Arpad GONCZ reelected president; a total of 335 votes were cast by the National Assembly, Arpad GONCZ received 259; Viktor ORBAN elected prime minister; percent of legislative vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Orszaggyules (386 seats; members are elected by popular vote under a system of proportional and direct representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 10 and 24 May 1998 (next to be held May/June 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party (5% or more of the vote required for parliamentary representation in the first round) - MSZP 32.0%, FIDESZ 28.2%, FKGP 13.8%, SZDSZ 7.9%, MIEP 5.5%, MMP 4.1%, MDF 2.8%, KDNP 2.3%, MDNP 1.5%; seats by party - MSZP 134, FIDESZ 148, FKGP 48, SZDSZ 24, MDF 17, MIEP 14, independent 1; note - the MDF won 17 single-member district seats; seating as of 1999 by party - MSZP 135, FIDESZ 146, FKGP 48, SZDSZ 24, MDF 17, MIEP 12, independents 3, and 1 empty seat to be filled in a byelection
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court, judges are elected by the National Assembly for nine-year terms
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance of Free Democrats or SZDSZ [Balint MAGYAR, chairman]; Christian Democratic People's Party or KDNP [Gyorgy GICZY, president]; Hungarian Civic Party or FIDESZ [Laszlo KOVER, chairman]; Hungarian Democratic Forum or MDF [Ibolya DAVID, chairman]; Hungarian Democratic People's Party or MDNP [Erzsebet PUSZTAI, chairman]; Hungarian Justice and Life Party or MIEP [Istvan CSURKA, chairman]; Hungarian Socialist Party or MSZP [Laszlo KOVACS, chairman]; Hungarian Workers' Party or MMP [Gyula THURMER, chairman]; Independent Smallholders or FKGP [Jozsef TORGYAN, president]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNU, UPU, WEU (associate), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Geza JESZENSZKY
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3910 Shoemaker Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 362-6730
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-8135
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Peter F. TUFO
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> V. 1054 Szabadsag Ter 12, Budapest
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> pouch: American Embassy Budapest, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5270
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [36] (1) 475-4400, 475-4703 (after hours)
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [36] (1) 475-4764
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and green
------
Hungary/Economy|988989915
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Hungary continues to demonstrate strong economic growth and to work toward accession to the European Union. Over 85% of the economy has been privatized. Foreign ownership of and investment in Hungarian firms has been widespread with cumulative foreign direct investment $21 billion by 1999. Hungarian sovereign debt is now rated investment grade. GDP growth of 4% in 1999 will likely be matched or even exceeded in 2000. Inflation, while diminished, is still high at 10%. Economic reform measures include regional development, encouragement of small- and medium-size enterprises, and support of housing.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $79.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 65% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 25.3% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.1%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.2 million (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 65%, industry 27%, agriculture 8% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $13.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $15.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> mining, metallurgy, construction materials, processed foods, textiles, chemicals (especially pharmaceuticals), motor vehicles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 35.104 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 61%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 33.317 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 3.3 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 3.97 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, corn, sunflower seed, potatoes, sugar beets; pigs, cattle, poultry, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $22.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment 51.9%, other manufactures 32.7%, agriculture and food products 10.5%, raw materials 2.9%, fuels and electricity 1.9% (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 37%, Austria 11%, Italy 6%, Netherlands 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $25.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment 46.5%, other manufactures 40.2%, fuels and electricity 6.6%, agricultural and food products 3.7%, raw materials 3.0% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany 28%, Austria 10%, Italy 8%, Russia 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $27 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $122.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 forint (Ft) = 100 filler
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> forints per US$1 - 251.150 (January 2000), 237.146 (1999), 214.402 (1998), 186.789 (1997), 152.647 (1996), 125.681 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Hungary/Communications|988989930
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.893 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1.269 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> the telephone system has been modernized and is capable of satisfying all requests for telecommunication service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the system is digitalized and highly automated; trunk services are carried by fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay; a program for fiber-optic subscriber connections was initiated in 1996; heavy use is made of mobile cellular telephones
> <br><i>international:</i>
> Hungary has fiber-optic cable connections with all neighboring countries; the international switch is in Budapest;  satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean regions), 1 Inmarsat, 1 very small aperture terminal (VSAT) system of ground terminals
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 17, FM 57, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 7.01 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 39 (plus several low-power stations) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4.42 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 13 (1999)
------
Hungary/Transportation|988989948
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,606 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 36 km 1.524-m gauge
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 7,394 km 1.435-m gauge (2,270 km electrified; 1,236 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 176 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Hungary and Austria jointly manage the cross-border standard-gauge railway between Gyor, Sopron, Ebenfurt (Gysev railroad) a distance of about 101 km in Hungary and 65 km in Austria
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 188,203 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 81,680 km (including 438 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 106,523 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,373 km permanently navigable (1997)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,204 km; natural gas 4,387 km (1991)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Budapest, Dunaujvaros
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 12,949 GRT/14,550 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 43 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
Hungary/Military|988989965
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Air Force, Border Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,588,365 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,062,565 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 67,160 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $732.2 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.4% (FY99)
------
Hungary/Transnational_issues|988989981
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> ongoing Gabcikovo Dam dispute with Slovakia
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and cannabis and transit point for South American cocaine destined for Western Europe; limited producer of precursor chemicals, particularly for amphetamines and methamphetamines
------
Ottoman_Empire|988990114
1c1
< A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern Anatolia in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the Persian Gulf in the east to Hungary in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned 1520–1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the Allies in World War I. 
---
> A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Hungary]] in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (reigned 1520?1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the [[Allies]] in [[World War I]]. 
------
Ottoman_Empire|988990285
1c1
< A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Hungary]] in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (reigned 1520?1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the [[Allies]] in [[World War I]]. 
---
> A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Hungary]] in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (reigned 1520?1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the Allies in [[World War I]]. 
------
Ingmar_Bergman|988991022
21c21
< :[[Wild Strawberries Ingmar Bergman|Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
---
> :[[Wild_Strawberries_Ingmar_Bergman|Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
------
Ingmar_Bergman|988991042
21c21
< :[[Wild_Strawberries_Ingmar_Bergman|Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
---
> :[[Wild Strawberries Ingmar Bergman|Wild Strawberries]] (1957) (Smultronstället)
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KoyaanisQatsi|988992164
21a22,24
> ----
> [[What_Google_Likes]]
> [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_4|988993119
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[National Guard]], sent to [[Kent State]] after the [[ROTC]] building was burnt down, opens fire on students protesting the [[United States]]' invasion of [[Cambodia]].  Four students are killed, 9 wounded.
------
Historical_anniversaries/May_2|988993193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ohio [[National Guard]]smen arrive at [[Kent State]] in response to arson on an [[ROTC]] building.
------
Metaphysics/Talk|988995783
17c17,20
< Pick the scientific discipline you know most about.  Suppose someone were to add a quotation from someone who knows virtually nothing about that discipline to the article about that discipline.  Why should anyone get upset when someone who ''does'' know a thing or two about discipline comes along, sees the quote, and summarily deletes it? --[[LMS]]
---
> Pick the scientific discipline you know most about.  Suppose someone were to add a quotation from someone who knows virtually nothing about that discipline to the article about that discipline.  Why should anyone get upset when someone who ''does'' know a thing or two about discipline comes along, sees the quote, and summarily deletes it? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> 
> I am sympathetic to credibility, and I agree that recognized authorities should certainly be mentioned most prominently.  But I disagree totally that quotes and examples from non-recognized sources are necessarily out of place.  If they help to clarify and issue for the reader, or help demonstrate a popular belief about the issue (even if that is generally recognized by experts as a mistaken belief, which fact should also be mentioned), then they are good to include as long as they are correct, useful, and clearly expressed.  The Heinlein paragraph still fails on some of those notes: it is still biased, and it's mostly incorrect, conflating metaphysics with mere opinion, which is itself a mere opinion not shared by most real metaphysicians.  This paragraph doesn't belong, and I'm happy to be rid of it, but I just want to make a stronger point about "authority": what matters is the result, and only the result.  If an article is clear, explains the point correctly, and mentions all the high points (including naming the recognized authorities), then the fact that it uses other sources is a plus, not a minus.  It may lose credibility ''in the field'', (i.e., among the cognocenti themselves), but they aren't the audience; ordinary educated people are the audience, and serving them is more important than stroking the egos of experts.  In the "subjectivism" article, for example, I quote Churchill not because I think he is a great philosopher, but because Karl Popper, who ''is'' a recognized great philosopher, used that very example in his own work to demonstrate the silliness of extreme forms of subjectivism.  He used it because it is a good example, not because it holds any authority.   --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
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WojPob|988996516
8c8
< [http://www.pobratyn.com pobratyn_heavy_industries] -- inktomi is now spidering my site, it got there from wikipedia ;-)
---
> [http://www.pobratyn.com/pl/html/index.php pobratyn_heavy_industries] -- inktomi is now spidering my site, it got there from wikipedia ;-)
31c31
< [[/Sandbox]]
---
> [[/Sandbox]]
------
Saladin|988997963
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Saladin (1137-1193) (in full Salah Ad-din Yusuf Ibn Ayyub) is the founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty. Having his initial military education under the command of a Seljuk statesman and soldier, he had his first achievements by defending Egypt against Frankish rulers and abolishing the Fatimid caliphate. His fame reached to its zenith, when he recaptured Jerusalem on October 1187 after 88 years of Frankish era and successfully defended the city against the third crusade.
------
Psychology|988998373
29d28
< * [[brain science]]
32c31
< * [[philosophy of mind]]
---
> * [[philosophy of mind]]
------
Neuroscience|988999041
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A field of study, which deals with the structure, development, function, chemistry, pharmacology and pathology of the central or peripheral nervous system. The biological study of the brain is in  cooperation with cellular and molecular biology on one side and with psychology on the other side. Thus, the concern of neuroscience includes such diverse topics as how genes contribute to emotions and thought and how simple neural structures evolve to complex neural circuits to achieve functions as perceiving, moving and remembering. 
------
Cognitive_science|988999507
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A branch of science about the nature of the mental processes, trying to solve the questions about the operation systems of the brain's complex tasks as moving, thinking and reading in strong collaboration with several branches of science including neuroscience, psychology, computer science, philosophy, and linguistics.
> 
------
Ethology|988999870
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The study of animal behaviour with a special attention to the natural environment and physiological, evolutionary aspects. 
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|989000385
3c3,10
< ''Actually, the radio supposedly predates Marconi, although I don't remember the original inventor's name.''
---
> ''Actually, the radio supposedly predates Marconi, although I don't remember the original inventor's name.''
> 
> ----
> With most major technological devices, the claim that "person A invented device B" is usually at least an oversimplification, and radio is no exception.  What we call "radio" today bears little resemblance to the devices that came out in Marconi's time.  As far back as Faraday and Hertz in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s.  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi's patent in 1896 was not a particularly remarkable development at the time (it primarily made use of the "coherer" invented by Branly in 1892), though his later contributions were significant improvements.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 Nobel for "contributions to the development of vireless telegraphy".  The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist Reginald Aubrey Fessenden.
> 
> A good source is the book ''Syntony and Spark: the Origins of Radio'', Hugh G. J. Aitken, ISBN 0471018163.
> --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Audi|989000900
1,2c1
< Now part of [[Volkswagen]], '''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]].
< 
---
> Now part of [[Volkswagen]], '''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]]. The compnay's name means "Listen" in Latin, before [[World War II]], the company was named "Horch", which also means "Listen", but in German.
------
Solaris|989001091
7c7
< 
---
> There is also a movie called Solaris directed by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], and a novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
------
Punk_rock|989001288
19c19,20
< *[[UK Subs]]
---
> *[[UK Subs]]
> *[[Minor Threat]]
------
Oakland|989001828
1c1
< Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]].
---
> Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]]. Oakland is home of [[The Port of Oakland]], which is a signifigant source of commerce for the city. The current mayor is [[Jerry Brown]] who was a former governor of the [[State of California]]. Tourist attractions include the Oakland Musuem, the Paramount Theater, China Town, Jack London Square, Lake Merritt, and Oakland Coliseum, home to the [[Oakland Raiders]], football team, and the [[Oakland A's]], baseball team. The commercial and residental structures exhibit a great variety of styles, including [[Art Deco]] and [[Craftman]].  
------
Stephen_King|989003451
1c1
< Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged gradually into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner|Stand By Me]]</i> and [[Shawshank Redemption]], respectively), as well as in [[The Green Mile]].  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as evidenced by his nonfiction work [[Danse Macabre]], which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.
---
> Prolific author who is most known for his horror novels, which usually involve an unremarkable middle-class family being submerged into increasingly horrifying circumstances.  King also produces remarkably literary work, as can be seen in the novellas <i>The Body</i> and <i>Rita Hayworth and the Shawshank Redemption</i> (later made into the movies <i>[[Stand by Me Rob Reiner|Stand By Me]]</i> and <i>[[Shawshank Redemption]]</i>, respectively), as well as in <i>[[The Green Mile]]</i>.  King evinces a thorough knowledge of the horror genre, as shown in his nonfiction book <i>[[Danse Macabre]]</i>, which chronicles several decades of notable works in both literature and cinema.
3c3
< King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct [[Maximum Overdrive]] himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks." The experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.
---
> King options his films to student filmmakers for one dollar; yet, disgusted with the treatment most of his work had gotten in film, in 1986 he decided to direct <i>[[Maximum Overdrive]]</i> himself, using a screenplay he had written based on his short story "Trucks." The experience seems to have sated his desire to direct.
5c5
< King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works ([[Carrie Stephen King|Carrie]], [[The Shining]], as well as much of the work in [[Night Shift Stephen King|Night Shift]]) dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80s work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90s work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
---
> King fans will note that the relative wealth of King's characters has risen through the decades, though not as precipitously as King's wealth itself:  his earliest works <i>([[Carrie Stephen King|Carrie]], [[The Shining]],</i> as well as much of the work in <i>[[Night Shift Stephen King|Night Shift]])</i> dealt with working-class families struggling from paycheck to paycheck in minimum-wage jobs; his late-80s work with middle-class people such as teachers and authors; his late 90s work with airplane pilots and others who frequently can and do afford a second house.  Nonetheless his work has remained immensely popular.
------
The_Shining|989003521
1c1
< A novel by [[Stephen King]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]].  In the novel, Jack Torrance, a temperamental failed writer who had a drinking problem he's trying to forget, moves with his wife and young son to a sprawling hotel to maintain it over the winter.  The hotel apparently is haunted and seems to feed off people with psychic powers; Torrance's son, who is mildly telepathic, begins seeing ghosts and strange occurences, which, in spite of his wishes, turn out to be realp; Jack, frustrated with his inability to work, begins drinking again and becomes increasingly unstable.
---
> A novel by [[Stephen King]], later made into a film by [[Stanley Kubrick]].  In the novel, Jack Torrance, a temperamental failed writer who had a drinking problem he's trying to forget, moves with his wife and young son to a sprawling hotel to maintain it over the winter.  The hotel apparently is haunted and seems to feed off people with psychic powers; Torrance's son, who is mildly telepathic, begins seeing ghosts and strange occurences, which, in spite of his wishes, turn out to be real; Jack, frustrated with his inability to work, begins drinking again and becomes increasingly unstable.
------
Persistence_of_Vision|989004123
3c3,6
< Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film runs at 24 frames a second and television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
---
> Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film--when the "film" is in fact film, that is "celluloid"--runs at 24 frames a second.  [[Digital Video]], or DV, runs at 30 frames per second; television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
> 
> Examples of film stocks include 35mm, the most common, as well as 70mm, 16mm, and 8mm.  8mm is common for home use, but grainy; 70mm is rare because of its cost, but allows a much finer picture (as can be seen in theatrical showings of [[Lawrence of Arabia]]--viewers will not notice much difference at home, on TV).  Examples of the difference in film quality are obvious in [[The Blair Witch Project]]--listen for Heather's comments about wanting to get footage on certain cameras.  
> 
------
AlgorithmS|989004372
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Algorithms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Algorithm]]
------
Famous_French_People|989004608
11c11
< :[[Ren&eacute; Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
---
> :[[Rene Descarte|Ren&eacute; Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
19c19
< 
---
> :[[Francois Truffaut|François Truffaut]]
------
Insert|989004646
3c3
< Inserts are sometimes vexacious for inexperienced directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same.  One example of an insert being used deliberately to break continuity, for comedic effect, appears in Shoot the Piano Player (Tirez sur le pianiste), by Francois Truffaut: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection.
---
> Inserts are sometimes vexacious for inexperienced directors, as care must be taken to preserve continuity by keeping the objects in the same position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same.  One example of an insert being used deliberately to break continuity, for comedic effect, appears in [[Shoot the Piano Player]] (Tirez sur le pianiste), by [[Francois Truffaut|François Truffaut]]: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection.
------
Francois_Truffaut|989004951
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French director, February 6, 1932-October 21, 1984.
> 
> :[[Confidentially Yours]], 1983
> :[[The Last Metro]], 1980
> :[[Love on the Run]], 1979
> :[[The Green Room]], 1978
> :[[The Man Who Loved Women]], 1977
> :[[Small Change]], 1976
> :[[The Story of Adele H]], 1975
> :[[Day for Night]], 1973
> :[[The Wild Child]], 1969
> :[[Jules and Jim]], 1961
> :[[Shoot the Piano Player]], 1960
> :[[The 400 Blows]], 1959
------
Silence_of_the_Lambs|989005260
1,4c1
< 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Brilliantly directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|adapted screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
< 
< * [[Red Dragon]] - first [[Hannibal Lecter]] book, made into the film [[Manhunter]] by [[Michael Mann]]
< * [[Hannibal/Ridley Scott|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[The Silence of the Lambs]]
------
The_Silence_of_the_Lambs|989005270
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1991 [[film]] in which a young FBI trainee is sent to question an imprisoned sociopath psychiatrist to get information on one of his former clients, who is abducting women and skinning them.  Directed by [[Jonathan Demme]], the film features much subtle camera work and seems more profound with each viewing.  [[Jodie Foster]] and [[Anthony Hopkins]] both won [[Academy Awards|Oscars]]  (for their roles as Clarice Starling and Dr. [[Hannibal Lecter]], respectively); the film also won Oscars for [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|adapted screenplay]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|best picture]].  Based on the novel by [[Thomas Harris]] - the second book featuring Dr. Lecter. 
> 
> * [[Red Dragon]] - first [[Hannibal Lecter]] book, made into the film [[Manhunter]] by [[Michael Mann]]
> * [[Hannibal/Ridley Scott|Hannibal]] - the third of the Hannibal Lecter trilogy, made into the film of the same name by [[Ridley Scott]].
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|989005308
10c10
< *1991 [[Jonathan Demme]] - [[Silence of the Lambs]]
---
> *1991 [[Jonathan Demme]] - [[The Silence of the Lambs]]
------
Horror_Film|989005320
5c5
< *[[Silence of the Lambs]]
---
> *[[The Silence of the Lambs]]
10c10
< *[[It]]
---
> *[[It]]
------
Horror_Film|989005366
4c4
< *[[I Know What You Did Last Night]]
---
> *[[I Know What You Did Last Summer]]
------
David_Fincher|989007221
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Alien 3]]
> :[[Seven]]
> :[[The Game]]
> :[[Fight Club]]
------
Comedy_Film|989007380
8c8
< 
---
> Some notable comedies:
25c25
< *[[The General]]
---
> *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]]
------
Feature_requests|989011229
3c3,5
< * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. 
---
> * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the
> "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the
> suspicious words.
------
Feature_requests|989011249
3,4c3
< * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the
< "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the
---
> * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the
------
Feature_requests|989011264
3,4c3
< * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the
< suspicious words.
---
> * Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words.
------
AstroNomer|989011318
3,9d2
< 
< You asked why I set up Catalan and Deutsch wikipedia first.  No special reason.  Someone asked about Catalan.  And there is an active mailing list for Deutsch translation at Nupedia.  So...
< 
< It takes only 10 minutes to go through the basics of setting up
< wiki for another language.  Please tell me which ones you want.
< 
< Of course, to be fun and catch on, we will need to communicate about their existence to people who speak those languages.  I am incompetent to do this. :-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Electromagnetic_radiation|989011982
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Propagation of an [[electromagnetic field]], that carries energy
> from one place to another. Depending on the circumstances, it
> may behave as a [[wave]] or as [[particle]]s. As a wave, it is
> caracterized by a velocity (the velocity of light), [[wavelength]] and [[frequency]]. Electromagnetic radiation
> with wavelengths between about 400nm and 800nm (in the air),
> is known as visible light.
> 
> Considering its particle nature, the particles are known as
> ''[[photon]]s'', and each has an energy related to the frequency
> of the wave given by [[Plank]]'s relation
> :E=h&nu;,
> where E is the energy of the photon, h is [[Plancks constant]] and &nu; is the frequency of the wave.
------
Wavelength|989012448
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Caracteristic of a [[wave]], it correspond to the distance
> between two peaks or two valleys. It is usually designed by
> the greek letter ''lambda'' (&lambda;).
> 
>    |--wavelength---|
> 
>    *               *                        
>  ** **           ** **
>       *         *     *
>        *       *       *
>         *     *         *
>          ** **           ** **
>            *               *
>            |--wavelength---|
------
Eye|989013020
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Organ of vision. 
> In [[vertebrate]]s, it creates real images of objects in the retina,
> where the light is detected and transformed into electrical impulses that are transmited through the [[optical nerve]] to the
> [[brain]].
> Its shape is roughly spherical, filled with a gel-like substance. At one extreme, covered by the [[cornea]], there is a muscle that controls the amount of light that enters the eye, this muscle 
> is called the [[iris]].
> 
> Problems:
> *[[Miopy]](spell?)
> *[[Hypermetropy]]
> *[[Astigmatism]]
> *[[Cataracts]]
------
Eye|989013062
1a2
> 
12c13
< *[[Cataracts]]
---
> *[[Cataracts]]
------
Electromagnetic_radiation|989013154
0a1,5
> '''Electromagnetic radiation''' is the propagation through space of an [[electromagnetic field]], which carries energy
> from one place to another.  Depending on the circumstances, it may behave as [[wave]]s or as [[particle]]s.  As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity (the velocity of light), [[wavelength]], and [[frequency]].  Electromagnetic radiation
> with wavelengths between about 400nm and 800nm (in the air), is known as '''visible light'''.  Other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are known by various names, including [[radio]], [[microwaves]], [[X-rays]], and [[gamma rays]].
> When considered as particles, they are known as '''[[photon]]s''', and each has an energy related to the frequency
> of the wave given by [[Plank]]'s relation '''E = h &nu;''', where '''E''' is the energy of the photon, '''h''' is [[Plancks constant]] and '''&nu;''' (that's the Greek letter "nu") is the frequency of the wave.
2,13d6
< Propagation of an [[electromagnetic field]], that carries energy
< from one place to another. Depending on the circumstances, it
< may behave as a [[wave]] or as [[particle]]s. As a wave, it is
< caracterized by a velocity (the velocity of light), [[wavelength]] and [[frequency]]. Electromagnetic radiation
< with wavelengths between about 400nm and 800nm (in the air),
< is known as visible light.
< 
< Considering its particle nature, the particles are known as
< ''[[photon]]s'', and each has an energy related to the frequency
< of the wave given by [[Plank]]'s relation
< :E=h&nu;,
< where E is the energy of the photon, h is [[Plancks constant]] and &nu; is the frequency of the wave.
------
Euclidean_geometry|989013604
3c3
< In the 19th century, though, it was discovered that this could not be done by constructing [[non-euclidean geometries]] where the parallel postulate is false, and either an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  That other geometries could be logically consistent was one of the most important discoveries in mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy.  Indeed, [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrates that actual space is non-euclidan. ''(Doesn't Riemann imply isotropy?)''
---
> In the 19th century, though, it was discovered that this could not be done by constructing [[non-euclidean geometries]] where the parallel postulate is false, and either an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  That other geometries could be logically consistent was one of the most important discoveries in mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy.  Indeed, [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrates that actual space can be non-euclidean.
15c15
< where A is a [[special orthogonal matrix]] and b is a column vector.  Isometries are taken as the congruences of Euclidean geometry - that is, we only consider properties preserved by them.  That way we do not have to worry about the precise origin or axes, but still consider distances, angles, and so forth.
---
> where A is a [[special orthogonal matrix]] and b is a column vector.  Isometries are taken as the congruences of Euclidean geometry - that is, we only consider properties preserved by them.  That way we do not have to worry about the precise origin or axes, but still consider distances, angles, and so forth.
------
Euclidean_geometry|989013749
3c3
< In the 19th century, though, it was discovered that this could not be done by constructing [[non-euclidean geometries]] where the parallel postulate is false, and either an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  That other geometries could be logically consistent was one of the most important discoveries in mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy.  Indeed, [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] demonstrates that actual space can be non-euclidean.
---
> In the 19th century, though, it was discovered that this could not be done by constructing [[non-euclidean geometries]] where the parallel postulate is false, and either an infinite number of parallel lines can be through a point not on a straight line ([[Lobachevsky geometry]], or none can (see [[Riemannian geometry]]).  That other geometries could be logically consistent was one of the most important discoveries in mathematics, with vast implications for science and philosophy.  Indeed, [[Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] shows that actual space can be non-euclidean.
------
Josh_Grosse|989014569
71c71,75
< /Economics
---
> /Economics
> ----
> Good work with the euclidean geometry page. However, space can
> have curvature positive, negative or null, and according to that
> is riemannian, lobatchevskian or euclidean. Right now, it seems that it is either lobatchevskian or euclidean (infinite in both cases!) Euclidean is actually prefered, as is more easily predicted by inflation. --AstroNomer
------
Eye|989014830
1,7c1
< Organ of vision. 
< 
< In [[vertebrate]]s, it creates real images of objects in the retina,
< where the light is detected and transformed into electrical impulses that are transmited through the [[optical nerve]] to the
< [[brain]].
< Its shape is roughly spherical, filled with a gel-like substance. At one extreme, covered by the [[cornea]], there is a muscle that controls the amount of light that enters the eye, this muscle 
< is called the [[iris]].
---
> An organ capable of detecting light.  The simplest eyes simply detect whether the surroundings are light or dark.  Compound eyes are found among the [[Arthropoda|arthropods]] (insects and kin), and are composed of many simple facets which give a pixelated image (not multiple images as is often believed).  In most [[vertebrate]]s and some [[mollusca|molluscs]] the eye works by projecting images onto a light-sensitive [[retina]], where the light is detected and trasmitted to the [[brain]] via an optic nerve.  The eye is typically roughly spherical, filled with a gel-like substance, with a focusing [[lens]] and often a muscle called the [[iris]] that controls how much light enters.
10c4
< *[[Miopy]](spell?)
---
> *[[Myopia]]
------
Iceland|989017954
1c1
< A European republic, occupying an island on the north part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
3,9c3,11
< [[Religion]] is mostly [[Christian]].
< 
< 
< Population ca. 280.000. 
< 
< 
< Area: 103.000 sq km. 
---
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Iceland/History|989017969
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Settled by Norwegians and Celtic (Scottish and Irish) immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries, Iceland boasts the world's oldest parliament, the Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Limited home rule was granted in 1874 and complete independence attained in 1944. Literacy, longevity, income, and social cohesion are first-rate by world standards.
------
Iceland/Geography|989018006
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, island between the Greenland Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, northwest of the UK
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 65 00 N, 18 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Arctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 103,000 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 100,250 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 2,750 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Kentucky
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 4,988 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; moderated by North Atlantic Current; mild, windy winters; damp, cool summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly plateau interspersed with mountain peaks, icefields; coast deeply indented by bays and fiords
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Hvannadalshnukur 2,119 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, hydropower, geothermal power, diatomite
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 76% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes and volcanic activity
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution from fertilizer runoff; inadequate wastewater treatment
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Environmental Modification, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location between Greenland and Europe; westernmost European country; more land covered by glaciers than in all of continental Europe
------
Iceland/People|989018024
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 276,365 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 33,119; female 31,222)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 90,599; female 88,982)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 12% (male 14,555; female 17,888) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.57% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 3.58 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 79.39 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 77.19 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.77 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.03 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Icelander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Icelandic
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norwegians and Celts
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran 91%, other Protestant and Roman Catholic, none (1997)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Icelandic
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99.9% (1997 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Iceland/Government|989018066
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Iceland
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Iceland
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Lyoveldio Island
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IC
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Reykjavik
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 23 counties (syslar, singular - sysla) and 14 independent towns* (kaupstadhir, singular - kaupstadhur); Akranes*, Akureyri*, Arnessysla, Austur-Bardhastrandarsysla, Austur-Hunavatnssysla, Austur-Skaftafellssysla, Borgarfjardharsysla, Dalasysla, Eyjafjardharsysla, Gullbringusysla, Hafnarfjordhur*, Husavik*, Isafjordhur*, Keflavik*, Kjosarsysla, Kopavogur*, Myrasysla, Neskaupstadhur*, Nordhur-Isafjardharsysla, Nordhur-Mulasys-la, Nordhur-Thingeyjarsysla, Olafsfjordhur*, Rangarvallasysla, Reykjavik*, Saudharkrokur*, Seydhisfjordhur*, Siglufjordhur*, Skagafjardharsysla, Snaefellsnes-og Hnappadalssysla, Strandasysla, Sudhur-Mulasysla, Sudhur-Thingeyjarsysla, Vesttmannaeyjar*, Vestur-Bardhastrandarsysla, Vestur-Hunavatnssysla, Vestur-Isafjardharsysla, Vestur-Skaftafellssysla
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 17 June 1944 (from Denmark)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Establishment of the Republic, 17 June (1944)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 16 June 1944, effective 17 June 1944
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system based on Danish law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Olafur Ragnar GRIMSSON (since 1 August 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister David ODDSSON (since 30 April 1991)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 29 June 1996 (next to be held NA June 2000); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Olafur Ragnar GRIMSSON elected president; percent of vote - 41.4%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Althing (63 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 8 May 1999 (next to be held by April 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Haestirettur, justices are appointed for life by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Independence Party (conservative) or IP [David ODDSSON]; National Awakening (People's Revival Party) or PR [Johanna SIGURDARDOTTIR]; People's Alliance (left socialist) or PA [Margret FRIMANNSDOTTIR]; People's Movement (centrist) [leader NA]; Progressive Party (liberal) or PP [Halldor ASGRIMSSON]; Social Democratic Party or SDP [Sighvatur BJORGVINSSON]; Women's Party or WL [Kristin ASTGEIRSDOTTIR]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EFTA, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NATO, NC, NEA, NIB, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNU, UPU, WEU (associate), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jon-Baldvin HANNIBALSSON
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 1200, 1156 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-6653
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-6656
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Barbara GRIFFITHS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Laufasvegur 21, Reykjavik
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> US Embassy, PSC 1003, Box 40, FPO AE 09728-0340
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [354] 5629100
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [354] 5629118
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with a red cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag)
------
Oakland|989018078
1c1
< Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]]. Oakland is home of [[The Port of Oakland]], which is a signifigant source of commerce for the city. The current mayor is [[Jerry Brown]] who was a former governor of the [[State of California]]. Tourist attractions include the Oakland Musuem, the Paramount Theater, China Town, Jack London Square, Lake Merritt, and Oakland Coliseum, home to the [[Oakland Raiders]], football team, and the [[Oakland A's]], baseball team. The commercial and residental structures exhibit a great variety of styles, including [[Art Deco]] and [[Craftman]].  
---
> Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]]. Oakland is home of [[The Port of Oakland]], which is a signifigant source of commerce for the city. The current mayor is [[Jerry Brown]] who was a former governor of the [[State of California]]. Tourist attractions include the Oakland Musuem, the Paramount Theater, China Town, Jack London Square, Lake Merritt, and Oakland Coliseum, home to the [[Oakland Raiders]], football team, and the [[Oakland A's]], baseball team. The commercial and residental structures exhibit a great variety of styles, including [[Art Deco]] and [[Craftsman]].  
------
Iceland/Economy|989018094
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Iceland's Scandinavian-type economy is basically capitalistic, yet with an extensive welfare system, low unemployment, and remarkably even distribution of income. The economy depends heavily on the fishing industry, which provides 70% of export earnings and employs 12% of the work force. In the absence of other natural resources (except for abundant hydrothermal and geothermal power), Iceland's economy is vulnerable to changing world fish prices. The economy remains sensitive to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main exports: fish and fish products, aluminum, and ferrosilicon. The center-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatizing state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources. Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in software production, biotechnology, and financial services are taking place. The tourism sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale-watching. Growth is likely to slow in 2000, to a still respectable 3.5%.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6.42 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 15% (includes fishing 13%)
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 64% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 131,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> manufacturing 12.9%, fishing and fish processing 11.8%, construction 10.7%, other services 59.5%, agriculture 5.1% (1999)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $3 billion, including capital expenditures of $146 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fish processing; aluminum smelting, ferrosilicon production, geothermal power; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.187 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0.06%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 89.88%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10.06% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.754 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> potatoes, turnips; cattle, sheep; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish and fish products 70%, animal products, aluminum, diatomite and ferrosilicon
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 65% (UK 19%, Germany 15%, France 7%, Denmark 6%), US 13%, Japan 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, petroleum products; foodstuffs, textiles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 56% (Germany 12%, UK 10%, Norway 9%, Denmark 8%, Sweden 6%), US 11% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2.6 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Icelandic krona (IKr) = 100 aurar
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Icelandic kronur (IKr) per US$1 - 72.334 (January 2000), 72.352 (1999), 70.958 (1998), 70.904 (1997), 66.500 (1996), 64.692 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Iceland/Communications|989018118
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 162,310 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 65,746 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate domestic service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the trunk network consists of coaxial and fiber-optic cables and microwave radio relay links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Iceland shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM about 70 (including repeaters), shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 260,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 14 (plus 156 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 98,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 14 (1999)
------
Iceland/Transportation|989018146
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,689 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 3,439 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,250 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Akureyri, Hornafjordur, Isafjordhur, Keflavik, Raufarhofn, Reykjavik, Seydhisfjordhur, Straumsvik, Vestmannaeyjar
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 13,085 GRT/16,938 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> chemical tanker 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 86 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 74
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 52 (1999 est.)
------
Iceland/Military|989018164
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> no regular armed forces; Police, Coast Guard; note - Iceland's defense is provided by the US-manned Icelandic Defense Force (IDF) headquartered at Keflavik
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 71,486 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 62,990 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $0
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> Iceland's defense is provided by the US-manned Icelandic Defense Force (IDF) headquartered at Keflavik
------
Iceland/Transnational_issues|989018179
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Ireland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
------
India|989018242
8a9,20
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
------
India/History|989018274
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
India/History|989018297
1,11c1,2
< <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
< 
< * [[/History|History]]
< * [[/Geography|Geography]]
< * [[/People|People]]
< * [[/Government|Government]]
< * [[/Economy|Economy]]
< * [[/Communications|Communications]]
< * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
< * [[/Military|Military]]
< * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.
------
India/Geography|989018326
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, between Burma and Pakistan
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 20 00 N, 77 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,287,590 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2,973,190 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 314,400 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than one-third the size of the US
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14,103 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Bangladesh 4,053 km, Bhutan 605 km, Burma 1,463 km, China 3,380 km, Nepal 1,690 km, Pakistan 2,912 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 7,000 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies from tropical monsoon in south to temperate in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> upland plain (Deccan Plateau) in south, flat to rolling plain along the Ganges, deserts in west, Himalayas in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Kanchenjunga 8,598 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, diamonds, petroleum, limestone, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 56%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 16% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 480,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> droughts, flash floods, severe thunderstorms common; earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap water is not potable throughout the country; huge and growing population is overstraining natural resources
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> dominates South Asian subcontinent; near important Indian Ocean trade routes
------
India/People|989018379
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,014,003,817 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34% (male 175,228,164; female 165,190,951)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 62% (male 324,699,562; female 301,821,383)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 23,925,371; female 23,138,386) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.58% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 24.79 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.88 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 64.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 62.5 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.89 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 63.13 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.11 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Indian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Indian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Indo-Aryan 72%, Dravidian 25%, Mongoloid and other 3%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Hindu 80%, Muslim 14%, Christian 2.4%, Sikh 2%, Buddhist 0.7%, Jains 0.5%, other 0.4%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English enjoys associate status but is the most important language for national, political, and commercial communication, Hindi the national language and primary tongue of 30% of the people, Bengali (official), Telugu (official), Marathi (official), Tamil (official), Urdu (official), Gujarati (official), Malayalam (official), Kannada (official), Oriya (official), Punjabi (official), Assamese (official), Kashmiri (official), Sindhi (official), Sanskrit (official), Hindustani (a popular variant of Hindi/Urdu spoken widely throughout northern India)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> 24 languages each spoken by a million or more persons; numerous other languages and dialects, for the most part mutually unintelligible
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 52%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 65.5%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 37.7% (1995 est.)
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India/Government|989018402
1c1,74
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of India
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> India
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IN
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> federal republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> New Delhi
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 25 states and 7 union territories*; Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Dadra and Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep*, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 August 1947 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Republic, 26 January (1950)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 26 January 1950
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Kicheril Raman NARAYANAN (since 25 July 1997); Vice President Krishnan KANT (since 21 August 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Atal Behari VAJPAYEE (since 19 March 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by an electoral college consisting of elected members of both houses of Parliament and the legislatures of the states for a five-year term; election last held 14 July 1997 (next to be held NA July 2002); vice president elected by both houses of Parliament for a five-year term; election last held 16 August 1997 (next to be held NA August 2002); prime minister elected by parliamentary members of the majority party following legislative elections; election last held NA October 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Kicheril Raman NARAYANAN elected president; percent of electoral college vote - NA; Krishnan KANT elected vice president; percent of Parliament vote - NA; Atal Behari VAJPAYEE elected prime minister; percent of vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Sansad consists of the Council of States or Rajya Sabha (a body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 of which are appointed by the president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members of the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year terms) and the People's Assembly or Lok Sabha (545 seats; 543 elected by popular vote, 2 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> People's Assembly - last held 5 September through 3 October 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - BJP alliance 40.8%, Congress alliance 33.8%, other 25.4%; seats by party - BJP alliance 304, Congress alliance 134, other 105
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president and remain in office until they reach the age of 65
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Akali Dal (representing Sikh religious community in Punjab) [Prakash Singh BADAL]; All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or AIADMK [J. JAYALALITHA]; All India Forward Bloc or AIFB [Prem Dutta PALIWAL (chairman), Chitta BASU (general secretary)]; Asom Gana Parishad [Prafulla Kumar MAHANTA]; Bahujan Samaj Party or BSP [Kanshi RAM]; Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP [Kushabhau THAKRE, president, L. K. ADVANI, A. B. VAJPAYEE]; Bihar Peoples Party [Anand Mohan SINGH]; Biju Janata Dal or BJD [Navin PATNAIK]; Communist Party of India or CPI [Indrajit GUPTA]; Communist Party of India/Marxist or CPI/M [Harkishan Singh SURJEET]; Communist Party of India/Marxist-Leninist or CPI/ML [Vinod MISHRA]; Congress (I) Party [Sonia GANDHI, president]; Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI]; Indian National League [Suliaman SAIT]; Janata Dal (Ajit) [Ajit SINGH]; Janata Dal United Party or JDU [Sharad YADAV, president, I. K. GUJRAL]; Kerala Congress (Mani faction) [K. M. MANI]; Muslim League [G. M. BANATWALA]; National Conference or NC (a regional party in Jammu and Kashmir) [Farooq ABDULLAH]; Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad YADAV]; Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Tridip CHOWDHURY]; Samajwadi Party or SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV, president]; Samata Party or SAP (formerly Janata Dal members) [George FERNANDES]; Shiv Sena or SHS [Bal THACKERAY]; Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. MOOPANAR]; Telugu Desam (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh) [Chandrababu NAIDU]; Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANNERJEE]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations, including Vishwa Hindu Parishad, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh; various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regional autonomy
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, BIS, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G- 6, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PCA, SAARC, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNU, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Naresh CHANDRA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2107 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008; note - Embassy located at 2536 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-7000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-3972
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Richard F. CELESTE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri 110021, New Delhi
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [91] (11) 688-9033, 611-3033
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [91] (11) 419-0017
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
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India/Economy|989018419
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> India's economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of support services. More than a third of the population is too poor to be able to afford an adequate diet, and market surveys indicate that fewer than 5% of all households had an annual income equivalent to $2,300 or more in 1995-96. India's international payments position remained strong in 1999 with adequate foreign exchange reserves, reasonably stable exchange rates, and booming exports of software services. Lower production of some nonfoodgrain crops offset recovery in industrial production. Strong demand for India's high technology exports will bolster growth in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.805 trillion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 45% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 35% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.1%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 25% (1994)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 67%, services 18%, industry 15% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $35.8 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $66.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $15.9 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 448.6 billion kWh (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 80.34%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 17.08%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 2.38%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.2% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 416.346 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 130 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 1.575 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $36.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> textile goods, gems and jewelry, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactures
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 21%, UK 6%, Germany 6%, Hong Kong 5%, Japan 5%, UAE 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $50.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil and petroleum products, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 10%, Belgium 7%, UK 6%, Germany 6%, Saudi Arabia 6%, Japan 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $98 billion (March 1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $2.9 billion (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Indian rupee (Re) = 100 paise
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Indian rupees (Rs) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
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India/Communications|989018438
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 18.95 million (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1.9 million (April 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> mediocre service; local and long distance service provided throughout all regions of the country, with services primarily concentrated in the urban areas; major objective is to continue to expand and modernize long-distance network in order to keep pace with rapidly growing number of local subscriber lines; steady improvement is taking place with the recent admission of private and private-public investors, but demand for communication services is also growing rapidly
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> local service is provided by microwave radio relay and coaxial cable, with open wire and obsolete electromechanical and manual switchboard systems still in use in rural areas; starting in the 1980s, a substantial amount of digital switch gear has been introduced for local and long-distance service; long-distance traffic is carried mostly by coaxial cable and low-capacity microwave radio relay; since 1985 significant trunk capacity has been added in the form of fiber-optic cable and a domestic satellite system with 254 earth stations; mobile cellular service is provided in four metropolitan cities
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region); nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai (Bombay), New Delhi, Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gaidhinagar, Hyderabad, and Ernakulam; 4 submarine cables - LOCOM linking Chennai (Madras) to Penang; Indo-UAE-Gulf cable linking Mumbai (Bombay) to Al Fujayrah, UAE; India-SEA-ME-WE-3, SEA-ME-WE-2 with landing sites at Cochin and Mumbai (Bombay); Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG) with landing site at Mumbai (Bombay)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 68 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 116 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 63 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
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India/Transportation|989018473
1c1,53
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 62,915 km (12,307 km electrified; 12,617 km double track)
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 40,620 km 1.676-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 18,501 km 1.000-m gauge; 3,794 km 0.762-m and 0.610-m gauge (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,319,644 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,517,077 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,802,567 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 16,180 km; 3,631 km navigable by large vessels
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,687 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Cochin, Jawaharal Nehru, Kandla, Mumbai (Bombay), Vishakhapatnam
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 321 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,647,268 GRT/11,074,025 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 124, cargo 69, chemical tanker 14, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 4, container 15, liquified gas 10, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 75, short-sea passenger 2, specialized tanker 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 346 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 238
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 49
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 84
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 74
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 19 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 108
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 47
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 55 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 16 (1999 est.)
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India/Military|989018495
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy (including naval air arm), Air Force, various security or paramilitary forces (includes Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, and Rashtriya Rifles)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 274,679,455 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 161,223,332 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 10,759,607 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $10.055 billion (FY00)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.5% (FY00)
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India/Transnational_issues|989018520
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> boundary with China in dispute; status of Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage); a portion of the boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite; dispute with Bangladesh over New Moore/South Talpatty Island
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> world's largest producer of licit opium for the pharmaceutical trade, but an undetermined quantity of opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets; major transit country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries; illicit producer of hashish and methaqualone
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Indian_Ocean|989018834
1c1,2
< The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five [[ocean]]s (after the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Atlantic Ocean]], but larger than the [[Southern Ocean]] and [[Arctic Ocean]]).
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> A spring 2000 decision by the International Hydrographic Organization delimited a fifth world ocean from the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean).
40a42,44
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the [[Middle East]], [[Africa]], and [[East Asia]] with [[Europe]] and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from [[Russia]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[India]], and western [[Australia]]. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly [[India]], [[South Africa]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Thailand]].
> 
42a47,49
> 
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
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Indonesia|989019080
4a5
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
5a7,15
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Indonesia/History|989019101
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The world's largest archipelago, Indonesia achieved independence from the Netherlands in 1949. Current issues include: implementing IMF-mandated reforms of the banking sector, effecting a transition to a popularly elected government after years of rule by dictators, addressing charges of cronyism and corruption among the Chinese-dominated business class, dealing with alleged human rights violations by the military, and resolving growing pressures for some form of autonomy or independence in certain regions such as Aceh and Irian Jaya. On 30 August 1999 a provincial referendum for independence was overwhelmingly approved by the people of Timor Timur. Concurrence followed by Indonesia's national legislature, and the name East Timor was provisionally adopted. The independent status of East Timor has yet to be formally established.
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Indonesia/Geography|989019118
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 5 00 S, 120 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,919,440 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,826,440 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 93,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than three times the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,602 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 54,716 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Puncak Jaya 5,030 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 62%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 45,970 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> archipelago of 17,000 islands (6,000 inhabited); straddles Equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean
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Indonesia/People|989019133
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 224,784,210 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30.57% (male 34,932,102; female 33,783,603)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64.96% (male 72,889,994; female 73,124,821)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4.47% (male 4,413,268; female 5,640,422) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.63% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 22.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.78 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 42.21 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 67.96 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 65.61 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70.42 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Indonesian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Indonesian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5%, other 26%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 88%, Protestant 5%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 2%, Buddhist 1%, other 1% (1998)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay), English, Dutch, local dialects, the most widely spoken of which is Javanese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83.8%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 89.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78% (1995 est.)
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Indonesia/Government|989019152
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Indonesia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Indonesia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republik Indonesia
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Indonesia
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Netherlands East Indies; Dutch East Indies
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> ID
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Jakarta
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 23 provinces (propinsi-propinsi, singular - propinsi), 2 special regions* (daerah-daerah istimewa, singular - daerah istimewa), and 1 special capital city district** (daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Bengkulu, Irian Jaya, Jakarta Raya**, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur, Lampung, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Riau, Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Sulawesi Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatera Utara, Yogyakarta*; note - there may be a new province named Maluku Utara
> <br><i>note:</i>
> following the 30 August 1999 provincial referendum for independence which was overwhelmingly approved by the people of Timor Timur and the October 1999 concurrence of Indonesia's national legislature, the name East Timor was adopted as a provisional name for the political entity formerly known as Propinsi Timor Timur until such time as the entity's independent status is formally established
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 17 August 1945 (proclaimed independence; on 27 December 1949, Indonesia became legally independent from the Netherlands)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 17 August (1945)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Abdurrahman WAHID (since 20 October 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Abdurrahman WAHID (since 20 October 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president selected by vote of the People's Consultative Assembly for five-year terms; selection last held 20 October 1999 (next to be held by NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Abdurrahman WAHID selected president by vote of the People's Consultative Assembly, receiving 373 votes to 313 votes for MEGAWATI; MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri selected vice president by vote of the People's Consultative Assembly
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Representatives or Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) (500 seats; 462 elected by popular vote, 38 are appointed military representatives; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 7 June 1999 (next to be held NA June 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PDI-P 37.4%, Golkar 20.9%, PKB 17.4%, PPP 10.7%, PAN 7.3%, PBB 1.8%, other 4.5%; seats by party - PDI-P 154, Golkar 120, PPP 58, PKB 51, PAN 35, PBB 14, other 30
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or MPR) includes the DPR plus 200 indirectly selected members; it meets every five years to elect the president and vice president and to approve the broad outlines of national policy
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung), the judges are appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Crescent Moon and Star Party or PBB [Yusril Ihza MAHENDRA, chairman]; Development Unity Party or PPP (federation of former Islamic parties) [Hamzah HAZ, chairman]; Golkar [Akbar TANSUNG, general chairman]; Indonesia Democracy Party or PDI (federation of former Nationalist and Christian Parties) [Budi HARDJONO, chairman]; Indonesia Democracy Party-Struggle or PDI-P [MEGAWATI Sukarnoputri, chairperson]; National Awakening Party or PKB [Abdurrahman WAHID]; National Mandate Party or PAN [Amien RAIS, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br>
>   <i>chief of mission:</i> Ambassador DORODJATUN Kuntjoro-Jakti<br>
>   <i>chancery:</i>
> 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 775-5200
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 775-5365
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Robert GELBARD
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> Unit 8129, Box 1, APO AP 96520
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [62] (21) 344-2211
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [62] (21) 386-2259
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Surabaya
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
------
Be|989019154
13c13,23
< <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].
---
> <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].----
> The verb "to be" has two meanings.<br>
> The first is existence. For example:<br>
> "There <b>are</b> six books on the table.<br>
> The second is as the copulative verb in the predicate nominate. For Example:<br>
> They <b> are </b> happy.<br>
> 
> This is more obvious when one compares English to languages where these two senses of "to be" are expressed by diffrent verbs, like Japanese:<br>
> "arimasu"- existence<br>
> "desu"- copulative.
> 
------
Indonesia/Economy|989019170
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Indonesian economy stabilized in 1999, following the sharp contraction and high inflation of 1998. By following tight monetary policy, the government reduced inflation from over 70% in 1998 to 2% in 1999. Although interest rates spiked as high as 70% in response to the monetary contraction, they fell rapidly to the 10% to 15% range. The economy stopped its free-fall as GDP showed some growth in the second half of 1999, although GDP for the year as a whole showed no growth. The government managed to recapitalize a handful of private banks and has begun recapitalizing the state-owned banking sector. New lending, however, remains almost unavailable as banks continue to be wary of issuing new debt in an environment where little progress has been made in restructuring the huge burden of outstanding debts. IMF payments were suspended late in 1999 as the result of evidence that a private bank had illegally funneled payments it received from the government to one of the political parties. The government has forecast growth of 3.8% for FY00/01. The spread of sectarian violence and continuing dissatisfaction with the pace of bank and debt restructuring will make it difficult for Indonesia to attract the private investment necessary to achieve this goal.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $610 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 44% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 30.3% (1996)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 88 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 45%, trade, restaurant, and hotel 19%, manufacturing 11%, transport and communications 5%, construction 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15%-20% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $25.4 billion (of which $6 billion is from international financial institutions)
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $25.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY99/00 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum and natural gas; textiles, apparel, and footwear; mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood; rubber; food; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 73.13 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 88.19%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 8.39%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3.42% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 68.011 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra; poultry, beef, pork, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $48 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> oil and gas, plywood, textiles, rubber
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 18%, EU 15%, US 14%, Singapore 13%, South Korea 5%, Hong Kong 4%, China 4%, Taiwan 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $24 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment; chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Japan 17%, US 13%, Singapore 10%, Germany 9%, Australia 6%, South Korea 5%, Taiwan 3%, China 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $140 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $43 billion from IMF program and other official external financing (1997-2000)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> Indonesian rupiah (Rp) = 100 sen
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Indonesian rupiahs (Rp) per US$1 - 7,278.8 (January 2000), 7,855.2 (1999), 10,013.6 (1998), 2,909.4 (1997), 2,342.3 (1996), 2,248.6 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Indonesia/Communications|989019186
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.291 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1.2 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic service fair, international service good
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> interisland microwave system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 31.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 41 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 13.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 24 (1999)
------
Indonesia/Transportation|989019205
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,458 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 5,961 km 1.067-m gauge (101 km electrified; 101 km double track); 497 km 0.750-m gauge (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 342,700 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 158,670 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 184,030 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 21,579 km total; Sumatra 5,471 km, Java and Madura 820 km, Kalimantan 10,460 km, Sulawesi (Celebes) 241 km, Irian Jaya 4,587 km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Semarang, Surabaya, Ujungpandang
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 586 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,676,875 GRT/3,700,864 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 38, cargo 346, chemical tanker 9, container 19, liquified gas 5, livestock carrier 1, passenger 7, passenger/cargo 13, petroleum tanker 114, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 8, specialized tanker 9, vehicle carrier 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 446 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 127
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 41
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 31 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 319
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 281 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 4 (1999 est.)
------
Indonesia/Military|989019223
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 62,948,286 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 36,826,282 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 2,273,324 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1 billion (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.3% (FY98/99)
------
Indonesia/Transnational_issues|989019238
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Sipadan and Ligitan Islands in dispute with Malaysia
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis largely for domestic use; possible growing role as transshipment point for Golden Triangle heroin
------
Be|989019260
17,18c17,18
< The second is as the copulative verb in the predicate nominate. For Example:<br>
< They <b> are </b> happy.<br>
---
> The second is as the copulative in the predicate nominate. For Example:<br>
> They <b>are</b> happy.<br>
20c20
< This is more obvious when one compares English to languages where these two senses of "to be" are expressed by diffrent verbs, like Japanese:<br>
---
> This is more obvious when one compares English to languages where these two senses of "to be" are expressed by different verbs, like Japanese:<br>
------
Bovine_Spongiform_Encephalopathy|989019288
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of cattle. BSE is supposed to be caused by [[prion]]s and to be bovine counterpart of human prion disease [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] and sheep prion disease scrapie. Eating meat from cattle with BSE is thought to have caused the new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a few people in the U.K. and France. All rodents injected with brain tissue obtained from cows with BSE develop a fatal neurological disorder in one or two years. It is possible to detect the abnormal prion protein in some but not all of these animals' brain tissues. Although there is substantial evidence for transmission of the disease by prions and various theories about the absorbtion of prion proteins by intestinal cells, there is still no definite proof reliably showing that the orally consumed bovine meat is really causing the new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. First BSE epidemic was recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. BSE is thought to have arisen from cattles fed with high-protein diet obtained from remnants of butchered animals and modified by some new methods developed in the early 1980s.
------
Be|989019310
22c22
< "desu"- copulative.
---
> "desu"- copulative<br>----
------
Isaac_Newton|989019979
4c4,6
< Tradition has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, and this made him understand that earthly and celestial gravitation are the same.
---
> Tradition has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple fell on his head, and this made him understand that earthly and celestial gravitation are the same.
> 
> He is also credited , along with [[Gottfried Willhelm Leibnitz]], with the development of [[Calculus]] as we know it.
------
NobelPrize/LiteraturE|989020222
1c1,188
< 2000 - GaoXingjian 
---
> Source: http://www.nobel.se/literature/laureates/index.html
> 
> 
> 2000 Gao Xingjian
> 
> 1999 Günter Grass
> 
> 1998 José Saramago
> 
> 1997 Dario Fo
> 
> 1996 Wislawa Szymborska
> 
> 1995 Seamus Heaney
> 
> 1994 Kenzaburo Oe
> 
> 1993 Toni Morrison
> 
> 1992 Derek Walcott
> 
> 1991 Nadine Gordimer
> 
> 1990 Octavio Paz
> 
> 1989 Camilo José Cela
> 
> 1988 Naguib Mahfouz
> 
> 1987 Joseph Brodsky
> 
> 1986 Wole Soyinka
> 
> 1985 Claude Simon
> 
> 1984 Jaroslav Seifert
> 
> 1983 William Golding
> 
> 1982 Gabriel García Márquez
> 
> 1981 Elias Canetti
> 
> 1980 Czeslaw Milosz
> 
> 1979 Odysseus Elytis
> 
> 1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer
> 
> 1977 Vicente Aleixandre
> 
> 1976 Saul Bellow
> 
> 1975 Eugenio Montale
> 
> 1974 Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson
> 
> 1973 Patrick White
> 
> 1972 Heinrich Böll
> 
> 1971 Pablo Neruda
> 
> 1970 Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn
> 
> 1969 Samuel Beckett
> 
> 1968 Yasunari Kawabata
> 
> 1967 Miguel Angel Asturias
> 
> 1966 Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Nelly Sachs
> 
> 1965 Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov
> 
> 1964 Jean-Paul Sartre
> 
> 1963 Giorgos Seferis
> 
> 1962 John Steinbeck
> 
> 1961 Ivo Andric
> 
> 1960 Saint-John Perse
> 
> 1959 Salvatore Quasimodo
> 
> 1958 Boris Leonidovich Pasternak
> 
> 1957 Albert Camus
> 
> 1956 Juan Ramón Jiménez
> 
> 1955 Halldór Kiljan Laxness
> 
> 1954 Ernest Miller Hemingway
> 
> 1953 Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill
> 
> 1952 François Mauriac
> 
> 1951 Pär Fabian Lagerkvist
> 
> 1950 Earl (Bertrand Arthur William) Russell
> 
> 1949 William Faulkner
> 
> 1948 Thomas Stearns Eliot
> 
> 1947 André Paul Guillaume Gide
> 
> 1946 Hermann Hesse
> 
> 1945 Gabriela Mistral
> 
> 1944 Johannes Vilhelm Jensen
> 
> 1939 Frans Eemil Sillanpää
> 
> 1938 Pearl Buck
> 
> 1937 Roger Martin du Gard
> 
> 1936 Eugene Gladstone O'Neill
> 
> 1934 Luigi Pirandello
> 
> 1933 Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin
> 
> 1932 John Galsworthy
> 
> 1931 Erik Axel Karlfeldt
> 
> 1930 Sinclair Lewis
> 
> 1929 Thomas Mann
> 
> 1928 Sigrid Undset
> 
> 1927 Henri Bergson
> 
> 1926 Grazia Deledda
> 
> 1925 George Bernard Shaw
> 
> 1924 Wladyslaw Stanislaw Reymont
> 
> 1923 William Butler Yeats
> 
> 1922 Jacinto Benavente
> 
> 1921 Anatole France
> 
> 1920 Knut Pedersen Hamsun
> 
> 1919 Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler
> 
> 1917 Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Henrik Pontoppidan
> 
> 1916 Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam
> 
> 1915 Romain Rolland
> 
> 1913 Rabindranath Tagore
> 
> 1912 Gerhart Johann Robert Hauptmann
> 
> 1911 Count Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck
> 
> 1910 Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse
> 
> 1909 Selma Ottilia Lovisa Lagerlöf
> 
> 1908 Rudolf Christoph Eucken
> 
> 1907 Rudyard Kipling
> 
> 1906 Giosuè Carducci
> 
> 1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz
> 
> 1904 Frédéric Mistral, José Echegaray Y Eizaguirre
> 
> 1903 Bjørnstjerne Martinus Bjørnson
> 
> 1902 Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen
> 
> 1901 Sully Prudhomme
------
NobelPrize/Chemistry|989020607
1c1,185
< 2000- [[Alan J. Heeger]], [[Alan G. MacDiarmid]], [[Hideki Shirakawa]]
---
> Source: http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/index.html
> 
> 2000 Alan J Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, Hideki Shirakawa
> 
> 1999 Ahmed H. Zewail
> 
> 1998 Walter Kohn, John A. Pople
> 
> 1997 Paul D. Boyer, John E. Walker, Jens C. Skou
> 
> 1996 Robert F. Curl Jr., Sir Harold W. Kroto, Richard E. Smalley
> 
> 1995 Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina, F. Sherwood Rowland
> 
> 1994 George A. Olah
> 
> 1993 Kary B. Mullis, Michael Smith
> 
> 1992 Rudolph A. Marcus
> 
> 1991 Richard R. Ernst
> 
> 1990 Elias James Corey
> 
> 1989 Sidney Altman, Thomas R. Cech
> 
> 1988 Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber, Hartmut Michel
> 
> 1987 Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, Charles J. Pedersen
> 
> 1986 Dudley R. Herschbach, Yuan T. Lee, John C. Polanyi
> 
> 1985 Herbert A. Hauptman, Jerome Karle
> 
> 1984 Robert Bruce Merrifield
> 
> 1983 Henry Taube
> 
> 1982 Aaron Klug
> 
> 1981 Kenichi Fukui, Roald Hoffmann
> 
> 1980 Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger
> 
> 1979 Herbert C. Brown, Georg Wittig
> 
> 1978 Peter D. Mitchell
> 
> 1977 Ilya Prigogine
> 
> 1976 William N. Lipscomb
> 
> 1975 John Warcup Cornforth, Vladimir Prelog
> 
> 1974 Paul J. Flory
> 
> 1973 Ernst Otto Fischer, Geoffrey Wilkinson
> 
> 1972 Christian B. Anfinsen, Stanford Moore, William H. Stein
> 
> 1971 Gerhard Herzberg
> 
> 1970 Luis F. Leloir
> 
> 1969 Derek H. R. Barton, Odd Hassel
> 
> 1968 Lars Onsager
> 
> 1967 Manfred Eigen, Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, George Porter
> 
> 1966 Robert S. Mulliken
> 
> 1965 Robert Burns Woodward
> 
> 1964 Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
> 
> 1963 Karl Ziegler, Giulio Natta
> 
> 1962 Max Ferdinand Perutz, John Cowdery Kendrew
> 
> 1961 Melvin Calvin
> 
> 1960 Willard Frank Libby
> 
> 1959 Jaroslav Heyrovsky
> 
> 1958 Frederick Sanger
> 
> 1957 Lord Alexander R. Todd
> 
> 1956 Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood, Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov
> 
> 1955 Vincent du Vigneaud
> 
> 1954 Linus Carl Pauling
> 
> 1953 Hermann Staudinger
> 
> 1952 Archer John Porter Martin, Richard Laurence Millington Synge
> 
> 1951 Edwin Mattison McMillan, Glenn Theodore Seaborg
> 
> 1950 Otto Paul Hermann Diels, Kurt Alder
> 
> 1949 William Francis Giauque
> 
> 1948 Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius
> 
> 1947 Sir Robert Robinson
> 
> 1946 James Batcheller Sumner, John Howard Northrop, Wendell Meredith Stanley
> 
> 1945 Artturi Ilmari Virtanen
> 
> 1944 Otto Hahn
> 
> 1943 George de Hevesy
> 
> 1939 Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, Leopold Ruzicka
> 
> 1938 Richard Kuhn
> 
> 1937 Walter Norman Haworth, Paul Karrer
> 
> 1936 Petrus (Peter) Josephus Wilhelmus Debye
> 
> 1935 Frédéric Joliot, Irène Joliot-Curie
> 
> 1934 Harold Clayton Urey
> 
> 1932 Irving Langmuir
> 
> 1931 Carl Bosch, Friedrich Bergius
> 
> 1930 Hans Fischer
> 
> 1929 Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin
> 
> 1928 Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus
> 
> 1927 Heinrich Otto Wieland
> 
> 1926 The (Theodor) Svedberg
> 
> 1925 Richard Adolf Zsigmondy
> 
> 1923 Fritz Pregl
> 
> 1922 Francis William Aston
> 
> 1921 Frederick Soddy
> 
> 1920 Walther Hermann Nernst
> 
> 1918 Fritz Haber
> 
> 1915 Richard Martin Willstätter
> 
> 1914 Theodore William Richards
> 
> 1913 Alfred Werner
> 
> 1912 Victor Grignard, Paul Sabatier
> 
> 1911 Marie Curie
> 
> 1910 Otto Wallach
> 
> 1909 Wilhelm Ostwald
> 
> 1908 Ernest Rutherford
> 
> 1907 Eduard Buchner
> 
> 1906 Henri Moissan
> 
> 1905 Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer
> 
> 1904 Sir William Ramsay
> 
> 1903 Svante August Arrhenius
> 
> 1902 Hermann Emil Fischer
> 
> 1901 Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff
------
NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|989020961
1c1
< *2000 - ArvidCarlsson, PaulGreengard, EricKandel 
---
> Source: http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/index.html
3c3,183
< *1908 - PaulEhrlich
---
> 2000 Arvid Carlsson, Paul Greengard, Eric R Kandel
> 
> 1999 Günter Blobel
> 
> 1998 Robert F. Furchgott, Louis J. Ignarro, Ferid Murad
> 
> 1997 Stanley B. Prusiner
> 
> 1996 Peter C. Doherty, Rolf M. Zinkernagel
> 
> 1995 Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Eric F. Wieschaus
> 
> 1994 Alfred G. Gilman, Martin Rodbell
> 
> 1993 Richard J. Roberts, Phillip A. Sharp
> 
> 1992 Edmond H. Fischer, Edwin G. Krebs
> 
> 1991 Erwin Neher, Bert Sakmann
> 
> 1990 Joseph E. Murray, E. Donnall Thomas
> 
> 1989 J. Michael Bishop, Harold E. Varmus
> 
> 1988 Sir James W. Black, Gertrude B. Elion, George H. Hitchings
> 
> 1987 Susumu Tonegawa
> 
> 1986 Stanley Cohen, Rita Levi-Montalcini
> 
> 1985 Michael S. Brown, Joseph L. Goldstein
> 
> 1984 Niels K. Jerne, Georges J.F. Köhler, César Milstein
> 
> 1983 Barbara McClintock
> 
> 1982 Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson, John R. Vane
> 
> 1981 Roger W. Sperry, David H. Hubel, Torsten N. Wiesel
> 
> 1980 Baruj Benacerraf, Jean Dausset, George D. Snell
> 
> 1979 Allan M. Cormack, Godfrey N. Hounsfield
> 
> 1978 Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, Hamilton O. Smith
> 
> 1977 Roger Guillemin, Andrew V. Schally, Rosalyn Yalow
> 
> 1976 Baruch S. Blumberg, D. Carleton Gajdusek
> 
> 1975 David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin
> 
> 1974 Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, George E. Palade
> 
> 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen
> 
> 1972 Gerald M. Edelman, Rodney R. Porter
> 
> 1971 Earl W. Sutherland, Jr.
> 
> 1970 Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler, Julius Axelrod
> 
> 1969 Max Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador E. Luria
> 
> 1968 Robert W. Holley, Har Gobind Khorana, Marshall W. Nirenberg
> 
> 1967 Ragnar Granit, Haldan Keffer Hartline, George Wald
> 
> 1966 Peyton Rous, Charles Brenton Huggins
> 
> 1965 François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques Monod
> 
> 1964 Konrad Bloch, Feodor Lynen
> 
> 1963 Sir John Carew Eccles, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Fielding Huxley
> 
> 1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson, Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
> 
> 1961 Georg von Békésy
> 
> 1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Peter Brian Medawar
> 
> 1959 Severo Ochoa, Arthur Kornberg
> 
> 1958 George Wells Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, Joshua Lederberg
> 
> 1957 Daniel Bovet
> 
> 1956 André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann, Dickinson W. Richards
> 
> 1955 Axel Hugo Theodor Theorell
> 
> 1954 John Franklin Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller, Frederick Chapman Robbins
> 
> 1953 Hans Adolf Krebs, Fritz Albert Lipmann
> 
> 1952 Selman Abraham Waksman
> 
> 1951 Max Theiler
> 
> 1950 Edward Calvin Kendall, Tadeus Reichstein, Philip Showalter Hench
> 
> 1949 Walter Rudolf Hess, Antonio Caetano De Abreu Freire Egas Moniz
> 
> 1948 Paul Hermann Müller
> 
> 1947 Carl Ferdinand Cori, Gerty Theresa, née Radnitz Cori, Bernardo Alberto Houssay
> 
> 1946 Hermann Joseph Muller
> 
> 1945 Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, Sir Howard Walter Florey
> 
> 1944 Joseph Erlanger, Herbert Spencer Gasser
> 
> 1943 Henrik Carl Peter Dam, Edward Adelbert Doisy
> 
> 1939 Gerhard Domagk
> 
> 1938 Corneille Jean François Heymans
> 
> 1937 Albert von Szent-Györgyi Nagyrapolt
> 
> 1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale, Otto Loewi
> 
> 1935 Hans Spemann
> 
> 1934 George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, William Parry Murphy
> 
> 1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan
> 
> 1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, Edgar Douglas Adrian
> 
> 1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg
> 
> 1930 Karl Landsteiner
> 
> 1929 Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins
> 
> 1928 Charles Jules Henri Nicolle
> 
> 1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg
> 
> 1926 Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger
> 
> 1924 Willem Einthoven
> 
> 1923 Frederick Grant Banting, John James Richard Macleod
> 
> 1922 Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
> 
> 1920 Schack August Steenberg Krogh
> 
> 1919 Jules Bordet
> 
> 1914 Robert Bárány
> 
> 1913 Charles Robert Richet
> 
> 1912 Alexis Carrel
> 
> 1911 Allvar Gullstrand
> 
> 1910 Albrecht Kossel
> 
> 1909 Emil Theodor Kocher
> 
> 1908 Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, Paul Ehrlich
> 
> 1907 Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran
> 
> 1906 Camillo Golgi, Santiago Ramón y Cajal
> 
> 1905 Robert Koch
> 
> 1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
> 
> 1903 Niels Ryberg Finsen
> 
> 1902 Ronald Ross
> 
> 1901 Emil Adolf von Behring
------
Conic_section|989021682
3c3,23
< The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.----
---
> The graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section.
> 
> In the [[Cartesian Coordinate System]], a conic is a curve that has an equation of the 2nd degree, i.e., of the form: <br>
> <i>ax<sub>2</sub>+2hxy+by<sub>2</sub>+2gx+2gy+c=0</i>.<br>
> If <i>h<sub>2</sub>=ab</i>, this equation represents a [[parabola]].<br>
> If <i>h<sub>2</sub>&lt;ab</i>, this equation represents an [[ellipse]].<br>
> If <i>h<sub>2</sub>&gt;ab</i>, this equation represents a [[hyperbola]].<br>
> If <i>a=b</i> and <i>h=0</i>, it represents a [[circle]].<br>
> If <i>a+b=0</i>, it represents a [[rectangular hyperbola]]. <br>
> Finally, if the following [[Determinant]],
> <pre>
> 
> 
>                  | a h g | 
>                  | h b f | = 0
>                  | g h e |
> </pre>
> it represents a pair of straight lines, that may not coincide.<br>
> 
> 
> ----
------
NobelPrize/LiteraturE|989021993
4,188c4,96
< 2000 Gao Xingjian
< 
< 1999 Günter Grass
< 
< 1998 José Saramago
< 
< 1997 Dario Fo
< 
< 1996 Wislawa Szymborska
< 
< 1995 Seamus Heaney
< 
< 1994 Kenzaburo Oe
< 
< 1993 Toni Morrison
< 
< 1992 Derek Walcott
< 
< 1991 Nadine Gordimer
< 
< 1990 Octavio Paz
< 
< 1989 Camilo José Cela
< 
< 1988 Naguib Mahfouz
< 
< 1987 Joseph Brodsky
< 
< 1986 Wole Soyinka
< 
< 1985 Claude Simon
< 
< 1984 Jaroslav Seifert
< 
< 1983 William Golding
< 
< 1982 Gabriel García Márquez
< 
< 1981 Elias Canetti
< 
< 1980 Czeslaw Milosz
< 
< 1979 Odysseus Elytis
< 
< 1978 Isaac Bashevis Singer
< 
< 1977 Vicente Aleixandre
< 
< 1976 Saul Bellow
< 
< 1975 Eugenio Montale
< 
< 1974 Eyvind Johnson, Harry Martinson
< 
< 1973 Patrick White
< 
< 1972 Heinrich Böll
< 
< 1971 Pablo Neruda
< 
< 1970 Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn
< 
< 1969 Samuel Beckett
< 
< 1968 Yasunari Kawabata
< 
< 1967 Miguel Angel Asturias
< 
< 1966 Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Nelly Sachs
< 
< 1965 Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov
< 
< 1964 Jean-Paul Sartre
< 
< 1963 Giorgos Seferis
< 
< 1962 John Steinbeck
< 
< 1961 Ivo Andric
< 
< 1960 Saint-John Perse
< 
< 1959 Salvatore Quasimodo
< 
< 1958 Boris Leonidovich Pasternak
< 
< 1957 Albert Camus
< 
< 1956 Juan Ramón Jiménez
< 
< 1955 Halldór Kiljan Laxness
< 
< 1954 Ernest Miller Hemingway
< 
< 1953 Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill
< 
< 1952 François Mauriac
< 
< 1951 Pär Fabian Lagerkvist
< 
< 1950 Earl (Bertrand Arthur William) Russell
< 
< 1949 William Faulkner
< 
< 1948 Thomas Stearns Eliot
< 
< 1947 André Paul Guillaume Gide
< 
< 1946 Hermann Hesse
< 
< 1945 Gabriela Mistral
< 
< 1944 Johannes Vilhelm Jensen
< 
< 1939 Frans Eemil Sillanpää
< 
< 1938 Pearl Buck
< 
< 1937 Roger Martin du Gard
< 
< 1936 Eugene Gladstone O'Neill
< 
< 1934 Luigi Pirandello
< 
< 1933 Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin
< 
< 1932 John Galsworthy
< 
< 1931 Erik Axel Karlfeldt
< 
< 1930 Sinclair Lewis
< 
< 1929 Thomas Mann
< 
< 1928 Sigrid Undset
< 
< 1927 Henri Bergson
< 
< 1926 Grazia Deledda
< 
< 1925 George Bernard Shaw
< 
< 1924 Wladyslaw Stanislaw Reymont
< 
< 1923 William Butler Yeats
< 
< 1922 Jacinto Benavente
< 
< 1921 Anatole France
< 
< 1920 Knut Pedersen Hamsun
< 
< 1919 Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler
< 
< 1917 Karl Adolph Gjellerup, Henrik Pontoppidan
< 
< 1916 Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam
< 
< 1915 Romain Rolland
< 
< 1913 Rabindranath Tagore
< 
< 1912 Gerhart Johann Robert Hauptmann
< 
< 1911 Count Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck
< 
< 1910 Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse
< 
< 1909 Selma Ottilia Lovisa Lagerlöf
< 
< 1908 Rudolf Christoph Eucken
< 
< 1907 Rudyard Kipling
< 
< 1906 Giosuè Carducci
< 
< 1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz
< 
< 1904 Frédéric Mistral, José Echegaray Y Eizaguirre
< 
< 1903 Bjørnstjerne Martinus Bjørnson
< 
< 1902 Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen
< 
< 1901 Sully Prudhomme
---
> :2000 [[Gao Xingjian]]
> :1999 [[Gunter Grass|Günter Grass]]
> :1998 [[Jose Samago|José Saramago]]
> :1997 [[Dario Fo]]
> :1996 [[Wislawa Szymborska]]
> :1995 [[Seamus Heaney]]
> :1994 [[Kenzaburo Oe]]
> :1993 [[Toni Morrison]]
> :1992 [[Derek Walcott]]
> :1991 [[Nadine Gordimer]]
> :1990 [[Octavio Paz]]
> :1989 [[Camilo Jose Cela|Camilo José Cela]]
> :1988 [[Naguib Mahfouz]]
> :1987 [[Joseph Brodsky]]
> :1986 [[Wole Soyinka]]
> :1985 [[Claude Simon]]
> :1984 [[Jaroslav Seifert]]
> :1983 [[William Golding]]
> :1982 [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez|Gabriel García Márquez]]
> :1981 [[Elias Canetti]]
> :1980 [[Czeslaw Milosz]]
> :1979 [[Odysseus Elytis]]
> :1978 [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
> :1977 [[Vicente Aleixandre]]
> :1976 [[Saul Bellow]]
> :1975 [[Eugenio Montale]]
> :1974 [[Eyvind Johnson]], [[Harry Martinson]]
> :1973 [[Patrick White]]
> :1972 [[Heinrich Boll|Heinrich Böll]]
> :1971 [[Pablo Neruda]]
> :1970 [[Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn]]
> :1969 [[Samuel Beckett]]
> :1968 [[Yasunari Kawabata]]
> :1967 [[Miguel Angel Asturias]]
> :1966 [[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]], [[Nelly Sachs]]
> :1965 [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov]]
> :1964 [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
> :1963 [[Giorgos Seferis]]
> :1962 [[John Steinbeck]]
> :1961 [[Ivo Andric]]
> :1960 [[Saint-John Perse]]
> :1959 [[Salvatore Quasimodo]]
> :1958 [[Boris Leonidovich Pasternak]]
> :1957 [[Albert Camus]]
> :1956 [[Juan Ramon Jimenez|Juan Ramón Jiménez]]
> :1955 [[Halldor Kiljan Laxness|Halldór Kiljan Laxness]]
> :1954 [[Ernest Hemingway|Ernest Miller Hemingway]]
> :1953 [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill]]
> :1952 [[Francois Mauriac|François Mauriac]]
> :1951 [[Par Fabian Lagerkvist|Pär Fabian Lagerkvist]]
> :1950 [[Earl (Bertrand Arthur William) Russell]]
> :1949 [[William Faulkner]]
> :1948 [[T.S. Eliot|Thomas Stearns Eliot]]
> :1947 [[Andre Paul Guillaume Gide|André Paul Guillaume Gide]]
> :1946 [[Hermann Hesse]]
> :1945 [[Gabriela Mistral]]
> :1944 [[Johannes Vilhelm Jensen]]
> :1939 [[Frans Eemil Sillanpaa|Frans Eemil Sillanpää]]
> :1938 [[Pearl Buck]]
> :1937 [[Roger Martin du Gard]]
> :1936 [[Eugene ONeill|Eugene Gladstone O'Neill]]
> :1934 [[Luigi Pirandello]]
> :1933 [[Ivan Alekseyevich Bunin]]
> :1932 [[John Galsworthy]]
> :1931 [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]]
> :1930 [[Sinclair Lewis]]
> :1929 [[Thomas Mann]]
> :1928 [[Sigrid Undset]]
> :1927 [[Henri Bergson]]
> :1926 [[Grazia Deledda]]
> :1925 [[George Bernard Shaw]]
> :1924 [[Wladyslaw Stanislaw Reymont]]
> :1923 [[William Butler Yeats]]
> :1922 [[Jacinto Benavente]]
> :1921 [[Anatole France]]
> :1920 [[Knut Pedersen Hamsun]]
> :1919 [[Carl Friedrich Georg Spitteler]]
> :1917 [[Karl Adolph Gjellerup]], [[Henrik Pontoppidan]]
> :1916 [[Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam]]
> :1915 [[Romain Rolland]]
> :1913 [[Rabindranath Tagore]]
> :1912 [[Gerhart Johann Robert Hauptmann]]
> :1911 [[Count Maurice (Mooris) Polidore Marie Bernhard Maeterlinck]]
> :1910 [[Paul Johann Ludwig Heyse]]
> :1909 [[Selma Ottilia Lovisa Lagerlof|Selma Ottilia Lovisa Lagerlöf]]
> :1908 [[Rudolf Christoph Eucken]]
> :1907 [[Rudyard Kipling]]
> :1906 [[Giosue Carducci|Giosuè Carducci]]
> :1905 [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
> :1904 [[Frederic Mistral|Frédéric Mistral]], [[Jose Echegaray Y Eizaguirre|José Echegaray Y Eizaguirre]]
> :1903 [[Bjornstjerne Martinus Bjornson|Bjørnstjerne Martinus Bjørnson]]
> :1902 [[Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen]]
> :1901 [[Sully Prudhomme]]
------
ErnestHemingway|989022256
0a1,2
> [[Ernest Hemingway]]
> 
------
Ernest_Hemingway|989022510
1c1,81
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ernest Miller Hemingway (American author)
> 
> born July 21, 1899, Oak Park (Illinois); died July 2, 1961, Ketchum (Idaho)
> 
> Awards:
> Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in the First World War
> 
> Pullitzer Price 1953 (for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
> 
> Nobel Price for Literature 1954 (also for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
> 
> The following text was originally a research paper for school describing Hemingway's Life and work, as exemplified by the novels "[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]" and "[[A Farewell to Arms]]". If you are looking for information on Hemingway only, you might want to skip the sections on [[Frederic Henry]] and [[Robert Jordan]], for a quick read, you can start at [[/Young and Innocent]]
> 
> If you want to know where the quotes are coming from, please refer to the bibliography section. For easier reading, this text is split in several sections, you can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
> 
> 
> Grace Under Pressure
> 
> Death and Violence in Ernest Hemingway's Life and Work
> 
> 1.Introduction
> 
> Death and violence were the two great constants in Hemingway's troubled and ever-changing life. In his infancy, he joined his father on hunting trips and was given his first shotgun at the age of ten. Fifty-one years later, he used one to commit suicide. In the meantime, he had hurt many and many had hurt him. He was a bit like D&ouml;blin's Franz Biberkopf, a tough, strong man with strong principles. Life thought that would be too bold to last, and started to hurt him. In fact, much of the beating he had to take and most of the losses he had to cope eith seemed neither his nor anybody else's fault. It seemed that life itself was against him sometimes. Hemingway "believed that life was a tragedy and knew it could only have one end"(Critiques (6.), p. 49), yet he was blessed by it with talent and fame. Maybe that made it harder for him to admit his failures and to correct them. This research paper tries, aside from analyzing the two novels as representatives of his work, to find out the reason for his ongoing decline and to point out mistakes and wrong decisions he made. It also tries to trace alternatives to Hemingway's actual development to reach a conclusion that sums up the effects of violence and death in its various forms upon Ernest Hemingway's life and work.
> 
> Main Part:Books and Beyond
> 
> [[/Famous at Twenty-Five Thirty a Master]]
> 
> [[/From Boy to Man Hemingways First World War]]
> 
> [[/From Reality to Fiction A Farewell to Arms]]
> 
> [[/The Time in Between]]
> 
> [[/Spain in Flames]]
> 
> [[/For Whom the Bell Tolls]]
> 
> Robert Jordan and Frederic Henry: Two Facets of Hemingway
> 
> [[/Frederic Henry]]
> Background
> Character
> Development
> Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway?s life
> 
> /RobertJordan
> Background
> Character
> Development
> Pablo
> Hemingway Up Close and Personal
> 
> [[/Young and Innocent]]
> 
> [[/Things Turn Sour]]
> 
> [[/The Endless Dark Nothingness]]
> 
> [[/Sure Shots The Second World War]]
> 
> [[/The Downward Spiral]]
> 
> Conclusion
> 
> [[/Violence and Redemption]]
> 
> [[/Why It Went Wrong]]
> 
> Appendix
> 
> [[/Bibliography]]
> ----
> 
> This is very impressive work and quite an enormous contribution to [[Wikipedia]].  First, Andreas, you do realize, I hope, that by posting it on [[Wikipedia]], you have released this work according to the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense?  
> Second, is there anything in particular that you would like people to do to this work to render it more encyclopedia-like?  (For some similar instructions-to-the-public, see LarrysText.) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- Sonic
> 
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Young_and_Innocent|989022585
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> III. Hemingway up Close and Personal
> 
> Hemingway's suicide was not that surprising after all. During all his life he was obsessed with death and, in a way, also with violence. Nevertheless, when his father committed suicide, he strongly condemned this deed as a violation both of what Harvey Breit called Hemingway's "categorical imperative"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6) courage and his Catholic faith. Why, and when, did the change in mind take place? What were the reasons for his ever-growing inclination to killing and especially to killing himself?
> 
> 1.Young and Innocent
> 
> Oak Park produced a tall, handsome man, strong, smart and ambitious. He had already learned the art of hunting and therefore was no stranger to killing. He also enjoyed a good fight, boxing was one of his passions. His father's prestige as a physician helped him a lot in the small town, he learned about music and art and grew up in a protected, clean and safe neighborhood.
> 
> World War I showed him a different side of life, which did not, however, leave him entirely depressed and broken. His illusions were shattered, but the experiences gathered were invaluable, and, what's more, everything turned out to be all right in the end, the good ones won, his wounds healed completely and Agnes was a mere "Schwärmerei"(Burgess (9.); page 24). He even got decorated, returned as a hero and earned much fame and admiration back home. His luck was completed when he married Hadley Richardson who bore his first son.
> 
> Being a Artist in the "City of Light", as Paris still is called by some, he may have had a hard time from the financial point of view, but all in all the 'twenties were days of friendship, the financial and artistic struggle kept Hemingway fit.
> 
> next: [[/Things Turn Sour]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Things_Turn_Sour|989022643
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2.Things Turn Sour
> 
> He divorced Hadley and married Pauline. Because of his Catholic faith, some conscientious conflicts arose, but were finally overcome. In the 100 days Hadley ordered him to stay away from Pauline, "Men Without Women" was created. Afterwards, he married for the second time, his conscience seemed to be cleaned maybe due to his writing, but the next hurt was already under way. His father committed suicide because he couldn't bear the burden of his incurable illnesses any longer. The cowardice in this action must have been a great shame for somebody who is as convinced of the "grace under pressure" doctrine as Ernest. Maybe the sensational suicide of Harry Crosby affected him, too, the founder of the Black Sun Press was a friend of his in Paris.
> 
> His books sold very well and were approved by critics, but with Hemingway's success came his bad behavior. He told Scott Fitzgerald how to write his own novels, and Allen Tate that there was a fixed number of orgasms a man had. He also claimed Ford Madox Ford would be sexually impotent, maybe a hint to his own sexual neurosis. In return, he, too, was criticized and hurt. The journal "Bookman" attacked him as a dirty writer, McAlmon, the publisher of his first, non-commercial book said, according to Scott Fitzgerald, Hemingway would be "a fag and a wife-beater"(Burgess (9.), p. 57) and that Pauline was lesbian. Even Gertrude Stein criticized him. In her book "The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas", she claimed Hemingway had derived his style from her own and from Sherwood Anderson's, this shameful origin would be "yellow"(Burgess (9.), p. 64). Most insulting got Max Eastman, who asked Ernest to "come out from behind that false hair on the chest"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6), and who wrote an essay entitled "Bull in the Afternoon" as a satire on "Death in the Afternoon", a book Hemingway definitely would not joke about.
> 
> It is worth noting that this attacks on his pride and talent were accompanied by the already mentioned injuries ([[/The Time in Between]]) which kept him almost constantly in bad shape.
> 
> next: [[/The Endless Dark Nothingness]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/The_Endless_Dark_Nothingness|989022685
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 3.The Endless Dark Nothingness
> 
> As we already know, Hemingway was very preoccupied with death, in his youth it was the death of small animals, later of big game or enemies in combat. Death was always present and always threatening, but was, as in the Tibetan yin yang symbol, inseparably linked to life, which Hemingway, like Jim Morrison, considered most intense in the prospect of death. He lived in the borderland, trying to get ever closer to the edge. On the other, on the yin side, waited what the Castilians call the "nada" or the endless dark nothingness.
> 
> Hemingway stood on the yang side: "Life is too short for anything but the one thing that can outface death- human dignity"(Burgess (9.), p. 61). Fernando is the representative of this opinion in "For Whom the Bell Tolls", dignity also appears in the form of gaiety as Robert Jordan mentioned in the first chapter ("It was like having immortality"(For Whom (5.), p. 18)), yet he fears and worships the nada greatly, as the stream-of-consciousness passage of Robert's sexual intercourse with Maria proves(For Whom (5.), p. 171).
> 
> :For him it was a dark passage which led to nowhere, then to nowhere, then again to nowhere, once again to nowhere, always and forever to nowhere, heavy on the elbows in the earth to nowhere, dark, never any end to nowhere, hung on all the time always to unknowing nowhere, this time and again for always to nowhere, now not to be borne once again always and to nowhere, now beyond all bearing up, up, up and into nowhere, suddenly, scaldingly, holdingly all nowhere gone and time absolutely still and they were both there, time having stopped and he felt the earth move out and away from under them.
> 
> The prayer in "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place"(Short Stories (3.), p. 481), hinted at in "A Farewell to Arms" on page 13, where the still "numb" Frederic prefers nada, is very similar to this passage.
> Some lived in it and never felt it but he knew it all was nada y pues nada y nada y pues nada. Our nada who art in nada, nada be thy name thy kingdom nada thy will be nada in nada as it is in nada. Give us this nada our daily nada and nada us our nada as we nada our nadas and nada us not into nada but deliver us from nada; pues nada. Hail nothing full of nothing, nothing is with thee.
> 
> For Hemingway the human existence was a struggle between light and darkness, between life and death, and the epitome of this struggle were bullfights, Spain's national sport. He became an aficionado after having seen the Pamplona fiesta 1925 which was fictionalized in "The Sun Also Rises". But the book dealing exclusively with this topic was "Death in the Afternoon" where he discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting, the ritualized, almost religious procedures of the blood-soaked spectacle.
> 
> Sadly enough, the country which stood for everything that mattered to Hemingway, his cosmic principles life and death, the struggle between them, and its manifestation in the form of bullfights, was destroyed by the Fascists. In spite of his efforts to support the Loyalists, Franco took over in the spring of 1939, like Mussolini, whom Hemingway called "the biggest bluff in Europe"(Burgess (9.),p. 33), did in Italy 1922.
> 
> After having lost "his" country, he lost his Key West home as a consequence of his divorce in 1940. And at this point of time, the heaviest loss of all had already commenced. The generation he was a part of ceased to exist in the 'forties. Many were dying (Thomas Wolfe 9.15.1938, Ford Madox Ford 6.26.1939, F. Scott Fitzgerald 12.21.1940 (heart attack due to an alcoholic life as described in "The Sun Also Rises"), James Joyce 1.13.1941, Sherwood Anderson 3.8.1941, Virginia Woolf 3.28.1941 (suicide), Getrude Stein 7.27.1946) and some were leaning to the Fascists, like Ezra Pound. He became an Illand, the nothingness engulfed him.
> 
> next: [[/Sure Shots The Second World War]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/The_Time_in_Between|989022722
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> 4.The Time in Between
> 
> Having published "A Farewell to Arms", the years of struggle were coming to an end. Ernest M. Hemingway now was an author of worldwide reputation, he was happy with Pauline and financially independent. But his luck in business, art and marriage was overshadowed by some serious attacks on his health (anthrax infection, cut eyeball, glass-gash in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids; after "A Farewell to Arms": kidney trouble from fishing in Spain, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, laceration of arms and legs and face from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, later: car accident in Wyoming his arm was complicatedly broken).
> 
> Following the advice of John Dos Passos, he moved to Key West where he established his first American home. From the old stone house, a wedding present by Pauline's uncle, he would go fishing in the Tortugas waters, frequent Sloppy Joe's, Havana's famous bar, and travel to Spain every once in a while, gathering material for "Death in the Afternoon" and "Winner Take Nothing". A safari led him to Mombassa in fall 1932, Nairobi and Machakos in the Mua Hills. "The Green Hills of Africa", "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" were the literary results, many animal's lives were the cost.
> 
> His way of life provoked criticism by the Left. Max Eastman and many others demanded greater commitment to the affairs of the people. A young left-winger begged him to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and to write about truth and justice. For a while, it seemed as if he would do so. His article "Who Murdered the Vets?" for "New Masses", a leftist newspaper, and his book "To Have and Have Not" showed "social awareness", at least up to a certain degree. A little later, he would take political sides more explicitly.
> 
> next: [[/Spain in Flames]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/Spain_in_Flames|989022757
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> 5.Spain in Flames
> 
> ?was the title of a Loyalist propaganda film he wrote a comment for. Supporting the -mostly Communist- Loyalists further, he and John Dos Passos went to Spain, founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called "The Spanish Earth". In addition to that, Hemingway became war correspondent for NANA, the North American Newspaper Alliance, thus he saw much of the fighting and could collect experiences for a new novel. While he was in Spain, his second marriage went to pieces. A liaison with Martha Gellhorn was revealed when a Rebel shell hit the hot-water boiler of the correspondents' hotel "Florida".
> 
> After "The Spanish Earth" was boxed and shipped, he left with the promise to propagandize for the Loyalists' cause. He spoke out in Shakespeare & Co. and addressed the Writers' Congress in New York on the fourth of June 1937. In his speech he stressed he was anti-fascist, not pro-Communist(Writer As Artist (7.), p. 224)
> There is only one form of government [...] that cannot produce good writers,
> and that system is fascism. For fascism is a lie told by bullies. A writer
> who will not lie cannot live and work fascism.
> 
> Due to his reputation, "The Spanish Earth" was even shown in the White House and his article "Fascism is a Lie" was published in "New Masses". Furthermore, he established an ambulance fund and financed it by collecting money at Hollywood parties.
> 
> He returned to see Franco control two thirds of Spain, the Loyalists still fought on. "The Fifth Column" was finished just before the taking of Teruel in January 1938. He wrote it, according to the preface, under constant bombardment in the Hotel Florida, it appears as though he had again needed the thrilling aura of death to inspire him.
> 
> After short stays in Paris due to liver troubles and in Key West, he came back to Spain to see Loyalists retreating on all fronts, then returned to America to organize the experiences he gathered into a novel, the narrations of the different characters clearly originate here.
> 
> next: [[/For Whom the Bell Tolls]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/For_Whom_the_Bell_Tolls|989022787
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> 6.For Whom the Bell Tolls
> 
> Some experiences from the time of World War One have been worked into "For Whom the Bell Tolls". According to Anthony Burgess, the farewell at the station on page 434 is the equivalent of Hemingway's departure to the Italian front. An interesting aspect is that Jordan went to school instead, maybe the war represents for Hemingway, as well as for his character Jordan, a part of his education. The last thoughts of Jordan could refer to Ernest's wounding in Fossalta where it seemed to him "more natural to die than to go on living"(Burgess (9.), p. 22). The gray-haired soldier who already appeared (From Boy to Man) might have been the prototype of Anselmo, while Golz's look is that of real life Polish General "Walter", commander of the XIVth International Brigade.
> 
> To his other fiction, there are parallels, too. Maria's appearance and her behavior are almost identical to Catherine Barkley's. When Robert first embraces her, she erupts in tears, later she stated she didn't care much about herself but wished to do everything for him, and that she was his wife. Like Catherine, she is very preoccupied with death, and even excels her here. It seems as though Hemingway tried to summon the spirit of "A Farewell to Arms" once again, but Maria never was a character as complex as Catherine. In fact, she rarely said or did anything, and at the beginning of the last quarter of the novel Robert even remarked "I know thee very little from talking"(For Whom (5.), p. 365). She appears to be an imitation of Ms. Barkley, but only the facade is identical, in Maria's case, there is nothing behind, except for the story about her parents, but anyone could have told that. Pilar will be discussed in greater detail below (Pablo).
> 
> The story is told by a third-person selective-omniscient narrator and contains far more inner monologue and remembrances of the various characters than "A Farewell to Arms". This, on the one hand, is a necessity, since the book deals with just four days, and on the other hand supports the author's intention to illustrate the diversity and complexity of Spain. By using medieval English he emphasizes the antiquity and formality of the Spanish language and tries to lift the novel onto the level of Shakespearean dramas. In the last part of the novel, the plot is split into two parallel actions, the preparations for the attack and the course of Andrés. This is no unusual technique of storytelling, but with Hemingway, who sharply focused on his protagonist in "A Farewell to Arms", it's a signal. Some say it's a signal of him giving in to the demands of Hollywood directors who wanted books that can be easily used as scripts, but I consider it a signal of him disassociating himself from the protagonist, maybe because of superstition (it brings bad luck to write about one's own end), but more likely because of his inner struggle that will be explained later (Pablo ). At the time the novel was published, it seemed as though he separated the narrator from the protagonist to become what he had always wanted to be: A big, omniscient and ubiquitous daddy who tells all the stories and who's got everything under control. The reader often gets the impression that the characters are the narrator's children, especially when he evaluates them ("Anselmo was a very good man"(For Whom (5.), p. 212), "This was the greatest gift that he [Robert] had, the talent that fitted him for war"(For Whom (5.), p. 421),etc.).
> 
> The main theme of the novel is, as already pointed out in its preface, intense comradeship in the prospect of death, the giving up of the own self for the sake of the cause, for the sake of the people. Robert Jordan, Anselmo and the others are ready do it "as all good men should", the often repeated gesture of embracing or patting on one another's shoulder reinforces the impression of close companionship. One of the best examples is Joaquín. After having been told about the execution of his family, the others are embracing him and comfort him by saying they were his family now. Besides this love for the comrades, there is the love for the Spanish soil, which is represented by the pine-needled forest floor. This love lasts till the very last breath, as the last picture proves. Robert Jordan awaited his death feeling "his heart beating against the pine needle floor of the forest"(For Whom (5.), p. 504).
> 
> A less obvious, but, for the author personally, more important theme is suicide. Alarmingly enough, Hemingway already tried to justify it. Maria and Karkov are always equipped to do it, and Kashkin made Robert do it. The characters, including Robert, would prefer being dead to being captured, and that is Hemingway's first step onto a downward spiral.
> 
> Hemingway frequently used images to produce the dense atmosphere of violence and death his books are renowned for, the main image of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is the machine image. The fear of modern armament destroys, as it already did in "A Farewell to Arms", the conceptions of the ancient art of war: combat, sportsmanlike competition and the aspect of hunting. Heroism becomes butchery, the most powerful picture employed here is the shooting of Maria's parents against the wall of a slaughterhouse. Glory exists in the official dispatches only, the theme "disillusionment" of "A Farewell to Arms" is adapted.
> 
> Especially the fascist planes are dreaded, when they approach, all hope is lost, the efforts of the partizans seem to vanish, their commitment and their abilities become meaningless. "They move like mechanized doom"(For Whom (5.), p. 93), and they wreak havoc with El Sordo and his band, the ideological slogans Joaquín employs "as though they were talismans"(For Whom (5.), p. 328) have no effect, he resorts to praying, but not even that can save him. Every time the planes appear they indicate a certain and pointless death. The same holds true for the automatic weapons ("Never in my life have I seen such a thing, with the troops running from the train and the máquina speaking into them and the men falling"(For Whom (5.), p. 31)) and the artillery, especially the trench mortars that already wounded Lt. Henry ("he knew that they would die as soon as a mortar came up"(For Whom (5.), p. 330)). No longer would the best soldier win, but the one with the biggest gun. The soldiers using those weapons are simple brutes, they lack "all conception of dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349) as Fernando remarked, Anselmo insisted "We must teach them. We must take away their planes, their automatic weapons, their tanks, their artillery and teach them dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349).
> 
> Apart from this physical threats, much of the violence is executed on a metaphysical level. The arguments between Robert and Pablo, especially the one where Robert tried to provoke Pablo far enough to have a reason to shoot him, is a great metaphysical battle that reminds one of Edward Albee's "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?", where the two main characters cause each other to crack up just by provoking. Pilar also is a very good example for metaphysical violence. She is one of the most brutal characters in the whole novel, and hurts almost everybody, but never actually uses physical force.
> 
> next: [[/Frederic Henry]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry|989022838
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> Author Milan Kundera once wrote his characters were not of woman born, but of an idea, of a decision he faced and didn't exploit the possibilities, circumvented a border instead of crossing it. Beyond the border, in fact, beyond the border of his own "I", started the realm in which his characters exist. They were familiar to him, but he could never reach them. I think the same holds true for Hemingway and his characters. Frederic Henry and Robert Jordan are perfect examples of "bordercrossers". Lt. Henry didn't want the medal of honor because he knew he didn't deserve it and deserted when realizing the true nature of war, Lt. Hemingway didn't take such drastic steps though he too had realized how pointless the war was. Robert Jordan took an active part in the Spanish Civil War and was willing to die for the country he loved, Ernest Hemingway was a non-combatant all the time.
> 
> a. Frederic Henry
> 
> 1.Background
> 
> Mr. Hemingway doesn't provide his readers with much information about the family background and the past of Frederic Henry, one simply gets to know that he had quarrels with his relatives and therefore doesn't maintain contact any more. Three family members are briefly mentioned, his mother, sister and grandfather. When asked about his father he states he had none, just a step-father. Maybe Hemingway was still battered by his own father's suicide and therefore removed all information on Frederic's father. Henry came to Italy to study architecture in Rome and, speaking Italian, joined the army for no real reason ("I was a fool"(A Farewell (1.), p. 227)), except for his eagerness for adventure ("In the old days I would have [...] picked a fight"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217)). The sight drafts he receives from his grandfather are the only link to his home, he doesn't pay much attention to his grandfather's letters, the only one mentioned in the whole book is handled in two short lines among many others.
> 2.Character
> 
> Henry tries to keep from thinking throughout the entire book, maybe he, too, fears getting "gloomy"(For Whom (5.), p. 18), he did not want to get emotionally involved in anything, neither in a love affair nor in the war. He was, in a way, convinced of the need for victory, but stated "It [the war] had nothing to do with me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 34). Talking about military maneuvers, he always referred to the Italian army as "them", thus stressing he doesn't see himself as part of the army as an ideological and patriotic institution. He doesn't report much about violence and death, if it happened, he mentioned it briefly, superficially, always refusing to have any feelings about it, always trying to get away from it. Even when he shot one of the Sergeants, he described it as if he was hunting ("I shot three times and dropped one"(A Farewell (1.), p. 182)), trying not to realize he shot a sentient being.
> 
> His attitude towards religion is a bit strange, though. On the one hand, he often said something around the lines "I had no religion"(A Farewell (1.), p. 289), but on the other hand he prayed not only for Catherine's life but also for his own ("Oh, God, I said, get me out of here."(A Farewell (1.), p. 51)). As a matter of fact, Hemingway was a convert under fire and the line "It is in defeat we become Christian"(A Farewell (1.), p. 160) clearly refers to that. The later statements about having no religion can be explained best by Henry's own words "He [the priest] had always known what I did not know and what, when I learned it, was always able to forget."(A Farewell (1.), p. 13).
> 
> Of course, this does not only refer to his religiosity, but also to his opinions about the war. To improve the process of forgetting that enables him to ignore all the violence, he drinks a great lot of alcohol throughout the whole novel ("I'm very brave when I've had a drink"(A Farewell (1.), p. 126)).
> 3.Development
> 
> The wall of emotional numbness Frederic Henry had set up before the novel started, crumbled when he first met Catherine, he felt he couldn't ignore all the sorrow and pain any longer, and began to separate from the rude society at the mess. This progress started when he proposed Catherine "Let's drop the war"(A Farewell (1.), p. 24) and was completed with the discovery "Then I realized it was over for me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 219), he "had made a separate peace"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217). His discovery had a multitude of reasons. First of all, as an ambulance driver, he had seen quite an amount of bloodshed when he carried off the wounded and dead. He could feel the inhumanity even more intense after his own wounding, when the man in the stretcher above him had a hemorrhage and the blood of the dying soldier slowly dripped on his shirt and nobody did anything about it. Prior to his wounding, he discussed with the ambulance drivers he was commanding. Since they agreed with their colleagues later in the novel, who "don't believe in the war anyway"(A Farewell (1.), p. 194), his sacrifice is rendered in vain, he almost died for nothing. It is worth noting that those eight ambulance drivers are the only soldiers to be described in the novel, therefore they act as representatives of the lower levels of the army hierarchy. Thus both Frederic Henry and the reader get the impression that the war is just wanted by the leaders, who don't care about human life (""How are all the wounded evacuated?" "They are not. [...]" "What will I take in the cars?" "Hospital equipment.""(A Farewell (1.), p. 168)) and the ambitious, like Ettore ("He's the boy they're running the war for"(A Farewell (1.), p. 109)). Furthermore, Frederic's talks with the priest in chapters 11 and 26 made him reach a certain state of awareness that left him more vulnerable to the cruelty surrounding him. He seemed to be most affected by the fate of Rinaldi. His prophecy "This war is killing me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 150) makes him commit "self-destruction day by day"(A Farewell (1.), p. 155). Together with all the other influences, his ongoing decline and its inevitable end reaffirmed Henry's decision to leave it all behind and made him condemn the war instead of supporting it by being an officer.
> 4.Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway's life
> 
> More than most of his other figures, Catherine Barkley is not a character by herself, but much more a vehicle for all kinds of experiences Hemingway made in his life so far. First of all, as she enters the novel, she clearly is the counterpart of the already mentioned Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, later, when Helen Ferguson is with her and especially when Ferguson complained about Henry, Catherine can be viewed upon as an image of Hadley Richardson. In the end, the labor pains and the Cesarean section are a clear reference to Pauline Pfeiffer.
> 
> But it is not all that easy. Catherine often says about herself that "There isn't any me any more"(A Farewell (1.), p. 96). Only when she is "self-conscious"(A Farewell (1.), p. 125), she is one of those women. When she is with Frederic, she adopts his ideas and vice versa. They form a unit that serves as an item of reflection for Hemingway's theories about life and death, which are always developed in the discussion of the lovers. She knows the poems he quotes and the books he is talking about, they have got so much in common that it's hard to tell them apart. The following dialogue may illustrate this(A Farewell (1.), pp. 125 through 126):
> "They [the brave] die of course."
> "But only once."
> "I don't know. Who said that?"
> "The coward dies a thousand deaths, the brave but one?"
> "Of course. Who said it?"
> "I don't know."
> "He was probably a coward," she said. "He knew a great deal about cowards but
> nothing about the brave. The brave dies perhaps two thousand deaths if he's
> intelligent. He simply doesn't mention them."
> "I don't know. It's hard to see inside the head of the brave."
> "Yes. That's how they keep that way."
> 
> Without any former explanation, they always know what the other one is talking about. They develop, without disagreeing or arguing, a philosophy that represents Hemingway's code of courage, called "grace under pressure".
> 
> next: [[/Robert Jordan]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/Robert_Jordan|989022878
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> b. Robert Jordan
> 
> 1.Background
> 
> Robert Jordan seems a little older than Frederic Henry, he already is an instructor and came to Spain first in 1925, so he is about 30, Henry is still studying. The links to his grandfather who fought in the American Civil War as did Ernest Hall and Anson Hemingway, the author's own grandfathers, are deeper, but they are just memories, as his grandfather is already dead. He asks him for help and advice and thinks he was "the hell of a good soldier"(For Whom (5.), p. 360) who, being a leader of irregular cavalry, must have been in similar situations. He admires him for having endured four years of Civil War.
> 
> At the time of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" the author's mental wounds had healed enough to allow him to reflect upon his father's suicide. Of course, this reflection is executed by Robert Jordan, but the parallels simply can't be denied. Jordan's father shot himself with an old Civil War pistol, as did Clarence Edmonds Hemingway and Jordan's father did it to "avoid being tortured"(For Whom (5.), p. 70), a reference to Hemingway's father's incurable illnesses. Jordan understands it, but doesn't approve it. He refers to his father as "the other one"(For Whom (5.), p. 361) and considers him a "coward"(For Whom (5.), p. 361). Although he knows his father had become what he was because he was trapped between the famous grandfather whose deeds he could never surpass and his dominating wife, Robert still feels ashamed. He himself is not married, at least not by law or church, and has no brothers or sisters.
> 
> 2.Character
> 
> As Karkov put it, Robert Jordan is "a young American of slight political development but a great way with the Spaniards and a fine partizan record."(For Whom (5.), p. 454). He is no Communist or Marxist but "an anti-fascist"(For Whom (5.), p. 69), just like Hemingway. For the duration of the war, however, he is "under Communist discipline [...], because, in the conduct of the war, they were the only party whose program and whose discipline he could respect."(For Whom (5.), p. 175). He is embarrassed by phrases like "enemies of the people"(For Whom (5.), p. 176) and other communist clichés, dialectics and a "purely materialistic conception of society"(For Whom (5.), p. 324).
> 
> He has the intention to write a book about Spain and the Spanish Civil War, Karkov, much admired and respected by Jordan, aids him because he thinks Jordan writes "absolutely truly"(For Whom (5.), p. 265), like Hemingway did, or at least claimed to do. He considers writing a way to get rid of all the experiences worrying him now. Interestingly enough, he thinks the book will be "Much better than the other"(For Whom (5.), p. 178), most likely referring to "A Farewell to Arms". In spite of having written the book in a third person selective omniscient perspective, Hemingway wants to be identified with Robert Jordan.
> 
> Robert Jordan is not as straight as Frederic Henry. Not only does he show a more differential way of thinking, but also he is inclined to talk to himself, especially in the second half of the novel(For Whom (5.), p. 323)
> 
> But you like the people of Navarra better than those of any other part of 
> Spain. Yes. And you kill them. Yes. [...] Don't you know it's wrong to kill?
> Yes. But you do it? Yes.
> 
> He even insults himself sometimes reminding the reader of the argument between Anselmo and Pablo at the start of the novel.(For Whom (5.), p. 13)
> 
> "Art thou a brute? Yes. Art thou a beast? Yes, many times. Hast thou a brain?
> Nay. None."
> 
> Naturally, his attitude towards violence is different from Henry's. He believes it is justified to kill people for the cause, though he does not enjoy it. He is convinced that a victory is the only acceptable solution to this conflict. Their different attitudes result from their different motivations: Henry is just on some kind of adventure holiday while Jordan defends the country he "would rather have been born in"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)
> 
> Because of the gravity of the situation and the importance of his work, he can't permit himself emotions and feelings, he considers them as being luxuries, so he tries to restrain them, but is not always successful in the beginning, it takes him quite a while to extinguish them. (322-323)
> 
> 3.Development
> 
> One of the central aspects of the novel is Robert Jordan's education. In the beginning, Robert Jordan's world is a very simple one, he has got a task and he has got to accomplish it, no matter how high the cost. He knows "it was wrong in the first place and such things accentuate disaster as a snowball rolls up wet snow"(For Whom (5.), p. 413), but "he did not give any importance to what happened to himself"(For Whom (5.), p. 4). When he gets to know the people of Pablo, he fears his orders could harm or even kill them. The responsibility for the ones he likes is hard to bear, and when he fell for Maria, he "would abandon a hero's or a martyr's end gladly"(For Whom (5.), p. 177). At first, he considers this development a corruption of his fighting spirit, but later asks himself: " [...] was it corruption or was it merely that you lost the naïveté that you started with?"(For Whom (5.), p. 255). Especially Pilar became his mentor ("All right, Inglés . Learn. That's the thing. Learn."(For Whom (5.), p. 272)), a trait she could have derived from Hemingway's mentor Gertrude Stein. He learns to value his own life and to enjoy it, even though it's overshadowed by his forthcoming death and when it's over, he hates to leave it all behind.
> 
> Much of his education consisted of looking behind the scenes of the party propaganda. When he heard about the execution of the fascists in Pilar's home village, he is startled. To discover that the Loyalists can be brutal, too, is just the first part of the disclosure slowly emerging on his mind. The other part is the discovery that the dreaded fascist soldiers he is fighting and killing are simple peasants like the Republicans. On page 176, Robert thinks that all Spaniards are equal, just their leaders betray and abuse them, but every time he realizes this, he manages to suppress it, like Frederic Henry, because it would otherwise damage his resolution.
> 
> Apart from the obvious effects of violence on his development, the prospect of an early death influences him greatly. The knowledge that he has got to live his entire life in just four days acts as a catalyst for his development and made it possible in the first place.
> 
> 4.Pablo
> 
> Robert may seem to be the perfect continuation of Frederic Henry, but "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is more than a mere "A Farewell to Arms Part Two". Undoubtedly, the protagonist is the same, but there are those little differences that are already explained above, and apart from them, the major change is the introduction of two more main characters: Pablo and Pilar.
> 
> With Hemingway, it's always useful to try and associate the fictional characters with the ones of his real life. Since the protagonist's identity is well known, it's sound to associate Jordan's beloved Maria with Hemingway's beloved Martha to whom the novel is dedicated. The phonetic similarities in their forenames support this association. Pilar could correspond to Pauline Pfeiffer, since "Pilar" was Pauline's secret codename when Ernest was still married with Hadley. Pablo is, in an informal way, the husband of Pilar and they knew each other for quite a while, like Pauline and Ernest did. They behave like a long-married couple, so maybe Pablo is the personification of an Ernest who hadn't made a clear break with Pauline. Maybe he identifies with Pablo, a useless drunkard most of the time, but when things are getting serious, he shows grace under pressure and acts according to the "No man is an Illand" theme right from the start ("my duty is to those who are with me"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)). Robert Jordan does not value this theme right from the beginning, but seems, with his firm beliefs and his whole life still ahead of him, to be the best possible development Frederic could have had, while Pablo, with the alcoholic sentimentality of a man who knows his best years have already passed, represents the worst possibility. The reality, i.e. the author himself, struggles somewhere in between. On the one hand, he tries to stay away from Pablo, whose enthusiasm and resolution vanished a long time ago, who doesn't care much about politics and who definitely is unwilling to die for the cause, no matter how important it might seem. But on the other hand, he can't be like Robert Jordan, whose single-minded illusions about the strength of their enemies, about the possibility of a victory, about sacrifice, and about the justness of the cause appear very naïve.
> 
> Pablo is what Ernest fears to become and Jordan is what he once was, so the conflict between them could represent Hemingway's struggle with his former self, which is displayed best by Frederic Henry. As observer of this conflict acts Pilar who likes Robert, because he is formed out of the author's early characteristics. She is concerned about the first signs of assimilation Robert already shows, she warns Maria: "You are going to have a drunkard like I have"(For Whom (5.), p. 70).
> 
> What Hemingway tries is to get the best out of both characters, maybe to develop a guideline for his own life. They adopt each other's virtues and are able to drop some of their flaws. Robert gets, mostly via Pilar, some of Pablo's experience and is able to obtain a certain degree of wisdom, while Pablo is forced out of his "stagnation that is repugnant"(For Whom (5.), p. 33) and gets some reaffirmation of his spirit and resolution.
> 
> In spite of that, the differences are still huge and although Robert considers Pablo a smart man he strictly disapproves his brutality and low cunning. Pablo improved a little at the very end of the novel, but Robert still is by far the most virtuous character. If seen under this aspect, the novel's end appears more tragic than it did before, because it is also the end of Hemingway's inner struggle with his Lost Generation ego, that gives in to the drunken cynicism of Pablo, in whom Hemingway implies, deliberately or not, visions of his own future and facts of his present. It is not only the fictional character Robert who dies, but also the part of Hemingway's mind that he represented. He stopped fighting his latent depressions, his alcoholism and his brutality and was slowly overwhelmed by them.
> 
> next: [[/Young and Innocent]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/Famous_at_Twenty-Five_Thirty_a_Master|989022993
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> B)Main Part
> 
> I. Books and Beyond
> 
> 1.Famous at Twenty-Five: Thirty a Master
> 
> One cannot really discuss any Hemingway issue without knowledge of the Hemingway style that rocked the literary scene when it first arrived. Below the seemingly simple surface, which had been a revolution of its own right in a time when writing in Victorian sense with neo-Gothic decorations was still governing the literary world, lie allegorical structures of unknown complexity. This style was no natural gift. On the one hand, it was the reward for his immense efforts and the hurts he had to cope with and on the other hand it was, and still is, the epitome of the modern movement, since "No man is an <I>Iland</I>"(For Whom (5.), preface), p.articularly not in 'twenties' Paris, where every author lent the young Hemingway a helping hand and thus contributed to his style.
> 
> After their wedding, the Hemingways decided to live abroad for a while, and, following the advice of Sherwood Anderson, they picked Paris, where Ernest could develop his literary skills better than anywhere else on the planet. At that point of time, the first professional and profound influence had already coined him. Ernest had used to be a reporter for the Kansas City Star, and the Kansas City Star Style Book, which was a guideline the newspaper had established, had lain the foundations for his later art. "Brevity, a reconciliation of vigour with smoothness, the positive approach"(Burgess (9.), p. 19) were its main directives and the young Ernest was willing to adopt them as his personal standard.
> 
> Sherwood Anderson wrote him a letter of recommendation to Gertrude Stein. She became his mentor and opened him the door to the Parisian Modern Movement. His other mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of Imagism. In retrospective, Hemingway once said about them: "Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right."(to John Peale Bishop; Cowley (4.), p. xiii). He even considered giving Mr. Pound the Nobel Prize gold medal. At the same time, he became a close friend of James Joyce whose "Ulysses" with its stream-of-consciousness techniques had a tremendous impact on the literary scene. These authors and many others met at Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare &amp; Co., 18 Rue de l'Odéon, Paris.
> 
> But the last impulse he required came in an unsuspected and painful way. His manuscripts, among them "A Farewell to Arms" were stolen at Gare de Lyon when his wife wanted to bring them along to Lausanne to meet him. This loss was a big gain after all, because by re-writing the novel he had also time to reconsider, thus improving it. The second version was a great deal less flowery, stripped of all decoration, reduced to the bare essentials, matter-of-factly, concentrated and compressed.
> 
> During this peaceful life among friends, he was able to develop his literary skills, in times of war, inspired by death, he would use them.
> 
> next: [[/From Boy to Man Hemingways First World War]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/From_Boy_to_Man_Hemingways_First_World_War|989023028
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2.From Boy to Man: Hemingway's First World War
> 
> Once Mr. Hemingway wrote fellow author F. Scott Fitzgerald "We are all bitched from the start and you especially have to be hurt like hell before you can write seriously. But when you get a damned hurt use it- don't cheat with it. Be as faithful to it as a scientist"(Lynn (13.), p. 10) representing his personal motto. Hemingway's first hurts were so grave that it took him nearly ten years to write them down in a novel.
> 
> When he arrived in Europe, he was just another young hotshot out for adventure.En route to the Italian front, he had a stopover in Paris. The city was under constant bombardment from German siege guns, but instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Ernest advised the taxi driver to bring him to the place where the shells were hitting the ground and he wouldn't stop looking for enemy fire until one shell was tearing apart the facade of a church at the Place de la Madelaine nearby. In retrospective, he said about himself: "I was an awful dope when I went to the last war. I can remember just thinking that we were the home team and the Austrians were the visiting team"(Barron's Book Notes (8.), p. 2).
> 
> But gruesome reality caught up with him very fast, on his first day of duty an ammunition factory exploded in the countryside near Milan, he had to pick up bodies and pieces of bodies, mostly of women working there. This first and extremely cruel encounter with human death had left him shaken, the soldiers he met later weren't all too helpful in lightening this negative impression. Eric Dorman-Smith, for example, quoted Shakespeare's Henry IV Part Two: "By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death . . . and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next"(Burgess (9.), p. 24). A 50-year-old soldier, to whom he said "You're troppo vecchio for this war, pop." replied "I can die as well as any man."(Burgess (9.), p. 24).
> 
> Still, he wanted to come even closer to where the action was, and was wounded at midnight on the eighth of July while bicycling to a forward command post to deliver chocolate. The exact details remain mysterious, only two things are for sure: A trench mortar shell hit him leaving fragments in both legs, and he received the Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) from the Italian government. Whether or not he saved another soldier's life by carrying him on his back remains unclear.
> 
> Convalescing in the Ospedale Croce Rossa Americana, Via Alessandro Manzoni in Milan he met Sister Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, a nurse from Washington, DC. and one of eighteen nurses looking after just four patients. He fell for her, but they never were really together. Soon after his departure, she was in love with somebody else.
> 
> Hemingway's metaphysical movement in this early period was a shift from juvenile life in Oak Park to the horrors of a full scale war. He intruded deeper and deeper into the realm of violence until he stood face to face with death. After this encounter, he returned to -now mature- life and replaced hatred with love.
> 
> next: [[/From Reality to Fiction A Farewell to Arms]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/From_Reality_to_Fiction_A_Farewell_to_Arms|989023057
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> 3.From Reality to Fiction: A Farewell to Arms
> 
> "A Farewell to Arms" came as late as all the other World War One books (Frederic Manning "Her Privates We", Erich Maria Remarque "All Quiet on the Western Front", Richard Aldington "Death of a Hero", Robert Grave "Goodbye to All That", etc.). In the meantime many things had changed in Ernest Hemingway's life, he was not in love with Sister von Kurowsky any longer and had even divorced Hadley by the time his novel was published. He became father of a boy named Patrick and who was, like Henry's son in the novel, delivered by Cesarean section. The intense labor pains of his second wife Pauline were the inspiration for Catherine's labor in the novel. Interestingly enough, Ernest and Pauline were criss-crossing the USA by that time, maybe Ernest tried to escape his past like Frederic Henry did. Last, but not at all least, his father committed suicide, he shot himself in the head with an old Civil War pistol.
> 
> A lot of the novel's characters are based upon real life persons, like Helen Ferguson, who reminds the reader of Kitty Cannell, who "warned Hadley, whom she considered to be a put-upon and long-suffering angel, that her husband was unreliable"(Burgess (9.), p. 40) a number of times as Ferguson did on pages 98 through 99 and 219 through 222, and the priest, who represents Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. A mystery in its own right is the character Rinaldi who already appeared in "In Our Time".
> 
> One of the main themes the novel deals with is the unity of life and death, which is illustrated with a number of striking pictures like the soldiers carrying ammunition boxes, who "marched as though they were gone six months with child"(A Farewell (1.), p. 4), Frederic's flight in a wagon full of guns and Catherine's death in childbirth. The book itself is not a war novel, but, as Anthony Burgess put it, "a complex statement about the nature of human commitment, p.resented against a background of war vividly caught."(Burgess (9.), p. 55). James F. Light's article "The Religion of Death in A Farewell to Arms ", reprinted in "Critiques of Four Major Novels", reaches the same conclusion. Death and the cruelty of war are ever-present, but dwelling below the surface, and rarely erupting into the line of sight of the protagonist.
> 
> As a criticism of war Frederic Henry thinks and talks about Napoleon time and time again. By confronting the obsolete and romanticized way of making war with the actual situation, Hemingway intended to show the contrast between the official patriotic propaganda and the harsh reality. With Henry's famous monologue "I was always embarrassed by the words sacred, glorious, and sacrifice [...]"(A Farewell (1.), p. 165), he is able to develop a wordy philosophy. Sacrifice equaled slaughter, the glory and honor they all came for was replaced by a butchery of unknown extent. This is exactly the disillusionment of the Lost Generation, and it led Frederic to stop thinking. It is displayed with a number of other images, too, for example, when he is offered a sword in an armorer's shop, but replies he went back to the front and thus had no need for it, or when Catherine describes her lover's death ("He didn't have a sabre cut. They blew him all to bits"(A Farewell (1.), p. 19)).
> 
> next: [[/The Time in Between]]
------
ErnestHemingway/SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar|989023182
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< 
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> next [[/The Downward Spiral]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Sure_Shots_The_Second_World_War|989023202
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> 4.Sure Shots: The Second World War
> 
> The United States entered World War II on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
> 
> As the FBI took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
> 
> By firing his machine pistol at the portrait of Mary Welsh's husband after having placed it atop of the toilet bowl in his room in the Ritz, he proved he wouldn't any longer flinch from killing a man who stood face to face with him. He became a killer like Pablo in the end.
> 
> next [[/The Downward Spiral]]
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ErnestHemingway/SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar|989023213
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> next [[/TheDownwardSpiral]]
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Ernest_Hemingway/The_Downward_Spiral|989023248
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> 5.The Downward Spiral
> 
> After the war, he started and abandoned a novel about the earth, the sea and the air, and went to Italy where he gathered material for "Across the River and Into the Trees", a homage to Venice. He derived the title from the last words of General Stonewall Jackson, maybe he expected his own end soon. His now divorced third wife appeared as the third wife of the protagonist, Adriana Ivancich as his lover Renata, which means "Reborn" in Latin. Hemingway was longing for his lost youth. The novel was widely disapproved, the majority of reviewers accused him of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude and sentimentality, the last of which is most certainly true and fitted into the pattern that was beginning to emerge: Hemingway grew old.
> 
> He started and, depressed by its mediocrity, abandoned a long sea novel to be published posthumously as "Islands in the Stream". One section of it was published as "The Old Man and the Sea", its enormous impact satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 and the Nobel Prize in 1954 and restored his international reputation as an author.
> 
> Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again. On a safari he was the victim of two successive plane crashes, the injuries he got away with were grave and numerous, he sprained his right shoulder, arm and left leg, had a grave overall concussion, temporarily lost his vision in the left eye, his hearing in the left ear, had a paralysis of the sphincter, crushed his vertebra, suffered from a ruptured liver, spleen and kidney and was marked by first degree burns on his face, arms and leg. As if this would not be enough, he was badly injured one month later in a bushfire accident which left him with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. This physical hurts caused him to crack up, his strength was gone entirely and so was his will to live. He couldn't even travel to Stockholm personally.
> 
> A glimpse of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into "A Moveable Feast" . Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down, his blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from an aorta inflammation, and maybe the depressions accompanying alcoholism had already started. He also lost his Finca Vigía in San Francisco de Paula and was forced to "exile" to Ketchum, Idaho after the situation in Cuba had started to escalate.
> 
> The very last years, 1960 and 1961, were marked by severe paranoia, he feared FBI agents could be after him if Cuba turned to the Russians, that the "Feds"(Burgess (9.), p. 110) would be checking his bank account and that they wanted to arrest him for gross immorality and carrying alcohol, he got upset about perfectly normal photographs in his "Dangerous Summer" article etc. He received treatment for his mental disorders, there were suicide attempts in Spring 1961. He received treatment again, but it could not prevent his suicide on the second of July, 1961. He put the gun to his head and fired.
> 
> next: [[/Violence and Redemption]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Violence_and_Redemption|989023274
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> C) Conclusion
> 
> 1.Violence and Redemption
> 
> In his novels, Ernest Hemingway used violence extensively, but yet subtly. Never is there a description of death for its own sake, it always contributes to a larger theme, in "A Farewell to Arms" it is mainly human commitment, and in "For whom the Bell Tolls" mainly comradeship. It contributes in an unusual way: Death and violence always act as the opposite, as the imminent threat and as the jet black background that makes the theme stand out sharply, and that's why it is difficult to analyze it. No matter what exactly happens in those two books, violence and death are always involved, but just act as a sort of sublime intensification of the protagonist's feelings and experiences.
> 
> Death appears to be the inevitable end, but this does not make the characters sad or melancholic. Just like a man who is told by a doctor that he has some lethal illness and only four days left until his death, Robert Jordan is willing "to live as full a life in seventy hours as in seventy years"(For Whom (5.), p. 179). In "For Whom the Bell Tolls" everything is compressed and more intense because the prospect of death enables him to relish his life until the very last breath.
> 
> Thus redemption from death does not mean eternal live, but it means to live in the moment, to assume that each day could be the last. That is what the stream-of-consciousness passage during Robert's and Maria's second sexual intercourse(For Whom (5.), p. 406) is all about, the counterpart to the first one which dealt with the nada.
> 
> This, that they were not to have, they were having. They were having now and before and always and now and now and now. Oh, now, now, now, the only now, and above all now, and there is no other now but thou now and now is thy prophet. Now and forever now. Come now, now, for there is no now but now. Yes, now. Now, please now, only now [...]
> 
> His love, to Maria as well as to the comrades, forms "an alliance against death"(For Whom (5.), p. 282). Catherine's commitment to Frederic, the priests commitment to god, Robert's gaiety in the first chapter, they all can outface death. Hemingway's characters can be destroyed by violence and death, but never defeated
> 
> next: [[/Why It Went Wrong]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Why_It_Went_Wrong|989023329
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 2.Why It Went Wrong
> 
> Unfortunately, Hemingway wasn't able to use this attitude in his real life. Maybe the pressure simply was to high. The general public did never know the real Ernest Hemingway, who was a human with a human's problems. They only had an abstract ideal they knew from his books, even his close friend James Joyce mixed him up with his characters. Cited verbatim:
> He's a good writer, Hemingway. He writes as he is. He's a big, powerful peasant, as strong as a buffalo. A sportsman. And ready to live the life he writes about. He would never have it if his body had not allowed him to live it. But giants of his sort are truly modest; there is much more behind Hemingway's form than people know. (Burgess (9.), p. 39)
> 
> According to Ford Madox Ford truth was not facts but vision, that is the principle Hemingway's characters are based on and that is what caused Hemingway's failure. He was forced to try and achieve the same straightness and stoicism his characters had. The difference was just that he was a real person, and they were, like Kundera's characters, born of an idea and existed just in fiction.
> 
> Like Robert Jordan's father, he was trapped. On the one hand, he could never surpass his character's deeds and on the other hand, the general public demanded him to do so. He tried and created one myth after the other. He claimed he had an affair with Mata Hari ("but one night I fucked her very well, although I found her to be very heavy throughout the hips and to have more desire for what was done to her than what she was giving to the man"(Burgess (9.), p. 105)), that he joined the Arditi after his wounding, etc. And most people were perfectly willing to believe it, the tale about the Arditi, Italian shock troops, even appeared in Malcolm Cowley's preface to the 1944(Cowley (4.), p. xii) edition of "The Viking Portable Library". He was captured in the structure of his lies, the discrepancy between him and the image he had set up grew larger every day. To be a liar and worthless in comparison to that shining idol must have reinforced his alcohol-related depressions and made him more liable to the hurts he received.
> 
> After all, there is a certain ambivalence of death and violence. It had done some good, it taught him priceless philosophies, but at the same time, it hurt him so much, that they were useless to him. The only thing he could do was to fictionalize them.
> 
> next: [[/Bibliography]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Bibliography|989023350
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> D)Appendix
> 
> a. Bibliography
> 
> Primary Sources
> 
> 1. Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms. London: Arrow Books, 1994
> 
> 2. Hemingway, Ernest (ed. by Carlos Baker), Selected Letters 1917-1961. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981
> 
> 3. Hemingway, Ernest, The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway The First Forty-Nine Stories and the Play The Fifth Column. New York City: Random House, Inc., 1938
> 
> 4. Hemingway, Ernest, (ed. and intro. by Malcolm Cowley), The Viking Portable Library Hemingway. New York City: The Viking Press, 1944
> 
> 5. Hemingway, Ernest, For Whom the Bell Tolls. London: Arrow Books, 1994
> 
> Secondary Sources
> 
> 6. Baker, Carlos (editor), Ernest Hemingway Critiques of Four Major Novels. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962
> 
> 7. Baker, Carlos, Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972
> 
> 8. Berridge, H.R., Barron's Book Notes Ernest Hemingway A Farewell to Arms. Stuttgart: Klett, 1990
> 
> 9. Burgess, Anthony, Hemingway and his world. Norwich: Thames and Hudson, 1978
> 
> 10. Döblin, Alfred, Berlin Alexanderplatz. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, 1996
> 
> 11. Esslin, Martin (translated from English by Marianne Falk), Das Theater des Absurden. Hamburg, Rowohlt, 1972
> 
> 12. Kundera, Milan (translated from Czech by Michael Henry Heim), The Unbearable Lightness of Being. London: Faber and Faber, 1991
> 
> 13. Lynn, Kenneth S., Hemingway. New York City: Simon and Schuster, 1987
> 
> 14. The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1993
> 
> 15. ?Hemingway's Prize-Winning Works Reflected Preoccupation With Life and Death? The New York Times, CX (July 3, 1961)
------
ErnestHemingway/BibliographY|989023402
1,37c1
< D)Appendix
< 
< a. Bibliography
< 
< Primary Sources
< 
< 1. Hemingway, Ernest, A Farewell to Arms. London: Arrow Books, 1994
< 
< 2. Hemingway, Ernest (ed. by Carlos Baker), Selected Letters 1917-1961. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1981
< 
< 3. Hemingway, Ernest, The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway The First Forty-Nine Stories and the Play The Fifth Column. New York City: Random House, Inc., 1938
< 
< 4. Hemingway, Ernest, (ed. and intro. by Malcolm Cowley), The Viking Portable Library Hemingway. New York City: The Viking Press, 1944
< 
< 5. Hemingway, Ernest, For Whom the Bell Tolls. London: Arrow Books, 1994
< 
< Secondary Sources
< 
< 6. Baker, Carlos (editor), Ernest Hemingway Critiques of Four Major Novels. New York City: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1962
< 
< 7. Baker, Carlos, Hemingway: The Writer as Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972
< 
< 8. Berridge, H.R., Barron's Book Notes Ernest Hemingway A Farewell to Arms. Stuttgart: Klett, 1990
< 
< 9. Burgess, Anthony, Hemingway and his world. Norwich: Thames and Hudson, 1978
< 
< 10. Döblin, Alfred, Berlin Alexanderplatz. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, 1996
< 
< 11. Esslin, Martin (translated from English by Marianne Falk), Das Theater des Absurden. Hamburg, Rowohlt, 1972
< 
< 12. Kundera, Milan (translated from Czech by Michael Henry Heim), The Unbearable Lightness of Being. London: Faber and Faber, 1991
< 
< 13. Lynn, Kenneth S., Hemingway. New York City: Simon and Schuster, 1987
< 
< 14. The New Encyclopædia Britannica 15th Edition. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1993
< 
< 15. ?Hemingway's Prize-Winning Works Reflected Preoccupation With Life and Death? The New York Times, CX (July 3, 1961)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Bibliography]]
------
ErnestHemingway/WhyItWentWrong|989023456
1,13c1
< 2.Why It Went Wrong
< 
< Unfortunately, Hemingway wasn't able to use this attitude in his real life. Maybe the pressure simply was to high. The general public did never know the real Ernest Hemingway, who was a human with a human's problems. They only had an abstract ideal they knew from his books, even his close friend James Joyce mixed him up with his characters. Cited verbatim:
< He's a good writer, Hemingway. He writes as he is. He's a big, powerful peasant, as strong as a buffalo. A sportsman. And ready to live the life he writes about. He would never have it if his body had not allowed him to live it. But giants of his sort are truly modest; there is much more behind Hemingway's form than people know. (Burgess (9.), p. 39)
< 
< According to Ford Madox Ford truth was not facts but vision, that is the principle Hemingway's characters are based on and that is what caused Hemingway's failure. He was forced to try and achieve the same straightness and stoicism his characters had. The difference was just that he was a real person, and they were, like Kundera's characters, born of an idea and existed just in fiction.
< 
< Like Robert Jordan's father, he was trapped. On the one hand, he could never surpass his character's deeds and on the other hand, the general public demanded him to do so. He tried and created one myth after the other. He claimed he had an affair with Mata Hari ("but one night I fucked her very well, although I found her to be very heavy throughout the hips and to have more desire for what was done to her than what she was giving to the man"(Burgess (9.), p. 105)), that he joined the Arditi after his wounding, etc. And most people were perfectly willing to believe it, the tale about the Arditi, Italian shock troops, even appeared in Malcolm Cowley's preface to the 1944(Cowley (4.), p. xii) edition of "The Viking Portable Library". He was captured in the structure of his lies, the discrepancy between him and the image he had set up grew larger every day. To be a liar and worthless in comparison to that shining idol must have reinforced his alcohol-related depressions and made him more liable to the hurts he received.
< 
< After all, there is a certain ambivalence of death and violence. It had done some good, it taught him priceless philosophies, but at the same time, it hurt him so much, that they were useless to him. The only thing he could do was to fictionalize them.
< 
< next: /BibliographY
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Why_It_Went_Wrong]]
------
ErnestHemingway/ViolenceandRedemption|989023541
1,16c1
< C) Conclusion
< 
< 1.Violence and Redemption
< 
< In his novels, Ernest Hemingway used violence extensively, but yet subtly. Never is there a description of death for its own sake, it always contributes to a larger theme, in "A Farewell to Arms" it is mainly human commitment, and in "For whom the Bell Tolls" mainly comradeship. It contributes in an unusual way: Death and violence always act as the opposite, as the imminent threat and as the jet black background that makes the theme stand out sharply, and that's why it is difficult to analyze it. No matter what exactly happens in those two books, violence and death are always involved, but just act as a sort of sublime intensification of the protagonist's feelings and experiences.
< 
< Death appears to be the inevitable end, but this does not make the characters sad or melancholic. Just like a man who is told by a doctor that he has some lethal illness and only four days left until his death, Robert Jordan is willing "to live as full a life in seventy hours as in seventy years"(For Whom (5.), p. 179). In "For Whom the Bell Tolls" everything is compressed and more intense because the prospect of death enables him to relish his life until the very last breath.
< 
< Thus redemption from death does not mean eternal live, but it means to live in the moment, to assume that each day could be the last. That is what the stream-of-consciousness passage during Robert's and Maria's second sexual intercourse(For Whom (5.), p. 406) is all about, the counterpart to the first one which dealt with the nada.
< 
< This, that they were not to have, they were having. They were having now and before and always and now and now and now. Oh, now, now, now, the only now, and above all now, and there is no other now but thou now and now is thy prophet. Now and forever now. Come now, now, for there is no now but now. Yes, now. Now, please now, only now [...]
< 
< His love, to Maria as well as to the comrades, forms "an alliance against death"(For Whom (5.), p. 282). Catherine's commitment to Frederic, the priests commitment to god, Robert's gaiety in the first chapter, they all can outface death. Hemingway's characters can be destroyed by violence and death, but never defeated
< 
< next: /WhyItWentWrong
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Violence_and_Redemption]]
------
Brain|989023581
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> the supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system, which is usually consist of a group of [[ganglions]]. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. It has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
> 
------
ErnestHemingway/TheDownwardSpiral|989023594
1,14c1
< 5.The Downward Spiral
< 
< After the war, he started and abandoned a novel about the earth, the sea and the air, and went to Italy where he gathered material for "Across the River and Into the Trees", a homage to Venice. He derived the title from the last words of General Stonewall Jackson, maybe he expected his own end soon. His now divorced third wife appeared as the third wife of the protagonist, Adriana Ivancich as his lover Renata, which means "Reborn" in Latin. Hemingway was longing for his lost youth. The novel was widely disapproved, the majority of reviewers accused him of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude and sentimentality, the last of which is most certainly true and fitted into the pattern that was beginning to emerge: Hemingway grew old.
< 
< He started and, depressed by its mediocrity, abandoned a long sea novel to be published posthumously as "Islands in the Stream". One section of it was published as "The Old Man and the Sea", its enormous impact satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 and the Nobel Prize in 1954 and restored his international reputation as an author.
< 
< Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again. On a safari he was the victim of two successive plane crashes, the injuries he got away with were grave and numerous, he sprained his right shoulder, arm and left leg, had a grave overall concussion, temporarily lost his vision in the left eye, his hearing in the left ear, had a paralysis of the sphincter, crushed his vertebra, suffered from a ruptured liver, spleen and kidney and was marked by first degree burns on his face, arms and leg. As if this would not be enough, he was badly injured one month later in a bushfire accident which left him with second degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. This physical hurts caused him to crack up, his strength was gone entirely and so was his will to live. He couldn't even travel to Stockholm personally.
< 
< A glimpse of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into "A Moveable Feast" . Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down, his blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from an aorta inflammation, and maybe the depressions accompanying alcoholism had already started. He also lost his Finca Vigía in San Francisco de Paula and was forced to "exile" to Ketchum, Idaho after the situation in Cuba had started to escalate.
< 
< The very last years, 1960 and 1961, were marked by severe paranoia, he feared FBI agents could be after him if Cuba turned to the Russians, that the "Feds"(Burgess (9.), p. 110) would be checking his bank account and that they wanted to arrest him for gross immorality and carrying alcohol, he got upset about perfectly normal photographs in his "Dangerous Summer" article etc. He received treatment for his mental disorders, there were suicide attempts in Spring 1961. He received treatment again, but it could not prevent his suicide on the second of July, 1961. He put the gun to his head and fired.
< 
< next: /ViolenceandRedemption
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/The_Downward_Spiral]]
------
ErnestHemingway/SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar|989023656
1,9c1
< 4.Sure Shots: The Second World War
< 
< The United States entered World War II on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
< 
< As the FBI took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
< 
< By firing his machine pistol at the portrait of Mary Welsh's husband after having placed it atop of the toilet bowl in his room in the Ritz, he proved he wouldn't any longer flinch from killing a man who stood face to face with him. He became a killer like Pablo in the end.
< 
< next [[/TheDownwardSpiral]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Sure_Shots_The_Second_World_War]]
------
ErnestHemingway/TheEndlessDarkNothingness|989023692
1,19c1
< 3.The Endless Dark Nothingness
< 
< As we already know, Hemingway was very preoccupied with death, in his youth it was the death of small animals, later of big game or enemies in combat. Death was always present and always threatening, but was, as in the Tibetan yin yang symbol, inseparably linked to life, which Hemingway, like Jim Morrison, considered most intense in the prospect of death. He lived in the borderland, trying to get ever closer to the edge. On the other, on the yin side, waited what the Castilians call the "nada" or the endless dark nothingness.
< 
< Hemingway stood on the yang side: "Life is too short for anything but the one thing that can outface death- human dignity"(Burgess (9.), p. 61). Fernando is the representative of this opinion in "For Whom the Bell Tolls", dignity also appears in the form of gaiety as Robert Jordan mentioned in the first chapter ("It was like having immortality"(For Whom (5.), p. 18)), yet he fears and worships the nada greatly, as the stream-of-consciousness passage of Robert's sexual intercourse with Maria proves(For Whom (5.), p. 171).
< 
< :For him it was a dark passage which led to nowhere, then to nowhere, then again to nowhere, once again to nowhere, always and forever to nowhere, heavy on the elbows in the earth to nowhere, dark, never any end to nowhere, hung on all the time always to unknowing nowhere, this time and again for always to nowhere, now not to be borne once again always and to nowhere, now beyond all bearing up, up, up and into nowhere, suddenly, scaldingly, holdingly all nowhere gone and time absolutely still and they were both there, time having stopped and he felt the earth move out and away from under them.
< 
< The prayer in "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place"(Short Stories (3.), p. 481), hinted at in "A Farewell to Arms" on page 13, where the still "numb" Frederic prefers nada, is very similar to this passage.
< Some lived in it and never felt it but he knew it all was nada y pues nada y nada y pues nada. Our nada who art in nada, nada be thy name thy kingdom nada thy will be nada in nada as it is in nada. Give us this nada our daily nada and nada us our nada as we nada our nadas and nada us not into nada but deliver us from nada; pues nada. Hail nothing full of nothing, nothing is with thee.
< 
< For Hemingway the human existence was a struggle between light and darkness, between life and death, and the epitome of this struggle were bullfights, Spain's national sport. He became an aficionado after having seen the Pamplona fiesta 1925 which was fictionalized in "The Sun Also Rises". But the book dealing exclusively with this topic was "Death in the Afternoon" where he discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting, the ritualized, almost religious procedures of the blood-soaked spectacle.
< 
< Sadly enough, the country which stood for everything that mattered to Hemingway, his cosmic principles life and death, the struggle between them, and its manifestation in the form of bullfights, was destroyed by the Fascists. In spite of his efforts to support the Loyalists, Franco took over in the spring of 1939, like Mussolini, whom Hemingway called "the biggest bluff in Europe"(Burgess (9.),p. 33), did in Italy 1922.
< 
< After having lost "his" country, he lost his Key West home as a consequence of his divorce in 1940. And at this point of time, the heaviest loss of all had already commenced. The generation he was a part of ceased to exist in the 'forties. Many were dying (Thomas Wolfe 9.15.1938, Ford Madox Ford 6.26.1939, F. Scott Fitzgerald 12.21.1940 (heart attack due to an alcoholic life as described in "The Sun Also Rises"), James Joyce 1.13.1941, Sherwood Anderson 3.8.1941, Virginia Woolf 3.28.1941 (suicide), Getrude Stein 7.27.1946) and some were leaning to the Fascists, like Ezra Pound. He became an Illand, the nothingness engulfed him.
< 
< next: /SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/The_Endless_Dark_Nothingness]]
------
ErnestHemingway/ThingsTurnSour|989023727
1,10c1
< 2.Things Turn Sour
< 
< He divorced Hadley and married Pauline. Because of his Catholic faith, some conscientious conflicts arose, but were finally overcome. In the 100 days Hadley ordered him to stay away from Pauline, "Men Without Women" was created. Afterwards, he married for the second time, his conscience seemed to be cleaned maybe due to his writing, but the next hurt was already under way. His father committed suicide because he couldn't bear the burden of his incurable illnesses any longer. The cowardice in this action must have been a great shame for somebody who is as convinced of the "grace under pressure" doctrine as Ernest. Maybe the sensational suicide of Harry Crosby affected him, too, the founder of the Black Sun Press was a friend of his in Paris.
< 
< His books sold very well and were approved by critics, but with Hemingway's success came his bad behavior. He told Scott Fitzgerald how to write his own novels, and Allen Tate that there was a fixed number of orgasms a man had. He also claimed Ford Madox Ford would be sexually impotent, maybe a hint to his own sexual neurosis. In return, he, too, was criticized and hurt. The journal "Bookman" attacked him as a dirty writer, McAlmon, the publisher of his first, non-commercial book said, according to Scott Fitzgerald, Hemingway would be "a fag and a wife-beater"(Burgess (9.), p. 57) and that Pauline was lesbian. Even Gertrude Stein criticized him. In her book "The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas", she claimed Hemingway had derived his style from her own and from Sherwood Anderson's, this shameful origin would be "yellow"(Burgess (9.), p. 64). Most insulting got Max Eastman, who asked Ernest to "come out from behind that false hair on the chest"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6), and who wrote an essay entitled "Bull in the Afternoon" as a satire on "Death in the Afternoon", a book Hemingway definitely would not joke about.
< 
< It is worth noting that this attacks on his pride and talent were accompanied by the already mentioned injuries (/TheTimeinBetween) which kept him almost constantly in bad shape.
< 
< next: /TheEndlessDarkNothingness
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Things_Turn_Sour]]
------
ErnestHemingway/YoungandInnocent|989023763
1,14c1
< III. Hemingway up Close and Personal
< 
< Hemingway's suicide was not that surprising after all. During all his life he was obsessed with death and, in a way, also with violence. Nevertheless, when his father committed suicide, he strongly condemned this deed as a violation both of what Harvey Breit called Hemingway's "categorical imperative"(Times 1961 (15.), p. 6) courage and his Catholic faith. Why, and when, did the change in mind take place? What were the reasons for his ever-growing inclination to killing and especially to killing himself?
< 
< 1.Young and Innocent
< 
< Oak Park produced a tall, handsome man, strong, smart and ambitious. He had already learned the art of hunting and therefore was no stranger to killing. He also enjoyed a good fight, boxing was one of his passions. His father's prestige as a physician helped him a lot in the small town, he learned about music and art and grew up in a protected, clean and safe neighborhood.
< 
< World War I showed him a different side of life, which did not, however, leave him entirely depressed and broken. His illusions were shattered, but the experiences gathered were invaluable, and, what's more, everything turned out to be all right in the end, the good ones won, his wounds healed completely and Agnes was a mere "Schwärmerei"(Burgess (9.); page 24). He even got decorated, returned as a hero and earned much fame and admiration back home. His luck was completed when he married Hadley Richardson who bore his first son.
< 
< Being a Artist in the "City of Light", as Paris still is called by some, he may have had a hard time from the financial point of view, but all in all the 'twenties were days of friendship, the financial and artistic struggle kept Hemingway fit.
< 
< next: /ThingsTurnSour
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Young_and_Innocent]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway|989023849
42,45c42,45
< Background
< Character
< Development
< Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway?s life
---
> :Background
> :Character
> :Development
> :Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway?s life
47,52c47,52
< /RobertJordan
< Background
< Character
< Development
< Pablo
< Hemingway Up Close and Personal
---
> [[/Robert Jordan]]
> :Background
> :Character
> :Development
> :Pablo
> :Hemingway Up Close and Personal
------
ErnestHemingway/RobertJordan|989023908
1,51c1
< b. Robert Jordan
< 
< 1.Background
< 
< Robert Jordan seems a little older than Frederic Henry, he already is an instructor and came to Spain first in 1925, so he is about 30, Henry is still studying. The links to his grandfather who fought in the American Civil War as did Ernest Hall and Anson Hemingway, the author's own grandfathers, are deeper, but they are just memories, as his grandfather is already dead. He asks him for help and advice and thinks he was "the hell of a good soldier"(For Whom (5.), p. 360) who, being a leader of irregular cavalry, must have been in similar situations. He admires him for having endured four years of Civil War.
< 
< At the time of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" the author's mental wounds had healed enough to allow him to reflect upon his father's suicide. Of course, this reflection is executed by Robert Jordan, but the parallels simply can't be denied. Jordan's father shot himself with an old Civil War pistol, as did Clarence Edmonds Hemingway and Jordan's father did it to "avoid being tortured"(For Whom (5.), p. 70), a reference to Hemingway's father's incurable illnesses. Jordan understands it, but doesn't approve it. He refers to his father as "the other one"(For Whom (5.), p. 361) and considers him a "coward"(For Whom (5.), p. 361). Although he knows his father had become what he was because he was trapped between the famous grandfather whose deeds he could never surpass and his dominating wife, Robert still feels ashamed. He himself is not married, at least not by law or church, and has no brothers or sisters.
< 
< 2.Character
< 
< As Karkov put it, Robert Jordan is "a young American of slight political development but a great way with the Spaniards and a fine partizan record."(For Whom (5.), p. 454). He is no Communist or Marxist but "an anti-fascist"(For Whom (5.), p. 69), just like Hemingway. For the duration of the war, however, he is "under Communist discipline [...], because, in the conduct of the war, they were the only party whose program and whose discipline he could respect."(For Whom (5.), p. 175). He is embarrassed by phrases like "enemies of the people"(For Whom (5.), p. 176) and other communist clichés, dialectics and a "purely materialistic conception of society"(For Whom (5.), p. 324).
< 
< He has the intention to write a book about Spain and the Spanish Civil War, Karkov, much admired and respected by Jordan, aids him because he thinks Jordan writes "absolutely truly"(For Whom (5.), p. 265), like Hemingway did, or at least claimed to do. He considers writing a way to get rid of all the experiences worrying him now. Interestingly enough, he thinks the book will be "Much better than the other"(For Whom (5.), p. 178), most likely referring to "A Farewell to Arms". In spite of having written the book in a third person selective omniscient perspective, Hemingway wants to be identified with Robert Jordan.
< 
< Robert Jordan is not as straight as Frederic Henry. Not only does he show a more differential way of thinking, but also he is inclined to talk to himself, especially in the second half of the novel(For Whom (5.), p. 323)
< 
<   But you like the people of Navarra better than those of any other part of 
<   Spain. Yes. And you kill them. Yes. [...] Don't you know it's wrong to kill?
<   Yes. But you do it? Yes.
< 
< He even insults himself sometimes reminding the reader of the argument between Anselmo and Pablo at the start of the novel.(For Whom (5.), p. 13)
< 
<   "Art thou a brute? Yes. Art thou a beast? Yes, many times. Hast thou a brain?
<    Nay. None."
< 
< Naturally, his attitude towards violence is different from Henry's. He believes it is justified to kill people for the cause, though he does not enjoy it. He is convinced that a victory is the only acceptable solution to this conflict. Their different attitudes result from their different motivations: Henry is just on some kind of adventure holiday while Jordan defends the country he "would rather have been born in"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)
< 
< Because of the gravity of the situation and the importance of his work, he can't permit himself emotions and feelings, he considers them as being luxuries, so he tries to restrain them, but is not always successful in the beginning, it takes him quite a while to extinguish them. (322-323)
< 
< 3.Development
< 
< One of the central aspects of the novel is Robert Jordan's education. In the beginning, Robert Jordan's world is a very simple one, he has got a task and he has got to accomplish it, no matter how high the cost. He knows "it was wrong in the first place and such things accentuate disaster as a snowball rolls up wet snow"(For Whom (5.), p. 413), but "he did not give any importance to what happened to himself"(For Whom (5.), p. 4). When he gets to know the people of Pablo, he fears his orders could harm or even kill them. The responsibility for the ones he likes is hard to bear, and when he fell for Maria, he "would abandon a hero's or a martyr's end gladly"(For Whom (5.), p. 177). At first, he considers this development a corruption of his fighting spirit, but later asks himself: " [...] was it corruption or was it merely that you lost the naïveté that you started with?"(For Whom (5.), p. 255). Especially Pilar became his mentor ("All right, Inglés . Learn. That's the thing. Learn."(For Whom (5.), p. 272)), a trait she could have derived from Hemingway's mentor Gertrude Stein. He learns to value his own life and to enjoy it, even though it's overshadowed by his forthcoming death and when it's over, he hates to leave it all behind.
< 
< Much of his education consisted of looking behind the scenes of the party propaganda. When he heard about the execution of the fascists in Pilar's home village, he is startled. To discover that the Loyalists can be brutal, too, is just the first part of the disclosure slowly emerging on his mind. The other part is the discovery that the dreaded fascist soldiers he is fighting and killing are simple peasants like the Republicans. On page 176, Robert thinks that all Spaniards are equal, just their leaders betray and abuse them, but every time he realizes this, he manages to suppress it, like Frederic Henry, because it would otherwise damage his resolution.
< 
< Apart from the obvious effects of violence on his development, the prospect of an early death influences him greatly. The knowledge that he has got to live his entire life in just four days acts as a catalyst for his development and made it possible in the first place.
< 
< 4.Pablo
< 
< Robert may seem to be the perfect continuation of Frederic Henry, but "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is more than a mere "A Farewell to Arms Part Two". Undoubtedly, the protagonist is the same, but there are those little differences that are already explained above, and apart from them, the major change is the introduction of two more main characters: Pablo and Pilar.
< 
< With Hemingway, it's always useful to try and associate the fictional characters with the ones of his real life. Since the protagonist's identity is well known, it's sound to associate Jordan's beloved Maria with Hemingway's beloved Martha to whom the novel is dedicated. The phonetic similarities in their forenames support this association. Pilar could correspond to Pauline Pfeiffer, since "Pilar" was Pauline's secret codename when Ernest was still married with Hadley. Pablo is, in an informal way, the husband of Pilar and they knew each other for quite a while, like Pauline and Ernest did. They behave like a long-married couple, so maybe Pablo is the personification of an Ernest who hadn't made a clear break with Pauline. Maybe he identifies with Pablo, a useless drunkard most of the time, but when things are getting serious, he shows grace under pressure and acts according to the "No man is an Illand" theme right from the start ("my duty is to those who are with me"(For Whom (5.), p. 16)). Robert Jordan does not value this theme right from the beginning, but seems, with his firm beliefs and his whole life still ahead of him, to be the best possible development Frederic could have had, while Pablo, with the alcoholic sentimentality of a man who knows his best years have already passed, represents the worst possibility. The reality, i.e. the author himself, struggles somewhere in between. On the one hand, he tries to stay away from Pablo, whose enthusiasm and resolution vanished a long time ago, who doesn't care much about politics and who definitely is unwilling to die for the cause, no matter how important it might seem. But on the other hand, he can't be like Robert Jordan, whose single-minded illusions about the strength of their enemies, about the possibility of a victory, about sacrifice, and about the justness of the cause appear very naïve.
< 
< Pablo is what Ernest fears to become and Jordan is what he once was, so the conflict between them could represent Hemingway's struggle with his former self, which is displayed best by Frederic Henry. As observer of this conflict acts Pilar who likes Robert, because he is formed out of the author's early characteristics. She is concerned about the first signs of assimilation Robert already shows, she warns Maria: "You are going to have a drunkard like I have"(For Whom (5.), p. 70).
< 
< What Hemingway tries is to get the best out of both characters, maybe to develop a guideline for his own life. They adopt each other's virtues and are able to drop some of their flaws. Robert gets, mostly via Pilar, some of Pablo's experience and is able to obtain a certain degree of wisdom, while Pablo is forced out of his "stagnation that is repugnant"(For Whom (5.), p. 33) and gets some reaffirmation of his spirit and resolution.
< 
< In spite of that, the differences are still huge and although Robert considers Pablo a smart man he strictly disapproves his brutality and low cunning. Pablo improved a little at the very end of the novel, but Robert still is by far the most virtuous character. If seen under this aspect, the novel's end appears more tragic than it did before, because it is also the end of Hemingway's inner struggle with his Lost Generation ego, that gives in to the drunken cynicism of Pablo, in whom Hemingway implies, deliberately or not, visions of his own future and facts of his present. It is not only the fictional character Robert who dies, but also the part of Hemingway's mind that he represented. He stopped fighting his latent depressions, his alcoholism and his brutality and was slowly overwhelmed by them.
< 
< next: /YoungandInnocent
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Robert_Jordan]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FredericHenry|989023957
1,37c1
< Author Milan Kundera once wrote his characters were not of woman born, but of an idea, of a decision he faced and didn't exploit the possibilities, circumvented a border instead of crossing it. Beyond the border, in fact, beyond the border of his own "I", started the realm in which his characters exist. They were familiar to him, but he could never reach them. I think the same holds true for Hemingway and his characters. Frederic Henry and Robert Jordan are perfect examples of "bordercrossers". Lt. Henry didn't want the medal of honor because he knew he didn't deserve it and deserted when realizing the true nature of war, Lt. Hemingway didn't take such drastic steps though he too had realized how pointless the war was. Robert Jordan took an active part in the Spanish Civil War and was willing to die for the country he loved, Ernest Hemingway was a non-combatant all the time.
< 
< a. Frederic Henry
< 
< 1.Background
< 
< Mr. Hemingway doesn't provide his readers with much information about the family background and the past of Frederic Henry, one simply gets to know that he had quarrels with his relatives and therefore doesn't maintain contact any more. Three family members are briefly mentioned, his mother, sister and grandfather. When asked about his father he states he had none, just a step-father. Maybe Hemingway was still battered by his own father's suicide and therefore removed all information on Frederic's father. Henry came to Italy to study architecture in Rome and, speaking Italian, joined the army for no real reason ("I was a fool"(A Farewell (1.), p. 227)), except for his eagerness for adventure ("In the old days I would have [...] picked a fight"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217)). The sight drafts he receives from his grandfather are the only link to his home, he doesn't pay much attention to his grandfather's letters, the only one mentioned in the whole book is handled in two short lines among many others.
< 2.Character
< 
< Henry tries to keep from thinking throughout the entire book, maybe he, too, fears getting "gloomy"(For Whom (5.), p. 18), he did not want to get emotionally involved in anything, neither in a love affair nor in the war. He was, in a way, convinced of the need for victory, but stated "It [the war] had nothing to do with me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 34). Talking about military maneuvers, he always referred to the Italian army as "them", thus stressing he doesn't see himself as part of the army as an ideological and patriotic institution. He doesn't report much about violence and death, if it happened, he mentioned it briefly, superficially, always refusing to have any feelings about it, always trying to get away from it. Even when he shot one of the Sergeants, he described it as if he was hunting ("I shot three times and dropped one"(A Farewell (1.), p. 182)), trying not to realize he shot a sentient being.
< 
< His attitude towards religion is a bit strange, though. On the one hand, he often said something around the lines "I had no religion"(A Farewell (1.), p. 289), but on the other hand he prayed not only for Catherine's life but also for his own ("Oh, God, I said, get me out of here."(A Farewell (1.), p. 51)). As a matter of fact, Hemingway was a convert under fire and the line "It is in defeat we become Christian"(A Farewell (1.), p. 160) clearly refers to that. The later statements about having no religion can be explained best by Henry's own words "He [the priest] had always known what I did not know and what, when I learned it, was always able to forget."(A Farewell (1.), p. 13).
< 
< Of course, this does not only refer to his religiosity, but also to his opinions about the war. To improve the process of forgetting that enables him to ignore all the violence, he drinks a great lot of alcohol throughout the whole novel ("I'm very brave when I've had a drink"(A Farewell (1.), p. 126)).
< 3.Development
< 
< The wall of emotional numbness Frederic Henry had set up before the novel started, crumbled when he first met Catherine, he felt he couldn't ignore all the sorrow and pain any longer, and began to separate from the rude society at the mess. This progress started when he proposed Catherine "Let's drop the war"(A Farewell (1.), p. 24) and was completed with the discovery "Then I realized it was over for me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 219), he "had made a separate peace"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217). His discovery had a multitude of reasons. First of all, as an ambulance driver, he had seen quite an amount of bloodshed when he carried off the wounded and dead. He could feel the inhumanity even more intense after his own wounding, when the man in the stretcher above him had a hemorrhage and the blood of the dying soldier slowly dripped on his shirt and nobody did anything about it. Prior to his wounding, he discussed with the ambulance drivers he was commanding. Since they agreed with their colleagues later in the novel, who "don't believe in the war anyway"(A Farewell (1.), p. 194), his sacrifice is rendered in vain, he almost died for nothing. It is worth noting that those eight ambulance drivers are the only soldiers to be described in the novel, therefore they act as representatives of the lower levels of the army hierarchy. Thus both Frederic Henry and the reader get the impression that the war is just wanted by the leaders, who don't care about human life (""How are all the wounded evacuated?" "They are not. [...]" "What will I take in the cars?" "Hospital equipment.""(A Farewell (1.), p. 168)) and the ambitious, like Ettore ("He's the boy they're running the war for"(A Farewell (1.), p. 109)). Furthermore, Frederic's talks with the priest in chapters 11 and 26 made him reach a certain state of awareness that left him more vulnerable to the cruelty surrounding him. He seemed to be most affected by the fate of Rinaldi. His prophecy "This war is killing me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 150) makes him commit "self-destruction day by day"(A Farewell (1.), p. 155). Together with all the other influences, his ongoing decline and its inevitable end reaffirmed Henry's decision to leave it all behind and made him condemn the war instead of supporting it by being an officer.
< 4.Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway's life
< 
< More than most of his other figures, Catherine Barkley is not a character by herself, but much more a vehicle for all kinds of experiences Hemingway made in his life so far. First of all, as she enters the novel, she clearly is the counterpart of the already mentioned Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, later, when Helen Ferguson is with her and especially when Ferguson complained about Henry, Catherine can be viewed upon as an image of Hadley Richardson. In the end, the labor pains and the Cesarean section are a clear reference to Pauline Pfeiffer.
< 
< But it is not all that easy. Catherine often says about herself that "There isn't any me any more"(A Farewell (1.), p. 96). Only when she is "self-conscious"(A Farewell (1.), p. 125), she is one of those women. When she is with Frederic, she adopts his ideas and vice versa. They form a unit that serves as an item of reflection for Hemingway's theories about life and death, which are always developed in the discussion of the lovers. She knows the poems he quotes and the books he is talking about, they have got so much in common that it's hard to tell them apart. The following dialogue may illustrate this(A Farewell (1.), pp. 125 through 126):
<   "They [the brave] die of course."
<   "But only once."
<   "I don't know. Who said that?"
<   "The coward dies a thousand deaths, the brave but one?"
<   "Of course. Who said it?"
<   "I don't know."
<   "He was probably a coward," she said. "He knew a great deal about cowards but
<   nothing about the brave. The brave dies perhaps two thousand deaths if he's
<   intelligent. He simply doesn't mention them."
<   "I don't know. It's hard to see inside the head of the brave."
<   "Yes. That's how they keep that way."
< 
< Without any former explanation, they always know what the other one is talking about. They develop, without disagreeing or arguing, a philosophy that represents Hemingway's code of courage, called "grace under pressure".
< 
< next: /RobertJordan
---
> #REDIRECt [[/Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FredericHenry|989023982
1c1
< #REDIRECt [[/Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FredericHenry|989024034
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Frederic_Henry]]
------
ErnestHemingway/ForWhomtheBellTolls|989024085
1,19c1
< 6.For Whom the Bell Tolls
< 
< Some experiences from the time of World War One have been worked into "For Whom the Bell Tolls". According to Anthony Burgess, the farewell at the station on page 434 is the equivalent of Hemingway's departure to the Italian front. An interesting aspect is that Jordan went to school instead, maybe the war represents for Hemingway, as well as for his character Jordan, a part of his education. The last thoughts of Jordan could refer to Ernest's wounding in Fossalta where it seemed to him "more natural to die than to go on living"(Burgess (9.), p. 22). The gray-haired soldier who already appeared (From Boy to Man) might have been the prototype of Anselmo, while Golz's look is that of real life Polish General "Walter", commander of the XIVth International Brigade.
< 
< To his other fiction, there are parallels, too. Maria's appearance and her behavior are almost identical to Catherine Barkley's. When Robert first embraces her, she erupts in tears, later she stated she didn't care much about herself but wished to do everything for him, and that she was his wife. Like Catherine, she is very preoccupied with death, and even excels her here. It seems as though Hemingway tried to summon the spirit of "A Farewell to Arms" once again, but Maria never was a character as complex as Catherine. In fact, she rarely said or did anything, and at the beginning of the last quarter of the novel Robert even remarked "I know thee very little from talking"(For Whom (5.), p. 365). She appears to be an imitation of Ms. Barkley, but only the facade is identical, in Maria's case, there is nothing behind, except for the story about her parents, but anyone could have told that. Pilar will be discussed in greater detail below (Pablo).
< 
< The story is told by a third-person selective-omniscient narrator and contains far more inner monologue and remembrances of the various characters than "A Farewell to Arms". This, on the one hand, is a necessity, since the book deals with just four days, and on the other hand supports the author's intention to illustrate the diversity and complexity of Spain. By using medieval English he emphasizes the antiquity and formality of the Spanish language and tries to lift the novel onto the level of Shakespearean dramas. In the last part of the novel, the plot is split into two parallel actions, the preparations for the attack and the course of Andrés. This is no unusual technique of storytelling, but with Hemingway, who sharply focused on his protagonist in "A Farewell to Arms", it's a signal. Some say it's a signal of him giving in to the demands of Hollywood directors who wanted books that can be easily used as scripts, but I consider it a signal of him disassociating himself from the protagonist, maybe because of superstition (it brings bad luck to write about one's own end), but more likely because of his inner struggle that will be explained later (Pablo ). At the time the novel was published, it seemed as though he separated the narrator from the protagonist to become what he had always wanted to be: A big, omniscient and ubiquitous daddy who tells all the stories and who's got everything under control. The reader often gets the impression that the characters are the narrator's children, especially when he evaluates them ("Anselmo was a very good man"(For Whom (5.), p. 212), "This was the greatest gift that he [Robert] had, the talent that fitted him for war"(For Whom (5.), p. 421),etc.).
< 
< The main theme of the novel is, as already pointed out in its preface, intense comradeship in the prospect of death, the giving up of the own self for the sake of the cause, for the sake of the people. Robert Jordan, Anselmo and the others are ready do it "as all good men should", the often repeated gesture of embracing or patting on one another's shoulder reinforces the impression of close companionship. One of the best examples is Joaquín. After having been told about the execution of his family, the others are embracing him and comfort him by saying they were his family now. Besides this love for the comrades, there is the love for the Spanish soil, which is represented by the pine-needled forest floor. This love lasts till the very last breath, as the last picture proves. Robert Jordan awaited his death feeling "his heart beating against the pine needle floor of the forest"(For Whom (5.), p. 504).
< 
< A less obvious, but, for the author personally, more important theme is suicide. Alarmingly enough, Hemingway already tried to justify it. Maria and Karkov are always equipped to do it, and Kashkin made Robert do it. The characters, including Robert, would prefer being dead to being captured, and that is Hemingway's first step onto a downward spiral.
< 
< Hemingway frequently used images to produce the dense atmosphere of violence and death his books are renowned for, the main image of "For Whom the Bell Tolls" is the machine image. The fear of modern armament destroys, as it already did in "A Farewell to Arms", the conceptions of the ancient art of war: combat, sportsmanlike competition and the aspect of hunting. Heroism becomes butchery, the most powerful picture employed here is the shooting of Maria's parents against the wall of a slaughterhouse. Glory exists in the official dispatches only, the theme "disillusionment" of "A Farewell to Arms" is adapted.
< 
< Especially the fascist planes are dreaded, when they approach, all hope is lost, the efforts of the partizans seem to vanish, their commitment and their abilities become meaningless. "They move like mechanized doom"(For Whom (5.), p. 93), and they wreak havoc with El Sordo and his band, the ideological slogans Joaquín employs "as though they were talismans"(For Whom (5.), p. 328) have no effect, he resorts to praying, but not even that can save him. Every time the planes appear they indicate a certain and pointless death. The same holds true for the automatic weapons ("Never in my life have I seen such a thing, with the troops running from the train and the máquina speaking into them and the men falling"(For Whom (5.), p. 31)) and the artillery, especially the trench mortars that already wounded Lt. Henry ("he knew that they would die as soon as a mortar came up"(For Whom (5.), p. 330)). No longer would the best soldier win, but the one with the biggest gun. The soldiers using those weapons are simple brutes, they lack "all conception of dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349) as Fernando remarked, Anselmo insisted "We must teach them. We must take away their planes, their automatic weapons, their tanks, their artillery and teach them dignity"(For Whom (5.), p. 349).
< 
< Apart from this physical threats, much of the violence is executed on a metaphysical level. The arguments between Robert and Pablo, especially the one where Robert tried to provoke Pablo far enough to have a reason to shoot him, is a great metaphysical battle that reminds one of Edward Albee's "Who's afraid of Virginia Woolf?", where the two main characters cause each other to crack up just by provoking. Pilar also is a very good example for metaphysical violence. She is one of the most brutal characters in the whole novel, and hurts almost everybody, but never actually uses physical force.
< 
< next: /FredericHenry
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/For_Whom_the_Bell_Tolls]]
------
ErnestHemingway/SpaininFlames|989024131
1,17c1
< 5.Spain in Flames
< 
< ?was the title of a Loyalist propaganda film he wrote a comment for. Supporting the -mostly Communist- Loyalists further, he and John Dos Passos went to Spain, founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called "The Spanish Earth". In addition to that, Hemingway became war correspondent for NANA, the North American Newspaper Alliance, thus he saw much of the fighting and could collect experiences for a new novel. While he was in Spain, his second marriage went to pieces. A liaison with Martha Gellhorn was revealed when a Rebel shell hit the hot-water boiler of the correspondents' hotel "Florida".
< 
< After "The Spanish Earth" was boxed and shipped, he left with the promise to propagandize for the Loyalists' cause. He spoke out in Shakespeare & Co. and addressed the Writers' Congress in New York on the fourth of June 1937. In his speech he stressed he was anti-fascist, not pro-Communist(Writer As Artist (7.), p. 224)
<    There is only one form of government [...] that cannot produce good writers,
<    and that system is fascism. For fascism is a lie told by bullies. A writer
<    who will not lie cannot live and work fascism.
< 
< Due to his reputation, "The Spanish Earth" was even shown in the White House and his article "Fascism is a Lie" was published in "New Masses". Furthermore, he established an ambulance fund and financed it by collecting money at Hollywood parties.
< 
< He returned to see Franco control two thirds of Spain, the Loyalists still fought on. "The Fifth Column" was finished just before the taking of Teruel in January 1938. He wrote it, according to the preface, under constant bombardment in the Hotel Florida, it appears as though he had again needed the thrilling aura of death to inspire him.
< 
< After short stays in Paris due to liver troubles and in Key West, he came back to Spain to see Loyalists retreating on all fronts, then returned to America to organize the experiences he gathered into a novel, the narrations of the different characters clearly originate here.
< 
< next: /ForWhomtheBellTolls
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Spain_in_Flames]]
------
ErnestHemingway/TheTimeinBetween|989024177
1,10c1
< 4.The Time in Between
< 
< Having published "A Farewell to Arms", the years of struggle were coming to an end. Ernest M. Hemingway now was an author of worldwide reputation, he was happy with Pauline and financially independent. But his luck in business, art and marriage was overshadowed by some serious attacks on his health (anthrax infection, cut eyeball, glass-gash in his forehead, grippe, toothache, hemorrhoids; after "A Farewell to Arms": kidney trouble from fishing in Spain, torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, laceration of arms and legs and face from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep Wyoming forest, later: car accident in Wyoming his arm was complicatedly broken).
< 
< Following the advice of John Dos Passos, he moved to Key West where he established his first American home. From the old stone house, a wedding present by Pauline's uncle, he would go fishing in the Tortugas waters, frequent Sloppy Joe's, Havana's famous bar, and travel to Spain every once in a while, gathering material for "Death in the Afternoon" and "Winner Take Nothing". A safari led him to Mombassa in fall 1932, Nairobi and Machakos in the Mua Hills. "The Green Hills of Africa", "The Snows of Kilimanjaro" and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber" were the literary results, many animal's lives were the cost.
< 
< His way of life provoked criticism by the Left. Max Eastman and many others demanded greater commitment to the affairs of the people. A young left-winger begged him to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and to write about truth and justice. For a while, it seemed as if he would do so. His article "Who Murdered the Vets?" for "New Masses", a leftist newspaper, and his book "To Have and Have Not" showed "social awareness", at least up to a certain degree. A little later, he would take political sides more explicitly.
< 
< next: /SpaininFlames
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/The_Time_in_Between]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms|989024232
1,12c1
< 3.From Reality to Fiction: A Farewell to Arms
< 
< "A Farewell to Arms" came as late as all the other World War One books (Frederic Manning "Her Privates We", Erich Maria Remarque "All Quiet on the Western Front", Richard Aldington "Death of a Hero", Robert Grave "Goodbye to All That", etc.). In the meantime many things had changed in Ernest Hemingway's life, he was not in love with Sister von Kurowsky any longer and had even divorced Hadley by the time his novel was published. He became father of a boy named Patrick and who was, like Henry's son in the novel, delivered by Cesarean section. The intense labor pains of his second wife Pauline were the inspiration for Catherine's labor in the novel. Interestingly enough, Ernest and Pauline were criss-crossing the USA by that time, maybe Ernest tried to escape his past like Frederic Henry did. Last, but not at all least, his father committed suicide, he shot himself in the head with an old Civil War pistol.
< 
< A lot of the novel's characters are based upon real life persons, like Helen Ferguson, who reminds the reader of Kitty Cannell, who "warned Hadley, whom she considered to be a put-upon and long-suffering angel, that her husband was unreliable"(Burgess (9.), p. 40) a number of times as Ferguson did on pages 98 through 99 and 219 through 222, and the priest, who represents Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. A mystery in its own right is the character Rinaldi who already appeared in "In Our Time".
< 
< One of the main themes the novel deals with is the unity of life and death, which is illustrated with a number of striking pictures like the soldiers carrying ammunition boxes, who "marched as though they were gone six months with child"(A Farewell (1.), p. 4), Frederic's flight in a wagon full of guns and Catherine's death in childbirth. The book itself is not a war novel, but, as Anthony Burgess put it, "a complex statement about the nature of human commitment, p.resented against a background of war vividly caught."(Burgess (9.), p. 55). James F. Light's article "The Religion of Death in A Farewell to Arms ", reprinted in "Critiques of Four Major Novels", reaches the same conclusion. Death and the cruelty of war are ever-present, but dwelling below the surface, and rarely erupting into the line of sight of the protagonist.
< 
< As a criticism of war Frederic Henry thinks and talks about Napoleon time and time again. By confronting the obsolete and romanticized way of making war with the actual situation, Hemingway intended to show the contrast between the official patriotic propaganda and the harsh reality. With Henry's famous monologue "I was always embarrassed by the words sacred, glorious, and sacrifice [...]"(A Farewell (1.), p. 165), he is able to develop a wordy philosophy. Sacrifice equaled slaughter, the glory and honor they all came for was replaced by a butchery of unknown extent. This is exactly the disillusionment of the Lost Generation, and it led Frederic to stop thinking. It is displayed with a number of other images, too, for example, when he is offered a sword in an armorer's shop, but replies he went back to the front and thus had no need for it, or when Catherine describes her lover's death ("He didn't have a sabre cut. They blew him all to bits"(A Farewell (1.), p. 19)).
< 
< next: /TheTimeinBetween
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[/Ernest_Hemingway/From_Reality_to_Fiction_A_Farewell_to_Arms]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms|989024316
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[/Ernest_Hemingway/From_Reality_to_Fiction_A_Farewell_to_Arms]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway/From Reality to Fiction A Farewell to Arms]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar|989024359
1,16c1
< 2.From Boy to Man: Hemingway's First World War
< 
< Once Mr. Hemingway wrote fellow author F. Scott Fitzgerald "We are all bitched from the start and you especially have to be hurt like hell before you can write seriously. But when you get a damned hurt use it- don't cheat with it. Be as faithful to it as a scientist"(Lynn (13.), p. 10) representing his personal motto. Hemingway's first hurts were so grave that it took him nearly ten years to write them down in a novel.
< 
< When he arrived in Europe, he was just another young hotshot out for adventure.En route to the Italian front, he had a stopover in Paris. The city was under constant bombardment from German siege guns, but instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Ernest advised the taxi driver to bring him to the place where the shells were hitting the ground and he wouldn't stop looking for enemy fire until one shell was tearing apart the facade of a church at the Place de la Madelaine nearby. In retrospective, he said about himself: "I was an awful dope when I went to the last war. I can remember just thinking that we were the home team and the Austrians were the visiting team"(Barron's Book Notes (8.), p. 2).
< 
< But gruesome reality caught up with him very fast, on his first day of duty an ammunition factory exploded in the countryside near Milan, he had to pick up bodies and pieces of bodies, mostly of women working there. This first and extremely cruel encounter with human death had left him shaken, the soldiers he met later weren't all too helpful in lightening this negative impression. Eric Dorman-Smith, for example, quoted Shakespeare's Henry IV Part Two: "By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death . . . and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next"(Burgess (9.), p. 24). A 50-year-old soldier, to whom he said "You're troppo vecchio for this war, pop." replied "I can die as well as any man."(Burgess (9.), p. 24).
< 
< Still, he wanted to come even closer to where the action was, and was wounded at midnight on the eighth of July while bicycling to a forward command post to deliver chocolate. The exact details remain mysterious, only two things are for sure: A trench mortar shell hit him leaving fragments in both legs, and he received the Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) from the Italian government. Whether or not he saved another soldier's life by carrying him on his back remains unclear.
< 
< Convalescing in the Ospedale Croce Rossa Americana, Via Alessandro Manzoni in Milan he met Sister Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, a nurse from Washington, DC. and one of eighteen nurses looking after just four patients. He fell for her, but they never were really together. Soon after his departure, she was in love with somebody else.
< 
< Hemingway's metaphysical movement in this early period was a shift from juvenile life in Oak Park to the horrors of a full scale war. He intruded deeper and deeper into the realm of violence until he stood face to face with death. After this encounter, he returned to -now mature- life and replaced hatred with love.
< 
< next: /FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/From_Boy_to_Man_Hemingways_First_World_War]]
------
ErnestHemingway/FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster|989024396
1,17c1
< B)Main Part
< 
< I. Books and Beyond
< 
< 1.Famous at Twenty-Five: Thirty a Master
< 
< One cannot really discuss any Hemingway issue without knowledge of the Hemingway style that rocked the literary scene when it first arrived. Below the seemingly simple surface, which had been a revolution of its own right in a time when writing in Victorian sense with neo-Gothic decorations was still governing the literary world, lie allegorical structures of unknown complexity. This style was no natural gift. On the one hand, it was the reward for his immense efforts and the hurts he had to cope with and on the other hand it was, and still is, the epitome of the modern movement, since "No man is an <I>Iland</I>"(For Whom (5.), preface), p.articularly not in 'twenties' Paris, where every author lent the young Hemingway a helping hand and thus contributed to his style.
< 
< After their wedding, the Hemingways decided to live abroad for a while, and, following the advice of Sherwood Anderson, they picked Paris, where Ernest could develop his literary skills better than anywhere else on the planet. At that point of time, the first professional and profound influence had already coined him. Ernest had used to be a reporter for the Kansas City Star, and the Kansas City Star Style Book, which was a guideline the newspaper had established, had lain the foundations for his later art. "Brevity, a reconciliation of vigour with smoothness, the positive approach"(Burgess (9.), p. 19) were its main directives and the young Ernest was willing to adopt them as his personal standard.
< 
< Sherwood Anderson wrote him a letter of recommendation to Gertrude Stein. She became his mentor and opened him the door to the Parisian Modern Movement. His other mentor was Ezra Pound, the founder of Imagism. In retrospective, Hemingway once said about them: "Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right."(to John Peale Bishop; Cowley (4.), p. xiii). He even considered giving Mr. Pound the Nobel Prize gold medal. At the same time, he became a close friend of James Joyce whose "Ulysses" with its stream-of-consciousness techniques had a tremendous impact on the literary scene. These authors and many others met at Sylvia Beach's Shakespeare &amp; Co., 18 Rue de l'Odéon, Paris.
< 
< But the last impulse he required came in an unsuspected and painful way. His manuscripts, among them "A Farewell to Arms" were stolen at Gare de Lyon when his wife wanted to bring them along to Lausanne to meet him. This loss was a big gain after all, because by re-writing the novel he had also time to reconsider, thus improving it. The second version was a great deal less flowery, stripped of all decoration, reduced to the bare essentials, matter-of-factly, concentrated and compressed.
< 
< During this peaceful life among friends, he was able to develop his literary skills, in times of war, inspired by death, he would use them.
< 
< next: /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest_Hemingway/Famous_at_Twenty-Five_Thirty_a_Master]]
------
ErnestHemingway|989024469
1,83c1
< [[Ernest Hemingway]]
< 
< Ernest Miller Hemingway (American author)
< 
< born July 21, 1899, Oak Park (Illinois); died July 2, 1961, Ketchum (Idaho)
< 
< Awards:
< Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in the First World War
< 
< Pullitzer Price 1953 (for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
< 
< Nobel Price for Literature 1954 (also for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
< 
< The following text was originally a research paper for school describing Hemingway's Life and work, as exemplified by the novels "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and "A Farewell to Arms". If you are looking for information on Hemingway only, you might want to skip the sections on Frederic Henry and Robert Jordan, for a quick read, you can start at /YoungandInnocent
< 
< If you want to know where the quotes are coming from, please refer to the bibliography section. For easier reading, this text is split in several sections, you can get an all-in-one HTML version at http://people.freenet.de/sonics_homepage/hemtext.html
<  
< 
< Grace Under Pressure
< 
< Death and Violence in Ernest Hemingway's Life and Work
< 
< 1.Introduction
< 
< Death and violence were the two great constants in Hemingway's troubled and ever-changing life. In his infancy, he joined his father on hunting trips and was given his first shotgun at the age of ten. Fifty-one years later, he used one to commit suicide. In the meantime, he had hurt many and many had hurt him. He was a bit like D&ouml;blin's Franz Biberkopf, a tough, strong man with strong principles. Life thought that would be too bold to last, and started to hurt him. In fact, much of the beating he had to take and most of the losses he had to cope eith seemed neither his nor anybody else's fault. It seemed that life itself was against him sometimes. Hemingway "believed that life was a tragedy and knew it could only have one end"(Critiques (6.), p. 49), yet he was blessed by it with talent and fame. Maybe that made it harder for him to admit his failures and to correct them. This research paper tries, aside from analyzing the two novels as representatives of his work, to find out the reason for his ongoing decline and to point out mistakes and wrong decisions he made. It also tries to trace alternatives to Hemingway's actual development to reach a conclusion that sums up the effects of violence and death in its various forms upon Ernest Hemingway's life and work.
< 
< Main Part:Books and Beyond
< 
< /FamousatTwentyFiveThirtyaMaster
< 
< /FromBoytoManHemingwaysFirstWorldWar
< 
< /FromRealitytoFictionAFarewelltoArms
< 
< /TheTimeinBetween
< 
< /SpaininFlames
< 
< /ForWhomtheBellTolls
< 
< Robert Jordan and Frederic Henry: Two Facets of Hemingway
< 
< /FredericHenry
<   Background
<   Character
<   Development
<   Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway?s life
< 
< /RobertJordan
<   Background
<   Character
<   Development
<   Pablo
< Hemingway Up Close and Personal
< 
< /YoungandInnocent
< 
< /ThingsTurnSour
< 
< /TheEndlessDarkNothingness
< 
< /SureShotsTheSecondWorldWar
< 
< /TheDownwardSpiral
< 
< Conclusion
< 
< /ViolenceandRedemption
< 
< /WhyItWentWrong
< 
< Appendix
< 
< /BibliographY
< 
< ----
< 
< This is very impressive work and quite an enormous contribution to [[Wikipedia]].  First, Andreas, you do realize, I hope, that by posting it on [[Wikipedia]], you have released this work according to the GNUFreeDocumentationLicense?  
< Second, is there anything in particular that you would like people to do to this work to render it more encyclopedia-like?  (For some similar instructions-to-the-public, see LarrysText.) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- Sonic
---
> #REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]
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Novelists|989024745
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< * [[ErnestHemingway]]
---
> * [[Ernest Hemingway]]
------
Wikipedia_Announcements/February_2001|989024857
37c37
< TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about ErnestHemingway.
---
> TimShell is working on an enormous "Cliff Notes"-style summary of [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''AtlasShrugged''.  We have also been graced with an enormous entry about [[Ernest Hemingway]].
47c47
< I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> I have also uploaded LarrysText to the server, so now [[Wikipedia]] has a veritable boatload of philosophical content.  Now all we have to do is wikify it and remove the bullshit. :-) -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
World_War_I|989025374
19c19
< *[[ErnestHemingway|Ernest Hemingway]]: ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''
---
> *[[Ernest Hemingway]]: ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''
------
Brain|989026415
1c1
< the supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system, which is usually consist of a group of [[ganglions]]. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. It has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
---
> the supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. It has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
------
Brain|989026466
1c1
< the supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. It has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
---
> The supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. In humans itt has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
------
Be|989026708
1c1
< Exist:  "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough.""
---
> The English word "be" has many meanings, most of which relate to the subject of [[ontology]].
3c3
< Exist as a particular person, thing or identity; have particular identity attributes:  "I only want to ''be'' myself."  "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake."  "Only a person who has attained age 35 or better may ''be'' President of the United states."  "Who knew that when he grew up, he would ''be'' Bob Dylan?"
---
> To exist: "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough."
5c5
< Exist as a member of a set or class.  "I wonder what it's like to ''be'' a Sunni Muslim."
---
> To have a particular identity: "I only want to ''be'' myself."  "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake."  "Only a person who has attained age 35 or better may ''be'' President of the United states."  "Who knew that when he grew up, he would ''be'' Bob Dylan?"
7c7
< Exist as or while possessing a particular attribute or attributes.  "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"
---
> To belong to a set or class: "I wonder what it's like to ''be'' a Sunni Muslim."
9c9
< Exist as or while performing a certain act or action.  "I will ''be'' running in the marathon tomorrow."  In this usage, the verb 'to be' is considered a "helper verb," modifying the tense or case of the verb with which it appears.
---
> To posess a particular attribute or attributes: "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will ''be'' tired after running."  "Will you ''be'' going to the play tomorrow?"  (In this latter form, some grammarians might consider "be going" single verb phrase with "be" as a "helper verb", while others consider the [[gerund]] "going" to be used as an adjective describing a condition parallel to the "tired" example.  This latter interpretation is more consistent with other Germanic languages).
11c11
< The verb ''to be'' is a copulative, indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
---
> Liguists call the verb "be" a '''copulative''', indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
13,18c13
< <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].----
< The verb "to be" has two meanings.<br>
< The first is existence. For example:<br>
< "There <b>are</b> six books on the table.<br>
< The second is as the copulative in the predicate nominate. For Example:<br>
< They <b>are</b> happy.<br>
---
> Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "NEED FULL JAPANESE PHRASE HERE", or roughly "the book exists (on the table)", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
20,22c15
< This is more obvious when one compares English to languages where these two senses of "to be" are expressed by different verbs, like Japanese:<br>
< "arimasu"- existence<br>
< "desu"- copulative<br>----
---
> <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].
23a17,18
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Jerzy_Kosinski|989028929
3,5c3
< ''Out of curiosity, is there a connection between the last two things?''
< 
< Josh, I really don't know.  I'd speculate that he committed suicide because of a number of things, since depressed people become tend to become overwhelmed and every challenge seems magnified.  The drubbing he was taking critically certainly wouldn't have helped.  Also, survivor's guilt is a well-documented phenomenon, so that may have had something to do with it, since he survived WWII in Poland.  But I haven't looked into it to see if he left any sort of explanation as to why.  I suppose that would be in order to fill out the entry....
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Jerzy_Kosinski/Talk|989028941
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Out of curiosity, is there a connection between the last two things?''
> 
> Josh, I really don't know.  I'd speculate that he committed suicide because of a number of things, since depressed people become tend to become overwhelmed and every challenge seems magnified.  The drubbing he was taking critically certainly wouldn't have helped.  Also, survivor's guilt is a well-documented phenomenon, so that may have had something to do with it, since he survived WWII in Poland.  But I haven't looked into it to see if he left any sort of explanation as to why.  I suppose that would be in order to fill out the entry....
------
Ingmar_Bergman|989029010
3c3
< As a director, he favors intuition over intellect, and chooses to be unaggressive in dealing with actors.  Bergman sees himself as having a great responsibility towards his actors, whom he view as collaborators in a psychologically vulnerable position, stating that a director must be both honest and supportive to allow others to do their best work.
---
> As a director, he favors intuition over intellect, and chooses to be unaggressive in dealing with actors.  Bergman sees himself as having a great responsibility towards his actors, whom he view as collaborators in a psychologically vulnerable position; Bergman states that a director must be both honest and supportive to allow others their best work.
------
Iran|989030519
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Iran/History|989030547
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in 1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces subsequently crushed westernizing liberal elements. Militant Iranian students seized the US Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January 1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq over disputed territory. The key current issue is how rapidly the country should open up to the modernizing influences of the outside world.
------
Iran/Geography|989030583
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Caspian Sea, between Iraq and Pakistan
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 32 00 N, 53 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.648 million sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.636 million sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 12,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Alaska
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,440 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Afghanistan 936 km, Armenia 35 km, Azerbaijan-proper 432 km, Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave 179 km, Iraq 1,458 km, Pakistan 909 km, Turkey 499 km, Turkmenistan 992 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,440 km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Iran also borders the Caspian Sea (740 km)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> natural prolongation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> bilateral agreements, or median lines in the Persian Gulf
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> mostly arid or semiarid, subtropical along Caspian coast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rugged, mountainous rim; high, central basin with deserts, mountains; small, discontinuous plains along both coasts
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caspian Sea -28 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Qolleh-ye Damavand 5,671 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, sulfur
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 55% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 94,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes along western border and in the northeast
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; inadequate supplies of potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
------
Iran/People|989030600
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 65,619,636 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34% (male 11,542,446; female 11,035,705)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 61% (male 20,151,083; female 19,879,432)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 1,592,753; female 1,418,217) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.83% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 18.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.45 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -4.55 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.12 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 30.02 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.66 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.34 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 71.05 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.2 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Iranian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Iranian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Persian 51%, Azeri 24%, Gilaki and Mazandarani 8%, Kurd 7%, Arab 3%, Lur 2%, Baloch 2%, Turkmen 2%, other 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Shi'a Muslim 89%, Sunni Muslim 10%, Zoroastrian, Jewish, Christian, and Baha'i 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Persian and Persian dialects 58%, Turkic and Turkic dialects 26%, Kurdish 9%, Luri 2%, Balochi 1%, Arabic 1%, Turkish 1%, other 2%
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 72.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 78.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 65.8% (1994 est.)
------
Iran/Government|989030619
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Islamic Republic of Iran
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Iran
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Iran
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Iran
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> theocratic republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Tehran
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 28 provinces (ostanha, singular - ostan); Ardabil, Azarbayjan-e Gharbi, Azarbayjan-e Sharqi, Bushehr, Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari, Esfahan, Fars, Gilan, Golestan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Kerman, Kermanshahan, Khorasan, Khuzestan, Kohkiluyeh va Buyer Ahmadi, Kordestan, Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Qom, Qazvin, Semnan, Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, Zanjan
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 April 1979 (Islamic Republic of Iran proclaimed)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Islamic Republic Day, 1 April (1979)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 2-3 December 1979; revised 1989 to expand powers of the presidency and eliminate the prime ministership
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> the Constitution codifies Islamic principles of government
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 15 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Leader of the Islamic Revolution Ayatollah Ali Hoseini-KHAMENEI (since 4 June 1989)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President (Ali) Mohammad KHATAMI-Ardakani (since 3 August 1997); First Vice President Hasan Ebrahim HABIBI (since NA August 1989)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers selected by the president with legislative approval
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> leader of the Islamic Revolution appointed for life by the Assembly of Experts; president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 23 May 1997 (next to be held NA May 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> (Ali) Mohammad KHATAMI-Ardakani elected president; percent of vote - (Ali) Mohammad KHATAMI-Ardakani 69%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Islamic Consultative Assembly or Majles-e-Shura-ye-Eslami (290 seats, note - changed from 270 seats with the 18 February 2000 election; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 18 February-NA April 2000 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - NA; note - reformers received 70% of the vote (170 seats), the conservatives received 30% (45 seats), and independents (10 seats); 65 seats were up for runoff election in April 2000
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> since President KHATAMI's election in May 1997, several political parties have been licensed; Executives of Construction; Followers of the Imam's Line and the Leader (conservative); Islamic Coalition Association [Habibollah ASQAR-OLADI]; Islamic Iran Solidarity Party; Islamic Partnership Front; Militant Clerics Association [Ayatollah Mahdavi KANI]; Second Khordad Front (pro-reform); Tehran Militant Clergy Association [Secretary General Ayatollah Mohammad EMAMI-KASHANI]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> active student groups include the pro-reform "Organization for Strengthening Unity" and "the Union of Islamic Student Societies'; groups that generally support the Islamic Republic include Ansar-e Hizballah, Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution, Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam, and the Islamic Coalition Association; opposition groups include the Liberation Movement of Iran and the Nation of Iran party; armed political groups that have been almost completely repressed by the government include Mojahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK), People's Fedayeen, Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan; the Society for the Defense of Freedom
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CCC, CP, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - Iran has an Interests Section in the Pakistani Embassy, headed by Faramarz FATH-NEJAD; address: Iranian Interests Section, Pakistani Embassy, 2209 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007; telephone: [1] (202) 965-4990
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none; note - protecting power in Iran is Switzerland
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red; the national emblem (a stylized representation of the word Allah) in red is centered in the white band; ALLAH AKBAR (God is Great) in white Arabic script is repeated 11 times along the bottom edge of the green band and 11 times along the top edge of the red band
------
Iran/Economy|989030638
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. President KHATAMI has continued to follow the market reform plans of former President RAFSANJANI and has indicated that he will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy although he has made little progress toward that goal. The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran's financial situation tightened in 1997 and deteriorated further in 1998 because of lower oil prices. The subsequent zoom in oil prices in 1999 afforded Iran fiscal breathing room but does not solve Iran's structural economic problems.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $347.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 45% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 53% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 30% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 15.4 million
> <br><i>note:</i>
> shortage of skilled labor
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 33%, industry 25%, services 42% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 25% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $34.6 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $34.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $11.8 billion (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, petrochemicals, textiles, cement and other construction materials, food processing (particularly sugar refining and vegetable oil production), metal fabricating, armaments
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5.7% (FY95/96 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 95.31 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 92.33%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 7.67%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 88.638 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, rice, other grains, sugar beets, fruits, nuts, cotton; dairy products, wool; caviar
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $12.2 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum 80%, carpets, fruits, nuts, hides, iron, steel
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan, Italy, Greece, France, Spain, South Korea
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $13.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, military supplies, metal works, foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals, technical services, refined oil products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany, Italy, Japan, UAE, UK, Belgium
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $21.9 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $116.5 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 10 Iranian rials (IR) = 1 toman; note - domestic figures are generally referred to in terms of the toman
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Iranian rials (IR) per US$1 - 1,754.90 (January 2000), 1,725.93 (1999), 1,751.86 (1998), 1,752.92 (1997), 1,750.76 (1996), 1,747.93 (1995); black market rate: 7,000 rials per US$1 (December 1998); note - as of May 1995, the "official rate" of 1,750 rials per US$1 is used for imports of essential goods and services and for oil exports, whereas the "official export rate" of 3,000 rials per US$1 is used for non-oil exports and imports not covered by the official rate
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 21 March - 20 March
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Iran/Communications|989030654
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 7 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 265,000 (August 1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> inadequate but currently being modernized and expanded with the goal of not only improving the efficiency and increasing the volume of the urban service but also bringing telephone service to several thousand villages, not presently connected
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> as a result of heavy investing in the telephone system since 1994, the number of long distance channels in the microwave radio relay trunk has grown substantially; many villages have been brought into the net; the number of main lines in the urban systems have approximately doubled; and thousands of mobile cellular subscribers are being served; moreover, the technical level of the system has been raised by the installation of thousands of digital switches
> <br><i>international:</i>
> HF radio and microwave radio relay to Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Syria, Kuwait, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan; submarine fiber-optic cable to UAE with access to Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG); Trans Asia Europe (TAE) fiber-optic line runs from Azerbaijan through the northern portion of Iran to Turkmenistan with expansion to Georgia and Azerbaijan; satellite earth stations - 9 Intelsat and 4 Inmarsat; Internet service available but limited to electronic mail to promote Iranian culture
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 72, FM 5, shortwave 5 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 17 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 28 (plus 450 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 4.61 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Iran/Transportation|989030675
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 5,600 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 94 km 1.676-m gauge
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 5,506 km 1.435-m gauge (146 km electrified) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 140,200 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 49,440 km (including 470 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 90,760 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 904 km; the Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 5,900 km; petroleum products 3,900 km; natural gas 4,550 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Abadan (largely destroyed in fighting during 1980-88 war), Ahvaz, Bandar 'Abbas, Bandar-e Anzali, Bushehr, Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, Bandar-e Lengeh, Bandar-e Mahshahr, Bandar-e Torkaman, Chabahar (Bandar Beheshti), Jazireh-ye Khark, Jazireh-ye Lavan, Jazireh-ye Sirri, Khorramshahr (limited operation since November 1992), Now Shahr
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 138 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,517,751 GRT/6,208,230 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 45, cargo 36, chemical tanker 4, combination bulk 1, container 7, liquified gas 1, multi-functional large load carrier 6, petroleum tanker 26, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 288 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 112
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 38
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 21
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 23
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 24
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 176
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 123
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 32 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 11 (1999 est.)
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Iran/Military|989030691
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Islamic Republic of Iran regular forces (includes Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces), Revolutionary Guards (includes Ground, Air, Navy, Qods, and Basij-mobilization-forces), Law Enforcement Forces
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 21 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 17,762,030 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 10,545,869 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 801,260 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $5.787 billion (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.9% (FY98/99)
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Iran/Transnational_issues|989030707
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; Iran occupies two islands in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE: Lesser Tunb (called Tunb as Sughra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek in Persian by Iran) and Greater Tunb (called Tunb al Kubra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg in Persian by Iran); Iran jointly administers with the UAE an island in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE (called Abu Musa in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Abu Musa in Persian by Iran) - over which Iran has taken steps to exert unilateral control since 1992, including access restrictions and a military build-up on the island; the UAE has garnered significant diplomatic support in the region in protesting these Iranian actions; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> despite substantial interdiction efforts, Iran remains a key transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin to Europe; domestic consumption of narcotics remains a persistent problem and Iranian press reports estimate that there are at least 1.2 million drug users in the country
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Iraq|989030743
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Iraq/History|989030773
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq became an independent kingdom in 1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series of military strongmen have ruled the country since then, the latest being SADDAM Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-1988). In August 1990 Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during January-February 1991. The victors did not occupy Iraq, however, thus allowing the regime to stay in control. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification inspections. UN trade sanctions remain in effect due to incomplete Iraqi compliance with relevant UNSC resolutions.
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Iraq/Geography|989030787
1c1,60
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iran and Kuwait
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 33 00 N, 44 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 437,072 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 432,162 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 4,910 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of Idaho
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,631 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Iran 1,458 km, Jordan 181 km, Kuwait 242 km, Saudi Arabia 814 km, Syria 605 km, Turkey 331 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 58 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> not specified
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> mostly desert; mild to cool winters with dry, hot, cloudless summers; northern mountainous regions along Iranian and Turkish borders experience cold winters with occasionally heavy snows that melt in early spring, sometimes causing extensive flooding in central and southern Iraq
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly broad plains; reedy marshes along Iranian border in south with large flooded areas; mountains along borders with Iran and Turkey
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Persian Gulf 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Haji Ibrahim 3,600 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 79% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 25,500 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dust storms, sandstorms, floods
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification
------
Iraq/People|989030809
1c1,120
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 22,675,617 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 42% (male 4,860,795; female 4,708,453)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 55% (male 6,272,842; female 6,123,188)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 331,840; female 378,499) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.86% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 35.04 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 62.49 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 66.53 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 65.54 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.56 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.87 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Iraqi(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Iraqi
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Arab 75%-80%, Kurdish 15%-20%, Turkoman, Assyrian or other 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 97% (Shi'a 60%-65%, Sunni 32%-37%), Christian or other 3%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic, Kurdish (official in Kurdish regions), Assyrian, Armenian
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 58%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 45% (1995 est.)
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Iraq
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Iraq
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Jumhuriyah al Iraqiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Iraq
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Baghdad
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Anbar, Al Basrah, Al Muthanna, Al Qadisiyah, An Najaf, Arbil, As Sulaymaniyah, At Ta'mim, Babil, Baghdad, Dahuk, Dhi Qar, Diyala, Karbala', Maysan, Ninawa, Salah ad Din, Wasit
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 3 October 1932 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Revolution, 17 July (1968)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 22 September 1968, effective 16 July 1970 (provisional constitution); new constitution drafted in 1990 but not adopted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law in special religious courts, civil law system elsewhere; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President SADDAM Husayn (since 16 July 1979); Vice President Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF (since 21 April 1974); Vice President Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since 23 March 1991)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister SADDAM Husayn (since 29 May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Mikhail AZIZ (since NA 1979); Deputy Prime Minister Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since NA May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Muhammad Hamza al-ZUBAYDI (since NA May 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Revolutionary Command Council or RCC (Chairman SADDAM Husayn, Vice Chairman Izzat IBRAHIM al-Duri) which controls the ruling Ba'th Party, and is the most powerful political entity in the country
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice presidents elected by a two-thirds majority of the Revolutionary Command Council; election last held 17 October 1995 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> SADDAM Husayn reelected president; percent of vote - 99%; Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF and Taha Yasin RAMADAN elected vice presidents; percent of vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Majlis al-Watani (250 seats; 30 appointed by the president to represent the three northern provinces of Dahuk, Arbil, and As Sulaymaniyah; 220 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 24 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Cassation
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Ba'th Party [SADDAM Husayn, central party leader]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> any formal political activity must be sanctioned by the government; opposition to regime from Kurdish groups and southern Shi'a dissidents
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - Iraq has an Interest Section in the Algerian Embassy headed by Mr. Akram AL DOURI; address: Iraqi Interests Section, Algerian Embassy, 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008; telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800; FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none; note - the US has an Interests Section in the Polish Embassy in Baghdad; address: P. O. Box 2051 Hay Babel, Baghdad; telephone: [964] (1) 718-9267; FAX: [964] (1) 718-9297
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with three green five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the phrase ALLAHU AKBAR (God is Great) in green Arabic script - Allahu to the right of the middle star and Akbar to the left of the middle star - was added in January 1991 during the Persian Gulf crisis; similar to the flag of Syria which has two stars but no script and the flag of Yemen which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Egypt which has a symbolic eagle centered in the white band
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Iraq/Government|989030825
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 billion from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the UN's oil-for-food program in December 1996 has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export under the oil-for-food program as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $59.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 13% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 81% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 135% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.4 million (1989)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 28.4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 97.89%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 2.11%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 26.412 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, cotton; cattle, sheep
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $12.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia, France, China (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, medicine, manufactures
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia, France, Egypt, Vietnam (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $130 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $327.5 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) = 1,000 fils
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 0.3109 (fixed official rate since 1982); black market rate - Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 1,900 (December 1999), 1,815 (December 1998), 1,530 (December 1997), 3,000 (December 1995); subject to wide fluctuations
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Iraq/Economy|989030839
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 675,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> reconstitution of damaged telecommunication facilities began after the Gulf war; most damaged facilities have been rebuilt
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the network consists of coaxial cables and microwave radio relay links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) and 1 Arabsat (inoperative); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Jordan, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey; Kuwait line is probably nonoperational
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 19 (5 are inactive), FM 51, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.85 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 13 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Iraq/Communications|989030855
1c1,53
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,032 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 2,032 km 1.435-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 45,550 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 38,400 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 7,150 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,015 km; Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use; Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have navigable sections for shallow-draft watercraft; Shatt al Basrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf war
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 4,350 km; petroleum products 725 km; natural gas 1,360 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Umm Qasr, Khawr az Zubayr, and Al Basrah have limited functionality
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 606,227 GRT/1,067,770 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 14, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 13, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 113 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 80
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
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Iraq/Transportation|989030867
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Republican Guard, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Border Guard Force, Fedayeen Saddam
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,674,990 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,176,826 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 266,736 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Iraq/People|989030917
60,120d59
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Country name:</b>
< <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
< Republic of Iraq
< <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
< Iraq
< <br><i>local long form:</i>
< Al Jumhuriyah al Iraqiyah
< <br><i>local short form:</i>
< Al Iraq
< <p><b>Data code:</b>
< IZ
< <p><b>Government type:</b>
< republic
< <p><b>Capital:</b>
< Baghdad
< <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
< 18 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Anbar, Al Basrah, Al Muthanna, Al Qadisiyah, An Najaf, Arbil, As Sulaymaniyah, At Ta'mim, Babil, Baghdad, Dahuk, Dhi Qar, Diyala, Karbala', Maysan, Ninawa, Salah ad Din, Wasit
< <p><b>Independence:</b>
< 3 October 1932 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration)
< <p><b>National holiday:</b>
< Anniversary of the Revolution, 17 July (1968)
< <p><b>Constitution:</b>
< 22 September 1968, effective 16 July 1970 (provisional constitution); new constitution drafted in 1990 but not adopted
< <p><b>Legal system:</b>
< based on Islamic law in special religious courts, civil law system elsewhere; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
< <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
< 18 years of age; universal
< <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
< <br><i>chief of state:</i>
< President SADDAM Husayn (since 16 July 1979); Vice President Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF (since 21 April 1974); Vice President Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since 23 March 1991)
< <br><i>head of government:</i>
< Prime Minister SADDAM Husayn (since 29 May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Mikhail AZIZ (since NA 1979); Deputy Prime Minister Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since NA May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Muhammad Hamza al-ZUBAYDI (since NA May 1994)
< <br><i>cabinet:</i>
< Council of Ministers
< <br><i>note:</i>
< there is also a Revolutionary Command Council or RCC (Chairman SADDAM Husayn, Vice Chairman Izzat IBRAHIM al-Duri) which controls the ruling Ba'th Party, and is the most powerful political entity in the country
< <br><i>elections:</i>
< president and vice presidents elected by a two-thirds majority of the Revolutionary Command Council; election last held 17 October 1995 (next to be held NA 2002)
< <br><i>election results:</i>
< SADDAM Husayn reelected president; percent of vote - 99%; Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF and Taha Yasin RAMADAN elected vice presidents; percent of vote - NA
< <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
< unicameral National Assembly or Majlis al-Watani (250 seats; 30 appointed by the president to represent the three northern provinces of Dahuk, Arbil, and As Sulaymaniyah; 220 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
< <br><i>elections:</i>
< last held 24 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2000)
< <br><i>election results:</i>
< percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
< <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
< Court of Cassation
< <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
< Ba'th Party [SADDAM Husayn, central party leader]
< <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
< any formal political activity must be sanctioned by the government; opposition to regime from Kurdish groups and southern Shi'a dissidents
< <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
< ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
< <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
< none; note - Iraq has an Interest Section in the Algerian Embassy headed by Mr. Akram AL DOURI; address: Iraqi Interests Section, Algerian Embassy, 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008; telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800; FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174
< <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
< none; note - the US has an Interests Section in the Polish Embassy in Baghdad; address: P. O. Box 2051 Hay Babel, Baghdad; telephone: [964] (1) 718-9267; FAX: [964] (1) 718-9297
< <p><b>Flag description:</b>
< three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with three green five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the phrase ALLAHU AKBAR (God is Great) in green Arabic script - Allahu to the right of the middle star and Akbar to the left of the middle star - was added in January 1991 during the Persian Gulf crisis; similar to the flag of Syria which has two stars but no script and the flag of Yemen which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Egypt which has a symbolic eagle centered in the white band
------
Iraq/Government|989030956
1,80c1,60
< <b>Economy - overview:</b>
< Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 billion from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the UN's oil-for-food program in December 1996 has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export under the oil-for-food program as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error.
< <p><b>GDP:</b>
< purchasing power parity - $59.9 billion (1999 est.)
< <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
< 13% (1999 est.)
< <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
< purchasing power parity - $2,700 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
< <br><i>agriculture:</i>
< 6%
< <br><i>industry:</i>
< 13%
< <br><i>services:</i>
< 81% (1993 est.)
< <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
< NA%
< <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
< <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
< NA%
< <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
< NA%
< <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
< 135% (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Labor force:</b>
< 4.4 million (1989)
< <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
< agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
< <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
< NA%
< <p><b>Budget:</b>
< <br><i>revenues:</i>
< $NA
< <br><i>expenditures:</i>
< $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
< <p><b>Industries:</b>
< petroleum, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, food processing
< <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
< NA%
< <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
< 28.4 billion kWh (1998)
< <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
< <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
< 97.89%
< <br><i>hydro:</i>
< 2.11%
< <br><i>nuclear:</i>
< 0%
< <br><i>other:</i>
< 0% (1998)
< <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
< 26.412 billion kWh (1998)
< <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
< 0 kWh (1998)
< <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
< 0 kWh (1998)
< <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
< wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, cotton; cattle, sheep
< <p><b>Exports:</b>
< $12.7 billion (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
< crude oil
< <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
< Russia, France, China (1999)
< <p><b>Imports:</b>
< $8.9 billion (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
< food, medicine, manufactures
< <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
< Russia, France, Egypt, Vietnam (1999)
< <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
< $130 billion (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
< $327.5 million (1995)
< <p><b>Currency:</b>
< 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) = 1,000 fils
< <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
< Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 0.3109 (fixed official rate since 1982); black market rate - Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 1,900 (December 1999), 1,815 (December 1998), 1,530 (December 1997), 3,000 (December 1995); subject to wide fluctuations
< <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
< calendar year
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Iraq
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Iraq
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Jumhuriyah al Iraqiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Iraq
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Baghdad
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 provinces (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Anbar, Al Basrah, Al Muthanna, Al Qadisiyah, An Najaf, Arbil, As Sulaymaniyah, At Ta'mim, Babil, Baghdad, Dahuk, Dhi Qar, Diyala, Karbala', Maysan, Ninawa, Salah ad Din, Wasit
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 3 October 1932 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Revolution, 17 July (1968)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 22 September 1968, effective 16 July 1970 (provisional constitution); new constitution drafted in 1990 but not adopted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law in special religious courts, civil law system elsewhere; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President SADDAM Husayn (since 16 July 1979); Vice President Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF (since 21 April 1974); Vice President Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since 23 March 1991)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister SADDAM Husayn (since 29 May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Mikhail AZIZ (since NA 1979); Deputy Prime Minister Taha Yasin RAMADAN (since NA May 1994); Deputy Prime Minister Muhammad Hamza al-ZUBAYDI (since NA May 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Revolutionary Command Council or RCC (Chairman SADDAM Husayn, Vice Chairman Izzat IBRAHIM al-Duri) which controls the ruling Ba'th Party, and is the most powerful political entity in the country
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice presidents elected by a two-thirds majority of the Revolutionary Command Council; election last held 17 October 1995 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> SADDAM Husayn reelected president; percent of vote - 99%; Taha Muhyi al-Din MARUF and Taha Yasin RAMADAN elected vice presidents; percent of vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Majlis al-Watani (250 seats; 30 appointed by the president to represent the three northern provinces of Dahuk, Arbil, and As Sulaymaniyah; 220 elected by popular vote; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 24 March 1996 (next to be held NA March 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Cassation
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Ba'th Party [SADDAM Husayn, central party leader]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> any formal political activity must be sanctioned by the government; opposition to regime from Kurdish groups and southern Shi'a dissidents
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - Iraq has an Interest Section in the Algerian Embassy headed by Mr. Akram AL DOURI; address: Iraqi Interests Section, Algerian Embassy, 2118 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008; telephone: [1] (202) 265-2800; FAX: [1] (202) 667-2174
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none; note - the US has an Interests Section in the Polish Embassy in Baghdad; address: P. O. Box 2051 Hay Babel, Baghdad; telephone: [964] (1) 718-9267; FAX: [964] (1) 718-9297
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with three green five-pointed stars in a horizontal line centered in the white band; the phrase ALLAHU AKBAR (God is Great) in green Arabic script - Allahu to the right of the middle star and Akbar to the left of the middle star - was added in January 1991 during the Persian Gulf crisis; similar to the flag of Syria which has two stars but no script and the flag of Yemen which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Egypt which has a symbolic eagle centered in the white band.
------
Iraq/Economy|989030970
1,20c1,81
< <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
< 675,000 (1995)
< <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
< NA
< <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
< reconstitution of damaged telecommunication facilities began after the Gulf war; most damaged facilities have been rebuilt
< <br><i>domestic:</i>
< the network consists of coaxial cables and microwave radio relay links
< <br><i>international:</i>
< satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) and 1 Arabsat (inoperative); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Jordan, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey; Kuwait line is probably nonoperational
< <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
< AM 19 (5 are inactive), FM 51, shortwave 4 (1998)
< <p><b>Radios:</b>
< 4.85 million (1997)
< <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
< 13 (1997)
< <p><b>Televisions:</b>
< 1.75 million (1997)
< <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
< 1 (1999)
---
> 
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 billion from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the UN's oil-for-food program in December 1996 has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export under the oil-for-food program as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $59.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 13% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 81% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 135% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.4 million (1989)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, chemicals, textiles, construction materials, food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 28.4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 97.89%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 2.11%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 26.412 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, cotton; cattle, sheep
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $12.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia, France, China (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, medicine, manufactures
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia, France, Egypt, Vietnam (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $130 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $327.5 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Iraqi dinar (ID) = 1,000 fils
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 0.3109 (fixed official rate since 1982); black market rate - Iraqi dinars (ID) per US$1 - 1,900 (December 1999), 1,815 (December 1998), 1,530 (December 1997), 3,000 (December 1995); subject to wide fluctuations
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Iraq/Communications|989030995
1,53c1,20
< <b>Railways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 2,032 km
< <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
< 2,032 km 1.435-m gauge
< <p><b>Highways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 45,550 km
< <br><i>paved:</i>
< 38,400 km
< <br><i>unpaved:</i>
< 7,150 km (1996 est.)
< <p><b>Waterways:</b>
< 1,015 km; Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use; Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have navigable sections for shallow-draft watercraft; Shatt al Basrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf war
< <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
< crude oil 4,350 km; petroleum products 725 km; natural gas 1,360 km
< <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
< Umm Qasr, Khawr az Zubayr, and Al Basrah have limited functionality
< <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 606,227 GRT/1,067,770 DWT
< <br><i>ships by type:</i>
< cargo 14, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 13, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Airports:</b>
< 113 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 80
< <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
< 20
< <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
< 39
< <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
< 4
< <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
< 7
< <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
< 10 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
< <br><i>total:</i>
< 33
< <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
< 3
< <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
< 6
< <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
< 2
< <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
< 10
< <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
< 12 (1999 est.)
< <p><b>Heliports:</b>
< 5 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 675,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> reconstitution of damaged telecommunication facilities began after the Gulf war; most damaged facilities have been rebuilt
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the network consists of coaxial cables and microwave radio relay links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) and 1 Arabsat (inoperative); coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Jordan, Kuwait, Syria, and Turkey; Kuwait line is probably nonoperational
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 19 (5 are inactive), FM 51, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.85 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 13 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Iraq/Transportation|989031014
1,17c1,53
< <b>Military branches:</b>
< Army, Republican Guard, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Border Guard Force, Fedayeen Saddam
< <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
< 18 years of age
< <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
< <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
< 5,674,990 (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
< <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
< 3,176,826 (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
< <br><i>males:</i>
< 266,736 (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
< $NA
< <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
< NA%
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,032 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 2,032 km 1.435-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 45,550 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 38,400 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 7,150 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,015 km; Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use; Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have navigable sections for shallow-draft watercraft; Shatt al Basrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf war
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 4,350 km; petroleum products 725 km; natural gas 1,360 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Umm Qasr, Khawr az Zubayr, and Al Basrah have limited functionality
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 606,227 GRT/1,067,770 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 14, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 13, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 113 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 80
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
Iraq/Military|989031029
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Republican Guard, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Force, Border Guard Force, Fedayeen Saddam
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,674,990 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,176,826 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 266,736 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Iraq/Transnational_issues|989031043
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands although the government continues periodic rhetorical challenges; dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
------
Ireland|989031115
3a4,14
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
7c18
< *[[Irish diaspora]]
---
> *[[Irish diaspora]]
------
Ireland/History|989031134
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 26 southern counties; the six northern counties (Ulster) remained part of Great Britain. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
------
Ireland/Geography|989031155
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, occupying five-sixths of the island of Ireland in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Great Britain
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 53 00 N, 8 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 70,280 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 68,890 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,390 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 360 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> UK 360 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,448 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> not specified
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate maritime; modified by North Atlantic Current; mild winters, cool summers; consistently humid; overcast about half the time
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly level to rolling interior plain surrounded by rugged hills and low mountains; sea cliffs on west coast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Carrauntoohil 1,041 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> zinc, lead, natural gas, barite, copper, gypsum, limestone, dolomite, peat, silver
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 68%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Tropical Timber 94
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location on major air and sea routes between North America and northern Europe; over 40% of the population resides within 97 km of Dublin
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Ireland/People|989031178
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,797,257 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 21.85% (male 425,795; female 403,777)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66.83% (male 1,271,367; female 1,266,150)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11.33% (male 185,913; female 244,255) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.16% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.51 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.14 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 5.27 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.62 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.81 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.06 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.74 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.91 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Irishman(men), Irishwoman(women), Irish (collective plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Irish
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Celtic, English
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 91.6%, Church of Ireland 2.5%, other 5.9% (1998)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English is the language generally used, Irish (Gaelic) spoken mainly in areas located along the western seaboard
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98% (1981 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Ireland/Government|989031201
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Ireland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> EI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Dublin
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 26 counties; Carlow, Cavan, Clare, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois, Leitrim, Limerick, Longford, Louth, Mayo, Meath, Monaghan, Offaly, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary, Waterford, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 December 1921 (from UK by treaty)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Saint Patrick's Day, 17 March
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 29 December 1937; adopted 1 July 1937 by plebiscite
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Mary MCALEESE (since 11 November 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Bertie AHERN (since 26 June 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president with previous nomination by the prime minister and approval of the House of Representatives
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 31 October 1997 (next to be held NA November 2004); prime minister nominated by the House of Representatives and appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Mary MCALEESE elected president; percent of vote - Mary MCALEESE 44.8%, Mary BANOTTI 29.6%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - Fianna Fail and the Progressive Democrats
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Oireachtas consists of the Senate or Seanad Eireann (60 seats - 49 elected by the universities and from candidates put forward by five vocational panels, 11 are nominated by the prime minister; members serve five-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Dail Eireann (166 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held NA August 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); House of Representatives - last held 6 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - Fianna Fail 29, Fine Gael 16, Labor Party 4, Progressive Democrats 4, others 7; seats by party - NA; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Fianna Fail 76, Fine Gael 53, Labor Party 19, Progressive Democrats 4, Democratic Left 4, Green Alliance 2, Sinn Fein 1, independents 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the president on the advice of the government (prime minister and cabinet)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Communist Party of Ireland [Michael O'RIORDAN]; Democratic Left [Proinsias DE ROSSA]; Fianna Fail [Bertie AHERN]; Fine Gael [John BRUTON]; Green Alliance [Patricia HOWARD]; Labor Party [Ruairi QUINN]; Progressive Democrats [Mary HARNEY]; Sinn Fein [Gerry ADAMS]; The Workers' Party [Marion DONNELLY]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (observer), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Sean O'HUIGINN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2234 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-3939
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-5993
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, Chicago, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Michael SULLIVAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 42 Elgin Road, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [353] (1) 668-7122
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [353] (1) 668-9946
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and orange; similar to the flag of Cote d'Ivoire, which is shorter and has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green; also similar to the flag of Italy, which is shorter and has colors of green (hoist side), white, and red
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Ireland/Economy|989031223
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Ireland is a small, modern, trade-dependent economy with growth averaging a robust 9% in 1995-99. Agriculture, once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by industry, which accounts for 39% of GDP and about 80% of exports and employs 28% of the labor force. Although exports remain the primary engine for Ireland's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in consumer spending and recovery in both construction and business investment. Over the past decade, the Irish government has implemented a series of national economic programs designed to curb inflation, reduce government spending, and promote foreign investment. The unemployment rate has been halved; job creation remains a primary concern of government policy. Recent efforts have concentrated on improving workers' qualifications and the education system. Ireland joined in launching the euro currency system in January 1999 along with 10 other EU nations. The construction and other sectors are beginning to press against capacity, and growth is expected to drop in 2000, perhaps by 1 percentage point.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $73.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 8.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $20,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 56% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 10% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 27.3% (1997)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.2% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.77 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 63%, industry 28%, agriculture 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.5% (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $25.3 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $20.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $2 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food products, brewing, textiles, clothing; chemicals, pharmaceuticals, machinery, transportation equipment, glass and crystal; software
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 19.715 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 94.12%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 4.63%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 1.25% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 18.415 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 100 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 180 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> turnips, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, wheat; beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $66 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, computers, chemicals, pharmaceuticals; live animals, animal products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 68% (UK 22%, Germany 15%, France 8%), US 15% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $44 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> data processing equipment, other machinery and equipment, chemicals; petroleum and petroleum products, textiles, clothing
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 54% (UK 31%, Germany 6%, France 5%), US 16%, Japan 7%, Singapore 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $11 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $240 million (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Irish pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Irish pounds per US$1 - 0.9865 (January 2000), 0.9374 (1999), 0.7014 (1998), 0.6588 (1997), 0.6248 (1996), 0.6235 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the European Union introduced a common currency the euro, which is now being used at a fixed rate of 0.787564 Irish pounds per euro; the euro has replaced the pound in many financial and business transactions; it will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Ireland/Communications|989031244
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1,642,541 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 941,775 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern digital system using cable and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 9, FM 106, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.55 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 10 (plus 36 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.47 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 14 (1999)
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Ireland/Transportation|989031268
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,947 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 1,947 km 1.600-m gauge (38 km electrified; 485 km double track) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 92,500 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 87,043 km (including 115 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 5,457 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 700 km (limited for commercial traffic) (1998)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 225 km (1998)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Arklow, Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, Foynes, Galway, Limerick, New Ross, Waterford
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 31 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 100,639 GRT/115,793 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 27, container 2, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 44 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 25 (1999 est.)
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Ireland/Military|989031283
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (includes Naval Service and Air Corps), National Police (Garda Siochana)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 994,040 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 801,975 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 33,303 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $732 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.9% (FY98)
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Ireland/Transnational_issues|989031297
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Northern Ireland issue with the UK (historic peace agreement signed 10 April 1998); Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark, Iceland, and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for and consumer of hashish from North Africa to the UK and Netherlands and of European-produced synthetic drugs; minor transshipment point for heroin and cocaine destined for Western Europe
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Israel|989031354
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Israel/History|989031366
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Following World War II, the British withdrew from their mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently, the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories occupied by Israel since the 1967 war are not included in the Isreal country profile, unless otherwise noted. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations are being conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip) and Israel and Syria, to achieve a permanent settlement. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26 October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace.
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Israel/Geography|989031387
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Lebanon
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 31 30 N, 34 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 20,770 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 20,330 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 440 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than New Jersey
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,006 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Egypt 255 km, Gaza Strip 51 km, Jordan 238 km, Lebanon 79 km, Syria 76 km, West Bank 307 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 273 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> to depth of exploitation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; hot and dry in southern and eastern desert areas
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> Negev desert in the south; low coastal plain; central mountains; Jordan Rift Valley
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Dead Sea -408 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Har Meron 1,208 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> copper, phosphates, bromide, potash, clay, sand, sulfur, asphalt, manganese, small amounts of natural gas and crude oil
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 66% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,800 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> sandstorms may occur during spring and summer
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; desertification; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> there are 231 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the West Bank, 42 in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, 24 in the Gaza Strip, and 29 in East Jerusalem (August 1999 est.)
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Israel/People|989031404
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,842,454
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes about 171,000 Israeli settlers in the West Bank, about 20,000 in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, about 6,500 in the Gaza Strip, and about 172,000 in East Jerusalem (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 28% (male 825,443; female 787,159)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 1,831,142; female 1,820,424)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 9% (male 248,695; female 329,591) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.67% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 19.32 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.22 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 3.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.75 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.57 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.57 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.67 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.6 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Israeli(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Israeli
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Jewish 80.1% (Europe/America-born 32.1%, Israel-born 20.8%, Africa-born 14.6%, Asia-born 12.6%), non-Jewish 19.9% (mostly Arab) (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Jewish 80.1%, Muslim 14.6% (mostly Sunni Muslim), Christian 2.1%, other 3.2% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Hebrew (official), Arabic used officially for Arab minority, English most commonly used foreign language
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 93% (1992 est.)
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Israel/Government|989031423
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> State of Israel
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Israel
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Medinat Yisra'el
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Yisra'el
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IS
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Jerusalem
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Israel proclaimed Jerusalem as its capital in 1950, but the US, like nearly all other countries, maintains its Embassy in Tel Aviv
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 districts (mehozot, singular - mehoz); Central, Haifa, Jerusalem, Northern, Southern, Tel Aviv
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 14 May 1948 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 14 May 1948; note - Israel declared independence on 14 May 1948, but the Jewish calendar is lunar and the holiday may occur in April or May
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> no formal constitution; some of the functions of a constitution are filled by the Declaration of Establishment (1948), the Basic Laws of the parliament (Knesset), and the Israeli citizenship law
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> mixture of English common law, British Mandate regulations, and, in personal matters, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim legal systems; in December 1985, Israel informed the UN Secretariat that it would no longer accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Ezer WEIZMAN (since 13 May 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Ehud BARAK (since 6 July 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet selected by prime minister and approved by the Knesset
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the Knesset for a five-year term; election last held 4 March 1998 (next to be held NA March 2003); prime minister elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 17 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2003); note - in March 1992, the Knesset approved legislation, effective in 1996, which allowed for the direct election of the prime minister; under the new law, each voter casts two ballots - one for the direct election of the prime minister and one for a party in the Knesset; the candidate that receives the largest percentage of the popular vote then works to form a coalition with other parties to achieve a parliamentary majority of 61 seats; finally, the candidate must submit his or her cabinet to the Knesset for approval and this must be done within 45 days of the election; in contrast to the old system, under the new law, the prime minister's party need not be the single-largest party in the Knesset
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Ezer WEIZMAN reelected president by the 120-member Knesset with a total of 63 votes, other candidate, Shaul AMOR, received 49 votes (there were seven abstentions and one absence); Ehud BARAK elected prime minister; percent of vote - Ehud BARAK 56.08%, Binyamin NETANYAHU 43.92%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - One Israel, Shas, MERETZ, Yisra'el Ba'Aliya, Center Party, National Religious Party
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Knesset or parliament (120 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 17 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - One Israel 20.2%, Likud Party 14.1%, Shas 13%, MERETZ 7.6%, Yisra'el Ba'Aliya 5.1%, Shinui 5%, Center Party 5%, National Religious Party 4.2%, United Torah Judaism 3.7%, United Arab List 3.4%, National Union 3%, Hadash 2.6%, Yisra'el Beiteinu 2.6%, Balad 1.9%, One Nation 1.9%, Democratic Movement NA (party formed after election, members elected under Yisra'el Ba'Aliya list); seats by party - One Israel 26, Likud Party 19, Shas 17, MERETZ 10, Yisra'el Ba'Aliya 4, Shinui 6, Center Party 6, National Religious Party 5, United Torah Judaism 5, United Arab List 5, National Union 4, Hadash 3, Yisra'el Beiteinu 4, Democratic Movement 2 (party formed after election, members elected under Yisra'el Ba'Aliya list), Balad 2, One Nation 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, appointed for life by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Balad [Azmi BISHARA]; Center Party [Yitzhak MORDECHAI]; Democratic Movement [Roman BRONFMAN]; Gesher [David LEVI]; Hadash [Muhammad BARAKA]; Labor Party [Ehud BARAK]; Likud Party [Ariel SHARON]; MERETZ [Yossi SARID]; Moledet [Rehavam ZEEVI]; National Democratic Alliance (Balad) [leader NA]; National Religious Party [Yitzhak LEVY]; National Union [Rehavam ZEEVI] (includes Herut, Tekuma, Yisre'el Beiteinu and Moledet); One Israel [Ehud BARAK] (includes Labor, Gesher, and Meimad); One Nation [Amir PERETZ]; Shas [Eliyahu YISHAI]; Shinui [Tommy LAPID]; Third Way [Avigdor KAHALANI]; Tzomet [Rafael EITAN]; United Arab List [Abd al-Malik DAHAMSHAH]; United Torah Judaism [Meir PORUSH]; Yisra'el Ba'Aliya [Natan SHARANSKY]; Yisra'el Beiteinu [Avigdor LIEBERMAN]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Gush Emunim, Israeli nationalists advocating Jewish settlement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip; Peace Now supports territorial concessions in the West Bank and is critical of government's Lebanon policy
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BSEC (observer), CCC, CE (observer), CERN (observer), EBRD, ECE, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador David IVRY
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3514 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 364-5500
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 364-5610
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Martin S. INDYK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 71 Hayarkon Street, Tel Aviv
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 98, Unit 7228, APO AE 09830
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [972] (3) 519-7575
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [972] (3) 517-3227
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Jerusalem; note - an independent US mission, established in 1928, whose members are not accredited to a foreign government
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a blue hexagram (six-pointed linear star) known as the Magen David (Shield of David) centered between two equal horizontal blue bands near the top and bottom edges of the flag
------
Israel/Economy|989031447
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of crude oil, grains, raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains. Diamonds, high-technology equipment, and agricultural products (fruits and vegetables) are leading exports. Israel usually posts sizable current account deficits, which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the US, which is its major source of economic and military aid. The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former USSR topped 750,000 during the period 1989-99, bringing the population of Israel from the former Soviet Union to 1 million, one-sixth of the total population, and adding scientific and professional expertise of substantial value for the economy's future. The influx, coupled with the opening of new markets at the end of the Cold War, energized Israel's economy, which grew rapidly in the early 1990s. But growth began slowing in 1996 when the government imposed tighter fiscal and monetary policies and the immigration bonus petered out. Those policies brought inflation down to record low levels in 1999 and, coupled with improved prospects for the Middle East peace process, are creating a climate for stronger GDP growth in the year 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $105.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $18,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 81% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.8%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 26.9% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.3 million (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> public services 31.2%, manufacturing 20.2%, finance and business 13.1%, commerce 12.8%, construction 7.5%, personal and other services 6.4%, transport, storage, and communications 6.2%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2.6% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $40 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $42.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, diamond cutting and polishing, textiles and apparel, chemicals, metal products, military equipment, transport equipment, electrical equipment, potash mining, high-technology electronics, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5.4% (1996)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 35.338 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 99.9%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.1%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 31.805 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 1.061 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 2 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> citrus, vegetables, cotton; beef, poultry, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $23.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, software, cut diamonds, chemicals, textiles and apparel, agricultural products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 32%, UK, Hong Kong, Benelux, Japan, Netherlands (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $30.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 19%, Benelux 12%, Germany 9%, UK 8%, Italy 7%, Switzerland 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $18.7 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.1 billion from the US (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 new Israeli shekel (NIS) = 100 new agorot
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> new Israeli shekels (NIS) per US$1 - 4.2260 (November 1999), 3.8001 (1999), 3.4494 (1997), 3.1917 (1996), 3.0113 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Israel/Communications|989031460
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2.8 million (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2.5 million (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> most highly developed system in the Middle East although not the largest
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> good system of coaxial cable and microwave radio relay; all systems are digital
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 3 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 23, FM 15, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.07 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 24 (plus 31 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.69 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 23 (1999)
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Israel/Transportation|989031481
1c1,49
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 610 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 610 km 1.435-m gauge (1996)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15,965 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 15,965 km (including 56 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 708 km; petroleum products 290 km; natural gas 89 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Ashdod, Ashqelon, Elat (Eilat), Hadera, Haifa, Tel Aviv-Yafo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 20 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 711,831 GRT/823,929 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> container 19, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 58 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 25
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 20 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Israel/Military|989031496
1c1,23
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Israel Defense Forces (includes ground, naval, and air components), Pioneer Fighting Youth (Nahal), Frontier Guard, Chen (women); note - historically there have been no separate Israeli military services
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,499,186
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 1,462,063 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,226,903
> <br><i>females age 15-49:</i>
> 1,192,319 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 50,348
> <br><i>females:</i>
> 47,996 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $8.7 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 9.4% (FY99)
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Israel/Transnational_issues|989031509
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation; Golan Heights is Israeli-occupied; Israeli troops in southern Lebanon since June 1982
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> increasingly concerned about cocaine and heroin abuse; drugs arrive in country from Lebanon and increasingly Jordan
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Italy|989031568
11a12,23
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Italy/History|989031581
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Italy became a nation-state belatedly - in 1861 when the city-states of the peninsula and Sicily were united under King Victor EMMANUEL. The Fascist dictatorship of Benito MUSSOLINI that took over after World War I led to a disastrous alliance with Nazi Germany and Italian defeat in World War II. Revival followed. Italy was a charter member of NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC) and joined the growing political and economic unification of Western Europe, including the introduction of the euro in 1999. Persistent problems include illegal immigration, the ravages of organized crime, corruption, high unemployment, and the low incomes and technical standards of southern Italy compared with the more prosperous north.
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Italy/Geography|989031595
1c1,64
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Europe, a peninsula extending into the central Mediterranean Sea, northeast of Tunisia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 42 50 N, 12 50 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 301,230 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 294,020 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 7,210 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Sardinia and Sicily
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Arizona
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,932.2 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Austria 430 km, France 488 km, Holy See (Vatican City) 3.2 km, San Marino 39 km, Slovenia 232 km, Switzerland 740 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 7,600 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> predominantly Mediterranean; Alpine in far north; hot, dry in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly rugged and mountainous; some plains, coastal lowlands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco) 4,807 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> mercury, potash, marble, sulfur, dwindling natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish, coal, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 21% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 27,100 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location dominating central Mediterranean as well as southern sea and air approaches to Western Europe
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Italy/People|989031613
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 57,634,327 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 14% (male 4,220,973; female 3,977,962)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 19,413,219; female 19,596,668)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 18% (male 4,297,962; female 6,127,543) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.09% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.99 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 1.74 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.7 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 79.03 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.85 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.41 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.18 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Italian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Italian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Italian (includes small clusters of German-, French-, and Slovene-Italians in the north and Albanian-Italians and Greek-Italians in the south)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> predominately Roman Catholic with mature Protestant and Jewish communities and a growing Muslim immigrant community
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Italian (official), German (parts of Trentino-Alto Adige region are predominantly German speaking), French (small French-speaking minority in Valle d'Aosta region), Slovene (Slovene-speaking minority in the Trieste-Gorizia area)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98% (1998)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Italy/Government|989031633
1c1,84
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Italian Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Italy
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Repubblica Italiana
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Italia
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Kingdom of Italy
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Rome
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 20 regions (regioni, singular - regione); Abruzzi, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania, Emilia-Romagna, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Lazio, Liguria, Lombardia, Marche, Molise, Piemonte, Puglia, Sardegna, Sicilia, Toscana, Trentino-Alto Adige, Umbria, Valle d'Aosta, Veneto
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 17 March 1861 (Kingdom of Italy proclaimed; Italy was not finally unified until 1870)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Republic, 2 June (1946)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1 January 1948
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; appeals treated as new trials; judicial review under certain conditions in Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal (except in senatorial elections, where minimum age is 25)
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Carlo Azeglio CIAMPI (since 13 May 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister (referred to in Italy as the president of the Council of Ministers) Massimo D'ALEMA (since 21 October 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and approved by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives for a seven-year term; election last held 13 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2006); prime minister appointed by the president and confirmed by parliament
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Carlo Azeglio CIAMPI elected president; percent of electoral college vote - 70%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Parlamento consists of the Senate or Senato della Repubblica (315 seats elected by popular vote of which 232 are directly elected and 83 are elected by regional proportional representation plus, in addition, there are a small number of senators-for-life including former presidents of the republic; members serve five-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Camera dei Deputati (630 seats; 475 are directly elected, 155 by regional proportional representation; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 21 April 1996 (next scheduled for NA April 2001); Chamber of Deputies - last held 21 April 1996 (next scheduled for NA April 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Olive Tree 157, Freedom Alliance 116, Northern League-Padania 27, Communist Renewal 10, regional lists 3, Social Movement-Tricolored Flames 1, Panella Reformers 1; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Olive Tree 284, Freedom Alliance 246, Northern League 59, Communist Renewal 35, Southern Tyrol People's Party 3, Autonomous List 2, other 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court or Corte Costituzionale, composed of 15 judges (one-third appointed by the president, one-third elected by Parliament, one-third elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Bonino List or LB (used to be the Autonomous List, a group of minor parties) [Emma BONINO]; Center-Left Coalition (used to be the Olive Tree) [Massimo D'ALEMA] - Democrats, DS, FdV, PdCI, PPI, RI, UDEUR; Christian Democratic Center or CCD [Pier Ferdinando CASINI]; Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Rocco BUTTIGLIONE]; Communist Renewal or RC [Fausto BERTINOTTI]; Democratic Party [Arturo PARISI]; Democratic Party of the Left or DS [Walter VELTRONI]; Forza Italia or FI [Silvio BERLUSCONI]; Freedom Alliance (a center-right coalition) [leader Silvio BERLUSCONI] - FI, AN, CCD; Green Federation or FdV [Grazia FRANCESCATO]; Italian Communist Party or PdCI [Armando COSSUTA]; Italian Democratic Socialists or SDI [Enrico BOSSELLI]; Italian Popular Party or PPI [Pierluigi CASTAGNETTI]; Italian Renewal or RI [Lamberto DINI]; Italian Social Movement-Tricolored Flame or MSI-FT [Pino RAUTI]; National Alliance or AN [Gianfranco FINI]; Northern League-Padania or NL-Padania [Umberto BOSSI]; Radical Party (formerly Panella Reformers) [Marco PANELLA]; Republican Party or PR [Giorgio LA MALFA]; Southern Tyrols People's Party or SVP (German speakers) [Siegfried BRUGGER]; Union of Democrats for Europe or UDEUR [Clemente MASTELLA]; Union for the Republic or UPR [Francesco COSSIGA]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Italian manufacturers and merchants associations (Confindustria, Confcommercio); organized farm groups (Confcoltivatori, Confagricoltura); Roman Catholic Church; three major trade union confederations (Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro or CGIL [Sergio COFFERATI] which is left wing, Confederazione Italiana dei Sindacati Lavoratori or CISL [Sergio D'ANTONI] which is Catholic centrist, and Unione Italiana del Lavoro or UIL [Pietro LARIZZA] which is lay centrist)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOGIP, UNTSO, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ferdinando SALLEO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1601 Fuller Street NW, Washington, DC 20009 and 2700 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-5500
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-2187
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, Chicago, Houston, Miami, New York, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Detroit
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Thomas M. FOGLIETTA
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Via Veneto 119/A, 00187-Rome
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 59, Box 100, APO AE 09624
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [39] (06) 46741
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [39] (06) 488-2672
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Florence, Milan, Naples
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; similar to the flag of Ireland, which is longer and is green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the flag of the Cote d'Ivoire, which has the colors reversed - orange (hoist side), white, and green
> <br><i>note:</i>
> inspired by the French flag brought to Italy by Napoleon in 1797
------
Italy/Economy|989031649
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Italy has a diversified industrial economy with approximately the same total and per capita output as France and the UK. This capitalistic economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed agricultural south, with more than 20% unemployment. Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. For several years Italy has adopted budgets compliant with the requirements of the European Monetary Union (EMU); representatives of government, labor, and employers also agreed to an update of the 1993 "social pact," which has been widely credited with having brought Italy's inflation into conformity with EMU requirements. Italy must work to stimulate employment, promote wage flexibility, hold down the growth in pensions, and tackle the informal economy. Growth was 1.3% in 1999 and should edge up to 2.6% in 2000, led by investment and exports.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.212 trillion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $21,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 2.6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 31.6%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 65.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 23.7% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 23.193 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 61%, industry 32%, agriculture 7% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 11.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $530 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $522 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, machinery, iron and steel, chemicals, food processing, textiles, motor vehicles, clothing, footwear, ceramics
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1.9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 243.027 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 80.22%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 17.3%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 2.48% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 266.705 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 900 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 41.59 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> fruits, vegetables, grapes, potatoes, sugar beets, soybeans, grain, olives; beef, dairy products; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $242.6 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> engineering products, textiles and clothing, production machinery, motor vehicles, transport equipment, chemicals; food, beverages and tobacco; minerals and nonferrous metals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 56% (Germany 16.5%, France 12.7%, UK 7.2%, Spain 5.8%, Netherlands 2.9%), US 8.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $206.9 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> engineering products, chemicals, transport equipment, energy products, minerals and nonferrous metals, textiles and clothing; food, beverages and tobacco
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 61% (Germany 18.8%, France 13.12%, UK 6.47%, Netherlands 6.2%, Belgium-Luxembourg 4.7%), US 5.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $45 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $1.3 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Italian lira (Lit) = 100 centesimi
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Italian lire (Lit) per US$1 - 1,688.7 (January 1999), 1,736.2 (1998), 1,703.1 (1997), 1,542.9 (1996), 1,628.9 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used for non-cash transactions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 1,936.27 lire per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Italy/Communications|989031666
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 25 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 17.7 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern, well-developed, fast; fully automated telephone, telex, and data services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> high-capacity cable and microwave radio relay trunks
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (with a total of 5 antennas - 3 for Atlantic Ocean and 2 for Indian Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), and NA Eutelsat; 21 submarine cables
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM about 100, FM about 4,600, shortwave 9 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 50.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6,317 (of which only 117 have 2 kW or more of transmitter power) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 30.3 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 219 (1999)
------
Italy/Transportation|989031685
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 19,394 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 18,071 km 1.435-m gauge; Italian Railways (FS) operates 16,014 km of the total standard gauge routes (11,322 km electrified)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 112 km 1.000-m gauge (112 km electrified); 1,211 km 0.950-m gauge (153 km electrified) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 654,676 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 654,676 km (including 6,957 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,400 km for various types of commercial traffic, although of limited overall value
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,703 km; petroleum products 2,148 km; natural gas 19,400 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Augusta (Sicily), Bagnoli, Bari, Brindisi, Gela, Genoa, La Spezia, Livorno, Milazzo, Naples, Porto Foxi, Porto Torres (Sardigna), Salerno, Savona, Taranto, Trieste, Venice
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 427 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,971,578 GRT/9,635,770 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 41, cargo 45, chemical tanker 73, combination ore/oil 2, container 20, liquified gas 38, livestock carrier 1, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 6, petroleum tanker 87, roll-on/roll-off 58, short-sea passenger 26, specialized tanker 13, vehicle carrier 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 136 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 97
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 33
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 31
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 12 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 18 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Italy/Military|989031698
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Carabinieri
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 14,315,634 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 12,331,306 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 311,160 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $23.294 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.7% (FY99)
------
Italy/Transnational_issues|989031715
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Italy and Slovenia made progress in resolving bilateral issues; Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from World War II over property and ethnic minority rights
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> important gateway for and consumer of Latin American cocaine and Southwest Asian heroin entering the European market
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989032933
3c3
< I saw the movie Koyaanisqatsi over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
---
> I saw the movie [[Koyaanisqatsi]] over 10 years ago now.  I'm still dizzy.  :-)
23,24c23
< [[What_Google_Likes]]
< [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
---
> [[What_Google_Likes]]      [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
------
Koyaanisqatsi|989032994
1c1
< Koyaanisqatsi is a documentary directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] which consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which, as of April 2001, remained unfinished for lack of funds.
---
> Koyaanisqatsi is a [[documentary film|documentary]] directed by [[Godfrey Reggio]] which consists mostly of slow-motion and time-lapse footage, starting with a cave painting, progressing to footage of various natural environmental phenomena such as waves and cloud formations, and ending with footage of man-made events including traffic formations, bombings, and desolate urban landscapes.  The documentary has no dialogue other than the Hopi Indian word "koyaanisqatsi," chanted over a score by [[Philip Glass]]; interpretation is left to the viewer, although the meanings of the word (including "crazy life," "life out of balance," and "a way of life which calls for another way of living") seem to offer clues.  Followed by the sequels [[Powaqqatsi]] and [[Anima Mundi]]. [[Godfrey Reggio|Reggio]] is also working on a fourth installment, [[Nagoyqatsi]], which, as of April 2001, remained unfinished for lack of funds.
------
Ireland|989037597
18a19,20
> 
> /Talk
------
Ireland/Talk|989037658
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> What the %#@^#%@^* does 'smallish' mean? Let's not indulge in stereotypes ... 'greenish'?
> 
------
Guinness|989037814
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <editorial> The finest beer in the world </editorial>
> 
> A dark stout beer, brewed in James Gate, [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. Best served cool and slow, and best tasted in Ireland. For some reason American bars seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'.
>  
------
Ireland|989038086
2a3,4
> The national anthem is ''[[Amhran an bhfiann]]''. 
> 
------
Amhran_an_bhfiann|989038196
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Amhrán na bhFiann''
> 
> Sinne Fianna Fáil
> A tá fé gheall ag Éirinn,
> buion dár slua
> Thar toinn do ráinig chugainn,
> Fé mhóid bheith saor.
> Sean tír ár sinsir feasta
> Ní fhagfar fé'n tiorán ná fé'n tráil
> Anocht a théam sa bhearna bhaoil,
> Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil
> Le guna screach fé lámhach na bpiléar
> Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. 
> 
> 
> =========================================
> 
> Soldiers are we
> whose lives are pledged to Ireland;
> Some have come
> from a land beyond the wave.
> Sworn to be free,
> No more our ancient sire land
> Shall shelter the despot or the slave.
> Tonight we man the gap of danger
> In Erin's cause, come woe or weal
> 'Mid cannons' roar and rifles peal,
> We'll chant a soldier's song. 
> 
> I
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Amhran_an_bhfiann|989038228
3a4
> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
11a20
> 
12a22
> 
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Amhran_an_bhfiann|989038283
28a29
> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
35a43
> 
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> 
38d46
< We'll chant a soldier's song. 
40c48
< I
---
> We'll sing a soldier's song. 
------
Ireland|989038404
3c3
< The national anthem is ''[[Amhran an bhfiann]]''. 
---
> The national anthem is [[''Amhran an bhFiann'']]. 
------
Ireland|989038431
3c3
< The national anthem is [[''Amhran an bhFiann'']]. 
---
> The national anthem is [[Amhran an bhFiann]]. 
------
Ireland|989038445
3c3
< The national anthem is [[Amhran an bhFiann]]. 
---
> The national anthem is ''[[Amhran an bhfiann]]''. 
------
Ireland|989038571
3c3
< The national anthem is ''[[Amhran an bhfiann]]''. 
---
> The national anthem is ''[[Amhran an bhfiann]]''. An understanding of Irish history also come from examination of [[Pauraic Pearse]]'s poem [[Mise Eire]].
------
Mise_Eire|989038635
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> MISE ÉIRE
> 
> Mise Éire:
> Sine mé ná an Chailleach Bhéarra
> 
> Mór mo ghlóir:
> Mé a rug Cú Chulainn cróga.
> 
> Mór mo náir:
> Mo chlann féin a dhíol a máthair.
> 
> Mise Éire:
> Uaigní mé ná an Chailleach Bhéarra.
> 
> ----
> 
> I AM IRELAND
> 
> I am Ireland:
> I am older than the Old Woman of Beare.
> 
> Great my glory:
> I that bore Cuchulainn the valiant.
> 
> Great my shame:
> My own children that sold their mother.
> 
> I am Ireland:
> I am lonelier than the Old Woman of Beare.
------
Psychology|989039439
18a19
> * [[educational psychology]]
26c27
< See also:
---
> Some related disciplines:
29a31
> * [[linguistics]] and especially [[psycholinguistics]]
31c33
< * [[philosophy of mind]]
---
> * [[philosophy of mind]]
------
Guinness|989039721
4c4,5
<  
---
>  
> [[Guinness/Talk|/Talk]]
------
Guinness/Talk|989039815
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here! Here! for the editorial.  By the way, if you're ever in Houston, McGonegal's Mucky Duck takes about 4 minutes to pour an imperial pint.  --[[Invictus]]
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Metaphysics/Talk|989040196
20a21,22
> ----
> There are, sure, exceptions to the implied rule; there are contexts in which it would be appropriate to quote a nonexpert in a subject about which there are experts.  But if a quoted view is presented simply as one of the leading views, or an important enough view to mention as a view about some subject--rubbing shoulders, as it were, with more informed views--then there's nothing wrong with deleting it.  That's my contention.  I might come back to the Popper/Churchill thing later... --[[LMS]]
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Brain|989046928
1c1
< The supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. In humans itt has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearanceto the brain).  
---
> The supervisory center of the nervous system consisting of gray (superficial parts) and white matter (deep parts) and serving to control and coordinate the mental, emotional, physical and memory functions. The adult human brain is consist of two halves (hemispheres) and usually weighs about 1–1.5 kg. The weight of the brain is not necessarily related with the intelligence of the individual. It is considered to be the efficiency and number of connections between cells that really count. Although brain is usually referred to the supervisory center of vertebrates, the same term can also be used for invertebrate central nervous system. Brain is not only responsible from some high cognitive functions, but also monitors various functions as heartbeat, blood pressure, fluid balance and body temperature. In humans it has three major parts, the hindbrain (cerebellum and the brain stem), the midbrain and the forebrain (diencephalon and cerebrum). The corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain. The cerebrum is the largest section of brain and its surface is deeply fissured (sulci) and grooved (gyri) (that gives an excessively wrinkled appearance to the brain).  
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Film_Theory|989048806
10c10
< No. It is similar to it but focuses on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
---
> No. It is similar to it but focuses rather on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
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Geologic_Timescale|989054870
7a8
>  | [[Oligocene]]   |            |               |               |
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Oligocene|989055013
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Oligocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 24 million to 36 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The name Oligocene refers to the sparsity of additional modern mammalian faunas after a burst of evolution during the Eocene.  The Oligocene follows the [[Eocene]] [[Epoch]] and is followed by the [[Miocene]] [[Epoch]]. The Eocene is the third epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
>  
> The start of the Eocene is marked by a major extinction event that may be related to the impact of large extraterrestrial object in Siberia and/or near Chesapeake Bay.  The Oligocene [[Miocene]] boundary is not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the relatively cooler [[Miocene]].
> 
> Continents continued to drift toward their present positions.  Climates remained warm although slow global cooling that eventual led to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations started around  end of the Eocene.  Mountain building in Western North America continued and the Alps started to rise in Europe.  A brief marine incursion marks the early Paleocene in Europe.  Oligocene marine exposures are rare in North America.  There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe as the faunas of the two regions are very similar.  Important Oligocene land faunas are found on all continents except Australia.  Marine faunas became fairly modern as did terrestrial vertebrate faunas in the Northern continents as older forms died out.  South America was apparently isolated from the other continents and evolved quite distinct faunas during the Oligocene. 
------
Anatolia|989058886
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, is a peninsula, which corresponds today to the Asian portion of [[Turkey]]. Because of its strategic location as a crossroads at the intersection point of two continents (Asia and Europe), Anatolia has been a craddle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages. Major civilizations that has located on Anatolia are [[Hittites]], Phryqians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Greeks, [[Roman Empire]], Byzantine Empires, [[Seljuq Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]].
> 
------
Anatolia|989059063
1c1
< Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, is a peninsula, which corresponds today to the Asian portion of [[Turkey]]. Because of its strategic location as a crossroads at the intersection point of two continents (Asia and Europe), Anatolia has been a craddle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages. Major civilizations that has located on Anatolia are [[Hittites]], Phryqians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Greeks, [[Roman Empire]], Byzantine Empires, [[Seljuq Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]].
---
> Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, is a peninsula, which corresponds today to the Asian portion of [[Turkey]]. Because of its strategic location as a crossroads at the intersection point of two continents (Asia and Europe), Anatolia has been a craddle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages. Major civilizations that has located on Anatolia are [[Hittites]], Phryqians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Greeks, [[Roman Empire]], Byzantine Empires, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]].
------
Anatolia|989059112
1c1
< Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, is a peninsula, which corresponds today to the Asian portion of [[Turkey]]. Because of its strategic location as a crossroads at the intersection point of two continents (Asia and Europe), Anatolia has been a craddle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages. Major civilizations that has located on Anatolia are [[Hittites]], Phryqians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Greeks, [[Roman Empire]], Byzantine Empires, [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]].
---
> Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, is a peninsula, which corresponds today to the Asian portion of [[Turkey]]. Because of its strategic location as a crossroads at the intersection point of two continents (Asia and Europe), Anatolia has been a craddle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages. Major civilizations that has located on Anatolia are [[Hittites]], Phryqians, Cimmerians, Lydians, [[Greeks]], [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Ottoman Empire]].
------
Infectious_diseases|989060928
4c4,26
< :<b>Infectious Diseases</b>
---
> :<b>Infectious Diseases</b>
> 
> :<b>Human infectious diseases</b> grouped by causative agent and alphabetically
> 
> ::Viral infectious diseases
> 
> [[AIDS]] -- [[AIDS|AIDS Related Complex]] --  [[Chickenpox]] or [[Chickenpox|Varicella]] -- [[Cytomegalovirus Infection]] -- [[Colorado tick fever]] -- [[Dengue Fever]] -- [[Ebola haemorrhagic fever]] -- [[Influenza|Flu]] -- [[Mumps|Epidemical parotitis]] -- [[Hand, Foot & Mouth Disease]] -- [[Hepatitis]] -- [[Herpes zoster]] -- [[Influenza]] -- [[Lassa Fever]] -- [[Measles]] -- [[Marburg haemorrhagic fever]] -- [[Mononucleosis]] -- [[Mumps]]  -- [[Poliomyelitis]] -- [[Rabies]] -- [[Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever]] or [[RMSF]] -- [[Rubella]] -- [[Viral Meningitis]] -- [[Yellow Fever]]
> 
> ::Bacterial infectious diseases
> 
> [[Anthrax]] -- [[Bacterial Meningitis]] -- [[Botulism]] -- [[Brucellosis]] -- [[Cholera]] -- [[Campylobacteriosis]] -- [[Diphtheria]] -- [[Food poisoning]] -- [[Gonorrhea]] -- [[Legionellosis]] -- [[Leprosy]] -- [[Leprosy|Hansen's Disease]] -- [[Leptospirosis]] -- [[Listeriosis]] -- [[Lyme Disease]] -- [[Nocardiosis]] -- [[Pertussis]] -- [[Plague]] -- [[Pneumococcal pneumonia]] -- [[Psittacosis]] -- [[Q fever]] -- [[Salmonellosis]] -- [[Scarlet Fever]] -- [[Shigellosis]] -- [[Syphilis]] -- [[Tetanus]] -- [[Trachoma]] -- [[Tuberculosis]] -- [[Tularemia]] -- [[Typhoid Fever]]
> 
> ::Parasitic infectious diseases
> 
> [[African trypanosomiasis]] -- [[Amebiasis]] -- [[Ascariasis]] -- [[Chagas Disease]] -- [[Clonorchiasis]] -- [[Diphyllobothriasis]] -- [[Dracunculiasis]] -- [[Echinococcosis]] -- [[Enterobiasis]] -- [[Fascioliasis]] -- [[Fasciolopsiasis]] -- [[Filariasis]] -- [[Giardiasis]] -- [[Gnathostomiasis]] -- [[Hymenolepiasis]] -- [[Leishmaniasis|Kala-azar]] -- [[Leishmaniasis]] -- [[Pediculosis|Lice]] -- [[Malaria]] -- [[Onchocerciasis]] -- [[Pediculosis]] -- [[Enterobiasis|Pinworm Infection]] -- [[Scabies]] -- [[Schistosomiasis]] -- [[Toxocariasis]] -- [[Toxoplasmosis]] -- [[Trichinellosis]] -- [[Trichinellosis|Trichinosis]] -- [[Trichuriasis]] -- [[Trypanosomiasis]]
> 
> ::Fungal infectious diseases
> 
> [[Aspergillosis]] -- [[Blastomycosis]] -- [[Candidiasis]] -- [[Coccidioidomycosis]] -- [[Cryptococcosis]] -- [[Cryptosporidiosis]] -- [[Cysticercosis]] -- [[Histoplasmosis]]
> 
> ::Prion infectious diseases
> 
> [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] -- [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]] -- [[Kuru]]
------
Film|989069519
16a17
> :[[Film Criticism|Film Critics]]
------
Psychology|989070259
1c1
< Psychology is the experimental study of mental states and processes, and related behavioral patterns of humans and to an extent of animals as well (though the study of animal behavior, [[ethology]], is more often regarded a branch of [[biology]] than of psychology).  Psychologists also study the psychological influences on interactions between individuals and on interactions with the environment.  Disciplines closely related to psychology are sociology, anthropology, biology, and philosophy.  Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of matters of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today, experimental psychology is focused on observable behavior and the evidence it provides about mental processes and therefore has little to say specifically about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul.
---
> Psychology is the experimental study of mental states and processes, and related behavioral patterns of humans and to an extent of animals as well (though the study of animal behavior, [[ethology]], is more often regarded a branch of [[biology]] than of psychology).  Psychologists also study the psychological influences on interactions between individuals and on interactions with the environment.  Disciplines closely related to psychology are [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], biology, and [[philosophy]].  Though the root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of matters of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) in earlier ages, [[experimental psychology]] as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely.  Today, experimental psychology is focused on observable behavior and the evidence it provides about mental processes and therefore has little to say specifically about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul.
33c33
< * [[philosophy of mind]]
---
> * [[philosophy of mind]]
------
Engineering|989071431
3c3
< *[[Chemical Engineering]]
---
> *[[Chemical engineering]]
5,11c5,11
< *[[Mechanical Engineering]]
< *[[Software Engineering]]
< *[[Structural Engineering]]
< *[[Food Process Engineering]]
< *[[Civil Engineering]]
< *[[Control Engineering]]
< *[[Nuclear Engineering]]
---
> *[[Mechanical engineering]]
> *[[Software engineering]]
> *[[Structural engineering]]
> *[[Food process engineering]]
> *[[Civil engineering]]
> *[[Control engineering]]
> *[[Nuclear engineering]]
13,16c13,16
< *[[Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering]]
< *[[Environmental Engineering]]
< *[[Bioresource Engineering]]
< *[[Social_engineering]]
---
> *[[Industrial and manufacturing engineering]]
> *[[Environmental engineering]]
> *[[Bioresource engineering]]
> *[[Social engineering]]
26,27c26
< *[[SI_unit]]
< 
---
> *[[SI_unit]]
------
The_Doors|989072184
18c18
< Their music tended to be focused around the swirling keyboards of [[Ray Manzerak|Manzerak]], whose left hand played the parts typically associated with [[bass guitar]], and [[Robbie Krieger|Krieger]]'s guitar playing, which showed the influence of [[flamenco]],  [[indian music|indian]], the [[blues]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] music.  
---
> Their music tended to be focused around the swirling keyboards of [[Ray Manzarek|Manzarek]], whose left hand played the parts typically associated with [[bass guitar]], and [[Robbie Krieger|Krieger]]'s guitar playing, which showed the influence of [[flamenco]],  [[indian music|indian]], the [[blues]] and [[classical guitar|classical]] music.  
20c20
< [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 1991.
---
> [[Oliver Stone]] made a movie about the group in 1991.
------
Bob_Dylan|989072337
15c15,16
< * [[/Time Out of Mind]] (1997)
---
> * [[/Desire]] (1975)
> * [[/Time Out of Mind]] (1997)
------
Electronic_Music|989072941
19a20,32
> 
> Notable artists in some genre of electronic music:
> 
> :[[Moby]]
> :[[Portishead]]
> :[[The Chemical Brothers]]
> :[[The Jungle Brothers]]
> :[[Fatboy Slim]]
> :[[Bjork]]
> :[[Depeche Mode]]
> :[[Sneaker Pimps]]
> :[[Enya]]
> :[[Enigma]]
------
Electronic_Music|989072999
32c32
< :[[Enigma]]
---
> :[[Enigma Band|Enigma]]
------
Electronic_Music|989073249
26c26
< :[[The Jungle Brothers]]
---
> :[[Jungle Brothers]]
------
Disco|989073498
1c1
< Disco is an up-tempo style of [[dance music]] that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979, driven in part by the late-1977 film "Saturday Night Fever".
---
> Disco is an up-tempo style of [[dance music]] that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by [[Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes]]. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979, driven in part by the late-1977 film "[[Saturday Night Fever]]".
3c3
< Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm guitar, bass, strings, string synth (a type of organ), trumpet, saxophone, trombone, [[piano]], and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
---
> Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm [[guitar]], bass, strings, [[string synth]] (a type of organ), [[trumpet]], [[saxophone]], [[trombone]], [[piano]], and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
5c5
< Among the most popular disco artists of the 1970s were Chic, Sister Sledge, Michael Jackson, Donna Summer, Gloria Gaynor, the Village People, K.C. and the Sunshine Band, Voyage, the Salsoul Orchestra, the Trammps, and Barry White. Many rock artists, from the Eagles to the Rolling Stones, discofied some of their songs.
---
> Among the most popular disco artists of the 1970s were [[Chic]], [[Sister Sledge]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Donna Summer]], [[Gloria Gaynor]], [[The Village People]], [[K.C. and the Sunshine Band]], [[Voyage]], [[The Salsoul Orchestra]], [[The Trammps]], and [[Barry White]]. Many rock artists, from [[The Eagles]] to [[The Rolling Stones]], discofied some of their songs.
7c7
< Top disco music producers included Patrick Adams, Alec Costandinos, Nile Rodgers, Bernard Edwards, Quincy Jones, François Kevorkian, Meco Monardo, Vincent Montana, Greg Diamond, Giorgio Moroder, Tom Moulton, and Vincent Montana Jr.
---
> Top disco music producers included [[Patrick Adams]], [[Alec Costandinos]], [[Nile Rodgers]], [[Bernard Edwards]], [[Quincy Jones]], [[Francois Kevorkian|François Kevorkian]], [[Meco Monardo]], [[Vincent Montana]], [[Greg Diamond]], [[Giorgio Moroder]], [[Tom Moulton]], and [[Vincent Montana Jr]].
9c9
< In the early 1980s George Benson, Patrice Rushen, Brothers Johnson, Roberta Flack, the S.O.S. Band, and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including house and Hi-NRG, and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
---
> In the early 1980s [[George Benson]], [[Patrice Rushen]], [[Brothers Johnson]], [[Roberta Flack]], [[The S.O.S. Band]], and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including [[house]] and [[Hi-NRG]], and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
11c11
< In the 1990s a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by Jamiroquai's 1996 release "Cosmic Girl" and a number of attempts by artists like Cher and the Spice Girls.
---
> In the 1990s a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by [[Jamiroquai]]'s 1996 release "Cosmic Girl" and a number of attempts by artists like [[Cher]] and [[The Spice Girls]].
------
Disco|989073567
3c3
< Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm [[guitar]], bass, strings, [[string synth]] (a type of organ), [[trumpet]], [[saxophone]], [[trombone]], [[piano]], and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
---
> Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm [[guitar]], [[guitar/bass|bass]], strings, [[string synth]] (a type of organ), [[trumpet]], [[saxophone]], [[trombone]], [[piano]], and drums. Most disco songs have a steady four-on-the-floor beat and a heavy, syncopated bassline. Some use overly repetitious and simplistic melodies and rhythms with dull or silly lyrics while others are carefully crafted works of art.
------
Television|989074139
13,19c13
< :[[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]
< :[[Seinfeld]]
< :[[MASH]]
< :[[I Love Lucy]]
< :[[Friends]]
< :[[Frasier]]
< :[[The Honeymooners]]
---
> 
22,26c16
< :[[Father Knows Best]]
< :[[Peyton Place]]
< :[[Marcus Welby, M.D.]]
< :[[E.R.]]
< :[[The Young Ones]]
---
> :[[Cheers]]
27a18,23
> :[[E.R.]]
> :[[Father Knows Best]]
> :[[Friends]]
> :[[Frasier]]
> :[[The Honeymooners]]
> :[[I Love Lucy]]
29c25
< :[[Red Dwarf]]
---
> :[[Marcus Welby, M.D.]]
31,32c27,28
< :[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire]]
< :[[Top Of The Pops]]
---
> :[[MASH]]
> :[[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]
33a30,32
> :[[Peyton Place]]
> :[[Red Dwarf]]
> :[[Seinfeld]]
34a34,36
> :[[Top Of The Pops]]
> :[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire]]
> :[[The Young Ones]]
38c40
< :[[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]]
---
> :[[Casper the Friendly Ghost]]
110,112c112,114
< :[[Rosie O'Donnell]]- [[not out]]
< :[[Ellen De Generis]]-[out]
< :[[Ann Heche]]-[out]
---
> :[[Rosie ODonnell|Rosie O'Donnell]]- [[not out]]
> :[[Ellen DeGeneres]]-[out]
> :[[Anne Heche]]-[out]
114a117
> [[/Talk]]
------
Television|989074198
92,93c92,93
< :[[Carroll O'Connor]]
< :[[Ryan O'Neal]]
---
> :[[Carroll OConnor|Carroll O'Connor]]
> :[[Ryan ONeal|Ryan O'Neal]]
------
Television/Talk|989075727
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> this section on the previous page about who's out and not is really sloppy and vindictive and does not belong in an encyclopedia.  it really should be there only if the person has chosen to announce his/her sexuality, not to provide speculation on it.  look, all you straight people, let me tell you up front, since obviously no one else has:  you mock us, harass us, fire us, beat us to death, and then act like we don't deserve any respect when self-preservation kicks in and we decide not to be out about it.  yet if we're out about it you accuse us of trying to "convert" people, like we're on some kind of damn commission program, or as if we want anything different from you.  and god forbid we push for equal rights, i.e. the rights to be with the people we love in public without having to worry about some bigot coming along to beat the shit out of us and leave us to die on a post, or the right to insurance for our lifetime companions.  so to all you naive well-meaning clueless people asking "what do you people want?", here's what we, queer america, want.
> 
> :we want to be able to walk in public with our loved ones and not face harassment, just like straight people
> 
> :we want to live our lives in peace, without being insulted or threatened every day of our lives, just like straight people
> 
> that's it.
> 
> we're not after your children, or your pets, or your grandparents.  why is it such a big deal to you who's straight or not?  do you think queerness is contagious?  do you honestly think we could convince a straight person to be gay?  do you honestly think you'd still have david duchovny if we could?  or is that it--you're maybe afraid of your own occasional tendencies, and you couldn't stand it if you were to have an affair, because then you'd have to start believing all the vicious things you've said about other people about yourself too.  so you "choose" to believe that sexuality is a choice, and that you had the good sense to choose to be straight.  well do you really think any person at all would choose to put himself into a position where every day he had to prepare to leave the house because he's bound to be scorned, mocked, threatened, or beaten to deat?  do you really think any person would choose to put herself in a position where she could not be with the person she loves, unashamed, without fear of being cut off from all "friends" and family?
> 
> so now you see we're offended and want to ask the classic naive & horrified--"can't we all just be friends?"  NO.  not until you take your goddam foot out of my back.
> 
> i'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  and thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
------
Byzantine_Empire|989080052
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> successor to the Roman Empire (also called East Roman Empire). The name comes from the city called as [[Byzantium]], which Roman emperor Constantine I rebuilt on AD 330 as Constantinople (today's Istanbul) and made it the capital of the whole Roman Empire. After the division of the empire (AD 395) into eastern and western territories during the reign of emperor Arcadius in the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The boundaries of the empire changed throughout centuries, but the core was the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. 
> 
> After an initial period of revival and invasion of territories as far as today's Italy and northern Africa, the empire soon began a long decline and the boundaries were reduced to Balkans and Anatolia under the influence of Bulgars, Serbs, Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]] and finally [[Ottoman Empire]]. With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert on 1071 most of Asia Minor was permanently lost to Seljuk Turks and then Constantinople was invaded by crusaders in 1204 to found the Latin Empire of Constantinople.
> 
> Following a reestablishment period under the reign of Palaeologus dynasty, the empire was continously attacked by Naple, Venice, Serbia, Bulgaria and Ottoman Turks. Eventually the Ottomans reduced the boundaries of the empire to Constantinople and the capital fell to Ottoman Sultan [[Mehmet II]] in 1453. This year is one of the conventionally accepted dates as the beginning of modern ages.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
>  
------
Byzantium|989080707
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Byzantium is an ancient city founded on today's Istanbul (Turkey) by Greeks in 667 BC. After being captured by the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus 196 AD, it was reestablished by the Emperor Constantine I as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330 AD. 
------
Film_Directors|989082902
66a67,69
> :[[Wachowski brothers]]
> 
> 
------
Byzantine_Empire|989085482
1c1
< successor to the Roman Empire (also called East Roman Empire). The name comes from the city called as [[Byzantium]], which Roman emperor Constantine I rebuilt on AD 330 as Constantinople (today's Istanbul) and made it the capital of the whole Roman Empire. After the division of the empire (AD 395) into eastern and western territories during the reign of emperor Arcadius in the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. The boundaries of the empire changed throughout centuries, but the core was the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. 
---
> successor to the Roman Empire (also called East Roman Empire). The name comes from the city called as [[Byzantium]], which Roman emperor Constantine I rebuilt on AD 330 as Constantinople (today's Istanbul) and made it the capital of the whole Roman Empire. After the division of the empire (AD 395) into eastern and western territories during the reign of emperor Arcadius in the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
3c3
< After an initial period of revival and invasion of territories as far as today's Italy and northern Africa, the empire soon began a long decline and the boundaries were reduced to Balkans and Anatolia under the influence of Bulgars, Serbs, Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]] and finally [[Ottoman Empire]]. With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert on 1071 most of Asia Minor was permanently lost to Seljuk Turks and then Constantinople was invaded by crusaders in 1204 to found the Latin Empire of Constantinople.
---
> The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the third and fourth centuries, in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome.  By the sixth century it had reestablished itself and under Justinian reconquered much of Italy, north Africa, and Spain.
5c5
< Following a reestablishment period under the reign of Palaeologus dynasty, the empire was continously attacked by Naple, Venice, Serbia, Bulgaria and Ottoman Turks. Eventually the Ottomans reduced the boundaries of the empire to Constantinople and the capital fell to Ottoman Sultan [[Mehmet II]] in 1453. This year is one of the conventionally accepted dates as the beginning of modern ages.
---
> Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts.  The [[Lombard]]s took Italy, the Khazars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and the Persians gained domination of most of the eastern provinces.  These were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], who annihilated the Sassanid kingdom, but the sudden appearance of the Arabs was too much for the empire, and the southern provinces were all overrun.
6a7
> What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
7a9
> The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert on 1071 that province was lost.
8a11
> The last few centuries of Byzantine life were bought by an usurper, Alexius Comnenus, who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (''pronoia'') and made significant advances against the Turks.  His plea for western aid brought about the first crusade, which helped him reclaim Nicaea but soon distanced itself from imperial aid.  Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic and in 1204 captured Constantinople, founding a short-lived feudal kingdom and permanently destroying Byzantine power.
9a13
> Three Byzantine successors were left - Nicaea, Epirus, and Manzikert.  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the Palaeologian dynasty, so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the Muslims were too divided to attack, but eventually the Ottomans overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
11,12c15
< 
<  
---
> The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.
------
Wachowski_brothers|989086170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Andy and Larry Wachowski have made a major impact in the movie world with their few productions: Assassins (1995; story written by Wachowski brothers), Bound (1996; written and directed by Wachowski brothers), The Matrix (1999; written and directed by Wachowski brothers).  
------
Wachowski_brothers|989086270
1c1
< Andy and Larry Wachowski have made a major impact in the movie world with their few productions: Assassins (1995; story written by Wachowski brothers), Bound (1996; written and directed by Wachowski brothers), The Matrix (1999; written and directed by Wachowski brothers).  
---
> Andy and Larry Wachowski have made a major impact in the movie world with their few productions: Assassins (1995; story written by Wachowski brothers), Bound (1996; written and directed by Wachowski brothers), [[The Matrix]] (1999; written and directed by Wachowski brothers).  
------
The_Matrix|989086406
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Matrix (1999) was written and directed by Wachowski (Andy and Larry) brothers (starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburne, and Carrie-Anne Moss). Neo, a computer software programmer, is invited to enter to the "real world", where he finds himself as the chosen one to save humankind from the kingdom of intelligent machines. Different from the usual brainless and substance-free action movies, The Matrix has an intelligent and gripping topic. The movie teaches the audience that an action movie with impressive visual effects may still have an intellectual background and some sort of philosophy, which questions the very nature of existence (though that does not mean that the movie does not contain some boring Hollywood cliches; e.g. a very unnecessary love story). The special effect style called “bullet time”, which is the freezing or slowing down of a scene and giving it a three dimensional view, was invented for this film.  
------
Be|989095689
0a1,9
> 1) English word. <i>see below</i>
> 
> 2) Beryllium (Be). Chemical element; number 4 in the periodic table.
> 
> 3) Software company offering the [[BeOS]] operating system for personal computers.
>  www.be.com
> 
> ----
> 
------
Particle_physics|989096470
4a5,7
> * [[proton]]
> * [[photon]]
> * [[neutron]]
------
Be|989096944
3c3
< 2) Beryllium (Be). Chemical element; number 4 in the periodic table.
---
> 2) symbol for [[Beryllium]]. Chemical element; [[atomic number]] 4 in the [[periodic table]].
------
Be|989098243
5,6c5
< 3) Software company offering the [[BeOS]] operating system for personal computers.
<  www.be.com
---
> 3) Software company offering the [[BeOS]] operating system for personal computers: http://www.be.com
------
The_Matrix|989099805
1c1,7
< The Matrix (1999) was written and directed by Wachowski (Andy and Larry) brothers (starring Keanu Reeves, Laurence Fishburne, and Carrie-Anne Moss). Neo, a computer software programmer, is invited to enter to the "real world", where he finds himself as the chosen one to save humankind from the kingdom of intelligent machines. Different from the usual brainless and substance-free action movies, The Matrix has an intelligent and gripping topic. The movie teaches the audience that an action movie with impressive visual effects may still have an intellectual background and some sort of philosophy, which questions the very nature of existence (though that does not mean that the movie does not contain some boring Hollywood cliches; e.g. a very unnecessary love story). The special effect style called “bullet time”, which is the freezing or slowing down of a scene and giving it a three dimensional view, was invented for this film.  
---
> [[Film]], written and directed by [[Wachowski brothers]] (Andy and Larry) in 1999, (starring [[Keanu Reeves]], [[Laurence Fishburne]], and [[Carrie-Anne Moss]]).
> 
> Neo, a computer software programmer, is invited to enter to the "real world", where he finds himself as the chosen one to save humankind from the kingdom of intelligent machines. Different from the usual brainless and substance-free action movies, The Matrix has an intelligent and gripping topic. The movie teaches the audience that an action movie with impressive visual effects may still have an intellectual background and some sort of philosophy, which questions the very nature of existence (though that does not mean that the movie does not contain some boring Hollywood cliches; e.g. a very unnecessary love story).
> 
> The special effect style called bullet time, which is the freezing or slowing down of a scene and giving it a three dimensional view, was invented for this film.
> 
> '''Is that absolute fact? I'm sure I've seen that freeze and rotate technique many, many years before The Matrix.'''
------
Programming_language|989101096
24a25
> * [[Lisp]]
25a27
> * [[Scheme]]
32,33d33
< * [[Lisp]]
< * [[Scheme]]
------
Be|989103746
19c19
< Liguists call the verb "be" a '''copulative''', indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
---
> Linguists call the verb " to be" a '''copulative''', indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
21c21
< Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "NEED FULL JAPANESE PHRASE HERE", or roughly "the book exists (on the table)", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
---
> Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu" or roughly "the book exists (on the table)", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
------
The_Matrix|989104338
1,7c1,9
< [[Film]], written and directed by [[Wachowski brothers]] (Andy and Larry) in 1999, (starring [[Keanu Reeves]], [[Laurence Fishburne]], and [[Carrie-Anne Moss]]).
< 
< Neo, a computer software programmer, is invited to enter to the "real world", where he finds himself as the chosen one to save humankind from the kingdom of intelligent machines. Different from the usual brainless and substance-free action movies, The Matrix has an intelligent and gripping topic. The movie teaches the audience that an action movie with impressive visual effects may still have an intellectual background and some sort of philosophy, which questions the very nature of existence (though that does not mean that the movie does not contain some boring Hollywood cliches; e.g. a very unnecessary love story).
< 
< The special effect style called bullet time, which is the freezing or slowing down of a scene and giving it a three dimensional view, was invented for this film.
< 
< '''Is that absolute fact? I'm sure I've seen that freeze and rotate technique many, many years before The Matrix.'''
---
> [[Film]], written and directed by [[Wachowski brothers]] (Andy and Larry) in 1999, (starring [[Keanu Reeves]], [[Laurence Fishburne]], and [[Carrie-Anne Moss]]).
> 
> Neo, a computer software programmer, is invited to enter to the "real world", where he finds himself as the chosen one to save humankind from the kingdom of intelligent machines. Different from the usual brainless and substance-free action movies, The Matrix has an intelligent and gripping topic. The movie teaches the audience that an action movie with impressive visual effects may still have an intellectual background and some sort of philosophy, which questions the very nature of existence (though that does not mean that the movie does not contain some boring Hollywood cliches; e.g. a very unnecessary love story).
> 
> The special effect style called bullet time, which is the freezing or slowing down of a scene and giving it a three dimensional view, was invented for this film.
> 
> /Talk
> 
> '''Is that absolute fact? I'm sure I've seen that freeze and rotate technique many, many years before The Matrix.'''
------
The_Matrix/Talk|989104480
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is that absolute fact? I'm sure I've seen that freeze and rotate technique many, many years before The Matrix.
> ------
> Yes. The source is http://www.britannica.com/magazine?ebsco_id=84556&pager.offset=10
> [[ErdemTuzun]]
> ------
------
The_Matrix|989104497
9d8
< '''Is that absolute fact? I'm sure I've seen that freeze and rotate technique many, many years before The Matrix.'''
------
Be|989104669
21c21,24
< Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu" or roughly "the book exists (on the table)", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
---
> Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu" or roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".----"To be" is also used to express the passive voice in English, thus:<br>
> "This book is often criticized by academics." is the passive form of the sentence:<br>
> "Academics often criticize this book." <br>
> Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. Rose Parks
------
Byzantine_Empire|989105294
9c9
< The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the Turks, who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert on 1071 that province was lost.
---
> The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert by the sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]] [[Alparslan]] on 1071 that province was lost.
11c11
< The last few centuries of Byzantine life were bought by an usurper, Alexius Comnenus, who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (''pronoia'') and made significant advances against the Turks.  His plea for western aid brought about the first crusade, which helped him reclaim Nicaea but soon distanced itself from imperial aid.  Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic and in 1204 captured Constantinople, founding a short-lived feudal kingdom and permanently destroying Byzantine power.
---
> The last few centuries of Byzantine life were bought by an usurper, Alexius Comnenus, who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (''pronoia'') and made significant advances against the [[Seljuk Turks]].  His plea for western aid brought about the first crusade, which helped him reclaim Nicaea but soon distanced itself from imperial aid.  Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic and in 1204 captured Constantinople, founding a short-lived feudal kingdom and permanently destroying Byzantine power.
13c13
< Three Byzantine successors were left - Nicaea, Epirus, and Manzikert.  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the Palaeologian dynasty, so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the Muslims were too divided to attack, but eventually the Ottomans overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
---
> Three Byzantine successors were left - Nicaea, Epirus, and Manzikert.  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the Palaeologian dynasty, so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the Muslims were too divided to attack, but eventually the Ottomans overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege to [[Mehmet II]] in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
15c15,17
< The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.
---
> The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.
> 
> /Talk
------
Be|989105427
19c19
< Linguists call the verb " to be" a '''copulative''', indicating existence, belonging, identity, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty lousy definition because it uses be in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if you don't know what the word means you can't read English.
---
> Linguists call the verb "to be" a '''copula,''' when it indicares identity, belonging, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty poor definition because it uses "to be" in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if one don't know what the word means they can't read English.
21c21
< Other languages have multiple words for these copulatives, dividing their uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence and identity uses, and "desu" for the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu" or roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", saying roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".----"To be" is also used to express the passive voice in English, thus:<br>
---
> Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".----"To be" is also used to express the passive voice in English, thus:<br>
------
Be|989105471
24c24
< Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. Rose Parks
---
> Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. RoseParks
------
Byzantine_Empire/Talk|989105616
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many thanks for the revisions. The article looks much more informative now. I added some names to establish some empty links that I am planning to fill in the following days. The statement that the date of the invasion of Constantinople is one of the conventional dates for the beginning of modern ages has been deleted. Is this a disputable information? Otherwise, it seems to be a useful information. [[ErdemTuzun]]
> ------
------
Television/Talk|989107310
1c1
< this section on the previous page about who's out and not is really sloppy and vindictive and does not belong in an encyclopedia.  it really should be there only if the person has chosen to announce his/her sexuality, not to provide speculation on it.  look, all you straight people, let me tell you up front, since obviously no one else has:  you mock us, harass us, fire us, beat us to death, and then act like we don't deserve any respect when self-preservation kicks in and we decide not to be out about it.  yet if we're out about it you accuse us of trying to "convert" people, like we're on some kind of damn commission program, or as if we want anything different from you.  and god forbid we push for equal rights, i.e. the rights to be with the people we love in public without having to worry about some bigot coming along to beat the shit out of us and leave us to die on a post, or the right to insurance for our lifetime companions.  so to all you naive well-meaning clueless people asking "what do you people want?", here's what we, queer america, want.
---
> The section on the previous page about who's out and not is really sloppy and vindictive and does not belong in an encyclopedia.  It really should be there only if the person has chosen to announce his/her sexuality, not to provide speculation on it. Look, all you straight people, let me tell you up front, since obviously no one else has:  you mock us, harass us, fire us, beat us to death, and then act like we don't deserve any respect when self-preservation kicks in and we decide not to be out about it. Yet if we're out about it, you accuse us of trying to "convert" people, like we're on some kind of damn commission program, or as if we want anything different from you. And god forbid we push for equal rights, e.g., the right to be with the people we love in public without having to worry about some bigot coming along to beat the shit out of us and leave us to die on a post, or the right to insurance for our lifetime companions...  So to all you naive well-meaning clueless people asking, "What do you people want?", here's what we, queer america, want:
3c3
< :we want to be able to walk in public with our loved ones and not face harassment, just like straight people
---
> :We want to be able to walk in public with our loved ones and not face harassment, just like straight people.
5c5
< :we want to live our lives in peace, without being insulted or threatened every day of our lives, just like straight people
---
> :We want to live our lives in peace, without being insulted or threatened every day of our lives, just like straight people
7c7
< that's it.
---
> That's it.
9c9
< we're not after your children, or your pets, or your grandparents.  why is it such a big deal to you who's straight or not?  do you think queerness is contagious?  do you honestly think we could convince a straight person to be gay?  do you honestly think you'd still have david duchovny if we could?  or is that it--you're maybe afraid of your own occasional tendencies, and you couldn't stand it if you were to have an affair, because then you'd have to start believing all the vicious things you've said about other people about yourself too.  so you "choose" to believe that sexuality is a choice, and that you had the good sense to choose to be straight.  well do you really think any person at all would choose to put himself into a position where every day he had to prepare to leave the house because he's bound to be scorned, mocked, threatened, or beaten to deat?  do you really think any person would choose to put herself in a position where she could not be with the person she loves, unashamed, without fear of being cut off from all "friends" and family?
---
> We're not after your children, or your pets, or your grandparents.  Why is it such a big deal to you who's straight or not?  Do you think queerness is contagious?  Do you honestly think we could convince a straight person to be gay?  Do you honestly think you'd still have David Duchovny if we could?  Or, is that it--you're maybe afraid of your own occasional tendencies, and you couldn't stand it if you were to have an affair, because then you'd have to start believing all the vicious things you've said about other people about yourselves too.  So you "choose" to believe that sexuality is a choice, and that you had the good sense to choose to be straight.  Well do you really think any person at all would choose to put himself into a position where every day he had to prepare to leave the house because he's bound to be scorned, mocked, threatened, or beaten to death?  Do you really think any person would choose to put him/herself in a position where he/she could not be with the person he/she loves, unashamed, without fear of being cut off from all "friends" and family?
11c11
< so now you see we're offended and want to ask the classic naive & horrified--"can't we all just be friends?"  NO.  not until you take your goddam foot out of my back.
---
> So now you see we're offended and want to ask the classic naive & horrified--"Can't we all just be friends?"  NO.  Not until you take your goddam foot out of my back.
13c13
< i'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  and thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
---
> I'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  and thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
------
Television/Talk|989107366
5c5
< :We want to live our lives in peace, without being insulted or threatened every day of our lives, just like straight people
---
> :We want to live our lives in peace, without being insulted or threatened every day of our lives, just like straight people.
13c13
< I'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  and thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
---
> I'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  And, thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
------
Byzantine_Empire|989110191
7c7
< What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
---
> What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
15c15
< The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.
---
> The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.  The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were the originally defined bounds of the Middle ages.
17c17
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Byzantine_Empire/Talk|989110377
2c2,5
< ------
---
> 
> Thanks for making the article in the first place, I probably wouldn't have said anything otherwise, though Byzantium's one of my favorite civilizations.  The comment was missing simply because I forgot to rework it in.  I've added it, plus a note on urban life I forgot to make. --[[Josh Grosse]]
> 
> ------
------
Byzantine_Empire|989110497
7c7
< What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
---
> What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital while it grew to become the largest city in the world.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
------
Bovine_Spongiform_Encephalopathy|989111475
1c1
< Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of cattle. BSE is supposed to be caused by [[prion]]s and to be bovine counterpart of human prion disease [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob]] and sheep prion disease scrapie. Eating meat from cattle with BSE is thought to have caused the new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a few people in the U.K. and France. All rodents injected with brain tissue obtained from cows with BSE develop a fatal neurological disorder in one or two years. It is possible to detect the abnormal prion protein in some but not all of these animals' brain tissues. Although there is substantial evidence for transmission of the disease by prions and various theories about the absorbtion of prion proteins by intestinal cells, there is still no definite proof reliably showing that the orally consumed bovine meat is really causing the new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. First BSE epidemic was recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. BSE is thought to have arisen from cattles fed with high-protein diet obtained from remnants of butchered animals and modified by some new methods developed in the early 1980s.
---
> Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease of cattle. BSE is supposed to be caused by [[prion]]s and to be bovine counterpart of human prion disease [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]] and sheep prion disease scrapie. Eating meat from cattle with BSE is thought to have caused the new variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in a few people in the U.K. and France. All rodents injected with brain tissue obtained from cows with BSE develop a fatal neurological disorder in one or two years. It is possible to detect the abnormal prion protein in some but not all of these animals' brain tissues. Although there is substantial evidence for transmission of the disease by prions and various theories have developed about the absorbtion of prion proteins by intestinal cells, there is still no definite proof reliably showing that orally consumed bovine meat is really the cause of the new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. The first BSE epidemic was recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. BSE is thought to have arisen from cattle fed with a high-protein diet, obtained from remnants of butchered animals and modified by some new methods developed in the early 1980s.
------
Neuroscience|989112367
1c1
< A field of study, which deals with the structure, development, function, chemistry, pharmacology and pathology of the central or peripheral nervous system. The biological study of the brain is in  cooperation with cellular and molecular biology on one side and with psychology on the other side. Thus, the concern of neuroscience includes such diverse topics as how genes contribute to emotions and thought and how simple neural structures evolve to complex neural circuits to achieve functions as perceiving, moving and remembering. 
---
> A field of study, which deals with the structure, development, function, chemistry, pharmacology and pathology of the central or peripheral nervous system. The biological study of the brain is an intradisciplinary field, which involves cellular and molecular biology on one hand and psychology on the other hand. Thus, the concern of neuroscience includes such diverse topics as how genes contribute to emotions and thought and how simple neural structures evolve to complex neural circuits to achieve functions as perceiving, moving and remembering. 
------
Britney_Spears|989115821
5c5
< Her first album, [[Baby One More Time]], debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early [[1999]].  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
---
> Her first album, [[Baby One More Time]], debuted in the number 1 spot on the [[Billboard Charts]] in early [[1999]], and also topped the charts in the UK.  Her followup album, [[Oops I Did It Again]] was a similarly huge success.
------
Sophocles|989123883
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sophocles, an Athenian politician and dramatist, was born in 496 B.C. and died in 406 B.C.
> 
> Works:
> * Oedipus Rex
> * Oedipus at Colonus
> * Antigone
------
Be/Talk|989127870
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Do we really want to make the third sense of "be" BeOS...?
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Galts_Gulch|989129121
7c7
< We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation.  Conversely, there is a reverence for private property - everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley - they purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. _______, who uses his invention of a portable x-ray machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskold, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
---
> We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation.  Conversely, there is a reverence for private property - everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley - they purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable x-ray machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskold, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.
------
Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz|989139456
2c2
< version), would-be Wikipedian...
---
> version), Wikipedian (hopefully) ...
------
Link_madness|989139782
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An example of link madness.
> 
> &quot;[[To]] [[be]] [[or]] [[not]] [[to]] [[be]].&quot; [[is]] [[one]]
> [[of]] [[the]] [[most]] [[famous]] [[quotation]]s [[of]] [[the]] [[world]]
> [[literature]].
> 
> There's no word that on arbitrary grounds could be excluded from Wikipedia.
> Ha !
------
Punk_rock|989140349
12a13
> *[[The Damned]]
17c18
< *[[Exploited]]
---
> *[[The Exploited]]
------
Be/Talk|989153841
1c1,4
< Do we really want to make the third sense of "be" BeOS...?
---
> Do we really want to make the third sense of "be" BeOS...?
> ----
> Well ... I think so, but I agree it's questionable. The legal name of the company is "Be Incorporated" and perhaps this would be the proper wiki entrance. But if the public name is not identical to the legal name, I guess we need to state it and make a link to the proper entrance anyway. A similar case would be the company "Palm Incorporated" also known as "Palm".
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989160215
8a9
> *[[Commagene]]
41c42
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Commagene|989160372
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A kingdom located in northern ancient Syria (now southeastern Turkey) near the Euphrates River at the intersection point of Roman and Parthian empires. Gaining its independence from the Seleucid Empire and having a strategic position between two super powers of its time, the kingdom could maintain its presence for a  period of about two centuries (162 BC – 17 AD) before being invaded by the [[Roman Empire]]. Its most famous king Antiochus I (death 34 BC), who brought the kingdom to its zenith, is famous both for his legendary and successful defence against the armies of the Roman Empire and the mausoleum that he ordered to be built for himself on the peak of Nimrud Mountain. The location of Antiochus’ tomb is one of the mysteries of archeology and recent research has revealed that on the peak of Nimrud Mountain close to the mausoleum there are some cavities that could potentially hold the tomb of the king. 
------
Mediterranean_Sea|989162598
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> an intercontinental sea between Europe, Africa and Asia. It covers an approximate area of 2,5 million square km. The sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by Gibraltar Strait on the west and to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]] on the east. [[Marmara Sea]] but not the [[Black Sea]] is often considered as a part of Mediterranean Sea. The major islands are Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes on the east, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily in the middle and Majorca on the west. The climate is generally composed of wet winters and hot, dry summers. Special crops of the region are olive, grape, orange and tangerine.
------
Khazars|989165924
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> is founded by a group of Turkic tribes in the 6th century AD on the southeastern section of todays European Russia near the [[Caspian Sea]] and the Caucasus. Their first significant appearance in history is their aid to the campaign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius against the Persians. During the 7th and 8th centuries they made a series of wars with the Islamic Arab Empire. Although they stopped the Arab expansion into Eastern Europe after these wars, they were withdrawn behind the Caucasus, as well. Afterwards they extended their territories from the Caspian Sea in the east to the north of Black Sea in the west. Interestingly, some of the people of Khazar Empire adopted Judaism, though a majority accepted paganism. In the 10th century the empire began to decline by the attacks of the Russian and other Turkic tribes and their political significance greatly diminished toward the ends of the 12th century. 
------
Henryk_Sienkiewicz|989170309
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<B>Henryk Sienkiewicz</B> 1846 -- 1916
> 
> Polish novelist. One of the most outstanding Polish writers of the 19th
> century. He was immensely popular and loved at his times and after over a
> century he is still highly valued among readers of prose.
> He he best known for his colourful historical novels depicting
> heroic deeds of Polish fighters.
> 
> Literature [[NobelPrize]] laureate in 1905.
> 
> The most important works :
> * Trylogia (Trilogy)
> ** Ogniem i mieczem (With fire and sword) 1884
> ** Potop (The Deluge) 1886
> ** Pan Wolodyjowski 1888
> * Krzyzacy (The Teutonic Knights) 1900
> * Quo vadis 1895
> * W pustyni i w puszczy (In Desert and Wilderness) 1912
> * Rodzina Polanieckich (The Polaniecki Family) 1894
> * Bez dogmatu (Without Dogma) 1891
------
Kpjas|989170687
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT Krzysztof_P._Jasiutowicz
------
Henryk_Sienkiewicz|989181905
3c3
< Polish novelist. One of the most outstanding Polish writers of the 19th
---
> [[Poland|Polish]] novelist. One of the most outstanding Polish writers of the 19th
20c20
< * Bez dogmatu (Without Dogma) 1891
---
> * Bez dogmatu (Without Dogma) 1891
------
Henryk_Sienkiewicz|989184033
9c9
< Literature [[NobelPrize]] laureate in 1905.
---
> Literature [[Nobel Prize]] laureate in 1905.
------
Geology|989207382
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [[Soil Geology]], [[Geophysics]], [[Atmospheric and climatological geology]], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
------
Geology|989207450
1c1
< Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [[Soil Geology]], [[Geophysics]], [[Atmospheric and climatological geology]], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
---
> Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [Soil Geology], [[Geophysics]], [Atmospheric and climatological geology], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
------
Geology|989207513
1c1
< Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [Soil Geology], [[Geophysics]], [Atmospheric and climatological geology], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
---
> Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [[Soils]], [[Geophysics]], [[Climatology]], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
------
Guinness|989228079
3c3
< A dark stout beer, brewed in James Gate, [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. Best served cool and slow, and best tasted in Ireland. For some reason American bars seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'.
---
> A dark stout [[beer]], brewed in James Gate, [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. Best served cool and slow, and best tasted in Ireland. For some reason American bars seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'.
------
Beer|989228126
14c14
< 
---
> ''see also [[Guinness]]''
------
Disruption|989231414
1c1
< A disruption is something that temporarily or permanantly interrupts, delays, or prevents delays an event, task, or operation from completing.
---
> A disruption is something that temporarily or permanantly interrupts, delays, or prevents an event, task, or operation from completing.
------
Be|989231593
1,5c1
< 1) English word. <i>see below</i>
< 
< 2) symbol for [[Beryllium]]. Chemical element; [[atomic number]] 4 in the [[periodic table]].
< 
< 3) Software company offering the [[BeOS]] operating system for personal computers: http://www.be.com
---
> 1) The infinitive form of the copula in the [[English language]].  <i>See below.</i>
6a3
> 2) Symbol for [[Beryllium]]. Chemical element; [[atomic number]] 4 in the [[periodic table]].
7a5,9
> The English word ''be'' has many meanings, which are the subject of discussions in [[grammar]] and [[ontology]].  Linguists call the verb "to be" a ''[[copula]],'' when it indicates identity, belonging, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  One can distinguish, as [[logic|logicians]] do, the possession of attributes from class membership.  We can, therefore, identify four senses of "be" and its [[conjugation]]s.
> # ''To exist.''  "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough."  "God is" (a way some[[theist]]s assert their theism).  "There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed ''is.''"
> # ''Identity.'' "I only want to ''be'' myself."  "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake."  "The Morning Star ''is'' the Evening Star."  "Boys ''will be'' boys."  "I ''yam'' what I yam" ([[Popeye]]).
> # ''Class membership.''  To belong to a set or class: "She could ''be'' married."  "Dogs ''are'' canines."  "Moscow is a large city."
> # ''Property and relation attribution'': "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"  "The hen ''is'' next to the rooster."  "I ''am'' confused."  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will ''be'' tired after running."  "Will you ''be'' going to the play tomorrow?"  (In this latter form, some grammarians might consider "be going" single verb phrase with "be" as a "helper verb", while others consider the [[gerund]] "going" to be used as an adjective describing a condition parallel to the "tired" example.  This latter interpretation is more consistent with other Germanic languages).
9,15c11
< The English word "be" has many meanings, most of which relate to the subject of [[ontology]].
< 
< To exist: "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough."
< 
< To have a particular identity: "I only want to ''be'' myself."  "When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake."  "Only a person who has attained age 35 or better may ''be'' President of the United states."  "Who knew that when he grew up, he would ''be'' Bob Dylan?"
< 
< To belong to a set or class: "I wonder what it's like to ''be'' a Sunni Muslim."
---
> In [[ontology]], philosophical discussions of the word "be" and its conjugations takes place over the meaning of the word ''is,'' the third person singular form of 'be', and whether the other senses can be [[reduction|reduced]] to one sense.  For example, it is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, [[Aristotle]] held, is to be ''something.''  Of course, the gerund form of "be," ''being,'' is its own (vexed) topic: see [[being]] and [[existence]].
17,26c13
< To posess a particular attribute or attributes: "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will ''be'' tired after running."  "Will you ''be'' going to the play tomorrow?"  (In this latter form, some grammarians might consider "be going" single verb phrase with "be" as a "helper verb", while others consider the [[gerund]] "going" to be used as an adjective describing a condition parallel to the "tired" example.  This latter interpretation is more consistent with other Germanic languages).
< 
< Linguists call the verb "to be" a '''copula,''' when it indicares identity, belonging, or the possession of attributes; that one thing is a special case of another, or that it simply is anything.  That's a pretty poor definition because it uses "to be" in it (in the singular third person form, ''is''), which is just as well because if one don't know what the word means they can't read English.
< 
< Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make machine translation difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions aren't always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".----"To be" is also used to express the passive voice in English, thus:<br>
< "This book is often criticized by academics." is the passive form of the sentence:<br>
< "Academics often criticize this book." <br>
< Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. RoseParks
< 
< <HR>Go back to: [[Philosophy]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ontology]].
---
> Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make [[machine translation]] difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions are not always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
27a15,17
> See also [[ontology]]; [[grammar]]; [[copula]].
> ----
> ''Be'' is also an informal name for Be, Incorporated, a software company offering the [[BeOS]] operating system for personal computers.  They have a [http://www.be.com web site].
29c19
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Be/Talk|989231669
1,4c1,4
< Do we really want to make the third sense of "be" BeOS...?
< ----
< Well ... I think so, but I agree it's questionable. The legal name of the company is "Be Incorporated" and perhaps this would be the proper wiki entrance. But if the public name is not identical to the legal name, I guess we need to state it and make a link to the proper entrance anyway. A similar case would be the company "Palm Incorporated" also known as "Palm".
< 
---
> "To be" is also used to express the passive voice in English, thus:
> :"This book is often criticized by academics." is the passive form of the sentence:<br>
> "Academics often criticize this book."
> Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. RoseParks
------
Be/Talk|989231693
2,3c2
< :"This book is often criticized by academics." is the passive form of the sentence:<br>
< "Academics often criticize this book."
---
> :"This book is often criticized by academics." is the passive form of the sentence: "Academics often criticize this book."
------
Beer|989231775
14c14,15
< ''see also [[Guinness]]''
---
> Commercial brands of beer:
> :[[Guinness]]
------
Beer|989231943
7d6
< 
10c9,13
< Belgians proud themselves on having the richest beer culture. There are over threehundred kinds of beer among which Stella Artois, Alken Maes, Jupiler and Duvel are some of the most well known. It is also said that the Belgian beers are the best beers in the world. This, however, is mostly said by the Belgians themselves.
---
> '''Beer and nationality'''
> 
> Belgians--like other nationalities--pride themselves on having the richest beer culture. There are over three hundred kinds of Belgian beer among which Stella Artois, Alken Maes, Jupiler and Duvel are some of the most well known. It is often said (particularly by Belgians) that the Belgian beers are particularly excellent.
> 
> '''Beer and related drinks'''
12c15
< Beers made from raw materials other than barley include hundreds of local African drinks made from millet, sorghum, and other available starch crops; Russian kvass, made from fermented rye bread; Chinese samshu, Korean suk, and Japanese sake, all brewed from rice; and pulque, an indigenous Mexican beer made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant. The Mexicans and the Japanese also brew and export several brands of Western-style beer.
---
> Beers, or drinks vaguely similar to beer, made from raw materials other than barley include hundreds of local African drinks made from millet, sorghum, and other available starch crops; Russian kvass, made from fermented rye bread; Chinese samshu, Korean suk, and Japanese sake, all brewed from rice; and pulque, an indigenous Mexican beer made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant. The Mexicans and the Japanese also brew and export several brands of Western-style beer.
15c18
< :[[Guinness]]
---
> :[[Guinness]]
------
Beer|989231970
17c17
< Commercial brands of beer:
---
> '''Commercial brands of beer:'''
------
Fiddle|989232687
1c1
< A MusicalInstrument with four strings, typically held under the chin, and played with a BoW; the smallest and highest-pitched of a family of four instruments including VioLin, VioLa, CelLo, and BasS.  For more information about the physical instrument itself, see VioLin.
---
> A [[musical instrument]] with four strings, typically held under the chin, and played with a [[violin bow]]; the smallest and highest-pitched of a family of four instruments including [[violin]], [[viola]], [[cello]], and [[bass violin]].  For more information about the physical instrument itself, see [[violin]].
3c3
< '''[[Fiddle and violin]].''' The fiddle is the same MusicalInstrument as the VioLin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a FolkMusic (i.e., TraditionalMusic) or sometimes a JaZz style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., BlueGrass and OldTime music) fiddling: the ViolinBridge is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play DoubleStops.
---
> '''[[Fiddle and violin]].''' The fiddle is the same musical instrument as the violin.  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes a [[jazz]] style.  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
------
Punk_rock|989233799
7a8,9
> In the early eighties punk integrated with reggea- & ska- subcultures with bands as [[TheSpecials]], [[Madness]], [[TheSelecter]], [[BadManners]]. Here are the roots of [[skinhead]]-culture as well.
> 
11c13,16
< *[[The Sex Pistols]]
---
> *[[Bad Religion]]
> *[[BGK]] "Balthazar Gerards Commando"
> *[[Blondie]]
> *[[The Buzzcocks]]
12a18,20
> *[[The Cramps]]
> *[[Crass]]
> *[[The Cure]]
14d21
< *[[The Buzzcocks]]
16,17c23,24
< *[[Richard Hell]]
< *[[The Ramones]]
---
> *[[Einstürzende Neubauten]]
> *[[The Ex]]
19c26,34
< *[[Bad Religion]]
---
> *[[Kobus gaat naar Appelscha]]
> *[[Minor Threat]]
> *[[Plastic Bertrand]] "Ca plane pour moi"
> *[[The Ramones]]
> *[[The Sex Pistols]]
> *[[Sham 69]]
> *[[TC Matic]]
> *[[Television]]
> *[[The Toy Dolls]]
21c36,38
< *[[Minor Threat]]
---
> *[[Violent Femmes]]
> *[[Richard Hell]] & "The Voidoids"
> *[[The Zodiac Mindwarp]]
------
Compilers|989235253
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Compilers - Tools for creating machine-readable programs
> 
> A compiler is a software programs which takes as its input a set of modules written in a ProgrammingLanguage and creates a machine readable binary executable image file.
> 
> Computer hardware can only understand very specific binary machine language instructions.  Each instruction must be written in an extremely precise format and must conform to extremely limited abilities of the computer's CPU (Central Processing Unit). Such binary machine language is too cumbersome for humans to read, write, and understand directly.
> 
> Compilers have the ability to understand the more abstract, symbolic, human-friendly programming languages and to generate a low level binary machine language program which executes *exactly* what the programming language specifies.
------
Mediterranean_Sea|989235605
1c1
< an intercontinental sea between Europe, Africa and Asia. It covers an approximate area of 2,5 million square km. The sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by Gibraltar Strait on the west and to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]] on the east. [[Marmara Sea]] but not the [[Black Sea]] is often considered as a part of Mediterranean Sea. The major islands are Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes on the east, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily in the middle and Majorca on the west. The climate is generally composed of wet winters and hot, dry summers. Special crops of the region are olive, grape, orange and tangerine.
---
> an intercontinental sea between [[Europe]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. It covers an approximate area of 2,5 million square km. The sea is connected to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by the [[Gibraltar Straits]] on the west and to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]] on the east. [[Marmara Sea]] but not the [[Black Sea]] is often considered as a part of Mediterranean Sea. The major islands are Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes on the east, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily in the middle and Majorca on the west. The climate is generally composed of wet winters and hot, dry summers. Special crops of the region are olive, grape, orange and tangerine.
------
Punk_rock|989239484
33c33
< *[[Television]]
---
> *[[Television/Band]]
------
Punk_rock|989239519
33c33
< *[[Television/Band]]
---
> *[[Television|Television/Band]]
------
Punk_rock|989239552
33c33
< *[[Television|Television/Band]]
---
> *[[Television/Band|Television]]
------
Computer_Mouse|989244876
1c1
< A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen. Modern mice usually have three buttons and a scroll wheel, wireless variants exist as well was optical mice.
---
> A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen. Modern mice usually have three buttons and a scroll wheel, wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.
------
Computer_Mouse|989245290
1a2,3
> 
> The mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart during the sixties.
------
Guinness/Talk|989248175
1c1,3
< Here! Here! for the editorial.  By the way, if you're ever in Houston, McGonegal's Mucky Duck takes about 4 minutes to pour an imperial pint.  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Here! Here! for the editorial.  By the way, if you're ever in Houston, McGonegal's Mucky Duck takes about 4 minutes to pour an imperial pint.  --[[Invictus]]
> 
> Is Guinness a beer first and foremost?  Who is the book of world records named after?  Does s/he deserve an entry? :-) --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Compilers|989249208
7c7,9
< Compilers have the ability to understand the more abstract, symbolic, human-friendly programming languages and to generate a low level binary machine language program which executes *exactly* what the programming language specifies.
---
> Compilers have the ability to understand the more abstract, symbolic, human-friendly programming languages and to generate a low level binary machine language program which executes *exactly* what the programming language specifies.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Compilers/Talk|989249523
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ... Steve Gibson (http://grc.com/) releases his programs in machine language.  Not sure how he does it... If he actually writes in it or what.  I would imagine not but haven't asked.  I suppose it's possible, though that would probably make him a certifiable genius.  :-D
------
Computer_Mouse|989250770
1c1
< A handheld pointing device wich convert the movement of the user's hand into movements of the cursor on the screen. Modern mice usually have three buttons and a scroll wheel, wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.
---
> A handheld pointing device which converts its movement within a certain area into movements of the cursor on the monitor. Modern mice usually have two or three buttons and a scroll wheel; mice with more than one button ascribe different functions to each one.  For instance, a mouse configured in the standard way will use the left button in a [[web browser]] to follow links, while the right button brings up a menu allowing the user to copy graphics or a link location, go back in the broser's history, and so forth.  Wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.  [[Apple computer|Apple]] continues to release mice with only one button, requiring the user to hold down the "apple" key while clicking to indicate a "right click."
3a4,8
> 
> The mouse has been inverted in design by the trackball: instead of moving the trackball across a pad to move the ball at the bottom, the trackball is stationary.  The ball is on top, part of its arc above the case's surface; the user moves his or her hand across the ball directly to move the cursor.  Avid [[computer game|gamers]] tend to prefer the trackball.
> 
> 
> 
------
Be/Talk|989253928
3c3,6
< Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. RoseParks
---
> Having been a contributor to this page, I think all this is very poorly analyzed and should be redone. Even my dictionary (American Heritage) does not call the meaning of "to be" as existence, a "copula." My linguistic training agrees with this notion, as well. RoseParks
> ----
> Yeah, that kind of bugs me too.  In a simple existence statement, "be" is the predicate itself, not a copula.  One problem is that the concept of "copula" itself is not entirely solid.  There's some good information here that should be retained, but it is somewhat unclear.  I'll do a page on "copula" that we can link to make it easier to rewrite this one.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Existence|989255540
13c13
< Though often not discussed under the heading of existence, disputes among [[realism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[physicalism]], and various other metaphysical views concern what might be called the ''criteria'' for existence.  For example, phenomenalist, generally speaking, is the view that everything that exists is mental.  Most phenomenalists would want to deny that this claim is a ''definition'' of 'exists'; if phenomenalism ''were'' treated as a definition of 'exists', then others might accuse the view of trying to be "true by definition."  Accordingly, it might be dismissed as a trivial exercise in redefining the ordinary concept of existence, which is, perhaps, of little interest to anyone.  Exactly what relation, however, definitions (or analyses, or explications, etc.) and criteria have is an interesting and vexed question.  See [[definitions vs. criteria]].
---
> Though often not discussed under the heading of existence, disputes among [[realism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[physicalism]], and various other metaphysical views concern what might be called the ''criteria'' for existence.  For example, phenomenalism, generally speaking, is the view that everything that exists is mental.  Most phenomenalists would want to deny that this claim is a ''definition'' of 'exists'; if phenomenalism ''were'' treated as a definition of 'exists', then others might accuse the view of trying to be "true by definition."  Accordingly, it might be dismissed as a trivial exercise in redefining the ordinary concept of existence, which is, perhaps, of little interest to anyone.  Exactly what relation, however, definitions (or analyses, or explications, etc.) and criteria have is an interesting and vexed question.  See [[definitions vs. criteria]].
------
The_Matrix/Talk|989256597
5a6
> Ahhh, apologies, I figured it was refering to the other technique (as described above), but what it that called? I remember seeing it years ago on the [[BBC]]s Tomorrow's World.
------
Copula|989257878
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[linguistics]], a '''copula''' (also called a '''linking verb''') is a word that is used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate.  Though it might not itself express any action or condition, it serves to associate the subject with a predicate that could not stand by itself.  For example, in the sentence "Bob runs", the predicate "run" is already a verb, so it can be used by itself.  In the sentences "Bob is old" and "Bob is a fireman", however, the predicates are an adjective and a noun, so the linking verb "is" (a form of [[be]], the usual copula in English) serves to associate them with Bob.  In English, even the normal present tense of verbs is expressed more commonly with the copulative form "Bob is running", while other tenses are expressed without it ("Bob ran"), or with the use of other '''helper verbs''' ("Bob will run").
> 
> Some languages use copulas differently, so a sentence like "Bob old" would be a complete and grammatical expression, while they might still use a copula to associate one noun with another as in the "fireman" example.  The [[artificial language]] [[Lojban]] has no copula at all, because all words that express a predicate can be used as verbs.  The three sentences above would all have the same form in Lojban: "la bob. bajra", "la bob. malcitno", and "la bob. fagdirpre".  Some languages also have more than one copula for different uses; for example the [[Spanish language]] uses the verb "ser" to link a subject to a predicate that specifies an identity or inherent quality ("Bob is old" would be "Bob es viejo"), and the verb "estar" to link predicates that specify a temporary condition ("Bob is here" would be "Bob está aquí").
> 
> It should be pointed out that the English verb [[be]] can also be used as a standalone predicate when it is used to express mere existence.  "I am" is a complete sentence meaning "I exist", and in this case "am" is not a copula but a normal, meaningful verb.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
The_Matrix/Talk|989258910
6a7,9
> ----
> 
> The freeze-and-pan ''effect'' existed before the movie; the ''technique'' the movie used to achieve it was new.  The effect first appeared in commercials (notably the "Khakis Swing" commercial for The Gap).  In the earlier versions, only a handful of cameras surrounded the scene and frames were digitally tweened to create the smooth pan.  In the "bullet time" technique, hundreds of cameras are used to get precise views at all angles, and the hard work is managing the enormous amount of data.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Sheepshead|989263565
7c7
< Take jokers and all cards 6 and below out of the deck. Sheepshead is played with all the cards 7 - Ace. Should be a total of 32 cards.
---
> Take jokers and all cards 6 and below out of the dec. Sheepshead is played with all the cards 7 - Ace. Should be a total of 32 cards.
115c115
< Hand 1: Q Clubs, Q Spades, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, A hearts, K Hearts
---
> <H4>Hand 1: Q Hearts, A Diamonds, A Clubs, 10 Clubs, 7 Clubs, 7 Hearts</H4>
117c117,145
< <B>UNKNOWN</B>Hand 3:  Q Hearts, J Spades, J Hearts, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, 7 Diamonds
---
> * You probably shouldn't take the blind.  With only 2 trump it's not really worth it.  
> 
> <H4>Hand 2: J Clubs, J Diamonds, A Diamonds, 8 Diamonds, A Spades, A Hearts</H4>
> 
> * Don't take the blind.  You have 4 trump, but they are mostly little.  If you have a chronic picking problem you may pick on this.
> * If you pass on the blind, you have a very good chance of ending up partner, since you have 2 of the 3 fail aces.  
> * This is a decent partner hand, with the trump and lots of point to "schmear" to your partner.  
> 
> <H4>Hand 3: Q Spades, Q Hearts, J Diamonds, K Diamonds, 10 Hearts, 10 Clubs</H4>
> 
> <H4>Hand 4: Q Clubs, Q Diamonds, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, A hearts, K Hearts</H4>
> * This is a very good hand to pick on. 
> * There are 15 points to bury (A and K of hearts) and that's basically half way to schneider (31 points)
> * -- In Blind: J Clubs, 9 Diamonds
> * (Special note: If this player had gotten another Queen in the blind, (s)he could surely go alone)
> * Player should keep the two additional trump, then bury the A hearts and K hearts
> * Hand is now: Q Clubs, Q Hearts, J Clubs, A Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, 9 Diamonds (all trump)
> * Picker now has the option of getting a partner (or not).  This is a very good hand and might be a winner if attempted "alone"
> * If the picker wants a partner, he has to call an "unknown" since he has nothing but trump.  He can take his 9 of Diamonds, place it face down on the table, then call it any suit he wants (besides Hearts, since he just buried the Ace of Hearts).  Let's just say "clubs".  Now, that an unknown was called, that 9 of Diamonds cannot be used on any trick except the called suit.  (Or on the last trick if the called suit was never lead during the game) 
> * This hand is good enough that he might get a "Thanks for the ride" from his partner.  This usually means that you could have gone it alone.
> 
> <H4>Hand 5:  Q Spades, Q Hearts, J Diamonds, 10 Diamonds, 7 Diamonds, K Hearts</H4>
> 
> * Five trump, with 2 Queens and 1 Jack.  This is definately a picking hand.
> * -- In Blind: Q Clubs, J Spades
> * Woo-Hoo!  The big queen and a good Jack.  Near perfect hand.
> * Hand is now: Q Clubs, Q Spades, Q Hearts, J Spades, J Diamonds, 10 Diamonds
> * With the 3 big queens, buried trump and other very good cards, this hand is a good choice to GO ALONE on.
> * You will get AT LEAST 3 tricks, and have a very good chance of taking them all.
119d146
< That hand isn't good enough to go alone, so he should take a partner.  For this example, picker decides to call Spades.  Picker says "unknown spades" and lays the 7 of diamonds face down on the table in front of him.  Whichever player has the Ace of spades will be partner.  
121a149,152
> 
> Instead of choosing a partner, some play that the Jack of Diamonds is automatically partner.  (needs more info)
> 
> <H3>
------
Mercury|989264916
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <H3>The Planet</H3>
> 
> Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun.  It has no satellites and <B>trace</B> amounts of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] in it's atmosphere. 
> 
> Other factoids:
> * Mass:  3.3 x 10^23 kg
> * Diameter: 4878 km
> * Length of year: ~88 earth days
> * Mean surface temperature: 452 K ([[Kelvin]])
> 
> <H3>The Element</H3>
> 
> Mercury, an element in the [[periodic table]], is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature.   
> 
> * symbol:  [[Hg]]
> * [[atomic number]]: 80
> * [[atomic weight]]: 200.6.
> 
> <H3>The Greek God</H3>
> 
> Mercury is also the Greek god of trade and profit.  He is very similar to the Greek god [[Hermes]].  Mercury is known for his winged feet.
------
Hg|989265056
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The symbol for the element [[Mercury]].
------
Hg|989265085
1c1
< The symbol for the element [[Mercury]].
---
> In the [[periodic table]], this is the symbol for the element [[Mercury]].
------
Mercury|989265207
19c19
< <H3>The Greek God</H3>
---
> <H3>The Roman God</H3>
21c21,23
< Mercury is also the Greek god of trade and profit.  He is very similar to the Greek god [[Hermes]].  Mercury is known for his winged feet.
---
> Mercury is also known as the Roman god of trade and profit.  He is very similar to the Greek god [[Hermes]].  
> 
> Known for his winged feet.
------
Asparagales|989265555
1c1
< An order of monocots formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]].  Sometimes various members placed here are separated out into the Orchidales and Iridiales, but since they are still closely related I'm taking this group in the broad sense, except in the subsequent list because family usage varies ''considerably'' and I forgot how to name suborders.
---
> An order of monocots formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]], many of which were even included in the [[Liliaceae]].  Sometimes various members placed here are separated out into the Orchidales and Iridiales, but since they are still closely related I'm taking this group in the broad sense - except in the subsequent list because family usage varies ''considerably'' (you can even see some of that on other pages here) and I forgot how to name suborders.
4c4,5
< *** [[Asparagus]]
---
> ** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[Asparagus]] family)
> ** Family [[Alliaceae]] (onion family)
7a9,11
> ** Family [[Agavaceae]] (agave family)
> *** [[Agave]]
> *** [[Yucca]]
------
Asparagales|989265736
11a12,13
> ** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] (amaryllis family)
> ** ...
------
Asparagales|989265752
4c4
< ** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[Asparagus]] family)
---
> ** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[asparagus]] family)
12c12
< ** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] (amaryllis family)
---
> ** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] ([[amaryllis]] family)
------
Periodic_table|989265849
31c31
<                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]        12 (IIB)
---
>                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
------
Agave|989266088
1d0
< 
31a31,32
> ----
> Above is older text from a public domain text.  Anyone who feels like replacing it should note that the classification of Agave varies.  At one point it as well as Amaryllis were placed among the Liliaceae, but have now definitely been placed in a separate order, the [[Asparagales]]; however Agave and related forms have by most recent sources, notably Judd et al, been placed in a family Agavaceae separate from the Amaryllidaceae.
------
New_York|989266199
3c3
< As of 2000, it is the third largest state in population after [[Alaska]] and [[Texas]].
---
> As of 2000, it is the third largest state in area after [[California]] and [[Texas]].
------
Wisconsin|989266882
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wisconsin is the 25th largest state (54,314 sqare miles) and 18th greatest population (approximately 5.36 million people).
> 
> Known as "The Diary State", Wisconsin is also known for [[beer]], [[cheese]], and many festivals (particularily [[Wisconsin/Milwaukee/Summerfest]]).
> 
> <H2>Major Cities in Wisconsin</H2>
> 
> * [[Wisconsin/Milwaukee]] 
> * [[Wisconsin/Madison]]
> * [[Wisconsin/Green Bay]] 
> * [[Wisconsin/Kenosha]]
> * [[Wisconsin/Racine]]
> * [[Wisconsin/Eau Claire]]
> * [[Wisconsin/Stevens Point]]
> 
> 
------
Wisconsin/Milwaukee|989267009
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Milwaukee is known for a few things.
> 
> * [[beer]]
> * High taxes
> * Parties!
> * [[UWM]]
> * [[Wisconsin/Milwaukee/Summerfest]]
------
Asparagales|989267862
12a13,15
> ** Family [[Asphodelaceae]] (asphodel family)
> *** [[Asphodel]]
> *** [[Aloe]]
------
Asparagales|989268035
15a16
> ** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] ([[hyacinth]] family)
------
Jamaica|989268210
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Jamaica/History|989268313
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Jamaica gained full independence within the British Commonwealth in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions during the 1970s led to recurrent violence and a dropoff in tourism. Elections in 1980 saw the democratic socialists voted out of office, and a more conservative government installed. Political violence marred elections during the 1990s.
------
Jamaica/Geography|989268327
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 15 N, 77 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,990 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 10,830 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 160 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,022 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; temperate interior
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountains, with narrow, discontinuous coastal plain
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Blue Mountain Peak 2,256 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> bauxite, gypsum, limestone
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 39% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 350 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes (especially July to November)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> heavy rates of deforestation; coastal waters polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and oil spills; damage to coral reefs; air pollution in Kingston results from vehicle emissions
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location between Cayman Trench and Jamaica Channel, the main sea lanes for Panama Canal
------
Jamaica/People|989268345
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,652,689 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 30% (male 411,448; female 392,559)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 63% (male 832,314; female 837,133)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7% (male 80,059; female 99,176) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.46% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 18.51 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -8.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.61 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.21 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.26 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.26 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.11 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Jamaican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Jamaican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 90.9%, East Indian 1.3%, white 0.2%, Chinese 0.2%, mixed 7.3%, other 0.1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 61.3% (Church of God 21.2%, Baptist 8.8%, Anglican 5.5%, Seventh-Day Adventist 9%, Pentecostal 7.6%, Methodist 2.7%, United Church 2.7%, Brethren 1.1%, Jehovah's Witness 1.6%, Moravian 1.1%), Roman Catholic 4%, other, including some spiritual cults 34.7%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Creole
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 85%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 80.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 89.1% (1995 est.)
------
Jamaica/Government|989268366
1c1,70
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Jamaica
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JM
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kingston
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 parishes; Clarendon, Hanover, Kingston, Manchester, Portland, Saint Andrew, Saint Ann, Saint Catherine, Saint Elizabeth, Saint James, Saint Mary, Saint Thomas, Trelawny, Westmoreland
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 August 1962 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day (first Monday in August) (1962)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 6 August 1962
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Howard Felix COOKE (since 1 August 1991)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Percival James PATTERSON (since 30 March 1992) and Deputy Prime Minister Seymour MULLINGS (since NA 1993)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the prime minister; prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (a 21-member body appointed by the governor general on the recommendations of the prime minister and the leader of the opposition; ruling party is allocated 13 seats, and the opposition is allocated eight seats) and the House of Representatives (60 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 18 December 1997 (next to be held by March 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PNP 50, JLP 10
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister; Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Jamaica Labor Party or JLP [Edward SEAGA]; National Democratic Movement or NDM [Bruce GOLDING]; People's National Party or PNP [P. J. PATTERSON]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> New Beginnings Movement or NBM; Rastafarians (black religious/racial cultists, pan-Africanists)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, C, Caricom, CCC, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Richard Leighton BERNAL
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1520 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 452-0660
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 452-0081
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Miami and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Stanley Louis MCLELLAND
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Jamaica Mutual Life Center, 2 Oxford Road, 3rd floor, Kingston
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (809) 929-4850 through 4859
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (809) 926-6743
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> diagonal yellow cross divides the flag into four triangles - green (top and bottom) and black (hoist side and outer side)
------
Jamaica/Economy|989268384
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Key sectors in this island economy are bauxite (alumina and bauxite account for more than half of exports) and tourism. Since assuming office in 1992, Prime Minister PATTERSON has eliminated most price controls, streamlined tax schedules, and privatized government enterprises. Continued tight monetary and fiscal policies have helped slow inflation - although inflationary pressures are mounting - and stabilize the exchange rate, but have resulted in the slowdown of economic growth (moving from 1.5% in 1992 to 0.5% in 1995). In 1996, GDP showed negative growth (-1.4%) and remained negative through 1999. Serious problems include: high interest rates; increased foreign competition; the weak financial condition of business in general resulting in receiverships or closures and downsizings of companies; the shift in investment portfolios to non-productive, short-term high yield instruments; a pressured, sometimes sliding, exchange rate; a widening merchandise trade deficit; and a growing internal debt for government bailouts to various ailing sectors of the economy, particularly the financial sector. Depressed economic conditions in 1999 led to increased civil unrest, including a mounting crime rate. Jamaica's medium-term prospects will depend upon encouraging investment in the productive sectors, maintaining a competitive exchange rate, stabilizing the labor environment, selling off reacquired firms, and implementing proper fiscal and monetary policies.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -0.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,350 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 7.4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 42.1%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50.5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 34.2% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.4%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 31.9% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.13 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 60%, agriculture 21%, industry 19% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.27 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $3.66 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.265 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, bauxite, textiles, food processing, light manufactures, rum, cement, metal, paper, chemical products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.386 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 92.7%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 2.21%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 5.09% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.939 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, bananas, coffee, citrus, potatoes, vegetables; poultry, goats, milk
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> alumina, bauxite, sugar, bananas, rum
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 39.5%, EU (excluding UK) 15.6%, UK 12.1%, Canada 11.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, fuel, food, chemicals, fertilizers
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 50.9%, EU (excluding UK) 9.5%, Caricom countries 10.4%, Latin America 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.8 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $102.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Jamaican dollar (J$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Jamaican dollars (J$) per US$1 - 41.139 (December 1999), 9.044 (1999), 36.550 (1998), 35.404 (1997), 37.120 (1996), 35.142 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Jamaica/Communications|989268400
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 292,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 45,178 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fully automatic domestic telephone network
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); 3 coaxial submarine cables
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 10, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.215 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 7 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 460,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
------
Jamaica/Transportation|989268420
1c1,41
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 370 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 370 km 1.435-m gauge; note - 207 km belong to the Jamaica Railway Corporation in common carrier service, but are no longer operational; the remaining track is privately owned and used to transport bauxite
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18,700 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 13,100 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 5,600 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 10 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Alligator Pond, Discovery Bay, Kingston, Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, Port Antonio, Rocky Point, Port Esquivel (Longswharf)
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,930 GRT/3,065 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 36 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 25
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 23 (1999 est.)
------
Violin|989268423
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stringed instrument comprised of 4 strings, each tuned a fifth apart from each other.  The lowest string is a G just below [[middle C]], then D, A and E (in that order).
> 
> Typically, sheet music for a violin uses a G clef (or [[treble clef]]) with the lowest attainable note the G just below middle C.
> 
> Note: AKA [[fiddle]]
------
Jamaica/Military|989268433
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Jamaica Defense Force (includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Wing), Jamaica Constabulary Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 725,975 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 510,419 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 27,202 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $30 million (FY95/96 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Jamaica/Transnational_issues|989268447
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine from Central and South America to North America and Europe; illicit cultivation of cannabis; government has an active manual cannabis eradication program
------
Countries_of_the_world|989268527
22c22
< <font size=+2>J</font><br> [[Jamaica]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jordan]]
---
> <font size=+2>J</font><br> [[Jamaica]] - [[Jan Mayen]] - [[Japan]] - [[Jarvis Island]] - [[Jersey]] - [[Johnston Atoll]] - [[Jordan]] - [[Juan de Nova Island]]
------
Jan_Mayen|989268567
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Particle_physics|989268581
1c1,2
< Particle physics is ...
---
> Particle physics, or high energy physics, studies the elementary
> constituents of matter, and the particles that carry interactions.
3,10c4,18
< Some particles:
< * [[electron]]
< * [[proton]]
< * [[photon]]
< * [[neutron]]
< * [[positron]]
< * ...
< * [[graviton]]
---
> There exist two families of elemtary particles: [[quark]]s and
> [[lepton]]s, with six members each (plus their respectives
> [[antiparticle]]s).
> 
> Also there are four [[boson]]s that carry the four fundamental
> interactions
> 
> * [[photon]]: carries the [[electromagnetic interaction]]
> * Z particle : carries the [[weak interaction]] (i forgot some here)
> * [[gluon]]s : are believed to carry the [[strong interaction]]
> * [[graviton]] :is believed to carry the [[gravitational interaction]]
> 
> Of the most widely know "elementary" particles, [[proton]], [[neutron]] and [[electron]], only the electron is really 
> elementary, protons and neutron are made of combinations 
> of three quarks, held together by gluons. 
------
Jan_Mayen/History|989268610
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Jan_Mayen/Geography|989268637
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, island between the Greenland Sea and the Norwegian Sea, northeast of Iceland
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 71 00 N, 8 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Arctic Region
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 373 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 373 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 124.1 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 10 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 4 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> arctic maritime with frequent storms and persistent fog
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic island, partly covered by glaciers
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Norwegian Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Haakon VII Toppen/Beerenberg 2,277 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dominated by the volcano Haakon VII Toppen/Beerenberg; volcanic activity resumed in 1970
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> barren volcanic island with some moss and grass
------
Jan_Mayen/People|989268657
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there are personnel who operate the Long Range Navigation (Loran-C) base and the weather and coastal services radio station (July 2000 est.)
------
Jan_Mayen/Government|989268671
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Jan Mayen
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JN
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Norway; administered from Oslo through a governor (sysselmann) resident in Longyearbyen (Svalbard); however, authority has been delegated to a station commander of the Norwegian Defense Communication Service
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of Norway is used
------
Jan_Mayen/Economy|989268686
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Jan Mayen is a volcanic island with no exploitable natural resources. Economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway's radio and meteorological stations located on the island.
------
Jan_Mayen/Communications|989268702
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is one radio and meteorological station (1998)
------
Jan_Mayen/Transportation|989268716
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Jan_Mayen/Military|989268731
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Norway
------
Jan_Mayen/Transnational_issues|989268745
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Jarvis_Island|989268833
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Jarvis_Island/History|989268847
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Jarvis_Island/Geography|989268876
1c1,53
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to the Cook Islands
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 22 S, 160 03 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4.5 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 4.5 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about eight times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 8 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; scant rainfall, constant wind, burning sun
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> sandy, coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 7 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano (deposits worked until late 1800s)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1998)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no natural fresh water resources
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> sparse bunch grass, prostrate vines, and low-growing shrubs; primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife
------
Jarvis_Island/People|989268893
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Millersville settlement on western side of island occasionally used as a weather station from 1935 until World War II, when it was abandoned; reoccupied in 1957 during the International Geophysical Year by scientists who left in 1958; public entry is by special-use permit from US Fish and Wildlife Service only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; visited annually by US Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
------
Jarvis_Island/Government|989268910
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Jarvis Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> DQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Jarvis_Island/Economy|989268924
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
------
Jarvis_Island/Communications|989268949
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Jarvis_Island/Transportation|989268963
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only; note - there is one boat landing area in the middle of the west coast and another near the southwest corner of the island
> <p><b>Transportation - note:</b>
> there is a day beacon near the middle of the west coast
------
Asparagales|989268973
14d13
< *** [[Asphodel]]
16,17c15,19
< ** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] ([[hyacinth]] family)
< ** ...
---
> *** [[Asphodel]]
> ** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] (hyacinth family)
> *** [[Bluebell]]
> *** [[Hyacinth]]
> ** ''Cetera''
------
Jarvis_Island/Military|989268979
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US; visited annually by the US Coast Guard
------
Jarvis_Island/Transnational_issues|989268992
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Liliales|989269001
3,6c3
< * Family [[Liliaceae]] (lily family)
< ** ''[[Bluebell]]''
< ** [[Lily]]
< ** ''[[Tulip]]''
---
> * Family [[Liliaceae]] ([[lily]] family)
------
Violin|989269041
1c1
< Stringed instrument comprised of 4 strings, each tuned a fifth apart from each other.  The lowest string is a G just below [[middle C]], then D, A and E (in that order).
---
> Stringed instrument comprising 4 strings, each tuned a fifth apart from each other.  The lowest string is a G just below [[middle C]], then D, A and E (in that order).
------
Particle_physics|989270045
8,9c8,9
< Also there are four [[boson]]s that carry the four fundamental
< interactions
---
> Also for each of the four fundamental forces, there are [[boson]]s that carry the interaction - 
> these are the quanta of the corresponding field:
11,14c11,14
< * [[photon]]: carries the [[electromagnetic interaction]]
< * Z particle : carries the [[weak interaction]] (i forgot some here)
< * [[gluon]]s : are believed to carry the [[strong interaction]]
< * [[graviton]] :is believed to carry the [[gravitational interaction]]
---
> * [[Photon]]s carry the [[electromagnetic interaction]]
> * The [[W boson]]s and [[Z boson]] carry the [[weak interaction]]
> * The 8 [[gluon]]s carry the [[strong interaction]]
> * The [[graviton]]s are believed to carry the [[gravitational interaction]] (that is, if it is quantized) 
18c18
< of three quarks, held together by gluons. 
---
> of three quarks, held together by gluons. 
------
Epistemology|989270403
9c9
< Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used [logic], you based your belief on observation and experiment, you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at least some</i> claim to be true.  Rationality is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason to think the belief is true</i>.
---
> Suppose you thought your belief had been arrived at <i>rationally</i>.  You used [[logic]], you based your belief on [[observation]] and [[experiment]], you conscientiously answered objections, and so forth.  So you conclude that your belief is rational.  Well if so, then your belief has <i>at least some</i> claim to be true.  [[Rationality]] is a indicator of truth: if your belief is rational, then it is at least <i>probably</i> true.  At the very least, the rationality of a belief is <i>reason to think the belief is true</i>.
11c11
< Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as rationality, justification, and probability, that are indicators of truth.  So let's define a general term:
---
> Now, there are a number of features of beliefs, such as [[rationality]], [[justification]], and [[probability]], that are indicators of [[truth]].  So let's define a general term:
17c17
< Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>knowledge</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
---
> Our ultimate ambition for our beliefs is <i>[[knowledge]]</i>.  Because if I <i>do</i> know something, then not only am I justified, or rational, in a belief; because I have <i>knowledge</i>, I have the truth.  So naturally, when we are thinking about the epistemic features of our beliefs, the big question is this: <i>When</i> do I have knowledge?  <i>When</i> can I say that I have it?  As I'm sure you are aware, there are some people who claim that we <i>can't</i> have knowledge; such people are called <i>skeptics</i>.  More on that, of course, later.
------
Ethics|989270462
25c25,27
< And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of [[applied ethics]], which examine [[ethical problems]] of different professions.  There are [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], and [[legal ethics]], which examine the [[moral dilemmas]] faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
---
> And then there is a whole raft of separate branches of [[applied ethics]], which examine [[ethical problems]] of different professions.  There are [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], and [[legal ethics]], which examine the [[moral dilemmas]] faced by business people, doctors, and lawyers, respectively.
> <HR>
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], Epistemology, [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
Ethics|989270513
27c27
< See Also: [[aesthetics]], Epistemology, [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
---
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], Ethics, [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
------
What_is_a_wiki|989271345
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below.
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below!!
------
Sigmund_Freud|989271479
7c7
< I must go reread my Freud texts and be back later to correct myself as to the details. - Tangfan
---
> I must go reread my Freud texts and be back later to correct myself as to the details. - Tanghater
------
Socialism/Talk|989272702
17a18,19
> Interjection: Interestingly, on wiki there is [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki.cgi?NoGoldStars a page] explaining how rewards can actually hamper interest.
> 
------
Socialism/Talk|989272729
18c18
< Interjection: Interestingly, on wiki there is [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki.cgi?NoGoldStars a page] explaining how rewards can actually hamper interest.
---
> Interjection: Interestingly, on wiki there is [http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?NoGoldStars a page] explaining how rewards can actually hamper interest.
------
Malpighiales|989272963
3a4,6
> * Family [[Violaceae]] (violet family)
> ** [[Violet]]
> ** [[Pansy]]
------
Magnoliophyta|989273425
38c38
< * [[Ranunculales]]
---
> * [[Ranunculales]] (buttercups and kin)
68c68
< ** [[Asterales]] (daisies and kin)
---
> ** [[Asterales]] (asters and kin)
------
Hydrology|989273847
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On a large scale, hydrology is the study of water, and how it cycles through our environment.  There are several different aspects, such as ocean hydrology, which deal with [[salinity]], and the effect of certain [[biotic]] and [[abiotic]] factors on the ecosystems in the water.  There is also the study of how water, and the pollutants that come with it, flow through the ground.  Groundwater is a major area of interest, as is acidification.
------
Salinity|989273996
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Salinity-
> 
> The salt content of a body of water.  Salt is very hard to remove from the water, and affects the drinking supply, what plants will grow on land fed by salinated water, and the type of organisms that live in salinated bodies of water.
------
Magnoliophyta|989274362
17c17
< * [[Arales]] (aroids) ''may want to join up''
---
> * [[Arales]] (aroids)
57c57
< ** [[Sapindales]]
---
> ** [[Sapindales]] (soapberries and kin)
59c59
< ** [[Cornales]]
---
> ** [[Cornales]] (dogwoods and kin)
63c63
< ** [[Gentianales]]
---
> ** [[Gentianales]] (gentians and kin)
67c67
< ** [[Dipsacales]]
---
> ** [[Dipsacales]] (teasels and kin)
------
Geoboy|989274451
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Welcome, Geoboy!
> 
> I hope you have fun colaborating in this enterprise.--AstroNomer
------
Biotic|989274626
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Biotic-
> 
>        Referring to a factor in the environment that is alive, such as animals, plants, and bacteria.  
------
Abiotic|989274756
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abiotic-
> 
>         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, elements, weather, and water.
------
Hydrology|989274814
1c1
< On a large scale, hydrology is the study of water, and how it cycles through our environment.  There are several different aspects, such as ocean hydrology, which deal with [[salinity]], and the effect of certain [[biotic]] and [[abiotic]] factors on the ecosystems in the water.  There is also the study of how water, and the pollutants that come with it, flow through the ground.  Groundwater is a major area of interest, as is acidification.
---
> On a large scale, hydrology is the study of water, and how it cycles through our environment.  There are several different aspects, such as ocean hydrology, which deal with [[salinity]], and the effect of certain [[biotic]] and [[abiotic]] factors on the ecosystems in the water.  There is also the study of how water, and the [[pollutants]] that come with it, flow through the ground.  Groundwater is a major area of interest, as is acidification.
------
NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|989274839
37c37
< 1983 Barbara McClintock
---
> 1983 [[Barbara McClintock]]
53c53
< 1975 David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin
---
> 1975 [[David Baltimore]], Renato Dulbecco, Howard Martin Temin
57c57
< 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen
---
> 1973 [[Karl von Frisch]], [[Konrad Lorenz]], [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]]
59c59
< 1972 Gerald M. Edelman, Rodney R. Porter
---
> 1972 [[Gerald M. Edelman]], Rodney R. Porter
65c65
< 1969 Max Delbrück, Alfred D. Hershey, Salvador E. Luria
---
> 1969 [[Max Delbrück]], [[Alfred D. Hershey]], [[Salvador E. Luria]]
73c73
< 1965 François Jacob, André Lwoff, Jacques Monod
---
> 1965 [[François Jacob]], André Lwoff, [[Jacques Monod]]
79c79
< 1962 Francis Harry Compton Crick, James Dewey Watson, Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins
---
> 1962 [[Francis Harry Compton Crick]], [[James Dewey Watson]], [[Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins]]
83c83
< 1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Peter Brian Medawar
---
> 1960 Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, [[Peter Brian Medawar]]
85c85
< 1959 Severo Ochoa, Arthur Kornberg
---
> 1959 Severo Ochoa, [[Arthur Kornberg]]
87c87
< 1958 George Wells Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, Joshua Lederberg
---
> 1958 George Wells Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, [[Joshua Lederberg]]
97c97
< 1953 Hans Adolf Krebs, Fritz Albert Lipmann
---
> 1953 [[Hans Adolf Krebs]], Fritz Albert Lipmann
111c111
< 1946 Hermann Joseph Muller
---
> 1946 [[Hermann Joseph Muller]]
113c113
< 1945 Sir Alexander Fleming, Ernst Boris Chain, Sir Howard Walter Florey
---
> 1945 [[Sir Alexander Fleming]], [[Ernst Boris Chain]], [[Sir Howard Walter Florey]]
131c131
< 1933 Thomas Hunt Morgan
---
> 1933 [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]]
177c177
< 1904 Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
---
> 1904 [[Ivan Petrovich Pavlov]]
------
SandBox|989277475
153a154,155
> ---------
> http://images.go2net.com/dogpile//sites/dp/common/enu/images/front_page/arfie_sm_cinco.gif
------
Stupid_Republicans/Talk|989278133
33c33
< Nothing is stopping you, whoever you are, or anyone else from acting similarly!  I wish you would.  Why don't you?  BeBoldInUpdatingPages.  Disputes can always be handled on Talk pages.  If you take me to be your boss, that's too bad.  You give me power I didn't ask for.  Obviously, I have some very definite ideas about what I think is and is not appropriate for this wiki.  I'm not about to say that certain elements of policy are written in stone.  But I won't be afraid to use my leverage, however it might be based (sheer force of personality, I like to think), to persuade people to adopt certain broad policies I personally support (see RulesToConsider, for example; see especially the first "rule").
---
> Nothing is stopping you, whoever you are, or anyone else from acting similarly!  I wish you would.  Why don't you?  [[Be bold in updating pages]].  Disputes can always be handled on Talk pages.  If you take me to be your boss, that's too bad.  You give me power I didn't ask for.  Obviously, I have some very definite ideas about what I think is and is not appropriate for this wiki.  I'm not about to say that certain elements of policy are written in stone.  But I won't be afraid to use my leverage, however it might be based (sheer force of personality, I like to think), to persuade people to adopt certain broad policies I personally support (see RulesToConsider, for example; see especially the first "rule").
47c47
< Such inherent incorrectness is what bores me about politics.  Regular-Expressions are so much more interesting, thence I go.  --[[Invictus]]
---
> Such inherent incorrectness is what bores me about politics.  Regular-Expressions are so much more interesting, thence I go.  --[[Invictus]]
------
Vietnam/Language|989278159
9c9
< --Go ahead and BeBoldInUpdatingPages; I don't mind.  Interesting that you bring up Cambodian, though, because that's the language I'm most familiar with - and it's closer to Laotian and Thai than anything else.  Cambodian and Thai are about as close to each other as Spanish and English - *lots* of roots and words that are similar or the same, and the written languages are also very close.  (Thai and Lao are about like Spanish and Italian, or even Spain-Spanish and Mexico-Spanish).  Those three all have strong roots in Pali and Sanskrit.  Doing a little research, however,  http://www.saigon.com/~nguyent/hoa_04.html seems to agree with you, so let's go ahead and make the change.
---
> --Go ahead and [[Be bold in updating pages]]; I don't mind.  Interesting that you bring up Cambodian, though, because that's the language I'm most familiar with - and it's closer to Laotian and Thai than anything else.  Cambodian and Thai are about as close to each other as Spanish and English - *lots* of roots and words that are similar or the same, and the written languages are also very close.  (Thai and Lao are about like Spanish and Italian, or even Spain-Spanish and Mexico-Spanish).  Those three all have strong roots in Pali and Sanskrit.  Doing a little research, however,  http://www.saigon.com/~nguyent/hoa_04.html seems to agree with you, so let's go ahead and make the change.
------
Feist_v._Rural|989278406
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In 1991, the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled in the case of ''Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc.'' ([http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/499us340.htm 499 US 340]) in which Feist copied information from Rural's telephone listings to include in its own, after Rural refused to license the information.  Rural sued for [[copyright]] infringement.  The court ruled that information contained in Rural's phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed.
> 
> It is a long-standing principle of American [[copyright]] law that "information" is not copyrightable, but "collections" of information can be.  Rural claimed a collection copyright in its directory.  The court clarified that the intent of copyright law was ''not'', as claimed by Rural and some lower courts, to reward the efforts of persons collecting information, but rather to encourage creative expression.  Its opinion stated that collection copyrights apply only the creative aspects of collection: the creative choice of what data to include or exclude, the order and style in which the information is presented, etc., but not on the information itself.  The court ruled that Rural's directory was nothing more than an alphabetic list of all subsribers to its service, and that no creative expression was involved.  The fact that Rural spent considerable time and money collecting the data was irrelevant to copyright law, and Rural's copyright claim was dismissed.
> 
> This has major implications for such projects as an internet encyclopedia.  Information (that is facts, discoveries, etc.), from any source, is fair game.  But you do have to make sure that it does not contain any of the "expressive" content added by the source author.  That includes not only the author's own comments, but also his choice of which facts to cover, his choice of which links to make among the bits of information, his order of presentation (unless it is something obvious like an alphabetical list), any evaluations he may have made about the quality of various pieces of information, or anything else that might be considered "original creative work" of the author rather than mere facts.  For example, a recipe is a process, and not copyrightable, but the words used to describe it are.  You can therefore rewrite a recipe in your own words and publish it without violating copyrights.  But if you rewrote every recipe from a particular cookbook, you might still be found to have violated the author's copyright in his choice of recipes and their "coordination" and "presentation", even if you used none of his words.  As another example, the text of US Laws is in the public domain, but West Publishing Corporation claims a copyright on the page numbers in its printed edition of those laws!  So you can reference a law, and even include large exerpts with impunity, but if you reproduce it in such as way as to deliberately preserve West's page numbers, you might be in trouble (this case is still pending).  You ''can'' make a ''reference'' to page numbers in West, as in the first paragraph of this article (the notation '''499 US 340''' is legal shorthand for "Volume 499 of West's US Reports, page 340").
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|989278847
20c20
< <font size=+2>I</font><br> [[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indian Ocean]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
---
> <font size=+2>I</font><br> [[Iceland]] - [[India]] - [[Indonesia]] - [[Iran]] - [[Iraq]] - [[Ireland]] - [[Israel]] - [[Italy]]
191a192
> * [[ocean]]s
------
Feist_v._Rural|989279205
3c3
< It is a long-standing principle of American [[copyright]] law that "information" is not copyrightable, but "collections" of information can be.  Rural claimed a collection copyright in its directory.  The court clarified that the intent of copyright law was ''not'', as claimed by Rural and some lower courts, to reward the efforts of persons collecting information, but rather to encourage creative expression.  Its opinion stated that collection copyrights apply only the creative aspects of collection: the creative choice of what data to include or exclude, the order and style in which the information is presented, etc., but not on the information itself.  The court ruled that Rural's directory was nothing more than an alphabetic list of all subsribers to its service, and that no creative expression was involved.  The fact that Rural spent considerable time and money collecting the data was irrelevant to copyright law, and Rural's copyright claim was dismissed.
---
> It is a long-standing principle of American [[copyright]] law that "information" is not copyrightable, but "collections" of information can be.  Rural claimed a collection copyright in its directory.  The court clarified that the intent of copyright law was ''not'', as claimed by Rural and some lower courts, to reward the efforts of persons collecting information, but rather to encourage creative expression.  Its opinion stated that collection copyrights apply to only the creative aspects of collection: the creative choice of what data to include or exclude, the order and style in which the information is presented, etc., but not on the information itself.  The court ruled that Rural's directory was nothing more than an alphabetic list of all subsribers to its service, and that no creative expression was involved.  The fact that Rural spent considerable time and money collecting the data was irrelevant to copyright law, and Rural's copyright claim was dismissed.
------
Copyright|989279325
8c8
< The [[Berne Convention]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations.  The United States became a Berne signatory in 1988.
---
> The [[Berne Convention]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations.  The United States became a Berne signatory in 1888.
------
SandBox|989279894
67,68c67,68
< Special characters and math symbols: see [[Wiki special characters]].  Use this space to experiment
< with what is available on your browser.
---
> Special characters and math symbols: see [[Wiki special characters]].  You can use this space to experiment
> with what is available on your browser, but note that just because something works in your browser, that doesn't mean it works in anyone else's.
------
The_Big_Lebowski|989280129
1c1,2
< [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film (1998).  The Big Lebowski is a comedy based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book.  Starring [[Jeff Bridges]] as "The Dude", the plot, triggered by a case of mistaken identity, revolves around kidnap, drugs and [[ten pin bowling]].
---
> 1998 [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film in which The Dude, Jeff Lebowski, has his home invaded and his rug micturated upon by thugs looking for a multi-millionaire Jeff Lebowski who is "disabled," according to his servant Brandt, and keeps a tidier house. Since the thugs were looking to collect a debt incurred by the wife of the multimillionaire Lebowski, The Dude goes to speak to him to get a new rug, and quickly becomes entangled in a kidnapping scheme.
>   The plot is based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book, but has been modernized and revolves around drugs and [[ten pin bowling]], and makes liberal use of the [[Gulf War]] as a backdrop.  Stars [[Jeff Bridges]], [[John Goodman]], [[Julianne Moore]], [[John Turturro]], and [[Steve Buscemi]].
------
The_Big_Lebowski|989280146
1,2c1
< 1998 [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film in which The Dude, Jeff Lebowski, has his home invaded and his rug micturated upon by thugs looking for a multi-millionaire Jeff Lebowski who is "disabled," according to his servant Brandt, and keeps a tidier house. Since the thugs were looking to collect a debt incurred by the wife of the multimillionaire Lebowski, The Dude goes to speak to him to get a new rug, and quickly becomes entangled in a kidnapping scheme.
<   The plot is based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book, but has been modernized and revolves around drugs and [[ten pin bowling]], and makes liberal use of the [[Gulf War]] as a backdrop.  Stars [[Jeff Bridges]], [[John Goodman]], [[Julianne Moore]], [[John Turturro]], and [[Steve Buscemi]].
---
> 1998 [[The Coen Brothers|Coen Brothers]] film in which The Dude, Jeff Lebowski, has his home invaded and his rug micturated upon by thugs looking for a multi-millionaire Jeff Lebowski who is "disabled," according to his servant Brandt, and keeps a tidier house. Since the thugs were looking to collect a debt incurred by the wife of the multimillionaire Lebowski, The Dude goes to speak to him to get a new rug, and quickly becomes entangled in a kidnapping scheme. The plot is based very loosely on [[Raymond Chandler]]'s [[The Big Sleep]] and the [[Humphrey Bogart]] film of that book, but has been modernized and revolves around drugs and [[ten pin bowling]], and makes liberal use of the [[Gulf War]] as a backdrop.  Stars [[Jeff Bridges]], [[John Goodman]], [[Julianne Moore]], [[John Turturro]], and [[Steve Buscemi]].
------
Jersey|989280428
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Copyright|989280479
1c1
< A '''copyright''' is a set of exclusive rights granted by a government to the author of a creative work, including the exclusive right to make and sell copies of the work, and to make derivative works.
---
> '''Copyrights''' are exclusive rights granted by a government to the author of a creative work (originally books, but now many other things like movies, recoded music, and drawings), including the exclusive right to make and sell copies of the work, to make derivative works, and to publicly perform the work.  In contrast to [[patent]]s which grant monopoly rights for ideas, copyrights cover only specific creative expressions of ideas.
3,4c3
< While governments had previously granted monopoly rights to publishers to sell printed works, the modern concept of copyright originated in 1710 with the British [[Statute of Anne]].  This statute first recognized that authors, 
< rather than publishers, should be the primary beneficiary of such laws, and it included protections for consumers of printed work ensuring that publishers could not control their use after sale.  It also limited the duration of such exclusive rights to 28 years, after which all works would pass into the [[public domain]].
---
> While governments had previously granted monopoly rights to publishers to sell printed works, the modern concept of copyright originated in 1710 with the British [[Statute of Anne]].  This statute first recognized that authors, rather than publishers, should be the primary beneficiary of such laws, and it included protections for consumers of printed work ensuring that publishers could not control their use after sale.  It also limited the duration of such exclusive rights to 28 years, after which all works would pass into the [[public domain]].
6c5,8
< The [[United States Constitution]] granted congress the power to enact copyright and patent laws in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]], which states that "The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;"  Congress passed the first such copyright law in 1790.  It has been modified many times since to encompass new technologies such as music recording, to extend the duration of protection, and to make other changes.
---
> The [[United States Constitution]] granted congress the power to enact copyright and patent laws in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]], which states that
> <blockquote>
> ''The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;...''
> </blockquote>
8c10
< The [[Berne Convention]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations.  The United States became a Berne signatory in 1888.
---
> Congress passed the first such copyright law in 1790.  It has been modified many times since to encompass new technologies such as music recording, to extend the duration of protection, and to make other changes.  US courts have interpreted this cause of the Constitution to say that the ultimate purpose of copyrights is to encourage the production of creative works for the public benefit, and that therefore the interests of the public are primary over the interests of the author when the two conlfict.  These rulings have since been formalized into [[fair use]] laws and decisions.
10c12
< Fair use doctrine...
---
> The distinction between "idea" and "expression" is a fundamental part of US law, but it is not always clear.  A paper describing an industrial process is copyrightable; it may not be reproduced by anyone else without the author's permission.  But the process itself (which is an idea rather than a specific expression) is not copyrightable, though it may be patentable.  Another author is free to describe the same process in his own words without violating copyrights (though he might not be able to use the process if it is patented).  The characters and story line of a movie, though, might be considered copyrightable expression by some courts, but not by others.  From US copyright law [[17 US 102]]:
12c14,24
< The [[DMCA]]...
---
> <blockquote>
> ''In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.''
> </blockquote>
> 
> Facts are considered "discoveries" under this law, and are not copyrightable, but in the case of [[Feist v. Rural]], the Supreme Court further detailed this distinction by ruling that the "creative act" may include not only expression, but also selection (deciding which things to include or exclude), and presentation (how they are shown and in what order), so a collection of facts might be able to copyright those creative aspects.  
> 
> The [[Berne Convention]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations.  The United States became a Berne signatory in 1988.  Under the Berne convention, copyright is granted automatically to creative works; an author does have to "register" or "apply for" copyright protection.  As soon as the work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically granted all exclusive rights to the work and any derivative works unless and until he explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires.
> 
> Sometimes the identification of a work's "author" is unclear, and there are many court rulings applying to those situations as well.  For example, work done "for hire", that is, specifically at the direction of an employer who pays for the work, is the property of the employer.  In other words, if a company hires a writer to write something specific, the company, not the writer, is considered the "author" of that work and owns the copyrights.  Any other work done by that writer on is own without compensation and without using company resources is still owned by the writer (though employers often try to claim ownership of such work).
> 
> Copyrights may be sold, given, or licensed.  For example, an author might license the right to publish a translation of a book (considered a derivative work) to a foreign publisher, charging a fee for the license.  More complete details of US copyright law can be retrieved from the [http://www.loc.gov/copyright Library of Congress].
------
Jersey/History|989280479
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The island of Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both France and England. These islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
------
Jersey/Geography|989280497
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, island in the English Channel, northwest of France
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 49 15 N, 2 10 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 116 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 116 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 70 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; mild winters and cool summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> gently rolling plain with low, rugged hills along north coast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 143 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 66%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 34%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> largest and southernmost of Channel Islands; about 30% of population concentrated in Saint Helier
------
Jersey/People|989280514
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 88,915 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 8,140; female 7,563)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 30,036; female 30,329)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 5,454; female 7,393) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.52% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 11.65 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.26 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.11 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.74 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.48 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 76.07 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.07 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.56 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Channel Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Channel Islander
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> UK and Norman-French descent
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Congregational New Church, Methodist, Presbyterian
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), French (official), Norman-French dialect spoken in country districts
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA
------
Jersey/Government|989280532
1c1,50
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Bailiwick of Jersey
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Jersey
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JE
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> British crown dependency
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Saint Helier
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Liberation Day, 9 May (1945)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> unwritten; partly statutes, partly common law and practice
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English law and local statute
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> NA years of age; universal adult
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Lieutenant Governor and Commander in Chief Sir Michael WILKES (since NA 1995) and Bailiff Philip Martin BAILHACHE (since NA 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> committees appointed by the Assembly of the States
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; lieutenant governor and bailiff appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly of the States (55 voting members - 12 senators, 12 constables or heads of parishes, 29 deputies; all elected for six-year terms, half elected every third year; the bailiff and the deputy bailiff; and 3 non-voting members - the Dean of Jersey, the Attorney General and the Solicitor General all appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 52
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Royal Court, judges elected by an electoral college and the bailiff
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none; all independents
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a diagonal red cross extending to the corners of the flag and in the upper quadrant, surmounted by a yellow crown, a red shield holding the three lions of England in yellow
------
Jersey/Economy|989280552
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is based largely on international financial services, agriculture, and tourism. Potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes, and especially flowers are important export crops, shipped mostly to the UK. The Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide and represents an important export income earner. Milk products go to the UK and other EU countries. In 1996 the finance sector accounted for about 60% of the island's output. Tourism, another mainstay of the economy, accounts for 24% of GDP. In recent years, the government has encouraged light industry to locate in Jersey, with the result that an electronics industry has developed alongside the traditional manufacturing of knitwear. All raw material and energy requirements are imported, as well as a large share of Jersey's food needs. Light taxes and death duties make the island a popular tax haven.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $24,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 93% (1996)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.7% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 57,050 (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 0.7% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $666.9 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $618.5 million, including capital expenditures of $128.4 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, banking and finance, dairy
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 266 million kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 467 million kWh (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 201 million kWh (from France) (1995)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes; beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> light industrial and electrical goods, foodstuffs, textiles
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, foodstuffs, mineral fuels, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Jersey pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Jersey pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); the Jersey pound is at par with the British pound
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Jersey/Communications|989280574
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 3 submarine cables
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM NA, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Jersey/Transportation|989280588
1c1,20
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 577 km (1995)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Gorey, Saint Aubin, Saint Helier
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Jersey/Military|989280601
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
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Jersey/Transnational_issues|989280615
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Johnston_Atoll|989280654
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Johnston_Atoll/History|989280692
1c1
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> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Johnston_Atoll/Geography|989280717
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-third of the way from Hawaii to the Marshall Islands
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 16 45 N, 169 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2.8 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2.8 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 4.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 10 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical, but generally dry; consistent northeast trade winds with little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Summit Peak 5 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NA; guano deposits worked until depletion about 1890
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1998)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> no natural fresh water resources
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean; Johnston Island and Sand Island are natural islands, which have been expanded by coral dredging; North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina) are manmade islands formed from coral dredging; closed to the public; former US nuclear weapons test site; site of Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System (JACADS); some low-growing vegetation
------
Johnston_Atoll/People|989280733
1c1,4
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> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is an average of 1,100 US military and civilian contractor personnel present (January 2000 est.)
------
Johnston_Atoll/Government|989280785
1c1,11
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Johnston Atoll
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) and managed cooperatively by DTRA and the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Johnston_Atoll/Economy|989280806
1c1,8
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic activity is limited to providing services to US military personnel and contractors located on the island. All food and manufactured goods must be imported.
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there are six 25,000 kWh generators supplied by the base operating support contractor
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
------
Johnston_Atoll/Communications|989280822
1c1,12
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> <b>Telephone system:</b>
> 13 outgoing and 10 incoming commercial lines; adequate telecommunications
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> 60-channel submarine cable, 22 DSN circuits by satellite, Autodin with standard remote terminal, digital telephone switch, Military Affiliated Radio System (MARS station), UHF/VHF air-ground radio, a link to the Pacific Consolidated Telecommunications Network (PCTN) satellite
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM NA, FM NA, shortwave NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> commercial satellite television system, with 16 channels (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Johnston_Atoll/Transportation|989280837
1c1,9
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> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Johnston Island
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Johnston_Atoll/Military|989280854
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
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Johnston_Atoll/Transnational_issues|989280867
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Jordan|989280915
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Jordan/History|989280927
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> <b>Background:</b>
> For most of its history since independence from British administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-1999). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, through several wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary elections and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994 a formal peace treaty was signed with Israel.
------
Jordan/Geography|989280943
1c1,58
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 31 00 N, 36 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 89,213 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 88,884 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 329 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,619 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Iraq 181 km, Israel 238 km, Saudi Arabia 728 km, Syria 375 km, West Bank 97 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 26 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> mostly arid desert; rainy season in west (November to April)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly desert plateau in east, highland area in west; Great Rift Valley separates East and West Banks of the Jordan River
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Dead Sea -408 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Jabal Ram 1,734 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphates, potash, shale oil
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 85% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 630 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Jordan/People|989280959
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,998,564 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 38% (male 968,579; female 925,987)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 59% (male 1,568,615; female 1,374,303)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 79,748; female 81,332) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.1% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 26.24 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 2.63 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 7.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.14 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 21.11 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.36 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.94 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.93 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.44 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Jordanian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Jordanian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Arab 98%, Circassian 1%, Armenian 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Sunni Muslim 96%, Christian 4% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), English widely understood among upper and middle classes
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 86.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 93.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.4% (1995 est.)
------
Jordan/Government|989280978
1c1,76
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Jordan
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Mamlakah al Urduniyah al Hashimiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Urdun
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Transjordan
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Amman
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 12 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Ajlun, Al 'Aqabah, Al Balqa', Al Karak, Al Mafraq, 'Amman, At Tafilah, Az Zarqa', Irbid, Jarash, Ma'an, Madaba
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 25 May 1946 (from League of Nations mandate under British administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 25 May (1946)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 8 January 1952
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law and French codes; judicial review of legislative acts in a specially provided High Tribunal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 20 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King ABDALLAH bin al Hussein (since 7 February 1999); Crown Prince HAMZAH bin al Hussein (half brother of the King, born 29 March 1980)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Abdur-Rauf RAWABDEH (since 4 March 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Assembly or Majlis al-'Umma consists of the Senate (a 40-member body appointed by the monarch from designated categories of public figures; members serve four-year terms) and the House of Representatives (80 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Representatives - last held 4 November 1997 (next to be held NA November 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - National Constitutional Party 2, Arab Land Party 1, independents 75, other 2
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the House of Representatives has been convened and dissolved by the monarch several times since 1974; in November 1989 the first parliamentary elections in 22 years were held
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Cassation; Supreme Court (court of final appeal)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Al-Ahrar (Freedom) Party [Dr. Ahmad ZO'BI, secretary general]; Arab Ba'th Progressive Party [Mahmoud al-MA'AYTAH, secretary general]; Arab Islamic Democratic Party (Doa'a) [Yousif ABU BAKR, secretary general]; Arab Jordanian Ansar Party [Muhammad MAJALI, secretary general]; Arab Land Party [Dr. Muhammad al-'ORAN, secretary general]; Democratic Party of the Left [Musa MA'AITAH, secretary general]; Islamic Action Front [Abd-al-Latif ARABIYAT, secretary general]; Jordanian Arab Constitutional Front Party [Milhem TELL, secretary general]; Jordanian Arab New Dawn Party [leader NA]; Jordanian Ba'th Arab Socialist Party [Tayseer al-HOMSI, secretary general]; Jordanian Communist Party [Ya'acoub ZAYADIN, secretary general]; Jordanian Democratic Popular Unity Party [Sa'eed MUSTAPHA, secretary general]; Jordanian Labor Party [Muhammad KHATAYIBAH, secretary general]; Jordanian Peace Party [Dr. Shaher KHREIS, secretary general]; Jordanian People's Democratic Party or HASHD [Salem NAHHAS, secretary general]; Al-Mustaqbal (Future) Party [Suleiman 'ARAR, secretary general]; National Action Party or Haqq [Muhammad ZO'BI, secretary general]; National Constitutional Party [Abdul Hadi MAJALI, secretary general]; National Democratic Public Movement Party [Muhammad al-'AMER, secretary general]; Progressive Party [Na'el BARAKAT, secretary general]; Al-Umma (Nation) Party [Ahmad HNEIDI, secretary general]; The Generations [Hamad al-KHALAYLA, chairman]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Council of Professional Association Presidents [Ahmad al-QADIRI, chairman]; Jordanian Press Association [Sayf al-SHARIF, president]; Muslim Brotherhood [Abd-al-Majid DHUNAYBAT, secretary general]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACC, AFESD, AL, AMF, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Marwan Jamil MUASHER
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3504 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-2664
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-3110
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador William BURNS
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Abdoum, Amman
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 354, Amman 11118 Jordan; APO AE 09892-0200
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [962] (6) 5920101
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [962] (6) 5927712
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of black (top), white, and green with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side bearing a small white seven-pointed star; the seven points on the star represent the seven fundamental laws of the Koran
------
Jordan/Economy|989280997
1c1,84
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Jordan is a small Arab country with inadequate supplies of water and other natural resources such as oil. The Persian Gulf crisis, which began in August 1990, aggravated Jordan's already serious economic problems, forcing the government to shelve the IMF program, stop most debt payments, and suspend rescheduling negotiations. Aid from Gulf Arab states, worker remittances, and trade contracted; and refugees flooded the country, producing serious balance-of-payments problems, stunting GDP growth, and straining government resources. The economy rebounded in 1992, largely due to the influx of capital repatriated by workers returning from the Gulf. After averaging 9% in 1992-95, GDP growth averaged only 2% during 1996-99. In an attempt to spur growth, King ABDALLAH has undertaken limited economic reform, including partial privatization of some state owned enterprises and Jordan's entry in January 2000 into the World Trade Organization (WTrO). Debt, poverty, and unemployment are fundamental ongoing economic problems.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $16 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 72% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 30% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.4%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 34.7% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.15 million
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition, at least 300,000 workers are employed abroad (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 11.4%, commerce, restaurants, and hotels 10.5%, construction 10%, transport and communications 8.7%, agriculture 7.4%, other services 52% (1992)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% official rate; actual rate is 25%-30% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.8 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $3.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> phosphate mining, petroleum refining, cement, potash, light manufacturing, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -3.4% (1996)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.08 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 99.51%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.49%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 6.102 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 2 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 450 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, citrus, tomatoes, melons, olives; sheep, goats, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> phosphates, fertilizers, potash, agricultural products, manufactures
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Iraq, India, Saudi Arabia, EU, Indonesia, UAE, Lebanon, Kuwait, Syria, Ethiopia
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $3.3 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil, machinery, transport equipment, food, live animals, manufactured goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany, Iraq, US, Japan, UK, Italy, Turkey, Malaysia, Syria, China
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $8.4 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> ODA, $850 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Jordanian dinar (JD) = 1,000 fils
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Jordanian dinars (JD) per US$1 - 0.7090 (January 2000-1996), 0.7005 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since May 1989, the dinar has been pegged to a group of currencies
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Jordan/Communications|989281011
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 402,600 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 75,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> service has improved recently with the increased use of digital switching equipment, but better access to the telephone system is needed in the rural areas and easier access to pay telephones is needed by the urban public
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay transmission and coaxial and fiber-optic cable are employed on trunk lines; considerable use is made of mobile cellular systems; Internet service is available
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat, 1 Arabsat, and 29 land and maritime Inmarsat terminals; fiber-optic cable to Saudi Arabia and microwave radio relay link with Egypt and Syria; connection to international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); participant in MEDARABTEL; international links total about 4,000
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 6, FM 5, shortwave 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.66 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 8 (plus approximately 42 repeaters and 1 TV receive-only satellite link) (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 500,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 8 (1999)
------
Jordan/Transportation|989281027
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 677 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 677 km 1.050-m gauge (2000)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8,000 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 8,000 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 209 km; note - may not be in use
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Al 'Aqabah
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 42,746 GRT/59,100 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, cargo 2, container 1, livestock carrier 1, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 20 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Jordan/Military|989281041
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF; includes Royal Jordanian Land Force, Royal Naval Force, and Royal Jordanian Air Force); Badiya (irregular) Border Guards; Ministry of the Interior's Public Security Force (falls under JAF only in wartime or crisis situations)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,399,138 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 993,730 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 55,742 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $608.9 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 7.8% (FY98)
------
Jordan/Transnational_issues|989281055
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island|989281078
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/History|989281126
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Geography|989281145
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the Mozambique Channel, about one-third of the way between Madagascar and Mozambique
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 17 03 S, 42 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4.4 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 4.4 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about seven times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 24.1 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to depth the of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low and flat
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 10 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano deposits and other fertilizers
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1993)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> wildlife sanctuary
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/People|989281160
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous population
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is a small military garrison (July 2000 est.)
------
Fair_use|989281163
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[copyright]] law, '''fair use''' doctrine refers to a number of laws and court decisions that attempt to balance the interests of copyright holders with the public interest in the wider distribution and use of creative works by allowing certain limited uses that might otherwise be considered infringement.  The current guidelines are spelled out in 17 USC 107, excerpted here:
> 
> <blockquote>
> Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright.  In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include--
> 
> :(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
> :(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;
> :(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
> :(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.
> 
> The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.
> </blockquote>
> 
> The practical effect of this law and the court decisions following it is that it is usually possible to quote from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it, teach students about it, and possibly for other uses.  Certain well-established uses cause few problems.  A teacher who prints copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors, but some cases are not so clear.  All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though he may sell his review commercially.  But a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself in non-commercial.
> 
> Fair use is an [[affirmative defense]], meaning that a defendant accused of copyright violation bears the burden of proving in court that his copying was fair use, and therefore not infringement.  For this reason, publishers frequently make claims of copyright infringement over uses that are clearly covered as fair use, hoping that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in his defense.  For example, producers of work that satirizes a copyrighted work are frequently sued for infringement by the targets of their satire, even though such use is protected as fair use.
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Government|989281176
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Juan de Nova Island
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Ile Juan de Nova
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> JU
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> possession of France; administered by a high commissioner of the Republic, resident in Reunion
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (possession of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (possession of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Economy|989281201
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> 12,000 tons of guano are mined per year.
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Communications|989281214
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Communications - note:</b>
> 1 meteorological station
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Transportation|989281226
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km; short line going to a jetty
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Military|989281237
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Juan_de_Nova_Island/Transnational_issues|989281250
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claimed by Madagascar
------
Internet_Movie_Database|989281749
8c8
< They don't own the copyright on the information itself--just the way it is collected and presented.  You can't cut and paste, you can't use their descriptions, but you can certainly use it as a source of information about who did what and when.  See USSC ''Feist v. Rural'' [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> They don't own the copyright on the information itself--just the way it is collected and presented.  You can't cut and paste, you can't use their descriptions, but you can certainly use it as a source of information about who did what and when.  See USSC ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'' [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
10c10
< Could you elaborate on ''Feist v. Rural''? I don't even know where to begin to search for that information. Also, how would you modify the previous paragraph to make it correct?
---
> Could you elaborate on ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''? I don't even know where to begin to search for that information. Also, how would you modify the previous paragraph to make it correct?
------
Beryllium/Talk|989281824
8c8
< A more educated legal opinion: the governing authority is USSC <i>Feist v. Rural</i>, a case of one phone directory copying numbers from another.  In that case, the court affirmed the doctrine that data itself is beyond copyright and dismissed the case.  What copyright covers, they said, is the act of creativity, which can be expressed in terms of selecting which data to express, organizing the data a certain way, or wording it a certain way.  In the case of phone book entries, it was ruled that an alphabetical list was about as uncreative as it gets, and so no copyright applied.  But in the instant case here, I think we may want to come up with a format of our own (which can't be any worse than the one there any way) and just plug the data into it.  This could be done programmatically, though, from the existing text.  It's OK to *use* copyrighted material to produce non-infringing material.
---
> A more educated legal opinion: the governing authority is USSC <i>[[Feist v. Rural]]</i>, a case of one phone directory copying numbers from another.  In that case, the court affirmed the doctrine that data itself is beyond copyright and dismissed the case.  What copyright covers, they said, is the act of creativity, which can be expressed in terms of selecting which data to express, organizing the data a certain way, or wording it a certain way.  In the case of phone book entries, it was ruled that an alphabetical list was about as uncreative as it gets, and so no copyright applied.  But in the instant case here, I think we may want to come up with a format of our own (which can't be any worse than the one there any way) and just plug the data into it.  This could be done programmatically, though, from the existing text.  It's OK to *use* copyrighted material to produce non-infringing material.
16c16
< It's just facts, and if someone wants to sue us over something like this, then it will just be good publicity for us and bad publicity for them.  (And, by the way, since it is my money at stake, I'm the only one who gets to decide about these risks.)  ;-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> It's just facts, and if someone wants to sue us over something like this, then it will just be good publicity for us and bad publicity for them.  (And, by the way, since it is my money at stake, I'm the only one who gets to decide about these risks.)  ;-) --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Public_domain|989282692
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The body of creative works and other knowledge--writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others--in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest (such as [[copyright]]s or [[patent]]s) is called the '''public domain'''.  Such works are considered part of the public's cultural heritage, and can be used and built upon by anyone without restriction.  A creative work becomes part of the public domain in one of several ways:
> 
> #The work is very old, created before copyright and patent laws existed.  For example, the plays and poems of [[Shakespeare]], the music of [[Beethoven]], the inventions of [[Aristotle]].
> #The copyright or patent on the work has expired.  For example, the works of [[Mark Twain]] and the inventions of [[Thomas Edison]].
> #The work is not covered by copyright or patent laws.  For example, mathematical formulas and book titles.
> #The author or inventor explicitly disclaims any proprietary interest in the work, granting it to the public domain.  For works of authorship, this must be done explicitly because copyright applies automatically to all works.  For inventions, patents must be applied for, so failure to secure a patent may place an invention in the public domain.
> #The author or inventor is ineligible for proprietary rights.  For example, works created by the US government are placed into the public domain.
> 
> Note that there are many works that are not part of the public domain, but for which the owner of some proprietary rights has chosen not to enforce those rights, or to grant some subset of those rights to the public.  See, for example, the [[Free Software Foundation]] which creates copyrighted software that is licensed without charge to the public for all except some commercial uses.  Sometimes such work is mistakenly referred to as "public domain" in colloquial speech.
------
Shakespeare|989282760
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[William Shakespeare]]
------
PublicDomainResources|989283118
1c1
< This will be a list of resources with content that may be used in some form for Wikipedia.
---
> There are many resources availble on the net that are in the [[public domain]], and therefore freely usable without restrictions for Wikipedia content.  There are also many [[copyright]]ed resources whose licensing terms are liberal enough that they can generally be used as well.  Below is a list of some of each; please add to this if you discover new resources.
------
Copyright|989283416
7c7
< ''The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;...''
---
> The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;...
15c15
< ''In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.''
---
> In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.
------
Public_domain|989284467
9a10,11
> 
> Note also that while some musical works may be in the public domain, transcriptions or performances of those works may not be.  For public domain transcriptions of classic works, visit Mutopia at http://sca.uwaterloo.ca/Mutopia/ for more details.
------
Public_domain|989284584
11c11
< Note also that while some musical works may be in the public domain, transcriptions or performances of those works may not be.  For public domain transcriptions of classic works, visit Mutopia at http://sca.uwaterloo.ca/Mutopia/ for more details.
---
> Note also that while some musical works may be in the public domain, transcriptions or performances of those works may not be.  For more details (or for public domain transcriptions of public domain works), visit Mutopia at http://sca.uwaterloo.ca/Mutopia/
------
Mozart|989296197
1,2c1,5
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the piano pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. His music currently enjoys the reputation of being able to make you "smarter" or able to perform better in written tests for a short duration (about 15 minutes) following listening to the music. He became a Mason during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. "The Magic Flute" is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, "Queen of the Night," is an intensely thrilling piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition. Beethoven, one of the best known Romantic composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote CadenZa? s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance! Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his
< "Mozartiana," a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the [[piano]] pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. 
> 
> He became a [[Mason]] during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. ''The Magic Flute'' is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, ''Queen of the Night,'' is an intensely thrilling piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition. [[Beethoven]], one of the best known [[Romantic]] composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote Cadenzas to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance! [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his ''Mozartiana,'' a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. 
> 
> As brilliant as he was, Mozart did not have an easy life. Many times, he did not receive the promised payment for his work. Gradually, his health became very poor. He lived just a little over half of
3a7,8
> 
> /Talk
------
Mozart/Talk|989296229
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This needs a lot of work! I'll try and get round to it at some stage.
------
Mozart|989296565
7a8,9
> [Complete List of Works http://www.algonet.se/~istvan/daniel/mozart.html]
> 
------
Mozart|989296591
8c8
< [Complete List of Works http://www.algonet.se/~istvan/daniel/mozart.html]
---
> [A complete list of works is at http://www.algonet.se/~istvan/daniel/mozart.html]
------
Mozart|989296609
8c8
< [A complete list of works is at http://www.algonet.se/~istvan/daniel/mozart.html]
---
> Complete List of Works http://www.algonet.se/~istvan/daniel/mozart.html
------
Gene_Kelly|989301469
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
John_Ford|989313823
17c17
< <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --Koyaanisqatsi2350
---
> <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --KoyaanisQatsi
------
John_Ford|989313936
1c1
< One of the most accomplished Western directors. Won four [[Academy Awards]] as best director for [[The Informer]], [[The Grapes of Wrath]], [[How Green Was My Valley]] and [[The Quiet Man]]  
---
> One of the most accomplished Western directors. Won four [[Academy Awards]] as best director for [[The Informer John Ford]], [[The Grapes of Wrath/John Ford]], [[How Green Was My Valley]] and [[The Quiet Man]]  
17c17
< <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as it is distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --KoyaanisQatsi
---
> <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as its is completely distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --KoyaanisQatsi
------
John_Ford|989314128
17c17
< <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as its is completely distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --KoyaanisQatsi
---
> <i>note: I made </i>The Grapes of Wrath<i> a subpage of the novel's, as it is likely to be considered in that context, but made </i>The Informer<i> a separate page with Ford's name in the title, as its plot is completely distinct from the movie of the same name by [[Michael Mann]]. I did the same thing for </i>The Fugitive,<i> as it has no relation to the 1993 film with Harrison Ford (though perhaps it should be a subpage of a page of that name dealing with the Graham Greene novel?  How well is the novel known?)  Similarly, I expect that </i>Rio Grande<i> should have a separate page that is not a subset of the actual river's page.  I hope this is the correct approach.  If not, by all means feel free to change it.  :-)</i> --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Graffiti_art|989319895
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Graffiti-research:
> In existence (inofficially)since 250 years(archeology,language studies etc.)now officially offering 4900 pages of informations covering 50 000 years of visual documentable communication
> via
> http://people.freenet.de/graffitiforschung.de/KSurl.htm
> mostly English with 850 pages in German 
> Term was introduced by me ca.23 years ago and now many search-engines provide results via that keyword.
> We are a non-university free international association,always inviting other pioneering persons to share our voluntary efforts.
> KASSEL GRAFFITI-ARCHIVE:72 000 documents
> BIBLIOGRAPHY= 20 000(mostly autopsied)entries
> We helped 1000 students globally,for the use and visit of ARCHIVE being free but they have to donate a copy of their exams in return.
> Contact me before to make shure I`m present,scientific counselling-of course-included.
> @-mail?
> ARCHIVE1@aol.com
> 
> Axel Thiel
> Kassel
> Germany
------
Milgram_experiment|989320828
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This experiment not only(also excellent films)showing how subordinate human psychic setup really being so any outside feedback reenforcing this already genetically prepared behavior is BUT modern complex societies doing a lot to turn people into perfectly automated beings that do not sense any contradictions any more.
> This is leading to such strange behavior that I introduced the term SOCIATRY here and if you want some more details visit.
> http://users.aol.com/archive1/s.html
> Not being able to voice any critique we can identify many developemental trends trying to cover up any of these absurdities.
> Want to work here,too?
> Feel free to contact me at:
> ARCHIVE1@aol.com
> To understand the strange goings-on i ran across doing and developing graffiti-research I have been in need of some meta-explanatory matrix to understand what was going on if I dared to look closer
> Axel Thiel
> Kassel
> Germany
------
Graffiti_art|989321737
1,13c1
< Graffiti-research:
< In existence (inofficially)since 250 years(archeology,language studies etc.)now officially offering 4900 pages of informations covering 50 000 years of visual documentable communication
< via
< http://people.freenet.de/graffitiforschung.de/KSurl.htm
< mostly English with 850 pages in German 
< Term was introduced by me ca.23 years ago and now many search-engines provide results via that keyword.
< We are a non-university free international association,always inviting other pioneering persons to share our voluntary efforts.
< KASSEL GRAFFITI-ARCHIVE:72 000 documents
< BIBLIOGRAPHY= 20 000(mostly autopsied)entries
< We helped 1000 students globally,for the use and visit of ARCHIVE being free but they have to donate a copy of their exams in return.
< Contact me before to make shure I`m present,scientific counselling-of course-included.
< @-mail?
< ARCHIVE1@aol.com
---
> Some people consider [[graffiti]], or some graffiti, an art form.
15,17c3
< Axel Thiel
< Kassel
< Germany
---
> /Talk
------
Graffiti_art/Talk|989321854
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The following was originally found on [[graffiti art]].  Perhaps someone could find useful encyclopedia-type information at the URL provided.
> 
> Graffiti-research:
> In existence (inofficially)since 250 years(archeology,language studies etc.)now officially offering 4900 pages of informations covering 50 000 years of visual documentable communication
> via
> http://people.freenet.de/graffitiforschung.de/KSurl.htm
> mostly English with 850 pages in German 
> Term was introduced by me ca.23 years ago and now many search-engines provide results via that keyword.
> We are a non-university free international association,always inviting other pioneering persons to share our voluntary efforts.
> KASSEL GRAFFITI-ARCHIVE:72 000 documents
> BIBLIOGRAPHY= 20 000(mostly autopsied)entries
> We helped 1000 students globally,for the use and visit of ARCHIVE being free but they have to donate a copy of their exams in return.
> Contact me before to make shure I`m present,scientific counselling-of course-included.
> @-mail?
> ARCHIVE1@aol.com
> 
> Axel Thiel
> Kassel
> Germany
------
Milgram_experiment|989323286
0a1,6
> The ''Milgram Experiment'' by [[Stanley Milgram]] purported to demonstrate...
> 
> ----
> 
> Can someone clean up the rest of this page (maybe move it to a /Talk page)?  I am being called to dinner.  :-) --[[LMS]]
> 
11c17
< Germany
---
> Germany
------
Saxifragales|989333995
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Saxifragales include various forms originally placed in the [[Rosales]] or other groups.  It appears now, though, that they belong among the Hamamelids, a paraphyletic group basal to both the Rosidae and Asteridae.
> 
> * Saxifragaceae ([[saxifrage]] family)
> * Crassulaceae (orpine family)
> ** [[Jade plant]]
> ** [[Houseleek]]
> ** [[Kalanchoe]]
> * Paeoniaceae ([[peony]] family)
> * ...
------
Magnoliophyta|989334056
42c42
< * [[Saxifragales]]
---
> * [[Saxifragales]] (saxifrage and kin)
68c68
< ** [[Asterales]] (asters and kin)
---
> ** [[Asterales]] (daisies and kin)
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|989334436
1c1
< The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghost]]s, [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], [[spontaneous combustion]], [[doppleganger]]s, [[ouija board]]s and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
---
> The study of ''anomalous phenomena'' investigates reports of items such as [[ghost]]s, [[telepathy]], [[telekinesis]], [[spontaneous combustion]], doppelgangers, [[ouija board]]s and other phenomena not widely accepted as real by mainstream scientists, some of whom go as far as calling some of them [[pseudoscience]].
------
Masculism|989335166
3c3
< Men's Rights proponents consider that Feminists have argued for "equality" in respect of self-selected issues only, -- using ad hoc (and seldom explicit) definitions of "equality" that they developed themselves, rather than (for example) calling a conference of all interested parties for the purpose of clarifying the issues.  It is argued that Feminists have not sought gender equality on issues such as child custody, the decision to abort one's unborn child, compulsory military service, unsegregated professional sports, law enforcement relating to domestic violence, funding for men's and women's groups, Men's Studies vs Women's Studies, ministries of Men's Affairs to complement ministries of Women's Affairs, and health research funding.   
---
> Men's Rights proponents consider that Feminists have argued for "equality" in respect of self-selected issues only, -- using ad hoc (and seldom explicit) definitions of "equality" that they developed themselves, rather than (for example) calling a conference of all interested parties for the purpose of clarifying the issues.  It is argued that Feminists have not sought gender equality on issues such as child custody, the decision to abort one's unborn child, compulsory military service, unsegregated professional sports, law enforcement relating to domestic violence, funding for men's and women's groups, Men's Studies vs Women's Studies, ministries of Men's Affairs to complement ministries of Women's Affairs, and health research funding, for example.   
------
Quark|989335314
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The quarks are the one of two families of particles thought to be elemental and indivisible. Protons and neutrons are well-known examples of particles that are composed of quarks. 
>   Quarks never exist alone but only in groups. Quarks are differentiated from leptons, the other family of elemental particles, by eletric charge. Lepton have integral charge (0 or -1) while quarks have 2/3 or -1/3 charge.
> 
> The six quarks are known as:
> *Up        +2/3       
> *Down     -1/3
> *Strange  -1/3  
> *Charm    +2/3
> *Top (or truth)  +2/3
> *Bottom  (or beauty) -1/3
> 
> A proton is made of two up quarks and one down, giving a charge of +1. A neutron is made of two down and one up, giving a charge of zero. 
>  According to the theory of [[Quantum ChromoDynamics]] each quark comes in three colors, red, blue, green. Antiquarks come in antired, antiblue and antigreen.
------
Quark|989335358
5,10c5,10
< *Up        +2/3       
< *Down     -1/3
< *Strange  -1/3  
< *Charm    +2/3
< *Top (or truth)  +2/3
< *Bottom  (or beauty) -1/3
---
> *Up       with a charge of  +2/3       
> *Down                       -1/3
> *Strange                    -1/3  
> *Charm                      +2/3
> *Top (or truth)             +2/3
> *Bottom  (or beauty)        -1/3
------
Masculism|989335387
9c9
< The response of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have either ignored this movement, publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women might conceivably be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights activists access to the media and publishers and influence in education systems and bureaucracies.  
---
> The reaction of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have ignored this movement, and/or publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women might conceivably be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights proponents access to/influence in the media, publishing, education systems, and bureaucracies.  
------
Quark|989335409
5,10c5,10
< *Up       with a charge of  +2/3       
< *Down                       -1/3
< *Strange                    -1/3  
< *Charm                      +2/3
< *Top (or truth)             +2/3
< *Bottom  (or beauty)        -1/3
---
> *Up       (with a charge of  +2/3)       
> *Down                       (-1/3)
> *Strange                    (-1/3) 
> *Charm                      (+2/3)
> *Top (or truth)             (+2/3)
> *Bottom  (or beauty)        (-1/3)
------
Quark|989335467
1,2c1,5
< The quarks are the one of two families of particles thought to be elemental and indivisible. Protons and neutrons are well-known examples of particles that are composed of quarks. 
<   Quarks never exist alone but only in groups. Quarks are differentiated from leptons, the other family of elemental particles, by eletric charge. Lepton have integral charge (0 or -1) while quarks have 2/3 or -1/3 charge.
---
> The quarks are the one of two families of particles thought to be elemental and indivisible.
> Protons and neutrons are well-known examples of particles that are composed of quarks. 
>   Quarks never exist alone but only in groups. Quarks are differentiated from leptons,
> the other family of elemental particles, by eletric charge. Lepton have integral charge (0 or -1)
> while quarks have 2/3 or -1/3 charge.
12,13c15,18
< A proton is made of two up quarks and one down, giving a charge of +1. A neutron is made of two down and one up, giving a charge of zero. 
<  According to the theory of [[Quantum ChromoDynamics]] each quark comes in three colors, red, blue, green. Antiquarks come in antired, antiblue and antigreen.
---
> A proton is made of two up quarks and one down, giving a charge of +1. A neutron is made of two down
> and one up, giving a charge of zero. 
>  According to the theory of [[Quantum ChromoDynamics]] each quark comes in three colors, red, blue, green.
> Antiquarks come in antired, antiblue and antigreen.
------
Quark|989335503
4,5c4,5
< the other family of elemental particles, by eletric charge. Lepton have integral charge (0 or -1)
< while quarks have 2/3 or -1/3 charge.
---
>  the other family of elemental particles, by eletric charge. Lepton have integral charge (0 or -1)
>  while quarks have 2/3 or -1/3 charge.
18c18
< Antiquarks come in antired, antiblue and antigreen.
---
>  Antiquarks come in antired, antiblue and antigreen.
------
SUV|989336074
2a3
> Because of their size, some consider SUVs to be [[bugly|buglies]].
------
Computer_Mouse|989336671
3c3
< The mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart during the sixties.
---
> The mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research Center in 1963.
------
Plantae|989339863
15c15
< All of these forms are small and confined to moist environments, relying on water to disperse spores.  In the [[Silurian]] groups appeared with adaptations enabling them to overcome these constraints, which underwent a massive adaptive radition in the [[Devonian]], taking over the land.  These groups typically have a cuticle resistant to dessication and vascular tissue, which transports water throughout the organism, and are called vascular plants as a result.  In many of these the sporophyte acts as a separate individual.  Groups at this level of organization include:
---
> All of these forms are small and confined to moist environments, relying on water to disperse spores.  In the [[Silurian]], new embryophytes appeared with adaptations enabling them to overcome these constraints, which underwent a massive adaptive radition in the [[Devonian]], taking over the land.  These groups typically have a cuticle resistant to dessication and vascular tissue, which transports water throughout the organism, and are called vascular plants as a result.  In many of these the sporophyte acts as a separate individual.  Groups at this level of organization include:
------
Plantae|989339900
30c30
< These are often referred to as gymnosperms, except for the flowering plants, which are referred to as angiosperms.  The latter are the last major group of plants to have appeared, arising during the [[Cretaceous]] and quickly becoming predominant.
---
> These are often referred to as gymnosperms, except for the flowering plants, which are referred to as angiosperms.  The latter are the last major group of plants to have appeared, arising during the [[Jurassic]] and quickly becoming predominant.
------
Be|989343124
19c19,21
< [[/Talk]]
---
> In [[chemistry]], ''Be'' is the symbol for the element [[beryllium]].
> ----
> [[/Talk]]
------
Jersey/People|989344321
50c50
< English (official), French (official), Norman-French dialect spoken in country districts
---
> English (official), French (official), Norman-French dialect [[Jersiaise]] spoken in country districts
------
Jersiaise|989345018
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Norman-French dialect spoken on [[Jersey]].
> 
> Example:
> *English "a wrench for nuts"
> *French <<une clé à écrous>>
> *Jersiase <<eune clié à êcrouettes>>
> 
> see:
> http://www.societe-jersiaise.org
> 
> And the apparently unconsciously named: [[SONY CLIE|SONY CLIÉ]]
> 
------
SONY_CLIE|989345212
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Sony|SONY]] CLIÉ is a [[Palm Pilot]] Operating System [[PDA]] distinguished by its jog-wheel interface and [[Memory Stick]] receptacle.
> 
> http://www.sony.com/clie
------
SONY_CLIE|989345340
2a3,4
> The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [[Jersiase|French dialect]].
> 
------
SONY_CLIE|989345402
3c3
< The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [[Jersiase|French dialect]].
---
> The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [Jersiase|French dialect].
------
SONY_CLIE|989345433
3c3
< The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [Jersiase|French dialect].
---
> The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [[Jersiase|French dialect]].
------
SONY_CLIE|989345460
3c3
< The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [[Jersiase|French dialect]].
---
> The name is apparently an attempt at a new coinage, though it means a tool in [[Jersiaise|French dialect]].
------
Sony|989345944
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tokyo, Japan-based consumer electronics giant.
> :2000 Sales: 63 billion USD
> :2000 Employees: 189,700 
> http://www.world.sony.com
> 
> Name coined by founder Morita to convey "sound" and "sonny" for youth and energy. See http://www.snopes2.com/business/names/sony.htm
------
Cheese/Gruyere|989348335
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A type of [[swiss cheese]], Gruyere is strong and flavorful and generally pricey.  
> 
> Gruyere is a hard cheese, so it can be grated nicely (like parmesan).
> 
> Gruyere tends to not to have holes like you see in most "normal" swiss cheese.
------
Public_domain|989350685
9c9
< Note that there are many works that are not part of the public domain, but for which the owner of some proprietary rights has chosen not to enforce those rights, or to grant some subset of those rights to the public.  See, for example, the [[Free Software Foundation]] which creates copyrighted software that is licensed without charge to the public for all except some commercial uses.  Sometimes such work is mistakenly referred to as "public domain" in colloquial speech.
---
> Note that there are many works that are not part of the public domain, but for which the owner of some proprietary rights has chosen not to enforce those rights, or to grant some subset of those rights to the public.  See, for example, the [[Free Software Foundation]] which creates copyrighted software that is licensed without charge to the public for all, forbidding only proprietary redistribution.  Sometimes such work is mistakenly referred to as "public domain" in colloquial speech.
------
Public_domain|989354316
9c9
< Note that there are many works that are not part of the public domain, but for which the owner of some proprietary rights has chosen not to enforce those rights, or to grant some subset of those rights to the public.  See, for example, the [[Free Software Foundation]] which creates copyrighted software that is licensed without charge to the public for all, forbidding only proprietary redistribution.  Sometimes such work is mistakenly referred to as "public domain" in colloquial speech.
---
> Note that there are many works that are not part of the public domain, but for which the owner of some proprietary rights has chosen not to enforce those rights, or to grant some subset of those rights to the public.  See, for example, the [[Free Software Foundation]] which creates copyrighted (or, using their terminology, "copylefted") software that is licensed without charge to the public for most uses, forbidding only proprietary redistribution.  Sometimes such work is mistakenly referred to as "public domain" in colloquial speech.
------
Internet_Movie_Database|989357397
1,5c1,4
< An online database of movies, television shows, cartoons, and shorts.  The IMDb has an extensive amount of information on works, including basic details such as actors and directors, as well as more esoteric information such as trivia, soundtrack listings, aspect ratios, and alternate versions.  Any person with an e-mail account and a browser that accepts cookies can set up an account, then submit information and vote on works.  The IMDb can be found at http://www.imdb.com
< ----
< Though it started as a leisure project of a few movie enthusiasts, it was bought by Amazon.com, who owns the copyright
< of the information contained there, so it is ''not'' a source for
< copy and paste.
---
> Found at http://www.imdb.com, the '''Internet Movie Database''' is an online database of information about movies, television shows, cartoons, and shorts.  The IMDb has an extensive amount of information on works, including basic details such as actors and directors, as well as more esoteric information such as trivia, soundtrack listings, aspect ratios, and alternate versions.  Any person with an e-mail account and a browser that accepts cookies can set up an account, then submit information and vote on works.
> 
> Though it started as a leisure project of a few movie enthusiasts, it was bought by Amazon.com, who now owns and enforces its [[copyright]]s.  It can be used as a source of information about movies that you can include in Wikipedia articles, but care should be taken not to copy any actual text from the site or use its ratings or selection criteria.  See ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'' for more details about collection cropyrights.
> 
7,10d5
< ----
< They don't own the copyright on the information itself--just the way it is collected and presented.  You can't cut and paste, you can't use their descriptions, but you can certainly use it as a source of information about who did what and when.  See USSC ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'' [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< ----
< Could you elaborate on ''[[Feist v. Rural]]''? I don't even know where to begin to search for that information. Also, how would you modify the previous paragraph to make it correct?
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|989357814
1c1
< I am a [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, and amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]] (specifically a devotee of [[Karl Popper]]).  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com], or to [mailto:lcrocker@nupedia.com lcrocker@nupedia.com] (Please use the latter address for Wikipedia and Nupedia related matters).
---
> I am a professional [[computer programming|computer programmer]], semi-pro [[poker]] player, amateur [[philosophy|philosopher]] (specifically a devotee of [[Karl Popper]]), and a dilettante at just about everything else.  More details and more up-to-date information can be found on my [http://www.piclab.com/lee/ personal pages].  You can send email to [mailto:lee@piclab.com lee@piclab.com], or to [mailto:lcrocker@nupedia.com lcrocker@nupedia.com] (Please use the latter address for Wikipedia and Nupedia related matters).
3c3
< Because I am skeptical of the value of [[intellectual property]] law in general and [[copyright]]s in particular, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the [[public domain]].  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]], [[poker]], and many related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
---
> Because I am skeptical of the value of [[intellectual property]] law in general and [[copyright]]s in particular, I explicitly place all creative works original to me in the [[public domain]].  If you see an article here that looks like it was primarily written by me (such as [[ASCII]], [[poker]], [[copyright]], and many related pages), and you wish to use it in a way not permitted by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], contact me.  I may have a public domain version containing only my work which I will happily give you.
35,40d34
< ----
< I have a question for you on the [[Internet Movie Database]] page.  --AstroNomer
< 
< Yes, I'm working on updates to [[copyright]] and related pages, and I'll certain cover ''Feist'' and related cases, but I'm waiting until Clifford finishes updating to 0.92 so I can have my parentheses.
< 
< P.S. You, or anyone else with a question about something I might have mentioned here, are welcome to email me at either address above.
------
Wavelength|989358194
1,2c1,2
< Caracteristic of a [[wave]], it correspond to the distance
< between two peaks or two valleys. It is usually designed by
---
> Characteristic of a [[wave]], it correspond to the distance
> between two peaks or two valleys. It is usually designated by
5c5
<    |--wavelength---|
---
>    |--     wavelength    --|
7,14c7,18
<    *               *                        
<  ** **           ** **
<       *         *     *
<        *       *       *
<         *     *         *
<          ** **           ** **
<            *               *
<            |--wavelength---|
---
>  *****                   *****
> *     **               **     **
>         *             *         *
>          *           *           *
>           *         *             *
>            **     **               **     **
>              *****                   *****
> 
>                |--     wavelength    --|
> 
> 
> Of course, this is only a superficial treatment where [[non-linear wave mechanics]] is concerned.
------
Wavelength|989358363
5c5
<    |--     wavelength    --|
---
>     |--     wavelength    --|
7,13c7,13
<  *****                   *****
< *     **               **     **
<         *             *         *
<          *           *           *
<           *         *             *
<            **     **               **     **
<              *****                   *****
---
>   *****                   *****
>  *     **               **     **
>          *             *         *
>           *           *           *
>            *         *             *
>             **     **               **     **
>               *****                   *****
15c15
<                |--     wavelength    --|
---
>                 |--     wavelength    --|
18c18,19
< Of course, this is only a superficial treatment where [[non-linear wave mechanics]] is concerned.
---
> Of course, this is only a superficial treatment where [[non-linear wave mechanics]] is concerned.
> 
------
PublicDomainResources|989358647
15a16,17
> * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/Map_collection/Map_collection.html Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection, Univ. of Texas] Contains maps from all over the world.
> * [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/portraits/portraits.html Perry-Castañeda Library Portrait Gallery, Univ. of Texas] Contains portraits of famous historical people.
25c27
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
PublicDomainResources|989358757
7c7
< * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia (although only [ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext95/pge0112.txt Vol 1] of this seems to be available).
---
> * [http://www.promo.net/pg Project Gutenberg] See in particular The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia (although only [ftp://ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext95/pge0112.txt Vol 1] of this seems to be available). Note that not all of the Project Gutenberg text are fully in the public domain. Read the license of the respective texts carefully.
------
Non-linear_wave_mechanics|989358772
1c1,50
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Wavelength]] is much more complex for non-harmonic waves. For example;
> 
>                                
>                                   .****.
>                                 *        *
>             .***.              *          *             .***.
>    ..      *     *            *            *           *     *      ..
> ***  *    *       *          *              *         *       *    *  ***
>       `**'         *        *                *       *         '**'
>                     *      *                  *     *
>                       '**'                      '**
> 
> In this case, we speak of a spectrum of wavelengths. Many people mistakenly
> speak of an "uncertainty" in the wavelength. Waves such as the ones depicted
> above and below, have a position though again it is a spectrum of positions
> and not any "uncertainty" in the position. If a "detector" stretches out the
> above wave in order to "determine" its wavelength, then this ''new'' wave
> would look more like a classical harmonic wave. The "uncertainty" in its
> wavelength (energy, momentum) would decrease while the "uncertainty" in its
> position would commensurately increase. Conversely, if the "detector" compacts
> the wave then the new wave looks more like a point-like particle. Speaking
> of the "dual wave and particle" nature of such waves is mistaken but physicists
> have been clinging to such archaic and obsolete concepts ever since Quantum
> Mechanics was invented. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle was specifically
> invented as a way for ''classical'' physicists to understand quantum mechanics.
> The original version of the HUP has no place in modern quantum mechanics and
> the modern version of the Heisenberg "uncertainty" principle says nothing more
> than the above figure demonstrates.
> 
> Another important non-linear wave is:
> 
>                                   .******************************
>                                  *
>                                 *
>                                *
>                               *
>                              *                                 
>                             *
> ***************************'
> 
> Harmonic waves barely scratch the surface of wave mechanics. Knowledge of
> solitons has been traditionally restricted by physicists who only begin to
> teach about the subject to second year physics students. The ''mathematics''
> of non-linear waves is difficult and physicists confuse doing mathematics
> with deep knowledge of a field. The "shallow" non-mathematical knowledge
> of laypeople is deprecated by most physicists, hence there is no interest
> in teaching the subject to non-physicists although doing so would require
> minimal effort. Pictures of solitons and spherical waves can be easily
> grasped by school children but the knowledge is hoarded with the excuse
> that "non-linear math is too hard for most people".
------
Non-linear_wave_mechanics|989358803
8c8
< ***  *    *       *          *              *         *       *    *  ***
---
>  **  *    *       *          *              *         *       *    *  ***
39c39
< ***************************'
---
>  **************************'
50c50
< that "non-linear math is too hard for most people".
---
> that "non-linear math is too hard for most people".
------
Socialism/Talk|989363671
104a105,109
> 
> ----
> Definitions are not the only bugger. There's also the nonsensical suggestion that politically motivated economists are as objective and accurate in the field of human affairs as biologists. Then there's the other implicit contentions (I won't dignify them by calling them arguments) that modern or ideal capitalism respects real people's (as opposed to rich people's) human rights, or that modern capitalism does not have command and control at its root. One wonders, has the capitalism apologist ever heard of poverty and the modern corporation? And using the economics community as some kind of authority? Economists spend their time dreaming up systems out of whole cloth. Very few of them ever bother going out into the field to collect, or even to analyse, actual data. These people are certainly not scientists and not deserving of any authority, certainly not collectively. Ironicall, the emotive and pseudo-rational arguments of the capitalism apologist (especially the comparison to Creationists) are similar to the Creationists' own language. Is it projection when he accuses his opponent of what he is guilty of? 
> 
> But back to definitions. In the statement "We need the market price system because it is the only effective means of concisely communicating accurate signals about costs." I would like definitions of the terms "effective", "concisely" and "accurate" in the context in which they are used. I would also like to know how it is possible to ignore Keynes' classical explanation of the boom-bust cycle in market economies when considering the "accuracy" of the signals given by the price system. A convenient case of selective amnesia? Or perhaps, John Maynard Keynes is not part of the body of select right-wing cranks celebrated by capitalism apologists? Or let me guess, there are undoubtedly some "subtleties" by which one can prove that depressions are ''good'' for the economy! Perhaps something along the lines of keeping people down so they won't ask for too much wages and profits will increase? But this treads too much into the domain of verifiable fact and out of the realm of dogma so I'll have to stop there. I'll just end by congratulating the capitalism proponent for the morality of his ideology. In particular, how noble libertarian capitalism in its majestic equality, that both rich and poor are equally prohibited from peeing in the privately owned streets (without paying), sleeping under the privately owned bridges (without paying), and coercing bread from its rightful owners!
------
Particle_physics|989365021
4,9c4
< There exist two families of elemtary particles: [[quark]]s and
< [[lepton]]s, with six members each (plus their respectives
< [[antiparticle]]s).
< 
< Also for each of the four fundamental forces, there are [[boson]]s that carry the interaction - 
< these are the quanta of the corresponding field:
---
> Fundamental particles are subdivided into bosons and fermions. The fermions are subdivided into two subcategories, [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s, with six members each (plus their respectives [[antiparticle]]s). Fermions are the constituents of matter while bosons carry the fundamental forces. Bosons have integer spin (eg, 0, 1, 2) while fermions have half-integer spin (eg, 1/2, 1 1/2). Fermions are subject to the Fermi Exclusion Principle which states that no two particles can share the same quantum numbers, including being in the same space at the same time. At extremely low energies, fermions pair up to form pseudo-bosons which can then share the same quantum numbers. This state of matter has been achieved in [Bose-Einstein condensates].
16,18c11,12
< Of the most widely know "elementary" particles, [[proton]], [[neutron]] and [[electron]], only the electron is really 
< elementary, protons and neutron are made of combinations 
< of three quarks, held together by gluons. 
---
> Of the most widely known "elementary" particles, [[proton]], [[neutron]] and [[electron]], only the electron is really 
> elementary, protons and neutron are made of combinations of three quarks, held together by an exchange of gluons. Protons and neutrons are not merely ensembles of quarks since the exchange of gluons gives the surrounding space a sufficient energy density to change the quality of the vacuum.
------
Film_Techniques|989365520
8d7
< *[[Shot Reverse Shot]]
10,11d8
< *[[Insert]]
< *[[Point of View Shot]]
14a12,14
> *[[Insert]]
> *[[Point of view shot]]
> *[[Shot Reverse Shot]]
20c20
< *[[Split Screen]]
---
> *[[Split screen]]
24,27c24,30
< *[[Long Shot]]
< *[[Medium Shot]]
< *[[American Shot]]
< *[[Sequence Shot]]
---
> *[[American shot]]
> *[[Crane shot]]
> *[[Long shot]]
> *[[Master shot]]
> *[[Medium shot]]
> *[[Sequence shot]]
> *[[Tracking shot]]
------
Graviton|989365858
1,5c1
< Elementary particle of [[spin]] 2 (a [[boson]]) that is believed
< to be responsible for the propagation of the
< [[gravitational interaction]]. It's rest mass is zero, so it
< moves at the velocity of light, and the interaction has infinite
< reach.
---
> Elementary particle of [[spin]] 2 (a [[boson]]) that is believed to be responsible for the propagation of the [[gravitational interaction]]. Its rest mass is zero and so it moves at the speed of light. If a photon did not travel at the speed of light then there would be some frame of reference within which it would be at rest. In such a case, its total energy would be exactly zero and would violate the principle that everything which exists embodies some form of energy.
------
EigenValue|989365885
1c1
< see EigenVector.
---
> #REDIRECT Eigenvectors
------
Graviton|989365916
1c1
< Elementary particle of [[spin]] 2 (a [[boson]]) that is believed to be responsible for the propagation of the [[gravitational interaction]]. Its rest mass is zero and so it moves at the speed of light. If a photon did not travel at the speed of light then there would be some frame of reference within which it would be at rest. In such a case, its total energy would be exactly zero and would violate the principle that everything which exists embodies some form of energy.
---
> Elementary particle of [[spin]] 2 (a [[boson]]) that is believed to be responsible for the propagation of the [[gravitational interaction]]. Its rest mass is zero and so it moves at the speed of light. If a massless particle did not travel at the speed of light then there would be some frame of reference within which it would be at rest. In such a case, its total energy would be exactly zero and it would violate the principle that everything which exists embodies some form of energy.
------
EigenVectors|989365945
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Eigen Vectors]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eigenvectors]]
------
Milgram_experiment|989367251
1c1
< The ''Milgram Experiment'' by [[Stanley Milgram]] purported to demonstrate...
---
> The '''Milgram experiment''' was a scientific experiment first described by Yale University [[psychology|psychologist]] [[Stanley Milgram]] in his 1974 book ''Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View'' (ISBN 006131983X).  It was intended to measure the willingness of a subject to obey an authority who instructs the subject to do something that may conflict with the subject's personal conscience.
3c3
< ----
---
> The method of the experiment was this: The subject and an actor claiming to be another subject are told by the experimenter that they are going to participate in an experiment to test the effectiveness of punishment on learning behavior.  Two slips of paper marked "teacher" are handed to the subject and actor, and the actor claims that his says "learner", so the subject believes that his role has been chosen randomly.  Both are then given a sample 45-volt electric shock from an apparatus attached to a chair into which the actor is strapped.  The teacher is given simple memory tasks to give to the learner and instructed to administer a shock by pressing a button each time the learner makes a mistake.  After each mistake, the voltage is raised by 15 volts.  The "teacher" subject is not told that there are no actual shocks being given to the actor, who feigns discomfort.  At 150 volts, the actor requests that the experiment end, and is told by the experimenter "The experiment requires that you continue.  Please go on." or similar words.  He continues, and feigns greater discomfort, considerable pain, and concerns for his own safety as the shocks continue.  If the teacher subject becomes reluctant, he is instructed that the experimenter takes all responsibility for the results of the experiment and the safety of the learner, and that the experiment requires that he continue.
5c5,9
< Can someone clean up the rest of this page (maybe move it to a /Talk page)?  I am being called to dinner.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> In Milgram's first set of experiments, 60% of teachers administered the experiment's final 450-volt shock, though many were quite uncomfortable in doing so.  No subject stopped before the 300-volt level.  The experiment has been repeated by other psychologists around the world with similar results.  Variations have been performed to test for variables in the experimental setup.  For example, subjects are much more likely to be obedient when the experimenter is physically present than when the instructions are given over telephone.
> 
> The experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation itself because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the subjects (even though it was brought on by their own free actions).  Most modern scientists would consider the experiment unethical today, though it resulted in valuable insights into human psychology.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
7,17d10
< This experiment not only(also excellent films)showing how subordinate human psychic setup really being so any outside feedback reenforcing this already genetically prepared behavior is BUT modern complex societies doing a lot to turn people into perfectly automated beings that do not sense any contradictions any more.
< This is leading to such strange behavior that I introduced the term SOCIATRY here and if you want some more details visit.
< http://users.aol.com/archive1/s.html
< Not being able to voice any critique we can identify many developemental trends trying to cover up any of these absurdities.
< Want to work here,too?
< Feel free to contact me at:
< ARCHIVE1@aol.com
< To understand the strange goings-on i ran across doing and developing graffiti-research I have been in need of some meta-explanatory matrix to understand what was going on if I dared to look closer
< Axel Thiel
< Kassel
< Germany
------
Milgram_experiment/Talk|989367368
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The following was here previously.  It is not understandable English, but perhaps someone might be able to find some information in it:  --LDC
> 
> This experiment not only(also excellent films)showing how subordinate human psychic setup really being so any outside feedback reenforcing this already genetically prepared behavior is BUT modern complex societies doing a lot to turn people into perfectly automated beings that do not sense any contradictions any more.
> This is leading to such strange behavior that I introduced the term SOCIATRY here and if you want some more details visit.
> http://users.aol.com/archive1/s.html
> Not being able to voice any critique we can identify many developemental trends trying to cover up any of these absurdities.
> Want to work here,too?
> Feel free to contact me at:
> ARCHIVE1@aol.com
> To understand the strange goings-on i ran across doing and developing graffiti-research I have been in need of some meta-explanatory matrix to understand what was going on if I dared to look closer
> Axel Thiel
> Kassel
> Germany
------
Milgram_experiment|989370899
8a9,12
> See [http://linuxmafia.com/~rick/milgram.html The Perils of Obedience] for an article from Milgram which describes the experiment and Milgram's conclusions.  From the article:
> 
> :The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation.
> 
------
Adolf_Hitler|989373838
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[CityBerlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
11c11
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Adolf_Hitler|989373853
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[CityBerlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin|CityBerlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
------
Berlin_Film_Festival|989373868
1c1
< One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 
---
> One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[CityBerlin|Berlin]]). 
------
City|989373949
68c68
< * [[São Paulo, Brasil]] - 9,800,000 / 16,800,000 metro area
---
> * [[Sao Paulo|São Paulo, Brasil]] - 9,800,000 / 16,800,000 metro area
------
Topology/Talk|989375515
15c15
< As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on ManiFold.
---
> As far as 2-manifolds in three space go, you can embed any of them except for non-orientable surface without boundaries.  That leaves the sphere with any number of handles and holes, the MoebiusBand with any number of handles and extra holes, and a pair of Moebiusbands glued partway edge-to-edge with any number of handles and extra holes.  This sort of thing should go on [[Manifold]].
------
Cryptography|989375735
3c3
< :CryptologY -- CryptanalysiS
---
> :[[Cryptology]] -- [[Cryptanalysis]]
------
Berlin|989380854
1c1,44
< #REDIRECT CityBerlin
---
> Berlin is the capital of [[Germany]] and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants. 
> 
> <b>Geography</b>
> 
> Berlin is located at the river Spree, its biggest forest is the Grunewald
> 
> <b>Sights</b>
> *Tiergarten: Berlin's biggest park
> *Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche: stands for Emperor Wilhelm Memorial Church. The church was bombed out in [[World War II]] and its ruin is still standing unchanged.
> *Potsdamer Platz: the center of the new Berlin. It contains the Sony Center and the DaimlerChrysler Quartier, both of which are outstanding eyamples of modern [[Architecture]]. In the 1920s, this was the busiest spot in whole [[Europe]], during the ColdWar, it lay in the middle of the death strip. After that, it was Europe's biggest construction site and now is the place to go if you are into [[Film]]. It has three cinemas with more than fourty screens, a film academy and a film museum.
> *Reichstag: The old and new seat of German parliament, rebuilt by [[Sir Norman Foster]]
> 
> 
> <b>Culture</b>
> 
> When the city ws still divided, its center was the end of world, as it was the place where you would be closest to the Cold War enemy, so it was pretty abandoned when the Wall came down. The availability of many cheap old houses in the middle of the city became a fertile ground for all sorts of underground and off-culture as well as many nightclubs, like the world-famous Tresor, which is one of the most important [[Techno]] clubs on earth. Berlin has a rich art scene, but it is increasingly coming under pressure, because since the government moved in, the rents went up considerably.
> 
> :Important Theaters:
> *Schaubuehne
> *Volksbuehne
> *Deutsches Theater
> *Berliner Ensemble
> 
> :Large Opera Houses:
> *Deutsche Oper
> *Staatsoper Unter den Linden
> *Komische Oper
> 
> :Large Universities:
> *Freie Universitaet Berlin
> *Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin
> *Technische Universitaet Berlin
> 
> 
> <b>History</b>
> see also: [[History of Germany]]
> 
> During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Century the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of West Germany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
> 
> After the breakdown of [[Communism]] in [[Europe]] the city, like the whole country, was united and soon became capital of all of Germany once again.
> 
> [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
> 
> In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
------
Adolf_Hitler|989380874
9c9
< After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin|CityBerlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
---
> After the Russians invaded Germany, Adolf Hitler commited suicide together with his lady friend [[Eva Braun]] (whom he married just two days before) on April 30th 1945 in his HQ in [[Berlin]] (Germany). He appointed [[Admiral Doenitz]] as the next Führer.
------
CityBerlin|989380903
1,44c1
< Berlin is the capital of [[Germany]] and the biggest city in this country with 3.5 mil. inhabitants. 
< 
< <b>Geography</b>
< 
< Berlin is located at the river Spree, its biggest forest is the Grunewald
< 
< <b>Sights</b>
< *Tiergarten: Berlin's biggest park
< *Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche: stands for Emperor Wilhelm Memorial Church. The church was bombed out in [[World War II]] and its ruin is still standing unchanged.
< *Potsdamer Platz: the center of the new Berlin. It contains the Sony Center and the DaimlerChrysler Quartier, both of which are outstanding eyamples of modern [[Architecture]]. In the 1920s, this was the busiest spot in whole [[Europe]], during the ColdWar, it lay in the middle of the death strip. After that, it was Europe's biggest construction site and now is the place to go if you are into [[Film]]. It has three cinemas with more than fourty screens, a film academy and a film museum.
< *Reichstag: The old and new seat of German parliament, rebuilt by [[Sir Norman Foster]]
< 
< 
< <b>Culture</b>
< 
< When the city ws still divided, its center was the end of world, as it was the place where you would be closest to the Cold War enemy, so it was pretty abandoned when the Wall came down. The availability of many cheap old houses in the middle of the city became a fertile ground for all sorts of underground and off-culture as well as many nightclubs, like the world-famous Tresor, which is one of the most important [[Techno]] clubs on earth. Berlin has a rich art scene, but it is increasingly coming under pressure, because since the government moved in, the rents went up considerably.
< 
< :Important Theaters:
< *Schaubuehne
< *Volksbuehne
< *Deutsches Theater
< *Berliner Ensemble
< 
< :Large Opera Houses:
< *Deutsche Oper
< *Staatsoper Unter den Linden
< *Komische Oper
< 
< :Large Universities:
< *Freie Universitaet Berlin
< *Humboldt-Universitaet zu Berlin
< *Technische Universitaet Berlin
< 
< 
< <b>History</b>
< see also: [[History of Germany]]
< 
< During the [[Cold War]] of the 20th Century the east part of Berlin was the capital of [[East Germany]], while the western part of the city, in spite of being geographically divided from [[West Germany]], continued to belong to West Germany.  In 1962 the [[Berlin Wall]] was built, dividing the city into West Berlin and [[East Berlin]].  This was undertaken by the East German government for economic and political reasons.  According to most Westerners, the reason for it was to prevent East Germans from immigrating to the West.  So, up to 1999, the [[capital]] of West Germany was a small town in [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]] called [[Bonn]].
< 
< After the breakdown of [[Communism]] in [[Europe]] the city, like the whole country, was united and soon became capital of all of Germany once again.
< 
< [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
< 
< In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Berlin]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|989382159
4,5c4,5
<  | [[Pleistocene]]|            |               |               |
<  | [[Pliocene]]   |            |               |               |
---
>  | [[Pleistocene]]|            | (also called  |               |
>  | [[Pliocene]]   |            | the [[Tertiary]]    |               |
------
Geologic_Timescale|989382210
5c5
<  | [[Pliocene]]   |            | the [[Tertiary]]    |               |
---
>  | [[Pliocene]]   |            | the [[Tertiary]])|               |
------
Compilers/Talk|989383745
0a1,2
> Compilers do not always take source code and output executable machine code. The program may have to be processed by a linkage editor and/or loader program first.----
> 
------
Miocene|989383915
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Miocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 5 million to 24 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Miocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]].  It means roughly "lessor of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas.  The Miocene follows the [[Oligocene]] Epock and is followed by the [[Pliocene]] Epoch. The Eocene is the fourth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]]. 
> 
> The [[Miocene]] boundaries is not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Oligocene the relatively cooler Miocene and the even cooler [[Pliocene]]. 
> 
> Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent.  Climates remained moderately warm although slow global cooling that eventual led to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations continued. Mountain building in Western North America and Europe.  Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines.  Well studied contential exposures occur in the American Great Plains and in Argentina.
> 
> Both marine and continental faunas were fairly modern.  Recognizable dogs, horses, beaver, deer, camels, crows, ducks, owls, whales, etc existed in the Miocene.  Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergant faunas exist.
------
Geologic_Timescale|989384913
3,7c3,8
<  | [[Holocene]]   | [[Neogene]]   | [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
<  | [[Pleistocene]]|            | (also called  |               |
<  | [[Pliocene]]   |            | the [[Tertiary]])|               |
<  | [[Miocene]]    |            |               |               |
<  23- - - - - - + - - - - - -|               |               |
---
>  | [[Holocene]]   | [[Quaternary]]| [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
>  | [[Pleistocene]]|            | [[Neogene]]4     |               |
>  | [[Pliocene]]   |            |               |               |
>  5             | - - + - - -|               |               |
>  | [[Miocene]]     | [[Tertiary]]  |               |               |
>  23            |            | - - - + - - - |               |
9c10
<  | [[Eocene]]      | [[Palaeogene]]|               |               |
---
>  | [[Eocene]]      |            | [[Palaeogene]]4  |               |
51a53,54
> 
> 4) [[Neogene]]-[[Paleogene]] and [[Tertiary]]-[[Quaternary]] are alternative subdivisions of the time since the end of the Mesozoic.   
------
Compilers/Talk|989385428
0a1,3
> Right, I forgot about that.  Most of my experience programming was in the mid-80s, tinkering around with BASIC.  Not exactly a powerhouse language.  :-D
> ----
> 
------
Be|989386722
3c3
< 2) Symbol for [[Beryllium]]. Chemical element; [[atomic number]] 4 in the [[periodic table]].
---
> 2) In [[chemistry]], symbol for [[Beryllium]].  Chemical element; [[atomic number]] 4 in the [[periodic table]].
18,19d17
< ----
< In [[chemistry]], ''Be'' is the symbol for the element [[beryllium]].
------
Be|989386765
9c9
< # ''Property and relation attribution'': "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"  "The hen ''is'' next to the rooster."  "I ''am'' confused."  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will ''be'' tired after running."  "Will you ''be'' going to the play tomorrow?"  (In this latter form, some grammarians might consider "be going" single verb phrase with "be" as a "helper verb", while others consider the [[gerund]] "going" to be used as an adjective describing a condition parallel to the "tired" example.  This latter interpretation is more consistent with other Germanic languages).
---
> # ''Predication (property and relation attribution)'': "It hurts to ''be'' blue."  "Will that house ''be'' big enough?"  "The hen ''is'' next to the rooster."  "I ''am'' confused."  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will ''be'' tired after running."  "Will you ''be'' going to the play tomorrow?"  (In this latter form, some grammarians might consider "be going" single verb phrase with "be" as a "helper verb", while others consider the [[gerund]] "going" to be used as an adjective describing a condition parallel to the "tired" example.  This latter interpretation is more consistent with other Germanic languages).
------
Be|989386807
6c6
< # ''To exist.''  "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough."  "God is" (a way some[[theist]]s assert their theism).  "There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed ''is.''"
---
> # ''To exist.''  "I want only to ''be'', and that is enough."  "God is" (a way some [[theist]]s assert their theism).  "There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed ''is.''"
------
Social_psychology|989387525
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The experimental study of social behavior and psychological processes associated with social behavior.  One of the most famous experiments in social psychology was the [[Milgram experiment]].
------
Earth|989391081
0a1,2
> Mostly harmless.
> 
------
Shakespearean_Tragedies|989413374
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.FUCK YOU!! BASTARD!!
------
Shakespearean_Tragedies|989414104
1c1
< Describe the new page here.FUCK YOU!! BASTARD!!
---
> (deleted)
------
Abiotic|989416440
3c3,4
<         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, elements, weather, and water.
---
>         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, 
> elements, weather, and water.
------
Abiotic|989416506
3,4c3
<         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, 
< elements, weather, and water.
---
>         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, elements, weather, and water.
------
Abiotic|989416661
3c3
<         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks, elements, weather, and water.
---
>         Referring to a factor in the environment that is not alive, such as rocks <br>   elements, weather, and water.
------
Sociology|989419132
7c7
< [[Disabilities]]
---
> [[Disabilities]]
------
Geologic_Timescale|989421568
54c54,56
< 4) [[Neogene]]-[[Paleogene]] and [[Tertiary]]-[[Quaternary]] are alternative subdivisions of the time since the end of the Mesozoic.   
---
> 4) [[Neogene]]-[[Paleogene]] and [[Tertiary]]-[[Quaternary]] are alternative subdivisions of the time since the end of the Mesozoic.
> 
> ''Are you sure on that point?  It seems to me that the way I have seen things, the Neogene and Paleogene are subdivisions of the Tertiary when it is used, and of the Cenozoic when it is not.  I personally like the latter better, but either way the above seems a bit confusing.''
------
Suleiman_the_Magnificent|989421807
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Süleyman I (1520-1566) (the Lawgiver or the Magnificent) was an Ottoman Empire and successor to [[Selim I]]. Ottoman Empire reached to its zenith and became a world power during his reign. Although the expansion of the empire continued one century after his death, his period quickly followed a very long decline.
> 
> He captured Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes in 1522. The Ottoman victory at the Battle of Mohacs opened the doors of Hungary and Vienna, which was besieged unsuccessfully in 1529. In the following two decades, huge territories of North Africa up to Morocco and all Middle East up to Persia were annexed. This quick expansion provided a naval dominance for a short period in Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf . 
> 
> When Süleyman died in 1566, major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to today’s Austria and most of North Africa was under the control of the empire. 
------
Suleiman_the_Magnificent|989421882
1c1
< Süleyman I (1520-1566) (the Lawgiver or the Magnificent) was an Ottoman Empire and successor to [[Selim I]]. Ottoman Empire reached to its zenith and became a world power during his reign. Although the expansion of the empire continued one century after his death, his period quickly followed a very long decline.
---
> Süleyman I (1520-1566) (the Lawgiver or the Magnificent) was an Ottoman emperor and successor to [[Selim I]]. Ottoman Empire reached to its zenith and became a world power during his reign. Although the expansion of the empire continued one century after his death, his period quickly followed a very long decline.
------
Apple_Computer|989422184
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [1970s] around the homebrew [Apple I] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [Apple II] and [Apple III].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces, resulting in the [Apple Lisa] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [Apple Macintosh].
> 
> More recent products include the [Apple Airport] which uses [Wireless LAN] technology to connect computers of different brands to the Internet without wires.
------
Selim_I|989422205
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Selim I (1512-20) is an Ottoman Emperor, who extended Ottoman territory by taking southern provinces of Syria, Palestine, Egypt, holy cities of Mecca and Medina under control. After the invasion of the latter two cities, he announced himself as the guardian of Islam religion, a rank, which had been lost long before after the Mongol onslaught of Abbasid caliphate in 13th century.
------
Apple_Computer|989422312
1c1
< Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [1970s] around the homebrew [Apple I] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [Apple II] and [Apple III].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces, resulting in the [Apple Lisa] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [Apple Macintosh].
---
> Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [1970s] around the homebrew [[Apple I]] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [[Apple II]] and [[Apple III]].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces ([[GUI]]), resulting in the [[Apple Lisa]] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [[Apple Macintosh]].
3c3,5
< More recent products include the [Apple Airport] which uses [Wireless LAN] technology to connect computers of different brands to the Internet without wires.
---
> Products from Apple also include operating systems such as [[MacOS]], and networking products such as [[AppleTalk]].
> 
> More recent products include the [[Apple Airport]] which uses [[Wireless LAN]] technology to connect computers of different brands to the [[Internet]] without wires.
------
Apple_Computer|989422332
1c1
< Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [1970s] around the homebrew [[Apple I]] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [[Apple II]] and [[Apple III]].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces ([[GUI]]), resulting in the [[Apple Lisa]] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [[Apple Macintosh]].
---
> Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [[1970s]] around the homebrew [[Apple I]] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [[Apple II]] and [[Apple III]].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces ([[GUI]]), resulting in the [[Apple Lisa]] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [[Apple Macintosh]].
------
1970s|989422461
9a10,12
> * [[Home computer]] revolution
> * [[Disco]] music and [[ABBA]]
> * An age of [[superstars]] and idols in sports and music, following the glorious space programs of the [[1960s]].
------
Disco|989422531
1c1
< Disco is an up-tempo style of [[dance music]] that originated in the early 1970s and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by [[Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes]]. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979, driven in part by the late-1977 film "[[Saturday Night Fever]]".
---
> Disco is an up-tempo style of [[dance music]] that originated in the early [[1970s]] and derives its name from the French word "discotheque". The first true disco songs were released in 1973. One of the earliest was "The Love I Lost" by [[Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes]]. Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/dancing audience only, rather than general audiences such as radio listeners. 1975 was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like "The Hustle" and "Love To Love You Baby" reaching the mainstream. Disco's popularity peaked in 1978 and the first half of 1979, driven in part by the late-1977 film "[[Saturday Night Fever]]".
------
Disco|989422623
9c9
< In the early 1980s [[George Benson]], [[Patrice Rushen]], [[Brothers Johnson]], [[Roberta Flack]], [[The S.O.S. Band]], and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including [[house]] and [[Hi-NRG]], and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
---
> In the early [[1980s]], [[George Benson]], [[Patrice Rushen]], [[Brothers Johnson]], [[Roberta Flack]], [[The S.O.S. Band]], and many other talented artists created timeless disco classics. After 1980, however, disco music morphed into other forms, including [[house]] and [[Hi-NRG]], and much of the general public became disinterested in disco.
11c11
< In the 1990s a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by [[Jamiroquai]]'s 1996 release "Cosmic Girl" and a number of attempts by artists like [[Cher]] and [[The Spice Girls]].
---
> In the [[1990s]] a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by [[Jamiroquai]]'s 1996 release "Cosmic Girl" and a number of attempts by artists like [[Cher]] and [[The Spice Girls]].
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1990s|989422677
10a11,12
> 
> See also other [[decades]].
------
Decades|989422775
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See these pages for trends of the decades:
> [[1870s]],
> [[1880s]],
> [[1890s]],
> [[1900s]],
> [[1910s]],
> [[1920s]],
> [[1930s]],
> [[1940s]],
> [[1950s]],
> [[1960s]],
> [[1970s]],
> [[1980s]],
> [[1990s]],
> [[2000s]]
> 
> See also [[centuries]]
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Centuries|989422843
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See these pages for the trends of centuries:
> [[15th century]],
> [[16th century]],
> [[17th century]],
> [[18th century]],
> [[19th century]],
> [[20th century]],
> [[21st century]]
> 
> See also [[decades]].
> 
------
20th_century|989422892
10a11,12
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
------
15th_century|989422942
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * Invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg.
> 
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
------
16th_century|989422998
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> * Protestant reform of the Christian church in several countries in Northern Europe.
> 
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
> 
> 
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15th_century|989423051
1c1
< 
---
> * Rennaisance
2a3
> * Machiavelli, The Prince
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17th_century|989423088
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * The 30 years war in continental Europe.
> 
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
------
18th_century|989423187
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * Scientific discovery and early [[industrial revolution]].  See the [[History of Science and Technology]].
> * Around the world exploration (Cook?).
> * [[French Revolution]] in 1789.
> 
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
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Industrial_revolution|989423230
1d0
< 
3c2
< 
---
> See [[18th century]] and [[19th century]].
------
19th_century|989423359
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * Final phase of the [[industrial revolution]], including [[Rail transport]], [[telegraph]], and [[telephone]].
> * Discovery of the relationships between magnetism and electricity and light by [[Orsted|Ørsted]] and [[Maxwell]].  See [[History of Science and Technology]].
> 
> See also other [[centuries]].
> 
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19th_century|989423391
1d0
< 
3a3
> * Mass migration from [[Europe]] to the [[USA]].
------
18th_century|989423422
1d0
< 
3a3
> * [[US Constitution]] in 1776.
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19th_century|989423445
5c5
< See also other [[centuries]].
---
> See also other [[centuries]] and [[decades]].
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History_of_Science_and_Technology|989423518
7a8
> ##[[Biography]] of [[inventor]]s, [[explorers]], and [[scientists]]
------
Explorers|989423616
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some great explorers (in alphabetic order by surname):
> 
> [[Neil Armstrong]],
> [[Christopher Columbus]],
> [[Yuri Gagarin]]
> 
> See also the [[History of Science and Technology]] and [[Biography]].
> 
------
Christopher_Columbus|989423681
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Discoverer of [[America]].
> 
> See also other [[explorers].
> 
------
Christopher_Columbus|989423695
3c3
< See also other [[explorers].
---
> See also other [[explorers]].
------
Neil_Armstrong|989423748
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> First man on the moon.
> 
> See also [[explorers]] and [[astronauts]].
> 
> 
------
Neil_Armstrong|989423768
3c3
< See also [[explorers]] and [[astronauts]].
---
> See also [[explorers]] and [[astronaut]]s.
------
Explorers|989423800
3,5c3
< [[Neil Armstrong]],
< [[Christopher Columbus]],
< [[Yuri Gagarin]]
---
> [[Christopher Columbus]]
7c5
< See also the [[History of Science and Technology]] and [[Biography]].
---
> See also [[astronaut]]s, the [[History of Science and Technology]] and [[Biography]].
------
Christopher_Columbus|989423861
3c3
< See also other [[explorers]].
---
> See also other [[explorers]], [[15th century]].
------
15th_century|989423890
3a4
> * Discovery of [[America]] by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492.
------
16th_century|989423922
2d1
< 
3a3
> * Continued discovery of [[America]].  See [[explorers]].
------
21st_century|989424048
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[flying car]] will be the common means of [[transport]]ation in the 21st century.  This was the vision of the [[1950s]].
> 
> See also [[decades]] and other [[centuries]].
> 
> 
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1950s|989424111
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> * Rock and roll music.
> * Visions of the [[flying car]] of the [[21st century]].
> 
> See also [[decades]] and the [[20th century]].
> 
> 
------
1950s|989424181
1,2c1
< 
< * Rock and roll music.
---
> * [[Rock and roll]] music.
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Flying_car|989424268
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the [[1950s]], the western world was recovering from [[world war II]] and everything seemed possible.  The flying car was a vision of transportation in the [[21st century]].
> 
------
Flying_car|989424320
1c1,3
< In the [[1950s]], the western world was recovering from [[world war II]] and everything seemed possible.  The flying car was a vision of transportation in the [[21st century]].
---
> In the [[1950s]], the western world was recovering from [[World War II]] and everything seemed possible.  The flying car was a vision of transportation in the [[21st century]].
> 
> See also [[Transport]] and [[Automobile]].
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Centuries|989424389
10c10
< See also [[decades]].
---
> See also [[decades]] and [[History]].
------
Decades|989424405
17c17
< See also [[centuries]]
---
> See also [[centuries]] and [[History]].
------
1870s|989424448
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Invention of the [[telephone]].  See the [[History of Science and Technology]].
> 
> See also other [[decades]] and the [[19th century]].
> 
> 
------
Berlin_Wall|989424623
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ... came down on November 9, 1989 ...
> 
> See [[Berlin]].
> 
> 
------
Computer_Mouse|989424707
1c1
< A handheld pointing device which converts its movement within a certain area into movements of the cursor on the monitor. Modern mice usually have two or three buttons and a scroll wheel; mice with more than one button ascribe different functions to each one.  For instance, a mouse configured in the standard way will use the left button in a [[web browser]] to follow links, while the right button brings up a menu allowing the user to copy graphics or a link location, go back in the broser's history, and so forth.  Wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.  [[Apple computer|Apple]] continues to release mice with only one button, requiring the user to hold down the "apple" key while clicking to indicate a "right click."
---
> A handheld pointing device which converts its movement within a certain area into movements of the cursor on the monitor. Modern mice usually have two or three buttons and a scroll wheel; mice with more than one button ascribe different functions to each one.  For instance, a mouse configured in the standard way will use the left button in a [[web browser]] to follow links, while the right button brings up a menu allowing the user to copy graphics or a link location, go back in the broser's history, and so forth.  Wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.  [[Apple Computer|Apple]] continues to release mice with only one button, requiring the user to hold down the "apple" key while clicking to indicate a "right click."
------
Computer_Mouse|989424724
3c3
< The mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart of Stanford Research Center in 1963.
---
> The mouse was invented by [[Douglas Engelbart]] of Stanford Research Center in 1963.
------
Douglas_Engelbart|989424747
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Inventor of the [[Computer Mouse]].
> 
> See also [[inventor]]s.
> 
> 
------
Inventor|989424773
3a4
> [[Douglas Engelbart]],
------
Science_Fiction_Artists|989424922
8a9,10
> 
> See also [[Biography]].
------
Actors|989424993
76a77,78
> See also [[Biography]].
> 
------
Andrei_Tarkovsky|989425018
6c6
< * [[Solaris]] 1972 - based on the novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
---
> * [[Solaris]] 1972 - based on the [[science fiction]] novel by [[Stanislaw Lem]]
------
Explorers|989425093
2a3
> [[Amundsen]]
3a5,8
> [[James Cook]]
> [[Sir Francis Drake]]
> [[Magellan]]
> [[Marco Polo]]
------
Explorers|989425113
3,8c3,8
< [[Amundsen]]
< [[Christopher Columbus]]
< [[James Cook]]
< [[Sir Francis Drake]]
< [[Magellan]]
< [[Marco Polo]]
---
> *[[Amundsen]]
> *[[Christopher Columbus]]
> *[[James Cook]]
> *[[Sir Francis Drake]]
> *[[Magellan]]
> *[[Marco Polo]]
------
18th_century|989425276
3c3
< * [[US Constitution]] in 1776.
---
> * [[United States Declaration of Independence]] and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
------
18th_century|989425400
3,4c3,4
< * [[United States Declaration of Independence]] and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
< * [[French Revolution]] in 1789.
---
> * [[Unitied States/History|United States Declaration of Independence]] and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
> * [[French revolution]] in 1789.
------
18th_century|989425557
3c3
< * [[Unitied States/History|United States Declaration of Independence]] and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
---
> * [[Unitied States]] declaration of independence and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
------
18th_century|989425580
3c3
< * [[Unitied States]] declaration of independence and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
---
> * [[United States/History|United States]] declaration of independence and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
------
Byzantine_Empire|989425843
5c5
< Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts.  The [[Lombard]]s took Italy, the Khazars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and the Persians gained domination of most of the eastern provinces.  These were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], who annihilated the Sassanid kingdom, but the sudden appearance of the Arabs was too much for the empire, and the southern provinces were all overrun.
---
> Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts.  The [[Lombard]]s took Italy, the [[Khazars]] overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and the Persians gained domination of most of the eastern provinces.  These were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], who annihilated the Sassanid kingdom, but the sudden appearance of the Arabs was too much for the empire, and the southern provinces were all overrun.
15c15
< The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.  The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were the originally defined bounds of the Middle ages.
---
> The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.  The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were the originally defined bounds of the Middle Ages.
------
Computer_Mouse|989426101
3,6c3
< The mouse was invented by [[Douglas Engelbart]] of Stanford Research Center in 1963.
< 
< The mouse has been inverted in design by the trackball: instead of moving the trackball across a pad to move the ball at the bottom, the trackball is stationary.  The ball is on top, part of its arc above the case's surface; the user moves his or her hand across the ball directly to move the cursor.  Avid [[computer game|gamers]] tend to prefer the trackball.
< 
---
> The mouse was invented by [[Douglas Engelbart]] of Stanford Research Center in 1963, based on an earlier device called a [[trackball]], in which a large ball floating in a stationary base is moved by the user's hand.  The first mice were basically inverted trackballs, where the user moving the device caused the ball underneath to move by friction against the table or a special pad.  Later mice used optical or inertial mechanisms to detect movement.
------
Berlin_Wall|989426527
1c1
< ... came down on November 9, 1989 ...
---
> Built in 1962(???) in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989 ...
------
Aberdeen|989426685
2,8c2,9
< capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of 
< Scotland.  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
< industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North 
< Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 130 1/2 m.  N. 
< E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.  Though Old 
< Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
< banks of the Dob, has a separate charter, privileges and 
---
> capital of [[Aberdeenshire]], and chief seaport in the north of 
> [[Scotland]].  It is the fourth Scottish town in population, 
> industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the [[North 
> Sea]], between the mouths of the [[Don]] and [[Dee]],
> 130 1/2 m.  N. E. of [[Edinburgh]] by the
> [[North British railway]].  Though [[Old 
> Aberdeen]], extending from the city suburbs to the southern 
> banks of the [[Dob]], has a separate charter, privileges and 
19,20c20,21
< Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district of Torry (for 
< parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) 
---
> Old Aberdeen and [[Woodside]], and the district of [[Torry]] (for 
> parliamentary purposes in the constituency of [[Kincardineshire]]) 
28,29c29,30
< Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the Caledonian, Great North 
< of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious 
---
> Parliament.  Aberdeen is served by the [[Caledonian railway|Caledonian]], [[Great North Railway of Scotland|Great North 
> of Scotland]] and [[North British railway]]s (occupying a commodious 
31,32c32,33
< sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
< Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
---
> sea with [[London]] and the chief ports on the eastern coast of 
> [[Great Britain]] and the northern shores of the Continent.  The mean 
55c56
< by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
---
> by [[George Jamesone]], a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, 
57c58
< inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of 
---
> inscriptions; the office of the [[Aberdeen Free Press]], one of 
59,61c60,62
< Hotel; the office of the Nnrthern Assurance Company, and the 
< Nutional Bank of Scotland.  In Castle Street, a continuation 
< eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipnl and 
---
> Hotel; the office of the [[Northern Assurance Company]], and the 
> [[National Bank of Scotland]].  In Castle Street, a continuation 
> eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal and 
84c85
< by Jnhn Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
---
> by [[John Montgomery]], a native architect, but in 1842 it was 
87,88c88,89
< panels containing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James 
< I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
---
> panels containing medallions of [[Scots sovereigns]] from [[James 
> I]]. to [[James VII]]. From the centre rises a shaft, 12 1/2 ft. 
135c136
< begun.  Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone 
---
> begun.  Save during the episcopate of [[William Elphinstone]] 
152c153
< Education.---Aberdeen University consists of King's College 
---
> Education.---[[Aberdeen University]] consists of King's College 
155c156
< George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
---
> [[George Keith]], 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in 
176c177
< opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
---
> opened by [[King Edward VII]]. in 1906 have been already mentioned.  
178c179
< Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
---
> [[Charles Mitchell]]) who provided the splendid graduation hall.  
190,191c191,192
< by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
< Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
---
> by [[Robert Gordon]] of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by 
> [[Alexander Simpson]] of Collyhill.  Originally devoted (as Gordon's 
------
Scotland|989426805
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The northern part of [[Great Britain]], bordering to the south on [[England]].
> 
> Cities in Scotland include:
> [[Aberdeen]], [[Edinburgh]]
> 
------
Khazaria|989426847
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Khazaria was the country of the [[Khazars]], neighboring the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the southwest, [[Kievan Rus]] in the northwest, and [[Azerbaijan]] in the southeast.  As an independent state, Khazaria existed between about 652 and 1016.  Its first khagan (supreme ruler) was named Irbis.  Its last khagan was named George Tzul.  Much of Khazaria was covered by steppe land.  Khazaria bordered the [[Caspian Sea]] and [[Black Sea]].  The [[Volga]] river passed through eastern Khazaria.
> 
> Major cities of Khazaria included Atil, Sarkel, Balanjar, Samandar, Kiev, Kerch, Samkarsh, and Mangup.
> 
> Bibliography of Khazar Studies, 1901-Present
> http://www.khazaria.com/khazar-biblio/toc.html
------
Aberdeenshire|989426856
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Shire in [[Scotland]].  Its capital is [[Aberdeen]].
> 
> 
------
Aberdeenshire|989426874
1c1
< Shire in [[Scotland]].  Its capital is [[Aberdeen]].
---
> [[Shire]] in [[Scotland]].  Its capital is [[Aberdeen]].
------
Hungary|989426881
3c3
< The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric [[language]], were forced out of Khazaria in what is now Northern Russia in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
---
> The Magyars, a people who spoke a Finno-Ugric [[language]], were forced out of [[Khazaria]] in what is now Northern Russia in 895 and came to settle in the Carpathian Basin.
------
Shire|989426970
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Great Britain]] is divided into shires, which are regions about the sort of [[county|counties]].
> 
> Shires in [[England]] include:
> 
> 
> Shires in [[Scotland]] include:
> [[Aberdeenshire]]
> 
------
England|989427015
1c1
< The largest and most densely populated country of the [[British Isles]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island]]
---
> The largest and most densely populated country of the [[British Isles]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island]]
------
England|989427029
1c1
< The largest and most densely populated country of the [[British Isles]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island]]
---
> The largest and most densely populated country of the [[British Isles]] and the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
------
United_Kingdom|989427212
7,9c7,9
<  Egbert, King of Wessex 802-839
<  Ethelwulf	839-856
<  Ethelbald  856-860
---
>  [[Egbert]], King of Wessex 802-839
>  [[Ethelwulf]]	839-856
>  [[Ethelbald]]  856-860
50,70c50,70
<  Jane  1553
<  Mary I  1553-1558
<  Elizabeth I  1558-1603
<  James I  1603-1625
<  Charles I	 1625-1649
<  Charles II  1649-1685
<  James II  1685-1689
<  Mary II & William III  jointly 1689-1694
<  William III  1694-1702
<  Anne  1702-1714
<  George I  1714-1727
<  George II  1727-1760
<  George III  1760-1820
<  George IV	 1820-1830
<  William IV  1830-1837
<  Victoria  1837-1901
<  Edward VII  1901-1910
<  George V  1910-1936
<  Edward VIII  Jan-Dec 1936
<  George VI  1936-1952	
<  Elizabeth II  1952-
---
>  [[Queen Jane|Jane]]  1553
>  [[Mary I]]  1553-1558
>  [[Elizabeth I]] 1558-1603
>  [[James I]]  1603-1625
>  [[Charles I]]	 1625-1649
>  [[Charles II]]  1649-1685
>  [[James II]]  1685-1689
>  [[Mary II]] & William III  jointly 1689-1694
>  [[William III]]  1694-1702
>  [[Queen Anne|Anne]]  1702-1714
>  [[George I]]  1714-1727
>  [[George II]]  1727-1760
>  [[George III]]  1760-1820
>  [[George IV]]	 1820-1830
>  [[William IV]]  1830-1837
>  [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]  1837-1901
>  [[Edward VII]]  1901-1910
>  [[George V]]  1910-1936
>  [[Edward VIII]]  Jan-Dec 1936
>  [[George VI]]  1936-1952	
>  [[Elizabeth II]]  1952-
------
Elizabeth_II|989427246
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Queen]] of the [[United Kingdom]], 1952-
> 
> 
------
Queen|989427292
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
> 
> 
------
Monarch|989427334
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The head of a [[monarchy]], either [[king]] or [[queen]].
------
King|989427352
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Male [[monarch]].
> 
> 
------
Berlin_Wall|989427357
1c1
< Built in 1962(???) in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989 ...
---
> Built in 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
------
Monarchy|989427456
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> State ruled by a [[monarch]].  Most monarchies are inherited.
> 
> Monarchies include (in alphabetic order):
> [[Denmark]],
> [[Jordan]],
> [[Norway]],
> [[Saudi Arabia]],
> [[Spain]],
> [[Sweden]],
> [[United Kingdom]]
> 
------
Berlin_Wall|989427525
1c1
< Built in 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
---
> Built on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
------
United_Kingdom|989427644
3c3,4
< It is a representative democracy governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in 1952.
---
> It is a representative democracy (but also a [[monarchy]])
> governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in 1952.
10,39c11,40
<  Ethelbert	860-866
<  Ethelred  866-871
<  Alfred the Great  871-899
<  Edward the Elder  899-924
<  Athelstan	924-939
<  Edmund I  939-946
<  Edred  946-955
<  Edwy  955-959
<  Edgar  959-975
<  Edward II the Martyr  975-979
<  Ethelred the Unready  979-1013 and 1014-1016
<  Sweyn  1013-1014
<  Edmund II Ironside  Apr-Nov 1016
<  Canute the Great  1016-1035
<  Harold Harefoot  1037-1040
<  Hardicanute  1040-1042
<  Edward the Confessor  1042-1066
<  Harold II	  Jan-Oct 1066
<  Edgar Atheling  Oct-Dec 1066
<  William the Conqueror  1066-1087
<  William II Rufus  1087-1100
<  Henry I Beauclerc  1100-1135
<  Stephen  1135-1154
<  Henry II Curtmantle  1154-1189
<  Richard Coeur de Lion  1189-1199
<  John Lackland  1199-1216
<  Henry III	  1216-1272
<  Edward I Longshanks  1272-1307
<  Edward II	  1307-1327
<  Edward III  1327-1377
---
>  [[Ethelbert]]	860-866
>  [[Ethelred]]  866-871
>  [[Alfred the Great]]  871-899
>  [[Edward the Elder]]  899-924
>  [[Athelstan]]	924-939
>  [[Edmund I]]  939-946
>  [[Edred]]  946-955
>  [[Edwy]]  955-959
>  [[King Edgar|Edgar]]  959-975
>  [[Edward II]] the Martyr  975-979
>  [[Ethelred the Unready]]  979-1013 and 1014-1016
>  [[Sweyn]]  1013-1014
>  [[Edmund II Ironside]]  Apr-Nov 1016
>  [[Canute the Great]]  1016-1035
>  [[Harold Harefoot]]  1037-1040
>  [[Hardicanute]]  1040-1042
>  [[Edward the Confessor]]  1042-1066
>  [[Harold II]]	  Jan-Oct 1066
>  [[Edgar Atheling]]  Oct-Dec 1066
>  [[William the Conqueror]]  1066-1087
>  [[William II Rufus]]  1087-1100
>  [[Henry I Beauclerc]]  1100-1135
>  [[Stephen]]  1135-1154
>  [[Henry II Curtmantle]]  1154-1189
>  [[Richard Coeur de Lion]]  1189-1199
>  [[John Lackland]]  1199-1216
>  [[Henry III]]	  1216-1272
>  [[Edward I Longshanks]]  1272-1307
>  [[Edward II]]	  1307-1327
>  [[Edward III]]  1327-1377
------
United_Kingdom|989427738
41,50c41,50
<  Richard II  1377-1399
<  Henry IV  1399-1413
<  Henry V  1413-1422
<  Henry VI  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
<  Edward IV	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
<  Edward V  Apr-June 1483
<  Richard III 1483-1485
<  Henry VII	1485-1509
<  Henry VIII 1509-1547
<  Edward VI	1547-1553
---
>  [[Richard II]]  1377-1399
>  [[Henry IV]]  1399-1413
>  [[Henry V]]  1413-1422
>  [[Henry VI]]  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
>  [[Edward IV]]	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
>  [[Edward V]]  Apr-June 1483
>  [[Richard III]] 1483-1485
>  [[Henry VII]]	1485-1509
>  [[Henry VIII]] 1509-1547
>  [[Edward VI]]	1547-1553
------
Queen_Victoria|989427768
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Queen]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[19th century]].
> 
------
Jordan/History|989427942
2c2
< For most of its history since independence from British administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by King HUSSEIN (1953-1999). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers (US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large internal Palestinian population, through several wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary elections and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994 a formal peace treaty was signed with Israel.
---
> For most of its history since independence from [[United Kingdom|British]] administration in 1946, Jordan was ruled by [[King Hussein|King HUSSEIN]] (1953-1999). A pragmatic ruler, he successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers ([[United States|US]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]], and [[United Kingdom|UK]]), various [[Arab states]], [[Israel]], and a large internal [[Palestinian]] population, through several wars and coup attempts. In 1989 he resumed parliamentary elections and gradually permitted political liberalization; in 1994 a formal peace treaty was signed with Israel.
------
Palestinian|989427980
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> That (people, language?, traditions) which is of [[Palestine]].
> 
> 
------
King|989441666
1c1
< Male [[monarch]].
---
> Male [[monarch]].  Test
------
King|989441719
1c1
< Male [[monarch]].  Test
---
> Male [[monarch]].
------
Gothic_language|989441968
1c1
< The Gothic Language is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Christian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
---
> The Gothic Language, the only known Eastern Germanic language, is known to us by a translation of the Bible dating from the 4th century AD, of which some books survive. The translation was apparently done somewhere in the Balkans region, by people in close contact with Greek Christian culture. The language used is Germanic but has major differences to other known Germanic languages.
7c7
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic insciptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.)
---
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus, _Gotische Grammatik_, Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
9c9
< There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about 800AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medievel texts that mention the Goths, it must be noted that many writers used "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even refered to Slavic speaking people as Goths.
---
> There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about 800AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating mediaeval texts that mention the Goths, it must be noted that many writers used "Goths" to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even refered to Slavic speaking people as Goths.
------
Gothic_language|989442007
7c7
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus, _Gotische Grammatik_, Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
---
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus _Gotische Grammatik_ Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
------
Gothic_language|989442027
7c7
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus _Gotische Grammatik_ Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
---
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
------
Internet_Movie_Database|989442051
3,4c3
< Though it started as a leisure project of a few movie enthusiasts, it was bought by Amazon.com, who now owns and enforces its [[copyright]]s.  It can be used as a source of information about movies that you can include in Wikipedia articles, but care should be taken not to copy any actual text from the site or use its ratings or selection criteria.  See ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'' for more details about collection cropyrights.
< 
---
> Though it started as a leisure project of a few movie enthusiasts, it was bought by Amazon.com, who now owns and enforces its [[copyright]]s.  It can be used as a source of information about movies that you can include in Wikipedia articles, but care should be taken not to copy any actual text from the site or use its ratings or selection criteria.  See ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'' for more details about collection copyrights.
5a5
> /Talk
------
Heinrich_Himmler|989442109
1c1,246
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chronology
> 
>  
> 
> 20 April 1889 Birth of Adolf Hitler 
> 1914 
> 1914 Outbreak of World War I 
> 1916   
> 1916 Germany essentially becomes a military dictatorship under Ludendorff and Hindenburg. 
> 1918 
> 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 
> 11 November 1918 Armistice signed ending world war I. 
> 1919 
> 9 January 1919 German Workers Party (DAP) founded in Munich. 
> 28 June 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed. 
> 16 September 1919 Hitler joins the German Workers Party (DAP). 
> 1919 Kiel mutiny. 
> 1919 Spartakist revolt. 
> 1920 
> 24 February 1920 Proclamation of the party's Twenty-Five-Point Program. 
> 31 March 1920 Adolf Hitler leaves the army. 
> April, 1920 German Workers Party becomes the National Socialist Workers Party (NSDAP). 
> 1920 Kapp Putsch. 
> 1921 
> 27 April 1921 Allied Reparations Commission sets payment at 132 million gold marks. 
> 29 July 1921 Hitler becomes the first chairman of the NSDAP. 
> 1922 
> 28 October 1922 Mussolini's "March on Rome." 
> 1923 
> 11 January 1923 Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian troops. 
> August 1923 Hyperinflation begins. 
> 8-9 November 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. 
> 1924 
> 26 February-1 April 1924 Hitler's trial in Munich; sentenced to five years; begins work on Mein Kampf. 
> 20 December 1924 Hitler released from prison. 
> 1925 
> 27 February 1925 NSDAP refounded. 
> 8 December 1925 Publication of Mein Kampf. 
> 26 April 1925 Hindenburg is elected president of the Weimar Republic after Ebert's death. 
> 11 November 1925 Founding of the SS (Schutzstaffel) an elite personal guard protecting Hitler. 
> 1928 
> 20 May 1928 Reichstag elections, NSDAP gets 2.6 % and 12 seats in the 491-member Reichstag. 
> 1929 
> 25 October 1929 "Black Friday" in New York City. 
> 1930 
> 14 September 1930 Large NSDAP gains in Reichstag elections, 18.3% and 107 deputies in 577-member Reichstag. 
> 1931 
> December 1931 Unemployment reaches 5.6 million in Germany. 
> 1932 
> 27 January 1932 Hitler's speech to Rhineland industrialists. 
> 13 March & 10 April 1932 Hindenburg defeats Hitler in two presidential elections. 
> 13 April 1932 Chancellor Brüning bans the SS and the SA. 
> 30 May 1932 Brüning is replaced as chancellor by Papen. 
> 16 June 1932 Papen lifts ban on the SS & SA. 
> 31 July 1932 NSDAP gains 37.4% and 230 seats in new 608-member Reichstag, becoming the largest party. 
> 13 August 1932 Hindenburg turns down Hitler as Chancellor. 
> 6 November 1932 NSDAP declines to 33.1 % and 196 seats in the 684-member Reichstag, is still the largest party. 
> 2 December 1932 General Schleicher becomes Chancellor. 
> 18 December 1932 Crisis in the NSDAP, Gregor Strasser resigns from the party. 
> 1933 
> 4 January 1933 Secret meeting between Hitler and Papen. 
> 15 January 1933 NSDAP scores election gains in the state of Lippe. 
> 23 January 1933 Schleicher resigns as Chancellor. 
> 30 January 1933 Adolf Hitler appointed German Chancellor. 
> 27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire. 
> 28 February 1933 Presidential decree on the "Protection of the People and the State," suspends civil liberties. 
> 5 March 1933 Reichstag elections, the NSDAP (43.9%) and its conservative coalition partners gain a slim majority. 
> 21 March 1933 Day of Potsdam 
> 22 March 1933 Establishment of a Race Hygiene Department in the Reich Interior Ministry. 
> 23 March 1933 Enabling Act ratified. 
> 1 April 1933 Nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses; Himmler is appointed police commander in Bavaria. 
> 7 April 1933 Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. 
> 25 April 1933 Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities. 
> 1 May 1933 "Day of National Labor" celebrated. 
> 2 May 1933 Destruction of labor unions; creation of the German Labor Front (DAF), headed by Robert Ley. 
> 10 May 1933 Book burnings at German universities. 
> 6 July 1933 Hitler announces the end of the "National Revolution." 
> 14 July 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Sick Offspring; Law against the Establishment of New Parties (banning all other political parties). 
> 20 July 1933 Concordat with the Catholic Church. 
> 29 September 1933 Establishment of a Reich Chamber of Culture under Goebbels. 
> 14 October 1933 Germany leaves the League of Nations. 
> 1934 
> 20 January 1934 Law for the Regulation of National Labor 
> 30 January 1934 Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich, suspends state and land governments. 
> 5 May 1934 Jewish students excluded from medicine and dentistry examinations. 
> 17 June 1934 Papen's speech at the University of Marburg, criticizing the excesses of the NS revolution. 
> 30 June-2 July 1934 "Night of the Long Knives": the purge of Röhm a the rest of the SA leadership. 
> 20 July 1934 The SS becomes an independent organization. 
> 22 July 1934 Jewish students excluded from law examinations. 
> 2 August 1934 Death of Hindenburg; Hitler merges the offices of president and Chancellor into the "Führer." 
> 8 December 1934 Jewish students excluded from pharmacy examinations. 
> 1934 Leni Riefesnstahl's "Triumph of the Will." 
> 1935 
> 13 January 1935 Saar plebiscite results in the reincorporation of the Saarland into the Reich. 
> 21 January 1935 Law on the Retirement and Transfer of Professors as a Result of the Reorganization of the German System of Higher Education. 
> 17 March 1935 Reintroduction of military service. 
> 18 June 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement. 
> 26 June 1935 Introduction of compulsory labor service for men 18-25. 
> 15 September 1935 The Nuremberg Race Laws: Reich Citizenship Law; Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor. 
> 14 November 1935 First Supplementary Decree to the Reich Citizenship Law; Jews dismissed from the public service and all other public offices. 
> 13 December 1935 Lebensborn organization founded. 
> 1936 
> 7 March 1936 Military reoccupation of the Rhineland. 
> 29 March 1936 Plebiscite, 99% approve of Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland. 
> 17 June 1935 Himmler becomes Reichsführer-SS and chief of the German police. 
> 17-18 July 1936 Start of the Spanish Civil War. 
> 1 August 1936 Olympic Games begin in Berlin. 
> 15 October 1936 Jewish teachers forbidden to give private tuition to Aryans. 
> 19 October 1936 Announcement of the Four-Year-Plan under the leadership of Hermann Göring. 
> 25 October 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis created by the German-Italian Treaty of Cooperation. 
> 25 November 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan. 
> 1936 Carl von Ossietzky receives the Nobel Peace Prize; Hitler forbids German citizens from accepting Nobel prizes. 
> 1937 
> 14 March 1937 Papal encyclical With Burning Concern denounces NS policies toward the Church. 
> 15 April 1937 Jews no longer to be awarded doctoral degrees. 
> 25-29 September 1937 State visit by Mussolini. 
> 5 November 1937 Hossbach Memorandum. 
> 26 November 1937 Schacht resigns as Reich Economics Minister and is replaced by Walter Funk. 
> 1937 German National Prize for Art and Science established. 
> 1938 
> 4 February 1938 Fritsch and Blomberg crisis. 
> 11 March 1938 Annexation of Austria. 
> March 1938 Aryanization in Austria. 
> 26 April 1938 All Jewish assets over 5,000 RM to be registered and placed at Hermann Göring's disposal for the Four Year Plan. 
> 25 July 1938 Jewish doctors forbidden to practice; may treat only other Jews. 
> 27 August 1938 Ludwig Beck, Chief of the Army General Staff, resigns. 
> 27-30 September 1938 Munich Conference and Agreement. 
> 1 October 1938 Occupation of the Sudetenland. 
> 5 October 1938 Jewish passports to be stamped with "J." 
> 8-9 November 1938 Reichskrystallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass) 
> 10 November 1938 Mass arrests of Jewish men. 
> 12 November 1938 A compensation fee of a thousand million RM is imposed on German Jews. 
> 15 November 1938 Jewish children expelled from German schools. 
> 3 December 1938 Start of compulsory Aryanization of Jewish businesses. 
> 1938 Sigmund Freud leaves Vienna for London. 
> 1938 Carl von Ossietzky dies. 
> 1939 
> 30 January 1939 In the Reichstag Hitler threatens that another war will mean the "extermination of the Jewish race in Europe." 
> 14-16 March 1939 Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia. 
> 30 April 1939 German Jews evicted from their homes and forced into designated Jewish accommodation. 
> 22 May 1939 Hitler and Mussolini sign the "Pact of Steel"--a ten-year military and political alliance. 
> 21 July 1939 Adolf Eichmann appointed head of Jewish Emigration Office in Prague. 
> 23 August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. 
> 1 September 1939 German invasion of Poland. 
> 3 September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany. 
> 21 September 1939 Decree from Heydrich initiates the ghettoization of Polish Jews. 
> 27 September 1939 Establishment of the Reich Main Security Office under Heydrich, combining the security police (Gestapo and Kripo) with the SS Security Service (SD). 
> September-November 1939 Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei (Special Units of the Security Police) and other groups murder large numbers of Jews behind the frontlines. 
> 8-12 October 1939 Poland divided up: western portions incorporated into the Reich; eastern portions become a vassal state, the General Government, under Hans Frank. 
> October 1939 Hitler signs a handwritten note, backdated to 1 September, authorizing the "mercy killing" ("euthanasia") of "life unworthy of life." 
> 8 November 1939 Assassination attempt against Hitler fails. 
> 23 November 1939 General introduction of the "Yellow Star" for Jews living in the General Government. 
> 1940 
> January 1940 First gassing of mentally handicapped (Euthanasia Program, or T4 Program). 
> 2-12 February 1940 First deportations of Jews from Vienna to Poland. 
> 9 April 1940 German invasion of Denmark and Norway. 
> 27 April 1940 Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler orders the establishment of a concentration camp at Auschwitz. 
> 30 April 1940 First enclosed ghetto in Lodz. 
> 10 May 1940 German offensive in the West begins, invasion of Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. 
> 22 June 1940 French-German Armistice. 
> June-August 1940 Plans formulated for the mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar. 
> 13 August 1940 The Battle of Britain begins and extends into late September. 
> 28 October 1940 Italy attacks Greece. 
> 18 December 1940 Hitler formalizes plans for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. 
> 1940 The General Plan for the East: Legal, Economic, and Spatial Basis for the Development of the Eastern Territories. 
> 1941 
> February 1941 Formation of the Afrika Korps under General Rommel. 
> 6 April 1941 Germany invades Yugoslavia and Greece. 
> 10 May 1941 Rudolf Hess flies to Scotland, ostensibly on a secret peace mission; declared "mad" by Hitler, he is replaced by Bormann. 
> May 1941 onwards Jews deployed as forced labor. 
> 6 June 1941 Hitler issues the "Commissar Order," calling for the liquidation of all Communist Party functionaries in the impending war against the Soviet Union. 
> 22 June 1941 Germany invades the Soviet Union; behind the regular army (Wehrmacht), special police units (Einsatzgruppen) systematically round up Jews, Communists, and Gypsies and murder them. 
> 31 July 1941 Göring gives Heydrich the task of the "Gesamtlösung (comprehensive solution) of the Jewish Question." 
> 1 September 1941 All Jews in the Reich from the age of six must now wear the "Yellow Star." 
> 3 September 1941 First trial gassing with Zyklon B at Auschwitz, around 900 Soviet prisoners of war are victims of further experiments in September and October. 
> 29-30 September 1941 Mass shootings of 33,771 Jews at Babi Yar, a ravine near Kiev. 
> September-November 1941 Planning, siting, and beginning of construction of death camps at Chelmno, Belzec, Majdanek, and Auschwitz-Birkenau. 
> 1 October 1941 Jews in Germany are now prohibited from emigrating. 
> 14 October 1941 Start of the mass deportation of Jews from the Reich to ghettos in Kovno, Lodz, Minsk, and Riga. 
> 23 October 1941 All Jewish emigration from German-controlled territory is forbidden. 
> 5 December 1941 Battle of Moscow, the USSR launches counter-offensive. 
> 7 December 1941 Nacht und Nebel (Night and Fog) decree; Japan attacks Pearl Harbor. 
> 11 December 1941 Germany and Italy declare war on the United States. 
> 19 December 1941 Hitler assumes supreme command of the army himself. 
> December 1941 Use of gas vans for murder of Jews in Chelmno. 
> 1942 
> 20 January 1942 Wannsee Conference on the Final Solution of the Jewish Question meets in Berlin. 
> 8 February 1942 Albert Speer becomes Armaments Minister 
> February 1942 "Evacuation" of the Polish ghettos begins; continuous deportations to the death camps. 
> 21 March 1942 Fritz Saukel is appointed General Plenipotentiary for Labor Allocation. 
> 27 March 1942 Heydrich is assassinated in Prague. 
> 30-31 May 1942 First "one-thousand-bomber-attack" on a German city (Cologne). 
> 10 June 1942 Destruction of the town of Lidice and liquidation of its inhabitants in reprisal for the death of Heydrich. 
> 23 June 1942 Systematic gassing of Jews begins in Auschwitz. 
> 5 September 1942 German troops enter Stalingrad. 
> 3 October 1942 First successful launch of an A-4 (V-2) rocket. 
> 11 November 1942 The British break through at El Alamein; Rommel's Afrika Korps retreat. 
> 19 November 1942 The Soviets launch their counteroffensive at Stalingrad; four days later, the Soviets close the ring around Stalingrad and trap the German Sixth Army. 
> 1943 
> 2 February 1943 The last German forces in Stalingrad surrender. 
> 18 February 1943 Josef Goebbels.' "Do You Want Total War?" speech at the Berlin Sportpalast. 
> 22 February 1943 Execution of the Scholls (Hans and Sophie) and the smashing of the "White Rose" resistance group. 
> 27 February 1943 Jewish munitions workers deported from Berlin to Auschwitz. 
> April 1943 Beginning of medical experiments at Auschwitz. 
> 19 April-16 May 1943 Jewish uprising in the Warsaw ghetto. 
> 12 May 1943 Last Axis troops capitulate in North Africa. 
> 11 June 1943 Himmler orders the liquidation of all Polish ghettos. 
> 25 July 1943 The fall of Mussolini and fascism in Italy. 
> 2 September 1943 Speer is authorized to centralize all industries; he forms a new Ministry for Armaments and War Production. 
> 8 September 1943 Germany occupies north and central Italy. 
> End of 1943 The underground rocket factory at Mittelwerk is established. 
> 1944 
> 6 June 1944 D-Day: the Allied invasion of Normandy. 
> 10 June 1944 The destruction of the French town of Oradour-sur-Glane and the liquidation of its inhabitants in reprisal for partisan activities. 
> 20 June 1944 The opening of a Soviet offensive against the Army Group Center. 
> 20 July 1944 Stauffenberg's attempted assassination of Hitler. 
> 24 July 1944 Soviets liberate concentration camp at Majdanek. 
> 25 July 1944 Himmler is appointed commander in chief of the reserve army; Goebbels becomes General Plenipotentiary for Total War. 
> 1 September 1944 Beginning of the Warsaw Uprising. 
> 8 September 1944 The first V-2 rockets are fired against London. 
> 25 September 1944 All men between 16 and 60 not already called up are required to serve in the Volkssturm. 
> 2 October 1944 The Warsaw Uprising is crushed and the city is destroyed. 
> 21 October 1944 Aachen is occupied by American troops. 
> 1 November 1944 Himmler halts the gassings at Auschwitz. 
> 16-24 December 1944 The Battle of the Bulge. 
> Autumn 1944 The "People's Fighter Program" is established. 
> 1945 
> 27 January 1945 Soviet troops reach Auschwitz. 
> 30 January 1945 Hitler's last broadcast to the German people them, urging them to hold out until the last.  
> 4-11 February 1945 The Yalta Conference. 
> 13-14 February 1945 The Destruction of Dresden. 
> February 1945 Armaments Minister Albert Speer's "Concentration Decree," only projects which could be realized within two months to be pursued. 
> 7 March 1945 American troops cross the Rhine at Remagen. 
> 19 March 1945 Hitler's scorched earth, or "Nero" command. 
> 25 April 1945 American and Soviet troops meet at Torgau on the Elbe. 
> 21-28 April 1945 Last gassing of concentration camp inmates at Ravensbrück and Mauthausen. 
> 29 April 1945 American troops occupy Dachau 
> 30 April 1945 Hitler commits suicide. 
> 2 May 1945 Berlin capitulates to invading Soviet troops. 
> 7-9 May 1945 Unconditional surrender of the armed forces of National Socialist Germany. 
> July 1945 American decision to transfer 350 German rocket designers to the United States as "Project Overlord." 
> 1946 
> October 1946 Forced deportation of thousands of "Specialists" from eastern Germany to the Soviet Union. 
> 1947 
> 20 August 1947 Judgment at the Nuremberg Physicians' Trial. 
> 
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989442168
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> What happened in the early days of IMDB?  My understanding is that it was a collaborative effort on a [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]], but soon after the invention of http/www, it became a proprietary website.
> 
> It's a great website, don't get me wrong, but I've always wondered how they made that transition and whether it was controversial at the time.  I think the story might make a great cautionary tale about why a [[free license]] is so important.
> 
> 
------
Christopher_Columbus|989442250
1c1
< Discoverer of [[America]].
---
> Often historically credited as the first European [[explorer]] to reach the [[America]]s (a claim of dubious historical accuracy), "Christopher Columbus" is the anglicized name of [[Italian]] explorer Cristoforo Colombo, born in Genoa in 1451 and died 1506.  His first voyage to the Americas in 1492 was financed by the [[Spanish]] monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella.  The exact location of his first landing is a matter of some dispute, but it is generally believed to be in what is now the [[Bahamas]].
3a4,5
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989442330
1d0
< 
6c5
< 
---
> I also wonder whether or not the existence of IMDB (which is a great website, as I say) would undercut any possibility of my starting a similar but <i>free</i> effort, using similar software.  Wiki software is unstructured for a good reason, but for some kinds of information (movie listings), a priori structure can be handled very easily.  But the essential wiki nature (anyone can edit anything) might provide fertile soil for the growth of such an effort.
------
Jimbo_Wales|989442525
9c9
< (I just cleaned out all the old notes here, but feel free to leave me new notes.)
---
> Wow, I've been too busy for several days to do anything on the wikipedia, and I see that nothing has slowed down at all.  
11,12c11,14
< ----
< Hi, I'm cdani. I reviewed catalan.w... and it seems good.
---
> I'm proud to say that now the Wikipedia knows more than I do.
> I <i>was</i> reading every page that appeared, and I <i>was</i>
> learning lots of new things.  I'll still keep doing that, but it is now officially impossible for me to keep up with the growth.
> :-)  This is a good thing.
14d15
< I'm searching people to contribute in Catalan.
16d16
< Do you want I do a homepage for catalan like English homepage? If you want, no problem. Also translate something other to Catalan? Just indicate.
18,52d17
< '''Yes, I imagine that could become a translation of the existing Wikipedia site, in parts, and also specialized to the needs and interests of Catalan-speakers.'''
< 
< ----
< 
< hey Jimbo, have you got anything to do with the Wales family from  druglady.com?? It has the same IP adress as wikipedia... - 
< 
< WojPob
< 
< '''Yes.  That's my mom and dad's pharmacy.  I made a website for her.  It's on the same machine as wikipedia.  That will probably change soon, as we are rearranging things.'''
< 
< '''I have many websites.'''
< 
< Gee that rings a bell....
< ----
< Thanks for your feedback; I'll take care - Mathijs
< ----
< 
< request: would you like to set up
< castellano.wikipedia.com? alternatives names could be
< es.wikipedia.com and espanol.wikipedia.com
< 
< There is also a request of a swedish wikipedia on 
< [[International Wikipedia]]
< ----
< Yes, thats me! I am a enthusiastic pro-Swedish world citizen that try to promote Swedish wherever I go. ;-)
< I saw that you had added the DNS entries but not the database (or whatever it is) below. [[LinusTolke]]----
< Thank you Jimmy, for restoring my page. I was really beginning to blow there. RoseParks----
< I made that page of alternative approaches to interacting with the disabled, because I was accused of writing a biased entry that did not include other approaches, and that was merely my personal opinion. As you see, even on the internet there are similar guidelines and this info is really mainstream, that is, fairly widely accepted...not my personal opinion. I would guess these pages you found are not from this year either.
< On the other hand the alternative approaches does kind of serve a purpose. For every guideline there is more or less a guideline advocating the opposite approach. The results are pretty ludicrous and even funny in a way to me. Perhaps they should be added as a separate page to the main guidelines, or rephrased or introduced differently. What do you think? As you know this material has a personal meaning to me, I would not have posted that entry if I thought it was opinion.<br>
< My other problem is that there is a so-called "Bill of Rights" for the disabled that was 
< developed by the disability community. The original draft was drawn by The American Coalition for People with Disabilities (ACCD) and has been endorsed by many groups of disabled people. It actually is not a particularly radical statement and most of the rights seem almost obvious. I do know whether this belongs on wikipedia at all. And if so, is it commentary?
< 
<  RoseParks
< 
< Well, my thinking is that the Wikipedia obviously can't endorse this bill of rights, but I don't see any reason why we can't report on it.
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989442822
23a24,26
> 
> ----
> Does the repetitive process of copying World Factbook data give you a similar feeling to watching the film [[Koyaanisqatsi]]? *grin*  When I was cutting and pasting this stuff, I felt dizzy after awhile, in the same way as watching the film.  :-)
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989442944
5a6,10
> 
> ----
> 
> Alternatively, you might consider making custom changes to the Wiki software to support the encyclopedia effort, or make additional software to support Wiki.  One obvious thing might be to write software to scan and Wikify free information like the CIA factbook so KQ doesn't have to type it all.  Another might be to have "create page from template" pages at which a user could interact with forms and/or applets to create standard-format pages for things like movies, species, poker games :-) (with plenty of room for free-form text, of course).  This latter can be done indepently of Wiki itself (for example, I could create a template on my own site that generated Wiki pages), but some extra software support might be handy (for example, being able to put non-visible comments into a Wiki page, or marking pages as editable only by such template scripts (this latter is already a feature of UseMod that Wikipedia doesn't use).  I'll see if I can come up with a sample of what that might look like.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Phonology|989442968
1c1,4
< Study of the sounds.
---
> Whereas phonetics is about the nature of sounds per se, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language. For example, /p/ and /b/ in English: due to mimimal pairs such as PIN and BIN it is obvious that /p/ and /b/ are distinctive units of sound in English, i.e. phonemes. Stress and tone are also part of phonology. In some languages, stress is non-phonological, e.g. in Finnish or in Germanic. In other languages, such as most modern-day Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is indeed phonologically distinctive, although there are only few
> minimal pairs, e.g. /'august/ 'August (the name)' versus /au'gust/ 'August (the month)' in German. 
> In other languages such as Italian and Spanish there are many minimal pairs, whereas French has no distinctive stress (as Latin). Latin, however, had distinctive length of consonants (as Italian) AND distinctive length of vowels (as German or Hungarian). Languages such as Chinese and Japanese, but also Serbian/Croatian and Swedish have distinctive tone. What may be important in one language (e.g. stress in Italian) may be unimportant in another language. 
> What applies to stress and tone is also true for phonemes. [s] and [z] for example are allophones (variants) of /s/ in Spanish, but in English, /s/ and /z/ are phonemes. [z] in Spanish only appears in front of voiced consoants (e.g. in mismo 'same'). In English, on the other hand, it is not possible to say where /z/ and /s/ appears (although there are some restrictions, see phonotactics). A minimal pair in English is zeal versus seal /zi:l/ vs. /si:l/. 
------
Bse|989443086
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The abbreviation '''BSE''' is often used for the disease [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]], also known as "Mad Cow" disease.
------
Henryk_Sienkiewicz|989443460
6c6
< He he best known for his colourful historical novels depicting
---
> He is best known for his colourful historical novels depicting
13c13
< ** Ogniem i mieczem (With fire and sword) 1884
---
> ** Ogniem i mieczem (With Fire and Sword) 1884
20c20
< * Bez dogmatu (Without Dogma) 1891
---
> * Bez dogmatu (Without Dogma) 1891
------
Heinrich_Himmler|989444023
5c5
< 20 April 1889 Birth of Adolf Hitler 
---
> 20 April 1889 Birth of Adolf Hitler    
------
King|989444135
1c1
< Male [[monarch]].
---
> *Male [[monarch]].
2a3
> *A King is also one of many [[chess]] pieces
------
King|989444159
3c3
< *A King is also one of many [[chess]] pieces
---
> *A King is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/pieces]]
------
King|989444189
3c3
< *A King is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/pieces]]
---
> *A King is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/Pieces|pieces]]
------
Queen|989444434
1c1,3
< Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
---
> *Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
> 
> *A queen is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/Pieces]].
------
Queen|989444448
3c3
< *A queen is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/Pieces]].
---
> *A queen is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/Pieces|pieces]].
------
Monarch|989444957
1c1
< The head of a [[monarchy]], either [[king]] or [[queen]].
---
> A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  Few monarchs modernly exercise absolute authority.  Although there are a number of hereditary monarchies still existing in the world, many countries with hereditary royalty are defacto ruled by representative houses of government such as parliaments or congresses, headed usually by a [[prime minister]], while the monarchy continues to hold a symbolic or ceremonial position.
------
Computing|989444964
95a96,98
> 
> * Related articles:
> ** [[Apple Computer]]
------
Webcam|989445000
1c1
< A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to any [[computer]] that is attached to the [[Internet]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mostly of its owner).  Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the Internet.
---
> A webcam is a small [[digital camera]] attached to any [[computer]] that is connected to the [[Internet]]. It is mainly used to take pictures and make short films of the surrounding area (mostly of its owner).  Other uses might include chatting, security, and video conferences over the Internet.
------
Monarch|989445129
1c1,3
< A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  Few monarchs modernly exercise absolute authority.  Although there are a number of hereditary monarchies still existing in the world, many countries with hereditary royalty are defacto ruled by representative houses of government such as parliaments or congresses, headed usually by a [[prime minister]], while the monarchy continues to hold a symbolic or ceremonial position.
---
> A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  
> 
> Few monarchs modernly exercise absolute authority.  Although there are a number of hereditary monarchies still existing in the world, many countries with hereditary royalty are defacto ruled by representative houses of government such as parliaments or congresses, headed usually by a [[prime minister]], while the monarchy continues to hold a symbolic or ceremonial position (eg. [[United Kingdom]]).
------
Heinrich_Himmler|989445145
1,246c1
< Chronology
< 
<  
< 
< 20 April 1889 Birth of Adolf Hitler    
< 1914 
< 1914 Outbreak of World War I 
< 1916   
< 1916 Germany essentially becomes a military dictatorship under Ludendorff and Hindenburg. 
< 1918 
< 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 
< 11 November 1918 Armistice signed ending world war I. 
< 1919 
< 9 January 1919 German Workers Party (DAP) founded in Munich. 
< 28 June 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed. 
< 16 September 1919 Hitler joins the German Workers Party (DAP). 
< 1919 Kiel mutiny. 
< 1919 Spartakist revolt. 
< 1920 
< 24 February 1920 Proclamation of the party's Twenty-Five-Point Program. 
< 31 March 1920 Adolf Hitler leaves the army. 
< April, 1920 German Workers Party becomes the National Socialist Workers Party (NSDAP). 
< 1920 Kapp Putsch. 
< 1921 
< 27 April 1921 Allied Reparations Commission sets payment at 132 million gold marks. 
< 29 July 1921 Hitler becomes the first chairman of the NSDAP. 
< 1922 
< 28 October 1922 Mussolini's "March on Rome." 
< 1923 
< 11 January 1923 Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian troops. 
< August 1923 Hyperinflation begins. 
< 8-9 November 1923 Beer Hall Putsch. 
< 1924 
< 26 February-1 April 1924 Hitler's trial in Munich; sentenced to five years; begins work on Mein Kampf. 
< 20 December 1924 Hitler released from prison. 
< 1925 
< 27 February 1925 NSDAP refounded. 
< 8 December 1925 Publication of Mein Kampf. 
< 26 April 1925 Hindenburg is elected president of the Weimar Republic after Ebert's death. 
< 11 November 1925 Founding of the SS (Schutzstaffel) an elite personal guard protecting Hitler. 
< 1928 
< 20 May 1928 Reichstag elections, NSDAP gets 2.6 % and 12 seats in the 491-member Reichstag. 
< 1929 
< 25 October 1929 "Black Friday" in New York City. 
< 1930 
< 14 September 1930 Large NSDAP gains in Reichstag elections, 18.3% and 107 deputies in 577-member Reichstag. 
< 1931 
< December 1931 Unemployment reaches 5.6 million in Germany. 
< 1932 
< 27 January 1932 Hitler's speech to Rhineland industrialists. 
< 13 March & 10 April 1932 Hindenburg defeats Hitler in two presidential elections. 
< 13 April 1932 Chancellor Brüning bans the SS and the SA. 
< 30 May 1932 Brüning is replaced as chancellor by Papen. 
< 16 June 1932 Papen lifts ban on the SS & SA. 
< 31 July 1932 NSDAP gains 37.4% and 230 seats in new 608-member Reichstag, becoming the largest party. 
< 13 August 1932 Hindenburg turns down Hitler as Chancellor. 
< 6 November 1932 NSDAP declines to 33.1 % and 196 seats in the 684-member Reichstag, is still the largest party. 
< 2 December 1932 General Schleicher becomes Chancellor. 
< 18 December 1932 Crisis in the NSDAP, Gregor Strasser resigns from the party. 
< 1933 
< 4 January 1933 Secret meeting between Hitler and Papen. 
< 15 January 1933 NSDAP scores election gains in the state of Lippe. 
< 23 January 1933 Schleicher resigns as Chancellor. 
< 30 January 1933 Adolf Hitler appointed German Chancellor. 
< 27 February 1933 Reichstag Fire. 
< 28 February 1933 Presidential decree on the "Protection of the People and the State," suspends civil liberties. 
< 5 March 1933 Reichstag elections, the NSDAP (43.9%) and its conservative coalition partners gain a slim majority. 
< 21 March 1933 Day of Potsdam 
< 22 March 1933 Establishment of a Race Hygiene Department in the Reich Interior Ministry. 
< 23 March 1933 Enabling Act ratified. 
< 1 April 1933 Nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses; Himmler is appointed police commander in Bavaria. 
< 7 April 1933 Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. 
< 25 April 1933 Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities. 
< 1 May 1933 "Day of National Labor" celebrated. 
< 2 May 1933 Destruction of labor unions; creation of the German Labor Front (DAF), headed by Robert Ley. 
< 10 May 1933 Book burnings at German universities. 
< 6 July 1933 Hitler announces the end of the "National Revolution." 
< 14 July 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Sick Offspring; Law against the Establishment of New Parties (banning all other political parties). 
< 20 July 1933 Concordat with the Catholic Church. 
< 29 September 1933 Establishment of a Reich Chamber of Culture under Goebbels. 
< 14 October 1933 Germany leaves the League of Nations. 
< 1934 
< 20 January 1934 Law for the Regulation of National Labor 
< 30 January 1934 Law for the Reconstruction of the Reich, suspends state and land governments. 
< 5 May 1934 Jewish students excluded from medicine and dentistry examinations. 
< 17 June 1934 Papen's speech at the University of Marburg, criticizing the excesses of the NS revolution. 
< 30 June-2 July 1934 "Night of the Long Knives": the purge of Röhm a the rest of the SA leadership. 
< 20 July 1934 The SS becomes an independent organization. 
< 22 July 1934 Jewish students excluded from law examinations. 
< 2 August 1934 Death of Hindenburg; Hitler merges the offices of president and Chancellor into the "Führer." 
< 8 December 1934 Jewish students excluded from pharmacy examinations. 
< 1934 Leni Riefesnstahl's "Triumph of the Will." 
< 1935 
< 13 January 1935 Saar plebiscite results in the reincorporation of the Saarland into the Reich. 
< 21 January 1935 Law on the Retirement and Transfer of Professors as a Result of the Reorganization of the German System of Higher Education. 
< 17 March 1935 Reintroduction of military service. 
< 18 June 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement. 
< 26 June 1935 Introduction of compulsory labor service for men 18-25. 
< 15 September 1935 The Nuremberg Race Laws: Reich Citizenship Law; Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor. 
< 14 November 1935 First Supplementary Decree to the Reich Citizenship Law; Jews dismissed from the public service and all other public offices. 
< 13 December 1935 Lebensborn organization founded. 
< 1936 
< 7 March 1936 Military reoccupation of the Rhineland. 
< 29 March 1936 Plebiscite, 99% approve of Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland. 
< 17 June 1935 Himmler becomes Reichsführer-SS and chief of the German police. 
< 17-18 July 1936 Start of the Spanish Civil War. 
< 1 August 1936 Olympic Games begin in Berlin. 
< 15 October 1936 Jewish teachers forbidden to give private tuition to Aryans. 
< 19 October 1936 Announcement of the Four-Year-Plan under the leadership of Hermann Göring. 
< 25 October 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis created by the German-Italian Treaty of Cooperation. 
< 25 November 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan. 
< 1936 Carl von Ossietzky receives the Nobel Peace Prize; Hitler forbids German citizens from accepting Nobel prizes. 
< 1937 
< 14 March 1937 Papal encyclical With Burning Concern denounces NS policies toward the Church. 
< 15 April 1937 Jews no longer to be awarded doctoral degrees. 
< 25-29 September 1937 State visit by Mussolini. 
< 5 November 1937 Hossbach Memorandum. 
< 26 November 1937 Schacht resigns as Reich Economics Minister and is replaced by Walter Funk. 
< 1937 German National Prize for Art and Science established. 
< 1938 
< 4 February 1938 Fritsch and Blomberg crisis. 
< 11 March 1938 Annexation of Austria. 
< March 1938 Aryanization in Austria. 
< 26 April 1938 All Jewish assets over 5,000 RM to be registered and placed at Hermann Göring's disposal for the Four Year Plan. 
< 25 July 1938 Jewish doctors forbidden to practice; may treat only other Jews. 
< 27 August 1938 Ludwig Beck, Chief of the Army General Staff, resigns. 
< 27-30 September 1938 Munich Conference and Agreement. 
< 1 October 1938 Occupation of the Sudetenland. 
< 5 October 1938 Jewish passports to be stamped with "J." 
< 8-9 November 1938 Reichskrystallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass) 
< 10 November 1938 Mass arrests of Jewish men. 
< 12 November 1938 A compensation fee of a thousand million RM is imposed on German Jews. 
< 15 November 1938 Jewish children expelled from German schools. 
< 3 December 1938 Start of compulsory Aryanization of Jewish businesses. 
< 1938 Sigmund Freud leaves Vienna for London. 
< 1938 Carl von Ossietzky dies. 
< 1939 
< 30 January 1939 In the Reichstag Hitler threatens that another war will mean the "extermination of the Jewish race in Europe." 
< 14-16 March 1939 Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia. 
< 30 April 1939 German Jews evicted from their homes and forced into designated Jewish accommodation. 
< 22 May 1939 Hitler and Mussolini sign the "Pact of Steel"--a ten-year military and political alliance. 
< 21 July 1939 Adolf Eichmann appointed head of Jewish Emigration Office in Prague. 
< 23 August 1939 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. 
< 1 September 1939 German invasion of Poland. 
< 3 September 1939 Britain and France declare war on Germany. 
< 21 September 1939 Decree from Heydrich initiates the ghettoization of Polish Jews. 
< 27 September 1939 Establishment of the Reich Main Security Office under Heydrich, combining the security police (Gestapo and Kripo) with the SS Security Service (SD). 
< September-November 1939 Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei (Special Units of the Security Police) and other groups murder large numbers of Jews behind the frontlines. 
< 8-12 October 1939 Poland divided up: western portions incorporated into the Reich; eastern portions become a vassal state, the General Government, under Hans Frank. 
< October 1939 Hitler signs a handwritten note, backdated to 1 September, authorizing the "mercy killing" ("euthanasia") of "life unworthy of life." 
< 8 November 1939 Assassination attempt against Hitler fails. 
< 23 November 1939 General introduction of the "Yellow Star" for Jews living in the General Government. 
< 1940 
< January 1940 First gassing of mentally handicapped (Euthanasia Program, or T4 Program). 
< 2-12 February 1940 First deportations of Jews from Vienna to Poland. 
< 9 April 1940 German invasion of Denmark and Norway. 
< 27 April 1940 Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler orders the establishment of a concentration camp at Auschwitz. 
< 30 April 1940 First enclosed ghetto in Lodz. 
< 10 May 1940 German offensive in the West begins, invasion of Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. 
< 22 June 1940 French-German Armistice. 
< June-August 1940 Plans formulated for the mass deportation of European Jews to Madagascar. 
< 13 August 1940 The Battle of Britain begins and extends into late September. 
< 28 October 1940 Italy attacks Greece. 
< 18 December 1940 Hitler formalizes plans for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. 
< 1940 The General Plan for the East: Legal, Economic, and Spatial Basis for the Development of the Eastern Territories. 
< 1941 
< February 1941 Formation of the Afrika Korps under General Rommel. 
< 6 April 1941 Germany invades Yugoslavia and Greece. 
< 10 May 1941 Rudolf Hess flies to Scotland, ostensibly on a secret peace mission; declared "mad" by Hitler, he is replaced by Bormann. 
< May 1941 onwards Jews deployed as forced labor. 
< 6 June 1941 Hitler issues the "Commissar Order," calling for the liquidation of all Communist Party functionaries in the impending war against the Soviet Union. 
< 22 June 1941 Germany invades the Soviet Union; behind the regular army (Wehrmacht), special police units (Einsatzgruppen) systematically round up Jews, Communists, and Gypsies and murder them. 
< 31 July 1941 Göring gives Heydrich the task of the "Gesamtlösung (comprehensive solution) of the Jewish Question." 
< 1 September 1941 All Jews in the Reich from the age of six must now wear the "Yellow Star." 
< 3 September 1941 First trial gassing with Zyklon B at Auschwitz, around 900 Soviet prisoners of war are victims of further experiments in September and October. 
< 29-30 September 1941 Mass shootings of 33,771 Jews at Babi Yar, a ravine near Kiev. 
< September-November 1941 Planning, siting, and beginning of construction of death camps at Chelmno, Belzec, Majdanek, and Auschwitz-Birkenau. 
< 1 October 1941 Jews in Germany are now prohibited from emigrating. 
< 14 October 1941 Start of the mass deportation of Jews from the Reich to ghettos in Kovno, Lodz, Minsk, and Riga. 
< 23 October 1941 All Jewish emigration from German-controlled territory is forbidden. 
< 5 December 1941 Battle of Moscow, the USSR launches counter-offensive. 
< 7 December 1941 Nacht und Nebel (Night and Fog) decree; Japan attacks Pearl Harbor. 
< 11 December 1941 Germany and Italy declare war on the United States. 
< 19 December 1941 Hitler assumes supreme command of the army himself. 
< December 1941 Use of gas vans for murder of Jews in Chelmno. 
< 1942 
< 20 January 1942 Wannsee Conference on the Final Solution of the Jewish Question meets in Berlin. 
< 8 February 1942 Albert Speer becomes Armaments Minister 
< February 1942 "Evacuation" of the Polish ghettos begins; continuous deportations to the death camps. 
< 21 March 1942 Fritz Saukel is appointed General Plenipotentiary for Labor Allocation. 
< 27 March 1942 Heydrich is assassinated in Prague. 
< 30-31 May 1942 First "one-thousand-bomber-attack" on a German city (Cologne). 
< 10 June 1942 Destruction of the town of Lidice and liquidation of its inhabitants in reprisal for the death of Heydrich. 
< 23 June 1942 Systematic gassing of Jews begins in Auschwitz. 
< 5 September 1942 German troops enter Stalingrad. 
< 3 October 1942 First successful launch of an A-4 (V-2) rocket. 
< 11 November 1942 The British break through at El Alamein; Rommel's Afrika Korps retreat. 
< 19 November 1942 The Soviets launch their counteroffensive at Stalingrad; four days later, the Soviets close the ring around Stalingrad and trap the German Sixth Army. 
< 1943 
< 2 February 1943 The last German forces in Stalingrad surrender. 
< 18 February 1943 Josef Goebbels.' "Do You Want Total War?" speech at the Berlin Sportpalast. 
< 22 February 1943 Execution of the Scholls (Hans and Sophie) and the smashing of the "White Rose" resistance group. 
< 27 February 1943 Jewish munitions workers deported from Berlin to Auschwitz. 
< April 1943 Beginning of medical experiments at Auschwitz. 
< 19 April-16 May 1943 Jewish uprising in the Warsaw ghetto. 
< 12 May 1943 Last Axis troops capitulate in North Africa. 
< 11 June 1943 Himmler orders the liquidation of all Polish ghettos. 
< 25 July 1943 The fall of Mussolini and fascism in Italy. 
< 2 September 1943 Speer is authorized to centralize all industries; he forms a new Ministry for Armaments and War Production. 
< 8 September 1943 Germany occupies north and central Italy. 
< End of 1943 The underground rocket factory at Mittelwerk is established. 
< 1944 
< 6 June 1944 D-Day: the Allied invasion of Normandy. 
< 10 June 1944 The destruction of the French town of Oradour-sur-Glane and the liquidation of its inhabitants in reprisal for partisan activities. 
< 20 June 1944 The opening of a Soviet offensive against the Army Group Center. 
< 20 July 1944 Stauffenberg's attempted assassination of Hitler. 
< 24 July 1944 Soviets liberate concentration camp at Majdanek. 
< 25 July 1944 Himmler is appointed commander in chief of the reserve army; Goebbels becomes General Plenipotentiary for Total War. 
< 1 September 1944 Beginning of the Warsaw Uprising. 
< 8 September 1944 The first V-2 rockets are fired against London. 
< 25 September 1944 All men between 16 and 60 not already called up are required to serve in the Volkssturm. 
< 2 October 1944 The Warsaw Uprising is crushed and the city is destroyed. 
< 21 October 1944 Aachen is occupied by American troops. 
< 1 November 1944 Himmler halts the gassings at Auschwitz. 
< 16-24 December 1944 The Battle of the Bulge. 
< Autumn 1944 The "People's Fighter Program" is established. 
< 1945 
< 27 January 1945 Soviet troops reach Auschwitz. 
< 30 January 1945 Hitler's last broadcast to the German people them, urging them to hold out until the last.  
< 4-11 February 1945 The Yalta Conference. 
< 13-14 February 1945 The Destruction of Dresden. 
< February 1945 Armaments Minister Albert Speer's "Concentration Decree," only projects which could be realized within two months to be pursued. 
< 7 March 1945 American troops cross the Rhine at Remagen. 
< 19 March 1945 Hitler's scorched earth, or "Nero" command. 
< 25 April 1945 American and Soviet troops meet at Torgau on the Elbe. 
< 21-28 April 1945 Last gassing of concentration camp inmates at Ravensbrück and Mauthausen. 
< 29 April 1945 American troops occupy Dachau 
< 30 April 1945 Hitler commits suicide. 
< 2 May 1945 Berlin capitulates to invading Soviet troops. 
< 7-9 May 1945 Unconditional surrender of the armed forces of National Socialist Germany. 
< July 1945 American decision to transfer 350 German rocket designers to the United States as "Project Overlord." 
< 1946 
< October 1946 Forced deportation of thousands of "Specialists" from eastern Germany to the Soviet Union. 
< 1947 
< 20 August 1947 Judgment at the Nuremberg Physicians' Trial. 
< 
---
> Heinrich Himmler became chief of the [[German]] police and ''Reichsführer-SS'' under [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1935.
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989445235
4c4,10
< 
---
> ----
> ''As I understand it, the people (i think they are british)
> that had physically the website,
> and managed and organized the entries, where contacted by
> amazon.com, who was looking for a way to sell more movies. 
> So they bought the site, and hired the former owners to mantain it.''
> ----
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989445278
4,5c4,5
< ----
< ''As I understand it, the people (i think they are british)
---
> 
> :''As I understand it, the people (i think they are british)
10c10,11
< ----
---
> 
> 
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989445315
5,9c5
< :''As I understand it, the people (i think they are british)
< that had physically the website,
< and managed and organized the entries, where contacted by
< amazon.com, who was looking for a way to sell more movies. 
< So they bought the site, and hired the former owners to mantain it.''
---
> :<i>As I understand it, the people (i think they are british) that had physically the website, and managed and organized the entries, where contacted by amazon.com, who was looking for a way to sell more movies. So they bought the site, and hired the former owners to mantain it.</i>
------
Extended_ASCII|989445360
1c1
< The term <i>extended ASCII</i> describes 8-bit or larger [[character encoding]]s that include the standard 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters as well as others.
---
> The term <i>extended ASCII</i> describes 8-bit or larger [[character encoding]]s that include the standard 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters as well as others.  See [[Wiki special characters]] for a discussion of how to use these characters in Wikipedia itself.
------
Earth|989445416
1c1,4
< Mostly harmless.
---
> The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].
> :orbit:    149,600,000 km (1.00 [[AU]]) from Sun
> :diameter: 12,756.3 km
> :mass:     5.972e24 kg
3c6
< The third [[planet]] from a star named the [[Sun]].  The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into five [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 4/5 [[Nitrogen]], 1/5 [[Oxygen]], plus traces of other gases.
---
> The only planet in our [[solar system]] whose surface has liquid water, covering over 70% of the surface and dividing it into five [[oceans]] and seven [[continents]].  There is a relatively thick [[atmosphere]] composed of about 4/5 [[Nitrogen]], 1/5 [[Oxygen]], plus traces of other gases.
------
AU|989445503
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for '''astronomical unit''' = 149,597,870.691 km, the average distance from the [[Earth]] to the [[Sun]].
------
Queen|989445518
5c5
< 
---
> *Also the name of a (british?) rock musical group. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". Freddy Mercury, one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 199?.
------
Queen|989445585
5c5
< *Also the name of a (british?) rock musical group. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". Freddy Mercury, one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 199?.
---
> *Also the name of a (british) rock musical group. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". [[Freddy Mercury]], one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 1991. See [[Queen/Band]]
------
Unicode|989446585
4a5,6
> UCS-16 is the official character encoding of [http://www.w3.org/TR/HTML4/ HTML 4.0].  Many browsers, though, are only capable of displaying a small subset of the full UCS-16 repertoire.  For example, the codes <code>&amp;#x419; &amp;#x5E7; &amp;#x645;</code> display on your browser as '''&#x419;''', '''&#x5E7;''', and '''&#x645;''', which ideally look like the [[Cyrillic]] letter "Short I", the [[Hebrew]] letter "Qof", and the [[Arabic]] letter "Meem", respectively.  It is unlikely that your computer has all of those fonts and will display them all correctly, though it may display a subset of them.  Because they are encoded according to the standard, though, they ''will'' display correctly on any system that is also compliant and does have the characters available.
> 
------
Wiki_special_characters|989446695
185a186,190
> <h2>Unicode</h2>
> 
> The [[Unicode]] character encoding '''UCS-16''' is the official character encoding of [http://www.w3.org/TR/HTML4/ HTML 4.0].  Many browsers, though, are only capable of displaying a small subset of the full UCS-16 repertoire.  For example, the codes <code>&amp;#x419; &amp;#x5E7; &amp;#x645;</code> display on your browser as '''&#x419;''', '''&#x5E7;''', and '''&#x645;''', which ideally look like the [[Cyrillic]] letter "Short I", the [[Hebrew]] letter "Qof", and the [[Arabic]] letter "Meem", respectively.  It is unlikely that your computer has all of those fonts and will display them all correctly, though it may display a subset of them.  Because they are encoded according to the standard, though, they ''will'' display correctly on any system that is also compliant and does have the characters available.  Numeric character entity references are the only way to enter these characters into a Wiki page at present.
> 
> 
------
Phoneme|989446969
1c1,2
< A phoneme is the smallest [[phone]] (unit of sound) that is distinct from other [[phone]]s. 
---
> A phoneme is a sound that can change the meaning of a word, e.g. /p/ /b/ are two phonemes of the English language due to minimal pairs like /pIn/ - /bIn/. What may be an allophone in language a may be a phoneme in language B. In English, for example, /p/ has aspirated and non-aspirated allophones, e.g. aspirated in /pIn/, but non-aspirated in /spIn/. However, in some languages (e.g. Ancient Greek), aspirated /p_h/ was a phoneme distinct from both unaspirated /p/ and /b/. It is also true that there is no distinction between /r/ and /l/ in Japanese, there is only one /r/ phoneme in Japanese, and no /l/ phoneme. /z/ and /s/ are distinct phonemes in English, but allophones in Spanish. /dZ/ (as in <Jill>) and /Z/ (as in <measure>, <rouge>) are phonemes in English, but allophones in Italian. 
> 
3d3
< What constitutes a phoneme is dependant upon your language and upbringing. For example, consider P with a) no aspiration, b) a little aspiration and c) a lot of aspiration. In [[English]] these three [[allophone]]s are all the same phoneme. There are languages (which escape me at the moment) for which these are three distinct phonemes.
5,7d4
< Similarly, rumor has it (I don't know if this is actually true) that L and R, while distinct phonemes in [[English]] are the same phoneme in [[Japanese]].----
< I would say a phoneme in a particular language is the smallest unit of sound which distinguishes a pair of words in that language. For example in English, we must find pairs, like "bit" and "but" and "bit" and "bat" to decide that /i/ is a phoneme. And yes, in Japanese, "r" and "l" sounds are one phoneme, pronounced somewhat like an "r" (flap).
< RoseParks
------
French_language|989447059
7c7
< Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in the french of today.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic ([[frank]]) origin. Originally, many quite different dialects were spoken throughout France, but through the times the dialect of [[Ile de France]] (the region around [[Paris]]) has almost surplanted the others in the rest of France as well, and is the basis for the official French language.
---
> Although many frenchmen like to refer to their descent from gallic ancestors ("Nos ancêtres les gaulois"), very little [[Celtic languages|celtic]] influence seems to remain in the french of today.  Most of the vocabulary is of [[Latin language|latin]] and germanic ([[frank]]) origin. Originally, many quite different dialects were spoken throughout France (among them also literary languages like Occitan/Provençal), but through the times the dialect of [[Ile de France]] (the region around [[Paris]]) has almost surplanted the others in the rest of France as well, and is the basis for the official French language.
------
French_language/Proven|989447218
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Provençal was a literary language like French. It is also known as Occitan. Due to French
> one-language policy, Occitan basically died out. Occitan like French is a Gallo-Romance language. 
------
Italian_language|989447355
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like Latin (but unlike most modern Romance languages). 
------
Italian_language|989447437
1c1
< Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like Latin (but unlike most modern Romance languages). 
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like Latin (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. 
------
German_language|989447713
1c1,2
< Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]].  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
---
> Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]] as well as [[Liechtenstein]], [[Südtirol]] in [[Italy]] and a small part of [[Belgium]]. It is also one of the official languages of [[Luxembourg]].  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
> 
8a10,11
> 
> However, Low German is much closer to Dutch, and it is only seen as a German dialect due to the fact that it is a part of Germany. Characteristic of German is that /k/, /p/ and /t/ in some positions developed to /x/, /f/ and /ts/. In English as well as Dutch and Low German, the old /k/ /p/ /t/ are still there, cf. English make, Dutch maken, German machen etc. 
------
FilmEditing|989447803
1c1
< One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] and [[Intolerance]], the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the Kuleshov Experiment.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film editing]]
------
Film_editing|989447816
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of two dominant theories of conveying information in the cinema where conveying information is done by juxtaposing one image with another to produce a third idea.  After [[David Griffith|D.W. Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] and [[Intolerance]], the early Russian filmmakers took up this approach to film communication.  It seemed to agree with their revolutionary ideas and seemed to be the perfect artistic expression of the HegelianDialectic.  (See also the Kuleshov Experiment.)
------
Film_Techniques|989447985
6c6
< Cutting:
---
> [[Film editing|Editing]]:
12a13
> *[[Master shot]]
27d27
< *[[Master shot]]
------
Film_Criticism|989448023
1c1
< A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with PhiloSophy than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with [[Philosophy]] than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
------
Film_Criticism|989448035
1c1
< A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with [[Philosophy]] than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with [[philosophy]] than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989448880
26c26,29
< Does the repetitive process of copying World Factbook data give you a similar feeling to watching the film [[Koyaanisqatsi]]? *grin*  When I was cutting and pasting this stuff, I felt dizzy after awhile, in the same way as watching the film.  :-)
---
> Does the repetitive process of copying World Factbook data give you a similar feeling to watching the film [[Koyaanisqatsi]]? *grin*  When I was cutting and pasting this stuff, I felt dizzy after awhile, in the same way as watching the film.  :-)
> 
> ----
> Ha.  No, it doesn't make me dizzy; in small doses it's just something to pass the time with while waiting for people; in larger doses it's something easy and worthwhile that helps overcome insomnia.  I have to admit that I take greater pride in the Ingmar Bergman entry than in the rest; I think I'll start reading up on Martin Scorsese and Joel and Ethan Coen to beef up those two pages.  (I share a fondness for [[The Big Lebowski]], and just watched it again last night, in fact.)
------
Internet_Movie_Database/Talk|989449197
13a14,16
> ----
> 
> LDC, I'm assuming you're talking about me in re: the CIA factbook; actually I don't type it, but save the .html and cut and paste from notepad.  But templates would certainly be handy for things with a fixed structure that people <i>do</i> have to type.  --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Daily_rushes|989449386
1c1
< The footage shot on a set during a given day, without soundtrack or adjustment.  The rushes for a given day may consist of, for instance, footage of a conversation taken from two different cameras, without the [[insert]]s, [[cutaway]]s, or [[closeup]]s that may later be edited in.  Frequently the rushes from a given day will consist of short segments from completely different points in the film, making it more challenging to maintain [[continuity]].  For instance, the weather may make it impossible to film according to schedule, or a location may be available only for a certain amount of time, making it necessary to film all of the scenes at that place at the same time, regardless of their place within the story.  For this reason rushes are presented without final context and are typically not a good indicator of how the film might turn out.
---
> The footage shot during a given day, without soundtrack or adjustment.  The rushes for a given day may consist of, for instance, footage of a conversation taken from two different cameras, without the [[insert]]s, [[cutaway]]s, or [[closeup]]s that may later be edited in.  Frequently the rushes from a given day will consist of short segments from completely different points in the film, making it more challenging to maintain [[continuity]].  For instance, the weather may make it impossible to film according to schedule, or a location may be available only for a certain amount of time, making it necessary to film all of the scenes at that place at the same time, regardless of their place within the story.  For this reason rushes are presented without final context and are typically not a good indicator of how the film might turn out.
------
United_Kingdom|989449539
6c6
<  '''British Monarchs'''
---
>  '''British [[Monarch|Monarchs]]'''
------
Italian_language|989449623
1c1
< Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like Latin (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. 
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. 
------
Musical_Genres/Hip|989451587
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
> 
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
> 
> 
> 
> The History of Hip Hop/Rap
> 
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
> 
> Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
> 
> These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
> There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
> 
> As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
> 
> 
> The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
> 
> While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
> 
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic". 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Musical_Genres/Rap|989451749
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See hip hop. Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, 
> new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially
> rapcore, also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to
> do with hip hop and rap music. 
------
Greek_alphabet|989452022
34c34
< The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o.
---
> The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet matres lectionis were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels. 
36c36
< Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  The consonants were to mainly to make up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician.  In west Greek, actually, chi was used for (k+s) and psi for (k+h) - hence the value of our letter x, derived from chi.  Over the middle ages these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for (th), (f), and (kh).
---
> Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  The consonants were to mainly to make up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician.  In west Greek, actually, chi was used for (k+s) and psi for (k+h) - hence the value of our letter x, derived from chi.  Over the middle ages these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for (th), (f), and (kh). The origin of those letters is disputed (internal, Semitic or Linear B). 
------
Public_Enemy|989452244
5c5
< *[[/Flava Flav]]
---
> *[[/Flavor Flav]]
------
Musical_Genres/Hip|989452353
1,27c1
< A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
< 
< Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
< 
< 
< 
< The History of Hip Hop/Rap
< 
< The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
< 
< Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
< 
< These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
< There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
< 
< As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
< 
< 
< The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
< 
< While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
< 
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic". 
< 
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Musical Genres/Hip Hop]]
------
Musical_Genres/Hip_Hop|989452376
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
> 
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
> 
> 
> 
> The History of Hip Hop/Rap
> 
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
> 
> Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
> 
> These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
> There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
> 
> As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
> 
> 
> The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
> 
> While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
> 
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic". 
------
Musical_Genres/Hip_Hop|989452584
23c23,25
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic". 
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Syllabary|989452616
1c1
< A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A single letter or symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound (optional) and a vowel sound.
---
> A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) syllables, which make up words. A single letter or symbol in a syllabary typically represents a consonant sound (optional) and a vowel sound. Japanese has two syllabaries, namely hiragana and katakana. They are mainly used to write grammatical words as well as foreign words, e.g. hotel is ho-te-ru in Japanese. The form of this word in Japanese also in a way explains why a syllabary is very useful for Japanese. English, on the other hand, does not have this kind of syllable structure. It would be rather cumbersome to write the English word <extra> in syllables. 
3c3
< One language that uses a syllabary is [[Tamil language | Tamil]].
---
> Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek (Linear A) or some Native American languages such as Cherokee. The Indian languages and Ethiopic have alphabets that look like syllabaries to western eyes, however, they are not syllabaries. They both use consonant signs as well as vowel signs. Most often, the vowel sign is added to the consonant sign which may give the impression of a syllaboc unit. 
5c5
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms + syllabary) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
---
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms + syllabary) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
------
Syllabary|989452663
5c5
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms + syllabary) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
---
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms {Chinese kanji} + syllabaries {hiragana and katakana}) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
------
Syllabary|989452725
3c3
< Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek (Linear A) or some Native American languages such as Cherokee. The Indian languages and Ethiopic have alphabets that look like syllabaries to western eyes, however, they are not syllabaries. They both use consonant signs as well as vowel signs. Most often, the vowel sign is added to the consonant sign which may give the impression of a syllaboc unit. 
---
> Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek (Linear A) or some Native American languages such as Cherokee. The Indian languages and Ethiopic have alphabets (called abugidas by some scholars) that look like syllabaries to western eyes, however, they are not syllabaries. They both use consonant signs as well as vowel signs. Most often, the vowel sign is added to the consonant sign which may give the impression of a syllaboc unit. 
------
Alphabet|989452955
3c3,7
< The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.----
---
> The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
> 
> The realtionship between phonemes and letters was pretty straightforward in the beginning, although e.g. Semitic did not represent all vowels, and Greek used <ei> for /e:/ and so on. However, due to change of pronunciation and influences from many different orthographic traditions, contemporary English spelling is sometimes rather logographic than alphabetic. 
> 
> ----
------
Music|989453039
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Hip hop]]
------
Music|989453080
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Hip hop]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Hip Hop]]
------
English_language|989453101
16a17,19
> 
> 
> the reason why chinese probably hasn't got many homophones is that chinese has many tones. 8 i think. so the word may have the same sounds, but the tones are different, so native speakers won't mix them up
------
Musical_Genres/Hip|989453135
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Musical Genres/Hip Hop]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip Hop]]
------
Hip_Hop|989453189
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
> 
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
> 
> 
> 
> The History of Hip Hop/Rap
> 
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
> 
> Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
> 
> These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
> There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
> 
> As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
> 
> 
> The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
> 
> While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
> 
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Musical_Genres/Hip_Hop|989453268
1,25c1
< A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
< 
< Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
< 
< 
< 
< The History of Hip Hop/Rap
< 
< The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
< 
< Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
< 
< These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
< There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
< 
< As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
< 
< 
< The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
< 
< While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
< 
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip Hop]]
------
Italian_language|989453276
1c1
< Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. 
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. Italian is an official language in Italy and Switzerland. Some people claim that Tuscan became the standard language because it's so close to Latin, but other languages spoken in Italy are even closer to Latin (e.g. sardo logudorese as well as some Southern idioms). It was also not the beauty of Dante's language but rather the economic power that Tuscany had at the time. 
------
Suzanne_Elsasser|989453480
1c1,7
< Just wanted to be the first to welcome you, Suzanne! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Just wanted to be the first to welcome you, Suzanne! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Well thanks, Larry!  Wikipedia is a fabulous project.
> Here's a list of the things I've worked on:
> [[BioChemistry]], [[evolution]] (specifically the paragraph about molecular mechanism), [[ploidy]], [[meiosis]]
> 
> 
------
Suzanne_Elsasser|989453812
4,5c4,8
< Here's a list of the things I've worked on:
< [[BioChemistry]], [[evolution]] (specifically the paragraph about molecular mechanism), [[ploidy]], [[meiosis]]
---
> <br>Here's a list of the things I've worked on:
> :[[BioChemistry]]
> :[[evolution]] (specifically the paragraph about molecular mechanism)
> :[[ploidy]]
> :[[meiosis]]
------
Hip_Hop/Talk|989453930
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a few questions:  is the (Toop 60) meant to be a reference to David Toop's _The rap attack: American jive to New York hip hop_ (London: Pluto, 1984), or to _Rap attack 2: African rap to global hip hop_ (London ; New York: Serpent's Tail, 1994)?  Also, the entry also has two places where it says "(see " followed by an end parenthesis, with no work cited.  The Toop books are supposed to be good reading; I'd be interested to see the other references too.
> 
> I'm curious to hear what you think of laymen's definitions of rap and hip hop, at least in college towns in the southeast U.S.:  the students have it now that "rap" is when it's done for money, and "hip hop" is when it's done for art.  Certainly a less scientific definition, and one that would arguably divide A Tribe Called Quest's discography into genres according to its release date.  They do keep the sense that "hip hop" refers to the culture too; I guess the "art/commerce" distinction comes from that meaning of hip hop.
> 
------
Music|989454319
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- CelticMusic -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Hip Hop]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[hip hop]]
------
Hip_hop|989454332
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/talk]]
------
Hip_hop/talk|989454357
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A few questions:  is the (Toop 60) meant to be a reference to David Toop's _The rap attack: American jive to New York hip hop_ (London: Pluto, 1984), or to _Rap attack 2: African rap to global hip hop_ (London ; New York: Serpent's Tail, 1994)?  Also, the entry also has two places where it says "(see " followed by an end parenthesis, with no work cited.  The Toop books are supposed to be good reading; I'd be interested to see the other references too.
> 
> I'm curious to hear what you think of laymen's definitions of rap and hip hop, at least in college towns in the southeast U.S.:  the students have it now that "rap" is when it's done for money, and "hip hop" is when it's done for art.  Certainly a less scientific definition, and one that would arguably divide A Tribe Called Quest's discography into genres according to its release date.  They do keep the sense that "hip hop" refers to the culture too; I guess the "art/commerce" distinction comes from that meaning of hip hop.
------
Hip_Hop/Talk|989454373
1,4c1
< a few questions:  is the (Toop 60) meant to be a reference to David Toop's _The rap attack: American jive to New York hip hop_ (London: Pluto, 1984), or to _Rap attack 2: African rap to global hip hop_ (London ; New York: Serpent's Tail, 1994)?  Also, the entry also has two places where it says "(see " followed by an end parenthesis, with no work cited.  The Toop books are supposed to be good reading; I'd be interested to see the other references too.
< 
< I'm curious to hear what you think of laymen's definitions of rap and hip hop, at least in college towns in the southeast U.S.:  the students have it now that "rap" is when it's done for money, and "hip hop" is when it's done for art.  Certainly a less scientific definition, and one that would arguably divide A Tribe Called Quest's discography into genres according to its release date.  They do keep the sense that "hip hop" refers to the culture too; I guess the "art/commerce" distinction comes from that meaning of hip hop.
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[hip hop/talk]]
------
Musical_Genres/Rap|989454453
1c1
< See hip hop. Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, 
---
> See [[hip hop]]. Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, 
4c4
< do with hip hop and rap music. 
---
> do with hip hop and rap music. 
------
Hip_Hop|989454494
1,25c1
< A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
< 
< Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
< 
< 
< 
< The History of Hip Hop/Rap
< 
< The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
< 
< Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
< 
< These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
< There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
< 
< As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
< 
< 
< The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
< 
< While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
< 
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[hip hop]]
------
Hip_hop|989454511
0a1,24
> A NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY
> 
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
> 
> 
> 
> The History of Hip Hop/Rap
> 
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
> 
> Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
> 
> These breaks were artifically prolonged, and mixing techniques as well as scratching developed along with the breaks. 
> There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
> 
> As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
> 
> 
> The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
> 
> While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
> 
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
> 
------
Hip_Hop|989454636
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[hip hop]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]
------
Hip_hop/talk|989454673
1,3c1
< A few questions:  is the (Toop 60) meant to be a reference to David Toop's _The rap attack: American jive to New York hip hop_ (London: Pluto, 1984), or to _Rap attack 2: African rap to global hip hop_ (London ; New York: Serpent's Tail, 1994)?  Also, the entry also has two places where it says "(see " followed by an end parenthesis, with no work cited.  The Toop books are supposed to be good reading; I'd be interested to see the other references too.
< 
< I'm curious to hear what you think of laymen's definitions of rap and hip hop, at least in college towns in the southeast U.S.:  the students have it now that "rap" is when it's done for money, and "hip hop" is when it's done for art.  Certainly a less scientific definition, and one that would arguably divide A Tribe Called Quest's discography into genres according to its release date.  They do keep the sense that "hip hop" refers to the culture too; I guess the "art/commerce" distinction comes from that meaning of hip hop.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip hop/talk]]
------
Hip_hop/talk|989454736
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Hip hop/talk]]
---
> A few questions: is the (Toop 60) meant to be a reference to David Toop's _The rap attack: American jive to New York hip hop_ (London: Pluto, 1984), or to _Rap attack 2: African rap to global hip hop_ (London ; New York: Serpent's Tail, 1994)? Also, the entry also has two places where it says "(see " followed by an end parenthesis, with no work cited. The Toop books are supposed to be good reading; I'd be interested to see the other references too.
> 
> I'm curious to hear what you think of laymen's definitions of rap and hip hop, at least in college towns in the southeast U.S.: the students have it now that "rap" is when it's done for money, and "hip hop" is when it's done for art. Certainly a less scientific definition, and one that would arguably divide A Tribe Called Quest's discography into genres according to its release date. They do keep the sense that "hip hop" refers to the culture too; I guess the "art/commerce" distinction comes from that meaning of hip hop.
------
Hip_Hop/Talk|989454774
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[hip hop/talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip hop/talk]]
------
Rap_music|989454899
1c1
< A form of [[Popular Music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with [[hip hop]].  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
---
> A form of [[Popular Music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with influences from radio DJs and playing the dozens.  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
24a25,27
> 
> 
> hip hop certainly isn't a sub-category of rap, because not all hip hop music contains rapping (e.g. Play at your own risk by Planet Patrol). 
------
Musical_Genres/Hip|989454946
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Hip Hop]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]
------
Musical_Genres|989454974
1c1
< Rap/Hip Hop
---
> [[Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
------
Rap_music|989455221
28a29,30
> Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially rapcore, also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
> 
------
Musical_Genres/Rap|989455237
1,4c1
< See [[hip hop]]. Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, 
< new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially
< rapcore, also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to
< do with hip hop and rap music. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Rap music]]
------
Musical_Genres|989455287
1c1
< [[Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
---
> [[Rap music]]/[[Hip hop]]
------
Music|989455342
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[hip hop]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
------
Gangsta_rap|989455621
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T
> created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member Dr Dre introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Ice_T|989456666
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ice T is one of the most important rappers. He started out with others west coast rap pioneers such as [[Kid Frost]] and [[Egyptian Lover]] with [[electro funk]] recordings. Later on, he changed his style and was the first rapper from the west that got accepted by the east coast. His early producers include the [[Unknown DJ]] and especially [[Afrika Islam]], the man behind the beats on 1987s Rhyme Pays, 1988s Power and 1989s The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just watch what you say. As the title of this third album suggests, Ice T was from the start not only a gangster rapper - he was one of the driving forces behind the new style - but also a political rapper. Seymour Stein called him "the Bob Dylan of rap", and this may be to the point. On "Freedom of Speech" Ice T attacked Tipper Gore for introducing the Parental Advisory sticker. In 1991, Ice's fourth album, OG, came out; including raps about child abuse and drunk driving as well as the theme song from the movie New Jack City by Mario van Peebles, the movie that re-launched Ice's career as an actor. Ice also got to be the lead singer/shouter of his metal band [[Body Count]]. This eventually lead Warner Brothers to drop Ice. Virgin Records released his next album Home Invasion (1993), an album with many political raps as well as featuring a new female rapper named [[Grip]] and Ice's DJ [[Evil E]] as a rapper. On VI - Return of the Real, Ice returned to his gangster rap roots. 7th Deadly Sin (1999), one of the first records to be distributed via mp3 before via record stores, continued in this vein. In both cases, the music was updated while not breaking any new ground. In the year 2000, Ice teamed up with East Coast pioneer [[Kool Keith]] from the [[Ultramagnetic MCs]] to form the [[Analog Brothers]] - a very successful (at least artistically) experiment. The same year also brought Ice-T's Greatest Hits: The Evidence. 
------
Kid_Frost|989456754
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Frost is one of the most popular (and probably the first) Chicano (i.e. Mexican American) rapper. He was first signed to an indie label and later on moved to VIRGIN RECORDS (that's where his biggest hit, "La Raza", came out – "Chicano, and I'm brown and proud"), in 1995 he was signed by Ruthless (Eazy E's label) (distributed by Relativity and later on by Relativity/Epic/Sony), in 1999 Frost was signed to a small independent label (so he probably didn't sell as many records as the major label ppl wanted him to.)
> Style-wise Frost moved from Electro Funk (a kind of electronic hip hop, as it says, in this and other cases with rapping on it) to a Latin-tinged kind of gangster rap that he's basically still into, although now often inspired by G-Funk (a more melodic kind of gangsta rap pioneered by Dr Dre).
> 
> KID FROST Discography 
> 
> Early 12"s
> Rough Cut (1984) (Electrobeat # 001)
> Terminator (1985) (Electrobeat # 005)
> Commando Rock (C-Jam and Kid Frost)
> 
> As KID FROST
> Hispanic Causing Panic (VIRGIN 1990)
> East Side Story (1992)
> 
> As FROST
> Smile now die later (Ruthless/Relativity 1995)
> When hell.a. freezes over (Ruthless/Relativity/Epic 1997) 
> This was then this is now Vol.I (Celeb-entertainment 1999)
> This was then this is now Vol.II (Celeb-entertainment 2000)
> 
> 
> 
------
Kid_Frost|989456796
6a7
> 
7a9
> 
8a11
> 
11a15
> 
12a17
> 
16a22
> 
17a24
> 
18a26
> 
------
Music|989456968
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]][[freestyle]]
------
Freestyle|989457112
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> People like Afrika Bambaataa, producers John Robie and Arthur Baker started to mix rap with funky yet electronical sounds. Before that, hip hop was basically rather traditional musically, based on funk and disco tracks like "Good Times" by Chic – it was only the power of the rapping – like all African American music of West African descent – that made most rap tracks different from their disco forebears. The music of early rap records was performed LIVE in the studio and then mixed with the rapping, whereas LIVE hip hop was two turntables and a microphone – with DJs such as Kool DJ Herc, Bambaataa and Grandmaster Flash. Herc was a Jamaican, and in the beginning he brought the Jamaican tradition of dee jaying (toasting) and mixing to the Bronx, NY. In the end, Jamaican and African American traditions merged into the new music called hip hop. 
> 
> 
> "Planet Rock"
> 
> Herc first tried to make people listen to the reggae tracks from Jamaica – but it didn't work. Then he started using funk and soul records, focussing on the instrumental breaks. Check out the "Ultimate breaks and Beats" series – 
> It includes tracks from "Mary Mary" to "Apache", cuts still used today by hip hop DJs and sampled many times. 
> Of course, this music was organic rather than electronic. But hip hop DJs discovered weird sounds from Europe such as Kraftwerk's "Numbers" and "Trans Europa Express". Back then, this music was called techno... 
> With Baker and Robie, Afrika Bambaataa mixed Kraftwerk with funkier sounds inspired by Captain Sky's Super Sperm and taking melodic elements from a rock version of Ennio Morricone's "The Mexican".  The result: "Planet Rock" (1982) by Afrika Bambaataa and the Soul Sonic Force, a track that changed hip hop music. 
> 
> 
> Electro Funk
> 
> 
> This new style of hip hop came to be called "Electro Funk". A group of young singers named Planet Patrol recorded a sung version of Planet Rock, "Play at your own risk", also produced by  Baker and Robie. Electro Funk ruled hip hop for the next few years, both in NY and LA (Egyptian Lover, Wreckin Cru), and in Miami, a new kind of hip hop called "Miami Bass" emerged. Also House music was heavily influenced by Electro Funk. John Robie and Baker realized what new potentials were inherent to the new genre and went on mixing the sound wth R&B Vocals: "I.O.U." by Freeze was an instant underground club hit. 
> 
> Latin Hip Hop
> 
> Many people list "Let the music play" (1983) by Shannon as the first freestyle track. The song was produced by Chris Barbosa, a Latino from NY. Barbosa changed and refined the electro funk sound, adding Latin American rhythms and a totally syncopated drum sound. That was definitely a reason why the style came to be very popular among Latin@s as well as Italian Americans. Hence, the names "Latin Hip Hop" or "Latin Freestyle". Now, the more neutral term "Freestyle" is generally preferred.  
> 
> 
> Freestyle – the name
> 
> Why freestyle is actually called freestyle is subject to speculation. It is a genre with rather clear features – catchy melodies, electronic beats, often with some Latin sabores. Maybe the term freestyle is due to the DJs spinning the wheels of steel, mixing. Others claim the singers were "freestyling" to the music. That would then be the same motivation as with "freestyle rap".
> 
> Miami Freestyle
> 
> Not only electro was very popular in Miami, also freestyle was embraced with the southern Latin capital of the US. Pretty Tony aka Tony Butler actually first made electro, then bass and finally freestyle. He had a one man group called Freestyle and was the producer of freestyle singer Trinere. 
> 
> 
> Freestyle crossovers into mainstream
> 
> Although the producers were often Latinos, most singers were African American. Lisa Lisa was the first Latina singer, her band, Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, was produced by Full Force who also made UTFO's music and even once worked together with James Brown. The music of Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam was less electro, more pop, and that was also probably the reason why groups such as Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, TKA, Sweet Sensation and especially the Cover Girls were able to crossover into the pop market at the end of the 1980s. But soon thereafter, freestyle was no longer pop music: MC Hammer, New Kids on the Block and Milli Vanilli also had catchy tunes, certainly much more cheaper (and obvious) than the (also) often kitschy, but never tasteless sound of freestyle 
> 
> 
> Back to the underground 
> 
> At the end of the 90s, freestyle was underground again. Aficionad@s still bought freestyle records, and people like Lil Suzy, George Lamond, Johnny O and Angelique came to be stars – even if only recognized by the fans of this music. But who knows, after the electro revival with Westbam and Music Instructor, the future may bring a commercial freestyle revival.
> 
> 
> Gender
> 
> As in other types of dance music, freestyle artists are often women who are singing tunes written by and produced by men. Of course there are exceptions: Stevie B produces his own records, George Lamond and Johnny O are also male singers. Of course, this kind of division of labour can also be found in other genres. And its roots are much older – in Shakespeare's days,  women had no voice, and in a way, this is still the case today. 
> Of course, it would be necessary to investigate whether women actually have no part in the writing and production of – for example – freestyle, but it often looks like that. 
> 
------
Freestyle|989457431
24c24,25
< Why freestyle is actually called freestyle is subject to speculation. It is a genre with rather clear features – catchy melodies, electronic beats, often with some Latin sabores. Maybe the term freestyle is due to the DJs spinning the wheels of steel, mixing. Others claim the singers were "freestyling" to the music. That would then be the same motivation as with "freestyle rap".
---
> Why freestyle is actually called freestyle is subject to speculation. It is a genre with rather clear features: Dance tempo, Stress on beat 2 & 4, Syncopation on a bassline or on a lead synth or on percussions, 16th beat high hat,
> Optional orchestra hits, Chord progressions lasting 8, 16, or 32 beats, Minor key usually, Complex melody with acutal singing, Acutal lyrics and verses and a chorus, Theme is about love or dancing. Maybe the term freestyle is due to the DJs spinning the wheels of steel, mixing. Others claim the singers were "freestyling" to the music. That would then be the same motivation as with "freestyle rap".
------
Music|989457467
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]][[freestyle]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle]]
------
Rap_music|989457992
1c1
< A form of [[Popular Music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with influences from radio DJs and playing the dozens.  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  This in turn led to [[Gangsta rap]].
---
> A form of [[Popular Music]] emphasizing rhyming voices over musical instruments, as well as sampling, scratching and mixing by DJs.  The first rap records did not contain any sampling, probably due to the fact that at the time (1979-1985) the equipment was not available. Rapping began as a variation on the toasting found in [[reggae]] and [[dub music]], mixed with influences from radio DJs and playing the dozens.  Also of influence were the works of [[The Last Poets]] and [[Gil Scott Heron]].  The original rappers, or MCs (from "Master of Ceremonies") would improvise rhymes over the beats created by the DJs.  Early raps were frequently merely a sequence of boasts, or attempts to upstage the other MCs.  In the eighties, however, rap became increasingly politicised, through the works of [[Public Enemy]] and others, and tended to chronicle the black urban experience.  [[Gangsta rap]] may be seen in this context of subversion. 
11a12
> :[[/Miami bass /Booty bass/ Bass]]
14c15
< :[[Beastie Boys]]
---
> :[[Beastie Boys]] 
19a21
> :[[Kid Frost]]
23c25
< :[[Sugarhill Gang]]
---
> :[[Sugarhill Gang]] 
27d28
< hip hop certainly isn't a sub-category of rap, because not all hip hop music contains rapping (e.g. Play at your own risk by Planet Patrol). 
29c30
< Rapping basically is a part of hip hop. However, in the course of its history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially rapcore, also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
---
> However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
------
Rapcore|989458130
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also called rap/rock or rap/metal. Fusion of rap and rock, most often rapping and music that is closer to rock than rap, most often metal. The roots of rapcore can be found in records by the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]]. 
------
Rapcore|989458213
1c1
< Also called rap/rock or rap/metal. Fusion of rap and rock, most often rapping and music that is closer to rock than rap, most often metal. The roots of rapcore can be found in records by the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]]. 
---
> Also called rap/rock or rap/metal. Fusion of rap and rock, most often rapping and music that is closer to rock than rap, most often metal. The roots of rapcore can be found in records by the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]]. Typical of rapcore are political bands like [[Rage against the machine]] and [[Aztlan Underground]] on the one hand and fun/aggression-oriented artists like [[Limp Bizkit]] or [[Kid Rock]]. 
------
Aztlan_Underground|989458275
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Very political Chicano rapcore outfit who started as a regular hip hop crew. 
------
Rap_music|989458336
11,12c11
< :[[/Hip hop]]
< :[[/Miami bass /Booty bass/ Bass]]
---
> :[[/Bass]]
------
Rap_music/Bass|989458773
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hip hop related musical style that continues rapping and sometimes choruses. Musically, its roots can be found in 
> [[electro funk]]. The music came into existence as part of Miami's stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [[The 2 Live Crew]] got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably Tag Team's 
> Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In Detroit, a new form of Bass called Ghetto Tech developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [[Jonny Z]] provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [[DJ Laz]] is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include [[Luke]], [[DJ Magic Mike]], [[MC Shy D]] and [[MC ADE]]. 
------
Hip_hop|989459251
11c11
< Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop 60)
---
> Initially, Herc was trying out his reggae records but since they failed to cut ice he switched to a Latin-tinged funk, just playing the fragments that were popular with the dancers and ignoring the rest of the track. The most popular part was usually the percussion break. (Toop, Rap Attack 2, p. 60)
21c21
< While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first electro funk track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as "freestyle", "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop" (see   ), as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as "Bass" or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
---
> While Run DMC laid groundwork for hardcore rap, "Planet Rock" was the first [[electro funk]] track. This highly influential piece of music lead to a wave of electronic pop, known as [[freestyle]], "Latin freestyle" or "Latin hip hop", as well as countless electro funk records in NY, LA (Egyptian Lover) and Miami (Pretty Tony). In Miami, a new bass-heavy style developed, it was called "Miami Bass" in the beginning and is now known as [[Bass]] or "Booty Bass". It was designed to demonstrate the strength of the stereo systems of cars and is basically dance music. Some Latin artists also embraced this new style. 
23c23
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style (see ). In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style. In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
------
Hip_hop/Rap|989459272
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[hip hop]] and [[rap]]. 
------
Rap|989459291
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [rap music]].
------
Rap|989459302
1c1
< See [rap music]].
---
> See [[rap music]].
------
NWA|989459566
1c1
< [[Rap music]] group that originated [[Gangsta rap]] with the groundbreaking [[Straight Outta Compton]] album.
---
> [[Rap music]] group that popularized [[Gangsta rap]] with the groundbreaking [[Straight Outta Compton]] (1988) album.
6,9c6,10
< :[[Dr. Dre]] (Andre Young)
< :[[Easy E]]   (Eric Wright)
< :[[Ice Cube]]  (O'Shea Jackson)
< :[[MC Ren]]   (Lorenzo Patterson)
---
> :[[Dr. Dre]] (Andre Young) d.j. - producer - rapper
> :[[Eazy E]]   (Eric Wright) rapper
> :[[Ice Cube]]  (O'Shea Jackson) rapper
> :[[MC Ren]]   (Lorenzo Patterson) rapper
> :[[Yella]] d.j. 
11c12,18
< After the band split Dre had a highly successful career as both a rapper and record producer, for the likes of [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] and [[Eminem]].  Ice Cube was successful as both a rapper and film actor.  Easy E died in 1995 from an AIDS related illness.
---
> as well as
> 
> :[[Arabian Prince]] d.j. - rapper
> 
> who is recognized as a pioneer of west coast electro funk (see also [[Egyptian Lover]]). He left NWA after "Straight Outta Compton" and went on to produce his highly innovative album "Brother Rab". Its style was defined by a German critic as a synthesis between [[Curtis Mayfield]] and [[Kraftwerk]]. 
> 
> After the band split Dre had a highly successful career as both a rapper and record producer, for the likes of [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] and [[Eminem]].  Ice Cube was successful as both a rapper and film actor.  Eazy E died in 1995 from an AIDS related illness.
------
Egyptian_Lover|989459651
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the west coast's hip hop pioneer. He was very successful at creating his own brand of often ironic yet very 
> bombastic [[electro funk]]. 
------
Particle_physics|989468317
1,2c1
< Particle physics, or high energy physics, studies the elementary
< constituents of matter, and the particles that carry interactions.
---
> Particle physics, or quantum physics, studies the elementary constituents of matter and the interactions between them.  In modern theories particles and field quanta are interchangeable - for instance electrons are just the quanta of an electron field, and the electromagnetic field is carried by particles called photons.  The name ''particle'' is somewhat of a misnomer, then, as they are really [[Non-linear wave mechanics|non-linear waves]] that only look particle-like in certain situations.
5a5,6
> Bosons:
> 
9a11
> * Various high mass bosons are predicted by unification models, notably the [[Higgs boson]]s and [[X boson]]s.
12c14
< elementary, protons and neutron are made of combinations of three quarks, held together by an exchange of gluons. Protons and neutrons are not merely ensembles of quarks since the exchange of gluons gives the surrounding space a sufficient energy density to change the quality of the vacuum.
---
> elementary, protons and neutron are made of combinations of three quarks, held together by an exchange of gluons. Protons and neutrons are not merely ensembles of quarks since the exchange of gluons gives the surrounding space a sufficient energy density to change the quality of the vacuum.
------
Quantum|989468537
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> When a quantity can only take on integer multiples of some base value, those units are called quanta (sg. quantum), from the [[Latin language|Latin]] for quantity.  An important discovery of modern physics is that most if not all fields are quantized, hence the field of [[quantum physics]].
------
Quantum_physics|989468579
1c1
< Until someone creates a page on this, we will refer you to [[Quantum Mechanics]].
---
> See [[Particle physics]], [[Quantum mechanics]]
------
Quantum_physics|989468594
1c1
< See [[Particle physics]], [[Quantum mechanics]]
---
> See [[Particle physics]], [[Quantum Mechanics]]
------
Particle_physics|989468684
14a15,16
> 
> ''This page needs to be merged with [[Quantum Mechanics]] somehow.  I'll try and see if I can come up with something, if noone beats me to it.''
------
Particle_physics|989468709
1c1
< Particle physics, or quantum physics, studies the elementary constituents of matter and the interactions between them.  In modern theories particles and field quanta are interchangeable - for instance electrons are just the quanta of an electron field, and the electromagnetic field is carried by particles called photons.  The name ''particle'' is somewhat of a misnomer, then, as they are really [[Non-linear wave mechanics|non-linear waves]] that only look particle-like in certain situations.
---
> Particle physics, or quantum physics, studies the elementary constituents of matter and the interactions between them.  In modern theories particles and field [[quantum|quanta]] are interchangeable - for instance electrons are just the quanta of an electron field, and the electromagnetic field is carried by particles called photons.  The name ''particle'' is somewhat of a misnomer, then, as they are really [[Non-linear wave mechanics|non-linear waves]] that only look particle-like in certain situations.
16c16
< ''This page needs to be merged with [[Quantum Mechanics]] somehow.  I'll try and see if I can come up with something, if noone beats me to it.''
---
> ''This page needs to be merged with [[Quantum Mechanics]] somehow.  I'll try and see if I can come up with something, if noone beats me to it.''
------
Aves|989479131
20c20
<  Order [[Psittaciformes] (parrots, cockatoos and lories)
---
>  Order [[Psittaciformes]] (parrots, cockatoos and lories)
------
Lake_Roxen|989479702
2a3,4
> Roxen, especially the eastern parts, is very good for bird watching. There are nature preserves at Svartåmynningen (http://www.e.lst.se/miljo/skydd/naturreservat/sidor/064_sida1.html) and Kungsbro (http://www.e.lst.se/miljo/skydd/naturreservat/sidor/028_sida1.html).
> 
------
Roxen_webserver|989479838
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roxen is a free (GPL:ed) web server produced by the [[Linköping]]-based company [[Roxen Internet Software]] (http://www.roxen.com/).
------
Roxen_webserver|989479978
1c1
< Roxen is a free (GPL:ed) web server produced by the [[Linköping]]-based company [[Roxen Internet Software]] (http://www.roxen.com/).
---
> Roxen is a free (GPL:ed) web server produced by [[Roxen Internet Software]] (http://www.roxen.com/), a company based in [[Linkoeping|Linköping]].
------
Lysator|989480235
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lysator is the Academic Computer Club at the [[Linkoping University|University of Linköping]]. 
> 
> See also Lysator's own web site (http://www.lysator.liu.se/) and Lysator's web site about its own history (http://www.lysator.liu.se/history/).
------
Science_fiction|989481061
14c14
< A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed World War II. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the [[Soviet Union]] and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the [[United States]] particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
---
> A great boom in the popularity of science fiction followed [[World War II]]. The increasing intellectual sophistication of the genre and the emphasis on wider societal and psychological issues significantly broadened the appeal of science fiction to the reading public. Science fiction became international, extending into the [[Soviet Union]] and other eastern European nations. Serious criticism of the genre became common, and, in the [[United States]] particularly, science fiction was studied as literature in colleges and universities. Magazines arose that were dedicated to informing the science fiction fan on all aspects of the genre. Some science fiction works became paperback best-sellers.
19a20
> * [[Science Fiction Fandom]]
------
Lysator|989481431
3c3,7
< See also Lysator's own web site (http://www.lysator.liu.se/) and Lysator's web site about its own history (http://www.lysator.liu.se/history/).
---
> See also Lysator's own web site (http://www.lysator.liu.se/) and Lysator's web site about its own history (http://www.lysator.liu.se/history/).
> 
> Lysator hosts a number of projects
> * [[Project Runeberg]]
> * [[LysKOM]]
------
Suleiman_the_Magnificent|989482996
5c5
< When Süleyman died in 1566, major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to today’s Austria and most of North Africa was under the control of the empire. 
---
> When Süleyman died in 1566, major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to today’s Austria and most of North Africa were under the control of the empire. 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|989483059
147a148,151
> ----
> '''Q. Is it/will it be possible to download the contents of Wikipedia to transform (parts of) it to other formats? It is, after all, free content.'''
> 
> A.
------
Pinkunicorn|989483116
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hans Persson, science fiction and computer geek living in [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> See http://www.lysator.liu.se/~unicorn/.
------
Science_Fiction_Fandom|989483473
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Science fiction fandom is, more or less, the people consciously interested in [[Science Fiction]]. Fandom usually has a life of its own, but not much in the way of formal organization.
> 
> One of the things that science fiction fandom does is organize [[Science Fiction Conventions]]. One of the largest of these is the [[Worldcon]].
> 
> See http://www.fanac.org/.
> 
> International fandom
> * [[Sverifandom]] ([[Sweden]])
> 
------
Monarch|989485414
1c1,2
< A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  
---
> A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  A state ruled by
> a monarch is called a [[monarchy]].
------
Lysator|989485514
7a8,9
> 
> See also other [[Nordic University Computer Clubs]]
------
Nordic_University_Computer_Clubs|989485698
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many universities in the [[Nordic countries]] (or [[Scandinavia]]) have student computer clubs, which are similar to amateur radio clubs in that they often have a club house or club room filled with equipment that belongs to the club.  Starting in 1987, members of these clubs meet at an annual
> Nordic University Computer Clubs Conference ([[NUCCC]]).
> 
> These clubs include:
> [[Chalmers Dataförening]],
> [[Ctrl-C]],
> [[Lysator]],
> [[Medio]],
> [[Solace]],
> [[Stacken]]
> 
------
Nordic_countries|989485744
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian peninsula]].
> 
------
Nordic_countries|989485782
1c1
< See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian peninsula]].
---
> See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]].
------
Nordic_countries|989485851
0a1,3
> For a definition and facts about the Nordic countries, see
> the Nordic FAQ, http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/
> 
------
Nordic_countries|989485912
0a1,9
> The Nordic countries include:
> [[Aland|Åland]],
> [[Denmark]],
> [[Faroe Islands]],
> [[Finland]],
> [[Iceland]],
> [[Norway]],
> [[Sweden]]
> 
------
Aland|989486073
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Small group of islands between [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]].  Formally, Åland belongs to Finland, but the entire population speaks Swedish and the islands enjoy a high degree of self rule
> and independence.
> 
> 
------
Aland|989486186
1,2c1,4
< Small group of islands between [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]].  Formally, Åland belongs to Finland, but the entire population speaks Swedish and the islands enjoy a high degree of self rule
< and independence.
---
> Åland is a small group of islands between [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]].  Formally, Åland belongs to Finland, but the entire population speaks Swedish and the islands enjoy a high degree of self rule
> and independence.  Åland has its own flag and is mentioned as a member of the [[Nordic countries]], though not formally a country in its own right.
> 
> 
------
Organic_chemistry|989486322
3c3
< For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by Friedrich Woehler in 1828.
---
> For some time it was believed that organic compounds could only be produced by living organisms (hence the name) until the synthesis of [[Urea|urea]] by [[Friedrich Woehler]] in 1828.
------
Friedrich_Woehler|989486406
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pioneer in [[organic chemistry]] by synthesizing [[urea]] in 1828.
> 
> See also [[chemists]], [[19th century]].
> 
------
Urea|989486490
7c7
< Urea was discovered by H.M. Rouell in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by Friedrich Wohler, who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
---
> Urea was discovered by H.M. Rouell in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by [[Friedrich Wohler]], who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
------
Urea|989486530
7c7
< Urea was discovered by H.M. Rouell in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by [[Friedrich Wohler]], who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
---
> Urea was discovered by [[H.M. Rouell]] in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by [[Friedrich Wohler]], who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
------
H.M._Rouell|989486561
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Chemist]] in the [[18th century]].  Discovered [[urea]] in 1773.
> 
> 
------
Chemist|989486676
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[scientist]] who specializes in [[chemistry]].
> 
> Famous chemists of the [[18th century]]:
> 
> [[H.M. Rouell]]
> 
> Famous chemists of the [[19th century]]:
> 
> [[J.J. Berzelius]],
> [[Friedrich Woehler]]
> 
> Famous chemists of the [[20th century]]:
> 
> [[Marie Curie]]
> 
> See also the [[Nobel prize]], [[Biography]].
> 
------
Chemist|989486718
16c16
< See also the [[Nobel prize]], [[Biography]].
---
> See also the [[NobelPrize/Chemistry]], [[Biography]].
------
Biography|989487032
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *The [[scholarly discipline]] of documenting the life of
> individual persons.
> *Each single description of an individual person's life,
> including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
> *A [[Wikipedia]] entry documenting the life of an individual person.  People who contributed work to Wikipedia also often describe themselves (see the list of Recent Changes).
> 
> In [[Wikipedia]], biographies are found from the following higher level articles, who also constitute subdisciplines of biography:
> 
> [[chemist]]s, [[scientist]]s, [[explorers]], [[inventor]]s
> 
------
Biography|989487073
1,4c1,2
< *The [[scholarly discipline]] of documenting the life of
< individual persons.
< *Each single description of an individual person's life,
< including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
---
> *The [[scholarly discipline]] of documenting the life of individual persons.
> *Each single description of an individual person's life, including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
------
Scientist|989487111
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person devoted to and producing results in [[science]].
> 
> See also [[NobelPrize]] and [[Biography]].
> 
> 
------
Scientist|989487154
2a3,4
> Scientists include [[chemist]]s, [[physicist]]s.
> 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|989487249
151c151
< A.
---
> A. Yes, it will, but it isn't yet.
------
Jimbo_Wales|989487316
14c14
< :-)  This is a good thing.
---
> ::-)  This is a good thing.
------
Jimbo_Wales|989487341
14c14
< ::-)  This is a good thing.
---
> : :-)  This is a good thing.
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|989488344
2a3,6
> '''May 10, 2001'''
> 
> Wikipedia continues to move full steam ahead.  Today is the five month anniversary of Wikipedia's founding (an early version appeared as part of nupedia.com on January 10, 2001).  So, how many articles do we have?  We have 5,964 pages on the website, total; 4,264 articles of 150 characters or more (two or three sentences); 3,969 "comma" articles; and 1,002 articles of 2,000 characters or more (about three ordinary-sized paragraphs.  At this rate, in a year, we can expect to see 10,000 "comma" articles.
> 
------
Biography|989489375
1,3c1,2
< *The [[scholarly discipline]] of documenting the life of individual persons.
< *Each single description of an individual person's life, including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
< *A [[Wikipedia]] entry documenting the life of an individual person.  People who contributed work to Wikipedia also often describe themselves (see the list of Recent Changes).
---
> *A description of an individual person's life, including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
> *The [[scholarly discipline]] of creating such descriptions.
5c4
< In [[Wikipedia]], biographies are found from the following higher level articles, who also constitute subdisciplines of biography:
---
> In [[Wikipedia]], biographies are found from the following higher level articles, which also constitute subdisciplines of biography:
8a8,10
> People who contributed work to Wikipedia also often describe themselves (see the list of RecentChanges).
> 
> /Talk
------
Biography|989489425
1,2c1
< *A description of an individual person's life, including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.
< *The [[scholarly discipline]] of creating such descriptions.
---
> A ''biography'' is a description of an individual person's life, including short articles, multivolume book works, radio documentaries, and films.  The term also describes the [[scholarly discipline]] of creating such descriptions.
------
Biography/Talk|989489804
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Is Biography really the name of an academic, scholarly discipline?  Academics do, of course, write biographies, but is the writing of biographies properly considered a ''discipline'' itself?  For example, philosophers write biographies of philosophers; historians write biographies of political figures; ordinary writers and scholars of pop culture write biographies of pop figures; art historians write biographies of artists; etc.
> 
> If biography really is properly considered a discipline unto itself, then, it follows, you could explain on [[biography]] exactly why it deserves to be so considered.  Does it have its own journals (like?)?  Its own scholarly standards (such as?)?  Its experts (who?)? --[[LMS]]
------
History|989489999
47c47,50
< 
---
> ----
> History according to time periods:
> * [[centuries]]
> * [[decades]]
------
Nordic_countries|989490112
11,13c11
< the Nordic FAQ, http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/
< 
< See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]].
---
> the Nordic FAQ, http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/ .  Then do an even better job on Wikipedia!
14a13
> See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]].
------
Hip_hop|989490448
7c7
< The History of Hip Hop/Rap
---
> The History of <nowiki>Hip Hop/Rap</nowiki>
------
Rap_music|989490549
29c29
< However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or hip hop - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
---
> However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or [[hip hop]] - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
------
Hip_hop|989490572
9c9
< The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
---
> The roots of [[rap music]] are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
------
Hip_hop|989490614
3c3
< Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "rap music" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it. Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. breakdancing and graffiti. 
---
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "[[rap music]]" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it.  Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music.  "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. [[breakdancing]] and [[graffiti]]. 
9c9
< The roots of [[rap music]] are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
---
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
------
Sverifandom|989490836
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Science Fiction Fandom]] has been around in [[Sweden]] since the mid-1950s. There are a number of clubs, including [[Skandinavisk Forening for Science Fictin|Skandinavisk Förening för Science Fiction]], [[Linkopings Science Fiction-Forening|Linköpings Science Fiction-Förening]] and [[Sigma TC]].
> 
> For more information, see
> * Science fiction fandom in [[Scandinavia]], http://www.lysator.liu.se/~unicorn/fandom/
> * [[The Alvar Appletofft Memorial Fund]], http://www.alvarfonden.org/
> * [[The Science Fiction Bookstore]], http://www.sfbok.se/
------
Urea|989491318
7c7
< Urea was discovered by [[H.M. Rouell]] in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by [[Friedrich Wohler]], who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
---
> Urea was discovered by [[H.M. Rouell]] in 1773. It was the first organic compound to be artificially synthesised in 1828 by [[Friedrich Woehler]], who prepared it by the reaction of potassium cyanate with ammonium sulphate, thereby starting the 
------
Nazi_Germany|989491634
1c1
< [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]].
---
> [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''das tausendjaerige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''das dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
26c26,28
<  [[Niels Bohr]]
---
>  [[Niels Bohr]]
> 
> *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]
------
Nazi_Germany|989491653
1c1
< [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''das tausendjaerige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''das dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
---
> [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''das tausendjaehrige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''das dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
28c28
< *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]
---
> *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]
------
Nazi_Germany|989491669
28c28
< *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]
---
> *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]<b>
------
Nazi_Germany|989491695
28c28
< *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]<b>
---
> *<b>[[/Organisations|Organisations in The Third Reich]]</b>
------
Reich|989491805
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Reich''' - the German word for "empire". Often used by right-wing extremists in [[Germany]] to describe their country.
------
Shire|989491809
1c1
< [[Great Britain]] is divided into shires, which are regions about the sort of [[county|counties]].
---
> [[Great Britain]] is divided into shires, which are regions similar to [[county|counties]].
------
Film_Theory|989492153
10a11,12
> 
> ''This area is making wonderful progress, but this page needs to be cleaned up!''
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989492444
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The leaders of [[Nazi Germany]] created a large number of different organisations for the purpose of helping them in staying in power.
> 
> *<b>Military</b>
> **[[Wehrmacht]] -- regular army
> **[[Luftwaffe]] -- Airforce
> **[[Kriegsmarine]] -- Navy
> 
> *<b>Paramilitary organisations</b>
> **[[SA]] -- [[Sturmabteilung]]
> **[[SS]] -- [[Sicheheitsstaffel]]
> ***[[Waffen SS]]
> **[[SD]] -- [[Sicherheitsdienst]]
> 
> *<b>State police</b>
> **[[Gestapo]] -- Secret police (''Geheime Staatspolizei'')
> 
> *<b>Political organsations</b>
> *[[NSDAP]] -- [[National socialism|National Socialist]] German Workers Party (''Nazional Sozialistische Deutsche Abeiterpartei'')
> *Youth organisations
> ** [[Hitler Jugend]] -- Hitler's youth (for boys and young men)
> ** [[BDM]] -- ''Bund Deutscher Maedel'' (for girls and young women)
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989492472
18,21c18,21
< *[[NSDAP]] -- [[National socialism|National Socialist]] German Workers Party (''Nazional Sozialistische Deutsche Abeiterpartei'')
< *Youth organisations
< ** [[Hitler Jugend]] -- Hitler's youth (for boys and young men)
< ** [[BDM]] -- ''Bund Deutscher Maedel'' (for girls and young women)
---
> **[[NSDAP]] -- [[National socialism|National Socialist]] German Workers Party (''Nazional Sozialistische Deutsche Abeiterpartei'')
> **Youth organisations
> *** [[Hitler Jugend]] -- Hitler's youth (for boys and young men)
> *** [[BDM]] -- ''Bund Deutscher Maedel'' (for girls and young women)
------
Alphabet|989492945
1c1
< A set of language symbols that represent (or approximate) phonemes, which make up words.  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and [[ideogram]]s.
---
> An alphabet is an ordered list of [[letter]]s--the most basic written symbols used in writing--used in a particular [[language]].  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and [[ideogram]]s.
5c5
< The realtionship between phonemes and letters was pretty straightforward in the beginning, although e.g. Semitic did not represent all vowels, and Greek used <ei> for /e:/ and so on. However, due to change of pronunciation and influences from many different orthographic traditions, contemporary English spelling is sometimes rather logographic than alphabetic. 
---
> The relationship between phonemes and letters was pretty straightforward in the beginning.  Originally, the letters in an alphabet approximated the [[phoneme]]s of some language for which the alphabet was written, but in virtually all extant languages, there is no simple mapping between the letters of any alphabet and unique phonemes.  But Semitic did not represent all vowels, and Greek used <ei> for /e:/ and so on.  However, due to change of pronunciation and influences from many different orthographic traditions, spelling in contemporary languages is sometimes rather logographic than alphabetic. 
7,12c7
< ----
< I would find it hard to support the statement that the letters of the alphabet represent (or approximate) [[phoneme]]s. In English, due to its historical development, this is hardly the case. There are, supposedly, at least seven phonemes represented by "gh." In Italian, this statement has more validity.
< 
< The language ends up being very far from phonetic, but it's evidently organized on such principles.  The letters generally have one or two primary sounds associated with them, so that when we see a new word we can usually guess about how it sounds, or transcribe foreign words into English.  There are exceptions a lot of the time, but they are still the exceptions rather than the rule, I'd say.  Maybe the best way to sum it up is: English is written with the Roman alphabet. ;)
< 
< PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /gh/ as in doghouse, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley.  Also it can show up as part of /ng/ or /ngh/ or as //, as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
---
> /Talk
------
Alphabet/Talk|989492958
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I would find it hard to support the statement that the letters of the alphabet represent (or approximate) [[phoneme]]s. In English, due to its historical development, this is hardly the case. There are, supposedly, at least seven phonemes represented by "gh." In Italian, this statement has more validity.
> 
> The language ends up being very far from phonetic, but it's evidently organized on such principles.  The letters generally have one or two primary sounds associated with them, so that when we see a new word we can usually guess about how it sounds, or transcribe foreign words into English.  There are exceptions a lot of the time, but they are still the exceptions rather than the rule, I'd say.  Maybe the best way to sum it up is: English is written with the Roman alphabet. ;)
> 
> PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /gh/ as in doghouse, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley.  Also it can show up as part of /ng/ or /ngh/ or as //, as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
------
Shire|989493094
2a3,8
> The exact boundaries of shires has varied considerably over the centuries. When the boundaries of the shires were defined, they often included large areas owned by the local Abbey, resulting in a number of counties having small disconnected outliers entirely surrounded by some other county. After boundary changes in the 1930s, many of these anomalies were resolved and a number of villages were moved to the local government of a more logical county. Any rwmaining anomalies were removed by the local government reorganisation in 1974.
> 
> In the 1974 reorganisation, several new metropolitan counties were created to administer the larger urban areas - an example is the West Midlands County, covering Birmingham, Coventry, Wolverhampton, etc.,taking land from what had been in Worcestershire, Warwickshire and Staffordshire); Tyne and Wear in the North, and Avon, for the Bristol area. 
> 
> AT this time, the smallest county in England, [[Rutland]], ceased to exist, and the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire were merged into the new county of Hereford and Worcester. There was some dissatisfaction among the people of these counties about these changes, and a later reorganisation in 1999 restored Rutland and separated Hereford and Worcester back into its previous counties.
> 
3a10,20
> *[[Cambridgeshire]]
> *[[Gloucestershire]]
> *[[Hampshire]]
> *[[Herefordshire]]
> *[[Hertfordshire]]
> *[[Northamptonshire]]
> *[[Oxfordshire]]
> *[[Shropshire]]
> *[[Staffordshire]]
> *[[Warwickshire]]
> *[[Worcestershire]]
8a26,30
> 
> 
> ----
> <i>We don't draw a lot of distinction in the UK between shires and counties, as administrative areas, except the shires are a rather older type of adminitrative area. 
> There's a lot of detail missing here as yet . UK Local boundary reforms have a long and tangled history.</i>
------
Shire|989493185
7c7
< AT this time, the smallest county in England, [[Rutland]], ceased to exist, and the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire were merged into the new county of Hereford and Worcester. There was some dissatisfaction among the people of these counties about these changes, and a later reorganisation in 1999 restored Rutland and separated Hereford and Worcester back into its previous counties.
---
> At this time, the smallest county in England, [[Rutland]], ceased to exist, and the counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire were merged into the new county of Hereford and Worcester. There was some dissatisfaction among the people of these counties about these changes, and a later reorganisation in 1999 restored Rutland and separated Hereford and Worcester back into its previous counties.
14a15,16
> *[[Lancashire]]
> *[[Leicestershire]]
20a23
> *[[Yorkshire]]
------
Shire|989493234
3c3
< The exact boundaries of shires has varied considerably over the centuries. When the boundaries of the shires were defined, they often included large areas owned by the local Abbey, resulting in a number of counties having small disconnected outliers entirely surrounded by some other county. After boundary changes in the 1930s, many of these anomalies were resolved and a number of villages were moved to the local government of a more logical county. Any rwmaining anomalies were removed by the local government reorganisation in 1974.
---
> The exact boundaries of shires has varied considerably over the centuries. When the boundaries of the shires were defined, they often included large areas owned by the local Abbey, resulting in a number of counties having small disconnected outliers entirely surrounded by some other county. After boundary changes in the 1930s, many of these anomalies were resolved and a number of villages were moved to the local government of a more logical county. Any remaining anomalies were removed by the local government reorganisation in 1974.
------
Lysator|989494027
9c9,11
< See also other [[Nordic University Computer Clubs]]
---
> See also other [[Nordic University Computer Clubs]]
> 
> <img src="http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif">
------
Lysator|989494040
11c11
< <img src="http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif">
---
> http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif
------
Lysator|989494083
0a1,2
> http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif
> 
10,11d11
< 
< http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif
------
Linkoping_University|989494141
0a1,2
> http://www.liu.se/images/liulog.gif
> 
------
Linkoeping|989494198
0a1,2
> http://www.linkoping.se/bilder/menyknappar/toppen.gif
> 
------
Lysator|989494237
1c1
< http://www.lysator.liu.se/icons/lyslogo.gif
---
> http://www.lysator.liu.se/pictures/lyshead.gif
------
Nordic_countries|989494305
0a1,2
> http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/ill/nordflg3.gif
> 
13c15
< See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]].
---
> See also [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]].
------
Biography/Talk|989494558
3c3,13
< If biography really is properly considered a discipline unto itself, then, it follows, you could explain on [[biography]] exactly why it deserves to be so considered.  Does it have its own journals (like?)?  Its own scholarly standards (such as?)?  Its experts (who?)? --[[LMS]]
---
> If biography really is properly considered a discipline unto itself, then, it follows, you could explain on [[biography]] exactly why it deserves to be so considered.  Does it have its own journals (like?)?  Its own scholarly standards (such as?)?  Its experts (who?)? --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> 
> I don't know if it is a "discipline" or a "subdiscipline" of history or a "literary genre", but the work being invested into writing biographies is different from other work that the same
> people do.  What does it take to be qualified as a "discipline"?
> Is there a wikipedia entry that explains what a discipline is?
> 
> Links to biography should be found from [[History]] and
> [[Literature]].
> 
------
James_Cook|989494715
1c1
< James Cook (1728-1779) was a British explorer and navigator.  He was famous for his exploration of the South [[Pacific Ocean]] and the coastal waters of North America. Cook discovered [[Hawaii]].
---
> James Cook (1728-1779) was a British [[explorers|explorer]] and navigator.  He was famous for his exploration of the South [[Pacific Ocean]] and the coastal waters of North America. Cook discovered [[Hawaii]].
------
Nazi_Germany|989494800
1c1
< [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of Germany that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''das tausendjaehrige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''das dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
---
> [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of [[Germany]] that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''Das Tausendjaehrige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''Das Dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
5c5
< In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German empire quickly disintegrated.  By spring of 1945 both Russian and American troops had invaded Germany.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered.
---
> In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German started to disintegrate quickly, losing ground to the Alied forces in the west and south and the [[Red Army]] and the Polish Army in the east. By spring of 1945 German territory was invaded.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany finally surrendered in the first week of May.
11c11
< Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out war in 1939.
---
> Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
------
World_War_II|989494882
7c7
< Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as had been agreed to between Hitler's Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, and his Soviet counterpart, Molotov.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]], while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chased the Germans all the way back to Berlin.
---
> Shortly thereafter, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, as had been agreed to between Hitler's Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, and his Soviet counterpart, Molotov.  Under this joint attack Poland fell quickly.  Russia conquered the [[Baltic]], while Germany turned West to fight Britain and France, who had both entered the war shortly after Germany invaded Poland.  France fell quickly, leaving Britain to stand alone against Germany.  However, on June 22, 1941, the Germans launched a surprise invasion against their erstwhile Russian allies.  They surrounded Leningrad and almost took Moscow, but were stopped by the severe Russian winter.  They never regained the momentum and the Russian armies would eventually chase the Germans all the way back to [[Berlin]].
------
Biography/Talk|989494944
13a14,21
> ----
> 
> Some of the entries linked to from the Biography page are plurals, other are singulars.  It is natural to write that Einstein was a physicist (singular) and make it a link to the page of physicists (plural).  Should we make it a convention
> of Wikipedia always to use the plural for such entries?
> In that case, maybe the bio page should be "biographies" (plural)
> as opposed to the "discipline" (or art) of Biography.
> 
> 
------
History_of_Literature|989495054
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[History]] and [[Literature]].
> 
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989495701
1c1
< The leaders of [[Nazi Germany]] created a large number of different organisations for the purpose of helping them in staying in power.
---
> The leaders of [[Nazi Germany]] created a large number of different organisations for the purpose of helping them in staying in power. The character of the most of them is typical for totalitarian regimes, although most countries do have armed forces of some sort.
------
Scientist|989495955
3c3
< Scientists include [[chemist]]s, [[physicist]]s.
---
> Scientists include [[chemist]]s, [[physicist]]s, [[economists]], ...
5c5
< See also [[NobelPrize]] and [[Biography]].
---
> See also [[Nobel Prize]] and [[Biography]].
------
Scientist|989496034
5c5
< See also [[Nobel Prize]] and [[Biography]].
---
> Related topics: [[Nobel Prize]], [[biography]], [[science]], [[pseudo science]]
------
Economists|989496058
1c1
< Economists are scholars, doing research in the field of [[economics]]. The most famous ones include:
---
> Economists are scholars, conducting research in the field of [[economics]]. The most famous ones include:
------
Naming_conventions/Talk|989496850
21c21,31
< I don't think the principle of "least surprise" implies that we should make [[Paris]] a links page.  I think it implies that we should make [[Paris]] about Paris, France, and also, on that page, include links to [[Paris, Texas]] and wherever else.  Bear in mind, though, that pretty soon we're going to be able to use parentheses in titles, and all of this will be moot (thank god). --[[LMS]]
---
> I don't think the principle of "least surprise" implies that we should make [[Paris]] a links page.  I think it implies that we should make [[Paris]] about Paris, France, and also, on that page, include links to [[Paris, Texas]] and wherever else.  Bear in mind, though, that pretty soon we're going to be able to use parentheses in titles, and all of this will be moot (thank god). --[[LMS]]
> ----
> 
> It might be tempting to write about Paris, Texas on a page named Texas/Paris, i.e. a subpage to the entry on Texas, because that city lies entirely within the state of Texas.  In this case, Texas could also be a subpage to the United States, which might be a subpage to the North American continent.  At some level this hierarchical structure gets very ridiculous, so where should the line be drawn?  The state of California has been part of USA since 1850, but was earlier a part of Mexico.  Some cities in Europe have belonged to different nations during history, so the hierarchical approach is not universally useful.
> 
> ----
> 
> When writing that Albert Einstein was a physicist (see [[Albert Einstein]], [[physicist]], [[scientist]], [[Biography]], and [[Biography/Talk]] for this discussion) it was tempting to create a link to a page listing various physicists through history, and pointing out that all physicists are also scientists.  One issue is whether these pages should have pluralized names (addressed above).  Another issue is whether the structure or catalog of professions should be created before we start writing biographies of other scientists, like a coordinate system is drawn before the data points are plotted.  Such catalogs could be: professions, academic disciplines, timelines (like the excellent one on [[geologic ages]]), families of biological species, types of organic chemic substances, etc.  The risk with such an approach is that the catalogs will dominate over the substance contents (Yahoo without the Internet).  The risk with not taking such an approach is that a lot of useful links will be missing from entries (the Internet without Yahoo).
> 
> Any thoughts?
> 
------
Physicist|989497061
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person devoted to and producing results in [[physics]].
> 
> Famous physicists of the [[18th century]]:
> 
> Famous physicists of the [[19th century]]:
> 
> [[Maxwell]],
> [[Ørsted]]
> 
> Famous physicists of the [[20th century]]:
> 
> [[Albert Einstein]]
> 
> See also [[NobelPrize/Physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
> 
> Note: [[Physician]]s are doctors and people devoted to [[medicine]].
> 
------
Breakdancing|989497253
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of dancing that is part of hip hop culture. It is probably connected to capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian dance. 
------
Physicist|989497320
7,8c7,9
< [[Maxwell]],
< [[Ørsted]]
---
> [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]],
> [[James Maxwell]],
> [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
------
Sweden|989497334
19c19
< Sweden is a [[monarchy]] and has been for almost a millenium. Since 1972 the [[monarch]] does not have any political power.
---
> Sweden is a [[monarchy]] and has been for almost a millenium. Since 1975 the [[monarch]] does not have any political power.
------
19th_century|989497367
2c2
< * Discovery of the relationships between magnetism and electricity and light by [[Orsted|Ørsted]] and [[Maxwell]].  See [[History of Science and Technology]].
---
> * Discovery of the relationships between magnetism and electricity and light by [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]] and [[James Maxwell]].  See [[History of Science and Technology]].
------
Funk|989497433
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An African American style of music developed mainly by James Brown and his band members on the one hand and groups like The Meters on the other hand. In the 1970s, George Clinton developed a new kind of funk he termed P Funk. At the same time, in the Bronx, NY, Jamaican DJ Kool Herc firts tried to make people dance to reggae tunes. That however did not work so he started to use funk records. 
------
Funk|989497447
1c1
< An African American style of music developed mainly by James Brown and his band members on the one hand and groups like The Meters on the other hand. In the 1970s, George Clinton developed a new kind of funk he termed P Funk. At the same time, in the Bronx, NY, Jamaican DJ Kool Herc firts tried to make people dance to reggae tunes. That however did not work so he started to use funk records. 
---
> An African American style of music developed mainly by James Brown and his band members on the one hand and groups like The Meters on the other hand. In the 1970s, George Clinton developed a new kind of funk he termed P Funk. At the same time, in the Bronx, NY, Jamaican DJ Kool Herc first tried to make people dance to reggae tunes. That however did not work so he started to use funk records. 
------
Hans_Christian_Orsted|989497469
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hans Christian Ørsted was a [[physicist]] of [[Denmark]] in the early [[19th century]].  In 1820 he discovered the relationship between [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]].
> 
> See also [[James Maxwell]], [[physics]].
> 
> 
------
Sweden/Kings|989497529
4a5,14
> House of Vasa
> 
> *[[Gustav I]] 1523 - 1560
> *[[Erik XIV]] 1560 - 1568
> *[[Johan III]] 1568 - 1592
> *[[Sigismund]] 1592 - 1599
> *[[Karl IX]] 1599 - 1611
> *[[Gustav II Adolf]] 1611 - 1632
> *[[Kristina]] 1632 - 1654
> 
------
Physicist|989497547
15c15
< See also [[NobelPrize/Physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
---
> See also [[NobelPrize/PhysicS]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
------
Physicist|989497585
15c15
< See also [[NobelPrize/PhysicS]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
---
> See also the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
------
Funk|989497619
1c1
< An African American style of music developed mainly by James Brown and his band members on the one hand and groups like The Meters on the other hand. In the 1970s, George Clinton developed a new kind of funk he termed P Funk. At the same time, in the Bronx, NY, Jamaican DJ Kool Herc first tried to make people dance to reggae tunes. That however did not work so he started to use funk records. 
---
> An African American style of [[music]] developed mainly by [[James Brown]] and his band members on the one hand and groups like The Meters on the other hand. In the 1970s, [[George Clinton]] developed a new kind of funk he termed P Funk. At the same time, in the Bronx, NY, Jamaican DJ Kool Herc first tried to make people dance to [[reggae]] tunes. That however did not work so he started to use funk records. 
------
Sweden/Kings|989497629
7c7
< *[[Gustav I]] 1523 - 1560
---
> *[[Gustav I]] 1521 - 1560 (made king in 1523)
11c11
< *[[Karl IX]] 1599 - 1611
---
> *[[Karl IX]] 1599 - 1611 (made king in 1604)
------
Music|989497722
3c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle]] -- [[Reggae]]
------
Requested_articles|989497787
23c23
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk music]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]]
------
Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz|989497805
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was a [[physicist]] of [[Germany]]
> in the [[19th century]], born in 1857, died in 1894.
> His experiments proved that
> electric signals can travel through open air,
> as had been predicted by [[James Maxwell]]
> and [[Michael Faraday]].
> which is the basis for the invention of [[radio]].
> 
> See also [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]],
> [[Guglielmo Marcon]].
> 
------
Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz|989497823
10c10
< [[Guglielmo Marcon]].
---
> [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
------
Scientist|989497894
7a8,12
> ----
> 
> A useful source of brief facts about scientists is
> http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/math_sht.htm
> (in German).
------
19th_century|989497897
3c3
< * Mass migration from [[Europe]] to the [[USA]].
---
> * Mass migration from [[Europe]] to the [[United States]].
------
Rap_music/Old_School|989497912
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some people use the term hip hop to refer to most hip hop from 1979 (when the first hip hop record by the Fatback Band, King Tim III, came out) to ca.84, when new rappers like LL Cool J and Run DMC as well as the Beastie Boys were developing their new styles. Some see Run DMCs Sucker MCs as the first new school record, because it no longer relied on music recorded in the studio by live musicians. Others see old school rap as spawning a period from 1979 to ca. 1990. Stilistically, both rap from 1979-1985 and rap from 1979-1990 is very heterogeneous, covering different styles like the electronic rap à la [[electro funk]] that started in 1982, the earliest rap recorded by live musicians in the studio that did not contain synthetic beats and scratching [[Sugarhill Gang]] [[Treacherous Three]]. 
------
Albert_Einstein|989497963
2a3,4
> http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/m_einste.jpg
> 
------
Albert_Einstein|989497990
1,2d0
< Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
< 
3a2,3
> 
> Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
------
Albert_Einstein|989498032
1c1
< http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/m_einste.jpg
---
> http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/m_einste.jpg  
------
Sugarhill_Gang|989498048
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Although they were rapping on the second rap record ever, namely Rapper's Delight (1979), the Sugarhill Gang were not real pioneers. They were picked up by producer Sylvia Robinson who also founded Sugar Hill Records. Grandmaster Caz from the Cold Crush Brothers claims that the Sugarhill Gang used his rhymes on Rapper's Delight. In any case, it is generally acknowledged that Caz is, unlike the Sugarhill Gang, a  hip hop pioneer. 
------
Albert_Einstein|989498074
3c3
< Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a physicist who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
---
> Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a [[physicist]] who first proposed the [[theory of relativity]].  In 1921 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]].  His theoretical work became the basis of [[atomic energy]] and the [[atomic bomb]].
------
Famous_Physicists|989498238
9a10
> * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
------
James_Maxwell|989498251
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> James Maxwell was an English [[physicist]] in the [[19th century]], who presented a theory that connected [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[light]].  This suggested that electromagnetic waves might travel through open air, which was later proved in experiments by [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]], and was elementary for the invention of [[radio]], usually attributed to [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
> 
> See also [[physics]], [[Michael Faraday]].
> 
> 
> 
>  
------
James_Maxwell|989498276
1c1
< James Maxwell was an English [[physicist]] in the [[19th century]], who presented a theory that connected [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[light]].  This suggested that electromagnetic waves might travel through open air, which was later proved in experiments by [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]], and was elementary for the invention of [[radio]], usually attributed to [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
---
> James Maxwell was an English [[physicist]] in the [[19th century]], who presented a theory that connected [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[light]].  This suggested that [[electromagnetic waves]] might travel through open air, which was later proved in experiments by [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]], and was elementary for the invention of [[radio]], usually attributed to [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
------
Famous_Physicists|989498335
7a8,9
> * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
> * [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
10d11
< * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
------
Oskar_I|989498349
1c1
< King of [[Sweden]] between 1844 and 1859.
---
> King of [[Sweden]] between 1844 and 1859. Born in 1799.
3a4,13
> 
> Married [[Josefina of Leuchtenberg]], 1807-1876.
> 
> Children:
> 
> 1. [[Karl XV]], 1826-1872.
> 2. [[Prince Gustaf]], 1827-1852.
> 3. [[Oskar II]], 1829-1907.
> 4. [[Princess Eugenie]], 1830-1889.
> 5. [[Prince August]], 1831-1873.
------
18th_century|989498367
3c3
< * [[United States/History|United States]] declaration of independence and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1776.
---
> * [[United States/History|United States]] declaration of independence in 1776 and [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] in 1789.
4a5,7
> * Wars of Empire between Geat Britain, France, Spain, Austria.
>  See the [[War of Spanish Sucession]]/[[Queen Anne's War]], [[War of Austrian Sucession]]/[[King George's War]],
>  [[War of Jenkin's War]], [[Seven Year's War]]/[[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
------
Oskar_I|989498369
9a10
> 
10a12
> 
11a14
> 
12a16
> 
------
Nazi_Germany|989498372
7,11c7
< *<b>Gleichschaltung</b>
< 
< The [[Nazi]] regime practiced [[Gleichschaltung]], a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society. The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society.  This required the elimination of any other form of influence.  The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties.  Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control.  The influence of the churches was also assailed.  The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
< 
< Not all influences are domestic, however.  Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad.  This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
---
> *<b>[[/Related Terms|Terms closely related to Nazi Germany]]</b>
------
Smog|989498403
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The combination of [[smoke]] and [[fog]] under special weather conditions might stay for extended times over densely populated cities, such as [[Los Angeles]] or [[Athens]].
> 
> See also [[electrosmog]].
------
Requested_articles|989498407
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] -- [[Roman Empire]] --  [[Greece]] -- [[Benjamin Franklin]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]]
13c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonomtric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
23c23
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Reggae]]
25c25
< <b>Government: </b> [[Supreme Court of the United States]] -- [[Postal Service]]
---
> <b>Government: </b> [[Postal Service]]
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]]  -- [[Henry Ford]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
James_Maxwell|989498469
1c1
< James Maxwell was an English [[physicist]] in the [[19th century]], who presented a theory that connected [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[light]].  This suggested that [[electromagnetic waves]] might travel through open air, which was later proved in experiments by [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]], and was elementary for the invention of [[radio]], usually attributed to [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
---
> James Clerk Maxwell was an English [[physicist]] in the [[19th century]], who presented a theory that connected [[electricity]], [[magnetism]], and [[light]].  This suggested that [[electromagnetic waves]] might travel through open air, which was later proved in experiments by [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]], and was elementary for the invention of [[radio]], usually attributed to [[Guglielmo Marconi]].
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989498477
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *<b>[[Anschluss]]</b>
> *<b>[[Gleichschaltung]]</b>
> 
> The Nazi regime practiced Gleichschaltung?, a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society. The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society. This required the elimination of any other form of influence. The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties. Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control. The influence of the churches was also assailed. The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
> 
> Not all influences are domestic, however. Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad. This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of Czechoslovakia, and the whole of Austria, before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
> 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989498496
4,6d3
< The Nazi regime practiced Gleichschaltung?, a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society. The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society. This required the elimination of any other form of influence. The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties. Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control. The influence of the churches was also assailed. The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
< 
< Not all influences are domestic, however. Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad. This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of Czechoslovakia, and the whole of Austria, before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
------
18th_century|989498509
6,7c6,7
<  See the [[War of Spanish Sucession]]/[[Queen Anne's War]], [[War of Austrian Sucession]]/[[King George's War]],
<  [[War of Jenkin's War]], [[Seven Year's War]]/[[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
---
>  See the [[War of Spanish Sucession]] or [[Queen Annes War]], [[War of Austrian Sucession]] or [[King Georges War]],
>  [[War of Jenkins War]], [[Seven Year's War]] or [[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
------
Gleichschaltung|989498550
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] regime practiced Gleichschaltung, a system of total control and coordination of all aspects of society. The government's desire for total control required it to be the only influence on society. This required the elimination of any other form of influence. The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of organizations that could influence people, such as unions and political parties. Organizations that could not be eliminated, such as the schools, were brought under direct control. The influence of the churches was also assailed. The government assumed direct control of all economic activity as well.
> 
> Not all influences are domestic, however. Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad. This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
------
Karl_XV|989498564
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of Sweden between 1859 and 1872. Born in 1826. 
> Son of [[Oskar I]]? and [[Queen Josefina]]?. 
> 
> Married [[Lovisa of the Netherlands]]?, 1828-1871. 
> 
> Children: 
> 
> 1. [[Princess Lovisa]]?, 1851-1926. 
> 
> 2. [[Prince Carl Oscar]]?, 1852-1854. 
> 
------
Karl_XV|989498621
2c2
< Son of [[Oskar I]]? and [[Queen Josefina]]?. 
---
> Son of [[Oskar I]] and [[Queen Josefina]]. 
4c4
< Married [[Lovisa of the Netherlands]]?, 1828-1871. 
---
> Married [[Lovisa of the Netherlands]], 1828-1871. 
8c8
< 1. [[Princess Lovisa]]?, 1851-1926. 
---
> 1. [[Princess Lovisa]], 1851-1926. 
10c10
< 2. [[Prince Carl Oscar]]?, 1852-1854. 
---
> 2. [[Prince Carl Oscar]], 1852-1854. 
------
Reggae|989498641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Reggae is an Afro-Caribbean style of music developed on the island of Jamaica. The origins canm be found in traditional Afro-Caribbean music as well as US Rhythm & Blues. Rock Staedy was the grandmother of reggae. Bob Marley, who later popularized the style on a world-wide basis,  also recorded rock steady records in the beginning. Those roots already show the kind of melodic song-writing that would later make him famous. The style of reggae he made famous is called [[roots reggae]] and is still used by some artists as [[UB40]] from the UK. In Jamaica however, new styles are more popular, among them [[Lovers Rock]] and [[Raggamuffin]]. [[Dub]] is an instrumental sub-style of reggae. Mixing techniques employed in Dub probably influenced [[hip hop]], [[drum n bass]] and other styles. In any case, the [[toasting]] or [[dee jaying]] of raggamuffin reggae - first used by artists such as [[Dillinger]] or [[Yellowman]] - had a world-wide impact because Jamaican DJ Kool Herc used them as he came up with a new style later called [[hip hop]] or [[rap music]]. In the Jamaican sense of the word, a DJ is an MC or rapper, whereas the DJ is called selector in Jamaica. Therfore what is called dee jaying or chatting in Jamaica is called rapping in most other parts of the world. 
------
Smoke|989498645
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]] or [[power generation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
> 
> See also [[smog]].
> 
> 
------
Smoke|989498704
1c1,4
< Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]] or [[power generation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]] or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
> 
> See also [[smog]], [[tobacco]].
> 
3d5
< See also [[smog]].
------
Smoke|989498718
1c1
< Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]] or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
------
Smoke|989498754
3c3
< See also [[smog]], [[tobacco]].
---
> See also [[fire fighter]], [[smog]], [[tobacco]].
------
Hip_hop|989498790
3c3
< Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "[[rap music]]" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it.  Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music.  "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. [[breakdancing]] and [[graffiti]]. 
---
> Whereas the term "hip hop" refers to both instrumental music and some types of music that contain rapping, "[[rap music]]" refers mainly to hip hop music with rapping in it.  Not all music that has rapping in it, however, is actually rap music, and not all hip hop music has rapping in it, see records by the [[Planet Patrol]] or [[Pretty Tony]]. "Hip hop" also refers to non-musical aspects of this cultural movement, e.g. [[breakdancing]] and [[graffiti]]. 
------
Smoke|989498810
1c1
< Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], communication ([[smoke signals]]) or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
------
Bass|989498816
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See Rap music/Bass. 
------
Berlin_Wall|989498827
3c3
< See [[Berlin]].
---
> See [[Berlin]]; http://www.wall-berlin.org/
------
Exhaust_pipe|989498903
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Exhaust pipes (or [[chimney]]s) are used to guide [[smoke]] away from a controlled [[combustion]] inside an [[engine]] or [[stove]].
> 
> See also [[pipe]]s.
> 
> 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989498908
1,2c1,6
< *<b>[[Anschluss]]</b>
< *<b>[[Gleichschaltung]]</b>
---
> The following is a list of terms, which are closely connected with the totalitarian regime in [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-1945). Most of them are German expressions - an short english description is given here and the explanation can be found in the articles themselves.
> 
> *[[Anschluss]] -- annexation
> *[[Gleichschaltung]] -- total contol and obedience
> *[[Lebensraum]] -- space to live
> *[[Master race]] -- ''Herrenrasse''
------
Exhaust_pipe|989498928
1,3c1
< Exhaust pipes (or [[chimney]]s) are used to guide [[smoke]] away from a controlled [[combustion]] inside an [[engine]] or [[stove]].
< 
< See also [[pipe]]s.
---
> Exhaust pipes (or [[chimney]]s) are [[pipe]]s used to guide [[smoke]] away from a controlled [[combustion]] inside an [[engine]] or [[stove]].
------
Hip_hop|989498955
23c23
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music, and on the west coast, rappers such as Ice T or Eazy E and NWA continued, developing a new style named "gangster rap" or "crime rhyme". Many Chicanos embraced the new style. In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
------
Smoke|989498988
1c1
< Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], communication ([[smoke signals]]) or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s or [[stove]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[lamp light]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], communication ([[smoke signals]]) or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s, [[stove]]s and [[lamp]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
------
Hip_hop|989499022
16c16
< As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style 
---
> As Kool DJ Herc suggests, also white people were involved in hip hop from the start. But next to Black people, Puerto Ricans were the driving force behind this new musical style. However, a whole decade passed until bilingual raps started appearing, see [[Latin rap]]. 
------
Anschluss|989499033
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term 'Anschluss' refers to the forceful annexation of [[Austria]] by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1938. It was initially forbidden by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1918/1919.
------
16th_century|989499056
1d0
< 
3a3
> * Introduction of [[spinning wheel]] revolutionizes textile production.
------
15th_century|989499170
1c1
< * Rennaisance
---
> * Rennaisance affects philosophy, science and art.
3c3
< * Machiavelli, The Prince
---
> * Machiavelli writes The Prince
------
Pipe|989499184
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A pipe is a man-made channel, closed on all sides, for transporting or guiding [[liquid]] substances or [[gases]].
> 
> Some [[musical instrument]]s such as [[flute]]s and [[bagpipe]]s are also called pipes.
> 
> See:
> [[bagpipe]],
> [[exhaust pipe]],
> [[smoking pipe]],
> [[water pipe]]
> 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989499200
1c1
< The following is a list of terms, which are closely connected with the totalitarian regime in [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-1945). Most of them are German expressions - an short english description is given here and the explanation can be found in the articles themselves.
---
> The following is a list of terms, which are closely connected with the totalitarian regime in [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-1945). Most of them are German expressions, which are now used as words in English - a short english description is given here and the explanation can be found in the articles themselves.
------
Musical_instrument|989499291
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Musical instruments include [[pipe]]s, [[horn]]s, [[string]]s, and [[percussion]].
> 
> 
------
Latin_rap|989499316
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Latin rap is not a homogeneous style but rather a term that covers all rap by Latin@s. The first bilingual ("Spanglish")  rappers were [[Kid Frost]] and [[Mellow Man Ace]], followed by [[Cypress Hill]] featuring Mellow's brother [[Sen Dog]]. On the East Coast, Puerto Rican rappers [[Big Pun]], [[Hurricane G]] and [[Fat Joe]] followed. In the course of the 1990s, rappers from Latin America and Spain dropped their first records, e.g. [[Control Machete]] from Mexico, [[DJ Kun]] from Argentina and [[7 Notas 7 Colores]] from Spain. 
------
Woodwind|989499359
1c1
< The woodwinds are musical instruments in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[The Recorder|recorder]]), or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
---
> The woodwinds are [[musical instrument]]s in which sound is produced by blowing against an edge (e.g., the [[flute]]), into a mouthpiece (e.g., the [[The Recorder|recorder]]), or directly against a reed (e.g., [[oboe]]).
------
Flute|989499395
1c1
< A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family. It is an open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of the instrumentalist.
---
> A [[musical instrument]] of the [[woodwind]] family. It is an open tube with circular holes, which produce different sounds when some are opened or closed with the fingers of the instrumentalist.
7c7,10
< The sound of the flute is characteristic because of its sweetness.
---
> The sound of the flute is characteristic because of its sweetness.
> 
> See also [[pipe]].
> 
------
Rap_music/New_School|989499470
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some people use new school rap as referring to rap records that no longer had the typical characteristsics of Old School rap à la [[Sugarhill Gang]] or [[electro funk]]. New school rap typically mixed computer beats with James Brown samples, especially the famous Funky Drummer break. 
------
The_Recorder|989499509
1c1
< Recorder (German: Blockflöte; French: Flûte à Bec; Italian Flauto Dolce). A fipple flute, i.e. one with a mouthpiece enabling the breath to be directed at the edge without having to form an embouchure with the lips.  Known in the 18th century simply as Flute = Flauto - the transverse form was separately referred to as Traverso.  It was for the recorder that [[J.S. Bach]] wrote the 4th [[Brandenburg concerto]] in G major (though [[Thurston Dart]] controversially suggested that it was intended for flageolets at a higher pitch, and in a recording under [[Neville Marriner]] using Dart's editions it was played an octave higher than usual on sopranino recorders.
---
> Recorder (German: Blockflöte; French: Flûte à Bec; Italian Flauto Dolce). A fipple [[flute]], i.e. one with a mouthpiece enabling the breath to be directed at the edge without having to form an embouchure with the lips.  Known in the [[18th century]] simply as Flute = Flauto - the transverse form was separately referred to as Traverso.  It was for the recorder that [[J.S. Bach]] wrote the 4th [[Brandenburg concerto]] in G major (though [[Thurston Dart]] controversially suggested that it was intended for flageolets at a higher pitch, and in a recording under [[Neville Marriner]] using Dart's editions it was played an octave higher than usual on sopranino recorders.
3c3
< The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by [[Gluck]] in his opera [[Orfeo ed Euridice]].  It was revived at the end of the 19th century by the English researcher into earlier music, [[Arnold Dolmetsch]].  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
---
> The instrument went into decline after the 18th century, being used for about the last time as an other-wordly sound by [[Gluck]] in his opera [[Orfeo ed Euridice]].  It was revived at the end of the [[19th century]] by the English researcher into earlier music, [[Arnold Dolmetsch]].  Subsequently it became very popular in schools, since in its initial stages it is relatively easy to play ... though that does not remain the case in more advanced music.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Chemistry|989499556
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Modern chemistry evolved from both primitive medicinal use of plants and minerals 
> and from the pseudoscience of alchemy, which was the twin search for the transmutation
> of lead to gold and for a chemical means for eternal life.
> 
------
Electro_funk|989499647
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by Kraftwerk and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). Afrika Bambaataa's Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed Ennio Morricone, Kraftwerk and Captain Sky, or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
------
Bass_music|989499697
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hip hop related musical style that continues rapping and sometimes choruses. Musically, its roots can be found in electro funk. The music came into existence as part of Miami's stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [The 2 Live Crew]? got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably Tag Team's Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In Detroit, a new form of Bass called Ghetto Tech developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [Jonny Z]? provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [DJ Laz]? is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include Luke?, [DJ Magic Mike]?, [MC Shy D]? and [MC ADE]?. 
------
Smoking_pipe|989499843
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An instrument for the enjoyment of [[smoke]], the smoking pipe typically consists of a small chamber for the [[combustion]] of [[tobacco]] or similar substances and a thin [[pipe]] that ends in a [[mouthpiece]].
> 
> 
------
Be|989499854
13c13,14
< Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make [[machine translation]] difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions are not always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
---
> Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make [[machine translation]] difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions are not always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table". Apparently there is no form of the verb "to be" in Russian or 
> its parady, Klingon.
------
Mouthpiece|989499891
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[woodwinds]], [[musical instrument]], [[smoking pipe]].
> 
> 
------
Musical_instrument|989499933
1c1
< Musical instruments include [[pipe]]s, [[horn]]s, [[string]]s, and [[percussion]].
---
> Musical instruments include [[pipe]]s, [[horn]]s, [[woodwind]], [[string]]s, [[percussion]], [[synthesizer]]s.
------
Mouthpiece|989499958
1c1
< See [[woodwinds]], [[musical instrument]], [[smoking pipe]].
---
> See [[woodwind]] [[musical instrument]], [[smoking pipe]].
------
Cypress_Hill|989499995
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of marijuana. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. 
------
Swiss_cheese|989500011
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Generic name for several related varieties of cheese, originally made in Switerland. These cheeses are white,
> semi-hard to hard, strong flavor, and most distinguishing - holes. 
------
Swiss_cheese|989500044
2c2
< semi-hard to hard, strong flavor, and most distinguishing - holes. 
---
> semi-hard to hard, have a strong flavor, and most distinguishing - have holes. 
------
Combustion|989500054
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The burning of one substances for conversion into another at the exhaustion of [[smoke]].
> 
> Combustion is a chemical reaction, see [[chemistry]].
> 
> See also [[internal combustion engine]], [[spontaneous combustion]]
------
German_language|989500101
1c1
< Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]] as well as [[Liechtenstein]], [[Südtirol]] in [[Italy]] and a small part of [[Belgium]]. It is also one of the official languages of [[Luxembourg]].  Belongs to the west group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
---
> Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]] as well as [[Liechtenstein]], [[Südtirol]] in [[Italy]] and a small part of [[Belgium]]. It is also one of the official languages of [[Luxembourg]].  Belongs to the western group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
------
Spontaneous_combustion|989500112
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Anomalous Phenomena]] and [[combustion]].
> 
------
Smoke_signals|989500316
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Smoke signals is an early form of the [[optical telegraph]], developed by the native north Americans.  By covering an open fire with a blanket, and suddenly removing it for a short time, a puff of [[smoke]] is generated.  With some training, the sizes, shapes of, and intervals between these puffs can be controlled in a way that can supposedly be observed from a long distance, and used to carry information.
> 
> 
------
Unclassified_game|989500421
4a5
> * [[Paper, Scissor, Stone]]
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989500442
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Roman_alphabet|989500458
1c1
< The [[alphabet]] of classical [[Latin]], that is now used (perhaps with some modification) by [[Romance language|Romance]], [[Germanic language|Germanic]], and other languages.
---
> The [[alphabet]] of classical [[Latin]], that is now used. Most letters were taken over from the Etruscan alphabet. Only Z and Y were taken over from the Greek alphabet and therefore added at the end.  In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a Germanic letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In Old English, thorn and wynn - a Runic letter - were added. In modern Icelandic, thorn is still used. 
------
19th_century|989500514
4c4,5
< 
---
> * Political revolution and constitutional reform across Europe severely limits powers of monarchs, advances democracy.
> * Slavery ended in British colonies and in America. See [[Civil War]]. 
------
Optical_telegraph|989500537
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Optical telegraphs precede the electrical telepgraph.  It is faster than riding couriers for bringing a message over long distances.  Types of optical telegraphs are the [[semaphore]], [[ship flags]], [[smoke signals]], and [[beacon]]s.  The distance that an optical telegraph can bridge is limited by geography, the shape of the earth, and the sharpness of the human eye.  In practical use, most optical telegraphs used [[relay league]]s to bridge longer distances.
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Hebrew_alphabet|989500538
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The modern Hebrew alphabet developed from the Aramean alphabet. However, there was an older Hebrew alphabet in use before that. 
------
19th_century|989500613
5c5
< * Slavery ended in British colonies and in America. See [[Civil War]]. 
---
> * Slavery ended in British colonies and in America. See [[American Civil War]]. 
------
Swiss_cheese|989500637
1c1
< Generic name for several related varieties of cheese, originally made in Switerland. These cheeses are white,
---
> Generic name for several related varieties of [[cheese]], originally made in [[Switzerland]]. These cheeses are white,
------
Relay_league|989500666
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A relay league is a chain of message forwarding stations in a system of [[optical telegraphs]], radio telegraph stations, or riding couriers.
> 
> Radio amateurs have been early in arranging relay leagues, as is reflected in the name of the organization of American Radio Relay League (ARRL), http://www.arrl.org/
> 
------
Cyrillic_alphabet|989500726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cyrillic alphabet is mainly made up of Greek letters, however, there are also some letters that derive from the older [[Glagolitic]] alphabet. Kyrillos was actually not the creator of the Cyrillic, but of the Glagolitic alphabet. 
------
German_language|989500735
1c1
< Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]] as well as [[Liechtenstein]], [[Südtirol]] in [[Italy]] and a small part of [[Belgium]]. It is also one of the official languages of [[Luxembourg]].  Belongs to the western group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
---
> Language spoken in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], and part of [[Switzerland]] as well as [[Liechtenstein]], [[Suedtirol|Südtirol]] in [[Italy]] and a small part of [[Belgium]]. It is also one of the official languages of [[Luxembourg]].  Belongs to the western group of [[Germanic languages]].  There are a variety of spoken dialects:
------
Relay_league|989500761
1c1
< A relay league is a chain of message forwarding stations in a system of [[optical telegraphs]], radio telegraph stations, or riding couriers.
---
> A relay league is a chain of message forwarding stations in a system of [[optical telegraph]]s, radio telegraph stations, or riding couriers.
------
Glagolitic|989500776
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The alphabet created by [[Kyrillos]], based mainly on Greek. There are some letters of uncertain or unknown origin. 
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989500932
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whimsical game played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws.
> 
> Instructions:
> Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing thier 'weapon', Paper, Scissors or Stone. The objective is to beat the other opponent by selecting a weapon which beats thiers.
> 
> Paper covers Stone (paper wins)
> Scissors cut Paper (scissors win)
> Stone blunts Scissors (stone wins)
> 
------
Shire|989501052
1c1
< [[Great Britain]] is divided into shires, which are regions similar to [[county|counties]].
---
> [[Great Britain]] is divided into shires, which are regions similar to [[county|counties]]. The term `shires' is frquently used by UK political commentators to describe the more rural areas of England; usually to contrast the political attitudes of the inhabitants with those of the large metropolitan areas.
3c3
< The exact boundaries of shires has varied considerably over the centuries. When the boundaries of the shires were defined, they often included large areas owned by the local Abbey, resulting in a number of counties having small disconnected outliers entirely surrounded by some other county. After boundary changes in the 1930s, many of these anomalies were resolved and a number of villages were moved to the local government of a more logical county. Any remaining anomalies were removed by the local government reorganisation in 1974.
---
> The exact boundaries of shires have varied considerably over the centuries. When the boundaries of the shires were defined, they often included large areas of land owned by the local Abbeys, resulting in a number of counties having small disconnected outliers entirely surrounded by some other county. After boundary changes in the 1930s, many of these anomalies were resolved and a number of villages were moved to the local government of a more logical county. Any remaining anomalies were removed by the local government reorganisation in 1974.
9a10,11
> *[[Berkshire]]
> *[[Buckinghamshire]]
21a24
> *[[Wiltshire]]
33c36,38
< There's a lot of detail missing here as yet . UK Local boundary reforms have a long and tangled history.</i>
---
> There's a lot of detail missing here as yet . UK Local boundary reforms have a long and tangled history.
> 
> In retrospect, much of the above should perhaps be in a more general page about british counties, with a small explanatory note here pointing to that page. </i>
------
American_Civil_War|989501110
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A war fought in America between the Northern States, known as the Union and the Southern States, 
> calling themselves the Confederacy. The causes of the war included state's rights versus federal
> rights, economic and cultural differences but mainly, [[slavery]]. 
> 
> The Union was led by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the Confederacy by President [[Jefferson Davis]].
> 
> This war ended with the freedom of all slaves and a great deal of ill-will among the Southern survivors.
> See [[Jim Crow laws]] and [[Ku Klux Klan]]. 
------
Morpheme|989501136
1,2c1,5
< One or more [[phoneme]]s that combine to make a semantic unit that is not divisible into smaller semantic units.----
< Again this is the minimal unit that is "meaningful" in a particular language, as determined by word pairs. For example, compare "athropy" and "dystrophy." Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
---
> A morpheme is the smallest meaningful (in the sense of grammatical) unit in a given language. 
> For example, "unbelievable" has three morphemes "un-" meaning "non-", "-believe-", and "-able". 
> There are bound morphemes like a- that only appear together with other morphemes to form a [[lexeme]], there are free morphemes like town that can appear with other lexemes (town-hall) and alone. 
> 
> Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989501365
1c1
< Whimsical game played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws.
---
> Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws.
3,4c3,4
< Instructions:
< Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing thier 'weapon', Paper, Scissors or Stone. The objective is to beat the other opponent by selecting a weapon which beats thiers.
---
> <b>Instructions:</b>
> Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing their 'weapon'
6,8c6,14
< Paper covers Stone (paper wins)
< Scissors cut Paper (scissors win)
< Stone blunts Scissors (stone wins)
---
> *<b>paper</b> - all fingers extended, palm facing downwards
> *<b>scissors</b> - forefinger and middle finger extended, making a scissor-like motion
> *<b>stone<b> - a clenched fist 
> 
> The objective is to beat the other opponent by selecting a weapon which beats theirs. There are three possible outcomes depending on the weapon selected (if both players happen to choose the same one, the game results in a draw and has to be repeated):
> 
> #Paper covers Stone (paper wins)
> #Scissors cut Paper (scissors win)
> #Stone blunts Scissors (stone wins)
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989501386
3,4c3,5
< <b>Instructions:</b>
< Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing their 'weapon'
---
> <b>Instructions</b>
> 
> Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing their 'weapon':
8c9
< *<b>stone<b> - a clenched fist 
---
> *<b>stone</b> - a clenched fist 
------
Hip_hop|989501621
23c23
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member's "The Chronic".
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member, [[Dr. Dre]]'s Album "The Chronic".
------
Famous_Physicists|989501804
10a11
> * [[James Maxwell]]
------
Radio|989502147
1c1,3
< Transmission of sound over electromagnetic waves.  The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  
---
> [[Transmission]] of [[sound]] or other signals over [[electromagnetic waves]].
> 
> The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  Read more about radio's [[/History]].
------
Diamond|989502219
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the natural [[allotrope]]s of [[carbon]]. Sometimes known as <i>adamant</i>, it is the hardest known material. The diamond is a hard, transparent crystal of high [[refractive index]] consisting of tetrahedrally bonded carbons. It is a good electrical insulator, but unlike most insulators, due to the strong bonding within the molecule, is a good conductor of heat.
> 
> In the late 18th century, diamonds were demonstrated to be made of carbon by the rather expensive experiment of igniting a diamond (by means of a [[burning-glass]]) in an oxygen atmosphere and showing that carbonic acid gas ([[carbon dioxide]]) was the product of [[combustion]].
>   
> Due to their high refractive index, diamonds have been prized as a constituent of [[jewellery]], and a large trade in gemnstone class diamonds exists, mostly controlled by the [[De Beers]] company.  
> 
> Poorer quality (discoloured, less transparent) diamonds are used as industrial diamonds, where their extreme hardness is useful in cutting and grinding otherwise intractable materials (including other diamonds); lately, gas-phase deposition processes have been devised that allow thin diamond films to be grown on some surfaces, greatly increasing the durability of some machine tools.
> 
> 
> ----
> 
> <i>Or is there some weird boron nitride structure that's harder?</i>
------
Famous_Physicists|989502247
3d2
< 
6c5
< 
---
> * [[Niels Bohr]]
8c7
< * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
---
> * [[Stephen Hawking]]
10d8
< * [[Isaac Newton]]
12c10,11
< * [[Niels Bohr]]
---
> * [[Isaac Newton]]
> * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
------
Burning-glass|989502637
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A burning-glass is a large convex lens, which can focus the sun's rays on a samll area and so ignite materials. Used in 18th century chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of [[combustion]] could be trapped for analysis.A useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.
> 
------
Burning-glass|989502657
1c1
< A burning-glass is a large convex lens, which can focus the sun's rays on a samll area and so ignite materials. Used in 18th century chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of [[combustion]] could be trapped for analysis.A useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.
---
> A burning-glass is a large convex lens, which can focus the sun's rays on a small area and so ignite materials. Used in 18th century chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of [[combustion]] could be trapped for analysis.A useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.
------
Dr._Dre|989502665
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dr Dre is Widely regarded as the chief architect of west coast gangsta rap. Born Andre Young, 18 February 1965, South Central, Los Angeles, USA, Dre's musical career began as a DJ at an LA dance club. He splicde up a mix of new records with classic soul tracks like Martha And The Vandellas. He recorded demos in a small back room of the club with a four-track studio together with future NWA member Yella and Lonzo Williams. The first of these was "Surgery", a basic electro track with a chorus of "Calling Dr Dre to surgery". It was during these sessions that Dre learned the turntable teqniques he would later bring to NWA after forming The World Class Wreckin' Cru at the age of 17.
> 
> The success of Dre's 1992 solo debut, The Chronic, confirmed raps commercial breakthrough. Spending 8 months in the Billboard top 10 It also signalled a change in tack by modern gangsta rappers. The music now took its cue from the funk of George Clinton and Funkadelic.
> 
> Like many of rap's leading lights, Dre never strayed far from controversy, even after he bought his luxury home in San Fernando Valley. As if to reinstate himself as a "true gangsta", he waged a war of attrition with authority. Television host Dee Barnes filed a multi-million dollar lawsuit against him for allegedly attacking her in a Hollywood nightclub in 1991. He was also convicted of breaking the jaw of a record producer. Dre complained bitterly about restraint of trade and moneys owed, cursed Ruthless' General Manager Jerry Heller, and finally managed to find a deal with Jimmy Iovine at Interscope Records, who let him set up his own label, Death Row Records, co-founded with Marion "Suge" Knight.
> 
> Death Row Records was briefly one of Americas most powerfull labels but by 1996 its well documented problems culminated in Dre leaving to form his own Aftermath Records label.
> 
> The label's first release was a various artists compilation, whose stand-out track was Dre's declamatory hit single "Been There Done That", a kiss-off to gangsta rap and Death Row. In 1998, Dre was back in the news again as co-producer on his protege Eminem's controversial breakthrough album, The Slim Shady LP. The following November he released his highly anticipated sophomore collection, Dr. Dre 2001. Featuring collaborations with Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige and Xzibit, the album was a highly effective reminder of Dre's pre-eminence in the world of gangsta rap.
------
Radio/History|989502855
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The pre- and early history of radio is the history of its technology.   See also the [[History of Science and Technology]].  Later, the history is dominated by programming and contents, which is closer to general [[History]].
> 
> Radio's prehistory ([[19th century]])
> 
> *1820 [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
> * [[Michael Faraday]]
> * [[James Maxwell]]
> * [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
> *1896 [[Guglielmo Marconi]]
> 
> Spark Gap Wireless Telegraphy (1896--1920)
> 
> *Quickly becomes popular on ships after the Titanic.
> 
> Audio Broadcasting (1915--)
> 
> *Invention of the triode amplifier, generator, and detector enables audio radio
> *Radio broadcasting is born
> *Commercial (USA) or governmental (Europe) station networks
> *Birth of the soap opera
> *Race towards shorter waves and FM
> *Frequency modulation (FM)
> 
> Television
> 
> *Nationwide networks
> *Satellite transmission
> 
> Internet Radio (1995--)
> 
> *Early technology wars: Push or pull, streaming media or multicast
> *Run your own station with http://www.live365.com/ almost like Geocities or Hotmail
> 
------
Rap_music|989503229
26c26
< 
---
> :[[Dr. Dre]]
------
Gangsta_rap|989503273
2c2
< created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member Dr Dre introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Andy_Warhol|989504026
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American painter, who used to hang out at [[Serendipity]], a club in New York.  The Andy Warhol Museum is in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
------
Andy_Warhol|989504060
1c1
< American painter, who used to hang out at [[Serendipity]], a club in New York.  The Andy Warhol Museum is in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
---
> American [[painters|painter]], who used to hang out at [[Serendipity]], a club in New York.  The Andy Warhol Museum is in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
------
Andy_Warhol|989504100
1c1
< American [[painters|painter]], who used to hang out at [[Serendipity]], a club in New York.  The Andy Warhol Museum is in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
---
> American [[painters|painter]], who used to hang out at [[Serendipity]], a club in [[New York City]].  The Andy Warhol Museum is in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
------
Serendipity|989504170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Serendipity is the chance of finding something unexpected.  The word comes from some ancient arab fairy tale.  It is also the name of a club in [[New York City]] where [[Andy Warhol]] used to be.
------
Niels_Bohr|989504343
1c1
< Niels Bohr (1885-1962); Danish physicist who received the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics in 1922.
---
> Niels Bohr (1885-1962); Danish [[physicist]] who received the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics in 1922.
------
Ice_Cube|989504471
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of hip-hop. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, screenwriter, director and producer, Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc).
> 
> The first volume War was released on November 17, 1998 on Priority Records with Peace following on March 21, 2000. Just as his classic Death Certificate presented a "Death Side" and a "Life Side", Cube explores the war/peace dialectic in well over 2 hours of new music.
> 
> Further fueling rumors of a [[NWA]] reunion album, War & Peace Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]) opens with the simple greeting "Hell Low", a [[Dr. Dre]] produced selection (co-produced by [[Mel Man]]) featuring [[Dr. Dre]] and [[MC Ren]]; a comedic track "You Ain't Gotta Lie" featuring [[Chris Rock]] and appearances by [[Krayzie Bone]] on the commercial single "Until We Rich." Other notable artists featured on the album are [[Mack 10]] and [[Jayo Felony]] with production on several tracks by [[Chucky Thompson]], [[Battlecat]], and [[Puffy]] to name a few.
> 
> The War record allowed Cube to throw down the gauntlet on tracks like "Dr. Frankenstein," "Once Upon A Time In the Projects 2" and on the single "Pushin' Weight," Cube raised the stakes for the present day rap game while reclaiming his legacy. War provided cutting edge soundscapes with mega-platinum rockers Korn making a guest appearance on "Fuck Dying." Cube performed with Korn on their "Family Values" tour. "To expose [[Korn]] fans to my music is cool, because most of their audience is only exposed to my movies. It reminded me of when I went out on Lollapalooza (1992), where I was the alternative to that alternative show" says Cube of the experience.
> 
> Although Cube keeps it gangsta on the Peace, LP, Vol. 2 is more dance/club oriented using samples from popular party anthems crating a lighter mood. Cube can't say enough about the music. "War and Peace are my best records in years. The production on both albums is far superior to anything I've ever released. Peace is gonna be a different look; it's a different record than any I have ever done. Lyrically, War covers a lot of ground-moving from rap's battlegrounds to the [[Los Angeles]] killing fields." "Ghetto Vet," "Penitentiary" and the masterful "3 Strikes You In" are as incisive pieces of social commentary as he's ever penned. Just as every coin has two sides, Peace represents the other side of Cube.
> 
> Ice Cube caught the [[rap music]] bug in the ninth grade when a classmate named Kiddo challenged him in a typing class. "One day, he asked me if I ever wrote a rap before. I told him, you write one, I write on and we'll see which one come out better and I won," recalls Cube. He went on to form his first crew, C.I.A., with future collaborators Sir Jinx and K-Dee, and began hanging in the burgeoning South Central Club scene. Through Jinx's cousin, he met [[Dr. Dre]] and together they began rhyming for nightclub patrons over the hits of the day. "We was doing these dirty raps strictly for the club audiences," he says. "When that started catching on, we started making mix tapes. We would rap on what was going on in the neighborhood and they were selling. [[Eazy-E]] had a partner named Ron-de-Vu, Dre was in the [[World Class Wreckin Crew]], and I was in C.I.A. We were all committed to these groups, so we figured we'd make an all-star group and just do dirty records on the side." That all-star group would become known as Niggaz With Attitude ([[NWA]]).
> 
> In early 1987, Cube wrote "Boyz-N-The-Hood" for [[Eazy-E]] and "Dopeman" and "8-ball" for [[NWA]] and they went into the studio to record. He knew he was doing something different, but wasn't sure about his prospects. "The rap game wasn't looking too solid at that time, so I decided to go ahead and go to school." When he left for The Phoenix Institute of Technology, the records were just hitting the streets. By the time he completed his degree a year later, both Eazy's and NWA's singles had sold hundreds of thousands of copies. He came back to write the rhymes for the albums that would be Eazy Duz It and [[Straight Outta Compton]] and the world would never be quite the same.
> 
> [[NWA]]'s [[Straight Outta Compton]], in retrospect, was the most influential album since [[The Sex Pistols]]' [[Never Mind the Bollocks]]. Straight Outta Compton didn't break taboos so much as blow them away with rapid-action scattershot. The excitement they inspired was proportional to the outrage they incited. Newsweek dismissed the record as "The Godfather in gutter language." [[FBI]] Assistant director, Milt Ahlerich, sent a letter to the label condemning the record as encouraging "violence against and disrespect for the law-enforcement officer." Ahlerich warned, "Advocating violence and assault is wrong and we in the law enforcement community take exception to such action." Sales rocked past platinum. "Straight Outta Compton has had the biggest impact on rap music than any other album to this day," says Cube. "We opened the door where you can say exactly what you really want to say without having to sugar-coat , without having to hold back."
> 
> But by 1989, things were beginning to sour between Cube and [[Jerry Heller]], then [[NWA]]'s manager. Cube was involved in writing 10 of the 13 tracks on [[Straight Outta Compton]], including the entirety of "Dopeman," "8 Ball" and "Express Yourself" and he felt he was due more than the $30,000 that he received for records that had sold 3 million units. "I was broke before I jumped in that shit, so it wasn't hard to walk away. I preferred it that way," Cube recalls. "At the time the two producers that was worth fucking with was [[Dr. Dre]] and [[The Bomb Squad]]. If I couldn't get Dre, I was going to the Bomb Squad." He broke east and began collaborating with [[Public Enemy]].
> 
> Energized by the rush of liberation and inspired by the exchange of ideas with Chuck D and the other members of the Public Enemy camp, he turned in the stunning Amerikkka's Most Wanted. "Fuck you, Ice Cube!" went the chorus of "The Nigga You Love to Hate," and immediately the hip-hop nation was screaming it. The record went gold in 10 days, platinum in three months. "I can never play out," smiles Cube, "because people are still biting my styles from that record."
> 
> In his book It's Not About A Salary: Rap, Race and Resistance, Brian Cross wrote of the album's impact, "Amerikkka's Most Wanted sought to give a face to (the) criminal underclass and this face was to be furrow-browed, jheri-curled, beanie-clad face of Cube himself. Cube to this day is the foremost hip hop meta-critic, providing listeners not only with stories, but potential criticism of his practice from different perspectives."
> 
> The follow-up EP Kill At Will went gold just as quickly. In contrast to the booming "Endangered Species" remix and the club friendly "Jackin For Beats," "Dead Homiez" was a surprise. When it was first released, Cube ran the risk of the appearing soft, exposing a vulnerable, sentimental side; instead, audiences embraced the track. He had correctly measured the depth of emotion amongst his violence-weary fans. "Dead Homiez" created an entirely new theme for gangsta rappers. Cube was thinking seven steps ahead of the game.
> 
> "I was reading a lot of books. I was just learning about the world, paying attention to world history, political views. Up to that point, I was just rolling through life trying to get money," says Cube. His readings "gave me my freedom mentally to deal with this world. The main focus on what I was learning was coming from Minister Louis Farrakhan and the honorable Elijah Muhammed. I did a lot of self-studying knowledge of self, because I'm far from a follower."
> 
> On Halloween 1991, Ice Cube's second solo LP, [[Death Certificate]] had advance orders of over a million copies and debuted at number 2 on the Billboard Charts. Death Certificate spoke to what it meant to be a young black male in an increasingly pressured space, one strained by deindustrialization, drug economies, state repression, police brutality, and immigration. Released just months before the LA riots, it singularly captured the tenor of the times, the feel of a generation. On April 29 1992, Death Certificate sounded prophetic.
> 
> That year, [[The Predator]], debuted at #1 on the pop and R&B charts simultaneously and went platinum in four days. The on-the-corner commentaries of "When Will They Shoot?, "I'm Scared," "Now I gotta Wet'cha" and "We had To Tear This Muthafucka Up" were rounded out by the hits "Wicked" and "It Was A Good Day." Cube had arrived as the chronicler of his generation. 
> 
> [[Lethal Injection]] was his fourth album in four years, but although it also went platinum on the hot groove of the [[George Clinton]] collaboration "Bop Gun" and the haunting "Ghetto Bird," Cube felt the rap game changing subtly. "At that time, nobody wanted to hear that kind of rap. The whole (conscious) era had peaked with the release of the [[Malcolm X]] Movie. The G-funk era was coming in. It was a whole different tone in the music. People didn't want to take rap that serious," he says.
> 
> "I was doing movies, directing videos, trying to produce other groups," Cube says. He had directed dozens of videos (he has done 20 to date) and his filmmaking career was set to take off. He had always struck a compelling image in his own videos, whether the rending "Dead Homiez," the pulsing "Steady Mobbin,' or the frantic "Natural Born Killaz."
> 
> Based on his amazing performance in John Singleton's "[[Boyz in the Hood]]," however, he was in demand. He went on to appear in "[[Trespass]]," "[[CB4]]," Charles Burnett's "[[The Glass Shield]]," Singleton's "[[Higher Learning]]," [[Anaconda]]," and most recently costarred in "[[3 Kings]]" with [[George Clooney]]. After co-screenwriting the script "[[Friday]]" with [[DJ Pooh]] - a balancing, hilarious view of a day in the life of a couple of brothers from South Central - Ice Cube followed up with "[[Next Friday]]" the successful, top grossing film which outsold blockbuster films "[[Stuart Little]]," "[[The Green Mile]]," and "[[The Hurricane]]" it its first week becoming the most successful New Line Film next to the Austin Power's sizzler. Cube also executive produced and starred in "[[Dangerous Ground]]" and "[[The Player's Club]]," a film he wrote, co-produced and directed to critical acclaim. The movie grossed over $25 million in domestic receipts alone. "People always ask, "When are you gonna stop doing records? Or 'Do you prefer doing movies or records?" Cube respon
> 
> ds, "If opportunities present they self, you take them. I think I can do this from all different sides of entertainment," he says.
> 
> Cube somehow also found the time to oversee the production of a number of homies. Two of them, [[Mack 10]] and WC, joined him to become the [[Westside Connection]], after a few successful outings. "I was tired of doing solo albums," Cube says. "I wanted to feel the group thing. With me, Mack 10 and WC, our chemistry was so tight that the Westside Connection was born." The group's allegiance to the West courted controversy. "Our whole purpose from the beginning was to make sure that people wasn't gonna just snatch our style from under us and give us no credit and no props," he says. "I'm not really tripping on straight being from the west coast. But when I was doing it, I heard a lotta shit being said about the west coast, so I stood up for the west coast." With Bow Down's double platinum sales, seems there must have been a lot of bi-coastal unity after all. Westside Connection is scheduled to release another album May 2000.
> 
> Finally it became time to return to the solo spotlight. "When you trying to do records, write a movie, produce a movie, it's hard to make good music. I wanted to put all the other stuff down, be finished with The Player's Club and do my album, he says, "War & Peace is my best record since Death Certificate."
> 
> Although hip-hop fans are notoriously fickle, Cube has stayed atop the games for over a decade. "I still sell the same amount of records. I still get a big reception," he says. "In hip hop, people always want new artists, but when I really get down, nobody puts a record together better than me. So I'll always be here. Long as I stay consistent and keep my heart in it, I'm a be here." 
> 
> Discography:
> 
> *[[AmeriKKKas Most Wanted]]
> *[[Death Certificate]]
> *[[Lethal Injection]]
> *[[The Predator]]
> *War & Peace, Vol. 1 ([[The War Disc]])
> *War & Peace, Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]])
------
Ice_Cube|989504675
1c1
< Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of hip-hop. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, screenwriter, director and producer, Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 (The Peace Disc).
---
> Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of [[hip hop]]. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, [[screenwriter]], [[director]] and [[producer]], Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]).
3c3
< The first volume War was released on November 17, 1998 on Priority Records with Peace following on March 21, 2000. Just as his classic Death Certificate presented a "Death Side" and a "Life Side", Cube explores the war/peace dialectic in well over 2 hours of new music.
---
> The first volume War was released on November 17, 1998 on Priority Records with Peace following on March 21, 2000. Just as his classic [[Death Certificate]] presented a "Death Side" and a "Life Side", Cube explores the war/peace dialectic in well over 2 hours of new music.
------
Ice_Cube|989504742
1c1
< Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of [[hip hop]]. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, [[screenwriter]], [[director]] and [[producer]], Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]).
---
> Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of [[hip hop]]. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, screenwriter, director and producer, Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]).
------
Physicist|989504744
4a5,6
> [[Daniel Bernoulli]] (Germany 1700-1782)
> 
6a9,12
> [[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905),
> [[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836),
> [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906),
> [[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832),
------
Physicist|989504838
5c5
< [[Daniel Bernoulli]] (Germany 1700-1782)
---
> *[[Daniel Bernoulli]] (Germany 1700-1782)
9,15c9,15
< [[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905),
< [[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836),
< [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906),
< [[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832),
< [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]],
< [[James Maxwell]],
< [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
---
> *[[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905),
> *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836),
> *[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906),
> *[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832),
> *[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]],
> *[[James Maxwell]],
> *[[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
19c19
< [[Albert Einstein]]
---
> *[[Albert Einstein]]
------
Richard_Feynman|989505116
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
> [[physicist].  See [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]]
------
Richard_Feynman|989505138
1,2c1
< Describe the new page here.
< [[physicist].  See [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]]
---
> [[physicist]].  See [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]]
------
Richard_Feynman|989505204
1a2
> and the [[NoblePrize/PhysicS|Noble Prize for physics]].
------
Richard_Feynman|989505236
2c2
< and the [[NoblePrize/PhysicS|Noble Prize for physics]].
---
> and the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|989505321
288,290c288,290
< :Sin-Itiro Tomonaga
< :Julian Schwinger
< :Richard P. Feynman
---
> :[[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]]
> :[[Julian Schwinger]]
> :[[Richard Feynman|Richard P. Feynman]]
294c294
< :Alfred Kastler
---
> :[[Alfred Kastler]]
------
NobelPrize/PhysicS|989505409
6c6
< :<b>Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</b>
---
> :<b>[[Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen|Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]]</b>
137c137
< :Werner Karl Heisenberg
---
> :[[Werner Karl Heisenberg]]
239,241c239,241
< :William Bradford Shockley
< :John Bardeen
< :Walter Houser Brattain
---
> :[[William Bradford Shockley]]
> :[[John Bardeen]]
> :[[Walter Houser Brattain]]
------
Werner_Karl_Heisenberg|989505524
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Physicist]], known for the "principle of uncertainity".
> 
> Receiver in 1932 of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]] "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen".
> 
------
Physicist|989505817
2a3,6
> Famous early physicists:
> 
> *[[Galileo Galilei]] (Italy, 1564-1642)
> 
5a10
> *[[Jean-Lerond dAlembert|Jean-Lerond d'Alembert]] (1717-1783)
9,14c14,22
< *[[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905),
< *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836),
< *[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906),
< *[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832),
< *[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]],
< *[[James Maxwell]],
---
> *[[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905)
> *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836)
> *[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906)
> *[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832)
> *[[Michael Faraday]] (Britain, 1791-1867)
> *[[Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier]] (France, 1768-1830)
> *[[Augustin Jean Fresnel]] (France, 1788-1827)
> *[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
> *[[James Maxwell]]
18a27
> *[[Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac]] (Britain, 1902-1984)
19a29,30
> *[[Werner Karl Heisenberg]]
> 
------
Galileo|989505843
0a1,2
> http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/m_galile.jpg
> 
------
Galileo|989505920
3c3
< Galileo Galilei, Italian philosopher and scientist, was born in Pisa on February 15, 1564.  Died January 8, 1642.
---
> Galileo Galilei, Italian [[philosopher]] and [[scientist]] ([[physicist]] and [[astronomer]]), was born in [[Pisa]] on February 15, 1564.  Died January 8, 1642.
------
Requested_articles|989506086
23c23
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- [[Reggae]]
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- 
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[BSE]]  -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Astronomer|989506504
1a2,19
> 
> Famous astronomers include:
> 
> *[[John Couch Adams]] (Britain, 1819-1892)
> *[[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] (Germany, 1784-1846)
> *[[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] (France, 1625-1712)
> *[[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] (Italy, 1598-1647)
> *[[Galileo Galilei]] (Italy, 1564-1642)
> *[[Karl Friedrich Gauss]] (Germany, 1777-1855)
> *[[Christiaan Huygens]] (Netherlands, 1629-1695)
> *[[Johannes Kepler]] (Germany, 1571-1630)
> *[[Nikolaus Kopernikus]] (Poland, 1473-1543)
> *[[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (Germany, 1728-1777)
> *[[Pierre Simon Laplace]] (France, 1749-1827)
> *[[Isaac Newton]] (Britain, 1643-1727)
> *[[Peter Nilson]] (Sweden)
> *[[Regiomontanus]] (Johannes Müller, Germany, 1436-1476)
> 
------
Peter_Nilson|989506589
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish [[astronomer]] at [[Uppsala]], and novel [[writer]].
> Compiled a catalog of galaxies.
> 
------
Famous_Physicists|989506627
1c1
< Many famous physicists of this century are found on the list of [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Prize laureates in physics]].
---
> Many famous [[physicist]]s of this century are found on the list of [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Prize laureates in physics]].
------
Research|989506733
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[labor]] of finding [[knowledge]] (and [[information]]), either where it was hidden, hard to reach, or unknown.
> 
> See [[science]].
> 
> 
------
Physicist|989506735
3,31d2
< Famous early physicists:
< 
< *[[Galileo Galilei]] (Italy, 1564-1642)
< 
< Famous physicists of the [[18th century]]:
< 
< *[[Daniel Bernoulli]] (Germany 1700-1782)
< *[[Jean-Lerond dAlembert|Jean-Lerond d'Alembert]] (1717-1783)
< 
< Famous physicists of the [[19th century]]:
< 
< *[[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905)
< *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836)
< *[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906)
< *[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832)
< *[[Michael Faraday]] (Britain, 1791-1867)
< *[[Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier]] (France, 1768-1830)
< *[[Augustin Jean Fresnel]] (France, 1788-1827)
< *[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
< *[[James Maxwell]]
< *[[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
< 
< Famous physicists of the [[20th century]]:
< 
< *[[Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac]] (Britain, 1902-1984)
< *[[Albert Einstein]]
< *[[Werner Karl Heisenberg]]
< 
< 
------
Physicist|989506747
5c5
< Note: [[Physician]]s are doctors and people devoted to [[medicine]].
---
> Note: [[Physician]]s are doctors and people devoted to [[medicine]].  
------
Famous_Physicists|989506857
3c3
< Physicists with a biography in wikipedia:
---
> Famous early physicists:
5,11c5,32
< * [[Niels Bohr]]
< * [[Albert Einstein]]
< * [[Stephen Hawking]]
< * [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
< * [[James Maxwell]]
< * [[Isaac Newton]]
< * [[Hans Christian Orsted]]
---
> *[[Galileo Galilei]] (Italy, 1564-1642)
> Famous physicists of the [[18th century]]:
> 
> *[[Daniel Bernoulli]] (Germany 1700-1782)
> *[[Jean-Lerond dAlembert|Jean-Lerond d'Alembert]] (1717-1783)
> *[[Isaac Newton]]
> 
> Famous physicists of the [[19th century]]:
> 
> *[[Ernst Abbe]] (Germany, 1840-1905)
> *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836)
> *[[Ludwig Boltzmann]] (Austria, 1844-1906)
> *[[Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot]] (France, 1796-1832)
> *[[Michael Faraday]] (Britain, 1791-1867)
> *[[Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier]] (France, 1768-1830)
> *[[Augustin Jean Fresnel]] (France, 1788-1827)
> *[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
> *[[James Maxwell]]
> *[[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]]
> 
> Famous physicists of the [[20th century]]:
> 
> *[[Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac]] (Britain, 1902-1984)
> *[[Albert Einstein]]
> *[[Werner Karl Heisenberg]]
> *[[Niels Bohr]]
> *[[Albert Einstein]]
> *[[Stephen Hawking]]
------
Physicist|989506900
1c1
< A person devoted to and producing results in [[physics]].
---
> A person devoted to and producing results in [[physics]].  
------
Laws_of_Kepler|989506912
0a1
> The astronomer [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
2,4c3
< The astronomer Johannes Kepler's main contribution to astronomy was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate Isaac Newton and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
< 
< Kepler's First Law:  Planets move in ellipses, with the sun located on one focus of the ellipse.
---
> Kepler's First Law:  [[Planet]]s move in [[ellipse]]s, with the [[sun]] located on one focus of the ellipse.
8c7
< Kepler's Third Law:  The square of the semimajor axis of the orbit of a [[planet]] is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun (its period).
---
> Kepler's Third Law:  The square of the [[semimajor axis]] of the [[orbit]] of a [[planet]] is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun (its period).
------
Physicist|989506931
3c3
< See also the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]].
---
> See also the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]], [[famous physicists]]
------
Physicist|989506956
3c3
< See also the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]], [[famous physicists]]
---
> See also the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]], [[scientist]]s, [[biography]], [[Famous Physicists]]
------
Johannes_Kepler|989506956
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[astronomer]] known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
------
Johannes_Kepler|989507024
1c1
< [[astronomer]] known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
---
> German [[astronomer]], born 1571, died 1630, known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
------
Astronomer|989507088
18a19
> *[[Carl Sagan]] (USA)
------
Mathematician|989507382
1c1
< Scientist whose area of study is [[Mathematics]]
---
> [[Scientist]] whose area of study is [[Mathematics]]
3c3,10
< Some famous Mathematicians:
---
> Some famous mathematicians (in alphabetic order, without FunnYcaPsingPlease):
> 
> *[[Niels Henrik Abel]] (Norway, 1802-1829)
> *[[Andre Marie Ampere]] (France, 1775-1836)
> *[[Stefan Banach]] (Poland, 1892-1945)
> *[[Jakob Bernoulli]] (Germany, 1654-1705)
> *[[Johann Bernoulli]] (Germany, 1667-1748)
> *[[Joseph Louis Francois Bertrand]] (France, 1822-1900)
------
Scientist|989507466
3c3,9
< Scientists include [[chemist]]s, [[physicist]]s, [[economists]], ...
---
> Scientists include
> [[astronomer]]s,
> [[biologist]]s,
> [[chemist]]s,
> [[mathematician]]s,
> [[physicist]]s,
> [[economists]], ...
------
MathematicalGroup|989507585
21c21
< * [[Abelian groups]]
---
> * [[Abelian groups]] (after [[Niels Henrik Abel]])
------
MathematicalGroup|989507629
1c1
< A mathematical group is an algebraic entity containing a set of objects and a mathematical operation on those objects. There is a set of rules the objects and operation must obey. Here, A, B, and C, and I are objects in the group, and @ is the group operation.
---
> A [[mathematics|mathematical]] group is an algebraic entity containing a set of objects and a mathematical operation on those objects. There is a set of rules the objects and operation must obey. Here, A, B, and C, and I are objects in the group, and @ is the group operation.
------
MathematicalGroup|989507745
1c1
< A [[mathematics|mathematical]] group is an algebraic entity containing a set of objects and a mathematical operation on those objects. There is a set of rules the objects and operation must obey. Here, A, B, and C, and I are objects in the group, and @ is the group operation.
---
> A [[mathematics|mathematical]] group is an [[algebra|algebraic]] entity containing a set of objects and a [[mathematical operation]] on those objects. There is a set of rules the objects and operation must obey. Here, A, B, and C, and I are objects in the group, and @ is the group operation.
4,7c4,7
< * <B>Closure</B> If A and B are in the group, A @ B is also in the group.
< * <B>Identity</B> There is a special object in the group called I with the properties A @ I = A  and also I @ A = A whenever A is in the group.
< * <B>Inverse</B> Whenever A is in the group, there is a corrensponding element called the inverse of A also in the group. If A @ B = I and also B @ A = I, then we say B is the inverse of A.
< * <B>Associativity</B> ( A @ B ) @ C = A @ ( B @ C ) whenever A, B, C are in the group.
---
> * <B>[[Closure]]</B> If A and B are in the group, A @ B is also in the group.
> * <B>[[Identity]]</B> There is a special object in the group called I with the properties A @ I = A  and also I @ A = A whenever A is in the group.
> * <B>[[Inverse]]</B> Whenever A is in the group, there is a corrensponding element called the inverse of A also in the group. If A @ B = I and also B @ A = I, then we say B is the inverse of A.
> * <B>[[Associativity]]</B> ( A @ B ) @ C = A @ ( B @ C ) whenever A, B, C are in the group.
18c18
< As with other abstract algebraic entities, the point of mathematical groups is that you attempt to prove things about groups assuming only the basic properties of mathematical groups given in the definition. That way whatever you prove is useful for all mathematical groups, not just the one you are thinking about at the moment.
---
> As with other [[abstract algebra]]ic entities, the point of mathematical groups is that you attempt to prove things about groups assuming only the basic properties of mathematical groups given in the definition. That way whatever you prove is useful for all mathematical groups, not just the one you are thinking about at the moment.
------
Mathematician|989508288
10a11,28
> *[[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] (Germany, 1784-1846)
> *[[Farkos Wolfgang Bolyai]] (Romania, 1775-1856)
> *[[Bernhard Bolzano]] (Bohemia, 1781-1848)
> *[[Boole]]
> *[[Henry Briggs]] (Britain, 1561-1630)
> *[[George Cantor]] (Germany, 1845-1918)
> *[[Geronimo Cardano]] (Italy, 1501-1576)
> *[[Augustin Louis Cauchy]] (France, 1789-1857)
> *[[Bonaventura Cavalieri]] (Italy, 1598-1647)
> *[[Ludolph van Ceulen]] (Germany, 1540-1610)
> *[[Gabriel Cramer]] (Switzerland, 1704-1752)
> *[[Jean-Lerond dAlembert|Jean-Lerond d'Alembert]] (Germany, 1717-1783)
> *[[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]] (France, Belgium, 1794-1847)
> *[[David van Dantzig]] (Netherlands, 1900-1959)
> *[[George Dantzig]] (USA, 1914-)
> *[[Richard Dedekind]] (Germany, 1831-1916)
> 
> 
------
Ice_Cube|989508434
47,52c47,52
< *[[AmeriKKKas Most Wanted]]
< *[[Death Certificate]]
< *[[Lethal Injection]]
< *[[The Predator]]
< *War & Peace, Vol. 1 ([[The War Disc]])
< *War & Peace, Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]])
---
> *[[Ice Cube - AmeriKKKas Most Wanted]]
> *[[Ice Cube - Death Certificate]]
> *[[Ice Cube - Lethal Injection]]
> *[[Ice Cube - The Predator]]
> *Ice Cube - War & Peace, Vol. 1 ([[The War Disc]])
> *Ice Cube - War & Peace, Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]])
------
Set_Theory|989508463
1,2c1,2
< Set theory is a part of mathematics created by the German
< mathematician Georg Cantor at the end of the 19th century.
---
> Set theory is a part of [[mathematics]] created by the German
> [[mathematician]] [[Georg Cantor]] at the end of the [[19th century]].
------
George_Cantor|989508499
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German [[mathetmatician]], known for having created [[set theory]].
> 
> 
------
George_Cantor|989508541
1c1
< German [[mathetmatician]], known for having created [[set theory]].
---
> German [[mathematician]], 1845-1918, known for having created [[Set Theory]].
------
Mathematician|989508626
16c16
< *[[George Cantor]] (Germany, 1845-1918)
---
> *[[Georg Cantor]] (Germany, 1845-1918)
------
Georg_Cantor|989508660
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German [[mathematician]], born 1845, died 1918, known for having created [[Set Theory]].
> 
> 
------
Battle_of_Adrianople|989508828
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Battle of Adrianople (378 AD) was fought between a Roman army led by the emperor Valens and Germanic tribes (mainly Visigoths and Ostrogoths) commanded by Fritigern. The battle took place at today’s Edirne (Turkey) and ended with an overwhelming victory of Germanic tribes. Emperor Valens, who is accused to cause the defeat by failing to wait for reinforcements, was among 40000 Roman soldiers lost on the battlefield. It was one of the major victories of so called barbarians over the Roman forces, which aided several Germanic tribes to gain rights of accommodation within the Balkan territories and intrude into the Roman Empire. Ongoing Germanic intrusions resulted in the division of the empire into two halves on 395 AD and extinction of the Western half on 476 AD. 
------
Ice_Cube_-_AmeriKKKas_Most_Wanted|989509057
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Artist: [[Ice Cube]]
> 
> Album: AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
> 
> Date: 1990-05-16
> 
> After leaving [[NWA]] on anything but good terms with [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Eazy-E]], [[Ice Cube]] launched his solo career with the hard-hitting and impressive AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted. While the Angelino continued to embrace [[gangsta rap]] -- a style in which MCs provide violent, graphic, first-person portrayals of thugs, gang members, drug dealers, etc. -- there's a lot more to this riveting CD than that controversial approach. As much as Cube thrives on the shocking and the profane, it's clear that he isn't glamorizing the harsh urban realities he raps about, but rather, protesting them. "Once Upon a Time in the Projects" is about being arrested for being in the wrong place (a crack house) at the wrong time (during a drug bust), while "Endangered Species" (a duet with Public Enemy leader Chuck D) is a sobering reflection on the high mortality rate among young African-American males. 
> 
> On some of his subsequent recordings, Cube would, artistically speaking, become a victim of his own anger. But on AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted, a more lucid Cube quite effectively articulates just how bad things are in the America's inner cities -- and how badly things need to change.
> 
> *AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
> *A Gangsta's Fairytale
> *Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here
> *I'm Only Out for One Thang
> *It's A Man's World
> *Once Upon a Time in the Projects
> *Rollin' Wit the Lench Mob
> *Tales From the Darkside
> *The Bomb
> *The Nigga Ya Love to Hate
> *Turn Off the Radio
> *What They Hittin' Foe?
> *Who's the Mack?
> *You Can't Fade Me
------
George_Cantor|989509079
1c1,2
< German [[mathematician]], 1845-1918, known for having created [[Set Theory]].
---
> This is an incorrect spelling of [[Georg Cantor]] and
> should be removed or replaced by a redirect.
------
Hip_hop|989509202
23c23
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member, [[Dr. Dre]]'s Album "The Chronic".
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member, [[Dr. Dre]]'s Album "The Chronic". 
------
Rap_music|989509313
30d29
< 
------
Ice_Cube|989509383
43c43
< Although hip-hop fans are notoriously fickle, Cube has stayed atop the games for over a decade. "I still sell the same amount of records. I still get a big reception," he says. "In hip hop, people always want new artists, but when I really get down, nobody puts a record together better than me. So I'll always be here. Long as I stay consistent and keep my heart in it, I'm a be here." 
---
> Although hip-hop fans are notoriously fickle, Cube has stayed atop the games for over a decade. "I still sell the same amount of records. I still get a big reception," he says. "In hip hop, people always want new artists, but when I really get down, nobody puts a record together better than me. So I'll always be here. Long as I stay consistent and keep my heart in it, I'm a be here."
------
Rap_music/Gangsta_rap|989509445
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first gangster rapper was Ice T. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member Dr. Dre introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Rap_music|989509481
13c13
< some artists:
---
> some artists: 
------
Mathematician|989509552
26a27,44
> *[[Rene Descartes]] (France, 1596-1650)
> *[[Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet]] (Germany, 1805-1859)
> *[[Leonhard Euler]] (Switzerland, 1707-1783)
> *[[Pierre de Fermat]] (France, 1601-1665)
> *[[Lodovico Ferrari]] (Italy, 1522-1565)
> *[[Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier]] (France, 1768-1830)
> *[[Evariste Galois]] (France, 1811-1832)
> *[[Karl Friedrich Gauss]] (Germany 1777-1855)
> *[[Kurt Godel|Kurt Gödel]] (Germany, 1906-1978)
> *[[Christian Goldbach]] (Germany, 1690-1764)
> *[[William Sealey Gosset]] (Britain, 1876-1937)
> *[[Guldin]] (Germany, 1577-1643)
> *[[William Rowan Hamilton]] (Britain, 1805-1865)
> *[[Felix Hausdorff]] (Germany, 1869-1942)
> *[[Charles Hermite]] (France, -1901)
> *[[David Hilbert]] (Germany, 1862-1943)
> *[[Christiaan Huygens]] (Netherlands, 1629-1695)
> *[[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi]] (Germany, 1804-1851)
------
Mathematician|989509831
28a29
> *[[Euclid]]  (Greece)
45c46,52
< 
---
> *[[Leonid Witaljewitsch Kantorowitsch]] (Russia, 1912-)
> *[[Abraham Gotthelf Kastner|Abraham Gotthelf Kästner]] (Germany, 1719-1800)
> *[[Johannes Kepler]] (Germany, 1571-1630)
> *[[Felix Klein]] (Germany, 1849-1925)
> *[[Andrey Nikolevich Kolmogorov]] (Russia, 1903-1987)
> *[[Sofia Vasilyevna Kovalevskaja]] (Russia, 1850-1891)
> *[[Leopold Kronecker]] (Germany, 1823-1891)
------
Johannes_Kepler|989509858
1c1
< German [[astronomer]], born 1571, died 1630, known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
---
> German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1571, died 1630, known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
------
Television|989509926
48a49
> :[[Mr. T]]
------
LA2|989510096
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A brave fighter can do with a short sword, for he is not afraid to go close to his enemy.  The way to acquire knowledge is by close and intense study of the subject matter. My purpose with contributing to [[Wikipedia]] is not to make a lasting and useful encyclopedia, because I think that requires a whole lot more organization than this, but I think that I can learn something from using and contributing to this collaboratively edited hypertext.
> 
------
Rap_music/Gangsta_rap|989510253
1c1
< The first gangster rapper was Ice T. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member Dr. Dre introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially [[NWA]] and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
19th_century|989510258
1c1
< * Final phase of the [[industrial revolution]], including [[Rail transport]], [[telegraph]], and [[telephone]].
---
> * Final phase of the [[industrial revolution]], including [[Rail Transport]], [[telegraph]], and [[telephone]].
------
Optical_telegraph|989510335
1c1
< Optical telegraphs precede the electrical telepgraph.  It is faster than riding couriers for bringing a message over long distances.  Types of optical telegraphs are the [[semaphore]], [[ship flags]], [[smoke signals]], and [[beacon]]s.  The distance that an optical telegraph can bridge is limited by geography, the shape of the earth, and the sharpness of the human eye.  In practical use, most optical telegraphs used [[relay league]]s to bridge longer distances.
---
> The optical [[telegraph]]s precede the [[electrical telepgraph]].  It is faster than riding couriers for bringing a message over long distances.  Types of optical telegraphs are the [[semaphore]], [[ship flags]], [[smoke signals]], and [[beacon]]s.  The distance that an optical telegraph can bridge is limited by geography, the shape of the earth, and the sharpness of the human eye.  In practical use, most optical telegraphs used [[relay league]]s to bridge longer distances.
------
Telegraph|989510430
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A telegraph is a machinery for [[telegraphy]].
> See [[optical telegraph]], [[electrical telegraph]],
> [[Morse code]], [[Samuel Morse]].
------
Mr._T|989510505
1c1,71
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mr. T was born Laurence Tureaud on 21 May 1952 in the rough southside ghetto area of [[Chicago]].  He is the second to youngest of twelve children (he has four sisters and seven brothers) and grew up in the [[housing projects]] of Chicago.  His father left when he was 5, and his mother raised the family on $87 a month welfare in a three-      
> room apartment.  Mr. T's brothers encouraged him to build up his body in order to survive in the area, and he has commented, "If you think I'm big, you should see my brothers!"  His mother is a religious woman, who has had a strong influence on him.  He says, "Any man who don't love his momma can't be no friend of mine."                        
> 
> He was an average student in school.  "Most of the time," he says, "I stared out the windows, just daydreaming.  I didn't study much because I have a [[photographic memory]]."  Apart from one spell between 5th and 7th grades when he went a little astray -- playing hookey, cursing, acting tough, being disrespectful -- he was a well-     
> behaved child.  (He worried about how his mother would feel if he ended up in jail, and stayed out of trouble!)  He attended Dunbar Vocational High School.                                                  
> 
> He was a college football star, studied martial arts, and was three times city [[wrestling]] champion! He won a scholarship to Prairie View A&M University in [[Texas]], but was thrown out after a year -- after that he went to a couple of little colleges in [[Chicago]], always on an athletic scholarship.                                       
> 
> When he left college, Mr. T was a military policeman in the US Army.  After that, he was invited to try out for the [[Green Bay Packers]], but a knee injury finished his professional football career.  He became a 'minder', and remained largely in that profession for about nine years.  He has bodyguarded such stars as [[Muhammed Ali]], [[Leon Spinks]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Steve McQueen]], [[Diana Ross]] and [[LeVar Burton]].  He charged about $3,000 a day (more for 'special' jobs) and  his business card reads, 'Next to God, there is no better protector than I'.  He boasts that he never lost a client.  Of the job he says,  "I got hurt worse growing up in the [[ghetto]] than working as a bodyguard."  He believed in having a very professional attitude  toward the job, preventing trouble from even starting rather than having to sort it out once it had.  "I was a very dapper dresser,"  he recalls.  "I shaved my head, wore [[derby hat]]s, white gloves, 3-piece suits, carried a cane.  I never went any place without a fresh carnation or a rosebud in my lapel."                                     
> 
> When he wasn't working as a [[bodyguard]], he filled in by working as a [[bouncer]].  One job he had was at Dingbat's club in Chicago. Club owner Ron Riskman says, "He was always very smartly dressed and he shaved his head completely bald.  He'd confront trouble makers and say to them, "It's only fair to warn you that my patience is as      
> long as the hair on my head."  Most of them would get pretty quiet after that.
> 
> He changed his name in 1970 by [[deed poll]] to Laurence Tero, and later to Mr. T in order that people would HAVE to address him as  "Mr."                                                                    
> 
> It was whilst reading "National Geographic" that Mr. T first saw the hairstyle for which he is now famous -- on a [[Mandinka]] warrior.  He felt that adopting the style was a powerful statement about his origins.  
>                                                      
> In 1975 he worked for a while on the Chicago educational  scheme as a gym teacher.  In 1978 he decided to do something  definite about his religious beliefs and was rebaptised in the Cosmopolitan Community Church in [[Chicago]].
> 
> In 1982, Mr. T was 'spotted' by [[Sylvester Stallone]]; he was on the TV show "Games People Play," taking part in "The World's Toughest Bouncer" contest -- tossing two stuntmen about quite casually!  His role in "[[Rocky III]]" was originally intended as just a few lines, but Stallone built up the part around the man.  Mr. T         
> also appeared in another boxing film, "Penitentiary 2," and in a [[cable TV]] special, "Bizarre," before accepting the role of BA in "[[The A-Team]]."                                                            
> 
> Mr. T is 5'11" tall, and weighs somewhere between 216 lb and        
> 237 lb (the former is the lightest report I've encountered, the          
> latter is his fighting weight given in the second bout in "Rocky III.")  
> That gold jewelry IS real, and is worth around $300,000.  He is          
> reported to earn around $80,000 a week for his role in the A-Team,       
> though, and gets $15,000 for a personal appearance, so he can afford     
> to support his eccentricity!  His earrings are especially made so        
> that they won't damage his ears if they are caught during a fight        
> (they'll just slip free), and he wears seven because of the religious    
> significance of the numbers 3, 4, and 7. (?? Can anyone explain this     
> exactly to me? --nicole)  It takes him about an hour to put it on,       
> incidentaly, and most nights he cleans it in an ultrasonic cleaner...    
> although some nights he sleeps in it "to see how my ancestors, who       
> were slaves, felt."  He gives much the same response if asked if it is   
> heavy--nobody ever asked those enslaved ancestors if THEIR chains are    
> heavy!  He has a point.                                                  
>      He makes little effort, he claims, to keep his body in shape, and   
> is a confirmed junk food addict-- triple-decker hamburgers have been     
> mentioned!  He currently lives alone in a tower block apartment in the   
> Westwood area of Los Angeles.  He spends a great deal of time with his   
> family in Chicago, however, and with his 13-year-old daughter Lesa       
> (the result of a teenage love affair) who lives there with her mother.   
> He is very active in community work,  and is often to be found in        
> MacLaren Hall, Los Angeles, a shelter for abused children bevcause,      
> he says, "There's no telling how many lives you can turn around."  He    
> is very conscious of his responsibility toward the children who admire   
> him and never drinks, smokes or takes drugs of any kind.  He refuses to  
> take any acting role that casts him as 'bad', and isn't keen on doing    
> what he refers to as 'mushy scenes.' "My style," he says, "is always     
> a hungry fighter."                                                       
>      In the break between seasons of The A-Team, Mr. T has been          
> making a low-budget comedy movie, "DC Cab," which also stars Gary        
> Busey and Musical Youth.  In it, he plays a taxi driver who protects     
> kids from hoods. Also in the works is "Rev T," in which he plays a       
> garbage  collector who lauches a neighborhood compaign against drugs     
> and crime.  NBC is also making a series of cartoons based on 'the        
> adventures of Mr. T.'  He has made several guest appearances; one in     
> "Silver Spoons" (which we don't get in the UK), and in the season        
> opener pf "Diff'rent Strokes."  In the latter, the A-Team spends the     
> week filming in the Drummond Apartment, and little Arnold has an         
> identity crisis when he learns that his new girlfriend is only using     
> him to meet Mr. T.  He attempts to emulate his idol (he looks            
> ridiculous with a Mandinka!) and is told, firmly, "You gotta be your     
> own original." That's probably Mr. T's most valuable statement.          
>      For the future, Mr. T hopes to become a preacher in about five      
> years' time.  When asked at a Press conference whether he is as thick    
> as BA Baracus, he observed (quietly, because he usually DOES speak       
> quietly!), "It takes a smart guy to play dumb."                          
> 
------
19th_century|989510611
5c5
< * Slavery ended in British colonies and in America. See [[American Civil War]]. 
---
> * [[Slavery]] ended in British colonies and in America. See [[American Civil War]]. 
------
Telegraphy|989510656
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling alphabet, and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
> 
> 
------
Laws_of_Kepler|989510743
1c1
< The astronomer [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
---
> The [[astronomer]] [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
3c3
< Kepler's First Law:  [[Planet]]s move in [[ellipse]]s, with the [[sun]] located on one focus of the ellipse.
---
> <b>Kepler's First Law:</b>  [[Planet]]s move in [[ellipse]]s, with the [[sun]] located on one focus of the ellipse.
5c5
< Kepler's Second Law: A line between a planet and the sun will sweep out equal areas over equals times. 
---
> <b>Kepler's Second Law:</b> A line between a [[planet]] and the [[sun]] will sweep out equal areas over equals times. 
7c7
< Kepler's Third Law:  The square of the [[semimajor axis]] of the [[orbit]] of a [[planet]] is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the sun (its period).
---
> <b>Kepler's Third Law:</b>  The square of the [[semimajor axis]] of the [[orbit]] of a [[planet]] is proportional to the cube of the time it takes to orbit the [[sun]] (its period).
------
Ice_Cube_-_AmeriKKKas_Most_Wanted|989510743
1c1
< Artist: [[Ice Cube]]
---
> <b>Artist:</b> [[Ice Cube]]
3c3
< Album: AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
---
> <b>Album:</b> AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
5c5
< Date: 1990-05-16
---
> <b>Date:</b> 1990-05-16
9a10,11
> 
> <b>Track Listing</b>
------
Telegraphy|989510744
1c1
< Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling alphabet, and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
---
> Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[e-mail]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling alphabet, and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
------
Telegraphy|989510812
1c1,3
< Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[e-mail]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling alphabet, and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
---
> Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[e-mail]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  
> 
> The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
------
Beacon|989510854
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Beacons are fires lit on hills or high places, used for signalling that enemy troups are approaching, and alerting the defence.  Beacons are ancient forms of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
> 
> 
------
Beacon|989510910
1c1
< Beacons are fires lit on hills or high places, used for signalling that enemy troups are approaching, and alerting the defence.  Beacons are ancient forms of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
---
> Beacons are fires lit on hills or high places, used either as lighthouses for navigation at sea or for signalling over land that enemy troups are approaching, and alerting the defence.  Beacons are ancient forms of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
------
Radio/History|989510930
13c13
< *Quickly becomes popular on ships after the Titanic.
---
> *Quickly becomes popular on ships after the [[Titanic]].
19,20c19,20
< *Commercial (USA) or governmental (Europe) station networks
< *Birth of the soap opera
---
> *Commercial ([[United States]]) or governmental ([[Europe]]) station networks
> *Birth of the [[soap opera]]
33d32
< 
------
AmeriKKKa|989510944
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Slang]] word from [[Ice Cube]]'s 1990 Album [[AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted]]
> 
> The KKK is representative of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and highlights the ongoing racial intolerance of white americans
> 
------
Beacon|989510973
1c1
< Beacons are fires lit on hills or high places, used either as lighthouses for navigation at sea or for signalling over land that enemy troups are approaching, and alerting the defence.  Beacons are ancient forms of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
---
> Beacons are fires lit on hills or high places, used either as [[lighthouse]]s for [[navigation]] at sea or for signalling over land that enemy troups are approaching, and alerting the defence.  In the latter form, beacons are an ancient form of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s.
------
Beacon|989511070
2a3
> In modern technoparlance, a beacon can also be a radio transmitter used for navigation.
------
George_Cantor|989511130
1,4c1
< This is an incorrect spelling of [[Georg Cantor]] and
< should be removed or replaced by a redirect.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Georg Cantor]]
------
Samuel_Morse|989511201
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[inventor]] in the 1830s of the [[electrical telegraph]],
> based on the discovery in 1820 by [[Hans Christian Orsted|Hans Christian Ørsted]] of the relationship between [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and of the [[Morse code]] signalling alphabet.
> 
> 
------
Electrical_telegraph|989511256
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[telegraph]] that uses electric signals.  Invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]].
> 
> See also [[telegraphy]].
------
Titanic|989511391
1c1,3
< The ''Titanic'' was a ship that sank.  An unbelievably popular movie - unbelievable since absolutely noone likes it - was directed by [[James Cameron]] with it as the setting.
---
> The ''Titanic'' was a ship that sank.  This event had an enormous importance on [[ship construction]] and [[wireless telegraphy]].
> 
> An unbelievably popular movie - unbelievable since absolutely noone likes it - was directed by [[James Cameron]] with it as the setting.
------
Titanic|989511405
1c1
< The ''Titanic'' was a ship that sank.  This event had an enormous importance on [[ship construction]] and [[wireless telegraphy]].
---
> The ''Titanic'' was a [[ship]] that sank.  This event had an enormous importance on [[ship construction]] and [[wireless telegraphy]].
------
Ship|989511423
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A big [[boat]].  See [[water transport]].
------
20th_century|989511423
10a11,30
> Important events and achievements:
>  *Birth of heavier-than-air flying machines
>  *Assembly line and mass production
>  *Invention of microprocessor
>  *Television
>  *Theory of relativity
>  *Quantum physics
>  *Nuclear weapons and energy
>  *Space flight and lunar landings
>  *Global real-time communications
>  *Development of agricultural chemicals
>  *Discovery of DNA molecule
>  *World War Two
>  *Rise and fall of Soviet Union
> 
> Significant persons:
>  *[[Neil Armstrong]]
>  *[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]
>  *[[Winston Churchill]] 
> 
16,26d35
< And I bet, everyone said the same thing as the year 1900 began, i.e. that the nineteenth century was the most remarkable century of all time...:-). Remember the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, the Civil War and Emancipation Proclamation. Sorry,
< since I was not here for the last century, I would be very reluctant to make the above
< judgments.  Perhaps, you should be too. Unless you are much older than I thought
< ...:-).RoseParks.
< ----
< The 19th century ''was'' the most remarkable century of all time--until the 20th came along.  :-)
< ----
< And probably  the 21th will be the most remarkable when it's over...
< By the way, the french revolution was in the eighteen century.
< --AstroNomer----
< I stand corrected on The French Revolution. Trying again...:-). I believe you understood my point. Thank you. RoseParks
------
Ship|989511440
1c1
< A big [[boat]].  See [[water transport]].
---
> A big [[boat]].  See [[water transport]] or [[transport]].
------
Ship|989511461
1c1
< A big [[boat]].  See [[water transport]] or [[transport]].
---
> A big [[boat]].  See [[Sea Transport]] or [[transport]].
------
20th_century|989511485
12,24c12,24
<  *Birth of heavier-than-air flying machines
<  *Assembly line and mass production
<  *Invention of microprocessor
<  *Television
<  *Theory of relativity
<  *Quantum physics
<  *Nuclear weapons and energy
<  *Space flight and lunar landings
<  *Global real-time communications
<  *Development of agricultural chemicals
<  *Discovery of DNA molecule
<  *World War Two
<  *Rise and fall of Soviet Union
---
> * Birth of heavier-than-air flying machines
> * Assembly line and mass production
> * Invention of microprocessor
> * Television
> * Theory of relativity
> * Quantum physics
> * Nuclear weapons and energy
> * Space flight and lunar landings
> * Global real-time communications
> * Development of agricultural chemicals
> * Discovery of DNA molecule
> * World War Two
> * Rise and fall of Soviet Union
27,29c27,29
<  *[[Neil Armstrong]]
<  *[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]
<  *[[Winston Churchill]] 
---
> * [[Neil Armstrong]]
> * [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]
> * [[Winston Churchill]] 
------
Serendipity|989511516
1c1,5
< Serendipity is the chance of finding something unexpected.  The word comes from some ancient arab fairy tale.  It is also the name of a club in [[New York City]] where [[Andy Warhol]] used to be.
---
> Serendipity finding something unexpected and useful while searching for something else entirely.  
> 
> The word was coined by [[Horace Walpole]] in the 18th century, from the Persian fairy story  `<i>The Three Princes of Serendip</i>'  (Serendip is an old name for the island now known as [[Sri Lanka]])
> 
> It is also the name of a club in [[New York City]] where [[Andy Warhol]] used to be.
------
20th_century|989511518
28c28
< * [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]
---
> * [[Albert Einstein]]
------
Horace_Walpole|989511647
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English writer (1717-1797)
> 
> Author of the famous  [[Gothic novel]], [[The Castle of Otranto]]
------
Wireless_telegraphy|989511729
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
> 
> Early radio could not transfer sounds, only the clicks of [[Morse code]].  Read more about [[Radio/History]].
> 
> 
------
Soap_opera|989511816
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Radio/History]], [[Literature]], [[Drama]], [[Radio Theatre]], [[Theatre]] [[Theater]]
------
Soap_opera|989511845
1c1
< See [[Radio/History]], [[Literature]], [[Drama]], [[Radio Theatre]], [[Theatre]] [[Theater]]
---
> See [[Radio/History]], [[Literature]], [[Drama]], [[Radio Theater]], [[Theater]]
------
Diamond|989512000
1c1
< One of the natural [[allotrope]]s of [[carbon]]. Sometimes known as <i>adamant</i>, it is the hardest known material. The diamond is a hard, transparent crystal of high [[refractive index]] consisting of tetrahedrally bonded carbons. It is a good electrical insulator, but unlike most insulators, due to the strong bonding within the molecule, is a good conductor of heat.
---
> One of the natural [[allotrope]]s of [[carbon]]. Sometimes known as <i>adamant</i>, it is the hardest known maturally occuring material.  Diamond is a hard, transparent crystal of high [[refractive index]] consisting of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms.  It is a good electrical insulator, but unlike most insulators, is a good conductor of heat due to the strong bonding within the molecule.
3c3
< In the late 18th century, diamonds were demonstrated to be made of carbon by the rather expensive experiment of igniting a diamond (by means of a [[burning-glass]]) in an oxygen atmosphere and showing that carbonic acid gas ([[carbon dioxide]]) was the product of [[combustion]].
---
> In the late 18th century, diamonds were demonstrated to be made of carbon by the rather expensive experiment of igniting a diamond (by means of a [[burning-glass]]) in an oxygen atmosphere and showing that carbonic acid gas ([[carbon dioxide]]) was the product of the [[combustion]].
5c5
< Due to their high refractive index, diamonds have been prized as a constituent of [[jewellery]], and a large trade in gemnstone class diamonds exists, mostly controlled by the [[De Beers]] company.  
---
> Due to their high refractive index, diamonds have been prized as a constituent of [[jewellery]], and a large trade in gemstone-class diamonds exists, mostly controlled by the [[De Beers]] company.
7c7
< Poorer quality (discoloured, less transparent) diamonds are used as industrial diamonds, where their extreme hardness is useful in cutting and grinding otherwise intractable materials (including other diamonds); lately, gas-phase deposition processes have been devised that allow thin diamond films to be grown on some surfaces, greatly increasing the durability of some machine tools.
---
> Poorer quality (discoloured, less transparent) diamonds are used as industrial diamonds, where their extreme hardness is useful in cutting and grinding otherwise intractable materials (including other diamonds).  Lately, gas-phase deposition processes have been devised that allow thin diamond films to be grown on some surfaces, greatly increasing the durability of some machine tools.
9,12c9
< 
< ----
< 
< <i>Or is there some weird boron nitride structure that's harder?</i>
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
William_Bradford_Shockley|989512013
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Physicist]] and co-[[inventor]] of the [[transistor]].
> Recipient of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]].
> 
> 
------
William_Bradford_Shockley|989512104
1,2c1,2
< [[Physicist]] and co-[[inventor]] of the [[transistor]].
< Recipient of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]].
---
> [[Physicist]] and co-[[inventor]] of the [[transistor]] in 1948.
> Recipient of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]] in 1956.
------
John_Bardeen|989512164
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Physicist]] and co-[[inventor]] of the [[transistor]] in 1948.
> Recipient in 1956 of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]].
> 
> 
------
Walter_Houser_Brattain|989512222
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Physicist]] and co-[[inventor]] of the [[transistor]] in 1948.
> Recipient in 1956 of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize in physics]].
> 
> 
------
Inventor|989512420
0a1,3
> A person who creates new inventions, typically mechanical or electric machines.  Such [[invention]]s can be [[patent]]ed.
> 
> 
2,7c5,10
< [[Alexander Graham Bell]],
< [[Thomas Edison]],
< [[Douglas Engelbart]],
< [[Henry Ford]],
< [[Guglielmo Marconi]],
< [[Alfred Nobel]]
---
> *[[Alexander Graham Bell]],
> *[[Thomas Edison]],
> *[[Douglas Engelbart]],
> *[[Henry Ford]],
> *[[Guglielmo Marconi]],
> *[[Alfred Nobel]]
9a13
> See also [[scientist]]s.
------
Jewellery|989512496
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Jewellery''' (spelled '''jewelry''' in American English) refers to ornamental devices worn by persons, typically made with gems and precious metals.
> 
> Examples include [[bracelet]]s, [[necklace]]s, [[ring]]s, ...
------
Jewelry|989512538
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Jewellery]]
------
Patent|989512756
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A legal right to be alone in exploiting the economic benefits of a new [[invention]], granted to the [[inventor]] for a limited time.  Patents are granted in each country by a government agency, such as the [[USPTO]], or in a group of countries (European patent, world patent) that have established cooperations for this purpose.
> 
> Patents are only applicable to inventions.  Other creations are covered by [[copyright]] or [[trademark]]s.  Some countries allow [[software patent]]s, others do not.
> 
> See also [[law]], [[intellectual property]].
> 
------
Gleichschaltung|989513218
3c3,5
< Not all influences are domestic, however. Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad. This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out a full scale war in 1939.
---
> Not all influences are domestic, however. Total control required the elimination of influences from abroad. This led the German government to become increasingly aggressive in its foreign policy, annexing parts of [[Czechoslovakia]], and the whole of [[Austria]], before launching all out a [[World War II|full scale war in 1939]].
> 
> Gleichschaltung is the German word for ... converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).
------
Inventor|989513352
1,2c1
< A person who creates new inventions, typically mechanical or electric machines.  Such [[invention]]s can be [[patent]]ed.
< 
---
> A person who creates new inventions, typically mechanical or electrical machines or other devices of practical use.  Though some inventors may also be [[scientist]]s, most base their work on the discoveries of other scientists, experimenting with practical applications and combinations of those discoveries, and with improvements and combinations of existing devices, to create new useful devices.  Governments frequently encourage inventors by granting [[patent]]s on inventions that are judged sufficiently novel.
4a4
> 
------
Mathematician|989513817
52a53,66
> *[[Kazimierz Kuratowski]] (Poland, 1896-1980)
> *[[Martin Wilhelm Kutta]] (Germany, 1867-1944)
> *[[Joseph-Louis de Lagrange]] (France, 1736-1813)
> *[[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (Germany, 1728-1777)
> *[[Pierre Simon Laplace]] (France, 1749-1827)
> *[[Henri Leon Lebesgue]] (France, 1875-1941)
> *[[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] (France, 1752-1833)
> *[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (Germany, 1646-1716)
> *[[Guillaume Francois Antoine lHospital|Guillaume Francois Antoine l'Hospital]] (France, 1661-1704)
> *[[Nikolai Iwanowitsch Lobatschewski]] (Russia, 1792-1856)
> *[[Andrei Andreyevich Markow]] (Russia, 1856-1922)
> *[[Hermann Minkowski]] (Germany, 1864-1909)
> *[[August Ferdinand Mobius|August Ferdinand Möbius]] (Germany, 1790-1868)
> *[[Abraham de Moivre]] (France, 1667-1754)
------
Pretty_Tony|989514167
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Miami hip hop pioneer who also produced many [[freestyle]] tracks. In fact, he probably introduced the name of the genre with his one-man band Freestyle. 
------
Mathematician|989514303
66a67,88
> *[[Gaspard Monge]] (France, 1746-1818)
> *[[de Morgan]]
> *[[John von Neumann]] (Hungary, USA, 1903-1957)
> *[[Isaac Newton]] (Britain, 1643-1727)
> *[[Emmy Noether]] (Germany, 1882-1935)
> *[[Blaise Pascal]] (France, 1623-1662)
> *[[Peano]]
> *[[Simeon Denis Poisson]] (France, 1781-1840)
> *[[George Polya]] (Hungary, USA, 1887-1985)
> *[[Regiomontanus]] (Johannes Müller, Germany, 1436-1476)
> *[[Bernhard Riemann]] (Germany, 1826-1866)
> *[[Adam Riese]] (Germany, 1492-1559)
> *[[Carle David Tolme Runge]] (Germany, 1856-1927)
> *[[Waclaw Sierpinski]] (Poland, 1882-1969)
> *[[Willebrord Snellius]] (Netherlands, 1580-1626)
> *[[Jakob Steiner]] (Switzerland, 1796-1863)
> *[[Simon Stevin]] (Netherlands, 1548-1620)
> *[[Michael Stifel]] (Germany, 1487-1567)
> *[[Tartaglia]] (Italy)
> *[[Brook Taylor]] (Britain, 1685-1731)
> *[[Pafnuty Lvovich Tschebyschow]] (Russia, 1821-1894)
> *[[Ehrenfried Walter Tschiernhaus]] (Germany, 1651-1708)
------
Mathematician|989514429
93,95c93,95
< : PierreDeFermat, MarinMersenne, ReneDescartes, BlaisePascal, AbrahamDeMoivre
< : GottfriedWillhelmLeibnitz, LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
< : BarroW, StirlinG, IsaacNewtoN, ColinMacLaurin, ChristopherWren
---
> : MarinMersenne,
> : LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
> : BarroW, StirlinG, ColinMacLaurin, ChristopherWren
97,100c97,99
< : Joseph/LouisLaGrange, NielsAbel EvaristeGalois
< : Augustin/LouisCauchy, Simeon/DenisPoisson
< : Adrien/MarieLegendre, CarlFriedrichGauss CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
< : BernhardRiemann, CamilleJordan, FelixKlein, SophusLie, HenriPoincare
---
> : EvaristeGalois
> : CarlGuustavJacobJacobi LejeuneDirichlet
> : CamilleJordan, SophusLie, HenriPoincare
103c102
< : GeorgCantor, ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
---
> : ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
------
Morpheme|989514435
1c1
< A morpheme is the smallest meaningful (in the sense of grammatical) unit in a given language. 
---
> A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a given language. 
3c3
< There are bound morphemes like a- that only appear together with other morphemes to form a [[lexeme]], there are free morphemes like town that can appear with other lexemes (town-hall) and alone. 
---
> There are bound morphemes like a- that only appear together with other morphemes to form a [[lexeme]], there are free morphemes like town that can appear with other lexemes (town-hall) and alone. Allomorphs are variants of morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-Iz/. 
5,8d4
< Also, "euphoria" and dysphoria." Since "dys" distinguishes these pairs of words, "dys" is probably a morpheme.
< It doesn't appear it can be further divided.----
< Actually, there is not a set definition of "morpheme' that I know. Once you consider "meaning"
< in the definition, you wind up with a circular definition. And, you are combining structure with content. Some say that natives speakers, definition or not, know the morphemes in their own language. Others insist on defining this as the smallest "grammtical" unit in a language. For instance the /-s/ /-es/ /-en/ that pluralizes English nouns would be considered allomorphs of the "plural morpheme."
------
Cypress_Hill|989514794
1c1,10
< Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of marijuana. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. 
---
> Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of marijuana. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by Rolling Stone as a synthesis out of the Beastie Boys and Public Enemy. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like gangster rap, but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
> 
> Discography:
> 1991 - Cypress Hill
> 1993 - Black Sunday
> 1995 - III Temples of Boom
> 1998 - IV
> 1999 - Los grandes éxitos en español
> 2000 - Skull and bones
> 2000 - Live at the Fillmore
------
Mathematician|989514817
32a33
> *[[Fibonacci]]
50c51
< *[[Andrey Nikolevich Kolmogorov]] (Russia, 1903-1987)
---
> *[[Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]] (Russia, 1903-1987)
63c64
< *[[Andrei Andreyevich Markow]] (Russia, 1856-1922)
---
> *[[Andrei Andreevich Markov]] (Russia, 1856-1922)
75a77
> *[[Pythagoras]] (Greece)
88a91,94
> *[[Alan Turing]] (Britain, 1912-1954)
> *[[Francoise Viete]] (France, 1540-1603)
> *[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] (Netherlands, 1903-1996)
> *[[Karl Weierstrass]] (Germany, 1815-1897)
90,92c96,97
< 
< : PythagoraS, EucliD, EudoxusOfCnidus, ArchimedeS, AppoloniusOfPerga, DiophantusOfAlexandria
< : FibonnacI, KhwarizmI 
---
> : EudoxusOfCnidus, ArchimedeS, AppoloniusOfPerga, DiophantusOfAlexandria
> : KhwarizmI 
94c99
< : LeonardEuler, ChristianGoldbach, BernoulliFamily
---
> : BernoulliFamily
101,104c106,109
< : LeopoldKroneckeR, KarlWeierstrass 
< : ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, DavidHilbert, SrinivasaRamanujan
< : AndreiAndreevichMarkov, PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
< : AndreiNicholaevichKolmogorov, BertrandRussell, [[Kurt Goedel]] 
---
> : LeopoldKroneckeR
> : ErnstZermelo, FraenkeL, SrinivasaRamanujan
> : PafnutyLvovichTchebycheff
> : BertrandRussell
------
Mathematician|989514852
3c3
< Some famous mathematicians (in alphabetic order, without FunnYcaPsingPlease):
---
> Some famous mathematicians (in alphabetic order):
------
Bangra|989514901
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bhangra is a kind of Indian pop that developed among Indians living in the UK. 
------
Pythagorean_Theorem|989514910
1c1
< The PythagoreanTheorem is named for and attributed to the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras who lived in the 6th century B.C., but was known before that time.  The theorem states a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says:
---
> The PythagoreanTheorem is named for and attributed to the Greek philosopher and mathematician [[Pythagoras]] who lived in the 6th century B.C., but was known before that time.  The theorem states a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle. It says:
------
Indian_Music|989514920
8c8
< * [[Bangra]]
---
> * [[Bhangra]]
16c16
< Might this be better labelled South Asian Music? There are several countries besides India where it is traditional and/or current.
---
> Might this be better labelled South Asian Music? There are several countries besides India where it is traditional and/or current.
------
Pythagoras|989514954
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century
------
Pythagoras|989514988
1c1,2
< Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century
---
> Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythogarean theorem]].
> 
------
Pythagoras|989515003
1c1
< Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythogarean theorem]].
---
> Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythogarean Theorem]].
------
Pythagoras|989515032
1c1
< Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythogarean Theorem]].
---
> Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythagorean Theorem]].
------
Pythagoras|989515053
1c1
< Greek [[mathetmatician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythagorean Theorem]].
---
> Greek [[mathematician]] and [[philosopher]] in the 6th century B.C., known for the [[Pythagorean Theorem]].
------
Bhangra|989515071
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bhangra is a kind of Indian pop music that developed among Indians living in the UK. Tabla player [[Talvin Singh]] mixed bhangra with western dance music, Apache Indian mixed bhangra and raggamuffin.
------
Patent|989515144
1c1
< A legal right to be alone in exploiting the economic benefits of a new [[invention]], granted to the [[inventor]] for a limited time.  Patents are granted in each country by a government agency, such as the [[USPTO]], or in a group of countries (European patent, world patent) that have established cooperations for this purpose.
---
> A '''patent''' is a set of exclusive rights granted by a government to an [[inventor]], including the exlusive right to build and sell artifacts based on his invention for a limited time.  The term comes from "letters patent", which were originally royal decrees granting monopoly privilege to certain businesses.  Today they are seen as a way to encourage invention by allowing inventors to profit from their ideas without competition for a time, in exchange for making the idea public.
3c3,5
< Patents are only applicable to inventions.  Other creations are covered by [[copyright]] or [[trademark]]s.  Some countries allow [[software patent]]s, others do not.
---
> The [[United States Constitution]] granted congress the power to enact copyright and patent laws in [[United States Constitution/Article One|Article One]], which states that "''The Congress shall have the power...to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;''" Congress passed the first such law in 1790.  The United States Patent and Trademark Office ([http://www.uspto.gov USPTO]) was established in 1802.  The majority of US patent law today is contained in Title 35 of the United States Code, first passed in 1952.  Some aspects of patent law today are covered by international treaty.
> 
> Because patents are more of a burden on potential competitors than [[copyright]]s and other forms of [[intellectual property]], the law makes them more difficult to obtain and more limited in scope and duration.  First, the patent must be "reduced to practice" (that is, there must be a working device that embodies the idea) before a patent can be applied for.  The patent office must examine the idea and find that it covers patentable subject matter (one cannot patent mathematical or scientific discoveries, for example), and that it is "novel" and "unobvious".  If granted, the idea is made public and its inventor is granted the exclusive rights to it.  Patents expire after 17 years.
------
Karl_Popper|989515273
1c1
< '''Karl Raimund Popper''' was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died on September 17, 1994.  He was considered by many the premier philosopher of science in the twentieth century.  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[critical philosophy]] which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
---
> '''Karl Raimund Popper''' was born July 28, 1902 in Vienna, and died on September 17, 1994.  He was considered by many the premier [[philosopher]] of science in the [[20th century|twentieth century]].  His first major work, ''Logik der Forschung'' (The Logic of Research), published in 1934, criticized the then-popular schools of [[logical positivism]] and favored an approach to science based on criticism rather than verification.  This work gained much attention and led to Popper being invited to lecture in England, which would later become his home.  He would later develop these ideas into a philosophy he called [[critical rationalism]], a refinement of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s [[critical philosophy]] which held that the task of philosophers is not to verify or justify propositions, but to conjecture and criticize.
3c3
< The rise of [[Nazism]], and particularly the German annexation of Austria in 1938, prompted Popper to also work on political and social philosophy, where he criticized popular social theories of the day in favor of a more scientific approach.  This led him to denounce authoritarian politics in such works as ''The Open Society and its Enemies''.
---
> The rise of [[Nazism]], and particularly the German annexation of [[Austria]] in 1938, prompted Popper to also work on political and social philosophy, where he criticized popular social theories of the day in favor of a more scientific approach.  This led him to denounce authoritarian politics in such works as ''The Open Society and its Enemies''.
7c7
< Popper won many awards and honors in his field, including the Lippincott Award of the American Political Science Association, the Sonning Prize, and fellowships in the Royal Society, British Academy, London School of Economics, Kings College London, and Darwin College Cambridge.  Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold.  [[Queen Elizabeth II]] [[knight]]ed Popper in 1965, and invested him with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.
---
> Popper won many awards and honors in his field, including the [[Lippincott Award]] of the [[American Political Science Association]], the [[Sonning Prize]], and fellowships in the [[Royal Society]], [[British Academy]], [[London School of Economics]], [[Kings College London]], and [[Darwin College Cambridge]].  Austria awarded him the Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold.  [[Queen Elizabeth II]] [[knight]]ed Popper in 1965, and invested him with the Insignia of a Companion of Honour in 1982.
------
Philosopher|989515365
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person devoted to and producing results in [[philosophy]].
> 
> Some philosophers (in alphabetic order):
> 
> *[[Rene Descartes]]
> *[[Karl Popper]]
> 
> See also [[mathematician]]s, [[scientist]]s
> 
> 
------
Philosophy|989515430
9c9
< '''[[Philosophers]]:'''
---
> '''[[Philosopher]]s:'''
------
Philosopher|989515487
5,6c5,6
< *[[Rene Descartes]]
< *[[Karl Popper]]
---
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] [[Alfred Korzybski]]
> 
------
GottfriedLeibniz|989515654
24,27c24,27
< Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a
< philosopher, scientist, mathematician, diplomate
< and lawyer.  Independently of Isaac Newton he
< 'invented' the infinitesimal calculus (and also
---
> Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) was a German
> [[philosopher]], [[scientist]], [[mathematician]], diplomate
> and lawyer.  Independently of [[Isaac Newton]] he
> 'invented' the [[infinitesimal calculus]] (and also
29c29
< contribution to metaphysics is based on the 
---
> contribution to [[metaphysics]] is based on the 
35,36c35,36
< in Descartes' system, as well as the individuation
< that seems problematic in Spinoza's system, which
---
> in [[Rene Descartes]]' system, as well as the individuation
> that seems problematic in [[Spinoza]]'s system, which
39c39
< The "theodicee" claims to justify the
---
> The "[[theodicee]]" claims to justify the
------
Business_and_Industry|989515655
15c15
< ** [[patents]]
---
> ** [[patent|patents]]
23c23
< See also: [[Economics]]
---
> See also: [[Economics]]
------
Mathematician|989515767
61c61
< *[[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (Germany, 1646-1716)
---
> *[[GottfriedLeibniz|Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (Germany, 1646-1716)
------
GottfriedLeibniz|989515828
36c36
< that seems problematic in [[Spinoza]]'s system, which
---
> that seems problematic in [[Baruch Spinoza]]'s system, which
------
Infinitesimal_calculus|989515878
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An area of [[mathematics]] pioneerd by [[GottfriedLeibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
> 
> 
------
Infinitesimal_calculus|989515941
1c1,2
< An area of [[mathematics]] pioneerd by [[GottfriedLeibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
---
> An area of [[mathematics]] pioneered by [[GottfriedLeibniz|Gottfried Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
> See [[Calculus]].
------
Rene_Descartes|989516025
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French [[philosopher]] and [[mathematician]] who died in [[Stockholm]], where he was invited as a teacher for queen Kristina.
> 
> 
------
Rene_Descartes|989516088
1c1
< French [[philosopher]] and [[mathematician]] who died in [[Stockholm]], where he was invited as a teacher for queen Kristina.
---
> French [[philosopher]] and [[mathematician]], born 1596, who died in 1650 in [[Stockholm]], where he was invited as a teacher for queen Kristina.
------
Sweden/Kings|989516134
13c13
< *[[Kristina]] 1632 - 1654
---
> *[[Queen Kristina of Sweden|Kristina]] 1632 - 1654
------
Queen_Kristina_of_Sweden|989516255
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Invited [[Rene Descartes]] as her teacher.  The French [[philosopher]] died of cold in [[Stockholm]].
> 
> Kristina [[abdicate]]d, [[convert]]ed from [[protestantism]] to the [[Catholic church]] and went to [[Rome]].
> 
> 
------
Morphology|989516410
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Morphology describes the way lexemes are formed and how they are inflected.
------
Philosophy|989516419
9,10c9,10
< '''[[Philosopher]]s:'''
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] [[Alfred Korzybski]]
---
> '''[[Philosopher]]s:''' (moved to a [[philosopher|separate page]]).
> 
------
Biologist|989516507
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person devoted to and producing results in [[biology]].
> 
> Some well-known biologists (in alphabetic order):
> 
> *[[Carl von Linne]]
------
Biologist|989516551
1c1
< A person devoted to and producing results in [[biology]].
---
> A [[scientist]] devoted to and producing results in [[biology]].
5a6
> 
------
Pretty_Tony|989516591
1c1
< Miami hip hop pioneer who also produced many [[freestyle]] tracks. In fact, he probably introduced the name of the genre with his one-man band Freestyle. 
---
> Miami hip hop pioneer who also produced many [[freestyle]] tracks, among them all tracks by freestyle diva [[Trinere]]. . In fact, he probably introduced the name of the genre with his one-man band Freestyle. 
------
Linguistics|989516653
21,22c21,22
< * [[socio linguistics]]
< * [[psycho linguistics]]
---
> * [[sociolinguistics]]
> * [[psycholinguistics]]
------
Science|989516733
1c1,3
< Science is a method of study devoted to understanding the universe through repeated observation and experimentation.  [[Mathematics]], [[Computer science]], and [[Technology]] are sometimes treated as sciences, but not here, since they don't fit the usual definition. More about this in [[Scientific Method]].
---
> Science is a method of study devoted to understanding the universe through repeated observation and experimentation.
> 
> [[Mathematics]], [[Computer science]], and [[Technology]] are sometimes treated as sciences, but not here, since they don't fit the usual definition. More about this in [[Scientific Method]].
17c19,21
< See [[History of Science and Technology]] for an understanding of how these fields came to be.
---
> See [[History of Science and Technology]] for an understanding of how these fields came to be.  See also [[scientist]]s for catalogs of people active in each of these fields.
> 
> 
------
World_music|989516874
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> World music is a term that covers all music that is not part of mainstream pop music or classical music and has some kind of "ethnic" component. 
> Pop music from the third world, European pop music that uses influences from the third world, traditional music especially but not only from the third world. 
------
Transistor|989517050
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Invented in 1948.
> 
> 
------
Computer_Mouse|989517129
1c1
< A handheld pointing device which converts its movement within a certain area into movements of the cursor on the monitor. Modern mice usually have two or three buttons and a scroll wheel; mice with more than one button ascribe different functions to each one.  For instance, a mouse configured in the standard way will use the left button in a [[web browser]] to follow links, while the right button brings up a menu allowing the user to copy graphics or a link location, go back in the broser's history, and so forth.  Wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.  [[Apple Computer|Apple]] continues to release mice with only one button, requiring the user to hold down the "apple" key while clicking to indicate a "right click."
---
> A handheld pointing device which converts its movement within a certain area into movements of the cursor on the monitor. Modern mice usually have two or three buttons and a scroll wheel; mice with more than one button assign different functions to each one.  For instance, a mouse configured in the standard way will use the left button in a [[web browser]] to follow links, while the right button brings up a menu allowing the user to copy graphics or a link location, go back in the broser's history, and so forth.  Wireless variants exist as well as optical mice.  [[Apple Computer|Apple]] continues to release mice with only one button, requiring the user to hold down the "apple" key while clicking to indicate a "right click."
------
Transistor|989517288
1c1,3
< Invented in 1948.
---
> An amplifying semiconductor device,
> invented in 1948 by [[John Bardeen]], [[Walter Houser Brattain]],
> and [[William Bradford Shockley]], who got the 1956 [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
2a5,6
> Before the transistor, the [[amplifier tube]] was the main device
> for designing amplifiers.  The first transistors were contact transistors, soon replaced by bipolar transistors and field effect transistors (FET).
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989517371
1c1
< Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws.
---
> Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws. Also known as Rock, Paper, Scissors.
------
Beastie_Boys|989517454
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> From: Brooklyn, NY
> Members: Mike D (Michael Diamond)
>          MCA (Adam Yauch)
>          Ad Rock (Adam Horovitz) 
> 
> Influenced by Run DMC and Schoolly D, the Beastie Boys changed from a punk outfit to a hip hop three-man crew. Produced by Rick Rubin, they invaded the mainstream with their metal-tinged, slammin' hip hop. Their debut album Licensed to ill came out in 1986. Their second album was Paul's boutique, produced mainly by the Dust Brothers. This extremely sample-heavy oeuvre is one of the best hip hop albums ever. The follow-up Check your head was not quite as brilliant, but with its introduction of instrumentals and punk songs added to both the Beastie's creative range as re-claiming their status as the link between hip hop and rock. 
> 
> 
> 1986 - Licensed to ill
> 1989 - Paul's boutique
> 1994 - Ill communication
> 1992 - Check your head
> 1998 - Hello nasty
> 1999 - Anthology: The sounds of science
------
Beastie_Boys|989517489
2,4c2,5
< Members: Mike D (Michael Diamond)
<          MCA (Adam Yauch)
<          Ad Rock (Adam Horovitz) 
---
> Members: 
> Mike D (Michael Diamond)
> MCA (Adam Yauch)
> Ad Rock (Adam Horovitz) 
------
American_Civil_War|989517500
1c1
< A war fought in America between the Northern States, known as the Union and the Southern States, 
---
> A [[civil war]] fought in America between the Northern States, known as the Union and the Southern States, 
8c8
< See [[Jim Crow laws]] and [[Ku Klux Klan]]. 
---
> See [[Jim Crow laws]] and [[Ku Klux Klan]]. 
------
Beastie_Boys|989517525
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
3a6
> 
4a8
> 
10a15
> 
11a17
> 
12a19
> 
13a21
> 
14a23
> 
------
Engineering|989517600
26c26,29
< *[[SI_unit]]
---
> *[[SI_unit]]
> 
> See also [[technology]], presented as an opposite to [[science]].
> But what is the difference between technology and engineering?
------
Technology|989517646
47c47,49
< <i>How about a "Mass Media" catagory? It would also cover radio, printing press, etc.</i>
---
> <i>How about a "Mass Media" catagory? It would also cover radio, printing press, etc.</i>
> ----
> What is the difference between technology and [[engineering]]?
------
Software_engineering|989517704
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also [[computer science]].
> 
> 
------
Run_DMC|989517830
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Run DMC are one of the most important rap groups. Sucker MC's (1983) was the first hip hop track that relied on electronic beats and nothing else. Peter Piper (1986) was the first rap record in which the DJ (in this case Jam Master Jay) cut up a record (in this case, "Mardi Gras" by Bob James). Run DMC crossovered into the pop market with their version of Walk This Way that also featured original artists Aerosmith. Note however that Jam Master Jay and other hip hop dj's used rock records anyway. 
------
Rap_music|989517962
2,3c2,3
< 
< The [[Sugarhill Gang]] created "Rappers Delight", usually considered the first rap record in 1979.
---
> The first rap record was "King Tim III" by the Fatback Band (featuring the rapper King Tim III). 
> The [[Sugarhill Gang]] followed the same year with "Rappers Delight", that became a major hit and is based on Chic's disco track Good Times. 
------
Wu-Tang_Clan|989518113
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most important rap groups of the 1990s. Producer RZA who also composed the soundtrack of Jim Jarmusch's film "Ghost Dog" started with rough beats and some soul samples, all rather typical of the east coast, and later on started to incorporate very symphonic sounds. 
------
Rap_music|989518168
29c29
< However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap or [[hip hop]] - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
---
> However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap music or [[hip hop]] - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
------
Helsingborg|989518197
1c1,2
< Helsingborg is a city in southern [[Sweden]], the closest point to [[Denmark]] (and the Danish city [[Elsinore]]).
---
> Helsingborg is a city in southern [[Sweden]], the closest point to [[Denmark]] (and the Danish city [[Helsingor]]).
> It has a halfway decent nightlife, and good bands tend to periodically play at the club The Tivoli (not to be confused with Tivoli in Copenhagen).  It's not much for shoppers, but you can find the basics.  There are often very good folk-festivals held at Fredriksdal, a large park/plantation in the area.  Sofiero was one of the royal family's castles back at the turn of the last century, and holds some very large gardens with a wide range of local (and other) plantlife, stretching down right to the shore.
------
Software_engineering|989518358
1c1,7
< See also [[computer science]].
---
> Already in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], many big [[software]] projects went over budget and deadlines in an unexpected manner.  This was called the [[software crisis]].  It was believed that this was due to the sloppy [[discipline]] of programmers and if they could only learn to work more like mechanical or electrical engineers, the production of software would become as predictable an [[industry]] as other branches of [[engineering]], thus was born the term software engineering.
> 
> Libraries full of books have been written on the subject.  Some of the best have been published by the [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI) at [[Carnegie-Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.
> 
> Methods have improved through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], but complexity in requirements increase fast enough to consume any improvement.  One problem is that very many customers are first time customers without previous experience from writing requirements for a software project.  If the programmers are very good, the system will work, and the customer will not fully appreciate how complex the task was.  There is also a constant eagerness to develop new tools and try the newest tools in each new project.
> 
> See also [[computer science]].  Exactly where is the border between [[science]], [[technology]], and [[engineering]] here?
------
Malmoe|989518466
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Malmo is one of Sweden's largest cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of it's historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlift- lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
> 
> There is a bridge that crosses Oresund to Copenhagen on the southcoast of Malmo.  It's about a year old (in 2001), and it's quite beautiful when it rises out of the sea-fog in the mornings and evenings.
------
Rap_music|989518491
14,18c14,15
< :[[Beastie Boys]] 
< :[[Cypress Hill]]
< :[[Eminem]]
< :[[House of Pain]]
< :[[Ice Cube]]
---
> :[[Sugarhill Gang]] 
> :[[Afrika Bambaataa]]
19a17
> :[[Run DMC]]
21c19
< :[[NWA]]
---
> :[[Beastie Boys]] 
23,25d20
< :[[Run DMC]]
< :[[Sugarhill Gang]] 
< :[[Wu-Tang Clan]]
26a22,35
> :[[Ice Cube]]
> :[[Cypress Hill]]
> :[[House of Pain]]
> :[[Wu-Tang Clan]]
> :[[Eminem]]
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Pittsburgh|989518535
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pittsburgh is an ugly town in Pennsylvania.
> It is home to the [[Carnegie-Mellon University]].
------
Gotland|989518551
3c3
< Biggest city is [[Visby]] that is known for its wall around the city from the time of the [[Hansa]].
---
> Biggest city is [[Visby]] that is known for its wall around the city from the time of the [[Hansa]].  It's a popular destination for holiday cyclists.  There's a great medieval program every summer, and the ambience year-round is very nice.
------
Pittsburgh|989518601
1,2c1,5
< Pittsburgh is an ugly town in Pennsylvania.
< It is home to the [[Carnegie-Mellon University]].
---
> Pittsburgh is an ugly town in [[Pennsylvania]].
> It is home to the [[Carnegie-Mellon University]] and
> the [[Andy Warhol]] Museum.
> 
> 
------
Carnegie-Mellon_University|989518656
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CMU is a slightly famous university in [[Pittsburgh]].
> 
> See CMU's own website, http://www.cmu.edu/
> 
> See also the [[Software Engineering Institute]].
> 
------
Carnegie-Mellon_University|989518685
2c2
< 
---
>  
------
Afrika_Bambaataa|989518734
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Called "the godfather of hip hop", Afrika Bambaataa created [[electro funk]] and is one of the driving forces behind early rap music. Whereas Kool DJ Herc and DJ Hollywood are the earliest hip hop dj's (although Hollywood was more of a disco dj - he nevertheless influenced [[Kurtis Blow]] and many others), Grandmaster Flash and Bambaataa, who founded the Zulun Nation, recorded some of the most important early rap/hip hop.
------
Swedes|989518746
1c1,3
< Inhabitants of [[Sweden]].
---
> Inhabitants of [[Sweden]].  Fond of making jokes of Norweigans, Danes, Finns and most other inhabitants of areas that once were [[Swedish]] during its glory days of Charles XII.  Most enjoy a good gathering of friends for crayfish in August, ham around Christmas, eggs for Easter, and fish and potatoe of various kinds year-round.
> 
> They're mostly friendly, once you get to know them.  The guys are well-known for being very up-to-date in their treatment of ladies- chivalrous but always equal.
------
Software_Engineering_Institute|989518747
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> SEI is a place at [[Carnegie-Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]], PA.  They publish books on [[software engineering]].
> 
> See SEI's own website, http://www.sei.edu/
------
Software_Engineering_Institute|989518787
3c3
< See SEI's own website, http://www.sei.edu/
---
> See SEI's own website, http://www.sei.cmu.edu/
------
Computer_science|989518843
14,16c14,16
< * [[Software Engineering]]
< * [[Theory of Computation]]
< * [[VLSI Design]]
---
> * [[Software engineering]]
> * [[Theory of computation]]
> * [[VLSI design]]
------
California|989518847
1a2,3
> 
> It also houses some striking nature, ranging from deserts in the south and east, pine forests in the north, and the mountainous Rockies stretching it's length.
------
Computer_science|989518867
7,9c7,9
< * [[Computer Architecture]]
< * [[Computer Graphics]]
< * [[Computer Networks]]
---
> * [[Computer architecture]]
> * [[Computer graphics]]
> * [[Computer networks]]
------
Software_crisis|989518907
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Try http://google.com/?q=software+crisis
> 
> 
------
Software_crisis|989518939
1c1
< Try http://google.com/?q=software+crisis
---
> Try http://google.com/search?q=software+crisis
------
Kurtis_Blow|989518962
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kurtis Blow, born Kurtis Walker, is one of the most influential early rappers and rap's first star. "The Breaks" (1979) is one of rap's undisputed classics (basically a catchy disco tune with rapping) and Nas made a new version of Blow's "If I Ruled The World". 
------
Afrika_Bambaataa|989519006
1c1
< Called "the godfather of hip hop", Afrika Bambaataa created [[electro funk]] and is one of the driving forces behind early rap music. Whereas Kool DJ Herc and DJ Hollywood are the earliest hip hop dj's (although Hollywood was more of a disco dj - he nevertheless influenced [[Kurtis Blow]] and many others), Grandmaster Flash and Bambaataa, who founded the Zulun Nation, recorded some of the most important early rap/hip hop.
---
> Called "the godfather of hip hop", Afrika Bambaataa created [[electro funk]] and is one of the driving forces behind early rap music. Whereas Kool DJ Herc and DJ Hollywood are the earliest hip hop dj's (although Hollywood was more of a disco dj - he nevertheless influenced [[Kurtis Blow]] and many others), Grandmaster Flash and Bambaataa, who founded the Zulun Nation, recorded some of the most important early rap/hip hop.
------
Software_crisis|989519055
1c1,5
< Try http://google.com/search?q=software+crisis
---
> Try http://google.com/search?q=software+crisis and read through the half a million web pages that match this simple query.  Then try to summarize this knowledge within your budget and deadline.  Now you might start to understand that the roots of the software crisis is complexity.
> 
> See [[software engineering]].
> 
> 
------
Rap_music|989519098
14a15
> :[[Kurtis Blow]]
16a18
> :[[Schoolly D]]
20a23
> :[[NWA]]
------
Software_crisis|989519220
6c6
< 
---
> Indeed, the problem of trying to write an [[encyclopedia]] is very much like writing software.  Both running code and a hypertext/encyclopedia is a wonderful turn-on for the brain, and you want more of it the more you seee.  As a user, you want it to do everything, as a customer you don't really want to pay for it, and as a producer you realize how unrealistic the customers are.
------
Software_crisis|989519357
6c6
< Indeed, the problem of trying to write an [[encyclopedia]] is very much like writing software.  Both running code and a hypertext/encyclopedia is a wonderful turn-on for the brain, and you want more of it the more you seee.  As a user, you want it to do everything, as a customer you don't really want to pay for it, and as a producer you realize how unrealistic the customers are.
---
> Indeed, the problem of trying to write an [[encyclopedia]] is very much like writing software.  Both running code and a hypertext/encyclopedia is a wonderful turn-on for the brain, and you want more of it the more you seee.  As a user, you want it to do everything, as a customer you don't really want to pay for it, and as a producer you realize how unrealistic the customers are. Requirements will conflict in functionality vs affordability, and in completeness (get everything in) vs timeliness (meet the deadline).
------
Software_crisis|989519390
6c6
< Indeed, the problem of trying to write an [[encyclopedia]] is very much like writing software.  Both running code and a hypertext/encyclopedia is a wonderful turn-on for the brain, and you want more of it the more you seee.  As a user, you want it to do everything, as a customer you don't really want to pay for it, and as a producer you realize how unrealistic the customers are. Requirements will conflict in functionality vs affordability, and in completeness (get everything in) vs timeliness (meet the deadline).
---
> Indeed, the problem of trying to write an [[encyclopedia]] is very much like writing software.  Both running code and a hypertext/encyclopedia is a wonderful turn-on for the brain, and you want more of it the more you see, like a drug.  As a user, you want it to do everything, as a customer you don't really want to pay for it, and as a producer you realize how unrealistic the customers are. Requirements will conflict in functionality vs affordability, and in completeness (get everything in) vs timeliness (meet the deadline).
------
Swedes|989519648
1c1
< Inhabitants of [[Sweden]].  Fond of making jokes of Norweigans, Danes, Finns and most other inhabitants of areas that once were [[Swedish]] during its glory days of Charles XII.  Most enjoy a good gathering of friends for crayfish in August, ham around Christmas, eggs for Easter, and fish and potatoe of various kinds year-round.
---
> Inhabitants of [[Sweden]].  Fond of making jokes of Norweigans, Danes, Finns and most other inhabitants of areas that once were [[Swedish]] during its glory days of [[Karl XII|Charles XII]].  Most enjoy a good gathering of friends for [[crayfish]] in August, [[ham]] around [[Christmas]], eggs for [[Easter]], and fish and potatoe of various kinds year-round.
------
Intellectual_property|989519966
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[patent]]s, [[copyrights]], and [[trademark]]s.
------
Intellectual_property|989520011
1c1
< The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[patent]]s, [[copyrights]], and [[trademark]]s.
---
> The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyrights]], and [[trademark]]s.
------
Intellectual_property|989520026
1c1
< The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyrights]], and [[trademark]]s.
---
> The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademarks]].
------
Intellectual_property|989520095
1c1
< The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademarks]].
---
> The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademark]]s.
------
Sweden|989520322
21a22,26
> Secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]] is [[Horace Engdahl]],
> because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
> 
> 
> 
------
Swedish_Academy|989520392
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].  [[Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either.
> 
> 
------
Horace_Engdahl|989520454
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Horace Engdahl is the secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]], now that [[Sture Allen]] resigned.
> 
> See also [[Bergelin]].
------
Horace_Engdahl|989520628
3c3
< See also [[Bergelin]].
---
> See also [[Jan Bergelin]].
------
Jan_Bergelin|989520713
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish newspaper [[Svenska Dagbladet]] presents the
> weekly comic by Jan Bergelin on the Internet,
> http://www.svd.se/dynamiskt/Marginalen/did_1233488.asp
> 
> These comics often makes reference to [[Horace Engdahl]],
> the secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]].
> 
------
Svenska_Dagbladet|989520742
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This is a Swedish daily newspaper,
> http://www.svd.se/
> 
> 
------
Svenska_Dagbladet|989520774
1c1
< This is a Swedish daily newspaper,
---
> This is a daily [[newspaper]] in [[Sweden]],
2a3,4
> 
> See also the comics by [[Jan Bergelin]].
------
Swedish_Academy|989520813
1c1
< The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].  [[Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either.
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].  The comic painter [[Jan Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  (Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either!)
------
Requested_articles|989520817
27c27
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] -- [[Battle of Adrianople]]
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] --  
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Seven Wonders of the World]]
------
Swedish_Academy|989520839
1c1,5
< The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].  The comic painter [[Jan Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  (Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either!)
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].
> 
> See the academy's own website, http://www.svenskaakademien.se/
> 
> The comic painter [[Jan Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  (Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either!)
------
Swedish_Academy|989520888
1c1
< The Swedish Academy was founded in the late 18th century by king [[Gustav III]].  Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]].
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 ([[18th century]]) by king [[Gustav III]].  Its current secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]] (previously [[Sture Allen]]).
------
Seven_Wonders_of_the_World|989520970
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The seven wonders of the world due to ancient classifications in chronological order are:
>  
> 1. The Great Pyramid of Giza serving as a tomb for the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (present [[Egypt]]; estimated date of completion is 2680 BC)
> 2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
> 3. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia carved by the Greek sculptor [[Pheidias]] (5th century BC, present [[Greece]]) 
> 4. The Temple of Artemis (350 BC, at Ephesus present [[Turkey]])
> 5. The Mausoleum of Maussollos the Persian satrap of Caria (350 BC, at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum), Turkey)
> 6. The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC, present Greece)
> 7. The Lighthouse of Alexandria built by Sostratus of Cnidus (3rd century BC, present Egypt) 
> 
> So, two each of the wonders were within the territories of today’s Egypt, Greece and Turkey and one in Iraq. The only surviving wonder is the initially built one, the pyramid. The wonder with the shortest life span was the Colossus of Rhodes, which could keep its erect posture for only 56 years before being broken down by an earthquake. 
------
Gustav_III|989521023
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gustav III must have been the most entertaining [[king]] that [[Sweden]] ever had.  He put more efforts into [[theater]] than [[war]], he made his own [[revolution]], and finally he got killed (in 1792), but not at war, but at a masquerade.
> 
> 
------
Morphology|989521063
1c1,3
< Morphology describes the way lexemes are formed and how they are inflected.
---
> Within lingusitics, morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
> 
> Within biology, morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.
------
Seven_Wonders_of_the_World|989521066
3,9c3,9
< 1. The Great Pyramid of Giza serving as a tomb for the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (present [[Egypt]]; estimated date of completion is 2680 BC)
< 2. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
< 3. The Statue of Zeus at Olympia carved by the Greek sculptor [[Pheidias]] (5th century BC, present [[Greece]]) 
< 4. The Temple of Artemis (350 BC, at Ephesus present [[Turkey]])
< 5. The Mausoleum of Maussollos the Persian satrap of Caria (350 BC, at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum), Turkey)
< 6. The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC, present Greece)
< 7. The Lighthouse of Alexandria built by Sostratus of Cnidus (3rd century BC, present Egypt) 
---
> * The Great Pyramid of Giza serving as a tomb for the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (present [[Egypt]]; estimated date of completion is 2680 BC)
> * The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
> * The Statue of Zeus at Olympia carved by the Greek sculptor [[Pheidias]] (5th century BC, present [[Greece]]) 
> * The Temple of Artemis (350 BC, at Ephesus present [[Turkey]])
> * The Mausoleum of Maussollos the Persian satrap of Caria (350 BC, at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum), Turkey)
> * The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC, present Greece)
> * The Lighthouse of Alexandria built by Sostratus of Cnidus (3rd century BC, present Egypt) 
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Chemistry|989521130
2c2
< and from the pseudoscience of alchemy, which was the twin search for the transmutation
---
> and from the [[pseudoscience]] of [[alchemy]], which was the twin search for the transmutation
------
Sture_Allen|989521174
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sture Allen is a (retired?) professor of [[computational linguistics]] at [[Gothenburgh]] University, who was the previous secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]].
> 
> As far as the [[Wikipedia]] editors know, [[Jan Bergelin]] never made reference to Sture, though many others did.
> 
------
Sture_Allen|989521217
1c1
< Sture Allen is a (retired?) professor of [[computational linguistics]] at [[Gothenburgh]] University, who was the previous secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]].
---
> Sture Allen is a (retired?) professor of [[computational linguistics]] at [[Gothenburg University]], who was the previous secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]].
------
Gothenburg_University|989521247
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The state university in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> See also [[Sture Allen]].
> 
> 
------
Horace_Engdahl|989521347
2a3,4
> Where is Horace now?  Perhaps try http://google.com/search?q=Horace+Engdahl
> 
------
Horace_Engdahl|989521495
5a6,9
> 
> Here he is, now!!!
> 
> http://www.aftonbladet.se/nyheter/0008/23/HORACE.jpg
------
Mr._T|989522324
1,71c1
< Mr. T was born Laurence Tureaud on 21 May 1952 in the rough southside ghetto area of [[Chicago]].  He is the second to youngest of twelve children (he has four sisters and seven brothers) and grew up in the [[housing projects]] of Chicago.  His father left when he was 5, and his mother raised the family on $87 a month welfare in a three-      
< room apartment.  Mr. T's brothers encouraged him to build up his body in order to survive in the area, and he has commented, "If you think I'm big, you should see my brothers!"  His mother is a religious woman, who has had a strong influence on him.  He says, "Any man who don't love his momma can't be no friend of mine."                        
< 
< He was an average student in school.  "Most of the time," he says, "I stared out the windows, just daydreaming.  I didn't study much because I have a [[photographic memory]]."  Apart from one spell between 5th and 7th grades when he went a little astray -- playing hookey, cursing, acting tough, being disrespectful -- he was a well-     
< behaved child.  (He worried about how his mother would feel if he ended up in jail, and stayed out of trouble!)  He attended Dunbar Vocational High School.                                                  
< 
< He was a college football star, studied martial arts, and was three times city [[wrestling]] champion! He won a scholarship to Prairie View A&M University in [[Texas]], but was thrown out after a year -- after that he went to a couple of little colleges in [[Chicago]], always on an athletic scholarship.                                       
< 
< When he left college, Mr. T was a military policeman in the US Army.  After that, he was invited to try out for the [[Green Bay Packers]], but a knee injury finished his professional football career.  He became a 'minder', and remained largely in that profession for about nine years.  He has bodyguarded such stars as [[Muhammed Ali]], [[Leon Spinks]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Steve McQueen]], [[Diana Ross]] and [[LeVar Burton]].  He charged about $3,000 a day (more for 'special' jobs) and  his business card reads, 'Next to God, there is no better protector than I'.  He boasts that he never lost a client.  Of the job he says,  "I got hurt worse growing up in the [[ghetto]] than working as a bodyguard."  He believed in having a very professional attitude  toward the job, preventing trouble from even starting rather than having to sort it out once it had.  "I was a very dapper dresser,"  he recalls.  "I shaved my head, wore [[derby hat]]s, white gloves, 3-piece suits, carried a cane.  I never went any place without a fresh carnation or a rosebud in my lapel."                                     
< 
< When he wasn't working as a [[bodyguard]], he filled in by working as a [[bouncer]].  One job he had was at Dingbat's club in Chicago. Club owner Ron Riskman says, "He was always very smartly dressed and he shaved his head completely bald.  He'd confront trouble makers and say to them, "It's only fair to warn you that my patience is as      
< long as the hair on my head."  Most of them would get pretty quiet after that.
< 
< He changed his name in 1970 by [[deed poll]] to Laurence Tero, and later to Mr. T in order that people would HAVE to address him as  "Mr."                                                                    
< 
< It was whilst reading "National Geographic" that Mr. T first saw the hairstyle for which he is now famous -- on a [[Mandinka]] warrior.  He felt that adopting the style was a powerful statement about his origins.  
<                                                      
< In 1975 he worked for a while on the Chicago educational  scheme as a gym teacher.  In 1978 he decided to do something  definite about his religious beliefs and was rebaptised in the Cosmopolitan Community Church in [[Chicago]].
< 
< In 1982, Mr. T was 'spotted' by [[Sylvester Stallone]]; he was on the TV show "Games People Play," taking part in "The World's Toughest Bouncer" contest -- tossing two stuntmen about quite casually!  His role in "[[Rocky III]]" was originally intended as just a few lines, but Stallone built up the part around the man.  Mr. T         
< also appeared in another boxing film, "Penitentiary 2," and in a [[cable TV]] special, "Bizarre," before accepting the role of BA in "[[The A-Team]]."                                                            
< 
< Mr. T is 5'11" tall, and weighs somewhere between 216 lb and        
< 237 lb (the former is the lightest report I've encountered, the          
< latter is his fighting weight given in the second bout in "Rocky III.")  
< That gold jewelry IS real, and is worth around $300,000.  He is          
< reported to earn around $80,000 a week for his role in the A-Team,       
< though, and gets $15,000 for a personal appearance, so he can afford     
< to support his eccentricity!  His earrings are especially made so        
< that they won't damage his ears if they are caught during a fight        
< (they'll just slip free), and he wears seven because of the religious    
< significance of the numbers 3, 4, and 7. (?? Can anyone explain this     
< exactly to me? --nicole)  It takes him about an hour to put it on,       
< incidentaly, and most nights he cleans it in an ultrasonic cleaner...    
< although some nights he sleeps in it "to see how my ancestors, who       
< were slaves, felt."  He gives much the same response if asked if it is   
< heavy--nobody ever asked those enslaved ancestors if THEIR chains are    
< heavy!  He has a point.                                                  
<      He makes little effort, he claims, to keep his body in shape, and   
< is a confirmed junk food addict-- triple-decker hamburgers have been     
< mentioned!  He currently lives alone in a tower block apartment in the   
< Westwood area of Los Angeles.  He spends a great deal of time with his   
< family in Chicago, however, and with his 13-year-old daughter Lesa       
< (the result of a teenage love affair) who lives there with her mother.   
< He is very active in community work,  and is often to be found in        
< MacLaren Hall, Los Angeles, a shelter for abused children bevcause,      
< he says, "There's no telling how many lives you can turn around."  He    
< is very conscious of his responsibility toward the children who admire   
< him and never drinks, smokes or takes drugs of any kind.  He refuses to  
< take any acting role that casts him as 'bad', and isn't keen on doing    
< what he refers to as 'mushy scenes.' "My style," he says, "is always     
< a hungry fighter."                                                       
<      In the break between seasons of The A-Team, Mr. T has been          
< making a low-budget comedy movie, "DC Cab," which also stars Gary        
< Busey and Musical Youth.  In it, he plays a taxi driver who protects     
< kids from hoods. Also in the works is "Rev T," in which he plays a       
< garbage  collector who lauches a neighborhood compaign against drugs     
< and crime.  NBC is also making a series of cartoons based on 'the        
< adventures of Mr. T.'  He has made several guest appearances; one in     
< "Silver Spoons" (which we don't get in the UK), and in the season        
< opener pf "Diff'rent Strokes."  In the latter, the A-Team spends the     
< week filming in the Drummond Apartment, and little Arnold has an         
< identity crisis when he learns that his new girlfriend is only using     
< him to meet Mr. T.  He attempts to emulate his idol (he looks            
< ridiculous with a Mandinka!) and is told, firmly, "You gotta be your     
< own original." That's probably Mr. T's most valuable statement.          
<      For the future, Mr. T hopes to become a preacher in about five      
< years' time.  When asked at a Press conference whether he is as thick    
< as BA Baracus, he observed (quietly, because he usually DOES speak       
< quietly!), "It takes a smart guy to play dumb."                          
< 
---
> Text deleted -- copyright violation
------
LinkingToExternalImages|989522343
14c14,17
< ''External links use a different syntax - the pipe is ignored (and so being considered part of the name or URL) and only one set of brackets is needed.  I'll fix it on said page, so you can look there....There's probably some other page this lives on.''
---
> ''External links use a different syntax - the pipe is ignored (and so being considered part of the name or URL) and only one set of brackets is needed.  I'll fix it on said page, so you can look there....There's probably some other page this lives on.''
> ----
> 
> There is a potential [[copyright]] problem with inline (and in-frame) linking.  Linking to external websites in a way that requires the user to click on the link is considered (what, me provide a reference for this statement?) ok if the new web page is displayed the way its creator/publisher wanted.  This is what [[Wikipedia]] does if I just write an URL (such as http://www.svenskaakademien.se/), but if I write an image URL (such as http://www.svenskaakademien.se/HTML/bilder/krans.gif), then the image will appear as a part of this Wikipedia-generated webpage, and that is not what the image publisher intended.
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology/Chemistry|989522432
4a5,7
> 
> See also [[chemist]]s.
> 
------
Ice_Cube|989522471
1,52c1
< Ice Cube is one of the most enduring, versatile, controversial and engaging figures ever to emerge out of [[hip hop]]. At 30, he is one of this generation's cultural icons. After establishing himself as a film phenomenon, acclaimed actor, screenwriter, director and producer, Ice Cube (born O'Shea Jackson) comes back to his solo music career with a vengeance. He has spent most of 1999-2000 working at an astonishing rate, completing not one, but two full-length albums the first part titled War & Peace - Volume 1 ([[The War Disc]]) followed by the current album, War & Peace - Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]).
< 
< The first volume War was released on November 17, 1998 on Priority Records with Peace following on March 21, 2000. Just as his classic [[Death Certificate]] presented a "Death Side" and a "Life Side", Cube explores the war/peace dialectic in well over 2 hours of new music.
< 
< Further fueling rumors of a [[NWA]] reunion album, War & Peace Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]]) opens with the simple greeting "Hell Low", a [[Dr. Dre]] produced selection (co-produced by [[Mel Man]]) featuring [[Dr. Dre]] and [[MC Ren]]; a comedic track "You Ain't Gotta Lie" featuring [[Chris Rock]] and appearances by [[Krayzie Bone]] on the commercial single "Until We Rich." Other notable artists featured on the album are [[Mack 10]] and [[Jayo Felony]] with production on several tracks by [[Chucky Thompson]], [[Battlecat]], and [[Puffy]] to name a few.
< 
< The War record allowed Cube to throw down the gauntlet on tracks like "Dr. Frankenstein," "Once Upon A Time In the Projects 2" and on the single "Pushin' Weight," Cube raised the stakes for the present day rap game while reclaiming his legacy. War provided cutting edge soundscapes with mega-platinum rockers Korn making a guest appearance on "Fuck Dying." Cube performed with Korn on their "Family Values" tour. "To expose [[Korn]] fans to my music is cool, because most of their audience is only exposed to my movies. It reminded me of when I went out on Lollapalooza (1992), where I was the alternative to that alternative show" says Cube of the experience.
< 
< Although Cube keeps it gangsta on the Peace, LP, Vol. 2 is more dance/club oriented using samples from popular party anthems crating a lighter mood. Cube can't say enough about the music. "War and Peace are my best records in years. The production on both albums is far superior to anything I've ever released. Peace is gonna be a different look; it's a different record than any I have ever done. Lyrically, War covers a lot of ground-moving from rap's battlegrounds to the [[Los Angeles]] killing fields." "Ghetto Vet," "Penitentiary" and the masterful "3 Strikes You In" are as incisive pieces of social commentary as he's ever penned. Just as every coin has two sides, Peace represents the other side of Cube.
< 
< Ice Cube caught the [[rap music]] bug in the ninth grade when a classmate named Kiddo challenged him in a typing class. "One day, he asked me if I ever wrote a rap before. I told him, you write one, I write on and we'll see which one come out better and I won," recalls Cube. He went on to form his first crew, C.I.A., with future collaborators Sir Jinx and K-Dee, and began hanging in the burgeoning South Central Club scene. Through Jinx's cousin, he met [[Dr. Dre]] and together they began rhyming for nightclub patrons over the hits of the day. "We was doing these dirty raps strictly for the club audiences," he says. "When that started catching on, we started making mix tapes. We would rap on what was going on in the neighborhood and they were selling. [[Eazy-E]] had a partner named Ron-de-Vu, Dre was in the [[World Class Wreckin Crew]], and I was in C.I.A. We were all committed to these groups, so we figured we'd make an all-star group and just do dirty records on the side." That all-star group would become known as Niggaz With Attitude ([[NWA]]).
< 
< In early 1987, Cube wrote "Boyz-N-The-Hood" for [[Eazy-E]] and "Dopeman" and "8-ball" for [[NWA]] and they went into the studio to record. He knew he was doing something different, but wasn't sure about his prospects. "The rap game wasn't looking too solid at that time, so I decided to go ahead and go to school." When he left for The Phoenix Institute of Technology, the records were just hitting the streets. By the time he completed his degree a year later, both Eazy's and NWA's singles had sold hundreds of thousands of copies. He came back to write the rhymes for the albums that would be Eazy Duz It and [[Straight Outta Compton]] and the world would never be quite the same.
< 
< [[NWA]]'s [[Straight Outta Compton]], in retrospect, was the most influential album since [[The Sex Pistols]]' [[Never Mind the Bollocks]]. Straight Outta Compton didn't break taboos so much as blow them away with rapid-action scattershot. The excitement they inspired was proportional to the outrage they incited. Newsweek dismissed the record as "The Godfather in gutter language." [[FBI]] Assistant director, Milt Ahlerich, sent a letter to the label condemning the record as encouraging "violence against and disrespect for the law-enforcement officer." Ahlerich warned, "Advocating violence and assault is wrong and we in the law enforcement community take exception to such action." Sales rocked past platinum. "Straight Outta Compton has had the biggest impact on rap music than any other album to this day," says Cube. "We opened the door where you can say exactly what you really want to say without having to sugar-coat , without having to hold back."
< 
< But by 1989, things were beginning to sour between Cube and [[Jerry Heller]], then [[NWA]]'s manager. Cube was involved in writing 10 of the 13 tracks on [[Straight Outta Compton]], including the entirety of "Dopeman," "8 Ball" and "Express Yourself" and he felt he was due more than the $30,000 that he received for records that had sold 3 million units. "I was broke before I jumped in that shit, so it wasn't hard to walk away. I preferred it that way," Cube recalls. "At the time the two producers that was worth fucking with was [[Dr. Dre]] and [[The Bomb Squad]]. If I couldn't get Dre, I was going to the Bomb Squad." He broke east and began collaborating with [[Public Enemy]].
< 
< Energized by the rush of liberation and inspired by the exchange of ideas with Chuck D and the other members of the Public Enemy camp, he turned in the stunning Amerikkka's Most Wanted. "Fuck you, Ice Cube!" went the chorus of "The Nigga You Love to Hate," and immediately the hip-hop nation was screaming it. The record went gold in 10 days, platinum in three months. "I can never play out," smiles Cube, "because people are still biting my styles from that record."
< 
< In his book It's Not About A Salary: Rap, Race and Resistance, Brian Cross wrote of the album's impact, "Amerikkka's Most Wanted sought to give a face to (the) criminal underclass and this face was to be furrow-browed, jheri-curled, beanie-clad face of Cube himself. Cube to this day is the foremost hip hop meta-critic, providing listeners not only with stories, but potential criticism of his practice from different perspectives."
< 
< The follow-up EP Kill At Will went gold just as quickly. In contrast to the booming "Endangered Species" remix and the club friendly "Jackin For Beats," "Dead Homiez" was a surprise. When it was first released, Cube ran the risk of the appearing soft, exposing a vulnerable, sentimental side; instead, audiences embraced the track. He had correctly measured the depth of emotion amongst his violence-weary fans. "Dead Homiez" created an entirely new theme for gangsta rappers. Cube was thinking seven steps ahead of the game.
< 
< "I was reading a lot of books. I was just learning about the world, paying attention to world history, political views. Up to that point, I was just rolling through life trying to get money," says Cube. His readings "gave me my freedom mentally to deal with this world. The main focus on what I was learning was coming from Minister Louis Farrakhan and the honorable Elijah Muhammed. I did a lot of self-studying knowledge of self, because I'm far from a follower."
< 
< On Halloween 1991, Ice Cube's second solo LP, [[Death Certificate]] had advance orders of over a million copies and debuted at number 2 on the Billboard Charts. Death Certificate spoke to what it meant to be a young black male in an increasingly pressured space, one strained by deindustrialization, drug economies, state repression, police brutality, and immigration. Released just months before the LA riots, it singularly captured the tenor of the times, the feel of a generation. On April 29 1992, Death Certificate sounded prophetic.
< 
< That year, [[The Predator]], debuted at #1 on the pop and R&B charts simultaneously and went platinum in four days. The on-the-corner commentaries of "When Will They Shoot?, "I'm Scared," "Now I gotta Wet'cha" and "We had To Tear This Muthafucka Up" were rounded out by the hits "Wicked" and "It Was A Good Day." Cube had arrived as the chronicler of his generation. 
< 
< [[Lethal Injection]] was his fourth album in four years, but although it also went platinum on the hot groove of the [[George Clinton]] collaboration "Bop Gun" and the haunting "Ghetto Bird," Cube felt the rap game changing subtly. "At that time, nobody wanted to hear that kind of rap. The whole (conscious) era had peaked with the release of the [[Malcolm X]] Movie. The G-funk era was coming in. It was a whole different tone in the music. People didn't want to take rap that serious," he says.
< 
< "I was doing movies, directing videos, trying to produce other groups," Cube says. He had directed dozens of videos (he has done 20 to date) and his filmmaking career was set to take off. He had always struck a compelling image in his own videos, whether the rending "Dead Homiez," the pulsing "Steady Mobbin,' or the frantic "Natural Born Killaz."
< 
< Based on his amazing performance in John Singleton's "[[Boyz in the Hood]]," however, he was in demand. He went on to appear in "[[Trespass]]," "[[CB4]]," Charles Burnett's "[[The Glass Shield]]," Singleton's "[[Higher Learning]]," [[Anaconda]]," and most recently costarred in "[[3 Kings]]" with [[George Clooney]]. After co-screenwriting the script "[[Friday]]" with [[DJ Pooh]] - a balancing, hilarious view of a day in the life of a couple of brothers from South Central - Ice Cube followed up with "[[Next Friday]]" the successful, top grossing film which outsold blockbuster films "[[Stuart Little]]," "[[The Green Mile]]," and "[[The Hurricane]]" it its first week becoming the most successful New Line Film next to the Austin Power's sizzler. Cube also executive produced and starred in "[[Dangerous Ground]]" and "[[The Player's Club]]," a film he wrote, co-produced and directed to critical acclaim. The movie grossed over $25 million in domestic receipts alone. "People always ask, "When are you gonna stop doing records? Or 'Do you prefer doing movies or records?" Cube respon
< 
< ds, "If opportunities present they self, you take them. I think I can do this from all different sides of entertainment," he says.
< 
< Cube somehow also found the time to oversee the production of a number of homies. Two of them, [[Mack 10]] and WC, joined him to become the [[Westside Connection]], after a few successful outings. "I was tired of doing solo albums," Cube says. "I wanted to feel the group thing. With me, Mack 10 and WC, our chemistry was so tight that the Westside Connection was born." The group's allegiance to the West courted controversy. "Our whole purpose from the beginning was to make sure that people wasn't gonna just snatch our style from under us and give us no credit and no props," he says. "I'm not really tripping on straight being from the west coast. But when I was doing it, I heard a lotta shit being said about the west coast, so I stood up for the west coast." With Bow Down's double platinum sales, seems there must have been a lot of bi-coastal unity after all. Westside Connection is scheduled to release another album May 2000.
< 
< Finally it became time to return to the solo spotlight. "When you trying to do records, write a movie, produce a movie, it's hard to make good music. I wanted to put all the other stuff down, be finished with The Player's Club and do my album, he says, "War & Peace is my best record since Death Certificate."
< 
< Although hip-hop fans are notoriously fickle, Cube has stayed atop the games for over a decade. "I still sell the same amount of records. I still get a big reception," he says. "In hip hop, people always want new artists, but when I really get down, nobody puts a record together better than me. So I'll always be here. Long as I stay consistent and keep my heart in it, I'm a be here."
< 
< Discography:
< 
< *[[Ice Cube - AmeriKKKas Most Wanted]]
< *[[Ice Cube - Death Certificate]]
< *[[Ice Cube - Lethal Injection]]
< *[[Ice Cube - The Predator]]
< *Ice Cube - War & Peace, Vol. 1 ([[The War Disc]])
< *Ice Cube - War & Peace, Vol. 2 ([[The Peace Disc]])
---
> Text deleted -- copyright violation
------
Seven_Wonders_of_the_World|989522573
3,9c3,9
< * The Great Pyramid of Giza serving as a tomb for the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (present [[Egypt]]; estimated date of completion is 2680 BC)
< * The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
< * The Statue of Zeus at Olympia carved by the Greek sculptor [[Pheidias]] (5th century BC, present [[Greece]]) 
< * The Temple of Artemis (350 BC, at Ephesus present [[Turkey]])
< * The Mausoleum of Maussollos the Persian satrap of Caria (350 BC, at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum), Turkey)
< * The Colossus of Rhodes (280 BC, present Greece)
< * The Lighthouse of Alexandria built by Sostratus of Cnidus (3rd century BC, present Egypt) 
---
> * The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] serving as a tomb for the Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu (present [[Egypt]]; estimated date of completion is 2680 BC)
> * The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
> * The [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]] carved by the Greek sculptor [[Pheidias]] (5th century BC, present [[Greece]]) 
> * The [[Temple of Artemis]] (350 BC, at Ephesus present [[Turkey]])
> * The [[Mausoleum of Maussollos]] the Persian satrap of Caria (350 BC, at Halicarnassus (present Bodrum), Turkey)
> * The [[Colossus of Rhodes]] (280 BC, present Greece)
> * The [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] built by Sostratus of Cnidus (3rd century BC, present Egypt) 
11c11
< So, two each of the wonders were within the territories of today’s Egypt, Greece and Turkey and one in Iraq. The only surviving wonder is the initially built one, the pyramid. The wonder with the shortest life span was the Colossus of Rhodes, which could keep its erect posture for only 56 years before being broken down by an earthquake. 
---
> So, two each of the wonders were within the territories of today?s Egypt, Greece and Turkey and one in Iraq. The only surviving wonder is the initially built one, the pyramid. The wonder with the shortest life span was the Colossus of Rhodes, which could keep its erect posture for only 56 years before being broken down by an earthquake. 
------
Lighthouse_of_Alexandria|989522641
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Considered one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], the [[Lighthouse]] at [[Alexandria]] in [[Egypt]] was a very impressive building at its time.
> 
> 
------
Ice_Cube_-_AmeriKKKas_Most_Wanted|989522664
1,26c1
< <b>Artist:</b> [[Ice Cube]]
< 
< <b>Album:</b> AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
< 
< <b>Date:</b> 1990-05-16
< 
< After leaving [[NWA]] on anything but good terms with [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Eazy-E]], [[Ice Cube]] launched his solo career with the hard-hitting and impressive AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted. While the Angelino continued to embrace [[gangsta rap]] -- a style in which MCs provide violent, graphic, first-person portrayals of thugs, gang members, drug dealers, etc. -- there's a lot more to this riveting CD than that controversial approach. As much as Cube thrives on the shocking and the profane, it's clear that he isn't glamorizing the harsh urban realities he raps about, but rather, protesting them. "Once Upon a Time in the Projects" is about being arrested for being in the wrong place (a crack house) at the wrong time (during a drug bust), while "Endangered Species" (a duet with Public Enemy leader Chuck D) is a sobering reflection on the high mortality rate among young African-American males. 
< 
< On some of his subsequent recordings, Cube would, artistically speaking, become a victim of his own anger. But on AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted, a more lucid Cube quite effectively articulates just how bad things are in the America's inner cities -- and how badly things need to change.
< 
< <b>Track Listing</b>
< 
< *AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
< *A Gangsta's Fairytale
< *Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here
< *I'm Only Out for One Thang
< *It's A Man's World
< *Once Upon a Time in the Projects
< *Rollin' Wit the Lench Mob
< *Tales From the Darkside
< *The Bomb
< *The Nigga Ya Love to Hate
< *Turn Off the Radio
< *What They Hittin' Foe?
< *Who's the Mack?
< *You Can't Fade Me
---
> Text removed -- copyright violation
------
Lighthouse|989522794
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An aid for [[navigation]] at [[sea]], a lighthouse is a tower building sending out light from a system of lamps and lenses or, in older times, from a burning fire.  If there is no building, but only a fire on top of a hill, that is called a [[beacon]].
> 
> Perhaps the most famous lighthouse of all history is the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] in ancient Egypt.
> 
> 
------
Lighthouse_of_Alexandria|989522861
2c2
< 
---
> It was built by Sostratus of Cnidus in the 3rd century B.C.
------
Alexandria|989522998
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alexandria is a [[city]] in [[Eqypt]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea]].  In ancient times, Alexandria was known for its [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|lighthouse]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]) and its [[Library of Alexandria|library]] (the biggest in the world).
> 
> In the year 2000 (or 2001?), a new library building has been erected in Alexandria with the help of the [[United Nations]].
> 
> 
------
Alexandria|989523024
1c1
< Alexandria is a [[city]] in [[Eqypt]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea]].  In ancient times, Alexandria was known for its [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|lighthouse]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]) and its [[Library of Alexandria|library]] (the biggest in the world).
---
> Alexandria is a [[city]] in [[Egypt]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea]].  In ancient times, Alexandria was known for its [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|lighthouse]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]) and its [[Library of Alexandria|library]] (the biggest in the world).
------
Library_of_Alexandria|989523167
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In ancient times, the [[library]] of [[Alexandria]] was considered to be the biggest in the world.  All businessmen landing their goods in the harbor of Alexandria were required to deposit any book scrolls in this library, where they were copied before being returned.  Unfortunately, this library was completely destroyed by fire.
> 
------
Intellectual_property|989523335
1c1,10
< The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademark]]s.
---
> The term '''intellectual property''' refers to certain kinds of exclusive rights that are treated by law as "property" though they are not physical objects "ownable" in the traditional sense.  For example, the holder of the copyright in a book has the legal right to make and sell copies of the book, and the right to forbid others from making and selling copies of the same book.  By analogy, then, he can be said to "own" the words in a similar way to which he might own the press on which they were printed, because ownership of a physical object also confers the right to forbid others from using the object.  These rights, conferred by law, can be given, sold, or rented (called "licensing") in much the same way as physical property.
> 
> The most common forms of intellectual property are [[copyright]], [[patent]], [[trademark]], and [[trade secret]], which are often confused.
> 
> * A [[copyright]] is an exclusive right to copy, sell, or perform a creative work such as a book or play.  These are granted to artists for a limited time so that they can profit from the work, thereby encouraging artists to create such work.  For example, if you buy a videotape recording of a movie, you own the tape, and may view it, sell it, destroy it, or exercise any of the other traditional rights of physical property; but you are forbidden to sell (or even give away) copies of the tape, or to play the tape in public, because the movie's producers still "own" those rights exclusively.  Copyrights also cover '''derivative works'''.  For example, the author of a book also owns the exclusive right to make audiotapes of the book, or movies using the book's dialog.
> * A [[patent]] is an exclusive right to make and sell useful devices based on an idea.  These are granted to [[inventor]]s for the same reasons as copyrights to artists: to encourage inventions by enhacing the inventor's ability to profit from them.  For example, you might own a lamp, but not have the right to sell a similar lamp (or any other device) built from scratch if it uses some  functional design feature still covered by patent.  Patents also cover derivative works.  A patent owner can refuse to allow others to build unrelated devices that use his idea, or even similar devices that improve upon his idea.
> * A [[trademark]] is a name, design, or other distinguishing mark by which a business identifies itself to consumers.  Businesses are given the right to forbid others in the same business to use the same name or design to encourage fair competition in the marketplace.  For example, if company other than the Atlanta-based Coca-Cola Corporation sold a soft drink called "Coke" in red and white cans, the former company could sue for trademark infringement since the latter company's product confuses consumers as to the identity of the seller.  Trademarks last for as long as a company actively uses and defends them.
> * A [[trade secret]] is a private piece of information used by a company to give it a competitive advantage over companies that don't know the information.  These are not themselves protected by law, but the status of a piece of information as a trade secret can be used in contract negotiation and civil litigation.  For example, the Coca-Cola company might hold its formula (which is not patentable) as a trade secret, revealing it only to a few persons it hires to make the drink.  The fact that the formula is listed in a contract as a trade secret gives the company the specific right to sue parties to the contract who reveal it.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Library|989523385
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which beans book.  The Greek word Bibliothek (derived from Greek Biblos, book) is used in German, French, and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use a words that derive from their words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
> 
> Some famous libraries
> 
> *[[Library of Alexandria]] in ancient Egypt
> *[[Library of Congress]] in Washington DC
> *[[British Library]] in London
> *[[Bibliotheque National]] in Paris
> 
> See also [[Literature]].
> 
------
Intellectual_property/Talk|989523391
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I suppose there's a place for this commentary somewhere; at least it's interesting enough that I didn't want to delete it:
> 
> The Icelandic word for property is the same as cattle, "fe".  A corporation is a cattle-team, fe-lag.  As an opposite to this bovine stupidity, most new companies on Iceland and elsewhere are now based on intellectual property such as [[trade secret]]s, [[patent]]s, [[copyright]], and [[trademark]]s.
> 
------
Alexandria|989523435
4,5c4
< 
< 
---
> Find out more through http://google.com/search?q=library+Alexandria
------
Alexandria|989523488
4c4,6
< Find out more through http://google.com/search?q=library+Alexandria
---
> Find out more through
> http://www.unesco.org/webworld/alexandria_new/
> and http://google.com/search?q=library+Alexandria
------
Alexandria|989523543
3c3
< In the year 2000 (or 2001?), a new library building has been erected in Alexandria with the help of the [[United Nations]].
---
> In the year 2000 (or 2001?), a new library building, ''Bibliotheca Alexandrina'', has been erected in Alexandria with the help of the [[United Nations]].
------
Alexandria|989523626
3c3
< In the year 2000 (or 2001?), a new library building, ''Bibliotheca Alexandrina'', has been erected in Alexandria with the help of the [[United Nations]].
---
> In the fall of 2001, a new library building, ''Bibliotheca Alexandrina'', will be opened in Alexandria.  It has been built with the help of the [[United Nations]].
------
Alexandria|989523685
6c6
< and http://google.com/search?q=library+Alexandria
---
> and http://google.com/search?q=bibliotheca+Alexandrina
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|989523860
34a35,38
> ----
> Did you read a book titled ''The Professor and the Madman'' ?  Well, you should.  It is about the [[Wikipedia]] project, only 150 years earlier.
> 
> 
------
Phonology|989524130
1c1
< Whereas phonetics is about the nature of sounds per se, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language. For example, /p/ and /b/ in English: due to mimimal pairs such as PIN and BIN it is obvious that /p/ and /b/ are distinctive units of sound in English, i.e. phonemes. Stress and tone are also part of phonology. In some languages, stress is non-phonological, e.g. in Finnish or in Germanic. In other languages, such as most modern-day Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is indeed phonologically distinctive, although there are only few
---
> Whereas [[phonetics]] is about the nature of [[sound]]s per se, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language. For example, /p/ and /b/ in English: due to mimimal pairs such as PIN and BIN it is obvious that /p/ and /b/ are distinctive units of sound in English, i.e. [[phoneme]]s. [[Stress]] and [[tone]] are also part of phonology. In some languages, stress is non-phonological, e.g. in Finnish or in Germanic. In other languages, such as most modern-day Germanic languages such as German or English, stress is indeed phonologically distinctive, although there are only few
3,4c3,4
< In other languages such as Italian and Spanish there are many minimal pairs, whereas French has no distinctive stress (as Latin). Latin, however, had distinctive length of consonants (as Italian) AND distinctive length of vowels (as German or Hungarian). Languages such as Chinese and Japanese, but also Serbian/Croatian and Swedish have distinctive tone. What may be important in one language (e.g. stress in Italian) may be unimportant in another language. 
< What applies to stress and tone is also true for phonemes. [s] and [z] for example are allophones (variants) of /s/ in Spanish, but in English, /s/ and /z/ are phonemes. [z] in Spanish only appears in front of voiced consoants (e.g. in mismo 'same'). In English, on the other hand, it is not possible to say where /z/ and /s/ appears (although there are some restrictions, see phonotactics). A minimal pair in English is zeal versus seal /zi:l/ vs. /si:l/. 
---
> In other languages such as Italian and Spanish there are many minimal pairs, whereas French has no distinctive stress (as Latin). Latin, however, had distinctive length of [[consonant]]s (as Italian) AND distinctive length of vowels (as German or Hungarian). Languages such as Chinese and Japanese, but also Serbian/Croatian and Swedish have distinctive tone. What may be important in one language (e.g. stress in Italian) may be unimportant in another language. 
> What applies to stress and tone is also true for phonemes. [s] and [z] for example are [[allophone]]s (variants) of /s/ in Spanish, but in English, /s/ and /z/ are phonemes. [z] in Spanish only appears in front of voiced consoants (e.g. in mismo 'same'). In English, on the other hand, it is not possible to say where /z/ and /s/ appears (although there are some restrictions, see [[phonotactics]]). A minimal pair in English is zeal versus seal /zi:l/ vs. /si:l/. 
------
Sound|989524327
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sound is defined as waves in the surrounding medium (air or water) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a frequency too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.  Ultrasound has industrial and medical applications, e.g. as an alternative to [[X ray]]s.
> 
> See also [[physics]], [[light]].
> 
------
Sound|989524449
1c1
< Sound is defined as waves in the surrounding medium (air or water) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a frequency too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.  Ultrasound has industrial and medical applications, e.g. as an alternative to [[X ray]]s.
---
> Sound is defined as [[waves]] in the surrounding [[medium]] (typically air or water, but also steady state substances) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a frequency too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.  Ultrasound has industrial and medical applications, e.g. as an alternative to [[X-ray]]s.
------
Ultrasound|989524569
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ultrasound is defined as [[sound]] of [[frequency|frequencies]] too high to be audible by the human ear.
> Some sound that is ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.  Ultrasound has industrial and medical applications, e.g. as an alternative to [[X-ray]]s.
> 
> See also [[physics]], [[light]].
> 
------
Sound|989524607
1c1
< Sound is defined as [[waves]] in the surrounding [[medium]] (typically air or water, but also steady state substances) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a frequency too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.  Ultrasound has industrial and medical applications, e.g. as an alternative to [[X-ray]]s.
---
> Sound is defined as [[waves]] in the surrounding [[medium]] (typically air or water, but also steady state substances) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a [[frequency]] too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.
------
Frequency|989525005
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The frequency is a [[measurement]] of repeated occurances of an [[event]].  In [[statistics]], the frequency can be the count of events during an entire experiment.  The unit for frequency is [[Hertz]] (named after German physicist [[Heinrich Rudulf Hertz]]), and is the inverse of [[second]]s, the unit for [[time]].  This requires that the count of occurances is divided by the time duration of the experiment or measurement.  In measuring the frequency of [[sound]], [[electromagnetic waves]] (such as [[radio]] or [[light]]) or electrical signals, the frequency in Hertz is the number of full cycles (of a sine wave) per second.  Some (old) radio receivers had the dial measured in megacycles per second (Mc/s) rather than megahertz.
> 
> 
------
Measurement|989525515
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[physics]] and [[engineering]], measurement is the activity of comparing [[quantity|quantities]] of real world [[object]]s and [[event]]s.  Established standard objects and events are used as [[unit]]s, and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement.
> 
> For example, the unit for length might be a well-known person's foot, and the length of a boat can be given as the number of times that person's foot would fit the length of the boat.
> The history of measurements is a topic within the [[History of Science and Technology]]. The meter was standardized as the unit for length after the [[French revolution]], and has since been adopted all over Europe.
> 
------
Event|989525812
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[physics]] (and [[philosophy]]), an event is a point in [[time]] which can be distinguished because the state of the world changed.  Something was different before and after the event.
> 
> See also [[object]] and [[length]].
> 
------
Scandinavia|989525884
1,2c1,2
< A Region in northern [[Europe]] including [[Sweden]], [[Norway]],
< [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].
---
> A Region in northern [[Europe]] including [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Denmark]].
> Often mixed up with the [[Nordic Countries]]
------
Time|989525929
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[physics]], time is defined as the distance between [[event]]s.  Time can be [[measurement|measured]], just like other physical dimensions.  The standard [[unit]] for time is the [[second]], from which can be derived the [[minute]], [[day]], [[week]], [[month]], [[year]], [[decade]], and [[century]].
> 
> 
------
Scandinavia|989525967
2c2
< Often mixed up with the [[Nordic Countries]]
---
> Often mixed up with the [[Nordic countries]].
------
Second|989526001
1c1,2
< Second  is one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
---
> Second  is a [[unit]] for [[time]], and one of seven [[SI base unit]]s. It is defined as the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the [[caesium]]-133 atom.
> 
------
Scandinavian_Peninsula|989526056
1c1
< The Scandinavian [[peninsula]] extends from the Euro-Asian continent towards the [[Europe]]an [[continent]], containing the countries [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]].  It is named from the [[Scandinavian mountain range]] separating the two countries.  [[Scandinavia]] is used as a common name for the the three countries Sweden, Norway, and [[Denmark]] and their languages [[Swedish]], [[Norwegian]] and [[Danish]].
---
> The Scandinavian [[peninsula]] extends from the Euro-Asian continent towards the [[Europe]]an [[continent]], containing the countries [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]].  It is named from the [[Scandinavian mountain range]] separating the two countries.  [[Scandinavia]] is used as a common name for the the three countries [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], and [[Denmark]] and their languages [[Swedish]], [[Norwegian]] and [[Danish]].
------
Unit|989526063
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[physics]], units are standards for [[measurement]] that need clear definitions to be useful.
> 
> 
------
Measurement|989526128
1c1
< In [[physics]] and [[engineering]], measurement is the activity of comparing [[quantity|quantities]] of real world [[object]]s and [[event]]s.  Established standard objects and events are used as [[unit]]s, and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement.
---
> In [[physics]] and [[engineering]], measurement is the activity of comparing [[physical quantity|physical quantities]] of real world [[object]]s and [[event]]s.  Established standard objects and events are used as [[unit]]s, and the measurement results in a given number for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement.
------
Physical_quantity|989526169
1c1
< A physical quantity is usually expressed as the product of a [[numerical value]] and a [[unit]] (whereby [[SI unit]]s are usually preferred):
---
> A physical quantity is the result of [[measurement]] and usually expressed as the product of a [[numerical value]] and a [[unit]] (whereby [[SI unit]]s are usually preferred):
23c23
< A quantity is called <i><b>extensive</b></i> when its magnitude is additive for subsystems as there are the Volume <i>V</i> or the mass <i>m</i>. In case the magnitude is independent of the extent of the system (e.g. temperature <i>T</i>, pressure <i>p</i>) the quantity is called <i><b>intensive</b></i>. The word <i><b>specific</b></i> is added to an extensive quantity in order to refer to the quantity divided by its mass (e.g. the specific volume <i>v</i> = <i>V/m</i>). Similarly, the expression <i><b>molar</b></i> before an extensive quantity means divided by amount of substance (e.g. molar Volume <i>V</i><sub>m</sub> = <i>V</i>/<i>n</i>).
---
> A quantity is called <i><b>extensive</b></i> when its magnitude is additive for subsystems as there are the Volume <i>V</i> or the mass <i>m</i>. In case the magnitude is independent of the extent of the system (e.g. temperature <i>T</i>, pressure <i>p</i>) the quantity is called <i><b>intensive</b></i>. The word <i><b>specific</b></i> is added to an extensive quantity in order to refer to the quantity divided by its mass (e.g. the specific volume <i>v</i> = <i>V/m</i>). Similarly, the expression <i><b>molar</b></i> before an extensive quantity means divided by amount of substance (e.g. molar Volume <i>V</i><sub>m</sub> = <i>V</i>/<i>n</i>).
------
Seven_Wonders_of_the_World|989526375
4c4
< * The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] (and/or the walls of Babylon) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present Baghdad, [[Iraq]])
---
> * The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] (and/or the walls of [[Babylon]]) both built by [[Nebuchadnezzar]] around 600 BC (present [[Iraq]])
------
SI_derived_unit|989526407
6,16c6,16
< <TR><TD>frequency<TD>hertz<TD>Hz<TD>s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
< <TR><TD>force<TD>newton<TD>N<TD>m.kg.s<sup>-2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
< <TR><TD>pressure, stress<TD>pascal<TD>Pa<TD>N.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-1</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>energy, work, heat<TD>joule<TD>J<TD>N.m <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>power, radiant flux<TD>watt<TD>W<TD>J.s<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric charge<TD>coulomb<TD>C<TD>A.s<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
< <TR><TD>electric potential, electromotive force<TD>volt<TD>V<TD>J.C<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric resistance<TD>ohm<TD>&Omega;<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric conductance<TD>siemens<TD>S<TD>&Omega;<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>3</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>electric capacitance<TD>farad<TD>F<TD>C.V<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>4</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>magnetic flux density<TD>tesla<TD>T<TD>V.s.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= kg.s<sup>-2</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[frequency]]<TD>[[hertz]]<TD>Hz<TD>s<sup>-1</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[force]]<TD>[[newton]]<TD>N<TD>m.kg.s<sup>-2</sup><TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[pressure]], [[stress]]<TD>[[pascal]]<TD>Pa<TD>N.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-1</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[energy]], [[work]], [[heat]]<TD>[[joule]]<TD>J<TD>N.m <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[power]], [[radiant flux]]<TD>[[watt]]<TD>W<TD>J.s<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[electric charge]]<TD>[[coulomb]]<TD>C<TD>A.s<TD>&nbsp;</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[electric potential]], [[electromotive force]]<TD>[[volt]]<TD>V<TD>J.C<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[electric resistance]]<TD>[[ohm]]<TD>&Omega;<TD>V.A<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>2</sup>.kg.s<sup>-3</sup>.A<sup>-2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[electric conductance]]<TD>[[siemens]]<TD>S<TD>&Omega;<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>3</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[electric capacitance]]<TD>[[farad]]<TD>F<TD>C.V<sup>-1</sup> <TD>= m<sup>-2</sup>.kg<sup>-1</sup>.s<sup>4</sup>.A<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[magnetic flux density]]<TD>[[tesla]]<TD>T<TD>V.s.m<sup>-2</sup> <TD>= kg.s<sup>-2</sup>.A<sup>-1</sup></TR>
------
Pascal|989526481
0a1,4
> Named after French mathematician [[Blaise Pascal]], Pascal is both the name of a physical measurement [[unit]] for [[pressure]] and a [[programming language]].
> 
> ----
> 
------
Unit|989526542
1c1,2
< In [[physics]], units are standards for [[measurement]] that need clear definitions to be useful.
---
> In [[physics]], units are standards for [[measurement]] that need clear definitions to be useful.  One clear set of definitions is the system of [[SI unit]]s, also known as the metric system.
> 
------
Pascal|989526578
1c1
< Named after French mathematician [[Blaise Pascal]], Pascal is both the name of a physical measurement [[unit]] for [[pressure]] and a [[programming language]].
---
> Named after French mathematician [[Blaise Pascal]], Pascal is both the name of a physical measurement [[unit]] (the [[SI unit]]) for [[pressure]] and a [[programming language]].
------
Stress|989526636
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. See [[pressure]], as in [[physics]]
> 
> 2. See [[phonology]]
> 
> 3. Medical or psychological stress.
> 
> 
------
Tone|989526668
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. See [[phonology]].
> 
> 2. See [[musical instrument]].
> 
> 
------
Consonant|989526927
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice ([[wovel]]) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vocal]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
> 
> Consonants in the Latin alphabet are BCDFGHJKLMNPQRSTVWXZ.  The letter Y is a consonant in yoke but a wovel in myth.
> 
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|989526953
36,37c36
< Did you read a book titled ''The Professor and the Madman'' ?  Well, you should.  It is about the [[Wikipedia]] project, only 150 years earlier.
< 
---
> Did you read a book titled ''The Professor and the Madman''?  Well, you should.  It is about the [[Wikipedia]] project, only 150 years earlier.
38a38
> Yes; for those unfamiliar with the work, it's ISBN 006099486X, the story of the making of the Oxford English Dictionary and one of its most prolific early contributors, Dr. W. C. Minor, who was at the time imprisoned in the Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum.  I second the recommendation.  I'll have to write a page about the OED.  Pity its 1928 copyright hasn't expired, it would be a wonderful source of info here.
------
Consonant|989526969
1c1
< A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice ([[wovel]]) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vocal]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
---
> A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[wovel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
------
Phonology|989527363
2c2,3
< minimal pairs, e.g. /'august/ 'August (the name)' versus /au'gust/ 'August (the month)' in German. 
---
> minimal pairs, e.g. /'august/ 'August (the name)' versus /au'gust/ 'August (the month)' in German, or /con'verse/ 'converse (to hold a conversation)' and /'converse/ 'converse (the opposite of something)' in English. 
> 
------
20th_century|989527521
14,18c14,18
< * Invention of microprocessor
< * Television
< * Theory of relativity
< * Quantum physics
< * Nuclear weapons and energy
---
> * Invention of [[microprocessor]]
> * [[Television]]
> * [[Theory of relativity]]
> * [[Quantum physics]]
> * [[Nuclear weapon]]s and [[Nuclear energy|energy]]
22,24c22,24
< * Discovery of DNA molecule
< * World War Two
< * Rise and fall of Soviet Union
---
> * Discovery of [[DNA]] molecule
> * [[World War II]
> * Rise and fall of [[Soviet Union]]
------
20th_century|989527603
23c23
< * [[World War II]
---
> * [[World War II]]
31c31,33
< See also other [[centuries]].
---
> See also other [[centuries]], [[decades]], [[1900s]],
> [[1910s]], [[1920s]], [[1930s]], [[1940s]], [[1950s]],
> [[1960s]], [[1970s]], [[1980s]], [[1990s]].
------
20th_century|989527697
24a25,26
> * [[Functionalism]] in design
> * [[Postmodernism]]
------
2000|989528002
29c29
< Not the [[apocalypse]] but the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K bug]] - a computer bug that saw many computers not recognising the new year.
---
> Not the [[apocalypse]] but the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K bug]] - a computer bug that saw many computers not recognising the new year. The more important problem for computer-related companies this year, however, was the [[dotcom death]] that started in February and lasted well into [[2001]].
------
Dotcom_death|989528367
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In February [[2000]], stock prices for e-business and "dotcom" companies started to fall. Many companies had very weak and optimistic business plans, failed to raise renewed funding, and had to lay off workers and close down operations.
> 
> A parody on Fast Company, a leading magazine of the [[New Economy]] era, the website Fucked Company (http://fuckedcompany.com/) started to list crashing enterprises with the number of layoffs.
> 
> The downtrend first reached the highly specialized "dotcom" companies, but soon spread to computer manufacturers, telecom, and industry in general.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|989529254
105a106,108
> 
> ----
> Comment written by LA2 on May 10, 2001: I just wrote a page on the [[dotcom death]].  The only sort of financing that I believe in for a site like this is a fat, one-time donation from someone who has too much money.  Don't tax the users with subscription fees or advertisments.  Theses plans are doomed.  I didn't know some of the contributors here were paid.  I'm certainly not.  I just spent a few evenings here writing articles on everything conceivable and I was surprised that I got to write articles on things like San Francisco (not exactly my field of expertise).  Then I found http://www.nupedia.com/ which has published 17 articles in 10 months (not really a threat to Encyclopaedia Britannica), so Wikipedia is the big and dominating project, and in just a few evenings I have been able to write more articles than most people here.  That is sort of embarassing, and shows how thin this Internet is, still after 30 years.
------
Trademark|989529987
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''trademark''' is a distinctive name, phrase, symbol, design, pciture, or style used by a business to identify itself to consumers.  If the business identified is a service rather than a product, the mark is called a '''service mark'''.  In text and advertising one often sees the symbol '''&trade;''' next to a phrase or image that a company thereby claims as a trademark, or the symbol '''&reg;''', which signifies that the trademark has been registered with the appropriate government authority.
> 
> The intent of trademark law is to protect businesses from unfair competition and deceptive advertising by their competitors.  For example, a company other than the Atlanta-based Coca-Cola Corporation that sold a soft drink called "Coke" in red and white cans would clearly be guilty of trademark infringement, confusing consumers as to the source of the product (though such confusion need not be intentional to be infringing).  On the other hand, a company selling the carbonized coal byproduct called "coke" to steel mills would not likely be guilty of infringement, because there is little chance any consumer will mistake the two.  The Atlanta company "owns" (in the [[intellectual property]] sense) not the word or design itself, but the exclusive right to use it to identify a particular product or service.
> 
> Unlike other forms of intellectual property such as [[copyright]]s and [[patent]]s, trademarks must be actively used and defended.  A copyright or patent holder may "sit on" his creation and prevent its use, but a company claiming (even registering) a trademark that fails to make active use of it, or fails to defend it against infringement, may lose the exclusive right to it.  Further, if a court rules that a formerly trademarked term has become "generic" though common use (and so the average consumer doesn't realize it is a trademark), it may also be ruled invalid.  For example, the [[Bayer]] company's trademark "Aspirin" has been ruled generic, so other companies may use that name for their products as well.  Trademarks do not expire; they are valid as long as they are actively in use.
> 
> In the United States, trademarks are protected by [[common law]], state law, and the federal [[Lanham Act]] 15 USC §§ 1051 - 1127, administered by the [[USPTO]].
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
Science_fiction|989530028
16c16
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[Michael Moorcock]], [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|989530679
108a109,112
> 
> ----
> No one is paid to contribute here.  Larry is paid to edit and organize; he also happens to have contributed, just as you and I have.  I also doubt very seriously that you have written more than most people here (though you may well hold a record for the number of contibutions to different subjects in a small time).  The server does not retain statistics on who writes how much, which befits this sites general lack of concern for the concept of "authorship", which is what I like most about it.  Contributors will come and go; their text will continue to accumulate.  Yes, it will likely take years before we have anything vaguely competitive with EB, but we ''will'' get there, and pass them up, and it will have value that may provide some innocuous way to support itself without sacrificing utility or freedom.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]].
> 
------
Frequency|989530747
2a3,4
> ----
> Welcome to Wikipedia! 
3a6,13
> About your comment in [[Making Wikipedia Profitable]], the only
> one here paid is [[Larry Sanger]] (and I don't think he gets paid
> more for Wikipedia and Nupedia than for Nupedia alone). The
> other person with an economic relationship with wikipedia is
> [[Jimbo Wales]], who pays for writing here :).
> I don't know if someone is paid to keep the technical part of
> Wikipedia.
> ----
------
Frequency|989530778
3,13c3
< ----
< Welcome to Wikipedia! 
< 
< About your comment in [[Making Wikipedia Profitable]], the only
< one here paid is [[Larry Sanger]] (and I don't think he gets paid
< more for Wikipedia and Nupedia than for Nupedia alone). The
< other person with an economic relationship with wikipedia is
< [[Jimbo Wales]], who pays for writing here :).
< I don't know if someone is paid to keep the technical part of
< Wikipedia.
< ----
---
> -
------
LA2|989530802
2a3,13
> ----
> Welcome to Wikipedia! 
> 
> About your comment in [[Making Wikipedia Profitable]], the only
> one here paid is [[Larry Sanger]] (and I don't think he gets paid
> more for Wikipedia and Nupedia than for Nupedia alone). The
> other person with an economic relationship with wikipedia is
> [[Jimbo Wales]], who pays for writing here :).
> I don't know if someone is paid to keep the technical part of
> Wikipedia.
> ----
------
Business_and_Industry|989531447
15c15
< ** [[patent|patents]]
---
> ** [[patent|patents]] and [[trademark|trademarks]]
------
Library|989532885
1c1,2
< A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which beans book.  The Greek word Bibliothek (derived from Greek Biblos, book) is used in German, French, and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use a words that derive from their words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
---
> A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which beans book.  The Greek word Bibliothek (derived from Greek Biblos, book) is used (at least) in German, French, 
> Spanish and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use a words that derive from their words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
------
Consonant|989533777
3c3
< Consonants in the Latin alphabet are BCDFGHJKLMNPQRSTVWXZ.  The letter Y is a consonant in yoke but a wovel in myth.
---
> Consonants in the Latin alphabet are BCDFGHJKLMNPQRSTVWXZ.  The letter Y is a consonant in "yoke" but a vowel in "myth".
------
AmeriKKKa|989535094
3c3
< The KKK is representative of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and highlights the ongoing racial intolerance of white americans
---
> The KKK is representative of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and highlights the ongoing racial intolerance of some white Americans.
------
Be|989535249
14c14
< its parady, Klingon.
---
> its parody, Klingon.
------
AmeriKKKa|989535989
1c1
< [[Slang]] word from [[Ice Cube]]'s 1990 Album [[AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted]]
---
> [[Slang]] word from [[Ice Cube]]'s 1990 Album [[AmeriKKKas Most Wanted|AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted]]
------
Library|989536361
1,2c1
< A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which beans book.  The Greek word Bibliothek (derived from Greek Biblos, book) is used (at least) in German, French, 
< Spanish and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use a words that derive from their words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
---
> A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which means book.  Derivations from the Greek "Bibliothek" (from Biblos, book) are used (at least) in German, French, Spanish and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use words that derive from their own words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
------
Event|989536366
2a3,6
> In [[special relativity]] (and [[general relativity]]), an
> even is a point in the space-time continuum, i.e. it has a
> position in space and time.
> 
------
Sound|989536613
1c1,3
< Sound is defined as [[waves]] in the surrounding [[medium]] (typically air or water, but also steady state substances) that are audible to the human ear.  Waves that have a [[frequency]] too high to be audible is called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, that is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.
---
> Sound is defined as compression [[wave]]s that propagate
> through a medium (typically air or water, but also solid state substances) that the human ear can detect and traslate into
> electrical impulses that the brain interprets.  Waves that have a [[frequency]] too high to be audible are called [[ultrasound]], and if the frequency is too low, it is [[infrasound]].  Some waves that are ultrasound to the human ear can be heard by animals, such as [[dog]]s.
------
Quantum_Mechanics|989536785
7,9d6
< ''I'm under the impression than Quantum Mechanics is being confused with [[Quantum Physics]]''
< 
< 
------
Philip_K._Dick|989537309
1c1
< Philip Kendred Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound affect on the genre.  He was hailed by and friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Philip Kendred Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound effect on the genre.  He was hailed by and was friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
------
A.E._van_Vogt|989537516
3c3
< Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author,. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed, and started writing science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
---
> Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed: science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
11c11
< He claimed to get many of his ideas from dreams, and indeed his stories at their worst had the coherence of a dream, but at their best, like the fantasy novel `<i>The Book of Ptath</i>' had the power of a dream. [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt stories got him interested in science fiction, with their strange sense of the unexplained, that there was more going on than the protagonists realised. 
---
> He claimed to get many of his ideas from dreams, and indeed his stories at their worst had the coherence of a dream, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel `<i>The Book of Ptath</i>', his works had the power a dream, as well. [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt stories got him interested in science fiction, with their strange sense of the unexplained, that there was more going on than the protagonists realised. 
------
Ship|989537682
1c1,2
< A big [[boat]].  See [[Sea Transport]] or [[transport]].
---
> A big [[boat]]. Usually a boat large enough to carry it own boats, like lifeboats, dingies or runabouts.
>  See [[Sea Transport]] or [[transport]].
------
Musical_instrument|989538004
0a1,31
> 
> A ''musical instrument'' is an item modified or constructed
> with the purpose of making [[music]]. In principle, anything
> that produces [[sound]] somehow, can serve as a musical
> intrument, but the expression is reserved generally to
> items that have that specifical purpose.
> 
> Instruments are often divided by the way in which they generate
> sound.
> 
> *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of
> air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave
> generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist
> for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying
> the length in the [[trombon]], keys that lead to differents
> paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
> *[[Percussion instruments]]
> *[[String instruments]]
> 
> Further subdivisions (and different ones) are possible.
> 
> Most likely the
> first instruments where [[percussion]] instruments, maybe 
> a hollow trunk, or stones hit together, that are
> useful to create [[rythm]], but not always [[melody]].
> But all classes of instruments have a long history, beings
> mentioned in various ancient sources: egyptian inscriptions,
> the [[Bible]], ....., etc.
> 
> 
> ----
------
Musical_instrument|989538053
1d0
< 
11,16c10
< *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of
< air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave
< generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist
< for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying
< the length in the [[trombon]], keys that lead to differents
< paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
---
> *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying the length in the [[trombon]], keys that lead to differents paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
------
Philip_K._Dick|989538259
3c3,5
< Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels.  He also produced a tremendous number of short stories and minor works which were published in [[pulp magazines]].
---
> Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels. He his also one of the first great
> exponents of the subgenre known as [[alternative history]], which
> he brought to new highs with his novel [[/The Man in the High Castle]]. He also produced a tremendous number of short stories and minor works which were published in [[pulp magazines]].
9c11
< *[[/The Man In The High Castle]]
---
> *[[/The Man in the High Castle]]
------
SandBox|989538345
149a150,156
> ----
> 
> This is a test, and '''ONLY''' a test...
> 
> ----
> 
> 
------
SandBox|989538415
153c153,155
< 
---
> :Testing 1
> ::...2
> :::...3
------
SandBox|989538471
153a154
> (one)
154a156
> (two)
155a158
> (three)
------
Philip_K._Dick/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle|989538489
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> This novel is set on the [[United States]], a couple of decades
> after it was defeated by the [[Axis powers]] in [[WWII]]. The
> eastern States are under german influence, the western, under
> the japanese.
------
SandBox|989538574
153,158c153,155
< :Testing 1
< (one)
< ::...2
< (two)
< :::...3
< (three)
---
> :Testing 1 (one)
> ::...2 (two)
> :::...3 (three)
------
SandBox|989538631
155a156,158
> # This is a numbered item.
> Followed by this.
> # Then another numbered item.
------
SandBox|989538676
156,157c156
< # This is a numbered item.
< Followed by this.
---
> # This is a numbered item.<br>Followed by this.
------
Musical_instrument|989538909
10c10
< *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying the length in the [[trombon]], keys that lead to differents paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
---
> *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying the length in the [[trombone]], keys that lead to differents paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
12c12
< *[[String instruments]]
---
> *[[String instruments]] generate a sound when the string is plucked, strummed, slapped, etc.  The [[frequency]] of the wave generated (and therefore the [[tone]] produced) usually depends on the tuning of each string, as well as the position of the player's finger on the string, pressing it against the neck of the instrument.  One exception to this rule is the [[harp]], which has no neck for the strings to be pressed against; each string will therefore produce only one tone according to how it is tuned.
------
Philip_K._Dick|989538978
3,5c3
< Dick's major themes of the nature of reality and humanity were explored in his major novels. He his also one of the first great
< exponents of the subgenre known as [[alternative history]], which
< he brought to new highs with his novel [[/The Man in the High Castle]]. He also produced a tremendous number of short stories and minor works which were published in [[pulp magazines]].
---
> Dick consistently explored the themes of the nature of reality and humanity in his novels. He is also one of the first great exponents of the subgenre known as [[alternative history]], which he brought to new highs with his novel [[/The Man in the High Castle]]. He also produced a tremendous number of short stories and minor works which were published in [[pulp magazines]].
------
Johannes_Kepler|989538986
1c1,5
< German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1571, died 1630, known for the [[Laws of Kepler]]
---
> German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1571, died 1630.
> 
> Even when he is mostly known for [[laws of planetary motion|Laws of Kepler]], those were just some rules he found out while trying
> to achieve the pytagorean purpose of finding the harmony of
> the celestina spheres.
------
SandBox|989539044
157a158,167
> 
> Here is some very important
> text which you should read carefully. Please do
> so at your earilest convenience. If you are
> unable to comply with this request, do not
> attempt to do so.
> 
> Here is some more 
> very important
> text which you should also read carefully.
------
SandBox|989539189
163c163,164
< attempt to do so.
---
> attempt to do so. It will be useless to you
> to do so. Resist the temptation at all cost.
167a169,174
> It is easily as informative as the preceeding paragraph.
> 
> : This text is indented
> : for no particular reason. That should not
> : dissuade you from reading it just as carefully
> : as you have done for the preceeding material.
------
SandBox|989539264
172,173c172,173
< : for no particular reason. That should not
< : dissuade you from reading it just as carefully
---
> :for no particular reason. That should not
> dissuade you from reading it just as carefully
------
Kazakhstan|989539278
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Kazakhstan/History|989539318
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> During the 1950s and 1960s Soviet citizens were urged to help settle the "New Lands" of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. The influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but including some deported minority nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled non-Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence has caused many of these newcomers to emigrate. Current issues include: resolving ethnic differences; speeding up market reforms; establishing stable relations with Russia, China, and other foreign powers; and developing and expanding the country's abundant energy resources.
------
Kazakhstan/Geography|989539340
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Asia, northwest of China
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 48 00 N, 68 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Commonwealth of Independent States
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,717,300 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2,669,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 47,500 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than four times the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,012 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 1,533 km, Kyrgyzstan 1,051 km, Russia 6,846 km, Turkmenistan 379 km, Uzbekistan 2,203 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Kazakhstan borders the Aral Sea, now split into two bodies of water (1,070 km), and the Caspian Sea (1,894 km)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> continental, cold winters and hot summers, arid and semiarid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> extends from the Volga to the Altai Mountains and from the plains in western Siberia to oases and desert in Central Asia
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Vpadina Kaundy -132 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Khan Tangiri Shyngy (Pik Khan-Tengri) 6,995 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> major deposits of petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, manganese, chrome ore, nickel, cobalt, copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, bauxite, gold, uranium
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 57%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 16% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 22,000 sq km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes in the south, mud slides around Almaty
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with its former defense industries and test ranges are found throughout the country and pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers which flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Johannes_Kepler|989539349
3c3
< Even when he is mostly known for [[laws of planetary motion|Laws of Kepler]], those were just some rules he found out while trying
---
> Even when he is mostly known for  his [[Laws of Kepler|laws of planetary motion]], those were just some rules he found out while trying
5c5,12
< the celestina spheres.
---
> the celestial spheres.
> In his cosmovision, that the number of perfect [[polihedra]]
> was equal to the number of [[planet]]s was not a coincidence.
> Having embraced the [[copernican system]], he set out to prove
> that the distances from the planets to the [[sun]] where given
> by spheres inside perfect poliedra inside spheres.
> 
> To work his model out, he counted with the meticulous observations of [[Tycho Brahe]]
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Kazakhstan/People|989539359
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 16,733,227 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 27% (male 2,332,284; female 2,260,730)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 5,320,938; female 5,638,710)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 8% (male 398,225; female 782,340) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.05% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.78 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.56 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -6.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.51 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 59.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.19 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 57.73 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 68.93 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.03 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Kazakhstani(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Kazakhstani
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Kazakh (Qazaq) 46%, Russian 34.7%, Ukrainian 4.9%, German 3.1%, Uzbek 2.3%, Tatar 1.9%, other 7.1% (1996)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 47%, Russian Orthodox 44%, Protestant 2%, other 7%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Kazakh (Qazaq, state language) 40%, Russian (official, used in everyday business) 66%
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 96% (1989 est.)
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Kazakhstan/Government|989539381
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Kazakhstan
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kazakhstan
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Qazaqstan Respublikasy
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Astana
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the government moved from Almaty to Astana in December 1998
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 oblystar (singular - oblysy) and 3 cities (qala, singular - qalasy)*; Almaty, Almaty*, Aqmola (Astana), Aqtobe, Astana*, Atyrau, Batys Qazaqstan (Oral), Bayqongyr*, Mangghystau (Aqtau; formerly Shevchenko), Ongtustik Qazaqstan (Shymkent), Pavlodar, Qaraghandy, Qostanay, Qyzylorda, Shyghys Qazaqstan (Oskemen; formerly Ust'-Kamenogorsk), Soltustik Qazaqstan (Petropavl), Zhambyl (Taraz; formerly Dzhambul)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses); in 1995 the Governments of Kazakhstan and Russia entered into an agreement whereby Russia would lease for a period of 20 years an area of 6,000 sq km enclosing the Bayqongyr (Baykonur) space launch facilities and the city of Bayqongyr (formerly Leninsk)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 16 December 1991 (from the Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Day of the Republic, 25 October (1990) (date on which Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted by national referendum 30 August 1995; first post-independence constitution was adopted 28 January 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Nursultan A. NAZARBAYEV (chairman of the Supreme Soviet from 22 February 1990, elected president 1 December 1991)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Kazymzhomart TOKAYEV (since 2 October 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held 10 January 1999, a year before it was previously scheduled (next to be held NA 2006); note - President NAZARBAYEV's previous term had been extended to 2000 by a nationwide referendum held 30 April 1995; prime minister and first deputy prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Nursultan A. NAZARBAYEV elected president; percent of vote - Nursultan A. NAZARBAYEV 79.8%, Serikbolsyn ABDILDIN 11.7%, Gani KASYMOV 4.6%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> President NAZARBAYEV expanded his presidential powers by decree: only he can initiate constitutional amendments, appoint and dismiss the government, dissolve Parliament, call referenda at his discretion, and appoint administrative heads of regions and cities
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (47 seats; 7 senators are appointed by the president; other members are popularly elected, two from each oblast and Almaty, to serve six-year terms) and the Majilis (67 seats; the addition of 10 "Party List" seats brings the total to 77; members are popularly elected to serve five-year terms); note - with the oblasts being reduced to 14, the Senate will eventually be reduced to 37; a number of Senate seats come up for reelection every two years
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - (indirect) last held 17 September 1999 (next to be held NA 2001); Majilis - last held 10 October 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; 16 seats up for election in 1999, candidates nominated by local councils; Majilis - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Otan 25, Civic Party 10, Communist Party 3, Agrarian Party 3, People's Cooperative Party 1, independents 32, 3 seats unaccounted for
> note - most independent candidates are affiliated with parastatal enterprises and other pro-government institutions
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (44 members); Constitutional Council (7 members)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Agrarian Party [Romin MADENOV]; Alash [Soverkazhy AKATAYEV]; AZAMAT Movement [Petr SVOIK, Murat AUEZOV, and Galym ABILSIITOV, cochairmen]; Civic Party [Azat PERUASHEV, first secretary]; Communist Party or KPK [Serikbolsyn ABDILDIN, first secretary]; Forum of Democratic Forces [leader NA]; Labor and Workers Movement [Madel ISMAILOV, chairman]; Orleu Movement [Seidakhmet KUTTYKADAM]; Otan [Sergei TERESCHENKO, chairman]; Pensioners Movement or Pokoleniye [Irina SAVOSTINA, chairwoman]; People's Congress of Kazakhstan or NKK [Olzhas SULEIMENOV, chairman]; People's Cooperative Party [Umirzak SARSENOV]; Republican People's Party of Kazakhstan [Akezhan KAZHEGELDIN]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Kazakhstan International Bureau on Human Rights [Yevgeniy ZHOVTIS, executive director]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, CCC, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bolat K. NURGALIYEV
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1401 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-5488
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-5845
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Richard H. JONES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 99/97A Furmanova Street, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan 480091
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Almaty, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-7030
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [7] (3272) 63-39-21, 63-13-75, 50-76-23
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [7] (3272) 63-38-83
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> sky blue background representing the endless sky and a gold sun with 32 rays soaring above a golden steppe eagle in the center; on the hoist side is a "national ornamentation" in gold
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Kazakhstan/Economy|989539397
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Kazakhstan, the second largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, possesses enormous untapped fossil fuel reserves as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also has considerable agricultural potential with its vast steppe lands accommodating both livestock and grain production. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a relatively large machine building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defense items. The breakup of the USSR and the collapse of demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products have resulted in a sharp contraction of the economy since 1991, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. In 1995-97 the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector. The December 1996 signing of the Caspian Pipeline Consortium agreement to build a new pipeline from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz oil field to the Black Sea increases prospects for substantially larger oil exports in several years. Kazakhstan's economy turned downward in 1998 with a 2.5% decline in GDP growth due to slumping oil prices and the August financial crisis in Russia. A bright spot in 1999 was the recovery of international oil prices, which, combined with a well-timed tenge devaluation and a bumper grain harvest, pulled the economy out of recession.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $54.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 60% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 35% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.1%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24.9% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 8.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 8.8 million (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 27%, agriculture and forestry 23%, other 50% (1996)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 13.7% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $3.1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $3.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> oil, coal, iron ore, manganese, chromite, lead, zinc, copper, titanium, bauxite, gold, silver, phosphates, sulfur, iron and steel, nonferrous metal, tractors and other agricultural machinery, electric motors, construction materials
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 49.299 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 87.73%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 12.07%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0.2%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 48.822 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 3.374 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain (mostly spring wheat), cotton; wool, livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $5.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> oil 40%, ferrous and nonferrous metals, machinery, chemicals, grain, wool, meat, coal
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 32%, China 29%, Russia 29% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $4.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and parts, industrial materials, oil and gas, vehicles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 39%, Ukraine, US, Uzbekistan, Turkey, UK, Germany, South Korea (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $7.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $409.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Kazakhstani tenge = 100 tiyn
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> tenges per US$1 - 139.02 (January 2000), 119.52 (1999), 78.30 (1998), 75.44 (1997), 67.30 (1996), 60.95 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Kazakhstan/Communications|989539414
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.963 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,600 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> service is poor; equipment antiquated
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> intercity by landline and microwave radio relay; mobile cellular systems are available in most of Kazakhstan
> <br><i>international:</i>
> international traffic with other former Soviet republics and China carried by landline and microwave radio relay; with other countries by satellite and by the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic cable; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 60, FM 17, shortwave 9 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 6.47 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 12 (plus nine repeaters) (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.88 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 83 (Kazakhstan and Russia) (1999)
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Kazakhstan/Transportation|989539428
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14,400 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 14,400 km 1.520-m gauge (3,299 km electrified) (1997)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 119,390 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 103,272 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 16,118 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 3,900 km on the Syrdariya (Syr Darya) and Ertis (Irtysh)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 2,850 km; refined products 1,500 km; natural gas 3,480 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Aqtau (Shevchenko), Atyrau (Gur'yev), Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk), Pavlodar, Semey (Semipalatinsk)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 10 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1997 est.)
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SandBox|989539436
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> so at your earliest convenience. If you are
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Kazakhstan/Military|989539443
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> General Purpose Forces (Army), Air Force, Border Guards, Navy, Republican Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,477,455 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,572,688 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 158,838 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $322 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.5% (FY99)
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Kazakhstan/Transnational_issues|989539457
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan; Russia leases approximately 6,000 sq km of territory enclosing the Baykonur Cosmodrome
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> significant illicit cultivation of cannabis and limited cultivation of opium poppy and ephedra (for the drug ephedrone); limited government eradication program; cannabis consumed largely in the CIS; used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Russia, North America, and Western Europe from Southwest Asia
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Kenya|989539490
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Kenya/History|989539506
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Ethnic divisions account for many of Kenya's problems. During the early 1990s, tribal clashes killed thousands and left tens of thousands homeless. Ethnically split opposition groups allowed the regime of Daniel Toroitich arap MOI, in power since 1978, to be reelected for a fourth term in 1997 in balloting marred by violence and fraud.
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Kenya/Geography|989539523
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean, between Somalia and Tanzania
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 1 00 N, 38 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 582,650 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 569,250 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 13,400 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of Nevada
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,446 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Ethiopia 830 km, Somalia 682 km, Sudan 232 km, Tanzania 769 km, Uganda 933 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 536 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies from tropical along coast to arid in interior
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low plains rise to central highlands bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Kenya 5,199 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> gold, limestone, soda ash, salt barites, rubies, fluorspar, garnets, wildlife, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 37%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 25% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 660 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> recurring drought in northern and eastern regions; flooding during rainy seasons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> the Kenyan Highlands comprise one of the most successful agricultural production regions in Africa; glaciers on Mt. Kenya; unique physiography supports abundant and varied wildlife of scientific and economic value
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Kenya/People|989539539
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 30,339,770
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 6,566,424; female 6,419,034)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 8,284,719; female 8,238,121)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 366,200; female 465,272) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.53% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 29.35 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.08 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.79 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 68.74 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 47.98 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 46.95 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 49.04 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Kenyan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Kenyan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Kikuyu 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 12%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 6%, other African 15%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 38%, Roman Catholic 28%, indigenous beliefs 26%, Muslim 7%, other 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Kiswahili (official), numerous indigenous languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 86.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70% (1995 est.)
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Kenya/Government|989539563
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Kenya
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kenya
> <br><i>former:</i>
> British East Africa
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KE
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Nairobi
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 7 provinces and 1 area*; Central, Coast, Eastern, Nairobi Area*, North Eastern, Nyanza, Rift Valley, Western
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 12 December 1963 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 12 December (1963)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 12 December 1963, amended as a republic 1964; reissued with amendments 1979, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1992, and 1997
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law, tribal law, and Islamic law; judicial review in High Court; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations; constitutional amendment of 1982 making Kenya a de jure one-party state repealed in 1991
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI (since 14 October 1978); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI (since 14 October 1978); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote from among the members of the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 29 December 1997 (next to be held by early 2003); vice president appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI reelected; percent of vote - Daniel T. arap MOI (KANU) 40.6%, Mwai KIBAKI (DP) 31.5%, Raila ODINGA (NDP) 11.1%, Michael WAMALWA (FORD-K) 8.4%, Charity NGILU (SDP) 7.8%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Bunge (222 seats, 12 appointed by the president, 210 members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 29 December 1997 (next to be held between 1 December 2002 and 30 April 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - KANU 107, FORD-A 1, FORD-K 17, FORD-People 3, DP 39, NDP 21, SDP 15, SAFINA 5, smaller parties 2; seats appointed by the president - KANU 6, FORD-K 1, DP 2, SDP 1, NDP 1, SAFINA 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal, chief justice is appointed by the president; High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Party of Kenya or DP [Mwai KIBAKI]; Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Asili or FORD-A [Martin SHIKUKU, chairman]; Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-Kenya or FORD-K [Michael Kijana WAMALWA]; Forum for the Restoration of Democracy-People or FORD-People [Raymond MATIBA]; Kenya African National Union or KANU [President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI] - the governing party; National Development Party or NDP [Raila ODINGA, president, Dr. Charles MARANGA, secretary general]; SAFINA [Farah MAALIM, chairman, Mghanga MWANDAWIRO, secretary general]; Social Democratic Party or SDP [Anyang N'YANGO, secretary general]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> human rights groups; labor unions; Muslim organizations; National Convention Executive Council or NCEC, a proreform coalition of political parties and nongovernment organizations [Kivutha KIBWANA]; Protestant National Council of Churches of Kenya or NCCK [Mutava MUSYIMI]; Roman Catholic and other Christian churches; Supreme Council of Kenyan Muslims or SUPKEM [Shaykh Abdul Gafur al-BUSAIDY, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, EADB, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNU, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Samuel K. CHEMAI (recalled in November 1999)
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2249 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-6101
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-3829
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Johnnie CARSON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> US Embassy, Mombasa Road, Nairobi
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 30137, Box 21A, Unit 64100, APO AE 09831
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [254] (2) 537-800
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [254] (2) 537-810
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green; the red band is edged in white; a large warrior's shield covering crossed spears is superimposed at the center
------
Kenya/Economy|989539582
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Kenya is well placed to serve as an engine of growth in East Africa, but its economy is stagnating because of poor management and uneven commitment to reform.  In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative growth in the early 1990s. Kenya's real GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996, and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed in 1997-99 however. Political violence damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program lapsed due to the government's failure to maintain reform or address public sector corruption. A new economic team was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the civil service, and curb corruption, but wary donors continue to question the government's commitment to sound economic policy. Long-term barriers to development include electricity shortages, the government's continued and inefficient dominance of key sectors, endemic corruption, and the country's high population growth rate.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $45.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,600 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 26%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 56% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 42% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 47.7% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 9.2 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 75%-80%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 50% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $2.91 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.97 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> small-scale consumer goods (plastic, furniture, batteries, textiles, soap, cigarettes, flour), agricultural products processing; oil refining, cement; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 4.23 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 8.27%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 82.74%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8.99% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 4.078 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 144 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, tea, corn, wheat, sugarcane, fruit, vegetables; dairy products, beef, pork, poultry, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> tea, coffee, horticultural products, petroleum products (1995)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Uganda 16%, UK 13%, Tanzania 13%, Egypt 5%, Germany 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum products, iron and steel
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK 12%, UAE 9%, US 8%, Japan 8%, Germany 6%, India 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $6.5 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $457 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Kenyan shilling (KSh) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Kenyan shillings (KSh) per US$1 - 73.943 (December 1999), 70.326 (1999), 60.367 (1998), 58.732 (1997), 57.115 (1996), 51.430 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Kenya/Communications|989539597
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 290,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 6,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> unreliable; little attempt to modernize
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> trunks are primarily microwave radio relay; data commonly transferred by a very small aperature terminal (VSAT)
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 24, FM 8, shortwave 6 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.07 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 8 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 730,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 7 (1999)
------
Kenya/Transportation|989539619
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,778 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 2,778 km 1.000-m gauge
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the line connecting Nairobi with the port of Mombasa is the most important in the country
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 63,800 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 8,868 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 54,932 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> part of the Lake Victoria system is within the boundaries of Kenya
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 483 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Kisumu, Lamu, Mombasa
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,893 GRT/6,255 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 230 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 14 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 209
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 110
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 84 (1999 est.)
------
Kenya/Military|989539632
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary General Service Unit of the Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 7,482,095 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,631,987 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $197 million (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.9% (FY98/99)
------
Kenya/Transnational_issues|989539644
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> widespread harvesting of small, wild plots of marijuana and qat (chat); transit country for South Asian heroin destined for Europe and, sometimes, North America; Indian methaqualone also transits on way to South Africa
------
Countries_of_the_world|989539709
24c24
< <font size=+2>K</font><br> [[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
---
> <font size=+2>K</font><br> [[Kazakhstan]] - [[Kenya]] - [[Kingman Reef]] - [[Kiribati]] - [[Korea, North]] - [[Korea, South]] - [[Kuwait]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
------
Korea,_North|989539743
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> #REDIRECT [[North Korea]]
------
Lighthouse|989539755
3c3,4
< Perhaps the most famous lighthouse of all history is the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] in ancient Egypt.
---
> Perhaps the most famous lighthouse of all history is the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]], built on the island of [[Pharos]] in ancient Egypt. The name of the island is still used as the
> noun for lighthous in some languages, e.j. Spanish (''faro'').
------
Korea,_South|989539770
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> #REDIRECT [[South Korea]]
------
Kingman_Reef|989539801
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Kingman_Reef/History|989539853
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Kingman_Reef/Geography|989539871
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, reef in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to American Samoa
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 6 24 N, 162 24 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 1.7 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 3 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical, but moderated by prevailing winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low and nearly level
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 1 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1996)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> wet or awash most of the time, maximum elevation of about 1 meter makes Kingman Reef a maritime hazard
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> barren coral atoll with deep interior lagoon; closed to the public
------
Kingman_Reef/People|989539887
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b> uninhabited (July 2000 est.)
------
Kingman_Reef/Government|989539902
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kingman Reef
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC by the US Navy; however, it is awash the majority of the time, so it is not usable and is uninhabited
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Kingman_Reef/Economy|989539917
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b> no economic activity
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Kingman_Reef/Communications|989539934
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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Kingman_Reef/Transportation|989539946
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> lagoon was used as a halfway station between Hawaii and American Samoa by Pan American Airways for flying boats in 1937 and 1938
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Kingman_Reef/Military|989539960
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of the US
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Kingman_Reef/Transnational_issues|989539975
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Kiribati|989540008
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Kiribati/History|989540047
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in 1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with Kiribati.
------
Kiribati/Geography|989540063
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, straddling the equator, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia; note - on 1 January 1995, Kiribati unilaterally moved the International Date Line from the middle of the country to include its easternmost islands and make it the same day throughout the country
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 1 25 N, 173 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 717 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 717 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes three island groups - Gilbert Islands, Line Islands, Phoenix Islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> four times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,143 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; marine, hot and humid, moderated by trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low-lying coral atolls surrounded by extensive reefs
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Banaba 81 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphate (production discontinued in 1979)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 51%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 46% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons can occur any time, but usually November to March; occasional tornadoes; low-level of some of the islands make them very sensitive to sea-level rise
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> heavy pollution in lagoon of south Tarawa atoll due to heavy migration mixed with traditional practices such as lagoon latrines and open-pit dumping; ground water at risk
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> 20 of the 33 islands are inhabited; Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Makatea in French Polynesia, and Nauru
------
LA2|989540067
2c2,5
< 
---
> ----
> Is he also a swedish engineering student at (or graduate of)
> Carnegie-Mellon University, specializing in signal processing?
> (the last one is probably to much of an stretch)
------
Kiribati/People|989540078
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 91,985 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 40.85% (male 19,027; female 18,551)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 56% (male 25,411; female 26,097)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3.15% (male 1,239; female 1,660) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.34% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 32.43 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.75 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 55.36 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 59.78 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 56.89 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 62.82 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.4 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> I-Kiribati (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> I-Kiribati
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Micronesian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 53%, Protestant (Congregational) 41%, Seventh-Day Adventist, Baha'i, Church of God, Mormon 6% (1985 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Gilbertese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Kiribati/Government|989540097
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Kiribati
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kiribati
> <br><i>note:</i>
> pronounced kir-ih-bahss
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Gilbert Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Tarawa
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 3 units; Gilbert Islands, Line Islands, Phoenix Islands
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition, there are 6 districts (Banaba, Central Gilberts, Line Islands, Northern Gilberts, Southern Gilberts, Tarawa) and 21 island councils - one for each of the inhabited islands (Abaiang, Abemama, Aranuka, Arorae, Banaba, Beru, Butaritari, Kanton, Kiritimati, Kuria, Maiana, Makin, Marakei, Nikunau, Nonouti, Onotoa, Tabiteuea, Tabuaeran, Tamana, Tarawa, Teraina)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 12 July 1979 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 12 July (1979)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 12 July 1979
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Teburoro TITO (since 1 October 1994); Vice President Tewareka TENTOA (since 12 October 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Teburoro TITO (since 1 October 1994); Vice President Tewareka TENTOA (since 12 October 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president from among the members of the House of Assembly, includes the president, vice president, attorney general, and up to eight other ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; note - the House of Assembly chooses the presidential candidates from among their members and then those candidates compete in a general election; election last held 27 November 1998 (next to be held by NA November 2002); vice president appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Teburoro TITO reelected president; percent of vote - Teburoro TITO 52.3%, Dr. Harry TONG 45.8%, Amberoti NIKORA 1.9%, Taberannang TIMEON 0%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Assembly or Maneaba Ni Maungatabu (41 seats; 39 elected by popular vote, one ex officio member, and one nominated to represent Banaba; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 23 September 1998 (next to be held by NA September 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Maneaban Te Mauri Party 14, National Progressive Party 11, independents 14
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal, judges at all levels are appointed by the president; High Court, judges at all levels are appointed by the president; 26 Magistrates' courts, judges at all levels are appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Liberal Party [Tewareka TENTOA]; Maneaban Te Mauri Party [Teburoro TITO]; National Progressive Party [Teatao TEANNAKI]; New Movement Party [leader NA]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is no tradition of formally organized political parties in Kiribati; they more closely resemble factions or interest groups because they have no party headquarters, formal platforms, or party structures
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AsDB, C, ESCAP, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFC, IFRCS, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, ITU, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WHO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Kiribati does not have an embassy in the US; there is an honorary consulate in Honolulu
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Kiribati; the ambassador to the Marshall Islands is accredited to Kiribati
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the upper half is red with a yellow frigate bird flying over a yellow rising sun, and the lower half is blue with three horizontal wavy white stripes to represent the ocean
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Kiribati/Economy|989540114
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> A remote country of 33 scattered coral atolls, Kiribati has few national resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence from the UK in 1979. Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. The economy has fluctuated widely in recent years. Economic development is constrained by a shortage of skilled workers, weak infrastructure, and remoteness from international markets. Tourism provides more than one-fifth of GDP. The financial sector is at an early stage of development as is the expansion of private sector initiatives. Foreign financial aid, largely from the UK and Japan, is a critical supplement to GDP, equal to 25%-50% of GDP in recent years. Remittances from workers abroad account for more than $5 million each year.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $74 million (1999 est.), supplemented by a nearly equal amount from external sources
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $860 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 79% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 7,870 economically active, not including subsistence farmers (1985 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2%; underemployment 70% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $33.3 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $47.7 million, including capital expenditures of $NA million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fishing, handicrafts
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.7% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 7 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 7 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> copra, taro, breadfruit, sweet potatoes, vegetables; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $6 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> copra 62%, seaweed, fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, Australia, NZ (1996)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $37 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, miscellaneous manufactured goods, fuel
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia 46%, Fiji, Japan, NZ, US (1996)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $7.2 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $15.5 million (1995), largely from UK and Japan
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> NA
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Kiribati/Communications|989540134
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2,600 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Kiribati is being linked to the Pacific Ocean Cooperative Telecommunications Network, which should improve telephone service
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 17,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Kiribati/Transportation|989540148
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 670 km (1996 est.)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> small network of canals, totaling 5 km, in Line Islands
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Banaba, Betio, English Harbor, Kanton
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,291 GRT/1,295 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> passenger/cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 21 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
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Kiribati/Military|989540161
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> no regular military forces; Police Force (carries out law enforcement functions and paramilitary duties; small police posts are on all islands)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> Kiribati does not have military forces; defense assistance is provided by Australia and NZ
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Kiribati/Transnational_issues|989540175
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
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North_Korea|989540217
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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North_Korea/History|989540246
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Following World War II, Korea was split into a northern, communist half and a southern, Western-oriented half. KIM Chong-il has ruled North Korea since his father and the country's founder, president KIM Il-sung, died in 1994. After decades of mismanagement, the North relies heavily on international food aid to feed its population, while continuing to expend resources to maintain an army of over 1 million, the fifth largest in the world. North Korea's long-range missile development and research into nuclear and chemical weapons are of major concern to the international community.
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North_Korea/Geography|989540261
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Asia, northern half of the Korean Peninsula bordering the Korea Bay and the Sea of Japan, between China and South Korea
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 40 00 N, 127 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 120,540 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 120,410 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 130 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Mississippi
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,673 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 1,416 km, South Korea 238 km, Russia 19 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,495 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>note:</i>
> military boundary line 50 nm in the Sea of Japan and the exclusive economic zone limit in the Yellow Sea where all foreign vessels and aircraft without permission are banned
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate with rainfall concentrated in summer
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly hills and mountains separated by deep, narrow valleys; coastal plains wide in west, discontinuous in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Sea of Japan 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Paektu-san 2,744 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, lead, tungsten, zinc, graphite, magnesite, iron ore, copper, gold, pyrites, salt, fluorspar, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 61%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 23% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 14,600 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> late spring droughts often followed by severe flooding; occasional typhoons during the early fall
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> localized air pollution attributable to inadequate industrial controls; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location bordering China, South Korea, and Russia; mountainous interior is isolated and sparsely populated
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North_Korea/People|989540277
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 21,687,550 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 26% (male 2,843,250; female 2,705,206)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 7,223,364; female 7,502,094)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 448,242; female 965,394) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.35% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.43 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.88 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.46 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 24.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.74 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67.76 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.86 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.3 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Korean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Korean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> racially homogeneous; there is a small Chinese community and a few ethnic Japanese
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> traditionally Buddhist and Confucianist, some Christian and syncretic Chondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> autonomous religious activities now almost nonexistent; government-sponsored religious groups exist to provide illusion of religious freedom
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Korean
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write Korean
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1990 est.)
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North_Korea/Government|989540306
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Democratic People's Republic of Korea
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> North Korea
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Choson-minjujuui-inmin-konghwaguk
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the North Koreans generally use the term "Choson" to refer to their country
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> DPRK
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KN
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> authoritarian socialist; one-man dictatorship
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> P'yongyang
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 provinces (do, singular and plural) and 3 special cities* (si, singular and plural); Chagang-do (Chagang Province), Hamgyong-bukto (North Hamgyong Province), Hamgyong-namdo (South Hamgyong Province), Hwanghae-bukto (North Hwanghae Province), Hwanghae-namdo (South Hwanghae Province), Kaesong-si* (Kaesong City), Kangwon-do (Kangwon Province), Namp'o-si* (Namp'o City), P'yongan-bukto (North P'yongan Province), P'yongan-namdo (South P'yongan Province), P'yongyang-si* (P'yongyang City), Yanggang-do (Yanggang Province)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 9 September 1948, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) Foundation Day
> <br><i>note:</i>
> 15 August 1945, date of independence from the Japanese and celebrated in North Korea as National Liberation Day
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Foundation Day, 9 September (1948)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 1948, completely revised 27 December 1972, revised again in April 1992 and September 1998
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on German civil law system with Japanese influences and Communist legal theory; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 17 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> KIM Chong-il (since NA July 1994); note - in September 1998, KIM Chong-il was reelected Chairman of the National Defense Commission, a position accorded the nation's "highest administrative authority"; KIM Young-nam was named President of the Supreme People's Assembly Presidium and given the responsibility of representing the state and receiving diplomatic credentials
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Premier HONG Song-nam (since 5 September 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet (Naegak), members, except for the Minister of People's Armed Forces, are appointed by the Supreme People's Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> premier elected by the Supreme People's Assembly; election last held NA 1998 (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> HONG Song-nam elected premier; percent of Supreme People's Assembly vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Supreme People's Assembly or Ch'oego Inmin Hoeui (687 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 26 July 1998 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - the KWP approves a single list of candidates who are elected without opposition; minor parties hold a few seats
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Central Court, judges are elected by the Supreme People's Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Chondoist Chongu Party [YU Mi-yong, chairwoman]; Korean Social Democratic Party [KIM Pyong-sik, chairman]; major party - Korean Workers' Party or KWP [KIM Chong-il, General Secretary]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP, FAO, ICAO, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, IHO, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none; note - North Korea has a Permanent Mission to the UN in New York, headed by YI Hyong-chol
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (Swedish Embassy in P'yongyang represents the US as consular protecting power)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of blue (top), red (triple width), and blue; the red band is edged in white; on the hoist side of the red band is a white disk with a red five-pointed star
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North_Korea/Economy|989540324
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> North Korea ranks among the world's most centrally planned and isolated economies. The resulting economic distortions and the government's reluctance to publicize economic data limit the amount of reliable information available. State-owned industry produces nearly all manufactured goods, and the regime continues to devote its focus on heavy and military industries at the expense of light and consumer industries. Economic conditions remain stagnant at best and the country's deepening economic slide has been fueled by acute energy shortages, poorly maintained and aging industrial facilities, and a lack of new investment. The agricultural outlook, though slightly improved over previous years, remains weak. The combined effects of serious fertilizer shortages, successive natural disasters, and structural constraints - such as marginal arable land and a short growing season - have reduced staple grain output to more than 1 million tons less than what the country needs to meet even minimum international requirements. The steady flow of international food aid has been critical in meeting the population's basic food needs. The impact of other forms of humanitarian assistance such as medical supplies and agricultural assistance largely has been limited to local areas. Even with aid, malnutrition rates are among the world's highest and estimates of mortality range in the hundreds of thousands as a direct result of starvation or famine-related diseases.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $22.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 28% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 9.6 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agricultural 36%, nonagricultural 64%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> military products; machine building, electric power, chemicals; mining (coal, iron ore, magnesite, graphite, copper, zinc, lead, and precious metals), metallurgy; textiles, food processing; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 31.975 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 34.4%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 65.6%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 29.737 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, corn, potatoes, soybeans, pulses; cattle, pigs, pork, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $680 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> minerals, metallurgical products, manufactures (including armaments); agricultural and fishery products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 28%, South Korea 21%, China 5%, Germany 4%, Russia 1% (1995)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $954 million (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, coking coal, machinery and equipment; consumer goods, grain
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> China 33%, Japan 17%, Russia 5%, South Korea 4%, Germany 3% (1995)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $12 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA; note - an estimated $200 million to $300 million in humanitarian aid from US, South Korea, Japan, and EU in 1997 plus much additional aid from the UN and non-governmental organizations
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 North Korean won (Wn) = 100 chon
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> official: North Korean won (Wn) per US$1 - 2.15 (May 1994), 2.13 (May 1992), 2.14 (September 1991), 2.1 (January 1990), 2.3 (December 1989); market: North Korean won (Wn) per US$1 - 200
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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North_Korea/Communications|989540337
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Russian (Indian Ocean Region); other international connections through Moscow and Beijing
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 16, FM 14, shortwave 12 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.36 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 38 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.2 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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SandBox|989540348
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North_Korea/Transportation|989540354
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,000 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 4,095 km 1.435-m gauge (3,500 km electrified; 159 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 665 km 0.762-m gauge
> <br><i>dual gauge:</i>
> 240 km 1.435-m and 1.600-m gauges (four rails interlaced) (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 31,200 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,997 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 29,203 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,253 km; mostly navigable by small craft only
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 37 km; petroleum product 180 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Ch'ongjin, Haeju, Hungnam (Hamhung), Kimch'aek, Kosong, Najin, Namp'o, Sinuiju, Songnim, Sonbong (formerly Unggi), Ungsang, Wonsan
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 107 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 675,609 GRT/937,477 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 5, cargo 91, combination bulk 1, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 4, short-sea passenger 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 49 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1994 est.)
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North_Korea/Military|989540368
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Korean People's Army (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Civil Security Forces
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,853,635 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,527,760 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 178,931 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $3.7 billion to $4.9 billion (FY98 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 25% to 33% (FY98 est.)
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North_Korea/Transnational_issues|989540382
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> 33-km section of boundary with China in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; Demarcation Line with South Korea
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South_Korea|989540413
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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South_Korea/History|989540430
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Following World War II, a republic was set up in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula while a communist government was installed in the north. Between 1950 and 1953, US and other UN forces intervened to defend South Korea from North Korean attacks supported by the Chinese; an armistice was signed in 1953. Thereafter, South Korea achieved amazing economic growth, with per capita income rising to 13 times the level of North Korea. In 1997, the nation suffered a severe financial crisis from which it continues to make a solid recovery. South Korea has also maintained its commitment to democratize its political processes.
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South_Korea/Geography|989540445
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean Peninsula bordering the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 37 00 N, 127 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 98,480 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 98,190 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 290 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 238 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> North Korea 238 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,413 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> not specified
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm; between 3 nm and 12 nm in the Korea Strait
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate, with rainfall heavier in summer than winter
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly hills and mountains; wide coastal plains in west and south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Sea of Japan 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Halla-san 1,950 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, tungsten, graphite, molybdenum, lead, hydropower potential
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 65%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 13% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 13,350 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional typhoons bring high winds and floods; low-level seismic activity common in southwest
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution in large cities; water pollution from the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents; drift net fishing
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
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South_Korea/People|989540460
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 47,470,969 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 22% (male 5,471,520; female 4,867,688)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 71% (male 17,155,401; female 16,662,227)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7% (male 1,274,943; female 2,039,190) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.93% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 15.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.85 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.13 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.12 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.63 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.85 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 74.43 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70.75 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.54 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.72 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Korean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Korean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> homogeneous (except for about 20,000 Chinese)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 49%, Buddhist 47%, Confucianist 3%, Shamanist, Chondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way), and other 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Korean, English widely taught in junior high and high school
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 96.7% (1995 est.)
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SandBox|989540465
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South_Korea/Government|989540479
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Korea
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> South Korea
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Taehan-min'guk
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the South Koreans generally use the term "Han-guk" to refer to their country
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> ROK
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KS
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Seoul
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 provinces (do, singular and plural) and 6 special cities* (gwangyoksi, singular and plural); Cheju-do, Cholla-bukto, Cholla-namdo, Ch'ungch'ong-bukto, Ch'ungch'ong-namdo, Inch'on-gwangyoksi*, Kangwon-do, Kwangju-gwangyoksi*, Kyonggi-do, Kyongsang-bukto, Kyongsang-namdo, Pusan-gwangyoksi*, Soul-t'ukpyolsi*, Taegu-gwangyoksi*, Taejon-gwangyoksi*
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 August 1945, date of liberation from Japanese colonial rule
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Liberation Day, 15 August (1945)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 25 February 1988
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> combines elements of continental European civil law systems, Anglo-American law, and Chinese classical thought
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 20 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President KIM Dae-jung (since 25 February 1998)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister PAK Tae-chun (since 10 January 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> State Council appointed by the president on the prime minister's recommendation
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a single five-year term; election last held 18 December 1997 (next to be held by 18 December 2002); prime minister appointed by the president; deputy prime ministers appointed by the president on the prime minister's recommendation
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> KIM Dae-jung elected president; percent of vote - KIM Dae-jung (NCNP) 40.3% (with ULD partnership), YI Hoe-chang (GNP) 38.7%, YI In-che (NPP) 19.2%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Kukhoe (299 seats - starting with the April 2000 election the number of seats will be reduced to 273; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 April 1996 (next to be held 13 April 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NKP 139, NCNP 79, ULD 50, DP 15, independents 16; note - the distribution of seats as of January 2000 was as follows: GNP 130, MDP (former NCNP) 103, ULD 55, independents 11
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, justices are appointed by the president subject to the consent of the National Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Grand National Party or GNP [YI Hoe-chang, president]; Millennium Democratic Party or MDP [KIM Dae-jung, president]; United Liberal Democrats or ULD [KIM Chong-p'il, honorary chairman]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> subsequent to the legislative election of April 1996 the following parties disbanded - New Korea Party or NKP and Democratic Party or DP; on 20 January 2000, the National Congress for New Politics or NCNP was renamed the Millennium Democratic Party or MDP
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Federation of Korean Industries; Federation of Korean Trade Unions; Korean Confederation of Trade Unions; Korean National Council of Churches; Korean Traders Association; Korean Veterans' Association; National Council of Labor Unions; National Democratic Alliance of Korea; National Federation of Farmers' Associations; National Federation of Student Associations
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, APEC, AsDB, BIS, CCC, CP, EBRD, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMOGIP, UNOMIG, UNU, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador YI Hong-ku
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2450 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-5600
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-0205
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Anchorage, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco, and Seattle
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Agana (Guam)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Stephen W. BOSWORTH
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 82 Sejong-Ro, Chongro-ku, Seoul
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy, Unit 15550, APO AP 96205-0001
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [82] (2) 397-4114
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [82] (2) 738-8845
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white with a red (top) and blue yin-yang symbol in the center; there is a different black trigram from the ancient I Ching (Book of Changes) in each corner of the white field
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South_Korea/Economy|989540494
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> As one of the Four Dragons of East Asia, South Korea has achieved an incredible record of growth. Three decades ago its GDP per capita was comparable with levels in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia. Today its GDP per capita is seven times India's, 13 times North Korea's, and comparable to the lesser economies of the European Union. This success through the late 1980s was achieved by a system of close government/business ties, including directed credit, import restrictions, sponsorship of specific industries, and a strong labor effort. The government promoted the import of raw materials and technology at the expense of consumer goods and encouraged savings and investment over consumption. The Asian financial crisis of 1997-99 exposed certain longstanding weaknesses in South Korea's development model, including high debt/equity ratios, massive foreign borrowing, and an undisciplined financial sector. By 1999 it had recovered financial stability, turning a substantial decline in 1998 into strong growth in 1999. Seoul has also pressed the country's largest business groups to swap subsidiaries to promote specialization, and the administration has directed many of the mid-sized conglomerates into debt-workout programs with creditor banks. The major economic challenge for the next several years presumably is the maintenance of the pace of market reforms to restore the old growth pattern.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $625.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $13,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 45%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 50% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 22 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services and other 68%, mining and manufacturing 20%, agriculture, fishing, forestry 12% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $68.9 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $82.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $14.5 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> electronics, automobile production, chemicals, shipbuilding, steel, textiles, clothing, footwear, food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 22% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 221.258 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 59.56%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 1.91%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 38.51%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.02% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 205.77 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, root crops, barley, vegetables, fruit; cattle, pigs, chickens, milk, eggs; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $144 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> electronic products, machinery and equipment, motor vehicles, steel, ships; textiles, clothing, footwear; fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 17%, Japan 9%, China 9%, Hong Kong 7%, Taiwan 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $116 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, electronics and electronic equipment, oil, steel, transport equipment, textiles, organic chemicals, grains
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 22%, Japan 18%, China 7%, Australia 5%, Saudi Arabia 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $142 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 South Korean won (W) = 100 chun (theoretical)
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> South Korean won (W) per US$1 - 1,130.32 (January 2000), 1,188.82 (1999), 1,401.44 (1998), 951.29 (1997), 804.45 (1996), 771.27 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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South_Korea/Communications|989540507
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 23.1 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 8.6 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> excellent domestic and international services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> fiber-optic submarine cable to China; the Russia-Korea-Japan submarine cable; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (2 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 106, FM 97, shortwave 6 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 47.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 121 (plus 850 repeater stations and the eight-channel American Forces Korea Network) (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 15.9 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 11 (1999)
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South_Korea/Transportation|989540530
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6,240 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 6,240 km 1.435-m gauge (525 km electrified) (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 86,990 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 64,808 km (including 1,996 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 22,182 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,609 km; use restricted to small native craft
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 455 km; note - additionally, there is a parallel petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) pipeline being completed
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Chinhae, Inch'on, Kunsan, Masan, Mokp'o, P'ohang, Pusan, Tonghae-hang, Ulsan, Yosu
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 461 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,093,620 GRT/8,100,634 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 98, cargo 149, chemical tanker 39, combination bulk 4, container 53, liquified gas 13, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 61, refrigerated cargo 26, roll-on/roll-off 4, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 103 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 67
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 20 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 32 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 203 (1999 est.)
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South_Korea/Military|989540543
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, National Maritime Police (Coast Guard)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 14,080,470 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 8,953,984 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 400,032 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $9.9 billion (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.2% (FY98/99)
------
South_Korea/Transnational_issues|989540556
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Demarcation Line with North Korea; Liancourt Rocks (Takeshima/Tokdo) claimed by Japan
------
Kuwait|989540585
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Kuwait/History|989540678
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led UN coalition began a ground assault on 23 February 1991 that completely liberated Kuwait in four days. Kuwait has spent more than $5 billion dollars to repair oil infrastructure damaged during 1990-91.
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Kuwait/Geography|989540693
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iraq and Saudi Arabia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 29 30 N, 45 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 17,820 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 17,820 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than New Jersey
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 464 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Iraq 242 km, Saudi Arabia 222 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 499 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> dry desert; intensely hot summers; short, cool winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat to slightly undulating desert plain
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Persian Gulf 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 306 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, fish, shrimp, natural gas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 92% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April; they bring inordinate amounts of rain which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year, but are most common between March and August
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location at head of Persian Gulf
------
Kuwait/People|989540710
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,973,572
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 1,159,913 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 29.36% (male 295,102; female 284,327)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68.32% (male 860,318; female 488,004)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2.32% (male 29,544; female 16,277) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.44% (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> this rate reflects a return to pre-Gulf crisis immigration of expatriates
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 22.04 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 2.45 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 14.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.82 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.5 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 11.55 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.08 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.27 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.92 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.26 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Kuwaiti(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Kuwaiti
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Kuwaiti 45%, other Arab 35%, South Asian 9%, Iranian 4%, other 7%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 85% (Sunni 45%, Shi'a 40%), Christian, Hindu, Parsi, and other 15%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), English widely spoken
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 82.2%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.9% (1995 est.)
------
Kuwait/Government|989540729
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> State of Kuwait
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kuwait
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Dawlat al Kuwayt
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Kuwayt
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> nominal constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kuwait
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 5 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah); Al Ahmadi, Al Farwaniyah, Al 'Asimah, Al Jahra', Hawalli
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 19 June 1961 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 25 February (1950)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> approved and promulgated 11 November 1962
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system with Islamic law significant in personal matters; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> adult males who have been naturalized for 30 years or more or have resided in Kuwait since before 1920 and their male descendants at age 21
> <br><i>note:</i>
> only 10% of all citizens are eligible to vote; in 1996, naturalized citizens who do not meet the pre-1920 qualification but have been naturalized for 30 years were eligible to vote for the first time
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Amir JABIR al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah (since 31 December 1977)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister and Crown Prince SAAD al-Abdallah al-Salim Al Sabah (since 8 February 1978); First Deputy Prime Minister SABAH al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah (since 17 October 1992); Second Deputy Prime Minister SALIM al-Sabah al-Salim Al Sabah (since 7 October 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister and approved by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister and deputy prime ministers appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Majlis al-Umma (50 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 3 July 1999 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 50; note - all cabinet ministers are also ex officio members of the National Assembly
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> several political groups act as de facto parties: Bedouins, merchants, Sunni and Shi'a activists, and secular leftists and nationalists
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, BDEAC, CAEU, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador MUHAMMAD al-Sabah al-Salim Al SABAH
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2940 Tilden Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-0702
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-0517
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James A. LAROCCO
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Bayan, near the Bayan palace, Kuwait City
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 77 Safat, 13001 Safat, Kuwait; Unit 69000, APO AE 09880-9000
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [965] 539-5307 or 539-5308
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [965] 538-0282
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a black trapezoid based on the hoist side
------
Kuwait/Economy|989540745
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Kuwait is a small, relatively open economy with proved crude oil reserves of about 94 billion barrels - 10% of world reserves. Petroleum accounts for nearly half of GDP, 90% of export revenues, and 75% of government income. Kuwait lacks water and has practically no arable land, thus preventing development of agriculture. With the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of potable water must be distilled or imported. Higher oil prices reduced the budget deficit from $5.5 billion to $3 billion in 1999, and prices are expected to remain relatively strong throughout 2000. The government is proceeding slowly with reforms. It inaugurated Kuwait's first free-trade zone in 1999 and will continue discussions with foreign oil companies to develop fields in the northern part of the country.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $44.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $22,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 55%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 45% (1996)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.3 million (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> 68% of the population in the 15-64 age group is non-national (July 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> government and social services 50%, services 40%, industry and agriculture 10% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 1.8% (official 1996 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $10 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $13 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, petrochemicals, desalination, food processing, construction materials, salt, construction
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 26.995 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 25.105 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> practically no crops; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $13.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> oil and refined products, fertilizers
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 24%, India 16%, US 13%, South Korea 11%, Singapore 8% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $8.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, construction materials, vehicles and parts, clothing
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 22%, Japan 15%, UK 13%, Germany 8%, Italy 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $9.27 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $27.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Kuwaiti dinar (KD) = 1,000 fils
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Kuwaiti dinars (KD) per US$1 - 0.3042 (January 2000), 0.3044 (1999), 0.3047 (1998), 0.3033 (1997), 0.2994 (1996), 0.2984 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Kuwait/Communications|989540761
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 411,600 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 150,000 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> the civil network suffered some damage as a result of the Gulf war, but most of the telephone exchanges were left intact and, by the end of 1994, domestic and international telecommunications had been restored to normal operation; the quality of service is excellent
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> new telephone exchanges provide a large capacity for new subscribers; trunk traffic is carried by microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, open wire and fiber-optic cable; a cellular telephone system operates throughout Kuwait, and the country is well supplied with pay telephones; approximately 15,000 Internet subscribers in 1996
> <br><i>international:</i>
> coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia; linked to Bahrain, Qatar, UAE via the Fiber-Optic Gulf (FOG) cable; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean, 2 Indian Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean), and 2 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 6, FM 11, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.175 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 13 (plus several satellite channels) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 875,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
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Kuwait/Transportation|989540778
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,450 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 3,590 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 860 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 877 km; petroleum products 40 km; natural gas 165 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Ash Shu'aybah, Ash Shuwaykh, Kuwait, Mina' 'Abd Allah, Mina' al Ahmadi, Mina' Su'ud
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 48 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,506,448 GRT/4,040,921 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 9, container 6, liquified gas 7, livestock carrier 4, petroleum tanker 21 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Kuwait/Military|989540793
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Force, National Guard, Coast Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 749,252 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 446,518 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 17,919 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $2.518 billion (FY99/00)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 8% (FY99/00)
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SandBox|989540802
150a151,153
> Can't find a decent description of the wiki syntax
> so I'm forced to experiment here. If anyone can point
> me to a spec, please note it here.
191c194,198
< 
---
> *this line begins with a star
> this one does not
> *this line begins with a star
> **this line begins with two stars
> this line has no stars
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Kuwait/Transnational_issues|989540807
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands; ownership of Qaruh and Umm al Maradim islands disputed by Saudi Arabia
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Kyrgyzstan|989540838
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Kyrgyzstan/History|989540910
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and proud nomadic traditions, Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in 1864; it achieved independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Current concerns include: privatization of state-owned enterprises, expansion of democracy and political freedoms, inter-ethnic relations, and terrorism.
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Kyrgyzstan/Geography|989540939
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Asia, west of China
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 41 00 N, 75 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Commonwealth of Independent States
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 198,500 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 191,300 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 7,200 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than South Dakota
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,878 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 858 km, Kazakhstan 1,051 km, Tajikistan 870 km, Uzbekistan 1,099 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> dry continental to polar in high Tien Shan; subtropical in southwest (Fergana Valley); temperate in northern foothill zone
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> peaks of Tien Shan and associated valleys and basins encompass entire nation
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Kara-Darya 132 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Jengish Chokusu (Pik Pobedy) 7,439 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> abundant hydropower; significant deposits of gold and rare earth metals; locally exploitable coal, oil, and natural gas; other deposits of nepheline, mercury, bismuth, lead, and zinc
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 44%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 45% (1993 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Kyrgyzstan has the world's largest natural growth walnut forest
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 9,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution; many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells; as a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Kyrgyzstan/People|989540955
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,685,230 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 36% (male 843,038; female 825,519)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 58% (male 1,337,268; female 1,393,397)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 107,405; female 178,603) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.43% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 26.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.15 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.6 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 77.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 63.37 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 59.06 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.9 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.22 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Kyrgyzstani(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Kyrgyzstani
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Kirghiz 52.4%, Russian 18%, Uzbek 12.9%, Ukrainian 2.5%, German 2.4%, other 11.8%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 75%, Russian Orthodox 20%, other 5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Kirghiz (Kyrgyz) - official language, Russian - official language
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in March 1996, the Kyrgyzstani legislature amended the constitution to make Russian an official language, along with Kirghiz, in territories and work places where Russian-speaking citizens predominate
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 96% (1989 est.)
------
Kyrgyzstan/Government|989540980
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kyrgyz Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Kyrgyzstan
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Kyrgyz Respublikasy
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> KG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bishkek
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 oblastlar (singular - oblast) and 1 city* (singular - shaar); Bishkek Shaary*, Chuy Oblasty (Bishkek), Jalal-Abad Oblasty, Naryn Oblasty, Osh Oblasty, Talas Oblasty, Ysyk-Kol Oblasty (Karakol)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 31 August 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 2 December; Independence Day, 31 August (1991)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 5 May 1993
> <br><i>note:</i>
> amendment proposed by President AKAYEV and passed in a national referendum on 10 February 1996 significantly expands the powers of the president at the expense of the legislature
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Askar AKAYEV (since 28 October 1990)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jumabek IBRAIMOV (since NA December 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; elections last held 24 December 1995 (next to be held November or December 2000); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Askar AKAYEV reelected president; percent of vote - Askar AKAYEV 75%; note - elections were held early which gave the two opposition candidates little time to campaign; AKAYEV may have orchestrated the "deregistration" of two other candidates, one of whom was a major rival
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Supreme Council or Zhogorku Kenesh consists of the Assembly of People's Representatives (70 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) and the Legislative Assembly (35 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Assembly of People's Representatives - last held 5 February 1995 (next to be held 20 February 2000); Legislative Assembly - last held 5 February 1995 (next to be held 20 February 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Assembly of People's Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; note - not all of the 70 seats were filled at the 5 February 1995 elections; as a result, run-off elections were held at later dates; the assembly meets twice yearly; Legislative Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; note - not all of the 35 seats were filled at the 5 February 1995 elections; as a result, run-off elections were held at later dates
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the legislature became bicameral for the 5 February 1995 elections
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed for 10-year terms by the Supreme Council on recommendation of the president; Constitutional Court; Higher Court of Arbitration
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Agrarian Party [leader NA]; Agrarian Party of Kyrgyzstan [A. ALIYEV]; Banner National Revival Party or ASABA [Chaprashty BAZARBAY]; Communist Party of Kyrgyzstan or PKK [Absamat MASALIYEV, chairman]; Democratic Movement of Kyrgyzstan or DDK [Jypar JEKSHEYEV, chairman]; Dignity Party [Feliks KULOV]; Fatherland or Alta Mekel Party [Omurbek TEKEBAYEV]; Justice Party [Chingiz AYTMATOV]; Kyrgyzstan Erkin Party (Democratic Movement of Free Kyrgyzstan) or ErK [Tursunbay Bakir UULU]; Movement for the People's Salvation [Djumgalbek AMAMBAYEV]; Mutual Help Movement or Ashar [Zhumagazy USUPOV]; National Unity Democratic Movement or DDNE [Yury RAZGULYAYEV]; Peasant Party [leader NA]; Republican Popular Party of Kyrgyzstan [J. SHARSHENALIYEV]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [J. IBRAMOV]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Council of Free Trade Unions; Kyrgyz Committee on Human Rights [Ramazan DYRYIDAYEV]; National Unity Democratic Movement; Union of Entrepreneurs
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bakyt ABDRISAYEV
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1732 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 338-5141
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 338-5139
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Anne M. SIGMUND
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 171 Prospect Mira, 720016 Bishkek
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [996] (3312) 22-29-20, 22-27-77
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [996] (3312) 22-35-51
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red field with a yellow sun in the center having 40 rays representing the 40 Kirghiz tribes; on the obverse side the rays run counterclockwise, on the reverse, clockwise; in the center of the sun is a red ring crossed by two sets of three lines, a stylized representation of the roof of the traditional Kirghiz yurt
------
Kyrgyzstan/Economy|989540995
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Kyrgyzstan is a small, poor, mountainous country with a predominantly agricultural economy. Cotton, wool, and meat are the main agricultural products and exports. Industrial exports include gold, mercury, uranium, and electricity. Kyrgyzstan has been one of the most progressive countries of the former Soviet Union in carrying out market reforms. Following a successful stabilization program, which lowered inflation from 88% in 1994 to 15% for 1997, attention is turning toward stimulating growth. Much of the government's stock in enterprises has been sold. Drops in production had been severe since the breakup of the Soviet Union in December 1991, but by mid-1995 production began to recover and exports began to increase. Pensioners, unemployed workers, and government workers with salary arrears continue to suffer. Foreign assistance played a substantial role in the country's economic turnaround in 1996-97. The government has adopted a series of measures to combat such severe problems as excessive external debt, inflation, inadequate revenue collection, and the spillover from Russia's economic disorders. Kyrgyzstan had moderate growth in 1999 of 3.4% with a similar rate expected for 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 45%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 35% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 40% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.7%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 26.2% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 37% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.7 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture and forestry 55%, industry 15%, services 30% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $225 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $308 million, including capital expenditures of $11 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> small machinery, textiles, food processing, cement, shoes, sawn logs, refrigerators, furniture, electric motors, gold, rare earth metals
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -3.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 12.206 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 10.78%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 89.22%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 11.102 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 1.1 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 850 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> tobacco, cotton, potatoes, vegetables, grapes, fruits and berries; sheep, goats, cattle, wool
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $515 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cotton, wool, meat, tobacco; gold, mercury, uranium, hydropower; machinery; shoes
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 37%, Kazakhstan 17%, Russia 16%, Uzbekistan 8%, China 3% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $590 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> oil and gas, machinery and equipment, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 24%, Uzbekistan 14%, Kazakhstan 9%, Germany 6%, China 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $329.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Kyrgyzstani som (KGS) = 100 tyiyn
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> soms (KGS) per US$1 - 46.235 (January 2000), 39.008 (1999), 20.838 (1998), 17.362 (1997), 12.810 (1996), 10.822 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Reich|989540995
1c1,5
< '''Reich''' - the German word for "empire". Often used by right-wing extremists in [[Germany]] to describe their country.
---
> '''Reich''' - the German word for "empire". Often used by right-wing extremists in [[Germany]] to describe their country,
> probably to evocate the regime of [[Adolf Hitler]], that his
> movement called ''Der Dritte Reich''(Das, Die or Der?), ''The Third Reich''. It
> is not very clear what the first and second Reich were, probably
> the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
------
Kyrgyzstan/Communications|989541026
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 357,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poorly developed; about 100,000 unsatisfied applications for household telephones
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> principally microwave radio relay; one cellular provider, probably limited to Bishkek region
> <br><i>international:</i>
> connections with other CIS countries by landline or microwave radio relay and with other countries by leased connections with Moscow international gateway switch and by satellite; satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik and 1 Intelsat; connected internationally by the Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic line
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 12 (plus 10 repeater stations), FM 14, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 520,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA (repeater stations throughout the country relay programs from Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Turkey) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 210,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Kyrgyzstan/Transportation|989541047
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 370 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 370 km 1.520-m gauge (1990)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18,500 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 16,854 km (including 140 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,646 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 600 km (1990)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 200 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Balykchy (Ysyk-Kol or Rybach'ye)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 54 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 32 (1994 est.)
------
Kyrgyzstan/Military|989541063
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air and Air Defense, Security Forces (internal and border troops)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,172,899 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 951,395 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 48,551 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $12 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY99)
------
Kyrgyzstan/Transnational_issues|989541081
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territorial dispute with Tajikistan on southwestern boundary in Isfara Valley area; periodic target of Islamic terrorists from Uzbekistan and Tajikistan
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> limited illicit cultivator of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for CIS consumption; limited government eradication program; increasingly used as transshipment point for illicit drugs to Russia and Western Europe from Southwest Asia
------
SandBox|989541328
151c151
< Can't find a decent description of the wiki syntax
---
> I can't find a decent description of the wiki markup syntax
153c153
< me to a spec, please note it here.
---
> me to a spec, please note it here: 
156,158c156
< :Testing 1 (one)
< ::...2 (two)
< :::...3 (three)
---
> 
166c164
< attempt to do so. It will be useless to you
---
> attempt to do so. It would be useless for you
173,177d170
< 
< : This text is indented
< :for no particular reason. That should not
< dissuade you from reading it just as carefully
< : as you have done for the preceeding material.
------
SandBox|989542125
192a193,197
> this line is followed by three blank lines.
> 
> 
> 
> this line is preceeded by three blank lines.
------
SandBox|989542166
193c193
< this line is followed by three blank lines.
---
> this line is followed by five blank lines.
197c197,199
< this line is preceeded by three blank lines.
---
> 
> 
> this line is preceeded by five blank lines.
------
SandBox|989542247
195a196
>    
198,199c199
< 
< this line is preceeded by five blank lines.
---
> this line is preceeded by five blank lines. (the middle one has three spaces)
------
Johannes_Kepler|989542313
4c4
< to achieve the pytagorean purpose of finding the harmony of
---
> to achieve the pythagorean purpose of finding the harmony of
10c10
< by spheres inside perfect poliedra inside spheres.
---
> by spheres inside perfect polyedra inside spheres.
12c12,14
< To work his model out, he counted with the meticulous observations of [[Tycho Brahe]]
---
> To work his model out, he counted with the meticulous observations of [[Tycho Brahe]].
> 
> He also made fundamental investigations into combinatorics, geometrical optimization, natural phenomena (study of snowflakes), always with an emphasis on form and design.
------
Reich|989546296
3,5c3
< movement called ''Der Dritte Reich''(Das, Die or Der?), ''The Third Reich''. It
< is not very clear what the first and second Reich were, probably
< the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
---
> movement called ''Der Dritte Reich''(Das, Die or Der?), ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
------
Johannes_Kepler|989546485
6c6
< In his cosmovision, that the number of perfect [[polihedra]]
---
> In his cosmovision, that the number of perfect [[polyhedra]]
------
Bomfog|989551594
1c1
< Welcome, Bomfog! -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> <h1>bomfoggery</h1>
3c3
< ----
---
> <dl>
5c5,22
< Thanks. -- [[Bomfog|Me]]
---
> <dt>BOMFOG</dt>
> 
> <dd>An [[acronym]] for &quot;Brotherhood Of Man, Fatherhood Of
> God&quot;.  I first saw this, as best I can remember, about
> thirty five years ago in a [[science fiction]] [[short story]],
> probably from the [[fifties]].</dd>
> <dt>Bomfog</dt>
> 
> <dd>A [[christian]] [[rock]] [[band]], I think, if they're still
> around.</dd>
> 
> <dt>bomfog</dt>
> 
> <dd>Me.  The aforementioned acronym stuck in my head, I
> liked the sound of it, and I needed a user name for various free
> web stuff.  It's pretty obscure, so [[namespace]] collisions are
> avoided.  If you see a bomfog on the [[internet]], it's probably
> me.</dd> </dl>
------
Computer_science|989554042
5c5
< * [[Artificial Intelligence]]
---
> * [[Artificial intelligence]]
11,13c11,13
< * [[Human-Computer Interaction]]
< * [[Operating system|Operating Systems]]
< * [[ProgrammingLanguages|Programming Languages]]
---
> * [[Human-computer interaction]]
> * [[Operating system|Operating systems]]
> * [[ProgrammingLanguages|Programming languages]]
------
Costume_jewelry|989554640
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Costume jewelry is inexpensive, often flashy [[jewelry]] made of materials such as [[base metal]]s, [[glass]], and [[plastic]] in place of more valuable materials such as [[precious metal]]s and [[gem]]s.  Costume jewelry gets its name from its place in stage costumes.
------
Jewellery|989554756
1c1
< '''Jewellery''' (spelled '''jewelry''' in American English) refers to ornamental devices worn by persons, typically made with gems and precious metals.
---
> '''Jewellery''' (spelled '''jewelry''' in American English) refers to ornamental devices worn by persons, typically made with [[gem]]s and [[precious metal]]s.  [[Costume jewelry]] is made from less valuable materials.
3c3
< Examples include [[bracelet]]s, [[necklace]]s, [[ring]]s, ...
---
> Examples include [[bracelet]]s, [[necklace]]s, [[jewelry ring|ring]]s, [[earring]]s...
------
Seed_beads|989554837
3c3
< Most of today's seed beeds are made in [[Japan]] or the [[Czech Republic]].  Conventional wisdom is that Japanese seed beads are more regularly shaped and sized, but the Czechs make a larger range of sizes and colors.  
---
> Most of today's good quality seed beeds are made in [[Japan]] or the [[Czech Republic]].  Conventional wisdom is that Japanese seed beads are more regularly shaped and sized, but Czech seed beads have a wider range of sizes and colors.  
------
Island|989555120
51a52
> + [[Malden Island]]
68,69c69
< [[physical geography]].
< 
---
> [[physical geography]].
------
Island|989555163
52c52
< + [[Malden Island]]
---
> * [[Malden Island]]
69c69
< [[physical geography]].
---
> [[physical geography]].
------
Malden_Island|989555827
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A small (35 sq. mi.), barren, uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean (4 deg. S. 155 deg. W.), part of the territory of the Republic of [[Kiribati]]. Chiefly notable for its "mysterious" prehistoric ruins (of Polynesian origin), its once-extensive deposits of phosphatic guano (exploited by Australian interests from c. 1860-1927), and as the site of the first British thermonuclear weapons tests (1957).
------
Kiribati|989555930
11a12,13
> 
> Kiribati includes several of the Line Islands, including [[Malden Island]].
------
Reich|989557625
3c3
< movement called ''Der Dritte Reich''(Das, Die or Der?), ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
---
> movement called ''Das Dritte Reich'', ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
------
Malden_Island|989558420
1c1,4
< A small (35 sq. mi.), barren, uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean (4 deg. S. 155 deg. W.), part of the territory of the Republic of [[Kiribati]]. Chiefly notable for its "mysterious" prehistoric ruins (of Polynesian origin), its once-extensive deposits of phosphatic guano (exploited by Australian interests from c. 1860-1927), and as the site of the first British thermonuclear weapons tests (1957).
---
> A small (35 sq. mi.), barren, uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean (4 deg. S. 155 deg. W.), part of the [[Line Islands]] belonging to Republic of [[Kiribati]], chiefly notable for its "mysterious" prehistoric ruins (of Polynesian origin), its once-extensive deposits of phosphatic guano (exploited by Australian interests from c. 1860-1927), and as the site of the first British thermonuclear weapons tests (1957).
> 
> Malden was discovered on 30 July 1825 ''[not 29 July, as erroneously reported in some sources]''by Captain George Anson (Lord) Byron (a cousin of the recently deceased poet),
> commanding the British warship ''HMS Blonde'', while returning to London from a specia l mission to Honolulu to repatriate the remains of the young king and queen of Hawaii, who had died tragically of measles during a visit to Britain. The island was named for Lt. Charles Robert Malden, navigator of the ''Blonde'', who sighted the island and briefly explored it.
------
Line_Islands|989559018
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of islands in the central Pacific Ocean, south of Hawaii, belonging to the United States and the Republic of [[Kiribati]].
> 
> Included in the group are: Kingman Reef, Palmyra, Teraina (Washington), Tabuaeran (Fanning), Kiritimati (Christmas), Jarvis, [[Malden Island|Malden]], Starbuck, Flint, Vostok and Caroline.
------
Hank_Ramsey|989559446
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Wikipedia newbie (2001).
> 
> Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Line Islands]], and other topics.
------
Kiribati/Geography|989559544
15c15
< includes three island groups - Gilbert Islands, Line Islands, Phoenix Islands
---
> includes three island groups - Gilbert Islands, [[Line Islands]], Phoenix Islands
------
Hank_Ramsey|989559971
3c3
< Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Line Islands]], and other topics.
---
> Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Line Islands]], [[Delicate Arch]], and other topics.
------
Film_Festivals|989560699
14a15
> :[[Seattle Film Festival]]
------
Bomfog|989561067
2d1
< 
4d2
< 
6d3
< 
9,10c6,7
< thirty five years ago in a [[science fiction]] [[short story]],
< probably from the [[fifties]].</dd>
---
> thirty five years ago in a [[science fiction]] [[short
> story]], probably from the [[1950s]].</dd>
12d8
< 
14,18c10,11
< around.</dd>
< 
< <dt>bomfog</dt>
< 
< <dd>Me.  The aforementioned acronym stuck in my head, I
---
> around.</dd> <dt>bomfog</dt>
> <dd>Me.  The aforementioned [[acronym]] stuck in my head, I
------
Delicate_Arch|989561394
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A remarkable freestanding [[natural arch]] located in Arches National Park near Moab, Utah, USA. 
> 
> Delicate Arch is the signature landmark of Arches National Park. It is depicted on Utah state automobile license plates and a U.S. postage stamp commemorating Utah's centennial in 1996.
> 
> Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "The Chaps" and "The Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933-34. ''[The story that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertantly exchanged due to a signage mixup by the Park Service is untrue.]''    
> 
> Sources:
> :Hoffman, John F. ''Arches National Park''.
------
Hank_Ramsey|989561921
1c1
< A Wikipedia newbie (2001).
---
> A Wikipedia newbie (5/2001).
------
Hank_Ramsey|989563148
3c3
< Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Line Islands]], [[Delicate Arch]], and other topics.
---
> Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Delicate Arch]], ''[[Ozymandias]]'', and other topics.
------
Peter_Nilson|989564475
1,2c1
< Swedish [[astronomer]] at [[Uppsala]], and novel [[writer]].
< Compiled a catalog of galaxies.
---
> Swedish [[astronomer]] (1937-1998) at [[Uppsala]], and novel [[writer]].
3a3
> Compiled a catalog of galaxies. Much appreciated both for a number of essay books (primarily about science) and for a couple of [[science fiction]] novels.
------
Malmoe|989564668
1c1
< Malmo is one of Sweden's largest cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of it's historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlift- lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
---
> Malmö is the third largest of Sweden's cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of it's historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlife - lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
3c3
< There is a bridge that crosses Oresund to Copenhagen on the southcoast of Malmo.  It's about a year old (in 2001), and it's quite beautiful when it rises out of the sea-fog in the mornings and evenings.
---
> There is a bridge that crosses Öresund to Copenhagen on the southcoast of Malmö.  It's about a year old (in 2001), and it's quite beautiful when it rises out of the sea-fog in the mornings and evenings.
------
Swedish_Academy|989564794
4,7d3
< 
< The comic painter [[Jan Bergelin]] is not a member of this academy.  (Most other [[Swedes]] aren't either!)
< 
< 
------
Sture_Allen|989564836
2,4d1
< 
< As far as the [[Wikipedia]] editors know, [[Jan Bergelin]] never made reference to Sture, though many others did.
< 
------
Adolf_Hitler|989567417
3c3
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the national socialist ([[nazi]]) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of [[Germany]] (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
---
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the national-socialist ([[nazi]]) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989567456
7c7
< 
---
> *[[Reich]] -- empire
------
Lighthouse|989567539
3c3
< Perhaps the most famous lighthouse of all history is the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]], built on the island of [[Pharos]] in ancient Egypt. The name of the island is still used as the
---
> Perhaps the most famous lighthouse of all history is the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]], built on the island of [[Pharos]] in ancient [[Egypt]]. The name of the island is still used as the
------
Philip_K._Dick/The_Three_Stigmata_of_Palmer_Eldritch|989568952
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The plot of this novel involves the use of a hallucinogenic substance called Chew-Z which is marketed with promises of eternal life.  It is quickly out-doing its competitor, Can-D, which is used for entertainment by bored Martian colonists.  However, the effects of Chew-Z are not at simple as eternal life or entertainment.  The man who brought this amazing substance back from the Prox star system, Palmer Eldritch, may have ulterior motives involving the God-like powers that Chew-Z seems to grant him and total control of humanity.
------
Ozymandias|989569053
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A famous sonnet by Percy Bysshe Shelley:
> 
> ''[Please note: The text given here is derived from the two printings during the poet's lifetime; the spelling and punctuation are from Shelley's holograph.]''
> 
> :::Ozymandias
> 
> :I met a traveller from an antique land,
> :Who said - "Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
> :Stand in the desart. . . . Near them, on the sand,
> :Half sunk a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
> :And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
> :Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
> :Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
> :The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed;
> :And on the pedestal, these words appear:
> :My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings,
> :Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!
> :Nothing beside remains. Round the decay
> :Of that colossal Wreck, boundless and bare
> :The lone and level sands stretch far away."
> 
> 
> Sources
> :Reiman, Donald H. and Sharon B. Powers ''Shelley's Poetry and Prose'' (Norton, 1977)
------
Hank_Ramsey|989569238
3c3
< Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Delicate Arch]], ''[[Ozymandias]]'', and other topics.
---
> Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Delicate Arch]], "[[Ozymandias]]", and other topics.
------
Philip_K._Dick|989572316
1c1
< Philip Kendred Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound effect on the genre.  He was hailed by and was friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories, as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
---
> Philip Kendred Dick is an American [[science fiction]] writer who had a rather profound effect on the genre.  He was hailed by and was friends with a number of prominent science fiction authors such as [[Robert Heinlein]], yet he received little recognition from the general public during his lifetime.  Like other more famous science fiction authors, several of Dick's stories have been made into movies.  His novel ''[[Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep]]'' was made into the movie ''[[Blade Runner]].''  The movie ''[[Total Recall]]'' was based on one of his short stories (`<i>We can recall it for you wholesale</i>'), as was the movie ''Screamers,'' probably, although no mention of Dick was made in that movie's credits.
5a6
> *[[/Time out of Joint]]
------
New_topics|989573175
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 3rd May, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 10th May, Wikipedia server time
3,206c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook moves further down the alphabet)
< 
< [[Aircraft]] -- 
< [[Alexander_Graham_Bell]] -- 
< [[Alfred_Nobel]] -- 
< [[Aphex_Twin]] -- 
< [[Arbetets_museum]] -- 
< [[Audi]] -- 
< [[Automobile]] -- 
< [[BSD]] -- 
< [[Be]] -- 
< [[Bell]] -- 
< [[Bell_Labs]] -- 
< [[Berkeley]] -- 
< [[Bjarne_Stroustrup]] -- 
< [[Boeing]] -- 
< [[C._Northcote_Parkinson]] -- 
< [[C_Plus_Plus]] -- 
< [[Canal]] -- 
< [[Carl_XVI_Gustaf]] -- 
< [[Cerebrovascular_Accident]] -- 
< [[Czechia]] -- 
< [[Daily_rushes]] -- 
< [[Datsun]] -- 
< [[Daugava]] -- 
< [[Douglas_Coupland]] -- 
< [[Dynamite]] -- 
< [[Eindhoven]] -- 
< [[Elsinore]] -- 
< [[Eocene]] -- 
< [[Ericsson]] -- 
< [[European_route_E4]] -- 
< [[European_routes]] -- 
< [[Ford]] -- 
< [[Fortran]] -- 
< [[Gdansk]] -- 
< [[General_Motors]] -- 
< [[George_Henri_Pire]] -- 
< [[Golden_Gate_Bridge]] -- 
< [[Gota_Kanal]] -- 
< [[Gota_alv]] -- 
< [[Graviton]] -- 
< [[Greece/Communications]] -- 
< [[Greece/Economy]] -- 
< [[Greece/Geography]] -- 
< [[Greece/Government]] -- 
< [[Greece/History]] -- 
< [[Greece/Military]] -- 
< [[Greece/People]] -- 
< [[Greece/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Greece/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Greece]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Communications]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Economy]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Geography]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Government]] -- 
< [[Greenland/History]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Military]] -- 
< [[Greenland/People]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Greenland/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Greenland]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Communications]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Economy]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Geography]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Government]] -- 
< [[Grenada/History]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Military]] -- 
< [[Grenada/People]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Grenada/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Grenada]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Communications]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Economy]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Geography]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Government]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/History]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Military]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/People]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Guadaloupe]] -- 
< [[Guam/Communications]] -- 
< [[Guam/Economy]] -- 
< [[Guam/Geography]] -- 
< [[Guam/Government]] -- 
< [[Guam/History]] -- 
< [[Guam/Military]] -- 
< [[Guam/People]] -- 
< [[Guam/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Guam/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Guatemala/Geography]] -- 
< [[Guatemala/History]] -- 
< [[Guatemala/People]] -- 
< [[Guglielmo_Marconi]] -- 
< [[Gulf]] -- 
< [[Gulf_of_Finland]] -- 
< [[Gustaf_VI_Adolf]] -- 
< [[Helsingborg]] -- 
< [[Henry_Ford]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/April_30]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/April_4]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/December_7]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/January_15]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/June_7]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/May_5]] -- 
< [[Human_geography]] -- 
< [[Huntingtons_Chorea]] -- 
< [[IBM]] -- 
< [[Iberian_Peninsula]] -- 
< [[Immanuel_Kant]] -- 
< [[Industrial_revolution]] -- 
< [[Ingmar_Bergman]] -- 
< [[Inventor]] -- 
< [[Isaac_Newton]] -- 
< [[Jeep]] -- 
< [[Konrad_Adenauer]] -- 
< [[Lake]] -- 
< [[Lake_Roxen]] -- 
< [[Lars_Magnus_Ericsson]] -- 
< [[Law_of_nature]] -- 
< [[Linkoeping]] -- 
< [[Linkoping_University]] -- 
< [[Locomotive]] -- 
< [[Lucent]] -- 
< [[Marcel_Achard]] -- 
< [[Marconi]] -- 
< [[Metaphysics/Talk]] -- 
< [[Microserfs]] -- 
< [[Microsoft]] -- 
< [[Moscow]] -- 
< [[Motala_strom]] -- 
< [[Myasthenia_gravis]] -- 
< [[Mystics]] -- 
< [[Neva]] -- 
< [[Nile]] -- 
< [[Nissan]] -- 
< [[Nokia]] -- 
< [[Norrkoping]] -- 
< [[Nortel]] -- 
< [[Norway]] -- 
< [[Oakland]] -- 
< [[Opel]] -- 
< [[PCM]] -- 
< [[Palo_Alto]] -- 
< [[Paralysis]] -- 
< [[Parkinsons_Disease]] -- 
< [[Parkinsons_law]] -- 
< [[Particle_physics]] -- 
< [[Paths_of_Glory]] -- 
< [[Peninsula]] -- 
< [[Physical_geography]] -- 
< [[Plain]] -- 
< [[Protozoa]] -- 
< [[Rail_Transport]] -- 
< [[Riga]] -- 
< [[River]] -- 
< [[Roman_Empire]] -- 
< [[SUV]] -- 
< [[Saab]] -- 
< [[Saint_Petersburg]] -- 
< [[San_Francisco_Bay]] -- 
< [[San_Francisco_Bay_Area]] -- 
< [[San_Francisco_Peninsula]] -- 
< [[San_Jose]] -- 
< [[Scandinavian_Peninsula]] -- 
< [[Scania]] -- 
< [[Seat]] -- 
< [[Sedan]] -- 
< [[Shiites]] -- 
< [[Silicon_Valley]] -- 
< [[Skoda]] -- 
< [[Solaris]] -- 
< [[Soviet]] -- 
< [[Special_relativity]] -- 
< [[St_Petersburg]] -- 
< [[Stanford_University]] -- 
< [[Stephenson]] -- 
< [[Substance]] -- 
< [[Sun_Microsystems]] -- 
< [[Sunni_Muslims]] -- 
< [[Telefonica]] -- 
< [[Telephone]] -- 
< [[Telia]] -- 
< [[The_Rocket]] -- 
< [[Theory_of_relativity]] -- 
< [[UCB]] -- 
< [[UC]] -- 
< [[UNIX]] -- 
< [[University_of_Washington]] -- 
< [[Vabis]] -- 
< [[Valley]] -- 
< [[Vanern]] -- 
< [[Vattern]] -- 
< [[Vehicle]] -- 
< [[Volga]] -- 
< [[Volkswagen]] -- 
< [[Volvo]] -- 
< [[Washington_University]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_Announcements/April_2001]] -- 
< [[Wild_Strawberries_Ingmar_Bergman]] -- 
< [[Wings_of_Desire]] -- 
< [[Wireless_Valley]] -- 
< [[Yunus_Emre]] -- 
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook has now reached the `K's )
208a6,261
> [[15th_century]] -- 
> [[16th_century]] -- 
> [[17th_century]] -- 
> [[1870s]] -- 
> [[18th_century]] -- 
> [[1950s]] -- 
> [[19th_century]] -- 
> [[21st_century]] -- 
> [[AU]] -- 
> [[Aberdeenshire]] -- 
> [[Afrika_Bambaataa]] -- 
> [[Aland]] -- 
> [[Alexandria]] -- 
> [[Alphabet/Talk]] -- 
> [[AmeriKKKa]] -- 
> [[American_Civil_War]] -- 
> [[Andy_Warhol]] -- 
> [[Anschluss]] -- 
> [[Apple_Computer]] -- 
> [[Bangra]] -- 
> [[Battle_of_Adrianople]] -- 
> [[Beacon]] -- 
> [[Berlin_Wall]] -- 
> [[Biography/Talk]] -- 
> [[Biography]] -- 
> [[Biologist]] -- 
> [[Bse]] -- 
> [[Burning-glass]] -- 
> [[Carnegie-Mellon_University]] -- 
> [[Centuries]] -- 
> [[Chemist]] -- 
> [[Christopher_Columbus]] -- 
> [[Combustion]] -- 
> [[Consonant]] -- 
> [[Cypress_Hill]] -- 
> [[Decades]] -- 
> [[Diamond]] -- 
> [[Dotcom_death]] -- 
> [[Douglas_Engelbart]] -- 
> [[Dr._Dre]] -- 
> [[Electrical_telegraph]] -- 
> [[Elizabeth_II]] -- 
> [[Event]] -- 
> [[Exhaust_pipe]] -- 
> [[Explorers]] -- 
> [[Flying_car]] -- 
> [[Freestyle]] -- 
> [[French_language/Proven]] -- 
> [[Frequency]] -- 
> [[Friedrich_Woehler]] -- 
> [[Funk]] -- 
> [[Gangsta_rap]] -- 
> [[Georg_Cantor]] -- 
> [[George_Cantor]] -- 
> [[Gleichschaltung]] -- 
> [[Gothenburg_University]] -- 
> [[Gustav_III]] -- 
> [[H.M._Rouell]] -- 
> [[Hans_Christian_Orsted]] -- 
> [[Heinrich_Himmler]] -- 
> [[Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz]] -- 
> [[Hip_hop]] -- 
> [[History_of_Literature]] -- 
> [[History_of_Science_and_Technology/Chemistry]] -- 
> [[Horace_Engdahl]] -- 
> [[Horace_Walpole]] -- 
> [[Ice_Cube]] -- 
> [[Ice_Cube_-_AmeriKKKas_Most_Wanted]] -- 
> [[Ice_T]] -- 
> [[Infinitesimal_calculus]] -- 
> [[Intellectual_property/Talk]] -- 
> [[Intellectual_property]] -- 
> [[Internet_Movie_Database/Talk]] -- 
> [[Italian_language]] -- 
> [[James_Maxwell]] -- 
> [[Jan_Bergelin]] -- 
> [[Jewellery]] -- 
> [[Jewelry]] -- 
> [[Johannes_Kepler]] -- 
> [[John_Bardeen]] -- 
> [[Karl_XV]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Government]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/History]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Military]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/People]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kazakhstan]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Government]] -- 
> [[Kenya/History]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Military]] -- 
> [[Kenya/People]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kenya/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kenya]] -- 
> [[Khazaria]] -- 
> [[Kid_Frost]] -- 
> [[King]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Government]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/History]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Military]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/People]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kingman_Reef]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Government]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/History]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Military]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/People]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kiribati/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kiribati]] -- 
> [[Kurtis_Blow]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Government]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/History]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Military]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/People]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kuwait/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kuwait]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Communications]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Economy]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Geography]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Government]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/History]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Military]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/People]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- 
> [[LA2]] -- 
> [[Library]] -- 
> [[Library_of_Alexandria]] -- 
> [[Lighthouse]] -- 
> [[Lighthouse_of_Alexandria]] -- 
> [[Lysator]] -- 
> [[Malmoe]] -- 
> [[Measurement]] -- 
> [[Miocene]] -- 
> [[Monarch]] -- 
> [[Monarchy]] -- 
> [[Morphology]] -- 
> [[Mouthpiece]] -- 
> [[Mr._T]] -- 
> [[Musical_Genres/Hip]] -- 
> [[Musical_Genres/Rap]] -- 
> [[Musical_instrument]] -- 
> [[Nazi_Germany/Organisations]] -- 
> [[Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms]] -- 
> [[Neil_Armstrong]] -- 
> [[Nordic_University_Computer_Clubs]] -- 
> [[Nordic_countries]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Communications]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Economy]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Geography]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Government]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/History]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Military]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/People]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[North_Korea/Transportation]] -- 
> [[North_Korea]] -- 
> [[Optical_telegraph]] -- 
> [[Palestinian]] -- 
> [[Paper,_Scissor,_Stone]] -- 
> [[Patent]] -- 
> [[Peter_Nilson]] -- 
> [[Philip_K._Dick/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle]] -- 
> [[Philosopher]] -- 
> [[Physicist]] -- 
> [[Pinkunicorn]] -- 
> [[Pipe]] -- 
> [[Pittsburgh]] -- 
> [[Pretty_Tony]] -- 
> [[Pythagoras]] -- 
> [[Quantum]] -- 
> [[Queen]] -- 
> [[Queen_Kristina_of_Sweden]] -- 
> [[Queen_Victoria]] -- 
> [[Radio/History]] -- 
> [[Rap_music/Bass]] -- 
> [[Rap_music/Gangsta_rap]] -- 
> [[Rapcore]] -- 
> [[Reich]] -- 
> [[Relay_league]] -- 
> [[Rene_Descartes]] -- 
> [[Research]] -- 
> [[Richard_Feynman]] -- 
> [[Roxen_webserver]] -- 
> [[Run_DMC]] -- 
> [[Samuel_Morse]] -- 
> [[Science_Fiction_Fandom]] -- 
> [[Scientist]] -- 
> [[Scotland]] -- 
> [[Selim_I]] -- 
> [[Serendipity]] -- 
> [[Seven_Wonders_of_the_World]] -- 
> [[Shakespearean_Tragedies]] -- 
> [[Ship]] -- 
> [[Shire]] -- 
> [[Smog]] -- 
> [[Smoke]] -- 
> [[Smoke_signals]] -- 
> [[Smoking_pipe]] -- 
> [[Soap_opera]] -- 
> [[Social_psychology]] -- 
> [[Software_Engineering_Institute]] -- 
> [[Software_crisis]] -- 
> [[Software_engineering]] -- 
> [[Sound]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Communications]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Economy]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Geography]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Government]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/History]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Military]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/People]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[South_Korea/Transportation]] -- 
> [[South_Korea]] -- 
> [[Spontaneous_combustion]] -- 
> [[Stress]] -- 
> [[Sture_Allen]] -- 
> [[Suleiman_the_Magnificent]] -- 
> [[Svenska_Dagbladet]] -- 
> [[Sverifandom]] -- 
> [[Swedish_Academy]] -- 
> [[Swiss_cheese]] -- 
> [[Telegraph]] -- 
> [[Telegraphy]] -- 
> [[Time]] -- 
> [[Tone]] -- 
> [[Trademark]] -- 
> [[Transistor]] -- 
> [[Ultrasound]] -- 
> [[Unit]] -- 
> [[Walter_Houser_Brattain]] -- 
> [[Werner_Karl_Heisenberg]] -- 
> [[William_Bradford_Shockley]] -- 
> [[Wireless_telegraphy]] -- 
> [[Wu-Tang_Clan]]
------
Mr._T|989574154
1c1,19
< Text deleted -- copyright violation
---
> <b>Biography of Mr. T</b>
> 
> Born: Laurence Tureaud. 21 May 1952, Chicago.
> 
> Most notably, the star of 1980's TV series The [[A-Team]]. Mr. T Starred ad BA Barraccus an ex army [[commando]]. He is the second to youngest of twelve children, he has four sisters and seven brothers and grew up     
> in the [[housing projects]] of [[Chicago]].
> 
> Mr. T is 5'11" tall, and weighs somewhere between 216 lb and 237 lb. His gold jewelry is real, and is worth around $300,000. It takes him about an hour to put it on and most nights he cleans it in an [[ultrasonic]] cleaner although some nights he sleeps in it "to see how my ancestors, who were [[slave]]s, felt."  He was once reported to be earning around $80,000 a week for his role in [[The A-Team]], and gettting $15,000 for personal appearances.
> 
> He was a college [[football]] star, he studied [[Martial Arts]], He won a scholarship to             
> Prairie View A&M University, [[Texas]], but was thrown out after a year. After that he went to a couple of small Chicago colleges on athletic scholarships. After leaving college he was a Military Policeman in the US Army before trying out for the [[Green Bay Packers]]. His professional football career was finished however by a knee injury.
> 
> For around nine years he was a [[bodyguard]] to the stars, protecting such well know personalities as [[Muhammed Ali]], [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Diana Ross]]. He charged around $3,000 a day and his business card famously read 'Next to God, there is no better protector than I'. He always boasts that he never lost a client saying "I got hurt worse growing up in the [[ghetto]] than working as a bodyguard."
> 
> In 1970 he changed his name by [[deed poll]] from Laurence Tureaud to Laurence Tero and then later to 'Mr. T' so that people would have to address him as 'Mr.' It was whilst reading "[[National Geographic]]" that Mr. T first        
> saw the unique hairstyle for which he is now famous, on an [[African]] [[Mandinka]] warrior.  He decided that adopting the style was a powerful statement about his African origins. 
> 
> In 1982 Mr. T was spotted by [[Sylvester Stallone]] while taking part in "The World's Toughest Bouncer" contest. His role in "Rocky III" was originally intended as just a few lines, but Stallone built up the part around the man.  Mr. T  also appeared in another [[boxing]] film, "Penitentiary 2," and in a [[cable TV]] special, "Bizarre," before accepting the role of BA in [[The A-Team]]. When asked at a Press conference whether he is as stupid as BA Baracus, he observed quietly, "It takes a smart guy to play dumb."
> 
------
Mandinka|989575426
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>1. The Mandinka People of West Africa</b>
> 
> MANDINKA (MANDINGUE, MANDINGO, MANDINQUE, MANDING
> 
> The Mandinka people of West Africa number over one million and live in The [[Gambia]], [[Senegal]] and [[Guinea Bissau]].  They are an attractive people and guard their culture and deep traditions zealously. Mandinka Society has three divisions: free-born, artisans, and slaves. The Mandinka are farmers with peanuts, rice, millet, and sorghum being their main crops. Mandinka society is [[patrilineal]] (male-dominated) and the smallest social unit is the family. 
> 
> Islam is practiced faithfully among the Mandinka. Most of the Mandinka observe Islamic rituals with little understanding of what they really mean. Today, it is not uncommon for someone to first pray in the village mosque, then sacrifice a chicken to the "village spirit."
> 
> A Sample of the Mandinka Language:
> 
> :Uâ-da ke yin a to wnyal;<br>
> :ghôg a wlyèc rin-ku abi lêc,<br>
> :pan-du abi ben;<br>
> :puón-du abî loy piñ-ic acit wynal-ic.<br>
> :Yeke ghog mîwd-kua akolé awtong;<br>
> :pal ghôg karác-kua,<br>
> :acit ghôg ya a pal koye ci kerác loy etong ghôg,<br>
> :ko dûne pal,<br>
> :bi ghôg kuat temac-ic,<br>
> :lone koyn ghôg etong kerác.
> 
> <b>2. A Hairstyle made famous by 198-'s TV Star [[Mr. T]]</b>
> 
> An unique hairstyle made popular in the 1980's by star of [[The A-Team]], [[Mr. T]]. Influenced by the Mandinka Warriors of West Africa , it consists of a partially shaven head with a strip running down the middle of the head from the forehead to the back of the head joining with strips starting at each ear at the back of the head. Can be incorporated with a beard for maximum effect.
------
Deed_poll|989575796
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Deed Poll is a legal and formal statement that you have changed your name. It provides you with documentary evidence that you have changed your name and requires all persons, companies and organisation (including government departments) to change their records to show your new name.
> 
> A Deed Poll also lets you get documents like your passport, driving license, credit cards etc. reissued in your new name
------
Ultrasonic|989575959
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Ultrasound]]
------
Mandinka|989576173
7c7
< Islam is practiced faithfully among the Mandinka. Most of the Mandinka observe Islamic rituals with little understanding of what they really mean. Today, it is not uncommon for someone to first pray in the village mosque, then sacrifice a chicken to the "village spirit."
---
> Islam is practiced faithfully among the Mandinka. Most of the Mandinka observe [[Islamic]] rituals with little understanding of what they really mean. Today, it is not uncommon for someone to first pray in the village [[mosque]], then sacrifice a [[chicken]] to the "village spirit."
9c9
< A Sample of the Mandinka Language:
---
> A Sample of the Mandinka [[Language]]:
------
Mandinka|989576282
7c7
< Islam is practiced faithfully among the Mandinka. Most of the Mandinka observe [[Islamic]] rituals with little understanding of what they really mean. Today, it is not uncommon for someone to first pray in the village [[mosque]], then sacrifice a [[chicken]] to the "village spirit."
---
> Islam is practiced faithfully among the Mandinka. Most of the Mandinka observe [[Islam]]ic rituals with little understanding of what they really mean. Today, it is not uncommon for someone to first pray in the village [[mosque]], then sacrifice a [[chicken]] to the "village spirit."
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989577079
5c5
< Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times before revealing their 'weapon':
---
> Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!") before revealing their 'weapon':
15a16,32
> 
> <b>Strategies</b>
> 
> 1. Cloaking
> 
> One of the first tricks learned by a Paper, Scissor, Stone novice is to hold back a throw of paper until the last possible moment to dupe an opponent into believing that you may actually be throwing a stone. This allows you the extra few milliseconds for fine-tuning your approach and delivery. Both paper and scissors have this ability, however unless you are employing a "double-back" strategy, cloaking a paper throw is likely to draw an instinctive paper from your opponent.
> 
> 2. Paper-Clipping
> 
> One way to consistently a beginner is by use of a tactic known as Paper-Clipping.  In essence, the goal is to draw a paper from your opponent in such a way as to enable you to counter with a scissor and beating him/her. The effective use of this strategy relies exclusively on your ability to successfully draw a paper from your opponent and should you respond with the necessary scissors, you will win every time!
> 
> 3. Priming
> 
> Priming is the opening ritual before the actual throws are made (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!"). The purpose of priming is to get both players in sync, so as to ensure simultaneous delivery of throws. 
> 
> This can be used to an advantage when two players are meeting for the first time, since it is often unclear as to what the priming speed will be. The tendency is to default to the priming speed of the faster player. This allows the faster priming player the luxury of dictating the flow of play and causes their opponent to dedicate more energy to "catching the prime" rather than concentrating on delivering an effective throw.
> 
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989577369
1c1
< Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. Often used as a form of decision making in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws. Also known as Rock, Paper, Scissors.
---
> Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. It is a decision making game of wits, speed, dexterity and strategy between players who are unable to reach a decision using other means. Often used in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws. Also known as <b>Rock, Paper, Scissors, Roshambo, Jaken or JanKenPo.</b>
------
Dr._Dre|989578319
1c1
< Dr Dre is Widely regarded as the chief architect of west coast gangsta rap. Born Andre Young, 18 February 1965, South Central, Los Angeles, USA, Dre's musical career began as a DJ at an LA dance club. He splicde up a mix of new records with classic soul tracks like Martha And The Vandellas. He recorded demos in a small back room of the club with a four-track studio together with future NWA member Yella and Lonzo Williams. The first of these was "Surgery", a basic electro track with a chorus of "Calling Dr Dre to surgery". It was during these sessions that Dre learned the turntable teqniques he would later bring to NWA after forming The World Class Wreckin' Cru at the age of 17.
---
> Dr Dre is Widely regarded as the chief architect of west coast [[gangsta rap]]. Born Andre Young, 18 February 1965, [[South Central]], [[Los Angeles]], USA, Dre's musical career began as a [[DJ]] at an LA dance club. He spliced up a mix of new records with classic soul tracks like Martha And The Vandellas. He recorded demos in a small back room of the club with a four-track studio together with future [[NWA]] member [[Yella]] and [[Lonzo Williams]]. The first of these was "Surgery", a basic electro track with a chorus of "Calling Dr Dre to surgery". It was during these sessions that Dre learned the turntable teqniques he would later bring to [[NWA]] after forming The W[[orld Class Wreckin Cru]] at the age of 17.
3c3
< The success of Dre's 1992 solo debut, The Chronic, confirmed raps commercial breakthrough. Spending 8 months in the Billboard top 10 It also signalled a change in tack by modern gangsta rappers. The music now took its cue from the funk of George Clinton and Funkadelic.
---
> The success of Dre's 1992 solo debut, [[The Chronic]], confirmed raps commercial breakthrough. Spending 8 months in the Billboard top 10 It also signalled a change in tack by modern gangsta rappers. The music now took its cue from the [[funk]] of [[George Clinton]] and [[Funkadelic]].
5c5
< Like many of rap's leading lights, Dre never strayed far from controversy, even after he bought his luxury home in San Fernando Valley. As if to reinstate himself as a "true gangsta", he waged a war of attrition with authority. Television host Dee Barnes filed a multi-million dollar lawsuit against him for allegedly attacking her in a Hollywood nightclub in 1991. He was also convicted of breaking the jaw of a record producer. Dre complained bitterly about restraint of trade and moneys owed, cursed Ruthless' General Manager Jerry Heller, and finally managed to find a deal with Jimmy Iovine at Interscope Records, who let him set up his own label, Death Row Records, co-founded with Marion "Suge" Knight.
---
> Like many of rap's leading lights, Dre never strayed far from controversy, even after he bought his luxury home in San Fernando Valley. As if to reinstate himself as a "true gangsta", he waged a war of attrition with authority. Television host [[Dee Barnes]] filed a multi-million dollar [[lawsuit]] against him for allegedly attacking her in a [[Hollywood]] [[nightclub]] in 1991. He was also convicted of breaking the jaw of a record producer. Dre complained bitterly about restraint of trade and moneys owed, cursed Ruthless' General Manager Jerry Heller, and finally managed to find a deal with Jimmy Iovine at Interscope Records, who let him set up his own label, [[Death Row Records]], co-founded with Marion "Suge" Knight.
7c7
< Death Row Records was briefly one of Americas most powerfull labels but by 1996 its well documented problems culminated in Dre leaving to form his own Aftermath Records label.
---
> [[Death Row Records]] was briefly one of [[America]]s most powerfull labels but by 1996 its well documented problems culminated in Dre leaving to form his own [[Aftermath Records]] label.
9c9
< The label's first release was a various artists compilation, whose stand-out track was Dre's declamatory hit single "Been There Done That", a kiss-off to gangsta rap and Death Row. In 1998, Dre was back in the news again as co-producer on his protege Eminem's controversial breakthrough album, The Slim Shady LP. The following November he released his highly anticipated sophomore collection, Dr. Dre 2001. Featuring collaborations with Eminem, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige and Xzibit, the album was a highly effective reminder of Dre's pre-eminence in the world of gangsta rap.
---
> The label's first release was a various artists compilation, whose stand-out track was Dre's declamatory hit single "Been There Done That", a kiss-off to [[gangsta rap]] and Death Row. In 1998, Dre was back in the news again as co-producer on his protege [[Eminem]]'s controversial breakthrough album, The Slim Shady LP. The following November he released his highly anticipated sophomore collection, [[Dr. Dre 2001]]. Featuring collaborations with [[Eminem]], [[Snoop Dogg]], [[Mary J. Blige]] and [[Xzibit]], the album was a highly effective reminder of Dre's pre-eminence in the world of [[gangsta rap]].
------
Gambia/People|989578874
46c46
< African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fula 18%, Wolof 16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-African 1%
---
> African 99% ([[Mandinka]] 42%, Fula 18%, Wolof 16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-African 1%
50c50
< English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula, other indigenous vernaculars
---
> English (official), [[Mandinka]], Wolof, Fula, other indigenous vernaculars
------
Northern_Ireland|989580550
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Situated in the Irish Province of Ulster. Northern Ireland is comprised of Six Counties covering 5,500 sqaure miles:
> 
> * [[Antrim]]
> * [[Armagh]]
> * [[Derry]]
> * [[Down]]
> * [[Fermanagh]]
> * [[Tyrone]]
> 
> Northern Ireland is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It's Capital City is [[Belfast]].
------
Northern_Ireland|989580793
1,2c1,2
< Situated in the Irish Province of Ulster. Northern Ireland is comprised of Six Counties covering 5,500 sqaure miles:
< 
---
> Situated in the Irish Province of Ulster. Northern Ireland covers 5,500 square miles and is comprised of six Counties:
> <b>
9,10c9,10
< 
< Northern Ireland is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It's Capital City is [[Belfast]].
---
> </b>
> Northern Ireland is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It's Capital City is [[Belfast]].
------
United_Kingdom|989580841
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]].
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
------
Northern_Ireland|989580913
10c10
< Northern Ireland is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. It's Capital City is [[Belfast]].
---
> Northern Ireland along with [[Great Britain]] is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Northern Ireland's Capital City is [[Belfast]].
------
Northern_Ireland|989581121
1c1
< Situated in the Irish Province of Ulster. Northern Ireland covers 5,500 square miles and is comprised of six Counties:
---
> Situated in the Irish Province of [[Ulster]]. Northern [[Ireland]] covers 5,500 square miles and is comprised of six Counties:
------
Northern_Ireland|989581300
10a11,12
> 
> See also [[Ireland/History]]
------
Ireland/History|989581965
2c2
< A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 26 southern counties; the six northern counties (Ulster) remained part of Great Britain. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
---
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
------
Ireland/History|989582048
2c2
< A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
---
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
------
Ireland|989582371
9a10,11
> * [[/Provinces|Provinces]]
> * [[/Counties|Counties]]
22c24
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Ireland/Provinces|989583041
1c1,47
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Provinces of Ireland</b>
> 
> Ireland is made up of 4 provinces each containing a number of counties:
> 
> <b>Connaught:</b>
> 
> * [[Galway]]
> * [[Leitrim]]
> * [[Mayo]]
> * [[Roscommon]]
> * [[Sligo]]
> 
> <b>Leinster:</b>
> 
> * [[Carlow]]
> * [[Dublin]]
> * [[Kildare]]
> * [[Kilkenny]]
> * [[Laois]] (Queens County) 
> * [[Longford]]
> * [[Louth]]
> * [[Meath]]
> * [[Offaly]] (Kings County) 
> * [[Westmeath]]
> * [[Wexford]]
> * [[Wicklow]]
> 
> <b>Munster:</b>
> 
> * [[Clare]]
> * [[Cork]]
> * [[Kerry]]
> * [[Limerick]]
> * [[Tipperary]]
> * [[Waterford]]
> 
> <b>Ulster (ROI & NI):</b>
> 
> * [[Antrim]] (NI) 
> * [[Armagh]] (NI) 
> * [[Cavan]] (ROI)
> * [[Derry]] (NI) 
> * [[Donegal]] (ROI) 
> * [[Down]] (NI)
> * [[Fermanagh]] (NI) 
> * [[Monaghan]] (ROI)  
> * [[Tyrone]] (NI)
------
Ireland/Provinces|989583199
5c5
< <b>Connaught:</b>
---
> <b>[[Connaught]]:</b>
13c13
< <b>Leinster:</b>
---
> <b>[[Leinster]]:</b>
28c28
< <b>Munster:</b>
---
> <b>[[Munster]]:</b>
37c37
< <b>Ulster (ROI & NI):</b>
---
> <b>[[Ulster]] (ROI & NI):</b>
------
Ireland|989583244
11d10
< * [[/Counties|Counties]]
------
Ireland/Talk|989583629
2a3,5
> <hr>
> 
> Is this seriously from the CIA factbook??. I had to change the stuff about Northern Ireland history cus it was wrong.
------
Reich|989583875
3c3
< movement called ''Das Dritte Reich'', ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhem]].
---
> movement called ''Das Dritte Reich'', ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhelm]].
------
Reich|989583898
3c3
< movement called ''Das Dritte Reich'', ''The Third Reich''.  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhelm]].
---
> movement called ''Das Dritte Reich'', ('The Third Reich').  The first and second Reich were the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the empire headed by [[Kaiser Willhelm]].
------
Ireland/History|989583906
2c2
< A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, approved in 1998, has not yet been implemented.
---
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups such as the IRA (Irish Republican Army). A peace settlement for Northern Ireland was approved in 1998, and a power-sharing government has been established.
------
Deed_poll|989584330
3c3
< A Deed Poll also lets you get documents like your passport, driving license, credit cards etc. reissued in your new name
---
> A Deed Poll also lets you get documents like your [[passport]], [[driving license]], [[credit card|credit cards]] etc. reissued in your new name.
------
Passport|989584532
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A passport is a document necessary for international [[travel]]. It identifies the holder as a citizen of a particular [[country]].
> 
> Some governments try to control their citizens and where they travel to, eg. most people form Muslim countries can't travel to [[Israel]] and vice-versa.
------
Philip_K._Dick/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle|989585459
1d0
< 
3c2
< after it was defeated by the [[Axis powers]] in [[WWII]]. The
---
> after it was defeated by the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]]. The
5c4
< the japanese.
---
> the japanese.
------
Sweden|989585647
13a14
> [[Västerås]],
------
Sweden|989585717
14c14
< [[Västerås]],
---
> Västerås,
------
Sweden|989585796
13,14c13,14
< [[Linkoeping|Linköping]],
< Västerås,
---
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], 
> [[Västerås]], 
------
Library|989586106
1c1
< A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which means book.  Derivations from the Greek "Bibliothek" (from Biblos, book) are used (at least) in German, French, Spanish and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use words that derive from their own words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectivey).
---
> A library is a collection of books.  The word is derived from [[Latin]] liber, which means book.  Derivations from the Greek "Bibliothek" (from Biblos, book) are used (at least) in German, French, Spanish and Swedish.  Icelandic, Finnish, and Estonian use words that derive from their own words for book (Bokasafn, Kirjasto, and Ramattukogu, respectively).
3c3
< Some famous libraries
---
> Some famous libraries:
5,8c5,10
< *[[Library of Alexandria]] in ancient Egypt
< *[[Library of Congress]] in Washington DC
< *[[British Library]] in London
< *[[Bibliotheque National]] in Paris
---
> *[[Library of Alexandria]] in ancient [[Egypt]]
> *[[Library of Congress]] in [[Washington DC]]
> *[[British Library]] in [[London]]
> *[[Bibliotheque National]] in [[Paris]]
> 
> Most of the [[countries of the world]] have their own National Libraries.
------
Computer_Security|989586532
15a16,17
> 
> ''Related topics:'' [[cryptology]], [[cryptography]], [[physical security]], [[hacking]]
------
Computer_Security|989586571
17c17
< ''Related topics:'' [[cryptology]], [[cryptography]], [[physical security]], [[hacking]]
---
> ''Related topics:'' [[cryptology]], [[cryptography]], [[Physical Security]], [[hacking]]
------
Social_engineering|989586723
1c1
< Social engineering is a set of techniques to obtain information, usually sensitive, from unaware people. One of the most common examples of social engineering is getting a [[password]] or a new [[computer account|account]] from an [[operator]]. Usually the process involving impersonating a lawful user, company employee, or similar. Convincing an operator of your "bona fides" is not so difficult if you have the employee data. And getting these date one piece at a time is also not difficult, with calls to different departments.
---
> Social engineering is a set of techniques to obtain information, usually sensitive, from unaware people. The main goal is to compromise a (very often [[Computer Security|computer]]) security system. One of the most common examples of social engineering is getting a [[password]] or a new [[computer account|account]] from an [[operator]]. Usually the process involving impersonating a lawful user, company employee, or similar. Convincing an operator of your "bona fides" is not so difficult if you have the employee data. And getting these date one piece at a time is also not difficult, with calls to different departments.
------
Social_engineering|989586812
3c3
< The "Social Engineering" term origin is in the unauthorized access to computer systems. Of course the idea is older even than the telephone.
---
> Although the term's origin is in the unauthorized access to computer systems, the idea nehind it is older than the telephone itself.
------
Monopoly|989587290
8c8,10
< Other [[market forms]]
---
> Other [[market forms]]
> ----
> [[Monopoly]] is also a popular board [[game]]. See [[monopoly/game]]
------
MonopolyGame|989587355
1,2c1
< <i>Monopoly</i> is a [[Board Games|board game]] invented by Charles Darrow and marketed by Parker Brothers.  The game involves using play money to trade real estate (with properties named after locations in Atlantic City, NJ).  It became popular in the [[United States]] during the [[Great Depression]].
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[monopoly/game]]
------
Irish_potato_famine|989587447
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the 1840's, a potato blight fungus struck across Europe. It turned this important food staple
> into a black, soggy, and inedible mess. In Ireland, the lower classes were particularly dependent on 
> the potato as their primary and sometimes only foodsource. It is estimated that the initial population 
> of Ireland, about 4 million was halved, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to America.
> During this time, Great Britain still received exports of food from Ireland, while making only insubstantial
> efforts to save their starving fellow citizens. 
>  
------
MonopolyGame|989587466
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[monopoly/game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[monopoly/game]]
------
Monopoly/game|989587517
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Monopoly is a board [[game]] invented by Charles Darrow and marketed by Parker Brothers. The game involves using play money to trade real estate (with properties named after locations in Atlantic City, NJ). It became popular in the [[United States]] during the [[Great Depression]]. 
------
MonopolyGame|989587661
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[monopoly/game]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Monopoly/game]]
------
1952|989588159
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[1951]] - 1964 - [[1953]]
> ----
> [[Arts and Entertainment]]
> 
> Famous People Births and Deaths -
> [[Mr. T]] is born Laurence Tureaud, May 21 1952, Chicago
> 
> [[Film]] -
> 
> [[Music]] -
> ----
------
1952|989588181
3c3
< [[1951]] - 1964 - [[1953]]
---
> [[1951]] - 1952 - [[1953]]
------
Mr._T|989588212
3c3
< Born: Laurence Tureaud. 21 May 1952, Chicago.
---
> Born: Laurence Tureaud. 21 May [[1952]], Chicago.
------
Mr._T|989588323
5c5
< Most notably, the star of 1980's TV series The [[A-Team]]. Mr. T Starred ad BA Barraccus an ex army [[commando]]. He is the second to youngest of twelve children, he has four sisters and seven brothers and grew up     
---
> Most notably, the star of [[1980s]] [[Television]] series The [[A-Team]]. Mr. T Starred ad BA Barraccus an ex army [[commando]]. He is the second to youngest of twelve children, he has four sisters and seven brothers and grew up     
18c18
< In 1982 Mr. T was spotted by [[Sylvester Stallone]] while taking part in "The World's Toughest Bouncer" contest. His role in "Rocky III" was originally intended as just a few lines, but Stallone built up the part around the man.  Mr. T  also appeared in another [[boxing]] film, "Penitentiary 2," and in a [[cable TV]] special, "Bizarre," before accepting the role of BA in [[The A-Team]]. When asked at a Press conference whether he is as stupid as BA Baracus, he observed quietly, "It takes a smart guy to play dumb."
---
> In 1982 Mr. T was spotted by [[Sylvester Stallone]] while taking part in "The World's Toughest Bouncer" contest. His role in "Rocky III" was originally intended as just a few lines, but Stallone built up the part around the man.  Mr. T  also appeared in another [[boxing]] [[film]], "Penitentiary 2," and in a [[cable television]] special, "Bizarre," before accepting the role of BA in [[The A-Team]]. When asked at a Press conference whether he is as stupid as BA Baracus, he observed quietly, "It takes a smart guy to play dumb."
------
Television|989588382
15a16
> :[[The A-Team]]
------
Television|989588452
50c50
< :[[Mr. T]]
---
> 
82a83
> :[[Mr. T]]
------
Television/Talk|989588539
13a14,15
> <hr>
> oooooooh!
------
Irish_potato_famine|989588633
1,2c1,2
< During the 1840's, a potato blight fungus struck across Europe. It turned this important food staple
< into a black, soggy, and inedible mess. In Ireland, the lower classes were particularly dependent on 
---
> During the 1840's, a [[potato]] blight fungus struck across [[Europe]]. It turned this important food staple
> into a black, soggy, and inedible mess. In [[Ireland]], the lower classes were particularly dependent on 
4,5c4,5
< of Ireland, about 4 million was halved, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to America.
< During this time, Great Britain still received exports of food from Ireland, while making only insubstantial
---
> of [[Ireland]], about 4 million was halved, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to [[America]].
> During this time, [[Great Britain]] still received exports of food from [[Ireland]], while making only insubstantial
7c7
<  
---
>  
------
Great_Britain|989588661
4c4
< * [[British Commonwealth]]
---
> * [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
British_Isles|989588716
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Great Britain]] and The [[United Kingdom]]
------
Great_Britain|989588740
4c4
< * [[British Commonwealth]] 
---
> * [[British Commonwealth]]
------
British_Isles|989589298
1c1,12
< See [[Great Britain]] and The [[United Kingdom]]
---
> Archipelago off the west coast of Europe (121,674 square miles)
> 
> Consisiting of:
> 
> * [[Great Britain]]
> * [[Ireland]]
> * [[Isle of Man]]
> * [[Channel Islands]]
> 
> The term British Isles defines a purely geographic area - not, as is sometimes thought, a political area.
> 
> See also [[Great Britain]] and The [[United Kingdom]]
------
Great_Britain|989589459
1c1
< The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] which form the largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with surrounding smaller island groups.  Together with [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain. The largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Great_Britain|989589483
1c1
< The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain. The largest island in the [[British Isles]], together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain. The largest island in the [[British Isles]]. Together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Great_Britain|989589527
1c1
< The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain. The largest island in the [[British Isles]]. Together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain (88,745 sq miles). The largest island in the [[British Isles]]. Together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
------
United_Kingdom|989589616
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
------
Isle_of_Man|989589772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Isle of Man is situated in the [[Irish Sea]] almost equidistant from [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. With an area of 221 square miles and a population of around 64,000 it is part of the [[United Kingdom]] and has The "Oldest Parliament in the World"
------
Channel_Islands|989590123
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Channel Isles are the part of the [[British Isles]] nearest [[France]] [Geologically not part of the archipelago but generally included in the [[British Isles]].
> 
> There are four separate island:
> 
> * [[/Jersey|Jersey]] UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
> * [[/Guernsey|Guernsey]] UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
> * [[/Alderney|Alderney]] Guernsey Dependency (Electorally part of Guernsey)
> * [[/Sark|Sark]] Guernsey Dependency (Feudal Domain)
> 
> See also [[British Isles]], [[United Kingdom]]
------
Channel_Islands|989590196
3c3
< There are four separate island:
---
> <b>There are four separate island:</b>
5,8c5,8
< * [[/Jersey|Jersey]] UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
< * [[/Guernsey|Guernsey]] UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
< * [[/Alderney|Alderney]] Guernsey Dependency (Electorally part of Guernsey)
< * [[/Sark|Sark]] Guernsey Dependency (Feudal Domain)
---
> * <b>[[/Jersey|Jersey]]</b> UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
> * <b>[[/Guernsey|Guernsey]]</b> UK Dependency (Parliamentary Bailiwick)
> * <b>[[/Alderney|Alderney]]</b> Guernsey Dependency (Electorally part of Guernsey)
> * <b>[[/Sark|Sark]]</b> Guernsey Dependency (Feudal Domain)
10c10
< See also [[British Isles]], [[United Kingdom]]
---
> See also [[British Isles]], [[United Kingdom]]
------
British_Isles|989590223
12c12
< See also [[Great Britain]] and The [[United Kingdom]]
---
> See also [[Great Britain]] and The [[United Kingdom]] 
------
Channel_Islands|989590565
3c3
< <b>There are four separate island:</b>
---
> <b>There are four separate islands:</b>
------
United_Kingdom|989590566
1c1,3
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Cornwall]]* and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
> 
> * Corwall is a county in England. Historically the Cornish are distinct from the English though Cornwall's official status is no different to that of any other county in England.
------
Channel_Islands|989590588
1c1
< The Channel Isles are the part of the [[British Isles]] nearest [[France]] [Geologically not part of the archipelago but generally included in the [[British Isles]].
---
> The Channel Isles are the part of the [[British Isles]] nearest [[France]] (Geologically not part of the archipelago but generally included in the [[British Isles]]).
------
Great_Britain|989590698
4c4
< * [[British Commonwealth]]
---
> * [[British Commonwealth]] 
------
Frequency|989591895
1c1,5
< The frequency is a [[measurement]] of repeated occurances of an [[event]].  In [[statistics]], the frequency can be the count of events during an entire experiment.  The unit for frequency is [[Hertz]] (named after German physicist [[Heinrich Rudulf Hertz]]), and is the inverse of [[second]]s, the unit for [[time]].  This requires that the count of occurances is divided by the time duration of the experiment or measurement.  In measuring the frequency of [[sound]], [[electromagnetic waves]] (such as [[radio]] or [[light]]) or electrical signals, the frequency in Hertz is the number of full cycles (of a sine wave) per second.  Some (old) radio receivers had the dial measured in megacycles per second (Mc/s) rather than megahertz.
---
> The frequency is a [[measurement]] of repeated occurances of an [[event]]. 
> 
> In [[statistics]], the frequency can be the count of events during an entire experiment.  The unit for frequency is [[Hertz]] (named after German physicist [[Heinrich Rudulf Hertz]]), and is the inverse of [[second]]s, the unit for [[time]].  This requires that the count of occurances is divided by the time duration of the experiment or measurement.
> 
> In measuring the frequency of [[sound]], [[electromagnetic waves]] (such as [[radio]] or [[light]]) or electrical signals, the frequency in Hertz is the number of full cycles (of a sine wave) per second.  Some (old) radio receivers had the dial measured in megacycles per second (Mc/s) rather than megahertz.
3d6
< -
------
Weekend|989593204
1c1
< The weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for [[Leisure]] and [[Recreation]].
---
> The weekend--one or two days, typically Saturday and Sunday--are days on which most workers do not work.  This is a time for [[Leisure]] and [[Recreation]]. There is substancially less activity on [[Wikipedia]] on [[weekend|weekends]].
3a4,5
> 
> 
------
Schoolly_D|989597452
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer. With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. 
> Musically, he and his DJ Cash Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" ("Bad Lieutenant") and "The Player" ("Blackout"). 
> 
> 
------
Philip_K._Dick/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle|989597977
2,4c2,5
< after it was defeated by the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]]. The
< eastern States are under german influence, the western, under
< the japanese.
---
> after it was defeated by the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]]. The eastern States are under german influence, the western, under
> the japanese. The title character is a writer who has published a best-selling alternate world novel ('<i>The grasshopper lies heavy</i>') in which the Axis powers lost the war; a world similar to, but not entirely like our own. 
> 
> An interesting aspect of <i>The Man in the High Castle</i> is that Dick claimed to have written it using the same method that the novelist in the book had used to write his novel...
------
Schoolly_D|989598001
1c1
< One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer. With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. 
---
> One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. 
2a3,11
> 
> 1986 Schoolly D
> 1987 The adventures of Schoolly D
> 1987 Saturday night
> 1988 Smoke some kill
> 1991 Am I blacl enough for ya
> 1994 Welcome to America
> 1995 Reservoir dog
> 2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
Gangsta_rap|989598221
1c1
< The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T
---
> The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. He himself said in an interview about the history of gangster rap: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism. That was the New York shit. So there's no question that I was before Eazy because if you go back to 1982 with Cold Wind Madness, I was talking about being "the pimp, the player, the woman-layer", but Six In The Morning would be the first "Gangsta Rap", so to speak. After that, Cube wrote Boyz In Tha Hood which was like a bite of Six In The Morning [with the syncopation]. It's like "Six in the morning, police at my door..." and "The boyz in the hood are always hard...". If you play Boyz In The Hood at the same time as Six In The Morning, you'll hear they even break at the same point." (www.daveyd.com) Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989599200
25c25
< One way to consistently a beginner is by use of a tactic known as Paper-Clipping.  In essence, the goal is to draw a paper from your opponent in such a way as to enable you to counter with a scissor and beating him/her. The effective use of this strategy relies exclusively on your ability to successfully draw a paper from your opponent and should you respond with the necessary scissors, you will win every time!
---
> One way to consistently defeat a beginner is by use of a tactic known as Paper-Clipping.  In essence, the goal is to draw a paper from your opponent in such a way as to enable you to counter with a scissor and beating him/her. The effective use of this strategy relies exclusively on your ability to successfully draw a paper from your opponent and should you respond with the necessary scissors, you will win every time!
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989599273
5c5
< Two Players each make a fist with which they count three times (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!") before revealing their 'weapon':
---
> Two Players each make a fist with which they count up to three (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!") before revealing their 'weapon':
------
Schoolly_D|989599847
1c1
< One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. 
---
> One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. Ice T says about Schoolly D's record PSK: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning."
8c8
< 1991 Am I blacl enough for ya
---
> 1991 Am I black enough for ya
------
KRS_One|989600103
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Conscious rapper from the Bronx, NY. Together with DJ Scott la Rock, he formed Boogie Down Productions. Their debut album contained mainly dissing records and tracks about crime ("wa da da deng wa da da deng, listen to my nine millimeter go bang"), using James Brown samples and reggae influences. After Scott la Rock got shot, BDP got more and more political, making what is known as conscious rap. KRS One's radical Afrocentrism may be sometimes somehwat beyond the pale, but musically, he always delivered the goods. 
------
Arabic_language|989600191
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic language, closely related to the [[Hebrew language]]. Semitic is part of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] family of languages. 
------
Hebrew_language|989600393
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic language, closely related to the [[Arabic language]]. For centuries, Hebrew was basically a dead language, Jews used [[Judaeo-Spanish]] and [[Yiddish]] as well as the national languages of their countries instead. Only in the 20th century, Hebrew was again used as a spoken language. Jews with European roots (Ashkenazim) pronounce it differently from Eastern Jews (Mizrahim). 
------
Hebrew_language|989600410
1c1
< Semitic language, closely related to the [[Arabic language]]. For centuries, Hebrew was basically a dead language, Jews used [[Judaeo-Spanish]] and [[Yiddish]] as well as the national languages of their countries instead. Only in the 20th century, Hebrew was again used as a spoken language. Jews with European roots (Ashkenazim) pronounce it differently from Eastern Jews (Mizrahim). 
---
> Semitic language, closely related to the [[Arabic language]]. For centuries, Hebrew was basically a dead language, Jews used [[Judaeo-Spanish]] and [[Yiddish]] as well as the national languages of their countries instead. Only in the 20th century, Hebrew was again used as a spoken language. Jews with European roots (Ashkenazim) pronounce it differently from Eastern Jews (Mizrahim). 
------
Morphology|989600577
3c3,5
< Within biology, morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.
---
> Within biology, morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.----
> Quibble: In Linguistics, most linguists use morpheme to distinguish to smallest unit of "grammatical meaning." For example, in English the indication of the plural for a noun,
> e.g., /s/, /eez/, /n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
------
Morphology|989600938
1c1
< Within lingusitics, morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
---
> Within [[lingusitics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
3c3
< Within biology, morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.----
---
> Within [[biology]], morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.----
------
Morphology|989600954
1c1
< Within [[lingusitics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
---
> Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
------
Spanish_language|989601073
1c1
< The '''Spanish''' language developed (from mostly Latin origins) in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and ultimately came to mean the language spoken in [[Spain]]. 
---
> The '''Spanish''' language developed (from mostly Latin origins) in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and ultimately came to mean the language spoken in [[Spain]]. Typical features of Spanish include lenition (Latin VITA, Spanish vida) and palatalization (Latin ANNUM, Spanish año); both can however be found in most Romance languages. 
3c3
< Actually, there are regional variations among the various regions of Spain and Spanish America. [[Castellano]], the variation spoken in [[Castilla]], the region around the capital, Madrid, is commonly taken as an international standard. [[Catalan]] is a distinct language spoken in [[Cataluña]], the region around Barcelona.
---
> Actually, there are regional variations among the various regions of Spain and Spanish America. [[Castellano]], the variation spoken in [[Castilla]], the region around the capital, Madrid, is commonly taken as an international standard. [[Catalan]] is a distinct language spoken in [[Cataluña]], the region around Barcelona. Other languages used in Spain include [[Galego]] and [[Basque]]. Exactly because not only Spanish is spoken in Spain, it is called castellano (Castilian) in Spain - and NEVER "Spanish". In Argentina, people normally also call the language castellano, whereas in other Latin American countries it is referred to as español (Spanish).
5c5
< In the Americas, the first Spaniards to settle brought some of their regionalisms with them. Today you can find distinct accents in different nations of Spanish speaking America.
---
> In the Americas, the first Spaniards to settle brought some of their regionalisms with them. Today you can find distinct accents in different nations of Spanish speaking America. Typical of the Americas is the pronunciation of <ll> as /j/ instead of palatal /l'/. In Spain, too, <ll> is now pronounced as /j/ rather than /l'/. This phenomenon is called yeismo. In Argentina, /j/ is generally pronounced as /Z/ as in French 'jour'. This phenomenon is called žeismo. Also typical of Latin America is the seseo. The European Castilian phoneme /T/ (as in ciento, caza) does not exist in American Castilian, it fell together with /s/ (as in ser, casa). 
------
Galego|989601125
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ibero-Romance language spoken in Galicia. 
------
Italian_language|989601225
1c1,3
< Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. Italian is an official language in Italy and Switzerland. Some people claim that Tuscan became the standard language because it's so close to Latin, but other languages spoken in Italy are even closer to Latin (e.g. sardo logudorese as well as some Southern idioms). It was also not the beauty of Dante's language but rather the economic power that Tuscany had at the time. 
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages, e.g. French and Spanish). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. Italian is an official language in Italy and Switzerland. Some people claim that Tuscan became the standard language because it's so close to Latin, but other languages spoken in Italy are even closer to Latin (e.g. sardo logudorese as well as some Southern Italian idioms). It was also not the beauty of Dante's language but rather the economic power that Tuscany had at the time. 
> 
> 
------
Italian_language|989601253
1c1
< Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages, e.g. French and Spanish). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. Italian is an official language in Italy and Switzerland. Some people claim that Tuscan became the standard language because it's so close to Latin, but other languages spoken in Italy are even closer to Latin (e.g. sardo logudorese as well as some Southern Italian idioms). It was also not the beauty of Dante's language but rather the economic power that Tuscany had at the time. 
---
> Italian is a Romance language and it is based on Tuscan dialects. It is somewhat intermediate between the languages of Southern Italy and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North. It has double (or long) consonants, like [[Latin]] (but unlike most modern Romance languages, e.g. [[French]] and [[Spanish]]). As in most Romance languages with the notable exception of French, stress is distinctive. Italian is an official language in Italy and Switzerland. Some people claim that Tuscan became the standard language because it's so close to Latin, but other languages spoken in Italy are even closer to Latin (e.g. [[sardo logudorese]] as well as some Southern Italian idioms). It was also not the beauty of Dante's language but rather the economic power that Tuscany had at the time. 
------
Driving_license|989601475
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A <b>driving licence</b> is an official document, which states that a person has got the necessary qualifications to drive a motorised vehicle (most often a [[motorcycle]] or a [[car]]). In most [[Europe|European]] countries one has to be at least 17 or 18 years of age to drive a car.
------
Paper,_Scissor,_Stone|989601588
1,33c1
< Whimsical [[game]] played by children and adults alike. It is a decision making game of wits, speed, dexterity and strategy between players who are unable to reach a decision using other means. Often used in a similar way to tossing a coin or drawing straws. Also known as <b>Rock, Paper, Scissors, Roshambo, Jaken or JanKenPo.</b>
< 
< <b>Instructions</b>
< 
< Two Players each make a fist with which they count up to three (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!") before revealing their 'weapon':
< 
< *<b>paper</b> - all fingers extended, palm facing downwards
< *<b>scissors</b> - forefinger and middle finger extended, making a scissor-like motion
< *<b>stone</b> - a clenched fist 
< 
< The objective is to beat the other opponent by selecting a weapon which beats theirs. There are three possible outcomes depending on the weapon selected (if both players happen to choose the same one, the game results in a draw and has to be repeated):
< 
< #Paper covers Stone (paper wins)
< #Scissors cut Paper (scissors win)
< #Stone blunts Scissors (stone wins)
< 
< <b>Strategies</b>
< 
< 1. Cloaking
< 
< One of the first tricks learned by a Paper, Scissor, Stone novice is to hold back a throw of paper until the last possible moment to dupe an opponent into believing that you may actually be throwing a stone. This allows you the extra few milliseconds for fine-tuning your approach and delivery. Both paper and scissors have this ability, however unless you are employing a "double-back" strategy, cloaking a paper throw is likely to draw an instinctive paper from your opponent.
< 
< 2. Paper-Clipping
< 
< One way to consistently defeat a beginner is by use of a tactic known as Paper-Clipping.  In essence, the goal is to draw a paper from your opponent in such a way as to enable you to counter with a scissor and beating him/her. The effective use of this strategy relies exclusively on your ability to successfully draw a paper from your opponent and should you respond with the necessary scissors, you will win every time!
< 
< 3. Priming
< 
< Priming is the opening ritual before the actual throws are made (often referred to as "1-2-3 Go!"). The purpose of priming is to get both players in sync, so as to ensure simultaneous delivery of throws. 
< 
< This can be used to an advantage when two players are meeting for the first time, since it is often unclear as to what the priming speed will be. The tendency is to default to the priming speed of the faster player. This allows the faster priming player the luxury of dictating the flow of play and causes their opponent to dedicate more energy to "catching the prime" rather than concentrating on delivering an effective throw.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Stone, Paper, Scissors]]
------
Stone,_Paper,_Scissors|989601641
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Called by a variety of names such as '''Roshambo''', '''Jaken''', '''JanKenPo''', the [[game]] of Stone-paper-scissors is a whimsical game most often played by children.  It is often used in a similar way to coin flipping or drawing straws to randomly select a person for some purpose, though unlike truly random selections it can be played with skill if the game extends over many sessions, because one can often recognize and exploit the non-random behavior of an opponent.  It is also often used as an example of the mathematical concept of [[non-transitivity]].
> 
> <h2>Game play</h2>
> 
> Two players each make a fist.  They count together "1..2..3..Go".  On "Go" each simultaneously changes his hand into one of three "weapons":
> 
> * '''Paper''': all fingers extended, palm facing downwards.
> * '''Scissors''':  forefinger and middle finger extended and separated into a "V" shape.
> * '''Stone''' (or "rock"): a clenched fist.
> 
> The objective is to defeat the other opponent by selecting a weapon which defeats his choice under the following rules:
> 
> #Paper covers Stone (paper wins)
> #Scissors cut Paper (scissors win)
> #Stone blunts Scissors (stone wins)
> 
> If players choose the same weapon, the game is a tie and is played over.
> 
> <h2>Strategies</h2>
> 
> Optimal play (according to [[game theory]]) is a simple matter of selecting randomly, and so the game may be considered trivial in that sense.  But "optimal" in this sense means only incapable of being defeated more than expected by chance, while it does ''not'' imply that the random strategy is best at taking advantage of a suboptimal opponent.  In fact, if the opponent is human, it is almost certain that he playes suboptimally and that a modified strategy can exploit that weakness.
> 
> University of Alberta Ph.D. student and [[poker]] player Darse Billings organizes a [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~darse/rsbpc.html computer Roshambo competition] to explore these possibilities, and their application to computer game play in other fields (notably poker, in which exploiting an opponent's non-random behavior is an important part of strategy).
> 
> <h2>Cheating</h2>
> 
> One of the first tricks learned by a Roshambo novice is to hold back a throw of paper until the last possible moment to dupe an opponent into believing that you may actually be throwing a stone.  This allows you the extra few milliseconds for fine-tuning your approach and delivery. Both paper and scissors have this ability, however unless you are employing a "double-back" strategy, cloaking a paper throw is likely to draw an instinctive paper from your opponent.
> 
> The opening ritual before the actual throws are made ("1..2..3..Go!"), called "priming", is intended to get both players in sync so as to ensure simultaneous delivery of throws.  This can be used to an advantage when two players are meeting for the first time, since it is often unclear as to what the priming speed will be.  The tendency is to default to the priming speed of the faster player.  This allows the faster priming player the luxury of dictating the flow of play and causes their opponent to dedicate more energy to "catching the prime" rather than concentrating on delivering an effective throw.
------
Roshambo|989601674
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Stone, Paper, Scissors]]
------
Sardo_logudorese|989601714
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sardo logudorese is one of the languages of Sardinia, and it is without any doubt the most conservative of all Romance languages. Latin G- and K- before /i, e/ was not palatalized in this idiom, which makes it different from all other Neo-Latin languages. Compare sardo log. kentu with Italian cento /'tSento/, Spanish /'Tjento/ and French /sã/ (/T/ and /s/ from /ts/). 
> 
------
Stone,_Paper,_Scissors|989601947
21c21
< Optimal play (according to [[game theory]]) is a simple matter of selecting randomly, and so the game may be considered trivial in that sense.  But "optimal" in this sense means only incapable of being defeated more than expected by chance, while it does ''not'' imply that the random strategy is best at taking advantage of a suboptimal opponent.  In fact, if the opponent is human, it is almost certain that he playes suboptimally and that a modified strategy can exploit that weakness.
---
> Optimal play (according to [[game theory]]) is a simple matter of selecting randomly, and so the game may be considered trivial in that sense.  But "optimal" in this sense means only incapable of being defeated more than expected by chance, while it does ''not'' imply that the random strategy is best at taking advantage of a suboptimal opponent.  In fact, if the opponent is human, it is almost certain that he playes suboptimally and that a modified strategy can exploit that weakness.  This is easily demonstrated by [http://chappie.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/roshambot Roshambot], a computer program that handily defeats most human players.
------
Sardinian_language|989602095
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is no single Sardinian language; there are several languages spoken on Sardinia, among them also [[Catalan]]. 
> The native languages of Sardinia include the archaic [[Sardo logudorese]], [[campidanese]] that has many Catalan and Spanish words, [[gallurese]] that is characterized by [[Corsican]] influence and [[tabarchino]] with its [[Ligurian]] origins. 
------
Romance_languages|989602163
1c1
< After the break-up of the [[Roman Empire]], the vulgar latin began to evolve differently in different areas.  The romance languages are the results of this process, and form a subfamily of the [[Italic languages]].
---
> After the break-up of the [[Roman Empire]], the vulgar latin began to evolve differently in different areas.  The Romance languages are the results of this process, and form a subfamily of the [[Italic languages]].
9c9
< * [[Rhaetian language]]
---
> * [[Romansh]]
------
Film_Directors|989602269
45a46
> :[[Robert Rodriguez]]
------
Queen|989602770
1,5c1,9
< *Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
< 
< *A queen is also one of many [[chess]] [[chess/Pieces|pieces]].
< 
< *Also the name of a (british) rock musical group. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". [[Freddy Mercury]], one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 1991. See [[Queen/Band]]
---
> Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
> ----
> One of many [[chess]] [[Chess/Pieces|pieces]].
> ----
> [[Queen/Band|British rock band]]. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". [[Freddy Mercury]], one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 1991.
> ----
> Female [[bee]] in a [[beehive]] that is the only fertile and egg laying member of the colony.
> ----
> A female [[cat]] with a litter of [[kitten]]s.
------
Unclassified_game|989602887
5c5
< * [[Paper, Scissor, Stone]]
---
> * [[Stone, Paper, Scissors]]
------
Elizabeth_II|989602989
1,3c1
< [[Queen]] of the [[United Kingdom]], 1952-
< 
< 
---
> [[Queen]] and head of state of the [[United Kingdom]] since 1952 to the present day.
------
Sardinian_language|989603007
1,2c1,2
< There is no single Sardinian language; there are several languages spoken on Sardinia, among them also [[Catalan]]. 
< The native languages of Sardinia include the archaic [[Sardo logudorese]], [[campidanese]] that has many Catalan and Spanish words, [[gallurese]] that is characterized by [[Corsican]] influence and [[tabarchino]] with its [[Ligurian]] origins. 
---
> There is no single Sardinian language; there are several languages spoken on [[Sardinia]], among them also [[Catalan]]. 
> The native languages of Sardinia include the archaic [[Sardo logudorese]], [[campidanese]] that has many Catalan and Spanish words, [[gallurese]] that is characterized by [[Corsican]] influence and [[tabarchino]] with its [[Ligurian]] origins. 
------
Hebrew_language|989605833
1a2,9
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Judaeo-Spanish|989605910
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Romance language, mainly derived from Old Castilian (Spanish). Speakers are exclusively Sephardic Jews. In popular usage, the language is often called Ladino.
------
Schoolly_D|989606844
2c2
< Musically, he and his DJ Cash Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" ("Bad Lieutenant") and "The Player" ("Blackout"). 
---
> Musically, he and his DJ Cash Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "Bad Lieutenant") and "The Player" (for "Blackout"). 
------
Semitic_languages|989607100
3,7c3,5
< * [[Hebrew]]
< * [[Arabic]]
< * [[Maltese]]
< 
< ''Why does this not show up as a link on [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]?
---
> * [[Hebrew language]]
> * [[Arabic language]]
> * [[Maltese language]]
------
Semitic_languages|989607118
1c1
< Semitic languages include:
---
> A subfamily of the [[Afro-asiatic languages]], including:
------
Hebrew_language|989607134
1c1
< Semitic language, closely related to the [[Arabic language]]. For centuries, Hebrew was basically a dead language, Jews used [[Judaeo-Spanish]] and [[Yiddish]] as well as the national languages of their countries instead. Only in the 20th century, Hebrew was again used as a spoken language. Jews with European roots (Ashkenazim) pronounce it differently from Eastern Jews (Mizrahim). 
---
> [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]], closely related to the [[Arabic language]]. For centuries, Hebrew was basically a dead language, Jews used [[Judaeo-Spanish]] and [[Yiddish]] as well as the national languages of their countries instead. Only in the 20th century, Hebrew was again used as a spoken language. Jews with European roots (Ashkenazim) pronounce it differently from Eastern Jews (Mizrahim). 
------
Arabic_language|989607155
1c1
< Semitic language, closely related to the [[Hebrew language]]. Semitic is part of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] family of languages. 
---
> [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]], closely related to the [[Hebrew language]].
------
JamieTheFoool|989607465
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hi, Jamie!  Jimbo here.
> 
> There's a very strict rule -- partly imposed by me for legal
> liability reasons, but also very much a "social custom" -- that we don't violate copyrights here.   The reasons are many, but
> among them are
> 
> 1.  The legal situation -- this is a volunteer project, and it makes no money.  So if someone sues us for copyright violation, we will not have the resources to fight.  And cutting and pasting from the web isn't very defensible under current law.  So we would lose, and that would be the end of our little project.  Very sad.
> 
> 2.  Many people believe that it is not possible for a group of dedicated volunteers to produce work of good quality.  We constantly see hints of this from companies like Microsoft, when they slam the Linux operating system as being merely the product of volunteers.  But they look foolish because Linux is so obviously high quality and so obviously the <i>original</i> work of tens of thousands of volunteers.
> 
> If we copy things from the web, then we lose the high moral ground.  Those people will say "See, the idea of volunteers building an encyclopedia is bunk.  The best they can do is take other people's work and copy it."
> 
> -----------------
> 
> Now, your revised [[Mr. T]] entry is a major improvement, but I'd still have to say that -- perhaps not in a legal sense, but in an academic sense -- it is plagiarized from a single source.  It would be far better to find two separate articles, take notes from them -- JUST THE FACTS, try to change the wording of everything into totally your own words, and then write your own article _from your notes_.  That way, you're two steps away from the source material, so that you can be sure that you're only using the facts, not someone else's actual words.
> 
> Others may have different opinions on this, and I hope they will weigh in.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989607709
29c29,34
< Ha.  No, it doesn't make me dizzy; in small doses it's just something to pass the time with while waiting for people; in larger doses it's something easy and worthwhile that helps overcome insomnia.  I have to admit that I take greater pride in the Ingmar Bergman entry than in the rest; I think I'll start reading up on Martin Scorsese and Joel and Ethan Coen to beef up those two pages.  (I share a fondness for [[The Big Lebowski]], and just watched it again last night, in fact.)
---
> Ha.  No, it doesn't make me dizzy; in small doses it's just something to pass the time with while waiting for people; in larger doses it's something easy and worthwhile that helps overcome insomnia.  I have to admit that I take greater pride in the Ingmar Bergman entry than in the rest; I think I'll start reading up on Martin Scorsese and Joel and Ethan Coen to beef up those two pages.  (I share a fondness for [[The Big Lebowski]], and just watched it again last night, in fact.)
> ---
> 
> The dude abides.
> 
> ::-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989607720
34c34
< ::-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
---
>  ::-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989607746
30c30,31
< ---
---
> 
> ----
34c35
<  ::-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
---
> ;:-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
------
Gibraltar/History|989607782
2c2
< Strategically important Gibraltar was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in 1713. In a 1967 referendum, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly to remain a British dependency.
---
> Strategically important Gibraltar was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in 1713. In a 1967 referendum, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly to remain a British dependency. The name Gibraltar comes from the Arabic _Jabal al Tariq_ 
------
Schoolly_D|989608392
4,13c4,11
< 1986 Schoolly D
< 1987 The adventures of Schoolly D
< 1987 Saturday night
< 1988 Smoke some kill
< 1991 Am I black enough for ya
< 1994 Welcome to America
< 1995 Reservoir dog
< 2000 Funk 'n pussy
< 
< 
---
> *1986 Schoolly D
> *1987 The adventures of Schoolly D
> *1987 Saturday night
> *1988 Smoke some kill
> *1991 Am I black enough for ya
> *1994 Welcome to America
> *1995 Reservoir dog
> *2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
Alphabet|989608801
3c3,5
< The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again all subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
---
> The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
> 
> 
7c9
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Greek_alphabet|989608879
34c34
< The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet matres lectionis were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels. 
---
> The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet [[matres lectionis]] were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels. 
------
Matres_lectionis|989609040
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> According to Sass (5), already  in the Middle Kingdom there were some cases of matres lectionis, i.e. consonant graphemes which were used to transcribe vowels in foreign words, namely in  Punic (Jensen 290, Naveh 62), Aramaic and Hebrew (hê, wâw, jôd; sometimes even 'âlep; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that therefore the Greeks must have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. But the practice has older roots: the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th ct. BC) already has matres lectionis (Naveh 138). 
> 
> 
> Jensen, Hans. 1970. Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Transl. of Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 1958, as revised by the author. 
> 
> Naveh, Joseph. 1979. Die Entstehung des Alphabets. Transl. of Origins of the Alphabet. Zürich und Köln. Benziger.
> 
> Sass, Benjamin. 1991. Studia Alphabetica. On the origin and early history of the Northwest Semitic, South Semitic and Greek alphabets. CH-Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
> 
------
Estruscan_alphabet|989609172
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], Ø stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
------
Estruscan_alphabet|989609247
1c1
< The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], Ø stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
---
> The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], &psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
------
Estruscan_alphabet|989609273
1c1
< The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], &psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
---
> The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], &Psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
------
Estruscan_alphabet|989609301
1c1
< The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], &Psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Ø = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
---
> The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], Psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Psi = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
------
Alphabet|989609452
8a9,18
> 
> Other alphabets:
> [[Runic]]
> [[Tifinagh]]
> [[Old Turkic]]
> [[Iberian]]
> [[Ogham]]
> [[Meroitic]]
> 
> 
------
Roman_alphabet|989609613
1c1,14
< The [[alphabet]] of classical [[Latin]], that is now used. Most letters were taken over from the Etruscan alphabet. Only Z and Y were taken over from the Greek alphabet and therefore added at the end.  In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a Germanic letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In Old English, thorn and wynn - a Runic letter - were added. In modern Icelandic, thorn is still used. 
---
> The Latin alphabet derives mainly from the Etruscan script. According to Hammarström (in Jensen 521), the letters for B, D, O, X  hail from a Southern Italian Greek alphabet. However, there are Etruscan abecedaria with B, D, O, X (Sampson 108). Rix (203) claims that the sound values of those letters in Latin is to be attributed to Greek influence, the letters themselves were probably all present when the Romans took over the alphabet from the Etruscans (Wachter 33). 
> It is uncontested that the alphabet is mainly of Etruscan origin. The sound value of C proves that clearly. Etruscan had no voiced plosives, so this symbol – derived from the Greek gamma – came to stand for the unvoiced /k/ in Etruscan – as later in Latin. Jensen  (521) notes that the letters C, K, Q were originally used in Latin according to Etruscan usage: C in front of /e, i/; K in front of /a/; Q in front of /u, o/. The letters thus stand for different allophones of /k/ (in the case of Latin, also /g/ and probably the phonemes /k_w/ and /g_w/ in the case of QU and GU). These spelling rules are due to the names of the letters: gamma or gemma; kappa; qoppa or quppa (Wachter 15). In Etruscan there was no /o/, so Q was used both in front of /o/ and /u/ in Latin. Y and Z were later additions taken from the Greek alphabet. G was created approximately in the 3rd century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga as a modification of C (Sampson 109). F (digamma) stood for /w/ in both Etruscan and Latin, but the Romans simplified the FH-/f/combination to F /f/. The semi-vowels  /w, j/  and the vowels /u, u:, i, i:/ were written with the same letters, namely V and I respectively.
> 
> In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a Germanic letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In Old English, thorn and wynn - a Runic letter - were added. In modern Icelandic, thorn is still used. 
> 
> Jensen, Hans. 1970. Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Transl. of Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 1958, as revised by the author. 
> 
> Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi – Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
> 
> Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing systems. London (etc.): Hutchinson. 
> 
> Wachter, Rudolf. 1987. Altlateinische Inschriften: sprachliche und epigraphische Untersuchungen zu den Dokumenten bis etwa 150 v.Chr. Bern (etc.): Peter Lang.
> 
> 
------
Runic|989609857
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The runes were created by speakers of Germanic dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this alphabet as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/Alpine alphabets with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly – at least on a formal level – of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of Byblos and Ugarit as well as the Phoenician alphabet.
>     Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
> 
> Bernal, Martin. 1990. Cadmean letters. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 
> 
> Jensen, Hans. 1970. Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Transl. of Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 1958, as revised by the author. 
> 
> Krause, Wolfgang. 1970. Runen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 
> 
> Miller, D. Gary. 1994. Ancient scripts and phonological knowledge. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 
> 
> Seebold, Elmar. 1991. "Die Stellung der englischen Runen im Rahmen der Überlieferung des älteren Fuþark" In: Bammesberger S. 439-569. 
> 
> 
> 
------
Runic|989609880
1,2c1
< The runes were created by speakers of Germanic dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this alphabet as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/Alpine alphabets with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly – at least on a formal level – of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of Byblos and Ugarit as well as the Phoenician alphabet.
<     Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
---
> The runes were created by speakers of Germanic dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this alphabet as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/Alpine alphabets with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly – at least on a formal level – of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of Byblos and Ugarit as well as the Phoenician alphabet. Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
------
Ogham|989610022
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Although the origins of the Ogham alphabet are disputed, it is clear that the graphically innovative system has its roots in already existing alphabets, probably the runes and/or the Etruscan and Latin alphabet. Many writing systems have letters with new forms, but this does not mean that the idea of writing alphabetically has been re-invented in those cases. Han-kul for example has – on a formal level –  little in common with alphabetic scripts in use in the vicinity of Korea, however, the creator(s) of the alphabet were certainly aware of Indic alphabets such as the Mongolian 'Phags pa (DB 225). The script may be formally closer to Chinese, but its structure is clearly alphabetic, and the fact that each consonant is accompanied by a vowel letter below has a close parallel in Indic scripts where consonant and vowel letters merge into quasi-units. 
>     The similarities between Ogham and runes are in any case remarkable. Both systems are based on phonological and phonetic knowledge: in the case of Ogham, the vowels are in one row, dental /d, t/ and velar /k, k_w/ stops are all placed next to each other as well as fricatives /f, s/ and velar sounds /g, N/. It is also interesting to note that all Ogham letters, including the odd [st]-symbol (sometimes transcribed as <z>, DB 341), have Anglo Saxon runic counterparts. Of course, it is necessary to examine whether these letters are due to phonetics and/or phonology or rather to the model given by another alphabet (runic or Latin). Also, it is not clear how this symbol was actually pronounced. 
>     At the same time, the creativity of the creators of Ogham as well as other alphabets should not be underestimated: the vowel order is probably based on the distinction front/back: back vowels /a, o, u/ [A, o, u] are followed by front vowels /e, i/. The shape of the letters is certainly also rather original, as in the case of the Korean Han-kul or in the case of some runic characters. 
>     Crystal (205) states that Ogham letters symbolized either Gaelic or Pictish phonemes. The alphabet was probably created around the 4th century BC. It can be found on rocks, stones and pottery in Wales and Ireland. According to Babaev, Old Irish ogam is not a Celtic word. Although Pictish is probably a non-Indo-European language, Celtophiles argue that due to the fact that there is no /p/ letter in Ogham Pictish itself must be a Celtic language. Babaev assumes that there was probably some Celtic influence on Pictish. 
> 
> Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. 1996. The world's writing systems. NY and Oxford: OUP 1996. (=DB)
> 
> Babaev, Cyril. "Picts and Pictish Language". http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
> ----.  "Ogham Script"  http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
> 
> 
> 
------
Byzantine_Empire|989610041
9c9
< The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert by the sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]] [[Alparslan]] on 1071 that province was lost.
---
> The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert by the sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]] [[Alp Arslan]] on 1071 that province was lost.
------
Ogham|989610101
2,4c2,7
<     The similarities between Ogham and runes are in any case remarkable. Both systems are based on phonological and phonetic knowledge: in the case of Ogham, the vowels are in one row, dental /d, t/ and velar /k, k_w/ stops are all placed next to each other as well as fricatives /f, s/ and velar sounds /g, N/. It is also interesting to note that all Ogham letters, including the odd [st]-symbol (sometimes transcribed as <z>, DB 341), have Anglo Saxon runic counterparts. Of course, it is necessary to examine whether these letters are due to phonetics and/or phonology or rather to the model given by another alphabet (runic or Latin). Also, it is not clear how this symbol was actually pronounced. 
<     At the same time, the creativity of the creators of Ogham as well as other alphabets should not be underestimated: the vowel order is probably based on the distinction front/back: back vowels /a, o, u/ [A, o, u] are followed by front vowels /e, i/. The shape of the letters is certainly also rather original, as in the case of the Korean Han-kul or in the case of some runic characters. 
<     Crystal (205) states that Ogham letters symbolized either Gaelic or Pictish phonemes. The alphabet was probably created around the 4th century BC. It can be found on rocks, stones and pottery in Wales and Ireland. According to Babaev, Old Irish ogam is not a Celtic word. Although Pictish is probably a non-Indo-European language, Celtophiles argue that due to the fact that there is no /p/ letter in Ogham Pictish itself must be a Celtic language. Babaev assumes that there was probably some Celtic influence on Pictish. 
---
> 
> The similarities between Ogham and runes are in any case remarkable. Both systems are based on phonological and phonetic knowledge: in the case of Ogham, the vowels are in one row, dental /d, t/ and velar /k, k_w/ stops are all placed next to each other as well as fricatives /f, s/ and velar sounds /g, N/. It is also interesting to note that all Ogham letters, including the odd [st]-symbol (sometimes transcribed as <z>, DB 341), have Anglo Saxon runic counterparts. Of course, it is necessary to examine whether these letters are due to phonetics and/or phonology or rather to the model given by another alphabet (runic or Latin). Also, it is not clear how this symbol was actually pronounced. 
> 
> At the same time, the creativity of the creators of Ogham as well as other alphabets should not be underestimated: the vowel order is probably based on the distinction front/back: back vowels /a, o, u/ [A, o, u] are followed by front vowels /e, i/. The shape of the letters is certainly also rather original, as in the case of the Korean Han-kul or in the case of some runic characters. 
> 
> Crystal (205) states that Ogham letters symbolized either Gaelic or Pictish phonemes. The alphabet was probably created around the 4th century BC. It can be found on rocks, stones and pottery in Wales and Ireland. According to Babaev, Old Irish ogam is not a Celtic word. Although Pictish is probably a non-Indo-European language, Celtophiles argue that due to the fact that there is no /p/ letter in Ogham Pictish itself must be a Celtic language. Babaev assumes that there was probably some Celtic influence on Pictish. 
8,9c11,12
< Babaev, Cyril. "Picts and Pictish Language". http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
< ----.  "Ogham Script"  http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
---
> Babaev, Cyril.  "Picts and Pictish Language". http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
> Babaev, Cyril.  "Ogham Script"  http://www.geocities.com/indoeurop/asearch.html [28.2.01]
------
Alphabet|989610252
16a17
> [[Gothic]]
------
Alphabet|989610285
13,14c13,14
< [[Old Turkic]]
< [[Iberian]]
---
> [[Old Turkic alphabet]]
> [[Iberian alphabet]]
17c17
< [[Gothic]]
---
> [[Gothic alphabet]]
------
Gothic_alphabet|989610408
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It was probably Bishop Wulfila who created the Gothic letters. As in the case of the runes, there have been scholars who claim that Wulfila's letters have been developed from a single source. Kirchhoff (1854) claimed that the origins of all Gothic letters are Greek, and Zacher (1855) maintained that Wulfila created all letters with Latin counterparts in mind (Braune 15-16). Later on, scholars tended to agree that the letters are mainly of Greek origin, with the exception of some letters that must be of runic and Latin origin (ibid.). However, there are still scholars like Ebbinghaus (Braune 16) who maintain that the origins of the alphabet are to be viewed as monogenetically Greek. Wimmer (1887), Gutenbrunner (1950), Mossé (1950) however all agree that the Gothic alphabet must be viewed as a synthesis of two traditions, namely the "latino-graeca" and  the "runo-graeca" (ibid.) Most letters are seen as Greek by the majority of scholars, but the origin of  some letters, e.g. the symbols for /f/, /j/ and /u/, is controversial (Braune 16). 
> 
> Actually, the Greek alphabet had no letter for /j/ and there was no /j/ in the Greek of that time, and the Latin letter I stood for  /i/ as well as /j/.  So the Runic /j/-letter was an obvious choice. The Latin V was ambiguous, unlike the runic /u/-grapheme.  
> 
> Both the letter forms and phonetic facts can be used as evidence against monogenetic theories. There are many other alphabets derived mainly from Greek that also have a few letters of different origins, e.g. Coptic (DB 287), Armenian (DB 366) and Glagolitic (DB 347),  the script from which the Cyrillic was derived. 
> 
> 
> Braune, Wilhelm. 1981. Gotische Grammatik. Mit Lesestücken und Wörterverzeichnis.  19. Aufl., neu bearbeitet von Ernst A. Ebbinghaus. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Vlg. 
> 
> Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. 1996. The world's writing systems. NY and Oxford: OUP 1996. (=DB)
------
Alp_Arslan|989610469
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alp Arslan (1029–1072) was a sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]]. Under his command, Seljuk armies invaded Caucasus, annexed Syria, pushed the Shiite Fatimids from Middle East to Egypt and defeated the armies of Byzantine Empire Romanus IV at Manzikert on 1071. After Alp Arslan’s victories the balance in the near Asia changed completely in favour of Seljuk Turks and [[Sunni Muslims]]. Alp Arslan was murdered by an enemy soldier on the battlefield during a campaign. 
------
Alphabet|989610671
3c3
< The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC, and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
---
> The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
------
Early_Semitic_alphabet|989610691
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first partly alphabetic spellings can be found in the Middle Kingdom (Sass 26). According to Bauer (Coulmas 1998: 141) the Semites borrowed the principle of consonantal alphabetic orthography (Skoyles) from the Egyptians. Gardiner (1916, in Coulmas 1989: 140) and Praetorius (1916,  ibid.) saw the origin of the Semitic alphabets in the Cretan syllabaries (Linear A and B) and Cypriote syllabic writing. Sayce (1910, ebd.) was convinced that the Hittite script was the predecessor of Semitic writing. The most probable case, however, is an extensive Egyptian influence and a at least graphic influence from other sources.
>     In the beginning, the Semitic alphabets did not contain vowel graphemes. That is why some scholars see these alphabets as syllabaries (Gelb 147 ff., Powell 238 ff.). However, syllabaries consist of items that always designate a "consonant + vowel" or in some cases "vowel". Consonantal alphabets, on the other hand, only have signs that designate consonants. It is not clear why the Semites in the beginning did not designate vowels – some scholars claim that this has something to do with the paucity of vowels present in early Semitic (as in Classical Arabic), others state that the system of Semitic roots is the cause of this system: Daniels (DB 27) claims that "[t]he Semitic abjads do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic  very well". A syllabic system would not be fit for Semitic languages – due to the phonological properties of those languages. In Japanese, on the other hand, a consonant is always followed by a vowel, therefore syllabic writing is in a way more than fit for Japanese. The English word hotel for example is written as ho-te-ru and is also pronounced trisyllabically. Greek on the other hand is hard to write syllabically.  &#963;&#967;&#953;&#950;&#949;&#953;v for example would have to be written as *su-ki-ze-nu. Hence, the syllabic Linear B which was used by the Mycenaeans and was derived from the earlier Minoan system (Linear A) was a system that was not created for Greek, but for a still unknown language with a phonetic structure probably similar to Japanese. Miller (18 ff.) gives the following example:  Greek /p&#61512;ásgana/ was written as pa-ka-na (id. 19) in Linear B.  
------
Early_Semitic_alphabet|989610801
2c2,140
<     In the beginning, the Semitic alphabets did not contain vowel graphemes. That is why some scholars see these alphabets as syllabaries (Gelb 147 ff., Powell 238 ff.). However, syllabaries consist of items that always designate a "consonant + vowel" or in some cases "vowel". Consonantal alphabets, on the other hand, only have signs that designate consonants. It is not clear why the Semites in the beginning did not designate vowels – some scholars claim that this has something to do with the paucity of vowels present in early Semitic (as in Classical Arabic), others state that the system of Semitic roots is the cause of this system: Daniels (DB 27) claims that "[t]he Semitic abjads do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic  very well". A syllabic system would not be fit for Semitic languages – due to the phonological properties of those languages. In Japanese, on the other hand, a consonant is always followed by a vowel, therefore syllabic writing is in a way more than fit for Japanese. The English word hotel for example is written as ho-te-ru and is also pronounced trisyllabically. Greek on the other hand is hard to write syllabically.  &#963;&#967;&#953;&#950;&#949;&#953;v for example would have to be written as *su-ki-ze-nu. Hence, the syllabic Linear B which was used by the Mycenaeans and was derived from the earlier Minoan system (Linear A) was a system that was not created for Greek, but for a still unknown language with a phonetic structure probably similar to Japanese. Miller (18 ff.) gives the following example:  Greek /p&#61512;ásgana/ was written as pa-ka-na (id. 19) in Linear B.  
---
> 
> In the beginning, the Semitic alphabets did not contain vowel graphemes. That is why some scholars see these alphabets as syllabaries (Gelb 147 ff., Powell 238 ff.). However, syllabaries consist of items that always designate a "consonant + vowel" or in some cases "vowel". Consonantal alphabets, on the other hand, only have signs that designate consonants. It is not clear why the Semites in the beginning did not designate vowels – some scholars claim that this has something to do with the paucity of vowels present in early Semitic (as in Classical Arabic), others state that the system of Semitic roots is the cause of this system: Daniels (DB 27) claims that "[t]he Semitic abjads do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic  very well". A syllabic system would not be fit for Semitic languages – due to the phonological properties of those languages. In Japanese, on the other hand, a consonant is always followed by a vowel, therefore syllabic writing is in a way more than fit for Japanese. The English word hotel for example is written as ho-te-ru and is also pronounced trisyllabically. Greek on the other hand is hard to write syllabically.  Greek skhizein for example would have to be written as *su-ki-ze-nu. Hence, the syllabic Linear B which was used by the Mycenaeans and was derived from the earlier Minoan system (Linear A) was a system that was not created for Greek, but for a still unknown language with a phonetic structure probably similar to Japanese. Miller (18 ff.) gives the following example:  Greek /p_h_ásgana/ was written as pa-ka-na (id. 19) in Linear B.  
> 
> Barthel, Gustav. 1972. Konnte Adam schreiben? Weltgeschichte der Schrift. Von der Keilschrift zum Komputersatz. Schauberg, Köln: DuMont. 
> 
> Bernal, Martin. 1990. Cadmean letters. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 
> 
> Berry, Jack. 1977. "The 'Making of Alphabets' Revisited" In: Fishman 3-16. 
> 
> Bilder/Schriften/Alphabete. 1985. Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz. 3., erweiterte Auflage.
> 
> Bolognesi, Roberto. "Per un approccio sincronico alla linguistica e alla standardizzazione del sardo" http://www.condaghes.com/bolognesi.pdf [2.4.2001]
> 
> Bonfante, Larissa. 1996. "The scripts of Italy" In: Daniels/Bright S. 297-311.
> 
> Boüüaert, J. 1950. "Oorsprong en vorming van het gotisch alphabet" In: Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire No. 2, S. 423-437. 
> 
> Braune, Wilhelm. 1981. Gotische Grammatik. Mit Lesestücken und Wörterverzeichnis.  19. Aufl., neu bearbeitet von Ernst A. Ebbinghaus. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Vlg. 
> 
> Burnaby, Barbara. 1997. "Writing Systems and Orthographies" In: Edwards, Viv and David Corson (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education – Volume 2: Literacy. Dordrecht etc.: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.59-86. 
> 
> Corda, Francesco. 1994. Grammatica moderna del sardo logudorese. Con una proposta ortografica, elementi di metrica e un glossario. Cagliari: Edizioni Della Torre. 
> 
> Coulmas, Florian. 1989. The writing systems of the world. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
> -----. 1985. Sprache und Staat. Studien zur Sprachplanung. Berlin und NY: Walter de Gruyter. 
> -----. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopaedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 
> 
> Cristofani, Mauro (ed.)1993. Gli etruschi. Una nuova immagine. Firenze : Giunti.
> 
> Crystal, David. 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP. 
> 
> Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright. 1996. The world's writing systems. NY and Oxford: OUP 1996. (=DB)
> 
> Desbordes, François. 1990. Idées romaines sur l'écriture. Lille: Presses universitaires de Lille. 
> 
> Diringer, David. 1986. The Alphabet. A key to the history of mankind. 3rd. Ed . Vols. I and II. Completely revised. London : Hutchinson. 
> 
> Driver, G.R. 1976. Semitic Writing. From Pictograph to Alphabet. Newly revised edition. Oxford: OUP.
> 
> Dünser, Julian et al. 1997. Geschiedenis van het Nederlands http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/nl/
> 
> Ebbinghaus, Ernst. 1996. "The Gothic alphabet" In: Daniels/Bright 290-296. 
> -----.1997. "Wulfila's Script – Facts and Inferences" In: General Linguistics Vol. 35/ No. 1-4/ 1997. 
> 
> Elliott, Ralph W. "The runic script" In: Daniels/Bright S. 333-339.
> 
> Everson, Michael et al. [everson@egt.ie] 1997. "On the status of the Latin letter þorn and of its sorting order"  http://www.egt.ie/standards/iso10646/wynnyogh/thorn.html [25.3.2000]
> 
> Firmage, Richard A. 1993. The alphabet abecedarium. Some notes on letters. Boston: David R. Godine, Publisher. 
> 
> Fishman, Joshua A. (ed.) 1977. Advances in the Creation and Revision of Writing Systems. Den Haag: Mouton & Co. 
> 
> Franke, Michael. 1994. Wolof für den Senegal. Wort für Wort. Bielefeld: Rump. 
> 
> Geerts, G.; J. Van den Broeck and A. Verdoodt. 1977. "Successes and Failures in Dutch Spelling Reform" In: Fishman, p. 179-245.
> 
> Gelb, I.J. 1969 [1952] A study of writing. Chicago and London: The U of Chicago P.
> 
> Goody, Jack; Watt, Ian and Gough, Kathleen. 1986. Entstehung und Folgen der Schriftkultur. Übersetzt von Friedhelm Herborth. Mit einer Einleitung von Heinz Schlaffer. Frankfurt a.M. : Suhrkamp.[Titel der Originalausgabe: Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge: CUP 1968]
> 
> Gordon, A.E. 1973. The letter names of the Latin alphabet. Berkley, LA und London: U of California P. 
> 
> Gundersen, Dag. 1977. "Successes and Failures in the Reformation of Norwegian Orthography" In: Fishman 247-265. 
> 
> Harris-Northall, Ray. 1992. "Devoicing, deaffrication and word-final -z" In: Hispanic Linguistics 4:2 (Spring 1992)
> 
> Hooker, J.T. (introd.)  1990. Reading the past. Ancient writing from cuneiform to the alphabet. London: British Museum Press. 
> 
> Izady, Mehrdad R. "The Concise Encyclopædia of Kurdistan. A Pan-Kurdish Alphabet." http://www.kurdish.org
> 
> Jensen, Hans. 1970. Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Transl. of Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 1958, as revised by the author. 
> 
> Kaegi, Adolf. 1928. Kurzgefasste Griechische Schulgrammatik. 38. Aufl., besorgt von Ewald Bruhn. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. 
> 
> Katsikas, Sergios. "Probleme der neugriechischen Graphematik aus der Perspektive des Fremdsprachenlernens" In: Eichner et al. Sprachnormung und Sprachplanung. Festschrift für Otto Beck zum 70. Geburtstag. 2., verbesserte Auflage. Wien: Edition Praesens. P. 419-473. 
> 
> Kniesza, Veronika. 1997. "The Origins of Scots Orthography" In: Jones, Charles (ed.) The Edinburgh History of the Scots Language. Edinburgh UP. p. 24-46
> 
> Krause, Wolfgang. 1970. Runen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 
> 
> Lamer, Hans. In Verbindung mit Ernst Bux und Wilhelm Schöne. 1933. Wörterbuch der Antike mit Berücksichtigung ihres Fortwirkens. Leipzig: Alfred Kröner.
> 
> Marchand, James W. 1959. "Les Gots ont-ils vraiment connu l'écriture runique?" In: Mélanges de linguistique et de philologie. Fernand Mossé in memoriam. Paris: Didier. S. 277-291. 
> -----. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic Den Haag und Paris: Mouton. 
> 
> Meiser, Gerhard. 1998. Historische Laut- und Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache. Darmstadt : Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. 
> 
> Metzger, Daniel. 2000. "Das Internet lernt jetzt auch Chinesisch" In: Basler Zeitung Nr.279/29.11.2000
> 
> Miller, D. Gary. 1994. Ancient scripts and phonological knowledge. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 
> 
> N.N. "A Kurdish Unified Alphabet" http://www.humanrights.de/~kurdweb/kval/english/indexe.html
> Naveh, Joseph. 1979. Die Entstehung des Alphabets. Transl. of Origins of the Alphabet. Zürich und Köln. Benziger.
> -----. 1982. Early history of the alphabet. An introduction to West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University. Leiden: E. J. Brill
> 
> Odenstedt, Bengt. 1991. "A new theory on the origin of the runic script; Richard L. Morris's book Runic and Mediterranean epigraphy" In: Bammesberger S. 359-387.
> 
> Page, R.I. 1987. Runes. Berkeley and LA: U of California P. 
> 
> Pandolfini, Maristella and Aldo L. Prosdocimi. 1990. Alfabetari e insegnamento della scrittura in Etruria e nell'Italia antica. Firenze: Leo S. Olschki editore.
> 
> Paul, Ludwig. 1994. Kurdisch Wort für Wort. Kirmanci. Bielefeld: Rump. 
> 
> Pittau, Massimo. 1991. Grammatica della lingua sarda. Varietà logudorese. Sassari: Carlo Delfino editore. 
> 
> Powell, Barry B. 1991. Homer and the origin of the Greek alphabet. Cambridge: CUP. 
> 
> Pulur, U. 1996. Zazaki K&#305;rmanck&#305; D&#305;m&#305;lki Alfabe – Alphabet – Elfabe Elifba. &#304;stanbul: Kora Yay&#305;n.
> 
> Rabin, Chaim. 1977. "Spelling Reform – Israel 1986" In: Fishman, p. 149-176. 
> 
> Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi – Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
> 
> Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing systems. London (etc.): Hutchinson. 
> 
> Sass, Benjamin. 1991. Studia Alphabetica. On the origin and early history of the Northwest Semitic, South Semitic and Greek alphabets. CH-Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
> 
> Scragg, D.G. 1974. A History of English Spelling. MUP/Barnes & Noble. 
> 
> Seebold, Elmar. 1991. "Die Stellung der englischen Runen im Rahmen der Überlieferung des älteren Fuþark" In: Bammesberger S. 439-569. 
> 
> Skoyles, John R. 1977. The origin of Classical Greek culture: Hunter-gatherers of the alphabet. http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~skoyles/jsbs.htm
> 
> Swiggers, Pierre. 1996. "Transmission of the Phoenician script to the west" In: Daniels/Bright S.261-270.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
>  
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989611233
35c35,41
< ;:-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]].  
---
> ;:-)  I just keep imagining you cutting and pasting while chanting [[Koyaanisqatsi]]. 
> 
> ----
> 
> ''''''  :-) No, Koyaanisqatsi is just a movie I identify strongly with.  (I could have called myself the Bicycle Thief, but that sounds too much like a violation of the fifth amendment.)  I didn't go with my name because I'm an information junkie; as a result I've developed a great respect for privacy: once any bit of information is out in print or online, it can reproduced and collated infinitely, all without the careful judgment that typically goes with sharing some bit of information with a person, in person.  In the entry I wrote about Ingmar Bergman I wrote about the way he works because it is his work that I'm interested in; I expect to do the same for the other entries, though I would not mind if others added biographical details.  I personally tend to see them as relevant only when they've had an obvious effect on the work.
> 
> Anyway, right now, with just my name and the name of the town I live in, anyone can find out where I went to college, at least one genre of music I listen to, and what my positions on 3 specific controversial topics are, as well as which Political Action Committee I volunteered for and whose campaigns I've contributed to in the last 2 years (implying my position on quite a few more controversial topics).  One could also, going to the print version of some of the information about me online, discover that I maintain the website for a local independent newspaper which tends to have consistently firm and pronounced views on controversial issues--implying an endorsement of some or all of those views.  This amount of information is more than I would share with any stranger, so I find it disturbing that I've left it all out in the open where any stranger can discover it.  I don't mind being personable, I just feel that online people get lost among the data.  Suffice it to say I have no intention of becoming a celebrity.  :-D
------
Greek_alphabet|989611256
3c3,5
< The Greek alphabet was derived from the [[north semitic alphabet]], brought to [[Greece]] via [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] traders.  The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows:
---
> The Greek alphabet was derived from the [[north semitic alphabet]], brought to [[Greece]] via [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] traders. The fact that the Greek alphabet derives from an earlier Semitic script is uncontested, the exact source(s) of the Greek alphabet are however controversial. Sass (94) mentions the Proto-Canaanite and the Phoenician scripts, Coulmas (1989: 142) and Naveh (1979: 55) mention only the Phoenician alphabet. 
>     
>   The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows:
34c36
< The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact every alphabet that contains vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet [[matres lectionis]] were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels. 
---
> The most notable change is the introduction of vowels, without which Greek - unlike Phoenician - would be unintelligible.  In fact many alphabets that contain vowels, notably the [[Roman alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]], is derived ultimately from Greek.  (For alphabets with signs solely used to designate vowels NOT derived from the Greek, see [[Old Turkic alphabet]], [[Ethiopic alphabet]] [[Indic alphabets]] [[Old Hungarian alphabet]]) The first vowels were alpha, epsilon, iota, omicron, and upsilon (copied from waw), modifications of either glides or breathing marks, which were mostly superfluous in Greek.  In eastern Greek, which lacked breaths entirely, the letter eta was also used for a long e, and eventually the letter omega was introduced for a long o. Vowels were originally not used in Semitic alphabets, but even in the very old Ugaritic alphabet [[matres lectionis]] were used, i.e. consonant signs were used to denote vowels. 
36c38,40
< Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  The consonants were to mainly to make up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician.  In west Greek, actually, chi was used for (k+s) and psi for (k+h) - hence the value of our letter x, derived from chi.  Over the middle ages these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for (th), (f), and (kh). The origin of those letters is disputed (internal, Semitic or Linear B). 
---
> Greek also introduced three new consonants, appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed.  The consonants were to mainly to make up for the lack of aspirates in Phoenician.  In west Greek, actually, chi was used for /ks/ and psi for /k_h/ - hence the value of our letter x, derived from chi.  Over the middle ages these aspirates disappeared, so now theta, phi, and chi stand for /T/, /f/, and /x/. The origin of those letters is disputed: According to Miller (53), the &#936;-form kappa comes from the Proto-Canaanite. Kappa probably stood for /k/ as well as  /k_h/ in early Greek orthography. Later on, the K-like kap was re-borrowed from Phoenician, in order to distinguish /k/ from /k_h/ graphemically (ibid.). Today the sign &#936; stands for /ps/, whereas X symbolizes /x/ that developed from the aspirated velar stop. Ypsilon, too, was re-borrowed from Phoenician, digamma (F) thus is the same letter, simply based on an earlier form (id. 45). Some sources however see &#936; as a real Greek innovation that has no Semitic predecessor. Jensen (426) on the other hand links psi to Y and qoppa/phi and Safatenic letters (Jensen 463).
>     Other Greek letters of disputed origin are X (Chi), &#934; (Phi)  and san.  Bernal (116) and Brixhe (336) assume that qoppa originally symbolized /k_w, k_w_h, g_w/ in Greek. Those phonemes fell together with /p, p_h, b/  – qoppa soon became  superfluous. Since pi was the letter for both the aspirated and the non-aspirated phonemes, qoppa came to be the letter that symbolized the aspirated sound. – This theory is highly controversial, there are however parallels to this process: the modern sound value of Castilian <z> is explained by the phonetic change from /dz/ over /ts/ to /&#952;/.  Other scholars claim that phi is an original Greek invention. Sampson (102) maintains that thêta (Jensen 462) is the origin of the letter, and Swiggers (265) assumes that the letter is of Cypro-Minoan origin. 
>     Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi – as the Semitic letter – stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
42a47,53
> 
> 
> The Greeks were the first people who generalized the alphabetic designation of vowels. They probably did so unconsciously, but opinions on this topic are characterized by great dissension. It is not clear whether Greeks and Semites made the distinction between vowels and consonants the same way present western civilization does. Bernal (128) mentions Phoenician colonization of Greece: bilingualism was probably rather frequent – also for economic reasons. Without communication, there is no commerce. This in turn seems to imply that – as in the case of other alphabets – primarily bilingual or multilingual people are those who adapt alphabets. The Greek alphabet is probably not the result of a unique and isolated adoption, but a multi-layered process based on several Semitic alphabets. Other scripts – Miller (52) even mentions graphic Linear B influence – may also have played a part. 
> Maybe it is also necessary to examine whether Greeks and Phoenicians made the same distinctions between different Semitic languages that scholars make today. 
> 
> (see [Early Semitic alphabets for bibliography]]
> 
------
Greek_alphabet|989611314
52c52
< (see [Early Semitic alphabets for bibliography]]
---
> (see [[Early Semitic alphabets]] for bibliography)
------
Greek_alphabet|989611370
52c52
< (see [[Early Semitic alphabets]] for bibliography)
---
> (see [[Early Semitic alphabet]] for bibliography)
------
Greek_alphabet|989611434
39,40c39,41
<     Other Greek letters of disputed origin are X (Chi), &#934; (Phi)  and san.  Bernal (116) and Brixhe (336) assume that qoppa originally symbolized /k_w, k_w_h, g_w/ in Greek. Those phonemes fell together with /p, p_h, b/  – qoppa soon became  superfluous. Since pi was the letter for both the aspirated and the non-aspirated phonemes, qoppa came to be the letter that symbolized the aspirated sound. – This theory is highly controversial, there are however parallels to this process: the modern sound value of Castilian <z> is explained by the phonetic change from /dz/ over /ts/ to /&#952;/.  Other scholars claim that phi is an original Greek invention. Sampson (102) maintains that thêta (Jensen 462) is the origin of the letter, and Swiggers (265) assumes that the letter is of Cypro-Minoan origin. 
<     Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi – as the Semitic letter – stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
---
> 
> Other Greek letters of disputed origin are X (Chi), &#934; (Phi)  and san.  Bernal (116) and Brixhe (336) assume that qoppa originally symbolized /k_w, k_w_h, g_w/ in Greek. Those phonemes fell together with /p, p_h, b/  ? qoppa soon became  superfluous. Since pi was the letter for both the aspirated and the non-aspirated phonemes, qoppa came to be the letter that symbolized the aspirated sound. ? This theory is highly controversial, there are however parallels to this process: the modern sound value of Castilian <z> is explained by the phonetic change from /dz/ over /ts/ to /&#952;/.  Other scholars claim that phi is an original Greek invention. Sampson (102) maintains that thêta (Jensen 462) is the origin of the letter, and Swiggers (265) assumes that the letter is of Cypro-Minoan origin. 
>     Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi ? as the Semitic letter ? stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
49c50
< The Greeks were the first people who generalized the alphabetic designation of vowels. They probably did so unconsciously, but opinions on this topic are characterized by great dissension. It is not clear whether Greeks and Semites made the distinction between vowels and consonants the same way present western civilization does. Bernal (128) mentions Phoenician colonization of Greece: bilingualism was probably rather frequent – also for economic reasons. Without communication, there is no commerce. This in turn seems to imply that – as in the case of other alphabets – primarily bilingual or multilingual people are those who adapt alphabets. The Greek alphabet is probably not the result of a unique and isolated adoption, but a multi-layered process based on several Semitic alphabets. Other scripts – Miller (52) even mentions graphic Linear B influence – may also have played a part. 
---
> The Greeks were the first people who generalized the alphabetic designation of vowels. They probably did so unconsciously, but opinions on this topic are characterized by great dissension. It is not clear whether Greeks and Semites made the distinction between vowels and consonants the same way present western civilization does. Bernal (128) mentions Phoenician colonization of Greece: bilingualism was probably rather frequent ? also for economic reasons. Without communication, there is no commerce. This in turn seems to imply that ? as in the case of other alphabets ? primarily bilingual or multilingual people are those who adapt alphabets. The Greek alphabet is probably not the result of a unique and isolated adoption, but a multi-layered process based on several Semitic alphabets. Other scripts ? Miller (52) even mentions graphic Linear B influence ? may also have played a part. 
------
SandBox|989611519
59c59
< �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
62c62
< � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
208a209,212
> 
> ----
> people wishing to put a smiley at the beginning of the line, rather than having an indented cyclops, see below:
> '''''' :-)
------
SandBox|989611539
211a212
> 
------
Greek_alphabet|989611558
7,14c7,14
<  '''Letter'''   '''Name'''    '''Sound'''   '''Value'''   '''Semitic letter'''
<   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (')
<   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth
<   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel
<   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth
<   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h)
<   F       Waw       w       6        Waw
<   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain
---
>  '''Letter'''   '''Name'''    '''Sound'''   '''Value'''   '''Semitic letter''' 
>   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (') SAMPA: /?/
>   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth /b/
>   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel /g/
>   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth /d/
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h) /h/
>   F       Waw       w       6        Waw /w/
>   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain /dz/
17,21c17,21
<   &Iota; &iota;     Iota      i       10       Yodh (y)
<   &Kappa; &kappa;     Kappa     k       20       Kaph
<   &Lambda; &lambda;     Lambda    l       30       Lamed
<   &Mu; &mu;     Mu        m       40       Mem
<   &Nu; &nu;     Nu        n       50       Nun
---
>   &Iota; &iota;     Iota      i       10       Yodh (y) /j/
>   &Kappa; &kappa;     Kappa     k       20       Kaph /k/
>   &Lambda; &lambda;     Lambda    l       30       Lamed /l/
>   &Mu; &mu;     Mu        m       40       Mem /m/
>   &Nu; &nu;     Nu        n       50       Nun /n/
24,29c24,29
<   &Pi; &pi;     Pi        p       80       Pe
<   M       San       s       900      Sade (s*)
<   Q       Qoppa     q       90       Qoph
<   &Rho; &rho;     Rho       r       100      Resh
<   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;   Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh)
<   &Tau; &tau;     Tau       t       300      Tav
---
>   &Pi; &pi;     Pi        p       80       Pe /p/
>   M       San       s       900      Sade (s*) /ts/
>   Q       Qoppa     q       90       Qoph /q/
>   &Rho; &rho;     Rho       r       100      Resh /r/
>   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;   Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh) /S/
>   &Tau; &tau;     Tau       t       300      Taw /t/
------
Language|989611604
47a48,50
> 
> For accurate transcription, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm
> 
------
Greek_alphabet|989611746
41c41,42
<     Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi ? as the Semitic letter ? stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
---
> 
> Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi ? as the Semitic letter ? stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
------
Tifinagh|989611773
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The alphabet of the Berbers. It clearly has different sources (O'Connor 112), probably Punic and Northern Arabic scripts, while at the same time being very innovative. 
------
Language|989611894
1c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called formal languages and [[programming language]]s, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature.
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called formal languages and [[programming language]]s, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: discreteness. 
------
Iberian_alphabet|989611978
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swiggers (111) assumes that the Iberic scripts are the result of a fusion of the Punic and Greek alphabetic traditions. The fact that the Iberian scripts are both alphabetic and syllabic is probably due to the nature of Iberian phonology. There are, as a matter of fact, "pro-Greek and pro-Semitic camps" (Daniels/Bright 110). 
------
Romansh|989612210
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rumantsch (Romansh) is a term that covers various Gallo-Romance languages spoken in Switzerland. They are closely related to other Gallo-Romance idioms spoken in Italy, Switzerland and France. Rumantsch was standardized in the last century. On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all odd-looking spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e, i/ have <tg>  (tgirar) instead of <ch>. Words with /c/ followed by /a, o, u/ have <ch> (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with <c->. At the same time, che and chi are – due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" – pronounced /ke/ and /ki/. <k> on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.  Schwa, however, is represented by <e> in RG which makes it closer to German, as does the use of <sch> for both /S/ and /Z/ and <tsch> for /tS/. 
> On the other hand, the fact that there is no <ü, ö> in RG may not only be due to the lack of /y/ and /2/ in most Romansh idioms, but also to the graphic form which is seen as non-Romance. This also shows that it is not always phonetics that leads to the adoption of a new grapheme, but sometimes also the lack of a grapheme that leads to a certain phonetic shape of the standard. All in all, RG spelling is a compromise between Romance (Italian, French) and Germanic (German) spelling. 
------
Romansh|989612956
1c1
< Rumantsch (Romansh) is a term that covers various Gallo-Romance languages spoken in Switzerland. They are closely related to other Gallo-Romance idioms spoken in Italy, Switzerland and France. Rumantsch was standardized in the last century. On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all odd-looking spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e, i/ have <tg>  (tgirar) instead of <ch>. Words with /c/ followed by /a, o, u/ have <ch> (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with <c->. At the same time, che and chi are – due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" – pronounced /ke/ and /ki/. <k> on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.  Schwa, however, is represented by <e> in RG which makes it closer to German, as does the use of <sch> for both /S/ and /Z/ and <tsch> for /tS/. 
---
> Rumantsch (Romansh) is a term that covers various Gallo-Romance languages spoken in Switzerland. They are closely related to other Gallo-Romance idioms spoken in Italy, Switzerland and France.  Rumantsch was standardized in the last century. On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all odd-looking spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e, i/ have <tg>  (tgirar) instead of <ch>. Words with /c/ followed by /a, o, u/ have <ch> (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with <c->. At the same time, che and chi are – due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" – pronounced /ke/ and /ki/. <k> on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.  Schwa, however, is represented by <e> in RG which makes it closer to German, as does the use of <sch> for both /S/ and /Z/ and <tsch> for /tS/. 
2a3,4
> 
> See [[Language and dialect]]
------
Language_and_dialect|989613149
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> 
> "La linguistica odierna sa che lo statuto di lingua non viene determinato soltanto da criteri linguistici, bensì è anche il risultato di uno sviluppo storico e politico. Il romancio si è imposto in diversi campi come lingua scritta, diventando così, malgrado una parentela a volte stretta con i dialetti lombardi alpini, una lingua a sé stante." (G 13)
> Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary languages, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
> 
> Gross, Manfred, Bernard Cathomas e Jean-Jacques Furer. 1996. RETOROMANCIO Facts & Figures Coira: Lia Rumantscha. (=G)
------
Robert_Rodriguez|989613974
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (Partly?) Mexican American director who debuted with the short film "Bedhead" and after that went on to direct the - according to legend - 700 $ action flick "El mariachi" in Spanish, inspired by [[John Woo]] films. Rodriguez later stated that after seeing those cool Asian heroes, he wanted to make a film with a Latino hero. And that's what he did, with much corazón, so to say, meaning lots of heart and humour as well as violence. His next film was "Desperado", a sequel of "El mariachi" starring Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek. He crossovered into the horror genre with "From Dusk Till Dawn" and re-wrote "The Invasion of the Body Snatchers" with his awesome teenager horror sci-fi flick "The Faculty". 
------
Stone,_Paper,_Scissors|989615815
29a30,33
> 
> <h2>Modification - Addition</h2>
> 
> Sometimes, a well is added to the game. The index finger and the thumb form a horizontal "o" and the other fingers follow the index finger. The well can be coverd by the paper but a stone and scissors fall into it.
------
Greek_alphabet|989615841
5c5
<   The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows:
---
> The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows (values transcribed according to [[SAMPA]]):
8c8
<   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (') SAMPA: /?/
---
>   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (') /?/
------
Wathiik|989615973
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hey, just wanted to welcome you to [[Wikipedia]] and thank you especially for your changes to [[Greek alphabet]].
------
Adolf_Hitler|989616005
1c1
< Adolf Hitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the state of Upper [[Austria]] (''Oberoesterreich'') on the Austro/German border.
---
> Adolf Hitler was born on April 20th 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a small town in the state of Upper [[Austria]] (''Oberösterreich'') on the Austro/German border.
11c11
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
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Swiss_cheese|989616734
2a3,58
> 
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> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
> 
> 
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> 
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> 
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> 
> 
> 
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> 
> 
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------
Language|989617235
49,50c49,50
< For accurate transcription, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm
< 
---
> For accurate transcription, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm----
> I call that opinion. Accurate according to whom. Yes the IPA is accurate, and perhaps there should be a link to it here. But, Samba is surely counter-intuitive and hardly the only choice for transcription or even computer transcription.
------
Robert_Rodriguez|989619992
1c1,3
< (Partly?) Mexican American director who debuted with the short film "Bedhead" and after that went on to direct the - according to legend - 700 $ action flick "El mariachi" in Spanish, inspired by [[John Woo]] films. Rodriguez later stated that after seeing those cool Asian heroes, he wanted to make a film with a Latino hero. And that's what he did, with much corazón, so to say, meaning lots of heart and humour as well as violence. His next film was "Desperado", a sequel of "El mariachi" starring Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek. He crossovered into the horror genre with "From Dusk Till Dawn" and re-wrote "The Invasion of the Body Snatchers" with his awesome teenager horror sci-fi flick "The Faculty". 
---
> (Partly?) Mexican American director who debuted with the short film "Bedhead" and after that went on to direct the - according to legend - 700 $ action flick "El mariachi" in Spanish, inspired by [[John Woo]] films. Rodriguez later stated that after seeing those cool Asian heroes, he wanted to make a film with a Latino hero. And that's what he did, with much corazón, so to say, meaning lots of heart and humour as well as violence. His next film was "Desperado", a sequel of "El mariachi" starring Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek. He crossed over into the horror genre with "From Dusk Till Dawn" and re-wrote "The Invasion of the Body Snatchers" with his awesome teenager horror sci-fi flick "The Faculty". 
> 
> ''Is this $700 figure right?  I remember seeing a figure around $10,000.  Which seems more likely for the making of an ultr-low budget film, but absolutely unlikely if we are to believe that the film's principal financing came from Robert Rodriguez' plasma.
------
Stone,_Paper,_Scissors|989620030
21c21
< Optimal play (according to [[game theory]]) is a simple matter of selecting randomly, and so the game may be considered trivial in that sense.  But "optimal" in this sense means only incapable of being defeated more than expected by chance, while it does ''not'' imply that the random strategy is best at taking advantage of a suboptimal opponent.  In fact, if the opponent is human, it is almost certain that he playes suboptimally and that a modified strategy can exploit that weakness.  This is easily demonstrated by [http://chappie.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/roshambot Roshambot], a computer program that handily defeats most human players.
---
> Strategy between human players obviously involves using psychology to attempt to predict or influence opponent behavior.  It is considered acceptable to use deceptive speech ("I'm going to play a rock") to influence your opponent.
23c23
< University of Alberta Ph.D. student and [[poker]] player Darse Billings organizes a [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~darse/rsbpc.html computer Roshambo competition] to explore these possibilities, and their application to computer game play in other fields (notably poker, in which exploiting an opponent's non-random behavior is an important part of strategy).
---
> Mathematically optimal play (according to [[game theory]]) is a simple matter of selecting randomly, and so the game may be considered trivial in that sense when played in a way that eliminates psychology, as with a computer.  But "optimal" in this sense means only "incapable of being defeated more than expected by chance", while it does ''not'' imply that the random strategy is best at taking advantage of a suboptimal opponent.  In fact, if the opponent is human or a non-random program, it is almost certain that he playes suboptimally and that a modified strategy can exploit that weakness.  This is easily demonstrated by [http://chappie.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/roshambot Roshambot], a computer program that handily defeats most human players.  University of Alberta Ph.D. student and [[poker]] player Darse Billings organizes a [http://www.cs.ualberta.ca/~darse/rsbpc.html computer Roshambo competition] to explore these possibilities, and their application to computer game play in other fields (notably poker, in which exploiting an opponent's non-random behavior is an important part of strategy).
31c31
< <h2>Modification - Addition</h2>
---
> <h2>Variations</h2>
33c33
< Sometimes, a well is added to the game. The index finger and the thumb form a horizontal "o" and the other fingers follow the index finger. The well can be coverd by the paper but a stone and scissors fall into it.
---
> Players often add other "weapons" to the game on a ad-hoc basis, but it is very likely that this will result in an unbalanced game.  In particular, four (or any even number) of weapons cannot be made balanced; there will always be some weapons that will be superior to others.  It also loses some of the esthetic simplicity of the game, which is otherwise one of the simplest possible games of skill.
------
Robert_Rodriguez|989620069
3c3
< ''Is this $700 figure right?  I remember seeing a figure around $10,000.  Which seems more likely for the making of an ultr-low budget film, but absolutely unlikely if we are to believe that the film's principal financing came from Robert Rodriguez' plasma.
---
> <i>Is this $700 figure right?  I remember seeing a figure around $10,000.  Which seems more likely for the making of an ultra-low budget film, but absolutely unlikely if we are to believe that the film's principal financing came from Robert Rodriguez' plasma.--KoyaanisQatsi</i>
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989620463
39c39
< ''''''  :-) No, Koyaanisqatsi is just a movie I identify strongly with.  (I could have called myself the Bicycle Thief, but that sounds too much like a violation of the fifth amendment.)  I didn't go with my name because I'm an information junkie; as a result I've developed a great respect for privacy: once any bit of information is out in print or online, it can reproduced and collated infinitely, all without the careful judgment that typically goes with sharing some bit of information with a person, in person.  In the entry I wrote about Ingmar Bergman I wrote about the way he works because it is his work that I'm interested in; I expect to do the same for the other entries, though I would not mind if others added biographical details.  I personally tend to see them as relevant only when they've had an obvious effect on the work.
---
> ''''''  :-) No, Koyaanisqatsi is just a movie I identify strongly with.  (I could have called myself the Bicycle Thief, but that sounds too much like a violation of the fifth amendment.)  ;-)  I didn't go with my name because I'm an information junkie; as a result I've developed a great respect for privacy: once any bit of information is out in print or online, it can reproduced and collated infinitely, all without the careful judgment that typically goes with sharing some bit of information with a person, in person.  In the entry I wrote about Ingmar Bergman, I wrote about the way he works because it is his work that I'm interested in; I expect to do the same for the other entries, though I would not mind if others added biographical details.  I personally tend to see them as relevant only when they've had an obvious effect on the work.
41c41
< Anyway, right now, with just my name and the name of the town I live in, anyone can find out where I went to college, at least one genre of music I listen to, and what my positions on 3 specific controversial topics are, as well as which Political Action Committee I volunteered for and whose campaigns I've contributed to in the last 2 years (implying my position on quite a few more controversial topics).  One could also, going to the print version of some of the information about me online, discover that I maintain the website for a local independent newspaper which tends to have consistently firm and pronounced views on controversial issues--implying an endorsement of some or all of those views.  This amount of information is more than I would share with any stranger, so I find it disturbing that I've left it all out in the open where any stranger can discover it.  I don't mind being personable, I just feel that online people get lost among the data.  Suffice it to say I have no intention of becoming a celebrity.  :-D
---
> Anyway, right now, with just my name and the name of the town I live in, anyone can find out where I went to college, at least one genre of music I listen to, and what my positions on 3 specific controversial topics are, as well as which Political Action Committee I volunteered for and whose campaigns I've contributed to in the last 2 years (implying my position on quite a few more controversial topics).  One could also, going to the print version of some of the information about me online, discover that I maintain the website for a local independent newspaper which tends to have consistently firm and pronounced views on controversial issues--implying an endorsement of some or all of those views.  This amount of information is more than I would share with any stranger, so I find it disturbing that I've left it all out in the open where any stranger can discover it.  I don't mind being personable, I just feel that online, people get lost among the data.  Suffice it to say I have no intention of becoming a celebrity.  :-D
------
My_Fair_Lady|989621686
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Film version of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s [[Pygmalion]], directed by [[George Cukor]].  An arrogant, irascible professor of [[phonetics]] finds an impoverished young woman selling flowers and boasts to a newly met companion, also a professor of phonetics, that he could train her to speak so "properly" that he could pass her off as a duchess.  The woman finds the professor's house and offers to pay the professor to hold to his word so that she could get a better job.  Stars [[Audrey Hepburn]] and [[Rex Harrison]]; the film ranked #91 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 Years, 100 Movies.
------
Film_Directors|989621761
10a11
> :[[George Cukor]]
------
Film|989621991
3c3
< :[[Film History]]
---
> :[[Academy Awards]]
4a5,7
> :[[Film Festivals]]
> :[[Film Genres]]
> :[[Film History]]
7,8d9
< :[[Film Festivals]]
< :[[Academy Awards]]
10d10
< :[[Film Genres]]
------
American_Film_Institute|989622794
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An independent non-profit organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in 1965 when President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.  The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures, as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its film stock.  Contrary to its title, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]].  The American Film Institute can be found online at [[http://www.afionline.org/]].
------
American_Film_Institute|989622866
1c1
< An independent non-profit organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in 1965 when President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.  The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures, as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its film stock.  Contrary to its title, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]].  The American Film Institute can be found online at [[http://www.afionline.org/]].
---
> An independent non-profit organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in 1965 when President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.  The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures, as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its film stock.  Contrary to its title, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]].  The American Film Institute can be found online at http://www.afionline.org/
------
United_States/President|989623704
58a59,62
> ----
> The info at that site seems to come from copyrighted sources.  information here: http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/copyright.html
> 
> I can find no link between that address and http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/, however they are in the same folder and clearly contain information on the same subjects mentioned in the book on the U.S. presidents.  The info above may fall under the [[Feist v. Rural]] decision, i.e. that factual information, even in collections, in many instances is not copyrightable.  I guess the question would be whether any of the "expressive" content of the author is present here; you should probably ask [[Lee Daniel Crocker]], as it seems to be an area he's knowledgeable in.
------
My_Fair_Lady|989623951
1c1
< Film version of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s [[Pygmalion]], directed by [[George Cukor]].  An arrogant, irascible professor of [[phonetics]] finds an impoverished young woman selling flowers and boasts to a newly met companion, also a professor of phonetics, that he could train her to speak so "properly" that he could pass her off as a duchess.  The woman finds the professor's house and offers to pay the professor to hold to his word so that she could get a better job.  Stars [[Audrey Hepburn]] and [[Rex Harrison]]; the film ranked #91 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 Years, 100 Movies.
---
> '''My Fair Lady''' is a musical play by Lerner and Loewe, later made into a film directed by [[George Cukor]], of [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s [[Pygmalion]].  An arrogant, irascible professor of [[phonetics]] finds an impoverished young woman selling flowers and boasts to a newly met companion, also a professor of phonetics, that he could train her to speak so "properly" that he could pass her off as a duchess.  The woman finds the professor's house and offers to pay the professor to hold to his word so that she could get a better job.  Stars [[Audrey Hepburn]] and [[Rex Harrison]]; the film ranked #91 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 Years, 100 Movies.
------
Television/Talk|989627892
13,15c13,15
< I'll leave the section on the previous page as a monument to the callousness of whoever put it there.  And, thanks for correcting the typos, but try a little harder, will you?
< <hr>
< oooooooh!
---
> ----
> 
> Interesting stuff, I guess.  [[JamieTheFoool]] has a point in that it falls off at the end, though. (View other revisions if you care to see the last lines).
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|989628569
38a39,43
> 
> ----
> You've been keeping me honest, I see.  So far you've corrected one "egregious" assumption I made (Copyright/Berne Convention) as well as an omission (My Fair Lady) and a misremembrance (Computer Mouse/trackball).  Point taken, even if you didn't mean one.  :-)  In future I'll be more careful.
> 
> I do admire your arguments in re: intellectual property quite a lot.  (But at present I can't find the link, I'm afraid.) --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Cecil_B._Demille|989631255
1c1
< One of the most successful filmmakers during the first half of the 20th century.  He Directed hundreds of silent shorts before coming into huge popularity during the 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as "Don't Change Your Husband" (1919), "The Ten Commandments" (1923), and "The King of Kings" (1927).  While he condintued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film "The Ten Commandments" (very different from his 1923 film by the same title).
---
> One of the most successful filmmakers during the first half of the 20th century.  He directed hundreds of silent shorts before coming into huge popularity during the 1920s, when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as "Don't Change Your Husband" (1919), "The Ten Commandments" (1923), and "The King of Kings" (1927).  While he condintued to be prolific throughout the 1930s and 1940s, he is probably best known for his 1956 film "The Ten Commandments" (which is very different from his 1923 film by the same title).
------
James_Cameron|989631406
0a1,2
> American film director noted for his science fiction/action films, as well as the remarkable results he gets from his FX crews, especially in The Terminator 1 and 2, as well as Titanic.
> 
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Who_Is_Francisco_dAnconia|989631830
5,174d4
< Ayn Rand was always in love with Frank O'Connor. Even during her
< passionate intellectual and sexual involvement with Nathaniel Branden,
< Frank O'Connor was always Ayn Rand's great lover.
< 
< As is frequent among actors, Frank O'Connor's personality was bland, a
< blank canvas on which to paint his roles. His roles were of men born
< to pleasure. Frank could stand in rags on a garbage dump and look like
< he belonged in a ballroom. Ayn Rand was in love, not so much with
< Frank O'Connor himself, as with the roles he could play. And she wrote
< roles for him into every one of her books.
< 
< At first, it was easy for Ayn Rand to write Frank O'Connor into her
< books. Frank had been born for the role of Lolya, Alissa Rosenbaum's
< first lover, Leo of "We the Living", aristocratic, tragic, Dionysian
< and Nitzschean. Unity5-3000, of Anthem, stands above the crowd in both
< features and stature.
< 
< With "The Fountainhead", putting Frank into the novel became more
< difficult. Ayn Rand was writing about "a man of self-made soul", so it
< was necessary that Howard Roark come from nowhere, and Frank's
< aristocratic presence was the opposite of that. To fit Frank O'Connor
< into The Fountainhead Ayn Rand had to give Gail Wynand, also a
< self-made man and therefore of proletarian birth, an obscure
< aristocratic ancestry. As it turned out, Gail Wynand's tragic
< character flaws were beyond Frank O'Connor's acting range, and Frank
< missed out on the only role he could have had in Ayn Rand's film.
< 
< John Galt, in "Atlas Shrugged", was a follow-up on Howard Roark, and
< had to come out of noplace for the same reason. But the plot required
< that Galt stay under cover for the first two-thirds of the book. The
< male lead would be there the whole time. It would be a man moving in
< the same social circles as Dagny Taggart, so an aristocrat was a
< plausible choice. Ayn Rand would write Frank O'Connor into the role of
< his lifetime. And she would make sure that the male lead bore some
< variation on Frank's name.
< 
< Ayn Rand's Father
< 
< The idea of the "Secret Striker" in the midst of Dagny's circle had,
< as its essential figure, a man of singular ability to create wealth,
< compelled by a crazy world to refrain from exercising that ability. At
< some point, Ayn Rand realized that she knew the character of such as
< man from her own life: her father.
< 
< Educated in chemistry and working in pharmacy, Ayn Rand's father made
< his own way to Saint Petersburg, a city hundreds of versts beyond the
< Pale, where no Jew was permitted to live unless he paid bribes greater
< than the entire income of an ordinary man. Rosenbaum was wealthy
< enough to settle his family in a Crimean resort for the duration of
< the Russian Civil War. Then, after returning to Saint Petersburg,
< Alissa Rosenbaum's father became, in words remembered by Nathaniel
< Branden in Judgement Day, "unable to adapt, a self-made man now in an
< impossible situation."
< 
< Alissa had no understanding of her father's character and predicament
< until decades after she left home. Alissa was fascinated by
< aristocracy, by men who believed themselves entitled, by birth, to a
< life of pleasure and privilege - proper Nitzscheans, who had no qualms
< taxing and terrorizing lesser beings into paying for the life of
< pleasure that the aristocrat considered his birthright. Alissa's
< father, who insisted that good life was to be earned by effort and
< reason, was a living demonstration of what effort and reason led to in
< a tragic world: a former industrialist living with his family in a
< tenement room that smelled of their neighbors' cabbage.
< 
< An essential part of Rosenbaum's character was that he was an
< alienated Jew, who saw in Communism the fulfillment of Russia's
< Christian mysticism, of its insane cult of sacrifice, flagellation and
< selflessness. He was a Jew who had lived by the creed of Sanhedrin 4:5
< - (Every man and every woman should say to himself or herself every
< day,) "The world was created for my sake" - and he saw his world
< destroyed by the demented opposite of that creed, by the altruist's
< belief that the world existed for everyone's sake except one's own.
< Ayn Rand's challenge was to create a figure who was, simultaneously,
< that alienated Jewish intellectual, and a man of natural joy, an
< aristocrat whom Frank O'Connor could credibly play.
< 
< The Jewish Grandees
< 
< Until modern times, there were no Jewish aristocrats in Christendom,
< and New Money just didn't look like Frank O'Connor. There was only one
< exception: under Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal, a small number of
< wealthy Jewish families had been promoted into the aristocracy. During
< the expulsion of 1492, most of these families chose to convert to
< Christianity rather than leave their estates. After that they
< practiced Christianity in the open and Judaism in secret. The primary
< job of the Inquisition was to investigate these "New Christians" and
< test the sincerity of their conversion. The method was to torture
< suspects until, guilty or not, they confessed. They were then burnt at
< the stake. At this point, the Inquisitors believed, the sincere
< Christians among them will have been done the favor of being sent to
< the Bosom of Christ, while the secret Jews were expedited to "their
< father the Devil".
< 
< To Jews living despised and discouraged in northern and eastern
< Europe, Sepharadim - former Spanish Jews - had the status of a mythic
< aristocracy, even those of them whose families were not particularly
< distinguished in Spain itself. The highest cachet was attached to
< descendants of former conversos who had fled from the Inquisition - to
< Netherlands, England, Italy, South and North America - and resumed the
< practice of Judaism once they were free. In their history, Ayn Rand
< found the fusion she was looking for: Jew, aristocrat, hero. That hero
< still needed a business and a name.
< 
< Anaconda, D'Ancona, D'Anconia
< 
< The secret striker for the plot of Atlas Shrugged needed a business
< that had to be deliberately destroyed, and not just cease to function
< when abandoned, like a railroad or a factory. Mineral mines, located
< to bring their owner to New York (where the plot has him meet Dagny,
< American businessmen, and American socialites) suggested South
< American copper. The main company mining South American copper was
< Anaconda, which sounds like an anagram of D'Ancona, the family name of
< a distinguished line of Jewish Mediterranean intellectuals and
< businessmen with several entries in the Encyclopedia Judaica. The
< family looks of the D'Anconas are reminiscent of ancient Roman
< nobility, and Ayn Rand first saw Frank O'Connor in the role of a Roman
< centurion in "King of Kings".
< 
< The name D'Ancona sounded aristocratic enough (although in fact it
< wasn't) and familiar to educated Jews, and yet not common enough to be
< readily identified as Jewish by the typical non-Jewish reader. Ayn
< Rand, at that point in her life, was beginning to write for Nathaniel
< Branden, and for "the Collective", and may have enjoyed putting in a
< secret gimmick just for her friends. Ancona, though, was a city in
< Italy, not Spain, and Rand put in an "i", perhaps because she thought
< "D'Anconia" sounded Spanish. It doesn't - to the Spanish ear
< "D'Anconia" still sounds Italian - but the Mediterranean is a small
< sea, and "Francisco D'Anconia" had the right ring to Ayn's ear.
< 
< A Grandee's Hannukah
< 
< Atlas Shrugged begins on September 2. One learns from Dagny's
< flashbacks that Francisco's ancestor Sebastian had been a Spanish
< aristocrat who fled from the Inquisition to the New World. This, and
< the fact that he first established himself in Argentina, and only then
< sent for his beloved - as so many Jewish immigrants to the New World
< had done, well into the twentieth century - is a hint, to be confirmed
< when we meet Francisco in person. By then it is the start of winter:
< "A few snowflakes came down, past the dark windows of empty stores, to
< melt in the mud of the sidewalks." Hannukah time.
< 
< "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia sat on the floor,
< playing marbles." Playing a child's game on the floor is a celebration
< of the Maccabee revolt. The Maccabees were guerillas, and chose
< carefully the few battles they fought. They hid for years in caves and
< wadis, and fought boredom with games played on the ground. The reader
< who knows the origin of this custom now also knows that Francisco must
< be, in some sense, the soldier of a rebellion, fighting from cover
< behind enemy lines.
< 
< In Jewish custom, one commemorates one's ancestors by re-enacting
< their practice. Francisco's Converso ancestors could not keep Jewish
< objects, such as spinning tops with Hebrew letters, since such objects
< would have immediately marked them as secret Jews. They played,
< instead, with marbles unstrung from a rosary. If a curious neighbor or
< servant wandered in, all he would see would be an accidentally broken
< rosary, and children helping to pick beads off the floor. Francisco is
< hiding his true self, and things are not what they seem.
< 
< From this point on, whenever Francisco D'Anconia appears in the novel,
< there is a pointedly Jewish, often specificly anti-altruist and
< anti-Christianity subtext. Dagny, not being Jewish, clearly has no
< idea why Francisco is playing with marbles, and is too well-brought-up
< to ask. Frank O'Connor, Ayn Rand's non-Jewish spouse, must have been
< in on many occasions when Ayn did something Jewish and _he_ didn't
< have a clue. Thus, another perversely distinctive Randian joke: In the
< role of Francisco D'Anconia Frank gets to play the role of a Jew, and
< Dagny is the clueless one.
< 
------
James_Cameron|989633534
1c1
< American film director noted for his science fiction/action films, as well as the remarkable results he gets from his FX crews, especially in The Terminator 1 and 2, as well as Titanic.
---
> American film director noted for his action/science fiction films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
------
James_Cameron|989633760
1c1
< American film director noted for his action/science fiction films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
---
> American film director noted for his [[Action Film|action]]/[[Science Fiction Film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
------
Film_Techniques|989633816
2a3
> *[[Computer generated imaging]]
------
Shot_Reverse_Shot|989634162
1,3c1
< This film technique is a sequence of three shots.  The first shot is a person's face.  The second shot is what that person is looking at (whether it be another person or an object).  And the final shot is the person again where we process how that person feels about what he/she is looking at.  This helps the audience build identification with the character.
< 
< This technique is essential to [[IMR]] (Istitutional Mode of Representation).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Shot reverse shot]]
------
Shot_reverse_shot|989634177
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This film technique is a sequence of three shots.  The first shot is a person's face.  The second shot is what that person is looking at (whether it be another person or an object).  And the final shot is the person again where we process how that person feels about what he/she is looking at.  This helps the audience build identification with the character.
> 
> This technique is essential to [[IMR]] (Institutional Mode of Representation).
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|989634225
1c1
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[Shot Reverse Shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[shot reverse shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
------
Film_Techniques|989634246
16c16
< *[[Shot Reverse Shot]]
---
> *[[shot reverse shot]]
------
Marxist_film_theory|989634265
5c5
< While this [[structuralist]] approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the [[narrative]] structure of Hollywood [[filmmaking]].  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the [[capitalist]] [[propaganda]].  [[Shot Reverse Shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this [[unhealthy]] [[ideology]].
---
> While this [[structuralist]] approach to Marxism and filmmaking was used, the more vociferous complaint that the Russian filmmakers had was with the [[narrative]] structure of Hollywood [[filmmaking]].  They believed, as many Marxists since believe, that Hollywood cinema is designed to draw you into believing in the [[capitalist]] [[propaganda]].  [[Shot reverse shot]] is nothing more than a device to make you align yourself with this [[unhealthy]] [[ideology]].
------
Point_of_View_Shot|989634336
1c1
< A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing (see [[Shot Reverse Shot]])
---
> A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing (see [[shot reverse shot]])
------
Stop_Motion|989634418
1,6c1
< Stop Motion is an animation technique.
< 
< It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves.
< This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the [[Ray Harryhausen]] and [[King Kong]] films and more recently in the works of [[Aardman Animation]]s [[Wallace and Gromit]] films.
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[stop motion]]
------
Queen|989634421
1,8c1,8
< Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
< ----
< One of many [[chess]] [[Chess/Pieces|pieces]].
< ----
< [[Queen/Band|British rock band]]. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsodie". [[Freddy Mercury]], one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 1991.
< ----
< Female [[bee]] in a [[beehive]] that is the only fertile and egg laying member of the colony.
< ----
---
> Female [[monarch]] or wife of a male monarch ([[king]]).
> ----
> One of many [[chess]] [[Chess/Pieces|pieces]].
> ----
> [[Queen/Band|British rock band]]. They had some very characteristic vocal harmonies, as in "Bohemian Rapsody". [[Freddy Mercury]], one of its vocalists and most famous member, died in 1991.
> ----
> Female [[bee]] in a [[beehive]] that is the only fertile and egg laying member of the colony.
> ----
------
Stop_motion|989634428
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stop Motion is an animation technique.
> 
> It works by taking a photograph of the object, then moving the object a little bit and then taking another photograph. After assembling the photographs to a film, it appears as though the objects would move by themselves.
> This is similar to the animation of cartoons and is used in many early monster films, like the [[Ray Harryhausen]] and [[King Kong]] films and more recently in the works of [[Aardman Animation]]s [[Wallace and Gromit]] films.
> ----
> /Talk
------
Animation|989634442
1c1
< A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]], [[Stop Motion|stop motion]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
---
> A film/movie produced by a frame by frame process where each frame is individually composed; either generated as a computer graphic, by photographing a drawn image, or repeatedly making small changes to a model (such as a clay model; see [[claymation]], [[stop motion]]), and photographing the result. When the resulting film is viewed at normal speed, there is an illusion of continuous movement. Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly speeded up the process.
------
Stop_trick|989634458
3c3
< This is not to be confused with the [[Stop Motion]] technique.
---
> This is not to be confused with the [[stop motion]] technique.
------
The_Time_Machine|989634475
16c16
< The film is notable for its ingenious [[Stop Motion|stop motion]] effects showing the world around the Time Traveller changing at breakneck speed as he travels through in time.
---
> The film is notable for its ingenious [[stop motion]] effects showing the world around the Time Traveller changing at breakneck speed as he travels through in time.
------
Film_Techniques|989634509
5c5
< *[[Stop Motion]]
---
> *[[stop motion]]
------
Irish_potato_famine|989634553
5,7c5,6
< During this time, [[Great Britain]] still received exports of food from [[Ireland]], while making only insubstantial
< efforts to save their starving fellow citizens. 
<  
---
> During this time, [[Great Britain]] forced the Irish to export corn (and other crops) which could have save the lives of many Irish. 
>  
------
Establishing_Shot|989634608
1c1
< A shot at the beginning of a scene indicating where the remainder of the scene takes place.  For example, an exterior shot on location of a large building on a rainy night, followed by an interior shot of a couple talking, implies that the conversation is taking place inside that building.  Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set because of budget, permitting, time limitations, etc.  Directors will frequently use subtle cues to reinforce the illusion--in this case, the sound of rain plus the occasional sight of it through a window in the background.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Establishing shot]]
------
Establishing_shot|989634620
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A shot at the beginning of a scene indicating where the remainder of the scene takes place.  For example, an exterior shot on location of a large building on a rainy night, followed by an interior shot of a couple talking, implies that the conversation is taking place inside that building.  Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set because of budget, permitting, time limitations, etc.  Directors will frequently use subtle cues to reinforce the illusion--in this case, the sound of rain plus the occasional sight of it through a window in the background.
------
Film_Techniques|989634653
9,15c9,15
< *[[Cross Cutting]]
< *[[Cut In]]
< *[[Cut Out]]
< *[[Establishing Shot]]
< *[[Insert]]
< *[[Master shot]]
< *[[Point of view shot]]
---
> *[[cross cutting]]
> *[[cut in]]
> *[[cut out]]
> *[[establishing shot]]
> *[[insert]]
> *[[master shot]]
> *[[point of view shot]]
------
Film_Techniques|989634686
20,22c20,22
< *[[Deframing]]
< *[[Reframing]]
< *[[Split screen]]
---
> *[[deframing]]
> *[[reframing]]
> *[[split screen]]
27,31c27,31
< *[[Crane shot]]
< *[[Long shot]]
< *[[Medium shot]]
< *[[Sequence shot]]
< *[[Tracking shot]]
---
> *[[crane shot]]
> *[[long shot]]
> *[[medium shot]]
> *[[sequence shot]]
> *[[tracking shot]]
------
Ireland/History|989634696
2c2
< A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups such as the IRA (Irish Republican Army). A peace settlement for Northern Ireland was approved in 1998, and a power-sharing government has been established.
---
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have nominally sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups such as the [[IRA]] ([[Irish Republican Army]]). A peace settlement for Northern Ireland was approved in 1998, and a power-sharing government has been established.
------
Film_Techniques|989634726
3c3
< *[[Computer generated imaging]]
---
> *[[computer generated imaging]]
------
Point_of_View_Shot|989634811
1c1
< A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing (see [[shot reverse shot]])
---
> #REDIRECT [[Point of view shot]]
------
Point_of_view_shot|989634822
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A shot used to show what a character is looking at, usually established as a point of view shot by its position between one shot of a character looking at something and a second shot showing the character's reaction to whatever s/he is seeing (see [[shot reverse shot]])
------
David_Griffith|989634858
17c17
< David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various [[FilmEditing|film editing]] techniques to film grammar. That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[Point of View Shot]]s.
---
> David Wark Griffith has been called the father of film grammar. Scholars no longer dispute that few of any of Griffith's "innovations" actually began with him, but still he is given credit for canonizing a set of codes that have become the universal back-bone to the film language.  In the broadest terms, Griffith contributed [[Mise en Scene]] and various [[film editing]] techniques to film grammar. That being said, he still used many elements attributed to the "primitive style" of movie-making that predated cassical Hollywood's continuity system. These techniques include frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, hardly any camera movement and no [[point of view Shot]]s.
------
Film_Criticism|989635034
1,16c1
< A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with [[philosophy]] than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[Film Theory]].)
< 
< Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticism include:
< *  [[Andre Bazin]]
< *  [[Siegfried Kracauer]]
< *  [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
< *  [[Christian Metz]]
< *  [[William Rothman]]
< *  [[Kaja Silverman]]
< *  [[Jean-Louis Boudry]]
< *  [[Andrew Sarris]]
< *  [[Mary Ann Doane]]
< *  [[Bela Balazs]]
< *  [[Peter Bogdanovich]]
< 
< Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film criticism]]
------
Film_criticism|989635054
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A distinction must be drawn between criticism and reviewing.  Most people who call themselves film critics and publish commentary on films in periodicals are actually film reviewers.  A film criticism is actually more closely aligned with [[philosophy]] than it is commentary.  The film critic tries to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  (See also [[film theory]].)
> 
> Some of the names you must know in exploring the world of film criticism include:
> *  [[Andre Bazin]]
> *  [[Siegfried Kracauer]]
> *  [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
> *  [[Christian Metz]]
> *  [[William Rothman]]
> *  [[Kaja Silverman]]
> *  [[Jean-Louis Boudry]]
> *  [[Andrew Sarris]]
> *  [[Mary Ann Doane]]
> *  [[Bela Balazs]]
> *  [[Peter Bogdanovich]]
> 
> Of course there are many more, but these will put you on the right track.
------
ArtCriticism|989635101
1,2c1
< 
< [[Film Criticism]] -- [[Science Fiction]]
---
> [[film criticism]] -- [[science fiction]]
------
Film|989635127
4c4
< :[[Film Criticism]]
---
> :[[film criticism]]
------
FilmCriticism|989635145
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film Criticism]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film criticism]]
------
Film_Theory|989635167
1c1
< All about how to interpret films.  See also [[Film Criticism]]. (Needs expansion...)
---
> All about how to interpret films.  See also [[film criticism]]. (Needs expansion...)
12c12
< ''This area is making wonderful progress, but this page needs to be cleaned up!''
---
> ''This area is making wonderful progress, but this page needs to be cleaned up!''
------
Film_Festivals|989635217
1,15c1
< Some of the world's major film festivals:
< 
< European:
< 
< :[[Cannes Film Festival]]
< :[[Berlin Film Festival]]
< :[[Venice Film Festival]]
< 
< North American:
< 
< :[[Sundance Film Festival]]
< :[[Toronto Film Festival]]
< :[[Slamdance Film Festival]]
< :[[New York Film Festival]]
< :[[Seattle Film Festival]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film festival]]
------
Film_festival|989635237
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some of the world's major film festivals:
> 
> European:
> 
> :[[Cannes Film Festival]]
> :[[Berlin Film Festival]]
> :[[Venice Film Festival]]
> 
> North American:
> 
> :[[Sundance Film Festival]]
> :[[Toronto Film Festival]]
> :[[Slamdance Film Festival]]
> :[[New York Film Festival]]
> :[[Seattle Film Festival]]
------
Berlin_Film_Festival|989635263
1c1
< One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[CityBerlin|Berlin]]). 
---
> One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 
------
Film|989635343
5c5
< :[[Film Festivals]]
---
> :[[film festival]]s
------
Film_Genres|989635382
1,24c1
< See also: [[Genre Film Theory]]
< 
< :[[Action Film]]
< :[[Comedy Film]]
< :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
< :[[Documentary Film]]
< :[[Cult Film]]
< :[[Drama Film]]
< :[[Fantasy Film]]
< :[[Film_Noir]]
< :[[Historical Drama Film]]
< :[[Horror Film]]
< :[[Martial Arts Film]]
< :[[Musical Film]]
< :[[Newsreel]]
< :[[Propaganda Film]]
< :[[Short]]
< :[[Science Fiction Film]]
< :[[Silent film|Silent Film]]
< :[[Thriller Film]]
< :[[Western Film]]
< 
< ----
< I don't know that I'd call "Cult" a genre, but more of a post-hoc description.  The genre of <i>Rocky Horror Picture Show</i> is horror/comedy/musical; the fact that it attracted a loyal following after release, thereby become a "cult" film, doesn't change that.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film genres]]
------
Film_genres|989635394
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also: [[Genre Film Theory]]
> 
> :[[Action Film]]
> :[[Comedy Film]]
> :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
> :[[Documentary Film]]
> :[[Cult Film]]
> :[[Drama Film]]
> :[[Fantasy Film]]
> :[[Film_Noir]]
> :[[Historical Drama Film]]
> :[[Horror Film]]
> :[[Martial Arts Film]]
> :[[Musical Film]]
> :[[Newsreel]]
> :[[Propaganda Film]]
> :[[Short]]
> :[[Science Fiction Film]]
> :[[Silent film|Silent Film]]
> :[[Thriller Film]]
> :[[Western Film]]
> 
> ----
> I don't know that I'd call "Cult" a genre, but more of a post-hoc description.  The genre of <i>Rocky Horror Picture Show</i> is horror/comedy/musical; the fact that it attracted a loyal following after release, thereby become a "cult" film, doesn't change that.
------
Screwball_Comedy_Film|989635491
1c1
< The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the film genres.  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[Film Genre Conventions]] that comprise the Screwball Comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[Slapstick Comedy Film]] or [[Situation Comedy Film]].
---
> The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the [[film genres]].  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[Film Genre Conventions]] that comprise the Screwball Comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[Slapstick Comedy Film]] or [[Situation Comedy Film]].
5c5
< *  Reverse class snobbery.  The implied or explicit that common folk were superior to the wealthy.  Associated with this was the belief that even the wealthy had the potential to exhibit the nobility of ordinary folk.
---
> *  Reverse class snobbery.  The implied or explicit belief that common folk were superior to the wealthy.  Associated with this was the belief that even the wealthy had the potential to exhibit the nobility of ordinary folk.
21c21
< *[[Clark Gable]]
---
> *[[Clark Gable]]
------
Screwball_Comedy_Film|989635530
1c1
< The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the [[film genres]].  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[Film Genre Conventions]] that comprise the Screwball Comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[Slapstick Comedy Film]] or [[Situation Comedy Film]].
---
> The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the [[film genres]].  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[film genre conventions]] that comprise the screwball comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[slapstick comedy film]] or [[situation comedy film]].
------
Western_Film|989635573
1c1
< One of the cassical American film genres. The genre was born in literature with "The Virginian."  In film, it traces its roots back to "The Great Train Robbery" directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].  In the United States, the western has had an extremely rich history that spans many genres (comedy, drama, tragedy, parody, musical, etc.)
---
> One of the cassical American [[film genres]]. The genre was born in literature with "The Virginian."  In film, it traces its roots back to "The Great Train Robbery" directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].  In the United States, the western has had an extremely rich history that spans many genres (comedy, drama, tragedy, parody, musical, etc.)
------
Film|989635589
6c6
< :[[Film Genres]]
---
> :[[film genres]]
------
Film_History|989635635
1,61c1
< [[/France|French Film History]] -- [[/Germany|German Film History]] -- [[/Russia|Russian Film History]] -- [[/Italy|Italian Film History]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese Film History]] -- [[/China|Chinese Film History]] -- [[/India|Indian Film History]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian Film History]] -- [[/Poland|Polish Film History]]
< 
< (There probably ought to be a page called "National Film Histories" that then name the nations because film has had some national impact on even the smallest nations.  This approach might also allow us to make a United States section so that we are not America-centric.)
< 
< Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
< *  [[Eadweard Muybridge]]
< *  [[Thomas Edison]]
< *  [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
< *  [[George Eastman]]
< *  [[Edwin Porter]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Some people you should know during the beginnings of [[Hollywood]] (1912-1925)
< 
< *  [[David Griffith|D. W. Griffith]]
< *  [[Mary Pickford]]
< *  [[Charlie Chaplin]]
< *  [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
< *  [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
< *  [[Gloria Swanson]]
< *  [[Theda Bara]]
< *  [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
< *  [[Mack Sennett]]
< 
< Other important stuff:
< 
< *  [[MPPC]]
< *  [[Independents]]
< *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
< *  [[Paramount]]
< -----
< 
< Classic Hollywood Era (1930-1945)
< 
< *  [[IMR]]
< 
< [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
< *  [[Frank Capra]]
< *  [[Howard Hawks]]
< *  [[John Ford]]
< *  [[Orson Welles]]
< *  [[Preston Sturges]]
< *  [[John Grierson]]
< 
< [[Actors]]:
< *  [[Cary Grant]]
< *  [[Micky Rooney]]
< *  [[Clark Gable]]
< *  [[Edward G. Robinson]]
< 
< [[Actresses]]
< *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
< *  [[Carole Lombard]]
< *  [[Elizabeth Taylor]]
< *  [[Shirley Temple]]
< 
< Producers:
< 
< other: 
< *  [[Walt Disney]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history]]
------
Film_history|989635719
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[/France|French film history]] -- [[/Germany|German film history]] -- [[/Russia|Russian film history]] -- [[/Italy|Italian film history]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese film history]] -- [[/China|Chinese film history]] -- [[/India|Indian film history]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian film history]] -- [[/Poland|Polish film history]]
> 
> (There probably ought to be a page called "National film histories" that then name the nations because film has had some national impact on even the smallest nations.  This approach might also allow us to make a United States section so that we are not America-centric.)
> 
> Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
> *  [[Eadweard Muybridge]]
> *  [[Thomas Edison]]
> *  [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
> *  [[George Eastman]]
> *  [[Edwin Porter]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of [[Hollywood]] (1912-1925)
> 
> *  [[David Griffith|D. W. Griffith]]
> *  [[Mary Pickford]]
> *  [[Charlie Chaplin]]
> *  [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
> *  [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> *  [[Gloria Swanson]]
> *  [[Theda Bara]]
> *  [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
> *  [[Mack Sennett]]
> 
> Other important stuff:
> 
> *  [[MPPC]]
> *  [[Independents]]
> *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
> *  [[Paramount]]
> -----
> 
> Classic Hollywood Era (1930-1945)
> 
> *  [[IMR]]
> 
> [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
> *  [[Frank Capra]]
> *  [[Howard Hawks]]
> *  [[John Ford]]
> *  [[Orson Welles]]
> *  [[Preston Sturges]]
> *  [[John Grierson]]
> 
> [[Actors]]:
> *  [[Cary Grant]]
> *  [[Micky Rooney]]
> *  [[Clark Gable]]
> *  [[Edward G. Robinson]]
> 
> [[Actresses]]
> *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
> *  [[Carole Lombard]]
> *  [[Elizabeth Taylor]]
> *  [[Shirley Temple]]
> 
> Producers:
> 
> other: 
> *  [[Walt Disney]]
------
Film_history/France|989635774
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> France was as influential in the development of film as a mass medium and as an art form as any nation.  
> 
> Early personalities:
> *  [[Lumiere Brothers]]
> *  [[George Melies]]
> 
> Post WWII period.
> 
> At the [[Cahiers du cinema]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked.  Modern film theory was born there.  Additionally, many of the theorticians went on to make films themselves.
> 
> Personalities from 1950-1960 period:
> *[[Andre Bazin]]
> *[[Francois Truffaut]]
> *[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
> *[[Jacques Tati]]
> 
> <i>I'm not sure what to make of the section above--Truffaut's last film was completed in 1983, and Godard finished one last year (2000).  Do you mean that these were influential personalities during that era?  Why in that era specifically? What did they do?  Would they be as influential now, with later generations continuing to discover their work at revival houses and on video?  Also, could I add Louis Malle? ([[Au Revoir Les Enfants]], [[Damage]], [[My Dinner With Andre]])</i>
------
Film_History/France|989635795
1,17c1
< France was as influential in the development of film as a mass medium and as an art form as any nation.  
< 
< Early personalities:
< *  [[Lumiere Brothers]]
< *  [[George Melies]]
< 
< Post WWII period.
< 
< At the [[Cahiers du cinema]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked.  Modern film theory was born there.  Additionally, many of the theorticians went on to make films themselves.
< 
< Personalities from 1950-1960 period:
< *[[Andre Bazin]]
< *[[Francois Truffaut]]
< *[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
< *[[Jacques Tati]]
< 
< <i>I'm not sure what to make of the section above--Truffaut's last film was completed in 1983, and Godard finished one last year (2000).  Do you mean that these were influential personalities during that era?  Why in that era specifically? What did they do?  Would they be as influential now, with later generations continuing to discover their work at revival houses and on video?  Also, could I add Louis Malle? ([[Au Revoir Les Enfants]], [[Damage]], [[My Dinner With Andre]])</i>
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film_history/France]]
------
Film_history/Germany|989635850
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some important figures in German Film History:
> 
> *[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
> *[[Werner Herzog]]
> *[[Fritz Lang]]
> *[[Friedrich Murnau|F.W. Murnau]]
> *[[Wim Wenders]]
------
Film_History|989635895
1c1,61
< #REDIRECT [[Film history]]
---
> [[/France|French film history]] -- [[/Germany|German film history]] -- [[/Russia|Russian film history]] -- [[/Italy|Italian film history]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese film history]] -- [[/China|Chinese film history]] -- [[/India|Indian film history]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian film history]] -- [[/Poland|Polish film history]]
> 
> (There probably ought to be a page called "National film histories" that then name the nations because film has had some national impact on even the smallest nations.  This approach might also allow us to make a United States section so that we are not America-centric.)
> 
> Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
> *  [[Eadweard Muybridge]]
> *  [[Thomas Edison]]
> *  [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
> *  [[George Eastman]]
> *  [[Edwin Porter]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Some people you should know during the beginnings of [[Hollywood]] (1912-1925)
> 
> *  [[David Griffith|D. W. Griffith]]
> *  [[Mary Pickford]]
> *  [[Charlie Chaplin]]
> *  [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
> *  [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> *  [[Gloria Swanson]]
> *  [[Theda Bara]]
> *  [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
> *  [[Mack Sennett]]
> 
> Other important stuff:
> 
> *  [[MPPC]]
> *  [[Independents]]
> *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
> *  [[Paramount]]
> -----
> 
> Classic Hollywood Era (1930-1945)
> 
> *  [[IMR]]
> 
> [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
> *  [[Frank Capra]]
> *  [[Howard Hawks]]
> *  [[John Ford]]
> *  [[Orson Welles]]
> *  [[Preston Sturges]]
> *  [[John Grierson]]
> 
> [[Actors]]:
> *  [[Cary Grant]]
> *  [[Micky Rooney]]
> *  [[Clark Gable]]
> *  [[Edward G. Robinson]]
> 
> [[Actresses]]
> *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
> *  [[Carole Lombard]]
> *  [[Elizabeth Taylor]]
> *  [[Shirley Temple]]
> 
> Producers:
> 
> other: 
> *  [[Walt Disney]]
------
Film_History/Russia|989635954
1,13c1
< While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s "Intolerance" and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
< 
< Initially, it was believed that film would be the ideal artform for communist Russia because of it's populist potential and facility in propaganda.  However, the party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.  Consequently, film in Russia waned in the 1930s.
< 
< Early personalities in the development of the Russian cinema:
< *[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
< *[[Vsevold I. Pudovkin]]
< *[[Alexander Dovzhenko]]
< *[[Dziga Vertov]]
< *[[Lev Kuleshov]]
< 
< Later personalities:
< *[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history/Russia]]
------
Film_history/Russia|989635962
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s "Intolerance" and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
> 
> Initially, it was believed that film would be the ideal artform for communist Russia because of it's populist potential and facility in propaganda.  However, the party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.  Consequently, film in Russia waned in the 1930s.
> 
> Early personalities in the development of the Russian cinema:
> *[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
> *[[Vsevold I. Pudovkin]]
> *[[Alexander Dovzhenko]]
> *[[Dziga Vertov]]
> *[[Lev Kuleshov]]
> 
> Later personalities:
> *[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
------
Film_History/Italy|989636023
1,8c1
< *[[Michelangelo Antonioni]]
< *[[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
< *[[Robert Bresson]]
< *[[Vittorio De Sica]]
< *[[Federico Fellini]]
< *[[Max Ophuls]]
< *[[Roberto Rossellini]]
< *[[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history/Italy]]
------
Film_history/Italy|989636029
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Michelangelo Antonioni]]
> *[[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
> *[[Robert Bresson]]
> *[[Vittorio De Sica]]
> *[[Federico Fellini]]
> *[[Max Ophuls]]
> *[[Roberto Rossellini]]
> *[[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
------
Film_History/Canada|989636069
1,2c1
< *[[John Grierson]]
< *[[Atom Egoyan]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history/Canada]]
------
Film_history/Canada|989636075
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[John Grierson]]
> *[[Atom Egoyan]]
------
Film_History/Poland|989636106
1,9c1
< Directors:
< 
< *[[Roman Polanski]]
< *[[Krzysztof Kieslowski]]
< *[[Andrzej Wajda]]
< 
< Actrors:
< 
< *[[Izabella Scorupco]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history/Poland]]
------
Film_history/Poland|989636111
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Directors:
> 
> *[[Roman Polanski]]
> *[[Krzysztof Kieslowski]]
> *[[Andrzej Wajda]]
> 
> Actrors:
> 
> *[[Izabella Scorupco]]
------
Film|989636157
7c7
< :[[Film History]]
---
> :[[film history]]
------
FilmHistory|989636232
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film History]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history]]
------
Film_History|989636264
1,61c1
< [[/France|French film history]] -- [[/Germany|German film history]] -- [[/Russia|Russian film history]] -- [[/Italy|Italian film history]] -- [[/Japan|Japanese film history]] -- [[/China|Chinese film history]] -- [[/India|Indian film history]] -- [[/Canada|Canadian film history]] -- [[/Poland|Polish film history]]
< 
< (There probably ought to be a page called "National film histories" that then name the nations because film has had some national impact on even the smallest nations.  This approach might also allow us to make a United States section so that we are not America-centric.)
< 
< Some of the people you should know during the earliest era of film history (1872-1903):
< *  [[Eadweard Muybridge]]
< *  [[Thomas Edison]]
< *  [[William Kennedy Laurie Dickson]]
< *  [[George Eastman]]
< *  [[Edwin Porter]]
< 
< ----
< 
< Some people you should know during the beginnings of [[Hollywood]] (1912-1925)
< 
< *  [[David Griffith|D. W. Griffith]]
< *  [[Mary Pickford]]
< *  [[Charlie Chaplin]]
< *  [[Douglas Fairbanks]]
< *  [[Robert J. Flaherty]]
< *  [[Gloria Swanson]]
< *  [[Theda Bara]]
< *  [[Thomas Harper Ince]]
< *  [[Mack Sennett]]
< 
< Other important stuff:
< 
< *  [[MPPC]]
< *  [[Independents]]
< *  [[Fox Film Corporation]]
< *  [[Paramount]]
< -----
< 
< Classic Hollywood Era (1930-1945)
< 
< *  [[IMR]]
< 
< [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
< *  [[Frank Capra]]
< *  [[Howard Hawks]]
< *  [[John Ford]]
< *  [[Orson Welles]]
< *  [[Preston Sturges]]
< *  [[John Grierson]]
< 
< [[Actors]]:
< *  [[Cary Grant]]
< *  [[Micky Rooney]]
< *  [[Clark Gable]]
< *  [[Edward G. Robinson]]
< 
< [[Actresses]]
< *  [[Katherine Hepburn]]
< *  [[Carole Lombard]]
< *  [[Elizabeth Taylor]]
< *  [[Shirley Temple]]
< 
< Producers:
< 
< other: 
< *  [[Walt Disney]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film history]]
------
Poland|989636293
20c20
< [[Film History/Poland|Film History]]
---
> [[Film history/Poland|Film History]]
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|989636315
7c7
< Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[Film History]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the [[propaganda]] in her films repulses many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
---
> Apart from her controversial role in the Third Reich, she is renowned in [[film history]] for developing new aesthetics in her films, especially in relation to nude bodies, and while the [[propaganda]] in her films repulses many people, their aesthetics are nonetheless outstanding and cited by many other filmmakers.
------
Great_Man_Theory/Talk|989636332
3c3
< Maybe. I've only heard about it in conjunction with Film History so far, but that doesn't mean much...
---
> Maybe. I've only heard about it in conjunction with film history so far, but that doesn't mean much...
------
Genre_Film_Theory|989636373
1c1
< Even in the early days of film history, the audience appetite for new
---
> Even in the early days of [[film history]], the audience appetite for new
22c22
< (All of this barely touches the surface.)
---
> (All of this barely touches the surface.)
------
Feminist_Film_Theory|989636405
1,3c1
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[shot reverse shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
< 
< :[[/Talk]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Feminist film theory]]
------
Feminist_film_theory|989636415
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[shot reverse shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
> 
> :[[/Talk]]
------
Film_Theory|989636443
3c3
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[Feminist Film Theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
---
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
------
Feminist_Film_Theory/Talk|989636487
1c1
< I don't know what to make of this summary.  I haven't paid much attention to film theory because, honestly, most of it bores me, so take the following with a grain of salt.  But: is it the case that feminisit film critics often argue that Shot/Reverse Shot <i>forces</i> the viewer to align him- or herself with the point of view of the protagonist?  If so, I would argue that the critics making that charge are definitely overstating the case.  I think anyone who's had more than a few discussions about any controversial topic should know that you can not force anyone to understand anything; people are too much like horses before the proverbial stream.  So I'd have to argue that this technique <i>encourages</i> identification with the protagonist, but that the viewer can always balk at such identification, as do these feminist critics.  I believe the difference is significant, because a feminist criticism of being forced to think anything would belie the notion of self-empowerment through consciousness-raising, which is certainly one of the main tenets of feminist philosophy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Feminist film theory/talk]]
------
Feminist_film_theory/Talk|989636496
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I don't know what to make of this summary.  I haven't paid much attention to film theory because, honestly, most of it bores me, so take the following with a grain of salt.  But: is it the case that feminisit film critics often argue that Shot/Reverse Shot <i>forces</i> the viewer to align him- or herself with the point of view of the protagonist?  If so, I would argue that the critics making that charge are definitely overstating the case.  I think anyone who's had more than a few discussions about any controversial topic should know that you can not force anyone to understand anything; people are too much like horses before the proverbial stream.  So I'd have to argue that this technique <i>encourages</i> identification with the protagonist, but that the viewer can always balk at such identification, as do these feminist critics.  I believe the difference is significant, because a feminist criticism of being forced to think anything would belie the notion of self-empowerment through consciousness-raising, which is certainly one of the main tenets of feminist philosophy.
------
Action_Film|989636524
3c3
< Action films also constitute very good examples for [[Feminist Film Theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear.  Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
---
> Action films also constitute very good examples for [[feminist film theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear.  Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
------
Formalist_Film_Theory|989636585
1,2c1
< 
< Identified the basis of Hollywood narrative construction called [[IMR]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[formalist film theory]]
------
Formalist_film_theory|989636595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Identified the basis of Hollywood narrative construction called [[IMR]].
------
Film_Theory|989636621
3c3
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[Formalist Film Theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
---
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[formalist film theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
------
Genre_Film_Theory|989636668
1,22c1
< Even in the early days of [[film history]], the audience appetite for new
< content was voracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver
< to an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.
< This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of
< imitation.  As stories were reworked and reshot, what began to emerge
< by the end of the 1910s, and certainly was noticeably present by the mid
< 1920s, was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the
< information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen
< hundreds of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive setup for
< the showdown.  The convention was created where, when two men face each
< other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure
< bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy
< in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited
< construction of a film sequence.
< 
< While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
< 
< As genres pass the point of maturity, they often go into a stage of deconstruction.  With respect to the Western: [[Little Big Man]] realigned the conventions in a politically correct way (or more to the point, reversed the cowboy and Indian relationship), [[Blazing Saddles]] turned the conventions into humor, and [[Unforgiven]] reversed every convention for the sake of tragedy.
< 
< Much debate continues about what makes a genre and what doesn't, as well as the way genres are constructed or deconstructed.
< 
< (All of this barely touches the surface.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[Genre film theory]]
------
Genre_film_theory|989636678
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Even in the early days of [[film history]], the audience appetite for new
> content was voracious.  A film distributer would often have to deliver
> to an exhibitor over a hundred films a year to keep the theaters fresh.
> This constant demand for new material led to the necessity of
> imitation.  As stories were reworked and reshot, what began to emerge
> by the end of the 1910s, and certainly was noticeably present by the mid
> 1920s, was the use of conventions as a kind of short-hand for the
> information that was pushing a story along.  The audience had seen
> hundreds of Westerns and no longer needed the same extensive setup for
> the showdown.  The convention was created where, when two men face each
> other on the street and menacingly look at one another, you can be sure
> bullets will fly.  These conventions included anything from the good guy
> in a white hat and the bad guy in a black hat, to the actual edited
> construction of a film sequence.
> 
> While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
> 
> As genres pass the point of maturity, they often go into a stage of deconstruction.  With respect to the Western: [[Little Big Man]] realigned the conventions in a politically correct way (or more to the point, reversed the cowboy and Indian relationship), [[Blazing Saddles]] turned the conventions into humor, and [[Unforgiven]] reversed every convention for the sake of tragedy.
> 
> Much debate continues about what makes a genre and what doesn't, as well as the way genres are constructed or deconstructed.
> 
> (All of this barely touches the surface.)
------
Hollywood_Cycles|989636717
3c3
< See also [[Film Theory]] and [[Genre Film Theory]].
---
> See also [[film theory]] and [[genre film theory]].
------
Film_Theory|989636763
1,12c1
< All about how to interpret films.  See also [[film criticism]]. (Needs expansion...)
< 
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[formalist film theory]] -- [[Structuralist Film Theory]] -- [[Genre Film Theory]]
< 
< Film History Theory
< 
< [[Great Man Theory]]  
< (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
< 
< No. It is similar to it but focuses rather on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
< 
< ''This area is making wonderful progress, but this page needs to be cleaned up!''
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film theory]]
------
Film_theory|989636772
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All about how to interpret films.  See also [[film criticism]]. (Needs expansion...)
> 
> [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[formalist film theory]] -- [[structuralist film theory]] -- [[genre film theory]]
> 
> Film History Theory
> 
> [[Great Man Theory]]  
> (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
> 
> No. It is similar to it but focuses rather on historical developments, not on the actual movies (Thus the heading Film History Theory). 
> 
> ''This area is making wonderful progress, but this page needs to be cleaned up!''
------
Film|989636788
8c8
< :[[Film Theory]]
---
> :[[film theory]]
------
Film_genres|989636885
1c1
< See also: [[Genre Film Theory]]
---
> See also: [[genre film theory]]
------
Film_history/France|989636937
9c9
< At the [[Cahiers du cinema]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked.  Modern film theory was born there.  Additionally, many of the theorticians went on to make films themselves.
---
> At the [[Cahiers du cinema]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked.  Modern [[film theory]] was born there.  Additionally, many of the theorticians went on to make films themselves.
------
Marxist_film_theory|989636960
1c1
< One of the oldest forms of film theory.  
---
> One of the oldest forms of [[film theory]].  
------
Formalist_Film_Theory|989636981
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[formalist film theory]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Formalist film theory]]
------
Auteur_Theory_Film|989637164
1,8c1
< This theory states that the best films have the imprint of its auteur (or author) on them.  With this assumption, the best films are those that best betray the hand of its creator.  The creator is almost always the director, but can be actors (as is the case of [[Mae West]]).
< 
< This theory was started in France in the sixties from the [[Cashiere du Cinema]] (I am not sure I spelled that right.)
< 
< Needless to say, such theory rubs screenwriters the wrong way.
< 
< Prominent people associated with this theory:
< *[[Andrew Sarris]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Auteur theory]]
------
Auteur_theory|989637177
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This theory states that the best films have the imprint of its auteur (or author) on them.  With this assumption, the best films are those that best betray the hand of its creator.  The creator is almost always the director, but can be actors (as is the case of [[Mae West]]).
> 
> This theory was started in France in the sixties from the [[Cashiere du Cinema]] (I am not sure I spelled that right.)
> 
> Needless to say, such theory rubs screenwriters the wrong way.
> 
> Prominent people associated with this theory:
> *[[Andrew Sarris]]
------
Great_Man_Theory|989637212
1c1
< This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[Auteur Theory Film|Auteur Film Theory]]
---
> This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[auteur theory]]
------
Great_Man_Theory|989637229
1c1
< This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[Star System]] or the [[auteur theory]]
---
> This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[star system]] or the [[auteur theory]]
------
IMR|989637244
3c3
< In [[Film Theory]], this is the stylistic structure of narrative film construction that was developed during the classic Hollywood period.  It included some basic premises:
---
> In [[film theory]], this is the stylistic structure of narrative film construction that was developed during the classic Hollywood period.  It included some basic premises:
------
Great_Man_Theory|989637310
1c1
< This theory tends to explain film history and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the Film History equivalent to the [[star system]] or the [[auteur theory]]
---
> This theory tends to explain [[film history]] and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the film history equivalent to the [[star system]] or the [[auteur theory]]
------
Film_theory|989637334
8c8
< (Is this another name for [[Auteur Theory Film]]?)
---
> (Is this another name for [[auteur theory]]?)
------
Great_Man_Theory/Talk|989637367
1,3c1
< Isn't this also a theory in historiography, or philosophy of history?
< ----
< Maybe. I've only heard about it in conjunction with film history so far, but that doesn't mean much...
---
> #REDIRECT [[Great man theory/Talk]]
------
Great_man_theory/Talk|989637376
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Isn't this also a theory in historiography, or philosophy of history?
> ----
> Maybe. I've only heard about it in conjunction with film history so far, but that doesn't mean much...
------
Great_Man_Theory|989637399
1,3c1
< This theory tends to explain [[film history]] and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the film history equivalent to the [[star system]] or the [[auteur theory]]
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Great man theory]]
------
Great_man_theory|989637408
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This theory tends to explain [[film history]] and the evolution of film almost exclusively with "Great Men", with outright geniuses, like the ones listed on these pages. It neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the film history equivalent to the [[star system]] or the [[auteur theory]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Film_theory|989637427
7c7
< [[Great Man Theory]]  
---
> [[great man theory]]  
------
Film_theory|989637500
3c3,8
< [[psychoanalytical film theory]] -- [[feminist film theory]] -- [[Marxist film theory]] -- [[formalist film theory]] -- [[structuralist film theory]] -- [[genre film theory]]
---
> *[[psychoanalytical film theory]]
> *[[feminist film theory]]
> *[[Marxist film theory]]
> *[[formalist film theory]]
> *[[structuralist film theory]]
> *[[genre film theory]]
7c12
< [[great man theory]]  
---
> *[[great man theory]]  
------
Film_Techniques|989637568
1,31c1
< Special Effects:
< 
< *[[computer generated imaging]]
< *[[stop trick]]
< *[[stop motion]]
< 
< [[Film editing|Editing]]:
< 
< *[[cross cutting]]
< *[[cut in]]
< *[[cut out]]
< *[[establishing shot]]
< *[[insert]]
< *[[master shot]]
< *[[point of view shot]]
< *[[shot reverse shot]]
< 
< Frame:
< 
< *[[deframing]]
< *[[reframing]]
< *[[split screen]]
< 
< Shots:
< 
< *[[American shot]]
< *[[crane shot]]
< *[[long shot]]
< *[[medium shot]]
< *[[sequence shot]]
< *[[tracking shot]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film technique]]
------
Film_technique|989637576
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Special Effects:
> 
> *[[computer generated imaging]]
> *[[stop trick]]
> *[[stop motion]]
> 
> [[Film editing|Editing]]:
> 
> *[[cross cutting]]
> *[[cut in]]
> *[[cut out]]
> *[[establishing shot]]
> *[[insert]]
> *[[master shot]]
> *[[point of view shot]]
> *[[shot reverse shot]]
> 
> Frame:
> 
> *[[deframing]]
> *[[reframing]]
> *[[split screen]]
> 
> Shots:
> 
> *[[American shot]]
> *[[crane shot]]
> *[[long shot]]
> *[[medium shot]]
> *[[sequence shot]]
> *[[tracking shot]]
------
Feminist_film_theory|989637602
1c1
< One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[Film Techniques|film technique]] of [[shot reverse shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
---
> One of the feminist film critic's biggest complaints of Hollywood filmmaking is the "male gaze."  The belief is that the [[film technique]] of [[shot reverse shot]] essentially forces the viewer to align herself with the point of view of the protagonist and look at the female body as an object that can be possessed.
------
Film|989637629
9c9
< :[[Film Techniques]]
---
> :[[film technique]]
------
Shot_reverse_shot|989637651
1c1
< This film technique is a sequence of three shots.  The first shot is a person's face.  The second shot is what that person is looking at (whether it be another person or an object).  And the final shot is the person again where we process how that person feels about what he/she is looking at.  This helps the audience build identification with the character.
---
> This [[film technique]] is a sequence of three shots.  The first shot is a person's face.  The second shot is what that person is looking at (whether it be another person or an object).  And the final shot is the person again where we process how that person feels about what he/she is looking at.  This helps the audience build identification with the character.
------
Top_Grossing_Movies|989637689
1,29c1
< Here are the top 20 movies of all time, based on total receipts through February 21, 2001.
< 
< Source: Internet Movie Database
< http://us.imdb.com/Charts/usatopmovies
< 
< #[[Titanic]] (1997)	$600,743,440
< #[[Star Wars/A New Hope]]  ([[Star Wars]])(1977)	$460,935,655
< #[[Star Wars/The Phantom Menace]] (1999)	$431,065,444
< #[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]] (1982)	$399,804,539
< #[[Jurassic Park]] (1993)	$356,763,175
< #[[Forrest Gump]] (1994)	$329,452,287
< #[[The Lion King]] (1994)	$312,775,367
< #[[Star Wars/Return of the Jedi]] (1983)	$309,064,373	
< #[[Independence Day]] (1996)	$306,200,000
< #[[The Sixth Sense]] (1999)	$293,501,675
< #[[Star Wars/The Empire Strikes Back]] (1980)	$290,158,751
< #[[Home Alone]] (1990)	$285,761,243
< #[[Jaws]] (1975)	$260,000,000
< #[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] (2000)	$259,951,325
< #[[Batman]] (1989)	$251,188,924
< #[[Men in Black]] (1997)	$250,147,615
< #[[Toy Story 2]] (1999)	$245,823,397
< #[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] (1981)	$242,374,454
< #[[Twister]] (1996)	$241,700,000
< #[[Ghostbusters]] (1984)	$238,600,000
< 
< Summary from the imdb web page:
< * USA domestic ticket sales only
< * Not adjusted for inflation (Gone with the Wind is number 34, released in 1939, and earned $198,655,278 dollars.  By 2000, 61 years of inflation puts it past Titanic).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Top grossing movies]]
------
Top_grossing_movies|989637698
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Here are the top 20 movies of all time, based on total receipts through February 21, 2001.
> 
> Source: Internet Movie Database
> http://us.imdb.com/Charts/usatopmovies
> 
> #[[Titanic]] (1997)	$600,743,440
> #[[Star Wars/A New Hope]]  ([[Star Wars]])(1977)	$460,935,655
> #[[Star Wars/The Phantom Menace]] (1999)	$431,065,444
> #[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]] (1982)	$399,804,539
> #[[Jurassic Park]] (1993)	$356,763,175
> #[[Forrest Gump]] (1994)	$329,452,287
> #[[The Lion King]] (1994)	$312,775,367
> #[[Star Wars/Return of the Jedi]] (1983)	$309,064,373	
> #[[Independence Day]] (1996)	$306,200,000
> #[[The Sixth Sense]] (1999)	$293,501,675
> #[[Star Wars/The Empire Strikes Back]] (1980)	$290,158,751
> #[[Home Alone]] (1990)	$285,761,243
> #[[Jaws]] (1975)	$260,000,000
> #[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] (2000)	$259,951,325
> #[[Batman]] (1989)	$251,188,924
> #[[Men in Black]] (1997)	$250,147,615
> #[[Toy Story 2]] (1999)	$245,823,397
> #[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] (1981)	$242,374,454
> #[[Twister]] (1996)	$241,700,000
> #[[Ghostbusters]] (1984)	$238,600,000
> 
> Summary from the imdb web page:
> * USA domestic ticket sales only
> * Not adjusted for inflation (Gone with the Wind is number 34, released in 1939, and earned $198,655,278 dollars.  By 2000, 61 years of inflation puts it past Titanic).
------
1977|989637791
11c11
< The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and makes [[George Lucas]] and the team at [[LucasArts]] a staggering [[Top Grossing Movies|$461 million]].  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
---
> The science fiction saga, [[Star Wars]] makes its first outing to the cinema and makes [[George Lucas]] and the team at [[LucasArts]] a staggering [[top grossing movies|$461 million]].  And [[John Travolta]] [[Disco|discoed]] in [[Saturday Night Fever]]
14c14
< [[Rocky]] picks up a [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]] wins [[Jason Robards]] the [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Supporting Actor]] and an [Academy Awards/Art Direction|Art Direction]] for George Jenkins and George Gaines.
---
> [[Rocky]] picks up a [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[All The Presidents Men|All The President's Men]] wins [[Jason Robards]] the [[Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor|Supporting Actor]] and an [[Academy Awards/Art Direction|Art Direction]] for George Jenkins and George Gaines.
------
2000|989637828
15c15
< And to spite all the critics, the fairy tale adventure based on the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[Top Grossing Movies|$260]] million at the box office.
---
> And to spite all the critics, the fairy tale adventure based on the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[top grossing movies|$260 million]] at the box office.
------
Film|989637854
10c10
< :[[Top Grossing Movies]]
---
> :[[top grossing movies]]
------
WikiIsNotPaper|989637920
31c31
< <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[Top Grossing Movies]], but that
---
> <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[top grossing movies]], but that
------
Year_in_Review/Guidelines|989637985
20c20
< "the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed $259,951,325 at the box office."
---
> "[[Dr Suess]]' work, [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed $259,951,325 at the box office."
23c23
< "the works of [[Dr Suess]], [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[Top Grossing Movies|$260 million]] at the box office."
---
> "[[Dr Suess]]' work, [[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]] grossed [[top grossing movies|$260 million]] at the box office."
------
Persistence_of_Vision|989638028
1,8c1
< The theory that the mind retains an image for a split second.  This accounts for the fact that when a motion picture flashes a series of progressive images, instead of the mind seeing the flashing of a series of images, it sees the illusion of motion.
< 
< Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film--when the "film" is in fact film, that is "celluloid"--runs at 24 frames a second.  [[Digital Video]], or DV, runs at 30 frames per second; television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
< 
< Examples of film stocks include 35mm, the most common, as well as 70mm, 16mm, and 8mm.  8mm is common for home use, but grainy; 70mm is rare because of its cost, but allows a much finer picture (as can be seen in theatrical showings of [[Lawrence of Arabia]]--viewers will not notice much difference at home, on TV).  Examples of the difference in film quality are obvious in [[The Blair Witch Project]]--listen for Heather's comments about wanting to get footage on certain cameras.  
< 
< ----
< Also the name of a short story by JohnVarley, and the title of one of his later [http://www.sfsite.com/isfdb-bin/plist.cgi?PRSSTNCVSN19XX anthologies].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Persistence of vision]]
------
Persistence_of_vision|989638037
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The theory that the mind retains an image for a split second.  This accounts for the fact that when a motion picture flashes a series of progressive images, instead of the mind seeing the flashing of a series of images, it sees the illusion of motion.
> 
> Through experience in the early days of film innovation, it was determined that any rate less than 16 frames per second caused the mind to see flashing images.  Today's theatrical film--when the "film" is in fact film, that is "celluloid"--runs at 24 frames a second.  [[Digital Video]], or DV, runs at 30 frames per second; television runs barely under 30 frames a second.
> 
> Examples of film stocks include 35mm, the most common, as well as 70mm, 16mm, and 8mm.  8mm is common for home use, but grainy; 70mm is rare because of its cost, but allows a much finer picture (as can be seen in theatrical showings of [[Lawrence of Arabia]]--viewers will not notice much difference at home, on TV).  Examples of the difference in film quality are obvious in [[The Blair Witch Project]]--listen for Heather's comments about wanting to get footage on certain cameras.  
> 
> ----
> Also the name of a short story by JohnVarley, and the title of one of his later [http://www.sfsite.com/isfdb-bin/plist.cgi?PRSSTNCVSN19XX anthologies].
------
PersistenceofVision|989638061
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Persistence of Vision]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Persistence of vision]]
------
Film|989638095
1c1
< Initially, film constituted the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of more than 16 frames a second (see [[Persistence of Vision]]).  However, since the advent of many other media technologies, film may include a broad range of media--both linear and non-linear, dramatic and informational, motion and still (though progressive).
---
> Initially, film constituted the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of more than 16 frames a second (see [[persistence of vision]]).  However, since the advent of many other media technologies, film may include a broad range of media--both linear and non-linear, dramatic and informational, motion and still (though progressive).
14,15c14,15
< :[[Actors]]
< :[[Actresses]]
---
> :[[actors]]
> :[[actresses]]
17c17
< :[[Film Criticism|Film Critics]]
---
> :[[film criticism|film critics]]
------
Film_Directors|989638129
1,71c1
< :[[Woody Allen]]
< :[[Hal Ashby]]
< :[[Ingmar Bergman]]
< :[[James Cameron]]
< :[[Jane Campion]]
< :[[Frank Capra]]
< :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
< :[[The Coen Brothers]]
< :[[Francis Ford Coppola]]
< :[[David Cronenberg]]
< :[[George Cukor]]
< :[[Vittorio De Sica]]
< :[[Cecil B. Demille]]
< :[[Jonathan Demme]]
< :[[Carl Theodore Dreyer]]
< :[[Allan Dwan]]
< :[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
< :[[Clint Eastwood]]
< :[[Federico Fellini]]
< :[[Mike Figgis]]
< :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
< :[[John Ford]]
< :[[Milos Forman]]
< :[[John Frankenheimer]]
< :[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
< :[[David Griffith | D. W. Griffith]]
< :[[Howard Hawks]]
< :[[Werner Herzog]]
< :[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
< :[[Spike Jonze]]
< :[[Elia Kazan]]
< :[[Buster Keaton]]
< :[[Stanley Kubrick]]
< :[[Akira Kurosawa]]
< :[[David Lean]]
< :[[Ang Lee]]
< :[[Spike Lee]]
< :[[George Lucas]]
< :[[Sydney Lumet]]
< :[[David Lynch]]
< :[[Louis Malle]]
< :[[George Marshall]]
< :[[Mike Nichols]]
< :[[Roman Polanski]]
< :[[Sydney Pollack]]
< :[[Jacques Rivette]]
< :[[Robert Rodriguez]]
< :[[Eric Rohmer]]
< :[[John Sayles]]
< :[[John Schlesinger]]
< :[[Martin Scorsese]]
< :[[Ridley Scott]]
< :[[Steven Soderbergh]]
< :[[Steven Spielberg]]
< :[[Oliver Stone]]
< :[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
< :[[Quentin Tarantino]]
< :[[Francois Truffaut]]
< :[[King Vidor]]
< :[[Luchino Visconti]]
< :[[Erich von Stroheim]]
< :[[Lars von Trier]]
< :[[Andrzej Wajda]]
< :[[Wim Wenders]]
< :[[Billy Wilder]]
< :[[John Woo]]
< :[[William Wyler]]
< :[[Fred Zinnemann]]
< :[[Wachowski brothers]]
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
------
Film_directors|989638164
1c1,69
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Woody Allen]]
> :[[Hal Ashby]]
> :[[Ingmar Bergman]]
> :[[James Cameron]]
> :[[Jane Campion]]
> :[[Frank Capra]]
> :[[Charlie Chaplin]]
> :[[The Coen Brothers]]
> :[[Francis Ford Coppola]]
> :[[David Cronenberg]]
> :[[George Cukor]]
> :[[Vittorio De Sica]]
> :[[Cecil B. Demille]]
> :[[Jonathan Demme]]
> :[[Carl Theodore Dreyer]]
> :[[Allan Dwan]]
> :[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
> :[[Federico Fellini]]
> :[[Mike Figgis]]
> :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> :[[John Ford]]
> :[[Milos Forman]]
> :[[John Frankenheimer]]
> :[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
> :[[David Griffith | D. W. Griffith]]
> :[[Howard Hawks]]
> :[[Werner Herzog]]
> :[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
> :[[Spike Jonze]]
> :[[Elia Kazan]]
> :[[Buster Keaton]]
> :[[Stanley Kubrick]]
> :[[Akira Kurosawa]]
> :[[David Lean]]
> :[[Ang Lee]]
> :[[Spike Lee]]
> :[[George Lucas]]
> :[[Sydney Lumet]]
> :[[David Lynch]]
> :[[Louis Malle]]
> :[[George Marshall]]
> :[[Mike Nichols]]
> :[[Roman Polanski]]
> :[[Sydney Pollack]]
> :[[Jacques Rivette]]
> :[[Robert Rodriguez]]
> :[[Eric Rohmer]]
> :[[John Sayles]]
> :[[John Schlesinger]]
> :[[Martin Scorsese]]
> :[[Ridley Scott]]
> :[[Steven Soderbergh]]
> :[[Steven Spielberg]]
> :[[Oliver Stone]]
> :[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
> :[[Quentin Tarantino]]
> :[[Francois Truffaut]]
> :[[King Vidor]]
> :[[Luchino Visconti]]
> :[[Erich von Stroheim]]
> :[[Lars von Trier]]
> :The [[Wachowski brothers]]
> :[[Andrzej Wajda]]
> :[[Wim Wenders]]
> :[[Billy Wilder]]
> :[[John Woo]]
> :[[William Wyler]]
> :[[Fred Zinnemann]]
------
Film_director|989638194
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film Directors]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
------
Stephen_Spielberg|989638256
1c1
< Stephen Spielberg is an [[American]] [[Film Directors|film director]].
---
> Stephen Spielberg is an [[American]] [[film directors|film director]].
------
Film_history|989638289
38c38
< [[Film Directors|Directors]]:
---
> [[film directors|Directors]]:
------
FilmDirectors|989638319
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film Directors]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
------
Film|989638485
16c16
< :[[Film Directors]]
---
> :[[film directors]]
------
Propaganda_Film|989638539
1,3c1
< See also:
< 
< *[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Propaganda film]]
------
Propaganda_film|989638549
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See also:
> 
> *[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
------
Propaganda|989638713
1c1
< Propaganda, in the broad sense of the term, refers to information that serves a particular agenda.  The information may be true or false.  If true, it is often one-sided and fails to paint a complete picture.  Examples would include corporate information released by the corporation (so-called [[Corporate propaganda|corporate propaganda]]), and, in many cases, national histories as taught to school children.
---
> Propaganda, in the broad sense of the term, refers to information that serves a particular agenda.  The information may be true or false.  If true, it is often one-sided and fails to paint a complete picture.  Examples would include information released by any corporation (so-called [[corporate propaganda]]), and, in many cases, national histories as taught to school children.
3c3
< In a narrower and more common use of the term, propaganda refers to deliberately false or misleading information that supports a political cause or the interests of those in power.  The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or a situation, for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are considered desirable by the propagandist.  In this sense, propaganda serves as a corollary to [[Censorship|censorship]], in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's heads with false information, but by preventing people from knowing true information.  What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy, is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception, rather than persuasion.
---
> In a narrower and more common use of the term, propaganda refers to deliberately false or misleading information that supports a political cause or the interests of those in power.  The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or a situation, for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are considered desirable by the propagandist.  In this sense, propaganda serves as a corollary to [[censorship]], in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's heads with false information, but by preventing people from knowing true information.  What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy, is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception, rather than persuasion.
9c9
< Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, [[Junk science|junk science]], books, [[Propaganda Film|movies]], and posters.
---
> Common forms of propaganda include news reports, government reports, historical revision, [[junk science]], books, [[propaganda film|movies]], and posters.
13,15c13
< Could someone add a brief note with the etymology of the word?
< It comes from a Catholic Church congregation, the "Congregatio
< Propaganda something", the congragation for the propagation of faith. I don't do it myself because i don't remember the exact name.
---
> Could someone add a brief note with the etymology of the word? It comes from a Catholic Church congregation, the "Congregatio Propaganda something", the congragation for the propagation of faith. I don't do it myself because i don't remember the exact name.
------
Film_genres|989638735
16c16
< :[[Propaganda Film]]
---
> :[[propaganda film]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Spain_in_Flames|989638755
3c3
< ?was the title of a Loyalist propaganda film he wrote a comment for. Supporting the -mostly Communist- Loyalists further, he and John Dos Passos went to Spain, founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called "The Spanish Earth". In addition to that, Hemingway became war correspondent for NANA, the North American Newspaper Alliance, thus he saw much of the fighting and could collect experiences for a new novel. While he was in Spain, his second marriage went to pieces. A liaison with Martha Gellhorn was revealed when a Rebel shell hit the hot-water boiler of the correspondents' hotel "Florida".
---
> ? was the title of a Loyalist [[propaganda film]] he wrote a comment for. Supporting the -mostly Communist- Loyalists further, he and John Dos Passos went to Spain, founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called "The Spanish Earth". In addition to that, Hemingway became war correspondent for NANA, the North American Newspaper Alliance, thus he saw much of the fighting and could collect experiences for a new novel. While he was in Spain, his second marriage went to pieces. A liaison with Martha Gellhorn was revealed when a Rebel shell hit the hot-water boiler of the correspondents' hotel "Florida".
------
Action_Film|989638769
1c1
< Action [[film]]s usually involve a fairly straightforward story of good guys versus bad guys, where most disputes are resolved by using physical force.  Who exactly the good guys are differs from film to film, but usually they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers.  In the 1980s and before, they were very often [[communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[Propaganda Film]]s. 
---
> Action [[film]]s usually involve a fairly straightforward story of good guys versus bad guys, where most disputes are resolved by using physical force.  Who exactly the good guys are differs from film to film, but usually they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers.  In the 1980s and before, they were very often [[communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[propaganda film]]s. 
------
Action_Film|989638831
1,25c1
< Action [[film]]s usually involve a fairly straightforward story of good guys versus bad guys, where most disputes are resolved by using physical force.  Who exactly the good guys are differs from film to film, but usually they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers.  In the 1980s and before, they were very often [[communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[propaganda film]]s. 
< 
< Action films also constitute very good examples for [[feminist film theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear.  Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
< 
< Famous films:
< 
< *[[Heat Film|Heat]]
< *[[The Rock]]
< *[[Con Air]]
< *[[The Matrix]]
< *[[True Lies]]
< *[[Die Hard]]
< *[[Terminator]]
< *[[Rambo]]
< *[[Missing in Action]]
< 
< Famous actors:
< 
< *[[Chuck Norris]]
< *[[Sylvester Stallone]]
< *[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
< *[[Bruce Willis]]
< *[[Jean-Claude van Damme]]
< *[[Steven Segal]]
< *[[Michael Dudikoff]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Action film]]
------
Action_film|989638840
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Action [[film]]s usually involve a fairly straightforward story of good guys versus bad guys, where most disputes are resolved by using physical force.  Who exactly the good guys are differs from film to film, but usually they are patriotic and rather conservative Americans, whereas the bad guys are usually either criminals or agents of foreign powers.  In the 1980s and before, they were very often [[communist]]s, which brings some action films fairly close to [[propaganda film]]s. 
> 
> Action films also constitute very good examples for [[feminist film theory]], because in them, the separation between the physical male who controls the scene and the look and the female, who is almost always the object of the look is very clear.  Female characters in most action films are nothing more than objects, a prize for the winner, hostages, loving wives and the like. 
> 
> Famous films:
> 
> *[[Heat Film|Heat]]
> *[[The Rock]]
> *[[Con Air]]
> *[[The Matrix]]
> *[[True Lies]]
> *[[Die Hard]]
> *[[Terminator]]
> *[[Rambo]]
> *[[Missing in Action]]
> 
> Famous actors:
> 
> *[[Chuck Norris]]
> *[[Sylvester Stallone]]
> *[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
> *[[Bruce Willis]]
> *[[Jean-Claude van Damme]]
> *[[Steven Segal]]
> *[[Michael Dudikoff]]
------
ActionFilm|989638855
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Action Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Action film]]
------
James_Cameron|989638907
1c1
< American film director noted for his [[Action Film|action]]/[[Science Fiction Film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
---
> American film director noted for his [[action film|action]]/[[Science Fiction Film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
------
Film_genres|989638917
3c3
< :[[Action Film]]
---
> :[[action film]]
------
Comedy_Film|989638969
1,42c1
< Film comedy can be further divided into several other sub-genres.  Some of these include:
< *[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
< *[[Slapstick Film]]
< *[[Screwball Comedy Film]]
< *[[Parody Film]]
< *[[Dark Comedy Film]]
< 
< Some notable comedies:
< *[[It Happened One Night]]
< *[[Some Like It Hot]]
< *[[Ferris Buellers Day Off|Ferris Bueller's Day Off]]
< *[[Mars Attacks]]
< *[[The Mask]]
< *[[Ace Ventura]]
< *[[Tootsie]]
< *[[The Big Lebowski]]
< *[[The Full Montie]]
< *[[Liar Liar]]
< 
< Comedy Classics by [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
< *[[Modern Times]]
< *[[The Great Dictator]]
< 
< Comedy Classics by [[Buster Keaton]]:
< *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]]
< 
< Comedy Classics by [[The Marx Brothers]]:
< *[[The Marx Brothers Go to War]]
< 
< Comedy Classics by [[Woody Allen]]:
< *[[Take the Money and Run]]
< *[[Bananas]]
< *[[Sleeper]]
< *[[Bullets Over Broadway]]
< 
< Comedy Classics by [[Mel Brooks]]:
< *[[Space Balls]]
< *[[Silent Movie]]
< 
< 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Comedy film]]
------
Comedy_film|989638979
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Film comedy can be further divided into several other sub-genres.  Some of these include:
> *[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
> *[[Slapstick Film]]
> *[[Screwball Comedy Film]]
> *[[Parody Film]]
> *[[Dark Comedy Film]]
> 
> Some notable comedies:
> *[[It Happened One Night]]
> *[[Some Like It Hot]]
> *[[Ferris Buellers Day Off|Ferris Bueller's Day Off]]
> *[[Mars Attacks]]
> *[[The Mask]]
> *[[Ace Ventura]]
> *[[Tootsie]]
> *[[The Big Lebowski]]
> *[[The Full Montie]]
> *[[Liar Liar]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Charlie Chaplin]]:
> *[[Modern Times]]
> *[[The Great Dictator]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Buster Keaton]]:
> *[[The General Buster Keaton|The General]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[The Marx Brothers]]:
> *[[The Marx Brothers Go to War]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Woody Allen]]:
> *[[Take the Money and Run]]
> *[[Bananas]]
> *[[Sleeper]]
> *[[Bullets Over Broadway]]
> 
> Comedy Classics by [[Mel Brooks]]:
> *[[Space Balls]]
> *[[Silent Movie]]
------
Comedy_film|989639020
27a28,29
> *[[A Night at the Opera]]
> *[[Duck Soup]]
------
Romantic_Comedy_Film|989639049
1,4c1
< :[[Love in theAfternoon]]
< :[[When Harry Met Sally]]
< :[[Sleepless in Seattle]]
< :[[Youve Got Mail|You've Got Mail]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Romantic comedy film]]
------
Comedy_film|989639062
2c2
< *[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
---
> *[[romantic comedy film]]
------
Romantic_comedy_film|989639070
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Love in theAfternoon]]
> :[[When Harry Met Sally]]
> :[[Sleepless in Seattle]]
> :[[Youve Got Mail|You've Got Mail]]
------
Romantic_comedy_film|989639080
1c1
< :[[Love in theAfternoon]]
---
> :[[Love in the Afternoon]]
------
Screwball_Comedy_Film|989639116
1,21c1
< The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the [[film genres]].  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[film genre conventions]] that comprise the screwball comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[slapstick comedy film]] or [[situation comedy film]].
< 
< However, some have suggested the genre has several characteristics:
< *  Comedies produced by the American Hollywood Studio system between 1933 and 1939 that contain certain story or stylistic elements (mentioned below).  Most acknowledge that the screwball comedy had stragglers through the forties and fifties, but the onset of World War II and the end of the depression undermined some of the thematic codes that acted as a spine to the genre.
< *  Reverse class snobbery.  The implied or explicit belief that common folk were superior to the wealthy.  Associated with this was the belief that even the wealthy had the potential to exhibit the nobility of ordinary folk.
< *  Romantic element.  The screwball comedies always depicted a couple who was destined to complete each other but had a difficult time getting together.
< *  The stories almost always revolved around the idle rich and often came into conflict with the guy who has to work for a living.
< *  Divorce and Remarriage.  Some scholars point to this frequent device as evidence of the shift in the American moral code.  There was a move toward freer divorces but with the reassurance that marriage is ultimately a superior way of life.
< *  Fast-talking, witty reparte.  This stylistic device did not originate in the screwballs, but can be found in many of the old [[Hollywood Cycles]] including the gangster, journalism, romantic comedies, and others.
< *  Ridiculous situations.
< 
< Some characteristic examples:
< *[[Bringing Up Baby]]
< *[[The Philadelphia Story]]
< *[[The Awful Truth]]
< *[[It Happened One Night]]
< 
< Some actors most common to the screwball comedies:
< *[[Carole Lombard]]
< *[[Cary Grant]]
< *[[Clark Gable]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Screwball comedy film]]
------
Screwball_comedy_film|989639125
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The screwball comedy has proven to be one of the most elusive of the [[film genres]].  Very little consensus among students of film has been gathered on the [[film genre conventions]] that comprise the screwball comedy genre.  As a result, the description "screwball comedy" has continued to be used even when a better descriptor would be [[slapstick comedy film]] or [[situation comedy film]].
> 
> However, some have suggested the genre has several characteristics:
> *  Comedies produced by the American Hollywood Studio system between 1933 and 1939 that contain certain story or stylistic elements (mentioned below).  Most acknowledge that the screwball comedy had stragglers through the forties and fifties, but the onset of World War II and the end of the depression undermined some of the thematic codes that acted as a spine to the genre.
> *  Reverse class snobbery.  The implied or explicit belief that common folk were superior to the wealthy.  Associated with this was the belief that even the wealthy had the potential to exhibit the nobility of ordinary folk.
> *  Romantic element.  The screwball comedies always depicted a couple who was destined to complete each other but had a difficult time getting together.
> *  The stories almost always revolved around the idle rich and often came into conflict with the guy who has to work for a living.
> *  Divorce and Remarriage.  Some scholars point to this frequent device as evidence of the shift in the American moral code.  There was a move toward freer divorces but with the reassurance that marriage is ultimately a superior way of life.
> *  Fast-talking, witty reparte.  This stylistic device did not originate in the screwballs, but can be found in many of the old [[Hollywood Cycles]] including the gangster, journalism, romantic comedies, and others.
> *  Ridiculous situations.
> 
> Some characteristic examples:
> *[[Bringing Up Baby]]
> *[[The Philadelphia Story]]
> *[[The Awful Truth]]
> *[[It Happened One Night]]
> 
> Some actors most common to the screwball comedies:
> *[[Carole Lombard]]
> *[[Cary Grant]]
> *[[Clark Gable]]
------
Howard_Hawks|989639218
2,6c2,6
< :[[The Big Sleep]] - Gangster
< :[[Red River]] - Western
< :[[Bringing up Baby]] - [[Screwball Comedy Film]]
< :[[I was a Male War Bride]] - Comedy
< :[[His Girl Friday]] - Reporter sub-genre
---
> :[[The Big Sleep]] - [[gangster film]]
> :[[Red River]] - [[western film]]
> :[[Bringing up Baby]] - [[screwball comedy film]]
> :[[I was a Male War Bride]] - [[comedy film]]
> :[[His Girl Friday]] - [[comedy film]]
------
Film_genres|989639283
3,5c3,6
< :[[action film]]
< :[[Comedy Film]]
< :[[Romantic Comedy Film]]
---
> :[[Action film]]
> :[[Comedy film]]
> :[[Romantic comedy film]]
> 
------
RomanticComedyFilm|989639311
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Romantic Comedy Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Romantic comedy film]]
------
Genre_film_theory|989639336
16c16
< While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[Romantic Comedy Film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
---
> While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[romantic comedy film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
------
Documentary_Film|989639382
1,23c1
< An incredibly broad category of cinematic expression, traditionally, the only common characteristic to all documentary films is that it is meant to be non-fiction.
< 
< The earliest "moving pictures" were by definition documentary.  They were single shot, moments that were captures on film.  Whether it be a train entering a station, a boat docking, or a factory of people getting off work, early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event.  These short films were called "actualities."  Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century.
< 
< However, it wasn't until [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s [[Nanook of the North]] in the 1920s that documentary film making had matured.
< 
< [[1922]]-[[1927]] (Silent Era)
< :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
< :[[Merian C. Cooper]] and [[Ernest B. Schoedsack]]
< :[[Dziga Vertov]]
< 
< [[1927]]-present day  (Early Sound Era)
< :[[John Grierson]]
< :[[EMB Film Unit]]
< :[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
< :[[The March of Time]]
< 
< Contemporary Documentary filmmakers:
< :[[Errol Morris]] ([[The Thin Blue Line]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]])
< :[[Michael Moore]] ([[The Big One]], [[Roger and Me]])
< :[[Barbar Kopple]] ([[Wild Man Blues]], [[Harlan County U.S.A.]])
< :[[Steve James]] ([[Hoop Dreams]])
< :[[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost-- The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Documentary film]]
------
Documentary_film|989639392
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An incredibly broad category of cinematic expression, traditionally, the only common characteristic to all documentary films is that it is meant to be non-fiction.
> 
> The earliest "moving pictures" were by definition documentary.  They were single shot, moments that were captures on film.  Whether it be a train entering a station, a boat docking, or a factory of people getting off work, early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event.  These short films were called "actualities."  Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century.
> 
> However, it wasn't until [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s [[Nanook of the North]] in the 1920s that documentary film making had matured.
> 
> [[1922]]-[[1927]] (Silent Era)
> :[[Robert J. Flaherty]]
> :[[Merian C. Cooper]] and [[Ernest B. Schoedsack]]
> :[[Dziga Vertov]]
> 
> [[1927]]-present day  (Early Sound Era)
> :[[John Grierson]]
> :[[EMB Film Unit]]
> :[[Leni Riefenstahl]]
> :[[The March of Time]]
> 
> Contemporary Documentary filmmakers:
> :[[Errol Morris]] ([[The Thin Blue Line]], [[Vernon, Florida]], [[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]])
> :[[Michael Moore]] ([[The Big One]], [[Roger and Me]])
> :[[Barbar Kopple]] ([[Wild Man Blues]], [[Harlan County U.S.A.]])
> :[[Steve James]] ([[Hoop Dreams]])
> :[[Joe Berlinger]] and [[Bruce Sinofsky]] ([[Brothers Keeper]], [[Paradise Lost-- The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]
------
Film_genres|989639426
5a6
> :[[Documentary film]]
7d7
< :[[Documentary Film]]
------
John_Grierson|989639455
3c3
< Grierson was one of the most influential early documentary filmmakers.  He is probably most influential in his supporting, training, and "father of a school" role.  He was the creative organizer who formed and ran the Empire Marketing Board Film Unit (better known as the [[EMB Film Unit]]).
---
> Grierson was one of the most influential early [[documentary film|documentary]] filmmakers.  He is probably most influential in his supporting, training, and "father of a school" role.  He was the creative organizer who formed and ran the Empire Marketing Board Film Unit (better known as the [[EMB Film Unit]]).
6c6
< * [[Drifters]]
---
> * [[Drifters]]
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|989639509
3c3
< She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a documentary filmmaker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
---
> She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a [[documentary film]]-maker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
------
Cult_Film|989639544
1,17c1
< :[[The Breakfast Club]]
< :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
< :[[Blues Brothers]]
< :[[St Elmos Fire|St. Elmos Fire]]
< :[[The Graduate]]
< :[[Pulp Fiction]]
< :[[James Bond]] series
< ----
< 
< :[[Santa Sangre]]
< :[[Meet The Feebles]]
< :[[Eraserhead]]
< :[[Wizard Of Space And Time]]
< :[[Evil Dead]]
< :[[Apocalypse Now]]
< :[[Mars Attacks]]
< :[[Harold and Maude]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
------
Cult_film|989639619
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Apocalypse Now]]
> :[[Blues Brothers]]
> :[[The Breakfast Club]]
> :[[Eraserhead]]
> :[[Evil Dead]]
> :[[The Graduate]]
> :[[Harold and Maude]]
> :[[James Bond]] series
> :[[Mars Attacks]]
> :[[Meet The Feebles]]
> :[[Pulp Fiction]]
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
> :[[St Elmos Fire|St. Elmos Fire]]
> :[[Santa Sangre]]
> :[[Wizard Of Space And Time]]
------
CultFilm|989639647
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Cult Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
------
Film_genres|989639681
5c5
< :[[Romantic comedy film]]
---
> :[[Cult film]]
6a7
> :[[Romantic comedy film]]
8d8
< :[[Cult Film]]
------
Drama_Film|989639715
1,6c1
< :[[Twelve Angry Men]]
< :[[Witness]]
< :[[Dancing With Wolves]]
< :[[American Beauty]]
< :[[Life is Beautiful]]
< :[[Traffic]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Drama film]]
------
Drama_film|989639724
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :[[Twelve Angry Men]]
> :[[Witness]]
> :[[Dancing With Wolves]]
> :[[American Beauty]]
> :[[Life is Beautiful]]
> :[[Traffic]]
------
DramaFilm|989639786
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Drama Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Drama film]]
------
Film_genres|989639840
6a7,8
> :[[Drama film]]
> :[[Propaganda film]]
9d10
< :[[Drama Film]]
17d17
< :[[propaganda film]]
------
Film_genres|989639885
7a8,9
> :[[Historical drama film]]
> :[[Newsreel]]
9a12
> :[[Short]]
13d15
< :[[Historical Drama Film]]
17,18d18
< :[[Newsreel]]
< :[[Short]]
------
Film_genres|989639908
7a8
> :[[Fantasy film]]
14d14
< :[[Fantasy Film]]
------
Film_genres|989639948
13a14
> :[[Silent film]]
20d20
< :[[Silent film|Silent Film]]
------
Film_Noir|989639972
1c1
< A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film noir]]
------
Film_noir|989639982
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
------
Film_genres|989640018
8a9
> :[[Film noir]]
16d16
< :[[Film_Noir]]
------
Horror_Film|989640044
1,10c1
< *[[The Snake Pit]]
< *[[Nightmare on Elm Street]]
< *[[Scream]]
< *[[I Know What You Did Last Summer]]
< *[[The Silence of the Lambs]]
< *[[Hannibal]]
< *[[From Dusk Till Dawn|From Dusk 'Till Dawn]]
< *[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]
< *[[The Blair Witch Project]]
< *[[It]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Horror film]]
------
Horror_film|989640055
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[The Snake Pit]]
> *[[Nightmare on Elm Street]]
> *[[Scream]]
> *[[I Know What You Did Last Summer]]
> *[[The Silence of the Lambs]]
> *[[Hannibal]]
> *[[From Dusk Till Dawn|From Dusk 'Till Dawn]]
> *[[Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]
> *[[The Blair Witch Project]]
> *[[It]]
------
Film_genres|989640086
10a11
> :[[Horror film]]
17d17
< :[[Horror Film]]
------
Martial_Arts_Film|989640108
1,9c1
< Actors:
< 
< *[[Bruce Lee]]
< *[[Jackie Chan]]
< *[[Jean-Claude Van Damme]]
< 
< Films:
< 
< [[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Martial arts film]]
------
Martial_arts_film|989640118
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Actors:
> 
> *[[Bruce Lee]]
> *[[Jackie Chan]]
> *[[Jean-Claude Van Damme]]
> 
> Films:
> 
> [[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]
------
Crouching_Tiger,_Hidden_Dragon|989640155
1c1
< A [[Martial Arts Film|Martial Arts]] and [[Fantasy Film|Fantasy]] film released in year 2000.  It was directed by [[Ang Lee]] and starred [[Chow Yun-Fat]], [[Michelle Yeoh]], and [[Ziyi Zhang]].
---
> A [[Martial arts film|Martial Arts]] and [[Fantasy film|Fantasy]] film released in year 2000.  It was directed by [[Ang Lee]] and starred [[Chow Yun-Fat]], [[Michelle Yeoh]], and [[Ziyi Zhang]].
------
Musical_Film|989640179
1,20c1
< A film that features songs, sung by the actors, seamlessly interwoven into the narrative.  Some famous musicals include:
< 
< :[[An American in Paris]]
< :[[Carousel]]
< :[[Everyone Says I love You]]
< :[[Fame]]
< :[[Gigi]]
< :[[The King and I]]
< :[[Kiss Me Kate]]
< :[[Little Shop of Horrors]]
< :[[My Fair Lady]]
< :[[Oklahoma]]
< :[[Peter Pan]]
< :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
< :[[Saturday Night Fever]]
< :[[Singin in the Rain]]
< :[[The Sound of Music]]
< :[[South Pacific]]
< :[[Top Hat]]
< :[[West Side Story]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Musical film]]
------
Musical_film|989640190
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film that features songs, sung by the actors, seamlessly interwoven into the narrative.  Some famous musicals include:
> 
> :[[An American in Paris]]
> :[[Carousel]]
> :[[Everyone Says I love You]]
> :[[Fame]]
> :[[Gigi]]
> :[[The King and I]]
> :[[Kiss Me Kate]]
> :[[Little Shop of Horrors]]
> :[[My Fair Lady]]
> :[[Oklahoma]]
> :[[Peter Pan]]
> :[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]
> :[[Saturday Night Fever]]
> :[[Singin in the Rain]]
> :[[The Sound of Music]]
> :[[South Pacific]]
> :[[Top Hat]]
> :[[West Side Story]]
------
Genre_film_theory|989640276
16c16
< While [[Western Film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[romantic comedy film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[Musical Film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
---
> While [[western film]]s are an easy example, many other genres developed equally complex sets of conventions.  The eery music in slasher films, the loss of the girl due to dishonesty in the [[romantic comedy film]], and the spontaneous burst into song in the [[musical film]] all are some of the more explicit conventions that we no longer consider.
------
An_American_in_Paris|989640295
1c1
< A 1951 [[Musical Film]] starring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]], set in Paris, directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]].  The climax of the film is 18 minutes of fantastic dancing featuring Kelly and Caron, set to [[George Gershwin]]'s "An American In Paris."
---
> A 1951 [[musical film]] starring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]], set in Paris, directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]].  The climax of the film is 18 minutes of fantastic dancing featuring Kelly and Caron, set to [[George Gershwin]]'s "An American In Paris."
------
Science_Fiction_Film|989640334
1,28c1
< A lot of [[science fiction]] films were low-budget productions (eg. [[Day of the Triffids]]), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
< 
<  
< :[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[1927]]
< :[[The Invisible Man]], [[1933]] 
< :[[Things to Come]], [[1938]]
< :[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]], [[1951]]
< :[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]], [[1958]]
< :[[The War of the Worlds]], [[1952]]
< :[[Godzilla]], [[1954]]-
< :[[Forbidden Planet]], [[1956]]
< :[[This Island Earth]]
< :[[Jouney to the Center of the Earth]], [[1959]]
< :[[The Time Machine]], [[1960]]
< :[[Day of the Triffids]], [[1963]]
< :[[2001 A Space Odyssey]] [[1968]]
< :[[Dark Star]], [[1974]]
< :[[Rollerball]], [[1975]]
< :[[Star Wars]], [[1977]]-
< :[[Star Trek]], [[1979]]-
< :[[Alien]], [[1979]]
< :[[Outland]], [[1981]]
< :[[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]], [[1982]]
< :[[Blade Runner]], [[1982]]
< :[[Dune/Films|Dune]], [[1984]]
< :[[The Terminator]], [[1984]]
< :[[The Abyss]], [[1989]]
< :[[Mission to Mars]], [[2000]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science fiction film]]
------
Science_fiction_film|989640345
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A lot of [[science fiction]] films were low-budget productions (eg. [[Day of the Triffids]]), but because of growing popularity and recent developments in the technology of special effects, most films are now multi-million dollar projects.
> 
> 
> :[[Metropolis Fritz Lang|Metropolis]], [[1927]]
> :[[The Invisible Man]], [[1933]] 
> :[[Things to Come]], [[1938]]
> :[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]], [[1951]]
> :[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]], [[1958]]
> :[[The War of the Worlds]], [[1952]]
> :[[Godzilla]], [[1954]]-
> :[[Forbidden Planet]], [[1956]]
> :[[This Island Earth]]
> :[[Jouney to the Center of the Earth]], [[1959]]
> :[[The Time Machine]], [[1960]]
> :[[Day of the Triffids]], [[1963]]
> :[[2001 A Space Odyssey]] [[1968]]
> :[[Dark Star]], [[1974]]
> :[[Rollerball]], [[1975]]
> :[[Star Wars]], [[1977]]-
> :[[Star Trek]], [[1979]]-
> :[[Alien]], [[1979]]
> :[[Outland]], [[1981]]
> :[[ET the Extraterrestrial|E.T.]], [[1982]]
> :[[Blade Runner]], [[1982]]
> :[[Dune/Films|Dune]], [[1984]]
> :[[The Terminator]], [[1984]]
> :[[The Abyss]], [[1989]]
> :[[Mission to Mars]], [[2000]]
------
Science_fiction|989640444
18c18
< * [[Science Fiction Film]]
---
> * [[Science fiction film]]
------
James_Cameron|989640466
1c1
< American film director noted for his [[action film|action]]/[[Science Fiction Film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
---
> American film director noted for his [[action film|action]]/[[science fiction film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
------
John_Wyndham|989640526
7c7
< <i>The Midwich Cuckoos</i> depicted a small village in which, during 24 hours when the inhabitants are unconscious, and the village is cut off from the outside world, all the women of child-bearing age mysteriously become pregnant, eventually giving birth to golden eyed children with telepathic abilities. It was filmed as "Village of the Damned", with (unusually for a science fiction film) the plot being kept exactly as in the book.
---
> <i>The Midwich Cuckoos</i> depicted a small village in which, during 24 hours when the inhabitants are unconscious, and the village is cut off from the outside world, all the women of child-bearing age mysteriously become pregnant, eventually giving birth to golden eyed children with telepathic abilities. It was filmed as "Village of the Damned", with (unusually for a [[science fiction film]]) the plot being kept exactly as in the book.
------
Metropolis_Fritz_Lang|989640617
1c1
< [[Silent film|Silent]] science fiction film by [[Fritz Lang]] in which society has been divided into two rigid castes: one of planners, who live above the earth in wealth, and another of workers who live underground in poverty.  One of the workers ventures belowground and is astonished by what she sees; she makes efforts to reconcile the two ways of life.  Features special effects and set design that still impress audiences nearly 80 years later.
---
> [[Silent film|Silent]] [[science fiction film]] by [[Fritz Lang]] in which society has been divided into two rigid castes: one of planners, who live above the earth in wealth, and another of workers who live underground in poverty.  One of the workers ventures belowground and is astonished by what she sees; she makes efforts to reconcile the two ways of life.  Features special effects and set design that still impress audiences nearly 80 years later.
------
ScienceFictionFilm|989640636
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Science Fiction Film]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Science fiction film]]
------
Film_genres|989640734
11a12,13
> :[[Martial arts Film]]
> :[[Musical film]]
14a17
> :[[Science fiction film]]
18,20d20
< :[[Martial Arts Film]]
< :[[Musical Film]]
< :[[Science Fiction Film]]
------
Thriller_Film|989640757
1c1
< [[Natural Born Killers]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Thriller film]]
------
Thriller_film|989640764
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Natural Born Killers]]
------
Western_Film|989640796
1,21c1
< One of the cassical American [[film genres]]. The genre was born in literature with "The Virginian."  In film, it traces its roots back to "The Great Train Robbery" directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].  In the United States, the western has had an extremely rich history that spans many genres (comedy, drama, tragedy, parody, musical, etc.)
< 
< During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]].  [[Clint Eastwood]] became famous staring in these films.
< 
< Famous Westerns:
< 
< :[[Stage Coach]]
< :[[Red River]]
< :[[High Noon]]
< :[[Destry Rides Again]]
< 
< Famous Directors:
< 
< :[[John Ford]]
< :[[Howard Hawks]]
< :[[Sergio Leone]]
< 
< Famous Western Actors:
< 
< :[[John Wayne]]
< :[[Clint Eastwood]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Western film]]
------
Western_film|989640831
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the classic American [[film genres]]. The genre was born in literature with "The Virginian."  In film, it traces its roots back to "[[The Great Train Robbery]]" directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].  In the United States, the western has had an extremely rich history that spans many genres (comedy, drama, tragedy, parody, musical, etc.)
> 
> During the 1970ies, there was a revival with the so-called "Spaghetti Westerns" or "Italo-Westerns", most notably those by [[Sergio Leone]].  [[Clint Eastwood]] became famous staring in these films.
> 
> Famous Westerns:
> 
> :[[Stage Coach]]
> :[[Red River]]
> :[[High Noon]]
> :[[Destry Rides Again]]
> 
> Famous Directors:
> 
> :[[John Ford]]
> :[[Howard Hawks]]
> :[[Sergio Leone]]
> 
> Famous Western Actors:
> 
> :[[John Wayne]]
> :[[Clint Eastwood]]
------
Film_genres|989640872
20,22c20,21
< 
< :[[Thriller Film]]
< :[[Western Film]]
---
> :[[Thriller film]]
> :[[Western film]]
------
Film|989640908
4,10c4,10
< :[[film criticism]]
< :[[film festival]]s
< :[[film genres]]
< :[[film history]]
< :[[film theory]]
< :[[film technique]]
< :[[top grossing movies]]
---
> :[[Film criticism]]
> :[[Film festival]]s
> :[[Film genres]]
> :[[Film history]]
> :[[Film theory]]
> :[[Film technique]]
> :[[Top grossing movies]]
14,17c14,17
< :[[actors]]
< :[[actresses]]
< :[[film directors]]
< :[[film criticism|film critics]]
---
> :[[Actors]]
> :[[Actresses]]
> :[[Film directors]]
> :[[film criticism|Film critics]]
------
Countries_of_the_world|989642202
143d142
<    * [[Korea]]
147a147
>    * [[North Korea]]
152a153
>    * [[South Korea]]
180d180
< 
------
Geography|989642308
9c9
< [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[city|cities]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Oceans]] -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]] --[[Mountain|Mountains]] -- [[Mountain Ranges]]
---
> [[Countries of the world]] -- [[country]] -- [[city|cities]] -- [[Continents]] -- [[Ocean]]s -- [[Sea|Seas]] -- [[River|Rivers]] -- [[Lake|Lakes]] -- [[Island|Islands]] --[[Mountain|Mountains]] -- [[Mountain Ranges]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989652583
39,41c39
< ''''''  :-) No, Koyaanisqatsi is just a movie I identify strongly with.  (I could have called myself the Bicycle Thief, but that sounds too much like a violation of the fifth amendment.)  ;-)  I didn't go with my name because I'm an information junkie; as a result I've developed a great respect for privacy: once any bit of information is out in print or online, it can reproduced and collated infinitely, all without the careful judgment that typically goes with sharing some bit of information with a person, in person.  In the entry I wrote about Ingmar Bergman, I wrote about the way he works because it is his work that I'm interested in; I expect to do the same for the other entries, though I would not mind if others added biographical details.  I personally tend to see them as relevant only when they've had an obvious effect on the work.
< 
< Anyway, right now, with just my name and the name of the town I live in, anyone can find out where I went to college, at least one genre of music I listen to, and what my positions on 3 specific controversial topics are, as well as which Political Action Committee I volunteered for and whose campaigns I've contributed to in the last 2 years (implying my position on quite a few more controversial topics).  One could also, going to the print version of some of the information about me online, discover that I maintain the website for a local independent newspaper which tends to have consistently firm and pronounced views on controversial issues--implying an endorsement of some or all of those views.  This amount of information is more than I would share with any stranger, so I find it disturbing that I've left it all out in the open where any stranger can discover it.  I don't mind being personable, I just feel that online, people get lost among the data.  Suffice it to say I have no intention of becoming a celebrity.  :-D
---
> ''''''  :-) No, Koyaanisqatsi is just a movie I identify strongly with.  (I could have called myself the Bicycle Thief, but that sounds too much like a violation of the fifth amendment.)  ;-)  I didn't go with my name because I'm an information junkie; as a result I've developed a great respect for privacy: once any bit of information is out in print or online, it can reproduced and collated infinitely, all without the careful judgment that typically goes with sharing some bit of information with a person, in person.  In the entry I wrote about Ingmar Bergman, I wrote about the way he works because it is his work that I'm interested in; I expect to do the same for the other entries, though I would not mind if others added biographical details.  I personally tend to see them as relevant only when they've had an obvious effect on the work.  I don't mind being personable, I just feel that online, people get lost among the data.  Suffice it to say I have no intention of becoming a celebrity.  :-D
------
Irish_potato_famine|989668222
3c3
< the potato as their primary and sometimes only foodsource. It is estimated that the initial population 
---
> the [[potato]] as their primary and sometimes only foodsource. It is estimated that the initial population 
5,6c5,6
< During this time, [[Great Britain]] forced the Irish to export corn (and other crops) which could have save the lives of many Irish. 
<  
---
> During this time, [[Great Britain]] forced the Irish to export corn (and other crops) which could have saved the lives of many Irish. 
>  
------
Tifinagh|989668381
1c1
< The alphabet of the Berbers. It clearly has different sources (O'Connor 112), probably Punic and Northern Arabic scripts, while at the same time being very innovative. 
---
> The [[alphabet]] of the [[Berbers]]. It clearly has different sources (O'Connor 112), probably Punic and Northern Arabic scripts, while at the same time being very innovative. 
------
Robert_Rodriguez|989668560
1c1
< (Partly?) Mexican American director who debuted with the short film "Bedhead" and after that went on to direct the - according to legend - 700 $ action flick "El mariachi" in Spanish, inspired by [[John Woo]] films. Rodriguez later stated that after seeing those cool Asian heroes, he wanted to make a film with a Latino hero. And that's what he did, with much corazón, so to say, meaning lots of heart and humour as well as violence. His next film was "Desperado", a sequel of "El mariachi" starring Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek. He crossed over into the horror genre with "From Dusk Till Dawn" and re-wrote "The Invasion of the Body Snatchers" with his awesome teenager horror sci-fi flick "The Faculty". 
---
> (Partly?) Mexican [[American]] director who debuted with the short film "Bedhead" and after that went on to direct the - according to legend - 700 $ action flick "El mariachi" in Spanish, inspired by [[John Woo]] films. Rodriguez later stated that after seeing those cool Asian heroes, he wanted to make a film with a Latino hero. And that's what he did, with much corazón, so to say, meaning lots of heart and humour as well as violence. His next film was "[[Desperado]]", a sequel of "[[El mariachi]]" starring Antonio Banderas and Salma Hayek. He crossed over into the horror genre with "[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]" and re-wrote "[[The Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]" with his awesome teenager horror sci-fi flick "[[The Faculty]]". 
------
Film_Directors|989668689
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
---
> 
------
Film_Directors|989668731
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Film directors]]
------
Film_history/Russia|989668915
1c1
< While Russia was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to WWI, Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s "Intolerance" and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
---
> While [[Russia]] was involved in filmmaking as early as most of the other nations in the West, it only came into prominence during the 1920s when it explored editing as the primary mode of cinematic expression.  Because of the depletion of resources due to [[World War I]], Russian film schools would take copies of [[David Griffith]]'s "Intolerance" and re-cut it as an exercise in creating meaning.
------
Estruscan_alphabet|989669181
1c1
< The Etruscan alphabet derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in Greece/Asia Minor. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], Psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Psi = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
---
> The Etruscan [[alphabet]] derives from the Greek, it is however not clear whether the process of adaptation took place in Italy or in [[Greece]]/[[Asia Minor]]. It was in any case a Western Greek alphabet. In the alphabets of the West,  X  had the sound value [ks], Psi stood for [k_h]; in Etruscan: X = [s], Psi = [k_j] or [k_X] (Rix 202-209). An additional sign, 8, was present in both Lydian and Etruscan (Jensen 513) Its origin is disputed; it may be an altered B or H or an ex novo creation (Rix 202). Its sound value was /f/ and it replaced the Etruscan FH.
------
HomePage|989671772
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 3,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
Hurd|989672020
1c1
< A kernel that has been in the works for years, designed to be completely in line with the [[GNU]] philosophy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[GNU/Hurd]]
------
Open_source|989673855
1c1
< Open source ComputerSoftware is nominally owned by one entity, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], and then licensed out according to an [[open source license]]; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the [[Source code]], so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.  (This needs to be expanded.)
---
> Open source [[computer software]] is nominally owned by one individual or entity and then licensed out according to an [[open source license]]; the license gives the user free use of the software as well access to the [[source code]], so that the software can then be further developed by whoever is interested.
3c3
< The [[open source movement]] is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to ComputerSoftware.
---
> The [[open source movement]] is a large movement of programmers and other computer users to give easy access to [[computer software]].
7c7
< Among the relevant topics:
---
> <b>People:</b>
9c9
< [[Donald E Knuth]], [[Richard Stallman]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Eric Raymond]], [[Paul Vixie]]
---
> [[Bruce Parens]], [[Donald E Knuth]], [[Eric Raymond]], [[Linus Torvalds]], [[Paul Vixie]], [[Richard Stallman]]
11c11
< The GNUProjecT (see also [[GNU]]), the [[GPL]], [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Debian Linux]] distribution, [[FreeBSD]]
---
> <b>Projects and Organizations:</b>
13c13,27
< [[Open Source Software]]: [[Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
---
> [[Debian GNU/Linux]] [[Free Software Foundation]], [[GNU]] Project, [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], [[Open Source Initiative]]
> 
> <b>Companies Involved in Open Source Development:</b>
> 
> [[Apple Computer|Apple]], [[Caldera]], [[IBM]], [[Red Hat]], [[Sun Microsystems]]
> 
> <b>Examples of Open Source Licenses:</b>
> 
> [[Apache Software License]] [[BSD/License|BSD License]], [[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]], [[Sun Microsystems/SISSL|Sun Internet Standards Source License]]
> 
> For a more extensive list, see [[Open source licenses]]
> 
> <b>[[Open Source Software]]:</b>
> 
> [[GNU/Emacs|Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree86]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
15,16d28
< ''Please delete this note after confirmation/disconfirmation:
< I'm not sure that TeX is OpenSource.''
------
Open_source|989674029
21c21
< [[Apache Software License]] [[BSD/License|BSD License]], [[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]], [[Sun Microsystems/SISSL|Sun Internet Standards Source License]]
---
> [[BSD/License|BSD License]], [[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]], [[GNU/LGPL|GNU Lesser Public License]], [[MIT License]]
------
Open_source_license|989675243
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An open source license is any computer software license that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]]. More formally, a license is considered open source when it is certified by the [[Open Source Initiative]]. The following licenses have been certified:
> 
> *[[Apache Software License]]
> *[[Artistic license]]
> *[[BSD/License|BSD license]]
> *[[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]] (GPL)
> *[[GNU/LGPL|GNU Lesser Public License]] (LGPL)
> *[[IBM Public License]]
> *[[Intel Open Source License]]
> *[[Jabber Open Source License]]
> *[[MIT license]]
> *[[MITRE Collaborative Virtual Workspace License]] (CVW License)
> *[[Mozilla Public License 1.0]] (MPL)
> *[[Mozilla Public License 1.1]] (MPL 1.1)
> *[[Nethack General Public License]]
> *[[Nokia Open Source License]]
> *[[Python license]]
> *[[Qt Public License]] (QPL)
> *[[Ricoh Source Code Public License]]
> *[[Sleepycat License]]
> *[[Sun Microsystems/SISSL|Sun Internet Standards Source License]] (SISSL)
> *[[Vovida Software License]] v. 1.0
> *[[zlib-libpng license]]
> 
> It should be noted that the [[Free Software Foundation]] has different criteria for evaluating whether or not a license qualifies as [[free]]. See [[Free software license]].
> 
> See also: [[open source]], [[open source movement]], [[Open Source Initiative]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
------
GNU/LGPL|989675719
1c1,504
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <pre>
> 		  GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE
> 		       Version 2.1, February 1999
> 
>  Copyright (C) 1991, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
>      59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
>  Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
>  of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
> 
> [This is the first released version of the Lesser GPL.  It also counts
>  as the successor of the GNU Library Public License, version 2, hence
>  the version number 2.1.]
> 
> 			    Preamble
> 
>   The licenses for most software are designed to take away your
> freedom to share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public
> Licenses are intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change
> free software--to make sure the software is free for all its users.
> 
>   This license, the Lesser General Public License, applies to some
> specially designated software packages--typically libraries--of the
> Free Software Foundation and other authors who decide to use it.  You
> can use it too, but we suggest you first think carefully about whether
> this license or the ordinary General Public License is the better
> strategy to use in any particular case, based on the explanations below.
> 
>   When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom of use,
> not price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that
> you have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge
> for this service if you wish); that you receive source code or can get
> it if you want it; that you can change the software and use pieces of
> it in new free programs; and that you are informed that you can do
> these things.
> 
>   To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
> distributors to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender these
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> 
>   We protect your rights with a two-step method: (1) we copyright the
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> 
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> 
>   Although the Lesser General Public License is Less protective of the
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> 
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>   To apply these terms, attach the following notices to the library.  It is
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>     This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
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> 
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>     but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
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> 
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>     License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
>     Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307  USA
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> Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
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> school, if any, to sign a "copyright disclaimer" for the library, if
> necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:
> 
>   Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the
>   library `Frob' (a library for tweaking knobs) written by James Random Hacker.
> 
>   <signature of Ty Coon>, 1 April 1990
>   Ty Coon, President of Vice
> 
> That's all there is to it!
> </pre>
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Making_Wikipedia_profitable|989677844
108c108
< Comment written by LA2 on May 10, 2001: I just wrote a page on the [[dotcom death]].  The only sort of financing that I believe in for a site like this is a fat, one-time donation from someone who has too much money.  Don't tax the users with subscription fees or advertisments.  Theses plans are doomed.  I didn't know some of the contributors here were paid.  I'm certainly not.  I just spent a few evenings here writing articles on everything conceivable and I was surprised that I got to write articles on things like San Francisco (not exactly my field of expertise).  Then I found http://www.nupedia.com/ which has published 17 articles in 10 months (not really a threat to Encyclopaedia Britannica), so Wikipedia is the big and dominating project, and in just a few evenings I have been able to write more articles than most people here.  That is sort of embarassing, and shows how thin this Internet is, still after 30 years.
---
> Comment written by LA2 on May 10, 2001: I just wrote a page on the [[dotcom death]].  The only sort of financing that I believe in for a site like this is a fat, one-time donation from someone who has too much money.  Don't tax the users with subscription fees or advertisments.  Theses plans are doomed.  I didn't know some of the contributors here were paid.  I'm certainly not.  I just spent a few evenings here writing articles on everything conceivable and I was surprised that I got to write articles on things like San Francisco (not exactly my field of expertise).  Then I found http://www.nupedia.com/ which has published 17 articles in 10 months (not really a threat to Encyclopaedia Britannica), so Wikipedia is the big and dominating project, and in just a few evenings I have been able to write more articles than most people here (including LA2, IP 130.236.221.xxx on May 3, and IP 213.112.220.xxx on May 10).  That is sort of embarassing, and shows how thin this Internet is, still after 30 years.
------
Linkoeping|989678332
3c3,8
< Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
---
> Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  It is part of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]] county.
> The municipality borders in the north to [[Motala]], and
> clockwise to [[Finspong|Finspång]], [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
> [[Atvidaberg|Åtvidaberg]], [[Kisa]], and [[Mjolby|Mjölby]].
> 
> The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
------
Linkoeping|989678487
3,5c3,6
< Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in Sweden.  It is part of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]] county.
< The municipality borders in the north to [[Motala]], and
< clockwise to [[Finspong|Finspång]], [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
---
> Linköping is a city in south central [[Sweden]].  The town and its surroundings constitute the 5th largest municipality in
> Sweden.  It is part of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]] and
> borders in the north to [[Motala]], and clockwise to
> [[Finspong|Finspång]], [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
------
Linkoeping|989678530
4c4
< Sweden.  It is part of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]] and
---
> Sweden.  It is part of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]] county and
------
Ostergotland|989678941
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Östergötland is a [[Swedish landscape region]] and a [[Swedish county]].  The county, which is the current legal entity, contains the following [[Swedish municipalities]]: [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]], [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Finspong|Finspång]], [[Motala]], [[Mjolby|Mjölby]], [[Odeshog|Ödeshög]], [[Kisa]], [[Atvidaberg|Åtvidaberg]], and [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]].
> 
> The landscape region is almost exactly the same as the county.  Its tradition goes back into the undocumented [[iron age]] and [[viking age]] prehistory, when this region had its own king and law.  The region kept its own laws (Östgötalagen) into the medieval times when Sweden was a united kingdom.  Traditionally, the region is divided into two halfs, east and west of the river [[Stangan|Stångån]], which flows from the south into [[lake Roxen]] at [[Linkoeping|Linköping]].
> 
------
Motala|989679288
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Motala is a [[city]] and [[Swedish municipality]] in the county of [[Ostergotland|Östergötland]], on lake [[Vattern|Vättern]], where it drains into the river system of [[Motala strom|Motala ström]].
> 
> When [[Gota kanal|Göta kanal]] was built in the early [[19th century]], Motala became an important city for the trade on the canal.  [[Motala verkstad]] was the ship and steam engine industry, famous in large parts of the world.  In the [[science fiction]] novel ...  by Jules Verne, the submarine's (engine?) was built at Motala verkstad.
> 
> Another important event in the history of Motala is 1925, when the Swedish national longwave [[radio]] broadcasting station was built here.  The city marks the middle of a straight line between Sweden's two biggest cities, [[Stockholm]] and [[Gothenburg]].  Radio programs were transfered from studios in Stockholm to Motala by telephone wire.  The call was "Stockholm-Motala".  The sender operated on 191 kHz longwave until a few years ago.
> 
> 
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|989683508
5a6,9
> <b>May, 2001</b>
> :[[Douglas Adams]] -- author, heart attack, age 49 (May 12)
> :[[Cliff Hillegass]] -- creator of Cliff Notes, stroke, age 83 (May 5)
> 
------
Swedish_municipality|989683603
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Sweden]] is divded into 20-some [[Swedish county|counties]] and 200-some municipalities.
> 
> The five biggest are:
> 
> [[Stockholm]],
> [[Gothenburg]],
> [[Malmo|Malmö]],
> [[Uppsala]],
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]]
> 
> Some of the others (in alphabetic order):
> 
> [[Lekeberg]],
> [[Motala]],
> [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]]
------
Swedish_municipality|989683638
7c7
< [[Malmo|Malmö]],
---
> [[Malmoe|Malmö]],
9c9
< [[Linkoeping|Linköping]]
---
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]] 
------
Swedish_municipality|989683701
12a13,14
> [[Gotland]],
> [[Helsingborg]],
15c17,20
< [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]]
---
> [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
> [[Orebro|Örebro]],
> [[Ostersund|Östersund]]
> 
------
Maltese_language|989683906
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Maltese is most closely related to Arabic, but in the course of its history it adopted many loans and even phonetic and phonological features from (Southern) Italian and English. 
------
Finno-Ugric_languages|989684924
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Finnish]]
> [[Sami]]
> [[Estonian]]
> 
> 
> 
> [[Hungarian]]
> [[Khanty]]
> [[Mansi]]
> 
------
Finnish|989685226
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Finnish is an agglutinative language that like Hungarian always has stress on the fisrt syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. English king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European languages. 
> 
------
Famous_Physicists|989685912
28d27
< *[[Albert Einstein]]
30c29
< *[[Niels Bohr]]
---
> *[[Niels Bohr]]_
33a33
> 
38,41c38
< http://www.aip.org/history/esva/
< 
< 
< 
---
> http://www.aip.org/history/esva/
------
Famous_Physicists|989685944
29c29
< *[[Niels Bohr]]_
---
> *[[Niels Bohr]]
------
Netherlandic_language|989687521
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Netherlandic, also called Dutch (from Netherlandic 'duits', which in modern Netherlandic means 'German'), is a West Germanic language most closely related to Low German on the one hand and Frisian and English on the other hand. Dutch did not participate in the second (High German) sound shifting - compare German machen /-x-/ Dutch maken, English make, 
> German Pfanne /pf-/, Dutch pan, English pan, German zwei /ts-/, Dutch twee, English two. 
> 
> Dutch has more French loanwords than German, and less than English. 
> 
> The Phonemes of Dutch:
> 
> Plosives
> 
> /p, b/ 
> 
> /t, d/
> 
> /k/ [g] only in foreign words
> 
> Fricatives
> 
> /f, v/ /v/ fell together with /f/ for many speakers
> 
> /s, z/ /z/ fell together with /s/ for many speakers
> 
> /x, G/ /G/ fell together with /x/ for many speakers
> 
> /h/
> 
> /S, Z/ /Z/ only in foreign words. Some scholars interpret /S/ [s_j] as an allophone of /s/ + /j/
> 
> Semi-vowels
> 
> /j/
> 
> /w/ (actually, /w/ is most often released as an approximant)
> 
> Liquida
> 
> /l/
> 
> /r/
> 
> /m/
> 
> /n/
> 
> /N/
> 
> Vowels
> 
> 
> Back vowels
> 
> /A/ 
> /Y/
> /O/
> 
> Mid (central) vowels
> 
> /@/ Schwa: e in kunnen /kYn@/
> /Y/ u in kunnen
> 
> 
> Front vowels
> 
> /a/ maken
> /E/ best
> /e/ neer often pronounced as a diphthong) 
> /2/ keuken (often pronounced as a diphthong)
> /I/ minst
> /i/ klieven
> /y/ Ruud
> 
> Diphthongs
> 
> /EI/ jij, intimiteit
> /@Y/ huis
> /Aw/ vrouw
> 
> 
> 
------
Occitan_language|989687699
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Occitan, also called Provençal, was a literary language but finally died out due to French centralism. 
------
Syllabary|989687797
3c3
< Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek (Linear A) or some Native American languages such as Cherokee. The Indian languages and Ethiopic have alphabets (called abugidas by some scholars) that look like syllabaries to western eyes, however, they are not syllabaries. They both use consonant signs as well as vowel signs. Most often, the vowel sign is added to the consonant sign which may give the impression of a syllaboc unit. 
---
> Other languages that use syllabic writing include Mycenaean Greek (Linear A) and Native American languages such as Cherokee. The Indian languages and Ethiopic have alphabets (called abugidas by some scholars) that look like syllabaries to western eyes, however, they are not syllabaries. They both use consonant signs as well as vowel signs. Most often, the vowel sign is added to the consonant sign which may give the impression of a syllaboc unit. 
------
Japanese_language|989687935
1c1
< The Japanese Language is very different from English and other European Languages.
---
> The Japanese Language is very different from English and most other European Languages. Like Finnish, Japanese is an agglutinating language, and it has two tones like Serbian/Croatian and Swedish. 
27c27
<     k          ka    ki    ku    ke    ko
---
>     k          ka    ki    ku    ke    ko                    Japanese /u/ however is unrounded. 
------
Language|989688298
49c49
< For accurate transcription, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm----
---
> For transcription used by some authors, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm----
50a51,52
> The advantage of SAMPA is that it's very close to IPA (you'll most certainly find a link to IPA on the SAMPA page). 
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. 
------
Linguistics|989688327
27a28
> For transcription used by some authors, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm
------
Language|989688522
50a51
> 
52c53
< And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. 
---
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. 
------
Language|989688641
53c53
< And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. 
---
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so. 
------
Film_history/Japan|989689209
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Akira Kurosawa]]
> *[[Masaki Kobayashi]]
------
Masaki_Kobayashi|989689290
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Japanese director probably best known for [[Kwaidan]], a collection of four ghost stories, each of which has a surprise ending.  No word on whether the film--or the director--influenced the name given for Keyser Soze's lawyer in [[The Usual Suspcets]].
------
Masaki_Kobayashi|989689305
1c1
< Japanese director probably best known for [[Kwaidan]], a collection of four ghost stories, each of which has a surprise ending.  No word on whether the film--or the director--influenced the name given for Keyser Soze's lawyer in [[The Usual Suspcets]].
---
> Japanese director probably best known for [[Kwaidan]], a collection of four ghost stories, each of which has a surprise ending.  No word on whether the film--or the director--influenced the name given for Keyser Soze's lawyer in [[The Usual Suspects]].
------
Language|989690170
1c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing we use things called formal languages and [[programming language]]s, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: discreteness. 
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing formal languages called [[programming language]]s are used, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: discreteness. 
53c53
< And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so. 
---
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so. 
------
Akira_Kurosawa|989690334
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Japanese director known for adaptations of Shakespearean works, including [[King Lear]] ([[Ran]]) and [[Macbeth]] ([[Throne of Blood]]), as well as his films [[Rashomon]], [[The Seven Samurai]] (later remade as the [[western|western film]] [[The Magnificent Seven]].
------
Italian_language|989690754
2a3,67
> Graphemes and Phonemes of Italian
> 
> i /i/
> 
> e, é /e/
> 
> e, è /E/
> 
> a /a/
> 
> o /o/
> 
> o /O/
> 
> u /u/
> 
> p /p/
> 
> b /b/
> 
> t /t/
> 
> d /d/
> 
> c before velar vowels, ch- before palatal vowels, q before u in some words, k in foreign words /k/
> 
> g- before velar vowels, gh- before palatal vowels /g/
> 
> z /ts/
> 
> z /dz/
> 
> c- before palatal vowels; ci- before velar vowels /tS/
> 
> g- before palatal vowels, gi- before velar vowels /dZ/
> 
> 
> f /f/
> 
> 
> v /v/
> 
> s /s/
> 
> s /z/
> 
> sc- before palatal vowels, sci- before velar vowels /S/
> 
> m /m/
> 
> n /n/
> 
> l /l/
> 
> r /r/
> 
> gn /n'/ palatal [n]
> 
> gl /l'/ palatal [l]
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Akira_Kurosawa|989691285
1c1
< Japanese director known for adaptations of Shakespearean works, including [[King Lear]] ([[Ran]]) and [[Macbeth]] ([[Throne of Blood]]), as well as his films [[Rashomon]], [[The Seven Samurai]] (later remade as the [[western|western film]] [[The Magnificent Seven]].
---
> Japanese director known for adaptations of Shakespearean works, including [[King Lear]] ([[Ran]]) and [[Macbeth]] ([[Throne of Blood]]), as well as his films [[Rashomon]], [[The Seven Samurai]] (later remade as the [[western film|Western]] [[The Magnificent Seven]].
------
Sardinian_language|989691301
2c2,45
< The native languages of Sardinia include the archaic [[Sardo logudorese]], [[campidanese]] that has many Catalan and Spanish words, [[gallurese]] that is characterized by [[Corsican]] influence and [[tabarchino]] with its [[Ligurian]] origins. 
---
> The modern native languages of Sardinia include the archaic [[Sardo logudorese]], [[campidanese]] that has many Catalan and Spanish words, [[gallurese]] that is characterized by [[Corsican]] influence and [[tabarchino]] with its [[Ligurian]] origins. Old Sardinian had the following consonant phonemes (according to Blasco Ferrer):
> 
> /m/
> 
> /p/
> 
> /b/
> 
> /f/
> 
> /t/
> 
> /d/
> 
> /T/ like English TH in <thing>
> 
> /r/
> 
> /R/ like Spanish <rr>
> 
> /n/
> 
> /l/
> 
> /L/ retroflex
> 
> /n'/ palatal [n]
> 
> /l/
> 
> /g'/ like Hungarian gy
> 
> /k/
> 
> /g/
> 
> It is interesting that /T/ like Castilian /T/ developed from /ts/ and is in some modern Sardinian idioms pronounced as 
> /s/ as in South American and Andalucian Castilian. 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Bass|989691455
1c1
< See Rap music/Bass. 
---
> See [[Rap music/Bass]]. 
------
Jonny_Z|989691497
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. 
------
Finnish|989692216
1c1,53
< Finnish is an agglutinative language that like Hungarian always has stress on the fisrt syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. English king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European languages. 
---
> Finnish is an agglutinative language that like Hungarian always has stress on the fisrt syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. English king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European language
> 
> Consonant phonemes
> 
> /k/
> /p/
> /t/
> /d/ 
> 
> Finnish has no voiced plosives - with the exception of /d/ that developed from /D/ (as in English <the>).
> Without /d/, Finnish has (in native words) no distinctive voice at all. 
> 
> /h/
> /l/
> /m/
> /n/
> /N/
> /r/
> /s/
> /v/
> 
> [S] (as English <sh>) and [f] only appear in non-native words.
> 
> Vowel phonemes
> 
> /a/
> /e/
> /i/
> /o/
> /u/
> 
> /y/ as in French <but>, Old English <y>
> /9/ as in French <deux>
> /}/ as in English <bat>
> 
> All phonemes except /v, d, N/ have distinctive length.
> 
> Minimal pairs:
> 
> /tuli/ 'fire' - /tu:li/ 'wind' 
>  - /tulli/ 'customs'
> 
> /muta/ 'mud' - /mu:ta/ 'other (partitive sg.)'
>  - /mutta/ 'but'
> 
> 
>  
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Latin_language|989692594
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ancestor language of all Romance languages, originally spoken only in the city of Rome. The main difference between Latin and Romance is that Romance had distinctive stress whereas Latin had distinctive length of vowels. In Italian and Sardo loguodorese, there is distinctive length of consonants and stress, in Castilian only distinctive stress, and in French even stress is no longer distinctive. 
> 
> Minimal pairs:
> 
> /anus/ 'old woman' - /a:nus/ 'anus'
> 
> /annus/ 'year'
> 
> /palam/ 'public' - /pa:lam/ 'spade (acc. sg.)'
>  
> /pallam/ 'woman's robe (acc.sg.)'
> 
> Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages lost the case endings. 
------
Macbeth|989692648
5c5,6
< :[[/Roman Polanski|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polanski]] 
---
> :[[/Roman Polanski|Macbeth]] by [[Roman Polanski]] 
> :[[Throne of Blood]] by [[Akira Kurosawa]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway|989692843
80,81c80
< Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- Sonic
< 
---
> Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- SoniC
------
Ernest_Hemingway|989692922
3c3
< born July 21, 1899, Oak Park (Illinois); died July 2, 1961, Ketchum (Idaho)
---
> born July 21, 1899, [[Oak Park]] ([[Illinois]]); died July 2, 1961, [[Ketchum]] ([[Idaho]])
6c6
< Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in the First World War
---
> Silver Medal of Military Valor (medaglia d'argento) in [[World War I]]
8c8
< Pullitzer Price 1953 (for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
---
> [[Pullitzer Price]] 1953 (for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
10c10
< Nobel Price for Literature 1954 (also for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
---
> [[Nobel Price]] for Literature 1954 (also for [[The Old Man and the Sea]])
80c80
< Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- SoniC
---
> Yes and yes. There is obviously a need to restructure the whole text, biographic information should be separated from information on the two particular books, and a trivia section should be included. I will make some of those changes myself, but help is really welcome. -- SoniC
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Sure_Shots_The_Second_World_War|989693004
3c3
< The United States entered World War II on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
---
> The United States entered [[World War II]] on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
5c5
< As the FBI took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
---
> As the [[FBI]] took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
9c9
< next [[/The Downward Spiral]]
---
> next [[/The Downward Spiral]]
------
Ernest_Hemingway/Sure_Shots_The_Second_World_War|989693058
3c3
< The United States entered [[World War II]] on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the Sino-Japanese War he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the Spanish Civil War, where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking Spain (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
---
> The United States entered [[World War II]] on December 7 1941 and for the first time in his life, Hemingway took an active part in a war. Aboard the Pilar, now a Q-Ship, he was ready to fight and sink Nazi submarines threatening the coasts of Cuba and the USA. It is worth noting that, according to Anthony Burgess, he never before shot nor would have shot another human being, and that he was a non-combatant in World War I, in the [[Sino-Japanese War]] he was reporting on after having written "For Whom the Bell Tolls" and in the [[Spanish Civil War]], where even the money he collected to support the Loyalists was used on non-belligerent purposes. Perhaps his failure in preventing the Fascists from taking [[Spain]] (he was very possessive about this country) had led him to take more drastic actions.
5c5
< As the [[FBI]] took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where SS men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
---
> As the [[FBI]] took over the Caribbean counter-espionage, he was disbanded and went to Europe as war correspondent for Collier's. At Ville-dieu-les-Poêles he threw three grenades into a cellar where [[SS]] men were hiding, a clear violation of the Geneva Convention and his first murder. Seemingly encouraged by that, he declared he would be an unofficial intelligence unit. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at Rambouillet, and afterwards, he even formed his own partisan group which took part in the liberation of Paris. He tried to step further onto the path of the warrior the personages of his fiction, in this case particularly Pablo, had taken before him.
------
SS|989693143
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Abbreviation for Sturm-Staffel (German for storm troops), elite units of the German [[Nazi]] party.
------
Day_of_the_Tentacle|989693329
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Day of the Tentacle is a classic LucasArts PointAndClickAdventure, so humour is at a high level.
> It's the sequel to ManiacMansion.
> 
> The Story
> 
> The insane and evil Purple tentacle drinks toxic slug, gets hyper intelligent and takes over the world
> ...
> [please continue I haven't get enough time]
> 
------
SS|989693677
1c1,3
< Abbreviation for Sturm-Staffel (German for storm troops), elite units of the German [[Nazi]] party.
---
> Abbreviation for Schutz-Staffel (German for "protective troops")
> 
> The SS was elite unit of the German [[Nazi]] party. They were formed from the ranks of the [[SA]] in 1925 to be [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal guard. The SS had their own secret service, the [[SD]] (Sicherheitsdienst), which served as a political police force. In [[World War II]], the [[/Waffen-SS]] was formed as an elite unit of the Wehrmacht, as Germany's armed forces were called then
------
Nazi|989693705
5a6
> ''see also [[SS]]''
------
Nazi|989693717
5a6
> 
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989693784
10,11c10,11
< **[[SS]] -- [[Sicheheitsstaffel]]
< ***[[Waffen SS]]
---
> **[[SS]] -- [[Schutzstaffel]]
> ***[[SS/Waffen-SS|Waffen-SS]]
21c21
< *** [[BDM]] -- ''Bund Deutscher Maedel'' (for girls and young women)
---
> *** [[BDM]] -- ''Bund Deutscher Maedel'' (for girls and young women)
------
Schutzstaffel|989693805
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> see [[SS]]
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989693836
12c12
< **[[SD]] -- [[Sicherheitsdienst]]
---
> ***[[SD]] -- [[Sicherheitsdienst]]
------
Nazi_Germany/Organisations|989693862
20c20
< *** [[Hitler Jugend]] -- Hitler's youth (for boys and young men)
---
> *** [[Hitler-Jugend]] -- Hitler-youth (for boys and young men)
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989693938
8c8
< 
---
> *[[Holocaust]] -- the genocide commited by the Nazis
------
Berlin|989694264
42c42
< [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans found hilarious, since it meant he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
---
> [[John F. Kennedy]] gave a speech about the [[Berlin Wall]] in which he said, with a bad accent, "Ich bin ein Berliner"--something Germans now find hilarious, since it means he's a kind of doughnut, although at that time it meant much to a city that was an island in enemy territory. Much of the ColdWar was fought in Berlin, with espionage, counter-espionage and all sorts of evils, like [[Stalin]]'s blockade of the city.
44c44
< In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
---
> In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
------
Rap_music/Old_School|989694396
1c1
< Some people use the term hip hop to refer to most hip hop from 1979 (when the first hip hop record by the Fatback Band, King Tim III, came out) to ca.84, when new rappers like LL Cool J and Run DMC as well as the Beastie Boys were developing their new styles. Some see Run DMCs Sucker MCs as the first new school record, because it no longer relied on music recorded in the studio by live musicians. Others see old school rap as spawning a period from 1979 to ca. 1990. Stilistically, both rap from 1979-1985 and rap from 1979-1990 is very heterogeneous, covering different styles like the electronic rap à la [[electro funk]] that started in 1982, the earliest rap recorded by live musicians in the studio that did not contain synthetic beats and scratching [[Sugarhill Gang]] [[Treacherous Three]]. 
---
> Some people use the term hip hop to refer to most hip hop from 1979 (when the first hip hop record by the Fatback Band, King Tim III, came out) to ca.84, when new rappers like [[LL Cool J]] and [[Run DMC]] as well as the [[Beastie Boys]] were developing their new styles. Some see Run DMCs Sucker MCs as the first new school record, because it no longer relied on music recorded in the studio by live musicians. Others see old school rap as spawning a period from 1979 to ca. 1990. Stilistically, both rap from 1979-1985 and rap from 1979-1990 is very heterogeneous, covering different styles like the electronic rap à la [[electro funk]] that started in 1982, the earliest rap recorded by live musicians in the studio that did not contain synthetic beats and scratching [[Sugarhill Gang]] [[Treacherous Three]]. 
------
Rap_music/Gangsta_rap|989694498
1c1
< The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially [[NWA]] and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. Influenced by east coast rappers [[Schoolly D]] and [[Boogie Down Productions]], Ice T created a style he later termed [[Crime Rhyme]]. Next to him, especially [[NWA]] and [[Eazy E]] popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former [[NWA]] member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called [[G Funk]]. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Cypress_Hill|989694675
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
5a8
> 
6a10
> 
7a12
> 
8a14
> 
10c16,17
< 2000 - Live at the Fillmore
---
> 
> 2000 - Live at the Fillmore
------
Cypress_Hill|989694767
1c1
< Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of marijuana. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by Rolling Stone as a synthesis out of the Beastie Boys and Public Enemy. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like gangster rap, but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
---
> Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[Marijuana]]. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by [[Rolling Stone]] as a synthesis out of the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Public Enemy]]. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like [[Gangster Rap]], but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
------
Cypress_Hill|989694829
1c1
< Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[Marijuana]]. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by [[Rolling Stone]] as a synthesis out of the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Public Enemy]]. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like [[Gangster Rap]], but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
---
> Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[Marijuana]]. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by [[Rolling Stone]] as a synthesis out of the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Public Enemy]]. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like [[Gangsta rap]], but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
------
Hip_hop|989695054
9c9
< The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the Jamaican Kool DJ Herc first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
---
> The roots of rap music are West African. The griots of West Africa are the forefathers of rap music. It is said that the [[Jamaica]]n [[Kool DJ Herc]] first tried to popularize reggae music in the Bronx, NY. Later on, he switched to funk records but remained true to the Jamaican art of "toasting" or "dee jaying", which became known in hip hop as "rapping". 
14c14
< There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as James Brown, Lightnin' Rod and the Last Poets as well as Gil Scott Heron. 
---
> There are, of course, also other influences that lead to the genesis of modern hip hop. On the one hand, the rich (US) African American tradition with radio DJ's, artists such as [[James Brown]], [[Lightnin' Rod]] and the [[Last Poets]] as well as [[Gil Scott Heron]]. 
19c19
< The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as Grandmaster Flash's "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa and Run DMC's very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member Jam Master Jay. 
---
> The first rap records were actually recorded by live musicians in the studio, with the rappers later on adding their vocals. This changed with DJ records such as [[Grandmaster Flash]]'s "Adventures on the wheels of steel" as well as new, electronic recordings such as "Planet Rock" by [[Afrika Bambaataa]] and [[Run DMC]]'s very basic, all electronic  "Sucker MC's" and "Peter Piper" which contains  genuine cutting by Run DMC member [[Jam Master Jay]]. 
23c23
< Hardcore rappers from the east coast like Schoolly D and KRS-One used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper Ice T, influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by NWA and became known as [[gangster rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member, [[Dr. Dre]]'s Album "The Chronic". 
---
> Hardcore rappers from the east coast like [[Schoolly D]] and [[KRS-One]] used criminal imagery in their music. West coast rapper [[Ice T]], influenced by BDP and Schoolly D records, created his own brand of crime rhyme that was popularized especially by [[NWA]] and became known as [[Gangsta rap]].  In the 1990s, the music became softer, influenced by former NWA member, [[Dr. Dre]]'s Album "The Chronic". 
25c25
< [[/talk]]
---
> [[/talk]]
------
Afrika_Bambaataa|989695111
1c1
< Called "the godfather of hip hop", Afrika Bambaataa created [[electro funk]] and is one of the driving forces behind early rap music. Whereas Kool DJ Herc and DJ Hollywood are the earliest hip hop dj's (although Hollywood was more of a disco dj - he nevertheless influenced [[Kurtis Blow]] and many others), Grandmaster Flash and Bambaataa, who founded the Zulun Nation, recorded some of the most important early rap/hip hop.
---
> Called "the godfather of hip hop", Afrika Bambaataa created [[electro funk]] and is one of the driving forces behind early rap music. Whereas [[Kool DJ Herc]] and [[DJ Hollywood]] are the earliest hip hop dj's (although Hollywood was more of a disco dj - he nevertheless influenced [[Kurtis Blow]] and many others), [[Grandmaster Flash]] and Bambaataa, who founded the [[Zulu Nation]], recorded some of the most important early rap/hip hop.
------
Run_DMC|989695180
1c1
< Run DMC are one of the most important rap groups. Sucker MC's (1983) was the first hip hop track that relied on electronic beats and nothing else. Peter Piper (1986) was the first rap record in which the DJ (in this case Jam Master Jay) cut up a record (in this case, "Mardi Gras" by Bob James). Run DMC crossovered into the pop market with their version of Walk This Way that also featured original artists Aerosmith. Note however that Jam Master Jay and other hip hop dj's used rock records anyway. 
---
> Run DMC are one of the most important rap groups. Sucker MC's (1983) was the first hip hop track that relied on electronic beats and nothing else. Peter Piper (1986) was the first rap record in which the DJ (in this case [[Jam Master Jay]]) cut up a record (in this case, "Mardi Gras" by [[Bob James]]). Run DMC crossovered into the pop market with their version of Walk This Way that also featured original artists [[Aerosmith]]. Note however that Jam Master Jay and other hip hop dj's used rock records anyway. 
------
Rap_music/Bass|989695302
2,3c2,3
< [[electro funk]]. The music came into existence as part of Miami's stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [[The 2 Live Crew]] got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably Tag Team's 
< Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In Detroit, a new form of Bass called Ghetto Tech developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [[Jonny Z]] provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [[DJ Laz]] is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include [[Luke]], [[DJ Magic Mike]], [[MC Shy D]] and [[MC ADE]]. 
---
> [[electro funk]]. The music came into existence as part of [[Miami]]'s stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [[The 2 Live Crew]] got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably [[Tag Team]]'s 
> Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In [[Detroit]], a new form of Bass called [[Ghetto Tech]] developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [[Jonny Z]] provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [[DJ Laz]] is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include [[Luke]], [[DJ Magic Mike]], [[MC Shy D]] and [[MC ADE]]. 
------
Sugarhill_Gang|989695360
1c1
< Although they were rapping on the second rap record ever, namely Rapper's Delight (1979), the Sugarhill Gang were not real pioneers. They were picked up by producer Sylvia Robinson who also founded Sugar Hill Records. Grandmaster Caz from the Cold Crush Brothers claims that the Sugarhill Gang used his rhymes on Rapper's Delight. In any case, it is generally acknowledged that Caz is, unlike the Sugarhill Gang, a  hip hop pioneer. 
---
> Although they were rapping on the second rap record ever, namely Rapper's Delight (1979), the Sugarhill Gang were not real pioneers. They were picked up by producer Sylvia Robinson who also founded Sugar Hill Records. [[Grandmaster Caz]] from the [[Cold Crush Brothers]] claims that the Sugarhill Gang used his rhymes on Rapper's Delight. In any case, it is generally acknowledged that Caz is, unlike the Sugarhill Gang, a  hip hop pioneer. 
------
Schoolly_D|989695584
1,2c1,2
< One of Philadelphia's hip hop pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's gangster rappers. Ice T says about Schoolly D's record PSK: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning."
< Musically, he and his DJ Cash Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "Bad Lieutenant") and "The Player" (for "Blackout"). 
---
> One of [[Philadelphia]]'s [[hip hop]] pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's [[gangsta rap]]pers. [[Ice T]] says about Schoolly D's record PSK: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning."
> Musically, he and his [[DJ]] [[Cash Money]] came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). 
11c11
< *2000 Funk 'n pussy
---
> *2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
Old_Turkic_alphabet|989695755
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic alphabet]], the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors Uighurs and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Turkish Republic on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
> 
> 
>    
> 
> 
------
Seven_Wonders_of_the_World|989696705
11c11
< So, two each of the wonders were within the territories of today?s Egypt, Greece and Turkey and one in Iraq. The only surviving wonder is the initially built one, the pyramid. The wonder with the shortest life span was the Colossus of Rhodes, which could keep its erect posture for only 56 years before being broken down by an earthquake. 
---
> So, two each of the wonders were within the territories of today's Egypt, Greece and Turkey and one in Iraq. The only surviving wonder is the initially built one, the pyramid. The wonder with the shortest life span was the Colossus of Rhodes, which could keep its erect posture for only 56 years before being broken down by an earthquake. 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989696978
2a3
> *[[Sumerians]]
------
SS|989697744
3c3,5
< The SS was elite unit of the German [[Nazi]] party. They were formed from the ranks of the [[SA]] in 1925 to be [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal guard. The SS had their own secret service, the [[SD]] (Sicherheitsdienst), which served as a political police force. In [[World War II]], the [[/Waffen-SS]] was formed as an elite unit of the Wehrmacht, as Germany's armed forces were called then
---
> The SS was elite unit of the German [[Nazi]] party. They were formed from the ranks of the [[SA]] in 1925 to be [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal guard. The SS had their own secret service, the [[SD]] (Sicherheitsdienst), which served as a political police force. In [[World War II]], the [[/Waffen-SS]] was formed as an elite unit of the Wehrmacht, as Germany's armed forces were then called.
> 
> The leader of the SS was [[Heinrich Himmler]].
------
Sumerians|989698332
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sumerians are presumably a non-Semitic group of nomadic people, who may have come from the East (India or ancient Persia) and settled on Mesopotomia to establish the first possible major civilization of the world even before ancient Egyptians. Although their exact arrival date is unknown, they seem to exist in the area as a minor agricultural and organized civilization as early as the 5th millennium BC. Different than previous city states, their country was the first large state formed by collection and organization of several small cities. Sumerians are also credited with inventing the cuneiform writing system. Their major cities were Kish, Uruk and Ur. As the local Semitic tribes (Akkads, Amorities and Elams)were strengthened, the Sumerians began to loose their political hegemony over most territories of Mesopotamia and after a major blow from Babylonians, they completely disappeared on about 2nd millennium BC.
> 
>  
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989698607
3,4c3
< *[[Sumerians]]
< *[[Ur]]
---
> *[[Ur]], [[Uruk]], [[Kish]], etc ([[Sumerians|Sumerian]] city-states)
------
Masaki_Kobayashi|989698842
1c1,3
< Japanese director probably best known for [[Kwaidan]], a collection of four ghost stories, each of which has a surprise ending.  No word on whether the film--or the director--influenced the name given for Keyser Soze's lawyer in [[The Usual Suspects]].
---
> Japanese director born February 14, 1916 and probably best known for [[Kwaidan]], a collection of four ghost stories, each of which has a surprise ending.  (Some versions in the U.S. have had the second story removed--look for the 164 minute version if you wish to see all four). Kobayashi also directed [[The Human Condition]], a trilogy on war clocking in at nine and a half hours; the film is nearly impossible to find except in metropolitan areas.
> 
> No word on whether the film--or the director--influenced the name given for Keyser Soze's lawyer in [[The Usual Suspects]].
------
International_Wikipedia|989699233
27a28,32
> 
> ----
> I loved the concept of Wikipedia site and I'm sure that it would be a sucess in my country! 
> 
> So, why not a Wikipedia in portuguese (pt.wikipedia.com)? I can't wait for that!
------
Open_source_license|989699906
1c1
< An open source license is any computer software license that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]]. More formally, a license is considered open source when it is certified by the [[Open Source Initiative]]. The following licenses have been certified:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it is certified by the [[Open Source Initiative]].  The following licenses have been certified:
2a3
> *[[Public domain]] (i.e., no license at all)
------
Language|989699911
53c53,55
< And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so. 
---
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so.----
> Yes- that is 80% opinion at least. Further, this is a site where anyone can use whatever transcription system they like, and even, though it would be rude, anyone change someone else's transcription system. In my opinion, any transcription system that includes numbers rather than letters is more counter-intuitive than one that tries to confine itself to 
> relatively familiar alphabets. Furthermore, British English speakers are brought up on the IPA, due to the influence of the OED, unlike Americans, and find it quite natural. 
------
Turkic_languages|989700518
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkic languages are a group of closely related languages that are used by a variety of people distributed in a vast area from Eastern Europe to Siberia and Western China.
> 
> Though various different Turkic tribes and their languages have mixed with each other throughout centuries, making a classification extremely difficult, a very simplified classification could be as follows: 
> * Southwestern languages: Oghuz group [[[Turkey]], [[Cyprus]], Balkans, [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Turkmenistan]]) and Khorasan group (Iran)]
> * Northwestern languages: Kipchak group [[[Kazakstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], Caucasus, Crimea, [[Russia]]]
> * Eastern languages: Uighur-Chagatai group [[[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[China]]] 
> * Northern languages: Siberian group (mainly used by Yakut Turks living on Siberia)
>  
> Various elements have passed to Turkic languages especially from Chinese, Persian and Arabic languages and various elements from Turkic languages have been carried as far as Southeastern Asia, Northernmost territories of Russia and even Northern America.
> 
------
Turkic_languages|989700728
5c5
< * Northwestern languages: Kipchak group [[[Kazakstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], Caucasus, Crimea, [[Russia]]]
---
> * Northwestern languages: Kipchak group [[[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], Caucasus, Crimea, [[Russia]]]
------
Language|989701102
24a25
> * [[Turkish language]]
------
Turkish_language|989701325
2c2
< The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Aslan), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
---
> The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
------
Jazz|989702447
3c3
< The early development of jazz was racially segregated, reflecting the culture of the [[United States]] at the time, with the innovation of mainly black club musicians being taken onto bandstands by white band leaders, who tended to mould the music more to orthodox rhythms and harmony.  The slow dissolution of this segregation began when guitarist Charlie Christian joined the Benny Goodman sextet.  At this time (1939) the fashion for [[big band music]] was in full swing, making stars of such men as [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Duke Ellington]].
---
> The early development of jazz was racially segregated, reflecting the culture of the [[United States]] at the time, with the innovation of mainly black club musicians being taken onto bandstands by white band leaders, who tended to mould the music more to orthodox rhythms and harmony.  The slow dissolution of this segregation began when guitarist [[Charlie Christian]] joined the [[Benny Goodman]] sextet.  At this time (1939) the fashion for [[big band music]] was in full swing, making stars of such men as [[Glenn Miller]] and [[Duke Ellington]].
21,22c21,22
< * [[Charlie Parker]]
< * [[Miles Davis]]
---
> 
> * [[Dave Brubeck]]
23a24
> * [[Miles Davis]]
24a26
> * [[Charlie Parker]]
28,29c30,72
< * [[Nu Jazz]]
< * [[Free Jazz]] 
---
> * [[Acid jazz]]
> * [[Free jazz]]
> * [[Cool jazz]]
> * [[Jazz-rock fusion]]
> * [[Modal jazz]]
> * [[Nu jazz]]
> 
> 
> Noted jazz figures by instrument:
> [[Drums]]
> * [[Joe Morello]]
> * [[Cal Tjader]]
> * [[Chick Webb]]
> 
> [[Guitar/Bass|Bass]]
> * [[Charles Mingus]]
> *[[Eugene Wright]]
> 
> [[Guitar]]
> * [[Wes Montgomery]]
> * [[Django Reinhardt]]
> 
> [[Piano]]
> * [[Dave Brubeck]]
> 
> [[Saxophone]]
> * [[John Coltrane]]
> * [[Paul Desmond]]
> * [[Jerry Mulligan]]
> * [[Charlie Parker]]
> 
> [[Trumpet]]
> * [[Miles Davis]]
> * [[Dizzy Gillespie]]
> 
> [[Violin]]
> * [[Stephane Grappelli]]
> 
> [[Voice]]
> * [[Harry Connick, Jr.]]
> * [[Ella Fitzgerald]]
> * [[Etta James]]
> * [[Frank Sinatra]]
31c74
< Draft #1 by [[Gareth Owen]]
---
> Draft #1 by [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Jazz|989702494
38a39
> 
41c42
< * [[Cal Tjader]]
---
> * [[Cal Tjader]] (bongos)
74a76
> Minor additions by KoyaanisQatsi
------
Jazz|989702816
54a55
> * [[Thelonius Monk]]
56a58
> * [[Cannonball Adderley]]
71a74
> * [[Billie Holiday]]
------
Old_Turkic_alphabet|989702895
1c1
< Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic alphabet]], the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors Uighurs and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Turkish Republic on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
---
> Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic]] alphabet, the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors [[Uighurs]] and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Turkish Republic on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
------
Uighurs|989703668
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Uighurs (or Uigurs or Uygurs) are a group of people who live in northwestern China [mainly in Sinkiang (Xinjiang) Uygur Autonomous Region as the dominant ethnic group together with Chinese Han people], Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. They were the oldest and most civilized Turkish speaking people living in Central Asia. After establishing a kingdom in 8th century, they gained a significant dominance on both China and other Turkic tribes. Being overrun by Kyrgyz and Mongol armies, they lost their independence about the ends of the 12th century and were annexed by several states, the last of which is China. 
------
The_Sound_of_Music|989703846
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.
------
The_Sound_of_Music|989703929
1c1,2
< In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.
---
> In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.  Directed by [[Robert Wise]]; Stars [[Julie Andrews]] as Maria and [[Christopher Plummer]] as Captain von Trapp.
> 
------
The_Sound_of_Music|989703947
1c1
< In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.  Directed by [[Robert Wise]]; Stars [[Julie Andrews]] as Maria and [[Christopher Plummer]] as Captain von Trapp.
---
> In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.  Directed by [[Robert Wise]]; stars [[Julie Andrews]] as Maria and [[Christopher Plummer]] as Captain von Trapp.
------
The_Sound_of_Music|989704017
1c1
< In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the Nazis take power in Austria and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.  Directed by [[Robert Wise]]; stars [[Julie Andrews]] as Maria and [[Christopher Plummer]] as Captain von Trapp.
---
> In Austria, a woman studying to be a nun is sent from her convent to be the governess of the seven children of a widowed naval captain, Baron von Trapp.  The children, initially hostile and mischievous, come to like her, and the woman finds herself falling in love with the captain, who is soon to be married to a baroness.  Meanwhile, the [[Nazi]]s take power in [[Austria]] and want Baron von Trapp back in service.  Based on the Broadway play by Rodgers and Hammerstein, which was in turn based on a true story.  Directed by [[Robert Wise]]; stars [[Julie Andrews]] as Maria and [[Christopher Plummer]] as Captain von Trapp.
------
Pliocene|989711243
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [Sir Charles Lyell]?. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Eocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
> 
> The Pliocene boundaries are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer [[Miocene]] the relatively cooler Pliocene.  The upper boundary is set at the start of the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations. 
> 
> Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive [[marsupial]] faunus. Climates became even cooler eventually leading to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations.  Pliocene rocks are well exposed in the Mediterranean, India, and China.
> 
> Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern.  The first recognizable primitive humans appeared in the late Pliocene.
> 
> --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
Geologic_Timescale|989711382
5,6c5,6
<  | [[Pliocene]]   |            |               |               |
<  5             | - - + - - -|               |               |
---
>  1.5           | - - + - - -|               |               |
>  | [[Pliocene]]    |            |               |               |
------
Miocene|989711453
1c1
< The Miocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 5 million to 24 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Miocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]].  It means roughly "lessor of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas.  The Miocene follows the [[Oligocene]] Epock and is followed by the [[Pliocene]] Epoch. The Eocene is the fourth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]]. 
---
> The Miocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 5 million to 24 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Miocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]].  It means roughly "lessor of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas.  The Miocene follows the [[Oligocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Pliocene]] Epoch. The Eocene is the fourth epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]]. 
7c7
< Both marine and continental faunas were fairly modern.  Recognizable dogs, horses, beaver, deer, camels, crows, ducks, owls, whales, etc existed in the Miocene.  Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergant faunas exist.
---
> Both marine and continental faunas were fairly modern.  Recognizable dogs, horses, beaver, deer, camels, crows, ducks, owls, whales, etc existed in the Miocene.  Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergant faunas exist.
------
Music|989718983
3c3,19
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''  [[Classical Music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[Celtic Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Blues]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle]] -- [[Reggae]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''
> * [[Blues]]
> * [[Classical Music]]
> * [[Celtic music]]
> * [[Disco]]
> * [[Electronic Music]]
> * [[freestyle]]
> * [[Funk]]
> * [[Indian Music]]
> * [[Irish traditional music]]
> * [[Jazz]]
> * [[new wave music]]
> * [[Popular Music]]
> * [[punk rock]]
> * [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
> * [[Reggae]]
> * [[Rock and roll]]
------
Music|989719059
3,19c3
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:'''
< * [[Blues]]
< * [[Classical Music]]
< * [[Celtic music]]
< * [[Disco]]
< * [[Electronic Music]]
< * [[freestyle]]
< * [[Funk]]
< * [[Indian Music]]
< * [[Irish traditional music]]
< * [[Jazz]]
< * [[new wave music]]
< * [[Popular Music]]
< * [[punk rock]]
< * [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]]
< * [[Reggae]]
< * [[Rock and roll]]
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:''' [[Blues]] -- [[Classical Music]] -- [[Celtic music]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[freestyle]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rock and roll]] 
------
Vittorio_De_Sica|989719787
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italian neorealist director, July 7 1901 - November 13, 1974.
> 
> Notable films:
> * [[Shoeshine]] (1946)
> * [[The Bicycle Thief]] (1948)
> * [[Miracle in Milan]] (1951)
> * [[Umberto D]] (1952)
> * [[Two Women]] (1961)
> * [[The Garden of the Finzi-Continis]] (1970)
------
Roy_Champman_Andrews|989720907
1c1
< Roy Chapman Andrews (1884-1960).  An colorful american mammologist who rose from a menial job at the American Museum of Natural History to the directorship.  Andrews is primarily known for leading a series of expeditions through the fragmented China of the early 20th Century into the Gobi Desert and Mongolia.  The expeditions made important discoveries including returning the first known fossil dinosaur eggs to the Museum.
---
> Roy Chapman Andrews (1884-1960).  An colorful american mammologist who rose from a menial job at the American Museum of Natural History to the directorship.  Andrews is primarily known for leading a series of expeditions through the fragmented [[China]] of the early 20th Century into the [[Gobi Desert]] and [[Mongolia]].  The expeditions made important discoveries including returning the first known fossil dinosaur eggs to the Museum.
3c3
< Andrews was primarily a naturalist and an organizer of expeditions.  His life was a long series of travels and explorations of desert islands, raging seas, remote mountains and deserts.  Numerous encounters -- many well documented -- are reported with everything from angry whales and hungry sharks, thru pythons to several brushes with armed Chinese bandits.  He was erroneously reported dead at least once.
---
> Andrews was primarily a naturalist and an organizer of expeditions.  His life was a long series of travels and explorations of desert islands, raging seas, remote mountains and deserts.  Numerous encounters -- many well documented -- are reported with everything from angry whales and hungry sharks, through pythons to several brushes with armed Chinese bandits.  He was erroneously reported dead at least once.
7c7
< Andrews was born January 26, 1884 and died in 1960.
---
> Andrews was born January 26, 1884 and died in 1960.
------
Paleontology|989721006
5c5
< Major areas of study include the division of strata into [[geologic ages]] and the study of [[evolution]] of lifeforms.  The latter utilizes a classic [[binomial nomenclature]] scheme divised by the mid 18th Century biologist [[Carl Linneaus]].  This has been augmented (some would say 'replaced') by a somewhat controversial alternative known as [[Cladistics]].
---
> Major areas of study include the division of strata into [[geologic ages]] and the study of [[evolution]] of lifeforms.  The latter utilizes a classic [[binomial nomenclature]] scheme devised by the mid 18th Century biologist [[Carl Linneaus]].  This has been augmented (some would say 'replaced') by a somewhat controversial alternative known as [[Cladistics]].
------
Film_history/Japan|989721214
1,2c1,2
< *[[Akira Kurosawa]]
< *[[Masaki Kobayashi]]
---
> *[[Akira_Kurosawa]]
> *[[Masaki_Kobayashi]]
------
Film_history/Japan|989721231
1,2c1,2
< *[[Akira_Kurosawa]]
< *[[Masaki_Kobayashi]]
---
> *[[Masaki Kobayashi]]
> *[[Akira Kurosawa]]
------
Hellenic_civilization|989723542
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the collapse of the [[Achaeans|Achaean]] kingdoms around 1200 BC, Greece was fairly depopulated and entered into a dark age.  After several centuries it emerged as the center of a brilliant new civilization, though, to which we owe hugely significant devlopments in [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[history]], [[politics]] and [[theater]], among others.
> 
> The basic unit of Greek civilization was the ''polis'', or city-state, a small country centered on a market and acropolis.  Hundreds of these filled Greece, and others called ''apoikia'' (colonies) were founded across the Meditteranean, especially in southern Italy and Asia Minor.  Usually a polis was ruled by an oligarchy, but this never had the divine power of contemporary eastern rulers, in part because the commoners played a larger part in the economy and defense (as [[hoplite]]s) of the state.  Towards the seventh century a number of tyrannies were also established, meaning they were ruled an usurper supported by popular opinion.
> 
> ''Will add more if noone else does...''
> 
> See also:
> * [[Greek Mythology]]
> * [[Hoplite]]
> * ...
------
Hellenic_civilization|989723619
9,10c9
< * [[Hoplite]]
< * ...
---
> * [[Greek alphabet]]
------
Hellenic_civilization|989724182
1c1
< After the collapse of the [[Achaeans|Achaean]] kingdoms around 1200 BC, Greece was fairly depopulated and entered into a dark age.  After several centuries it emerged as the center of a brilliant new civilization, though, to which we owe hugely significant devlopments in [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[history]], [[politics]] and [[theater]], among others.
---
> After the collapse of the [[Achaeans|Achaean]] kingdoms around 1200 BC, Greece was fairly depopulated and entered into a dark age.  After several centuries it emerged as the center of a brilliant new civilization, though, to which we owe hugely significant developments in [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[history]], [[politics]] and [[theater]], among others.
3c3
< The basic unit of Greek civilization was the ''polis'', or city-state, a small country centered on a market and acropolis.  Hundreds of these filled Greece, and others called ''apoikia'' (colonies) were founded across the Meditteranean, especially in southern Italy and Asia Minor.  Usually a polis was ruled by an oligarchy, but this never had the divine power of contemporary eastern rulers, in part because the commoners played a larger part in the economy and defense (as [[hoplite]]s) of the state.  Towards the seventh century a number of tyrannies were also established, meaning they were ruled an usurper supported by popular opinion.
---
> The basic unit of Greek civilization was the ''polis'', or city-state, a small country centered on a market and acropolis.  Hundreds of these filled Greece, and others called ''apoikia'' (colonies) were founded across the Meditteranean, especially in southern Italy and Asia Minor.  Usually a polis was ruled by an oligarchy, but the oligarchy never had the divine power of contemporary eastern rulers, in part because the commoners played a larger role in the economy and defense (as [[hoplite]]s) of the state.  Towards the seventh century a number of tyrannies were also established, meaning they were ruled by an usurper supported by popular opinion.
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|989724924
6a7
> :[[Pery Como]] - singer, age 87 (May 12)
------
Recent_celebrity_deaths|989724971
7c7
< :[[Pery Como]] - singer, age 87 (May 12)
---
> :[[Perry Como]] - singer, age 87 (May 12)
------
Evolutionary_linguistics|989739148
4a5,10
> 
> However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris, headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
> 
> Research in evolutionary linguistics: A good way to test a model of a particular phenomenon is to build simulations or artificial systems that exhibit the same or similar phenomena. We are applying this approach to the problem of the origins of language and meaning by developing simulations, both in software and (in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory <http://arti.vub.ac.be> of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) physically grounded on robotic agents. These simulations are based on the notion of language games - interactions in which speakers and hearers use language to identify or talk about features and events in the real or simulated world that they inhabit. Over the course of repeated interactions, linguistic phenomena similar to those seen in the real world may be observed. The goal of our research is to study the mechanisms that give rise to 'realistic' phenomena and to try to trace the processes and structures involved. In this way we hope to shed light on a number of important topics, including questions about the origin of language, the process of language change, the role of social factors in language development (and vice-versa) and child language learning.
> 
> The approach above is a viable one, yet relies heavily on computer models -artificiality, and that could be a severe drawback since such models are invariably the result of parameters fixed by the programmers/researchers. 
------
Evolutionary_linguistics|989739940
6c6
< However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris, headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
---
> However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris <http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html>, headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
8c8
< Research in evolutionary linguistics: A good way to test a model of a particular phenomenon is to build simulations or artificial systems that exhibit the same or similar phenomena. We are applying this approach to the problem of the origins of language and meaning by developing simulations, both in software and (in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory <http://arti.vub.ac.be> of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) physically grounded on robotic agents. These simulations are based on the notion of language games - interactions in which speakers and hearers use language to identify or talk about features and events in the real or simulated world that they inhabit. Over the course of repeated interactions, linguistic phenomena similar to those seen in the real world may be observed. The goal of our research is to study the mechanisms that give rise to 'realistic' phenomena and to try to trace the processes and structures involved. In this way we hope to shed light on a number of important topics, including questions about the origin of language, the process of language change, the role of social factors in language development (and vice-versa) and child language learning.
---
> "Research in evolutionary linguistics: A good way to test a model of a particular phenomenon is to build simulations or artificial systems that exhibit the same or similar phenomena. We are applying this approach to the problem of the origins of language and meaning by developing simulations, both in software and (in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory <http://arti.vub.ac.be> of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) physically grounded on robotic agents. These simulations are based on the notion of language games - interactions in which speakers and hearers use language to identify or talk about features and events in the real or simulated world that they inhabit. Over the course of repeated interactions, linguistic phenomena similar to those seen in the real world may be observed. The goal of our research is to study the mechanisms that give rise to 'realistic' phenomena and to try to trace the processes and structures involved. In this way we hope to shed light on a number of important topics, including questions about the origin of language, the process of language change, the role of social factors in language development (and vice-versa) and child language learning."
10c10,13
< The approach above is a viable one, yet relies heavily on computer models -artificiality, and that could be a severe drawback since such models are invariably the result of parameters fixed by the programmers/researchers. 
---
> Their definition of evolutionary linguistics is: "evolutionary linguistics is the study of language viewed as a complex adaptive system. Among the issues addressed are questions of how languages arise, how they change over time, and how they can be learnt. Language is seen as the product of local interactions between language users from which the global characteristics of the language emerge by selectionist mechanisms. Language is not created by some central agent; it is an emergent phenomenon that arises spontaneously. <http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html>. "
> 
> 
> The approach above is certainly a viable one, yet relies heavily on computer models -artificiality, and that could be a severe drawback since such models are invariably the result of parameters fixed by the programmers/researchers.
------
Evolutionary_linguistics|989740153
6c6
< However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris <http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html>, headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
---
> However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris (http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html), headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
8c8
< "Research in evolutionary linguistics: A good way to test a model of a particular phenomenon is to build simulations or artificial systems that exhibit the same or similar phenomena. We are applying this approach to the problem of the origins of language and meaning by developing simulations, both in software and (in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory <http://arti.vub.ac.be> of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) physically grounded on robotic agents. These simulations are based on the notion of language games - interactions in which speakers and hearers use language to identify or talk about features and events in the real or simulated world that they inhabit. Over the course of repeated interactions, linguistic phenomena similar to those seen in the real world may be observed. The goal of our research is to study the mechanisms that give rise to 'realistic' phenomena and to try to trace the processes and structures involved. In this way we hope to shed light on a number of important topics, including questions about the origin of language, the process of language change, the role of social factors in language development (and vice-versa) and child language learning."
---
> "Research in evolutionary linguistics: A good way to test a model of a particular phenomenon is to build simulations or artificial systems that exhibit the same or similar phenomena. We are applying this approach to the problem of the origins of language and meaning by developing simulations, both in software and (in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (http://arti.vub.ac.be) of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) physically grounded on robotic agents. These simulations are based on the notion of language games - interactions in which speakers and hearers use language to identify or talk about features and events in the real or simulated world that they inhabit. Over the course of repeated interactions, linguistic phenomena similar to those seen in the real world may be observed. The goal of our research is to study the mechanisms that give rise to 'realistic' phenomena and to try to trace the processes and structures involved. In this way we hope to shed light on a number of important topics, including questions about the origin of language, the process of language change, the role of social factors in language development (and vice-versa) and child language learning."
10c10
< Their definition of evolutionary linguistics is: "evolutionary linguistics is the study of language viewed as a complex adaptive system. Among the issues addressed are questions of how languages arise, how they change over time, and how they can be learnt. Language is seen as the product of local interactions between language users from which the global characteristics of the language emerge by selectionist mechanisms. Language is not created by some central agent; it is an emergent phenomenon that arises spontaneously. <http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html>. "
---
> Their definition of evolutionary linguistics is: "evolutionary linguistics is the study of language viewed as a complex adaptive system. Among the issues addressed are questions of how languages arise, how they change over time, and how they can be learnt. Language is seen as the product of local interactions between language users from which the global characteristics of the language emerge by selectionist mechanisms. Language is not created by some central agent; it is an emergent phenomenon that arises spontaneously. (http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html)."
------
Evolutionary_linguistics|989742325
6c6
< However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris (http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html), headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
---
> However, there's various approaches to the study of evolutionary linguistics that do not depend on fossil record. One of them is the route taken by CSL/Paris (http://www.csl.sony.fr/Language/Research/Field/index.html), headed by prof. Luc Steels in collaboration with the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and their description of their approach is the following:
------
Heinrich_Himmler|989744846
1c1
< Heinrich Himmler became chief of the [[German]] police and ''Reichsführer-SS'' under [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1935.
---
> Heinrich Himmler became chief of the [[German]] police and ''Reichsführer-[[SS]]'' under [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1935.
------
Adolf_Hitler|989744895
3c3
< He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the national-socialist ([[nazi]]) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President Paul von Hindenburg's death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
---
> He used the byname Der Führer (''German: The Leader''). He was the leader of the national-socialist ([[nazi]]) Party (from 1920/21) and dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] (1933-45). Officially chancellor (Kanzler) from Jan. 30, 1933, and, after President [[Paul von Hindenburg]]'s death, he assumed the twin titles of Führer and chancellor (Aug. 2, 1934). 
------
Jews/Talk|989745167
1,2c1
< "Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south)."
< (above problem now fixed, by someone who hopefully knows for sure. Thanks.)
---
> Place holder page. Put discussion about the main [[Jews]] page here.
------
Kid_Frost|989745484
1,2c1,2
< Frost is one of the most popular (and probably the first) Chicano (i.e. Mexican American) rapper. He was first signed to an indie label and later on moved to VIRGIN RECORDS (that's where his biggest hit, "La Raza", came out – "Chicano, and I'm brown and proud"), in 1995 he was signed by Ruthless (Eazy E's label) (distributed by Relativity and later on by Relativity/Epic/Sony), in 1999 Frost was signed to a small independent label (so he probably didn't sell as many records as the major label ppl wanted him to.)
< Style-wise Frost moved from Electro Funk (a kind of electronic hip hop, as it says, in this and other cases with rapping on it) to a Latin-tinged kind of gangster rap that he's basically still into, although now often inspired by G-Funk (a more melodic kind of gangsta rap pioneered by Dr Dre).
---
> Frost is one of the most popular (and probably the first) Chicano (i.e. Mexican American) rapper. He was first signed to an indie label and later on moved to VIRGIN RECORDS (that's where his biggest hit, "La Raza", came out – "Chicano, and I'm brown and proud"), in 1995 he was signed by Ruthless ([[Eazy E]]'s label) (distributed by Relativity and later on by Relativity/Epic/Sony), in 1999 Frost was signed to a small independent label (so he probably didn't sell as many records as the major label ppl wanted him to.)
> Style-wise Frost moved from Electro Funk (a kind of electronic hip hop, as it says, in this and other cases with rapping on it) to a Latin-tinged kind of [[Gangsta rap]] that he's basically still into, although now often inspired by G-Funk (a more melodic kind of gangsta rap pioneered by [[Dr. Dre]]).
28d27
< 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989745486
8a9,11
> 
> ----
> Notes by LA2: While holocaust as a phenomenon is certainly associated with Nazi Germany, this particular term is not a German word.  On the other hand, there are other German non-Nazi words that are used in English language, and it could be worth while to explain them.  Should this be done from a separate page?  I'm thinking of [[angst]] (anxiety, feeling of despair) and [[schadenfreude]] (the joy over the failure of others).  Then we have classes of loan-words from other languages like [[ombudsman]] (a proxy official, from Swedish), and [[smorgasbord]] (an all-you-can-eat buffet of mostly cold dishes, also from Swedish).
------
Beastie_Boys|989745655
11c11,13
< Influenced by Run DMC and Schoolly D, the Beastie Boys changed from a punk outfit to a hip hop three-man crew. Produced by Rick Rubin, they invaded the mainstream with their metal-tinged, slammin' hip hop. Their debut album Licensed to ill came out in 1986. Their second album was Paul's boutique, produced mainly by the Dust Brothers. This extremely sample-heavy oeuvre is one of the best hip hop albums ever. The follow-up Check your head was not quite as brilliant, but with its introduction of instrumentals and punk songs added to both the Beastie's creative range as re-claiming their status as the link between hip hop and rock. 
---
> Influenced by [[Run DMC]] and [[Schoolly D]], the Beastie Boys changed from a [[Punk Rock]] outfit to a hip hop three-man crew. Produced by Rick Rubin, they invaded the mainstream with their metal-tinged, slammin' hip hop. Their debut album Licensed to ill came out in 1986. Their second album was Paul's Boutique, produced mainly by the [[Dust Brothers]]. This extremely sample-heavy oeuvre is one of the best hip hop albums ever. The follow-up Check Your Head was not quite as brilliant, but with its introduction of instrumentals and punk songs added to both the Beastie's creative range as re-claiming their status as the link between hip hop and rock.
> 
> Beastie is supposed to stand for Boys Entering Anarchistic States Towards Inner Excellence 
24c26
< 1999 - Anthology: The sounds of science
---
> 1999 - Anthology: The sounds of science
------
English_language|989745764
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
------
Wu-Tang_Clan|989745790
1c1
< One of the most important rap groups of the 1990s. Producer RZA who also composed the soundtrack of Jim Jarmusch's film "Ghost Dog" started with rough beats and some soul samples, all rather typical of the east coast, and later on started to incorporate very symphonic sounds. 
---
> One of the most important rap groups of the 1990s. Producer [[RZA]] who also composed the soundtrack of [[Jim Jarmusch]]'s film "[[Ghost Dog]]" started with rough beats and some soul samples, all rather typical of the east coast, and later on started to incorporate very symphonic sounds. 
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989745820
11c11
< Notes by LA2: While holocaust as a phenomenon is certainly associated with Nazi Germany, this particular term is not a German word.  On the other hand, there are other German non-Nazi words that are used in English language, and it could be worth while to explain them.  Should this be done from a separate page?  I'm thinking of [[angst]] (anxiety, feeling of despair) and [[schadenfreude]] (the joy over the failure of others).  Then we have classes of loan-words from other languages like [[ombudsman]] (a proxy official, from Swedish), and [[smorgasbord]] (an all-you-can-eat buffet of mostly cold dishes, also from Swedish).
---
> Notes by LA2: While holocaust as a phenomenon is certainly associated with Nazi Germany, this particular term is not a German word.  On the other hand, there are other German non-Nazi words that are used in English language, and it could be worth while to explain them.  Should this be done from a separate page?  I'm thinking of [[angst]] (anxiety, feeling of despair) and [[schadenfreude]] (the joy over the failure of others).  Then we have classes of [[loan words]] from other languages like [[ombudsman]] (a proxy official, from Swedish), and [[smorgasbord]] (an all-you-can-eat buffet of mostly cold dishes, also from Swedish).
------
Jim_Jarmusch|989745851
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Ghost Dog]] - The Way of the Samurai
> :[[Down By Law]]
> :[[Dead Man]]
------
Gothic_alphabet|989745955
10a11,12
> 
> See also [[Gothic Language]]
------
Electro_funk|989745956
1c1
< Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by Kraftwerk and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). Afrika Bambaataa's Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed Ennio Morricone, Kraftwerk and Captain Sky, or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
---
> Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed [[Ennio Morricone]], Kraftwerk and [[Captain Sky]], or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
------
Gothic_alphabet|989746003
12c12
< See also [[Gothic Language]]
---
> See also [[Gothic language]]
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989746069
12c12
< *[[Athenian Empire]]
---
> *[[Hellenic civilization]] (was: [[Athenian Empire]], but what was that?)
------
Gothic_language|989746148
7c7,11
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981) The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
---
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981)
> 
> The Gothic Bible and Skereins were written using a special alphabet. See [[Gothic Alphabet]].
> 
> The Gothic alphabet was probably created by the man who also translated the Bible into the "razda" (language). Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the Greek alphabet only, others maintain that there are also some Gothic letters of runic or Latin origin.
------
Gothic_language|989746192
9c9
< The Gothic Bible and Skereins were written using a special alphabet. See [[Gothic Alphabet]].
---
> The Gothic Bible and Skereins were written using a special alphabet. See [[Gothic alphabet]].
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc./Talk|989746198
5c5,8
< This allow readers to see the formation of modern day countries.
---
> This allow readers to see the formation of modern day countries.
> ----
> LA2 says: This page refers to states of some form, and so leaves no room for [[ancient civilization]]s that were more loosely held together.  I'm not sure of the terms here.  For example, what was the "Athenian empire"?
> 
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989746234
1c1
< '''Ancient'''
---
> '''Ancient''' (see also [[ancient civilization]]s)
------
Ancient_civilization|989746300
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ancient civilizations include
> 
> [[Sumerian]],
> [[Egypt]],
> [[Israel]],
> [[Hellenic civilization]]
> 
> See also [[Extinct empires, kingdoms, etc.]]
> 
------
Ancient_civilization|989746340
8c8
< See also [[Extinct empires, kingdoms, etc.]]
---
> See also [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
------
Ancient_civilization|989746367
3c3
< [[Sumerian]],
---
> [[Sumerians]],
------
Hellenic_civilization|989746432
0a1,2
> Hellenic civilization is the [[ancient civilization]] of Hellas, or [[Greece]].
> 
------
Film_noir|989746486
1c1,16
< A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast; classic examples of the genre include [[The Maltese Falcon]], [[The Postman Always Rings Twice]], [[Touch of Evil]], [[Laura]], and [[The Big Sleep]].  More recent, modernized examples include [[Blood Simple]], [[Blue Velvet]], [[Taxi Driver]], [[L.A. Confidential]], and [[Blade Runner]].
---
> A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast (called Low Key Light).
> 
> Classic examples of the genre include 
> :[[The Maltese Falcon]]
> :[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]
> :[[Touch of Evil]]
> :[[Laura]]
> :[[The Big Sleep]]
> 
> More recent, modernized examples include 
> :[[Blood Simple]]
> :[[Blue Velvet]]
> :[[Taxi Driver]]
> :[[L.A. Confidential]]
> :[[Blade Runner]]
> :[[Reservoir Dogs]]
------
Sumerians|989746574
1c1
< Sumerians are presumably a non-Semitic group of nomadic people, who may have come from the East (India or ancient Persia) and settled on Mesopotomia to establish the first possible major civilization of the world even before ancient Egyptians. Although their exact arrival date is unknown, they seem to exist in the area as a minor agricultural and organized civilization as early as the 5th millennium BC. Different than previous city states, their country was the first large state formed by collection and organization of several small cities. Sumerians are also credited with inventing the cuneiform writing system. Their major cities were Kish, Uruk and Ur. As the local Semitic tribes (Akkads, Amorities and Elams)were strengthened, the Sumerians began to loose their political hegemony over most territories of Mesopotamia and after a major blow from Babylonians, they completely disappeared on about 2nd millennium BC.
---
> Sumerians are presumably a non-Semitic group of nomadic people, who may have come from the East (India or ancient Persia) and settled on Mesopotomia to establish the first possible major  [[ancient civilization|civilization]] of the world even before [[ancient Egypt]]ians. Although their exact arrival date is unknown, they seem to exist in the area as a minor agricultural and organized civilization as early as the 5th millennium BC. Different than previous city states, their country was the first large state formed by collection and organization of several small cities. Sumerians are also credited with inventing the cuneiform writing system. Their major cities were Kish, Uruk and Ur. As the local Semitic tribes (Akkads, Amorities and Elams)were strengthened, the Sumerians began to loose their political hegemony over most territories of Mesopotamia and after a major blow from Babylonians, they completely disappeared on about 2nd millennium BC.
3c3
<  
---
>  
------
Sumerians|989746606
1c1
< Sumerians are presumably a non-Semitic group of nomadic people, who may have come from the East (India or ancient Persia) and settled on Mesopotomia to establish the first possible major  [[ancient civilization|civilization]] of the world even before [[ancient Egypt]]ians. Although their exact arrival date is unknown, they seem to exist in the area as a minor agricultural and organized civilization as early as the 5th millennium BC. Different than previous city states, their country was the first large state formed by collection and organization of several small cities. Sumerians are also credited with inventing the cuneiform writing system. Their major cities were Kish, Uruk and Ur. As the local Semitic tribes (Akkads, Amorities and Elams)were strengthened, the Sumerians began to loose their political hegemony over most territories of Mesopotamia and after a major blow from Babylonians, they completely disappeared on about 2nd millennium BC.
---
> Sumerians are presumably a non-[[Semitic]] group of nomadic people, who may have come from the East (India or ancient Persia) and settled on Mesopotomia to establish the first possible major  [[ancient civilization|civilization]] of the world even before [[ancient Egypt]]ians. Although their exact arrival date is unknown, they seem to exist in the area as a minor agricultural and organized civilization as early as the 5th millennium BC. Different than previous city states, their country was the first large state formed by collection and organization of several small cities. Sumerians are also credited with inventing the cuneiform writing system. Their major cities were Kish, Uruk and Ur. As the local Semitic tribes (Akkads, Amorities and Elams)were strengthened, the Sumerians began to loose their political hegemony over most territories of Mesopotamia and after a major blow from Babylonians, they completely disappeared on about 2nd millennium BC.
------
Werner_Herzog|989746819
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Famous Films:
> 
> :[[Nosferatu]]
> :[[Woyzcek]]
> :[[Cobra Verde]]
> :[[Aguirre, Wrath of God]]
------
Early_Semitic_alphabet|989746953
1c1
< The first partly alphabetic spellings can be found in the Middle Kingdom (Sass 26). According to Bauer (Coulmas 1998: 141) the Semites borrowed the principle of consonantal alphabetic orthography (Skoyles) from the Egyptians. Gardiner (1916, in Coulmas 1989: 140) and Praetorius (1916,  ibid.) saw the origin of the Semitic alphabets in the Cretan syllabaries (Linear A and B) and Cypriote syllabic writing. Sayce (1910, ebd.) was convinced that the Hittite script was the predecessor of Semitic writing. The most probable case, however, is an extensive Egyptian influence and a at least graphic influence from other sources.
---
> The first partly [[alphabet]]ic spellings can be found in the [[Middle Kingdom]] (Sass 26). According to Bauer (Coulmas 1998: 141) the Semites borrowed the principle of consonantal alphabetic orthography (Skoyles) from the [[ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]. Gardiner (1916, in Coulmas 1989: 140) and Praetorius (1916,  ibid.) saw the origin of the [[Semitic]] alphabets in the [[ancient Crete|Cretan]] syllabaries ([[Linear A]] and [[Linear B|B]]) and [[ancient Cyprus|Cypriote]] syllabic writing. Sayce (1910, ebd.) was convinced that the [[Hittite]] script was the predecessor of Semitic writing. The most probable case, however, is an extensive Egyptian influence and a at least graphic influence from other sources.
3c3
< In the beginning, the Semitic alphabets did not contain vowel graphemes. That is why some scholars see these alphabets as syllabaries (Gelb 147 ff., Powell 238 ff.). However, syllabaries consist of items that always designate a "consonant + vowel" or in some cases "vowel". Consonantal alphabets, on the other hand, only have signs that designate consonants. It is not clear why the Semites in the beginning did not designate vowels – some scholars claim that this has something to do with the paucity of vowels present in early Semitic (as in Classical Arabic), others state that the system of Semitic roots is the cause of this system: Daniels (DB 27) claims that "[t]he Semitic abjads do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic  very well". A syllabic system would not be fit for Semitic languages – due to the phonological properties of those languages. In Japanese, on the other hand, a consonant is always followed by a vowel, therefore syllabic writing is in a way more than fit for Japanese. The English word hotel for example is written as ho-te-ru and is also pronounced trisyllabically. Greek on the other hand is hard to write syllabically.  Greek skhizein for example would have to be written as *su-ki-ze-nu. Hence, the syllabic Linear B which was used by the Mycenaeans and was derived from the earlier Minoan system (Linear A) was a system that was not created for Greek, but for a still unknown language with a phonetic structure probably similar to Japanese. Miller (18 ff.) gives the following example:  Greek /p_h_ásgana/ was written as pa-ka-na (id. 19) in Linear B.  
---
> In the beginning, the Semitic alphabets did not contain vowel graphemes. That is why some scholars see these alphabets as syllabaries (Gelb 147 ff., Powell 238 ff.). However, syllabaries consist of items that always designate a "consonant + vowel" or in some cases "vowel". Consonantal alphabets, on the other hand, only have signs that designate consonants. It is not clear why the Semites in the beginning did not designate vowels - some scholars claim that this has something to do with the paucity of vowels present in early Semitic (as in Classical Arabic), others state that the system of Semitic roots is the cause of this system: Daniels (DB 27) claims that "[t]he Semitic abjads do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic  very well". A syllabic system would not be fit for Semitic languages - due to the phonological properties of those languages. In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], on the other hand, a consonant is always followed by a vowel, therefore syllabic writing is in a way more than fit for Japanese. The [[English language|English]] word hotel for example is written as ho-te-ru and is also pronounced trisyllabically. Greek on the other hand is hard to write syllabically.  Greek skhizein for example would have to be written as *su-ki-ze-nu. Hence, the syllabic Linear B which was used by the [[Mycenaean]]s and was derived from the earlier [[Minoan]] system (Linear A) was a system that was not created for [[Greek language|Greek]], but for a still unknown language with a phonetic structure probably similar to Japanese. Miller (18 ff.) gives the following example:  Greek /p_h_ásgana/ was written as pa-ka-na (id. 19) in Linear B.  
21c21
< Burnaby, Barbara. 1997. "Writing Systems and Orthographies" In: Edwards, Viv and David Corson (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education – Volume 2: Literacy. Dordrecht etc.: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.59-86. 
---
> Burnaby, Barbara. 1997. "Writing Systems and Orthographies" In: Edwards, Viv and David Corson (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education - Volume 2: Literacy. Dordrecht etc.: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.59-86. 
44c44
< -----.1997. "Wulfila's Script – Facts and Inferences" In: General Linguistics Vol. 35/ No. 1-4/ 1997. 
---
> -----.1997. "Wulfila's Script - Facts and Inferences" In: General Linguistics Vol. 35/ No. 1-4/ 1997. 
109c109
< Pulur, U. 1996. Zazaki K&#305;rmanck&#305; D&#305;m&#305;lki Alfabe – Alphabet – Elfabe Elifba. &#304;stanbul: Kora Yay&#305;n.
---
> Pulur, U. 1996. Zazaki K&#305;rmanck&#305; D&#305;m&#305;lki Alfabe - Alphabet - Elfabe Elifba. &#304;stanbul: Kora Yay&#305;n.
111c111
< Rabin, Chaim. 1977. "Spelling Reform – Israel 1986" In: Fishman, p. 149-176. 
---
> Rabin, Chaim. 1977. "Spelling Reform - Israel 1986" In: Fishman, p. 149-176. 
113c113
< Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi – Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
---
> Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi - Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
------
International_Wikipedia|989746998
32a33,36
> 
> ----
> 
> One of the people who did [[Franks]] would like to see a Wikipedia in French. He or she claims there is stuff ready to go in.
------
Ancient_Egypt|989747028
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For more information on the [[ancient civilization]] of [[Egypt]], see [[Egypt/History]].
> 
> See also [[Early Semitic language]], [[pharao]], [[pyramid]], [[Seven Wonders of the World]], [[Nile]].
> 
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|989747046
36c36
< One of the people who did [[Franks]] would like to see a Wikipedia in French. He or she claims there is stuff ready to go in.
---
> One of the people who did [[Frank]] would like to see a Wikipedia in French. He or she claims there is stuff ready to go in.
------
Pharao|989747094
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pharao was the title of the emperor (of godly status) in [[ancient Egypt]].  See also [[monarch]].
> 
> 
------
Monarch|989747117
1c1
< A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], or such titles.  A state ruled by
---
> A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], [[pharao]], or such titles.  A state ruled by
------
Great_Pyramid_of_Giza|989747209
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[pyramid]] in [[Giza]] in [[Egypt]], built by the civilization of [[ancient Egypt]].
------
Great_Pyramid_of_Giza|989747241
1c1
< A [[pyramid]] in [[Giza]] in [[Egypt]], built by the civilization of [[ancient Egypt]].
---
> One of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], this [[pyramid]] in [[Giza]] in [[Egypt]], was built by the civilization of [[ancient Egypt]].
------
Ancient_Egypt|989747284
3c3
< See also [[Early Semitic language]], [[pharao]], [[pyramid]], [[Seven Wonders of the World]], [[Nile]].
---
> See also [[Early Semitic alphabet]], [[pharao]], [[pyramid]], [[Seven Wonders of the World]], [[Nile]].
------
Ancient_civilization|989747386
4c4
< [[Egypt]],
---
> [[ancient Egypt]],
------
Miocene|989747720
1c1
< The Miocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 5 million to 24 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Miocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]].  It means roughly "lessor of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas.  The Miocene follows the [[Oligocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Pliocene]] Epoch. The Eocene is the fourth epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]]. 
---
> The Miocene Epoch is a [[Geologic Timescale|Geologic Period]] that extends from about 5 million to 24 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Miocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]].  It means roughly "lessor of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas.  The Miocene follows the [[Oligocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Pliocene]] Epoch. The Eocene is the fourth epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]]. 
5c5
< Continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent.  Climates remained moderately warm although slow global cooling that eventual led to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations continued. Mountain building in Western North America and Europe.  Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines.  Well studied contential exposures occur in the American Great Plains and in Argentina.
---
> [[Continent]]s continued to [[continental drift|drift]] toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between [[South America]] and [[North America]] was absent.  Climates remained moderately warm although slow global cooling that eventual led to the [[Pleistocene]] [[glaciation]]s continued. Mountain building in Western North America and [[Europe]].  Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines.  Well studied contential exposures occur in the [[American Great Plains]] and in [[Argentina]].
7c7
< Both marine and continental faunas were fairly modern.  Recognizable dogs, horses, beaver, deer, camels, crows, ducks, owls, whales, etc existed in the Miocene.  Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergant faunas exist.
---
> Both marine and continental [[fauna]]s were fairly modern.  Recognizable [[dog]]s, [[horse]]s, [[beaver]], [[deer]], [[camel]]s, [[crow]]s, [[duck]]s, [[owl]]s, [[whale]]s, etc existed in the Miocene.  Only in isolated South America and [[Australia]] did widely divergant faunas exist.
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989747767
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era.
> 
> 
------
Geologist|989747798
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Scientist]] devoted to [[geology]].
> 
> [[Sir Charles Lyell]].
> 
> 
------
Scientist|989747826
6a7
> [[geologist]]s,
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Introduction|989747963
3c3
< My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr [[A.R. Wallace|Wallace]], who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to Sir [[Charles Lyell]], who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr [[Joseph Hooker|Hooker]], who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
---
> My work is now nearly finished; but as it will take me two or three more years to complete it, and as my health is far from strong, I have been urged to publish this Abstract. I have more especially been induced to do this, as Mr [[A.R. Wallace|Wallace]], who is now studying the natural history of the Malay archipelago, has arrived at almost exactly the same general conclusions that I have on the origin of species. Last year he sent to me a memoir on this subject, with a request that I would forward it to [[Sir Charles Lyell]], who sent it to the Linnean Society, and it is published in the third volume of the journal of that Society. Sir C. Lyell and Dr [[Joseph Hooker|Hooker]], who both knew of my work ? the latter having read my sketch of 1844 ? honoured me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace's excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts. 
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989748031
1c1,3
< [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era.
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era, mentioned in the [[Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
> 
> 
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989748051
1c1
< [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era, mentioned in the [[Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era, mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
------
Pliocene|989748122
1c1
< The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [Sir Charles Lyell]?. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Eocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
---
> The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]]. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Eocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989748143
1c1
< [[Geologist]] who named the [[Miocene]] era, mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Pliocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras, mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
------
Geology|989748178
1a2,3
> 
> See also [[geologist]]s.
------
Geology|989748200
3c3
< See also [[geologist]]s.
---
> See also [[geologist]]s and [[Geologic Timescale]].
------
Geology|989748240
1c1
< Geology is the study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [[Soils]], [[Geophysics]], [[Climatology]], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
---
> Geology is the [[science]] and study of our earth, and all of the biotic and abiotic factors involved in the processes that take place on it.  There are many different fields within the discipline of Geology, and it would be hard to list all of them.  Some include, however, [[Hydrology]], [[Soils]], [[Geophysics]], [[Climatology]], [[Biogeology]], and many more.
------
Runic|989748671
1c1
< The runes were created by speakers of Germanic dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this alphabet as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/Alpine alphabets with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly – at least on a formal level – of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of Byblos and Ugarit as well as the Phoenician alphabet. Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
---
> The runes were created by speakers of [[Germanic]] dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this [[alphabet]] as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/[[Alpine alphabet]]s with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly - at least on a formal level - of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of [[Byblos]] and [[Ugarit]] as well as the [[Phoenician]] alphabet. Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
------
Runic|989748737
1c1
< The runes were created by speakers of [[Germanic]] dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this [[alphabet]] as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/[[Alpine alphabet]]s with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly - at least on a formal level - of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of [[Byblos]] and [[Ugarit]] as well as the [[Phoenician]] alphabet. Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
---
> The runes were created by speakers of [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] dialects in order to write their languages. Although some scholars claim the runes to be entirely of Greek (Morris in Odenstedt 359) or Latin (Odenstedt 362) origin, most scholars view this [[alphabet]] as a script of mixed origin. Seebold (441), Krause (38 ff.), Jensen (571) and Coulmas (1996: 444 ff.) think that the Runic alphabet is a mixture of North Italic/[[Alpine alphabet]]s with additional Latin influence. This most frequent school of thought is certainly more realistic than the monogenetic explanations provided by Morris and Odenstedt. Some letters are obviously Latin in origin, for example the  runes for /f/ and /r/, others remind clearly - at least on a formal level - of Alpine letters, for example the /h/-rune. There are also symbols that could be either Latin or Alpine, e.g. the /i/-rune. Bernal (36) thinks that there was also some substrate alphabet involved, Miller (62) claims that the origins of the runic alphabet are archaic-Mediterranean. Both do not specify their ideas. Miller (ibid.) also writes that the phonetic parameters on which the runic alphabet is based are ultimately clearly Semitic and links them to the scripts of [[Byblos]] and [[Ugarit]] as well as the [[Phoenician]] alphabet. Several different Runic scripts developed, including an Anglo-Saxon system that even had different symbols for /k/ and /c/ (modern English /tS/). The latter was symbolized by the old /k/-rune; a new symbol was created for Anglo-Saxon /k/. 
------
Germanic_languages|989748846
20a21,22
> Some Germanic dialects developed [[runic]] alphabets of their own.
> 
------
Roman_alphabet|989749101
1,2c1,2
< The Latin alphabet derives mainly from the Etruscan script. According to Hammarström (in Jensen 521), the letters for B, D, O, X  hail from a Southern Italian Greek alphabet. However, there are Etruscan abecedaria with B, D, O, X (Sampson 108). Rix (203) claims that the sound values of those letters in Latin is to be attributed to Greek influence, the letters themselves were probably all present when the Romans took over the alphabet from the Etruscans (Wachter 33). 
< It is uncontested that the alphabet is mainly of Etruscan origin. The sound value of C proves that clearly. Etruscan had no voiced plosives, so this symbol – derived from the Greek gamma – came to stand for the unvoiced /k/ in Etruscan – as later in Latin. Jensen  (521) notes that the letters C, K, Q were originally used in Latin according to Etruscan usage: C in front of /e, i/; K in front of /a/; Q in front of /u, o/. The letters thus stand for different allophones of /k/ (in the case of Latin, also /g/ and probably the phonemes /k_w/ and /g_w/ in the case of QU and GU). These spelling rules are due to the names of the letters: gamma or gemma; kappa; qoppa or quppa (Wachter 15). In Etruscan there was no /o/, so Q was used both in front of /o/ and /u/ in Latin. Y and Z were later additions taken from the Greek alphabet. G was created approximately in the 3rd century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga as a modification of C (Sampson 109). F (digamma) stood for /w/ in both Etruscan and Latin, but the Romans simplified the FH-/f/combination to F /f/. The semi-vowels  /w, j/  and the vowels /u, u:, i, i:/ were written with the same letters, namely V and I respectively.
---
> The Latin [[alphabet]] derives mainly from the [[Etruscan script]]. According to Hammarström (in Jensen 521), the letters for B, D, O, X  hail from a Southern Italian [[Greek alphabet]]. However, there are Etruscan [[abecedaria]] with B, D, O, X (Sampson 108). Rix (203) claims that the sound values of those letters in Latin is to be attributed to Greek influence, the letters themselves were probably all present when the Romans took over the alphabet from the Etruscans (Wachter 33). 
> It is uncontested that the alphabet is mainly of Etruscan origin. The sound value of C proves that clearly. Etruscan had no voiced plosives, so this symbol - derived from the Greek gamma - came to stand for the unvoiced /k/ in Etruscan - as later in Latin. Jensen  (521) notes that the letters C, K, Q were originally used in Latin according to Etruscan usage: C in front of /e, i/; K in front of /a/; Q in front of /u, o/. The letters thus stand for different allophones of /k/ (in the case of Latin, also /g/ and probably the phonemes /k_w/ and /g_w/ in the case of QU and GU). These spelling rules are due to the names of the letters: gamma or gemma; kappa; qoppa or quppa (Wachter 15). In Etruscan there was no /o/, so Q was used both in front of /o/ and /u/ in Latin. Y and Z were later additions taken from the Greek alphabet. G was created approximately in the 3rd century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga as a modification of C (Sampson 109). F (digamma) stood for /w/ in both Etruscan and Latin, but the Romans simplified the FH-/f/combination to F /f/. The semi-vowels  /w, j/  and the vowels /u, u:, i, i:/ were written with the same letters, namely V and I respectively.
4c4
< In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a Germanic letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In Old English, thorn and wynn - a Runic letter - were added. In modern Icelandic, thorn is still used. 
---
> In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a [[Germanic language|Germanic]] letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In [[Old English]], [[thorn]] and [[wynn]] - a [[Runic]] letter - were added. In modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], thorn is still used. 
8c8
< Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi – Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
---
> Rix, Helmut. 1993. "La scrittura e la lingua" In: Cristofani, Mauro (hrsg.) 1993. Gli etruschi - Una nuova immagine. Firenze: Giunti. S.199-227.
------
Roman_alphabet|989749137
4c4
< In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a [[Germanic language|Germanic]] letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In [[Old English]], [[thorn]] and [[wynn]] - a [[Runic]] letter - were added. In modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], thorn is still used. 
---
> In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In [[Old English]], [[thorn]] and [[wynn]] - a [[Runic]] letter - were added. In modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], thorn is still used. 
------
Germanic_languages|989749334
4c4
< * [[English language]]
---
> * [[English language]], descending from [[Old English]] and [[Middle English]]
14c14
< North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages:
---
> North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages, descending from [[Old Norse]]:
------
Germanic_languages|989749379
14c14
< North Germanic (Scandinavian) languages, descending from [[Old Norse]]:
---
> North Germanic ([[Scandinavia]]n) languages, descending from [[Old Norse]]:
------
Geronimo_Jones|989749441
3a4,15
> 
> Thanks. It a nice place to be.
> 
> Geronimo Jones is a made up name, of course. No-one would really be called that. Well, that's what i thought when i started using the alias in a few places to prevent getting spammed.
> 
> Later, i did a search on a search engine and got quite a few hits. Apparently there was a US movie in the 1960s called "Geronimo Jones". I haven't seen it. Also there was some medical student in the Carribean with that name had a personal web page. That was a couple of years ago, he's probably a doctor now.
> 
> Mostly i haven't been bothering to log in here. I've done quite a few very minor contributions, but they just have an ip address for an author.
> 
> I first came here after the slashdot article (February or March 2001). There wasn't much here then, and nearly all of it very shallow. There were a couple of areas where i could churn out something better than what was here with essentially no effort.
> 
> Now a few areas actually have proper articles. For the most part it doesn't feel as nice just to jump in and write without thinking or checking sources. But there is stuff here that is worth reading, so it is still a cool place to be, and may eventually become useful. Anarchy rules OK?
------
Germanic_languages|989749448
8c8
< * [[German language]]
---
> * [[German language]] and [[Low German]]
------
Germanic_languages|989749468
8c8
< * [[German language]] and [[Low German]]
---
> * [[German language]] and [[LowGerman]]
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English_language|989749684
1c1
< The primary [[language]] spoken in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], and sundry other places, and a second language for most Europeans and many in the rest of the world.
---
> The primary [[language]] spoken in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], and sundry other places, and a second language for most [[Europe]]ans and many in the rest of the world.
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as OldEnglish.  It has had large amount of influence from OldNorse and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
12c12
< English grammar is based on that of its Germanic roots, though some scholars during the 1700s and 1800s attempted to impose Latin grammar upon it, with little success.
---
> English [[grammar]] is based on that of its Germanic roots, though some scholars during the 1700s and 1800s attempted to impose Latin grammar upon it, with little success.
14c14
< English spelling is non-phonetic and inconsistent, for two primary reasons.  For one, spelling did not become fixed until after the spread of the printing press, by which time it was likely that words printed in industrial cities with presses were spelled as they were pronounced there, but regional pronunciations in most of the country were different.  Secondly, English generally borrows words from other languages by changing their pronunciation but not their spelling.
---
> English [[spelling]] is non-[[phonetic]] and inconsistent, for two primary reasons.  For one, spelling did not become fixed until after the spread of the printing press, by which time it was likely that words printed in industrial cities with presses were spelled as they were pronounced there, but regional pronunciations in most of the country were different.  Secondly, English generally borrows words from other languages by changing their pronunciation but not their spelling.
16c16
< Since Chinese is made up of monsyllables only, I find it hard to believe Chinese has no homonyms. They must have very few words, then...:-). Further, in genral, all spoken languages are equally complex, because they are capable of expressing equally complex ideas. They just have different mechanisms for doing this. I could write a sentence or two on how Enlish lacks the complexities of Latin and Greek...but I would not believe it.
---
> Since [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is made up of monsyllables only, I find it hard to believe Chinese has no [[homonym]]s. They must have very few words, then...:-). Further, in genral, all spoken languages are equally complex, because they are capable of expressing equally complex ideas. They just have different mechanisms for doing this. I could write a sentence or two on how Enlish lacks the complexities of Latin and Greek...but I would not believe it.
19c19
< the reason why chinese probably hasn't got many homophones is that chinese has many tones. 8 i think. so the word may have the same sounds, but the tones are different, so native speakers won't mix them up
---
> the reason why chinese probably hasn't got many [[homophone]]s is that chinese has many [[tone]]s. 8 i think. so the word may have the same [[sound]]s, but the tones are different, so native speakers won't mix them up
------
English_language|989749813
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the term [[Middle English]] is used.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
------
MiddleAges|989750013
1c1
< Period in European History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western Roman Empire (late 4th century) to the beginning of the Renaissance Age (ca. 14th century). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the Byzantine Empire competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of Christianity from the Mediterranean area and from Ireland and Scotland throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the Frankish Empire) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": Christendom. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the Crusades, during which Popes, kings, and emporors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on Islam, which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the Renaissance.
---
> Period in [[Europe]]an History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (late 4th century) to the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] Age (ca. [[14th century]]). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the [[Byzantine Empire]] competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of [[Christianity]] from the Mediterranean area and from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the [[Frankish Empire]]) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": [[Christendom]]. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the [[Crusade]]s, during which [[Pope]]s, kings, and emperors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on [[Islam]], which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the [[Renaissance]].
------
Renaissance|989750100
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A cultural movement in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
> 
> 
------
Renaissance|989750121
1c1,3
< A cultural movement in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
---
> A cultural movement in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].
> 
> 
------
Renaissance|989750168
1c1,3
< A cultural movement in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].
---
> A cultural movement and time period in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].  See also the [[HistoryOfEurope]].
> 
> 
------
Renaissance|989750185
1c1
< A cultural movement and time period in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].  See also the [[HistoryOfEurope]].
---
> A cultural movement and time period in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].  See also the [[History of Europe]].
------
Renaissance|989750280
1c1,2
< A cultural movement and time period in [[Europe]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from [[ancient Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]] and marked the end of the [[Middle Ages]].  See also the [[History of Europe]].
---
> A cultural movement and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
> 
------
15th_century|989750372
1,3c1,3
< * Rennaisance affects philosophy, science and art.
< * Invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg.
< * Machiavelli writes The Prince
---
> * [[Rennaisance]] affects [[philosophy]], [[History of Science and Technology|science]] and [[art]].
> * Invention of the [[printing press]] by [[Johann Gutenberg]].
> * [[Machiavelli]] writes The Prince
6c6
< See also other [[centuries]].
---
> Back to [[14th century]], forward to [[16th century]].  See also other [[centuries]].
------
15th_century|989750387
1c1
< * [[Rennaisance]] affects [[philosophy]], [[History of Science and Technology|science]] and [[art]].
---
> * [[Renaissance]] affects [[philosophy]], [[History of Science and Technology|science]] and [[art]].
------
Renaissance|989750522
1c1
< A cultural movement and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
---
> A cultural movement (see [[Renaissance Classicism]]) and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
------
Renaissance|989750647
1,3c1
< A cultural movement (see [[Renaissance Classicism]]) and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
< 
< 
---
> A cultural movement and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
4a3
> See also [[Renaissance Classicism]].
------
History_of_Europe|989750922
16a17,23
> [[Renaissance]] ...
> 
> [[Reformation]] ...
> 
> Invention of the [[printing press]] ... [[History of Science and Technology]] ... [[industrial revolution]] ...
> 
> 
------
Christianity|989751240
1c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of religions who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more liberal sects he was simply someone who had new insights and something to teach.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of [[religion]]s who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more liberal sects he was simply someone who had new insights and something to teach.
5c5
< Catholicism and Protestantism are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below). [[Baptists|Baptist]], [[Methodists|Methodist]], [[Lutherans|Lutheran]], and [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] ([[Church Of England]]) churches are examples of Protestant faiths. The two primary divisions of Catholicism are the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches.
---
> [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] are the two major divisions of Christianity in Western Europe (but see below). [[Baptists|Baptist]], [[Methodists|Methodist]], [[Lutherans|Lutheran]], and [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] ([[Church Of England]]) churches are examples of Protestant faiths. The two primary divisions of Catholicism are the [[Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches.
9c9
< Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of John Calvin and Martin Luther, who felt that the Catholic church no longer had God's sanction, and thus rejected its authority.
---
> Protestant faiths trace their roots to the work of [[John Calvin]] and [[Martin Luther]], who felt that the Catholic church no longer had God's sanction, and thus rejected its authority, thereby starting the [[protestant reformation]] of the church in many countries.
------
Scientology/Talk|989751350
3c3
< If you read any of the entries on any of the religions mentioned here, hare krishna, christianity, tao teh ching, buddhism, you will not find any effort to do more than recite what the adherents hold as being the parts of their faith.  It is not our place to praise or bash beliefs here, nor to seek out and repeat controversial utterances by others about a given faith or practice.  In Catholicism we could repeat polemics by Martin Luther, in Lutheranism we could rave on about how Luther's own writings in some cases depict him as a psycho drunk and woman-hating womanizer, decry the snake-handling practices of some Pentacostals.
---
> If you read any of the entries on any of the religions mentioned here, hare krishna, christianity, tao teh ching, buddhism, you will not find any effort to do more than recite what the adherents hold as being the parts of their faith.  It is not our place to praise or bash beliefs here, nor to seek out and repeat controversial utterances by others about a given faith or practice.  In Catholicism we could repeat polemics by Martin Luther, in Lutheranism we could rave on about how Luther's own writings in some cases depict him as a psycho drunk and woman-hating womanizer, decry the snake-handling practices of some [[Pentecostal]]s.
------
Christianity|989751376
24c24
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]] -- [[Pentacostal]] --[[Coptic]]
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]] -- [[Pentecostal]] --[[Coptic]]
------
Rheged|989751422
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Rheged was a nation in dark ages Britain. It was situated in what is now north-western England and south-western Scotland. It was founded during or soon after the collapse of power of the [[Roman Empire]] in Britain, which may put the date at around 400CE. It was eventually absorbed into the kingdom of [[Northumbria]] at a date probably before 800CE.
> 
> The language of the Rheged ruling classes, and quite likely of the majority of the population, was a southern [[Celtic]] language somewhat similar to [[Welsh]].
> 
> The language of [[Northumbria]] was [[Old English]], and it is likely there was some English presence in Rheged even while it was still independant.
> 
> There is considerable evidence for an Irish presence as well. It is known that Irish Christian missionaries were active in Rheged (although the region was at least nominally Christian even in Roman times) and there were likely Irish traders, pirates and settlers unconnected with the church as well.
> 
> The poet Taliesan (please check spelling) lived in Rheged.
> 
> One of the more accessible sources for Rheged history (and dark ages British history generally) is the works of [[The Venerable Bede]].
------
Pentecostal|989751452
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A movement within [[Christianity]], the pentecostal church started as a branch of the [[Baptist church]] in the early [[20th century]].
> 
> 
------
Baptist_church|989751595
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A movement within [[Christianity]] and especially [[protestantism]], the Baptist church emphasizes the importance of the mature adult's consent before baptism.
------
Baptist_church|989751671
1c1,3
< A movement within [[Christianity]] and especially [[protestantism]], the Baptist church emphasizes the importance of the mature adult's consent before baptism.
---
> A movement within [[Christianity]] and especially [[protestantism]], the Baptist church emphasizes the importance of the mature adult's consent before baptism.  The baptist church was started in the [[United States]] in the [[19th century]].  Disagreement on the forms of church service in the early [[20th century]] led to the spin off of the [[Pentecostal]] church.
> 
> 
------
The_Venerable_Bede|989751744
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bede was an English historian who wrote during the 8th century CE.
------
Constantinople|989752694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Constantinople is the old name of present [[Istanbul]] in [[Turkey]]. Constantinople was first the capital of the [[Roman Empire]], [[Byzantine Empire]] and finally [[Ottoman Empire]]. As the Republic of [[Turkey]] was founded on 1923, the capital moved from Istanbul to [[Ankara]]. Ottoman people were calling their capital city in various ways including Constantinople. Istanbul became the official name as late as 1930.
------
Politics|989753977
1c1
< A social science that, at its most general, addresses the question of what is the best structure for a society -- if there should be change, what change should take place ?
---
> A social science that, at its most general, addresses the question of what is the best structure for a society -- if there should be change, what change should take place?
------
Old_Turkic_alphabet|989758307
1c1
< Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic]] alphabet, the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors [[Uighurs]] and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Turkish Republic on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
---
> Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic]] alphabet, the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors [[Uighurs]] and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Republic of Turkey on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
------
Diffie-Hellman|989758858
1a2,5
> 
> However it is not secure if a special type of attack called the "Man in the middle" attack is possible. This attack assumes the attacker is able to modify messages between Alice and Bob as well as read them.
> 
> Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
------
Diffie-Hellman|989758930
5c5
< Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
---
> Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymetric_Algorithms|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
------
Diffie-Hellman|989758987
5c5
< Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymetric_Algorithms|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
---
> Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymmetric_Algorithms|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
------
Diffie-Hellman|989759023
5c5
< Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymmetric_Algorithms|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
---
> Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymetric_Algorithm|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
------
Rheged|989760009
11c11,12
< One of the more accessible sources for Rheged history (and dark ages British history generally) is the works of [[The Venerable Bede]].
---
> One of the more accessible sources for Rheged history (and dark ages British history generally) is the works of
> [[The Venerable Bede]].
------
Douglas_Adams|989760210
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (1952-2001)
> 
> A great Author, suddly died.
> 
> Read more about him on his [http://www.douglasadams.com|home page].
------
KnowLedge|989761461
3c3
< Most of you probably think you know some things.  You know your name -- let’s start with simple things.  You know that you are a student; you know that you are over ten years old; you know that the city we’re in is called "Columbus"; and so forth.  You know all kinds of things lik7e that.  
---
> Most of you probably think you know some things.  You know your name -- let's start with simple things.  You know that you are a student; you know that you are over ten years old; you know that the city we're in is called "[[Columbus]]"; and so forth.  You know all kinds of things like that.  
5c5
< The first thing we’re going to do is to ask what knowledge <i>in</i> <i>general</i> is.  When do you <i>know</i> something and when do you <i>merely</i> believe it?  So we are going to be studying the third part of the definition of "epistemology" that I gave you last time.  Let me repeat the third part; it reads: epistemology is the study of "(3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge."
---
> The first thing we're going to do is to ask what knowledge <i>in</i> <i>general</i> is.  When do you <i>know</i> something and when do you <i>merely</i> believe it?  So we are going to be studying the third part of the definition of "epistemology" that I gave you last time.  Let me repeat the third part; it reads: epistemology is the study of "(3) what knowledge is, i.e., what epistemic features would make a true belief knowledge."
7c7
< Now, the theory of knowledge would be a mildly amusing intellectual game if it involved no more than defining what you mean when you know what your name is, or that you are over ten years old.  If that were the total extent of the importance of the theory of knowledge, then of course it wouldn’t be very important.  But the theory of knowledge also investigates something much more crucial and interesting; namely, what it means to say that we know crucial and important things, and not merely trivial things like our own names.  How can we distinguish when we know, say, that we have a cure for human cancer, versus when we merely believe it with some evidence, but <i>don’t</i> know it?
---
> Now, the theory of knowledge would be a mildly amusing intellectual game if it involved no more than defining what you mean when you know what your name is, or that you are over ten years old.  If that were the total extent of the importance of the theory of knowledge, then of course it wouldn?t be very important.  But the theory of knowledge also investigates something much more crucial and interesting; namely, what it means to say that we know crucial and important things, and not merely trivial things like our own names.  How can we distinguish when we know, say, that we have a cure for human cancer, versus when we merely believe it with some evidence, but <i>don't</i> know it?
9c9
< Here, see if you agree with this or not: sometimes it really makes a difference whether we know something, as opposed to just believing it with a little evidence.  A correct assessment of whether we know something can sometimes spell the difference between life and death.  Suppose you are enjoying yourself, driving fast along a windy mountain road.  You come to a gas station and the gas station attendant tells you: "I just heard from someone that there was a big accident just around the big curve on State Route 99."  That’s all you find out.  So you hop back in your car and drive down the windy mountainous road, State Route 99.  And you keep driving fast.  You might tell yourself: "I don’t <i>know</i> that there the wreck is just around the curve."  So you keep driving fast.  But then a thought occurs to you: "I don’t know that it’s <i>not</i> around the next corner, either!"  So when you approach the next corner, you slow way down.  And it’s a good thing too -- because there’s the wreck and you would have crashed right into it.  So it saved your life, in this fictional scenario anyway, that you correctly assessed that you <i>didn’t</i> know that the wreck <i>wasn’t</i> around the next corner.  That’s one example of how a correct assessment of your knowledge state can save your life.  I’m sure you can think of many other examples of how knowledge can turn out to be very important.
---
> Here, see if you agree with this or not: sometimes it really makes a difference whether we know something, as opposed to just believing it with a little evidence.  A correct assessment of whether we know something can sometimes spell the difference between life and death.  Suppose you are enjoying yourself, driving fast along a windy mountain road.  You come to a gas station and the gas station attendant tells you: "I just heard from someone that there was a big accident just around the big curve on State Route 99."  That's all you find out.  So you hop back in your car and drive down the windy mountainous road, State Route 99.  And you keep driving fast.  You might tell yourself: "I don't <i>know</i> that there the wreck is just around the curve."  So you keep driving fast.  But then a thought occurs to you: "I don't know that it's <i>not</i> around the next corner, either!"  So when you approach the next corner, you slow way down.  And it's a good thing too -- because there's the wreck and you would have crashed right into it.  So it saved your life, in this fictional scenario anyway, that you correctly assessed that you <i>didn't</i> know that the wreck <i>wasn't</i> around the next corner.  That's one example of how a correct assessment of your knowledge state can save your life.  I'm sure you can think of many other examples of how knowledge can turn out to be very important.
11c11
< Now, I’m not saying that what you’re about to learn is going to save your life, because it probably won’t.  All I’m saying is that the subject of the investigation, knowledge, really is very important.  And so that lends at least some importance to the study of what knowledge is.
---
> Now, I'm not saying that what you're about to learn is going to save your life, because it probably won't.  All I'm saying is that the subject of the investigation, knowledge, really is very important.  And so that lends at least some importance to the study of what knowledge is.
13c13
< So let’s get down to business, and ask: What is knowledge?  How can I define the word or the concept, "knowledge"?
---
> So let's get down to business, and ask: What is knowledge?  How can I define the word or the concept, "knowledge"?
15c15
< Let’s begin by saying what we’re <i>not</i> talking about, when we ask this question.  First of all we aren’t just talking about <i>belief</i>.  I guess there is a very, very loose way we have of talking sometimes, when I can say, "What <i>she</i> knows is different from what <i>I</i> know; we disagree."  When I say stuff like that, all I mean is that we believe different things.  I don’t mean, in any strong, literal sense, that both of us know that contradictory claims are true.  So when we’re talking about knowledge, we aren’t talking about mere belief.  It’s something more than that.
---
> Let?s begin by saying what we're <i>not</i> talking about, when we ask this question.  First of all we aren't just talking about <i>belief</i>.  I guess there is a very, very loose way we have of talking sometimes, when I can say, "What <i>she</i> knows is different from what <i>I</i> know; we disagree."  When I say stuff like that, all I mean is that we believe different things.  I don't mean, in any strong, literal sense, that both of us know that contradictory claims are true.  So when we're talking about knowledge, we aren?t talking about mere belief.  It's something more than that.
17c17
< We also aren’t talking about <i>know</i>-<i>how</i>.  If I know how to swim, I display my know-how by swimming.  On the other hand, if I know that water is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, I do not display my knowledge by <i>doing</i> anything in particular.  Not even by talking.  Even if I couldn’t talk, I would still know that water is H2O.  On the other hand, if I can’t <i>swim</i>, then I don’t know <i>how</i> to swim.  So knowing how to do something is different from knowing that a proposition is true.  Knowing <i>how</i> is different from knowing <i>that</i>, or as we will say, <i>propositional</i> knowledge.  Knowledge that some proposition is true is propositional knowledge.  That should make sense, I think.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know how to use a circular saw," I mean one thing.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know that the value of pi can be infinitely expanded," I mean something different.  Roughly speaking, the first claim is about action; the second is only about something in our mind.  An even better way to think about it might be that knowledge is a highly specialized mental process.
---
> We also aren?t talking about <i>know</i>-<i>how</i>.  If I know how to swim, I display my know-how by swimming.  On the other hand, if I know that water is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, I do not display my knowledge by <i>doing</i> anything in particular.  Not even by talking.  Even if I couldn't talk, I would still know that water is H2O.  On the other hand, if I can't <i>swim</i>, then I don't know <i>how</i> to swim.  So knowing how to do something is different from knowing that a proposition is true.  Knowing <i>how</i> is different from knowing <i>that</i>, or as we will say, <i>propositional</i> knowledge.  Knowledge that some proposition is true is propositional knowledge.  That should make sense, I think.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know how to use a circular saw," I mean one thing.  When I use the word "know" in a sentence like "I know that the value of pi can be infinitely expanded," I mean something different.  Roughly speaking, the first claim is about action; the second is only about something in our mind.  An even better way to think about it might be that knowledge is a highly specialized mental process.
19c19
< So we aren’t talking about mere belief, and we aren’t talking about know-how.  But third, we also aren’t talking about <i>the</i> <i>accumulated</i> <i>information</i> <i>that</i> <i>human</i> <i>beings</i> <i>have</i> <i>amassed</i>.  If you like you could call this "encyclopedic knowledge."  Something is knowledge in <i>this</i> sense if it is generally accepted and the sort of thing that you would find in an encyclopedia.  Sometimes people -- scientists and historians are two good examples -- will say, "It is known that <i>p</i>," and they state some specific fact that is generally accepted by scientists or historians.  But of course a fairly large part of what we "know," in this encyclopedic sense, is just wrong.  We discover that what we thought was a fact, and what we taught schoolchildren to be fact, really isn’t factual at all -- it’s an error.  And so we might say that human knowledge, in this sense, has evolved and changed over the years.
---
> So we aren't talking about mere belief, and we aren't talking about know-how.  But third, we also aren?t talking about <i>the</i> <i>accumulated</i> <i>information</i> <i>that</i> <i>human</i> <i>beings</i> <i>have</i> <i>amassed</i>.  If you like you could call this "encyclopedic knowledge."  Something is knowledge in <i>this</i> sense if it is generally accepted and the sort of thing that you would find in an encyclopedia.  Sometimes people -- scientists and historians are two good examples -- will say, "It is known that <i>p</i>," and they state some specific fact that is generally accepted by scientists or historians.  But of course a fairly large part of what we "know," in this encyclopedic sense, is just wrong.  We discover that what we thought was a fact, and what we taught schoolchildren to be fact, really isn?t factual at all -- it's an error.  And so we might say that human knowledge, in this sense, has evolved and changed over the years.
21c21
< We <i>aren’t</i> talking about knowledge in <i>this</i> sense.  In other words, by the word "knowledge," we <i>don’t</i>  mean simply whatever is generally regarded as true these days by most experts.  We aren’t talking about that, because the sort of knowledge we’re talking about isn’t something that changes.  If you know it, then you can’t change your mind and then know something totally contradictory.  If you change your mind and believe the opposite of what you believed before, then you can either have knowledge now, or before your changed your mind -- not at both times.  And of course that’s the beauty and the value of knowledge, in the sense that we’re talking about: once you have it, as long as you don’t change your mind, then you’ve got it for good.
---
> We <i>aren't</i> talking about knowledge in <i>this</i> sense.  In other words, by the word "knowledge," we <i>don't</i>  mean simply whatever is generally regarded as true these days by most experts.  We aren't talking about that, because the sort of knowledge we're talking about isn't something that changes.  If you know it, then you can't change your mind and then know something totally contradictory.  If you change your mind and believe the opposite of what you believed before, then you can either have knowledge now, or before your changed your mind -- not at both times.  And of course that's the beauty and the value of knowledge, in the sense that we're talking about: once you have it, as long as you don?t change your mind, then you've got it for good.
23c23
< So here are three things that the word "knowledge" <i>doesn’t</i> mean, in the sense we’re interested in: first, mere belief; second, know-how; and third, encyclopedic, changeable human knowledge.  I could list other senses of the word "knowledge" that we don’t mean, but I doubt that’s necessary.  As I said, the name for what we <i>are</i> studying is knowledge <i>that</i>, or <i>propositional</i> <i>knowledge</i>.
---
> So here are three things that the word "knowledge" <i>doesn't</i> mean, in the sense we're interested in: first, mere belief; second, know-how; and third, encyclopedic, changeable human knowledge.  I could list other senses of the word "knowledge" that we don't mean, but I doubt that's necessary.  As I said, the name for what we <i>are</i> studying is knowledge <i>that</i>, or <i>propositional</i> <i>knowledge</i>.
25c25
< In fact, I can begin our discussion of what knowledge in this sense is, just by starting the definition; we’ll decide what to add to it later:
---
> In fact, I can begin our discussion of what knowledge in this sense is, just by starting the definition; we'll decide what to add to it later:
31c31
< Well, first, S has to <i>accept</i> or to <i>believe</i> that P.  In order to know that a proposition is true, you’ve at the very least got to believe it.  Or more to the point, if you <i>don’t</i> believe it, if you disbelieve a claim, then of course you can’t really know it.  What sense would it make to say: "I don’t believe that my watch is broken, but I know that my watch is broken."  That’s so strange that it hardly makes any sense.  If you know something, then you at least believe it.
---
> Well, first, S has to <i>accept</i> or to <i>believe</i> that P.  In order to know that a proposition is true, you?ve at the very least got to believe it.  Or more to the point, if you <i>don't</i> believe it, if you disbelieve a claim, then of course you can?t really know it.  What sense would it make to say: "I don't believe that my watch is broken, but I know that my watch is broken."  That's so strange that it hardly makes any sense.  If you know something, then you at least believe it.
33c33
< But as I already said, mere belief by itself isn’t enough.  So what more is needed?
---
> But as I already said, mere belief by itself isn't enough.  So what more is needed?
35c35
< Truth.  Truth is the second requirement for knowledge.  So not must you believe a proposition, in order to know it; it must also be true.  Again, try this claim out for size -- see if you think this makes sense.  "It’s false that my watch is broken, but I know it is broken."  Or how about this: "I know that high tide occurs at 2 pm today; but it’s false that it does."  That’s just absurd!  I doubt I need to dwell any longer on that point.  So now let’s look at our definition of knowledge so far.  Here it is:
---
> [[Truth]].  Truth is the second requirement for knowledge.  So not must you believe a proposition, in order to know it; it must also be true.  Again, try this claim out for size -- see if you think this makes sense.  "It's false that my watch is broken, but I know it is broken."  Or how about this: "I know that high tide occurs at 2 pm today; but it's false that it does."  That's just absurd!  I doubt I need to dwell any longer on that point.  So now let?s look at our definition of knowledge so far.  Here it is:
41c41
< But let me give you another example where this definition would apply.  I decide to go to the horse races.  I’m just out for a good time.  So I’m up in the stands, and my eye happens to fall on a list of the names of the racehorses competing today.  The first name I see is "Lucky Charm" and I think to myself, "Lucky Charm is going to win.  Lucky Charm is definitely going to win."  And somehow I manage to convince myself that Lucky Charm will indeed come in first place.  So I watch the race and what do you know, but Lucky Charm <i>does</i> win.  Now let P be: "Lucky Charm will win."  So I believed that P, and P was true.  But did I <i>know</i> that P?  Did I <i>know</i> that Lucky Charm would win?  Of course not!  It was totally arbitrary how I decided to believe that that particular horse, out of all the other horses, would win.
---
> But let me give you another example where this definition would apply.  I decide to go to the horse races.  I'm just out for a good time.  So I'm up in the stands, and my eye happens to fall on a list of the names of the racehorses competing today.  The first name I see is "Lucky Charm" and I think to myself, "Lucky Charm is going to win.  Lucky Charm is definitely going to win."  And somehow I manage to convince myself that Lucky Charm will indeed come in first place.  So I watch the race and what do you know, but Lucky Charm <i>does</i> win.  Now let P be: "Lucky Charm will win."  So I believed that P, and P was true.  But did I <i>know</i> that P?  Did I <i>know</i> that Lucky Charm would win?  Of course not!  It was totally arbitrary how I decided to believe that that particular horse, out of all the other horses, would win.
43c43
< On the other hand, <i>maybe</i> if I studied all the right statistics, and I knew that Lucky Charm was having a good day and the competition was really off, then I might know that Lucky Charm would win.  But the point is that not only do I have to <i>believe</i> a claim in order to have knowledge; my belief also has to be <i>justified</i>.  I have to have <i>good</i> <i>reason</i> to believe it.  I have to have <i>evidence</i>.  My belief has to be <i>rational</i>.  So let’s update our definition of "knowledge": 
---
> On the other hand, <i>maybe</i> if I studied all the right statistics, and I knew that Lucky Charm was having a good day and the competition was really off, then I might know that Lucky Charm would win.  But the point is that not only do I have to <i>believe</i> a claim in order to have knowledge; my belief also has to be <i>justified</i>.  I have to have <i>good</i> <i>reason</i> to believe it.  I have to have <i>evidence</i>.  My belief has to be <i>rational</i>.  So let?s update our definition of "knowledge": 
49c49
< Justification is part of the concept of knowledge, by this definition.  So you might notice that this definition is different from the one suggested by John Hospers in our reading.  Hospers says that the third requirement is that one must have <i>evidence</i> for one’s belief, in order for it to be knowledge.  I could summarize his definition by saying that knowledge is true belief with evidence.  And well, we could put it that way; that would be acceptible.  But there may be a difference between saying that a belief is <i>justified</i>, and saying that one has <i>evidence</i> for it.  How would we decide if justification and evidence are the same?  Well, we’d have to ask: Do all justified beliefs have evidence for them?  I don’t think so, but I won’t go into it.  And we’d also have to ask: Are all beliefs that are supported by evidence justified?  Again, I don’t think so, but I won’t go into that either.
---
> Justification is part of the concept of knowledge, by this definition.  So you might notice that this definition is different from the one suggested by John Hospers in our reading.  Hospers says that the third requirement is that one must have <i>evidence</i> for one?s belief, in order for it to be knowledge.  I could summarize his definition by saying that knowledge is true belief with evidence.  And well, we could put it that way; that would be acceptible.  But there may be a difference between saying that a belief is <i>justified</i>, and saying that one has <i>evidence</i> for it.  How would we decide if justification and evidence are the same?  Well, we?d have to ask: Do all justified beliefs have evidence for them?  I don't think so, but I won't go into it.  And we'd also have to ask: Are all beliefs that are supported by evidence justified?  Again, I don?t think so, but I won't go into that either.
51c51
< In any case, though, justification and evidence are both <i>epistemic</i>  <i>features</i> of belief -- if you can remember that term, "epistemic features," from last time.  Justification and evidence are, in other words, both qualities that indicate that the belief is true.  We could try out other epistemic features in the definition of knowledge, if we wanted to.  Instead of "justified true belief" or "true belief with evidence," we could say that knowledge is "rational true belief" or "warranted true belief."  For our purposes, the differences between these different options don’t matter.  The whole point is that, to be knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it can’t be arbitrary or random or irrational.  So let’s just stick with "justified true belief," the old JTB definition.
---
> In any case, though, justification and evidence are both <i>epistemic</i>  <i>features</i> of belief -- if you can remember that term, "epistemic features," from last time.  Justification and evidence are, in other words, both qualities that indicate that the belief is true.  We could try out other epistemic features in the definition of knowledge, if we wanted to.  Instead of "justified true belief" or "true belief with evidence," we could say that knowledge is "rational true belief" or "warranted true belief."  For our purposes, the differences between these different options don?t matter.  The whole point is that, to be knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it can't be arbitrary or random or irrational.  So let's just stick with "justified true belief," the old JTB definition.
53c53
< Now there are three different sorts of questions that arise about the JTB definition, that I am going to address anyway.  The three questions are as follows.  First, <i>what</i> <i>degree</i> of justification is required for knowledge?  Second is a question that would take too long to formulate; let’s just say that it’s widely known as the Gettier problem.  Third, is knowledge possible?  With the third question we’ll be moving finally into the topic of skepticism.
---
> Now there are three different sorts of questions that arise about the JTB definition, that I am going to address anyway.  The three questions are as follows.  First, <i>what</i> <i>degree</i> of justification is required for knowledge?  Second is a question that would take too long to formulate; let?s just say that it's widely known as the Gettier problem.  Third, is knowledge possible?  With the third question we?ll be moving finally into the topic of skepticism.
55c55
< So let’s start with the first question: What degree of justification is required for knowledge?  You might say: "Huh?  What do you mean ‘degree of justification’?"  Well, justification comes in degrees, from weak justification to strong justification.  The better your justifiers, or your evidence, the better justified your belief is.  To make this clear, let me give you an example of a belief that has <i>weak</i> justification, and then an example of a belief that has <i>strong</i> justification.
---
> So let's start with the first question: What degree of justification is required for knowledge?  You might say: "Huh?  What do you mean 'degree of justification'?"  Well, justification comes in degrees, from weak justification to strong justification.  The better your justifiers, or your evidence, the better justified your belief is.  To make this clear, let me give you an example of a belief that has <i>weak</i> justification, and then an example of a belief that has <i>strong</i> justification.
57c57
< In the <i>Dispatch</i> in the back of Metro section everyday you can find a five-day weather forecast.  The forecast for the day the newspaper is published on is pretty good.  It’s occasionally wrong, but it’s usually right and therefore very useful.  And so if the forecast says that today, it’s going to rain all day long, and I look out my window and I see that it’s raining, then I am justified, rather strongly justified, in believing that it will be raining for most of the rest of the day, at least.  So that’s a fairly strongly justified belief.  You can imagine even stronger beliefs, like my belief that my name is Larry Sanger.  It’s hard to imagine a belief that has stronger justification than that.  The beliefs that have the strongest possible justification are beliefs that we call <i>certain</i>.  A belief is <i>certain</i> if no belief is more strongly justified than it is.
---
> In the <i>Dispatch</i> in the back of Metro section everyday you can find a five-day weather forecast.  The forecast for the day the newspaper is published on is pretty good.  It's occasionally wrong, but it's usually right and therefore very useful.  And so if the forecast says that today, it's going to rain all day long, and I look out my window and I see that it's raining, then I am justified, rather strongly justified, in believing that it will be raining for most of the rest of the day, at least.  So that's a fairly strongly justified belief.  You can imagine even stronger beliefs, like my belief that my name is Larry Sanger.  It's hard to imagine a belief that has stronger justification than that.  The beliefs that have the strongest possible justification are beliefs that we call <i>certain</i>.  A belief is <i>certain</i> if no belief is more strongly justified than it is.
59c59
< By contrast, suppose that the forecast for five days from now is: sunny and warm.  But the five-day forecasts are not nearly as reliable as the same-day forecasts.  They aren’t completely useless, but they are often wrong.  So if I were to believe that in five days, it will be sunny and warm, just because I see that five-day forecast in the newspaper, that belief would not be strongly justified.  Not <i>nearly</i> as strongly justified as my belief in what the forecast says for today.
---
> By contrast, suppose that the forecast for five days from now is: sunny and warm.  But the five-day forecasts are not nearly as reliable as the same-day forecasts.  They aren't completely useless, but they are often wrong.  So if I were to believe that in five days, it will be sunny and warm, just because I see that five-day forecast in the newspaper, that belief would not be strongly justified.  Not <i>nearly</i> as strongly justified as my belief in what the forecast says for today.
61c61
< So now again, here’s the problem: <i>How</i> <i>strong</i> does the justification of a true belief have to be, in order for that true belief to be <i>knowledge</i>?
---
> So now again, here's the problem: <i>How</i> <i>strong</i> does the justification of a true belief have to be, in order for that true belief to be <i>knowledge</i>?
63c63
< I’m not going to try to answer this question at much length, but I do want to say a few things about it.  First of all, it clearly can’t be <i>too</i> <i>weak</i>.  Take for example my belief that in five days, it will be sunny and warm.  Then suppose that five days from now, it really <i>will</i> be sunny and warm, just as was forecasted.  Then I have a true belief about the future; and surely the forecast does give me some very weak justification for the belief.  But do we really want to say that I <i>know</i> that it will be sunny and warm?  I don’t think so.  I mean, it was just too much of a shot in the dark.  I just got lucky.  The five-day forecast just <i>happened</i> to be right.
---
> I'm not going to try to answer this question at much length, but I do want to say a few things about it.  First of all, it clearly can't be <i>too</i> <i>weak</i>.  Take for example my belief that in five days, it will be sunny and warm.  Then suppose that five days from now, it really <i>will</i> be sunny and warm, just as was forecasted.  Then I have a true belief about the future; and surely the forecast does give me some very weak justification for the belief.  But do we really want to say that I <i>know</i> that it will be sunny and warm?  I don't think so.  I mean, it was just too much of a shot in the dark.  I just got lucky.  The five-day forecast just <i>happened</i> to be right.
65c65
< On the other hand, the justification doesn’t have to be <i>certain</i>.  For example, indeed, suppose it’s three o’clock in the afternoon, and I’m walking along and I meet you.  I’ve got my umbrella, because in the morning I saw the morning forecast: rain all day long.  So I believed it was going to rain.  You, on the other hand, don’t have an umbrella and you’re getting wet.  So I gloat, "I knew it was going to rain."  Now would it be right for you to reply like this? -- "Naw, you didn’t know that.  All you did was read the morning forecast.  So it wasn’t <i>certain</i> that it would rain."  I don’t think that would be right.  Did I really have to be <i>certain</i> that the forecast was right, in order to <i>know</i> the forecast was right?  I don’t think so.  Maybe this is a borderline case of knowledge though.  Maybe it isn’t strongly <i>enough</i> justified: I mean, maybe we <i>never</i> have knowledge about weather forecasts.  But if you want my personal opinion, it’s that we do, sometimes, have <i>knowledge</i> of weather forecasts.  I definitely <i>don’t</i> think that we have to be <i>certain</i> of a thing in order to know it.
---
> On the other hand, the justification doesn't have to be <i>certain</i>.  For example, indeed, suppose it's three o'clock in the afternoon, and I'm walking along and I meet you.  I've got my umbrella, because in the morning I saw the morning forecast: rain all day long.  So I believed it was going to rain.  You, on the other hand, don't have an umbrella and you're getting wet.  So I gloat, "I knew it was going to rain."  Now would it be right for you to reply like this? -- "Naw, you didn't know that.  All you did was read the morning [[forecast|weather forecast]].  So it wasn't <i>certain</i> that it would rain."  I don't think that would be right.  Did I really have to be <i>certain</i> that the forecast was right, in order to <i>know</i> the forecast was right?  I don't think so.  Maybe this is a borderline case of knowledge though.  Maybe it isn't strongly <i>enough</i> justified: I mean, maybe we <i>never</i> have knowledge about weather forecasts.  But if you want my personal opinion, it's that we do, sometimes, have <i>knowledge</i> of weather forecasts.  I definitely <i>don't</i> think that we have to be <i>certain</i> of a thing in order to know it.
67c67
< But there is a strong sense of the word "knowledge," perhaps as used in mathematics, where you have to be either certain, or very close to certain, before you can be said to <i>know</i> something.  The standards of knowledge there might require stronger justification than in other areas of life.  Why might that be?  Why would mathematicians require a higher degree of justification in order to have mathematical knowledge?  Well, perhaps because it’s possible to <i>prove</i> things in mathematics, in a way that one can’t prove things about the weather or about economics or sociology.  Since a higher degree of justification is <i>possible</i>, that higher degree of justification is made a requirement for knowledge.
---
> But there is a strong sense of the word "knowledge," perhaps as used in mathematics, where you have to be either certain, or very close to certain, before you can be said to <i>know</i> something.  The standards of knowledge there might require stronger justification than in other areas of life.  Why might that be?  Why would mathematicians require a higher degree of justification in order to have mathematical knowledge?  Well, perhaps because it's possible to <i>prove</i> things in mathematics, in a way that one can?t prove things about the weather or about economics or sociology.  Since a higher degree of justification is <i>possible</i>, that higher degree of justification is made a requirement for knowledge.
69c69
< So my idea is that the strength of the justification you need in order to have knowledge depends on the object of knowledge -- the thing you are trying to know.  At any rate we should update our definition of knowledge to reflect the insight we’ve gained:
---
> So my idea is that the strength of the justification you need in order to have knowledge depends on the object of knowledge -- the thing you are trying to know.  At any rate we should update our definition of knowledge to reflect the insight we?ve gained:
73c73
< And for simplicity we’re just going to leave the term "sufficiently" vague and unspecified.  There is more discussion of this point in our reading.
---
> And for simplicity we're just going to leave the term "sufficiently" vague and unspecified.  There is more discussion of this point in our reading.
75c75
< OK, onto the second question, which I said is not so much a question as it is a rather complex problem, called the Gettier problem.  The Gettier problem is basically the problem that we can give certain kinds of <i>counterexamples</i> to the JTB definition.  A counterexample is a case where the definition applies, but the word defined doesn’t; or a case where the word defined applies, but the definition doesn’t.  Gettier counterexamples are examples where the definition, <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i> applies; but one nevertheless still doesn’t have knowledge, so the word "knowledge" doesn’t apply in that case.  So let me give one such counterexample.  Another such case can be found in our reading.  This sort of counterexample is due to an obscure philosopher named Edmund Gettier.
---
> OK, onto the second question, which I said is not so much a question as it is a rather complex problem, called the Gettier problem.  The Gettier problem is basically the problem that we can give certain kinds of <i>counterexamples</i> to the JTB definition.  A counterexample is a case where the definition applies, but the word defined doesn't; or a case where the word defined applies, but the definition doesn't.  Gettier counterexamples are examples where the definition, <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i> applies; but one nevertheless still doesn?t have knowledge, so the word "knowledge" doesn't apply in that case.  So let me give one such counterexample.  Another such case can be found in our reading.  This sort of counterexample is due to an obscure philosopher named [[Edmund Gettier]].
77c77
< Say there’s a man you know named Jones, and you find out that Jones is going to be offered a job (the boss tells you this).  So you’re walking around somewhere and you see Jones, who for some reason is emptying out his pockets and counting out his change.  He says that he has ten coins in his pocket.  So now you have two justified beliefs: that Jones is going to get the job, and that Jones has ten coins.  And so you infer from these two beliefs: The person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  And that’s a justified belief too, right?  Because you’re perfectly justified in believing that Jones is getting the job and that he has ten coins.  So the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  Fine.
---
> Say there's a man you know named Jones, and you find out that Jones is going to be offered a job (the boss tells you this).  So you're walking around somewhere and you see Jones, who for some reason is emptying out his pockets and counting out his change.  He says that he has ten coins in his pocket.  So now you have two justified beliefs: that Jones is going to get the job, and that Jones has ten coins.  And so you infer from these two beliefs: The person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  And that's a justified belief too, right?  Because you?re perfectly justified in believing that Jones is getting the job and that he has ten coins.  So the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  Fine.
79c79
< But now suppose that <i>you</i> applied for the job; and contrary to what you were told, it turns out <i>you</i> are going to get the job, not Jones.  The boss only <i>told</i> you that Jones was going  to get the job, so that he could surprise you.  So it turns out, even though you originally had a justified belief that Jones was going to get the job, he didn’t get it.  And that happens sometimes: sometimes things that we’re well within our rights to believe turn out, surprisingly, to be false.  But now just on a lark you decide to empty out your pockets and lo and behold, you count out ten coins.  So!  It turns out that the person who is going to get the job <i>does</i> have ten coins.
---
> But now suppose that <i>you</i> applied for the job; and contrary to what you were told, it turns out <i>you</i> are going to get the job, not Jones.  The boss only <i>told</i> you that Jones was going  to get the job, so that he could surprise you.  So it turns out, even though you originally had a justified belief that Jones was going to get the job, he didn't get it.  And that happens sometimes: sometimes things that we?re well within our rights to believe turn out, surprisingly, to be false.  But now just on a lark you decide to empty out your pockets and lo and behold, you count out ten coins.  So!  It turns out that the person who is going to get the job <i>does</i> have ten coins.
81c81
< Now think back, to before you knew you were going to get the job.  You thought Jones was going to get it.  And you believed this justifiedly, even though it turned out to be wrong.  And you were also justified in believing that Jones has 10 coins.  What follows?  The person who is going to get the job has ten coins; and so you believed <i>this</i> justifiedly too.  But it turns out that this was <i>true</i>.  So you had a <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i>  that the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  But clearly you didn’t <i>know</i> that then.  You thought it was <i>Jones</i> who was going to get the job and you based your claim on that false, but justified assumption.  Nonetheless, what you inferred from that assumption was <i>true</i>!  So you had a justified true belief; but you didn’t have knowledge.  Well, Gettier and a lot of other philosophers said, that means that knowledge must be something more than justified, true belief.
---
> Now think back, to before you knew you were going to get the job.  You thought Jones was going to get it.  And you believed this justifiedly, even though it turned out to be wrong.  And you were also justified in believing that Jones has 10 coins.  What follows?  The person who is going to get the job has ten coins; and so you believed <i>this</i> justifiedly too.  But it turns out that this was <i>true</i>.  So you had a <i>justified</i>, <i>true</i> <i>belief</i>  that the person who is going to get the job has ten coins.  But clearly you didn?t <i>know</i> that then.  You thought it was <i>Jones</i> who was going to get the job and you based your claim on that false, but justified assumption.  Nonetheless, what you inferred from that assumption was <i>true</i>!  So you had a justified true belief; but you didn?t have knowledge.  Well, Gettier and a lot of other philosophers said, that means that knowledge must be something more than justified, true belief.
83c83
< Gettier’s article was published in 1963.  Right after that, for a good decade or more, there was an enormous number of articles trying to supply the missing fourth condition of knowledge.  The big project was to try to figure out the "X" in the equation, knowledge = belief + truth + justification + X.  But whenever someone came up with a new definition, by coming up with something to put in for X, someone else would come up with a new counterexample to shoot down that definition.  We don’t really have time to go over the different definitions that people have proposed.  Some of them are actually quite complicated.
---
> Gettier's article was published in 1963.  Right after that, for a good decade or more, there was an enormous number of articles trying to supply the missing fourth condition of knowledge.  The big project was to try to figure out the "X" in the equation, knowledge = belief + truth + justification + X.  But whenever someone came up with a new definition, by coming up with something to put in for X, someone else would come up with a new counterexample to shoot down that definition.  We don't really have time to go over the different definitions that people have proposed.  Some of them are actually quite complicated.
85c85
< The Gettier problem is, at any rate, the standard objection to the JTB definition of knowledge; and it’s instructive to try to figure out how you might try to get around the problem.  So I’ll just have to leave it as an exercise for you.
---
> The Gettier problem is, at any rate, the standard objection to the JTB definition of knowledge; and it's instructive to try to figure out how you might try to get around the problem.  So I'll just have to leave it as an exercise for you.
87c87
< The third question about our definition of knowledge is: Is knowledge possible?  Now if you take a look at that definition, you’ll notice something: If I know something, then I am sufficiently justified in believing it.  So we have a way to rephrase the question, "Is knowledge possible?"  Instead, we can ask: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  The skeptic is the person who says "No."  So let’s look next at skepticism.
---
> The third question about our definition of knowledge is: Is knowledge possible?  Now if you take a look at that definition, you?ll notice something: If I know something, then I am sufficiently justified in believing it.  So we have a way to rephrase the question, "Is knowledge possible?"  Instead, we can ask: "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?"  The skeptic is the person who says "No."  So let's look next at [[skepticism]].
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Columbus|989761666
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> : [[Chrisopher Columbus]], Italian explorer circa 1492 CE.
> : [[Columbus|Ohio/Columbus]] a city in [[Ohio]], [[USA]].
------
Columbus|989761828
2a3,4
> 
> Ho hum. It's too late at night to figure out the syntax for that second one, or to write these articles, or even see if someone else wrote them under obscure headings. Good night all.
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Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989763768
10,11c10
< ----
< Notes by LA2: While holocaust as a phenomenon is certainly associated with Nazi Germany, this particular term is not a German word.  On the other hand, there are other German non-Nazi words that are used in English language, and it could be worth while to explain them.  Should this be done from a separate page?  I'm thinking of [[angst]] (anxiety, feeling of despair) and [[schadenfreude]] (the joy over the failure of others).  Then we have classes of [[loan words]] from other languages like [[ombudsman]] (a proxy official, from Swedish), and [[smorgasbord]] (an all-you-can-eat buffet of mostly cold dishes, also from Swedish).
---
> [[/Talk|talk]]
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Nazi_Germany/Talk|989763777
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Notes by LA2: While holocaust as a phenomenon is certainly associated with Nazi Germany, this particular term is not a German word.  On the other hand, there are other German non-Nazi words that are used in English language, and it could be worth while to explain them.  Should this be done from a separate page?  I'm thinking of [[angst]] (anxiety, feeling of despair) and [[schadenfreude]] (the joy over the failure of others).  Then we have classes of [[loan words]] from other languages like [[ombudsman]] (a proxy official, from Swedish), and [[smorgasbord]] (an all-you-can-eat buffet of mostly cold dishes, also from Swedish).
> 
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Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989763968
4a5
> *[[Holocaust]] -- the genocide commited by the Nazis
8d8
< *[[Holocaust]] -- the genocide commited by the Nazis
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Douglas_Adams|989765196
3c3
< A great Author, suddly died.
---
> A great Author.
5c5
< Read more about him on his [http://www.douglasadams.com|home page].
---
> Read more about him on his [http://www.douglasadams.com/].
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Douglas_Adams|989765493
1,5c1,6
< (1952-2001)
< 
< A great Author.
< 
< Read more about him on his [http://www.douglasadams.com/].
---
> (1952-2001)
> 
> Author of [[The Hitch Hikers Guide To The Galaxy]], part one of a 4 part trilogy.
> Other works includes Dirk Gently and [[Strarship Titanic]]
> 
> Read more about him at [http://www.douglasadams.com/ douglasadams.com]
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Old_English|989766253
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Old English was an early form of the [[English language]] that existed in [[England]] some 1000 years ago.  It was a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]] and got much influence from [[Old Norse]].
> 
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Recent_celebrity_deaths|989766396
1,24c1,28
< This is a page where we can keep track of famous people who die.
< 
<  [[/44 BC|44 BC]]
<  [[/2000|2000]]
< 
< <b>May, 2001</b>
< :[[Perry Como]] - singer, age 87 (May 12)
< :[[Douglas Adams]] -- author, heart attack, age 49 (May 12)
< :[[Cliff Hillegass]] -- creator of Cliff Notes, stroke, age 83 (May 5)
< 
< <b>April, 2001</b>
< :[[Joey Ramone]] -- lead singer for [[The Ramones]] (April 15)
< :[[Willie Stargell]] -- Baseball Hall of Famer (April 10)
< 
< <b>March, 2001</b>
< :[[William Hanna]] -- cofounder (with [[Joseph Barbera]]) of famous [[Hanna-Barbera]] animation studio (March 22, 2001)
< :[[Norma Macmillan]] -- voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters (March 21, 2001)
< :[[John Phillips]] -- cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mamas and the Papas]] (March 18, 2001)
< :[[Ann Sothern]] -- [[actress]] (March 15, 2001)
< :[[Robert Ludlum]] -- author of spy novels (March 12, 2001)
< :[[Morton Downey, Jr.]] -- [[television]] personality (March 12, 2001)
< 
< <b>February, 2001</b>
< :[[Dale Earnhardt]] -- [[NASCAR]] race car driver (February 18, 2001)
---
> Famous people who have died recently.
> 
> <b>May</b>
> :<b>12</b>, [[Perry Como]], aged 87 - singer
> :<b>12</b>, [[Douglas Adams]], aged 49 - author, heart attack
> :<b>5</b>, [[Cliff Hillegass]], aged 83 - creator of Cliff Notes, stroke
> 
> <b>April</b>
> :<b>15</b>, [[Joey Ramone]] - lead singer for [[The Ramones]]
> :<b>11</b>, [[Harry Secombe] - member of [[The Goon Show]]
> :<b>10</b>, [[Willie Stargell]] - Baseball Hall of Famer
> 
> <b>March</b>
> :<b>22</b>, [[William Hanna]] - cofounder (with [[Joseph Barbera]]) of famous [[Hanna-Barbera]] animation studio
> :<b>21</b>, [[Norma Macmillan]] - voice of [[Caspar the Friendly Ghost]] and [[Gumby]] cartoon characters
> :<b>18</b>, [[John Phillips]] - cofounder of [[Popular Music]] group [[The Mamas and the Papas]]
> :<b>15</b>, [[Ann Sothern]] - [[actress]]
> :<b>12</b>, [[Robert Ludlum]] - author of spy novels
> :<b>12</b>, [[Morton Downey, Jr.]] - [[television]] personality
> 
> <b>February</b>
> :<b>18</b>, [[Dale Earnhardt]] - [[NASCAR]] race car driver
> 
> [[Obituary | Older obituary's]]
> 
>  [[/44 BC|44 BC]]
>  [[/2000|2000]]
> 
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LiveScript|989769934
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> LiveScript is the old name of [[JavaScript]]. Netscape changed the name to reflect some similarities with [[Java]], the Sun language. The unfortunate change proved a source of much confusion. To be short, there is no relation between Java and JavasScript. Their only similarities are some semantics and the fact that both of them can be executed by [[Web browsers]].
------
Actors|989771946
47a48
> :[[Harold Lloyd]]
------
Robert_De_Niro|989772102
1c1
< American actor who frequently appears in [[Martin Scorsese]] films.  Noted for his commitment to his roles, De Niro gained over 40 pounds for his portrayal of [[Jake Lamotta]] in [[Raging Bull]] and learned to play the [[saxophone]] for Scorsese's film [[New York, New York]].  Also noted for being one of two people winning an Oscar for portraying the same person:  he won for playing Vito Corleone in [[The Godfather, Part II]], whereas [[Marlon Brando]] won for the portrayal in [[The Godfather]].
---
> American actor who frequently appears in [[Martin Scorsese]] films.  Noted for his commitment to his roles, De Niro gained over 40 pounds for his portrayal of [[Jake Lamotta]] in [[Raging Bull]] and learned to play the [[saxophone]] for Scorsese's film [[New York, New York]].  Also noted for being one of two people winning an [[Oscar]] for portraying the same person:  he won for playing Vito Corleone in [[The Godfather, Part II]], whereas [[Marlon Brando]] won for the portrayal in [[The Godfather]].
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989773003
1c1
< [[Geologist]] who named the [[Pliocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras, mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Pliocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras, and popularized the concept of uniformitarianism.  Mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
------
Extinct_countries,_empires,_etc.|989773195
12c12
< *[[Hellenic civilization]] (was: [[Athenian Empire]], but what was that?)
---
> *[[Athens]], [[Sparta]], [[Syracuse]], etc ([[Hellenic civilization|Hellenic]] city-states)
------
Language|989773264
56a57,59
> 
> ---
> yeah, sure, I'd prefer to write in IPA, though that's not possible for technical reasons now is it? Sure, people with linguistic training from the UK feel that IPA is quite natural, but even IPA transcriptions may vary. Anyway... I don't think it would be a good idea to exclude SAMPA or IPA transcriptions. SAMPA only has SOME numbers, it's mainly or as far as possible it's identical with IPA. 
------
Pharao|989773871
1,3c1
< Pharao was the title of the emperor (of godly status) in [[ancient Egypt]].  See also [[monarch]].
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Pharaoh]]
------
Pharaoh|989773920
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pharao was the title of the emperor (of godly status) in [[ancient Egypt]].  See also [[monarch]].
------
Romanian_language|989773923
1c1,65
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Eastern Romance language, spoken mainly in Romania. There is a lot of Slavonic influence, both on the phonetic level and on the lexical level - for example, Rumanian _da_ 'yes' is a Slavonic word, and Romanian is the only Romance language with /h/. (Although in some types of Castilian, <j> is pronounced as [h], but the original, Castilian phoneme is /x/.)
> 
> Scholars generally tend to agree on the following consonant phonemes:
> 
> phoneme spelling
> 
> 
> /r/ r
> 
> /l/ l
> 
> /m/ m
> 
> /n/ n
> 
> /f/ f
> 
> /v/ v
> 
> /s/ s
> 
> /z/ z
> 
> /S/ º
> 
> /Z/ j
> 
> /h/ h
> 
> /p/ p
> 
> /b/ b
> 
> /t/ t
> 
> /d/ d
> 
> /k/ c- before velar vowels, ch- before palatal vowels
> 
> /g/ g- before velar vowels, gh- before palatal vowels
> 
> Dimitrescu also includes
> 
> 
> /ts/ þ
> 
> /dz/ dz
> 
> /tS/ c- before palatal vowels, ce- before velar vowels
> 
> /dZ/ g- before palatal vowels, ge- before velar vowels
> 
> /k_j/ (palatal /k/) 
> 
> /g_j/
> 
> /w/ u
> 
> /j/ i
> 
> Petrovici also includes palatal /p, b, m, f, v, t, d, n, s, z, ts, S, Z, l, r/ counterparts as well
> as rounded /p, b, m, f, v, t, d, n, s, z, ts, S, Z, l, r, k, g, h/ phonemes as well as palatal and rounded
> /p, b, m, v, t, l, r, k, dZ, tS, j/.
> 
> 
------
Romanian_language|989773974
24c24
< /S/ º
---
> /S/ s with cedilla, as in Turkish
45c45
< /ts/ þ
---
> /ts/ t with cedilla
------
Ancient_civilization|989774067
8c8
< See also [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
---
> See also [[Extinct countries, empires, etc.]], [[History of Levant]]...
------
Romance_languages|989774096
2a3
> 
4d4
< * [[Romanian language]]
6d5
< * [[Portuguese language]]
7a7,8
> * [[Portuguese language]]
> * [[Galego]] 
8a10,12
> 
> Gallo-Romance
> 
11a16,19
> 
> Eastern 
> 
> * [[Romanian language]]
------
Poker/Low_hand|989774215
4c4
< * [[/Ace-to-six low]]: Aces are low and straights and flushes do count (as high), so the best possible hand is '''6-5-4-3-A'''.
---
> * [[/Ace-to-six low]]: Aces are low and straights and flushes do count (as high), so the best possible hand is '''6-5-4-3-A'''. <i>(shouldn't that be '''6-4-3-2-A'''?)</i>
------
Galego|989774274
1c1,8
< Ibero-Romance language spoken in Galicia. 
---
> Ibero-Romance language spoken in Galicia. It is the ancestor language of Portuguese. However, Portuguese is more conservative than Galego, which e.g. lost /Z/. 
> 
> The phonemes of Galego:
> 
> /i/        /u/
>   /e/     /o/
>    /E/   /O/
>      /a/
------
Galego|989774293
5,6c5,6
< /i/        /u/
<   /e/     /o/
---
> /i/          /u/
>   /e/      /o/
8c8
<      /a/
---
>       /a/
------
Galego|989774401
8a9,26
> 
> 
> /p, b/
> /t, d/
> /k, g/
> /tS/
> /m/
> /n/
> /n_j/
> /f/
> /s/
> /S/
> /r/
> /R/ as in Spanish perro
> /l/ 
> /l_j/
> /k/
> /w/
------
Galego|989774440
11a12
> 
12a14
> 
13a16
> 
14a18
> 
15a20
> 
16a22
> 
17a24
> 
18a26
> 
19a28
> 
20a30
> 
21a32
> 
22a34
> 
23a36
> 
24a38
> 
25a40
> 
------
Galego|989774472
5c5
< /i/          /u/
---
>  /i/        /u/
------
Romanian_language|989774553
5c5
< phoneme spelling
---
> phoneme grapheme
------
Sir_Charles_Lyell|989778562
1,2c1
< [[Geologist]] who named the [[Pliocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras, and popularized the concept of uniformitarianism.  Mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
< 
---
> [[Geologist]] who named the [[Pliocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras, and popularized the concepts of [[uniformitarianism]] and [[actualism]].  Mentioned in the [[The Origin of Species/Introduction|introduction to The Origin of Species]] by [[Charles Darwin]].
------
Italian_language|989778974
18a19,20
> Plosives
> 
26a29
> 
30a34,35
> Affricates
> 
38a44
> Fricatives
42d47
< 
50a56,57
> Nasals
> 
54a62,65
> gn /n_j/ palatal [n]
> 
> Laterals
> 
56a68,71
> gl(i) /l_j/ palatal [l]
> 
> Vibrant
> 
59c74,93
< gn /n'/ palatal [n]
---
> Minimal pairs
> 
> 
> /'fato/ - /'fatto/
> 
> /'kade/ - /'kadde/
> 
> /'kasa/ - /'kassa/
> 
> /'pala/ - /'palla/
> 
> /'karo/ - /'karro/
> 
> /'pena/ - /'penna/
> 
> Length is distinctive for all consonants except
> /ts, dz, S, z, n_j, l_j/. 
> 
> 
> 
61d94
< gl /l'/ palatal [l]
------
Spanish_language|989779537
8a9,43
> 
> Phonemes of European Spanish
> 
> Plosives
> 
> /p, b/
> 
> /t, d/
> 
> /k, g/ /g/ has two allophones in European Spanish, namely [G] and [g]. [g] appears only word-initially. 
> 
> Fricatives
> 
> /f, T, s, x/
> 
> In South American Spanish, there is no /T/. /x/ has allophones [h], [ç], [x] in South America. 
> 
> Affricate 
> 
> /tS/ (is pronounced as a plosive in European Spanish, something like [t_j]. In South American Spanish, on the other hand, there are mainly [tS] or [S] pronunciations - like French /S/ that has also developed from /tS/.)
> 
> Nasals
> 
> /m, n, n_j/ 
> 
> Laterals
> 
> /l, l_j/ /l_j/ is now almost extinct; it certainly is in American Spanish, creating a new /j/ phoneme:
> <guerrilla> /ge'Rija/.
> 
> Vibrants
> 
> /r, R/ /R/ is a flap or tap. Minimal pair: pero /'pero/ - perro /'peRo/
> 
> 
------
Spanish_language|989779578
5c5
< In the Americas, the first Spaniards to settle brought some of their regionalisms with them. Today you can find distinct accents in different nations of Spanish speaking America. Typical of the Americas is the pronunciation of <ll> as /j/ instead of palatal /l'/. In Spain, too, <ll> is now pronounced as /j/ rather than /l'/. This phenomenon is called yeismo. In Argentina, /j/ is generally pronounced as /Z/ as in French 'jour'. This phenomenon is called žeismo. Also typical of Latin America is the seseo. The European Castilian phoneme /T/ (as in ciento, caza) does not exist in American Castilian, it fell together with /s/ (as in ser, casa). 
---
> In the Americas, the first Spaniards to settle brought some of their regionalisms with them. Today you can find distinct accents in different nations of Spanish speaking America. Typical of the Americas is the pronunciation of <ll> as /j/ instead of /l_j/. In Spain, too, <ll> is now pronounced as /j/ rather than /l_j/. This phenomenon is called yeismo. In Argentina, /j/ is generally pronounced as /Z/ as in French 'jour'. This phenomenon is called žeismo. Also typical of Latin America is seseo. The European Castilian phoneme /T/ (as in ciento, caza) does not exist in American Castilian, it fell together with /s/ (as in ser, casa). 
------
French_language|989780200
9a10,59
> 
> ------
> 
> Phonemes of French
> 
> i y u
> e 2 o
> E 9 O
> a   A
> E~9~o~
>   ã
> 
> 
> Note: /A/ is for many speakers no longer a phoneme.
> Whether /@/ (Schwa) is a phoneme of French is controversial. Some
> see it as an allophone of /9/ 
> 
> Plosives
> 
> /p, b/
> 
> /k, g/
> 
> /t, d/
> 
> Fricatives
> 
> /s, z/
> 
> /f, v/
> 
> /S, Z/
> 
> Nasals 
> 
> /m, n, n_j/ For some speakers, /n_j/ is probably /n/ + /j/
> 
> Lateral
> 
> /l/
> 
> Vibrant
> 
> /r/  (Uvular trill)
> 
> Semi-vowel
> 
> /j/
> 
> 
------
French_language|989780262
14a15,18
> Rounded
> 
> 
> 
15a20
> 
16a22
> 
17a24
> 
18a26
> 
19a28
> 
------
LiveScript|989780569
1c1
< LiveScript is the old name of [[JavaScript]]. Netscape changed the name to reflect some similarities with [[Java]], the Sun language. The unfortunate change proved a source of much confusion. To be short, there is no relation between Java and JavasScript. Their only similarities are some semantics and the fact that both of them can be executed by [[Web browsers]].
---
> LiveScript is the old name of [[JavaScript]]. Netscape changed the name to reflect some similarities with [[Java]], the Sun language. The unfortunate change proved a source of much confusion. To be short, there is no relation between Java and JavaScript. Their only similarities are some semantics and the fact that both of them can be executed by [[Web browsers]].
------
Greek_language|989780625
24a25,44
> 
> 
> Change of Greek pronunciation (Thucydides, First Book, Fifth Chapter)
> 
> 
> 
> hOi gar hElE:nEs tO palai kai tO:n barbarO:n hOi tE En tEi E:pErOi  parat_halattiOi  kai hOsOi nE:su:s Eik_hOn
> 
> 
> 2. Ct. AD
> 
> hu Gar hElE:nEs tO palE kE tO:n varvarOn hy tE En tE: E:pi:rO: paraTalasiy kE hosy nE:su:s ik_hOn
> 
> 
> Modern Greek (Phonemic)
> 
> i Gar 'Elines to 'pale ke ton var'varon i te en ti i'piro paraTalasii ke 'osi 'nisus 'ixon 
> 
> 
> hu Gar 
------
Maltese_language|989781269
1c1,40
< Maltese is most closely related to Arabic, but in the course of its history it adopted many loans and even phonetic and phonological features from (Southern) Italian and English. 
---
> Maltese is most closely related to Arabic, but in the course of its history it adopted many loans and even phonetic and phonological features from (Southern) Italian and English. Maltese still has what is termed "Auslautverhärtung" in German, i.e. all voiced plosives are unvoiced word-finally. Due to English influence, however, there are minimal pairs like:
> 
> /lît/ 'the hand' (Semitic word) - /lîd/ (Anglo-Saxon word) '(electric) lead'
> /sajt/ 'fishing' - /sajd/ 'side, position'
> /plettS/ 'bail' - /pleddZ/ 'pledge, promise of payment (usually in a charity campaign)'
> 
> Here are the letters of the Maltese alphabet with their SAMPA equivalent(s)
> 
> p [p]
> b [b]
> f [f]
> t [t]
> d [d]
> s [s]
> v [v]
> z with dot [z]
> x [S] as in Portuguese
> x [Z] as in Sardinian
> c with dot [tS]
> g with dot [dZ]
> z [ts]
> z with stroke [z]
> k [k]
> g [g]
> q [?] glottal stop
> h with stroke 
> l [l]
> r [r]
> n [n]
> m [m]
> w [w]
> j [j]
> 
> i [i]
> e [e]
> a [a]
> o [o]
> u [u]
> 
> 
------
Language|989781442
40a41
> ** [[Etruscan language]]
------
Etruscan_language|989781990
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Etruscan is a language spoken and written in ancient Italy. However, Latin completely superseded Etruscan, leaving only few documents and a few loanwords in Latin (e.g. persona from Etruscan phersu). Although some scholars claim that Etruscan is an Indo-European language, most see it as an isolated language or as part of some super-family like [[Nostratic]]. 
> 
> The reconstructed phonemes of Etruscan:
> 
> /a/ letter: A
> 
> /e/ letter: E
> 
> /i/ letter: I
> 
> /u/ letter: V
> 
> /w/ letter: F
> 
> /h/ letter: H
> 
> /p, p_j/ /p_j/ is /p_h/ according to some scholars, the same applies to /t_j/ and /k_j/ letters: P, Phi
> 
> /t, t_j/ letters: T, Theta
> 
> /k, k_j/ letters: K, Khi
> 
> /ts/ letter: Z
> 
> /s/ letter: S
> 
> /S/ letter: San
> 
> /f/ letter: 8, FH
> 
> /l/ letter: L
> 
> /r/ letter: R
> 
> /m/ M
> 
> /n/ N
> 
> 
> Rux also postulates several syllabic consonants, namely /l, r, m, n/ and palatal /l, r, n/ as well as a labiobvelar spirant. The palatal series may be somehow connected to the [[palatalization]] so typical of [[Romance languages]]. 
> 
> 
------
Etruscan_language|989782039
40c40
< Rux also postulates several syllabic consonants, namely /l, r, m, n/ and palatal /l, r, n/ as well as a labiobvelar spirant. The palatal series may be somehow connected to the [[palatalization]] so typical of [[Romance languages]]. 
---
> Rix also postulates several syllabic consonants, namely /l, r, m, n/ and palatal /l, r, n/ as well as a labiobvelar spirant. The palatal series may be somehow connected to the [[palatalization]] so typical of [[Romance languages]]. 
------
Basque_language|989782427
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lots of people have tried to link Basque to Etruscan, African languages, Caucasian languages and so on, but most scholars see Basque as an isolated language. [[Palatalization]] is quite typical of Basque, <tt> and <dd> are /t_j/ and /d_j/ respectively. <s>, <z> and <x> are sibilants, the latter designates /S/, the first is apical and the second 
> laminal. The function of stress in Basque is generally not understood. <j> is pronounced as [d_j], [S], [X], [j] or [Z] according to region. The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers, namely /a, e, i, o, u/. Some speakers also have /y/.  
------
Basque_language|989782452
1,2c1,2
< Lots of people have tried to link Basque to Etruscan, African languages, Caucasian languages and so on, but most scholars see Basque as an isolated language. [[Palatalization]] is quite typical of Basque, <tt> and <dd> are /t_j/ and /d_j/ respectively. <s>, <z> and <x> are sibilants, the latter designates /S/, the first is apical and the second 
< laminal. The function of stress in Basque is generally not understood. <j> is pronounced as [d_j], [S], [X], [j] or [Z] according to region. The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers, namely /a, e, i, o, u/. Some speakers also have /y/.  
---
> Lots of people have tried to link Basque to Etruscan, African languages, Caucasian languages and so on, but most scholars see Basque as an isolated language. [[Palatalization]] is quite typical of Basque, <tt> 
> and <dd> are /t_j/ and /d_j/ respectively. <s>, <z> and <x> are sibilants, the latter designates /S/, the first is apical and the second laminal. The function of stress in Basque is generally not understood. <j> is pronounced as [d_j], [S], [X], [j] or [Z] according to region. The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers, namely /a, e, i, o, u/. Some speakers also have /y/.  
------
Catalan_language|989782709
1c1,29
< Catalan is a language spoken by some 11 million people, mainly in Catalonia, Spain, but also in France, Andorra, Italy, and Germany.
---
> Catalan is a language spoken by some 11 million people, mainly in Catalonia, Spain, but also in France, Andorra, Italy, and Germany. The phonemes of Catalan:
> 
> Plosives
> 
> /p, b/ 
> 
> /t, d/
> 
> /k, g/
> 
> Affricates
> 
> /tS, dZ/ tx, tg
> 
> /ts, dz/ ts, tz
> 
> Nasals
> 
> /m, n, n_j/ m, n, ny
> 
> Frcatives
> 
> /f, s, S, z, Z/ f,s, x, z, j
> 
> Liquida
> 
> /l, l_j/ l, l.l; ll
> 
> /r, R/ 
------
Language|989782819
29c29
< * [[Indo-European]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Romance languages|Romantic]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], etc.)
---
> * [[Indo-European]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Italic languages]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], etc.)
------
Italic_languages|989782980
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Italic family had three members: Venetian, Oscian/Umbrian and Latin. Latin replaced all the others, and from so-called Vulgar Latin the [[Romance languages]] emerged. 
------
Romance_languages|989783149
3a4
> 
5a7,11
> * [[Corsican language]]
> * [[Sicilian language]]
> 
> Ibero-Romance
> 
9a16
> * [[Judaeo-Spanish]]
14,15c21,22
< * [[French language]]
< * [[Occitan language]]
---
> * [[French language]] (langue d'oeil)
> * [[Occitan language]] (langue d'oc)
17c24
< Eastern 
---
> Eastern/ the Balkans
19a27,31
> * [[Aromunian]]
> * [[Istroromanian]]
> * [[Meglentian]]
> * [[Dacoromanian]]
> * [[Macedoromanian]]
------
Romance_languages|989783222
3c3
< 
---
> Italian group
8a9
> * [[Southern Italian languages]]
10c11
< Ibero-Romance
---
> Ibero-Romance group
18c19
< Gallo-Romance
---
> Gallo-Romance group
22a24
> * [[Northern Italian languages]]
24c26
< Eastern/ the Balkans
---
> Eastern group
------
Latin_language|989783349
2a3,48
> Phonemes:
> 
> /a/
> 
> /b/
> 
> /k/
> 
> /d/
> 
> /e/
> 
> /f/
> 
> /g/
> 
> /h/
> 
> /i/
> 
> /j/
> 
> /l/
> 
> /m/
> 
> /n/
> 
> /o/
> 
> /p/
> 
> /k_w/
> 
> /r/
> 
> /s/
> 
> /t/
> 
> /u/
> 
> /w/
> 
> /N/ written g, called agma. Minimal pair: agnus /aNnus/ - annus /annus/
> 
13c59
< Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages lost the case endings. 
---
> Another major distinction between Romance and Latin is that Romance languages lost the case endings. 
------
Latin_language|989783379
49c49
< Minimal pairs:
---
> Other minimal pairs:
------
World_Wide_Web|989783678
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The World Wide Web, or simply "Web", can be thought of as a subset of [[Internet]]. To belong to it, you have to provide content that can be viewed using a [[Web browser]]. A [[Web browser]] is of course a program designed to view contents in the Web. If that seems like a recursive definition, it's because it is.
> 
> More to the point. The basic building block of the Web is the [[HTML]] language. This language, a subset of [[SGML]], allows rather complex formatting of [[files]]. And also it implements the [[hyperlink]] concept in a very intuitive (point-and-click) way. Most importat, due to the very different devices that could eventually access the information, HTML is device-independent. So HTML defines the wished format, but lets the browser (who knows the viewing device) decide the precise appearance of the viewed set of information, or [[Web page]].
> 
> To the end user of a Web browser, the Web appears as a big set of [[Web page|Web pages]], linked together by hyperlinks. The only think your browser needs is an starting point, given as a [[URL]], also known as Web address. Then you can "surf", "navigate" or "browse" the Web, jumping from page to page via hyperlinks.
> 
> The huge success of this model (a special program displays and formats a recognised standard) has lead to the corruption, up to a point, of the initial virtues. If you develop a browser, you can make your browser recognise other languages in addition to HTML. If your browser is popular enough, and the additions useful enough, many providers will use your (non-standard) language. The other browsers are then forced to catch up for compatibility. Also the viewer-independence concept has been perverted, as many pages are designed with the most used viewing mode in mind. The setting of standards, task mainly of the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] has lagged considerably behind the reality.
> 
> However, in general, the Web surfing experience has not suffered too much. A browser will let you, by its own devices or by using other programs called [[plug-in|plug-ins]], access to many types of information like text, images, music or video.
------
Greek_language|989783708
25a26,78
> ----
> 
> Pronunciation
> 
> 
> alpha /a/ /a:/ 
> 
> beta /b/
> 
> gamma /g/ [N] some scholars see [[agma]] as a phoneme in its own right
> 
> delta /d/ modern: /D/
> 
> zeta /dz/ modern: /z/ (but Modern Greek TZ = /dz/)
> 
> êta /E:/ modern: /i/
> 
> theta /t_h/ modern: /T/
> 
> iota /i/
> 
> kappa /k/
> 
> lambda /l/
> 
> mu /m/
> 
> nu /n/
> 
> xi /ks/
> 
> omikron /o/
> 
> pi /p/
> 
> rho /r/
> 
> sigma /s/
> 
> tau /t/
> 
> upsilon /u/, later /y/, modern /i/
> 
> phi /p_h/, modern /f/
> 
> khi /k_h/, modern /x/
> 
> psi [ps]
> 
> omega /O:/
> 
> 
> 
------
Greek_language|989783738
97d96
< hu Gar 
------
Italic_languages|989783754
1c1
< The Italic family had three members: Venetian, Oscian/Umbrian and Latin. Latin replaced all the others, and from so-called Vulgar Latin the [[Romance languages]] emerged. 
---
> The Italic family had three members: Venetian, Oscian/Umbrian and Latin. Latin replaced all the others, and from so-called Vulgar Latin the [[Romance languages]] emerged. 
------
Internet|989783759
37a38,39
> 
> 
------
Internet|989783802
10a11
> ** [[Web browser]]
------
World_Wide_Web|989783899
1c1
< The World Wide Web, or simply "Web", can be thought of as a subset of [[Internet]]. To belong to it, you have to provide content that can be viewed using a [[Web browser]]. A [[Web browser]] is of course a program designed to view contents in the Web. If that seems like a recursive definition, it's because it is.
---
> The World Wide Web, or simply "Web", can be thought of as a subset of [[Internet]]. To belong to it, you have to provide content that can be viewed using a [[Web browser]]. A Web browser is of course a program designed to view contents in the Web. If that seems like a recursive definition, it's because it is. When you provide information in the Web, you become a [[Web site]].
9c9
< However, in general, the Web surfing experience has not suffered too much. A browser will let you, by its own devices or by using other programs called [[plug-in|plug-ins]], access to many types of information like text, images, music or video.
---
> However, in general, the Web surfing experience has not suffered too much. A browser will let you, by its own devices or by using other programs called [[plug-in|plug-ins]], access to many types of information like text, images, music or video.
------
IRC|989784598
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>IRC</b> stands for <b>Internet Relay Chat</b>. It is a network of chat [[servers]] that can be acessed by special IRC clients. Users can then chal in a number of channels - as a rule channel names start with a #. One of the most popular servers in [[Europe]] is irc.funet.fi
------
GNU/Emacs|989784814
3c3
< Referring to itself as the "extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time display editor", the design of emacs is based around a [[lisp]] interpreter (itself written in the [[C language|C]]) with the bulk of the functionality then written in lisp.  Because of this design, it is easy for programmers to add functionality to GNU Emacs.  Many have done so, and Emacs can be used to surf the web, read [[email]] and [[Usenet]], play [[tetris]] and provide basic [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[psychoanalysis]].
---
> Referring to itself as the "extensible, customizable, self-documenting real-time display editor", the design of emacs is based around a [[lisp]] interpreter (itself written in [[C language|C]]) with the bulk of the functionality then written in lisp.  Because of this design, it is easy for programmers to add functionality to GNU Emacs.  Many have done so, and Emacs can be used to surf the web, read [[email]] and [[Usenet]], play [[tetris]] and provide basic [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[psychoanalysis]].
------
Internet|989784876
39,40c39
< 
< 
---
> * [[hacktivism]]
------
Gota_kanal|989785161
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Göta Kanal is a canal linking [[Sweden]]'s east and west coasts. It passes through the lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] on the way. 
> 
> Göta Kanal was constructed by [[Baltzar von Platen]]. He got permission to begin work in 1809 and the canal was finally finished in 1832.
------
Rap_music|989785720
13a14,16
> 
> Old School
> 
17c20,23
< :[[Ice T]]
---
> 
> New School
> 
> 
20d25
< :[[Kid Frost]]
22a28,36
> 
> Latin Rap
> 
> :[[Kid Frost]]
> :[[Cypress Hill]]
> 
> Gangster Rap
> 
> :[[Ice T]]
25a40,42
> 
> Soul Assassins
> 
27a45,47
> 
>  WU
> 
28a49,50
> 
> 
------
House_of_Pain|989785916
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Everlast]] was originally a member of Ice T's [[Rhyme Syndicate]]; he later joined the Soul Assassins to form House of Pain. What was special about them was especially that they stressed their Irish roots. The music was somewhat similar to other music produced by Cypress Hill's DJ Muggs at the time. After three CDs, Everlast left House of Pain and returned to his solo career while DJ Lethal became part of rapcore heroes [[Limp Bizkit]]. 
------
Douglas_Adams|989785928
1,6c1,28
< (1952-2001)
< 
< Author of [[The Hitch Hikers Guide To The Galaxy]], part one of a 4 part trilogy.
< Other works includes Dirk Gently and [[Strarship Titanic]]
< 
< Read more about him at [http://www.douglasadams.com/ douglasadams.com]
---
> (1952-2001)
> 
> Author of [[The Hitch Hikers Guide To The Galaxy]], part one of a 5 part trilogy.
> 
> The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy series:
> * The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1979)
> * The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (1980)
> * Life, the Universe, and Everything (1982)
> * So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish (1984)
> * Mostly Harmless (1992)
> 
> The Dirk Gently series:
> * Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency (1987)
> * The Long Dark Teatime of the Soul (1988)
> 
> Other works:
> * The Meaning of Liff (1983, with John Lloyd)
> * The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts (1985, with Geoffrey Perkins)
> * The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book (1986, edited by Douglas Adams)
> * The Deeper Meaning of Liff (1990, with John Lloyd; extended version of The Meaning of Liff)
> * Last Chance to See (1991, with Mark Carwardine)
> * Douglas Adams' Starship Titanic (written by [[Terry Jones]], based on a computer game by Douglas Adams)
> 
> Read more about him at [http://www.douglasadams.com/ douglasadams.com]
> 
> [[Neil Gaiman]] has written Don't Panic: The Official Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy Companion (1984).
> 
> Douglas Adams created an [[interactive fiction]] version of The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy together with [[Steve Meretzky]] from [[Infocom]] in 1984. Later he was also involved in creating Bureaucracy (also by [[Infocom]], but not based on any book).
------
Poker/Low_hand|989786061
4c4
< * [[/Ace-to-six low]]: Aces are low and straights and flushes do count (as high), so the best possible hand is '''6-5-4-3-A'''. <i>(shouldn't that be '''6-4-3-2-A'''?)</i>
---
> * [[/Ace-to-six low]]: Aces are low and straights and flushes do count (as high), so the best possible hand is '''6-4-3-2-A'''.
------
Everlast|989786094
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> His first CD Forever Everlasting was rather mediocre, although good producers and guest rappers - among them [[Ice T]] - appeared on the album. After his time as [[House of Pain]]'s lead rapper, he returned to his solo roots with "Whitey Ford sings the Blues", a versatile album also containing some blues and rock influence. 
------
Printing_press|989786117
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The printing press was invented by [[Johann Gutenberg]] in the late 13th century.
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989786200
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He invented the [[printing press]].
------
Analog_Brothers|989786229
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Analog Brothers is an experimental rap crew featuring Ice Oscillator a.k.a. [[Ice T]], Keith Korg a.k.a. [[Kool Keith]], Mark Moog and Silver Synth. 
------
Kool_Keith|989786439
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An original member of New York's new school pioneers [[Ultramagnetic MCs]], Kool Keith is also a somewhat controversial solo rapper known for pornographic and brutal yet also very abstract lyrics. His album "Dr. Octagon" was also released by the English [[trip hop]] label Mo' Wax. Kool Keith is also part of the [[Masters of Illusion]] and the [[Analog Brothers]]. 
------
Trip_hop|989786645
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Trip hop has many different meanings. On the one hand (and only in the US), it refers to a kind of electronic, danceable techno hip hop that in Europe would maybe be called [[Big beat]], on the other hand, it refers to the kind of hip hop soul made by England's [[Massive Attack]] and [[Tricky]] and the rock-influenced sound by groups such as [[Ruby]], and the instrumental hip hop beats by California's [[DJ Shadow]] and the UK's [[Howie B]]. 
------
Reggae|989786734
1c1
< Reggae is an Afro-Caribbean style of music developed on the island of Jamaica. The origins canm be found in traditional Afro-Caribbean music as well as US Rhythm & Blues. Rock Staedy was the grandmother of reggae. Bob Marley, who later popularized the style on a world-wide basis,  also recorded rock steady records in the beginning. Those roots already show the kind of melodic song-writing that would later make him famous. The style of reggae he made famous is called [[roots reggae]] and is still used by some artists as [[UB40]] from the UK. In Jamaica however, new styles are more popular, among them [[Lovers Rock]] and [[Raggamuffin]]. [[Dub]] is an instrumental sub-style of reggae. Mixing techniques employed in Dub probably influenced [[hip hop]], [[drum n bass]] and other styles. In any case, the [[toasting]] or [[dee jaying]] of raggamuffin reggae - first used by artists such as [[Dillinger]] or [[Yellowman]] - had a world-wide impact because Jamaican DJ Kool Herc used them as he came up with a new style later called [[hip hop]] or [[rap music]]. In the Jamaican sense of the word, a DJ is an MC or rapper, whereas the DJ is called selector in Jamaica. Therfore what is called dee jaying or chatting in Jamaica is called rapping in most other parts of the world. 
---
> Reggae is an Afro-Caribbean style of music developed on the island of Jamaica. The origins canm be found in traditional Afro-Caribbean music as well as US Rhythm & Blues. Rock Staedy was the grandmother of reggae. Bob Marley, who later popularized the style on a world-wide basis,  also recorded rock steady records in the beginning. Those roots already show the kind of melodic song-writing that would later make him famous. The style of reggae he made famous is called [[roots reggae]] and is still used by some artists as [[UB40]] from the UK. In Jamaica however, new styles are more popular, among them [[Lovers Rock]] and [[Raggamuffin]]. [[Dub]] is an instrumental sub-style of reggae. Mixing techniques employed in Dub probably influenced [[hip hop]], [[drum and bass]] and other styles. In any case, the [[toasting]] or [[dee jaying]] of raggamuffin reggae - first used by artists such as [[Dillinger]] or [[Yellowman]] - had a world-wide impact because Jamaican DJ Kool Herc used them as he came up with a new style later called [[hip hop]] or [[rap music]]. In the Jamaican sense of the word, a DJ is an MC or rapper, whereas the DJ is called selector in Jamaica. Therfore what is called dee jaying or chatting in Jamaica is called rapping in most other parts of the world. 
------
Electronic_Music/Jungle|989786781
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Drum and Bass]]. 
------
Computer_Security|989786794
5c5
< The only real difference between computer security and real world, "bank" security is that computer systems are poorly understood, as a rule. Managers have usually a firm grasp on real world security issues, like fences, walls, security personnel, alarms, police, ect. And if they do not, their insurance companies do. Computer systems are many times not insured against data theft or destruction, so this "security consulting" is lost. This lack of insurance for so a potentially important loss is in itself noteworthy. It stems probably, although the cause may be more complex, from this same lack of knowledge.
---
> The only real difference between computer security and real world, "bank" security is that computer systems are poorly understood, as a rule. Managers have usually a firm grasp on real world security issues, like fences, walls, security personnel, alarms, police, etc. And if they do not, their insurance companies do. Computer systems are many times not insured against data theft or destruction, so this "security consulting" is lost. This lack of insurance for so potentially important a loss is in itself noteworthy. It stems probably from this same lack of knowledge, although the cause may be more complex.
7c7
< A teenager wandering into a warehouse to pick up a trophy and show it to his friends, is not treated in the real world as a dangerous criminal. If such an "explorer" enters into the company computer system, the management can go ballistic, and the trespasser if aprehended risks prosecution. This lack of knowledge is potentially the biggest risk in a company. Of course they will have competent technical personnel, but they will tend to concentrate in the technical side of the issue. [[Social engineering]], for example, will probably be ignored. 
---
> A teenager wandering into a warehouse to pick up a trophy and show it to his friends, is not treated in the real world as a dangerous criminal. If such an "explorer" enters into the company computer system, the management can go ballistic, and the trespasser, if aprehended, risks prosecution. This lack of knowledge is potentially the biggest risk in a company. Of course they will have competent technical personnel, but they will tend to concentrate on the technical side of the issue. [[Social engineering]], for example, will probably be ignored. 
9c9
< Of course, the paralelism between computer security and real world security is not exact, for a number of reasons. For example, vandalism is more dangerous in the computer world because is potentially much more destructive. A vandal can break havoc in thousands of computers systems around the world with little effort and small risk of capture. Of course the result would be not as visually satisfying as a [[graffity|graffitied]] wall, but all taken into account, what is really surprising is the small probaiblity you have today of suffering damage from a [[computer virus]] or [[computer worm]].
---
> Of course, the parallelism between computer security and real world security is not exact, for a number of reasons. For example, vandalism is more dangerous in the computer world because it is potentially much more destructive. A vandal can cause havoc in thousands of computers systems around the world with little effort and small risk of capture. Of course the result would be not as visually satisfying as a [[graffito|graffitied]] wall, but all taken into account, what is really surprising is the small probability you have today of suffering damage from a [[computer virus]] or [[computer worm]].
11c11
< Today, computer security is composed mainly from "preventive" measures, like [[firewalls]]. We could liken a firewall to the building of a good fence around your warehouse. A good first step. But not enough if you keep the fence unguarded (no [[computer monitoring|monitoring]]), or if you hand a copy of the key to everybody that asks for it by phone (social engineering). If, to add insult to injury, it's widely known that you won't prosecute any trespasser, we could consider the firewall installation as almost an exercise in futility. However, many computer systems are not monitored, and the number of computer criminals to be really brought to justice is abysmally low. In that situation, it's no wonder you have no insurance, the policy would be enormous.
---
> Today, computer security is composed mainly from "preventive" measures, like [[firewalls]]. We could liken a firewall to the building of a good fence around your warehouse. A good first step. But not enough if you keep the fence unguarded (no [[computer monitoring|monitoring]]), or if you hand a copy of the key to everybody that asks for it by phone (social engineering). If, to add insult to injury, it's widely known that you won't prosecute any trespasser, we could consider the firewall installation as almost an exercise in futility. However, many computer systems are not monitored, and the number of computer criminals to be really brought to justice is abysmally low. In that situation, it's no wonder you have no insurance; the policy would be enormous.
13c13
< In the same line of reasoning, it's a good think to have an [[antivirus program]], but rather pointless if your users are going to open any and all of the executable [[attachment|attachments]] that they receive by [[e-mail]]. Opening an executable attachment is the same as opening the door of your sistem, with your [[user privileges]], to anybody that sent you that attachment.
---
> Along the same lines of reasoning, it's good to have an [[antivirus program]], but rather pointless if your users open any and all of the executable [[attachment|attachments]] they receive by [[e-mail]]. Opening an executable attachment is the same as opening the door to your system, with your [[user privileges]], to anybody that sent you that attachment.
15c15
< In short, computer security today is a multi-pronged menace to which a multi-faceted defense is the only response. Buying an off-the-shelf software package is no substitute for a careful evaluation of the risks, the possible losses, the counter-measures and the security policies, done at a high enough company level.
---
> In short, lack of computer security today is a multi-pronged menace to which a multi-faceted defense is the only response. Buying an off-the-shelf software package is no substitute for a careful evaluation of the risks, the possible losses, the counter-measures and the security policies, done at a high enough company level.
------
Drum_and_Bass|989787016
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Drum n Bass was for some time known as Jungle, but Drum n Bass innovators the Ragga Twins rejected the term as racist. Drum n Bass came into existence when people mixed [[reggae]] basslines with speeded-up [[hip hop]] breakbeats and influences from [[techno]]. First, [[raggamuffin]] dee jay [[General Levy]] and other dee jays were therfore the stars of drum n bass, then still called jungle. But people like [[Goldie]] and [[4 Hero]] were not that fond of hip hop and reggae, which made drum n bass less accessible and more instrumental, and closer to [[techno]]. 
------
Electronic_Music/Drum_and_Bass|989787053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[drum and bass]]. 
------
Electronic_Music/Drum_and_Bass|989787079
1c1
< See [[drum and bass]]. 
---
> See [[Drum and Bass]]. 
------
Linkopings_Science_Fiction-Forening|989787137
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Science fiction]] club in [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> It was started in 1988 and publishes the magazine [[Manblad Alfa|Månblad Alfa]].
> 
> See their own web site at http://www.lysator.liu.se/lsff/.
------
Poker/Wheel|989787244
1c1
< A '''wheel''' or '''bicycle''' is a the [[poker hand]] '''5-4-3-2-A'''.  In all casino games and nearly all home games, this plays as a five-high [[/Straight]].  Some home games may not recognize this as a valid straight, but this exception to common practice is not recommended.
---
> A '''wheel''' or '''bicycle''' is the [[poker hand]] '''5-4-3-2-A'''.  In all casino games and nearly all home games, this plays as a five-high [[/Straight]].  Some home games may not recognize this as a valid straight, but this exception to common practice is not recommended.
------
Music|989787415
3c3,30
< '''[[Musical Genres]]:''' [[Blues]] -- [[Classical Music]] -- [[Celtic music]] -- [[Disco]] -- [[Electronic Music]] -- [[freestyle]] -- [[Funk]] -- [[Indian Music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Popular Music]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rock and roll]] 
---
> '''[[Musical Genres]]:''' 
> 
> General
> 
> [[Popular Music]] 
> 
> African American music
> 
> a) mainly African American
> 
> [[Blues]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Jazz]] -- -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[Reggae]] -- 
> 
> [[freestyle]] 
> 
> b) mainly Euro-American
> 
> [[new wave music]] [[Rock and roll]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]]  [[Electronic Music]] 
> 
> 
> European music
> 
> [[Classical Music]] -- [[Celtic music]] -- [[Irish traditional music]] 
> 
> 
> Indian music
> 
> [[Indian Music]] 
> 
------
Music|989787516
13c13
< [[Blues]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Jazz]] -- -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[Reggae]] -- 
---
> [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- 
19c19,27
< [[new wave music]] [[Rock and roll]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]]  [[Electronic Music]] 
---
> [[new wave music]] [[Rock and roll]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] 
> 
> Afro-British
> 
> [[Drum and Bass]] 
> 
> World Music
> 
> [[Anglo-Indian]] 
------
Rap_music|989787759
3c3
< The [[Sugarhill Gang]] followed the same year with "Rappers Delight", that became a major hit and is based on Chic's disco track Good Times. 
---
> The [[Sugarhill Gang]] followed the same year with "Rappers Delight", that became a major hit and is based on Chic's disco track Good Times. - Rapping can be seen as one of the four elements of hip hop: MCing (rapping), DJing (mixing, cutting and scratching), [[graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]]. 
51a52,63
> 
> 
> Worldwide Rap
> 
> [[French Rap]]
> [[Italian Rap]]
> [[Spanish Rap]]
> [[German Rap]]
> [[Swiss Rap]]
> [[Latin Rap]]
> [[African Rap]]
> [[Greek Rap]]
------
Rap_music|989787790
3c3,4
< The [[Sugarhill Gang]] followed the same year with "Rappers Delight", that became a major hit and is based on Chic's disco track Good Times. - Rapping can be seen as one of the four elements of hip hop: MCing (rapping), DJing (mixing, cutting and scratching), [[graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]]. 
---
> The [[Sugarhill Gang]] followed the same year with "Rappers Delight", that became a major hit and is based on Chic's disco track Good Times. - Rapping can be seen as one of the four elements of hip hop: MCing (rapping), DJing (mixing, cutting and scratching), [[graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]]. However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap music or [[hip hop]] - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
> 
75d75
< However, in the course of rap's history, new musical styles developed that use rapping but cannot be called rap music or [[hip hop]] - especially [[rapcore]], also known as rap/rock or rap/metal. Some alternative rap has musically very little to do with hip hop and rap music.
------
Electro_funk|989787807
1c1
< Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed [[Ennio Morricone]], Kraftwerk and [[Captain Sky]], or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
---
> Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed [[Ennio Morricone]], Kraftwerk and [[Captain Sky]], or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
------
Norway|989787844
1c1
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]], known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
2a3
> '''History'''
3a5,13
> For about a hundered years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it used to be a part of [[Denmark]]. 
> 
> During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].
> 
> '''Misc'''
> 
> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
> 
> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
------
Paralysis|989787902
1c1
< The complete loss of muscle function. Major causes are [[stroke]], trauma, poliomyelitis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), botulism and Guillain-Barre syndrome. It may be localized (in a disorder called Bell's palsy only the nerve responsible from the movements of the facial muscles is affected) or generalized (stroke patients may present with the paralysis of one or both sides of the body).
---
> The complete loss of muscle function. Major causes are [[stroke]], trauma, poliomyelitis, [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), botulism and Guillain-Barre syndrome. It may be localized (in a disorder called Bell's palsy only the nerve responsible from the movements of the facial muscles is affected) or generalized (stroke patients may present with the paralysis of one or both sides of the body).
------
Dance_music|989788000
1c1
< [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]].
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]]. See also [[hip hop]], [[breakdancing]], [[funk]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Reggae]], and [[Electronic music]]. 
3c3
< Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
---
> Among some of the better-known kinds of dance tunes in [[Europe]] and [[America]] are the [[waltz]], the [[polka]], the [[reel]], various kinds of [[jig]], and the [[breakdown]] (feel free to add to this list!).
------
Dance_music|989788016
1c1
< [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]]. See also [[hip hop]], [[breakdancing]], [[funk]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Reggae]], and [[Electronic music]]. 
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]]. See also [[hip hop]], [[breakdancing]], [[funk]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Reggae]], and [[electronic music]]. 
------
Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis|989788045
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease) is a disorder characterized by the progressive loss of voluntary muscle contraction due to the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and the spinal cord that are responsible from the stimulation of the voluntary muscles.
> 
> The muscles are simply stimulated by a group of neurons located on the frontal portion of the spinal cord projecting to the muscle cells (second motor neurons) and these nerve cells are stimulated by a group of nerve cells that project from a specific region called motor area located on the frontal lobe (first motor neurons). The latter projection is called the corticospinal tract. The nerve cells of both pathways shrink and die for some unknown reason giving rise to muscle weakness, muscle cramps, speech impairment, difficulty swallowing and breathing. 
> 
> ALS is indeed the most frequently observed member of a family of disorders called motor neuron diseases. This family has three major subgroups called primary lateral sclerosis (only the first motor neurons are affected), spinal muscular atrophy (only the second motor neurons are affected) and ALS (both are affected). 
> 
> The incidence of ALS is approximately 1 out of 100000 people, males are affected slightly more than women, the onset of symptoms is usually after the 5th or 6th decade and there are also familial forms of the disease. 
> 
> The diagnosis is established on both clinical grounds and an electromyography examination, which is obligatory to demonstrate the diffuse loss of nervous stimulation of muscles of extremities, face and abdomen. Neuroimaging examinations can be performed for some occasional cases especially for a mass lesion of upper parts of spinal cord to exclude some disorders that may mimic the symptoms of ALS. The disease has always a grave prognosis and the patients usually die within 2 to 10 years. There is no definite cure and the treatment is usually supportive and symptomatic.
> 
> Some cases with familial forms of the disease were shown to have a mutation on their superoxide dismutase (SOD) 1 genes, which produces an enzyme that reduces the oxidative stress of the nerve cells. Similar findings led the researchers to assume that the nerve cell death was caused due an excess increase of free radicals in the cell. This hypothesis is one of many others developed to describe the etiology of ALS and is waiting to be reliably proven. Meanwhile, some experimental drugs are used to reduce the oxidative stress of the cells with very limited success.
------
Dance_music|989788046
1c1
< [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]]. See also [[hip hop]], [[breakdancing]], [[funk]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Reggae]], and [[electronic music]]. 
---
> [[Music]] composed and/or played specifically for social [[dance|dancing]]--as such, dance music includes a huge variety of music, from [[rock and roll]] to [[country music]] to [[traditional music]] such as [[Irish traditional music]].  For many younger people, such as those who frequent nightclubs, "dance music" more specifically refers to offshoots of rock and roll such as [[disco]] and [[techno]]. See also [[hip hop]], [[breakdancing]], [[funk]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Reggae]], and [[Electronic Music]]. 
------
Music|989788243
27c27,30
< [[Anglo-Indian]] 
---
> [[Anglo-Indian music]] 
> [[Arabic music]]
> [[Far Eastern music]]
> [[African music music]]
------
Music|989788303
20a21,24
> Euro American
> 
> [[Country music]]
> 
------
Turkish_language|989788534
2c2
< The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages).
---
> The characteristic features are the pattern regularity (if the first vowel of a Turkish word is a front vowel, the second and other vowels of the same word are usually the same vowel or another front vowel; e.g. Erdem), the abundance of suffixes (and very few prefixes) and opposite order of the words (as compared to English and other European languages). Turkish is, like the [[Finnish language]] and the [[Japanese language]], an agglutinating language. 
------
Finno-Ugric_languages|989788555
1c1
< [[Finnish]]
---
> [[Finnish language]]
------
Finnish_language|989788772
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Finnish is an agglutinating language that like Hungarian always has stress on the fisrt syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. English king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European language. Like the [[Turkish language]], Finnish has vowel harmony, i.e. only certain designated vowels can appear together in a morpheme.
> e.g. tyttö is a possible Finnish morpheme (actually it means 'girl') because it has only open vowels, whereas *tytto is impossible because it has both open and closed vowels. 
> 
> 
>  Consonant phonemes
> 
> /k/
> /p/
> /t/
> /d/ 
> 
> Finnish has no voiced plosives - with the exception of /d/ that developed from /D/ (as in English <the>).
> Without /d/, Finnish has (in native words) no distinctive voice at all. 
> 
> /h/
> /l/
> /m/
> /n/
> /N/
> /r/
> /s/
> /v/
> 
> [S] (as English <sh>) and [f] only appear in non-native words.
> 
> Vowel phonemes
> 
> /a/
> /e/
> /i/
> /o/
> /u/
> 
> /y/ as in French <but>, Old English <y>
> /9/ as in French <deux>
> /}/ as in English <bat>
> 
> All phonemes except /v, d, N/ have distinctive length.
> 
> Minimal pairs:
> 
> /tuli/ 'fire' - /tu:li/ 'wind' 
>  - /tulli/ 'customs'
> 
> /muta/ 'mud' - /mu:ta/ 'other (partitive sg.)'
>  - /mutta/ 'but'
> 
> 
>  
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Drum_and_Bass|989790014
1c1
< Drum n Bass was for some time known as Jungle, but Drum n Bass innovators the Ragga Twins rejected the term as racist. Drum n Bass came into existence when people mixed [[reggae]] basslines with speeded-up [[hip hop]] breakbeats and influences from [[techno]]. First, [[raggamuffin]] dee jay [[General Levy]] and other dee jays were therfore the stars of drum n bass, then still called jungle. But people like [[Goldie]] and [[4 Hero]] were not that fond of hip hop and reggae, which made drum n bass less accessible and more instrumental, and closer to [[techno]]. 
---
> Drum n Bass was for some time known as [[Jungle]], but Drum n Bass innovators the [[Ragga Twins]] rejected the term as racist. Drum n Bass came into existence when people mixed [[reggae]] basslines with speeded-up [[hip hop]] breakbeats and influences from [[techno]]. First, [[raggamuffin]] dee jay [[General Levy]] and other dee jays were therfore the stars of drum n bass, then still called jungle. But people like [[Goldie]] and [[4 Hero]] were not that fond of hip hop and reggae, which made drum n bass less accessible and more instrumental, and closer to [[techno]]. 
------
House_of_Pain|989790128
1c1
< [[Everlast]] was originally a member of Ice T's [[Rhyme Syndicate]]; he later joined the Soul Assassins to form House of Pain. What was special about them was especially that they stressed their Irish roots. The music was somewhat similar to other music produced by Cypress Hill's DJ Muggs at the time. After three CDs, Everlast left House of Pain and returned to his solo career while DJ Lethal became part of rapcore heroes [[Limp Bizkit]]. 
---
> [[Everlast]] was originally a member of Ice T's [[Rhyme Syndicate]]; he later joined the [[Soul Assassins]] to form House of Pain. What was special about them was especially that they stressed their Irish roots. The music was somewhat similar to other music produced by [[Cypress Hill]]'s DJ Muggs at the time. After three CDs, Everlast left House of Pain and returned to his solo career while [[DJ Lethal]] became part of rapcore heroes [[Limp Bizkit]]. 
------
Music|989790460
19c19
< [[new wave music]] [[Rock and roll]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] 
---
> [[new wave music]] -- [[Rock and roll]] -- [[punk rock]] -- [[new wave music]] -- [[Electronic Music]] 
------
Morphology|989790538
5a6,7
> 
> A lexeme is a lexical unit. Wathiik
------
Morphology|989790612
7c7
< A lexeme is a lexical unit. Wathiik
---
> A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...
------
Meroitic|989790691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An alphabet (or, to be more exact, an [[abjad]]) of Egyptian (Hieroglyphic) origin used in Kingdom of Meroë. 
------
Abjad|989790793
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An abjad is an [[alphabet]] of the Semitic type, as opposed to the Greek type or the Indian and Ethiopic type called [[abugida]]. An abjad only has symbols for consonant signs. 
------
Nazi_Germany/Talk|989790812
2a3,5
> By SoniC: I don't know if it makes sense to try and tell where all those different words came from. I mean, half of all English words are derived from Latin, French, even from Chinese (ketchup, for example) or Indian (shampoo, AFAIK). This is a science in and by itself. Maybe someone with far to much time on their hands can do such a page in the Linguistics section, but if you start something like that, you will end up having a complete dictionnary.
> 
> I propose to use this particular page for terms that are really related to Nazi Germany, i.e. terms you will find when reading reports, literature or whatever about the Third Reich. These can be German terms now also used in English or other terms used in the Nazi context.
------
Abugida|989790952
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An alphabet that has consonant signs and vowel signs and in which the vowel sign usually is added to the consonant sign, which makes it look like a [[syllabary]] to Western eyes. However, it clearly is not a syllabary, since there are single signs for vowels and consonants. 
------
Abjad|989790983
1c1
< An abjad is an [[alphabet]] of the Semitic type, as opposed to the Greek type or the Indian and Ethiopic type called [[abugida]]. An abjad only has symbols for consonant signs. 
---
> An abjad is an [[alphabet]] of the Semitic type, as opposed to the Greek type or the Indian and Ethiopic type called [[Abugida]]. An abjad only has symbols for consonant signs. 
------
Syllabary|989791020
5c5
< Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like the [[Japanese language]] (ideograms {Chinese kanji} + syllabaries {hiragana and katakana}) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
---
> Other kinds of language symbols sets include various [[alphabet]]s as well as [[ideogram]]s and [[pictogram]]s.  Sometimes writing involves a combination of these things, like Japanese writing (ideograms {Chinese kanji} + syllabaries {hiragana and katakana}) or [[hieroglyphics]] (pretty much everything mashed together randomly).
------
Language|989791097
7a8
> 
60a62,63
> 
> --- I'll include ORTHOGRAPHY in the LINGUISTICS SECTION, because orthography is not language per se, but it is part of linguistics. 
------
Linguistics|989791230
19c19
< * [historical linguistics]]
---
> * [historical linguistics]] Especially historical linguistics, but also other areas often deal with [[Orthography]]. [[Writing Systems]] in general are of interest to linguistics, since language itself has to be transcribed. 
------
Writing_Systems|989791477
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Writing systems are used to visually record language with symbols. The oldest kind of writing was [[ideographical]], 
> after that, [[Syllabaries]] and [[Alphabets]] were developed. Among alphabets, one may distinguish the older [[Abjads]] that only recorded consonants, and the newer alphabet of the Greek type called simply [[Alphabet]] and the [[Abugida]].  
> 
> 
> Kinds of writing 
> 
> Ideogram? 
> Syllabary 
> Alphabet 
> Calligraphy? 
> Penmanship? 
> Minuscule letter 
> Spelling? 
> 
------
Morphology|989791588
5c5
< e.g., /s/, /eez/, /n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
---
> e.g., /s/, /iz/, /@n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
7c7
< A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...
---
> A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989791706
4c4,9
< *[[Gleichschaltung]] -- total contol and obedience
---
> *[[Blitzkrieg]] -- quick army invasions aided by tanks
> *[[Conventrieren]] -- Bombing out cities completely (the term was coined by Hitler after the bombing of [[Conventry]])
> * F&uuml;hrer -- leader
> *[[Endloesung]] -- final solution, euphemism to describe the total extinction of all Jews
> *[[Gleichschaltung]] -- total contol and obedience of all aspects of society
> *[[Konzentrationslager]] -- concentration camps, abbreviated as ''KZ''
8a14,15
> *[[Reichskristallnacht]] -- empire-wide crystal night. Euphemism to describe one night in which synagogues and Jewish shops were set on fire or demolished (crystal stands for the broken glass from all the demolished windows). The politically correct term is [[Reichsprogromnacht]]
> *[[Totaler Krieg]] -- total war, mobilization of all citizens, including pupils, women and elderly people (which was also called [[Volkssturm]])
10c17
< [[/Talk|talk]]
---
> [[/Talk|talk]]
------
Language|989792646
63a64,66
> 
> ----
> The subject of how to indicate pronunciations on Wiki pages is a complicated one, and simple solutions to complicated problems are frequently a bad idea.  For many uses, something very simple and English-centric like the system used in the [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ Jargon File] would be adequate.  But it's clearly ''not'' adequate for many other uses here, particularly when describing foreign languages.  Using more than one system has its own drawbacks, and is more complicated overall than using one.  Yes, SAMPA (or a competing IPA-based system such as the one used on sci.lang) is probably overkill and difficult to learn for many; but the technology here can be arranged to make it simpler.  For example, the server already recognizes "ISBN XXX..." in Wiki text and automatically makes links to more detailed information about a book.  It could do a similar thing with "SAMPA XXX...", automatically creating a link to a page exmplaining SAMPA, perhaps even a sound clip.  It is possible that in the future, it could display real IPA symbols when Unicode fonts become more available.  Most importantly, though, is that IPA-based information is information-preserving while simpler systems might not be, so we can add those features without needing more information.  For that reason alone, I think it is important that we adopt some IPA-based standard.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Language|989792967
66c66
< The subject of how to indicate pronunciations on Wiki pages is a complicated one, and simple solutions to complicated problems are frequently a bad idea.  For many uses, something very simple and English-centric like the system used in the [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ Jargon File] would be adequate.  But it's clearly ''not'' adequate for many other uses here, particularly when describing foreign languages.  Using more than one system has its own drawbacks, and is more complicated overall than using one.  Yes, SAMPA (or a competing IPA-based system such as the one used on sci.lang) is probably overkill and difficult to learn for many; but the technology here can be arranged to make it simpler.  For example, the server already recognizes "ISBN XXX..." in Wiki text and automatically makes links to more detailed information about a book.  It could do a similar thing with "SAMPA XXX...", automatically creating a link to a page exmplaining SAMPA, perhaps even a sound clip.  It is possible that in the future, it could display real IPA symbols when Unicode fonts become more available.  Most importantly, though, is that IPA-based information is information-preserving while simpler systems might not be, so we can add those features without needing more information.  For that reason alone, I think it is important that we adopt some IPA-based standard.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> The subject of how to indicate pronunciations on Wiki pages is a complicated one, and simple solutions to complicated problems are frequently a bad idea.  For many uses, something very simple and English-centric like the system used in the [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ Jargon File] would be adequate.  But it's clearly ''not'' adequate for many other uses here, particularly when describing foreign languages.  Using more than one system has its own drawbacks, and is more complicated overall than using one.  Yes, SAMPA (or a competing IPA-based system such as the one used on sci.lang) is probably overkill and difficult to learn for many; but the technology here can be arranged to make it simpler.  For example, the server already recognizes "ISBN XXX..." in Wiki text and automatically makes links to more detailed information about a book.  It could do a similar thing with "SAMPA XXX...", automatically creating a link to a page explaining SAMPA, perhaps even a sound clip.  It is possible that in the future, it could display real IPA symbols when Unicode fonts become more available.  Most important, though, is that IPA-based information is information-preserving while simpler systems might not be, so we can add those features without needing more information.  For that reason alone, I think it is important that we adopt some IPA-based standard.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
HTTP|989795486
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>HTTP</b> stands for '''H'''yper'''t'''ext '''T'''ransfer '''P'''rotocol. It is the main protocol for browsing the [[world wide web]] using [[web browsers]].
------
World_wide_web|989795550
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[World Wide Web]]
------
Greek_alphabet|989797876
5c5
< The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows (values transcribed according to [[SAMPA]]):
---
> The Greek letters and their derivations are as follows (values transcribed according to [[SAMPA]], with changes from ancient to modern denoted by ->):
7,34c7,34
<  '''Letter'''   '''Name'''    '''Sound'''   '''Value'''   '''Semitic letter''' 
<   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     a       1        Aleph (') /?/
<   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      b       2        Beth /b/
<   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     g       3        Gimel /g/
<   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     d       4        Daleth /d/
<   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   e       5        He (h) /h/
<   F       Waw       w       6        Waw /w/
<   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      z       7        Zain /dz/
<   &Eta; &eta;     Eta       ê       8        Heth (h*)
<   &Theta; &theta;     Theta    t+h      9        Thet (t*)
<   &Iota; &iota;     Iota      i       10       Yodh (y) /j/
<   &Kappa; &kappa;     Kappa     k       20       Kaph /k/
<   &Lambda; &lambda;     Lambda    l       30       Lamed /l/
<   &Mu; &mu;     Mu        m       40       Mem /m/
<   &Nu; &nu;     Nu        n       50       Nun /n/
<   &Xi; &xi;     Xi       k+s      60       Samekh (s)
<   &Omicron; &omicron;     Omicron   o       70       Ain ()
<   &Pi; &pi;     Pi        p       80       Pe /p/
<   M       San       s       900      Sade (s*) /ts/
<   Q       Qoppa     q       90       Qoph /q/
<   &Rho; &rho;     Rho       r       100      Resh /r/
<   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;   Sigma     s       200      Shin (sh) /S/
<   &Tau; &tau;     Tau       t       300      Taw /t/
<   &Upsilon; &upsilon;     Upsilon   y       400
<   &Phi; &phi;     Phi      p+h      500
<   &Chi; &chi;     Chi      k+h      600
<   &Psi; &psi;     Psi      p+s      700
<   &Omega; &omega;     Omega     ô       800
---
>  '''Letter'''   '''Name'''    '''Sound'''         '''Value'''   '''Semitic letter''' 
>   &Alpha; &alpha;     Alpha     /a/ /a:/      1        Aleph (') /?/
>   &Beta; &beta;     Beta      /b/           2        Beth /b/
>   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     /g/           3        Gimel /g/
>   &Delta; &delta;     Delta     /d/->/D/      4        Daleth /d/
>   &Epsilon; &epsilon;     Epsilon   /e/       5        He (h) /h/
>   F       Waw       /w/       6        Waw /w/
>   &Zeta; &zeta;     Zeta      /dz/->/z/     7        Zain /dz/
>   &Eta; &eta;     Eta       /E:/->/i/     8        Heth (h*)
>   &Theta; &theta;     Theta    /t_h/->/T/     9        Thet (t*)
>   &Iota; &iota;     Iota      /i/           10       Yodh (y) /j/
>   &Kappa; &kappa;     Kappa     /k/           20       Kaph /k/
>   &Lambda; &lambda;     Lambda    /l/           30       Lamed /l/
>   &Mu; &mu;     Mu        /m/           40       Mem /m/
>   &Nu; &nu;     Nu        /n/           50       Nun /n/
>   &Xi; &xi;     Xi        /ks/           60       Samekh (s)
>   &Omicron; &omicron;     Omicron   /o/           70       Ain ()
>   &Pi; &pi;     Pi        /p/           80       Pe /p/
>   M       San       /ts/          900      Sade (s*) /ts/
>   Q       Qoppa     /q/           90       Qoph /q/
>   &Rho; &rho;     Rho       /r/           100      Resh /r/
>   &Sigma; &sigma;,&sigmaf;   Sigma     /s/           200      Shin (sh) /S/
>   &Tau; &tau;     Tau       /t/           300      Taw /t/
>   &Upsilon; &upsilon;     Upsilon   /u/->/y/->/i/ 400
>   &Phi; &phi;     Phi      /p_h/->/f/     500
>   &Chi; &chi;     Chi      /k_h/->/x/     600
>   &Psi; &psi;     Psi      /ps/       700
>   &Omega; &omega;     Omega     /O:/      800
------
Greek_alphabet|989798030
10c10
<   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     /g/           3        Gimel /g/
---
>   &Gamma; &gamma;     Gamma     /g/*          3        Gimel /g/
34a35,36
> 
>   * Some scholars see [[agma]] as a phoneme in its own right
------
Greek_language|989798158
28,78c28
< Pronunciation
< 
< 
< alpha /a/ /a:/ 
< 
< beta /b/
< 
< gamma /g/ [N] some scholars see [[agma]] as a phoneme in its own right
< 
< delta /d/ modern: /D/
< 
< zeta /dz/ modern: /z/ (but Modern Greek TZ = /dz/)
< 
< êta /E:/ modern: /i/
< 
< theta /t_h/ modern: /T/
< 
< iota /i/
< 
< kappa /k/
< 
< lambda /l/
< 
< mu /m/
< 
< nu /n/
< 
< xi /ks/
< 
< omikron /o/
< 
< pi /p/
< 
< rho /r/
< 
< sigma /s/
< 
< tau /t/
< 
< upsilon /u/, later /y/, modern /i/
< 
< phi /p_h/, modern /f/
< 
< khi /k_h/, modern /x/
< 
< psi [ps]
< 
< omega /O:/
< 
< 
< 
---
> For pronunciation of the letters see [[Greek alphabet]].  Ancient and Modern Greek differ somewhat, especially in that aspirates have become spirants.  For example:
82,83d31
< 
< 
86d33
< 
90d36
< 
------
German_Rap|989799766
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Die Fantastischen Vier]] (fantastic four) are probably the most prominent German rappers. They were the first German band to appear in [[MTV Unplugged]].
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989799902
12a13
> *[[Nuernberg process]]
17c18
< [[/Talk|talk]]
---
> [[/Talk|talk]]
------
Open_source|989800786
23c23
< For a more extensive list, see [[Open source licenses]]
---
> For a more extensive list, see [[Open source license]]
27c27
< [[GNU/Emacs|Emacs]], TeX, [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree86]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
---
> [[GNU/Emacs|Emacs]], [[TeX]], [[Vim]], [[Apache]], [[XFree86]], [[Gimp]], [[PHP]]...
------
Open_source_license|989801325
1c1
< An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it is certified by the [[Open Source Initiative]].  The following licenses have been certified:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]].  The following licenses have been approved:
3d2
< *[[Public domain]] (i.e., no license at all)
7c6
< *[[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]] (GPL)
---
> *[[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public Licensall)e]] (GPL)
28a28,29
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Erasmus_Darwin|989801435
6c6
< Another of his grandsons was [[Francis Galton]].
---
> Another of his grandsons was [[Francis Galton]].  He was also a source for Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, because he was experimenting in galvinism.
------
Open_source_license/Talk|989801692
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> While software in the public domain may conform with the principles put forth by the open source community (assuming the source is available), this article aims to deal with licenses considered to be open source (and specifically with those approved by the Open Source Intitiative). Since public domain software is under no license, I removed it from the list. -- [[STG]]
------
Open_source_license|989801921
1c1
< An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]].  The following licenses have been approved:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  The following licenses have been approved:
6c6
< *[[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public Licensall)e]] (GPL)
---
> *[[GNU/GPL|GNU General Public License]] (GPL)
29c29
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Open_Source_Definition|989802423
1c1,67
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The <b>Open Source Definition</b> is used by the [[Open Source Initiative]] to determine whether or not a [[computer software|software]] license can be considered [[open source]]. The definition was written by [[Bruce Parens]].
> <hr>
> <pre>
> The Open Source Definition
> Version 1.8
> 
> Introduction
> Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. The distribution 
> terms of open-source software must comply with the following criteria:
> 
> 1. Free Redistribution
> The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the
> software as a component of an aggregate software distribution containing
> programs from several different sources. The license shall not require a
> royalty or other fee for such sale.
> 
> 2. Source Code
> The program must include source code, and must allow distribution in source 
> code as well as compiled form. Where some form of a product is not 
> distributed with source code, there must be a well-publicized means of 
> obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduction cost 
> preferably, downloading via the Internet without charge.  The source code 
> must be the preferred form in which a programmer would modify the program. 
> Deliberately obfuscated source code is not allowed. Intermediate forms such 
> as the output of a preprocessor or translator are not allowed.
> 
> 3. Derived Works
> The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow
> them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original
> software.
> 
> 4. Integrity of The Author's Source Code
> The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified
> form only if the license allows the distribution of "patch files" with
> the source code for the purpose of modifying the program at build time.
> The license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from
> modified source code. The license may require derived works to carry a
> different name or version number from the original software.
> 
> 5. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
> The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons.
> 
> 6. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
> The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in
> a specific field of endeavor. For example, it may not restrict the program
> from being used in a business, or from being used for genetic research.
> 
> 7. Distribution of License
> The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program
> is redistributed without the need for execution of an additional license
> by those parties.
> 
> 8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
> The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program's being
> part of a particular software distribution. If the program is extracted
> from that distribution and used or distributed within the terms of the
> program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistributed should
> have the same rights as those that are granted in conjunction with the
> original software distribution.
> 
> 9. License Must Not Contaminate Other Software
> The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed
> along with the licensed software. For example, the license must not insist
> that all other programs distributed on the same medium must be open-source
> software.
> </pre>
> 
------
What_is_a_wiki|989802578
13c13
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
---
> See also WikiWiasdf ki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
What_is_a_wiki|989802625
13c13,16
< See also WikiWiasdf ki and [[Wikipedia]].
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> 
> Jigga
------
Open_Source_Definition|989803923
1c1
< The <b>Open Source Definition</b> is used by the [[Open Source Initiative]] to determine whether or not a [[computer software|software]] license can be considered [[open source]]. The definition was written by [[Bruce Parens]].
---
> The <b>Open Source Definition</b> is used by the [[Open Source Initiative]] to determine whether or not a [[computer software|software]] license can be considered [[open source]]. The definition was was based on the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]], adapted primarily by [[Bruce Parens]].
------
Open_Source_Definition|989804084
1c1
< The <b>Open Source Definition</b> is used by the [[Open Source Initiative]] to determine whether or not a [[computer software|software]] license can be considered [[open source]]. The definition was was based on the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]], adapted primarily by [[Bruce Parens]].
---
> The <b>Open Source Definition</b> is used by the [[Open Source Initiative]] to determine whether or not a [[computer software|software]] license can be considered [[open source]]. The definition was based on the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]], adapted primarily by [[Bruce Parens]].
------
BSD/License|989804514
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This is the BSD License template. More needs to be said, esp. re: removal of the advertising clause.</i>
> 
> <hr>
> <pre>
> Copyright (c) <YEAR>, <OWNER>
> All rights reserved.
> 
> Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
> modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
> are met:
> 
>    Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright 
>    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
> 
>    Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
>    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
>    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
> 
>    Neither the name of the <ORGANIZATION> nor the names of its 
>    contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from 
>    this software without specific prior written permission.
> 
> THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
> "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
> LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
> A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR
> CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL,
> EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
> PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR
> PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF
> LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING
> NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
> SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
> </pre>
------
MIT_license|989804735
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Preamble, history, etc...</i>
> 
> <hr>
> <pre>
> Copyright (c) <year> <copyright holders>
> 
> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a 
> copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
> to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation 
> the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, 
> and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the 
> Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
> 
>    The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included 
>    in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
> 
> THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
> IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, 
> FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
> AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
> LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
> OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
> THE SOFTWARE.
> </pre>
------
Mormon|989805857
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A common term refering to adherants of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]]. the name came from the [[Book of Mormon]], which is held to be [[scripture]] by the church. 
> 
> Some members of the church consider this name to be derogatory.
------
French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands/Government|989805989
13c13
< overseas territory of France since 1955; administered from Paris by High Commissioner of the Republic Brigitte GIRARDIN (since 25 March 1998), assisted by Secretary General Jean-Yves HERMOSO (since NA)
---
> overseas territory of [[France]] since 1955; administered from [[Paris]] by High Commissioner of the Republic Brigitte GIRARDIN (since 25 March 1998), assisted by Secretary General Jean-Yves HERMOSO (since NA)
15c15
< none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 3 districts named Ile Crozet, Iles Kerguelen, and Iles Saint-Paul et Amsterdam; excludes "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica that is not recognized by the US
---
> none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 3 districts named [[Ile Crozet]], [[Iles Kerguelen]], and [[Iles Saint-Paul et Amsterdam]]; excludes "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica that is not recognized by the US
------
AIDS|989806538
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome</i> (AIDS) is a disease which causes degeneration of the body's immune system. It is caused by the [[HIV virus]].
> 
> <i>history, modern treatment options, research...</i>
------
AIDS|989806753
1c1
< <i>Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome</i> (AIDS) is a disease which causes degeneration of the body's immune system. It is caused by the [[HIV virus]].
---
> <i>Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome</i> (AIDS) is a disease which causes degeneration of the body's immune system. It is caused by the [[human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV), which is transmitted through bodily fluids. The most common ways to contract HIV include sexual intercourse and the use of unsterilized needles.
3c3
< <i>history, modern treatment options, research...</i>
---
> <i>history, modern treatment options, research...</i>
------
Philology|989806856
3c3
< Most of the first people doing HistoricalLinguistcs were philologists.
---
> Most of the first people doing [[historical linguistcs]] were philologists.
------
Mariana_Trench|989807027
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The world's deepest trench. It is located in the [[Pacific Ocean]].
------
What_is_a_wiki|989807453
3c3
< So it's a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have fun!
---
> This is a collaborative website, constantly expanding as new people add pages about their interests, comment on old pages, et cetera.  So, join in and have fun!
16c16
< Jigga
---
> Jigga
------
Byzantine_Empire|989807551
1c1
< successor to the Roman Empire (also called East Roman Empire). The name comes from the city called as [[Byzantium]], which Roman emperor Constantine I rebuilt on AD 330 as Constantinople (today's Istanbul) and made it the capital of the whole Roman Empire. After the division of the empire (AD 395) into eastern and western territories during the reign of emperor Arcadius in the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
---
> Successor to the [[Roman Empire]] (also called [[East Roman Empire]]). The name comes from the city called as [[Byzantium]], which Roman emperor [[Constantine I]] rebuilt on AD 330 as Constantinople (today's [[Istanbul]]) and made it the capital of the whole Roman Empire. After the division of the empire (AD 395) into eastern and western territories during the reign of emperor [[Arcadius]] in the East, Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
3c3
< The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the third and fourth centuries, in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of Rome.  By the sixth century it had reestablished itself and under Justinian reconquered much of Italy, north Africa, and Spain.
---
> The Eastern Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the third and fourth centuries, in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of [[Rome]].  By the sixth century it had reestablished itself and under [[Justinian]] reconquered much of [[Italy]], north [[Africa]], and [[Spain]].
5c5
< Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts.  The [[Lombard]]s took Italy, the [[Khazars]] overwhelmed much of the Balkans, and the Persians gained domination of most of the eastern provinces.  These were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], who annihilated the Sassanid kingdom, but the sudden appearance of the Arabs was too much for the empire, and the southern provinces were all overrun.
---
> Justinian left his successors an empty treasury, however, and they were unable to deal with the sudden appearance of new invaders on all fronts.  The [[Lombard]]s took Italy, the [[Khazars]] overwhelmed much of the [[Balkans]], and the [[Persian]]s gained domination of most of the eastern provinces.  These were recovered by the emperor [[Heraclius]], who annihilated the [[Sassanid]] kingdom, but the sudden appearance of the [[Arab]]s was too much for the empire, and the southern provinces were all overrun.
7c7
< What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced monophysite (rather than orthodox) Christianity, and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a Greek rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital while it grew to become the largest city in the world.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
---
> What the empire lost in territory, though, it made up in uniformity.  The southern provinces differed significantly from the northern in culture and practiced [[Christianity/monophysite|monophysite]] (rather than orthodox) [[Christianity]], and so felt alienated; the north put up much more of a struggle.  By the time of Heraclius the empire had become a [[Greek]] rather than Roman empire, and had been divided into a system of military provinces called ''themes'' to face permanent assault, with urban life declining outside the capital while it grew to become the largest city in the world.  Attempts to conquer Constantinople failed in the face of the Byzantine's superior navy, and the empire began to recover.
9c9
< The empire reached its height under the Macedonian emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and Abbasid caliphate, it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the Normans, who conquered Italy, and the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating Egypt but still made moves into Asia Minor, where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert by the sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]] [[Alp Arslan]] on 1071 that province was lost.
---
> The empire reached its height under the [[Macedonian]] emperors of the tenth and early eleventh centuries.  As Rome before it had, though, it soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of landed aristocracy, which undermined the theme system.  Faced off against its old enemies, the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Abbasid caliphate]], it may have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation - the [[Normans]], who conquered Italy, and the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating [[Egypt]] but still made moves into [[Asia Minor]], where most of the Byzantine armies were recruited from.  With the defeat of emperor [[Romanus IV]] at [[Manzikert]] by the sultan of [[Seljuk Turks]] [[Alp Arslan]] on 1071 that province was lost.
11c11
< The last few centuries of Byzantine life were bought by an usurper, Alexius Comnenus, who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (''pronoia'') and made significant advances against the [[Seljuk Turks]].  His plea for western aid brought about the first crusade, which helped him reclaim Nicaea but soon distanced itself from imperial aid.  Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic and in 1204 captured Constantinople, founding a short-lived feudal kingdom and permanently destroying Byzantine power.
---
> The last few centuries of Byzantine life were brought by an usurper, [[Alexius Comnenus]], who began to reestablish an army on the basis of feudal grants (''[[pronoia]]'') and made significant advances against the [[Seljuk Turks]].  His plea for western aid brought about the first crusade, which helped him reclaim [[Nicaea]] but soon distanced itself from imperial aid.  Later crusades grew increasingly antagonistic and in 1204 captured Constantinople, founding a short-lived feudal kingdom and permanently destroying Byzantine power.
13c13
< Three Byzantine successors were left - Nicaea, Epirus, and Manzikert.  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the Palaeologian dynasty, so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the Muslims were too divided to attack, but eventually the Ottomans overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege to [[Mehmet II]] in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
---
> Three Byzantine successors were left - [[Nicaea]], [[Epirus]], and [[Manzikert]].  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the [[Palaeologian dynasty]], so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the [[Muslim]]s were too divided to attack, but eventually the [[Ottoman]]s overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege to [[Mehmet II]] in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
15c15
< The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.  The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were the originally defined bounds of the Middle Ages.
---
> The Byzantine empire played an important role in the transmission of Roman knowledge to the Islamic world.  Its most lasting influence, though, lies in its church.  Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various Slavic peoples, and it is still predominant among them and the Greeks.  The start and end dates of the capital's independence, 395 to 1453, were the originally defined bounds of the Middle Ages.
------
Philosophy_of_religion|989807710
1c1
< Major philosophers of religion:  BaruchSpinoza -- SorenKierkegaard -- MaxWeber -- ReneDescartes -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Boethius]]
---
> Major philosophers of religion:  [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Max Weber]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Boethius]]
------
Political_correctness|989809161
16c16
< A great example of anti-political correctness satire is the book ''Politically Correct Bedtime Stories'' in which, traditional fairy tales are rewritten from a political correct viewpoint and often reverse the roles of good and evil from the original version.  For example, Hansel, Grettal and their father are evil and the witch is good in the politically correct version of ''Hansel and Grettel''.
---
> A satirical take on this movement can be found in the book ''Politically Correct Bedtime Stories'', in which traditional fairy tales are rewritten from a politically correct viewpoint and often reverse the roles of good and evil from those of the original version.  For example, Hansel, Gretel and their father are evil and the witch is good in the politically correct version of ''Hansel and Gretel''.
------
Libertarian|989809406
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Libertarianism is a political movement, currently most active in the United States, which holds that government intervention in the affairs of individuals and societies should be kept at an irreducible minimum. Most Libertarians are also Capitalists, though there are some schools of thought which believe that Capitalism is not an essential component of this philosophy.
------
GURPS|989810275
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very modular and customizable pencil and paper role-playing game system.  GURPS stands for <B>G</B>eneric <B>U</B>niversal <B>R</B>ole <B>P</B>laying <B>S</B>ystem.  It can be used to play games in fantasy, modern, futuristic, or historical settings.  You can get a printable PDF version of the "lite" rulebook for free at <A HREF="http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/lite/">Steve Jackson Games</A>
------
GURPS|989810323
1c1
< A very modular and customizable pencil and paper role-playing game system.  GURPS stands for <B>G</B>eneric <B>U</B>niversal <B>R</B>ole <B>P</B>laying <B>S</B>ystem.  It can be used to play games in fantasy, modern, futuristic, or historical settings.  You can get a printable PDF version of the "lite" rulebook for free at <A HREF="http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/lite/">Steve Jackson Games</A>
---
> A very modular and customizable pencil and paper role-playing game system.  GURPS stands for <B>G</B>eneric <B>U</B>niversal <B>R</B>ole <B>P</B>laying <B>S</B>ystem.  It can be used to play games in fantasy, modern, futuristic, or historical settings.  You can get a printable PDF version of the "lite" rulebook for free at http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/lite/.
------
HomePage|989810365
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know, or just ramble off the top of your head if you don't know jack!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
Dale_Earnhardt|989816896
7c7
< Additionally, his prize winnings totalled more than $300 million.
---
> Additionally, his prize winnings totalled more than $41million.
9c9
< His son, [[Dale Earnhardt Jr.]] is also a [[NASCAR]] driver.
---
> His son, [[Dale Earnhardt Jr.]] is also a [[NASCAR]] driver.
------
Suleiman_the_Magnificent|989818342
1c1
< Süleyman I (1520-1566) (the Lawgiver or the Magnificent) was an Ottoman emperor and successor to [[Selim I]]. Ottoman Empire reached to its zenith and became a world power during his reign. Although the expansion of the empire continued one century after his death, his period quickly followed a very long decline.
---
> Süleyman I (1520-1566) (the Lawgiver or the Magnificent) was an [[Ottoman]] emperor and successor to [[Selim I]]. [[Ottoman Empire]] reached to its zenith and became a world power during his reign. Although the expansion of the empire continued one century after his death, his period quickly followed a very long decline.
3c3
< He captured Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes in 1522. The Ottoman victory at the Battle of Mohacs opened the doors of Hungary and Vienna, which was besieged unsuccessfully in 1529. In the following two decades, huge territories of North Africa up to Morocco and all Middle East up to Persia were annexed. This quick expansion provided a naval dominance for a short period in Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf . 
---
> He captured Belgrade in 1521 and Rhodes in 1522. The [[Ottoman]] victory at the [[Battle of Mohacs]] opened the doors of [[Hungary]] and [[Vienna]], which was besieged unsuccessfully in 1529. In the following two decades, huge territories of [[North Africa]] up to [[Morocco]] and all [[Middle East]] up to Persia were annexed. This quick expansion provided a naval dominance for a short period in [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Persian Gulf]]. 
5c5
< When Süleyman died in 1566, major Muslim cities (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad), many Balkan provinces up to today’s Austria and most of North Africa were under the control of the empire. 
---
> When Süleyman died in 1566, major Muslim cities ([[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Damascus]], [[Baghdad]]), many [[Balkan]] provinces up to today’s [[Austria]] and most of [[North Africa]] were under the control of the empire. 
------
Neil_Armstrong|989819685
1c1
< First man on the moon.
---
> American test pilot and astronaut (1930-). First man to walk on the moon.
2a3,4
> Born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, USA in 1930. Served in the Korean War as a jet fighter pilot. Became a civilian test pilot for NASA and piloted the X-15 rocket plane. Selected by NASA as an astronaut in 1962. Commanded the Gemini 8 mission, which achieved the first docking of two orbiting spacecraft, in 1966. Served as commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar orbital mission in 1968. Commanded the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission in 1969. Narrowly escaped death during training in a crash of the lunar landing training vehicle (LLTV). Took manual controlled of the Lunar Module (LM) "Eagle" and piloted it away from a rocky area to a safe landing. His first words from the Moon were, "Houston, Tranquillity Base here. The Eagle has landed." Several hours later he climbed out of the LM and became the first man to walk on the Moon with the words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." 
>  
4d5
< 
------
Neil_Armstrong|989820208
3c3
< Born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, USA in 1930. Served in the Korean War as a jet fighter pilot. Became a civilian test pilot for NASA and piloted the X-15 rocket plane. Selected by NASA as an astronaut in 1962. Commanded the Gemini 8 mission, which achieved the first docking of two orbiting spacecraft, in 1966. Served as commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar orbital mission in 1968. Commanded the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission in 1969. Narrowly escaped death during training in a crash of the lunar landing training vehicle (LLTV). Took manual controlled of the Lunar Module (LM) "Eagle" and piloted it away from a rocky area to a safe landing. His first words from the Moon were, "Houston, Tranquillity Base here. The Eagle has landed." Several hours later he climbed out of the LM and became the first man to walk on the Moon with the words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." 
---
> Born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, USA in 1930. Served in the Korean War as a jet fighter pilot. Became a civilian test pilot for NASA and piloted the X-15 rocket plane. Selected by NASA as an astronaut in 1962. Commanded the Gemini 8 mission, which achieved the first docking of two orbiting spacecraft, in 1966. Served as commander of the backup crew for the Apollo 8 lunar orbital mission in 1968. Commanded the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission in 1969. Narrowly escaped death during training in a crash of the lunar landing training vehicle (LLTV). Took manual controlled of the Lunar Module (LM) "Eagle" and piloted it away from a rocky area to a safe landing. His first words from the Moon were, "Houston, Tranquillity Base here. The Eagle has landed." Several hours later he climbed out of the LM and became the first man to walk on the Moon with the words, "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." After retirement from NASA he taught engineering at Cincinnati University. Served on the Presidential commission which investigated the Challenger accident. 
5,6c5
< See also [[explorers]] and [[astronaut]]s.
< 
---
> See also [[explorers]] and [[astronaut]]s. 
------
History_of_Europe|989827912
16a17,18
> One of the largest catastrophies that have hit [[Europe]] is [[the black death]]. There have been several outbreaks, but the most severe in the mid-1300s is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population.
> 
------
The_black_death|989828890
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The black death or plague is a dreaded [[disease]] that has spread in [[epidemics]] several times through [[history]]. The plague is caused by a [[flea]] ([[Yersinia pestis]]) which spreads with the help of animals like the [[black rat]] ([[Rattus rattus]]).
> 
> There is evidence that there were outbreaks in the 800s in [[Europe]]. The last major outbreak was during the 18th century. The major epidemic, however, was in the middle of the 12th century.
> 
> It is not entirely clear where this epidemic started, but it was probably somewhere around the northern parts of [[India]]. It then spread west to the [[Middle east]]. From there it travelled with trading ships to ports in [[Italy]] aroud 1347. Some ships that arrived didn't have anyone alive when they reached their port. From Italy, the disease spread clockwise around [[Europe]], hitting [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Britain]], [[Germany]] and finally [[Scandinavia]] around 1350.
> 
> The information about the death toll varies wildly from source to source, but it is estimated that about a third of the population of Europe died from the outbreak in the mid-1300s.
------
Super_fluids|989829600
1c1
< Superfluids are fluids that exhibit zero viscosity.  Helium is a superfluid at low temperatures.  This is usually explained as being a result of [[Bose Einstein statistics]].
---
> Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than -272&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
------
Super_fluids|989829685
1c1
< Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than -272&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
---
> Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than &#8722;272&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
------
Super_fluids|989829919
1c1
< Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than &#8722;272&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
---
> Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than &#8722;270&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
------
Apple_Computer|989830951
1c1
< Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded in the [[1970s]] around the homebrew [[Apple I]] computer, soon followed by the more advanced [[Apple II]] and [[Apple III]].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces ([[GUI]]), resulting in the [[Apple Lisa]] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [[Apple Macintosh]].
---
> Apple Computer (http://www.apple.com/) was founded by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]] in the [[1970s]] around the [[Apple I]] computer constructed by Wozniak. His work was partly inspired by discussions in the [[Homebrew Computer Club]]. Soon after the Apple I followed by the more advanced [[Apple II]] and [[Apple III]].  After this, Apple started to experiment with more advanced graphic user interfaces ([[GUI]]), resulting in the [[Apple Lisa]] computer, and finally, in 1984, the mythical launch of the [[Apple Macintosh]].
------
ABBA|989831531
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish pop group, together with [[The Beatles]] one of the most successful ever. ABBA was started around 1972 by [[Bjorn Ulvaeus|Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Faltskog|Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Annifrid Lyngstad]]. They became widely known when they won the 1974 [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with Waterloo.
------
Frisian_language|989831575
3c3
< The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
---
> The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of [[Runic]] inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
------
Frisian_language|989831615
1c1,3
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100,000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to [[OldEnglish]] (but not Modern English), [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100,000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to
> [[Old English]] (but not Modern English),
> [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
3c5
< The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of [[Runic]] inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
---
> The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
------
Frisian_language|989831673
5c5
< The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of runic inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
---
> The earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the 9th century AD. A few examples of [[Runic]] inscriptions from the region are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language.
------
Gothic_language|989831744
7c7
< In addition, there are numerous short fragments and runic inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981)
---
> In addition, there are numerous short fragments and [[Runic]] inscriptions that are known or suspected to be Gothic. (In this context a fragment usually means a single word, or a short cryptic phrase.) Some scholars think that these inscriptions are not Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus "Gotische Grammatik" Tübingen 1981)
------
ABBA|989832253
1c1,12
< Swedish pop group, together with [[The Beatles]] one of the most successful ever. ABBA was started around 1972 by [[Bjorn Ulvaeus|Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Faltskog|Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Annifrid Lyngstad]]. They became widely known when they won the 1974 [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with Waterloo.
---
> Swedish pop group, together with [[The Beatles]] one of the most successful ever. ABBA was started around 1972 by [[Bjorn Ulvaeus|Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Faltskog|Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Annifrid Lyngstad]]. They became widely known when they won the 1974 [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with Waterloo. ABBA split up in 1982.
> 
> Discography:
> * 1973 [[ABBA/Ring ring]]
> * 1974 [[ABBA/Waterloo]]
> * 1975 [[ABBA/ABBA]]
> * 1976 [[ABBA/Arrival]]
> * 1977 [[ABBA/The Album]]
> * 1979 [[ABBA/Voulez-Vous]]
> * 1980 [[ABBA/Super Trouper]]
> * 1981 [[ABBA/The Visitors]]
> * 1982 [[ABBA/The Singles]]
------
Diffie-Hellman|989832267
5c5,6
< Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called [[Asymetric_Algorithm|Public key cryptosystems]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
---
> Diffie-Hellman was proposed circa 1976 and was the first public proposal for a cryptographic method that did not rely on Alice and Bob already having a shared secret before they start. Cryptographic methods of this sort are often called
> [[Asymmetric algorithm|asymmetric algorithms]]. There are many others now proposed or in use, and some of them are apparently immune to "Man in the middle" attacks.
------
Super_fluids|989832485
1c1,2
< Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  Helium becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than &#8722;270&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the proceess is explained as being due to Bose condensation (Bosonization).
---
> Superfluids are quantum fluids that flow on its own and so it seems as if it has zero viscosity.  [[Helium]] becomes a superfluid at very low temperatures (less than &#8722;270&#176;C). The transition from a normal fluid to a super fluid is studied by considering Bose statistics (instead of Fermi statistics) and the process is explained as being due to
> [[Bose condensation]] (Bosonization).
------
Requested_articles|989832748
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Seven Wonders of the World]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Jacques Mayol]]
------
Afghanistan/Government|989833247
48,49c48
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Mellat (Social Democratic Party) [leader
< NA]; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
---
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Afghan refugees in Pakistan, Australia, US, and elsewhere have organized politically; Afghan Mellat Party(Afghan Social Democratic Party) [leader Shams Ul Huda Shams) presently based in Peshawar Pakistan.; Peshawar, Pakistan-based groups such as the Coordination Council for National Unity and Understanding in Afghanistan or CUNUA [Ishaq GAILANI]; tribal elders
------
Jacques_Mayol|989834764
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Jacques Mayol (now 74 years old) is the holder of many world records in free diving. He is the first man to descend to 100 meters (330 feet) (on 23rd of November, 1976) and he managed to descend to 105 meters, when he was 56 years old. During the scientific research phase of his career, he tried to answer the question whether man had a hidden aquatic potential that could be evoked by rigorous physiological and psychological training or not. The free diving record, which is now 162 meters, proves his hypothesis. The film "The Big Blue" was inspired from his life story and Jacques Mayol is one of the screenwriters. 
------
HomePage|989834987
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know, or just ramble off the top of your head if you don't know jack!  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know.  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
WikiIsNotPaper|989835240
13c13
< A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The only problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets to big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
---
> A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The only problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets too big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
------
WikiIsNotPaper|989835317
25c25
< I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow old gracefully. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
How_to_start_a_page|989835498
14c14
< **Straightforward requests for information in an article can lead to good articles.  For example, one might supply a rough description of a thing or a place, and then asks about its history, many people who the answer will find it difficult to pass up the opportunity to teach.
---
> **Straightforward requests for information in an article can lead to good articles.  For example, one might supply a rough description of a thing or a place, and then asks about its history, many people who know the answer will find it difficult to pass up the opportunity to teach.
------
Irish_potato_famine|989835611
6a7,9
> I think the Irish population was higher then. Maybe about 8.5 million before the famine and 6 million after. But i don't have easy access to accurate figures. Does anyone?
> 
> Also there was a second Irish potato famine, probably in the 1880s. I think the death-toll was much lower, but there was a great deal of hardship and considerable emigration. Economic and political effects were profound. The same fungus was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later one.
------
Bjorn_Ulvaeus|989835834
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish musician and composer. After being a member if [[ABBA]] he has created the musicals [[Chess the musical|Chess]],  [[Kristina fran Duvemala|Kristina från Duvemåla]] (based in the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and [[Mamma Mia]] (based on existing ABBA songs).
------
Bjorn_Ulvaeus|989835890
1c1
< Swedish musician and composer. After being a member if [[ABBA]] he has created the musicals [[Chess the musical|Chess]],  [[Kristina fran Duvemala|Kristina från Duvemåla]] (based in the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and [[Mamma Mia]] (based on existing ABBA songs).
---
> Swedish musician and composer. After being a member of [[ABBA]] he has, together with [[Benny Andersson]], created the musicals [[Chess the musical|Chess]],  [[Kristina fran Duvemala|Kristina från Duvemåla]] (based in the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and [[Mamma Mia]] (based on existing ABBA songs).
------
Benny_Andersson|989836007
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish musician and composer. After being a member of [[ABBA]] he has, together with [[Bjorn Ulvaeus|Björn Ulvaeus]], created the musicals [[Chess the musical|Chess]],  [[Kristina fran Duvemala|Kristina från Duvemåla]] (based in the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and [[Mamma Mia]] (based on existing ABBA songs).
> 
> He also performs [[folk music]] on the [[accordion]] together with [[Orsa speleman|Orsa spelemän]].
------
Benny_Andersson|989836058
3c3
< He also performs [[folk music]] on the [[accordion]] together with [[Orsa speleman|Orsa spelemän]].
---
> He also performs [[folk music]] on the [[accordion]] together with [[Orsa speleman|Orsa spelemän]].
------
Irish_potato_famine|989836257
9c9,11
< Also there was a second Irish potato famine, probably in the 1880s. I think the death-toll was much lower, but there was a great deal of hardship and considerable emigration. Economic and political effects were profound. The same fungus was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later one.
---
> Also there was a second Irish potato famine about 40 years later. I think the death-toll was much lower, but there was still a great deal of hardship and considerable emigration. Population after the second famine dropped to around 4 million. Economic and political effects were profound.
> 
> The same fungus (Phytopthera infestans) was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later one.
------
Macedonian_language|989836967
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Video_game|989837119
93c93
< [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  It has been proven, by playing all possible checkers games, that the second player to move can always win.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
---
> [[Chess]], [[checkers]] and [[othello - reversi]] have world class computer programs.  Computer game programs are worthy opponents and can help you improve you skill at traditional board games.
------
Macedonian_language|989837209
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Macedonian language is one of the south branch of the slavonic languages. It is spoken from two milions in Macedonia , Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and some countries where Macedonian emigrants are present.One of the most important characteristics is the accent on  the third sylabile from the end of the word, the article and the losing of the cases and the infinite mode.
------
Macedonian_language|989837724
1c1,3
< Macedonian language is one of the south branch of the slavonic languages. It is spoken from two milions in Macedonia , Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and some countries where Macedonian emigrants are present.One of the most important characteristics is the accent on  the third sylabile from the end of the word, the article and the losing of the cases and the infinite mode.
---
> Macedonian language is one of the south branch of the slavonic languages. It is spoken from two milions in Macedonia , Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and some countries where Macedonian emigrants are present.One of the most important characteristics is the accent on  the third sylabile from the end of the word, the article and the losing of the cases and the infinite mode.It is very important the fact that the Macedonian language is the oldest 
> Slavonic language and his development is bigger than that one of the Bulgarian and Serbian language.As we know Cyril and Metodij were born in Solun. And now there are still Macedonian speakers there, and from there dialects it could be concluded that the Macedonian language is the oldest slavonic language. This was confirmed also from Vatroslav Jagic , Great Croatian phylologist.
> In fact in the Solun dialects of Macedonian language we still have the nasals that were characteristic sounds of Old Slavonic Language. This is exemple that some of the old fonetic characteristics of The old language of Slavs were kept.
------
Macedonian_language|989838017
3c3
< In fact in the Solun dialects of Macedonian language we still have the nasals that were characteristic sounds of Old Slavonic Language. This is exemple that some of the old fonetic characteristics of The old language of Slavs were kept.
---
> In fact in the Solun dialects of Macedonian language we still have the nasals that were characteristic sounds of Old Slavonic Language. This is exemple that some of the old fonetic characteristics of The old language of Slavs were kept.
------
Macedonian_language|989838082
1c1
< Macedonian language is one of the south branch of the slavonic languages. It is spoken from two milions in Macedonia , Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and some countries where Macedonian emigrants are present.One of the most important characteristics is the accent on  the third sylabile from the end of the word, the article and the losing of the cases and the infinite mode.It is very important the fact that the Macedonian language is the oldest 
---
> Macedonian language is one of the south branch of the slavonic languages. It is spoken from two milions in Macedonia , Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and some countries where Macedonian emigrants are present.One of the most important characteristics is the accent on  the third sylabile from the end of the word, the article and the losing of the cases and the infinite mode.It is very important the fact that the Macedonian language is the old 
------
Macedonian_language|989838452
3c3,5
< In fact in the Solun dialects of Macedonian language we still have the nasals that were characteristic sounds of Old Slavonic Language. This is exemple that some of the old fonetic characteristics of The old language of Slavs were kept.
---
> In fact in the Solun dialects of Macedonian language we still have the nasals that were characteristic sounds of Old Slavonic Language. This is exemple that some of the old fonetic characteristics of The old language of Slavs were kept.Other features of the language are the future tense that is made from 
> the particula kje and present tense of verb. The particula is a remining from the olD verb hosteti that means , want, like.  And the conditional is made from the particula bi plus past participle of verb . 
>                    
------
Macedonian_language|989838494
5c5
<                    
---
>                    
------
Science_fiction|989838946
17a18,19
> * [[science fiction/feminism]]
> * [[science fiction/new wave]]
------
Science_fiction/feminism|989839037
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] a number of female [[science fiction]] writers appeared in the field. These include [[Ursula K. LeGuin]] and [[Joanna Russ]].
------
LleytonHewitt|989839335
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lleyton Hewitt is a young [[Australia]]n professional [[tennis]] player. He was born and raised in [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]], and it is still his home.
------
Norway|989839610
5c5
< For about a hundered years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it used to be a part of [[Denmark]]. 
---
> For about a hundered years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 
7c7
< During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].
---
> During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied by Germany. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].
13c13
< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
---
> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
------
South_Australia|989839629
7c7
< South Australia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of SouthAustralia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the [[Adelaide School of Arts]].
---
> South Australia adopted their flag on 13 January 1904. The flag of South Australia is a British Blue Ensign defaced with the state badge. The badge depicts a white-backed piping shrike (magpie) with wings outstretched on a yellow disc. The state badge is believed to have been designed by Robert Craig of the [[Adelaide School of Arts]].
------
Vidkun_Quisling|989839666
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Norwegian traitor during WW2.
------
Vidkun_Quisling|989839768
1c1
< Norwegian traitor during WW2.
---
> Norwegian traitor during WW2.
------
Science_fiction/new_wave|989839783
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> During the [[1960s]] a number os [[science fiction]] authors began writing more experimental works than was usual in the [[genre]]. This movement was perhaps stronger in [[Great Britain]], but there were new wave authors in the [[USA]] as well.  [[Harlan Ellison]]'s anothology [[Dangerous Visions]] was important. 
> 
> Important authors include [[Brian Aldiss]], [[Thomas Disch]], [[Michael Moorcock]], and [[J. G. Ballard]].
------
Vidkun_Quisling|989839890
1c1
< Norwegian traitor during WW2.
---
> Norwegian traitor during [[World War II]].
------
PatrickRafter|989839893
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Patrick Rafter is a popular [[Australia]]n professional [[tennis]] player. He was born in [[Queensland Australia|Queensland]] and has a large family with many brothers and sisters. Currently he lives in [[Bermuda]] when he is not travelling the world on the [[ATP Tour]].
------
Video_game/Adventure|989840664
4c4,6
< The first adventure games to appear were text adventures, which typically use a verb-noun parser to interact with the user.  These were the first things to appear on mainframe computers after ''[[Space War]]'', evolving from early titles like ''[[Wump]]'' and ''[[Adventure]]'' (1972) to the widely popular ''[[Zork]]'' series (1979) which made its way onto the new [[Apple II]] personal computer.  These blend very much into [[/RPG|RPGs]].
---
> The first adventure games to appear were text adventures, which typically use a verb-noun parser to interact with the user.  These were the first things to appear on mainframe computers after ''[[Space War]]'', evolving from early titles like ''[[Wump]]'' and ''[[Adventure]]'' ([[Wil Crowther]], 1972; expanded by [[Don Woods]] 1976-77) to the widely popular ''[[Zork]]'' series (1979-) which made its way onto the new [[Apple II]] as well as most of the other types of personal computers.  
> 
> Adventure games blend very much into [[/RPG|RPGs]]. Some companies that were important in bringing out text adventures were [[Adventure International]], [[Infocom]], [[Level 9]], and [[Melbourne House]].
31a34,35
> 
> More information about adventure games can be found in Adventureland, http://www.if-legends.org/~adventure/.
------
Nasjonal_Samling|989841040
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Norwegian for National Gathering or National Union; [[fascist]] party in [[Norway]] prior to and during [[World War II]], founded in 1993 by [[Vidkun Quisling]].

------
Nasjonal_Samling|989841130
1c1
< Norwegian for National Gathering or National Union; [[fascist]] party in [[Norway]] prior to and during [[World War II]], founded in 1993 by [[Vidkun Quisling]].

---
> Norwegian for National Gathering or National Union; [[fascist]] party in [[Norway]] prior to and during [[World War II]], founded in 1933 by [[Vidkun Quisling]].


------
Religion|989841373
5c5
< [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] -- [[Zoarastrianism]]
---
> [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] -- [[Zoarastrianism]] -- [[Paganism]]
------
Harald_V|989841407
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of [[Norway]] since 1991.
------
Olav_V|989841428
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> King of [[Norway]] from 1957 to 1991. Son of [[Haakon VII]. Was succeeded by his son [[Harald V]] upon his death.

------
Olav_V|989841435
1c1
< King of [[Norway]] from 1957 to 1991. Son of [[Haakon VII]. Was succeeded by his son [[Harald V]] upon his death.

---
> King of [[Norway]] from 1957 to 1991. Son of [[Haakon VII]]. Was succeeded by his son [[Harald V]] upon his death.

------
Haakon_VII|989841450
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> First King of [[Norway]] after the secession from [[Sweden]] in 1905, was succeeded by his son [[Olav V]] at his death in 1957.

------
Zork|989841491
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zork is one of the first [[Video game/Adventure|adventure games]] that appeared. 
> 
> The first version of Zork was written 1977-79 on a [[PDP-10]] computer by [[Tim Anderson]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce Daniels]], and [[Dave Lebline]] in a [[programming language] called [[MDL]]. All the programmers came from the [[Dynamic Modelling Group]] at the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab]].
> 
> Originally "Zork" was a name that any unfinished program around [[MIT]] got. When the game was finished the implementors called it [[Dungeon]], but people went on calling it Zork, so the name stuck.
> 
> The company [[Personal Software]] produced a version of Zork I (about the first third of the original Zork) for the [[Apple II]] and [[TRS-80]] personal computers in 1980. They had plans to release Zork II as well, but never got that far.
> 
> Finally [[Infocom]], a company started by the above and others to produce [[Video game/Adventure|adventure games]] brought out versions of Zork for most popular computers.
> 
> The original Zork series:
> * [[Zork/Zork I: The Great Underground Empire]] (1980)
> * [[Zork/Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz]] (1981)
> * [[Zork/Zork III: The Dungeon Master]] (1982)
> 
> Later [[Infocom]] additions to the series:
> * [[Zork/Beyond Zork]] (1987)
> * [[Zork/Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz]] (1988, with graphics)
> 
> Even later [[Activision]] additions to the series:
> * [[Zork/Return to Zork]] (1993, with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: Nemesis]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: Grand Inquisitor]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]
------
Josef_Terboven|989841635
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Commander of the German invasion and occupation force in [[Norway]] during [[World War II]].
------
Allegiance|989842042
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Loyalty, obedience to a nation or other faction, including an obligation to offer assistance in time of conflict, normally given in exchange for some form of protection.
------
Liege|989842163
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The person or entity to which one has pled [[allegiance]].
------
Traitor|989842174
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person who reneges on an oath or pledge of [[allegiance]] and in some way wilfully cooperates with an enemy or opponent of his or her previous [[liege]].


------
Vidkun_Quisling|989842194
1c1,5
< Norwegian traitor during [[World War II]].
---
> Real name Abraham Lauritz Jonsson. Leader of [[Nasjonal Samling]], the Norwegian national-socialist party prior to [[World War II]], Vidkun Quisling became the first person in history to announce a coup during a news broadcast when he assumed leadership of the country after King [[Haakon VII]] and the government fled to [[England]] pursuant to the German invasion in 1940 (which Quisling had requested of [[Adolf Hitler]] during a visit the previous year). The coup failed within a few days. Quisling continued to cooperate with the invasion forces led by [[Josef Terboven]], who named him Minister President in 1942.







> 









> Also the last person in history to receive the death penalty in [[Norway]], on October 24, 1945.







> 



> After [[World War II]], the name Quisling became in many languages a synonym for [[traitor]].


------
Norway|989842284
1c1
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for [[whaling]] in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
5c5
< For about a hundered years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 
---
> For about a hundred years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 
13c13
< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
---
> Although the [[fjord]]s lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
------
JRR_Tolkien|989844498
5c5
< His children's book, [[The Hobbit]], achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. 
---
> His children's book, [[The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
9c9,18
< Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son Christopher organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[The Silmarillion]] (1977) 
---
> Work published in JRRTs lifetime:
> * 1937 [[The Hobbit]]
> * 1947 [[Leaf by Niggle]]
> * 1949 [[Farmer Giles of Ham]]
> * 1962 [[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book
> * 1964 [[Tree and Leaf]]
> * 1967 [[Smith of Wootton Major]]
> * 1954 [[The Fellowship of the Ring]]
> * 1954 [[The Two Towers]]
> * 1955 [[The Return of the King]]
10a20,48
> Other material
> * 1976 [[The Father Christmas Letters]]
> * 1980 [[Poems and Other Stories]]
> * 1982 [[Mr. Bliss]]
> 
> Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien]] together with fantasy writer [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[The Silmarillion]] (1977).
> 
> After his father's death, Christopher Tolkien has published lots of background material on the creation of Middle-Earth.
> 
> The History of Middle-Earth
> * 1977 [[The Silmarillion]] (with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]])
> * 1983 [[The Book of Lost Tales 1]]
> * 1984 [[The Book of Lost Tales 2]]
> * 1985 [[The Lays of Beleriand]]
> * 1986 [[The Shaping of Middle-Earth]]
> * 1987 [[The Lost Road and Other Writings]]
> 
> The history of The Lord of the Rings
> * 1988 [[The Return of the Shadow]]
> * 1989 [[The Treason of Isengard]]
> * 1990 [[The War of the Ring]]
> * 1992 [[Sauron Defeated]]
> 
> Later Silmarillion
> * 1993 [[Morgoth's Ring]]
> * 1994 [[The War of the Jewels]]
> 
> See The Encyclopedia of [[Arda]]
> (http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/default.htm) for more information about Tolkien's work. 
------
Vidkun_Quisling|989844626
1,5c1,5
< Real name Abraham Lauritz Jonsson. Leader of [[Nasjonal Samling]], the Norwegian national-socialist party prior to [[World War II]], Vidkun Quisling became the first person in history to announce a coup during a news broadcast when he assumed leadership of the country after King [[Haakon VII]] and the government fled to [[England]] pursuant to the German invasion in 1940 (which Quisling had requested of [[Adolf Hitler]] during a visit the previous year). The coup failed within a few days. Quisling continued to cooperate with the invasion forces led by [[Josef Terboven]], who named him Minister President in 1942.







< 









< Also the last person in history to receive the death penalty in [[Norway]], on October 24, 1945.







< 



< After [[World War II]], the name Quisling became in many languages a synonym for [[traitor]].


---
> Real name Abraham Lauritz Jonsson. Leader of [[Nasjonal Samling]], the Norwegian national-socialist party prior to [[World War II]], Vidkun Quisling became the first person in history to announce a coup during a news broadcast on April 9th 1940, the day of the German invasion of [[Norway]] (which Quisling had requested of [[Adolf Hitler]] during a visit the previous year). The coup failed within a few days; Vidkun Quisling's party had never had much support and had never even held a seat in the national assembly. Quisling continued to cooperate with the invasion forces led by [[Josef Terboven]], who named him Minister President in 1942.
> 
> Also the last person in history to receive the death penalty in [[Norway]], on October 24, 1945.
> 
> After [[World War II]], the name Quisling became in many languages a synonym for [[traitor]].
------
JRR_Tolkien|989845152
5c5
< His children's book, [[The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
---
> His children's book, [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
10,18c10,18
< * 1937 [[The Hobbit]]
< * 1947 [[Leaf by Niggle]]
< * 1949 [[Farmer Giles of Ham]]
< * 1962 [[The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book
< * 1964 [[Tree and Leaf]]
< * 1967 [[Smith of Wootton Major]]
< * 1954 [[The Fellowship of the Ring]]
< * 1954 [[The Two Towers]]
< * 1955 [[The Return of the King]]
---
> * 1937 [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]]
> * 1947 [[JRR Tolkien/Leaf by Niggle]]
> * 1949 [[JRR Tolkien/Farmer Giles of Ham]]
> * 1962 [[JRR Tolkien/The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book
> * 1964 [[JRR Tolkien/Tree and Leaf]]
> * 1967 [[JRR Tolkien/Smith of Wootton Major]]
> * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]]
> * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]]
> * 1955 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]
21,23c21,23
< * 1976 [[The Father Christmas Letters]]
< * 1980 [[Poems and Other Stories]]
< * 1982 [[Mr. Bliss]]
---
> * 1976 [[JRR Tolkien/The Father Christmas Letters]]
> * 1980 [[JRR Tolkien/Poems and Other Stories]]
> * 1982 [[JRR Tolkien/Mr. Bliss]]
25c25
< Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien]] together with fantasy writer [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[The Silmarillion]] (1977).
---
> Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien]] together with fantasy writer [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]] (1977).
30,35c30,35
< * 1977 [[The Silmarillion]] (with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]])
< * 1983 [[The Book of Lost Tales 1]]
< * 1984 [[The Book of Lost Tales 2]]
< * 1985 [[The Lays of Beleriand]]
< * 1986 [[The Shaping of Middle-Earth]]
< * 1987 [[The Lost Road and Other Writings]]
---
> * 1977 [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]] (with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]])
> * 1983 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 1]]
> * 1984 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 2]]
> * 1985 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lays of Beleriand]]
> * 1986 [[JRR Tolkien/The Shaping of Middle-Earth]]
> * 1987 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lost Road and Other Writings]]
38,41c38,41
< * 1988 [[The Return of the Shadow]]
< * 1989 [[The Treason of Isengard]]
< * 1990 [[The War of the Ring]]
< * 1992 [[Sauron Defeated]]
---
> * 1988 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the Shadow]]
> * 1989 [[JRR Tolkien/The Treason of Isengard]]
> * 1990 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Ring]]
> * 1992 [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron Defeated]]
44,45c44,45
< * 1993 [[Morgoth's Ring]]
< * 1994 [[The War of the Jewels]]
---
> * 1993 [[JRR Tolkien/Morgoth's Ring]]
> * 1994 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Jewels]]
48c48
< (http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/default.htm) for more information about Tolkien's work. 
---
> (http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/default.htm) for more information about Tolkien's work. 
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|989845260
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
> 
> There was an [[animation|animated]] film made in 1978 based on the Lord of the Rings trilogy, which covered only the first part. The intended sequels never appeared.
> 
> A [[live action film]] is currently (1999) being produced in 
> [[New Zealand]].
------
The_Lord_of_the_Rings|989845301
1,14c1
< Epic trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[The Two Towers]], and [[The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
< 
< There was an [[animation|animated]] film made in the 1978 based on 
< the Lord of the Rings trilogy, which covered only the first part.  The intended sequels never appeared.
< 
< A [[live action film]] is currently (1999) being produced in 
< [[New Zealand]].
< 
< ''Where should pages on the Lord of the Rings universe go?  [[Atlas Shrugged]] has worldly details on subpages, but here the history is also common to [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Silmarillion]].''
< 
< How about: See also Literature, Fantasy.<br>''I meant stuff more specific than that, though.  Things like, for instance, who Elrond is.  He appears in all three books.''
< 
< I'd say [[JRR Tolkien]].
< OK. JRR Tolkien.
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]]
------
Middle_Earth|989845384
1c1
< Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[The Silmarillion]].
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]].
------
Middle_Earth|989845405
1c1
< Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]].
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]].
------
Middle_Earth|989845427
1c1
< Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]].
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion|The Silmarillion]].
------
JRR_Tolkien|989845552
5c5
< His children's book, [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
---
> His children's book, [[/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
------
JRR_Tolkien|989845572
5c5
< His children's book, [[/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
---
> His children's book, [[/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Silmarillion|989845641
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> ''The Silmarillion'' is a collection of [[JRR Tolkien|Tolkien's]] works, standardized and published by his son [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher]] posthumously.  It contains these five pieces:
> :The [[/Ainulindale|Ainulindalë]] - the music of the Ainur, detailing the creation of the world
> :The [[/Valaquenta|Valaquenta]] - the [[/Valar|Valar]] and [[/Maiar|Maiar]] (roughly angels or gods)
> :The [[/Quenta Silmarillion|Quenta Silmarillion]] - the full history of the first age
> :The [[/Akallabeth|Akallabêth]] - the history of the second age
> :[[/Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age]]
> These were written from various sources of inspiration: the Akallabêth was an [[Atlantis]] story, the Silmarillion proper grew out of a line of [[old english]] poetry.  Together they form a narrative detailing the history of the universe where [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] take place.
> 
> See also at the moment: [[/Sindarin]]
------
The_Silmarillion|989845666
1,9c1
< ''The Silmarillion'' is a collection of [[JRR Tolkien|Tolkien's]] works, standardized and published by his son [[Christopher Tolkien|Christopher]] posthumously.  It contains these five pieces:
< :The [[/Ainulindale|Ainulindalë]] - the music of the Ainur, detailing the creation of the world
< :The [[/Valaquenta|Valaquenta]] - the [[/Valar|Valar]] and [[/Maiar|Maiar]] (roughly angels or gods)
< :The [[/Quenta Silmarillion|Quenta Silmarillion]] - the full history of the first age
< :The [[/Akallabeth|Akallabêth]] - the history of the second age
< :[[/Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age]]
< These were written from various sources of inspiration: the Akallabêth was an [[Atlantis]] story, the Silmarillion proper grew out of a line of [[old english]] poetry.  Together they form a narrative detailing the history of the universe where [[The Hobbit]] and [[The Lord of the Rings]] take place.
< 
< See also at the moment: [[/Sindarin]]
---
> #Redirect [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]]
------
The_Silmarillion|989845682
1c1
< #Redirect [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]]
------
JRR_Tolkien/Sindarin|989845752
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It was the language of the grey elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
> 
> It would be interesting to hear from anyone with a good knowledge of language and linguistics who has looked at Sindarin. What relationship does it have to real-world languages?
> 
> The other language, [[/Quenya]], was designed to be a little bit like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and the two were made as if they evolved from a common ancestor.  But Sindarin reflects different aesthetics.
------
The_Silmarillion/Sindarin|989845775
1,5c1
< A fictional language from the series of novels [[The Lord of the Rings]] by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It was the language of the grey elves. The language was described briefly in an appendix, and probably in more detail in other works. I have encountered people who claim to be able to read and write this language, so perhaps it has become a real-world language after a fashion.
< 
< It would be interesting to hear from anyone with a good knowledge of language and linguistics who has looked at Sindarin. What relationship does it have to real-world languages?
< 
< The other language, [[/Quenya]], was designed to be a little bit like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and the two were made as if they evolved from a common ancestor.  But Sindarin reflects different aesthetics.
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/Sindarin]]
------
Fermanagh|989845804
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> County Fermanagh is often referred to as [[Northern Ireland]]'s [[Lake District]]. Located in the south-west of [[Northern Ireland]], the region is approx. 120 km from [[Belfas]]t and 160 km from [[Dublin]].
> 
> It is a popular [[holiday]] destination for [[cruising]] and other water based holidays. The 70 km of lakes known as [[Lough Erne]] are now linked to the [[Shannon]] system in the [[Irish Republic]] via the [[Shannon-Erne Waterway]] [[Canal]], making the entire system the longest navigable inland [[waterway]] in [[Europe]].
> 
> The main town of Fermanagh is [[Enniskillen]]. The island town hosts a range of attractions including Enniskillen castle which is home to the [[museum]] of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers.
> 
> 
------
JRR_Tolkien|989845899
3,4c3
< A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of `Middle Earth' as 
< background.
---
> A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth] as background.
------
JRR_Tolkien|989845912
3c3
< A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth] as background.
---
> A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] as background.
------
JRR_Tolkien/Middle_Earth|989845955
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion|The Silmarillion]].
------
Middle_Earth|989845970
1c1
< Ficticious land created by [[JRR Tolkien]] where the action of [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]] and [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] takes place. Tolkien wrote extensively about the mythology/history of the land, and many of those writing have been edited and posthumously published by his son, most notably [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion|The Silmarillion]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth]]
------
Frodo_Baggins|989846061
1,2c1,2
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[Hobbits]] are pacifists
< and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[Hobbits]] are pacifists
> and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
4c4
< See also: [[Bilbo Baggins]]
---
> See also: [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
------
Norway|989846105
1,13c1,13
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for [[whaling]] in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
< 
< '''History'''
< 
< For about a hundred years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 
< 
< During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied by Germany. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].
< 
< '''Misc'''
< 
< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
< 
< Although the [[fjord]]s lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for [[whaling]] in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].

> 

> '''History'''

> 

> For about a hundred years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 

> 

> During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied by Germany. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].

> 

> '''Misc'''

> 

> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].

> 

> Although the [[fjord]]s lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.

------
Norway|989846160
1,13c1,15
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for [[whaling]] in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].

< 

< '''History'''

< 

< For about a hundred years (ending 1905), Norway was in a union with [[Sweden]]. Before that, it was occupied by [[Denmark]] for 500 years. 

< 

< During [[World War II]], Norway was occupied by Germany. For a while, the country was headed by the traitor [[Vidkun Quisling]].

< 

< '''Misc'''

< 

< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].

< 

< Although the [[fjord]]s lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.

---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
 The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].


> 



> '''History'''



> 



> Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].


> 


> Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans brushed aside within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government.


> 


> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his government fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian resistance movement (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.


> 


> '''Misc'''



> 



> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].



> 



> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.



------
Holiday|989846231
1c1
< A day set aside by a nation or culture (in some cases, multiple nations and cultures) typically for celebration but sometimes for some other kind of special culture-wide (or national) observation or activity.
---
> A day set aside by a nation or culture (in some cases, multiple nations and cultures) typically for [[celebration]] but sometimes for some other kind of special culture-wide (or national) observation or activity.
15a16,17
> 
> Generally in the UK and Ireland a Holiday is a period spent away from home or [[business]] in [[travel]] or [[recreation]]. (i.e I'm going on holiday to [[Majorca]] next week)
------
Holiday|989846272
17c17
< Generally in the UK and Ireland a Holiday is a period spent away from home or [[business]] in [[travel]] or [[recreation]]. (i.e I'm going on holiday to [[Majorca]] next week)
---
> Generally in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] a Holiday is a period spent away from home or [[business]] in [[travel]] or [[recreation]]. (i.e I'm going on holiday to [[Majorca]] next week)
------
Fermanagh|989846312
1c1
< County Fermanagh is often referred to as [[Northern Ireland]]'s [[Lake District]]. Located in the south-west of [[Northern Ireland]], the region is approx. 120 km from [[Belfas]]t and 160 km from [[Dublin]].
---
> County Fermanagh is often referred to as [[Northern Ireland]]'s [[Lake District]]. Located in the south-west of [[Northern Ireland]], the region is approx. 120 km from [[Belfast]] and 160 km from [[Dublin]].
------
PatrickRafter|989847552
1c1
< Patrick Rafter is a popular [[Australia]]n professional [[tennis]] player. He was born in [[Queensland Australia|Queensland]] and has a large family with many brothers and sisters. Currently he lives in [[Bermuda]] when he is not travelling the world on the [[ATP Tour]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Patrick Rafter]]
------
Patrick_Rafter|989847564
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Patrick Rafter is a popular [[Australia]]n professional [[tennis]] player. He was born in [[Queensland Australia|Queensland]] and has a large family with many brothers and sisters. Currently he lives in [[Bermuda]] when he is not travelling the world on the [[ATP Tour]].
------
Norway|989847962
1c1,5
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
 The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].


---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
 The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].



> 




> '''History'''




> 




> Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].



3c7
< '''History'''



---
> Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans brushed aside within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government. However, in 1942 this administration was replaced with a regular (if not democratically elected) [[government]] headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]] who was named minister president by German commander [[Josef Terboven]].
5,11c9
< Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].


< 


< Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans brushed aside within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government.


< 


< Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his government fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian resistance movement (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.


< 


< '''Misc'''



---
> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.



13,15c11,15
< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].



< 



< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.



---
> '''Misc'''




> 




> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].




> 




> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.




------
Norway|989848351
1,6c1,8
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
 The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].



< 




< '''History'''




< 




< Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].



< 



---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
> The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].
> 
> 
> '''History'''
> 
> Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].
> 
8,15c10,23
< 



< Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.



< 



< '''Misc'''




< 




< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].




< 




< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.




---
> 
> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.
> 
> Norway's kings with periods of reign:
> * [[Haakon VII]] (1905-1957)
> * [[Olav V]] (1957-1991)
> * [[Harald V]] (1991- )
> 
> 
> '''Misc'''
> 
> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
> 
> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
------
Government|989848549
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The governing body of a [[country]] or [[subnational entity]]; generally a group of politically appointed officials (often called [[minister|ministers]] or [[secretary|secretaries]]) who in theory act as advisors to the [[head of state]], though they are generally themselves the heads of various offices or departments which give them a certain amount of direct power in specific areas. In most modern [[democracy|democracies]], the elected [[legislative assembly]] has the power to dismiss the government, though the [[head of state]] generally has great latitude in appointing a new one. A government is sometimes also called a [[cabinet]].
------
Great_Britain|989848648
1c1,3
< The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain (88,745 sq miles). The largest island in the [[British Isles]]. Together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The three countries [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] form Great Britain (88,745 sq miles). The largest island in the [[British Isles]]. 
> 
> Together with The [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Northern Ireland]] they form the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Morphology|989848801
5c5
< e.g., /s/, /iz/, /@n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
---
> e.g., /s/, /iz/, /&n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
7c7,8
< A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...
---
> A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...----
> I wasn't discussing biology, I was disputing your inclusion of any semantic element in the concept of a morpheme. By the way, your definition of lexeme is not helpful. And, please leave my transcriptions alone, or I will alter all of yours. SAMPA is not a standard. And although you don't want to impose it on anyone, you have taken a page where I have picked by method of transcription and you have altered it. Two can play. RoseParks
------
Subnational_entity|989848845
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Generic name for an administrative region within a country (normally encompassing multiple [[municipality|municipalities]]) with a certain degree of autonomy in a varying number of matters.
------
Europe|989848851
51c51
<     [[United Kingdom]] (sometimes called [[Britain]] or [[Great Britain]]),
---
>     [[United Kingdom]] (Consisting of [[Great Britain]], [[Northern Ireland]], The [[Channel Islands]] & The [[Isle of Man]]),
59c59
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Municipality|989849112
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An administrative region generally composed of one clearly defined [[township]] and its surrounding [[countryside]] and/or [[suburb|suburbs]]. In most [[country|countries]], this is the smallest administrative subdivision that has its own [[democracy|democratically]] [[election|elected]] leadership.
------
Election|989849434
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A process by which a group of people select a leader or representative (or a group of leaders or representatives) by each casting one or more votes, whereupon the collected votes are tallied and the results are determined by applying a preselected statistical method to the tally. This is usually the mechanism by which [[democracy|democracies]] appoint their leaders.
> 
> The most common election methods are [[proportional representation]], [[relative majority]] and [[absolute majority]].
------
Cornwall|989849592
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cornwall is the southern most county of The [[United Kingdom]]. Geographically it is almost an [[island]], separated from the rest of [[Great Britain]] by the River [[Tamar]].
> 
> The [[Cornish]] people have always been distinct from the [[English]] although Cornwall's official status is no different to that of any other county in [[England]].
> 
> [[Cornish]] continued as a [[Celtic]] [[language]] until the 18th century, when the last of the [[Cornish]] speakers died. Cornish is a separate [[gaelic]] language, like [[Welsh]], [[Irish]] or [[Breton]]. Today there are efforts being made to revive it. 
> 
> Places of Interest
> 
> * [[Penzance]]
> * [[Newquay]]
> * [[Lands End]] (The southern most point of [[Great Britain]])
------
Proportional_representation|989849627
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[election]] system where competing factions share seats in an assembly according to the proportion of votes they received. The number of seats they each receive determines the number of votes they get when voting on decisions. This is the most common method for electing [[legislative assembly|legislative assemblies]] or [[parliament|parliaments]] in modern [[democracy|democracies]].
------
Relative_majority|989849692
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An election system in which the [[candidate]] who receives the most votes wins.
------
Island|989849771
38c38
< * [[Channel Islands]]
---
> * [[Channel Islands]] (UK)
39a40
> * [[Cornwall]] (UK)
43c44
< * [[Falkland Islands]]
---
> * [[Falkland Islands]] (UK)
50a52
> * [[Isle of Man]] (UK)
------
Absolute_majority|989849963
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[election]] system similar to [[relative majority]] except that the winner must receive more than half the votes that were cast. When this system is used, it is often necessary to hold a second [[election]] round to separate between the top [[candidate|candidates]]. As an example, [[France]] [[election|elects]] its [[president]] by absolute majority; if no candidate gets more than half the votes in the first round, a second round is held with only the top two [[candidate|candidates]] from the previous round.
------
Legislative_assembly|989850209
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In a modern [[democracy]], the group of [[election|elected]] representatives who pass [[law|laws]] (hence <i>legislative</i>, meaning <i>pertaining to the law</i>.) One of the [[three powers of the State]].

------
Sweden|989850238
13,14d12
< [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], 
< [[Västerås]], 
16,18c14
< [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
< and
< [[Visby]] on [[Gotland]].
---
> and [[Umeaa]].
------
Sweden|989850489
12a13,14
> [[Linkoeping|Linköping]],
> [[Norrkoping|Norrköping]],
14c16,17
< and [[Umeaa]].
---
> [[Visby]] (on [[Gotland]]),
> and [[Umeaa|Umeå]].
------
Dr._Dre|989850558
9a10,26
> 
> <b>Dicography</b>
> 
> * <b>[[Dr. Dre 2001]]</b>  Aftermath Ent./Interscope <b>[[1999]]</b>
> * <b>[[Dr. Dre Greatest Hits]]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1996]]</b> 
> * <b>[[First Round Knock Out]]</b>    Triple X  <b>[[1996]]</b> 
> * <b>[[Back N Tha Day]]</b>    Death Row  <b>[[1994]] </b> 
> * <b>[[Concrete Roots]]</b>    Triple X  <b>[[1994]] </b>
> * <b>[[The Chronic]]</b>    Interscope/Priority  <b>[[1992]] </b>
> * <b>[[Niggaz4Life]]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1991]]</b>
> * <b>[[Efil4zaggin]]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1991]]</b>
> * <b>[[100 Miles and Runnin']]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1990]] </b> 
> * <b>[[Straight Outta Compton]]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1989]] </b> 
> * <b>[[N.W.A. and the Posse]]</b>    Ruthless/Priority  <b>[[1987]]</b>  
> * <b>[[Dre Day]]</b>    Interscope  <b>[[1992]]  </b>
> * <b>[[Keep Their Heads Ringin']]</b>    Priority  <b>[[1995]]  </b>
> 
------
Uppsala|989850561
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Uppsala is located about 70 kilometers north of [[Stockholm]] in [[Sweden]]. It is the site of the oldest [[university]] in Sweden.
------
Uppsala|989850583
1c1
< Uppsala is located about 70 kilometers north of [[Stockholm]] in [[Sweden]]. It is the site of the oldest [[university]] in Sweden.
---
> Uppsala is a town located about 70 kilometers north of [[Stockholm]] in [[Sweden]]. It is the site of the oldest [[university]] in Sweden.
------
Three_powers_of_the_State|989850786
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The three powers a modern [[state]] has are the [[legislative power|Legislative]], the [[executive power|Executive]] and the [[judicial power|Judicial]]. It is commonly held that for a [[state]] to remain [[democracy|democratic]], these powers must be separated and there must be [[checks and balances]] to prevent a single group from acquiring control over two or more of them. In [[country|countries]] with a turbulent [[politics|political]] climate, this often results in a kind of [[cold war]] between the powers instead of the intended [[stalemate]].


> 


> The [[press]] is commonly referred to as the fourth power due to its ability to influence and manipulate the [[politics|political]] scene by the threat or exercise of its control of the public opinion.


------
Traitor|989850817
1c1,3
< A person who reneges on an oath or pledge of [[allegiance]] and in some way wilfully cooperates with an enemy or opponent of his or her previous [[liege]].


---
> A person who reneges on an oath or pledge of [[allegiance]] and in some way wilfully cooperates with an enemy or opponent of his or her previous [[liege]].
> 
> /Talk
------
Legislative_power|989850825
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The power to pass [[law|laws]]. One of the [[three powers of the State]].
------
Legislative_power|989850879
1c1
< The power to pass [[law|laws]]. One of the [[three powers of the State]].
---
> The power to pass [[law|laws]], and by extension, the body or bodies that exercise such power. One of the [[three powers of the State]].
------
Judicial_power|989850944
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The power to pass [[judgement]] upon those deemed to have broken the [[law]], and by extension, the body or bodies that exercise such power. One of the [[three powers of the State]].
------
Traitor/Talk|989850987
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia isn't a dictionary.  Why should there be an encyclopedia article on the topic "traitor"?  Well, of course, because there have been famous traitors who have changed the course of history, for one thing.  Perhaps there has been interesting research on the psychology of traitors.  Perhaps you could explain the notion of [the word for the crime of betraying your country, which strangely escapes me just now] and why there are such harsh laws (it's a capital offense!) against it.
> 
> --[[LMS]]
------
Executive_power|989851021
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The power to take and enforce decisions within the boundaries defined by [[law]], and by extension, the body or bodies that exercise such power. One of the [[three powers of the State]].
------
Sweden|989851202
22,24c22
< Secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]] is [[Horace Engdahl]],
< because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
< 
---
> The [[Swedish Academy]] gives out the [[Nobel awards]] each year. Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]], because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
25a24
> Some examples of Swedish inventions are [[dynamite]], [[Safety matches]], the [[adjustable spanner]], [[ball bearings]], and the [[propeller]].
26a26
> Some large Swedish companies are [[Volvo]], [[Saab]], [[SKF]], and [[IKEA]]. Today, one of Sweden's largest exports is music (starting with [[ABBA]] in the mid-[[1970s]]).
------
Enniskillen|989851277
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Enniskillen (Inis Ceithlann in [[Irish Gaelic]]) is the county town of [[Fermanagh]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. It is located almost exactly in the centre of the county on the natural [[island]] which separates the Upper and Lower sections of [[Lough Erne]].
> 
> With a population of approximately 11,500, it is by far the largest settlement in the county and the main retail centre for the county.
> 
> In recent years Enniskillen has become synonomous with the tragedy of the [[Northern Ireland]] conflict. Until [[1987]] the town had been relatively untouched by the conflict, but an [[IRA]] bomb on [[Rememberance Sunday]] killed eleven innocent civilians in a tragedy which shocked the world. The Enniskillen bomb is now acknowledged as a turning point in the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process
> 
> <b>Places of Interest:</b>
> 
> * [[Enniskillen Castle]]
> * [[The Ardhowen Theatre]]
> * [[Castle Coole]]
------
Sweden|989851330
22c22
< The [[Swedish Academy]] gives out the [[Nobel awards]] each year. Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]], because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
---
> The [[Swedish Academy]] gives out the [[Nobel Prize]] each year. Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]], because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
------
Fermanagh|989851420
7c7
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Swedish_Academy|989851505
1c1,3
< The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 ([[18th century]]) by king [[Gustav III]].  Its current secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]] (previously [[Sture Allen]]).
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 ([[18th century]]) by king [[Gustav III]].  Its current secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]] (previously [[Sture Allen]]). Each year, the academy gives out the [[Nobel Prize]], originally founded by [[Alfred Nobel]] in his will.
> 
> The academy also publishes a one-volume [[dictionary]] called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordlista]] (SAOL) and a multi-volume dictionary (similar to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]) called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]] (SAOB). The SAOB's first part was published in 1898 and today (2001) work is done at the end of the "S" words.
------
Fermanagh/Talk|989851609
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Please see http://www.enniskillen.com/fermanagh/ .  Hmm...this is too close to "academic plagiarism" for my taste.
> 
> Everyone, can you please have a look at JamieTheFoool's work to make sure it's not similarly questionable?  I lack the time right now...voltage converter blown.
> 
> I'm thinking this should be filed under "Co. Fermanagh" or "County Fermanagh", or even "Co. Fermanagh, Ireland", given that there are American counties with the same names as the Irish ones.  (E.g., Donegal in Pennsylvania.) --[[LMS]]
------
Television|989851628
88a89
> :[[Gary Coleman]]
------
Legislative_assembly|989851657
1c1
< In a modern [[democracy]], the group of [[election|elected]] representatives who pass [[law|laws]] (hence <i>legislative</i>, meaning <i>pertaining to the law</i>.) One of the [[three powers of the State]].

---
> In a modern [[democracy]], the group of [[election|elected]] representatives who exercise the [[legislative power]]. In some [[country|countries]], the legislative assembly is split in two groups or [[houses of parliament|houses]], the second of which (sometimes called the [[Senate]], as in [[France]] and the [[United States]]) is composed of more experienced [[statesman|statesmen]] and is supposed to act as a moderating influence on the first assembly. In most [[country|countries]], the [[head of state]] has the right to [[veto]] [[law|laws]] passed by the legislative assembly.


------
Head_of_state|989851839
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The nominal leader of a [[country]] or [[state]]. This is sometimes a self-appointed [[dictator]] as on [[Cuba]], but more commonly a [[King]] or [[Queen]] in a [[constitutional monarchy]] such as [[Norway]] or the [[United Kingdom]] or a [[President]] in a [[republic]] such as [[France]] or the [[United States]].
------
Constitutional_monarchy|989852060
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of [[democracy]] which has a [[hereditary]] [[monarch]] as [[head of state]] but a [[democracy|democratically]] [[election|elected]] [[legislative assembly]] and [[government]].  [[Belgium]], [[Norway]], [[Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom]] are modern examples of constitutional monarchies.

------
Republic|989852280
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A form of [[democracy]] (to some the very embodiment of the concept) where not only the [[legislative assembly]] and [[government]] but also the [[head of state]] are [[democracy|democratically]] [[election|elected]], such as [[France]] or the [[United States]].

------
Hereditary|989852503
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Something that is hereditary is passed from parent to child, either through their [[gene|genes]] (such as facial features and certain diseases) or through [[inheritance]] (such as a title of [[nobility]]).
------
Be|989852732
13,14c13,15
< Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make [[machine translation]] difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions are not always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table". Apparently there is no form of the verb "to be" in Russian or 
< its parody, Klingon.
---
> Other languages have multiple words for the verb "to be", dividing its uses in different ways.  For example, the [[Japanese language]] has two forms: "arimasu" for the existence, and "desu" for identity and the property-posession uses.  The [[Spanish language]] also has two words, but divided differently: "ser" for uses expressing permanence (whether existence or attributes) and "estar" for temporary conditions, either of existence or attributes.  These are the kinds of issues that make [[machine translation]] difficult.  For example, the English sentence "I am strong" would be translated into two different Spanish sentences depending on whether the speaker intended to express that this was an inherent quality he posessed ("Soy fuerte"), or a present condition based on circumstances ("Estoy fuerte").  Finally, the divisions are not always clear and consistent.  To say that "a book is on the table", for example, Japanese would use the "arimasu" form, saying "Hon wa, taberu ni arimasu," meaning roughly "as for the book, there exists on the table", while Spanish would use the "estar" form "El libro está en la mesa", meaning roughly "the book presently posesses the property of being on the table".
> 
> In the [[Russian language]], the verb <i>byt'</i> is the infinitive of "to be."  The third person singular, <i>yest'</i> means "is" (and, interestingly enough, it is also the infinitive "to eat") but there is no present- or future-tense copula in the Russian language.  <i>Yest'</i> (in the non-gustatory sense) is restricted in use to express existence; <i>On yest'</i> means "He exists," while <i>On yest' krasivyi</i> is nonsense (though it is how an English speaker might try to translate "He is handsome").  There ''is'' a past-tense copula in the Russian language.  E.g., one can say, <i>Ona byla krasiva</i>: "She was beautiful."
------
Be/Talk|989852825
6c6,7
< 
---
> ----
> Who wrote that there's no verb "be" in Russian?  That's silly.  Yah shouldn't write stuff about what you don't know...first, say no falsehoods.  (The philosopher's adaptation of "First, do no harm.") --[[LMS]]
------
Gary_Coleman|989852860
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Biography</b>
> 
> Gary Coleman was born on February 8th, 1968 in [[Zion]], [[Illinios]]. He debuted on [[Diff'rent Strokes]] in [[1978]]. The show lasted until 1986. During his life he has had to deal with a medical condition with his [[kidney]] that has halted his growth leading to his notably small stature (4' 8") which has become his trademark. He has had 2 kidney [[transplant]]s. One in [[1973]] and one in [[1984]]. 
> 
> Gary famously sued his own parents over misappropriation of his trust fund for $3.8 million. Gary briefly owned a [[video game]] arcade in Fisherman's Village near [[Santa Monica]], [[California]]. 
> 
> Once paid $70,000 an episode, Gary filed for [[bankruptcy]] in [[1999]]. He currently works as a shopping mall security guard in the [[Los Angeles]] area and unashamedley admits to still being a virgin at the age of 33.
> 
> <b>News</b>
> 
> Coleman appeared in court on 2nd November 2000 charged with assault. He was ordered to pay bus driver Tracy Fields $1665 for hospital bills resulting from a fight stemming from an attempt by her to get his autograph in a [[California]] mall. Gary said he felt "threatened by her insistence" and punched her in the head. 
> 
> <b>Personal Quote:</b>
> 
> When asked by [[Howard Stern]] if he has had oral sex Gary said "No! that's not a place for a young woman's face to be." 
------
1999|989852948
6a7,8
> Child star [[Gary Coleman]] files for bankruptcy
> 
------
Ideogram|989852976
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ideograms are symbols that represent words rather than phonemes or syllables. 
------
Gary_Coleman|989853043
11c11
< Coleman appeared in court on 2nd November 2000 charged with assault. He was ordered to pay bus driver Tracy Fields $1665 for hospital bills resulting from a fight stemming from an attempt by her to get his autograph in a [[California]] mall. Gary said he felt "threatened by her insistence" and punched her in the head. 
---
> Coleman appeared in court on 2nd November [[2000]] charged with assault. He was ordered to pay bus driver Tracy Fields $1665 for hospital bills resulting from a fight stemming from an attempt by her to get his autograph in a [[California]] mall. Gary said he felt "threatened by her insistence" and punched her in the head. 
------
Morphology|989853100
1c1
< Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected.
---
> Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected by means of [[morphemes]]. 
5c5
< e.g., /s/, /iz/, /&n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
---
> e.g., /s/, /iz/, /&n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morpheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
8a9,10
> 
> sorry about that... i mean if u transcribe it like that it just isn't clear what you're talking about, so i think it's necessary to include both..... 
------
Morphology|989853146
1c1,3
< Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected by means of [[morphemes]]. 
---
> Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected by means of [[morpheme]]s. 
> 
> ---
------
2000|989853156
16a17,20
> [[Celebrity News]]
> 
> Former child star [[Gary Coleman]] is charged with assaulting a young female bus driver in a California shopping mall
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|989853159
4a5,6
> UPDATE!  I am now suffering from an aching voltage converter.  I don't know when I'm going to have a reliable Internet connection--that's why I haven't been able to partake in all this GREAT recent development.  I mean, golly, where did all these people come from???  Anyway, though, I'll be online one way or another soon. --Larry
> 
------
2000|989853190
17c17
< [[Celebrity News]]
---
> Celebrity News
------
2000|989853234
17,19c17
< Celebrity News
< 
< Former child star [[Gary Coleman]] is charged with assaulting a young female bus driver in a California shopping mall
---
> Celebrity News - Former child star [[Gary Coleman]] is charged with assaulting a young female bus driver in a California shopping mall
------
Morphology|989853249
1c1
< Within [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected by means of [[morpheme]]s. 
---
> In [[linguistics]], morphology describes the way [[lexeme]]s are formed and how they are inflected by means of [[morpheme]]s. 
3c3
< ---
---
> In [[biology]], morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.
5,12c5
< Within [[biology]], morphology refers to the form or shape or an organism or part thereof.----
< Quibble: In Linguistics, most linguists use morpheme to distinguish to smallest unit of "grammatical meaning." For example, in English the indication of the plural for a noun,
< e.g., /s/, /iz/, /&n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morpheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
< 
< A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...----
< I wasn't discussing biology, I was disputing your inclusion of any semantic element in the concept of a morpheme. By the way, your definition of lexeme is not helpful. And, please leave my transcriptions alone, or I will alter all of yours. SAMPA is not a standard. And although you don't want to impose it on anyone, you have taken a page where I have picked by method of transcription and you have altered it. Two can play. RoseParks
< 
< sorry about that... i mean if u transcribe it like that it just isn't clear what you're talking about, so i think it's necessary to include both..... 
---
> /Talk
------
Morphology/Talk|989853262
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> .----
> Quibble: In Linguistics, most linguists use morpheme to distinguish to smallest unit of "grammatical meaning." For example, in English the indication of the plural for a noun,
> e.g., /s/, /iz/, /&n/ etc. in "books," "stories," "oxen" are considered allomorphs of the "plural morphems." Other persist in using it to refer to the smallest unit of "meaning," alone. For example, in English, the prefixes /in/, /im/ meaning "not" in "incorrect," "impossible" are considered allomorphs of the morpheme /in/. This last approach is usually considered circular, because of the inclusion of the semantic element. Your reference to "lexeme" seems to refer to this second appproach. I think it is necessary, here, to define "lexeme." RoseParks
> 
> A lexeme is a lexical unit. Anyway, I don't think it's necessary here to say what morphology is in biology.-...----
> I wasn't discussing biology, I was disputing your inclusion of any semantic element in the concept of a morpheme. By the way, your definition of lexeme is not helpful. And, please leave my transcriptions alone, or I will alter all of yours. SAMPA is not a standard. And although you don't want to impose it on anyone, you have taken a page where I have picked by method of transcription and you have altered it. Two can play. RoseParks
> 
> sorry about that... i mean if u transcribe it like that it just isn't clear what you're talking about, so i think it's necessary to include both..... 
------
1999|989853294
7c7
< Child star [[Gary Coleman]] files for bankruptcy
---
> Celebrity News - Former child star [[Gary Coleman]] files for bankruptcy
------
Planetary_Sciences|989853377
3c3
< [[spaceship]]s that have been sent to [[planet]]s, [[satellite]]s
---
> [[spaceship]]s that have been sent to [[planet]]s, [[satellite]]s, [[comets]]
------
United_Kingdom|989853383
6c6
< governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in 1952.
---
> governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in [[1952]].
------
Morphology/Talk|989853560
1d0
< .----
------
United_Kingdom|989853583
6c6
< governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in [[1952]].
---
> governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in [[1953]].
------
How_to_start_a_page|989853684
14,15c14,15
< **Straightforward requests for information in an article can lead to good articles.  For example, one might supply a rough description of a thing or a place, and then asks about its history, many people who know the answer will find it difficult to pass up the opportunity to teach.
< **A strongly-worded initial version of a page will, probably, cause more revisions and reaction, and perhaps the end result will be well written.  See [[political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  This might not be such a good idea, though.  An article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existence of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is "some kinda theory Einstein made."  But as a habit, this is probably a bad idea, because we would like our articles to be written from a [[NeutralPointOfView|neutral point of view]].
---
> **Straightforward requests for information in an article can lead to good articles.  For example, one might supply a rough description of a thing or place and then ask about its history; some people who know the answer will find it difficult to pass up the opportunity to teach.
> **A strongly-worded initial version of a page will, probably, cause more revisions and reaction, and perhaps the end result will be well written.  See [[political correctness]] revision history for a good example.  This might not be such a good idea, though.  An article on relativity that starts by proclaiming the existence of the ether will probably be revised and quite likely end up better than an article that states it is "some kinda theory Einstein made."  But as a habit, this is probably a bad idea, because we would like our articles to be written from a [[NeutralPointOfView|neutral point of view]].
------
Environmental_organizations|989853885
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Organizations that preserve or monitor the environment in different ways include
> * [[WWF]] (World Wildlife Fund)
> * [[Greenpeace]]
> * [[FSC]] (Forest Stewardship Council)
> * [[Worldwatch Institute]]
> * [[IPCC]] (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
------
Island|989854035
43a44
> * [[Enniskillen]] ([[Northern Ireland]])
------
What_is_a_wiki|989854153
13,16c13
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
< 
< 
< Jigga
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
Enniskillen|989854235
5c5
< In recent years Enniskillen has become synonomous with the tragedy of the [[Northern Ireland]] conflict. Until [[1987]] the town had been relatively untouched by the conflict, but an [[IRA]] bomb on [[Rememberance Sunday]] killed eleven innocent civilians in a tragedy which shocked the world. The Enniskillen bomb is now acknowledged as a turning point in the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process
---
> In recent years Enniskillen has become synonomous with the tragedy of the [[Northern Ireland]] conflict. Until [[1987]] the town had been relatively untouched by the conflict, but an [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb on [[Rememberance Sunday]] killed eleven innocent civilians in a tragedy which shocked the world. The Enniskillen bomb is now acknowledged as a turning point in the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process
------
Liege|989854239
1a2,3
> ----
> Town in [[Belgium]].
------
Belgium|989854281
27c27
< Belgium is divided into 10 provinces; [[Antwerp]], [[Limburg]], [[East-Flanders]], [[West-Flanders]], [[Flemish Brabant]], [[Walloon Brabant]], [[Namur]], [[Liège]], [[Hainaut]] and [[Province of Luxemburg]].
---
> Belgium is divided into 10 provinces; [[Antwerp]], [[Limburg]], [[East-Flanders]], [[West-Flanders]], [[Flemish Brabant]], [[Walloon Brabant]], [[Namur]], [[Liege|Liège]], [[Hainaut]] and [[Province of Luxemburg]].
------
Music|989854329
9c9
< African American music
---
> [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- 
11,17c11
< a) mainly African American
< 
< [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- 
< 
< [[freestyle]] 
< 
< b) mainly Euro-American
---
> [[freestyle music]] 
21,22d14
< Euro American
< 
25,26d16
< Afro-British
< 
29,37c19
< World Music
< 
< [[Anglo-Indian music]] 
< [[Arabic music]]
< [[Far Eastern music]]
< [[African music music]]
< 
< 
< European music
---
> [[Anglo-Indian music]] -- [[Arabic music]] -- [[Far Eastern music]] -- [[African music music]]
41,43d22
< 
< Indian music
< 
111a91,92
> 
> /Talk
------
Language|989854373
66a67,69
> 
> ----
> yeah... dunno about the jargon file... the question is: is it used in linguistics? 
------
Music/Talk|989854495
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[music]] page is desperately in need of refactoring and organizing.  I'd do it now but I don't have time.  Someone recently posted a very tendentious large category scheme including many different musical types--not too useful.  But some kinds of categorizations can be perfectly useful and I think we should use them.
> 
> Larry
------
Seafood/Talk|989855068
10a11,12
> ----
> I couldn't help myself but I think this page should list dishes rather than ingredients. LinusTolke
------
Seafood|989855135
2c2,8
< 
---
> ----
> Dishes
> * [[Smoked Salmon]]
> * [[Fiskpinnar]]? usually made of [[Cod]] or [[Sej]]?
> * [[Fried Squid]]
> ----
> Ingredients:
------
Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army|989855252
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA)
> 
> Also known as "The Provos" and The Irish Republican Army. Most commonly referred to as simply The "IRA".
> 
> A [[terrorist]] group formed in 1969 as the clandestine armed wing of the political movement [[Sinn Fein]], dedicated to removing [[British]] forces from [[Northern Ireland]] and unification [[Ireland]]. The PIRA is organized into small, tightly knit cells under the leadership of the Army Council.
> 
> The PIRA has Several hundred members and several thousand sympathizers although the IRA's strength may have been affected by operatives leaving the organization to join hardline splinter groups. 
> 
> The PIRA is suspected of receiving funds and arms from sympathizers in the [[United States]] and has received aid from a variety of groups and countries and considerable training and arms from [[Libya]] and, at one time, the [[PLO]].
> 
> <b>Area of Operation</b>
> 
> [[Northern Ireland]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Great Britain]], and [[Europe]].
> 
> <b>Activities</b>
> 
> Bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, punishment beatings, extortion, and robberies. Previous targets have included The [[British]] military and the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] in [[Northern Ireland]], senior British Government officials, and Northern Irish Loyalist paramilitary groups such as the [[UVF]] and the [[UDA]]. Bombing campaigns have been conducted against rail and [[London Underground]] ([[Subway]]) stations and shopping areas on mainland [[Britain]], and a British military facility on the [[European]] Continent. The IRA has been observing a cease-fire since July 1997 (although hardline splinter groups such as the [[Real IRA]] are still active in mainland [[Britain]]) and previously observed a cease-fire from 1 September 1994 to February 1996.
> 
> 
------
Comets|989855325
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Comets are thought to be small pieces of debris left over from the formation of the [[solar system]]. A comet consists of a nucleus, which is a small body, similar to an [[asteroid]], but mostly made up of water ice, CO-ice and dust. When the nucleus get close to the [[sun]], the ices start to evaporate, dragging some of the dust with them. The gas and the dust creates a coma, that surrounds the nucleus, and one or more tail, consisting of material forced away from the comet by the solar [[radiation pressure]]. The coma and the tails shine because of reflected solar radiation and heated gas emitting its own radiation.
> Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a [[telescope]]. A few each year become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appear out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that there appearance have been noticed by humans for millenia.
> It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
------
Ireland|989855424
1c1
< A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
---
> A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]] and are part of the [[United Kigdom]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
------
1960s|989855434
21a22
> * [[Sweden]] abandons driving on the left side.
29c30
<    [[1980s]] - next
---
>    [[1970s]] - next
------
Ireland|989855435
1c1
< A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]] and are part of the [[United Kigdom]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
---
> A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]] and are part of the [[United Kingdom]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
------
The_Sound_of_Music|989855705
0a1,2
> Broadway play and movie based on a true story.
> 
------
Republic_of_Ireland|989855757
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The 23 Southern counties of the [[island]] of [[Ireland]] are collectively know as The [[Republic]] of Ireland which has been independent of The [[United Kingdom]] since [[1921]].
> 
> <b>See [[Ireland]]</b>
------
Irish_Republican_Army|989855811
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]
------
Ireland/History|989855853
2c2
< A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have nominally sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups such as the [[IRA]] ([[Irish Republican Army]]). A peace settlement for Northern Ireland was approved in 1998, and a power-sharing government has been established.
---
> A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in independence from the UK for the 23 southern counties of [[Leinster]], [[Munster]] and [[Connaught]] and three counties in [[Ulster]] (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal) The remaining six counties in Ulster ([[Antrim]], [[Armagh]], [[Derry]], [[Down]], [[Fermanagh]] and [[Tyrone]]) became [[Northern Ireland]] and remained part of the [[United Kingdom]]. In 1948 Ireland withdrew from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in 1973. Irish governments have nominally sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups such as the [[IRA]] ([[Irish Republican Army]]). A peace settlement for Northern Ireland was approved in 1998, and a power-sharing government has been established. 
------
Comets|989855913
3c3,4
< It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
---
> It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
> The actual nature of comets were speculated over for centuries. In the early 19th century, another German mathematician, [[Bessel]], was on the right track. He made theory about the brightness of the comets coming from the evaporation from a solid object and that the non-gravitational forces of comet Encke were caused by the [[jetforce]]s created as the material evaporated from the surface of the object. His idea was forgotten for more than 100 years, before [[Whipple]] indepently proposed the same idea in 1950. It soon became the accepted comet model and was confirmed when an armada of spacecrafts flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 and photographed the nucleus and the jets of evaporating material.
------
GerMany|989855970
1c1
< See GermanY.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Germany]]
------
Comets|989856002
1a2
> 
2a4
> 
3a6
> 
------
Enniskillen|989856083
11c11
< * [[Castle Coole]]
---
> * [[Castle Coole]] 
------
Music|989856139
9c9
< [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- 
---
> [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle music]] 
11c11
< [[freestyle music]] 
---
> [[Drum and Bass]] 
17c17
< [[Drum and Bass]] 
---
> 
------
Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army|989856161
17c17
< Bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, punishment beatings, extortion, and robberies. Previous targets have included The [[British]] military and the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] in [[Northern Ireland]], senior British Government officials, and Northern Irish Loyalist paramilitary groups such as the [[UVF]] and the [[UDA]]. Bombing campaigns have been conducted against rail and [[London Underground]] ([[Subway]]) stations and shopping areas on mainland [[Britain]], and a British military facility on the [[European]] Continent. The IRA has been observing a cease-fire since July 1997 (although hardline splinter groups such as the [[Real IRA]] are still active in mainland [[Britain]]) and previously observed a cease-fire from 1 September 1994 to February 1996.
---
> Bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, punishment beatings, extortion, and robberies. Previous targets have included The [[British Military]] and the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] in [[Northern Ireland]], senior British Government officials, and Northern Irish Loyalist paramilitary groups such as the [[UVF]] and the [[UDA]]. Bombing campaigns have been conducted against rail and [[London Underground]] ([[Subway]]) stations and shopping areas on mainland [[Great Britain]], and a British military facility on the [[European]] Continent. The IRA has been observing a cease-fire since July 1997 (although hardline splinter groups such as the [[Real IRA]] are still active in mainland [[Britain]]) and previously observed a cease-fire from 1 September 1994 to February 1996.
------
Paula_Abdul|989856252
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American dancer, coreographer and singer.
> 
> Was initially discovered as a cheerleader. Had the big breakthrough with the song [[Straigh up]].
> ----
> Discography:
> * [[Straigh up]]
> * [[Opposites attract]] (together with some rapper acting cartoon cat in the video)
------
Garth_Brooks|989856394
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American singer, songwriter performing [[Country music]].
------
Freestyle_music|989856416
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Freestyle music will have MOST of the following traits.
> 
> Dance tempo
> Stress on beat 2 & 4
> Syncopation on a bassline or on a lead synth or on percussions
> 16th beat high hat
> Optional orchestra hits
> Chord progressions lasting 8, 16, or 32 beats
> Minor key usually
> Complex melody with acutal singing
> Acutal lyrics and verses and a chorus
> Theme is about love or dancing
> 
> For the roots of freestyle, see [[electro funk]]
> 
------
Freestyle_music|989856441
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
5a8
> 
6a10
> 
7a12
> 
8a14
> 
9a16
> 
10a18
> 
11a20
> 
------
Music|989856479
19c19
< [[Anglo-Indian music]] -- [[Arabic music]] -- [[Far Eastern music]] -- [[African music music]]
---
> [[Anglo-Indian music]] -- [[Arabic music]] -- [[Far Eastern music]] -- [[African music]]
------
Robyn_Carlsson|989856632
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish singer, songwriter.
> 
> At age very young (12?) she recorded the title song for the Swedish television show [[Lilla Sportspegeln]].
------
Rap_music|989856676
47c47
<  WU
---
> Other 
------
Robyn_Carlsson|989856685
3c3,6
< At age very young (12?) she recorded the title song for the Swedish television show [[Lilla Sportspegeln]].
---
> At age very young (12?) she recorded the title song for the Swedish television show [[Lilla Sportspegeln]].
> ----
> Discography:
> * Do you really want me
------
Liege|989857171
3c3
< Town in [[Belgium]].
---
> ('''Li&egrave'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
------
Liege|989857185
3c3
< ('''Li&egrave'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
---
> ('''Li&egrave;'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
------
Gustave_Eiffel|989857193
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French architect.
> 
> Most famous for the [[Eiffel Tower]] in [[Paris]], [[France]].
> 
> His caracteristics are the iron designs for bridges.
> ----
> Famous buildings:
> * [[Eiffel Tower]]
> * [[Statue of Liberty]]
------
Liege|989857196
3c3
< ('''Li&egrave;'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
---
> ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
------
Election|989857469
3c3
< The most common election methods are [[proportional representation]], [[relative majority]] and [[absolute majority]].
---
> The most common election methods are [[Proportional Representation]], [[Relative Majority]] and [[Absolute Majority]].
------
Election|989857505
3c3
< The most common election methods are [[Proportional Representation]], [[Relative Majority]] and [[Absolute Majority]].
---
> The most common election methods are [[Proportional representation]], [[Relative majority]] and [[Absolute majority]].
------
Netherlands|989857609
18,19c18,20
< *[[Netherlands/history|history of the Netherlands]]
< *[[/Talk]]
---
> *[[/History]]
> *[[/Politics]]
> *[[/Talk]]
------
Artificial_language|989857729
16c16
< * [[The Silmarillion/Sindarin|Sindarin]]
---
> * [[JRR Tolkien/Sindarin|Sindarin]]
------
Netherlands/History|989857859
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[Ice Age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
> 
> In the first century BC, the [[Roman empire|Romans]] came to the Netherlands. In the largest part of the Roman time, the boundary between the Roman Empire lay along the Rhine. In the Netherlands, the Romans built the first cities, [[Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]] and [[Maastricht]] are nowadays the most important of the cities built by the Romans. Of course, the northern part of the Netherlands, outside the Roman Empire, where the [[Frisians]] lived (and still do), also was much influenced by its strong southern neighbour.
> 
> After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Frank|Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning France, [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
> 
> The Holy Roman Empire did however not remain a political unity. Local vassals made their countships and duchies into private kingdoms and felt not much obliged to the emperor, who over large parts of the nation governed only in name. Large parts of what is now the Netherlands were governed by the count of [[Holland]], the duke of [[Gelre]], the duke of [[Brabant]] and the bishop of [[Utrecht]], but [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen]] in the north kept their independence, being governed by the lower nobility. Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and Belgium was united by the duke of [[Burgundy]].
> 
> Through inheritance, the area became a possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] of Spain in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
> 
> In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brazil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), South Africa, St. Maarten, etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
> 
> At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. When the French republican armies invaded the Netherlands in 1789 the Patriots won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with Belgium and a part of Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king ("Konijn van Olland"). This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
> 
> After the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence in 1830. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
> 
> By the end of the 19th century, when internationally countries were claiming colonies, the Netherlands extended their hold of [[Indonesia]]. ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' by [[Multatuli]], the most famous book in the history of Dutch literature, complained about the exploitation by the Dutch of the country and its inhabitants.
> 
> In the [[World War I|First World War]], the Netherlands remained neutral. In the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Netherlands were conquered by the Germans in May 1940 in only six days. Later, the Japanese conquered [[Indonesia]]. Both nations preferred to get the 'wrong elements' out of their areas - for the Germans, these were the [[Jews]], [[Roma]] ([[Gypsy|gypsies]]) etcetera, for the Japanese the Europeans.
> 
> After [[World War II]], Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch did not agree with this, preferring just an increased amount of internal autonomy, and sent soldiers to fight the so-called 'first and second police action'. However, the determination of the Indonesians and international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], forced the Dutch to recognize Indonesia's independence. Only the eastern half of [[New Guinea]] remained Dutch a few years more.
> 
> Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands quickly increased in wealth. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
> ----
> knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]<br>
> Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]<br>
> Yes, very impressive! --[[LMS]]
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|989858016
12c12,13
< 
---
> ----
> The "Give the author a change"-rule is in violation with/the same thing as/with a serious overlap of the RefactoringPolicy. Would it be a good idea to join the two debates? LinusTolke
------
Netherlands/history|989858069
1,27c1
< The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[Ice Age]]. The most famous remnants from the early age in the Netherlands are the [[hunebeds]], large stone grave monuments from the [[neolithic]], which can be found in [[Drenthe]].
< 
< In the first century BC, the [[Roman empire|Romans]] came to the Netherlands. In the largest part of the Roman time, the boundary between the Roman Empire lay along the Rhine. In the Netherlands, the Romans built the first cities, [[Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]] and [[Maastricht]] are nowadays the most important of the cities built by the Romans. Of course, the northern part of the Netherlands, outside the Roman Empire, where the [[Frisians]] lived (and still do), also was much influenced by its strong southern neighbour.
< 
< After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] and the subsequent period of turmoil, the Netherlands was roughly divided in three parts, the [[Frisians]] living at the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Frank|Franks]] in the south. The Franks managed to overcome their neighbors, and under [[Charlemagne]] an empire was built, having its heartland in [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning France, [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and several other regions. The Frankish empire got divided and reunited several times, in the end giving rise to two major powers, France and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in Germany. The Netherlands were part of the latter.
< 
< The Holy Roman Empire did however not remain a political unity. Local vassals made their countships and duchies into private kingdoms and felt not much obliged to the emperor, who over large parts of the nation governed only in name. Large parts of what is now the Netherlands were governed by the count of [[Holland]], the duke of [[Gelre]], the duke of [[Brabant]] and the bishop of [[Utrecht]], but [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen]] in the north kept their independence, being governed by the lower nobility. Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and Belgium was united by the duke of [[Burgundy]].
< 
< Through inheritance, the area became a possession of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty [[Charles V]] of Spain in the late 15th century. In the Netherlands, some part of the population joined with the [[Reformation]] and became protestants. This was not liked by Charles's son and successor [[Philip II]], who also was very distant in attitude (never visiting the Low Countries himself), whereas his father had been raised in [[Gent]] (Belgium) and had become lord of the Netherlands before he became king of Spain. Philips's attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice & taxes led to a revolt. [[William of Orange]], a nobleman, took the lead in what is called the [[Eighty years War|Eighty years' war]] (1568-1648).
< 
< In this period, the Dutch also started large-scale overseas trade - they hunted whales near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]], started colonies in [[Brazil]] and [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), South Africa, St. Maarten, etcetera. The wealth, accumulated from all this trade, led to the 17th century being called the [[Dutch golden age|golden age]] for the Netherlands. Quite remarkable was, that in those days the Netherlands were a republic, being governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants ("Regenten") rather than by a king or nobility. In principle every city & province had it's on government & laws. There was much independence of the various cities and districts.
< 
< At the end of the eighteenth century, unrest was growing in the Netherlands. Fights were starting between the Orangists, wanting stadtholder William V (a descendant of William of Orange) to get more power, and the patriots, who under influence of the French Revolution wanted a more democratic government. When the French republican armies invaded the Netherlands in 1789 the Patriots won, creating the [[Batavian Republic]], which however did not last long. French influence was strong, and [[Napoleon]] turned the Netherlands (together with Belgium and a part of Germany) into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother [[Louis Napoleon]] as king ("Konijn van Olland"). This also did not last very long, because when Napoleon noticed that his brother put the Dutch interests before the French, the Netherlands became part of the French empire.
< 
< After the Napoleonic era, the Netherlands became a monarchy, with the prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. His kingdom originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]], but the Belgians had a feeling that they were second-class citizens, and declared their independence in 1830. After a war of only a few days, king William had to give in. In 1848, unrest broke out all over Europe. In the Netherlands, little unrest happened, but the effects were large. The liberal [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to create a new constitution, which basically turned the Netherlands into a democracy.
< 
< By the end of the 19th century, when internationally countries were claiming colonies, the Netherlands extended their hold of [[Indonesia]]. ''[[Max Havelaar]]'' by [[Multatuli]], the most famous book in the history of Dutch literature, complained about the exploitation by the Dutch of the country and its inhabitants.
< 
< In the [[World War I|First World War]], the Netherlands remained neutral. In the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Netherlands were conquered by the Germans in May 1940 in only six days. Later, the Japanese conquered [[Indonesia]]. Both nations preferred to get the 'wrong elements' out of their areas - for the Germans, these were the [[Jews]], [[Roma]] ([[Gypsy|gypsies]]) etcetera, for the Japanese the Europeans.
< 
< After [[World War II]], Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch did not agree with this, preferring just an increased amount of internal autonomy, and sent soldiers to fight the so-called 'first and second police action'. However, the determination of the Indonesians and international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], forced the Dutch to recognize Indonesia's independence. Only the eastern half of [[New Guinea]] remained Dutch a few years more.
< 
< Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands quickly increased in wealth. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
< ----
< knap werk! - [[Mathijs]]<br>
< Dank je. - [[Andre Engels]]<br>
< Yes, very impressive! --[[LMS]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Netherlands/History]]
------
New_York|989859112
4a5,6
> [[Buffalo]] is the state capital.
> 
------
Monarch|989859267
1c1
< A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], [[pharao]], or such titles.  A state ruled by
---
> A single, hereditary ruler or head of state.  May be styled [[king]], [[prince]], [[duke]], [[queen]], [[princess]], [[duchess]], [[shah]], [[ayatollah]], [[sultan]], [[czar]], [[emperor]], [[empress]], [[pharaoh]], or such titles.  A state ruled by
------
Netherlands/Politics|989859317
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Netherlands are a [[Constitutional monarchy]]. The most important part of parliament, the [[Tweede Kamer]], has 150 members, and is chosen once every four years by [[Proportional representation]].
> 
> At the moment (1998-2002), the following parties have representatives in the Tweede Kamer:
> 
>  [[PvdA]]         45 [[Social Democrats|Social Democratic]]
>  [[VVD]]          39 right-wing [[Liberalism|Liberal]]
>  [[CDA]]          29 [[Christian Democrats|Christian Democratic]]
>  [[D66]]          14 left-wing [[Liberalism|Liberal]]
>  [[GroenLinks]]   11 left-wing [[Ecological]]
>  [[SP]]            5 [[PostCommunism|Post-Communistic]]
>  [[ChristenUnie]]  5 Christian
>  [[SGP]]           3 right-wing [[Conservative]] Christian
> 
> Like a number of other European countries with proportional representation, the Dutch have always had [[Coalition government]]s. Since 1994, the governing coalition consists of PvdA, VVD and D66. Before that, for 80 years the CDA (or the parties that later joined to form the CDA) had been in the government, sometimes with the socialists (PvdA), sometimes with the liberals (VVD) as their coalition partner.
------
Kid_Frost|989859429
20a21
> 
------
Afrika_Islam|989859889
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hip hop pioneer, calles the "Son of Bambaataa", i.e. [[Afrika Bambaataa]]. He left NY for LA and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]s early albums, namely "Rhyme Pays" and "Power"; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late 1990s, Afrika Islam joined German [[techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[electro funk]] influences. "Back to Berlin" quotes from the Old School rap classic "New York New York" by Grandmaster Flash. 
------
German_Rap|989860105
1c1,7
< [[Die Fantastischen Vier]] (fantastic four) are probably the most prominent German rappers. They were the first German band to appear in [[MTV Unplugged]].
---
> [[Die Fantastischen Vier]] (fantastic four) are probably the most prominent German rappers. They were the first German band to appear in [[MTV Unplugged]]. Other important crews and rappers include
> 
> 
>  [[Advanced Chemistry]], multicultural pioneers from Heidelberg who maintained a political and strictly underground stance. 
>  [[Fünf Sterne deluxe]] from Hamburg who focus mainly on fun; though provide innovative beats. 
>  [[Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt]] influenced by Gangster Rap. 
> 
------
WikiIsNotPaper|989860217
25c25
< I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow old gracefully. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
------
Social_Democrats|989860435
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Social Democrats are supporters of a moderate form of [[Socialism]]. Often, the term 'socialism' is used to specifically denote social democrats. Social democratic parties are the largest party, or one of the largest parties in most countries in [[Europe]].
> 
> The Social Democratic current came into being by a break within the Socialist movement in the early 20th century. One group of socialists rejected the idea of a socialist revolution and instead tried to achieve the socialist ideals through democratic means. Since then, differences between these social democrats and [[Communism|Communists]] have grown. Nowadays, social democrats are in favor of a [[Capitalism|Capitalistic]] [[Market economy]], but with a strong and large government. In general, social democrats are in favor of:
> 
> * Private enterprise, but regulated to protect the interests of workers, consumers and small enterprise
> * Large government spending to ensure good education, health care etcetera are available for all citizens
> * High taxes (necessary to pay for the former), especially for the higher income groups
> * An extensive system of social care
> * Extensive social laws (minimum wages, working circumstances, protection against firing)
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|989860716
5a6,8
> 
> ----
> For the most part, the instinctive desire of an author to "own" what he has written is counterproductive here, and it is good to shake up that emotional attachment by making sweeping changes at will when it improves the result.  But there's an important exception to keep in mind: ''Commentary'' written by and specifically credited to one person should ''not'' be edited for content without correctly identifying all the changes.  It's OK to fix obvious spelling and grammar bugs, but changing content is tantamount to making a false quotation claim.  For example, the [[WikiIsNotPaper]] page contained a quote from Jimbo about something that would "grow gracefully old", and someone changed it into the cliche "grow old gracefully".  That's not what Jimbo said, and it has a different meaning.  It was also not an improvement on the original; in fact it was much worse.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Schoolly_D|989860738
2c2
< Musically, he and his [[DJ]] [[Cash Money]] came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). 
---
> Musically, he and his [[DJ]] [[Cash Money]] came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
11c11
< *2000 Funk 'n pussy
---
> *2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
WikiIsNotPaper|989860809
1,54c1
< <b>Subtitled: Wikipedia Unbound</b>
< 
< Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  I share [[Jimbo Wales]]'s desire that it not become [[Yet Another]] discussion forum.  But it definitely <i>is</i> something different from a paper encyclopedia, and I think we should think more about how to take advantage of that fact.  Perhaps a separate discussion forum would be the appropriate place to do this, but I think doing it here is just as viable and useful.  I also don't want it to become yet another big dead collection of facts.
< 
< -----
< 
< * <b>No size limits</b>: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
< 
< I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< This might make it very difficult to use the search function of Wikipedia, because any simple search would return a vast number of results.  If there were a way to meta-tag articles with keywords, this would help, but there is currently no way to do that.  - TimShell
< 
< A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The only problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets too big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
< 
< ----
< 
< * <b>Style differences</b>:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
< 
< I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ----
< 
< * <i>Ease of editing</i>: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
< 
< I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< ----
< 
< * <b>Timeliness</b>: The pages of an encyclopedia are all compiled and printed at roughly the same time, and old sets are generally replaced by new whole sets.  Wikipedia pages cannot assume that the reader will have any clue to the historical context in which the article is written, or the state of any article to which it refers.  It is quite likely that some Wikipedia page will refer to "the most common/popular X...", then point to a page with an entirely different "most common/popular X...", each of which was correct when written.  We must be careful, then, to imagine how our article might appear to someone reading it at some other time, some other place, and without the support of articles to which we refer.  This is a rare instance, I think, of something that's actually more difficult in a Wiki than on paper.  Perhaps the software could be modified to improve the visibility of the date an article was written (and each of its edits)?
< 
< <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[top grossing movies]], but that
< page should (as it does) explain when and how it was constructed, and it should invite updates.  I have been keeping a list of [[recent celebrity deaths]]that will obviously need to be refactored once those deaths aren't recent anymore.
< 
< Another interesting take on the issue of timeliness is that we can very quickly have a page on any hot topic that people may suddenly find interesting.  Perhaps I should write a page about the high school where the shootings took place today.  Or, if something big happens in the news, let's say, in East Timor, then we rush there.</i>
< 
< --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< Why not indeed supply basic background information (of the sort you find in an encyclopedia) about current events, as a sort of news magazine.  Often, the background info is much more important than the current events.  If entries like this could be distributed automatically via a mailing list, it could end up being a very useful resource.  Just a thought. --[[Larry Sanger]]
< 
< ----
< 
< * <b>Collaborative authorship</b>: A Wikipedia article need not have a "author", in the sense of some person or group who created all the text and who is responsible for it.  I think it is good that most authors don't identify themselves, and I think it is good for the project that all authors feel free to edit, re-arrange, and build on others' work.  I think perhaps that some might actually not feel free enough, and should do more.  While we cannot use copyrighted work from non-free sources, and we cannot modify work from otherwise-free sources that forbid derivative work, we <i>can</i> (and I think should) use, modify, edit, and rework free texts (in particular other Wikipedia pages, public domain sources, and other open content) when doing so will result in a better final product.  Some otherwise-free sources will want credit, so we should have a method for noting collaborative credit on a page when necessary.  For instance, "This page is based on <link to free source> and work by various unknown authors."
< 
< ----
< 
< * <b>Opinions</b>: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
< 
< I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
< 
< That's sort of what I had in mind, but I may not have been very clear about it.  I certainly didn't mean to imply that Wikipedia should ever hold a controversial opinion, only that when I look up a subject here, I should find factual essays about that subject, a well as pointers (i.e., links, perhaps with brief descriptions) of relevant opinions on the subject.  And maybe the physical storage and mechanism of the Wiki is useful for keeping those essays as well.  For some subjects, that's quite possibly all there can be--a summary of the relevant opinions in the field with pointers to them.  Certainly they must be prominently labelled as such, maybe even something like differently-colored pages?
< ----
< For my part, I agree with most of this. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
< ----
< Please add to this list and comment.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Wikipedia Commentary/Wiki is not paper]]
------
Wikipedia_Commentary/Wiki_is_not_paper|989860828
1c1,55
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Subtitled: Wikipedia Unbound</b>
> 
> Wikipedia <i>is</i> an encyclopedia.  I share [[Jimbo Wales]]'s desire that it not become [[Yet Another]] discussion forum.  But it definitely <i>is</i> something different from a paper encyclopedia, and I think we should think more about how to take advantage of that fact.  Perhaps a separate discussion forum would be the appropriate place to do this, but I think doing it here is just as viable and useful.  I also don't want it to become yet another big dead collection of facts.
> 
> -----
> 
> * <b>No size limits</b>: The most obvious difference is that there are, in principle, no size limits here.  It is quite possible, for example, that when I finish typing in everything I want to say about [[Poker]], there might well be over 100 pages, and enough text for a full-length book by itself.  This would certainly never be tolerated in a paper encyclopedia, which is why Britannica has such limited information on the topic (and on most other topics).  But I see no reason at all why Wiki shouldn't grow into something beyond what would could ever possibly be put on paper.  The Nupedia FAQ rightly warns about taxing a reader's patience with rambling prose, and I agree, but I'm talking about things like detailed subtopics and sub-subtopics.  Why shouldn't there be a page for every [[The Simpsons|Simpsons]] character, and even a table listing every episode, all neatly crosslinked and introduced by a shorter central page like the above?  Why shouldn't every episode name in the list link to a separate page for each of those episodes, with links to reviews and trivia?  Why shouldn't each of the 100+ poker games I describe have its own page with rules, strategy, and opinions?  <i>Hard disks are cheap.</i>
> 
> I agree with this one completely.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> This might make it very difficult to use the search function of Wikipedia, because any simple search would return a vast number of results.  If there were a way to meta-tag articles with keywords, this would help, but there is currently no way to do that.  - TimShell
> 
> A solution I see is to break thing down into more than one article. Have nested articles. For example, break "Poker" up into a couple of different articles like "Basic Rules", "History of Poker", "Variations of the Game". These will be much more search-able. The only problem would be splitting an article into smaller ones once it gets too big. This might become a difficult task, but very much within reach. - Fulgore
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Style differences</b>:  Some standards of English prose style don't really apply.  For example, CMS (The Chicago Manual of Style) tells us to briefly gloss the first use of an abbreviation, as I just did with "CMS".  Also, jargon terms can be treated similarly.  This makes a lot of sense--if you mention something, the reader may want to know more about that thing, and giving a full name will make it easier for him to look it up.  But we have something even better--a direct link to the thing, not just a full name.  This is even better for glossing jargon, because many terms are simply not explained at all by a quick gloss, but a link would do wonders.  I think this: ...code page 437 was based on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] VT-220 [[computer terminal|terminal]]... is easier to read and far superior to: ...code page 437 was based on the DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) VT-220 terminal (a computer input/output device).   
> 
> I agree with this one, too.  I will say that we ought to have style standards, of course, but that these will evolve to suit our needs and abilities here in the wiki.  And of course, the open nature of the software means that enforcement only comes to the extent that we authors care to enforce it. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> 
> * <i>Ease of editing</i>: There should be less need of weasel words like "at the time of this writing", "generally recognized as", "commonly believed that", etc.  Just say it the way you think it is, and if you're proven wrong, come back and edit it later.  If there are disagreements, then put up a page about each disagreement (see below).
> 
> I only partially agree with this one.  The reason is that when I write on some controversial current topics like Napster, I know that it might be awhile until I come back and edit it.  Others could edit it, of course, but I can't be sure when they will.  So it is best to write in a timeless fashion, because it is likely that many pages will grow gracefully old. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Timeliness</b>: The pages of an encyclopedia are all compiled and printed at roughly the same time, and old sets are generally replaced by new whole sets.  Wikipedia pages cannot assume that the reader will have any clue to the historical context in which the article is written, or the state of any article to which it refers.  It is quite likely that some Wikipedia page will refer to "the most common/popular X...", then point to a page with an entirely different "most common/popular X...", each of which was correct when written.  We must be careful, then, to imagine how our article might appear to someone reading it at some other time, some other place, and without the support of articles to which we refer.  This is a rare instance, I think, of something that's actually more difficult in a Wiki than on paper.  Perhaps the software could be modified to improve the visibility of the date an article was written (and each of its edits)?
> 
> <i>This is a very interesting and valid point.  It can be o.k. to have a page with the [[top grossing movies]], but that
> page should (as it does) explain when and how it was constructed, and it should invite updates.  I have been keeping a list of [[recent celebrity deaths]]that will obviously need to be refactored once those deaths aren't recent anymore.
> 
> Another interesting take on the issue of timeliness is that we can very quickly have a page on any hot topic that people may suddenly find interesting.  Perhaps I should write a page about the high school where the shootings took place today.  Or, if something big happens in the news, let's say, in East Timor, then we rush there.</i>
> 
> --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> Why not indeed supply basic background information (of the sort you find in an encyclopedia) about current events, as a sort of news magazine.  Often, the background info is much more important than the current events.  If entries like this could be distributed automatically via a mailing list, it could end up being a very useful resource.  Just a thought. --[[Larry Sanger]]
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Collaborative authorship</b>: A Wikipedia article need not have a "author", in the sense of some person or group who created all the text and who is responsible for it.  I think it is good that most authors don't identify themselves, and I think it is good for the project that all authors feel free to edit, re-arrange, and build on others' work.  I think perhaps that some might actually not feel free enough, and should do more.  While we cannot use copyrighted work from non-free sources, and we cannot modify work from otherwise-free sources that forbid derivative work, we <i>can</i> (and I think should) use, modify, edit, and rework free texts (in particular other Wikipedia pages, public domain sources, and other open content) when doing so will result in a better final product.  Some otherwise-free sources will want credit, so we should have a method for noting collaborative credit on a page when necessary.  For instance, "This page is based on <link to free source> and work by various unknown authors."
> 
> ----
> 
> * <b>Opinions</b>: Encyclopedias (rightly, I think) try to avoid controversial opinions.  I think a headlining article on a topic should be as factual as possible, but I also think it should link to opinions: Maybe we could have a standard "/Opinions" subpage (which differs from "/Talk" in being a list of pointers to finished essays rather than an active discussion).  Each page describing a poker game, for example, could have a /Talk subpage where people describe their experiences with the game, and an /Opinions subpage pointing to longer essays where various people express detailed opinions about the game or how they would improve it.
> 
> I have a very strong disagreement with this one.  Wikipedia <i>IS</i> an encyclopedia.  The wikipedia should write neutrally <i>about</i> opinions, but the wikipedia should not <i>put forward</i> opinions.  There is no need to shy away from controversial opinions -- but there is every reason to shy away from <i>asserting</i> those opinions. --[[Jimbo Wales]]
> 
> That's sort of what I had in mind, but I may not have been very clear about it.  I certainly didn't mean to imply that Wikipedia should ever hold a controversial opinion, only that when I look up a subject here, I should find factual essays about that subject, a well as pointers (i.e., links, perhaps with brief descriptions) of relevant opinions on the subject.  And maybe the physical storage and mechanism of the Wiki is useful for keeping those essays as well.  For some subjects, that's quite possibly all there can be--a summary of the relevant opinions in the field with pointers to them.  Certainly they must be prominently labelled as such, maybe even something like differently-colored pages?
> ----
> For my part, I agree with most of this. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
> ----
> Please add to this list and comment.
> 
------
Schoolly_D|989860883
2c2
< Musically, he and his [[DJ]] [[Cash Money]] came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
---
> Musically, he and his DJ Code Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
------
GiveTheAuthorAChanceDebate|989861052
11c11
< I don't support this rule either, because the very mindset that a Wiki page has "an author" (as opposed to being an emergent property of the collaborative process) restricts the process by which pages can evolve.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> I don't support this rule either, because the very mindset that a Wiki page has "an author" (as opposed to being an emergent property of the collaborative process) restricts the process by which pages can evolve.  There is, however, one exception: ''commentary'' that is specifically credited to an author should not be changed for content, because that is tantamount to making a false quotation claim.  It might still be OK to fix obvious spelling or grammar bugs.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
------
Rap_music|989861307
53a54,61
> Producers
> 
> :[[Marley Marl]]
> :[[The Bomb Squad]]
> :[[DJ Muggs]]
> :[[Timbaland]]
> 
> 
57a66
> 
58a68
> 
59a70
> 
60a72
> 
61a74
> 
62a76
> 
63a78
> 
------
Marley_Marl|989861450
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]] and others. He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing James Brown samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
------
Marley_Marl|989861478
1c1
< Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]] and others. He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing James Brown samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
---
> Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]] and others. He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing [[James Brown]] samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989861492
19a20,22
> In regard to the fact that I've corrected a lot of your contributions, rest assured that I'm not picking on you--indeed I'm glad you're adding so much useful stuff.  You just happen to be adding things in subjects I know a lot about, so naturally I tend to edit them.  Creating an initial page is a great way to induce people like me to flesh them out.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> ----
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989861534
20,22d19
< In regard to the fact that I've corrected a lot of your contributions, rest assured that I'm not picking on you--indeed I'm glad you're adding so much useful stuff.  You just happen to be adding things in subjects I know a lot about, so naturally I tend to edit them.  Creating an initial page is a great way to induce people like me to flesh them out.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< 
< ----
42a40,43
> 
> ----
> In regard to the fact that I've corrected a lot of your contributions, rest assured that I'm not picking on you--indeed I'm glad you're adding so much useful stuff.  You just happen to be adding things in subjects I know a lot about, so naturally I tend to edit them.  Creating an initial page is a great way to induce people like me to flesh them out.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Schoolly_D|989861951
1c1,4
< One of [[Philadelphia]]'s [[hip hop]] pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's [[gangsta rap]]pers. [[Ice T]] says about Schoolly D's record PSK: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning."
---
> One of [[Philadelphia]]'s [[hip hop]] pioneer, born Jesse B. Weaver.  With his early records he paved the way for the west coast's [[gangsta rap]]pers. [[Ice T]] says about Schoolly D's record PSK: 
> 
> ''"The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning."''
> 
11c14
< *2000 Funk 'n pussy
---
> *2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
German_Rap|989862037
4,7c4,6
<  [[Advanced Chemistry]], multicultural pioneers from Heidelberg who maintained a political and strictly underground stance. 
<  [[Fünf Sterne deluxe]] from Hamburg who focus mainly on fun; though provide innovative beats. 
<  [[Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt]] influenced by Gangster Rap. 
< 
---
> :[[Advanced Chemistry]], multicultural pioneers from Heidelberg who maintained a political and strictly underground stance. 
> :[[Fuenf Sterne deluxe]] from Hamburg who focus mainly on fun; though provide innovative beats. 
> :[[Roedelheim Hartreim Projekt]] influenced by [[Gangsta rap]]. 
------
Afrika_Islam|989862085
1c1
< Hip hop pioneer, calles the "Son of Bambaataa", i.e. [[Afrika Bambaataa]]. He left NY for LA and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]s early albums, namely "Rhyme Pays" and "Power"; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late 1990s, Afrika Islam joined German [[techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[electro funk]] influences. "Back to Berlin" quotes from the Old School rap classic "New York New York" by Grandmaster Flash. 
---
> Hip hop pioneer, calles the "Son of Bambaataa", i.e. [[Afrika Bambaataa]]. He left NY for LA and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]s early albums, namely "Rhyme Pays" and "Power"; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late 1990s, Afrika Islam joined German [[techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[electro funk]] influences. "Back to Berlin" quotes from the Old School rap classic "New York New York" by [[Grandmaster Flash]]. 
------
James_Brown|989862095
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the most important figures in [[African American music]], pioneering both [[Soul]] and [[Funk]]. It is unclear how much of James Brown's musical genius is his own and how much comes from the minds and souls of his musicians - his band is called the JB's. Many of the JB's are now successful solo artists, among them [[George Clinton]] who invented [[P Funk]] and [[Maceo Parker]] whose funk is still rather old-fashioned. The break from James Brown's "Funky Drummer" has been samples and otherwise used by [[hip hop]] artists countless times - it is said that [[breakdancing]]  started accompanied by the James Brown tune "Get Up Get On It Get On The Good Foot". In any case, James Brown's influence on many styles of music in general is huge. 
------
Music|989862127
9c9
< [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle music]] 
---
> [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] -- [[Soul]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle music]] 
------
Democracy|989862185
2a3,6
> [Montesquie], L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
> <I>''When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty. Again there is no liberty if the judicial
> power is not separated from the legislature and executive.''</I> 
> 
------
Democracy|989862214
3c3
< [Montesquie], L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
---
> [[Montesquie]], L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
------
Open_source_license/Talk|989862310
1c1,5
< While software in the public domain may conform with the principles put forth by the open source community (assuming the source is available), this article aims to deal with licenses considered to be open source (and specifically with those approved by the Open Source Intitiative). Since public domain software is under no license, I removed it from the list. -- [[STG]]
---
> While software in the public domain may conform with the principles put forth by the open source community (assuming the source is available), this article aims to deal with licenses considered to be open source (and specifically with those approved by the Open Source Intitiative). Since public domain software is under no license, I removed it from the list. -- [[STG]]
> 
> Public domain software '''is''' explicitly approved as "open source" by the OSI, and it is listed along with other licenses in their own literature, so I've put it back.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> 
------
Science_fiction/new_wave|989862584
1c1
< During the [[1960s]] a number os [[science fiction]] authors began writing more experimental works than was usual in the [[genre]]. This movement was perhaps stronger in [[Great Britain]], but there were new wave authors in the [[USA]] as well.  [[Harlan Ellison]]'s anothology [[Dangerous Visions]] was important. 
---
> During the [[1960s]] a number of [[science fiction]] authors began writing more experimental works than was usual in the [[genre]]. This movement was perhaps stronger in [[Great Britain]], where [[Michael Moorcock]] had taken over the editorship of the magazine [[New Worlds Science Fiction]], serialising [[Norman Spinrad]]'s `<i>Bug Jack Barron</i>', notable for being the first science fiction novel to be condemned in the british Parliament.  The new wave movement was not restrictted to the UK though, and there were new wave authors in the [[USA]] as well.  [[Harlan Ellison]]'s anthology [[Dangerous Visions]] was important. 
------
Open_source_license|989862617
1c1
< An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  The following licenses have been approved:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  Software in the [[public domain]] (that is, with no copyright license at all) meets those criteria and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their [[service mark]].  In addition, the following licenses have been approved:
27c27
< See also: [[open source]], [[open source movement]], [[Open Source Initiative]], [[Free Software Foundation]]
---
> See also: [[open source]], [[open source movement]], [[Open Source Initiative]], [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Public domain]]
------
Trademark|989862671
1c1
< A '''trademark''' is a distinctive name, phrase, symbol, design, pciture, or style used by a business to identify itself to consumers.  If the business identified is a service rather than a product, the mark is called a '''service mark'''.  In text and advertising one often sees the symbol '''&trade;''' next to a phrase or image that a company thereby claims as a trademark, or the symbol '''&reg;''', which signifies that the trademark has been registered with the appropriate government authority.
---
> A '''trademark''' is a distinctive name, phrase, symbol, design, pciture, or style used by a business to identify itself to consumers.  If the business identified is a service rather than a product, the mark is called a [[service mark]].  In text and advertising one often sees the symbol '''&trade;''' next to a phrase or image that a company thereby claims as a trademark, or the symbol '''&reg;''', which signifies that the trademark has been registered with the appropriate government authority.
------
Italian_Rap|989862719
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Italian rap started in the early nineties. One of the earliest crews was Milan's [[Articolo 31]], then and still today produced by [[Franco Godi]] who wrote the soundtrack to the animated TV series "Signor Rossi" in the 1970s. They started out as a mainly East Coast inspired rap duo, but changed to a more commercial style during their career. Other important crews and rappers include Bologna's [[Jovanotti]] who is also a [[cantautore]] and even though he raps not part of [[hip hop]] culture, the political band [[99 Posse]] from Rome who also are influenced from [[trip hop]] [[world music]], [[gangster rap]]-influenced [[Sa Razza]] from Sardinia. Also influenced by [[gangster rap]] are [[Sottotono]] from Varese and [[La Fossa]] from Sardinia. There are also some crews rapping in the local idioms, e.g. [[La Famiglia]] (produced by Franco Godi) in napoletano, 99 Posse (partly) in romano, Sa Razza (partly) in Sardinian. 
> 
> www.italianrap.com
------
German_Rap|989862830
4c4
< :[[Advanced Chemistry]], multicultural pioneers from Heidelberg who maintained a political and strictly underground stance. 
---
> :[[Advanced Chemistry]], multicultural pioneers from Heidelberg who maintained a political and strictly underground stance. Members include [[Torch]] and [[Toni L]], both also started solo careers. 
6c6,11
< :[[Roedelheim Hartreim Projekt]] influenced by [[Gangsta rap]]. 
---
> :[[Roedelheim Hartreim Projekt]] influenced by [[Gangsta rap]]. 
> :[[Ferris MC]]
> :[[Die Firma]]
> :[[Der Klan]]
> 
> Note that after the US, Germany is the second-biggest hip hop nation, sales-wise. 
------
Service_mark|989862968
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[trademark]] used to identify a service rather than a product is called a '''service mark'''.  They are fequently used by industrial standards bodies or certification companies to show "approval" of an other product in some way.  For example, [[Underwriters Laboratories]] holds a service mark on the phrase "UL Listed", and allows manufacturers of electrical equipment to use the service mark only if they have been approved by UL.  This allows consumers to identify products that meet quality criteria set by a company other than the manufacturer.
> 
------
French_Rap|989863262
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> France is, next to Italy and Germany, Europe's number one hip hop nation, and the musical phenomenon caught on in the alnd of Voltaire even before Italy and Germany, also due to France's immigrant population. Whereas in Germany, many rappers of Turkish origin are part of the hip hop scene, France has many B Boys and B Girls with (North) African roots. 
> Some of France's most important hip hop crews:
> 
> [[IAM]] (Marseille) featuring members with (North) African, French and Hispano-Italian roots. Inspired by East Coast rap. 
> 
> [[Suprême NTM]](Paris) featuring members with Caribbean and French roots. Inspired by East Coast (hardcore) rap. 
> 
> [[La Cliqua]] (Paris) featuring [[Rocca]], bilingual rapper with Columbian roots.
> 
> [[KDD]] (Toulouse) hardcore
> 
> [[Manau]] (Bretagne) rather commercial group mixing hip hop with Celtic music. 
> 
------
Seafood/Talk|989863692
12a13,16
> 
> ----
> Even when the dishes are ''defined'' as "seafood" by their ingredients?  The term is also frequently used to refer to the ingredients themselves without reference to any particular dish: for example, a "seafood market" sells fresh fish, mollusks, etc., but does not serve cooked food.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Swiss_Rap|989863741
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As French, German and Italian rap, Swiss rap started in the early nineties. Early Swiss German rappers started rapping in English, but after the bilingual track "Murder by Dialect" by [[P27]] featuring [[Black Tiger]], rappers switcvhed to their native Swiss German dialects. Rappers from the French-speaking part (where dialects died out) and from the Italian-speaking part (where most people mix dialects and Standard Italian freely) only rap in the standard languages.
> 
> Crews and rappers from the Romandie (French-speaking part)
> 
> [[Sens Unik]] [[Dynamike]]
> 
> [[Double Pact]]
> 
> [[Silent Majority]]
> 
> Crews and rappers from the German-speaking part
> 
> [[P27]]
> 
> [[Black Tiger]]
> 
> [[Kalmoo]]
> 
> [[Wrecked Mob]] [[Spooman]]
> 
> [[Primitive Lyrics]]
> 
> [[Sendak]]
> 
> Crews from Ticino (the Italian-speaking part)
> 
> Momo Posse
> 
> Il Clan
------
Swiss_Rap|989863825
24a25,28
> [[Tempo al tempo]] (Italian-speaking)
> 
> [[Documento C]] (Spanish-speaking)
> 
27c31
< Momo Posse
---
> [[Momo Posse]]
29c33
< Il Clan
---
> [[Il Clan]]
------
Rheged|989863847
9c9
< The poet Taliesan (please check spelling) lived in Rheged.
---
> The poet Taleisin lived in Rheged.
------
Rap_music|989863932
75c75
< [[Latin Rap]]
---
> [[Latin rap]]
------
Spanish_Rap|989864051
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[7 Notas 7 Colores]]
> 
> [[Los Verdaderos Kreyentes de la Religión de Hip Hop]]
> 
> [[Frank T]]
> 
------
Music|989864271
11c11
< [[Drum and Bass]] 
---
> [[Drum and Bass]] [[Trip Hop]]
------
Music|989864289
11c11
< [[Drum and Bass]] [[Trip Hop]]
---
> [[Drum and Bass]] [[Trip hop]]
------
Music/Talk|989864700
3c3,7
< Larry
---
> Larry
> 
> ----
> 
> Actually, Larry, the listing of genres has been at the top of the page, growing capriciously for some time.  I recently alphabetized it and considered reorganizing it according to major genres, with subcategories, but I didn't have enough knowledge or patience to do it, and also many of the categories overlapped.  I don't know who reformatted it from the original paragraph after I alphabetized it, but it looks like the same information--I think that its need of organization is just more obvious now. --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Schoolly_D|989864902
5c5
< Musically, he and his DJ Code Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signyfying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
---
> Musically, he and his DJ Code Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signifying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
14c14
< *2000 Funk 'n pussy
---
> *2000 Funk 'n pussy
------
World_music|989865108
2a3,28
> 
> 
> Styles:
> 
> [[Raï]]
> 
> [[African music]]
> 
> [[Asian music]]
> 
> [[Indian music]]
> 
> 
> Artists:
> 
> [[Natacha Atlas]]
> 
> [[Transglobal Underground]]
> 
> [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]
> 
> [[Angélique Kidjo]]
> 
> [[Mahmoud Ahmed]]
> 
> [[Ahlam]]
------
Rap_music|989865137
80a81
> [[Turkish Rap]]
------
Turkish_Rap|989865256
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Turkish rap started in Germany, with groups such as [[I$lamic Force]] and [[Cartel]]. Both refer to their style as "Oriental Hip Hop"; musically, they are mixing hip hop with near eastern music.
> 
> Other artists:
> 
> [[DJ Mahmut and Murat G]]
> 
> [[Boulevard Bou]]
------
Turkish_Rap|989865272
1c1
< Turkish rap started in Germany, with groups such as [[I$lamic Force]] and [[Cartel]]. Both refer to their style as "Oriental Hip Hop"; musically, they are mixing hip hop with near eastern music.
---
> Turkish rap started in Germany, with groups such as [[Islamic Force]] and [[Cartel]]. Both refer to their style as "Oriental Hip Hop"; musically, they are mixing hip hop with near eastern music.
7c7
< [[Boulevard Bou]]
---
> [[Boulevard Bou]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|989865409
43a44,46
> 
> ----
> I didn't take offense.  As the saying goes, "if the shoe fits, wear it."  The shoe fit.  I haven't been discouraged from writing; I've just been busy lately, and not suffering insomnia.  :-)  I will continue to cut and paste the CIA info, as well as writing on movies and so forth when I have more time.  And here's an article I think you'll find interesting, if outrageous:  http://www.uniontrib.com/news/uniontrib/sun/news/news_1n13own.html  :-D
------
Marley_Marl|989865693
1c1
< Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]] and others. He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing [[James Brown]] samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
---
> Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]], [[MC Shan]] and [[Master Ace]] . He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing [[James Brown]] samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
------
Marley_Marl|989866128
1c1
< Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]], [[MC Shan]] and [[Master Ace]] . He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing [[James Brown]] samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
---
> Produced rappers like [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Biz Markie]], [[Roxanne Shante|Roxanne Shanté]], [[Kool G Rap]], [[MC Shan]] and [[Master Ace]] . He was also important in the career of [[Eric B and Rakim]], producing their first hits "My Melody" and "Eric B Is President", mixing [[James Brown]] samples and synthetic beats in a fashion unknown before. 
------
World_music|989866295
7c7
< [[Raï]]
---
> [[Rai|Raï]]
24c24
< [[Angélique Kidjo]]
---
> [[Angelique Kidjo|Angélique Kidjo]]
28a29,30
> 
> [[Ravi Shankar]]
------
Irish_potato_famine|989866549
1c1
< During the 1840's, a [[potato]] blight fungus struck across [[Europe]]. It turned this important food staple
---
> Between 1845-1850, a [[potato]] blight fungus struck across [[Europe]]. It turned this important food staple
4c4
< of [[Ireland]], about 4 million was halved, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to [[America]].
---
> of [[Ireland]], about 8 million was reduced by a quarter, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to [[America]].
7,11c7,8
< I think the Irish population was higher then. Maybe about 8.5 million before the famine and 6 million after. But i don't have easy access to accurate figures. Does anyone?
< 
< Also there was a second Irish potato famine about 40 years later. I think the death-toll was much lower, but there was still a great deal of hardship and considerable emigration. Population after the second famine dropped to around 4 million. Economic and political effects were profound.
< 
< The same fungus (Phytopthera infestans) was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later one.
---
> Potato blights continued in Ireland, especially in 1872 and 1879-1880. These killed few people, partly because they were less severe and partly because Irish-Americans contributed to relief efforts. They did lead to reform in the British agricultural and land-owning laws and to continued emigration, By the 1890's, the Irish population had fallen to around 4 million, about the same as the population in 1800 and 2000 and only a half of its peak population. 
> The same fungus (Phytopthera infestans) was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later ones.
------
Irish_potato_famine|989867162
1,5c1
< Between 1845-1850, a [[potato]] blight fungus struck across [[Europe]]. It turned this important food staple
< into a black, soggy, and inedible mess. In [[Ireland]], the lower classes were particularly dependent on 
< the [[potato]] as their primary and sometimes only foodsource. It is estimated that the initial population 
< of [[Ireland]], about 8 million was reduced by a quarter, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to [[America]].
< During this time, [[Great Britain]] forced the Irish to export corn (and other crops) which could have saved the lives of many Irish. 
---
> Between 1845-1850, a [[potato]] blight fungus struck across [[Europe]].  It turned this important food staple into a black, soggy, and inedible mess.  In [[Ireland]], the lower classes were particularly dependent on the [[potato]] as their primary and sometimes only foodsource.  It is estimated that the initial population of [[Ireland]], about 8 million, was reduced by a quarter, with 1 million dying and 1 million emigrating, primarily to [[America]].  During this time, [[Great Britain]] forced the Irish to export corn (and other crops) which could have saved the lives of many Irish.
7,8c3
< Potato blights continued in Ireland, especially in 1872 and 1879-1880. These killed few people, partly because they were less severe and partly because Irish-Americans contributed to relief efforts. They did lead to reform in the British agricultural and land-owning laws and to continued emigration, By the 1890's, the Irish population had fallen to around 4 million, about the same as the population in 1800 and 2000 and only a half of its peak population. 
< The same fungus (Phytopthera infestans) was responsible. When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s. There is much less awareness of the later ones.
---
> Potato blights continued in Ireland, especially in 1872 and 1879-1880.  These killed few people, partly because they were less severe and partly because Irish-Americans contributed to relief efforts.  They did lead to reform in the British agricultural and land-owning laws and to continued emigration.  By the 1890s, the Irish population had fallen to around 4 million, about the same as the population in 1800 and 2000 and only a half of its peak population.  The same fungus (Phytopthera infestans) was responsible.  When people speak of "The Irish potato famine", they nearly always mean the one of the 1840s; there is much less awareness of the later ones.
------
WWF|989867220
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[Environmental organizations|environmental organizations]].
> 
> According to their web site, they are dedicated to
> * preserving genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity 
> * ensuring that the use of natural resources is sustainable both now and in the longer term, for the benefit of all life on Earth 
> * promoting action to reduce pollution and wasteful consumption to a minimum
> 
> Their logo, the black and white panda, is well-known.
> 
> For more information, see their web sites http://www.wwf.org/ and http://www.panda.org/.
------
Greenpeace|989867930
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Greenpeace was founded in [[Canada]] in 1971 as a protest against American nuclear tests in [[Alaska]]. Compared to many other [[Environmental organizations|environmental organizations]], Greenpeace is more action-oriented. Others start petitions, Greenpeace go to the site of the problem and try to stop it by non-violent action.
> 
> More information can be found on Greenpeace's own web site, http://www.greenpeace.org/.
> 
------
Liege|989869023
3c3
< ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]].
---
> ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]]. German name: '''Luettich'''
------
Nobel_Prize|989870315
22a23
> ''see also [[Swedish Academy]]''
------
City_of_New_York|989870608
20c20
< NYC is an acroynm for New York City. 
---
> NYC is an acronym for New York City. 
24c24
< The current mayor of New York City is [[Rudy Guiliani]]. He has been a very controversial mayor. His bid for New York State Senator was aborted by a serious illness.
---
> The current mayor of New York City is [[Rudy Guiliani]]. He has been a very controversial mayor. His bid for [[New York]] State Senator was aborted by a serious illness.
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989871127
16a17
> *[[U-Boot]] -- (''Untersee Boot'') the infamous German [[submarine]]s
------
Science_fiction|989872073
22a23
> * [[Fantasy]]
------
Fantasy|989872591
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fantasy is a form of [[fiction]] that includes some type of non-realistic element. Historically, most fiction is fantasy of sorts. [[Realism]] is a relatively new concept in [[literature]].
> 
> After the phenomenal popularity of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] in the [[1960s]], fantasy has become a genre in itself. Before that, much fantasy was published in the same magazines as [[science fiction]] (and written by the same authors, largely).
> 
> Some notable authors are [[JRR Tolkien]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Michael Moorcock]], [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Stephen Donaldson]], [[Terry Pratchett]], [[Roger Zelazny]], [[Fritz Leiber]], [[H. P. Lovecraft]], [[Mervyn Peake]], and [[Robert E. Howard]].
> 
> See also [[science fiction]].
------
Zork|989873104
12,14c12,14
< * [[Zork/Zork I: The Great Underground Empire]] (1980)
< * [[Zork/Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz]] (1981)
< * [[Zork/Zork III: The Dungeon Master]] (1982)
---
> * [[Zork/Zork I: The Great Underground Empire|Zork I: The Great Underground Empire]] (1980)
> * [[Zork/Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz|Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz]] (1981)
> * [[Zork/Zork III: The Dungeon Master|Zork III: The Dungeon Master]] (1982)
17,18c17,18
< * [[Zork/Beyond Zork]] (1987)
< * [[Zork/Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz]] (1988, with graphics)
---
> * [[Zork/Beyond Zork|Beyond Zork]] (1987)
> * [[Zork/Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz|Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz]] (1988, with graphics)
21,24c21,24
< * [[Zork/Return to Zork]] (1993, with graphics)
< * [[Zork/Zork: Nemesis]] (with graphics)
< * [[Zork/Zork: Grand Inquisitor]] (with graphics)
< * [[Zork/Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]
---
> * [[Zork/Return to Zork|Return to Zork]] (1993, with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: Nemesis|Zork: Nemesis]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: Grand Inquisitor|Zork: Grand Inquisitor]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork: The Undiscovered Underground|Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]
------
Zork|989873186
12,14c12,14
< * [[Zork/Zork I: The Great Underground Empire|Zork I: The Great Underground Empire]] (1980)
< * [[Zork/Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz|Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz]] (1981)
< * [[Zork/Zork III: The Dungeon Master|Zork III: The Dungeon Master]] (1982)
---
> * [[Zork/Zork I|Zork I: The Great Underground Empire]] (1980)
> * [[Zork/Zork II|Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz]] (1981)
> * [[Zork/Zork III|Zork III: The Dungeon Master]] (1982)
18c18
< * [[Zork/Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz|Zork Zero: The Revinge of Megaboz]] (1988, with graphics)
---
> * [[Zork/Zork Zero|Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz]] (1988, with graphics)
------
Zork|989873659
22,24c22,24
< * [[Zork/Zork: Nemesis|Zork: Nemesis]] (with graphics)
< * [[Zork/Zork: Grand Inquisitor|Zork: Grand Inquisitor]] (with graphics)
< * [[Zork/Zork: The Undiscovered Underground|Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]
---
> * [[Zork/Zork Nemesis|Zork: Nemesis]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork Grand Inquisitor|Zork: Grand Inquisitor]] (with graphics)
> * [[Zork/Zork The Undiscovered Underground|Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]
------
Adventure_International|989873775
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Company started by [[Scott Adams]] to produce [[Video game/Adventure|adventure games]].
------
Scott_Adams|989873834
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1) The founder of [[Adventure International]]
> 
> 2) The creator of the [[Dilbert]] comic strip.
------
Pinkunicorn|989873900
1c1
< Hans Persson, science fiction and computer geek living in [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]].
---
> Hans Persson, [[science fiction]] and [[computer]] [[geek]] living in [[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]]. Also an avid [[bird]] watcher.
------
The_Goon_Show|989874714
3c3
< Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Larry Stephens]] under the watchfull eye of [[Jimmy Grafton]].
---
> Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Larry Stephens]] under the watchfull eye of [[Jimmy Grafton]](KOGVOS-Keeper Of The Goons and Voice Of Sanity) .
5c5
< It was performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
---
> Performed by Milligan, [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Harry Secombe]], the Goon Show was an extremely popular comedy show on the [[BBC]] Home Service.  The scripts mixed ludicrous plots with surreality, puns, catchphrases and an array of silly sound effects.
11c11
< **Eccles
---
> **The Famous Eccles
13c13
< **Count Jim Moriarty
---
> **Count Jim "Knees" Moriarty
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|989875010
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]].  In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a mrthertherthertherthertherhertherthertherthertherthrethr
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|989875306
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a mrthertherthertherthertherhertherthertherthertherthrethr
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]]. In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|989875406
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]]. In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
---
> 	<H1> WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES
------
TrySomething|989875610
2c2
< 
---
> I hope to use a tool like this soon in business.  It is a new and clean tech application I see as valuable.
------
Like_this_one|989875756
1c1,2
< But now it exists!
---
> But now it exists!
> And so it does!
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|989875950
1c1
< 	<H1> WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES WHO CARES
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]] . In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
------
SandBox|989876210
213a214,224
> ----
> How about a word doc cut and paste?
> This is from a word doc.  Cut and paste.
> Always an interesting process, never a nice one….
> With a little of the worst tossed in
> ·	Here
> ·	There
> ·	And…
> 
> Always a challenge
> 
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989878529
1c1,3
< Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He invented the [[printing press]].
---
> Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He invented the [[printing press]].
> 
> His name has inspired the [[Gutenberg galaxy]] and [[Project Gutenberg]]
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989878625
3c3
< His name has inspired the [[Gutenberg galaxy]] and [[Project Gutenberg]]
---
> His name is found in the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]] and in [[Project Gutenberg]]
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989878651
1c1
< Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He invented the [[printing press]].
---
> Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He is the [[inventor]] of the [[printing press]].
------
Inventor|989878673
8a9
> *[[Johann Gutenberg]],
------
Printing_press|989878901
1c1,11
< The printing press was invented by [[Johann Gutenberg]] in the late 13th century.
---
> The printing press was invented by [[Johann Gutenberg]] in the mid [[15th century]].
> 
> Inventions are hard to define.  Some would say the Chinese invented the printing press long before Gutenberg.
> 
> The next big inventions in this field after Gutenberg were:
> 
> *the steam-powered [[rotary press
> *the [[offset printing press]]
> *[[desktop publishing]]
> *[[electronic publishing]] (on CD-ROM or online)
> 
------
Comets|989879479
5c5
< It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
---
> It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Isaac Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
7c7
< The actual nature of comets were speculated over for centuries. In the early 19th century, another German mathematician, [[Bessel]], was on the right track. He made theory about the brightness of the comets coming from the evaporation from a solid object and that the non-gravitational forces of comet Encke were caused by the [[jetforce]]s created as the material evaporated from the surface of the object. His idea was forgotten for more than 100 years, before [[Whipple]] indepently proposed the same idea in 1950. It soon became the accepted comet model and was confirmed when an armada of spacecrafts flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 and photographed the nucleus and the jets of evaporating material.
---
> The actual nature of comets were speculated over for centuries. In the early 19th century, another German mathematician, [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], was on the right track. He made theory about the brightness of the comets coming from the evaporation from a solid object and that the non-gravitational forces of comet Encke were caused by the [[jetforce]]s created as the material evaporated from the surface of the object. His idea was forgotten for more than 100 years, before [[Whipple]] indepently proposed the same idea in 1950. It soon became the accepted comet model and was confirmed when an armada of spacecrafts flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 and photographed the nucleus and the jets of evaporating material.
------
NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|989879582
125c125
< 1936 Sir Henry Hallett Dale, Otto Loewi
---
> 1936 Sir [[Henry Hallett Dale]], [[Otto Loewi]]
127c127
< 1935 Hans Spemann
---
> 1935 [[Hans Spemann]]
129c129
< 1934 George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, William Parry Murphy
---
> 1934 [[George Hoyt Whipple]], [[George Richards Minot]], [[William Parry Murphy]]
133c133
< 1932 Sir Charles Scott Sherrington, Edgar Douglas Adrian
---
> 1932 Sir [[Charles Scott Sherrington]], [[Edgar Douglas Adrian]]
135c135
< 1931 Otto Heinrich Warburg
---
> 1931 [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]]
137c137
< 1930 Karl Landsteiner
---
> 1930 [[Karl Landsteiner]]
------
George_Hoyt_Whipple|989879631
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of three recipients in 1934 of the [[NobelPrize/PhysiologyOrMedicine|Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine]].
------
Comets|989879723
7a8,11
> 
> ----
> 
> please use full name for links to scientists.  Who was Whipple?  The same [[George Hoyt Whipple]] who got the 1934 Nobel Prize for medicine?
------
Friedrich_Wilhelm_Bessel|989879761
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]].
> 
> 
------
Friedrich_Wilhelm_Bessel|989879805
1,3c1
< German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]].
< 
< 
---
> German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1784, died 1846.
------
Friedrich_Wilhelm_Bessel|989879875
1c1
< German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1784, died 1846.
---
> German [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]], born 1784, died 1846.  See also [[Comets]].
------
Tycho_Brahe|989879953
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Danish (Swedish) [[astronomer]].
------
Astronomer|989879979
6a7
> *[[Tycho Brahe]]
------
Comets|989880004
5c5
< It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Isaac Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
---
> It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Tycho Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Isaac Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
11c11
< please use full name for links to scientists.  Who was Whipple?  The same [[George Hoyt Whipple]] who got the 1934 Nobel Prize for medicine?
---
> please use full name for links to scientists.  Who was Whipple?  The same [[George Hoyt Whipple]] who got the 1934 Nobel Prize for medicine?
------
Metaphysics|989880004
29c29,32
< /Talk
---
> <HR>
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], Metaphysics, [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]
> 
> /Talk
------
Philosopher|989880833
3c3,5
< Some philosophers (in alphabetic order):
---
> Philosophers in General:
> 
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] 
5c7
< [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] [[Alfred Korzybski]]
---
> Some philosophers (in alphabetic order):
6a9
> [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- 
8d10
< See also [[mathematician]]s, [[scientist]]s
9a12,14
> <HR>
> See Also: [[aesthetics]], Epistemology, [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Philosophy]], [[Ontology]], [[Reason]]<BR>
> [[mathematician]]s, [[scientist]]s
------
Philosopher|989880889
9c9,10
< [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- 
---
> [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] 
> [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- 
------
Philosopher|989881017
15c15
< [[mathematician]]s, [[scientist]]s
---
> Philosophers, [[mathematician]]s, [[scientist]]s
------
Mathematician|989881054
116a117,118
> <HR>
> See Also: [[Philosopher]s, mathematicians, [[scientist]]s
------
Mathematician|989881073
118c118
< See Also: [[Philosopher]s, mathematicians, [[scientist]]s
---
> See Also: [[Philosopher]]s, mathematicians, [[scientist]]s
------
Scientist|989881118
8a9
> [[philosopher]]s,
------
Historical_drama_film|989882784
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[Barry Lyndon]]
> *[[Gone With the Wind]]
------
Film_genres|989883129
2a3
> Genres
5d5
< :[[Cult film]]
23,24c23,25
< ----
< I don't know that I'd call "Cult" a genre, but more of a post-hoc description.  The genre of <i>Rocky Horror Picture Show</i> is horror/comedy/musical; the fact that it attracted a loyal following after release, thereby become a "cult" film, doesn't change that.
---
> Post-hoc descriptions
> :[[Cult film]]
> 
------
Film_genres|989883163
1,3d0
< See also: [[genre film theory]]
< 
< Genres
25a23
> Other related terms: [[genre film theory]]
------
Film_genres|989883173
23c23,24
< Other related terms: [[genre film theory]]
---
> Other related terms
> :[[genre film theory]]
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989884456
1c1
< Johann Gutenberg was German and lived approximately 1395-1468. He is the [[inventor]] of the [[printing press]].
---
> German metal worker and inventor Johannes Gensfleich zur Laden zum Gutenberg was born in Mainz, sometime in the 1390s, and died there on Feb 3, 1468.  He is recognized for his contributions to the technology of [[printing]], including a [[type metal]] alloy and oil-based inks, and a new kind of press based on those used in winemaking.  He has also traditionally been credited with inventing the "punch matrix" method of making type from metal molds, but recent analysis of older printed texts suggest that this method was discovered by someone else.
3c3,5
< His name is found in the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]] and in [[Project Gutenberg]]
---
> Though printed texts were well known to the Chinese and Koreans at the time, it is unclear whether Gutenberg know of these techniques or invented them independently.  Gutenberg's methods were also more efficient, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe, in large part due to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first to be mass produced, in 1455.  The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are the oldest surviving printed books.
> 
> His name is found in the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]] and in [[Project Gutenberg]].
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989884600
1c1
< German metal worker and inventor Johannes Gensfleich zur Laden zum Gutenberg was born in Mainz, sometime in the 1390s, and died there on Feb 3, 1468.  He is recognized for his contributions to the technology of [[printing]], including a [[type metal]] alloy and oil-based inks, and a new kind of press based on those used in winemaking.  He has also traditionally been credited with inventing the "punch matrix" method of making type from metal molds, but recent analysis of older printed texts suggest that this method was discovered by someone else.
---
> German metal worker and inventor '''Johannes Gensfleich zur Laden zum Gutenberg''' was born in Mainz, sometime in the 1390s, and died there on Feb 3, 1468.  He is recognized for his contributions to the technology of [[printing]], including a [[type metal]] alloy and oil-based inks, and a new kind of press based on those used in winemaking.  He has also traditionally been credited with inventing the "punch matrix" method of making type from metal molds, but recent analysis of older printed texts suggest that this method was discovered by someone else.
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989884645
3c3
< Though printed texts were well known to the Chinese and Koreans at the time, it is unclear whether Gutenberg know of these techniques or invented them independently.  Gutenberg's methods were also more efficient, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe, in large part due to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first to be mass produced, in 1455.  The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are the oldest surviving printed books.
---
> Though printed texts were well known to the Chinese and Koreans at the time, it is unclear whether Gutenberg knew of these techniques or invented them independently.  Gutenberg's methods were also more efficient, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe, in large part due to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first to be mass produced, in 1455.  The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are the oldest surviving printed books.
------
Johann_Gutenberg|989884665
3c3
< Though printed texts were well known to the Chinese and Koreans at the time, it is unclear whether Gutenberg knew of these techniques or invented them independently.  Gutenberg's methods were also more efficient, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe, in large part due to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first to be mass produced, in 1455.  The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are the oldest surviving printed books.
---
> Though printed texts were well known to the Chinese and Koreans at the time, it is unclear whether Gutenberg knew of these techniques or invented them independently.  Gutenberg's methods were certainly more efficient, leading to a boom in the production of texts in Europe, in large part due to the popularity of the Gutenberg Bibles, the first to be mass produced, in 1455.  The Gutenberg Bibles surviving today are the oldest surviving printed books.
------
Printing_press|989885896
1c1
< The printing press was invented by [[Johann Gutenberg]] in the mid [[15th century]].
---
> The '''printing press''' is a mechanical device for producing many copies of a text on paper.  German craftsman [[Johann Gutenberg]] is often credited with its invention in the 1450s, and he did make major contributions to the technology, but the press itself was previously known and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric.  Gutenberg refined the technique by inventing an oil-based ink and metal type, and by using "rag" [[paper]] introduced into Europe from China by way of Muslims.  Before Gutenberg's press, the Chinese and Koreans produced printed texts (such as Buddhist scriptures) from individually carved wooden or clay blocks, processes much more efficient than hand copying but not as efficient as Gutenberg's press.  It is for this reason that mass production of printed works flourished after with the invention of Gutenberg's press.
3c3
< Inventions are hard to define.  Some would say the Chinese invented the printing press long before Gutenberg.
---
> Inventions in this field after Gutenberg include:
5,10c5,8
< The next big inventions in this field after Gutenberg were:
< 
< *the steam-powered [[rotary press
< *the [[offset printing press]]
< *[[desktop publishing]]
< *[[electronic publishing]] (on CD-ROM or online)
---
> *The steam-powered [[rotary press]]
> *The [[offset printing press]]
> *[[Desktop publishing]]
> *[[Electronic publishing]] (on CD-ROM or online)
------
Printing_press|989885908
1c1
< The '''printing press''' is a mechanical device for producing many copies of a text on paper.  German craftsman [[Johann Gutenberg]] is often credited with its invention in the 1450s, and he did make major contributions to the technology, but the press itself was previously known and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric.  Gutenberg refined the technique by inventing an oil-based ink and metal type, and by using "rag" [[paper]] introduced into Europe from China by way of Muslims.  Before Gutenberg's press, the Chinese and Koreans produced printed texts (such as Buddhist scriptures) from individually carved wooden or clay blocks, processes much more efficient than hand copying but not as efficient as Gutenberg's press.  It is for this reason that mass production of printed works flourished after with the invention of Gutenberg's press.
---
> The '''printing press''' is a mechanical device for producing many copies of a text on paper.  German craftsman [[Johann Gutenberg]] is often credited with its invention in the 1450s, and he did make major contributions to the technology, but the press itself was previously known and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric.  Gutenberg refined the technique by inventing an oil-based ink and metal type, and by using "rag" [[paper]] introduced into Europe from China by way of Muslims.  Before Gutenberg's press, the Chinese and Koreans produced printed texts (such as Buddhist scriptures) from individually carved wooden or clay blocks, processes much more efficient than hand copying but not as efficient as Gutenberg's press.  It is for this reason that mass production of printed works flourished after the invention of Gutenberg's press.
------
The_Goon_Show|989907615
3c3
< Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Larry Stephens]] under the watchfull eye of [[Jimmy Grafton]](KOGVOS-Keeper Of The Goons and Voice Of Sanity) .
---
> Devised and written [[Spike Milligan]] and [[Larry Stephens]] under the watchful eye of [[Jimmy Grafton]](KOGVOS-Keeper Of The Goons and Voice Of Sanity) .
------
Hudsons_Bay_Company|989907704
1c1
< Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into Hudson Bay in [[Canada]] . In 1821, the North West Company of Montréal and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
---
> Hudson's Bay Company was an English corporation formed in 1670 which held a monopoly over trade in the region watered by streams flowing into [[Hudson Bay]] in [[Canada]] . In 1821, the [[North West Company]] of [[Montreal|Montréal]] and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a license to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. In 1859 the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any entrepreneur.
------
CliffordAdams|989907836
1c1
< Cliff is the author of the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual Obfuscated Perl contest.  See his [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.  He can be contacted at [mailto:caadams@usemod.com caadams@usemod.com].
---
> Cliff is the author of the [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/wiki.pl UseMod wiki clone].  He is also a winner of the Third Annual [[Obfuscated Perl contest]].  See his [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?CliffordAdams home page on Meatball] for more information.  He can be contacted at [mailto:caadams@usemod.com caadams@usemod.com].
------
Project_Gutenberg|989908164
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Project Gutenberg is a project started by [[Michael Hart]] to provide electronic versions of free texts online. [[Copyright]] expires a number of years after the death of the author of a work, and after that anyone can redistribute the work freely. Project Gutenberg takes advantage of this, making electronic versions of books by authors that have been dead long enough. The exakt number of years required varies depending on the country, but the standard in [[Europe]] is 70 years.
> 
> See also
> * The Project Gutenberg web site, http://www.gutenberg.org/
> * [[Projekt Runeberg]], a similar project for the [[Nordic]] languages
------
Tycho_Brahe|989908454
1c1,3
< Danish (Swedish) [[astronomer]].
---
> Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was a Danish (Swedish) [[astronomer]]. He had an observatory called [[Uranienborg]] on the island [[Ven]] between [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]].
> 
> While a student, he lost part of his nose in a duel. For the rest of his life, he wore a [[silver]] replacement.
------
Peter_Nilson|989908555
3c3
< Compiled a catalog of galaxies. Much appreciated both for a number of essay books (primarily about science) and for a couple of [[science fiction]] novels.
---
> Compiled a catalog of galaxies. Much appreciated both for a number of essay books (primarily about science) and for a couple of [[science fiction]] novels ([[/Rymdvaktaren|Rymdväktaren]] (The Space Guardian) and [[/Nyaga|Nyaga]]).
------
Project_Gutenberg|989908879
1c1
< Project Gutenberg is a project started by [[Michael Hart]] to provide electronic versions of free texts online. [[Copyright]] expires a number of years after the death of the author of a work, and after that anyone can redistribute the work freely. Project Gutenberg takes advantage of this, making electronic versions of books by authors that have been dead long enough. The exakt number of years required varies depending on the country, but the standard in [[Europe]] is 70 years.
---
> '''Project Gutenberg''' was started by [[Michael Hart]] to provide free electronic versions of texts online.  The texts provided are in the [[public domain]], mostly because their [[copyright]]s have expired, but they also archive some texts that have never been copyrighted.  They concentrate on historically significant literature and reference works.
5c5
< * [[Projekt Runeberg]], a similar project for the [[Nordic]] languages
---
> * [[Projekt Runeberg]], a similar project for the [[Nordic]] languages
------
Comets|989909067
5c5
< It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Tycho Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Isaac Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as Halley's comet, and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like, Halley's comet, it is named after the calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get there names after the discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded apparitions than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. Sofar, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
---
> It was not settled whether comets are atmospheric phenomena or interplanetary objects until the 16th century, when [[Tycho Brahe]] measured that they must be outside of the Earth's atmosphere. In the 17th century, [[Edmond Halley]] used the gravitation theory, recently developed by [[Isaac Newton]] to try to calculate the [[orbit]]s of comets. He then found that one of them periodically came back to the vicinity of the sun every 76-77th year. Soon this comet became known as [[Halleys comet|Halley's comet]], and from ancient sources it is known to have been observed by humans at least since 66 BC. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit, was Encke's comet, in 1821. Like Halley's comet, it is named after its calculator, the German mathematician and physicist [[Johann Franz Encke]], that found it to be a periodic comet. Usually, comets get their names after their discoverer(s). Encke's comet has the shortest period of any comet, only 3.3 years and, because of this, more recorded appearances than any other comet. It was also the first comet whose orbit was noticed to be influenced by non-gravitional forces (see below). Although it is now usually to faint to be visible with the naked eye, it may have been a bright comet a few thousand years ago. So far, it is not known to have been observed before 1786. Maybe an improved analysis of its orbit before that will find that it actually is noted in ancient sources.
7,11c7
< The actual nature of comets were speculated over for centuries. In the early 19th century, another German mathematician, [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], was on the right track. He made theory about the brightness of the comets coming from the evaporation from a solid object and that the non-gravitational forces of comet Encke were caused by the [[jetforce]]s created as the material evaporated from the surface of the object. His idea was forgotten for more than 100 years, before [[Whipple]] indepently proposed the same idea in 1950. It soon became the accepted comet model and was confirmed when an armada of spacecrafts flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 and photographed the nucleus and the jets of evaporating material.
< 
< ----
< 
< please use full name for links to scientists.  Who was Whipple?  The same [[George Hoyt Whipple]] who got the 1934 Nobel Prize for medicine?
---
> The actual nature of comets were speculated over for centuries. In the early 19th century, another German mathematician, [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], was on the right track. He made a theory about the brightness of the comets coming from the evaporation from a solid object and that the non-gravitational forces of comet Encke were caused by the [[jetforce]]s created as the material evaporated from the surface of the object. His idea was forgotten for more than 100 years, before [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] independently proposed the same idea in 1950. It soon became the accepted comet model and was confirmed when an armada of spacecrafts flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 and photographed the nucleus and the jets of evaporating material.
------
Swiss_cheese|989909136
2c2,4
< semi-hard to hard, have a strong flavor, and most distinguishing - have holes. 
---
> semi-hard to hard, have a strong flavor, and some have holes.
> 
> There are (among others): Emmentaler, Greyerzer, Appenzeller, Tilsiter, Bündner Bergkäse, Vacherin, Mutschli, Tete de Moine, Sbrinz, and Gruyere. 
------
Printing_press|989909167
1c1
< The '''printing press''' is a mechanical device for producing many copies of a text on paper.  German craftsman [[Johann Gutenberg]] is often credited with its invention in the 1450s, and he did make major contributions to the technology, but the press itself was previously known and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric.  Gutenberg refined the technique by inventing an oil-based ink and metal type, and by using "rag" [[paper]] introduced into Europe from China by way of Muslims.  Before Gutenberg's press, the Chinese and Koreans produced printed texts (such as Buddhist scriptures) from individually carved wooden or clay blocks, processes much more efficient than hand copying but not as efficient as Gutenberg's press.  It is for this reason that mass production of printed works flourished after the invention of Gutenberg's press.
---
> The '''printing press''' is a mechanical device for producing many copies of a text on paper.  German craftsman [[Johann Gutenberg]] is often credited with its invention in the 1450s, and he did make major contributions to the technology, but the press itself was previously known and used by European textile makers to print patterns on fabric.  Gutenberg refined the technique by inventing an oil-based ink and [[metal type]], and by using "rag" [[paper]] introduced into [[Europe]] from [[China]] by way of [[Muslims]].  Before Gutenberg's press, the Chinese and Koreans produced printed texts (such as [[Buddhist]] scriptures) from individually carved wooden or clay blocks, processes much more efficient than hand copying but not as efficient as Gutenberg's press.  It is for this reason that mass production of printed works flourished after the invention of Gutenberg's press.
------
Swiss_cheese|989909359
4c4
< There are (among others): Emmentaler, Greyerzer, Appenzeller, Tilsiter, Bündner Bergkäse, Vacherin, Mutschli, Tete de Moine, Sbrinz, and Gruyere. 
---
> There are (among others): [[/Emmentaler|Emmentaler]], [[/Greyerzer|Greyerzer]], [[/Appenzeller|Appenzeller]], [[/Tilsiter]], [[/Bundner Bergkase|Bündner Bergkäse]], [[/Vacherin|Tilsiter]], [[/Mutschli|Mutschli]], [[/Tete de Moine|Tete de Moine]], [[/Sbrinz|Sbrinz]], and [[/Gruyere|Gruyere]]. 
------
Propaganda_film|989918406
0a1,5
> *[[Reefer Madness]]
> *[[Triumph of the Will]]
> 
> For a hilarious and horrifying subversion of the United States military's 1960s propaganda regarding the safety of radioactive materials, see [[The Atomic Cafe]].
> 
------
WWF|989922123
10a11,13
> 
> ----
> <b>Also see [[World Wrestling Federation]]</b>
------
United_Kingdom|989922874
5c5
< It is a representative democracy (but also a [[monarchy]])
---
> The United Kingdom uses a form of [[democracy]] known as a [[constitutional monarchy]] and is
------
United_Kingdom|989923005
8,75c8
<  '''British [[Monarch|Monarchs]]'''
< 
<  [[Egbert]], King of Wessex 802-839
<  [[Ethelwulf]]	839-856
<  [[Ethelbald]]  856-860
<  [[Ethelbert]]	860-866
<  [[Ethelred]]  866-871
<  [[Alfred the Great]]  871-899
<  [[Edward the Elder]]  899-924
<  [[Athelstan]]	924-939
<  [[Edmund I]]  939-946
<  [[Edred]]  946-955
<  [[Edwy]]  955-959
<  [[King Edgar|Edgar]]  959-975
<  [[Edward II]] the Martyr  975-979
<  [[Ethelred the Unready]]  979-1013 and 1014-1016
<  [[Sweyn]]  1013-1014
<  [[Edmund II Ironside]]  Apr-Nov 1016
<  [[Canute the Great]]  1016-1035
<  [[Harold Harefoot]]  1037-1040
<  [[Hardicanute]]  1040-1042
<  [[Edward the Confessor]]  1042-1066
<  [[Harold II]]	  Jan-Oct 1066
<  [[Edgar Atheling]]  Oct-Dec 1066
<  [[William the Conqueror]]  1066-1087
<  [[William II Rufus]]  1087-1100
<  [[Henry I Beauclerc]]  1100-1135
<  [[Stephen]]  1135-1154
<  [[Henry II Curtmantle]]  1154-1189
<  [[Richard Coeur de Lion]]  1189-1199
<  [[John Lackland]]  1199-1216
<  [[Henry III]]	  1216-1272
<  [[Edward I Longshanks]]  1272-1307
<  [[Edward II]]	  1307-1327
<  [[Edward III]]  1327-1377
<  [[Richard II]]  1377-1399
<  [[Henry IV]]  1399-1413
<  [[Henry V]]  1413-1422
<  [[Henry VI]]  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
<  [[Edward IV]]	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
<  [[Edward V]]  Apr-June 1483
<  [[Richard III]] 1483-1485
<  [[Henry VII]]	1485-1509
<  [[Henry VIII]] 1509-1547
<  [[Edward VI]]	1547-1553
<  [[Queen Jane|Jane]]  1553
<  [[Mary I]]  1553-1558
<  [[Elizabeth I]] 1558-1603
<  [[James I]]  1603-1625
<  [[Charles I]]	 1625-1649
<  [[Charles II]]  1649-1685
<  [[James II]]  1685-1689
<  [[Mary II]] & William III  jointly 1689-1694
<  [[William III]]  1694-1702
<  [[Queen Anne|Anne]]  1702-1714
<  [[George I]]  1714-1727
<  [[George II]]  1727-1760
<  [[George III]]  1760-1820
<  [[George IV]]	 1820-1830
<  [[William IV]]  1830-1837
<  [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]  1837-1901
<  [[Edward VII]]  1901-1910
<  [[George V]]  1910-1936
<  [[Edward VIII]]  Jan-Dec 1936
<  [[George VI]]  1936-1952	
<  [[Elizabeth II]]  1952-
< 
< Current line of succession: Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince Harry, Prince Andrew
---
> * [[/Monarchs|Monarchs]]
------
United_Kingdom/Monarchs|989923056
1c1,68
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>British [[Monarch|Monarchs]]</b>
> 
>  [[Egbert]], King of Wessex 802-839
>  [[Ethelwulf]]	839-856
>  [[Ethelbald]]  856-860
>  [[Ethelbert]]	860-866
>  [[Ethelred]]  866-871
>  [[Alfred the Great]]  871-899
>  [[Edward the Elder]]  899-924
>  [[Athelstan]]	924-939
>  [[Edmund I]]  939-946
>  [[Edred]]  946-955
>  [[Edwy]]  955-959
>  [[King Edgar|Edgar]]  959-975
>  [[Edward II]] the Martyr  975-979
>  [[Ethelred the Unready]]  979-1013 and 1014-1016
>  [[Sweyn]]  1013-1014
>  [[Edmund II Ironside]]  Apr-Nov 1016
>  [[Canute the Great]]  1016-1035
>  [[Harold Harefoot]]  1037-1040
>  [[Hardicanute]]  1040-1042
>  [[Edward the Confessor]]  1042-1066
>  [[Harold II]]	  Jan-Oct 1066
>  [[Edgar Atheling]]  Oct-Dec 1066
>  [[William the Conqueror]]  1066-1087
>  [[William II Rufus]]  1087-1100
>  [[Henry I Beauclerc]]  1100-1135
>  [[Stephen]]  1135-1154
>  [[Henry II Curtmantle]]  1154-1189
>  [[Richard Coeur de Lion]]  1189-1199
>  [[John Lackland]]  1199-1216
>  [[Henry III]]	  1216-1272
>  [[Edward I Longshanks]]  1272-1307
>  [[Edward II]]	  1307-1327
>  [[Edward III]]  1327-1377
>  [[Richard II]]  1377-1399
>  [[Henry IV]]  1399-1413
>  [[Henry V]]  1413-1422
>  [[Henry VI]]  1422-1461 and 1470-1471
>  [[Edward IV]]	  1461-1470 and 1471-1483
>  [[Edward V]]  Apr-June 1483
>  [[Richard III]] 1483-1485
>  [[Henry VII]]	1485-1509
>  [[Henry VIII]] 1509-1547
>  [[Edward VI]]	1547-1553
>  [[Queen Jane|Jane]]  1553
>  [[Mary I]]  1553-1558
>  [[Elizabeth I]] 1558-1603
>  [[James I]]  1603-1625
>  [[Charles I]]	 1625-1649
>  [[Charles II]]  1649-1685
>  [[James II]]  1685-1689
>  [[Mary II]] & William III  jointly 1689-1694
>  [[William III]]  1694-1702
>  [[Queen Anne|Anne]]  1702-1714
>  [[George I]]  1714-1727
>  [[George II]]  1727-1760
>  [[George III]]  1760-1820
>  [[George IV]]	 1820-1830
>  [[William IV]]  1830-1837
>  [[Queen Victoria|Victoria]]  1837-1901
>  [[Edward VII]]  1901-1910
>  [[George V]]  1910-1936
>  [[Edward VIII]]  Jan-Dec 1936
>  [[George VI]]  1936-1952	
>  [[Elizabeth II]]  1952-
> 
> Current line of succession: Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince Harry, Prince Andrew
------
United_Kingdom|989923662
1,3c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Cornwall]]* and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
< 
< * Corwall is a county in England. Historically the Cornish are distinct from the English though Cornwall's official status is no different to that of any other county in England.
---
> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Cornwall]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
6c4
< governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in [[1953]].
---
> governed from its [[capital]], [[United_Kingdom/London|London]]. It is also a member of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. The UK's head of state is Queen [[Elizabeth II]] who was crowned in [[1953]].
------
JRR_Tolkien/Bilbo_Baggins|989925295
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bilbo Baggins is a [[/Hobbit|hobbit]] and the main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]s [[/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]]. He also has a small (but important) part in [[/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]].
> 
> See also [[/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]].
------
JRR_Tolkien|989925582
4c4
< His children's book, [[/The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[/The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
---
> His children's book, [[/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]] (1937), achieved popularity; his most famous work was the richly inventive epic trilogy [[/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]] (1954-55), which, though using a couple of characters from the Hobbit, was intended for a much older audience, drawing upon the immense back-story of Middle Earth that he had constructed. Originally The Lord of the Rings was intended as a straight sequel to The Hobbit, but as the work grew it became clear that it wouldn't be.
9,17c9,17
< * 1937 [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit]]
< * 1947 [[JRR Tolkien/Leaf by Niggle]]
< * 1949 [[JRR Tolkien/Farmer Giles of Ham]]
< * 1962 [[JRR Tolkien/The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book
< * 1964 [[JRR Tolkien/Tree and Leaf]]
< * 1967 [[JRR Tolkien/Smith of Wootton Major]]
< * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]]
< * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]]
< * 1955 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]
---
> * 1937 [[JRR Tolkien/The Hobbit|The Hobbit]]
> * 1947 [[JRR Tolkien/Leaf by Niggle|Leaf by Niggle]]
> * 1949 [[JRR Tolkien/Farmer Giles of Ham|Farmer Giles of Ham]]
> * 1962 [[JRR Tolkien/The Adventures of Tom Bombadil|The Adventures of Tom Bombadil]] and Other Verses from the Red Book
> * 1964 [[JRR Tolkien/Tree and Leaf|Tree and Leaf]]
> * 1967 [[JRR Tolkien/Smith of Wootton Major|Smith of Wootton Major]]
> * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring|The Fellowship of the Ring]]
> * 1954 [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers|The Two Towers]]
> * 1955 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King|The Return of the King]]
20,22c20,22
< * 1976 [[JRR Tolkien/The Father Christmas Letters]]
< * 1980 [[JRR Tolkien/Poems and Other Stories]]
< * 1982 [[JRR Tolkien/Mr. Bliss]]
---
> * 1976 [[JRR Tolkien/The Father Christmas Letters|The Father Christmas Letters]]
> * 1980 [[JRR Tolkien/Poems and Other Stories|Poems and Other Stories]]
> * 1982 [[JRR Tolkien/Mr Bliss|Mr. Bliss]]
24c24
< Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien]] together with fantasy writer [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]] (1977).
---
> Tolkien continued to work upon the history of Middle Earth until his death. His son [[Christopher Tolkien]] together with fantasy writer [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] organised some of this material into one volume, published as [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion|The Silmarillion]] (1977).
29,34c29,34
< * 1977 [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion]] (with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]])
< * 1983 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 1]]
< * 1984 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 2]]
< * 1985 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lays of Beleriand]]
< * 1986 [[JRR Tolkien/The Shaping of Middle-Earth]]
< * 1987 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lost Road and Other Writings]]
---
> * 1977 [[JRR Tolkien/The Silmarillion|The Silmarillion]] (with [[Guy Gavriel Kay]])
> * 1983 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 1|The Book of Lost Tales 1]]
> * 1984 [[JRR Tolkien/The Book of Lost Tales 2|The Book of Lost Tales 2]]
> * 1985 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lays of Beleriand|The Lays of Beleriand]]
> * 1986 [[JRR Tolkien/The Shaping of MiddleEarth|The Shaping of Middle-Earth]]
> * 1987 [[JRR Tolkien/The Lost Road and Other Writings|The Lost Road and Other Writings]]
37,40c37,40
< * 1988 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the Shadow]]
< * 1989 [[JRR Tolkien/The Treason of Isengard]]
< * 1990 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Ring]]
< * 1992 [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron Defeated]]
---
> * 1988 [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the Shadow|The Return of the Shadow]]
> * 1989 [[JRR Tolkien/The Treason of Isengard|The Treason of Isengard]]
> * 1990 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Ring|The War of the Ring]]
> * 1992 [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron Defeated|Sauron Defeated]]
43,44c43,44
< * 1993 [[JRR Tolkien/Morgoth's Ring]]
< * 1994 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Jewels]]
---
> * 1993 [[JRR Tolkien/Morgoths Ring|Morgoth's Ring]]
> * 1994 [[JRR Tolkien/The War of the Jewels|The War of the Jewels]]
46c46
< See The Encyclopedia of [[Arda]]
---
> See The Encyclopedia of [[/Arda|Arda]]
------
JRR_Tolkien/Frodo_Baggins|989925662
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[JRR Tolkien/Hobbits|hobbits]] are pacifists and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
> 
> See also: [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
------
Frodo_Baggins|989925903
1,4c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[Hobbits]] are pacifists
< and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
< 
< See also: [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins]]
------
FrodoBaggins|989925948
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Frodo Baggins]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins]]
------
JRR_Tolkien/Frodo_Baggins|989926135
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[JRR Tolkien/Hobbits|hobbits]] are pacifists and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[/hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[JRR Tolkien/Hobbits|hobbits]] are pacifists and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
------
JRR_Tolkien/Hobbits|989926272
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the fictional races in [[/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]].
> 
> Hobbits were essentially short, hairy footed versions of humans and lived in a part of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] called [[/The Shire|The Shire]].
> 
> Some well-known hobbits:
> * [[/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
> * [[/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] 
------
Hobbits|989926406
1,4c1
< One of the fictional races in [[The Lord of the Rings]].
< 
< 
< Hobbits were essentially short, hairy footed versions of humans and lived in a part of [[Middle Earth]] called [[The Shire]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[JRR Tolkien/Hobbits]]
------
Seafood|989926563
5c5
< * [[Fiskpinnar]]? usually made of [[Cod]] or [[Sej]]?
---
> * [[Fish fingers]] usually made of [[Cod]] or [[Sej]]?
------
James_Joyce|989926926
5,8c5,8
< *Portrait of an Artist as a Young Man
< *Ulysses
< *Finnegan's Wake
< *Dubliners
---
> * [[James Joyce/A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man|A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]
> * [[James Joyce/Ulysses|Ulysses]]
> * [[James Joyce/Finnegans Wake|Finnegan's Wake]]
> * [[James Joyce/Dubliners|Dubliners]]
------
William_Gibson|989927201
1c1
< William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of [[science fiction]] and the leader of the cyberpunk movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer simulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are the short story collection `Burning Chrome', and the novels Neuromancer, Count Zero, Mona Lisa Overdrive, The Difference Engine (with Bruce Sterling), Virtual Light, Idoru, All Tomorrow's Parties. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards (Nebula, [[Hugo award|Hugo]], and Philip K. Dick).
---
> William Gibson (1948 - ), is an American writer of [[science fiction]] and one of the leaders of the [[cyberpunk]] movement. His works are usually composed of futuristic stories about the influences of cybernetic and cyberspace (computer simulated reality) technology on human race living in a considerably near future. His books are the short story collection [[/Burning Chrome|Burning Chrome]], and the novels [[/Neuromancer|Neuromancer]], [[/Count Zero|Count Zero]], [[/Mona Lisa Overdrive|Mona Lisa Overdrive]], [[The Difference Engine]] (with [[Bruce Sterling]]), [[/Virtual Light|Virtual Light]], [[/Idoru|Idoru]], [[All Tomorrows Parties|All Tomorrow's Parties]]. Neuromancer won three major science-fiction awards ([[Nebula award|Nebula]], [[Hugo award|Hugo]], and [[PKD award|Philip K. Dick award]]).
------
Hugo_award|989927247
1c1
< Named for [[Hugo Gernsback]], the Hugo award is given every year for the best [[science fiction]] stories of the previous year. It is chosen by votes of science fiction fans themselves, at the World Science fiction Conventions.
---
> Named for [[Hugo Gernsback]], the Hugo award is given every year for the best [[science fiction]] stories of the previous year. It is chosen by votes of science fiction fans themselves, at the [[Worldcon|World Science fiction Conventions]].
------
JRR_Tolkien|989927849
6c6
< The Lord of the Rings was, judged both by sales and surveys of readers, one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century.
---
> The Lord of the Rings was, judged both by sales and surveys of readers, one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century. The influence of Tolkien lies heavy over the [[Fantasy]] genre that grew up after the success of The Lord of the Rings.
------
Fantasy|989927911
7c7,9
< See also [[science fiction]].
---
> See also 
> * [[Fantasy/authors]]
> * [[science fiction]]
------
Fantasy/authors|989928024
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some notable [[Fantasy]] authors are 
> 
> * [[JRR Tolkien]]
> * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
> * [[Michael Moorcock]]
> * [[C.S. Lewis]]
> * [[Stephen Donaldson]]
> * [[Terry Pratchett]]
> * [[Roger Zelazny]]
> * [[Fritz Leiber]]
> * [[H. P. Lovecraft]]
> * [[Mervyn Peake]]
> * [[Robert E. Howard]]
> 
> See also
> * [[Novelists]]
> * [[Science fiction/authors]]
------
Novelists|989928290
1,2d0
< * [[Douglas Adams]]
< * [[Isaac Asimov]]
6d3
< * [[Philip K. Dick]]
11,12d7
< * [[William Gibson]]
< * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
33a29
> * [[Bruce Sterling]]
38d33
< * [[JRR Tolkien]] 
41a37,40
> 
> See also
> * [[Science fiction/authors]]
> * [[Fantasy/authors]]
------
Novelists|989928382
17d16
< * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
29d27
< * [[Bruce Sterling]]
------
Science_fiction|989928545
3d2
< 
16c15
< Besides such acknowledged masters of the genre as Clarke, Heinlein, and Asimov, science fiction writers of notable merit in the postwar period included [[Michael Moorcock]], [[A.E. van Vogt]], [[J.G. Ballard]], [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Samuel R. Delany]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Frederik Pohl]], [[Octavia E. Butler]], and [[Brian Aldiss]]. These writers' approaches included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of interstellar travel, and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. Radio, television, and motion pictures have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
---
> Science fiction writers' work have included predictions of future societies on [[Earth]], analyses of the consequences of [[interstellar travel]], and imaginative explorations of forms of intelligent life and their societies in other worlds. [[Radio]], [[television]], and [[motion pictures]] have reinforced the popularity of the genre.
17a17,18
> * [[Novelists]]
> * [[Science fiction/authors]]
------
Science_fiction/authors|989928556
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Some notable [[science fiction]] authors are
> 
> * [[Douglas Adams]]
> * [[Brian Aldiss]]
> * [[Poul Anderson]]
> * [[Isaac Asimov]]
> * [[J.G. Ballard]]
> * [[Ray Bradbury]]
> * [[Octavia E. Butler]]
> * [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
> * [[Samuel R. Delany]]
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
> * [[Harlan Ellison]]
> * [[William Gibson]]
> * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
> * [[Frank Herbert]]
> * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
> * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * [[Frederik Pohl]]
> * [[Bruce Sterling]]
> * [[A.E. van Vogt]]
> 
> See also
> * [[Novelists]]
> * [[Fantasy/authors]]
------
The_A-Team|989928627
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cult [[1980s]] [[Television]] show about a group of ex us army commandos on the run from the military.
> 
> <b>Introduction</b>
> 
> *In 1972 a crack commando unit was sent to prison by a military court for a crime they didn't commit. These men promptly escaped from a maximum security stockade to the Los Angeles underground. Today still wanted by the government, they survive as soldiers of fortune. If you have a problem. If no one else can help, and if you can find them, maybe you can hire: THE A-TEAM
> 
> <b>Cast</b>
> 
> * <b>[[Dirk Benedict]]</b> - Lt. Templeton "Faceman" Peck
> * <b>[[George Peppard]]</b> - Col. John "Hannibal" Smith
> * <b>[[Mr. T]]</b> - Sgt. Bosco "Bad Attitude" Baracus
> * <b>[[Dwight Schultz]]</b> - Capt. "Howling Mad" Murdock
> 
> 
------
Mr._T|989928705
5c5
< Most notably, the star of [[1980s]] [[Television]] series The [[A-Team]]. Mr. T Starred ad BA Barraccus an ex army [[commando]]. He is the second to youngest of twelve children, he has four sisters and seven brothers and grew up     
---
> Most notably, the star of [[1980s]] [[Television]] series [[The A-Team]]. Mr. T Starred ad BA Barraccus an ex army [[commando]]. He is the second to youngest of twelve children, he has four sisters and seven brothers and grew up     
------
The_A-Team|989928908
1c1
< Cult [[1980s]] [[Television]] show about a group of ex us army commandos on the run from the military.
---
> Cult [[1980s]] [[Television]] show about a group of ex [[us army]] commandos on the run from the military.
5c5
< *In 1972 a crack commando unit was sent to prison by a military court for a crime they didn't commit. These men promptly escaped from a maximum security stockade to the Los Angeles underground. Today still wanted by the government, they survive as soldiers of fortune. If you have a problem. If no one else can help, and if you can find them, maybe you can hire: THE A-TEAM
---
> In 1972 a crack commando unit was sent to prison by a military court for a crime they didn't commit. They promptly escaped from a maximum security stockade to the [[Los Angeles]] underground. Today still wanted by the government, they survive as soldiers of fortune. If you have a problem. If no one else can help, and if you can find them, maybe you can hire: THE A-TEAM
------
Fantasy|989929083
9c9
< * [[science fiction]]
---
> * [[Science fiction]]
------
Fantasy|989929115
5,6d4
< Some notable authors are [[JRR Tolkien]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]], [[Michael Moorcock]], [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Stephen Donaldson]], [[Terry Pratchett]], [[Roger Zelazny]], [[Fritz Leiber]], [[H. P. Lovecraft]], [[Mervyn Peake]], and [[Robert E. Howard]].
< 
------
What_is_a_wiki|989929346
13c13,15
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> and this is all ?
------
Mr._T|989929835
19a20,55
> Mr. T Entered the world of pro [[wrestling]] in [[1985]]-[[1986]] and [[1994]]-[[1995]]. He was [[Hulk Hogan]]'s tag team partner at the first ever [[WrestleMania]]. He returned to the [[Word Wrestling Federation]] as a special guest referee in 1987, before disappearing from the [[wrestling]] world. He reappeared as a special referee for a Hogan-Ric Flair match, 7 years later in October [[1994]].
> 
> <b>Filmography</b>
> 
> * Apocalypse IV: Judgement ([[2001]]) .... JT Quincy 
> * Judgment ([[2000]]) .... J.T. Quincy 
> * Inspector Gadget ([[1999]]) .... Himself 
> * Saturday Night Live: The Best of Eddie Murphy ([[1998]]) (Video) .... Mister Robinson's Neighbor 
> * Spy Hard ([[1996]]) .... Helicopter Pilot 
> * Magic of the Golden Bear: Goldy III ([[1994]]) 
> * Freaked ([[1993]]) .... The Bearded Lady ([[1993]])
> * "T. and T." ([[1988]]) TV Series .... T.S. Turner 
> * Wrestlemania II ([[1986]]) (Video) .... Himself 
> * Wrestlemania ([[1985]]) (Video) .... Himself 
> * "WWF Superstars of Wrestling" ([[1984]]) TV Series .... Himself ([[1985]]-[[1986]], [[1988]]) 
> * Be Somebody or Be Somebody's Fool! ([[1984]]) (Video) .... Mr. T 
> * Toughest Man in the World, The ([[1984]]) (TV) .... Bruise Brubaker 
> * "Mister T" ([[1983]]) TV Series .... Himself 
> * D.C. Cab ([[1983]]) .... Samson 
> * "[[The A-Team]]" ([[1983]]) TV Series .... Sergeant Bosco 'B.A.' Baracus 
> * "Twilight Theatre" ([[1982]]) TV Series
> * Rocky III ([[1982]]) .... Clubber Lang 
> * Penitentiary II ([[1982]]) .... Himself 
> 
> <b>Personal Quotes</b>
> 
> * "I pity the fool..." [this has become his trademark] 
> * "As a kid, I got three meals a day. Oatmeal, miss-a-meal and no meal." 
> * "When I was growing up, my family was so poor we couldn't afford to pay attention." 
> * "I believe in the Golden Rule - The Man with the Gold... Rules." 
> 
> <b>Today</b>
> 
> Mr T. was diagnosed in [[1995]] with (the ironically named) T-cell [[lymphoma]]. He is currently living in Sherman Oaks, [[California]] and is single. Mr T still seeks acting jobs and has had small roles in several films. See the filmography above.
> 
> 
------
Liege|989929880
3c3
< ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]]. German name: '''Luettich'''
---
> ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]]. Called '''L&uuml;ttich''' in German and '''Luik''' in Dutch.
------
What_is_a_wiki|989930325
15c15
< and this is all ?
---
> and this is all ? Hallo Björn
------
PostCommunism|989930374
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the fall of [[Communism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] and Eastern Europe, many Communist parties in both Eastern and Western Europe reacted by changing their policies, which until then had been much governed by the example of the Soviet Union, and chose a more democratic and less radical course. This led to the post-Communistic parties, which are basically far left-wing [[Social democrats|Social democratic]] parties, and are a political power in countries such as [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and a number of former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
------
What_is_a_wiki|989930379
15c15
< and this is all ? Hallo Björn
---
> and this is all ? Hallo Björn, Hallo Alfred ;-))
------
Liege|989930380
3a4,9
> 
> Close to [[Vielle Montagne]].
> 
> ----
> Can anyone explain the geographic structure, counties, etc. in Belgium?
> 
------
Communism|989930408
10c10,14
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
> 
> See also:
> 
> [[Socialism]]
------
Liege|989930425
5c5
< Close to [[Vielle Montagne]].
---
> Close to [[Vieille Montagne]].
------
Socialism|989930455
9c9,19
< See also [[Communism]]; [[Anarchism]]; [[Liberalism]]; [[Syndicalism]]; [[Karl Marx]]; [[Friedrich Engels]]; [[Georg Hegel]]; [[Welfare State]].
---
> See also:
> [[Communism]]
> [[Social democrats]]
> [[Post-Communism]]
> [[Anarchism]]
> [[Liberalism]]
> [[Syndicalism]]
> [[Karl Marx]]
> [[Friedrich Engels]]
> [[Georg Hegel]]
> [[Welfare State]].
------
PostCommunism|989930507
1c1
< After the fall of [[Communism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] and Eastern Europe, many Communist parties in both Eastern and Western Europe reacted by changing their policies, which until then had been much governed by the example of the Soviet Union, and chose a more democratic and less radical course. This led to the post-Communistic parties, which are basically far left-wing [[Social democrats|Social democratic]] parties, and are a political power in countries such as [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and a number of former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
---
> After the fall of [[Communism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] and Eastern Europe, many Communist parties in both Eastern and Western Europe reacted by changing their policies, which until then had been much governed by the example of the Soviet Union, and chose a more democratic and less radical course. This led to the post-Communistic parties, which are basically far left-wing [[Social Democrats|Social democratic]] parties, and are a political power in countries such as [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and a number of former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
------
Socialism|989930532
11,12c11,12
< [[Social democrats]]
< [[Post-Communism]]
---
> [[Social Democrats]]
> [[Post Communism]]
------
Vieille_Montagne|989930547
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Town in [[Belgium]] close to [[Liege]], known for its [[zinc]] mine.  The town's name is French for "the old mountain", and this is reflected in the town's German name, [[Altenberg]].
> 
> The mining company of Vieille Montagne also owns a zinc mine in [[Zinkgruvan]] in Sweden.
> 
> 
------
Socialism|989930598
1c1
< ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  Extreme forms of this are commonly called ''[[communism]]'', though philosophers (particularly [[Marxist]] philosophers) reserve that to mean the final, stateless stage in the supposed progression of a socialist society.  There are also mixed governmental forms popularly called socialism.  Communism at one extreme, and at the other those who  wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise and are called, for example in [[Germany]], ''[[social democrat]]s''.  Indeed, there have been dozens of different terms for different kinds of socialism.  See: [we need a list, here!].
---
> ''Socialism'' is the view that the state is responsible for an equitable distribution of wealth and for controlling the means of production and distribution of resources in an economy.  Extreme forms of this are commonly called ''[[communism]]'', though philosophers (particularly [[Marxist]] philosophers) reserve that to mean the final, stateless stage in the supposed progression of a socialist society.  There are also mixed governmental forms popularly called socialism.  Communism at one extreme, and at the other those who  wish to permit some amount of (highly regulated) private enterprise and are called, for example in [[Germany]], ''[[Social Democrats]]''.  Indeed, there have been dozens of different terms for different kinds of socialism.
12c12
< [[Post Communism]]
---
> [[PostCommunism|Post-Communism]]
------
Socialism|989930634
10,19c10,19
< [[Communism]]
< [[Social Democrats]]
< [[PostCommunism|Post-Communism]]
< [[Anarchism]]
< [[Liberalism]]
< [[Syndicalism]]
< [[Karl Marx]]
< [[Friedrich Engels]]
< [[Georg Hegel]]
< [[Welfare State]].
---
> * [[Communism]]
> * [[Social Democrats]]
> * [[PostCommunism|Post-Communism]]
> * [[Anarchism]]
> * [[Liberalism]]
> * [[Syndicalism]]
> * [[Karl Marx]]
> * [[Friedrich Engels]]
> * [[Georg Hegel]]
> * [[Welfare State]].
------
Zinc|989930647
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zinc is a [[metal]], mined in [[Vieille Montagne]] and [[Zinkgruvan]].
> 
> 
------
Altenberg|989930689
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Altenberg is the German name for the city [[Vieille Montagne]] in [[Belgium]].
> 
> 
------
Metal|989930868
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Metal is any of a group of basic elements and [[alloy]]s known for their ability to conduct electricity.  See the [[periodic table]]
> 
> Some famous metals are (in alphabetic order):
> 
> [[Bronze]],
> [[Copper]],
> [[Gold]],
> [[Iron]],
> [[Silver]],
> [[Steel]],
> [[Zinc]]
> 
------
Iron|989930995
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Iron is a basic element and a [[metal]] made from [[iron ore]], closely related to [[steel]].
> 
> The word iron is also used for a tool made from this metal, e.g. a [[soldering iron]].
> 
> Used as verb, to iron is to use a flat iron to flatten clothes and other textiles.
> 
> 
------
What_is_a_wiki|989931066
15c15
< and this is all ? Hallo Björn, Hallo Alfred ;-))
---
> 
------
Steel|989931114
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Steel is a [[metal]] that consists mainly of [[iron]] and shares most of its features.
> 
> There is also [[stainless steel]], which does not rust, and isn't magnetic.  It is an alloy of iron with [[chrome]] and [[vanadium]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Liberalism|989931129
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Liberalism is a political current which regards freedom as the most important thing and as such rejects large government influences. Ethically, liberals prefer to have the person decide his or her ethics himself or herself, without government influence. Government should only forbid behaviours that have a substantial negative impact on others. Economically, liberals are in favor of a [[Free Market Economy]], again with as little as possible influence from government. In their opinion, everyone doing what (s)he thinks is best, is the best way to ensure that the total outcome is best for all. The opponents of liberals are [[Conservatism|Conservatives]] in the ethical range and [[Socialism|Socialists]] in the economical.
> 
> Strangely, in the US the term 'liberal' most often is used for people who want a larger rather than a smaller government influence in economy.
------
Vieille_Montagne|989931146
3c3
< The mining company of Vieille Montagne also owns a zinc mine in [[Zinkgruvan]] in Sweden.
---
> The mining company of Vieille Montagne also owns a zinc mine in [[Zinkgruvan]] in [[Sweden]].
------
Economic_Calculation_Problem|989931208
1c1
< The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics.  It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in 1920.  Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of socialism, and that it shows why a socialist command economy could never work.  They also believe that all attempts to refute this criticism have failed.
---
> The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics.  It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in 1920.  Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of socialism, and that it shows why a socialist command economy could never work.
------
JRR_Tolkien/Hobbits|989931236
3c3
< Hobbits were essentially short, hairy footed versions of humans and lived in a part of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] called [[/The Shire|The Shire]].
---
> Hobbits were essentially short, hairy footed versions of humans and lived in a part of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] called [[/The Shire|The Shire]]. Hobbits loved the comforts of home and a good smoke.
7c7
< * [[/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] 
---
> * [[/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] 
------
Vanadium|989931236
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Vanadium is a [[metal]] used in [[alloy]]s with [[iron]] and [[chrome]] to form [[stainless steel]].
> 
> 
------
Stainless_steel|989931303
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stainless steel is a [[metal]], a form of [[steel]] that doesn't [[rust]] and most often isn't [[magnetic]].  Stainless steel is typically an alloy of [[iron]] with [[chrome]] and [[vanadium]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Iron|989931317
5c5
< Used as verb, to iron is to use a flat iron to flatten clothes and other textiles.
---
> Used as a verb, to iron is to use a flat iron to flatten clothes and other textiles.
------
Copper|989931392
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Copper is a [[metal]] of red color.  [[Copper oxide]] is green.
> 
> 
------
Liberalism|989931489
1c1
< Liberalism is a political current which regards freedom as the most important thing and as such rejects large government influences. Ethically, liberals prefer to have the person decide his or her ethics himself or herself, without government influence. Government should only forbid behaviours that have a substantial negative impact on others. Economically, liberals are in favor of a [[Free Market Economy]], again with as little as possible influence from government. In their opinion, everyone doing what (s)he thinks is best, is the best way to ensure that the total outcome is best for all. The opponents of liberals are [[Conservatism|Conservatives]] in the ethical range and [[Socialism|Socialists]] in the economical.
---
> Liberalism is a political current which regards freedom as the most important thing and as such rejects large [[government]] influences. Ethically, liberals prefer to have the person decide his or her ethics himself or herself, without government influence. Government should only forbid behaviours that have a substantial negative impact on others. Economically, liberals are in favor of a [[Free Market Economy]], again with as little influence from government as possible. In their opinion, everyone doing what (s)he thinks is best, is the best way to ensure that the total outcome is best for all. The opponents of liberals are [[Conservatism|Conservatives]] in the ethical range and [[Socialism|Socialists]] in the economical.
3c3
< Strangely, in the US the term 'liberal' most often is used for people who want a larger rather than a smaller government influence in economy.
---
> Strangely, in the [[US]] the term 'liberal' most often is used for people who want a larger rather than a smaller government influence in [[economy]].
------
Economic_Calculation_Problem|989931565
1c1
< The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics.  It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in 1920.  Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of socialism, and that it shows why a socialist command economy could never work.
---
> The economic calculation problem is a criticism of socialist economics.  It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in 1920.  Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of [[socialism]], and that it shows why a socialist command [[economy]] could never work.
------
Isaac_Asimov|989932111
6c6
< Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction|science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection [[I, Robot]] (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included [[/The Stars Like Dust]] (1951), [[/The Currents Of Space]] (1952), [[/The Caves Of Steel]] (1954), [[/The Naked Sun]] (1957), [[/Earth Is Room Enough]] (1957), [[/Foundations Edge]] (1982), and [[/The Robots Of Dawn]] (1983). His [[/Nightfall] (1941) is thought by many to be the finest [[Science fiction|science fiction]] short story ever written. 
---
> Asimov began contributing stories to [[Science fiction|science fiction]] magazines in 1939 and in 1950 published his first book, [[/Pebble in the Sky]]. His trilogy of novels, Foundation, Foundation and Empire, and Second Foundation (1951-53), which recounts the collapse and rebirth of a vast interstellar empire in the universe of the future, is his most famous work of ScienceFiction. In the short-story collection [[I, Robot]] (1950), he developed a set of ethics for robots (''see'' [[Three Laws Of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers' treatment of the subject. His other novels and collections of stories included [[/The Stars Like Dust]] (1951), [[/The Currents Of Space]] (1952), [[/The Caves Of Steel]] (1954), [[/The Naked Sun]] (1957), [[/Earth Is Room Enough]] (1957), [[/Foundations Edge]] (1982), and [[/The Robots Of Dawn]] (1983). The short story, [[/The Bicentennial Man]] was made into a movie starring Robin Williams. His [[/Nightfall] (1941) is thought by many to be the finest [[Science fiction|science fiction]] short story ever written. 
------
Wireless_LAN|989932219
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wireless LANs or WLANs are [[local area networks]] that use [[radio]] as their carrier.
> 
> See also [[Wireless PAN]]s (personal area networks).
> 
> Early development included industry-specific solutions and proprietary protocols, but at the end of the [[1990s]] these were replaced by standards, primarily [[IEEE 802.11]] (2 Mbit/s, intended for office use), [[HomeRF]] (2 Mbit/s, intended for home use), and [[IEEE 802.11b]] (11 Mbit/s).  The latter was standardized in late 1999 and plenty of affordable products from several vendors started to appear in mid 2000.  The standard operates in the license-free [[ISM band]] at 2.45 GHz.  Products complying with this standard have quickly been adopted in offices, homes, and public installations such as cafes, university campuses, and libraries.
> 
> The availability of affordable and license-free wireless equipment has inspired several [[wireless community projects]].
> 
> A forthcoming [[IEEE 802.11a]] standard that will operate in the likewise license-free [[ISM band]] at 5 GHz will deliver up to 54 Mbit/s.
> 
------
Wireless_LAN|989932313
1c1
< Wireless LANs or WLANs are [[local area networks]] that use [[radio]] as their carrier.
---
> Wireless LANs or WLANs are [[local area network]]s that use [[radio]] as their carrier.
------
Local_area_network|989932450
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A local area network or LAN is a [[computer network]] covering a local area, such as an office or a home.  This is different from [[personal area network]]s (PANs) or [[wide area network]]s (WANs).  LANs are typically faster than WANs.
> 
> Early LANs were vendor specific.  Standardization efforts by the [[IEEE]] have resulted in the [[IEEE 802]] series of standards.
> 
------
Computer_network|989932576
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A computer network is a system for [[communication]] among two or more [[computer]]s.
> 
> Computer networks are categorized into [[local area network]]s, [[wireless LAN]]s, [[wide area network]]s, and [[personal area network]]s.
> 
> An often cited reference is Andy Tannenbaum, "Computer Networks".
> 
> See also [[computing]].
------
Communication|989932641
3c3,5
< ''Communication'' as a field of study is relatively new.  Arguably, it encompasses [[journalism]], [[media studies]] (which might include the study of television, radio, and film), and [[rhetoric]], among other fields.
---
> ''Communication'' as a field of study is relatively new.  Arguably, it encompasses [[journalism]], [[media studies]] (which might include the study of television, radio, and film), and [[rhetoric]], among other fields.
> 
> In a more technical sense, see also [[telegraphy]], [[telephone]], [[computer network]].
------
Arthur_C._Clarke|989932723
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> He is most famous for his book, [[/2001 - a Space Odyssey]] which he helped adapt into a movie with [[Stanley Kubrick]].
> He wrote numerous other books, including the Rama books and several sequels to 2001. His most important contribution may be the ionvention of the geostationary satellite that allows satellite telecommunications. 
> 
> See also [[Clarkes Three Laws]].
------
Computing|989932852
20a21
> *** See also computer networking, below...
58c59,61
< * [[Internet]]
---
> * [[Computer networking]] and [[computer network]]s
> ** [[data transmission]], [[communication theory]]
> ** [[Internet]]
98c101
< ** [[Apple Computer]]
---
> ** [[Apple Computer]]
------
Wireless_PAN|989933093
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a [[personal area network]] (PAN) that uses radio rather than wires.
> 
> 
> See [[Bluetooth]] and [[IEEE 802.15]].
> 
> 
------
Clarkes_Three_Laws|989933193
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Clarke's First Law:
> When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible he is amlost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.
> 
> Clarke's Second Law:
> The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is by venturing a little way past them into the impossible.
> 
> Clarke's Third Law:
> Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.
------
Personal_area_network|989933231
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A personal area network (PAN) is a [[computer network]] used for [[communication]] among [[computer]] devices (including [[telephone]]s and [[PDA]]s) close to one person.  The devices may or may not belong to the person in question.  The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters.  PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the [[Internet]] (an [[uplink]]).
> 
> See also [[USB]], [[Firewire]], [[Wireless PAN]].
> 
------
PDA|989933404
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A personal digital assitant (PDA) is a pocket sized [[computer]] used for everyday things such as [[calendar]] and [[phone book]] applications.
> 
> Important PDAs in history have been:
> 
> [[Apple Newton]],
> [[Compaq iPAQ]],
> [[Palm Pilot]],
> [[Rocket eBook]]
> 
> See also [[personal area network]]s, [[ebook]]s, and [[telephone]]s.
> 
> 
------
Calendar|989933471
1c1
< A scheme for giving a name to the days and years.
---
> A scheme for giving a name to the days and years.  Also a device or application to schedule events.  See also [[PDA]].
------
PDA|989933516
1c1
< A personal digital assitant (PDA) is a pocket sized [[computer]] used for everyday things such as [[calendar]] and [[phone book]] applications.
---
> A personal digital assitant (PDA) is a pocket sized [[computer]] used for everyday tasks such as [[calendar]], [[address book]], [[todo list]] applications.
------
Apple_Newton|989933567
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An early [[PDA]] developed by [[Apple Computer]] in the mid [[1990s]].  Featured handwriting recognition.
> 
> 
------
Bluetooth|989933683
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A standard for [[Wireless PAN]]s first devised by [[Ericsson]], later standardized by the [[Bluetooth SIG]].  Bluetooth is a radio standard that operates in the license-free [[ISM band]] at 2.45 GHz.  Designed for low power consumption, its reach is up to 10 meters (30 ft).
> 
> 
------
Arthur_C._Clarke|989933696
1,2c1
< He is most famous for his book, [[/2001 - a Space Odyssey]] which he helped adapt into a movie with [[Stanley Kubrick]].
< He wrote numerous other books, including the Rama books and several sequels to 2001. His most important contribution may be the ionvention of the geostationary satellite that allows satellite telecommunications. 
---
> Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[/2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: a Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
4c3,7
< See also [[Clarkes Three Laws]].
---
> He has written numerous other books, including the Rama books and several sequels to 2001. His most important contribution may be the invention of the geostationary satellite that allows satellite telecommunications. 
> 
> Clarke was born in [[Great Britain]] but lives in [[Sri Lanka]] since many years.
> 
> See also [[Clarkes Three Laws]].
------
Bluetooth_SIG|989933769
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) is an industry group that standardizes the [[Bluetooth]] system for [[Wireless PAN]].
> 
> See the group's own website, http://www.bluetooth.com/
> 
> See also [[IEEE 802.15]].
> 
------
Clarkes_Three_Laws|989933786
2c2
< When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible he is amlost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.
---
> When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.
8a9,10
> 
> See also [[Arthur C. Clarke]].
------
IEEE_802.15|989933835
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Working group 15 of [[IEEE 802]] specializes in [[Wireless PAN]] standards.
> 
> See also [[Bluetooth]].
> 
> 
------
IEEE_802.15|989933894
2a3,4
> See the WG's own website, http://www.ieee802.org/15/
> 
------
Communism|989934365
14c14,18
< [[Socialism]]
---
> * [[Socialism]]
> * [[Post Communism]]
> * [[Soviet Union]]
> * [[Lenin]]
> * [[Stalin]]
------
IEEE_802|989934375
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC) is a committee within the [[IEEE]] that develops [[local area network]] standards and [[metropolitan area network]] standards. The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area.
> 
> See the committee's own website, http://www.ieee802.org/
> 
> See its working groups:
> *[[IEEE 802.1]] Higher layer LAN protocols
> *[[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical link control]]
> *[[IEEE 802.3]] [[Ethernet]]
> *[[IEEE 802.4]] [[Token bus]]
> *[[IEEE 802.5]] [[Token ring]]
> *[[IEEE 802.6]] [[metropolitan area network]]s
> *[[IEEE 802.7]] broadband TAG
> *[[IEEE 802.8]] fiber optic TAG
> *[[IEEE 802.9]] isochronous LAN
> *[[IEEE 802.10]] [[Security]]
> *[[IEEE 802.11]] [[Wireless LAN]]
> *[[IEEE 802.12]] demand priority
> *  IEEE 802.13 (not used!)
> *[[IEEE 802.14]] [[Cable modem]]s
> *[[IEEE 802.15]] [[Wireless PAN]]
> *[[IEEE 802.16]] [[Broadband wireless access]]
> *[[IEEE 802.17]] Resilient packet ring
> 
> See also [[computer network]]s.
> 
------
IEEE|989934516
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is a standardization organization.
> 
> See IEEE's own website http://www.ieee.org/
> 
> Some famouse IEEE committees are
> * [[IEEE 802]] LAN/MAN Standards Committee
> * [[IEEE 1003]] [[POSIX]]
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
POSIX|989934570
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An effort to standardize the [[UNIX]] operating system, also known as [[IEEE 1003]].
> 
> 
------
Fantasy/authors|989934579
13a14,23
> * [[G. K. Chesterton]]
> * [[Robert Silverberg]]
> * [[Harry Turtledove]]
> * [[Philip Jose Farmer]]
> * [[Anne Perry]]
> * [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]
> * [[Terry Brooks]]
> * [[Madeleine LEngle]]
> * [[Alan Dean Foster]]
> * [[Piers Anthony]]
17c27
< * [[Science fiction/authors]]
---
> * [[Science fiction/authors]]
------
IEEE_1003|989934636
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> IEEE 1003 is a standards committee within the [[IEEE]], more often referred to as [[POSIX]].
> 
> 
------
Science_fiction/authors|989934675
21a22,25
> * [[Jules Verne]]
> * [[H. G. Wells]]
> * [[Mary Shelley]]
> 
------
Communism|989934732
17,18c17,19
< * [[Lenin]]
< * [[Stalin]]
---
> * [[Karl Marx]]
> * [[Vladimir Lenin]]
> * [[Joseph Stalin]]
------
UNIX|989934997
6a7,8
> Attempts to standardize UNIX includes the [[System V Interface Definition]] (SVID), [[POSIX]] (IEEE 1003).
> 
------
Terry_Pratchett|989935193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English author, best known for his Discworld series. Now containing 20-some books, the Discworld series is a parady of everything under the sun where the disc-shaped world rotates on the backs of four giant elephants supported by an enormous turtle swimming its way through space. Major topics of parody have included Ingmar Bergman films, Australia, movie making, newspaper publishing, rock and roll music, religion, philosophy (mainly Greek), Egyptian history, trade unions, monarchy, and on and on. Recurring characters include Rincewind the incompetent wizard, Death and his granddaughter Susan Death, Granny Weatherwax the Witch, Cohen the barbarian, and the Luggage. 
------
Calendar|989935198
5c5
< In the West, the [[Julian calendar]] was adopted, but this did not adequately allow for the year not being an exact number of days, so it too slowly drifted out of synch with the seasons. For this reason, the [[Gregorian calendar]] was adopted by most of th west, which by using a flexible system of [[leap year]]s,  can be ket as accurately matched to the year as desired. 
---
> In the West, the [[Julian calendar]] was adopted, but this did not adequately allow for the year not being an exact number of days, so it too slowly drifted out of synch with the seasons. For this reason, the [[Gregorian calendar]] was adopted by most of the west, which by using a flexible system of [[leap year]]s,  can be ket as accurately matched to the year as desired. 
------
IEEE_802.11|989935198
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Working group 11 of [[IEEE 802]] specializes in [[Wireless LAN]] standards. 
> 
> See the WG's own website, http://www.ieee802.org/11/ 
> 
------
Terry_Pratchett|989935380
1c1,4
< English author, best known for his Discworld series. Now containing 20-some books, the Discworld series is a parady of everything under the sun where the disc-shaped world rotates on the backs of four giant elephants supported by an enormous turtle swimming its way through space. Major topics of parody have included Ingmar Bergman films, Australia, movie making, newspaper publishing, rock and roll music, religion, philosophy (mainly Greek), Egyptian history, trade unions, monarchy, and on and on. Recurring characters include Rincewind the incompetent wizard, Death and his granddaughter Susan Death, Granny Weatherwax the Witch, Cohen the barbarian, and the Luggage. 
---
> English author, best known for his Discworld series. Now containing 20-some books, the Discworld series is a parady of everything under the sun where the disc-shaped world rotates on the backs of four giant elephants supported by an enormous turtle swimming its way through space. Major topics of parody have included Ingmar Bergman films, Australia, movie making, newspaper publishing, rock and roll music, religion, philosophy (mainly Greek), Egyptian history, trade unions, monarchy, and on and on. Recurring characters include Rincewind the incompetent wizard, Death and his granddaughter Susan Death, Granny Weatherwax the Witch, Cohen the barbarian, and the Luggage. 
> 
> 
> For more information, see: http://www.co.uk.lspace.org/
------
IEEE_802.11|989935937
4a5,17
> The original IEEE 802.11 standard offered 2 Mbit/s and operated in the license-free [[ISM band]] at 2.45 GHz.  The following standards and task groups exist with the WG:
> 
> *[[IEEE 802.11a]] 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (forthcoming)
> *[[IEEE 802.11b]] 11 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (1999)
> *[[IEEE 802.11d]] new countries
> *[[IEEE 802.11e]] enhancements: QoS, security
> *[[IEEE 802.11f]] Inter-Access Point Protocol (IAPP)
> *[[IEEE 802.11g]] 20 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (forthcoming)
> *[[IEEE 802.11h]] 5 GHz power management
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
SandBox|989936365
59c59
< ?  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this ? !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
> �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this � !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
62c62
< ? ? ?  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
> � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
------
Wireless_community_projects|989936458
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The developments of [[wireless LAN]] standards and the availability of affordable and license-free products in the year [[2000]] inspired several community projects for building free networks.
> 
> Some wireless community network projects are:
> * [[BAWUG]] http://www.bawug.org/
> * [[Consume the Net]] http://consume.net/
> * [[Elektrosmog]] http://elektrosmog.nu/
> * [[GuerillaNet]] http://www.guerilla.net/
> * [[PDX Wireless]] http://www.pdxwireless.org/
> * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ with a Wiki
> at http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/SiteMap
> * [[Seattle Wireless]]
> * [[SFLAN]] http://www.sflan.org/
> 
------
Wireless_community_projects|989936505
9,10c9
< * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ with a Wiki
< at http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/SiteMap
---
> * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ with a Wiki at http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/SiteMap
12a12,13
> 
> See also [[computer network]]s.
------
Wireless_community_projects|989936610
7c7
< * [[GuerillaNet]] http://www.guerilla.net/
---
> * [[GuerillaNet]] http://205.159.169.11/
------
Wireless_community_projects|989936642
10c10
< * [[Seattle Wireless]]
---
> * [[Seattle Wireless]] http://www.seattlewireless.net/
------
Terry_Pratchett|989936782
1c1
< English author, best known for his Discworld series. Now containing 20-some books, the Discworld series is a parady of everything under the sun where the disc-shaped world rotates on the backs of four giant elephants supported by an enormous turtle swimming its way through space. Major topics of parody have included Ingmar Bergman films, Australia, movie making, newspaper publishing, rock and roll music, religion, philosophy (mainly Greek), Egyptian history, trade unions, monarchy, and on and on. Recurring characters include Rincewind the incompetent wizard, Death and his granddaughter Susan Death, Granny Weatherwax the Witch, Cohen the barbarian, and the Luggage. 
---
> English author, best known for his [[/Discworld|Discworld]] series. Now containing 20-some books, the Discworld series is a parady of everything under the sun where the disc-shaped world rotates on the backs of four giant elephants supported by the enormous turtle [[/Great Atuin|Great A'tuin]] swimming its way through space. Major topics of parody have included Ingmar Bergman films, Australia, movie making, newspaper publishing, rock and roll music, religion, philosophy (mainly Greek), Egyptian history, trade unions, monarchy, and on and on. Recurring characters include [[/Rincewind|Rincewind]] the incompetent wizard, [[/Death|Death]] and his granddaughter Susan Death, [[/Granny Weatherwax|Granny Weatherwax]] the Witch, [[/Cohen the barbarian|Cohen the barbarian]], and [[/The Luggage|the Luggage]]. 
4c4
< For more information, see: http://www.co.uk.lspace.org/
---
> For more information, see: http://www.co.uk.lspace.org/
------
Wireless_community_projects|989936993
9,10c9,10
< * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ with a Wiki at http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/SiteMap
< * [[Seattle Wireless]] http://www.seattlewireless.net/
---
> * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ (Wiki!)
> * [[Seattle Wireless]] http://www.seattlewireless.net/ (Wiki!)
------
Wireless_community_projects|989937174
4,11c4,11
< * [[BAWUG]] http://www.bawug.org/
< * [[Consume the Net]] http://consume.net/
< * [[Elektrosmog]] http://elektrosmog.nu/
< * [[GuerillaNet]] http://205.159.169.11/
< * [[PDX Wireless]] http://www.pdxwireless.org/
< * [[Personal Telco]] http://www.personaltelco.net/ (Wiki!)
< * [[Seattle Wireless]] http://www.seattlewireless.net/ (Wiki!)
< * [[SFLAN]] http://www.sflan.org/
---
> * ''BAWUG'', San Francisco, http://www.bawug.org/
> * ''Consume the Net'', London, http://consume.net/
> * ''Elektrosmog'', Stockholm, http://elektrosmog.nu/
> * ''GuerillaNet'', , http://205.159.169.11/
> * ''PDX Wireless'', Portland, Oregon, http://www.pdxwireless.org/
> * ''Personal Telco'', Portland, Oregon, http://www.personaltelco.net/ (Wiki!)
> * ''Seattle Wireless'', http://www.seattlewireless.net/ (Wiki!)
> * ''SFLAN'', San Francisco, http://www.sflan.org/
------
Bluetooth|989937576
3c3,4
< 
---
> See definition from [[Personal Telco]] Wiki,
> http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/BlueTooth
------
Ideogram|989937599
1c1,5
< Ideograms are symbols that represent words rather than phonemes or syllables. 
---
> Ideograms are symbols that represent words rather than phonemes or syllables.
> Ideograms can contain a part to indicate pronunciation. This is true of some ideograms in Japanese. Unfortunately, entering ideograms here, to illustrate this point, seems impossible.----
> An interesting question is how one uses a dictionary for a language that uses ideograms.
> In Japanese, for example, where ideograms are called <i>kanji</i>, each ideogram has a radical, within it. A radical is a very basic ideogram, representing a simple for a basic concept, like "man," "sun," or "tree" for example. When looking up a kanji, one must be able to isolate the radical from the ideogram. Then one counts how many additional strokes there are in the ideogram, in addition, to the radical. A Japanese kanji dictinary is arranged by radical first, then additional strokes. Therefore, one finds a definition, by looking up the kanji by radical plus additional strokes. For example, a particular kanji may be composed of the radicial for "man," and 7 additional strokes. To look this up one finds the radical for "man" in the dictionary and then passes through 1 additional stroke, 2 additional strokes, etc. until one finds entries for 7 additional strokes.The entry will be found here with a definition. To assist the user, there is often an index for the radicals at the end of a kanji dictionary (the end, because Japanese is read from right to left).
>  
------
Personal_Telco|989937749
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Personal Telco is a [[wireless community project]] in Portland, Oregon, that operates a [[Wiki]] server at http://www.personaltelco.net/
> 
> 
------
Wireless_community_projects|989937783
9c9
< * ''Personal Telco'', Portland, Oregon, http://www.personaltelco.net/ (Wiki!)
---
> * [[Personal Telco]], Portland, Oregon, http://www.personaltelco.net/ (Wiki!)
------
Personal_Telco|989937803
1c1
< Personal Telco is a [[wireless community project]] in Portland, Oregon, that operates a [[Wiki]] server at http://www.personaltelco.net/
---
> Personal Telco is a [[wireless community projects|wireless community project]] in Portland, Oregon, that operates a [[Wiki]] server at http://www.personaltelco.net/
------
Morphology/Talk|989937841
7c7,8
< sorry about that... i mean if u transcribe it like that it just isn't clear what you're talking about, so i think it's necessary to include both..... 
---
> sorry about that... i mean if u transcribe it like that it just isn't clear what you're talking about, so i think it's necessary to include both..... ----
> Forgive me, but I did not see both. That would be acceptable. Unless, I am mistaken, I saw you change the "&" which I use for schwa to "@" which SAMPA uses for schwa.
------
Morpheme|989938014
3c3,5
< There are bound morphemes like a- that only appear together with other morphemes to form a [[lexeme]], there are free morphemes like town that can appear with other lexemes (town-hall) and alone. Allomorphs are variants of morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-Iz/. 
---
> There are bound morphemes like a- that only appear together with other morphemes to form a [[lexeme]], there are free morphemes like town that can appear with other lexemes (town-hall) and alone. Allomorphs are variants of morpheme, e.g. the plural marker in English is sometimes realized as /-z/, /-s/ or /-Iz/.
> 
> [[/Talk]] 
------
Wireless_community_projects|989938027
14a15,20
> See the [[Personal Telco]]'s list of Wireless Communities at
> http://www.personaltelco.net/index.cgi/WirelessCommunities
> 
> See also Sam Churchill's Wireless LAN Revolution,
> http://www.teleport.com/~samc/psuwireless/
> 
------
PDA|989938405
12c12
< 
---
> "PDA" is also an acronym for [[public display of affection]].
------
PDA|989938422
12c12
< "PDA" is also an acronym for [[public display of affection]].
---
> "PDA" is also an acronym for [[public display of affection]]--an area of study within [[social psychology]].
------
Music/Talk|989938680
7a8,9
> ----
> Plainly, I will have to go to work on it soon, then. --[[LMS]]
------
ABBA|989939089
12a13,14
> 
> Other important people around ABBA were [[Stikkan Anderson]] (producer), [[Michael B. Tretow]] (sound technician), and [[Anders Eljas]] (arrangments).
------
Morpheme/Talk|989939216
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I think there are 2 views here that are being combined in this entry. There are linguists that would only include as  morphemes, a unit of "grammatical meaning," like pural markers, past tense markers etc. Others would include as morphemes, any unit of "meaning," like "find," "book," etc. In introducing "meaning" into the concept of <i> morpheme</i>, one also introduces a subjective element and context-sensitive element.<br>
> I am not sure that one can combine these approaches.<br>
> Dictionary definitions are rarely helpful here.
------
Stikkan_Anderson|989939303
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stikkan Anderson (1931-1997) was the producer of [[ABBA]] and the founder of the [[Polar Music]] record label. Later he also founded the [[Polar Music Prize]].
------
KurtCobain|989939355
3c3
< Lead singer of the grunge band Nirvana (NirvanaBand - together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic). He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band Nirvana (NirvanaBand - together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic). His widow, Courtney Love killed him in 1994. Courtney Love then collected the insurance and made herself into the beauty queen that she thinks she is now....but we all know the real truth and she is a c*nt.
4a5
> Kurt Cobain was a star in everyones eyes and the music he sang was deep and full of emotion. Let's all remember him as the beautiful person he was.
------
City_of_New_York|989939453
22c22
< It is also has a high crime rate and extremely high cost of living.
---
> It also has a high crime rate and an extremely high cost of living.
------
World_music|989939495
1c1,2
< World music is a term that covers all music that is not part of mainstream pop music or classical music and has some kind of "ethnic" component. 
---
> World music is a term that covers all music that is not part of mainstream pop music or classical music and has some kind of "ethnic" component.  The term is used primarily as a marketing/classificatory device.  Obviously, the various kinds of ethnic music that are included under the rubric "world music" do not have anything in common ''genetically or musically'' in virtue of which they are called "world music."
> 
30a32,33
> 
> /Talk
------
World_music/Talk|989939677
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I should think that whatever is put on this page should also be put under "African music," "Indian music," or whatever regional classification is appropriate.
> 
> I've even seen [[Irish traditional music]] placed in the (to me, just silly) "world music" category.  Of course, [[Afro-Celtic Sound System]] (I think that's what it's called) is even ''more'' "world music" than Ir-trad because it is a fusion of two kinds of "world music."  It seems that fusions are more "world" than the originals. --[[LMS]]
------
KurtCobain|989939769
3c3
< Lead singer of the grunge band Nirvana (NirvanaBand - together with DaveGrohl and ChrisNovoselic). His widow, Courtney Love killed him in 1994. Courtney Love then collected the insurance and made herself into the beauty queen that she thinks she is now....but we all know the real truth and she is a c*nt.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). His widow, [[Courtney Love]] killed him in 1994. Courtney Love then collected the insurance and made herself into the beauty queen that she thinks she is now....but we all know the real truth and she is a c*nt.
------
Democracy|989939843
3,6d2
< [[Montesquie]], L'Esprit des Lois:<BR>
< <I>''When legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or in the same body (...) there can be no liberty. Again there is no liberty if the judicial
< power is not separated from the legislature and executive.''</I> 
< 
------
Seafood/Talk|989939870
16c16,17
< 
---
> ----
> OK. Then I will change the definition. LinusTolke
------
Seafood|989940027
1c1,5
< The term <i>seafood</i> refers to foods derived from aquatic [[animal]]s, such as [[fish]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[crustacean]]s.  The term is not restricted to "sea" creatures, but includes fresh-water animals as well.
---
> Seafood is food derived from aquatic [[animal]]s, such as [[fish]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[crustacean]]s.
> 
> It is also a term used for the aquatic ingredients i.e. the [[fish]]es, in such foods.
> 
> The term is not restricted to "sea" creatures, but includes fresh-water animals as well.
------
Periodic_table|989940979
24c24
<                  [[Vanadium|V]]  [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
---
>                  [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
27c27
<                 [[Iron|Fe]]  [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
---
>                 [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
30,31c30,31
<                 [[Copper|Cu]]  [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                 [[Zinc|Zn]]  [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
---
>                 [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                 [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
------
Albert_Einstein|989941073
5,6c5,6
< Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Würtenberg, [[Germany]].  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazi]]s, being a [[Jews|Jew]] he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
< In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativIty. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
---
> Einstein was born March 14, 1879 at Ulm in Württemberg, [[Germany]].  He grew up in [[Munich]] and later in Italy, and received his higher education in [[Switzerland]].  He obtained his doctorate degree in 1905.  That same year, he wrote three important articles: One explaining the [[photoelectric effect]], one introducing special relativity, and one explaining the [[Brownian motion]]. In 1914 he moved to Germany, but because of the rise to power of the [[Nazi]]s, being a [[Jews|Jew]] he went to the [[United States]] in 1933, and became an American citizen in 1940.
> In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativIty. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
------
MetallicA/Green|989941439
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Matt rocks
------
Caspar_David_Friedrich|989942073
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (1774-1840)
> 
> 
> [[Caspar David Friedrich]] was an outstanding 19th-century German romantic painter, born on September 5, 1774 in Greifswald.
> 
> (More to follow...)
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|989942079
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Hobbit is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]]. Though it is not part of the [[Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|989942185
4c4
< *[[Blitzkrieg]] -- quick army invasions aided by tanks
---
> *[[Blitzkrieg]] -- lightning war - quick army invasions aided by tanks and airplanes
8c8
< *[[Gleichschaltung]] -- total contol and obedience of all aspects of society
---
> *[[Gleichschaltung]] -- total control and obedience of all aspects of society
------
Paula_Abdul|989942224
3c3
< Was initially discovered as a cheerleader. Had the big breakthrough with the song [[Straigh up]].
---
> Was initially discovered as a cheerleader. Had the big breakthrough with the song [[Straight up]].
6c6
< * [[Straigh up]]
---
> * [[Straight up]]
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|989942455
1c1
< The Hobbit is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]]. Though it is not part of the [[Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
---
> The Hobbit is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]] intended for a young audience. Though it is not part of the [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
------
WWF|989942684
1,13c1
< The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[Environmental organizations|environmental organizations]].
< 
< According to their web site, they are dedicated to
< * preserving genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity 
< * ensuring that the use of natural resources is sustainable both now and in the longer term, for the benefit of all life on Earth 
< * promoting action to reduce pollution and wasteful consumption to a minimum
< 
< Their logo, the black and white panda, is well-known.
< 
< For more information, see their web sites http://www.wwf.org/ and http://www.panda.org/.
< 
< ----
< <b>Also see [[World Wrestling Federation]]</b>
---
> An [[intialism]] used for both the [[World Wildlife Fund]] and the [[World Wrestling Federation]].
------
World_Wildlife_Fund|989942746
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organizations]].
> 
> According to their web site, they are dedicated to
> * preserving genetic, species, and [[ecosystem]] diversity 
> * ensuring that the use of [[natural resources]] is sustainable both now and in the longer term, for the benefit of all life on Earth 
> * promoting action to reduce [[pollution]] and wasteful consumption to a minimum
> 
> Their logo, the black and white [[panda]], is well-known.
> 
> For more information, see their web sites http://www.wwf.org/ and http://www.panda.org/.
> 
------
World_Wildlife_Fund|989942847
1c1
< The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organizations]].
---
> The World Wildlife Fund ([[WWF]]) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organizations]].
------
JamieTheFoool|989942899
1,17c1,3
< Hi, Jamie!  Jimbo here.
< 
< There's a very strict rule -- partly imposed by me for legal
< liability reasons, but also very much a "social custom" -- that we don't violate copyrights here.   The reasons are many, but
< among them are
< 
< 1.  The legal situation -- this is a volunteer project, and it makes no money.  So if someone sues us for copyright violation, we will not have the resources to fight.  And cutting and pasting from the web isn't very defensible under current law.  So we would lose, and that would be the end of our little project.  Very sad.
< 
< 2.  Many people believe that it is not possible for a group of dedicated volunteers to produce work of good quality.  We constantly see hints of this from companies like Microsoft, when they slam the Linux operating system as being merely the product of volunteers.  But they look foolish because Linux is so obviously high quality and so obviously the <i>original</i> work of tens of thousands of volunteers.
< 
< If we copy things from the web, then we lose the high moral ground.  Those people will say "See, the idea of volunteers building an encyclopedia is bunk.  The best they can do is take other people's work and copy it."
< 
< -----------------
< 
< Now, your revised [[Mr. T]] entry is a major improvement, but I'd still have to say that -- perhaps not in a legal sense, but in an academic sense -- it is plagiarized from a single source.  It would be far better to find two separate articles, take notes from them -- JUST THE FACTS, try to change the wording of everything into totally your own words, and then write your own article _from your notes_.  That way, you're two steps away from the source material, so that you can be sure that you're only using the facts, not someone else's actual words.
< 
< Others may have different opinions on this, and I hope they will weigh in.  --[[Jimbo Wales]]
---
> <b>Real Name:</b> James Hasselhoff<br>
> <b>Occupation:</b> Part-time Turkish Rapper, Inventor of the ringpull<br>
> <b>Personal Statement:</b> Read stuff and learn things. Get clever just like me. I'm a kind of god. Taste the rainbow.
------
Acronym|989942960
1c1
< An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that spells a pronouncible word (though not necessarily a real word from any [[natural language]]).  For example, SAM for surface-to-air missile and NATO for the North-Atlantic Treaty Organization.  The term is also frequently applied (mistakenly in the opinion of some) to non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines), which are called <i>initialisms</i>.
---
> An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that spells a pronouncible word (though not necessarily a real word from any [[natural language]]).  For example, SAM for [[surface-to-air missile]] and [[NATO]] for the [[North-Atlantic Treaty Organization]].  The term is also frequently applied (mistakenly in the opinion of some) to non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines), which are called <i>[[initialism|initialisms]]</i>.
4c4
< <br>[[/Medical List|List of medical acronyms]]
---
> <br>[[/Medical List|List of medical acronyms]]
------
Initialism|989943094
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An unpronouncible abbreviation formed by using the first letters, or initials, of a series of words.
> 
> See [[acronym]].
------
WWF|989943169
1c1
< An [[intialism]] used for both the [[World Wildlife Fund]] and the [[World Wrestling Federation]].
---
> An [[initialism]] used for both the [[World Wildlife Fund]] and the [[World Wrestling Federation]].
------
World_Wrestling_Federation|989943355
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A professional [[wrestling]] organization owned by [[Vince McMahon]].
> 
> [/History]
> [/Wrestlers]
------
World_Wrestling_Federation|989943381
3a4
> 
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|989943565
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[Treaty of Versailles]] is the peace treaty of the Allies and Germany after the [[World War I]], which was hard for the Germans because of the money the Germans had to pay. This treaty says that only Germany is responsible for the war.
> 
> Some historian mean, that this is the reason for the end of the [[Republic of Weimar]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who causes the [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|989943739
3c3
< Some historian mean, that this is the reason for the end of the [[Republic of Weimar]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who causes the [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
---
> Some historian mean, that this is the reason for the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who causes the [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
------
Steel|989944424
3c3
< There is also [[stainless steel]], which does not rust, and isn't magnetic.  It is an alloy of iron with [[chrome]] and [[vanadium]].
---
> There is also [[stainless steel]], which does not rust, and isn't magnetic.  It is an alloy of iron with [[chromium]] and [[vanadium]].
------
Liberalism|989944746
1c1
< Liberalism is a political current which regards freedom as the most important thing and as such rejects large [[government]] influences. Ethically, liberals prefer to have the person decide his or her ethics himself or herself, without government influence. Government should only forbid behaviours that have a substantial negative impact on others. Economically, liberals are in favor of a [[Free Market Economy]], again with as little influence from government as possible. In their opinion, everyone doing what (s)he thinks is best, is the best way to ensure that the total outcome is best for all. The opponents of liberals are [[Conservatism|Conservatives]] in the ethical range and [[Socialism|Socialists]] in the economical.
---
> Liberalism is a political current which regards freedom as the most important thing and as such rejects large [[government]] influences. Ethically, liberals prefer to have the person decide his or her ethics himself or herself, without government influence. Government should only forbid behaviours that have a substantial negative impact on others. Economically, liberals are in favor of a [[Free Market Economy]], again with as little influence from government as possible. In their opinion, everyone doing what (s)he thinks is best, is the best way to ensure that the total outcome is best for all. The opponents of liberals are [[Political conservatism|Conservatives]] in the ethical range and [[Socialism|Socialists]] in the economical.
------
Liberalism|989944810
3c3
< Strangely, in the [[US]] the term 'liberal' most often is used for people who want a larger rather than a smaller government influence in [[economy]].
---
> Strangely, in the [[United States]] the term 'liberal' most often is used for people who want a larger rather than a smaller government influence in [[economy]].
------
Open_source_license/Talk|989945209
5c5
< 
---
> They seem to be awfully quite about PD software over at OSI. I was halfway through a response saying how I couldn't find any references to PD software on their webpage, when I came across the change history of the [[Open Source Definition]]: <i>1.2 – added public-domain to clause 10.</i>, and <i>1.4 – Now explicit about source code requirement for PD software.</i> It isn't, however, listed on their "approved licenses" page, which threw me off. And so, your revision stands. I'll just add that the source code must be available. -- [STG]
------
Open_source_license/Talk|989945241
5c5
< They seem to be awfully quite about PD software over at OSI. I was halfway through a response saying how I couldn't find any references to PD software on their webpage, when I came across the change history of the [[Open Source Definition]]: <i>1.2 – added public-domain to clause 10.</i>, and <i>1.4 – Now explicit about source code requirement for PD software.</i> It isn't, however, listed on their "approved licenses" page, which threw me off. And so, your revision stands. I'll just add that the source code must be available. -- [STG]
---
> They seem to be awfully quite about PD software over at OSI. I was halfway through a response saying how I couldn't find any references to PD software on their webpage, when I came across the change history of the [[Open Source Definition]]: <i>1.2 – added public-domain to clause 10.</i>, and <i>1.4 – Now explicit about source code requirement for PD software.</i> It isn't, however, listed on their "approved licenses" page, which threw me off. And so, your revision stands. I'll just add that the source code must be available. -- [[STG]]
------
Open_source_license|989945318
1c1
< An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  Software in the [[public domain]] (that is, with no copyright license at all) meets those criteria and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their [[service mark]].  In addition, the following licenses have been approved:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  Software in the [[public domain]] (that is, with no copyright license at all), with available source code, meets those criteria and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their [[service mark]].  In addition, the following licenses have been approved:
------
Environmental_organizations|989945615
2c2
< * [[WWF]] (World Wildlife Fund)
---
> * [[World Wildlife Fund]]
6c6
< * [[IPCC]] (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
---
> * [[IPCC]] (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
------
Open_source_license|989945821
1c1
< An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  Software in the [[public domain]] (that is, with no copyright license at all), with available source code, meets those criteria and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their [[service mark]].  In addition, the following licenses have been approved:
---
> An '''open source license''' is a copyright license for computer software that follows the principles of the [[open source movement]].  More formally, a license is considered open source when it has approved by the [[Open Source Initiative]], with the criteria being the [[Open Source Definition]].  Software in the [[public domain]] (that is, with no copyright license at all), meets those criteria as long as all source code is made available, and is therefore recognized by the OSI and entitled to use their [[service mark]].  In addition, the following licenses have been approved:
25c25
< It should be noted that the [[Free Software Foundation]] has different criteria for evaluating whether or not a license qualifies as [[free]]. See [[Free software license]].
---
> It should be noted that the [[Free Software Foundation]] has different criteria for evaluating whether or not a license qualifies as [[free]].  See [[Free software license]].
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989945873
42a43,44
> ----
> Just wanted to thank you for grueling cut-and-paste work you've been doing for the countries section. I tried to do a bit, but it made my eyes blur. :) Really, someone should whip up a PERL script to do it, but until then... -- [[STG]]
------
Requested_articles|989946510
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Jacques Mayol]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Boney M]]
------
Science_fiction/authors|989946840
1,29c1,30
< Some notable [[science fiction]] authors are
< 
< * [[Douglas Adams]]
< * [[Brian Aldiss]]
< * [[Poul Anderson]]
< * [[Isaac Asimov]]
< * [[J.G. Ballard]]
< * [[Ray Bradbury]]
< * [[Octavia E. Butler]]
< * [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
< * [[Samuel R. Delany]]
< * [[Philip K. Dick]]
< * [[Harlan Ellison]]
< * [[William Gibson]]
< * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
< * [[Frank Herbert]]
< * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
< * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
< * [[Frederik Pohl]]
< * [[Bruce Sterling]]
< * [[A.E. van Vogt]]
< * [[Jules Verne]]
< * [[H. G. Wells]]
< * [[Mary Shelley]]
< 
< 
< See also
< * [[Novelists]]
< * [[Fantasy/authors]]
---
> Some notable [[science fiction]] authors are
> 
> * [[Douglas Adams]]
> * [[Brian Aldiss]]
> * [[Poul Anderson]]
> * [[Isaac Asimov]]
> * [[J.G. Ballard]]
> * [[Ray Bradbury]]
> * [[Octavia E. Butler]]
> * [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
> * [[Samuel R. Delany]]
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
> * [[Harlan Ellison]]
> * [[William Gibson]]
> * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
> * [[Frank Herbert]]
> * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
> * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * [[Jeff Noon]]
> * [[Frederik Pohl]]
> * [[Bruce Sterling]]
> * [[A.E. van Vogt]]
> * [[Jules Verne]]
> * [[H. G. Wells]]
> * [[Mary Shelley]]
> 
> 
> See also
> * [[Novelists]]
> * [[Fantasy/authors]]
------
Boney_M|989947376
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> is a Euro-dance and disco group, which was a phenomenon during the '70s. The group was created by Frank Farian on 1976 and was composed of four West Indian vocalists in working in Germany (Marcia Barrett, Liz Mitchell, Maizie Williams and Bobby Farrell). Their most famous songs are: Baby Do You Wanna Bump?, Daddy Cool, Sunny, Ma Baker, Belfast, Rivers of Babylon, Nightflight to Venus, Rasputin and Painter Man. 
> 
> 
> 
>  
------
Nunavut|989948444
7,19c7
< <b>History</b>
< 
< The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of [[Baffin Island]] with the [[Helluland]] described in [[Norse sagas]], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occassional contact with [Norse] sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see [[Paleoeskimo]], [[Neoeskimo]] and [[Helluland]].
< 
< The recorded history of Nunavut began in 1576. [[Martin Frobisher]], while leading an expedition to find the [[Northwest Passage]], thought he had discovered [[gold]] ore in what is now known as [[Frobisher Bay]] on the coast of [[Baffin Island]]. The ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the Inuit. The contact was hostile, with Frobisher capturing four Inuit people and bringing them back to England, where they quickly perished.
< 
< Other explorers in search of the elusive [[Northwest Passage]] followed in the 17th century, including [[Henry Hudson]], [[Willian Baffin]] and [[Robert Bylot]].
< 
< <i>(and there were quite a few more after that. More needs to be said about various explorers and collonial history in Nunavut. But for now, let's make a jump into recent history)</i>
< 
< In 1976, negotiations for a land claim agreement and the new territory between the [[Inuit Tapirisat of Canada]] and the federal government began. In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. A land claims agreement was reached in September, 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut. In June 1993 the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]] were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition was completed on April 1, 1999.
< 
< <i>(this is very choppy and needs work)</i>
---
> /History
------
Nunavut/History|989949025
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of [[Baffin Island]] with the [[Helluland]] described in [[Norse sagas]], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occassional contact with [Norse] sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see [[Paleoeskimo]], [[Neoeskimo]] and [[Helluland]].
> 
> The recorded history of Nunavut began in 1576. [[Martin Frobisher]], while leading an expedition to find the [[Northwest Passage]], thought he had discovered [[gold]] ore in what is now known as [[Frobisher Bay]] on the coast of [[Baffin Island]]. The ore turned out to be worthless, but Frobisher made the first recorded European contact with the [[Inuit]]. The contact was hostile, with Frobisher capturing four Inuit people and bringing them back to [[England]], where they quickly perished.
> 
> Other explorers in search of the elusive [[Northwest Passage]] followed in the 17th century, including [[Henry Hudson]], [[Willian Baffin]] and [[Robert Bylot]].
> 
> <i>(and there were quite a few more after that. More needs to be said about various explorers and collonial history in Nunavut. But for now, let's make a jump into recent history)</i>
> 
> In 1976, negotiations for a land claim agreement and the new territory between the [[Inuit Tapirisat of Canada]] and the federal government began. In April 1982, a majority of Northwest Territories residents voted in favour of a division, and the federal government gave a conditional agreement seven months later. A land claims agreement was reached in September, 1992 and ratified by nearly 85% of the voters in Nunavut. In June 1993 the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement Act]] and the [[Nunavut Act]] were passed by the Canadian Parliament, and the transition was completed on April 1, 1999.
> 
> <i>(this is very choppy and needs work)</i>
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|989949087
109a110,113
> 
> '''Q. What about non-ascii characters? We could write latin1, or (I think this would be better) use the HTML Codes (i.e. &uuml; for "u). This would also fix the math-symbol-problem, cause W3C-HTML 4.0 supports many of them, e.g. &Alpha; for a capitalized Alpha, &alpha; for a low one, &int; for a integral symbol ect. Konqueror supports this (and I think IE too, but I don't know.)'''
> 
> A.
------
Nunavut|989949127
7,19c7,11
< /History
< 
< <b>People</b>
< 
< Nunavut's population consists mainly of the [[Inuit]] people. There's a lot to say about that.
< 
< <b>Geography</b>
< 
< <b>Economy</b>
< *<i>mix of subsistence and wage-based economy</i>
< 
< <b>Government</b>
< *<i>somewhere in between a provincial and territorial government</i>
---
> /History<br>
> /People<br>
> /Geography<br>
> /Economy<br>
> /Government<br>
------
Economic_Calculation_Problem|989949197
5,11c5,7
< <b>
< 1. Without private property in the means of production, there will be no market for the means of production;
< 
< 2. Without a market for a means of production, there will be no monetary prices established for the means of production;
< 
< 3. Without monetary prices, reflecting the relative scarcity of capital goods, economic decision makers will be unable to rationally calculate the alternative use of capital goods.
< </b>
---
> #Without private property in the means of production, there will be no market for the means of production;
> #Without a market for a means of production, there will be no monetary prices established for the means of production;
> #Without monetary prices reflecting the relative scarcity of capital goods, economic decision makers will be unable to rationally calculate the alternative use of capital goods.
14d9
< 
------
Science_fiction/authors|989949386
1,30c1,34
< Some notable [[science fiction]] authors are
< 
< * [[Douglas Adams]]
< * [[Brian Aldiss]]
< * [[Poul Anderson]]
< * [[Isaac Asimov]]
< * [[J.G. Ballard]]
< * [[Ray Bradbury]]
< * [[Octavia E. Butler]]
< * [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
< * [[Samuel R. Delany]]
< * [[Philip K. Dick]]
< * [[Harlan Ellison]]
< * [[William Gibson]]
< * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
< * [[Frank Herbert]]
< * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
< * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
< * [[Jeff Noon]]
< * [[Frederik Pohl]]
< * [[Bruce Sterling]]
< * [[A.E. van Vogt]]
< * [[Jules Verne]]
< * [[H. G. Wells]]
< * [[Mary Shelley]]
< 
< 
< See also
< * [[Novelists]]
< * [[Fantasy/authors]]
---
> Some notable [[science fiction]] authors are
> 
> * [[Douglas Adams]]
> * [[Brian Aldiss]]
> * [[Poul Anderson]]
> * [[Isaac Asimov]]
> * [[J. G. Ballard]]
> * [[Greg Bear]]
> * [[Ray Bradbury]]
> * [[Octavia E. Butler]]
> * [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
> * [[Samuel R. Delany]]
> * [[Philip K. Dick]]
> * [[Harlan Ellison]]
> * [[William Gibson]]
> * [[Robert Heinlein]] 
> * [[Frank Herbert]]
> * [[Ursula K. LeGuin]]
> * [[Stanislaw Lem]]
> * [[Jeff Noon]]
> * [[Frederik Pohl]]
> * [[L. Neil Smith]]
> * [[Neal Stephenson]]
> * [[Bruce Sterling]]
> * [[A. E. van Vogt]]
> * [[Jules Verne]]
> * [[Vernor Vinge]]
> * [[H. G. Wells]]
> * [[Mary Shelley]]
> 
> 
> See also
> * [[Novelists]]
> * [[Fantasy/authors]]
------
A.E._van_Vogt|989949456
1,21c1
< Alfred Elton van Vogt (1912 -1998?)
< 
< Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for `true confessions' style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed: science fiction. His first published science fiction story, `<i>Black Destroyer</i>' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939) depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
< 
< He wrote a large number of short stories, many of which were retrospectively patched together into novels, or `fixups' as he called them. Sometimes this was successful (`<i>The War against the Rull</i>'), other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a completely incoherent plot (`<i>Quest for the Future</i>'). 
< 
< He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge - the characters in his very first story used a system called `Nexialism' to analyse the aliens's behaviour - and he became interested in the `[[General Semantics]]' of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, `<i>The World of 
< Null-A</i>' and '<i>The Pawns of Null-A'</i>. In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his  writing more or less stopped for some years. He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
< 
< He had systematised his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. 
< He claimed to get many of his ideas from dreams, and indeed his stories at their worst had the coherence of a dream, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel `<i>The Book of Ptath</i>', his works had the power a dream, as well. [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt stories got him interested in science fiction, with their strange sense of the unexplained, that there was more going on than the protagonists realised. 
< 
< Notable books:
< *The Voyage of the Space Beagle
< *The World of Null-A
< *The Pawns of Null-A
< *Slan
< *The Weapon Shops of Isher
< *The War against the Rull
< *The Book of Ptath
< *The Silkie
---
> #REDIRECT [[A. E. van Vogt]]
------
A._E._van_Vogt|989949729
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alfred Elton van Vogt (1912 -1998?)
> 
> Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for "true confessions" style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed: science fiction.  His first published science fiction story, ''Black Destroyer'' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939), depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
> 
> He wrote a large number of short stories, many of which were retrospectively patched together into novels, or "fixups" as he called them.  Sometimes this was successful (''The War against the Rull''); other times the disparate stories thrown together made for an incoherent plot (''Quest for the Future'').
> 
> He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge--the characters in his very first story used a system called "Nexialism" to analyse the aliens's behaviour--and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, ''The World of Null-A'' and ''The Pawns of Null-A''.  In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his  writing more or less stopped for some years.  He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
> 
> He had systematised his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved.  He claimed to get many of his ideas from dreams, and indeed his stories at their worst had the coherence of a dream, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel ''The Book of Ptath'', his works had the power a dream, as well.  [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt stories got him interested in science fiction, with their strange sense of the unexplained, that there was more going on than the protagonists realized. 
> 
> Notable books:
> *The Voyage of the Space Beagle
> *The World of Null-A
> *The Pawns of Null-A
> *Slan
> *The Weapon Shops of Isher
> *The War against the Rull
> *The Book of Ptath
> *The Silkie
> 
------
C.S._Lewis|989949915
1c1
< Clive Staples Lewis (1898-1963, born November 29 in Belfast, Ireland)
---
> Clive Staples Lewis (1898-1963, born November 29 in [[Belfast]], [[Ireland]])
3c3
< English academic and writer. He wrote a number of books on Christian themes, such as The Screwtape Letters - letters of advice from an elderly demon to his nephew.
---
> English academic and writer. He wrote a number of books on [[Christian]] themes, such as [[The Screwtape Letters]] - letters of advice from an elderly [[demon]] to his nephew.
5c5
< Other works were a popular series of fantasy novels for children, set in an imaginary world called [[Narnia]], and a trilogy of books (Out of the Silent Planet, Perelandra, and That Hideous Strength) containing an interesting blend of Christian theology with ScienceFiction themes
---
> Other works were a popular series of fantasy novels for children entitled [[The Chronicals of Narnia]], and a trilogy of books ([[Out of the Silent Planet]], [[Perelandra]], and [[That Hideous Strength]]) containing an interesting blend of [[Christian theology]] with [[Science Fiction]] themes.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
C.S._Lewis|989949968
5c5
< Other works were a popular series of fantasy novels for children entitled [[The Chronicals of Narnia]], and a trilogy of books ([[Out of the Silent Planet]], [[Perelandra]], and [[That Hideous Strength]]) containing an interesting blend of [[Christian theology]] with [[Science Fiction]] themes.
---
> Other works were a popular series of fantasy novels for children entitled [[The Chronicals of Narnia]], and a trilogy of books ([[Out of the Silent Planet]], [[Perelandra]], and [[That Hideous Strength]]) containing an interesting blend of [[Christian theology]] with [[science fiction]] themes.
------
Ireland|989950102
1c1
< A smallish, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]] and are part of the [[United Kingdom]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
---
> A small, green, rainy island in the northwest corner of Europe, west of [[Great Britain]].  "Ireland" typically means the island itself, but sometimes it stands for the [[Republic of Ireland]], which excludes the six Irish [[Irish county|counties]] of the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, which together are called [[Northern Ireland]] and are part of the [[United Kingdom]].  The population of the island is something over 5 million; the population of the Republic of Ireland is something over 3.5 million.
------
H.G._Wells|989950333
1c1
< Herbert George Wells - English writer 1866-1946
---
> English writer Herbert George Wells was born in 1866 and died in 1946.  In his youth he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper--his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel ''Kipps''.  In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T. H. Huxley]]
3c3
< Born in 1866, he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper - his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel `<i>Kipps</i>'. In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T.H. Huxley]]
---
> In his early novels, described at the time as "scientific romances", he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers and have entered popular culture with such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds]]''.  Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising ''Tono-Bungay'' and ''Kipps''.
5,6c5
< In his early novels, described at the time as `scientific romances'  he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers, and have entered popular culture, with such works as [[The Time Machine]], [[The Invisible Man]], and [[The War of the Worlds]]. 
< Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising, `<i>Tono-Bungay</i>', and  `<i>Kipps</i>', which drew on his experiences a a draper's assistant. 
---
> From quite early in his career, he felt that there should be a better way of organizing society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels.  Usually starting with the world heading inexorably towards catastrophe, until people realize a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to suddenly behave rationally (''In the Days of the Comet''), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1938 [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]].  This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment. 
8c7
< From quite early in his career, he felt that there should be a better way of organising society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels; usually starting with the world heading inexorably towards catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to suddenly behave rationally ('<i>In the Days of the Comet</i>'), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in `<i>The Shape of Things to Come</i>' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1938 [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]], This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment. 
---
> Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] ''When the Sleeper Awakes''  shows.  ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' is even darker.  The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
10,15c9
< Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] `<i>When the Sleeper Awakes</i>' shows. 
< '<i>The Island of Dr. Moreau</i> is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
< 
< He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the  shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit  (<i>`Russia in the Shadows'</i>) However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong. In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. (1)
< 
< He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, "Mind at the end of its tether" suggests. His later books tended rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier works - as one critic aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message" (2)
---
> He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit (''Russia in the Shadows'') shows.  However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong.  In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. <sup>1</sup>
16a11
> He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, ''Mind at the End of its Tether'' suggests.  His later books tended rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier works; as one critic aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message" <sup>2</sup>
35d29
< 
41c35
< His autobiography was published in 1934, as `<i>An Experiment in Autobiography</i>'
---
> His autobiography was published in 1934, as ''An Experiment in Autobiography''
44a39
> <sup>1</sup> For examples of his contemporaries' wilful disregard of the failings of the Soviet Union, see the book ''Political Pilgrims'' by Paul Hollander.
46,48c41
< (1) For examples of his contemporaries wilful disregard of the failings of the Soviet Union, see the book `<i>Political Pilgrims'</i> by Paul Hollander.
< 
< (2) I thought [[Theodore Sturgeon]] had coined the "pot of message" remark, but on rereading the source (a Sturgeon short story from 1948 entitled `<i>Unite and Conquer</i>') find that a character in the story was quoting a `Dr Pierce' with that remark. Wherever it came from, it's a perfect description of why his later books weren't as good as the early ones..
---
> <sup>2</sup> I thought [[Theodore Sturgeon]] had coined the "pot of message" remark, but on rereading the source (a Sturgeon short story from 1948 entitled ''Unite and Conquer'') find that a character in the story was quoting a "Dr. Pierce" with that remark.  Wherever it came from, it's a perfect description of why his later books weren't as good as the early ones..
------
H.G._Wells|989950358
1,43c1
< English writer Herbert George Wells was born in 1866 and died in 1946.  In his youth he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper--his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel ''Kipps''.  In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T. H. Huxley]]
< 
< In his early novels, described at the time as "scientific romances", he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers and have entered popular culture with such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds]]''.  Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising ''Tono-Bungay'' and ''Kipps''.
< 
< From quite early in his career, he felt that there should be a better way of organizing society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels.  Usually starting with the world heading inexorably towards catastrophe, until people realize a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to suddenly behave rationally (''In the Days of the Comet''), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1938 [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]].  This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment. 
< 
< Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] ''When the Sleeper Awakes''  shows.  ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' is even darker.  The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
< 
< He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit (''Russia in the Shadows'') shows.  However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong.  In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. <sup>1</sup>
< 
< He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, ''Mind at the End of its Tether'' suggests.  His later books tended rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier works; as one critic aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message" <sup>2</sup>
< 
< A partial listing of his novels:
< 
< :[[The Time Machine]] (1896)
< :The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896)
< :[[The Invisible Man]] (1897)
< :[[The War of the Worlds]] (1898)
< :Love and Mr Lewisham (1900)
< :Kipps (1905)
< :A Modern Utopia (1905)
< :Ann Veronica (1909
< :Tono-Bungay (1909)
< :The history of Mr Polly (1910)
< :The New Machiavelli (1911)
< :Marriage (1912)
< :Men Like Gods (1923)
< :[[Things to Come|The Shape of Things to Come]] (1933)
< 
< :Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island
< :The World of William Clissold
< :In the Days of the Comet
< :The World Set Free
< 
< His autobiography was published in 1934, as ''An Experiment in Autobiography''
< 
< ----
< 
< <sup>1</sup> For examples of his contemporaries' wilful disregard of the failings of the Soviet Union, see the book ''Political Pilgrims'' by Paul Hollander.
< 
< <sup>2</sup> I thought [[Theodore Sturgeon]] had coined the "pot of message" remark, but on rereading the source (a Sturgeon short story from 1948 entitled ''Unite and Conquer'') find that a character in the story was quoting a "Dr. Pierce" with that remark.  Wherever it came from, it's a perfect description of why his later books weren't as good as the early ones..
< 
< This needs a lot more yet....
---
> #REDIRECT [[H. G. Wells]]
------
H._G._Wells|989950373
1c1,43
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English writer Herbert George Wells was born in 1866 and died in 1946.  In his youth he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper--his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel ''Kipps''.  In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T. H. Huxley]]
> 
> In his early novels, described at the time as "scientific romances", he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers and have entered popular culture with such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds]]''.  Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising ''Tono-Bungay'' and ''Kipps''.
> 
> From quite early in his career, he felt that there should be a better way of organizing society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels.  Usually starting with the world heading inexorably towards catastrophe, until people realize a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to suddenly behave rationally (''In the Days of the Comet''), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''The Shape of Things to Come'' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1938 [[Alexander Korda]] film, [[Things to Come]].  This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombardment. 
> 
> Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] ''When the Sleeper Awakes''  shows.  ''The Island of Dr. Moreau'' is even darker.  The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the [[Houyhnhm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. 
> 
> He called his political views socialist, and with his fondness for Utopias, he was initially quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit (''Russia in the Shadows'') shows.  However, he became disillusioned at the increasing doctrinal rigidity of the Bolsheviks, and after a meeting with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] became convinced that the whole enterprise had gone horribly wrong.  In this he was probably more clear-sighted than many intellectuals of his day. <sup>1</sup>
> 
> He grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity in his later years, as the title of his last book, ''Mind at the End of its Tether'' suggests.  His later books tended rather to preach than tell a story, and they didn't have the energy and inventiveness of his earlier works; as one critic aptly put it "he sold his birthright for a pot of message" <sup>2</sup>
> 
> A partial listing of his novels:
> 
> :[[The Time Machine]] (1896)
> :The Island of Dr. Moreau (1896)
> :[[The Invisible Man]] (1897)
> :[[The War of the Worlds]] (1898)
> :Love and Mr Lewisham (1900)
> :Kipps (1905)
> :A Modern Utopia (1905)
> :Ann Veronica (1909
> :Tono-Bungay (1909)
> :The history of Mr Polly (1910)
> :The New Machiavelli (1911)
> :Marriage (1912)
> :Men Like Gods (1923)
> :[[Things to Come|The Shape of Things to Come]] (1933)
> 
> :Mr. Blettsworthy on Rampole Island
> :The World of William Clissold
> :In the Days of the Comet
> :The World Set Free
> 
> His autobiography was published in 1934, as ''An Experiment in Autobiography''
> 
> ----
> 
> <sup>1</sup> For examples of his contemporaries' wilful disregard of the failings of the Soviet Union, see the book ''Political Pilgrims'' by Paul Hollander.
> 
> <sup>2</sup> I thought [[Theodore Sturgeon]] had coined the "pot of message" remark, but on rereading the source (a Sturgeon short story from 1948 entitled ''Unite and Conquer'') find that a character in the story was quoting a "Dr. Pierce" with that remark.  Wherever it came from, it's a perfect description of why his later books weren't as good as the early ones..
> 
> This needs a lot more yet....
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|989950829
111c111
< '''Q. What about non-ascii characters? We could write latin1, or (I think this would be better) use the HTML Codes (i.e. &uuml; for "u). This would also fix the math-symbol-problem, cause W3C-HTML 4.0 supports many of them, e.g. &Alpha; for a capitalized Alpha, &alpha; for a low one, &int; for a integral symbol ect. Konqueror supports this (and I think IE too, but I don't know.)'''
---
> '''Q. What about non-ascii characters? We could write latin1, or (I think this would be better) use the HTML Codes (i.e. <code>&uuml;</code> for "u). This would also fix the math-symbol-problem, cause W3C-HTML 4.0 supports many of them, e.g. <code>&Alpha;</code> for a capitalized Alpha, <code>&alpha;</code> for a low one, <code>&int;</code> for a integral symbol ect. Konqueror supports this (and I think IE too, but I don't know.)'''
------
RFC|989950907
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Request For Comment documents are a series of papers about the [[Internet]].
> 
> *[[/2026|RFC 2026]]: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|989950964
111c111
< '''Q. What about non-ascii characters? We could write latin1, or (I think this would be better) use the HTML Codes (i.e. <code>&uuml;</code> for "u). This would also fix the math-symbol-problem, cause W3C-HTML 4.0 supports many of them, e.g. <code>&Alpha;</code> for a capitalized Alpha, <code>&alpha;</code> for a low one, <code>&int;</code> for a integral symbol ect. Konqueror supports this (and I think IE too, but I don't know.)'''
---
> '''Q. What about non-ascii characters? We could write latin1, or (I think this would be better) use the HTML Codes (i.e. <code>&amp;uuml;</code> for "u). This would also fix the math-symbol-problem, cause W3C-HTML 4.0 supports many of them, e.g. <code>&amp;Alpha;</code> for a capitalized Alpha, <code>&amp;alpha;</code> for a low one, <code>&amp;int;</code> for a integral symbol ect. Konqueror supports this (and I think IE too, but I don't know.)'''
------
RFC/2026|989951110
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|989952206
1c1
< The Hobbit is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]] intended for a young audience. Though it is not part of the [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
---
> The Hobbit (1937) is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]] intended for a young audience. Though it is not part of the [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
------
Naming_conventions|989952420
3c3
< ----
---
> The purpose of these policies is to make creating new pages with appropriate links easier.  When writing Wiki pages on any subject, names, words, or phrases that you think should be linked to further information should be bracketed so that they will appear as links.  Following consistent naming conventions makes it more likely that these links will lead to the right place.
5c5
< '''[[Free Links]]'''
---
> '''Use [[Free Links]]'''
9,13c9
< ----
< 
< '''Simplicity'''
< 
< Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called "Jazz", not "Jazz music", because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music.  Adding the word "music" is a redundancy.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  If we ignore potential ambiguity, the ideal of simplicity can be at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
---
> '''Prefer lowercase'''
15,19c11
< ----
< 
< '''Precision'''
< 
< ''Please, do not write put an article on a page with an ambiguously-named title as though that title had no other meanings!''
---
> For multiword pages there are two different styles of capitalization: capitalize only the first word, or capitalize all of them except articles and prepositions.  For names of works obviously the latter should be used, but for everything else both systems are being employed.  Notice: when you create a link with the first letter of the link uncapitalized, [[like this]], the first letter of the ''page'' that link links to ''is'' capitalized.  So [[like this]] points to <code>Like_this</code>.
21c13
< It's very important that we name our article titles ''precisely.''  If a word or phrase is highly ambiguous, and your article concerns only ''one'' of the meanings of that word or phrase, you should probably--not in all cases, but in many--use something more precise than just that word or phrase.  So, what ''should'' we call our articles, when the title we want is ambiguous?
---
> I ([[Larry Sanger]]) am strongly in favor of leaving as many things uncapitalized as is appropriate.  If we capitalize words within a page title, then whenever we want to link (quickly and easily) to that page, we must capitalize the page title.  But this results in grammatically incorrect sentences, which is jarring.  For example, I would much rather write "Good on potato chips is [[clam dip]]" (which points to <nowiki>/Clam_dip</nowiki>; see above) than "Good on potato chips is [[Clam Dip]]" which makes it sound like I'm talking about the god of clam dip, or something.  We switched to [[Free Links]] (which page is itself badly capitalized at present...) so we could avoid this sort of jarring situation.  Another example: philosophical doctrines are usually lower case: [[direct realism]].  If we title a page [[Direct Realism]], then whenever anyone wants to link (quickly and easily) to that page, he'll have to use the words "Direct Realism" capitalized--which might force him into a capitalization style that is uncommon and annoying.
23c15
< This is a problem that it's reasonably important that all Wikipedians understand.  There are a number of solutions; the appropriate solution in any case cannot be determined automatically, it seems.  Finer-grained applications of these solutions, applied to individual subject matters, should appear farther down on this page (or on appropriate subpages).
---
> Most names of doctrines shouldn't be capitalized.  Most jargon should not be capitalized.  Most long phrases (e.g., [[Ich bin ein Berliner]]; [[the most remarkable formula in the world]]) shouldn't contain capitalized words.
25,27c17
< # ''<b>More precise titles.</b>''  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.  For discussion of how to do this, see /Disambiguating .
< # ''<b>Central links pages.</b>''  One general solution to the problem of ambiguous names would be to have the central page, for example [[pipe]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for: [[smoking pipes]], [[plumbing pipes]], [[bagpipes]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.  Of course, this isn't always the most appropriate solution; often, a word or phrase does have one ''central'' meaning, in which case the article should concern that meaning and then link to other, secondary meanings either on more precisely-named pages (see above) or on subpages (see below).
< # ''<b>Central pages with subpages.</b>''  It's entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse-breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life...
---
> This topic has its own page.  See [[Wiki Canonization]].
29c19
< ----
---
> '''Prefer singular nouns'''
31c21
< '''Capitalization'''
---
> Let's say you were writing a page about crayons.  Should you call the page <code>[[crayons]]</code>, which is basically what the page is about, or <code>[[crayon]]</code>, which makes it easier to link to from passages like "Harold took out his purple '''crayon''' and drew up the covers"?  Probably the latter.  One can always write <code>[[crayon]]s</code>, but if the page is called <code>[[crayons]]</code>, then whenever one wants to use the term in the singular, one is forced into typing the ungainly <code>[[crayons|crayon]]</code>.  (If you didn't understand the latter link, you need to read this: [[How does one edit a page]]?)
33c23
< For multiword pages there are two different styles of capitalization: capitalize only the first word, or capitalize all of them except articles and prepositions.  For names of works obviously the latter should be used, but for everything else both systems are being employed.  Notice: when you create a link with the first letter of the link uncapitalized, [[like this]], the first letter of the ''page'' that link links to ''is'' capitalized.  So [[like this]] points to <code>Like_this</code>.
---
> '''Use common names of persons'''
35c25
< I ([[Larry Sanger]]) am strongly in favor of leaving as many things uncapitalized as is appropriate.  If we capitalize words within a page title, then whenever we want to link (quickly and easily) to that page, we must capitalize the page title.  But this results in grammatically incorrect sentences, which is jarring.  For example, I would much rather write "Good on potato chips is [[clam dip]]" (which points to <nowiki>/Clam_dip</nowiki>; see above) than "Good on potato chips is [[Clam Dip]]" which makes it sound like I'm talking about the god of clam dip, or something.  We switched to [[Free Links]] (which page is itself badly capitalized at present...) so we could avoid this sort of jarring situation.  Another example: philosophical doctrines are usually lower case: [[direct realism]].  If we title a page [[Direct Realism]], then whenever anyone wants to link (quickly and easily) to that page, he'll have to use the words "Direct Realism" capitalized--which might force him into a capitalization style that is uncommon and annoying.
---
> As to names of persons, there are two schools of thought: use the most commonly used name, or use the person's full name.  After a vote among those interested, we've come down in favor of the former.  Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
37c27,29
< Most names of doctrines shouldn't be capitalized.  Most jargon should not be capitalized.  Most long phrases (e.g., [[Ich bin ein Berliner]]; [[the most remarkable formula in the world]]) shouldn't contain capitalized words.
---
> * We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines, thereby attracting more people to Wikipedia.  Also, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string "Jimmy Carter" in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since "Jimmy Carter" is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
> * We want to maximize the incidence of accidental links.
> * Using full formal names requires, if one wants to link directly to the article, both that people know the full formal name ''and'' that they type it out, both of which are a royal pain.  If one links to a redirection page, there's the messy "redirected from" announcement at the top of the page.
39c31
< Might I make a suggestion? WikiPedia already does the right thing with the first letter, i.e. the first letter of the link address is capiatized no matter what the first character of the link text looks like. Can we extend the wiki software to do the same for any character that follow an underscore? I suppose there is a larger [[canonization]] issue, where we want some flexibility in link text by turning it into some canonical address. WikiPedia does great with spaces and the case of the first letter, let's go farther. --[[Andy Jewell]]
---
> Examples of common names that should be used instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.  Names with initials should have spaces after each period as in normal English text, for example, [[H. G. Wells]].
41c33
< I think Andy might be on to something--but only with the stipulation/clarification that the wiki software be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>.  In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>).  But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words. -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> '''Use simple titles'''
43c35
< This topic needs its own page. Let's all meet at [[Wiki Canonization]]
---
> Remeber that a link is the title of the page it links to.  Titles should be as simple as possible without being too general.  For example, the page about [[Jazz|jazz]] should simply be called "Jazz", not "Jazz music", because "jazz" does not refer to anything other than music, and the simpler title makes linking easier.  Adding the word "music" is redundant.  On the other hand, country music should be on a page called [[Country music]] because the word "country" has other referents besides the musical genre.  If we ignore potential ambiguity, the ideal of simplicity can be at odds with the ideal of precision: see below.
45c37
< ----
---
> '''Be precise when necessary'''
47c39
< '''Pluralization'''
---
> ''Please, do not write put an article on a page with an ambiguously-named title as though that title had no other meanings!''
49c41
< Let's say you were writing a page about crayons.  Should you call the page <code>[[crayons]]</code>, which is basically what the page is about, or <code>[[crayon]]</code>, which makes it easier to link to from passages like "Harold took out his purple crayon and drew up the covers"?  Probably the latter.  One can always write <code>[[crayon]]s</code>, but if the page is called <code>[[crayons]]</code>, then whenever one wants to use the term in the singular, one is forced into typing the ungainly <code>[[crayons|crayon]]</code>.  (If you didn't understand the latter link, you need to read this: [[How does one edit a page]]?)
---
> It's very important that we name our article titles ''precisely.''  If a word or phrase is highly ambiguous, and your article concerns only ''one'' of the meanings of that word or phrase, you should probably--not in all cases, but in many--use something more precise than just that word or phrase.  So what should we call our articles when the title we want is ambiguous?  This is a problem that is important for all Wikipedians to understand.  There are a number of solutions; the appropriate solution in any case cannot be determined automatically, it seems.  Finer-grained applications of these solutions, applied to individual subject matters, should appear further down on this page (or on appropriate subpages).
51c43,45
< ----
---
> # '''More precise titles''':  In many cases, the most appropriate method will be simply to rename the articles with a more precise title, reserving the more general and obvious title for the ''central'' meaning of a word or phrase.  For example, the central meaning of "Apollo" is the ancient Greek sun god; an article about the Apollo space program or about individual Apollo missions, for example, should probably be called "Apollo space program" and "Apollo 13" or whatever along those lines is appropriate.  On the "Apollo" page, of course, one can always link to other pages that use "Apollo" in the title; see just below.  For discussion of how to do this, see /Disambiguating.
> # '''Central links pages''': One general solution to the problem of ambiguous names would be to have the central page, for example [[pipe]] be simply a pointer page to the pages that a person might be looking for: [[smoking pipe]], [[plumbing pipe]], [[bagpipes]].  In this way, accidental linking still works, although a person will have to detour through the central page.  Of course, this isn't always the most appropriate solution; often, a word or phrase does have one ''central'' meaning, in which case the article should concern that meaning and then link to other, secondary meanings either on more precisely-named pages (see above) or on subpages (see below).
> # '''Central pages with subpages''': It is entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life.
53c47
< '''Names of persons'''
---
> '''Use English words'''
55c49
< As to names of persons, there are two schools of thought: use the most commonly used name, or use the person's full name.  After a vote among those interested, we've come down in favor of the former.
---
> I have so far been stubborn about keeping names in their original language.  I think it is time for me to give in to the language origin of the Wikipedia.  For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
57,61c51
< Names of persons should be the most commonly used name for the following reasons:
< * We want to maximize the likelihood of being listed in other search engines, thereby attracting more people to Wikipedia.  Also, the [[Jimmy Carter]] page has the string 'Jimmy Carter' in the page title.  This is important because other search engines will often give greater weight to the contents of the title than to the body of the page.  Since 'Jimmy Carter' is the most common form of the name, it will be searched on more often, and having that exact string in our page title will often mean our page shows up higher in other search engines.
< * We want to maximize the incidence of accidental links.
< * Using full formal names requires, if one wants to link directly to the article, both that people know the full formal name ''and'' that they type it out, both of which are a royal pain.  If one links to a redirection page, there's the messy "redirected from" announcement at the top of the page.
< Examples of common names that should be used instead of formal names are: [[George W. Bush]], [[Bill Clinton]], [[Al Gore]], [[Mozart]], [[Bach]], [[Goethe]].  Middle names should be avoided unless they are the most common form of a name.
---
> Name your pages in English!  If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias).  If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article).  Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
63c53
< ----
---
> <h2>Other specific conventions</h2>
65c55
< '''Movie titles''' 
---
> '''Movie titles'''
67c57
< Some movie titles describe other things about which we want articles.  E.g., [[An American in Paris]] describes both a Gershwin musical piece and a movie, and [[Dune]] is a geological term, a novel, a movie, and a made-for-cable miniseries.
---
> Some movie titles describe other things about which we want articles.  For example, [[An American in Paris]] describes both a Gershwin musical piece and a movie, and [[Dune]] is a geological term, a novel, a movie, and a made-for-cable miniseries.
71c61,63
< I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal. Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.). Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
---
> I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal.  Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.).  Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
> 
> Another possible solution that will become available when Wikipedia switches to version 0.92 of UseModWiki is to use parentheses: "Dune (movie)", "Dune (book)", etc.  There is clearly a "primary" meaning here of the big sand pile, so that page should still be named just "Dune", possibly with links to the other pages.
73d64
< ----
79,80d69
< ----
< '''The language of the Wikipedia is English'''
82,84d70
< I have sofar been stubborn about keeping names in their original language. I think it is time for me to given in to the language origin of the wikipedia. For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
< 
< Name your pages in English! If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias). If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article). Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
87c73
< ----
---
> 
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|989952870
1c1
< The [[Treaty of Versailles]] is the peace treaty of the Allies and Germany after the [[World War I]], which was hard for the Germans because of the money the Germans had to pay. This treaty says that only Germany is responsible for the war.
---
> The [[Treaty of Versailles]] is the peace treaty of the Allies and Germany after [[World War I]]. It was hard for the Germans because of the money the Germans had to pay. This treaty says that only [[Germany]] was responsible for the war.
3c3
< Some historian mean, that this is the reason for the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who causes the [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
---
> Some historians mean that this is the reason for the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who caused [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
------
Be_bold_in_updating_pages|989953015
8a9,12
> ----
> 
> Another comment: There are times when I have edited a page originally written in British English.  Since my native language is American English, I do not consider myself competent to edit British text without accidentally throwing in a "realize" or "the team is..." or something else I'm not familiar with, so I simply "translated" the page into American English in its entirety so that I can be sure it's correct.  This in no way implies that I think one is better than the other; only that I'm more competent to edit one.  Of course, if a British person later comes along to edit it and wants to translate it back, that's fine too if he or she feels more competent editing that.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
KurtCobain|989953255
1c1
< Kurt Donald Cobain (1967-1994).    
---
> Kurt Donald Cobain (1967-1994).  
3c3,5
< Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). His widow, [[Courtney Love]] killed him in 1994. Courtney Love then collected the insurance and made herself into the beauty queen that she thinks she is now....but we all know the real truth and she is a c*nt.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]).  He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
> 
> [[/Talk]]
5d6
< Kurt Cobain was a star in everyones eyes and the music he sang was deep and full of emotion. Let's all remember him as the beautiful person he was.
------
Boney_M|989953316
1c1
< is a Euro-dance and disco group, which was a phenomenon during the '70s. The group was created by Frank Farian on 1976 and was composed of four West Indian vocalists in working in Germany (Marcia Barrett, Liz Mitchell, Maizie Williams and Bobby Farrell). Their most famous songs are: Baby Do You Wanna Bump?, Daddy Cool, Sunny, Ma Baker, Belfast, Rivers of Babylon, Nightflight to Venus, Rasputin and Painter Man. 
---
> Boney M is a [[Euro-dance]] and [[disco]] group, which was a phenomenon during the [[1970s]]. The group was created by [[Frank Farian]] in 1976 and was composed of four West Indian vocalists working in Germany ([[Marcia Barrett]], [[Liz Mitchell]], [[Maizie Williams]] and [[Bobby Farrell]]). 
2a3,12
> Their most famous songs are: 
> * Baby Do You Wanna Bump?
> * Daddy Cool
> * Sunny
> * Ma Baker
> * Belfast
> * Rivers of Babylon
> * Nightflight to Venus
> * Rasputin
> * Painter Man
5c15,17
<  
---
> 
> 
>  
------
Nunavut/History|989953474
1c1
< The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of [[Baffin Island]] with the [[Helluland]] described in [[Norse sagas]], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occassional contact with [Norse] sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see [[Paleoeskimo]], [[Neoeskimo]] and [[Helluland]].
---
> The region now known as Nunavut has supported a continuous population for approximately 4000 years. Most historians also identify the coast of [[Baffin Island]] with the [[Helluland]] described in [[Norse sagas]], so it is possible that the inhabitants of the region had occasional contact with [[Norse]] sailors. For more information on the earliest inhabitants and explorers of Nunavut, see [[Paleoeskimo]], [[Neoeskimo]] and [[Helluland]].
5c5
< Other explorers in search of the elusive [[Northwest Passage]] followed in the 17th century, including [[Henry Hudson]], [[Willian Baffin]] and [[Robert Bylot]].
---
> Other explorers in search of the elusive [[Northwest Passage]] followed in the [[17th century]], including [[Henry Hudson]], [[Willian Baffin]] and [[Robert Bylot]].
------
A._E._van_Vogt|989953729
3c3
< Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for "true confessions" style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed: science fiction.  His first published science fiction story, ''Black Destroyer'' (Astounding Science Fiction, 1939), depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
---
> Canadian-born [[science fiction]] author. After starting his writing career by writing for "true confessions" style [[pulp magazines]], he decided to switch to writing something that he enjoyed: science fiction.  His first published science fiction story, ''Black Destroyer'' ([[Astounding Science Fiction]], 1939), depicting a fierce, carnivorous alien stalking the crew of an exploration ship, was extremely popular and set the style for a number of science fiction films over the years.
7c7
< He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge--the characters in his very first story used a system called "Nexialism" to analyse the aliens's behaviour--and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, ''The World of Null-A'' and ''The Pawns of Null-A''.  In the 1950s, he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his  writing more or less stopped for some years.  He resumed writing again in the 1960s. 
---
> He had always been interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge--the characters in his very first story used a system called "Nexialism" to analyse the aliens's behaviour--and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]], and wrote two novels on this theme, ''The World of Null-A'' and ''The Pawns of Null-A''.  In the [[1950s]], he became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard]]'s [[Dianetics]] and his  writing more or less stopped for some years.  He resumed writing again in the [[1960s]]. 
------
H._G._Wells|989955124
1c1
< English writer Herbert George Wells was born in 1866 and died in 1946.  In his youth he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper--his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel ''Kipps''.  In 1883 he became a teacher at Midhurst Grammar school, until he won a scholarship to the National School of Science in London, studying biology under [[T. H. Huxley]]
---
> English writer Herbert George Wells was born in 1866 and died in 1946.  In his youth he was unsuccessfully apprenticed as a draper--his experiences in this occupation were later used as material in his novel ''Kipps''.  In 1883 he became a teacher at [[Midhurst Grammar school]], until he won a scholarship to the [[National School of Science]] in [[London]], studying [[biology]] under [[T. H. Huxley]]
3c3
< In his early novels, described at the time as "scientific romances", he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later science fiction writers and have entered popular culture with such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds]]''.  Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising ''Tono-Bungay'' and ''Kipps''.
---
> In his early novels, described at the time as "[[scientific romances]]", he invented a number of themes that have been elaborated on by later [[science fiction]] writers and have entered popular culture with such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds]]''.  Other novels, non-fantastic in nature were well received, such as the satire on Edwardian advertising ''Tono-Bungay'' and ''Kipps''.
------
KurtCobain|989955363
3c3
< Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]).  He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun.
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). He was married to singer [[Courtney Love]]. He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun. 
------
Courtney_Love|989955467
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Courtney Love is a singer and a member in the group [[Hole]]. She used to be married to [[KurtCobain|Kurt Cobain]].
------
Terry_Pratchett/The_Luggage|989956598
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Luggage appears in some of the [[/Discworld|Discworld]] novels by [[Terry Pratchett]]. It is a large chest made of [[/sapient pearwood|sapient pearwood]]. It has lots of legs protruding from its underside and can move very fast if the need arises. 
> 
> Even if it has just swallowed someone, the inside will appear to contain normal luggage.
------
Mojo|989956745
1c1
< Mojo refers to black magic.  The word traces its origins to Africa and entered English in the early 20th century through usage by Afican-Americans.  It reflects the belief, common in many cultures, that some people have the ability to influence others to their own advantage, by casting spells or hexes.
---
> Mojo refers to [[black magic]].  The word traces its origins to [[Africa]] and entered [[English]] in the early [[20th century]] through usage by [[African-Americans]].  It reflects the belief, common in many cultures, that some people have the ability to influence others to their own advantage, by casting spells or hexes.
3c3
< In 1999, the film [Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]? incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]]. 
---
> In 1999, the film [[Austin Powers The Spy Who Shagged Me|Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]]? incorrectly and inexplicably used mojo to mean the [[libido]]. 
------
Britain|989956836
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[British Isles]]
------
Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis|989957037
6a7
> It sounds to me as is [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] should be mentioned in here somewhere.
------
Czech_republic/History|989957265
2c2
< After World War II, Czechoslovakia fell within the Soviet sphere of influence. In 1968, an invasion by Warsaw Pact troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create "socialism with a human face." Anti-Soviet demonstrations the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its freedom through a peaceful "Velvet Revolution." On 1 January 1993, the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national components, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Now a member of NATO, the Czech Republic has moved toward integration in world markets, a development that poses both opportunities and risks.
---
> After [[World War II]], [[Czechoslovakia]] fell within the [[Soviet]] sphere of influence. In 1968, an invasion by [[Warsaw Pact]] troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create "[[socialism with a human face]]." Anti-Soviet demonstrations the following year ushered in a period of harsh repression. With the collapse of Soviet authority in 1989, Czechoslovakia regained its freedom through a peaceful "[[Velvet Revolution]]." On 1 January 1993, the country underwent a "velvet divorce" into its two national components, the Czech Republic and [[Slovakia]]. Now a member of [[NATO]], the Czech Republic has moved toward integration in world markets, a development that poses both opportunities and risks.
------
Rheged|989957516
1c1
< Rheged was a nation in dark ages Britain. It was situated in what is now north-western England and south-western Scotland. It was founded during or soon after the collapse of power of the [[Roman Empire]] in Britain, which may put the date at around 400CE. It was eventually absorbed into the kingdom of [[Northumbria]] at a date probably before 800CE.
---
> Rheged was a nation in [[dark ages]] [[Britain]]. It was situated in what is now north-western [[England]] and south-western [[Scotland]]. It was founded during or soon after the collapse of power of the [[Roman Empire]] in Britain, which may put the date at around 400CE. It was eventually absorbed into the kingdom of [[Northumbria]] at a date probably before 800CE.
7c7
< There is considerable evidence for an Irish presence as well. It is known that Irish Christian missionaries were active in Rheged (although the region was at least nominally Christian even in Roman times) and there were likely Irish traders, pirates and settlers unconnected with the church as well.
---
> There is considerable evidence for an [[Irish]] presence as well. It is known that Irish [[Christian missionaries]] were active in Rheged (although the region was at least nominally [[Christian]] even in Roman times) and there were likely Irish traders, pirates and settlers unconnected with the church as well.
9c9
< The poet Taleisin lived in Rheged.
---
> The poet [[Taleisin]] lived in Rheged.
------
World_Wide_Web|989957710
3c3
< More to the point. The basic building block of the Web is the [[HTML]] language. This language, a subset of [[SGML]], allows rather complex formatting of [[files]]. And also it implements the [[hyperlink]] concept in a very intuitive (point-and-click) way. Most importat, due to the very different devices that could eventually access the information, HTML is device-independent. So HTML defines the wished format, but lets the browser (who knows the viewing device) decide the precise appearance of the viewed set of information, or [[Web page]].
---
> More to the point. The basic building block of the Web is the [[HTML]] language. This language, a subset of [[SGML]], allows rather complex formatting of [[files]]. And also it implements the [[hyperlink]] concept in a very intuitive (point-and-click) way. Most important, due to the very different devices that could eventually access the information, HTML is device-independent. So HTML defines the desired format, but lets the browser (who knows the viewing device) decide the precise appearance of the viewed set of information, or [[Web page]].
5c5
< To the end user of a Web browser, the Web appears as a big set of [[Web page|Web pages]], linked together by hyperlinks. The only think your browser needs is an starting point, given as a [[URL]], also known as Web address. Then you can "surf", "navigate" or "browse" the Web, jumping from page to page via hyperlinks.
---
> To the end user of a Web browser, the Web appears as a big set of [[Web page|Web pages]], linked together by hyperlinks. The only thing your browser needs is a starting point, given as a [[URL]], also known as Web address. Then you can "surf", "navigate" or "browse" the Web, jumping from page to page via hyperlinks.
------
World_Wide_Web_Consortium|989957976
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The World Wide Web Consortium (or W3C for short) is an organization that produces standards for the [[World Wide Web]]. It is headed by [[Tim Berners-Lee]], the original creator of the web.
> 
> See its web site, http://www.w3c.org/.
------
Tim_Berners-Lee|989958074
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tim Berners-Lee thought up the [[World Wide Web]] in the beginning of the [[1990s]] while working for [[CERN]]. He is now head of the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
------
The_Legend_of_Zelda|989958273
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Video game]] [[Video game/Adventure|adventure]] series created by [[Nintendo]] and industry legend [[Shigeru Miyamoto]].
> 
> The adventures of [[/Link|Link]] in the land of [[/Hyrule|Hyrule]] so far..
> The first, simply titled [[/I|Legend of Zelda]] is a simple but obviously special affair.
> [[/II The Adventure of Link|Zelda II, The Adventure of Link]] came out just a year later.
> [[/III A Link to the Past|Zelda III, A Link to the Past]] introduced most of the gameplay elements that are now instantly recognisable to any seasoned player.
> Taking place over an extensive world, its key feature was the dark alternative realm, previously inaccessable places would become available in the dark world, opening up new places, people and items to be discovered.
> 
> [[/IV Links Awakening|Zelda IV, Link's Awakening]] wasn't such an advanced leap as the previous title, something remedied with the later
> [[/IV Links Awakening DX|DX]] release which added a new dungeon, the usage of colour throughout and a photo shop with the ability to print out photo's.
> 
> Universally acclaimed as being one of the greatest, if not <b>the</b> greatest video games of all time, [[/Ocarina of Time|Ocarina of Time]] was well worth the several year wait. As the title suggests, the passage of time is central to the game, as is the collecting, trading and usage of masks.
> 
> Coming so soon after, many expected [[/Majoras Mask|Majora's Mask]] to be a good, but shallow experience. Billed as it was as a side story to the Ocarina of Time, and worst still, not even developed by Shigeru Miayamoto.
> Those fears were unfounded, at the heart of the game, it once again uses time.
> Rather than taking a macro, lifetime spanning approach, it took the micro, minutes and hours approach. Probably one of the most beautiful games ever.
> 
> Originally envisioned to come out as three parts, [[/Oracle of Seasons|Oracle of Seasons]] and
> [[/Oracle of Ages|Oracle of Ages]] now see's the latest adventure scaled to two parts.
> No matter, taking the proven formula of [[Nintendo]]s other great franchise, [[Pokemon]], these two games combine and form a greater whole.
------
Italian_Rap|989958444
1c1
< Italian rap started in the early nineties. One of the earliest crews was Milan's [[Articolo 31]], then and still today produced by [[Franco Godi]] who wrote the soundtrack to the animated TV series "Signor Rossi" in the 1970s. They started out as a mainly East Coast inspired rap duo, but changed to a more commercial style during their career. Other important crews and rappers include Bologna's [[Jovanotti]] who is also a [[cantautore]] and even though he raps not part of [[hip hop]] culture, the political band [[99 Posse]] from Rome who also are influenced from [[trip hop]] [[world music]], [[gangster rap]]-influenced [[Sa Razza]] from Sardinia. Also influenced by [[gangster rap]] are [[Sottotono]] from Varese and [[La Fossa]] from Sardinia. There are also some crews rapping in the local idioms, e.g. [[La Famiglia]] (produced by Franco Godi) in napoletano, 99 Posse (partly) in romano, Sa Razza (partly) in Sardinian. 
---
> Italian rap started in the early nineties. One of the earliest crews was Milan's [[Articolo 31]], then and still today produced by [[Franco Godi]] who wrote the soundtrack to the animated TV series "Signor Rossi" in the 1970s. They started out as a mainly East Coast inspired rap duo, but changed to a more commercial style during their career. Other important crews and rappers include Bologna's [[Jovanotti]] who is also a [[cantautore]] and even though he raps not part of [[hip hop]] culture, the political band [[99 Posse]] from Rome who also are influenced from [[trip hop]] [[world music]], [[Gangster rap]]-influenced [[Sa Razza]] from Sardinia. Also influenced by [[gangster rap]] are [[Sottotono]] from Varese and [[La Fossa]] from Sardinia. There are also some crews rapping in the local idioms, e.g. [[La Famiglia]] (produced by Franco Godi) in napoletano, 99 Posse (partly) in romano, Sa Razza (partly) in Sardinian. 
------
Blade_Runner|989958455
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Blade Runner (1982)
> 
> A very dark [[science fiction]] [[film]] directed by [[Ridley Scott]]. It is based on the [[novel]] [[Philip K. Dick/Do Androide Dream of Electric Sheep|Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]] by [[Philip K. Dick]].
> 
> It stars [[Harrison Ford]] as [[Blade Runner/Rick Deckard|Rick Deckard]] as a [[Blade Runner/blade runner|blade runner]]. It is his job to terminate six excaped [[Blade Runner/replicant|replicants]].
------
El_Salvador/Transnational_issues|989958622
2,4c2,5
< the Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required
< <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
< transshipment point for cocaine; marijuana produced for local consumption; domestic drug abuse on the rise
---
> the [[Honduras]]-[[El Salvador]] Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the [[Golfo de Fonseca]], the [[ICJ]] referred to the line determined by the 1900 [[Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission]] and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and [[Nicaragua]] likely would be required
> 
> <b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for [[cocaine]]; [[marijuana]] produced for local consumption; domestic [[drug abuse]] on the rise.
------
Gangsta_rap|989958689
1,2c1,3
< The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. He himself said in an interview about the history of gangster rap: "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism. That was the New York shit. So there's no question that I was before Eazy because if you go back to 1982 with Cold Wind Madness, I was talking about being "the pimp, the player, the woman-layer", but Six In The Morning would be the first "Gangsta Rap", so to speak. After that, Cube wrote Boyz In Tha Hood which was like a bite of Six In The Morning [with the syncopation]. It's like "Six in the morning, police at my door..." and "The boyz in the hood are always hard...". If you play Boyz In The Hood at the same time as Six In The Morning, you'll hear they even break at the same point." (www.daveyd.com) Influenced by east coast rappers Schoolly D and Boogie Down Productions, Ice T
< created a style he later termed Crime Rhyme. Next to him, especially NWA and Eazy E popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of P Funk, creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> The first gangster rapper was [[Ice T]]. He himself said in an interview about the history of gangster rap: 
> ' ' "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism. That was the New York shit. So there's no question that I was before Eazy because if you go back to 1982 with Cold Wind Madness, I was talking about being "the pimp, the player, the woman-layer", but Six In The Morning would be the first "Gangsta Rap", so to speak. After that, Cube wrote Boyz In Tha Hood which was like a bite of Six In The Morning [with the syncopation]. It's like "Six in the morning, police at my door..." and "The boyz in the hood are always hard...". If you play Boyz In The Hood at the same time as Six In The Morning, you'll hear they even break at the same point." ''(www.daveyd.com) 
> Other important gangster rappers include [[Compton's Most Wanted]], [[Above The Law]] and [[2Pac]]. [[Boogie Down Production]]'s first album "Criminal Minded" probably also influenced gangster rap, and both the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]] were sampled and otherwise quoted by NWA and Eazy E, who popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Gangsta_rap|989958711
2c2,4
< ' ' "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism. That was the New York shit. So there's no question that I was before Eazy because if you go back to 1982 with Cold Wind Madness, I was talking about being "the pimp, the player, the woman-layer", but Six In The Morning would be the first "Gangsta Rap", so to speak. After that, Cube wrote Boyz In Tha Hood which was like a bite of Six In The Morning [with the syncopation]. It's like "Six in the morning, police at my door..." and "The boyz in the hood are always hard...". If you play Boyz In The Hood at the same time as Six In The Morning, you'll hear they even break at the same point." ''(www.daveyd.com) 
---
> 
> ' ' "The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schooly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism. That was the New York shit. So there's no question that I was before Eazy because if you go back to 1982 with Cold Wind Madness, I was talking about being "the pimp, the player, the woman-layer", but Six In The Morning would be the first "Gangsta Rap", so to speak. After that, Cube wrote Boyz In Tha Hood which was like a bite of Six In The Morning [with the syncopation]. It's like "Six in the morning, police at my door..." and "The boyz in the hood are always hard...". If you play Boyz In The Hood at the same time as Six In The Morning, you'll hear they even break at the same point."(www.daveyd.com) 
> 
------
Albania/Communications|989958722
5c5
< Telephone system: domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a telephone for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the communist government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the Tirana exchange to Italy and Greece
---
> Telephone system: domestic: obsolete wire system; no longer provides a [[telephone]] for every village; in 1992, following the fall of the [[communist]] government, peasants cut the wire to about 1,000 villages and used it to build fences international: inadequate; international traffic carried by microwave radio relay from the [[Tirana]] exchange to [[Italy]] and [[Greece]]
------
Gangsta_rap|989958743
5c5
< Other important gangster rappers include [[Compton's Most Wanted]], [[Above The Law]] and [[2Pac]]. [[Boogie Down Production]]'s first album "Criminal Minded" probably also influenced gangster rap, and both the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]] were sampled and otherwise quoted by NWA and Eazy E, who popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> Other important gangster rappers include [[Compton's Most Wanted]], [[Above The Law]] and [[2Pac]]. [[Boogie Down Production]]'s first album "Criminal Minded" probably also influenced gangster rap, and both the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]] were sampled and otherwise quoted by [[NWA]] and [[Eazy E]], who popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
------
Microsoft|989958799
1c1
< Computer software producer in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]].
---
> Computer software producer in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]]. Founded in the late [[1970s]] by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]].
------
Gangsta_rap|989958809
5c5
< Other important gangster rappers include [[Compton's Most Wanted]], [[Above The Law]] and [[2Pac]]. [[Boogie Down Production]]'s first album "Criminal Minded" probably also influenced gangster rap, and both the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]] were sampled and otherwise quoted by [[NWA]] and [[Eazy E]], who popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. 
---
> Other important gangster rappers include [[Compton's Most Wanted]], [[Above The Law]] and [[2Pac]]. [[Boogie Down Production]]'s first album "Criminal Minded" probably also influenced gangster rap, and both the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Run DMC]] were sampled and otherwise quoted by [[NWA]] and [[Eazy E]], who popularized the new style that at first was basically hardcore rap, but later on, former NWA member [[Dr. Dre]] introduced more melodic elements especially from the realm of [[P Funk]], creating a new style called G Funk. The style flourished on the west coast, but eventually many east coast artists adopted the lyrical style. Musically, however, the east did not abandon his own brand of hip hop. In the 1990s, at least on a lyrical level gangster rap also influenced rappers from the east coast, e.g. [[DMX]], [[Jay Z]] and [[Notorious BIG]]. 
------
Rap_music|989958860
57a58
> :[[Prince Paul]]
------
Iron|989958868
1c1,4
< Iron is a basic element and a [[metal]] made from [[iron ore]], closely related to [[steel]].
---
> Iron is a basic element and a [[metal]] extracted from [[iron ore]], closely related to [[steel]].
> 
> The nucleus of iron has the smallest amount of energy per nucleon, so its production is the last exothermic process in the
> interior of a star. If a star has sufficient mass to produce iron, a [[supernova]] will ensue.
------
Bill_Gates|989958876
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Founder and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
------
Belize/History|989959011
2c2
< Territorial disputes between the UK and Guatemala delayed the independence of Belize (formerly British Honduras) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. Tourism has become the mainstay of the economy. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
---
> Territorial disputes between the [[United Kingdom|UK] and [[Guatemala]] delayed the independence of [[Belize]] (formerly [[British Honduras]]) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. [[Tourism]] has become the mainstay of the [[economy]]. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
------
Belize/History|989959026
2c2
< Territorial disputes between the [[United Kingdom|UK] and [[Guatemala]] delayed the independence of [[Belize]] (formerly [[British Honduras]]) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. [[Tourism]] has become the mainstay of the [[economy]]. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
---
> Territorial disputes between the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[Guatemala]] delayed the independence of [[Belize]] (formerly [[British Honduras]]) until 1981. Guatemala refused to recognize the new nation until 1992. [[Tourism]] has become the mainstay of the [[economy]]. The country remains plagued by high unemployment, growing involvement in the South American drug trade, and increased urban crime.
------
Prince_Paul|989959162
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originally a member of the self-proclaimed hip hop band [[Stetsasonic]], Prince Paul produced [[De La Soul]]'s 1989 debut album "Three feet high and rising". After two more albums, he left them, putting together two brilliant solo projects, namely "Psychoanalysis what is it" and the hip hop opera "A prince among thieves" featuring rappers from [[Big Daddy Kane]] to [[Everlast]]. Paul teamed up with Dan the Automator to form the Handome Boy Modeling School; their album "So... how's your girl?" featured prominent names from Sean Lennon to Del Tha Funkee Homosapien. In the year 2000, Paul produced "I hope I sell a lot of records at Christmastime" by [[Princess Superstar]]. 
------
Propaganda_film|989959164
6c6
< See also:
---
> Noted propagandists:
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Transnational_issues|989959271
2c2
< the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
---
> the [[Chagos Archipelago]] is claimed by [[Mauritius]] and [[Seychelles]].
------
The_Thin_Blue_Line|989959288
1c1
< Documentary concerning the murder of a police officer in Texas who had stopped a car for a routine traffic citation.  The police are presented with two suspects, one a local underaged boy with a criminal record ([[David Harris]], a boy who returned to his hometown boasting that he had murdered a policeman) and the other a 38-year-old taciturn drifter with no criminal record whatsoever ([[Randall Dale Adams]]).  The documentary presents testimony suggesting that the police altered, fabricated, and suppressed evidence to convict the man they wanted to be guilty, in spite of evidence to the contrary.  They succeded, but with the help of [[Errol Morris]], the film's director (who had, incidentally, spent some years before the filming as a private investigator), the man they convicted was finally granted a retrial and released, after 11 years in prison.
---
> [[Documentary film|Documentary]] concerning the murder of a [[Texas]] police officer who had stopped a car for a routine traffic citation.  The police are presented with two suspects, one a local underaged boy with a criminal record ([[David Harris]], a boy who returned to his hometown boasting that he had murdered a policeman) and the other a 38-year-old taciturn drifter with no criminal record whatsoever ([[Randall Dale Adams]]).  The documentary presents testimony suggesting that the police altered, fabricated, and suppressed evidence to convict the man they wanted to be guilty, in spite of evidence to the contrary.  They succeded, but with the help of [[Errol Morris]], the film's director (who had, incidentally, spent some years before the filming as a private investigator), the man they convicted was finally granted a retrial and released, after 11 years in prison.
------
United_Kingdom/Monarchs|989959351
2a3,4
> The following were the Monarchs of [[England]], with a separate royal line claiming monarchy of [[Scotland]]
> 
48a51,53
>  
> In 1603 the [[Union of the Crowns]] took place, combining the royal lines of England and Scotland.  King James VI of Scotland became James I of England.  Since then, a single monarchy has ruled the [[United Kingdom]]
> 
------
Finnish_language|989959371
1a2
> <i> and <e> are neutral vowels, but front vowels <y ö ä> never mix with back vowels  <u o a>.
5c6
<  Consonant phonemes
---
> Consonant phonemes
34,36c35,37
< /y/ as in French <but>, Old English <y>
< /9/ as in French <deux>
< /}/ as in English <bat>
---
> /y/ as in French <but>, Old English and Finnish spelling: <y> 
> /9/ as in French <deux>, Finnish spelling: <ö>
> /}/ as in English <bat>, Finnish spelling: <ä>
------
Science_fiction_film|989959396
24c24
< :[[Blade Runner]], [[1982]]
---
> :[[Blade_Runner]], [[1982]]
------
Brazil/History|989959397
2c2
< Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became Latin America's leading economic power by the 1970s. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
---
> Following three centuries under the rule of [[Portugal]], [[Brazil]] became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in [[South America]], Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil became [[Latin America]]'s leading economic power by the [[1970s]]. Highly unequal income distribution remains a pressing problem.
------
Science_fiction_film|989959419
24c24
< :[[Blade_Runner]], [[1982]]
---
> :[[Blade Runner]], [[1982]]
------
Botswana/People|989959483
4c4
< estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
---
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
48c48
< Batswana 95%, Kalanga, Basarwa, and Kgalagadi 4%, white 1%
---
> [[Batswana]] 95%, [[Kalanga]], [[Basarwa]], and [[Kgalagadi]] 4%, white 1%
50c50
< indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 50%
---
> indigenous beliefs 50%, [[Christian]] 50%
52c52
< English (official), Setswana
---
> [[English]] (official), [[Setswana]]
61c61
< 59.9% (1995 est.)
---
> 59.9% (1995 est.)
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|989959595
1c1,4
< The [[Treaty of Versailles]] is the peace treaty of the Allies and Germany after [[World War I]]. It was hard for the Germans because of the money the Germans had to pay. This treaty says that only [[Germany]] was responsible for the war.
---
> The [[Treaty of Versailles]] is the peace treaty that put an official end to [[World War I]]. It established that
> responsability of the war was German, and thus, Germany was
> oblied to pay large compensations.
> The economic problems that these payments brought are cited as one of the causes of the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who caused [[World War II]].
3c6,7
< Some historians mean that this is the reason for the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who caused [[World War II]], but this is a bit problematic.
---
> Another provision of the treaty was the creation of the [[League of Nations]], that has the pupose of arbritate conflicts between
> nations before they were solved by war.
------
Character_encoding|989959713
1c1
< A <i>character encoding</i> is a [[code]] that pairs a set of set of [[natural language]] [[computer character|character]]s (such as an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]]) with a set of something else, such as numbers or electrical pulses.  Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Roman alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a telegraph key; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols as [[integer]]s.
---
> A <i>character encoding</i> is a [[code]] that pairs a set of [[natural language]] [[computer character|character]]s (such as an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]]) with a set of something else, such as numbers or electrical pulses.  Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Roman alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a [[telegraph key]]; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols as [[integer]]s.
------
Science_fiction_film|989959847
27a28
> :[[The Matrix]], 1999
------
Wales|989959998
5c5
< Wales has been a principality of England since the Act of Union in 1536, although the "Welsh Assembly" sitting in Cardiff is elected by the Welsh people.
---
> Wales has been a principality of England since the Act of Union in 1536, although the "Welsh Assembly" sitting in Cardiff is elected by the Welsh people. Wales was in the past known for its coal, tin and lead mines
7a8
> The naion emblem is the leek, a relative of the onion.
------
Finnish_language|989960052
1c1
< Finnish is an agglutinating language that like Hungarian always has stress on the fisrt syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. English king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European language. Like the [[Turkish language]], Finnish has vowel harmony, i.e. only certain designated vowels can appear together in a morpheme.
---
> Finnish is an [[agglutinating language]] that like [[Hungarian]] always has stress on the first syllables. There are quite a few Germanic loanwords in Finnish, for example kuningas from Germanic *kuningaz (cf. [[English]] king). Originally, Finnish had no initial consonant clusters, this however is changing due to influence from other European language. Like the [[Turkish language]], Finnish has vowel harmony, i.e. only certain designated vowels can appear together in a morpheme.
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|989960167
2c2
< responsability of the war was German, and thus, Germany was
---
> responsability of the war was German, and thus, [[Germany]] was
6,7c6
< Another provision of the treaty was the creation of the [[League of Nations]], that has the pupose of arbritate conflicts between
< nations before they were solved by war.
---
> Another provision of the treaty was the creation of the [[League of Nations]], that has the purpose of arbitrating conflicts between nations before they were solved by war.
------
Wales|989960294
3c3
< Covering an area of 8000 square miles, Wales has 3 million inhabitants, 20% of whom can speak Cymraeg (Welsh). 
---
> Covering an area of 8000 square miles, Wales has 3 million inhabitants, 20% of whom can speak Cymraeg ([[Welsh]]). 
5c5
< Wales has been a principality of England since the Act of Union in 1536, although the "Welsh Assembly" sitting in Cardiff is elected by the Welsh people. Wales was in the past known for its coal, tin and lead mines
---
> Wales has been a principality of [[England]] since the Act of Union in 1536, although the "Welsh Assembly" sitting in [[Cardiff]] is elected by the Welsh people. Wales was in the past known for its [[coal]], [[tin]] and [[lead]] mines
7,8c7,8
< The [[patron saint]] of Wales is [[St David]] and its flag is composed of a red [[dragon]] on a green and white field.
< The naion emblem is the leek, a relative of the onion.
---
> The [[patron saint]] of Wales is [[St David]] and the Welsh flag is composed of a red [[dragon]] on a green and white field.
> The national emblem is the [[leek]], a relative of the [[onion]].
11c11
< Not to be confused with [[Jimbo Wales]], or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales and not Celtic, as far as we know.
---
> Not to be confused with [[Jimbo Wales]], or with [[whales]], which are both considerably smaller than Wales and not [[Celtic]], as far as we know.
------
Iron|989960540
3,8c3
< The nucleus of iron has the smallest amount of energy per nucleon, so its production is the last exothermic process in the
< interior of a star. If a star has sufficient mass to produce iron, a [[supernova]] will ensue.
< 
< The word iron is also used for a tool made from this metal, e.g. a [[soldering iron]].
< 
< Used as a verb, to iron is to use a flat iron to flatten clothes and other textiles.
---
> The nucleus of iron has the smallest amount of energy per nucleon, so it is the heaviest element that is produced exothermically through fusion and the lightest through fission.  When a star has sufficient mass to produce iron does so, it can no longer produce energy in its core and a [[supernova]] will ensue.
9a5
> The word iron is also used for a tool made from this metal, e.g. a [[soldering iron]], or a [[household iron]] which is used to flatten clothes and other textiles - the use of which is called ironing.
------
The_Legend_of_Zelda|989960723
12c12
< Universally acclaimed as being one of the greatest, if not <b>the</b> greatest video games of all time, [[/Ocarina of Time|Ocarina of Time]] was well worth the several year wait. As the title suggests, the passage of time is central to the game, as is the collecting, trading and usage of masks.
---
> Universally acclaimed as being one of the greatest, if not <b>the</b> greatest video games of all time, [[/Ocarina of Time|Ocarina of Time]] was well worth the several year wait.  The familiar trading sequence here involved the use of masks, which were to form a large part of the premise of the next game.
------
KoyaanisQatsi|989960781
43a44,45
> I didn't take offense at the corrections.  I haven't added much to Wikipedia lately because I've been too busy, but I will continue as soon as possible.
> ----
45c47,48
< 
---
> ----
> I'm glad to do all the cut-and-paste; I don't mind it at all.  I think it's worthwhile work, and I can always stop when it gets tedious.  :-)  Lately I haven't been doing it because I haven't had much time, but I will continue.  After that, though, I suppose I'll have to start writing more of my own entries.  :-)
------
Mormon|989961012
1c1
< A common term refering to adherants of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]]. the name came from the [[Book of Mormon]], which is held to be [[scripture]] by the church. 
---
> A common term refering to adherants of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. the name came from [[The Book of Mormon]], which is held to be [[scripture]] by the church. 
------
Paula_Abdul|989961015
1c1
< American dancer, coreographer and singer.
---
> American dancer, choreographer and singer.
------
Scotland|989961437
1c1,7
< The northern part of [[Great Britain]], bordering to the south on [[England]].
---
> The northern part of [[Great Britain]], bordering to the south on [[England]]. Scotland consists of the mainland area plus several island groups, including the Shetlands, Hebrides, Orkneys, etc. The bagpipe and kilt are the perhaps the most recognized cultural items, although shortcake, haggis, Harris tweed, and the clan system are widely recognized. 
> 
> Almost all residents speak English although many speak Scots, a dialect very different from Standard English and some few still speak Scots Gaelic. 
> 
> Scotland is divided into two geographic areas - the lowlands and the highlands. These caused cultural divisions in the country where the lowlands were more influenced by the English to the South. 
> 
> The clan system in Scotland was one of its more distinguishing features. It had many similarities to the American Indian tribal system. Notable clans include [[Campbell]], [[MacGregor]], [[Stewart]], [[MacDonald]], [[MacLeod]],... 
4c10
< [[Aberdeen]], [[Edinburgh]]
---
> [[Edinburgh]], the capital; [[Aberdeen]]; [[Dundee]]; [[Glasgow]] 
------
Christianity|989961446
1c1
< Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of [[religion]]s who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. In some more liberal sects he was simply someone who had new insights and something to teach.
---
> Simply and most generally, Christianity comprises the group of [[religion]]s who believe that [[Jesus Christ]] is the Savior of the world. That is, he made it possible for mankind to be free from their faults and misdeeds and return to live with [[God]] in a state of never-ending happiness.  In some more liberal sects he was simply someone who had new insights and something to teach.
------
RFC/2026|989963401
1c1
< 
---
> This was supposed to be RFC 2026. For some reason, the cut and paste won't work.
------
United_Kingdom/Monarchs|989963752
73c73
< Current line of succession: Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince Harry, Prince Andrew
---
> Current line of succession: Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince Harry, Prince Andrew.  Note that all these are also monarchs of various other countries, e.g. [[Canada]] and [[Australia]].
------
Genealogy|989963805
7c7,12
< Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.  The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by immigration, foster homes and adoption... The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive.
---
> Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.  The search for living relatives often leads to family reunions, both of distant cousins and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by immigration, foster homes and adoption... The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive.
> 
> In most cultures, the name of a person includes in a way or other
> the family to which he or she belongs. In English this is
> usually called [[last name]], but given that not in all cultures
>  it is the <i>last</i> name, a more general form is [[family name]].
------
Genealogy|989963864
12c12
<  it is the <i>last</i> name, a more general form is [[family name]].
---
> it is the <i>last</i> name, a more general form is [[family name]].
------
Rock_and_roll|989964002
26c26
< *[[Funk music]]
---
> *[[Funk]]
------
Family_name|989964707
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The part of the name of a person that indicates to what [[family]] it belongs is a <i>family name</i>.
> 
> In the US, people usually have two given names (first and middle), and the family name goes at the end, reason why it's 
> called [[last name]]. The last name is usually the last name of
> the father (and the mother, because it's usual for the wife to
> take the last name of her husband as her own), but sometimes is
> the mother's, or a hypenation of both parents last names.
> Other countries where this is the case are (UK?, Australia? ).
> 
> In Spain and countries of hispanic culture (former spanish
> colonies), each person has two family names: the first is the
> first family name of the father, the second is the first family
> name of the mother. Like in the case of the US middle name,
> the second family name can be omitted or reduced to the initial.
> 
> In other places like [[Iceland]], there is no real family name,
> the last name of a person is a modified form of the first name
> of the father ([[patronymic]]).
> 
> In other cultures, like the chinese, the family name is actually
> the first name, and the given name is last.
> 
------
Jonny_Z|989965470
1c1
< Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. 
---
> Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of Rodney O and Joe Cooley's classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". 
------
Jonny_Z|989965487
1c1
< Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of Rodney O and Joe Cooley's classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". 
---
> Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". 
------
World_Wide_Web|989965560
1c1
< The World Wide Web, or simply "Web", can be thought of as a subset of [[Internet]]. To belong to it, you have to provide content that can be viewed using a [[Web browser]]. A Web browser is of course a program designed to view contents in the Web. If that seems like a recursive definition, it's because it is. When you provide information in the Web, you become a [[Web site]].
---
> The '''World Wide Web''' is a [[network]] of computers on the [[Internet]] that provide information in [[hypertext]].  To view the information, a user uses a piece of software called [[web browser]], which retrieves these peices of information (called "documents" or "web pages") from [[web server]]s (or "sites") and displays them.  The user can then follow [[hyperlink]]s on those pages to other documents (often called "surfing"), or even send information back to the server to interact with it.
3c3
< More to the point. The basic building block of the Web is the [[HTML]] language. This language, a subset of [[SGML]], allows rather complex formatting of [[files]]. And also it implements the [[hyperlink]] concept in a very intuitive (point-and-click) way. Most important, due to the very different devices that could eventually access the information, HTML is device-independent. So HTML defines the desired format, but lets the browser (who knows the viewing device) decide the precise appearance of the viewed set of information, or [[Web page]].
---
> The Web grew out of a project at [[CERN]], beginning around 1989, where [[Tim Berners-Lee]] built the prototype system that became the core of what is now the World Wide Web.
5c5
< To the end user of a Web browser, the Web appears as a big set of [[Web page|Web pages]], linked together by hyperlinks. The only thing your browser needs is a starting point, given as a [[URL]], also known as Web address. Then you can "surf", "navigate" or "browse" the Web, jumping from page to page via hyperlinks.
---
> The core functionality of the Web is based on three standards: The [[URL]], which specifies how each page of information is given a unique "address" at which it can be found; [[HTTP]], which specifies how the browser and server send the information to each other, and [[HTML]], a method of encoding the information so it can be displayed on a variety of devices.  Berners-Lee now heads the [[World Wide Web Consortium]], which develops and maintains these standards and others that enable computers on the the Web to effectively store and communicate all kinds of information.
7c7
< The huge success of this model (a special program displays and formats a recognised standard) has lead to the corruption, up to a point, of the initial virtues. If you develop a browser, you can make your browser recognise other languages in addition to HTML. If your browser is popular enough, and the additions useful enough, many providers will use your (non-standard) language. The other browsers are then forced to catch up for compatibility. Also the viewer-independence concept has been perverted, as many pages are designed with the most used viewing mode in mind. The setting of standards, task mainly of the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] has lagged considerably behind the reality.
---
> The initial "www" program at CERN only displayed text, but later browsers such as [[Pei Wei]]'s [[Viola web browser|Viola]] (1992) added the ability to display graphics as well.  [[Marc Andreesen]] of [[NCSA]] released a browser called "[[Mosaic web browser|Mosaic]] for X" in 1993 that sparked a tremendous rise in the popularity of the Web among novice users.  Andreesen went on to found Mosaic Communications Corporation (now [[Netscape]] Communications).  Additional features such as dynamic content, music and animation can be found in modern browsers.  Frequently, the technical capability of browsers and servers advances much faster than the standards bodies can keep up, so it is not uncommon for these newer features to not work properly on all computers.
9c9
< However, in general, the Web surfing experience has not suffered too much. A browser will let you, by its own devices or by using other programs called [[plug-in|plug-ins]], access to many types of information like text, images, music or video.
---
> Another significant advance in the technology was [[Sun Microsystems]] [[Java programming language]], which enabled web servers to embed small programs (called "applets") directly into the information being served that would run on the user's computer, allowing faster and richer user interaction.
------
RFC/2026|989966118
1c1
< This was supposed to be RFC 2026. For some reason, the cut and paste won't work.
---
> #REDIRECT [[RFC 2026]]
------
RFC_2026|989966160
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This was supposed to be RFC 2026. For some reason, the cut and paste won't work.
> 
> ----
> This brings up the issue of how to Wikify these in general.  Certainly "RFC" needs a page of its own to describe what they are, and have links to each.  I think each RFC should also have a descriptive page with plain English text describing what the RFC is about, its history and use, its relationship to others, a /Talk page, etc.  I also think that this is one case where a pointer to an external resource is better than cutting and pasting the whole thing: The IETF is specifically charged with the job of maintaining the archive of these, and so I think linking to the "official" version is fine.  Finally, I don't think they should be subpages.  They are always referred to in text as "RFC 1822", etc., so it's simple enough to just put those in brackets like that.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> See [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2026.txt full text of RFC 2026]
> 
------
RFC_2026|989966337
7a8,9
> Hey, I just noticed that Wiki automatically creates links to faqs.org.  While this is nifty, I think it's a bad idea for two reasons: first, they aren't the official archives, IETF is.  Second, Wikipedia should have its own pages for each of these, and the automatic thing should link to those.  Of course, the present system is more useful until UseModWiki does in fact have internal pages to link to.  I'll see if I can't come up with a simple way to add all of those.
> 
------
RFC|989966388
3c3,440
< *[[/2026|RFC 2026]]: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3
---
> *[[/2026|RFC 2026]]: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3
> 
> The following is the complete RFC INDEX as of May 14, 2001, from
> http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt
> 
> 
> 0001 Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0002 Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0003 Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0010) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0004 Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0005 Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0006 Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0007 Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0008 Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche.
>      May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0009 Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0010 Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0003) (Obsoleted by RFC0016) (Updated
>      by RFC0024, RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0011 Implementation of the Host-Host software procedures in GORDO. G.
>      Deloche. Aug-01-1969. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0033) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0012 IMP-Host interface flow diagrams. M. Wingfield. Aug-26-1969. (Not
>      online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0013 Zero Text Length EOF Message. V. Cerf. Aug-20-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=1070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0015 Network subsystem for time sharing hosts. C.S. Carr. Sep-25-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=10695 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0016 M.I.T. S. Crocker. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=682 bytes)
>      (Obsoletes RFC0010) (Obsoleted by RFC0024) (Updated by RFC0024,
>      RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0017 Some questions re: Host-IMP Protocol. J.E. Kreznar. Aug-27-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=6065 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0018 IMP-IMP and HOST-HOST Control Links. V. Cerf. Sep-01-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=634 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0019 Two protocol suggestions to reduce congestion at swap bound
>      nodes. J.E. Kreznar. Oct-07-1969. (Format: TXT=3392 bytes) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0020 ASCII format for network interchange. V.G. Cerf. Oct-16-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=18504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0021 Network meeting. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=2143 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0022 Host-host control message formats. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=4606 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0023 Transmission of Multiple Control Messages. G. Gregg. Oct-16-1969.
>      (Format: TXT=690 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0024 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Nov-21-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=3460 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0016) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016)
>      (Updated by RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0025 No High Link Numbers. S.D. Crocker. Oct-30-1969. (Format: TXT=479
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0027 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Dec-09-1969. (Format:
>      TXT=3661 bytes) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016, RFC0024) (Updated by
>      RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0028 Time Standards. W.K. English. Jan-13-1970. (Format: TXT=557
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0029 Response to RFC 28. R.E. Kahn. Jan-19-1970. (Format: TXT=790
>      bytes) (Also RFC0028) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0030 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=4041 bytes) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016, RFC0024, RFC0027) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 
> 
> 0031 Binary Message Forms in Computer. D. Bobrow, W.R. Sutherland.
>      Feb-01-1968. (Format: TXT=11191 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0032 Connecting M.I.T. Computers to the ARPA Computer-To-Computer
>      Communication Network. D. Vedder. Feb-05-1969. (Format: TXT=2216
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0033 New Host-Host Protocol. S.D. Crocker. Feb-12-1970. (Not online)
>      (Obsoletes RFC0011) (Updated by RFC0036, RFC0047) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0034 Some Brief Preliminary Notes on the Augmentation Research Center
>      Clock. W.K. English. Feb-26-1970. (Format: TXT=2534 bytes) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0035 Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Mar-03-1970. (Format: TXT=1282
>      bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
> 0036 Protocol Notes. S.D. Crocker. Mar-16-1970. (Format: TXT=13893
>      bytes) (Updates RFC0033) (Updated by RFC0039, RFC0044) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0037 Network Meeting Epilogue, etc. S.D. Crocker. Mar-20-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=9107 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0038 Comments on Network Protocol from NWG/RFC #36. S.M. Wolfe.
>      Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=2536 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0039 Comments on Protocol Re: NWG/RFC #36. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
>      Mar-25-1970. (Format: TXT=4779 bytes) (Updates RFC0036) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0040 More Comments on the Forthcoming Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F.
>      Heafner. Mar-27-1970. (Format: TXT=3825 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0041 IMP-IMP Teletype Communication. J.T. Melvin. Mar-30-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=1038 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0042 Message Data Types. E. Ancona. Mar-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5247
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0043 Proposed Meeting. A.G. Nemeth. Apr-08-1970. (Format: TXT=1600
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0044 Comments on NWG/RFC 33 and 36. A. Shoshani, R. Long, A.
>      Landsberg. Apr-10-1970. (Format: TXT=7381 bytes) (Updates RFC0036)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0045 New Protocol is Coming. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-14-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=1130 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0046 ARPA Network protocol notes. E. Meyer. Apr-17-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=41338 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0047 BBN's Comments on NWG/RFC #33. W.R. Crowther. Apr-20-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=5343 bytes) (Updates RFC0033) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0048 Possible protocol plateau. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-21-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=41696 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0049 Conversations with S. Crocker (UCLA). E. Meyer. Apr-25-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=12384 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0050 Comments on the Meyer Proposal. E. Harslem, J. Haverty.
>      Apr-30-1970. (Format: TXT=4070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0051 Proposal for a Network Interchange Language. M. Elie.
>      May-04-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0052 Updated distribution list. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jul-01-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=5088 bytes) (Updated by RFC0069) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0053 Official protocol mechanism. S.D. Crocker. Jun-09-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=2330 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0054 Official Protocol Proffering. S.D. Crocker, J. Postel, J.
>      Newkirk, M. Kraley. Jun-18-1970. (Format: TXT=20131 bytes) (Updated
>      by RFC0057) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0055 Prototypical implementation of the NCP. J. Newkirk, M. Kraley, J.
>      Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=48070 bytes) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0056 Third Level Protocol: Logger Protocol. E. Belove, D. Black, R.
>      Flegal, L.G. Farquar. Jun-01-1970. (Format: TXT=13066 bytes) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0057 Thoughts and Reflections on NWG/RFC 54. M. Kraley, J. Newkirk.
>      Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=8360 bytes) (Updates RFC0054) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0058 Logical Message Synchronization. T.P. Skinner. Jun-26-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=3767 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0059 Flow Control - Fixed Versus Demand Allocation. E. Meyer.
>      Jun-27-1970. (Format: TXT=17691 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0060 Simplified NCP Protocol. R.B. Kalin. Jul-13-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=18941 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0061 Note on Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer
>      Network. D.C. Walden. Jul-17-1970. (Format: TXT=43946 bytes)
>      (Obsoleted by RFC0062) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0062 Systems for Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing
>      Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Aug-03-1970. (Format: TXT=55784 bytes)
>      (Obsoletes RFC0061) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0063 Belated Network Meeting Report. V.G. Cerf. Jul-31-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=2961 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0064 Getting rid of marking. M. Elie. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=7556
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0065 Comments on Host/Host Protocol document #1. D.C. Walden.
>      Aug-29-1970. (Format: TXT=5628 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0066 NIC - third level ideas and other noise. S.D. Crocker.
>      Aug-26-1970. (Format: TXT=4575 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0123) (Updated
>      by RFC0080, RFC0093) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0067 Proposed Change to Host/IMP Spec to Eliminate Marking. W.R.
>      Crowther. Jan-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0068 Comments on Memory Allocation Control Commands: CEASE, ALL, GVB,
>      RET, and RFNM. M. Elie. Aug-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5041 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0069 Distribution List Change for MIT. A.K. Bhushan. Sep-22-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=841 bytes) (Updates RFC0052) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0070 Note on Padding. S.D. Crocker. Oct-15-1970. (Format: TXT=12790
>      bytes) (Updated by RFC0228) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0071 Reallocation in Case of Input Error. T. Schipper. Sep-25-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=1265 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0072 Proposed Moratorium on Changes to Network Protocol. R.D.
>      Bressler. Sep-28-1970. (Format: TXT=4047 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0073 Response to NWG/RFC 67. S.D. Crocker. Sep-25-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=1268 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0074 Specifications for network use of the UCSB On-Line System. J.E.
>      White. Oct-16-1970. (Not online) (Updated by RFC0217, RFC0225)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0075 Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Oct-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1318
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0076 Connection by name: User oriented protocol. J. Bouknight, J.
>      Madden, G.R. Grossman. Oct-28-1970. (Format: TXT=26504 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0077 Network meeting report. J. Postel. Nov-20-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=19196 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0078 NCP Status Report: UCSB/Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E.
>      White. Oct-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1303 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0079 Logger Protocol error. E. Meyer. Nov-16-1970. (Format: TXT=1515
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0080 Protocols and Data Formats. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
>      Dec-01-1970. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0123) (Updates RFC0066)
>      (Updated by RFC0093) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0081 Request for Reference Information. J. Bouknight. Dec-03-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=956 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0082 Network Meeting Notes. E. Meyer. Dec-09-1970. (Format: TXT=38023
>      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0083 Language-machine for data reconfiguration. R.H. Anderson, E.
>      Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-18-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0084 List of NWG/RFC's 1-80. J.B. North. Dec-23-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=12613 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0085 Network Working Group meeting. S.D. Crocker. Dec-28-1970.
>      (Format: TXT=1547 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0086 Proposal for a Network Standard Format for a Data Stream to
>      Control Graphics Display. S.D. Crocker. Jan-05-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=7117 bytes) (Updated by RFC0125) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0087 Topic for Discussion at the Next Network Working Group Meeting.
>      A. Vezza. Jan-12-1971. (Format: TXT=3593 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0088 NETRJS: A third level protocol for Remote Job Entry. R.T. Braden,
>      S.M. Wolfe. Jan-13-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0189) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0089 Some historic moments in networking. R.M. Metcalfe. Jan-19-1971.
>      (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 
> 
> 0090 CCN as a Network Service Center. R.T. Braden. Jan-25-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=11929 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0091 Proposed User-User Protocol. G.H. Mealy. Dec-27-1970. (Format:
>      TXT=27005 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0093 Initial Connection Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Jan-27-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=1746 bytes) (Updates RFC0066, RFC0080) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0094 Some thoughts on Network Graphics. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
>      Feb-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0095 Distribution of NWG/RFC's through the NIC. S.D. Crocker.
>      Feb-04-1971. (Format: TXT=8938 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0155) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0096 An Interactive Network Experiment to Study Modes of Access the
>      Network Information Center. R.W. Watson. Feb-12-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=11334 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
> 0097 First Cut at a Proposed Telnet Protocol. J.T. Melvin, R.W.
>      Watson. Feb-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0098 Logger Protocol Proposal. E. Meyer, T. Skinner. Feb-11-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=24536 bytes) (Updated by RFC0123) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0099 Network Meeting. P.M. Karp. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1010 bytes)
>      (Updated by RFC0116) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0100 Categorization and guide to NWG/RFCs. P.M. Karp. Feb-26-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=62473 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0101 Notes on the Network Working Group meeting, Urbana, Illinois,
>      February 17, 1971. R.W. Watson. Feb-23-1971. (Format: TXT=30343
>      bytes) (Updated by RFC0108, RFC0123) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0102 Output of the Host-Host Protocol glitch cleaning committee. S.D.
>      Crocker. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=8511 bytes) (Updated by RFC0107)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0103 Implementation of Interrupt Keys. R.B. Kalin. Feb-24-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=7592 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0104 Link 191. J.B. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Feb-25-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=1017 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0105 Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output
>      Retrieval at UCSB. J.E. White. Mar-22-1971. (Format: TXT=21938 bytes)
>      (Updated by RFC0217) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0106 User/Server Site Protocol Network Host Questionnaire. T.C.
>      O'Sullivan. Mar-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6946 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0107 Output of the Host-Host Protocol Glitch Cleaning Committee. R.D.
>      Bressler, S.D. Crocker, W.R. Crowther, G.R. Grossman, R.S. Tomlinson,
>      J.E. White. Mar-23-1971. (Format: TXT=18109 bytes) (Updates RFC0102)
>      (Updated by RFC0111, RFC0124, RFC0132, RFC0154, RFC0179) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0108 Attendance list at the Urbana NWG meeting, February 17-19, 1971.
>      R.W. Watson. Mar-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1597 bytes) (Updates RFC0101)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0109 Level III Server Protocol for the Lincoln Laboratory NIC 360/67
>      Host. J.M. Winett. Mar-24-1971. (Not online) (Also RFC0393) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0110 Conventions for using an IBM 2741 terminal as a user console for
>      access to network server hosts. J.M. Winett. Mar-25-1971. (Not
>      online) (Updated by RFC0135) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0111 Pressure from the Chairman. S.D. Crocker. Mar-31-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=2098 bytes) (Updates RFC0107) (Updated by RFC0130) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0112 User/Server Site Protocol: Network host questionnaire responses.
>      T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-01-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0113 Network activity report: UCSB Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner,
>      J.E. White. Apr-05-1971. (Format: TXT=3442 bytes) (Updated by
>      RFC0227) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0114 File Transfer Protocol. A.K. Bhushan. Apr-10-1971. (Not online)
>      (Updated by RFC0133, RFC0141, RFC0171, RFC0172) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0115 Some Network Information Center policies on handling documents.
>      R.W. Watson, J.B. North. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=16775 bytes)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0116 Structure of the May NWG Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Apr-12-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=2395 bytes) (Updates RFC0099) (Updated by RFC0131,
>      RFC0156) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0117 Some comments on the official protocol. J. Wong. Apr-07-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=7128 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0118 Recommendations for facility documentation. R.W. Watson.
>      Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=4573 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0119 Network Fortran subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Not
>      online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0120 Network PL1 subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=37192 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0121 Network on-line operators. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=29419 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0122 Network specifications for UCSB's Simple-Minded File System. J.E.
>      White. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=47638 bytes) (Updated by RFC0217,
>      RFC0269, RFC0399, RFC0431) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0123 Proffered Official ICP. S.D. Crocker. Apr-20-1971. (Format:
>      TXT=4812 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0066, RFC0080) (Obsoleted by RFC0165)
>      (Updates RFC0098, RFC0101) (Updated by RFC0127, RFC0143, RFC0148)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0124 Typographical error in RFC 107. J.T. Melvin. Apr-19-1971.
>      (Format: TXT=659 bytes) (Updates RFC0107) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0125 Response to RFC 86: Proposal for Network Standard Format for a
>      Graphics Data Stream. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=8133
>      bytes) (Updates RFC0086) (Updated by RFC0177) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0126 Graphics Facilities at Ames Research Center. J. McConnell.
>      Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=1974 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0127 Comments on RFC 123. J. Postel. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2305
>      bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0145) (Updates RFC0123) (Updated by RFC0151)
>      (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0128 Bytes. J. Postel. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=2745 bytes) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0129 Request for comments on socket name structure. E. Harslem, J.
>      Heafner, E. Meyer. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=11175 bytes) (Updated by
>      RFC0147) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
> 0130 Response to RFC 111: Pressure from the chairman. J.F. Heafner.
>      Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=2580 bytes) (Updates RFC0111) (Status:
>      UNKNOWN)
> 
------
Political_correctness|989966894
5c5
< The term is now usually used pejoratively, particularly when used by opponents who consider many advocates to be overzealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to thought control or censorship, or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themslves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
---
> The term is now usually used pejoratively, particularly when used by opponents who consider many advocates to be overzealous.  These critics (often, but not exclusively, [[political conservative]]s) argue that it can amount to [[thought control]] or [[censorship]], or that it at least makes open discussion of important social issues more difficult.  Proponents have also been accused of hypocrisy for denouncing mainstream religions as judgmental while themslves engaging in perceived "bashing" of groups such as whites, males, corporations, and others.
7c7
< Many of those critical of Political Correcness use examples where perceived persecution of minority groups and women is enough for proponents to demand redress (even if no actual discrimination/persecution has been proven to take place).
---
> Many of those critical of Political Correctness use examples where perceived persecution of minority groups and women is enough for proponents to demand redress (even if no actual discrimination/persecution has been proven to take place).
------
Tim_Berners-Lee|989966993
1c1,2
< Tim Berners-Lee thought up the [[World Wide Web]] in the beginning of the [[1990s]] while working for [[CERN]]. He is now head of the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
---
> In 1989, Tim Berners-Lee proposed a project to his employer [[CERN]], based on the concept of [[hypertext]], to facilitate sharing and updating information among researchers.  He built the system, and it later became the foundation of the [[World Wide Web]].  He is now head of the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] which oversees its continued development.
> 
------
RFC|989967081
7a8,9
> [[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0001.txt
9,10c11,12
< 0001 Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0002.txt
12,13c14
< 0002 Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0003]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0010]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
15,16c16,17
< 0003 Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0010) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0004.txt
18,19c19,20
< 0004 Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0005.txt
21,22c22,23
< 0005 Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0006.txt
24,25c25,26
< 0006 Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0007.txt
27,28c28,29
< 0007 Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0008.txt
30,31c31,32
< 0008 Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche.
<      May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0009.txt
33,439c34
< 0009 Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0010 Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0003) (Obsoleted by RFC0016) (Updated
<      by RFC0024, RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0011 Implementation of the Host-Host software procedures in GORDO. G.
<      Deloche. Aug-01-1969. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0033) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0012 IMP-Host interface flow diagrams. M. Wingfield. Aug-26-1969. (Not
<      online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0013 Zero Text Length EOF Message. V. Cerf. Aug-20-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=1070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0015 Network subsystem for time sharing hosts. C.S. Carr. Sep-25-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=10695 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0016 M.I.T. S. Crocker. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=682 bytes)
<      (Obsoletes RFC0010) (Obsoleted by RFC0024) (Updated by RFC0024,
<      RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0017 Some questions re: Host-IMP Protocol. J.E. Kreznar. Aug-27-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=6065 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0018 IMP-IMP and HOST-HOST Control Links. V. Cerf. Sep-01-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=634 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0019 Two protocol suggestions to reduce congestion at swap bound
<      nodes. J.E. Kreznar. Oct-07-1969. (Format: TXT=3392 bytes) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0020 ASCII format for network interchange. V.G. Cerf. Oct-16-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=18504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0021 Network meeting. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=2143 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0022 Host-host control message formats. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=4606 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0023 Transmission of Multiple Control Messages. G. Gregg. Oct-16-1969.
<      (Format: TXT=690 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0024 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Nov-21-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=3460 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0016) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016)
<      (Updated by RFC0027, RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0025 No High Link Numbers. S.D. Crocker. Oct-30-1969. (Format: TXT=479
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0027 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Dec-09-1969. (Format:
<      TXT=3661 bytes) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016, RFC0024) (Updated by
<      RFC0030) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0028 Time Standards. W.K. English. Jan-13-1970. (Format: TXT=557
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0029 Response to RFC 28. R.E. Kahn. Jan-19-1970. (Format: TXT=790
<      bytes) (Also RFC0028) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0030 Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=4041 bytes) (Updates RFC0010, RFC0016, RFC0024, RFC0027) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 
< 
< 0031 Binary Message Forms in Computer. D. Bobrow, W.R. Sutherland.
<      Feb-01-1968. (Format: TXT=11191 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0032 Connecting M.I.T. Computers to the ARPA Computer-To-Computer
<      Communication Network. D. Vedder. Feb-05-1969. (Format: TXT=2216
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0033 New Host-Host Protocol. S.D. Crocker. Feb-12-1970. (Not online)
<      (Obsoletes RFC0011) (Updated by RFC0036, RFC0047) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0034 Some Brief Preliminary Notes on the Augmentation Research Center
<      Clock. W.K. English. Feb-26-1970. (Format: TXT=2534 bytes) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0035 Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Mar-03-1970. (Format: TXT=1282
<      bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< 
< 0036 Protocol Notes. S.D. Crocker. Mar-16-1970. (Format: TXT=13893
<      bytes) (Updates RFC0033) (Updated by RFC0039, RFC0044) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0037 Network Meeting Epilogue, etc. S.D. Crocker. Mar-20-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=9107 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0038 Comments on Network Protocol from NWG/RFC #36. S.M. Wolfe.
<      Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=2536 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0039 Comments on Protocol Re: NWG/RFC #36. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
<      Mar-25-1970. (Format: TXT=4779 bytes) (Updates RFC0036) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0040 More Comments on the Forthcoming Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F.
<      Heafner. Mar-27-1970. (Format: TXT=3825 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0041 IMP-IMP Teletype Communication. J.T. Melvin. Mar-30-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=1038 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0042 Message Data Types. E. Ancona. Mar-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5247
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0043 Proposed Meeting. A.G. Nemeth. Apr-08-1970. (Format: TXT=1600
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0044 Comments on NWG/RFC 33 and 36. A. Shoshani, R. Long, A.
<      Landsberg. Apr-10-1970. (Format: TXT=7381 bytes) (Updates RFC0036)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0045 New Protocol is Coming. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-14-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=1130 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0046 ARPA Network protocol notes. E. Meyer. Apr-17-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=41338 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0047 BBN's Comments on NWG/RFC #33. W.R. Crowther. Apr-20-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=5343 bytes) (Updates RFC0033) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0048 Possible protocol plateau. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-21-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=41696 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0049 Conversations with S. Crocker (UCLA). E. Meyer. Apr-25-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=12384 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0050 Comments on the Meyer Proposal. E. Harslem, J. Haverty.
<      Apr-30-1970. (Format: TXT=4070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0051 Proposal for a Network Interchange Language. M. Elie.
<      May-04-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0052 Updated distribution list. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jul-01-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=5088 bytes) (Updated by RFC0069) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0053 Official protocol mechanism. S.D. Crocker. Jun-09-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=2330 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0054 Official Protocol Proffering. S.D. Crocker, J. Postel, J.
<      Newkirk, M. Kraley. Jun-18-1970. (Format: TXT=20131 bytes) (Updated
<      by RFC0057) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0055 Prototypical implementation of the NCP. J. Newkirk, M. Kraley, J.
<      Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=48070 bytes) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0056 Third Level Protocol: Logger Protocol. E. Belove, D. Black, R.
<      Flegal, L.G. Farquar. Jun-01-1970. (Format: TXT=13066 bytes) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0057 Thoughts and Reflections on NWG/RFC 54. M. Kraley, J. Newkirk.
<      Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=8360 bytes) (Updates RFC0054) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0058 Logical Message Synchronization. T.P. Skinner. Jun-26-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=3767 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0059 Flow Control - Fixed Versus Demand Allocation. E. Meyer.
<      Jun-27-1970. (Format: TXT=17691 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0060 Simplified NCP Protocol. R.B. Kalin. Jul-13-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=18941 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0061 Note on Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer
<      Network. D.C. Walden. Jul-17-1970. (Format: TXT=43946 bytes)
<      (Obsoleted by RFC0062) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0062 Systems for Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing
<      Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Aug-03-1970. (Format: TXT=55784 bytes)
<      (Obsoletes RFC0061) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0063 Belated Network Meeting Report. V.G. Cerf. Jul-31-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=2961 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0064 Getting rid of marking. M. Elie. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=7556
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0065 Comments on Host/Host Protocol document #1. D.C. Walden.
<      Aug-29-1970. (Format: TXT=5628 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0066 NIC - third level ideas and other noise. S.D. Crocker.
<      Aug-26-1970. (Format: TXT=4575 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0123) (Updated
<      by RFC0080, RFC0093) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0067 Proposed Change to Host/IMP Spec to Eliminate Marking. W.R.
<      Crowther. Jan-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0068 Comments on Memory Allocation Control Commands: CEASE, ALL, GVB,
<      RET, and RFNM. M. Elie. Aug-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5041 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0069 Distribution List Change for MIT. A.K. Bhushan. Sep-22-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=841 bytes) (Updates RFC0052) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0070 Note on Padding. S.D. Crocker. Oct-15-1970. (Format: TXT=12790
<      bytes) (Updated by RFC0228) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0071 Reallocation in Case of Input Error. T. Schipper. Sep-25-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=1265 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0072 Proposed Moratorium on Changes to Network Protocol. R.D.
<      Bressler. Sep-28-1970. (Format: TXT=4047 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0073 Response to NWG/RFC 67. S.D. Crocker. Sep-25-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=1268 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0074 Specifications for network use of the UCSB On-Line System. J.E.
<      White. Oct-16-1970. (Not online) (Updated by RFC0217, RFC0225)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0075 Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Oct-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1318
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0076 Connection by name: User oriented protocol. J. Bouknight, J.
<      Madden, G.R. Grossman. Oct-28-1970. (Format: TXT=26504 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0077 Network meeting report. J. Postel. Nov-20-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=19196 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0078 NCP Status Report: UCSB/Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E.
<      White. Oct-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1303 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0079 Logger Protocol error. E. Meyer. Nov-16-1970. (Format: TXT=1515
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0080 Protocols and Data Formats. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
<      Dec-01-1970. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0123) (Updates RFC0066)
<      (Updated by RFC0093) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0081 Request for Reference Information. J. Bouknight. Dec-03-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=956 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0082 Network Meeting Notes. E. Meyer. Dec-09-1970. (Format: TXT=38023
<      bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0083 Language-machine for data reconfiguration. R.H. Anderson, E.
<      Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-18-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0084 List of NWG/RFC's 1-80. J.B. North. Dec-23-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=12613 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0085 Network Working Group meeting. S.D. Crocker. Dec-28-1970.
<      (Format: TXT=1547 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0086 Proposal for a Network Standard Format for a Data Stream to
<      Control Graphics Display. S.D. Crocker. Jan-05-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=7117 bytes) (Updated by RFC0125) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0087 Topic for Discussion at the Next Network Working Group Meeting.
<      A. Vezza. Jan-12-1971. (Format: TXT=3593 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0088 NETRJS: A third level protocol for Remote Job Entry. R.T. Braden,
<      S.M. Wolfe. Jan-13-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by RFC0189) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0089 Some historic moments in networking. R.M. Metcalfe. Jan-19-1971.
<      (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 
< 
< 0090 CCN as a Network Service Center. R.T. Braden. Jan-25-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=11929 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0091 Proposed User-User Protocol. G.H. Mealy. Dec-27-1970. (Format:
<      TXT=27005 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0093 Initial Connection Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Jan-27-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=1746 bytes) (Updates RFC0066, RFC0080) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0094 Some thoughts on Network Graphics. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner.
<      Feb-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0095 Distribution of NWG/RFC's through the NIC. S.D. Crocker.
<      Feb-04-1971. (Format: TXT=8938 bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0155) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0096 An Interactive Network Experiment to Study Modes of Access the
<      Network Information Center. R.W. Watson. Feb-12-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=11334 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< 
< 0097 First Cut at a Proposed Telnet Protocol. J.T. Melvin, R.W.
<      Watson. Feb-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0098 Logger Protocol Proposal. E. Meyer, T. Skinner. Feb-11-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=24536 bytes) (Updated by RFC0123) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0099 Network Meeting. P.M. Karp. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1010 bytes)
<      (Updated by RFC0116) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0100 Categorization and guide to NWG/RFCs. P.M. Karp. Feb-26-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=62473 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0101 Notes on the Network Working Group meeting, Urbana, Illinois,
<      February 17, 1971. R.W. Watson. Feb-23-1971. (Format: TXT=30343
<      bytes) (Updated by RFC0108, RFC0123) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0102 Output of the Host-Host Protocol glitch cleaning committee. S.D.
<      Crocker. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=8511 bytes) (Updated by RFC0107)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0103 Implementation of Interrupt Keys. R.B. Kalin. Feb-24-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=7592 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0104 Link 191. J.B. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Feb-25-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=1017 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0105 Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output
<      Retrieval at UCSB. J.E. White. Mar-22-1971. (Format: TXT=21938 bytes)
<      (Updated by RFC0217) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0106 User/Server Site Protocol Network Host Questionnaire. T.C.
<      O'Sullivan. Mar-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6946 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0107 Output of the Host-Host Protocol Glitch Cleaning Committee. R.D.
<      Bressler, S.D. Crocker, W.R. Crowther, G.R. Grossman, R.S. Tomlinson,
<      J.E. White. Mar-23-1971. (Format: TXT=18109 bytes) (Updates RFC0102)
<      (Updated by RFC0111, RFC0124, RFC0132, RFC0154, RFC0179) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0108 Attendance list at the Urbana NWG meeting, February 17-19, 1971.
<      R.W. Watson. Mar-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1597 bytes) (Updates RFC0101)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0109 Level III Server Protocol for the Lincoln Laboratory NIC 360/67
<      Host. J.M. Winett. Mar-24-1971. (Not online) (Also RFC0393) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0110 Conventions for using an IBM 2741 terminal as a user console for
<      access to network server hosts. J.M. Winett. Mar-25-1971. (Not
<      online) (Updated by RFC0135) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0111 Pressure from the Chairman. S.D. Crocker. Mar-31-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=2098 bytes) (Updates RFC0107) (Updated by RFC0130) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0112 User/Server Site Protocol: Network host questionnaire responses.
<      T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-01-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0113 Network activity report: UCSB Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner,
<      J.E. White. Apr-05-1971. (Format: TXT=3442 bytes) (Updated by
<      RFC0227) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0114 File Transfer Protocol. A.K. Bhushan. Apr-10-1971. (Not online)
<      (Updated by RFC0133, RFC0141, RFC0171, RFC0172) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0115 Some Network Information Center policies on handling documents.
<      R.W. Watson, J.B. North. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=16775 bytes)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0116 Structure of the May NWG Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Apr-12-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=2395 bytes) (Updates RFC0099) (Updated by RFC0131,
<      RFC0156) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0117 Some comments on the official protocol. J. Wong. Apr-07-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=7128 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0118 Recommendations for facility documentation. R.W. Watson.
<      Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=4573 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0119 Network Fortran subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Not
<      online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0120 Network PL1 subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=37192 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0121 Network on-line operators. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=29419 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0122 Network specifications for UCSB's Simple-Minded File System. J.E.
<      White. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=47638 bytes) (Updated by RFC0217,
<      RFC0269, RFC0399, RFC0431) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0123 Proffered Official ICP. S.D. Crocker. Apr-20-1971. (Format:
<      TXT=4812 bytes) (Obsoletes RFC0066, RFC0080) (Obsoleted by RFC0165)
<      (Updates RFC0098, RFC0101) (Updated by RFC0127, RFC0143, RFC0148)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0124 Typographical error in RFC 107. J.T. Melvin. Apr-19-1971.
<      (Format: TXT=659 bytes) (Updates RFC0107) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0125 Response to RFC 86: Proposal for Network Standard Format for a
<      Graphics Data Stream. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=8133
<      bytes) (Updates RFC0086) (Updated by RFC0177) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0126 Graphics Facilities at Ames Research Center. J. McConnell.
<      Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=1974 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0127 Comments on RFC 123. J. Postel. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2305
<      bytes) (Obsoleted by RFC0145) (Updates RFC0123) (Updated by RFC0151)
<      (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0128 Bytes. J. Postel. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=2745 bytes) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0129 Request for comments on socket name structure. E. Harslem, J.
<      Heafner, E. Meyer. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=11175 bytes) (Updated by
<      RFC0147) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< 0130 Response to RFC 111: Pressure from the chairman. J.F. Heafner.
<      Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=2580 bytes) (Updates RFC0111) (Status:
<      UNKNOWN)
---
> [[RFC 0010]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format: TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0003]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
------
URL|989967084
1c1
< A <i>Uniform Resource Locator</i>, or URL, is a standardized address for some resource (such as a document or image) on the Internet.  First created by [[Tim Berners Lee]] for use on the [[World Wide Web]], the currently used forms are detailed by [[IETF]] standard [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt RFC 2396] (1998).
---
> A '''Uniform Resource Locator''', or URL, is a standardized address for some resource (such as a document or image) on the Internet.  First created by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] for use on the [[World Wide Web]], the currently used forms are detailed by [[IETF]] standard [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt RFC 2396] (1998).
------
RFC|989967163
8c8
< [[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
10,11c10
< 
< [[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
13,16c12,13
< 
< [[RFC 0003]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0010]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< 
< [[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0003]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0010]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
18,19c15
< 
< [[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
21,22c17
< 
< [[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
24,25c19
< 
< [[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
27,28c21
< 
< [[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
30,31c23
< 
< [[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
33,34c25
< 
< [[RFC 0010]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format: TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0003]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0010]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format: TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0003]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
------
RFC|989967217
8,11c8,9
< *[[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0001.txt
< *[[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0002.txt
---
> *[[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0001.txt
> *[[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0002.txt
13,24c11,16
< *[[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0004.txt
< *[[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0005.txt
< *[[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0006.txt
< *[[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0007.txt
< *[[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0008.txt
< *[[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0009.txt
---
> *[[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0004.txt
> *[[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0005.txt
> *[[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0006.txt
> *[[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0007.txt
> *[[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0008.txt
> *[[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0009.txt
------
HTTP|989967239
1c1,2
< <b>HTTP</b> stands for '''H'''yper'''t'''ext '''T'''ransfer '''P'''rotocol. It is the main protocol for browsing the [[world wide web]] using [[web browsers]].
---
> '''HTTP''' (for '''Hypertext Transport Protocol''') is the primary method used to comminicate information on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is currently maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
> 
------
Family_name|989967241
7c7
< the mother's, or a hypenation of both parents last names.
---
> the mother's, or a hyphenation of both parents last names, known as a double barrel name.
------
Mathematics|989967346
8c8
< Quantity
---
> [[Quantity]]
11c11
< Change
---
> [[Change]]
14c14
< Structure
---
> [[Structure]]
17c17
< Space
---
> [[Space]]
20c20
< Methods
---
> [[Methods]]
23c23
< Miscellanea
---
> [[Miscellanea]]
------
RFC|989967488
4a5,6
> Testing: RFC 1  ,  RFC 0001
> 
------
World_Wide_Web_Consortium|989967513
1c1
< The World Wide Web Consortium (or W3C for short) is an organization that produces standards for the [[World Wide Web]]. It is headed by [[Tim Berners-Lee]], the original creator of the web.
---
> The World Wide Web Consortium (or W3C for short) is an organization that produces standards for the [[World Wide Web]]. It is headed by [[Tim_Berners-Lee]], the original creator of the web.
3c3
< See its web site, http://www.w3c.org/.
---
> See its web site, http://www.w3c.org/.
------
World_Wide_Web_Consortium|989967522
1c1
< The World Wide Web Consortium (or W3C for short) is an organization that produces standards for the [[World Wide Web]]. It is headed by [[Tim_Berners-Lee]], the original creator of the web.
---
> The World Wide Web Consortium (or W3C for short) is an organization that produces standards for the [[World Wide Web]]. It is headed by [[Tim Berners-Lee]], the original creator of the web.
------
RFC|989967640
5,6d4
< Testing: RFC 1  ,  RFC 0001
< 
19a18,37
> 
> *[[RFC 0011]] Implementation of the Host-Host software procedures in GORDO. G. Deloche. Aug-01-1969. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0033]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0012]] IMP-Host interface flow diagrams. M. Wingfield. Aug-26-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0012.txt
> *[[RFC 0013]] Zero Text Length EOF Message. V. Cerf. Aug-20-1969. (Format: TXT=1070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0013.txt
> *[[RFC 0015]] Network subsystem for time sharing hosts. C.S. Carr. Sep-25-1969. (Format: TXT=10695 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0015.txt
> *[[RFC 0016]] M.I.T. S. Crocker. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=682 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0010]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0024]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0017]] Some questions re: Host-IMP Protocol. J.E. Kreznar. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=6065 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0017.txt
> *[[RFC 0018]] IMP-IMP and HOST-HOST Control Links. V. Cerf. Sep-01-1969. (Format: TXT=634 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0018.txt
> *[[RFC 0019]] Two protocol suggestions to reduce congestion at swap bound nodes. J.E. Kreznar. Oct-07-1969. (Format: TXT=3392 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0019.txt
> *[[RFC 0020]] ASCII format for network interchange. V.G. Cerf. Oct-16-1969. (Format: TXT=18504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0020.txt
> 
> *[[RFC 0021]] Network meeting. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=2143 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0021.txt
> *[[RFC 0022]] Host-host control message formats. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=4606 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0022.txt
> *[[RFC 0023]] Transmission of Multiple Control Messages. G. Gregg. Oct-16-1969. (Format: TXT=690 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0023.txt
> *[[RFC 0024]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Nov-21-1969. (Format: TXT=3460 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0016]]) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0024.txt
> *[[RFC 0025]] No High Link Numbers. S.D. Crocker. Oct-30-1969. (Format: TXT=479 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0025.txt
> *[[RFC 0027]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Dec-09-1969. (Format: TXT=3661 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]], [[RFC 0024]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0027.txt
> *[[RFC 0028]] Time Standards. W.K. English. Jan-13-1970. (Format: TXT=557 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0028.txt
> *[[RFC 0029]] Response to [[RFC  28]]. R.E. Kahn. Jan-19-1970. (Format: TXT=790 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0028]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0029.txt
> *[[RFC 0030]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1970. (Format: TXT=4041 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]], [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0030.txt
------
RFC|989967740
18d17
< 
28d26
< 
37a36,81
> *[[RFC 0031]] Binary Message Forms in Computer. D. Bobrow, W.R. Sutherland. Feb-01-1968. (Format: TXT=11191 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0031.txt
> *[[RFC 0032]] Connecting M.I.T. Computers to the ARPA Computer-To-Computer Communication Network. D. Vedder. Feb-05-1969. (Format: TXT=2216 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0032.txt
> *[[RFC 0033]] New Host-Host Protocol. S.D. Crocker. Feb-12-1970. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0011]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0036]], [[RFC 0047]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0033.txt
> *[[RFC 0034]] Some Brief Preliminary Notes on the Augmentation Research Center Clock. W.K. English. Feb-26-1970. (Format: TXT=2534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0034.txt
> *[[RFC 0035]] Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Mar-03-1970. (Format: TXT=1282 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0035.txt
> *[[RFC 0036]] Protocol Notes. S.D. Crocker. Mar-16-1970. (Format: TXT=13893 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0033]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0039]], [[RFC 0044]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0036.txt
> *[[RFC 0037]] Network Meeting Epilogue, etc. S.D. Crocker. Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=9107 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0037.txt
> *[[RFC 0038]] Comments on Network Protocol from NWG/RFC #36. S.M. Wolfe. Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=2536 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0038.txt
> *[[RFC 0039]] Comments on Protocol Re: NWG/RFC #36. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Mar-25-1970. (Format: TXT=4779 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0036]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0039.txt
> *[[RFC 0040]] More Comments on the Forthcoming Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Mar-27-1970. (Format: TXT=3825 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0040.txt
> *[[RFC 0041]] IMP-IMP Teletype Communication. J.T. Melvin. Mar-30-1970. (Format: TXT=1038 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0041.txt
> *[[RFC 0042]] Message Data Types. E. Ancona. Mar-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5247 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0042.txt
> *[[RFC 0043]] Proposed Meeting. A.G. Nemeth. Apr-08-1970. (Format: TXT=1600 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0043.txt
> *[[RFC 0044]] Comments on NWG/RFC 33 and 36. A. Shoshani, R. Long, A. Landsberg. Apr-10-1970. (Format: TXT=7381 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0036]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0044.txt
> *[[RFC 0045]] New Protocol is Coming. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1130 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0045.txt
> *[[RFC 0046]] ARPA Network protocol notes. E. Meyer. Apr-17-1970. (Format: TXT=41338 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0046.txt
> *[[RFC 0047]] BBN's Comments on NWG/RFC #33. W.R. Crowther. Apr-20-1970. (Format: TXT=5343 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0033]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0047.txt
> *[[RFC 0048]] Possible protocol plateau. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-21-1970. (Format: TXT=41696 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0048.txt
> *[[RFC 0049]] Conversations with S. Crocker (UCLA). E. Meyer. Apr-25-1970. (Format: TXT=12384 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0049.txt
> *[[RFC 0050]] Comments on the Meyer Proposal. E. Harslem, J. Haverty. Apr-30-1970. (Format: TXT=4070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0050.txt
> *[[RFC 0051]] Proposal for a Network Interchange Language. M. Elie. May-04-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0051.txt
> *[[RFC 0052]] Updated distribution list. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=5088 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0069]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0052.txt
> *[[RFC 0053]] Official protocol mechanism. S.D. Crocker. Jun-09-1970. (Format: TXT=2330 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0053.txt
> *[[RFC 0054]] Official Protocol Proffering. S.D. Crocker, J. Postel, J. Newkirk, M. Kraley. Jun-18-1970. (Format: TXT=20131 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0057]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0054.txt
> *[[RFC 0055]] Prototypical implementation of the NCP. J. Newkirk, M. Kraley, J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=48070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0055.txt
> *[[RFC 0056]] Third Level Protocol: Logger Protocol. E. Belove, D. Black, R. Flegal, L.G. Farquar. Jun-01-1970. (Format: TXT=13066 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0056.txt
> *[[RFC 0057]] Thoughts and Reflections on NWG/RFC 54. M. Kraley, J. Newkirk. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=8360 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0054]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0057.txt
> *[[RFC 0058]] Logical Message Synchronization. T.P. Skinner. Jun-26-1970. (Format: TXT=3767 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0058.txt
> *[[RFC 0059]] Flow Control - Fixed Versus Demand Allocation. E. Meyer. Jun-27-1970. (Format: TXT=17691 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0059.txt
> *[[RFC 0060]] Simplified NCP Protocol. R.B. Kalin. Jul-13-1970. (Format: TXT=18941 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0060.txt
> *[[RFC 0061]] Note on Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Jul-17-1970. (Format: TXT=43946 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0062]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0062]] Systems for Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Aug-03-1970. (Format: TXT=55784 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0061]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0062.txt
> *[[RFC 0063]] Belated Network Meeting Report. V.G. Cerf. Jul-31-1970. (Format: TXT=2961 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0063.txt
> *[[RFC 0064]] Getting rid of marking. M. Elie. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=7556 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0064.txt
> *[[RFC 0065]] Comments on Host/Host Protocol document #1. D.C. Walden. Aug-29-1970. (Format: TXT=5628 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0065.txt
> *[[RFC 0066]] NIC - third level ideas and other noise. S.D. Crocker. Aug-26-1970. (Format: TXT=4575 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0080]], [[RFC 0093]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0067]] Proposed Change to Host/IMP Spec to Eliminate Marking. W.R. Crowther. Jan-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0067.txt
> *[[RFC 0068]] Comments on Memory Allocation Control Commands: CEASE, ALL, GVB, RET, and RFNM. M. Elie. Aug-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5041 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0068.txt
> *[[RFC 0069]] Distribution List Change for MIT. A.K. Bhushan. Sep-22-1970. (Format: TXT=841 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0052]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0069.txt
> *[[RFC 0070]] Note on Padding. S.D. Crocker. Oct-15-1970. (Format: TXT=12790 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0228]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0070.txt
> *[[RFC 0071]] Reallocation in Case of Input Error. T. Schipper. Sep-25-1970. (Format: TXT=1265 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0071.txt
> *[[RFC 0072]] Proposed Moratorium on Changes to Network Protocol. R.D. Bressler. Sep-28-1970. (Format: TXT=4047 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0072.txt
> *[[RFC 0073]] Response to NWG/RFC 67. S.D. Crocker. Sep-25-1970. (Format: TXT=1268 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0073.txt
> *[[RFC 0074]] Specifications for network use of the UCSB On-Line System. J.E. White. Oct-16-1970. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]], [[RFC 0225]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0074.txt
> *[[RFC 0075]] Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Oct-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1318 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0075.txt
> *[[RFC 0076]] Connection by name: User oriented protocol. J. Bouknight, J. Madden, G.R. Grossman. Oct-28-1970. (Format: TXT=26504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0076.txt
------
RFC|989967888
6a7
> (Is this a useful format?)
81a83,203
> *[[RFC 0077]] Network meeting report. J. Postel. Nov-20-1970. (Format: TXT=19196 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0077.txt
> *[[RFC 0078]] NCP Status Report: UCSB/Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E. White. Oct-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1303 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0078.txt
> *[[RFC 0079]] Logger Protocol error. E. Meyer. Nov-16-1970. (Format: TXT=1515 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0079.txt
> *[[RFC 0080]] Protocols and Data Formats. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-01-1970. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0123]]) (Updates [[RFC 0066]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0093]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0081]] Request for Reference Information. J. Bouknight. Dec-03-1970. (Format: TXT=956 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0081.txt
> *[[RFC 0082]] Network Meeting Notes. E. Meyer. Dec-09-1970. (Format: TXT=38023 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0082.txt
> *[[RFC 0083]] Language-machine for data reconfiguration. R.H. Anderson, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-18-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0083.txt
> *[[RFC 0084]] List of NWG/RFC's 1-80. J.B. North. Dec-23-1970. (Format: TXT=12613 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0084.txt
> *[[RFC 0085]] Network Working Group meeting. S.D. Crocker. Dec-28-1970. (Format: TXT=1547 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0085.txt
> *[[RFC 0086]] Proposal for a Network Standard Format for a Data Stream to Control Graphics Display. S.D. Crocker. Jan-05-1971. (Format: TXT=7117 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0125]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0086.txt
> *[[RFC 0087]] Topic for Discussion at the Next Network Working Group Meeting. A. Vezza. Jan-12-1971. (Format: TXT=3593 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0087.txt
> *[[RFC 0088]] NETRJS: A third level protocol for Remote Job Entry. R.T. Braden, S.M. Wolfe. Jan-13-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0189]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0089]] Some historic moments in networking. R.M. Metcalfe. Jan-19-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0089.txt
> *[[RFC 0090]] CCN as a Network Service Center. R.T. Braden. Jan-25-1971. (Format: TXT=11929 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0090.txt
> *[[RFC 0091]] Proposed User-User Protocol. G.H. Mealy. Dec-27-1970. (Format: TXT=27005 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0091.txt
> *[[RFC 0093]] Initial Connection Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Jan-27-1971. (Format: TXT=1746 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0066]], [[RFC 0080]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0093.txt
> *[[RFC 0094]] Some thoughts on Network Graphics. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Feb-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0094.txt
> *[[RFC 0095]] Distribution of NWG/RFC's through the NIC. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1971. (Format: TXT=8938 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0155]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0096]] An Interactive Network Experiment to Study Modes of Access the Network Information Center. R.W. Watson. Feb-12-1971. (Format: TXT=11334 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0096.txt
> *[[RFC 0097]] First Cut at a Proposed Telnet Protocol. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. Feb-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0097.txt
> *[[RFC 0098]] Logger Protocol Proposal. E. Meyer, T. Skinner. Feb-11-1971. (Format: TXT=24536 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0098.txt
> *[[RFC 0099]] Network Meeting. P.M. Karp. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1010 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0099.txt
> *[[RFC 0100]] Categorization and guide to NWG/RFCs. P.M. Karp. Feb-26-1971. (Format: TXT=62473 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0100.txt
> *[[RFC 0101]] Notes on the Network Working Group meeting, Urbana, Illinois, February 17, 1971. R.W. Watson. Feb-23-1971. (Format: TXT=30343 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0108]], [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0101.txt
> *[[RFC 0102]] Output of the Host-Host Protocol glitch cleaning committee. S.D. Crocker. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=8511 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0102.txt
> *[[RFC 0103]] Implementation of Interrupt Keys. R.B. Kalin. Feb-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7592 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0103.txt
> *[[RFC 0104]] Link 191. J.B. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Feb-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1017 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0104.txt
> *[[RFC 0105]] Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output Retrieval at UCSB. J.E. White. Mar-22-1971. (Format: TXT=21938 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0105.txt
> *[[RFC 0106]] User/Server Site Protocol Network Host Questionnaire. T.C. O'Sullivan. Mar-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6946 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0106.txt
> *[[RFC 0107]] Output of the Host-Host Protocol Glitch Cleaning Committee. R.D. Bressler, S.D. Crocker, W.R. Crowther, G.R. Grossman, R.S. Tomlinson, J.E. White. Mar-23-1971. (Format: TXT=18109 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0102]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0111]], [[RFC 0124]], [[RFC 0132]], [[RFC 0154]], [[RFC 0179]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0107.txt
> *[[RFC 0108]] Attendance list at the Urbana NWG meeting, February 17-19, 1971. R.W. Watson. Mar-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1597 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0101]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0108.txt
> *[[RFC 0109]] Level III Server Protocol for the Lincoln Laboratory NIC 360/67 Host. J.M. Winett. Mar-24-1971. (Not online) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0109.txt
> *[[RFC 0110]] Conventions for using an IBM 2741 terminal as a user console for access to network server hosts. J.M. Winett. Mar-25-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0135]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0110.txt
> *[[RFC 0111]] Pressure from the Chairman. S.D. Crocker. Mar-31-1971. (Format: TXT=2098 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0130]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0111.txt
> *[[RFC 0112]] User/Server Site Protocol: Network host questionnaire responses. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-01-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0112.txt
> *[[RFC 0113]] Network activity report: UCSB Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E. White. Apr-05-1971. (Format: TXT=3442 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0227]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0113.txt
> *[[RFC 0114]] File Transfer Protocol. A.K. Bhushan. Apr-10-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0133]], [[RFC 0141]], [[RFC 0171]], [[RFC 0172]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0114.txt
> *[[RFC 0115]] Some Network Information Center policies on handling documents. R.W. Watson, J.B. North. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=16775 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0115.txt
> *[[RFC 0116]] Structure of the May NWG Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Apr-12-1971. (Format: TXT=2395 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0099]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0131]], [[RFC 0156]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0116.txt
> *[[RFC 0117]] Some comments on the official protocol. J. Wong. Apr-07-1971. (Format: TXT=7128 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0117.txt
> *[[RFC 0118]] Recommendations for facility documentation. R.W. Watson. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=4573 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0118.txt
> *[[RFC 0119]] Network Fortran subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0119.txt
> *[[RFC 0120]] Network PL1 subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=37192 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0120.txt
> *[[RFC 0121]] Network on-line operators. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=29419 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0121.txt
> *[[RFC 0122]] Network specifications for UCSB's Simple-Minded File System. J.E. White. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=47638 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]], [[RFC 0269]], [[RFC 0399]], [[RFC 0431]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0122.txt
> *[[RFC 0123]] Proffered Official ICP. S.D. Crocker. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=4812 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0066]], [[RFC 0080]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updates [[RFC 0098]], [[RFC 0101]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0127]], [[RFC 0143]], [[RFC 0148]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0124]] Typographical error in [[RFC  107]]. J.T. Melvin. Apr-19-1971. (Format: TXT=659 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0124.txt
> *[[RFC 0125]] Response to [[RFC  86]]: Proposal for Network Standard Format for a Graphics Data Stream. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=8133 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0086]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0177]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0125.txt
> *[[RFC 0126]] Graphics Facilities at Ames Research Center. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=1974 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0126.txt
> *[[RFC 0127]] Comments on [[RFC  123]]. J. Postel. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2305 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0145]]) (Updates [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0151]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0128]] Bytes. J. Postel. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=2745 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0128.txt
> *[[RFC 0129]] Request for comments on socket name structure. E. Harslem, J. Heafner, E. Meyer. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=11175 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0147]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0129.txt
> *[[RFC 0130]] Response to [[RFC  111]]: Pressure from the chairman. J.F. Heafner. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=2580 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0111]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0130.txt
> *[[RFC 0131]] Response to [[RFC  116]]: May NWG meeting. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=5375 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0131.txt
> *[[RFC 0132]] Typographical Error in [[RFC  107]]. J.E. White. Apr-28-1971. (Format: TXT=1058 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0154]]) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0133]] File Transfer and Recovery. R.L. Sundberg. Apr-27-1971. (Format: TXT=8322 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0133.txt
> *[[RFC 0134]] Network Graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Apr-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2684 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0134.txt
> *[[RFC 0135]] Response to NWG/RFC 110. W. Hathaway. Apr-29-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0110]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0135.txt
> *[[RFC 0136]] Host accounting and administrative procedures. R.E. Kahn. Apr-29-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0136.txt
> *[[RFC 0137]] Telnet Protocol - a proposed document. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0139]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0137.txt
> *[[RFC 0138]] Status report on proposed Data Reconfiguration Service. R.H. Anderson, V.G. Cerf, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J. Madden, R.M. Metcalfe, A. Shoshani, J.E. White, D.C.M. Wood. Apr-28-1971. (Format: TXT=46641 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0138.txt
> *[[RFC 0139]] Discussion of Telnet Protocol. T.C. O'Sullivan. May-07-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0137]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0158]]) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0139.txt
> *[[RFC 0140]] Agenda for the May NWG meeting. S.D. Crocker. May-04-1971. (Format: TXT=6934 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0149]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0140.txt
> *[[RFC 0141]] Comments on [[RFC  114]]: A File Transfer Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Apr-29-1971. (Format: TXT=3781 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0141.txt
> *[[RFC 0142]] Time-Out Mechanism in the Host-Host Protocol. C. Kline, J. Wong. May-03-1971. (Format: TXT=4372 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0142.txt
> *[[RFC 0143]] Regarding proffered official ICP. W. Naylor, J. Wong, C. Kline, J. Postel. May-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6963 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updates [[RFC 0123]], [[RFC 0145]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0144]] Data sharing on computer networks. A. Shoshani. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0144.txt
> *[[RFC 0145]] Initial Connection Protocol Control Commands. J. Postel. May-04-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0127]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0143]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0146]] Views on issues relevant to data sharing on computer networks. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay, D.C.M. Wood. May-12-1971. (Format: TXT=9828 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0146.txt
> *[[RFC 0147]] Definition of a socket. J.M. Winett. May-07-1971. (Format: TXT=6438 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0129]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0147.txt
> *[[RFC 0148]] Comments on [[RFC  123]]. A.K. Bhushan. May-07-1971. (Format: TXT=1149 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0148.txt
> *[[RFC 0149]] Best Laid Plans. S.D. Crocker. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=1057 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0140]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0149.txt
> *[[RFC 0150]] Use of IPC Facilities: A Working Paper. R.B. Kalin. May-05-1971. (Format: TXT=28163 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0150.txt
> *[[RFC 0151]] Comments on a proffered official ICP: [[RFC s]] 123, 127. A. Shoshani. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=3623 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0127]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0151.txt
> *[[RFC 0152]] SRI Artificial Intelligence status report. M. Wilber. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=2726 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0152.txt
> *[[RFC 0153]] SRI ARC-NIC status. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. May-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0153.txt
> *[[RFC 0154]] Exposition Style. S.D. Crocker. May-12-1971. (Format: TXT=1293 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0132]]) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0154.txt
> *[[RFC 0155]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. May-01-1971. (Format: TXT=11054 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0095]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0168]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0156]] Status of the Illinois site: Response to [[RFC  116]]. J. Bouknight. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=1171 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0156.txt
> *[[RFC 0157]] Invitation to the Second Symposium on Problems in the Optimization of Data Communications Systems. V.G. Cerf. May-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0157.txt
> *[[RFC 0158]] Telnet Protocol: A Proposed Document. T.C. O'Sullivan. May-19-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0495]]) (Updates [[RFC 0139]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0318]]) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0160]] [[RFC  brief]] list. Network Information Center. Stanford Research Institute. May-18-1971. (Format: TXT=12173 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0200]], [[RFC 0999]]) (Updates NIC 6716) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0161]] Solution to the race condition in the ICP. A. Shoshani. May-19-1971. (Format: TXT=2026 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0161.txt
> *[[RFC 0162]] NETBUGGER3. M. Kampe. May-22-1971. (Format: TXT=3153 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0162.txt
> *[[RFC 0163]] Data transfer protocols. V.G. Cerf. May-19-1971. (Format: TXT=5465 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0163.txt
> *[[RFC 0164]] Minutes of Network Working Group meeting, 5/16 through 5/19/71. J.F. Heafner. May-25-1971. (Format: TXT=58597 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0164.txt
> *[[RFC 0165]] Proffered official Initial Connection Protocol. J. Postel. May-25-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0145]], [[RFC 0143]], [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by NIC 7101) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0165.txt
> *[[RFC 0166]] Data Reconfiguration Service: An implementation specification. R.H. Anderson, V.G. Cerf, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J. Madden, R.M. Metcalfe, A. Shoshani, J.E. White, D.C.M. Wood. May-25-1971. (Format: TXT=42094 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0166.txt
> *[[RFC 0167]] Socket conventions reconsidered. A.K. Bhushan, R.M. Metcalfe, J.M. Winett. May-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7643 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0147]], [[RFC 0129]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0167.txt
> *[[RFC 0168]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. May-26-1971. (Format: TXT=13294 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0155]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0211]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0169]] Computer networks. S.D. Crocker. May-27-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0169.txt
> *[[RFC 0170]] [[RFC  List]] by Number. Network Information Center, Stanford Research Institute. Jun-01-1971. (Format: TXT=17670 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0200]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0171]] The Data Transfer Protocol. A. Bhushan, B. Braden, W. Crowther, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, A. McKenize, J. Melvin, B. Sundberg, D. Watson, J. White. Jun-01-1971. (Format: TXT=20616 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0264]]) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0238]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0172]] The File Transfer Protocol. A. Bhushan, B. Braden, W. Crowther, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, A. McKenzie, J. Melvin, B. Sundberg, D. Watson, J. White. Jun-23-1971. (Format: TXT=21328 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0265]]) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0238]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0173]] Network Data Management Committee Meeting Announcement. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay. Jun-04-1971. (Format: TXT=4239 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0173.txt
> *[[RFC 0174]] UCLA - Computer Science Graphics Overview. J. Postel, V.G. Cerf. Jun-08-1971. (Format: TXT=5037 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0174.txt
> *[[RFC 0175]] Comments on "Socket Conventions Reconsidered". E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Jun-11-1971. (Format: TXT=2225 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0175.txt
> *[[RFC 0176]] Comments on "Byte size for connections". A.K. Bhushan, R. Kanodia, R.M. Metcalfe, J. Postel. Jun-14-1971. (Format: TXT=7269 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0176.txt
> *[[RFC 0177]] Device independent graphical display description. J. McConnell. Jun-15-1971. (Format: TXT=20474 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0125]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0181]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0177.txt
> *[[RFC 0178]] Network graphic attention handling. I.W. Cotton. Jun-27-1971. (Format: TXT=24522 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0178.txt
> *[[RFC 0179]] Link Number Assignments. A.M. McKenzie. Jun-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1221 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0179.txt
> *[[RFC 0180]] File system questionnaire. A.M. McKenzie. Jun-25-1971. (Format: TXT=8154 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0180.txt
> *[[RFC 0181]] Modifications to [[RFC  177]]. J. McConnell. Jul-21-1971. (Format: TXT=4892 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0177]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0181.txt
> *[[RFC 0182]] Compilation of list of relevant site reports. J.B. North. Jun-25-1971. (Format: TXT=2565 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0182.txt
> *[[RFC 0183]] EBCDIC codes and their mapping to ASCII. J.M. Winett. Jul-21-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0183.txt
> *[[RFC 0184]] Proposed graphic display modes. K.C. Kelley. Jul-06-1971. (Format: TXT=18678 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0184.txt
> *[[RFC 0185]] NIC distribution of manuals and handbooks. J.B. North. Jul-07-1971. (Format: TXT=1406 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0185.txt
> *[[RFC 0186]] Network graphics loader. J.C. Michener. Jul-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0186.txt
> *[[RFC 0187]] Network/440 Protocol Concept. D.B. McKay, D.P. Karp. Jul-01-1971. (Format: TXT=25042 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0187.txt
> *[[RFC 0188]] Data management meeting announcement. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay. Jan-28-1971. (Format: TXT=3383 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0188.txt
> *[[RFC 0189]] Interim NETRJS specifications. R.T. Braden. Jul-15-1971. (Format: TXT=41383 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0088]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0599]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0283]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0190]] DEC PDP-10-IMLAC communications system. L.P. Deutsch. Jul-13-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0190.txt
> *[[RFC 0191]] Graphics implementation and conceptualization at Augmentation Research Center. C.H. Irby. Jul-13-1971. (Format: TXT=8179 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0191.txt
> *[[RFC 0192]] Some factors which a Network Graphics Protocol must consider. R.W. Watson. Jul-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0192.txt
> *[[RFC 0193]] NETWORK CHECKOUT. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=3622 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0198]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0198]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0194]] The Data Reconfiguration Service -- Compiler/Interpreter Implementation Notes. V. Cerf, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, B. Metcalfe, J. White. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=32716 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0194.txt
> *[[RFC 0195]] Data computers-data descriptions and access language. G.H. Mealy. Jul-16-1971. (Format: TXT=8704 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0195.txt
> *[[RFC 0196]] Mail Box Protocol. R.W. Watson. Jul-20-1971. (Format: TXT=7016 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0221]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0197]] Initial Connection Protocol - Reviewed. A. Shoshani, E. Harslem. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=7094 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0197.txt
> *[[RFC 0198]] Site Certification - Lincoln Labs 360/67. J.F. Heafner. Jul-20-1971. (Format: TXT=855 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0193]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0214]]) (Updates [[RFC 0193]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0199]] Suggestions for a network data-tablet graphics protocol. T. Williams. Jul-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0199.txt
------
RFC|989967994
204c204,249
< 
---
> *[[RFC 0200]] [[RFC  list]] by number. J.B. North. Aug-01-1971. (Format: TXT=19256 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0170]], [[RFC 0160]]) (Obsoleted by NIC 7724) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0202]] Possible Deadlock in ICP. S.M. Wolfe, J. Postel. Jul-26-1971. (Format: TXT=2796 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0202.txt
> *[[RFC 0203]] Achieving reliable communication. R.B. Kalin. Aug-10-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0203.txt
> *[[RFC 0204]] Sockets in use. J. Postel. Aug-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1379 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0234]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0204.txt
> *[[RFC 0205]] NETCRT - a character display protocol. R.T. Braden. Aug-06-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0205.txt
> *[[RFC 0206]] User Telnet - description of an initial implementation. J.E. White. Aug-09-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0206.txt
> *[[RFC 0207]] September Network Working Group meeting. A. Vezza. Aug-09-1971. (Format: TXT=3356 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0212]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0208]] Address tables. A.M. McKenzie. Aug-09-1971. (Format: TXT=5858 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0208.txt
> *[[RFC 0209]] Host/IMP interface documentation. B. Cosell. Aug-13-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0209.txt
> *[[RFC 0210]] Improvement of Flow Control. W. Conrad. Aug-16-1971. (Format: TXT=3329 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0210.txt
> *[[RFC 0211]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. Aug-18-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0168]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0300]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0212]] NWG meeting on network usage. Information Sciences Institute University of Southern California. Aug-23-1971. (Format: TXT=4356 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0207]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0222]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0212.txt
> *[[RFC 0213]] IMP System change notification. B. Cosell. Aug-20-1971. (Format: TXT=1589 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0213.txt
> *[[RFC 0214]] Network checkpoint. E. Harslem. Aug-21-1971. (Format: TXT=3152 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0198]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0214.txt
> *[[RFC 0215]] NCP, ICP, and Telnet: The Terminal IMP implementation. A.M. McKenzie. Aug-30-1971. (Format: TXT=16645 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0215.txt
> *[[RFC 0216]] Telnet access to UCSB's On-Line System. J.E. White. Sep-08-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0216.txt
> *[[RFC 0217]] Specifications changes for OLS, RJE/RJOR, and SMFS. J.E. White. Sep-08-1971. (Format: TXT=2956 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0074]], [[RFC 0105]], [[RFC 0122]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0217.txt
> *[[RFC 0218]] Changing the IMP status reporting facility. B. Cosell. Sep-08-1971. (Format: TXT=1131 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0218.txt
> *[[RFC 0219]] User's view of the datacomputer. R. Winter. Sep-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0219.txt
> *[[RFC 0221]] Mail Box Protocol: Version 2. R.W. Watson. Aug-27-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0196]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0278]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0222]] Subject: System programmer's workshop. R.M. Metcalfe. Sep-13-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0212]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0234]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0222.txt
> *[[RFC 0223]] Network Information Center schedule for network users. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. Sep-14-1971. (Format: TXT=5369 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0223.txt
> *[[RFC 0224]] Comments on Mailbox Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-14-1971. (Format: TXT=3583 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0224.txt
> *[[RFC 0225]] Rand/UCSB network graphics experiment. E. Harslem, R. Stoughton. Sep-13-1971. (Format: TXT=13573 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0074]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0225.txt
> *[[RFC 0226]] Standardization of host mnemonics. P.M. Karp. Sep-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2012 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0247]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0227]] Data transfer rates (Rand/UCLA). J.F. Heafner, E. Harslem. Sep-17-1971. (Format: TXT=2451 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0113]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0227.txt
> *[[RFC 0228]] Clarification. D.C. Walden. Sep-22-1971. (Format: TXT=715 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0070]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0228.txt
> *[[RFC 0229]] Standard host names. J. Postel. Sep-22-1971. (Format: TXT=3388 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0236]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0230]] Toward reliable operation of minicomputer-based terminals on a TIP. T. Pyke. Sep-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7040 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0230.txt
> *[[RFC 0231]] Service center standards for remote usage: A user's view. J.F. Heafner, E. Harslem. Sep-21-1971. (Format: TXT=9692 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0231.txt
> *[[RFC 0232]] Postponement of network graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Sep-23-1971. (Format: TXT=899 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0232.txt
> *[[RFC 0233]] Standardization of host call letters. A. Bhushan, R. Metcalfe. Sep-28-1971. (Format: TXT=3206 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0233.txt
> *[[RFC 0234]] Network Working Group meeting schedule. A. Vezza. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1634 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0222]], [[RFC 0204]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0234.txt
> *[[RFC 0235]] Site status. E. Westheimer. Sep-27-1971. (Format: TXT=7994 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0240]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0236]] Standard host names. J. Postel. Sep-27-1971. (Format: TXT=5112 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0229]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0236.txt
> *[[RFC 0237]] NIC view of standard host names. R.W. Watson. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=2212 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0273]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0238]] Comments on DTP and FTP proposals. R.T. Braden. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2735 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0171]], [[RFC 0172]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0238.txt
> *[[RFC 0239]] Host mnemonics proposed in [[RFC  226]] (NIC 7625). R.T. Braden. Sep-23-1971. (Format: TXT=2236 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0226]], [[RFC 0229]], [[RFC 0236]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0239.txt
> *[[RFC 0240]] Site Status. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-30-1971. (Format: TXT=7948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0235]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0252]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0241]] Connecting computers to MLC ports. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=3739 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0241.txt
> *[[RFC 0242]] Data Descriptive Language for Shared Data. L. Haibt, A.P. Mullery. Jul-19-1971. (Format: TXT=18151 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0242.txt
> *[[RFC 0243]] Network and data sharing bibliography. A.P. Mullery. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=12432 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0290]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0245]] Reservations for Network Group meeting. C. Falls. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1142 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0245.txt
> *[[RFC 0246]] Network Graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=856 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0246.txt
> *[[RFC 0247]] Proffered set of standard host names. P.M. Karp. Oct-12-1971. (Format: TXT=7122 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0226]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0247.txt
> *[[RFC 0249]] Coordination of equipment and supplies purchase. R.F. Borelli. Oct-08-1971. (Format: TXT=4561 bytes) %2
------
RFC|989968140
249c249,250
< *[[RFC 0249]] Coordination of equipment and supplies purchase. R.F. Borelli. Oct-08-1971. (Format: TXT=4561 bytes) %2
---
> 
> 
------
RFC|989968319
249,250c249
< 
< 
---
> *[[RFC 0249]] Coordination of equipment and supplies purchase. R.F. Borelli. Oct-08-1971. (Format: TXT=4561 bytes) %2
------
RFC|989968610
7c7
< (Is this a useful format?)
---
> (Is this a useful format?  Hmm... seems to be a problem posting more than 40 kbytes)
247,249c247
< *[[RFC 0246]] Network Graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=856 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0246.txt
< *[[RFC 0247]] Proffered set of standard host names. P.M. Karp. Oct-12-1971. (Format: TXT=7122 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0226]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0247.txt
< *[[RFC 0249]] Coordination of equipment and supplies purchase. R.F. Borelli. Oct-08-1971. (Format: TXT=4561 bytes) %2
---
> 
------
HTTP|989968955
1c1
< '''HTTP''' (for '''Hypertext Transport Protocol''') is the primary method used to comminicate information on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is currently maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
---
> '''HTTP''' (for '''[[Hypertext]] Transport Protocol''') is the primary method used to comminicate information on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is currently maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
------
RFC|989969014
5,7c5
< The following is the complete RFC INDEX as of May 14, 2001, from
< http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt
< (Is this a useful format?  Hmm... seems to be a problem posting more than 40 kbytes)
---
> A complete RFC INDEX in text format is available from the IETF website (http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt), but because of its length, it is impractical to submit it to the WikiPedia.  A typical entry (out of some 3000) looks like this:
9,59d6
< *[[RFC 0001]] Host Software. S. Crocker. Apr-07-1969. (Format: TXT=21088 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0001.txt
< *[[RFC 0002]] Host software. B. Duvall. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=17145 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0002.txt
< *[[RFC 0003]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Apr-09-1969. (Format: TXT=2323 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0010]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0004]] Network timetable. E.B. Shapiro. Mar-24-1969. (Format: TXT=5933 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0004.txt
< *[[RFC 0005]] Decode Encode Language (DEL). J. Rulifson. Jun-02-1969. (Format: TXT=26408 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0005.txt
< *[[RFC 0006]] Conversation with Bob Kahn. S.D. Crocker. Apr-10-1969. (Format: TXT=1568 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0006.txt
< *[[RFC 0007]] Host-IMP interface. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0007.txt
< *[[RFC 0008]] Functional specifications for the ARPA Network. G. Deloche. May-05-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0008.txt
< *[[RFC 0009]] Host software. G. Deloche. May-01-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0009.txt
< *[[RFC 0010]] Documentation conventions. S.D. Crocker. Jul-29-1969. (Format: TXT=3348 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0003]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0011]] Implementation of the Host-Host software procedures in GORDO. G. Deloche. Aug-01-1969. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0033]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0012]] IMP-Host interface flow diagrams. M. Wingfield. Aug-26-1969. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0012.txt
< *[[RFC 0013]] Zero Text Length EOF Message. V. Cerf. Aug-20-1969. (Format: TXT=1070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0013.txt
< *[[RFC 0015]] Network subsystem for time sharing hosts. C.S. Carr. Sep-25-1969. (Format: TXT=10695 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0015.txt
< *[[RFC 0016]] M.I.T. S. Crocker. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=682 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0010]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0024]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0017]] Some questions re: Host-IMP Protocol. J.E. Kreznar. Aug-27-1969. (Format: TXT=6065 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0017.txt
< *[[RFC 0018]] IMP-IMP and HOST-HOST Control Links. V. Cerf. Sep-01-1969. (Format: TXT=634 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0018.txt
< *[[RFC 0019]] Two protocol suggestions to reduce congestion at swap bound nodes. J.E. Kreznar. Oct-07-1969. (Format: TXT=3392 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0019.txt
< *[[RFC 0020]] ASCII format for network interchange. V.G. Cerf. Oct-16-1969. (Format: TXT=18504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0020.txt
< *[[RFC 0021]] Network meeting. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=2143 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0021.txt
< *[[RFC 0022]] Host-host control message formats. V.G. Cerf. Oct-17-1969. (Format: TXT=4606 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0022.txt
< *[[RFC 0023]] Transmission of Multiple Control Messages. G. Gregg. Oct-16-1969. (Format: TXT=690 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0023.txt
< *[[RFC 0024]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Nov-21-1969. (Format: TXT=3460 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0016]]) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0027]], [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0024.txt
< *[[RFC 0025]] No High Link Numbers. S.D. Crocker. Oct-30-1969. (Format: TXT=479 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0025.txt
< *[[RFC 0027]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Dec-09-1969. (Format: TXT=3661 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]], [[RFC 0024]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0030]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0027.txt
< *[[RFC 0028]] Time Standards. W.K. English. Jan-13-1970. (Format: TXT=557 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0028.txt
< *[[RFC 0029]] Response to [[RFC  28]]. R.E. Kahn. Jan-19-1970. (Format: TXT=790 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0028]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0029.txt
< *[[RFC 0030]] Documentation Conventions. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1970. (Format: TXT=4041 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0010]], [[RFC 0016]], [[RFC 0024]], [[RFC 0027]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0030.txt
< *[[RFC 0031]] Binary Message Forms in Computer. D. Bobrow, W.R. Sutherland. Feb-01-1968. (Format: TXT=11191 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0031.txt
< *[[RFC 0032]] Connecting M.I.T. Computers to the ARPA Computer-To-Computer Communication Network. D. Vedder. Feb-05-1969. (Format: TXT=2216 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0032.txt
< *[[RFC 0033]] New Host-Host Protocol. S.D. Crocker. Feb-12-1970. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0011]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0036]], [[RFC 0047]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0033.txt
< *[[RFC 0034]] Some Brief Preliminary Notes on the Augmentation Research Center Clock. W.K. English. Feb-26-1970. (Format: TXT=2534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0034.txt
< *[[RFC 0035]] Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Mar-03-1970. (Format: TXT=1282 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0035.txt
< *[[RFC 0036]] Protocol Notes. S.D. Crocker. Mar-16-1970. (Format: TXT=13893 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0033]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0039]], [[RFC 0044]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0036.txt
< *[[RFC 0037]] Network Meeting Epilogue, etc. S.D. Crocker. Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=9107 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0037.txt
< *[[RFC 0038]] Comments on Network Protocol from NWG/RFC #36. S.M. Wolfe. Mar-20-1970. (Format: TXT=2536 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0038.txt
< *[[RFC 0039]] Comments on Protocol Re: NWG/RFC #36. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Mar-25-1970. (Format: TXT=4779 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0036]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0039.txt
< *[[RFC 0040]] More Comments on the Forthcoming Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Mar-27-1970. (Format: TXT=3825 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0040.txt
< *[[RFC 0041]] IMP-IMP Teletype Communication. J.T. Melvin. Mar-30-1970. (Format: TXT=1038 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0041.txt
< *[[RFC 0042]] Message Data Types. E. Ancona. Mar-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5247 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0042.txt
< *[[RFC 0043]] Proposed Meeting. A.G. Nemeth. Apr-08-1970. (Format: TXT=1600 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0043.txt
< *[[RFC 0044]] Comments on NWG/RFC 33 and 36. A. Shoshani, R. Long, A. Landsberg. Apr-10-1970. (Format: TXT=7381 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0036]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0044.txt
< *[[RFC 0045]] New Protocol is Coming. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1130 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0045.txt
< *[[RFC 0046]] ARPA Network protocol notes. E. Meyer. Apr-17-1970. (Format: TXT=41338 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0046.txt
< *[[RFC 0047]] BBN's Comments on NWG/RFC #33. W.R. Crowther. Apr-20-1970. (Format: TXT=5343 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0033]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0047.txt
< *[[RFC 0048]] Possible protocol plateau. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Apr-21-1970. (Format: TXT=41696 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0048.txt
< *[[RFC 0049]] Conversations with S. Crocker (UCLA). E. Meyer. Apr-25-1970. (Format: TXT=12384 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0049.txt
< *[[RFC 0050]] Comments on the Meyer Proposal. E. Harslem, J. Haverty. Apr-30-1970. (Format: TXT=4070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0050.txt
< *[[RFC 0051]] Proposal for a Network Interchange Language. M. Elie. May-04-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0051.txt
< *[[RFC 0052]] Updated distribution list. J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=5088 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0069]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0052.txt
< *[[RFC 0053]] Official protocol mechanism. S.D. Crocker. Jun-09-1970. (Format: TXT=2330 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0053.txt
61,106c8
< *[[RFC 0055]] Prototypical implementation of the NCP. J. Newkirk, M. Kraley, J. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=48070 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0055.txt
< *[[RFC 0056]] Third Level Protocol: Logger Protocol. E. Belove, D. Black, R. Flegal, L.G. Farquar. Jun-01-1970. (Format: TXT=13066 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0056.txt
< *[[RFC 0057]] Thoughts and Reflections on NWG/RFC 54. M. Kraley, J. Newkirk. Jun-19-1970. (Format: TXT=8360 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0054]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0057.txt
< *[[RFC 0058]] Logical Message Synchronization. T.P. Skinner. Jun-26-1970. (Format: TXT=3767 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0058.txt
< *[[RFC 0059]] Flow Control - Fixed Versus Demand Allocation. E. Meyer. Jun-27-1970. (Format: TXT=17691 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0059.txt
< *[[RFC 0060]] Simplified NCP Protocol. R.B. Kalin. Jul-13-1970. (Format: TXT=18941 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0060.txt
< *[[RFC 0061]] Note on Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Jul-17-1970. (Format: TXT=43946 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0062]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0062]] Systems for Interprocess Communication in a Resource Sharing Computer Network. D.C. Walden. Aug-03-1970. (Format: TXT=55784 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0061]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0062.txt
< *[[RFC 0063]] Belated Network Meeting Report. V.G. Cerf. Jul-31-1970. (Format: TXT=2961 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0063.txt
< *[[RFC 0064]] Getting rid of marking. M. Elie. Jul-01-1970. (Format: TXT=7556 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0064.txt
< *[[RFC 0065]] Comments on Host/Host Protocol document #1. D.C. Walden. Aug-29-1970. (Format: TXT=5628 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0065.txt
< *[[RFC 0066]] NIC - third level ideas and other noise. S.D. Crocker. Aug-26-1970. (Format: TXT=4575 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0080]], [[RFC 0093]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0067]] Proposed Change to Host/IMP Spec to Eliminate Marking. W.R. Crowther. Jan-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1534 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0067.txt
< *[[RFC 0068]] Comments on Memory Allocation Control Commands: CEASE, ALL, GVB, RET, and RFNM. M. Elie. Aug-31-1970. (Format: TXT=5041 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0068.txt
< *[[RFC 0069]] Distribution List Change for MIT. A.K. Bhushan. Sep-22-1970. (Format: TXT=841 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0052]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0069.txt
< *[[RFC 0070]] Note on Padding. S.D. Crocker. Oct-15-1970. (Format: TXT=12790 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0228]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0070.txt
< *[[RFC 0071]] Reallocation in Case of Input Error. T. Schipper. Sep-25-1970. (Format: TXT=1265 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0071.txt
< *[[RFC 0072]] Proposed Moratorium on Changes to Network Protocol. R.D. Bressler. Sep-28-1970. (Format: TXT=4047 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0072.txt
< *[[RFC 0073]] Response to NWG/RFC 67. S.D. Crocker. Sep-25-1970. (Format: TXT=1268 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0073.txt
< *[[RFC 0074]] Specifications for network use of the UCSB On-Line System. J.E. White. Oct-16-1970. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]], [[RFC 0225]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0074.txt
< *[[RFC 0075]] Network Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Oct-14-1970. (Format: TXT=1318 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0075.txt
< *[[RFC 0076]] Connection by name: User oriented protocol. J. Bouknight, J. Madden, G.R. Grossman. Oct-28-1970. (Format: TXT=26504 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0076.txt
< *[[RFC 0077]] Network meeting report. J. Postel. Nov-20-1970. (Format: TXT=19196 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0077.txt
< *[[RFC 0078]] NCP Status Report: UCSB/Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E. White. Oct-01-1970. (Format: TXT=1303 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0078.txt
< *[[RFC 0079]] Logger Protocol error. E. Meyer. Nov-16-1970. (Format: TXT=1515 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0079.txt
< *[[RFC 0080]] Protocols and Data Formats. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-01-1970. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0123]]) (Updates [[RFC 0066]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0093]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0081]] Request for Reference Information. J. Bouknight. Dec-03-1970. (Format: TXT=956 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0081.txt
< *[[RFC 0082]] Network Meeting Notes. E. Meyer. Dec-09-1970. (Format: TXT=38023 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0082.txt
< *[[RFC 0083]] Language-machine for data reconfiguration. R.H. Anderson, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Dec-18-1970. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0083.txt
< *[[RFC 0084]] List of NWG/RFC's 1-80. J.B. North. Dec-23-1970. (Format: TXT=12613 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0084.txt
< *[[RFC 0085]] Network Working Group meeting. S.D. Crocker. Dec-28-1970. (Format: TXT=1547 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0085.txt
< *[[RFC 0086]] Proposal for a Network Standard Format for a Data Stream to Control Graphics Display. S.D. Crocker. Jan-05-1971. (Format: TXT=7117 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0125]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0086.txt
< *[[RFC 0087]] Topic for Discussion at the Next Network Working Group Meeting. A. Vezza. Jan-12-1971. (Format: TXT=3593 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0087.txt
< *[[RFC 0088]] NETRJS: A third level protocol for Remote Job Entry. R.T. Braden, S.M. Wolfe. Jan-13-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0189]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0089]] Some historic moments in networking. R.M. Metcalfe. Jan-19-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0089.txt
< *[[RFC 0090]] CCN as a Network Service Center. R.T. Braden. Jan-25-1971. (Format: TXT=11929 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0090.txt
< *[[RFC 0091]] Proposed User-User Protocol. G.H. Mealy. Dec-27-1970. (Format: TXT=27005 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0091.txt
< *[[RFC 0093]] Initial Connection Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Jan-27-1971. (Format: TXT=1746 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0066]], [[RFC 0080]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0093.txt
< *[[RFC 0094]] Some thoughts on Network Graphics. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Feb-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0094.txt
< *[[RFC 0095]] Distribution of NWG/RFC's through the NIC. S.D. Crocker. Feb-04-1971. (Format: TXT=8938 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0155]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0096]] An Interactive Network Experiment to Study Modes of Access the Network Information Center. R.W. Watson. Feb-12-1971. (Format: TXT=11334 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0096.txt
< *[[RFC 0097]] First Cut at a Proposed Telnet Protocol. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. Feb-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0097.txt
< *[[RFC 0098]] Logger Protocol Proposal. E. Meyer, T. Skinner. Feb-11-1971. (Format: TXT=24536 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0098.txt
< *[[RFC 0099]] Network Meeting. P.M. Karp. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1010 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0099.txt
< *[[RFC 0100]] Categorization and guide to NWG/RFCs. P.M. Karp. Feb-26-1971. (Format: TXT=62473 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0100.txt
< *[[RFC 0101]] Notes on the Network Working Group meeting, Urbana, Illinois, February 17, 1971. R.W. Watson. Feb-23-1971. (Format: TXT=30343 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0108]], [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0101.txt
---
> 
240,246c142
< *[[RFC 0238]] Comments on DTP and FTP proposals. R.T. Braden. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2735 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0171]], [[RFC 0172]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0238.txt
< *[[RFC 0239]] Host mnemonics proposed in [[RFC  226]] (NIC 7625). R.T. Braden. Sep-23-1971. (Format: TXT=2236 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0226]], [[RFC 0229]], [[RFC 0236]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0239.txt
< *[[RFC 0240]] Site Status. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-30-1971. (Format: TXT=7948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0235]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0252]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0241]] Connecting computers to MLC ports. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=3739 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0241.txt
< *[[RFC 0242]] Data Descriptive Language for Shared Data. L. Haibt, A.P. Mullery. Jul-19-1971. (Format: TXT=18151 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0242.txt
< *[[RFC 0243]] Network and data sharing bibliography. A.P. Mullery. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=12432 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0290]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0245]] Reservations for Network Group meeting. C. Falls. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1142 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0245.txt
---
> *[[RFC 0238]] Comments on DTP and FTP proposals. R.T. Braden. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2735 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0171]], 
------
Mathematics|989969266
4,24c4,46
< 
< [[Finite Mathematics]]
< :[[Combinatorics]] -- [[Set Theory]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] 
< 
< [[Quantity]]
< :[[Real numbers]] -- [[Complex numbers]] -- [[HyperReal numbers]] -- SurrealNumbers -- IntegerSequences -- MathematicalConstants
< 
< [[Change]]
< :[[Calculus]] -- [[Differential Equations]] -- TrigonometricFunctions  
< 
< [[Structure]]
< :[[Abstract algebra]] -- [[Analysis]] -- [[Topology]] -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- CategoryTheory -- AlgebraicGeometry -- MathematicalGrouP
< 
< [[Space]]
< :TopOlogy -- [[Geometry]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- [[Linear Algebra]] -- [[Tensors]]
< 
< [[Methods]]
< :TheoremProving -- SpecialFunctions -- PhilosophyOfMath -- FoundationsOfMathematics -- MathematicalIntuitionism
< 
< [[Miscellanea]]
< :FermatsLastTheorem -- MathematicianS -- FieldsMedal -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]]
---
> <TABLE BORDER="1">
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD WIDTH="20%"><h3>[[Finite Mathematics]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>[[Combinatorics]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Set Theory]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Probability and Statistics]]</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Quantity]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>[[Real numbers]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Complex numbers]]</TD>
> <TD>[[HyperReal numbers]]</TD>
> <TD>SurrealNumbers</TD>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD></TD><TD>IntegerSequences</TD>
> <TD>MathematicalConstants</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Change]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>[[Calculus]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Differential Equations]]</TD>
> <TD>TrigonometricFunctions</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Structure]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>[[Abstract algebra]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Analysis]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Topology]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Geometry]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Linear Algebra]]</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD></TD><TD>CategoryTheory</TD>
> <TD>AlgebraicGeometry</TD>
> <TD>MathematicalGrouP</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Space]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>TopOlogy</TD>
> <TD>[[Geometry]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Pythagorean Theorem]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Linear Algebra]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Tensors]]</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Methods]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>TheoremProving</TD>
> <TD>SpecialFunctions</TD>
> <TD>PhilosophyOfMath</TD>
> <TD>FoundationsOfMathematics</TD>
> <TD>MathematicalIntuitionism</TD></TR>
> <TR VALIGN="TOP"><TD><h3>[[Miscellanea]]</h3></TD>
> <TD>FermatsLastTheorem</TD>
> <TD>MathematicianS</TD>
> <TD>FieldsMedal</TD>
> <TD>[[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]]</TD></TR>
> </TABLE>
------
RFC|989969274
9,32d8
< *[[RFC 0102]] Output of the Host-Host Protocol glitch cleaning committee. S.D. Crocker. Feb-22-1971. (Format: TXT=8511 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0102.txt
< *[[RFC 0103]] Implementation of Interrupt Keys. R.B. Kalin. Feb-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7592 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0103.txt
< *[[RFC 0104]] Link 191. J.B. Postel, S.D. Crocker. Feb-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1017 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0104.txt
< *[[RFC 0105]] Network Specifications for Remote Job Entry and Remote Job Output Retrieval at UCSB. J.E. White. Mar-22-1971. (Format: TXT=21938 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0105.txt
< *[[RFC 0106]] User/Server Site Protocol Network Host Questionnaire. T.C. O'Sullivan. Mar-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6946 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0106.txt
< *[[RFC 0107]] Output of the Host-Host Protocol Glitch Cleaning Committee. R.D. Bressler, S.D. Crocker, W.R. Crowther, G.R. Grossman, R.S. Tomlinson, J.E. White. Mar-23-1971. (Format: TXT=18109 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0102]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0111]], [[RFC 0124]], [[RFC 0132]], [[RFC 0154]], [[RFC 0179]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0107.txt
< *[[RFC 0108]] Attendance list at the Urbana NWG meeting, February 17-19, 1971. R.W. Watson. Mar-25-1971. (Format: TXT=1597 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0101]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0108.txt
< *[[RFC 0109]] Level III Server Protocol for the Lincoln Laboratory NIC 360/67 Host. J.M. Winett. Mar-24-1971. (Not online) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0109.txt
< *[[RFC 0110]] Conventions for using an IBM 2741 terminal as a user console for access to network server hosts. J.M. Winett. Mar-25-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0135]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0110.txt
< *[[RFC 0111]] Pressure from the Chairman. S.D. Crocker. Mar-31-1971. (Format: TXT=2098 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0130]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0111.txt
< *[[RFC 0112]] User/Server Site Protocol: Network host questionnaire responses. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-01-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0112.txt
< *[[RFC 0113]] Network activity report: UCSB Rand. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J.E. White. Apr-05-1971. (Format: TXT=3442 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0227]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0113.txt
< *[[RFC 0114]] File Transfer Protocol. A.K. Bhushan. Apr-10-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0133]], [[RFC 0141]], [[RFC 0171]], [[RFC 0172]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0114.txt
< *[[RFC 0115]] Some Network Information Center policies on handling documents. R.W. Watson, J.B. North. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=16775 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0115.txt
< *[[RFC 0116]] Structure of the May NWG Meeting. S.D. Crocker. Apr-12-1971. (Format: TXT=2395 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0099]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0131]], [[RFC 0156]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0116.txt
< *[[RFC 0117]] Some comments on the official protocol. J. Wong. Apr-07-1971. (Format: TXT=7128 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0117.txt
< *[[RFC 0118]] Recommendations for facility documentation. R.W. Watson. Apr-16-1971. (Format: TXT=4573 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0118.txt
< *[[RFC 0119]] Network Fortran subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0119.txt
< *[[RFC 0120]] Network PL1 subprograms. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=37192 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0120.txt
< *[[RFC 0121]] Network on-line operators. M. Krilanovich. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=29419 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0121.txt
< *[[RFC 0122]] Network specifications for UCSB's Simple-Minded File System. J.E. White. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=47638 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0217]], [[RFC 0269]], [[RFC 0399]], [[RFC 0431]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0122.txt
< *[[RFC 0123]] Proffered Official ICP. S.D. Crocker. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=4812 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0066]], [[RFC 0080]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updates [[RFC 0098]], [[RFC 0101]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0127]], [[RFC 0143]], [[RFC 0148]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0124]] Typographical error in [[RFC  107]]. J.T. Melvin. Apr-19-1971. (Format: TXT=659 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0124.txt
< *[[RFC 0125]] Response to [[RFC  86]]: Proposal for Network Standard Format for a Graphics Data Stream. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=8133 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0086]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0177]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0125.txt
44,143c20
< *[[RFC 0137]] Telnet Protocol - a proposed document. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0139]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0137.txt
< *[[RFC 0138]] Status report on proposed Data Reconfiguration Service. R.H. Anderson, V.G. Cerf, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J. Madden, R.M. Metcalfe, A. Shoshani, J.E. White, D.C.M. Wood. Apr-28-1971. (Format: TXT=46641 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0138.txt
< *[[RFC 0139]] Discussion of Telnet Protocol. T.C. O'Sullivan. May-07-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0137]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0158]]) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0139.txt
< *[[RFC 0140]] Agenda for the May NWG meeting. S.D. Crocker. May-04-1971. (Format: TXT=6934 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0149]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0140.txt
< *[[RFC 0141]] Comments on [[RFC  114]]: A File Transfer Protocol. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Apr-29-1971. (Format: TXT=3781 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0141.txt
< *[[RFC 0142]] Time-Out Mechanism in the Host-Host Protocol. C. Kline, J. Wong. May-03-1971. (Format: TXT=4372 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0142.txt
< *[[RFC 0143]] Regarding proffered official ICP. W. Naylor, J. Wong, C. Kline, J. Postel. May-03-1971. (Format: TXT=6963 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updates [[RFC 0123]], [[RFC 0145]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0144]] Data sharing on computer networks. A. Shoshani. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0144.txt
< *[[RFC 0145]] Initial Connection Protocol Control Commands. J. Postel. May-04-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0127]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0165]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0143]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0146]] Views on issues relevant to data sharing on computer networks. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay, D.C.M. Wood. May-12-1971. (Format: TXT=9828 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0146.txt
< *[[RFC 0147]] Definition of a socket. J.M. Winett. May-07-1971. (Format: TXT=6438 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0129]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0147.txt
< *[[RFC 0148]] Comments on [[RFC  123]]. A.K. Bhushan. May-07-1971. (Format: TXT=1149 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0123]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0148.txt
< *[[RFC 0149]] Best Laid Plans. S.D. Crocker. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=1057 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0140]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0149.txt
< *[[RFC 0150]] Use of IPC Facilities: A Working Paper. R.B. Kalin. May-05-1971. (Format: TXT=28163 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0150.txt
< *[[RFC 0151]] Comments on a proffered official ICP: [[RFC s]] 123, 127. A. Shoshani. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=3623 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0127]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0151.txt
< *[[RFC 0152]] SRI Artificial Intelligence status report. M. Wilber. May-10-1971. (Format: TXT=2726 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0152.txt
< *[[RFC 0153]] SRI ARC-NIC status. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. May-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0153.txt
< *[[RFC 0154]] Exposition Style. S.D. Crocker. May-12-1971. (Format: TXT=1293 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0132]]) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0154.txt
< *[[RFC 0155]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. May-01-1971. (Format: TXT=11054 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0095]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0168]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0156]] Status of the Illinois site: Response to [[RFC  116]]. J. Bouknight. Apr-26-1971. (Format: TXT=1171 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0156.txt
< *[[RFC 0157]] Invitation to the Second Symposium on Problems in the Optimization of Data Communications Systems. V.G. Cerf. May-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0157.txt
< *[[RFC 0158]] Telnet Protocol: A Proposed Document. T.C. O'Sullivan. May-19-1971. (Not online) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0495]]) (Updates [[RFC 0139]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0318]]) (Also [[RFC 0393]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0160]] [[RFC  brief]] list. Network Information Center. Stanford Research Institute. May-18-1971. (Format: TXT=12173 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0200]], [[RFC 0999]]) (Updates NIC 6716) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0161]] Solution to the race condition in the ICP. A. Shoshani. May-19-1971. (Format: TXT=2026 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0161.txt
< *[[RFC 0162]] NETBUGGER3. M. Kampe. May-22-1971. (Format: TXT=3153 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0162.txt
< *[[RFC 0163]] Data transfer protocols. V.G. Cerf. May-19-1971. (Format: TXT=5465 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0163.txt
< *[[RFC 0164]] Minutes of Network Working Group meeting, 5/16 through 5/19/71. J.F. Heafner. May-25-1971. (Format: TXT=58597 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0164.txt
< *[[RFC 0165]] Proffered official Initial Connection Protocol. J. Postel. May-25-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0145]], [[RFC 0143]], [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by NIC 7101) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0165.txt
< *[[RFC 0166]] Data Reconfiguration Service: An implementation specification. R.H. Anderson, V.G. Cerf, E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner, J. Madden, R.M. Metcalfe, A. Shoshani, J.E. White, D.C.M. Wood. May-25-1971. (Format: TXT=42094 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0166.txt
< *[[RFC 0167]] Socket conventions reconsidered. A.K. Bhushan, R.M. Metcalfe, J.M. Winett. May-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7643 bytes) (Also [[RFC 0147]], [[RFC 0129]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0167.txt
< *[[RFC 0168]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. May-26-1971. (Format: TXT=13294 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0155]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0211]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0169]] Computer networks. S.D. Crocker. May-27-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0169.txt
< *[[RFC 0170]] [[RFC  List]] by Number. Network Information Center, Stanford Research Institute. Jun-01-1971. (Format: TXT=17670 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0200]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0171]] The Data Transfer Protocol. A. Bhushan, B. Braden, W. Crowther, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, A. McKenize, J. Melvin, B. Sundberg, D. Watson, J. White. Jun-01-1971. (Format: TXT=20616 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0264]]) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0238]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0172]] The File Transfer Protocol. A. Bhushan, B. Braden, W. Crowther, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, A. McKenzie, J. Melvin, B. Sundberg, D. Watson, J. White. Jun-23-1971. (Format: TXT=21328 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0265]]) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0238]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0173]] Network Data Management Committee Meeting Announcement. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay. Jun-04-1971. (Format: TXT=4239 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0173.txt
< *[[RFC 0174]] UCLA - Computer Science Graphics Overview. J. Postel, V.G. Cerf. Jun-08-1971. (Format: TXT=5037 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0174.txt
< *[[RFC 0175]] Comments on "Socket Conventions Reconsidered". E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Jun-11-1971. (Format: TXT=2225 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0175.txt
< *[[RFC 0176]] Comments on "Byte size for connections". A.K. Bhushan, R. Kanodia, R.M. Metcalfe, J. Postel. Jun-14-1971. (Format: TXT=7269 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0176.txt
< *[[RFC 0177]] Device independent graphical display description. J. McConnell. Jun-15-1971. (Format: TXT=20474 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0125]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0181]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0177.txt
< *[[RFC 0178]] Network graphic attention handling. I.W. Cotton. Jun-27-1971. (Format: TXT=24522 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0178.txt
< *[[RFC 0179]] Link Number Assignments. A.M. McKenzie. Jun-22-1971. (Format: TXT=1221 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0179.txt
< *[[RFC 0180]] File system questionnaire. A.M. McKenzie. Jun-25-1971. (Format: TXT=8154 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0180.txt
< *[[RFC 0181]] Modifications to [[RFC  177]]. J. McConnell. Jul-21-1971. (Format: TXT=4892 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0177]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0181.txt
< *[[RFC 0182]] Compilation of list of relevant site reports. J.B. North. Jun-25-1971. (Format: TXT=2565 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0182.txt
< *[[RFC 0183]] EBCDIC codes and their mapping to ASCII. J.M. Winett. Jul-21-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0183.txt
< *[[RFC 0184]] Proposed graphic display modes. K.C. Kelley. Jul-06-1971. (Format: TXT=18678 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0184.txt
< *[[RFC 0185]] NIC distribution of manuals and handbooks. J.B. North. Jul-07-1971. (Format: TXT=1406 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0185.txt
< *[[RFC 0186]] Network graphics loader. J.C. Michener. Jul-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0186.txt
< *[[RFC 0187]] Network/440 Protocol Concept. D.B. McKay, D.P. Karp. Jul-01-1971. (Format: TXT=25042 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0187.txt
< *[[RFC 0188]] Data management meeting announcement. P.M. Karp, D.B. McKay. Jan-28-1971. (Format: TXT=3383 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0188.txt
< *[[RFC 0189]] Interim NETRJS specifications. R.T. Braden. Jul-15-1971. (Format: TXT=41383 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0088]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0599]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0283]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0190]] DEC PDP-10-IMLAC communications system. L.P. Deutsch. Jul-13-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0190.txt
< *[[RFC 0191]] Graphics implementation and conceptualization at Augmentation Research Center. C.H. Irby. Jul-13-1971. (Format: TXT=8179 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0191.txt
< *[[RFC 0192]] Some factors which a Network Graphics Protocol must consider. R.W. Watson. Jul-12-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0192.txt
< *[[RFC 0193]] NETWORK CHECKOUT. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=3622 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0198]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0198]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0194]] The Data Reconfiguration Service -- Compiler/Interpreter Implementation Notes. V. Cerf, E. Harslem, J. Heafner, B. Metcalfe, J. White. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=32716 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0194.txt
< *[[RFC 0195]] Data computers-data descriptions and access language. G.H. Mealy. Jul-16-1971. (Format: TXT=8704 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0195.txt
< *[[RFC 0196]] Mail Box Protocol. R.W. Watson. Jul-20-1971. (Format: TXT=7016 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0221]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0197]] Initial Connection Protocol - Reviewed. A. Shoshani, E. Harslem. Jul-14-1971. (Format: TXT=7094 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0197.txt
< *[[RFC 0198]] Site Certification - Lincoln Labs 360/67. J.F. Heafner. Jul-20-1971. (Format: TXT=855 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0193]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0214]]) (Updates [[RFC 0193]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0199]] Suggestions for a network data-tablet graphics protocol. T. Williams. Jul-15-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0199.txt
< *[[RFC 0200]] [[RFC  list]] by number. J.B. North. Aug-01-1971. (Format: TXT=19256 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0170]], [[RFC 0160]]) (Obsoleted by NIC 7724) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0202]] Possible Deadlock in ICP. S.M. Wolfe, J. Postel. Jul-26-1971. (Format: TXT=2796 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0202.txt
< *[[RFC 0203]] Achieving reliable communication. R.B. Kalin. Aug-10-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0203.txt
< *[[RFC 0204]] Sockets in use. J. Postel. Aug-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1379 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0234]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0204.txt
< *[[RFC 0205]] NETCRT - a character display protocol. R.T. Braden. Aug-06-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0205.txt
< *[[RFC 0206]] User Telnet - description of an initial implementation. J.E. White. Aug-09-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0206.txt
< *[[RFC 0207]] September Network Working Group meeting. A. Vezza. Aug-09-1971. (Format: TXT=3356 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0212]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0208]] Address tables. A.M. McKenzie. Aug-09-1971. (Format: TXT=5858 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0208.txt
< *[[RFC 0209]] Host/IMP interface documentation. B. Cosell. Aug-13-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0209.txt
< *[[RFC 0210]] Improvement of Flow Control. W. Conrad. Aug-16-1971. (Format: TXT=3329 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0210.txt
< *[[RFC 0211]] ARPA Network mailing lists. J.B. North. Aug-18-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0168]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0300]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0212]] NWG meeting on network usage. Information Sciences Institute University of Southern California. Aug-23-1971. (Format: TXT=4356 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0207]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0222]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0212.txt
< *[[RFC 0213]] IMP System change notification. B. Cosell. Aug-20-1971. (Format: TXT=1589 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0213.txt
< *[[RFC 0214]] Network checkpoint. E. Harslem. Aug-21-1971. (Format: TXT=3152 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0198]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0214.txt
< *[[RFC 0215]] NCP, ICP, and Telnet: The Terminal IMP implementation. A.M. McKenzie. Aug-30-1971. (Format: TXT=16645 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0215.txt
< *[[RFC 0216]] Telnet access to UCSB's On-Line System. J.E. White. Sep-08-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0216.txt
< *[[RFC 0217]] Specifications changes for OLS, RJE/RJOR, and SMFS. J.E. White. Sep-08-1971. (Format: TXT=2956 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0074]], [[RFC 0105]], [[RFC 0122]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0217.txt
< *[[RFC 0218]] Changing the IMP status reporting facility. B. Cosell. Sep-08-1971. (Format: TXT=1131 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0218.txt
< *[[RFC 0219]] User's view of the datacomputer. R. Winter. Sep-03-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0219.txt
< *[[RFC 0221]] Mail Box Protocol: Version 2. R.W. Watson. Aug-27-1971. (Not online) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0196]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0278]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0222]] Subject: System programmer's workshop. R.M. Metcalfe. Sep-13-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0212]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0234]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0222.txt
< *[[RFC 0223]] Network Information Center schedule for network users. J.T. Melvin, R.W. Watson. Sep-14-1971. (Format: TXT=5369 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0223.txt
< *[[RFC 0224]] Comments on Mailbox Protocol. A.M. McKenzie. Sep-14-1971. (Format: TXT=3583 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0224.txt
< *[[RFC 0225]] Rand/UCSB network graphics experiment. E. Harslem, R. Stoughton. Sep-13-1971. (Format: TXT=13573 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0074]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0225.txt
< *[[RFC 0226]] Standardization of host mnemonics. P.M. Karp. Sep-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2012 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0247]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0227]] Data transfer rates (Rand/UCLA). J.F. Heafner, E. Harslem. Sep-17-1971. (Format: TXT=2451 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0113]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0227.txt
< *[[RFC 0228]] Clarification. D.C. Walden. Sep-22-1971. (Format: TXT=715 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0070]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0228.txt
< *[[RFC 0229]] Standard host names. J. Postel. Sep-22-1971. (Format: TXT=3388 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0236]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0230]] Toward reliable operation of minicomputer-based terminals on a TIP. T. Pyke. Sep-24-1971. (Format: TXT=7040 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0230.txt
< *[[RFC 0231]] Service center standards for remote usage: A user's view. J.F. Heafner, E. Harslem. Sep-21-1971. (Format: TXT=9692 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0231.txt
< *[[RFC 0232]] Postponement of network graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Sep-23-1971. (Format: TXT=899 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0232.txt
< *[[RFC 0233]] Standardization of host call letters. A. Bhushan, R. Metcalfe. Sep-28-1971. (Format: TXT=3206 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0233.txt
< *[[RFC 0234]] Network Working Group meeting schedule. A. Vezza. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=1634 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0222]], [[RFC 0204]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0234.txt
< *[[RFC 0235]] Site status. E. Westheimer. Sep-27-1971. (Format: TXT=7994 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0240]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0236]] Standard host names. J. Postel. Sep-27-1971. (Format: TXT=5112 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0229]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0236.txt
< *[[RFC 0237]] NIC view of standard host names. R.W. Watson. Oct-05-1971. (Format: TXT=2212 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0273]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0238]] Comments on DTP and FTP proposals. R.T. Braden. Sep-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2735 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0171]], 
< 
---
> *[[RFC 0137]] Telnet Protocol - a proposed document. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0139]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0137.txt
------
RFC|989969308
9,20d8
< *[[RFC 0126]] Graphics Facilities at Ames Research Center. J. McConnell. Apr-18-1971. (Format: TXT=1974 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0126.txt
< *[[RFC 0127]] Comments on [[RFC  123]]. J. Postel. Apr-20-1971. (Format: TXT=2305 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0145]]) (Updates [[RFC 0123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 0151]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0128]] Bytes. J. Postel. Apr-21-1971. (Format: TXT=2745 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0128.txt
< *[[RFC 0129]] Request for comments on socket name structure. E. Harslem, J. Heafner, E. Meyer. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=11175 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0147]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0129.txt
< *[[RFC 0130]] Response to [[RFC  111]]: Pressure from the chairman. J.F. Heafner. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=2580 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0111]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0130.txt
< *[[RFC 0131]] Response to [[RFC  116]]: May NWG meeting. E. Harslem, J.F. Heafner. Apr-22-1971. (Format: TXT=5375 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0116]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0131.txt
< *[[RFC 0132]] Typographical Error in [[RFC  107]]. J.E. White. Apr-28-1971. (Format: TXT=1058 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 0154]]) (Updates [[RFC 0107]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[[RFC 0133]] File Transfer and Recovery. R.L. Sundberg. Apr-27-1971. (Format: TXT=8322 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0114]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0133.txt
< *[[RFC 0134]] Network Graphics meeting. A. Vezza. Apr-29-1971. (Format: TXT=2684 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0134.txt
< *[[RFC 0135]] Response to NWG/RFC 110. W. Hathaway. Apr-29-1971. (Not online) (Updates [[RFC 0110]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0135.txt
< *[[RFC 0136]] Host accounting and administrative procedures. R.E. Kahn. Apr-29-1971. (Not online) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0136.txt
< *[[RFC 0137]] Telnet Protocol - a proposed document. T.C. O'Sullivan. Apr-30-1971. (Not online) (Updated by [[RFC 0139]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0137.txt
------
Mathematics|989969379
1c1,2
< Mathematics is the study of some abstract properties of quantity, structure, and space.
---
> Mathematics is the study of some abstract properties of quantity, structure, and space.  <b>See also:<b> Other /Schemes
> 
3d3
< See also Other /Schemes
------
RFC_2026|989969485
0a1,6
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> *[[RFC 2026]] The Internet Standards Process -- Revision 3. S. Bradner. October 1996. (Format: TXT=86731 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1602]]) (Also BCP0009) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2026.txt
> 
> 
> 
------
RFC_2026|989969574
3,4c3
< *[[RFC 2026]] The Internet Standards Process -- Revision 3. S. Bradner. October 1996. (Format: TXT=86731 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1602]]) (Also BCP0009) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2026.txt
< 
---
> *[[RFC 2026]] '''The Internet Standards Process -- Revision 3'''. [[Scott O. Bradner]]. October 1996. (Format: TXT=86731 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1602]]) (Also BCP0009) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2026.txt
6a6
> ----
------
Hypertext|989969638
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''hypertext''' system is one for displaying information that contains references (called [[hyperlink]]s) to other information on the system, and for easily publishing, updating and searching for the information.
> 
> Probably the first description of the idea came in 1945, when [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote an article in Atlantic Monthly called ''As We May Think'', about a futuristic device he called a "Memex".  He described the device as electronically linked to a library and able to display books and films from the library, and further able to automatically follow references from these to the work referenced.
> 
> Computer scientist [[Ted Nelson]] coined the word "hypertext" in 1965.  He founded the [[Xanadu project]] in 1960 with the goal of creating such a system on a computer network, further documented in his 1974 book ''Computer Lib / Dream Machines'' and the 1981 ''Literary Machines''.  Nelson's work and many other early hypertext systems such as [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s  "NLS" and the popular [[HyperCard]] application bundled with the [[Apple Macintosh]] computer were quickly overshadowed by the success of the [[World Wide Web]], even though the latter lacked many features of those earlier systems such as transclusion and source tracking.
> 
------
RFC|989969680
1c1
< The Request For Comment documents are a series of papers about the [[Internet]].
---
> The Request For Comment documents are a series of papers about the [[Internet]], issued by the [[IETF]].
3c3
< *[[/2026|RFC 2026]]: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3
---
> *[[RFC 2026]]: The Internet Standards Process, Revision 3
5c5
< A complete RFC INDEX in text format is available from the IETF website (http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt), but because of its length, it is impractical to submit it to the WikiPedia.  A typical entry (out of some 3000) looks like this:
---
> A complete RFC INDEX in text format is available from the IETF website (http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt), but because of its length, it is impractical to submit it to the WikiPedia.
7c7,10
< *[[RFC 0054]] Official Protocol Proffering. S.D. Crocker, J. Postel, J. Newkirk, M. Kraley. Jun-18-1970. (Format: TXT=20131 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 0057]]) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0054.txt
---
> [[RFC 0822|822]],
> [[RFC 0823|823]],
> [[RFC 0824|824]],
> [[RFC 0825|825]]
------
RFC_0822|989969747
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 0822]] '''Standard for the format of ARPA Internet text messages'''. [[David H. Crocker]]. Aug-13-1982. (Format: TXT=109200 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0733]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1123]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
------
David_H._Crocker|989969771
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of [[RFC 0822]].
> 
------
RFC_2822|989969902
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 2822]] '''Internet Message Format'''. [[Peter W. Resnick]], Editor. April 2001. (Format: TXT=110695 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0822]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2822.txt
------
Peter_W._Resnick|989969933
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Editor of [[RFC 2822]].
> 
> 
------
RFC_1123|989970047
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> *[[RFC 1123]] '''Requirements for Internet Hosts - Application and Support'''. [[Robert Braden]] (editor). October 1989. (Format: TXT=245503 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 0822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2181]]) (Also STD0003) (Status: STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1123.txt
> 
> 
------
Robert_Braden|989970087
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Editor of [[RFC 1123]].
> 
------
RFC_2181|989970195
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> *[[RFC 2181]] '''Clarifications to the DNS Specification'''. [[Robert Elz]], [[Randy Bush]]. July 1997. (Format: TXT=36989 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2181.txt
> 
> 
------
RFC_2535|989970300
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 2535]] '''Domain Name System Security Extensions'''. [[Donald E. Eastlake 3rd]]. March 1999. (Format: TXT=110958 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2065]]) (Updates [[RFC 2181]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1034]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2931]], [[RFC 3007]], [[RFC 3008]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt
> 
------
RFC_0822|989970351
1,2c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
< 
---
> An important early [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]] that specified the format of [[e-mail]] messages exchanged between computers on the [[Internet]].  Many additions have been made over the years, but it remained a standard for many years until obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]] (the number is not a coincidence: it was reserved for this use).
------
RFC_0822|989970380
1c1
< An important early [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]] that specified the format of [[e-mail]] messages exchanged between computers on the [[Internet]].  Many additions have been made over the years, but it remained a standard for many years until obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]] (the number is not a coincidence: it was reserved for this use).
---
> An important early [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]] that specified the format of [[e-mail]] messages exchanged between computers on the [[Internet]].  Many additions have been made to it, but it remained a standard for many years until obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]] (the number is not a coincidence: it was reserved for this use).
------
RFC_0822|989970521
3c3
< *[[RFC 0822]] '''Standard for the format of ARPA Internet text messages'''. [[David H. Crocker]]. Aug-13-1982. (Format: TXT=109200 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0733]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1123]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0822.txt RFC 0822] '''Standard for the format of ARPA Internet text messages'''. [[David H. Crocker]]. Aug-13-1982. (Format: TXT=109200 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0733]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1123]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
------
Virginia|989970535
1c1,79
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the original 13 states of the [[United States]].  Officially the <I>Commonwealth of Virginia</I>, one of four [[Commonwealth]]s.  One of the states that [[seceeded]] from the union to become the [[Confederacy]] during the [[Civil War]].
> 
> Unlike any other state of the union, under the laws in effect there, incorporated cities are independent of any county.  Of the approximately 49 [[Independent City|independent cities]] in the united states, 46 of them are in Virginia.
> 
> List of Counties
> Accomack County, Virginia 
> Albemarle County, Virginia 
> Amelia County, Virginia 
> Amherst County, Virginia 
> Arlington County, Virginia 
> Augusta County, Virginia 
> Bedford County, Virginia 
> Botetourt County, Virginia 
> Brunswick County, Virginia 
> Buchanan Count, Virginia 
> Campbell County, Virginia 
> Caroline County, Virginia 
> Carroll County, Virginia 
> Charles City County, Virginia 
> Charlotte County, Virginia 
> Chesterfield County, Virginia 
> Clarke County, Virginia 
> Craig County, Virginia 
> Culpeper County, Virginia 
> Cumberland County, Virginia 
> Dickenson County, Virginia 
> Essex County, Virginia 
> Fairfax County, Virginia 
> Fauquier County, Virginia 
> Floyd County, Virginia 
> Fluvanna County, Virginia 
> Franklin County, Virginia 
> Frederick County, Virginia 
> Giles County, Virginia 
> Gloucester County, Virginia 
> Goochland County, Virginia 
> Grayson County, Virginia 
> Greene County, Virginia 
> Halifax County, Virginia 
> Hanover County, Virginia 
> Henrico County, Virginia 
> Henry County, Virginia 
> Highland County, Virginia 
> Isle Of Wight County, Virginia 
> James City County, Virginia 
> King William County, Virginia 
> Lancaster County, Virginia 
> Lee County, Virginia 
> Loudoun County, Virginia 
> Louisa County, Virginia 
> Mecklenburg County, Virginia 
> Middlesex County, Virginia 
> Montgomery County, Virginia 
> Nelson County, Virginia 
> New Kent County, Virginia 
> Northampton County, Virginia 
> Northumberland County, Virginia 
> Orange County, Virginia 
> Page County, Virginia 
> Patrick County, Virginia 
> Prince William County, Virginia 
> Pulaski County, Virginia 
> Richmond County, Virginia 
> Roanoke County, Virginia 
> Rockbridge County, Virginia 
> Rockingham County, Virginia 
> Scott County, Virginia 
> Shenandoah County, Virginia 
> Smyth County, Virginia 
> Spotsylvania County, Virginia 
> Stafford County, Virginia 
> Tazewell County, Virginia 
> Washington County, Virginia 
> Westmoreland County, Virginia 
> Wise County, Virginia 
> Wythe County, Virginia 
> York County, Virginia 
> 
> 
------
RFC_0822|989970537
3c3
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0822.txt RFC 0822] '''Standard for the format of ARPA Internet text messages'''. [[David H. Crocker]]. Aug-13-1982. (Format: TXT=109200 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0733]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1123]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0822.txt Full text of RFC 0822] '''Standard for the format of ARPA Internet text messages'''. [[David H. Crocker]]. Aug-13-1982. (Format: TXT=109200 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0733]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2822]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1123]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
------
RFC_2535|989970605
1c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]].
3,4c3
< 
< *[[RFC 2535]] '''Domain Name System Security Extensions'''. [[Donald E. Eastlake 3rd]]. March 1999. (Format: TXT=110958 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2065]]) (Updates [[RFC 2181]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1034]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2931]], [[RFC 3007]], [[RFC 3008]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt Full text of RFC 2535] '''Domain Name System Security Extensions'''. [[Donald E. Eastlake 3rd]]. March 1999. (Format: TXT=110958 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2065]]) (Updates [[RFC 2181]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1034]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2931]], [[RFC 3007]], [[RFC 3008]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt
------
RFC_2535|989970652
3c3,4
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt Full text of RFC 2535] '''Domain Name System Security Extensions'''. [[Donald E. Eastlake 3rd]]. March 1999. (Format: TXT=110958 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2065]]) (Updates [[RFC 2181]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1034]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2931]], [[RFC 3007]], [[RFC 3008]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2535.txt Full text of RFC 2535] '''Domain Name System Security Extensions'''. [[Donald E. Eastlake 3rd]]. March 1999. (Format: TXT=110958 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2065]]) (Updates [[RFC 2181]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1034]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2931]], [[RFC 3007]], [[RFC 3008]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_3008|989970844
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 3008]] '''Domain Name System Security (DNSSEC) Signing Authority'''. B. Wellington. November 2000. (Format: TXT=13484 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3008.txt
------
RFC_2181|989970861
1c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
---
> [[IETF]] RFC 2181 covers the operation of secondary domain name servers.
3c3
< *[[RFC 2181]] '''Clarifications to the DNS Specification'''. [[Robert Elz]], [[Randy Bush]]. July 1997. (Format: TXT=36989 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2181.txt
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2181.txt Full text of RFC 2181]] '''Clarifications to the DNS Specification'''. [[Robert Elz]], [[Randy Bush]]. July 1997. (Format: TXT=36989 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) 
------
RFC_2181|989970884
3c3
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2181.txt Full text of RFC 2181]] '''Clarifications to the DNS Specification'''. [[Robert Elz]], [[Randy Bush]]. July 1997. (Format: TXT=36989 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) 
---
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2181.txt Full text of RFC 2181] '''Clarifications to the DNS Specification'''. [[Robert Elz]], [[Randy Bush]]. July 1997. (Format: TXT=36989 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]], [[RFC 1123]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2535]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) 
------
RFC_0823|989970889
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 0823]] '''DARPA Internet gateway'''. R.M. Hinden, A. Sheltzer. Sep-01-1982. (Format: TXT=62620 bytes) (Updates IEN 109, IEN 30) (Status: HISTORIC) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0823.txt
> 
------
RFC_0824|989970925
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 0824]] '''CRONUS Virtual Local Network'''. W.I. MacGregor, D.C. Tappan. Aug-25-1982. (Format: TXT=58732 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0824.txt
> 
> 
------
RFC_0825|989970969
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 0825]] '''Request for comments on Requests For Comments'''. [[Jon Postel]]. Nov-01-1982. (Format: TXT=4255 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 2223]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
------
RFC_2223|989971057
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 2223]] '''Instructions to [[RFC  Authors]]'''. J. Postel, J. Reynolds. October 1997. (Format: TXT=37948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 0825]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2223.txt
> 
------
RFC_2223|989971134
4c4
< *[[RFC 2223]] '''Instructions to [[RFC  Authors]]'''. J. Postel, J. Reynolds. October 1997. (Format: TXT=37948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 0825]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2223.txt
---
> *[[RFC 2223]] '''Instructions to [[RFC  Authors]]'''. [[Jon Postel]], [[Joyce K. Reynolds]]. October 1997. (Format: TXT=37948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 0825]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2223.txt
------
RFC_2223|989971162
4c4
< *[[RFC 2223]] '''Instructions to [[RFC  Authors]]'''. [[Jon Postel]], [[Joyce K. Reynolds]]. October 1997. (Format: TXT=37948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 0825]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2223.txt
---
> *[[RFC 2223]] '''Instructions to RFC Authors'''. [[Jon Postel]], [[Joyce K. Reynolds]]. October 1997. (Format: TXT=37948 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1543]], [[RFC 1111]], [[RFC 0825]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2223.txt
------
Virginia|989971253
5,77c5,95
< List of Counties
< Accomack County, Virginia 
< Albemarle County, Virginia 
< Amelia County, Virginia 
< Amherst County, Virginia 
< Arlington County, Virginia 
< Augusta County, Virginia 
< Bedford County, Virginia 
< Botetourt County, Virginia 
< Brunswick County, Virginia 
< Buchanan Count, Virginia 
< Campbell County, Virginia 
< Caroline County, Virginia 
< Carroll County, Virginia 
< Charles City County, Virginia 
< Charlotte County, Virginia 
< Chesterfield County, Virginia 
< Clarke County, Virginia 
< Craig County, Virginia 
< Culpeper County, Virginia 
< Cumberland County, Virginia 
< Dickenson County, Virginia 
< Essex County, Virginia 
< Fairfax County, Virginia 
< Fauquier County, Virginia 
< Floyd County, Virginia 
< Fluvanna County, Virginia 
< Franklin County, Virginia 
< Frederick County, Virginia 
< Giles County, Virginia 
< Gloucester County, Virginia 
< Goochland County, Virginia 
< Grayson County, Virginia 
< Greene County, Virginia 
< Halifax County, Virginia 
< Hanover County, Virginia 
< Henrico County, Virginia 
< Henry County, Virginia 
< Highland County, Virginia 
< Isle Of Wight County, Virginia 
< James City County, Virginia 
< King William County, Virginia 
< Lancaster County, Virginia 
< Lee County, Virginia 
< Loudoun County, Virginia 
< Louisa County, Virginia 
< Mecklenburg County, Virginia 
< Middlesex County, Virginia 
< Montgomery County, Virginia 
< Nelson County, Virginia 
< New Kent County, Virginia 
< Northampton County, Virginia 
< Northumberland County, Virginia 
< Orange County, Virginia 
< Page County, Virginia 
< Patrick County, Virginia 
< Prince William County, Virginia 
< Pulaski County, Virginia 
< Richmond County, Virginia 
< Roanoke County, Virginia 
< Rockbridge County, Virginia 
< Rockingham County, Virginia 
< Scott County, Virginia 
< Shenandoah County, Virginia 
< Smyth County, Virginia 
< Spotsylvania County, Virginia 
< Stafford County, Virginia 
< Tazewell County, Virginia 
< Washington County, Virginia 
< Westmoreland County, Virginia 
< Wise County, Virginia 
< Wythe County, Virginia 
< York County, Virginia 
---
> 
> <TABLE BORDER="1" WIDTH="100%" CELLSPACING="1">
> <TR>List of Counties</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Accomack County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Albemarle County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Amelia County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Amherst County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Arlington County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> Augusta County, Virginia
> <TR><TD>[[Bedford County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Botetourt County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Brunswick County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Buchanan County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Campbell County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Caroline County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Carroll County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Charles City County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Charlotte County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Chesterfield County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Clarke County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Craig County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Culpeper County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Cumberland County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Dickenson County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Essex County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Fairfax County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Fauquier County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Floyd County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Fluvanna County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Franklin County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Frederick County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Giles County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Gloucester County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Goochland County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Grayson County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Greene County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Halifax County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Hanover County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Henrico County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[Henry County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Highland County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[Isle Of Wight County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[James City County, Virginia]]</TD>
> <TD>[[King William County, Virginia]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD>
> <TD>[[]]</TD></TR>
> <TABLE>
>  
>  
>  
> 
> 
> Lancaster County, Virginia
> Lee County, Virginia
> Loudoun County, Virginia
> Louisa County, Virginia
> Mecklenburg County, Virginia
> Middlesex County, Virginia
> Montgomery County, Virginia
> Nelson County, Virginia
> New Kent County, Virginia
> Northampton County, Virginia
> Northumberland County, Virginia
> Orange County, Virginia
> Page County, Virginia
> Patrick County, Virginia
> Prince William County, Virginia
> Pulaski County, Virginia
> Richmond County, Virginia
> Roanoke County, Virginia
> Rockbridge County, Virginia
> Rockingham County, Virginia
> Scott County, Virginia
> Shenandoah County, Virginia
> Smyth County, Virginia
> Spotsylvania County, Virginia
> Stafford County, Virginia
> Tazewell County, Virginia
> Washington County, Virginia
> Westmoreland County, Virginia
> Wise County, Virginia
> Wythe County, Virginia
> York County, Virginia
------
Jon_Postel|989971256
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Creator of the [[Internet]] [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) and author of many [[RFC]] documents from the [[IETF]], including [[RFC 0825]], [[RFC 2223]].
> 
> 
------
Joyce_K._Reynolds|989971310
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Coauthor of [[RFC 2223]].
> 
> 
------
RFC_2083|989971326
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[IETF]] RFC 2083 specifies the [[PNG]] graphics file format.  It is not an official IETF standard, but it is a [[World Wide Web Consortium]] recommendation described [http://www.w3.org/Graphics/PNG/ here].
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2083.txt Full text of RFC 2083] '''PNG (Portable Network Graphics) Specification Version 1.0.''' [[Thomas Boutell]].  March 1997. (Format: TXT=242528 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
> 
> 
------
RFC|989971426
11a12,26
> [[RFC 1123|1123]]
> 
> [[RFC 2026|2026]],
> [[RFC 2083|2083]]
> 
> [[RFC 2181|2181]]
> 
> [[RFC 2223|2223]]
> 
> [[RFC 2535|2535]]
> 
> [[RFC 2822|2822]]
> 
> [[RFC 3008|3008]]
> 
------
RFC|989971529
26a27,32
> [[RFC 3110|3110]],
> [[RFC 3111|3111]],
> [[RFC 3112|3112]],
> [[RFC 3113|3113]],
> [[RFC 3114|3114]],
> [[RFC 3115|3115]]
------
RFC_3115|989971568
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 3115]] '''Mobile IP Vendor/Organization-Specific Extensions'''. G. Dommety, K. Leung. April 2001. (Format: TXT=16363 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 3025]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3115.txt
> 
------
RFC_3114|989971608
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> (not yet published)
> 
> 
------
RFC|989971665
25c25,28
< [[RFC 3008|3008]]
---
> [[RFC 3008|3008]],
> [[RFC 3094|3094]],
> [[RFC 3097|3097]],
> [[RFC 3098|3098]]
27,30c30
< [[RFC 3110|3110]],
< [[RFC 3111|3111]],
< [[RFC 3112|3112]],
< [[RFC 3113|3113]],
---
> [[RFC 3106|3106]],
------
RFC_3106|989971700
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 3106]] '''ECML v1.1: Field Specifications for E-Commerce'''. D. Eastlake, T. Goldstein. April 2001. (Format: TXT=40715 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2706]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3106.txt
> 
------
RFC_3098|989971753
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 3098]] '''How to Advertise Responsibly Using E-Mail and Newsgroups or - how NOT to $$$$$ MAKE ENEMIES FAST! $$$$$'''. E. Gavin, D. Eastlake 3rd, S. Hambridge. April 2001. (Format: TXT=64687 bytes) (Also FYI0038) (Status: INFORMATIONAL) http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3098.txt
> 
------
RFC_3098|990001084
5a6
> test
------
RFC_3098|990001097
5,6d4
< 
< test
------
RFC_3098|990001560
4a5,6
> 
> test
------
RFC_3098|990001752
6d5
< test
------
HTTP|990001891
1c1
< '''HTTP''' (for '''[[Hypertext]] Transport Protocol''') is the primary method used to comminicate information on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is currently maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
---
> '''HTTP''' (for '''[[Hypertext]] Transfer Protocol''') is the primary method used to communicate information on the [[World Wide Web]].  It is currently maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]]. It is defined in [[RFC 2068]].
------
URL|990001902
1c1
< A '''Uniform Resource Locator''', or URL, is a standardized address for some resource (such as a document or image) on the Internet.  First created by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] for use on the [[World Wide Web]], the currently used forms are detailed by [[IETF]] standard [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt RFC 2396] (1998).
---
> A '''Uniform Resource Locator''', or URL, is a standardized address for some resource (such as a document or image) on the [[Internet]].  First created by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] for use on the [[World Wide Web]], the currently used forms are detailed by [[IETF]] standard [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2396.txt RFC 2396] (1998).
------
Rock_and_roll|990001907
1c1
< Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in America in the 1950s.  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]] [[Jazz]] and [[rhythm and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
---
> Rock and Roll is a form of [[Popular Music|popular music]] that emerged in [[America]] in the [[1950s]].  It combines elements of [[boogie woogie]], [[Jazz]] and [[rhythm and blues]], and is often influenced by traditional [[folk music]] and [[blues music|blues]].
------
Scotland|990001913
1c1
< The northern part of [[Great Britain]], bordering to the south on [[England]]. Scotland consists of the mainland area plus several island groups, including the Shetlands, Hebrides, Orkneys, etc. The bagpipe and kilt are the perhaps the most recognized cultural items, although shortcake, haggis, Harris tweed, and the clan system are widely recognized. 
---
> The northern part of [[Great Britain]], bordering to the south on [[England]]. Scotland consists of the mainland area plus several island groups, including the [[Shetlands]], [[Hebrides]], [[Orkneys]], etc. The [[bagpipe]], [[kilts]] and [[whisky]] are the perhaps the most recognized cultural items, although shortcake, [[haggis]], Harris tweed, and the clan system are widely recognized. 
3c3
< Almost all residents speak English although many speak Scots, a dialect very different from Standard English and some few still speak Scots Gaelic. 
---
> Almost all residents speak English although many speak [[Scots]], a dialect very different from Standard English and some few still speak Scots Gaelic. 
7c7
< The clan system in Scotland was one of its more distinguishing features. It had many similarities to the American Indian tribal system. Notable clans include [[Campbell]], [[MacGregor]], [[Stewart]], [[MacDonald]], [[MacLeod]],... 
---
> The clan system in Scotland was one of its more distinguishing features. It had many similarities to the [[American Indian]] tribal system. Notable clans include [[Campbell]], [[MacGregor]], [[Stewart]], [[MacDonald]], [[MacLeod]],... 
11a12,15
> Scotland is also known for the lake [[Loch Ness]], said to contain the monster [[Nessie]].
> 
> See alse
> * [[United Kingdom/Monarchs]]
------
World_Wrestling_Federation/Wrestlers|990001925
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
World_Wrestling_Federation/Wrestlers|990001951
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Hulk Hogan
------
World_Wrestling_Federation/Wrestlers|990002080
1c1,2
< * Hulk Hogan
---
> * [[Hulk Hogan]]
> * [[Mr. T]]
------
Political_correctness|990002143
9,11d8
< In an absurd and satirically overexaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat" might look like this:
< :The firefighter (who happened to be male, but could just as easily have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine for itself where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to 'own' the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear.
< 
16c13,16
< A satirical take on this movement can be found in the book ''Politically Correct Bedtime Stories'', in which traditional fairy tales are rewritten from a politically correct viewpoint and often reverse the roles of good and evil from those of the original version.  For example, Hansel, Gretel and their father are evil and the witch is good in the politically correct version of ''Hansel and Gretel''.
---
> A well-known satirical take on this movement can be found in the book ''Politically Correct Bedtime Stories'', in which traditional fairy tales are rewritten from a politically correct viewpoint and often reverse the roles of good and evil from those of the original version.  For example, Hansel, Gretel and their father are evil and the witch is good in the politically correct version of ''Hansel and Gretel''.
> 
> In an absurd and satirically overexaggerated example of PC speech, the sentence "The fireman put a ladder up against the tree, climbed it, and rescued the cat" might look like this:
> :The firefighter (who happened to be male, but could just as easily have been female) abridged the rights of the cat to determine for itself where it wanted to walk, climb, or rest, and inflicted his own value judgments in determining that it needed to be "rescued" from its chosen perch.  In callous disregard for the well being of the environment, and this one tree in particular, he thrust the disabled-unfriendly means of ascent known as a "ladder" carelessly up against the tree, marring its bark, and unfeelingly climbed it, unconcerned how his display of physical prowess might injure the self-esteem of those differently abled.  He kidnapped and unjustly restrained the innocent animal with the intention of returning it to the person who claimed to 'own' the naturally free animal, but it immediately fled his grasp, having withstood more insult and injury than it could bear.
18c18
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Christianity|990003538
15,16d14
< -J
< 
------
Christianity|990003688
17,21d16
< Commentary moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating [[Idiosyncratic]] views on the main pages.  Put those for *Talk, *Discuss, or whatever.
< 
< ----
< 
< 
24a20,21
> ----
> Specific commentary about this article can be found on /Talk.  General commentary about Christianity moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating [[Idiosyncratic]] views on the main pages.
------
Christianity/Talk|990003800
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "Christians and Jews both consider the first 39 books of the Bible to be the word of God."  What about Muslims?  I know Muslims consider Jesus and Abraham prophets (or something like prophets, no?), but do they consider the Bible (any part of it) to be holy scripture, i.e., "the word of God"?
> 
> Could someone who knows (or who wants to find out) please update this page accordingly?  Maybe also the [[Islam]] page too? --[[LMS]]
------
Scotland|990004478
12c12,14
< Scotland is also known for the lake [[Loch Ness]], said to contain the monster [[Nessie]].
---
> Scotland is also known for:
> *The lake [[Loch Ness]], said to contain the monster [[Nessie]].
> *The [[soft drink]] called [[Irn Bru]].
------
Irn_Bru|990004545
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Irn Bru, short for "Iron Brew" is a popular [[soft drink]] in [[Scotland]].  It is unclear to this writer where the [[iron]] enters the drink.
------
Iron|990004922
6a7,8
> For some strange reason, the metal also apperas in the name of [[Irn Bru]], a popular [[soft drink]] in [[Scotland]].
> 
------
Scotland|990004942
16c16
< See alse
---
> See also
------
Treaty_of_Versailles|990005025
2,4c2,4
< responsability of the war was German, and thus, [[Germany]] was
< oblied to pay large compensations.
< The economic problems that these payments brought are cited as one of the causes of the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], who caused [[World War II]].
---
> Germany was responsible for the war and thus, [[Germany]] was obliged to pay large compensations (known as [[reparations]]). Other provisions included the loss of German colonies, loss of German territory (eg. [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[France]]) and restrictions concerning the German armed forces.
> 
> The economic problems that the payments brought are cited as one of the causes of the end of the [[Weimar Republic]] and the dictatorship of [[Adolf Hitler]], which inevitably led to the outbreak [[World War II]].
------
Soft_drink|990005115
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A soft drink is a [[drink]] that contains no (or very little) [[alcohol]].
> 
> Some famous soft drinks are:
> *[[Coca Cola]]
> *[[Irn Bru]] (Scotland)
> *[[Julmust]] (Sweden, similar to Coca Cola)
> *[[Pepsi]]
> *[[Root beer]]
> *[[Sockerdricka]] (Sweden)
> *[[Sprite]]
> *[[Svagdricka]] (Sweden, similar to root beer)
> 
> ----
> 
> Help me: Are all soft drinks [[carbonated]], or does [[lemonade]] count as a soft drink aswell?
> 
------
Sockerdricka|990005255
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sockerdricka (Swedish for: sugar drink) is a [[soft drink]] from the 19th century.  It consists of carbonated water, some sugar, and really nothing else.  It is still sold, despite hard competition from more modern inventions such as [[Seven Up]] and [[Coca Cola]].
> 
> 
------
Acronym|990005260
1c1
< An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that spells a pronouncible word (though not necessarily a real word from any [[natural language]]).  For example, SAM for [[surface-to-air missile]] and [[NATO]] for the [[North-Atlantic Treaty Organization]].  The term is also frequently applied (mistakenly in the opinion of some) to non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines), which are called <i>[[initialism|initialisms]]</i>.
---
> An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that is treated as word.  For example, SAM for [[surface-to-air missile]] and [[NATO]] for the [[North-Atlantic Treaty Organization]].  Purists restrict the acronyms to ''pronouncible'' abbreviations (what might be called ''true'' acronyms), though common usage still permits calling unpronouncable abbreviations "acronyms" as well.  Non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines) are called <i>[[initialism|initialisms]]</i>.
4a5,6
> 
> /Talk
------
Acronym/Talk|990005290
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See http://www.xrefer.com/entry/591114 .
------
RFC_3097|990005392
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3097.txt Full text of RFC 3097] '''RSVP Cryptographic Authentication -- Updated Message Type Value'''. R. Braden, L. Zhang. April 2001. (Format: TXT=6320 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 2747]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
------
RFC_2747|990005435
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2747.txt Full text of RFC 2747] '''RSVP Cryptographic Authentication'''. F. Baker, B. Lindell, M. Talwar. January 2000. (Format: TXT=49477 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 3097]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
------
RFC_3094|990005478
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3094.txt Full text of RFC 3094] '''Tekelec's Transport Adapter Layer Interface'''. D. Sprague, R. Benedyk, D. Brendes, J. Keller. April 2001. (Format: TXT=265099 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
RFC|990005511
22a23,24
> [[RFC 2747|2747]]
> 
------
RFC|990005588
11a12,16
> [[RFC 0985|985]],
> [[RFC 0987|987]]
> 
> [[RFC 1006|1006]]
> 
------
RFC_1006|990005616
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1006.txt Full text of RFC 1006] '''ISO transport services on top of the TCP: Version 3'''. M.T. Rose, D.E. Cass. May-01-1987. (Format: TXT=31935 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0983]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2126]]) (Also STD0035) (Status: STANDARD)
------
RFC_0983|990005712
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> * RFC 983, '''ISO transport arrives on top of the TCP'''. D.E. Cass, M.T. Rose. Apr-01-1986. (Format: TXT=59819 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1006]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
------
RFC_0983|990005746
3c3
< * RFC 983, '''ISO transport arrives on top of the TCP'''. D.E. Cass, M.T. Rose. Apr-01-1986. (Format: TXT=59819 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1006]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> * RFC 983, '''ISO transport arrives on top of the TCP'''. D.E. Cass, [[Marshall T. Rose]]. Apr-01-1986. (Format: TXT=59819 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1006]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
------
Marshall_T._Rose|990005772
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of [[RFC 0983]] and [[RFC 1006]].
> 
> 
------
RFC_2126|990005828
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2126.txt Full text of RFC 2126] '''ISO Transport Service on top of TCP (ITOT)'''. Y. Pouffary, A. Young. March 1997. (Format: TXT=51032 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1006]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
> 
------
RFC_0987|990005872
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 0987]] '''Mapping between X.400 and RFC  822'''. S.E. Kille. Jun-01-1986. (Format: TXT=127540 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 2156]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1026]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
------
RFC_2156|990005920
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2156.txt Full text of RFC 2156] '''MIXER (Mime Internet X.400 Enhanced Relay): Mapping between X.400 and RFC  822/MIME'''. [[Steve Kille]]. January 1998. (Format: TXT=280385 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0987]], [[RFC 1026]], [[RFC 1138]], [[RFC 1148]], [[RFC 1327]], [[RFC 1495]]) (Updates [[RFC 0822]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
> 
------
RFC_1495|990005963
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 1495]] '''Mapping between X.400 and RFC-822 Message Bodies'''. [[Harald Tveit Alvestrand]], [[Steve Kille]], R. Miles, [[Marshall T. Rose]], S. Thompson. August 1993. (Format: TXT=20071 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2156]]) (Updates [[RFC 1327]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
Steve_Kille|990006015
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of several [[RFC]]s, too numerous to mention.
> 
> Writer of the Quipu implementation of [[X.500]].
> 
> 
------
Harald_Tveit_Alvestrand|990006056
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Current chairman of the [[IETF]], author of several [[RFC]]s, born in [[Norway]].
> 
> 
------
Harald_Tveit_Alvestrand|990006104
3a4
> 
------
IETF|990006133
2a3,5
> The current chairman of the IETF is [[Harald Tveit Alvestrand]].
> 
> 
------
RFC_0985|990006250
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *RFC 0985, '''Requirements for Internet gateways - draft'''. [[National Science Foundation]], Network Technical Advisory Group. May-01-1986. (Format: TXT=59221 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1009]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
------
RFC_1009|990006292
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *RFC 1009, '''Requirements for Internet gateways'''. R.T. Braden, [[Jon Postel]]. Jun-01-1987. (Format: TXT=128173 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 0985]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1812]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
------
RFC_1812|990006322
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An  [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1812.txt Full text of RFC 1812] '''Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers'''. F. Baker. June 1995. (Format: TXT=415740 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1716]], [[RFC 1009]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2644]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
> 
------
RFC_2644|990006362
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2644.txt Full text of RFC 2644] '''Changing the Default for Directed Broadcasts in Routers'''. D. Senie. August 1999. (Format: TXT=6820 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1812]]) (Also BCP0034) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE)
> 
> 
------
Communism|990006396
15c15
< * [[Post Communism]]
---
> * [[PostCommunism]]
------
RFC|990006422
18a19,21
> [[RFC 1809|1809]],
> [[RFC 1812|1812]]
> 
------
RFC_1809|990006450
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1809.txt Full text of RFC 1809] '''Using the Flow Label Field in IPv6'''. C. Partridge. June 1995. (Format: TXT=13591 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
RFC|990006567
15c15,16
< [[RFC 1006|1006]]
---
> [[RFC 1006|1006]],
> [[RFC 1066|1066]]
17c18,28
< [[RFC 1123|1123]]
---
> [[RFC 1123|1123]],
> [[RFC 1149|1149]]
> 
> [[RFC 1521|1521]]
> 
> [[RFC 1632|1632]]
> 
> [[RFC 1718|1718]],
> [[RFC 1776|1776]],
> [[RFC 1789|1789]],
> [[RFC 1792|1792]]
20c31,34
< [[RFC 1812|1812]]
---
> [[RFC 1812|1812]],
> [[RFC 1876|1876]]
> 
> [[RFC 1969|1969]]
28a43
> [[RFC 2525|2525]],
------
RFC_1066|990006609
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *RFC 1066, '''Management Information Base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets'''. K. McCloghrie, [[Marshall T. Rose]]. Aug-01-1988. (Format: TXT=135177 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 1156]]) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> 
------
RFC_1156|990006666
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1156.txt Full text of RFC 1156] '''Management Information Base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets'''. K. McCloghrie, [[Marshall T. Rose]]. May-01-1990. (Format: TXT=138781 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1066]]) (Status: HISTORIC)
> 
------
RFC_1149|990006696
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1149.txt Full text of RFC 1149] '''Standard for the transmission of IP datagrams on avian carriers'''. D. Waitzman. Apr-01-1990. (Format: TXT=3329 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 2549]]) (Status: EXPERIMENTAL)
> 
------
RFC_2549|990006744
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], this is an [[April 1st RFC]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2549.txt Full text of RFC 2549] '''IP over Avian Carriers with Quality of Service'''. D. Waitzman. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=9519 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1149]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
> 
------
RFC_1149|990006770
1c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], this is an [[April 1st RFC]],
------
Acronym|990006782
1c1
< An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that is treated as word.  For example, SAM for [[surface-to-air missile]] and [[NATO]] for the [[North-Atlantic Treaty Organization]].  Purists restrict the acronyms to ''pronouncible'' abbreviations (what might be called ''true'' acronyms), though common usage still permits calling unpronouncable abbreviations "acronyms" as well.  Non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines) are called <i>[[initialism|initialisms]]</i>.
---
> An <i>acronym</i> is an abbreviation, often composed of the initial letters of the words in a short phrase, that is treated as word (often, a piece of jargon or the proper name of an organization).  For example, SAM for [[surface-to-air missile]] and [[NATO]] for the [[North-Atlantic Treaty Organization]].  In its original meaning, acronyms were restricted to ''pronouncible'' abbreviations (what might be called ''true'' acronyms), though common usage permits calling unpronouncable abbreviations "acronyms" as well.  Non-pronouncible abbreviations formed from initials (such as IBM for International Business Machines) are sometimes called <i>[[initialism|initialisms]]</i>.
------
Liege|990007113
3,9c3
< ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]]. Called '''L&uuml;ttich''' in German and '''Luik''' in Dutch.
< 
< Close to [[Vieille Montagne]].
< 
< ----
< Can anyone explain the geographic structure, counties, etc. in Belgium?
< 
---
> ('''Li&egrave;ge'''): Town in [[Belgium]]. Called '''L&uuml;ttich''' in German and '''Luik''' in Dutch. Also the name for the province of which it is the capital.
------
April_1st_RFC|990007467
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Every April 1st, the [[IETF]] publishes one or more unusual [[RFC]] proposals:
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0748.txt Full text of RFC 0748] '''Telnet randomly-lose option'''. M.R. Crispin. Apr-01-1978. (Format: TXT=2741 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0852.txt Full text of RFC 0852] '''ARPANET short blocking feature'''. A.G. Malis. Apr-01-1983. (Format: TXT=17151 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1097.txt Full text of RFC 1097] '''Telnet subliminal-message option'''. B. Miller. Apr-01-1989. (Format: TXT=5490 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 1149]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1149.txt Full text of RFC 1149] '''Standard for the transmission of IP datagrams on avian carriers'''. D. Waitzman. Apr-01-1990. (Format: TXT=3329 bytes) (Updated by [[RFC 2549]]) (Status: EXPERIMENTAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1217.txt Full text of RFC 1217] '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1991. (Format: TXT=11079 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1313.txt Full text of RFC 1313] '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. Apr-01-1992. (Format: TXT=5444 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1438.txt Full text of RFC 1438] '''Internet Engineering Task Force Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. Apr-01-1993. (Format: TXT=3044 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1605.txt Full text of RFC 1605] '''SONET to Sonnet Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=4451 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1606.txt Full text of RFC 1606] '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=8398 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1607.txt Full text of RFC 1607] '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=28165 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1776.txt Full text of RFC 1776] '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. Apr-01-1995. (Format: TXT=2051 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1924.txt Full text of RFC 1924] '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=10409 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1925.txt Full text of RFC 1925] '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=4294 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1926.txt Full text of RFC 1926] '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=2969 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1927.txt Full text of RFC 1927] '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=5254 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2100.txt Full text of RFC 2100] '''The Naming of Hosts'''. J. Ashworth. Apr-01-1997. (Format: TXT=4077 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2321.txt Full text of RFC 2321] '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12302 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2322.txt Full text of RFC 2322] '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout, A. Koopal, R. van Mook. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12665 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2323.txt Full text of RFC 2323] '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=9257 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2324.txt Full text of RFC 2324] '''Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=19610 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2325.txt Full text of RFC 2325] '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12726 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2549]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2549.txt Full text of RFC 2549] '''IP over Avian Carriers with Quality of Service'''. D. Waitzman. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=9519 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1149]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2550.txt Full text of RFC 2550] '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28011 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2551.txt Full text of RFC 2551] '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28054 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2795.txt Full text of RFC 2795] '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. Apr-01-2000. (Format: TXT=42902 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
> 
------
RFC|990007712
6a7,8
> See also the list of [[April 1st RFC]]s.
> 
------
RFC_1521|990007757
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *RFC 1521, '''MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One: Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of Internet Message Bodies'''. N. Borenstein, N. Freed. September 1993. (Format: TXT=187424, PS=393670, PDF=205091 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1341]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2045]], [[RFC 2046]], [[RFC 2047]], [[RFC 2048]], [[RFC 2049]]) (Updated by [[RFC 1590]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
------
RFC_2049|990007793
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2049.txt Full text of RFC 2049] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Five: Conformance Criteria and Examples'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=51207 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> 
> 
------
RFC_2049|990007858
1,2c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
< 
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], this is part 5 in the [[MIME]] standard,
------
Norway|990007970
1,23c1,23
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
< The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].
< 
< 
< '''History'''
< 
< Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].
< 
< Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans brushed aside within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government. However, in 1942 this administration was replaced with a regular (if not democratically elected) [[government]] headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]] who was named minister president by German commander [[Josef Terboven]].
< 
< Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up the fight for more than two months, longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.
< 
< Norway's kings with periods of reign:
< * [[Haakon VII]] (1905-1957)
< * [[Olav V]] (1957-1991)
< * [[Harald V]] (1991- )
< 
< 
< '''Misc'''
< 
< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
< 
< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].

> The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].

> 

> 

> '''History'''

> 

> Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].

> 

> Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans deposed him within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government. However, in 1942 this administration was replaced with a regular (if not democratically elected) [[government]] headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]] who was named minister president by German commander [[Josef Terboven]].

> 

> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up an organized military resistance for more than two months - longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.

> 

> Norway's kings with periods of reign:

> * [[Haakon VII]] (1905-1957)

> * [[Olav V]] (1957-1991)

> * [[Harald V]] (1991- )

> 

> 

> '''Misc'''

> 

> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].

> 

> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.

------
MIME|990007976
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[Internet Standard]] for '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions''', see 
> 
> 
> *[[RFC 2045]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2045.txt Full text of RFC 2045] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part One: Format of Internet Message Bodies'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=72932 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2184]], [[RFC 2231]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> *[[RFC 2046]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2046.txt Full text of RFC 2046] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Two: Media Types'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=105854 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2646]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> *[[RFC 2047]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2047.txt Full text of RFC 2047] '''MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part Three: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text'''. K. Moore. November 1996. (Format: TXT=33262 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2184]], [[RFC 2231]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> *[[RFC 2048]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2048.txt Full text of RFC 2048] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Four: Registration Procedures'''. N. Freed, J. Klensin, [[Jon Postel]]. November 1996. (Format: TXT=45033 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 3023]]) (Also BCP0013) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE)
> *[[RFC 2049]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2049.txt Full text of RFC 2049] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Five: Conformance Criteria and Examples'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=51207 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2646|990008029
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2646.txt Full text of RFC 2646] '''The Text/Plain Format Parameter'''. R. Gellens. August 1999. (Format: TXT=29175 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 2046]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2046|990008073
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2046.txt Full text of RFC 2046] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Two: Media Types'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=105854 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2646]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2045|990008115
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2045.txt Full text of RFC 2045] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part One: Format of Internet Message Bodies'''. N. Freed, N. Borenstein. November 1996. (Format: TXT=72932 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2184]], [[RFC 2231]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2047|990008152
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2047.txt Full text of RFC 2047] '''MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part Three: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text'''. K. Moore. November 1996. (Format: TXT=33262 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2184]], [[RFC 2231]]) (Status: DRAFT STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2048|990008185
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2048.txt Full text of RFC 2048] '''Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) Part Four: Registration Procedures'''. N. Freed, J. Klensin, [[Jon Postel]]. November 1996. (Format: TXT=45033 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1521]], [[RFC 1522]], [[RFC 1590]]) (Updated by [[RFC 3023]]) (Also BCP0013) (Status: BEST CURRENT PRACTICE)
> 
> 
------
RFC_3023|990008227
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3023.txt Full text of RFC 3023] '''XML Media Types'''. M. Murata, S. St.Laurent, D. Kohn. January 2001. (Format: TXT=86011 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2376]]) (Updates [[RFC 2048]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2184|990008297
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *RFC 2184, '''MIME Parameter Value and Encoded Word Extensions: Character Sets, Languages, and Continuations'''. N. Freed, K. Moore. August 1997. (Format: TXT=17635 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2231]]) (Updates [[RFC 2045]], [[RFC 2047]], [[RFC 2183]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
------
RFC_2231|990008331
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2231.txt Full text of RFC 2231] '''MIME Parameter Value and Encoded Word Extensions: Character Sets, Languages, and Continuations'''. N. Freed, K. Moore. November 1997. (Format: TXT=19280 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 2184]]) (Updates [[RFC 2045]], [[RFC 2047]], [[RFC 2183]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC_2183|990008376
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also the [[MIME]] standard,
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2183.txt Full text of RFC 2183] '''Communicating Presentation Information in Internet Messages: The Content-Disposition Header Field'''. R. Troost, S. Dorner, K. Moore. August 1997. (Format: TXT=23150 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1806]]) (Updated by [[RFC 2184]], [[RFC 2231]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
> 
------
Whisky|990008456
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Whisky is an [[alcohol|alcoholic]] drink distilled from [[malt]]. The name has evolved from "uisge beatha" (water of life). There is some debate whether it should be drunk straight or with water (or ice).
> 
> Whisky is sold either as [[/single malt|single malt]] or as [[/blended|blended]]. Single malt whisky comes from only one destillery and is of a uniform age whereas blended whisky is put together from different brands and ages.
> 
> When spelled "whisky" it is produced in [[Scotland]] or [[Canada]]. When spelled [[whiskey]] it is produced in [[Ireland]] or [[America]].
> 
> See also [[whiskey]] and [[bourbon]].
------
Internet_Standard|990008463
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Internet Standards are defined by the [[IETF]] and [[IAB]].  They are documents that start out as [[Internet-Draft]]s, become [[RFC]]s, and then get approved by the [[IAB]] as a standard.
> 
> 
------
MIME|990008502
3d2
< 
------
RFC_1632|990008598
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], see also [[X.500]]
> 
> *RFC 1632, '''A Revised Catalog of Available X.500 Implementations'''. A. Getchell, S. Sataluri, Editors. May 1994. (Format: TXT=124111 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1292]]) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2116]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
------
RFC_2116|990008641
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2116.txt Full text of RFC 2116] '''X.500 Implementations Catalog-96'''. C. Apple, K. Rossen. April 1997. (Format: TXT=243994 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1632]]) (Also FYI0011) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
Whiskey|990008664
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[whisky]]
------
RFC_1718|990008680
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1718.txt Full text of RFC 1718] '''The Tao of IETF - A Guide for New Attendees of the Internet Engineering Task Force'''. The IETF Secretariat, G. Malkin. November 1994. (Format: TXT=50477 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1539]]) (Also FYI0017) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
Bourbon|990008691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[whisky]]
------
RFC_1776|990008715
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1776.txt Full text of RFC 1776] '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. Apr-01-1995. (Format: TXT=2051 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
Steve_Crocker|990008748
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of several [[RFC]]s, including the [[April 1st RFC]] [[RFC 1776]].
> 
> 
------
Whisky|990008825
7c7,14
< See also [[whiskey]] and [[bourbon]].
---
> See also
> * [[/whiskey|Whiskey]]
> * [[/bourbon|Bourbon]]
> * [[/scotch|Scotch]] whisky
> * [[/irish|Irish]] whiskey
> * [[/american|American]] whiskey
> * [[/canadian|Canadian]] whisky
> 
------
April_1st_RFC|990008919
3,5c3,5
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0748.txt Full text of RFC 0748] '''Telnet randomly-lose option'''. M.R. Crispin. Apr-01-1978. (Format: TXT=2741 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0852.txt Full text of RFC 0852] '''ARPANET short blocking feature'''. A.G. Malis. Apr-01-1983. (Format: TXT=17151 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1097.txt Full text of RFC 1097] '''Telnet subliminal-message option'''. B. Miller. Apr-01-1989. (Format: TXT=5490 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
---
> *[[RFC 0748]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0748.txt Full text of RFC 0748] '''Telnet randomly-lose option'''. M.R. Crispin. Apr-01-1978. (Format: TXT=2741 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 0852]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0852.txt Full text of RFC 0852] '''ARPANET short blocking feature'''. A.G. Malis. Apr-01-1983. (Format: TXT=17151 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
> *[[RFC 1097]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1097.txt Full text of RFC 1097] '''Telnet subliminal-message option'''. B. Miller. Apr-01-1989. (Format: TXT=5490 bytes) (Status: UNKNOWN)
7,23c7,23
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1217.txt Full text of RFC 1217] '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1991. (Format: TXT=11079 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1313.txt Full text of RFC 1313] '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. Apr-01-1992. (Format: TXT=5444 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1438.txt Full text of RFC 1438] '''Internet Engineering Task Force Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. Apr-01-1993. (Format: TXT=3044 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1605.txt Full text of RFC 1605] '''SONET to Sonnet Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=4451 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1606.txt Full text of RFC 1606] '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=8398 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1607.txt Full text of RFC 1607] '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=28165 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1776.txt Full text of RFC 1776] '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. Apr-01-1995. (Format: TXT=2051 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1924.txt Full text of RFC 1924] '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=10409 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1925.txt Full text of RFC 1925] '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=4294 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1926.txt Full text of RFC 1926] '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=2969 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1927.txt Full text of RFC 1927] '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=5254 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2100.txt Full text of RFC 2100] '''The Naming of Hosts'''. J. Ashworth. Apr-01-1997. (Format: TXT=4077 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2321.txt Full text of RFC 2321] '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12302 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2322.txt Full text of RFC 2322] '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout, A. Koopal, R. van Mook. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12665 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2323.txt Full text of RFC 2323] '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=9257 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2324.txt Full text of RFC 2324] '''Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=19610 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2325.txt Full text of RFC 2325] '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12726 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
---
> *[[RFC 1217]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1217.txt Full text of RFC 1217] '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1991. (Format: TXT=11079 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1313]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1313.txt Full text of RFC 1313] '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. Apr-01-1992. (Format: TXT=5444 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1438]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1438.txt Full text of RFC 1438] '''Internet Engineering Task Force Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. Apr-01-1993. (Format: TXT=3044 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1605]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1605.txt Full text of RFC 1605] '''SONET to Sonnet Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=4451 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1606]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1606.txt Full text of RFC 1606] '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=8398 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1607]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1607.txt Full text of RFC 1607] '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. Apr-01-1994. (Format: TXT=28165 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1776]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1776.txt Full text of RFC 1776] '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. Apr-01-1995. (Format: TXT=2051 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1924]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1924.txt Full text of RFC 1924] '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=10409 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1925]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1925.txt Full text of RFC 1925] '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=4294 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1926]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1926.txt Full text of RFC 1926] '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=2969 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 1927]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1927.txt Full text of RFC 1927] '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. Apr-01-1996. (Format: TXT=5254 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2100]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2100.txt Full text of RFC 2100] '''The Naming of Hosts'''. J. Ashworth. Apr-01-1997. (Format: TXT=4077 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2321]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2321.txt Full text of RFC 2321] '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12302 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2322]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2322.txt Full text of RFC 2322] '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout, A. Koopal, R. van Mook. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12665 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2323]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2323.txt Full text of RFC 2323] '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=9257 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2324]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2324.txt Full text of RFC 2324] '''Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=19610 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2325]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2325.txt Full text of RFC 2325] '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. Apr-01-1998. (Format: TXT=12726 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
25,27c25,27
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2550.txt Full text of RFC 2550] '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28011 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2551.txt Full text of RFC 2551] '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28054 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
< *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2795.txt Full text of RFC 2795] '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. Apr-01-2000. (Format: TXT=42902 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
---
> *[[RFC 2550]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2550.txt Full text of RFC 2550] '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28011 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2551]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2551.txt Full text of RFC 2551] '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. Apr-01-1999. (Format: TXT=28054 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> *[[RFC 2795]] - [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2795.txt Full text of RFC 2795] '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. Apr-01-2000. (Format: TXT=42902 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
------
Julmust|990008990
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Julmust is a [[soft drink]] that is (to my knowledge) special for [[Sweden]]. It is really a special case of must produced for [[Christmas]] (jul). 
> 
> Julmust is the source of some annoyance at [[Coca-Cola]]  in Sweden, since Sweden is the only country where the consumption of Coca-Cola drops during Christmas. Swedes drink julmust instead.
------
RFC_1789|990009008
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1789.txt Full text of RFC 1789] '''INETPhone: Telephone Services and Servers on Internet'''. C. Yang. April 1995. (Format: TXT=14186 bytes) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
> 
------
RFC_1792|990009040
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1792.txt Full text of RFC 1792] '''TCP/IPX Connection Mib Specification'''. T. Sung. April 1995. (Format: TXT=16389 bytes) (Status: EXPERIMENTAL)
> 
------
Sockerdricka|990009046
1c1
< Sockerdricka (Swedish for: sugar drink) is a [[soft drink]] from the 19th century.  It consists of carbonated water, some sugar, and really nothing else.  It is still sold, despite hard competition from more modern inventions such as [[Seven Up]] and [[Coca Cola]].
---
> Sockerdricka (Swedish for: sugar drink) is a [[soft drink]] from the 19th century.  It consists of carbonated [[water]], some [[sugar]], and really nothing else.  It is still sold, despite hard competition from more modern inventions such as [[Seven Up]] and [[Coca Cola]].
------
RFC_1876|990009082
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1876.txt Full text of RFC 1876] '''A Means for Expressing Location Information in the Domain Name System'''. C. Davis, [[Paul Vixie]], T. Goodwin, I. Dickinson. January 1996. (Format: TXT=29631 bytes) (Updates [[RFC 1034]], [[RFC 1035]]) (Status: EXPERIMENTAL)
> 
------
RFC_1969|990009146
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *RFC 1969, '''The PPP DES Encryption Protocol (DESE)'''. K. Sklower, G. Meyer. June 1996. (Format: TXT=20383 bytes) (Obsoleted by [[RFC 2419]]) (Status: INFORMATIONAL)
------
RFC_2419|990009172
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
> 
> 
> *[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2419.txt Full text of RFC 2419] '''The PPP DES Encryption Protocol, Version 2 (DESE-bis)'''. K. Sklower, G. Meyer. September 1998. (Format: TXT=24414 bytes) (Obsoletes [[RFC 1969]]) (Status: PROPOSED STANDARD)
> 
------
RFC|990009230
44a45,50
> [[RFC 2400|2400]],
> [[RFC 2401|2401]],
> [[RFC 2419|2419]],
> [[RFC 2420|2420]],
> [[RFC 2421|2421]]
> 
------
Whisky/scotch|990009441
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Whisky]] has been produced in [[Scotland]] for a long time, sometimes illegally.
> 
> Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/highland|highland]], [[/lowland|lowland]], [[/speyside|speyside]], [[/islay|islay]], and [[/campbeltown|campbeltown]].
------
RFC_1776|990009639
1c1
< An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]],
---
> An [[RFC]] from the [[IETF]], this is an [[April 1st RFC]],
------
Vint_Cerf|990009723
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Father of the [[Internet]], author of several [[RFC]]s, founder of [[ISOC]].
> 
> 
------
ISOC|990009755
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Internet Society was founded by [[Vint Cerf]].
> 
> See ISOC's own website, http://www.isoc.org/
> 
> 
------
World_Wrestling_Federation/Wrestlers|990010267
2a3
> * [[Rick Flair]]
------
Internet|990010682
1c1,3
< Interconnection of many computers with no centralized administrations.  Usually, the internet refers to the facilities provided by computers connected to the internet.
---
> In the general sense, an internet is a [[computer network]] that connects several other networks.  The art of connecting networks in this way is called [[internetworking]].  See also the related terms [[intranet]] and [[extranet]].
> 
> As a noun proper, the Internet is the world-wide, interconnected system of computers (plus the information and services they provide and their users) that uses the TCP/IP suite of [[protocol]]s.  During the [[1990s]], the Internet has successfully accomodated the majority of previously existing computer networks.  This is much due to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network.  The core networks forming the Internets started out in 1969 as the [[ARPAnet]] devised by the [[United States]] Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency ([[ARPA]]).  An important step in the development was the National Science Foundation's (NSF) building of a university backbone, the NSFnet, in 1986.  Important alien networks that have successfully been accomodated within the Internet include [[Usenet]], [[Fidonet]], and [[Bitnet]].
5c7,9
< Some of the facilities mentioned above are:
---
> The Internet is held together by bi- or multilateral commercial contracts (e.g. [[peering agreement]]s) and by informal agreements or [[protocol]]s that describe how to exchange data over the network.  These protocols are formed by discussion with the Internet Engineering Task Force ([[IETF]]) and its working groups, which are completely open.  These committees produce documents that are known as Requests For Comments ([[RFC]]s).  Some RFCs are raised to the status of [[Internet Standard]] by the Internet Architecture Board ([[IAB]]).
> 
> Some of the services and protocols that have appeared in this way are:
------
Bird|990011749
1c1,3
< A <i>bird</i> is an [[animal]] of the class [[Aves]].  The primary distinguishing characteristic is the presence of [[feather]]s.  Other common characteristics are the ability to fly (with a few exceptions), a bony beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, high [[metabolism]], and a light but strong skeleton.
---
> A <i>bird</i> is an [[animal]] of the class [[Aves]].  The primary distinguishing characteristic is the presence of [[feather]]s.  Other common characteristics are the ability to fly (with a few exceptions), a bony [[beak]] with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled [[egg|eggs]], high [[metabolism]], and a light but strong [[skeleton]].
> 
> See also [[Aves]].
------
Bird|990011777
2,3d1
< 
< See also [[Aves]].
------
Blade_Runner|990011841
5c5
< It stars [[Harrison Ford]] as [[Blade Runner/Rick Deckard|Rick Deckard]] as a [[Blade Runner/blade runner|blade runner]]. It is his job to terminate six excaped [[Blade Runner/replicant|replicants]].
---
> It stars [[Harrison Ford]] as the [[Blade Runner/blade runner|blade runner]] [[Blade Runner/Rick Deckard|Rick Deckard]]. It is his job to terminate six escaped [[Blade Runner/replicant|replicants]].
------
Netherlandic_language|990012078
1,2c1,4
< Netherlandic, also called Dutch (from Netherlandic 'duits', which in modern Netherlandic means 'German'), is a West Germanic language most closely related to Low German on the one hand and Frisian and English on the other hand. Dutch did not participate in the second (High German) sound shifting - compare German machen /-x-/ Dutch maken, English make, 
< German Pfanne /pf-/, Dutch pan, English pan, German zwei /ts-/, Dutch twee, English two. 
---
> Netherlandic, also called Dutch (from Netherlandic 'duits', which in modern Netherlandic means 'German', but formerly was used for [[Low German]] and its related languages to distinguish them from [[French language|French]]), is a West [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language most closely related to [[Low German]] on the one hand and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] and [[English language|English]] on the other hand. Dutch did not participate in the second (High German) sound shifting - compare German machen /-x-/ Dutch maken, English make, 
> German Pfanne /pf-/, Dutch pan, English pan, German zwei /ts-/, Dutch twee, English two.
> 
> In early times, the Dutch language as such did not exist, instead there were various [[Low German]] dialects spoken in the region. Around 1600, a unified language was created from these to make the first Dutch bible translation, consisting of elements from various dialects, but mostly based on the dialects from [[Holland]], and this point can be taken as the starting point of Dutch as a language. Dutch is spoken in the [[Netherlands]] and the northwestern half of [[Belgium]] (called [[Flanders]]). [[Afrikaans]], a language spoken in [[South Africa]], and [[Flemish]], the name given to the various Dutch dialects in Belgium, are derived from Dutch. Of all major languages, Dutch is the one that is closest to English.
5a8,9
> ----
> 
76a81,83
> ----
> 
> Many Dutch words have been derived from English, especially since the twentieth century. The reverse is much less common, but Dutch origins can be found in the following English words (some might have been derived from related Low German words instead):
77a85,158
> <table border="1">
> <tr><th>English</th><th>Dutch</th><th>meaning (if different)</th></tr>
> <tr><td>ahoy</td><td>hoi</td><td>hello</td>
> <tr><td>to bluff</td><td>bluffen</td><td>to boast</td>
> <tr><td>boom</td><td>boom</td><td>or. tree</td>
> <tr><td>boss</td><td>baas</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>brandy</td><td>brandewijn</td><td>lit. burn wine</td>
> <tr><td>bundle</td><td>bundel</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>buoy</td><td>boei</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to cackle</td><td>kakelen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>coleslaw</td><td>koolsla</td><td>lit. cabbage salad</td>
> <tr><td>cookie</td><td>koekje</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>cruise</td><td>kruisen</td><td>to make a cross</td>
> <tr><td>deck</td><td>dek</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>dock</td><td>dok</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to drill</td><td>drillen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>dyke</td><td>dijk</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>easel</td><td>ezel</td><td>or. donkey</td>
> <tr><td>to etch</td><td>etsen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>freebooter</td><td>vrijbuiter</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>freight</td><td>vracht</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>frolic</td><td>vrolijk</td><td>cheerful, gay</td>
> <tr><td>fuck</td><td>fokken</td><td>to breed cattle</td>
> <tr><td>furlough</td><td>verlof</td><td>or. permission</td>
> <tr><td>gas</td><td>gas</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to grab</td><td>grijpen</td><td>to seize, to grasp, to snatch</td>
> <tr><td>guild</td><td>gilde</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>halibot</td><td>heilbot</td><td>lit. holy flounder</td>
> <tr><td>to hoist</td><td>hijsen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>holster</td><td>holster</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>Hottentot</td><td>Hottentot</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>keel</td><td>kiel</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to keelhaul</td><td>kielhalen</td><td>lit. to haul keel</td>
> <tr><td>knapsack</td><td>knapzak</td><td>snapping bag</td>
> <tr><td>landscape</td><td>landschap</td><td>lit. landship</td>
> <tr><td>leak</td><td>lek</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>lottery</td><td>loterij</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>maelstrom</td><td>maalstroom</td><td>lit. grinding stream</td>
> <tr><td>manikin</td><td>manneken</td><td>lit. little man</td>
> <tr><td>measles</td><td>mazelen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>morass</td><td>moeras</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>offal</td><td>afval</td><td>rubbish</td>
> <tr><td>pump</td><td>pomp</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>quack</td><td>kwakzalver</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>roster</td><td>rooster</td><td>schedule, or. grating</td>
> <tr><td>to rove</td><td>roven</td><td>to rob</td>
> <tr><td>Santa Claus</td><td>Sinterklaas</td><td>Saint Nicholas</td>
> <tr><td>scow</td><td>schouw</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>skate, to skate</td><td>schaats, schaatsen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>sketch</td><td>schets</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>skipper</td><td>schipper</td><td>lit. shipper</td>
> <tr><td>sled, sledge, sleigh</td><td>slede, slee</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>sloop</td><td>sloep</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to slurp</td><td>slurpen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>smack</td><td>smak</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to smelt</td><td>smelten</td><td>to melt</td>
> <tr><td>to smuggle</td><td>smokkelen</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to snoop</td><td>snoepen</td><td>to eat candy</td>
> <tr><td>snuff</td><td>snuiftabak</td><td>lit. sniff tobacco</td>
> <tr><td>splinter</td><td>splinter</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to split</td><td>splijten</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>spook</td><td>spook</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>to stoke</td><td>stoken</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>stoop</td><td>stoep</td><td>pavement</td>
> <tr><td>stove</td><td>stoof</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>waffle</td><td>wafel</td><td></td>
> <tr><td>wagon</td><td>wagen</td><td>cart, carriage, wagon</td>
> <tr><td>yacht</td><td>jacht</td><td>or. hunt</td>
> <tr><td>yankee</td><td>Jan Kees</td><td>John Charles</td>
> </table>
> 
> Afr.: this word has been derived from Afrikaans rather than directly from Dutch.
> lit.: the literal meaning of the Dutch word (the actual meaning is similar to the English one)
> or.: the word originally had the meaning specified, but is in Dutch also used with the same meaning as in Dutch
------
History_of_Europe|990012090
22a23,24
> [[Thirty Years War]] ...
> 
28c30
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone [[World Wars]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the world-powers of the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which have only just finished.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively overdone [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the world-powers of the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which have only just finished.
------
Netherlandic_language|990012116
156,157c156
< Afr.: this word has been derived from Afrikaans rather than directly from Dutch.
< lit.: the literal meaning of the Dutch word (the actual meaning is similar to the English one)
---
> lit.: the literal meaning of the Dutch word (the actual meaning is similar to the English one)%%%
------
Netherlandic_language|990012167
156,157c156,157
< lit.: the literal meaning of the Dutch word (the actual meaning is similar to the English one)%%%
< or.: the word originally had the meaning specified, but is in Dutch also used with the same meaning as in Dutch
---
> lit.: the literal meaning of the Dutch word (the actual meaning is similar to the English one)<br>
> or.: the word originally had the meaning specified, but is in Dutch also used with the same meaning as in English
------
World_War_I|990012176
1c1
< World War I was the first war that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from 1914 to 1918 and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In 1917 [[Italy]] and the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Russia]].
---
> World War I was the first [[war]] that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from [[1914]] to [[1918]] and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In [[1917]] [[Italy]] and the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Russia]].
------
War|990012332
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[fight]] between [[country|countries]].
> 
> *1618-1648 [[Thirty Years War]]
> *1914-1918 [[World War I]]
> *1939-1945 [[World War II]]
> * [[Vietnam War]]
> *1967 (?) [[Six Days War]]
> *[[War in the Gulf]]
------
Wikipedia|990012645
9a10,13
> 
> ----
> 
> I'm wondering: [[why Wikipedia is so slow|just why is Wikipedia so slow, anyway]]?
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990012860
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Note by [[LA2]] on May 16, 2001: A few days ago, the HomePage was updated to tell us that WikiPedia now has more than 6,000 pages.  Maybe another thousand has been added since.  At the same time, it feels slower than ever.  Right now, searching is so slow it is useless.  Submitting a new edit takes tens of seconds.  Is there a scalability problem?  With the number of pages?  With the number of users?  How many users are there, anyway?  Can we see some statistics?  Popularity could kill a service like this if there is no money to upgrade the server hardware.
> 
> 
------
Paul_Vixie|990013188
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of several [[RFC]]s.
> 
------
Eric_Raymond|990013751
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of "The Cathedral and the Bazaar".  A leading character in the [[open source]] movement.
> 
------
Donald_E_Knuth|990013920
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of "The Art of Computing" (?), creator of the TeX and [[Metafont]] typesetting systems.
> 
> 
------
Open_Source_Initiative|990014026
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See the website http://www.osi.org/
> (not that it is related, but quite funny).
> 
> 
------
World_War_I|990014397
5c5
< Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the Russian Revolution. Socialist and explicitly Communist uprisings also occured in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany. 
---
> Perhaps the single most important event precipitated by the privations of the war was the [[Russian Revolution]]. [[Socialist]] and explicitly [[Communist]] uprisings also occured in many other European countries from 1917 onwards, notably in Germany. 
------
War|990014528
2a3,4
> Some historic wars:
> 
8a11,15
> 
> ----
> 
> Could anyone publish a HOW-TO on how to start a war?  We shouldn't keep this all historic and theoretic.
> 
------
RFC|990015270
14,15c14
< [[RFC 0985|985]],
< [[RFC 0987|987]]
---
> [[RFC 0983|983]], [[RFC 0985|985]], [[RFC 0987|987]]
17,18c16
< [[RFC 1006|1006]],
< [[RFC 1066|1066]]
---
> [[RFC 1006|1006]], [[RFC 1009|1009]], [[RFC 1066|1066]]
20,21c18,20
< [[RFC 1123|1123]],
< [[RFC 1149|1149]]
---
> [[RFC 1123|1123]], [[RFC 1149|1149]], [[RFC 1156|1156]]
> 
> [[RFC 1495|1495]]
28,34c27,29
< [[RFC 1776|1776]],
< [[RFC 1789|1789]],
< [[RFC 1792|1792]]
< 
< [[RFC 1809|1809]],
< [[RFC 1812|1812]],
< [[RFC 1876|1876]]
---
> [[RFC 1776|1776]], [[RFC 1789|1789]], [[RFC 1792|1792]]
> 
> [[RFC 1809|1809]], [[RFC 1812|1812]], [[RFC 1876|1876]]
39c34,36
< [[RFC 2083|2083]]
---
> [[RFC 2045|2045]],
> [[RFC 2046|2046]], [[RFC 2047|2047]], [[RFC 2048|2048]],
> [[RFC 2049|2049]], [[RFC 2083|2083]]
41c38,39
< [[RFC 2181|2181]]
---
> [[RFC 2116|2116]], [[RFC 2126|2126]], [[RFC 2156|2156]],
> [[RFC 2181|2181]], [[RFC 2183|2183]], [[RFC 2184|2184]]
43c41
< [[RFC 2223|2223]]
---
> [[RFC 2223|2223]], [[RFC 2231|2231]]
45,49c43,44
< [[RFC 2400|2400]],
< [[RFC 2401|2401]],
< [[RFC 2419|2419]],
< [[RFC 2420|2420]],
< [[RFC 2421|2421]]
---
> [[RFC 2400|2400]], [[RFC 2401|2401]],
> [[RFC 2419|2419]], [[RFC 2420|2420]], [[RFC 2421|2421]]
52c47,48
< [[RFC 2535|2535]]
---
> [[RFC 2535|2535]],
> [[RFC 2549|2549]]
54c50,52
< [[RFC 2747|2747]]
---
> [[RFC 2644|2644]], [[RFC 2645|2645]], [[RFC 2646|2646]]
> 
> [[RFC 2747|2747]], [[RFC 2748|2748]], [[RFC 2749|2749]]
59,65c57,60
< [[RFC 3094|3094]],
< [[RFC 3097|3097]],
< [[RFC 3098|3098]]
< 
< [[RFC 3106|3106]],
< [[RFC 3114|3114]],
< [[RFC 3115|3115]]
---
> [[RFC 3023|3023]],
> [[RFC 3094|3094]], [[RFC 3097|3097]], [[RFC 3098|3098]]
> 
> [[RFC 3106|3106]], [[RFC 3114|3114]], [[RFC 3115|3115]]
------
Wikipedia|990015570
9,13c9
< If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
< 
< ----
< 
< I'm wondering: [[why Wikipedia is so slow|just why is Wikipedia so slow, anyway]]?
---
> If you've got a minute, think about [[publicize Wikipedia|publicizing Wikipedia]].  Think about leveraging effort--in the time it takes you to write two decent articles, you might be able to get ten people on board who can write ten decent articles apiece.
------
WikiPediaBugs|990015686
91a92,95
> ----
> I'm wondering: [[why Wikipedia is so slow|just why is Wikipedia so slow, anyway]]?
> 
> (The above might also be discussed on Wikipedia-L.)
------
LA2|990015865
16a17
> Hi, LA2!  You wrote: "a lasting and useful encyclopedia, because I think that requires a whole lot more organization than this."  As an encyclopedia editor, I am now of the opinion that a lasting and useful encyclopedia must first ''exist''--and the best way to put it into existence if it's a wholly volunteer project is to get rid of the official organization wherever self-organization can do.  Please see http://www.nupedia.com.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Open_Source_Initiative|990015967
1,4c1
< See the website http://www.osi.org/
< (not that it is related, but quite funny).
< 
< 
---
> The Open Source Initiative is... (sorry, I don't know...this is my way of asking what it is!).
------
Ottoman_Empire|990016288
1c1,41
< A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Hungary]] in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (reigned 1520?1566), it began a long decline, which ended after the defeat of the empire by the Allies in [[World War I]]. 
---
> A state established by Turkish people. It grew from a small state of northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the early 14th century into an empire. By the 16th century it reached from the [[Persian Gulf]] in the east to [[Hungary]] in the northwest. Not long after reaching its apex under [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (reigned 1520?1566), it began a long decline, which ended four years after the defeat of the empire by the Allies in [[World War I]]. 
> 
> The following were the sultans of the Ottoman Empire:
> 
> [[Osman I]] (1299-1326) 
> Orhan I (1326-1359) 
> Murad I (1359-1389) 
> Beyazid I (1389-1402) 
> Mehmed I (1403-1421) 
> Murad II (1421-1451) 
> [[Mehmed II]] (the Conqueror) (1451-1481) 
> Beyazid II (1481-1512) 
> [[Selim I]] (1512-1520) 
> [[Süleyman I]] (1520-1566) 
> Selim II (1566-1574) 
> Murat III (1574-1595) 
> Mehmed III (1595-1603) 
> Ahmed I (1603-1617) 
> Mustafa I (1617-1623) 
> Osman II (1618-1622) 
> Murat IV (1623-1640) 
> Ibrahim I (1640-1648) 
> Mehmed IV (1648-1687) 
> Süleyman II (1687-1691) 
> Ahmed II (1691-1695) 
> Mustafa II (1695-1703) 
> Ahmed III (1703-1730) 
> Mahmud I (1730-1754) 
> Osman III (1754-1757) 
> Mustafa III (1757-1774) 
> Abdülhamid I (1774-1789) 
> Selim III (1789-1807) 
> Mustafa IV (1807-1808) 
> Mahmud II (1808-1839) 
> Abdülmecid I (1839-1861) 
> Abdülaziz I (1861-1876)  
> Murat V (1876) 
> Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)  
> Mehmed V (Resad) (1909-1918) 
> Mehmed VI (Vahdettin) (1918-1922) 
> 
------
Whisky/scotch|990016316
1c1
< [[Whisky]] has been produced in [[Scotland]] for a long time, sometimes illegally.
---
> ''Scotch'' is the name for the [[whisky]] made in Scotland (so-spelled there, rather than "[[whiskey]]").  Whisky has been produced in [[Scotland]] for a long time, sometimes illegally.
3c3
< Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/highland|highland]], [[/lowland|lowland]], [[/speyside|speyside]], [[/islay|islay]], and [[/campbeltown|campbeltown]].
---
> Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/Highland|highland]], [[/Lowland|lowland]], [[/Speyside|speyside]], [[/Islay|islay]], and [[/Campbeltown|campbeltown]].
------
Whiskey|990016374
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[whisky]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Whisky]]
------
Whiskey|990016471
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Whisky]]
---
> ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Ireland.
------
Whiskey|990016491
1c1,3
< ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Ireland.
---
> ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Ireland.
> 
> See [[whisky]].
------
Whiskey|990016565
1c1
< ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Ireland.
---
> ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and Ireland and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Canada.
------
Acronym/List|990016588
1,51c1,79
< List of acronyms/initialisms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
< 
< * AA - Alcholics Anoynmous / Automobile Association / Anti-Aliasing
< * AAC - Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2 standard)  
< * ACL - Access Control List
< * ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union
< * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
< * ADC - Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
< * ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL
< * ADT - Atlantic Daylight Time (UTC-3 hours)
< * AFAIK - As far as I know
< * AFJ - April Fool's Joke 
< * AFK - Away from keyboard
< * AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port, sometimes used with a suffix indicating the port's bandwidth, like APG4x
< * AI - Amnesty International; Artificial Intelligence
< * AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
< * AIM - AOL Instant Messenger
< * aka - also known as
< * AKDT - Alaska Standard Daylight Saving Time (UTC-8 hours)
< * AKST - Alaska Standard Time (UTC-9 hours)
< * AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
< * AMR - Audio Modem Riser
< * ANSI - American National Standards Institute
< * AOL - America Online 
< * AP - Associated Press
< * API - Application Programming Interface
< * apm - Advanced Power Management
< * ASAP - as soon as possible
< * ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
< * ASP - Application service provider 
< * AST - Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4 hours)
< * AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
< * AVI - Audio Video Interleaved
< * AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System
<        
< * CD - Compact Disk
< * DND - Do Not Disturb
< * FWIW - For What It's Worth
< * GNU - GNU's Not Unix
< * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
< * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
< * IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
< * LOL - Laughing Out Loud
< * MHZ - Megahertz
< * NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
< * NLP - Natural Language Processing
< * SCUBA - Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
< * SNAFU - Situation Normal All F****d Up
< * TLA - Three-Letters Acronym
< * YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
< 
---
> List of acronyms/initialisms (add your own, in alphabetical order)
> 
> * AA - Alcholics Anoynmous / Automobile Association / Anti-Aliasing
> * AAC - Advanced Audio Coding (audio compression format defined by the MPEG-2 standard)  
> * ACL - Access Control List
> * ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union
> * ACPI - Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
> * ADC - Apple Display Connector (DVI variant)
> * ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, variant of DSL
> * ADT - Atlantic Daylight Time (UTC-3 hours)
> * AFAIK - As far as I know
> * AFJ - April Fool's Joke 
> * AFK - Away from keyboard
> * AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port, sometimes used with a suffix indicating the port's bandwidth, like APG4x
> * AI - Amnesty International; Artificial Intelligence
> * AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
> * AIM - AOL Instant Messenger
> * aka - also known as
> * AKDT - Alaska Standard Daylight Saving Time (UTC-8 hours)
> * AKST - Alaska Standard Time (UTC-9 hours)
> * AMD - Advanced Micro Devices
> * AMR - Audio Modem Riser
> * ANSI - American National Standards Institute
> * AOL - America Online 
> * AP - Associated Press
> * API - Application Programming Interface
> * apm - Advanced Power Management
> * ASAP - as soon as possible
> * ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Interchange
> * ASP - Application service provider 
> * AST - Atlantic Standard Time (UTC-4 hours)
> * AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
> * AVI - Audio Video Interleaved
> * AWACS - Airborne Warning and Control System
> 
> * B2B - Business to Business 
> * B2C - Business to Customer 
> * BASIC - Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, acronym was added later, originally it was simply ''Basic'' 
> * BB - Brigitte Bardot (actress)
> * BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation 
> * BBQ - Barbeque 
> * BBS - Bulletin Board System 
> * BCC - Blind Carbon Copy 
> * BIND - Berkeley Internet Name Domain 
> * BIOS - Basic Input Output System 
> * BMX - Bicycle Motor Cross 
> * BO2K - Back Orifice 2000  
> * BOFH - Bastard operator from hell 
> * bpm - Beats per minute 
> * BSA - Business Software Alliance 
> * BSD - Berkeley Software Distribution (Unix variant) 
> * BSE - Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, better known as Mad Cow disease 
> * BSOD - Blue Screen of Death (MS Windows specific) 
> * BST - British Summer Time (UTC+1 hour) 
> * BT - British Telecom
> * BTO - Built to Order 
> * BTW - By the way 
> * BYOB - Bring your own beverages 
> 
> * CAD - Computer Aided Design       
> * CD - Compact Disk
> * CRM - Customer Relations Management
> * CSS - Cascadind Stylesheets
> 
> * DND - Do Not Disturb
> * FWIW - For What It's Worth
> * GNU - GNU's Not Unix
> * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
> * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
> * IMHO - In My Humble Opinion
> * LOL - Laughing Out Loud
> * MHZ - Megahertz
> * NATO - North-Atlantic Treaty Organization
> * NLP - Natural Language Processing
> * SCUBA - Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
> * SNAFU - Situation Normal All F****d Up
> * TLA - Three-Letters Acronym
> * YMMV - Your Mileage May Vary
> 
------
Ottoman_Empire|990016633
5,40c5,40
< [[Osman I]] (1299-1326) 
< Orhan I (1326-1359) 
< Murad I (1359-1389) 
< Beyazid I (1389-1402) 
< Mehmed I (1403-1421) 
< Murad II (1421-1451) 
< [[Mehmed II]] (the Conqueror) (1451-1481) 
< Beyazid II (1481-1512) 
< [[Selim I]] (1512-1520) 
< [[Süleyman I]] (1520-1566) 
< Selim II (1566-1574) 
< Murat III (1574-1595) 
< Mehmed III (1595-1603) 
< Ahmed I (1603-1617) 
< Mustafa I (1617-1623) 
< Osman II (1618-1622) 
< Murat IV (1623-1640) 
< Ibrahim I (1640-1648) 
< Mehmed IV (1648-1687) 
< Süleyman II (1687-1691) 
< Ahmed II (1691-1695) 
< Mustafa II (1695-1703) 
< Ahmed III (1703-1730) 
< Mahmud I (1730-1754) 
< Osman III (1754-1757) 
< Mustafa III (1757-1774) 
< Abdülhamid I (1774-1789) 
< Selim III (1789-1807) 
< Mustafa IV (1807-1808) 
< Mahmud II (1808-1839) 
< Abdülmecid I (1839-1861) 
< Abdülaziz I (1861-1876)  
< Murat V (1876) 
< Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)  
< Mehmed V (Resad) (1909-1918) 
< Mehmed VI (Vahdettin) (1918-1922) 
---
> * [[Osman I]] (1299-1326) 
> * Orhan I (1326-1359) 
> * Murad I (1359-1389) 
> * Beyazid I (1389-1402) 
> * Mehmed I (1403-1421) 
> * Murad II (1421-1451) 
> * [[Mehmed II]] (the Conqueror) (1451-1481) 
> * Beyazid II (1481-1512) 
> * [[Selim I]] (1512-1520) 
> * Suleiman I (the Magnificient) (1520-1566) 
> * Selim II (1566-1574) 
> * Murat III (1574-1595) 
> * Mehmed III (1595-1603) 
> * Ahmed I (1603-1617) 
> * Mustafa I (1617-1623) 
> * Osman II (1618-1622) 
> * Murat IV (1623-1640) 
> * Ibrahim I (1640-1648) 
> * Mehmed IV (1648-1687) 
> * Suleiman II (1687-1691) 
> * Ahmed II (1691-1695) 
> * Mustafa II (1695-1703) 
> * Ahmed III (1703-1730) 
> * Mahmud I (1730-1754) 
> * Osman III (1754-1757) 
> * Mustafa III (1757-1774) 
> * Abdulhamid I (1774-1789) 
> * Selim III (1789-1807) 
> * Mustafa IV (1807-1808) 
> * Mahmud II (1808-1839) 
> * Abdulmecid I (1839-1861) 
> * Abdulaziz I (1861-1876)  
> * Murat V (1876) 
> * Abdulhamid II (1876-1909)  
> * Mehmed V (Resad) (1909-1918) 
> * Mehmed VI (Vahdettin) (1918-1922) 
------
Whiskey|990016667
1c1
< ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and Ireland and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Canada.
---
> ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and Ireland and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Canada--but there are many exceptions.
3c3
< See [[whisky]].
---
> See [[whisky]].
------
Whisky|990016738
5c5
< When spelled "whisky" it is produced in [[Scotland]] or [[Canada]]. When spelled [[whiskey]] it is produced in [[Ireland]] or [[America]].
---
> When spelled "whisky" it is produced in [[Scotland]] or [[Canada]]. When spelled [[whiskey]] it is produced in [[Ireland]] or [[America]].  For more orthographic considerations, see [[whisky]].
------
Whisky|990016759
5c5
< When spelled "whisky" it is produced in [[Scotland]] or [[Canada]]. When spelled [[whiskey]] it is produced in [[Ireland]] or [[America]].  For more orthographic considerations, see [[whisky]].
---
> When spelled "whisky" it is produced in [[Scotland]] or [[Canada]]. When spelled "[[whiskey]]" it is produced in [[Ireland]] or [[America]].  For more orthographic considerations, see [[whiskey]].
------
Whisky|990016820
8,13c8,13
< * [[/whiskey|Whiskey]]
< * [[/bourbon|Bourbon]]
< * [[/scotch|Scotch]] whisky
< * [[/irish|Irish]] whiskey
< * [[/american|American]] whiskey
< * [[/canadian|Canadian]] whisky
---
> 
> * [[/Bourbon|Bourbon]]
> * [[/Scotch|Scotch]] whisky
> * [[/Irish|Irish]] whiskey
> * [[Whiskey|American]] whiskey
> * [[/Canadian|Canadian]] whisky
------
Whisky/scotch|990016858
1,3c1
< ''Scotch'' is the name for the [[whisky]] made in Scotland (so-spelled there, rather than "[[whiskey]]").  Whisky has been produced in [[Scotland]] for a long time, sometimes illegally.
< 
< Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/Highland|highland]], [[/Lowland|lowland]], [[/Speyside|speyside]], [[/Islay|islay]], and [[/Campbeltown|campbeltown]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Whisky/Scotch]]
------
Whisky/Scotch|990016888
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Scotch'' is the name for the [[whisky]] made in Scotland (so-spelled there, rather than "[[whiskey]]").  Whisky has been produced in [[Scotland]] for a long time, sometimes illegally.
> 
> Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/Highland|highland]], [[/Lowland|lowland]], [[/Speyside|speyside]], [[/Islay|islay]], and [[/Campbeltown|campbeltown]].
------
Paul_Vixie|990017810
2a3,5
> He also began writing [[BIND]] in 1988 while working for [[DEC]]. After he left DEC, he founded the [[Internet Software Consortium]] (ISC) together with [[Rick Adams]] to support BIND and other programs for the [[Internet]].
> 
> He also runs [[Vixie Enterprises]], http://www.vix.com/.
------
Eric_Raymond|990017926
2a3
> He has also been much involved in the [[rec.humor.funny]] [[newsgroup]] and was the creator of the [[C language|C]] implementation of the [[INTERCAL]] programming language.
------
War|990018112
5a6,9
> *1639-1652 [[English Civil War]]
> *1754-1763 [[Seven Years War]] aka [[French and Indian War]]
> *1774-1781 [[American Revolutionary War]]
> *1861-1865 [[American Civil War]]
8c12
< * [[Vietnam War]]
---
> *1964?-1973? [[Vietnam War]]
10c14
< *[[War in the Gulf]]
---
> *1991      [[War in the Gulf]]
14a19,20
> 
> The three easiest ways to start a war seem to be: question someone's parentage/legitimacy, question their religion, or just think you personally are better suited to lead a particular country. Sure, there are some purely political wars... 
------
Donald_E_Knuth|990018171
1c1
< Author of "The Art of Computing" (?), creator of the TeX and [[Metafont]] typesetting systems.
---
> Donald E. Knuth, professor emeritus at [[Stanford University]].
2a3
> Author of "[[The Art of Computing Programming]]" and creator of the [[TeX]] and [[Metafont]] typesetting systems.
3a5
> See his home page at http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/
------
Whisky/Scotch|990018241
3c3
< Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/Highland|highland]], [[/Lowland|lowland]], [[/Speyside|speyside]], [[/Islay|islay]], and [[/Campbeltown|campbeltown]].
---
> Scotland is divided into a number of regions that produce whiskies with different regional characteristics: [[/Highland|highland]], [[/Lowland|lowland]], [[/Speyside|speyside]], [[/Islay|islay]], and [[/Campbeltown|campbeltown]]. These characteristics are described by words like smoky, peaty, etc.
------
Whisky|990018319
3c3
< Whisky is sold either as [[/single malt|single malt]] or as [[/blended|blended]]. Single malt whisky comes from only one destillery and is of a uniform age whereas blended whisky is put together from different brands and ages.
---
> Whisky is sold either as [[/single malt|single malt]] or as [[/blended|blended]]. Single malt whisky comes from only one distillery and is of a uniform age whereas blended whisky is put together from different brands and ages.
------
Open_Source_Initiative|990018369
1c1,6
< The Open Source Initiative is... (sorry, I don't know...this is my way of asking what it is!).
---
> The Open Source Initiative is an organization dedicated to promoting [[open source]] software.
> 
> [[Eric Raymond]] is one of the people behind it.
> 
> See http://www.opensource.org/.
> 
------
Whiskey|990018535
1c1
< ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the United States and Ireland and "whisky" for those distilled in Great Britain and Canada--but there are many exceptions.
---
> ''Whiskey'' is the American spelling of the term [[whisky]].  Some writers reserve "whiskey" for the spirits distilled in the [[United States]] and [[Ireland]] and "whisky" for those distilled in [[Great Britain]] and [[Canada]]--but there are many exceptions.
------
Whisky/Canadian|990018858
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Canadian whisky is blended multi-grain whisky. It is called rye whisky although it contains proprietary blends of corn, barley, and rye. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
> 
> Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports into the US during Prohibition in the 1920's. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the Detroit River across the Detroit, Michigan that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
------
Whisky/Canadian|990018961
1c1
< Canadian whisky is blended multi-grain whisky. It is called rye whisky although it contains proprietary blends of corn, barley, and rye. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
---
> Canadian whisky is [[/blended]] multi-grain [[whisky]]. It is called [[/rye whisky]] although it contains proprietary blends of [[corn]], [[barley]], and [[rye]]. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
3c3
< Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports into the US during Prohibition in the 1920's. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the Detroit River across the Detroit, Michigan that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
---
> Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports into the US during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the [[Detroit River]] across the [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
------
Acronym/List|990019530
55a56
> * BP - British Petroleum
58c59
< * BYOB - Bring your own beverages 
---
> * BYOB - Bring your own beverages/bottle 
77a79,80
> * UN - United Nations
> * UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund, originally United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
80c83
< Back to [[Acronym]].
---
> Back to [[Acronym]].
------
New_York|990019534
5c5
< [[Buffalo]] is the state capital.
---
> [[Albany]] is the state capital.
------
Atlas_Shrugged/Section141|990019634
5c5
< [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens to the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], whom she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to beleive that he wants to witness.
---
> [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] visits [[/United Locomotive Works|United Locomotive Works]] to determine why they consistently fail to deliver the Diesel engines she ordered.  The [[/President of ULW|President of ULW]] talks for hours without answering directly or saying anything of substance.  After returning to the office, [[/Eddie Willers|Eddie Willers]] informs [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] that [[/Dick McNamara|McNamara]] has quit without explanation.  As [[/Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] walks home that night she sees the depravity that passes for popular culture: books and movies that trivialize what is glorious, demonize what is moral, and exalt what is base; people who act as if pleasure were a sin that one gets away with.  Depressed, she returns home and listens to the soul tonic of [[/Richard Halley|Richard Halley]].  While she listens, she recalls [[/Richard Halley|Halley's]] struggles as a young composer, his sudden success, and his mysterious disappearance.  She sees in the newspaper that [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] has returned to [[/New York|New York]] amidst a scandal in which a married woman tried to kill her husband so she could be with [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]], whom she identifies as her lover.  [[/Francisco dAnconia|Francisco]] says he came to [[/New York|New York]] to witness the farce - but it is not the farce people are led to believe that he wants to witness.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990020340
2a3
> :I'd be interested in knowing how many other people are experiencing slowness.  For me, Wikipedia is running faster than I expected.  A preview (which does much of the work of an edit) takes less than a second, and searches take about 5 seconds.  (Searching is surprisingly fast considering that it opens, unpacks, and searches every single page.  Eventually this will change.)
3a5
> :The Wikipedia code was designed to handle at least 20,000 to 30,000 pages, and I suspect it could handle 50,000 pages as long as they were reasonably distributed by their first letter.  Scalability beyond that is a high priority for me.  --CliffordAdams
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990020458
5a6,8
> 
> -----
> It's been pretty slow for me the last couple of days. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Painters|990020711
57a58
>      [[Caspar David Friedrich]]
------
Acronym/List|990021867
40c40
< * BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation 
---
> * [[BBC]] - British Broadcasting Corporation 
62c62
< * CD - Compact Disk
---
> * CD - Compact Disc
69,70c69,70
< * HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
< * HTTP - Hypertext Transport Protocol
---
> * [[HTML]] - Hypertext Markup Language
> * [[HTTP]] - Hypertext Transport Protocol
71a72
> * [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] - Irish Republican Army
79a81
> 
------
BBC|990022347
1c1
< The [[British]] Broadcasting Corporation is the primary [[television]] and [[radio]] provider in the [[United Kingdom]].
---
> The [[British]] Broadcasting Corporation was once the primary [[television]] and [[radio]] provider in the [[United Kingdom]] prior to the introduction of [[Cable television|cable]], [[Satellite television|satellite]] and more recently, [[digital satellite television]].
5c5
< Because of this unique funding method, BBC radio and television output has always been free of the constraints of commercial advertisers, programme makers are answerable only to the license payer.
---
> Because of this unique funding method, BBC [[radio]] and [[television]] output has always been free of the constraints of commercial advertisers, programme makers are answerable only to the license payer.
7c7
< Radio was the main output of the BBC prior to the invention of television, is still seen in the BBC's most revered magazine, [[Radio Times]].
---
> [[Radio]] was the main output of the BBC prior to the invention of [[television]], is still seen in the BBC's most revered magazine, [[Radio Times]].
16c16
< Since the introduction of digital television and the explosion in [[web]] use, new channels and online content have developed keeping the BBC current and vibrant.
---
> Since the introduction of [[digital television]] and the explosion in [[web]] use, new channels and online content have developed keeping the BBC current and vibrant.
------
BBC|990022689
10c10
< What is now known as [[/1|BBC1]], was the worlds first [[television]] station, it was broadcast from the [[Alexandra Palace]] in [[London]] to just a few hundred viewers in the imediate area.
---
> What is now known as [[/1|BBC1]], was the world's first [[television]] station, it was broadcast from the [[Alexandra Palace]] in [[London]] to just a few hundred viewers in the immediate area.
------
Pleistocene|990022852
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Pliestocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 10,000 years to 1.5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pleistocene was originally intended to cover the recent period of repeated glaciations, however, the start was set too late, and some early cooling and glaciation are now set in the Pliocene.  The Pliestocene follows the [[Pliocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Holocene]] Epoch. The Pleistocene is the first of the two epochs of the [[Quaternary]] [[Era]]. 
> 
> The Pleistocene start is set at what was thought at the time to be the start of the recent glaciations.  The end was set at the end of the last glacial retreat.
> 
> Continents were at essentially their modern positions by the Pleistocene. 
> 
> Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern. Humans evolved into modern man during the Pleistocene.
> 
------
Pliocene|990022926
1c1
< The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]]. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Eocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
---
> The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]]. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Pliocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
------
Geologic_Timescale|990022956
4c4
<  | [[Pleistocene]]|            | [[Neogene]]4     |               |
---
>  | [[Pleistocene]] |            | [[Neogene]]4     |               |
------
Mehmed_II|990023548
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mehmed II (the Conqueror; 1432-1481) was an Ottoman Empire, who ruled from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. He gave an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]] by capturing [[Constantinople]] and other Byzantine cities left in Anatolia and the Balkans. The invasion of Constantinople and some more successful campaigns against various small kingdoms in the Balkans and some other Turkic territories in [[Anatolia]] bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman State was started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. 
> 
> As can be guessed from his successful campaign against Otranto in southern Italy and his adopting the title Roman Caesar, he was presumably trying to vitalize the Eastern [[Roman Empire]]. For a probably similar reason, he gathered Italian Humanists and Greek scholars at his court, kept the Orthodox Byzantine Church functioning, ordered the patriarch to translate the [[Christian]] faith into Turkish and called [[Gentile Bellini]] from [[Venice]] to paint his portrait. 
> 
> He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify the criminal and constitutional laws long before [[Suleiman the Magnificient]] (Lawmaker) and thus establishing the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (“padisah”). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. 
------
Wrestling|990023895
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wrestling is a branch of sport practiced by two opponents, who are forcing eachother to touch the ground for a certain length of time. It is one of the oldest sports and ancient people are known to take place in some sort of wrestling activity more than 15000 years ago, as has been depicted on various wall paintings. There are almost as many wrestling styles as the number of nations and some samples are [[sumo]] in Japan and yagli gures (oiled wrestling) in Turkey. In the example of oiled wrestling, the wrestlers wear tight short leather trousers and cover themselves with diluted olive oil. The rules of the game are otherwise quite similar to the international rules.
> 
> Among various wrestling styles, only two (freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling) are internationally recognized and performed in Olympic Games under the supervision of FILA (Federation Internationale de Lutte Amateur or International Amateur Wrestling Federation). 
> 
> A similar style of wrestling, which requires more showmanship than tough competition, is practiced in United States schools and colleges with different weight classes and quite different scoring rules (see [[World Wrestling Federation/Wrestlers]]).
> 
> Freestyle is possibly derived from the English Lancashire style which allows all parts of the body to be hold, whereas, in Greco-Roman style, the wrestlers are permitted to hold only above the waist.
> 
> Weight classes in Olympic events are: 
> * light flyweight, 48 kg 
> * flyweight, 52 kg 
> * bantamweight, 57 kg 
> * featherweight, 62 kg 
> * lightweight, 68 kg 
> * welterweight, 74 kg 
> * middleweight, 82 kg 
> * light heavyweight, 90 kg 
> * heavyweight, 100 kg 
> * super heavyweight, over 100 kg. 
> 
> The major goal of the game is to pin the opponant, which means to hold the opponents’ both shoulders on the mat for at least one second. The pin automatically ends the game. If neither of the wrestlers manages to pin, the match is won by the wrestler, who gains more points during the entire game period. Additionally, the contestant that gains ten points more than his opponent at any period wins the game. In the case of a draw the match goes to overtime.
>  
> The leading countries of wrestling in the Olympic Games are [[United States]], [[Russia]] (and some of the former [[Soviet Union]] republics), [[Bulgaria]], [[Hungary]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Turkey]].
------
Old_Turkic_alphabet|990024068
1c1
< Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon]]inscriptions) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic]] alphabet, the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors [[Uighurs]] and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Republic of Turkey on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
---
> Turkic people living in Central Asia developed various alphabets in early ages. The earliest known alphabet is Kokturk (or Kok Turki) alphabet developed by [[Kokturks]] or [[Gokturks]], Turkish tribespeople that had established a broad Central Asian empire, which reached to its zenith between 6th to 8th centuries AD. The first samples of this alphabet can be found on inscriptions written on stones (the best known are called [[Orhon inscriptions]]) and dated to the early 8th century AD. Kokturk alphabet had 38 letters and only 4 of them were vowels. Although the shapes of the letters were somewhat similar to those of the [[Runic]] alphabet, the sounds were entirely different. The second most significant alphabet after the decline of Kokturks belonged to their successors [[Uighurs]] and this alphabet was passed to the Mongols and the Manchus by small changes. After the Islamic era, a majority of Turkic people began to use the Arabic alphabet and the Latin alphabet was first accepted by Republic of Turkey on 1928. Most of the Turkic republics within the boarders of the former Soviet Union used the Cyrillic alphabet and only a minority of Turkish people living in Middle East countries and Iran went on using Arabic alphabet.
------
Orhon_inscriptions|990024450
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Orhon (or Orkhon) inscriptions are the oldest known Turkish writings, which were erected near the Orhon river (between 732-735 AD) in honour of two Kokturk princes Kul and Bilge. They have been carved on two monuments by old Turkish runes (see [[Old Turkic alphabet]]), which were deciphered by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893.
------
Television/Stations|990024817
2,3c2,12
< :[[ABC]] - Australian Broadcasting Coroporation
< :[[BBC]] - British Broadcasting Corporation
---
> :[[ABC]] - Australian Broadcasting Coroporation, AU
> :[[Animal Planet]] - Programmes about animals, UK
> :[[BBC]] - British Broadcasting Corporation, UK
> :[[Biography Channel]] - Biographies, UK
> :[[Boomerang]] - Cartoons, UK
> :[[Bollywood 4U]] - Indian Movie Channel, UK
> :[[The Box]] - Interective Music Channel, UK
> :[[Bravo]] - 80's TV shows like [[Knightrider]] and The [[A-Team]], UK
> :[[Carlton]] - Series of TV Channels, UK
> :[[Cartoon Network]] - Cartoons, UK
> :[[Challenge TV]] - Game Shows Channel, UK
6c15,21
< :[[CNN]]
---
> :[[CNN]] - Cable News network, worlwide
> :[[Disney]] - Disney Cartoons and other shows, UK
> :[[Discovery]] - Documentary Channels, UK
> :[[E4]] - Entertainment & Comedy Channel, UK
> :[[Eurosport]] - European Sports Channel, UK
> :[[FilmFour]] - Independant Film Channel ([[FilmFour +1]], [[FilmFour World]] and [[FilmFour Extreme]]), UK
> :[[Front Row]] - 4 Pay Per View Movie Channels (cable only), UK
7a23,25
> :[[GOD Channel]] - Christian Channel, UK
> :[[Granada]] - Series of TV Channels, UK
> :[[History Channel]] - Documentaries, UK
8a27,30
> :[[Kerrang]] - Interactive Music Channel, UK
> :[[Kiss]] - Interactive Music Channel, UK
> :[[Liberty TV]] - Family Entertainment, UK
> :[[Living]] - Women's TV shows, UK
9a32,43
> :[[MUTV]] - Manchester United (Football Club) TV, UK
> :[[National Geographic]] - Documentaries (also National Geogrpahic +1), UK
> :[[Nickelodeon]] - Children's programmes
> :[[TCM]] - Turner Classic Movies, UK
> :[[TG4]] - Entertainment and News (in Irish Gaelic), Ireland
> :[[TNT]] - Turner Network Television, US & UK
> :[[.tv]] - Technology Channel, UK
> :[[TV3]] - Entertainment and News, Ireland
> :[[Network 2]] - Radio Telefís Éireann, Network 2, Ireland
> :[[Pakistani Channel]] - Pakistani programmes, UK
> :[[Paramount Comedy Channel]] - US & UK Sitcoms
> :[[PlayJam]] - Interactive Games Channel, UK
11c45,60
< :[[BSkyB|Sky]]
---
> :[[Play UK]] - Music and Comedy Channel
> :[[Q]] - Interactive Music Channel, UK
> :[[RTE ONE]] - Radio Telefís Éireann, RTE ONE, Ireland
> :[[Sky Box Office]] - Pay Per View Movies and Events, UK
> :[[Sky One]] - UK Entertainment Channel
> :[[Sky Premier]] - 5 Movie Channels, UK
> :[[Sky Sports]] - 5 Sports Channels, UK
> :[[Sky Moviemax]] - 5 Movie Channels, UK
> :[[Sky News]] - 24 hour news, UK
> :[[Sky Cinema]] - 2 Movie Channels, UK
> :[[Smash Hits]] - Interactive Music Channel, UK
> :[[UK Drama]] - Classic TV Drama, UK
> :[[UK Gold]] - Classic TV Series, UK
> :[[UK Horizons]] - Documentaries, UK
> :[[UTV]] - Ulster Television (Syndicated with [[ITV]])
> 
------
Television/Stations|990024943
26c26
< :[[ITV]] - Independent Television (?)
---
> :[[ITV]] - Independent Television Network
------
Pliocene|990025520
1c1
< The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]]. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliestocene? Epoch. The Pliocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
---
> The Pliocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 1.5 million to 5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pliocene was named by [[Sir Charles Lyell]]. It means roughly "continuation of recent" and refers to the essentially modern mammalian faunas. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the [[Pliestocene]] Epoch. The Pliocene is the fifth and last epoch of the [[Tertiary]] [[Era]].
3c3
< The Pliocene boundaries are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer [[Miocene]] the relatively cooler Pliocene.  The upper boundary is set at the start of the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations. 
---
> The Pliocene boundaries are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer [[Miocene]] and the relatively cooler Pliocene.  The upper boundary is set at the start of the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations. 
8,9d7
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
Cosmology|990026094
5a6
> * [[Cosmic Background Radiation]]
14c15
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Cosmic_Background_Radiation|990026242
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Cosmic Background Radiation is a form of radiation that fills the whole of the universe. It has the characteristics of [[Black Body]] Radiation of a temperature of 2.726 Kelvin. This radiation is regarded the best available evidence of the [[Big Bang]] theory - the radiation is the radiation that is left from the Big Bang, extremely dropped in temperature because of the expansion of the Universe.
------
Gokturks|990026330
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[Kokturks]]
------
Black_Body|990026508
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Black Body in [[Physics]] is an object which absorbs all light that falls onto it (and thus reflects none). Although the name would make one think differently, black bodies actually radiate light. The division of light of various wavelengths is very characteristic, and depending (only) on the temperature of the Black Body.
> 
> In the laboratory, the closest thing to a black body is a small hole to a hole with a non-smooth, black surface. In [[Astronomy]], such objects as [[Star]]s can be regarded Black Bodies.
------
Mehmed_II|990026598
1c1
< Mehmed II (the Conqueror; 1432-1481) was an Ottoman Empire, who ruled from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. He gave an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]] by capturing [[Constantinople]] and other Byzantine cities left in Anatolia and the Balkans. The invasion of Constantinople and some more successful campaigns against various small kingdoms in the Balkans and some other Turkic territories in [[Anatolia]] bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman State was started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. 
---
> Mehmed II (the Conqueror; 1432-1481) was an [[Ottoman]] Empire, who ruled from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. He gave an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]] by capturing [[Constantinople]] and other Byzantine cities left in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkan|Balkans]]. The invasion of Constantinople and some more successful campaigns against various small kingdoms in the Balkans and some other Turkic territories in [[Anatolia]] bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman State was started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. 
3c3
< As can be guessed from his successful campaign against Otranto in southern Italy and his adopting the title Roman Caesar, he was presumably trying to vitalize the Eastern [[Roman Empire]]. For a probably similar reason, he gathered Italian Humanists and Greek scholars at his court, kept the Orthodox Byzantine Church functioning, ordered the patriarch to translate the [[Christian]] faith into Turkish and called [[Gentile Bellini]] from [[Venice]] to paint his portrait. 
---
> As can be guessed from his successful campaign against [[Otranto]] in southern [[Italy]] and his adopting the title [[Roman Caesar]], he was presumably trying to vitalize the Eastern [[Roman Empire]]. For a probably similar reason, he gathered Italian [[humanists]] and Greek scholars at his court, kept the [[Orthodox Byzantine Church]] functioning, ordered the patriarch to translate the [[Christian]] faith into Turkish and called [[Gentile Bellini]] from [[Venice]] to paint his portrait. 
5c5
< He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify the criminal and constitutional laws long before [[Suleiman the Magnificient]] (Lawmaker) and thus establishing the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (“padisah”). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. 
---
> He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify the criminal and constitutional laws long before [[Suleiman the Magnificient]] (Lawmaker) and thus establishing the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (?padisah?). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. 
------
Orhon_inscriptions|990026690
1c1
< Orhon (or Orkhon) inscriptions are the oldest known Turkish writings, which were erected near the Orhon river (between 732-735 AD) in honour of two Kokturk princes Kul and Bilge. They have been carved on two monuments by old Turkish runes (see [[Old Turkic alphabet]]), which were deciphered by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893.
---
> Orhon (or Orkhon) inscriptions are the oldest known Turkish writings, which were erected near the [[Orhon]] river (between 732-735 AD) in honour of two [[Kokturk]] princes [[Kul]] and [[Bilge]]. They have been carved on two monuments by old Turkish runes (see [[Old Turkic alphabet]]), which were deciphered by the Danish philologist [[Vilhelm Thomsen]] in 1893.
------
Kokturks|990026732
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first Turkic people that is mentioned in history are the [[Huns]] and records about their appearance goes back to 1400 BC (Chinese sources refer them as Hiung-nu). Another tribe called Huns and led by [[Attila the Hun]] is considered, with little certainty, to be the western extension of this tribe. They are followed by Kokturks (or Gokturks), who have established the first Turkic state called by the name Turk. It was founded in 552 AD by Bumin Khan and expanded very quickly to wide territories in Central Asia, as a nomadic state composed mainly of tribesmen and horsemen that is very similar to that of Genghis Khan. The most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes Kul and Bilge and the vizier Tonyukuk, life stories of whom have been carved on famous [[Orhon inscriptions]]. 
> 
> It is no coincidence that the word for "root" in present Turkish is kok while the word for "sky" is gok. The pronunciations of these two words are almost identical. Additionally their religion was quite reminiscent of present Shamanism and they were worshiping to a major god called "gok tengri" (sky god). So, it is not difficult to see the clear connection between the Turkic root culture and sky god religion. These ancient Turkic people were probably considering themselves as the roots of all people and also as special chosen people bearing the name of sky god and having the right to rule over other people.
>    
------
Kokturks|990027105
1c1
< The first Turkic people that is mentioned in history are the [[Huns]] and records about their appearance goes back to 1400 BC (Chinese sources refer them as Hiung-nu). Another tribe called Huns and led by [[Attila the Hun]] is considered, with little certainty, to be the western extension of this tribe. They are followed by Kokturks (or Gokturks), who have established the first Turkic state called by the name Turk. It was founded in 552 AD by Bumin Khan and expanded very quickly to wide territories in Central Asia, as a nomadic state composed mainly of tribesmen and horsemen that is very similar to that of Genghis Khan. The most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes Kul and Bilge and the vizier Tonyukuk, life stories of whom have been carved on famous [[Orhon inscriptions]]. 
---
> The first Turkic people that is mentioned in history are the [[Huns]] and records about their appearance goes back to 1400 BC (Chinese sources refer them as Hiung-nu). Another tribe called Huns and led by [[Attila the Hun]] is considered, with little certainty, to be the western extension of this tribe. They are followed by Kokturks (or Gokturks), who have established the first Turkic state called by the name Turk. It was founded in 552 AD by [[Bumin Khan]] and expanded very quickly to wide territories in Central Asia, as a nomadic state composed mainly of tribesmen and horsemen that is very similar to that of [[Genghis Khan]]. The most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes [[Kul]] and [[Bilge]] and the vizier [[Tonyukuk]], life stories of whom have been carved on famous [[Orhon inscriptions]]. 
3c3
< It is no coincidence that the word for "root" in present Turkish is kok while the word for "sky" is gok. The pronunciations of these two words are almost identical. Additionally their religion was quite reminiscent of present Shamanism and they were worshiping to a major god called "gok tengri" (sky god). So, it is not difficult to see the clear connection between the Turkic root culture and sky god religion. These ancient Turkic people were probably considering themselves as the roots of all people and also as special chosen people bearing the name of sky god and having the right to rule over other people.
---
> It is no coincidence that the word for "root" in present Turkish is kok while the word for "sky" is gok. The pronunciations of these two words are almost identical. Additionally their religion was quite reminiscent of present [[Shamanism]] and they were worshiping to a major god called "gok tengri" (sky god). So, it is not difficult to see the clear connection between the Turkic root culture and sky god religion. These ancient Turkic people were probably considering themselves as the roots of all people and also as special chosen people bearing the name of sky god and having the right to rule over other people.
------
Kokturks|990027139
3c3
< It is no coincidence that the word for "root" in present Turkish is kok while the word for "sky" is gok. The pronunciations of these two words are almost identical. Additionally their religion was quite reminiscent of present [[Shamanism]] and they were worshiping to a major god called "gok tengri" (sky god). So, it is not difficult to see the clear connection between the Turkic root culture and sky god religion. These ancient Turkic people were probably considering themselves as the roots of all people and also as special chosen people bearing the name of sky god and having the right to rule over other people.
---
> It is no coincidence that the word for "root" in present Turkish is kok while the word for "sky" is gok. The pronunciations of these two words are almost identical. Additionally their religion was quite reminiscent of present [[Shamanism]] and they worshiped a major god called "gok tengri" (sky god). So, it is not difficult to see the clear connection between the Turkic root culture and sky god religion. These ancient Turkic people were probably considering themselves as the roots of all people and also as special chosen people bearing the name of sky god and having the right to rule over other people.
------
Black_Body|990027236
3a4,5
> 
> Maybe a small hole to a plate with a black surface?
------
Wrestling|990027571
3c3
< Among various wrestling styles, only two (freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling) are internationally recognized and performed in Olympic Games under the supervision of FILA (Federation Internationale de Lutte Amateur or International Amateur Wrestling Federation). 
---
> Among various wrestling styles, only two (freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling) are internationally recognized and performed in Olympic Games under the supervision of FILA (Federation Internationale de Lutte Amateur or International Amateur Wrestling Federation). A similar style of wrestling is practiced in United States schools and colleges.
5c5
< A similar style of wrestling, which requires more showmanship than tough competition, is practiced in United States schools and colleges with different weight classes and quite different scoring rules (see [[World Wrestling Federation/Wrestlers]]).
---
> A type of wrestling is done by professionals in the United States (see [[World Wrestling Federation/Wrestlers]]); however, it is more showmanship than sport.
7c7
< Freestyle is possibly derived from the English Lancashire style which allows all parts of the body to be hold, whereas, in Greco-Roman style, the wrestlers are permitted to hold only above the waist.
---
> Freestyle is possibly derived from the English Lancashire style which allows all parts of the body to be held, whereas, in Greco-Roman style, the wrestlers are permitted to hold only above the waist.
21c21
< The major goal of the game is to pin the opponant, which means to hold the opponents’ both shoulders on the mat for at least one second. The pin automatically ends the game. If neither of the wrestlers manages to pin, the match is won by the wrestler, who gains more points during the entire game period. Additionally, the contestant that gains ten points more than his opponent at any period wins the game. In the case of a draw the match goes to overtime.
---
> The major goal of the game is to pin the opponent, which means to hold the opponents’ both shoulders on the mat for at least one second. The pin automatically ends the game. If neither of the wrestlers manages to pin, the match is won by the wrestler, who gains more points during the entire game period. Additionally, the contestant that gains ten points more than his opponent at any period wins the game. In the case of a draw the match goes to overtime.
------
Black_Body|990027762
1c1
< A Black Body in [[Physics]] is an object which absorbs all light that falls onto it (and thus reflects none). Although the name would make one think differently, black bodies actually radiate light. The division of light of various wavelengths is very characteristic, and depending (only) on the temperature of the Black Body.
---
> A black body in [[Physics]] is an object which absorbs all light that falls onto it (and thus reflects none). Although the name would make one think differently, black bodies actually radiate light. The division of light of various wavelengths is very characteristic, and depending (only) on the temperature of the black body.
3c3
< In the laboratory, the closest thing to a black body is a small hole to a hole with a non-smooth, black surface. In [[Astronomy]], such objects as [[Star]]s can be regarded Black Bodies.
---
> In the laboratory, the closest thing to a black body is a small hole to a hole with a non-smooth, black surface. In [[Astronomy]], such objects as [[Star]]s can be regarded black bodies.
------
German_Rap|990027774
1,2c1
< [[Die Fantastischen Vier]] (fantastic four) are probably the most prominent German rappers. They were the first German band to appear in [[MTV Unplugged]]. Other important crews and rappers include
< 
---
> [[Die Fantastischen Vier]] (fantastic four) are probably the most prominent German rappers. They were the first German band to appear in [[MTV]] Unplugged. Other important crews and rappers include:
11c10
< Note that after the US, Germany is the second-biggest hip hop nation, sales-wise. 
---
> Note that after the [[United States]], [[Germany]] is the second-biggest hip hop nation, sales-wise. 
------
Kokturks|990027827
1c1
< The first Turkic people that is mentioned in history are the [[Huns]] and records about their appearance goes back to 1400 BC (Chinese sources refer them as Hiung-nu). Another tribe called Huns and led by [[Attila the Hun]] is considered, with little certainty, to be the western extension of this tribe. They are followed by Kokturks (or Gokturks), who have established the first Turkic state called by the name Turk. It was founded in 552 AD by [[Bumin Khan]] and expanded very quickly to wide territories in Central Asia, as a nomadic state composed mainly of tribesmen and horsemen that is very similar to that of [[Genghis Khan]]. The most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes [[Kul]] and [[Bilge]] and the vizier [[Tonyukuk]], life stories of whom have been carved on famous [[Orhon inscriptions]]. 
---
> The first Turkic people mentioned in history are the [[Huns]] and records about their appearance goes back to 1400 BC (Chinese sources refer them as Hiung-nu). Another tribe called Huns and led by [[Attila the Hun]] is considered, with little certainty, to be the western extension of this tribe. They are followed by Kokturks (or Gokturks), who have established the first Turkic state called by the name Turk. It was founded in 552 AD by [[Bumin Khan]] and expanded very quickly to wide territories in Central Asia, as a nomadic state composed mainly of tribesmen and horsemen that is very similar to that of [[Genghis Khan]]. The most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes [[Kul]] and [[Bilge]] and the vizier [[Tonyukuk]], life stories of whom have been carved on famous [[Orhon inscriptions]]. 
------
Rap_music|990027898
6c6
< subcategories:
---
> <b>subcategories:</b>
16c16
< Old School
---
> <b>Old School</b>
22,23c22
< New School
< 
---
> <b>New School</b>
30c29
< Latin Rap
---
> <b>Latin Rap</b>
35c34
< Gangster Rap
---
> <b>Gangster Rap</b>
42c41
< Soul Assassins
---
> <b>Soul Assassins</b>
47c46
< Other 
---
> <b>Other</b> 
50,51d48
< 
< 
54c51
< Producers
---
> <b>Producers</b>
62,64c59
< 
< 
< Worldwide Rap
---
> <b>Worldwide Rap</b>
82,92c77
< [[Turkish Rap]]
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
< 
---
> [[Turkish Rap]]
------
Whisky/Canadian|990027919
1c1
< Canadian whisky is [[/blended]] multi-grain [[whisky]]. It is called [[/rye whisky]] although it contains proprietary blends of [[corn]], [[barley]], and [[rye]]. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
---
> Canadian whisky is [[Whisky/blended|blended]] multi-grain [[whisky]]. It is called [[/rye whisky]] although it contains proprietary blends of [[corn]], [[barley]], and [[rye]]. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
------
Whisky/Canadian|990027965
1c1
< Canadian whisky is [[Whisky/blended|blended]] multi-grain [[whisky]]. It is called [[/rye whisky]] although it contains proprietary blends of [[corn]], [[barley]], and [[rye]]. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
---
> Canadian whisky is [[Whisky/blended|blended]] multi-grain [[whisky]]. It is called [[Whisky/Rye|rye whisky]] although it contains proprietary blends of [[corn]], [[barley]], and [[rye]]. It must be aged at least three years in the barrel. Well-known names include Seagram's, Hiram Walker, Canadian Club, and Crown Royal.
------
Whisky/Canadian|990028049
3c3
< Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports into the US during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the [[Detroit River]] across the [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
---
> Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports(known as [[bootlegging]]) into the US during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the [[Detroit River]] across the [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
------
Whisky/Canadian|990028059
3c3
< Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports(known as [[bootlegging]]) into the US during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the [[Detroit River]] across the [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
---
> Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports (known as [[bootlegging]]) into the US during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. Hiram Walker and Seagram's have distilleries on the [[Detroit River]] across the [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled US-Canadian border made smuggler fairly easy. 
------
War|990028195
1c1
< A [[fight]] between [[country|countries]].
---
> An armed conflict between [[country|countries]].
------
Anna_Kournikova|990028260
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anna Kournikova is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], but currently lives in [[Bradentown]], [[Florida]].  She is an only child.
> 
> Kournikova's first GrandSlam title came in 1999 at the AustralianOpen in the Womens Doubles event with partner MartinaHingis.  Kournikova and Hingis have frequently played as doubles partners.
> 
> Kournikova is perhaps the best known player among people who are not fans of tennis, and she is perhaps more famous for her beauty than for her tennis skills.  She was named one of PeopleMagazine's 50 most beautiful people in 1998, and she had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film MyMyselfAndIrene, starring JimCarrey.
------
AnnaKournikova|990028278
1,5c1
< Anna Kournikova is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Kournikova was born June 7th, 1981 in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], but currently lives in [[Bradentown]], [[Florida]].  She is an only child.
< 
< Kournikova's first GrandSlam title came in 1999 at the AustralianOpen in the Womens Doubles event with partner MartinaHingis.  Kournikova and Hingis have frequently played as doubles partners.
< 
< Kournikova is perhaps the best known player among people who are not fans of tennis, and she is perhaps more famous for her beauty than for her tennis skills.  She was named one of PeopleMagazine's 50 most beautiful people in 1998, and she had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film MyMyselfAndIrene, starring JimCarrey.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Anna Kournikova]]
------
Martina_Hingis|990028304
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Martina Hingis is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, [[Florida]], in the [[United States]].
> 
> Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at [[Wimbledon]] -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
> Hingis is the number one ranked women's player in the world.
> 
> Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: CzechLanguage, [[German language|German]] (in particular SwissGerman), EnglishLanguage, and some FrenchLanguage.
------
MartinaHingis|990028323
1,6c1
< Martina Hingis is a professional [[Tennis]] player.  Born September 30th, 1980 in Kosice, Slovakia, Hingis now lives in Saddlebrook, [[Florida]], in the [[United States]].
< 
< Like many professional tennis players, Hingis started playing at a very young age.  By 5 years of age, she started entering tournaments.  In 1996, Hingis made history by becoming the youngest person in history to win at [[Wimbledon]] -- in the Ladies Doubles event.  At the date of this writing, Februrary 2001,
< Hingis is the number one ranked women's player in the world.
< 
< Hingis is reported to be a nice person, and speaks 4 languages: CzechLanguage, [[German language|German]] (in particular SwissGerman), EnglishLanguage, and some FrenchLanguage.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Martina Hingis]]
------
War|990028692
5c5
< *1618-1648 [[Thirty Years War]]
---
> *1618-1648 [[Thirty Years War]] ends with peace treaty at [[Westfahlen]]
6a7
> *1718 During a war on the Norwegian border, Swedish king [[Karl XII]] is shot dead, after having waged several war campains on Russia in the previous decades
8a10
> *1809 The war between Russia and Sweden where Sweden cedes Finland to Russia
------
Bird|990028698
1a2,7
> 
> Birds range in size from the tiny hummingbird to the large ostrich and emu. Flightless birds include the penguin, ostrich, dodo, ... Birds are a very differientiated class with some feeding on nectar, seed, insects, rodents, fish, carrion, other birds. Some birds are nocturnal. Some birds migrate long distances to utilize marginal habitats while others spend almost all their time at sea. 
> 
> Birds are an important food source for humans. This comes mainly from chickens and chicken eggs although goose, pheasant, duck, emu, ostrich, pigeon, grouse, quail, dove, and others are utilized. At one time swan and songbirds were delicacies of the rich amd powerful although this are generally protected now. 
> 
> Homing pigeons are used to carry messages and the honetycreeper? leads some Africans to honey. Colorful tropical birds are often kept as pets although this has lead to smuggling of some endangered species.
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990028881
8a9,11
> 
> ----
> Right now, 4pm GMT, it is a lot faster than just two hours ago. Did anybody change anything?  --[[LA2]]
------
Open_Source_Initiative|990029055
6a7,8
> See also [[OSI]].
> 
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990029068
11c11,13
< Right now, 4pm GMT, it is a lot faster than just two hours ago. Did anybody change anything?  --[[LA2]]
---
> Right now, 4pm GMT, it is a lot faster than just two hours ago. Did anybody change anything?  --[[LA2]]
> ----
> I haven't noticed any changes whatsoever -- [[WojPob]]
------
OSI|990029138
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. [[Open Systems Interconnection]], a joint [[ISO]] and [[ITU-T]] standard for [[computer network]]s and [[protocol]]s.
> 
> 2. [[Open Source Initiative]]
> 
> 3. [[Ontaria Swine Improvement]]
> 
> 
------
OSI|990029157
5c5
< 3. [[Ontaria Swine Improvement]]
---
> 3. [[Ontario Swine Improvement]]
------
Ontario_Swine_Improvement|990029222
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A company based in [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] for the improvement (and [[breeding]]) of [[swine]]s or [[pig]]s.
> 
> See the company's own website, http://www.osi.org/
> 
> See also [[OSI]].
> 
> 
------
History_of_Europe|990029248
15c15
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world.
---
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world. These states seemed to love attacking each other and almost constant wars of politics and religion followed.
19,21d18
< [[Renaissance]] ...
< 
< [[Reformation]] ...
28c25
< [[Philosophy]], [[Science]] and [[Technology]] developed rapidly throughout. The church broke up and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the [[French Revolution]], people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the [[Napoleonic Era]].  [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] also destroyed the [[Holy Roman Empire]], leaving [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] to develop into nation-states by 1900.
---
> [[Art]], [[Philosophy]], [[Science]] and [[Technology]] developed rapidly during the [[Renaissance]]. The church broke up during the [[Reformation]]and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the [[French Revolution]], people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the [[Napoleonic Era]].  [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] also destroyed the [[Holy Roman Empire]], leaving [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] to develop into nation-states by 1880.
30c27
< The twentieth century saw the massively overdone [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the world-powers of the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which have only just finished.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively destructive [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the two new world-powers, the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which has only just ended.
------
Zaire|990029260
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the overthrow of the long-term dictator [[Mobutu]] by General [[Kabila]] in (???year???) the country is now known as the Democratic Republic of the [[Congo]].
------
English_language|990029318
16c16
< Since [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is made up of monsyllables only, I find it hard to believe Chinese has no [[homonym]]s. They must have very few words, then...:-). Further, in genral, all spoken languages are equally complex, because they are capable of expressing equally complex ideas. They just have different mechanisms for doing this. I could write a sentence or two on how Enlish lacks the complexities of Latin and Greek...but I would not believe it.
---
> [[English_language/Talk]]
18,19d17
< 
< the reason why chinese probably hasn't got many [[homophone]]s is that chinese has many [[tone]]s. 8 i think. so the word may have the same [[sound]]s, but the tones are different, so native speakers won't mix them up
------
Zaire|990029333
1c1
< After the overthrow of the long-term dictator [[Mobutu]] by General [[Kabila]] in (???year???) the country is now known as the Democratic Republic of the [[Congo]].
---
> After the overthrow of the long-term dictator [[Mobutu]] by General [[Kabila]] in (???year???) the country is now known as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
------
Zaire|990029378
1c1
< After the overthrow of the long-term dictator [[Mobutu]] by General [[Kabila]] in (???year???) the country is now known as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
---
> A former [[Belgium|Belgian]] colony in [[Africa]]. After the overthrow of the long-term dictator [[Mobutu]] by General [[Kabila]] in (???year???) the country is now known as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
------
English_language/Talk|990029385
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Since [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is made up of monsyllables only, I find it hard to believe Chinese has no [[homonym]]s. They must have very few words, then...:-). Further, in genral, all spoken languages are equally complex, because they are capable of expressing equally complex ideas. They just have different mechanisms for doing this. I could write a sentence or two on how Enlish lacks the complexities of Latin and Greek...but I would not believe it.
> 
> the reason why chinese probably hasn't got many [[homophone]]s is that chinese has many [[tone]]s. 8 i think. so the word may have the same [[sound]]s, but the tones are different, so native speakers won't mix them up
> 
> ---
> 
> I'm not sure why any of this is on the English language page.
------
English_language|990029674
14a15,17
> 
> Varieties of English include [[English language/American English]] and [[English language/British English]].
> 
------
World_War_I|990030348
1c1
< World War I was the first [[war]] that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from [[1914]] to [[1918]] and was called "The Great War" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]]'s declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In [[1917]] [[Italy]] and the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Russia]].
---
> World War I was the first [[war]] that involved nations spanning more than half the globe, hence "world" war. It lasted from [[1914]] to [[1918]] and was called "The Great War" or "the war to end all wars" until [[World War II]] started. The triggering event for the war was the assasination of the successor to the Austrian throne, [[Archduke Ferdinand]] in [[Sarajevo]] by a fanatic Serbian student, but the real reasons were far more complex. At the beginning of the twentieth century, [[Europe]] had a delicate balance of power, which was destroyed by the death of [[Queen Victoria]] and the decommissioning of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]]. All major powers were eager to start a new war in 1914, and the declaration of war was met with great enthusiasm by the people. After [[Austria]] declared war, [[Germany]] joined in, invading Belgium, thereby forcing [[Great Britain]] to support the '[[Entente]]' [[France]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the Axis some months later. In [[1917]] [[Italy]] and the [[United States]] allied with [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Russia]].
3c3,5
< The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces, tanks (which weren't used before at all) and new tactics (like the rolling barrage), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land. The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was not yet banned at the time.
---
> The First World War was different from prior military conflicts. This time, millions of soldiers fought on all sides and the [[/Casualties|casualties]] were enormous, mostly because of the more efficient weapons (like [[machine gun]]s) that were used in large quantities against old tactics. Although the First World War lead to the development of air forces, tanks (which weren't used before at all) and new tactics (like the rolling barrage), much of the action took place in entrenchments, where thousands died for each square meter of land.  The armies of the First World War also used chemical warfare, which was later banned after the war when its true effects were seen on veterans.
> 
> Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred in this war. See [[Ypres]], [[Marne]], [[Cambrai]], [[Somme]].
25,26c27,28
< 
< See also: [[World War II]]
---
> and the poetry of [[Wilfred Owen]]
> See also: [[World War II]], [[Seven Years War]]
------
ITU-T|990030399
1c1,37
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ITU-T is the telecom standardization organization, previously known as [[CCITT]], of the International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]).  It issues recommendations that have names like [[X.500]], where X is the series and 500 is a serial number.
> 
> See ITU-T's own website, http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/
> 
> Significant ITU-T series and recommendations are:
> 
> *A - Organization of the work of ITU-T
> *B - Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification,
> *C - General telecommunication statistics
> *D - General tariff principles
> *E - Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors
> *F - Non-telephone telecommunication services
> *G - Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks
> *H - Audiovisual and multimedia systems
> **[[H.323]] digital telephony
> *I - Integrated services digital network ([[ISDN]])
> *J - Transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals
> *K - Protection against interference
> *L - Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant
> *M - TMN and network maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits, telegraphy, facsimile and leased circuits
> *N - Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits
> *O - Specifications of measuring equipment
> *P - Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks
> *Q - Switching and signalling
> *R - Telegraph transmission
> *S - Telegraph services terminal equipment
> *T - Terminals for telematic services
> *U - Telegraph switching
> *V - Data communication over the telephone network
> **[[V.24]] serial communication, equivalent to EIA [[RS 232]]
> **[[V.32]] high speed modem
> *X - Data networks and open system communication
> **[[X.200]] Open Systems Interconnection
> **[[X.400]] Email
> **[[X.500]] Directory Service
> *Y - Global information infrastructure and Internet protocol aspects
> *Z - Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems
------
ITU-T|990030940
15c15,22
< **[[H.323]] digital telephony
---
> **[[H.323]] Packet-based multimedia communications systems
> *** Annex D - Real-time facsimile over H.323 systems
> *** Annex G - Text conversation and Text SET
> *** Annex J - Security for H.323 Annex F
> *** Annex K - HTTP based service control transport channel in H.323
> *** Annex M.1 - Tunnelling of signalling protocol (Qsig) in H.323
> *** Annex M.2 - Tunneling of signalling protocol (Isup) in H.323
> **[[H.332]] H.323 extended for loosely coupled conferences
30,31c37,42
< **[[V.24]] serial communication, equivalent to EIA [[RS 232]]
< **[[V.32]] high speed modem
---
> **[[V.1]] Equivalence between binary notation symbols and the significant conditions of a two-condition code
> **[[V.24]] List of definitions for interchange circuits between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) - equivalent to [[EIA]] [[RS 232]]
> **[[V.32]] A family of 2-wire, duplex modems operating at data signalling rates of up to 9600 bit/s for use on the general switched telephone network and on leased telephone-type circuits
> **[[V.32bis]] A duplex modem operating at data signalling rates of up to 14 400 bit/s for use on the general switched telephone network and on leased point-to-point 2-wire telephone-type circuits
> **[[V.42bis]] Data compression procedures for data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE) using error correction procedures
> **[[V.90]] A digital modem and analogue modem pair for use on the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) at data signalling rates of up to 56 000 bit/s downstream and up to 33 600 bit/s upstream
------
English_language/British_English|990031704
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Words used in British English that are typically not used in the same sense in ([[English language/American English|American English]]):
> 
>  aerial (antenna)
>  bicarbonate of soda (baking soda)
>  candy floss (cotton candy)
>  cashpoint (ATM)
>  chips (french fries)
>  concession (discount)
>  crisps (chips)
>  current account (checking account)
>  dialling code (area code)
>  director (CEO)
>  draughts (checkers)
>  dummy (pacifier)
>  engaged tone (busy signal)
>  fairy cake (cupcake)
>  fanny (female genitalia)
>  flat (apartment)
>  indicator (turn signal)
>  lift (elevator)
>  limited (incorporated)
>  lorry (truck)
>  mobile (cell phone)
>  nappy (diaper)
>  paraffin (kerosene)
>  petrol (gas)
>  pram (baby carriage)
>  pudding (dessert)
>  randy (horny)
>  settee (couch)
>  silencer (muffler)
>  skip (dumpster)
>  solicitor (lawyer)
>  sticking plaster (Band-Aid)
>  sweet (candy)
>  torch (flashlight)
>  underground (subway)
>  zed (z)
------
English_language/British_English|990031731
36a37
>  tube (subway)
------
ITU-T|990031886
44,46c44,54
< **[[X.200]] Open Systems Interconnection
< **[[X.400]] Email
< **[[X.500]] Directory Service
---
> **[[X.1]] International user classes of service in, and categories of access to, public data networks and Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDNs)
> **[[X.21]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment for synchronous operation on public data networks
> **[[X.25]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and   Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) for terminals operating in the packet mode and connected to public data networks by dedicated circuit
> **[[X.110]] International routing principles and routing plan for public data networks
> **[[X.121]] International numbering plan for public data networks
> **[[X.200]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model: The basic model
> **[[X.208]] Specification of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1)
> **[[X.209]] Specification of Basic Encoding Rules for Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1)
> **[[X.400]] Message handling services: Message handling system and service overview
> **[[X.500]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Overview of concepts, models and services Common text with ISO/IEC
> **[[X.509]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Public-key and attribute certificate frameworks
------
ITU-T|990032108
11a12,15
> **[[E.123]] Notation for national and international telephone numbers
> **[[E.163]] Numbering plan for the international telephone service
> **[[E.164]] The international public telecommunication numbering plan
> *** Supplement 2 - Number Portability
------
ITU-T|990032300
1c1
< ITU-T is the telecom standardization organization, previously known as [[CCITT]], of the International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]).  It issues recommendations that have names like [[X.500]], where X is the series and 500 is a serial number.
---
> ITU-T is the telecom [[standardization]] organization, previously known as [[CCITT]], of the International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]).  It issues recommendations that have names like [[X.500]], where X is the series and 500 is a serial number.
------
Donald_E_Knuth|990032427
1,5c1
< Donald E. Knuth, professor emeritus at [[Stanford University]].
< 
< Author of "[[The Art of Computing Programming]]" and creator of the [[TeX]] and [[Metafont]] typesetting systems.
< 
< See his home page at http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/
---
> #REDIRECT [[Donald Knuth]]
------
Donald_Knuth|990032441
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Donald E. Knuth, professor emeritus at [[Stanford University]].
> 
> Author of "[[The Art of Computing Programming]]" and creator of the [[TeX]] and [[Metafont]] typesetting systems.
> 
> See his home page at http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/
> 
------
Donald_E._Knuth|990032470
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Donald Knuth]]
------
Eric_Raymond|990032546
1,3c1
< Author of "The Cathedral and the Bazaar".  A leading character in the [[open source]] movement.
< 
< He has also been much involved in the [[rec.humor.funny]] [[newsgroup]] and was the creator of the [[C language|C]] implementation of the [[INTERCAL]] programming language.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Eric S. Raymond]]
------
Eric_S._Raymond|990032575
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of "The Cathedral and the Bazaar".  A leading character in the [[open source]] movement.
> 
> He has also been much involved in the [[rec.humor.funny]] [[newsgroup]] and was the creator of the [[C language|C]] implementation of the [[INTERCAL]] programming language.
> 
------
Standardization|990032844
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Standardization is the process of establishing a [[standards and units]] among competing entitites in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition.  As an example, all of Europe now uses 230 volt 50 Hz AC mains grids, GSM cell phones, and measure lengths in [[meter]]s.  Standards can be de-facto, which means they are followed for convenience, or de-jure, which means they are used because of (more or less) legally binding contracts and documents.  Government agencies often have to follow standards issued by official standardization organizations.  Following such standards can also be a prerequisite for doing business on certain markets, with certain companies, or within certain consortia.
> 
> Important standardization bodies are:
> *[[ANSI]] - American National Standards Institute
> *[[IEC]] - International Electrotechnical Commission
> *[[IETF]] - Internet Engineering Task Force
> *[[ISO]] - International Organization for Standardization
> *[[ITU-T]] - The International Telecommunication Union
> 
------
Seven_Years_War|990032998
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The first war with a truly global area of conflict, the Seven Years War pitted Great Britain, Prussia and Hanover against France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. A force from the neutral Netherlands was even attacked in India. Continental battles were largely draws and boundaries were returned to pre-war places in the [[Treaty of Hubertusburg]].
> 
> Great Britain battled France across India, North America, Europe, the Carribean isles, and coastal Africa. During the 1750's up to 1763, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French. [[Robert Clive]] ran the French from India, and [[James Wolfe]] crushed the French and so conquered [[Canada]] (New France).  The English returned most French Caribean islands at the end of the war but kept Canada. These islands produced great quantities of sugar which England already had access to on their own islands but which the French considered more valuable than the vast, mostly unsettled lands of Canada. The British-French hostilities were ended with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1763.
> 
> In North America, this conflict was known as the [[French and Indian War]]. Many of the [[Indian]]s ([[Native Americans]]/[[First Nations]]) sided with France although some did fight with the British. 
> 
> Of course, the name Seven Years War refers only to the seven-year European phase of the conflict, not the nine-year North American conflict or the Indian campaigns which lasted 15 years. 
------
Standardization|990033255
4a5
> *[[ETSI]] - European Telecommunications Standards Institute
5a7
> *[[IEEE]] - Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers
------
Standardization|990033327
1c1
< Standardization is the process of establishing a [[standards and units]] among competing entitites in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition.  As an example, all of Europe now uses 230 volt 50 Hz AC mains grids, GSM cell phones, and measure lengths in [[meter]]s.  Standards can be de-facto, which means they are followed for convenience, or de-jure, which means they are used because of (more or less) legally binding contracts and documents.  Government agencies often have to follow standards issued by official standardization organizations.  Following such standards can also be a prerequisite for doing business on certain markets, with certain companies, or within certain consortia.
---
> Standardization is the process of establishing a [[standards and Units]] among competing entitites in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition.  As an example, all of Europe now uses 230 volt 50 Hz AC mains grids, GSM cell phones, and measure lengths in [[meter]]s.  Standards can be de-facto, which means they are followed for convenience, or de-jure, which means they are used because of (more or less) legally binding contracts and documents.  Government agencies often have to follow standards issued by official standardization organizations.  Following such standards can also be a prerequisite for doing business on certain markets, with certain companies, or within certain consortia.
------
Standardization|990033662
4a5
> *[[DIN]] - Deutsche Industrie Normen (Germany)
10a12
> *[[SIS]] - Standardiseringskommissionen i Sverige (Sweden)
------
Indian|990033704
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Inhabitants of [[India]] in Asia, sometimes called East Indians although that name sould attach to those who live in the [[East Indies]] islands. 
> 
> 2. Those aboriginal peoples of the Americas first misidentifed by [[Christopher Columbus]] who thought he had reached the East Indies.
> Sometimes called "Red Indians", the American ones now call themselves [[Native Americans]] and the Canadian ones [[First Peoples]]. Living in a tribal strucure where most tribes had different languages and culture as well as different kinship, many have the name of their tribe in their one native language a word which just means "the people". 
------
Internet_Standard|990033758
1a2
> See also [[standardization]].
------
ANSI|990033780
4a5
> See also [[standardization]].
------
IEEE|990033801
1c1
< The Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is a standardization organization.
---
> The Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is a [[standardization]] organization.
------
IETF|990033842
1c1
< The <i>Internet Engineering Task Force</i> is charged with developing and promoting [[Internet]] standards.
---
> The <i>Internet Engineering Task Force</i> is charged with developing and promoting [[Internet]] standards.  See also [[standardization]] and [[Internet standard]]s.
------
IETF|990033894
1c1
< The <i>Internet Engineering Task Force</i> is charged with developing and promoting [[Internet]] standards.  See also [[standardization]] and [[Internet standard]]s.
---
> The <i>Internet Engineering Task Force</i> is charged with developing and promoting [[Internet]] standards.  See also [[standardization]], [[Internet Standard]], [[RFC]], and [[IAB]].
------
ISO|990033920
1c1
< International Organization for Standardization: an independent body that produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards.
---
> International Organization for Standardization: an independent body that produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards.  See [[standardization]].
------
ISO|990033950
1c1
< International Organization for Standardization: an independent body that produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards.  See [[standardization]].
---
> International Organization for Standardization: an independent body that produces world-wide industrial and commercial standards.  ISO is part of the [[United Nations]].  See also [[standardization]].
------
ETSI|990034077
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The European Telecommunications Standards Institute is a [[standardization]] organization of the telecommunications industry (equipment makers and network operators) in [[Europe]].  ETSI has been successful in standardizing the [[GSM]] cell phone system.
> 
> See the organization's own website, http://www.etsi.org/
------
Standardization|990034147
5c5
< *[[DIN]] - Deutsche Industrie Normen (Germany)
---
> *[[DIN]] - Deutsches Institut für Normung (Germany)
------
DIN|990034263
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN, the German Institute for Standardization) is a German national organization for [[standardization]].  DIN and mini-DIN connectors are familiar too computer users all over the world, but DIN issues standards in any conceivable area.
> 
> 
------
DIN|990034288
2a3
> See DIN's own website, http://www.din.de/
------
Cow|990034600
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].  [[Domesticated]] for producing [[milk]] and [[meat]].
> 
------
Cattle|990034710
3c3
< Cattle are domesticated [[Ungulate|ungulates]] that are raised for beef and dairy products.  Male cattle are called bulls, and female cattle are called cows.
---
> Cattle are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[Ungulate|ungulates]] that are raised for [[beef]] and [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]).  Male cattle are called [[bull]]s, and female cattle are called [[cow]]s.  The young member is called [[calf]].
------
Cow|990034770
1c1
< Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].  [[Domesticated]] for producing [[milk]] and [[meat]].
---
> Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].  [[domestication|Domesticated]] for producing [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]) and [[beef]].
------
BBC|990035057
16a17,18
> 
> Known to Americans by BBC America cable station and Lionheart TV which rerun BBC programs (no extra letters). 
------
Bird|990035122
3c3
< Birds range in size from the tiny hummingbird to the large ostrich and emu. Flightless birds include the penguin, ostrich, dodo, ... Birds are a very differientiated class with some feeding on nectar, seed, insects, rodents, fish, carrion, other birds. Some birds are nocturnal. Some birds migrate long distances to utilize marginal habitats while others spend almost all their time at sea. 
---
> Birds range in size from the tiny [[hummingbird]] to the large [[ostrich]] and [[emu]]. Flightless birds include the [[penguin]], ostrich, and the extinct [[dodo]]. Birds are a very differientiated class with some feeding on nectar, seed, insects, rodents, fish, carrion, other birds. Some birds are nocturnal. Some birds migrate long distances to utilize marginal habitats while others spend almost all their time at sea. 
5c5
< Birds are an important food source for humans. This comes mainly from chickens and chicken eggs although goose, pheasant, duck, emu, ostrich, pigeon, grouse, quail, dove, and others are utilized. At one time swan and songbirds were delicacies of the rich amd powerful although this are generally protected now. 
---
> Birds are an important food source for humans. This comes mainly from chickens and chicken eggs although [[goose]], [[pheasant]], [[duck]], [[emu]], [[ostrich]], [[pigeon]], [[grouse]], [[quail]], [[dove]], and others are utilized. At one time [[swan]] and songbirds were delicacies of the rich amd powerful although these are generally protected now. 
7c7
< Homing pigeons are used to carry messages and the honetycreeper? leads some Africans to honey. Colorful tropical birds are often kept as pets although this has lead to smuggling of some endangered species.
---
> [[Homing pigeons]] are used to carry messages and the [[honeycreeper]] leads some Africans to honey. Colorful tropical birds are often kept as pets although this has lead to smuggling of some endangered species.
------
Dairy_product|990035189
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]].
> 
> Dairy products include:
> *[[Butter]]
> *[[Cheese]]
> *[[Cream]] and [[Half-and-half]]
> *[[Icecream]]
> *[[Margarine]] (questionable, as it originates from non-milk fat and really is a butter substitute)
> *[[Milk]], [[homogenized]], [[pasteurized]], with standardized levels of fat
> *[[Milk powder]]
> *[[Yoghurt]]
> 
------
C_language|990035232
5c5
< It was called 'C' because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier Algol-derived language, CPL.) 
---
> It was called 'C' because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier [[Algol]]-derived language, [[CPL]].) 
9c9
< Bjarne Stroustrup and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
---
> [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
11,16d10
< 
< See also:
< * algol
< * cpl
< * bcpl
< * c++
------
Dairy_product|990035291
9c9
< *[[Milk]], [[homogenized]], [[pasteurized]], with standardized levels of fat
---
> *[[Milk]], after optional [[homogenization]], [[pasteurization]], and standardization of the fat level
------
Pasteurization|990035470
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pasteurization is the process of killing off [[bacteria]] in [[milk]] by quickly heating it to a near boiling temperature, then quickly cooling it again before the taste and other desirable properties are affected.  The process was named after its inventor, French scientist [[Pasteur]].  See [[dairy product]]s.
> 
> 
------
Pasteurization|990035517
1c1
< Pasteurization is the process of killing off [[bacteria]] in [[milk]] by quickly heating it to a near boiling temperature, then quickly cooling it again before the taste and other desirable properties are affected.  The process was named after its inventor, French scientist [[Pasteur]].  See [[dairy product]]s.
---
> Pasteurization is the process of killing off [[bacteria]] in [[milk]] by quickly heating it to a near boiling temperature, then quickly cooling it again before the taste and other desirable properties are affected.  The process was named after its inventor, French scientist [[Louis Pasteur]].  See also [[dairy product]]s.
------
Louis_Pasteur|990035567
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> French [[scientist]] who studied [[bacteria]], discovered [[penicillin]] and invented the process of [[pasteurization]].
> 
> 
------
20th_century/Infectious_disease_Talk|990035657
7c7
< Estimates of historic population levels look like the letter L on its back.  There is a upward slope during the period of classical antiquity, and an upward slope in the period of the Renaissance.  At about the time of Louis Pasteur, the graph turns abruptly skyward. - TS
---
> Estimates of historic population levels look like the letter L on its back.  There is a upward slope during the period of classical antiquity, and an upward slope in the period of the Renaissance.  At about the time of [[Louis Pasteur]], the graph turns abruptly skyward. - TS
------
Biotic|990035740
3c3
<        Referring to a factor in the environment that is alive, such as animals, plants, and bacteria.  
---
>        Referring to a factor in the environment that is alive, such as [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, and [[bacteria]].  
------
Soft_drink|990036026
12c12,13
< 
---
> *[[Red Bull]] (Austria)
> *[[Almdudler]] (Austria, called a lemonade but made with cabbageand flowers)
15c16
< Help me: Are all soft drinks [[carbonated]], or does [[lemonade]] count as a soft drink aswell?
---
> Help me: Are all soft drinks [[carbonated]], or does [[lemonade]] count as a soft drink as well?
16a18
> In America, soft drink denotes a carbonated drink, regionaly known in the North as "pop", in the South as "soda", in between as "soda pop", and in Atlanta as "coke". In German, soft drinks are known as limo, the German word for lemonade but in America lemonade is just a beverage, not a soft drink. 
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|990036052
1c1
< A brain disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, gait disorder, rigid posture, and seizures due to a rapid loss of cerebral cells caused by transmissible proteins called [[prion]]s.  The incidence of the disease is about 2 per 1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an average disease onset age of 50. 
---
> A [[brain]] disorder characterized by memory loss, jerky movements, [[gait]] disorder, rigid [[posture]], and [[seizure]]s due to a rapid loss of [[cerebral cell]]s caused by transmissible proteins called [[prion]]s.  The incidence of the disease is about 2 per 1,000,000 and it usually appears in mid-life with an average disease onset age of 50. 
3c3
< The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions.  The term 'Prion' was first used to denote poorly understood infectious agents responsible for neurodegenerative diseases found in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. The word is derived from a combination of the words "proteinaceous infectious particle."  It refers to the hypothesis (widely discounted when first proposed) that infectious agents causing such diseases consisted only of protein, with no nucleic acids.  All pathogens known prior to that time (bacteria, viruses, etc.) contain nucleic acids, which enable reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain why the mysterious infectious agent resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids) but responded to agents that disrupt proteins. 
---
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions.  The term 'Prion' was first used to denote poorly understood infectious agents responsible for neurodegenerative diseases found in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. The word is derived from a combination of the words "proteinaceous infectious particle."  It refers to the hypothesis (widely discounted when first proposed) that infectious agents causing such diseases consisted only of protein, with no nucleic acids.  All [[pathogen]]s known prior to that time ([[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, etc.) contain [[nucleic acid]]s, which enable reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain why the mysterious infectious agent resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids) but responded to agents that disrupt [[protein]]s. 
7c7
< The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob exhibits an amino acid sequence and configuration which makes it insoluble in water - while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. So, as the numbers of defective prion proteins propogate and increase exponentially, the process leads to a huge load of insoluble prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months’ time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or it can be inherited (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
---
> The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob exhibits an amino acid sequence and configuration which makes it insoluble in water - while the normal prion protein is highly soluble. So, as the numbers of defective prion proteins propogate and increase exponentially, the process leads to a huge load of insoluble prions in affected cells.  This load of proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain like a forest fire and the patient dies within a few months? time (a few patients live for about 1-2 years). The defective protein can be transmitted by growth hormone products, corneal grafts or dural grafts (acquired form) or it can be inherited (hereditary form) or appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form). In the latter two forms the defective protein is not transmitted from an external source but already exists in the genes of the individual.  [[Cannibalism]] has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions.
9c9
< Diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and certain characteristic atypical electroencephalography findings.  Biopsy of living brain tissue is definitive.  There is no treatment for the disease. 
---
> Diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and certain characteristic atypical [[electroencephalography]] findings.  [[Biopsy]] of living brain tissue is definitive.  There is no treatment for the disease. 
11c11
< A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of bovines with so-called mad cow disease (bovine spongiform encephalopathy), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
---
> A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of [[bovine]]s with so-called [[mad cow disease]] ([[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]]), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
13c13,17
< There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German neurologists, who first described this disease, are Creutzfeldt and Jakob. Interestingly, most of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering from a completely different disorder.
---
> There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German [[neurologist]]s, who first described this disease, are [[Creutzfeldt]] and [[Jakob]]. Interestingly, most of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering from a completely different disorder.
> 
> ----
> 
> Could we have the forenames of these Germans, please? --[[LA2]]
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|990036196
11c11
< A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of [[bovine]]s with so-called [[mad cow disease]] ([[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]]), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
---
> A new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of psychiatric and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of [[bovine]]s with so-called mad cow disease ([[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]]), although there is no definite proof of this association, as yet.
17c17
< Could we have the forenames of these Germans, please? --[[LA2]]
---
> Could we have the forenames of these Germans, please? --[[LA2]]
------
Cannibalism|990036252
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The act of eating the same species, e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
> 
> 
------
Cannibalism|990036280
1c1
< The act of eating the same species, e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
---
> The act of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
------
Seven_Years_War|990036282
1c1
< The first war with a truly global area of conflict, the Seven Years War pitted Great Britain, Prussia and Hanover against France, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Saxony. A force from the neutral Netherlands was even attacked in India. Continental battles were largely draws and boundaries were returned to pre-war places in the [[Treaty of Hubertusburg]].
---
> The first [[war]] with a truly global area of conflict, the Seven Years War pitted [[Great Britain]], [[Prussia]] and [[Hanover]] against [[France]], [[Austria]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], and [[Saxony]]. A force from the neutral [[Netherlands]] was even attacked in [[India]]. Continental battles were largely draws and boundaries were returned to pre-war places in the [[Treaty of Hubertusburg]].
3c3
< Great Britain battled France across India, North America, Europe, the Carribean isles, and coastal Africa. During the 1750's up to 1763, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French. [[Robert Clive]] ran the French from India, and [[James Wolfe]] crushed the French and so conquered [[Canada]] (New France).  The English returned most French Caribean islands at the end of the war but kept Canada. These islands produced great quantities of sugar which England already had access to on their own islands but which the French considered more valuable than the vast, mostly unsettled lands of Canada. The British-French hostilities were ended with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1763.
---
> Great Britain battled France across India, [[North America]], [[Europe]], the [[Carribean]] isles, and coastal [[Africa]]. During the 1750's up to 1763, Great Britain gained enormous areas of land and influence at the expense of the French. [[Robert Clive]] ran the French from India, and [[James Wolfe]] crushed the French and so conquered [[Canada]] (New France).  The English returned most French Caribean islands at the end of the war but kept Canada. These islands produced great quantities of [[sugar]] which England already had access to on their own islands but which the French considered more valuable than the vast, mostly unsettled lands of Canada. The British-French hostilities were ended with the [[Treaty of Paris]] in 1763.
------
Family_name|990036406
1c1
< The part of the name of a person that indicates to what [[family]] it belongs is a <i>family name</i>.
---
> The part of the name of a person that indicates to what [[family]] he or she belongs is a <i>family name</i>. Also known as a surname. 
8c8
< Other countries where this is the case are (UK?, Australia? ).
---
> Other countries where this is the case are (UK, Australia, France, Germany, Poland). 
20c20
< In other cultures, like the chinese, the family name is actually
---
> In other cultures, like the Chinese and Hungarian, the family name is actually
------
IEEE|990036424
5c5
< Some famouse IEEE committees are
---
> Some famous IEEE committees are
------
Genealogy|990036494
9c9
< In most cultures, the name of a person includes in a way or other
---
> In most cultures, the name of a person includes in one way or another
12c12
< it is the <i>last</i> name, a more general form is [[family name]].
---
> it is the <i>last</i> name, a more general form is [[family name]] or [[surname]].
------
Bacteria|990036494
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A one-cell living organism.  See also [[virus]], [[fungi]], [[disease]], [[DNA]].
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990036761
13c13,15
< I haven't noticed any changes whatsoever -- [[WojPob]]
---
> I haven't noticed any changes whatsoever -- [[WojPob]]
> ----
> Seems to be running reasonably fast for me, except for the search, which naturally doesn't scale very well in its current form. Of course, I only have a 28.8 dialup... -- [[STG]]
------
Soft_drink|990036769
4a5
> *[[Dansk Citronvand]] (Denmark: carbonated lemonade)
18c19,21
< In America, soft drink denotes a carbonated drink, regionaly known in the North as "pop", in the South as "soda", in between as "soda pop", and in Atlanta as "coke". In German, soft drinks are known as limo, the German word for lemonade but in America lemonade is just a beverage, not a soft drink. 
---
> In America, soft drink denotes a carbonated drink, regionaly known in the North as "pop", in the South as "soda", in between as "soda pop", and in Atlanta as "coke". In German, soft drinks are known as limo, the German word for lemonade but in America lemonade is just a beverage, not a soft drink. 
> 
> Yeah, Swedish "lemonad" means carbonated soft drink, and the Swedish word for American lemonade is "lemon drink" or "lemon water" (citronvatten, citrondricka). --[[LA2]]
------
H._G._Wells|990036906
21a22
> :In the Days of the Comet (1906)
32d32
< :In the Days of the Comet
------
Belgian_Blue|990037005
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The belgian blue cows are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily bred breed, producing incredible amounts of meat. The problem is that they have trouble supporting themselves and they are unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
> 
> Some countries (like [[Sweden]]) don't allow belgian blue.
------
Belgian_Blue|990037044
1c1
< The belgian blue cows are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily bred breed, producing incredible amounts of meat. The problem is that they have trouble supporting themselves and they are unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
---
> The belgian blue [[cows]] are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily bred breed, producing incredible amounts of meat. The problem is that they have trouble supporting themselves and they are unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
------
Belgian_Blue|990037085
1c1
< The belgian blue [[cows]] are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily bred breed, producing incredible amounts of meat. The problem is that they have trouble supporting themselves and they are unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
---
> The belgian blue [[Cattle|cow]] are also called "monster cows". They are a heavily bred breed, producing incredible amounts of meat. The problem is that they have trouble supporting themselves and they are unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|990037557
11a12
> * [[/The Myth of the Lone Inventor]]
------
Gabon/Economy|990037588
2c2
< Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. This has supported a sharp decline in extreme poverty; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Despite the abundance of natural wealth, the economy is hobbled by poor fiscal management. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its Francophone currency by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time inflationary surge, to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The IMF provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year Enhanced Financing Facility (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in privatization and fiscal discipline. France provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, overborrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. With support from higher oil prices, growth will move up in 2000-01.
---
> Gabon enjoys a [[per capita income]] four times that of most nations of [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. This has supported a sharp decline in [[extreme poverty]]; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on [[timber]] and [[manganese]] until [[oil]] was discovered [[offshore]] in the early [[1970s]]. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of [[GDP]]. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and [[uranium]] exports. Despite the abundance of natural wealth, the economy is hobbled by poor [[fiscal management]]. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle [[arrear]]s on its [[bilateral]] debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. [[Devaluation]] of its [[Francophone currency]] by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time [[inflationary surge]], to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The [[IMF]] provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year [[Enhanced Financing Facility]] (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in [[privatization]] and [[fiscal discipline]]. [[France]] provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, overborrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. With support from higher oil prices, growth will move up in 2000-01.
4c4
< purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (1999 est.)
---
> [[purchasing power]] parity - $7.9 billion (1999 est.)
28c28
< agriculture 60%, services and government 25%, industry and commerce 15%
---
> [[agriculture]] 60%, [[services]] and [[government]] 25%, [[industry]] and [[commerce]] 15%
37c37
< food and beverage; textile; lumbering and plywood; cement; petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, uranium, and gold mining; chemicals; ship repair
---
> [[food]] and [[beverage]]; [[textile]]; [[lumbering]] and [[plywood]]; [[cement]]; [[petroleum extraction and refining]]; [[manganese]], [[uranium]], and [[gold mining]]; [[chemicals]]; [[ship repair]]
58c58
< cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish
---
> [[cocoa]], [[coffee]], [[sugar]], [[palm oil]], [[rubber]]; [[cattle]]; [[okoume]] (a [[tropical softwood]]); [[fish]]
62c62
< crude oil 75%, timber, manganese, uranium (1998)
---
> [[crude oil]] 75%, [[timber]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]] (1998)
64c64
< US 68%, China 9%, France 8%, Japan 3% (1998)
---
> [[United States|US]] 68%, [[China]] 9%, [[France]] 8%, [[Japan]] 3% (1998)
68c68
< machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum products, construction materials
---
> [[machinery]] and [[equipment]], [[foodstuff]]s, [[chemical]]s, [[petroleum product]]s, [[construction material]]s
70c70
< France 39%, US 6%, Cameroon 5%, Netherlands 5%, Cote d'Ivoire, Japan (1998)
---
> [[France]] 39%, [[United States|US]] 6%, [[Cameroon]] 5%, [[Netherlands]] 5%, [[Cote dIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Japan]] (1998)
76c76
< 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
---
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine [[franc]] ([[CFAF]]) = 100 [[centime]]s
81,82c81,82
< <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
< calendar year
---
> <p><b>[[Fiscal year]]:</b>
> [[calendar year]]
------
Cyprus/Geography|990037589
2c2
< Middle East, island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Turkey
---
> [[Middle East]], island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], south of [[Turkey]]
15c15
< about 0.6 times the size of Connecticut
---
> about 0.6 times the size of [[Connecticut]]
35c35
< copper, pyrites, asbestos, gypsum, timber, salt, marble, clay earth pigment
---
> [[copper]], [[pyrites]], [[asbestos]], [[gypsum]], [[timber]], [[salt]], [[marble]], [[clay earth pigment]]
50c50
< moderate earthquake activity
---
> moderate [[earthquake]] activity
52c52
< water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifer, increased salination in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
---
> [[water]] resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest [[aquifer]], increased [[salination]] in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
55c55
< Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
---
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
------
Requested_articles|990037596
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]] -- [[Boney M]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Benin/Geography|990037730
2c2
< Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Nigeria and Togo
---
> Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic]] Ocean, between [[Nigeria]] and [[Togo]]
15c15
< slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
---
> slightly smaller than [[Pennsylvania]]
20c20
< Burkina Faso 306 km, Niger 266 km, Nigeria 773 km, Togo 644 km
---
> [[Burkina Faso]] 306 km, [[Niger]] 266 km, [[Nigeria]] 773 km, [[Togo]] 644 km
36c36
< small offshore oil deposits, limestone, marble, timber
---
> small offshore [[oil]] deposits, [[limestone]], [[marble]], [[timber]]
------
Relay_league|990037772
3c3
< Radio amateurs have been early in arranging relay leagues, as is reflected in the name of the organization of American Radio Relay League (ARRL), http://www.arrl.org/
---
> Radio amateurs have been early in arranging relay leagues, as is reflected in the name of the organization of [[American Radio Relay League]] (ARRL), http://www.arrl.org/
------
Uranium|990037802
0a1,6
> 1. a [[metal]] and [[element]], see below
> 
> 2. the [[industry]] or [[trade]] of [[mining]], [[refining]], and [[selling]] this metal for use in [[nuclear power]] generation or weapons
> 
> ----
> 
11c17
< rest of the atom doesn't participate at all).
---
> rest of the atom doesn't participate at all).
------
Periodic_table|990037858
1c1
< A listing of the different [[Chemical Element|chemical elements]], arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
---
> A listing of the different [[chemical element]]s, arranged by electron structure so that many chemical properties vary regularly across the table.  With horizontal and vertical reversed from the normal orientation:
------
Jules_Verne|990037865
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the originators of what later came to be called science fiction, Jules Verne lived from 1828 to 1905.
> 
> Most famous works:
> 
> A Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864)
> From the Earth to the Moon (1866)
> 20000 Leagues under the Sea (1870)
> Around the World in 80 Days (1873)
> Mysterious Island (1874)
------
Love|990037876
1,3c1,2
< Very special affection for some one or something. Is a [[feeling]]. Sceptics describe it a chemical reaction in the human brain.
< 
< Los Angeles based [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s.  See [[Love/Band]].
---
> # Very special affection for someone or something, a [[feeling]]. Sceptics describe it as a chemical reaction in the human brain.
> # [[Los Angeles]] based [[rock and roll]] band of the late [[1960s]].  See [[Love/Band]].
------
Uranium|990037880
1c1
< 1. a [[metal]] and [[element]], see below
---
> 1. a [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], see below
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990037901
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I've done a lot of editing lately on Wiki pages about inventors and technologies.  As an experienced computer programmer and long-time fan of science and technology, I'm happy to contribute to what I consider important topics.  Though I believe the changes I have made are accurate and important, I'd like to come clean here about a certain bias I have, and explain why I have made some of those changes.
> 
> There is a tendency among many to believe in what I call ''The Myth of the Lone Inventor'': the feeling that individual inventors are uniquely insightful human beings who heroically create out of their minds new historically significant ideas, ''ex nihilo''.  In the rare case, that may be true.  But almost universally,  when history credits "Inventor A" with the invention of "Device B", it is at best an oversimplification and usually just plain wrong.  The inventors that get historical credit are usually those who made a commercial success of the idea: Gutenberg's press, Marconi's radio, Edison's light bulb.  Those men do deserve credit for their contributions to society, but in each case it was not because they "created" something new, but  because they "developed" earlier discoveries into practical, usable products.  The scientists who actually discover things are sometimes forgotten, as are the many other inventors using the same ideas who didn't become as successful.  Other scientists might know names like Oersted and Faraday, but even they can only speculate about what inspired ''them''.
> 
> It's not that I have anything against industrious inventors getting the credit they deserve; the problem is that according them an exaggerated awe and reverence gives a mistaken impression of the process of invention.  When it is believed that inventions spring from acts of creative inspiration in the minds of geniuses, people may believe that it takes more education and talent than they possess to create things, and may be discouraged from engaging in the ''real'' process of invention, which is an accumulation of small incremental changes to exiting ideas, combination and division of existing ideas, and old fashioned hard work.
> 
> It is tempting for educators and encyclopedists to think in terms of simple attributions like "Tim Berners-Lee created the World Wide Web".  Such simple factoids are easy to learn, easy to teach, and far easier to describe than the true detailed history of hundreds of scientists, engineers, writers, businessmen, and laymen who set the stage for Berners-Lee to create what he did, and who built on his work to make it into the Web we see today.  Berners-Lee does deserve a great deal of credit for creating what we now know of as the Web.  The ideas he used (hypertext, internet protocols, markup languages) were already well known, but he combined them  and modified them into a useful product that caught the imagination of many others, who then built further upon his ideas.  But the Web as we know it today would not exist without those who created such foundations and those who carried it further.
> 
> Let's also respect the role of culture and society for creating an environment that makes these creative acts possible and valuable.  Certainly the solutions chosen to solve a particular problem are often based as much on the cultural heritage of the solver as upon the technical issues.  In short, let's remember that invention is the endpoint of a long process of dicovery and communication, and you can't reach your destination without going through the journey.
> 
------
Chemical_element|990038029
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A chemical element is a [[chemical]] that consists of a single kind of atoms.  Chemical elements are listed in the [[periodic table]].
> 
> Chemicals that are not elements include [[water]], [[alloy]]s, [[salt]]s, [[oxide]]s, and [[organic chemical]]s.
> 
------
Harlan_Ellison|990038052
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> "Repent, Harlequin", said the Ticktockman
------
Cattle|990038107
2a3
> 
------
English_language|990038141
18a19
> 
------
Jules_Verne|990038260
1c1
< One of the originators of what later came to be called science fiction, Jules Verne lived from 1828 to 1905.
---
> Jules Verne, French writer (1828-1905). 
3c3
< Most famous works:
---
> He was one of the originators of what later came to be called [[science fiction]].
5,9c5,10
< A Journey to the Center of the Earth (1864)
< From the Earth to the Moon (1866)
< 20000 Leagues under the Sea (1870)
< Around the World in 80 Days (1873)
< Mysterious Island (1874)
---
> Most famous works:
> * [[/Journey to the Center of the Earth]] (1864)
> * [[/From the Earth to the Moon]] (1866)
> * [[/20000 Leagues under the Sea]] (1870)
> * [[/Around the World in 80 Days]] (1873)
> * [[/Mysterious Island]] (1874)
------
Chemical|990038309
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. a chemical is a either a [[chemical element]] or a matter with a distinguished composition of such elements.
> 
> 2. chemicals is the [[industry]] or [[trade]] of producing or manipulating such chemicals.
> 
> ----
> Does chemicals include [[mining]]?
> 
> Should def 2 be moved to "chemical industry" or something like that?  The idea with having this sort of an entry is to have a target to link to from descriptions of a nation's economy, such as [[Gabon/Economy]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Franc|990038436
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name of the [[currency]] in [[France]], [[Switzerland]], and several other [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]].  See also [[Francophone currency]].
> 
> One franc is typically divided into 100 [[centime]]s.
> 
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990038436
10a11,12
> -----
> Excellent article. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Centime|990038498
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name of the fraction currency in several [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]], where it is 1/100 of a [[franc]], including [[France]] and [[Switzerland]].
> 
> 
------
Centime|990038520
1,2c1
< The name of the fraction currency in several [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]], where it is 1/100 of a [[franc]], including [[France]] and [[Switzerland]].
< 
---
> The name of the fraction [[currency]] in several [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]], where it is 1/100 of a [[franc]], including [[France]] and [[Switzerland]].
------
Francophone|990038628
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Francophone is a French word that means French-speaking.  Francophone [[country|countries]] include France, parts of [[Switzerland]], parts of [[Canada]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former French colonies.
> 
------
Francophone|990038655
1c1
< Francophone is a French word that means French-speaking.  Francophone [[country|countries]] include France, parts of [[Switzerland]], parts of [[Canada]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former French colonies.
---
> Francophone is a French word that means French-speaking.  Francophone [[country|countries]] include [[France]], parts of [[Switzerland]], parts of [[Canada]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former French colonies.
------
Harlan_Ellison|990038708
0a1,5
> Harlan Ellison, [[science fiction]] writer (1934- ).
> 
> A very strong writer of short stories, Ellison has also served as creative consultants to the science fiction [[TV]] series [[The Twilight Zone]] and [[Babylon 5]].
> 
> One of his most famous stories is [[/Repent Harlequin said the Ticktockman|"Repent, Harlequin", said the Ticktockman]].
2d6
< "Repent, Harlequin", said the Ticktockman
------
Nunavut|990038729
3c3
< The capital of Nunavut is [[Iqaluit]]. Other major communities include [[Rankin Inlet]] and [[Cambridge Bay]].
---
> The capital of Nunavut is [[Iqaluit]]. Other major communities include [[Rankin Inlet]] and [[Cambridge Bay]]. Nunavut has a population of only about 25,000 spread over an area the size of Western Europe.
------
Louis_Pasteur|990038740
1c1
< French [[scientist]] who studied [[bacteria]], discovered [[penicillin]] and invented the process of [[pasteurization]].
---
> French [[scientist]] who studied [[bacteria]] and invented the process of [[pasteurization]].
------
GDP|990038834
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of the size of a country's economy.  It is defined as the sum of all sold products and services in the country.
> 
> 
------
Cote_DIvoire/Geography|990039055
2c2
< Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Ghana and Liberia
---
> Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic]] Ocean, between [[Ghana]] and [[Liberia]]
15c15
< slightly larger than New Mexico
---
> slightly larger than [[New Mexico]]
20c20
< Burkina Faso 584 km, Ghana 668 km, Guinea 610 km, Liberia 716 km, Mali 532 km
---
> [[Burkina Faso]] 584 km, [[Ghana]] 668 km, [[Guinea]] 610 km, [[Liberia]] 716 km, [[Mali]] 532 km
36c36
< Gulf of Guinea 0 m
---
> [[Gulf of Guinea]] 0 m
38c38
< Mont Nimba 1,752 m
---
> [[Mont Nimba]] 1,752 m
40c40
< petroleum, diamonds, manganese, iron ore, cobalt, bauxite, copper, hydropower
---
> [[petroleum]], [[diamonds]], [[manganese]], [[iron ore]], [[cobalt]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], [[hydropower]]
57c57
< deforestation (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents
---
> [[deforestation]] (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been cleared by the timber industry); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents
60c60
< Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
---
> [[Biodiversity]], [[Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]
------
Sub-Saharan_Africa|990039119
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The continent of [[Africa]] is sometimes divided into the predominantly [[Arab]] countries north of the [[Sahara]]n desert and the African proper parts south of the desert, which is then called sub-Saharan Africa (from sub: under, below, where the western traditional geographic projection has north up).
> 
------
Brazil/People|990039173
4c4
< Brazil took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
---
> [[Brazil]] took an intercensal count in August 1996 which reported a population of 157,079,573; that figure was about 5% lower than projections by the [[US Census Bureau]], which is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
48c48
< white (includes Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes Japanese, Arab, Amerindian) 1%
---
> white (includes [[Portuguese]], [[German]], [[Italian]], [[Spanish]], [[Polish]]) 55%, mixed white and black 38%, black 6%, other (includes [[Japanese]], [[Arab]], [[Amerindian]]) 1%
50c50
< Roman Catholic (nominal) 80%
---
> [[Roman Catholic]] (nominal) 80%
52c52
< Portuguese (official), Spanish, English, French
---
> [[Portuguese]] (official), [[Spanish]], [[English]], [[French]]
------
Atlas|990039188
22c22
< 4) In [[Geology]]/[[Geography]], a mountain system in northwest [[Africa]] extending about 2400km through [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]], and including [[Gibraltar | The Rock of Gibraltar]].  The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 4165 m (13,665 ft), located in southwestern Morocco.  The Atlas ranges separate the [[Mediterranean Sea | Mediterranean]] & [[Atlantic Ocean | Atlantic]] coastlines from the [[Sahara Desert]].
---
> 4) In [[Geology]]/[[Geography]], a mountain system in northwest [[Africa]] extending about 2400km through [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]], and including [[Gibraltar | The Rock of Gibraltar]].  The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 4165 m (13,665 ft), located in southwestern Morocco.  The Atlas ranges separate the [[Mediterranean Sea | Mediterranean]] & [[Atlantic Ocean | Atlantic]] coastlines from the [[Sahara]] Desert.
------
Penicillin|990039238
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Penicillin''' is an [[antibiotic]] produced by the ''Penicillium notatum'' mold.  It was discovered in 1929 by [[Alexander Fleming]], who first used it to control bacterial infection.  American scientists [Ernst Boris Chain] and [Howard Walter Florey], who created a method for mass producing the drug, shared the 1945 [[Nobel Prize]] in medicine with Fleming.
> 
------
Sahara|990039261
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The world's biggest [[desert]], in northern [[Africa]], dividing the continent into the [[Arab]] parts north of it and the [[sub-Saharan Africa]] south thereof.
> 
> 
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990039367
1c1,3
< Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon.
---
> Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon. 
> 
> The Lord of the Rings is heavily influenced by Tolkien interest in linguistics, fairy tales and Norse and Celtic mythology. Tolkien designed a complete mythology for his realm of [[Middle Earth]], including genealogies of characters, languages, runes, calenders and histories.
------
Desert|990039437
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[physical geography]], a form of landscape with none or very little organic life.
> 
> Great deserts include:
> *[[Sahara]] in Africa
> *[[Australia]] - do their deserts have names?
> *that one in China ... eh ...
> 
> 
------
Physical_geography|990039500
7a8
> [[desert]],
18a20
> [[savanna]],
------
Wiki_Administrators|990039619
50a51,54
> ----
> [[Stephen Gilbert]]'s opinion: I think that Wikipedia should be very cautious about giving out such major powers freely. Take a look at this Slashdot story on Everything2's one millionth node, paying particular attention to comments from current and former Everything2 users: http://slashdot.org/articles/01/03/29/2035230_F.shtml
> 
> As Wikipedia grows, we will have more people with wildly different ideas of how things should be done. Even now, with our very small number of regulars, we've had some pretty intense conflicts. Right now, everyone has a similar and useful set of powers; we are all able to create, edit and redirect pages, as well as the all-important ability to restore previous versions. The power to <i>completely delete</i> pages (along with the revision history) is very dangerous, and is something like giving everyone nuclear weapons. Once one is launched, everyone launches their own, and any damage is largely irreversable.
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990039652
3c3
< The Lord of the Rings is heavily influenced by Tolkien interest in linguistics, fairy tales and Norse and Celtic mythology. Tolkien designed a complete mythology for his realm of [[Middle Earth]], including genealogies of characters, languages, runes, calenders and histories.
---
> The Lord of the Rings is heavily influenced by Tolkien's interest in linguistics, fairy tales and [[Norse]] and [[Celtic]] [[mythology]]. Tolkien designed a complete mythology for his realm of [[Middle Earth]], including genealogies of characters, languages, runes, calenders and histories.
------
Desert|990039838
6c6,7
< *that one in China ... eh ...
---
> *[[Gobi]]
> 
------
Physical_geography|990039876
12c12
< [[lake]]
---
> [[lake]],
21c21
< [[valley]]
---
> [[valley]].
------
Wiki_Administrators|990040295
54a55,56
> -----
> I don't really see why it should be possible to delete the revision history of anything. If some version of a page contains gross slander or something like that it might be an idea, but it could be done in better ways. Either the revision history could be hidden before a certain point, or there could be a command to erase just one specific delta of the revision history. I think most revision control systems have options to remove deltas that are no longer needed, leaving older and newer ones. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Algeria/Background|990040388
1,7c1
< Background: After a century of rule by France, Algeria became independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the
< fundamentalist FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) party in December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS,
< and postpone the subsequent elections. The FIS response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state
< apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. FIS's armed
< wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, dissolved itself in January 2000 and many armed insurgents surrendered under an amnesty
< program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, some residual fighting continues. Other concerns include
< large-scale unemployment and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy. 
---
> Background: After a century of rule by [[France]], [[Algeria]] became independent in 1962. The surprising first round success of the [[fundamentalist]] FIS ([[Islamic Salvation Front]]) party in December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS, and postpone the subsequent elections. The FIS response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. FIS's armed wing, the [[Islamic Salvation Army]], dissolved itself in January 2000 and many armed insurgents surrendered under an amnesty program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, some residual fighting continues. Other concerns include large-scale unemployment and the need to diversify the petroleum-based economy. 
------
1977|990040581
14a15,16
> 
> [[Elvis Presley]] dies.
------
TheTeleologicalArgument|990040666
3c3
< It is called "teleological" from <i>telos</i>, the Greek word meaning "purpose or end."  As we will see, the argument refers to the purposes or ends which we see all around us in the world.  It is also called "the argument from design."  And it goes like this.
---
> It is called "teleological" from <i>[[telos]]</i>, the Greek word meaning "purpose or end."  As we will see, the argument refers to the purposes or ends which we see all around us in the world.  It is also called "the [[argument from design]]."  And it goes like this.
5c5
< Look around the world, and observe how everything fits together in one enormous, beautiful system.  The planets orbit the sun, the earth rotates on its axis, and the moon orbits the earth, creating regular seasons, days, and ocean tides.  The continents each contain complex, rich ecosystems which are themselves marvels of organization and interdependency.  And as we look at individual organisms our amazement increases: every being seems designed to carry out the functions that are natural to it.  Hawks are equipped with excellent eyesight in order to catch small prey; camels are equipped with water-retaining humps for long treks through the desert; and humans are equipped with minds that allow them to think of ways to protect their relatively weak, hairless, slow bodies.  When we think about the universe in this way, we are struck with how every part of it seems to be <i>well</i>-<i>designed</i>, as though there were an architect or engineer behind it.  So much in the world seems to have a <i>purpose</i> behind it.  And how can things have <i>purposes</i>, without an intelligence giving them those purposes?  Indeed, the universe is like one giant machine.  And so, just as machines have designers, the universe must have had a designer with certain purposes for its creation.
---
> Look around the world, and observe how everything fits together in one enormous, beautiful system.  The [[planet]]s orbit the [[Sun]], the [[Earth]] rotates on its axis, and the [[Moon]] orbits the Earth, creating regular seasons, days, and ocean tides.  The continents each contain complex, rich ecosystems which are themselves marvels of organization and interdependency.  And as we look at individual organisms our amazement increases: every being seems designed to carry out the functions that are natural to it.  Hawks are equipped with excellent eyesight in order to catch small prey; camels are equipped with water-retaining humps for long treks through the desert; and humans are equipped with minds that allow them to think of ways to protect their relatively weak, hairless, slow bodies.  When we think about the universe in this way, we are struck with how every part of it seems to be <i>well</i>-<i>designed</i>, as though there were an [[architect]] or [[engineer]] behind it.  So much in the world seems to have a <i>purpose</i> behind it.  And how can things have <i>purposes</i>, without an intelligence giving them those purposes?  Indeed, the universe is like one giant machine.  And so, just as machines have designers, the universe must have had a [[designer]] with certain purposes for its creation.
7c7
< This designer must have been a mind, in order to have those purposes; but this mind would have to be infinitely intelligent, because it designed absolutely everything in the universe.  And since this mind created the universe, it would also have to be infinitely powerful.  Finally, this mind has adapted nature so that, if we live well, we can be happy; so this mind must be benevolent.  That means then that there is a mind, infinitely intelligent, powerful, and benevolent, that designed and created the universe.  And that is just what we mean by "God."  Therefore, God exists.
---
> This designer must have been a mind, in order to have those purposes; but this mind would have to be infinitely intelligent, because it designed absolutely everything in the universe.  And since this mind created the universe, it would also have to be infinitely powerful.  Finally, this mind has adapted nature so that, if we live well, we can be happy; so this mind must be benevolent.  That means then that there is a mind, infinitely intelligent, powerful, and benevolent, that designed and created the universe.  And that is just what we mean by "God."  Therefore, [[God]] exists.
9c9
< Unlike the cosmological argument, the teleological argument allows us to infer various things about the <i>nature</i> of God.  The cosmological argument only allows us to conclude that a "first cause" exists; but it’s not clear that that "first cause" has to be a personal God, a God of a sort which we would want to praise and worship.  The teleological argument, on the other hand, is supposed to tell us that God is intelligent and loving.  That is one reason why a lot of Christians use design arguments to support their belief; scientifically-minded believers, especially, see evidence of design, by a caring God, all around them.  So the teleological argument is supposed to give us reason to believe in the sort of God that is worth worshipping.
---
> Unlike the [[cosmological argument]], the teleological argument allows us to infer various things about the <i>nature</i> of God.  The cosmological argument only allows us to conclude that a "[[first cause]]" exists; but it is not clear that that "first cause" has to be a personal God, a God of a sort which we would want to praise and worship.  The teleological argument, on the other hand, is supposed to tell us that God is intelligent and loving.  That is one reason why a lot of Christians use design arguments to support their belief; scientifically-minded believers, especially, see evidence of design, by a caring God, all around them.  So the teleological argument is supposed to give us reason to believe in the sort of God that is worth worshipping.
11c11
< But let’s turn to the inevitable criticisms of the argument.  The first criticism should not take long to state, just because it should be familiar to almost all of you.  Namely, that there was this guy named Darwin, who came up with the theory of evolution, which explains the <i>appearance</i> of design in the universe, but the theory of evolution doesn’t require a designer.  In other words, in showing how the biological world might have, or has, evolved from lower life forms, Darwin (and of course almost all biologists after him) showed why there <i>appears</i> to be design in the world; and at the same time he showed that there is no need to suppose that there was an actual <i>designer</i> to explain this appearance of design.
---
> But let’us turn to the inevitable criticisms of the argument.  The first criticism should not take long to state, just because it should be familiar to almost all of you.  Namely, that there was this guy named [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], who came up with the [[theory of evolution]], which explains the <i>appearance</i> of design in the universe, but the theory of evolution does not require a designer.  In other words, in showing how the biological world might have, or has, evolved from lower life forms, Darwin (and of course almost all biologists after him) showed why there <i>appears</i> to be design in the world; and at the same time he showed that there is no need to suppose that there was an actual <i>designer</i> to explain this appearance of design.
13c13
< In short, the reason that Darwin and the theory of evolution is as hated as they are, by some religious people, is that they undermine support for the teleological argument.  The appearance of design, say the evolutionary theorists, does not require a designer.  But notice, the teleological argument is only <i>one</i> argument of God.  So, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> the theory of evolution undercuts support for the teleological argument, that <i>doesn’t</i> mean that there is no way to rationally justify belief in God.  There are <i>plenty</i> of other arguments.  Much less is the theory of evolution in any way, shape, or form an argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  At worst, from the theist’s point of view, the theory of evolution makes just <i>one</i> argument for the existence of God less plausible.
---
> In short, the reason that Darwin and the theory of evolution is as hated as they are, by some religious people, is that they undermine support for the teleological argument.  The appearance of design, say the evolutionary theorists, does not require a designer.  But notice, the teleological argument is only <i>one</i> argument of God.  So, <i>even</i> <i>if</i> the theory of evolution undercuts support for the teleological argument, that <i>doesn’t</i> mean that there is no way to rationally justify belief in God.  There are <i>plenty</i> of other arguments.  Much less is the theory of evolution in any way, shape, or form an argument <i>against</i> the existence of God.  At worst, from the [[theist]]'s point of view, the theory of evolution makes just <i>one</i> argument for the existence of God less plausible.
15c15
< And the theory of evolution is, I might add, <i>totally</i> <i>compatible</i> with the view that God designed and created the universe.  He would simply have chosen to create the natural world gradually.  Some Christians even say that God guides the process of evolution.
---
> And the theory of evolution is, I might add, <i>totally</i> <i>compatible</i> with the view that God designed and created the universe.  He would simply have chosen to create the natural world gradually.  Some [[Christian]]s even say that God guides the process of evolution.
19c19
< Here is a second criticism of the teleological argument.  David Hume is famous for coming up with a series of powerful criticisms.  But I’m going to focus in on what I believe is Hume’s most devastating criticism.
---
> Here is a second criticism of the teleological argument.  [[David Hume]] is famous for coming up with a series of powerful criticisms.  But I’am going to focus in on what I believe is Hume's most devastating criticism.
21c21
< I told you that the design argument is supposed, by its defenders, to prove the existence of the sort of God that is worth worshipping, right?  Well, Hume called that into question.  Be forewarned, the following is rather irreverent; but that’s because Hume himself was a very irreverent person.
---
> I told you that the design argument is supposed, by its defenders, to prove the existence of the sort of God that is worth worshipping, right?  Well, Hume called that into question.  Be forewarned, the following is rather irreverent; but that’is because Hume himself was a very irreverent person.
25c25
< But why do we say that there is just <i>one</i> God?  If we are arguing by analogy, why don’t we say that there is a committee of Gods that has designed the universe?  Maybe Zeus designed space and the sky and the weather; Poseidon designed the oceans and lakes; Demeter designed the earth; and so on.  What reason do we have, as far as the teleological argument goes, to think that there is just one God?  No doubt some scientifically unsophisticated peoples have thought that there are many gods precisely <i>because</i> <i>of</i> something like the design argument.  Sensibly, different gods are then assigned to different aspects of the universe; the division of labor makes sense.  Creating a universe is a big job!
---
> But why do we say that there is just <i>one</i> God?  If we are arguing by analogy, why don't we say that there is a committee of Gods that has designed the universe?  Maybe [[Zeus]] designed space and the sky and the weather; [[Poseidon]] designed the oceans and lakes; [[Demeter]] designed the earth; and so on.  What reason do we have, as far as the teleological argument goes, to think that there is just one God?  No doubt some scientifically unsophisticated peoples have thought that there are many gods precisely <i>because</i> <i>of</i> something like the design argument.  Sensibly, different gods are then assigned to different aspects of the universe; the division of labor makes sense.  Creating a universe is a big job!
29c29
< For that matter, why couldn’t God be a child, and our world is just his first attempt at worldmaking, an attempt of which he is now embarrassed?  The teleological argument tells us nothing to confirm or deny such a possibility.  Or perhaps when God created the universe he was a very old deity, and was about to die, and then after creating the universe he died.  The designers of machines die all the time.  If <i>all</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>know</i> <i>about</i> <i>God</i> is that God designed the universe, and so is like the designers of machines, then we have no way of knowing that God is <i>immortal</i>.
---
> For that matter, why couldn't God be a child, and our world is just his first attempt at worldmaking, an attempt of which he is now embarrassed?  The teleological argument tells us nothing to confirm or deny such a possibility.  Or perhaps when God created the universe he was a very old deity, and was about to die, and then after creating the universe he died.  The designers of machines die all the time.  If <i>all</i> <i>that</i> <i>we</i> <i>know</i> <i>about</i> <i>God</i> is that God designed the universe, and so is like the designers of machines, then we have no way of knowing that God is <i>immortal</i>.
31c31
< I think you get the idea.  Suppose that we admit that God is like the designer of machines; that doesn’t allow us to conclude that the <i>Christian</i> God exists.  And I honestly do not know how the defender of the teleological argument can get around that objection.
---
> I think you get the idea.  Suppose that we admit that God is like the designer of machines; that doesn't allow us to conclude that the <i>Christian</i> God exists.  And I honestly do not know how the defender of the teleological argument can get around that objection.
------
Elvis_Presley|990040802
1,3c1
< Elvis Presley was a musical performer in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].
< 
< Elvis Presley performed [[rock and roll]] music.
---
> Elvis Presley, [[American]] singer (1935-1977). 
4a3
> He produced lots of famous [[rock and roll]] songs in the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. He also did various appearances in movies, often with more music than plot.
5a5
> After his death, there have been numerous [[conspiracy theories]] and [[Elvis sightings]].
6a7,10
> Some examples of his songs
> * [[/Are You Lonesome Tonight]]
> * [[/Heartbreak Hotel]]
> * [[/Jailhouse Rock]]
------
Napoleon|990041073
4c4
< Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Prussia]], [[Lithuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]]. (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed to keep control over his Empire because,(most importantly) the Russian Czar and the United Kingdom resisted.
---
> Had control for periods of time of [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Holland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Prussia]], [[Lithuania]], big parts of [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]]. (I have probably forgotten most of it). Failed to keep control over his Empire because,(most importantly) the Russian Czar and the [[United Kingdom]] resisted.
6,7c6,7
< After beeing defeated in the battle of ?? it was relegated to
< ??, a small island in the Mediterranean that he could govern
---
> After being defeated in the battle of ?? it was relegated to
> ??, a small island in the [[Mediterranean]] that he could govern
10c10
< as leader, and arrived at Paris and governed by 100 days.
---
> as leader, and arrived at [[Paris]] and governed by 100 days.
12c12
< After is final defeat in Waterloo (?), he was imprisoned by the British and held prisoner on [[Saint Helena]] where he dedicated his last years to writing his memoires, and died.
---
> After is final defeat in [[Waterloo]] (?), he was imprisoned by the British and held prisoner on [[Saint Helena]] where he dedicated his last years to writing his memoires, and died.
------
Hydrology|990041119
1c1
< On a large scale, hydrology is the study of water, and how it cycles through our environment.  There are several different aspects, such as ocean hydrology, which deal with [[salinity]], and the effect of certain [[biotic]] and [[abiotic]] factors on the ecosystems in the water.  There is also the study of how water, and the [[pollutants]] that come with it, flow through the ground.  Groundwater is a major area of interest, as is acidification.
---
> On a large scale, hydrology is the study of [[water]], and how it cycles through our environment.  There are several different aspects, such as ocean hydrology, which deal with [[salinity]], and the effect of certain [[biotic]] and [[abiotic]] factors on the [[ecosystems]] in the water.  There is also the study of how water, and the [[pollutants]] that come with it, flow through the ground.  [[Groundwater]] is a major area of interest, as is [[acidification]].
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990041331
12a13,17
> ----
> 
> [[LA2]]: From a distance, you see one thing (a forest).  When you move closer, you see another thing (trees).  If all you care about [[electromagnetism]] is three words, then they should be "[[Hans Christian Orsted|Ørsted]] discovered it".  If you want to study the subject closer, you know that you could start out with Ørsted's name.  Data reduction could be the [[brain]]'s most important function, according to the book by Danish author [[Tor Norretranders|Tor Nørretranders]], "The User Illusion".  The [[optic nerve]] alone receives 10 Mbit/s of data, and the [[concious mind]] can only react on 10 bit/s.  (The actual reduction takes 0.5 seconds, and the user illusion is that we believe we recognize things immediately when we first see them.)  Training to recognize a familiar face is to program the brain to do this data reduction correctly and timely.  By summarizing our knowledge and experience in an encyclopedia, we can help others to get a first, graspable glimpse of something that is more complicated than they can immediately handle.  They will get an illusion of understanding, which can satisfy their need (you can't always get what you want, but sometimes you get what you need).  By [[writing]] we put our [[memory]] outside of our bodies (we [[externalization|externalize]] it).  By writing an [[encyclopedia]], we externalize our collective ability to abstract or conclude from experience.
> The need for abstractions inevitably brings frustrations to those who know the subject in more detail. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] has summarized a similar frustration in the preface to [[Tracatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "Was sich überhaupt sagen läßt, läßt sich klar sagen; und wovon man nicht reden kann, darüber muß man schweigen": '''What can be said at all, can be said clearly; and whereof one cannot speak thereof one must be silent'''.  Yet a similar frustration is the dotcom pessimist's dilemma: If you say you can sell sportswear over the Net, you will receive venture capital funding, but you get nothing for saying it cannot be done.  Thus, positive and negative knowledge doesn't have the same value.  Nobody is going to thank you for telling them [[Alexander Graham Bell]] is '''not''' the [[inventor]] of the [[telephone]].  That's a fact of life.
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990041436
15c15
< [[LA2]]: From a distance, you see one thing (a forest).  When you move closer, you see another thing (trees).  If all you care about [[electromagnetism]] is three words, then they should be "[[Hans Christian Orsted|Ørsted]] discovered it".  If you want to study the subject closer, you know that you could start out with Ørsted's name.  Data reduction could be the [[brain]]'s most important function, according to the book by Danish author [[Tor Norretranders|Tor Nørretranders]], "The User Illusion".  The [[optic nerve]] alone receives 10 Mbit/s of data, and the [[concious mind]] can only react on 10 bit/s.  (The actual reduction takes 0.5 seconds, and the user illusion is that we believe we recognize things immediately when we first see them.)  Training to recognize a familiar face is to program the brain to do this data reduction correctly and timely.  By summarizing our knowledge and experience in an encyclopedia, we can help others to get a first, graspable glimpse of something that is more complicated than they can immediately handle.  They will get an illusion of understanding, which can satisfy their need (you can't always get what you want, but sometimes you get what you need).  By [[writing]] we put our [[memory]] outside of our bodies (we [[externalization|externalize]] it).  By writing an [[encyclopedia]], we externalize our collective ability to abstract or conclude from experience.
---
> [[LA2]]: From a distance, you see one thing (a forest).  When you move closer, you see another thing (trees).  If all you care about [[electromagnetism]] is three words, then they should be "[[Hans Christian Orsted|Ørsted]] discovered it".  If you want to study the subject closer, you know that you could start out with Ørsted's name.  Data reduction could be the [[brain]]'s most important function, according to the book by Danish author [[Tor Norretranders|Tor Nørretranders]], "The User Illusion".  The [[optic nerve]] alone receives 10 Mbit/s of data, and the [[ConsciousNess|conscious mind]] can only react on 10 bit/s.  (The actual reduction takes 0.5 seconds, and the user illusion is that we believe we recognize things immediately when we first see them.)  Training to recognize a familiar face is to program the brain to do this data reduction correctly and timely.  By summarizing our knowledge and experience in an encyclopedia, we can help others to get a first, graspable glimpse of something that is more complicated than they can immediately handle.  They will get an illusion of understanding, which can satisfy their need (you can't always get what you want, but sometimes you get what you need).  By [[writing]] we put our [[memory]] outside of our bodies (we [[externalization|externalize]] it).  By writing an [[encyclopedia]], we externalize our collective ability to abstract or conclude from experience.
------
Tor_Norretranders|990041524
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Danish author of popular science.
> 
> Bibliography:
> 
> *The User Illusion
> 
------
Tor_Norretranders|990041550
1c1
< Danish author of popular science.
---
> Danish [[author]] of [[popular science]].
------
United_States/History|990041565
1c1
< The United States of America was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in Massachusetts.  In 1776, representatives of the thirteen North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared their independence in remarkable document primarily authored by [[Thomas Jefferson]], the [[Declaration of Indepedence]].  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  
---
> The [[United States|United States of America]] was founded from colonies established along the Atlantic Coast of [[North America]] by the [[British Empire]].  In 1775 frustration with various British crown practices led to revolt by colonists in [[Massachusetts]].  In 1776, representatives of the thirteen North American Colonies met in [[Philadelphia]] and declared their independence in a  remarkable document, the [[Declaration of Indepedence]], primarily authored by [[Thomas Jefferson]].  With the help of their French allies they were eventually able to win the [[American Revolutionary War]].  
5c5
< During the 19th century the country expanded greatly, and new states were added to the Union. Two importants events were the [[Louisiana Purchase]], where the [[United States]] bought from [[France]] all of its territories west of the Mississipi River, and the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], Utah and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as a state of the union, after American settlers declared independence from Mexico in the 1830's and joined the United States a decade later.
---
> During the [[19th century]] the country expanded greatly, and new states were added to the Union. Two importants events were the [[Louisiana Purchase]], where the [[United States]] bought from [[France]] all of its territories west of the [[Mississipi River]], and the [[US-Mexico War]], where the Unites States obtained [[California]], [[New Mexico]] (that included part of [[Arizona]], [[Utah]] and [[Nevada]]) and the recognition of [[Texas]] as a state of the union, after American settlers declared independence from [[Mexico]] in the [[1830s]] and joined the United States a decade later.
7c7
< Shortly after that, in response to the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], most of the southern states seceded from the union, forming the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued. U.S. military leadership was mediocre, at first, compared to Confederate generals, particularly [[Robert E. Lee]]. But the Union government managed after to invade the Southern states, and defeat the Confederate army, by means of an overwhelming advantage in materials and number of soldiers, and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[William T. Sherman]].
---
> Shortly after that, in response to the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]], most of the southern states seceded from the union, forming the [[Confederate States of America]]. A [[Civil War]] ensued. U.S. military leadership was mediocre, at first, compared to Confederate generals, particularly [[Robert E. Lee]]. But the Union government managed to invade the Southern states, and defeat the Confederate army, by means of an overwhelming advantage in materials and number of soldiers, and the gradual appearance of skilled generals like [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[William T. Sherman]].
11c11
< During the 20th century the U.S. was involved in two World Wars. Firmly maintaining neutrality when [[World War I]] began in 1914, the United States eventually entered the war after the [[Lusitania]], a British ship carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With American help, Great Britain, France and Italy won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on Germany in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].  The economic impact of the reparations mandated by the Treaty were so severe, that [[Adolf Hitler]] was easily able to convince the German people to elect him as their national leader in the early 1930's.
---
> During the [[20th century]] the U.S. was involved in two World Wars. Firmly maintaining neutrality when [[World War I]] began in 1914, the United States eventually entered the war after the [[Lusitania]], a British ship carrying many American passengers, was sunk by German submarines. With American help, [[Great Britain]], [[France]] and [[Italy]] won the war, and imposed severe economic penalties on [[Germany]] in the [[Treaty of Versailles]].  The economic impact of the reparations mandated by the Treaty were so severe, that [[Adolf Hitler]] was easily able to convince the German people to elect him as their national leader in the early [[1930s]].
15c15
< During most of the 1920's the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the [[Stock Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
---
> During most of the [[1920s]] the United States enjoyed a period of widespread prosperity and feverish economic growth.  This boom was stimulated by the extension of credit to a dangerous degree, including in the [[Stock Market]], which rose to dangerously inflated levels.
17c17
< The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels of unemployment. The depth and severity of the Depression were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash, and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
---
> The [[Stock Market]] crashed in 1929, and the economy sank into a severe depression, referred to by Americans as the "[[Great Depression]]", marked by punishing levels of unemployment. The depth and severity of the [[Depression]] were exacerbated by economic isolationist policies enacted by the U.S. government in response to the Stock Market crash, and the fact that American farmers had already been suffering from severe drought and depressed prices since the mid 1920's.
25c25
< Despite (or because of) these new programs, economic recovery was very slow.  The nadir of the Great Depression was about 1933, but the economy showed very little improvement through the end of the decade, and remained grim until it was dramatically reshaped through America's involvement in World War II.
---
> Despite (or because of) these new programs, economic recovery was very slow.  The nadir of the Great Depression was about 1933, but the economy showed very little improvement through the end of the decade, and remained grim until it was dramatically reshaped through America's involvement in [[World War II]].
28c28
< limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to Great Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.  American feeling changed drastically with the sudden Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the United States quickly joined the British-Soviet alliance against [[Japan]], Fascist Italy, and [[Nazi]] Germany, known as the "[[Axis]] Alliance".  Even with American participation, nearly four years to defeat Germany and Japan.  Though the Soviet Union suffered far more casualties than its allies, America's active involvement in the war was vital to preventing an eventual Axis victory.
---
> limiting itself to giving supplies and weapons to [[Great Britain]], [[China]], and the [[Soviet Union]].  American feeling changed drastically with the sudden Japanese attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], and the United States quickly joined the British-Soviet alliance against [[Japan]], [[Fascist]] Italy, and [[Nazi]] Germany, known as the "[[Axis]] Alliance".  Even with American participation, nearly four years to defeat Germany and Japan.  Though the Soviet Union suffered far more casualties than its allies, America's active involvement in the war was vital to preventing an eventual Axis victory.
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Tor_Norretranders|990041580
1c1
< Danish [[author]] of [[popular science]].
---
> Tor Nørretranders is a Danish [[author]] of [[popular science]].
------
Ludwig_Wittgenstein|990041691
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ludwig Wittgenstein was a German and English [[philosopher]]. His most famous work is the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
> 
> Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition at the University of Bergen in Norway, http://www.uib.no/
> 
> 
------
Philosopher|990041744
10c10
< [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- 
---
> [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
------
Elvis_Presley|990041761
5c5
< After his death, there have been numerous [[conspiracy theories]] and [[Elvis sightings]].
---
> After his death, there have been numerous [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] and [[Elvis sightings]].
------
Conspiracy_theory|990041785
18c18
< 
---
> :[[Elvis sightings]]
------
Soren_Kierkegaard|990041838
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish [[19th century]] [[philosopher]].  One of his famous ideas is that a useful teacher must find out where the pupil is, and guide him towards the goal from that point.
> 
> 
------
GDP|990041874
1c1
< The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of the size of a country's economy.  It is defined as the sum of all sold products and services in the country.
---
> The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure of the size of a country's economy.  It is defined as the sum of all goods and services in the sold country.
2a3
> see [[Economics]]
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Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990041894
15a16,18
> 
> ----
> I've noticed no difference in how long it takes to display an edit from when I first started as an IP address and now.  The CIA articles do take about 2 seconds apiece to display, but I'm on dialup so I'm really not sure if that's fast or slow.
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Soren_Kierkegaard|990041897
1c1,2
< Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish [[19th century]] [[philosopher]].  One of his famous ideas is that a useful teacher must find out where the pupil is, and guide him towards the goal from that point.
---
> Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish [[19th century]] [[philosopher]].  One of his famous ideas is that a useful teacher must find out where the pupil is, and guide him towards the goal from that point.  See also [[philosophy of religion]].
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990041925
12c12
< Excellent article. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> Excellent article. --[[Pinkunicorn]]  I second that. --KoyaanisQatsi
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Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990041939
18c18
< I've noticed no difference in how long it takes to display an edit from when I first started as an IP address and now.  The CIA articles do take about 2 seconds apiece to display, but I'm on dialup so I'm really not sure if that's fast or slow.
---
> I've noticed no difference in how long it takes to display an edit from when I first started as an IP address and now.  The CIA articles do take about 2 seconds apiece to display, but I'm on dialup so I'm really not sure if that's fast or slow. --KoyaanisQatsi
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JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|990042018
1c1
< The Hobbit (1937) is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]] intended for a young audience. Though it is not part of the [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|Lord of the Rings]] trilogy, it sets the stage for Tolkien's epic work.
---
> The Hobbit (1937) is a novel written by [[JRR Tolkien]] in the tradition of fairy tales, originally written as a children's story. It serves as a preface to [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|Lord of the Rings]] trilogy written later and sets the stage for that work.
------
Conspiracy_theory|990042136
18c18,20
< :[[Elvis sightings]]
---
> :[[Elvis sightings]]
> 
> For a literature version of a conspiracy theory, try [[The Illuminatus Trilogy]] by [[Robert Shea]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]].
------
Nasreddin_Hoja|990042175
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nasreddin Hoja was a populist philosopher and wise man, remembered for his funny stories and anecdotes. His exact country and lifetime are not known certainly but he is usually assumed to have lived in Anatolia between 11th and 14th centuries. However, he is well known among various Turkic people living in a wide geography between [[Anatolia]] and Sinkiang China (where [[Uighurs]] live) and it is possible to find one of his statues in [[Bukhara]] (showing him riding his donkey backwards and grasping its tail , as he is traditionally depicted) or a journal bearing his name in [[Baku]] or [[Tabriz]]. [[Mark Twain]]'s Library of Humor includes a story attributed to Nasreddin Hoja. The anectodes attributed to him reveal a satirical personality with a biting tongue that he was not afraid to use even against the most tyrannical sultans of his time. He seems to be the symbol of both the Cental Asian style satirical commedy and the rebellious feelings of people against the dynasties that once ruled this geography.
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JRR_Tolkien|990042196
3c3,4
< A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] as background.
---
> A Professor of Anglo-saxon at Oxford University, his fascination with languages caused him to invent several languages; later elaborating an entire cosmogony and history of [[/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] as background. He did much critical work on [[Beowulf]] and [[Sir Gawaine and the Green Knight]].
> 
------
Wikipedians|990042241
35a36
> * [[Pinkunicorn]]
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Externalization|990042284
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To put something outside of its original borders.  Especially to put a human function outside of the human body.
> 
> In a concrete sense, by taking notes, we can externalize the function of [[memory]] which normally belongs in the [[brain]].
> 
> In a more abstract sense, by inventing [[excuse]]s, we can externalize the [[guilt]] associated with our [[action]]s.
------
Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo/Transportation|990042320
14c14
< 15,000 km including the Congo, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes
---
> 15,000 km including the [[Congo]], its tributaries, and unconnected lakes
18c18
< Banana, Boma, Bukavu, Bumba, Goma, Kalemie, Kindu, Kinshasa, Kisangani, Matadi, Mbandaka
---
> [[Banana]], [[Boma]], [[Bukavu]], [[Bumba]], [[Goma]], [[Kalemie]], [[Kindu]], [[Kinshasa]], [[Kisangani]], [[Matadi]], [[Mbandaka]]
------
British_Indian_Ocean_Territory/Military|990042382
2c2
< defense is the responsibility of the UK; the US lease on Diego Garcia expires in 2016
---
> defense is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]; the [[United States|US]] lease on [[Diego Garcia]] expires in 2016
------
Fiction|990042662
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fiction is those works of writing created from the imagination. This is in contrast to non-fiction, which derives from provable facts. Fictional works may be partly based on factual occurences but always contain imaginary content. 
------
ConsciousNess|990042663
1c1
< There is, on the view of very many philosophers, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the mind is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
---
> There is, on the view of very many [[philosopher]]s, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the [[mind]] is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
3c3
< In this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; we are conscious of what’s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance in which one is alive, and one's brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of consciousness.
---
> In this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; we are conscious of what?s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance in which one is alive, and one's brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of consciousness.
7c7
< Suppose we answer "No."  Then of course what we’d be saying is that there are some MentalEvents that do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren’t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious.</i>  Put like that, it's easy to recognize why the thesis is compelling.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that’s going on in our minds.  That is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
---
> Suppose we answer "No."  Then of course what we?d be saying is that there are some MentalEvents that do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren?t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious.</i>  Put like that, it's easy to recognize why the thesis is compelling.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that?s going on in our minds.  That is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
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Hezarfen_Ahmet_Celebi|990042691
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (lived in 17th century in [[Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]]) is one of the first aviators, who has succeded to fly with artificial wings. He is supposed to be inspired and use the studies of [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] on flight of birds. He started flying from a high tower in [[Constantinople]] and managed to fly over [[Bosporus]]. Some few people known to succeed this kind of flight are an aviator from Moorish Spain and an English monk in 9th and 12th centuries, respectively. One of Hezarfen’s friends Lagari Hasan Celebi is known to perform the first flight with a rocket in a conic cage filled with gun powder. 
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Gobi|990042829
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gobi is a [[desert]] in [[China]] north of the [[Himalaya]]s.
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Star_Trek|990042833
1c1
< <i>Star Trek</i> is a science fiction [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>Enterprise</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves Trekkies or Trekkers, who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprise</i>.
---
> <i>Star Trek</i> is a [[science fiction]] [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>[[/Enterprise|Enterprise]]</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves [[/Trekkies|Trekkies]] or [[/Trekkers|Trekkers]], who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprise</i>.
5c5
< Roddenberry was a proponent of egalitarian politics, and frequently used the shows to showcase his vision of a [[utopia]]n future society based on those principles.  The original series, for example, had a prominent black female crew member (Lt. Uhuru, played by [[Nichelle Nichols]]), one of the first black women to hold any major role on American television.  It also had a [[Russia]]n character (Mr. Chekov, played by [[Walter Koenig]]) at a time when the United States was engaged in the [[cold war]] with the [[Soviet Union]].  Viewers of today who watch the old series may find its portrayals of minorities and especially women somewhat backward, but they were actually quite progressive and daring for the time.
---
> Roddenberry was a proponent of egalitarian politics, and frequently used the shows to showcase his vision of a [[utopia]]n future society based on those principles.  The original series, for example, had a prominent black female crew member ([[/Lt. Uhuru|Lt. Uhuru]], played by [[Nichelle Nichols]]), one of the first black women to hold any major role on American television.  It also had a [[Russia]]n character ([[Mr. Chekov|Mr. Chekov]], played by [[Walter Koenig]]) at a time when the [[United States]] was engaged in the [[cold war]] with the [[Soviet Union]].  Viewers of today who watch the old series may find its portrayals of minorities and especially women somewhat backward, but they were actually quite progressive and daring for the time.
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Fiction|990042888
1c1,5
< Fiction is those works of writing created from the imagination. This is in contrast to non-fiction, which derives from provable facts. Fictional works may be partly based on factual occurences but always contain imaginary content. 
---
> Fiction is those works of writing created from the imagination. This is in contrast to non-fiction, which derives from provable facts. Fictional works may be partly based on factual occurences but always contain imaginary content. 
> 
> See also
> * [[Literature]]
> * [[Novelists]]
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Gabon/Economy|990042963
70c70
< [[France]] 39%, [[United States|US]] 6%, [[Cameroon]] 5%, [[Netherlands]] 5%, [[Cote dIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Japan]] (1998)
---
> [[France]] 39%, [[United States|US]] 6%, [[Cameroon]] 5%, [[Netherlands]] 5%, [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Japan]] (1998)
------
Wikipedians|990042965
36a37
> * KoyaanisQatsi
------
Hezarfen_Ahmet_Celebi|990042994
1c1
< Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (lived in 17th century in [[Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]]) is one of the first aviators, who has succeded to fly with artificial wings. He is supposed to be inspired and use the studies of [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] on flight of birds. He started flying from a high tower in [[Constantinople]] and managed to fly over [[Bosporus]]. Some few people known to succeed this kind of flight are an aviator from Moorish Spain and an English monk in 9th and 12th centuries, respectively. One of Hezarfen’s friends Lagari Hasan Celebi is known to perform the first flight with a rocket in a conic cage filled with gun powder. 
---
> Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (lived in the [[17th century]] in [[Constantinople]], [[Ottoman Empire]]) is one of the first aviators, who has succeded to fly with artificial wings. He is supposed to be inspired and use the studies of [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] on flight of [[bird|birds]]. He started flying from a high tower in [[Constantinople]] and managed to fly over the [[Bosporus]]. Some few people known to succeed this kind of flight are an aviator from Moorish [[Spain]] and an English monk in 9th and 12th centuries, respectively. One of Hezarfen's friends [[Lagari Hasan Celebi]] is known to perform the first flight with a rocket in a conic cage filled with gun powder. 
------
Piri_Reis|990043130
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Piri Reis was an Ottoman admiral born around 1465, in Gallipoli on [[Dardanelles]]. He began to serve as a privateer in the Ottoman Navy and after many years’ of fight against Spanish, Genoese and Venetian navies, he deserved the title of Reis (Admiral). Following his defeat in 1554 (when he was 90 years old) against the Portuguese navy in Red Sea, the sultan ordered him beheaded. 
> 
> He is best known for his maps and charts collected in his Book of the Sea. He gained his fame as a map maker after a small part of his world map (prepared in 1513) was discovered on 1929, in [[Istanbul]]. The most interesting points of the map were its accuracy and a small continent that seemed to be linked to the southernmost tip of Southern America. Various people including [[Charles Hapgood]] and [[Erich von Daniken]] considered this as a sign for the discovery of the continent of Antarctica a few centuries before the traditionally accepted date and even as a proof for the presence of extraterrestrial civilizations, which were supposed to draw the original map.
> 
> However, the origins and references of the map have been written in detail by Ottoman-Turkish on the map and he seems to have based the map on works of [[Ptolemy]], Portuguese scholars and [[Christopher Columbus]]. The small landpiece depicted on the southernmost part of the map is considered to be an imaginary continent, which was assumed to counterbalance the continents of the northern hemisphere, since the time of ancient Greeks.  The real interesting point of the map is that it is reflecting Columbus' ideas about the world and probably is the best preserved copy of one of his earliest maps.
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Bolivia/Economy|990043238
2c2
< Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
---
> [[Bolivia]], long one of the poorest and least developed [[Latin America]]n countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President [[Sanchez de Lozada]] (1993-1997) included the signing of a free trade agreement with [[Mexico]] and the [[Southern Cone Common Market]] (Mercosur) as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, [[Hugo Banzer Suarez]] has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. Growth should rebound to perhaps 4% in 2000 given reasonably favorable world commodity prices.
58c58
< soybeans, coffee, coca, cotton, corn, sugarcane, rice, potatoes; timber
---
> [[soybeans]], [[coffee]], [[coca]], [[cotton]], [[corn]], [[sugarcane]], [[rice]], [[potatoes]]; [[timber]]
62c62
< soybeans, natural gas, zinc, gold, wood
---
> [[soybeans]], [[natural gas]], [[zinc]], [[gold]], [[wood]]
64c64
< UK 16%, US 12%, Peru 11%, Argentina 10%, Colombia 7% (1998)
---
> [[United Kingdom|UK]] 16%, [[United States|US]] 12%, [[Peru]] 11%, [[Argentina]] 10%, [[Colombia]] 7% (1998)
70c70
< US 32%, Japan 24%, Brazil 12%, Argentina 12%, Chile 7%, Peru 4%, Germany 3% (1998)
---
> [[United States|US]] 32%, [[Japan]] 24%, [[Brazil]] 12%, [[Argentina]] 12%, [[Chile]] 7%, [[Peru]] 4%, [[Germany]] 3% (1998)
76c76
< 1 boliviano ($B) = 100 centavos
---
> 1 [[boliviano]] ($B) = 100 [[centavos]]
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|990043358
13c13
< There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German [[neurologist]]s, who first described this disease, are [[Creutzfeldt]] and [[Jakob]]. Interestingly, most of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering from a completely different disorder.
---
> There are many incorrect ways of writing Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, such as Creutzfeld, Creutzfelt and Jacob. But the names of two German [[neurologist]]s, who first described this disease, are [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]] and [[Alfons Maria Jakob]]. Interestingly, most of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that the patients in their initital studies were suffering from a completely different disorder.
------
Fiscal_year|990043427
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Accounting]] in a company or an administration is a process that is done in batches of 12 months, resulting in an annual report.  This '''fiscal year''' can be aligned with the [[calendar year]] (start January 1, end December 31) or displaced.
> 
> Companies within a group must use the same fiscal year, otherwise it would be possible to move resources within the group to the company that needs them for improving their annual report, so the same resources would be counted more than once.  In [[Sweden]], this legislation was not yet introduced in the early [[1930s]], which allowed [[Ivar Kreuger]] to manipulate the accounting of his group of match making industries (today [[Swedish Match]]) in a wild speculation-based economy that ended with his suicide in [[1932]], involving [[J.P. Morgan]] and [[Ericsson]].
> 
------
Accounting|990043454
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[economy]], [[fiscal year]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
James_Joyce|990043496
8a9,12
> * [[James Joyce/Exiles|Exiles]]
> ** The only play written
> * [[James Joyce/Chamber music|Chamber music]]
> ** The only poem collection
------
Calendar_year|990043542
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''calendar year''' begins on January 1, and ends on December 31.  Other alignments of the 12 month period can be used for purposes of [[accounting]] (see [[fiscal year]]).
> 
> 
------
CFAF|990043653
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) is 
> a [[currency]], commonly called [[franc]], used in
> some African countries, including [[Gabon]].
> 
> 
------
Neurologist|990043718
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a physician specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurologic diseases]].
------
CFAF|990043818
3c3
< some African countries, including [[Gabon]].
---
> some African countries, including [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Chad]], [[Gabon]].
4a5
> Since January 1, [[1999]], the CFAF is pegged to the [[euro]] at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro.
------
CFAF|990043947
3c3,11
< some African countries, including [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Chad]], [[Gabon]].
---
> some African countries, including [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], 
> [[Cameroon]],
> [[Central African Republic]],
> [[Chad]],
> [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]],
> [[Equatorial Guinea]],
> [[Gabon]],
> [[Guinea-Bissau]], and
> [[Republic of the Congo]].
------
Guadaloupe/Government|990044137
9c9
< Guadeloupe
---
> [[Guadeloupe]]
13c13
< overseas department of France
---
> overseas department of [[France]]
17c17
< Basse-Terre
---
> [[Basse-Terre]]
19c19
< none (overseas department of France)
---
> none (overseas department of [[France]])
23c23
< National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
---
> National Day, [[Taking of the Bastille]], 14 July (1789)
25c25
< 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
---
> 28 September 1958 ([[French Constitution]])
32c32
< President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Jean FEDINI (since NA 1996)
---
> President [[Jacques Chirac]] of [[France]] (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect [[Jean Fedini]] (since NA 1996)
34c34
< President of the General Council Marcellin LUBETH (since NA March 1998); President of the Regional Council Lucette MICHAUX-CHEVRY (since 22 March 1992)
---
> President of the General Council [[Marcellin Lubeth]] (since NA March 1998); President of the Regional Council [[Lucette Michaux-Chevry]] (since 22 March 1992)
------
Euro|990044174
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[currency]] of the [[European Union]], being introduced in [[2000]] with [[coin]]s and [[bank note]]s in early 2002.  In the intermedaite period, each country's old currency exists in parallel with the euro, but the conversion rates are pegged.
> 
> The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=).
> 
> Some EU countries have abstained from introducing the euro and will keep their old currencies.  This includes [[Sweden]].
> 
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990044221
3c3
< There is a tendency among many to believe in what I call ''The Myth of the Lone Inventor'': the feeling that individual inventors are uniquely insightful human beings who heroically create out of their minds new historically significant ideas, ''ex nihilo''.  In the rare case, that may be true.  But almost universally,  when history credits "Inventor A" with the invention of "Device B", it is at best an oversimplification and usually just plain wrong.  The inventors that get historical credit are usually those who made a commercial success of the idea: Gutenberg's press, Marconi's radio, Edison's light bulb.  Those men do deserve credit for their contributions to society, but in each case it was not because they "created" something new, but  because they "developed" earlier discoveries into practical, usable products.  The scientists who actually discover things are sometimes forgotten, as are the many other inventors using the same ideas who didn't become as successful.  Other scientists might know names like Oersted and Faraday, but even they can only speculate about what inspired ''them''.
---
> There is a tendency among many to believe in what I call ''The Myth of the Lone Inventor'': the feeling that individual inventors are uniquely insightful human beings who heroically create out of their minds new historically significant ideas, ''ex nihilo''.  In the rare case, that may be true.  But almost universally,  when history credits "Inventor A" with the invention of "Device B", it is at best an oversimplification and usually just plain wrong.  The inventors that get historical credit are usually those who made a commercial success of the idea: Gutenberg's press, Marconi's radio, Edison's light bulb.  Those men do deserve credit for their contributions to society, but in each case it was not because they "created" something new, but  because they "developed" earlier discoveries into practical, usable products.  The scientists who actually discover things are sometimes forgotten, as are the many other inventors using the same ideas who didn't become as successful.  Other scientists might know names like Ørsted and Faraday, but even they can only speculate about what inspired ''them''.
16c16,19
< The need for abstractions inevitably brings frustrations to those who know the subject in more detail. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] has summarized a similar frustration in the preface to [[Tracatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "Was sich überhaupt sagen läßt, läßt sich klar sagen; und wovon man nicht reden kann, darüber muß man schweigen": '''What can be said at all, can be said clearly; and whereof one cannot speak thereof one must be silent'''.  Yet a similar frustration is the dotcom pessimist's dilemma: If you say you can sell sportswear over the Net, you will receive venture capital funding, but you get nothing for saying it cannot be done.  Thus, positive and negative knowledge doesn't have the same value.  Nobody is going to thank you for telling them [[Alexander Graham Bell]] is '''not''' the [[inventor]] of the [[telephone]].  That's a fact of life.
---
> The need for abstractions inevitably brings frustrations to those who know the subject in more detail. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] has summarized a similar frustration in the preface to [[Tracatus Logico-Philosophicus]]: "Was sich überhaupt sagen läßt, läßt sich klar sagen; und wovon man nicht reden kann, darüber muß man schweigen" (''What can be said at all, can be said clearly; and whereof one cannot speak thereof one must be silent'').  Yet a similar frustration is the dotcom pessimist's dilemma: If you say you can sell sportswear over the Net, you will receive venture capital funding, but you get nothing for saying it cannot be done.  Thus, positive and negative knowledge don't have the same value.  Nobody is going to thank you for telling them [[Alexander Graham Bell]] is ''not'' the [[inventor]] of the [[telephone]].  That's a fact of life.
> 
> ----
> I once wrote an essay called "Thought as Data Compression"; I'll see if I can find it.  I'm not at all surpized that others have had similar ideas.  Thanks for the commentary, and thanks for confirming the spelling of "Ørsted" for me.  --LDC
------
Equatorial_Guinea/People|990044272
46c46
< Bioko (primarily Bubi, some Fernandinos), Rio Muni (primarily Fang), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly Spanish
---
> [[Bioko]] (primarily [[Bubi]], some [[Fernandinos]]), [[Rio Muni]] (primarily [[Fang]]), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly [[Spanish]]
48c48
< nominally Christian and predominantly Roman Catholic, pagan practices
---
> nominally [[Christian]] and predominantly [[Roman Catholic]], [[pagan]] practices
50c50
< Spanish (official), French (official), pidgin English, Fang, Bubi, Ibo
---
> [[Spanish]] (official), [[French]] (official), [[pidgin English]], [[Fang]], [[Bubi]], [[Ibo]]
------
KurtCobain|990044439
1,6c1
< Kurt Donald Cobain (1967-1994).  
< 
< Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). He was married to singer [[Courtney Love]]. He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun. 
< 
< [[/Talk]]
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Kurt Cobain]]
------
Kurt_Cobain|990044452
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kurt Donald Cobain (1967-1994).  
> 
> Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). He was married to singer [[Courtney Love]]. He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun. 
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
NirvanaBand|990044464
9c9
< Members: KurtCobain, ChrisNovoselic, DaveGrohl
---
> Members: [[Kurt Cobain]], [[Chris Novoselic]], [[DaveGrohl]]
------
Patti_Smith|990044526
7c7
< In the 1980s she appeared to be in semi-retirement from music, recording only the album "Dream Of Life" in 1988, with her husband Fred "Sonic" Smith.  Following Fred's death, 1995's [[/Gone Again]] featured tributes to him and [[KurtCobain|Kurt Cobain]].
---
> In the 1980s she appeared to be in semi-retirement from music, recording only the album "Dream Of Life" in 1988, with her husband Fred "Sonic" Smith.  Following Fred's death, 1995's [[/Gone Again]] featured tributes to him and [[Kurt Cobain]].
------
DaveGrohl|990044551
1c1
< DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after KurtCobain commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the [[Foo Fighters]]
---
> DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after [[Kurt Cobain]] commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the [[Foo Fighters]]
------
Courtney_Love|990044607
1c1
< Courtney Love is a singer and a member in the group [[Hole]]. She used to be married to [[KurtCobain|Kurt Cobain]].
---
> Courtney Love is a singer and a member in the group [[Hole]]. She used to be married to [[Kurt Cobain]].
------
Courtney_Love|990044622
1c1
< Courtney Love is a singer and a member in the group [[Hole]]. She used to be married to [[Kurt Cobain]].
---
> Courtney Love is a singer and guitarist for [[Hole]]. She used to be married to [[Kurt Cobain]].
------
Nirvana/Grunge_band|990044666
1,30c1
< A [[Grunge music|Grunge band]] from [[Seattle]] (late [[1980s|80's]] early [[1990s|90's]]). Their first
< album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell
< well, but the second, [[/Nevermind]], recorded for the much larger [[Geffen]] label
< was a major breakthrough. The highly infectious single [[/Smells Like Teen Spirit]]
< received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making Grunge
< mainstream. The follow up [[/In Utero]], released [[1993]], was less accessible to the
< mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
< 
< Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]] but,
< plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and
< an alleged heroin addict. Cobain commited suicide in [[1994]], after which the band
< split. [[Drummer Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
< albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on MTV's Unplugged were later
< released.
< 
< Kurt Cobain was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of
< Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's
< demise.
< 
< Discography:
< 
< :Bleach (1989)
< :Nevermind (1991)
< :Hormoaning(1992 - Australia and Japan only)
< :Incesticide (1992)
< :In Utero (1993)
< :MTV Unplugged in New York (1994)
< :From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
< 
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[NirvanaBand]]
------
Greece/Government|990044670
5c5
< Greece
---
> [[Greece]]
17c17
< Athens
---
> [[Athens]]
19c19
< 51 prefectures (nomoi, singular - nomos)and 1 autonomous region*; Ayion Oros* (Mt. Athos), Aitolia kai Akarnania, Akhaia, Argolis, Arkadhia, Arta, Attiki, Dhodhekanisos, Drama, Evritania, Evros, Evvoia, Florina, Fokis, Fthiotis, Grevena, Ilia, Imathia, Ioannina, Irakleion, Kardhitsa, Kastoria, Kavala, Kefallinia, Kerkyra, Khalkidhiki, Khania, Khios, Kikladhes, Kilkis, Korinthia, Kozani, Lakonia, Larisa, Lasithi, Lesvos, Levkas, Magnisia, Messinia, Pella, Pieria, Preveza, Rethimni, Rodhopi, Samos, Serrai, Thesprotia, Thessaloniki, Trikala, Voiotia, Xanthi, Zakinthos
---
> 51 prefectures (nomoi, singular - nomos)and 1 autonomous region*; [[Ayion Oros]]* (Mt. [[Athos]]), [[Aitolia kai Akarnania]], [[Akhaia]], [[Argolis]], [[Arkadhia]], [[Arta]], [[Attiki]], [[Dhodhekanisos]], [[Drama]], [[Evritania]], [[Evros]], [[Evvoia]], [[Florina]], [[Fokis]], [[Fthiotis]], [[Grevena]], [[Ilia]], [[Imathia]], [[Ioannina]], [[Irakleion]], [[Kardhitsa]], [[Kastoria]], [[Kavala]], [[Kefallinia]], [[Kerkyra]], [[Khalkidhiki]], [[Khania]], [[Khios]], [[Kikladhes]], [[Kilkis]], [[Korinthia]], [[Kozani]], [[Lakonia]], [[Larisa]], [[Lasithi]], [[Lesvos]], [[Levkas]], [[Magnisia]], [[Messinia]], [[Pella]], [[Pieria]], [[Preveza]], [[Rethimni]], [[Rodhopi]], [[Samos]], [[Serrai]], [[Thesprotia]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Trikala]], [[Voiotia]], [[Xanthi]], [[Zakinthos]]
21c21
< 1829 (from the Ottoman Empire)
---
> 1829 (from the [[Ottoman Empire]])
27c27
< based on codified Roman law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts
---
> based on codified [[Roman]] law; judiciary divided into civil, criminal, and administrative courts
32c32
< President Konstandinos (Kostis) STEPHANOPOULOS (since 10 March 1995)
---
> President [[Konstandinon Stephanopoulos|Konstandinos (Kostis) Stephanopoulos]] (since 10 March 1995)
34c34
< Prime Minister Konstandinos SIMITIS (since 19 January 1996)
---
> Prime Minister [[Konstandinos Simitis]] (since 19 January 1996)
63c63
< Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
---
> [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], [[Los Angeles]], [[New York]], and [[San Francisco]]
65c65
< Atlanta, Houston, and New Orleans
---
> [[Atlanta]], [[Houston]], and [[New Orleans]]
78c78
< Thessaloniki
---
> [[Thessaloniki]]
80c80
< nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; there is a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolizes Greek Orthodoxy, the established religion of the country
---
> nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white; there is a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a white cross; the cross symbolizes [[Greek Orthodoxy]], the established religion of the country
------
Neurologist|990044717
1c1
< a physician specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurologic diseases]].
---
> A physician specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurologic diseases]].
------
Euro|990044719
1c1
< The [[currency]] of the [[European Union]], being introduced in [[2000]] with [[coin]]s and [[bank note]]s in early 2002.  In the intermedaite period, each country's old currency exists in parallel with the euro, but the conversion rates are pegged.
---
> The [[currency]] of the [[European Union]], being introduced in [[2000]] with [[coin]]s and [[bank note]]s in early 2002.  In the intermediate period, each country's old currency exists in parallel with the euro, but the conversion rates are pegged since 1998.
3c3
< The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=).
---
> The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (€)
6a7,14
> Countries that have introduced the Euro:
> *[[Austria]]
> *[[Germany]]
> *[[France]]
> *[[Italy]]
> *[[Netherlands]]
> *[[Belgium]]
> *[[Luxembourg]]
7a16
> ...please add to the list
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990044720
3c3
< There is a tendency among many to believe in what I call ''The Myth of the Lone Inventor'': the feeling that individual inventors are uniquely insightful human beings who heroically create out of their minds new historically significant ideas, ''ex nihilo''.  In the rare case, that may be true.  But almost universally,  when history credits "Inventor A" with the invention of "Device B", it is at best an oversimplification and usually just plain wrong.  The inventors that get historical credit are usually those who made a commercial success of the idea: Gutenberg's press, Marconi's radio, Edison's light bulb.  Those men do deserve credit for their contributions to society, but in each case it was not because they "created" something new, but  because they "developed" earlier discoveries into practical, usable products.  The scientists who actually discover things are sometimes forgotten, as are the many other inventors using the same ideas who didn't become as successful.  Other scientists might know names like Ørsted and Faraday, but even they can only speculate about what inspired ''them''.
---
> There is a tendency among many to believe in what I call ''The Myth of the Lone Inventor'': the feeling that individual inventors are uniquely insightful human beings who heroically create out of their minds new historically significant ideas, ''ex nihilo''.  In the rare case, that may be true.  But almost universally,  when history credits "Inventor A" with the invention of "Device B", it is at best an oversimplification and usually just plain wrong.  The inventors that get historical credit are usually those who made a commercial success of the idea: Gutenberg's press, Marconi's radio, Edison's light bulb.  Those men do deserve credit for their contributions to society, but in each case it was not because they "created" something new, but  because they "developed" earlier discoveries into practical, usable products.  The scientists who actually discover things are sometimes forgotten, as are the many other inventors using the same ideas who didn't become as successful.  Other scientists might know names like Ørsted and Faraday, but even they can only speculate about what inspired ''them''.  Edison himself got it right when he said that his genius was "1 percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration".  He didn't discover incandescence, but he did build the lab and do the experiments to find the materials and processes that would make it into a useful replacement for the dangerous gaslights of the day.
------
NirvanaBand|990044792
1,7c1,18
< Nirvana was a [[Grunge Music|Grunge]] band from [[Seattle]] 
< (late 80's early 90's). 
< Their first album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, "Nevermind", recorded for the much larger Geffen label was a major breakthrough.  The highly infectious single Smells Like Teen Spirit received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making [[Grunge Music|Grunge]] mainstream.  The follow up "In Utero", released 1993, was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
< 
< Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]]   but, plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and an alleged heroin addict.  Cobain commited suicide in 1994, after which the band split.  Drummer Grohl went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]].  Two posthumous albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on [[MTV]]'s Unplugged were later released.
< 
< Kurt Cobain was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's demise. 
---
> A [[Grunge music|Grunge band]] from [[Seattle]] (late [[1980s|80's]] early [[1990s|90's]]). Their first
> album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell
> well, but the second, [[/Nevermind]], recorded for the much larger [[Geffen]] label
> was a major breakthrough. The highly infectious single [[/Smells Like Teen Spirit]]
> received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making Grunge
> mainstream. The follow up [[/In Utero]], released [[1993]], was less accessible to the
> mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
> 
> Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]] but,
> plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and
> an alleged heroin addict. Cobain commited suicide in [[1994]], after which the band
> split. [[Drummer Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
> albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on MTV's Unplugged were later
> released.
> 
> [[Kurt Cobain]] was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of
> Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's
> demise.
10a22
> Discography:
12,19c24,30
< [[Discography]]:
< * Bleach (1989)
< * Nevermind (1991)
< * Hormoaning(1992 - [[Australia]] and [[Japan]] only)
< * Incesticide (1992)
< * In Utero (1993)
< * MTV Unplugged in New York (1994)
< * From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
---
> :Bleach (1989)
> :Nevermind (1991)
> :Hormoaning(1992 - Australia and Japan only)
> :Incesticide (1992)
> :In Utero (1993)
> :MTV Unplugged in New York (1994)
> :From the Muddy Banks of Wishkah
21c32
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
PopularMusic|990044824
27c27
< * [[Kurt Cobain]]
---
> * [[Kurt_Cobain]]
------
DaveGrohl|990044933
1c1
< DaveGrohl was the drummer of the cult band NirvanaBand until the band split up in 1994 after [[Kurt Cobain]] commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the [[Foo Fighters]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Dave Grohl]]
------
European_Union|990044936
1c1
< Organization of European states. The foundational members were France, Germany, Italy, Nederlands, Belgium and Luxemburg. Other members are Ireland, Great Britain, Danemark, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Finland, Sweeden and Austria. The main European Union common institutions are a Parliament (legislative) and a Comission (executive).
---
> Organization of European states. The foundational members were [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Luxemburg]]. Other members are [[Ireland]], [[Great Britain]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Finland]], [[Sweeden]] and [[Austria]]. The main European Union common institutions are a Parliament (legislative) and a Comission (executive).
------
Dave_Grohl|990044943
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dave Grohl was the drummer of the cult band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] until the band split up in 1994 after [[Kurt Cobain]] commited suicide. His latest project is a band called the [[Foo Fighters]].
------
European_Union|990044950
1c1
< Organization of European states. The foundational members were [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Luxemburg]]. Other members are [[Ireland]], [[Great Britain]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Finland]], [[Sweeden]] and [[Austria]]. The main European Union common institutions are a Parliament (legislative) and a Comission (executive).
---
> Organization of European states. The foundational members were [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Luxemburg]]. Other members are [[Ireland]], [[Great Britain]], [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Finland]], [[Sweden]] and [[Austria]]. The main European Union common institutions are a Parliament (legislative) and a Comission (executive).
------
Kurt_Cobain|990044956
3c3
< Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[DaveGrohl|Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). He was married to singer [[Courtney Love]]. He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun. 
---
> Lead singer of the grunge band [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]] (together with [[Dave Grohl]] and [[Chris Novoselic]]). He was married to singer [[Courtney Love]]. He commited suicide in 1994 by shooting himself in the face with a shotgun. 
------
NirvanaBand|990044983
12c12
< split. [[Drummer Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
---
> split. Drummer [[Dave Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
32c32
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Luxemburg|990045193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Luxembourg]]
------
NirvanaBand|990045201
1,7c1
< A [[Grunge music|Grunge band]] from [[Seattle]] (late [[1980s|80's]] early [[1990s|90's]]). Their first
< album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell
< well, but the second, [[/Nevermind]], recorded for the much larger [[Geffen]] label
< was a major breakthrough. The highly infectious single [[/Smells Like Teen Spirit]]
< received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making Grunge
< mainstream. The follow up [[/In Utero]], released [[1993]], was less accessible to the
< mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
---
> A [[Grunge music|Grunge band]] from [[Seattle]] (late [[1980s|80's]] early [[1990s|90's]]). Its members were [[Kurt Cobain]] ([[guitar]] and vocals), [[Chris Novoselic]] ([[guitar/bass|bass]] and backing vocals), and [[Dave Grohl]] ([[drums]] and backing vocals).  Their first album, recorded on Seattle independent record label [[Sub Pop]] did not sell well, but the second, [[/Nevermind]], recorded for the much larger [[Geffen]] label was a major breakthrough. The highly infectious single [[/Smells Like Teen Spirit]] received heavy airplay on [[MTV]] inspiring a slew of imitators and making Grunge mainstream. The follow up [[/In Utero]], released [[1993]], was less accessible to the mass market, but still a critical and commercial success.
9,14c3
< Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]] but,
< plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and
< an alleged heroin addict. Cobain commited suicide in [[1994]], after which the band
< split. Drummer [[Dave Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous
< albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on MTV's Unplugged were later
< released.
---
> Around this time Cobain married musician and actress [[Courtney Love]] but, plagued by an unexplained stomach illness, had become depressed, reclusive and an alleged heroin addict. Cobain commited suicide in [[1994]], after which the band split. Drummer [[Dave Grohl]] went on to form the [[Foo Fighters]]. Two posthumous albums, a live set and a superb perfomance on MTV's Unplugged were later released.
16,20c5
< [[Kurt Cobain]] was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of
< Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's
< demise.
< 
< Members: [[Kurt Cobain]], [[Chris Novoselic]], [[DaveGrohl]]
---
> [[Kurt Cobain]] was murdered, according to public access host Richard Lee of Seattle. His ongoing documentary has been running since the week after Cobain's demise.
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990045281
12c12,14
< Excellent article. --[[Pinkunicorn]]  I second that. --KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Excellent article. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> ----
> I second that. --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Calendar_year|990045441
3c3
< 
---
> see also other [[calendar|calendars]]
------
Pinkunicorn|990045501
3a4,6
> 
> ----
> Thanks for all the wikification you're doing to the various country entries.  I knew it should be done but didn't feel like tackling it yet myself.  :-)  --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Music|990045555
26c26
< '''MusicalInstruments:''' 
---
> '''[[Musical Instrument]]s:''' 
------
Ward_Cunningham|990045564
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ward Cunningham is the [[inventor]] of the [[WikiWiki]] concept, author of the book "The Wiki Way", and operates the Portland Pattern Repository's Wiki, http://www.c2.com/wiki?WelcomeVisitors
> which is full of useful information on [[extreme programming]].
> 
> Ward lives in [[Portland]], [[Oregon]].  For contact information, see http://www.c2.com/profile.html#contact
> 
------
Music|990045578
26c26
< '''[[Musical Instrument]]s:''' 
---
> '''[[Musical Instruments]]:''' 
------
Music|990045602
26c26
< '''[[Musical Instruments]]:''' 
---
> '''[[Musical instruments]]:''' 
------
Portland|990045639
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> City in [[Oregon]] on the west coast of the [[United States]].
> 
> See also
> [[Personal Telco]], [[PDX Wireless]], [[Ward Cunningham]].
> 
> 
------
Music|990045674
26c26
< '''[[Musical instruments]]:''' 
---
> '''[[Musical instrument]]s:''' 
84c84
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Pucci]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Wofgang Amadeus Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Puccini]]
------
Music|990045710
84c84
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Wofgang Amadeus Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Puccini]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Puccini]]
------
Ward_Cunningham|990045730
1c1
< Ward Cunningham is the [[inventor]] of the [[WikiWiki]] concept, author of the book "The Wiki Way", and operates the Portland Pattern Repository's Wiki, http://www.c2.com/wiki?WelcomeVisitors
---
> Ward Cunningham is the [[inventor]] of the [[WikiWiki]] concept, author of the book "The Wiki Way", and operates the Portland Pattern Repository's Wiki, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors
------
Wofgang_Amadeus_Mozart|990045738
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mozart]]
------
MusicalInstruments|990045794
1,2c1
< DoubleBass
< BongO
---
> #REDIRECT [[Musical instrument]]
------
Planet|990045991
1c1
< A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the [[Solar System]]). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 are known.
---
> A body of considerable mass that doesn't produce light on its own and orbits a [[Star]]. Until recently, only nine were known (all of them in the [[Solar system]]). As of the begining of 2001, about 40 are known.
3c3
< The planets of the Solar System (in increasing distance from the [[Sun]]) are
---
> The planets of the Solar system (in increasing distance from the [[Sun]]) are
------
Extreme_programming|990046035
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Extreme Programming (XP) is a new [[method]] in or approach to [[software engineering]], formulated by [[Kent Beck]], who wrote the first book on the topic, "Extreme Programming Explained. Embrace Change" (ISBN 0201616416).
> 
> For more information on this and related topics, see the definition at [[Ward Cunningham]]'s website, http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?ExtremeProgramming
> 
------
Mass|990046210
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Mass''' is a property of a particle or object that
> measures its [[inertia]], i.e. it's resistance to change its state
> of motion when a force is applied to it.
------
Mass|990046251
2c2
< measures its [[inertia]], i.e. it's resistance to change its state
---
> measures its [[inertia]], i.e. its resistance to change its state
------
Kent_Beck|990046257
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Inventor]] of the concept of [[extreme programming]] and [[author]] of the book "Extreme Programming Explained. Embrace Change", ISBN 0201616416.
> 
> See Kent's presentation on another wiki website,
> http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?KentBeck
> 
------
Hans_Gerhard_Creutzfeldt|990046448
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German [[neurologist]], see [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]].
> 
------
Star_Trek|990046460
1c1
< <i>Star Trek</i> is a [[science fiction]] [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>[[/Enterprise|Enterprise]]</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves [[/Trekkies|Trekkies]] or [[/Trekkers|Trekkers]], who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name one of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprise</i>.
---
> <i>Star Trek</i> is a [[science fiction]] [[television]] series created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] in 1966 that tells the tale of the crew of the starship <i>[[/Enterprise|Enterprise]]</i> and of their adventures at the "final frontier".  Initially, the series didn't have much success, but after the original series was cancelled, it turned out that Star Trek had very devoted and active fans, calling themselves [[/Trekkies|Trekkies]] or [[/Trekkers|Trekkers]], who made [[rerun]]s of the show popular and created a market for later series and movies based on Roddenberry's work.  These are now part of American culture, and are gaining in international popularity as well.  It is due in part to lobbying from fans of the series that [[NASA]] agreed to name the prototype of its [[Space shuttle]]s <i>Enterprise</i>.
------
Alfons_Maria_Jakob|990046488
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German [[neurologist]], see [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease]].
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|990046521
15,17d14
< ----
< 
< Could we have the forenames of these Germans, please? --[[LA2]]
------
ConsciousNess|990046566
1,7c1
< There is, on the view of very many [[philosopher]]s, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the [[mind]] is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
< 
< In this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; we are conscious of what?s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance in which one is alive, and one's brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of consciousness.
< 
< There has been some debate about the following question: <i>Must</i> one be conscious, in the philosophical sense, whenever a mental event occurs?  For example, is it possible to have a <i>pain</i> that one does not feel?  Some people think not; they think that, in order for something to <i>be</i> a pain, one has to feel it or be aware of it.  Similarly, if anything is a thought, then one has to be aware of that of which one is thinking (indeed, that seems nearly a tautology); if there is no consciousness, no awareness, of anything at all, then one is not thinking.  Philosophers ask: Do MentalEvents <i>necessarily</i> involve consciousness?
< 
< Suppose we answer "No."  Then of course what we?d be saying is that there are some MentalEvents that do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren?t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious.</i>  Put like that, it's easy to recognize why the thesis is compelling.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that?s going on in our minds.  That is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Consciousness]]
------
Neurologist|990046586
1a2,7
> 
> 
> Famous neurologists include
> *[[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]
> *[[Alfons Maria Jakob]]
> 
------
Consciousness|990046599
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There is, on the view of very many [[philosopher]]s, one mental function that accompanies some, or perhaps all, MentalEvents, namely, <i>consciousness.</i>  Often, in ordinary contexts, when we say we are "conscious" we simply mean that we are awake.  But in a philosophical context, the word "consciousness" means something like awareness, or the fact that the [[mind]] is as it were directed at something or other.  So when we perceive, we are conscious of what we perceive; when we introspect, we are conscious of our thoughts; when we remember, we are conscious of something that happened in the past, or of some piece of information that we learned; and so on.
> 
> In this philosophical sense of the word "conscious," we are conscious even when we are dreaming; we are conscious of what?s happening in the dream.  But sleep researchers believe there is a sleep stage that happens, called "deep sleep," in which apparently we are not conscious of anything in any sense.  No mental processes that involve consciousness in an ordinary or a philosophical sense are going on.  So deep, dreamless sleep would be an instance in which one is alive, and one's brain is functioning, but there are no mental events occurring in which there is any element of consciousness.
> 
> There has been some debate about the following question: <i>Must</i> one be conscious, in the philosophical sense, whenever a mental event occurs?  For example, is it possible to have a <i>pain</i> that one does not feel?  Some people think not; they think that, in order for something to <i>be</i> a pain, one has to feel it or be aware of it.  Similarly, if anything is a thought, then one has to be aware of that of which one is thinking (indeed, that seems nearly a tautology); if there is no consciousness, no awareness, of anything at all, then one is not thinking.  Philosophers ask: Do MentalEvents <i>necessarily</i> involve consciousness?
> 
> Suppose we answer "No."  Then of course what we?d be saying is that there are some MentalEvents that do not include an element of consciousness.  These events are going on even though we aren?t aware of them.  In other words, part of the mind is <i>unconscious.</i>  Put like that, it's easy to recognize why the thesis is compelling.  Psychologists of course believe that many cognitive processes are unconscious; we are aware of only <i>some</i> of the stuff that?s going on in our minds.  That is a fairly recent view, something that was made popular only after Freud.
------
Neurologist|990046599
1c1
< A physician specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurologic diseases]].
---
> A [[physician]] specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of [[neurologic diseases]].
------
Physician|990046873
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[scientist]] or [[practician]] specializing in [[medicine]] and curing [[disease]] in humans.  Related titles are [[veterinary]], curing disease in [[animal]]s, and [[biologist]] for a more general scientist of the [[life science]]s.
> 
> Titles for specialized physicians include:
> *[[neurologist]]
> *[[surgeon]]
> 
> ----
> 
> Question: Is a [[dentist]] a specialization of physician?
> 
------
Neurologist|990047007
5,6c5,6
< *[[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]
< *[[Alfons Maria Jakob]]
---
> *[[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]] ([[Germany]])
> *[[Alfons Maria Jakob]] ([[Germany]])
------
Cosmic_Background_Radiation|990047376
1c1,6
< The Cosmic Background Radiation is a form of radiation that fills the whole of the universe. It has the characteristics of [[Black Body]] Radiation of a temperature of 2.726 Kelvin. This radiation is regarded the best available evidence of the [[Big Bang]] theory - the radiation is the radiation that is left from the Big Bang, extremely dropped in temperature because of the expansion of the Universe.
---
> The Cosmic Background Radiation is a form of radiation that fills the whole of the universe. It has the characteristics of [[Black Body]] Radiation of a temperature of 2.726 Kelvin. This radiation is regarded the best available evidence of the [[Big Bang]] theory - it gives an snapshot of the Universe when the temperature dropped enough to allow electrons and protons to
> form Hydrogen atoms, thus making the universe transparent to radiation. When it originated, the temperature of the Universe
> was about 3000 K, since then it has dropped because of the expansion of the Universe. One of its most salient features is
> a high degree of isotropy, the variations observed are of the
> order of  1/100000. Those very small variations are the seeds
> for the formation of the large scale structure we observe now.
------
Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart|990047498
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mozart]]
------
Currency|990047552
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Currency is a [[unit]] of [[money]].  Typically, each [[country]] has given [[monopoly]] to a single currency, controlled by a governmental [[central bank]], although exceptions from this rule exist.  Several countries can use the same name, each for their own currency (e.g. Candian dollars and US dollars).
> 
> Each currency typically has one fraction currency, valued at 1/100 of the main currency: 100 [[cent]]s = 1 [[dollar]], 100 [[centime]]s = 1 [[franc]].  These fractions are not listed below.
> 
> Currency '''names''' of the world in alphabetic order by currency name:
> *Crown - see Kroon, Krona, Krone below
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[United States]]
> *[[Euro]] - [[European Union]]
> *[[Franc]] - [[France]], [[Switzerland]]
> *[[Pound]] - [[United Kingdom]]
> *[[Kroon]] - [[Estonia]]
> *[[Krona]] - [[Sweden]]
> *[[Krone]] - [[Denmark]], [[Norway]]
> *[[Lire]] - [[Italy]]
> *[[Pesetas]] - [[Spain]]
> *[[Mark]] - [[Germany]]
> *[[Yen]] - [[Japan]]
------
Currency|990047635
1c1
< Currency is a [[unit]] of [[money]].  Typically, each [[country]] has given [[monopoly]] to a single currency, controlled by a governmental [[central bank]], although exceptions from this rule exist.  Several countries can use the same name, each for their own currency (e.g. Candian dollars and US dollars).
---
> A currency is a [[unit]] of [[money]] (or monetary unit).  Typically, each [[country]] has given [[monopoly]] to a single currency, controlled by a governmental [[central bank]], although exceptions from this rule exist.  Several countries can use the same name, each for their own currency (e.g. Candian dollars and US dollars).
------
Unit|990047688
2a3
> A [[currency]] is a unit of [[money]] (a monetary unit).
------
Wiki_Administrators|990047936
56a57,63
> ----
> I agree that administrative powers, (in particular the power to
> delete pages) should be given very, very carefully (and even then,
> probably frequent backups would be desirable). In the mean time
> I would like to divert some attention to delete or not pages,
> I'm not sure it has been discused somewhere else, so I suggest
> we put it in[[Wikipedia Comentary/To delete or not to delete?]]
------
Wiki_Administrators|990047987
63c63
< we put it in[[Wikipedia Comentary/To delete or not to delete?]]
---
> we put it in[[To delete or not to delete?]]
------
Wiki_Administrators|990048016
63c63
< we put it in[[To delete or not to delete?]]
---
> we put it in[[To delete or not to delete]]
------
Currency|990048029
9c9
< *[[Franc]] - [[France]], [[Switzerland]]
---
> *[[Franc]] - [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
16c16
< *[[Mark]] - [[Germany]]
---
> *[[Mark]] - [[Finland]], [[Germany]]
17a18,29
> 
> International three letter currency codes are, in alphabetic order by code:
> *CHF - Swiss [[Franc]]
> *DKK - Danish [[Krone]]
> *EUR - [[Euro]]
> *FFR - French [[Franc]]
> *FIM - Finnish [[Mark]]
> *GBP - United Kingdom [[Pound]]
> *NOK - Norwegian [[Krone]]
> *SEK - Swedish [[Krona]]
> *USD - United States [[Dollar]]
> 
------
To_delete_or_not_to_delete|990048219
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I have seen that it is very desirable not to delete pages,
> but only do #REDIRECTs, will be keep doing that, even when a
> page is some mispelling (especially mistyping, like [[Wofgang Amadeus Mozart]])?
> 
> If there is a consensus that some pages should be deleted every
> now and then, I'd put the previous one on the list.
------
Alchemy|990048302
227c227
< outside of man's consciousness.  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
---
> outside of man's [[consciousness]].  Abelard also systematized the analysis of
------
Ethical_non-naturalism|990048446
5c5
< So the way that we’re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can’t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
---
> So the way that we?re defining these views, naturalism and non-naturalism are both kinds of <i>cognitivism</i> -- that is, both of them share the view that ethical sentences express propositions.  What they disagree about is whether ethical sentences can be reduced to nonethical sentences.  Non-naturalism says they <i>can?t</i>.  As that British philosopher of common sense, G. E. Moore, said, goodness is a <i>simple</i>, <i>undefinable</i>, <i>non</i>-<i>natural</i> property.
7c7
< To call it "non-natural" doesn’t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can’t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
---
> To call it "non-natural" doesn?t mean that goodness is somehow supernatural or ghostly or divine or anything like that.  All that it means to say that goodness is non-natural is to say that it can?t be reduced to natural properties like human needs, wants, pleasures, and so forth.
9c9
< Or to say the same thing, goodness can’t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It’s just that you can’t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can’t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn’t give any definition like that at all.
---
> Or to say the same thing, goodness can?t be <i>defined</i> in terms of anything else.  So Moore thought that goodness is <i>indefinable</i>.  Now, does that mean that he thought that talk of goodness of nonsense?  Definitely not: talk of goodness is quite meaningful.  It?s just that you can?t formulate what this meaning is in a definition.  You can?t say, for example, "goodness" means "pleasure."  Moore said you couldn?t give any definition like that at all.
11c11
< Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn’t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here’s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I’ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
---
> Still, you might wonder, how is it possible that a word could be <i>meaningful</i>, and yet <i>indefinable</i>?  Well, let me give you an example of <i>another</i> word that is definitely meaningful, but you couldn?t give any plausible definition of it: "thing."  I mean "thing" in its <i>broadest</i> sense.  How could you define this?  Something is a thing if, and only if, ... what?  How could you finish this definition?  Or how about the word "whole" as in "whole and part."  Something is a whole if, and only if, it ... what, has parts?  OK, but then define "part" for me, and do that without referring to wholes.  You can define wholes in terms of parts, or parts in terms of wholes, but as far as I can tell, you have to take either "whole" or "part," <i>one</i> of those words, as primitive, undefinable, or basic.  Here?s another example: the word "and" and "not."  These are extremely important words in logic; but all logicians admit that you have to start out with <i>some</i> basic, undefined concepts in logic, and in fact "and" and "not" are often two of their choices for undefined terms.  Then they proceed to define <i>other</i> terms in logic using "and" and "not."  And I?ll bet you can think of all sorts of examples of primitive, undefinable terms from mathematics and geometry -- such as "point," as in "point on a line."  Anyway, you get the idea.
13c13
< So Moore’s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that’s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can’t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can’t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you’re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That’s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
---
> So Moore?s claim, which is the central claim of the non-naturalist, is that "good" is indefinable.  And if that?s the case, then the meaning of sentences containing word "good" can?t be explained entirely in terms of sentences <i>not</i> containing the word "good."  You can?t substitute talk of pleasure, or needs, or anything like that for talk of good.  Once you are talking about goodness (or badness, for that matter), you?re talking about a subject that is just as fundamental as talk of things, of wholes and parts, of "and" and "not," and of points on lines.  Just as those things are simple and indefinable, so goodness is simple and indefinable.  So said Moore.  That?s the basic contention of non-naturalism.
15c15
< OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can’t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
---
> OK, so why think that non-naturalism is true?  Why think that "good" can?t be defined?  Are there any arguments for that claim?  There are some, or two anyway, that we can look at.
17c17
< The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn’t call it an argument; it’s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
---
> The first argument for non-naturalism is really very simple.  In fact, maybe we shouldn?t call it an argument; it?s better to look at it as simply a way of putting certain facts into perspective; call it a "line of thought."  Consider, on the one hand, properties like hardness, roundness, dampness, and so forth.  These are all natural properties; we encounter them in the real world and we can perceive them.  Consider, on the other hand, properties like <i>being</i> <i>good</i> and <i>being</i> <i>right</i>.  We say that a great novel like <i>Moby</i> <i>Dick</i> is a good thing; so goodness is a property of that novel.  And we say that paying back debts, and telling the truth, are generally the right things to do; so rightness is a property of certain human actions, like paying off your debts, and truth-telling.
19c19
< But isn’t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won’t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren’t natural properties.  And if that’s the case, they can’t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it’s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn’t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
---
> But isn?t it straightforwardly obvious that these are two <i>really</i> <i>quite</i> <i>different</i> kinds of properties?  Those natural properties, like hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world.  On the other hand, goodness and rightness -- well, <i>where</i> are they?  Can you <i>see</i> the goodness of a novel?  Can you <i>touch</i> rightness?  Can you use scientific instruments to <i>measure</i> morality?  Of course not.  So it seems simply <i>obvious</i> -- or so goes this line of thinking, which we won?t dignify with the name "argument" -- that goodness and rightness aren?t natural properties.  And if that?s the case, they can?t be defined in terms of any natural properties; if they could be, then they would be, ultimately, natural properties themselves.  Moore actually went so far as to say that it?s a <i>fallacy</i> to think that goodness is a natural property: he called this <i>the</i> <i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>.  But really all that amounts to is calling naturalism a fallacy -- which doesn?t prove anything.  I could just as easily say that non-naturalism is a fallacy, and say that Moore committed the <i>non</i>-<i>naturalistic</i> <i>fallacy</i>!
23c23
< But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can’t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn’t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It’s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we’re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There’s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
---
> But this raises a rather difficult question.  See if you can think of any answer to it yourself.  Suppose for a moment that Moore is right, and that goodness is an indefinable, non-natural property; you can?t bump into it, or see it, but you do know when novels, and foods, and states of mind, are good.  But if goodness isn?t a natural property, then <i>how</i> do you know this?  You should be able to tell me what sort of question that is -- a question that asks, "How do you know that something is good?"  It?s an <i>epistemological</i> question.  But in particular we?re talking about knowledge of <i>moral</i> facts.  There?s a branch of epistemology, or of ethics, or both, called <i>moral</i> <i>epistemology</i> which studies how we know moral facts, and how moral beliefs are justified.
25c25
< If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It’s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that’s how you know it’s good; so you can say that the cake’s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That’s the idea.  That’s how you’d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you’re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn’t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
---
> If Moore says that goodness is a non-natural property, then how does he know that anything is good?  It?s evidently not by any ordinary, <i>natural</i> process.  Think about that.  If you could know that cake is good by some <i>natural</i> process (say, just by eating it and having a pleasant taste sensation), then you could identify the goodness of the cake as some natural property that that natural process detected.  For example, the cake gives you pleasure; that?s how you know it?s good; so you can say that the cake?s goodness is just the same as, and is reducible to, the fact that it can give you pleasure.  That?s the idea.  That?s how you?d know that the cake is good, <i>if</i> you thought that goodness might be a natural property.  But if you?re Moore, and you think that goodness <i>isn?t</i> a natural property, then <i>how</i> <i>do</i> <i>you</i> <i>know</i> <i>that</i> <i>anything</i> <i>is</i> <i>good</i>?  How do you distinguish the good things from the bad?
27c27
< One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That’s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
---
> One answer that has been fairly common among British philosophers, although not so much anymore, is to say that we have a special faculty, a faculty of <i>moral</i> <i>intuition</i>.  And this faculty tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong.  The view that there is such a faculty is called <i>moral</i> <i>intuitionism</i>.  So we taste the cake and this faculty kicks into gear and tells us that it is good.  That?s not such a great example, though, because even the non-naturalist might want to allow that, when we say that cake is good, we just mean that we like it.  But what about a good person, or a right action?  If we see a good person, or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, <i>then</i>, the moral intuitionists say, we can simply <i>intuit</i> that the person is good, or that the action is right.
29c29
< Now, don’t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you’re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
---
> Now, don?t ask me what "moral intuition" means.  All I know is that it is supposed to be a mental process that is different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgements are its outputs.  So when you judge something to be good, or some action to be right, then you?re using your faculty of moral intuition.  And that faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties.  Perhaps the best ordinary notion we have, that approximates the notion of a faculty of moral intuition, would be <i>conscience</i>.  If I get a pang of conscience after I do something I know is wrong, my faculty of moral intuition has kicked in and is being directed at <i>me</i>.
31c31
< We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can’t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
---
> We could go on and talk about moral intuitionism for a long time, because there are, believe it or not, lots of different varieties to the theory.  But we can?t afford the time.  I will just say this about it -- that we should see whether or not we can explain how we might come to know moral facts <i>without</i> talking about some mysterious faculty of moral intuition.
33c33
< So let’s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
---
> So let?s look at the second argument for non-naturalism.  This is called the <i>open</i> <i>question</i> <i>argument</i>, and was introduced and made famous by Moore.  This argument is actually one of the things that Moore is quite famous for.  Which is unfortunate, because later on in his life, some years after he published the argument, he said that it was no good!
35c35
< Even if the argument is no good, it’s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you’ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
---
> Even if the argument is no good, it?s instructive to look at it.  If you take a class in ethical theory, you?ll probably study it again in more depth.  But actually, the argument is pretty simple.  It goes like this.
37c37
< Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it’s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It’s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
---
> Suppose I want to give a definition of "good."  So I say that "good" means "pleasure-causing."  In other words, according to my definition, if something is good, that means it causes pleasure; and if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good.  But Moore complained that we could always ask, "But are pleasure-causing things good?"  And the point is that that would always be an <i>open</i> <i>question</i>.  This means that it?s not just a foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure causing things <i>are</i> good.  It?s an open question, a perfectly legitimate question that someone who understands the English very well might ask: Is everything that causes pleasure good?
39c39
< Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that’s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn’t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
---
> Moore then went on to say that you could criticize <i>any</i> definition of goodness like that.  To take another example: I could say that "good" means "desirable."  So anything that?s desirable is good, and whatever is good is desirable.  Moore says that we can ask a question here -- what would his question be?  Well, it would be this: "Is everything that is desirable good?"  And Moore would observe that this is an open question.  The answer isn?t <i>obvious</i> to someone who understands the English language.
41c41
< So here’s the formula that you can use to generate Moore’s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we’re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we’d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it’s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can’t be defined.  It’s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
---
> So here?s the formula that you can use to generate Moore?s question.  If someone says "good" means X, then you reply by asking: But is X actually good?  And then you observe that this is an open question.  The answer is never <i>obviously</i> "Yes."  And yet we?re all competent speakers of the English language; we all know what "good" means.  So if we <i>did</i> come across the correct definition of "good," then, the implication is, we?d be able to recognize it.  But we can <i>never</i> just automatically recognize any definition of "good" as the definition of "good."  If I tell you that "good" means X, it?s <i>always</i> an open question, as far as ordinary speakers of the language are concerned, whether X is good.  And therefore, Moore concluded, the word "good" can?t be defined.  It?s indefinable.  If it were definable, then a question of the definition in the form of "Is X good" would not be an <i>open</i> question.  But questions of that form are <i>always</i> open questions.  So "good" cannot be defined.
43c43
< That’s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How’s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
---
> That?s the open question argument.  Now, you might find at least one part of it puzzling -- a part where you might have wanted to stop me and say, "How?s that again?  Why does Moore say that?"  I mean the following step, from (1) to (2):
45c45
< (1) Moore’s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
---
> (1) Moore?s question, "Is X good?" is always an open question to any English speaker; that is, no English speaker would be able to recognize "good" means X as <i>obviously</i> the correct definition.
49c49
< What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can’t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn’t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It’s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can’t we say both things at the same time?
---
> What I want to know is: How is (2) supposed to follow from (1)?  Can?t we admit that (1) is correct, and at the same time claim that (2) is false?  I mean, why <i>couldn?t</i> we?  Consider what that would amount to.  It?s the following conjunction of claims: no one can recognize that any definition of "good" is correct, but "good" is still definable.  Honestly why can?t we say both things at the same time?
51c51
< Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That’s how Moore viewed it.  But I don’t think that’s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn’t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You’d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
---
> Look at it like this.  Moore seems to assume that "good" can be defined <i>only</i> <i>if</i> competent English speakers would recognize the correct definition when they saw it -- and in that case, the question, "Is X good?" would be answered, "Obviously yes, discussion closed."  That?s how Moore viewed it.  But I don?t think that?s correct.  It seems entirely possible to me that "good" might have a definition which ordinary English speakers <i>wouldn?t</i> recognize when they saw it at first.  You?d have to <i>argue</i> that the definition was correct.
53c53
< Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we’ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it’s the correct definition?  Surely not.
---
> Compare the situation to other attempts at definition in philosophy -- like the case with "knowledge."  We all have a pretty good idea of what the English word "knowledge" means.  But does that mean that if we see the correct definition of "knowledge," we?ll <i>immediately</i> recognize that it?s the correct definition?  Surely not.
55c55
< So here’s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and consciousness and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn’t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
---
> So here?s the point: there are a lot of deep concepts that are studied in philosophy, like goodness and knowledge and [[consciousness]] and so on.  We all can recognize <i>instances</i> of these things.  We will all recognize perfectly well that motherhood is good, that we know that 2+2=4, and that we are all conscious right now.  But that doesn?t mean that we will immediately recognize the correct account of the meaning of "good," "know," and "conscious."
57c57
< So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it’s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn’t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won’t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That’s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it’s true.
---
> So back to the open question argument.  Moore says that for any definition of goodness, where we say "good" means X, you can always ask "Is X actually good?" and that will be an open question.  But my reply -- which is not just my reply but a fairly common reply to Moore -- is to say that that proves nothing.  <i>Even</i> <i>if</i> it?s an open question to ask, "Is X actually good?" it doesn?t follow <i>from</i> <i>that</i> that X is not the definition of "good."  It might be, for all we know.  We won?t necessarily recognize a truly enlightening theory of goodness when we see it.  That?s a perhaps unfortunate fact, but I think it?s true.
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Requested_articles|990048472
13,14c13
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- 
< [[Non-Euclidean geometry]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
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FrenchMaterialism|990048493
9c9
< The [[Baron d Holbach]]s [[System of Nature]] applied the [[Mechanistic Materialism]] to the whole of nature and proposed that consciousness has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
---
> The [[Baron d Holbach]]s [[System of Nature]] applied the [[Mechanistic Materialism]] to the whole of nature and proposed that [[consciousness]] has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts.  d Holbach thought it human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d Holbach's notion of progress. 
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Larrys_Text|990048519
15c15
< ::[[philosophy of mind]] -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- ConsciousNess -- TheMindBodyProblem -- [[reduction]] -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
---
> ::[[philosophy of mind]] -- MentalEvent -- MentalFunctions -- [[Consciousness]] -- TheMindBodyProblem -- [[reduction]] -- MonIsm -- NeutralMonism -- DualIsm -- DualisticInteractionism -- PhysicalIsm -- PhilosophyOfPerception -- [[free will and determinism]]
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Metaphysical_objectivism|990048561
1c1
< The theory that there is an underlying reality that exists independent of our perception and consciousness.  This is in contrast to [[Metaphysical subjectivism|metaphysical subjectivism]]. 
---
> The theory that there is an underlying reality that exists independent of our perception and [[consciousness]].  This is in contrast to [[Metaphysical subjectivism|metaphysical subjectivism]]. 
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Metaphysical_subjectivism|990048579
1c1
< <b>Metaphysical subjectivism</b> is the theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that creates reality.  This is in contrast to [[metaphysical objectivism]].
---
> <b>Metaphysical subjectivism</b> is the theory that perception creates reality, and that there is no underlying, true, reality that exists independent of perception.  Can also hold that it is [[consciousness]] rather than perception that creates reality.  This is in contrast to [[metaphysical objectivism]].
7c7
< ''I think the above view of what subjectivism might represent the caricature of subjectivism that people sometimes bandy about, but I don't see how it's philosophically interesting.  I'll have to work on this article at some later date.  See [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22metaphysical+subjectivism%22 this link] to get an idea of how little this phrase, 'metaphysical subjectivism', is even used.  The view described is similar to (but a caricature of) what is known by philosophers as '[[phenomenalism]]' or '[[subjective idealism]]'.  Any discussion of ''that'' view should mention Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hume before Churchill. --[[LMS]]''
---
> ''I think the above view of what subjectivism might represent the caricature of subjectivism that people sometimes bandy about, but I don't see how it's philosophically interesting.  I'll have to work on this article at some later date.  See [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22metaphysical+subjectivism%22 this link] to get an idea of how little this phrase, 'metaphysical subjectivism', is even used.  The view described is similar to (but a caricature of) what is known by philosophers as '[[phenomenalism]]' or '[[subjective idealism]]'.  Any discussion of ''that'' view should mention Berkeley, Leibniz, and Hume before Churchill. --[[LMS]]''
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Nirvana|990048617
1c1
< [[/Grunge band|The grunge band from Seattle]]
---
> [[NirvanaBand|The grunge band from Seattle]]
5c5
< An [[English]] transliteration/spelling of a [[Sanskrit]] term meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle). Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving consciousness is extinguished.
---
> An [[English]] transliteration/spelling of a [[Sanskrit]] term meaning extinction or "blowing out" (like a candle). Nirvana is a frequently used term in BuddhIsm--very roughly it is the state of being when ego-centered/craving [[consciousness]] is extinguished.
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Currency|990048624
15a16
> *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]],[[Mexico]]
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Populism_and_Nationalism|990048640
4c4
< populism and nationalism. In [[France]], [[Chateaubriand]] provided the opening shots of Catholic revivalism as he opposed enlightenment's [[materialism]] with the "mystery of life," the human need for redemption.  In Germany, [[Schleiermacher]] promoted [[pietism]] by claiming that religion was not the [[institution]], but a mystical [[piety]] [nd sentiment with [[Christ]] as the mediating figure raising the human consciousness above the mundane to [[God]]'s level.  In [[England]], [[John Wesley]]'s [[Methodism]] split with the [[Anglican church]] because of its emphasis on the salvation of the masses as a key to moral reform, which [[Wesley|John Wesley]] saw as the answer to the social problems of the day.  All of these were united by a search for something to believe in because of the anxiety of the time.      
---
> populism and nationalism. In [[France]], [[Chateaubriand]] provided the opening shots of Catholic revivalism as he opposed enlightenment's [[materialism]] with the "mystery of life," the human need for redemption.  In Germany, [[Schleiermacher]] promoted [[pietism]] by claiming that religion was not the [[institution]], but a mystical [[piety]] [nd sentiment with [[Christ]] as the mediating figure raising the human [[consciousness]] above the mundane to [[God]]'s level.  In [[England]], [[John Wesley]]'s [[Methodism]] split with the [[Anglican church]] because of its emphasis on the salvation of the masses as a key to moral reform, which [[Wesley|John Wesley]] saw as the answer to the social problems of the day.  All of these were united by a search for something to believe in because of the anxiety of the time.      
------
Philosophy_of_mind|990048670
1c1
< <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvent''''s, MentalFunctions, and ConsciousNess.
---
> <i>Philosophy</i> <i>of</i> <i>mind</i> is the philosophical study of the nature of the mind, MentalEvent''''s, MentalFunctions, and [[consciousness]].
5c5
< The first question is: What is the mind?  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  When we ask that, we are simply asking what the relation is between the mind and MentalEvents.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn’t a question we are going to try to answer.
---
> The first question is: What is the mind?  Is the mind nothing more than a series of particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth, or is it something <i>over</i> <i>and</i> <i>above</i> those particular thoughts, feelings, and so forth?  When we ask that, we are simply asking what the relation is between the mind and MentalEvents.  In other words, we could simply restate the question in terms of mental events, like this: Is the mind nothing more than a series of mental events, or is it something over and above the mental events that we say occur "in" it?  This isn?t a question we are going to try to answer.
9c9
< Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can’t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?
---
> Suppose instead that we deny that the mind is some mysterious substance, and we hold instead that there are only <i>MentalEvents</i> and that "the mind" designates no more than a series of mental events?  We can still inquire about the relation between mind and body a different way, in terms of the relation between MentalEvents and PhysicalEvents.  We can ask: Are mental events <i>totally</i> <i>different</i> from physical events, so that you can?t explain what mental events are in terms of physical events; or are mental events <i>somehow</i> explainable as being the <i>same</i> as physical events?  For example, when John feels a pain, a mental event is occurring; now is that pain even <i>possibly</i> the same as something that occurs in John's brain, such as the firing of some special group of NeuroNs?
11c11
< So far we’ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
---
> So far we?ve presented several different questions that the philosophy of mind asks: What is the mind, a substance or just a series of mental events?  Is the mind somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, the body?  Are mental events somehow reducible to, or explainable in terms of, physical events?  Each of these questions are ways of interpreting the more ambiguous questions we started with, such as, "What is the mind?" and "What are mental events?"
13c13
< We can also ask questions about the different specific CognitiveProcesses, and of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  In that case, we’d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting TheMindBodyProblem.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.
---
> We can also ask questions about the different specific CognitiveProcesses, and of course we might ask what cognitive processes <i>in</i> <i>general</i> are supposed to be.  In that case, we?d be asking what distinguishes a <i>cognitive</i> process from any <i>other</i> kind of process.  That is another way of putting TheMindBodyProblem.  We can also ask a series of more specialized questions, about <i>each</i> <i>individual</i> cognitive process.
17c17
< Another example the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If Mary decides to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to her; she could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if our will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though Mary didn’t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to her deciding to walk across the room.  So was she free or wasn’t she?  That is a question addressed under the general heading "FreeWillAndDeterminism."
---
> Another example the will, or volition.  When we choose to do something we are using our wills, or engaging in volition.  There is, of course, one special and very difficult question that philosophers ask about this process, namely, is the will free?  If Mary decides to walk across the room, that seems to be entirely up to her; she could have chosen otherwise.  But if the universe is determined, and especially if our will really is after all just a physical process, then it certainly does seem as though Mary didn?t have control over <i>everything</i> that led up to her deciding to walk across the room.  So was she free or wasn?t she?  That is a question addressed under the general heading "FreeWillAndDeterminism."
19c19
< Finally, consider some questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it’s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we are conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.
---
> Finally, consider some questions about consciousness.  What is it?  We say that there is something it?s <i>like</i> to be watching a baby.  When we look at a baby we are conscious of the baby.  Is there some way to explain what makes a mental event, like looking at a baby, <i>conscious</i>?  Well, what could we explain consciousness in terms of?  If in terms of some physical process, then we face the same old mind-body question in yet <i>another</i> form: Can consciousness be reduced to, explained in terms of, mere physical processes?  Some people have said, vociferously, <i>definitely</i> <i>not</i>.  How could a hunk of grey matter in your brain be the same as <i>the</i> <i>awareness</i> <i>of</i> <i>a</i> <i>pain</i>?  Awareness is a <i>totally</i> different kind of thing from grey matter in your skull.
23c23
< <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
---
> <The foregoing is a portion of [[Larrys Text]].  If you can do better, you can feel free to radically update or even replace this--please, just don't reduce the amount of useful content.  See [[Larrys Text]] for further notes and comments.>
------
TheSingularity/Talk|990048762
20c20
< Oh, when I say processing power I'm not referring to speed.  A fast calculator is still a calculator.  I'm referring to the number of internal connections the system has.  Our brains have a lot of neurons connected in very complex ways, so consciousness can emerge relatively easily.  Present computers have relatively few gates hooked up to each other simplistically, so there's no such room.  And they're not getting that much better yet.
---
> Oh, when I say processing power I'm not referring to speed.  A fast calculator is still a calculator.  I'm referring to the number of internal connections the system has.  Our brains have a lot of neurons connected in very complex ways, so [[consciousness]] can emerge relatively easily.  Present computers have relatively few gates hooked up to each other simplistically, so there's no such room.  And they're not getting that much better yet.
------
TheSingularity|990048785
9c9
< But due to such factors as "the AI advantage" (i.e., downloadable consciousness, replicable consciousness), it seems likely that such AIs would quickly be able to create even more intelligent machines.  If we can create a single $1000 Einstein, you might say, we can easily create a billion Einsteins.  Working together, they can surely generate enough technological progress to build machines so smart that they boggle the human mind.
---
> But due to such factors as "the AI advantage" (i.e., downloadable [[consciousness]], replicable consciousness), it seems likely that such AIs would quickly be able to create even more intelligent machines.  If we can create a single $1000 Einstein, you might say, we can easily create a billion Einsteins.  Working together, they can surely generate enough technological progress to build machines so smart that they boggle the human mind.
21c21
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Bacteria|990048795
1c1
< A one-cell living organism.  See also [[virus]], [[fungi]], [[disease]], [[DNA]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Bacterium]]
------
Science_fiction/authors|990048816
10a11
> * [[Orson Scott Card]]
------
Natural_monopoly|990048834
1a2,4
> 
> See also [[currency]] and [[standardization]].
> 
3c6
< Other [[market forms]]
---
> Other [[market forms]]
------
TheMindBodyProblem|990048861
23c23
< The mind-body problem, to put it as generically and broadly as possible, is this question: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>the</i> <i>mental</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i>?  For the sake of simplicity, we can state the problem in terms of mental and physical <i>events.</i>  I could put it just as well in terms of <i>processes</i>, or of <i>consciousness.</i>  So the problem restated is: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>mental</i> <i>events</i> <i>and</i> <i>physical</i> <i>events</i>?  
---
> The mind-body problem, to put it as generically and broadly as possible, is this question: <i>What</i> <i>is</i> <i>the</i> <i>basic</i> <i>relationship</i> <i>between</i> <i>the</i> <i>mental</i> <i>and</i> <i>the</i> <i>physical</i>?  For the sake of simplicity, we can state the problem in terms of mental and physical <i>events.</i>  I could put it just as well in terms of <i>processes</i>, or of <i>[[consciousness]].</i>  So the problem restated is: <i>What is the basic relationship between mental events and physical events</i>?  
------
Bacterium|990048892
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A single-celled organism without a nucleus, that is, a prokaryote.  Bacteria are classified in the kingdom [[Monera]], although there really appear to be two groups no closer related to each other than to eukaryotes ([[Protista]], [[Fungi]], [[Plantae]], [[Animalia]]).  A few kinds of bacteria are parasites responsible for [[disease]].
------
Schoolly_D|990048924
5c5
< Musically, he and his DJ Code Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the black consciousness style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signifying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
---
> Musically, he and his DJ Code Money came up with electronic hardcore beats. Later on, Schoolly embraced the [[black consciousness]] style, working together with [[KRS One]]. He contributed songs to [[Abel Ferrara]] films, among them brilliant tracks like "Signifying rapper" (for "[[Bad Lieutenant]]") and "The Player" (for "[[Blackout]]"). His last album, "Funk n Pussy", features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy]]'s Chuck D, Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[Drum and Bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D joint "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK trip hop crew the Sneaker Pimps).
------
Feminist_film_theory/Talk|990048970
1c1
< I don't know what to make of this summary.  I haven't paid much attention to film theory because, honestly, most of it bores me, so take the following with a grain of salt.  But: is it the case that feminisit film critics often argue that Shot/Reverse Shot <i>forces</i> the viewer to align him- or herself with the point of view of the protagonist?  If so, I would argue that the critics making that charge are definitely overstating the case.  I think anyone who's had more than a few discussions about any controversial topic should know that you can not force anyone to understand anything; people are too much like horses before the proverbial stream.  So I'd have to argue that this technique <i>encourages</i> identification with the protagonist, but that the viewer can always balk at such identification, as do these feminist critics.  I believe the difference is significant, because a feminist criticism of being forced to think anything would belie the notion of self-empowerment through consciousness-raising, which is certainly one of the main tenets of feminist philosophy.
---
> I don't know what to make of this summary.  I haven't paid much attention to film theory because, honestly, most of it bores me, so take the following with a grain of salt.  But: is it the case that feminisit film critics often argue that [[shot reverse shot]] <i>forces</i> the viewer to align him- or herself with the point of view of the protagonist?  If so, I would argue that the critics making that charge are definitely overstating the case.  I think anyone who's had more than a few discussions about any controversial topic should know that you can not force anyone to understand anything; people are too much like horses before the proverbial stream.  So I'd have to argue that this technique <i>encourages</i> identification with the protagonist, but that the viewer can always balk at such identification, as do these feminist critics.  I believe the difference is significant, because a feminist criticism of being forced to think anything would belie the notion of [[self-empowerment]] through [[consciousness-raising]], which is certainly one of the main tenets of feminist philosophy.
------
PopularMusic|990049147
45c45
< * [[Nirvana/Grunge band|Nirvana]]
---
> * [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
------
Uranium|990049175
4a5,6
> ''Isn't the second really called the Uranium industry, and only referred to as Uranium when it is understood that industries are what are being considered?  I would vote to remove the second definition.''
> 
------
Cannibalism|990049276
1c1,3
< The act of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
---
> The act or practice of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
> 
> For some species, cannibalism under certain well-defined circumstances, such as the female black widow spider eating the male after mating, is a normal part of the life cycle.  In vertebrates, cannibalism is not routine or normal for any given species, and rarely develops except in extremis, such as a desparate shortage of food.
------
Wiki_Administrators|990049403
63c63
< we put it in[[To delete or not to delete]]
---
> we put it in [[To_delete_or_not_to_delete]]
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990049548
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Characters:</b>
> 
> *[[Star Trek/Beverly Crusher|Beverly Crusher]]
> *[[Star Trek/Wesley Crusher|Wesley Crusher]]
> *[[Star Trek/Data|Data]]
> *[[Star Trek/Geordi LaForge|Geordi LaForge]]
> *[[Star Trek/Jean-Luc Picard|Jean-Luc Picard]]
> *[[Star Trek/William Riker|William Riker]]
> *[[Star Trek/Deanna Troi|Deanna Troy]]
> *[[Star Trek/Worf|Worf]]
> 
> <i>Semi-Regulars:</i>
> *[[Star Trek/Q|Q]]
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990049577
9c9
< *[[Star Trek/Deanna Troi|Deanna Troy]]
---
> *[[Star Trek/Deanna Troi|Deanna Troi]]
------
Currency|990049581
4a5,6
> To find out which currency is used in a particular country, start at the [[countries of the world]].
> 
5a8,9
> *[[Afgani]] - [[Afghanistan]]
> *[[Boliviano]] - [[Bolivia]]
7c11,13
< *[[Dollar]] - [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[United States]]
---
> *[[Dinar]] - [[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]]
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[United States]]
> *[[Dram]] - [[Armenia]]
9c15
< *[[Franc]] - [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
---
> *[[Franc]] - [[Andorra]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
13a20,23
> *[[Kwanza]] - [[Angola]]
> *[[Kyat]] - [[Burma]]
> *[[Lek]] - [[Albania]]
> *[[Lev]] - [[Bulgaria]]
15,16c25
< *[[Pesetas]] - [[Spain]]
< *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]],[[Mexico]]
---
> *[[Manat]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
17a27,34
> *[[Marka]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
> *[[Ngultrum]] - [[Bhutan]]
> *[[Pesetas]] - [[Spain]]
> *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]],[[Mexico]]
> *[[Pula]] - [[Botswana]]
> *[[Real]] - [[Brazil]]
> *[[Rubel]] - [[Belarus]], [[Russia]]
> *[[Taka]] - [[Bangladesh]]
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990049675
0a1,2
> [[Star Trek/TNG Espisode List|Espisode List]]
> 
2a5,6
> <i>Regular:</i>
> 
12c16
< <i>Semi-Regulars:</i>
---
> <i>Semi-Regular:</i>
13a18
> 
------
The_Origin_of_Species/Chapter_7|990049684
7c7
< If we suppose any habitual action to become inherited and I think it can be shown that this does sometimes happen then the resemblance between what originally was a habit and an instinct becomes so close as not to be distinguished. If Mozart, instead of playing the pianoforte at three years old with wonderfully little practice, had played a tune with no practice at all, be might truly be said to have done so instinctively. But it would be the most serious error to suppose that the greater number of instincts have been acquired by habit in one generation, and then transmitted by inheritance to succeeding generations. It can be clearly shown that the most wonderful instincts with which we are acquainted, namely, those of the hive-bee and of many ants, could not possibly have been thus acquired. 
---
> If we suppose any habitual action to become inherited and I think it can be shown that this does sometimes happen then the resemblance between what originally was a habit and an instinct becomes so close as not to be distinguished. If [[Mozart]], instead of playing the pianoforte at three years old with wonderfully little practice, had played a tune with no practice at all, be might truly be said to have done so instinctively. But it would be the most serious error to suppose that the greater number of instincts have been acquired by habit in one generation, and then transmitted by inheritance to succeeding generations. It can be clearly shown that the most wonderful instincts with which we are acquainted, namely, those of the hive-bee and of many ants, could not possibly have been thus acquired. 
99c99
< This theory is, also, strengthened by some few other facts in regard to instincts; as by that common case of closely allied, but certainly distinct, species, when inhabiting distant parts of the world and living under considerably different conditions of life, yet often retaining nearly the same instincts. For instance, we can understand on the principle of inheritance, how it is that the thrush of South America lines its nest with mud, in the same peculiar manner as does our British thrush: how it is that the male wrens (Troglodytes) of North America, build 'cock-nests,' to roost in, like the males of our distinct Kitty-wrens, a habit wholly unlike that of any other known bird. Finally, it may not be a logical deduction, but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, -- the larvae of ichneumonidae feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars, not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.
---
> This theory is, also, strengthened by some few other facts in regard to instincts; as by that common case of closely allied, but certainly distinct, species, when inhabiting distant parts of the world and living under considerably different conditions of life, yet often retaining nearly the same instincts. For instance, we can understand on the principle of inheritance, how it is that the thrush of South America lines its nest with mud, in the same peculiar manner as does our British thrush: how it is that the male wrens (Troglodytes) of North America, build 'cock-nests,' to roost in, like the males of our distinct Kitty-wrens, a habit wholly unlike that of any other known bird. Finally, it may not be a logical deduction, but to my imagination it is far more satisfactory to look at such instincts as the young cuckoo ejecting its foster-brothers, ants making slaves, -- the larvae of ichneumonidae feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars, not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990049704
1c1
< [[Star Trek/TNG Espisode List|Espisode List]]
---
> [[Star Trek/TNG Episode List|Episode List]]
------
Francophone|990049725
1c1
< Francophone is a French word that means French-speaking.  Francophone [[country|countries]] include [[France]], parts of [[Switzerland]], parts of [[Canada]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former French colonies.
---
> Francophone is a French word that means French-speaking.  Francophone [[country|countries]] include [[France]], parts of [[Belgium]], [[Canada]], and [[Switzerland]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former French colonies.
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990049759
14a15
> *[[Star Trek/Natasha Yar|Natasha Yar]]
------
Uranium|990049788
6a7
> :''I agree''
------
Natural_monopoly|990049882
1c1,3
< A [[natural monopoly]] is a specific case of a [[monopoly]]. It's existence is justified by the specific cost structure the monopolist, which barrs other competitors from entering he market by making it impossible for him to produce and sell his goods at a profit. A good practical example is a railway company - a competitor would have to build a second set of tracks in a specific area in order to be able to enter the market. Technically this implicates that the monopolists' '''long term average costs''' ([[LAC]]) and '''long term marginal costs''' ([[LMC]]) decrease when the output '''Q''' increases.
---
> In [[economics]], a '''natural monopoly''' is a company that becomes the only supplier of a product or service because the nature of that product or service makes a single supplier more efficient than competing ones.  In particular, companies that grow to take advantage of [[economies of scale]] often run into problems of [[bureaucracy]]; these factors interact to produce an "ideal" size for a company.  If that ideal size can supply the whole market, then that market is a natural monopoly.
> 
> Some also use the term for suppliers in a market for which entry into the market is extremely expensive.  For example, early railroad and telephone companies rarely had to worry about competitors because they would have to duplicate large amounts of track or wiring that the earlier company had already paid for.  In this case, the monopolies can be eliminated either by new technologies like the automobile and wireless communications, or by government intervention.
4a7
> [[/Talk]]
------
Natural_monopoly/Talk|990049935
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This was the original article.  I'm not sure it jibes with my understanding of the subject, but maybe I misunderstand what's being said:
> 
> a specific case of a [[monopoly]].  It's existence is justified by the specific cost structure the monopolist, which barrs other competitors from entering he market by making it impossible for him to produce and sell his goods at a profit. A good practical example is a railway company - a competitor would have to build a second set of tracks in a specific area in order to be able to enter the market. Technically this implicates that the monopolists' '''long term average costs''' ([[LAC]]) and '''long term marginal costs''' ([[LMC]]) decrease when the output '''Q''' increases.
------
Uranium|990049958
7a8,10
> 
> ::''Could we establish a practice of listing, for each chemical element, the basic information from the periodic table (atom weight, symbol, ...), a pointer to the entry [[periodic table]], some information about the element, and information about its commercial use (e.g. a pointer to an article on the uranium industry, if there is an industry for this element).''
> 
------
To_delete_or_not_to_delete|990049984
6c6,8
< now and then, I'd put the previous one on the list.
---
> now and then, I'd put the previous one on the list.
> ----
> I think the suggestion to keep all pages came as a means of avoiding dead links in search engines.  I've encountered similar mispellings ([[Martin Scorcese]]); I would like to do away with them also but I'm not sure it would be a good advertisement for Wikipedia to leave dead links.  I guess whatever action is taken depends on how common the misspelling is?  It seems that wikipedia does not fuzzy-match search results; is that the case?
------
Music|990050042
84c84
< '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Puccini]]
---
> '''[[Musical Composers]]:''' [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] -- [[Mozart|Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] -- [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]] -- [[Gustav Mahler]] -- [[Jean Sibelius]] -- [[Piotr Tchaikovsky]] -- [[Antonio Vivaldi]] -- [[Richard Wagner]] -- [[Maurice Ravel]] -- [[George Bizet]] --  [[Verdi]] -- [[Giacomo Rossini]] -- [[Puccini]]
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990050049
17a18,19
> *[[Star Trek/Reginald Barclay|Reginald Barclay]]
> *[[Star Trek/Miles OBrian|Miles O'Brian]]
19a22,25
> <i>Other:</i>
> *[[Star Trek/The Traveller]]
> 
> <i>C'mon Trekkies/Trekkers, fill it in! You don't want [[Star Wars]] to have more info, do you?</i>
------
Natural_monopoly/Talk|990050127
3a4,6
> 
> ----
> [[LA2]]: Either way, you should keep the pointer back to [[monopoly]].  Pointers are always useful, whether they point to related or opposite words.  (I have no informed oppinion on the economic theory here.)
------
Star_Wars|990050237
3c3
< It has been noted, that in America it is now almost impossible to go for a full day without hearing some reference to Star Wars.  This is an a testament to the extraordinary popularity that the Star Wars films have enjoyed.
---
> It has been noted, that in America it is now almost impossible to go for a full day without hearing some reference to Star Wars.  This is a testament to the extraordinary popularity that the Star Wars films have enjoyed.
------
Hollywood|990050307
3c3
< Hollywood is also used to collectivly refer to the film industry located in and around Hollywood.
---
> "Hollywood" is also used to refer to the film industry located in and around Hollywood, California.
------
Star_Wars|990050472
99a100,101
> 
> <i>I say throw it all in. WikiIsNotPaper, and I'm of the opinion that Wikipedia should be of epic proportions. Besides, I'm not a Star Wars nut, but aren't the events and characters from the books considered 'canonical' in the Star Wars saga? Put it all in, I say!</i> -- [[STG]]
------
Natural_monopoly/Talk|990050573
6c6,8
< [[LA2]]: Either way, you should keep the pointer back to [[monopoly]].  Pointers are always useful, whether they point to related or opposite words.  (I have no informed oppinion on the economic theory here.)
---
> [[LA2]]: Either way, you should keep the pointer back to [[monopoly]].  Pointers are always useful, whether they point to related or opposite words.  (I have no informed opinion on the economic theory here.)
> 
> However, I do have an uninformed opinion: I think it is an open matter of discussion whether any "natural" monopolies exist.  It is very hard to do experiments on the national or continental scale, so tradition or ideology has determined what gets to be a monopoly.  Radio and TV stations were governmental monopolies in most west European democracies for most of the 20th century.  Each city has a municipal monopoly for street lights.  Each country has a monopoly currency.  Some libertarian economists might think we could handle multiple currencies, regulated by private banks, and there would be no need for a central bank.  Maybe this uncertainty should be reflected in the definition.
------
Raggamuffin|990050664
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Raggamuffin is a kind of reggae that focuses on spoken words very much like rap does. The ragga rapper is called toaster or dee jay, early dee jays were [[I Roy]], [[U Roy]] and [[Dillinger]]; [[Yellowman]] laid foundations to modern raggamuffin and people like [[Buju Banton]], [[Supercat]], [[Ninjaman]] and [[Shabba Ranks]] were top dee jays in the 1990s. 
------
Raggamuffin|990050734
1c1
< Raggamuffin is a kind of reggae that focuses on spoken words very much like rap does. The ragga rapper is called toaster or dee jay, early dee jays were [[I Roy]], [[U Roy]] and [[Dillinger]]; [[Yellowman]] laid foundations to modern raggamuffin and people like [[Buju Banton]], [[Supercat]], [[Ninjaman]] and [[Shabba Ranks]] were top dee jays in the 1990s. 
---
> Raggamuffin is a kind of reggae that focuses on spoken words very much like rap does. The ragga rapper is called toaster or dee jay, early dee jays were [[I Roy]], [[U Roy]] and [[Dillinger]]; [[Yellowman]] laid foundations to modern raggamuffin and people like [[Buju Banton]], [[Supercat]], [[Ninjaman]] and [[Shabba Ranks]] were top dee jays in the 1990s. Musically, raggamuffin is characterized by often very basic beats, which [dub]] poet [[Linton Kwesi Johnson]] links to its African roots. 
------
Freestyle_music|990050875
1c1
< Freestyle music will have MOST of the following traits.
---
> Most freestyle music has most of the following traits:
23,24c23
< For the roots of freestyle, see [[electro funk]]
< 
---
> For the roots of freestyle, see [[electro funk]]. Some authorities view "I.O.U." by Freeze as the first freestyle track, while many others see Shannon's "Let the music play" as the first real freestyle track. The song incorporated thoroughly syncopated beats and Latin percussion, thanks to producer [[Chris Barbosa]]. 
------
Electro_funk|990050932
1c1
< Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed [[Ennio Morricone]], Kraftwerk and [[Captain Sky]], or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
---
> Electronic style of hip hop especially influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] and funk records (unlike earlier rap records that were closer to disco, musically speaking). [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s Planet Rock (1982) is the first electro funk record, it mixed [[Ennio Morricone]], [[Kraftwerk]] and [[Captain Sky]], or was at least influenced by the latter. Electro funk also flourished on the west coast [[Egyptian Lover]] [[Arabian Prince]] and gave birth to [[bass music]] as well as influenicing [[house music]] and other electronic styles of dance music. 
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TOS|990051366
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Star Trek/TOS Episode List|Episode List]]
> 
> <b>Characters:</b>
> 
>  <i>Regular:</i>
> *[[Star Trek/Pavel Chekov|Pavel Chekov]]
> *[[Star Trek/Leonard McCoy|Leonard McCoy]]
> *[[Star Trek/James T. Kirk|James T. Kirk]]
> *[[Star Trek/Montgomery Scott|Montgomery Scott]]
> *[[Star Trek/Spock|Spock]]
> *Sulu (first name?)
> *Uhuru (first name?)
> 
>  <i>Semi-Regular:</i>
> 
>  <i>Other:</i>
------
Star_Trek/Star_Trek_TNG|990051373
23c23
< *[[Star Trek/The Traveller]]
---
> *[[Star Trek/The Traveller|The Traveller]]
25c25
< <i>C'mon Trekkies/Trekkers, fill it in! You don't want [[Star Wars]] to have more info, do you?</i>
---
> <i>C'mon Trekkies/Trekkers, fill it in! You don't want [[Star Wars]] to have more info, do you?</i>
------
Currency|990051524
8a9
> *[[Birr]] - [[Ethiopia]]
10c11,14
< *Crown - see Kroon, Krona, Krone below
---
> *[[Cedi]] - [[Ghana]]
> *[[Colon]] - [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]]
> *Crown - see Koruna, Kroon, Krona, Krone below
> *[[Dalasi]] - [[Gambia]]
12c16,17
< *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[United States]]
---
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[United States]]
> *[[Drachma]] - [[Greece]]
13a19
> *[[Escudo]] - [[Cape Verde]]
15,16c21,22
< *[[Franc]] - [[Andorra]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
< *[[Pound]] - [[United Kingdom]]
---
> *[[Franc]] - [[Andorra]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Guinea]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
> *[[Koruna]] - [[Czech republic]]
19c25,26
< *[[Krone]] - [[Denmark]], [[Norway]]
---
> *[[Krone]] - [[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Norway]]
> *[[Kuna]] - [[Croatia]]
21a29
> *[[Lari]] - [[Georgia]]
23a32
> *[[Lira]] - [[Cyprus]]
26c35
< *[[Mark]] - [[Finland]], [[Germany]]
---
> *[[Mark]] - [[Germany]]
27a37,38
> *[[Markka]] - [[Finland]]
> *[[Nafka]] - [[Eritrea]]
30c41,42
< *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]],[[Mexico]]
---
> *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Mexico]] 
> *[[Pound]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[United Kingdom]]
32a45
> *[[Riel]] - [[Cambodia]]
33a47,48
> *[[Shekel]] - [[Gaza Strip]], [[Israel]]
> *[[Sucre]] - [[Ecuador]]
42c57
< *FIM - Finnish [[Mark]]
---
> *FIM - Finnish [[Markka]]
------
Euro|990051615
3c3
< The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (€)
---
> The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (?)
16a17,19
> 
> See also ... [[EuroCurrency]]
> 
------
Euro|990052006
1c1
< The [[currency]] of the [[European Union]], being introduced in [[2000]] with [[coin]]s and [[bank note]]s in early 2002.  In the intermediate period, each country's old currency exists in parallel with the euro, but the conversion rates are pegged since 1998.
---
> Euro is the new [[currency]] of the [[European Union]], being introduced in [[2000]] with [[coin]]s and [[bank note]]s ([[bill]]s) being introduced on January 1, 2002.  In the intermediate period, each country's old currency exists in parallel with the euro, but the conversion rates are pegged since 1998.
9c9,10
< *[[Germany]]
---
> *[[Belgium]]
> *[[Finland]]
10a12,13
> *[[Germany]]
> *[[Ireland]]
12,13d14
< *[[Netherlands]]
< *[[Belgium]]
14a16,20
> *[[Netherlands]]
> *[[Portugal]]
> *[[Spain]]
> 
> The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the [[European Central Bank]], which has its HQ in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]. 
16c22
< ...please add to the list
---
> The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries in relation to the Euro were fixed on January 1st, 1999 using the value of the ECU (European Currency Unit) at that time. This means that from that date the Euro is the currency that takes part in the world economy, with a changing exchange rate (actually its value has decreased steadily since January 1st, 1999).
18c24
< See also ... [[EuroCurrency]]
---
> The exchange rates of the currencies of the participating countries are then simply calculated using the fixed value that was determined on January 1st, 1999 and the exchange rate of the Euro.
------
Euro|990052178
5c5
< Some EU countries have abstained from introducing the euro and will keep their old currencies.  This includes [[Sweden]].
---
> [[Denmark]], [[Greece]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United Kingdom]], though EU members, have abstained from introducing the euro at this point and will keep their old currencies.
7c7
< Countries that have introduced the Euro:
---
> Countries that have introduced the Euro are:
20c20
< The monetary policy of the EuroCurrency region is conducted by the [[European Central Bank]], which has its HQ in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]. 
---
> The monetary policy of the Euro region is conducted by the [[European Central Bank]], which has its headquarters in [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]]. 
------
Euro|990052219
7,18c7,18
< Countries that have introduced the Euro are:
< *[[Austria]]
< *[[Belgium]]
< *[[Finland]]
< *[[France]]
< *[[Germany]]
< *[[Ireland]]
< *[[Italy]]
< *[[Luxembourg]]
< *[[Netherlands]]
< *[[Portugal]]
< *[[Spain]]
---
> Countries that have introduced the Euro are
> [[Austria]],
> [[Belgium]],
> [[Finland]],
> [[France]],
> [[Germany]],
> [[Ireland]],
> [[Italy]],
> [[Luxembourg]],
> [[Netherlands]],
> [[Portugal]], and
> [[Spain]].
------
EuroCurrency|990052442
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Euro]]
> 
------
Euro|990052545
3c3,5
< The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency sign has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (?)
---
> The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency symbol has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (?), see for example
> http://developer.apple.com/technotes/tn/tn1140.html
> http://developer.apple.com/technotes/tn/images/tn1140_001.gif
------
Euro|990052596
3c3
< The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A currency symbol has been invented, looking like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=) (?), see for example
---
> The international three letter code for the euro is EUR.  A special Euro currency symbol has been designed.  It is the letter E, but looks like a capital C overwritten with an equals sign (=), see for example
4a5
> 
------
Currency|990053145
15,16c15,16
< *[[Dinar]] - [[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]]
< *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[United States]]
---
> *[[Dinar]] - [[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]]
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Jamaica]], [[United States]]
21c21,23
< *[[Franc]] - [[Andorra]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Guinea]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
---
> *[[Forint]] - [[Hungary]]
> *[[Franc]] - [[Andorra]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Guinea]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Gabon]], [[Guadaloupe]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Switzerland]]
> *[[Gourde]] - [[Haiti]]
24c26
< *[[Krona]] - [[Sweden]]
---
> *[[Krona]] - [[Iceland]], [[Sweden]]
30a33
> *[[Lempira]] - [[Honduras]]
32,33c35
< *[[Lira]] - [[Cyprus]]
< *[[Lire]] - [[Italy]]
---
> *[[Lira]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Italy]]
42c44
< *[[Pound]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[United Kingdom]]
---
> *[[Pound]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Guernsey]], [[Ireland]], [[Jersey]], [[United Kingdom]]
43a46
> *[[Quetzal]] - [[Guatemala]]
46a50,51
> *[[Rupee]] - [[India]]
> *[[Rupiah]] - [[Indonesia]]
49a55
> *[[Toman]] - [[Iran]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990053253
5c5,7
< It's not that I have anything against industrious inventors getting the credit they deserve; the problem is that according them an exaggerated awe and reverence gives a mistaken impression of the process of invention.  When it is believed that inventions spring from acts of creative inspiration in the minds of geniuses, people may believe that it takes more education and talent than they possess to create things, and may be discouraged from engaging in the ''real'' process of invention, which is an accumulation of small incremental changes to exiting ideas, combination and division of existing ideas, and old fashioned hard work.
---
> It's not that I have anything against industrious inventors getting the credit they deserve; the problem is that according them an exaggerated awe and reverence gives a mistaken impression of the process of invention.  When it is believed that inventions spring from acts of creative inspiration in the minds of geniuses, people may believe that it takes more education and talent than they possess to create things, and may be discouraged from engaging in the ''real'' process of invention, which is an accumulation of small incremental changes to exiting ideas, combination and division of existing ideas, and old fashioned hard work.  The idea also encourages social policies that reward creative invention more than--and perhaps at the expensive of--other things discovery and craftsmanship.
> 
> Craftsmanship deserves special mention.  Before the age of patents, it was common for tradesmen to teach apprentices the accumulated wisdom of the craft over the ages, and those apprentices might make small incremental changes to the craft based on new materials, new tools, new demands, or whatever else they felt necessary.  If the clay in a certain area meant that wagon wheels should be built a little wider, the wheelwright made that change, but continued to keep all of the other time-proven traditions of his craft.  In this way, excellent products evolved over time because of this process of accumulation of incremental improvements.  Today, if a minor improvement to something is not sufficiently "novel" to be considered an invention in its own right, we not only fail to reward its inventor, but we punish him if he tries to build the device, accusing him of "stealing" from the previous inventor of the device he improved.  Therefore, the only improvements that can be made are those so different that they can be judged "new" inventions.  This forces goods to radically change, rather than evolving naturally.
------
European_Central_Bank|990053285
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[central bank]] of the [[European Union]], controlling the new [[Euro]] [[currency]].
> 
> The first head of the ECB is [[Vim Duisenberg]] (spelling?).
> 
> 
------
Central_bank|990053409
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[bank]] that belongs to the [[government]] of a [[country]] or union of countries for controlling their [[currency]].
> 
> *[[Bank of England]] - [[United Kingdom]]
> *[[Deutsche Bank]] - [[Germany]]
> *[[European Central Bank]] - [[European Union]]
> *[[Federal Reserve]] - [[United States]]
> *[[Sveriges Riksbank]] - [[Sweden]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990053463
5c5
< It's not that I have anything against industrious inventors getting the credit they deserve; the problem is that according them an exaggerated awe and reverence gives a mistaken impression of the process of invention.  When it is believed that inventions spring from acts of creative inspiration in the minds of geniuses, people may believe that it takes more education and talent than they possess to create things, and may be discouraged from engaging in the ''real'' process of invention, which is an accumulation of small incremental changes to exiting ideas, combination and division of existing ideas, and old fashioned hard work.  The idea also encourages social policies that reward creative invention more than--and perhaps at the expensive of--other things discovery and craftsmanship.
---
> It's not that I have anything against industrious inventors getting the credit they deserve; the problem is that according them an exaggerated awe and reverence gives a mistaken impression of the process of invention.  When it is believed that inventions spring from acts of creative inspiration in the minds of geniuses, people may believe that it takes more education and talent than they possess to create things, and may be discouraged from engaging in the ''real'' process of invention, which is an accumulation of small incremental changes to exiting ideas, combination and division of existing ideas, and old fashioned hard work.  The idea also encourages social policies that reward creative invention more than--and perhaps at the expensive of--other things like discovery and craftsmanship.
------
Year_2000_problem|990053537
1c1
< The <b>Year 2000 Problem</b> was a technological fear that computer programs used in critical industries (electricity, financial, etc.) would stop working at 12:00 AM, [[January]] 1, 2000.
---
> The <b>Year 2000 Problem</b> was a technological fear that computer programs used in critical industries (electricity, financial, etc.) would stop working at 12:00 AM, [[January]] 1, [[2000]].
5c5
< It was the media hype story of all of 1999, but when January 1, 2000 finally came, there were hardly any major problems whereas a large number of them had been expected.
---
> It was the media hype story of all of [[1999]], but when January 1, 2000 finally came, there were hardly any major problems whereas a large number of them had been expected.
13,14c13,14
< * the Y2K problem mainly affected countries that follow the western calendar (China does not).
< * one theory has it that the Federal Reserve increased the money supply in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of new money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
---
> * the Y2K problem mainly affected countries that follow the western calendar ([[China]] does not).
> * one theory has it that the [[Federal Reserve]] increased the [[money supply]] in 1999 to compensate for anticipated hording by a frightened populace.  The populace, however, was not frightened, and the flood of new money fueled the stock market bubble that burst in spring of 2000.
16c16
< * (speculatively) The Y2K spending on information infrastructure caused a slowdown in information technology spending in the year 2000 and 2001 as may eventually lead to higher productivity in future years.
---
> * (speculatively) The Y2K spending on information infrastructure caused a slowdown in information technology spending in the year 2000 and 2001 as may eventually lead to higher productivity in future years.
------
Federal_Reserve|990053611
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[central bank]] of the [[United States]], controlling their [[currency]], the US [[dollar]].  The current head of "the Fed" is [[Alan Greenspan]], considered one of the most powerful men on Earth.
> 
> 
> 
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990053615
11c11
< Let's also respect the role of culture and society for creating an environment that makes these creative acts possible and valuable.  Certainly the solutions chosen to solve a particular problem are often based as much on the cultural heritage of the solver as upon the technical issues.  In short, let's remember that invention is the endpoint of a long process of dicovery and communication, and you can't reach your destination without going through the journey.
---
> Let's also respect the role of culture and society for creating an environment that makes these creative acts possible and valuable.  Certainly the solutions chosen to solve a particular problem are often based as much on the cultural heritage of the solver as upon the technical issues.  In short, let's remember that invention is the endpoint of a long process of discovery and communication, and you can't reach your destination without going through the journey.
------
Bank|990053889
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word is derived from Italian "banca", a bench.  A bank is an institution for economic transactions.  Subclasses of bank include [[central bank]], [[merchant bank]], [[savings bank]].  See also [[currency]], [[economics]], [[lending]], [[money]].
> 
> 
------
C_language|990054046
1c1
< A [[programming language]] designed by [[Dennis Ritchie]] during the early [[1970s]] to be used for [[operating system]] implementation and other low level programming tasks.
---
> A [[programming language]] designed by [[Dennis Ritchie]] during the early [[1970s]] to be used for [[operating system]] implementation and other low-level programming tasks.  It was used immediately to reimplement the [[Unix]] operating system.
3c3
< It was used immediately to reimplement the [[Unix]] operating system.
---
> It was called "C" because many features derived from an earlier language named "B", in commemoration of ''its'' parent, [[BCPL]].  BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier [[Algol]]-derived language, [[CPL]].
5c5
< It was called 'C' because many features derived from an earlier [[compiler]] named `B' in commemoration of its parent, [[BCPL]]. (BCPL was in turn descended from an earlier [[Algol]]-derived language, [[CPL]].) 
---
> C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.  [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to C, creating a language called [[C++]].
7,13d6
< C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.
< 
< [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to c
< and created [[c++]].
< 
< ----
< Wikified from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].  Public Domain. [[Gareth Owen]]
------
Krona|990054126
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of the [[currency]] used in [[Iceland]] and [[Sweden]], sometimes (in English texts) referred to as a '''crown'''.
> 
> 
------
Krone|990054244
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of the [[currency]] used in [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]].  The [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]] use the Danish krone as their currency.  Sometimes, in English texts, the krone is referred to as a "crown".
> 
------
Central_bank|990054570
4c4
< *[[Deutsche Bank]] - [[Germany]]
---
> *[[Deutsche Zentralbank]] - [[Germany]]
------
Currency|990054916
15,16c15,17
< *[[Dinar]] - [[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]]
< *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Jamaica]], [[United States]]
---
> *[[Dinar]] - [[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]]
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kiribati]], [[United States]], [[Zimbabwe]]
> *[[Dong]] - [[Vietnam]]
23a25
> *[[Kina]] - [[Papua New Guinea]]
35c37
< *[[Lira]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Italy]]
---
> *[[Lira]] - [[Cyprus]], [[Italy]], [[Vatican City]]
52a55,56
> *[[Shilling]] - [[Kenya]]
> *[[Som]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
54a59
> *[[Tenge]] - [[Kazakhstan]]
55a61
> *[[Won]] - [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]]
56a63,66
> *[[Yuan]] - [[Peoples Republic of China]]
> *[[Zloty]] - [[Poland]]
> 
> 
------
Currency|990054955
16c16
< *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kiribati]], [[United States]], [[Zimbabwe]]
---
> *[[Dollar]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]], [[Australia]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Brunei]], [[Canada]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Cook Island]], [[Dominica]], [[Fiji]], [[Grenada]], [[Guam]], [[Guyana]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kiribati]], [[United States]], [[Zimbabwe]]
------
Dollar|990055069
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]].  The name is related to the historic currencies Thaler (Germany) and Daler (Sweden).
> 
------
Pound|990055164
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], and [[Egypt]].
> 
> 
------
Mark|990055248
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of the [[currency]] in [[Germany]], to be replaced by the [[Euro]].  See also [[Marka]] and [[Markka]].
> 
> 
------
Markka|990055341
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name (in the Finnish langauge) of the [[currency]] in [[Finland]], to be replaced by the [[Euro]].  See also [[Mark]] and [[Marka]].  (Finland's Swedish-speaking minority uses the word Mark for this currency.)
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Externalization|990055635
1c1
< To put something outside of its original borders.  Especially to put a human function outside of the human body.
---
> To put something outside of its original borders.  Especially to put a human function outside of the human body.  The opposite of [[internalization]].
------
Internalization|990055801
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To put something inside of borders where it did not originally belong.  Especially of alien ideas and concepts that a person accepts as their own.  [[Religious conversion]] should be an excellent example of this process.
> 
> Internalization is the opposite of [[externalization]].
> 
>  
------
Christianity/Talk|990055815
3c3,11
< Could someone who knows (or who wants to find out) please update this page accordingly?  Maybe also the [[Islam]] page too? --[[LMS]]
---
> Could someone who knows (or who wants to find out) please update this page accordingly?  Maybe also the [[Islam]] page too? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> I do know that the Quran (Koran) specifically refers to Jesus as a holy man and his disciples as Muslims ("obedient" [to god]).  It also refers to the Old Testament as holy scripture.  The Quran exhorts believers to respect and honor believers of The Word, and this specifically included early Christians, mentioning various characters of the New Testament by name.
> 
> Some of the early books of the bible appear in slightly different form in the Quran.
> 
> Islamic tradition has it that the Quran is accurate and that other scripture, while holy and of divine origin, has been subjected to human tampering and so can no longer be relied on in its entirety.  Christians, Jews and Moslems are all theologically (and genetically in some claimed cases) "sons of Abraham (Ibrahim)," the first holy prophet in the scriptures of all three religions.
> 
> I don't know just how I would include this on the main page, but I have the Moslem scriptures at home and could probably provide direct quotes on these points...
------
Religious_conversion|990056389
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The adoption by a person or group of persons of a religious belief ([[religion]]) different from their previous position.  Either by abandoning their previous faith (or [[atheism]]), or by changing from a secular position to become actively religious.
> 
> This sense of the word "conversion" is also used in sales and marketing, to describe the conversion of a prospect into a customer, or an occasional customer into a repeat customer.
> 
> [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] are two religions that encourage preaching their faith in order to convert non-believers.  In both cases, this missionary property has been used as an [[excuse]] for religious wars ([[crusade]]s) on other countries.
> 
> In the year 1000, the viking age parliament of [[Iceland]] decided that the entire country should convert to Christianity, and that sacrifice to the old gods, while still allowed, should no longer be made in the open.  Similar mass conversions in other Scandinavian countries were not as democratic.
> 
------
Religious_conversion|990056603
2a3,4
> Conversion requires [[internalization]] of the new belief system.
> 
------
Atheism|990056837
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The opposite of [[religion]], atheism means the active belief that no [[god]] or higher being or purpose exists.  The believer is called an [[atheist]].
> 
> See also [[agnosticism]] and [[secularism]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Tensor|990057107
11c11
< This is rather painfull to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {<strong>E<sub>i</sub></strong>} with i from 1 to n. 
---
> This is rather painful to do as we have to find the projection of A into all of these vectors and solve n equations in n unkowns.  We can solve this in a computationaly (and eventually much clearer fasion) by finding reciprocal vectors for our set of vectors {<strong>E<sub>i</sub></strong>} with i from 1 to n. 
------
Secularism|990057171
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Secularism is the opposite of [[religiosity]].  In a secular society, [[religion]] (or [[atheism]]) is a private matter, not having any impact on everyday life.  Most western societies are secular.  Different religious believers, agnostics, and atheists can live side by side in a secular society, unless their urge to [[religious conversion|convert]] their fellow citizens gets too strong.
> 
> See also [[agnosticism]], [[atheism]], and [[religion]].
> 
------
Religious_conversion|990057321
1c1
< The adoption by a person or group of persons of a religious belief ([[religion]]) different from their previous position.  Either by abandoning their previous faith (or [[atheism]]), or by changing from a secular position to become actively religious.
---
> The adoption by a person or group of persons of a religious belief ([[religion]]) different from their previous position.  Either by abandoning their previous faith (or [[atheism]]), or by changing from a secular position to become actively religious.  The person doing so is called a convert.
5c5
< This sense of the word "conversion" is also used in sales and marketing, to describe the conversion of a prospect into a customer, or an occasional customer into a repeat customer.
---
> This sense of the word "conversion" is also used in [[sales]] and [[marketing]], to describe the conversion of a [[prospect]] into a [[customer]] (to close a deal) or an occasional customer into a [[repeat customer]].
------
Religiosity|990057432
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Religiosity is the level of religious activity.  At very low levels are [[secularism]].  At very high levels are [[fundamentalism]] and/or violent [[crusade]]s or religious wars.
> 
> 
------
General_Relativity|990057751
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[General relativity]]
------
Tensor|990057853
1c1
< ''Tensors'' are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General Relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
---
> ''Tensors'' are quantities that describe a transformation between coordinate systems.  They were resurected from obscurity by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] in order to formulate [[General relativity]] in such a way that the physical laws that were described where independent of the coordinate system choosen.
------
Isms|990057889
1,53c1,64
< abolitionism
< absenteeism
< absolutism
< abstract expressionism
< ageism
< agnosticism
< agrarianism
< alarmism
< Albigensianism
< albinism
< alcoholism
< anarcho-syndicalism
< aneurism
< Anglicanism
< animalism
< animal magnetism
< animism
< anti-Semitism
< autism
< Bahaism
< baptism
< behaviorism
< Benthamism
< Big Brotherism
< bilateralism
< bilingualism
< bimetallism
< Buddhism
< Bullism
< capitalism
< careerism
< Cartesianism
< Catholicism
< charlatanism
< Chartism
< chauvinism
< checkbook journalism
< Communism
< Conservative Judaism
< consumerism
< criticism
< cronyism
< Darwinism
< despotism
< determinism
< do-goodism
< do-nothingism
< druidism
< dualism
< egocentrism
< egoism
< electromagnetism
< elitism
---
> An "ism" is a belief system or way of being that ends in "-ism".
> 
> [[abolitionism]],
> [[absenteeism]],
> [[absolutism]],
> [[abstract expressionism]],
> [[ageism]],
> [[agnosticism]],
> [[agrarianism]],
> [[alarmism]],
> [[Albigensianism]],
> [[albinism]],
> [[alcoholism]],
> [[anarcho-syndicalism]],
> [[aneurism]],
> [[Anglicanism]],
> [[animalism]],
> [[animal magnetism]],
> [[animism]],
> [[anti-Semitism]],
> [[autism]],
> [[Bahaism]],
> [[baptism]],
> [[behaviorism]],
> [[Benthamism]],
> [[Big Brotherism]],
> [[bilateralism]],
> [[bilingualism]],
> [[bimetallism]],
> [[Buddhism]],
> [[Bullism]],
> [[capitalism]],
> [[careerism]],
> [[Cartesianism]],
> [[Catholicism]],
> [[charlatanism]],
> [[Chartism]],
> [[chauvinism]],
> [[checkbook journalism]],
> [[communism]],
> [[Conservative Judaism]],
> [[consumerism]],
> [[criticism]],
> [[cronyism]],
> [[Darwinism]],
> [[despotism]],
> [[determinism]],
> [[do-goodism]],
> [[do-nothingism]],
> [[druidism]],
> [[dualism]],
> [[egocentrism]],
> [[egoism]],
> [[electromagnetism]],
> [[elitism]]
> 
> [[leninism]],
> [[maoism]],
> [[marxism]]
> 
> [[secularism]],
> [[sionism]],
> [[socialism]]
> 
------
Isms|990058005
55c55,56
< [[elitism]]
---
> [[elitism]],
> [[feminism]]
59c60,61
< [[marxism]]
---
> [[marxism]],
> [[protestantism]]
------
Uranium|990058404
1,12d0
< 1. a [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], see below
< 
< 2. the [[industry]] or [[trade]] of [[mining]], [[refining]], and [[selling]] this metal for use in [[nuclear power]] generation or weapons
< 
< ''Isn't the second really called the Uranium industry, and only referred to as Uranium when it is understood that industries are what are being considered?  I would vote to remove the second definition.''
< 
< :''I agree''
< 
< ::''Could we establish a practice of listing, for each chemical element, the basic information from the periodic table (atom weight, symbol, ...), a pointer to the entry [[periodic table]], some information about the element, and information about its commercial use (e.g. a pointer to an article on the uranium industry, if there is an industry for this element).''
< 
< ----
< 
------
Guilt|990058853
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[law]], [[ethics]] and [[moral]], a concept similar to [[economy]]'s concept of [[debt]].
> 
> Actions of low or negative legal/moral/ethical value that cause damage on the object, put an equal amount of guilt on the agent.  Guilt can be repaired by [[punishment]] (a common legal action), by [[forgiveness]], or by sincere remorse (as with confession in [[catholicism]]), but not by the agent's punishing themself.
> 
> The Latin word for guilt is culpa, a word sometimes seen in law literature.
> 
------
Guilt|990058997
3c3
< Actions of low or negative legal/moral/ethical value that cause damage on the object, put an equal amount of guilt on the agent.  Guilt can be repaired by [[punishment]] (a common legal action), by [[forgiveness]], or by sincere remorse (as with confession in [[catholicism]]), but not by the agent's punishing themself.
---
> Actions of low or negative legal/moral/ethical value that cause damage on the object, put an equal amount of guilt on the agent.  Guilt can be repaired by [[punishment]] (a common legal action), by [[forgiveness]], or by sincere [[remorse]] (as with [[confession]] in [[catholicism]]), but not by the agent's punishing themself.
------
Guilt|990059010
5c5
< The Latin word for guilt is culpa, a word sometimes seen in law literature.
---
> The Latin word for guilt is [[culpa]], a word sometimes seen in law literature.
------
Periodic_table|990059071
40d39
< I doubt we'll improve upon http://www.webelements.com.
42c41
< ''There's still stuff missing from that page...for instance, with a quick search at least, I couldn't find anything about the neat things that [[Helium]] does at low temperatures.  Not that we have any of that stuff...but if anyone was ever interested, they could add it, and that's what counts. :)''
---
> See also http://www.webelements.com, which has more stuff...at the moment.
44,46c43
< ''Another reply: webelements.com isn't a wiki.  Unlike that website, Wikipedia can be easily, quickly, and constantly improved.  Eventually, webelements.com and a heck of a lot of other websites are going to look at Wikipedia very enviously, because it's so easy for people to come and add useful information.  They have fun and everyone benefits...well, I'm sure I'm preaching to the choir now.  :-)''
< 
< We now officially have material that webelements doesn't - we know that [[carbon]] has a nitride.  Ok, so it's not much, but there's nowhere to go but up.
---
> ''Could we establish a practice of listing, for each chemical element, the basic information from the periodic table (atom weight, symbol, ...), a pointer to the entry periodic table, some information about the element, and information about its commercial use (e.g. a pointer to an article on the uranium industry, if there is an industry for this element).''
47a45
> I think a standard form is good but is easily stifling if followed too carefully, depending on the element.  For instance for hydrogen it makes more sense to discuss the pure form first, but for carbon second (because its structure makes more sense when compared to hydrocarbons).  Some elements need some things that other should lack.  So we could, but I think we should be careful.
------
UseModWiki|990059481
1c1
< The name of the wiki software used for [[Wikipedia]], at least as of January-February 2001.
---
> The name of the [[wiki software]] used for [[Wikipedia]], at least as of January-February 2001.
------
Wiki_software|990059554
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Computer software]] packages for creating WikiWiki style websites.
> 
> *[[PHPwiki]]
> *[[Twiki]]
> *[[UseModWiki]]
> *[[Vicky]]
------
Wiki_software|990059593
3c3
< *[[PHPwiki]]
---
> *[[PHP Wiki]]
------
Wiki_software|990059708
2a3,4
> *[[InterWiki]]
> *[[MetaWiki]]
------
Wiki_software|990059783
1c1
< [[Computer software]] packages for creating WikiWiki style websites.
---
> [[Computer software]] packages for creating WikiWiki style websites.  See also WikiWikiWeb.
3c3
< *[[InterWiki]]
---
> *[[InterWiki]] - http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki
------
Wiki_software|990059843
1c1
< [[Computer software]] packages for creating WikiWiki style websites.  See also WikiWikiWeb.
---
> [[Computer software]] packages for creating WikiWiki style websites.  See also WikiWikiWeb, WhichWikiShouldWeUse.
------
WhichWikiShouldWeUse|990059947
0a1,2
> This entry is for discussing which [[wiki software]] is best suited for [[Wikipedia]].
> 
------
Wiki_software|990059980
6c6
< *[[Twiki]]
---
> *[[Twiki]] - http://www.twiki.org/
8a9
> *[[Zwiki]] - http://www.zwiki.org/
------
Agnosticism|990063100
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The belief that it is impossible to know for sure whether or not a god (or gods) exist. The term was first coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]].
------
Thomas_Henry_Huxley|990063270
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> English biologist who was termed "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defense of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]]. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a [[materialism|materialist]] professional science than in defending [[natural selection]]. A talented popularizer of [[science]], he coined the term ''[[agnosticism'']].
> 
------
Thomas_Henry_Huxley|990063315
1,2c1
< English biologist who was termed "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defense of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]]. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a [[materialism|materialist]] professional science than in defending [[natural selection]]. A talented popularizer of [[science]], he coined the term ''[[agnosticism'']].
< 
---
> English biologist who was termed "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defense of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]]. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a [[materialism|materialist]] professional science than in defending [[natural selection]]. A talented popularizer of [[science]], he coined the term ''[[Agnosticism]]''.
------
Uranium|990065964
6c6,8
< absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive...the [[atomic bomb]]. 
---
> absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive. The first [[atomic bomb]] worked with this principle (fission). A more accurate
> name for both this and the [[Hydrogen bomb]] (fussion) would be "nuclear
> bomb", because only the nuclei participate. 
8,11d9
< Well, the fission bomb. The fusion bomb (see [[Helium]]) is also an atomic bomb, so it's kind of an ambiguous word, hm?
< 
< I'm just using historic language. The first "A-bomb" was a fission one. Nuclear is more accurate for both, anyway (the
< rest of the atom doesn't participate at all).
------
Secularism|990069225
1c1
< Secularism is the opposite of [[religiosity]].  In a secular society, [[religion]] (or [[atheism]]) is a private matter, not having any impact on everyday life.  Most western societies are secular.  Different religious believers, agnostics, and atheists can live side by side in a secular society, unless their urge to [[religious conversion|convert]] their fellow citizens gets too strong.
---
> Secularism is the belief that life can be lived, and the universe understood, with little or no reliance on, or reference to, supernatural powers, such as gods.  It is the lowest level or [[religiosity]].  In a secular society, [[religion]] (or [[atheism]]) is a private matter, not having any impact on everyday life.  Most western societies are secular.  Different religious believers, agnostics, and atheists can live side by side in a secular society, unless their urge to [[religious conversion|convert]] their fellow citizens gets too strong.
------
Atheism|990069323
1c1
< The opposite of [[religion]], atheism means the active belief that no [[god]] or higher being or purpose exists.  The believer is called an [[atheist]].
---
> The opposite of [[religion]], atheism is the active belief that no [[god]] or higher being or purpose exists.  The believer is called an [[atheist]].
------
Conspiracy_theory|990069474
18a19
> :[[Wikipedia]]
------
English_language/Vocabulary_non-standard_adjectives|990072618
1c1,79
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Following is a list of English adjectives that are non-standard in that they are not derived from the same root as the corresponding noun, or they are based on the same root but in a way that is non-intuitive even to a native English speaker.  In some cases, the non-standard adjective is merely an alternative to a standard one.  For example, for an adjective form of 'charity' we could say 'eleemosynary', though in most cases 'charitable' would work just as well.
> 
> The list is presented as:
> *noun form - adjective form
> 
> ----
> 
> *abdomen - ventral, alvine
> *abdominal cavity - celiac
> *accuracy - veracity
> *actors, acting  - histrionic
> *adjectives - epithetic
> *aesthetic pleasure - sensuous
> *aging, the aged - geriatric
> *agriculture - georgic, geoponic
> *alcohol - bibulous, vinic
> *algae - algal, algous
> *alphabet - abecedarian
> *animals - zoological, zoic
> *anklebone - astragatar
> *ants  - myrmecological, formic
> *anus - anal
> *apes - simian
> *apex - apical
> *Aphrodite - cytherean
> *apples - pomaceous, malic
> *aristocracy - genteel
> *Aristotle - peripatetic
> *arm - brachial
> *armpit - axillary
> *arrangement - tactic
> *arrows - sagittal
> *ashes - cinerary
> *asses - asinine
> *authors - auctorial          
> *aviation - aerial
> *back of the head - occipital
> *backside - dorsal
> *badgers - meline
> *barbers - tonsorial
> *bathrooms - lavatorial
> *baths, bathing - balneal
> *bats - chirpoteran, vespertilian
> *bears - ursine
> *bees - apian
> *beeswax - cerotic
> *bells - tintinnabulary
> *belly - ventral
> *bile - cholic
> *birds - avian, ornithic, volucrine
> *birds of prey - raptorial
> *birth - parturient
> *birthdays - genethliac
> *bishops - episcopal
> *Black Sea - euxine
> *bladder - cystic, vesical
> *blood - sanguineous, hemal, hematal, hematic, hemic
> *bloodshed - sanguineous
> *blood vessels - vascular, hemal, hematal
> *bodily motion - gestic
> *body - somatic, corporal, corporael, physical       
> *body/mind - pyschosomatic
> *bones - osteal, osseus, osteoid
> *boundaries - terminal
> *boxing - fistic, pugilistic
> *brain - cerebral, cerebric, encephalic
> *branches - ramal
> *branching patterns - cladistic
> *breastbone - sternal
> *breasts - mammary, mammilary
> *breeding season - nuptial
> *bridges - pontal
> *brothers - fraternal
> *buds - blastous
> *buildings - edificial
> *bulls - taurine
> *business - commercial
> *butter - butyric
> *buttocks - gluteal
------
English_language/Vocabulary_non-standard_adjectives|990073324
10c10
< *accuracy - veracity
---
> *accuracy - veracious
------
Dollar|990079042
1c1
< Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]].  The name is related to the historic currencies Thaler (Germany) and Daler (Sweden).
---
> Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Singapore]] and [[Australia]].  The name is related to the historic currencies Thaler (Germany) and Daler (Sweden).
------
Luxembourg|990080524
1c1
< Capital: Luxembourg-City
---
> Capital: [[Luxembourg-City]]
------
Mozart|990080697
1c1
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was Leopold Mozart, also a composer, and some of the [[piano]] pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for he and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. 
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was [[Leopold Mozart]], also a composer, and some of the [[piano]] pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for him and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. 
3c3
< He became a [[Mason]] during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. ''The Magic Flute'' is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, ''Queen of the Night,'' is an intensely thrilling piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the Romantic period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition. [[Beethoven]], one of the best known [[Romantic]] composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote Cadenzas to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance! [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his ''Mozartiana,'' a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. 
---
> He became a [[Mason]] during his adulthood, and fervently worked to convert his father before L. Mozart's death. Happily for W.A., he was successful. ''The Magic Flute'' is said to contain Masonic themes or meanings. The coloratura aria from that work, ''Queen of the Night,'' is an intensely thrilling piece. Mozart showed in many of his works that he could write as beautifully for the human voice as for the violin or pianoforte. Mozart is considered the bridge to the [[Romantic]] period. His later symphonies pushed the envelope of his period's style of composition. [[Beethoven]], one of the best known [[Romantic]] composers, was greatly influenced by Mozart, and wrote [[Cadenza]]s to some of Mozart's works that lacked them, most notably for Concerto No. 20, K. 466. Mozart often composed only sketches for his own parts, so great was his ability to remember them. He was also known to write an entire work on the day of its first performance! [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] greatly loved and admired Mozart, and expressed his admiration by writing his ''Mozartiana,'' a piece he intended to be in the Mozart style. 
10c10
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
To_delete_or_not_to_delete|990081223
8a9,12
> -----
> I think there are two things discussed here. One is deletion of data. I don't like that. The other is moving data from an unsuitable location (a misspelling) to a correct one. I don't think this is a problem. 
> 
> If someone creates a new page with a misspelled name and you spot it the day after, I think it's a good idea to move the data and remove the misspelled entry. Of course you should also use search to make sure that any other links to the page are changed. If the misspelling is on an old page so that it can be suspected of being in search engines like [[http://www.google.com/|Google]], then I guess a redirect is better. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Thomas_Henry_Huxley|990081944
1c1
< English biologist who was termed "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defense of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]]. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a [[materialism|materialist]] professional science than in defending [[natural selection]]. A talented popularizer of [[science]], he coined the term ''[[Agnosticism]]''.
---
> English biologist who was termed "Darwin's Bulldog" for his defense of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[evolution]]. Interestingly, Huxley did not accept many of Darwin's ideas (e.g. gradualism), and was more interested in advocating a [[materialism|materialist]] professional science than in defending [[natural selection]]. A talented popularizer of [[science]], he coined the term ''[[Agnosticism]]''. Huxley was also the grandfather of [[Aldous Huxley]].
------
Bertolt_Brecht|990082124
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German dramatist. Author of ''[[Galileo]]'' and ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'' (among many other works).
------
Oedipal|990082375
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pertaining to [[Oedipus Rex]] - [[Sophocles]]'s drama about a king who (unknowingly) kills his father and marries his mother. 
> 
> [[Sigmund Freud]] generalized this and claimed that all men want to kill their father & sleep with their mother - this he termed the [[Oedipal Complex]]. He similarly claimed that all daughters want to sleep with their fathers.
> 
> Freud's theory is clearly unscientific, particularly when one considers that an individual who denies his wish to sleep with his mother would be accused by a [[psychoanalyst]] of doing so because he is [[repression|repressing]] his wishs, thus bringing into play another of Freud's pet theories.
> 
> /Talk
------
Galileo|990082582
5c5
< Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal).
---
> Though certainly not, as is often claimed, the first person to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, he did more than anyone else to popularize the device and is rightly credited as the father of modern [[astronomy]].  A devout [[Catholic]], his writings on the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] model of the universe gave him trouble with the church, despite his continued insistence that his work in the area was purely theoretical, and depite his close friendship with Maffeo Barberini ([[Pope Urban VIII]], who presided throughout the ordeal). Recent scholarship has highlighted the fact that much of Galileo's problems with the [[Inquisition]] stemmed more from his lack of judgement than from any great desire by the [[Catholic]] [[Church]] to suppress his ideas.
10,11c10,13
< 	
< /Talk
---
> 
> [[Bertholt Brecht]] wrote a drama entitled ''Galileo'' which, rather than being concerned about the story of Galilei, was primarily dealing with the duties of [[scientist]]s and the nature of [[totalitarian]] thought.
>  
> /Talk
------
Galileo|990082657
11c11
< [[Bertholt Brecht]] wrote a drama entitled ''Galileo'' which, rather than being concerned about the story of Galilei, was primarily dealing with the duties of [[scientist]]s and the nature of [[totalitarian]] thought.
---
> [[Bertolt Brecht]] wrote a drama entitled ''Galileo'' which, rather than being concerned about the story of Galilei, was primarily dealing with the duties of [[scientist]]s and the nature of [[totalitarian]] thought.
------
Isms|990082806
15d14
< [[aneurism]],
66d64
< 
------
Piri_Reis|990083733
1c1
< Piri Reis was an Ottoman admiral born around 1465, in Gallipoli on [[Dardanelles]]. He began to serve as a privateer in the Ottoman Navy and after many years’ of fight against Spanish, Genoese and Venetian navies, he deserved the title of Reis (Admiral). Following his defeat in 1554 (when he was 90 years old) against the Portuguese navy in Red Sea, the sultan ordered him beheaded. 
---
> Piri Reis was an Ottoman admiral born around 1465, in Gallipoli on [[Dardanelles]]. He began to serve as a privateer in the Ottoman Navy and after many years? of fight against Spanish, Genoese and Venetian navies, he deserved the title of Reis (Admiral). Following his defeat in 1554 (when he was 90 years old) against the Portuguese navy in Red Sea, the sultan ordered him beheaded. 
3c3
< He is best known for his maps and charts collected in his Book of the Sea. He gained his fame as a map maker after a small part of his world map (prepared in 1513) was discovered on 1929, in [[Istanbul]]. The most interesting points of the map were its accuracy and a small continent that seemed to be linked to the southernmost tip of Southern America. Various people including [[Charles Hapgood]] and [[Erich von Daniken]] considered this as a sign for the discovery of the continent of Antarctica a few centuries before the traditionally accepted date and even as a proof for the presence of extraterrestrial civilizations, which were supposed to draw the original map.
---
> He is best known for his maps and charts collected in his Book of the Sea. He gained his fame as a map maker after a small part of his world map (prepared in 1513) was discovered on 1929, in [[Istanbul]]. The most interesting points of the map were its accuracy and a small continent that seemed to be linked to the southernmost tip of Southern America. Various people including [[Charles Hapgood]] and [[Erich von Daniken]] considered this as a sign for the discovery of the continent of Antarctica a few centuries before the traditionally accepted date and even as a proof for the presence of extraterrestrial civilizations, which were supposed to draw the original map. However, most scientists do not agree that the Piri Reis map is more precise than might be expected based on contemporary geographical knowledge plus accident.
------
Currency|990086824
78c78,79
< 
---
> -----
> Wouldn't it be better if the currency codes appeared in parentheses after each country name in the first table? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Dairy_product|990087132
1c1
< Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]].
---
> Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. A production plant for such products is often called a [[cow]], but occasionally a [[goat]].
------
Secularism|990087523
1c1
< Secularism is the belief that life can be lived, and the universe understood, with little or no reliance on, or reference to, supernatural powers, such as gods.  It is the lowest level or [[religiosity]].  In a secular society, [[religion]] (or [[atheism]]) is a private matter, not having any impact on everyday life.  Most western societies are secular.  Different religious believers, agnostics, and atheists can live side by side in a secular society, unless their urge to [[religious conversion|convert]] their fellow citizens gets too strong.
---
> Secularism is the belief that life can be lived, and the universe understood, with little or no reliance on, or reference to, supernatural powers, such as gods.  It is the lowest level of [[religiosity]].  In a secular society, [[religion]] (or [[atheism]]) is a private matter, not having any impact on everyday life.  Most western societies are secular.  Different religious believers, agnostics, and atheists can live side by side in a secular society, unless their urge to [[religious conversion|convert]] their fellow citizens gets too strong.
------
Cow|990087569
1c1
< Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].  [[domestication|Domesticated]] for producing [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]) and [[beef]].
---
> Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].   [[domestication|Domesticated]] for producing [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]) and [[beef]].
------
Piri_Reis|990087667
5c5
< However, the origins and references of the map have been written in detail by Ottoman-Turkish on the map and he seems to have based the map on works of [[Ptolemy]], Portuguese scholars and [[Christopher Columbus]]. The small landpiece depicted on the southernmost part of the map is considered to be an imaginary continent, which was assumed to counterbalance the continents of the northern hemisphere, since the time of ancient Greeks.  The real interesting point of the map is that it is reflecting Columbus' ideas about the world and probably is the best preserved copy of one of his earliest maps.
---
> On the other hand, the origins and references of the map have been noted in detail by Ottoman-Turkish on the map and he seems to have based the map on works of [[Ptolemy]], Portuguese scholars and [[Christopher Columbus]]. The small landpiece depicted on the southernmost part of the map is considered to be an imaginary continent, which was assumed to counterbalance the continents of the northern hemisphere, since the time of ancient Greeks.  The real interesting point of the map is that it is reflecting Columbus' ideas about the world and probably is the best preserved copy of one of his earliest maps.
------
Cameroon/Transnational_issues|990088376
2c2
< delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone
---
> delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of [[Lake Chad]], the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]], and [[Nigeria]]; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the [[Bakasi Peninsula]] and Lake Chad is currently before the [[ICJ]], as is a dispute with [[Equatorial Guinea]] over the exclusive [[maritime economic zone]]
------
India/History|990088718
2c2
< Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, massive overpopulation, environmental degradation, extensive poverty, and ethnic strife, all this despite impressive gains in economic investment and output.
---
> Nonviolent resistance to [[British colonialism]] under [[Mohandas Gandhi]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] led to independence in [[1947]]. The subcontinent was divided into the [[secularism|secular]] state of [[India]] and the smaller [[islam|Muslim]] state of [[Pakistan]]. A third [[war]] between the two countries in [[1971]] resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of [[Bangladesh]]. Fundamental concerns in India include the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over [[Kashmir]], massive [[overpopulation]], environmental degradation, extensive [[poverty]], and [[ethnic strife]], all this despite impressive gains in economic [[investment]] and output.
------
Alkali_metal|990089016
3c3
< The term used for the elements in Group IA of the [[Periodic Table]] - [[Lithium]], [[Sodium]], [[Potassium]], [[Rubidium]], [[Caesium]]. 
---
> The term used for the [[chemical element|elements]] in Group IA of the [[Periodic Table]] - [[Lithium]], [[Sodium]], [[Potassium]], [[Rubidium]], [[Caesium]]. 
5c5
< The alkali metals are silvery coloured, soft, low density metals, which react readily with halogens to form ionic salts, and with [[water]] to form strongly alkaline hydroxides. These elements all have one electron in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled electron shell is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive [[ion]].  
---
> The alkali metals are silvery coloured, soft, low density [[metal]]s, which react readily with [[halogen]]s to form [[ionic]] [[salt]]s, and with [[water]] to form strongly [[alkaline]] [[hydroxide]]s. These elements all have one [[electron]] in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled [[electron shell]] is to lose one electron to form a singly charged positive [[ion]].  
7c7
< [[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, nominally belongs in the alkali metals group. However, removal of that single electron requires considerably more energy than for the other alkali metals.  Like the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can be regarded in some respects as behaving like a halogen; its elemental form is a [[diatomic]] gas, and it can even form salts (called <i>hydrides</i>) with the alkali metals, where the metal has donated an electron to the hydrogen, almost as if hydrogen were actually a halogen.
---
> [[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, nominally belongs in the alkali metals group. However, removal of that single electron requires considerably more energy than for the other alkali metals.  Like the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can be regarded in some respects as behaving like a halogen; its elemental form is a [[diatomic]] gas, and it can even form salts (called <i>[[hydride]]s</i>) with the alkali metals, where the metal has donated an electron to the hydrogen, almost as if hydrogen were actually a halogen.
------
Ionic|990089308
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[chemistry]], the property of a [[chemical]] that its [[molecule]]s or [[atom]]s are [[ion]]s or are like ions, i.e. have a surplus (positive) or deficit (negative) (but not an equilibrium) of [[electric charge]], which is the result of adding or removing an [[electron]] to the outermost [[electron shell]] of the [[atom]] or [[molecule]].
> 
------
Greek_alphabet|990089538
44c44
< Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In Ionic Greek, sampi ? as the Semitic letter ? stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
---
> Bernal (117) claims that khi is of South Semitic origin; other scholars view it as a symbol that derives from &#926; (xi) (Jensen 462). Sampi, whose name is probably derived from Greek (ô) sán pi ('like pi') (Jensen 462) is presumably a newly developed form of  san, a Semitic letter that can also be found in Etruscan. In [[Ionic Greek]], sampi ? as the Semitic letter ? stood for /ts/ (id. 450).  Gercke (ibid.) views &#926; as the predecessor of sampi.
46c46
< The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter won out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
---
> The letter san was used at variance with sigma, and by classical times the latter won out, san disappearing from the alphabet.  The letters waw (later called digamma) and qoppa disappeared, too, the former only needed for the western dialects and the latter never really needed at all.  These lived on in the [[Ionic numeral system]], however, which consisted of writing a series letters with precise numerical values.  San, too, was reintroduced but at the end - to stand for 900.  Thousands were written with a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).
------
Ionic|990089572
2a3,4
> See also [[Ionic Greek]] and [[Ionic numeric system]].
> 
------
Ionic|990089600
3c3
< See also [[Ionic Greek]] and [[Ionic numeric system]].
---
> See also [[Ionic Greek]] and [[Ionic numeral system]].
------
LetterA|990089797
15,17c15,16
< (grammatike Ieoria) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of 
< Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names 
< of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. 
---
> (grammatike Ieoria) of [[Callias]], an earlier contemporary of 
> [[Euripides]], from whose works four trimeters, containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. 
50,53c49
< Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically 
< unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the 
< Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which 
< in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as 
---
> Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged.  On the other hand, the long sound of a in the [[Attic]] and [[Ionic]] dialects passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as 
59,60c55
< language.  Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about 
< twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in 
---
> language.  Thus the [[New English Dictionary]] distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in 
118c113
< -- BryceHarrington
---
> -- BryceHarrington
------
Ionic|990089832
2a3,4
> Ionic dialect -- see [[Greek language]].
> 
------
Cayman_Islands/People|990090053
50c50
< United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant
---
> United Church ([[prebytarian church|Presbyterian]] and [[congregational church|Congregational]]), [[anglican church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholic church|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
52c52
< English
---
> [[english language|English]]
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|990090226
1d0
< 
86,89c85,88
< :284 [[Protestants]] of Continental origin 
< :285 [[Presbyterian]], [[Reformed]], [[Congregational]] 
< :286 [[Baptist]], [[Disciples of Christ]], [[Adventist]] 
< :287 [[Methodist]] & related churches 
---
> :284 [[protestantism|Protestants]] of Continental origin 
> :285 [[presbytarian church|Presbyterian]], [[Reformed]], [[congregational church|Congregational]] 
> :286 [[baptism|Baptist]], [[Disciples of Christ]], [[Adventist]] 
> :287 [[methodist church|Methodist]] & related churches 
------
DeweyDecimalSystem/Religion|990090305
81c81
< :280 [[Christian denominations]] & sects 
---
> :280 [[Christian denomination]]s & sects 
83,84c83,84
< :282 [[Roman Catholic Church]] 
< :283 [[Anglican churches]] 
---
> :282 [[catholic church|Roman Catholic Church]] 
> :283 [[Anglican church]]es 
94c94
< :293 Germanic religion 
---
> :293 [[Germanic religion]] 
------
Cayman_Islands/People|990090419
50c50
< United Church ([[prebytarian church|Presbyterian]] and [[congregational church|Congregational]]), [[anglican church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholic church|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
---
> United Church ([[prebytarian church|Presbyterian]] and [[congregational church|Congregational]]), [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholic church|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
------
Cayman_Islands/People|990090514
50c50
< United Church ([[prebytarian church|Presbyterian]] and [[congregational church|Congregational]]), [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholic church|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
---
> United Church ([[Presbytarian Church|Presbyterian]] and [[Congregational Church|Congregational]]), [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholicism|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
------
Cayman_Islands/People|990090568
50c50
< United Church ([[Presbytarian Church|Presbyterian]] and [[Congregational Church|Congregational]]), [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholicism|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
---
> United Church ([[Presbytarian church|Presbyterian]] and [[Congregational church|Congregational]]), [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[catholicism|Roman Catholic]], Church of God, other [[protestantism|Protestant]]
------
Guernsey/History|990090625
2c2
< The island of Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway in both France and England. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in World War II.
---
> The island of Guernsey and the other [[Channel Island]]s represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of [[Normandy]], which held sway in both [[France]] and [[England]]. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in [[World War II]].
------
Gibraltar/Government|990090807
23c23
< English law
---
> [[English law]]
28c28
< Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor and Commander-in-Chief, the Right Honorable Sir Richard LUCE (since 24 February 1997); note - a new governor has been appointed and will arrive in March 2000
---
> Queen [[Elizabeth II]] (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor and Commander-in-Chief, the Right Honorable Sir [[Richard Luce]] (since 24 February 1997); note - a new governor has been appointed and will arrive in March 2000
30c30
< Chief Minister Peter CARUANA (since 17 May 1996)
---
> Chief Minister [[Peter Caruana]] (since 17 May 1996)
36c36
< none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor
---
> none; the [[monarch]] is hereditary; [[governor]] appointed by the monarch; [[chief minister]] appointed by the governor
------
Gibraltar/Government|990090889
46c46
< Gibraltar Labor Party/Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights or GCL/AACR [Adolfo CANEPA]; Gibraltar Liberal Party or GLP (has become the Gibraltar National Party or NP) [Joe GARCIA]; Gibraltar Social Democrats or SD [Peter CARUANA]; Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party or SL [Joe BOSSANO]; Gibraltar Socialist Liberal Alliance or GSLA [Joe BOSSANO] (includes SL and GLP)
---
> Gibraltar Labor Party/Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights or GCL/AACR [[Adolfo Canepa]]; Gibraltar Liberal Party or GLP (has become the Gibraltar National Party or NP) [[Joe Garcia]]; Gibraltar Social Democrats or SD [[Peter Caruana]]; Gibraltar Socialist Labor Party or SL [[Joe Bossano]]; Gibraltar Socialist Liberal Alliance or GSLA [[Joe Bossano]] (includes SL and GLP)
------
EsperantujO|990091336
3c3
< But when two people are speaking EsperantO (the international language) they are in Esperantujo. Although geographicaly they are in spain, russia, or canada.
---
> But when two people are speaking [[Esperanto]] (the international language) they are in Esperantujo. Although geographicaly they are in spain, russia, or canada.
8c8
< See also: http://www.esperanto.org
---
> See also: http://www.esperanto.org
------
Estonia/People|990091523
48c48
< Evangelical Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, Estonian Orthodox, Baptist, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Word of Life, Jewish
---
> [[Evangelical Lutheranism|Evangelical Lutheran]], [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]], [[Estonian Orthodox Church|Estonian Orthodox]], [[baptism|Baptist]], [[Methodist Church|Methodist]], Seventh-Day Adventist, [[catholicism|Roman Catholic]], [[Pentecostal]], [[Word of Life]], [[Judaism|Jewish]]
50c50
< Estonian (official), Russian, Ukrainian, English, Finnish, other
---
> [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (official), [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[English language|English]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], other
------
Agnosticism|990091691
1c1,3
< The belief that it is impossible to know for sure whether or not a god (or gods) exist. The term was first coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]].
---
> ''Agnosticism'' in its original sense (i.e., as coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in the 1940s), is the belief that it is impossible (perhaps in principle impossible) to know for sure whether or not [[God]] (in some sense of 'God', but typically the God of monotheistic religions) exists.  It can also be applied to the belief that there is evenly-weighted evidence on both sides of the question of whether God exists.  The word comes from the Greek ''a'' (no) and ''gnosis'' (knowledge).  Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) were [[Voltaire]], Huxley, [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Bertrand Russell]].  Russell's ''Why I Am Not a Christian'' is a classic text of agnosticism.
> 
> The term has come to be applied, by some, to the simple failure to hold that God does or does not exist (i.e., not taking a stand).  In this sense, the twentieth century [[logical positivism|logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]]--who believed that talk of God and perforce considerations of whether one can know that God exists--would count as agnostics.
------
Agnosticism|990091954
3c3,6
< The term has come to be applied, by some, to the simple failure to hold that God does or does not exist (i.e., not taking a stand).  In this sense, the twentieth century [[logical positivism|logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]]--who believed that talk of God and perforce considerations of whether one can know that God exists--would count as agnostics.
---
> The term has come to be applied, by some, to the simple failure to hold that God does or does not exist (i.e., not taking a stand).  In this sense, the twentieth century [[logical positivism|logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]]--who believed that talk of God and perforce considerations of whether one can know that God exists--would count as agnostics.
> 
> See also [[religion]], [[atheism]], [[religiosity]], [[secularism]]
> 
------
Electron_shell|990092326
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[chemistry]], see [[electron]] and [[orbitals]].
> 
------
Ion|990092454
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[chemistry]], an electrically charged [[molecule]] or [[atom]].
> 
> See also [[electron]], [[ionic]], [[orbitals]].
> 
> 
------
Electron|990092565
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a tiny [[particle]] with one unit negative [[electric charge]].
> 
------
Proton|990092687
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of one unit positive [[electric charge]].  The [[nucleus]] of the [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] is made up of a single proton.
> 
> 
------
Neutron|990092771
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], an elementary particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]].
> 
> 
------
Friedrich_Woehler|990093162
3c3
< See also [[chemists]], [[19th century]].
---
> See also [[chemist]]s, [[19th century]].
------
Inorganic_chemistry|990093441
1c1
< Inorganic chemistry is the branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the study of molecules that contain any combination of elements except carbon. 
---
> Inorganic chemistry is the branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the study of [[molecule]]s that contain any combination of [[chemical element]]s except [[carbon]]. 
3,6c3,6
< * Minerals, like salt, asbestos, silicates, chlorine gas...
< * Metals, like iron, copper, aluminum, brass, bronze...
< * Non-metallic compounds, like silicon, phosphorus...
< Some important inorganic products are silicon chips, transistors, LCD screens, and fiber optics.
---
> * [[Mineral]]s, like [[salt]], [[asbestos]], [[silicate]]s, chlorine gas...
> * [[Metal]]s, like [[iron]], [[copper]], [[aluminum]], [[brass]], [[bronze]]...
> * Non-metallic compounds, like [[silicon]], [[phosphorus]]...
> Some important inorganic products are [[silicon chip]]s, [[transistor]]s, [[LCD]] screens, and [[fiber optics]].
8c8
< Inorganic chemistry often overlaps with [[analytical chemistry]], environmental chemistry, and [[physical chemistry]]. [[Organometallic chemistry]] is the combination of carbon-based chemistry and metallic chemistry. [[Hemoglobin]] is an important organometallic compound, containing both iron and carbon. 
---
> Inorganic chemistry often overlaps with [[analytical chemistry]], environmental chemistry, and [[physical chemistry]]. [[Organometallic chemistry]] is the combination of carbon-based chemistry and metallic chemistry. [[Hemoglobin]] is an important [[organometallic compound]], containing both iron and carbon. 
10c10
< Adding to the confusion, the oxides of carbon, carbonate salts, and materials containing carbon like steel and diamond are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule nitric oxide is often studied for biochemical effects.
---
> Adding to the confusion, the [[oxide]]s of carbon, carbonate salts, and materials containing carbon like [[steel]] and [[diamond]] are usually considered inorganic, while the inorganic molecule [[nitric oxid]]e is often studied for biochemical effects.
------
Aluminum|990093491
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[metal]] that in [[British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].
------
Aluminum|990093619
1c1,3
< The [[metal]] that in [[British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].
---
> The [[metal]] and that in [[British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].  Aluminum is a [[chemical element]].  Its symbol in the [[periodic table]] is Al.  It is a light-weight metal that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
> 
> 
------
Aluminum|990093663
1c1
< The [[metal]] and that in [[British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].  Aluminum is a [[chemical element]].  Its symbol in the [[periodic table]] is Al.  It is a light-weight metal that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
---
> The [[metal]] and that in [[English language/British English|British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].  Aluminum is a [[chemical element]].  Its symbol in the [[periodic table]] is Al.  It is a light-weight metal that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
------
English_language/British_English|990093824
0a1,5
> Some words spelled differently
> 
>   '''British: - American:'''
>   aluminium - aluminum
> 
------
Currency|990096167
45c45
< *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Mexico]] 
---
> *[[Peso]] - [[Argentina]],[[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Mexico]]
68a69,70
> *ATS - Austrian schilling
> *BEF - Belgian franc
69a72
> *DEM - Deutch mark
72c75,76
< *FFR - French [[Franc]]
---
> *ESP - Spanish peseta
> *FRF - French [[Franc]]
74a79,82
> *IEP - Irish pound
> *ITL - Italian lire
> *LUF - Luxemburg franc
> *NLG - Dutch guilder
75a84
> *PTE - Portugese escudo
77a87
> 
79c89
< Wouldn't it be better if the currency codes appeared in parentheses after each country name in the first table? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> Wouldn't it be better if the currency codes appeared in parentheses after each country name in the first table? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
RulesToConsider|990096406
66a67,75
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Keep rules simple'''  If a rule cannot fit on this page, but is so long it has to be on a subpage, maybe it is too complicated to attract followers.  --[[LA2]]
> 
> ----
> 
> '''Build the web'''  [[Article]]s in an [[encyclopedia]] are [[node]]s in a [[hypertext]].  Don't just write the article, but also consider its place in the link web.  Make uplinks to categories and contexts ([[Charles Darwin]] was a [[biologist]], [[Sahara]] is a [[desert]] in [[Africa]], [[enlightenment]] happened in the [[18th century]]).  Make sideways links to neighboring articles (for [[proton]] see also [[electron]], [[Oregon]] borders on [[California]]).  Don't build category trees too deep and narrow, or too flat.  Write category directories early (top-down), so subcategory articles get useful names ([[Christianity|church names are not good now]]).  --[[LA2]]
> 
------
RulesToConsider|990096525
70c70
< '''Keep rules simple'''  If a rule cannot fit on this page, but is so long it has to be on a subpage, maybe it is too complicated to attract followers.  --[[LA2]]
---
> '''Keep rules simple:'''  If a rule cannot fit on this page, but is so long it has to be on a subpage, maybe it is too complicated to attract followers.  --[[LA2]]
74c74
< '''Build the web'''  [[Article]]s in an [[encyclopedia]] are [[node]]s in a [[hypertext]].  Don't just write the article, but also consider its place in the link web.  Make uplinks to categories and contexts ([[Charles Darwin]] was a [[biologist]], [[Sahara]] is a [[desert]] in [[Africa]], [[enlightenment]] happened in the [[18th century]]).  Make sideways links to neighboring articles (for [[proton]] see also [[electron]], [[Oregon]] borders on [[California]]).  Don't build category trees too deep and narrow, or too flat.  Write category directories early (top-down), so subcategory articles get useful names ([[Christianity|church names are not good now]]).  --[[LA2]]
---
> '''Build the web:'''  [[Article]]s in an [[encyclopedia]] are [[node]]s in a [[hypertext]].  Don't just write the article, but also consider its place in the link web.  Make uplinks to categories and contexts ([[Charles Darwin]] was a [[biologist]], [[Sahara]] is a [[desert]] in [[Africa]], [[enlightenment]] happened in the [[18th century]]).  Make sideways links to neighboring articles (for [[proton]] see also [[electron]], [[Oregon]] borders on [[California]]).  Don't build category trees too deep and narrow, or too flat.  Write category directories early (top-down), so subcategory articles get useful names ([[Christianity|church names are not good now]]).  --[[LA2]]
------
Memory|990097098
1c1
< ''Memory,'' in the primary sense of this word, is one of the capacities of the human mind, much studied by [[cognitive psychology]].  Psychologists distinguish various kinds of memory:
---
> ''Memory,'' in the primary sense of this word, is one of the capacities of the human mind, much studied by [[cognitive psychology]]. It is the capacity to retain an impression of past experiences. Psychologists distinguish various kinds of memory:
6,8d5
< 
< The following article, about computer memory, needs to be removed to a different title (I don't know what would be most appropriate).
< 
------
Dutch|990097160
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Netherlandic language]]
------
Low_German|990097241
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[LowGerman]]
------
Netherlandic_language|990097399
88c88
< <tr><td>to bluff</td><td>bluffen</td><td>to boast</td>
---
> <tr><td>to bluff</td><td>bluffen</td><td>to brag</td>
118c118
< <tr><td>knapsack</td><td>knapzak</td><td>snapping bag</td>
---
> <tr><td>knapsack</td><td>knapzak</td><td>lit. snapping bag</td>
153c153
< <tr><td>yankee</td><td>Jan Kees</td><td>John Charles</td>
---
> <tr><td>yankee</td><td>Jan Kees</td><td>(a name)</td>
------
Wikipedians|990097408
45a46,120
> 
> -------
> 
> Here is a list of contributors of the last 90 days
> 
> * [[Amir]]
> * [[Anarres]]
> * [[Andre Engels]]
> * [[Andy Jewell]]
> * [[AstroNomer]]  	
> * [[Atlas 2091]]
> * [[AyeSpy]], who is back! 
> * [[Bomfog]]
> * [[BruceMiller]]
> * [[Brussee]]
> * [[Cdani]]
> * [[CliffordAdams]]
> * [[Cmontpla]]
> * [[CorinneLightweaver]]
> * [[DaveRaftery]]
> * [[Dick Beldin]], author of much statistics 
> * [[Don Kenney]]
> * [[ErdemTuzun]]
> * [[Flavor]]
> * [[Gareth Owen]]
> * [[Geronimo Jones]]
> * [[Hank Ramsey]]
> * [[Invictus]]
> * [[JamieTheFoool]]
> * [[Janet Davis]]
> * [[Jerry Muelver]]
> * [[Jimbo Wales]], the other cofounder of this great project 
> * [[Jlnd]]
> * [[Jmlynch]]
> * [[John Abbe]]
> * [[Josh Grosse]]
> * [[JoshFuller]]
> * [[Jpmartin]]
> * [[JStoddW]]
> * [[Kajtek]]
> * [[KlausSeistrup]]
> * [[KoyaanisQatsi]]
> * [[Krzysztof P. Jasiutowicz]]
> * [[LA2]]
> * [[Larry Sanger]], cofounder of Wikipedia and editor-in-chief of Nupedia 	
> * [[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> * [[LinusTolke]]
> * [[LunoMat]]
> * [[Malcolm Farmer]]
> * [[Marco Maggesi]]
> * [[Mathijs]]
> * [[Nafai]]
> * [[Neeklamy]]
> * [[No Fear]]
> * [[OpenSourced]]
> * [[OprgaG]]
> * [[Orcalover]]
> * [[Pemerson]]
> * [[Pguiral]]
> * [[Phil Bordelon]]
> * [[Pinkunicorn]]
> * [[RaviDesai]]
> * [[RichardKulisz]]
> * [[Rob Salzman]]
> * [[RoseParks]]
> * [[SoniC]]
> * [[Stephen Gilbert]]
> * [[Suzanne Elsasser]]
> * [[Tangfan]]
> * [[TimShell]], to whom we owe all the stuff on Atlas Shrugged so far 	
> * [[Tobias Hoevekamp]]
> * [[Wathiik]]
> * [[WillWilkinson]]
> * [[WojPob]]
> 
------
RulesToConsider|990097844
11c11
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, OprgaG, and [[Invictus]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, OprgaG, [[Invictus]], and KoyaanisQatsi
43c43
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[LinusTolke]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]], and KoyaanisQatsi
50c50
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell and JerryMuelver
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell, JerryMuelver, and KoyaanisQatsi
------
English_language/British_English|990098035
9a10,12
>  biscuit (crackers)
>  bonnet (hood [of a car])
>  boot (trunk [of a car])
------
English_language/British_English|990098070
10c10
<  biscuit (crackers)
---
>  biscuit (cracker [as in Saltine])
------
Requested_articles|990098165
5c5
< [[History of wiki]] 
---
> <b>Wiki and Wikipedia:</b> [[History of wiki]] -- [[Wikipedia top contributors]] (automated statistics!)
7a8,9
> 
> <b>Portugal:</b> CIA World Factbook text.
------
Requested_articles|990098359
5c5
< <b>Wiki and Wikipedia:</b> [[History of wiki]] -- [[Wikipedia top contributors]] (automated statistics!)
---
> <b>Wiki and Wikipedia:</b> [[History of wiki]] -- [[Wikipedia top contributors]] (automated statistics!) -- The rules for expanding links from text like RFC 822 and ISBN 0123456789 sould be on a wiki page, so anybody could add rules for such external links.
------
Free_Links|990098712
1c1
< Free Links are used to make links that look like normal words, without weird capitalizations or spacing.  Thus we can have [[Alabama]] instead of AlabamA, and [[South Dakota]] instead of SouthDakota.
---
> In WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]], free Links are used to make links that look like normal words, without weird capitalizations or spacing.  Thus we can have [[Alabama]] instead of AlabamA, and [[South Dakota]] instead of SouthDakota.
------
Games/Tile_based|990101609
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Tile based games]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tile-based game]]
------
Tile-based_game|990101648
1c1
< A [[tile]]-based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
---
> A tile-based [[game]] uses small rectangular pieces, each with the same design on one side and a different design on the other side.
4,6c4,6
< * Dominoes
< * 42 (Forty Two)
< * Mah Jong
---
> * [[Dominoes]]
> * 42 ([[Forty Two]])
> * [[Mah Jong]]
------
Gold|990103069
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gold is a [[metal]] and [[chemical element]] of shiny, yellow color.  In the [[periodic table]] it has the symbol Au, number ..., atom weight ...
> 
> Gold has long been considered the most precious metal, and its value has been used as the standard for many [[currency|currencies]] in history.  Most competitions award a gold [[medal]] to the winner, [[silver]] to the second, and [[bronze]] to the third.
> 
------
Sweden|990103318
22c22
< The [[Swedish Academy]] gives out the [[Nobel Prize]] each year. Its secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]], because [[Sture Allen]] ("ständige sture") finally resigned the other year.  [[Bergelin]] often mentions Horace in his comics.
---
> The [[Nobel Prize]] for Literature, Medicine, Chemistry, Physics and Economic Sciences are awarded each year according to the last will of the Swede [[Alfred Nobel]].
24c24
< Some examples of Swedish inventions are [[dynamite]], [[Safety matches]], the [[adjustable spanner]], [[ball bearings]], and the [[propeller]].
---
> Some examples of Swedish inventions are [[dynamite]], [[safety matches]], the [[adjustable spanner]], [[ball bearings]], and the [[propeller]].
------
Periodic_table|990103342
4c4
<   1    2    3    4    5    6    7
---
>    1      2     3    4    5    6    7
6,21c6,21
<   [[Hydrogen|H]]   [[Lithium|Li]]   [[Sodium|Na]]    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<       [[Beryllium|Be]]   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                           [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                           [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                           [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                           [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                           [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                           [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                           [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                           [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                           [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                           [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                           [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                           [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                           [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                           [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]]    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                               [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                               [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                               [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                               [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                               [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                               [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                               [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                               [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                               [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                               [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                               [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                               [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                               [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                               [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
37c37
<  [[Helium|He]]   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
45c45
< I think a standard form is good but is easily stifling if followed too carefully, depending on the element.  For instance for hydrogen it makes more sense to discuss the pure form first, but for carbon second (because its structure makes more sense when compared to hydrocarbons).  Some elements need some things that other should lack.  So we could, but I think we should be careful.
---
> I think a standard form is good but is easily stifling if followed too carefully, depending on the element.  For instance for hydrogen it makes more sense to discuss the pure form first, but for carbon second (because its structure makes more sense when compared to hydrocarbons).  Some elements need some things that other should lack.  So we could, but I think we should be careful.
------
Sweden|990103385
22c22
< The [[Nobel Prize]] for Literature, Medicine, Chemistry, Physics and Economic Sciences are awarded each year according to the last will of the Swede [[Alfred Nobel]].
---
> The [[Nobel Prize]] for Literature, Medicine, Chemistry, Physics and Economic Sciences are awarded each year according to the last will of [[Alfred Nobel]].
------
Periodic_table|990103497
22,37c22,37
<                 [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                 [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                  [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                 [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                 [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                 [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                 [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                 [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
<        [[Boron|B]]  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<        [[Carbon|C]]   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<        [[Nitrogen|N]]    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<        [[Oxygen|O]]   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<        [[Fluorine|F]]  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]]  [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>                     [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                     [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                     [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                     [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                     [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                     [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                     [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                     [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                     [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                     [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Boron|990103568
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Boron has atom number 4.
> 
> 
------
Sweden/Kings|990103600
1c1
< Here is a list of the kings of [[Sweden]] until present. I am working myself backwords, adding a few now and then.
---
> Here is a list of the Kings and ruling Queens of [[Sweden]] up until the present time.
------
Sweden/Kings|990103638
7c7
< *[[Gustav I]] 1521 - 1560 (made king in 1523)
---
> *[[Gustav I]] 1521 - 1560 (King from 1523)
11c11
< *[[Karl IX]] 1599 - 1611 (made king in 1604)
---
> *[[Karl IX]] 1599 - 1611 (King from 1604)
------
Oxygen|990103669
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Oxygen has atom number 8.
> 
> A gas having molecules consisting of two oxygen atoms, chemical formula O<sub>2</sub>.  Oxygen is an important component of air.
------
Fluorine|990103721
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Flourine has the symbol F and atom number 9.
> 
> 
------
Neon|990103795
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Neon has the symbol Ne and atom number 10.
> 
> A [[gas]] with [[molecule]]s consisting of a single Neon [[atom]].
> 
> 
------
Triumph_of_the_Will|990103803
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 [[Nazi Party]] Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a mission from the God of his country.
------
Triumph_of_the_Will|990103923
1c1
< [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 [[Nazi Party]] Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a mission from the God of his country.
---
> [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[Classical Music|classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a mission from the God of his country.
------
Silicon|990103964
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Silicon has the symbol Si and atom number 14.
> 
> 
------
Propaganda_film|990103977
2c2
< *[[Triumph of the Will]]
---
> *[[Triumph_of_the_Will]]
------
Phosphorus|990104004
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Phosphorus has the symbol P and atom number 15.
> 
> 
------
Sulphur|990104060
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Sulphur has the symbol S and [[atom]] number 16.
> 
> 
------
Chlorine|990104099
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Chlorine has the symbol Cl and atom number 17.
> 
> 
------
Argon|990104138
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Argon has the symbol Ar and atom number 18.
> 
> 
------
Periodic_table|990104347
4c4
<    1      2     3    4    5    6    7
---
>    1      2      3      4    5    6    7
6,37c6,37
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]]    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                               [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                               [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                               [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                               [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                               [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                               [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                               [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                               [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                               [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                               [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                               [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                               [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                               [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                               [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
<                     [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                     [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                     [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                     [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                     [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                     [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                     [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                     [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                     [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                     [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4  [[Aluminum|Al]]  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]]  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]]  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8   [[Sulphur|S]]  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9  [[Chlorine|Cl]]  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]]  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]] 12  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                  [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                                  [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                                  [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                                  [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                                  [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                                  [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                                  [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                                  [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                                  [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                                  [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                                  [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                                  [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                                  [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                                  [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
>                        [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4  [[Aluminum|Al]] 13  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6  [[Silicon|Si]] 14  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7   [[Phosphorus|P]] 15  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8   [[Sulphur|S]] 16  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9  [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]] 18  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Calcium|990104400
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Calcium has the symbol Ca and atom number 20.
> 
------
Dollar|990104505
1c1
< Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Singapore]] and [[Australia]].  The name is related to the historic currencies Thaler (Germany) and Daler (Sweden).
---
> Name of the [[currency]] in several countries, the most important ones being the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Singapore]] and [[Australia]].  The name is related to the historic currencies Thaler ([[Germany]]) and Daler ([[Sweden]]).
------
Periodic_table|990104511
7c7
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]]   [[Calcium|Ca]] 12  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
---
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
------
Oxygen|990104581
3c3
< A gas having molecules consisting of two oxygen atoms, chemical formula O<sub>2</sub>.  Oxygen is an important component of air.
---
> A gas having molecules consisting of two oxygen atoms, chemical formula O<sub>2</sub>.  Oxygen is an important component of air. Thisgas is produced by plants during photosynthesis and is necessary for animals' respiration. Oxygen is necessary for all forms of oxidation including fire.
------
Scandium|990104604
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Scandium has the symbol Sc and atom number 21.
> 
> 
------
Titanium|990104650
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]], Titanium has the symbol Ti and atom number 22.
> 
> 
------
Chromium|990104714
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Chromium has the symbol Cr and atom number 24.
------
Phosphorus|990104765
2a3
> Pure phosphorus exists in three forms - red, white, yellow. Two(?) of these forms burn on contact with air.
------
Manganese|990104785
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Manganese has the symbol Mn and atom number 25.
> 
------
Cobalt|990104825
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Cobalt has the symbol Co and atom number 27.
> 
> 
------
Nickel|990104871
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Nickel has the symbol Ni and atom number ...
> 
------
Gallium|990104921
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Gallium has the symbol Ga and atom number 31.
> 
> 
------
Germanium|990104941
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ge 32
> 
> 
------
Chlorine|990104958
3a4
> Chlorine is an important chemical in water purification and in mustard gas.
------
Germanium|990104987
1c1,3
< Ge 32
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Germanium has the symbol Ge and atom number 32.
> 
> 
------
Arsenic|990105044
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Arsenic has the symbol As and atom number 33.
> 
> 
------
Selenium|990105090
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Selenium has the [[cymbal]] Se and the atom number 34.
> 
> 
------
Neutron|990105107
1c1
< In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], an elementary particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]].
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], an elementary particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]]. It ordinarily occurs only in the nucleus of an atom. 
------
Cymbal|990105117
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[drum]] and [[percussion]].
> 
> 
------
Bromine|990105163
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Bromine has the symbol Br and atom number 35.
> 
> 
------
Gold|990105184
3c3
< Gold has long been considered the most precious metal, and its value has been used as the standard for many [[currency|currencies]] in history.  Most competitions award a gold [[medal]] to the winner, [[silver]] to the second, and [[bronze]] to the third.
---
> Gold has long been considered the most precious metal, and its value has been used as the standard for many [[currency|currencies]] (known as the [[gold standard]])in history.  Most competitions award a gold [[medal]] to the winner, [[silver]] to the second, and [[bronze]] to the third.
------
Krypton|990105200
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Krypton has the symbol Kr and atom number 36.
> 
> 
------
Electron|990105218
2c2
< 
---
> Moving free electrons make up [[electricity]]. Non-moving free electron make up [[static electricity]].
------
Ion|990105273
1c1
< In [[chemistry]], an electrically charged [[molecule]] or [[atom]].
---
> In [[chemistry]], an electrically charged [[molecule]] or [[atom]] because it has gained or lost electrons from its normal complement.
------
Malmoe|990105287
1c1
< Malmö is the third largest of Sweden's cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of it's historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlife - lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
---
> Malmö is the third largest of Sweden's cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of its historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlife - lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
------
Malmoe|990105322
1c1
< Malmö is the third largest of Sweden's cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of its historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlife - lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
---
> Malmö is the third largest of [[Sweden]]'s cities, with a population that reflects that.  Still it retains a lot of its historical charm, with an 'old town' section filled with small shops, as well as the south's largest teaching university.  Great nightlife - lots of good bands tend to play at various venues or in the many plazas.  There's always a festival of some kind going on.  For history buffs there's a fabulous castle, housing a small city museum and a fairly large art gallery.  There are many other, smaller museums as well.
3c3
< There is a bridge that crosses Öresund to Copenhagen on the southcoast of Malmö.  It's about a year old (in 2001), and it's quite beautiful when it rises out of the sea-fog in the mornings and evenings.
---
> There is a bridge that crosses Öresund to [[Copenhagen]] on the southcoast of Malmö.  It's about a year old (in 2001), and it's quite beautiful when it rises out of the sea-fog in the mornings and evenings.
------
Electron_shell|990105374
1c1,3
< In [[chemistry]], see [[electron]] and [[orbitals]].
---
> In [[chemistry]], the electron shell is a set of electron orbitals.
> 
> see [[electron]] and [[orbitals]].
------
Oedipal|990105491
5c5
< Freud's theory is clearly unscientific, particularly when one considers that an individual who denies his wish to sleep with his mother would be accused by a [[psychoanalyst]] of doing so because he is [[repression|repressing]] his wishs, thus bringing into play another of Freud's pet theories.
---
> Freud's theory is clearly unscientific, particularly when one considers that an individual who denies his wish to sleep with his mother would be accused by a [[psychoanalyst]] of doing so because he is [[repression|repressing]] his wishes, thus bringing into play another of Freud's pet theories.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Periodic_table|990105498
4c4
<    1      2      3      4    5    6    7
---
>    1      2      3      4       5    6    7
6,37c6,37
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]]   [[Rubidium|Rb]]  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]]  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                                  [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                                  [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                                  [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                                  [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                                  [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                                  [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                                  [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                                  [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                                  [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                                  [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                                  [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                                  [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                                  [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                                  [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
<                        [[Scandium|Sc]]   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]]  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]]   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]]  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]]  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]]   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]]  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Nickel|Ni]]  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Copper|Cu]]   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                        [[Zinc|Zn]]   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4  [[Aluminum|Al]] 13  [[Gallium|Ga]]  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6  [[Silicon|Si]] 14  [[Germanium|Ge]]  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7   [[Phosphorus|P]] 15  [[Arsenic|As]]  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8   [[Sulphur|S]] 16  [[Selenium|Se]]  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9  [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17  [[Bromine|Br]]   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]] 18  [[Krypton|Kr]]  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                     [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                                     [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                                     [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                                     [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                                     [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                                     [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                                     [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                                     [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                                     [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                                     [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                                     [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                                     [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                                     [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                                     [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
>                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]] 18  [[Krypton|Kr]] 36  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Rubidium|990105640
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Rubidium has the symbol Rb and atom number 37.
> 
> 
------
Ionic|990105713
4a5,6
> Also a form of Greek architecture.
> 
------
Periodic_table|990105744
4c4
<    1      2      3      4       5    6    7
---
>    1      2      3       4       5    6    7
7,21c7,21
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20  [[Strontium|Sr]]  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                                     [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                                     [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                                     [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                                     [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                                     [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                                     [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                                     [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                                     [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                                     [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                                     [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                                     [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                                     [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                                     [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                                     [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
---
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20  [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                        [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                                        [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                                        [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                                        [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                                        [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                                        [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                                        [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                                        [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                                        [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
37c37
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10 [[Argon|Ar]] 18  [[Krypton|Kr]] 36  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Strontium|990105776
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Strontium has the symbol Sr and atom number 38.
------
Periodic_table|990105877
7,21c7,21
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20  [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                                        [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                                        [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                                        [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                                        [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                                        [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                                        [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                                        [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                                        [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                                        [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
---
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                       [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                                       [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                                       [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                                       [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
>                                       [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                                       [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                                       [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
>                                       [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                                       [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                                       [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                                       [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                                       [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                                       [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                                       [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
------
Yttrium|990105955
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Yttrium has the symbol Y and atom number 39.
------
Cow|990105975
1c1
< Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].   [[domestication|Domesticated]] for producing [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]) and [[beef]].
---
> Female adult of the [[bovine]] [[cattle]].   [[domestication|Domesticated]] for producing [[steer]]s, ([[milk]]), which is used in [[dairy product]]s, and also used sometimes for [[beef]].
2a3
> Also the female of some other species, i.e. moose?, buffalo?, ... 
------
Zirconium|990105982
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Zirconium has the symbol Zr and atom number 40.
------
Niobium|990106014
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Niobium has the symbol Nb and atom number 41.
------
Molybdenum|990106048
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Molybdenum has the symbol Mo and atom number 42.
------
Technetium|990106122
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Technetium has the symbol Tc and atom number 43.
------
2001_-_A_Space_Odyssey|990106127
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A film directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]] in collaboration with [[Arthur C. Clarke]] (1968). 
> 
> It is based on Clarke's short story [[The Sentinel]] (1951), which he subsequently developed into a novel. A sequel novel, [[2010: Odyssey Two]] (1982), was released as a [[film]] in 1984. Later novels in the series include [[2061: Odyssey Three]] (1987) and [[3001: The Final Odyssey]] (1997). 
------
Ruthenium|990106149
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Ruthenium has the symbol Ru and atom number 44.
------
Rhodium|990106177
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Rhodium has the symbol Rh and atom number 45.
> 
------
Palladium|990106204
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Palladium has the symbol Pd and atom number 46
------
Arthur_C._Clarke|990106224
1c1
< Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[/2001 A Space Odyssey|2001: a Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
---
> Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[2001 A Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
------
Arthur_C._Clarke|990106233
1c1
< Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[2001 A Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
---
> Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[2001: A Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
------
Silver|990106252
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Silver has the symbol Ag and atom number 47
> 
> Silver was long considered the second most precious metal, second to [[gold]].
> 
------
Arthur_C._Clarke|990106255
1c1
< Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[2001: A Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
---
> Sir Artur C. Clarke is probably most famous for his book [[2001 - A Space Odyssey]]. It was originally written in the form of a short story ("The Sentinel") which he later expanded to novel length at the same time as a movie version was made by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. All three versions differ somewhat.
------
Cadmium|990106282
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Cadmium has the symbol Cd and atom number 48.
------
Indium|990106307
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Indium has the symbol In and atom number 49.
------
Agnosticism|990106365
1c1
< ''Agnosticism'' in its original sense (i.e., as coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in the 1940s), is the belief that it is impossible (perhaps in principle impossible) to know for sure whether or not [[God]] (in some sense of 'God', but typically the God of monotheistic religions) exists.  It can also be applied to the belief that there is evenly-weighted evidence on both sides of the question of whether God exists.  The word comes from the Greek ''a'' (no) and ''gnosis'' (knowledge).  Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) were [[Voltaire]], Huxley, [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Bertrand Russell]].  Russell's ''Why I Am Not a Christian'' is a classic text of agnosticism.
---
> ''Agnosticism'' in its original sense (i.e., as coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in the 1940s), is the belief that it is impossible (perhaps in principle impossible) to know for sure whether or not [[God]] (in some sense of 'God', but typically the God of monotheistic religions) exists.  It can also be applied to the belief that there is evenly-weighted evidence on both sides of the question of whether God exists.  The word comes from the Greek ''a'' (no) and ''gnosis'' (knowledge).  Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) were [[Voltaire]], Huxley, [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Bertrand Russell]].  Russell's ''Why I Am Not a Christian'' is a classic text of agnosticism.  It can be and has been argued that [[David Hume]] was an agnostic; one might infer that from his <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion,</i> but this is a widely-debated question, and no one really knows for sure what religious views Hume held.
5,6c5
< See also [[religion]], [[atheism]], [[religiosity]], [[secularism]]
< 
---
> See also [[atheism]]; [[God]]; [[religion]]; [[religiosity]]; [[secularism]].
------
Tin|990106407
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] tin has the symbol Sn and atom number 50.
> 
> Easy to form into different shapes, tin has been used for plates and beverage containers.
> 
------
Antimony|990106440
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] antimony has the symbol Sb and atom number 51.
------
Tellurium|990106466
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] tellurium has the symbol Te and atom number 52.
------
Iodine|990106496
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] iodine has the symbol I and atom number 53.
------
Xenon|990106521
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] xenon has the symbol Xe and atom number 54.
------
Agnosticism|990106540
1c1
< ''Agnosticism'' in its original sense (i.e., as coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in the 1940s), is the belief that it is impossible (perhaps in principle impossible) to know for sure whether or not [[God]] (in some sense of 'God', but typically the God of monotheistic religions) exists.  It can also be applied to the belief that there is evenly-weighted evidence on both sides of the question of whether God exists.  The word comes from the Greek ''a'' (no) and ''gnosis'' (knowledge).  Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) were [[Voltaire]], Huxley, [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Bertrand Russell]].  Russell's ''Why I Am Not a Christian'' is a classic text of agnosticism.  It can be and has been argued that [[David Hume]] was an agnostic; one might infer that from his <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion,</i> but this is a widely-debated question, and no one really knows for sure what religious views Hume held.
---
> ''Agnosticism'' in its original sense (i.e., as coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in the 1840s), is the belief that it is impossible (perhaps in principle impossible) to know for sure whether or not [[God]] (in some sense of 'God', but typically the God of monotheistic religions) exists.  It can also be applied to the belief that there is evenly-weighted evidence on both sides of the question of whether God exists.  The word comes from the Greek ''a'' (no) and ''gnosis'' (knowledge).  Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) were [[Voltaire]], Huxley, [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Bertrand Russell]].  Russell's ''Why I Am Not a Christian'' is a classic text of agnosticism.  It can be and has been argued that [[David Hume]] was an agnostic; one might infer that from his <i>Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion,</i> but this is a widely-debated question, and no one really knows for sure what religious views Hume held.
------
Dairy_product|990106612
1c1
< Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. A production plant for such products is often called a [[cow]], but occasionally a [[goat]].
---
> Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. A production plant for such products is often called a [[cow]], but occasionally a [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], or [[horses]].
4a5,6
> *[[Curds]]
> *[[Whey]]
5a8,9
> *[[Cottage Cheese]]
> *[[Cream Cheese]]
7c11,14
< *[[Icecream]]
---
> *[[double cream]]?
> *[[Condensed Milk]]
> *[[Sweetened Evaporated Milk]]
> *[[Icecream]] or [[Icemilk]]
10,11c17,19
< *[[Milk powder]]
< *[[Yoghurt]]
---
> *[[Milk powder]]/[[Powdered Milk]]
> *[[Infant Formula]]
> *[[Yoghurt]]/[[Yogurt]]
------
Periodic_table|990106784
22,37c22,37
<                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21   [[Yttrium|Y]]  [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22  [[Zirconium|Zr]]  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]]  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24  [[Molybdenum|Mo]]   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25  [[Technetium|Tc]]  [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]]  [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27  [[Rhodium|Rh]]  [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28  [[Palladium|Pd]]  [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]]  [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]]  [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31  [[Indium|In]]  [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32  [[Tin|Sn]]  [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33  [[Antimony|Sb]]  [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34  [[Tellurium|Te]]  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35   [[Iodine|I]]  [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36  [[Xenon|Xe]]  [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21    [[Yttrium|Y]] 39 [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35   [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis|990107270
1c1
< The notion of "linguistic relativity" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. I won't try to make a formal statement of the hypothesis. That will have to wait for someone more knowledgable to provide. But the idea, as I understand it, is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the present and future community.
---
> The notion of "[[linguistic relativism|linguistic relativity]]" is the core of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. The idea, roughly stated (feel free to improve this), is that habits of thought are shaped by language to a much greater degree than is often recognized. What is capable of being thought is in some degree determined by the structure of the language(s) spoken by the thinker. People really do "see" the world differently, and those different ways of "seeing" (the different ways linguistic communities experience reality), are encoded into the structure of the language spoken by the community, passed on to children learning the language, and in turn shape the experience and cognitive processes of the present and future community.
7c7
< It sounds to me as is [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] should be mentioned in here somewhere.
---
> It sounds to me as is [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] should be mentioned in here somewhere.
------
Bertolt_Brecht|990107309
1c1,3
< German dramatist. Author of ''[[Galileo]]'' and ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'' (among many other works).
---
> German dramatist (1898-1956). Author of ''[[Galileo]]'',''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'', "[[Caucasian Chalk Circle]] and "[[Threepenny Opera]]"  (among many other works).
> 
> see also [[Kurt Weill]], who did music for some of Brecht's works.
------
Uranium|990107618
2,3c2,3
< U235 was the first element that was found to be fissionable (fissible? not sure of the word), i.e. upon bombardment with
< slow neutrons, it becomes the very short lived U236, that immediately divides into two smaller nuclei, liberating energy
---
> Uranium was the first element that was found to be fissionable, i.e. upon bombardment with
> slow neutrons, its U235 isotope becomes the very short lived U236, that immediately divides into two smaller nuclei, liberating energy
6,7c6,7
< absorb some neutrons, the reaction is explosive. The first [[atomic bomb]] worked with this principle (fission). A more accurate
< name for both this and the [[Hydrogen bomb]] (fussion) would be "nuclear
---
> absorb some neutrons and slow the reaction, it is explosive. The first [[atomic bomb]] worked with this principle (fission). A more accurate
> name for both this and the [[Hydrogen bomb]] (fusion) would be "nuclear
------
Creutzfeldt-Jakob_Disease|990107885
3c3
< The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is estimated to be prions.  The term 'Prion' was first used to denote poorly understood infectious agents responsible for neurodegenerative diseases found in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. The word is derived from a combination of the words "proteinaceous infectious particle."  It refers to the hypothesis (widely discounted when first proposed) that infectious agents causing such diseases consisted only of protein, with no nucleic acids.  All [[pathogen]]s known prior to that time ([[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, etc.) contain [[nucleic acid]]s, which enable reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain why the mysterious infectious agent resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids) but responded to agents that disrupt [[protein]]s. 
---
> The cause for the symptoms and rapid neuronal loss is theorized to be prions.  The term 'Prion' was first used to denote poorly understood infectious agents responsible for neurodegenerative diseases found in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. The word is derived from a combination of the words "proteinaceous infectious particle."  It refers to the hypothesis (widely discounted when first proposed) that infectious agents causing such diseases consisted only of protein, with no nucleic acids.  All [[pathogen]]s known prior to that time ([[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, etc.) contain [[nucleic acid]]s, which enable reproduction. The prion hypothesis was developed to explain why the mysterious infectious agent resisted ultraviolet radiation (which breaks down nucleic acids) but responded to agents that disrupt [[protein]]s. 
------
Ericsson|990108056
6a7
> For its customers, Ericsson publishes the [http://on.magazine.se/ On Magazine]
------
Chemical_element|990108145
1c1
< A chemical element is a [[chemical]] that consists of a single kind of atoms.  Chemical elements are listed in the [[periodic table]].
---
> A chemical element is a [[chemical]] that consists of a single kind of atom.  Chemical elements are listed in the [[periodic table]].
------
Sorbian_language|990108193
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sorbian language is one of the west slavic branch of languages. It is a similar with Czech, Polish and Slovak but still it is a complitly different language that kept some of the elements of the Old language of the Slavs. It is spoken in a small area in Germany called Luzica., and therefore their name is also Luzicki Srbi. There are 2 important dialects or somewhere mentioned as languages, Uppersorbian and lowersorbian language. 
------
Cattle|990108395
4c4,6
< Cattle are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[Ungulate|ungulates]] that are raised for [[beef]] and [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]).  Male cattle are called [[bull]]s, and female cattle are called [[cow]]s.  The young member is called [[calf]].
---
> Cattle are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[Ungulate|ungulates]] that are raised for [[beef]] and [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]).  Male cattle are called [[steer]]s or [[bull]]s, and female cattle are called [[cow]]s.  The young member is called [[calf]].
> 
> The last wild cattle, called aurochs, were killed by poachers in Poland in 1627.
------
Dairy_product|990108404
1c1
< Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. A production plant for such products is often called a [[cow]], but occasionally a [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], or [[horses]].
---
> Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. Raw milk for processing normally comes from [[cow]]s, but occasionally a [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], or [[horses]].
4,9c4,5
< *[[Butter]]
< *[[Curds]]
< *[[Whey]]
< *[[Cheese]]
< *[[Cottage Cheese]]
< *[[Cream Cheese]]
---
> *[[Butter]]
> *[[Cheese]], [[Cottage Cheese]], and [[Cream Cheese]]
11,14c7,11
< *[[double cream]]?
< *[[Condensed Milk]]
< *[[Sweetened Evaporated Milk]]
< *[[Icecream]] or [[Icemilk]]
---
> *[[Curds]]
> *[[Double cream]]?
> *[[Condensed milk]]
> *[[Icecream]] or [[icemilk]]
> *[[infant formula]]
17,19c14,19
< *[[Milk powder]]/[[Powdered Milk]]
< *[[Infant Formula]]
< *[[Yoghurt]]/[[Yogurt]]
---
> *[[Milk powder]] or [[powdered milk]]
> *[[sweetened evaporated milk]]
> *[[Whey]]
> *[[Yoghurt]] or [[Yogurt]]
> 
> ----
20a21
> Here are the rules: (1) cows are not production plants. (2) keep alphabetic order. (3) keep lower case where possible
------
Periodic_table|990108580
4,7c4,7
<    1      2      3       4       5    6    7
<                                       Group
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37  [[Cesium|Cs]]  [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]]  [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
---
>    1      2      3       4       5      6    7
>                                                        Group
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37  [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
36c36
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35   [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
---
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
------
Cesium|990108606
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Cesium has the symbol Cs and atom number 55.
------
Barium|990108634
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Barium has the symbol Ba and atom number 56.
------
Musical_instrument|990108917
10,12c10,12
< *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying the length in the [[trombone]], keys that lead to differents paths for the air in the [[horn]], etc.
< *[[Percussion instruments]]
< *[[String instruments]] generate a sound when the string is plucked, strummed, slapped, etc.  The [[frequency]] of the wave generated (and therefore the [[tone]] produced) usually depends on the tuning of each string, as well as the position of the player's finger on the string, pressing it against the neck of the instrument.  One exception to this rule is the [[harp]], which has no neck for the strings to be pressed against; each string will therefore produce only one tone according to how it is tuned.
---
> *[[Wind instruments]] generate a sound when a column of air is made vibrate inside them. The [[frequency]] of the wave generated is related with the length of the column of air, so this instruments can produce specific [[tone]]s. Different methods for varying the length of the column of air exist for example: holes in [[flute]]s, [[clarinet]]s or similar, actually varying the length in the [[trombone]], keys that lead to differents paths for the air in the [[trumpet]], [[organ]], [[horn]], etc.
> *[[Percussion instruments]] that create tones when hit by creating vibrations in the body of the instrument. Examples are various [[drums]], [[xylophone]], [[castanet]]s. 
> *[[String instruments]] generate a sound when the string is plucked, strummed, slapped, etc.  The [[frequency]] of the wave generated (and therefore the [[tone]] produced) usually depends on the tuning (tension) of each string, as well as the length of the string controlled by the position of the player's finger, pressing it against the neck of the instrument.  One exception to this rule is the [[harp]], which has no neck for the strings to be pressed against; each string will therefore produce only one tone according to how it is tuned.
------
Periodic_table|990108990
4c4
<    1      2      3       4       5      6    7
---
>    1      2      3       4       5      6       7
6,37c6,37
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37  [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38  [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                                       [[Lanthanum|La]]  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                                       [[Cerium|Ce]]  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                                       [[Praseodymium|Pr]]  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                                       [[Neodymium|Nd]]   [[Uranium|U]]
<                                       [[Promethium|Pm]]  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                                       [[Samarium|Sm]]  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                                       [[Europium|Eu]]  [[Americium|Am]]
<                                       [[Gadolinium|Gd]]  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                                       [[Terbium|Tb]]  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                                       [[Dysprosium|Dy]]  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                                       [[Holmium|Ho]]  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                                       [[Erbium|Er]]  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                                       [[Thulium|Tm]]  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                                       [[Ytterbium|Yb]]  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
<                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21    [[Yttrium|Y]] 39 [[Lutetium|Lu]]  [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40  [[Hafnium|Hf]]  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41  [[Tantalum|Ta]]  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42   [[Tungsten|W]]  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]]  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]]  [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]]  [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]]        10 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]]        11 (IB)
<                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]]         12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]]        13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]]        14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]]        15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52  [[Polonium|Po]]        16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]]        17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]]        18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37   [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38   [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                        [[Lanthanum|La]] 57  [[Actinium|Ac]]
>                                        [[Cerium|Ce]] 58  [[Thorium|Th]]
>                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]] 59  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
>                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]] 60   [[Uranium|U]]
>                                        [[Promethium|Pm]] 61  [[Neptunium|Np]]
>                                        [[Samarium|Sm]] 62  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
>                                        [[Europium|Eu]] 63  [[Americium|Am]]
>                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]] 64  [[Curium|Cm]]
>                                        [[Terbium|Tb]] 65  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
>                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]] 66  [[Californium|Cf]]
>                                        [[Holmium|Ho]] 67  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
>                                        [[Erbium|Er]] 68  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
>                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
>                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]] 70  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
>                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21    [[Yttrium|Y]] 39   [[Lutetium|Lu]] 71   [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72   [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73   [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74   [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75   [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76   [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77   [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]] 78         10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]] 79         11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]] 80         12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81        13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]] 82         14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]] 83         15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52   [[Polonium|Po]] 84         16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]] 85         17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]] 86         18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Periodic_table|990109129
4c4
<    1      2      3       4       5      6       7
---
>    1      2      3       4       5      6        7
6,21c6,21
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37   [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]]    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38   [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]]    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
<                                        [[Lanthanum|La]] 57  [[Actinium|Ac]]
<                                        [[Cerium|Ce]] 58  [[Thorium|Th]]
<                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]] 59  [[Protactinium|Pa]]
<                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]] 60   [[Uranium|U]]
<                                        [[Promethium|Pm]] 61  [[Neptunium|Np]]
<                                        [[Samarium|Sm]] 62  [[Plutonium|Pu]]
<                                        [[Europium|Eu]] 63  [[Americium|Am]]
<                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]] 64  [[Curium|Cm]]
<                                        [[Terbium|Tb]] 65  [[Berkelium|Bk]]
<                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]] 66  [[Californium|Cf]]
<                                        [[Holmium|Ho]] 67  [[Einsteinium|Es]]
<                                        [[Erbium|Er]] 68  [[Fermium|Fm]]    :
<                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69  [[Mendelevium|Md]]     :
<                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]] 70  [[Nobelium|No]]    :
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37   [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]] 87    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38   [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]] 88    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
>                                        [[Lanthanum|La]] 57  [[Actinium|Ac]] 89
>                                        [[Cerium|Ce]] 58  [[Thorium|Th]] 90
>                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]] 59  [[Protactinium|Pa]] 91
>                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]] 60   [[Uranium|U]] 92
>                                        [[Promethium|Pm]] 61  [[Neptunium|Np]] 93
>                                        [[Samarium|Sm]] 62  [[Plutonium|Pu]] 94
>                                        [[Europium|Eu]] 63  [[Americium|Am]] 95
>                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]] 64  [[Curium|Cm]] 96
>                                        [[Terbium|Tb]] 65  [[Berkelium|Bk]] 97
>                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]] 66  [[Californium|Cf]] 98
>                                        [[Holmium|Ho]] 67  [[Einsteinium|Es]] 99
>                                        [[Erbium|Er]] 68  [[Fermium|Fm]] 100    :
>                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69  [[Mendelevium|Md]] 101     :
>                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]] 70  [[Nobelium|No]] 102    :
------
Periodic_table|990109309
8,28c8,28
<                                        [[Lanthanum|La]] 57  [[Actinium|Ac]] 89
<                                        [[Cerium|Ce]] 58  [[Thorium|Th]] 90
<                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]] 59  [[Protactinium|Pa]] 91
<                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]] 60   [[Uranium|U]] 92
<                                        [[Promethium|Pm]] 61  [[Neptunium|Np]] 93
<                                        [[Samarium|Sm]] 62  [[Plutonium|Pu]] 94
<                                        [[Europium|Eu]] 63  [[Americium|Am]] 95
<                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]] 64  [[Curium|Cm]] 96
<                                        [[Terbium|Tb]] 65  [[Berkelium|Bk]] 97
<                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]] 66  [[Californium|Cf]] 98
<                                        [[Holmium|Ho]] 67  [[Einsteinium|Es]] 99
<                                        [[Erbium|Er]] 68  [[Fermium|Fm]] 100    :
<                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69  [[Mendelevium|Md]] 101     :
<                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]] 70  [[Nobelium|No]] 102    :
<                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21    [[Yttrium|Y]] 39   [[Lutetium|Lu]] 71   [[Lawrencium|Lr]]    3 (IIIB)
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72   [[Unnilquadium|Unq]]   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73   [[Unnilpentium|Unp]]   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74   [[Unnilhexium|Unh]]   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75   [[Unnilseptium|Uns]]   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76   [[Unniloctium|Uno]]   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77   [[Unnilennium|Une]]   9 (VIIIB)
---
>                                        [[Lanthanum|La]] 57   [[Actinium|Ac]] 89
>                                        [[Cerium|Ce]] 58   [[Thorium|Th]] 90
>                                        [[Praseodymium|Pr]] 59   [[Protactinium|Pa]] 91
>                                        [[Neodymium|Nd]] 60    [[Uranium|U]] 92
>                                        [[Promethium|Pm]] 61   [[Neptunium|Np]] 93
>                                        [[Samarium|Sm]] 62   [[Plutonium|Pu]] 94
>                                        [[Europium|Eu]] 63   [[Americium|Am]] 95
>                                        [[Gadolinium|Gd]] 64   [[Curium|Cm]] 96
>                                        [[Terbium|Tb]] 65   [[Berkelium|Bk]] 97
>                                        [[Dysprosium|Dy]] 66   [[Californium|Cf]] 98
>                                        [[Holmium|Ho]] 67   [[Einsteinium|Es]] 99
>                                        [[Erbium|Er]] 68   [[Fermium|Fm]] 100    :
>                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69   [[Mendelevium|Md]] 101     :
>                                        [[Ytterbium|Yb]] 70   [[Nobelium|No]] 102    :
>                        [[Scandium|Sc]] 21    [[Yttrium|Y]] 39   [[Lutetium|Lu]] 71   [[Lawrencium|Lr]] 103    3 (IIIB)
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72   [[Unnilquadium|Unq]] 104   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73   [[Unnilpentium|Unp]] 105   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74   [[Unnilhexium|Unh]] 106   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75   [[Unnilseptium|Uns]] 107   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76   [[Unniloctium|Uno]] 108   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77   [[Unnilennium|Une]] 109   9 (VIIIB)
------
20th_century|990109309
3c3
< The twentieth century was remarkable, indeed, probably the most remarkable century in human history, due to the technological, social, ideological, and international innovations, and due to the rise of war, genocide, and democide on an unprecedented scale.  Virtually every aspect of human life had changed in some fundamental way by the end of the twentieth century.
---
> The twentieth century was remarkable, indeed, probably the most remarkable century in human history, due to the technological, medical, social, ideological, and international innovations, and due to the rise of [[war]], [[genocide]], and [[democide]] on an unprecedented scale.  Virtually every aspect of human life had changed in some fundamental way by the end of the twentieth century.
13c13
< * Assembly line and mass production
---
> * [[Assembly line]] and [[mass production]]
19c19
< * Space flight and lunar landings
---
> * [[Space flight]] and [[lunar landings]]
21c21
< * Development of agricultural chemicals
---
> * Development of agricultural [[chemicals]]
23a24
> * Women's rights
26a28
> * Founding of the [[United Nations]]
31a34,36
> * [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]
> * [[Vladimir Lenin]]
> 
------
Lanthanum|990109342
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] lanthanum has the symbol La and atom number 57
------
Cerium|990109365
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] cerium has the symbol Ce and atom number 58.
------
Praseodymium|990109399
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Praseodymium has the symbol Pr and atom number 59.
------
Neodymium|990109422
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] neodymium has the symbol Nd and atom number 60.
------
Promethium|990109449
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] promethium has the symbol Pm and atom number 61.
------
IKEA|990109461
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swedish furniture maker and more general retailer. Prodiuces furniture of the Scandanavian design.
------
Samarium|990109486
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] samarium has the symbol Sm and atom number  62.
------
Europium|990109510
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] europium has the symbol Eu and atom number 63.
------
Uranium|990109545
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] uranium has the symbol U and atom number 92.
> 
------
Francium|990109576
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] francium has the symbol Fr and atom number 87.
------
Fermium|990109600
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Fermium has the symbol Fm and atom number 100.
------
Radium|990109630
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] radium has the symbol Ra and atom number 88.
> 
> See also [[Marie Curie]].
> 
> 
------
Actinium|990109672
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] actinium has the symbol Ac and atom number 89.
------
Thorium|990109696
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] thorium has the symbol Th and atom number 90.
------
Protactinium|990109720
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] protactinium has the symbol Pa and atom number 91.
------
Neptunium|990109745
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] neptunium has the symbol Np and atom number 93.
------
Plutonium|990109762
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] has the symbol Pu and atom number 94.
------
Plutonium|990109780
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] has the symbol Pu and atom number 94.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] plutonium has the symbol Pu and atom number 94.
------
Americium|990109802
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] americium has the symbol Am and atom number 95.
------
Gadolinium|990109832
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] gadolinium has the symbol Gd and atom number 64.
------
Curium|990109853
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] curium has the symbol Cm and atom number 96.
------
Terbium|990109889
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] terbium has the symbol Tb and atom number 65.
> 
> See also [[Ytterby]].
------
Dysprosium|990109913
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] dysprosium has the symbol Dy and atom number 66.
------
Californium|990109937
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] californium has the symbol Cf and atom number 98.
------
Berkelium|990109965
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] berkelium has the symbol Bk and atom number 97.
------
Platinum|990110078
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] platinum has the symbol Pt and atom number 78.
> 
> Platinum is now considered more precious than [[gold]], so that a platinum award is better than a golden one.
> 
> 
------
Iridium|990110148
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] iridium has the symbol Ir and atom number 77.
> 
> Iridium was also a system of 77 [[communication satellite]]s around the earth.
> 
------
Osmium|990110171
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] osmium has the symbol Os and atom number 76.
------
Rhenium|990110195
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] rhenium has the symbol Re and atom number 75.
------
Tungsten|990110236
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] tungsten has the symbol W (from its German name, Wolfram) and atom number 74.
> 
------
Holmium|990110264
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Holmium has the symbol Ho and atom number 67.
------
Erbium|990110292
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Erbium has the symbol Er and atom number 68.
> 
> See also [[Ytterby]].
> 
> 
------
Thulium|990110314
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] thulium has the symbol Tm and atom number 69.
------
Ytterbium|990110343
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] ytterbium has the symbol Yb and atom number 70.
> 
> See also [[Ytterby]].
> 
> 
------
Lutetium|990110387
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] lutetium has the symbol Lu and atom number 71.
> 
> Named after [[Lutetia]], the Latin name for [[Paris]].
> 
> 
------
Hafnium|990110409
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] hafnium has the symbol Hf and atom number 72.
------
Tantalum|990110431
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] tantalum has the symbol Ta and atom number 73.
------
Sweden|990110446
7c7
< 
---
> The aboriginal inhabitants are the [[Saami]].
------
Einsteinium|990110463
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] einsteinium has the symbol Es and atom number 99.
> 
> Named after [[Albert Einstein]].
> 
> 
------
Nobelium|990110492
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Nobelium has the symbol No and atom number 102.
> 
> Named after [[Alfred Nobel]].
> 
> 
------
Lawrencium|990110513
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Lawrencium has the symbol Lr and atom number 103.
------
Unnilquadium|990110540
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unnilquadium has the symbol Unq and atom number 104.
------
Thalium|990110569
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] thalium has the symbol Tl and atom number 81.
------
Lead|990110589
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] lead has the symbol Pb and atom number 82.
------
Bismuth|990110611
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] bismuth has the symbol Bi and atom number 83.
------
Polonium|990110637
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] polonium has the symbol Po and atom number 84.
------
Astatine|990110659
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] astatine has the symbol At and atom number 85.
------
Radon|990110682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] radon has the symbol Rn and atom number 86.
------
Unnilpentium|990110712
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unnilpentium has the symbol Unp and atom number 105.
------
Unnilhexium|990110737
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unnilhexium has the symbol Unh and atom number 106.
------
Unnilseptium|990110761
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unnilseptium has the symbol Uns and atom number 107.
------
Unniloctium|990110786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unniloctium has the symbol Uno and atom number 108.
------
Unnilennium|990110818
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] unnilennium has the symbol Une and atom number 109.
------
Periodic_table|990110822
6,7c6,7
<   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37   [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]] 87    1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
<         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38   [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]] 88    2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
---
>   [[Hydrogen|H]] 1   [[Lithium|Li]] 3   [[Sodium|Na]] 11    [[Potassium|K]] 19   [[Rubidium|Rb]] 37   [[Cesium|Cs]] 55   [[Francium|Fr]] 87     1 (IA)     ([[Alkali metal|Alkali metals]])
>         [[Beryllium|Be]] 4   [[Magnesium|Mg]] 12   [[Calcium|Ca]] 20   [[Strontium|Sr]] 38   [[Barium|Ba]] 56   [[Radium|Ra]] 88     2 (IIA)    ([[Alkaline earth|Alkaline earths]])
20c20
<                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69   [[Mendelevium|Md]] 101     :
---
>                                        [[Thulium|Tm]] 69   [[Mendelevium|Md]] 101    :
29,37c29,37
<                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]] 78         10 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]] 79         11 (IB)
<                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]] 80         12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81        13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]] 82         14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]] 83         15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52   [[Polonium|Po]] 84         16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]] 85         17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]] 86         18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]] 78             10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]] 79             11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]] 80             12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81             13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]] 82             14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]] 83             15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52   [[Polonium|Po]] 84             16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]] 85             17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]] 86             18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Periodic_table|990110871
23,28c23,28
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72   [[Unnilquadium|Unq]] 104   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73   [[Unnilpentium|Unp]] 105   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74   [[Unnilhexium|Unh]] 106   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75   [[Unnilseptium|Uns]] 107   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76   [[Unniloctium|Uno]] 108   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77   [[Unnilennium|Une]] 109   9 (VIIIB)
---
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]] 104   4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]] 105   5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]] 106   6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]] 107   7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76  [[Unniloctium|Uno]] 108   8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77  [[Unnilennium|Une]] 109   9 (VIIIB)
------
Periodic_table|990110972
23,36c23,36
<                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]] 104   4 (IVB)
<                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]] 105   5 (VB)
<                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]] 106   6 (VIB)
<                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]] 107   7 (VIIB)
<                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76  [[Unniloctium|Uno]] 108   8 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77  [[Unnilennium|Une]] 109   9 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]] 78             10 (VIIIB)
<                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]] 79             11 (IB)
<                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]] 80             12 (IIB)
<          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81             13 (IIIA)
<          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]] 82             14 (IVA)
<          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]] 83             15 (VA)
<          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52   [[Polonium|Po]] 84             16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
<          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]] 85             17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
---
>                        [[Titanium|Ti]] 22   [[Zirconium|Zr]] 40   [[Hafnium|Hf]] 72  [[Unnilquadium|Unq]] 104    4 (IVB)
>                         [[Vanadium|V]] 23   [[Niobium|Nb]] 41   [[Tantalum|Ta]] 73  [[Unnilpentium|Unp]] 105    5 (VB)
>                        [[Chromium|Cr]] 24   [[Molybdenum|Mo]] 42    [[Tungsten|W]] 74  [[Unnilhexium|Unh]] 106    6 (VIB)
>                        [[Manganese|Mn]] 25   [[Technetium|Tc]] 43   [[Rhenium|Re]] 75  [[Unnilseptium|Uns]] 107    7 (VIIB)
>                        [[Iron|Fe]] 26   [[Ruthenium|Ru]] 44   [[Osmium|Os]] 76  [[Unniloctium|Uno]] 108    8 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Cobalt|Co]] 27   [[Rhodium|Rh]] 45   [[Iridium|Ir]] 77  [[Unnilennium|Une]] 109    9 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Nickel|Ni]] 28   [[Palladium|Pd]] 46   [[Platinum|Pt]] 78            10 (VIIIB)
>                        [[Copper|Cu]] 29   [[Silver|Ag]] 47   [[Gold|Au]] 79            11 (IB)
>                        [[Zinc|Zn]] 30   [[Cadmium|Cd]] 48   [[Mercury|Hg]] 80            12 (IIB)
>          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81            13 (IIIA)
>          [[Carbon|C]] 6   [[Silicon|Si]] 14   [[Germanium|Ge]] 32   [[Tin|Sn]] 50   [[Lead|Pb]] 82            14 (IVA)
>          [[Nitrogen|N]] 7    [[Phosphorus|P]] 15   [[Arsenic|As]] 33   [[Antimony|Sb]] 51   [[Bismuth|Bi]] 83            15 (VA)
>          [[Oxygen|O]] 8    [[Sulphur|S]] 16   [[Selenium|Se]] 34   [[Tellurium|Te]] 52   [[Polonium|Po]] 84            16 (VIA)    ([[Chalcogen|Chalcogens]])
>          [[Fluorine|F]] 9   [[Chlorine|Cl]] 17   [[Bromine|Br]] 35    [[Iodine|I]] 53   [[Astatine|At]] 85            17 (VIIA)   ([[Halogen|Halogens]])
------
Sweden|990110977
6d5
< The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
7a7
> The [[capital]] is [[Stockholm]].
------
Oxygen|990111109
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Oxygen has atom number 8.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Oxygen has the symbol O and atom number 8.
------
Oxygen|990111209
3c3,5
< A gas having molecules consisting of two oxygen atoms, chemical formula O<sub>2</sub>.  Oxygen is an important component of air. Thisgas is produced by plants during photosynthesis and is necessary for animals' respiration. Oxygen is necessary for all forms of oxidation including fire.
---
> A [[gas]] having [[molecule]]s consisting of two oxygen [[atom]]s, chemical formula O<sub>2</sub>.  Oxygen is an important component of air. This gas is produced by plants during [[photosynthesis]] and is necessary for animals' [[respiration]]. Oxygen is necessary for all forms of oxidation including fire.  See also [[combustion]].
> 
> 
------
Neutron|990111216
1,3c1
< In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], an elementary particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]]. It ordinarily occurs only in the nucleus of an atom. 
< 
< 
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]].  Outside the nucleus of an atom it is unstable and has a half-life of about 15 minutes, decaying by emitting an electron and antineutrino to become a proton.  The same decay method (&beta;-decay) occurs in some nuclei.  Particles inside the nucleus are typically resonances between neutrons and protons, which transform into one another by the emission and absorption of [[pion]]s.
------
Proton|990111282
1,2c1
< In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of one unit positive [[electric charge]].  The [[nucleus]] of the [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] is made up of a single proton.
< 
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of one unit positive [[electric charge]].  The [[nucleus]] of the [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] is made up of a single proton.  In other nuclei, which contain [[neutron]]s, the particles are really resonances between the two forms.  A proton contains two up [[quark]]s and one down [[quark]].
------
Neutron|990111311
1c1
< In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]].  Outside the nucleus of an atom it is unstable and has a half-life of about 15 minutes, decaying by emitting an electron and antineutrino to become a proton.  The same decay method (&beta;-decay) occurs in some nuclei.  Particles inside the nucleus are typically resonances between neutrons and protons, which transform into one another by the emission and absorption of [[pion]]s.
---
> In [[particle physics]] and [[chemistry]], a particle of neutral [[electric charge]] and approximately the same [[mass]] as the [[proton]].  Outside the nucleus of an atom it is unstable and has a half-life of about 15 minutes, decaying by emitting an electron and antineutrino to become a proton.  The same decay method (&beta;-decay) occurs in some nuclei.  Particles inside the nucleus are typically resonances between neutrons and protons, which transform into one another by the emission and absorption of [[pion]]s.  A neutron contains two down [[quark]]s and one up [[quark]].
------
Hydrogen|990111374
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] hydrogen has the symbol  H and atom number 1.
> 
3c5
< At normal STP-like conditions, hydrogen forms a [[diatomic]] gas, H<sub>2</sub>, with a boiling point of only 20.28 K and a melting point of 13.81 K.  Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of [[gas giants]], the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal.  Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H<sub>2</sub> form and are associated with star formation.
---
> At normal STP-like conditions, hydrogen forms a [[diatomic]] [[gas]], H<sub>2</sub>, with a boiling point of only 20.28 K and a melting point of 13.81 K.  Under exceedingly high pressures, like those found at the center of [[gas giants]], the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a liquid metal.  Under the exceedingly low pressure conditions found in space, hydrogen tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine; clouds of H<sub>2</sub> form and are associated with star formation.
7c9
< Hydrogen combines with oxygen to produce water, H<sub>2</sub>O, and releases a lot of energy doing so, burning explosively in air.  The name hydrogen, which comes from the French, in fact means ''water-maker'', ultimately from the [[Greek language|Greek]].
---
> Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form [[water]], H<sub>2</sub>O, and releases a lot of energy in doing so, burning explosively in air.  The name hydrogen, which comes from the French, in fact means ''water-maker'', ultimately from the [[Greek language|Greek]].
------
Oxygen|990111435
4a5
> ----
5a7
> Oxygen is not necessary for oxidation the way chemists use the term (removal of electrons from something).  I'm not quite sure how to change the sentence, though, so that it still makes sense.
------
Lithium|990111444
1,2c1,3
< Third element of the periodic table. Li7 is one of the primordial
< elements (produced in [[big bang nucleosysthesis]]).
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] litium has the symbol Li and atom number 3.
> 
> Li7 is one of the primordial elements (produced in [[big bang nucleosysthesis]]).
------
Sodium|990111497
1c1
< Na
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] sodium has the symbol Na and atom number 11.
------
Potassium|990111532
1c1
< K 
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] potassium has the symbol K and atom number 19.
------
Beryllium|990111562
1c1
< Be 
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] beryllium has the symbol Be and atom number 4.
28c28
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Magnesium|990111583
1c1
< Mg
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] magnesium has the symbol Mg and atom number 12.
------
Iron|990111652
1c1,3
< Iron is a basic element and a [[metal]] extracted from [[iron ore]], closely related to [[steel]].
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] iron has the symbol Fe and atom number 16.
> 
> Iron is a [[metal]] extracted from [[iron ore]], closely related to [[steel]].
------
Iron|990111674
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] iron has the symbol Fe and atom number 16.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] iron has the symbol Fe and atom number 26.
------
Titanium|990111743
1,2c1
< A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]], Titanium has the symbol Ti and atom number 22.
< 
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]], titanium has the symbol Ti and atom number 22.
3a3
> This is a light weight and very strong [[metal]] used for making aircraft and laptop computers.
------
Vanadium|990111773
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] vanadium has the symbol V and atom number 23.
> 
------
Nickel|990111817
1c1
< A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Nickel has the symbol Ni and atom number ...
---
> A [[metal]] and [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Nickel has the symbol Ni and atom number 28.
------
Copper|990111841
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] copper has the symbol Cu and atom number 29.
> 
------
Zinc|990111870
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] zinc has the symbol Zn and atom number 30.
> 
------
Aluminum|990112007
1c1,5
< The [[metal]] and that in [[English language/British English|British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].  Aluminum is a [[chemical element]].  Its symbol in the [[periodic table]] is Al.  It is a light-weight metal that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] aluminum has the symbol Al and atom number 13.
> 
> The [[metal]] and that in [[English language/British English|British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].
> 
> It is a light-weight [[metal]] that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
------
Atom|990112048
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Most normal matter comes in chunks called atoms.  The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''atomos'', meaning indivisible, since these were thought to represent fundamental building blocks of the universe.  The existance of such things was first proposed by Greek philosophers such as [[Democritus]], [[Leucippus]], and the [[Epicurean]]s, but without any real way to be sure the concept disappeared until it was revived by [[Dalton]]  explain why gases always combine in simple ratios.  In modern times atoms have been observed experimentally.
> 
> As it turns out, atoms are themselves made out of smaller particles.  In fact, almost all of an atom is empty space.  At the center is a tiny positive nucleus composed of nucleons ([[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s), and the rest of the atom contains only the fairly flexible [[electron]] shells.  Usually atoms are neutral with as many electrons as protons (the atomic number); the electrons determine the chemistry of the atom.  The different kinds of atoms are listed on the [[Periodic table]].
------
Periodic_table|990112054
32c32
<          [[Boron|B]] 4   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81            13 (IIIA)
---
>          [[Boron|B]] 5   [[Aluminum|Al]] 13   [[Gallium|Ga]] 31   [[Indium|In]] 49   [[Thalium|Tl]] 81            13 (IIIA)
37c37
<  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]] 86             18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
---
>  [[Helium|He]] 2   [[Neon|Ne]] 10  [[Argon|Ar]] 18   [[Krypton|Kr]] 36   [[Xenon|Xe]] 54   [[Radon|Rn]] 86            18 (VIIIA)  ([[Noble gas|Noble gases]]} 
------
Boron|990112082
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Boron has atom number 4.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Boron has the symbol B and atom number 5.
------
Carbon|990112116
1c1
< Element 6 on the [[Periodic Table]].  Blah, abundance, blah, physical properties, blah, nucleosynthesis, blah blah.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] carbon has the symbol C and atom number 6.
------
Saami|990112143
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Saami are the aboriginal inhabitants of Northern Sweden, Norway and Finland. They call this area [[Sapmi]]. Population about 85,000, they are known as [[reindeer]] herders.
> 
> See also [[aborigine]].
> See other Northern peoples: [[Eskimo]], [[Innu]], [[Inuit]], [[Inuvialuit]], [[Aleut]],
> For various Russian peoples, see http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/8226/sibnative.html
> (They list 85 groups. I don't know which ones are Northern.)
------
Nitrogen|990112152
1c1
< Element 7 of the [[Periodic Table]].
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] nitrogen has the symbol N and atom number 7.
------
Saami|990112193
1c1
< The Saami are the aboriginal inhabitants of Northern Sweden, Norway and Finland. They call this area [[Sapmi]]. Population about 85,000, they are known as [[reindeer]] herders.
---
> The Saami are the aboriginal inhabitants of Northern [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Finland]]. They call this area [[Sapmi]]. Population about 85,000, they are known as [[reindeer]] herders.
3a4
> 
4a6
> 
6c8
< (They list 85 groups. I don't know which ones are Northern.)
---
> (They list 85 groups. I don't know which ones are Northern.)
------
Helium|990112196
0a1,2
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] helium has the symbol He and atom number 2.
> 
------
Sodium|990112563
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] sodium has the symbol Na and atom number 11.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] sodium has the symbol Na (from ''Natrium'') and atom number 11.
------
Dairy_product|990112599
4c4,5
< *[[Butter]]
---
> *[[Butter]]
> *[[Butter cream]]
8d8
< *[[Double cream]]?
10c10,11
< *[[Icecream]] or [[icemilk]]
---
> *[[Double cream]]?
> *[[Ice cream]] or [[Ice milk]]
16a18
> *[[Whipped cream]]
21c23
< Here are the rules: (1) cows are not production plants. (2) keep alphabetic order. (3) keep lower case where possible
---
> Here are the rules: (1) cows are not production plants. (2) keep alphabetic order. (3) keep lower case where possible. ----In regard to point (1), that was a joke.
------
Lead|990112607
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] lead has the symbol Pb and atom number 82.
---
> A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] lead has the symbol Pb (from ''Plumbum'') and atom number 82.
------
Helium|990112654
3c3
< The second most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] element in the Universe. The commonest form has two [[proton]]s and two [[electrons]]. There is another [[isotope]], <sup>3</sup>He, which has only one neutron.
---
> The second most [[Abundance of Chemical Elements|abundant]] element in the Universe. The commonest form has two [[proton]]s and two [[neutron]]s. There is another [[isotope]], <sup>3</sup>He, which has only one neutron, as well as several heavier isotopes that are radioactive.
------
Burkina_Faso/Geography|990112843
2c2
< Western Africa, north of Ghana
---
> Western [[Africa]], north of [[Ghana]]
20c20
< Benin 306 km, Cote d'Ivoire 584 km, Ghana 548 km, Mali 1,000 km, Niger 628 km, Togo 126 km
---
> [[Benin]] 306 km, [[Cote DIvoire|Cote d'Ivoire]] 584 km, [[Ghana]] 548 km, [[Mali]] 1,000 km, [[Niger]] 628 km, [[Togo]] 126 km
31c31
< Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m
---
> [[Mouhoun]] ([[Black Volta]]) River 200 m
33c33
< Tena Kourou 749 m
---
> [[Tena Kourou]] 749 m
35c35
< manganese, limestone, marble; small deposits of gold, antimony, copper, nickel, bauxite, lead, phosphates, zinc, silver
---
> [[manganese]], [[limestone]], [[marble]]; small deposits of [[gold]], [[antimony]], [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[bauxite]], [[lead]], [[phosphates]], [[zinc]], [[silver]]
50c50
< recurring droughts
---
> recurring [[drought]]s
52c52
< recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
---
> recent droughts and [[desertification]] severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; [[overgrazing]]; soil degradation; [[deforestation]]
55c55
< Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
---
> [[Biodiversity]], Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
------
Manganese|990112876
2a3,4
> Mined in [[Burkina Faso]].
> 
------
Limestone|990112942
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Art of [[stone]] made up from fossils, containing lots of [[calcium]].  Often found under arable land.
> 
------
Limestone|990112978
1c1
< Art of [[stone]] made up from fossils, containing lots of [[calcium]].  Often found under arable land.
---
> A [[mineral]] made up from [[fossil]]s, containing lots of [[calcium]].  Often found under [[arable land]].
------
Mineral|990113011
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Stones, metals, and salts.  See [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[chemistry]].
> 
> 
------
Sapir-Whorf_hypothesis|990113054
7c7
< It sounds to me as is [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] should be mentioned in here somewhere.
---
> It sounds to me as if [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] should be mentioned in here somewhere.
------
Mineral|990113074
1c1,5
< Stones, metals, and salts.  See [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[chemistry]].
---
> [[Stone]]s and [[salt]]s.  See [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[chemistry]].
> 
> 
> Do [[metal]]s count as minerals?  Metal [[ore]]s sure do, e.g. [[iron ore]].
> 
------
Ericsson|990113117
1c1
< Swedish [[telephone]] equipment manufacturer founded in 1876 (as a telegraph equipment repair shop) by [[Lars Magnus Ericsson]].  In the early 20th century, Ericsson dominated the world market for manual telephone exchanges and was late to introduce automatic equipment.  The worlds ever largest manual telephone exchange, serving 60,000 lines, was installed by Ericsson in [[Moscow]] in 1916.  Throughout the 1990s, Ericsson has held a 35--40 % market share of installed cell phone systems.
---
> Swedish [[telephone]] equipment manufacturer founded in 1876 (as a telegraph equipment repair shop) by [[Lars Magnus Ericsson]].  In the early [[20th century]], Ericsson dominated the world market for manual telephone exchanges and was late to introduce automatic equipment.  The world's largest ever manual telephone exchange, serving 60,000 lines, was installed by Ericsson in [[Moscow]] in 1916.  Throughout the [[1990s]], Ericsson has held a 35--40 % market share of installed cell phone systems.
------
Marble|990113142
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hard [[mineral]], often with visible [[fossil]]s.
> 
> Kinds of marble:
> 
> [[Carrera]] ([[Italy]])
> 
> 
------
IKEA|990113161
1c1
< Swedish furniture maker and more general retailer. Prodiuces furniture of the Scandanavian design.
---
> Swedish furniture maker and more general retailer founded på [[Invar Kamprad]]. Produces furniture of Scandanavian design.
------
Bauxite|990113226
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[mineral]] that contains [[aluminum]] [[oxide]], and can be mined for producing aluminum.
> 
> 
------
Oxide|990113285
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A combination of [[oxygen]] with other [[chemical element]]s, e.g. [[iron oxide]] ([[rust]]), [[copper oxide]], [[bauxite]] ([[aluminum]] oxide).
> 
> 
------
Deforestation|990113412
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The human or environmental process that converts [[forest]] to open [[meadow]]s, [[arable land]], [[savanna]], or [[desert]] land.
> 
> See also [[desertification]].
> 
> 
------
Mineral|990113468
3d2
< 
6c5
< 
---
> ''Metals count as minerals if they occur naturally in the raw state, like [[copper]], [[silver]], [[gold]], [[iron]], and [[mercury]].  I have a full list somewhere, I'll get it this afternoon.''
------
Polonium|990113480
1a2,3
> 
> Discovered by [[Marie Sklodowska-Curie]] and named after her home country - [[Poland]].
------
Desertification|990113484
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The environmental process that converts [[arable land]], [[forest]], [[meadow]]s or [[savanna]] into [[desert]].  See also [[deforestation]].
> 
> 
------
Arable_land|990113591
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[geography]] a form of [[land use]], meaning land that can be (and is) used for growing crops.
> 
------
Overgrazing|990113750
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The event that [[grazing]] reaches unsustainable proportions, which might cause [[desertification]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Cerebral_Spinal_Fluid|990113804
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery fluid found in the spaces inside the brain called ventricles and subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord and brain. The CSF is formed by the [[choroid plexus]] of the ventricles, circulates through the interventricular foramens into the third ventricle and then via the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle. From here the fluid passes to the subarachnoid space through some additional foramens and then absorbed by the venous system to the blood circulation. The total amount of CSF is about 150 ml and about 500 ml is produced everyday, which indicates its very active circulation. 
> 
> CSF can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurologic diseases. Usually, it is obtained by a procedure called [[lumbar puncture]] in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections (especially [[meningitis]]) and [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]. Moreover, a CSF culture examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods as the detection of the [[oligoclonal bands]], an ongoing inflammatory condition (e.g.[[multiple sclerosis]]) can be recognized. Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which is increased in a condition known as [[hydrocephalus]].
------
Overgrazing|990113854
2a3
> See the following countries:
3a5,20
>  [[Afghanistan/Geography]]
>  [[Algeria/Geography]]
>  [[Andorra/Geography]]
>  [[Bolivia/Geography]]
>  [[Botswana/Geography]]
>  [[Burkina Faso/Geography]]
>  [[Burundi/Geography]]
>  [[Cameroon/Geography]]
>  [[Cape Verde/Geography]]
>  [[Eritrea/Geography]]
>  [[Ethiopia/Geography]]
>  [[Ghana/Geography]]
>  [[Guinea-Bissau/Geography]]
>  [[India/Geography]]
>  [[Iran/Geography]]
>  [[Jordan/Geography]]
------
Linear_Algebra/Generating_a_Vector_Space|990113897
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Definition:</b> Given a vector space V over a field K, the subset of W={v1,v2,…,vn} of V, is said to <i>generate</i> V, if for every element of V, say, X=(x1,x2,...,xn), there exists a1,a2,...an in K such that a1v1+a2v2+…+anvn=X.<br>
> Alternatively, the subset W={v1,v2,…,vn} is said to be a <i>span</i> of V.<br> 
> 
> <b>Example I:</b>. Let U and W be subspaces of the vector space V over K.
> Define U+W={u+v: u is a member of U and w is a member of W}. Then U+W is a vector space and a subspace of V called the <i>sum</i> of U and W. And, U and W generate or span U+W.<br>
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> 1.  Property 1: Let v1 and v2 belong to U+W. Then v1=u1+w1 and v2=u2+w2.
> Then v1+v2=(u1+w1)+(u1+w2)=(u1+u2)+(w1+w2). Since u1+u2 is a member of
> U and w1+w2 is a member of W, v1+v2 is a member of U+W, by definition of
> U+W.<br>
> 
> 2.  Property 2: Let v be a member of U+W and c be a member of K. Consider 
> c*v. Since v is a member of U+W, v=u+w for some u in U and w in W.
> Then c*v=c*(u+w)=cu+cw. Since U and W are vector spaces, themselves,
> cu is a member of U and cw is a member of W. Then cv is a member of U+W.<br>
> 
> 3.  Property 3: Since U and W are vector spaces, <i>0</i> is a member of both U 
> and W. Then <i>0</i>+<i>0</i> =<i>0</i> is a member of U+W.<br> 
> 
> It should be obvious that, given an element v=u+w of U+W, it is generated by U and W, that is, it is a linear combination of an element from U and an element from W.<br>
> 
> <b>Example 2:</b> Let S be a subspace of R<sub>3</sub>, defined by S=
> {(s1,s2,s,3) such that s2=0}. Show that S is generated by E1=(1,0,0) and E3=(0,0,1).<br>
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> Let v belong to S. Then v=(v1,0,v3). To show that V is generated by E1 and E3, it
> is necessary to prove v is a linear combination of E1 and E2. 
> But, v1*E1+v3*E3=v1(1,0,0,)+v3*(0,0,1)=(v1,0,0)+(0,0,v3)=(v1,0,v3)=v. 
> So v=v1E1+v3E3, a linear combination of E1 and E3.<br>
> 
------
Dairy_product|990113929
6c6
< *[[Cheese]], [[Cottage Cheese]], and [[Cream Cheese]]
---
> *[[Cheese]], [[Cottage Cheese]], [[Cream Cheese]], [[swiss cheese]]
------
Frederic_Chopin|990114152
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Composer]], mostly of [[piano]] music, born in [[Poland]], lived in [[France]].
------
Linear_Algebra/Subspace|990114374
27a28,29
> Note: For every vector space V, the empty vector space { } and V, itself, are subsets of V.<br>
> 
77c79
< 3. Property 3: Consider the function <I>0</I> from R into R, defined by <i>0</i>(x)=0 for
---
> 3. Property 3: Consider the function <i>0</i> from R into R, defined by <i>0</i>(x)=0 for
81a84,97
> 
> <b>Example IV:</b> Given U and W, subspaces of a vector space V over a filed K. Then if U^W={all v: v is an element of U and v is an element of W}, U^W is a subspace of V.<br>
> 
> Proof:<br>
> 
> 1.  Property 1: Let v1 and v2 be elements of U^W. Let v1 and v2 belong to U^W.
> Then vi and v2 belong to both U and W. Consider v1+v2. Since v1 and v2 belong to U, then v1+v2 belongs to U. Similarly since v1 and v2 belong to W, v1+v2 belongs to W. Then, v1+v2 belongs to U^W.<br>
> 
> 2.  Property 2: Let v belong to U^W. Then v belongs to U and v belongs to W.
> Given c an element of K, consider c*v. Since U and W are vector spaces, cv belongs to both U and W.<br>
> 
> 3.  Property 3: Since U and W are subspaces of V, <i>0</i> belongs to both U and W.<br>
> 
> 
------
Linear_Algebra/Generating_a_Vector_Space|990114471
32c32
< So v=v1E1+v3E3, a linear combination of E1 and E3.<br>
---
> So v=v1*E1+v3*3E3, a linear combination of E1 and E3.<br>
------
Linear_Algebra/Generating_a_Vector_Space|990114948
24c24
< <b>Example 2:</b> Let S be a subspace of R<sub>3</sub>, defined by S=
---
> <b>Example 2:</b> Let S be a subspace of <b>R<sup>3</sup></b>, defined by S=
------
Linear_Algebra/Linearly_Independent_Vectors|990115322
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Definition:</b> Let V be a vector space over a field K, and let v1,v2,..,vn be elements of V. We say that v1,v2,…,vn are <i>linearly dependent</i> over K if there exist elements a1,a2,…,an in K not all equal to zero such that:<br>
> 
>                            a1v1+a2v2+…+anvn=0.<br>
> If there do not exist such elements, then we say that v1,v2,…,vn are <i>linearly independent</i>.<br>
> 
> To focus the definition on linear independence, we can say, the vectors v1,v2,…,vn are <i>linearly independent</i>, if and only if the following condition is satisfied:<br>
> 
>    Whenever a1,a2,…,an are numbers such that:<br>
>               
>                        a1v1+a2v2+…+anvn=0<br>
> 
>    then ai=0 for all i=1,2,…,n.<br>                    
>              
> 
------
Musical_instrument|990115458
16,22c16
< Most likely the
< first instruments where [[percussion]] instruments, maybe 
< a hollow trunk, or stones hit together, that are
< useful to create [[rythm]], but not always [[melody]].
< But all classes of instruments have a long history, beings
< mentioned in various ancient sources: egyptian inscriptions,
< the [[Bible]], ....., etc.
---
> Most likely the first instruments were [[percussion]] instruments, maybe a hollow trunk, or stones hit together, that are useful to create [[rhythm]], but not always [[melody]]. But all classes of instruments have a long history, being mentioned in various ancient sources: egyptian inscriptions, the [[Bible]], ....., etc.
------
2001_-_A_Space_Odyssey|990115544
3c3
< It is based on Clarke's short story [[The Sentinel]] (1951), which he subsequently developed into a novel. A sequel novel, [[2010: Odyssey Two]] (1982), was released as a [[film]] in 1984. Later novels in the series include [[2061: Odyssey Three]] (1987) and [[3001: The Final Odyssey]] (1997). 
---
> It is based on Clarke's short story [[The Sentinel]] (1951), which he subsequently developed into a novel. A sequel novel, [[2010 - Odyssey Two]] (1982), was released as a [[film]] in 1984. Later novels in the series include [[2061 - Odyssey Three]] (1987) and [[3001 - The Final Odyssey]] (1997).
------
Gota_Kanal|990115622
3a4,5
> Göta Kanal was constructed by [[Baltzar von Platen]].  He got permission to begin work in 1809 and the canal was finally finished in 1832. 
> 
------
Gota_kanal|990115653
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Gota Kanal]]
> 
3c5
< Göta Kanal was constructed by [[Baltzar von Platen]]. He got permission to begin work in 1809 and the canal was finally finished in 1832.
---
> Göta Kanal was constructed by [[Baltzar von Platen]]. He got permission to begin work in 1809 and the canal was finally finished in 1832.
------
Konrad_Adenauer|990115834
3c3,4
< German politician. Bundeskanzler during 1949-1963. Co-founder of CDU party.
---
> [[Politician]] in [[Germany]].  [[Bundeskanzler]] during 1949-1963. Co-founder of [[CDU]] party.
> 
------
CDU|990115883
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]], founded by [[Konrad Adenauer]].
> 
> 
------
CDU|990115945
1c1
< The Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]], founded by [[Konrad Adenauer]].
---
> The Christian-Democratic Union (CDU - ''Christlich Demokratische Union'') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]], founded by [[Konrad Adenauer]].
------
Propaganda_film|990116016
0a1,3
> A propaganda film is a film, usually a [[documentary film|documentary]], produced for the express purpose of convincing the viewer of a certain political point.
> 
> *[[Manufacturing Consent - Noam Chomsky and the Media]]
2c5
< *[[Triumph_of_the_Will]]
---
> *[[Triumph of the Will]]
8a12,13
> 
> See also the 8-volume [[CD-ROM]] collection [[Our Secret Century]] for its discussion of propaganda and the examples it includes from the [[United States]].
------
Manufacturing_Consent_-_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media|990116445
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[documentary film]] discussing [[Noam Chomsky]]'s biography and arguing that the [[United States]] media is best understood as [[propaganda]] produced to protect the economic interests of the shareholders and owners of the companies producing the media.  The film is much less detailed than Noam Chomsky and [[Edward Herman]]'s book [[Manufacturing Consent - The Political Economy of the Mass Media]], but is convincing nonetheless; interestingly enough, the film itself fits the definition of propaganda, as it has an overt political agenda, was created expressly to convince viewers of an ideological point of view, and makes no attempt to avoid bias.
> 
> See also:
> [[propaganda film]]
------
Propaganda|990116485
15a16,19
> 
> ----
> see also:
> [[propaganda film]]
------
Propaganda_film|990116524
3c3
< *[[Manufacturing Consent - Noam Chomsky and the Media]]
---
> *[[Manufacturing_Consent_-_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media]]
------
Propaganda_film|990116548
3c3
< *[[Manufacturing_Consent_-_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media]]
---
> *[[Manufacturing Consent - Noam Chomsky and the Media]]
------
Manufacturing_Consent_-_Noam_Chomsky_and_the_Media|990116656
1c1
< A [[documentary film]] discussing [[Noam Chomsky]]'s biography and arguing that the [[United States]] media is best understood as [[propaganda]] produced to protect the economic interests of the shareholders and owners of the companies producing the media.  The film is much less detailed than Noam Chomsky and [[Edward Herman]]'s book [[Manufacturing Consent - The Political Economy of the Mass Media]], but is convincing nonetheless; interestingly enough, the film itself fits the definition of propaganda, as it has an overt political agenda, was created expressly to convince viewers of an ideological point of view, and makes no attempt to avoid bias.
---
> A [[documentary film]] arguing that the [[United States]] media is best understood as [[propaganda]] produced to protect the economic interests of the shareholders and owners of the companies producing the media.  The film includes a brief biography of [[Noam Chomsky]] and is much less detailed than Noam Chomsky and [[Edward Herman]]'s book [[Manufacturing Consent - The Political Economy of the Mass Media]]; interestingly enough, the film itself fits the definition of propaganda, as it has an overt political agenda, was created expressly to convince viewers of an ideological point of view, and makes no attempt to avoid bias.
------
Triumph_of_the_Will|990116717
1c1
< [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[Classical Music|classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a mission from the God of his country.
---
> [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[Classical Music|classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a [[God]]-given mission.
------
Germany/politics|990116763
9c9
< Government type: federal republic
---
> Government type: [[federal republic]]
11c11
< Capital: Berlin
---
> Capital: [[Berlin]]
13c13
< Administrative divisions: 16 states (Laender, singular - Land); Baden-Wuerttemberg, Bayern, Berlin, Brandenburg, Bremen, Hamburg, Hessen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Niedersachsen, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Saarland, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Schleswig-Holstein, Thueringen
---
> Administrative divisions: 16 states (Laender, singular - Land); [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bayern]], [[Berlin]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
15c15
< Independence: 18 January 1871 (German Empire unification); divided into four zones of occupation (UK, US, USSR, and later, France) in 1945 following World War II; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany) proclaimed 23 May 1949 and included the former UK, US, and French zones; German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone; unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October 1990; all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991
---
> Independence: 18 January [[1871]] ([[German Empire]] unification); divided into four zones of occupation (UK, US, USSR, and later, France) in [[1945]] following [[World War II]]; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or [[West Germany]]) proclaimed 23 May [[1949]] and included the former UK, US, and French zones; German Democratic Republic (GDR or [[East Germany]]) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone; unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October [[1990]]; all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991
17c17
< National holiday: German Unity Day (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
---
> National holiday: [[German Unity Day]] (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
21c21
< Legal system: civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Constitutional Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
---
> Legal system: civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the [[Federal Constitutional Court]]; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
26,28c26,28
< chief of state: President Johannes RAU (since 1 July 1999)
< head of government: Chancellor Gerhard SCHROEDER (since 27 October 1998)
< cabinet: Cabinet or Bundeskanzler appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
---
> chief of state: President [[Johannes Rau]] (since 1 July [[1999]])
> head of government: Chancellor [[Gerhard Schroeder]] (since 27 October [[1998]])
> cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundeskanzler]] appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
32,34c32,33
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Federal Assembly or Bundestag (656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or Bundesrat (69 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block)
< elections: Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held by the fall of 2002); note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election
< election results: Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - SPD 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, CDU/CSU 35.1%, FDP 6.2%, PDS 5.1%; seats by party - SPD 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions 15
---
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Federal Assembly or [[Bundestag]] (656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or [[Bundesrat]] (69 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block)
> elections: Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held by the fall of 2002); note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election election results: Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%; seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions 15
36c35
< Judicial branch: Federal Constitutional Court or Bundesverfassungsgericht, half the judges are elected by the Bundestag and half by the Bundesrat
---
> Judicial branch: [[Federal Constitutional Court]] or [[Bundesverfassungsgericht]], half the judges are elected by the [[Bundestag]] and half by the [[Bundesrat]]
38c37
< Political parties and leaders: Alliance '90/Greens [Fitz Kuhn and Claudia Roth]; Christian Democratic Union or CDU [Angela MERKEL]; Christian Social Union or CSU [Edmund STOIBER, chairman]; Free Democratic Party or FDP [Wolfgang GERHARDT, chairman]; Party of Democratic Socialism or PDS [Lothar BISKY, chairman]; Social Democratic Party or SPD [Gerhard SCHROEDER, chairman]
---
> Political parties and leaders: Alliance '90/Greens [[Fitz Kuhn]] and [[Claudia Roth]]; Christian Democratic Union or [[CDU]] [[Angela Merkel]]; Christian Social Union or [[CSU]] [[Edmund Stoiber]], chairman; Free Democratic Party or [[FDP]] [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]], chairman; Party of Democratic Socialism or [[PDS]] [[Lothar Bisky]], chairman; Social Democratic Party or [[SPD]] [[Gerhard Schroeder]], chairman
42c41
< International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
---
> International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, [[IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], IOM, [[ISO]], [[ITU]], MONUC, NAM (guest), [[NATO]], NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNOMIG]], UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
45c44
< chief of mission: Ambassador Juergen CHROBOG
---
> chief of mission: Ambassador [[Juergen Chrobog]]
53,54c52,53
< chief of mission: Ambassador John C. KORNBLUM
< embassy: Neustaedtische Kirchstrasse 4-5, 10117 Berlin
---
> chief of mission: Ambassador [[John C. Kornblum]]
> embassy: Neustaedtische Kirchstrasse 4-5, 10117 [[Berlin]]
58c57
< consulate(s) general: Dusseldorf, Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Leipzig, Munich
---
> consulate(s) general: [[Dusseldorf]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Hamburg]], [[Leipzig]], [[Munich]]
63c62
< The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government (Bundesregierung) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
---
> The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government ([[Bundesregierung]]) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
67c66
< The head of government is the federal chancellor (Bundeskanzler). He is elected by the federal parliament (Bundestag) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor (Vizekanzler), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
---
> The head of government is the federal chancellor ([[Bundeskanzler]]). He is elected by the federal parliament ([[Bundestag]]) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor ([[Vizekanzler]]), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
------
Baden-Wuerttemberg|990116858
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
------
Hobby|990116871
24c24
< 
---
> ** [[Phone-card collecting]]
25a26
> 
------
Bundesland|990116903
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Germany]] is a federal republic consisting of 16 states called Bundesland (plural: Bundesländer).
> 
> 
------
Bundesland|990116964
2a3
> [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bayern]], [[Berlin]] (city and land), [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
------
Bayern|990117036
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The name in [[German language|German]] for [[Bavaria]],
> one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Bavaria|990117078
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The English name for [[Bayern]], one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Brandenburg|990117096
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Bremen|990117145
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bremen is a city-state in [[Germany]],
> one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
> 
------
Hamburg|990117179
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hamburg is a city-state in [[Germany]],
> one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
> 
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Hessen|990117197
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|990117227
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]], it borders on [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].
> 
> 
------
Niedersachsen|990117267
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> Its English name is Lower Saxony.
> 
------
Bundesland|990117276
3c3,18
< [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bayern]], [[Berlin]] (city and land), [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
---
> *[[Baden-Wuerttemberg]]
> *[[Bayern]]
> *[[Berlin]] (city and land)
> *[[Brandenburg]]
> *[[Bremen]]
> *[[Hamburg]]
> *[[Hessen]]
> *[[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]]
> *[[Niedersachsen]]
> *[[Nordrhein-Westfalen]]
> *[[Rheinland-Pfalz]]
> *[[Saarland]]
> *[[Sachsen]]
> *[[Sachsen-Anhalt]]
> *[[Schleswig-Holstein]]
> *[[Thueringen]]
------
Nordrhein-Westfalen|990117286
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Hamburg|990117327
1,2c1
< Hamburg is a city-state in [[Germany]],
< one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
---
> Hamburg is a city-state in [[Germany]] (official name: Hansestadt Hamburg), one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
------
Oelde,_Germany|990117341
1c1
< Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province (dt. "Bundesland") North-Rhine-Westfalia.
---
> Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province ([[Bundesland]]) [[Nordrhein-Westfalen|North-Rhine-Westfalia]].
------
Nordrhein-Westfalen|990117366
2c2
< 
---
> Its English name is North-Rhine-Westfalia.
------
Nordrhein-Westfalen|990117401
2c2
< Its English name is North-Rhine-Westfalia.
---
> Its English name is North-Rhine-Westphalia.
------
Westphalia|990117449
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A historic region in [[Germany]], now a part of [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]].
> 
> 
------
Westphalia|990117483
2a3,4
> Known in history for the peace treaty at Westphalia in 1648, that ended the [[Thirty Years War]].
> 
------
Nordrhein-Westfalen|990117525
3,4c3
< 
< 
---
> For some historic notes, see also [[Westphalia]].
------
Oelde,_Germany|990117574
1c1
< Oelde is a german city with about  25'000 inhabitants located in the province ([[Bundesland]]) [[Nordrhein-Westfalen|North-Rhine-Westfalia]].
---
> Oelde is a city in [[Germany]] with about  25,000 inhabitants located in the province ([[Bundesland]]) [[Nordrhein-Westfalen|North-Rhine-Westphalia]].
------
Rheinland-Pfalz|990117595
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
------
Saarland|990117610
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Sachsen|990117645
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> Its English name is [[Saxony]].
> See also [[Sachsen-Anhalt]] and [[Niedersachsen]].
> 
> 
------
Sachsen-Anhalt|990117670
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Bremen|990117708
1,2c1
< Bremen is a city-state in [[Germany]],
< one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
---
> Bremen is a city-state in [[Germany]] (official name: '''Hansestadt Bremen'''), one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s.
------
Schleswig-Holstein|990117720
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]],
> bordering on [[Denmark]] and the [[North Sea]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].  Parts of this region has historically belonged to Denmark.
> 
> 
------
Thueringen|990117744
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thüringen is one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Bundesland|990117773
7,8c7,8
< *[[Bremen]]
< *[[Hamburg]]
---
> *[[Bremen]] (city-state)
> *[[Hamburg]] (city-state)
------
West_Germany|990118020
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or West Germany) was  proclaimed 23 May 1949 and included the post-[[World War II]]
> UK, US, and French occupation zones.  See also [[East Germany]].  After the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] on 9 Nov 1989, the unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October 1990; all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991.
> 
> See [[Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
CSU|990118083
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i> is a conservative [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
------
CSU|990118179
1c1
< The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i> is a conservative [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a conservative [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
------
German_Unity_Day|990118185
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Day of Unity, 3 October, is a national holiday in [[Germany]], to celebrate the country's reunification in 1990.  See also [[East Germany]], [[West Germany]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Federal_Constitutional_Court|990118256
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The German Verfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is [[Germany]]'s supreme court.
> 
> 
------
Johannes_Rau|990118342
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> President Johannes Rau is the chief of state of [[Germany]] since 1 July 1999.
> 
> See [[Germany/politics]].
> 
------
CSU|990118426
1c1
< The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a conservative [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
------
Gerhard_Schroeder|990118437
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gerhard Schröder is the [[Bundeskanzler]] (Chancellor) or head of government in [[Germany]] since 27 October 1998.
> 
> See also [[Germany/politics]].
> 
> 
------
CSU|990118448
1c1
< The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
------
Bundeskanzler|990118478
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The German title for the head of government of [[Germany]].
> 
> See [[Gerhard Schroeder]].
> 
> 
------
Bundeskanzler|990118506
1c1,4
< The German title for the head of government of [[Germany]].
---
> The German title for the head of government of [[Germany]].  It means federal chancellor.
> 
> See [[Gerhard Schroeder]] and [[Germany/politics]].
> 
3d5
< See [[Gerhard Schroeder]].
------
Bundestag|990118570
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The federal parliament of [[Germany]].  See [[Germany/politics]].
> 
> 
------
Bundeskanzler|990118826
1c1
< The German title for the head of government of [[Germany]].  It means federal chancellor.
---
> The German title for the head of government. .  It means federal chancellor. Both [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] have a Bundeskanzler
------
Bundesrat|990118894
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the [[Germany/politics|politics of Germany]], legislative branch, the '''Bundesrat''' (federal council) is the upper house of the bicameral federal parliament. The Bundesrat has 69 votes; governments of the 16 states ([[Bundesland]]) are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block.  The lower house is called [[Bundestag]].
> 
------
Bundestag|990118981
1c1
< The federal parliament of [[Germany]].  See [[Germany/politics]].
---
> In the [[Germany/politics|politics of Germany]], legislative branch, the '''Bundestag''' (federal assembly) is the lower house of the bicameral federal parliament.
2a3
> The upper house is called [[Bundesrat]].
------
Television|990119205
42a43
> :[[The Flintstones]]
------
Bundestag|990119395
1c1
< In the [[Germany/politics|politics of Germany]], legislative branch, the '''Bundestag''' (federal assembly) is the lower house of the bicameral federal parliament.
---
> In the [[Germany/politics|politics of Germany]], legislative branch, the '''Bundestag''' (federal assembly) is the lower house of the bicameral federal parliament.  The upper house is called [[Bundesrat]].
3c3
< The upper house is called [[Bundesrat]].
---
> The Bundestag has 656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation. Members serve four-year terms.
4a5,13
> Election results: Federal Assembly
> 
>  percent of vote by party:	Seats:
> 
>  [[SPD]]            40.9%	298
>  [[German Green Party|Alliance '90/Greens]] 6.7%	47
>  [[CDU]]/[[CSU]]    35.1%	245
>  [[FDP]]             6.2%	43
>  [[PDS]]             5.1%	36
------
Sulphur|990119448
1,3c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] Sulphur has the symbol S and [[atom]] number 16.
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sulfur]]
------
Sulfur|990119458
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Sulfur''' (British spelling '''sulphur''') is [[chemical element]] number 16 in the [[periodic table]], with symbol '''S'''.  It is pale yellow in appearance, soft, light, and distinctly odorous.  Sulfur is found naturally in free form near hot springs and volcanic regions, and also compounded.  It is used for many industrial processes such as the production of sulfuric acid for batteries, the production of [[gunpowder]], and the [[vulcanization]] of rubber.  Sulfur is also found in small amounts in [[coal]] and [[petroleum]], which produce sulfur dioxide when burned.  In addition to being quite toxic, sulfur dioxide reacts with atmospheric water to produce [[acid rain]].
> 
> The [[amino acid]]s cysteine and methionine contain sulfur, as do some common enzymes, making sulfur a necessary component of all living cells.  Many of the unpleasant odors of organic matter are based of sulfur-containing compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, which has the characteristic smell of rotten eggs.  See the [[sulfur cycle]].
> 
------
German_Green_Party|990119551
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Die Grünen, the Green Party is a [[political party]] in Germany.
> 
> Bündnis '90/Die Grünen (Alliance '90/Green) was the name used in the 1998 parliament elections.
> 
> See also [[Bundestag]], [[Germany/politics]], and the German Green Party's own website, http://www.gruene.de/
------
Bundestag|990119638
10c10
<  [[German Green Party|Alliance '90/Greens]] 6.7%	47
---
>  [[German Green Party|Bündnis '90/Grünen]]	6.7%	47
------
Bundestag|990119669
9c9
<  [[SPD]]            40.9%	298
---
>  [[SPD]]           	 40.9%	298
11,13c11,13
<  [[CDU]]/[[CSU]]    35.1%	245
<  [[FDP]]             6.2%	43
<  [[PDS]]             5.1%	36
---
>  [[CDU]]/[[CSU]]   		 35.1%	245
>  [[FDP]]           	  6.2%	43
>  [[PDS]]           	  5.1%	36
------
German_Green_Party|990119736
3c3
< Bündnis '90/Die Grünen (Alliance '90/Green) was the name used in the 1998 parliament elections.
---
> <nowiki>Bündnis '90/Die Grünen (Alliance '90/Green)</nowiki> was the name used in the 1998 parliament elections.
------
WIPO|990119789
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The World Intellectual Property Organization.  See [[intellectual property]] and http://www.wipo.org/
------
IOC|990119867
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The International Olympic Committee.
> 
> See [[money laundering]], [[athletics]], http://www.ioc.org/
> 
> 
> 
------
NobelPrize/Chemistry|990119868
165c165
< 1911 Marie Curie
---
> 1911 [[Marie Sklodowska-Curie]]
------
IOC|990119958
3c3
< See [[money laundering]], [[athletics]], http://www.ioc.org/
---
> See [[money laundering]], [[athletics]], http://www.olympic.org/
------
IOC|990120056
5,6c5,6
< 
< 
---
> In May 2001, IOC chairman Samaranch nomitated his own son for IOC, making the parallel between IOC and [[North Korea]] even more striking,
> http://news.excite.com/news/ap/010517/09/oly-ioc-meetings
------
German_Green_Party|990120079
4a5,6
> They are officially a pro-environmental party, although it was Germany's 'Green' Minister who allowed nuclear waste transports in Spring 2001.
> 
------
IOC|990120105
5c5
< In May 2001, IOC chairman Samaranch nomitated his own son for IOC, making the parallel between IOC and [[North Korea]] even more striking,
---
> In May 2001, outgoing IOC chairman Juan Antonio Samaranch nomitated his own son for IOC, making the parallel between IOC and [[North Korea]] even more striking,
------
Germany/politics|990120226
28c28
< cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundeskanzler]] appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
---
> cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundeskanzler]] (heh, that should be [[Bundesregierung]], right?  --[[LA2]]) appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
------
Bundesregierung|990120461
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In the [[Germany/politics|politics of Germany]], the Bundesregierung is the federal cabinet (government).
> See the cabinet's own website, http://www.bundesregierung.de/
> 
> Since 1998 the government is build from a coalition of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ([[SPD]]) and Bündnis 90 / [[German Green Party|Die Grünen]].  Chancellor is [[Gerhard Schroeder|Gerhard Schröder]] (SPD), vice-chancellor is [[Joschka Fischer]] (Green).  The federal president is [[Johannes Rau]]. The next election for the [[Bundestag]] will be in the autumn of 2002.
> 
------
SPD|990120707
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
> 
> See [[Germany/politics]], [[Bundesregierung]], [[Bundestag]], [[Gerhard Schroeder]], and the party's own website, http://www.spd.de/
> 
------
CSU|990120800
1a2,4
> 
> 
> See also [[CDU]], [[Germany/politics]], [[Bundestag]], and the party's own website, http://www.csu.de/
------
English_language/British_English|990121082
3,4c3,6
<   '''British: - American:'''
<   aluminium - aluminum
---
>    '''British: - American:'''
>   aluminium - [[aluminum]]
>   neighbour - [[neighbor]]
>     sulphur - [[sulfur]]
------
CDU|990121463
1c1
< The Christian-Democratic Union (CDU - ''Christlich Demokratische Union'') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]], founded by [[Konrad Adenauer]].
---
> The Christian-Democratic Union (CDU - ''Christlich Demokratische Union'') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]], founded by [[Konrad Adenauer]].  Current party leader [[Angela Merkel]].
2a3,5
> In [[Bavaria]], CDU's role is instead played by [[CSU]].  The two sister parties cooperate on the federal level.
> 
> See [[Germany/politics]] and the party's own website, http://www.cdu.de/
------
CSU|990121510
1,2c1
< The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]].
< 
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]], because their sister party [[CDU]] runs in the rest of the country.
------
SPD|990121559
1c1
< The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
---
> The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD - ''Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands''') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
------
SPD|990121578
1c1
< The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD - ''Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands''') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
---
> The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD - ''Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands'') is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].
------
FDP|990121600
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Free Democratic Party (FDP) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].  Current chairman is [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]].
> 
> See also [[Germany/politics]] and the party's own website, http://www.fdp.de/
> 
> 
> 
------
FDP|990121646
1c1
< The Free Democratic Party (FDP) is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]].  Current chairman is [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]].
---
> The Free Democratic Party (FDP) is a liberal [[political party]] in [[Germany]].  Current chairman is [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]].
------
Aluminum|990121748
1c1
< A [[chemical element]], in the [[periodic table]] aluminum has the symbol Al and atom number 13.
---
> Discovered by [[Humphrey Davy]] in 1812, '''aluminum''' (British spelling '''aluminium''') is [[chemical element]] number 13 in the [[periodic table]], with symbol '''Al'''.  It is a soft lightweight [[metal]] with a dull silver-gray appearance, caused by a thin layer of [[oxidation]] that forms quickly when it is exposed to air and that prevents further corrosion.  Although it is an abundant element in the Earth's crust, second only to [[silicon]], it is very rare in its free form, and was once considered a precious metal more valuable than [[gold]].  The invention of the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult process]] in 1886 made extracting aluminum from minerals inexpensive, and so it is now in common use throughout the world.
3,5c3
< The [[metal]] and that in [[English language/British English|British English]] is spelled [[aluminium]].
< 
< It is a light-weight [[metal]] that doesn't rust, less hard than steel.
---
> Aluminum is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no function at all in living cells.  Though it is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, there is evidence of some toxicity if consumed in excessive amounts.  The use of aluminum cookware, popular because of its corrosion resistance and good heat conduction, has not been shown to lead to aluminum toxicity.  Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminum compounds and excessive use of aluminum-comtaining [[antiperspirant]]s are more likely causes of toxicity.
------
PDS|990121774
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) is a socialist [[political party]] in [[Germany]].  Current chairman is [[Lothar Bisky]].
> 
> See also [[Germany/politics]], [[SPD]], and the party's own website, http://www.pds.de/
> 
> ----
> 
> This is the old communist party of [[East Germany]], right?
------
Aluminium|990121776
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Aluminum]]
------
PDS|990121908
5,7c5
< ----
< 
< This is the old communist party of [[East Germany]], right?
---
> PDS is the successor of the communist party of [[East Germany]], the SED.
------
PDS|990122148
3c3
< See also [[Germany/politics]], [[SPD]], and the party's own website, http://www.pds.de/
---
> See also [[Germany/politics]], [[SPD]], and the party's own website, http://www.pds-online.de/
------
English_language/British_English|990122344
3,4c3,4
<    '''British: - American:'''
<   aluminium - [[aluminum]]
---
>   '''British - American:'''
>   aluminium - aluminum
10,49c10,64
<  aerial (antenna)
<  bicarbonate of soda (baking soda)
<  biscuit (cracker [as in Saltine])
<  bonnet (hood [of a car])
<  boot (trunk [of a car])
<  candy floss (cotton candy)
<  cashpoint (ATM)
<  chips (french fries)
<  concession (discount)
<  crisps (chips)
<  current account (checking account)
<  dialling code (area code)
<  director (CEO)
<  draughts (checkers)
<  dummy (pacifier)
<  engaged tone (busy signal)
<  fairy cake (cupcake)
<  fanny (female genitalia)
<  flat (apartment)
<  indicator (turn signal)
<  lift (elevator)
<  limited (incorporated)
<  lorry (truck)
<  mobile (cell phone)
<  nappy (diaper)
<  paraffin (kerosene)
<  petrol (gas)
<  pram (baby carriage)
<  pudding (dessert)
<  randy (horny)
<  settee (couch)
<  silencer (muffler)
<  skip (dumpster)
<  solicitor (lawyer)
<  sticking plaster (Band-Aid)
<  sweet (candy)
<  torch (flashlight)
<  tube (subway)
<  underground (subway)
<  zed (z)
---
> <pre>
> British			American
> 
> aerial			antenna
> aeroplane		airplane
> bicarbonate of soda	baking soda
> biscuit			cracker [as in Saltine]
> bonnet			hood [of a car]
> boot			trunk [of a car]
> candy floss		cotton candy
> concession		discount
> crisps			potato chips
> current account		checking account
> dialling code		area code
> director		CEO
> draughts		checkers
> dummy			pacifier
> engaged tone		busy signal
> fairy cake		cupcake
> fanny			vagina
> flat			apartment
> indicator		turn signal
> lift			elevator
> limited	(Ltd)		incorporated
> lorry			truck
> mobile (phone)		cell phone
> nappy			diaper
> paraffin		kerosene
> petrol			gas
> pavement		sidewalk
> pram			baby carriage
> pudding			dessert
> randy			horny
> settee			couch
> shag			fuck
> silencer		muffler
> skip			dumpster
> solicitor		lawyer
> sticking plaster	Band-Aid
> sweets			candy
> torch			flashlight
> tube			subway
> underground		subway
> </pre>
> 
> In addition to these different words, the following letter of the alphabet is pronounced differently
> Z is pronounced
> 
> <pre>
> British			American
> 
> zed			zee
> </pre>
> 
> [[/British English Talk]]
------
ITU|990122543
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The International Telecommunications Union (ITU).  See also the [[ITU-T]] and the website http://www.itu.org/
> 
> 
------
ITU|990122567
1c1
< The International Telecommunications Union (ITU).  See also the [[ITU-T]] and the website http://www.itu.org/
---
> The International Telecommunications Union (ITU).  See also the [[ITU-T]] and the website http://www.itu.int/
------
Consonant|990122837
1c1
< A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[wovel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
---
> A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vowel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
3a4,6
> Originally, Y was a vowel letter in Greek, representing /u/ (later on, /y/ and in Modern Greek, /i/), and it normally has the sound value /y/ in German, in Finnish and other Scandinavian languages. The letter Y nicely shows how letters change their function. In Afrikaans, Y denotes the diphthong /EI/, probably as a result of mixing lower case i and y. In Dutch, Y appears only in loan words and is usually pronounced /i/. Italian, too, has Y only in very few loan words. 
> Obviously, consonants and vowels are difficult to transcribe adequately with the alphabet we use in everday life. Therefore, linguists have devised phonetic alphabets such as the IPA alphabet or the computer readable [[SAMPA]] script. 
> 
------
SAMPA|990123113
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A computer-readable phonetic script. As many symbols as possible have been taken over from IPA; where this is not possible, other signs that are available are used, e.g. [&] for Schwa, [2] for the vowel sound found in French deux and [9] for the vowel sound found in French neuf. 
------
SAMPA|990123157
1c1,3
< A computer-readable phonetic script. As many symbols as possible have been taken over from IPA; where this is not possible, other signs that are available are used, e.g. [&] for Schwa, [2] for the vowel sound found in French deux and [9] for the vowel sound found in French neuf. 
---
> A computer-readable phonetic script. As many symbols as possible have been taken over from IPA; where this is not possible, other signs that are available are used, e.g. [&] for Schwa, [2] for the vowel sound found in French deux and [9] for the vowel sound found in French neuf. 
> 
> http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm 
------
Rocca|990123240
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bilingual French rapper with Colombian roots. 
------
Torch|990123361
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German rapper and hip hop pioneer with Haitian roots. He is a member of [[Advanced Chemistry]]. 
------
English_language/British_English|990123402
0a1,2
> (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!</i>)
> 
3,4c5,6
<   '''British - American:'''
<   aluminium - aluminum
---
>     '''British - American:'''
>   aluminium - [[aluminum]]
13,52c15,54
< aerial			antenna
< aeroplane		airplane
< bicarbonate of soda	baking soda
< biscuit			cracker [as in Saltine]
< bonnet			hood [of a car]
< boot			trunk [of a car]
< candy floss		cotton candy
< concession		discount
< crisps			potato chips
< current account		checking account
< dialling code		area code
< director		CEO
< draughts		checkers
< dummy			pacifier
< engaged tone		busy signal
< fairy cake		cupcake
< fanny			vagina
< flat			apartment
< indicator		turn signal
< lift			elevator
< limited	(Ltd)		incorporated
< lorry			truck
< mobile (phone)		cell phone
< nappy			diaper
< paraffin		kerosene
< petrol			gas
< pavement		sidewalk
< pram			baby carriage
< pudding			dessert
< randy			horny
< settee			couch
< shag			fuck
< silencer		muffler
< skip			dumpster
< solicitor		lawyer
< sticking plaster	Band-Aid
< sweets			candy
< torch			flashlight
< tube			subway
< underground		subway
---
> aerial			[[antenna]]
> aeroplane		[[airplane]]
> bicarbonate of soda	[[baking soda]]
> biscuit			[[cracker]] [as in Saltine]
> bonnet			[[hood]] [of a car]
> boot			[[trunk]] [of a car]
> candy floss		[[cotton candy]]
> concession		[[discount]]
> crisps			[[potato chips]]
> current account		[[checking account]]
> dialling code		[[area code]]
> director		[[CEO]]
> draughts		[[checkers]]
> dummy			[[pacifier]]
> engaged tone		[[busy signal]]
> fairy cake		[[cupcake]]
> fanny			[[vagina]]
> flat			[[apartment]]
> indicator		[[turn signal]]
> lift			[[elevator]]
> limited	(Ltd)		[[incorporated]]
> lorry			[[truck]]
> mobile (phone)		[[cell phone]]
> nappy			[[diaper]]
> paraffin		[[kerosene]]
> petrol			[[gas]]
> pavement		[[sidewalk]]
> pram			[[baby carriage]]
> pudding			[[dessert]]
> randy			[[horny]]
> settee			[[couch]]
> shag			[[fuck]]
> silencer		[[muffler]]
> skip			[[dumpster]]
> solicitor		[[lawyer]]
> sticking plaster	[[Band-Aid]]
> sweets			[[candy]]
> torch			[[flashlight]]
> tube			[[subway]]
> underground		[[subway]]
64c66
< [[/British English Talk]]
---
> [[/British English Talk]]
------
Advanced_Chemistry|990123411
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> German rap pioneers from Heidelberg, members: [[Toni L]], [[Linguist]], [[Torch]] and [[Boulevard Bou]]. 
------
English_language/British_English|990123532
1c1
< (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!</i>)
---
> (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!<br>And links don't work inside &lt;pre&gt;...</i>)
12,13d11
< <pre>
< British			American
15,55c13,55
< aerial			[[antenna]]
< aeroplane		[[airplane]]
< bicarbonate of soda	[[baking soda]]
< biscuit			[[cracker]] [as in Saltine]
< bonnet			[[hood]] [of a car]
< boot			[[trunk]] [of a car]
< candy floss		[[cotton candy]]
< concession		[[discount]]
< crisps			[[potato chips]]
< current account		[[checking account]]
< dialling code		[[area code]]
< director		[[CEO]]
< draughts		[[checkers]]
< dummy			[[pacifier]]
< engaged tone		[[busy signal]]
< fairy cake		[[cupcake]]
< fanny			[[vagina]]
< flat			[[apartment]]
< indicator		[[turn signal]]
< lift			[[elevator]]
< limited	(Ltd)		[[incorporated]]
< lorry			[[truck]]
< mobile (phone)		[[cell phone]]
< nappy			[[diaper]]
< paraffin		[[kerosene]]
< petrol			[[gas]]
< pavement		[[sidewalk]]
< pram			[[baby carriage]]
< pudding			[[dessert]]
< randy			[[horny]]
< settee			[[couch]]
< shag			[[fuck]]
< silencer		[[muffler]]
< skip			[[dumpster]]
< solicitor		[[lawyer]]
< sticking plaster	[[Band-Aid]]
< sweets			[[candy]]
< torch			[[flashlight]]
< tube			[[subway]]
< underground		[[subway]]
< </pre>
---
> 	British			American
> 
> 	aerial			[[antenna]]
> 	aeroplane		[[airplane]]
> 	bicarbonate of soda	[[baking soda]]
> 	biscuit			[[cracker]] [as in Saltine]
> 	bonnet			[[hood]] [of a car]
> 	boot			[[trunk]] [of a car]
> 	candy floss		[[cotton candy]]
> 	concession		[[discount]]
> 	crisps			[[potato chips]]
> 	current account		[[checking account]]
> 	dialling code		[[area code]]
> 	director		[[CEO]]
> 	draughts		[[checkers]]
> 	dummy			[[pacifier]]
> 	engaged tone		[[busy signal]]
> 	fairy cake		[[cupcake]]
> 	fanny			[[vagina]]
> 	flat			[[apartment]]
> 	indicator		[[turn signal]]
> 	lift			[[elevator]]
> 	limited	(Ltd)		[[incorporated]]
> 	lorry			[[truck]]
> 	mobile (phone)		[[cell phone]]
> 	nappy			[[diaper]]
> 	paraffin		[[kerosene]]
> 	petrol			[[gas]]
> 	pavement		[[sidewalk]]
> 	pram			[[baby carriage]]
> 	pudding			[[dessert]]
> 	randy			[[horny]]
> 	settee			[[couch]]
> 	shag			[[fuck]]
> 	silencer		[[muffler]]
> 	skip			[[dumpster]]
> 	solicitor		[[lawyer]]
> 	sticking plaster	[[Band-Aid]]
> 	sweets			[[candy]]
> 	torch			[[flashlight]]
> 	tube			[[subway]]
> 	underground		[[subway]]
> 
------
Advanced_Chemistry|990123544
1c1
< German rap pioneers from Heidelberg, members: [[Toni L]], [[Linguist]], [[Torch]] and [[Boulevard Bou]]. 
---
> German rap pioneers from Heidelberg, members: [[Toni L]], [[Linguist]], [[Torch]]; affiliated: [[Boulevard Bou]]. 
------
English_language/British_English|990123558
1c1
< (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!<br>And links don't work inside &lt;pre&gt;...</i>)
---
> (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!</i>)
------
CEO|990123640
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[corporate title]], short for Chief Executive Officer.
> 
> 
------
Corporate_title|990123744
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just a brief list:
> 
>  [[CEO]]	Chief Executive Officer
>  [[CFO]]	Chief Financial Officer
>  [[CIO]]	Chief Information Officer
>  [[COO]]	Chief Operating Officer
>  [[CTO]]	Chief Technical Officer
> 
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990123818
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the ([[CSU]]) [[Edmund Stoiber|he]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[USA]].
> 
> In the Mai of 1993 the bavarian Land parliament choose him for  ministerpresident (he was the successor of [[Max Streibl]]).
------
Bundesland|990124065
19a20,22
> To find links within each, use the German Yahoo,
> http://de.dir.yahoo.com/Staedte_und_Laender/Deutsche_Bundeslaender/
> 
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990124139
1c1
< [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the ([[CSU]]) [[Edmund Stoiber|he]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[USA]].
---
> [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the ([[CSU]]) [[Edmund Stoiber|he]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
3c3
< In the Mai of 1993 the bavarian Land parliament choose him for  ministerpresident (he was the successor of [[Max Streibl]]).
---
> In the Mai of 1993 the bavarian Land parliament choose him for  ministerpresident (he was the successor of [[Max Streibl]]).
------
Bundesland|990124238
22a23
> http://www.verwaltung.uni-muenchen.de/Student_und_Arbeitsmarkt/aehnlich/karte.htm
------
Bundesland|990124271
23c23,24
< http://www.verwaltung.uni-muenchen.de/Student_und_Arbeitsmarkt/aehnlich/karte.htm
---
> 
> http://www.verwaltung.uni-muenchen.de/Student_und_Arbeitsmarkt/pics/karte.gif
------
SAMPA|990124364
1c1
< A computer-readable phonetic script. As many symbols as possible have been taken over from IPA; where this is not possible, other signs that are available are used, e.g. [&] for Schwa, [2] for the vowel sound found in French deux and [9] for the vowel sound found in French neuf. 
---
> A computer-readable phonetic script. As many symbols as possible have been taken over from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]; where this is not possible, other signs that are available are used, e.g. [&] for Schwa, [2] for the vowel sound found in French deux and [9] for the vowel sound found in French neuf. 
------
Consonant|990124468
1c1
< A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vowel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).
---
> A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vowel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).  A few sounds can function as either vowels or consonants, such as /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/ (though these are all consonants in English).
5c5
< Obviously, consonants and vowels are difficult to transcribe adequately with the alphabet we use in everday life. Therefore, linguists have devised phonetic alphabets such as the IPA alphabet or the computer readable [[SAMPA]] script. 
---
> Obviously, consonants and vowels are difficult to transcribe adequately with the alphabet we use in everday life. Therefore, linguists have devised phonetic alphabets such as the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] alphabet or the computer readable [[SAMPA]] script. 
------
English_language/British_English|990124544
27d26
< 	draughts		[[checkers]]
------
Thueringen|990124562
2a3
> The capital is [[Erfurt]].  Thüringen borders on (north and clockwise) [[Niedersachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Sachsen]], [[Bayern]], and [[Hessen]], but no foreign country.
------
Niedersachsen|990124762
3a4,5
> Important cities are [[Braunschweig]], [[Goettingen|Göttingen]], [[Hannover]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Osnabrueck|Osnabrück]].  Niedersachsen surrounds [[Bremen]], and borders on (from north and clockwise) the [[North Sea]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Hamburg]], [[Meckelnburg-Vorpommern]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Thueringen]], [[Hessen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], and the [[Netherlands]].
> 
------
Niedersachsen|990124794
4c4
< Important cities are [[Braunschweig]], [[Goettingen|Göttingen]], [[Hannover]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Osnabrueck|Osnabrück]].  Niedersachsen surrounds [[Bremen]], and borders on (from north and clockwise) the [[North Sea]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Hamburg]], [[Meckelnburg-Vorpommern]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Thueringen]], [[Hessen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], and the [[Netherlands]].
---
> Important cities are [[Braunschweig]], [[Goettingen|Göttingen]], [[Hannover]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Osnabrueck|Osnabrück]].  Niedersachsen surrounds [[Bremen]], and borders on (from north and clockwise) the [[North Sea]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Hamburg]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Thueringen]], [[Hessen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], and the [[Netherlands]].
------
Erfurt|990124981
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Erfurt is a [[city]] in [[Germany]], capital of the state of [[Thueringen]].
> 
> See the city's own website, http://www.erfurt.de/
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
Thueringen|990125037
5a6
> See Thüringen's own website, http://www.thueringen.de/
------
Niedersachsen|990125126
5a6,8
> See the state's own website, http://www.niedersachsen.de/
> 
> 
------
Goettingen|990125245
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Göttingen is a [[city]] in the state of [[Niedersachsen]] in [[Germany]].  It is famous for its old univeristy.
> 
> See the website of the University of Göttingen,
> http://www.uni-goettingen.de/
> 
> See the city's own website, http://www.goettingen.de/
------
Hannover|990125371
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hannover is a [[city]] in the state of [[Niedersachsen]]  in [[Germany]].  It is famous for its English kings and its enormous industry and commercial expos, the Deutsche Messe, where the annual [[CeBIT]] is held, the world's greatest computer expo.
> 
> Visit the city's own website,
> http://www.hannover.de/
> 
------
CeBIT|990125436
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> CeBIT is a [[computer expo]] that is held in [[Hannover]] in [[Germany]] each spring.  It is bigger than Comdex.
> 
> See the expo's own website,
> http://www.cebit.de/
> 
> 
------
City|990125981
36c36
< * [[Berlin]]
---
> * [[Aachen]], [[Augsburg]], [[Bamberg]], [[Bayreuth]], [[Berlin]], [[Bochum]], [[Bonn]], [[Braunschweig]], [[Bremen]], [[Chemnitz]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Dresden]], [[Duesseldorf]], [[Duisburg]], [[Erfurt]], [[Essen]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Frankfurt an der Oder]], [[Giessen]], [[Goettingen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hannover]], [[Heidelberg]], [[Kassel]], [[Kiel]], [[Koeln]], [[Leipzig]], [[Luebeck]], [[Mainz]], [[Mannheim]], [[Muenchen]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Osnabrueck]], [[Passau]], [[Potsdam]], [[Regensburg]], [[Saarbruecken]], [[Schwerin]], [[Siegen]], [[Stuttgart]], [[Trier]], [[Tuebingen]], [[Wiesbaden]], [[Witten]]
------
Muenchen|990126077
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> München is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Munich]].
> 
------
Munich|990126112
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Munich is the English name for the German city [[Muenchen|München]].
------
Muenchen|990126161
2a3,4
> See the city's own website, http://www.muenchen.de/
> 
------
Computer_expo|990126263
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[trade fair]] or exposition for computers and electronics.
> 
> *[[CeBIT]]
> *[[Comdex]]
> *[[Computer World Expo]]
> *[[Interop]]
------
Bayern|990126482
3a4,7
> Current minister-president of Bayern is [[Edmund Stoiber]].
> 
> See the state's own website, http://www.bayern.de/
> 
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990126506
3a4,5
> 
> http://www.bayern.de/Politik/Ministerpraesident/stoiber.gif
------
Bundestag|990126739
4a5,7
> See the parliament's own website,
> http://www.bundestag.de/
> 
------
Bundestag|990126877
12c12
<  [[SPD]]           	 40.9%	298
---
>  [[SPD]]                    40.9%	298
14,16c14,19
<  [[CDU]]/[[CSU]]   		 35.1%	245
<  [[FDP]]           	  6.2%	43
<  [[PDS]]           	  5.1%	36
---
>  [[CDU]]/[[CSU]]                35.1%	245
>  [[FDP]]           	     6.2%	43
>  [[PDS]]                     5.1%	36
> 
> Since the mid 1990s, the Bundestag meets in the old building of the Reichstag in Berlin.
> 
------
Bundestag|990126934
13c13
<  [[German Green Party|Bündnis '90/Grünen]]	6.7%	47
---
>  [[German Green Party|Bündnis '90/Grünen]]        6.7%	47
15c15
<  [[FDP]]           	     6.2%	43
---
>  [[FDP]]                     6.2%	43
------
Bundestag|990126953
13c13
<  [[German Green Party|Bündnis '90/Grünen]]        6.7%	47
---
>  [[German Green Party|Bündnis '90/Grünen]]      6.7%	47
------
Bundesrat|990127015
2a3,5
> See the Bundesrat's own website,
> http://www.bundesrat.de/
> 
------
Bundeskanzler|990127123
4a5,6
> See the German Bundeskanzler's own website,
> http://www.bundeskanzler.de/
5a8,9
> See the website of the Austrian Bundeskanzler office,
> http://www.bundeskanzler.at/
------
Schleswig-Holstein|990127392
4a5,7
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.schleswig-holstein.de/
> 
------
Lubeck|990127464
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Luebeck]]
> 
------
Luebeck|990127488
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lübeck is a [[city]] in [[Germany]].
> 
> 
------
Luebeck|990127585
1c1
< Lübeck is a [[city]] in [[Germany]].
---
> Lübeck is a [[city]] in [[Germany]].  It was a member of the [[Hansa]] and is on [[UNESCO]]'s list of world heritage sites.
2a3,5
> 
> See the city's own website,
> http://www.luebeck.de/
------
Cerebral_Spinal_Fluid|990127955
3c3
< CSF can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurologic diseases. Usually, it is obtained by a procedure called [[lumbar puncture]] in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections (especially [[meningitis]]) and [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]. Moreover, a CSF culture examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods as the detection of the [[oligoclonal bands]], an ongoing inflammatory condition (e.g.[[multiple sclerosis]]) can be recognized. Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which is increased in a condition known as [[hydrocephalus]].
---
> CSF can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of neurologic diseases. Usually, it is obtained by a procedure called [[lumbar puncture]] in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of central nervous system infections (especially [[meningitis]]) and [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]. Moreover, a CSF culture examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods as the detection of the [[oligoclonal bands]], an ongoing inflammatory condition (e.g.[[Multiple Sclerosis]]) can be recognized. Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which is increased in a condition known as [[hydrocephalus]].
------
UNESCO|990127990
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> UNESCO is the [[United Nations]] Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization.  See UNESCO's website, http://www.unesco.org/
> 
> *World Heritage
> Among other things, it maintains a list of 690 world heritage sites.  See UNESCO's website, http://www.unesco.org/whc/
> 
> World heritage sites in Germany, complete list,
> http://my.bawue.de/~wmwerner/welterbe.html
------
Multiple_Sclerosis|990128040
1c1
< A disorder of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which is charactherised by decreased nerve function due to myelin loss and secondary axonal damage. 
---
> A disorder of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), which is characterised by decreased nerve function due to myelin loss and secondary axonal damage. 
------
Sachsen-Anhalt|990128121
3c3,4
< 
---
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.sachsen-anhalt.de/
------
Sachsen|990128169
5c5,6
< 
---
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.sachsen.de/
------
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|990128271
2a3,4
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.mecklenburg-vorpommern.de/
------
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|990128389
1c1
< One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]], it borders on [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]], it borders on [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].  Its English name is Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania.  The old Pomerania proper (Pommern) is now a part of Poland.
3,4c3
< See the state's own website,
< http://www.mecklenburg-vorpommern.de/
---
> See the state's own website, http://www.mecklenburg-vorpommern.de/
------
Currency|990128509
20c20
< *[[Escudo]] - [[Cape Verde]]
---
> *[[Escudo]] - [[Cape Verde]], [[Portugal]]
24a25
> *[[Guilder]] - [[Netherlands]]
55c56
< *[[Shilling]] - [[Kenya]]
---
> *[[Shilling]] - [[Austria]], [[Kenya]]
89c90
< Wouldn't it be better if the currency codes appeared in parentheses after each country name in the first table? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> Wouldn't it be better if the currency codes appeared in parentheses after each country name in the first table? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|990128532
1c1,3
< One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]], it borders on [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].  Its English name is Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania.  The old Pomerania proper (Pommern) is now a part of Poland.
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]], it borders on [[Poland]] and the [[Baltic Sea]].  Its English name is Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania.
> 
> The old Pomerania proper (Pommern) is now a part of Poland.  Western Pomerania (Vorpommern) was under [[Sweden|Swedish]] control from the peace treaty of [[Westphalia]] in 1648.  See [[Germany/history]].
------
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern|990128585
3c3
< The old Pomerania proper (Pommern) is now a part of Poland.  Western Pomerania (Vorpommern) was under [[Sweden|Swedish]] control from the peace treaty of [[Westphalia]] in 1648.  See [[Germany/history]].
---
> The old Pomerania proper (Pommern) is now a part of Poland.  Western Pomerania (Vorpommern) was under [[Sweden|Swedish]] control from the peace treaty of [[Westphalia]] in 1648.  See [[History of Germany]].
------
Baden-Wuerttemberg|990128721
3a4,5
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/
------
Berlin|990128863
2a3,4
> <b>Newsblitz: </b> The famous [[Loveparade]] will be held this year too, but on July 21.
> 
44c46
< In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
---
> In 1968 and the following years, Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt, especially its district Kreuzberg was the center of lots of riots.
------
Loveparade|990128977
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The world's biggest rave party, the annual Loveparade Berlin is held on July 21, 2001.  See http://www.loveparade.de/
> 
> http://www.loveparade.de/portal01/img/html_logo.gif
> 
> ----
> (Note: This is not a typo.  It <i>is</i> one word.)
> 
> 
------
Cannibalism|990129017
1c1
< The act or practice of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs.
---
> The act or practice of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs. This has been practiced by various tribal groups in historic times in the [[Amazon]] basin, Africa and New Guinea in connection with ritual warfare. Individual cases in other countries has been seen with mentally unstable persons and, in unconfirmed rumors, by religious zealots. 
3c3
< For some species, cannibalism under certain well-defined circumstances, such as the female black widow spider eating the male after mating, is a normal part of the life cycle.  In vertebrates, cannibalism is not routine or normal for any given species, and rarely develops except in extremis, such as a desparate shortage of food.
---
> For some species, cannibalism under certain well-defined circumstances, such as the female black widow spider eating the male after mating, is a normal part of the life cycle.  In vertebrates, cannibalism is not routine or normal for any given species, and rarely develops except in extremis, such as a desparate shortage of food. In some species adults are known to destroy and sometimes eat young of their species to whom they are not closely related.
------
Loveparade|990129065
1c1
< The world's biggest rave party, the annual Loveparade Berlin is held on July 21, 2001.  See http://www.loveparade.de/
---
> The world's biggest [[rave party]], the annual '''Loveparade [[Berlin]]''' is held on July 21, 2001.  See http://www.loveparade.de/
------
English_language/British_English|990129143
8a9
>    colonise - [[colonize]]
------
Saarland|990129293
3c3,4
< 
---
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.saarland.de/
------
Brandenburg|990129352
3,4c3,4
< 
< 
---
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.brandenburg.de/
------
Mozart|990129436
1c1
< Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, was a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was [[Leopold Mozart]], also a composer, and some of the [[piano]] pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for him and his sister to play together. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. 
---
> Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, born January 27, 1756, in Salzburg, a child prodigy from a musical family, who began composing at the age of six. His father was [[Leopold Mozart]], also a composer, and some of the [[piano]] pieces W.A. Mozart wrote, especially the duets and pieces for two pianos, were written for him and his sister to play together. Mozart lived mouch of his life in Vienna although he traveled throughout Europe extensively. He is considered one of the greatest musical geniuses of all time, and is one of the most popular composers among modern audiences. 
------
Bremen|990129531
2a3,6
> The state of Bremen consists of two cities: Bremen is completely surrounded by [[Niedersachsen]].  [[Bremerhaven]] is further downstream, on the shore of the [[North Sea]] (the name means Bremer harbour).
> 
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.bremen.de/
------
Physician|990129546
1c1
< A [[scientist]] or [[practician]] specializing in [[medicine]] and curing [[disease]] in humans.  Related titles are [[veterinary]], curing disease in [[animal]]s, and [[biologist]] for a more general scientist of the [[life science]]s.
---
> A [[scientist]] or [[practician]] specializing in [[medicine]] and curing [[disease]] in humans.  Related titles are [[veterinarian]], curing disease in [[animal]]s, and [[biologist]] for a more general scientist of the [[life science]]s.
5a6,7
> *[[internist]]
> *[[general practictioner]] (sp?)
------
Bremen|990129554
3c3
< The state of Bremen consists of two cities: Bremen is completely surrounded by [[Niedersachsen]].  [[Bremerhaven]] is further downstream, on the shore of the [[North Sea]] (the name means Bremer harbour).
---
> The state of Bremen consists of two cities: Bremen is completely surrounded by [[Niedersachsen]].  [[Bremerhaven]] is further downstream, on the shore of the [[North Sea]] (the name means Bremen's harbour).
------
WikiPediaBugs|990129619
95c95,97
< (The above might also be discussed on Wikipedia-L.)
---
> (The above might also be discussed on Wikipedia-L.)----
> It has always been hard to get a link in one wikipedia page to another new subpage to work. As of today, after at least one hour of playing around, I see no way to get the subpages
> on [[Linear Algebra]] to show on the Linear algebra page. There are 2 new subpages, as of today.
------
Bremen|990129793
6a7,9
> 
> http://www.bremen.de/info/bremen/bilder/S1.jpg
> 
------
Hamburg|990129865
3,4c3,4
< 
< 
---
> See the state's own website,
> http://www.hamburg.de/
------
Hessen|990129906
3,4c3
< 
< 
---
> See the state's own website, http://www.hessen.de/
------
Nordrhein-Westfalen|990129986
3a4,5
> 
> See the state's own website, http://www.nrw.de/
------
English_language/British_English|990129994
1c1
< (<i>Hey, use links so we can learn what all these words mean!</i>)
---
> The there are many differences between the English language spoken and written in the [[United Kingdom]] from that of the [[United States]], in general they are not an impediment to understanding (but see the vocabulary section below).
3c3
< Some words spelled differently
---
> Note to Wikipedians: There are a vast number of resources on the net in this area, all of which are suprizingly (or is that surprisingly?) innacurate and incomplete.  I hope the process here will lead to a more useful reference.  In particular, I would appreciate it if the Brits here would fill in usage details I may not know about (for example, I think the British do use "meter" for some meanings of the word and "metre" for others--I can't find a reference).  I have laid out a structure here, but I'd like it to be fleshed out completely.
5,9c5
<     '''British - American:'''
<   aluminium - [[aluminum]]
<   neighbour - [[neighbor]]
<     sulphur - [[sulfur]]
<    colonise - [[colonize]]
---
> <h2>Spelling</h2>
11c7
< Words used in British English that are typically not used in the same sense in ([[English language/American English|American English]]):
---
> Some words shared by all English speakers are spelled differently by Americans and Britons.  many of these are American "simplification" of the original spellings.
12a9,30
> * Words ending in "our": British ''colour'', ''favour'', ''flavour'', ''honour'', ''humour'', ''labour'', ''savour'', etc.; American ''color'', ''favor'', ''flavor'', ''honor'', etc.  Also derivatives and infected forms: British ''favourite'', ''savoury''; American ''favorite'', ''savory''.
> * Words ending in "tre": British ''centre'', ''fibre'', ''metre'', ''theatre''; American ''center'', ''fiber'', ''meter'', ''theater''.  The British forms are recognizable by Americans and occasionally found in American texts, though their usage may be considered an affectation.
> * Verb past tenses with "t": British ''dreamt'', ''leapt'', ''learnt'', ''spelt''; American ''dreamed'', ''leaped'', ''learned'', ''spelled''.  As with the "tre" words, these are occasionally found in American texts.  (Question for Brits: is the two-syllable form "learned" still used to mean "educated" in BrE?)
> * Other verb past tense forms: British ''fitted'', ''forecasted'', ''knitted'', ''lighted'', ''wedded''; American ''fit'', ''forecast'', ''knit'', ''lit'', ''wed''.  Also, the American participle ''gotten'' is never used in British English, which uses ''got'' (as do some Americans).  British usage retains the ''forgotten'' form, though.
> * Greek-derived words with ae and oe: British ''aeroplane'', ''aesthetic'', ''amoeba'', ''anaesthesia'', ''archaeology'', ''diarrhoea'', ''encyclopaedia'', ''foetus'', ''gynaecology'', ''mediaeval''; American ''airplane'', ''esthetic'', ''ameba'', ''anesthesia'', ''archeology'', ''diarrhea'', ''encyclopedia'', ''fetus'', ''gynecology'', ''medieval''.  British ''manoeuver'' seems to be a special case: its "oe" was not derived from Greek, but was apparently changed to ''maneuver'' in American English on the mistaken belief that it was.  Some of the British forms are common in American usage as well, particularly ''aesthetic'' and ''amoeba''.
> * Words ending in "gue": British ''analogue'', ''catalogue'', ''dialogue''; American ''analog'', ''catalog'', ''dialog''.  The "ue" forms are still common in some American usages such as ''demagogue''.
> * Words ending in "ise": British ''colonise'', ''harmonise'', ''realise''; American ''colonize'', ''harmonize'', ''realize''.  Derivatives and inflected forms: British ''realisation''; American ''realization''.  Also: British ''analyse''; American ''analyze''.
> * Some words ending in "que": British ''banque'', ''cheque''; American ''bank'', ''check''.
> * Words ending in "xion": British ''connexion'', ''inflexion'', ''reflexion''; American ''connection'', ''inflection'', ''reflection''.
> * Nouns of direction with "wards": British ''forwards'', ''upwards'', ''afterwards'', etc.; American ''forward'', ''upward'', ''afterward'' (though the British forms are often used as well).
> * British English generally doubles final "l" when adding postfixes that begn with a vowel, where Amercian English doubles it only on stressed syllables.  British ''counsellor'', ''equalling'', ''modelling'', ''quarrelled'', ''signalling'', ''travelled''; American ''counselor'', ''equaling'', ''modeling'', ''quarreled'', ''signaling'', ''traveled''.  But ''compelled'', ''excelling'', ''propelled'', ''rebelling'' in both.  Britons sometimes use a single "l" before postfixes beginning with a consonant where Americans use a double: British ''enrolment'', ''fulfilment'', ''skilful''; American ''enrollment'', ''fulfillment'', ''skillful''.
> * British English often keeps silent "e" when adding postfixes where American English doesn't.  British ''ageing'', ''arguement'', ''judgement'', ''routeing''; American ''aging'', ''argument'', ''judgment'', ''routing''.
> * Nouns ending in "ce" with "se" verb forms: American Enlgish retains the noun/verb distinction in ''advice'' / ''advise'' (pronouncing them differently), but has lost the same distinction with ''licence'' / ''license'' and ''practice'' / ''practise'' that British English retains.  The "s" forms are used for both meanings in American English.  Also, British ''defence'', ''offence'', ''pretence''; American ''defense'', ''offense'', ''pretense''.
> * Miscellaneous: British ''aluminium'', ''draught'', ''gaol'', ''jewellery'', ''kerb'', ''mould'', ''plough'', ''pyjamas'', ''programme'', ''speciality'', ''sulphur'', ''tyre''; American ''aluminum'', ''draft'', ''jail'', ''jewelry'', ''curb'', ''mold'', ''plow'', ''pajamas'', ''program'', ''specialty'', ''sulfur'', ''tire''.  "Curb" is still used in British for the verb meaning "to lessen", but the edge of a roadway is always a "kerb".  "Program" is coming into more common British usage, especially for the "computer program" usage.  British use ''storey'' for a level of a building and ''story'' for a tale; Americans use ''story'' for both.  Americans use ''vise'' for the tool and ''vice'' for the sin, while British use ''vice'' for both.
> 
> <h2>Grammar</h2>
> 
> * Collective nouns: Nouns like "team" and "company" that describe multiple people are often used with the plural form of a verb in British English, and with the singular form in American.  British "the team are concerned"; American "the team is concerned".
> 
> <h2>Vocabulary</h2>
> 
> The differences most likely to create confusion are in the use of different words for concepts.  Most of these are for modern concepts where new words were coined independently, or else the terms are slang or vulgar.
17c35
< 	aeroplane		[[airplane]]
---
> 	barrister		[[lawyer]] (litigator)
19,21c37,39
< 	biscuit			[[cracker]] [as in Saltine]
< 	bonnet			[[hood]] [of a car]
< 	boot			[[trunk]] [of a car]
---
> 	biscuit			[[cracker]] or [[cookie]]
> 	bonnet			[[hood]] (of a car)
> 	boot			[[trunk]] (of a car)
24c42
< 	crisps			[[potato chips]]
---
> 	crisps			[[chips]] (e.g., potato or corn)
49c67
< 	solicitor		[[lawyer]]
---
> 	solicitor		[[lawyer]] (negotiator)
51d68
< 	sweets			[[candy]]
55,64c72
< 
< 
< In addition to these different words, the following letter of the alphabet is pronounced differently
< Z is pronounced
< 
< <pre>
< British			American
< 
< zed			zee
< </pre>
---
> 	zed			zee (the letter)
------
LA2|990130091
3,17c3
< Is he also a swedish engineering student at (or graduate of)
< Carnegie-Mellon University, specializing in signal processing?
< (the last one is probably to much of an stretch)
< ----
< Welcome to Wikipedia! 
< 
< About your comment in [[Making Wikipedia Profitable]], the only
< one here paid is [[Larry Sanger]] (and I don't think he gets paid
< more for Wikipedia and Nupedia than for Nupedia alone). The
< other person with an economic relationship with wikipedia is
< [[Jimbo Wales]], who pays for writing here :).
< I don't know if someone is paid to keep the technical part of
< Wikipedia.
< ----
< Hi, LA2!  You wrote: "a lasting and useful encyclopedia, because I think that requires a whole lot more organization than this."  As an encyclopedia editor, I am now of the opinion that a lasting and useful encyclopedia must first ''exist''--and the best way to put it into existence if it's a wholly volunteer project is to get rid of the official organization wherever self-organization can do.  Please see http://www.nupedia.com.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> Hi, LA2!  You wrote: "a lasting and useful encyclopedia, because I think that requires a whole lot more organization than this."  As an encyclopedia editor, I am now of the opinion that a lasting and useful encyclopedia must first ''exist''--and the best way to put it into existence if it's a wholly volunteer project is to get rid of the official organization wherever self-organization can do.  Please see http://www.nupedia.com.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Rheinland-Pfalz|990130139
1c1
< One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].
---
> One of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  Its English name is Rhineland-Palatia.
2a3
> See the state's own website, http://www.rlp.de/
------
LA2|990130539
3a4
> <br><b>I would say</b> existence is a necessary but perhaps not sufficient requirement.  But the only way we can find out is to create it.  I agree on nupedia.  --[[LA2]]
------
Linear_Algebra|990130640
9c9
< Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[ GrouP]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>
---
> Finally, Linear Algebra has its own place in Mathematics. A Vector Space, as a purely abstract concept, about which we prove properties and theorems, is part of Abstract Algebra, and well integrated into this field. Some striking examples of this are the [[GrouP|group]] of invertible linear maps or Matrices, and the [[ring]] of linear maps of a vector space. On the other side of Mathematics, Linear Algebra plays an important part in Analysis, notably, in the study of Tensor Products and Alternative Maps.<br>
------
Cannibalism|990130856
5c5
< 
---
> ''Many fish have absolutely no problem with cannibalising their young simply because they don't distinguish between them and other smaller fish.  That hardly counts as an extreme case.  If I recall correctly certain higher fossil vertebrates are also cannibalistic (''Coelophysis'' comes to mind) but I can't remember under what cases, so can't update the above.  Anyone know?''
------
The_Americans_with_Disabilites_Act_of_1990/Definitions|990130858
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Perhaps the most important definition in this act is the definition of "Disability." 
> 
> <b>Definition:</b>
> Disability.--The term "disability" means, with respect to an individual--
> *a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual;
> *a record of such an impairment; or
> *being regarded as having such an impairment.<br>
> 
> This definition of disability left a great deal open to interpretation.<br>
> 
> Two other definitions cover the entire act:<br>
> 
> 
> <b>Definition:</b>
> Auxiliary aids and services.--The term "auxiliary aids and services" includes--
> *qualified interpreters or other effective methods of making aurally delivered materials available to individuals with hearing impairments;
> *qualified readers, taped texts, or other effective methods of making visually delivered materials available to individuals with visual impairments;
> *acquisition or modification of equipment or devices; and
> *other similar services and actions.<br>
> 
> <b>Definition:</b> 
> State.--The term "State" means each of the several States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Virgin Islands, the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.<br>
> 
>         
>         
------
WikiPediaBugs|990130863
95c95,96
< (The above might also be discussed on Wikipedia-L.)----
---
> (The above might also be discussed on Wikipedia-L.)
> ----
97a99,102
> 
> ----
> What seemed to work for me was forcing an update of the main page by making a substantive change.  Just fooling with whitespace didn't work, but changing one of the links from <code>[[GrouP]]</code> to <code>[[GrouP|group]]</code> worked, and it now has the subpage links.  If there wasn't any substantive change like that to make, you might try changing something, updating, then changing it back.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Bayern|990130954
7a8
> The motorcycle and automobile maker [[BMW]] is a Bavarian industry.
------
Cerebral_Spinal_Fluid|990131204
1c1
< The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery fluid found in the spaces inside the brain called ventricles and subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord and brain. The CSF is formed by the [[choroid plexus]] of the ventricles, circulates through the interventricular foramens into the third ventricle and then via the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle. From here the fluid passes to the subarachnoid space through some additional foramens and then absorbed by the venous system to the blood circulation. The total amount of CSF is about 150 ml and about 500 ml is produced everyday, which indicates its very active circulation. 
---
> The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery fluid found in the spaces inside the brain called ventricles and subarachnoid space surrounding the spinal cord and brain. The CSF is formed by the [[choroid plexus]] of the ventricles, circulates through the interventricular foramens into the third ventricle and then via the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth ventricle. From here the fluid passes to the subarachnoid space through some additional foramens and is then absorbed by the venous system to the blood circulation. The total amount of CSF is about 150 ml and about 500 ml is produced everyday, which indicates its very active circulation. 
------
Cannibalism|990131216
1c1
< The act or practice of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs. This has been practiced by various tribal groups in historic times in the [[Amazon]] basin, Africa and New Guinea in connection with ritual warfare. Individual cases in other countries has been seen with mentally unstable persons and, in unconfirmed rumors, by religious zealots. 
---
> The act or practice of eating members of the same [[species]], e.g. humans eating humans, or dogs eating dogs. This has been practiced by various tribal groups in historic times in the [[Amazon]] basin, Africa, Fiji, and New Guinea in connection with ritual warfare.  Individual cases in other countries have been seen with mentally unstable persons and, in unconfirmed rumors, by religious zealots.
3c3
< For some species, cannibalism under certain well-defined circumstances, such as the female black widow spider eating the male after mating, is a normal part of the life cycle.  In vertebrates, cannibalism is not routine or normal for any given species, and rarely develops except in extremis, such as a desparate shortage of food. In some species adults are known to destroy and sometimes eat young of their species to whom they are not closely related.
---
> For some species, cannibalism under certain well-defined circumstances, such as the female black widow spider eating the male after mating, is a normal part of the life cycle.  In vertebrates, cannibalism is not routine or normal for any given species, and rarely develops except in extremis, such as a desparate shortage of food.  In some species adults are known to destroy and sometimes eat young of their species to whom they are not closely related.
5c5,7
< ''Many fish have absolutely no problem with cannibalising their young simply because they don't distinguish between them and other smaller fish.  That hardly counts as an extreme case.  If I recall correctly certain higher fossil vertebrates are also cannibalistic (''Coelophysis'' comes to mind) but I can't remember under what cases, so can't update the above.  Anyone know?''
---
> ''Many fish have absolutely no problem with cannibalising their young simply because they don't distinguish between them and other smaller fish.  That hardly counts as an extreme case.  If I recall correctly certain higher fossil vertebrates are also cannibalistic (''Coelophysis'' comes to mind) but I can't remember under what cases, so can't update the above.  Anyone know?''
> 
> ''I also seriously doubt the claim that cannibalism isn't "normal" in any vertebrate species; I'm not even sure that can be determined in any meaningful way.  It clearly '''can''' be shown that it '''exists''' in many species, even higher mammals.  Whether or not it should be considered "normal" is a matter of judgment.''
------
AbdicatioN|990131363
5c5
< for which it is held.  In Roman law, the term is especially 
---
> for which it is held.  In [[Roman law]], the term is especially 
11c11
< monarchy.  The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
---
> [[monarchy]].  The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
13,14c13,14
< Parliament.  When James II., after throwing the great 
< seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not 
---
> Parliament.  When [[James II]]., after throwing the great 
> seal into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in 1688, he did not 
29c29
< B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The 
---
> B.C., and that of the Emperor [[Diocletian]], A.D. 305. The 
34,48c34,48
<  Benedict IX., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
<  Stephen II. of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
<  Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . 1169
<  Ladislaus III. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
<  Celestine V., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294
<  John Baliol of Scotland  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
<  John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East  . . . . . . . 1355
<  Richard II. of England . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399
<  John XXIII., pope  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
<  Eric VII; of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . . . . 1439
<  Murad II., Ottoman Sultan  . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445
<  Charles V., emperor  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
<  Christina of Sweden  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
<  John Casimir of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
<  James II. of England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
---
>  [[Benedict IX]]., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
>  [[Stephen II]]. of [[Hungary]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
>  Albert (the Bear) of [[Brandenburg]] . . . . . . . . . . 1169
>  [[Ladislaus III]]. of [[Poland]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
>  [[Celestine V]]., [[pope]] . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294
>  [[John Baliol]] of [[Scotland]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
>  [[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East  . . . . . . . 1355
>  [[Richard II]]. of [[England]] . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399
>  [[John XXIII]]., [[pope]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
>  [[Eric VII]]; of [[Denmark]] and [[Erik XIII|XIII]]. of [[Sweden]] . . . . . . 1439
>  [[Murad II]]., Ottoman Sultan  . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445
>  [[Charles V]]., emperor  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
>  [[Queen Kristina|Christina]] of [[Sweden]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
>  [[John Casimir]] of [[Poland]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
>  [[James II]]. of [[England]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
------
Physician|990131680
7c7
< *[[general practictioner]] (sp?)
---
> *[[general practictioner]] 
11c11,12
< Question: Is a [[dentist]] a specialization of physician?
---
> Question: Is a [[dentist]] a specialization of physician?----
> Other than the fact that we are naming types of doctors rather than medical specialties, this page duplicates [[medicine]].
------
Germany/Transportation|990131739
1c1
< Railways:
---
> <b>[[Rail Transport|Railways]]:</b>
3c3
< note: since privatization in 1994, Deutsche Bahn AG (DBAG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DBAG system there are 102 privately owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks
---
> <br><b>note:</b> since privatization in 1994, [[Deutsche Bahn]] AG (DBAG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DBAG system there are 102 privately owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks
5,36c5,36
< Highways:
< total: 656,140 km
< paved: 650,891 km (including 11,400 km of expressways)
< unpaved: 5,249 km (all-weather) (1998 est.)
< 
< Waterways: 7,500 km (1999); major rivers include the Rhine and Elbe; Kiel Canal is an important connection between the Baltic Sea and North Sea
< 
< Pipelines: crude oil 2,500 km (1998)
< 
< Ports and harbors: Berlin, Bonn, Brake, Bremen, Bremerhaven, Cologne, Dresden, Duisburg, Emden, Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Lubeck, Magdeburg, Mannheim, Rostock, Stuttgart
< 
< Merchant marine:
< total: 475 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,395,990 GRT/8,014,132 DWT
< ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports: 615 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with paved runways:
< total: 320
< over 3,047 m: 14
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 61
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
< 914 to 1,523 m: 56
< under 914 m: 122 (1999 est.)
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways:
< total: 295
< over 3,047 m: 2
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
< 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6
< 914 to 1,523 m: 55
< under 914 m: 226 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>[[Road Transport|Highways]]:</b>
>  total: 656,140 km
>  paved: 650,891 km (including 11,400 km of expressways)
>  unpaved: 5,249 km (all-weather) (1998 est.)
> 
> <b>Waterways:</b> 7,500 km (1999); major rivers include the [[Rhine]] and [[Elbe]]; [[Kiel Canal]] is an important connection between the [[Baltic Sea]] and [[North Sea]]
> 
> <b>Pipelines:</b> crude oil 2,500 km (1998)
> 
> <b>Ports and harbors:</b> [[Berlin]], [[Bonn]], [[Brake]], [[Bremen]], [[Bremerhaven]], [[Koeln|Cologne]], [[Dresden]], [[Duisburg]], [[Emden]], [[Hamburg]], [[Karlsruhe]], [[Kiel]], [[Luebeck|Lubeck]], [[Magdeburg]], [[Mannheim]], [[Rostock]], [[Stuttgart]]
> 
> <b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br>total: 475 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,395,990 GRT/8,014,132 DWT
> <b>ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports:</b> 615 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
>  total: 320
>  over 3,047 m: 14
>  2,438 to 3,047 m: 61
>  1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
>  914 to 1,523 m: 56
>  under 914 m: 122 (1999 est.)
> 
> <b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
>  total: 295
>  over 3,047 m: 2
>  2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
>  1,524 to 2,437 m: 6
>  914 to 1,523 m: 55
>  under 914 m: 226 (1999 est.)
38c38
< Heliports: 59 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>Heliports:</b> 59 (1999 est.)
------
Germany/Transportation|990131768
18c18
< <b>ships by type: bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
---
> <b>ships by type:</b> bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
------
Germany/Transportation|990131785
18c18
< <b>ships by type:</b> bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
---
> <br><b>ships by type:</b> bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)
------
Bremerhaven|990131836
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Harbor [[city]] to [[Bremen]].
> 
> 
------
Norwegian_Sea|990132027
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Part of the [[Atlantic]] west of [[Norway]], north of the [[North Sea]] (i.e. north of the [[British Isles]]).
> 
> 
------
Norwegian_Sea|990132048
1c1
< Part of the [[Atlantic]] west of [[Norway]], north of the [[North Sea]] (i.e. north of the [[British Isles]]).
---
> Part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] west of [[Norway]], north of the [[North Sea]] (i.e. north of the [[British Isles]]).
------
Physician|990132193
1c1
< A [[scientist]] or [[practician]] specializing in [[medicine]] and curing [[disease]] in humans.  Related titles are [[veterinarian]], curing disease in [[animal]]s, and [[biologist]] for a more general scientist of the [[life science]]s.
---
> A person licensed to practice [[medicine]]. Related titles are [[veterinarian]], one who cures diseases in [[animal]]s, and [[biologist]], one who studies the [[life science]]s, in general.
------
Physician|990132736
10,11c10,11
< 
< Question: Is a [[dentist]] a specialization of physician?----
---
> Question: Is a [[dentist]] a specialization of physician?--[[LA2]]
> ----
13a14
> [[LA2]]: Yes, but we need a page that's titled "surgeon" because we want to document that a person was surgeon and the surgeon page could point to famous surgeons.  So that page is part of a structure of physicians (this page), at the same time as it points to the art of surgery, which is part of the medicine structure.  Which other way could we accomplish this?  The words exist in our language (surgery and surgeon), so people will find need to link to them.  We already have the same parallel structure with [[scientist]] and [[science]] and their subcategories.
------
English_language/British_English|990132791
37a38
>         bloody                  f**king
------
Ytterby|990132856
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A physics laboratory (?) in Sweden after which the following [[chemical element]]s have been named:
> *[[Ytterbium]]
> *[[Terbium]]
> *[[Erbium]]
> *[[Yttrium]]
> 
> 
------
Yttrium|990132892
1a2,3
> 
> See also [[Ytterby]].
------
English_language/British_English|990132943
74a75,77
> *'meter' is a measuring device, while 'metre' is the metric unit of measurement.  In American English, 'meter' is used for both.
> 
> 
------
WikiPediaBugs|990132972
101a102
> ----The links started working by <i>magic.</i> I expect them to stop working the same way... Thanks anyway.
------
Ytterby|990133363
1c1,2
< A physics laboratory (?) in Sweden after which the following [[chemical element]]s have been named:
---
> A village near [[Vaxholm]] in [[Sweden]], after which the following [[chemical element]]s have been named:
> 
6a8
> [[Sweden]], and more specifically the village of Ytterby (near [[Vaxholm]]) in [[Stockholm archipelago|Stockholm's archipelago]], has played an important role in the history of [[rare-earth]]s since many of them were first discovered there, e.g. [[gadolinium]] (named after Professor [[Johan Gadolin]]), [[holmium]] (latin for [[Stockholm]]), [[thulium]] ([[Thule]] is an old word for the [[Nordic countries]]) and, of course, [[ytterbium]], [[erbium]], [[terbium]] and [[yttrium]]; all were named after Ytterby itself. 
------
Gadolinium|990133406
1a2,3
> 
> Named after [[Johan Gadolin]], [[Sweden]].  See also [[Ytterby]].
------
Holmium|990133451
1a2,3
> 
> Named after Holmia, the Latin name for [[Stockholm]].  See also [[Ytterby]].
------
English_language/British_English|990133457
1c1
< The there are many differences between the English language spoken and written in the [[United Kingdom]] from that of the [[United States]], in general they are not an impediment to understanding (but see the vocabulary section below).
---
> There are many differences between the English language spoken and written in the [[United Kingdom]] from that of the [[United States]], in general they are not an impediment to understanding (but see the vocabulary section below).
------
Thulium|990133512
1a2,4
> 
> Named after [[Thule]], an ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]].  See also [[Ytterby]].
> 
------
Thule|990133580
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. An ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]].
> 
> 2. A town on [[Greenland]], so named because of (1).
> 
------
English_language/British_English|990133972
3c3
< Note to Wikipedians: There are a vast number of resources on the net in this area, all of which are suprizingly (or is that surprisingly?) innacurate and incomplete.  I hope the process here will lead to a more useful reference.  In particular, I would appreciate it if the Brits here would fill in usage details I may not know about (for example, I think the British do use "meter" for some meanings of the word and "metre" for others--I can't find a reference).  I have laid out a structure here, but I'd like it to be fleshed out completely.
---
> Note to Wikipedians: There are a vast number of resources on the net in this area, all of which are suprizingly (or is that surprisingly?) innacurate and incomplete.  I hope the process here will lead to a more useful reference.  In particular, I would appreciate it if the Brits here would fill in usage details I may not know about.
10c10
< * Words ending in "tre": British ''centre'', ''fibre'', ''metre'', ''theatre''; American ''center'', ''fiber'', ''meter'', ''theater''.  The British forms are recognizable by Americans and occasionally found in American texts, though their usage may be considered an affectation.
---
> * Words ending in "tre": British ''centre'', ''fibre'', ''metre'', ''theatre''; American ''center'', ''fiber'', ''meter'', ''theater''.  Britons use "meter" for a measuring device and "metre" for the unit of measure.  The British forms are recognizable by Americans and occasionally found in American texts, though their usage may be considered an affectation.
74,76d73
< 
< *'meter' is a measuring device, while 'metre' is the metric unit of measurement.  In American English, 'meter' is used for both.
< 
------
Electronic_Music|990136318
22c22
< 
---
> :[[<a href="http://www.jocamusic.com">JoCa</a>]]
------
Electronic_Music|990136379
22c22
< :[[<a href="http://www.jocamusic.com">JoCa</a>]]
---
> :[[JoCa - http://www.jocamusic.com]]
------
English_language/British_English|990136700
38c38
<         bloody                  f**king
---
>         bloody                  fucking
39a40
> 	bottom			butt
40a42,43
> 	cafe			[[diner]]
> 	car			automobile
54c57
< 	limited	(Ltd)		[[incorporated]]
---
> 	limited (Ltd)		[[incorporated]]
60a64
> 	pharmacy		drugstore
75c79
< [[/British English Talk]]
---
> [[/British English Talk]]
------
AbdicatioN|990136911
1,30c1
< ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, 
< from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as 
< not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office 
< renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time 
< for which it is held.  In [[Roman law]], the term is especially 
< applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the 
< disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except 
< in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.  
< Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of 
< their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited 
< [[monarchy]].  The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully 
< abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of 
< Parliament.  When [[James II]]., after throwing the great 
< seal into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in 1688, he did not 
< formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed 
< in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had 
< abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed on, for in a 
< full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, 
< it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, ``that King 
< James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of 
< the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king 
< and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked 
< persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having 
< withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the 
< government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.'' The 
< Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and 
< deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of 
< antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 
< B.C., and that of the Emperor [[Diocletian]], A.D. 305. The 
< following is a list of the more important abdications of later 
---
> '''Abdication''' (from the Latin ''abdicatio'' disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held.  In [[Roman law]], the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.
32,75c3
<  
<                                                       A.D.
<  [[Benedict IX]]., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048
<  [[Stephen II]]. of [[Hungary]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
<  Albert (the Bear) of [[Brandenburg]] . . . . . . . . . . 1169
<  [[Ladislaus III]]. of [[Poland]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
<  [[Celestine V]]., [[pope]] . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294
<  [[John Baliol]] of [[Scotland]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
<  [[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East  . . . . . . . 1355
<  [[Richard II]]. of [[England]] . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399
<  [[John XXIII]]., [[pope]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
<  [[Eric VII]]; of [[Denmark]] and [[Erik XIII|XIII]]. of [[Sweden]] . . . . . . 1439
<  [[Murad II]]., Ottoman Sultan  . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445
<  [[Charles V]]., emperor  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556
<  [[Queen Kristina|Christina]] of [[Sweden]]  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654
<  [[John Casimir]] of [[Poland]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
<  [[James II]]. of [[England]] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
<  Frederick Augustus of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704
<  Philip V. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724
<  Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
<  Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
<  Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain). 1759
<  Stanislaus II. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
<  Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia  . . . . . . June 4, 1802
<  Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 19, 1808
<  Joseph Bonaparte of Naples . . . . . . . . . June 6, 1808
<  Gustavus IV. of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 29, 1809
<  Louis Bonaparte of Holland . . . . . . . . . July 2, 1810
<  Napoleon I., French Emperor. . . . . . . . .April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815
<  Victor Emanuel of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 13, 1821
<  Charles X. of France . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 2, 1830
<  Pedro of Brazil 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .April 7, 1831
<  Miguel of Portgual . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1834
<  William I. of Holland  . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1840
<  Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . . .Feb. 24, 1848
<  Louis Charles of Bavaria . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 21, 1848
<  Ferdinand of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 2, 1848
<  Charles Albert of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 23, 1849
<  Leopold II. of Tuscany . . . . . . . . . . .July 21, 1859
<  Isabella II. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . June 25, 1870
<  Amadeus I. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 11, 1873
<  Alexander of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 7, 1886
<  Milan of Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 6, 1889
<  
---
> Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII]] in 1936, who abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcee [[Wallis Warfield Simpson]], over the objections of the [[Church of England]] and the royal family.  This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily.  [[Richard II]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country.
77,78c5,52
< 1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 
< 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. 
---
> When [[James II]], after throwing the great seal into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest "''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''"  The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor [[Diocletian]], A.D. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications:
> 
> <table border="0" cellpadding="0">
> <tr><td align="left">[[Benedict IX]], pope</td>                <td align="right">1048</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Stephen II]] of [[Hungary]]</td>        <td align="right">1131</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Albert (the Bear) of [[Brandenburg]]</td> <td align="right">1169</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]]</td>      <td align="right">1206</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Celestine V]], [[pope]]</td>            <td align="right">Dec. 13, 1294</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Baliol]] of [[Scotland]]</td>      <td align="right">1296</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East</td> <td align="right">1355</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Richard II]] of [[England]]</td>        <td align="right">Sept. 29, 1399</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John XXIII]], [[pope]]</td>             <td align="right">1415</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Eric VII]] of [[Denmark]] and [[Erik XIII|XIII]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1439</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Murad II]], Ottoman Sultan</td>         <td align="right">1444 and 1445</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Charles V]], emperor</td>               <td align="right">1556</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Queen Kristina|Christina]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1654</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Casimir]] of [[Poland]]</td>       <td align="right">1618</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[James II]] of [[England]]</td>          <td align="right">1688</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Frederick Augustus of Poland</td>         <td align="right">1704</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Philip V of Spain</td>                    <td align="right">1724</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia</td>        <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Ahmed III, Sultan of Turkey</td>          <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)</td> <td align="right">1759</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Stanislaus II of Poland</td>              <td align="right">1795</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia</td>       <td align="right">June 4, 1802</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles IV of Spain</td>                  <td align="right">Mar. 19, 1808</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Joseph Bonaparte of Naples</td>           <td align="right">June 6, 1808</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Gustavus IV of Sweden</td>                <td align="right">Mar. 29, 1809</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Bonaparte of Holland</td>           <td align="right">July 2, 1810</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Napoleon I, French Emperor</td>           <td align="right">April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Victor Emanuel of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 13, 1821</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles X of France</td>                  <td align="right">Aug. 2, 1830</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Pedro of Brazil <sup>1</sup></td>         <td align="right">April 7, 1831</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Miguel of Portgual</td>                   <td align="right">May 26, 1834</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">William I of Holland</td>                 <td align="right">Oct. 7, 1840</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Philippe, king of the French</td>   <td align="right">Feb. 24, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Charles of Bavaria</td>             <td align="right">Mar. 21, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Ferdinand of Austria</td>                 <td align="right">Dec. 2, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles Albert of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 23, 1849</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Leopold II of Tuscany</td>                <td align="right">July 21, 1859</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Isabella II of Spain</td>                 <td align="right">June 25, 1870</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Amadeus I of Spain</td>                   <td align="right">Feb. 11, 1873</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Alexander of Bulgaria</td>                <td align="right">Sept. 7, 1886</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Milan of Servia</td>                      <td align="right">Mar. 6, 1889</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Edward VIII]] of England</td>           <td align="right">Dec. 11, 1936</td></tr>
> </table>
>  
> <sup>1</sup> Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favor of his daughter. 
80,81d53
< ----
< Source:  An unnamed encyclopedia from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain.  This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the thinking of the turn of the last century.  -- BryceHarrington
------
AbdicatioN|990136935
1,53c1
< '''Abdication''' (from the Latin ''abdicatio'' disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held.  In [[Roman law]], the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.
< 
< Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII]] in 1936, who abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcee [[Wallis Warfield Simpson]], over the objections of the [[Church of England]] and the royal family.  This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily.  [[Richard II]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country.
< 
< When [[James II]], after throwing the great seal into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest "''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''"  The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor [[Diocletian]], A.D. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications:
< 
< <table border="0" cellpadding="0">
< <tr><td align="left">[[Benedict IX]], pope</td>                <td align="right">1048</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Stephen II]] of [[Hungary]]</td>        <td align="right">1131</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Albert (the Bear) of [[Brandenburg]]</td> <td align="right">1169</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]]</td>      <td align="right">1206</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Celestine V]], [[pope]]</td>            <td align="right">Dec. 13, 1294</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[John Baliol]] of [[Scotland]]</td>      <td align="right">1296</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East</td> <td align="right">1355</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Richard II]] of [[England]]</td>        <td align="right">Sept. 29, 1399</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[John XXIII]], [[pope]]</td>             <td align="right">1415</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Eric VII]] of [[Denmark]] and [[Erik XIII|XIII]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1439</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Murad II]], Ottoman Sultan</td>         <td align="right">1444 and 1445</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Charles V]], emperor</td>               <td align="right">1556</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Queen Kristina|Christina]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1654</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[John Casimir]] of [[Poland]]</td>       <td align="right">1618</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[James II]] of [[England]]</td>          <td align="right">1688</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Frederick Augustus of Poland</td>         <td align="right">1704</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Philip V of Spain</td>                    <td align="right">1724</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia</td>        <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Ahmed III, Sultan of Turkey</td>          <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)</td> <td align="right">1759</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Stanislaus II of Poland</td>              <td align="right">1795</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia</td>       <td align="right">June 4, 1802</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Charles IV of Spain</td>                  <td align="right">Mar. 19, 1808</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Joseph Bonaparte of Naples</td>           <td align="right">June 6, 1808</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Gustavus IV of Sweden</td>                <td align="right">Mar. 29, 1809</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Louis Bonaparte of Holland</td>           <td align="right">July 2, 1810</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Napoleon I, French Emperor</td>           <td align="right">April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Victor Emanuel of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 13, 1821</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Charles X of France</td>                  <td align="right">Aug. 2, 1830</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Pedro of Brazil <sup>1</sup></td>         <td align="right">April 7, 1831</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Miguel of Portgual</td>                   <td align="right">May 26, 1834</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">William I of Holland</td>                 <td align="right">Oct. 7, 1840</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Louis Philippe, king of the French</td>   <td align="right">Feb. 24, 1848</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Louis Charles of Bavaria</td>             <td align="right">Mar. 21, 1848</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Ferdinand of Austria</td>                 <td align="right">Dec. 2, 1848</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Charles Albert of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 23, 1849</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Leopold II of Tuscany</td>                <td align="right">July 21, 1859</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Isabella II of Spain</td>                 <td align="right">June 25, 1870</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Amadeus I of Spain</td>                   <td align="right">Feb. 11, 1873</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Alexander of Bulgaria</td>                <td align="right">Sept. 7, 1886</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">Milan of Servia</td>                      <td align="right">Mar. 6, 1889</td></tr>
< <tr><td aling="left">[[Edward VIII]] of England</td>           <td align="right">Dec. 11, 1936</td></tr>
< </table>
<  
< <sup>1</sup> Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favor of his daughter. 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Abdication]]
------
Abdication|990136946
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Abdication''' (from the Latin ''abdicatio'' disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held.  In [[Roman law]], the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state.
> 
> Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII]] in 1936, who abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcee [[Wallis Warfield Simpson]], over the objections of the [[Church of England]] and the royal family.  This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily.  [[Richard II]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country.
> 
> When [[James II]], after throwing the great seal into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest "''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''"  The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition.  Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor [[Diocletian]], A.D. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications:
> 
> <table border="0" cellpadding="0">
> <tr><td align="left">[[Benedict IX]], pope</td>                <td align="right">1048</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Stephen II]] of [[Hungary]]</td>        <td align="right">1131</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Albert (the Bear) of [[Brandenburg]]</td> <td align="right">1169</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]]</td>      <td align="right">1206</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Celestine V]], [[pope]]</td>            <td align="right">Dec. 13, 1294</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Baliol]] of [[Scotland]]</td>      <td align="right">1296</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East</td> <td align="right">1355</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Richard II]] of [[England]]</td>        <td align="right">Sept. 29, 1399</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John XXIII]], [[pope]]</td>             <td align="right">1415</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Eric VII]] of [[Denmark]] and [[Erik XIII|XIII]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1439</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Murad II]], Ottoman Sultan</td>         <td align="right">1444 and 1445</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Charles V]], emperor</td>               <td align="right">1556</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Queen Kristina|Christina]] of [[Sweden]]</td> <td align="right">1654</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[John Casimir]] of [[Poland]]</td>       <td align="right">1618</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[James II]] of [[England]]</td>          <td align="right">1688</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Frederick Augustus of Poland</td>         <td align="right">1704</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Philip V of Spain</td>                    <td align="right">1724</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia</td>        <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Ahmed III, Sultan of Turkey</td>          <td align="right">1730</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)</td> <td align="right">1759</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Stanislaus II of Poland</td>              <td align="right">1795</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia</td>       <td align="right">June 4, 1802</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles IV of Spain</td>                  <td align="right">Mar. 19, 1808</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Joseph Bonaparte of Naples</td>           <td align="right">June 6, 1808</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Gustavus IV of Sweden</td>                <td align="right">Mar. 29, 1809</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Bonaparte of Holland</td>           <td align="right">July 2, 1810</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Napoleon I, French Emperor</td>           <td align="right">April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Victor Emanuel of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 13, 1821</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles X of France</td>                  <td align="right">Aug. 2, 1830</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Pedro of Brazil <sup>1</sup></td>         <td align="right">April 7, 1831</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Miguel of Portgual</td>                   <td align="right">May 26, 1834</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">William I of Holland</td>                 <td align="right">Oct. 7, 1840</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Philippe, king of the French</td>   <td align="right">Feb. 24, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Louis Charles of Bavaria</td>             <td align="right">Mar. 21, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Ferdinand of Austria</td>                 <td align="right">Dec. 2, 1848</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Charles Albert of Sardinia</td>           <td align="right">Mar. 23, 1849</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Leopold II of Tuscany</td>                <td align="right">July 21, 1859</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Isabella II of Spain</td>                 <td align="right">June 25, 1870</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Amadeus I of Spain</td>                   <td align="right">Feb. 11, 1873</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Alexander of Bulgaria</td>                <td align="right">Sept. 7, 1886</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">Milan of Servia</td>                      <td align="right">Mar. 6, 1889</td></tr>
> <tr><td aling="left">[[Edward VIII]] of England</td>           <td align="right">Dec. 11, 1936</td></tr>
> </table>
>  
> <sup>1</sup> Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favor of his daughter. 
> 
> 
------
Abdication|990137012
53,54d52
< 
< 
------
English_language/British_English|990137267
44a45
> 	chemist                 pharmacist, pharmacy
64d64
< 	pharmacy		drugstore
79c79
< [[/British English Talk]]
---
> [[/British English Talk]]
------
Electronic_Music|990138608
22c22
< :[[JoCa - http://www.jocamusic.com]]
---
> :[[JoCa]] - http://www.jocamusic.com
------
Propaganda_film|990139152
13c13
< See also the 8-volume [[CD-ROM]] collection [[Our Secret Century]] for its discussion of propaganda and the examples it includes from the [[United States]].
---
> See also the 10-volume [[CD-ROM]] collection [[Our Secret Century]] for its discussion of propaganda and the examples it includes from the [[United States]].
------
Thule|990147795
4a5,6
> 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base. The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]). The proposed update of the facility to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).
> 
------
Mineral|990148521
1,5c1
< [[Stone]]s and [[salt]]s.  See [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[chemistry]].
< 
< Do [[metal]]s count as minerals?  Metal [[ore]]s sure do, e.g. [[iron ore]].
< 
< ''Metals count as minerals if they occur naturally in the raw state, like [[copper]], [[silver]], [[gold]], [[iron]], and [[mercury]].  I have a full list somewhere, I'll get it this afternoon.''
---
> Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes.  They can be compared to rocks, which are usually mixtures of several different minerals.  These range in composition from elements and simple salts to very complex silicates (with most organic compounds usually excluded), with thousands of known forms.  The study of minerals is called, of course, [[Mineralogy]].
6a3
> Some important rock-forming minerals include the [[Feldspar]]s, [[Quartz]], [[Olivine]]s, [[Pyroxene]]s, [[Garnet]]s, [[Mica]]s, and [[Calcite]].  Other well-known minerals include the wide variety of [[gemstone]]s.  Trying to list all the minerals here would probably be counter-productive; maybe they can be linked from their chemical compositions (eg ''Silicon dioxide''->Quartz, Chalcedony, Opal)? 
------
Thule|990148773
5a6
> * On the 22 of january 1968 a B-52 crashed 7 miles south of the Air Force Bace. Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
------
Laos|990148776
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Laos/History|990148918
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1975 the communist Pathet Lao took control of the government, ending a six-century-old monarchy. Initial closer ties to Vietnam and socialization were replaced with a gradual return to private enterprise, an easing of foreign investment laws, and the admission into ASEAN in 1997.
------
Laos/Geography|990148934
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, northeast of Thailand, west of Vietnam
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 00 N, 105 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 236,800 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 230,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 6,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Utah
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,083 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Burma 235 km, Cambodia 541 km, China 423 km, Thailand 1,754 km, Vietnam 2,130 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical monsoon; rainy season (May to November); dry season (December to April)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly rugged mountains; some plains and plateaus
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mekong River 70 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Phou Bia 2,817 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, gemstones
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 54%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 40% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,250 sq km (1993 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> rainy season irrigation - 2,169 sq km; dry season irrigation - 750 sq km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> floods, droughts, and blight
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> unexploded ordnance; deforestation; soil erosion; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Laos/People|990148951
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,497,459 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 1,191,608; female 1,173,144)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 1,447,788; female 1,500,016)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 85,028; female 99,875) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.35 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.85 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 94.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 53.09 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 51.22 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 55.02 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.21 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Lao(s) or Laotian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Lao or Laotian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Lao Loum (lowland) 68%, Lao Theung (upland) 22%, Lao Soung (highland) including the Hmong ("Meo") and the Yao (Mien) 9%, ethnic Vietnamese/Chinese 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Buddhist 60% (in October 1999, the regime proposed a constitutional amendment making Buddhism the state religion; the National Assembly is expected to vote on the amendment sometime in 2000), animist and other 40%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Lao (official), French, English, and various ethnic languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 57%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 70%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 44% (1999 est.)
------
Laos/Government|990148984
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Lao People's Democratic Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Laos
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> Communist state
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Vientiane
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 16 provinces (khoueng, singular and plural), 1 municipality* (kampheng nakhon, singular and plural), and 1 special zone** (khetphiset, singular and plural); Attapu, Bokeo, Bolikhamxai, Champasak, Houaphan, Khammouan, Louangnamtha, Louangphabang, Oudomxai, Phongsali, Salavan, Savannakhet, Viangchan*, Viangchan, Xaignabouli, Xaisomboun**, Xekong, Xiangkhoang
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 19 July 1949 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 2 December (1975) (proclamation of the Lao People's Democratic Republic)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> promulgated 14 August 1991
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on traditional customs, French legal norms and procedures, and Socialist practice
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President KHAMTAI Siphandon (since 26 February 1998); note - currently the position of vice president is vacant; Vice President OUDOM Khattiya died on 9 December 1999 and a replacement has not yet been named
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister SISAVAT Keobounphan (since 26 February 1998); Senior Deputy Prime Minister BOUN-NHANG Vorachith (since 20 April 1996); Deputy Prime Ministers CHOUMMALI Saygnasone (since 26 February 1998), SOMSAVAT Lengsavad (since 26 February 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president, approved by the National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held 21 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly for a five-year term
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> KHAMTAI Siphandon elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (99 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - by presidential decree, on 27 October 1997, the number of seats increased from 85 to 99)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 21 December 1997 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - LPRP or LPRP-approved (independent, non-party members) 99
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> People's Supreme Court, the president of the People's Supreme Court is elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the National Assembly Standing Committee, the vice president of the People's Supreme Court and the judges are appointed by the National Assembly Standing Committee
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Lao People's Revolutionary Party or LPRP [KHAMTAI Siphandon, party president]; other parties proscribed
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> noncommunist political groups proscribed; most opposition leaders fled the country in 1975
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, AsDB, ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador VANG Rattanavong
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2222 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-6416
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-4923
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Wendy Jean CHAMBERLIN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Bartholonie, B. P. 114, Vientiane
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy, Box V, APO AP 96546
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [856] (21) 212581, 212582, 212585
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [856] (21) 212584
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of red (top), blue (double width), and red with a large white disk centered in the blue band
------
Laos/Economy|990149004
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The government of Laos - one of the few remaining official communist states - began decentralizing control and encouraging private enterprise in 1986. The results, starting from an extremely low base, were striking - growth averaged 7% in 1988-96. Since mid-1996, however, reform efforts have slowed, and the economy has suffered as a result. Because Laos depends heavily on its trade with Thailand, it was further damaged by the regional financial crisis beginning in 1997. From June 1997 to June 1999 the Lao kip lost 87%, and reached a crisis point in September 1999 when it fluctuated wildly, falling from 3,500 kip to the dollar to 9,000 kip to the dollar in a matter of weeks. Now that the currency has stabilized, however, the government seems content to let the current situation persist, despite 140% inflation in 1999 and limited foreign exchange reserves. A landlocked country with a primitive infrastructure, Laos has no railroads, a rudimentary road system, and limited external and internal telecommunications. Electricity is available in only a few urban areas. Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of GDP and provides 80% of total employment. For the foreseeable future the economy will continue to depend on aid from the IMF and other international sources; Japan is currently the largest bilateral aid donor; aid from the former USSR/Eastern Europe has been cut sharply. As in many developing countries, deforestation and soil erosion will hamper efforts to attain a high rate of GDP growth.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 51%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 27% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 46.1% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 26.4% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 140% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1 million - 1.5 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 80% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $202.7 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $385.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tin and gypsum mining, timber, electric power, agricultural processing, construction, garments
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 7.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 2.99%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 97.01%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 514 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 782 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 50 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sweet potatoes, vegetables, corn, coffee, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton; tea, peanuts, rice; water buffalo, pigs, cattle, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $271 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> wood products, garments, electricity, coffee, tin
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Vietnam, Thailand, Germany, France, Belgium
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $497 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, vehicles, fuel
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Thailand, Japan, Vietnam, China, Singapore, Hong Kong
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2.32 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $345 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 new kip (NK) = 100 at
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> new kips (NK) per US$1 - 7,674.00 (January 2000),7,102.03 (1999), 3,298.33 (1998), 1,259.98 (1997), 921.02 (1996), 804.69 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> as of September 1995, a floating exchange rate policy was adopted
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
------
Laos/Communications|990149024
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 20,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,600 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> service to general public is poor but improving, with over 20,000 telephones currently in service and an additional 48,000 expected by 2001; the government relies on a radiotelephone network to communicate with remote areas
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> radiotelephone communications
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 12, FM 1, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 730,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 4 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 52,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Laos/Transportation|990149045
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21,716 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 9,673.5 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 12,042.5 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> about 4,587 km, primarily Mekong and tributaries; 2,897 additional km are sectionally navigable by craft drawing less than 0.5 m
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 136 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,370 GRT/3,000 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 52 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 43
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 17
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 25 (1999 est.)
------
Laos/Military|990149060
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Lao People's Army (LPA; includes militia element), Lao People's Navy (LPN; includes riverine element), Air Force, National Police Department
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,275,184 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 686,803 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 62,243 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $77 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 4.2% (FY96/97)
------
Laos/Transnational_issues|990149073
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> parts of the border with Thailand are indefinite
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> world's third-largest illicit opium producer (estimated cultivation in 1999 - 21,800 hectares, a 16% decrease over 1998; estimated potential production in 1999 - 140 metric tons, about the same as in 1998); potential heroin producer; transshipment point for heroin and methamphetamines produced in Burma; illicit producer of cannabis
------
Latvia|990149110
5a6,17
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Latvia/History|990149196
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> After a brief period of independence between the two World Wars, Latvia was annexed by the USSR in 1940. It reestablished its independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to Moscow. Latvia continues to revamp its economy for eventual integration into various Western European political and economic institutions.
------
Latvia/Geography|990149213
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, between Estonia and Lithuania
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 57 00 N, 25 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 64,589 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 64,589 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,150 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belarus 141 km, Estonia 339 km, Lithuania 453 km, Russia 217 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 531 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> maritime; wet, moderate winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low plain
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Baltic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Gaizinkalns 312 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> minimal; amber, peat, limestone, dolomite, hydropower, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 160 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air and water pollution because of a lack of waste conversion equipment; Gulf of Riga and Daugava River heavily polluted; contamination of soil and groundwater with chemicals and petroleum products at military bases
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
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Latvia/People|990149230
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,404,926 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 17% (male 212,483; female 203,417)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 777,289; female 849,967)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 116,575; female 245,195) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.84% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 7.8 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.88 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.48 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.85 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 15.71 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68.41 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 62.48 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.62 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Latvian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Latvian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Latvian 56.5%, Russian 30.4%, Byelorussian 4.3%, Ukrainian 2.8%, Polish 2.6%, other 3.4%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Lutheran, Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Lettish (official), Lithuanian, Russian, other
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1989 est.)
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Latvia/Government|990149249
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Latvia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Latvia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Latvijas Republika
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Latvija
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Riga
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 26 counties (singular - rajons) and 7 municipalities*: Aizkraukles Rajons, Aluksnes Rajons, Balvu Rajons, Bauskas Rajons, Cesu Rajons, Daugavpils*, Daugavpils Rajons, Dobeles Rajons, Gulbenes Rajons, Jekabpils Rajons, Jelgava*, Jelgavas Rajons, Jurmala*, Kraslavas Rajons, Kuldigas Rajons, Leipaja*, Liepajas Rajons, Limbazu Rajons, Ludzas Rajons, Madonas Rajons, Ogres Rajons, Preilu Rajons, Rezekne*, Rezeknes Rajons, Riga*, Rigas Rajons, Saldus Rajons, Talsu Rajons, Tukuma Rajons, Valkas Rajons, Valmieras Rajons, Ventspils*, Ventspils Rajons
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 18 November (1918)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> the 1991 Constitutional Law which supplements the 1922 constitution, provides for basic rights and freedoms
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal for Latvian citizens
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Vaira VIKE-FREIBERGA (since 8 July 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Andris BERZINS (since 5 May 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers nominated by the prime minister and appointed by the Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament for a four-year term (amended from a three-year term on 4 December 1997); election last held 17 June 1999 (next to be held by NA June 2003); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Vaira VIKE-FREIBERGA elected as a compromise candidate in second phase of balloting, second round (after five rounds in first phase failed); percent of parliamentary vote - Vaira VIKE-FREIBERGA 53%, Valdis BIRKAVS 20%, Ingrida UDRE 9%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Saeima (100 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms - amended from three-year terms on 4 December 1997)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 3 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - People's Party 21%, LC 18%, TSP 14%, TB/LNNK 14%, Social Democrats 13%, New Party 8%; seats by party - People's Party 24, LC 21, TSP 16, TB/LNNK 17, Social Democrats 14, New Party 8
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges' appointments are confirmed by Parliament
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Anticommunist Union or PA [P. MUCENIEKS]; Association of Latvian Social Democrats [Juris BOJARS, Janis ADAMSONS]; Christian Democrat Union or LKDS [Talavs JUNDZIS]; Christian People's Party or KTP (formerly People's Front of Latvia or LTF) [Uldis AUGSTKALNS]; Democratic Party "Saimnieks" or DPS [Ziedonis CEVERS, chairman]; For Fatherland and Freedom or TB [Maris GRINBLATS], merged with LNNK; Green Party or LZP [Olegs BATAREVSK]; Latvian Liberal Party or LLP [J. DANOSS]; Latvian National Conservative Party or LNNK [Andrejs KRASTINS]; Latvian National Democratic Party or LNDP [A. MALINS]; Latvian Social-Democratic Workers Party (Social Democrats) or LSDSP [Janis BOJARS]; Latvian Socialist Party or LSP [Sergejs DIAMANIS]; Latvian Unity Party or LVP [Alberis KAULS]; Latvia's Way or LC [Andrei PANTELEJEVS]; National Harmony Party or TSP [Janis JURKANS]; New Party [Raimonds PAULS]; "Our Land" or MZ [M. DAMBEKALNE]; Party for the Defense of Latvia's Defrauded People [leader NA]; Party of Russian Citizens or LKPP [V. SOROCHIN, V. IVANOV]; Political Association of the Underprivileged or MPA [B. PELSE, V. DIMANTS, J. KALNINS]; Political Union of Economists or TPA [Edvins KIDE]; People's Party [Andris SKELE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Aivis RONIS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 4325 17th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-8213, 8214
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 726-6785
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James H. HOLMES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Raina Boulevard 7, LV-1510, Riga
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Riga, PSC 78, Box Riga, APO AE 09723
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [371] 721-0005
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [371] 782-0047
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of maroon (top), white (half-width), and maroon
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Latvia/Economy|990149271
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> In 1999 Latvia, a transitional economy, experienced zero GDP growth as it continued to feel the impact of the August 1998 Russian financial crisis. Latvia officially joined the World Trade Organization (WTrO) in February 1999 - the first Baltic state to join - band was invited at the Helsinki EU Summit in December 1999 to begin accession talks in early 2000. Unemployment reached 9.6% in 1999, up from 9.2% in 1998 and 6.7% in 1997. Privatization of large state-owned utilities, especially the energy sector, faced more delays in 1999, but is expected to accelerate in the next two years. Latvia projects 3.5% GDP growth, 3% inflation, and a 2% fiscal deficit in 2000. Preparing for EU membership by 2003 remains a top foreign policy priority.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 63% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 22.1% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.4 million (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture and forestry 16%, industry 41%, services 43% (1990)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 9.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.33 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.27 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> buses, vans, street and railroad cars, synthetic fibers, agricultural machinery, fertilizers, washing machines, radios, electronics, pharmaceuticals, processed foods, textiles; dependent on imports for energy, raw materials, and intermediate products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 4.766 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 29.58%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 70.42%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 4.882 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 850 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain, sugar beets, potatoes, vegetables; beef, milk, eggs; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> wood and wood products, machinery and equipment, metals, textiles, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 16%, UK 14%, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany 17%, Russia 12%, Finland 10%, Sweden 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $212 million (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $96.2 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Latvian lat (LVL) = 100 santims
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> lats (LVL) per US$1 - 0.583 (January 2000),0.585 (1999), 0.590 (1998), 0.581 (1997), 0.551 (1996), 0.528 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Latvia/Communications|990149295
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 748,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 175,348 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> inadequate but is being modernized to provide an international capability independent of the Moscow international switch; more facilities are being installed for individual use
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> expansion underway in intercity trunk line connections, rural exchanges, and mobile systems; still many unsatisfied subscriber applications
> <br><i>international:</i>
> international connections are now available via cable and a satellite earth station at Riga, enabling direct connections for most calls (1998)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 8, FM 56, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.76 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 74 (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.22 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 11 (1999)
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Latvia/Transportation|990149313
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,412 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 2,379 km 1.520-m gauge (271 km electrified) (1992)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 33 km 0.750-m gauge (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 59,178 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 22,843 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 36,335 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 300 km perennially navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 750 km; refined products 780 km; natural gas 560 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Daugavpils, Liepaja, Riga, Ventspils
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 58,699 GRT/64,043 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 4, petroleum tanker 4, refrigerated cargo 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 50 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 27 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 14
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1994 est.)
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Latvia/Military|990149331
1c1,17
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Security Forces, Border Guard, Home Guard (Zemessardze)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 590,236 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 463,254 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 18,239 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $60 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.9% (FY99)
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Latvia/Transnational_issues|990149356
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> draft treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia has not been signed; ongoing talks over maritime boundary dispute with Lithuania (primary concern is oil exploration rights)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for opiates and cannabis from Central and Southwest Asia to Western Europe and Scandinavia and Latin American cocaine and some synthetics from Western Europe to CIS; limited production of illicit amphetamines, ephedrine, and ecstasy for export
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Lebanon|990149417
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Lebanon/History|990149460
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions and regaining its national sovereignty since 1991 and the end of the devastating 16-year civil war. Under the Ta'if Accord - the blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese have established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several successful elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Hizballah, the radical Shi'a party, retains its weapons. Foreign forces still occupy areas of Lebanon. Israel maintains troops in southern Lebanon and continues to support a proxy militia, the Army of South Lebanon (ASL), along a narrow stretch of territory contiguous to its border. Syria maintains about 25,000 troops in Lebanon based mainly in Beirut, North Lebanon, and the Bekaa Valley. Syria's troop deployment was legitimized by the Arab League during Lebanon's civil war and in the Ta'if Accord. Damascus justifies its continued military presence in Lebanon by citing the continued weakness of the LAF, Beirut's requests, and the failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord.
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Lebanon/Geography|990149476
1c1,60
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Israel and Syria
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 33 50 N, 35 50 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,400 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 10,230 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 170 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 454 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 225 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean; mild to cool, wet winters with hot, dry summers; Lebanon mountains experience heavy winter snows
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> narrow coastal plain; Al Biqa' (Bekaa Valley) separates Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Qurnat as Sawda' 3,088 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 61% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 860 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dust storms, sandstorms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> Nahr al Litani only major river in Near East not crossing an international boundary; rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity
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Lebanon/People|990149491
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,578,036 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 28% (male 508,936; female 489,122)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 1,115,457; female 1,226,448)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 7% (male 108,706; female 129,367) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.38% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.42 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.84 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 29.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.25 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.87 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.74 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.08 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Lebanese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Lebanese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 70% (5 legally recognized Islamic groups - Shi'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 30% (11 legally recognized Christian groups - 4 Orthodox Christian, 6 Catholic, 1 Protestant), Jewish NEGL%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), French, English, Armenian widely understood
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 86.4%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 90.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.2% (1997 est.)
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Lebanon/Government|990149521
1c1,74
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Lebanese Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Lebanon
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Lubnan
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LE
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Beirut
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 5 governorates (mohafazat, singular - mohafazah); Beyrouth, Ech Chimal, Ej Jnoub, El Bekaa, Jabal Loubnane
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 22 November 1943 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 22 November (1943)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 23 May 1926, amended a number of times
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Napoleonic code, and civil law; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; compulsory for all males; authorized for women at age 21 with elementary education
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Emile LAHUD (since 24 November 1998)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Salim al-HUSS (since 4 December 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president and members of the National Assembly; the current Cabinet was formed in 1998
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the National Assembly for a six-year term; election last held 15 October 1998 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the president in consultation with the National Assembly; by custom, the president is a Maronite Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the legislature is a Shi'a Muslim
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Emile LAHUD elected president; National Assembly vote - 118 votes in favor, 0 against, 10 abstentions
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Majlis Alnuwab (Arabic) or Assemblee Nationale (French) (128 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 18 August-15 September 1996 (next to be held NA 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA (one-half Christian and one-half Muslim)
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> four Courts of Cassation (three courts for civil and commercial cases and one court for criminal cases); Constitutional Council (called for in Ta'if Accord) rules on constitutionality of laws; Supreme Council (hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> political party activity is organized along largely sectarian lines; numerous political groupings exist, consisting of individual political figures and followers motivated by religious, clan, and economic considerations
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACCT, AFESD, AL, AMF, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Dr. Farid ABBOUD
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-6300
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-6324
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Detroit, New York, and Los Angeles
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador David SATTERFIELD
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Antelias, Beirut
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 70-840, Beirut; PSC 815, Box 2, FPO AE 09836-0002
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [961] (4) 543600, 542600, 544133, 544130, 544131
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [961] (4) 544136
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of red (top), white (double width), and red with a green and brown cedar tree centered in the white band
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Lebanon/Economy|990149540
1c1,82
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The 1975-91 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of "Horizon 2000," the government's $20 billion reconstruction program in 1993. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995 before Israel's Operation Grapes of Wrath in April 1996 stunted economic activity. Real GDP grew at an average annual rate of less than 3% per year for 1997 and 1998 and only 1% in 1999. During 1992-98, annual inflation fell from more than 100% to 5%, and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $1.4 billion. Burgeoning capital inflows have generated foreign payments surpluses, and the Lebanese pound has remained relatively stable. Progress also has been made in rebuilding Lebanon's war-torn physical and financial infrastructure. Solidere, a $2-billion firm, is managing the reconstruction of Beirut's central business district; the stock market reopened in January 1996; and international banks and insurance companies are returning. The government nonetheless faces serious challenges in the economic arena. It has had to fund reconstruction by tapping foreign exchange reserves and boosting borrowing. Reducing the government budget deficit is a major goal of the LAHUD government. The stalled peace process and ongoing violence in southern Lebanon could lead to wider hostilities that would disrupt vital capital inflows. Furthermore, the gap between rich and poor has widened in the 1990's, resulting in grassroots dissatisfaction over the skewed distribution of the reconstruction's benefits and leading the government to shift its focus from rebuilding infrastructure to improving living conditions.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $16.2 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 61% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 28% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.3 million (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in addition, there are as many as 1 million foreign workers (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 62%, industry 31%, agriculture 7% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 18% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4.9 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $8.36 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> banking; food processing; jewelry; cement; textiles; mineral and chemical products; wood and furniture products; oil refining; metal fabricating
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 9.7 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 90.72%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 9.28%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 9.629 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 608 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> citrus, grapes, tomatoes, apples, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco; sheep, goats
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $866 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs and tobacco, textiles, chemicals, metal and metal products, electrical equipment and products, jewelry, paper and paper products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Saudi Arabia 12%, UAE 10%, France 9%, Syria 7%, US 7%, Kuwait 4%, Jordan, Turkey (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $5.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, machinery and transport equipment, consumer goods, chemicals, textiles, metals, fuels, agricultural foods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Italy 12%, France 10%, US 9%, Germany 9%, Switzerland 6%, Japan, UK, Syria (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $8.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $3.5 billion (pledges 1997-2001)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Lebanese pound = 100 piasters
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Lebanese pounds per US$1 - 1,507.5 (January 2000), 1,507.8 (1999), 1,516.1 (1998), 1,539.5 (1997), 1,571.4 (1996), 1,621.4 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Lebanon/Communications|990149561
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 330,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 120,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telecommunications system severely damaged by civil war; rebuilding well underway
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> primarily microwave radio relay and cable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean) (erratic operations); coaxial cable to Syria; microwave radio relay to Syria but inoperable beyond Syria to Jordan; 3 submarine coaxial cables
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 20, FM 22, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.85 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 28 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.18 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 19 (1999)
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Lebanon/Transportation|990149587
1c1,45
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 399 km (mostly unusable because of damage in civil war)
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 317 km 1.435-m
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 82 km (1999)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,300 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 6,200 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,100 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 72 km (none in operation)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Antilyas, Batroun, Beirut, Chekka, El Mina, Ez Zahrani, Jbail, Jounie, Naqoura, Sidon, Tripoli, Tyre
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 68 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 346,029 GRT/536,861 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 8, cargo 44, chemical tanker 1, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 1, container 4, livestock carrier 4, roll-on/roll-off 2, vehicle carrier 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 9 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Lebanon/Military|990149600
1c1,12
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 957,729 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 592,264 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $500 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 4% (FY98)
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Lebanon/Transnational_issues|990149612
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Israeli troops in southern Lebanon since June 1982; Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> inconsequential producer of hashish; some heroin processing mostly in the Bekaa valley; a Lebanese/Syrian eradication campaign started in the early 1990s has practically eliminated the opium and cannabis crops
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Lesotho|990149650
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Lesotho/History|990149670
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon independence from the UK in 1966. Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after 23 years of military rule.
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Lesotho/Geography|990149685
1c1,59
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, an enclave of South Africa
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 29 30 S, 28 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30,355 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 30,355 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 909 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> South Africa 909 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; cool to cold, dry winters; hot, wet summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly highland with plateaus, hills, and mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> junction of the Orange and Makhaleng Rivers 1,400 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Thabana Ntlenyana 3,482 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> water, agricultural and grazing land, some diamonds and other minerals
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 66%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 23% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 30 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> population pressure forcing settlement in marginal areas results in overgrazing, severe soil erosion, and soil exhaustion; desertification; Highlands Water Project controls, stores, and redirects water to South Africa
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; surrounded by South Africa
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Lesotho/People|990149700
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,143,141
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 40% (male 426,556; female 421,563)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 56% (male 575,580; female 619,280)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 42,274; female 57,888) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.65% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 31.74 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 14.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.64 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.73 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 82.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.79 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.78 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.84 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.15 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mosotho (singular), Basotho (plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Basotho
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Sotho 99.7%, Europeans, Asians, and other 0.3%,
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 80%, indigenous beliefs 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Sesotho (southern Sotho), English (official), Zulu, Xhosa
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 81.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 62.3% (1995 est.)
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Lesotho/Government|990149724
1c1,70
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Lesotho
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Lesotho
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Basutoland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Maseru
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 districts; Berea, Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Mafeteng, Maseru, Mohales Hoek, Mokhotlong, Qacha's Nek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 4 October 1966 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 4 October (1966)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 2 April 1993
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law and Roman-Dutch law; judicial review of legislative acts in High Court and Court of Appeal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King LETSIE III (since 7 February 1996); note - King LETSIE III formerly occupied the throne from November 1990 to February 1995, while his father was in exile
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Pakalitha MOSISILI (since 23 May 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; according to the constitution, the leader of the majority party in the assembly automatically becomes prime minister; the monarch is hereditary, but, under the terms of the constitution which came into effect after the March 1993 election, the monarch is a "living symbol of national unity" with no executive or legislative powers; under traditional law the college of chiefs has the power to determine who is next in the line of succession, who shall serve as regent in the event that the successor is not of mature age, and may even depose the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (33 members - 22 principal chiefs and 11 other members appointed by the ruling party) and the Assembly (80 seats; members elected by popular vote for five-year terms); note - number of seats in the Assembly rose from 65 to 80 in the May 1998 election
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 23 May 1998 (next to be held in 2000; date to be determined by Interim Political Authority)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - LCD 61%; seats by party - LCD 79, BNP 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> results contested; opposition parties claimed the election was fraudulent and staged a coup; Southern African Development Community (SADC) forces intervened in September 1998 and restored order; the Interim Political Authority (IPA) was set up in December 1998 to create a new electoral system and conduct new elections within 18 months
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court, chief justice appointed by the monarch; Court of Appeal; Magistrate's Court; customary or traditional court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Basotho National Party or BNP [Maj. Gen. Justine Metsing LEKHANYA]; Basotholand Congress Party or BCP [Molapo QHOBELA, leader (currently suspended), Ntsukunyane MPHANYA, secretary general]; Lesotho Congress for Democracy or LCD [Dr. Pakalitha MOSISILI, leader; Shakhane MOKHEHLE, secretary general] - the governing party; United Democratic Party or UDP [Charles MOFELI]; Marematlou Freedom Party or MFP and Setlamo Alliance [Vincent MALEBO]; National Progressive Party or NPP [Chief Peete Nkoebe PEETE]; Sefate Democratic Party or SDP [Bofihla NKUEBE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Lebohang Kenneth MOLEKO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2511 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 797-5533 through 5536
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-6815
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Katherine H. PETERSON
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 254 Kingsway, Maseru West (Consular Section)
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 333, Maseru 100, Lesotho
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [266] 312666
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [266] 310116
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper half is white, bearing the brown silhouette of a large shield with crossed spear and club; the lower half is a diagonal blue band with a green triangle in the corner
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Lesotho/Economy|990149754
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Small, landlocked, and mountainous, Lesotho's only important natural resource is water. Its economy is based on subsistence agriculture, livestock, and remittances from miners employed in South Africa. The number of such mine workers has declined steadily over the past several years. In 1996 their remittances added about 33% to GDP compared with the addition of roughly 67% in 1990. A small manufacturing base depends largely on farm products which support the milling, canning, leather, and jute industries. Agricultural products are exported primarily to South Africa. Proceeds from membership in a common customs union with South Africa form the majority of government revenue. Although drought has decreased agricultural activity over the past few years, completion of a major hydropower facility in January 1998 now permits the sale of water to South Africa, generating royalties that will be an important source of income for Lesotho. The pace of parastatal privatization has increased in recent years. Civil disorder in September 1998 destroyed 80% of the commercial infrastructure in Maseru and two other major towns. Most firms were not covered by insurance, and the rebuilding of small and medium business has been a significant challenge in terms of both economic growth and employment levels. Output dropped 10% in 1998 and recovered slowly in 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.7 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -10% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,240 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 44% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 49.2% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 43.4% (1986-87)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 8% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 689,000 economically active
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> 86% of resident population engaged in subsistence agriculture; roughly 35% of the active male wage earners work in South Africa
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> substantial unemployment and underemployment affecting more than half of the labor force (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $507 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $487 million, including capital expenditures of $170 million (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food, beverages, textiles, handicrafts; construction; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 19.7% (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 209 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 209 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> corn, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $235 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> manufactures 75% (clothing, footwear, road vehicles), wool and mohair, food and live animals (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> South African Customs Union 65%, North America 34% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $700 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food; building materials, vehicles, machinery, medicines, petroleum products (1995)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South African Customs Union 90%, Asia 7% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $675 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $123.7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 loti (L) = 100 lisente; note - maloti (M) is the plural form of loti
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> maloti (M) per US$1 - 6.12439 (January 2000), 6.10948 (1999), 5.52828 (1998), 4.60796 (1997), 4.29935 (1996), 3.62709 (1995); note - the Basotho loti is at par with the South African rand
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
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Lesotho/Communications|990149770
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 18,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> rudimentary system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> consists of a few landlines, a small microwave radio relay system, and a minor radiotelephone communication system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 104,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (2000)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 54,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Lesotho/Transportation|990149785
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2.6 km; note - owned by, operated by, and included in the statistics of South Africa
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 2.6 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,955 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 887 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 4,068 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 29 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 25
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 21 (1999 est.)
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Lesotho/Military|990149799
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Lesotho Defense Force (LDF; includes Army and Air Wing), Royal Lesotho Mounted Police (RLMP)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 503,751 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 271,098 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> The Lesotho Government in 1999 began an open debate on the future structure, size, and role of the armed forces, especially considering the Lesotho Defense Force's (LDF) history of intervening in political affairs.
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Lesotho/Transnational_issues|990149812
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Liberia|990149843
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Liberia/History|990149863
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Seven years of civil strife were brought to a close in 1996 when free and open presidential and legislative elections were held. President TAYLOR now holds strong executive power with no real political opposition. The years of fighting coupled with the flight of most businesses has disrupted formal economic activity. A still unsettled domestic security situation has slowed the process of rebuilding the social and economic structure of this war-torn country.
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Liberia/Geography|990149882
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Cote d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 6 30 N, 9 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 111,370 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 96,320 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 15,050 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Tennessee
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,585 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guinea 563 km, Cote d'Ivoire 716 km, Sierra Leone 306 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 579 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; dry winters with hot days and cool to cold nights; wet, cloudy summers with frequent heavy showers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to rolling coastal plains rising to rolling plateau and low mountains in northeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Wuteve 1,380 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 59%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 19% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 20 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dust-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to March)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> tropical rain forest subject to deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; pollution of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
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Liberia/People|990149899
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,164,156 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 681,136; female 680,501)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 826,751; female 867,402)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 54,334; female 54,032) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.94% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 47.22 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 16.58 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -11.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> by the end of 1999, all Liberian refugees, who had fled the domestic strife, were assumed to have returned
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 134.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 51.02 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.6 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.49 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.43 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Liberian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Liberian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> indigenous African tribes 95% (including Kpelle, Bassa, Gio, Kru, Grebo, Mano, Krahn, Gola, Gbandi, Loma, Kissi, Vai, and Bella), Americo-Liberians 2.5% (descendants of immigrants from the US who had been slaves), Congo People 2.5% (descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean who had been slaves)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English 20% (official), some 20 ethnic group languages, of which a few can be written and are used in correspondence
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 38.3%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 53.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 22.4% (1995 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> these figures are increasing because of the improving school system
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Liberia/Government|990149918
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Liberia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Liberia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Monrovia
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 13 counties; Bomi, Bong, Grand Bassa, Grand Cape Mount, Grand Gedeh, Grand Kru, Lofa, Margibi, Maryland, Montserrado, Nimba, River Cess, Sinoe
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 26 July 1847
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 26 July (1847)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 6 January 1986
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> dual system of statutory law based on Anglo-American common law for the modern sector and customary law based on unwritten tribal practices for indigenous sector
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Charles Ghankay TAYLOR (since 2 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Charles Ghankay TAYLOR (since 2 August 1997); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term (renewable); election last held 19 July 1997 (next to be held NA July 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Charles Ghankay TAYLOR elected president; percent of vote - Charles Ghankay TAYLOR (NPP) 75.3%, Ellen Johnson SIRLEAF (UP) 9.6%, Alhaji KROMAH (ALCOP) 4%, other 11.1%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Assembly consists of the Senate (26 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve nine-year terms) and the House of Representatives (64 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 19 July 1997 (next to be held in NA 2006); House of Representatives - last held 19 July 1997 (next to be held in NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPP 21, UP 3, ALCOP 2; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPP 49, UP 7, ALCOP 3, Alliance of Political Parties 2, UPP 2, LPP 1; note - the Alliance of Political Parties was a coalition of the LAP and the Liberia Unification Party or LUP
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> All Liberia Coalition Party or ALCOP [Lusinee KAMARA]; Liberian Action Party or LAP [Cletus WOTORSON]; Liberian National Union or LINU [Henry MONIBA, chairman]; Liberian People's Party or LPP [Togba-Nah TIPOTEH, chairman]; National Democratic Party of Liberia or NDPL [Isaac DAKINAH]; National Patriotic Party or NPP [Charles Ghankay TAYLOR] - governing party; People's Progressive Party or PPP [Chea CHEAPOO, chairman]; Reformation Alliance Party or RAP [Henry Boimah FAHNBULLEH, chairman]; True Whig Party or TWP [Rudolph SHERMAN, chairman]; United People's Party or UPP [Gabriel Baccus MATTHEWS, chairman]; Unity Party or UP [Charles Clarke]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador-designate William BULL
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 5303 Colorado Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20011
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 723-0437
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 723-0436
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bismarck MYRICK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 111 United Nations Drive, Mamba Point, Monrovia
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [231] 226-370 through 226-382
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [231] 226-148, 226-147
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> 11 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; there is a white five-pointed star on a blue square in the upper hoist-side corner; the design was based on the US flag
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Liberia/Economy|990149939
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> A civil war in 1989-96 destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially the infrastructure in and around Monrovia. Many businessmen fled the country, taking capital and expertise with them. Some returned during 1997. Many will not return. Richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, Liberia had been a producer and exporter of basic products, while local manufacturing, mainly foreign owned, had been small in scope. The democratically elected government, installed in August 1997, inherited massive international debts and currently relies on revenues from its maritime registry to provide the bulk of its foreign exchange earnings. The restoration of the infrastructure and the raising of incomes in this ravaged economy depend on the implementation of sound macro- and micro-economic policies of the new government, including the encouragement of foreign investment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.85 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 35% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 80%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 70%, industry 8%, services 22% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 70%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> rubber processing, palm oil processing, diamonds
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 490 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 62.24%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 37.76%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 456 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rubber, coffee, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, sugarcane, bananas; sheep, goats; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $39 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> diamonds, iron ore, rubber, timber, coffee, cocoa
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Benelux 36%, Norway 18%, Ukraine 15%, Singapore 9% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $142 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> fuels, chemicals, machinery, transportation equipment, manufactured goods; rice and other foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South Korea 38%, Japan 14%, Italy 11%, Singapore 9% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $200 million pledged (1998)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Liberian dollar (L$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Liberian dollars (L$) per US$1 - 1.0000 (officially fixed rate since 1940); market exchange rate: Liberian dollars (L$) per US$1 - 40 (December 1998), 50 (October 1995); market rate floats against the US dollar
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Liberia/Communications|990149954
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 5,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telephone and telegraph service via microwave radio relay network; main center is Monrovia
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 6, shortwave 4 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 790,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (plus four low-power repeaters) (2000)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 70,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Liberia/Transportation|990149970
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 490 km (328 km single track); note - three rail systems owned and operated by foreign steel and financial interests in conjunction with the Liberian Government; one of these, the Lamco Railroad, closed in 1989 after iron ore production ceased; the other two were shut down by the civil war; large sections of the rail lines have been dismantled; approximately 60 km of railroad track was exported for scrap
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 345 km 1.435-m gauge
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 145 km 1.067-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,600 km (there is major deterioration on all highways due to heavy rains and lack of maintenance)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 657 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,943 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Buchanan, Greenville, Harper, Monrovia
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,593 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 54,513,479 GRT/85,495,576 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> barge carrier 3, bulk 360, cargo 109, chemical tanker 185, combination bulk 22, combination ore/oil 50, container 225, liquified gas 91, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 40, petroleum tanker 351, refrigerated cargo 76, roll-on/roll-off 16, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 15, vehicle carrier 46 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 54 countries among which are Germany 186, US 161, Norway 142, Greece 144, Japan 124, Hong Kong 100, China 53, UK 32, Singapore 39, and Monaco 38 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 45 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 43
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 35 (1999 est.)
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Liberia/Military|990149987
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, Navy
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 703,107 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 378,426 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY98)
------
Liberia/Transnational_issues|990150000
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> increasingly a transshipment point for Southeast and Southwest Asian heroin and South American cocaine for the European and US markets
------
Libya|990150047
1a2,13
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Libya|990150075
1,2d0
< Libya is an Islamic Arabic country ruled by a dictator called Qhadafi. The country has a strategic location in North [[Africa]], and a long coast on the [[Mediterranean sea]] south of [[Italy]].
< 
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Libya/History|990150104
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi has espoused his own political system - a combination of socialism and Islam - which he calls the Third International Theory. Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, he used oil funds during the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya, even supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of Marxism and capitalism. Libyan military adventures failed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the Aozou Strip in northern Chad was finally repulsed in 1987. Libyan support for terrorism decreased after UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. Those sanctions were suspended in April 1999.
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Libya/Geography|990150120
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Tunisia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 25 00 N, 17 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,759,540 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,759,540 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Alaska
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,383 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Algeria 982 km, Chad 1,055 km, Egypt 1,150 km, Niger 354 km, Sudan 383 km, Tunisia 459 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,770 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Gulf of Sidra closing line - 32 degrees 30 minutes north
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean along coast; dry, extreme desert interior
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly barren, flat to undulating plains, plateaus, depressions
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Bikku Bitti 2,267 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, natural gas, gypsum
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 91% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 4,700 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
------
Libya/People|990150139
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 5,115,450
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 162,669 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 36% (male 938,476; female 899,139)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 60% (male 1,595,306; female 1,485,069)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 97,770; female 99,690) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.42% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 27.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 3.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 30.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.45 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.34 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.66 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Libyan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Libyan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Berber and Arab 97%, Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians, Tunisians
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Sunni Muslim 97%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic, Italian, English, all are widely understood in the major cities
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 76.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 87.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 63% (1995 est.)
------
Libya/Government|990150165
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Libya
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Jumahiriyah al Arabiyah al Libiyah ash Shabiyah al Ishtirakiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LY
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> Jamahiriya (a state of the masses) in theory, governed by the populace through local councils; in fact, a military dictatorship
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Tripoli
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 25 municipalities (baladiyat, singular - baladiyah); Ajdabiya, Al 'Aziziyah, Al Fatih, Al Jabal al Akhdar, Al Jufrah, Al Khums, Al Kufrah, An Nuqat al Khams, Ash Shati', Awbari, Az Zawiyah, Banghazi, Darnah, Ghadamis, Gharyan, Misratah, Murzuq, Sabha, Sawfajjin, Surt, Tarabulus, Tarhunah, Tubruq, Yafran, Zlitan
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the 25 municipalities may have been replaced by 13 regions
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 24 December 1951 (from Italy)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Revolution Day, 1 September (1969)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 11 December 1969, amended 2 March 1977
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Italian civil law system and Islamic law; separate religious courts; no constitutional provision for judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Revolutionary Leader Col. Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI (since 1 September 1969); note - holds no official title, but is de facto chief of state
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Secretary of the General People's Committee (Premier) Mubarak al-SHAMEKH (since 2 March 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> General People's Committee established by the General People's Congress
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> national elections are indirect through a hierarchy of people's committees; head of government elected by the General People's Congress; election last held NA (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Mubarak al-SHAMEKH elected head of government; percent of General People's Congress vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General People's Congress (NA seats; members elected indirectly through a hierarchy of people's committees)
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> various Arab nationalist movements with almost negligible memberships may be functioning clandestinely, as well as some Islamic elements
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CAEU, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAU, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Libya does not have an embassy in the US
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US suspended all embassy activities in Tripoli on 2 May 1980
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> plain green; green is the traditional color of Islam (the state religion)
------
Libya/Economy|990150186
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The socialist-oriented economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contributes practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of GDP. These oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa, but little of this income flows down to the lower orders of society. In this statist society, import restrictions and inefficient resource allocations have led to periodic shortages of basic goods and foodstuffs. The nonoil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit farm output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food requirements. Higher oil prices in 1999 led to an increase in export revenues and helped to stimulate the economy. Following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999, Libya has been trying to increase its attractiveness to foreign investors, and several foreign companies have visited in search of contracts.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $39.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7,900 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 47%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 46% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 18% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.2 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services and government 54%, industry 29%, agriculture 17% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 30% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $3.6 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $5.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum, food processing, textiles, handicrafts, cement
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 16.92 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 15.736 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts; beef, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $6.6 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Italy 40%, Germany 17%, Spain 12%, France 4%, Sudan 4%, UK 3% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $7 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, transport equipment, food, manufactured goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Italy 23%, Germany 12%, UK 9%, France 7%, Tunisia 5%, Belgium 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $8.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Libyan dinar (LD) = 1,000 dirhams
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Libyan dinars (LD) per US$1 - 0.4687 (January 2000), 0.4616 (1999), 0.3785 (1998), 0.3891 (1997), 0.3651 (1996), 0.3532 (1995); official rate: 0.45 (December 1998)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Libya/Communications|990150201
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 318,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telecommunications system is being modernized; mobile cellular telephone system became operational in 1996
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay, coaxial cable, cellular, tropospheric scatter, and a domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat, NA Arabsat, and NA Intersputnik; submarine cables to France and Italy; microwave radio relay to Tunisia and Egypt; tropospheric scatter to Greece; participant in Medarabtel (1999)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 17, FM 4, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.35 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 12 (plus one low-power repeater) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 730,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Libya/Transportation|990150218
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Libya has had no railroad in operation since 1965, all previous systems having been dismantled; current plans are to construct a 1.435-m standard gauge line from the Tunisian frontier to Tripoli and Misratah, then inland to Sabha, center of a mineral-rich area, but there has been little progress; other plans made jointly with Egypt would establish a rail line from As Sallum, Egypt, to Tobruk with completion originally set for mid-1994; Libya signed contracts with Bahne of Egypt and Jez Sistemas Ferroviarios in 1998 for the supply of crossings and pointwork
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 83,200 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 47,590 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 35,610 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 4,383 km; petroleum products 443 km (includes liquefied petroleum gas or LPG 256 km); natural gas 1,947 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Al Khums, Banghazi, Darnah, Marsa al Burayqah, Misratah, Ra's Lanuf, Tobruk, Tripoli, Zuwarah
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 27 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 401,303 GRT/656,632 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 9, chemical tanker 1, liquified gas 3, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 4, short-sea passenger 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 142 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 59
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 24
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 83
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 42
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 19 (1999 est.)
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Libya/Military|990150232
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Command
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,415,305 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 841,039 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 62,200 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Libya/Transnational_issues|990150249
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> maritime boundary dispute with Tunisia; Libya claims about 19,400 sq km in northern Niger and part of southeastern Algeria
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Liechtenstein|990150304
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Liechtenstein/History|990150313
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Principality of Liechtenstein was established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719; it became a sovereign state in 1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained neutral) the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic growth.
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Liechtenstein/Geography|990150337
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Central Europe, between Austria and Switzerland
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 47 10 N, 9 32 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 160 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 160 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.9 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 76 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Austria 35 km, Switzerland 41 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> continental; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain; cool to moderately warm, cloudy, humid summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly mountainous (Alps) with Rhine Valley in western third
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Ruggeller Riet 430 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Grauspitz 2,599 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> hydroelectric potential, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 16%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 25% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> along with Uzbekistan, one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world; variety of microclimatic variations based on elevation
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Liechtenstein/People|990150352
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 32,207 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 2,970; female 2,988)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 71% (male 11,379; female 11,370)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11% (male 1,393; female 2,107) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.02% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 11.83 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.64 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 5.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.66 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.81 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.16 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 82.47 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.49 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Liechtensteiner(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Liechtenstein
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Alemannic 87.5%, Italian, Turkish, and other 12.5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 7.4%, unknown 7.7%, other 4.9% (1996)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> German (official), Alemannic dialect
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 10 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 100% (1981 est.)
------
Liechtenstein/Government|990150368
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Principality of Liechtenstein
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Liechtenstein
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Fuerstentum Liechtenstein
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Liechtenstein
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LS
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> hereditary constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Vaduz
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 11 communes (Gemeinden, singular - Gemeinde); Balzers, Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Planken, Ruggell, Schaan, Schellenberg, Triesen, Triesenberg, Vaduz
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 23 January 1719 Imperial Principality of Liechtenstein established; 12 July 1806 established independence from the Holy Roman Empire
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Assumption Day, 15 August
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 5 October 1921
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> local civil and penal codes; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 20 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Prince HANS ADAM II (since 13 November 1989, assumed executive powers 26 August 1984); Heir Apparent Prince ALOIS von und zu Liechtenstein, son of the monarch (born 11 June 1968)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Head of Government Mario FRICK (since 15 December 1993) and Deputy Head of Government Michael RITTER (since 2 February 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet elected by the Diet; confirmed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the Diet is usually appointed the head of government by the monarch and the leader of the largest minority party in the Diet is usually appointed the deputy head of government by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Diet or Landtag (25 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote under proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 2 February 1997 (next to be held by NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - VU 50.1%, FBPL 41.3%, FL 8.5%; seats by party - VU 13, FBPL 10, FL 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Oberster Gerichtshof; Superior Court or Obergericht
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Fatherland Union or VU [Dr. Oswald KRANZ]; Progressive Citizens' Party or FBPL [Norbert SEEGER]; The Free List or FL [Christel HILTI, Hansjorg HILTI, Helen MARXER, Hugo RISCH, Margrit WILLE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CE, EBRD, ECE, EFTA, IAEA, ICRM, IFRCS, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UPU, WCL, WIPO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Liechtenstein does not have an embassy in the US, but is represented by the Swiss embassy in routine diplomatic matters
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Liechtenstein, but the US Ambassador to Switzerland is also accredited to Liechtenstein
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of blue (top) and red with a gold crown on the hoist side of the blue band
------
Liechtenstein/Economy|990150384
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Despite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. Low business taxes - the maximum tax rate is 18% - and easy incorporation rules have induced about 73,700 holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and EU) since May 1995. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $730 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.5% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 22,891 of which 13,847 are foreigners; 8,231 commute from Austria and Switzerland to work each day
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry, trade, and building 45%, services 53%, agriculture, fishing, forestry, and horticulture 2% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 1.8% (February 1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $424.2 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $414.1 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> electronics, metal manufacturing, textiles, ceramics, pharmaceuticals, food products, precision instruments, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 150 million kWh (1995)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, corn, potatoes; livestock, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $2.47 billion (1996)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> small specialty machinery, dental products, stamps, hardware, pottery
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU and EFTA countries 60.57% (Switzerland 15.7%) (1995)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $917.3 million (1996)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, metal goods, textiles, foodstuffs, motor vehicles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU countries, Switzerland (1996)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $0 (1996)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Swiss franc, franken, or franco (SFR) = 100 centimes, rappen, or centesimi
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Swiss francs, franken, or franchi (SFR) per US$1 - 1.5878 (January 2000), 1.5022 (1999), 1.4498 (1998), 1.4513 (1997), 1.2360 (1996), 1.1825 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Liechtenstein/Communications|990150398
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 19,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> automatic telephone system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> linked to Swiss networks by cable and microwave radio relay
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 21,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> NA (linked to Swiss networks) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 12,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 115 (Liechtenstein and Switzerland) (1999)
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Liechtenstein/Transportation|990150411
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18.5 km; note - owned, operated, and included in statistics of Austrian Federal Railways
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 18.5 km 1.435-m gauge (electrified)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 250 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 250 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> none
------
Liechtenstein/Military|990150437
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military - note:</b> defense is the responsibility of Switzerland
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Liechtenstein/Transnational_issues|990150451
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims 1,600 sq km of land in the Czech Republic confiscated from its royal family in 1918; the Czech Republic insists that restitution does not go back before February 1948, when the communists seized power
------
Lithuania|990150506
1c1,12
< Baltic state bordered by [[Poland]], [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]]. Capital Vilnius. Population (2000 est.) 3,620,756
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> ----
------
Lithuania/History|990150537
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Independent between the two World Wars, Lithuania was annexed by the USSR in 1940. In March of 1990, Lithuania became the first of the Soviet republics to declare its independence, but this proclamation was not generally recognized until September of 1991 (following the abortive coup in Moscow). The last Russian troops withdrew in 1993. Lithuania subsequently has restructured its economy for eventual integration into Western European institutions.
------
Star_Wars|990150548
13c13
< # [[/The Return of The Jedi]] - movie released 1983
---
> # [[/Return of the Jedi]] - movie released 1983
68c68
<  [[/Wedge Antilles]]
---
>  [[/Wedge Antilles|Wedge Antilles]]
------
Lithuania/Geography|990150553
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea, between Latvia and Russia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 56 00 N, 24 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 65,200 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 65,200 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than West Virginia
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,273 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belarus 502 km, Latvia 453 km, Poland 91 km, Russia (Kaliningrad) 227 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 99 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> transitional, between maritime and continental; wet, moderate winters and summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> lowland, many scattered small lakes, fertile soil
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Baltic Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Juozapines/Kalnas 292 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> peat, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 15% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 430 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products and chemicals at military bases
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
------
Lithuania/People|990150573
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,620,756 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 19% (male 357,712; female 342,796)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,177,732; female 1,259,682)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 163,470; female 319,364) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.29% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.77 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 12.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.16 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.51 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.88 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 14.67 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.09 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 63.07 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.41 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.34 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Lithuanian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Lithuanian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Lithuanian 80.6%, Russian 8.7%, Polish 7%, Byelorussian 1.6%, other 2.1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic (primarily), Lutheran, Russian Orthodox, Protestant, evangelical Christian Baptist, Muslim, Jewish
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Lithuanian (official), Polish, Russian
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 98% (1989 est.)
------
Lithuania/Government|990150593
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Lithuania
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Lithuania
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Lietuvos Respublika
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Lietuva
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LH
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Vilnius
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 44 regions (rajonai, singular - rajonas) and 11 municipalities*: Akmenes Rajonas, Alytaus Rajonas, Alytus*, Anyksciu Rajonas, Birstonas*, Birzu Rajonas, Druskininkai*, Ignalinos Rajonas, Jonavos Rajonas, Joniskio Rajonas, Jurbarko Rajonas, Kaisiadoriu Rajonas, Kaunas*, Kauno Rajonas, Kedainiu Rajonas, Kelmes Rajonas, Klaipeda*, Klaipedos Rajonas, Kretingos Rajonas, Kupiskio Rajonas, Lazdiju Rajonas, Marijampole*, Marijampoles Rajonas, Mazeikiu Rajonas, Moletu Rajonas, Neringa* Pakruojo Rajonas, Palanga*, Panevezio Rajonas, Panevezys*, Pasvalio Rajonas, Plunges Rajonas, Prienu Rajonas, Radviliskio Rajonas, Raseiniu Rajonas, Rokiskio Rajonas, Sakiu Rajonas, Salcininku Rajonas, Siauliai*, Siauliu Rajonas, Silales Rajonas, Silutes Rajonas, Sirvintu Rajonas, Skuodo Rajonas, Svencioniu Rajonas, Taurages Rajonas, Telsiu Rajonas, Traku Rajonas, Ukmerges Rajonas, Utenos Rajonas, Varenos Rajonas, Vilkaviskio Rajonas, Vilniaus Rajonas, Vilnius*, Zarasu Rajonas
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 September 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Statehood Day, 16 February (1918)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 25 October 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; no judicial review of legislative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Valdas ADAMKUS (since 26 February 1998)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Premier Andrius KUBILIUS (since 12 November 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the nomination of the premier
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 21 December 1997 and 5 January 1998 (next to be held NA 2003); premier appointed by the president on the approval of the Parliament
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Valdas ADAMKUS elected president; percent of vote - Valdas ADAMKUS 50.4%, Arturas PAULAUSKAS 49.6%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Seimas (141 seats, 71 members are directly elected by popular vote, 70 are elected by proportional representation; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 October and 10 November 1996 (next to be held NA October 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - TS 69, LKDP 15, LCS 15, LDDP 12, LSDP 10, DP 2, independents 12, others 6
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the Parliament; Court of Appeal, judges appointed by the Parliament
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Democratic Party or LKDP [Algirdas SAUDARGAS, chairman]; Democratic Labor Party of Lithuania or LDDP [Ceslovas JURSENAS, chairman]; Democratic Party or DP [Lydie WURTH-POLFER, president]; Homeland Union/Conservative Party or TS [Vytautas LANDSBERGIS, chairman]; Lithuanian Center Union or LCS [Romualdas OZOLAS, chairman]; Lithuanian Farmer's Party or LUP (previously Farmers' Union) [Albinas VAIZMUZIS, chairman]; Lithuanian Nationalist Union or LTS [Rimantas SMETONA, chairman]; Lithuanian Polish Union or LLS [Rsztardas MACIEKIANIEC, chairman]; Lithuanian Social Democratic Party or LSDP [Aloyzas SAKALAS, chairman]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Lithuanian Future Forum
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UPU, WEU (associate partner), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Stasys SAKALAUSKAS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2622 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-5860
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-0466
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Keith C. SMITH
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Akmenu 6, 2600 Vilnius
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy, Vilnius, PSC 78, Box V, APO AE 09723
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [370] (2) 223-031
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [370] (6) 706-084
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), green, and red
------
Lithuania/Economy|990150610
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Lithuania, the Baltic state that has conducted the most trade with Russia, faced its own economic and financial crisis in 1999 as a result of the government's wrongfooted economic policies and its inadequate response to the August 1998 Russian financial crisis. Preliminary figures indicate 3% negative GDP growth, 10% unemployment - the highest level since independence in 1991 - and a budget deficit estimated at between 8 and 9% of GDP. The policies that Prime Minister KUBILIUS implemented upon taking the helm in November 1999 underscore a commitment to fiscal restraint, economic stabilization, and accelerated reforms. The austere 2000 budget in based on a 2% GDP growth forecast, 3% inflation, and a 2.8% budget deficit. Lithuania was invited at the Helsinki EU summit in December 1999 to begin EU accession talks in early 2000. Privatization of the large state-owned utilities, particularly in the energy sector, and reducing the high current account deficit remain challenges for the coming year.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $17.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 58% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.4%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 28% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 0.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.8 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 30%, agriculture 20%, services 50% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 10% (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.5 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> metal-cutting machine tools, electric motors, television sets, refrigerators and freezers, petroleum refining, shipbuilding (small ships), furniture making, textiles, food processing, fertilizers, agricultural machinery, optical equipment, electronic components, computers, amber
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -14% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 15.58 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 13.09%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 4.3%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 82.61%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 7.829 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 7 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 340 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain, potatoes, sugar beets, flax, vegetables; beef, milk, eggs; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $3.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment 19%, mineral products 19%, textiles and clothing 19%, chemicals 10%, foodstuffs (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia 17.4%, Germany 15.8%, Latvia 12.7%, Denmark 5.9%, Belarus 5.2% (1999)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $4.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment 30%, mineral products 16%, chemicals 9%, textiles and clothing 9%, foodstuffs (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 20.4%, Germany 16.5%, Denmark 3.8%, Belarus 2.2%, Latvia 2% (1999)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $228.5 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Lithuanian litas = 100 centas
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> litai per US$1 - 4.000 (fixed rate since 1 May 1994)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Lithuania/Communications|990150627
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.048 million (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 297,500 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> inadequate but is being modernized to provide an improved international capability and better residential access
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> a national fiber-optic cable interurban trunk system is nearing completion; rural exchanges are being improved and expanded; mobile cellular systems are being installed; access to the Internet is available; still many unsatisfied telephone subscriber applications
> <br><i>international:</i>
> landline connections to Latvia and Poland; major international connections are to Denmark, Sweden, and Norway by submarine cable for further transmission by satellite
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 112, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.9 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 82 (mainly repeater stations) (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.7 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 10 (1999)
------
Lithuania/Transportation|990150644
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,002 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 2,002 km 1.524-m gauge (122 km electrified) (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 71,375 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 64,951 km (including 417 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 6,424 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 600 km perennially navigable
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil, 105 km; natural gas 760 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Kaunas, Klaipeda
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 52 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 316,319 GRT/351,700 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 23, combination bulk 11, petroleum tanker 2, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 11, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 96 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 25
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 14 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 71
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 63 (1994 est.)
------
Lithuania/Military|990150658
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Force, Security Forces (internal and border troops), National Guard (Skat)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 925,551 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 727,609 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 27,259 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $181 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.5% (FY99)
------
Lithuania/Transnational_issues|990150672
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> ongoing talks over maritime boundary dispute with Latvia (primary concern is oil exploration rights); 1997 border agreement with Russia not yet ratified
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for opiates and other illicit drugs from Southwest Asia, Latin America, and Western Europe to Western Europe and Scandinavia
------
Luxembourg|990150695
1c1
< Capital: [[Luxembourg-City]]
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
3c3,11
< Population: about 450 000
---
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Luxembourg/History|990150735
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Founded in 963, Luxembourg became a grand duchy in 1815 and an independent state under the Netherlands. It lost more than half of its territory to Belgium in 1839, but gained a larger measure of autonomy. Full independence was attained in 1867. Overrun by Germany in both World Wars, it ended its neutrality in 1948 when it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and when it joined NATO the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.
------
Luxembourg/Geography|990150749
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, between France and Germany
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 49 45 N, 6 10 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,586 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 2,586 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Rhode Island
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 359 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belgium 148 km, France 73 km, Germany 138 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> modified continental with mild winters, cool summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly gently rolling uplands with broad, shallow valleys; uplands to slightly mountainous in the north; steep slope down to Moselle flood plain in the southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Moselle River 133 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Burgplatz 559 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> iron ore (no longer exploited), arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 34%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (including Belgium) (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air and water pollution in urban areas
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Star_Wars/Wedge_Antilles|990150766
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The character Wedge Antilles was a starfighter pilot who fought for the [[Star Wars/Rebel Alliance|Rebel Alliance]] and who later served the [[Star Wars/New Republic|New Republic]].  
> 
> Wedge was a smuggler who joined the Rebellion at age 17.  He flew against the [[Star Wars/Death Star|Death Star]] at the [[Star Wars/Battle of Yavin|Battle of Yavin]], where he uttered the immortal words, "Look at the size of that thing!"  Afterwards he founded Rogue Squadron along with [[Star Wars/Luke Skywalker|Luke Skywalker]], which he soon commanded.  He led an assault group in the [[Star Wars/Battle of Endor|Battle of Endor]] against the second Death Star.  Six years later, at age 27, he accepted promotion to the rank of general.
> 
> Wedge Antilles appears in the films [[Star Wars/A New Hope|Star Wars]], [[Star Wars/The Empire Strikes Back|The Empire Strikes Back]], and [[Star Wars/Return of the Jedi|Return of the Jedi]], as well as in most of the books set after these events.
> 
> [[Denis Lawson]] played Wedge in all three films.  Coincidentally, he is the uncle of [[Ewan McGregor]], the actor who played the young [[Star Wars/Obi-Wan Kenobi|Obi-Wan Kenobi]] in the film [[Star Wars/The Phantom Menace|The Phantom Menace]].
------
Luxembourg/People|990150769
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 437,389 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 19% (male 42,375; female 40,109)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 148,205; female 145,325)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 24,446; female 36,929) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.27% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.91 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 9.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.66 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 4.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.13 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 73.84 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.63 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.7 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Luxembourger(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Luxembourg
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Celtic base (with French and German blend), Portuguese, Italian, and European (guest and worker residents)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant and Jewish 3%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Luxembourgian, German, French, English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 100% (1980 est.)
------
Luxembourg/Government|990150786
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Luxembourg
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Grand-Duche de Luxembourg
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Luxembourg
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> LU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Luxembourg
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 3 districts; Diekirch, Grevenmacher, Luxembourg
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1839 (from the Netherlands)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 23 June (1921) (public celebration of the Grand Duke's birthday)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 17 October 1868, occasional revisions
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Grand Duke JEAN (since 12 November 1964); Heir Apparent Prince HENRI (son of the monarch, born 16 April 1955); note - Grand Duke JEAN intends to abdicate in September 2000 in favor of his oldest son, Prince HENRI
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jean-Claude JUNCKER (since 1 January 1995) and Vice Prime Minister Lydie POLFER (since 7 August 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister and vice prime minister appointed by the monarch, following popular election to the Chamber of Deputies; they are responsible to the Chamber of Deputies
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - CSV and DP
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Chamber of Deputies or Chambre des Deputes (60 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 13 June 1999 (next to be held by NA June 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - CSV 29.79%, DP 21.58%, LSAP 23.75%, ADR 10.36%, Green Party 9.09%, the Left 3.77%; seats by party - CSV 19, DP 15, LSAP 13, ADR 6, Green Party 5, the Left 2
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Council of State or Conseil d'Etat, which has 21 members who are appointed for life, is an advisory body whose views are considered by the Chamber of Deputies
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Superior Court of Justice or Cour Superieure de Justice, judges are appointed for life by the monarch; Administrative Court or Tribunale Administratin, judges are appointed for life by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action Committee for Democracy and Pension Rights or ADR [Robert MEHLEN]; Christian Social People's Party or CSV [Erna HENNICOT-SCHOEPGES]; Democratic Party or DP [Lydie POLFER]; Green Party [Jean HUSS]; Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party or LSAP [Jean ASSELBORN]; Marxist and Reformed Communist Party DEI LENK (the Left) [Andre HOFFMAN]; other minor parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> ABBL (bankers' association); ALEBA (financial sector trade union); Centrale Paysanne (federation of agricultural producers); CEP (professional sector chamber); CGFP (trade union representing civil service); Chambre de Commerce (Chamber of Commerce); Chambre des Metiers (Chamber of Artisans); FEDIL (federation of industrialists); LCGP (center-right trade union); OGBL (center-left trade union)
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, Australia Group, Benelux, CCC, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NATO, NEA, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Arlette CONZEMIUS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2200 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20006
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-4171
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-8270
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James C. HORMEL
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 22 Boulevard Emmanuel-Servais, L-2535 Luxembourg City
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Luxembourg, Unit 1410, APO AE 09126-1410 (official mail); American Embassy Luxembourg, PSC 9, Box 9500, APO AE 09123 (personal mail)
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [352] 46 01 23
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [352] 46 14 01
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and light blue; similar to the flag of the Netherlands, which uses a darker blue and is shorter; design was based on the flag of France
------
Luxembourg/Economy|990150803
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The stable, high-income economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. The industrial sector, until recently dominated by steel, has become increasingly more diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During the past decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking, account for a growing proportion of the economy. Agriculture is based on small family-owned farms. Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands, and as a member of the EU, enjoys the advantages of the open European market. It joined with 10 other EU members to launch the euro on 1 January 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $14.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $34,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 76% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 236,400 (one-third of labor force is foreign workers, mostly from Portugal, Italy, France, Belgium, and Germany) (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 83.2%, industry 14.3%, agriculture 2.5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4.73 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $4.71 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> banking, iron and steel, food processing, chemicals, metal products, engineering, tires, glass, aluminum
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 1.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 382 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 60.73%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 24.86%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14.41% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 5.856 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 900 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 6.4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> barley, oats, potatoes, wheat, fruits, wine grapes; livestock products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $7.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> finished steel products, chemicals, rubber products, glass, aluminum, other industrial products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 33%, France 20%, Belgium 12%, UK 6%, US 5%, Netherlands 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $9.6 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> minerals, metals, foodstuffs, quality consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Belgium 36%, Germany 27%, France 12%, Netherlands 5%, US 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $160 million (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Luxembourg franc (LuxF) = 100 centimes; note - centimes no longer in use
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Luxembourg francs (LuxF) per US$1 - 34.77 (January 1999), 36.299 (1998), 35.774 (1997), 30.962 (1996), 29.480 (1995); note - the Luxembourg franc is at par with the Belgian franc, which circulates freely in Luxembourg
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 40.3399 francs per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Luxembourg/Communications|990150817
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 314,700 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 95,400 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> highly developed, completely automated and efficient system, mainly buried cables
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> nationwide cellular telephone system; buried cable
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 3 channels leased on TAT-6 coaxial submarine cable (Europe to North America)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 285,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 8 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 285,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 13 (1999)
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Luxembourg/Transportation|990150832
1c1,35
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 274 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 274 km 1.435-m gauge (242 km electrified; 178 km double track) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,166 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,166 km (including 118 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 37 km; Moselle
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 48 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Mertert
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 48 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,283,738 GRT/1,872,071 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, chemical tanker 10, container 1, liquified gas 18, passenger 4, petroleum tanker 6, roll-on/roll-off 7 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Luxembourg/Military|990150846
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army; note - the new government abolished the Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 111,882 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 92,238 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 2,563 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $131 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY98)
------
Luxembourg/Transnational_issues|990150860
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b> none
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker/The_Myth_of_the_Lone_Inventor|990158111
24a25,26
> ----
> I enjoyed this essay too.  I also think LA2 is right about abstraction.  Taken together, then, perhaps we may say that we should continue to teach in abstractions, especially when resources are limited, but we should make our students aware of the nature of the abstractions we make. -J
------
HomePage|990163298
33c33
< Wikipedia is international!  Here are some Wikipedia versions written in other languages... if you speak one of these languages, feel free to write directly there or to translate between wikipedias!
---
> ''[[International Wikipedia|Wikipedia is international!]]''  Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages, too:
35,39c35
< *(German)  [http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsch] 
< *(Catalan) [http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan]
< *(Japanese)[http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo] 
< 
< If you would like a Wikipedia version written in another language, please post a request on [[International Wikipedia]].
---
> ''[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
45c41
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
HomePage|990163328
35c35
< ''[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
---
> <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
------
International_Wikipedia|990167688
1c1
< This page will eventually be refactored to be a list or presentation of our foreign language versions.  But for now, we can use it as our International Wikipedia 'Talk' page.
---
> Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages:
3c3
< I have set up [http://catalan.wikipedia.com Catalan Wikipedia] and [http://deutsche.wikipedia.com Deutsche Wikipedia] (German) and [http://nihongo.wikipedia.com Nihongo no Wikpedia] (Japanese), and I anxiously expect there to be some problems or complaints as people start to use them.
---
> <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
5,32c5
< And then any other languages can be set up very quickly.
< 
< I would anticipate that a certain amount of "critical mass" is necessary in order for a wiki to "take off".  Without 5-10 people eagerly writing and arguing and playing with each other, it wouldn't be as much fun.  So I encourage anyone who likes to have a wiki in their own language to also go out and announce/recruit for it.  :-)
< 
< ----
< 
< Based on some very excellent recommendations and a little research on my part, I am thinking now of using these [http://www.egt.ie/standards/iso639/iso639-1-en.html ISO 639-1] codes for the 'canonical' names of the International Wikis.  'www' will be for the English language wiki, because it was first and largest, and because I speak English.  :-)
< 
< I will additionally attempt to support as many variations such as
< german.wikipedia.com, deutsche.wikipedia.com, etc.
< espanol.wikipedia.com, castellano.wikipedia.com, etc.
< 
< ...if you take a wild guess at one of those, then you will end up
< at the right place after all.
< ----
< 
< I've deleted the discussion, all of which was excellent, to make room for more discussion, if necessary.	
< 
< At the present time, I plan to create new wikis for each langauge only "upon request" -- but it only takes me 10 minutes to do it, so don't hesitate to request.
< ----
< What a great idea to run parallel wikipedias for different languages! All maintenance problems solved, back-up work and enthusiasm immediatly benefit all the wikis.
< 
< For my own personal taste I would very much like a wikipedia in swedish. The best name for it would be svensk.wikipedia.com with the canonical sv.wikipedia.com as a complement. [[LinusTolke]]
< 
< ----
< I loved the concept of Wikipedia site and I'm sure that it would be a sucess in my country! 
< 
< So, why not a Wikipedia in portuguese (pt.wikipedia.com)? I can't wait for that!
---
> A certain amount of "critical mass" is necessary in order for a wiki to "take off".  Without 5-10 people eagerly writing and arguing and playing with each other, it wouldn't be as much fun.  So we encourage anyone who wants to build a wiki in their own language to also go out and announce/recruit for it.  :-)
33a7,11
> Here are some "international Wikipedia" policy questions.  To a certain extent, these questions will resolve themselves, though.
> * How are the various Wikipedias going to be coordinated, if at all?  Will we have several quite different articles in different languages?  Will English be a ''lingua franca''?  See /Coordination to discuss.
> * What are some suggestions about what can be put on new language Wikipedia home pages?  See /Homepages to discuss.
> * What are some suggestions about how to use "international Wikipedias" for purposes of [[Nupedia]] article translation projects?  See [[/Nupedia Translation]] to discuss.
> * Anything else?
34a13
> '''Please suggest new language Wikipedias below!'''
36c15
< One of the people who did [[Frank]] would like to see a Wikipedia in French. He or she claims there is stuff ready to go in.
---
> For my own personal taste I would very much like a wikipedia in swedish. The best name for it would be svensk.wikipedia.com with the canonical sv.wikipedia.com as a complement. [[LinusTolke]]
------
International_Wikipedia/Coordination|990167754
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How are the various Wikipedias going to be coordinated, if at all?  Will we have several quite different articles in different languages?  Will English be a ''lingua franca'' (i.e., will the http://www.nupedia.com articles be regarded as "master articles")?
> 
> Please offer your opinions here.
------
International_Wikipedia/Homepages|990167889
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Please offer your advice on how to write a homepage for the "international Wikipedias."
> 
> One idea is simply to translate the English Wikipedia HomePage.  But there's nothing stopping you from beginning entirely anew.
------
International_Wikipedia/Homepages|990167961
3c3,5
< One idea is simply to translate the English Wikipedia HomePage.  But there's nothing stopping you from beginning entirely anew.
---
> One idea is simply to translate the English Wikipedia HomePage.  But there's nothing stopping you from beginning entirely anew.
> 
> You should, one way or another, give information ''about'' the WikiWiki concept, and make it clear that the encyclopedia is indeed intended to be a comprehensive encyclopedia ''in your language.''
------
International_Wikipedia/Coordination|990168115
3c3,5
< Please offer your opinions here.
---
> Please offer your opinions here.
> 
> One idea, though I don't know if I favor it myself, is to ask the contributors to international Wikipedias to focus on those topics that directly concern the culture, language, countries, etc., that use the language in question.  So, for example, http://fr.wikipedia.com might focus on all things French.  But I suppose I personally am not in favor of this suggestion, for the simple reason that there are millions of French people who don't know English but who do know enough to write excellent encyclopedia articles on all sorts of topics that have nothing specifically to do with France or French.  Why should they be discouraged by anyone? --[[LMS]]
------
Wiki|990168527
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT WikiWiki
------
International_Wikipedia/Nupedia_Translation|990168617
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How can we make use of international wikis to support Nupedia's article translation projects?  Actually, it seems rather simple:
> 
> # From the HomePage of your language's wiki, create a page for the project of translating Nupedia articles into your language.  You might name it, for example, "Nupedia articles" or "Nupedia article translation" or "Nupedia translation project"--whatever seems best.
> # On that page, create various ''sub''pages ([[/Like This]], with the slash) for individual web pages, and individual articles, that your project is working on.
> # Also on that page, upload and maintain any instructions for translators that you have worked out.
> 
> Any other suggestions?  Feel free to add them to this list.  Remember, this is a [[wiki]]!
> 
> As an example, you can see how [http://de.wikipedia.com/wiki/Nupedia_Deutsch-L_Sektion the Germans] have started.
> ----
> Any discussion of the above or of general issues about using Wikipedias to do Nupedia article translation?  This would be a good place for such discussion.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990168690
5a6,7
> 
> [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy_Talk|990168885
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This article at this writing identifies a "fallacy" I have never seen named as such.  Indeed, to call any relativism an instance of a "relativist fallacy" is itself fallacious--a failure to engage in the ''argument'' that is needed to demonstrate that whatever sort of relativism one is addressing is false.  This entry strikes me, as a philosopher, as simply worthless.  I will delete it unless someone can explain to me why I shouldn't.  (By the way, I personally am just about the furthest you can get from a relativist.) --[[LMS]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy_Talk|990169144
1c1,3
< This article at this writing identifies a "fallacy" I have never seen named as such.  Indeed, to call any relativism an instance of a "relativist fallacy" is itself fallacious--a failure to engage in the ''argument'' that is needed to demonstrate that whatever sort of relativism one is addressing is false.  This entry strikes me, as a philosopher, as simply worthless.  I will delete it unless someone can explain to me why I shouldn't.  (By the way, I personally am just about the furthest you can get from a relativist.) --[[LMS]]
---
> This article at this writing identifies a "fallacy" I have never seen named as such.  Indeed, to call any relativism an instance of a "relativist fallacy" is itself fallacious--a failure to engage in the ''argument'' that is needed to demonstrate that whatever sort of relativism one is addressing is false.  This entry strikes me, as a philosopher, as simply worthless.  I will delete it unless someone can explain to me why I shouldn't.  (By the way, I personally am just about the furthest you can get from a relativist.)
> 
> OK, a [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22relativist+fallacy%22 Google search] actually brings up other results.  Please consult [http://www.nizkor.org/features/fallacies/relativist-fallacy.html] for how the present, blatantly biased, Wikipedia article could be improved. --[[LMS]]
------
Muenchen|990169475
1,4c1
< München is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Munich]].
< 
< See the city's own website, http://www.muenchen.de/
< 
---
> ''München'' is the German name for [[Munich]].
------
Munich|990169532
1c1,3
< Munich is the English name for the German city [[Muenchen|München]].
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Muenchen|München]].
> 
> See the city's own website, http://www.muenchen.de/
------
Bayern|990169590
1,11c1
< The name in [[German language|German]] for [[Bavaria]],
< one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
< 
< Current minister-president of Bayern is [[Edmund Stoiber]].
< 
< See the state's own website, http://www.bayern.de/
< 
< The motorcycle and automobile maker [[BMW]] is a Bavarian industry.
< 
< 
< 
---
> The name in [[German language|German]] for [[Bavaria]], which see.
------
Bavaria|990169694
2a3
> [[Bavaria]] is one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  The name in [[German language|German]] is [[Bayern]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
3a5
> Current minister-president of Bavaria is [[Edmund Stoiber]].
4a7
> See the state's own website, http://www.bayern.de/
6c9
< 
---
> The motorcycle and automobile maker [[BMW]] is a Bavarian industry.
------
Bavaria|990169720
1,2d0
< The English name for [[Bayern]], one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
< 
------
Bundesland|990169761
4c4
< *[[Bayern]]
---
> *[[Bavaria]] (in German, [[Bayern]])
24c24
< http://www.verwaltung.uni-muenchen.de/Student_und_Arbeitsmarkt/pics/karte.gif
---
> http://www.verwaltung.uni-muenchen.de/Student_und_Arbeitsmarkt/pics/karte.gif
------
Germany|990169836
1c1
< Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of [[Europe]]. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
---
> Germany is a major [[industrialized country]] in the middle of [[Europe]] made up of [[Bundesland|sixteen Bundesländer]]. The official name is "[[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]]" ([[Federal Republic of Germany]]).
------
Germany/politics|990169952
13c13
< Administrative divisions: 16 states (Laender, singular - Land); [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bayern]], [[Berlin]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
---
> Administrative divisions: 16 states (''Länder,'' singular ''Land''; or ''Bundesländer,'' singular ''[[Bundesland]]''); [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bavaria]] (in German, [[Bayern]]), [[Berlin]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
------
Germany/politics|990170010
62c62
< The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states (Bundesländer). The federal government ([[Bundesregierung]]) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
---
> The Federal Republic (Bundesrepublik) consists of the aforementioned 16 federal states ([[Bundesland|Bundesländer]]). The federal government ([[Bundesregierung]]) has the final say on most matters, but state-specific legislation, control over the police and cultural affairs are handled by the states' governments.
------
English_language/British_English|990170777
3c3
< Note to Wikipedians: There are a vast number of resources on the net in this area, all of which are suprizingly (or is that surprisingly?) innacurate and incomplete.  I hope the process here will lead to a more useful reference.  In particular, I would appreciate it if the Brits here would fill in usage details I may not know about.
---
> Note to Wikipedians: There are a vast number of resources on the net in this area, all of which are suprisingly inaccurate and incomplete.  I hope the process here will lead to a more useful reference.  In particular, I would appreciate it if the Brits here would fill in usage details I may not know about.
------
Thule|990171009
6c6
< * On the 22 of january 1968 a B-52 crashed 7 miles south of the Air Force Bace. Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
---
> * On the 22nd of January 1968 a B-52 crashed 7 miles south of the Air Force Bace. Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
7a8
> /Talk
------
Thule/Talk|990171110
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> History and current events never were my best subjects, but this surprised me:
> :On the 22nd of January 1968 a B-52 crashed 7 miles south of the Air Force Bace. Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
> Is that true?  Given its implausibility and the fact that "Base" was spelled "Bace," I'm having my doubts.
------
Thule/Talk|990171216
3c3
< Is that true?  Given its implausibility and the fact that "Base" was spelled "Bace," I'm having my doubts.
---
> Is that true?  Hmm, I felt compelled to do research, and found [http://www.nautilus.org/library/security/foia/white012368.html this].  Huh.
------
Thule|990171349
5,6c5
< 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base. The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]). The proposed update of the facility to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).
< * On the 22nd of January 1968 a B-52 crashed 7 miles south of the Air Force Bace. Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
---
> 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a B-52 crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
------
Currency|990171461
52c52
< *[[Rubel]] - [[Belarus]], [[Russia]]
---
> *[[Rouble]] - [[Belarus]], [[Russia]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|990172619
103a104,109
> ----
> 
> In a change note to Bavaria/Bayern, [[Larry Sanger]] wrote: We use English names for places in the English Wikipedia; use German names on [http://de.wikipedia.com/ de.wikipedia.com]! :-)
> 
> [[LA2]]: There seems to be a bug in the installation/configuration of de.wikipedia.com in that ?-links are not converted to underline links when the linked-to article exists.  The only exception to this rule seems to be the [[http://de.wikipedia.com/wiki/RecentChanges RecentChanges]] list.
> 
------
Electronic_Music|990173407
21a22,24
> :[[Tangerine Dream]]
> :[[Klaus Schultze]]
> :[[Jean Michel Jarre]]
------
HomePage|990174487
3a4,5
> ----
> '''[[International Wikipedia|Wikipedia is international!]]'''  Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages, too:
4a7,9
> <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
> ----
> Wikipedia arranged by subject:
33,36d37
< ''[[International Wikipedia|Wikipedia is international!]]''  Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages, too:
< 
< <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
< ----
41c42
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
HomePage|990175235
28c28
< * [[How to start a page|How does one start a page]]?  And [[how does one edit a page]]?  ''It's really easy: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
---
> * [[How to start a page|How does one start a page]]?  And [[how does one edit a page]]?  ''It's easy: press the "Edit text of this page" link at the top and bottom of every page!''  Practice editing pages in our SandBox.
------
German_language|990175986
13c13
< Does this page do any justice whatsoever to this very fine language?  No, it's just here so that Austrian and Luxembourgain have homes.  It's sad, really, but it won't be this way forever.  And there is a German version of [[wikipedia]] starting up, yes, at http://deutsche.wikipedia.com!
---
> Does this page do any justice whatsoever to this very fine language?  No, it's just here so that Austrian and Luxembourgain have homes.  It's sad, really, but it won't be this way forever.  And there is a German version of [[wikipedia]] starting up, yes, at http://de.wikipedia.com!
------
Germany/politics|990176289
28c28
< cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundeskanzler]] (heh, that should be [[Bundesregierung]], right?  --[[LA2]]) appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
---
> cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundesregierung]] (Yes, that <i>should</i> be that -- [[IAm]]) appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990176405
1c1
< [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the ([[CSU]]) [[Edmund Stoiber|he]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
---
> [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the [[CSU]]. [[Edmund Stoiber|He]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
------
IAm|990176565
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[IAm|I am]] doing some editing stuff here.
------
Trolltech|990178204
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Trolltech]] is a computer software company. [[Trolltech|They]] provide software development tools and libraries, as well as expert consulting services.
> 
> [[Trolltech|Their]] flagship product is Qt, the multi-platform, C++ Graphical User Interfaces toolkit.
> 
> Trolltech was founded in 1994. The core team of designers at Trolltech started developing Qt in 1992, and since then Qt has steadily expanded and improved.
> 
> (<i>From the Trolltech Website</i>)
> 
> Read more about [[Trolltech]] on http://www.trolltech.com
------
HomePage|990180759
5c5
< '''[[International Wikipedia|Wikipedia is international!]]'''  Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages, too:
---
> '''[[International Wikipedia|Wikipedia is now international!]]'''  Wiki encyclopedias have been started in other languages, too:
7c7
< <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
---
> [http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
------
Trolltech|990180959
1c1
< [[Trolltech]] is a computer software company. [[Trolltech|They]] provide software development tools and libraries, as well as expert consulting services.
---
> Trolltech is a computer software company. They provide software development tools and libraries, as well as expert consulting services.
3c3
< [[Trolltech|Their]] flagship product is Qt, the multi-platform, C++ Graphical User Interfaces toolkit.
---
> Their flagship product is Qt, the multi-platform, C++ Graphical User Interfaces toolkit.
9c9
< Read more about [[Trolltech]] on http://www.trolltech.com
---
> Read more about Trolltech on http://www.trolltech.com
------
KDE|990181050
1c1
< KDE is an [[OpenSource|Open Source]] graphical desktop environment and framework built with TrollTech's [[QT Toolkit]] for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. The "K" may or may not stand for "Kool". KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
---
> KDE is an [[OpenSource|Open Source]] graphical desktop environment and framework built with [[Trolltech]]'s [[QT Toolkit]] for [[Unix]] and thus [[Linux]] workstations. The "K" may or may not stand for "Kool". KDE 1.0 was released in July 1998, to be followed by version 2.0 in October 2000. The current version (2.1.1) was released in March 2001. 
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|990182824
1c1
< Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who, fearing he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
---
> As told in the ''[[The Apology of Socrates|Apology]]''--one of the best-known works of [[Greek philosophy]] and [[Greek literature|literature]]--the trial that led to the death of [[Socrates]] was dramatic.  Socrates' reasoning and [[philosophy]], and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the leaders of the Athenian ''[[polis]]'' who, fearing he was leading the young people of the [[Ancient Athens|Athens]] astray.  An ambitious young Athenian, [[Meletus]] (with [[Anytus]] and [[Lycon]]), led the prosecution against Socrates, who accused Socrates of being "a doer of evil, who corrupts the youth; and who does not believe in the gods of the state, but has other new divinities of his own." (''The Apology of Socrates'')
3c3
< Athenian trials did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult stuff, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone it.  Even so, the jury was not nearly as pitiless as the above suggests - the vote on the guilt came out very close to 50-50, and they had not chosen the sentence yet.
---
> A trial, before a "jury" of 501 Athenian citizens--which constituted the Athenian Senate--was held in which Socrates called into question the whole basis for the trial, instead of putting on a self-abasing, eloquent defense, which was expected.  By a very narrow margin, the Athenians found Socrates guilty.  Next, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested competing sentences.  Socrates jokingly suggested free meals, but then finally settled on an insultingly small fine.  His prosecutor urged death.  The Athenians held a second vote, on the sentences.  The verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, and indeed the city fathers expected this and were probably not averse to it; but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
5,7c5
< In Athenian trials, the sentence was chosen between suggestions from the two parties.  The prosecution of course chose execution.  The reason this was taken was that Socrates' suggestion was, rather than the expected exile, a fine so small it may as well have not been there.  Now the verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.
< 
< All in all: it seems now that the jury chose wrong and executed an innocent man as a result.  But it also seems wrong to cast them as a bunch of pitiless judges, or imply that they cared nothing for justice, as neither is true.  Part of the tragedy of Socrates' death is that neither he nor the jury was really at fault.
---
> [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
------
PopularMusic|990183011
1,55c1
< Do you know the basic facts about these performers?  Write them down!
< 
< * [[Paula Abdul]]
< * [[All Saints]]
< * [[Tori Amos]]
< * [[Fiona Apple]]
< * [[Tina Arena]]
< * [[Sherrie Austin]]
< 
< * [[Backstreet Boys]]
< * [[The Beatles]]
< * [[Ana Belen]]
< * [[Bjork]]
< * [[Tracy Bonham]]
< * [[Toni Braxton]]
< * [[Danielle Brisbois]]
< * [[Garth Brooks]]
< * [[Meredith Brooks]]
< 
< * [[Mariah Carey]]
< * [[Belinda Carlisle]]
< * [[Robyn Carlsson]]
< * [[Mary Chapin Carpenter]]
< * [[Johnny Cash]]
< * [[Cher]]
< * [[Eric Clapton]]
< * [[Kurt_Cobain]]
< * [[Andrea Corr]]
< * [[Creedence Clearwater Revival]]
< * [[Sheryl Crow]]
< 
< * [[En Vogue]]
< 
< * [[Macy Gray]]
< 
< * [[Jars Of Clay]]
< * [[Billy Joel]]
< * [[Elton John]]
< 
< * [[King Crimson]]
< 
< * [[Masive Attack]]
< * [[Metallica]]
< 
< * [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
< 
< * [[Shirehorses]]
< * [[Michael W Smith]]
< * [[Britney Spears]]
< * [[Cat Stevens]]
< * [[The Sugarcubes]]
< 
< * [[Talking Heads]]
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[Popular Music/Performers]]
------
Popular_Music/Performers|990183043
1c1,55
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Do you know the basic facts about these performers?  Write them down!
> 
> * [[Paula Abdul]]
> * [[All Saints]]
> * [[Tori Amos]]
> * [[Fiona Apple]]
> * [[Tina Arena]]
> * [[Sherrie Austin]]
> 
> * [[Backstreet Boys]]
> * [[The Beatles]]
> * [[Ana Belen]]
> * [[Bjork]]
> * [[Tracy Bonham]]
> * [[Toni Braxton]]
> * [[Danielle Brisbois]]
> * [[Garth Brooks]]
> * [[Meredith Brooks]]
> 
> * [[Mariah Carey]]
> * [[Belinda Carlisle]]
> * [[Robyn Carlsson]]
> * [[Mary Chapin Carpenter]]
> * [[Johnny Cash]]
> * [[Cher]]
> * [[Eric Clapton]]
> * [[Kurt_Cobain]]
> * [[Andrea Corr]]
> * [[Creedence Clearwater Revival]]
> * [[Sheryl Crow]]
> 
> * [[En Vogue]]
> 
> * [[Macy Gray]]
> 
> * [[Jars Of Clay]]
> * [[Billy Joel]]
> * [[Elton John]]
> 
> * [[King Crimson]]
> 
> * [[Masive Attack]]
> * [[Metallica]]
> 
> * [[NirvanaBand|Nirvana]]
> 
> * [[Shirehorses]]
> * [[Michael W Smith]]
> * [[Britney Spears]]
> * [[Cat Stevens]]
> * [[The Sugarcubes]]
> 
> * [[Talking Heads]]
> ----
> /Talk
------
Popular_Music|990183171
3c3
< Subcategories with or deserving of entries:
---
> Music that can be described as popular music:
17,18c17
< ----
< See rule of Maximum Simplicity on the [[Naming conventions]] page before changing links.
---
> A list of current bands playing on "pop music" radio stations can be found at /Performers.
------
Popular_Music|990183187
17c17
< A list of current bands playing on "pop music" radio stations can be found at /Performers.
---
> A list of current performers playing on "pop music" radio stations can be found at /Performers.
------
Popular_Music|990183280
3c3
< Music that can be described as popular music:
---
> Music genres that can be described as popular music include
17c17
< A list of current performers playing on "pop music" radio stations can be found at /Performers.
---
> As the term is most commonly understood, "popular music" or "pop music" describes kinds of [[rock and roll]] most popular on the radio.  A list of current performers playing on "pop music" radio stations can be found at /Performers.
------
Propaganda_film|990183425
13a14,15
> 
> See also [[propaganda]].
------
HomePage|990190341
7c7
< [http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
---
> [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
------
Oboe|990190530
1a2,5
> 
> The oboe is usually made from wood, with an extremely narrow conical [[bore]], and double-reed mouthpiece. This leads to overblowing at the octave (compare to the [[clarinet]] which overblows a twelfth). Together with the flute it is one of the older [[woodwind]] instruments.
> 
> Sibling instruments are the cor Anglais (English horn, an octave lower than the oboe) and oboe d'amore.
------
Saxophone|990190608
5c5
< This instrument was created in the mid 1800s by Adolphe Sax.
---
> This instrument was created in the mid 1800s by [[Adolphe Sax]].
------
Mehmed_II|990192854
1c1
< Mehmed II (the Conqueror; 1432-1481) was an [[Ottoman]] Empire, who ruled from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. He gave an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]] by capturing [[Constantinople]] and other Byzantine cities left in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkan|Balkans]]. The invasion of Constantinople and some more successful campaigns against various small kingdoms in the Balkans and some other Turkic territories in [[Anatolia]] bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman State was started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. 
---
> Mehmed II (the Conqueror; 1432-1481) was an [[Ottoman]] emperor, who ruled from 1444 to 1446 and from 1451 to 1481. He gave an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]] by capturing [[Constantinople]] and other Byzantine cities left in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Balkan|Balkans]]. The invasion of Constantinople and some more successful campaigns against various small kingdoms in the Balkans and some other Turkic territories in [[Anatolia]] bestowed immense glory and prestige on the country and the Ottoman State was started to be recognized as an empire for the first time. 
5c5
< He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify the criminal and constitutional laws long before [[Suleiman the Magnificient]] (Lawmaker) and thus establishing the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (?padisah?). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. 
---
> He is also recognized as the first sultan to codify the criminal and constitutional laws long before [[Suleiman the Magnificient]] (Lawmaker) and thus establishing the classical image of the autocratic Ottoman sultan (padisah). After the fall of Constantinople, he founded many universities and colleges in the city, some of which are still active. 
------
Saxophone|990194238
1c1
< A musical instrument considered of both [[reed instrument]] family and the [[brass instrument]] family.
---
> A musical instrument of the [[woodwind]] family, usually made of brass and with a distinctive loop bringing the bell upwards.
3c3
< It is considered of both, because it is made of brass, but as the [[clarinet]], [[bassoon]], and [[oboe]], it depends on a reed to be able to play.
---
> The saxophone is most commonly associated with popular music, big-band and jazz, but it was originally intended as both an orchestral and military band instrument.
5c5
< This instrument was created in the mid 1800s by [[Adolphe Sax]].
---
> Construction
7c7
< It has different modalities.  Soprano, alto, tenor, and bass are the most common, however, there are at least 16 different types of saxophone.
---
> The saxophone is sometimes considered to be of both the [[woodwind]] and [[brass]] families. In fact it is undeniably a woodwind instrument, as the material from which it is made has little bearing on the sound quality produced, examples being the 1950's plastic saxophones made by the Grafton company, and the rare wooden saxophones which have also been made.
9c9,30
< This instrument is used in marching bands, philarmonic orchestras, jazz bands, and blues, among others.
---
> The saxophone uses a single reed mouthpiece similar to that of a clarinet, but of a more pointed shape. The saxophone's body is effectively conical, giving it properties more similar to the [[oboe]] than [[clarinet]]. However, unlike the oboe whose tube is a single cone the saxophone is a combination of four conic sections. The use of a cone enables overblowing at the octave rather than the twelfth (as for the [[clarinet]]), but the exceptionally wide bore gives the instrument a much fuller sound than the oboe. The loop at the bell, whilst now synonymous with the saxophone, has little effect on the sound, and the higher saxophones (soprano, sopranino) rarely have one at all.
> 
> With a simple fingering system owing much to the recorder, flute and clarinet, the saxophone is commonly held as an easy instrument to learn, especially when transferring from other woodwind instruments.
> 
> 
> Members of the Family
> 
> The saxophone was originally patented as two families, each of seven instruments. The "orchestral" family consisted of instruments in the keys of C and F, and the "band" family in Eb and Bb. Each family consisted of Sopranino, Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Baritone, Bass and Contrabass although some of these were never made (Sax also planned - but never made - a subcontra!). 
> 
> Of these the orchestral family are now rarely found and of the band family only the alto, tenor and baritone are in common use (these form the typical saxophone sections of both military and big bands). The soprano has regained a degree of popularity over recent decades, and the bass, sopranino and even contrabass are still manufactured. Sopranino, bass and contrabass are rarely used except in large saxophone ensembles and saxophone orchestras.
> 
> The wide bore of the saxophone means that the larger saxes are extremely large and heavy.
> 
> History
> 
> The saxophone was created in the mid 1840s by [[Adolphe Sax]], a Belgian-born instrument maker working in Paris, and was first officially revealed to the public in the patent of 1846.  Adolphe Sax's amazing ability to offend rival instrument manufacturers led to it not being used in orchestral groups and for a long time it was relegated to military bands - this despite his great friendship with the influential Parisien composer [[Berlioz]]. 
> 
> The inspiration for the instrument is unknown, but there is good evidence that fitting a clarinet mouthpiece to an [[ophicleide]] is the most likely route (doing so results in a definitely saxophone-like sound). Sax worked in his father's workshop for many years, and both clarinets and ophiceides were manufactured there. Another speculative possibility is that he was trying to force a clarinet to overblow an octave, but this is perhaps unlikely as a man of his experience would have realised that many of the best harmonic properties of the clarinet stem from its cylindrical construction and inherent overblowing at the twelfth.
> 
> It is likely that the larger saxes were the first to be used, as Sax intended the saxophone to replace ophicleides in military bands. The smaller saxes, whilst now more common than their larger siblings came later, although all are listed in the patent.
> 
> The subsequent development is defined almost entirely in terms of Sax's patent, as for the duration of the patent (1846-1866) no one except the Sax factory in Rue St Goerges, Paris could (legally) manufacture or modify the instruments. After 1866 a succession of modifications were introduced by a number of manufacturers, most notably Evette and Schaeffer, Lecomte, Fontaine-Besson and of course the Sax company, leading by the early 1900's to instruments very similar to those of today.
------
Munich|990198703
1c1
< Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Muenchen|München]].
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a week-long celebration of beer. 
3c3
< See the city's own website, http://www.muenchen.de/
---
> See the city's own website, http://www.muenchen.de/
------
HomePage|990199149
7c7
< [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
---
> [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Français)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
------
Munich|990199471
1c1
< Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its English name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a week-long celebration of beer. 
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a week-long celebration of beer. 
------
International_Phonetic_Alphabet|990199510
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A phonetic alphabet created by English and French phoneticians. Most letters are Latin or derived from Latin letters, some are of Greek origin and there are some letters apparently unrelated to former letters. The sound-values of the letters are in some cases identical with French and/or English usage; e.g. [z] has the same sound as in English ZINC or French ZÉRO. [j], on the other hand, has the sound value of English Y in YOKE; whereas [y] has its Scandinavian and Old English value. Vowels in general tend to be close to Latin and Italian, [e] is closer than English /e/ in MET, /i/ is the vowel sound found in English MEET; and so on. 
------
Byzantine_Empire|990199567
13c13
< Three Byzantine successors were left - [[Nicaea]], [[Epirus]], and [[Manzikert]].  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the [[Palaeologian dynasty]], so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the [[Muslim]]s were too divided to attack, but eventually the [[Ottoman]]s overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege to [[Mehmet II]] in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
---
> Three Byzantine successors were left - [[Nicaea]], [[Epirus]], and [[Manzikert]].  The first managed to reclaim Constantinople and defeat Epirus under the [[Palaeologian dynasty]], so reviving the empire but turning attention to Europe when Asia was the primary concern.  For a while the empire survived simply because the [[Muslim]]s were too divided to attack, but eventually the [[Ottoman]]s overran all but a handful of port cities.  Constantinople was initially considered not worth the effort, but with the advent of cannons fell under a two year siege to [[Mehmed II]] in 1453.  By the end of the century the remaining cities also fell.
------
Bavaria|990199578
7c7,11
< The motorcycle and automobile maker [[BMW]] is a Bavarian industry.
---
> The motorcycle and automobile maker [[BMW]] is a Bavarian industry.
> 
> ----
> 
> Bavaria is also a Dutch beer brand.  See http://www.bavaria.nl
------
International_Phonetic_Alphabet|990199621
1c1,2
< A phonetic alphabet created by English and French phoneticians. Most letters are Latin or derived from Latin letters, some are of Greek origin and there are some letters apparently unrelated to former letters. The sound-values of the letters are in some cases identical with French and/or English usage; e.g. [z] has the same sound as in English ZINC or French ZÉRO. [j], on the other hand, has the sound value of English Y in YOKE; whereas [y] has its Scandinavian and Old English value. Vowels in general tend to be close to Latin and Italian, [e] is closer than English /e/ in MET, /i/ is the vowel sound found in English MEET; and so on. 
---
> A phonetic alphabet created by English and French phoneticians. Most letters are Latin or derived from Latin letters, some are of Greek origin and there are some letters apparently unrelated to former letters. The sound-values of the letters are in some cases identical with French and/or English usage; e.g. [z] has the same sound as in English ZINC or French ZÉRO. [j], on the other hand, has the sound value of English Y in YOKE; whereas [y] has its Scandinavian and Old English value. Vowels in general tend to be close to Latin and Italian, [e] is closer than English /e/ in MET, /i/ is the vowel sound found in English MEET; and so on. 
> Official homepage of the International Phonetic Association: http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html
------
Munich|990199818
1c1
< Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a week-long celebration of beer. 
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a 2 weeks long celebration of beer running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
------
Jonny_Z|990199844
1c1,13
< Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". 
---
> Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". Besides bass music, he also recorded some funk-influenced hip hop as found on his earlier albums.
> 
> Discography:
> 
> Jonny Z (1996)
> 
> Sancho Villa (1999)
> 
> Z 1 N Only (1998)
> 
> Bass Balla (2000)
> 
> El Catrin (2000)
------
Socrates|990199900
7c7
< Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who feared he was leading the young people of the city astray.  The Athenians held a vote and determined that he should be condemned to death, after a trial in which Socrates, instead of putting on an eloquent defense, called into question the whole basis for the trial.  The judges were unmoved.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.  For more information, see [[/The Trial of Socrates]]
---
> Socrates wandered the streets talking to people, though he was a bricklayer by trade and he supported a wife and children.  Socrates' reasoning and philosophy, and the questions they raised not only about ephemeral things but also political, moral, and legal matters, drew the ire of the community's leaders who feared he was leading the young people of the city astray.  Eventually he was tried on vague charges of corrupting the youth and executed - see [[/The Trial of Socrates]].
------
Jonny_Z|990199954
5c5
< Jonny Z (1996)
---
> Jonny Z (1996) Pump Records
7c7
< Sancho Villa (1999)
---
> Sancho Villa (1999) One Lit'l Vato Records
9c9
< Z 1 N Only (1998)
---
> Z 1 N Only (1998) Pump Records
11c11
< Bass Balla (2000)
---
> Bass Balla (2000) Thump Records
13c13
< El Catrin (2000)
---
> El Catrin (2000) Thump Records
------
Jonny_Z|990200054
3c3
< Discography:
---
> Albums:
13a14,16
> 
> Hits and More (2000)
> 
------
BMW|990200057
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke. They are one of several German quality car manufacturers but also make motorcycles. 
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|990200337
5c5,10
< [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
---
> ----
> 
> ''...before a "jury" of 501 Athenian citizens--which constituted the Athenian Senate...''
> 
> Are you sure of this?  From everything I have read, Athenian juries were randomly selected from amidst the population, with legislation handled by the assembly.  I do not see how the word senate really applies to them.
> [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|990200366
4a5,7
> 
> [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
> 
9,10c12
< Are you sure of this?  From everything I have read, Athenian juries were randomly selected from amidst the population, with legislation handled by the assembly.  I do not see how the word senate really applies to them.
< [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
---
> Are you sure of this?  From everything I have read, Athenian juries were randomly selected from amidst the population, with legislation handled by the assembly.  I do not see how the word senate really applies to them.
------
BMW|990200397
1c1
< BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke. They are one of several German quality car manufacturers but also make motorcycles. 
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality car manufacturers but also make motorcycles. 
------
Jonny_Z|990200504
16a17,18
> Greatest Hitz (2000)
> 
------
BMW|990200792
1c1
< BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality car manufacturers but also make motorcycles. 
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. 
------
Ruby|990201060
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A strongly object oriented programming language with obvious syntax
> It has its roots in smalltalk, Perl and lisp.
> 
> http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/
------
Sheryl_Crow|990201166
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American alternative rock singer, guitarrist and song writer. CDs include The Globe Sessions (1998) and a self-titled album (1996). Among her best known songs are "A Change Would Do You Good", "Every Day Is a Winding Road" and "My Favorite Mistake". Participated in Lilith Fair, the all woman rock tour. 
------
Physician|990201452
14c14,16
< [[LA2]]: Yes, but we need a page that's titled "surgeon" because we want to document that a person was surgeon and the surgeon page could point to famous surgeons.  So that page is part of a structure of physicians (this page), at the same time as it points to the art of surgery, which is part of the medicine structure.  Which other way could we accomplish this?  The words exist in our language (surgery and surgeon), so people will find need to link to them.  We already have the same parallel structure with [[scientist]] and [[science]] and their subcategories.
---
> [[LA2]]: Yes, but we need a page that's titled "surgeon" because we want to document that a person was surgeon and the surgeon page could point to famous surgeons.  So that page is part of a structure of physicians (this page), at the same time as it points to the art of surgery, which is part of the medicine structure.  Which other way could we accomplish this?  The words exist in our language (surgery and surgeon), so people will find need to link to them.  We already have the same parallel structure with [[scientist]] and [[science]] and their subcategories.----
> If you want a page for surgeon, then you have to add a <b>link</b> to this page like
> <code>[[/Surgeon]]</code>
------
Dairy_product|990201732
1c1
< Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. Raw milk for processing normally comes from [[cow]]s, but occasionally a [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], or [[horses]].
---
> Dairy products are [[foodstuff]]s produced from [[milk]] (with some exceptions).  A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. Raw milk for processing normally comes from [[cow]]s, but occasionally a [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], [[yak]]s or [[horses]].
5a6
> *[[Buttermilk]]
------
Awk|990201858
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> AWK is a pattern/action language that can be used for data analysis,
> manipulation and simple reporting. It is one of the early tools to appear
> in Version 3 UNIX and gained popularity as a way to add computational
> features to a UNIX PipeLine. The name AWK is derived from the names of it's
> authors, Alfred V. Aho, Brian W. Kernighan, Peter J. Weinberger.
> 
> A version of AWK is a standard feature of nearly every modern [[unix-like]]
> operating system available today. The most common versions are listed at
> http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/awkbook/
> 
------
Munich|990201966
1c1
< Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before WWII. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the Oktoberfest, a 2 weeks long celebration of beer running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before [[World War II]]. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the [[Oktoberfest]], a 2 weeks long celebration of [[beer]] running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
------
Munich|990202176
1c1,3
< Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the Blaue Reiter artistic movement before [[World War II]]. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the [[Oktoberfest]], a 2 weeks long celebration of [[beer]] running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
---
> Munich is a [[city]] in and the state capital of [[Bayern]] in [[Germany]].  Its German name is [[Muenchen|München]]. 
> 
> Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the [[Blaue Reiter]] artistic movement before [[World War I]]. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the [[Oktoberfest]], a 2 weeks long celebration of [[beer]] running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|990202241
3c3
< She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a [[documentary film]]-maker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in Berlin.
---
> She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a [[documentary film]]-maker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in [[Berlin]].
5c5
< After the war, she spent four years in a French detention camp, but in spite of her controversial role in the Third Reich, there was no evidence for crimes commited by her. There were accusations of her using [[concentration camp]] inmates on her film sets, but those claims couldn't be proved in court. Lacking the resources, she dropped fillmaking after the war and became a photographer, although she recently made some new documentary films.
---
> After the war, she spent four years in a French detention camp, but in spite of her controversial role in the Third Reich, there was no evidence for crimes commited by her. There were accusations of her using [[concentration camp]] inmates on her film sets, but those claims couldn't be proved in court. Lacking the resources, she dropped filmmaking after the war and became a photographer, although she recently made some new documentary films.
9c9
< Filmography:
---
> <b>Filmography:</b>
------
Blaue_Reiter|990202654
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Blaue Reiter artistic movement was created in [[Munich]] before [[World War I]]. [[Wassily Kandinsky]] was at the forefront of the movement. Other well-known artists that were part of it were [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The members were interested in European [[medieval art]] and [[primitivism]] as well as the contemporary, [[non-figurative]] art scene in [[France]]. 
> 
> The name of the movement comes from a painting of a blue knight that was used on the front of a short-lived magazine edited by its members. 
------
Nazi_Germany|990202722
15a16
>  [[Rudolf Hess]]
------
PipeLine|990202747
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A PipeLine is a command line feature prevalent in UNIX and other
> [unix-like]  operating systems. The authors of the early UNIX command shells
> noticed that much of the time they were processing the output of one program
> with another. They established a means of chaining the running programs
> together as [co-processes] so that the output of the first program became the
> input to the second. A PipeLine can be extended to any number of commands.
> 
> Most UNIX commands obey a few conventions so that they can be used in
> PipeLines?. These include: line oriented records, reading from standard
> input, and writing to standard out.
> 
------
PipeLine|990202818
9c9
< PipeLines?. These include: line oriented records, reading from standard
---
> PipeLines. These include: line oriented records, reading from standard
------
Blaue_Reiter|990202859
1c1
< The Blaue Reiter artistic movement was created in [[Munich]] before [[World War I]]. [[Wassily Kandinsky]] was at the forefront of the movement. Other well-known artists that were part of it were [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The members were interested in European [[medieval art]] and [[primitivism]] as well as the contemporary, [[non-figurative]] art scene in [[France]]. 
---
> The Blaue Reiter group of artist was established in [[Munich]] in 1911. [[Wassily Kandinsky]] was one of the founders. Other well-known artists that were part of it were [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The members were interested in European [[medieval art]] and [[primitivism]] as well as the contemporary, [[non-figurative]] art scene in [[France]]. 
3c3
< The name of the movement comes from a painting of a blue knight that was used on the front of a short-lived magazine edited by its members. 
---
> The name of the movement comes from a painting of a blue knight that was used on the front of an almanac edited by its members. 
------
English_language/British_English|990203111
50c50
< 	director		[[CEO]]
---
> 	MD (managing director)	[[CEO]] (Chief Executive Officer)
59a60
> 	lounge			[[living room]]
------
English_language/British_English|990203141
50d49
< 	MD (managing director)	[[CEO]] (Chief Executive Officer)
60a60
> 	MD (managing director)	[[CEO]] (Chief Executive Officer)
------
Actinopterygii|990203719
50,51c50,51
< *** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]]  (scorpionfishes)
< *** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches, puffers, flatfish & many allies)
---
> *** Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] (triggerfishes & allies)
> *** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches, scorpionfishes, flatfishes & many allies)
------
Trade/organisations|990203772
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *[[GATT]] -- General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
> *[[WTO]] -- World Trade Organisation
> *[[OPEC]] -- Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
> *[[ICC]] --International Chamber of Commerce
------
Bavaria|990203911
11c11
< Bavaria is also a Dutch beer brand.  See http://www.bavaria.nl
---
> Bavaria is also a Dutch [[beer]] brand.  See http://www.bavaria.nl
------
Structuralist_film_theory|990204029
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This theory emphasizes how film's convey meaning through the use of codes and conventions not dissimilar to the way languages are used to construct meaning in communication.
------
Structuralist_film_theory|990204157
1c1
< This theory emphasizes how film's convey meaning through the use of codes and conventions not dissimilar to the way languages are used to construct meaning in communication.
---
> This theory emphasizes how [[film]]s convey meaning through the use of codes and conventions not dissimilar to the way [[language]]s are used to construct meaning in communication.
------
Propaganda_film|990204500
15c15,17
< See also [[propaganda]].
---
> See also [[propaganda]].
> 
> However, the distinction of what is propaganda need not be limited to non-fiction film.  Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the genre conventions of the war film that developed from the period was the notion that a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
------
Film_genres|990204565
18a19
> :[[War Genre Films]]
------
War_Genre_Films|990204597
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the genre conventions of the war film that developed from the period was the notion that a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
> 
> (See also [[Propaganda]])
------
War_Genre_Films|990204658
3c3
< (See also [[Propaganda]])
---
> (See also [[Propaganda]].  A related topic in some history of the genre.)
------
Martial_arts_Film|990204835
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Originated in the Pacific Rim.
> 
> [[Bruce Lee]] brought the genre into mainstream acceptance.
> 
> [[Jackie Chan]] played off of [[Bruce Lee]]'s serious films with comedy.
> 
> Other Martial Arts film stars:
> :[[Steven Segal]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990205187
1c1
< The relativist fallacy, also known as [[polylogism]], is committed when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy applies only to objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.
---
> The relativist fallacy, also known as [[polylogism]] or [[subjectivism]], is committed when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy applies only to objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.
3c3
< The fallacy is often adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that by another equally valid logic the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally never introduced by people whose opinions stand up to logic to begin with.
---
> The fallacy may adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
5c5
< The relativist fallacy was popularized in Western culture by [[Karl Marx]] who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  It is a common element of [[post-modernism|post-modern philosophy]] and of so-called [[radical feminism]].
---
> The relativist fallacy was popularized in Western culture by [[Karl Marx]] who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  
7c7,11
< [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
---
> In determining whether the relativist fallacy has been committed, one should distinguish between things which are true ''for'' a particular person, and things which are true ''about'' that person.  Take, for example, the statement profferred by Jim, "More Americans than ever are overweight."  One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition, based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis, the definition of "overweight," etc.  It is a position which answers to objective logical debate.  If Joe answers Jim, saying "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me," he has given an answer which is fallacious as well as being somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim's original statement.
> 
> Conversely, take the new statement by Jim, who is 5'6" tall, "270 lbs is grossly overweight."  Joe, who is a foot taller at 6'6", and weighs an exactl, well-conditioned 270 lbs, replies, "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me."  In this context, Joe's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate.  As he is discussing something which is true ''about'' himself, he is not barred from making an argument which considers subjective facts, and so he does not commit the fallacy.
> 
> [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990205246
9c9
< Conversely, take the new statement by Jim, who is 5'6" tall, "270 lbs is grossly overweight."  Joe, who is a foot taller at 6'6", and weighs an exactl, well-conditioned 270 lbs, replies, "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me."  In this context, Joe's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate.  As he is discussing something which is true ''about'' himself, he is not barred from making an argument which considers subjective facts, and so he does not commit the fallacy.
---
> Conversely, take the new statement by Jim, who is 5'6" tall, "270 lbs is grossly overweight."  Joe, who is a foot taller at 6'6", and weighs an exact, well-conditioned 270 lbs, replies, "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me."  In this context, Joe's reply is both meaningful and arguably accurate.  As he is discussing something which is true ''about'' himself, he is not barred from making an argument which considers subjective facts, and so he does not commit the fallacy.
------
Enya|990205846
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Enya is Ireland's best selling solo artist. But Enya is really three people: Enya herself, Nicki Ryan who produces her records and Roma Ryan who writes the lyrics. Her best known albums are:
> <ul>
> <li>Watermark (1988)
> <li>Shepherd Moons (1991)
> <li>The Memory of Trees (1995)
> <li>A Day Without Rain (2000)
> </ul>
> 
> Enya's break-through came in 1988 with the song "Orinoco Flow". 
------
Enya|990205877
1c1
< Enya is Ireland's best selling solo artist. But Enya is really three people: Enya herself, Nicki Ryan who produces her records and Roma Ryan who writes the lyrics. Her best known albums are:
---
> Enya is [[Ireland]]'s best selling solo artist. But Enya is really three people: Enya herself, Nicki Ryan who produces her records and Roma Ryan who writes the lyrics. Her best known albums are:
9c9
< Enya's break-through came in 1988 with the song "Orinoco Flow". 
---
> Enya's break-through came in 1988 with the song "Orinoco Flow". 
------
HomePage|990207158
7c7
< [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Français)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
---
> [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Français)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
------
International_Wikipedia|990207839
3c3
< <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Portugues)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
---
> <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
15c15
< For my own personal taste I would very much like a wikipedia in swedish. The best name for it would be svensk.wikipedia.com with the canonical sv.wikipedia.com as a complement. [[LinusTolke]]
---
> For my own personal taste I would very much like a wikipedia in swedish. The best name for it would be svensk.wikipedia.com with the canonical sv.wikipedia.com as a complement. [[LinusTolke]]
------
AgoraNomic|990208690
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Quoting the page http://www.dfw.net/~ccarroll/agora/ :
> 
>  Agora is the oldest known active nomic on the Internet--we 
>  celebrated our 6th birthday in June 1999!  Agora itself was
>  started following the collapse of another nomic, Nomic
>  World, which was the first known MUD-based nomic.  Five of
>  the participants of Nomic World are still Players in Agora
>  to this day!  (Michael, Blob, Oerjan, Steve, and Chuck)
------
Computer_virus|990209118
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Formally, a piece of program code that makes copies of itself.  In practice, a program or program fragment that arranges to spread from system to system without the knowledge or permission of the system owners.  Much bandwidth has been wasted arguing about the difference between a [[Computer virus]] and a [[Computer worm]]; the important thing about both is that they spread, and therefore can cause orders of magnitude more trouble than a direct attack or a typical non-spreading [[Trojan horse]].
> 
> The term [[Computer virus]] was first used in print by [[Fred Cohen]] (currently on the Web at http://all.net/ and vicinity), in his 1985 PhD thesis.
> 
> ''Related topics:'' [[Computer security]], [[hacking]]
------
Computer_virus|990209181
5c5
< ''Related topics:'' [[Computer security]], [[hacking]]
---
> ''Related topics:'' [[Computer Security]], [[hacking]]
------
Requested_articles|990209263
15c15
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[proton]] -- [[electron]] -- [[neutron]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
------
Requested_articles|990209350
20c20
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] 
---
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Bollywood movies]] (that's Bollywood as in India, not as in Hollywood spelled wrong)
------
Rudolf_Hess|990210109
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Rudolf Hess''' (1894-1987)
> 
> A prominent figure in [[Nazi Germany]] - he was [[Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler's]] deputy as NSDAP party leader and Führer. He fled to [[Great Britain]] in 1941, supposedly to negotiate peace. This journey, however, is one of the greater mysteries of [[World War II]].
> 
> Hess was tried at Nürnberg after the war and was given life sentence. He died in Spandau, a prison in [[West Berlin]] in 1987.
------
West_Berlin|990210507
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> West Berlin consited of the three Allied Sectors - American, British and French. It was divided from [[East Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
> 
> West Berlin was formally part of West Germany, though it was not a [[Bundesland]].
------
Berlin_Wall|990210542
1c1
< Built on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
---
> Built in [[Berlin]] on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
------
Berlin_Wall|990210599
1c1
< Built in [[Berlin]] on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989.
---
> Built in [[Berlin]] on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989. The wall divided the city into [[West Berlin]] and [[East Berlin]].
------
East_Berlin|990210682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> East Berlin consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet Sector]] and was formally part, and the [[capital]] of [[East Germany]]. It was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
------
Hedonism|990210685
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Any theory that gives pleasure a central role.  The simplest form of hedonism in ethics is "whatever causes pleasure is right".  Even that simple version immediately runs into trouble.  Pleasure for whom?  Average pleasure?  Is that the median or the mean?  How can you make interpersonal comparisons of pleasure, anyway?  Or even cross-time comparisons for the same person?  Is that pleasure in the short term, or the long term?  Another summary of hedonism, "Pleasure is the highest good" avoids some of these complexities, at the cost of not saying anything of practical consequence.
> 
> Epicureanism is the best-known form of ancient hedonism.  [[Epicurus]] identifiede pleasure with tranquility, and emphasized the "reduce desire" aspects over the "find lots of hot babes" aspects.
> 
> The [[utilitarianism]] of [[John Stuart Mill]] (of his own free will) is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, since it judges the rightness of actions from the happiness that they lead to, and happiness is identified with pleasure.  This is, note, a selfless hedonism; whereas Epicurus recommends doing whatever makes ''you'' happiest, Mill would have you do whatever makes ''everyone'' happiest.
> 
> Some of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" turns out to be the (startling!) observation that people persue pleasure.  But he muddies up the waters with various less plausible mechanisms, such as the "death instinct".
> 
>  ''External links:'' The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on:
> 
>  Hedonism: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/hedonism.htm
>  Epicurus: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epicur.htm
>  Mill: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm
>  Frreud: http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm
> 
------
East_Berlin|990210701
1c1
< East Berlin consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet Sector]] and was formally part, and the [[capital]] of [[East Germany]]. It was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
---
> East Berlin consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Sector and was formally part, and the [[capital]] of [[East Germany]]. It was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
------
Propaganda_film|990210967
1c1
< A propaganda film is a film, usually a [[documentary film|documentary]], produced for the express purpose of convincing the viewer of a certain political point.
---
> A propaganda film is a film, usually a [[documentary film|documentary]], produced for the express purpose of convincing the viewer of a certain political point.  However, the propaganda is not limited to non-fiction films.  Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the [[United States]] were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the conventions of the genre that developed during the period period was that of a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
2a3,4
> 
> A few noted propaganda films:
7,8d8
< For a hilarious and horrifying subversion of the United States military's 1960s propaganda regarding the safety of radioactive materials, see [[The Atomic Cafe]].
< 
13,15d12
< See also the 10-volume [[CD-ROM]] collection [[Our Secret Century]] for its discussion of propaganda and the examples it includes from the [[United States]].
< 
< See also [[propaganda]].
17c14
< However, the distinction of what is propaganda need not be limited to non-fiction film.  Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the genre conventions of the war film that developed from the period was the notion that a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
---
> See also [[propaganda]].  For more discussion of propaganda and some examples of it in short films from the [[United States]], see the 10-volume [[CD-ROM]] collection [[Our Secret Century]].  And for a hilarious and horrifying subversion of the United States military's 1960s propaganda regarding the safety of radioactive materials, see [[The Atomic Cafe]].
------
War_Genre_Films|990211007
1,3c1
< Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the genre conventions of the war film that developed from the period was the notion that a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
< 
< (See also [[Propaganda]].  A related topic in some history of the genre.)
---
> #REDIRECT [[War film]]
------
War_film|990211067
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the United States were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy." In fact, one of the conventions of the genre that developed during the period was that of a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
> 
> (See also [[propaganda]], a related topic in some history of the genre.)
------
Propaganda_film|990211113
1,2c1
< A propaganda film is a film, usually a [[documentary film|documentary]], produced for the express purpose of convincing the viewer of a certain political point.  However, the propaganda is not limited to non-fiction films.  Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the [[United States]] were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the conventions of the genre that developed during the period period was that of a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
< 
---
> A propaganda film is a film, usually a [[documentary film|documentary]], produced for the express purpose of convincing the viewer of a certain political point.  However, the propaganda is not limited to non-fiction films.  Many of the dramatic war films in the early 1940s in the [[United States]] were designed to create consensus at the expense of "the enemy."  In fact, one of the conventions of the genre that developed during the period was that of a cross-section of the United States which comes together as a crack unit for the good of the country.
12d10
< 
------
Film_genres|990211144
17a18
> :[[War film]]
19d19
< :[[War Genre Films]]
------
Ultra|990211188
4c4
< In 1938 a [[Polish]] mechanic employed in a German factory producing secret signaling machines named [[Enigma]] (which worked on the basis of a set of preset revolving drums) took notes of the components before being repatriated and, with the help of the [[British]] and [[French]] secret services, constructed a wooden mockup of the machine. A British [[cryptographer]] later smuggled a complete new Enigma machine to [[England]]. There, British [[mathematician|mathematicians]] and cryptographers conquered the problems of Enigma variations and found means of cracking the [[cipher|ciphers]. Early in 1939 Britain's secret service set up the Ultra project at [[Bletchley Park]], 50 miles (80 km) north of [[London]], for the purpose of intercepting the Germans' Enigma signals and controlling the distribution of the resultant secret information. Strict rules were established to restrict the number of people who knew about the existence of the Ultra information and to ensure that no actions would alert the [[Axis]] powers that the Allies possessed knowledge of their plans.
---
> In 1938 a [[Polish]] mechanic employed in a German factory producing secret signaling machines named [[Enigma]] (which worked on the basis of a set of preset revolving drums) took notes of the components before being repatriated and, with the help of the [[British]] and [[French]] secret services, constructed a wooden mockup of the machine. A British [[cryptographer]] later smuggled a complete new Enigma machine to [[England]]. There, British [[mathematician|mathematicians]] and cryptographers conquered the problems of Enigma variations and found means of cracking the [[cipher|ciphers]]. Early in 1939 Britain's secret service set up the Ultra project at [[Bletchley Park]], 50 miles (80 km) north of [[London]], for the purpose of intercepting the Germans' Enigma signals and controlling the distribution of the resultant secret information. Strict rules were established to restrict the number of people who knew about the existence of the Ultra information and to ensure that no actions would alert the [[Axis]] powers that the Allies possessed knowledge of their plans.
10c10
< For 29 years after the war the existence of Ultra remained an official British secret. The ban was not lifted until 1974, the year that a key participant in the Ultra project, [[Frederick William Winterbotham]], published [[The Ultra Secret]].
---
> For 29 years after the war the existence of Ultra remained an official British secret. The ban was not lifted until 1974, the year that a key participant in the Ultra project, [[Frederick William Winterbotham]], published [[The Ultra Secret]].
------
English_language/British_English|990211198
65a66
> 	pissed			[[drunk]]	
------
Triumph_of_the_Will|990211285
1c1
< [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[Classical Music|classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking, as well as [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later confesses to the assembled thousands that he is on a [[God]]-given mission.
---
> [[Leni Riefenstahl]] [[propaganda film]] [[documentary film|documenting]] the 1934 Nazi Party Congress in [[Nuremberg]].  The film shows much footage of [[Nazi]] soldiers marching to melodious [[major-keyed|major key]] [[Classical Music|classical music]], then later singing, playing, and cooking; the film also includes [[soundbite]]s from speeches given by various advisors to [[Adolf Hitler]], and portions of a speech by Hitler himself.  The film is somewhat disorienting in its sincerity, especially when Hitler is praised as an "epitome of altruism" and later informs the assembled thousands that he is on a [[God]]-given mission.
------
18th_century|990211322
7c7
<  [[War of Jenkins War]], [[Seven Year's War]] or [[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
---
>  [[War of Jenkins War]], [[Seven Years War|Seven Year's War]] or [[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
------
The_Simpsons|990211494
1c1
< An [[cartoon]] [[TV series]] created by [[Matt Groening]].  Originally created for a short insert on the [[Tracey Ullman]] show, the Simpsons was converted into a series for Fox television in 1990.  Set in the fictional [[United States|US]] town of Springfield and highly satirical of many facets of the American way of life (including beer, fast food, tv and organised religion) "The Simpsons" was a massive hit, generating a huge popular following, and criticism from then President [[George Bush|George Bush]].  The writers also showed a love for cameo appearances by celebrities and extended pastiches of contemporary and classic movies, as well as subtle visual jokes and a high regard for the sophistication of the audience.
---
> A [[cartoon]] [[TV series]] created by [[Matt Groening]].  Originally created for a short insert on the [[Tracey Ullman]] show, the Simpsons was converted into a series for Fox television in 1990.  Set in the fictional [[United States|US]] town of Springfield and highly satirical of many facets of the American way of life (including beer, fast food, tv and organised religion) "The Simpsons" was a massive hit, generating a huge popular following, and criticism from then President [[George Bush|George Bush]].  The writers also showed a love for cameo appearances by celebrities and extended pastiches of contemporary and classic movies, as well as subtle visual jokes and a high regard for the sophistication of the audience.
------
International_Wikipedia|990211627
10a11
> * I have just noticed the fact that the top and bottom bars are in english. Can something be done about that?
------
Blaue_Reiter|990211704
1c1
< The Blaue Reiter group of artist was established in [[Munich]] in 1911. [[Wassily Kandinsky]] was one of the founders. Other well-known artists that were part of it were [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The members were interested in European [[medieval art]] and [[primitivism]] as well as the contemporary, [[non-figurative]] art scene in [[France]]. 
---
> The Blaue Reiter group of artist was established in [[Munich]] in 1911. [[Wassily Kandinsky]] was one of the founders. Other well-known artists that were part of it were [[Franz Marc]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Munter|Gabriele Münter]] and [[Paul Klee]]. The members were interested in European [[medieval art]] and [[primitivism]] as well as the contemporary, [[non-figurative]] art scene in [[France]]. 
------
The_Simpsons/Characters|990212049
9c9
< * [[/Santa's Little Helper]]
---
> * [[/Santas Little Helper|Santa's Little Helper]]
21c21
< * [[/Maude Flander]]
---
> * [[/Maude Flanders]]
------
The_Simpsons/Selma|990212133
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[Homer]].
------
The_Simpsons/Patty|990212155
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[Homer]].
------
The_Simpsons/Bleeding_Gums_Murphy|990212490
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the doctors (can't remember his name), Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[Lisa]] until his early death.
------
The_Simpsons|990212531
11a12,13
> 
> :[[/Actors]]
------
AgoraNomic|990212866
3c3
<  Agora is the oldest known active nomic on the Internet--we 
---
>  Agora is the oldest known active [[nomic]] on the Internet--we 
------
Oakland|990212937
1c1
< Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]]. Oakland is home of [[The Port of Oakland]], which is a signifigant source of commerce for the city. The current mayor is [[Jerry Brown]] who was a former governor of the [[State of California]]. Tourist attractions include the Oakland Musuem, the Paramount Theater, China Town, Jack London Square, Lake Merritt, and Oakland Coliseum, home to the [[Oakland Raiders]], football team, and the [[Oakland A's]], baseball team. The commercial and residental structures exhibit a great variety of styles, including [[Art Deco]] and [[Craftsman]].  
---
> Oakland is a big city on the east coast of the [[San Francisco Bay]].  To its north is [[Berkeley]], home to the famous university campus ([[UCB]]).  To its west across the Bay Bridge is [[San Francisco]]. Oakland is home of [[The Port of Oakland]], which is a signifigant source of commerce for the city. The current mayor is [[Jerry Brown]] who was a former governor of the [[State of California]]. Tourist attractions include the Oakland Musuem, the Paramount Theater, China Town, Jack London Square, Lake Merritt, and Oakland Coliseum, home to the [[Oakland Raiders]], football team, and the [[Oakland As|Oakland A's]], baseball team. The commercial and residental structures exhibit a great variety of styles, including [[Art Deco]] and [[Craftsman]].  
------
Utilitarianism|990213255
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Hedonism]] holds that there is some single features of actions or states of the world which motivates, or justifies, people in the pursuit of those states or actions, and further that this feature is roughly identical to the thing that we refer to, in common speech, as "pleasure".  A nice theory, but it turns out to be wrong.
> 
> [[Utilitarianism]] drops the last requirement, and holds that there is ''something'' (call it "utility") that actions or states of the world have, and that actions are motivated or justified in terms of this something.  Also a nice theory, also turns out to be wrong.  [[John Stuart Mill]] wrote a famous (and short) book called ''Utilitarianism'', about [[Utilitarianism]].
------
The_Coen_Brothers|990213319
3,9c3,9
< :[[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]]
< :[[The Big Lebowski]]
< :[[Barton Fink]]
< :[[Fargo]]
< :[[Raising Arizona]]
< :[[Millers Crossing|Miller's Crossing]]
< :[[Blood Simple]] (possibly the only film in history which was later rereleased in a shorter version because the director thought he should go in and "take out some of the boring parts")
---
> :[[O_Brother,_Where_Art_Thou]] (2001)
> :[[The Big Lebowski]] (1998)
> :[[Fargo]] (1996)
> :[[Barton Fink]] (1991)
> :[[Millers Crossing|Miller's Crossing]] (1990)
> :[[Raising Arizona]] (1987)
> :[[Blood Simple]] (1985) (possibly the only film in history which was later rereleased in a shorter version because the director thought he should go in and "take out some of the boring parts")
------
Utilitarianism|990213355
3c3,5
< [[Utilitarianism]] drops the last requirement, and holds that there is ''something'' (call it "utility") that actions or states of the world have, and that actions are motivated or justified in terms of this something.  Also a nice theory, also turns out to be wrong.  [[John Stuart Mill]] wrote a famous (and short) book called ''Utilitarianism'', about [[Utilitarianism]].
---
> [[Utilitarianism]] drops the last requirement, and holds that there is ''something'' (call it "utility") that actions or states of the world have, and that actions are motivated or justified in terms of this something.  Also a nice theory, also turns out to be wrong.  (Unless you explicitly define "utility" so as to make it true, in which case it's true but vacuous.)
> 
> [[John Stuart Mill]] wrote a famous (and short) book called ''Utilitarianism'', about [[Utilitarianism]].
------
Naming_conventions|990213576
69c69
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[J. S. Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google] search first.
---
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[John Stuart Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google] search first.
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Ethics_or_Morals|990213675
22c22
< Ralph Waldo Emerson made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
---
> [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] made much of this distinction over two hundred years ago in his essay, "Self-Reliance." He railed against the political sycophants and religious hypocrites of his day, pointing out that their values obtained to self-aggrandizement and social popularity, but not to the general good. Therefore, they were untrue to themselves.
------
Apocalypse_Now|990213808
3c3
< Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola re-released the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991.
---
> Due to typhoons, nervous breakdowns, heart attacks, and a suicidal director, the film went grievously overbudget and overschedule.  The original version was severely edited, causing some of the symbolism to be lost; Coppola re-released the film in 2001, featuring over an hour of restored footage.  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]s documentary, [[Hearts of Darkness|Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]], released in 1991.
------
Trojan_horse|990214042
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A computer program that does something which the programmer (or packager, or distributor, or advertiser) intends it to do, but that the user would not have wanted it to do (if the user had known in advance that it was going to do it).
> 
> So a [[Computer virus]] is usually a [[Trojan horse]], since the user seldom or never wants the virus to spread itself around.  (On the other hand, if something spreads that's an important enough fact about it that it's best to call it a "Computer virus" rather than just a "Trojan horse", just as "Look out for the tiger!" is much more appropriate than "Look out for the cat!".)
> 
> The prototypical Trojan horse is, for instance, a program called "SEXY.EXE" that is posted somewhere with a promise of "hot pix", but when executed erases all the files it can find and prints the message "arf, arf, I got you!".
> 
> [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990214899
3c3
< <b>[http://es.wikipedia.com Spanish (Espanol)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
---
> <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
------
HomePage|990214981
7c7
< [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Français)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]
---
> [http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Français)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)]
------
International_Wikipedia|990215012
3c3
< <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)]</b>
---
> <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)]</b>
------
Seizure|990216028
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Seizures (or convulsions) are temporary alterations in brain functions due to abnormal electrical activity of a group of [[brain]] cells that present with apparent clinical symptoms and findings. So, an isolated abnormal electrical activity recorded by an [[electroencephalography]] examination without a clinical presentation is not called a seizure.
> Seizure is usually a sudden and involuntary contraction of a group of muscles. However, a seizure can also be as subtle as marching numbness of a part of body, a brief loss of memory, sparkling of flashes, sniffing an unpleasant odor, a strange epigastric sensation or a sensation of fear. Therefore, it is traditional to classify the seizures as motor, sensory, autonomic, emotional and cognitive. 
> 
> Seizure types are:
> 
> * petit mal seizure (very brief loss of consciousness) 
> * partial (focal) seizure (usually a motor or sensory seizure that is restricted to one side of the body)
> * partial complex seizure (characterized by brief loss of consciousness, behavioral, emotional symptoms, loss of memory and automatisms; temporal lobe and frontal lobe seizures are often in this category)
> * generalized tonic-clonic seizure (grand mal; motor seizure of both sides of the body) 
>  
> It is still disputable whether a [[febrile seizure]] has to be regarded as an epileptic disorder or not. In general, a patient with two or more episodes of seizures is accepted to have the disease of [[epilepsy]]. So, seizure is the name of a symptom and epilepsy is the name of a disease.
> 
> Major causes of seizures are head trauma, infection, tumor and metabolic alterations (e.g. low or high blood glucose levels). Many seizures are due to unknown reasons.
------
Gheorghe_Zamfir|990216452
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Gheorghe Zamfir is a famous Rumanian [[panflute]] player.
------
Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance|990217466
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (or MRI; Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is a method used to visualise the pathologic or physiologic alterations of tissues of living organisms. First, the spins of the atomic nuclei of the tissue molecules are redistributed in the presence of a powerful magnetic field and then the field is suddenly reduced. The electromagnetic radiation released by these molecules are recorded and the obtained data are processed by a computer. As a result, the examined tissue can be seen with its quite detailed anatomical features. In clinical practice, it is used to discriminate the pathologic tissue from a normal one (e.g. a brain tumor).
------
International_Wikipedia/Coordination|990217761
5c5,17
< One idea, though I don't know if I favor it myself, is to ask the contributors to international Wikipedias to focus on those topics that directly concern the culture, language, countries, etc., that use the language in question.  So, for example, http://fr.wikipedia.com might focus on all things French.  But I suppose I personally am not in favor of this suggestion, for the simple reason that there are millions of French people who don't know English but who do know enough to write excellent encyclopedia articles on all sorts of topics that have nothing specifically to do with France or French.  Why should they be discouraged by anyone? --[[LMS]]
---
> One idea, though I don't know if I favor it myself, is to ask the contributors to international Wikipedias to focus on those topics that directly concern the culture, language, countries, etc., that use the language in question.  So, for example, http://fr.wikipedia.com might focus on all things French.  But I suppose I personally am not in favor of this suggestion, for the simple reason that there are millions of French people who don't know English but who do know enough to write excellent encyclopedia articles on all sorts of topics that have nothing specifically to do with France or French.  Why should they be discouraged by anyone? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> I agree with Larry that the international wikipedia don't need
> to be translations of the english wikipedia, but encyclopedias
> in that language for themselves. Contributors of the international versions that read english can look for inspiration,
> or simply translate from english wikipedia if they wish, but
> if they don't (or can't) they should be able to just write away... The only problem is that there are not international
> versions of the "instigator", Larry, but i hope someone will
> appear anyway, and if not, it means that the proyect didn't
> attract enough people and will die for itself...
> I really hope, that the international wikipedias can be in
> the future a source for the english version, a cross fertilization would be great...(remembering the "fertile soil"
> metaphora...--AstroNomer
------
Ultra|990217851
10a11,12
> 
> A version of this story is told in the novel "Enigma" by [[Robert Harris]], ISBN 0804115486.
------
Enigma|990217997
2a3
> Enigma is also the title of a novel by [Robert Harris] telling the fascinating story of how the British broke the code, ISBN 0804115486
------
Enigma|990218018
3c3
< Enigma is also the title of a novel by [Robert Harris] telling the fascinating story of how the British broke the code, ISBN 0804115486
---
> Enigma is also the title of a novel by [[Robert Harris]] telling the fascinating story of how the British broke the code, ISBN 0804115486
------
Popular_Music/Performers|990218589
53a54
> * [[Tool band|Tool]]
55c56
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
18th_century|990219032
2c2
< * Around the world exploration (Cook?).
---
> * Around the world exploration ([[James Cook]]).
------
The_Simpsons/Characters|990219349
66c66
< * [[/Bleeding Gums Murphy]]
---
> * [[/Bleeding_Gums_Murphy]]
78,80d77
< 
< 
< 
------
BMW|990219847
1c1
< BMW stands for Bayrische MotorenWerke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. 
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische Motoren-Werke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. 
------
BMW|990220029
1c1
< BMW stands for Bayrische Motoren-Werke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several German quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. 
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische Motoren-Werke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several [[Germany|German]] quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. Their official web site is at http://www.bmw.de/.
------
Rudolf_Hess|990220255
5c5
< Hess was tried at Nürnberg after the war and was given life sentence. He died in Spandau, a prison in [[West Berlin]] in 1987.
---
> Hess was tried at Nürnberg after the war and was given life sentence. He died in Spandau, a prison in [[West Berlin|West Berlin]] in 1987.
------
West_Berlin|990220281
1c1
< West Berlin consited of the three Allied Sectors - American, British and French. It was divided from [[East Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
---
> West Berlin consited of the three Allied Sectors - American, British and French. It was divided from [[East Berlin|East berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
------
West_Berlin|990220317
1c1
< West Berlin consited of the three Allied Sectors - American, British and French. It was divided from [[East Berlin|East berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
---
> West Berlin consited of the three Allied Sectors - American, British and French. It was divided from [[East Berlin|East Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
3c3
< West Berlin was formally part of West Germany, though it was not a [[Bundesland]].
---
> West Berlin was formally part of [[West Germany]], though it was not a separate [[Bundesland]].
------
East_Berlin|990220368
1c1
< East Berlin consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Sector and was formally part, and the [[capital]] of [[East Germany]]. It was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
---
> East Berlin consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Sector and was formally part of, and the [[capital]] of [[East Germany]]. It was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].
------
Berlin_Wall|990220399
1c1
< Built in [[Berlin]] on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989. The wall divided the city into [[West Berlin]] and [[East Berlin]].
---
> Built in [[Berlin]] on August 13, 1961 in order to stop the citizens of [[East Germany]] from leaving the country. It came down on November 9, 1989. The wall divided the city into [[West Berlin]] and [[East Berlin|East Berlin]].
------
BMW|990220434
1c1,3
< BMW stands for Bayrische Motoren-Werke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several [[Germany|German]] quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. Their official web site is at http://www.bmw.de/.
---
> BMW stands for Bayrische Motoren-Werke (anglicized, [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] motor works). They are one of several [[Germany|German]] quality [[automobile]] manufacturers but also make [[motorcycle]]s. 
> 
> Their official web site is at http://www.bmw.de/.
------
The_Simpsons/Patty|990220448
1c1
< One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[Homer]].
---
> One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[THe Simpsons/Homer|Homer]].
------
The_Simpsons/Patty|990220457
1c1
< One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[THe Simpsons/Homer|Homer]].
---
> One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[The Simpsons/Homer|Homer]].
------
The_Simpsons/Selma|990220502
1c1
< One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[Homer]].
---
> One of [[Marge]]'s two cynical chain-smoking sisters, who works at the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) and has a strong dislike for [[The Simpsons/Homer|Homer]].
------
International_Wikipedia|990220553
16a17,22
> ----
> 
> I officially (?!) protest that the swedish page was not set up with
> the last batch of international wikipedias... [[LinusTolke]] had
> been one of the first people to request one. Also, I would have
> liked to have a castellano.wikipedia.com name, pointing to es.wikipedia.com, but there is not. --AstroNomer
------
The_Simpsons/Bleeding_Gums_Murphy|990220562
1c1
< [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the doctors (can't remember his name), Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[Lisa]] until his early death.
---
> [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the [[/Doctor Hibbard]], Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[/Lisa]] until his early death.
------
Nazi_Germany|990220593
16c16
<  [[Rudolf Hess]]
---
>  [[Rudolf Hess|Rudolf Hess]]
------
The_Simpsons/Bleeding_Gums_Murphy|990220601
1c1
< [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the [[/Doctor Hibbard]], Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[/Lisa]] until his early death.
---
> [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the [[/Dr. Julius Hibbert]], Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[/Lisa]] until his early death.
------
The_Simpsons/Bleeding_Gums_Murphy|990220616
1c1
< [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of one of the [[/Dr. Julius Hibbert]], Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[/Lisa]] until his early death.
---
> [[Saxophone]] player and long-lost brother of [[/Dr. Julius Hibbert]], Bleeding Gums was a mentor for [[/Lisa]] until his early death.
------
The_Simpsons/Bart|990220793
1c1,7
< Son of [[/Homer]] and [[/Marge]], Bart is a self-proclaimed underachiever who begins each show writing detention lines on the blackboard.  Brother of [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]], Bart's interests include skateboarding, comic books, terrorizing his sisters, [[Dickensian]] chimney sweeps and prank calling [[/Moe Szyslak]] at his tavern.
---
> Bartholomew J. Simpson
> 
> Son of [[/Homer]] and [[/Marge]] Simpson
> 
> Brother of [[/Lisa]] and [[/Maggie]]
> 
> Bart is a self-proclaimed underachiever who begins each show writing detention lines on the blackboard. Bart's interests include skateboarding, comic books (esp. [[/Radioactive Man]], terrorizing his sisters, [[Dickensian]] chimney sweeps and prank calling [[/Moe Szyslak]] at his tavern.
------
The_Simpsons/Lisa|990220836
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Daughter of /Homer and /Marge Simpson 
> 
> Sister of /Bart and /Maggie 
------
Libya|990220853
0a1,2
> A Muslim country in North [[Africa]]. Its [[capital]] is [[Tripolis]].
> 
------
The_Simpsons/Lisa|990220895
1d0
< 
4c3,5
< Sister of /Bart and /Maggie 
---
> Sister of /Bart and /Maggie
> 
> The brightest kid in town. Her hobbies include playing the [[Saxophone]] 
------
The_Simpsons/Lisa|990220979
5c5
< The brightest kid in town. Her hobbies include playing the [[Saxophone]] 
---
> The brightest kid in town. Her hobbies include playing the [[Saxophone]].  Lisa is one of the few vegetarians in Springfield.
------
The_Simpsons/Charles_Montgomery_Burns|990220996
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Charles Montgomery Burns]]
---
> originally, the character was simply called Montgomery Burns, but in one episode, he yelled "You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Montgomery Burns!", which is a quote from [[Orson Welles]]' [[Citizen Kane]] ("You can't do this to me, I'm Charles Foster Kane!") 
> 
> He owns Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant and is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [/Waylon Smithers]. 
------
Ultra|990221136
12c12,15
< A version of this story is told in the novel "Enigma" by [[Robert Harris]], ISBN 0804115486.
---
> A version of this story is told in the novel "Enigma" by [[Robert Harris]], ISBN 0804115486.
> 
> ----
> For [[Depeche Mode]]'s CD "Ultra", go over [[Depeche Mode/Ultra|here]]
------
Munich|990221218
3c3
< Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the [[Blaue Reiter]] artistic movement before [[World War I]]. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the [[Oktoberfest]], a 2 weeks long celebration of [[beer]] running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
---
> Munich is a cosy, laid-back town. It has several important art museums, among them the Alte Pinakothek and Neue Pinakothek. It was also the site of the [[Blaue Reiter]] group of artists before [[World War I]]. In the centre of town the Englischer Garten is a lovely oasis with a brook running through it. But the festival that puts Munich on the map is the [[Oktoberfest]], a 2-week-long celebration of [[beer]] running from late September to early October each year. See the Oktoberfest's own web site, http://www.oktoberfest.de/ with information in both English and German. 
------
Leni_Riefenstahl|990221265
3c3
< She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a [[documentary film]]-maker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives in [[Berlin]].
---
> She started her career as an actress and dancer in various mountain movies, later she became director and writer. She is best known as a [[documentary film]]-maker for her propaganda produced for Hitler's [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. Her best-known film is the glorification of [[Hitler]] in [[Triumph of the Will]]. Currently she lives at [[Bavaria]]'s "Starnberger See".
16c16
< * [[Olympia]] (1938)
---
> * [[Olympia]] (1938)
------
Enya|990221654
9a10
> Enya has two official web sites. There is http://www.repriserec.com/enya/ and http://www.enya.com/. 
------
Enya|990221686
9a10
> 
------
The_Simpsons/Charles_Montgomery_Burns|990222161
3c3,6
< He owns Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant and is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [/Waylon Smithers]. 
---
> He owns Springfield's Nuclear Power Plant and is portrayed as the prototype of an early capitalist exploiter, and is always a little behind times (for example, he thinks [[Prussia]] still exists). He is almost always encompanied by his assistant [/Waylon Smithers]. 
> 
> 
> <i>i've read these two sentences somewhere else recently.  what's the source?  is it in the public domain?  --KoyaanisQatsi</i>
------
Sweden|990222389
26a27,28
> 
> Recent Swedish history has been peaceful. Sweden was neutral during [[World War II]] and [[World War I]]. War threatened to break out at the beginning of the twentieth century when [[Norway|Norwegian]] nationalists wanted the country to break out of the union with Sweden. It was averted by the dissolution of the union in 1905. 
------
Swedish_language|990222505
3c3
< Defined by the [[Swedish Academy]].
---
> Defined by the [[Swedish Academy]]. 
------
Germany/politics|990222707
2,5c2,5
< conventional long form: Federal Republic of Germany
< conventional short form: Germany
< local long form: Bundesrepublik Deutschland
< local short form: Deutschland
---
> :conventional long form: Federal Republic of Germany
> :conventional short form: Germany
> :local long form: Bundesrepublik Deutschland
> :local short form: Deutschland
13c13,16
< Administrative divisions: 16 states (''Länder,'' singular ''Land''; or ''Bundesländer,'' singular ''[[Bundesland]]''); [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bavaria]] (in German, [[Bayern]]), [[Berlin]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
---
> <b>Administrative divisions:</b>
>  
> 16 states (''Länder,'' singular ''Land''; or ''Bundesländer,'' singular ''[[Bundesland]]'')
> :[[Baden-Wuerttemberg]], [[Bavaria]] (in German, [[Bayern]]), [[Berlin]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Hessen]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Niedersachsen]], [[Nordrhein-Westfalen]], [[Rheinland-Pfalz]], [[Saarland]], [[Sachsen]], [[Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Thueringen]]
15c18,24
< Independence: 18 January [[1871]] ([[German Empire]] unification); divided into four zones of occupation (UK, US, USSR, and later, France) in [[1945]] following [[World War II]]; Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or [[West Germany]]) proclaimed 23 May [[1949]] and included the former UK, US, and French zones; German Democratic Republic (GDR or [[East Germany]]) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone; unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October [[1990]]; all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991
---
> <b>Independence:</b> 
> *18 January [[1871]] ([[German Empire]] unification)
> *divided into four zones of occupation ([[UK]], [[US]], [[USSR]], and later, [[France]]) in [[1945]] following [[World War II]]
> *Federal Republic of Germany (FRG or [[West Germany]]) proclaimed 23 May [[1949]] and included the former UK, US, and French zones
> *German Democratic Republic (GDR or [[East Germany]]) proclaimed 7 October 1949 and included the former USSR zone
> *unification of West Germany and East Germany took place 3 October [[1990]]
> *all four powers formally relinquished rights 15 March 1991
17c26
< National holiday: [[German Unity Day]] (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
---
> <b>National holiday:</b> [[German Unity Day]] (Day of Unity), 3 October (1990)
19c28
< Constitution: 23 May 1949, known as Basic Law; became constitution of the united German people 3 October 1990
---
> <b>Constitution:</b> 23 May 1949, known as Basic Law; became constitution of the united German people 3 October 1990
21c30
< Legal system: civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the [[Federal Constitutional Court]]; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
---
> <b>Legal system:</b> civil law system with indigenous concepts; judicial review of legislative acts in the [[Federal Constitutional Court]]; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
23c32
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
---
> <b>Suffrage:</b> 18 years of age; universal
25,30c34,37
< Executive branch:
< chief of state: President [[Johannes Rau]] (since 1 July [[1999]])
< head of government: Chancellor [[Gerhard Schroeder]] (since 27 October [[1998]])
< cabinet: Cabinet or [[Bundesregierung]] (Yes, that <i>should</i> be that -- [[IAm]]) appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
< elections: president elected for a five-year term by a Federal Convention including all members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of delegates elected by the Land Parliaments; election last held 23 May 1999 (next to be held 23 May 2004); chancellor elected by an absolute majority of the Federal Assembly for a four-year term; election last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held in the fall of 2002)
< election results: Johannes RAU elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - 57.6%; Gerhard SCHROEDER elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - 52.7%
---
> <b>Executive branch:</b>
> :''chief of state:'' President [[Johannes Rau]] (since 1 July [[1999]])
> :''head of government:'' Chancellor [[Gerhard Schroeder]] (since 27 October [[1998]])
> :''cabinet:'' Cabinet or [[Bundesregierung]] appointed by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor
32,33c39,43
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Federal Assembly or [[Bundestag]] (656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or [[Bundesrat]] (69 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block)
< elections: Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held by the fall of 2002); note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election election results: Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%; seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions 15
---
> <b>''elections:''</b>
> *president elected for a five-year term by a Federal Convention including all members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of delegates elected by the Land Parliaments; election last held 23 May 1999 (next to be held 23 May 2004)
> *chancellor elected by an absolute majority of the Federal Assembly for a four-year term; election last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held in the fall of 2002)
> ''election results:'' 
> :Johannes Rau elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - 57.6%; Gerhard Schroeder elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - 52.7%
35c45
< Judicial branch: [[Federal Constitutional Court]] or [[Bundesverfassungsgericht]], half the judges are elected by the [[Bundestag]] and half by the [[Bundesrat]]
---
> <b>Legislative branch:</b> 
37c47
< Political parties and leaders: Alliance '90/Greens [[Fitz Kuhn]] and [[Claudia Roth]]; Christian Democratic Union or [[CDU]] [[Angela Merkel]]; Christian Social Union or [[CSU]] [[Edmund Stoiber]], chairman; Free Democratic Party or [[FDP]] [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]], chairman; Party of Democratic Socialism or [[PDS]] [[Lothar Bisky]], chairman; Social Democratic Party or [[SPD]] [[Gerhard Schroeder]], chairman
---
> bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Federal Assembly or [[Bundestag]] (656 seats usually, but 669 for the 1998 term; elected by popular vote under a system combining direct and proportional representation; a party must win 5% of the national vote or three direct mandates to gain representation; members serve four-year terms) and the Federal Council or [[Bundesrat]] (69 votes; state governments are directly represented by votes; each has 3 to 6 votes depending on population and are required to vote as a block)
39c49,52
< Political pressure groups and leaders: employers' organizations; expellee, refugee, trade unions, and veterans groups
---
> <b>''elections'':</b> 
> :Federal Assembly - last held 27 September 1998 (next to be held by the fall of 2002); note - there are no elections for the Bundesrat; composition is determined by the composition of the state-level governments; the composition of the Bundesrat has the potential to change any time one of the 16 states holds an election 
> ''election results:''
> :Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%; seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions (i.e. SPD-CDU coalitions) 15
41c54,73
< International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, [[IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], IOM, [[ISO]], [[ITU]], MONUC, NAM (guest), [[NATO]], NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNOMIG]], UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
---
> <b>Judicial branch:</b> 
> 
> [[Federal Constitutional Court]] or [[Bundesverfassungsgericht]], half the judges are elected by the [[Bundestag]] and half by the [[Bundesrat]]
> 
> <b>Political parties and leaders:</b> 
> 
> :Alliance '90/Greens: [[Fitz Kuhn]] and [[Claudia Roth]]
> :Christian Democratic Union or [[CDU]]: [[Angela Merkel]]
> :Christian Social Union or [[CSU]]: [[Edmund Stoiber]], chairman
> :Free Democratic Party or [[FDP]]: [[Wolfgang Gerhardt]], chairman
> :Party of Democratic Socialism or [[PDS]]: [[Lothar Bisky]], chairman
> :Social Democratic Party or [[SPD]]: [[Gerhard Schroeder]], chairman
> 
> <b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> 
> employers' organizations; expellee, refugee, trade unions, and veterans groups
> 
> <b>International organization participation:</b> 
> 
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BDEAC, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CDB (non-regional), CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 5, G- 7, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, [[IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], IOM, [[ISO]], [[ITU]], MONUC, NAM (guest), [[NATO]], NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNOMIG]], UPU, WADB (nonregional), WEU, [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
44,49c76,81
< chief of mission: Ambassador [[Juergen Chrobog]]
< chancery: 4645 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
< telephone: [1] (202) 298-8141
< FAX: [1] (202) 298-4249
< consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Francisco
< consulate(s): Wellington (America Samoa)
---
> :chief of mission: Ambassador [[Juergen Chrobog]]
> :chancery: 4645 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
> :telephone: [1] (202) 298-8141
> :FAX: [1] (202) 298-4249
> :consulate(s) general: [[Atlanta]], [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], [[Houston]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Miami]], [[New York]], [[San Francisco]]
> :consulate(s): [[Wellington]] ([[America Samoa]])
52,57c84,89
< chief of mission: Ambassador [[John C. Kornblum]]
< embassy: Neustaedtische Kirchstrasse 4-5, 10117 [[Berlin]]
< mailing address: PSC 120, Box 1000, APO AE 09265
< telephone: [49] (30) 238-5174
< FAX: [49] (30) 238-6290
< consulate(s) general: [[Dusseldorf]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Hamburg]], [[Leipzig]], [[Munich]]
---
> :chief of mission: Ambassador [[John C. Kornblum]]
> :embassy: Neustaedtische Kirchstrasse 4-5, 10117 [[Berlin]]
> :mailing address: PSC 120, Box 1000, APO AE 09265
> :telephone: [49] (30) 238-5174
> :FAX: [49] (30) 238-6290
> :consulate(s) general: [[Dusseldorf]], [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Hamburg]], [[Leipzig]], [[Munich]]
64c96
< The head of state is the federal president (Bundespräsident). The president has no real power (he may dismiss parliament, though, but this has never happened so far), but is a representational figure (like [[England]]'s queen). He is elected by the federal assembly (Bundesversammlung).
---
> The head of state is the federal president (Bundespräsident). The president has no real power (he may dismiss parliament, though, but this has never happened so far), but is a representational figure (like [[Great Britain]]'s queen).
66c98
< The head of government is the federal chancellor ([[Bundeskanzler]]). He is elected by the federal parliament ([[Bundestag]]) and is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor ([[Vizekanzler]]), who is a member of his cabinet, usually ths foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
---
> The head of government is the federal chancellor ([[Bundeskanzler]]). He is usually the candidate of the party with the most seats in parliament. He appoints a vice-chancellor ([[Vizekanzler]]), who is a member of his cabinet, usually the foreign minister. When there is a coalition government (which is almost always the case), the vice-chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.
68c100
< The heads of the federal states' governments are called minister presidents (Ministerpräsidenten). They form a cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government. The 16 minister presidents form the Bundesrat, which can be seen as a second chamber of German parliament, some fields of legislation require approval from the Bundesrat. The Bundesrat also sends representatives to the federal assembly, which elects the federal president. 
---
> The heads of the federal states' governments are called minister presidents (Ministerpräsidenten). They form a cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government. The 16 minister presidents form the Bundesrat, some fields of legislation require approval from the Bundesrat. 
72c104,108
< Since 1998 the [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] is build from a coalition of the [http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)] and [http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party). Chancellor is Gerhard Schröder (SPD), vice-chancellor is Joschka Fischer (Green). The federal president is Johannes Rau. The next election for the [http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament] will be in the autumn of 2002.
---
> Some links: 
> :German [http://www.bundesregierung.de government] 
> :[http://www.spd.de Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)] 
> :[http://www.gruene.de Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen](The Green Party / ecological oriented party)
> :[http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament]
------
Germany/politics|990222759
43c43,44
< :Johannes Rau elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - 57.6%; Gerhard Schroeder elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - 52.7%
---
> :Johannes Rau elected president; percent of Federal Convention vote - 57.6%
> :Gerhard Schroeder elected chancellor; percent of Federal Assembly - 52.7%
------
Germany/politics|990222895
53c53,55
< :Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%; seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36; Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions (i.e. SPD-CDU coalitions) 15
---
> :Federal Assembly< - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%
> :Federal Assembly - seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36
> :Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions (i.e. SPD-CDU coalitions) 15
------
Germany/politics|990222946
53,55c53,55
< :Federal Assembly< - percent of vote by party - [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%
< :Federal Assembly - seats by party - [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36
< :Federal Council - current composition - votes by party - SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions (i.e. SPD-CDU coalitions) 15
---
> :Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party: [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%
> :Federal Assembly - seats by party: [[SPD]] 298, Alliance '90/Greens 47, CDU/CSU 245, FDP 43, PDS 36
> :Federal Council - current composition - votes by party: SPD-led states 26, CDU-led states 28, grand coalitions (i.e. SPD-CDU coalitions) 15
------
Swedish_Academy|990223030
1c1,5
< The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 ([[18th century]]) by king [[Gustav III]].  Its current secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]] (previously [[Sture Allen]]). Each year, the academy gives out the [[Nobel Prize]], originally founded by [[Alfred Nobel]] in his will.
---
> The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786 ([[18th century]]) by king [[Gustav III]].  It was modeled after the [[French Academy]] and has 18 members. The motto of the academy is "Talent and Taste", "Snille och Smak" in Swedish. The primary purpose of the academy is to further the "purity, vigour and majesty" of the Swedish language. To that end the academy publishes dictionaries. 
> 
> The academy publishes a one-volume [[dictionary]] called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordlista]] (SAOL) and a multi-volume dictionary (similar to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]) called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]] (SAOB). The SAOB's first part was published in 1898 and today (2001) work is done at the end of the "S" words. 
> 
> Its current secretary is [[Horace Engdahl]] (previously [[Sture Allen]]). Each year in December, the academy gives out the [[Nobel Prize]], originally founded by [[Alfred Nobel]] in his will. 
3d6
< The academy also publishes a one-volume [[dictionary]] called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordlista]] (SAOL) and a multi-volume dictionary (similar to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]) called [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]] (SAOB). The SAOB's first part was published in 1898 and today (2001) work is done at the end of the "S" words.
------
Germany/politics|990223042
55a56
> ''Please note that the Federal Council figures are out of date already''
------
Svenska_Akademiens_Ordlista|990223281
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Svenska Akademiens Ordlista or SAOL for short is published every few years by the [[Swedish Academy]]. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. Traditionally it has the motto of the Swedish Academy on the blue cloth cover. Whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change entries back to older spellings. Jos - juice is probably the most well-known instance. 
> 
> See also [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]. 
------
Svenska_Akademiens_Ordlista|990223396
1c1
< Svenska Akademiens Ordlista or SAOL for short is published every few years by the [[Swedish Academy]]. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. Traditionally it has the motto of the Swedish Academy on the blue cloth cover. Whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change entries back to older spellings. Jos - juice is probably the most well-known instance. 
---
> Svenska Akademiens Ordlista, or SAOL for short, is published every few years by the [[Swedish Academy]]. It is a single volume that is considered the final arbiter of Swedish spelling. Traditionally it has the motto of the Swedish Academy on the blue cloth cover. Whenever a new edition comes out lively discussions about new and changed entries erupt around the country. In some instances the Academy has been ahead of its times and has later had to change entries back to older spellings. Jos - juice is probably the most well-known instance. 
3c3
< See also [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]. 
---
> See also [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]. 
------
Germany/politics|990224184
8a9,10
> [[Country code]]: DE
> 
112c114
< :[http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament]
---
> :[http://www.bundestag.de German Parliament]
------
Germany/politics|990224210
9c9
< [[Country code]]: DE
---
> [[Country codes|Country code]]: DE
------
United_Kingdom/London|990224841
2a3,6
> London is one of the great world cities, mentioned in the same breath as [[Tokyo]] and [[New York]]. It was originally founded as Londinium as a port on the river [[Thames]] by the [[Romans]]. Today it is divided into a number of [[London boroughs |boroughs]] plus the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation of London governs the [[Square Mile]], the financial centre, a geographically very small area. Although bustling during weekdays, it's a part of London that is virtually deserted on the weekends. The London that most tourists see is the [[London West End | West End]] with all its theatres, shops and restaurants. In contrast, the [[London East End|East End]] has played host to successive waves of immigrants for centuries and is one of the most deprived areas in the UK. The tourist sites in the West End are all in the borough of Westminster. The East End is centered on Tower Hamlets. 
> 
> [[London Transport]] is one of the few public transport systems in the world to be a tourist attraction in its own right. LT run both the famous red doubledecker buses and the [[London Underground |Tube]], also known as the Underground. 
> 
5c9
< This represents a solution to a problem: ambiguous place names.  This should be discussed on [[naming conventions]]! -- LS
---
> This represents a solution to a problem: ambiguous place names.  This should be discussed on [[naming conventions]]! -- LS
------
International_Wikipedia|990225186
22c22,27
< liked to have a castellano.wikipedia.com name, pointing to es.wikipedia.com, but there is not. --AstroNomer
---
> liked to have a castellano.wikipedia.com name, pointing to es.wikipedia.com, but there is not. --AstroNomer
> 
> ----
> 
> Might I suggest that the international Wikis be given a distinctive logo, or background color, or something else so that navigating among them becomes easier?  Hopping back and forth is difficult.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|990225812
26c26
< Might I suggest that the international Wikis be given a distinctive logo, or background color, or something else so that navigating among them becomes easier?  Hopping back and forth is difficult.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> Might I suggest that the international Wikis be given a distinctive logo, or background color, or something else so that navigating among them becomes easier?  Hopping back and forth is difficult (also the German homepage does not have a link to the English homepage).  Finally, we may want to come up with some semi-automated process to create pages that refer back to the English versions.  For example, until we have some Spanish contributors, I'd like be able to create pages such as ''Ahora no hay página española en este tema.  Usted puede desear leer el artículo (link) en inglés.  Si usted puede, ayudarnos traduciendo estos artículos.'';  Perhaps we could just replace the "Describe the new page here" text?  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
The_Simpsons/Marge|990226040
1c1
< Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]], with few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], being supportive of [[/Lisa]], and either disciplining [[/Bart]] or defending him from Homer's rage.  Sisters include [[/Patty]] and [[/Selma]].  Briefly held a position as police officer.
---
> Well-meaning and patient wife of [[/Homer]]. With few exceptions, Marge spends most of her time tending to housework, minding [[/Maggie]], being supportive of [[/Lisa]], and either disciplining [[/Bart]] or defending him from Homer's rage.  Sisters include [[/Patty]] and [[/Selma]].  Briefly held a position as police officer.
------
London_Underground|990226226
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The London Underground is usually called the Tube by [[London | Londoners]]. It is a system of [[electricity | electrified]] [[railways]] that run under ground in central London but above ground in the [[suburb]]s. 
> 
> The Tube is owned by [[London Transport]] who also run the famous, red doubledecker buses.
> 
> The first underground railway line was laid in London in 1863. Today there are 275 stations and over 400 km of lines.  
> 
> Underground Lines and their colour on the [[Tube map]]:
> <ul>
> <li>Bakerloo, brown
> <li>Central, red
> <li>Circle, yellow
> <li>District, green
> <li>East London, xxx
> <li>Hammersmith &amp; City, pink
> <li>Jubilee, grey
> <li>Metropolitan, purple
> <li>Northern, black
> <li>Piccadilly, dark blue
> <li>Victoria, light blue
> <li>Waterloo &amp; City, xxx
> </ul>
> 
> For fares LT use a zone system where zone 1 is the most central, usually inside the Circle line. There are ticket machines that will accept coins and fresh paper money. They also give change. LT are experimenting with credit card ticket machines on some of the newest stations on the Jubilee line. Note that not all Underground stations are accessible by people with mobility problems. Many have escalators or elevators but not all of them.
> 
> The escalators in London Underground stations are both an asset and a liability. They are among the longest escalators in the world and all are bespoke. Because of the enormous amount of use that they see, they tend to break down, causing long delays at stations. Older escalators with wooden treads are being phased out after a fire at King's Cross station in 1987. 31 people died in the King's Cross fire. 
> 
> See the official site of the Tube at http://www.thetube.com/
------
Trojan_horse|990226338
7c7,8
< [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]
---
> [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]----
> Also, the name used to refer to the gift presentend by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term <i>Trojan Horse</i>, in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
------
London_Underground|990226379
1c1
< The London Underground is usually called the Tube by [[London | Londoners]]. It is a system of [[electricity | electrified]] [[railways]] that run under ground in central London but above ground in the [[suburb]]s. 
---
> The London Underground is usually called the Tube by [[United Kingdom London | Londoners]]. It is a system of [[electricity | electrified]] [[railway]]s that run under ground in central London but above ground in the [[suburb]]s. 
23c23
< For fares LT use a zone system where zone 1 is the most central, usually inside the Circle line. There are ticket machines that will accept coins and fresh paper money. They also give change. LT are experimenting with credit card ticket machines on some of the newest stations on the Jubilee line. Note that not all Underground stations are accessible by people with mobility problems. Many have escalators or elevators but not all of them.
---
> For fares LT use a zone system where zone 1 is the most central, usually inside the Circle line. There are ticket machines that will accept coins and fresh paper money. They also give change. LT are experimenting with [[credit card]] ticket machines on some of the newest stations on the Jubilee line. Note that not all Underground stations are accessible by people with mobility problems. Many have [[escalator]]s or [[elevator]]s but not all of them.
27c27
< See the official site of the Tube at http://www.thetube.com/
---
> See the official site of the Tube at http://www.thetube.com/
------
Trojan_horse|990226435
8c8
< Also, the name used to refer to the gift presentend by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term <i>Trojan Horse</i>, in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
---
> Also, the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term [[Trojan Horse]], in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990226440
3c3
< The fallacy may adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
---
> The fallacy may adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that under some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
------
London_Underground|990226444
1c1
< The London Underground is usually called the Tube by [[United Kingdom London | Londoners]]. It is a system of [[electricity | electrified]] [[railway]]s that run under ground in central London but above ground in the [[suburb]]s. 
---
> The London Underground is usually called the Tube by [[United Kingdom/London | Londoners]]. It is a system of [[electricity | electrified]] [[railway]]s that run under ground in central London but above ground in the [[suburb]]s. 
------
Trojan_horse|990226473
8c8
< Also, the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term [[Trojan Horse]], in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
---
> Also, the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term [[Trojan horse]], in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
------
United_Kingdom/London|990226928
4a5,20
> Prime London Tourist Attractions:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Buckingham Palace]]
> <li>[[British Museum]]
> <li>[[Charing Cross Road]]
> <li>[[Kew Gardens]]
> <li>[[The London Eye]]
> <li>[[National Academy]]
> <li>[[Madame Tussaud's Wax Cabinet]]
> <li>[[Soho]]
> <li>[[Tate and Tate Modern]]
> <li>[[Theatreland]]
> <li>[[Tower of London]]
> <li>[[Victoria &amp; Albert Museum]]
> </ul>
> 
------
United_Kingdom/London|990226993
3c3
< London is one of the great world cities, mentioned in the same breath as [[Tokyo]] and [[New York]]. It was originally founded as Londinium as a port on the river [[Thames]] by the [[Romans]]. Today it is divided into a number of [[London boroughs |boroughs]] plus the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation of London governs the [[Square Mile]], the financial centre, a geographically very small area. Although bustling during weekdays, it's a part of London that is virtually deserted on the weekends. The London that most tourists see is the [[London West End | West End]] with all its theatres, shops and restaurants. In contrast, the [[London East End|East End]] has played host to successive waves of immigrants for centuries and is one of the most deprived areas in the UK. The tourist sites in the West End are all in the borough of Westminster. The East End is centered on Tower Hamlets. 
---
> London is one of the great world cities, mentioned in the same breath as [[Japan/Tokyo]] and [[New York]]. It was originally founded as [[Londinium]] as a port on the river [[Thames]] by the [[Romans]]. Today it is divided into a number of [[London boroughs |boroughs]] plus the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation of London governs the [[Square Mile]], the financial centre, a geographically very small area. Although bustling during weekdays, it's a part of London that is virtually deserted on the weekends. The London that most tourists see is the [[London West End | West End]] with all its theatres, shops and restaurants. In contrast, the [[London East End|East End]] has played host to successive waves of immigrants for centuries and is one of the most deprived areas in the UK. The tourist sites in the West End are all in the borough of Westminster. The East End is centered on Tower Hamlets. 
------
London_Underground|990227074
0a1,2
> http://www.thetube.com/images/tubelogo1.gif
> 
27a30
> 
------
United_Kingdom/London|990227800
25a26,27
> 
> ''Yes, it solves ambiguity, but at the cost of ease of use, and that is a too high price.  If I write an article on something else and want to mention London, it is the difference between keeping track of and writing ((London)) or ((United Kingdom/London|London)).  This is a stupid approach.  If we want to make it complicated to link to pages, we could just aswell introduce unambiguous object identifiers.'' --[[LA2]]
------
Smoke|990228059
1c1
< Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[steady state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[lamp light]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], communication ([[smoke signals]]) or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s, [[stove]]s and [[lamp]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
---
> Exhausted [[gas]]es from the burning ([[combustion]]) of substances ([[solid state]], [[liquid]]s, or gases), either by [[accident]] or for the purpose of [[heating]], [[lamp light]], [[power generation]], [[pest control]], communication ([[smoke signals]]) or [[inhalation]].  Controlled combustion normally takes place in closed containers (such as [[engine]]s, [[stove]]s and [[lamp]]s) and the exhaust smoke is released through a [[chimney]] or [[exhaust pipe]].
------
IKEA|990228085
1c1
< Swedish furniture maker and more general retailer founded på [[Invar Kamprad]]. Produces furniture of Scandanavian design.
---
> Swedish furniture maker and more general retailer founded på [[Ingvar Kamprad]]. Produces furniture of Scandanavian design.
------
Tokyo|990228510
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Capital of Japan. 
------
United_Kingdom/London|990228572
3c3
< London is one of the great world cities, mentioned in the same breath as [[Japan/Tokyo]] and [[New York]]. It was originally founded as [[Londinium]] as a port on the river [[Thames]] by the [[Romans]]. Today it is divided into a number of [[London boroughs |boroughs]] plus the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation of London governs the [[Square Mile]], the financial centre, a geographically very small area. Although bustling during weekdays, it's a part of London that is virtually deserted on the weekends. The London that most tourists see is the [[London West End | West End]] with all its theatres, shops and restaurants. In contrast, the [[London East End|East End]] has played host to successive waves of immigrants for centuries and is one of the most deprived areas in the UK. The tourist sites in the West End are all in the borough of Westminster. The East End is centered on Tower Hamlets. 
---
> London is one of the great world cities, mentioned in the same breath as [[Tokyo]] and [[New York]]. It was originally founded as [[Londinium]] as a port on the river [[Thames]] by the [[Romans]]. Today it is divided into a number of [[London boroughs |boroughs]] plus the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation of London governs the [[Square Mile]], the financial centre, a geographically very small area. Although bustling during weekdays, it's a part of London that is virtually deserted on the weekends. The London that most tourists see is the [[London West End | West End]] with all its theatres, shops and restaurants. In contrast, the [[London East End|East End]] has played host to successive waves of immigrants for centuries and is one of the most deprived areas in the UK. The tourist sites in the West End are all in the borough of Westminster. The East End is centered on Tower Hamlets. 
27c27
< ''Yes, it solves ambiguity, but at the cost of ease of use, and that is a too high price.  If I write an article on something else and want to mention London, it is the difference between keeping track of and writing ((London)) or ((United Kingdom/London|London)).  This is a stupid approach.  If we want to make it complicated to link to pages, we could just aswell introduce unambiguous object identifiers.'' --[[LA2]]
---
> ''Yes, it solves ambiguity, but at the cost of ease of use, and that is a too high price.  If I write an article on something else and want to mention London, it is the difference between keeping track of and writing ((London)) or ((United Kingdom/London|London)).  This is a stupid approach.  If we want to make it complicated to link to pages, we could just aswell introduce unambiguous object identifiers.'' --[[LA2]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Ad_Hominem|990231542
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An attack against a person.  Unfortunately common in [[United States]] [[politics]], the attack serves to point out character flaws as a means of avoiding discussion of the relevance or truthfulness of what the person under attack originally said.  Also known as a [[personal attack]].
------
Logical_fallacy/Straw_Man|990231857
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical fallacy in which a person misattributes a position to a person who does not hold it and then refutes it, therefore, to the unperceptive, proving the person "wrong."
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_Authority|990232241
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical fallacy in which a person presenting a position on a subject mentions an authority who also holds that position, but may not be an authority in that area.  For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke recently released a report showing it necessary to floss three times daily" would be unlikely to impress many people, as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] is likely not an expert on [[dental hygeine]].  Much of [[advertising]] relies on this logical fallacy, as well as on the [[Bandwagon]] fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Bandwagon|990232454
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The bandwagon fallacy implies that one should do something simply because many other people are doing that same thing.  While it may seem true enough when not examined, a simple enough refutation of the fallacy would lie in pointing out that at a time not too distant in [[United States]] history, it was common to hold other people as slaves, which few enough people today would consider ethical.  Bandwagon is a pillar of advertising, along with the [[Appeal to Authority]] fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Bandwagon|990232490
1c1
< The bandwagon fallacy implies that one should do something simply because many other people are doing that same thing.  While it may seem true enough when not examined, a simple enough refutation of the fallacy would lie in pointing out that at a time not too distant in [[United States]] history, it was common to hold other people as slaves, which few enough people today would consider ethical.  Bandwagon is a pillar of advertising, along with the [[Appeal to Authority]] fallacy.
---
> The bandwagon fallacy implies that one should do something simply because many other people are doing that same thing.  While it may seem true enough when not examined, a simple enough refutation of the fallacy would lie in pointing out that at a time not too distant in [[United States]] history, it was common to hold other people as slaves, which few enough people today would consider ethical.  Bandwagon is a pillar of advertising, along with the [[/Appeal to Authority]] fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_Authority|990232518
1c1
< A logical fallacy in which a person presenting a position on a subject mentions an authority who also holds that position, but may not be an authority in that area.  For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke recently released a report showing it necessary to floss three times daily" would be unlikely to impress many people, as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] is likely not an expert on [[dental hygeine]].  Much of [[advertising]] relies on this logical fallacy, as well as on the [[Bandwagon]] fallacy.
---
> A logical fallacy in which a person presenting a position on a subject mentions an authority who also holds that position, but may not be an authority in that area.  For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke recently released a report showing it necessary to floss three times daily" would be unlikely to impress many people, as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] is likely not an expert on [[dental hygeine]].  Much of [[advertising]] relies on this logical fallacy, as well as on the [[/Bandwagon]] fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Ad_Hominem|990232642
1c1
< An attack against a person.  Unfortunately common in [[United States]] [[politics]], the attack serves to point out character flaws as a means of avoiding discussion of the relevance or truthfulness of what the person under attack originally said.  Also known as a [[personal attack]].
---
> An attack against a person.  Unfortunately common in [[politics]], the attack serves to point out character flaws as a means of avoiding discussion of the relevance or truthfulness of what the person under attack originally said.  Also known as a [[personal attack]].
------
Logical_fallacy|990239591
34c34
<  [[/Ad Hominem Tu Quoque|Ad Hominem Tu Quoque]]
---
>  [[/Ad hominem tu quoque]]
36,47c36,47
<  [[/Appeal to Belief|Appeal to Belief]]
<  [[/Appeal to Common Practice|Appeal to Common Practice]]
<  [[/Appeal to Consequences of a Belief|Appeal to Consequences of a Belief]]
<  [[/Appeal to Emotion|Appeal to Emotion]]
<  [[/Appeal to Fear|Appeal to Fear]]
<  [[/Appeal to Flattery|Appeal to Flattery]]
<  [[/Appeal to Novelty|Appeal to Novelty]]
<  [[/Appeal to Pity|Appeal to Pity]]
<  [[/Appeal to Popularity|Appeal to Popularity]]
<  [[/Appeal to Ridicule|Appeal to Ridicule]]
<  [[/Appeal to Spite|Appeal to Spite]]
<  [[/Appeal to Tradition|Appeal to Tradition]]
---
>  [[/Appeal to belief|Appeal to belief]]
>  [[/Appeal to common practice|Appeal to common practice]]
>  [[/Appeal to consequences of a belief|Appeal to consequences of a belief]]
>  [[/Appeal to emotion|Appeal to emotion]]
>  [[/Appeal to fear|Appeal to fear]]
>  [[/Appeal to flattery|Appeal to flattery]]
>  [[/Appeal to novelty|Appeal to novelty]]
>  [[/Appeal to pity|Appeal to pity]]
>  [[/Appeal to popularity|Appeal to popularity]]
>  [[/Appeal to ridicule|Appeal to ridicule]]
>  [[/Appeal to spite|Appeal to spite]]
>  [[/Appeal to tradition|Appeal to tradition]]
49,52c49,52
<  [[/Begging the Question|Begging the Question]]
<  [[/Biased Sample|Biased Sample]]
<  [[/Burden of Proof|Burden of Proof]]
<  [[/Circumstantial Ad Hominem|Circumstantial Ad Hominem]]
---
>  [[/Begging the question|Begging the question]]
>  [[/Biased sample|Biased sample]]
>  [[/Burden of proof|Burden of proof]]
>  [[/Circumstantial ad hominem|Circumstantial ad hominem]]
54c54
<  [[/Confusing Cause and Effect|Confusing Cause and Effect]]
---
>  [[/Confusing cause and effect|Confusing cause and effect]]
56,72c56,72
<  [[/False Dilemma|False Dilemma]]
<  [[/Gamblers Fallacy|Gambler's Fallacy]]
<  [[/Genetic Fallacy|Genetic Fallacy]]
<  [[/Guilt By Association|Guilt By Association]]
<  [[/Hasty Generalization|Hasty Generalization]]
<  [[/Ignoring A Common Cause|Ignoring A Common Cause]]
<  [[/Middle Ground|Middle Ground]]
<  [[/Misleading Vividness|Misleading Vividness]]
<  [[/Personal Attack|Personal Attack]]
<  [[/Poisoning the Well|Poisoning the Well]]
<  [[/Post Hoc|Post Hoc]]
<  [[/Questionable Cause|Questionable Cause]]
<  [[/Red Herring|Red Herring]]
<  [[/Relativist Fallacy|Relativist Fallacy]]
<  [[/Slippery Slope|Slippery Slope]]
<  [[/Special Pleading|Special Pleading]]
<  [[/Spotlight |Spotlight ]]
---
>  [[/False dilemma|False dilemma]]
>  [[/Gamblers fallacy|Gambler's fallacy]]
>  [[/Genetic fallacy|Genetic fallacy]]
>  [[/Guilt by association|Guilt by association]]
>  [[/Hasty generalization|Hasty generalization]]
>  [[/Ignoring a common cause|Ignoring a common cause]]
>  [[/Middle ground|Middle ground]]
>  [[/Misleading vividness|Misleading vividness]]
>  [[/Personal attack|Personal attack]]
>  [[/Poisoning the well|Poisoning the well]]
>  [[/Post hoc|Post hoc]]
>  [[/Questionable cause|Questionable cause]]
>  [[/Red herring|Red herring]]
>  [[/Relativist fallacy|Relativist fallacy]]
>  [[/Slippery slope|Slippery slope]]
>  [[/Special pleading|Special pleading]]
>  [[/Spotlight|Spotlight]]
74c74
<  [[/Two Wrongs Make A Right|Two Wrongs Make A Right]]
---
>  [[/Two wrongs make a right|Two wrongs make a right]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Straw_Man|990239640
1c1
< A logical fallacy in which a person misattributes a position to a person who does not hold it and then refutes it, therefore, to the unperceptive, proving the person "wrong."
---
> #REDIRECT [[Logical fallacy/Straw man]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Straw_man|990239651
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical fallacy in which a person misattributes a position to a person who does not hold it and then refutes it, therefore, to the unperceptive, proving the person "wrong."
------
Logical_fallacy/Ad_Hominem|990239704
1c1
< An attack against a person.  Unfortunately common in [[politics]], the attack serves to point out character flaws as a means of avoiding discussion of the relevance or truthfulness of what the person under attack originally said.  Also known as a [[personal attack]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[Logical fallacy/Ad hominem]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Ad_hominem|990239715
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An attack against a person.  Unfortunately common in [[politics]], the attack serves to point out character flaws as a means of avoiding discussion of the relevance or truthfulness of what the person under attack originally said.  Also known as a [[personal attack]].
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_Authority|990239772
1c1
< A logical fallacy in which a person presenting a position on a subject mentions an authority who also holds that position, but may not be an authority in that area.  For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke recently released a report showing it necessary to floss three times daily" would be unlikely to impress many people, as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] is likely not an expert on [[dental hygeine]].  Much of [[advertising]] relies on this logical fallacy, as well as on the [[/Bandwagon]] fallacy.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Logical fallacy/Appeal to authority]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_authority|990239784
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A logical fallacy in which a person presenting a position on a subject mentions an authority who also holds that position, but may not be an authority in that area.  For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke recently released a report showing it necessary to floss three times daily" would be unlikely to impress many people, as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] is likely not an expert on [[dental hygeine]].  Much of [[advertising]] relies on this logical fallacy, as well as on the [[/Bandwagon]] fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy|990239843
33,35c33,35
<  [[/Ad Hominem|Ad Hominem]]
<  [[/Ad hominem tu quoque]]
<  [[/Appeal to Authority|Appeal to Authority]]
---
>  [[/Ad hominem|Ad hominem]]
>  [[/Ad hominem tu quoque|Ad hominem tu quoque]]
>  [[/Appeal to authority|Appeal to authority]]
73c73
<  [[/Straw Man|Straw Man]]
---
>  [[/Straw Man|Straw man]]
------
Logical_fallacy|990239953
24c24
< In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[/Appeal to Authority|argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
---
> In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[/Appeal to authority|argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
------
National_Missile_Defense|990246513
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The national missile defense (NMD) is a millitary strategy discussed in the [[United States]] since the 1960s. The basic idea is to shield the U.S. against incomming missiles by shooting them down as they approach the country. It is widely disputed whether the NMD concept is feasible [1].
> 
> ----
> [1] Jack Mendelsohn, <i>And it still won't work</i>, [[Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists]], Vol. 55, No. 4 (1999)
> ** URL: http://www.thebulletin.org/issues/1999/mj99/mj99mendelsohn.html
------
Anglican_Church|990246902
1c1
< The Church of England also called the Anglican Church was begun by Henry III
---
> The Church of England also called the Anglican Church was begun by Henry VIII
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_authority|990246943
1a2,4
> 
> Citing a person who ''is'' a recognized authority in the field is likely to carry more weight, and deservedly so.
> But this is still strictly speaking a logical fallacy, especially when the question itself is a matter of opinion or a question of some controversy.  While experts are less likely to be mistaken than others, it is not impossible or even uncommon.
------
Anglican_Church|990247108
7c7
< call themselves Episcopalian. The "High Church" form of the Church of England 
---
> call themselves [[Episcopalian]]. The "High Church" form of the Church of England 
------
NMD|990247946
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[National Missile Defense]].
------
Nuclear_physics|990248233
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nuclear physics is concerned with ...
> 
> <b>Applications</b>
> * [[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance]]
------
Trojan_horse|990248577
8a9,10
> 
> ''Wasn't it the Greeks who presented the horse to the Trojans in order to get into the city??? -- WojPob''
------
Python|990260134
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (1) An object oriented programming language.
> 
> http://www.python.org
> 
> (2) <i> Something about Monty Python </i>
------
Python|990260275
1,2c1
< (1) An object oriented programming language.
< 
---
> (1) An object oriented programming language:
5c4
< (2) <i> Something about Monty Python </i>
---
> (2) <i>See [[Monty Python]]</i>
------
CSU|990260540
1c1
< The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially ative and popular in [[Bavaria]], because their sister party [[CDU]] runs in the rest of the country.
---
> The [[CSU|Christian Social Union]] ([[CSU]] - <i>Christlich Soziale Union</i>) is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. They are especially active and popular in [[Bavaria]], because their sister party [[CDU]] runs in the rest of the country. Their current party leader is [[Edmund Stoiber]].
------
Trojan_horse|990260542
1c1,5
< A computer program that does something which the programmer (or packager, or distributor, or advertiser) intends it to do, but that the user would not have wanted it to do (if the user had known in advance that it was going to do it).
---
> The ''Trojan horse'' is the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Greeks to the Trojans during the [[Trojan War]].  The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers, that the Greeks used to take [[Troy]].
> 
> Based on this mythological reference, the term [[Trojan horse]], in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
> ----
> Also, computer program that does something which the programmer (or packager, or distributor, or advertiser) intends it to do, but that the user would not have wanted it to do (if the user had known in advance that it was going to do it).
7,10c11
< [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]----
< Also, the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Trojans to the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers. Based on this mythological reference, the term [[Trojan horse]], in general, refers to an apparent gift that is not a gift at all.
< 
< ''Wasn't it the Greeks who presented the horse to the Trojans in order to get into the city??? -- WojPob''
---
> [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]
------
Trojan_horse|990260677
1c1,3
< The ''Trojan horse'' is the name used to refer to the gift presented by the Greeks to the Trojans during the [[Trojan War]].  The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Trojan soldiers, that the Greeks used to take [[Troy]].
---
> The ''Trojan horse'' is the name used to refer to the giant wooden representation of a horse, on wheels, presented by the Greeks to the Trojans during the [[Trojan War]].  The Greeks believed it was a gift, but it actually contained Greek soldiers which spilled out of the horse and attacked [[Troy]].
> 
> ''Obviously, we need more detail here.  Anyone?''
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990260862
1c1
< [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the [[CSU]]. [[Edmund Stoiber|He]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an increase of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
---
> [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the [[CSU]]. [[Edmund Stoiber|He]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an decrease of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|990261781
10,12c10
< ''...before a "jury" of 501 Athenian citizens--which constituted the Athenian Senate...''
< 
< Are you sure of this?  From everything I have read, Athenian juries were randomly selected from amidst the population, with legislation handled by the assembly.  I do not see how the word senate really applies to them.
---
> /Talk
------
Socrates/Talk|990261803
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''...before a "jury" of 501 Athenian citizens--which constituted the Athenian Senate...''
> 
> Are you sure of this?  From everything I have read, Athenian juries were randomly selected from amidst the population, with legislation handled by the assembly.  I do not see how the word senate really applies to them.
> ----
> Not absolutely sure, but have a look at this: http://appliedphilosophy.mtsu.edu/intro_to_phil/PlatosApology.htm
> 
> Basically, I thought the legislative body of Athens (called the Senate) also simply had a judicial function.  I think that's what I taught my students, but I might have taught them wrongly and I might have forgotten what I taught them.  :-) Anyone else? --[[LMS]]
------
HomePage|990261916
1c1
< '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 6,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know.  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
---
> '''Welcome to [[Wikipedia]]!'''  We're writing a complete encyclopedia from scratch, collaboratively.  We started work in January 2001.  We've got over 7,000 pages already.  We want to make over 100,000.  So, let's get to work!  Write a little (or a lot) about what you know.  Read our welcome message here: [[Welcome, newcomers]]!
------
NMD|990270297
1c1
< See [[National Missile Defense]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[National Missile Defense]]
------
Holocene|990274057
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Holocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from the present back about 10,000 years.  The Holocene starts in late in the most recent retreat of the [[Pleistocene]] glaciers.  The Holocene follows the [[Pleistocene]] Epoch and is the second and last Epoch of the [[Quaternary]] [[Period]].
> 
> Continental motions are essentially negligible over a period of only 10,000 years.  However, world Sea levels rose about 35 meters (110 feet) in the early part of the Holocene due to ice melt.  In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees Latitude had been depressed significantly by the weight of the glaciers and rose significantly over the Holocene.  This allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now thought to be far from the sea as in Vermont and around Ottawa, Ontario and Montreal, Quebec.
> 
> Although geographic shifts in the Holocene were minor, climatic shifts were very large with the Epoch starting with large lakes in many areas that are now quite arid.  Animal and Plant life did not evolve much, there were major shifts in the distributions.  A number of large animal genera such as mammoths and mastodons, saber tooth cats, and giant sloth disappeared in the late [[Pleistocene]] and early Holocene -- especially in North America.
------
London_boroughs|990275178
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 12 inner London and 20 outer boroughs make up Greater London. The exception to this is the [[Corporation of London]] which is a corporation, not a borough. See its official web site at http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/.
>  
> Inner London boroughs:
> <ul>
> <li>[[City of Westminster]], official web site at http://www.Westminster.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Camden]], official web site at http://www.Camden.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Greenwich]], official web site at http://www.Greewich.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Hackney]], official web site at http://www.Hackney.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Hammersmith and Fulham]], official web site at http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Islington]], official web site at http://www.Islington.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Kensington and Chelsea]], official web site at http://www.rbkc.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Lambeth]], official web site at http://www.Lambeth.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Lewisham]], official web site at http://www.Lewisham.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Southwark]], official web site at http://www.Southwark.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Tower Hamlets]], official web site at http://www.TowerHamlets.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Wandsworth]], official web site at http://www.Wandsworth.gov.uk/
> </ul>
> 
> 
> Outer London boroughs:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Barking and Dagenham]], see official web site at http://www.Barking-dagenham.gov.uk 
> <li>[[Barnet]], see official web site at http://www.Barnet.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Bexley]], see official web site at http://www.Bexley.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Brent]], see official web site at http://www.Brent.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Bromley]], see official web site at http://www.Bromley.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Croydon]], see official web site at http://www.Croydon.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Ealing]], see official web site at http://www.Ealing.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Enfield]], see official web site at http://www.Enfield.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Harringey]], see official web site at http://www.Harringey.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Harrow]], see official web site at http://www.Harrow.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Havering]], see official web site at http://www.Havering.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Hillingdon]], see official web site at http://www.Hillingdon.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Hounslow]], see official web site at http://www.Hounslow.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Kingston upon Thames]], see official web site at http://www.Kingston.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Merton]]
> <li>[[Newham]], see official web site at http://www.Newham.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Redbridge]], see official web site at http://www.Redbridge.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Richmond upon Thames]], see official web site at http://www.Richmond.gov.uk/ 
> <li>[[Sutton]], see official web site at http://www.Sutton.gov.uk/
> <li>[[Waltham Forest]], see official web site at http://www.lbwf.gov.uk/
> </ul>
------
London_boroughs|990275280
36c36
< <li>[[Merton]]
---
> <li>[[Merton]]]], see official web site at http://www.Merton.gov.uk/
42c42
< </ul>
---
> </ul>
------
London_boroughs|990276009
1c1
< 12 inner London and 20 outer boroughs make up Greater London. The exception to this is the [[Corporation of London]] which is a corporation, not a borough. See its official web site at http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/.
---
> 12 inner London and 20 outer boroughs make up [[Greater London]]. The exception to this is the [[Corporation of London]] which is a corporation, not a borough. See its official web site at http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/.
------
Greater_London|990276223
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The London metropolitan area is governed by the Greater London Authority. It covers the 23 [[London boroughs]]. The head of the Greater London Authority is the Mayor of London, currently [[Ken Livingstone]]. He and the [[London Assembly]] are elected by popular vote. 
------
Edmund_Stoiber|990276691
1c1
< [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the [[CSU]]. [[Edmund Stoiber|He]] was born on the 29. 9. 1941 in Oberaudorf (District of Rosenheim). He is a lawyer and since 1974 MP in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary-general of the [[CSU]]. He leaded 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and 1986 to 1988 as minister of state the bavarian office of state. As bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintainion of the internal security by using the state power. He also demand an decrease of the right for asylum (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
---
> [[Edmund Stoiber]] is a german [[politican]], ministerpresident of [[Bavaria]] and chairman of the [[CSU]]. [[Edmund Stoiber|He]] was born on 29th September 1941 in [[Oberaudorf]] in the District of [[Rosenheim]]. He is a [[lawyer]] and since 1974 a member of parliament in [[Bavaria]]. From 1978 to 1982/83 he was secretary general of the [[CSU]]. He lead the Bavarian office of state from 1982 to 1986 as undersecretary of state and from 1986 to 1988 as minister of state. As Bavarian minister of the interior he stood up for the maintenance of internal security by using the powers of the state. He also demanded a decrease of the asylum rights (which is not so strong in [[Germany]] as, for example, in the [[United States|USA]]).
3c3
< In the Mai of 1993 the bavarian Land parliament choose him for  ministerpresident (he was the successor of [[Max Streibl]]).
---
> In May of 1993 the Bavarian Land parliament choose him for  ministerpresident in which office he succeeded [[Max Streibl]]).
5a6,7
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Edmund_Stoiber/Talk|990276801
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This entry could be further improved. For instance it mentions "maintenance of internal security". What is this security internal to? There is probably also a standard translation of the German Ministerpresident. 
> --Mjausson
------
Algorithm|990276932
12a13
> *[[Cryptography]]
------
Aardvark|990277757
1,2c1,2
< AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the Iyutch name for 
< the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to AfricA (see 
---
> AARD-VARK (meaning ``earth pig''), the [[Dutch]] name for 
> the [[mammal]]s of genus Orycteropus, confined to [[Africa]] (see 
5,6c5,6
< SouthAfrica, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) 
< of north-eastern Africa, extending into EgypT.  In form 
---
> [[South Africa]], and the northern aardvark (O. aethiopicus) 
> of north-eastern Africa, extending into [[Egypt]].  In form 
17,18c17,18
< Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
< and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has 
---
> Cape aardvark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty 
> and allowing the skin to show; the northern aardvark has 
30a31
> ----
31a33
> Over on [[Mammalia]] there is no entry for edentates. Aardvarks are on their own in [[Tubulidentata]]. Apparently edentates have been split sometime in the last century.
------
Python|990277925
1c1,3
< (1) An object oriented programming language:
---
> (1) Constricting snakes belonging to the family [[Pythonidae]]
> 
> (2) An object oriented programming language:
4c6
< (2) <i>See [[Monty Python]]</i>
---
> (3) <i>See [[Monty Python]]</i>
------
Monotremata|990278028
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Monotremes are the only surviving egg-laying mammals. The only surviving examples are:
> 
> [[Platypus]] one genus, and i think just one species.
> 
> [[Echida]] two genuses, several species.
> 
> Sorry guys, those are the common names.
------
Aves|990278259
31a32,33
> 
> [[/talk]]
------
Aves/talk|990278471
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Place for discussing things about the [[Aves]] page.
> 
> Well stone the bloody crows!
> 
> What happened to the Corvidae? Did someone at that big zoological names comittee decide to split them, or join them with something else recently? Or did they just get left off this page? Someone who knows this stuff, please fix!
------
Requested_articles|990279072
11c11
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]]
------
Historical_drama_film|990279135
2a3
> *[[A Man for All Seasons]]
------
Pythonidae|990279202
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A family of constricting snakes, sometimes classified as an underfamily to the boas, [[Boidae]]. Pythons are found in [[Australasia]], Southeast [[Asia]], [[India]], and [[Africa]]. They range in size between 0.5 and 10 m. Some show vidivly patterns on their scales while others are a non-descript brown. Pythonidae consists of eight genera including:
> <ul>
> <li>Aspidites 
> <li>Liasis
> <li>Morelia 
> <li>Python
> </ul>
>  
> 
> Reproduction:
> <br>
> Pythons lay [[eggs]] which they arrange in a pile. They coil around the pile until all eggs have hatched. 
> 
> Predatory characteristics and behaviour:
> <br>Most pythons have heat-sensing organs in their lips. These enable them to detect objects that are hotter than the surrounding environment. Pythons that do not have heat-sensing organs identify their prey by smell. Pythons typically stay in a camouflaged position and then suddenly strike. They then grasp the prey in their teeth, and kill by constriction. Death is usually a result of suffocation or heart failure rather than crushing. Pythons will not usually attack humans unless startled or provoked. 
------
Devonian|990279364
5c5
< Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high.  Fish were abundant and diverse.  The first sharks appeared early in the period.  Bony fish, many or substantial size appeared shortly thereafter.  Small land plants appeared early in the period.  By the end of the period forests of primitive plants existed.  Both vertebrates and arthropods were solidly established on the land.  Marine faunas continued to be dominated by bryozoa, brachiopods and corals.  Trilobites were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods. 
---
> Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high.  Fish were abundant and diverse.  The first sharks appeared early in the period.  Bony fish, many of substantial size appeared shortly thereafter.  Small land plants appeared early in the period.  By the end of the period forests of primitive plants existed.  Both vertebrates and arthropods were solidly established on the land.  Marine faunas continued to be dominated by bryozoa, brachiopods and corals.  Trilobites were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods. 
------
Monotremata|990279476
3c3
< [[Platypus]] one genus, and i think just one species.
---
> [[Platypus]], Ormithorhynchus anatinus, one genus comprising one species.
7d6
< Sorry guys, those are the common names.
------
Trojan_horse|990280123
3c3
< ''Obviously, we need more detail here.  Anyone?''
---
> There is a small museum founded on 1955 within the territories of ancient city Troy, near [[Dardanelles]] (present [[Turkey]]). The museum includes the remnants of the city and a symbolic wooden horse built in the garden of the museum to depict the legendary Trojan horse.
13c13
< [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]
---
> [[Computer Security]], [[Computer virus]]
------
Data_compression|990280157
10,12c10,12
< * lossy - some data is lost during compression/decompression
< * loss-less - no data is lost
< * entropy - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
---
> * [[/lossy]] - some data is lost during compression/decompression
> * [[/lossless]] - no data is lost
> * [[/entropy] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
21,25c21,25
< * Huffman coding
< * LZW
< * MP3
< * JPEG
< * Arithmetic coding
---
> * [[/Huffman coding]]
> * [[/LZW]]
> * [[/MP3]]
> * [[/JPEG]]
> * [[/Arithmetic coding]]
------
Data_compression|990280195
12c12
< * [[/entropy] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
---
> * [[/entropy]] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
------
Trojan_War|990280310
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Trojan war is a famous and legendary Greek siege of the city Troy (or Troas), presumably towards the ends of the second millenium BC. Troy was located on the close vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] strait in present-day [[Turkey]]. The war is supposed to be initiated by the strong desire to capture the wealthy city and gain the control of Dardanelles, which had strategic and commercial importance in ancient ages. Both Persian and Greek armies (including that of Alexander the Great) used this route to dominate near Asia. 
> 
> The legend begins with a golden apple (with a script “for the fairest” on it) thrown by Eris (goddess of discord). Paris (son of King Priam of Troy) was commisioned to give the apple to the most beautiful goddess and he was asked to make a decision among Aphrodite, Hera and Athena. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, offered Paris the most beautiful woman of the world in exchange of the apple. After giving the golden apple to her, Paris went to Greece to take beautiful Helen (wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta) to Troy. Greek armies besieged Troy with “1000 ships” in the lead of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. The Greek forces included several heroes as Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax, Teucer, Nestor, Odysseus and Diomedesand, whereas the Trojan army included Hector and Aeneid.
> 
> The siege lasted ten years and the first nine years were quite uneventful. In the last year, which is described vitally in [[Homer]]’s [[Iliad]], Achilles killed Hector (the son of King Priam) to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus. After Hector’s death, the Trojans won two more allies: Penthesilea, queen of the [[Amazons]], and Memnon, king of Ethiopia. However, Achilles killed these two allies and in turn he was killed by Paris. 
> 
> The city of Troy was at last captured by treachery. A force of Greek warriors entered the city by hiding in a large wooden horse ([[Trojan horse]]) built by Epeios. The Greek forces seemingly accepted their defeat and retreated to a near island, Tenedos (present-day Bozcaada in the opening of the Dardanelles strait). The horse was given to the city as a gift and despite warnings of Cassandra (Priam’s daughter), it was taken into the city. As the Trojans fell in a cozy sleep after drinking heavily during the celebrations of their victory, the Greek soldiers in the horse opened the doors of the city and the waiting Greek forces captured Troy. King Priam and all of his sons were killed, the women were brought to Greece and the city was burned. Only a few Trojans could escape, including famous Aeneas, who led the Trojans to present-day Italy (this part of the legend is told by [[Virgil]] in the [[Aeneid]]). The return of the Greek armies to Greece inspired many epic poems including Homer's [[Odyssey]].
> 
> The story of the siege of Troy provided inspiration for many pieces of art other than those of Homer. Some of these are Les Troyens of [[Hector Berlioz]] (1855-1858) and Troades of [[Euripides]].
> 
------
Troy|990280412
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Previously considered as a legendary city, the presence of Troy was proved to be a reality after its discovery by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] on 1870. Today, we know that there were at least nine cities built one on each other in the same territory and the first city had been founded in the third millenium BC. The seventh city , which was founded on the 13th century BC seems to have ended by a war and there are obvious traces of a big city fire. Therefore, this city is supposed to be the one depicted in the legend of [[Trojan war]]. The last city was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor August and it seems to be a very important city till the establishment of Constantinople in the fourth century as the capital of the Roman Empire. Afterwards the vitality of the city declined gradually and it disappeared. Today there is a Turkish city called Canakkale in the close vicinity of Troy.
------
Troy|990280818
1c1
< Previously considered as a legendary city, the presence of Troy was proved to be a reality after its discovery by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] on 1870. Today, we know that there were at least nine cities built one on each other in the same territory and the first city had been founded in the third millenium BC. The seventh city , which was founded on the 13th century BC seems to have ended by a war and there are obvious traces of a big city fire. Therefore, this city is supposed to be the one depicted in the legend of [[Trojan war]]. The last city was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor August and it seems to be a very important city till the establishment of Constantinople in the fourth century as the capital of the Roman Empire. Afterwards the vitality of the city declined gradually and it disappeared. Today there is a Turkish city called Canakkale in the close vicinity of Troy.
---
> Previously considered as a legendary city, the presence of Troy was proved to be a reality after its discovery by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] on 1870. Today, we know that there were at least nine cities built one on each other in the same territory and the first city had been founded in the third millenium BC. The seventh city , which was founded on the 13th century BC seems to have ended by a war and there are obvious traces of a big city fire. Therefore, this city is supposed to be the one depicted in the legend of [[Trojan War]]. The last city was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor August and it seems to be a very important city till the establishment of [[Constantinople]] in the fourth century as the capital of the [[Roman Empire]]. Afterwards the vitality of the city declined gradually and it disappeared. Today there is a Turkish city called Çanakkale in the close vicinity of Troy.
------
Data_compression/Huffman_coding|990280821
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An algorithm used for [[Data compression]].
> 
> The basic idea is borrowed from an older and slightly inferior method called [[Shannon or Fano|Data compression/Shannon coding]].
> 
> The text to be compressed is considered as a string of symbols. In these compression methods, symbols that are likely to be frequent are represented by a short sequence of [[bit]]s, and symbols that are likely to be rare are represented by a longer sequence of bits.
> 
> Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representations for each symbol. It has been proven that Huffman coding is the most effective compression method of this type. That is no other choice of symbol coding will produce a smaller output when the actual symbol frequencies agree with those used to create the code.
> 
> There are variations. The frequencies used can be generic ones for the application domain that are based on average experience. Or they can be the actual frequencies found in the text being compressed. (This variation requires that a frequency table or other hint as to the encoding must be stored with the compressed text.) Or they can be calculated dynamically based on recent actual frequencies in the text. This is called Adaptive Huffman Coding.
> 
> Huffman coding today is often used as a "back-end" to some other compression method. This is seen in
> [[Data compression/deflation]]
> and in some options of
> [[Data compression/JPEG]]
> for instance.
------
Data_compression|990280882
12c12
< * [[/entropy]] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
---
> * [[/entropy] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
25a26
> * [[/deflation]]
------
Data_compression/Huffman_coding|990280990
3c3
< The basic idea is borrowed from an older and slightly inferior method called [[Shannon or Fano|Data compression/Shannon coding]].
---
> The basic idea is borrowed from an older and slightly inferior method called [[Shannon or Fano coding|Data compression/Shannon coding]].
15c15
< for instance.
---
> for instance.
------
Data_compression/Huffman_coding|990281087
3c3,4
< The basic idea is borrowed from an older and slightly inferior method called [[Shannon or Fano coding|Data compression/Shannon coding]].
---
> The basic idea is borrowed from an older and slightly inferior method called
> [[Data compression/Shannon coding|Shannon or Fano coding]]
------
Data_compression|990281159
12c12
< * [[/entropy] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
---
> * [[/entropy]] - often cited as data compression [[lower bound]]
26d25
< * [[/deflation]]
------
Troy|990281277
1c1
< Previously considered as a legendary city, the presence of Troy was proved to be a reality after its discovery by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] on 1870. Today, we know that there were at least nine cities built one on each other in the same territory and the first city had been founded in the third millenium BC. The seventh city , which was founded on the 13th century BC seems to have ended by a war and there are obvious traces of a big city fire. Therefore, this city is supposed to be the one depicted in the legend of [[Trojan War]]. The last city was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor August and it seems to be a very important city till the establishment of [[Constantinople]] in the fourth century as the capital of the [[Roman Empire]]. Afterwards the vitality of the city declined gradually and it disappeared. Today there is a Turkish city called Çanakkale in the close vicinity of Troy.
---
> Previously considered as a legendary city, the presence of Troy was proved to be a reality after its discovery by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] on 1870. Today, we know that there were at least nine cities built one on each other in the same territory and the first city had been founded in the third millenium BC. The seventh city , which was founded on the 13th century BC seems to have ended by a war and there are obvious traces of a big city fire. Therefore, this city is supposed to be the one depicted in the legend of [[Trojan War]]. The last city was founded by Romans during the reign of the emperor [[Augustus]] and it seems to be a very important city till the establishment of [[Constantinople]] in the fourth century as the capital of the [[Roman Empire]]. Afterwards the vitality of the city declined gradually and it disappeared. Today there is a Turkish city called Çanakkale in the close vicinity of Troy.
------
Monotremata|990281319
1c1
< Monotremes are the only surviving egg-laying mammals. The only surviving examples are:
---
> The word monotreme comes from the Greek words mono- and trema, meaning one and hole. The one hole refers to the fact that monotremes have a single opening for the urinary, digestive and reproductive organs. Better known is that monotremes differ from other mammals in that they lay eggs instead of giving birth to their young like [[marsupial]]s and [[placental]]s. 
3c3,10
< [[Platypus]], Ormithorhynchus anatinus, one genus comprising one species.
---
> Like other mammals, monotremes 
> <ul>
> <li>are warm-blooded with high metabolic rates 
> <li>have hair on their bodies
> <li>produce milk to feed their young 
> <li>have a single bone in their lower jaw
> <li>have three inner ear bones
> </ul>
5c12,17
< [[Echida]] two genuses, several species.
---
> The only surviving examples are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea:
> 
> [[Platypus]] has only one genus comprising one species: Ormithorhynchus anatinus
> [[Echidna]], or spiny anteaters, have two genuses with several species each: Tachyglossus and Zaglossus.
> 
> See the University of Tasmania's monotreme web site at http://www.healthsci.utas.edu.au/physiol/mono/Monotremata.html. 
------
Monotremata|990281382
1c1
< The word monotreme comes from the Greek words mono- and trema, meaning one and hole. The one hole refers to the fact that monotremes have a single opening for the urinary, digestive and reproductive organs. Better known is that monotremes differ from other mammals in that they lay eggs instead of giving birth to their young like [[marsupial]]s and [[placental]]s. 
---
> The word monotreme comes from the Greek words mono- and trema, meaning one and hole. The one hole refers to the fact that monotremes have a single opening for the urinary, digestive and reproductive organs. Better known is that monotremes differ from other mammals in that they lay eggs instead of giving birth to their young like [[marsupial]]s and [[eutheria]]s. 
------
Anglican_Church|990283404
2c2
< after he was denied a divorce by the [[Pope]]. This was however at a time of major 
---
> after he was denied a divorce by the [[Pope]]. Making himself the head of the church not only made it possible for Henry to divorce but also gave him access to the considerable wealth that the Church had amassed. This was however at a time of major 
8c8,10
< uses a worship style similar to [[Catholicism]]...
---
> uses a worship style similar to [[Catholicism]].
> 
> See also the [[Anglican Communion]]
------
Anglican_Communion|990283509
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of Anglican churches. See its official web site at http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
------
Anglican_Communion|990283531
1c1
< The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of Anglican churches. See its official web site at http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
---
> The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican church]]es. See its official web site at http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
------
Homosexual|990284543
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Person who prefers to be involved romantically and sexually with people of his/her own sex. 
> 
> See also [[bisexual]] and [[heterosexual]]
------
Bisexual|990284645
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Person who prefers to be romantically and sexually involved with people of either sex. 
> 
> See also [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]]
------
Heterosexual|990284707
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Person who prefer to be romantically and sexually involved with people of the opposite sex.
> 
> See also [[homosexual]] and [[bisexual]] 
------
Heterosexual|990284731
1c1
< Person who prefer to be romantically and sexually involved with people of the opposite sex.
---
> Person who prefers to be romantically and sexually involved with people of the opposite sex.
3c3
< See also [[homosexual]] and [[bisexual]] 
---
> See also [[homosexual]] and [[bisexual]] 
------
Anglican_Communion|990285686
1c1
< The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican church]]es. See its official web site at http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
---
> The Anglican Communion is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican Church]]es. See its official web site at http://www.anglicancommunion.org/.
------
Dumbarton_Bridge|990285751
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Dumbarton Bridge is the southernmost of the bridges that span the [[San Francisco Bay]] in [[California]]. It is also the shortest. Its eastern terminus is in [[Newark]] in the [[San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]] and its western terminus is in [[Menlo Park]]. The current bridge is the second bridge in this location and was opened in 1984. The earlier bridge was opened in January 1927. Currently there is a toll charge of 2 USD for cars travelling east to west. 
------
Rudolf_Hess|990286054
3c3
< A prominent figure in [[Nazi Germany]] - he was [[Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler's]] deputy as NSDAP party leader and Führer. He fled to [[Great Britain]] in 1941, supposedly to negotiate peace. This journey, however, is one of the greater mysteries of [[World War II]].
---
> A prominent figure in [[Nazi Germany]] - he was [[Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler's]] deputy as [[NSDAP]] party leader and Führer. He fled to [[Great Britain]] in 1941, supposedly to negotiate peace. This journey, however, is one of the greater mysteries of [[World War II]].
5c5
< Hess was tried at Nürnberg after the war and was given life sentence. He died in Spandau, a prison in [[West Berlin|West Berlin]] in 1987.
---
> Hess was tried at [[Nuernberg |Nürnberg]] after the war and was given life sentence. He died in [[Spandau]], a [[prison]] in [[West Berlin|West Berlin]] in 1987.
------
Larry_Sanger|990286119
66c66
< :)
---
> '''''' :)
73c73
< Say...Mr. Sanger I know you are here. I duuno, but I guess this is what [[Virtuall Unreality]] means..;-). Been wonderin about that. Before I head off to [The White House]]
---
> Say...Mr. Sanger I know you are here. I duuno, but I guess this is what [[Virtuall Unreality]] means..;-). Been wonderin about that. Before I head off to [[The White House]]
------
Historical_drama_film|990286398
3a4,5
> *[[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]
> *[[Roots]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990286630
23c23,24
< [[What_Google_Likes]]      [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
---
> :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
> :[[Sandbox]] [[R P Sandbox]] [[WojPob/Sandbox]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990286669
24c24
< :[[Sandbox]] [[R P Sandbox]] [[WojPob/Sandbox]]
---
> :[[SandBox]] *[[R P Sandbox]] *[[WojPob/Sandbox]]
------
Stockholm|990287331
1c1,43
< The capital of largest city in [[Sweden]]. Stockholm has a population of around 700,000. It is pronounced stok'hôlm . 
---
> The capital of largest city in [[Sweden]]. Stockholm has a population of around 700,000. It is pronounced stok'hôlm.
> 
> *The city's official website, http://www.stockholm.se/
> *Stockholm Information Service, http://www.stockholmtown.com/
> *Allt om Stockholm, http://www.aos.se/
> 
> *[[/History]]
> *[[/Night life]]
> *[[/Transportation]]
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[Stockholm University]]
> *[[Stockholm School of Economics]]
> *[[Royal Institute of Technology]]
> 
> '''Hotels'''
> *[[/Grand Hotel]]
> *[[/Royal Viking Hotel]]
> *[[/Scandic]]
> *See also http://www.alltomstockholm.tv4.se/Stockholm/Turist_Besokare/Hotell/
> 
> '''Industries'''
> *[[Electrolux]]
> *[[Ericsson]]
> 
> '''Museums'''
> *[[/Medeltidsmuseet]]
> *[[/Nationalmuseum]]
> *[[/Nordiska museet]]
> *[[/Telemuseum]]
> *[[/Vasa Museum]]
> 
> '''Sights to See'''
> *[[/City Hall]]
> *[[/Concert Hall]]
> *[[/Drottningholm]]
> *[[/Kulturhuset]]
> *[[/Slottet|Royal Castle]]
> *Stockholm Jazz Festival, http://www.stockholmjazz.com
> 
> '''Theaters'''
> *[[/Dramaten]]
> *[[/Operan]]
------
Bavaria|990287580
1c1
< [[Bavaria]] is one of 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  The name in [[German language|German]] is [[Bayern]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
---
> [[Bavaria]] is the southernmost of the 16 [[Bundesland]]s in [[Germany]].  The name in [[German language|German]] is [[Bayern]].  Its capital is [[Munich]].
3a4,7
> 
> Bavaria has 12 million inhabitants of which a majority are [[Catholic]] Christians. Two major rivers flow through the state, the [[Danube]] and the [[Main]]. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich, [[Nuernberg]], [[Augsburg]], [[Wuerzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Regensburg]], [[Fuerth]] and [[Erlangen]]. Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czecz Republic. Neigbouring states within Germany are [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hessen]], [[Thüringen]] and [[Sachsen]].
> 
> There are many famous Bavarians. They include painters such as [[Hans Holbein]], [[Albrecht Duerer]], [[Lucas Cranach]] and [[Franz Marc]] but also musicians such as [[Franz Liszt]], [[Richard Wagner]] and [[Richard Strauss]]. The most read Bavarian writers are [[Thomas Mann]] and [[Bertolt Brecht]]. Among scientists the Nobel prize winners  [[Konrad Lorenz]] and [[Wilhelm von Roentgen]] are probably best known. 
------
Royal_Institute_of_Technology|990287741
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is [[[Sweden]]'s leading technical university.  http://www.kth.se/
> 
> Besides more traditional disciplines, the KTH also teaches and researches in these topics:
> 
> '''[[History of Science and Technology]]'''
> *Professor [[Arne Kaijser]]
> *Professor [[Marie Nisser]]
> *http://www.psm.kth.se/hot/
> 
> '''[[Wireless Network]]s'''
> * Wireless @ KTH, http://wireless.kth.se/
> * See also the IT dept, http://www.it.kth.se/
> 
> 
------
Arne_Kaijser|990287892
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Professor of the [[History of Science and Technology]] at the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] in [[Stockholm]].
> 
> Lately, Arne has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical Systems]], just like [[Thomas P. Hughes]].
> 
------
Thomas_P._Hughes|990288174
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thomas Hughes is Mellon Professor of the [[History of Science and Technology|History and Sociology of Science]], Emeritus, at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and Visiting Professor at [[MIT]] and [[Stanford University]].  His most recent publications include [[Rescuing Prometheus]] (Pantheon, 1998); [[American Genesis]] (Penguin 1990), which was a [[Pulitzer Prize]] finalist, and [[Lewis Mumford: Public Intellectual]] (Oxford University Press, 1990), which he edited with [[Agatha Hughes]]. He is a member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences]] (see his Swedish friend [[Arne Kaijser]], the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]], and a recipient of the Leonardo da Vinci Medal of the [[Society for the History of Technology]].
> 
> (Text from http://www.alteich.com/links/hughes.htm)
> 
> Also, use Google, http://www.google.com/search?q=thomas+p.+hughes
------
History_of_Science_and_Technology|990288328
1a2,3
> ----
> '''People:''' [[Thomas P. Hughes]], [[Arne Kaijser]].
2a5
> ''Note: Charles Darwin is mentioned below because he played an important role in history, not because he studied the history of science and technology.  How can we make this distinction clear?''
------
University_of_Pennsylvania|990288434
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A university in [[Pennsylvania]], USA, http://www.upenn.edu/
> 
> See also [[Thomas P. Hughes]], [[Carnegie-Mellon University]]
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|990288437
27a28,30
> ----
> I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later.  There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning com
> pletely.  Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as ''Cien anos de soledad.''  Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand.  Also, as a courtesy, could we change "edit text of this page" to an appropriate translation for each non-English branch?
------
University_of_Pennsylvania|990288517
1c1
< A university in [[Pennsylvania]], USA, http://www.upenn.edu/
---
> A university in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], USA, http://www.upenn.edu/
------
University_of_Pennsylvania|990288574
1c1
< A university in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], USA, http://www.upenn.edu/
---
> A [[Colleges and universities|university]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], USA, http://www.upenn.edu/
------
Philadelphia|990288747
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[city]] in [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]].
> 
> *City's website, http://www.phila.gov/
> *Entertainment, http://www.philadelphia.com/
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[University of Pennsylvania]]
> 
------
Pennsylvania|990288858
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the states of the [[United States]] of America.  Has given name to the [[Pennsylvanian]] time period in [[geology]].
> 
> '''Cities:'''
> *[[Philadelphia]]
> *[[Pittsburgh]]
> 
> That's all, folks!
> 
------
Carnegie-Mellon_University|990288961
1c1
< CMU is a slightly famous university in [[Pittsburgh]].
---
> CMU is a slightly famous [[Colleges and universities|university]] in [[Pittsburgh]].
------
International_Wikipedia|990289024
29,30c29
< I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later.  There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning com
< pletely.  Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as ''Cien anos de soledad.''  Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand.  Also, as a courtesy, could we change "edit text of this page" to an appropriate translation for each non-English branch?
---
> I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later.  There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely.  Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as ''Cien anos de soledad.''  Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand.  And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?
------
Royal_Institute_of_Technology|990289059
1c1
< The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is [[[Sweden]]'s leading technical university.  http://www.kth.se/
---
> The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is one of five technical universities in [[[Sweden]].  See the official web site at http://www.kth.se/
3c3
< Besides more traditional disciplines, the KTH also teaches and researches in these topics:
---
> Besides more traditional disciplines, KTH also teaches and does research in these subjects:
12a13,14
> 
> 
------
Royal_Institute_of_Technology|990289088
1c1
< The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is one of five technical universities in [[[Sweden]].  See the official web site at http://www.kth.se/
---
> The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is one of five technical universities in [[Sweden]].  See the official web site at http://www.kth.se/
------
Colleges_and_universities|990289153
1,27c1,19
< [[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
< 
< [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
< 
< [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
< 
< [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] ([[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]])
< 
< [[Ohio State University]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]])
< 
< [[Oxford University]] ([[Oxford, England]])
< 
< [[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
< 
< [[Stanford University]] ([[Palo Alto]], [[California]])
< 
< [[UC|University of California]]:
< 
< [[UCB|University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley]], [[California]])
<  
< [[UCLA]] ([[Los Angeles]], [[California]])
< 
< [[UCSF]]  ([[San Francisco]], [[California]])
< 
< [[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
< 
< [[University of Washington]] ([[Seattle]], [[Washington]])
---
> *[[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
> *[[Carnegie-Mellon University]] ([[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]])
> *[[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
> *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
> *[[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] ([[Linkoeping|Linköping]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[Ohio State University]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]])
> *[[Oxford University]] ([[Oxford, England]])
> *[[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
> *[[Royal Institute of Technology]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[Stanford University]] ([[Palo Alto]], [[California]])
> *[[Stockholm School of Economics]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[Stockholm University]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[UC|University of California]]:
> *[[UCB|University of California, Berkeley]] ([[Berkeley]], [[California]])
> *[[UCLA]] ([[Los Angeles]], [[California]])
> *[[UCSF]]  ([[San Francisco]], [[California]])
> *[[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
> *[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]])
> *[[University of Washington]] ([[Seattle]], [[Washington]])
30d21
< 
33d23
< 
------
SandBox|990289240
223c223,256
< Always a challenge
---
> Always a challenge----
> Math Symbols
> 
> Union: Yes
> 
> &cap;
> 
> Intersection: Yes
> 
> &cup;
> 
> Radical: Yes
> 
> &radic;
> 
> Is in: Yes
> 
> &isin;
> 
> Such that: Yes
> 
> &ni;
> 
> Subset: Yes
> 
> &sub;
> 
> Contained in, superset: Yes
> 
> &sup;
> 
> Not equal to: Yes
> 
> &ne;
------
BusinessSchools/Europe|990289335
5,38c5,21
< 
< /AthensUniversityOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
< 
< /BathSchoolOfManagement
< 
< /BudapestUniversityOfEconomicSciences
< 
< /CopenhagenBusinessSchool
< 
< /ErasmusUniversityRotterdam
< 
< /HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
< 
< /KingstonUniversityLondon
< 
< /LondonSchoolOfEconomics
< 
< /NorwegianSchoolOfManagement
< 
< /SheffieldHallamUniversity
< 
< /StGallenUniversity
< 
< /StockholmSchoolOfEconomics
< 
< /TilburgUniversity
< 
< /UniversityCollegeOfSwansea
< 
< /UniversityOfIceland
< 
< /ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
< 
< /WarsawSchoolOfEconomics
---
> */AthensUniversityOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
> */BathSchoolOfManagement
> */BudapestUniversityOfEconomicSciences
> */CopenhagenBusinessSchool
> */ErasmusUniversityRotterdam
> */HelsinkiSchoolOfEconomicsAndBusinessAdministration
> */KingstonUniversityLondon
> */LondonSchoolOfEconomics
> */NorwegianSchoolOfManagement
> */SheffieldHallamUniversity
> */StGallenUniversity
> *[[Stockholm School of Economics]]
> */TilburgUniversity
> */UniversityCollegeOfSwansea
> */UniversityOfIceland
> */ViennaUniversityOfEconomics
> */WarsawSchoolOfEconomics
------
Royal_Institute_of_Technology|990289351
1c1
< The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is one of five technical universities in [[Sweden]].  See the official web site at http://www.kth.se/
---
> The Royal Institute of Technology in [[Stockholm]] (in Swedish: KTH, Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan) is the largest of six technical universities in [[Sweden]]. KTH was founded in 1827. See the official web site at http://www.kth.se/
------
Stockholm_School_of_Economics|990289403
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[business Schools|business school]] in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]].
> http://www.hhs.se/
> 
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990289431
24c24
< :[[SandBox]] *[[R P Sandbox]] *[[WojPob/Sandbox]]
---
> :[[SandBox]] *[[R P Sandbox]]
------
University|990289496
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Colleges and universities]]
> 
------
University|990289566
1c1,5
< #REDIRECT [[Colleges and universities]]
---
> The first universities were established in [[Italy]] in the [[Middle Ages]].
> 
> ''more about the concept ...''
> 
> For a list, see [[colleges and universities]]
------
University|990289597
5c5,7
< For a list, see [[colleges and universities]]
---
> For a list, see [[colleges and universities]] and [[business Schools]].
> 
> 
------
Nuclear_physics|990289609
4a5,8
> 
> ----
> 
> ''Nuclear, particle, and quantum physics are all used very close to interchangeably, so be darn careful if you put anything here.''
------
MIT|990289652
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Abbreviation for the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
> 
> 2. ...
------
Linkoeping|990289695
9c9
< The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] was established in 1969.
---
> The town is the center of an old cultural region and celebrated its 700th anniversary in 1987.  Dominating the city's skyline from a far distance is the tower of the Cathedral, which dates back to the 13th century.  Linköping was a small town until the 1937, when the [[Saab]] aircraft industry was formed, starting a period of rapid expansion.  [[Linkoping University|Linköping University]] was established in 1969. 
12c12
< This road was part of the [[Eriksgata]] route that the newly elected king had to travel according to medieval Swedish [[Law]].  In the 20th century road system, it was first called [[Riksettan]] (national highway No. 1).  It is currently called E4 ([[European route E4]]) and has been redirected to pass outside the city on the north side.
---
> This road was part of the [[Eriksgata]] route that the newly elected king had to travel according to medieval Swedish [[Law]].  In the 20th century road system, it was first called [[Riksettan]] (national highway No. 1).  It is currently called E4 ([[European route E4]]) and has been redirected to pass outside the city on the north side. Further contributing to Link&ouml;ping's excellent communications is its situation on the main southern railway line connecting [[Stockholm]] with the southern parts of the country. 
------
Wireless_LAN|990289774
3c3
< See also [[Wireless PAN]]s (personal area networks).
---
> See also [[Wireless PAN]]s (personal area networks) and [[wireless network]]s.
------
Wireless_network|990290125
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wireless networks are [[telephone]] or [[computer network]]s that use [[radio]] as their carrier or physical layer.
> 
> *[[Wireless LAN]] - local area networks
> *[[Wireless PAN]] - personal area networks
> *[[GSM]] - Global system for mobile telephony
> *[[PCS]] - Personal communication system
> *[[Mobitex]] - system that [[Palm VII]] uses
> *[[UMTS]] - 3rd generation cell phone network
> *[[AX.25]] - amateur packet radio
> *[[NMT]] - Nordic Mobile Telephony
> *[[AMPS]] - America Mobile Phone System
> *[[DAMPS]] - Digital AMPS
> 
> '''Some research institutes'''
> *[[UCB]] (Berkeley, California)
> *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
> *[[Helsinki University of Technology]]
> *[[Royal Institute of Technology]] (Stockholm, Sweden)
------
Socrates/Talk|990290173
7c7,9
< Basically, I thought the legislative body of Athens (called the Senate) also simply had a judicial function.  I think that's what I taught my students, but I might have taught them wrongly and I might have forgotten what I taught them.  :-) Anyone else? --[[LMS]]
---
> Basically, I thought the legislative body of Athens (called the Senate) also simply had a judicial function.  I think that's what I taught my students, but I might have taught them wrongly and I might have forgotten what I taught them.  :-) Anyone else? --[[LMS]]
> 
> Hm.  I don't know anything about the period specifically after the thirty tyrants, but the general statement that democracy was restored suggests that legislation was passed the same way - by the assembly of all free men, not by a senate.  I'm not even sure what the Athenian senate would refer to, except possibly the areopagus, who had an extremely reduced function.  Some double-checking confirms Socrates was tried before a randomly selected jury, so what I'm going to do is change the statement unless someone provides evidence to the contrary, and add a few more details as well.
------
Socrates/The_Trial_of_Socrates|990290557
3c3
< A trial, before a "jury" of 501 Athenian citizens--which constituted the Athenian Senate--was held in which Socrates called into question the whole basis for the trial, instead of putting on a self-abasing, eloquent defense, which was expected.  By a very narrow margin, the Athenians found Socrates guilty.  Next, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested competing sentences.  Socrates jokingly suggested free meals, but then finally settled on an insultingly small fine.  His prosecutor urged death.  The Athenians held a second vote, on the sentences.  The verdict was nearly unanimous, but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, and indeed the city fathers expected this and were probably not averse to it; but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
---
> A trial, before a jury of 501 Athenian citizens was held in which Socrates called into question the whole basis for the trial, instead of putting on a self-abasing, eloquent defense, which was expected.  By a very narrow margin, the Athenians found Socrates guilty.  Next, Socrates and his prosecutor suggested competing sentences.  Socrates jokingly suggested free meals, but then finally settled on an insultingly small fine.  His prosecutor urged death.  The Athenians held a second vote, on the sentences.  The verdict was nearly unanimous (60 to 441), but this time on a matter of principle: guilty men must be punished.  Socrates' followers encouraged him to flee, and indeed the city fathers expected this and were probably not averse to it; but he refused on principle, and took the poison (hemlock) himself.  He was, thus, one of the first of a limited number of strictly ''intellectual'' "[[martyrs]]".  Socrates died at the age of 70.
5,6c5
< 
< [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, notably the thirty tyrants which included several of Socrates' friends, though he himself refused to condone the tyranny.  All in all, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
---
> [[Ancient Athenian trials|Athenian trials]] did not have judges, merely juries.  At the time Athens had been going through some difficult times, and the attack on Socrates was due in large part to [[Critius]], a member of the tyrants, and [[Alcibiades]], an aristocrat who defect in the Peloponnesian war, had both been close associates of Socrates, and he himself was a critic of democracy - but remained loyal, and never condoned the tyranny.  All in all, though, it was a dangerous time to be the sort of man that Socrates was.
10c9
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Mjolby|990290637
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mj&oulm;lby is a town on the river [[Svartaan|Svart&aring;n]] in the [[Sweden|Swedish]] province of [[Ostergotland|&Ouml;sterg&ouml;tland]]. With 12000 inhabitants it is a small town. Other towns and villages within Mj&ouml;by municipality are [[Skanninge|Sk&auml;nninge]], [[Mantorp]] and [[V&auml;derstad]]. 
> 
> There is a goldsmith school and a school for train drivers in Mj&ouml;lby. The town is a major station on the southern railway line connecting Stockholm and the southern parts of the country. The motorway E4 also passes through Mj&ouml;lby.
> 
> An older version of the place name is Mölloby, from the words mylna or mölna, meaning mill. Given the rapids of Svart&aring;n and the fertile soils of the surrounding plains, Mj&ouml;lby is a natural place for a mill.  
> 
> See Mj&ouml;lby's official web site at http://www.mjolby.se/
------
Rescuing_Prometheus|990290641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Book by [[Thomas P. Hughes]].  Documents four projects for [[Large Technical System]]s.  ISBN 0679739386
------
Arne_Kaijser|990290672
3c3
< Lately, Arne has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical Systems]], just like [[Thomas P. Hughes]].
---
> Lately, Arne has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical System]]s, just like [[Thomas P. Hughes]].
------
Mjolby|990290693
1c1
< Mj&oulm;lby is a town on the river [[Svartaan|Svart&aring;n]] in the [[Sweden|Swedish]] province of [[Ostergotland|&Ouml;sterg&ouml;tland]]. With 12000 inhabitants it is a small town. Other towns and villages within Mj&ouml;by municipality are [[Skanninge|Sk&auml;nninge]], [[Mantorp]] and [[V&auml;derstad]]. 
---
> Mj&ouml;lby is a town on the river [[Svartaan|Svart&aring;n]] in the [[Sweden|Swedish]] province of [[Ostergotland|&Ouml;sterg&ouml;tland]]. With 12000 inhabitants it is a small town. Other towns and villages within Mj&ouml;by municipality are [[Skanninge|Sk&auml;nninge]], [[Mantorp]] and [[Vaderstad|V&auml;derstad]]. 
7c7
< See Mj&ouml;lby's official web site at http://www.mjolby.se/
---
> See Mj&ouml;lby's official web site at http://www.mjolby.se/
------
Large_Technical_System|990290828
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A Large Technical System (LTS) is a system or network of enormous proportions or complexity.  The study of LTS is a subdiscipline of the [[History of Science and Technology]], very popular in the 1990s.
> 
> The book [[Rescuing Prometheus]] by [[Thomas P. Hughes]] documents the development of four such systems, including the [[Boston]] central artery tunnel and the [[Internet]].
> 
------
Stockholm|990291125
1c1,3
< The capital of largest city in [[Sweden]]. Stockholm has a population of around 700,000. It is pronounced stok'hôlm.
---
> The capital and largest city in [[Sweden]]. Stockholm has a population of around 700,000. It is pronounced stok'hôlm. 
> 
> What first strikes the visitor to Stockholm is that there is water everywhere. The city's core is situated on a number of islands in an [[archipelago]] where the lake [[Malaren|M&auml;laren]] meets the [[Baltic]]. Stockholm is the site of [[Rosenbad|governement]] and [[riksdagen|parliaments]] of Sweden. 
------
Boston|990291390
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The capital [[city]] of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]].  This description includes towns like Cambridge.
> 
> *City's official website, http://www.boston.gov/
> *Commercial portal, http://www.boston.com/
> *City guide, http://yourtown.boston.com/
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
> *[[Harvard University]] including [[Harvard Business School]]
> 
> '''Newspapers and Media'''
> *The Boston Globe, http://www.globe.com/
> 
------
Massachusetts|990291438
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the states of the [[United States]] of America.
> 
> '''Cities'''
> *[[Boston]]
> *See also http://yourtown.boston.com/
> 
> 
------
Massachusetts|990291472
2a3,4
> *http://www.mass.gov/
> 
------
Cambridge,_Massachusetts|990291529
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]].
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|990291583
8c8
< *[[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
---
> *[[Reed College]] ([[Portland]], [[Oregon]])
------
Archipelago|990291589
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Geographic term used to describe a cluster of islands. They are usually surrounded by open sea, less commonly there is a large land mass next to them. 
> 
> Examples of archipelagos include:
> <ul>
> <li>Archipelago of [[Stockholm]]
> <li>Hawaiian islands
> <li>Japan
> </ul>
------
Colleges_and_universities|990291607
17c17
< *[[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]])
---
> *[[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor]], [[Michigan]])
------
Archipelago|990291623
6,8c6,8
< <li>Hawaiian islands
< <li>Japan
< </ul>
---
> <li>[[Hawaii|Hawaiian islands]]
> <li>[[Japan]]
> </ul>
------
Ann_Arbor|990291773
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Ann Arbor is a [[city]] in [[Michigan]].
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[University of Michigan]]
> 
> '''Industry'''
> *[[Ann Arbor Ambassador]], maker of video screen terminals
> *[[Bendix]], computer company
> *[[UMI]], now a part of Bell+Howell, http://www.umi.com/
> 
------
Cambridge,_Massachusetts|990291825
1c1
< Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]].
---
> Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]]. It was named in honour of [[Cambridge]], the town where its founding fathers had studied. Cambridge is home to one of the most prestigious universities of the world, [[Harvard]]. 
------
Aves/talk|990291832
5a6,9
> 
> ----
> 
> The page is listing orders, each of which is made up of several families, of which Corvidae is one.  In particular it belongs among the Passeriformes.
------
Zhonghua_Sun|990291917
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Zhonghua Sun was a Chinese peasant woman murdered by government officials on May 19, 2001 because she refused to be sterilized.
> 
> Sun lived in Xiapu County near Fuzhou and worked on a farm.  She was the mother of two boys.  Birth-control officials had failed to persuade Sun from accepting volunray sterlization, so they dragged her from her home and drove her off.  Hours later her family was notified that she was dead.  Upon inspection of her corpse they found numerous large bruises.
> 
> In [[China]] government officials assume the authority to decide who can reproduce and how often.  These decisions are inforced by giving birth-control officials the powers to drag women from their homes and perform involuntary surgery on their bodies.  It is estimated that over 100 million forced sterilizations and unwanted abortions have been performed.
------
Cambridge|990292101
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cambridge is a [[university]] town in [[Cambridgeshire]], United Kingdom. According to [[legend]] the university of Cambridge was founded by scholars escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. 
> 
> [[Cambridge University]]
------
Cambridge|990292152
1c1
< Cambridge is a [[university]] town in [[Cambridgeshire]], United Kingdom. According to [[legend]] the university of Cambridge was founded by scholars escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. 
---
> Cambridge is a [[university]] town in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[United Kingdom]]. According to [[legend]] the university of Cambridge was founded by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. 
3c3
< [[Cambridge University]]
---
> [[Cambridge University]]
------
Zhonghua_Sun|990292175
3c3
< Sun lived in Xiapu County near Fuzhou and worked on a farm.  She was the mother of two boys.  Birth-control officials had failed to persuade Sun from accepting volunray sterlization, so they dragged her from her home and drove her off.  Hours later her family was notified that she was dead.  Upon inspection of her corpse they found numerous large bruises.
---
> Sun lived in Xiapu County near Fuzhou and worked on a farm.  She was the mother of two boys.  Birth-control officials had failed to persuade Sun from accepting voluntary sterilization, and later dragged her from her home and drove her off.  Hours later her family was notified that she was dead.  Upon inspection of her corpse they found numerous large bruises.
5c5
< In [[China]] government officials assume the authority to decide who can reproduce and how often.  These decisions are inforced by giving birth-control officials the powers to drag women from their homes and perform involuntary surgery on their bodies.  It is estimated that over 100 million forced sterilizations and unwanted abortions have been performed.
---
> In [[China]] government officials assume the authority to decide who can reproduce and how often.  These decisions are enforced by giving birth-control officials the powers to perform involuntary surgery on women.  It is estimated that over 100 million forced sterilizations and unwanted abortions have been performed.
------
Colleges_and_universities|990292212
1c1
< *[[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
---
> *[[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge]], [[England]])
------
Consonant|990292352
6a7,8
> The sounds /j/ as in English YOKE and /w/ as in English WOMAN are sometimes called semi-vowels, because although they function as consonants in some languages (e.g. English), phonetically they are vowels, or to be more exact, very short realizations of [i] and [u] respectively. 
> 
------
Consonant|990292384
7c7
< The sounds /j/ as in English YOKE and /w/ as in English WOMAN are sometimes called semi-vowels, because although they function as consonants in some languages (e.g. English), phonetically they are vowels, or to be more exact, very short realizations of [i] and [u] respectively. 
---
> The sounds /j/ as in English YOKE and /w/ as in English WOMAN are sometimes called semi-vowels, because although they function as consonants in some languages (e.g. English or Latin), phonetically they are vowels, or to be more exact, very short realizations of [i] and [u] respectively. 
------
Cambridge_University|990292385
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
------
Consonant|990292417
1c1,2
< A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vowel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).  A few sounds can function as either vowels or consonants, such as /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/ (though these are all consonants in English).
---
> A [[sound]] in spoken langage (and a letter of the [[alphabet]] that denotes such a sound) that has no sounding voice (vocal sound) of its own, but must rely on a nearby [[vowel]] with which (con = [[Latin]] for "with") it can sound (sonant).  A few sounds can function as either vowels or consonants, such as /l/, /r/, /m/, /n/ (though these are all consonants in English). The sounds /j/ as in English YOKE and /w/ as in English WOMAN are sometimes called semi-vowels, because although they function as consonants in some languages (e.g. English or Latin), phonetically they are vowels, or to be more exact, very short realizations of [i] and [u] respectively. 
> 
7d7
< The sounds /j/ as in English YOKE and /w/ as in English WOMAN are sometimes called semi-vowels, because although they function as consonants in some languages (e.g. English or Latin), phonetically they are vowels, or to be more exact, very short realizations of [i] and [u] respectively. 
------
Cambridge|990292429
1c1
< Cambridge is a [[university]] town in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[United Kingdom]]. According to [[legend]] the university of Cambridge was founded by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. 
---
> Cambridge is a [[university]] town in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[United Kingdom]]. 
------
Bass_music|990292488
1c1
< Hip hop related musical style that continues rapping and sometimes choruses. Musically, its roots can be found in electro funk. The music came into existence as part of Miami's stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [The 2 Live Crew]? got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably Tag Team's Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In Detroit, a new form of Bass called Ghetto Tech developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [Jonny Z]? provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [DJ Laz]? is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include Luke?, [DJ Magic Mike]?, [MC Shy D]? and [MC ADE]?. 
---
> Hip hop related musical style that continues rapping and sometimes choruses. Musically, its roots can be found in electro funk. The music came into existence as part of Miami's stereo wars, when people tried to out-stereo each other, claiming that they had the most bass-heavy stereo system in their car. At the end of the 1980s, [[The 2 Live Crew]] got very popular because officials tried to ban their records which they deemed to be pornographic and hence dangerous. Apart from that, only few bass tracks succeeded in becoming part of the mainstream, most notably Tag Team's Whoomp There It Is. Bass music started out as an underground pheneomenon, and it basically still is. In Detroit, a new form of Bass called Ghetto Tech developed in the 1990s, and on the West Coast, [[Jonny Z]] provides his own brand of Chicano Bass. [[DJ Laz]] is a Cuban from Miami who mixed Latin music with bass. Other important artists include [[Luke]], [[DJ Magic Mike]], [[MC Shy D]] and [[MC ADE]]. 
------
Ann_Arbor|990292623
2a3,4
> *City's official website, http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us/
> 
8c10
< *[[Bendix]], computer company
---
> *Bendix Aerospace (do they still exist?)
------
Ann_Arbor|990292743
3a4
> *[[Tuebingen]] is Ann Arbor's sister city in Germany
9c10
< *[[Ann Arbor Ambassador]], maker of video screen terminals
---
> *[[Ann Arbor Ambassador]], maker of once famous video display terminals, http://www.geocrawler.com/archives/3/408/1986/2/0/2153845/
------
Tuebingen|990292892
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tübingen is a [[city]] in [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in [[Germany]].
> 
> *City's official website, http://www.tuebingen.de/
> *[[Ann Arbor]] in Michigan is Tübingen's sister city in the USA.
> 
------
Ultramagnetic_MCs|990293114
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Although [[hip hop]] started in the Bronx/NY, only very few rappers and DJs from the Bronx have turned into successful artists. Although the Ultramagnetic MCs - [[Kool Keith]] [[Ced Gee]] [[TR Love]] - released a new school classic in 1988 - "Critical Breakdown" with typical [[James Brown]] samples - they disappeared after that for several years, to return on Mercury Records only in 1992, with the versatile album "Funk Your Head Up". 1993's "The Four Horsemen" was very weird and equally brilliant, but that was the last album the rappers from the Bronx released. The Ultramagnetic MC's launched the career of "Bronx Nigga" Tim Dog who brought out the very succesful single "Fuck Compton". Kool Keith went on to record lots of solo CDs, among them one under the "Dr. Octagon" monicker. His abstract rhymes influenced [[Pharaoe Monch]] from [[Organized Konfusion]].
------
Stockholm|990293271
3c3
< What first strikes the visitor to Stockholm is that there is water everywhere. The city's core is situated on a number of islands in an [[archipelago]] where the lake [[Malaren|M&auml;laren]] meets the [[Baltic]]. Stockholm is the site of [[Rosenbad|governement]] and [[riksdagen|parliaments]] of Sweden. 
---
> What first strikes the visitor to Stockholm is that there is water everywhere. The city's core is situated on a number of islands in an [[archipelago]] where the lake [[Malaren|M&auml;laren]] meets the [[Baltic Sea]]. Stockholm is the site of [[Rosenbad|governement]] and [[riksdagen|parliaments]] of Sweden. 
------
Ludwig_Wittgenstein|990293621
1,3c1
< Ludwig Wittgenstein was a German and English [[philosopher]]. His most famous work is the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
< 
< Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition at the University of Bergen in Norway, http://www.uib.no/
---
> Ludwig Wittgenstein was a Austrian and English [[philosopher]]. In his life () he only published one work, the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
4a3
> Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition at the University of Bergen in Norway, http://www.hit.uib.no/wab/
5a5,6
> The Trinity College library in [[Cambridge]], [[England]], holds a collection of Ludwig Wittgenstein's manuscripts,
> http://rabbit.trin.cam.ac.uk/~stewart/Msscolls/Wittgenstein.html
------
Cambridge_University|990293750
1c1,9
< See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
---
> According to [[legend]] the university of [[Cambridge]] was founded in 1209 by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. King Henry III granted them a teaching monopoly in 1231. 
> 
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peter|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/King's]], [[/Queens']] and [[/St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christ's]] and [[/St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
> 
> Add famous Cambridge scholars.
> 
> See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
> 
> See also [[Cambridge University Press]], [[punting]]
------
Tuebingen|990293902
1c1
< Tübingen is a [[city]] in [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in [[Germany]].
---
> Tübingen is a [[city]] in [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in [[Germany]]. It is home to the Eberhard Karls University. See its official web site at http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/.
------
Colleges_and_universities|990294095
2a3
> *[[Eberhard Karl University]] ([[Tuebingen]], [[Baden-Wuertemberg]])
4d4
< *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
5a6
> *[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
------
Colleges_and_universities|990294191
3c3
< *[[Eberhard Karl University]] ([[Tuebingen]], [[Baden-Wuertemberg]])
---
> *[[Eberhard Karl University]] ([[Tuebingen]], [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]])
------
Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus|990294422
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The only work published by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] in his lifetime.
> 
> English online versions,
> *http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/tlph.html
> *http://users.compaqnet.be/cn111132/wittgenstein/tractatus_logico_philosophicus.htm
> *http://guava.phil.lehigh.edu/tlp/
------
Tuebingen|990294498
1c1
< Tübingen is a [[city]] in [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in [[Germany]]. It is home to the Eberhard Karls University. See its official web site at http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/.
---
> Tübingen is a [[city]] in [[Baden-Wuerttemberg]] in [[Germany]].
4a5,7
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *Eberhard Karls University, http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/.
------
Linkoping_University|990294585
4a5,6
> Link&ouml;ping University has three faculties. They are the [[/philosophical faculty]], the medical faculty called [[/H&auml;lsouniversitetet]] and the technical faculty called [[/Tekniska H&ouml;gskolan]]. Many of the twenty departments teach students from more than one faculty. A number of [[/centrumbildningar |knowledge centres]] are also associated with the university. 
> 
7c9
< See also the website of [[Lysator]], http://www.lysator.liu.se/
---
> See also the website of the academic computer society [[Lysator]], http://www.lysator.liu.se/
------
Goettingen|990294588
3,4c3,6
< See the website of the University of Göttingen,
< http://www.uni-goettingen.de/
---
> *City's own website, http://www.goettingen.de/
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *University of Göttingen, http://www.uni-goettingen.de/
6d7
< See the city's own website, http://www.goettingen.de/
------
Linkoping_University|990294701
5c5
< Link&ouml;ping University has three faculties. They are the [[/philosophical faculty]], the medical faculty called [[/H&auml;lsouniversitetet]] and the technical faculty called [[/Tekniska H&ouml;gskolan]]. Many of the twenty departments teach students from more than one faculty. A number of [[/centrumbildningar |knowledge centres]] are also associated with the university. 
---
> Link&ouml;ping University has three faculties. They are the [[/philosophical faculty]], the medical faculty called [[/Halsouniversitatet|H&auml;lsouniversitetet]] and the technical faculty called [[/Tekniska Hogskolan|Tekniska H&ouml;skolan]]. Many of the twenty departments teach students from more than one faculty. A number of [[/centrumbildningar |knowledge centres]] are also associated with the university. 
------
Niedersachsen|990294869
0a1
> http://www.niedersachsen.de/images/ns.gif<br clear="all">
------
Hornlo|990297120
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Larry Olin Horn
> 
> I've only recently discovered Wikipedia -- really cool.
> My favorite passtime is to just wander around via
> [[Random Page]] [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?action=random URL],
> usually fixing any minor errors that I see.  I've made no significant
> contributions.
> 
> loh
------
Hornlo|990297250
4c4
< My favorite passtime is to just wander around via
---
> So far, my favorite thing to do is to just wander around via
7,9c7
< contributions.
< 
< loh
---
> contributions. -- [[hornlo|loh]]
------
SandBox|990297315
223,257c223,224
< Always a challenge----
< Math Symbols
< 
< Union: Yes
< 
< &cap;
< 
< Intersection: Yes
< 
< &cup;
< 
< Radical: Yes
< 
< &radic;
< 
< Is in: Yes
< 
< &isin;
< 
< Such that: Yes
< 
< &ni;
< 
< Subset: Yes
< 
< &sub;
< 
< Contained in, superset: Yes
< 
< &sup;
< 
< Not equal to: Yes
< 
< &ne;
< 
---
> Always a challenge
> ----
------
Bisexual|990297587
1c1
< Person who prefers to be romantically and sexually involved with people of either sex. 
---
> A '''bisexual'' person is one who can become romantically involved with persons of either sex.
3c3
< See also [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]]
---
> See also [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexual]]
------
Colleges_and_universities|990297748
6a7
> *[[Millsaps College]] ([[Jackson]], [[Mississippi]])
------
Riddarfjarden|990297879
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Riddarfjärden is a [[bay]] of lake [[Malaren]] in central [[Stockholm]].  Stockholm was built in 1250 on an island in the stream where lake Malaren (from the west) drains into the [[Baltic Sea]] (to the east).  The island is today called Stadsholmen and constitutes Stockholm's Old Town.  It is surrounded by land to the north (Norrmalm) and south (Södermalm), and by water to the west (Riddarfjärden) and to the east (Strömmen).
> 
> http://aronsson.se/riddarfjarden1200.jpg
> 
> The picture above was taken from the heights of Södermalm, west of Stadsholmen, looking down on Riddarfjärden and (left to right):
> *Västerbron (bridge),
> *island Kungsholmen
> *[[Stockholm/City Hall]], a red brick building with a bell tower, where the Nobel Prize dinner is served
> *tower of Maria Kyrka on Norrmalm, with green copper roof
> *the five white sky scrapers at Hötorget square
> *lots of construction cranes
> *high iron tower of Riddarholmskyrkan on island Riddarholmen
> *yellow tower of Storkyrkan on Stadsholmen, in front of the flat roof of the [[Stockholm/royal castle]]
> *narrow tower of Tyska Kyrkan on Stadsholmen
> *far away radio and TV tower Kaknästornet
> 
------
Millsaps_College|990298067
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://www.millsaps.edu/ Millsaps College]
> [http://www.millsaps.edu/get_to_know/profile.htm profile]
> is a privately supported liberal arts College located in
> [[Jackson]], [[Mississippi]].
------
Jackson|990298171
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> # city in [[Mississippi]] in the southern [[United_States]]
------
Stockholm|990298271
3c3
< What first strikes the visitor to Stockholm is that there is water everywhere. The city's core is situated on a number of islands in an [[archipelago]] where the lake [[Malaren|M&auml;laren]] meets the [[Baltic Sea]]. Stockholm is the site of [[Rosenbad|governement]] and [[riksdagen|parliaments]] of Sweden. 
---
> What first strikes the visitor to Stockholm is that [[Riddarfjarden|there is water everywhere]]. The city's core is situated on a number of islands in an [[archipelago]] where the lake [[Malaren|M&auml;laren]] meets the [[Baltic Sea]]. Stockholm is the site of [[Rosenbad|governement]] and [[riksdagen|parliaments]] of Sweden. 
------
Riddarfjarden|990298397
3c3
< http://aronsson.se/riddarfjarden1200.jpg
---
> http://aronsson.se/riddarfjarden1500.jpg
------
Mississippi|990298566
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state located in the southern [[United States]].
> 
> * capitol: [[Jackson]]
------
Riddarfjarden|990298596
3c3
< http://aronsson.se/riddarfjarden1500.jpg
---
> http://aronsson.se/riddarfjarden1600.jpg
------
Malaren|990298701
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mälaren is the fourth biggest [[lake]] in [[Sweden]].  It drains (from west to east) into the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Stockholm]].  The easternmost bay of Mälaren, in central Stockholm, is called [[Riddarfjarden|Riddarfjärden]].
> 
------
Malaren|990298765
1c1
< Mälaren is the fourth biggest [[lake]] in [[Sweden]].  It drains (from west to east) into the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Stockholm]].  The easternmost bay of Mälaren, in central Stockholm, is called [[Riddarfjarden|Riddarfjärden]].
---
> Mälaren is the third biggest [[lake]] in [[Sweden]] (the biggest are [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]]).  It drains (from west to east) into the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Stockholm]].  The easternmost bay of Mälaren, in central Stockholm, is called [[Riddarfjarden|Riddarfjärden]].
------
Bisexual|990298882
1c1
< A '''bisexual'' person is one who can become romantically involved with persons of either sex.
---
> A ''bisexual'' person is one who can become romantically involved with persons of either sex.
------
Bisexual|990298896
1c1
< A ''bisexual'' person is one who can become romantically involved with persons of either sex.
---
> A ''bisexual'' person is one who can become romantically involved with persons of either [[sex]].
------
Heterosexual|990298922
1c1
< Person who prefers to be romantically and sexually involved with people of the opposite sex.
---
> Person who prefers to be romantically and sexually involved with people of the opposite [[sex]].
------
Homosexual|990298936
1c1
< Person who prefers to be involved romantically and sexually with people of his/her own sex. 
---
> Person who prefers to be involved romantically and sexually with people of his/her own [[sex]]. 
3c3
< See also [[bisexual]] and [[heterosexual]]
---
> See also [[bisexual]] and [[heterosexual]]
------
Baltic_Sea|990299195
1,2c1,2
< Sea in Northern [[Europe]] with [[brackish water]] between [[Scandinavia]] and [[Baltica]].
< Connected to the [[North Sea]] through [[Öresund]] and [[Stora Bält]].
---
> A [[sea]] in Northern [[Europe]] with [[brackish water]], surrounded by the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]] and the mainland of east and central [[Europe]].
> It drains into [[Kattegatt]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
4,8c4,8
< Contains the big islands 
< [[Gotland]], [[OEland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
< [[Bornholm]] (beloning to [[Denmark]]), 
< [[Aland]] (belonging to [[Finland]]), 
< [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]] belonging to [[Estonia]].
---
> The Baltic Sea contains the big islands
> *[[Gotland]], [[OEland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
> *[[Bornholm]] (beloning to [[Denmark]]), 
> *[[Aland]] (belonging to [[Finland]]), 
> *[[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]] belonging to [[Estonia]].
15c15
< Water paths that drain into in the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]:
---
> Water paths that drain into the Baltic Sea include (clockwise from [[Oresund|Öresund]]:
38c38
< *??? (at [[Lubeck|Lübeck]])
---
> *??? (at [[Luebeck|Lübeck]])
------
Baltic_Sea|990299255
37c37
< *??? (at [[Gdansk]])
---
> *[[Vistula]] (at [[Gdansk]])
------
North_Sea|990299958
1c1,10
< Situated off the west coast of [[Norway]] and the East coast of the [[British Isles]]. There is a substancial amount of [[oil]] under the seabed.
---
> A [[sea]] situated off the west coast of [[Norway]] and the East coast of the [[British Isles]]. There is a substancial amount of [[oil]] under the seabed.  A bay of the North Sea is [[Kattegatt]], between [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]], which connects to the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Oresund|Öresund]].  In the south, the North Sea connects with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the [[English Channel]] and in the north through the [[Norwegian Sea]].
> 
> Countries that border on the North Sea are: [[United Kingdom]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], and the [[Netherlands]].
> 
> Water paths that drain into the Nort Sea are: [[Kattegatt]] (which drains the [[Baltic Sea]]), ... (at [[Bremerhaven]]), ... (at [[Hull]]), ...
> 
> well...someone fill in the blanks?
> 
> * Hallo Nordseefreunde, http://www.nordsee.org/
> 
------
Denmark/Geography|990300329
2c2
< Northern Europe, bordering the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, on a peninsula north of Germany
---
> Northern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], on a peninsula north of [[Germany]]
6c6
< Europe
---
> [[Europe]]
15c15
< includes the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the Faroe Islands and Greenland
---
> includes the island of [[Bornholm]] in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]]
17c17
< slightly less than twice the size of Massachusetts
---
> slightly less than twice the size of [[Massachusetts]]
22c22
< Germany 68 km
---
> [[Germany]] 68 km
37c37
< low and flat to gently rolling plains
---
> low and flat to gently rolling [[plains]]
40c40
< Lammefjord -7 m
---
> [[Lammefjord]] -7 m
42c42
< Ejer Bavnehoj 173 m
---
> [[Ejer Bavnehoj]] 173 m
44c44
< petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, stone, gravel and sand
---
> [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[fish]], [[salt]], [[limestone]], [[stone]], [[gravel]] and [[sand]]
46c46
< <br><i>arable land:</i>
---
> <br><i>[[arable land]]:</i>
52c52
< <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
---
> <br><i>[[forest]]s and [[woodland]]:</i>
56c56
< <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
---
> <p><b>[[Irrigated land]]:</b>
59c59
< flooding is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of Jutland, along the southern coast of the island of Lolland) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
---
> [[flooding]] is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of [[Jutland]], along the southern coast of the island of [[Lolland]]) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
61c61
< air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
---
> [[air pollution]], principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] pollution of the [[North Sea]]; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
68c68
< controls Danish Straits (Skagerrak and Kattegat) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in Copenhagen
---
> controls [[Danish Straits]] ([[Skagerrak]] and [[Kattegat]]) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in [[Copenhagen]]
------
Bornholm|990300375
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An [[island]] in the [[Baltic Sea]], belonging to [[Denmark]].  See [[Denmark/Geography]].
> 
------
Kattegat|990300754
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bay of the [[North Sea]] between [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], and [[Sweden]] ([[Scandinavia]]).  It connects through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the [[Danish Straits]] to the [[Baltic Sea]].
> 
> 
> Water paths that drain into Kattegat are [[Gota alv|Göta älv]], [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]], [[Oresund]], [[Danish Straits]] (Big and Little Belt).
> 
------
Kattegat|990300773
1c1
< A bay of the [[North Sea]] between [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], and [[Sweden]] ([[Scandinavia]]).  It connects through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the [[Danish Straits]] to the [[Baltic Sea]].
---
> A [[bay]] or [[gulf]] of the [[North Sea]] between [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], and [[Sweden]] ([[Scandinavia]]).  It connects through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the [[Danish Straits]] to the [[Baltic Sea]].
------
Baltic_Sea|990300804
2c2
< It drains into [[Kattegatt]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
---
> It drains into [[Kattegat]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
------
North_Sea|990300834
1c1
< A [[sea]] situated off the west coast of [[Norway]] and the East coast of the [[British Isles]]. There is a substancial amount of [[oil]] under the seabed.  A bay of the North Sea is [[Kattegatt]], between [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]], which connects to the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Oresund|Öresund]].  In the south, the North Sea connects with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the [[English Channel]] and in the north through the [[Norwegian Sea]].
---
> A [[sea]] situated off the west coast of [[Norway]] and the East coast of the [[British Isles]]. There is a substancial amount of [[oil]] under the seabed.  A bay of the North Sea is [[Kattegat]], between [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]], which connects to the [[Baltic Sea]] at [[Oresund|Öresund]].  In the south, the North Sea connects with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the [[English Channel]] and in the north through the [[Norwegian Sea]].
------
Gota_alv|990300913
2c2
< into the [[North Sea]] at the city of [[Gothenburg]]
---
> into [[Kattegat]] (and the [[North Sea]]) at the city of [[Gothenburg]]
------
Gota_Kanal|990300995
2c2
< This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]] to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transport]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
---
> This canal was constructed in the early 19th century, stretching all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, combined with river [[Gota alv|Göta älv]], through the great lakes [[Vanern|Vänern]] and [[Vattern|Vättern]], combined with river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]], and to [[Soderkoping|Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].  Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transport]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  This makes it a perfect tourist attraction.
------
Bay|990301421
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A bay or [[gulf]] is a collection of water (either a [[lake]] or [[sea]]) that is surrounded by land on three sides, and open to more water on the fourth.  In a way, this makes it the inverse of a [[peninsula]].
> 
> Some well-known bays are:
> *[[Arab Gulf]]
> *[[Bay of Biscay]] in France
> *[[Bay of Pigs]] on Cuba
> *[[Gulf of Bottnia]] between [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]]
> *[[Mexican Gulf]]
> *[[Riddarfjarden|Riddarfjärden]] in Stockholm
> *[[San Francisco Bay]]
> 
> 
------
Gulf|990301470
1c1
< A gulf or bay is a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides.
---
> A gulf or [[bay]] is a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides.
4,5c4,5
< The [[Gulf of Finland]],
< The [[San Francisco Bay]]
---
> *The [[Gulf of Finland]]
> *The [[San Francisco Bay]]
------
Bay|990301502
7a8
> *[[Gulf of Finland]] between [[Finland]] and [[Estonia]]
11a13
> See also [[Physical geography]]
------
Bay|990301612
4,6c4,6
< *[[Arab Gulf]]
< *[[Bay of Biscay]] in France
< *[[Bay of Pigs]] on Cuba
---
> *[[Arab Gulf]] between [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], [[Iraq]], and [[Iran]]
> *[[Bay of Biscay]] in [[France]]
> *[[Bay of Pigs]] on [[Cuba]]
9c9
< *[[Mexican Gulf]]
---
> *[[Mexican Gulf]] between [[Mexico]] and the [[United States]]
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|990301692
3,9c3,35
< *[[Tycho Brahe]]
< *[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]
< *[[Galileo Galilei]]
< *[[Edwin Hubble]]
< *[[Johannes Kepler]]
< *[[Henrietta Leavitt]]
< *[[Alan Sandage]]
---
> * [[John Couch Adams]] (1819-1892)
> * [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] (1784-1846)
> *[[Tycho Brahe]] (1546-1601)
> * [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] (1625-1712)
> * [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543)
> *[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] (1910-1995)
> * [[Arthur Eddington]] (1882-1944)
> *[[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642)
> * [[George Ellery Hale]] (1868-1938)
> * [[Asaph Hall]] (1829-1907)
> * [[Edmond Halley]] (1656-1742)
> * [[Caroline Herschel]] (1750-1848)
> * [[John Herschel]] (1792-1871)
> * [[William Herschel]] (1738-1822)
> * [[Ejnar Hertzsprung]] (1873-1967)
> * [[Hipparchus of Rhodes]] (c. 170-125 BC)
> *[[Edwin Hubble]] (1889-1953)
> * [[William Huggins]] (1824-1910)
> * [[Christiaan Huygens]] (1629-1695)
> * [[Daniel Kirkwood]] (1814-1895)
> *[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630)
> * [[Gerard Kuiper]] (1905-1973)
> *[[Henrietta Leavitt]] (1868-1921)
> * [[Urbain Leverrier]] (1811-1877)
> * [[Percival Lowell]] (1855-1916)
> * [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]] (1900-1979)
> * [[Ptolemy of Alexandria]] (c. 90-170)
> * [[Ole Romer]] (1644-1710)
> * [[Henry Norris Russell]] (1877-1957)
> * [[Carl Sagan]] (1934-1996)
> *[[Allan Sandage]] (1926-)
> * [[Carl Seyfert]] (1911-1960)
> * [[Maarten Schmidt]] (1929-)
15,16c41,42
< *[[Niels Bohr]]
< *[[Albert Einstein]]
---
> *[[Niels Bohr]] (1885-1962)
> *[[Albert Einstein]] (1879-1955)
------
Jordan/Geography|990301822
2c2
< Middle East, northwest of Saudi Arabia
---
> [[Middle East]], northwest of [[Saudi Arabia]]
6c6
< Middle East
---
> [[Middle East]]
15c15
< slightly smaller than Indiana
---
> slightly smaller than [[Indiana]]
20c20
< Iraq 181 km, Israel 238 km, Saudi Arabia 728 km, Syria 375 km, West Bank 97 km
---
> [[Iraq]] 181 km, [[Israel]] 238 km, [[Saudi Arabia]] 728 km, [[Syria]] 375 km, [[West Bank]] 97 km
27c27
< mostly arid desert; rainy season in west (November to April)
---
> mostly arid [[desert]]; rainy season in west (November to April)
29c29
< mostly desert plateau in east, highland area in west; Great Rift Valley separates East and West Banks of the Jordan River
---
> mostly [[desert]] plateau in east, highland area in west; [[Great Rift Valley]] separates [[East Bank|East]] and [[West Bank]]s of the [[Jordan River]]
32c32
< Dead Sea -408 m
---
> [[Dead Sea]] -408 m
34c34
< Jabal Ram 1,734 m
---
> [[Jabal Ram]] 1,734 m
36c36
< phosphates, potash, shale oil
---
> [[phosphate]]s, [[potash]], [[shale oil]]
38c38
< <br><i>arable land:</i>
---
> <br><i>[[arable land]]:</i>
44c44
< <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
---
> <br><i>[[forest]]s and [[woodland]]:</i>
48c48
< <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
---
> <p><b>[[Irrigated land]]:</b>
53c53
< limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
---
> limited natural fresh water resources; [[deforestation]]; [[overgrazing]]; [[soil erosion]]; [[desertification]]
------
Jabal_Ram|990301884
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Highest point in [[Jordan]], 1,734 m above sea level.  See [[Jordan/Geography]].
> 
------
Operating_system|990301927
2c2
< Examples include [[Atlas]], [[Multics]], [[Vax/VMS]], [[CP/M]], [[DOS]], [[System V]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
---
> Examples include [[Atlas]], [[Multics]], [[VMS]], [[CP/M]], [[DOS]], [[System V]], [[Solaris]], [[Linux]] and [[Windows NT]].
12c12
< Vax/VMS (Windows NT, Windows 2000)
---
> [[VMS]] (Windows NT, Windows 2000)
16c16,19
< An operating system is generally classified as being [[monolithic]] or [[micro-kernal]].
---
> An operating system is generally classified as being [[monolithic]] or [[micro-kernel]].
> 
> ----
> Changed "Vax/VMS" to plain "VMS";  VMS is the operating system, [[VAX]] is one of the hardware platforms VMS can run on; [[Alpha]] is another. -- [[hornlo|loh]]
------
United_Kingdom/London|990302206
13c13
< <li>[[Madame Tussaud's Wax Cabinet]]
---
> <li>[[Madame Tussauds Wax Cabinet|Madame Tussaud's Wax Cabinet]]
------
United_Kingdom/London|990302345
18c18
< <li>[[Victoria &amp; Albert Museum]]
---
> <li>[[Victoria Albert Museum|Victoria &amp; Albert Museum]]
27a28,29
> -----
> I agree; London should definitely have a page of its own (and a reference from this one). --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Tokyo|990302365
1c1
< Capital of Japan. 
---
> Capital of [[Japan]]. 
------
Ludwig_Wittgenstein|990302418
1c1
< Ludwig Wittgenstein was a Austrian and English [[philosopher]]. In his life () he only published one work, the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
---
> '''Ludwig''' Joseph Johann '''Wittgenstein''' was a Austrian and English [[philosopher]]. In his life (1889-1951) he only published one work, the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
3c3
< Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition at the University of Bergen in Norway, http://www.hit.uib.no/wab/
---
> Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition (and sold on CDROM) at the [[University of Bergen]] in [[Norway]], http://www.hit.uib.no/wab/
6c6,9
< http://rabbit.trin.cam.ac.uk/~stewart/Msscolls/Wittgenstein.html
---
> http://rabbit.trin.cam.ac.uk/~stewart/Msscolls/Wittgenstein.html
> 
> Wittgenstein communicated with the finnish philosopher [[Georg Henrik von Wright]], who succeeded Wittgenstein as profesor at [[University of Cambridge]] in England.
> 
------
Greater_London|990302446
1c1
< The London metropolitan area is governed by the Greater London Authority. It covers the 23 [[London boroughs]]. The head of the Greater London Authority is the Mayor of London, currently [[Ken Livingstone]]. He and the [[London Assembly]] are elected by popular vote. 
---
> The [[United Kingdom/London|London]] metropolitan area is governed by the Greater London Authority. It covers the 23 [[London boroughs]]. The head of the Greater London Authority is the Mayor of London, currently [[Ken Livingstone]]. He and the [[London Assembly]] are elected by popular vote. 
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|990302447
1c1,4
< Important Astronomers and Astrophysicist:
---
> Astronomers and astrophysicists are scientists who practice
> [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]].
> 
> Notable astronomers and astrophysicists include:
41,42c44,45
< *[[Niels Bohr]] (1885-1962)
< *[[Albert Einstein]] (1879-1955)
---
> *[[Niels Bohr]] physicist (1885-1962)
> *[[Albert Einstein]] physicist (1879-1955)
44c47
< (...many more)
---
> (...many more)
------
Lysator|990302943
11a12,13
> 
> The following people are or have been members of Lysator and have contributed to [[Wikipedia]]: [[LinusTolke]], [[LA2]], [[Pinkunicorn]], [[Mjausson]].
------
Mjolby|990303015
3c3
< There is a goldsmith school and a school for train drivers in Mj&ouml;lby. The town is a major station on the southern railway line connecting Stockholm and the southern parts of the country. The motorway E4 also passes through Mj&ouml;lby.
---
> There is a goldsmith school and a school for train drivers in Mj&ouml;lby. The town is a major station on the southern railway line connecting Stockholm and the southern parts of the country. The motorway [[European route E4|E4]] also passes through Mj&ouml;lby.
------
Edmund_Stoiber/Talk|990303191
2c2,4
< --Mjausson
---
> --Mjausson
> ----
> I don't know the standard translations of special German words, cause I'm German, not English. However, "maintenance of internal security" means, among other things, making stricter laws against violence and terrorism if violence and terrorism occurs. -- IAm
------
Linkoping_University|990303303
5c5
< Link&ouml;ping University has three faculties. They are the [[/philosophical faculty]], the medical faculty called [[/Halsouniversitatet|H&auml;lsouniversitetet]] and the technical faculty called [[/Tekniska Hogskolan|Tekniska H&ouml;skolan]]. Many of the twenty departments teach students from more than one faculty. A number of [[/centrumbildningar |knowledge centres]] are also associated with the university. 
---
> Link&ouml;ping University has three faculties. They are the [[/philosophical faculty]], the medical faculty called [[/Halsouniversitatet|H&auml;lsouniversitetet]] and the technical faculty called [[/Tekniska Hogskolan|Tekniska H&ouml;gskolan]]. Many of the twenty departments teach students from more than one faculty. A number of [[/centrumbildningar|knowledge centres]] are also associated with the university. 
------
Riddarfjarden|990303420
1c1
< Riddarfjärden is a [[bay]] of lake [[Malaren]] in central [[Stockholm]].  Stockholm was built in 1250 on an island in the stream where lake Malaren (from the west) drains into the [[Baltic Sea]] (to the east).  The island is today called Stadsholmen and constitutes Stockholm's Old Town.  It is surrounded by land to the north (Norrmalm) and south (Södermalm), and by water to the west (Riddarfjärden) and to the east (Strömmen).
---
> Riddarfjärden is a [[bay]] of lake [[Malaren|Mälaren]] in central [[Stockholm]].  Stockholm was built in 1250 on an island in the stream where lake Malaren (from the west) drains into the [[Baltic Sea]] (to the east).  The island is today called Stadsholmen and constitutes Stockholm's Old Town.  It is surrounded by land to the north (Norrmalm) and south (Södermalm), and by water to the west (Riddarfjärden) and to the east (Strömmen).
8c8
< *[[Stockholm/City Hall]], a red brick building with a bell tower, where the Nobel Prize dinner is served
---
> *[[Stockholm/City Hall]], a red brick building with a bell tower, where the [[Nobel Prize]] dinner is served
------
Baltic_Sea|990303515
2c2
< It drains into [[Kattegat]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
---
> It drains into [[Kattegatt]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
5,6c5,6
< *[[Gotland]], [[OEland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
< *[[Bornholm]] (beloning to [[Denmark]]), 
---
> *[[Gotland]], [[Oland|Öland]] belonging to [[Sweden]], 
> *[[Bornholm]] (belonging to [[Denmark]]), 
------
Baltic_Sea|990303564
2c2
< It drains into [[Kattegatt]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
---
> It drains into [[Kattegat]] and the [[North Sea]] through [[Oresund|Öresund]] and the Big and Little Belt of Denmark.
------
North_Sea|990303589
5c5
< Water paths that drain into the Nort Sea are: [[Kattegatt]] (which drains the [[Baltic Sea]]), ... (at [[Bremerhaven]]), ... (at [[Hull]]), ...
---
> Water paths that drain into the Nort Sea are: [[Kattegat]] (which drains the [[Baltic Sea]]), ... (at [[Bremerhaven]]), ... (at [[Hull]]), ...
------
Georg_Henrik_von_Wright|990303603
1c1,38
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Georg Henrik von Wright (born in 1916) is a (Swedish-speaking) [[philosopher]] from [[Finland]], who succeeded [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as professor at the [[University of Cambridge]].  The last name is not pronounce rite, but rather like vrihkt.
> 
> ''note: for the time being, only individual words in the following titles have been linked.  This is intended as an inspiration for those who write wikipedia entries on philosophy.''
> 
> '''Works'''
> *''The Logical Problem of [[Induction]]'', PhD thesis, 31 May 1941
> *''Den logiska empirismen'', in Swedish, 1945
> *''Über Wahrscheinlichkeit'', in Germany, 1945
> *''An Essay in [[modal logic|Modal Logic]]'', 1951
> *''A Treatise on Induction and [[Probability]]'', 1951
> *''Tanke och förkunnelse'', in Swedish, 1955
> *''Logical Studies'', 1957
> *''Logik, filosofi och språk'', in Swedish, 1957
> *''The Varities of [[Goodness]]', 1963, considered his best and most personal work
> *''[[Norm]] and [[Action]]'', 1963
> *''The Logic of [[Preference]]'', 1963
> *''Essay om naturen, människan och den vetenskaplig-tekniska revolutionen'', in Swedish, 1963
> *''An Essay in [[deontic logic|Deontic Logic]]'', 1968
> *''[[Time]], [[Change]] and [[Contradiction]]'', 1969
> *''Tieteen filosofian kaksi perinnettä'', in Finnish, 1970
> *''[[Explanation]] and [[Understanding]]'', 1971
> *''[[Causality]] and [[Determinism]]'', 1974
> *''Handlung, Norm und [[Intention]]'', in German, 1977
> *''Humanismen som livshållning'', 1978
> *''[[Freedom]] and [[Determination]]'', 1980
> *''Wittgenstein'', 1982
> *''Philosophical Papers I-III'', 1983-1984
> *''Filosofisia tutkielmia'', in Finnish, 1985
> *''Vetenskapet och förnuftet'', in Swedish, 1986
> *''Minervan Pöllö'', in Finnish, 1991
> *''Myten om framsteget'', in Swedish, 1993
> *''The Tree of [[Knowledge]]'', 1993
> *''Att förstå sin framtid'', in Swedish, 1994
> *''Six Essays in [[philosophical logic|Philosophical Logic]]'', 1996
> *''Viimeisistä ajoista. Ajatusleikki'', in Finnish, 1997
> *''Mitt liv som jag minns det'', in Swedish, 2001
> 
> 
------
Kattegat|990303683
5c5,6
< 
---
> -----
> It should be spelled "Kattegatt". --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
University_of_Cambridge|990303804
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> According to [[legend]] the [[University]] of [[Cambridge]] in [[England]] was founded in 1209 by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. King Henry III granted them a teaching monopoly in 1231. 
> 
> See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
> 
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peter|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/King's]], [[/Queens']] and [[/St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christ's]] and [[/St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
> 
> Some famous Cambridge scholars:
> *[[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
> *[[Georg Henrik von Wright]]
> 
> See also [[Cambridge University Press]], [[punting]]
------
Cambridge_University|990303876
1c1
< According to [[legend]] the university of [[Cambridge]] was founded in 1209 by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. King Henry III granted them a teaching monopoly in 1231. 
---
> #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]
3,9d2
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peter|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/King's]], [[/Queens']] and [[/St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christ's]] and [[/St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
< 
< Add famous Cambridge scholars.
< 
< See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
< 
< See also [[Cambridge University Press]], [[punting]]
------
Philosopher|990304109
9,10c9,37
< [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] 
< [[Cicero]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --[[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
---
> [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Aristotle]] --
> [[Augustine]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] --
> [[George Berkeley]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] --
> [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] 
> [[Cicero]] --
> [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] --
> [[Epicurus]] --  [[Paul Feyerabend]] --
> [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] --
> [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] --
> [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[David Hume]] --
> [[Immanuel Kant]] --
> [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] --
> [[Gottfried Leibniz]] --  [[John Locke]] --
> [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] --
> [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] --
> [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] --
> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] --
> [[Plato]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] --
> [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] --
> [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] --
> [[Bertrand Russell]] --
> [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] --
> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] --
> [[Socrates]] --
> [[Baruch Spinoza]] --
> [[Dugald Stewart]] --
> [[Voltaire]] --
> [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] --
> [[Georg Henrik von Wright]]
------
Georg_Henrik_von_Wright|990304169
1c1
< Georg Henrik von Wright (born in 1916) is a (Swedish-speaking) [[philosopher]] from [[Finland]], who succeeded [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as professor at the [[University of Cambridge]].  The last name is not pronounce rite, but rather like vrihkt.
---
> Georg Henrik von Wright (born in 1916) is a (Swedish-speaking) [[philosopher]] from [[Finland]], who succeeded [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as professor at the [[University of Cambridge]].  The last name is not pronounce rite, but rather like vrihkt. 
------
Kattegat|990304264
6a7,8
> 
> No, most webpages has Kattegat.  I guess that is the English spelling.  Or are you sure?  --[[LA2]]
------
Web_browser|990304307
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[software]] used to browse [[web pages]] on the [[World Wide Web]].
> 
> *[[Mosaic]]
> *[[Netsape Navigator]]
> *[[Opera]]
> *[[Lynx]]
> *[[Konqueror]]
> 
> see also [[internet]]
------
Internet|990304355
15c15
< ** [[Web browser]]
---
> ** [[Web browser|web browser]]
------
University_of_Cambridge|990304357
11a12,13
> -----
> For some stupid reason links with ' in them don't seem to work right. This should be fixed, I think. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Kattegat|990304427
7c7
< 
---
> -----
8a9,10
> -----
> My Nordisk Familjebok has "Kattegatt", at least. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Malaren|990304531
2a3
> *Mälarguiden, http://www.malaren.com/
------
Malaren|990304639
3a4
> *Go cruising with Strömma Kanalbolaget, http://www.strommakanalbolaget.com/
------
Cambridge_University|990304737
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]
---
> See [[University of Cambridge]]
------
Cambridge_University|990304774
2a3,18
> old contents below...
> 
> 
> According to [[legend]] the [[University]] of [[Cambridge]] in [[England]] was founded in 1209 by [[scholar]]s escaping [[Oxford]] after a fight with Oxford locals. King Henry III granted them a teaching monopoly in 1231. 
> 
> See the official web site at http://www.cam.ac.uk/
> 
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peter|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/King's]], [[/Queens']] and [[/St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christ's]] and [[/St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
> 
> Some famous Cambridge scholars:
> *[[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]
> *[[Georg Henrik von Wright]]
> 
> See also [[Cambridge University Press]], [[punting]]
> -----
> For some stupid reason links with ' in them don't seem to work right. This should be fixed, I think. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Cambridge_University|990304818
1c1
< See [[University of Cambridge]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]
------
Kattegat|990304967
6,10c6
< It should be spelled "Kattegatt". --[[Pinkunicorn]]
< -----
< No, most webpages has Kattegat.  I guess that is the English spelling.  Or are you sure?  --[[LA2]]
< -----
< My Nordisk Familjebok has "Kattegatt", at least. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> The Swedish spelling is "Kattegatt".
------
Web_browser|990305023
2a3,5
> *[[Internet Explorer]]
> *[[Konqueror]]
> *[[Lynx]]
6,7d8
< *[[Lynx]]
< *[[Konqueror]]
9c10
< see also [[internet]]
---
> see also [[internet]]
------
Kattegatt|990305099
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Kattegatt is the Swedish (and Danish?) spelling for [[Kattegat]].
------
North_Sea|990305936
9a10
> * <i>Nordsømuseet i Hirtshals</i> (The North Sea Museum in Hirtshals, Denmark), http://www.nordsoemuseet.dk/
------
International_Wikipedia|990306470
29c29,31
< I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later.  There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely.  Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as ''Cien anos de soledad.''  Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand.  And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?
---
> I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later.  There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely.  Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as ''Cien anos de soledad.''  Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand.  And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?--KoyaanisQatsi
> ----
> Also, the [[http://es.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?RecentChanges RecentChanges link at the Spanish branch]] does not update, or at least does not update within four hours.--KQ
------
Film_history/Poland|990306485
7c7
< Actrors:
---
> Actors:
9c9
< *[[Izabella Scorupco]]
---
> *[[Izabella Scorupco]]
------
Roman_Polanski|990306578
1c1
< Was married to actress [[Sharon Tate]], who was killed by [[Charles Manson]] later
---
> Was married to actress [[Sharon Tate]], who was killed by [[Charles Manson]] later.
5,9c5,9
< :[[Chinatown/Polanski|Chinatown]]
< :[[Knife in the Water]]
< :[[Macbeth/Polanski|Macbeth]]
< :[[The Ninth Gate]]
< :[[Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
---
> :[[/Chinatown|Chinatown]]
> :[[/Knife in the Water]]
> :[[/Macbeth|Macbeth]]
> :[[/The Ninth Gate]]
> :[[/Rosemarys Baby|Rosemary's Baby]]
------
Edmund_Stoiber/Talk|990306727
4c4,7
< I don't know the standard translations of special German words, cause I'm German, not English. However, "maintenance of internal security" means, among other things, making stricter laws against violence and terrorism if violence and terrorism occurs. -- IAm
---
> I don't know the standard translations of special German words, cause I'm German, not English. However, "maintenance of internal security" means, among other things, making stricter laws against violence and terrorism if violence and terrorism occurs. -- IAm
> ----
> So would "maintaining strict anti-terrorist laws" work for the phrase about internal security? 
> --Mjausson
------
Web_browser|990306781
7c7
< *[[Netsape Navigator]]
---
> *[[Netscape Navigator]]
------
Mjausson|990306986
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lives in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Areas of interest include [[Sweden]], the [[Internet]], [[gender studies]] and [[biology]]. Former member of [[Lysator]]. 
> 
> See also http://members.nbci.com/mjausson
------
Musical_instrument|990308295
12a13
> *[[Electronic instruments]] generate sound through electronic means. They often mimic other instruments in their design, particularly keyboards. 
------
Electronic_instruments|990308547
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Electronic instruments generate tones through electricity. [[Synthesizer]]s, [[drum machine]]s and [[electric organ]]s are all electronic instruments. 
------
Oresund|990308912
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> &Ouml;resund is the waterway that separates Denmark from Sweden where the distance is the shortest. A bridge across the the sound was inaugurated in July 2001 by the [[Sweden/monarchy|king]] of Sweden and [[Denmark[monarchy|queen]] of Denmark. 
------
Oresund|990309129
1c1,3
< &Ouml;resund is the waterway that separates Denmark from Sweden where the distance is the shortest. A bridge across the the sound was inaugurated in July 2001 by the [[Sweden/monarchy|king]] of Sweden and [[Denmark[monarchy|queen]] of Denmark. 
---
> &Ouml;resund is the waterway that separates Denmark from Sweden where the distance between the countries is the shortest. A bridge across the the sound was inaugurated in July 2001 by the [[Sweden/monarchy|king]] of Sweden and [[Denmark[monarchy|queen]] of Denmark. 
> 
> See the official web site of the bridge builders, &Ouml;resundskonsortiet, at http://www.oresundskonsortiet.com/
------
Nissan|990309919
3c3
< The Nissan and Datsun [[Z-cars]] are affordable sports cars modelled after the German [[Porsche]] and British [[Jaguar]].
---
> The Nissan and Datsun [[Z-car]] are affordable sports cars modelled after the German [[Porsche]] and British [[Jaguar]].
------
Z-car|990310059
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Starting out in 1969 with the 240Z, the [[Datsun]] Z-cars have been enormously popular in [[Japan]], the [[United States]], and the [[United Kingdom]].  For their good looks and strong performance, they have been remarkably affordable [[automobile]]s. 
> 
> http://aronsson.se/datsun/edge_m.jpg
------
The_novel|990310444
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The novel is the most popular type of literature in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. [[Cervantes |Miguel Cervantes]] is credited with writing the first novel, [[Don Quixote]], the first part of which was published in 1605. In it we find the characteristics that even today make up a novel: it is an invented story about a series of connected events in the lives of a group of people. What sets it apart from a [[short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its characters. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the stage, human actors and the audience. The first English-language novel is [[Daniel Defoe]]'s [[Moll Flanders|The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders]], published in 1722. 
> 
> The novel comes in innumerable genres. Some of the most popular ones are:
> <ul>
> <li>[[mysteries]]
> <li>[[science-fiction]]
> <li>[[fantasy]]
> <li>[[historic novel]]s
> </ul>
> 
------
Television|990310591
22a23
> :[[The Fugitive]]
------
Z-car|990310669
2a3,5
> *Internet Z-Car Club, http://zhome.com/
> *Nissan Vintage Cars, http://www.nissandriven.com/vintage/car9.html
> 
3a7,8
> 
> ''Photo shows a 1977 280Z''
------
Nissan|990310757
2a3,4
> *Nissan Motors official website, http://www.nissandriven.com/
> 
------
The_novel|990310799
1c1,7
< The novel is the most popular type of literature in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. [[Cervantes |Miguel Cervantes]] is credited with writing the first novel, [[Don Quixote]], the first part of which was published in 1605. In it we find the characteristics that even today make up a novel: it is an invented story about a series of connected events in the lives of a group of people. What sets it apart from a [[short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its characters. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the stage, human actors and the audience. The first English-language novel is [[Daniel Defoe]]'s [[Moll Flanders|The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders]], published in 1722. 
---
> The novel is the most popular type of literature in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. 
> 
> [[Cervantes |Miguel Cervantes]] is credited with writing the first novel, [[Don Quixote]], the first part of which was published in 1605. In it we find the characteristics that even today make up a novel: it is an invented story about a series of connected events in the lives of a group of people. 
> 
> What sets it apart from a [[short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its [[character]]s. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the [[stage]], human [[actor]]s and the [[audience]]. What sets it apart from [[poetry]] is that it is written in prose form. 
> 
> The first English-language novel is [[Daniel Defoe]]'s [[Moll Flanders|The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders]], published in 1722. 
8a15,16
> <li>[[comedy]]
> <li>[[romance]]
------
The_novel|990310936
7c7
< The first English-language novel is [[Daniel Defoe]]'s [[Moll Flanders|The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders]], published in 1722. 
---
> The first English-language [[novelist]] is [[Daniel Defoe]] who wrote [[Moll Flanders|The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders]] in 1722. 
12c12
< <li>[[science-fiction]]
---
> <li>[[science fiction]]
------
The_novel|990310996
5c5
< What sets it apart from a [[short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its [[character]]s. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the [[stage]], human [[actor]]s and the [[audience]]. What sets it apart from [[poetry]] is that it is written in prose form. 
---
> What sets it apart from a [[the short story|short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its [[character]]s. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the [[stage]], human [[actor]]s and the [[audience]]. What sets it apart from [[poetry]] is that it is written in prose form. 
------
The_novel|990311088
5c5
< What sets it apart from a [[the short story|short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its [[character]]s. What sets it apart from a [[play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the [[stage]], human [[actor]]s and the [[audience]]. What sets it apart from [[poetry]] is that it is written in prose form. 
---
> What sets it apart from a [[the short story|short story]] is that it is more complex and deals with more than one issue in the lives of its [[character]]s. What sets it apart from a [[the play|play]] is that it is not confined by the restrictions of the [[stage]], human [[actor]]s and the [[audience]]. What sets it apart from [[poetry]] is that it is written in prose form. 
------
The_novel|990311157
1c1
< The novel is the most popular type of literature in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. 
---
> The novel is the most popular type of [[literature]] in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. 
------
Literature|990311250
6c6
< * journals on stamp collecting
---
> * journals on stamp collecting 
------
Oresund|990311411
1c1,5
< &Ouml;resund is the waterway that separates Denmark from Sweden where the distance between the countries is the shortest. A bridge across the the sound was inaugurated in July 2001 by the [[Sweden/monarchy|king]] of Sweden and [[Denmark[monarchy|queen]] of Denmark. 
---
> &Ouml;resund is the waterway that separates Denmark from Sweden where the distance between the countries is the shortest. &Ouml;resund connects the [[Kattegat Strait]] with the [[Baltic Sea]] and is one of the most busy waterways in the world.
> 
> Political control of &Ouml;resund has been an important issue in Danish (and Swedish) history. Danish millitaty control was done from the coastal fortess of [[Kronborg]] at Helsing&oslash;r ([[Elsinore]]).
> 
> A bridge across the the sound was inaugurated in July 2001 by the [[Sweden/monarchy|king]] of Sweden and [[Denmark/monarchy|queen]] of Denmark. 
------
Astronomers_and_Astrophysicists|990311462
47c47,49
< (...many more)
---
> (...many more)
> ----
> ''What is the point in making [[Pages With Long and Complicated Titles]]?  We already have a page on [[astronomer]], which follows the recommendation of using singular nouns in page names.  When choosing a name for your new page, you can make it easy for people to link to the page by giving it a name that is short and easy to remember.''--[[LA2]] (19 May 2001)
------
Nissan|990311742
5c5
< The Nissan and Datsun [[Z-car]] are affordable sports cars modelled after the German [[Porsche]] and British [[Jaguar]].
---
> The Nissan and Datsun [[Z-car]] was an affordable sports cars modelled after the German [[Porsche]] and British [[Jaguar]].
------
Mississippi|990312006
3c3
< * capitol: [[Jackson]]
---
> * capital: [[Jackson]]
------
Oxford|990312032
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Oxford is a [[university]] town in [[Oxfordshire]] in [[England]]. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires" for the harmonious [[architecture]] of the university [[building]]s. Oxford is also the set of [[Colin Dexter]]'s [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries|mystery]] [[the novel|novels]].
------
Jackson|990312051
1a2
> # a popular [[family name]] in English speaking countries
------
Bay|990312196
4c4
< *[[Arab Gulf]] between [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], [[Iraq]], and [[Iran]]
---
> *[[Persian Gulf]] between [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], [[Iraq]], and [[Iran]]
------
Oxford|990312376
1c1,5
< Oxford is a [[university]] town in [[Oxfordshire]] in [[England]]. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires" for the harmonious [[architecture]] of the university [[building]]s. Oxford is also the set of [[Colin Dexter]]'s [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries|mystery]] [[the novel|novels]].
---
> Oxford is a [[university]] town in [[Oxfordshire]] in [[England]]. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires" for the harmonious [[architecture]] of the university [[building]]s. Oxford is also the set of [[Colin Dexter]]'s [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries|mystery]] [[the novel|novels]].
> 
> See Oxford's official web site at http://www.oxford.gov.uk/
> 
> See also [[Oxford University]].
------
Millsaps_College|990312439
2d1
< [http://www.millsaps.edu/get_to_know/profile.htm profile]
------
Colin_Dexter|990312641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> British author of the [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries]]. Dexter was born in Stamford, Lincolnshire in XXXX.  
------
Oxford|990313141
5c5
< See also [[Oxford University]].
---
> See also [[University of Oxford]].
------
Oxford|990313166
1c1
< Oxford is a [[university]] town in [[Oxfordshire]] in [[England]]. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires" for the harmonious [[architecture]] of the university [[building]]s. Oxford is also the set of [[Colin Dexter]]'s [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries|mystery]] [[the novel|novels]].
---
> Oxford is a [[university]] [[city|town]] in [[Oxfordshire]] in [[England]]. It is known as the "city of dreaming spires" for the harmonious [[architecture]] of the university [[building]]s. Oxford is also the set of [[Colin Dexter]]'s [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries|mystery]] [[the novel|novels]].
------
Inspector_Morse|990313169
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Series of 13 [[mysteries]] by British [[author]] [[Colin Dexter]]. 
> 
> The titles are:
> <ul>
> <li>Last Bus to Woodstock, 1975
> <li>Last Seen Wearing, 1976
> <li>Silent World of Nicholas Quinn, 1977
> <li>Service of All the Dead, 1979
> <li>The Dead of Jerico, 1981
> <li>The Riddle of the Third Mile, 1983
> <li>The Secret of Annexe 3, 1986
> <li>The Wench is Dead, 1989
> <li>The Jewel That Was Ours, 1991
> <li>The Way Through the Woods, 1992
> <li>The Daughters of Cain, 1994
> <li>Death is Now My Neighbor, 1996
> <li>The Remorseful Day: The Final Inspector Morse Novel, 2000
> </ul>
> 
> Just like [[Conan Doyle]] Dexter killed his main character in the last book. 
------
University_of_Oxford|990313235
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The famous [[university]] in [[Oxford]], [[England]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.oxford.ac.uk/
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|990313336
1d0
< *[[Cambridge University]] ([[Cambridge]], [[England]])
18a18
> *[[University of Cambridge]] ([[Cambridge]], [[England]])
19a20
> *[[University of Oxford]] ([[Oxford]], [[England]])
------
Colin_Dexter|990313442
1c1,3
< British author of the [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries]]. Dexter was born in Stamford, Lincolnshire in XXXX.  
---
> British author of the [[Inspector Morse]] [[mysteries]]. Dexter was born in Stamford, Lincolnshire in XXXX. Although he studied at [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]], he moved to Oxford in 1966. The story about how he started writing the Inspector Morse mysteries has been told and retold many times: Dexter was on a family holiday in Wales in 1972. The weather was persistently wet. After reading two mediocre mysteries, he decided that he could do better than that. Dexter has received a number of prestigious awards for the Inspector Morse mysteries. 
> 
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|990313641
2a3
> *[[Gothenburg University]] ([[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]])
4a6,7
> *[[Lulea University of Technology]] ([[Lulea]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[Lund University]]) ([[Lund]], [[Sweden]])
13a17,18
> *[[Umea University]]) ([[Umea]], [[Sweden]])
> *[[University of Bergen]] ([[Bergen]], [[Norway]])
19a25
> *[[University of Oslo]] ([[Oslo]], [[Norway]])
23c29
< 
---
> *[[Uppsala University]]) ([[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]])
------
Lulea_University_of_Technology|990313680
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A technical [[university]] in [[Lulea]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.luth.se/
> 
------
Gothenburg_University|990313714
1c1,3
< The state university in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]].
---
> The state [[university]] in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.gu.se/
------
Lund_University|990313753
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The ancient [[university]] in [[Lund]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.lu.se/
> 
> 
------
Colleges_and_universities|990313801
11d10
< *[[Oxford University]] ([[Oxford, England]])
------
Stockholm_University|990313835
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state [[university]] in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.su.se/
> 
------
Umea_University|990313871
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[university]] in [[Umea]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.umu.se/
> 
------
Inspector_Morse|990313999
20c20,24
< Just like [[Conan Doyle]] Dexter killed his main character in the last book. 
---
> Just like [[Conan Doyle]] Dexter killed his main character in the last book.
> 
> The Inspector Morse novels have been made into a very successful [[TV series]] by the British TV channel [[Carlton]]. The Inspector himself is played by [[John Thaw]] and the faithful Sergeant Lewis by [[Kevin Whately]]. Dexter makes a [[cameo appearance]] in each of the episodes. See the official web site of the TV series at http://www.inspectormorse.co.uk/.
> 
> It is primarly the personality of the main character that makes the Inspector Morse novels so successful. With his beatiful [[Jaguar]], [[beer]] snobbery and penchant for [[Wagner]] he is a likable person. 
------
University_of_Bergen|990314008
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[university]] in [[Bergen]], [[Norway]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.uib.no/
> 
> A the Humanities IT centre (http://www.hit.uib.no/), is the [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] Archives of Bergen, http://www.hit.uib.no/wab/
> 
------
University_of_Oslo|990314068
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[university]] in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.uio.no/
> 
------
Oslo|990314218
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.oslo.kommune.no/images/topp/logo_topp.GIF
> 
> Oslo is the capital [[city]] of [[Norway]].
> 
> *City of Oslo official website, http://www.oslo.kommune.no/
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[University of Oslo]]
> 
------
San_Francisco|990314262
7,8d6
< San Francisco bay is spanned by five bridges: the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] (which was the largest suspension bridge ever built at the time of its construction), the [[Richmod-San Rafael Bridge]], the [[San Fransisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[Hayward-San Mateo Bridge]] and the [[Dumbarton Bridge]].
< 
------
Oslo|990314304
1,2d0
< http://www.oslo.kommune.no/images/topp/logo_topp.GIF
< 
9a8
> http://www.oslo.kommune.no/bilder/artikler/74/oslocity.jpg
------
San_Francisco_Bay|990314309
2a3,4
> San Francisco bay is spanned by five bridges: the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] (which was the largest suspension bridge ever built at the time of its construction), the [[Richmod-San Rafael Bridge]], the [[San Fransisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[Hayward-San Mateo Bridge]] and the [[Dumbarton Bridge]].
> 
------
Stockholm_University|990314424
0a1,2
> http://www.su.se/icons/su/su.gif
> 
------
Stockholm|990314534
0a1,2
> http://www.studying-stockholm.a.se/sterik.gif
> 
16a19
> *See also http://www.studying-stockholm.a.se/
------
Oxford|990314732
5c5
< See also [[University of Oxford]].
---
> See also [[University of Oxford]]. 
------
University_of_Oxford|990314746
3c3
< *Official website, http://www.oxford.ac.uk/
---
> *Official website, http://www.ox.ac.uk/
------
Millsaps_College|990314904
2c2
< is a privately supported liberal arts College located in
---
> is a privately supported liberal arts [[College]] located in
------
College|990315295
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> All [[university|universities]] are colleges, but all colleges are not universities.  Institutions that call themselves colleges (for example a [[community college|community colleges]]) are often not big enough to qualify as universities.  Other names for colleges are "academy" and "institute", as in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  The German word for college is Hochschule, literally meaning high-school, which can be confusing enough.
> 
> See [[colleges and universities]] for a list of some famous colleges.
> 
------
College|990315330
1c1
< All [[university|universities]] are colleges, but all colleges are not universities.  Institutions that call themselves colleges (for example a [[community college|community colleges]]) are often not big enough to qualify as universities.  Other names for colleges are "academy" and "institute", as in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  The German word for college is Hochschule, literally meaning high-school, which can be confusing enough.
---
> All [[university|universities]] are colleges, but all colleges are not universities.  Institutions that call themselves colleges (for example [[community college|community colleges]]) are often not big enough to qualify as universities.  Other names for colleges are "academy" and "institute", as in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  The German word for college is Hochschule, literally meaning high-school, which can be confusing enough.
------
University_of_Oxford|990315418
0a1
> http://www.ox.ac.uk/i/newcrest902.gif<br>
2a4,13
> Oxford is the oldest English-speaking university in the world. It is unclear when it was founded, however teaching has been documented as early as 1096. When [[Henry III]] forbade English students to study at the [[University of Paris]], Oxford really took off. The oldest [[college]]s are [[/University]], [[/Balliol]] and [[/Merton]], established between 1249 and 1264. Women entered university in 1878 for the first time. They became members of the University in 1920. 
> 
> Famous Oxford scholars include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[John Locke]]
> <li>[[Edmund Halley]]
> <li>[[Lewis Carol]]
> </ul>
> 
> 
3a15,16
> 
> See also [[Oxford University Press]]
------
Nuernberg|990315541
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Nürnberg is the German name for the German city of [[Nuremberg]].
------
Nuremberg|990315595
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials after [[World War II]].
> 
------
Nuremberg|990315623
1c1
< A [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials after [[World War II]].
---
> Nuremberg is the English name for Nürnberg, a [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials after [[World War II]].
------
Nuremberg|990315674
1c1
< Nuremberg is the English name for Nürnberg, a [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials after [[World War II]].
---
> Nuremberg is the English name for Nürnberg, a [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials against [[nazi]] war criminals after [[World War II]].
------
College|990315714
1c1
< All [[university|universities]] are colleges, but all colleges are not universities.  Institutions that call themselves colleges (for example [[community college|community colleges]]) are often not big enough to qualify as universities.  Other names for colleges are "academy" and "institute", as in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  The German word for college is Hochschule, literally meaning high-school, which can be confusing enough.
---
> In American English all [[university|universities]] are colleges, but all colleges are not universities.  Institutions that call themselves colleges (for example [[community college|community colleges]]) are often not big enough to qualify as universities.  Other names for colleges are "academy" and "institute", as in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  
3c3,7
< See [[colleges and universities]] for a list of some famous colleges.
---
> In British English a college is a residence hall and an independent part of a university. Colleges admit their own students, provide accommodation, meals, common rooms, libraries, sports and social facilities. Through the tutorial system they also teach students. In later years the American meaning of the word has come to be used along with the British meaning. 
> 
> The German word for college is Hochschule, literally meaning high-school, which can be confusing enough.
> 
> See [[colleges and universities]] for a list of some famous colleges and universities.
------
Bavaria|990315744
5c5
< Bavaria has 12 million inhabitants of which a majority are [[Catholic]] Christians. Two major rivers flow through the state, the [[Danube]] and the [[Main]]. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich, [[Nuernberg]], [[Augsburg]], [[Wuerzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Regensburg]], [[Fuerth]] and [[Erlangen]]. Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czecz Republic. Neigbouring states within Germany are [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hessen]], [[Thüringen]] and [[Sachsen]].
---
> Bavaria has 12 million inhabitants of which a majority are [[Catholic]] Christians. Two major rivers flow through the state, the [[Danube]] and the [[Main]]. The major cities in Bavaria are Munich, [[Nuremberg]], [[Augsburg]], [[Wuerzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Regensburg]], [[Fuerth]] and [[Erlangen]]. Bavaria shares international borders with Austria and the Czecz Republic. Neigbouring states within Germany are [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hessen]], [[Thüringen]] and [[Sachsen]].
------
Rudolf_Hess|990315805
5c5
< Hess was tried at [[Nuernberg |Nürnberg]] after the war and was given life sentence. He died in [[Spandau]], a [[prison]] in [[West Berlin|West Berlin]] in 1987.
---
> Hess was tried at [[Nuremberg]] after the war and was given life sentence. He died in [[Spandau]], a [[prison]] in [[West Berlin|West Berlin]] in 1987.
------
Nuremberg|990315830
1c1
< Nuremberg is the English name for Nürnberg, a [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials against [[nazi]] war criminals after [[World War II]].
---
> Nuremberg is the English name for '''Nürnberg''', a [[city]] in [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], famous from the trials against [[nazi]] war criminals after [[World War II]].
------
Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms|990315923
13c13
< *[[Nuernberg process]]
---
> *[[Nuremberg process]]
------
University_of_Oxford|990316027
12a13
> Oxford's chief rival is [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]. Together Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes referred to as [[Oxbridge]].
------
The_novel|990316055
1c1
< The novel is the most popular type of [[literature]] in the Western World. Therefor it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. 
---
> The novel is the most popular type of [[literature]] in the Western World. Therefore it is perhaps surprising that as an art form the novel was not invented until the seventeenth century. 
------
College|990316112
3c3
< In British English a college is a residence hall and an independent part of a university. Colleges admit their own students, provide accommodation, meals, common rooms, libraries, sports and social facilities. Through the tutorial system they also teach students. In later years the American meaning of the word has come to be used along with the British meaning. 
---
> In [[English language/British English|British English]] a college is a residence hall and an independent part of a university. Colleges admit their own students, provide accommodation, meals, common rooms, libraries, sports and social facilities. Through the tutorial system they also teach students. In later years the American meaning of the word has come to be used along with the British meaning. 
------
The_Fugitive|990316192
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American network television dramatic series (ABC,1963-1967) starring David Janssen as Dr. Richard Kimble, an innocent man falsely convicted for his wife's murder and sentenced to death, who escapes custody in a train wreck and begins a cross-country search for the one-armed man he believes to be the real killer (Fred Johnson, played by Bill Raisch), while pursued by a relentless police detective (Lt. Philip Gerard, played by Barry Morse).
> 
> The original series was later the basis for a feature film (1993)  and a new TV series (CBS, 2000-2001) of the same name.
> 
> The series was conceived by Roy Huggins and produced by Quinn Martin. It aired for four seasons, with 30 episodes per season, for a total of 120 episodes. The first three seasons were filmed in black and white, while the final season was in color.
> 
> The final episode in which Dr. Kimble finally confronted the one-armed man is among the higest-rated series television programs of all time.
> 
> In a 1993 ranking, TV GUIDE named it the best dramatic series of the 1960s.
> 
> A total of 42 episodes have been released on home video (VHS) by NuVentures Video. Of these, 12 episodes were also released on laserdisc.
------
Hank_Ramsey|990316379
3c3
< Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[Delicate Arch]], "[[Ozymandias]]", and other topics.
---
> Hank has contributed articles on [[Malden Island]], [[The Fugitive]], [[Delicate Arch]], "[[Ozymandias]]", and other topics.
------
Countries_of_the_world|990316426
1c1
< Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
---
> Write a bit of information about your favorite (existent) countries.  Doesn't have to be a complete encyclopedia entry at this stage.  Many people have simply copied in the [[CIA World Factbook]] entries, which is great (it's in the public domain; we don't use copyrighted material, of course).
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> Former Yugoslav Republic of [[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Mauretania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - federated states of [[Micronesia]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - The Former Yugoslav Republic of [[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
175a176
> 
------
University_of_Cambridge|990316460
10a11,12
> Cambridge University is the setting of [[Gaudy Night]] a [[Lord Peter Wimsy]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
> 
------
Macau|990316497
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Macau/History|990316510
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Colonized by the Portuguese in the 16th century, Macau was the first European settlement in the Far East. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and Portugal on 13 April 1987, Macau became the Macau Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China on 20 December 1999. China has promised that, under its "one country, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic system will not be practiced in Macau and that Macau will enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs.
------
Macau/Geography|990316531
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Asia, bordering the South China Sea and China
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 10 N, 113 33 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 21 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 0.34 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 0.34 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 40 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> not specified
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical; marine with cool winters, warm summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> generally flat
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> South China Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Coloane Alto 174 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 98% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> essentially urban; one causeway and two bridges connect the two islands of Coloane and Taipa to the peninsula on mainland
------
Gothenburg|990316535
1c1
< Called Göteborg in Swedish.
---
> Gothenburhg is the English name for '''Göteborg''', a [[city]] on the west coast of [[Sweden]] and an important [[harbor]] to the [[North Sea]] (or [[Kattegat]]).
3c3
< Town in western [[Sweden]], on the west coast to the [[North Sea]].
---
> *City of Gothenburg official website, http://www.goteborg.se/
4a5,7
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
> *[[Gothenburg University]]
------
Macau/People|990316546
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 445,594 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 53,986; female 50,379)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 69% (male 146,474; female 162,672)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 8% (male 12,932; female 19,151) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.83% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.54 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 3.64 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 9.41 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.68 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 4.49 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 81.6 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 78.8 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 84.55 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.3 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Chinese
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Chinese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chinese 95%, Macanese (mixed Portuguese and Asian ancestry), Portuguese, other
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Buddhist 50%, Roman Catholic 15%, none and other 35% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese, Chinese (Cantonese)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 90%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 93%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 86% (1981 est.)
------
Macau/Government|990316569
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Macau Special Administrative Region
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Macau
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Aomen Tebie Xingzhengqu (Chinese); Regiao Administrativa Especial de Macau (Portuguese)
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Aomen (Chinese); Macau (Portuguese)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MC
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> special administrative region of China
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 1-2 October; note - 20 December 1999 is celebrated as Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Basic Law, approved in March 1993 by China's National People's Congress, is Macau's "mini-constitution"
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Portuguese civil law system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> direct election 18 years of age, universal for permanent residents living in Macau for the past seven years; indirect election limited to organizations registered as "corporate voters" (257 are currently registered) and a 300-member Election Committee drawn from broad regional groupings, municipal organizations, and central government bodies
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President of China JIANG Zemin (since 27 March 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Executive Edmund HO Hau-wah (since 20 December 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council consists of all five government secretaries, three legislators, and two businessmen
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council or LEGCO (23 seats; 8 elected by popular vote, 8 by indirect vote, and 7 appointed by the chief executive; members serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 22 September 1996 (next to be held by 15 October 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - APPEM 2, UNIPRO 2, CODEM 1, UDM 1, UPD 1, ANMD 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> The Court of Final Appeal in the Macau Special Administrative Region
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> the following is a listing of those associations that participated in the last legislative elections: Associacao de Novo Macau Democratico or ANMD [leader NA]; Associacao Promotora para a Economia de Macau or APPEM [leader NA]; Convergencia para o Desenvolvimento or CODEM [leader NA]; Uniao Geral para o Desenvolvimento de Macau or UDM [leader NA]; Uniao para o Desenvolvimento or UPD [leader NA]; Uniao Promotora para o Progresso or UNIPRO [leader NA]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there are no formal political parties, but civic associations are used instead
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Catholic Church [Domingos LAM, bishop]; Macau Society of Tourism and Entertainment or STDM [Stanley HO, managing director]; Union for Democracy Development [Antonio NG Kuok-cheong, leader]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> CCC, ESCAP (associate), IMO (associate), Interpol (subbureau), UNESCO (associate), WMO, WToO (associate), WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (special administrative region of China)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US has no offices in Macau, and US interests are monitored by the US Consulate General in Hong Kong
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> light green with a lotus flower above a stylized bridge and water in white, beneath an arc of five gold, five-pointed stars: one large in center of arc and four smaller
------
Linguistics|990316578
11a12,13
> This breakdown that separates syntax from semantics and other levels is somewhat controversial.  It is, however, widely accepted largely due to the efforts of [[Noam Chomsky]] and his followers.
> 
------
Macau/Economy|990316584
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is based largely on tourism (including gambling) and textile and fireworks manufacturing. Efforts to diversify have spawned other small industries - toys, artificial flowers, and electronics. The tourist sector has accounted for roughly 25% of GDP, and the clothing industry has provided about three-fourths of export earnings; the gambling industry probably represents over 40% of GDP. Macau depends on China for most of its food, fresh water, and energy imports. Japan and Hong Kong are the main suppliers of raw materials and capital goods. Output dropped 4% in 1998 and the economy remained weak in 1999. Macau reverted to Chinese administration on 20 December 1999. Gang violence, a dark spot in the economy, probably will be reduced in 2000 to the advantage of the tourism sector.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.65 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -4% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $17,500 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 59% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 281,117 (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 31%, restaurants and hotels 28%, other services 41%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 6.9% (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.34 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.34 billion, including capital expenditures of $260 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> clothing, textiles, toys, electronics, footwear, tourism, gambling
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.34 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.42 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 1 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 175 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, vegetables
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> textiles, clothing, toys, electronics, cement, footwear, machinery
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 48%, EU 31%, Hong Kong 8%, China 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> raw materials, foodstuffs, capital goods, fuels, consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> China 33%, Hong Kong 24%, EU 11%, Taiwan 10%, Japan 8% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.7 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 pataca (P) = 100 avos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> patacas (P) per US$1 - 8.01 (January 2000), 7.99 (1999), 7.98 (1998), 7.99 (1997), 7.962 (1996), 8.034 (1993-95); note - linked to the Hong Kong dollar at the rate of 1.03 patacas per Hong Kong dollar
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Macau/Communications|990316599
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 222,500 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 55,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fairly modern communication facilities maintained for domestic and international services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> HF radiotelephone communication facility; access to international communications carriers provided via Hong Kong and China; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 160,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (receives Hong Kong broadcasts) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 49,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Macau/Transportation|990316613
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 50 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 50 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Macau
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Macau/Military|990316626
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Macau garrison of China's People's Liberation Army (PLA) includes about 500 troops
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 123,581 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 67,974 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> responsibility for defense reverted to China on 20 December 1999
------
Macau/Transnational_issues|990316636
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Macedonia|990316673
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Macedonia/History|990316732
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> International recognition of The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia's (FYROM) independence from Yugoslavia in 1991 was delayed by Greece's objection to the new state's use of what it considered a Hellenic name and symbols. Greece finally lifted its trade blockade in 1995, and the two countries agreed to normalize relations. FYROM's large Albanian minority and the de facto independence of neighboring Kosovo continue to be sources of ethnic tension.
------
Macedonia/Geography|990316746
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Europe, north of Greece
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 41 50 N, 22 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 25,333 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 24,856 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 477 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Vermont
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 748 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Albania 151 km, Bulgaria 148 km, Greece 228 km, Serbia and Montenegro 221 km (all with Serbia)
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> warm, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mountainous territory covered with deep basins and valleys; three large lakes, each divided by a frontier line; country bisected by the Vardar River
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Vardar River 50 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Golem Korab (Maja e Korabit) 2,753 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> chromium, lead, zinc, manganese, tungsten, nickel, low-grade iron ore, asbestos, sulfur, timber, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 830 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> high seismic risks
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from metallurgical plants
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; major transportation corridor from Western and Central Europe to Aegean Sea and Southern Europe to Western Europe
------
Macedonia/People|990316762
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,041,467 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 248,400; female 230,091)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 684,025; female 678,014)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 89,539; female 111,398) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.04% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 13.73 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.69 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -5.66 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.08 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.8 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 13.35 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 73.79 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 71.58 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.19 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.82 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Macedonian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Macedonian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Macedonian 66.6%, Albanian 22.7%, Turkish 4%, Roma 2.2%, Serb 2.1%, other 2.4% (1994)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Macedonian Orthodox 67%, Muslim 30%, other 3%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Macedonian 70%, Albanian 21%, Turkish 3%, Serbo-Croatian 3%, other 3%
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Macedonia/Government|990316786
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republika Makedonija
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Makedonija
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> F.Y.R.O.M.
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> emerging democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Skopje
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 34 counties (opstini, singular - opstina) Berovo, Bitola, Brod, Debar, Delcevo, Gevgelija, Gostivar, Kavadarci, Kicevo, Kocani, Kratovo, Kriva Palanka, Krusevo, Kumanovo, Murgasevo, Negotino, Ohrid, Prilep, Probistip, Radovis, Resen, Skopje-Centar, Skopje-Cair, Skopje-Karpos, Skopje-Kisela Voda, Skopje-Gazi Baba, Stip, Struga, Strumica, Sveti Nikole, Tetovo, Titov Veles, Valandovo, Vinica
> <br><i>note:</i>
> in September 1996, the Macedonian Assembly passed legislation changing the territorial division of the country; names of the 123 new municipalities are as follows: Aracinovo, Bac, Belcista, Berovo, Bistrica, Bitola, Blatec, Bo Lukovo, Bogdanci, Bogomila, Bogovinje, Bosilovo, Brvenica, Cair (Skopje), Capari, Caska, Cegrane, Centar Zupa, Cesinovo, Cucer-Sandevo, Debar, Delcevo, Delogozdi, Demir Hisar, Demir Kapija, Djepiste, Dobrusevo, Dolna Banjica, Dolneni, Drugovo, Gazi Baba (Skopje), Gevgelija, Gjorce Petrov (Skopje), Gostivar, Gradsko, Ilinden, Izvor, Jegunovce, Kamenjane, Karbinci, Karpos (Skopje), Kadarci, Kicevo, Kisela Voda (Skopje), Klecevce, Kocani, Konce, Kondovo, Konopiste, Kosel, Kratovo, Kriva Orasac, Kriva Palanka, Krivogastani, Krusevo, Kuklis, Kukurecani, Kumanovo, Labunista, Lipkovo, Lozovo, Lukovo, Mak. Brod, Mak. Kamenica, Mavrovi Anovi, Meseista, Miravci, Mogila, Murtino, Negotino, Novaci, Novo Selo, Oblesevo, Ohrid, Opstina Centar (Skopje), Orasac, Orizari, Oslomej, Pehcevo, Petrovec, Plasnia, Podares, Prilep, Probistip, Radovis, Rakovce, Resen, Rosoman, Rostusha, Samokov, Saraj, Sipkovica, Sopiste, Sopotnika, Srbinovo, Star Dojran, Staro Nagoricane, Stip, Stravina, Struga, Strumica, Studenicani, Suto Orizari (Skopje), Sveti Nikole, Tearce, Tetovo, Topolcani, Valandovo, Vasilevo, Veleista, Veles, Vevcani, Vinica, Vitoliste, Vranestica, Vrapciste, Vratnica Vrutok, Zajas, Zelenikovo, Zileno, Zitose, Zletovo, Zrnovci
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 17 September 1991 (from Yugoslavia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> 8 September Independence Day
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 17 November 1991, effective 20 November 1991
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Democratic Party for Albanians (DPA), which is now a member party of the government, is calling for a rewrite of the constitution to declare ethnic Albanians a national group and allow for regional autonomy
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Boris TRAJKOVSKI (since 15 December 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Ljubco GEORGIEVSKI (since 30 November 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers elected by the majority vote of all the deputies in the Assembly; note - current cabinet formed by the government coalition parties VMRO-DPMNE, DA, and DPA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 14 November 1999 (next to be held NA October 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Boris TRAJKOVSKI elected president on second-round ballot; percent of vote - Boris TRAJKOVSKI 52.4%, Tito PETKOVSKI 46.2%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly or Sobranje (120 seats - 85 members are elected by popular vote; 35 members come from lists of candidates submitted by parties based on the percentage that parties gain from the overall vote; all serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 18 October and 1 November 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - VMRO-DPMNE 49, SDSM 27, PDP 14, DA 13, DPA 11, LDP 4, Socialist Party 1, Roma Party 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court, judges are elected by the Judicial Council; Judicial Court of the Republic, judges are elected by the Judicial Council
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance of Romas [leader NA]; Alliance of Communists [leader NA]; Civic Liberal Party [leader NA]; Communist Party [leader NA]; Democratic Alternative or DA [Vasil TUPURKOVSKI, president]; Democratic Party for Albanians or DPA [Arben XHAFERI, president]; Democratic Party of Macedonia or DPM [Tomislav STOJANOVSK-BOMBAJ]; Democratic Party of Serbs or DPSM [Dragisa MILETIC]; Democratic Party of Turks or DPTM [Erdogan SARAC]; Democratic Progressive Party of Romas [leader NA]; Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity or VMRO-DPMNE [Ljubcho GEORGIEVSKI, president]; Labor Party or LP [Krste JANKOVSKI]; League of Democracy [leader NA]; Liberal Democratic Party or LDP [Risto PENOV]; Movement for All Macedonian Action or MAAK [Straso ANGELOVSKI]; Party for Democratic Action-True Path [leader NA]; Party for Democratic Prosperity or PDP [Abdurahman HALITI, president]; Party for the Complete Emancipation of Romas or PCER [Bajram BERAT]; Party of Pensioners of Macedonia [leader NA]; Republican Party for National Unity [leader NA]; Social Christian Party of Macedonia [leader NA]; Social-Democratic Alliance of Macedonia or SDSM (former Communist Party) [Branko CRVENKOVSKI, president]; Social Democratic Party of Macedonia or SDPM [leader NA]; Socialist Party of Macedonia or SP [Ljubisav IVANOV, president]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BIS, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ljubica Z. ACEVSKA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 3050 K Street, NW, Suite 210, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 337 3063
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-3093
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Michael EINIK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Bul. Ilindenska bb, 91000 Skopje
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> American Embassy Skopje, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-7120 (pouch)
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [389] (91) 116-180
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [389] (91) 117-103
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a rising yellow sun with eight rays extending to the edges of the red field
------
Macedonia/Economy|990316804
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991 deprived Macedonia, then its poorest republic, of key protected markets and large transfer payments from the center. Worker remittances and foreign aid have softened the subsequent volatile recovery period. Continued recovery depends on Macedonia's ability to attract investment, to redevelop trade ties with Greece and Serbia and Montenegro, and to maintain its commitment to economic liberalization. The economy can meet its basic food needs but depends on outside sources for all of its oil and gas and most of its modern machinery and parts. Growth in 1999 was held down by the severe regional economic dislocations caused by the Kosovo conflict.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 32%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 55% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 673,000 (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 35% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.06 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1 billion, including capital expenditures of $107 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> coal, metallic chromium, lead, zinc, ferronickel, textiles, wood products, tobacco
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 6.664 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 85.37%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 14.63%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 6.198 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, tobacco, wheat, corn, millet, cotton, sesame, mulberry leaves, citrus, vegetables; beef, pork, poultry, mutton
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> food, beverages, tobacco; miscellaneous manufactures, iron and steel
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Germany 21%, Serbia and Montenegro 18%, US 13%, Greece 7%, Italy 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.56 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels; food products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Germany 13%, Serbia and Montenegro 13%, Slovenia 8%, Ukraine 6%, Italy 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.7 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> Taiwan $10.5 million; EU $100 million to be split with Albania (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Macedonian denar (MKD) = 100 deni
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> denars per US$1 - 59.773 (January 2000), 56.902 (1999), 54.462 (1998), 50.004 (1997), 39.981 (1996), 37.882 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Macedonia/Communications|990316818
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 407,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 29, FM 20, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 410,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 136 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 510,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
------
Macedonia/Transportation|990316834
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 699 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 699 km 1.435-m gauge (233 km electrified)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a new 56-km line is under construction to the Bulgarian border (1999)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8,684 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,540 km (including 133 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 3,144 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> none, lake transport only
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> 10 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 8 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
------
Gothenburg|990316844
1c1
< Gothenburhg is the English name for '''Göteborg''', a [[city]] on the west coast of [[Sweden]] and an important [[harbor]] to the [[North Sea]] (or [[Kattegat]]).
---
> Gothenburg is the English name for '''Göteborg''', [[Sweden]]'s 2nd biggest [[city]], and most important [[harbor]], situated on Sweden's west coast on the [[North Sea]] (really [[Kattegat]]), at the outlet of river [[Gota alv|Göta älv]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]].  Gothenburg was founded in 1632 by Swedish king [[Gustav II Adolf]], soon after the area had been conquered from [[Denmark]]-[[Norway]].
7a8,10
> 
> '''Industry'''
> *[[Volvo]]
------
Macedonia/Military|990316845
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 19 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 545,852 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 440,287 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 17,942 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $77 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.5% (FY99)
------
Macedonia/Transnational_issues|990316857
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> dispute with Greece over its name; the border commission formed by The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Serbia and Montenegro in April 1996 to resolve differences in delineation of their mutual border has made no progress so far; Albanians in F.Y.R.O.M. claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> increasing transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and hashish; minor transit point for South American cocaine destined for Europe
------
Gothenburg|990316922
1c1
< Gothenburg is the English name for '''Göteborg''', [[Sweden]]'s 2nd biggest [[city]], and most important [[harbor]], situated on Sweden's west coast on the [[North Sea]] (really [[Kattegat]]), at the outlet of river [[Gota alv|Göta älv]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]].  Gothenburg was founded in 1632 by Swedish king [[Gustav II Adolf]], soon after the area had been conquered from [[Denmark]]-[[Norway]].
---
> Gothenburg is the English name for '''Göteborg''', [[Sweden]]'s 2nd biggest [[city]], and most important [[harbor]], situated on Sweden's west coast on the [[North Sea]] (really [[Kattegat]]), at the outlet of river [[Gota alv|Göta älv]] and [[Gota Kanal|Göta Kanal]].  Gothenburg was founded in 1621 by Swedish king [[Gustav II Adolf]], soon after the area had been conquered from [[Denmark]]-[[Norway]].
------
Chalmers_University_of_Technology|990316957
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[university]] in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.chalmers.se/
> 
------
Malawi|990316968
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Madagascar|990316992
1c1
< <b>Madagascar</b> is a [[country]] and [[island]] located off of the eastern coast of [[Africa]].
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
2a3,11
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Colleges_and_universities|990317000
1a2
> *[[Chalmers University of Technology]] ([[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]])
------
Madagascar/History|990317003
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Formerly an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a French colony in 1886, but regained its independence in 1960. During 1992-93, free presidential and National Assembly elections were held, ending 17 years of single-party rule.
------
Madagascar/Geography|990317018
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 20 00 S, 47 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 587,040 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 581,540 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 5,500 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Arizona
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 4,828 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or 100 nm from the 2,500-m deep isobath
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical along coast, temperate inland, arid in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> narrow coastal plain, high plateau and mountains in center
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Maromokotro 2,876 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, salt, quartz, tar sands, semiprecious stones, mica, fish, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 41%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 14% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10,870 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil erosion results from deforestation and overgrazing; desertification; surface water contaminated with raw sewage and other organic wastes; several species of flora and fauna unique to the island are endangered
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> world's fourth-largest island; strategic location along Mozambique Channel
------
Madagascar/People|990317033
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 15,506,472 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 45% (male 3,504,562; female 3,481,056)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 52% (male 3,964,564; female 4,052,056)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 237,691; female 266,543) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.02% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 42.92 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 12.69 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.89 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 85.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 54.95 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 52.71 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 57.26 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.84 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Malagasy (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Malagasy
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Malayo-Indonesian (Merina and related Betsileo), Cotiers (mixed African, Malayo-Indonesian, and Arab ancestry - Betsimisaraka, Tsimihety, Antaisaka, Sakalava), French, Indian, Creole, Comoran
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 52%, Christian 41%, Muslim 7%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Malagasy (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 80%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 88%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73% (1990 est.)
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Uppsala_University|990317035
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> A [[university]] in  [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.uu.se/
> 
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Madagascar/Government|990317050
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Madagascar
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Madagascar
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique de Madagascar
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Madagascar
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Malagasy Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Antananarivo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 provinces (faritany); Antananarivo, Antsiranana, Fianarantsoa, Mahajanga, Toamasina, Toliara
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 26 June 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 26 June (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 19 August 1992 by national referendum
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and traditional Malagasy law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Didier RATSIRAKA (since 10 February 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Tantely Rene Gabriot ANDRIANARIVO (since NA 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 29 December 1996 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister appointed by the president from a list of candidates nominated by the National Assembly
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Didier RATSIRAKA elected president; percent of vote - Didier RATSIRAKA (AREMA) 50.7%, Albert ZAFY (AFFA) 49.3%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (150 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms); note - the legislature is scheduled to become a bicameral Parliament with the establishment of a Senate; two-thirds of the seats of this Senate will be filled by regional assemblies whose members will be elected by popular vote; the remaining one-third of the seats will be appointed by the president; the total number of seats will be determined by the National Assembly; all members will serve four-year terms
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Assembly - last held 17 May 1998 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - AREMA 63, LEADER/Fanilo 16, AVI 14, RPSD 11, AFFA 6, MFM 3, AKFM/Fanavaozana 3, GRAD/Iloafo 1, Fihaonana 1, independents 32
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Cour Supreme; High Constitutional Court or Haute Cour Constitutionnelle
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action, Truth, Development, and Harmony or AFFA [Professor Albert ZAFY]; Association for the Rebirth of Madagascar or AREMA [Pierrot RAJAONARIVELO]; Congress Party for Malagasy Independence or AKFM/Fanavaozana [Pastor Richard ANDRIAMANJATO]; Economic Liberalism and Democratic Action for National Recovery or LEADER/Fanilo [Herizo RAZAFIMAHALEO]; Fihaonana Rally or Fihaonana [Guy RAZANAMASY]; Group of Reflection and Action for the Development of Madagascar or GRAD/Iloafo [Tovonanahary RABETSITONTA]; Judged by Your Work or AVI [Norbert RATSIRAHONANA]; Movement for the Progress of Madagascar or MFM [Manandafy RAKOTONIRINA]; National Union for Development and Democracy or UNDD; Renewal of the Social Democratic Party or RPSD [Evariste MARSON]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Federalist Movement; National Council of Christian Churches or FFKM
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, InOC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Biclair Henri ANDRIANANTOANDRO
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2374 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-5525, 5526
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Shirley E. BARNES
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 14-16 Rue Rainitovo, Antsahavola, Antananarivo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 620, Antananarivo
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [261] (2) 212-57, 200-89, 207-18
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [261] (2) 345-39
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and green with a vertical white band of the same width on hoist side
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Madagascar/Economy|990317065
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Madagascar faces problems of chronic malnutrition, underfunded health and education facilities, a roughly 3% annual population growth rate, and severe loss of forest cover, accompanied by erosion. Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 34% of GDP and contributing more than 70% to export earnings. Industry features textile manufacturing and the processing of agricultural products. Growth in output in 1992-97 averaged less than the growth rate of the population. Growth has been held back by antigovernment strikes and demonstrations, a decline in world coffee demand, and the erratic commitment of the government to economic reform. Formidable obstacles stand in the way of Madagascar's realizing its considerable growth potential; the extent of government reforms, outside financial aid, and foreign investment will be key determinants. Growth should be in the 5% range in 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $11.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $780 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 54% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 34.9% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 7 million (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $553 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $735 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> meat processing, soap, breweries, tanneries, sugar, textiles, glassware, cement, automobile assembly plant, paper, petroleum, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 750 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 33.33%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 66.67%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 698 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts; livestock products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $600 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee 45%, vanilla 20%, cloves, shellfish, sugar, petroleum products (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 40%, US 9%, Germany 8%, Japan 6%, UK 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $881 million (c.i.f., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> intermediate manufactures 30%, capital goods 28%, petroleum 15%, consumer goods 14%, food 13% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 39%, Hong Kong 5%, Japan 5%, China, Singapore (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.1 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $838 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Malagasy franc (FMG) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Malagasy francs (FMG) per US$1 - 6,302.9 (October 1999), 5,877.81 (1999), 5,441.4 (1998), 5,090.9 (1997), 4,061.3 (1996), 4,265.6 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Madagascar/Communications|990317078
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 33,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> system is above average for the region
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> open-wire lines, coaxial cables, microwave radio relay, and tropospheric scatter links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> submarine cable to Bahrain; satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2 (plus 8 repeater stations), FM 7, shortwave 5 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.05 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus 36 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 325,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 3 (1999)
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TeX|990317088
1c1,4
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> TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by Donald Knuth to typeset his books on the computer science.
> 
> Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful mathematics.  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[Latex]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
> 
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Madagascar/Transportation|990317092
1c1,45
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 883 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 883 km 1.000-m gauge (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 49,837 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,781 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 44,056 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> of local importance only; isolated streams and small portions of Lakandranon' Ampangalana (Canal des Pangalanes)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Antsiranana, Antsohimbondrona, Mahajanga, Toamasina, Toliara
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 24,819 GRT/34,173 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 7, chemical tanker 1, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 2, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 133 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 29
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 20
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 104
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 59
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 42 (1999 est.)
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Madagascar/Military|990317108
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Popular Armed Forces (includes Intervention Forces, Development Forces, Aeronaval Forces - includes Navy and Air Force), Gendarmerie, Presidential Security Regiment
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,525,754 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,092,308 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 149,157 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $29 million (FY94)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY94)
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Madagascar/Transnational_issues|990317121
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island (all administered by France)
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis (cultivated and wild varieties) used mostly for domestic consumption; transshipment point for heroin
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Malawi/History|990317168
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland became the independent nation of Malawi in 1964. After three decades of one-party rule, the country held multiparty elections in 1994 under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the following year.
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Malawi/Geography|990317182
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, east of Zambia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 30 S, 34 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 118,480 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 94,080 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 24,400 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Pennsylvania
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,881 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Mozambique 1,569 km, Tanzania 475 km, Zambia 837 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> sub-tropical; rainy season (November to May); dry season (May to November)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> narrow elongated plateau with rolling plains, rounded hills, some mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> junction of the Shire River and international boundary with Mozambique 37 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Sapitwa 3,002 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> limestone, arable land, hydropower, unexploited deposits of uranium, coal, and bauxite
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 7% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 280 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; land degradation; water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage, industrial wastes; siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish populations
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
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Malawi/People|990317197
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,385,849
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 45% (male 2,335,440; female 2,324,012)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 52% (male 2,671,580; female 2,766,560)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 117,932; female 170,325) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.61% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.49 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 22.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 122.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 37.58 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 37.2 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 37.98 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Malawian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Malawian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chewa, Nyanja, Tumbuko, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga, Ngoni, Ngonde, Asian, European
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Protestant 55%, Roman Catholic 20%, Muslim 20%, indigenous beliefs
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Chichewa (official), other languages important regionally
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 58%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 43.4% (1999 est.)
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Malawi/Government|990317214
1c1,72
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Malawi
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Malawi
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Nyasaland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> multiparty democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Lilongwe
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 24 districts; Blantyre, Chikwawa, Chiradzulu, Chitipa, Dedza, Dowa, Karonga, Kasungu, Lilongwe, Machinga (Kasupe), Mangochi, Mchinji, Mulanje, Mwanza, Mzimba, Ntcheu, Nkhata Bay, Nkhotakota, Nsanje, Ntchisi, Rumphi, Salima, Thyolo, Zomba
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be three new districts named Balaka, Likoma, and Phalombe
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 6 July 1964 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day 6 July (1964); Republic Day 6 July (1966)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 18 May 1995
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court of Appeal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Bakili MULUZI (since 21 May 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Bakili MULUZI (since 21 May 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> 28-member cabinet named by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 15 June 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Bakili MULUZI reelected president; percent of vote - Bakili MULUZI (UDF) 51.4%, Gwandaguluwe CHAKUAMBA (MCP-AFORD) 44.3%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> National Assembly (193 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 15 June 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - UDF 48%, MCP 34%, AFORD 15%, others 3%; seats by party - UDF 93, MCP 66, AFORD 29, others 4, vacancy 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Appeal; High Court, chief justice appointed by the president, puisne judges appointed on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission; magistrate's courts
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Democracy or AFORD [Chakufwa CHIHANA, president]; Malawi Congress Party or MCP [Gwanda CHAKUAMBA, president, John TEMBO, vice president]; Malawi Democratic Party or MDP [Kampelo KALUA, president]; Social Democratic Party or SDP [Eston KAKHOME, president]; United Democratic Front or UDF [Bakili MULUZI] - governing party
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Willie CHOKANI
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2408 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 797-1007
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Amelia Ellen SHIPPY
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> address NA, in new development area in Lilongwe
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 30016, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [265] 783 166
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [265] 780 471
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of black (top), red, and green with a radiant, rising, red sun centered in the black band
> <p><b>Government - note:</b>
> the executive exerts considerable influence over the legislature
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Malawi/Economy|990317228
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Landlocked Malawi ranks among the world's least developed countries. The economy is predominately agricultural, with about 90% of the population living in rural areas. Agriculture accounts for 37% of GDP and 85% of export revenues. The economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations. The government faces strong challenges, e.g., to spur exports, to improve educational and health facilities, to face up to environmental problems of deforestation and erosion, and to deal with the rapidly growing problem of HIV/AIDS.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $940 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 37%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 34% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 54% (1990-91 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 45% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 3.5 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 86%, wage earners 14% (1990 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $490 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $523 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY99/00 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tobacco, tea, sugar, sawmill products, cement, consumer goods
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 922 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 2.39%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 97.61%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 857 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, corn, potatoes, cassava (tapioca), sorghum, pulses; cattle, goats
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $510 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> tobacco, tea, sugar, cotton, coffee, peanuts, wood products
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> South Africa 15%, US 9%, Germany 9%, Netherlands 7%, Japan (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $512 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, petroleum products, semimanufactures, consumer goods, transportation equipment
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South Africa 38%, Zimbabwe 18%, Zambia 8%, Japan 4%, US, UK, Germany (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $416.5 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Malawian kwacha (MK) = 100 tambala
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Malawian kwachas (MK) per US$1 - 46.3494 (December 1999), 44.0881 (1999), 31.0727 (1998), 16.4442 (1997), 15.3085 (1996), 15.2837 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Malawi/Communications|990317239
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 34,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 382 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> fair system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 9, FM 4 (plus 15 repeater stations), shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2.6 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Malawi/Transportation|990317262
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 789 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 789 km 1.067-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 28,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,254 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 23,146 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi); Shire River, 144 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Chipoka, Monkey Bay, Nkhata Bay, Nkhotakota, Chilumba
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 44 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 23 (1999 est.)
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Malawi/Military|990317274
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army (includes Air Wing and Naval Detachment), Police (includes paramilitary Mobile Force Unit)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,397,385 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,229,676 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $17 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.8% (FY96/97)
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Malawi/Transnational_issues|990317287
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> dispute with Tanzania over the boundary in Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi)
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Malaysia|990317329
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Uppsala|990317343
1c1,9
< Uppsala is a town located about 70 kilometers north of [[Stockholm]] in [[Sweden]]. It is the site of the oldest [[university]] in Sweden.
---
> Uppsala is a [[city]] located about 70 kilometers north of [[Stockholm]] in [[Sweden]]. It is the site of the oldest [[university]] in Sweden.
> 
> *City of Uppsala official website, http://www.uppsala.se/
> 
> '''Colleges'''
> *[[Uppsala University]]
> 
> '''Industry'''
> *Slotts Senap
------
Malaysia/History|990317361
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Malaysia was created in 1963 through the merging of Malaya (independent in 1957) and the former British Singapore, both of which formed West Malaysia, and Sabah and Sarawak in north Borneo, which composed East Malaysia. The first three years of independence were marred by hostilities with Indonesia. Singapore seceded from the union in 1965.
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Malaysia/Geography|990317383
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southeastern Asia, peninsula and northern one-third of the island of Borneo, bordering Indonesia and the South China Sea, south of Vietnam
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 2 30 N, 112 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Southeast Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 329,750 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 328,550 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 1,200 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than New Mexico
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,669 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Brunei 381 km, Indonesia 1,782 km, Thailand 506 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 4,675 km (Peninsular Malaysia 2,068 km, East Malaysia 2,607 km)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation; specified boundary in the South China Sea
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; annual southwest (April to October) and northeast (October to February) monsoons
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plains rising to hills and mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Gunung Kinabalu 4,100 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> tin, petroleum, timber, copper, iron ore, natural gas, bauxite
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 68%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 17% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 2,941 sq km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> flooding, landslides
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> air pollution from industrial and vehicular emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; deforestation; smoke/haze from Indonesian forest fires
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location along Strait of Malacca and southern South China Sea
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Malaysia/People|990317407
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 21,793,293 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 35% (male 3,914,112; female 3,697,731)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 61% (male 6,655,506; female 6,642,073)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 386,387; female 497,484) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.01% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 25.3 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.25 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> does not reflect net flow of an unknown number of illegal immigrants from other countries in the region
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.78 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 20.96 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.83 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.22 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 73.63 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.29 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Malaysian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Malaysian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Malay and other indigenous 58%, Chinese 26%, Indian 7%, others 9%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Islam, Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, Christianity, Sikhism; note - in addition, Shamanism is practiced in East Malaysia
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Bahasa Melayu (official), English, Chinese dialects (Cantonese, Mandarin, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainan, Foochow), Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Panjabi, Thai; note - in addition, in East Malaysia several indigenous languages are spoken, the largest of which are Iban and Kadazan
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 83.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 89.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.1% (1995 est.)
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Malaysia/Government|990317427
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Malaysia
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Malayan Union
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MY
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Malaya (what is now Peninsular Malaysia) formed 31 August 1957; Federation of Malaysia (Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore) formed 9 July 1963 (Singapore left the federation on 9 August 1965); nominally headed by the paramount ruler and a bicameral Parliament consisting of a nonelected upper house and an elected lower house; Peninsular Malaysian states - hereditary rulers in all but Melaka, Penang, Sabah, and Sarawak, where governors are appointed by the Malaysian Government; powers of state governments are limited by the federal constitution; under terms of the federation, Sabah and Sarawak retain certain constitutional prerogatives (e.g., the right to maintain their own immigration controls); Sabah - holds 20 seats in House of Representatives, with foreign affairs, defense, internal security, and other powers delegated to federal government; Sarawak - holds 28 seats in House of Representatives, with foreign affairs, defense, internal security, and other powers delegated to federal government
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kuala Lumpur
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 13 states (negeri-negeri, singular - negeri) and 2 federal territories* (wilayah-wilayah persekutuan, singular - wilayah persekutuan); Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Labuan*, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pulau Pinang, Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor, Terengganu, Wilayah Persekutuan*
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the city of Kuala Lumpur is located within the federal territory of Wilayah Persekutuan; the terms therefore are not interchangeable
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 31 August 1957 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 31 August (1957)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 31 August 1957, amended 16 September 1963
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court at request of supreme head of the federation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Paramount Ruler Sultan TUNKU SALAHUDDIN Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Hisammuddin Alam Shah (since 26 April 1999); Deputy Paramount Ruler Sultan MIZAN Zainal Abidin ibni A-Marhum Sultan Mahmud Al-Muktafi Billah Shah
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Dr. MAHATHIR bin Mohamad (since 16 July 1981); Deputy Prime Minister ABDULLAH bin Ahmad Badawi (since 8 January 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the prime minister from among the members of Parliament with consent of the paramount ruler
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> paramount ruler and deputy paramount ruler elected by and from the hereditary rulers of nine of the states for five-year terms; election last held 27 February 1999 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister designated from among the members of the House of Representatives; following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins a plurality of seats in the House of Representatives becomes prime minister
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Sultan TUNKU SALAHUDDIN Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Hisammuddin Alam Shah elected paramount ruler; Sultan MIZAN Zainal Abidin ibni A-Marhum Sultan Mahmud Al-Muktafi Billah Shah elected deputy paramount ruler
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament or Parlimen consists of nonelected Senate or Dewan Negara (69 seats; 43 appointed by the paramount ruler, 26 appointed by the state legislatures) and the House of Representatives or Dewan Rakyat (193 seats; members elected by popular vote weighted toward the rural Malay population to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Representatives - last held 29 November 1999 (next to be held 3 November 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NF 56%, other 44%; seats by party - NF 148, PAS 27, DAP 10, NJP 5, PBS 3
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the paramount ruler on the advice of the prime minister
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> State Reform Party or STAR [PATAV Rubis]; Democratic Action Party or DAP [LIM Kit Siang]; Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia [LIM Keng Yaik]; Liberal Democratic Party [leader NA]; Malaysian Chinese Association or MCA [LING Liong Sik]; Malaysian Indian Congress or MIC [S. Samy VELLU]; National Front or NF [MAHATHIR bin Mohamad] (a coalition of 14 political parties, dominated by the UMNO, and including the UPKO, SAPP, and the Liberal Democratic Party); National Justice Party or NJP [WAN AZIZAH Wan Ismail]; Parti Akar [Datuk PANDIKAR Amin Mulia]; Parti Bansa Dayak Sarawak or PBDS [Datuk Leo MOGGIE]; Parti Bersekutu [HARRIS Salleh]; Parti Islam SeMalaysia or PAS [Ustaz Fadzil Mohamed NOOR]; Party Pesaka Bumiputra Bersatu or PBB [Datuk Patinggi Haji Abdul TAIB Mahmud]; Sabah People's Progressive Party or SAPP [YONG Teck Lee]; Sabah People's United Party (Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah) or PBRS [Datuk Joseph KURUP]; Sarawak National Party or SNAP [Datuk Amar James WONG]; Sarawak United People's Party or SUPP [Datuk Dr. George CHAN Hong Nam]; United Kadazan People's Organization or UPKO (formerly Parti Demokratik Sabah) [Bernard DOMPOK]; United Malays National Organization or UMNO [OSU Sukam]; United Sabah Party (main opposition party) (Parti Bersatu Sabah) or PBS [Dr. Joseph PAIRIN Kitingan]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> subsequent to the election, the following parties were dissolved - Spirit of '46 or Semangat '46 [Tengku Tan Sri RAZALEIGH, president] and Sabah United Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah) or PBS [Datuk Seri Joseph PAIRIN Kitingan]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTAET, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Dato' GHAZZALI Sheikh Abdul Khalid
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2401 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-2700
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-7661
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador B. Lynn PASCOE
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 376 Jalan Tun Razak, 50400 Kuala Lumpur
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box No. 10035, 50700 Kuala Lumpur; American Embassy Kuala Lumpur, APO AP 96535-8152
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [60] (3) 2168-5000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [60] (3) 242-2207
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> 14 equal horizontal stripes of red (top) alternating with white (bottom); there is a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing a yellow crescent and a yellow fourteen-pointed star; the crescent and the star are traditional symbols of Islam; the design was based on the flag of the US
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Malaysia/Economy|990317444
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Malaysia made a quick economic recovery in 1999 from its worst recession since independence in 1957. GDP grew 5%, responding to a dynamic export sector, which grew over 10% and fiscal stimulus from higher government spending. The large export surplus has enabled the country to build up its already substantial financial reserves, to $31 billion at yearend 1999. This stable macroeconomic environment, in which both inflation and unemployment stand at 3% or less, has made possible the relaxation of most of the capital controls imposed by the government in 1998 to counter the impact of the Asian financial crisis. Government and private forecasters expect Malaysia to continue this trend in 2000, predicting GDP to grow another 5% to 6%. While Malaysia's immediate economic horizon looks bright, its long-term prospects are clouded by the lack of reforms in the corporate sector, particularly those dealing with competitiveness and high corporate debt.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $229.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10,700 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 42% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 6.8% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.4%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 20.4% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.8% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 9.3 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> manufacturing 27%, agriculture, forestry, and fisheries 16%, local trade and tourism 17%, services 15%, government 10%, construction 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $23.2 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $27.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> Peninsular Malaysia - rubber and oil palm processing and manufacturing, light manufacturing industry, electronics, tin mining and smelting, logging and processing timber; Sabah - logging, petroleum production; Sarawak - agriculture processing, petroleum production and refining, logging
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 8.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 57.435 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 94.78%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 5.22%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 53.423 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 75 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 83 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> Peninsular Malaysia - rubber, palm oil, rice; Sabah - subsistence crops, rubber, timber, coconuts, rice; Sarawak - rubber, pepper; timber
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $83.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> electronic equipment, petroleum and liquefied natural gas, chemicals, palm oil, wood and wood products, rubber, textiles
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 23%, Singapore 16%, Japan 11%, Hong Kong 5%, Netherlands 5%, Taiwan 5%, Thailand 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $61.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, food, fuel and lubricants
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Japan 21%, US 18%, Singapore 14%, Taiwan 5%, South Korea 5%, Thailand 4%, China 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $43.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 ringgit (M$) = 100 sen
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> ringgits (M$) per US$1 - 3.8000 (January 2000), 3.8000 (1999), 3.9244 (1998), 2.8133 (1997), 2.5159 (1996), 2.5044 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Malaysia/Communications|990317459
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 4.4 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2.17 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> international service good
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> good intercity service provided on Peninsular Malaysia mainly by microwave radio relay; adequate intercity microwave radio relay network between Sabah and Sarawak via Brunei; domestic satellite system with 2 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> submarine cables to India, Hong Kong, and Singapore; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 56, FM 31 (plus 13 repeater stations), shortwave 5 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 9.1 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 27 (plus 15 high-power repeaters) (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.6 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 8 (1999)
------
Malaysia/Transportation|990317478
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,801 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 1,801 km 1.000-m gauge (148 km electrified) (2000)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 94,500 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 70,970 km (including 580 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 23,530 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 7,296 km (Peninsular Malaysia 3,209 km, Sabah 1,569 km, Sarawak 2,518 km)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,307 km; natural gas 379 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bintulu, Kota Kinabalu, Kuantan, Kuching, Kudat, Labuan, Lahad Datu, Lumut, Miri, Pasir Gudang, Penang, Port Dickson, Port Kelang, Sandakan, Sibu, Tanjung Berhala, Tanjung Kidurong, Tawau
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 361 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,000,706 GRT/7,393,915 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 61, cargo 119, chemical tanker 34, container 55, liquified gas 19, livestock carrier 1, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 57, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 6, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 115 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 83
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 74 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Malaysia/Military|990317494
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Malaysian Army, Royal Malaysian Navy, Royal Malaysian Air Force, Royal Malaysian Police Force, Marine Police, Sarawak Border Scouts
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 21 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,662,933 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,431,602 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 183,139 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1.211 billion (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.6% (FY98)
------
Malaysia/Transnational_issues|990317505
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; Philippines have not fully revoked claim to Sabah State; two islands in dispute with Singapore; Sipadan and Ligitan Islands in dispute with Indonesia
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transit point for some illicit drugs going to Western markets; drug trafficking prosecuted vigorously and carries severe penalties
------
Uppsala|990317511
5a6
> *Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Ulltuna, http://www.slu.se/
9a11,14
> 
> '''Media and Newspapers'''
> *Uppsala Nya Tidning, http://www.unt.se/
> 
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Maldives|990317540
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Maldives/History|990317578
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Maldives were long a sultanate, first under Dutch and then under British protection. They became a republic in 1968, three years after independence. Tourism and fishing are being developed on the archipelago.
------
Maldives/Geography|990317592
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, south-southwest of India
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 3 15 N, 73 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 300 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 300 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 1.7 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 644 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; hot, humid; dry, northeast monsoon (November to March); rainy, southwest monsoon (June to August)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> flat, with white sandy beaches
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Wilingili island in the Addu Atoll 2.4 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 84% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> low level of islands makes them very sensitive to sea level rise
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> depletion of freshwater aquifers threatens water supplies; global warming and sea level rise; coral reef bleaching
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> 1,190 coral islands grouped into 26 atolls (200 inhabited islands, plus 80 islands with tourist resorts); archipelago of strategic location astride and along major sea lanes in Indian Ocean
------
Goteborg|990317607
1c1,2
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> Göteborg is the Swedish word for the Swedish city [[Gothenburg]].
> 
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Maldives/People|990317609
1c1,59
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 301,475 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 46% (male 71,273; female 67,323)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 51% (male 78,598; female 75,331)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 4,666; female 4,284) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.06% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.32 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.09 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 65.52 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 62.2 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 61.05 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 63.4 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.62 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Maldivian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Maldivian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> South Indians, Sinhalese, Arabs
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Sunni Muslim
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Maldivian Dhivehi (dialect of Sinhala, script derived from Arabic), English spoken by most government officials
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 93.2%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 93.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 93% (1995 est.)
------
Maldives/Government|990317623
1c1,56
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Maldives
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Maldives
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Dhivehi Raajje
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MV
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Male
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 19 atolls (atholhu, singular and plural) and 1 other first-order administrative division*; Alifu, Baa, Dhaalu, Faafu, Gaafu Alifu, Gaafu Dhaalu, Gnaviyani, Haa Alifu, Haa Dhaalu, Kaafu, Laamu, Lhaviyani, Maale*, Meemu, Noonu, Raa, Seenu, Shaviyani, Thaa, Vaavu
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 26 July 1965 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 26 July (1965)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted January 1998
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law with admixtures of English common law primarily in commercial matters; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM (since 11 November 1978); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM (since 11 November 1978); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> appointed by the president; note - need not be members of Majlis
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president nominated by the Majlis and then that nomination must be ratified by a national referendum (at least a 51% approval margin is required); president elected for a five-year term; election last held 16 October 1998 (next to be held NA October 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM reelected; percent of popular vote - Maumoon Abdul GAYOOM 90.9%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral People's Council or Majlis (50 seats; 42 elected by popular vote, 8 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 November 1999 (next to be held NA November 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 42
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> although political parties are not banned, none exist
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, C, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Maldives does not have an embassy in the US, but does have a Permanent Mission to the UN in New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Maldives; the US Ambassador to Sri Lanka is accredited to Maldives and makes periodic visits there
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a large green rectangle in the center bearing a vertical white crescent; the closed side of the crescent is on the hoist side of the flag
------
Maldives/Economy|990317645
1c1,80
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Tourism, Maldives largest industry, accounts for 20% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives' foreign exchange receipts. Over 90% of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism-related taxes. Almost 400,000 tourists visited the islands in 1998. Fishing is a second leading sector. The Maldivian Government began an economic reform program in 1989 initially by lifting import quotas and opening some exports to the private sector. Subsequently, it has liberalized regulations to allow more foreign investment. Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a minor role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivable land and the shortage of domestic labor. Most staple foods must be imported. Industry, which consists mainly of garment production, boat building, and handicrafts, accounts for about 18% of GDP. Maldivian authorities worry about the impact of erosion and possible global warming on their low-lying country; 80% of the area is one meter or less above sea level.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $540 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 62% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 67,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 22%, industry 18%, services 60% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NEGL%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $166 million (excluding foreign grants)
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $192 million, including capital expenditures of $80 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fish processing, tourism, shipping, boat building, coconut processing, garments, woven mats, rope, handicrafts, coral and sand mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4.4% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 85 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 79 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts, corn, sweet potatoes; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $98 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish, clothing
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, UK, Sri Lanka, Japan
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $312 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> consumer goods, intermediate and capital goods, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Singapore, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, Canada
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $188 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 rufiyaa (Rf) = 100 laari
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> rufiyaa (Rf) per US$1 - 11.770 (fixed rate since 1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Maldives/Communications|990317657
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 21,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 300 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> minimal domestic and international facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> interatoll communication through microwave links; all inhabited islands are connected with telephone and fax service
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 3 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 35,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 10,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Maldives/Transportation|990317670
1c1,30
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km; note - Male has 9.6 km of coral highways within the city (1988 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Gan, Male
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 20 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 69,599 GRT/105,599 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 17, container 1, petroleum tanker 1, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
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Maldives/Military|990317681
1c1,12
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> National Security Service (paramilitary police force)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 68,940 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 38,402 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
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Maldives/Transnational_issues|990317693
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Mali|990317717
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Mali/History|990317738
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The Sudanese Republic and Senegal became independent of France in 1960 as the Mali Federation. When Senegal withdrew after only a few months, the Sudanese Republic was renamed Mali. Rule by dictatorship was brought to a close in 1991 with a transitional government, and in 1992 when Mali's first democratic presidential election was held. Since his reelection in 1997, President KONARE has continued to push through political and economic reforms and to fight corruption. In 1999 he indicated he would not run for a third term.
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Mali/Geography|990317751
1c1,61
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, southwest of Algeria
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 17 00 N, 4 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.24 million sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.22 million sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 20,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,243 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Algeria 1,376 km, Burkina Faso 1,000 km, Guinea 858 km, Cote d'Ivoire 532 km, Mauritania 2,237 km, Niger 821 km, Senegal 419 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical to arid; hot and dry February to June; rainy, humid, and mild June to November; cool and dry November to February
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly flat to rolling northern plains covered by sand; savanna in south, rugged hills in northeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Senegal River 23 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Hombori Tondo 1,155 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> gold, phosphates, kaolin, salt, limestone, uranium, hydropower
> <br><i>note:</i>
> bauxite, iron ore, manganese, tin, and copper deposits are known but not exploited
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 67% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 780 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons; recurring droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Mali/People|990317765
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,685,948 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 47% (male 2,537,586; female 2,508,782)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 2,524,969; female 2,781,762)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 156,447; female 176,402) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.98% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 49.23 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 19.1 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.37 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.89 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 123.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 46.66 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 45.5 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 47.85 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.89 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Malian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Malian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Mande 50% (Bambara, Malinke, Soninke), Peul 17%, Voltaic 12%, Songhai 6%, Tuareg and Moor 10%, other 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 90%, indigenous beliefs 9%, Christian 1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Bambara 80%, numerous African languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 39.4%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 23.1% (1995 est.)
------
Mali/Government|990317780
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Mali
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mali
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique de Mali
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Mali
> <br><i>former:</i>
> French Sudan and Sudanese Republic
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> ML
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Bamako
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 8 regions (regions, singular - region); Gao, Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Segou, Sikasso, Tombouctou
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 22 September 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Anniversary of the Proclamation of the Republic, 22 September (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 12 January 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Court (which was formally established on 9 March 1994); has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Alpha Oumar KONARE (since 8 June 1992)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Ibrahim Boubacar KEITA (since March 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 11 May 1997 (next to be held NA May 2002); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Alpha Oumar KONARE reelected president; percent of vote - Alpha Oumar KONARE 95.9%, Mamadou DIABY 4.1%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (147 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 July and 3 August 1997 (next to be held in two rounds in 2002); note - much of the opposition boycotted the election
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ADEMA 130, PARENA 8, CDS 4, UDD 3, PDP 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance for Democracy or ADEMA [Ibrahim Boubacar KEITA, party chairman]; Block of Alternative for the Renewal of Africa or BARA [Yoro DIAKITE]; Democratic and Social Convention or CDS [Mamadou Bakary SANGARE, chairman]; Movement for the Independence, Renaissance and Integration of Africa or MIRIA [Mohamed Lamine TRAORE, Mouhamedou DICKO]; National Congress for Democratic Initiative or CNID [Mountaga TALL, chairman]; Party for Democracy and Progress or PDP [Me Idrissa TRAORE]; Party for National Renewal or PARENA [Yoro DIAKITE, chairman; Tiebile DRAME, secretary general]; Rally for Democracy and Labor or RDT [Ali GNANGADO]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Almamy SYLLA, chairman]; Sudanese Union/African Democratic Rally or US/RDA [Mamadou Bamou TOURE, secretary general]; Union of Democratic Forces for Progress or UFDP [Youssouf TOURE, secretary general]; Union for Democracy and Development or UDD [Moussa Balla COULIBALY]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Patriotic Movement of the Ghanda Koye or MPGK; United Movement and Fronts of Azawad or MFUA
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Cheick Oumar DIARRAH
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2130 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-2249, 939-8950
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 332-6603
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Michael RANNEBERGER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Rochester NY and Rue Mohamed V, Bamako
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 34, Bamako
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [223] 22 54 70
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [223] 22 37 12
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), yellow, and red; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
------
Mali/Economy|990317801
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with 65% of its land area desert or semidesert. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labor force is engaged in farming and fishing. Industrial activity is concentrated on processing farm commodities. Mali is heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for cotton, its main export. In 1997, the government continued its successful implementation of an IMF-recommended structural adjustment program that is helping the economy grow, diversify, and attract foreign investment. Mali's adherence to economic reform, and the 50% devaluation of the African franc in January 1994, has pushed up economic growth. Several multinational corporations increased gold mining operations in 1996-98, and the government anticipates that Mali will become a major Sub-Saharan gold exporter in the next few years. Annual growth should remain in the 5-6% range in 2000-01, and inflation should drop under 3%.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $820 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 33% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture and fishing 80% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $730 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $770 million, including capital expenditures of $320 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> minor local consumer goods production and food processing; construction; phosphate and gold mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.6% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 310 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 38.71%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 61.29%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 288 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cotton, millet, rice, corn, vegetables, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $640 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> cotton 50%, gold, livestock (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Thailand 20%, Italy 20%, China 9%, Brazil 5%, Franc Zone (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $650 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, construction materials, petroleum, foodstuffs, textiles
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Cote d'Ivoire 19%, France 17%, other Franc Zone and EU countries (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $3.1 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $596.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Mali/Communications|990317820
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 17,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic system poor but improving; provides only minimal service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> network consists of microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communications stations; expansion of microwave radio relay in progress
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 14, shortwave 7 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 570,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus two repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 45,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Mali/Transportation|990317833
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 729 km (linked to Senegal's rail system through Kayes)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 729 km 1.000-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 15,100 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,827 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 13,273 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,815 km navigable
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Koulikoro
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 28 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 10 (1999 est.)
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Mali/Military|990317843
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Guard, National Police (Surete Nationale)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,202,950 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,262,242 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $49 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY96)
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Mali/Transnational_issues|990317853
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Delicate_Arch|990317890
5c5,11
< Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "The Chaps" and "The Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933-34. ''[The story that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertantly exchanged due to a signage mixup by the Park Service is untrue.]''    
---
> The arch is located at the end of a moderately strenuous 1.5 mile (one-way) trail from the parking area at Wolfe Ranch.
> 
> Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "The Chaps" and "The Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933-34. (The amusing story that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertantly exchanged due to a signage mixup by the Park Service unfortunately is not factual.)
> 
> Surprisingly, the arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a national monument in 1929, and was not included within the original monument boundary. It was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938.    
> 
> During the 1950s the Park Service investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to Park Service principles.
------
Malta|990317906
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Malta/History|990317922
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Great Britain formally acquired possession of Malta in 1814. The island staunchly supported the UK through both World Wars and remained in the Commonwealth when it became independent in 1964. A decade later Malta became a republic. Over the last 15 years, the island has become a major freight transshipment point, financial center, and tourist destination. It is an official candidate for EU membership.
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Bremen|990317927
3c3
< The state of Bremen consists of two cities: Bremen is completely surrounded by [[Niedersachsen]].  [[Bremerhaven]] is further downstream, on the shore of the [[North Sea]] (the name means Bremen's harbour).
---
> The state of Bremen consists of two cities: Bremen is completely surrounded by [[Niedersachsen]].  [[Bremerhaven]] is further downstream, on the shore of the [[North Sea]] (the name means Bremen's [[harbor]]).
------
Malta/Geography|990317935
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Europe, islands in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Sicily (Italy)
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 35 50 N, 14 35 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 316 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 316 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 140 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 25 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly low, rocky, flat to dissected plains; many coastal cliffs
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Ta'Dmejrek 253 m (near Dingli)
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> limestone, salt, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 59% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 10 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> very limited natural fresh water resources; increasing reliance on desalination
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> the country comprises an archipelago, with only the three largest islands (Malta, Ghawdex or Gozo, and Kemmuna or Comino) being inhabited; numerous bays provide good harbors
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Malta/People|990317950
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 391,670 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 41,046; female 38,273)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 132,692; female 131,532)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 13% (male 20,091; female 28,036) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.74% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.75 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.7 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.72 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.94 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.94 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.49 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.62 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.92 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Maltese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Maltese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Maltese (descendants of ancient Carthaginians and Phoenicians, with strong elements of Italian and other Mediterranean stock)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 91%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Maltese (official), English (official)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 10 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 88%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 88%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 88% (1985)
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Malta/Government|990317966
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Malta
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Malta
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Repubblika ta' Malta
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Malta
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MT
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Valletta
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (administered directly from Valletta)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 21 September 1964 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 21 September (1964)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1964 constitution substantially amended on 13 December 1974
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law and Roman civil law; has accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Guido DE MARCO (since 4 April 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Eddie FENECH ADAMI (since 6 September 1998); Deputy Prime Minister Lawrence GONZE (since 4 May 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by the House of Representatives for a five-year term; election last held NA April 1999 (next to be held by NA April 2004); following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the president for a five-year term; the deputy prime minister is appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Guido DE MARCO elected president; percent of House of Representatives vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Representatives (usually 65 seats; note - additional seats are given to the party with the largest popular vote to ensure a legislative majority; current total: 65 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 5 September 1998 (next to be held by September 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PN 51.8%, MLP 46.9%, AD 1.2%; seats by party - PN 35, MLP 30
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Constitutional Court, judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister; Court of Appeal, judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alternativa Demokratika/Alliance for Social Justice or AD [Harry VASSALLO]; Malta Labor Party or MLP [Alfred SANT]; Nationalist Party or PN [Edward FENECH ADAMI]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> C, CCC, CE, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador George SALIBA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2017 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-3611, 3612
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-5470
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Kathryn Haycock PROFFITT
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 3rd Floor, Development House, Saint Anne Street, Floriana, Malta
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 535, Valletta
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [356] 235960
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [356] 243229
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal vertical bands of white (hoist side) and red; in the upper hoist-side corner is a representation of the George Cross, edged in red
------
Norrkoping|990317973
1c1
< The city of Norrköping in [[Sweden]] was once known for its textile industry.  The city has two nicknames: Sweden's [[Manchester]], and [[Peking]].  The city is situated where the river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] drains into  [[Slatbaken|Slätbaken]], a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]].  Water power from this river and the good harbour was the foundation of the once industrial city.  In the latter decades of the 20th century, Norrköping suffered hard from closing down of several big industries, causing unemployment in large numbers.
---
> The city of Norrköping in [[Sweden]] was once known for its textile industry.  The city has two nicknames: Sweden's [[Manchester]], and [[Peking]].  The city is situated where the river [[Motala strom|Motala ström]] drains into  [[Slatbaken|Slätbaken]], a gulf of the [[Baltic Sea]].  Water power from this river and the good [[harbor]] was the foundation of the once industrial city.  In the latter decades of the 20th century, Norrköping suffered hard from closing down of several big industries, causing unemployment in large numbers.
------
Malta/Economy|990317986
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Major resources are limestone, a favorable geographic location, and a productive labor force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies, and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles), and tourism; the state-owned Malta drydocks employs about 3,800 people. In 1999, over 1 million tourists visited the island. Per capita GDP of $13,800 places Malta in the ranks of the less affluent EU countries. The island is divided politically over the question of joining the EU. The sizable budget deficit remains a key concern.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $5.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $13,800 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 26%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 71% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 143,700 (October 1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> industry 24%, services 71%, agriculture 5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 5.5% (September 1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.32 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.76 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism; electronics, ship building and repair, construction; food and beverages, textiles, footwear, clothing, tobacco
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.62 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.507 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> potatoes, cauliflower, grapes, wheat, barley, tomatoes, citrus, cut flowers, green peppers; pork, milk, poultry, eggs
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactures
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 20.7%, US 18.1%, Germany 12.6%, UK 7.7%, Italy 4.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods; food, drink, and tobacco
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Italy 19.3%, France 17.8%, UK 12.4%, Germany 10.5%, US 8.9% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $130 million (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Maltese lira (LM) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Maltese liri (LM) per US$1 - 0.4086 (January 2000), 0.3994 (1999), 0.3885 (1998), 0.3857 (1997), 0.3604 (1996), 0.3529 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Malta/Communications|990318002
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 171,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 15,650 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> automatic system satisfies normal requirements
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> submarine cable and microwave radio relay between islands
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 2 submarine cables; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 18, shortwave 6 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 255,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 280,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 4 (1999)
------
Malta/Transportation|990318021
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,742 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,677 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 65 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Marsaxlokk, Valletta
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,484 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,083,952 GRT/46,772,146 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 431, cargo 424, chemical tanker 54, combination bulk 16, combination ore/oil 14, container 64, liquified gas 2, livestock carrier 3, multi-functional large load carrier 4, passenger 7, petroleum tanker 331, refrigerated cargo 44, roll-on/roll-off 48, short-sea passenger 21, specialized tanker 5, vehicle carrier 16 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships from 49 countries among which includes Greece 445, Russia 51, Switzerland 45, Italy 44, Norway 40, Croatia 26, Turkey 35, Germany 32, Georgia 23, and Monaco 24 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Malta/Military|990318032
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Armed Forces (including land forces, an air squadron, a maritime squadron, and the Revenue Security Corps), Maltese Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 98,850 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 78,677 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $201 million (FY98/99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5.5% (FY98/99)
------
Malta/Transnational_issues|990318044
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Malta and Tunisia are discussing the commercial exploitation of the continental shelf between their countries, particularly for oil exploration
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> minor transshipment point for hashish from North Africa to Western Europe
------
Isle_of_Man|990318073
1c1,13
< The Isle of Man is situated in the [[Irish Sea]] almost equidistant from [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. With an area of 221 square miles and a population of around 64,000 it is part of the [[United Kingdom]] and has The "Oldest Parliament in the World"
---
> The Isle of Man is situated in the [[Irish Sea]] almost equidistant from [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. With an area of 221 square miles and a population of around 64,000 it is part of the [[United Kingdom]] and has The "Oldest Parliament in the World"
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Isle_of_Man/History|990318106
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the 13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost extinct Manx Celtic language.
------
Isle_of_Man/Geography|990318123
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, island in the Irish Sea, between Great Britain and Ireland
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 54 15 N, 4 30 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 572 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 572 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than three times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 160 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> cool summers and mild winters; temperate; overcast about one-third of the time
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> hills in north and south bisected by central valley
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Irish Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Snaefell 621 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 39% (includes 25% mountain and heathland)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> waste disposal (both household and industrial); transboundary air pollution
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> one small islet, the Calf of Man, lies to the southwest, and is a bird sanctuary
------
Isle_of_Man/People|990318140
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 73,117 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 6,520; female 6,277)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 23,904; female 23,674)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 17% (male 5,078; female 7,664) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.52% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 11.69 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 11.98 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 5.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.66 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.54 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.47 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.09 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.04 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.64 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Manxman (men), Manxwoman (women)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Manx
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Manx (Norse-Celtic descent), Briton
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Society of Friends
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Manx Gaelic
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Isle_of_Man/Government|990318162
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Isle of Man
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> IM
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> British crown dependency
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Douglas
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> there are 24 local authorities each with its own elections
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Tynwald Day, 5 July
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> unwritten; note - The Isle of Man Constitution Act, 1961, does not embody the Manx Constitution
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English common law and Manx statute
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Lord of Mann Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Lieutenant Governor His Excellency Sir Timothy DAUNT (since 27 October 1995)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Minister Donald GELLING (since 3 December 1996)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; lieutenant governor appointed by the monarch for a five-year term; the Chief Minister is elected by the Tynwald; election last held 3 December 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Donald GELLING elected chief minister by the Tynwald
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Tynwald consists of the Legislative Council (a 10-member body composed of the Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man, a nonvoting attorney general, and 8 others named by the House of Keys) and the House of Keys (24 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Keys - last held 21 November 1996 (next to be held NA November 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Keys - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - independents 24
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court of Justice, justices are appointed by the Lord Chancellor of England on the nomination of the lieutenant governor
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> there is no party system; members sit as independents
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (British crown dependency)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with the Three Legs of Man emblem (Trinacria), in the center; the three legs are joined at the thigh and bent at the knee; in order to have the toes pointing clockwise on both sides of the flag, a two-sided emblem is used
------
Isle_of_Man/Economy|990318177
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Offshore banking, manufacturing, and tourism are key sectors of the economy. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the island has paid off in expanding employment opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, agriculture and fishing, once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of GDP. Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. Trade is mostly with the UK. The Isle of Man enjoys free access to EU markets.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1.2 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $16,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 89% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 36,610 (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture, forestry and fishing 3%, manufacturing 11%, construction 10%, transport and communication 8%, wholesale and retail distribution 11%, professional and scientific services 18%, public administration 6%, banking and finance 18%, tourism 2%, entertainment and catering 3%, miscellaneous services 10%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 0.7% (July 1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $816 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $504 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY99/00 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> financial services, light manufacturing, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (1996/97)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 329 million kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 287 million kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cereals, vegetables; cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> tweeds, herring, processed shellfish, beef, lamb
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> timber, fertilizers, fish
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Manx pound = 100 pence
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Manx pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); the Manx pound is at par with the British pound
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Isle_of_Man/Communications|990318192
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 51,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> landline, telefax, mobile cellular telephone system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> fiber-optic cable, microwave radio relay, satellite earth station, submarine cable
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 0 (receives broadcasts from the UK and satellite) (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 27,490 (1999)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Harbor|990318200
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A harbor is a facility in a [[coast]]al [[city]] where [[ship]]s can land.
> 
> Related terms are [[dock]], [[marina]], [[naval base]], [[quay]], [[seaport]], [[wharf]].
> 
------
Isle_of_Man/Transportation|990318207
1c1,26
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 68.5 km (43.5 km electrified)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 800 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 800 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1999)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Castletown, Douglas, Peel, Ramsey
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 144 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,333,826 GRT/7,254,867 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 23, cargo 6, chemical tanker 13, combination bulk 3, container 20, liquified gas 13, petroleum tanker 44, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 15, vehicle carrier 5 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; UK owns 8 ships, Denmark 1, Sweden 1, Belgium 1, and Netherlands 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Isle_of_Man/Military|990318223
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
------
Isle_of_Man/Transnational_issues|990318234
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Marshall_Islands|990318255
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Wharf|990318273
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A wharf is a place where [[ship]]s are built or repaired.
> 
> Related terms [[dock]], [[harbor]], [[marina]].
> 
------
Marshall_Islands/History|990318295
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> After almost four decades under US administration as the easternmost part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, the Marshall Islands attained independence in 1986 under a Compact of Free Association. Compensation claims continue as a result of US nuclear testing on some of the islands between 1947 and 1962.
------
Marshall_Islands/Geography|990318311
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, group of atolls and reefs in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Papua New Guinea
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 9 00 N, 168 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 181.3 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 181.3 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes the atolls of Bikini, Enewetak, and Kwajalein
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 370.4 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> wet season from May to November; hot and humid; islands border typhoon belt
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low coral limestone and sand islands
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Likiep 10 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphate deposits, marine products, deep seabed minerals
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 60%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 40%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> occasional typhoons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> inadequate supplies of potable water
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> two archipelagic island chains of 30 atolls and 1,152 islands; Bikini and Enewetak are former US nuclear test sites; Kwajalein, the famous World War II battleground, is now used as a US missile test range
------
Marshall_Islands/People|990318325
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 68,126 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 50% (male 17,204; female 16,521)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 48% (male 16,826; female 16,111)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2% (male 693; female 771) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.88% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 45.17 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 40.95 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 65.5 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 63.72 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 67.36 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.61 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Marshallese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Marshallese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Micronesian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian (mostly Protestant)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (universally spoken and is the official language), two major Marshallese dialects from the Malayo-Polynesian family, Japanese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 93%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 88% (1980 est.)
------
Marshall_Islands/Government|990318343
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of the Marshall Islands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Marshall Islands
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Marshall Islands District (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> RM
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional government in free association with the US; the Compact of Free Association entered into force 21 October 1986
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Majuro
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 33 municipalities; Ailinginae, Ailinglaplap, Ailuk, Arno, Aur, Bikar, Bikini, Bokak, Ebon, Enewetak, Erikub, Jabat, Jaluit, Jemo, Kili, Kwajalein, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Majuro, Maloelap, Mejit, Mili, Namorik, Namu, Rongelap, Rongrik, Toke, Ujae, Ujelang, Utirik, Wotho, Wotje
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 21 October 1986 (from the US-administered UN trusteeship)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Proclamation of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 1 May (1979)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 1 May 1979
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on adapted Trust Territory laws, acts of the legislature, municipal, common, and customary laws
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Kessai Hesa NOTE (since 3 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Kessai Hesa NOTE (since 3 January 2000); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet selected by the president from among the members of Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament from among its own members for a four-year term; election last held 15 November 1999 (next to be held NA November 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Kessai Hesa NOTE elected president; percent of Parliament vote - 100%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Nitijela (33 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA November 1999 (next to be held NA November 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Council of Chiefs is a 12-member body that advises on matters affecting customary law and practice
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> traditionally there have been no formally organized political parties; what has existed more closely resembles factions or interest groups because they do not have party headquarters, formal platforms, or party structures; the following two "groupings" have competed in legislative balloting in recent years - Kabua Party [Imata KABUA] and United Democratic Party or UDP [Litokwa TOMLING]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WHO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Banny DE BRUM
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2433 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 234-5414
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-3236
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Honolulu
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joan M. PLAISTED
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Oceanside, Mejen Weto, Long Island, Majuro
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 1379, Majuro, Republic of the Marshall Islands 96960-1379
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [692] 247-4011
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [692] 247-4012
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with two stripes radiating from the lower hoist-side corner - orange (top) and white; there is a white star with four large rays and 20 small rays on the hoist side above the two stripes
------
Marshall_Islands/Economy|990318362
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> US Government assistance is the mainstay of this tiny island economy. Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms, and the most important commercial crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit. Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra. The tourist industry, now a small source of foreign exchange employing less than 10% of the labor force, remains the best hope for future added income. The islands have few natural resources, and imports far exceed exports. Under the terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US provides roughly $65 million in annual aid. Negotiations were underway in 1999 for an extended agreement. Government downsizing, drought, a drop in construction, and the decline in tourism and foreign investment due to the Asian financial difficulties caused GDP to fall in 1996-98.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $105 million (1998 est.), supplemented by approximately $65 million annual US aid
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,670 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 72% (1995)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 16% (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $80.1 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $77.4 million, including capital expenditures of $19.5 million (FY95/96 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> copra, fish, tourism, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls, offshore banking (embryonic)
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 57 million kWh (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 57 million kWh (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1994)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts, cacao, taro, breadfruit, fruits; pigs, chickens
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $28 million (f.o.b., 1997 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish, coconut oil, fish, trochus shells
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, Japan, Australia
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $58 million (f.o.b., 1997 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, fuels, beverages and tobacco
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US, Japan, Australia, NZ, Guam, Singapore
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $125 million (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> approximately $65 million annually from the US
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> US currency is used
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
------
Marshall_Islands/Communications|990318374
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3,000 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 280 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> telex services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> Majuro Atoll and Ebeye and Kwajalein islands have regular, seven-digit, direct-dial telephones; other islands interconnected by shortwave radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes)
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); US Government satellite communications system on Kwajalein
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (of which two are US military stations) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Marshall_Islands/Transportation|990318387
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> paved roads on major islands (Majuro, Kwajalein), otherwise stone-, coral-, or laterite-surfaced roads and tracks
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Majuro
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 143 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,801,336 GRT/11,785,065 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 48, cargo 8, chemical tanker 5, combination bulk 1, container 19, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, petroleum tanker 58, vehicle carrier 1 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes the ships of Canada 1, China 1, Germany 1, Japan 1, and US 7 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 16 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
------
Marshall_Islands/Military|990318398
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> no regular military forces (a coast guard may be established); Police Force
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
------
Marshall_Islands/Transnational_issues|990318412
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims US territory of Wake Island
------
Dock|990318414
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A dock is a chamber used for building or repairing one [[ship]].  A [[wharf]] consists of one or more docks.  Dry docks can be emptied of water, so all parts of the ship can be investigated.
> 
> Related terms [[harbor]], [[marina]].
> 
------
Malden_Island|990318570
3,4c3,4
< Malden was discovered on 30 July 1825 ''[not 29 July, as erroneously reported in some sources]''by Captain George Anson (Lord) Byron (a cousin of the recently deceased poet),
< commanding the British warship ''HMS Blonde'', while returning to London from a specia l mission to Honolulu to repatriate the remains of the young king and queen of Hawaii, who had died tragically of measles during a visit to Britain. The island was named for Lt. Charles Robert Malden, navigator of the ''Blonde'', who sighted the island and briefly explored it.
---
> Malden was discovered on 30 July 1825 ''(not 29 July, as erroneously reported in some sources)''by Captain George Anson (Lord) Byron (a cousin of the recently deceased poet),
> commanding the British warship ''HMS Blonde'', while returning to London from a special mission to Honolulu to repatriate the remains of the young king and queen of Hawaii, who had died tragically of measles during a visit to Britain. The island was named for Lt. Charles Robert Malden, navigator of the ''Blonde'', who sighted the island and briefly explored it.
------
Gibraltar/Transportation|990318641
3c3
< NA km; 1.000-m gauge system in dockyard area only
---
> NA km; 1.000-m gauge system in [[dockyard]] area only
13c13
< <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
---
> <p><b>Ports and [[harbor]]s:</b>
------
Dock|990318665
1c1
< A dock is a chamber used for building or repairing one [[ship]].  A [[wharf]] consists of one or more docks.  Dry docks can be emptied of water, so all parts of the ship can be investigated.
---
> A dock is a chamber used for building or repairing one [[ship]].  A [[wharf]] or [[dockyard]] consists of one or more docks.  Dry docks can be emptied of water, so all parts of the ship can be investigated.
------
Harbor|990318683
3c3
< Related terms are [[dock]], [[marina]], [[naval base]], [[quay]], [[seaport]], [[wharf]].
---
> Related terms are [[dock]], [[dockyard]], [[marina]], [[naval base]], [[quay]], [[seaport]], [[wharf]].
------
Dockyard|990318736
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[yard]] of [[dock]]s is the same as a [[wharf]].
> 
> Related terms: [[harbor]], [[marina]], [[seaport]], [[ship]].
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|990318866
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - The Former Yugoslav Republic of [[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - </font>The Former Yugoslav Republic of <font size=+2>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall_Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
172a173
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|990318920
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - </font>The Former Yugoslav Republic of <font size=+2>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall_Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall_Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
------
Yard|990319005
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A land lot used for some specific purpose, e.g. [[churchyard]], [[dockyard]], [[railyard]].  The word is related to guard, garden, Scandinavian "gård" (homestead), Russian "gorod" (city).
> 
> 2. A non-metric [[unit]] for length, approximately 0.90 [[meter]]s or 3 feet.
> 
> 3. [[Scotland Yard]], a branch of the police force in the [[United Kingdom]].
> 
------
Scotland_Yard|990319745
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A branch of police in the [[United Kingdom]].
> 
> *Official website, http://www.scotlandyard.police.uk/
> *The name is explained in their FAQ, http://www.scotlandyard.police.uk/history/definition.htm#p7
> *The Official Encyclopedia of Scotland Yard, http://www.scotlandyard.police.uk/history/encyclopedia.htm
> 
> 2. A Californian pop music group
> 
> *Official website, http://www.scotlandyard.net/
> 
------
SherlockHolmes|990319872
1c1
< A fictional character created in the 19th century by British author ArthurConanDoyle.  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
---
> A fictional character created in the 19th century by British author [[Arthur Conan Doyle]].  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
------
Inspector_Morse|990319895
20c20
< Just like [[Conan Doyle]] Dexter killed his main character in the last book.
---
> Just like [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] Dexter killed his main character in the last book.
------
Arthur_Conan_Doyle|990319931
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sir Arthur Conan Doyle is the British author of the stories about [[Sherlock Holmes]].
> 
------
Sherlock_Holmes|990320005
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A fictional character created in the 19th century by British author [[Arthur Conan Doyle]].  Sherlock Holmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
> 
> See also [[Investigator as Philosopher]].
> 
> Perhaps see also [[Scotland Yard]].
> 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Investigator_as_Philosopher|990320081
1c1
< ''SherlockHolmes is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer. What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
---
> ''[[Sherlock Holmes]] is depicted as both a supremely logical thinker and a supernaturally astute observer. What hidden advantage did he hold over his peers?''
------
Existence|990320206
11c11
< Even if the ambiguity of 'exists' is sometimes overlooked, oddly enough, the ambiguity of 'does not exist' is not.  That is, ontologists are fond of pointing out that there are various ways in which things can fail to exist: they can be fictional (Sherlock Holmes), imaginary ([[the golden mountain]]), legendary ([[Loch Ness Monster]]), mistakenly inferred (the ether), etc.  The multiplicity of ways in which a thing can fail to exist has be so striking to some that it has been suggested that existence is, in fact, merely an "excluder" concept--used to classify items by what they are ''not'' (not fictional, not imaginary, not mistakenly inferred, etc.)--as 'real' is sometimes thought to be.
---
> Even if the ambiguity of 'exists' is sometimes overlooked, oddly enough, the ambiguity of 'does not exist' is not.  That is, ontologists are fond of pointing out that there are various ways in which things can fail to exist: they can be fictional ([[Sherlock Holmes]]), imaginary ([[the golden mountain]]), legendary ([[Loch Ness Monster]]), mistakenly inferred (the ether), etc.  The multiplicity of ways in which a thing can fail to exist has be so striking to some that it has been suggested that existence is, in fact, merely an "excluder" concept--used to classify items by what they are ''not'' (not fictional, not imaginary, not mistakenly inferred, etc.)--as 'real' is sometimes thought to be.
------
Sherlock_Holmes|990320294
3c3
< See also [[Investigator as Philosopher]].
---
> See also [[Wikipedia commentary/Investigator as Philosopher]].
------
SherlockHolmes|990320360
1c1
< A fictional character created in the 19th century by British author [[Arthur Conan Doyle]].  SherlockHolmes was an amatuer detective who specialized in solving unusual cases using his extraordinary powers of observation and deduction.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Sherlock Holmes]]
3d2
< See also InvestigatorAsPhilosopher
------
Inspector_Morse|990320412
3c3
< The titles are:
---
> The titles are: 
------
Wikipedia_commentary/Investigator_as_Philosopher|990320919
31c31
< How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber? The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint. He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter. Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen. The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed. E.G.: Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder? Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing? Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints? Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint? How was the tubing secured? How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood? The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials (and which materials) would be required, etc. The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation. 
---
> How valuable might the observations of a skilled observer who is a non-plumber be relative to investigating for the source of leaks in comparison to the observations of a skilled plumber? The former might look at a complex of soldered tubing with multiple joints and several leaks, and be able to determine that each leak was at or near a joint. He might make other observations and yet assign no importance to them, owing to a lack of familiarity with subject matter. Having assigned no importance to such observations, he might not be able to call them up in response to queries from a plumber as to what he had seen. The latter might "see at a glance" what the former had missed. E.G.: Were there sanding marks visible at the margins of the solder? Was there green or black coloration in a given pattern on the exterior of the tubing? Were there dark shiny markings, as of dried liquid, at or adjacent to the joints? Were there any little whitish, powdery bumps, especially with a greenish tint? How was the tubing secured? How much evidence of water absorption was there in surrounding wood? The answers to these questions would tell the plumber if hard or acidic water had eaten through the tubing, whether the joints had been "brightened" (sanded) before soldering, whether flux had been used, the age of the tubing, the likelihood of failure due to excessive movement, whether the existing materials would suffice to repair the defects or if new materials would be required (and if so, which ones), etc. The knowledge base or experience of the viewer can increase sensitivity to various observations and, with all observations in hand, will inform their interpretation. 
37c37
< The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge. In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible. One sees, for instance, a chair. According to Russell, this would be a misstatement. The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible. Therefore, one does not see it at all. One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image. Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer. On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist. Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation. From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed. In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average bear. 
---
> The reader is commended to the various writings of, for example, Bertrand Russell - especially as they relate to observation, interpretation, and the nature of knowledge. In Russell's world view, the very real possibility exists that all human perception is corrupt and that actual or absolute knowledge is impossible. One sees, for instance, a chair. According to Russell, this would be a misstatement. The actual nature of the chair, owing to atomic and subatomic physics, is invisible. Therefore, one does not see it at all. One's optic nerves are stimulated by the effect of reflected light on the retina of the eye, and the signals of the optic nerves are interpreted by the brain to form an image. Even so, it is only an image of the surfaces of the chair facing the viewer. On strict observation, the viewer cannot claim to know that the unobserved portions of the chair exist. Application of such principles as these to the process of investigation help to instill sufficient humility in the investigator so that, with practice, he can apply the first skill of investigation - observation without interpretation. From there, he can apply his observations to a "knowledge" base which, if he is honest, he will admit is mostly data ABOUT things which he has never personally observed. In such a wise, he can begin to build an investigative methodology which which will lead him down fewer blind alleys and toward more true solutions than that practiced by the average viewer. 
------
Greater_London|990323303
1c1,3
< The [[United Kingdom/London|London]] metropolitan area is governed by the Greater London Authority. It covers the 23 [[London boroughs]]. The head of the Greater London Authority is the Mayor of London, currently [[Ken Livingstone]]. He and the [[London Assembly]] are elected by popular vote. 
---
> The [[United Kingdom/London|London]] metropolitan area is governed by the Greater London Authority. It covers the 23 [[London boroughs]]. The head of the Greater London Authority is the Mayor of London, currently [[Ken Livingstone]]. He and the [[London Assembly]] are elected by popular vote.  See also [[Scotland Yard]].
> ----
> ''The Britons sure know how to name things.  What is so great about Great Britain, anyway?''
------
Assistive_Technology/Talk|990323732
7c7
< The other side of the coin is what web developers can to do make their content more accessible. In software design, this is called universal access design. This does not necessarily require the disabled user to acquire any assistive technology.
---
> The other side of the coin is what web developers can to do make their content more accessible. In software design, this is called [[universal access]] design. This does not necessarily require the disabled user to acquire any assistive technology.
------
Universal_access|990324053
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Both in [[college]] admission for the middle and lower classes, and in [[assistive Technology]] for the disabled, the term '''universal access''' has been used for the [[20th century]] [[politically correct]] idea that all people should have equal opportunity, regardless of their background or physical disabilities.  For the 20th century development in the [[United States]] of universal access to colleges, see the book [[The Big Test]].
------
Universal_access|990324107
1c1
< Both in [[college]] admission for the middle and lower classes, and in [[assistive Technology]] for the disabled, the term '''universal access''' has been used for the [[20th century]] [[politically correct]] idea that all people should have equal opportunity, regardless of their background or physical disabilities.  For the 20th century development in the [[United States]] of universal access to colleges, see the book [[The Big Test]].
---
> Both in [[college]] admission for the middle and lower classes, and in [[assistive Technology]] for the disabled, the term '''universal access''' has been used for the [[20th century]] [[political correctness|politically correct]] idea that all people should have equal opportunity, regardless of their background or physical disabilities.  For the 20th century development in the [[United States]] of universal access to colleges, see the book [[The Big Test]].
------
The_Big_Test|990324281
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[book]] ([[20th century]] [[history]], [[biography]]) by [[Nicholas Lemann]], ''The Big Test. The Secret History of the American Meritocracy'', ISBN 0374527512.
> 
> See also [[college]] [[universal access]].
> 
> 
------
Nicholas_Lemann|990324319
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Author]] of [[The Big Test]].
> 
------
Author|990324361
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A person who writes [[book]]s or other documents.  See also [[literature]].
> 
> 
> 
------
National_Missile_Defense|990326060
1c1,4
< The national missile defense (NMD) is a millitary strategy discussed in the [[United States]] since the 1960s. The basic idea is to shield the U.S. against incomming missiles by shooting them down as they approach the country. It is widely disputed whether the NMD concept is feasible [1].
---
> The National Missile Defense (NMD) is a millitary strategy discussed in the [[United States]] since the 1960s. The basic idea is to shield the U.S. against incomming missiles by shooting them down as they approach the country. It is widely disputed whether the NMD concept is feasible [1].
> 
> <b>Key equipment</b>
> *  [[X-band Radar]]
------
Book|990326077
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing system]]s were invented in ancient times, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
> 
> In the mid [[19th century]], paper made from [[pulp]] (cellulose, wood) was introduced because it was cheaper than cloth-based paper (term?).  However, this pulp paper contained acid that causes a sort of [[slow fires]] that eventually destroys the paper from within.  Libraries today have to consider [[mass deacidification]] of their older collections.  Books printed 1850--1950 are at risk, more recent books have better paper.
> 
> Maintaining a [[library]] used to be the privilege of princes, wealthy people, and [[university|universities]].  The growth of a [[public library]] system started in the late [[19th century]] and was much helped by donations from [[Andrew Carnegie]].
> 
> Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explotion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in books, but made available online, on CDROM, or in the form of [[ebook]]s (electronic books).  This does not necessarily make life easier for libraries, and so it has not resulted in any decline in the rate of paper publishing.
> 
------
Book|990326211
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing system]]s were invented in ancient times, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in ancient times, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Book|990326262
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in ancient times, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilizations]], [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Book|990326304
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilizations]], [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Book|990326332
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
X-band_Radar|990326414
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The X-band Radar is a cental tracking facility in the proposed [[National Missile Defense]].
> 
> ----
> <b>References</b>
> 
> For a technical description see: 
> * http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/gbr.htm
> at the [[Federation of American Scientists]]
------
Thule|990326563
5c5
< 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a B-52 crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
---
> 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility ([[X-band Radar]]) to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a B-52 crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Tradition|990326607
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. The art of memorizing and bringing on a story from generation to generation without a [[writing System]].  Tools to aid this process are [[rhyme]] and [[alliteration]].
> 
> 2. Procedures that are repeated in the same way, generation after generation, year after year.  For example, it is now a tradition to have a [[Christmas tree]] for the holidays, even though this tradition is only a hundred years old.
> 
------
Tradition|990326632
1c1
< 1. The art of memorizing and bringing on a story from generation to generation without a [[writing System]].  Tools to aid this process are [[rhyme]] and [[alliteration]].
---
> 1. The art of memorizing and bringing on a story from generation to generation without the need for [[writing Systems]].  Tools to aid this process are [[rhyme]] and [[alliteration]].
------
Palimpsest|990326897
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An early form of [[paper]] made from leaves of [[papyrus]], used in book [[scroll]]s in [[ancient civilization]]s before the [[codex]] or [[book]] was invented.  The ancient [[library of Alexandria]] contained the world's largest collection of palimpsest scrolls.
> 
------
Scroll|990327163
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A roll of [[paper]] or [[palimpsest]] used for writing in [[ancient civilization]]s before the [[codex]] or [[book]] was invented, and still today in some religious contexts.
> 
> 2. The act of sliding (to scroll) through a presentation of contents (text, drawing or image) that doesn't fit the available display window in a [[computer]]'s graphic user interface ([[GUI]]).
> 
------
Trolltech|990327224
3c3
< Their flagship product is Qt, the multi-platform, C++ Graphical User Interfaces toolkit.
---
> Their flagship product is Qt, the multi-platform, C++ Graphical User Interfaces ([[GUI]]) toolkit.
9c9
< Read more about Trolltech on http://www.trolltech.com
---
> Read more about Trolltech on http://www.trolltech.com
------
GUI|990327284
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> GUI is short for Graphic User Interface, also known as a "window system".  See [[computer]] and [[computing]].
> 
------
Thule|990327470
5c5
< 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility ([[X-band Radar]]) to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a B-52 crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
---
> 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility ([[X-band Radar]]) to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a [[B-52]] crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
------
Codex|990327653
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[middle ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the word Latin for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
> 
> 2. A legal text or code of conduct is sometimes called a codex (or is it?).
> 
------
Codex|990327694
1c1
< 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[middle ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the word Latin for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
---
> 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[Middle Ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the word Latin for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
------
Book|990327735
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access memory]] of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access]] memory of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Pergamon|990327837
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. An [[island]] in [[Greece]] (?).
> 
> 2. Fine [[calf]] skin used for [[page]]s in early [[codex]]es, before [[paper]] was invented.  Named after (1).
> 
> 
------
Calf|990327943
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Young [[cattle]], the child of a [[cow]] and a [[bull]], plural calves.  Calf meat is called [[veal]].  Fine calf skin used for [[pages]] in early [[codex]]es is called [[pergamon]].
> 
------
Veal|990328002
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Meat]] from [[calf]].
> 
------
B-52|990328057
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American military aircraft. The B-52 <i>Stratofortress</i> is a manned strategic bomber. First model introduced in 1955 and more than 740 units build since.
> 
> ----
> <b>Refereces</b>
> 
> Very detailed historical overview is found at:
> * http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-52_hist.htm
------
Book|990328093
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access]] memory of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the laws for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access]] memory of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Requested_articles|990328191
28c28
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[B52]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] --  
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] --  
------
Book|990328245
7c7
< Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explotion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in books, but made available online, on CDROM, or in the form of [[ebook]]s (electronic books).  This does not necessarily make life easier for libraries, and so it has not resulted in any decline in the rate of paper publishing.
---
> Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in books, but made available online, on CDROM, or in the form of [[ebook]]s (electronic books).  This does not necessarily make life easier for libraries, and so it has not resulted in any decline in the rate of paper publishing.
------
Book|990328282
7c7
< Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in books, but made available online, on CDROM, or in the form of [[ebook]]s (electronic books).  This does not necessarily make life easier for libraries, and so it has not resulted in any decline in the rate of paper publishing.
---
> Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in books, but made available online, on CDROM, or in the form of [[ebook]]s (electronic books).  This does not necessarily make life easier for libraries, and so far has not resulted in any decline in the rate of paper publishing.
------
Thule|990328414
5c5
< 3. Location of an U.S. Air Force Base.  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility ([[X-band Radar]]) to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a [[B-52]] crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
---
> 3. A U.S. Air Force Base, located at (2).  The Thule Air Force Base is a part of the U.S. network of early warning radars, and is an important facility in the recent discussion of the [[National Missile Defense]] ([[NMD]]).  The proposed update of the facility ([[X-band Radar]]) to meet the demands of the NMD is controversial within [[Greenland]] and [[Denmark]] (Greenland is a part of the Kingdom of Denmark).  On the 22nd of January 1968, a [[B-52]] crashed seven miles south of the Thule Air Force Base.  Nuclear bombs were lost and debris scattered over the area in the accident.
------
Slow_fires|990328528
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
> 
> Search http://google.com/search?q=slow+fires
------
Slow_fires|990328620
1c1
< See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
---
> In [[library and information science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
3c3
< Search http://google.com/search?q=slow+fires
---
> Search http://google.com/search?q=slow+fires
------
Slow_fires|990328651
1c1
< In [[library and information science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
---
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
------
Library_and_Information_Science|990329172
1c1
< Library science is, it seems, the study of stuff having to do with libraries.  Information science, on the other hand, is the study of how to organize information in general.
---
> For "Shannon" et. al., see the science of [[information theory]], that deals with communication systems, encryption, transmission, and "signal to noise ratio".  In this sense, "information" is the useful part of "data".
3,5c3
< ----
< 
< (The person who wrote the above knows nothing about what he's talking about.  If you know more, please replace this with something more accurate!)
---
> The rest of this page should be about Library and Information Science (LIS), i.e. "the study of stuff having to do with libraries".  In this sense, "information" and "documentation" means non-[[book]] stuffs that (university) libraries deal with, such as magazines, scientific journals, technical reports, and access to online databases.
6a5,8
> Important LIS institutions:
> *School of Information, [[University of Michigan]], http://www.si.umich.edu/
> ----
> (old stuff deleted)
8d9
< 
------
Information_theory|990329663
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Information theory is a branch of the mathematical theory of probability and mathematical statistics, that deals with communication systems, data transmission, cryptography, signal to noise ratios, etc.
> 
> (This is quite different from [[Library and Information Science]].)
> 
> [[Claude E. Shannon]] (born 1916) has been called "the father of information theory".  His theory "considered the transmission of information as a statistical phenomenon" and gave communications engineers a way to determine the capacity of a communication channel. His theory is not "concerned with the content of information or the message itself".
> 
------
Library_and_Information_Science|990329731
12,13d11
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of Information Science began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the <em>Bell System Technical Journal</em> in July and October of 1948. In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
< 
------
Information_theory|990329840
6a7,8
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of '''information theory''' began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the [[Bell System Technical Journal]] in July and October of 1948.  In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
> 
------
Claude_E._Shannon|990329897
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Claude E. Shannon'''(born 1916) has been called "the father of [[information theory]]".
> 
------
Library_and_Information_Science|990330035
8,12c8
< (old stuff deleted)
< ----
< The person who wrote the above is not that far wrong. They just left out some detail.
< 
< Library Science, on the other hand, is exactly the "study of stuff having to do with libraries." Strictly speaking, Library Science consists of academic studies (most typically surveys) concerning how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to particular libraries at particular points in time. Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day-to-day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship does not generally generate any new knowledge, and its purpose is not to advance any field or discipline. It is only occasionally that librarians engage in Library Science, and then usually incidental to their jobs as librarians. The study of Library Science is, however, part of the requisite training of librarians.
---
> Library and Information Science (LIS) is the "study of stuff having to do with libraries." Strictly speaking, LIS consists of academic studies (most typically surveys) concerning how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to particular libraries at particular points in time. Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day-to-day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship does not generally generate any new knowledge, and its purpose is not to advance any field or discipline. It is only occasionally that librarians engage in Library Science, and then usually incidental to their jobs as librarians. The study of Library Science is, however, part of the requisite training of librarians.
------
Slow_fires|990330103
3c3
< Search http://google.com/search?q=slow+fires
---
> Search http://google.com/search?q=slow+fires+preservation
------
Library_and_Information_Science|990330294
5c5
< Important LIS institutions:
---
> Important LIS institutions and resources:
6a7,8
> *OCLC, http://www.oclc.org/
> *ALA, http://www.ala.org/
------
Mass_deacidification|990330413
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for one possible measure against [[slow fires]].  Search http://google.com/search?q=mass+deacidification
------
Information_explosion|990330518
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the ever increasing rate of publication.  Search http://google.com/search?q=information+explosion
------
Library_and_Information_Science|990330593
8a9,12
> Some current LIS issues:
> *[[information explosion]]
> *[[slow fires]]
> *[[mass deacidification]]
------
William_Blake|990331390
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>William Blake</b> (1757-1827)
> 
> English poet and mystic. Central works are <i>Songs of Innocence</i> (1789) and <i>Songs of Experience</i> (1789).
------
Information_theory|990331944
8c8,9
< 
---
> ----
> Here is [[Claude E. Shannon]]'s original paper, http://galaxy.ucsd.edu/new/external/shannon.pdf
------
Slow_fires|990332181
1c1
< In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]].
---
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]]. 
------
Slow_fires|990332221
1c1
< In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidifciation]]. 
---
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a term used for the self-destruction of acid [[paper]].  See [[book]] and [[mass deacidification]].
------
Probability|990332565
8a9
> See also [[information theory]].
------
Probability_and_Statistics|990332881
22a23,24
> 
> See also [[information theory]]
------
Computer_science|990332952
11a12
> * [[Information theory]]
------
Computing|990333099
64,65c64,65
< ** [[Cryptology]]
< ** [[Hacking]]
---
> ** [[Cryptology]] - [[cryptography]] - [[information theory]]
> ** [[Hacking]] - [[war dialing]] - [[war driving]]
------
Statistics|990333141
10c10
< 
---
> [[Data Mining]] is a form of [[Statistics/Descriptive]descriptive statistics] that involves the analysis of large volumes of data and the extraction of useful correlations or knowledge.
------
Statistics|990333197
8c8
< :[[/Theory]] -- [[/Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]] -- [[/Multivariate]]
---
> :[[/Theory]Theory] -- [[/Applied]Applied] -- [[/Descriptive]Descriptive] -- [[/Inference]Inference] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]] -- [[/Multivariate]Multivariate]
10c10
< [[Data Mining]] is a form of [[Statistics/Descriptive]descriptive statistics] that involves the analysis of large volumes of data and the extraction of useful correlations or knowledge.
---
> [[Data Mining]] is a form of [[/Descriptive]descriptive statistics] that involves the analysis of large volumes of data and the extraction of useful correlations or knowledge.
------
Cryptology|990333207
1c1
< Cryptology is a [[science]] concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]].
---
> Cryptology is a [[science]] (within [[information theory]]?) concerned with communications in secure and usually secret form. It encompasses both [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]].
17a18
> * [[Information theory]]
------
Hacking|990333299
5c5
< A group known as the "Hacker Antidefamation League", wish to restore the old meaning to "hacking", preferring the word "Cracking" to refer to unauthorised access.
---
> A group known as the "Hacker Antidefamation League", wish to restore the old meaning to "hacking", preferring the word "[[cracking]]" to refer to unauthorised access.
------
Statistics|990333363
8c8
< :[[/Theory]Theory] -- [[/Applied]Applied] -- [[/Descriptive]Descriptive] -- [[/Inference]Inference] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]] -- [[/Multivariate]Multivariate]
---
> :[[/Theory|Theory]] -- [[/Applied|Applied]] -- [[/Descriptive|Descriptive]] -- [[/Inference|Inference]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] -- [[ANOVA]] -- [[/Multivariate|Multivariate]]
10c10
< [[Data Mining]] is a form of [[/Descriptive]descriptive statistics] that involves the analysis of large volumes of data and the extraction of useful correlations or knowledge.
---
> [[Data Mining]] is an applied form of [[/Descriptive|descriptive statistics]] that involves the analysis of large volumes of data and the extraction of useful correlations or knowledge.
------
Cracking|990333524
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Definition from [ the Jargon file]:
> 
> '''cracking''' ''n''. [very common] The act of breaking into a computer system; what a cracker does. Contrary to widespread myth, this does not usually involve some mysterious leap of hackerly brilliance, but rather persistence and the dogged repetition of a handful of fairly well-known tricks that exploit common weaknesses in the security of target systems. Accordingly, most crackers are only mediocre hackers. 
> 
> See also [[hacking]].
> 
> Versions of cracking include [[war dialing]] and [[war driving]].
> 
> 
> 
------
Cracking|990333553
1c1
< Definition from [ the Jargon file]:
---
> Definition from [http://www.tuxedo.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/cracking.html the Jargon file]:
------
Pergamon|990333582
1,5c1
< 1. An [[island]] in [[Greece]] (?).
< 
< 2. Fine [[calf]] skin used for [[page]]s in early [[codex]]es, before [[paper]] was invented.  Named after (1).
< 
< 
---
> An ancient city on the coast of [[Asia minor]] that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the [[Attalid dynasty]].  Pergamon had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]].  When the Ptolemies stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, they invented a new substance to use in [[codex]]es, called Pergamum after the city.  This was made of fine [[calf]] skin, a predecessor of [[velum]] and [[paper]].
------
Hacking|990333626
5a6,7
> 
> ''What are some methods that hackers use?  What have (some) hackers done to earn their reputation (unauthorized access)?  Have there been some famous hacks?  I ask these questions because I'm concerned that the above is just like an entry in a dictionary of usage, and Wikipedia isn't a dictionary of usage, it's an encyclopedia.''
------
War_dialing|990333724
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[cracking]] in the [[1980s]], the act of using a [[modem]] to dial every telephone number in a local area to find out where computers are available, then attacking them, trying to gain access by guessing passwords.  See also [[war driving]].
------
War_driving|990333927
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In [[cracking]] in the years [[2000]] and [[2001]], the act of driving around blocks of computer companies and downtown business districts with a [[wireless LAN]] listener, trying to find open networks that can be used for gaining access to company internal networks or the Internet.  See also [[war dialing]].
------
Cambridge,_Massachusetts|990334107
1c1
< Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]]. It was named in honour of [[Cambridge]], the town where its founding fathers had studied. Cambridge is home to one of the most prestigious universities of the world, [[Harvard]]. 
---
> Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]]. It was named in honour of [[University of Cambridge]], the town where its founding fathers had studied. Cambridge is home to one of the most prestigious universities of the world, [[Harvard University]]. 
------
Cambridge,_Massachusetts|990334128
1c1
< Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]]. It was named in honour of [[University of Cambridge]], the town where its founding fathers had studied. Cambridge is home to one of the most prestigious universities of the world, [[Harvard University]]. 
---
> Cambridge is a part of greater [[Boston]]. It was named in honour of [[Cambridge, England]], the town where its founding fathers had studied. Cambridge is home to one of the most prestigious universities of the world, [[Harvard University]]. 
------
Boston|990334165
12c12
< *The Boston Globe, http://www.globe.com/
---
> * [[The Boston Globe]]
------
The_Boston_Globe|990334224
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''The Boston Globe'' is Boston's most widely-circulated daily and a widely-used source of news.
> 
> The ''Globe'''s website: http://www.globe.com/
------
Communication|990334241
0a1,2
> '''Communication''' originally means the exchange of ideas with a [[community]], and as such can include both technical topics like [[telecommunication]] and societal issues like [[mass media]].
> ----
5c7
< In a more technical sense, see also [[telegraphy]], [[telephone]], [[computer network]].
---
> In a more technical sense, see also [[telegraphy]], [[telephone]], [[computer network]].
------
Boston|990334341
3,6d2
< *City's official website, http://www.boston.gov/
< *Commercial portal, http://www.boston.com/
< *City guide, http://yourtown.boston.com/
< 
13a10,13
> '''Links'''
> *City's official website, http://www.boston.gov/
> *Commercial portal, http://www.boston.com/
> *City guide, http://yourtown.boston.com/
------
Boston|990334396
1c1,3
< The capital [[city]] of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]].  This description includes towns like Cambridge.
---
> The capital [[city]] of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]].
> 
> The greater Boston area includes has many suburbs, including [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].
13c15
< *City guide, http://yourtown.boston.com/
---
> *City guide, http://yourtown.boston.com/
------
Quantiles|990334512
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Quantiles are essentially points taken at regular vertical intervals from the [[Statistics/Cumulative|cumulative distribution]] of a random variable.  Put another way, a quantile is the value such that the probability that a random variable will be less is _x_%.  
> 
> Special quantiles include the percentiles, deciles, quintiles, quartiles, the minimum, the maximum and the median.  There are 100 percentiles, each corresponding to a quantile represented by an even percentage (such as 99%).  Deciles are the 0, 10, 20, 30 ... 90 and 100th percentiles.  Quintiles are the 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100th percentiles, quartiles the 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100th percentiles and so on.  The minimum and maximum are the 0th and 100th percentile respectively.  The median is the 50th percentile.  If a distribution is symmetrical, then the median is the mean, but this is not generally the case.
> 
> Quantiles are useful measures because they are less susceptible to long tailed distributions and outliers.  For instance, with a random variable that has an exponential distribution that has a mean of m, any particular sample of this random variable will have roughly a 63% chance of being less than the mean.  This is because the exponential distribution has a long tail for positive values, but is zero for negative numbers.
> 
> Empirically, if the data you are analyzing is not actually distributed according to your assumed distribution, or if you have other potential sources for outliers that are far removed from the mean, then quantiles may be more useful descriptive statistics and means and other moment related statistics.
> 
> Closely related is the subject of [[Statistics/RobustRegression|robust regression]] in which the sum of the absolute value of the observed errors is used in place of the squared error.  The connection is that the mean is the single estimate of a distribution that minimizes expected squared error while the median minimizes expected absolute error.  Robust regression shares the ability to be relatively insensitive to large deviations in outlying observations.
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990334605
7,8c7,15
< A [[live action film]] is currently (1999) being produced in 
< [[New Zealand]].
---
> A [[live action film]] is currently (2001) being produced in [[New Zealand]].
> 
> * Characters
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Bill the Pony|Bill the Pony]]
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]]
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandolf the Grey|Gandolf the Grey]]
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]]
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]]
------
Variance|990334630
3c3
< The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean of the sum of squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, we can conclude two things:
---
> The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, we can conclude two things:
------
Community|990334649
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of people (or [[agent]]s in a more abstract sense) that share some interest (economic or not). Often used for people living in the same [[neighborhood]].
> 
> See also [[communication]], [[communion]], [[community college]], [[wireless community projects]].
> 
------
Variance|990334650
3c3
< The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean squared deviations from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, we can conclude two things:
---
> The '''variance'''  of a set of data is the mean squared deviation from the [[Arithmetic Mean]] of the same set of data. Because this calculation sums the squared deviations, we can conclude two things:
------
JRR_Tolkien/Frodo_Baggins|990334679
3c3
< See also: [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
---
> Frodo is the heir and nephew of [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]].
------
JRR_Tolkien/Frodo_Baggins|990334770
1c1
< Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[/hobbits|Hobbit]]. Even though [[JRR Tolkien/Hobbits|hobbits]] are pacifists and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
---
> Main character of [[JRR Tolkien]]'s trilogy [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]]. Frodo is a [[JRR_Tolkien/Hobbits|hobbit]]. Even though hobbits are pacifists and love comfort, Frodo leaves  his village to save [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] by destroying an evil ring.
------
Community_college|990334786
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A sort of [[college]] that primarily accepts (and attracts) students from a local area, the local [[community]] and offers a limited set of courses and shorter programs.  Less than a [[university]].
> 
------
Communication|990334893
1c1
< '''Communication''' originally means the exchange of ideas with a [[community]], and as such can include both technical topics like [[telecommunication]] and societal issues like [[mass media]].
---
> '''Communication''' originally means the exchange of ideas with a [[community]], and as such can include both technical topics like [[telecommunication]] and societal issues like [[mass media]].  Several [[scientific journal]]s have this word in their title, for example [[Communications of the ACM]].
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|990334965
1a2,3
> 
> The story, subtitled 'There and Back Again' follows the adventures of [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]] as he travels across the lands of [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] with a band of dwarves and a wizard named [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Grey|Gandalf the Grey]].
------
TedDunning|990335171
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Chief Scientist at MusicMatch software.  (See also http://www.musicmatch.com and http://www.musicmatch.com/info/company/press/exec/ted.htm)
> 
> Will build AI's for food and fun.
------
MusicMatch|990335316
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Builders of the best all-in-one music software on the planet.  Did you know that the average MUSICMATCH Jukebox user uses their MMJB about six times as much as the average Winamp user?
> 
> There is a reason!
> 
> See http://www.musicmatch.com for more info.
------
Fax|990335393
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for [[telefacsimile]], the art and technology within [[telecommunication]] for remotely copying images, especially affordable devices operating over the [[telephone]] network.  Such faxes became affordable and very popular in the [[1980s]].  They transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white ([[bitonal]]) in a [[resolution]] of 200 dots per inch.  The transfer rate is 14.4 kilobit per second or higher.  The transfered image formats are called [[CCITT]] fax group 3 or 4.
> 
------
Telegraphy|990335426
1c1
< Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[e-mail]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  
---
> Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[email]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  
------
Telegraphy|990335447
1c1
< Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[email]], and [[computer networks]] in general.  
---
> Telegraphy is the art of remote writing, or the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters.  This defintion generously includes [[fax]], [[email]], and [[computer network]]s in general.  
------
Variance/Algorithm|990335502
16c16,18
< ----
---
> 
> :''Editorial comment the second: in fact, the second formula is the one more commonly beset with problems.  The first can have problems when the mean is very large relative to the variance, but this is relatively rare in practice and this problem also affects the second formula.  Much more common is the situation where you have comparable mean and variance and a very large number of observations.  In this case, the second formula will result in the subtraction of two very large numbers whose difference is relatively small (by a factor roughly equal to the number of observations).  If you have one million observations, you lose roughly six significant figures with the second formula if you use ordinary floating point arithmetic. -- TedDunning''
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|990335720
94a95,96
> ----
> Comment on "Wikipedia is a not a list of links, it's an encyclopedia. :-)": There is no way we can input as many facts (about a city such as [[Boston]]) into Wikipedia as there are on the city's official website.  If Wikipedia is "a way to find information", then links to external websites should be an excellent means to this end.  --[[LA2]]
------
Quantiles|990335734
3c3
< Special quantiles include the percentiles, deciles, quintiles, quartiles, the minimum, the maximum and the median.  There are 100 percentiles, each corresponding to a quantile represented by an even percentage (such as 99%).  Deciles are the 0, 10, 20, 30 ... 90 and 100th percentiles.  Quintiles are the 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100th percentiles, quartiles the 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100th percentiles and so on.  The minimum and maximum are the 0th and 100th percentile respectively.  The median is the 50th percentile.  If a distribution is symmetrical, then the median is the mean, but this is not generally the case.
---
> Special quantiles include the percentiles, deciles, quintiles, [[Quartiles|quartiles]], the minimum, the maximum and the [[MediaN|median]].  There are 100 percentiles, each corresponding to a quantile represented by an even percentage (such as 99%).  Deciles are the 0, 10, 20, 30 ... 90 and 100th percentiles.  Quintiles are the 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100th percentiles, quartiles the 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100th percentiles and so on.  The minimum and maximum are the 0th and 100th percentile respectively.  The median is the 50th percentile.  If a distribution is symmetrical, then the median is the mean, but this is not generally the case.
------
The_Boston_Globe|990335840
1c1
< ''The Boston Globe'' is Boston's most widely-circulated daily and a widely-used source of news.
---
> ''The Boston Globe'' is [[Boston]]'s most widely-circulated daily and a widely-used source of news.
3c3
< The ''Globe'''s website: http://www.globe.com/
---
> The ''Globe'''s website: http://www.globe.com/
------
Codex|990336026
1c1
< 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[Middle Ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the word Latin for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
---
> 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[Middle Ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the Latin word for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
------
Probability_and_Statistics|990336225
15a16,17
> In some forms of [[Statistics/Descriptive|descriptive statistics]], notably [[Data Mining]] the second and third steps become so prominent that the first step (planning) appears to recede in importance.  In these disciplines, the data is often collected outside the control of the person doing the analysis, and the result of the analysis may be more an operational model than a consensus report about the world.
> 
22a25,26
> 
> 
------
Statistics/Descriptive|990336280
3c3
< :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Summary Statistics]]
---
> :[[Statistical Regularity]] -- [[Planning Research]] -- [[Statistics/Inference]] -- [[Summary Statistics]] -- [[Data Mining]]
------
Random_access|990336388
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Random access is the ability to access a random element of a group in equal time.  The opposite is [[sequential access]], where a remote element takes longer time to access.  A typical illustration of this distinction is the ancient [[scroll]] (sequential) and the [[book]] where any random [[page]] can be flipped open immediately.  A more modern example is computer storage on magnetic tape on spools (sequential) and hard disks (random access).  The term [[random access memory]] (RAM), however, is used for ferrite [[core memory|core]] or semiconductor chip memory circuits used in computers.
> 
> A totally unrelated concept is [[universal access]].
> 
------
Sequential_access|990336542
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a reel-to-reel tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the pickup needle can be immediately put down on any point of a vinyl record.
> 
------
Sequential_access|990336590
1c1
< The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a reel-to-reel tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the pickup needle can be immediately put down on any point of a vinyl record.
---
> The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a [[reel-to-reel]] tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the [[pickup needle]] can be immediately put down on any point of a [[long-playing]] [[vinyl]] record.
------
Information_theory|990336909
7c7
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of '''information theory''' began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the [[Bell System Technical Journal]] in July and October of 1948.  In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markoff Chains]]. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of '''information theory''' began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the [[Bell System Technical Journal]] in July and October of 1948.  In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]]s. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
Probability_Applications|990336949
7c7
< :[[Stochastic Processes]] -- [[Markov Chains]]
---
> :[[Stochastic Processes]] -- [[Markov Chain]]s
------
Probability_Applications|990336973
7c7
< :[[Stochastic Processes]] -- [[Markov Chain]]s
---
> :[[Stochastic process]]es -- [[Markov Chain]]s
------
Probability_Applications|990337029
7c7
< :[[Stochastic process]]es -- [[Markov Chain]]s
---
> :[[Stochastic process]]es -- [[Markov chain]]s
------
Andrei_Andreevich_Markov|990337081
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Obviously the guy after whom they named [[Markov chain]]s.
------
Conversion_of_units|990337541
9,10c9,10
< <TR><TD>bohr (au)<TD>a<sub>0</sub>, b<TD>~ 5.291 77 x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
< <TR><TD>angström<TD>A<sup>o</sup><TD>= 10<sup>-10</sup> m</TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[bohr]] (au)<TD>a<sub>0</sub>, b<TD>~ 5.291 77 x 10<sup>-11</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[angstrom|ångström]]<TD>Å<TD>= 10<sup>-10</sup> m</TR>
13,21c13,21
< <TR><TD>inch<TD>in<TD>= 2.54 x 10<sup>-2</sup> m</TR>
< <TR><TD>foot<TD>ft<TD>= 12 in = 0.3048 m</TR>
< <TR><TD>yard<TD>yd<TD>= 3 ft = 0.9144 m</TR>
< <TR><TD>mile<TD>mi<TD>= 1760 yd = 1609.344 m</TR>
< <TR><TD>nautical mile<TD>&nbsp;<TD>= 1852 m</TR>
< <TR><TD>astronomical unit<TD>AU<TD>= 1.496 00 x 10<sup>11</sup> m</TR>
< <TR><TD>parsec<TD>pc<TD>~ 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> m</TR>
< <TR><TD>light year<TD>l.y.<TD>~ 9.460 528 x 10<sup>15</sup> m</TR>
< <TR><TD>light second<TD>&nbsp;<TD>299 792 458 m</TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[inch]]<TD>in<TD>= 2.54 x 10<sup>-2</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[foot]]<TD>ft<TD>= 12 in = 0.3048 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[yard]]<TD>yd<TD>= 3 ft = 0.9144 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[mile]]<TD>mi<TD>= 1760 yd = 1609.344 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[nautical mile]]<TD>&nbsp;<TD>= 1852 m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[astronomical unit]]<TD>AU<TD>= 1.496 00 x 10<sup>11</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[parsec]]<TD>pc<TD>~ 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[light year]]<TD>l.y.<TD>~ 9.460 528 x 10<sup>15</sup> m</TR>
> <TR><TD>[[light second]]<TD>&nbsp;<TD>299 792 458 m</TR>
25,28c25,28
< <TR><TD>barn<TD>b<TD>10<sup>-28</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>acre<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 4046.856 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>are<TD>a<TD>= 100 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>hectare<TD>ha<TD>= 10<sup>4</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[barn]]<TD>b<TD>10<sup>-28</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[acre]]<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 4046.856 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[are]]<TD>a<TD>= 100 m<sup>2</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[hectare]]<TD>ha<TD>= 10<sup>4</sup> m<sup>2</sup></TR>
32c32
< <TR><TD>litre<TD>l, L<TD>= dm<sup>3</sup> = 10<sup>-3</sup> m<sup>3</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[litre]]<TD>l, L<TD>= dm<sup>3</sup> = 10<sup>-3</sup> m<sup>3</sup></TR>
34,36c34,36
< <TR><TD>barrel (US)<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 158.987 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>gallon (US)<TD>gal (US)<TD>= 3.78541 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
< <TR><TD>gallon (UK)<TD>gal (UK)<TD>= 4.546 09 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
---
> <TR><TD>[[barrel]] (US)<TD>&nbsp;<TD>~ 158.987 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[gallon]] (US)<TD>gal (US)<TD>= 3.78541 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
> <TR><TD>[[gallon]] (UK)<TD>gal (UK)<TD>= 4.546 09 dm<sup>3</sup></TR>
------
Linear_Regression|990337633
9a10,11
> 
> :''Note: A useful alternative to linear regression is [[Statistics/Robust Regression|robust regression]] in which mean absolute error is minimized instead of mean squared error as in linear regression.  Robust regression is computationally much more intensive than linear regression and is somewhat more difficult to implement as well.'' 
24c26
< :The first method of displaying the residuals use the [[Histogram]] to depict the similarity (or lack thereof) to a [[Normal distribution]. Non-normality suggests that the model may not be a good summary description of the data.
---
> :The first method of displaying the residuals use the [[Histogram]] or [[Cumulative Distribution Function|cumulative distribution]] to depict the similarity (or lack thereof) to a [[Normal distribution]]. Non-normality suggests that the model may not be a good summary description of the data.
------
Angstrom|990337841
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 ångström or 1 Å = 10<sup>-10</sup> meters, named after a Swedish physicist [[Anders Jonas Angstrom|Anders Jonas Ångström]].  See [[conversion of units]].
------
Cumulative_Distribution_Function|990337914
11a12,13
> 
> The [[Kolmogorov Smirnov Test]] is based on cumulative distributions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution.  The closely related [[Kuiper Test]] (pronounced in Dutch the way an Cowper might be pronounced in English, btw) is useful whether the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week.  For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.
------
Anders_Jonas_Angstrom|990337948
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874) was a [[physicist]] in [[Sweden]], after whom the length unit [[angstrom]] has been named.  Mentioned as the "father of the [[spectral analysis]]".
------
Anders_Jonas_Angstrom|990338388
1c1,3
< Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874) was a [[physicist]] in [[Sweden]], after whom the length unit [[angstrom]] has been named.  Mentioned as the "father of the [[spectral analysis]]".
---
> Anders Jonas Ångström (1814-1874) was a [[physicist]] in [[Sweden]], after whom the length unit [[angstrom]] has been named.  Mentioned as the "father of the [[spectral analysis]]".
> 
> ''Or should that be [[spectroscopic analysis]] or [[spectrum analysis]]?  Who knows?  And what about [[Gustave R. Kirchoff]] from Kaliningrad?''
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990338513
13c13
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandolf the Grey|Gandolf the Grey]]
---
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Gray|Gandalf the Gray]]
------
Mile|990338651
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[unit]] of [[length]], corresponding to 1609 meters.  See [[conversion of units]].
> 
> This is the default measure used for [[Road Transport]] in expressions like "miles per hour", "miles per gallon", and "walk the extra mile".
> 
> 
------
Nautical_mile|990338802
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A unit of length corresponding to 1852 meters or 10 [[cable length]]s.  See [[conversion of units]].
> 
> This is the default measure for distance at sea.  See [[Sea Transport]].
> 
------
Sea_Transport|990338869
5a6
> * [[Dock]]
7c8,12
< * [[Ferries]]
---
> * [[Ferries]]
> * [[Harbor]]
> * [[Marina]]
> * [[Wharf]]
> 
------
Famous_Physicists|990338954
15a16
> *[[Anders Jonas Angstrom]] (Sweden, 1814-1874)
38c39
< http://www.aip.org/history/esva/
---
> http://www.aip.org/history/esva/
------
Inch|990339523
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Unit]] of [[length]] corresponding to 1/12 [[foot]] or 0.0254 meters.  See [[conversion of units]].
> 
> Historically, different geographic regions have had different definitions of inches and feet.  ''Does anybody know when the 0.0254 meters definition was standardized?´´
> 
> In the [[19th century]], [[Sweden]] devised a way into the metric world.  First, in 1855-1863 the existing "working inch" was changed into a "decimal inch" which was 1/10 foot or approximately 0.03 meters.  The quite reasonable motivation was that a decimal system simplifies calculations, but having two different inch measures turned out to be so complicated that in 1878-1889 everybody agreed to introduce the metric units.
> 
------
Inch|990339566
3c3
< Historically, different geographic regions have had different definitions of inches and feet.  ''Does anybody know when the 0.0254 meters definition was standardized?´´
---
> Historically, different geographic regions have had different definitions of inches and feet.  ''Does anybody know when the 0.0254 meters definition was standardized?''
------
Parsec|990339676
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 parsec or 1 pc = 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> m 
------
Parsec|990339708
1c1,3
< A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 parsec or 1 pc = 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> m 
---
> A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 parsec or 1 pc = 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> meters.
> See [[conversion of units]].
> 
------
Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test|990339951
1c1,14
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The '''Kolmogorov-Smirnov''' test is used to determine whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution differs from a theoretical distribution.
> 
> The empirical cumulative distribution for ''N'' observations ''y<sub>i</sub>'' is defined as ''E(x) = sum_i (y<sub>i</sub> < x)''.  The two one-sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistics statistics are given by 
> 
> ''D<sub>N</sub><sup>+</sup>'' = MAX( ''E(x) - F(x)'' )
> 
> ''D<sub>N</sub><sup>-</sup>'' = MAX( ''F(x) - E(x)'' )
> 
> where F(x) is the theoretical distribution or another empirical distribution.  Knuth gives a detailed description of how to analyze the significance of this pair of statistics.  Many people use MAX(''D<sub>N</sub><sup>+</sup>, D<sub>N</sub><sup>-</sup>'') instead, but the distribution of this statistic is more difficult to deal with.
> 
> See http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda35g.htm for a lovely explanation of the one-sided KS test and http://www.io.com/~ritter/JAVASCRP/NORMCHIK.HTM for Javascript code that implements both the one-sided and two-sided tests.  As always, Numerical Recipes is a prime resource for this sort of thing (see http://www.nr.com/nronline_switcher.html or 
> 
> Note that when the underlying independent variable is cyclic as with day of the year or day of the week, then [[Kuiper Test|Kuiper's test]] is more appropriate.  ''Note: Kuiper is pronounced Cowper in Dutch''
> 
------
Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test|990340332
3c3,4
< The empirical cumulative distribution for ''N'' observations ''y<sub>i</sub>'' is defined as ''E(x) = sum_i (y<sub>i</sub> < x)''.  The two one-sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistics statistics are given by 
---
> The empirical cumulative distribution for ''N'' observations ''y<sub>i</sub>'' is defined as ''E''(''x'') =  <font size=+1>&Sigma;</font> <sub>''i''</sub> (''y<sub>i</sub> < x'').  The two one-sided Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistics statistics are given by 
> <font size=+1>
5c6
< ''D<sub>N</sub><sup>+</sup>'' = MAX( ''E(x) - F(x)'' )
---
> :''D<sub>N</sub><sup>+</sup>'' = MAX( ''E(x) - F(x)'' )
7c8
< ''D<sub>N</sub><sup>-</sup>'' = MAX( ''F(x) - E(x)'' )
---
> :''D<sub>N</sub><sup>-</sup>'' = MAX( ''F(x) - E(x)'' )
8a10
> </font>
------
Wikipedia_Announcements|990340593
2a3,8
> '''May 20, 2001'''
> 
> Big news!  A few days ago, we started up about a dozen "[[International Wikipedia]]s"--i.e., encyclopedia wikis in other languages.  Please see [[International Wikipedia]] for details, and please help publicize this!
> 
> In other news, Wikipedia has been growing in breadth at breakneck speed.  Where as just ten days ago we 3,969 "comma" pages, we are now up to 4,985.  This is primarily the doing of a few relatively new hands like [[KoyaanisQatsi]], [[LA2]], [[Wathiik]], [[Mjausson]], and others (sorry if you weren't mentioned).  The number of raw pages is just over 7,231.  Wow!
> 
------
Technology|990342146
13a14
> *** [[Vacuum pump]]
------
Edmund_Stoiber/Talk|990343538
7a8,9
> ----
> It's not only that. Not every kind of violence is caused by terrorism. Mr Stoiber just wants a country in which people feel save -- [[IAm]]
------
TeX|990343775
3c3
< Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful mathematics.  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[Latex]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
---
> Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful mathematics.  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[LaTeX]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
------
Python|990344048
1c1,5
< (1) Constricting snakes belonging to the family [[Pythonidae]]
---
> (1) Constricting snakes belonging to the family [[Pythonidae]].
> 
> (2) A comedy troupe. See [[Monty Python]].
> 
> (3) An object oriented programming language, named after [[Monty Python|the comedy troupe]] : http://www.python.org
3,4d6
< (2) An object oriented programming language:
< http://www.python.org
6d7
< (3) <i>See [[Monty Python]]</i>
------
Python|990344103
5c5
< (3) An object oriented programming language, named after [[Monty Python|the comedy troupe]] : http://www.python.org
---
> (3) An object oriented programming language, named after [[Monty Python|the comedy troupe]]: http://www.python.org
------
Ruby|990344225
2c2
< It has its roots in smalltalk, Perl and lisp.
---
> It has its roots in [[smalltalk]], [[Perl]] and [[lisp]].
------
Ruby|990344410
1c1
< A strongly object oriented programming language with obvious syntax
---
> A strongly [[object-oriented]] programming language with obvious syntax
------
Python|990344560
5c5
< (3) An object oriented programming language, named after [[Monty Python|the comedy troupe]]: http://www.python.org
---
> (3) An [[object-oriented]] programming language, named after [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]: http://www.python.org
------
Monty_Pythons_Flying_Circus/Spam|990344626
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Spam, spam, spam!
------
Testing_Hypotheses|990345665
19a20
> :''Note: Statistics cannot "find the truth", but it can approximate it.  The following argument for the maxim
------
Testing_Hypotheses|990345665
20c20,50
< :''Note: Statistics cannot "find the truth", but it can approximate it.  The following argument for the maxim
---
> :''Note: Statistics cannot "find the truth", but it can approximate it.  The following argument for the maximum likelihood principle illustrates this -- TedDunning''
> 
> If ''p''(''X'') is the distribution of a random variable ''X'' that takes on values ''x'' from the real numbers and ''q''(''x'') is some other distribution, then by the definition of a distribution, we know that
> :''q''(''x'') &ge; 0
> and
> :<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font><sub>''x''</sub> ''q''(''x'') = 1
> and likewise for ''p''.
> 
> If we take ''N'' repeated independent samples ''x<sub>i</sub>'' of ''X'', then the expected value of the mean of log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') is given by 
> 
> :E(<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') / N) = <font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') / N
> 
> But since log ''y'' &ge; ''y''-1 for positive ''y'', we have
> 
> :<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') - <font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') = <font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'')/''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'')
> : ... &le;&nbsp;<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') <font size=+1>[</font> 1- ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'')/''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') <font size=+1>]</font>
> : ... &le;&nbsp;<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') - <font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'')
> : ... &le; 1 - 1 = 0
> 
> Thus, 
> 
> :<font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''q''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') &le; <font size=+1>&Sigma;&nbsp;</font>''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') log ''p''(''x<sub>i</sub>'') 
> 
> and equality can only be achieved where ''q''(''x'') = ''p''(''x'').
> 
> This means that maximizing the expected value of the mean value of log ''q'' is the same as finding ''p''.  To the extent that the law of large numbers lets us approximate this expected value by the observed mean, maximizing this observed mean lets us approximate ''p''.  
> 
> Thus it can be said that statistical inference can let us approximate the ''truth''.
> 
> Interestingly, the negative of this mean value of log ''q'' is the expected length of a compressed representation of the ''x<sub>i</sub>'' where ''q'' is the model used to do the compression.  Thus we can also claim that ultimate compression = truth.  This leads us off to [[Occams Razor|Occam's Razor]].
> 
------
LA2|990345872
4c4,8
< <br><b>I would say</b> existence is a necessary but perhaps not sufficient requirement.  But the only way we can find out is to create it.  I agree on nupedia.  --[[LA2]]
---
> <br><b>I would say</b> existence is a necessary but perhaps not sufficient requirement.  But the only way we can find out is to create it.  I agree on nupedia.  --[[LA2]]
> ----
> Hi, LA2
> 
> I just munched on your Information Theory page.  You might like to check to see if you agree. -- [[TeDunning]]
------
Information_theory|990346110
7c7,21
< It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of '''information theory''' began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the [[Bell System Technical Journal]] in July and October of 1948.  In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (H = -SUM p<sub>i</sub> log p<sub>i</sub>) that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]]s. The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
---
> It is generally accepted that the modern discipline of '''information theory''' began with the publication by [[Claude E. Shannon]] of his article "The Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the [[Bell System Technical Journal]] in July and October of 1948.  In the process of working out a theory of communications that could be applied by electrical engineers to design better telecommunications systems, Mr. Shannon defined a measure of [[entropy]] (''H'' = - <font size=+1>&Sigma;</font> ''p<sub>i</sub>'' log ''p<sub>i</sub>'') that, when applied to an information source, could determine the capacity of the channel required to transmit the source as encoded binary digits. Shannon's measure of entropy came to be taken as a measure of the <em>information</em> contained in a message, as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures, like for instance redundancy in the structure of languages or the statistical properties of a language relating to the frequencies of occurrence of different letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]]s.
> 
> Entropy as defined by Shannon is closely related to entropy as defined by physicists.  Boltzmann and Gibbs did considerable work on statistical thermodynamics.  This work was the inspiration for adopting the term entropy in information theory.  There are deep relationships between entropy in the thermodynamic and informational senses.  For instance, [[Maxwells Demon|Maxwell's Demon]] needs information to reverse thermodynamic entropy and getting that information exactly balances out the thermodynamic gain that the demon would otherwise achieve.  
> 
> Other useful measures of information include mutual information which is a measure of the correlation between two event sets.  Mutual information is defined for two events ''X'' and ''Y'' as 
> 
> :''M'' (''X, Y'') = ''H''(''X,Y'') - ''H''(''X'') - ''H''(''Y'') 
> 
> where ''H''(''X'',''Y'') is the join entropy or 
> 
> :''H''(''X,Y'') = - <font size=+1>&Sigma;</font><sub>x, y </sub> ''p''(''x,y'') log ''p'' (''x,y'')
> 
> Mutual information is closely related to the [[Statistics/LLR|log-likelihood ratio test]] for multinomials and to Pearson's &chi;<sup>2</sup> test.
> 
> The field of Information Science has since expanded to cover the full range of techniques and abstract descriptions for the storage, retrieval and transmittal of information. It has little to do with the organization of information, unless you mean by that how databases are designed to <em>organize</em> information into data records.
------
LA2|990346261
8c8
< I just munched on your Information Theory page.  You might like to check to see if you agree. -- [[TeDunning]]
---
> I just munched on your Information Theory page.  You might like to check to see if you agree. -- [[TedDunning]]
------
Tedunning|990346331
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[TedDunning]]
------
Awk|990346574
10a11,12
> The power, terseness and limitations of AWK programs and [[sed]] scripts ultimately inspired Larry Wall to write [[Perl]].
> 
------
Sed|990346876
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The acronym '''SED''' stands for Stream EDitor, but is also on the Latin word for ''but''.  Thus, in a typical unix pipe command, you might say something like 
> :generate_data | sed -e 's/x/y/'
> That is, generate the data, ''but'' make these small changes.
> 
> Sed is one of the very early unix commands that permitted command line processing of data files.  Cousin to the later [[AWK]], sed allowed powerful and interesting data processing to be done by shell scripts.  Sed was probably the earliest Unix tool that really encouraged regular expressions to be used ubiquitously.
> 
> Sed and AWK are often cited as the progenitors and inspiration for [[Perl]].
------
Hate_Crime|990351270
43c43
< The [[Southern Poverty Law Ceter]] [http://www.splcenter.org/ (click here for external website)]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
---
> The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] [http://www.splcenter.org/ (click here for external website)]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
------
Southern_Poverty_Law_Center|990352329
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Southern Poverty Law Center is based in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] in the South of the US. It started its life in 1971 as a small civil rights law firm. The center is engaged in [[tolerance]] education, [[litigation]] against [[white supremacy]] groups, tracking of [[hate group]]s and sponsorship of the [[Civil Rights Memorial]]. SPLC publishes in-depth analysis of political extremism and bias crimes in the United States in the quarterly [[/Intelligence Report]]. 
> 
> See the center's official web site at http://www.splcenter.org/.  
------
White_supremacy|990353166
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The white supremacy movement considers white people to be superior to people of other and of mixed [[ethnicity]]. White supremacy is often linked to other extreme right views and [[fundamentalist]] [[Christianity]]. Many white supremacists consider violence to be a legitimate way to further their cause. 
------
White_supremacy|990354932
1c1
< The white supremacy movement considers white people to be superior to people of other and of mixed [[ethnicity]]. White supremacy is often linked to other extreme right views and [[fundamentalist]] [[Christianity]]. Many white supremacists consider violence to be a legitimate way to further their cause. 
---
> The white supremacy movement considers white people to be superior to people of other and of mixed [[ethnicity|ethnicities]]. White supremacy is often linked to other extreme right views and [[fundamentalist]] [[Christianity]]. Many white supremacists consider violence to be a legitimate way to further their cause. White supremacy groups are usually dominated by men. 
------
Southern_Poverty_Law_Center|990355171
1c1
< The Southern Poverty Law Center is based in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] in the South of the US. It started its life in 1971 as a small civil rights law firm. The center is engaged in [[tolerance]] education, [[litigation]] against [[white supremacy]] groups, tracking of [[hate group]]s and sponsorship of the [[Civil Rights Memorial]]. SPLC publishes in-depth analysis of political extremism and bias crimes in the United States in the quarterly [[/Intelligence Report]]. 
---
> The Southern Poverty Law Center is based in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] in the South of the US. It started its life in 1971 as a small [[civil rights]] law firm. Their first case forced the local YMCA to racially integrate their athletic offerings. 
3c3,5
< See the center's official web site at http://www.splcenter.org/.  
---
> The center is engaged in [[tolerance]] education, [[litigation]] against [[white supremacy]] groups, tracking of [[hate group]]s and sponsorship of the [[Civil Rights Memorial]]. SPLC publishes in-depth analysis of political extremism and bias crimes in the United States in the quarterly [[/Intelligence Report]]. 
> 
> See the center's official web site at http://www.splcenter.org/.  
------
Civil_Rights_Memorial|990355731
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Civil Rights Memorial in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] is a memorial to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of [[Europe|European]] and [[Africa|African]]. The memorial is sponsored by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].
> 
> The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the US Supreme Court ruled that racial school segregation was unlawful. 1968 is the year of [[Martin Luther King]]'s assasination. The monument was created by [[Maya Lin]] who also created the Vietnam Veteran Memorial in Washington DC. The memorial was dedicated in 1989.  
------
Civil_Rights_Memorial|990355848
1c1
< The Civil Rights Memorial in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] is a memorial to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of [[Europe|European]] and [[Africa|African]]. The memorial is sponsored by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].
---
> The Civil Rights Memorial in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] is a [[memorial]] to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of [[Europe|European]] and [[Africa|African]] descent. The memorial is sponsored by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].
3c3
< The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the US Supreme Court ruled that racial school segregation was unlawful. 1968 is the year of [[Martin Luther King]]'s assasination. The monument was created by [[Maya Lin]] who also created the Vietnam Veteran Memorial in Washington DC. The memorial was dedicated in 1989.  
---
> The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the [[US Supreme Court]] ruled that [[racial segregation]] in schools was unlawful. 1968 is the year of [[Martin Luther King]]'s [[assasination]]. The monument was created by [[Maya Lin]] who also created the [[Vietnam Veteran Memorial]] in [[Washington DC]]. The memorial was dedicated in 1989.  
------
Civil_Rights_Memorial|990356471
3a4,5
> 
> Also see [[racism]] and [[Civil Rights Movement]]
------
Maya_Lin|990356716
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American [[artist]] and [[architect]]. Studied at [[Yale]]. Her best known work is the [[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]] in [[Washington DC]]. Also created the [[Civil Rights Memorial]] in [[Montgomery]], [[Alabama]]. 
------
Hate_Crime|990357087
43c43
< The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] [http://www.splcenter.org/ (click here for external website)]  does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of [[Hate Crime]]
---
> The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] does amazing stuff for the past and future victims of Hate Crimes.
------
Hate_Crime|990357376
44a45,46
> See also [[sexism]], [[misogyny]], [[racism]], [[homophobia]], [[xenophobia]], [[anti-semitism]]
> 
------
HelenOfTroy|990357465
1c1
< In [[Greek Mythology]], the most beatiful woman to ever walk the world, whose face launched a thousand ships and started the TrojanWar.  On account of the last she is known as Helen of Troy, even though she was actually from Sparta.
---
> In [[Greek Mythology]], the most beatiful woman to ever walk the world, whose face launched a thousand ships and started the [[Trojan War]].  On account of the last she is known as Helen of Troy, even though she was actually from Sparta.
------
Trojan_War|990358412
1c1
< Trojan war is a famous and legendary Greek siege of the city Troy (or Troas), presumably towards the ends of the second millenium BC. Troy was located on the close vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] strait in present-day [[Turkey]]. The war is supposed to be initiated by the strong desire to capture the wealthy city and gain the control of Dardanelles, which had strategic and commercial importance in ancient ages. Both Persian and Greek armies (including that of Alexander the Great) used this route to dominate near Asia. 
---
> Trojan war is a famous and legendary Greek siege of the city Troy (or Troas), presumably towards the ends of the second millenium BC. Troy was located on the close vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] strait in present-day [[Turkey]]. The war is supposed to be initiated by the strong desire to capture the wealthy city and gain the control of Dardanelles, which had strategic and commercial importance in ancient ages. Both Persian and Greek armies (including that of Alexander the Great) used this route to dominate Near Asia. 
3c3
< The legend begins with a golden apple (with a script “for the fairest” on it) thrown by Eris (goddess of discord). Paris (son of King Priam of Troy) was commisioned to give the apple to the most beautiful goddess and he was asked to make a decision among Aphrodite, Hera and Athena. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, offered Paris the most beautiful woman of the world in exchange of the apple. After giving the golden apple to her, Paris went to Greece to take beautiful Helen (wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta) to Troy. Greek armies besieged Troy with “1000 ships” in the lead of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. The Greek forces included several heroes as Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax, Teucer, Nestor, Odysseus and Diomedesand, whereas the Trojan army included Hector and Aeneid.
---
> The legend begins with a golden apple (with a script “for the fairest” on it) thrown by Eris (goddess of discord). Paris (son of King Priam of Troy) was commisioned to give the apple to the most beautiful goddess and he was asked to make a decision among Aphrodite, Hera and Athena. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, offered Paris the most beautiful woman of the world in exchange of the apple. After giving the golden apple to her, Paris went to Greece to take beautiful [[Helen]] (wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta) to Troy. Greek armies besieged Troy with “1000 ships” in the lead of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. The Greek forces included several heroes as [[Achilles]], Patroclus, Ajax, Teucer, Nestor, Odysseus and Diomedesand, whereas the Trojan army included [[Hector]] and Aeneid.
5c5
< The siege lasted ten years and the first nine years were quite uneventful. In the last year, which is described vitally in [[Homer]]’s [[Iliad]], Achilles killed Hector (the son of King Priam) to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus. After Hector’s death, the Trojans won two more allies: Penthesilea, queen of the [[Amazons]], and Memnon, king of Ethiopia. However, Achilles killed these two allies and in turn he was killed by Paris. 
---
> The siege lasted ten years and the first nine years were quite uneventful. In the last year, which is described vitally in [[Homer]]’s [[TheIliad]], Achilles killed Hector (the son of King Priam) to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus. After Hector’s death, the Trojans won two more allies: Penthesilea, queen of the [[Amazons]], and Memnon, king of Ethiopia. However, Achilles killed these two allies and in turn he was killed by Paris. 
------
C_language|990358826
5c5
< C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.  [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented programming]] language constructs to C, creating a language called [[C++]].
---
> C became immensely popular outside [[Bell Labs]] after about 1980 and is now the dominant language in systems and microcomputer applications programming.  [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs worked in the late [[1980s]] to add [[object oriented]] [[programming]] language constructs to C, creating a language called [[C++]].
------
Python|990358868
5c5
< (3) An [[object-oriented]] programming language, named after [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]: http://www.python.org
---
> (3) An [[object oriented]] programming language, named after [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]]: http://www.python.org
------
Ruby|990358991
1c1
< A strongly [[object-oriented]] programming language with obvious syntax
---
> A strongly [[object oriented]] [[programming]] language with obvious syntax
------
IAm|990359456
1c1
< [[IAm|I am]] doing some editing stuff here.
---
> [[IAm]] doing some editing stuff here. My name is Heinrich K&uuml;ttler,  and I don't know what to write here.
------
Star_Wars/X-wing|990359658
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Main Rebel Fighter. Has got 4 laser cannons and 6 photon torpedos. (In the computer game `X-Wing')
------
California|990360957
3c3,21
< It also houses some striking nature, ranging from deserts in the south and east, pine forests in the north, and the mountainous Rockies stretching it's length.
---
> It also houses some striking nature, ranging from deserts in the south and east, pine forests in the north, and the [[Rocky Mountains]] stretching it's length.
> 
> Most major cities are located along the Pacific coast, notably [[San Francisco]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[San Diego]]. The [[capital]] however is [[Sacramento]] in the [[/Central Valley]]. 
> 
> Industry: Computers and software, [[agriculture]], [[movies]]
> 
> Economy: Higher [[per capity income]] than the national average. Per capita income varies widely between different ethnic groups. Currently affected by the [[dot.com bust]]
> 
> Politics: Slightly to the left of the rest of the country
> 
> Climate: [[Desert climate]] with [[temperature]] extremes and little [[rain]] in the south. [[Mediterranean climate]] with wet [[winter]]s and dry [[summer]]s along the coast. [[Temperate climate]] with plentyfull rainfall in the north. [[Continental climate]] with chilly winters and very hot summers in the Central Valley. [[Mountain climate]] with [[snow]] in winter and moderate heat in summer.
> 
> Biotopes: Desert, oak-savannah, second-growth coniferous forest. 
> 
> Geography: Rivers? 
> 
> People: According to the 2000 census, California does not have a clear ethnic majority. [[Hispanic]]s, [[whites]], [[blacks]], [[Asians]], [[Native Americans]], . 
> 
> See the official web site at http://www.state.ca.us/
------
Sexism|990362751
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The idea that [[men]] and [[women]] are fundamentally different from each other and that individuals and society as a whole ought to enforce that difference. [[Sexist]]s often consider their own sex superior. Sexist ideas can be held by both men and women but is likely to have a stronger impact in individuals belonging to an [[over-privileged]] [[sex]]. 
> 
> Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries. Some countries have sexist laws. Some countries ban sex discrimination but still have sexist laws in their law books. 
> 
> See also [[misogyny]], [[gender roles]], [[feminism]], [[political correctness]]. 
------
Sexist|990362912
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. An opinion that is in line with [[sexism]]
> 
> 2. A person with sexist views
------
Inn|990363226
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An '''inn''' is a road-side facility for serving food and over-night lodging to travellers.  Similar establishments can also be called [[hotel]], [[lodge]], [[motel]], [[pub]], [[restaurant]], or [[tavern]].  The choice of word is up to the owner.  Of these words, ''inn'' is the shortest and most general.
> 
> The owner of an inn is called [[innkeeper]] and his business is called [[inkeeping]].  A useful perspective on the importance of this business can be gained by learning that their translations in the [[German language]] are '''Wirt''' (a [[host]]), '''Wirtshaus''' (a host's house), and '''Wirtschaft'''.  The last word literally means [[hosting]] or [[hospitality]], but is also used to mean [[economy]] and [[business]] in general.  Indeed, economy is Greek for house-keeping.
> 
> In [[French language]], a city hall is called '''hotel de ville''' or city hotel.
> 
------
California|990363282
1c1,2
< California is a state located in the western [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], and the country of [[Mexico]].
---
> http://www.state.ca.us/portal/images/banner.jpg
> <br>California is a state located in the western [[United States]] bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], and the country of [[Mexico]].
21c22
< See the official web site at http://www.state.ca.us/
---
> See the official web site at http://www.state.ca.us/
------
Pergamon|990363504
1c1
< An ancient city on the coast of [[Asia minor]] that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the [[Attalid dynasty]].  Pergamon had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]].  When the Ptolemies stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, they invented a new substance to use in [[codex]]es, called Pergamum after the city.  This was made of fine [[calf]] skin, a predecessor of [[velum]] and [[paper]].
---
> An ancient city on the coast of [[Asia minor]] that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the [[Attalid dynasty]].  Pergamon had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]].  When the Ptolemies stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, they invented a new substance to use in [[codex]]es, called Pergamum or [[parchment]] after the city.  This was made of fine [[calf]] skin, a predecessor of [[vellum]] and [[paper]].
------
Codex|990363535
1c1
< 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[Middle Ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the Latin word for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[pergamon]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
---
> 1. A handwritten [[book]] from the [[Middle Ages]] is called a '''codex''', which is the Latin word for book.  The correct Latin plural is codices, although codexes is also often used.  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll]], because its [[page]]s and a [[spine]] allow [[random access]].  Early codexes used [[parchment]] or [[vellum]] (fine calf skin) for their pages, which made them extremely expensive.
------
Parchment|990363685
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A material for the [[page]]s of a [[book]] or [[codex]], made from fine [[calf]] skin.  Parchment is named after the city [[Pergamon]] where it was first invented.  One sort of parchment is [[vellum]].
> 
------
Book|990363728
1c1
< A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access]] memory of its time.  The first books used expensive [[pergamon]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
---
> A book is a physical container for [[literature]].  Oral accounts ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories.  When [[writing Systems]] were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[palimpsest]] [[scroll]]s were used, see for example the [[library of Alexandria]].  The handwritten [[codex]], a bound book with [[page]]s and a [[spine]], of pretty much its present form was invented in the [[middle ages]] (or earlier?), and was the [[random access]] memory of its time.  The first books used expensive [[parchment]] or [[vellum]] (calf skin) for the pages.  The introduction of [[paper]] made books less expensive, but it was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] invented the [[printing press]] in the [[15th century]] that books started to be affordable.  The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive laws.  All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]].
------
Vellum|990363786
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A sort of [[parchment]], a material for the [[page]]s of a [[book]] or [[codex]].
> 
> 2. A [[manuscript]] or book written on such material.
> 
------
Manuscript|990364152
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word '''manuscript''' means hand-writing, from Latin manus ([[hand]]) and script ([[writing]]).  A manuscript, or [[script]] for short]], is an [[author]]'s or [[dramatist]]'s text being used by a publisher for making a [[book]] (after [[editing]]) or by a [[theater company]] or [[film crew]] for making a [[performance]].
> 
> In [[Library and Information Science]], a manuscript is any hand-written item in the collections of a [[library]] or [[archive]], e.g. archived [[letter]]s or [[diary]] from a person.
> 
------
Film_crew|990364321
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A group of people hired by a [[film company]] for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or [[motion picture]].  Roles within a film crew are [[actor]], [[actress]], [[camera man]], [[director]], ...
> 
> ''...fill in the blanks...''
> 
> See also [[manuscript]], [[theater company]]
> 
------
Pergamon|990364451
1c1
< An ancient city on the coast of [[Asia minor]] that became an important kingdom during the Hellenistic period, under the [[Attalid dynasty]].  Pergamon had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]].  When the Ptolemies stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, they invented a new substance to use in [[codex]]es, called Pergamum or [[parchment]] after the city.  This was made of fine [[calf]] skin, a predecessor of [[vellum]] and [[paper]].
---
> An ancient [[city]] on the coast of [[Asia minor]] that became an important kingdom during the [[Hellenic civilization|Hellenistic period]], under the [[Attalid dynasty]].  Pergamon had the second best library in the ancient world, after [[Alexandria]].  When the Ptolemies stopped exporting [[papyrus]], partly because of competitors and partly because of shortages, they invented a new substance to use in [[codex]]es, called Pergamum or [[parchment]] after the city.  This was made of fine [[calf]] skin, a predecessor of [[vellum]] and [[paper]].
------
Agriculture|990364531
1c1
< The ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]].
---
> The ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]]. The aim is usually to produce [[food]] for consumption by humans or as [[animal feed]] but animal hides are also an important product of agriculture. 
3c3,30
< Kinds of agriculture include [[farming]] ([[vegetable farming]], [[grain farming]], etc.), [[cattle ranching]], [[chicken-raising]], [[turkey-raising]], [[ostrich ranging]] or Emus, [[horse ranching]], [[rabbit farming]], [[raising of fur-bearing animals]], [[shepherding]], [[goatherding]], [[pig farming]], [[orchard keeping]], [[vinyard keeping]], etc.
---
> Kinds of agriculture include [[farming]] and [[animal husbandry]].
> 
> Farming means raising crops for harvest. Some common forms of farming are:
> <ul>
> <li>[[vegetable farming]]
> <li>[[grain farming]]
> <li>[[orchard keeping]]
> <li>[[vinyard keeping]]
> </ul>
> 
> Animal husbandry means raising animals for [[slaughter]] or to harvest animal products on an ongoing basis. Common forms of animal husbandry include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[cattle ranching]]
> <li>[[chicken-raising]], 
> <li>[[turkey-raising]]
> <li>[[ostrich ranging]] or Emus
> <li>[[horse ranching]]
> <li>[[rabbit farming]]
> <li>[[raising of fur-bearing animals]]
> <li>[[shepherding]]
> <li>[[goatherding]]
> <li>[[pig farming]]
> <li>[[bee keeping]]
> </ul>
> 
> In later years increasingly industrial agricultural practices have been widely discussed. Patenting of seed, nitrogen in the ground water, [[pesticide use]], [[erosion]], [[habitat destruction]], [[gene manipulated crops]] and concerns about [[animal welfare]] have raised the public awareness of [[alternative farming methods]] such as [[organic farming]].
> 
> See also [[Soil Association]], [[agri-business]], [[battery hens]], [[salmonella]], [[monoculture]]. 
------
Operating_system|990365037
19c19,21
< Changed "Vax/VMS" to plain "VMS";  VMS is the operating system, [[VAX]] is one of the hardware platforms VMS can run on; [[Alpha]] is another. -- [[hornlo|loh]]
---
> Changed "Vax/VMS" to plain "VMS";  VMS is the operating system, [[VAX]] is one of the hardware platforms VMS can run on; [[Alpha]] is another. -- [[hornlo|loh]]----
> I would say that the IBM mainstream computer by the late nineties, at least in mid to large size operations, would be the System 370.
> Do you have a source for the IBM info?
------
Vegetable_farming|990365047
1c1,32
< Growing vegetables has been traditionally done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive fertalizers.
---
> Growing vegetables has traditionally been done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive fertilizers.
> 
> Common vegetable crops include:
> [[Leguminosae]]
> <ul>
> <li>[[peas]]
> <li>[[beans]]
> <li>[[lentils]]
> </ul>
> 
> [[Solanacea]]
> <ul>
> <li>[[tomatoes]]
> <li>[[egg plant]]
> <li>[[bell peppers]]
> </ul>
> 
> [[Brassicae]]
> <ul>
> <li>[[carrots]]
> <li>[[cauliflower]]
> <li>[[cabbage]]
> <li>[[brussel sprouts]]
> <li>[[beet root]]
> <li>[[lettuce]]
> </ul>
> 
> Other plant families:
> <ul>
> <li>[[avodaco]]
> </ul>
> 
------
Manuscript|990365196
1c1
< The word '''manuscript''' means hand-writing, from Latin manus ([[hand]]) and script ([[writing]]).  A manuscript, or [[script]] for short]], is an [[author]]'s or [[dramatist]]'s text being used by a publisher for making a [[book]] (after [[editing]]) or by a [[theater company]] or [[film crew]] for making a [[performance]].
---
> The word '''manuscript''' means hand-writing, from Latin manus ([[hand]]) and script ([[writing]]).  
3c3,5
< In [[Library and Information Science]], a manuscript is any hand-written item in the collections of a [[library]] or [[archive]], e.g. archived [[letter]]s or [[diary]] from a person.
---
> 1. A manuscript, or [[script]] for short]], is an [[author]]'s or [[dramatist]]'s text being used by a publisher for making a [[book]] (after [[editing]]) or by a [[theater company]] or [[film crew]] for making a [[performance]].
> 
> 2. In [[Library and Information Science]], a manuscript is any hand-written item in the collections of a [[library]] or [[archive]], e.g. archived [[letter]]s or [[diary]] from a person.
------
Misogyny|990365478
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Irrational hatred of women. 
------
Sequential_access|990365560
1c1
< The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a [[reel-to-reel]] tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the [[pickup needle]] can be immediately put down on any point of a [[long-playing]] [[vinyl]] record.
---
> The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a [[reel-to-reel]] tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the [[pickup needle]] can be immediately put down on any point of a [[long-playing]] [[vinyl]] record.----Sequential access is also an access type assigned to a computer file, for accessing records on a computer. This is opposed to, say, indexed access, used for table look-up, and certain types of databases.
------
Berlin_Film_Festival|990365896
1c1
< One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The jury always placed special emphasis on representing films from all over the world, from the former soviet states as well as from western states. The awards are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 
---
> One of the so-called "A" festivals in [[Europe]]. The Berlin International Film Festival, called "Berlinale" is held annually in February and started 1951 after an initiative of the American occupators. The [[jury]] always placed special emphasis on representing [[film]]s from all over the world, from the former [[Soviet Union|soviet states]] as well as from western states. The [[award]]s are called Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 
------
Titanic|990366092
3c3
< An unbelievably popular movie - unbelievable since absolutely noone likes it - was directed by [[James Cameron]] with it as the setting.
---
> An [[top grossing movies|unbelievably popular movie]] - unbelievable since absolutely noone likes it - was directed by [[James Cameron]] with it as the setting.
------
James_Cameron|990366212
1c1
< American film director noted for his [[action film|action]]/[[science fiction film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his special effects (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's Titanic made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
---
> American [[film director]] noted for his [[action film|action]]/[[science fiction film|science fiction]] films.  Cameron is also known for the remarkable results he gets from his [[special effect]]s (FX) crews, beginning with The Terminator (whose special effects, while somewhat dated today, were quite advanced on the film's release in 1984).  The special effects in Terminator 2: Judment Day made extensive use of [[computer generated imaging]] (CGI) and won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Visual Effects; Cameron's [[Titanic]] made use of both CGI and a variety of sets of different scales, and also won an Academy Award for FX, among other things.
------
Film_directors|990366271
0a1,2
> See also other roles in a [[film crew]].
> 
------
Film_crew|990366302
1c1
< A group of people hired by a [[film company]] for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or [[motion picture]].  Roles within a film crew are [[actor]], [[actress]], [[camera man]], [[director]], ...
---
> A group of people hired by a [[film company]] for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or [[motion picture]].  Roles within a film crew are [[actor]], [[actress]], [[camera man]], [[film director]], [[FX crew]], ...
------
Racism|990366365
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Racism is the belief that people of different [[race]]s are inherently different from each other and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Racist]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to other races and in need of protection from people of other races. 
> 
> While there are differences between populations of different [[ethnicity]] that cannot adequately be explained by [[socio-economic]] factors (e.g. varying propensity for diseases such as [[diabetes]], [[alcoholism]] and [[sickle-cell anemia]]), there is no scientific evidence that supports letting the minute genetic differences between people of various races affect public policy or the way individuals lead their lives. 
> 
> Racist beliefs can be held by all people of all ethnic groups but their impact is naturally stronger in people who belong to over-privileged ethnic groups as they are likely to wield more power over others. 
> 
> Racism is sometimes seen as a type of [[xenophobia]]. A special case of racism is [[anti-semitism]]. 
> 
> Many countries have outlawed [[discrimination]] based on ethnicity. 
> 
> Also see [[hate crimes]], [[Civil Rights Movement]]
------
Community_college|990366552
1c1,18
< A sort of [[college]] that primarily accepts (and attracts) students from a local area, the local [[community]] and offers a limited set of courses and shorter programs.  Less than a [[university]].
---
> A sort of [[college]] that primarily accepts (and attracts) students from a local area, the local [[community]] and offers a limited set of courses and shorter programs.  Less than a [[university]].----
> A community college, in [[New York]] State, at least, is a two -year college that grants an [[Associates Degree]], as opposed to a [[Bachelors Degree]]. Graduates of a Community College can apply to a Senior College to obtain a [[Bachelors Degree]]. The [[City University of New York]], (CUNY), is composed of a large number of [[Senior College]]s, as well as, {{Community College]]s.<br>
> The [[Senior College]]s include:<br>
> *[[Hunter College]]
> *[[Lehman College]]
> *[[Brooklyn College]]
> *[[Queens College]]
> *[[Richmond College]]
> *....
> <br>
> The [[Community College]]s include:<br>
> *[[Manhattan Community College]]
> *[[Hostos Community College]]
> *[[LaGuardia Community College]]
> *[[Bronx Community College]]--located on the original [[New York University]] Campus.
> *[[Kingsborough Community College]]
> *[[Queensborough Community College]]
> *...
------
Film_crew|990366810
1c1
< A group of people hired by a [[film company]] for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or [[motion picture]].  Roles within a film crew are [[actor]], [[actress]], [[camera man]], [[film director]], [[FX crew]], ...
---
> A group of people hired by a [[film company]] for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or [[motion picture]].  Roles within a film crew are [[actor]], [[actress]], [[cinematographer]], [[film director]], [[effects technician]], [[gaffer]], [[grip]], [[best boy]]...
------
Race|990366866
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In humans [[race]] is a controversial topic. This is because race has frequently been used to justify [[atrocity|atrocities]] and abuse of power. [[Racist]]s around the world still use it to that end today. 
> 
> Commonly recognised human races:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Africa]]n
> <li>[[Europe]]an
> <li>[[Native American]]
> <li>[[Middle East|Semitic]]
> <li>[[Asia]]n
> <li>[[Aboriginal]]
> </ul>
> 
> See also [[racism]], [[ethnicity]]
------
Sequential_access|990366891
1c1
< The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a [[reel-to-reel]] tape must be winded to the right position, whereas the [[pickup needle]] can be immediately put down on any point of a [[long-playing]] [[vinyl]] record.----Sequential access is also an access type assigned to a computer file, for accessing records on a computer. This is opposed to, say, indexed access, used for table look-up, and certain types of databases.
---
> The opposite of [[random access]].  Sequential access is the property of a group of elements, that they must be accessed one after the other in a specific sequence.  For example, a [[reel-to-reel]] tape must be wound to the right position, whereas a [[pickup needle]] can be immediately put down on any point of a [[long-playing]] [[vinyl]] record.----Sequential access is also an access type assigned to a computer file, for accessing records on a computer. This is opposed to, say, indexed access, used for table look-up, and certain types of databases.
------
Racist|990366914
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Opinion in line with [[racism]]
> 
> 2. Person holding such an opinion
------
Vinyl|990366927
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A type of [[plastic]] used for [[gramophone]] [[record]]s and, in its soft form, for [[clothes]], [[upholstery]] (car seats), etc.
> 
> 2. Music recorded on vinyl records.
> 
> Vinyl records were predominantly recorded in 33 or 45 [[rpm]].  They were not as fragile as the 78 rpm records they replaced.  Sizes were 7 and 12 inches diameter.  A 45 rpm 7 inch was called an EP or single, because it held a single song on each side.  A 33 rpm 12 inch was is an LP or [[long-playing]] record, with 5 or 6 songs on each side.  In the [[1980s]], vinyl records were gradually replaced with the [[CD]] or compact disc.
> 
------
Racism|990367000
11c11
< Also see [[hate crimes]], [[Civil Rights Movement]]
---
> Also see [[hate crimes]], [[Civil Rights Movement]], [[White Supremacy]]
------
Racism|990367050
11c11
< Also see [[hate crimes]], [[Civil Rights Movement]], [[White Supremacy]]
---
> Also see [[hate crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]]
------
Inspector_Morse|990367096
24c24
< It is primarly the personality of the main character that makes the Inspector Morse novels so successful. With his beatiful [[Jaguar]], [[beer]] snobbery and penchant for [[Wagner]] he is a likable person. 
---
> It is primarly the personality of the main character that makes the Inspector Morse novels so successful. With his beautiful [[Jaguar]], [[beer]], snobbery, and penchant for [[Wagner]], he is a likable person. 
------
Racism|990367119
11c11
< Also see [[hate crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]]
---
> Also see [[Hate Crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]]
------
Rpm|990367270
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for revolutions per minute, '''rpm''' is a [[unit]] for rotational speed.  [[Gramophone]] records typically rotate with 33, 45, or 78 rpm.  Aircraft motors can rotate with 8000 rpm.  An [[automobile]]'s motor typically makes between 1000 and 4000 rpm.
> 
> The [[theory of relativity]] sets limits to rotational speed for an object of a certain [[diameter]].  When the rotational speed or diameter increases, a point on the [[perimeter]] will move faster, but cannot move faster than the [[speed of light]].  If the rotational center is made to move faster, the rotating object will deform so that the perimeter moves at its allowed speed.  This effect can be noted on computer [[hard disk]]s.
> 
------
Isms|990367607
60c60,61
< [[protestantism]]
---
> [[protestantism]],
> [[racism]],
63,64c64,67
< [[sionism]],
< [[socialism]]
---
> [[sexism]],
> [[socialism]],
> 
> [[zionism]]
------
Anti-semitism|990367837
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Anti-semitism is a type of racism mixed with religious persecution. Anti-semitism is the belief that people of Jewish ancestry are inherently different from people of other ancestry and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Anti-semitic]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to Jews and in need of protection from Jews. Although anti-semitics often make religiously based arguments against Jews, they typically don't distinguish between actively religious Jews, secularised Jews and people of Jewish descent who have abandoned the Jewish faith. 
> 
> Anti-semitic beliefs are held by people of many different ethnicities. 
> 
> Anti-semitism has a long history of persecution of Jews in Europe, the Middle East and the Western World at large. Can someone expand on this? 
> 
> Also see [[Israel]], [[Middle-East]], [[Judaism]], [[Nazism]], [[White Supremacy]]. 
------
Anti-semitism|990367948
1c1
< Anti-semitism is a type of racism mixed with religious persecution. Anti-semitism is the belief that people of Jewish ancestry are inherently different from people of other ancestry and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Anti-semitic]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to Jews and in need of protection from Jews. Although anti-semitics often make religiously based arguments against Jews, they typically don't distinguish between actively religious Jews, secularised Jews and people of Jewish descent who have abandoned the Jewish faith. 
---
> Anti-semitism is a type of [[racism]] mixed with [[religious persecution]]. Anti-semitism is the belief that people of Jewish ancestry are inherently different from people of other ancestry and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Anti-semitic]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to [[Jews]] and in need of protection from Jews. Although anti-semitics often make religiously based arguments against Jews, they typically don't distinguish between actively religious Jews, secularised Jews and people of Jewish descent who have abandoned the [[Judaism|Jewish faith]]. 
7c7
< Also see [[Israel]], [[Middle-East]], [[Judaism]], [[Nazism]], [[White Supremacy]]. 
---
> Also see [[Israel]], [[Middle-East]], [[Nazism]], [[White Supremacy]]. 
------
Anti-semitic|990367994
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Opinion in line with [[anti-semitism]]
> 
> 2. Person holding such an opinion.
------
University_of_Cambridge|990368380
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peter|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/King's]], [[/Queens']] and [[/St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christ's]] and [[/St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
------
MusicMatch|990368403
5a6,9
> <hr>
> 
> Does this blatant advertisement really belong on wikipedia? 
> --Mjausson
------
University_of_Cambridge|990368553
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
------
University_of_Cambridge|990368592
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity College]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
------
University_of_Cambridge/Trinity_College|990369009
1c1,125
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Official website, http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/
> 
> Some famous [[alumn]]i from '''Trinity College''', [[University of Cambridge]]:
> 
>  George Gascoigne 1525-1577 Poet, dramatist - Jocasta, The Glasse of Government 
>  John Dee 1527-1608 Alchemist, geographer, mathematician 
>  Edward Coke 1552-1634 Lawyer, politician; Chief Justice of the King's Bench 
>  [[Francis Bacon]] 1561-1626 Lawyer, philosopher; Lord Chancellor 
>  Henry Spelman 1562-1641 Antiquary - `Reliquiae Spelmannianae' 
>  Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex 1566-1601 Soldier, courtier to Elizabeth I; executed for rebellion 
>  Giles Fletcher 1588-1623 Poet - Christ's Victory and Triumph 
>  George Herbert 1593-1633 Poet - The Temple; MP (Montgomery) 
>  Thomas Randolph 1605-1635 Poet, dramatist 
>  John Suckling 1609-1642 Poet, dramatist 
>  Abraham Cowley 1618-1667 Poet, dramatist - The Mistress 
>  Andrew Marvell 1621-1678 Poet -`Horatian Ode', The Rehearsal Transpros'd; MP (Hull) 
>  George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham 1627-1687 Wit, dramatist - The Rehearsal; member of the `Cabal' 
>  John Ray 1627-1705 Naturalist; created the principles of plant classification 
>  John Dryden 1631-1700 Poet Laureate -Absalom and Achitophel; Translator of Virgil  
>  Francis Willughby 1635-1672 Naturalist 
>  [[Isaac Newton]] 1642-1727 Mathematician, physicist; MP (Cambridge University) 
>  George Jeffreys 1645-1689 Judge - `Bloody Assizes'; Lord Chancellor 
>  Nathaniel Lee 1649-1692 Dramatist - The Rival Queens 
>  [[Charles Montagu]], 1st Earl of Halifax 1661-1715 Founded Bank of England, 1694; Chancellor of Exchequer 
>  [[John Montagu]], 4th Earl of Sandwich 1718-1792 First Lord of the Admiralty; invented the 'sandwich' 
>  Richard Cumberland 1732-1811 Playwright - The Brothers, The West Indian 
>  [[Thomas Nelson]] 1738-1789 Signatory of the American Declaration of Independence 
>  Thomas, Lord Erskine 1750-1823 Lord Chancellor, jurist 
>  George Crabbe 1754-1832 Poet; did not matriculate 
>  Richard Porson 1759-1808 Classical scholar 
>  Spencer Perceval 1762-1812 Prime Minister 1809-1812 (Tory); assassinated 
>  Charles, Earl Grey 1764-1845 Prime Minister 1830-1834 (Whig); Great Reform Act (1832) 
>  John Lyndhurst 1772-1863 Lawyer; Lord Chancellor 
>  Viscount Melbourne 1779-1848 Prime Minister 1834, 1835-1841 (Whig) 
>  John, 3rd Earl Spencer 1782-1845 Known as Lord Althorp; Chancellor of the Exchequer 
>  Adam Sedgwick 1785-1873 Geologist 
>  George Gordon, Lord Byron 1788-1824 Poet - `She Walks in Beauty', Don Juan 
>  [[Charles Babbage]] 1791-1871 Mathematician; Built the forerunner of modern computers 
>  Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay 1800-1859 Historian, essayist 
>  William Henry Fox Talbot 1800-1877 Inventor of photography 
>  George Airy 1801-1895 Astronomer, geophysicist 
>  William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864 Irish Nationalist 
>  Edward Bulwer-Lytton 1803-1873 Novelist - The Last Days of Pompeii; politician 
>  James Challis 1803-1882 Astronomer; twice observed Neptune without noting it, before its discovery 
>  Frederick D Maurice 1805-1872 Theologian, writer, Christian Socialist 
>  Augustus de Morgan 1806-1871 Mathematician; symbolic logic 
>  Richard Chevenix Trench 1807-1888 Poet, Archbishop of Dublin; Theorist of English Language  
>  James Spedding 1808-1881 Scholar; editor of Bacon's Works 
>  Monckton Milnes 1809-1885 Politician, man of letters 
>  [[Alfred Tennyson]] 1809-1892 Poet - Maud, In Memoriam 
>  Edward Fitzgerald 1809-1883 Poet - `The Rubá iyá t of Omar Khayyá m' 
>  [[William M. Thackeray]] 1811-1863 Novelist - Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond 
>  Tom Taylor 1817-1880 Scottish dramatist; editor of Punch 
>  Thomas Wade 1818-1895 Diplomat; invented Wade-Giles Chinese transliteration 
>  Arthur Cayley 1821-1895 Mathematician; non-Euclidean geometry, invented matrices 
>  Francis Galton 1822-1911 Scientist; meteorology, heredity 
>  Brooke Westcott 1825-1901 Canon of Westminster, Bishop of Durham 
>  William Waddington 1826-1894 French Prime Minister 1879; archaeologist 
>  [[William Harcourt]] 1827-1904 Liberal statesman; home secretary, Chancellor of the Exchequer 
>  Hugh Childers 1827-1896 Australian statesman, then British Chancellor of the Exchequer 
>  Joseph Lightfoot 1828-1889 Bishop of Durham; theologian 
>  Edward White Benson 1829-1896 Archbishop of Canterbury, 1883-1896 
>  [[James Maxwell]] 1831-1879 Physicist; electromagnetism 
>  John, Lord Acton 1834-1902 Historian 
>  Henry Campbell-Bannerman 1836-1908 Prime Minister 1905-1908 (Liberal) 
>  Michael Foster 1836-1907 Physiologist; MP (London University) 
>  Henry Sidgwick 1838-1900 Philosopher, major proponent of women's colleges 
>  George Otto Trevelyan 1838-1928 Historian; MP; Father of G. M. Trevelyan 
>  Richard Jebb 1841-1905 Greek scholar 
>  [[Edward VII]] 1841-1910 Reigned 1901-1910 
>  Frederick Pollock 1845-1937 Jurist 
>  Edmund Gosse 1845-1928 Poet, critic - On Viol and Flute 
>  Arthur Balfour 1848-1930 Prime Minister 1902-1905 (Conservative) 
>  F. W. Maitland 1850-1906 Legal historian 
>  Charles Stanford 1852-1924 Composer, organist 
>  James Frazer 1854-1941 Anthropologist; writer - The Golden Bough 
>  A. E. Housman 1859-1936 Poet - A Shropshire Lad; Classical scholar 
>  A. N. Whitehead 1861-1947 Philosopher, mathematician 
>  George, Lord Carnarvon 1866-1923 Egyptologist; funded the discovery of Tut'ankhamun's tomb 
>  Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Marquis of Willingdon 1866-1941 Administrator; Viceroy of India 
>  Stanley Baldwin 1867-1947 Prime Minister 1923-24, 1924-29, 1935-37 (Conservative) 
>  Erskine Childers 1870-1922 Writer, Irish Nationalist - The Riddle of The Sands 
>  Ralph Vaughan Williams 1872-1958 Composer - Sea Symphony, Pilgrim's Progress 
>  Prince Ranjitsinhji 1872-1933 Cricketer; Indian Prince 
>  G. E. Moore 1873-1958 Philosopher 
>  Aleister Crowley 1875-1947  Writer and 'Magician'; 'the wickedest man alive' 
>  Mohammed Iqbal 1875-1938 Islamic poet and philosopher 
>  Charles Rolls 1877-1910 Co-founder of Rolls-Royce; aviator 
>  James Jeans 1877-1946 Astronomer, mathematician; stellar evolution 
>  Godfrey Harold Hardy 1877-1947 Mathematician; A Mathematician's Apology 
>  Lytton Strachey 1880-1932 Biographer - Eminent Victorians; Bloomsbury Group 
>  Leonard Woolf 1880-1969 Writer; husband of Virginia; Bloomsbury Group 
>  Clive Bell 1881-1964 Art and literary critic; husband of Vanessa 
>  Alfred Radcliffe-Brown 1881-1955 Social anthropologist 
>  [[A. A. Milne]] 1882-1956 Novelist - [[Winnie the Pooh]] 
>  [[Arthur Eddington]] 1882-1944 Astronomer 
>  John Littlewood 1885-1977 Mathematician; Fourier Series, Zeta Function 
>  Harry Philby 1885-1960 Explorer of Arabia; father of Kim 
>  G. I. Taylor 1886-1975 Physicist, mathematician; Fluid dynamics, crystals 
>  C. D. Broad 1887-1971 Philosopher 
>  Srinivasa Ramanujan 1887-1920 Mathematician; analytic number theory, elliptic integrals 
>  Sydney Chapman 1888-1970 Mathematician, geophysicist; kinetic theory, geomagnetism 
>  [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] 1889-1951 Philosopher 
>  Jawaharlal Nehru 1889-1964 First Prime Minister of India, 1949-1964 
>  [[George VI]] 1895-1952 Reigned 1936-1952 
>  Vladimir Nabokov 1899-1977 Russian and English novelist - Lolita 
>  Christopher, Lord Hinton 1901-1983 Nuclear engineer; constructed Calder Hall, the first large scale reactor 
>  George 'Gubby' Allen 1902-1989 Cricketer - captained England; played in Bodyline series 
>  Frank Plumpton Ramsey 1903-1930 Philosopher, mathematician, economist 
>  Otto Frisch 1904-1979 Nuclear physicist; first used the term 'nuclear fission' 
>  Erskine Childers 1905-1974 President of the Irish Republic, 1973-74 
>  John Lehmann 1907-1987 Poet, man of letters; inaugurated The London Magazine 
>  Anthony Blunt 1907-1983 Soviet spy; art historian 
>  Peter Scott 1909-1989 Artist, ornithologist; Olympic sailor (1936) 
>  Nicholas Monsarrat 1910-1979 Novelist - The Cruel Sea 
>  [[Guy Burgess]] 1910-1963 Soviet spy and traitor 
>  [[Kim Philby]] 1911-1988 Double agent; communist 
>  Enoch Powell 1912-1998 Statesman; Minister of Health, 1960-3 
>  Willie Whitelaw 1918-1999 Statesman; Home Secretary, 1979-83 
>  John Robinson 1919-1983 Theologian; Bishop of Woolwich, Dean of Trinity 
>  Raymond Williams 1921-1988 Marxist critic, novelist - The Country and the City 
>  [[Rajiv Gandhi]] 1944-1989 Prime Minister of India, 1984-1989   
> 
> 
> For more biographies, try the Cambridge Biographical Dictionary
------
Charles_Babbage|990369112
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1791-1871 [[mathematician]]. Built the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s.  Alumn of [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].  See also [[Ada Lovelace]].
> 
------
Mathematician|990369165
6a7
> *[[Charles Babbage]] (United Kingdom, 1791-1871)
------
ProgramMing|990369313
4c4
< The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be AdaLovelace, daughter of Anabella and LordByron (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting CharlesBabbage helped him work on his DifferenceEngine and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
---
> The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be [[Ada Lovelace]], daughter of Anabella and [[Lord Byron]] (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting [[Charles Babbage]] helped him work on his [[difference engine]] and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
------
ProgramMing|990369382
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[computer programming]]
> 
------
Computer_programming|990369415
1a2,7
> 
> Programming is the act of instructing a machine to perform some work.  
> 
> <some history...>
> The first computer programmer is widely recoginzed to be [[Ada Lovelace]], daughter of Anabella and [[Lord Byron]] (the poet).  Anabella gave her love of mathematics to Ada, who after meeting [[Charles Babbage]] helped him work on his [[difference engine]] and other machines, documenting his designs and developing programs for them.  Even though Babbage never completed construction of any of his machines, the work that he and Ada did on them earned her the title of the world's first computer programmer.
> 
------
ProgramMing|990369455
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[computer programming]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Computer programming]]
------
University_of_Cambridge/Colleges|990369708
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
---
> These are colleges within the [[University of Cambridge]].  See also
> http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/colleges.html
> 
> [[/Christs College|Christ's College]],
> [[/Churchill College]],
> Clare College, 
> Clare Hall, 
> Corpus Christi College, 
> Darwin College,
> Downing College, 
> Emmanuel College, 
> Fitzwilliam College, 
> Girton College, 
> Gonville and Caius College,
> Homerton College, 
> Hughes Hall, 
> Jesus College, 
> King's College, 
> Lucy Cavendish,
> Magdalene College,
> New Hall,
> Newnham College, 
> Pembroke College, 
> Peterhouse,
> Queens' College, 
> Robinson College, 
> St Catharine's College, 
> St Edmund's College, 
> St John's College, 
> Selwyn College,
> Sidney Sussex College, 
> [[Trinity College]], 
> [[Trinity Hall]], 
> Wolfson College
> 
>  
------
University_of_Cambridge/Colleges|990369775
28,34c28,34
< St Edmund's College, 
< St John's College, 
< Selwyn College,
< Sidney Sussex College, 
< [[Trinity College]], 
< [[Trinity Hall]], 
< Wolfson College
---
> [[St Edmunds College|St Edmund's College]], 
> [[St Johns College|St John's College]], 
> [[/Selwyn College]],
> [[/Sidney Sussex College]], 
> [[/Trinity College]], 
> [[/Trinity Hall]], 
> [[/Wolfson College]]
36c36
<  
---
>  
------
University_of_Cambridge|990370264
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare]], [[/Pembroke]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity College]], [[/Corpus Christi]], [[/Kings|King's]], [[/Queens]]' and [[/St Catharines|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus]], [[/Christs|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the sixteenth century. The first colleges for women were Girton in 1869 and Newnham in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947. 
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters College|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare College]], [[/Pembroke College]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi College]], [[/Kings College|King's]], [[/Queens College|Queens']] and [[/St Catharines College|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus College|Jesus]], [[/Christs College|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns College|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the [[16th century]]. The first colleges for women were [[/Girton College]] in 1869 and [[/Newnham College]] in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947.  The above is not a complete list of the [[/Colleges]].
------
Ludwig_Wittgenstein|990370327
1c1
< '''Ludwig''' Joseph Johann '''Wittgenstein''' was a Austrian and English [[philosopher]]. In his life (1889-1951) he only published one work, the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].
---
> '''Ludwig''' Joseph Johann '''Wittgenstein''' was a Austrian and English [[philosopher]]. In his life (1889-1951) he only published one work, the [[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]].  He was an alumn of the [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].
------
MusicMatch|990370334
1c1
< Builders of the best all-in-one music software on the planet.  Did you know that the average MUSICMATCH Jukebox user uses their MMJB about six times as much as the average Winamp user?
---
> Builders of all-in-one music software.
3,9c3
< There is a reason!
< 
< See http://www.musicmatch.com for more info.
< <hr>
< 
< Does this blatant advertisement really belong on wikipedia? 
< --Mjausson
---
> See http://www.musicmatch.com for the manufacturer's homepage.
------
Alumn|990370427
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An alumn is a former student of a [[university]].  The correct Latin plural is alumni, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni reunions is a popular event at many universities.
> 
------
Homophobia|990370492
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Irrational fear of and hatred for [[homosexual]] people. 
> 
> [[Homophobic]] beliefs can be held by people independent of their sexuality. In [[lesbian]]s, [[gay]]s and [[bisexual]]s [[internalised homophobia]] can result in lifelong suffering of depression, low self-esteem and a stunted love life and sexuality. For straight people it can lead to anything from unthinkingly marginalising [[lesbigay]] people to violent [[Hate Crime]]s. 
> 
> The cause of pervasive homophobia in society has been widely debated. Some religious organisations and individuals actively promote homophobia while others won't ordain LGB people who express their love and sexuality. The fact that male/male love often incites a stronger reaction in homophobics than female/female love has been taken to mean that the homophobic feels threatened by the subversion of the [[gender paradigm]] in male/male sex. Homophobics often express strongly sexist views. Homophobics tend to focus on the sexuality of lesbigay people to the exclusion of all other traits, in much the same way as [[racist]]s tend to define people exclusively by their [[ethnicity]]. 
> 
> To combat homophobia the LGB community uses events such as [[Pride parades]], and [[political activism]]. 
> 
> Also see [[closeted]], [[Lambda Legal Defense Fund]]
> 
------
Computer_programming|990370580
1c1
< <i>Programming</i> is the art and/or science of creating [[computer software]].
---
> <i>Programming</i> is the art and/or science of creating [[computer software]], a set of instructions for a machine to use to perform some work.  
3,5d2
< Programming is the act of instructing a machine to perform some work.  
< 
< <some history...>
------
Ada_Lovelace|990370625
1,3c1
< Programmer for [[Charles Babbage]]'s machines.
< ----
< She is sometimes mischaracterized as the inventor of the
---
> Programmer for [[Charles Babbage]]'s machines, and sometimes mischaracterized as the inventor of the
------
University|990370644
4a5,6
> Some related terms [[academy]], [[admission]], [[alumn]], [[aula]], [[campus]], [[college]], [[diploma]], [[discipline]], [[dissertation]], [[graduate student]], [[graduation]], [[perpetual student]], [[professor]], [[research]], [[scholar]], [[student]], [[universal access]]
> 
------
Martinique|990370762
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Martinique/History|990370828
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Colonized by France in 1635, the island has subsequently remained a French possession except for three brief periods of foreign occupation.
------
Martinique/Geography|990370856
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, north of Trinidad and Tobago
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 14 40 N, 61 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,100 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,060 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 40 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than six times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 350 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; moderated by trade winds; rainy season (June to October); vulnerable to devastating cyclones (hurricanes) every eight years on average; average temperature 17.3 degrees C; humid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mountainous with indented coastline; dormant volcano
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Montagne Pelee 1,397 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coastal scenery and beaches, cultivable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 44%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 23% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 40 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hurricanes, flooding, and volcanic activity (an average of one major natural disaster every five years)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
------
Martinique/People|990370873
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 414,516 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 48,578; female 47,283)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 137,724; female 139,241)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 18,508; female 23,182) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.96% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.1 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.38 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.09 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.8 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 7.97 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.25 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 79.03 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.46 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Martiniquais (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Martiniquais
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> African and African-white-Indian mixture 90%, white 5%, East Indian, Lebanese, Chinese less than 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 95%, Hindu and pagan African 5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French, Creole patois
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 93%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 92%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 93% (1982 est.)
------
Martinique/Government|990370895
1c1,60
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Department of Martinique
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Martinique
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Departement de la Martinique
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Martinique
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MB
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas department of France
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Fort-de-France
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> French legal system
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995); Prefect Jean-Francois CORDET (since NA)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the General Council Claude LISE (since 22 March 1992); President of the Regional Council Alfred MARIE-JEANNE (since NA March 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General Council or Conseil General (45 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Assembly or Conseil Regional (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> General Council - last held NA March 1994 (next to be held NA 2000); Regional Assembly - last held on 15 March 1998 (next to be held by March 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; note - the PPM won a plurality; Regional Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR-UDF 14, MIM 13, PPM 7, left parties 4, PMS 3
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Martinique elects 2 seats to the French Senate; elections last held NA September 1998 (next to be held September 2001); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PPM 2; Martinique also elects 4 seats to the French National Assembly; elections last held 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 2, PS 1, independent 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Combat Worker [Gerard BEAUJOUR]; Martinique Communist Party or PCM [Armand NICOLAS]; Martinique Forces [Maurice LAOUCHEZ]; Martinique Independence Movement or MIM [Alfred MARIE-JEANNE]; Martinique Patriots or PM [leader NA]; Martinique Progressive Party or PPM [Camille DARSIERES]; Martinique Socialist Party or PMS [Ernest WAN-AJOUHU]; Movement for a Liberated Martinique [Philippe PETIT]; National Council of Popular Committees [Robert SAE]; Rally for Democratic Martinique [Felix HILAIRE-FORTUNE]; Rally for the Republic or RPR [Michel CHARLONE]; Republican Party or PR [Jean BAILLY]; Socialist Federation of Martinique or FSM [Jean CRUSOL]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [Jean MAREN]; Union for the Renewal of Ste. Marie [Guy LORDINOT]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Association for the Protection of Martinique's Heritage (ecologist) [Garcin MALSA]; Caribbean Revolutionary Alliance or ARC; Central Union for Martinique Workers or CSTM [Marc PULVAR]; Frantz Fanon Circle; League of Workers and Peasants; Proletarian Action Group or GAP; Socialist Revolution Group or GRS [Philippe PIERRE-CHARLES]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> FZ, WCL, WFTU
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas department of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a light blue background is divided into four quadrants by a white cross; in the center of each rectangle is a white snake; the flag of France is used for official occasions
------
Martinique/Economy|990370910
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is based on sugarcane, bananas, tourism, and light industry. Agriculture accounts for about 6% of GDP and the small industrial sector for 11%. Sugar production has declined, with most of the sugarcane now used for the production of rum. Banana exports are increasing, going mostly to France. The bulk of meat, vegetable, and grain requirements must be imported, contributing to a chronic trade deficit that requires large annual transfers of aid from France. Tourism has become more important than agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange. The majority of the work force is employed in the service sector and in administration.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.24 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10,700 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 6%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 11%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 83% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 3.9% (1990)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 170,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 10%, industry 17%, services 73% (1997)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 24% (1997)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $900 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $2.5 billion, including capital expenditures of $140 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> construction, rum, cement, oil refining, sugar, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.075 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> pineapples, avocados, bananas, flowers, vegetables, sugarcane
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $250 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> refined petroleum products, bananas, rum, pineapples
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 45%, Guadeloupe 28% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2 billion (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum products, crude oil, foodstuffs, construction materials, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 62%, Venezuela 6%, Germany 4%, Italy 4%, US 3% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $180 million (1994)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA; note - substantial annual aid from France
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Martinique/Communications|990370937
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 155,000 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> domestic facilities are adequate
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> microwave radio relay to Guadeloupe, Dominica, and Saint Lucia; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 14, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 82,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 11 (plus nine repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 66,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Martinique/Transportation|990370953
1c1,25
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,724 km (1994)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Fort-de-France, La Trinite
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Martinique/Military|990370970
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French forces (Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
Martinique/Transnational_issues|990370993
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> Describe th<b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for the US and Europe
------
Martinique/Transnational_issues|990371035
1c1
< Describe th<b>Disputes - international:</b>
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
------
Mauritania|990371061
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Mauritania/History|990371124
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Independent from France in 1960, Mauritania annexed the southern third of the former Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) in 1976, but relinquished it after three years of raids by the Polisario guerrilla front seeking independence for the territory. Opposition parties were legalized and a new constitution approved in 1991. Two multiparty presidential elections since then were widely seen as being flawed; Mauritania remains, in reality, a one-party state. The country continues to experience ethnic tensions between its black minority population and the dominant Maur (Arab-Berber) populace.
------
Mauritania/Geography|990371144
1c1,66
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Senegal and Western Sahara
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 20 00 N, 12 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,030,700 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,030,400 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 300 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than three times the size of New Mexico
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,074 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Algeria 463 km, Mali 2,237 km, Senegal 813 km, Western Sahara 1,561 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 754 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; constantly hot, dry, dusty
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly barren, flat plains of the Sahara; some central hills
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Sebkha de Ndrhamcha -3 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Kediet Ijill 910 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> iron ore, gypsum, fish, copper, phosphate
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 58% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 490 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind blows primarily in March and April; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion aggravated by drought are contributing to desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Senegal which is the only perennial river
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> most of the population concentrated in the cities of Nouakchott and Nouadhibou and along the Senegal River in the southern part of the country
------
Mauritania/People|990371166
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,667,859 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 46% (male 617,077; female 614,961)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 52% (male 677,238; female 697,524)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2% (male 25,417; female 35,642) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.94% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 43.36 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.97 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 78.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 50.76 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 48.7 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 52.87 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.29 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mauritanian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mauritanian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mixed Maur/black 40%, Maur 30%, black 30%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 100%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Hasaniya Arabic (official), Pular, Soninke, Wolof (official), French
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 37.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 49.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 26.3% (1995 est.)
------
Mauritania/Government|990371198
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Islamic Republic of Mauritania
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mauritania
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Jumhuriyah al Islamiyah al Muritaniyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Muritaniyah
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Nouakchott
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 12 regions (regions, singular - region) and 1 capital district*; Adrar, Assaba, Brakna, Dakhlet Nouadhibou, Gorgol, Guidimaka, Hodh Ech Chargui, Hodh El Gharbi, Inchiri, Nouakchott*, Tagant, Tiris Zemmour, Trarza
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 28 November 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 28 November (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 12 July 1991
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> a combination of Shari'a (Islamic law) and French civil law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Col. Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA (since 12 December 1984)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Cheikel Afia Ould Mohamed KHOUNA (since 16 November 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 12 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2003); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> President Col. Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA reelected with 90.9% of the vote
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral legislature consists of the Senate or Majlis al-Shuyukh (56 seats; 17 up for election every two years; members elected by municipal leaders to serve six-year terms) and the National Assembly or Majlis al-Watani (79 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 17 April 1998 (next to be held NA 2001); National Assembly - last held 11 and 18 October 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NA; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRDS 71, AC 1, independents and other 7
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> three-tier system: lower, appeals, and Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action for Change or AC [Messoud Ould BOULKHEIR]; Assembly for Democracy and Unity or RDU [Ahmed Ould SIDI BABA]; Democratic and Social Republican Party or PRDS (ruling party) [President Col. Maaouya Ould Sid Ahmed TAYA]; National Avant-Garde Party or PAN [Khattry Ould JIDDOU]; Popular Social and Democratic Union or UPSD [Mohamed Mahmoud Ould MAH]; Union of Democratic Forces-New Era or UFD/NE [Ahmed Ould DADDAH]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> parties legalized by constitution passed 12 July 1991, however, politics continue to be tribally based
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> General Confederation of Mauritanian Workers or CGTM [Abdallahi Ould MOHAMED, secretary general]; Mauritanian Workers Union or UTM [Mohamed Ely Ould BRAHIM, secretary general]; B'athists; Arab nationalists; Islamists
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CAEU, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ahmed Ben Khalifa BEN JIDDOU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2129 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 232-5700
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 319-2623
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Timberlake FOSTER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Abdallahi Ould Oubeid, Nouakchott
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 222, Nouakchott
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [222] (2) 526-60, 526-63
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [222] (2) 515-92
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> green with a yellow five-pointed star above a yellow, horizontal crescent; the closed side of the crescent is down; the crescent, star, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam
------
Closeted|990371234
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
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> A closeted person originally referred only to [[lesbian]]s, [[gay]]s and [[bisexual]]s who kept their relationship preferences secret. The reason is usually that the person does not want to face the environment's [[homophobia]]. In many places in the world, [[coming out of the closet]] means losing your job, home, family, friends, religious and political memberships. There is often also a real risk of being the victim of violent [[Hate Crime]].  
> 
> In later years it has, often jokingly, come to refer to any person who keeps certain preferences secret, e.g. closet [[biblioholist]], closet [[cross-dresser]]
> 
> Also see [[outing]]
------
Mauritania/Economy|990371269
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> A majority of the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore, which account for almost 50% of total exports. The decline in world demand for this ore, however, has led to cutbacks in production. The nation's coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world, but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue. The country's first deepwater port opened near Nouakchott in 1986. In recent years, drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt. In March 1999, the government signed an agreement with a joint World Bank-IMF mission on a $54 million enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF). The economic objectives have been set for 1999-2002. Privatization remains one of the key issues. Mauritania is unlikely to meet ESAF's annual GDP growth objectives of 4%-5%.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.9 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,910 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 44% (1997)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 57% (1990 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 0.7%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 30.4% (1988)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9.8% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 465,000 (1981 est.); 45,000 wage earners (1980)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 47%, services 39%, industry 14%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 23% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $329 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $265 million, including capital expenditures of $75 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> fish processing, mining of iron ore and gypsum
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 7.2% (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 152 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 80.26%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 19.74%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 141 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> dates, millet, sorghum, root crops; cattle, sheep; fish products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $425 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish and fish products, iron ore, gold
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 24%, Italy 17%, France 14%, Spain 8% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $444 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, petroleum products, capital goods, foodstuffs, consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 26%, Spain 8%, Germany 7%, Benelux 7% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2.5 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $227.9 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 ouguiya (UM) = 5 khoums
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> ouguiyas (UM) per US$1 - 219.560 (December 1999), 209.514 (1999), 188.476 (1998), 151.853 (1997), 137.222 (1996), 129.768 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Mauritania/Transportation|990371313
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 9,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations (improvements being made)
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> mostly cable and open-wire lines; a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links Nouakchott with regional capitals
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 2 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 360,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 62,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Mauritania/Communications|990371418
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 9,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations (improvements being made)
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> mostly cable and open-wire lines; a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links Nouakchott with regional capitals
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 2 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 360,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 62,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Outing|990371447
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]]. 
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Mauritania/Transportation|990371448
1,20c1,40
< <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
< 9,000 (1995)
< <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
< 0 (1995)
< <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
< poor system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations (improvements being made)
< <br><i>domestic:</i>
< mostly cable and open-wire lines; a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links Nouakchott with regional capitals
< <br><i>international:</i>
< satellite earth stations - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 2 Arabsat
< <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
< AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)
< <p><b>Radios:</b>
< 360,000 (1997)
< <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
< 1 (1997)
< <p><b>Televisions:</b>
< 62,000 (1997)
< <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
< NA
---
> <p><b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 704 km (single track); note - owned and operated by government mining company
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 704 km 1.435-m gauge (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 7,660 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 866 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 6,794 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> mostly ferry traffic on the Senegal River
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bogue, Kaedi, Nouadhibou, Nouakchott, Rosso
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 26 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
------
Mauritania/Military|990371481
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Guard, National Police, Presidential Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 605,124 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 293,445 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $41 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.7% (FY97)
------
Mauritania/Transnational_issues|990371513
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
English_language/Talk|990372006
1d0
< 
8c7,10
< I'm not sure why any of this is on the English language page.
---
> I'm not sure why any of this is on the English language page.
> 
> ----
> Beats me. I'd like to point out that the explanation given for why English has such a tenuous connection between spelling and pronunciation is insufficient. Many other languages faced the same situation with the advent of the printing press and also borrow words without changing their spelling. German is a good example. The reason that German and other languages are easier to spell is that they have had spelling reforms. Why there  haven't been any spelling reforms in the UK and the US is hard to tell. German is also spoken in more than one country so that's not a valid argument. 
------
University_of_Cambridge/Christs_College|990372054
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Christs College at the [[University of Cambridge]] was re-founded in 1505 by Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of King Henry VII. Before its re-foundation it was known as God's House, and it has been on its present site in central Cambridge since 1446.  Christ's has ([[2001]]) about 390 undergraduate and 100 graduate students.  Official website
> http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/
> 
> Their webserver hosts the British division of the [[International Olympiad in Informatics]], http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/bio/
------
University_of_Cambridge|990372187
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters College|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare College]], [[/Pembroke College]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi College]], [[/Kings College|King's]], [[/Queens College|Queens']] and [[/St Catharines College|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus College|Jesus]], [[/Christs College|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns College|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the [[16th century]]. The first colleges for women were [[/Girton College]] in 1869 and [[/Newnham College]] in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947.  The above is not a complete list of the [[/Colleges]].
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters College|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare College]], [[/Pembroke College]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi College]], [[/Kings College|King's]], [[/Queens College|Queens']] and [[/St Catharines College|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus College|Jesus]], [[/Christs College|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns College|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the [[16th century]]. The first colleges for women were [[/Girton College]] in 1869 and [[/Newnham College]] in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947, 20 years later than at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].  The above is not a complete list of the [[/Colleges]].
------
International_Olympiad_in_Informatics|990372712
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/logo.gif
> 
> The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual competition for students of computer science or informatics.  See http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/
> 
> '''IOI 2001''' to be held in Tampere, Finland on July 14-21, 2001, http://www.ioi2001.edu.fi/
> 
> '''IOI 2000''' was held in Beijing, China, September 23-30, 2000, http://www.ioi2000.org.cn/
> 
> '''IOI 1999''' was held in Antalya-Belek, Turkey, October 9-16, 1999, http://www.ioi99.org.tr/
> 
>  '''IOI 1998''' was held in [[Setubal]], [[Portugal]], September 5 - 12, 1998
>  '''IOI 1997''' was held in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], November 30 - December 7, 1997
>  '''IOI 1996''' was held in [[Veszprem]], [[Hungary]], July 25 - August 2, 1996
>  '''IOI 1995''' was held in [[Eindhoven]], The Netherlands, June 26 - July 3, 1995
>  '''IOI 1994''' was held in [[Haninge]], [[Sweden]], July 3 - 10, 1994
>  '''IOI 1993''' was held in [[Mendoza]], [[Argentina]], October 16 - 25, 1993
>  '''IOI 1992''' was held in [[Bonn]], Germany, July 11 - 21, 1992
>  '''IOI 1991''' was held in [[Athens]], Greece, May 19 - 25, 1991
>  '''IOI 1990''' was held in [[Minsk]], [[Belarus|Belorussian Republic]], Soviet Union, July 15 - 21, 1990
> 
> The very first '''IOI 1998''' was held in [[Pravetz]], [[Bulgaria]], May 16 - 19, 1989
> 
------
University_of_Cambridge|990372887
11c11
< Cambridge University is the setting of [[Gaudy Night]] a [[Lord Peter Wimsy]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
---
> Cambridge University is the setting of [[Gaudy Night]] a [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
------
International_Olympiad_in_Informatics|990372945
3c3
< The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual competition for students of computer science or informatics.  See http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/
---
> The International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI) is an annual competition (a [[science olympiad]]) for students of computer science or informatics.  See http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/
21c21
< The very first '''IOI 1998''' was held in [[Pravetz]], [[Bulgaria]], May 16 - 19, 1989
---
> The very first '''IOI 1989''' was held in [[Pravetz]], [[Bulgaria]], May 16 - 19, 1989
22a23
> See also other [[Science Olypiad]]s.
------
University_of_Cambridge|990372959
11,12d10
< Cambridge University is the setting of [[Gaudy Night]] a [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
< 
------
University_of_Oxford|990373064
13c13,16
< Oxford's chief rival is [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]. Together Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes referred to as [[Oxbridge]].
---
> Oxford's chief rival is [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]]. Together Oxford and Cambridge are sometimes referred to as [[Oxbridge]]. Cambridge is considered stronger in scientific subjects whereas Oxford is better at languages and philosophy. 
> 
> Oxford University is the setting of [[Gaudy Night]] a [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
> 
------
Science_olympiad|990373294
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The international science olympiads are competitions for (senior) pupils at secondary schools all over the world. They include:
> 
> *The [[International Mathematics Olympiad]] (IMO, since 1959; not held in 1980)
> *The [[International Physics Olympiad]] (IPhO, since 1967; not held in 1973, 1978, 1980)
> *The [[International Chemistry Olympiad]] (IChO, since 1968; not held in 1971)
> *The [[International Biology Olympiad]] (IBO, since 1990)
> *The [[International Olympiad in Informatics]] (IOI, since 1989)
> *The [[International Astronomy Olympiad]] (IAO, since 1996)
> 
> For an overview, see also http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/
> 
> For information on the olympic games (athletics), see [[IOC]].
> 
------
International_Olympiad_in_Informatics|990373457
23c23
< See also other [[Science Olypiad]]s.
---
> See also other [[science olypiad]]s.
------
Gaudy_Night|990373573
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The title of a [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[mysteries|mystery]] by [[Dorothy Sayers]]. Published 1935. 
> 
> Synopsis:
> <br>Having being aquitted of murder, [[Harriet Vane]] returns to her old [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] college, Shrewsbury. Here she encounters a tangle of [[poison pen]] notes, obscene [[graffiti]] and [[murder]] that [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] helps her solve. 
------
University_of_Cambridge|990373649
5c5
< The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/St Peters College|St Peter's]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare College]], [[/Pembroke College]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi College]], [[/Kings College|King's]], [[/Queens College|Queens']] and [[/St Catharines College|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus College|Jesus]], [[/Christs College|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns College|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the [[16th century]]. The first colleges for women were [[/Girton College]] in 1869 and [[/Newnham College]] in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947, 20 years later than at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].  The above is not a complete list of the [[/Colleges]].
---
> The first [[/Colleges|college]] was [[/Peterhouse]] founded in 1284 by Hugh Balsham, Bishop of [[Ely]]. The second-oldest colles is [[/Kings Hall|King's Hall]] which was founded in 1317. Most colleges were founded during the fifteenth century. They are [[/Michaelhouse]], [[/Clare College]], [[/Pembroke College]], [[/Gonville Hall]], [[/Trinity Hall]], [[/Corpus Christi College]], [[/Kings College|King's]], [[/Queens College|Queens']] and [[/St Catharines College|St Catharine's]]. During those early times the colleges were founded so that their students would pray for the souls of the founders. The colleges of [[/Jesus College|Jesus]], [[/Christs College|Christ's]] and [[/St Johns College|St John's]] were a result of the dissolution of the monasteries in the [[16th century]]. The first colleges for women were [[/Girton College]] in 1869 and [[/Newnham College]] in 1872. The first women students were examind in 1882 but attempts to make women full members of the university did not succeed until 1947, 20 years later than at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].  The above is not a complete list of the [[/Colleges]].
------
Outing|990373873
0a1,6
> [[English language/British English|British English]]
> 
> A day out; <i>"We're going on an outing"</i>.
> ----
> [[English language/American English|American English]]
> 
------
English_language|990374075
16c16
< Varieties of English include [[English language/American English]] and [[English language/British English]].
---
> Varieties of English include [[English language/American English|American English]] and [[English language/British English|British English]].
19,21c19
< 
< [[English_language/Talk]]
< 
---
> /Talk
------
Dorothy_Sayers|990374082
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dorothy Leigh Sayers, British [[author]] and [[translator]].
> 
> Dorothy Sayers is perhaps best known for her [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] mysteries, a series of [[the novel|novels]] and [[the short story|short stories]] featuring an English [[aristocrat]] and amateur [[sleuth]]. 
> 
> Sayers herself considered her [[translation]] of [[Dante]]'s [[Divina Comedia]] to be her best work. She also wrote religious [[the play|plays]] of which [[The Man Born to be King]] is the best known. 
> 
> Born in [[Oxford]] in 1893. Studied classical and modern languages. Dead 1957. Biography by Dr. [[Barbara Reynolds]]: [[Dorothy L. Sayers: Her Life and Soul]].
------
University_of_Cambridge/Peterhouse|990374110
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/gifs/petcrest_sm.gif
> 
> Peterhouse is the oldest college in the [[University of Cambridge]]. It was founded in 1284 by [[Hugo de Balsham]], Bishop of [[Ely]].  Peterhouse has ([[2001]]) approximately 250 undergraduates, 90 graduate students, and 45 fellows, making it one of the smallest [[/Colleges]] in the University of Cambridge.
> 
> '''Famous [[alumn]]i of Peterhouse'''
> 
>  [[Charles Babbage]] (His difference engine leads to the modern computer) 
>  Richard Baker (News reader) 
>  Henry Cavendish 
>  Christopher Cockerell 
>  [[Richard Crashaw]] (Poet) 
>  James Dewar 
>  Duke of Grafton (Prime Minister 1768-1770) 
>  Thomas Gray (Poet) 
>  Colin Charles Greenwood (Bass Player of Radiohead) 
>  Michael Howard 
>  [[Lord Kelvin]] 
>  Sir A Klug OM PRS (Nobel Prize Winner, Peterhouse Fellow) 
>  [[Archer Martin]] (Nobel Prize for developing partition chromatography) 
>  [[James Mason]] (British film star) 
>  [[Sam Mendes]] (Film producer) 
>  [[Andrew Perne]] 
>  [[Max Perutz]] (Nobel Prize for determining the structure of haemoproteins) 
>  [[Michael Portillo]] 
>  [[Claudia Pugh-Thomas]] (Trapeze artist) 
>  [[John Whitgift]] 
>  [[Frank Whittle]] (Developed [[jet propulsion]]) 
> 
> Official website, http://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/
------
Charles_Babbage|990374152
1c1
< 1791-1871 [[mathematician]]. Built the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s.  Alumn of [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].  See also [[Ada Lovelace]].
---
> 1791-1871 [[mathematician]]. Built the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s.  Alumn of [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]] and of [[University of Cambridge/Peterhouse]].  See also [[Ada Lovelace]].
------
University_of_Cambridge/Christs_College|990374242
0a1,2
> http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/format/crest_tiny.gif
> 
4c6
< Their webserver hosts the British division of the [[International Olympiad in Informatics]], http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/bio/
---
> Their webserver hosts the British division of the [[International Olympiad in Informatics]], http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/bio/
------
University_of_Cambridge|990374286
0a1,2
> http://www.cam.ac.uk/icons/local/univheadbl1.gif
> 
------
Xenophobia|990374581
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Fear of strangers and of the unknown.  Both [[racism]] and [[homophobia]] are sometimes reduced to xenophobia.
> 
------
Xenophobia|990374687
1c1
< Fear of strangers and of the unknown.  Both [[racism]] and [[homophobia]] are sometimes reduced to xenophobia.
---
> [[Fear]] ([[phobia]]) of strangers and of the unknown (xeno-).  Both [[racism]] and [[homophobia]] are sometimes reduced to xenophobia.
------
Veal|990375112
1,2c1
< [[Meat]] from [[calf]].
< 
---
> A [[Meat]] product from young [[calf]]s that are restricted to a crate so as to keep the flesh white and tender.
------
First_person_shooter|990375123
7c7
< The appeal of the FPS lies in immersive frenetic blasting with a touch of verisimilitude, humour, puzzle-solving and claustrophobia.
---
> The appeal of the FPS lies in immersive frenetic blasting with a touch of verisimilitude, humour, puzzle-solving and [[claustrophobia]].
------
Greek_language/Lexicon|990375211
41c41
< <tr><td>phobia</td><td>fear </td></tr>
---
> <tr><td>[[phobia]]</td><td>fear </td></tr>
44c44
< <tr><td>psukhos </td><td>spirit, mind</table>----
---
> <tr><td>psukhos </td><td>spirit, mind, [[psyche]]</table>----
------
Phobia|990375263
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Phobia is Greek for [[fear]].  The term is used for a number of psychologic conditions that can seriously disable their carriers.  In some cases, however, a fear or hatred is only based on [[ignorance]].
> 
> *[[agoraphobia]], fear of open places, from agora = public square
> *[[aleurophobia]], ... 
> *[[claustrophobia]], fear of small spaces
> *[[homophobia]], fear of [[homosexual]] people
> *[[xenophobia]], fear of strangers and of the unknown
> 
> See also [[angst]], [[anxiety]], [[disabilities]]
> 
------
Fear|990375310
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[feeling]] of perceived [[risk]], real or not.  See also [[phobia]].
> 
------
Risk|990375646
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Potential [[damage]] from a future, unknown [[event]], combined or confused with the [[probability]] for said event.
> 
> Air pollution from a coal burning power plant causes a low, but constant damage to the environment.  This is a certain risk.  A severe accident in a nuclear power plant has a high potential damage, but is very unlikely (low probability).  Comparing risks of such varying quality is difficult.
> 
------
GUI|990375911
1c1
< GUI is short for Graphic User Interface, also known as a "window system".  See [[computer]] and [[computing]].
---
> Graphic User Interface, pronounced "gooey". A [[computer]] [[HumanComputerInteraction]] method that typically uses [[widget]]s such as menus, buttons, radio boxes and more.
2a3
> Write something about Xerox PARC here.
------
Lord_Peter_Wimsey|990376142
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Lord Peter Wimsey is a [[fiction]]al [[character]] invented by [[Dorothy Sayers]].
> 
> He is the main character of a number of novels and short stories in which he solves murder mysteries. The novels are set in a setting contemporary to when they were written in the 1920s and 30s. 
> 
> Lord Peter's fictional life starts in 1890. His full name is Peter Death Bredon Wimsey. His elder brother is the (fictional) Duke of Denver. Lord Peter served in [[World War I]] and got a bad case of [[shell shock]]. He has occassional problems with his nerves because of shell shock throughout the books. He has a manservant, Bunter, who he served with during the war. Bunter is a man of at least as many talents as Lord Peter. Photography is one of them. Lord Peter drives a [[Bentley]]. In [[Strong Poison]] Lord Peter meets [[Harriet Vane]] and falls in love with her. Harriet is a mystery writer accused of having killed her ex-lover. 
> 
> Novels and the year of first publication:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Whose Body?]], 1923
> <li>[[Clouds of Witness]], 1924
> <li>[[Unnatural Death]], 1928
> <li>[[The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club]], 1928
> <li>[[Strong Poison]], 1931 
> <li>[[The Five Red Herrings]], 1931
> <li>[[Have His Carcase]], 1932
> <li>[[Murder Must Advertise]], 1933
> <li>[[The Nine Tailors]], 1934
> <li>[[Gaudy Night]], 1935
> <li>[[Busman's Honeymoon]], 1935
> <li>[[Thrones, Dominations]], 1936
> </ul>
> 
> 
> The Lord Peter Wimsey novels were made into a very successfull TV series by the BBC. Lord Peter Wimsey is played by [[Ian Carmichael]] during the seventies and later on by [[Edward Petherbridge]], Harriet Vane is played by [[Harriet Walter]].
------
Alphabet|990376413
0a1,3
> [[A]], [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]],
> [[N]], [[O]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[U]], [[V]], [[W]], [[X]], [[Y]], [[Z]]
> 
7a11,12
> 
> '''Alphabetic order:''' The alphabet establishes an order between letters, and is used for sorting entries in directories or catalogs that are based on [[sequential access]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying rules for alphabetic ordering.  In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).
------
International_Olympiad_in_Informatics|990376504
23c23
< See also other [[science olypiad]]s.
---
> See also other [[science olympiad]]s.
------
Outing|990376606
1c1
< [[English language/British English|British English]]
---
> 1. Noun: A day out; <i>"We're going on an outing"</i>.
3,5c3
< A day out; <i>"We're going on an outing"</i>.
< ----
< [[English language/American English|American English]]
---
> 2. Verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]]. 
7c5
< The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]]. 
---
> /Talk
------
Phobia|990376615
4c4
< *[[aleurophobia]], ... 
---
> *[[aleurophobia]], fear of cats 
------
Outing/Talk|990376633
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The word is used in both meanings in both American and British English
> --Mjausson
------
Letter|990376764
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A written message, often by hand, now often by [[email]].  See also [[address]], [[envelope]], [[manuscript]], [[postal service]], [[stamp]].
> 
> 2. A letter of the [[alphabet]].
> 
------
Lesbian|990376807
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A woman who prefers romantic and sexual relationships with other women. 
> 
> Also see [[gay]].
------
Anti-semitism|990376937
5c5
< Anti-semitism has a long history of persecution of Jews in Europe, the Middle East and the Western World at large. Can someone expand on this? 
---
> Anti-semitism has a long history, including persecution of Jews in Europe, the Middle East and the Western World at large. Can someone expand on this? 
------
Gay|990377024
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Gay can be used inclusively or exclusively. The inclusive meaning refers to both men and women who prefer romantic relationships with their own sex. The exclusive meaning refers only to men who love men. Whether [[bisexual]]s are included in either of those meanings is a matter of debate. 
> 
> See also [[homosexual]], [[lesbian]], [[lesbigay]], [[LGB]], [[politically correct]]. 
> 
> 2. Older meaning: happy, cheerful
> 
------
Letter|990377062
1c1
< 1. A written message, often by hand, now often by [[email]].  See also [[address]], [[envelope]], [[manuscript]], [[postal service]], [[stamp]].
---
> 1. A written message, often by hand, now often by [[email]].  See also [[address]], [[envelope]], [[letterboxing]], [[mail]], [[mailbox]], [[manuscript]], [[postal service]], [[postmaster]], [[postmaster General]], [[post office]], [[postage Stamp]], [[Universal Postal Union]].
------
Lesbigay|990377198
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Suitcase word]] used to refer to [[lesbian]]s, [[bisexual]]s and [[gay]] men. Sometimes the acronym [[LGB]] is used instead.  
------
Lesbigay|990377356
1c1
< [[Suitcase word]] used to refer to [[lesbian]]s, [[bisexual]]s and [[gay]] men. Sometimes the acronym [[LGB]] is used instead.  
---
> [[Suitcase word]] used to refer to [[lesbian]]s, [[bisexual]]s and [[gay]] men. Sometimes the acronym [[LGB]] is used instead. The acronym [[LGBT]] also includes [[transgender]]ed people. 
------
Angst|990377823
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A German word for [[fear]] or [[anxiety]].  Used in English language to describe a more intense feeling of mental blocking.
------
Anxiety|990377863
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[fear]] that constitutes a mental blocking, e.g. [[high anxiety]].  See also [[angst]].
> 
------
Alphabet/Talk|990377932
5c5,7
< PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /gh/ as in doghouse, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley.  Also it can show up as part of /ng/ or /ngh/ or as //, as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
---
> PS - a quick search finds /g/ as in ghost, /gh/ as in doghouse, /f/ as in enough, /p/ as in hiccough, /w/ as in plough, /h/ as in Callaghan, and if you accept them, /k/ as in lough, /&theta;/ as in Keighley.  Also it can show up as part of /ng/ or /ngh/ or as //, as in light.  Tolkien used it to represent /&gamma;/, but he was clearly being ridiculous.
> ----
> Someone should add something here about [[George Bernhard Shaw]]s [http://members.aol.com/RSRICHMOND/shawintro.html|alphabet proposals].
------
High_anxiety|990377997
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. [[Fear]] of high places or the risk of falling down.  See [[anxiety]] and [[phobia]].
> 
> 2. A film by [[Mel Brooks]], 1977, http://us.imdb.com/Title?0076141
> 
> 
------
Outing|990378011
3c3,4
< 2. Verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]]. 
---
> 2. Noun: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].<br>
> Derived from the verb: to out: to let it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]].   
------
A.A._Milne|990378193
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of the books about [[Winnie the Pooh]].  Also an alumn of the [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].
> 
------
Outing/Talk|990378203
1a2,4
> --Mjausson
> 
> Rose, how come the second meaning of outing is now a noun? I've usually heard it used as a verb, as indeed it is within that entry. Is it used as a noun more often, in your experience?
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990378278
13c13
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Gray|Gandalf the Gray]]
---
>  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Grey|Gandalf the Grey]]
------
Winnie_the_Pooh|990378353
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A. A. Milne]].
> 
------
Alumn|990378420
1c1
< An alumn is a former student of a [[university]].  The correct Latin plural is alumni, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni reunions is a popular event at many universities.
---
> An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate.  The correct Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.
------
Winnie_the_Pooh|990378573
1c1
< A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A. A. Milne]].
---
> A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A.A. Milne]].
------
A.A._Milne|990378661
1,2c1
< Author of the books about [[Winnie the Pooh]].  Also an alumn of the [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[A. A. Milne]]
------
A._A._Milne|990378675
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Author of the books about [[Winnie the Pooh]].  Also an alumn of the [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]].
> 
------
Winnie_the_Pooh|990378693
1c1
< A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A.A. Milne]].
---
> A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A. A. Milne]].
------
Punch_magazine|990378729
5c5
< Notable authors who contributed at one time or another included [[John Betjeman]], [[A.A. Milne]], [[Anthony Powell]] and [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]]; [[John Tenniel]] was a regular political cartoonist in the late 19th century.
---
> Notable authors who contributed at one time or another included [[John Betjeman]], [[A. A. Milne]], [[Anthony Powell]] and [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]]; [[John Tenniel]] was a regular political cartoonist in the late 19th century.
------
India/Government|990379638
9c9
< federal republic
---
> [[federal republic]]
11c11
< New Delhi
---
> [[New Delhi]]
13c13
< 25 states and 7 union territories*; Andaman and Nicobar Islands*, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh*, Dadra and Nagar Haveli*, Daman and Diu*, Delhi*, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Lakshadweep*, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Pondicherry*, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
---
> 25 states and 7 union territories*; [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]*, [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]], [[Bihar]], [[Chandigarh]]*, [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]*, [[Daman and Diu]]*, [[Delhi]]*, [[Goa]], [[Gujarat]], [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]]*, [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Manipur]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Mizoram]], [[Nagaland]], [[Orissa]], [[Pondicherry]]*, [[Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Sikkim]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Tripura]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[West Bengal]]
15c15
< 15 August 1947 (from UK)
---
> 15 August 1947 (from [[United Kingdom|UK]])
21,22c21,22
< based on English common law; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
< <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
---
> based on [[English common law]]; limited judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory [[ICJ]] jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>[[Suffrage]]:</b>
26c26
< President Kicheril Raman NARAYANAN (since 25 July 1997); Vice President Krishnan KANT (since 21 August 1997)
---
> President [[Kicheril Raman Narayanan]] (since 25 July 1997); Vice President [[Krishnan Kant]] (since 21 August 1997)
28c28
< Prime Minister Atal Behari VAJPAYEE (since 19 March 1998)
---
> Prime Minister [[Atal Behari Vajpayee]] (since 19 March 1998)
34c34
< Kicheril Raman NARAYANAN elected president; percent of electoral college vote - NA; Krishnan KANT elected vice president; percent of Parliament vote - NA; Atal Behari VAJPAYEE elected prime minister; percent of vote - NA
---
> [[Kicheril Raman Narayanan]] elected president; percent of electoral college vote - NA; [[Krishnan Kant]] elected vice president; percent of Parliament vote - NA; [[Atal Behari Vajpayee]] elected prime minister; percent of vote - NA
36c36
< bicameral Parliament or Sansad consists of the Council of States or Rajya Sabha (a body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 of which are appointed by the president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members of the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year terms) and the People's Assembly or Lok Sabha (545 seats; 543 elected by popular vote, 2 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
---
> bicameral Parliament or [[Sansad]] consists of the Council of States or [[Rajya Sabha]] (a body consisting of not more than 250 members, up to 12 of which are appointed by the president, the remainder are chosen by the elected members of the state and territorial assemblies; members serve six-year terms) and the People's Assembly or [[Lok Sabha]] (545 seats; 543 elected by popular vote, 2 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms)
40c40
< People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - BJP alliance 40.8%, Congress alliance 33.8%, other 25.4%; seats by party - BJP alliance 304, Congress alliance 134, other 105
---
> People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - [[BJP alliance]] 40.8%, [[Congress alliance]] 33.8%, other 25.4%; seats by party - BJP alliance 304, Congress alliance 134, other 105
44c44,70
< Akali Dal (representing Sikh religious community in Punjab) [Prakash Singh BADAL]; All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam or AIADMK [J. JAYALALITHA]; All India Forward Bloc or AIFB [Prem Dutta PALIWAL (chairman), Chitta BASU (general secretary)]; Asom Gana Parishad [Prafulla Kumar MAHANTA]; Bahujan Samaj Party or BSP [Kanshi RAM]; Bharatiya Janata Party or BJP [Kushabhau THAKRE, president, L. K. ADVANI, A. B. VAJPAYEE]; Bihar Peoples Party [Anand Mohan SINGH]; Biju Janata Dal or BJD [Navin PATNAIK]; Communist Party of India or CPI [Indrajit GUPTA]; Communist Party of India/Marxist or CPI/M [Harkishan Singh SURJEET]; Communist Party of India/Marxist-Leninist or CPI/ML [Vinod MISHRA]; Congress (I) Party [Sonia GANDHI, president]; Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI]; Indian National League [Suliaman SAIT]; Janata Dal (Ajit) [Ajit SINGH]; Janata Dal United Party or JDU [Sharad YADAV, president, I. K. GUJRAL]; Kerala Congress (Mani faction) [K. M. MANI]; Muslim League [G. M. BANATWALA]; National Conference or NC (a regional party in Jammu and Kashmir) [Farooq ABDULLAH]; Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad YADAV]; Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Tridip CHOWDHURY]; Samajwadi Party or SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV, president]; Samata Party or SAP (formerly Janata Dal members) [George FERNANDES]; Shiv Sena or SHS [Bal THACKERAY]; Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. MOOPANAR]; Telugu Desam (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh) [Chandrababu NAIDU]; Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANNERJEE]
---
>  [[Akali Dal]] (representing [[Sikh]] religious community in [[Punjab]]) [[Prakash Singh Badal]];
>  [[All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam]] or [[AIADMK]] [[J. Jayalalitha]];
>  [[All India Forward Bloc]] or [[AIFB]] [[Prem Dutta Paliwal]] (chairman), [[Chitta Basu]] (general secretary)];
>  [[Asom Gana Parishad]] [[Prafulla Kumar Mahanta]];
>  [[Bahujan Samaj Party]] or [[BSP]] [[Kanshi Ram]];
>  [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] or [[BJP]] [[Kushabhau Thakre]], president, [[L. K. Advani]], [[A. B. Vajpayee]];
>  [[Bihar Peoples Party]] [[Anand Mohan Singh]];
>  [[Biju Janata Dal]] or [[BJD]] [[Navin Patnaik]];
>  [[Communist Party of India]] or [[CPI]] [[Indrajit Gupta]];
>  [[Communist Party of India-Marxist]] or [[CPI-M]] [[Harkishan Singh Surjeet]];
>  Communist Party of India/Marxist-Leninist or CPI/ML [Vinod MISHRA];
>  Congress (I) Party [Sonia GANDHI, president];
>  Dravida Munnetra Kazagham or DMK (a regional party in Tamil Nadu) [M. KARUNANIDHI];
>  Indian National League [Suliaman SAIT];
>  Janata Dal (Ajit) [Ajit SINGH];
>  Janata Dal United Party or JDU [Sharad YADAV, president, I. K. GUJRAL];
>  Kerala Congress (Mani faction) [K. M. MANI];
>  Muslim League [G. M. BANATWALA];
>  National Conference or NC (a regional party in Jammu and Kashmir) [Farooq ABDULLAH];
>  Rashtriya Janata Dal or RJD [Laloo Prasad YADAV];
>  Revolutionary Socialist Party or RSP [Tridip CHOWDHURY];
>  Samajwadi Party or SP [Mulayam Singh YADAV, president];
>  Samata Party or SAP (formerly Janata Dal members) [George FERNANDES];
>  [[Shiv Sena]] or [[SHS]] [[Bal Thackeray]];
>  Tamil Maanila Congress [G. K. MOOPANAR];
>  Telugu Desam (a regional party in Andhra Pradesh) [Chandrababu NAIDU];
>  Trinamool Congress [Mamata BANNERJEE]
46c72
< numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations, including Vishwa Hindu Parishad, and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh; various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regional autonomy
---
> numerous religious or militant/chauvinistic organizations, including [[Vishwa Hindu Parishad]], and [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]]; various separatist groups seeking greater communal and/or regional autonomy
51c77
< Ambassador Naresh CHANDRA
---
> Ambassador [[Naresh Chandra]]
59c85
< Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
---
> [[Chicago]], [[Houston]], [[New York]], and [[San Francisco]]
62c88
< Ambassador Richard F. CELESTE
---
> Ambassador [[Richard F. Celeste]]
64c90
< Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri 110021, New Delhi
---
> Shanti Path, Chanakyapuri 110021, [[New Delhi]]
72c98
< Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay)
---
> [[Calcutta]], [[Chennai]] ([[Madras]]), [[Mumbai]] ([[Bombay]])
74c100
< three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a blue chakra (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Niger, which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
---
> three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a blue [[chakra]] (24-spoked wheel) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of [[Niger]], which has a small orange disk centered in the white band
------
Shiv_Sena|990379760
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Shiv Sena (or SHS) is a [[political party]] in [[India]].
> Its leader is [[Bal Thackeray]].
> 
------
Bal_Thackeray|990379834
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Leader of the political party [[Shiv Sena]] (or SHS) in [[India]].
> 
------
Mumbai|990379905
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Indian name for the city of [[Bombay]].
------
Bombay|990379956
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bombay is the English name for the [[city]] '''Mumbai''' in [[India]].
------
Outing/Talk|990380354
5c5,39
< --Mjausson
---
> --Mjausson----
> This is the same as: to <i>find</i> is a verb, but the present participle <i>finding</i> is a noun. Therefore, in the sentence, "Finding fossils is a great hobby." <i>finding</i>
> is a noun.
> If <i>outing</i> were a verb, one could run through (conjugate) the present tense, like find, compare:
> <pre>
> 
>       First Person Singular    I find                 I outing
>       Second Person Singular You find               You outing
>       Third Person Singular  He/She finds        He/She outings
>       
>       First Person Plural     We find            We outing
>       Second Person Plural   You find           You outing
>       Third Person Plural   They find          They outing 
> </pre>
> 
> If <i>outing</i> is used this way either in Britain or America, I would be surprised to hear it.<br>
> Compare:
> <pre>
>        I out
>      You out
>  He/She outs
> 
>      We out
>     You out
>    They out 
> </pre>
> For this reason I think <i>out</i> is the verb.
> To complicate matters, this present participle <i>outing</i> does serve as part of a verb clause in various other tenses, like:
> <pre>
> Present Continuous:        I am outing
> Past Continuous:           I was outing
> Past Anterior Continuous:  I had been outing
> Future:                    I will be outing  
> </pre>
> In this case they <i>outing</i> is considered part of a complex verb tense or a compound verb,     
------
Jonny_Z|990380484
1c1
< Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". Besides bass music, he also recorded some funk-influenced hip hop as found on his earlier albums.
---
> Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". Besides bass music, he also recorded some funk-influenced hip hop as found on his earlier albums. Among those early tracks, the Chicano anthem "Orale". On "Bass Balla", Mexico seems to be pictured as more of an exotic hinterland: "with this beat from behind the border..." he raps on the "Mariachi Twist", and on the Latin-tinged hip hop track "Barrio Anthem", Jonny glorifies America and talks about "Latin players" like [[Rubén Blades]] and [[Pérez Prado]], but not about Chicano culture. 
------
Alumn|990380732
1c1
< An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate.  The correct Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.
---
> An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate.  ''Alumna'' is a female form of the word alumn.  The correct Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.
------
Alumni|990380764
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Plural form of [[alumn]], which see.
------
Alumna|990380787
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Female form of [[alumn]], which see.
> 
------
Outing/Talk|990380837
7,8c7,8
< is a noun.
< If <i>outing</i> were a verb, one could run through (conjugate) the present tense, like find, compare:
---
> is a noun. Just like <i>outing</i> is the <b>act</b> of ..., so <i>finding</i> is the <b> act</b> of.... Such words are nouns. Compare: create (verb), creation (noun). Again, creation is the <b> act</b> of.... Here, I think it is more clear that creation is a noun.
> If <i>outing</i> were a verb, one could run through (conjugate) the present tense, like find. Compare:
------
Jonny_Z|990380921
1c1
< Latin bass artist from San Diego, California. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". Besides bass music, he also recorded some funk-influenced hip hop as found on his earlier albums. Among those early tracks, the Chicano anthem "Orale". On "Bass Balla", Mexico seems to be pictured as more of an exotic hinterland: "with this beat from behind the border..." he raps on the "Mariachi Twist", and on the Latin-tinged hip hop track "Barrio Anthem", Jonny glorifies America and talks about "Latin players" like [[Rubén Blades]] and [[Pérez Prado]], but not about Chicano culture. 
---
> Latin bass artist from [[San Diego]], [[California]]. Real name: Jonny Zazueta. He made a Latin version of [[Rodney O and Joe Cooley]]'s classic "Everlasting Bass" featuring South Park Mexican a.k.a. [[SPM]], and his first hit was "Shake Shake", based on [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s "Planet Rock". Besides bass music, he also recorded some [[funk]]-influenced hip hop as found on his earlier albums. Among those early tracks, the Chicano anthem "Orale". On "Bass Balla", Mexico seems to be pictured as more of an exotic hinterland: "with this beat from behind the border..." he raps on the "Mariachi Twist", and on the Latin-tinged hip hop track "Barrio Anthem", Jonny glorifies America and talks about "Latin players" like [[Rubén Blades]] and [[Pérez Prado]], but not about Chicano culture. 
5c5
< Jonny Z (1996) Pump Records
---
> Jonny Z (1996) [[Pump Records]]
11c11
< Bass Balla (2000) Thump Records
---
> Bass Balla (2000) [[Thump Records]]
------
Pittsburgh_Steelers|990381002
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], so named because of the abundant [[steel industry]] in the city.
> 
------
Pittsburgh|990381085
2,3d1
< It is home to the [[Carnegie-Mellon University]] and
< the [[Andy Warhol]] Museum.
4a3,10
> '''Colleges'''
>  [[Carnegie-Mellon University]]
> 
> '''Museums'''
>  [[Andy Warhol]] Museum
> 
> '''Sports'''
>  [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]
------
TeX|990381128
1c1
< TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by Donald Knuth to typeset his books on the computer science.
---
> TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by [[Donald E. Knuth]] to typeset his books on the computer science.
------
TeX|990381149
1c1
< TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by [[Donald E. Knuth]] to typeset his books on the computer science.
---
> TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by [[Donald E. Knuth]] to typeset his books on computer science.
4a5
> See [[Metafont]].
------
Alumn|990381265
1c1
< An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate.  ''Alumna'' is a female form of the word alumn.  The correct Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.
---
> An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate. In, Latin,  <i>Alumnus</i> is a masculine singular form of the word, <i>Alumna</i> is the feminine singular form  The Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.----Anyone for the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative?
------
Alumni|990381404
1c1
< Plural form of [[alumn]], which see.
---
> Masculine plural form of alumnus. Such a person is often referred to as an [[alumn]].
------
Alumna|990381511
1c1
< Female form of [[alumn]], which see.
---
> Singular female form of alumnus. Such a person is often referred to as an [[alumn]].
------
Alumna|990381534
1c1
< Singular female form of alumnus. Such a person is often referred to as an [[alumn]].
---
> Singular female form of <i>alumnus</i>. Such a person is often referred to as an [[alumn]].
------
SuperBowl|990381576
10,43c10,43
< * 1/15/67 Green Bay Packers bt. Kansas City Chiefs 35-10
< * 1/14/68 Green Bay Packers bt. Oakland Raiders 33-14
< * 1/12/69 New York Jets bt. Baltimore Colts 16-7
< * 1/11/70 Kansas City Chiefs bt. Minnesota Vikings 23-7
< * 1/17/71 Baltimore Colts bt.Dallas Cowboys 16-13
< * 1/16/72 Dallas Cowboys bt. Miami Dolphins 24-3
< * 1/14/73 Miami Dolphins bt. Washington Redskins 14-7
< * 1/13/74 Miami Dolphins bt. Minnesota Vikings 24-7
< * 1/12/75 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Minnesota Vikings 16-6
< * 1/18/76 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Dallas Cowboys 21-17
< * 1/09/77 Oakland Raiders bt. Minnesota Vikings 32-14
< * 1/15/78 Dallas Cowboys bt. Denver Broncos 27-10
< * 1/21/79 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Dallas Cowboys 35-31
< * 1/20/80 Pittsburgh Steelers bt. Los Angeles Rams 31-19
< * 1/25/81 Oakland Raiders bt. Philadelphia Eagles 27-10
< * 1/24/82 San Francisco 49ers bt. Cincinnati Bengals 26-21
< * 1/30/83 Washington Redskins bt. Miami Dolphins 27-17
< * 1/22/84 Los Angeles Raiders bt. Washington Redskins 38-9
< * 1/20/85 San Francisco 49ers bt. Miami Dolphins 38-16
< * 1/26/86 Chicago Bears bt. New England Patriots 46-10
< * 1/25/87 New York Giants bt. Denver Broncos 39-20
< * 1/31/88 Washington Redskins bt. Denver Broncos 42-10
< * 1/22/89 San Francisco 49ers bt. Cincinnati Bengals 20-16
< * 1/28/90 San Francisco 49ers bt. Denver Broncos 55-10
< * 1/27/91 New York Giants bt. Buffalo Bills 20-19
< * 1/26/92 Washington Redskins bt. Buffalo Bills 37-24
< * 1/31/93 Dallas Cowboys bt. Buffalo Bills 52-17
< * 1/30/94 Dallas Cowboys bt. Buffalo Bills 30-13
< * 1/29/95 San Francisco 49ers bt. San Diego Chargers 49-26
< * 1/28/96 Dallas Cowboys bt. Pittsburgh Steelers 27-17
< * 1/26/97 Green Bay Packers bt. New England Patriots 35-21
< * 1/25/98 Denver Broncos bt. Green Bay Packers 31-24
< * 1/31/99 Denver Broncos bt. Atlanta Falcons 34-19
< * 1/30/00 St Louis Rams bt. Tennessee Titans 23-16
---
>  1/15/67 [[Green Bay Packers]]   bt. [[Kansas City Chiefs]]   35-10
>  1/14/68 [[Green Bay Packers]]   bt. [[Oakland Raiders]]      33-14
>  1/12/69 [[New York Jets]]       bt. [[Baltimore Colts]]      16-7
>  1/11/70 [[Kansas City Chiefs]]  bt. [[Minnesota Vikings]]    23-7
>  1/17/71 [[Baltimore Colts]]     bt. [[Dallas Cowboys]]       16-13
>  1/16/72 [[Dallas Cowboys]]      bt. [[Miami Dolphins]]       24-3
>  1/14/73 [[Miami Dolphins]]      bt. [[Washington Redskins]]  14-7
>  1/13/74 [[Miami Dolphins]]      bt. [[Minnesota Vikings]]    24-7
>  1/12/75 [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] bt. [[Minnesota Vikings]]    16-6
>  1/18/76 [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] bt. [[Dallas Cowboys]]       21-17
>  1/09/77 [[Oakland Raiders]]     bt. [[Minnesota Vikings]]    32-14
>  1/15/78 [[Dallas Cowboys]]      bt. [[Denver Broncos]]       27-10
>  1/21/79 [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] bt. [[Dallas Cowboys]]       35-31
>  1/20/80 [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] bt. [[Los Angeles Rams]]     31-19
>  1/25/81 [[Oakland Raiders]]     bt. [[Philadelphia Eagles]]  27-10
>  1/24/82 [[San Francisco 49ers]] bt. [[Cincinnati Bengals]]   26-21
>  1/30/83 [[Washington Redskins]] bt. [[Miami Dolphins]]       27-17
>  1/22/84 [[Los Angeles Raiders]] bt. [[Washington Redskins]]  38-9
>  1/20/85 [[San Francisco 49ers]] bt. [[Miami Dolphins]]       38-16
>  1/26/86 [[Chicago Bears]]       bt. [[New England Patriots]] 46-10
>  1/25/87 [[New York Giants]]     bt. [[Denver Broncos]]       39-20
>  1/31/88 [[Washington Redskins]] bt. [[Denver Broncos]]       42-10
>  1/22/89 [[San Francisco 49ers]] bt. [[Cincinnati Bengals]]   20-16
>  1/28/90 [[San Francisco 49ers]] bt. [[Denver Broncos]]       55-10
>  1/27/91 [[New York Giants]]     bt. [[Buffalo Bills]]        20-19
>  1/26/92 [[Washington Redskins]] bt. [[Buffalo Bills]]        37-24
>  1/31/93 [[Dallas Cowboys]]      bt. [[Buffalo Bills]]        52-17
>  1/30/94 [[Dallas Cowboys]]      bt. [[Buffalo Bills]]        30-13
>  1/29/95 [[San Francisco 49ers]] bt. [[San Diego Chargers]]   49-26
>  1/28/96 [[Dallas Cowboys]]      bt. [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]  27-17
>  1/26/97 [[Green Bay Packers]]   bt. [[New England Patriots]] 35-21
>  1/25/98 [[Denver Broncos]]      bt. [[Green Bay Packers]]    31-24
>  1/31/99 [[Denver Broncos]]      bt. [[Atlanta Falcons]]      34-19
>  1/30/00 [[St Louis Rams]]       bt. [[Tennessee Titans]]     23-16
45c45
< See also: AmericanFootball
---
> See also: AmericanFootball
------
Alumni|990381589
1c1
< Masculine plural form of alumnus. Such a person is often referred to as an [[alumn]].
---
> Masculine plural form of alumnus. Such people are often referred to as an [[alumn]].
------
Los_Angeles_Rams|990381622
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
Kansas_City_Chiefs|990381656
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Kansas City]], [[Kansas]].  See also SuperBowl.
------
Oakland_Raiders|990381688
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Oakland]], [[California]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
Alphabet/Talk|990381746
7c7
< Someone should add something here about [[George Bernhard Shaw]]s [http://members.aol.com/RSRICHMOND/shawintro.html|alphabet proposals].
---
> Someone should add something here about [[George Bernhard Shaw]]s [http://members.aol.com/RSRICHMOND/shawintro.html|alphabet proposals].----Are we referring to the "Fresh Fish" speeling item?
------
Miami_Dolphins|990381749
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Miami]], [[Florida]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
Alphabet/Talk|990381766
7c7
< Someone should add something here about [[George Bernhard Shaw]]s [http://members.aol.com/RSRICHMOND/shawintro.html|alphabet proposals].----Are we referring to the "Fresh Fish" speeling item?
---
> Someone should add something here about [[George Bernhard Shaw]]s [http://members.aol.com/RSRICHMOND/shawintro.html|alphabet proposals].----Are we referring to the "Fresh Fish" spelling item?
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990381772
9,15c9,28
< * Characters
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Bill the Pony|Bill the Pony]]
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]]
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Grey|Gandalf the Grey]]
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]]
<  [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]]
---
> * The Fellowship of the Ring)
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Peregrin Took|Peregrin "Pippin" Took]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Meriadoc Brandybuck|Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Aragorn|Aragorn]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Boromir|Boromir]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Legolas|Legolas]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Gimli|Gimli]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf|Gandalf]]
> 
> * Other Characters
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Bill the Pony|Bill the Pony]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Gollum|Gollum]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Saruman|Saruman]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Galadriel|Galadriel]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Elrond|Elrond]]
> 
------
Florida|990381826
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the states in the [[United States]].  Florida is known as the sunshine state.  The official language is Spanish, or will be soon enough.
> 
> Important cities include [[Miami]].
> 
------
Dallas_Cowboys|990381868
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Dallas]], [[Texas]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
San_Francisco_49ers|990381916
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].  See also SuperBowl.
>  
------
National_Football_League|990381964
11,12c11,12
< :ArizonaCardinals
< :AtlantaFalcons
---
> :[[Arizona Cardinals]]
> :[[Atlanta Falcons]]
------
National_Football_League|990382061
14,23c14,23
< :BuffaloBills
< :CarolinaPanthers
< :ChicagoBears
< :CincinnatiBengals
< :ClevelandBrowns
< :DenverBroncos
< :DetroitLions
< :GreenBayPackers
< :HoustonOilers - founded 196? - moved to Tennessee in 199? and changed name to Tennessee Titans
< :HoustonTexans
---
> :[[Buffalo Bills]]
> :[[Carolina Panthers]]
> :[[Chicago Bears]]
> :[[Cincinnati Bengals]]
> :[[Cleveland Browns]]
> :[[Denver Broncos]]
> :[[Detroit Lions]]
> :[[Green Bay Packers]]
> :[[Houston Oilers]] - founded 196? - moved to Tennessee in 199? and changed name to [[Tennessee Titans]]
> :[[Houston Texans]]
25c25
< :JacksonvilleJaguars
---
> :[[Jacksonville Jaguars]]
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Hobbit|990382152
3c3
< The story, subtitled 'There and Back Again' follows the adventures of [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]] as he travels across the lands of [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] with a band of dwarves and a wizard named [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf the Grey|Gandalf the Grey]].
---
> The story, subtitled 'There and Back Again' follows the adventures of [[JRR Tolkien/Bilbo Baggins|Bilbo Baggins]] as he travels across the lands of [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]] with a band of dwarves and a wizard named [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf|Gandalf]].
------
Closeted|990382177
5c5
< Also see [[outing]]
---
> Also see [[out]]ing
------
National_Football_League|990382206
26,30c26,30
< :KansasCityChiefs
< :MiamiDolphins
< :MinnesotaVikings
< :NewEnglandPatriots
< :NewOrleansSaints
---
> :[[Kansas City Chiefs]]
> :[[Miami Dolphins]]
> :[[Minnesota Vikings]]
> :[[New England Patriots]]
> :[[New Orleans Saints]]
32,42c32,43
< :NewYorkJets
< :OaklandRaiders
< :PhiladelphiaEagles
< :PittsburghSteelers
< :SanDiegoChargers
< :SanFrancisco49ers
< :SeattleSeahawks
< :StLouisRams
< :TampaBayBuccaneers
< :TennesseeTitans
< :WashingtonRedskins
---
> :[[New York Jets]]
> :[[Oakland Raiders]]
> :[[Philadelphia Eagles]]
> :[[Pittsburgh Steelers]]
> :[[San Diego Chargers]]
> :[[San Francisco 49ers]]
> :[[Seattle Seahawks]]
> :[[St Louis Rams]]
> :[[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]
> :[[Tennessee Titans]]
> :[[Washington Redskins]]
> 
------
Denver_Broncos|990382249
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Denver]], [[Colorado]].  See also [[National Football League]].
> 
------
Outing|990382284
1c1,2
< 1. Noun: A day out; <i>"We're going on an outing"</i>.
---
> Noun: A day out; <i>"We're going on an outing"</i>.
> 
3,4d3
< 2. Noun: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].<br>
< Derived from the verb: to out: to let it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]].   
------
Colorado|990382330
1c1
< A state in the western United States.  Famous for the Rocky Mountains, where the highest peaks of the range exist.  The state capital and largest city is Denver.
---
> A state in the western [[United States]].  Famous for the [[Rocky Mountains]], where the highest peaks of the range exist.  The state capital and largest city is [[Denver]].
5c5,10
< Mount Elbert is the largest peak in the Rocky Mountains within the continental United States.
---
> [[Mount Elbert]] is the largest peak in the Rocky Mountains within the continental United States.
> 
> The famous [[Pikes Peak]] is just west of [[Colorado Springs]].  Its lone peak is visible from the [[Kansas]] border on clear days.
> 
> Also famous is the ski resort [[Aspen]].
> 
7d11
< The famous Pikes Peak is just west of Colorado Springs.  Its lone peak is visible from the Kansas border on clear days.
------
Kansas|990382397
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A state in the [[United States]].  Since all kansasians are illiterate, we cannot hope to get any help from them with this wikipedia entry.  On the other hand, who needs to know anything about Kansas, anyway?
------
Out|990382552
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. Adverb?
> 
> 2. Adverb: unfashionable
> 
> 3. Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
------
Outing/Talk|990382662
39a40,42
> <hr>
> OK, I've moved the second meaning to "out" and changed the link from "closeted". --Mjausson
> 
------
Biblioholist|990382694
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A biblioholist is a person addicted to [[Book|books]] and/or reading.
------
San_Diego_Chargers|990382699
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[San Diego]], [[California]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
Philadelphia_Eagles|990382750
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]].  See also SuperBowl.
> 
------
Winnie_the_Pooh|990382755
1c1
< A [[bear]] with of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A. A. Milne]].
---
> A [[bear]] of Very Little [[Brain]].  [[Book]]s about him were written by [[A. A. Milne]].
------
Philadelphia|990382790
8a9,10
> '''Sports'''
> *[[Philadelphia Eagles]]
------
Football_team|990382959
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A team of players of [[American football]] or (in Europe) [[soccer]].  Often also refers to an incorporated club or union that might have several actual teams in various leagues.
> 
> Lists of football teams are found here:
> *[[National Football League]]
> *[[SuperBowl]]
> *[[UEFA]]
> 
------
Football|990383131
3c3
< If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means: 
---
> If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means [[American football]]: 
13c13
< In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and EuropE) [[Football]] is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[Hooligans]]). 
---
> In many countries (mainly in [[South America]] and [[Europe]]) [[football]] is not only a sport but also a way of life. Millions of people go to see the matches each weekend. This has a bad side, as groups of fanatics have often caused disturbances and sometimes tragedies (See [[hooligans]]). 
19c19
< In the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], the previous definition corresponds to [[Soccer]]. 
---
> In the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], the previous definition corresponds to [[soccer]]. 
32c32,34
< In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
---
> In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
> ----
> See also [[football team]].
------
American_football|990383324
9c9
< There is a new league, known as the XfL.  
---
> Briefly there was also a new league, known as the XfL.  
------
Football|990383348
1c1,3
< Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term [[Football]], primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there. 
---
> 1. Outside the [[United States]], football means [[soccer]].
> 2. In the [[United States]], footbaal means [[American football]].
> 3. In [[Australia]], football means [[Australian Rules Football]].
3c5,7
< If you are outside the [[United States]], [[Football]] means [[American football]]: 
---
> Much friendly controversy has erupted over the term [[football]], primarily because it is used in different ways in different parts of the world. Two teams play agains each other to score with a ball in the opponent's area. The agreement ends there.  See also [[football team]].
> ----
> If you are outside the [[United States]], [[football]] means [[soccer]]: 
18d21
< 
20,26c23,24
< 
< 
< 
< --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
< 
< 
< However, if you are in the [[United States]], [[Football]] is something different: 
---
> ----
> However, if you are in the [[United States]], [[football]] is something different: 
32,34c30
< In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
< ----
< See also [[football team]].
---
> In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
------
Football|990383372
1,3c1,3
< 1. Outside the [[United States]], football means [[soccer]].
< 2. In the [[United States]], footbaal means [[American football]].
< 3. In [[Australia]], football means [[Australian Rules Football]].
---
>  1. Outside the [[United States]], football means [[soccer]].
>  2. In the [[United States]], footbaal means [[American football]].
>  3. In [[Australia]], football means [[Australian Rules Football]].
30c30
< In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
---
> In [[Australia]] the term football is usually used to mean [[Australian Rules Football]] another oval-ball game played during the winter on [[cricket]] pitches.
------
Football|990383390
2c2
<  2. In the [[United States]], footbaal means [[American football]].
---
>  2. In the [[United States]], football means [[American football]].
------
Football_team|990383456
3a4
> *[[Champions League]]
6a8
> *[[World Cup]]
------
Environmental_organizations|990383641
6a7,9
> 
> See also
> * [[environmental agreements|Environmental agreements]]
------
Cross-dresser|990383727
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Person who enjoys dressing in clothes usually reserved for the other sex.
------
Environmental_agreements|990383870
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> There are numerous international environmental agreements made to protect the environment in different ways. One of the most well-known is the [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]], but it is a but uncertain what will happen with that now that the [[United States]] don't seem to want to follow it anymore.
> 
> See http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/environment_-_international_agreements.html for a list of what countries have signed what agreements.
> 
> See also
> * [[Enviromental organizations]]
------
Environmental_agreements|990383884
6c6
< * [[Enviromental organizations]]
---
> * [[Environmental organizations]]
------
Bahrain/Economy|990384156
2c2
< In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
---
> In [[Bahrain]], [[petroleum]] production and processing account for about 60% of [[export]] receipts, 60% of [[government]] revenues, and 30% of [[GDP]]. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of [[oil]] since 1985, for example, during and following the [[Gulf crisis]] of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported [[crude]]. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
39c39
< petroleum processing and refining, aluminum smelting, offshore banking, ship repairing; tourism
---
> [[petroleum]] processing and refining, [[aluminum]] smelting, [[offshore banking]], [[ship]] repairing; [[tourism]]
60c60
< fruit, vegetables; poultry, dairy products; shrimp, fish
---
> [[fruit]], [[vegetables]]; [[poultry]], [[dairy products]]; [[shrimp]], [[fish]]
64c64
< petroleum and petroleum products 61%, aluminum 7%
---
> [[petroleum]] and petroleum products 61%, [[aluminum]] 7%
66c66
< India 18%, Japan 11%, Saudi Arabia 8%, South Korea 7%, UAE 5% (1997)
---
> [[India]] 18%, [[Japan]] 11%, [[Saudi Arabia]] 8%, [[South Korea]] 7%, [[UAE]] 5% (1997)
72c72
< Saudi Arabia 45%, US 10%, UK 6%, Japan 5%, Germany 4% (1997)
---
> [[Saudi Arabia]] 45%, [[United States]] 10%, [[United Kingdom]] 6%, [[Japan]] 5%, [[Germany]] 4% (1997)
78c78
< 1 Bahraini dinar (BD) = 1,000 fils
---
> 1 [[Bahraini dinar]] (BD) = 1,000 [[fils]]
------
Out|990384165
1c1
< 1. Adverb?
---
> 1. Adverb indicating an exterior position or direction towards the exterior: Going out (of the house).
3c3,7
< 2. Adverb: unfashionable
---
> 2. (Slang, based on 1) Adverb (or adjective?) meaning unfashionable: Disco music is out (of fashion).
> 
> 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]) Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
> 
> 4. (Slang, based on 3) The act of revealing other secrets about somebody to the public or a third party: He outed her as a smoker.
5d8
< 3. Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
------
Bahrain/Economy|990384226
60c60
< [[fruit]], [[vegetables]]; [[poultry]], [[dairy products]]; [[shrimp]], [[fish]]
---
> [[fruit]], [[vegetables]]; [[poultry]], [[Dairy product|dairy products]]; [[shrimp]], [[fish]]
------
Out|990384234
1c1
< 1. Adverb indicating an exterior position or direction towards the exterior: Going out (of the house).
---
> 1. Adverb indicating an exterior position or direction towards the exterior: Going out (of the house). Staying out late.
------
Out|990384362
5c5
< 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]) Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
---
> 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]: Taking somebody out of the closet) Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
------
Out|990384421
7c7
< 4. (Slang, based on 3) The act of revealing other secrets about somebody to the public or a third party: He outed her as a smoker.
---
> 4. (Slang, based on 3) The act of revealing other secrets about somebody to the public or a third party: He outed her as a smoker.  His outing her came as a big surprise to her parents.
------
San_Diego_Chargers|990384520
1c1
< [[Football team]] in [[San Diego]], [[California]].  See also SuperBowl.
---
> [[Football team]] in [[San Diego]], [[California]]. See also SuperBowl.
------
TeX|990384711
1c1
< TeX is a computer typesetting language originally designed by [[Donald E. Knuth]] to typeset his books on computer science.
---
> TeX is a computer [[typesetting language]] originally designed by [[Donald E. Knuth]] to typeset his [[book]]s on [[computer science]].
3c3
< Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful mathematics.  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[LaTeX]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
---
> Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful [[mathematics]].  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[LaTeX]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
5a6,7
> ----
> ''pointers to source code could be useful''
------
Environmental_organizations|990384892
9a10,11
> ----
> ''it is '''still''' an advantage to have page titles in singular, for example when you write about Greenpeace and want to mention that it is'' ... "an ((environmental organization))"
------
English_Channel|990385459
1c1,3
< The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].  ''La Manche'' in [[FrenchLanguage|French]].
---
> The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].  ''La Manche'' in [[FrenchLanguage|French]].
> 
> In [[1909]], [[Louis Bleriot]] from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft. 
------
TeX|990385812
5c5,7
< See [[Metafont]].
---
> The name TeX is often mispronounced as if it ended in an English X.  It doesn't.  It ends in a capital &chi; (the Greek letter) and thus it is pronounced roughly as "tekh".  English doesn't really have the right terminal sound, but it is a softened k sound, much as if the word "tech" is pronounced in German.
> 
> See [[Metafont]] which is the associated font description language.
7c9,14
< ''pointers to source code could be useful''
---
> TeX users group is at http://www.tug.org/
> 
> The LaTeX project is at http://www.latex-project.org/
> 
> And the AMS support page for AMSTeX is at http://www.ams.org/tex/
> 
------
Louis_Bleriot|990386531
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On July 25, [[1909]], Louis Bleriot from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the [[English Channel]] in a heavier-than-air aircraft.   This [[airplane]] was his own design, the Bleriot XI, of which copies were also manufactured in Stockholm Sweden called Thulin A.
> 
> Image, http://w1.541.telia.com/~u54103380/frmeset2.htm
------
1909|990386659
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 
> 
> *On July 25, [[Louis Bleriot]] was the first man to fly across the [[English Channel]] in a heavier-than-air craft.
> 
> See also the decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]], previous year [[1908]], next year [[1910]].
> 
------
1990s|990386736
12c12,13
< See also other [[decades]].
---
> See also other [[decades]], [[20th century]], [[1990]], [[1991]], [[1992]],
> [[1993]], [[1994]], [[1995]], [[1996]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]]
------
1909|990386810
1,2c1
< 
< 
---
> [[Year in Review]]
6c5
< See also the decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]], previous year [[1908]], next year [[1910]].
---
> See also [[1908], [[1910]], decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]]
------
San_Francisco_Bay|990386867
6a7,8
> The area around the bay is called the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
> 
------
Year_in_Review|990386959
1c1
< '''[[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
---
> '''[[century|centuries]] - [[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
3a4,63
> <td>[[1900s]]</td>
> <td>[[1900]]</td>
> <td>[[1901]]</td>
> <td>[[1902]]</td>
> <td>[[1903]]</td>
> <td>[[1904]]</td>
> <td>[[1905]]</td>
> <td>[[1906]]</td>
> <td>[[1907]]</td>
> <td>[[1908]]</td>
> <td>[[1909]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1910s]]</td>
> <td>[[1910]]</td>
> <td>[[1911]]</td>
> <td>[[1912]]</td>
> <td>[[1913]]</td>
> <td>[[1914]]</td>
> <td>[[1915]]</td>
> <td>[[1916]]</td>
> <td>[[1917]]</td>
> <td>[[1918]]</td>
> <td>[[1919]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1920s]]</td>
> <td>[[1920]]</td>
> <td>[[1921]]</td>
> <td>[[1922]]</td>
> <td>[[1923]]</td>
> <td>[[1924]]</td>
> <td>[[1925]]</td>
> <td>[[1926]]</td>
> <td>[[1927]]</td>
> <td>[[1928]]</td>
> <td>[[1929]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1930s]]</td>
> <td>[[1930]]</td>
> <td>[[1931]]</td>
> <td>[[1932]]</td>
> <td>[[1933]]</td>
> <td>[[1934]]</td>
> <td>[[1935]]</td>
> <td>[[1936]]</td>
> <td>[[1937]]</td>
> <td>[[1938]]</td>
> <td>[[1939]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
> <td>[[1940s]]</td>
> <td>[[1940]]</td>
> <td>[[1941]]</td>
> <td>[[1942]]</td>
> <td>[[1943]]</td>
> <td>[[1944]]</td>
> <td>[[1945]]</td>
> <td>[[1946]]</td>
> <td>[[1947]]</td>
> <td>[[1948]]</td>
> <td>[[1949]]</td>
> </tr><tr>
------
Year_in_Review|990386980
1c1
< '''[[century|centuries]] - [[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
---
> '''[[centuries]] - [[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
------
Centuries|990387037
10c10
< See also [[decades]] and [[History]].
---
> See also [[decades]], [[Year in Review]], and [[History]].
------
Year_in_Review|990387065
1c1
< '''[[centuries]] - [[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
---
> '''[[decades]] - [[centuries]] - [[20th century]] - [[21st century]]'''
------
TeX|990387162
3c3
< Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful [[mathematics]].  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[LaTeX]] and [[Amstex]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
---
> Since then, TeX has developed into the best way to typeset really beautiful [[mathematics]].  No other system even comes close if you are picky about the way that your equations look.  There are a number of offshoot systems such as [[LaTeX]] and [[AMSTeX]], but the basics are all still pretty much the same.
------
1909|990387203
5c5
< See also [[1908], [[1910]], decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]]
---
> See also [[1908]], [[1910]], decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]]
------
1984|990387291
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (1) A year.
> 
> (2) A book by [[Georg Orwell]] (<i>which isn't his right name</i>)
------
1909|990387304
2a3,4
> [[1908] - '''1909''' - [[1910]] - decade [[1900s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
5d6
< See also [[1908]], [[1910]], decade [[1900s]], [[20th century]]
------
1909|990387320
3c3
< [[1908] - '''1909''' - [[1910]] - decade [[1900s]] - [[20th century]]
---
> [[1908]] - '''1909''' - [[1910]] - decade [[1900s]] - [[20th century]]
------
San_Francisco_Bay_Area|990387324
2a3,4
> The San Francisco Bay Area is a very special area. When locals are asked to define it they give varying answers. One common definition is "Bay Area: The one place on earth where, if you have lived there for any length of time, it is impossible to go live somewhere else. You always end up coming back. No matter how expensive, how crowded." Referring to the way it is taken as self-evident that happiness and self-realisation are things worth striving for another definition goes "The Bay Area -- where dreams are tried on for size." The same goes for "The Bay Area is the place where new ideas meet the least amount of resistance." That explains the higher than average number of inventors and kooks in the Bay Area. 
> 
------
1952|990387402
3c3
< [[1951]] - 1952 - [[1953]]
---
> [[1951]] - '''1952''' - [[1953]] - decade [[1950s]] - [[20th century]]
13d12
< ----
------
2000|990387455
3c3
< [[1999]] - 2000 - [[2001]]
---
> [[1999]] - '''2000''' - [[2001]] - decade [[2000s]] - [[21st century]]
------
1999|990387489
3c3
< [[1998]] - 1999 - [[2000]]
---
> [[1998]] - '''1999''' - [[2000]] - decade [[1990s]] - [[20th century]]
------
1990s|990387595
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1980s]] - '''1990s''' - [[2000s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
12,13c16
< See also other [[decades]], [[20th century]], [[1990]], [[1991]], [[1992]],
< [[1993]], [[1994]], [[1995]], [[1996]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]]
---
> [[1990]], [[1991]], [[1992]], [[1993]], [[1994]], [[1995]], [[1996]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]]
------
2000s|990387691
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1990s]] - '''2000s''' - [[2010s]] - [[21st century]]
> 
> *The first post-Internet decade?
> 
> 
> [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2002]], [[2003]], [[2004]], [[2005]], [[2006]], [[2007]], [[2008]], [[2009]]
------
21st_century|990387772
1c1
< The [[flying car]] will be the common means of [[transport]]ation in the 21st century.  This was the vision of the [[1950s]].
---
> [[Centuries]]
3c3,7
< See also [[decades]] and other [[centuries]].
---
> [[20th century]] - '''21st century''' - [[22nd century]]
> 
> *The [[flying car]] will be the common means of [[transport]]ation in the 21st century.  This was the vision of the [[1950s]].
> 
> [[decades]], [[2000s]], [[2010s]], [[2020s]]
------
20th_century|990387837
0a1,4
> [[Centuries]]
> 
> [[19th century]] - '''20th century''' - [[21st century]]
> 
38c42
< See also other [[centuries]], [[decades]], [[1900s]],
---
> [[Decades]], [[1900s]],
40,44c44
< [[1960s]], [[1970s]], [[1980s]], [[1990s]].
< 
< [to be continued, perhaps by you]----
< 
< 
---
> [[1960s]], [[1970s]], [[1980s]], [[1990s]]
------
19th_century|990388098
0a1,4
> [[Centuries]]
> 
> [[18th century]] - '''19th century''' - [[20th century]]
> 
7a12
> [[Decades]], [[1800s]], [[1810s]], [[1820s]], [[1830s]], [[1840s]], [[1850s]], [[1860s]], [[1870s]], [[1880s]], [[1890s]]
------
1870s|990388226
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1860s]] -  '''1870s''' - [[1880s]] - [[19th century]]
> 
5c9
< 
---
> [[Year in Review]], [[1870]], [[1871]], [[1872]], [[1873]], [[1874]], [[1875]], [[1876]], [[1877]], [[1878]], [[1879]]
------
Novelists|990388230
27a28
> * [[Dorothy Sayers]]
------
1950s|990388306
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1940s]] - '''1950s''' - [[1960s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
4c8,18
< See also [[decades]] and the [[20th century]].
---
> [[Year in Review]],
> [[1950]],
> [[1951]],
> [[1952]],
> [[1953]],
> [[1954]],
> [[1955]],
> [[1956]],
> [[1957]],
> [[1958]],
> [[1959]]
------
Religion|990388354
5c5
< [[Catholicism]] -- [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] -- [[Zoarastrianism]] -- [[Paganism]]
---
> [[Christianity]] -- [[Islam]] -- [[Judaism]] -- [[Shinto]] -- [[Buddhism]] -- [[Shamanism]] -- [[Jainism]] -- [[Hinduism]] -- [[Scientology]] -- [[Zoarastrianism]] -- [[Paganism]]
------
1960s|990388382
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1950s]] - '''1960s''' - [[1970s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
28,30c32,42
< See also:
<    [[1950s]] - previous
<    [[1970s]] - next
---
> [[Year in Review]],
> [[1960]],
> [[1961]],
> [[1962]],
> [[1963]],
> [[1964]],
> [[1965]],
> [[1966]],
> [[1967]],
> [[1968]],
> [[1969]],
------
1964|990388419
3c3
< [[1963]] - 1964 - [[1965]]
---
> [[1963]] - '''1964''' - [[1965]] - decade [[1960s]] - [[20th century]]
------
1970s|990388488
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1960s]] - '''1970s''' - [[1980s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
12c16,28
< * An age of [[superstars]] and idols in sports and music, following the glorious space programs of the [[1960s]].
---
> * An age of [[superstars]] and idols in sports and music, following the glorious space programs of the [[1960s]].
> 
> [[Year in Review]],
> [[1970]],
> [[1971]],
> [[1972]],
> [[1973]],
> [[1974]],
> [[1975]],
> [[1976]],
> [[1977]],
> [[1978]],
> [[1979]]
------
1984|990388544
3c3
< (2) A book by [[Georg Orwell]] (<i>which isn't his right name</i>)
---
> (2) A book by [[George Orwell]] (<i>which isn't his right name</i>)
------
1980s|990388547
0a1,4
> [[Decades]]
> 
> [[1970s]] - '''1980s''' - [[1990s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
8c12,24
< * [[Bulletin board system]] popularity
---
> * [[Bulletin board system]] popularity
> 
> [[Year in Review]],
> [[1980]],
> [[1981]],
> [[1982]],
> [[1983]],
> [[1984]],
> [[1985]],
> [[1986]],
> [[1987]],
> [[1988]],
> [[1989]]
------
Decades|990388627
17c17
< See also [[centuries]] and [[History]].
---
> See also [[Year in Review]], [[centuries]] and [[History]].
------
Paganism|990388660
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> paganism: belief in any non-monotheistic religion, often used pejoratively by adherents to monotheistic religions
> 
> Paganism: [[heterogenous]] group of religions holding the [[Earth]] [[sacred]]. Sometimes called [[Neopaganism]] to distinguish it from old pagan religions such as [[Hinduism]]. 
------
Sacred|990388786
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In a religious context: having connection to divinity, something to be revered. For instance Pagans consider the [[Earth]] to be sacred. Christians consider the transformed host sacred. 
------
1984|990388832
1c1,5
< (1) A year.
---
> [[Year in Review]]
> 
> [[1983]] - '''1984''' - [[1985]] - decade [[1980s]] - [[20th century]]
> 
> *The book by [[George Orwell]], ''1984'', published in 1948, presented a terrible view of how life would be in 1984.
3d6
< (2) A book by [[George Orwell]] (<i>which isn't his right name</i>)
------
Sacred|990388866
1c1
< In a religious context: having connection to divinity, something to be revered. For instance Pagans consider the [[Earth]] to be sacred. Christians consider the transformed host sacred. 
---
> In a religious context: having connection to divinity, something to be revered. For instance [[Pagans]] consider the [[Earth]] to be sacred. Christians consider the transformed [[host]] sacred. 
------
Biblioholist|990388991
1c1
< A biblioholist is a person addicted to [[Book|books]] and/or reading.
---
> A biblioholist is a person with an [[addiction]] to [[Book|books]] and/or reading.
------
Addiction|990389089
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> Addicts, addictions and substances include [[alcoholism]], [[biblioholist]], [[caffein]]
> ----
> How can we get any structure into this page?  Should all terms be named as -isms or as -ists or both?
> 
------
Addiction|990389135
1,2c1
< 
< Addicts, addictions and substances include [[alcoholism]], [[biblioholist]], [[caffein]]
---
> Addicts, addictions and substances include [[alcoholism]], [[biblioholist]], [[caffein]], [[wikipedia]]
------
Logic|990390886
4a5,6
> Mathematical logic or [[Symbolic Logic|symbolic logic]] has changed this somewhat by axiomatizing logic and presenting all argument in the form of symbolic strings with very highly constrained that represent different statements.  The rules of argumentation then are codified as legal transformations on these strings and the allowable starting points (the so-called [[Axiom|axoims]]).  [[Kurt Godel|Kurt G&ouml;del]] in the 1930's proved his celebrated [[Incompleteness Theorem|incompleteness theorem]] and thus derailed the idea that all of reasoned thought could be encoded as mathematical logic or that a small set of axioms would describe all of mathematics.  This sea-change had been fore-shadowed by the work of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] in mathematics.  At roughly the same time, [[Alonzo Church]], [[Andrei Markov]], [[Alan Turing]] and others were realizing that all sufficiently powerful formal models of computation were equivalent.  This led to the computational equivalent of the incompleteness theorem, the [[Halting Problem]].  Things have never been quite the same.
> 
7c9
< Shouldn't this page include the basic logic relationships?  Why don't you add them to [[truth tables]], [[connective]], and [[quantifier]]?
---
> Shouldn't this page include the basic logic relationships?  Why don't you add them to [[truth tables]], [[connective]], and [[quantifier]]?
------
Postulate|990392726
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[axiom]]
------
Axiom|990392757
1c1,29
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An '''axiom''' is a starting point in a logical system.  Another name for an axiom is ''postulate''.
> 
> For instance, (misquoting Peano) simple arithmetic including addition can be defined and many theorems proven by assuming
> 
> # a number called 0 exists
> # every number X has a successor called inc(X)
> # X+0 = X
> # inc(X) + Y = X + inc(Y)
> 
> Using these axioms, and defining the customary short names 1, 2, 3, and so on for inc(0), inc(inc(0)), inc(inc(inc(0))) respectively, we can show that:
> 
> :inc(X) = X + 1
> 
> and 
> 
>     1 + 2 = 1 + inc(1)    Expansion of abbreviation (2 = inc(1))
>     1 + 2 = inc(1) + 1    Axiom 4
>     1 + 2 = 2 + 1         Abbreviation (2 = inc(1))
>     1 + 2 = 2 + inc(0)    Expansion of abbreviation (1 = inc(0))
>     1 + 2 = inc(2) + 0    Axiom 4
>     1 + 2 = 3             Axiom 3
> 
> Any fact that we can derive from the axioms need not be an axiom.  Anything that we cannot derive from the axioms and for which we also cannot derive the negation might reasonably added as an axiom.
> 
> Probably the most famous very early set of axiom are the 4+1 postulates of [[Euclid]].  I say 4+1 since the 5th postulate (through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected to be derivable from the first 4 for nearly two millenia.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infintely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.  The [[General Theory of Relativity|general theory of relativity]] is essentially a claim that mass gives space hyperbolic geometry.  
> 
> The fact that alternative forms of geometry might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and in similar developments, say [[Boolean Algebra]], there were generally elaborate efforts taken to derive the system from normal arithmetic systems.  [[Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use as he algebraicly solved many classical geometrical problems.  Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[Modern Algebra]] was born.
> 
> In the twentieth century, the grand goal of finding a "true" and "universal" set of axioms was shown to be a hopeless dream by [[Kurt Godel|G&ouml;del]] and others.
------
Postulate|990392786
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[axiom]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Axiom]]
------
Axiom|990392919
25c25
< Probably the most famous very early set of axiom are the 4+1 postulates of [[Euclid]].  I say 4+1 since the 5th postulate (through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected to be derivable from the first 4 for nearly two millenia.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infintely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.  The [[General Theory of Relativity|general theory of relativity]] is essentially a claim that mass gives space hyperbolic geometry.  
---
> Probably the most famous very early set of axiom are the 4+1 postulates of [[Euclid]].  I say 4+1 since the 5th postulate (through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected to be derivable from the first 4 for nearly two millenia.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infintely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.  The [[General Relativity|general theory of relativity]] is essentially a claim that mass gives space hyperbolic geometry.  
------
Paganism|990392931
3c3,12
< Paganism: [[heterogenous]] group of religions holding the [[Earth]] [[sacred]]. Sometimes called [[Neopaganism]] to distinguish it from old pagan religions such as [[Hinduism]]. 
---
> Paganism: [[heterogenous]] group of religions holding the [[Earth]] [[sacred]]. Sometimes called [[Neopaganism]] to distinguish it from old pagan religions such as [[Hinduism]]. 
> 
> Pagans often find inspiration in non-monotheistic religions. Some consider themselves [[reconstructionist]]s. Of those who find inspiration in earlier religions, many are eclective but have one or a few favourites, while others use one [[pantheon]] exlusively. Paganism is activity-based rather than faith-based. For that reason Pagans with very different views of [[divinity]] can celebrate their [[spirituality]] together. 
> 
> Pagan traditions include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[/Druidry]]
> <li>[[/Wicca]]
> <li>[[/Asatru]]
> </ul>
------
Paganism|990392986
5c5
< Pagans often find inspiration in non-monotheistic religions. Some consider themselves [[reconstructionist]]s. Of those who find inspiration in earlier religions, many are eclective but have one or a few favourites, while others use one [[pantheon]] exlusively. Paganism is activity-based rather than faith-based. For that reason Pagans with very different views of [[divinity]] can celebrate their [[spirituality]] together. 
---
> Pagans often find inspiration in non-monotheistic religions. Some consider themselves [[reconstructionist]]s. Of those who find inspiration in earlier religions, many are ecclectic but have one or a few favourites, while others use one [[pantheon]] exlusively. Paganism is activity-based rather than faith-based. For that reason Pagans with very different views of [[divinity]] can celebrate their [[spirituality]] together. 
------
Axiom|990393202
27c27
< The fact that alternative forms of geometry might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and in similar developments, say [[Boolean Algebra]], there were generally elaborate efforts taken to derive the system from normal arithmetic systems.  [[Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use as he algebraicly solved many classical geometrical problems.  Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[Modern Algebra]] was born.
---
> The fact that alternative forms of geometry might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and in similar developments, say [[BooleanAlgebra|Boolean Algebra]], there were generally elaborate efforts taken to derive the system from normal arithmetic systems.  [[Evariste Galois|Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use as he algebraicly solved many classical geometrical problems.  Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[Abstract Algebra|modern algebra]] was born.
------
Logic|990393355
5c5
< Mathematical logic or [[Symbolic Logic|symbolic logic]] has changed this somewhat by axiomatizing logic and presenting all argument in the form of symbolic strings with very highly constrained that represent different statements.  The rules of argumentation then are codified as legal transformations on these strings and the allowable starting points (the so-called [[Axiom|axoims]]).  [[Kurt Godel|Kurt G&ouml;del]] in the 1930's proved his celebrated [[Incompleteness Theorem|incompleteness theorem]] and thus derailed the idea that all of reasoned thought could be encoded as mathematical logic or that a small set of axioms would describe all of mathematics.  This sea-change had been fore-shadowed by the work of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] in mathematics.  At roughly the same time, [[Alonzo Church]], [[Andrei Markov]], [[Alan Turing]] and others were realizing that all sufficiently powerful formal models of computation were equivalent.  This led to the computational equivalent of the incompleteness theorem, the [[Halting Problem]].  Things have never been quite the same.
---
> Mathematical logic or [[Symbolic Logic|symbolic logic]] has changed this somewhat by axiomatizing logic and presenting all argument in the form of symbolic strings with very highly constrained that represent different statements.  The rules of argumentation then are codified as legal transformations on these strings and the allowable starting points (the so-called [[Axiom|axoims]]).  [[Kurt Godel|Kurt G&ouml;del]] in the 1930's proved his celebrated [[Incompleteness Theorem|incompleteness theorem]] and thus derailed the idea that all of reasoned thought could be encoded as mathematical logic or that a small set of axioms would describe all of mathematics.  This sea-change had been fore-shadowed by the work of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] in mathematics.  At roughly the same time, [[Alonzo Church]], [[Andrei Andreevich Markov]], [[Alan Turing]] and others were realizing that all sufficiently powerful formal models of computation were equivalent.  This led to the computational equivalent of the incompleteness theorem, the [[Halting Problem]].  Things have never been quite the same.
------
Axiom|990393520
1c1
< An '''axiom''' is a starting point in a logical system.  Another name for an axiom is ''postulate''.
---
> An '''axiom''' is a starting point in a logical system.  Another name for an axiom is ''postulate''.  An axiom is an elementary basis for a formal [[Logic|logic]] system that together with the rules of inference define a logic.
------
A|990393570
1c1
< The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which is pretty much the same in shape and function.  Like other Latin vowels, a came in a long (sounded as in f''a''ther) and a short (sounded as in Din''ah'') variety.  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, notably in English the sound in c''a''t, formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc.
---
> The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (A&#955;&#966;&#945;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
------
SandBox|990393637
1a2,6
> -------------------------------------------
>  I edited the top of this page
> 
> -------------
> 
------
B|990393674
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek B¦Ç¦Ó¦Á (B¨ºta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol were 'house'.
> 
------
Early_Semitic_alphabet|990393754
26,27c26,27
< -----. 1985. Sprache und Staat. Studien zur Sprachplanung. Berlin und NY: Walter de Gruyter. 
< -----. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopaedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 
---
> same. 1985. Sprache und Staat. Studien zur Sprachplanung. Berlin und NY: Walter de Gruyter. 
> same. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopaedia of writing systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 
44c44
< -----.1997. "Wulfila's Script - Facts and Inferences" In: General Linguistics Vol. 35/ No. 1-4/ 1997. 
---
> same.1997. "Wulfila's Script - Facts and Inferences" In: General Linguistics Vol. 35/ No. 1-4/ 1997. 
85c85
< -----. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic Den Haag und Paris: Mouton. 
---
> same. 1973. The Sounds and Phonemes of Wulfila's Gothic Den Haag und Paris: Mouton. 
95c95
< -----. 1982. Early history of the alphabet. An introduction to West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University. Leiden: E. J. Brill
---
> same. 1982. Early history of the alphabet. An introduction to West Semitic epigraphy and palaeography. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University. Leiden: E. J. Brill
------
SandBox|990393791
3a4
>  and did add a link to [[philosophy]]
------
C|990393905
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In Etruscan there were no voiced plosives, so they took over Greek &#915;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945; (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic gîmel was the picture of a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian and so on. 
------
D|990394043
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Semitic letter Dâlet probably developed from a logogram for a fish or a door. In Semitic, Ancient Greek 
> (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek name: &#916;&#949;&#955;&#964;&#945;, Delta. 
------
F|990394230
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Semitic h¨º probably first represented a praying or calling human figure. In Semitic, the letter was pronounced /h/ (in foreign words also /e/), in Greek He became  ¦¥¦×¦É¦Ë¦Ï¦Í (Epsilon) with the value /e/. Etruscans and Romans followed this usage. Due to the Great Vowel Shift, English usage is rather different, namely /i:/ in ME or BEE, whereas other words like BED are quite close to Latin or Continental European usage. 
------
E|990394355
1c1,3
< The fifth letter of the Roman alphabet, derived from the Greek letter [[epsilon]] which is pretty much the same in appearance and function.  Like other latin vowels, e came in a long (sounded as in th''ey'') and a short variety (sounded as in p''e''t).  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, sometimes with accents to indicate which one (ê,é,è,ë).
---
> The fifth letter of the Roman alphabet, derived from the Greek letter [[epsilon]] which is pretty much the same in appearance and function.  The Semitic hê probably first represented a praying or calling human figure. In Semitic, the letter was pronounced /h/ (in foreign words also /e/), in Greek He became  &#917;&#968;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#957; (Epsilon) with the value /e/. Etruscans and Romans followed this usage. Due to the Great Vowel Shift, English usage is rather different, namely /i:/ in ME or BEE, whereas other words like BED are quite close to Latin or Continental European usage. 
> 
> Like other Latin vowels, e came in a long (sounded as in th''ey'') and a short variety (sounded as in p''e''t).  In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, sometimes with accents to indicate which one (ê,é,è,ë).
------
English_Channel|990394416
3c3,5
< In [[1909]], [[Louis Bleriot]] from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft. 
---
> In [[1909]], [[Louis Bleriot]] from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft. 
> 
> In ???? the channel tunnel was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
------
F|990394551
1c1
< The Semitic h¨º probably first represented a praying or calling human figure. In Semitic, the letter was pronounced /h/ (in foreign words also /e/), in Greek He became  ¦¥¦×¦É¦Ë¦Ï¦Í (Epsilon) with the value /e/. Etruscans and Romans followed this usage. Due to the Great Vowel Shift, English usage is rather different, namely /i:/ in ME or BEE, whereas other words like BED are quite close to Latin or Continental European usage. 
---
> Lateinisch F developed from the digraph FH that stood for /f/. The Etruscans were the inventors of this digraph, F on its own stood for /w/ in Etruscan as in Greek (where the letter – called Digamma in Greek –  has disappeared due to the fact that the /w/ phoneme itself disappeared.) The origin of F is the Semitic letter wâw that also represented /w/ and originally probably represented a hook or a club. 
------
Short_words|990394713
1c1,33
< Describe the new page here.
---
> These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]]:
> 
> One or two letters words:
> [[2d]], [[3d]], [[A]], [[AU]], [[Be]], [[E]], [[Go]], [[Hg]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> 
> Three letters words:
> [[AaA]], [[AdA]], [[Ada]], [[Art]], [[Awk]], [[BBC]], [[BLM]], [[BMW]], [[BPM]], [[BSD]], [[Bar]], [[Bay]], [[Bit]], [[Bse]],
> [[CDU]], [[CEO]], [[CPU]], [[CSU]], [[Car]], [[Cow]], [[DES]],
> [[DIN]], [[DNA]], [[Dna]], [[Eye]], [[FDP]], [[Fax]], [[GDP]],
> [[GNU]], [[GPL]], [[GPS]], [[GUI]], [[Gay]], [[Gnu]], 
> [[GoD]], [[God]], [[Gun]], [[Hex]], [[IAm]], [[IBM]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> 
> 
> Four letter words:
> [[1040]], [[1909]], [[1952]], 
> [[1964]], [[1977]], [[1984]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], 
> [[ABBA]], [[AIDS]], [[ANSI]], [[AbeL]], [[Acid]], [[Alga]], 
> [[Amir]], [[Asia]], [[Atom]], [[Audi]], [[Aves]], [[B-52]], 
> [[Bach]], [[BalL]], [[Bank]], [[Bass]], [[Bead]], [[Beer]],
> [[Bell]], [[Bird]], [[Bonn]], [[Book]], [[CFAF]], [[Calf]],
> [[Chad]], [[City]], [[CodE]], [[Code]], [[Cuba]], [[Data]], 
> [[Dock]], [[Dune]], [[ETSI]], [[Enya]], [[Euro]], 
> [[Fear]], [[FiLm]], [[Fiji]], [[Film]], [[Fish]], [[Flub]], 
> [[FoMa]], [[Food]], [[Ford]], [[Free]], [[Geek]], [[Gobi]],
> [[Gods]], [[Gold]], [[Guam]], [[Gulf]], [[HTML]], [[HTTP]], 
> [[HeRa]], [[Hera]], [[Herb]], [[Homo]], [[Hurd]], [[IEEE]], 
> [[IETF]], [[IHES]], [[IKEA]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> 
> 
> 
------
G|990394732
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> G was created by the Romans because they felt that [[C]] was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ AND /g/. 
> G which at this time took the place of the letter [[Z]] came to represent /g/. As /k/, /g/ too developed palatal and velar allophones which is the reason why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages and English (due to French influence). 
------
Addiction|990394871
1,3c1,31
< Addicts, addictions and substances include [[alcoholism]], [[biblioholist]], [[caffein]], [[wikipedia]]
< ----
< How can we get any structure into this page?  Should all terms be named as -isms or as -ists or both?
---
> An addiction is a compulsive need to [[ingest]] a [[toxic]] substance that leads to a (significantly) [[altered state of mind]]. With [[substance addiction]]s [[addict]]s experience heightened tolerance for the substance leading to the need to increase the [[dose]] to keep achieving the altered state of mind. Ultimately the dose required to reach the altered state may be higher than the [[lethal dose]]. In a wider sense addictions can also develop for certain behaviours, e.g. gambling. 
> 
> Substance addictions include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Alcoholism]]
> <li>[[Cannabis addiction]]
> <li>[[Cocaine addiction]]
> <li>[[Heroin addiction]]
> <li>[[Nicotene addiction]]
> 
> <li>
> 
> [[Behavioural addiction]]s include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Addiction to gambling]]
> </ul>
> 
> Clearly there is some overlap between behavioural and substance addictions, e.g. a [[nicotinist]] becoming calmer through fiddling with her smoking paraphernalia even without smoking. There is some debate over whether some [[eating disorder]]s are addictions. 
> 
> The medical establishment makes a distinction between physical and psychological addictions. [[Physical addiction]]s lead to physical symptoms upon [[withdrawal]]. [[Psychological addiction]]s lead to psychological symptoms upon withdrawal. The distinction should not be taken to mean that psychological addictions are easier to break than physical ones. [[breaking an addiction|Breaking any addiction]] is very hard, or it wouldn't be an addiction. 
> 
> The speed with which a given individual gets addicted to a substance varies with the substance, the frequency of ingestion and individual characteristics. Some [[alcoholic]]s for instance say that they drank in an alcoholic way from the moment they felt the first intoxication while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. [[Nicotene]] is considered the most addictive substance of all. 
> 
> <hr>
> 
> The word addiction is some times used jokingly to refer to something a person has a passion for. Words used in that sense include:
> <ul>
> <li>[[Biblioholic]]
> <li>[[Caffeinist]]
> <li>[[Chocoholic]]
> </ul>
------
Addiction|990394933
10,11c10
< 
< <li>
---
> </ul>
------
H|990394984
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Semitic letter &#294;êt probably represented the phoneme  /X// (pharyngeal voiceless fricative) (IPA [&#295;]). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence. Early Greek H stood for /h/, but later on H&#964;&#945; (Êta) stood for  /E:/. In Modern Greek this phoneme fell together with /i/, similar to the English development where EA /E:/ and EE /e:/ came to be both pronounced /i:/ . In Etruscan and Latin, the sound value  /h/ was maintained, but all Romance languages lost the sound – only Rumanian borrowed the /h/ phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages and Castilian /x/ developed [h] allophones in some Spanish-speaking countries. 
------
Addiction|990395073
25c25
< The word addiction is some times used jokingly to refer to something a person has a passion for. Words used in that sense include:
---
> The word addiction is some times used jokingly to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such "addicts" include:
27,29c27,29
< <li>[[Biblioholic]]
< <li>[[Caffeinist]]
< <li>[[Chocoholic]]
---
> <li>[[Biblioholic]]s
> <li>[[Caffeinist]]s
> <li>[[Chocoholic]]s
------
I|990395180
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Greek I&#969;&#964;&#945; (Iôta) stood for the vowel /i/, the same in Etruscan, in Latin (as in Modern Greek) /j/ (as English Y in YOKE)  was added. In Semitic,  /j/ was the usual sound value of  Jôd (probably originally a pictogram for an arm with hand), /i/ only in foreign words.  In English, I represents different sounds, among them a diphthong that developed from /i:/ as well as short, open /I/ as in BILL. 
------
Short_words|990395486
5c5
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
---
> [[MM]], [[Nu]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
11,12c11,17
< [[GNU]], [[GPL]], [[GPS]], [[GUI]], [[Gay]], [[Gnu]], 
< [[GoD]], [[God]], [[Gun]], [[Hex]], [[IAm]], [[IBM]], 
---
> [[GNU]], [[GPL]], [[GPS]], [[GUI]], [[Gay]], [[Gnu]],  
> [[GoD]], [[God]], [[Gun]], [[Hex]], [[IAm]], [[IBM]],  
> [[IMR]], [[IOC]], [[IRC]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[Inn]],
> [[Ion]], [[JFK]], [[LA2]], [[LMS]], [[LSD]], [[Law]], 
> [[Leo]], [[MD5]], [[MIT]], [[MTV]], [[N64]], [[NFL]], 
> [[NMD]], [[NWA]], [[NYC]], [[NnN]], [[OSI]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
14d18
< 
17,20c21,24
< [[1040]], [[1909]], [[1952]], 
< [[1964]], [[1977]], [[1984]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], 
< [[ABBA]], [[AIDS]], [[ANSI]], [[AbeL]], [[Acid]], [[Alga]], 
< [[Amir]], [[Asia]], [[Atom]], [[Audi]], [[Aves]], [[B-52]], 
---
> [[1040]], [[1909]], [[1952]],  
> [[1964]], [[1977]], [[1984]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]],  
> [[ABBA]], [[AIDS]], [[ANSI]], [[AbeL]], [[Acid]], [[Alga]],  
> [[Amir]], [[Asia]], [[Atom]], [[Audi]], [[Aves]], [[B-52]],  
23c27
< [[Chad]], [[City]], [[CodE]], [[Code]], [[Cuba]], [[Data]], 
---
> [[Chad]], [[City]], [[CodE]], [[Code]], [[Cuba]], [[Data]],  
27,29c31,42
< [[Gods]], [[Gold]], [[Guam]], [[Gulf]], [[HTML]], [[HTTP]], 
< [[HeRa]], [[Hera]], [[Herb]], [[Homo]], [[Hurd]], [[IEEE]], 
< [[IETF]], [[IHES]], [[IKEA]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
---
> [[Gods]], [[Gold]], [[Guam]], [[Gulf]], [[HTML]], [[HTTP]],  
> [[HerA]], [[Hera]], [[Herb]], [[Homo]], [[Hurd]], [[IEEE]],  
> [[IETF]], [[IHES]], [[IKEA]], [[INRI]], [[IRIX]], [[ISOC]],  
> [[Inch]], [[Iowa]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Iron]], [[Isms]],  
> [[Java]], [[Jazz]], [[Jeep]], [[Jews]], [[Jlnd]], [[JudO]], 
> [[Judo]], [[Jung]], [[King]], [[Koto]], [[LALR]], [[LOGO]], 
> [[Lake]], [[Laos]], [[Lead]], [[Love]], [[MIME]], [[MPPC]], 
> [[Mali]], [[Mark]], [[Mars]], [[Mass]], [[Math]], [[MeaN]], 
> [[Meat]], [[Mile]], [[Mint]], [[MoDe]], [[Mode]], [[Mojo]], 
> [[Mole]], [[Moot]], [[MppC]], [[NATO]], [[Nazi]], [[Neon]], 
> [[Neva]], [[Nile]], [[Niue]], [[OPEC]], [[Oboe]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
30a44
> 
------
J|990395510
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> J was originally only a capital letters, therefore, some people still write their names as Jsabel, Jnes instead of Isabel, Ines in the German-speaking world, and in Italy, in non-official use one also sometimes encounters J as a capital of I. The Humanistic scholar Pierre de la Ramée (d. 1572) was the first to make a distinction between I and J.  Originally, both I and J were pronounced as [i], [i:], and [j]; but Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [g]) that came to be represented as I and J; therefore, English J has a sound quite different from I. In other Germanic languages, J stands for /j/, in Italian, only foreign words have J; in Spanish, J stands for /x/ (that in some cases developed from the /dZ/ sound, i.e. the same sound that English still has); in French, former /dZ/ is now pronounced as /Z/ (as in English MEASURE). 
------
K|990395638
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Greek  K¦Á¦Ð¦Ð¦Á (Kappa) developed from the Semitic Kap zur¨¹ck, symbol for an open hand. The Semitic  sound value  /k/ was maintained in most Classic as well as Modern Languages, although Latin abandoned K almost thoroughly. Therefore, the Romance languages have K only in foreign words. 
------
L|990395705
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Semitic Lamed stood for  /l/ and so did the Greek (Ëáìâäá, Lambda), Etruscan and Latin letters.  
------
M|990395817
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Classical language as well as the Modern Languages symbolize /m/ by means of M (Greek M¦Ô, My). Semitic M¨ºm originally pictured water, in all probability. 
------
N|990395914
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitc Nûn was probably the picture of a snake; the sound value of the letter was /n/ - as in Greek, Etruscan, Latin and all Modern Languages. Greek name: N&#965;, Ny. 
------
O|990396031
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> In Greek  (Ïìéêñïí, Omikron) , Etruscan and Latin O stood for the vowel O Although Semitic 'Ajin was used in some alphabets to transcribe [o], the sound value was usually consonantic: [?/] (as the Arabic letter 'Ajn). 
------
O|990396053
1c1
< In Greek  (Ïìéêñïí, Omikron) , Etruscan and Latin O stood for the vowel O Although Semitic 'Ajin was used in some alphabets to transcribe [o], the sound value was usually consonantic: [?/] (as the Arabic letter 'Ajn). 
---
> In Greek  (Ïìéêñïí, Omikron) , Etruscan and Latin O stood for the vowel /o/. Although Semitic 'Ajin was used in some alphabets to transcribe [o], the sound value was usually consonantic: [?/] (as the Arabic letter 'Ajn). 
------
P|990396158
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic P¨º (mouth) as well as Greek ¦°¦É (Pi) and the Etruscan and Latin letters that developed from the former alphabet all symbolized /p/.  
------
Short_words|990396365
4,5c4,10
< [[2d]], [[3d]], [[A]], [[AU]], [[Be]], [[E]], [[Go]], [[Hg]], 
< [[MM]], [[Nu]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
---
> [[2d]], [[3d]], [[A]], [[AU]], [[B]], [[Be]], [[C]], [[D]],
> [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[Go]], [[H]], [[Hg]], [[I]], [[J]],
> [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[MM]], [[N]], [[Nu]], [[O]], [[P]],
> [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[SF]], [[SI]], [[SS]], [[T]], 
> [[TS]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
15,18c20,32
< [[Leo]], [[MD5]], [[MIT]], [[MTV]], [[N64]], [[NFL]], 
< [[NMD]], [[NWA]], [[NYC]], [[NnN]], [[OSI]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
---
> [[Leo]], [[MD5]], [[MIT]], [[MTV]], [[N64]], [[NFL]],  
> [[NMD]], [[NWA]], [[NYC]], [[NnN]], [[OSI]], [[Out]],
> [[PCM]], [[PDA]], [[PDS]], [[PGP]], [[PHP]], [[RAM]],
> [[RFC]], [[RSA]], [[Rap]], [[Rpm]], [[SGI]], [[SPD]],
> [[STG]], [[SUV]], [[SeT]], [[Sea]], [[Sed]], [[Set]],
> [[Sex]], [[Sun]], [[TeX]], [[Tea]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> 
35,41c49,63
< [[Java]], [[Jazz]], [[Jeep]], [[Jews]], [[Jlnd]], [[JudO]], 
< [[Judo]], [[Jung]], [[King]], [[Koto]], [[LALR]], [[LOGO]], 
< [[Lake]], [[Laos]], [[Lead]], [[Love]], [[MIME]], [[MPPC]], 
< [[Mali]], [[Mark]], [[Mars]], [[Mass]], [[Math]], [[MeaN]], 
< [[Meat]], [[Mile]], [[Mint]], [[MoDe]], [[Mode]], [[Mojo]], 
< [[Mole]], [[Moot]], [[MppC]], [[NATO]], [[Nazi]], [[Neon]], 
< [[Neva]], [[Nile]], [[Niue]], [[OPEC]], [[Oboe]], [[]], 
---
> [[Java]], [[Jazz]], [[Jeep]], [[Jews]], [[Jlnd]], [[JudO]],  
> [[Judo]], [[Jung]], [[King]], [[Koto]], [[LALR]], [[LOGO]],  
> [[Lake]], [[Laos]], [[Lead]], [[Love]], [[MIME]], [[MPPC]],  
> [[Mali]], [[Mark]], [[Mars]], [[Mass]], [[Math]], [[MeaN]],  
> [[Meat]], [[Mile]], [[Mint]], [[MoDe]], [[Mode]], [[Mojo]],  
> [[Mole]], [[Moot]], [[MppC]], [[NATO]], [[Nazi]], [[Neon]],  
> [[Neva]], [[Nile]], [[Niue]], [[OPEC]], [[Oboe]], [[Ohio]],  
> [[Opel]], [[Oslo]], [[POP3]], [[PaGe]], [[Perl]], [[Pipe]],  
> [[Play]], [[Pope]], [[Riga]], [[RinG]], [[Ring]], [[Risk]],  
> [[Rome]], [[Ruby]], [[SEGA]], [[Saab]], [[Sage]], [[Seal]], 
> [[Seat]], [[Sect]], [[Sets]], [[Ship]], [[SiVa]], [[Siam]],
> [[Smog]], [[Sony]], [[Star]], [[Stop]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
> [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
44a67
> 
------
Q|990396444
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Semitic sound value of Qôp /q/. In Greek this sign (called Qoppa in Greek) probably came to several labial plosives, among them /k_w/ and /k_w_h/. These sounds changed to /p/ and  /p_h/ respectively. Therefore, Qoppa was transformed into two letters: Qoppa, which stood for a number only, and &#934;&#953; (Phi) which stood for the aspirated sound /p_h/ that came to be pronounced /f/ in Modern Greek. The Etruscans used Q only in conjunction with V, symbolizing thus a /k_w/. und V. In most Modern Languages, Q is rather superfluous. Some scholars claim that Q and Phi are unrelated. 
------
R|990396553
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic Rêš (the head) developed into Greek &#929;&#969; (Rô). The sound value /r/ however was maintained in Greek as well as Etruscan and Latin. 
------
Short_words|990396828
7,10c7,9
< [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[SF]], [[SI]], [[SS]], [[T]], 
< [[TS]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
---
> [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[SF]], [[SI]], [[SS]], [[T]],  
> [[TS]], [[U]], [[UC]], [[US]], [[V]], [[W]],  
> [[X]], [[Y]], [[Z]]
25,32c24,26
< [[Sex]], [[Sun]], [[TeX]], [[Tea]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< 
---
> [[Sex]], [[Sun]], [[TeX]], [[Tea]], [[Tin]], [[UCB]],  
> [[UPU]], [[URL]], [[UuU]], [[War]], [[XML]], [[XfL]],
> [[Y2K]], [[ZzZ]]
58c52
< [[Rome]], [[Ruby]], [[SEGA]], [[Saab]], [[Sage]], [[Seal]], 
---
> [[Rome]], [[Ruby]], [[SEGA]], [[Saab]], [[Sage]], [[Seal]],  
60,66c54,60
< [[Smog]], [[Sony]], [[Star]], [[Stop]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], [[]], 
< 
---
> [[Smog]], [[Sony]], [[Star]], [[Stop]], [[Tone]], [[Tort]],  
> [[Troy]], [[UNIX]], [[USSR]], [[Unit]], [[Unix]], [[Urea]],  
> [[Uric]], [[UtaH]], [[Utah]], [[Veal]], [[Wiki]], [[Wine]],  
> [[WolF]], [[Word]], [[Yard]], [[ZeuS]], [[Zeus]], [[Zinc]],  
> [[Zork]]
> 
>  
------
S|990396858
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Semitic Šîn (bow) was pronounced as  /S/ as the modern English digraph SH. In Greek, there was only one phoneme /s/ and no /S/, so Greek &#931;&#953;&#947;&#956;&#945; (Sigma)  came to represent the Greek /s/ phoneme. The name Sigma probably comes from the Semitic letter Sâmek and not Šîn. In Etruscan and Latin, the /s/ value was maintained, and only in Modern languages, S came to represent other sounds, like /S/ in Hungarian or /z/ in English and French (in English RISE and French LISER 'to read')
------
SiVa|990397061
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Siva]]
> 
------
Siva|990397084
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The primordial religion of India was polytheistic, as other early religions all over the world.  Many of the gods were animistic (associated with animals and objects), as in most early religions and in the semi-Catholic cult of saint-worshippers.  Hinduism developed from this as a semi-monotheistic religion believing in "atman," the universal oneness.  Siva, the god of destruction and creation and remover of boundaries, is, like all other gods, avatars, humans, rocks, and everything else, just a facet of atman.  Siva is no more a name for G-d than the Holy Spirit--Siva is a facet of atman just as the Spirit is a facet of the HolyTrinity.  BuddHa developed Buddhism from Hinduism in an analogous fashion to Christ developing Christianity from Judaism.
------
T|990397103
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Tâw was the last letter of the Western Semitic alphabet  – and of the Hebrew. " [D]er Reisende hob ein schweres geknotetes Tau vom Boden",  the last sentence of Kafka's "Strafkolonie" reads. . The sound value of Semitic Taw, Greek T&#945;&#965; (Tau), and Etruscan and Latin T was  /t/. 
------
U|990397176
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> U was originally a capital letter like J and it was only de la Ramée who made the distinction between capital and small letter. See [[V]]. 
------
Seat|990397176
1c1,3
< Seat is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Spain]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
---
> 1. ''n'' A place to sit, a chair.
> 
> 2. An [[automobile]] maker in [[Spain]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
------
Seat|990397204
3c3
< 2. An [[automobile]] maker in [[Spain]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
---
> 2. ''npr'' An [[automobile]] maker in [[Spain]], part of [[Volkswagen]].
------
WikiPediaBugs|990397247
0a1,25
> <b>Equation Editing</b>
> 
> I found some nifty software that converts TeX equations into real HTML like this:
> 
> 
> <br clear="all" /><table border="0" width="100%"><tr><td>
> <table align="center"><tr><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> </td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> <font face="symbol" size="+3">å<br /></font>
> </td><td nowrap="nowrap">p(x<sub>i</sub> )logq(x<sub>i</sub> ) <font face="symbol">-
> </font> </td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> <font face="symbol" size="+3">å<br /></font>
> </td><td nowrap="nowrap">p(x<sub>i</sub> )logp(x<sub>i</sub> ) = </td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> <font face="symbol" size="+3">å<br /></font>
> </td><td nowrap="nowrap">p(x<sub>i</sub> )log</td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> q(x<sub>i</sub> )<hr noshade="noshade" />p(x<sub>i</sub> )<br /></td><td nowrap="nowrap" align="center">
> </td></tr></table>
> </td></tr></table>
> 
> Unfortunately, as you can see, the wiki software seems to be munging the HTML so that things don't come out right.  Also, as you can see, the results have the potential to be FAR nicer than the hand-typed alternatives.  
> 
> Does anybody understand what is happening and how to fix it?  Having the ability to insert real equations using HTML only would be a god-send on many topics.
> 
> 
> 
------
Page|990397415
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' Either side of a [[leaf]] in a [[book]].  The book has twice as many pages as it has leaves.
> 
> 2. ''n'' A [[servant]] at a [[royal court]] in older times.
> 
> 3. ''v'' To search somebody through a personal [[pager]].
> 
> 
------
V|990397463
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Like F, Greek Yøéëùí  (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German W – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
------
MeaN|990397518
0a1,2
> #REDIRECT [[Mean]]
> 
------
Mean|990397611
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''a'' Evil or illhearted.
> 
> 2. ''n'' Average, a statistical measure, explained below.
> 
> ----
> : back to CentralTendancy -- SummaryStatistics -- SummarizingStatisticalData
> 
> The '''mean''' is what we call the ''average'' in ordinary English, just the sum of all the observations divided by the number of observations. Once we have chosen this method of describing the communality of a DataSeT, we usually use the '''StandardDeviation''' to describe how the observations differ. The ''SD'' (as we abbreviate it) is the '''square root of the average of squared deviations from the mean'''.
> 
> The '''mean''' is the only value about which the sum of squared deviations is a minimum. If you calculate the sum of squared deviations from any other measure of [[Central Tendency]], it will be larger than for the mean. This explains why the StandardDeviation and the mean are usually cited together in statistical reports.
> ----
> [http://netdial.caribe.net/~rabeldin/Home.html RABeldin]
------
W|990397652
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> W was invented in the 7th Ct. AD by Anglo Saxon writers, it was originally a double U (hence its English name). 
> Latin /w/ developed into Romance /v/, therefore, V no longer adequately represented Germanic /w/. In German – like in Romance – the phoneme /w/ was lost, this is why German W represents /v/ rather than /w/. In Dutch, W is an approximant (with the exception of words with –EEUW, which have [e:w]). 
------
W|990397664
2c2
< Latin /w/ developed into Romance /v/, therefore, V no longer adequately represented Germanic /w/. In German – like in Romance – the phoneme /w/ was lost, this is why German W represents /v/ rather than /w/. In Dutch, W is an approximant (with the exception of words with –EEUW, which have [e:w]). 
---
> Latin /w/ developed into Romance /v/, therefore, V no longer adequately represented Germanic /w/. In German – like in Romance – the phoneme /w/ was lost, this is why German W represents /v/ rather than /w/. In Dutch, W is an approximant (with the exception of words with –EEUW, which have [-e:w]). 
------
God|990397761
11a12,13
> 
> See a list of [[Gods]] from various religions.
------
Gods|990397811
0a1,2
> See also definition of the word [[God]].
> 
42a45
>  [[Thor]]
------
X|990397905
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> /ks/ was in Ancient Greece written as  ÷ >CHI> or  î >KSI> . In the end, ÷ was standardized as /k_h/ (/x/ in Modern Greek) as well as  î  for /ks/. But the Etruscans took over X from older Western Greek, therefore, it stood for /ks/ like sounds in Etruscan and Latin. Some scholars claim that Latin X is not identical with Greek X.
> It is also controversial whether ø >PSI> and ÷ >CHI are Greek inventions or whether they are ultimately of Semitic 
> Origin. 
------
ZzZ|990397953
1c1
< ZairE
---
> 
------
ZzZ|990397970
1c1
< 
---
> delete
------
ZzZ|990397993
1c1
< delete
---
> #DELETE
------
ZzZ|990398011
1c1
< #DELETE
---
> #REDIRECT  [[Z]]
------
Racism|990398022
11a12,13
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
Y|990398033
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> See [[V]]. In Greek Yøéëùí (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. 
------
UuU|990398087
1,3c1
< * UnitedKingdom
< * [[United States]]
< * Uruguay
---
> #REDIRECT [[U]]
------
NnN|990398159
1,2c1
< NewZealand
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[N]]
------
Racism/Talk|990398191
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm sure there will be plenty for a Talk page here :)  I for one don't like at all the first sentence, which implies that merely finding the races to be different is in some way racism.  Poppycock; finding one race inherently superior to another may be racism, as would supporting differential treatment under law, but finding them merely different is simple observation.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
BSE|990398290
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The abbreviation '''BSE''' is often used for the disease [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]], also known as "Mad Cow" disease.
------
Bse|990398314
1c1
< The abbreviation '''BSE''' is often used for the disease [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]], also known as "Mad Cow" disease.
---
> #REDIRECT [[BSE]]
------
Z|990398329
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Z¦Ç¦Ó¦Á (Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
AaA|990398349
1c1
< The use of this page is now discouraged.
---
> #REDIRECT [[A]]
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|990398458
89a90,91
> [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH] produces beautiful HTML only equations, but they can't be inserted without being garbled.  If this could be fixed, then [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH] would definitely be a fabulous answer. -- [[TedDunning]]
> 
91a94,95
> Fooey on that.  [[TeX]] is definitely only used by a few academics, but those few academics happen to include most of the mathematicians in the world.  MathML is not usable as an authoring tool (and TtM exists for that anyway).  TeX may be display-oriented, but few people actually write in TeX directly.  Instead, they use LaTeX or AMSTeX which are both very semantics-oriented.  In any case, I happen to live in the present and MathML is definitely in the future and may remain there indefinitely.  If we can just figure out how to support the tables that [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH] produces then the world be a lovely place (or at least the math pages in wikipedia). -- [[TedDunning]]
> 
96a101,102
> 
> ''Note: There is exactly such a converter from the same guy who wrote [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH]'' -- [[TedDunning]]
------
Short_words|990398859
1c1
< These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]]:
---
> These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]].  Short words are short because they have been used a lot (book, cat, dog, man, net, wife).  Plus all the acronyms.  There should be more of them in a complete encyclopedia.  This list is not automatically updated.
------
Izmir|990401185
1c1
< The second-largest port (after Istanbul) and the third most populous city of Turkey (formerly known as Smyrna) is located on the Aegean Sea near the Gulf of Izmir. The city was settled on 3rd milennium B.C and was an important city ýf Ionians. Being an important center for traders and merchants during Seljuk and Ottoman period, the city was completely destroyed in the independence war of Turkey and was rebuilt after 1922.
---
> The second-largest port (after [[Istanbul]]) and the third most populous city of [[Turkey]] (formerly known as [[Smyrna]]) is located on the [[Aegean Sea]] near the [[Gulf of Izmir]]. The city was settled on 3rd milennium B.C and was an important city of Ionians. Being an important center for traders and merchants during [[Seljuk]] and [[Ottoman]] period, the city was completely destroyed in the independence war of Turkey and was rebuilt after 1922.
------
Bille_August|990401186
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Bille August</b> (b. 1948)
> 
> Danish film and television producer.
> 
> Selected productions:
> 
> * <i>Pelle Erobreren</i> (1987, Pelle the Conqueror)
> ** based on a novel by Danish author Martin Andersen Nexø
> ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes and an [[Oscar]]
> * <i>Den gode vilje</i> (1991, The Best Intentions)
> ** script by [[Ingmar Bergman]]
> ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes 
> * <i>Jerusalem</i> (1996)
> ** based on a novel by the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf
> * <i>The House of Spirits</i> (1993)
> ** based on a novel by [[Isabel Allende]]
> * <i>Smilla's Sense of Snow</i> (1997)
> ** based on a novel by Danish author Peter Høeg
------
X|990401346
0a1,2
> 1. a letter of the [[alphabet]]
> 
2,3c4,11
< It is also controversial whether ø >PSI> and ÷ >CHI are Greek inventions or whether they are ultimately of Semitic 
< Origin. 
---
> 
> It is also controversial whether ø >PSI> and ÷ >CHI are Greek inventions or whether they are ultimately of Semitic Origin. 
> ----
> 2. In [[mathematics]], an unknown variable.  Even though any letter can be used, x is the most common by far.
> ----
> 3. A cross in games like [[tic-tac-toe]] and in abbreviations like Xmas ([[Christmas]]) and Xtal ([[Crystal]]).
> ----
> 4. The [[X Window System]], as developed by [[MIT]], currently at version 11, release 6 (X11R6).  X11 runs on UNIX and is available for free with source code for operating systems like [[Linux]] and [[BSD]].
------
X|990401414
9c9
< 3. A cross in games like [[tic-tac-toe]] and in abbreviations like Xmas ([[Christmas]]) and Xtal ([[Crystal]]).
---
> 3. A cross in games like [[tic tac toe]] and in abbreviations like Xmas ([[Christmas]]) and Xtal ([[Crystal]]).
11c11
< 4. The [[X Window System]], as developed by [[MIT]], currently at version 11, release 6 (X11R6).  X11 runs on UNIX and is available for free with source code for operating systems like [[Linux]] and [[BSD]].
---
> 4. The [[X Window System]], as developed by [[MIT]], currently at version 11, release 6 (X11R6).  X11 runs on UNIX and is available for free with source code for operating systems like [[Linux]] and [[BSD]].
------
Film_directors|990402276
4a5
> :[[Bille August]]
------
Zork|990402943
3c3
< The first version of Zork was written 1977-79 on a [[PDP-10]] computer by [[Tim Anderson]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce Daniels]], and [[Dave Lebline]] in a [[programming language] called [[MDL]]. All the programmers came from the [[Dynamic Modelling Group]] at the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab]].
---
> The first version of Zork was written 1977-79 on a [[PDP-10]] computer by [[Tim Anderson]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce Daniels]], and [[Dave Lebline]] in a [[programming language]] called [[MDL]]. All the programmers came from the [[Dynamic Modelling Group]] at the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab]].
------
Out|990404969
5c5
< 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]: Taking somebody out of the closet) Intransitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
---
> 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]: Taking somebody out of the closet) Transitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
7c7
< 4. (Slang, based on 3) The act of revealing other secrets about somebody to the public or a third party: He outed her as a smoker.  His outing her came as a big surprise to her parents.
---
> 4. (Slang, based on 3) To reveal other secrets about somebody to the public or a third party: He outed her as a smoker.  His outing her came as a big surprise to her parents.
------
Out|990405137
5c5
< 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]: Taking somebody out of the closet) Transitive verb: The act of letting it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
---
> 3. (Slang, based on 1 and [[closeted]]: To take somebody out of the closet) Transitive verb: To let it be known that a person is [[lesbian]], [[gay]] or [[bisexual]]. The practice of outing [[closeted]] people without their consent has been widely debated in the [[LGB community]].
------
Addiction|990405668
1c1
< An addiction is a compulsive need to [[ingest]] a [[toxic]] substance that leads to a (significantly) [[altered state of mind]]. With [[substance addiction]]s [[addict]]s experience heightened tolerance for the substance leading to the need to increase the [[dose]] to keep achieving the altered state of mind. Ultimately the dose required to reach the altered state may be higher than the [[lethal dose]]. In a wider sense addictions can also develop for certain behaviours, e.g. gambling. 
---
> An <i>substance addiction</i> is a compulsive need to [[ingest]] a [[toxic]] substance that leads to a (significantly) [[altered state of mind]]. With [[substance addiction]]s [[addict]]s experience heightened tolerance for the substance leading to the need to increase the [[dose]] to keep achieving the altered state of mind. Ultimately the dose required to reach the altered state may be higher than the [[lethal dose]]. In a wider sense, addictions can also develop for certain behaviours, e.g. gambling. 
29a30,31
> <li>[[Workaholics]]s
> <li>[[Internet Addicts]]s
------
V|990406202
1c1
< Like F, Greek Yøéëùí  (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German W – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
---
> Like [[F]], Greek Yøéëùí  (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
------
F|990406246
1c1
< Lateinisch F developed from the digraph FH that stood for /f/. The Etruscans were the inventors of this digraph, F on its own stood for /w/ in Etruscan as in Greek (where the letter – called Digamma in Greek –  has disappeared due to the fact that the /w/ phoneme itself disappeared.) The origin of F is the Semitic letter wâw that also represented /w/ and originally probably represented a hook or a club. 
---
> Latin F developed from the digraph FH that stood for /f/. The Etruscans were the inventors of this digraph, F on its own stood for /w/ in Etruscan as in Greek (where the letter – called Digamma in Greek –  has disappeared due to the fact that the /w/ phoneme itself disappeared.) The origin of F is the Semitic letter wâw that also represented /w/ and originally probably represented a hook or a club. 
------
U|990406288
1c1
< U was originally a capital letter like J and it was only de la Ramée who made the distinction between capital and small letter. See [[V]]. 
---
> U was originally a capital letter like [[J]] and it was only de la Ramée who made the distinction between capital and small letter. See [[V]]. 
------
J|990406377
1c1
< J was originally only a capital letters, therefore, some people still write their names as Jsabel, Jnes instead of Isabel, Ines in the German-speaking world, and in Italy, in non-official use one also sometimes encounters J as a capital of I. The Humanistic scholar Pierre de la Ramée (d. 1572) was the first to make a distinction between I and J.  Originally, both I and J were pronounced as [i], [i:], and [j]; but Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [g]) that came to be represented as I and J; therefore, English J has a sound quite different from I. In other Germanic languages, J stands for /j/, in Italian, only foreign words have J; in Spanish, J stands for /x/ (that in some cases developed from the /dZ/ sound, i.e. the same sound that English still has); in French, former /dZ/ is now pronounced as /Z/ (as in English MEASURE). 
---
> J was originally only a capital letter, therefore, some people still write their names as Jsabel, Jnes instead of Isabel, Ines in the German-speaking world, and in Italy, in non-official use one also sometimes encounters J as a capital of I. The Humanistic scholar Pierre de la Ramée (d. 1572) was the first to make a distinction between I and J.  Originally, both [[I]] and J were pronounced as [i], [i:], and [j]; but Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [g]) that came to be represented as I and J; therefore, English J has a sound quite different from I. In other Germanic languages, J stands for /j/, in Italian, only foreign words have J; in Spanish, J stands for /x/ (that in some cases developed from the /dZ/ sound, i.e. the same sound that English still has); in French, former /dZ/ is now pronounced as /Z/ (as in English MEASURE). 
------
I|990406423
1c1
< Greek I&#969;&#964;&#945; (Iôta) stood for the vowel /i/, the same in Etruscan, in Latin (as in Modern Greek) /j/ (as English Y in YOKE)  was added. In Semitic,  /j/ was the usual sound value of  Jôd (probably originally a pictogram for an arm with hand), /i/ only in foreign words.  In English, I represents different sounds, among them a diphthong that developed from /i:/ as well as short, open /I/ as in BILL. 
---
> Greek I&#969;&#964;&#945; (Iôta) stood for the vowel /i/, the same in Etruscan, in Latin (as in Modern Greek) /j/ (as English [[Y]] in YOKE)  was added. In Semitic,  /j/ was the usual sound value of  Jôd (probably originally a pictogram for an arm with hand), /i/ only in foreign words.  In English, I represents different sounds, among them a diphthong that developed from /i:/ as well as short, open /I/ as in BILL. 
------
Y|990406545
1c1
< See [[V]]. In Greek Yøéëùí (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. 
---
> See [[V]]. In Greek &Upsilon;&pi;&sigma;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu; (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. 
------
A|990406610
1c1
< The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (A&#955;&#966;&#945;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
---
> The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha|&alpha;]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (A&#955;&#966;&#945;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
------
B|990406743
1c1
< The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek B¦Ç¦Ó¦Á (B¨ºta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol were 'house'.
---
> The second letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek &beta;&epsilon;&tau;&alpha; (Beta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol was 'house'.
------
C|990406859
1c1
< In Etruscan there were no voiced plosives, so they took over Greek &#915;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945; (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic gîmel was the picture of a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian and so on. 
---
> The third letter in the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  In Etruscan there were no voiced plosives, so they took over Greek &gamma;&alpha;&mu;&mu;&alpha; (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic gîmel was the picture of a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian and so on. 
------
D|990406989
1,2c1,2
< The Semitic letter Dâlet probably developed from a logogram for a fish or a door. In Semitic, Ancient Greek 
< (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek name: &#916;&#949;&#955;&#964;&#945;, Delta. 
---
> The fourth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The Semitic letter Dâlet probably developed from a logogram for a fish or a door. In Semitic, Ancient Greek 
> (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek name: &Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&tau;&alpha; (Delta). 
------
Alpha|990407032
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek Alphabet]]
------
Greek_Alphabet|990407086
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
Alpha|990407106
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Greek Alphabet]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
Beta|990407170
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
B|990407221
1c1
< The second letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek &beta;&epsilon;&tau;&alpha; (Beta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol was 'house'.
---
> The second letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek [[Beta|&beta;]]&epsilon;&tau;&alpha; (Beta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol was 'house'.
------
Gamma|990407279
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
C|990407315
1c1
< The third letter in the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  In Etruscan there were no voiced plosives, so they took over Greek &gamma;&alpha;&mu;&mu;&alpha; (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic gîmel was the picture of a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian and so on. 
---
> The third letter in the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  In Etruscan there were no voiced plosives, so they took over Greek [[Gamma|&Gamma;]] (Gamma) to write their /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/. Some scholars claim that the Semitic gîmel was the picture of a camel. /k/ developed palatal and velar allophones in Latin, probably due to Etruscan influence. Therefore, C has many different sound values today, among them /k/ and /s/ in French, /k/ and /T/ (like English TH in THIN) in European Castilian, /k/ and /tS/ (like English CH) in Italian and so on. 
------
A|990407377
1c1
< The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[alpha|&alpha;]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (A&#955;&#966;&#945;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
---
> The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[Alpha|&alpha;]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (&alpha;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
------
Delta|990407447
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
D|990407466
2c2
< (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek name: &Delta;&epsilon;&lambda;&tau;&alpha; (Delta). 
---
> (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek letter: [[Delta|&Delta;]] or &delta;(Delta). 
------
Epsilon|990407596
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
Digamma|990407693
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
F|990407746
1c1
< Latin F developed from the digraph FH that stood for /f/. The Etruscans were the inventors of this digraph, F on its own stood for /w/ in Etruscan as in Greek (where the letter – called Digamma in Greek –  has disappeared due to the fact that the /w/ phoneme itself disappeared.) The origin of F is the Semitic letter wâw that also represented /w/ and originally probably represented a hook or a club. 
---
> The sixth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], F developed from the digraph FH that stood for /f/. The Etruscans were the inventors of this digraph, F on its own stood for /w/ in Etruscan as in Greek (where the letter [[Digamma|F]] – called Digamma in Greek –  has disappeared due to the fact that the /w/ phoneme itself disappeared.) The origin of F is the Semitic letter wâw that also represented /w/ and originally probably represented a hook or a club. 
------
G|990407835
1,2c1,2
< G was created by the Romans because they felt that [[C]] was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ AND /g/. 
< G which at this time took the place of the letter [[Z]] came to represent /g/. As /k/, /g/ too developed palatal and velar allophones which is the reason why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages and English (due to French influence). 
---
> The seventh letter in the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], G, was created by the Romans because they felt that [[C]] was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ AND /g/. 
> G, which at this time took the place of the letter [[Z]], came to represent /g/. As /k/, /g/ too developed palatal and velar allophones which is the reason why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages and English (due to French influence). 
------
Eta|990407926
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
H|990407953
1c1
< The Semitic letter &#294;êt probably represented the phoneme  /X// (pharyngeal voiceless fricative) (IPA [&#295;]). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence. Early Greek H stood for /h/, but later on H&#964;&#945; (Êta) stood for  /E:/. In Modern Greek this phoneme fell together with /i/, similar to the English development where EA /E:/ and EE /e:/ came to be both pronounced /i:/ . In Etruscan and Latin, the sound value  /h/ was maintained, but all Romance languages lost the sound – only Rumanian borrowed the /h/ phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages and Castilian /x/ developed [h] allophones in some Spanish-speaking countries. 
---
> The eighth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The Semitic letter &#294;êt probably represented the phoneme  /X// (pharyngeal voiceless fricative) (IPA [&#295;]). The form of the letter probably stood for a fence. Early Greek H stood for /h/, but later on [[Eta|&Eta;]] or [[Eta|&eta;]] (Êta) stood for  /E:/. In Modern Greek this phoneme fell together with /i/, similar to the English development where EA /E:/ and EE /e:/ came to be both pronounced /i:/ . In Etruscan and Latin, the sound value  /h/ was maintained, but all Romance languages lost the sound – only Rumanian borrowed the /h/ phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages and Castilian /x/ developed [h] allophones in some Spanish-speaking countries. 
------
Iota|990408049
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
I|990408065
1c1
< Greek I&#969;&#964;&#945; (Iôta) stood for the vowel /i/, the same in Etruscan, in Latin (as in Modern Greek) /j/ (as English [[Y]] in YOKE)  was added. In Semitic,  /j/ was the usual sound value of  Jôd (probably originally a pictogram for an arm with hand), /i/ only in foreign words.  In English, I represents different sounds, among them a diphthong that developed from /i:/ as well as short, open /I/ as in BILL. 
---
> The ninth letter in the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], I comes from the Greek [[Iota|&Iota;]] or [[Iota|&iota;]] (Iôta) stood for the vowel /i/, the same in Etruscan, in Latin (as in Modern Greek) /j/ (as English [[Y]] in YOKE)  was added. In Semitic,  /j/ was the usual sound value of  Jôd (probably originally a pictogram for an arm with hand), /i/ only in foreign words.  In English, I represents different sounds, among them a diphthong that developed from /i:/ as well as short, open /I/ as in BILL. 
------
TedDunning|990408069
3a4,6
> 
> -----
> Hi Ted! Allow me to welcome you to Wikipedia. I see you've contributed a lot in the areas of AI/information theory in a short period of time; very impressive! Don't take the editing of your [[MusicMatch]] page too personally; most of us here put our advocacy essays and other assorted personal positions on [[Wikipedia commentary]] or on our personal pages. -- [[STG]]
------
Bille_August|990408648
3c3
< Danish film and television producer.
---
> Danish film and television director.
11,12c11,12
< ** script by [[Ingmar Bergman]]
< ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes 
---
> ** script by [[Ingmar Bergman]].
> ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes. 
14c14
< ** based on a novel by the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf
---
> ** based on a novel by the Swedish author Selma Lagerlöf.
16c16
< ** based on a novel by [[Isabel Allende]]
---
> ** based on a novel by Chilean author [[Isabel Allende]].
18c18,21
< ** based on a novel by Danish author Peter Høeg
---
> ** based on a novel by Danish author Peter Høeg.
> * <i>Les Miserables</i> (1998?)
> ** based on a novel by French author [[Victor Hugo]].
> *<i> En sang for Martin</i> (2001, A Song for Martin)
------
Colleges_and_universities|990408788
2a3
> *[[Dalhousie University]] ([[Halifax]], [[Canada]])
9a11,12
> *[[McGill University]] ([[Montreal]], [[Canada]])
> *[[Memorial University]] ([[St Johns NF|St. John's]], [[Canada]]
27a31
> *[[University of Toronto]] ([[Toronto]], [[Canada]])
------
XfL|990409429
1c1
< A new (in 2001) professional football league created by the company that runs the WorldWrestlingFederation.
---
> A new (in 2001) professional football league created by the company that runs the [[World Wrestling Federation]].
8c8
< :[[SanFrancisco Demons]]
---
> :[[San Francisco Demons]]
10,11c10,11
< :[[LasVegas Outlaws]]
< :[[LosAngeles Xtreme]]
---
> :[[Las Vegas Outlaws]]
> :[[Los Angeles Xtreme]]
------
Sexism|990409705
5c5,7
< See also [[misogyny]], [[gender roles]], [[feminism]], [[political correctness]]. 
---
> See also [[misogyny]], [[gender roles]], [[feminism]], [[political correctness]]. 
> 
> /Talk
------
Sexism/Talk|990410055
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Like [[Racisim]], this is bound to be an interesting section. And I must put forth a  position similar to Lee's over on [[Racism/Talk]]: the two sexs are indeed fundamentally different, and observing this does not make one a sexist. On the other hand, I would contend that believing one sex is inferior to the other because of these differences is a sexist position. -- [[STG]]
------
Sexism/Talk|990410083
1c1
< Like [[Racisim]], this is bound to be an interesting section. And I must put forth a  position similar to Lee's over on [[Racism/Talk]]: the two sexs are indeed fundamentally different, and observing this does not make one a sexist. On the other hand, I would contend that believing one sex is inferior to the other because of these differences is a sexist position. -- [[STG]]
---
> Like [[Racism]], this is bound to be an interesting section. And I must put forth a  position similar to Lee's over on [[Racism/Talk]]: the two sexs are indeed fundamentally different, and observing this does not make one a sexist. On the other hand, I would contend that believing one sex is inferior to the other because of these differences is a sexist position. -- [[STG]]
------
MIT_License|990410644
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>Preamble, history, etc...</i>
> 
> <hr>
> <pre>
> Copyright (c) <year> <copyright holders>
> 
> Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a 
> copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
> to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation 
> the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, 
> and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the 
> Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
> 
>    The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included 
>    in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
> 
> THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
> IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, 
> FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
> AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
> LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
> OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
> THE SOFTWARE.
> </pre>
------
MIT_license|990410669
1,24c1
< <i>Preamble, history, etc...</i>
< 
< <hr>
< <pre>
< Copyright (c) <year> <copyright holders>
< 
< Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a 
< copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"),
< to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation 
< the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, 
< and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the 
< Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
< 
<    The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included 
<    in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
< 
< THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
< IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, 
< FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
< AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
< LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
< OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN
< THE SOFTWARE.
< </pre>
---
> #REDIRECT [[MIT License]]
------
Open_source_license|990410713
11c11
< *[[MIT license]]
---
> *[[MIT License]]
------
Politics|990411492
39,40c39,40
< ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]] -- [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]
<  
---
> ClassicalAndModernPoliticalTheorists: [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Mustafa Kemal Ataturk]] -- [[Micheal Bakunin]]  
> 
------
Kemal_Ataturk|990411524
1c1
< (1881–1938), Turkish soldier and statesman, the founder and first president of the Turkish republic. He was born in Salonika (now in Greece). He entered the military secondary school in Salonika in 1893 and the military academy at Monastir in 1895. He played a minor role in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and he gained a major victory by repulsing the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in 1915. After organizing the local resistance groups against the Ottoman sultan and the Allies in Anatolia into an army, he stopped the advances of enemy forces and consecutively founded the Republic of Turkey on Oct. 29, 1923. He began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Mustafa Kemal Ataturk]]
------
Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk|990411576
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> (1881–1938), Turkish soldier and statesman, the founder and first president of the Turkish republic. He was born in Salonika (now in Greece). He entered the military secondary school in Salonika in 1893 and the military academy at Monastir in 1895. He played a minor role in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and he gained a major victory by repulsing the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in 1915. After organizing the local resistance groups against the Ottoman sultan and the Allies in Anatolia into an army, he stopped the advances of enemy forces and consecutively founded the Republic of Turkey on Oct. 29, 1923. He began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis. 
------
Football|990413278
21a22,92
> Here is a list of famous football players:
> 
> * [[Roberto Baggio]] 
> * [[Gordon Banks]] 
> * [[Franco Baresi]] 
> * [[Franz Beckenbauer]] 
> * [[Giuseppe Bergomi]] 
> * [[Boniek Zbigniew]]  
> * [[Andreas Brehme]] 
> * [[Paul Breitner]] 
> * [[Emilio Butragueno]] 
> * [[Careca]]   
> * [[Jan Ceulemans]] 
> * [[Bobby Charlton]] 
> * [[Johann Cruyff]] 
> * [[Teofilio Cubillas]] 
> * [[Eusebio]]
> * [[Ubaldo Fillol]] 
> * [[Juste Fontaine]] 
> * [[Garrincha]]  
> * [[Gheorghe Hagi]] 
> * [[Geoff Hurst]] 
> * [[Jairzinho]]
> * [[Mario Kempes]] 
> * [[Jürgen Klinsmann]] 
> * [[Sandor Kocsis]] 
> * [[Hans Krankl]] 
> * [[Ruud Krol]] 
> * [[Grzegorz Lato]] 
> * [[Leonidas]]
> * [[Gary Lineker]] 
> * [[Sepp Maier]] 
> * [[Diego Maradona]] 
> * [[Lothar Matthäus]] 
> * [[Giuseppe Meazza]] 
> * [[Roger Milla]] 
> * [[Luis Monti]] 
> * [[Bobby Moore]] 
> * [[Gerd Müller]] 
> * [[Johann Neeskens]] 
> * [[Thomas N'kono]] 
> * [[Wolfgang Overath]] 
> * [[Daniel Passarella]] 
> * [[Pelé]]
> * [[Michel Platini]] 
> * [[Ferenc Puskas]] 
> * [[Rob Rensenbrink]] 
> * [[Roberto Rivelino]] 
> * [[Paolo Rossi]] 
> * [[Oscar Ruggeri]] 
> * [[Karl-Heinz Rummenigge]] 
> * [[Hector Scarone]] 
> * [[Juan Schiaffino]] 
> * [[Enzo Scifo]] 
> * [[Gaetano Scirea]] 
> * [[Uwe Seeler]] 
> * [[Lennart Skoglund]] 
> * [[Socrates]]
> * [[Guillermo Stábile]] 
> * [[Hristo Stoitchkov]] 
> * [[Jan Tomaszewski]] 
> * [[Carlos Valderrama]] 
> * [[Obdulio Varela]]
> * [[Berti Vogts]] 
> * [[Rudi Völler]] 
> * [[Fritz Walter]] 
> * [[Lev Yashin]] 
> * [[Zico]]
> * [[Dino Zoff]]
> * [[Andoni Zubizarreta]]  
> 
------
Socrates|990413553
7a8,11
> 
> ------
> 
> Socrates (born Feb,19 1954; Brazil) is also the name of a Brazilian football player, who is one of the best midfield players in football history.
------
Socrates|990413598
10d9
< 
------
Animal_Farm|990417587
1c1
< A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals hemselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
---
> A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals themselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
------
Bille_August|990418804
9c9
< ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes and an [[Oscar]]
---
> ** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and an [[Academy Awards|Oscar]] for [[Academy Awards/Foreign Language Film|Foreign Language Film]]
12c12
< ** won [[Golden Palms]] in Cannes. 
---
> ** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. 
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|990418857
13c13
< : 1988 [[Pelle the Conqueror]] - [[Bille August]]
---
> : 1988 [[Pelle the Conqueror]] - [[Bille_August]]
------
Academy_Awards/Foreign_Language_Film|990418896
13c13
< : 1988 [[Pelle the Conqueror]] - [[Bille_August]]
---
> : 1988 [[Pelle the Conqueror]] - [[Bille August]]
------
Animal_Farm|990420003
1c1
< A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals themselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
---
> Novel by [[George Orwell]] (1903-1950)
3c3,5
< Generally regarded as a [[satire]] on the [[Soviet Union]]
---
> A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals themselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
> 
> Generally regarded as a [[satire]] on the [[Soviet Union]].
------
J|990420015
1c1
< J was originally only a capital letter, therefore, some people still write their names as Jsabel, Jnes instead of Isabel, Ines in the German-speaking world, and in Italy, in non-official use one also sometimes encounters J as a capital of I. The Humanistic scholar Pierre de la Ramée (d. 1572) was the first to make a distinction between I and J.  Originally, both [[I]] and J were pronounced as [i], [i:], and [j]; but Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [g]) that came to be represented as I and J; therefore, English J has a sound quite different from I. In other Germanic languages, J stands for /j/, in Italian, only foreign words have J; in Spanish, J stands for /x/ (that in some cases developed from the /dZ/ sound, i.e. the same sound that English still has); in French, former /dZ/ is now pronounced as /Z/ (as in English MEASURE). 
---
> The tenth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]] J was originally only a capital letter, therefore, some people still write their names as Jsabel, Jnes instead of Isabel, Ines in the German-speaking world, and in Italy, in non-official use one also sometimes encounters J as a capital of [[I]]. The Humanistic scholar Pierre de la Ramée (d. 1572) was the first to make a distinction between I and J.  Originally, both [[I]] and J were pronounced as [i], [i:], and [j]; but Romance languages developed new sounds (from former [j] and [g]) that came to be represented as I and J; therefore, English J has a sound quite different from I. In other Germanic languages, J stands for /j/, in Italian, only foreign words have J; in Spanish, J stands for /x/ (that in some cases developed from the /dZ/ sound, i.e. the same sound that English still has); in French, former /dZ/ is now pronounced as /Z/ (as in English MEASURE). 
------
Kappa|990420161
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
George_Orwell|990420166
1c1
< Pen name used by Eric Blair
---
> Pen name used by [[Eric Arthur Blair]] (1903-1950)
9c9
< [[Animal Farm]]
---
> [[/Animal Farm]]
------
K|990420249
1c1
< The Greek  K¦Á¦Ð¦Ð¦Á (Kappa) developed from the Semitic Kap zur¨¹ck, symbol for an open hand. The Semitic  sound value  /k/ was maintained in most Classic as well as Modern Languages, although Latin abandoned K almost thoroughly. Therefore, the Romance languages have K only in foreign words. 
---
> The eleventh letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], K comes from the Greek [[Kappa|&Kappa;]] or [[Kappa|&kappa;]] (Kappa) developed from the Semitic Kap zur&uuml;ck (does this mean reverse Kap?), symbol for an open hand. The Semitic  sound value  /k/ was maintained in most Classic as well as Modern Languages, although Latin abandoned K almost thoroughly. Therefore, the Romance languages have K only in foreign words. 
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990420263
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals themselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them. 
> 
> Generally regarded as a satire on the Soviet Union. 
------
Lambda|990420368
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
L|990420399
1c1
< The Semitic Lamed stood for  /l/ and so did the Greek (Ëáìâäá, Lambda), Etruscan and Latin letters.  
---
> The twelvth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], L is derived ultimately from the Semitic Lamed which stood for the phonetic value /l/ as did the Greek [[Lambda|&Lambda;]] or [[Lambda|&lambda;]] (Lambda), as well as the equivalent Etruscan and Latin letters.  
------
Eric_Arthur_Blair|990420407
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Name of birth of British author, who wrote under the pseudonym [[George Orwell]].
------
Mu|990420576
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
------
M|990420611
1c1
< The Classical language as well as the Modern Languages symbolize /m/ by means of M (Greek M¦Ô, My). Semitic M¨ºm originally pictured water, in all probability. 
---
> The thirteenth letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]], M, represents the sound /m/ in Classical language as well as the Modern Languages.  It derives its shape from the Greek [[Mu|&Mu;]] or [[Mu|&mu;]]. Semitic Mem originally pictured water, in all probability. 
------
Animal_Farm|990420832
1,5c1
< Novel by [[George Orwell]] (1903-1950)
< 
< A story about a revolution amongst the animals of a farm, who chase out the human owners and set up a farm run by the animals themselves. Gradually the pigs take over, and life becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals, until the climax of the book when they see the pigs and humans talking together, and see no difference between them.
< 
< Generally regarded as a [[satire]] on the [[Soviet Union]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[George Orwell/Animal Farm]]
------
George_Orwell|990421128
5c5
< [[Down and out in Paris and London]]
---
> :[[Down and out in Paris and London]]
7c7
< [[The Road to Wigan Pier]]
---
> :[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]
9c9
< [[/Animal Farm]]
---
> :[[/Animal Farm]]
11c11
< [[1984]]
---
> :[[1984]]
------
George_Orwell|990421195
11c11
< :[[1984]]
---
> :[[/1984]]
------
George_Orwell/1984|990421875
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Novel from 1949 describing the dangers of  [[totalitarianism]] in a not so distant future. The novel introduced the now (in)famous concept of  the everpresent all-seeing [[Big Brother]].
------
George_Orwell|990422359
5,11c5,8
< :[[Down and out in Paris and London]]
< 
< :[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]
< 
< :[[/Animal Farm]]
< 
< :[[/1984]]
---
> :[[/Down and out in Paris and London|<i>Down and Out in Paris and London</i>]] (1933)
> :[[/The Road to Wigan Pier|<i>The Road to Wigan Pier</i>]] (1937)
> :[[/Animal Farm|<i>Animal Farm</i>]] (1945)
> :[[/1984|<i>1984</i>]] (1949)
------
Socrates|990423673
3,5c3
< Socrates taught [[Plato]], who in turn taught [[Aristotle]], and it is this triumvirate of great Greek philosophers who started the WesterN tradition of [[Philosophy]] and by extension [[Science]].
< 
< Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily Plato in [[Platos Dialogues]] (most of which were written in [[Socratic dialogue]] form), but also [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristophanes]].
---
> Since he left no writings, all that we know of Socrates comes from the writings of just a few ancient Greeks, primarily [[Plato]], whom Socrates taught, but also [[Xenophon]] and [[Aristophanes]].
------
1984|990424181
5c5
< *The book by [[George Orwell]], ''1984'', published in 1948, presented a terrible view of how life would be in 1984.
---
> * [[George Orwell/1984|<i>1984</i>]], book by [[George Orwell]] published in 1949 presenting a terrible view of how life would be in 1984.
------
Newspeak|990424713
1c1
< A fictional language in the novel [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say or think anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.(see also the <i>[[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]</i>)
---
> A fictional language in the novel [[George Orwell/1984|1984]] by [[George Orwell]]. An essay about it was tacked onto the end of the novel. It was closely based on English, but with many changes to suit the totalitarian regime in the novel. Apparently they were trying to make it difficult to say or think anything except things acceptable to the regime, in the language.(see also the <i>[[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]</i>)
------
George_Orwell/1984|990424811
1c1
< Novel from 1949 describing the dangers of  [[totalitarianism]] in a not so distant future. The novel introduced the now (in)famous concept of  the everpresent all-seeing [[Big Brother]].
---
> Novel from 1949 describing the dangers of  [[totalitarianism]] in a not so distant future. The novel introduced the now (in)famous concept of  the everpresent all-seeing [[Big Brother]] and the fictional language [[Newspeak]].
------
Thales|990424986
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Thales was a [[Greek]] [[philosopher]] who lived around 600 BC.  He is generally considered the first philosopher in the Greek tradition and is considered the father of [[science]] as well.
> 
> Thales is remembered for arguing that water is the essence of all things.  This argument is significant because it is the first attempt to explain the physical world without reference to a supernatural power.  Prior to Thales all such explanations relied on gods or other mythological forces.
> 
> Thales lived in the city of [[Miletus]], in [[Ionia]].  It is sometimes thought that the cities of Ionia were founded by the [[Minoan Civilization|Minoans]], fleeing the destruction of their civilization at the end of the [[Bronze Age]].  The Ionians were well-travelled and had many dealings with [[Egypt]] and [[Babylon]], and it is possible that Thales had studied in Egypt as a young man.  In any event, Thales was almost certainly exposed to many traditions alien to the [[Homer|Homeric]] traditions of Greece.  It is perhaps because of this that his inquiries into the nature of things took him beyond traditional mythology.
> 
> Thales had a profound influence on other Greek thinkers and therefore on Western history.  Many philosophers followed his lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched in the language of philosophy, rather than myth or religion.
------
Skinheads|990424995
1c1
< <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
---
> <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late 1960's; emerging out of the Mod youth subculture in Britain.  [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
------
Dystopia|990425131
13c13
< * [[1984]] by [[George Orwell]]
---
> * [[George Orwell/1984|1984]] by [[George Orwell]]
------
George_Orwell/1984|990425195
1a2,4
> 
> 
>  see also [[Dystopia]]
------
Dystopia|990425307
11,12d10
< * [[Brave New World]] by [[Aldous Huxley]]
< * [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
13a12,14
> * [[Anthem]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
> * [[Atlas Shrugged]] by [[Ayn Rand]]
> * [[Brave New World]] by [[Aldous Huxley]]
15a17
> * [[Yvegeny Zamyatin/We|We]] by [[Yvegeny Zamyatin]]
------
Mu-metal|990426028
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Mu-metal is a nickel-iron alloy (77% Ni, 15% Fe, plus Cu and Mo) that is very efficient for screening magnetic fields. Used for vacuum chambers for experiments with low energy electrons.
------
Skinheads|990426328
1c1
< <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late 1960's; emerging out of the Mod youth subculture in Britain.  [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
---
> <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late 1960's; emerging out of the Mod youth subculture in [[Great Britain]].  [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
------
World_Wildlife_Fund|990426356
1c1
< The World Wildlife Fund ([[WWF]]) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organizations]].
---
> The World Wildlife Fund ([[WWF]]) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organization]].
------
Environmental_organization|990426384
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[environmental organizations]]
> 
------
Environmental_organization|990426411
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[environmental organizations]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Environmental organizations]]
------
World_Wildlife_Fund|990426430
1c1
< The World Wildlife Fund ([[WWF]]) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organization]].
---
> The World Wildlife Fund ([[WWF]]) was founded in 1961 and is one of the world's largest [[environmental organizations]].
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990426506
3c3,6
< Generally regarded as a satire on the Soviet Union. 
---
> Generally regarded as a satire on the [[Soviet Union]]. 
> 
> Famous quotes:
> ''"Four legs good, two legs bad"'' 
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990426521
6c6,7
< ''"Four legs good, two legs bad"'' 
---
> 
> ''"Four legs good, two legs bad"'' 
------
Biblioholic|990426545
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Biblioholist]]
> 
------
Ska|990426682
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[music]] style somewhat inspired by [[reggea]]. One of the early makers of ska music was [[Madness]].
------
Football|990426704
7c7
< If you are outside the [[United States]], [[football]] means [[soccer]]: 
---
> For people living outside of the [[United States]], [[football]] means the following: 
------
Alvin_Toffler|990426864
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American futurologist. 
> 
> A few of his well-known works are
> * [[/Future Shock|Future Shock]]
> * [[/The Third Wave|The Third Wave]] (1980)
> * [[/The Eco-Spasm Report|The Eco-Spasm Report]]
------
The_Shockwave_Rider|990426886
3c3
< Based on the ideas in the book [[Future Shock]] by [[Alvin Toffler]], the novel shows a [[dystopia|dystopian]] early 21st century America dominated by computer networks, and is considered by some critics to be an early ancestor of the `[[cyberpunk]]' genre. The hero, Nick Halflinger, is a runaway from a government program intended to find, educate and indoctrinate highly gifted children to ensure they pose no threat to the ever growing powers of the state. Nick gradually realises this, and growing more and more disenchanted, eventually goes on the run, using stolen computer access codes to cover his data trails and create new identities for himself.
---
> Based on the ideas in the book [[Alvin Toffler/Future Shock|Future Shock]] by [[Alvin Toffler]], the novel shows a [[dystopia|dystopian]] early 21st century America dominated by computer networks, and is considered by some critics to be an early ancestor of the `[[cyberpunk]]' genre. The hero, Nick Halflinger, is a runaway from a government program intended to find, educate and indoctrinate highly gifted children to ensure they pose no threat to the ever growing powers of the state. Nick gradually realises this, and growing more and more disenchanted, eventually goes on the run, using stolen computer access codes to cover his data trails and create new identities for himself.
------
MIT_License|990426908
14,15c14,15
<    The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included 
<    in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
---
> The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included 
> in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
------
George_Orwell/1984|990426951
1c1
< Novel from 1949 describing the dangers of  [[totalitarianism]] in a not so distant future. The novel introduced the now (in)famous concept of  the everpresent all-seeing [[Big Brother]] and the fictional language [[Newspeak]].
---
> [[Science fiction]] novel from 1949 by [[George Orwell]] describing the dangers of  [[totalitarianism]] in a not so distant future. The novel introduced the now (in)famous concept of  the everpresent all-seeing [[Big Brother]] and the fictional language [[Newspeak]]. The original idea was to call it "1948".
4c4
<  see also [[Dystopia]]
---
> See also [[Dystopia]].
------
Racism/Talk|990427080
1a2,4
> <hr>
> I see what you mean. I would argue that racism isn't just about finding one's own race superior or inferior, it is also about exaggerating the differences and the importance placed on the differences while ignoring the similarities. People of different ethnicities have many more things in common than things that set them apart. Not noticing that is the basis for racism. Maybe we really need two definitions, one broad and one narrow, just like on [[gay]] there's one inclusive and one exclusive. For now I've changed inherently to essentially because it better reflects what I was trying to say. 
> --Mjausson
------
Racism|990427174
1c1
< Racism is the belief that people of different [[race]]s are inherently different from each other and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Racist]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to other races and in need of protection from people of other races. 
---
> Racism is the belief that people of different [[race]]s are essentially different from each other and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Racist]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to other races and in need of protection from people of other races. 
------
Statistics/LLR|990427188
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A '''generalized log-likelihood ratio test''' is a test statistic computed by taking the ratio of the maximum probability under the constraint of the null hypothesis to the maximum probability with that constraint relaxed.  If this ratio is given by &lambda; and the null hypothesis holds, then -2 log &lambda; has a particularly handy asymptotic distribution.  Many common test statistics such as the [[Z Test]], the [[F Test]] and Pearson's &chi;<sup>2</sup> test can be phrased as generalized log-likelihood ratios or approximations thereof.
> 
> Many of these approximations were quite useful when computers did not exists, but now that taking a log is really no more vexing than multiplying two numbers, other approximations may be more useful, especially in special cases were the approximations are suspect.
> 
> If we write the likelihood as computed by our model of an observed outcome X to be L(X|&omega;) where &omega; is set of parameters for our model, then the generalized likelihood ratio is <br><table border = "0" align=center>
> <tr> 
>   <td></td>
>   <td align=center> max </td>
>   <td> L(X | <font face="symbol"> w </font>) </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td></td>
>   <td align=center> <font face="symbol"> wÎ </font> H<sub>0</sub></td>
>   <td></td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td><font face="symbol">l</font> = </td>
>   <td  colspan=2> <hr noshade=noshade></td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td></td>
>   <td align=center> max </td>
>   <td> L(X | <font face="symbol"> w </font>) </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td></td>
>   <td align=center> <font face="symbol"> wÎ </font> H</td>
>   <td></td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> If H<sub>0</sub> is a strict subset of H that is generated by setting some of the &omega; to zero and the true value of &omega; really is taken from H<sub>0</sub>, then -2 log &lambda; will be asymptotically &chi;<sup>2</sup> distributed with degrees of freedom equal to the difference in dimensionality of H and H<sub>0</sub>.
> 
> For instance, in the case of Pearson's test, we might try to compare two coins to determine whether they have the same probability of coming up heads.  Our observation can be put into a contingency table with rows corresponding to the coin and columns corresponding to heads or tails.  The elements of the contingency table will be the number of times the coin for that row came up heads or tails.  The contents of this table are our observation X.
> <table align=center>
> <tr>
>   <td></td>
>   <td> '''Heads''' </td>
>   <td> '''Tails'''</td>
> </tr><tr>
>   <td> '''Coin 1''' </td>
>   <td align=center> k<sub>1H</sub> </td>
>   <td align=center> k<sub>1T</sub> </td>
> </tr><tr>
>   <td> '''Coin 2''' </td>
>   <td align=center> k<sub>2H</sub> </td>
>   <td align=center> k<sub>2T</sub> </td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> Here &omega; consists of the parameters p<sub>1H</sub>, p<sub>1T</sub>, p<sub>2H</sub>,  and p<sub>2T</sub> which are the probability that coin 1 (2) comes up heads (tails).  The hypothesis space H is defined by the usual constraints on a distribution, p<sub>ij</sub> &ge; 0, p<sub>ij</sub> &le; 1, and p<sub>iH</sub> + p<sub>iT</sub> = 1.  The null hypothesis H<sub>0</sub> is the sub-space where p<sub>1j</sub> = p<sub>2j</sub>.  In all of these constraints, i = 1,2 and j = H,T.
> 
> The hypothesis and null hypothesis can be rewritten slightly so that they satisfy the constraints for the log-likelihood ratio to have the desired nice distribution.  Since the constraint causes the two-dimensional H to be reduced to the one-dimensional H<sub>0</sub>, the asymptotic distribution for the test will be &chi;^2(1), the &chi;^2 distribution with one degree of freedom.
> 
> For the general contingency table, we can write the log-likelihood ratio test as
> <table border=0>
> <tr>
>   <td> </td>
>   <td> </td>
>   <td> </td>
>   <td valign=bottom> <font face=symbol>p</font><sub>ij</sub> </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td> -2 log <font face="symbol"> l </font> = </td>
>   <td valign=center> <font face=symbol size=+3> S </font> </td>
>   <td valign=center> k <sub> ij </sub> log </td>
>   <td> <hr noshade=noshade> </td>
> </tr>
> <tr>
>   <td> </td>
>   <td valign=top>i,j </td>
>   <td> </td>
>   <td valign=bottom> <font face=symbol>m</font><sub>ij</sub> </td>
> </tr>
> </table>
> 
------
Racism/Talk|990427415
4a5,6
> 
> Finding one race superior to the other ''is'' racism. The problem with the word 'different' is that it is sometimes used by people who are reluctant to state their opinion on something. BTW: I am not an expert on this but supposedly the genetic differences between people are so minute that they can't even be described as races. [[WojPob]]
------
Sexism/Talk|990427966
1a2,4
> <hr>
> If men and women are fundamentally different is a matter of debate. We are after all one species. Besides the argument tends to fall down when confronted with people whose gender identity isn't straightforward, whether they be transsexual, hermophroditic or simply enjoy messing with people's heads. The problem here, as in racism, is that some tend to see only the traits that they consider typical to be representative and simple deny everything that is outside that. It's a circular argument. What it comes down to in the end is this: Can the fictional individual we're discussing here meet another person first and foremost as a fellow human being or will they see them primarily as an instance of the group they've arbitrarily consigned them to? 
> --Mjausson
------
English_Channel|990428252
5c5
< In ???? the channel tunnel was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
---
> In ???? the [[channel tunnel]] was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
------
Addiction|990428284
14a15
> <li>[[Workaholics]]s
30d30
< <li>[[Workaholics]]s
------
Channel_tunnel|990428478
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[railway]] tunnel underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed. 
------
English_Channel|990428533
5c5
< In ???? the [[channel tunnel]] was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
---
> In ???? the [[channel tunnel|channel tunnel]] was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
------
Gods|990428652
57a58
>  see also [[Names given to the Divine]]
------
Gods|990428683
58c58
<  see also [[Names given to the Divine]]
---
>  see also [[Names given to the divine]]
------
Cyberpunk|990428935
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Although no clear definition exists, Cyberpunk may be sometimes defined as a sub-genre of [[science fiction]]. It describes the underground side of the digital society, which has started to evolve in the last two decades of the twentieth century.
> 
> In cyberpunk literature most of the action takes place on-line, in [[cyberspace]] - the clear borderline between the real and the virtual becomes blurred. The worlds described are sinister, dark places with interlinked computers that dominate every aspect of life. Great corporations and corrupt, authocratic governments have absolute power. The battle against the centralised authority by disillusioned renegades is one of the main themes of the genre. 
> 
> [[William Gibson]] with his book [[Neuromancer]] (written in 1983) is seen as one of the first cyberpunk writers. Others include [[Bruce Sterling]], [[Neal Stephenson]] ...
> 
> 
------
Cyberpunk|990429236
5c5
< [[William Gibson]] with his book [[Neuromancer]] (written in 1983) is seen as one of the first cyberpunk writers. Others include [[Bruce Sterling]], [[Neal Stephenson]] ...
---
> [[William Gibson]] with his book [[Neuromancer]] (written in 1983) is seen as one of the first cyberpunk writers. Others include [[Bruce Sterling]], [[Neal Stephenson]] ...  
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990429548
7a8,9
> 
> ''"All animals are even - but some animals are more even than others"'' 
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990429773
9c9
< ''"All animals are even - but some animals are more even than others"'' 
---
> ''"All animals are equal - but some animals are more equal than others"'' 
------
Dystopia|990429898
17a18
> * [[The running man]] by [[Richard Backman]], a penname for [[Stephen King]].
------
Dystopia|990430176
18c18
< * [[The running man]] by [[Richard Backman]], a penname for [[Stephen King]].
---
> * [[The Running Man]] by [[Richard Bachman]], a penname for [[Stephen King]].
------
The_Running_Man|990430699
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman]].
------
Richard_Bachman|990430772
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pen name for the master of the horror genre - [[Stephen King]]. The works have been recently republished in a single volume "The Bachman Books".
------
Dystopia|990430834
18c18
< * [[The Running Man]] by [[Richard Bachman]], a penname for [[Stephen King]].
---
> * [[The Running Man|The Running Man]] by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]], a penname for [[Stephen King]].
------
The_Running_Man|990431074
1c1
< A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman]].
---
> A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]].
------
The_Running_Man|990431088
1c1
< A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]].
---
> A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]].   
------
Cyberpunk|990431610
1c1
< Although no clear definition exists, Cyberpunk may be sometimes defined as a sub-genre of [[science fiction]]. It describes the underground side of the digital society, which has started to evolve in the last two decades of the twentieth century.
---
> Although no clear definition exists, cyberpunk is a sub-genre of [[science fiction]]. It describes the underground side of the digital society, which has started to evolve in the last two decades of the [[20th century]].
5c5,8
< [[William Gibson]] with his book [[Neuromancer]] (written in 1983) is seen as one of the first cyberpunk writers. Others include [[Bruce Sterling]], [[Neal Stephenson]] ...  
---
> [[William Gibson]] with his book [[William Gibson/Neuromancer|Neuromancer]] (1984) is seen as one of the first cyberpunk writers. Others include [[Bruce Sterling]] (who functioned as cyberpunk's chief ideologue with his [[fanzine]] [[Bruce Sterling/Cheap Truth|Cheap Truth]]), and [[Neal Stephenson]]. 
> 
> Notable precursors to the genre are [[Vernor Vinge]] ([[Vernor Vinge/True Names|True Names and Other Dangers]]), [[John Brunner]] ([[The Shockwave Rider]]) and [[K. W. Jeter]] ([[K. W. Jeter/Dr. Adder|Dr. Adder]]).
> 
------
The_Running_Man|990431723
1c1
< A [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], based on a novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]].   
---
> A novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]] (pseudonym for [[Stephen King]]. Also a [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], but the connection between the film and the book is tenuous at best.
------
The_Running_Man|990431857
1c1
< A novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]] (pseudonym for [[Stephen King]]. Also a [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], but the connection between the film and the book is tenuous at best.
---
> A novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]] (pseudonym for [[Stephen King]]). Also a [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], but the connection between the film and the book is tenuous at best.
------
Richard_Bachman|990432216
1c1,16
< Pen name for the master of the horror genre - [[Stephen King]]. The works have been recently republished in a single volume "The Bachman Books".
---
> Pen name for the master of the horror genre - [[Stephen King]]. After publishing a few novels under his own name, Stephen King wanted to know if a few of his early works (written before [[Stephen King/Carrie|Carrie]]) would sell without having his name on them. He came up with the pen name "Richard Bachman" and convinced his publisher to try them.
> 
> Bibliography
> * [[/Rage|Rage]] (originally Getting it on)
> * [[/The Long Walk|The Long Walk]]
> * [[/Roadwork|Roadwork]]
> * [[/The Running Man|The Running Man]]
> * [[/Thinner|Thinner]]
> 
> The first four of these were republished as The Bachman Books in the late [[1980s]]. Bachman slowly built up a readership despite being published in original paperbacks. Thinner was published in hardback and sold 28000 copies before it became known that the author was really [[Stephen King]] and sales went up tenfold.
> 
> The original editions of the early Bachman books are among the most sought after original paperbacks in existence, costing at least a couple of thousand dollars.
> 
> By the time of Bachman's death of "cancer of the pseudonym", King was working on [[Stephen King/Misery|Misery]] and planned to release it as a Bachman book. 
> 
> In the mid-[[1990s]], [[/The Regulators|The Regulators]] came out, claiming to have been found among Bachman's leftover papers by his widow, but it is obvious from the book that it's really by Stephen King.
------
Richard_Bachman/The_Running_Man|990432247
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]] (pseudonym for [[Stephen King]]). Also a [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], but the connection between the film and the book is tenuous at best.
> 
------
The_Running_Man|990432288
1c1
< A novel by [[Richard Bachman|Richard Bachman]] (pseudonym for [[Stephen King]]). Also a [[film]] starring [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], but the connection between the film and the book is tenuous at best.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Richard Bachman/The Running Man]]
------
Gods|990432915
3,25c3,25
<  <b>Egyptian gods</b>
<  [[Anubis]]
<  [[Buto]]
<  [[Chem]]
<  [[Chensit]]
<  [[Chnum]]
<  [[Djebauti]]
<  [[Dua]]
<  [[Duamutef]]
<  [[Harakhti]]
<  [[Hathor]]
<  [[Heh]]
<  [[Hike]]
<  [[Horus]]
<  [[Imiut]]
<  [[Imset]]
<  [[Isis]]
<  [[Maahes]]
<  [[Maat|Ma'at]]
<  [[Menhit]]
<  [[Qetesh]]
<  [[Sai]]
<  [[Thoth]]
---
> <b>Egyptian gods</b>
> :[[Anubis]]
> :[[Buto]]
> :[[Chem]]
> :[[Chensit]]
> :[[Chnum]]
> :[[Djebauti]]
> :[[Dua]]
> :[[Duamutef]]
> :[[Harakhti]]
> :[[Hathor]]
> :[[Heh]]
> :[[Hike]]
> :[[Horus]]
> :[[Imiut]]
> :[[Imset]]
> :[[Isis]]
> :[[Maahes]]
> :[[Maat|Ma'at]]
> :[[Menhit]]
> :[[Qetesh]]
> :[[Sai]]
> :[[Thoth]]
27,40c27,40
<  <b>Greek gods</b>
<  [[Aphrodite]]
<  [[Apollo]]
<  [[Ares]]
<  [[Artemis]]
<  [[Athena]]
<  [[Demeter]]
<  [[Dionysius]]
<  [[Hades]]
<  [[Hephaestus]]
<  [[Hera]]
<  [[Hestia]]
<  [[Poseidon]]
<  [[Zeus]]
---
> <b>Greek gods</b>
> :[[Aphrodite]]
> :[[Apollo]]
> :[[Ares]]
> :[[Artemis]]
> :[[Athena]]
> :[[Demeter]]
> :[[Dionysius]]
> :[[Hades]]
> :[[Hephaestus]]
> :[[Hera]]
> :[[Hestia]]
> :[[Poseidon]]
> :[[Zeus]]
42,45c42,45
<  <b>Norse gods</b>
<  [[Loki]]
<  [[Odin]]
<  [[Thor]]
---
> <b>Norse gods</b>
> :[[Loki]]
> :[[Odin]]
> :[[Thor]]
47,53c47,53
<  <b>Roman gods</b>
<  [[Janus]]
<  [[Jupiter]]
<  [[Mercury]]
<  [[Neptune]]
<  [[Saturn]]
<  [[Venus]]
---
> <b>Roman gods</b>
> :[[Janus]]
> :[[Jupiter]]
> :[[Mercury]]
> :[[Neptune]]
> :[[Saturn]]
> :[[Venus]]
55,58c55,58
<  <b>Names for monotheistic God</b>
<  [[Allah]] - [[Islam]]
<  [[Yahveh]], [[Jehovah]] - [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]
<  see also [[Names given to the divine]]
---
> <b>Names for monotheistic God</b>
> :[[Allah]] - [[Islam]]
> :[[Yahveh]], [[Jehovah]] - [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]
> :see also [[Names given to the divine]]
------
Gods|990432962
57c57,58
< :[[Yahveh]], [[Jehovah]] - [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]
---
> :[[Yahweh]], [[Jehovah]] - [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]]
> :[[Jesus Christ]] - [[Christianity]]
------
Racism|990433508
1c1
< Racism is the belief that people of different [[race]]s are essentially different from each other and that individuals and society should enforce those differences. [[Racist]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to other races and in need of protection from people of other races. 
---
> ''Racism'' is the belief that people of one [[race]]s, in virtue of their being of a different race, are superior to those of another race.  Sometimes the notion of racism is treated as implying that individuals and society should enforce those differences.  [[Racist]]s usually think of their own race as simultaneously superior to other races and in need of protection from people of other races. 
3,7c3
< While there are differences between populations of different [[ethnicity]] that cannot adequately be explained by [[socio-economic]] factors (e.g. varying propensity for diseases such as [[diabetes]], [[alcoholism]] and [[sickle-cell anemia]]), there is no scientific evidence that supports letting the minute genetic differences between people of various races affect public policy or the way individuals lead their lives. 
< 
< Racist beliefs can be held by all people of all ethnic groups but their impact is naturally stronger in people who belong to over-privileged ethnic groups as they are likely to wield more power over others. 
< 
< Racism is sometimes seen as a type of [[xenophobia]]. A special case of racism is [[anti-semitism]]. 
---
> Racism is sometimes seen as a type of [[xenophobia]].  One kind of racism is [[anti-semitism]]. 
13c9
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Racism/Talk|990433597
6a7,14
> ----
> The following would not pass muster according to NeutralPointOfView:
> 
> :While there are differences between populations of different [[ethnicity]] that cannot adequately be explained by [[socio-economic]] factors (e.g. varying propensity for diseases such as [[diabetes]], [[alcoholism]] and [[sickle-cell anemia]]), there is no scientific evidence that supports letting the minute genetic differences between people of various races affect public policy or the way individuals lead their lives. 
> 
> :Racist beliefs can be and in varying portions are held by all people of all ethnic groups, throughout the world, but their impact is naturally stronger in people who belong to over-privileged ethnic groups as they are likely to wield more power over others. 
> 
> I think these claims need to be explained much more carefully and at greater length. --[[LMS]]
------
Larry_Sanger|990433833
96a97,98
> ----
> I agree with you, but I meant exactly what I said.  Wikipedia is not a list of links.  I think it is a very, very bad habit to get into, to start just listing links in place of a real encyclopedia entry! --Larry
------
Larry_Sanger|990433861
5,6d4
< UPDATE!  I am now suffering from an aching voltage converter.  I don't know when I'm going to have a reliable Internet connection--that's why I haven't been able to partake in all this GREAT recent development.  I mean, golly, where did all these people come from???  Anyway, though, I'll be online one way or another soon. --Larry
< 
------
Racism|990434440
7c7
< Also see [[Hate Crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]]
---
> Also see [[Hate Crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]], [[apartheid]]
9c9
< [[/Talk]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Aves/talk|990434531
3c3
< Well stone the bloody crows!
---
> The page is listing orders, each of which is made up of several families, of which Corvidae is one.  In particular it belongs among the Passeriformes.
5,9c5
< What happened to the Corvidae? Did someone at that big zoological names comittee decide to split them, or join them with something else recently? Or did they just get left off this page? Someone who knows this stuff, please fix!
< 
< ----
< 
< The page is listing orders, each of which is made up of several families, of which Corvidae is one.  In particular it belongs among the Passeriformes.
---
> OK, thanks!
------
New_topics|990435452
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 10th May, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 20th May, Wikipedia server time
3c3,378
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook has now reached the `K's )
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook is now in the `M's )
> 
> 
> [[1909]] -- 
> [[1984]] -- 
> [[2000s]] -- 
> [[A.A._Milne]] -- 
> [[A._A._Milne]] -- 
> [[Addiction]] -- 
> [[Alpha]] -- 
> [[Alumn]] -- 
> [[Alumna]] -- 
> [[Alumni]] -- 
> [[Anders_Jonas_Angstrom]] -- 
> [[Andrei_Andreevich_Markov]] -- 
> [[Anglican_Communion]] -- 
> [[Angst]] -- 
> [[Angstrom]] -- 
> [[Ann_Arbor]] -- 
> [[Anti-semitic]] -- 
> [[Anti-semitism]] -- 
> [[Anxiety]] -- 
> [[Archipelago]] -- 
> [[Arne_Kaijser]] -- 
> [[Arthur_Conan_Doyle]] -- 
> [[Author]] -- 
> [[Aves/talk]] -- 
> [[Axiom]] -- 
> [[B-52]] -- 
> [[BSE]] -- 
> [[B]] -- 
> [[Bal_Thackeray]] -- 
> [[Bay]] -- 
> [[Beta]] -- 
> [[Biblioholist]] -- 
> [[Bille_August]] -- 
> [[Bisexual]] -- 
> [[Bombay]] -- 
> [[Book]] -- 
> [[Bornholm]] -- 
> [[Boston]] -- 
> [[C]] -- 
> [[Calf]] -- 
> [[Cambridge,_Massachusetts]] -- 
> [[Cambridge]] -- 
> [[Cambridge_University]] -- 
> [[Chalmers_University_of_Technology]] -- 
> [[Charles_Babbage]] -- 
> [[Civil_Rights_Memorial]] -- 
> [[Claude_E._Shannon]] -- 
> [[Closeted]] -- 
> [[Codex]] -- 
> [[Colin_Dexter]] -- 
> [[College]] -- 
> [[Community]] -- 
> [[Community_college]] -- 
> [[Cracking]] -- 
> [[Cross-dresser]] -- 
> [[D]] -- 
> [[Dallas_Cowboys]] -- 
> [[Data_compression/Huffman_coding]] -- 
> [[Delta]] -- 
> [[Denver_Broncos]] -- 
> [[Digamma]] -- 
> [[Dock]] -- 
> [[Dockyard]] -- 
> [[Dorothy_Sayers]] -- 
> [[Dumbarton_Bridge]] -- 
> [[Edmund_Stoiber/Talk]] -- 
> [[Electronic_instruments]] -- 
> [[Environmental_agreements]] -- 
> [[Epsilon]] -- 
> [[Eta]] -- 
> [[F]] -- 
> [[Fax]] -- 
> [[Fear]] -- 
> [[Film_crew]] -- 
> [[Florida]] -- 
> [[Football_team]] -- 
> [[GUI]] -- 
> [[G]] -- 
> [[Gamma]] -- 
> [[Gaudy_Night]] -- 
> [[Gay]] -- 
> [[Georg_Henrik_von_Wright]] -- 
> [[Goteborg]] -- 
> [[Greater_London]] -- 
> [[Greek_Alphabet]] -- 
> [[H]] -- 
> [[Harbor]] -- 
> [[Heterosexual]] -- 
> [[High_anxiety]] -- 
> [[Holocene]] -- 
> [[Homophobia]] -- 
> [[Homosexual]] -- 
> [[Hornlo]] -- 
> [[I]] -- 
> [[Inch]] -- 
> [[Information_explosion]] -- 
> [[Information_theory]] -- 
> [[Inn]] -- 
> [[Inspector_Morse]] -- 
> [[International_Olympiad_in_Informatics]] -- 
> [[Iota]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Communications]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Economy]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Geography]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Government]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/History]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Military]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/People]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Isle_of_Man/Transportation]] -- 
> [[J]] -- 
> [[Jabal_Ram]] -- 
> [[Jackson]] -- 
> [[K]] -- 
> [[Kansas]] -- 
> [[Kansas_City_Chiefs]] -- 
> [[Kattegat]] -- 
> [[Kattegatt]] -- 
> [[Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test]] -- 
> [[L]] -- 
> [[Large_Technical_System]] -- 
> [[Lesbian]] -- 
> [[Lesbigay]] -- 
> [[Letter]] -- 
> [[London_boroughs]] -- 
> [[Lord_Peter_Wimsey]] -- 
> [[Los_Angeles_Rams]] -- 
> [[Louis_Bleriot]] -- 
> [[Lulea_University_of_Technology]] -- 
> [[Lund_University]] -- 
> [[MIT]] -- 
> [[MIT_License]] -- 
> [[M]] -- 
> [[Macau/Communications]] -- 
> [[Macau/Economy]] -- 
> [[Macau/Geography]] -- 
> [[Macau/Government]] -- 
> [[Macau/History]] -- 
> [[Macau/Military]] -- 
> [[Macau/People]] -- 
> [[Macau/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Macau/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Macau]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Government]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/History]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Military]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/People]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Macedonia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Macedonia]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Communications]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Economy]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Geography]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Government]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/History]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Military]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/People]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Madagascar/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Malaren]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Communications]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Economy]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Geography]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Government]] -- 
> [[Malawi/History]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Military]] -- 
> [[Malawi/People]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Malawi/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Malawi]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Government]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/History]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Military]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/People]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Malaysia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Malaysia]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Communications]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Economy]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Geography]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Government]] -- 
> [[Maldives/History]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Military]] -- 
> [[Maldives/People]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Maldives/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Maldives]] -- 
> [[Mali/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mali/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mali/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mali/Government]] -- 
> [[Mali/History]] -- 
> [[Mali/Military]] -- 
> [[Mali/People]] -- 
> [[Mali/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mali/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mali]] -- 
> [[Malta/Communications]] -- 
> [[Malta/Economy]] -- 
> [[Malta/Geography]] -- 
> [[Malta/Government]] -- 
> [[Malta/History]] -- 
> [[Malta/Military]] -- 
> [[Malta/People]] -- 
> [[Malta/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Malta/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Malta]] -- 
> [[Manuscript]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Marshall_Islands]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Communications]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Economy]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Geography]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Government]] -- 
> [[Martinique/History]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Military]] -- 
> [[Martinique/People]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Martinique/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Martinique]] -- 
> [[Mass_deacidification]] -- 
> [[Massachusetts]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Government]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/History]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Military]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/People]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mauritania/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mauritania]] -- 
> [[Maya_Lin]] -- 
> [[Mean]] -- 
> [[Miami_Dolphins]] -- 
> [[Mile]] -- 
> [[Millsaps_College]] -- 
> [[Misogyny]] -- 
> [[Mississippi]] -- 
> [[Mjausson]] -- 
> [[Mjolby]] -- 
> [[Monotremata]] -- 
> [[Mumbai]] -- 
> [[MusicMatch]] -- 
> [[Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk]] -- 
> [[N]] -- 
> [[Nautical_mile]] -- 
> [[Nicholas_Lemann]] -- 
> [[Nuernberg]] -- 
> [[Nuremberg]] -- 
> [[O]] -- 
> [[Oakland_Raiders]] -- 
> [[Oresund]] -- 
> [[Oslo]] -- 
> [[Out]] -- 
> [[Outing/Talk]] -- 
> [[Outing]] -- 
> [[Oxford]] -- 
> [[P]] -- 
> [[Paganism]] -- 
> [[Page]] -- 
> [[Palimpsest]] -- 
> [[Parchment]] -- 
> [[Parsec]] -- 
> [[Pennsylvania]] -- 
> [[Pergamon]] -- 
> [[Philadelphia]] -- 
> [[Philadelphia_Eagles]] -- 
> [[Phobia]] -- 
> [[Pittsburgh_Steelers]] -- 
> [[Postulate]] -- 
> [[Python]] -- 
> [[Pythonidae]] -- 
> [[Q]] -- 
> [[Quantiles]] -- 
> [[R]] -- 
> [[Race]] -- 
> [[Racism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Racism]] -- 
> [[Racist]] -- 
> [[Random_access]] -- 
> [[Rescuing_Prometheus]] -- 
> [[Riddarfjarden]] -- 
> [[Risk]] -- 
> [[Royal_Institute_of_Technology]] -- 
> [[Rpm]] -- 
> [[S]] -- 
> [[Sacred]] -- 
> [[San_Diego_Chargers]] -- 
> [[San_Francisco_49ers]] -- 
> [[Science_olympiad]] -- 
> [[Scotland_Yard]] -- 
> [[Scroll]] -- 
> [[Sed]] -- 
> [[Sequential_access]] -- 
> [[Sexism/Talk]] -- 
> [[Sexism]] -- 
> [[Sexist]] -- 
> [[Sherlock_Holmes]] -- 
> [[Shiv_Sena]] -- 
> [[Short_words]] -- 
> [[SiVa]] -- 
> [[Siva]] -- 
> [[Slow_fires]] -- 
> [[Socrates/Talk]] -- 
> [[Southern_Poverty_Law_Center]] -- 
> [[Stockholm_School_of_Economics]] -- 
> [[Stockholm_University]] -- 
> [[T]] -- 
> [[TeX]] -- 
> [[TedDunning]] -- 
> [[Tedunning]] -- 
> [[The_Big_Test]] -- 
> [[The_Boston_Globe]] -- 
> [[The_Fugitive]] -- 
> [[The_novel]] -- 
> [[Thomas_P._Hughes]] -- 
> [[Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus]] -- 
> [[Tradition]] -- 
> [[Trojan_War]] -- 
> [[Troy]] -- 
> [[Tuebingen]] -- 
> [[U]] -- 
> [[Ultramagnetic_MCs]] -- 
> [[Umea_University]] -- 
> [[Universal_access]] -- 
> [[University]] -- 
> [[University_of_Bergen]] -- 
> [[University_of_Cambridge/Christs_College]] -- 
> [[University_of_Cambridge/Colleges]] -- 
> [[University_of_Cambridge/Peterhouse]] -- 
> [[University_of_Cambridge/Trinity_College]] -- 
> [[University_of_Cambridge]] -- 
> [[University_of_Oslo]] -- 
> [[University_of_Oxford]] -- 
> [[University_of_Pennsylvania]] -- 
> [[Uppsala_University]] -- 
> [[UuU]] -- 
> [[V]] -- 
> [[Veal]] -- 
> [[Vellum]] -- 
> [[Vinyl]] -- 
> [[W]] -- 
> [[War_dialing]] -- 
> [[War_driving]] -- 
> [[Web_browser]] -- 
> [[Wharf]] -- 
> [[White_supremacy]] -- 
> [[William_Blake]] -- 
> [[Winnie_the_Pooh]] -- 
> [[Wireless_network]] -- 
> [[X-band_Radar]] -- 
> [[X]] -- 
> [[Xenophobia]] -- 
> [[Y]] -- 
> [[Yard]] -- 
> [[Z-car]] -- 
> [[Z]] -- 
> [[Zhonghua_Sun]]
6,261d380
< [[15th_century]] -- 
< [[16th_century]] -- 
< [[17th_century]] -- 
< [[1870s]] -- 
< [[18th_century]] -- 
< [[1950s]] -- 
< [[19th_century]] -- 
< [[21st_century]] -- 
< [[AU]] -- 
< [[Aberdeenshire]] -- 
< [[Afrika_Bambaataa]] -- 
< [[Aland]] -- 
< [[Alexandria]] -- 
< [[Alphabet/Talk]] -- 
< [[AmeriKKKa]] -- 
< [[American_Civil_War]] -- 
< [[Andy_Warhol]] -- 
< [[Anschluss]] -- 
< [[Apple_Computer]] -- 
< [[Bangra]] -- 
< [[Battle_of_Adrianople]] -- 
< [[Beacon]] -- 
< [[Berlin_Wall]] -- 
< [[Biography/Talk]] -- 
< [[Biography]] -- 
< [[Biologist]] -- 
< [[Bse]] -- 
< [[Burning-glass]] -- 
< [[Carnegie-Mellon_University]] -- 
< [[Centuries]] -- 
< [[Chemist]] -- 
< [[Christopher_Columbus]] -- 
< [[Combustion]] -- 
< [[Consonant]] -- 
< [[Cypress_Hill]] -- 
< [[Decades]] -- 
< [[Diamond]] -- 
< [[Dotcom_death]] -- 
< [[Douglas_Engelbart]] -- 
< [[Dr._Dre]] -- 
< [[Electrical_telegraph]] -- 
< [[Elizabeth_II]] -- 
< [[Event]] -- 
< [[Exhaust_pipe]] -- 
< [[Explorers]] -- 
< [[Flying_car]] -- 
< [[Freestyle]] -- 
< [[French_language/Proven]] -- 
< [[Frequency]] -- 
< [[Friedrich_Woehler]] -- 
< [[Funk]] -- 
< [[Gangsta_rap]] -- 
< [[Georg_Cantor]] -- 
< [[George_Cantor]] -- 
< [[Gleichschaltung]] -- 
< [[Gothenburg_University]] -- 
< [[Gustav_III]] -- 
< [[H.M._Rouell]] -- 
< [[Hans_Christian_Orsted]] -- 
< [[Heinrich_Himmler]] -- 
< [[Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz]] -- 
< [[Hip_hop]] -- 
< [[History_of_Literature]] -- 
< [[History_of_Science_and_Technology/Chemistry]] -- 
< [[Horace_Engdahl]] -- 
< [[Horace_Walpole]] -- 
< [[Ice_Cube]] -- 
< [[Ice_Cube_-_AmeriKKKas_Most_Wanted]] -- 
< [[Ice_T]] -- 
< [[Infinitesimal_calculus]] -- 
< [[Intellectual_property/Talk]] -- 
< [[Intellectual_property]] -- 
< [[Internet_Movie_Database/Talk]] -- 
< [[Italian_language]] -- 
< [[James_Maxwell]] -- 
< [[Jan_Bergelin]] -- 
< [[Jewellery]] -- 
< [[Jewelry]] -- 
< [[Johannes_Kepler]] -- 
< [[John_Bardeen]] -- 
< [[Karl_XV]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Government]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/History]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Military]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/People]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kazakhstan]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Government]] -- 
< [[Kenya/History]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Military]] -- 
< [[Kenya/People]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kenya/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kenya]] -- 
< [[Khazaria]] -- 
< [[Kid_Frost]] -- 
< [[King]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Government]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/History]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Military]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/People]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kingman_Reef]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Government]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/History]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Military]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/People]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kiribati/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kiribati]] -- 
< [[Kurtis_Blow]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Government]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/History]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Military]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/People]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kuwait/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kuwait]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Communications]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Economy]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Geography]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Government]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/History]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Military]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/People]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Kyrgyzstan]] -- 
< [[LA2]] -- 
< [[Library]] -- 
< [[Library_of_Alexandria]] -- 
< [[Lighthouse]] -- 
< [[Lighthouse_of_Alexandria]] -- 
< [[Lysator]] -- 
< [[Malmoe]] -- 
< [[Measurement]] -- 
< [[Miocene]] -- 
< [[Monarch]] -- 
< [[Monarchy]] -- 
< [[Morphology]] -- 
< [[Mouthpiece]] -- 
< [[Mr._T]] -- 
< [[Musical_Genres/Hip]] -- 
< [[Musical_Genres/Rap]] -- 
< [[Musical_instrument]] -- 
< [[Nazi_Germany/Organisations]] -- 
< [[Nazi_Germany/Related_Terms]] -- 
< [[Neil_Armstrong]] -- 
< [[Nordic_University_Computer_Clubs]] -- 
< [[Nordic_countries]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Communications]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Economy]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Geography]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Government]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/History]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Military]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/People]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[North_Korea/Transportation]] -- 
< [[North_Korea]] -- 
< [[Optical_telegraph]] -- 
< [[Palestinian]] -- 
< [[Paper,_Scissor,_Stone]] -- 
< [[Patent]] -- 
< [[Peter_Nilson]] -- 
< [[Philip_K._Dick/The_Man_in_the_High_Castle]] -- 
< [[Philosopher]] -- 
< [[Physicist]] -- 
< [[Pinkunicorn]] -- 
< [[Pipe]] -- 
< [[Pittsburgh]] -- 
< [[Pretty_Tony]] -- 
< [[Pythagoras]] -- 
< [[Quantum]] -- 
< [[Queen]] -- 
< [[Queen_Kristina_of_Sweden]] -- 
< [[Queen_Victoria]] -- 
< [[Radio/History]] -- 
< [[Rap_music/Bass]] -- 
< [[Rap_music/Gangsta_rap]] -- 
< [[Rapcore]] -- 
< [[Reich]] -- 
< [[Relay_league]] -- 
< [[Rene_Descartes]] -- 
< [[Research]] -- 
< [[Richard_Feynman]] -- 
< [[Roxen_webserver]] -- 
< [[Run_DMC]] -- 
< [[Samuel_Morse]] -- 
< [[Science_Fiction_Fandom]] -- 
< [[Scientist]] -- 
< [[Scotland]] -- 
< [[Selim_I]] -- 
< [[Serendipity]] -- 
< [[Seven_Wonders_of_the_World]] -- 
< [[Shakespearean_Tragedies]] -- 
< [[Ship]] -- 
< [[Shire]] -- 
< [[Smog]] -- 
< [[Smoke]] -- 
< [[Smoke_signals]] -- 
< [[Smoking_pipe]] -- 
< [[Soap_opera]] -- 
< [[Social_psychology]] -- 
< [[Software_Engineering_Institute]] -- 
< [[Software_crisis]] -- 
< [[Software_engineering]] -- 
< [[Sound]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Communications]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Economy]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Geography]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Government]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/History]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Military]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/People]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[South_Korea/Transportation]] -- 
< [[South_Korea]] -- 
< [[Spontaneous_combustion]] -- 
< [[Stress]] -- 
< [[Sture_Allen]] -- 
< [[Suleiman_the_Magnificent]] -- 
< [[Svenska_Dagbladet]] -- 
< [[Sverifandom]] -- 
< [[Swedish_Academy]] -- 
< [[Swiss_cheese]] -- 
< [[Telegraph]] -- 
< [[Telegraphy]] -- 
< [[Time]] -- 
< [[Tone]] -- 
< [[Trademark]] -- 
< [[Transistor]] -- 
< [[Ultrasound]] -- 
< [[Unit]] -- 
< [[Walter_Houser_Brattain]] -- 
< [[Werner_Karl_Heisenberg]] -- 
< [[William_Bradford_Shockley]] -- 
< [[Wireless_telegraphy]] -- 
< [[Wu-Tang_Clan]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/July_2|990436198
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1909 - [[Louis Bleriot]] makes the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier than air machine.
------
Historical_anniversaries/July_2|990436261
1c1
< 1909 - [[Louis Bleriot]] makes the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier than air machine.
---
> 
------
Historical_anniversaries/July_25|990436333
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1909 - [[Louis Bleriot]] makes the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air machine
------
Short_words|990436925
1c1
< These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]].  Short words are short because they have been used a lot (book, cat, dog, man, net, wife).  Plus all the acronyms.  There should be more of them in a complete encyclopedia.  This list is not automatically updated.
---
> These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]].  Short words are short because they have been used a lot (book, cat, dog, man, net, wife).  Plus all the [[acronym|acronyms]].  There should be more of them in a complete encyclopedia.  This list is not automatically updated.
------
User_Friendly|990437016
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]].
> 
> http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
> 
------
User_Friendly|990437130
0a1,2
> For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
> 
------
HCI|990437166
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Short for HumanComputerInteraction
------
User_Friendly|990437188
1c1
< For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
---
> *A device or a piece of [[software]] that is easy to use even for an inexperienced user. Cynics might use the term "idiot-proof". For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
3c3
< An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]].
---
> *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]].
------
User_Friendly|990437204
3,5c3
< *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]].
< 
< http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
---
> *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
------
User_Friendly|990437303
1,4c1
< *A device or a piece of [[software]] that is easy to use even for an inexperienced user. Cynics might use the term "idiot-proof". For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
< 
< *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[User friendly]]
------
User_friendly|990437316
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> *A device or a piece of [[software]] that is easy to use even for an inexperienced user. Cynics might use the term "idiot-proof". For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
> 
> *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
> 
------
ISP|990437384
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ISP is short for Internet Service Provider, a company or organization that provides the service of connectivity to the Internet.
> 
> For your daily [[dose]] of ISP [[lore]], see the comic strip [[User Friendly]].
------
Dose|990437527
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' An amount of [[medicine]] to be taken at one time.
> 
> 2. ''n'' An amount of [[radiation]] received.
> 
> 3. ''v'' To give a dose of medicine to somebody, or to measure an amount for this.
------
Lore|990437608
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[body]] of cultural [[tradition]]s and [[knowledge]].  See also [[folklore]].
> 
------
Gods|990437807
41a42,45
> <b>Hindu gods</b>
> :[[Ganesh]]
> :[[Vishnu]]
> 
------
User_friendly|990437811
4c4,5
< 
---
> ----
> ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
------
Dilbert|990437946
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[comic strip]] by [[Scott Adams]] about a micro-managed office environment, http://www.dilbert.com/
------
Gods|990437985
42a43
> :[[Bramha]]
------
User_friendly|990437987
5c5,6
< ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
---
> ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
> I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
------
User_friendly|990437999
6c6,7
< I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
---
> 
> I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
------
User_friendly|990438149
3c3
< *An online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
---
> * 'User Friendly' is an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
------
Comic_strip|990438237
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A short strip or sequence of comic drawings, telling a story and getting to a point or part of a longer sequence, published on a daily basis in newspapers or on the Internet.
> 
>  [[Archie]]
>  [[Bizarro]]
>  [[Blondie]]
>  [[Dennis the Menace]]
>  [[Dilbert]]
>  [[Family Circus]]
>  [[Foxtrot]]
>  [[User Friendly]]
------
Comic_strip|990438505
1c1
< A short strip or sequence of comic drawings, telling a story and getting to a point or part of a longer sequence, published on a daily basis in newspapers or on the Internet.
---
> A short strip or sequence of comic drawings, telling a story and getting to a point or part of a longer sequence, published on a daily basis in [[newspaper|newspapers]] or on the [[Internet]].
------
User_friendly|990438704
7a8,9
> 
> ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
------
Comic_strip|990439068
2a3,4
>  [[Adam]]
>  [[Apartment 3G]]
5a8,10
>  [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
>  [[Cathy]]
>  [[Crook]]
8a14
>  [[For Better or For Worse]]
9a16,32
>  [[Garfield]]
>  [[Gasoline Alley]]
>  [[Hagar]]
>  [[Herman]]
>  [[Judge Parker]]
>  [[Luann]]
>  [[Marmaduke]]
>  [[Mary Worth]]
>  [[Mother Goose & Grimm]]
>  [[Non Sequitur]]
>  [[Peanuts]]
>  [[Penman]]
>  [[Prince Valiant]]
>  [[Rose is Rose]]
>  [[Shoe]]
>  [[Spiderman]]
>  [[Tumbleweeds]]
10a34,35
>  [[Wizard of Id]]
>  [[Ziggy]]
------
Thomas_Hobbes|990439122
1c1,3
< Thomas Hobbes was a great English philosopher, famous for his [[materialism]] and his [[/Political philosophy]].  He was a contemporary of [[Descartes]] and wrote one of the replies to Descartes' ''Meditations.''
---
> Thomas Hobbes was a great English philosopher, famous for his [[materialism]] and his [[/Political philosophy]].  He was a contemporary of [[Descartes]] and wrote one of the replies to Descartes' ''Meditations.''
> 
> Hobbes also gave name to the [[comic strip]] [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
------
Comic_strip|990439332
5a6
>  [[Beetle Bailey]]
7a9
>  [[The Born Loser]]
15a18,19
>  [[Frank and Ernest]]
>  [[Funky Winkerbean]]
18c22
<  [[Hagar]]
---
>  [[Hagar the Horrible]]
22a27
>  [[Marvin]]
24c29
<  [[Mother Goose & Grimm]]
---
>  [[Mother Goose and Grimm]]
30a36
>  [[Shylock Fox]]
34c40
<  [[Wizard of Id]]
---
>  [[Wizard of Id]] -- or [[The Wizard if Id]]
35a42,43
>  [[Zippy the Pinhead]]
>  [[Zits]]
------
The_Wizard_if_Id|990439393
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[comic strip]], http://www.creators.com/comics/wiz/
------
Gods|990439720
44a45
> :[[Kali]]
------
Comic_strip|990439762
4a5
>  [[Baby Blues]]
5a7
>  [[Barney Google and Snuffy Smith]]
6a9,10
>  [[The Better Half]]
>  [[Between Friends]]
9a14
>  [[Buckles]]
12c17,19
<  [[Crook]]
---
>  [[Crock]]
>  [[Crook]] --???
>  [[Curtis]]
14a22,23
>  [[The Dinette Set]]
>  [[Edge City]]
15a25
>  [[Flash Gordon]]
21a32,33
>  [[Girls and Sports]]
>  [[Grin and Bear It]]
22a35,36
>  [[Hazel]]
>  [[Henry]]
23a38,40
>  [[Hi and Lois]]
>  [[Horrorscope]]
>  [[I Need Help]]
24a42,43
>  [[Katzenjammer Kids]]
>  [[The Lockhorns]]
40c59
<  [[Wizard of Id]] -- or [[The Wizard if Id]]
---
>  [[The Wizard if Id]]
------
Comic_strip|990440051
44a45,47
>  [[Mallard Fillmore]]
>  [[Mandrake the Magician]]
>  [[Mark Trail]]
47a51
>  [[Moose and Molly]]
48a53,55
>  [[Mutts]]
>  [[The New Breed]]
>  [[The Norm]]
49a57
>  [[On the Fastrack]]
51a60,63
>  [[The Phantom]]
>  [[Piranha Club]]
>  [[Pops Place|Pop's Place]]
>  [[Popeye]]
52a65,67
>  [[Redeye]]
>  [[Rex Morgan, M.D.
>  [[Rhymes with Orange]]
53a69,72
>  [[Safe Havens]]
>  [[Sally Forth]]
>  [[Sam and Silo]]
>  [[Shermans Lagoon|Sherman's Lagoon]]
55c74,75
<  [[Shylock Fox]]
---
>  [[Shylock Fox]] -- or Slylock???
>  [[Six Chix]]
56a77,80
>  [[Steve Roper and Mike Nomad]]
>  [[Theyll Do It Every Time|They'll Do It Every Time]]
>  [[Tiger]]
>  [[Trudy]]
58a83
>  [[Wildwood]]
------
Comic_strip|990440125
3a4
>  [[Amazing Spider-Man]]
74d74
<  [[Shylock Fox]] -- or Slylock???
75a76
>  [[Slylock Fox and Comics for Kids]]
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990440192
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm
------
Spiderman|990440233
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Common name for the comic strip formally titled [[Amazing Spider-Man]].
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990440275
1c1,3
< '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm
---
> http://www.kingfeatures.com/images/logos/spidermn_logo.gif
> 
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm
------
Comic_strip|990440370
14a15
>  [[Bruno the Bandit]]
43a45
>  [[Kevin and Kell]]
75a78
>  [[Sluggy]]
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990440472
3c3
< '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm
---
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm   
------
Louis_Bleriot|990440486
1c1
< On July 25, [[1909]], Louis Bleriot from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the [[English Channel]] in a heavier-than-air aircraft.   This [[airplane]] was his own design, the Bleriot XI, of which copies were also manufactured in Stockholm Sweden called Thulin A.
---
> On [[Historical anniversaries/July 25|July 25]], [[1909]], Louis Bleriot from [[France]] was the first person to fly over the [[English Channel]] in a heavier-than-air aircraft.   This [[airplane]] was his own design, the Bleriot XI, of which copies were also manufactured in Stockholm Sweden called Thulin A.
------
Tiger|990440827
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A wild [[animal]], [[predator]] in [[India]], related to [[cat]]s.
> 
> 2. The title of a [[comic strip]], http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/tiger/about.htm
------
Popeye|990440906
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A [[cartoon]] figure and [[comic strip]],
> http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/popeye/about.htm
> 
------
Charles_Babbage|990441068
1c1,14
< 1791-1871 [[mathematician]]. Built the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s.  Alumn of [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]] and of [[University of Cambridge/Peterhouse]].  See also [[Ada Lovelace]].
---
> 1791-1871 English [[mathematician]]. 
> 
> 
> Alumn of [[University of Cambridge/Trinity College]] and of [[University of Cambridge/Peterhouse]].
> 
> Realizing the high error rate in the calculation of mathematical tables, he decided to find a method by which they could be calculated by machine, which would not suffer the errors, fatigue and boredom of human calculators. To this end, he was given a grant by the British Government to build such a machine, which 
> he called the [[Difference Engine]]
> Construction started on this machine, but it was not completed, as he realised that the basic mechanisms could be generalised to an all-purpose calculating machine, programmable by a punched card mechanism like that of a [[Jacquard loom]]; this machine, which existed only as plans, was called the [[Analytic engine]]
> 
> Although his two computing projects wre never completed in his lifetime, his ideas on their operation show them to be the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, working from Babbage's original plans, a Difference Engine was completed, and functioned perfectly.
> 
> See the Science Museum's exhibit on the Difference engine, at http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/collections/exhiblets/babbage/babbwork.asp
> 
> See also [[Ada Lovelace]],
------
User_friendly|990441141
9c9,11
< ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
---
> ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
> 
> I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Archie|990441172
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A man's [[forename]], short for [[Archibald]].
> 
> 2. A comic strip, http://www.archie.net/
> 
> 3. A [[search engine]] for [[FTP]] sites,
> named after (2), launched in the early [[1990s]].
> 
> 
------
FTP|990441208
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The File Transfer Protocol, standardized in an [[RFC]] by the [[IETF]].
------
FTP|990441231
1c1,2
< The File Transfer Protocol, standardized in an [[RFC]] by the [[IETF]].
---
> The File Transfer Protocol, standardized in an [[RFC]] by the [[IETF]].  See also [[Archie]] the search engine.
> 
------
Archie|990441272
3c3
< 2. A comic strip, http://www.archie.net/
---
> 2. A [[comic strip]], http://www.archie.net/
------
Shoe|990441674
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' A piece of [[footwear]] for humans, less than a [[boot]] and more than a [[slipper]].
> 
> 2. ''n'' Any thing with a similar function as (1), for example a [[horseshoe]], or a rubber end on a [[stick]].
> 
> 3. ''v'' To put shoes on somebody or something, for example to shoe a horse.
> 
> 4. ''npr'' The the title of a [[comic strip]]
> by [[Jef MacNelly]],
> syndicated by [[Tribune Media Services]], Inc.,
> http://macnelly.com/
------
Horseshoe|990441817
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. A U-shaped piece of [[iron]] [[nail]]ed to a [[horse]]'s [[hoof]].  See also [[shoe]].  Horseshoes are said to bring [[luck]].
> 
> 2. Anything shaped like (1).
> 
------
Nail|990442067
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' A [[horn]]-like piece at the end of a human or animal [[finger]] or [[toe]].  See also [[claw]] and [[hoof]].
> 
> 2. ''n'' An [[pin]]-shaped, sharp object of hard [[metal]], typically [[iron]], used to stick things together by using a [[hammer]].
> 
> 3. ''v'' To use a [[hammer]] to drive a nail(2) into something.
> 
------
Comic_strip|990442251
69c69
<  [[Rex Morgan, M.D.
---
>  [[Rex Morgan, M.D.]]
------
Mu|990442299
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
---
> 1. A character in the [[Greek alphabet]]
> 
> 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]], sunk beneath the waters.  
------
Zippy_the_Pinhead|990442413
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.zippythepinhead.com/media/ziplogo.gif
> 
> A [[comic strip]], http://www.zippythepinhead.com/
> 
------
Mu|990442422
3c3
< 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]], sunk beneath the waters.  
---
> 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria]], sunk beneath the waters.  
------
Comic_strip|990442488
64a65
>  [[Pokey the Penguin]]
------
Pokey_the_Penguin|990442887
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://images.yellow5.com/archive/pokey.gif
> 
> A surrealistic online [[comic strip]], http://www.yellow5.com/pokey/
> 
> This webpage says Pokey has been put on hold, which is a big shame, http://www.rit.edu/~flf1754/pokey/
> 
> Pokey FAQ, http://www.rit.edu/~flf1754/pokey/pokeyfaq.html
> 
> The characters:
> 
>  Pokey, the penguin,
>  Mr. Nutty, a snowman, leader of Nutty Industries
>  Pokey's sister
>  Skeptopotamus
>  Headcheese
------
Punch_magazine|990443295
7a8,9
> 
> See also [[cartoon]], [[comic strip]], [[humor]]
------
Comic_strip|990443374
92a93,95
> 
> -----
> Would it be a good idea to sort these a bit? Some (like Bizarro) are single-frame comics, others (like Calvin & Hobbes) are single-strip comics, and finally others (like Prince Valiant) have long storylines. Or are there better ways? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
------
Comic_strip|990443529
95c95,97
< Would it be a good idea to sort these a bit? Some (like Bizarro) are single-frame comics, others (like Calvin & Hobbes) are single-strip comics, and finally others (like Prince Valiant) have long storylines. Or are there better ways? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> Would it be a good idea to sort these a bit? Some (like Bizarro) are single-frame comics, others (like Calvin & Hobbes) are single-strip comics, and finally others (like Prince Valiant) have long storylines. Or are there better ways? --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> 
> ''I think the single, general alphabetic list is useful too.  So if you want to add a different [[scheme]], please don't replace the current one.''--[[LA2]]
------
Scheme|990443645
1c1,3
< Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
---
> 1. Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia]].
> 
> 2. Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
------
Scheme|990443695
1c1
< 1. Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia]].
---
> 1. Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia category schemes]].
------
Scheme|990443730
1c1
< 1. Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia category schemes]].
---
> 1. ''n'' Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia category schemes]].
3c3
< 2. Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
---
> 2. ''npr'' Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
------
Short_words|990443823
2a3,4
> It is hoped that the existence of this list will inspire contributors to [[Wikipedia]] to look for short words that still don't have a definition.
> 
------
Body|990444412
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' The physical representation of a [[human]] or [[animal]].  The Latin word for body is corpus.  A dead body can be called a corpse (human) or carcass (animal).
> 
> 2. ''n'' A held-together collection or group of physical objects or abstract ideas.  Sometimes the Latin word [[corpus]] is also used for such a collection.  This meaning of the word is derived from (1) because the human body is considered a whole which is of greater value than the sum of the value of the individual [[member]]s.  (Note the double meaning of the word member.)
------
Comic_strip|990444942
3,92c3,70
<  [[Adam]]
<  [[Amazing Spider-Man]]
<  [[Apartment 3G]]
<  [[Baby Blues]]
<  [[Archie]]
<  [[Barney Google and Snuffy Smith]]
<  [[Beetle Bailey]]
<  [[The Better Half]]
<  [[Between Friends]]
<  [[Bizarro]]
<  [[Blondie]]
<  [[The Born Loser]]
<  [[Bruno the Bandit]]
<  [[Buckles]]
<  [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
<  [[Cathy]]
<  [[Crock]]
<  [[Crook]] --???
<  [[Curtis]]
<  [[Dennis the Menace]]
<  [[Dilbert]]
<  [[The Dinette Set]]
<  [[Edge City]]
<  [[Family Circus]]
<  [[Flash Gordon]]
<  [[For Better or For Worse]]
<  [[Foxtrot]]
<  [[Frank and Ernest]]
<  [[Funky Winkerbean]]
<  [[Garfield]]
<  [[Gasoline Alley]]
<  [[Girls and Sports]]
<  [[Grin and Bear It]]
<  [[Hagar the Horrible]]
<  [[Hazel]]
<  [[Henry]]
<  [[Herman]]
<  [[Hi and Lois]]
<  [[Horrorscope]]
<  [[I Need Help]]
<  [[Judge Parker]]
<  [[Katzenjammer Kids]]
<  [[Kevin and Kell]]
<  [[The Lockhorns]]
<  [[Luann]]
<  [[Mallard Fillmore]]
<  [[Mandrake the Magician]]
<  [[Mark Trail]]
<  [[Marmaduke]]
<  [[Marvin]]
<  [[Mary Worth]]
<  [[Moose and Molly]]
<  [[Mother Goose and Grimm]]
<  [[Mutts]]
<  [[The New Breed]]
<  [[The Norm]]
<  [[Non Sequitur]]
<  [[On the Fastrack]]
<  [[Peanuts]]
<  [[Penman]]
<  [[The Phantom]]
<  [[Piranha Club]]
<  [[Pokey the Penguin]]
<  [[Pops Place|Pop's Place]]
<  [[Popeye]]
<  [[Prince Valiant]]
<  [[Redeye]]
<  [[Rex Morgan, M.D.]]
<  [[Rhymes with Orange]]
<  [[Rose is Rose]]
<  [[Safe Havens]]
<  [[Sally Forth]]
<  [[Sam and Silo]]
<  [[Shermans Lagoon|Sherman's Lagoon]]
<  [[Shoe]]
<  [[Six Chix]]
<  [[Sluggy]]
<  [[Slylock Fox and Comics for Kids]]
<  [[Spiderman]]
<  [[Steve Roper and Mike Nomad]]
<  [[Theyll Do It Every Time|They'll Do It Every Time]]
<  [[Tiger]]
<  [[Trudy]]
<  [[Tumbleweeds]]
<  [[User Friendly]]
<  [[Wildwood]]
<  [[The Wizard if Id]]
<  [[Ziggy]]
<  [[Zippy the Pinhead]]
<  [[Zits]]
---
> '''A''' -
> [[Adam]] - [[Amazing Spider-Man]] - [[Apartment 3G]] - [[Archie]]
> 
> '''B''' -
> [[Baby Blues]] - [[Barney Google and Snuffy Smith]] - [[Beetle Bailey]] - [[The Better Half]] - [[Between Friends]] - [[Bizarro]] - [[Blondie]] - [[The Born Loser]] - [[Bruno the Bandit]] - [[Buckles]]
> 
> '''C''' -
> [[Calvin and Hobbes]] - [[Cathy]] - [[Crock]] - [[Crook]] - [Curtis]]
> 
> '''D''' -
> [[Dennis the Menace]] - [[Dilbert]] - [[The Dinette Set]]
> 
> '''E''' -
> [[Edge City]]
> 
> '''F''' -
> [[Family Circus]] - [[Flash Gordon]] - [[For Better or For Worse]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Frank and Ernest]] - [[Funky Winkerbean]]
> 
> '''G''' -
> [[Garfield]] - [[Gasoline Alley]] - [[Girls and Sports]] - [[Grin and Bear It]]
> 
> '''H''' - 
> [[Hagar the Horrible]] - [[Hazel]] - [[Henry]] - [[Herman]] - [[Hi and Lois]] - [[Horrorscope]]
> 
> '''I''' -
> [[I Need Help]]
> 
> '''J''' -
> [[Judge Parker]]
> 
> '''K''' -
> [[Katzenjammer Kids]] - [[Kevin and Kell]]
> 
> '''L''' -
> [[The Lockhorns]] - [[Luann]]
> 
> '''M''' -
> [[Mallard Fillmore]] - [[Mandrake the Magician]] - [[Mark Trail]] - [[Marmaduke]] - [[Marvin]] - [[Mary Worth]] - [[Moose and Molly]] - [[Mother Goose and Grimm]] - [[Mutts]]
> 
> '''N''' -
> [[The New Breed]] - [[The Norm]] - [[Non Sequitur]]
> 
> '''O''' -
> [[On the Fastrack]]
> 
> '''P''' -
> [[Peanuts]] - [[Penman]] - [[The Phantom]] - [[Piranha Club]] - [[Pokey the Penguin]] - [[Pops Place|Pop's Place]] - [[Popeye]] - [[Prince Valiant]]
> 
> '''Q''' -
> 
> '''R''' - 
> [[Redeye]] - [[Rex Morgan, M.D.]] - [[Rhymes with Orange]] - [[Rose is Rose]]
> 
> '''S''' - [[Safe Havens]] - [[Sally Forth]] - [[Sam and Silo]] - [[Shermans Lagoon|Sherman's Lagoon]] - [[Shoe]]
> - [[Six Chix]] - [[Sluggy]] - [[Slylock Fox and Comics for Kids]] - [[Spiderman]] - [[Steve Roper and Mike Nomad]]
> 
> '''T''' - [[Theyll Do It Every Time|They'll Do It Every Time]] - [[Tiger]]
> - [[Trudy]]
> - [[Tumbleweeds]]
> 
> '''U''' - [[User Friendly]]
> 
> '''W''' - [[Wildwood]]
> - [[The Wizard if Id]]
> 
> '''Z''' - [[Ziggy]]
> - [[Zippy the Pinhead]]
> - [[Zits]]
97c75
< ''I think the single, general alphabetic list is useful too.  So if you want to add a different [[scheme]], please don't replace the current one.''--[[LA2]]
---
> ''I think the single, general alphabetic list is useful too.  So if you want to add a different [[scheme]], please don't replace the current one.''--[[LA2]]
------
Short_list|990445384
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''n'' A list of final [[bidder]]s in a commercial [[procurement]] process, where many bidders have been invited, some have made a [[bid]], and a few of these are selected for final consideration.  All bidders are informed of whether they made it to the short list or not.  Bidders on the short list are often required to submit additional information not found in their original bids.
> 
> 2. ''v'' To make a short list from a larger set.  Bidding companies are proud to "have been on the short list" or to "have been short listed", even if they don't finally win the [[contract]].  Qualifying for the short list is similar to qualifying for the finals in a sports game.
> 
> 
------
Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk|990445785
1c1,5
< (1881–1938), Turkish soldier and statesman, the founder and first president of the Turkish republic. He was born in Salonika (now in Greece). He entered the military secondary school in Salonika in 1893 and the military academy at Monastir in 1895. He played a minor role in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and he gained a major victory by repulsing the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in 1915. After organizing the local resistance groups against the Ottoman sultan and the Allies in Anatolia into an army, he stopped the advances of enemy forces and consecutively founded the Republic of Turkey on Oct. 29, 1923. He began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis. 
---
> (1881–1938), Turkish soldier and statesman, the founder and first president of the Turkish republic. 
> 
> He was born in Salonika (now in [[Greece]]). He entered the military secondary school in Salonika in 1893 and the military academy at [[Monastir]] in 1895. He played a minor role in the [[Balkan War]]s of 1912–1913 and he gained a major victory by repulsing the Allied invasion of Gallipoli in 1915. After organizing the local resistance groups against the Ottoman sultan and the Allies in Anatolia into an army, he stopped the advances of enemy forces and consecutively founded the Republic of [[Turkey]] on Oct. 29, 1923.
> 
> Atatturk began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis. 
------
Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk|990445805
5c5
< Atatturk began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis. 
---
> Ataturk began a variety of reforms by ruling out the caliphate. The theological schools were closed, the Law of Islam was replaced by the Swiss Civil Code and Arabic characters for writing Turkish were replaced by Latin characters. Atatürk gave Turkey a new prestige in the international field by his achievements in both military and political fields and died on Nov. 10, 1938 because of complications of cirrhosis. 
------
Ska|990446204
1c1
< A [[music]] style somewhat inspired by [[reggea]]. One of the early makers of ska music was [[Madness]].
---
> A [[music]] style somewhat inspired by [[reggae]]. One of the early makers of ska music was [[Madness]].
------
Short_words|990446428
1c1
< These are short words that have articles in [[Wikipedia]].  Short words are short because they have been used a lot (book, cat, dog, man, net, wife).  Plus all the [[acronym|acronyms]].  There should be more of them in a complete encyclopedia.  This list is not automatically updated.
---
> These are short words that have (or should have) articles in [[Wikipedia]].  Short words are short because they have been used a lot (book, cat, dog, man, net, wife).  Plus all the [[acronym|acronyms]].  There should be more of them in a complete encyclopedia.  This list is not automatically updated.
11c11
< [[X]], [[Y]], [[Z]]
---
> [[X]], [[Xe]], [[Y]], [[Yb]], [[Yd]], [[Z]], [[Zn]], [[Zr]]
28c28,29
< [[Y2K]], [[ZzZ]]
---
> [[Y2K]], [[Yak]], [[Yam]], [[Yap]], [[Yaw]], [[Yen]], [[Yes]], [[Yet]], [[Yew]], [[YHA]], [[Yin]], [[Yob]], [[You]], [[YTS]], [[Yuk]],
> [[Zap]], [[Zen]], [[Zip]], [[Zit]], [[Zoo]], [[ZzZ]]
59,61c60,66
< [[WolF]], [[Word]], [[Yard]], [[ZeuS]], [[Zeus]], [[Zinc]],  
< [[Zork]]
< 
---
> [[WolF]], [[Word]], [[Yang]], [[Yank]],
> [[Yard]], [[Yarn]], [[Yawn]], [[Year]], [[Yell]], [[Yelp]],
> [[Yoga]], [[Yoke]], [[Yolk]], [[Yore]], [[York]],
> [[Your]], [[Yowl]], [[YMCA]], [[Yuan]],
> [[Yuck]], [[YWCA]], [[Zeal]], [[Zero]], [[Zest]],
> [[ZeuS]], [[Zeus]], [[Zinc]],  
> [[Zing]], [[Zits]], [[Zone]], [[Zoom]], [[Zork]], [[Zulu]]
------
Y|990446516
0a1,2
> 1. A letter of the [[alphabet]].
> 
1a4,5
> 
> 2. The symbol in the [[periodic table]] for [[Yttrium]].
------
Comic_strip|990446892
10c10
< [[Calvin and Hobbes]] - [[Cathy]] - [[Crock]] - [[Crook]] - [Curtis]]
---
> [[Calvin and Hobbes]] - [[Cathy]] - [[Crock]] - [[Crook]] - [[Curtis]]
19c19
< [[Family Circus]] - [[Flash Gordon]] - [[For Better or For Worse]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Frank and Ernest]] - [[Funky Winkerbean]]
---
> [[Family Circus]] - [[The Far Side]] - [[Flash Gordon]] - [[For Better or For Worse]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Frank and Ernest]] - [[Funky Winkerbean]]
75a76,77
> 
> ''Someone knowledgeable enough about them could create alternative schemes and link to them from this page, like the alternate category schemes available, but not on the front page.  I'm not that person though.  ;-)''--KoyaanisQatsi
------
SandBox|990446950
65c65
< �  I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this � !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
---
>    I made a little box in the SandBox-Please leave this   !!!  And yet it may not show up on many computers...
68c68
< � � �  I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
---
>        I can copy and paste boxes, though.----
116a117,121
> 
> ----
> 
> 
> 
223c228
< Always an interesting process, never a nice one….
---
> Always an interesting process, never a nice one .
227c232
< ·	And…
---
> ·	And 
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|990447047
11c11,12
< * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k</sub> x<sup>k</sup> + ...
---
> * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k-1</sub> x<sup>k-1</sup> + 
> a<sub>k</sub>x<sup>k</sup> + ...
------
Subscripts_and_Superscripts|990447123
11,12c11
< * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k-1</sub> x<sup>k-1</sup> + 
< a<sub>k</sub>x<sup>k</sup> + ...
---
> * a<sub>0</sub> + a<sub>1</sub> x + a<sub>2</sub> x<sup>2</sup> +  ... + a<sub>k-1</sub> x<sup>k-1</sup> +  a<sub>k</sub>x<sup>k</sup> + ...
------
Communism|990447752
1c1,6
< In common usage, communism refers to totalitarian socialism (as distinct from democratic socialism).  Communist regimes are/were generally despotic and extremely abusive of human rights.  Examples are the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]].
---
> In common usage, communism refers to [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]]
> [[socialism]] (as distinct from [[democratic socialism]]).  Regimes
> described as communistic have, according to most Western observers,
> generally been despotic and extremely abusive of [[human rights]].  Examples
> are the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Peoples Republic of China|People's
> Republic of China]].
3c8,10
< In [[Marxism|Marxist]] theory, communism refers to the final stage of social development.
---
> In [[Marxism|Marxist]] theory, communism refers to the final stage of social
> development.  The term and ideology has a history that predates Marx,
> however, closely associated with (socialist) [[anarchism]].
5,10c12,29
< * [[Marxism]]: Human History has a structure, alternating between slow development of technology/economy (and the according philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of technology/economy. 
< * [[Leninism]]: Improvment of Marxist Theory and Application of the Theory to History-Development of the first decades in the 20th century.
< * [[Stalinism]]
< * [[Maoism]]
< 
< [[/Talk]]
---
> There are various kinds of communism or socialism; some kinds of communism
> are varieties of [[ideology]], while others are terms for practices or
> styles of governance.  [[Marxism]] holds--among other things--that human
> history has had and will have a developmental structure, alternating between
> slow development of technology/economy (and the according
> philosophy/religion) and a rapidly changing short period of
> technology/economy.  [[Bolshevism]] and [[Menchevism]] were two early forms
> of communism-in-practice advocated by Russian (mainly ex-patriate)
> communists in the late 19th and early 20th century; the Mencheviks favored
> peaceful change, while Bolsheviks favored armed, violent revolution.
> [[Leninism]] is the name given to Russian dictator [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s
> version of communism, which included [[five-year plan]]s, heavy
> [[propaganda]], and suppression of [[political dissident]]s.  Lenin's rule
> gave way to [[Joseph Stalin]]'s and Stalin's style of communist dictatorship
> is known as [[Stalinism]]; Stalin's government was even more repressive of
> individual liberties and of political dissidents and featured more five-year
> plans as well as massive [[industrialization]].  The practices of [[Mao Tse
> Tung]] are known as [[Maoism]].
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990447804
3c3,9
< '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spiderman, http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm   
---
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spider-man.  The name also refers to the long-running comic book published by Marvel comics, after the Spider-man character introduced in Amazing Stories became so popular.  Spider-man is the alter-ego of Peter Parker, a college student who was bitten by a radioactive spider and developed the ability to scale walls and cling to ceilings, as well as to sense imminent danger.  Spider-man displays an astounding amount of agility and strength, when not clinging to buses or other vehicles, transports himself by shooting "webs" from devices he made at home; the webs can spray out in a variety of forms and densities according to Spider-man's wishes.  When used for transport, the web itself is thin and long, with an adhesive at the tip which sticks to the sides or ledges of buildings.  The web is also flexible, allowing Spider-man to swing from one to the other, much like Tarzan from one vine to another.   At times, the web is sprayed out in a wide fan, to hold enemies in place until the authorities arrive.  Originally Peter Parker had no intention of becoming a superhero, but after his Uncle Ben was murdered by a thief that Spider-man (then working as a professional wrestler) had let escape, Peter Parker developed the axiom that "with great power comes great responsibility," and decided to put his talents to work fighting injustice.  Some of his main enemies have been the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Kraven, Venom, and at times, The Punisher.  Since his college days, Peter Parker has made a living as a journalist, for the most part selling pictures he took of himself in action as Spider-man to the newspaper he works for.  (Spider-Man webs a camera to some out-of-the-way place and tries to steer the action in front of it; he also has various settings on the camera dictating when the pictures are taken.)  Peter Parker's boss, J. Jonah Jameson, has an intense and abiding hate for Spider-Man.
> 
> http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm   
> 
> 
> ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of Aunt May's death or the death of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane. --KoyaanisQatsi''
> 
------
Charles_Babbage|990447849
10c10
< Although his two computing projects wre never completed in his lifetime, his ideas on their operation show them to be the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, working from Babbage's original plans, a Difference Engine was completed, and functioned perfectly.
---
> Although his two computing projects were never completed in his lifetime, his ideas on their operation show them to be the forerunner of modern [[computer]]s. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, working from Babbage's original plans, a Difference Engine was completed, and functioned perfectly.
------
Gods|990448082
22a23
> :[[Osiris]]
23a25
> :[[Ra]]
45a48
> :[[Shiva]]
65a69,71
> 
> 
> ''In my understanding of Christianity, the name of God has been "God," and God's relationship to Jesus Christ is not a simple as what's listed above:  God is actually the Holy Trinity--God, the Son, the Holy Ghost.  Jesus Christ is just the physical and spiritual manifestation of the Son, not the Father as well.  So I think the above is technically incorrect.''
------
PostCommunism|990448164
1c1
< After the fall of [[Communism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] and Eastern Europe, many Communist parties in both Eastern and Western Europe reacted by changing their policies, which until then had been much governed by the example of the Soviet Union, and chose a more democratic and less radical course. This led to the post-Communistic parties, which are basically far left-wing [[Social Democrats|Social democratic]] parties, and are a political power in countries such as [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and a number of former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Post-Communism]]
------
Post-Communism|990448175
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> After the fall of [[Communism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] and Eastern Europe, many Communist parties in both Eastern and Western Europe reacted by changing their policies, which until then had been much governed by the example of the Soviet Union, and chose a more democratic and less radical course. This led to the post-Communistic parties, which are basically far left-wing [[Social Democrats|Social democratic]] parties, and are a political power in countries such as [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and a number of former communist countries in Central and Eastern Europe.
------
Communism|990448210
34c34
< * [[PostCommunism]]
---
> * [[Post-Communism]]
------
Short_words|990448250
6c6,8
< [[2d]], [[3d]], [[A]], [[AU]], [[B]], [[Be]], [[C]], [[D]],
---
> [[2d]], [[3d]], [[A]], [[AA]], [[Ab]], [[Ac]], [[Ad]],
> [[Ag]], [[Am]], [[An]], [[Ar]], [[As]], [[At]], [[AU]],
> [[B]], [[Be]], [[C]], [[D]], [[DC]],
14c16,24
< [[AaA]], [[AdA]], [[Ada]], [[Art]], [[Awk]], [[BBC]], [[BLM]], [[BMW]], [[BPM]], [[BSD]], [[Bar]], [[Bay]], [[Bit]], [[Bse]],
---
> [[AaA]], [[ABC]], [[Act]], [[AdA]], [[Add]], [[Ada]], [[Ado]],
> [[Adz]], [[AFC]], [[Aft]], [[Aga]], [[Age]], [[AGM]], [[Ago]],
> [[AGR]], [[Aid]], [[Ail]], [[Aim]], [[Air]], [[Aka]], [[Ale]],
> [[All]], [[Amp]], [[ANC]], [[And]], [[Ant]], [[Any]], [[AOB]],
> [[AOL]], [[Ape]], [[Apr]], [[Apt]], [[Arc]], [[Ark]], [[Arm]],
> [[Art]], [[Ash]], [[Ask]], [[Asp]], [[Ass]], [[Aug]], [[Auk]],
> [[Aux]], [[Ave]], [[Awe]],
> [[Awk]], [[Awl]], [[Axe]], [[Aye]], [[BBC]], [[BLM]], [[BMW]],
> [[BPM]], [[Bps]], [[BSD]], [[Bar]], [[Bay]], [[Bit]], [[Bse]],
34,35c44,55
< [[ABBA]], [[AIDS]], [[ANSI]], [[AbeL]], [[Acid]], [[Alga]],  
< [[Amir]], [[Asia]], [[Atom]], [[Audi]], [[Aves]], [[B-52]],  
---
> [[ABBA]], [[AbeL]],
> [[Abel]], [[Abet]], [[Able]], [[ACAS]],
> [[Acid]], [[Acme]], [[Acne]], [[Acre]], [[Adze]], [[Aeon]],
> [[Afar]], [[Agar]], [[Agog]], [[Ague]], [[Ahoy]], [[Aide]],
> [[AIDS]], [[Airy]], [[Ajar]], [[Akin]], [[Alas]], [[Alga]],  
> [[Ally]], [[Alms]], [[Aloe]], [[Alto]], [[Alum]], [[Amen]],
> [[AMEX]], [[Amid]], [[Amir]], [[Amok]], [[Anal]], [[Anew]],
> [[ANSI]], [[Apex]], [[Arab]], [[Arch]], [[Area]], [[Aria]],
> [[Arid]], [[Arms]], [[Army]], [[Arse]], [[Asap]], [[Asia]],
> [[Atom]], [[Audi]], [[Aunt]], [[Aura]], [[Auto]],
> [[Aver]], [[Aves]], [[Avid]], [[Avow]], [[Awry]], [[Axis]],
> [[Axle]], [[B-52]],  
------
Communism|990448284
21,22c21
< peaceful change, while Bolsheviks favored armed, violent revolution.
< [[Leninism]] is the name given to Russian dictator [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s
---
> peaceful change, while Bolsheviks favored armed, violent revolution.  Lenin was the leader of the Bolsheviks.  [[Leninism]] is the name given to Russian dictator [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s
------
Communism|990448297
27,28c27
< plans as well as massive [[industrialization]].  The practices of [[Mao Tse
< Tung]] are known as [[Maoism]].
---
> plans as well as massive [[industrialization]].  The practices of [[Mao Tse Tung]] are known as [[Maoism]].
------
User_friendly|990448440
11c11,13
< I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
---
> I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> 
> ''Hmm... We have a similar problem with AM (amplitude modulation), Am (chemical symbol for americanium), and am (ante meridium).  Perhaps best to put all three under [[Am]] (as Wikipedia entries cannot start with lowercase letters.'' --[[LA2]].
------
Mu|990448529
3a4,5
> 
> ''Interesting!  What story/mythology developed the notion of this continent?''
------
Mu|990448558
1c1
< 1. A character in the [[Greek alphabet]]
---
> 1. A character in the [[Greek alphabet]]: &mu;
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990448682
1,2d0
< http://www.kingfeatures.com/images/logos/spidermn_logo.gif
< 
7,9c5
< 
< ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of Aunt May's death or the death of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane. --KoyaanisQatsi''
< 
---
> ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of Aunt May's death or the death of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane. --KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Pleistocene|990448705
1c1
< The Pliestocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 10,000 years to 1.5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pleistocene was originally intended to cover the recent period of repeated glaciations, however, the start was set too late, and some early cooling and glaciation are now set in the Pliocene.  The Pliestocene follows the [[Pliocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Holocene]] Epoch. The Pleistocene is the first of the two epochs of the [[Quaternary]] [[Era]]. 
---
> The Pliestocene Epoch is a Geologic Period that extends from about 10,000 years to 1.5 million years before the present. As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the start and end are well identified, but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly uncertain. The Pleistocene was originally intended to cover the recent period of repeated glaciations, however, the start was set too late, and some early cooling and [[glaciation]] are now set in the Pliocene.  The Pliestocene follows the [[Pliocene]] Epoch and is followed by the [[Holocene]] Epoch. The Pleistocene is the first of the two epochs of the [[Quaternary]] [[Era]]. 
------
Ska|990448753
1a2,3
> 
> --''My understanding of ska was that it predates reggae? Now I'll have to look it up....--KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Scheme|990448907
1c1
< 1. ''n'' Plan or catalog over objects in a group.  The same objects can be categorized by more than one scheme.  See also [[Wikipedia category schemes]].
---
> See [[conceptual scheme]].
3c3,5
< 2. ''npr'' Short for Schemer, a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
---
> Short for [[Schemer]], a variant of the [[programming language]] [[Lisp]], where the available commands have been considerably reduced to make things much easier to work with.
> 
> /Talk
------
Am|990448977
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1. ''v'' Present tense, first person, singular form of the verb [[be]]. I am.
> 
> 2. '''am''' is short for ante meridium, Latin for "before noon".  This is used to define [[hour]]s of the day: The meeting starts at 9 am.  The opposite of am is [[pm]].
> 
> 3. ''prep'' In [[German language]], '''am'''  is a contraction for the [[preposition]] and [[definite article]] "an dem", and as such occurs in some place names (similar to English [[upon]]): [[Frankfurt am Main]].
> 
> 4. In [[chemistry]], in the [[periodic table]], '''Am''' is the chemical symbol for [[Americium]].
> 
> 5. In [[electrical engineering]], '''AM''' is short for [[amplitude modulation]].
> 
> ----
> ''Trying hard to start with the most general meaning, going towards the more special.''  :-)
------
Scheme/Talk|990449079
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> To create an entry, "scheme," just in order to give a brief definition seems unproductive to me.  On my view, articles that simply give a brief, mediocre definition of a word are best left uncreated; the notion of a [[conceptual scheme]] is much-studied by philosophy.  ''That'' deserves an encyclopedia entry--not a definition, but a discussion of what has been said about conceptual schemes.
------
Am|990449172
12c12,14
< ''Trying hard to start with the most general meaning, going towards the more special.''  :-)
---
> ''Trying hard to start with the most general meaning, going towards the more special.''  :-)
> 
> ''[[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]]''
------
LA2|990449323
8a9,10
> ----
> LA2, in my opinion, [[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]], and it shouldn't be treated as one. --[[LMS]]
------
Scheme/Talk|990449538
1c1,3
< To create an entry, "scheme," just in order to give a brief definition seems unproductive to me.  On my view, articles that simply give a brief, mediocre definition of a word are best left uncreated; the notion of a [[conceptual scheme]] is much-studied by philosophy.  ''That'' deserves an encyclopedia entry--not a definition, but a discussion of what has been said about conceptual schemes.
---
> To create an entry, "scheme," just in order to give a brief definition seems unproductive to me.  On my view, articles that simply give a brief, mediocre definition of a word are best left uncreated; the notion of a [[conceptual scheme]] is much-studied by philosophy.  ''That'' deserves an encyclopedia entry--not a definition, but a discussion of what has been said about conceptual schemes. --[[LMS]]
> 
> ''Larry, what are you trying to tell me here?  Try to be constructive.  An entry for "Scheme" already existed, describing the programming language.  I wanted to point out that the word Scheme also has a more general meaning.  Anybody is free to add pointers to conceptual schemes or whatever they find relevant.  Anybody arriving at the entry for "scheme" (by search, link, or otherwise) should be interested in finding a roadmap of  different meanings of the word, or at least I would.  -- Should we be silent about the non-programming language meaning of the word?  Should I go on to write about conceptual schemes?  (Sorry, I hardly have the knowledge.)  Or should I simply go away?'' --[[LA2]]
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990449593
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wikipedia is not a dictionary.
> 
> Some Wikipedians have had a habit of starting an article, listing several senses of a term, and then stopping working on that article, as though they were interested only in giving the meanings of various terms.
> 
> I don't like this habit.  It encourages in new Wikipedians the idea that we are, in fact, just developing a dictionary.
> 
> While on the one hand I am delighted that Wikipedia is growing in ''breadth,'' I am coming around to the view that breadth ''at the expense'' of the very notion of what we are working on is a bad idea.
> 
> As I see it, brief, "stub" articles are to be encouraged--as long as they aren't just definitions.  They should contain encyclopedic information of some sort.  Not just the meanings of terms.
> 
> Moreover, there are plenty of senses of terms that ''aren't'' of interest ''in an encyclopedia.''  They would be ''in a dictionary,'' but Wikipedia isn't a dictionary.
> 
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990449675
13c13,15
< --[[Larry Sanger]]
---
> --[[Larry Sanger]]
> ---
> ''There is a very simple solution to your problems.  I'm out of here.''--[[LA2]]
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990449691
14,15c14,15
< ---
< ''There is a very simple solution to your problems.  I'm out of here.''--[[LA2]]
---
> ----
> ''There is a very simple solution to your problems.  I'm out of here.''--[[LA2]]
------
LA2|990449802
10c10,12
< LA2, in my opinion, [[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]], and it shouldn't be treated as one. --[[LMS]]
---
> LA2, in my opinion, [[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]], and it shouldn't be treated as one. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> ''I now see the limits of this project.  I'm out of here.'' --[[LA2]] (21 May 2001)
------
Glaciation|990450088
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A geological phenomena in which massive ice sheets form in the Arctic and Antarctic and advance well toward the equator.  Glaciations are characterized by cool, wet climates, thick ice sheets extending well South into what are presently temperate regions.  Mountain glaciers in unglaciated areas expand and extend to lower elevations.  Sea Levels drop due to the presence of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps.  There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations
> 
> In general, the Earth seems to have been ice free even in high latitudes except during relatively rare glacial periods such as the one from which we are currently emerging.
> 
> The causes of glaciations have been much debated since the phenomenon was clearly identified in the 17th Century.  Modern theories tend to revolve around periodic oscilations in the Earth's orbit; hypothecised periodic changes in solar output; and/or the affects of continental masses drifting into polar regions where Antarctica currently resides.
> 
> Known periods of glaciation include the Huronian (2400Ma-2100Ma), Stuartian-Varangian (950Ma-570Ma), Andean-Saharan (450Ma-420Ma), Karoo (360Ma-260Ma), Cenozoic (30Ma-Present).  Not every year in each interval was a time of complete or even partial glaciation.  The best studied glaciation -- that of the recent past appears to have taken place in at least four separate ice incursions and retreats.  Unfortunately the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior icesheets almost completely except in regions where the later sheet doesn't achieve full coverage.  It is probable that glacial periods other than those above have been overlooked because of the paucity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older time periods.   The [[Varanger glaciation]] was especially severe and may have extended to the Equator.  This has lead to a recent [[Snowball Earth]] theory that the Earth froze over completely in the late Proterozoic then thawed very rapidly as trapped Water and Carbon Dioxide were returned to atmosphere.
------
Scheme/Talk|990450108
3c3,7
< ''Larry, what are you trying to tell me here?  Try to be constructive.  An entry for "Scheme" already existed, describing the programming language.  I wanted to point out that the word Scheme also has a more general meaning.  Anybody is free to add pointers to conceptual schemes or whatever they find relevant.  Anybody arriving at the entry for "scheme" (by search, link, or otherwise) should be interested in finding a roadmap of  different meanings of the word, or at least I would.  -- Should we be silent about the non-programming language meaning of the word?  Should I go on to write about conceptual schemes?  (Sorry, I hardly have the knowledge.)  Or should I simply go away?'' --[[LA2]]
---
> ''Larry, what are you trying to tell me here?  Try to be constructive.  An entry for "Scheme" already existed, describing the programming language.  I wanted to point out that the word Scheme also has a more general meaning.  Anybody is free to add pointers to conceptual schemes or whatever they find relevant.  Anybody arriving at the entry for "scheme" (by search, link, or otherwise) should be interested in finding a roadmap of  different meanings of the word, or at least I would.  -- Should we be silent about the non-programming language meaning of the word?  Should I go on to write about conceptual schemes?  (Sorry, I hardly have the knowledge.)  Or should I simply go away?'' --[[LA2]]
> ----
> I thought I ''was'' being constructive.  No, I don't want you to go away!  I'd just like you to concentrate your energies on your areas of expertise.  What irritated me (I admit it, I was irritated) was that you created a link to an article, called "scheme," on a topic on which there is expert "knowledge" (i.e., what philosophers theorize about conceptual schemes), and yet what you wrote did little more than give a rather mediocre definition of a term that any reasonably well-educated person understands.  I don't see what value there is in doing that, other than to create a node in a web of mediocre dictionary definitions.  This inspired me to write [[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]].
> 
> Sorry for being so harsh; this is an issue that has been bubbling away in the back of my mind for a few months now, and finally various recent contributions have crystallized my distaste for these dictionary-definition type entries. --[[LMS]]
------
Varanger_glaciation|990450134
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Varanger Glacial Event (sometimes termed the Stuartian-Varangian with Stuartian being the earlier part) was a world wide glaciation that occurred around 950-600 Million Years Ago. The population of acritarchs crashed during this glaciation and it is claimed that Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increased after the glaciation. There are a number of enigmatic features with regard to this glaciation including indications of glaciation at very low latitudes and the presence of limestones -- normally warm water sediments above, below and intermixed with glacial deposits. Paleomagnetism seems to indicate very high continental drift rates leading some geologists to question whether some of the phenomena might be due to magnetic pole wandering rather than plate motion and low latitiude glaciation. However, cabon isotope analysis indicates that several worldwide glaciations may have occurred. Evidence of the Varanger event is found in various places and times: The Congo from 950-750Ma and 620-600Ma. Australia from 800-780Ma and 690-680Ma. China 800-760Ma, 740-700Ma and 600Ma; Western North America 850-800Ma, Sahara 730-650Ma, Norway 650Ma. Spitzpergen 593-573Ma. Other known world wide glaciations include the Huronian from 2400Ma to 2100Ma, Andean-Saharan from 450-420Ma, the Karoo glaciation from 360Ma to 260Ma, and the Cenozoic glaciation which started 30Ma in Antarctica and may not be over. 
------
Mu|990450173
3c3,4
< 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria]], sunk beneath the waters.  
---
> 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria]], sunk beneath the waters.  The name was invented by James Churchward in his books `<i>Lost Continent of Mu</i>' and  `<i>Sacred Symbols of Mu</i>'. 
> It should be noted that though Churchward considered these to be works of archaeology, they are generally catalogued in bookshops under "Religion and Occult".
5c6
< ''Interesting!  What story/mythology developed the notion of this continent?''
---
> ''Interesting!  What story/mythology developed the notion of this continent?''
------
I|990450269
1a2,9
> 
> ----
> 
> 'I' is also the word that is used in English by a person to refer to himself.
> 
> ----
> 
> In Chemistry, I is the atomic symbol for [[Iodine]].
------
LA2|990450552
12c12,14
< ''I now see the limits of this project.  I'm out of here.'' --[[LA2]] (21 May 2001)
---
> ''I now see the limits of this project.  I'm out of here.'' --[[LA2]] (21 May 2001)
> ----
> Hey, Guys, Don't be silly! Who don't want short entrys should write more. (And, BTW: Look in some ``real'' encyclopedias: Their's ofter not more than one or two senteces. Who cares?) -- [[IAm]].
------
RulesToConsider|990450715
57c57
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy TimShell and JerryMuelver 
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) AyeSpy, TimShell, and JerryMuelver 
62c62
< '''[[/Establish Context|Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]] and [[Larry Sanger]] TimShell [[LinusTolke]]
---
> '''[[/Establish Context|Establish Context]]''' Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Jimbo Wales]], [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell, and [[LinusTolke]]
66c66
< '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]''' Supporters include (at least) TimShell and [[Larry Sanger]] [[LinusTolke]]
---
> '''[[/Define and Describe|Define and Describe]]''' Supporters include (at least) TimShell, [[Larry Sanger]], and [[LinusTolke]]
75a76,80
> ----
> 
> '''[[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]]:'''  Please don't just write a definition of a word and then stop; please don't just list the different senses that a word has.  People who read an encyclopedia are interested in ''words'' per se and their bare meanings, but in knowledge, information, facts about the items that the words identify.  This doesn't mean we want only long articles, or that we don't want "stub" articles--it does mean, though, that "stub" articles should not consist just of a definition of a term.
> 
> Supporters of this rule include: [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Wikipedia_is_a_dictionary|990450747
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Isn't it?
------
Racism|990450753
7c7
< Also see [[Hate Crime]], [[Civil rights movement]], [[White supremacy]], [[apartheid]]
---
> Also see [[Hate Crime]], [[civil rights movement]], [[white supremacy]], [[Apartheid]]
------
Wikipedia_is_a_dictionary|990450821
1c1,3
< Isn't it?
---
> Isn't it?
> 
> No.  [[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]].  Stop treating it like one.  Wikipedia is an encyclopedia.
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990450922
15a16,17
> ----
> It's not just you, [[LA2]], you've done a lot of good work.  Don't take this personally.  It is not meant personally! --[[LMS]]
------
LA2|990451181
14c14,16
< Hey, Guys, Don't be silly! Who don't want short entrys should write more. (And, BTW: Look in some ``real'' encyclopedias: Their's ofter not more than one or two senteces. Who cares?) -- [[IAm]].
---
> Hey, Guys, Don't be silly! Who don't want short entrys should write more. (And, BTW: Look in some ``real'' encyclopedias: Their's ofter not more than one or two senteces. Who cares?) -- [[IAm]].
> ----
> LA2, really!  Why would you leave?  Someone criticizes you and you take that as reason to leave?  Good lord. --[[LMS]]
------
LA2|990451216
16c16
< LA2, really!  Why would you leave?  Someone criticizes you and you take that as reason to leave?  Good lord. --[[LMS]]
---
> LA2, really!  Why would you leave?  Just because I gave you a criticism? --[[LMS]]
------
Mu|990451318
4,6c4
< It should be noted that though Churchward considered these to be works of archaeology, they are generally catalogued in bookshops under "Religion and Occult".
< 
< ''Interesting!  What story/mythology developed the notion of this continent?''
---
> It should be noted that though Churchward considered these to be works of archaeology, they are generally catalogued in bookshops under "Religion and Occult".
------
Gods|990451412
70,71c70
< 
< ''In my understanding of Christianity, the name of God has been "God," and God's relationship to Jesus Christ is not a simple as what's listed above:  God is actually the Holy Trinity--God, the Son, the Holy Ghost.  Jesus Christ is just the physical and spiritual manifestation of the Son, not the Father as well.  So I think the above is technically incorrect.''
---
> /Talk
------
Race|990451613
1c1
< In humans [[race]] is a controversial topic. This is because race has frequently been used to justify [[atrocity|atrocities]] and abuse of power. [[Racist]]s around the world still use it to that end today. 
---
> A race is a major subdivision of all humans by means of common hereditary characteristics. Most often such characteristics as skin colour, facial characteristics and amount and type of hair are used to distinguish between the races.
3,11c3
< Commonly recognised human races:
< <ul>
< <li>[[Africa]]n
< <li>[[Europe]]an
< <li>[[Native American]]
< <li>[[Middle East|Semitic]]
< <li>[[Asia]]n
< <li>[[Aboriginal]]
< </ul>
---
> In a more general meaning, races can also be distinguished in some animal and plant species. Most famous are the various dog breeds.
13c5,13
< See also [[racism]], [[ethnicity]]
---
> In humans, race is a controversial topic. Reason for this, is that people who put much interest in races, often have [[racism|racist]] tendencies, believing that there are large differences between the various races in capabilities and value. Some biologists, on the other hand, are basically denying the existence of races, maintaining that they are just one way of subdividing humanity in groups, and completely different divisions would be made if other characteristics would be used. Because of this, in their opinion, none of these subdivision is more valid than the others, and none has very much value anyway.
> 
> In general, three main races are distinguished, the [[Negroid]] race, which originally lived in [[Africa]], the [[Caucasoid]] race from [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and parts of western and central [[Asia]], and the [[Mongoloid]] race from Eastern Asia and the Americas. There are some groups, such as the [[Australian Aboriginals]], which do not fit into this scheme and thus should be considered a separate race, while often within these categories, smaller groups are considered races, such as the [[Amerindian]] race, consisting of the [[Native American]] peoples (with the exception of the [[Inuit]], which in this division generally are considered to be Mongoloid).
> 
> ----
> 
> See also:
> * [[racism]]
> * [[ethnicity]]
------
Eskimo|990451649
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Inuit]]
------
Glaciation|990451674
1c1
< A geological phenomena in which massive ice sheets form in the Arctic and Antarctic and advance well toward the equator.  Glaciations are characterized by cool, wet climates, thick ice sheets extending well South into what are presently temperate regions.  Mountain glaciers in unglaciated areas expand and extend to lower elevations.  Sea Levels drop due to the presence of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps.  There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations
---
> A geological phenomena in which massive [[ice]] sheets form in the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctic]] and advance well toward the [[equator]].  Glaciations are characterized by cool, wet climates, thick ice sheets extending well South into what are presently temperate regions.  [[Mountain]] [[glacier]]s in unglaciated areas expand and extend to lower elevations.  Sea levels drop due to the presence of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps.  There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations
3c3
< In general, the Earth seems to have been ice free even in high latitudes except during relatively rare glacial periods such as the one from which we are currently emerging.
---
> In general, the [[Earth]] seems to have been ice free even in high latitudes except during relatively rare glacial periods such as the one from which we are currently emerging.
5c5
< The causes of glaciations have been much debated since the phenomenon was clearly identified in the 17th Century.  Modern theories tend to revolve around periodic oscilations in the Earth's orbit; hypothecised periodic changes in solar output; and/or the affects of continental masses drifting into polar regions where Antarctica currently resides.
---
> The causes of glaciations have been much debated since the phenomenon was clearly identified in the [[17th century]].  Modern theories tend to revolve around periodic oscillations in the Earth's orbit; hypothecised periodic changes in solar output; and/or the affects of continental masses drifting into polar regions where Antarctica currently resides.
7c7
< Known periods of glaciation include the Huronian (2400Ma-2100Ma), Stuartian-Varangian (950Ma-570Ma), Andean-Saharan (450Ma-420Ma), Karoo (360Ma-260Ma), Cenozoic (30Ma-Present).  Not every year in each interval was a time of complete or even partial glaciation.  The best studied glaciation -- that of the recent past appears to have taken place in at least four separate ice incursions and retreats.  Unfortunately the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior icesheets almost completely except in regions where the later sheet doesn't achieve full coverage.  It is probable that glacial periods other than those above have been overlooked because of the paucity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older time periods.   The [[Varanger glaciation]] was especially severe and may have extended to the Equator.  This has lead to a recent [[Snowball Earth]] theory that the Earth froze over completely in the late Proterozoic then thawed very rapidly as trapped Water and Carbon Dioxide were returned to atmosphere.
---
> Known periods of glaciation include the [[Huronian]] (2400Ma-2100Ma), [[Stuartian-Varangian]] (950Ma-570Ma), [[Andean-Saharan]] (450Ma-420Ma), [[Karoo]] (360Ma-260Ma), [[Cenozoic]] (30Ma-Present).  Not every year in each interval was a time of complete or even partial glaciation.  The best studied glaciation -- that of the recent past appears to have taken place in at least four separate ice incursions and retreats.  Unfortunately the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior icesheets almost completely except in regions where the later sheet doesn't achieve full coverage.  It is probable that glacial periods other than those above have been overlooked because of the paucity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older time periods.   The [[Varanger glaciation]] was especially severe and may have extended to the [[Equator]].  This has lead to a recent [[Snowball Earth]] theory that the Earth froze over completely in the late [[Proterozoic]] then thawed very rapidly as trapped [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]] were returned to [[atmosphere]].
------
Newtons_Laws_of_Motion|990451694
8c8
< 
---
> Nine inch nails are great
------
Gods/Talk|990451725
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''In my understanding of Christianity, the name of God has been "God," and God's relationship to Jesus Christ is not a simple as what's listed above:  God is actually the Holy Trinity--God, the Son, the Holy Ghost.  Jesus Christ is just the physical and spiritual manifestation of the Son, not the Father as well.  So I think the above is technically incorrect.''
> ----
> I think I understand your view, but there are very many different Christian views on what God is.  The Catholic Church, for example, holds the view you state above, as I'm sure you know.  But nearly all Protestants would say, as they do say, "Jesus Christ is the Lord our God."  I think nearly all Catholics would agree with that, too.  I guess most Christians would say that Jesus Christ is divine, and as such, "Jesus Christ" is at least one of the names of God. --[[LMS]]
------
Inuit|990451765
1c1
< The native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]].  These people live all across the Arctic, that's why the Arctic Winter Games have been held in Greenland and Alaska as well as in Canada.
---
> The Inuit are the native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Inuit also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people". "Eskimo" is a name from the [[language]] of the [[Cree]], meaning "eaters of raw meat". Many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory.
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people". They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat". However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory.
7c7,13
< See also: [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]], [[Canada]], [[Inuktitut]]
---
> ----
> 
> See also:
> * [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
> * [[Canada]]
> * [[Greenland]]
> * [[Inuktitut]]
------
Varanger_glaciation|990451799
1c1
< The Varanger Glacial Event (sometimes termed the Stuartian-Varangian with Stuartian being the earlier part) was a world wide glaciation that occurred around 950-600 Million Years Ago. The population of acritarchs crashed during this glaciation and it is claimed that Oxygen levels in the atmosphere increased after the glaciation. There are a number of enigmatic features with regard to this glaciation including indications of glaciation at very low latitudes and the presence of limestones -- normally warm water sediments above, below and intermixed with glacial deposits. Paleomagnetism seems to indicate very high continental drift rates leading some geologists to question whether some of the phenomena might be due to magnetic pole wandering rather than plate motion and low latitiude glaciation. However, cabon isotope analysis indicates that several worldwide glaciations may have occurred. Evidence of the Varanger event is found in various places and times: The Congo from 950-750Ma and 620-600Ma. Australia from 800-780Ma and 690-680Ma. China 800-760Ma, 740-700Ma and 600Ma; Western North America 850-800Ma, Sahara 730-650Ma, Norway 650Ma. Spitzpergen 593-573Ma. Other known world wide glaciations include the Huronian from 2400Ma to 2100Ma, Andean-Saharan from 450-420Ma, the Karoo glaciation from 360Ma to 260Ma, and the Cenozoic glaciation which started 30Ma in Antarctica and may not be over. 
---
> The Varanger Glacial Event (sometimes termed the [[Stuartian-Varangian]] with [[Stuartian]] being the earlier part) was a world wide [[glaciation]] that occurred around 950-600 Million Years Ago. The population of [[acritarchs]] crashed during this glaciation and it is claimed that [[oxygen]] levels in the [[atmosphere]] increased after the glaciation. There are a number of enigmatic features with regard to this glaciation including indications of glaciation at very low latitudes and the presence of [[limestone]]s -- normally warm [[water]] sediments above, below and intermixed with glacial deposits. [[Paleomagnetism]] seems to indicate very high [[continental drift]] rates leading some geologists to question whether some of the phenomena might be due to [[magnetic pole]] wandering rather than plate motion and low [[latitiude]] glaciation. However, cabon isotope analysis indicates that several worldwide glaciations may have occurred. Evidence of the Varanger event is found in various places and times: The [[Congo]] from 950-750Ma and 620-600Ma. [[Australia]] from 800-780Ma and 690-680Ma. [[China]] 800-760Ma, 740-700Ma and 600Ma; Western [[North America]] 850-800Ma, [[Sahara]] 730-650Ma, [[Norway]] 650Ma. [[Spitzpergen]] 593-573Ma. Other known world wide glaciations include the [[Huronian]] from 2400Ma to 2100Ma, [[Andean-Saharan]] from 450-420Ma, the [[Karoo]] glaciation from 360Ma to 260Ma, and the [[Cenozoic]] glaciation which started 30Ma in [[Antarctica]] and may not be over. 
------
RulesToConsider|990452122
11c11
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, OprgaG, [[Invictus]], and KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], WojPob, [[Jimbo Wales]], AyeSpy, OprgaG, [[Invictus]], and KoyaanisQatsi, [[Pinkunicorn]]
22c22
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]] [[TimShell]] [[Invictus]] [[LinusTolke]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], [[TimShell]], [[Invictus]], [[LinusTolke]], [[Pinkunicorn]]
29c29
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, TimShell, and AyeSpy (fervently)
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, TimShell, [[Pinkunicorn]], and AyeSpy (fervently)
36c36
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, and AyeSpy
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], JerryMuelver, [[Pinkunicorn]], and AyeSpy
43c43
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]], and KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], [[LinusTolke]], [[Pinkunicorn]] (strongly), and KoyaanisQatsi
50c50
< Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell, JerryMuelver, and KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Supporters of this rule include (at least) [[Larry Sanger]], TimShell, JerryMuelver, [[Pinkunicorn]], and KoyaanisQatsi
78c78
< '''[[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]]:'''  Please don't just write a definition of a word and then stop; please don't just list the different senses that a word has.  People who read an encyclopedia are interested in ''words'' per se and their bare meanings, but in knowledge, information, facts about the items that the words identify.  This doesn't mean we want only long articles, or that we don't want "stub" articles--it does mean, though, that "stub" articles should not consist just of a definition of a term.
---
> '''[[Wikipedia is not a dictionary]]:'''  Please don't just write a definition of a word and then stop; please don't just list the different senses that a word has.  People who read an encyclopedia are not interested in ''words'' per se and their bare meanings, but in knowledge, information, facts about the items that the words identify.  This doesn't mean we want only long articles, or that we don't want "stub" articles--it does mean, though, that "stub" articles should not consist just of a definition of a term.
80c80
< Supporters of this rule include: [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include: [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Sexism|990452309
1c1
< The idea that [[men]] and [[women]] are fundamentally different from each other and that individuals and society as a whole ought to enforce that difference. [[Sexist]]s often consider their own sex superior. Sexist ideas can be held by both men and women but is likely to have a stronger impact in individuals belonging to an [[over-privileged]] [[sex]]. 
---
> ''Sexism,'' in its ordinary accepted meaning, is the view (or, more commonly, the attitude) that [[man|men]] are superior to [[woman|women]].  While the view that women are superior to men might also be described as "sexism," there are very few who seriously hold such a position (among the [[radical feminism|radical feminists]]) and to describe it as "sexism" would be confusing.
3c3
< Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries. Some countries have sexist laws. Some countries ban sex discrimination but still have sexist laws in their law books. 
---
> Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries.  Some countries have laws that give special rights or privileges to one sex (usually, but not always, to men); some countries ban sex discrimination but still have preferential laws in their law books. 
5c5
< See also [[misogyny]], [[gender roles]], [[feminism]], [[political correctness]]. 
---
> See also [[misogyny]], [[gender roles]], [[feminism]], [[masculism]], [[political correctness]]. 
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Biology|990452574
11a12,13
> See also http://phylogeny.arizona.edu/.
> 
------
Sexism/Talk|990452979
4a5,8
> ----
> The claim, "If men and women are fundamentally different is a matter of debate," needs to be clarified.  Obviously, men and women have many fundamental ''physical'' differences.  The fact that we are one ''mammalian'' species means that, like other mammalian species, we have two sexes.
> 
> Now, according to some radical feminists, I'm sure, the view that men and women are fundamentally different is sufficient for sexism.  We can add that view ''as a separate paragraph'' in the article, I'd say.  But it is far from being the ordinary understanding of the view, ''even among feminists.'' --[[LMS]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Begging_the_question|990453036
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Also known as a ''circular argument'', 'begging the question' describes a type of argument in which the arguments for a proposition basically contain the proposition itself, and thus are equally doubtful. The proposition is basically used to prove itself, which is of course an incorrect use of logic.
> 
> The name comes from old Greek ways of arguing - people were to prove or disprove a certain proposition (called 'the question' - which thus here means 'matter to be discussed'). To do so, they sometimes would state certain facts, which they asked their opponent to accept as a mutually agreed truth. If you're begging the question, then you are asking for the proposition itself to be such a 'mutually agreed truth' - and then you cannot say to have proven it.
------
Pinkunicorn|990453194
6a7,8
> ----
> Thanks for adding "not" to RulesToConsider.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_popularity|990453310
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An appeal to popularity is a form of argument where something is 'proven' by stating that many or all people believe it. For example ''Eighty percent of all Americans do not accept homosexuality, so it must be bad.'' Because there is no reason to assume that the majority, however large, is right, this argument is a [[Logical fallacy]].
------
Lysator|990453336
13c13,15
< The following people are or have been members of Lysator and have contributed to [[Wikipedia]]: [[LinusTolke]], [[LA2]], [[Pinkunicorn]], [[Mjausson]].
---
> The following people are or have been members of Lysator and have contributed to [[Wikipedia]]: [[LinusTolke]], [[LA2]], [[Pinkunicorn]], [[Mjausson]].
> ----
> /Talk
------
Lysator/Talk|990453403
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Wow, so a lot of the new Wikipedians know each other from this organization.  Very cool!
> 
> Do we have the organization's permission to use their image here?
> 
> --[[LMS]]
------
ISP|990453923
1c1,6
< ISP is short for Internet Service Provider, a company or organization that provides the service of connectivity to the Internet.
---
> ISP is short for Internet Service Provider, a company or organization that provides the service of connectivity to the Internet. Those services may include:
> *[[Dial-up access]]
> *[[Broadband access]]
> **[[DSL]] -- Digital Subscriber Line
> **[[Cable]]
> *[[Web hosting services]]
------
Alumn|990454066
1c1,5
< An alumn is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate. In, Latin,  <i>Alumnus</i> is a masculine singular form of the word, <i>Alumna</i> is the feminine singular form  The Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities.----Anyone for the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative?
---
> An ''alumn'' is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate. In, Latin,  <i>[[Alumnus]]</i> is a masculine singular form of the word, <i>Alumna</i> is the feminine singular form.  The Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities, which are organized by [[alumni association]]s--and are often occasions for learning, socializing, and fund-raising.
> 
> Due to concerns about [[political correctness]] at [[colleges and universities]] particularly in the [[United States]], as well as a desire among academics to seem to know [[Latin]], the preferred terms on college campuses now are generally "alumnus" and "alumna."  It is regarded as politically incorrect, and arguably grammatically incorrect, to use "alumnus" and "alumni" to refer to women.
> ----
> Anyone for the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative?
------
Alumn|990454106
3c3
< Due to concerns about [[political correctness]] at [[colleges and universities]] particularly in the [[United States]], as well as a desire among academics to seem to know [[Latin]], the preferred terms on college campuses now are generally "alumnus" and "alumna."  It is regarded as politically incorrect, and arguably grammatically incorrect, to use "alumnus" and "alumni" to refer to women.
---
> Due to concerns about [[political correctness]] at [[colleges and universities]] particularly in the [[United States]], as well as a desire among academics to seem to know [[Latin]], the preferred terms on college campuses now are generally "alumnus" and "alumna."  It is regarded as politically incorrect, and arguably grammatically incorrect, to use "alumnus" and "alumni" to refer to women, but some people still stubbornly use those terms that way.
------
Communism|990454124
5,6c5,6
< are the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Peoples Republic of China|People's
< Republic of China]].
---
> are the [[Soviet Union]], the [[Peoples Republic of China|People's
> Republic of China]] and [[Cuba]].
------
Alumn|990454174
1c1
< An ''alumn'' is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate. In, Latin,  <i>[[Alumnus]]</i> is a masculine singular form of the word, <i>Alumna</i> is the feminine singular form.  The Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities, which are organized by [[alumni association]]s--and are often occasions for learning, socializing, and fund-raising.
---
> An ''alumn'' is a former student of a [[university]], usually a graduate. In [[Latin language|Latin]],  <i>[[Alumnus]]</i> is a masculine singular form of the word, <i>Alumna</i> is the feminine singular form.  The Latin plural is <i>alumni</i>, for men, and <i>alumnae</i> for women, although alumns is also often used.  Alumni and Alumnae reunions are a popular event at many universities, which are organized by [[alumni association]]s--and are often occasions for learning, socializing, and fund-raising.
3c3
< Due to concerns about [[political correctness]] at [[colleges and universities]] particularly in the [[United States]], as well as a desire among academics to seem to know [[Latin]], the preferred terms on college campuses now are generally "alumnus" and "alumna."  It is regarded as politically incorrect, and arguably grammatically incorrect, to use "alumnus" and "alumni" to refer to women, but some people still stubbornly use those terms that way.
---
> Due to concerns about [[political correctness]] at [[colleges and universities]] particularly in the [[United States]], as well as a desire among academics to seem to know Latin, the preferred terms on college campuses now are generally "alumnus" and "alumna."  It is regarded as politically incorrect, and arguably grammatically incorrect, to use "alumnus" and "alumni" to refer to women, but some people still stubbornly use those terms that way.
------
Logical_fallacy/False_dilemma|990454244
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A false dilemma is a way of arguing where one rejects an alternative, and then goes on to conclude that one's own idea must be correct. An example of this argument would be a [[Creationism|creationist]] saying: ''(argument snipped) Thus, the [[Theory of Evolution]] is wrong, so God created the world.'' This way of arguing is a logical fallacy, because there may well be many other possibilities than just Evolution and Creationism.
> 
> The False dilemma is often hidden in a (rethorical) question, and then becomes akin to the fallacy of [[Logical fallacy/Many questions|Many questions]], as in ''Should the USA become a communist dictatorship, or should our party lead the country?''
------
Inuit|990454330
1c1
< The Inuit are the native people of [[Canada]]'s north. Most of the Inuit live in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Inuit also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''Eskimo'') are the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. They also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people". They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat". However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory.
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit".
------
Inuit|990454353
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''Eskimo'') are the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. They also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]''; see below) are the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. They also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
------
Sexism/Talk|990454355
8c8,10
< Now, according to some radical feminists, I'm sure, the view that men and women are fundamentally different is sufficient for sexism.  We can add that view ''as a separate paragraph'' in the article, I'd say.  But it is far from being the ordinary understanding of the view, ''even among feminists.'' --[[LMS]]
---
> Now, according to some radical feminists, I'm sure, the view that men and women are fundamentally different is sufficient for sexism.  We can add that view ''as a separate paragraph'' in the article, I'd say.  But it is far from being the ordinary understanding of the view, ''even among feminists.'' --[[LMS]]
> ----
> The view of the radical feminists is, in my opinion, absurd. We should remember here that [[sexism]] can go both ways. WojPob personally regards feminists as sexist to certain degree.
------
Lysator/Talk|990454486
5c5,8
< --[[LMS]]
---
> --[[LMS]]
> -----
> The credo of [[Lysator]] is "he who does, decides". Thus, yes. We're very much in favor of free software and information sharing in general, so I can't imagine there would be a problem. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> 
------
Eskimo|990454489
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Inuit]]
---
> The [[Inuit]] as a people, or an individual Inuit person.  See [[Inuit]] for notes on the meaning of this word and about the Inuit themselves.
------
Anomalous_Phenomena|990454665
3a4,5
> 
> see also [[occultism]]
------
Woman|990454970
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> An adult, female [[human being]].
> 
> Women are able to [[child-bearing|bear children]]--which is the subject of [[obstetrics]]--and have other distinctive sexual characteristics, which is the subject of [[gynecology]].
> 
> The general study of women at universities is pursued under the heading "[[Womens Studies|Women's Studies]]," though, presently, that study is closely associated with [[feminism]], often [[radical feminism]].
> 
> ''This is just a start!''
------
Logical_fallacy/Many_questions|990455441
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The fallacy of many questions is committed when someone asks a question that presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted upon by the people involved. The standard example of this is the question ''Have you stopped beating your wife?'' - whether the person asked answers yes or no, he will admit to having beaten his wife at some time in the past. Thus, that fact is ''presupposed'' by the question, and if it has not been agreed upon by the speakers before, the question is improper, and the fallacy of many questions has been committed.
> 
> Note that the fallacy is all in context - the fact that a question presupposes something does not in itself make the question fallacious. Only when some of these presuppositions are not necessarily agreed to by the person who is asked the question, do they become fallacious.
------
Logical_fallacy|990455482
61a62
>  [[/Many questions|Many questions]]
------
Logical_fallacy|990455570
34a35
>  [[Affirming the consequent]]
------
Vegetable_farming|990456485
1c1
< Growing vegetables has traditionally been done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive fertilizers.
---
> Growing [[vegetable]]s has traditionally been done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive [[fertilizer]]s. Modern [[Hydroponic farming]] yields very high yields in [[greenhouse]]s without using any soil. In America, vegetable farms are in some regions known as truck farms after the trucks used to transport the [[produce]] or muck farms after the dark black soil in which many vegetable grow best. 
------
Telegraphy|990457676
3c3
< The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  In 1896, [[Guglielmo Marconi]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
---
> The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  [[Nikola Tesla]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
------
Telegraphy|990457700
3c3
< The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  [[Nikola Tesla]] showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
---
> The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  Nikola Tesla showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990458203
1c1
< Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
---
> Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896, using technology developed by Nikola Tesla, years earlier.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990458289
1c1
< Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896, using technology developed by Nikola Tesla, years earlier.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
---
> Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Using technology developed exclusively by Nikola Tesla years earlier, practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|990458471
1c1
< Italian-born [[inventor]] of [[radio]] and founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
---
> Italian-born founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
3c3
< ''Actually, the radio supposedly predates Marconi, although I don't remember the original inventor's name.''
---
> Guglielmo Marconi is frequently and incorrectly said to be the inventor of radio, as opposed to Nikola Tesla, whose technology, theories, and patents were used by Marconi in the development of his system.  
------
Agriculture|990458528
1c1,3
< The ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]]. The aim is usually to produce [[food]] for consumption by humans or as [[animal feed]] but animal hides are also an important product of agriculture. 
---
> The ''practice'' of making a living from cultivation of the land or the commercial raising of animals, as opposed to the ''study'' of these disciplines as in [[Agricultural Science]]. The aim is usually to produce [[food]] for consumption by humans or as [[animal feed]] but increasingly, agriculture produces additional products such as [[fiber]]s, such as [[cotton]] and [[flax]], and indutrial chemicals, like [[starch]], [[ethanol]] and [[plastic]]s.  [[Animal hides]] and [[fertilizer]] are also an important products of agriculture. [[Methane]] gas is now sometimes harnessed from animal waste for electric generation.
> 
> Increased use of complex but expensive machinery, good breeding, and better techniques has in the Western world greatly raised agricultural yields and freed most of the population from intense agricultural labor. Thee developing world lags behind because of geographical differences, unsuitable climate, and lack of [[capital]]. 
10a13,15
> <li>[[sod farming]]
> <li>[[tree farming]]
> <li>[[flower growing]]
16c21,23
< <li>[[chicken-raising]], 
---
> <li>[[dairy farming]]
> <li>[[chicken-raising]]
> <li>[[egg production]] 
18c25
< <li>[[ostrich ranging]] or Emus
---
> <li>[[ostrich ranging]] or [[Emu]]s
30c37
< See also [[Soil Association]], [[agri-business]], [[battery hens]], [[salmonella]], [[monoculture]]. 
---
> See also [[Soil Association]], [[agri-business]], [[battery hens]], [[salmonella]], [[monoculture]], [[Green Revolution]], ... 
------
Vegetable_farming|990458763
1c1
< Growing [[vegetable]]s has traditionally been done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged [[raised bed gardening]] , which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive [[fertilizer]]s. Modern [[Hydroponic farming]] yields very high yields in [[greenhouse]]s without using any soil. In America, vegetable farms are in some regions known as truck farms after the trucks used to transport the [[produce]] or muck farms after the dark black soil in which many vegetable grow best. 
---
> Growing [[vegetable]]s has traditionally been done in long rows. This allows machinery to cultivate and increase the efficiency and output. Over the past 100 years a new technique has emerged--[[raised bed gardening]], which has increased yields from small plots of soil without the need for commercial, energy intensive [[fertilizer]]s. Modern [[Hydroponic farming]] yields very high yields in [[greenhouse]]s without using any soil. In America, vegetable farms are in some regions known as truck farms after the trucks used to transport the [[produce]], or muck farms after the dark black soil in which many vegetable grow best. 
------
RulesToConsider|990458897
80c80
< Supporters of this rule include: [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> Supporters of this rule include: [[Larry Sanger]], [[KoyaanisQatsi]]
------
18th_century|990459017
6,7c6
<  See the [[War of Spanish Sucession]] or [[Queen Annes War]], [[War of Austrian Sucession]] or [[King Georges War]],
<  [[War of Jenkins War]], [[Seven Years War|Seven Year's War]] or [[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
---
> **See the [[War of Spanish Sucession]] or [[Queen Annes War]], [[War of Austrian Sucession]] or [[King Georges War]], [[War of Jenkins War]], [[Seven Years War|Seven Year's War]] or [[French and Indian War]], [[American Revolution]]
------
Hobby|990459422
24a25
> ** [[Character collecting]], such as anything Elvis, or everything Mickey Mouse
47c48,51
< ** [[Painting]]
---
> ** [[Beadwork]]
> ** [[Ceramics]]
> ** [[Cross-stitch]]
> ** [[crochet|Crocheting]]
48a53,55
> ** [[Embroidery]]
> ** [[Knitting]]
> ** [[Macrame]]
51,54c58,59
< ** [[Embroidery]]
< ** [[Cross-stitch]]
< ** [[Beadwork]]
< ** [[Sculpture]]
---
> ** [[Painting]]
> ** [[Photography]]
56c61
< ** [[Ceramics]]
---
> ** [[Sculpture]]
58,59c63,64
< ** [[Knitting]]
< ** [[crochet|Crocheting]]
---
> ** [[Spinning]]
> ** [[Weaving]]
61d65
< ** [[Photography]]
------
Hobby|990459447
30a31
> * [[Historical Reenacting]]
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990459525
17c17,19
< It's not just you, [[LA2]], you've done a lot of good work.  Don't take this personally.  It is not meant personally! --[[LMS]]
---
> It's not just you, [[LA2]], you've done a lot of good work.  Don't take this personally.  It is not meant personally! --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Yes, please don't take it personally; I don't think anyone would like to see you go.  It's just that the vision of what Wikipedia is to be isn't the same for each person.  I think that many of the articles which have been started (e.g. the ones on closeted, Mu, etc.) would be perfectly fine for an encyclopedia if they also included historical background on the terms.  For instance, "closeted" might include information on Oscar Wilde or other notable figures whose lives changed significantly (for the better or worse) once they admitted homosexuality; "Mu" might include information on the discovery of its significance scientifically, at least in physics and probably in many other areas I'm unfamiliar with.  Unfortunately I don't know the backgrounds of many of them, and so haven't supplied them, but that doesn't mean that the entries are useless, by any means.  It simply means that <i>for now</i> they resemble an entry in a dictionary more than an entry in an encyclopedia.  But please don't be discouraged. --KoyaanisQatsi
------
TedDunning|990459893
6a7,8
> ----
> Hello, I'm responsible for the editing [[STG]] is referring to, and I think he's right in the implication that I was rather curt about it.  I'd like to apologize, it was not my intention to discourage you.  Revisions of each entry are kept to safeguard against vandalism, so if you'd like to restore the text somewhere, you can go to [[MusicMatch]] and click "View other revision" at the bottom to see the full history of the entry. --KoyaanisQatsi
------
TedDunning|990459960
8c8
< Hello, I'm responsible for the editing [[STG]] is referring to, and I think he's right in the implication that I was rather curt about it.  I'd like to apologize, it was not my intention to discourage you.  Revisions of each entry are kept to safeguard against vandalism, so if you'd like to restore the text somewhere, you can go to [[MusicMatch]] and click "View other revision" at the bottom to see the full history of the entry. --KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Hello, I'm responsible for the editing [[STG]] is referring to, and I think he's right in the implication that I was rather curt about it.  I'd like to apologize, it was not my intention to discourage you.  Revisions of each entry are kept to safeguard against vandalism, so if you'd like to restore the text somewhere, you can go to that entry and click "View other revisions" at the bottom to see the full history of the entry. --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Language_and_dialect|990460160
3d2
< 
5c4
< Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary languages, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
---
> Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary [[language]]s, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
------
LA2|990460212
16c16,19
< LA2, really!  Why would you leave?  Just because I gave you a criticism? --[[LMS]]
---
> LA2, really!  Why would you leave?  Just because I gave you a criticism? --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Yes, please don't take it personally; I don't think anyone would like to see you go.  It's just that the vision of what Wikipedia is to be isn't the same for each person.  I think that many of the articles which have been started (e.g. the ones on closeted, Mu, etc.) would be perfectly fine for an encyclopedia if they also included historical background on the terms.  For instance, "closeted" might include information on Oscar Wilde or other notable figures whose lives changed significantly (for the better or worse) once they admitted homosexuality; "Mu" might include information on the discovery of its significance scientifically, at least in physics and probably in many other areas I'm unfamiliar with.  Unfortunately I don't know the backgrounds of many of them, and so haven't supplied them, but that doesn't mean that the entries are useless, by any means.  It simply means that <i>for now</i> they resemble an entry in a dictionary more than an entry in an encyclopedia.  But please don't be discouraged. --KoyaanisQatsi
> 
------
Language|990460448
1c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing formal languages called [[programming language]]s are used, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: discreteness. 
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing formal languages called [[programming language]]s are used, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: [[discreteness]]. 
------
Larry_Sanger|990461198
96c96,98
< I agree with you, but I meant exactly what I said.  Wikipedia is not a list of links.  I think it is a very, very bad habit to get into, to start just listing links in place of a real encyclopedia entry! --Larry
---
> I agree with you, but I meant exactly what I said.  Wikipedia is not a list of links.  I think it is a very, very bad habit to get into, to start just listing links in place of a real encyclopedia entry! --Larry
> ----
> Have I done wrong by breaking the CIA factbook entries into /history /geog etc.?  I visited a few of the pages that were up when I started and the ones with all the information on the same page seemed somewhat intimidating, so I thought it better to follow the example set in the later "A" entries of breaking it up.  But you've recently mentioned about wikipedia expanding in breadth at the cost of depth, and I have to admit that some of the entries look less than impressive (for an example, pick "* Islands / People."  Which is the better way to do it:  all-in-one or broken up?  And is complete consistency something to strive for in this area? --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Horseshoe|990461955
1c1
< 1. A U-shaped piece of [[iron]] [[nail]]ed to a [[horse]]'s [[hoof]].  See also [[shoe]].  Horseshoes are said to bring [[luck]].
---
> 1. A U-shaped piece of [[iron]], rubber, plastic, rawhide or a laminate of these, [[nail]]ed or glued to a [[horse]]'s [[hoof]].  See also [[shoe]].  Horseshoes, kept as a sort of talisman and not on a horse, are said to bring [[luck]].
3a4,11
> 
> Since the early history of man's domestication and use of horses, a pair of factors have contributed to the need for the bottoms of the horse's feet (hooves) to have additional protection over and above their natural hardness.
> 
> First, the added weight of a human or of pack loads...
> 
> (to be continued)
> 
> 
------
English_language|990462411
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the term [[Middle English]] is used.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the language had changed enough that the term [[Middle English]] is used.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
16c16,18
< Varieties of English include [[English language/American English|American English]] and [[English language/British English|British English]].
---
> English is noted for the vast size of its vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and [[slang]] provides new meanings for old words and imports new loan words which often come into common usage.
> 
> Varieties of English include [[English language/American English|American English]] and [[English language/British English|British English]]. Each of these includes several dialects.
19c21
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
English_language|990462601
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the language had changed enough that the term [[Middle English]] is used.  English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the language had changed enough that the term [[Middle English]] is used.  From the late 1400's, the language is described as [New English]. English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
------
English_language|990462629
3c3
< English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the language had changed enough that the term [[Middle English]] is used.  From the late 1400's, the language is described as [New English]. English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
---
> English descends from the language spoken by the [[Angle]]s and [[Saxon]]s who invaded [[Britain]] at the beginning of the [[Middle Ages]], usually referred to as [[Old English]].  It has had large amount of influence from [[Old Norse]] and, thanks to the [[Norman conquest]] which gave England a French nobility, the [[French language]].  This fundamentally transformed its character.  At about the time of the renaissance, the language had changed enough that the term [[Middle English]] is used.  From the late 1400's, the language is described as [[New English]]. English has continued to assimilate foreign words, especially [[Latin language|Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], to the present.  For some recent [[loan words]] in English language, see the entry on [[Nazi Germany/Related Terms]].
------
Slang|990463479
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Slang is the non-standard use of words in a language and sometimes creation of new words or importation of words from another language. Slang terms are often particular to a certain subculture, such as drug users, skaters, or musicians. Sometimes confused with [[jargon]].
> 
> 
> Examples: ...
> 
> For British slang, see http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/
> For Australian slang, see http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Plains/9740/slang.html
> For some Cockney rhyming slang, see http://www.bio.nrc.ca/cockney/process.html
------
Slang|990463782
1c1
< Slang is the non-standard use of words in a language and sometimes creation of new words or importation of words from another language. Slang terms are often particular to a certain subculture, such as drug users, skaters, or musicians. Sometimes confused with [[jargon]].
---
> Slang is the non-standard use of words in a language and sometimes creation of new words or importation of words from another language. Slang terms are often particular to a certain subculture, such as drug users, skaters, or musicians. Sometimes confused with jargon, the collection of vocabulary specific to a certain profession.
8c8
< For some Cockney rhyming slang, see http://www.bio.nrc.ca/cockney/process.html
---
> For some Cockney rhyming slang, see http://www.bio.nrc.ca/cockney/process.html
------
D|990464062
2c2
< (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek letter: [[Delta|&Delta;]] or &delta;(Delta). 
---
> (Modern Greek /ð/) and Latin the letter was pronounced /d/, in the Etruscan alphabet the letter was superfluous but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek letter: [[Delta|&Delta;]] (capital) or &delta; (small) (Delta). 
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990464169
1c1,7
< '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spider-man.  The name also refers to the long-running comic book published by Marvel comics, after the Spider-man character introduced in Amazing Stories became so popular.  Spider-man is the alter-ego of Peter Parker, a college student who was bitten by a radioactive spider and developed the ability to scale walls and cling to ceilings, as well as to sense imminent danger.  Spider-man displays an astounding amount of agility and strength, when not clinging to buses or other vehicles, transports himself by shooting "webs" from devices he made at home; the webs can spray out in a variety of forms and densities according to Spider-man's wishes.  When used for transport, the web itself is thin and long, with an adhesive at the tip which sticks to the sides or ledges of buildings.  The web is also flexible, allowing Spider-man to swing from one to the other, much like Tarzan from one vine to another.   At times, the web is sprayed out in a wide fan, to hold enemies in place until the authorities arrive.  Originally Peter Parker had no intention of becoming a superhero, but after his Uncle Ben was murdered by a thief that Spider-man (then working as a professional wrestler) had let escape, Peter Parker developed the axiom that "with great power comes great responsibility," and decided to put his talents to work fighting injustice.  Some of his main enemies have been the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Kraven, Venom, and at times, The Punisher.  Since his college days, Peter Parker has made a living as a journalist, for the most part selling pictures he took of himself in action as Spider-man to the newspaper he works for.  (Spider-Man webs a camera to some out-of-the-way place and tries to steer the action in front of it; he also has various settings on the camera dictating when the pictures are taken.)  Peter Parker's boss, J. Jonah Jameson, has an intense and abiding hate for Spider-Man.
---
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spider-man.  The name also refers to the long-running comic book published by Marvel comics, which was started after the Spider-man character introduced in Amazing Stories became so popular.
> 
> Spider-man is the alter-ego of Peter Parker, a college student who was bitten by a radioactive spider and developed the ability to scale walls and cling to ceilings, as well as to sense imminent danger.  Spider-man displays an astounding amount of agility and strength and, when not clinging to buses or other vehicles, transports himself by shooting "webs" from devices he made at home; the webs can spray out in a variety of forms and densities according to Spider-man's wishes.  When used for transport, the web itself is thin and long, with an adhesive at the tip which sticks to the sides or ledges of buildings.  The web is also flexible, allowing Spider-man to swing from one to the other, much like Tarzan from one vine to another.   At times, the web is sprayed out in a wide fan, which is often used to hold enemies in place until the authorities arrive.
> 
> Originally Peter Parker had no intention of becoming a superhero, but after his Uncle Ben was murdered by a thief that Spider-man (then working as a professional wrestler) had let escape, Peter Parker developed the axiom that "with great power comes great responsibility," and decided to put his talents to work fighting injustice.  Some of his main enemies have been the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Kraven, Venom, and at times, The Punisher.
> 
> Since his college days, Peter Parker has made a living as a photographer, for the most part selling the pictures he takes of himself in action as Spider-man to the newspaper he works for.  (Spider-Man webs a camera to some out-of-the-way place and tries to steer the action in front of it; he also has various settings on the camera dictating when the pictures are taken.)  Peter Parker's boss, J. Jonah Jameson, has an intense and abiding hate for Spider-Man.
5c11
< ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of Aunt May's death or the death of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane. --KoyaanisQatsi''
---
> ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of the death of Aunt May or of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane, not to mention the whole "clone" business.... --KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990464258
1c1
< '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spider-man.  The name also refers to the long-running comic book published by Marvel comics, which was started after the Spider-man character introduced in Amazing Stories became so popular.
---
> '''Amazing Spider-Man''' is the full name of the [[comic strip]] commonly referred to as Spider-man.  The name also refers to the long-running comic book published by Marvel comics, which was started after the Spider-man character introduced in Amazing Fantasy became so popular.
------
Channel_tunnel|990465643
1c1
< A [[railway]] tunnel underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed. 
---
> Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed. 
------
Skinheads|990465923
1c1
< <b>Skinheads</b> are a subculture that started in the late 1960's; emerging out of the Mod youth subculture in [[Great Britain]].  [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music. Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them (eg. ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Skinhead]]
------
Skinhead|990465931
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A subculture that started in the late 1960's; emerging out of the Mod youth subculture in [[Great Britain]].  [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. They are characterised by shaved heads and, at least originally, a preference for [[ska]] music.
> 
> Skinheads have a bad name for having [[fascism|fascist]] political ideas, but although there are many skinheads who have these ideas, there are also some who strongly reject them, e.g: ''SHARP'' - Skinheads against racial prejudice.
------
International_Wikipedia|990466084
23c23
< 
---
> :I noticed that.  I protest as well! --[[LMS]]
26a27
> :I think it's just a matter of sending Toan or Jason an appropriate logo to upload, and also supplying them with the non-English text to use (and where it goes).
29a31
> :This would be a good thing to bring up on [[feature requests]].
31a34
> :Whoa, that's a problem.  Guys??
------
Zippy_the_Pinhead|990466225
1,2d0
< http://www.zippythepinhead.com/media/ziplogo.gif
< 
------
Pokey_the_Penguin|990466253
1,2d0
< http://images.yellow5.com/archive/pokey.gif
< 
------
Larry_Sanger|990466267
98c98,100
< Have I done wrong by breaking the CIA factbook entries into /history /geog etc.?  I visited a few of the pages that were up when I started and the ones with all the information on the same page seemed somewhat intimidating, so I thought it better to follow the example set in the later "A" entries of breaking it up.  But you've recently mentioned about wikipedia expanding in breadth at the cost of depth, and I have to admit that some of the entries look less than impressive (for an example, pick "* Islands / People."  Which is the better way to do it:  all-in-one or broken up?  And is complete consistency something to strive for in this area? --KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Have I done wrong by breaking the CIA factbook entries into /history /geog etc.?  I visited a few of the pages that were up when I started and the ones with all the information on the same page seemed somewhat intimidating, so I thought it better to follow the example set in the later "A" entries of breaking it up.  But you've recently mentioned about wikipedia expanding in breadth at the cost of depth, and I have to admit that some of the entries look less than impressive (for an example, pick "* Islands / People."  Which is the better way to do it:  all-in-one or broken up?  And is complete consistency something to strive for in this area? --KoyaanisQatsi
> ----
> Actually, it was Jimbo who started that convention of breaking the factbook entries that way.  I don't see anything wrong with it, myself.  I think broken up is fine, or can be, particularly when you can expect very much more information under a given heading (which is usually).  That's just my opinion... --Larry
------
International_Wikipedia/Homepages|990466317
5c5,7
< You should, one way or another, give information ''about'' the WikiWiki concept, and make it clear that the encyclopedia is indeed intended to be a comprehensive encyclopedia ''in your language.''
---
> You should, one way or another, give information ''about'' the WikiWiki concept, and make it clear that the encyclopedia is indeed intended to be a comprehensive encyclopedia ''in your language.''
> 
> It'll be a good idea to give a link back to http://www.nupedia.com on the homepages.
------
Loveparade|990466321
3,4d2
< http://www.loveparade.de/portal01/img/html_logo.gif
< 
------
Albert_Einstein|990466424
1d0
< http://www.uni-karlsruhe.de/~za2581/m_einste.jpg  
6c5
< In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativIty. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
---
> In a book from 1916 Einstein introduced general relativIty. The [[theory of relativity]], Einstein's 1905 and 1916 works, is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. Einstein's relationship with that other pillar of modern physics, [[quantum physics]], is quite remarkable - on the one hand, some of his work stood at the very basis of quantum physics, especially his explanation of the photoelectric effect, on the other hand he later rejected many of the ideas and implications of quantum mechanics, becoming famous for the phrase ''God does not play dice with the universe''. Einstein believed that the apparently random elements in quantum theory would prove to be not really random. As things are now, the evidence speaks against this point of view.
------
Bremen|990466459
8d7
< http://www.bremen.de/info/bremen/bilder/S1.jpg
------
International_Wikipedia|990466470
31a32,33
> 
> For most ISO-8859-1 characters (most European languages), the only thing that is needed is to enable the <code>$NonEnglish</code> setting in the configuration file.  (Some languages like Polish need other characters which would require a bit more work.)  --CliffordAdams
34c36
< :Whoa, that's a problem.  Guys??
---
> :Whoa, that's a problem.  Guys??
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990466526
19a20,23
> ----
> Bear in mind, too, that I am just giving my opinion.  I don't want to see anyone ''leave the project'' over this.
> 
> I think the practical solution will be to encourage people to give at least one fact that is more than just a definition about the thing defined.  At least one.  :-) That's what I might do (i.e., encourage that)--but, again, I am just giving my opinion.  Remember, this is a wiki. --[[LMS]]
------
Language_and_dialect|990466817
1,6c1
< 
< 
< "La linguistica odierna sa che lo statuto di lingua non viene determinato soltanto da criteri linguistici, bensì è anche il risultato di uno sviluppo storico e politico. Il romancio si è imposto in diversi campi come lingua scritta, diventando così, malgrado una parentela a volte stretta con i dialetti lombardi alpini, una lingua a sé stante." (G 13)
< Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary [[language]]s, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
< 
< Gross, Manfred, Bernard Cathomas e Jean-Jacques Furer. 1996. RETOROMANCIO Facts & Figures Coira: Lia Rumantscha. (=G)
---
> /Talk
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|990466860
119c119,120
< A.
---
> A. Just because the codes are defined in HTML4 doesn't mean they actually work in any common browser.  See the [[Wiki special characters]] page for a detailed discussion of what is generally safe and what isn't.  Of course, this will change over time as more browsers come to support more features.
> 
------
Language_and_dialect/Talk|990466979
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Why was this quote on a page called "language and dialect"?  Shouldn't we write our own entry about what a dialect is, and would it not be better to put that under [[dialect]]?
> 
> :"La linguistica odierna sa che lo statuto di lingua non viene determinato soltanto da criteri linguistici, bensì è anche il risultato di uno sviluppo storico e politico. Il romancio si è imposto in diversi campi come lingua scritta, diventando così, malgrado una parentela a volte stretta con i dialetti lombardi alpini, una lingua a sé stante." (G 13)
> Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary [[language]]s, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
> 
> :Gross, Manfred, Bernard Cathomas e Jean-Jacques Furer. 1996. RETOROMANCIO Facts & Figures Coira: Lia Rumantscha. (=G)
------
Language_and_dialect/Talk|990467016
4c4
< Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary [[language]]s, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
---
> :Dialect is not a linguistic term: rather, dialects are called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary [[language]]s, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. In other words, it is sociolinguistic criteria that makes people decide what a dialect and what a language is. 
------
Channel_tunnel|990467144
1c1
< Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed. 
---
> Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed.  Also called ''[[The Chunnel]].''
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990467161
11c11,14
< ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of the death of Aunt May or of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane, not to mention the whole "clone" business.... --KoyaanisQatsi''
---
> ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of the death of Aunt May or of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane, not to mention the whole "clone" business....
> 
> Also, I didn't add the image which was probably copyrighted; but thanks for taking it down.  I did recently e-mail the people at King Features and Marvel Comics asking if there *were* any images in the public domain, though, since Spider-Man is I think a trademark, I wouldn't expect it. --KoyaanisQatsi''
> 
------
Language|990467268
50,64d49
< 
< 
< For transcription used by some authors, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm----
< I call that opinion. Accurate according to whom. Yes the IPA is accurate, and perhaps there should be a link to it here. But, Samba is surely counter-intuitive and hardly the only choice for transcription or even computer transcription.
< 
< The advantage of SAMPA is that it's very close to IPA (you'll most certainly find a link to IPA on the SAMPA page). 
< And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so.----
< Yes- that is 80% opinion at least. Further, this is a site where anyone can use whatever transcription system they like, and even, though it would be rude, anyone change someone else's transcription system. In my opinion, any transcription system that includes numbers rather than letters is more counter-intuitive than one that tries to confine itself to 
< relatively familiar alphabets. Furthermore, British English speakers are brought up on the IPA, due to the influence of the OED, unlike Americans, and find it quite natural. 
< 
< ---
< yeah, sure, I'd prefer to write in IPA, though that's not possible for technical reasons now is it? Sure, people with linguistic training from the UK feel that IPA is quite natural, but even IPA transcriptions may vary. Anyway... I don't think it would be a good idea to exclude SAMPA or IPA transcriptions. SAMPA only has SOME numbers, it's mainly or as far as possible it's identical with IPA. 
< 
< --- I'll include ORTHOGRAPHY in the LINGUISTICS SECTION, because orthography is not language per se, but it is part of linguistics. 
< 
66,69c51
< The subject of how to indicate pronunciations on Wiki pages is a complicated one, and simple solutions to complicated problems are frequently a bad idea.  For many uses, something very simple and English-centric like the system used in the [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ Jargon File] would be adequate.  But it's clearly ''not'' adequate for many other uses here, particularly when describing foreign languages.  Using more than one system has its own drawbacks, and is more complicated overall than using one.  Yes, SAMPA (or a competing IPA-based system such as the one used on sci.lang) is probably overkill and difficult to learn for many; but the technology here can be arranged to make it simpler.  For example, the server already recognizes "ISBN XXX..." in Wiki text and automatically makes links to more detailed information about a book.  It could do a similar thing with "SAMPA XXX...", automatically creating a link to a page explaining SAMPA, perhaps even a sound clip.  It is possible that in the future, it could display real IPA symbols when Unicode fonts become more available.  Most important, though, is that IPA-based information is information-preserving while simpler systems might not be, so we can add those features without needing more information.  For that reason alone, I think it is important that we adopt some IPA-based standard.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
< 
< ----
< yeah... dunno about the jargon file... the question is: is it used in linguistics? 
---
> /Talk
------
Language/Talk|990467292
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For transcription used by some authors, check out http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm----
> I call that opinion. Accurate according to whom. Yes the IPA is accurate, and perhaps there should be a link to it here. But, Samba is surely counter-intuitive and hardly the only choice for transcription or even computer transcription.
> 
> The advantage of SAMPA is that it's very close to IPA (you'll most certainly find a link to IPA on the SAMPA page). 
> And BEING COUNTER-INTUITIVE is not a disadvantage at all, since IPA is also counter-intuitive - especially to speakers of English. Linguistics is very often counter-intuitive, and that probably applies to science in general. I don't think there is a more scientific and more computer-friendly system out there. Of course, /u:/ instead of <oo> is counter-intuitive to speakers of English, of course /S/ instead of <sh> seems strange, but only because <sh> is the grapheme you learn in school. In linguistics (especially phonetics and phonology), it doesn't really make sense to write <sh> instead of /S/. Of course those are all opinion, since there is no TRUTH in general. Of course I think it would be agood idea to use SAMPA throughout, but it's maybe better to include a transcription closer to English PLUS a more scientific transcription. Although SAMPA is not THAT hard to learn, I don't wanna force anyone to do so.----
> Yes- that is 80% opinion at least. Further, this is a site where anyone can use whatever transcription system they like, and even, though it would be rude, anyone change someone else's transcription system. In my opinion, any transcription system that includes numbers rather than letters is more counter-intuitive than one that tries to confine itself to 
> relatively familiar alphabets. Furthermore, British English speakers are brought up on the IPA, due to the influence of the OED, unlike Americans, and find it quite natural. 
> 
> ---
> yeah, sure, I'd prefer to write in IPA, though that's not possible for technical reasons now is it? Sure, people with linguistic training from the UK feel that IPA is quite natural, but even IPA transcriptions may vary. Anyway... I don't think it would be a good idea to exclude SAMPA or IPA transcriptions. SAMPA only has SOME numbers, it's mainly or as far as possible it's identical with IPA. 
> 
> --- I'll include ORTHOGRAPHY in the LINGUISTICS SECTION, because orthography is not language per se, but it is part of linguistics. 
> 
> ----
> The subject of how to indicate pronunciations on Wiki pages is a complicated one, and simple solutions to complicated problems are frequently a bad idea.  For many uses, something very simple and English-centric like the system used in the [http://www.tuxedo.org/jargon/ Jargon File] would be adequate.  But it's clearly ''not'' adequate for many other uses here, particularly when describing foreign languages.  Using more than one system has its own drawbacks, and is more complicated overall than using one.  Yes, SAMPA (or a competing IPA-based system such as the one used on sci.lang) is probably overkill and difficult to learn for many; but the technology here can be arranged to make it simpler.  For example, the server already recognizes "ISBN XXX..." in Wiki text and automatically makes links to more detailed information about a book.  It could do a similar thing with "SAMPA XXX...", automatically creating a link to a page explaining SAMPA, perhaps even a sound clip.  It is possible that in the future, it could display real IPA symbols when Unicode fonts become more available.  Most important, though, is that IPA-based information is information-preserving while simpler systems might not be, so we can add those features without needing more information.  For that reason alone, I think it is important that we adopt some IPA-based standard.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
> ----
> yeah... dunno about the jargon file... the question is: is it used in linguistics? 
------
Feature_requests|990467318
15a16
> * I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later. There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely. Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as Cien anos de soledad. Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand. And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?--KoyaanisQatsi
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990467381
11c11
< ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of the death of Aunt May or of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane, not to mention the whole "clone" business....
---
> ''this could still use fleshing out....  :-)  no mention of the death of Aunt May or of Gwen Stacy, or even his marriage to Mary Jane, not to mention the whole "clone" business....''
13c13
< Also, I didn't add the image which was probably copyrighted; but thanks for taking it down.  I did recently e-mail the people at King Features and Marvel Comics asking if there *were* any images in the public domain, though, since Spider-Man is I think a trademark, I wouldn't expect it. --KoyaanisQatsi''
---
> ''Also, I didn't add the image which was probably copyrighted; but thanks for taking it down.  I did recently (May 21) e-mail the people at King Features and Marvel Comics asking if there'' were ''any images in the public domain.  But, since Spider-Man is I think a trademark, I wouldn't expect it.... Awaiting a response --KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Feature_requests|990467407
16c16
< * I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later. There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely. Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as Cien anos de soledad. Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand. And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?--KoyaanisQatsi
---
> * I think a way should be worked out to allow non-english characters in article names; otherwise it will become a thorny issue later. There are, of course, cases where the absence of an accent, tilde, or umlaut changes a meaning completely. Imagine the unintential hilarity of entries such as <i>Cien anos de soledad.</i> Also, it may eventually cause confusion over names, thought I can't think of any examples right offhand. And, as a courtesy, could we translate "edit text of this page," "RecentChanges," "HomePage," etc. to the appropriate language for each non-English branch?--KoyaanisQatsi
------
Language/Talk|990467647
18c18,21
< yeah... dunno about the jargon file... the question is: is it used in linguistics? 
---
> yeah... dunno about the jargon file... the question is: is it used in linguistics? 
> 
> ----
> No, it would be wholly inadequate for that; it's just a simple ad-hoc.  I only mention it to say that it would br appropriate to use in some contexts (notably the jargon file itself, which describes jargon to English-speakers who aren't linguists.  Surely we will need a more complete IPA-based system for linguistics articles in general, but that doesn't rule out the use of simpler methods for other uses. --LDC
------
Axiom|990467731
29a30,31
> 
> /Talk
------
Language/Talk|990467735
21c21
< No, it would be wholly inadequate for that; it's just a simple ad-hoc.  I only mention it to say that it would br appropriate to use in some contexts (notably the jargon file itself, which describes jargon to English-speakers who aren't linguists.  Surely we will need a more complete IPA-based system for linguistics articles in general, but that doesn't rule out the use of simpler methods for other uses. --LDC
---
> No, it would be wholly inadequate for that; it's just a simple ad-hoc.  I only mention it to say that it would br appropriate to use in some contexts (notably the jargon file itself, which describes jargon to English-speakers who aren't linguists).  Surely we will need a more complete IPA-based system for linguistics articles in general, but that doesn't rule out the use of simpler methods for other uses. --LDC
------
Axiom/Talk|990467764
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :In the twentieth century, the grand goal of finding a "true" and "universal" set of axioms was shown to be a hopeless dream by [[Kurt Godel|G&ouml;del]] and others.
> 
> That's not what G&ouml;del showed.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
Mean|990468040
1,5d0
< 1. ''a'' Evil or illhearted.
< 
< 2. ''n'' Average, a statistical measure, explained below.
< 
< ----
------
Thomas_Hobbes|990468116
2,3c2,3
< 
< Hobbes also gave name to the [[comic strip]] [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
---
> ----
> See also the entry about the [[comic strip]] [[Calvin and Hobbes]].
------
Horseshoe|990468153
7c7
< First, the added weight of a human or of pack loads...
---
> First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads, and second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.
8a9
> In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly larg, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rock...
------
Comic_strip|990468259
77c77
< ''Someone knowledgeable enough about them could create alternative schemes and link to them from this page, like the alternate category schemes available, but not on the front page.  I'm not that person though.  ;-)''--KoyaanisQatsi
---
> Someone knowledgeable enough about them could create alternative schemes and link to them from this page.  I'm not that person though.  ;-) --KoyaanisQatsi
------
Axiom/Talk|990468417
3c3,6
< That's not what G&ouml;del showed.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> That's not what G&ouml;del showed.  :-) --[[LMS]]
> 
> ----
> Well, that's a reasonable paraphrase of what he showed, which was that no set of axioms sufficiently large for ordinary mathematics could be both (1) complete, i.e., capable of proving every truth; and (2) consistent, i.e., never proving an untruth.  Or to put it yet another way, there must exist some assertions that are true but unprovable.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990468814
36a37
> Toan: I just checked the RecentChanges and tried to change something on it, it's fine now.  I'm not sure why it didn't work before.
------
International_Wikipedia|990468903
37c37
< Toan: I just checked the RecentChanges and tried to change something on it, it's fine now.  I'm not sure why it didn't work before.
---
> Toan: I just checked the [[http://es.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?RecentChanges RecentChanges link at the Spanish branch]] and tried to change something on it, it's fine now.  I'm not sure why it didn't work before.
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990469302
5c5
< Originally Peter Parker had no intention of becoming a superhero, but after his Uncle Ben was murdered by a thief that Spider-man (then working as a professional wrestler) had let escape, Peter Parker developed the axiom that "with great power comes great responsibility," and decided to put his talents to work fighting injustice.  Some of his main enemies have been the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Kraven, Venom, and at times, The Punisher.
---
> Originally Peter Parker had no intention of becoming a superhero, but after his Uncle Ben was murdered by a thief that Spider-man (then working as a professional wrestler) had let escape, Peter Parker developed the axiom that "with great power comes great responsibility," and decided to put his talents to work fighting injustice.  Some of his main enemies have been the Green Goblin, the Hobgoblin, Kraven, Venom, The Kingpin, and at times, The Punisher.
------
International_Wikipedia|990470647
37a38,39
> ----
> On de.wikipedia links are not displayed the way they should be. Links to pages made in the last two weeks or so are dtill displayed as edit link (i.e. as though the page still wouldn't exist). The Film link on Home Page is just one example. Can anyone please fix this? It is really difficult to use de.wikipedia as long as this is not working... -SoniC
------
Horseshoe|990470735
5c5
< Since the early history of man's domestication and use of horses, a pair of factors have contributed to the need for the bottoms of the horse's feet (hooves) to have additional protection over and above their natural hardness.
---
> Since the early history of man's domestication and use of horses, three factors have contributed to the need for the bottoms of the horse's feet (hooves) to have additional protection over and above their natural hardness.
7c7
< First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads, and second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.
---
> First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads; second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed and third, the fact that love food eaten in the wild is nutritionally superior for the purpose of building strong hooves.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.  Live grasses, weeds and shrubs are high in nutrients such as beta carotene.  Man-raised feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting, as so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of horn, much as the human finger nail, and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
9c9,11
< In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly larg, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rock...
---
> In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot becasue of inadequately thick and hard sole material.  Man has sought to remedy this lack with suppplemental support and armor, beginning in the earliest days with rawhide boots which could be tied onto the hoof.  Since that time, man developed metal shoes nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall. Modernly, these nails are applied so as to enter the sole of the foot very near the edge, and at an angle which causes them to protrude through the hoof wall, where they are then bent over, cut off and "clinched" to hold in the hoof wall.
> 
> Advances in technology and materials have led to shoes which can be glued to the bottom of the foot, and which are composed of tough, but yeilding materials and so cushion ground impacts without adding rigidity or excessive weight to the foot, and without requiring nail holes.  Typically such applications respond to special needs or medical problems of a given animal, and are not routine.  Iron is still favored as the most desired material for horse shoes, because the rigidity which it provides protects the hoof against certain types of injury (such as [[heel shear]]) which other materials do not protect against.
------
Horseshoe|990470798
7c7
< First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads; second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed and third, the fact that love food eaten in the wild is nutritionally superior for the purpose of building strong hooves.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.  Live grasses, weeds and shrubs are high in nutrients such as beta carotene.  Man-raised feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting, as so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of horn, much as the human finger nail, and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
---
> First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads; second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed and third, the fact that live food eaten in the wild is nutritionally superior for the purpose of building strong hooves.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.  Live grasses, weeds and shrubs are high in nutrients such as beta carotene.  Man-raised feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting, as so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of horn, much as the human finger nail, and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
------
Horseshoe|990470942
12c12
< (to be continued)
---
> 
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|990471575
162a163,164
> 
> ----<B> Q. In regards to the [[Amazing Spider-man]] entry, specifically about the picture which was in it briefly:  One of the public relations people I contacted has been rather prompt in response, and has said that all of the images of Spider-Man are copyrighted and none of them are in the public domain.  For that reason, I would have to conclude that we can not put any image of Spider-Man on the site, even with a disclaimer about its use, as it would conflict with the original purpose of Wikipedia, which is to provide content which can be reused and reproduced both freely and for free.  Is this conclusion correct? --KoyaanisQatsi</b>
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|990471778
164c164
< ----<B> Q. In regards to the [[Amazing Spider-man]] entry, specifically about the picture which was in it briefly:  One of the public relations people I contacted has been rather prompt in response, and has said that all of the images of Spider-Man are copyrighted and none of them are in the public domain.  For that reason, I would have to conclude that we can not put any image of Spider-Man on the site, even with a disclaimer about its use, as it would conflict with the original purpose of Wikipedia, which is to provide content which can be reused and reproduced both freely and for free.  Is this conclusion correct? --KoyaanisQatsi</b>
---
> ----<B> Q. In regards to the [[Amazing Spider-Nan]] entry, specifically about the picture which was in it briefly:  One of the public relations people I contacted has been rather prompt in response, and has said that all of the images of Spider-Man are copyrighted and none of them are in the public domain.  For that reason, I would have to conclude that we can not put any image of Spider-Man on the site, even with a disclaimer about its use, as it would conflict with the original purpose of Wikipedia (to provide content which can be reused and reproduced both freely and for free).  Is this conclusion correct? --KoyaanisQatsi</b>
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990472159
23c23,25
< I think the practical solution will be to encourage people to give at least one fact that is more than just a definition about the thing defined.  At least one.  :-) That's what I might do (i.e., encourage that)--but, again, I am just giving my opinion.  Remember, this is a wiki. --[[LMS]]
---
> I think the practical solution will be to encourage people to give at least one fact that is more than just a definition about the thing defined.  At least one.  :-) That's what I might do (i.e., encourage that)--but, again, I am just giving my opinion.  Remember, this is a wiki. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> E.G.  The Horseshoe article started as a definition.  I added background data.  It is far from complete - a good deal more could be said and explained.  However, anyone not trained in horse-related  matters could put the definition and further state "Horseshoes are applied for the purpose of protecting the horse hoof from sharp and hard surfaces." or some such, and leave it to some self-styled specialist to come along behind and flesh out the article.  It just meas a smidgen more effort and attention - something/anything beyond a bare definition...
------
World_Series_of_Poker|990473307
3,5c3
< The series consists of many events of different [[poker variant]]s, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event.  The 2001 series will have 25 events held from April 20 to May 18.  The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000.  The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's.
< 
< In April of 2001, Binion's casino barred two world-class players, Paul Phillips and Richard Tatalovich (the current United States champion at the time), from the casino apparently in retaliation for negative comments they made about the casino to a Las Vegas newspaper.  This prompted some other notable tournament players to boycott the event, so many players will be less inclined to value the results of that year.
---
> The series consists of many events of different [[poker variant]]s, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event.  The 2001 series had 25 events held from April 20 to May 18.  The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000.  The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's.
9c7
< The leading money winner in World Series history is T.J. Cloutier, who has finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".
---
> Until 2001, the leading money winner in World Series history is T. J. Cloutier, who finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance".  In 2001, Phil Hellmuth's 7th bracelet and 5th place finish in the final event moved him ahead of Cloutier.
11c9
< Historical highlights include Jack Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Stu Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine.
---
> Other historical highlights include Jack Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Stu Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine.
23,52c21
< * 1970 Johnny Moss (awarded by peer vote)
< * 1971 Johnny Moss (won in competition, as are all subsequent)
< * 1972 "Amarillo Slim" Preston
< * 1973 Puggy Pearson
< * 1974 Johnny Moss
< * 1975 Sailor Roberts
< * 1976 Doyle Brunson
< * 1977 Doyle Brunson
< * 1978 Bobby Baldwin
< * 1979 Hal Fowler
< * 1980 Stu Ungar
< * 1981 Stu Ungar
< * 1982 Jack Strauss
< * 1983 Tom <nowiki>McEvoy</nowiki>
< * 1984 Jack Kellar
< * 1985 Bill Smith
< * 1986 Berry Johnston
< * 1987 Johnny Chan
< * 1988 Johnny Chan
< * 1989 Phil Helmuth, Jr.
< * 1990 Mansour Matloubi
< * 1991 Brad Daugherty
< * 1992 Hamid Dastmalchi
< * 1993 Jim Bechtel
< * 1994 Russ Hamilton
< * 1995 Dan Harrington
< * 1996 Huck Seed
< * 1997 Stu Ungar
< * 1998 Scotty Nguyen
< * 1999 Noel Furlong
---
> * 2001 Carlos Mortenson
53a23,52
> * 1999 Noel Furlong
> * 1998 Scotty Nguyen
> * 1997 Stu Ungar
> * 1996 Huck Seed
> * 1995 Dan Harrington
> * 1994 Russ Hamilton
> * 1993 Jim Bechtel
> * 1992 Hamid Dastmalchi
> * 1991 Brad Daugherty
> * 1990 Mansour Matloubi
> * 1989 Phil Helmuth, Jr.
> * 1988 Johnny Chan
> * 1987 Johnny Chan
> * 1986 Berry Johnston
> * 1985 Bill Smith
> * 1984 Jack Kellar
> * 1983 Tom <nowiki>McEvoy</nowiki>
> * 1982 Jack Strauss
> * 1981 Stu Ungar
> * 1980 Stu Ungar
> * 1979 Hal Fowler
> * 1978 Bobby Baldwin
> * 1977 Doyle Brunson
> * 1976 Doyle Brunson
> * 1975 Sailor Roberts
> * 1974 Johnny Moss
> * 1973 Puggy Pearson
> * 1972 "Amarillo Slim" Preston
> * 1971 Johnny Moss (won in competition, as are all subsequent)
> * 1970 Johnny Moss (awarded by peer vote)
------
International_Wikipedia|990473320
11a12
> : Those lines come from a configuration file that the public can't access (I beleive).  Send translations to mailto:jasonr@bomis.com, and I will update them.
39c40
< On de.wikipedia links are not displayed the way they should be. Links to pages made in the last two weeks or so are dtill displayed as edit link (i.e. as though the page still wouldn't exist). The Film link on Home Page is just one example. Can anyone please fix this? It is really difficult to use de.wikipedia as long as this is not working... -SoniC
---
> On de.wikipedia links are not displayed the way they should be. Links to pages made in the last two weeks or so are dtill displayed as edit link (i.e. as though the page still wouldn't exist). The Film link on Home Page is just one example. Can anyone please fix this? It is really difficult to use de.wikipedia as long as this is not working... -SoniC
------
International_Wikipedia|990473757
38a39
> :''It still doesn't work, sorry.  :-)  It doesn't keep track of minor edits. --KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Roberto_Baggio|990473810
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Roberto Baggio (born: Feb/18/1967, Italy) was one of the best football players in the world through out the 1990s. He played in best European teams as Fiorentina and Juventus. Baggio's major "World Cup" was in 1994 in the United States. After a successful tournament, he missed a penalty in the shoot-out in the final match against [[Brazil]] and consecutively Brazil became the world champion for the fourth time. 
>  
------
Monastir|990473974
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Previous Turkish name of [[Bitola]].
------
Bitola|990474372
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bitola (in Serbian Bitolj, formerly Monastir) is a city in present day [[Macedonia]]. It was a major city during the [[Roman Empire]]. Later it was settled by Slavs and in 1395 it was conquered by [[Ottoman Empire]], which made the city a major military and commercial center. The Serbians took the city from the Ottoman Empire during [[Balkan Wars]].
------
International_Wikipedia|990474446
24a25,26
> 
> :I take full responsibility for having caused such massive protest.  I just picked a bunch of languages.  I didn't follow the discussions that took place, I just responded to the JobRequest that I received.  Many apologies.  I'll get the Swedish wiki running within the hour.  I'll make it available as any of {sve,swe,sv,swedish,svensk}.wikipedia.com
------
JobRequest|990474539
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Larry has the ability to submit a JobRequest to the bomis programmers.  The request details what Larry wants.  Programmers get to these requests as quickly as there busy schedules allow.
------
Axiom|990474646
25c25,26
< Probably the most famous very early set of axiom are the 4+1 postulates of [[Euclid]].  I say 4+1 since the 5th postulate (through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected to be derivable from the first 4 for nearly two millenia.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infintely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.  The [[General Relativity|general theory of relativity]] is essentially a claim that mass gives space hyperbolic geometry.  
---
> Probably the most famous very early set of axiom are the 4+1 postulates of [[Euclid]].  These turn out to be fairly incomplete, actually, and many more postulates are necessary to completely characterize his geometry (Hilbert used 23).  
> I say 4+1 since the 5th postulate (through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel) was suspected to be derivable from the first 4 for nearly two millenia.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infintely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to less than, exactly or more than a straight line respectively and are known as elliptic, Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries.  The [[General Relativity|general theory of relativity]] is essentially a claim that mass gives space hyperbolic geometry.  
31c32
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Axiom/Talk|990475071
6a7,11
> 
> ----
> 
> Hey... I was just following the style guidelines that said that I should leave something hanging!
> (I still stand be the statement that Incompleteness can be colloquially said to imply that there is no universal and true set of axioms.  There are definitely complete and consistent systems such as real arithmetic, but they lack the power of, say, integer arithmetic and thus can be said not to be universal.  Another way to read what I was saying is that Principia was a hopeless task and not just because of a few paradoxes that might someday be weaseled around. -- [[TedDunning]]
------
Wathiik|990475288
1c1,3
< Hey, just wanted to welcome you to [[Wikipedia]] and thank you especially for your changes to [[Greek alphabet]].
---
> Hey, just wanted to welcome you to [[Wikipedia]] and thank you especially for your changes to [[Greek alphabet]].
> 
> Those changes aren't done yet by any stretch.  I will be making more of them as time allows.  By the way are you the person who referred to an old Semitic letter Kap zuruck?  If so, do you know the English equivalent of this phrase?  I can think of several translations, but I don't know the English term of art.  -- [[TedDunning]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990475303
3c3
< <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)]</b>
---
> <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://sv.wikipedia.com/ Swedish]</b>
------
International_Wikipedia|990475343
3c3
< <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://sv.wikipedia.com/ Swedish]</b>
---
> <b>[http://ca.wikipedia.com/ Catalan (Catalana)] -- [http://zh.wikipedia.com/ Chinese] -- [http://eo.wikipedia.com/ Esperanto] -- [http://fr.wikipedia.com/ French (Francais)] -- [http://de.wikipedia.com/ German (Deutsch)] --- [http://he.wikipedia.com/ Hebrew] -- [http://it.wikipedia.com/ Italian (Italiano)] -- [http://ja.wikipedia.com/ Japanese (Nihongo)] -- [http://pt.wikipedia.com/ Portuguese (Português)] -- [http://ru.wikipedia.com/ Russian (Russkiy)] -- [http://es.wikipedia.com/ Spanish (Español)] -- [http://sv.wikipedia.com/ Swedish (Svensk)]</b>
------
Axiom/Talk|990475352
11a12,13
> 
> What do you mean by real arithmetic?  Not arithmetic of real numbers, surely, because that includes integer arithmetic as a subset and so is just as powerful.
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990475625
49a50,53
> 
> ----
> 
> Your edits on my pages to do with MusicMatch are entirely welcome.  When I wrote it, I knew that it might be subject to editing and the denizens of a place know the norms much better than a newcomer.  The entry is still accurate and still has the link, without which it would be hard to define me right now (pawn that I am). -- [[TedDunning]]
------
JasonR|990475806
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> JasonR, a.k.a. Jason Richey, is one of the bomis programmers who will periodically do some programming for Nupedia.  He has a history of saying the wrong things at the wrong times in the wrong places for the wrong reasons, but he always means well.  You'll find that he is quite receptive to constructive criticism, but not nearly as receptive to angry words and threats.  You can reach him at mailto:jasonr@bomis.com.  If you are sending anything that you want put on the internet, be sure to tell him where it belongs.  He would like to apologize ahead of time for anything inapropriate that he may say. 
------
International_Wikipedia|990475907
36a37,38
> 
> I made this change in the configuration files.  I don't know if it is now working or not.  Anybody?  -- JasonR
------
Trojan_War|990476202
1c1
< Trojan war is a famous and legendary Greek siege of the city Troy (or Troas), presumably towards the ends of the second millenium BC. Troy was located on the close vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] strait in present-day [[Turkey]]. The war is supposed to be initiated by the strong desire to capture the wealthy city and gain the control of Dardanelles, which had strategic and commercial importance in ancient ages. Both Persian and Greek armies (including that of Alexander the Great) used this route to dominate Near Asia. 
---
> Trojan war is a famous and legendary Greek siege of the city Troy (or Troas), located on the close vicinity of the [[Dardanelles]] strait in present-day [[Turkey]].  The war took place around 1200 BC, when cities all across the eastern Meditteranean were being destroyed by various attackers - including those of the Achaeans, so despite the version remembered in [[Greek mythology]] the city was more likely taken by northern Greeks.  The city itself was wealthy and had control of the Dradanelles, a point of great strategic and commercial importance - both Persian and Greek armies had used this route to dominate the area - so was a prime target.
------
International_Wikipedia|990476308
43a44
> :Apparently, minor edits are not supposed to go into the RecentChanges page.  You mark them 'minor' because you don't want people to think that the page has been changed significantly enough to warrant another look.  If you want it to be in RecentChanges, your best bet is not to mark it as a minor edit.  --JasonR
------
Axiom/Talk|990476331
13c13,18
< What do you mean by real arithmetic?  Not arithmetic of real numbers, surely, because that includes integer arithmetic as a subset and so is just as powerful.
---
> What do you mean by real arithmetic?  Not arithmetic of real numbers, surely, because that includes integer arithmetic as a subset and so is just as powerful.  -- [[Josh Grosse]]
> 
> Actually, real arithmetic does not include integer arithmetic as a subset.  The reals include the integers, but logical systems built on the two fields are not equivalent.  In particular, real arithmetic is generally taken as not including comparison while integer arithmetic has comparison.  The exclusion of comparison is generally due to the complexity of the definitions of the reals.  The completeness of the real system was proved (I think) by either Banach or Tarski in the middle of the twentieth century.  
> 
> My own personal view is that Incompleteness is just a guise of the Halting problem.  Since you can solve the Halting problem with real arithmetic where the reals are defined using bit-strings and you are allowed to look at and compare a finite prefix of any real.  The trick is that the algorithm requires an initial condition that is not a computable real (TANSTAAFL!) -- TedDunning
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|990476377
44c44
< :Apparently, minor edits are not supposed to go into the RecentChanges page.  You mark them 'minor' because you don't want people to think that the page has been changed significantly enough to warrant another look.  If you want it to be in RecentChanges, your best bet is not to mark it as a minor edit.  --JasonR
---
> :Apparently, minor edits are not supposed to go into the RecentChanges page.  You mark them 'minor' because you don't want people to think that the page has been changed significantly enough to warrant another look.  If you want it to be in RecentChanges, your best bet is not to mark it as a minor edit.  --JasonR-
------
Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test|990476770
13,15c13
< See http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda35g.htm for a lovely explanation of the one-sided KS test and http://www.io.com/~ritter/JAVASCRP/NORMCHIK.HTM for Javascript code that implements both the one-sided and two-sided tests.  As always, Numerical Recipes is a prime resource for this sort of thing (see http://www.nr.com/nronline_switcher.html or 
< 
< Note that when the underlying independent variable is cyclic as with day of the year or day of the week, then [[Kuiper Test|Kuiper's test]] is more appropriate.  ''Note: Kuiper is pronounced Cowper in Dutch''
---
> See http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda35g.htm for a lovely explanation of the one-sided KS test and http://www.io.com/~ritter/JAVASCRP/NORMCHIK.HTM for Javascript code that implements both the one-sided and two-sided tests.  As always, Numerical Recipes ISBN: 0521431085 is a prime resource for this sort of thing (see http://www.nr.com/nronline_switcher.html for a discussion.
16a15
> Note that when the underlying independent variable is cyclic as with day of the year or day of the week, then [[Kuiper Test|Kuiper's test]] is more appropriate.  Numerical Recipes is again a good source of information on this.  ''Note: Kuiper is pronounced Cowper in Dutch''.  
------
Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test|990477044
15c15
< Note that when the underlying independent variable is cyclic as with day of the year or day of the week, then [[Kuiper Test|Kuiper's test]] is more appropriate.  Numerical Recipes is again a good source of information on this.  ''Note: Kuiper is pronounced Cowper in Dutch''.  
---
> Note that when the underlying independent variable is cyclic as with day of the year or day of the week, then [[Kuiper Test|Kuiper's test]] is more appropriate.  Numerical Recipes is again a good source of information on this.  ''Note: Kuiper is pronounced in Dutch the way an English persion would pronounce Cowper''.  
------
Guglielmo_Marconi|990477299
1c1
< Italian-born founder of the [[Marconi]] corporation.  The 1909 receiver of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].
---
> Italian-born founder of the [[Marconi corporation]].  The 1909 recipient of the [[NobelPrize/PhysicS|Nobel Prize for physics]].  Although many scientists and inventors contributed to the invention of [[wireless telegraphy]], including [[Hans Christian Oersted|Ørsted]], [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[Heinrich Hertz|Hertz]], [[Nikola Tesla|Tesla]], [[Thomas Alva Edison|Edison]], and others, Marconi's was the first practical system to achieve widespread use, so he is often credited as the "father of radio".
3,9c3
< Guglielmo Marconi is frequently and incorrectly said to be the inventor of radio, as opposed to Nikola Tesla, whose technology, theories, and patents were used by Marconi in the development of his system.  
< 
< ----
< With most major technological devices, the claim that "person A invented device B" is usually at least an oversimplification, and radio is no exception.  What we call "radio" today bears little resemblance to the devices that came out in Marconi's time.  As far back as Faraday and Hertz in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s.  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi's patent in 1896 was not a particularly remarkable development at the time (it primarily made use of the "coherer" invented by Branly in 1892), though his later contributions were significant improvements.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 Nobel for "contributions to the development of vireless telegraphy".  The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist Reginald Aubrey Fessenden.
< 
< A good source is the book ''Syntony and Spark: the Origins of Radio'', Hugh G. J. Aitken, ISBN 0471018163.
< --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
---
> [[/Talk]]
------
Guglielmo_Marconi/Talk|990477524
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> With most major technological devices, the claim that "person A invented device B" is usually at least an oversimplification, and radio is no exception.  What we call "radio" today bears little resemblance to the devices that came out in Marconi's time.  As far back as Faraday and Hertz in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s.  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi's patent in 1896 was not a particularly remarkable development at the time (it primarily made use of the "coherer" invented by Branly in 1892), though his later contributions were significant improvements.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 Nobel for "contributions to the development of vireless telegraphy".  The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist Reginald Aubrey Fessenden.
> 
> A good source is the book ''Syntony and Spark: the Origins of Radio'', Hugh G. J. Aitken, ISBN 0471018163.
> --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
> I removed a comment here that replaced the common misattribution of Marconi with the misattribution of Tesla, which was no improvement.  Also, the common word for someone who receives a prize is "recipient" rather than "receiver", but for some reason I hesitated before replacing it in this case... :-)
> 
------
Guglielmo_Marconi/Talk|990477563
6c6
< I removed a comment here that replaced the common misattribution of Marconi with the misattribution of Tesla, which was no improvement.  Also, the common word for someone who receives a prize is "recipient" rather than "receiver", but for some reason I hesitated before replacing it in this case... :-)
---
> I removed a comment here that replaced the common misattribution of Marconi with the misattribution of Tesla, which was no improvement (see [[Lee Daniel Crocker/The Myth of the Lone Inventor]].  Also, the common word for someone who receives a prize is "recipient" rather than "receiver", but for some reason I hesitated before replacing it in this case... :-)
------
Kolmogorov_Smirnoff_Test|990477657
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Kolmogorov Smirnov Test]]
------
Kuiper_Test|990477687
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> '''Kuiper's Test''' is closely related to the more well-known [[Kolmogorov Smirnov Test]] (or K-S test as it is often called).  As with the K-S test, the quantities D<sup>+</sup> and D<sup>-</sup> are computed which represent the maximum deviation above and below of the two cumulative distributions being compared.  The trick with Kuiper's test is to use the quantity D<sup>+</sup> + D<sup>-</sup> as the test statistic.  This small change makes Kuiper's test as sensitive in the tails as at the median and also makes it invariant on cyclic transformations of the independent variable.  The [[Anderson Darlington Test]] is another test that provides equal sensitivity at the tails as the median, but it does not provide the cyclic invariance.
> 
> This invariance makes Kuiper's test invaluable when testing for variations by time of year or day of the week or time of day.  One example would be to test the hypothesis that computers fail more in some parts of the year than others.  To test this, we would collect the dates on which the test set of computers had failed and build a cumulative distribution.  The null hypothesis is that the failures are uniformly distributed.  Kuiper's statistic does not change if we change the beginning of the year and doesn't require that we bin failures into months or anything like that.
> 
> A test like this would, however, tend to miss the fact that failures occur only on weekends since weekends are spread throughtout the year.  This inability to distinguish distributions with a comb-like shape from continuous distributions is a key problem with all statistics based on a variant of the K-S test.
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990477975
1,3c1
< Wireless telegraphy is the art of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  Using technology developed exclusively by Nikola Tesla years earlier, practical use of wireless telegraphy was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896.  A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.
< 
< Early radio could not transfer sounds, only the clicks of [[Morse code]].  Read more about [[Radio/History]].
---
> Wireless telegraphy is the practice of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  The first practical system to acheive widespread use was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896, though it had roots in earlier work by many scientists and inventors.  As far back as [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]] and [[Heinrich Hertz|Hertz]] in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s, many based on the work of [[Nikola Tesla|Tesla]].  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".
4a3
> A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.  Early radio could not transfer sounds, only the clicks of [[Morse code]].  Read more about [[Radio/History]].  The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist [[Reginald Aubrey Fessenden]].
5a5
> A good source of history is the book ''Syntony and Spark: the Origins of Radio'', Hugh G. J. Aitken, ISBN 0471018163.
------
Radio|990478051
3c3
< The original inventor of the radio is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  Read more about radio's [[/History]].
---
> The original inventor of the radio, at the time called [[wireless telegraphy]], is contentious, but some key developments in its early history were patented by [[Guglielmo Marconi]].  Its early uses were naval, for sending [[morse code]] messages between ships and land.  Read more about radio's [[/History]].
------
Telegraphy|990478219
3c3
< The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  The [[electrical telegraph]] was invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], and quickly deployed in the following two decades.  Nikola Tesla showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]] or [[radio]].
---
> The first [[telegraph]]s where [[optical telegraph|optical]], including the use of [[smoke signals]] and [[beacon]]s, already in ancient times.  An [[electrical telegraph]] invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]], who also developed the [[Morse code]] signalling [[alphabet]], was quickly deployed in the following two decades.  [[Nikola Tesla]] and other scientists and inventors showed the usefulness of [[wireless telegraphy]], or [[radio]], beginning in the 1860s.
------
Electrical_telegraph|990478574
1c1
< A [[telegraph]] that uses electric signals.  Invented in the 1830s by [[Samuel Morse]].
---
> A [[telegraph]] that uses electric signals.  Though some systems such as the British "needle" telegraph were in use by the 1830s, the first practical system was built in 1844 [[Samuel Morse]], capable of using poor quality wire over long distances.  Morse also create the [[Morse code]] for use on the device.
------
International_Wikipedia|990478907
44a45
> :''No, that's not it exactly, though it made me realize what the problem was.  Each language Wikipedia has its own preferences and sets its own cookies, independently of the others.  I can see the minor edits now, after changing the Preferences from es.wikipedia.com.- -KoyaanisQatsi.''
------
Linnaean_taxonomy|990479215
11a12,70
> 
> The five kingdom view has largely been supplanted by the three domain view in modern taxonomic work.  This was precipitated by the discovery of the Archaea.  In one version of the three domain view (that taken by the NCBI taxonomy http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/taxonomyhome.html site), the following domains are the fundamental division with sub-divisions as indicated.  Basically, what happens is that the old five kingdom stuff gets rearranged between Archaea, Prokaryotes and all Eukaryotes.  Eukaryotes gets divided into many bits with the plants as we usually think of them going into one area, the algae going many different places, the fungi into a few places and animals getting put into a separate group with a few single celled items.
> 
> * Domain [[Archaea]]
> :Crenarchaeota (extremely thermophilic archaebacteria) 
> :Euryarchaeota 
> :Korarchaeota 
> :unclassified Archaea 
> * Domain [[Bacteria]] (i.e. Eubacteria or true bacteria)
> :Aquificales
> :CFB/Green sulfur bacteria group 
> :Chlamydiales/Verrucomicrobia group 
> :Chrysiogenes group 
> :Coprothermobacter group 
> :Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) 
> :Dictyoglomus group 
> :Fibrobacter/Acidobacteria group 
> :Firmicutes (gram-positive bacteria) 
> :Flexistipes group 
> :Fusobacteria 
> :Green non-sulfur bacteria 
> :Nitrospira group 
> :Nitrospira group 
> :Proteobacteria
> :Spirochaetales
> :Synergistes group 
> :Thermodesulfobacterium group 
> :Thermotogales
> :Thermus/Deinococcus group 
> :unclassified Bacteria 
> 
> * Domain [[Eukaryota]]
> :Acanthamoebidae 
> :Acantharea 
> :Alveolata (alveolates) 
> :Cercozoa 
> :core jakobids 
> :Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) 
> :Diplomonadida (diplomonads) 
> :Entamoebidae 
> :Euglenozoa 
> :Fungi/Metazoa group 
> :Glaucocystophyceae 
> :Granuloreticulosea 
> :Haptophyceae
> :Heterolobosea 
> :Lobosea 
> :Malawimonadidae 
> :Microsporidia 
> :Mycetozoa 
> :Oxymonadida 
> :Parabasalidea (parabasalids) 
> :Paramyxea 
> :Plasmodiophorida 
> :Polycystinea 
> :Rhodophyta (red algae) 
> :stramenopiles (heterokonts) 
> :Viridiplantae (green plants) 
> :unclassified eukaryotes 
------
Amazing_Spider-Man|990479225
13c13,15
< ''Also, I didn't add the image which was probably copyrighted; but thanks for taking it down.  I did recently (May 21) e-mail the people at King Features and Marvel Comics asking if there'' were ''any images in the public domain.  But, since Spider-Man is I think a trademark, I wouldn't expect it.... Awaiting a response --KoyaanisQatsi''
---
> ''Also, I didn't add the image which was probably copyrighted; but thanks for taking it down.  I did recently (May 21) e-mail the people at King Features and Marvel Comics asking if there'' were ''any images in the public domain.  But, since Spider-Man is I think a trademark, I wouldn't expect it.... Awaiting a response''
> 
> (later) ''I've gotten a rather prompt response from one of the public relations people, who has assured me that to his knowledge no image of Spider-Man is in the public domain.  Question about this at [[Wikipedia FAQ]]--KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Wikipedia_FAQ|990479276
164c164
< ----<B> Q. In regards to the [[Amazing Spider-Nan]] entry, specifically about the picture which was in it briefly:  One of the public relations people I contacted has been rather prompt in response, and has said that all of the images of Spider-Man are copyrighted and none of them are in the public domain.  For that reason, I would have to conclude that we can not put any image of Spider-Man on the site, even with a disclaimer about its use, as it would conflict with the original purpose of Wikipedia (to provide content which can be reused and reproduced both freely and for free).  Is this conclusion correct? --KoyaanisQatsi</b>
---
> ----<B> Q. In regards to the [[Amazing Spider-Man]] entry, specifically about the picture which was in it briefly:  One of the public relations people I contacted has been rather prompt in response, and has said that all of the images of Spider-Man are copyrighted and none of them are in the public domain.  For that reason, I would have to conclude that we can not put any image of Spider-Man on the site, even with a disclaimer about its use, as it would conflict with the original purpose of Wikipedia (to provide content which can be reused and reproduced both freely and for free).  Is this conclusion correct? --KoyaanisQatsi</b>
------
Automated_Alice/XII|990479308
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
> 
> [[/XI|Previous Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/XI|990479319
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Dorothy, Dorothy and Dorothy
> 
> [[/X|Previous Chapter]] [[/XII|Next Chapter]]
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Automated_Alice/X|990479324
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Snakes and leaders
> 
> [[/IX|Previous Chapter]] [[/XI|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/IX|990479326
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Hunting of the Quark
> 
> [[/XIII|Previous Chapter]] [[/X|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/VIII|990479330
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alice Looks up Herself
> 
> [[/VII|Previous Chapter]] [[/IX|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/VI|990479338
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Languishing in Gaol
> 
> [[/V|Previous Chapter]] [[/VII|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/VII|990479334
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Stroke of Noon
> 
> [[/VI|Previous Chapter]] [[/VIII|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/V|990479342
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Long Paw of the Law
> 
> [[/IV|Previous Chapter]] [[/VI|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/IV|990479346
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Adventures in a Garden Shed
> 
> [[/III|Previous Chapter]] [[/V|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/II|990479353
1c1,21
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Wriggling of a Worm
> 
> Well it turns out that Alice wasn't amongst giant termites, but had actually shrunk down to [[/Computermite|computermite]] size.
> And what's more, the many billions and trillions of termites were working as a [[computer]] of some kind for [[/Captain Ramshackle|Captain Ramshackle]]. He'd set them a question and they'd run about and work out the answer and display it using the [[/Beanery|beanery]] system.
> 
> So what was the question Cpatain Ramshackle had set?
> 
> <i>"Which number, when multiplied by itself, will give the answer minus one."</i>
> 
> Of course it doesn't have an answer and the Captain knew this but was trying to trick the computermites into getting him a free bottle of milk.
> 
> Well the computermites left the mound to give the Captain his answer but he keenly spotted the ant, sorry, termite sized Alice and picked her up,
> 
> <i>"What have we here? I do believe I've got a [[/Wurm|wurm]] in my computermite mound!"</i>
> 
> Taking the captured Alice to a microscope he quickly saw that she was in fact a small, that is, miniscule, <i>girl</i>!
> Alice figured that seeing as she had travelled into the clocks workings and grown smaller, she might travel up through the microscope to grow large again, which she did and promptyly fainted!
> ----
> '''SECOND HALF TO DO -[[Neeklamy]]'''
> 
> [[/I|Previous Chapter]] [[/III|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/I|990479358
1c1,24
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Through The Clock's Workings
> 
> Ever been to [[Manchester]] (village), [[England]]? No, probably not, not much happens there - very <i>country</i>, contrary to what [[Mark and Lard|others]] would have everyone believe. Anyway, it rains there, it rains a lot[[/Ellipsis|...] a lot!
> 
> That's just what [[/Alice]] was thinking one afternoon whilst staying with her [[/Great Aunt Ermintrude|Great Aunt Ermintrude]] and [[/Great Uncle Mortimer|Great Uncle Mortimer]]. That and the impending lesson that her Aunt was about to give her, just what <i>is</i> an [[/Ellipsis|ellipsis]] anyway? and why should Alice care...
> 
> Not only that, but the [[jigsaw puzzle]] of [[London Zoo]] that she'd been working on all afternoon turned out to be lacking 12 peices.
> 
> But that was before that wicked parrott, [[/Whippoorwill|Whippoorwill]], tricked her into letting him loose and escaped into the clock's workings.
> Of course Alice followed behind and vanished
> 
> 
> to
> 
> 
> the
> 
> 
> future!
> ----
> Have you ever been to the future? maybe, but not this future. Alice found herself in a mound of earth surrounded by giant [[/Computermite|white termites]] and immediately found one of the missing puzzle peices.
> 
> 
> [[/II|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice/III|990479349
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Alice's Twin Twister
> 
> [[/II|Previous Chapter]] [[/IV|Next Chapter]]
------
Automated_Alice|990479387
1c1,45
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The third [[book]] of the adventures of [[Alice in Wonderland|Alice]] by [[Charles Dodgson]], er, that isn't right, [[Lewis Carroll]], no, no, by [[/Zenith O Clock|Zenith O'Clock]][[/Ellipsis|...]]
> 
> 
> by [[Jeff Noon]][[/Ellipsis|...]]?
> 
> 
> yes! that's it!
> ----
> A fantastical book by [[Jeff Noon]], first published in [[1996]] following Alice's travel to a future [[Manchester]] city populated by [[/Newmonia|Newmonian's]], [[/Civil Serpents|Civil Serpent's]] and a vanishing cat.
> 
> [[/I|I]]
> :Through The Clock's Workings
> 
> [[/II|II]]
> :The Wriggling of a Worm
> 
> [[/III|III]]
> :Alice's Twin Twister
> 
> [[/IV|IV]]
> :Adventures in a Garden Shed
> 
> [[/V|V]]
> :The Long Paw of the Law
> 
> [[/VI|VI]]
> :Languishing in Gaol
> 
> [[/VII|VII]]
> :The Stroke of Noon
> 
> [[/VIII|VIII]]
> :Alice Looks up Herself
> 
> [[/IX|IX]]
> :The Hunting of the Quark
> 
> [[/X|X]]
> :Snakes and leaders
> 
> [[/XI|XI]]
> :Dorothy, Dorothy and Dorothy
> 
> [[/XII|XII]]
> :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
------
TedDunning|990479533
8a9,10
> ----
> Your humility is remarkable.  I'm sure there's more to you than where you work.  :-)  And thanks for being so gracious.  You've contributed some rather impressive entries.  --KQ
------
Channel_tunnel|990479610
1c1
< Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) undeneath the seabed.  Also called ''[[The Chunnel]].''
---
> Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) underneath the seabed.  Also called ''[[The Chunnel]].''
------
Automated_Alice|990479720
1c1,3
< The third [[book]] of the adventures of [[Alice in Wonderland|Alice]] by [[Charles Dodgson]], er, that isn't right, [[Lewis Carroll]], no, no, by [[/Zenith O Clock|Zenith O'Clock]][[/Ellipsis|...]]
---
> The third [[book]] of the adventures of [[Alice in Wonderland|Alice]] by [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson|Charles Dodgson]],
> er, that isn't right, [[Lewis Carroll]],
> no, no, by [[/Zenith O Clock|Zenith O'Clock]][[/Ellipsis|...]]
------
Joseph_Goebbels|990481526
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945)</b>
> 
> [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[propaganda]] minister in [[Nazi Germany]]. He was a prominent figure of the regime, known for his 
> great rhetoric capabilities. He played a large role in helping the Nazi's stay in power by presenting the Nazi ideology to the German people in a favourable light.
> 
> On May 1, 1945 Goebbels and his wife first shot their six children and then commited suicide.
------
Nazi_Germany|990481600
5c5
< In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German started to disintegrate quickly, losing ground to the Alied forces in the west and south and the [[Red Army]] and the Polish Army in the east. By spring of 1945 German territory was invaded.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany finally surrendered in the first week of May.
---
> In 1939 Germany began [[World War II]] in [[Europe]], successfully invading [[Poland]], [[France]], and the [[Netherlands]], while declaring war on the [[United Kingdom]].  After invading [[Greece]] and North [[Africa]], [[Germany]] invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941.  It declared war on the [[United States]] in December of 1941.  After losing the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943 and the [[Battle of Normandy]] in 1944, the German started to disintegrate quickly, losing ground to the Alied forces in the west and south and the [[Red Army]] and the Polish Army in the east. By spring of 1945 German territory was invaded.  In April, 1945, Hitler committed suicide and Germany finally surrendered in the first week of May.  
------
What_is_a_wiki|990485506
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below!!
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below!!!
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990485676
53a54,57
> 
> ----
> 
> And, yes, there is more to me that MusicMatch right now, but I was referring to necessary component of description, not a sufficient one.  :-)  -- TedDunning
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990485694
57c57
< And, yes, there is more to me that MusicMatch right now, but I was referring to necessary component of description, not a sufficient one.  :-)  -- TedDunning
---
> And, yes, there is more to me than MusicMatch right now, but I was referring to necessary component of description, not a sufficient one.  :-)  -- TedDunning
------
Alphabet|990485980
1,2c1
< [[A]], [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]],
< [[N]], [[O]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[U]], [[V]], [[W]], [[X]], [[Y]], [[Z]]
---
> An alphabet is a small set of [[letter]]s--basic written symbols--each of which represents (roughly) a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]].  This is distinguished from other writing systems such as [[ideogram]]s, in which symbols represent complete ideas, and [[syllabary|syllabaries]], in which each symbol represents a syllable.  Languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.  Languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], for example, have a very regular spelling system with close to a one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.  At the other extreme are languages like [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a rational way (though they may have at some earlier time in the language's evolution).
4c3
< An alphabet is an ordered list of [[letter]]s--the most basic written symbols used in writing--used in a particular [[language]].  For example, the [[Roman alphabet]].  Other kinds of language symbols sets include the [[syllabary]] and [[ideogram]]s.
---
> The first alphabet was probably developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.  The most popular alphabet in use today is a modern 26-letter version of the [[Roman alphabet]], used by the [[English language]] and most European languages:
6c5,8
< The first alphabet was developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.
---
> <blockquote>
> :[[A]], [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]],
> :[[N]], [[O]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[U]], [[V]], [[W]], [[X]], [[Y]], [[Z]]
> </blockquote>
7a10
> An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA.
9,23c12
< 
< The relationship between phonemes and letters was pretty straightforward in the beginning.  Originally, the letters in an alphabet approximated the [[phoneme]]s of some language for which the alphabet was written, but in virtually all extant languages, there is no simple mapping between the letters of any alphabet and unique phonemes.  But Semitic did not represent all vowels, and Greek used <ei> for /e:/ and so on.  However, due to change of pronunciation and influences from many different orthographic traditions, spelling in contemporary languages is sometimes rather logographic than alphabetic. 
< 
< '''Alphabetic order:''' The alphabet establishes an order between letters, and is used for sorting entries in directories or catalogs that are based on [[sequential access]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying rules for alphabetic ordering.  In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).
< 
< 
< Other alphabets:
< [[Runic]]
< [[Tifinagh]]
< [[Old Turkic alphabet]]
< [[Iberian alphabet]]
< [[Ogham]]
< [[Meroitic]]
< [[Gothic alphabet]]
< 
---
> Other alphabets: [[Runic]] - [[Tifinagh]] - [[Old Turkic alphabet]] - [[Iberian alphabet]] - [[Ogham]] - [[Meroitic]] - [[Gothic alphabet]]
------
TtH|990488629
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [http://hutchinson.belmont.ma.us/tth/ TtH] is a TeX to HTML translator that actually puts out real HTML without having to reference bunches of GIF's for all the equations.
> 
> Sadly, the output of TtH can't be pasted into WikiPedia pages directly because it has nested tables.  The best of all worlds would allow <tex> ... </tex> tags that would indicate that the intervening text needed to be expanded by TtH before insertion.  This would allow folk like me to type math the way Knuth intended.
------
TtH|990488926
3a4,6
> ----
> I hate to spoil the party, but TtH does not produce valid HTML.  It produces HTML that relies heavily on non-standard fonts used by Microsoft Windows, and that will not display correctly on other machines.  Perhaps if they come up with an improved version that uses proper HTML entity references it would make more sense to use here.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
TtH|990489423
5c5
< I hate to spoil the party, but TtH does not produce valid HTML.  It produces HTML that relies heavily on non-standard fonts used by Microsoft Windows, and that will not display correctly on other machines.  Perhaps if they come up with an improved version that uses proper HTML entity references it would make more sense to use here.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> I hate to spoil the party, but TtH does not produce valid HTML.  It produces HTML that relies heavily on non-standard fonts used by Microsoft Windows, and that will not display correctly on other machines.  Perhaps if they come up with an improved version that uses proper HTML entity references it would make more sense to use here.  The author recognizes this, and is rather dismissive of the problem.  I sympathize with his point of view that the standards are behind, and a working non-conformant product beats a theoretically correct but non-working one.  But nonetheless, I think a forward-looking project like Wikipedia should encourage forward-looking approaches (i.e., obeying the clean standards that browsers haven't yet fully implemented) rather than kowtowing to pragmatic approaches that will break in the future. -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990491030
38a39,41
> 
> :<i> Yep, seems to work, at least it accepts letters with accents --AstroNomer</i>
> 
------
TtH|990492643
5a6,9
> ----
> Hmm.... it isn't hard to get a Netscape to display the correct characters on other operating systems.  I agree that it would be nice to use Unicode based standards, but having a standards based solution that just doesn't work isn't very helpful either.  Dismissing a 90% solution because it is not elegant and thus leaving yourself with NO solution isn't very productive either.  It should be noted that the author of TtH has said that he would support better solutions once they exist.
> 
> Would you care to suggest an alternative? -- TedDunning
------
Alphabet|990494247
3c3
< The first alphabet was probably developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them), and again most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from it.  The most popular alphabet in use today is a modern 26-letter version of the [[Roman alphabet]], used by the [[English language]] and most European languages:
---
> The first alphabet was probably developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent European alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them).  Most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from the early Greek alphabets.  The most popular alphabet in use today is a modern 26-letter version of the [[Roman alphabet]], used by the [[English language]] and most European languages.  In modern linguistic usage, the term ''latin alphabet'' is usually used to refer to the modern derivations from the alphabet used by the Romans (i.e. the Roman alphabet).
------
TtH|990494731
10a11,15
> ----
> I really question that "90%" figure.  Does the code produced really work on Macintosh and Unix machines?  If it does, then I'd be happy with it in one form: if the internally stored, editable text of the page (i.e., what I'm editing now) were stored in the original information-preserving TeX format, and then converted to HTML by TtH at display time, then the non-standardness of the display form isn't so bad, and can be fixed later with new software when available.  I just don't want the bad HTML to be stored here.
> 
> The other options are image-producing translators and Java applets.  Those certainly have drawbacks (such as dowload time and resolution), but they are very standard and they do work well.  -- LDC
> 
------
Roman_alphabet|990495322
4c4,6
< In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used fro new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In [[Old English]], [[thorn]] and [[wynn]] - a [[Runic]] letter - were added. In modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], thorn is still used. 
---
> In the course of its history, the latin alphabet was used for new languages, and therefore, some new letters and diacritics were created, e.g. the cedilla in ç (probably came from z and had originally nothing to do with c) that symbolized /ts/ in Romance or the hacek in Slavonic languages. W is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] letter made up from two U's, and U and J were originally not distinguished from V and I respectively. In [[Old English]], [[thorn]] and [[wynn]] - a [[Runic]] letter - were added. In modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], thorn is still used.   The additional letters added in German are generally either special presentations of earlier ligature forms (ae -> &auml;, ue -> &uuml; or sz -> &beta;).  French adds the circumflex to record elided consonants that were present in earlier forms and are often still present in the modern English cognate forms (OF hostel -> F h&ocirc;tel = E hotel or LL pasta -> MF paste -> F p&acirc;te & E paste).  
> 
> Some slavic languages use the latin alphabet rather than the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]].  Among these, Polish uses a variety of ligatures with z to represent special phonetic values.  Czech uses diacritcs as in Dvor^ak where the ^ should be on the r.  The slavic regions which stayed with the Orthodox church generally use Cyrillic instead which is much closer to the Greek alphabet.
------
Morse_code|990495461
31c31
<  DahDah DahDahDah DiDahDit DiDiDit Dit, DahDiDahDit DahDahDah DahDiDit Dit.
---
> <nowiki> DahDah DahDahDah DiDahDit DiDiDit Dit, DahDiDahDit DahDahDah DahDiDit Dit.</nowiki>
140c140
<  SOS ***---*** international destress call. Used first time ever by the [[Titanic]].
---
>  SOS ***---*** international distress call. Used first time ever by the [[Titanic]].
------
TtH|990495623
15a16,19
> ----
> 
> My suggestion is to do just that (display-time rendering of TeX into TtH).  That was why I was so exercised about your dismissal of TtH; without some sort of late-rending, we lose the original TeX and start getting all kinds of goo in pages.  See my Statistics/LLR page for a great example of nascent goo.  -- TedDunning
> 
------
Popeye|990495633
1c1,11
< A [[cartoon]] figure and [[comic strip]],
---
> A [[cartoon]] figure and [[comic strip]].
> He is a sailor, that, when in trouble, eats spinach that
> give him superhuman strength. It usually need it to save his
> sweethearth [[Olivia]] from [[Brutus]].
> 
> Apparently, the reference to spinach comes from the publication
> of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times
> its [[iron]] content.
> 
> 
> 
------
TtH|990495741
19a20,24
> 
> ----
> 
> Ahh ... my 90% figure, btw, was based on the fact that almost all viewers would be able to read the results (Netscape 6 is the only broken case that I know about).  As you say, as solutions are found, the rendering can be improved if we can only find a way to render TeX somehow. -- TedDunning
> 
------
International_Wikipedia|990495940
41a42,43
> It will indeed now let me correctly title the '''Cómo se edita una página''' page, but the links to it don't show up right away (that's another problem already being worked on).  Also, the URLs seem to have unprotected and untranslated non-ASCII characters in them (e.g. <code>http://es.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Cómo_se_edita_una_página</code>), which is a bad idea in the long run.  HTML4 recommends that they first be translated into UTF-8, then URL-encoded.  It's probably OK to do it the way it is for now, and then do the fix automatically later (which is doable so long as we don't create any Wikis in languages outside of the ISO-8859-1 set).  So for now Dr. Erdem is out of luck (can't do Turkish until we have this working correctly), but everyone else can create good content.  -- LDC
> 
------
TtH|990496334
17d16
< 
19a19
> ''Yes, that's clearly the way to go, and my "dismissal" of TtH was most specifically directed at the idea of pasting the HTML from it into Wiki pages.  I'm all for <code><tex>...</tex></code>, with perhaps a simplified internal syntax, which will allow us to change rendering methods anyway.  I'd personally prefer <code><mathml>...</mathml></code>, but I know that's a losing battle for now.  --LDC''
24a25
> ''That doesn't answer my question at all.  Does this work on Macs and Unix boxes, or are you assuming (for some reason I'd also like the source of) that "90%" of reader have Windows?''
------
TtH|990496369
25c25
< ''That doesn't answer my question at all.  Does this work on Macs and Unix boxes, or are you assuming (for some reason I'd also like the source of) that "90%" of reader have Windows?''
---
> ''That doesn't answer my question at all.  Does this work on Macs and Unix boxes, or are you assuming (for some reason I'd also like the source of) that "90%" of readers have Windows?''
------
Alumn|990498822
4,5c4,7
< ----
< Anyone for the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative?
---
> 
> And, if one considers all-women colleges, they graduate only an "alumna", plural "alumnae,"
> and on the grounds of ordinary correctness (non-political), they do only name their associations of graduates, [[alumae association]]s.
> 
------
FTP|990499236
2a3,5
> The purpose of the protocol is to be able to transfer files
> between machines with widely different operating systems.
> 
------
What_is_a_wiki|990507925
1c1
< A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below!!!
---
> A wiki is a collection of interlinked web pages, each of which can be visited and edited by anyone.  You can even edit ''this'' page: just click "Edit text of this page" above or below!
13,15c13
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
< 
< 
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
Horseshoe|990508517
1,3c1
< 1. A U-shaped piece of [[iron]], rubber, plastic, rawhide or a laminate of these, [[nail]]ed or glued to a [[horse]]'s [[hoof]].  See also [[shoe]].  Horseshoes, kept as a sort of talisman and not on a horse, are said to bring [[luck]].
< 
< 2. Anything shaped like (1).
---
> A ''horseshoe'' is U-shaped piece of [[iron]], [[rubber]], [[plastic]], [[rawhide]] or a [[laminate]] of these, [[nail]]ed or [[glue]]d to a [[horse]]'s [[hoof]]--very like a [[shoe]].  Horseshoes, kept as a sort of talisman and not on a horse, are said to bring [[luck]].
7,13c5
< First, the added weight/stress of a humans, cart or wagon traces or of pack loads; second, the fact that in domestication, the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed and third, the fact that live food eaten in the wild is nutritionally superior for the purpose of building strong hooves.  In nature, the horse walks and grazes continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a callous.  Live grasses, weeds and shrubs are high in nutrients such as beta carotene.  Man-raised feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting, as so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of horn, much as the human finger nail, and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
< 
< In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot becasue of inadequately thick and hard sole material.  Man has sought to remedy this lack with suppplemental support and armor, beginning in the earliest days with rawhide boots which could be tied onto the hoof.  Since that time, man developed metal shoes nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall. Modernly, these nails are applied so as to enter the sole of the foot very near the edge, and at an angle which causes them to protrude through the hoof wall, where they are then bent over, cut off and "clinched" to hold in the hoof wall.
< 
< Advances in technology and materials have led to shoes which can be glued to the bottom of the foot, and which are composed of tough, but yeilding materials and so cushion ground impacts without adding rigidity or excessive weight to the foot, and without requiring nail holes.  Typically such applications respond to special needs or medical problems of a given animal, and are not routine.  Iron is still favored as the most desired material for horse shoes, because the rigidity which it provides protects the hoof against certain types of injury (such as [[heel shear]]) which other materials do not protect against.
< 
< 
---
> First, the added weight/stress of a [[human being|human]]s, cart or [[wagon]] traces or of pack loads; second, the fact that in [[domestication]], the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly curtailed and third, the fact that live [[food]] eaten in the wild is nutritionally superior for the purpose of building strong hooves.  In nature, the horse walks and [[graze]]s continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state.  The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a [[callus]].  Live [[grass]]es, [[weed]]s and [[shrub]]s are high in [[nutrient]]s such as [[beta carotene]].  Man-raised feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting, as so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of [[animal horn|horn]], much as the human [[fingernail]], and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.
14a7
> In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot becasue of inadequately thick and hard sole material.  Man has sought to remedy this lack with suppplemental support and [[armor]], beginning in the earliest days with [[rawhide boot]]s which could be tied onto the hoof.  Since that time, man developed metal shoes nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall.  In modern times, these nails are applied so as to enter the sole of the foot very near the edge, and at an angle which causes them to protrude through the hoof wall, where they are then bent over, cut off and "clinched" to hold in the hoof wall.
15a9
> Advances in [[technology]] and materials have led to shoes which can be glued to the bottom of the foot, and which are composed of tough but yielding materials.  This cushions ground impacts without adding rigidity or excessive weight to the foot and without requiring nail holes.  Typically such applications respond to special needs or [[veterinary medicine|medical problems]] of a given animal, and are not routine.  Iron is still favored as the most desired material for horse shoes, because the rigidity which it provides protects the hoof against certain types of injury (such as [[heel shear]]) which other materials do not protect against.
------
Morse_code|990508913
18c18
<  where - represents dah and * represents dit. Here's the exact conventional timing for the same message (= represents signal on, . represents signal off, each for the length of a dit):
---
> where - represents dah and * represents dit. Here's the exact conventional timing for the same message (= represents signal on, . represents signal off, each for the length of a dit):
------
International_Wikipedia|990509231
52a53
> :This does seem to be worse on de.wikipedia.com, guys.  Can you please look into it...?  Or should I make a JobRequest?  SoniC, we're aware of this problem; it has been plaguing www.wikipedia.com for months... --[[LMS]]
------
Axiom|990509502
30c30
< In the twentieth century, the grand goal of finding a "true" and "universal" set of axioms was shown to be a hopeless dream by [[Kurt Godel|G&ouml;del]] and others.
---
> In the twentieth century, [[Kurt Godel|G&ouml;del]]'s [[Goedels Incompleteness Theorem|Incompleteness Theorem]] showed that no set of axioms sufficiently large for ordinary mathematics could be both (1) complete, i.e., capable of proving every truth; and (2) consistent, i.e., never proving an untruth.  To put it yet another way, there must exist some assertions that are true but unprovable.
32c32
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
JasonR|990509686
1c1
< JasonR, a.k.a. Jason Richey, is one of the bomis programmers who will periodically do some programming for Nupedia.  He has a history of saying the wrong things at the wrong times in the wrong places for the wrong reasons, but he always means well.  You'll find that he is quite receptive to constructive criticism, but not nearly as receptive to angry words and threats.  You can reach him at mailto:jasonr@bomis.com.  If you are sending anything that you want put on the internet, be sure to tell him where it belongs.  He would like to apologize ahead of time for anything inapropriate that he may say. 
---
> JasonR, a.k.a. Jason Richey, is one of the bomis programmers who will periodically do some programming for Wikipedia.  He has a history of saying the wrong things at the wrong times in the wrong places for the wrong reasons, but he always means well.  You'll find that he is quite receptive to constructive criticism, but not nearly as receptive to angry words and threats.  You can reach him at mailto:jasonr@bomis.com.  If you are sending anything that you want put on the internet, be sure to tell him where it belongs.  He would like to apologize ahead of time for anything inapropriate that he may say. 
------
JasonR|990509748
1c1,3
< JasonR, a.k.a. Jason Richey, is one of the bomis programmers who will periodically do some programming for Wikipedia.  He has a history of saying the wrong things at the wrong times in the wrong places for the wrong reasons, but he always means well.  You'll find that he is quite receptive to constructive criticism, but not nearly as receptive to angry words and threats.  You can reach him at mailto:jasonr@bomis.com.  If you are sending anything that you want put on the internet, be sure to tell him where it belongs.  He would like to apologize ahead of time for anything inapropriate that he may say. 
---
> JasonR, a.k.a. Jason Richey, is one of the bomis programmers who will periodically do some programming for Wikipedia.  He has a history of saying the wrong things at the wrong times in the wrong places for the wrong reasons, but he always means well.  You'll find that he is quite receptive to constructive criticism, but not nearly as receptive to angry words and threats.  You can reach him at mailto:jasonr@bomis.com.  If you are sending anything that you want put on the internet, be sure to tell him where it belongs.  He would like to apologize ahead of time for anything inappropriate that he may say. 
> ----
> I apologize ahead of time for anything inappropriate I might say, too.  :-) --[[LMS]]
------
JasonR|990509782
3c3
< I apologize ahead of time for anything inappropriate I might say, too.  :-) --[[LMS]]
---
> I apologize ahead of time for anything inappropriate I might say, too.  :-)  I also hereby apologize for all the inappropriate things I have ever said. --[[LMS]]
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990509917
5a6,7
> ----
> ''"The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist [[Reginald Aubrey Fessenden]]."  Do you mean that Fessenden transmitted the first voice, or that Fessenden's voice was transmitted?  (You could mean both, I suppose!)''
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990509960
1c1
< Wireless telegraphy is the practice of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  The first practical system to acheive widespread use was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896, though it had roots in earlier work by many scientists and inventors.  As far back as [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]] and [[Heinrich Hertz|Hertz]] in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s, many based on the work of [[Nikola Tesla|Tesla]].  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".
---
> Wireless telegraphy is the practice of remote writing (see [[telegraphy]]) without the wires normally involved in any [[electrical telegraph]].  The first practical system to achieve widespread use was first demonstrated by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] in 1896, though it had roots in earlier work by many scientists and inventors.  As far back as [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]] and [[Heinrich Hertz|Hertz]] in the early 1800s, it was clear to most scientists that wireless communication was possible, and many people worked on developing many devices and improvements.  The first wireless telegraphy devices started appearing in the 1860s, many based on the work of [[Nikola Tesla|Tesla]].  Edison, for example, patented one in 1885 for use by trains.  Marconi and Braun shared the 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".
------
Automated_Alice|990510437
0a1,2
> ''Er, quick...is this copyrighted?  I looked on the web and found no evidence whatever that it is public domain.  Therefore, you should entirely remove this from Wikipedia, correct?  Curiously, [[LMS]]''
> 
47c49
< :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
---
> :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
------
Bitola|990510690
1c1
< Bitola (in Serbian Bitolj, formerly Monastir) is a city in present day [[Macedonia]]. It was a major city during the [[Roman Empire]]. Later it was settled by Slavs and in 1395 it was conquered by [[Ottoman Empire]], which made the city a major military and commercial center. The Serbians took the city from the Ottoman Empire during [[Balkan Wars]].
---
> Bitola (in Serbian Bitolj, formerly [[Monastir]]) is a city in present day [[Macedonia]]. It was a major city during the [[Roman Empire]]. Later it was settled by Slavs and in 1395 it was conquered by [[Ottoman Empire]], which made the city a major military and commercial center. The Serbians took the city from the Ottoman Empire during [[Balkan Wars]].
------
Radio|990510885
5c5
< Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to news, current affairs, sport and especially [[popular music]]. A recent development is [[web radio]].
---
> Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to [[news]], [[talk radio|talk], [[sport]]s and especially [[popular music]].  A recent development is [[web radio]].
10c10
< *[[The Goon Show]]
---
> *[[The Goon Show]]
------
Radio|990510901
5c5
< Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to [[news]], [[talk radio|talk], [[sport]]s and especially [[popular music]].  A recent development is [[web radio]].
---
> Radio broadcasting is still very popular, with many stations devoted to [[news]], [[talk radio|talk]], [[sport]]s and especially [[popular music]].  A recent development is [[web radio]].
------
Talk_radio|990511274
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the institution of holding public discussions on radio.  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]
------
Talk_radio|990511300
1c1
< ''Talk radio'' refers to the institution of holding public discussions on radio.  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the institution of holding public discussions on radio.  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
------
Talk_radio|990511338
1c1
< ''Talk radio'' refers to the institution of holding public discussions on radio.  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
------
Michael_Reagan|990511736
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Michael Reagan is the son of former President [[Ronald Reagan]] and the host of a [[political conservatism|conservative]] [[talk radio]] show.
------
User_friendly|990512046
1,13c1
< *A device or a piece of [[software]] that is easy to use even for an inexperienced user. Cynics might use the term "idiot-proof". For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[HCI]] and [[usability]].
< 
< * 'User Friendly' is an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
< ----
< ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
< 
< I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
< 
< ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
< 
< I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
< 
< ''Hmm... We have a similar problem with AM (amplitude modulation), Am (chemical symbol for americanium), and am (ante meridium).  Perhaps best to put all three under [[Am]] (as Wikipedia entries cannot start with lowercase letters.'' --[[LA2]].
---
> #REDIRECT [[User-friendly]]
------
User-friendly|990512932
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Software]] is ''user-friendly'' if it is easy-to-use especially for persons inexperienced with computers.  The word has come to be applied to other technology as well, such as [[VCR]]s.
> 
> Various features can be used to make software more user-friendly, such as [[menu interfaces]], online help and automated "[[troubleshooting|troubleshooters]]," and a simple layout.  [[Apple Computer]] was well-known in the [[1980s]] for its drive to make computers and software more user-friendly, and it originated the notion of a "windows"-based [[user interface]], which was picked up by [[Microsoft]] with its [[Microsoft Windows]] product.
> 
> For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[human-computer interaction]] and [[computer and software usability]].
> 
> ----
> 'User Friendly' is also the name of an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
> ----
> /Talk
------
User-friendly/Talk|990512976
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
> 
> I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
> 
> ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
> 
> I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> 
> ''Hmm... We have a similar problem with AM (amplitude modulation), Am (chemical symbol for americanium), and am (ante meridium).  Perhaps best to put all three under [[Am]] (as Wikipedia entries cannot start with lowercase letters.'' --[[LA2]].
> ----
> ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
> 
> I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
> 
> ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
> 
> I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
> 
> ''Hmm... We have a similar problem with AM (amplitude modulation), Am (chemical symbol for americanium), and am (ante meridium).  Perhaps best to put all three under [[Am]] (as Wikipedia entries cannot start with lowercase letters.'' --[[LA2]].
------
User-friendly|990513045
1,10c1
< [[Software]] is ''user-friendly'' if it is easy-to-use especially for persons inexperienced with computers.  The word has come to be applied to other technology as well, such as [[VCR]]s.
< 
< Various features can be used to make software more user-friendly, such as [[menu interfaces]], online help and automated "[[troubleshooting|troubleshooters]]," and a simple layout.  [[Apple Computer]] was well-known in the [[1980s]] for its drive to make computers and software more user-friendly, and it originated the notion of a "windows"-based [[user interface]], which was picked up by [[Microsoft]] with its [[Microsoft Windows]] product.
< 
< For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[human-computer interaction]] and [[computer and software usability]].
< 
< ----
< 'User Friendly' is also the name of an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
< ----
< /Talk
---
> #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
------
User-friendliness|990513069
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Software]] is ''user-friendly'' if it is easy-to-use especially for persons inexperienced with computers.  The word has come to be applied to other technology as well, such as [[VCR]]s.
> 
> Various features can be used to make software more user-friendly, such as [[menu interfaces]], online help and automated "[[troubleshooting|troubleshooters]]," and a simple layout.  [[Apple Computer]] was well-known in the [[1980s]] for its drive to make computers and software more user-friendly, and it originated the notion of a "windows"-based [[user interface]], which was picked up by [[Microsoft]] with its [[Microsoft Windows]] product.
> 
> For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[human-computer interaction]] and [[computer and software usability]].
> 
> ----
> 'User Friendly' is also the name of an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
------
User_friendly|990513131
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[User-friendly]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
------
Fiddle_and_violin|990513136
1c1
< The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
---
> The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]]. When holding the neck of your violin, ensure your wrist is curved and your posture is perfect in order to create a rich tone.
------
User_Friendly|990513212
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[User friendly]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
------
Fiddle_and_violin|990522561
1c1
< The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]]. When holding the neck of your violin, ensure your wrist is curved and your posture is perfect in order to create a rich tone.
---
> The [[fiddle]] is the same musical instrument as the [[violin]].  Essentially, "fiddle" is used to described a violin when the violin is played in a [[folk music]] (i.e., [[traditional music]]) or sometimes [[Jazz]].  One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., [[bluegrass]] and [[American old-time music]]) fiddling: the [[violin bridge]] is shaved down so that it is essentially flat.  This makes it easier to play [[double stops]].
------
Violin|990522618
4a5,6
> [[How to play the violin]]
> 
------
How_to_play_the_violin|990522648
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> On this page, we'd like to see tips on [[how to]] play the violin.
> 
> * When holding the neck of your violin, ensure your wrist is curved and your posture is perfect in order to create a rich tone.
------
Geologic_Timescale|990522842
3c3
<  | [[Holocene]]   | [[Quaternary]]| [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
---
>  | [[Holocene]]    | [[Quaternary]]| [[Cenozoic]]     | [[Phanerozoic]]  |
------
User-friendly/Talk|990523408
10,19d9
< ----
< ''Hey WojPob, the comic strip is a noun proper and should have a capital F.''--[[LA2]]
< 
< I know but having two pages is not good either. 'user friendly' is an expression in the first place, the comic strip named after it has to come second, IMHO. WojPob
< 
< ''The whole point is that there were no TWO pages, because lower case "user friendly" didn't exist until you created it.  It is an adjective and most other entries in an encyclopedia are nouns.  It is perfectly possible to describe it as "user friendliness" or "usability".''  --[[LA2]]
< 
< I can't say I care that much about how the entry is capitalized, but I'd like both senses on the same page and possibly various redirects. --[[Pinkunicorn]]
< 
< ''Hmm... We have a similar problem with AM (amplitude modulation), Am (chemical symbol for americanium), and am (ante meridium).  Perhaps best to put all three under [[Am]] (as Wikipedia entries cannot start with lowercase letters.'' --[[LA2]].
------
Joseph_Goebbels|990525797
6c6
< On May 1, 1945 Goebbels and his wife first shot their six children and then commited suicide.
---
> Hitler appointed Goebbels Chancellor of the Third [[Reich]] in his will. Therefore, for a few days in April 1945, Goebbels held the same position in country as [[Hindenburg]] and [[Otto von Bismarck once did]]. On May 1 1945, however, Goebbels and his wife first shot their six children and then commited suicide.
------
Joseph_Goebbels|990525808
6c6
< Hitler appointed Goebbels Chancellor of the Third [[Reich]] in his will. Therefore, for a few days in April 1945, Goebbels held the same position in country as [[Hindenburg]] and [[Otto von Bismarck once did]]. On May 1 1945, however, Goebbels and his wife first shot their six children and then commited suicide.
---
> Hitler appointed Goebbels Chancellor of the Third [[Reich]] in his will. Therefore, for a few days in April 1945, Goebbels held the same position in country as [[Hindenburg]] and [[Otto von Bismarck]] once did. On May 1 1945, however, Goebbels and his wife first shot their six children and then commited suicide.
------
Double_stops|990525971
3c3
< This technique is used to play chords in [[classical music]], and is used, to varying degrees, in [fiddle]] playing.
---
> This technique is used to play chords in [[classical music]], and is used, to varying degrees, in [[fiddle]] playing.
9c9
< Double stops can also be played on guitar by fretting two strings at the same time. It is a technique that , at it's simplest , is used by every beginning guitarist to instantly sound somewhat competent. Possibly the most famous use of the double stop sound in early rock and roll was the sound popularized by Chuck Berry. An example would be his recording of Johnny B. Good.
---
> Double stops can also be played on guitar by fretting two strings at the same time. It is a technique that, at its simplest, is used by beginning guitarists to sound somewhat competent. Possibly the most famous use of the double stop in early rock and roll was the sound popularized by Chuck Berry. An example would be his recording of Johnny B. Goode.
11c11
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Joseph_Goebbels|990526029
4c4
< great rhetoric capabilities. He played a large role in helping the Nazi's stay in power by presenting the Nazi ideology to the German people in a favourable light.
---
> great rhetoric capabilities. He played a large role in helping the [[Nazi]]s stay in power by presenting the Nazi ideology to the German people in a favourable light.
------
Central_African_Republic/People|990526427
4c4
< estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
---
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and [[sex]] than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
48c48
< Baya 34%, Banda 27%, Sara 10%, Mandjia 21%, Mboum 4%, M'Baka 4%, Europeans 6,500 (including 1,500 French)
---
> [[Baya]] 34%, [[Banda]] 27%, [[Sara]] 10%, [[Mandjia]] 21%, [[Mboum]] 4%, [[Mbaka|M'Baka]] 4%, [[Europeans]] 6,500 (including 1,500 [[French]])
50c50
< indigenous beliefs 24%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%, other 11%
---
> [[indigenous beliefs]] 24%, [[Protestant]] 25%, [[Roman Catholic]] 25%, [[Muslim]] 15%, other 11%
52c52
< animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority
---
> [[animistic beliefs]] and practices strongly influence the [[Christian]] majority
54c54
< French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), Arabic, Hunsa, Swahili
---
> [[French]] (official), [[Sangho]] (lingua franca and national language), [[Arabic]], [[Hunsa]], [[Swahili]]
------
French|990526610
11c11
< The word also appears in many short phrases such as ''French doors'', ''French horn'', ''French toast'', etc., coined to imply origination in or association with France, not necessarily accurately.
---
> The word also appears in many short phrases such as ''French doors'', ''French horn'', ''French toast'', etc., coined to imply origination in or association with France, not necessarily accurately. Another application of the word ''French'' is in words like ''French pictures'' (early [[pornographic]] images) and ''French letters'' (an early English euphemism for [[condom]]s). Apparently there is a similar word in [[France]], but refering to [[England]].
------
Benin/History|990526656
2c2
< Dahomey gained its independence from France in 1960; the name was changed to Benin in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a socialist state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
---
> [[Dahomey]] gained its independence from [[France]] in 1960; the name was changed to [[Benin]] in 1975. From 1974 to 1989 the country was a [[socialist]] state; free elections were reestablished in 1991.
------
Ghana/Transnational_issues|990526719
4c4
< illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Europe and the US
---
> illicit producer of [[cannabis]] for the international [[drug]] trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] and South [[America]]n [[cocaine]] destined for [[Europe]] and the [[United States]].
------
Guernsey/History|990526794
2c2
< The island of Guernsey and the other [[Channel Island]]s represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of [[Normandy]], which held sway in both [[France]] and [[England]]. The islands were the only British soil occupied by German troops in [[World War II]].
---
> The island of Guernsey and the other [[Channel Island]]s represent the last remnants of the medieval Dukedom of [[Normandy]], which held sway in both [[France]] and [[England]]. The islands were the only [[British]] soil occupied by [[German]] troops in [[World War II]].
------
Guernsey/Geography|990526867
2c2
< Western Europe, islands in the English Channel, northwest of France
---
> Western [[Europe]], islands in the [[English Channel]], northwest of [[France]]
6c6
< Europe
---
> [[Europe]]
15c15
< includes Alderney, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, and some other smaller islands
---
> includes [[Alderney]], [[Guernsey]], [[Herm]], [[Sark]], and some other smaller islands
17c17
< slightly larger than Washington, DC
---
> slightly larger than [[Washington, DC]]
33c33
< Atlantic Ocean 0 m
---
> [[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
35c35
< unnamed location on Sark 114 m
---
> unnamed location on [[Sark]] 114 m
56c56
< large, deepwater harbor at Saint Peter Port
---
> large, deepwater harbor at [[Saint Peter Port]]
------
England|990527031
7a8,9
> The language spoken is [[English language|English]].
> 
------
Guernsey/People|990527054
46c46
< UK and Norman-French descent
---
> [[United Kingdom]] and [[Norman]]-[[French]] descent
48c48
< Anglican, Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, Baptist, Congregational, Methodist
---
> [[Anglican]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Presbyterian]], [[Baptist]], [[Congregational]], [[Methodist]]
50c50
< English, French, Norman-French dialect spoken in country districts
---
> [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Norman-French dialect]] spoken in country districts
------
Guernsey/Government|990527185
3c3
< Bailiwick of Guernsey
---
> Bailiwick of [[Guernsey]]
5c5
< Guernsey
---
> [[Guernsey]]
9c9
< British crown dependency
---
> [[British]] crown dependency
13c13
< Saint Peter Port
---
> [[Saint Peter Port]]
23c23
< English law and local statute; justice is administered by the Royal Court
---
> [[English]] law and local statute; justice is administered by the Royal Court
28c28
< Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952)
---
> [[Queen Elizabeth II]] (since 6 February 1952)
30c30
< Lieutenant Governor Sir John COWARD (since NA 1994) and Bailiff De Vic G. CAREY (since NA)
---
> Lieutenant Governor [[Sir John Coward]] (since NA 1994) and Bailiff [[De Vic G. Carey]] (since NA)
34c34
< none; the monarch is hereditary; lieutenant governor appointed by the monarch; bailiff appointed by the monarch
---
> none; the [[monarch]] is hereditary; lieutenant governor appointed by the monarch; bailiff appointed by the monarch
36c36
< unicameral Assembly of the States (59 voting members - 12 councilors serving six-year terms, half elected every three years; 33 deputies elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years; 10 representatives from parish authorities; 2 representatives from Aldenay; the bailiff and deputy bailiff; and 2 non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch
---
> unicameral Assembly of the States (59 voting members - 12 councilors serving six-year terms, half elected every three years; 33 deputies elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years; 10 representatives from parish authorities; 2 representatives from [[Aldenay]]; the bailiff and deputy bailiff; and 2 non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch
52c52
< white with the red cross of Saint George (patron saint of England) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of William the Conqueror superimposed on the Saint George cross
---
> white with the red cross of [[Saint George]] (patron saint of [[England]]) extending to the edges of the flag and a yellow equal-armed cross of [[William the Conqueror]] superimposed on the Saint George cross
------
Guernsey/Economy|990527354
2c2
< Financial services - banking, fund management, insurance, etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny Channel Island economy. Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, have been declining. Light tax and death duties make Guernsey a popular tax haven. The evolving economic integration of the EU nations is changing the rules of the game under which Guernsey operates.
---
> Financial services - [[banking]], [[fund management]], [[insurance]], etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny [[Channel Island]] [[economy]]. [[Tourism]], [[manufacturing]], and [[horticulture]], mainly [[tomato]]es and cut flowers, have been declining. Light tax and death duties make [[Guernsey]] a popular [[tax haven]]. The evolving economic integration of the [[EU]] nations is changing the rules of the game under which Guernsey operates.
56c56
< tomatoes, greenhouse flowers, sweet peppers, eggplant, fruit; Guernsey cattle
---
> [[tomato]]es, [[greenhouse flowers]], [[sweet pepper]]s, [[eggplant]], [[fruit]]; [[Guernsey cattle]]
60c60
< tomatoes, flowers and ferns, sweet peppers, eggplant, other vegetables
---
> [[tomato]]es, [[flowers]] and [[ferns]], [[sweet pepper]]s, [[eggplant]], other [[vegetable]]s
62c62
< UK (regarded as internal trade)
---
> [[United Kingdom]] (regarded as internal trade)
66c66
< coal, gasoline, oil, machinery and equipment
---
> [[coal]], [[gasoline]], [[oil]], machinery and equipment
68c68
< UK (regarded as internal trade)
---
> [[United Kingdom]] (regarded as internal trade)
76c76
< Guernsey pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Guernsey pound is at par with the British pound
---
> Guernsey pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Guernsey pound is at par with the [[British]] [[pound]]
------
Guernsey/Transportation|990527385
11c11
< Saint Peter Port, Saint Sampson
---
> [[Saint Peter Port]], [[Saint Sampson]]
------
Guernsey/Military|990527406
2c2
< defense is the responsibility of the UK
---
> defense is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]].
------
Guernsey|990527444
1c1
< <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.</i>
------
Chile/Communications|990528099
6c6
< modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities
---
> modern system based on extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay facilities
8c8
< extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations
---
> extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay links; domestic [[satellite]] system with 3 earth stations
10c10
< satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
---
> satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
12c12
< AM 180 (eight inactive), FM 64, shortwave 17 (one inactive) (1998)
---
> [[AM]] 180 (eight inactive), [[FM]] 64, [[shortwave]] 17 (one inactive) (1998)
------
Chile/Communications|990528136
12c12
< [[AM]] 180 (eight inactive), [[FM]] 64, [[shortwave]] 17 (one inactive) (1998)
---
> [[Am|AM]] 180 (eight inactive), [[FM]] 64, [[shortwave]] 17 (one inactive) (1998)
------
Talk_radio|990528673
1c1
< ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).  
------
User-friendly|990528722
1c1,2
< #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
>   
------
User_friendly|990528768
1a2
>   
------
Bill_Gates|990529174
1c1
< Founder and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
---
> Founder (together with [[Paul Allen]]) and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
------
Paul_Allen|990529207
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Founder (together with [[Bill Gates]]) of [[Microsoft]].
------
Microsoft|990529259
1c1
< Computer software producer in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]]. Founded in the late [[1970s]] by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]].
---
> Computer software producer in [[Seattle]], [[Washington]]. Founded in the late [[1970s]] by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]]. They have produced, among much else, [[Microsoft Windows]].
------
Paul_Allen|990529611
1c1
< Founder (together with [[Bill Gates]]) of [[Microsoft]].
---
> Co-founder of [[Microsoft]] (together with [[Bill Gates]]).
------
Bill_Gates|990532347
1c1
< Founder (together with [[Paul Allen]]) and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
---
> Founder (together with [[Paul Allen]]) and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer who, before he went over to the Dark Side, co-wrote the original [[Altair BASIC]] interpreter. This later became [[Microsoft BASIC]], and ended up everywhere, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
------
Altair_BASIC|990532436
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Altair BASIC was a true milestone in software history : the first programming language for the world's first truly personal computer. If that alone wasn't distinction enough, it was also the very first product, the foundation stone in fact, of [[Microsoft]] - the world's largest software company.
> 
> Written by [[Bill Gates]], [[Paul Allen]], and [[Monte Davidoff]], it fits nicely into 4K of memory leaving enough room - several hundred bytes - for [[BASIC]] programs.
> 
------
Bill_Gates|990533196
1c1
< Founder (together with [[Paul Allen]]) and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer who, before he went over to the Dark Side, co-wrote the original [[Altair BASIC]] interpreter. This later became [[Microsoft BASIC]], and ended up everywhere, he now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
---
> Founder (together with [[Paul Allen]]) and major owner of [[Microsoft]]. Once an ace programmer who co-wrote the original [[Altair BASIC]] interpreter, he is a manager today. Altair BASIC later became [[Microsoft BASIC]], and ended up everywhere. Bill Gates now runs Microsoft and might be the world's richest man.
------
Altair_BASIC|990534518
4a5,7
> Altair BASIC was also the source of a controversy in the late [[1970s]]. At that time, most computer owners traded programs with each other with no thought to ''buying'' programs. This had been the norm in [[Homebrew Computer Club]]. When Gates and Allen finished Altair BASIC, they wanted to sell it. [[John Draper]] managed to get hold of a [[paper tape]] with Altair BASIC on, just before it was launched, and went on to make lots of copies and give them away for free. He went so far as to state that he'd give it to anyone, as long as that person would make two new copies and give away.
> 
> This made Bill Gates furious and he went on and wrote an open letter to the computer community denouncing piracy. He had two problems: that Draper had stolen a tape and copied it, and that the tape that he had gotten hold of was an early buggy version, making Altair BASIC look bad.
------
Altair_BASIC|990534646
7c7,10
< This made Bill Gates furious and he went on and wrote an open letter to the computer community denouncing piracy. He had two problems: that Draper had stolen a tape and copied it, and that the tape that he had gotten hold of was an early buggy version, making Altair BASIC look bad.
---
> This made Bill Gates furious and he went on and wrote an open letter to the computer community denouncing piracy. He had two problems: that Draper had stolen a tape and copied it, and that the tape that he had gotten hold of was an early buggy version, making Altair BASIC look bad.
> 
> See also:
> * Bill Gates' open letter: http://www.tranquileye.com/cyber/1976/gates_open_letter_to_hobbyists.html
------
Iodine|990535628
1a2,3
> 
> One of the [[halogen]]s, it is an essential trace element; the [[thyroid]] [[hormone]] molecule, known as <i>[[thyroxine]]</i>,  contains iodine atoms.  In areas where there is little iodine in the diet -typically remote inland areas where no marine foods are eaten - iodine deficiency gives rise to [[goitre]]. In many (but not all) such areas, this is now prevented by the addition of small amounts of sodium iodide to table salt - this product is known as <i>iodised salt</i>
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990535782
25a26,27
> ----
> Please stick around, LA2. Larry has some opinions (which weren't directed at anyone personally) that aren't necessarily shared by everyone. Personally, I don't see a problem with dictionary-style entries; they can clarify jargon within articles and act as placeholders until a full article is prepared. I don't think such entries would confuse newcomers, but rather would encourage them to write about a subject that has a brief entry. -- [[STG]]
------
Thyroid|990536368
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
---
> One of the glands of the [[Endocrinology|endocrine]] system, the thyroid is a small gland found in the neck. It is the site where the [[hormone]] [[thyroxine]] is synthesised. 
> 
> In areas where [[iodine]] - essential for the production of thyroxine - is lacking in the diet, the thyroid gland can be considerably enlarged, giving the swollen necks of [[goitre]].
> 
> Thyroxine is critical to the regulation of metabolism, deficiency
> (called <i>hypothyroidism</i> ) results in the sufferer feeling tired, gaining weight; children born with such a deficiency will not grow well, and brain development can be severely impaired.
> New-born children in many developed counties are now routinely tested at birth for thyroid hormone deficiency; this is done by analysis of a small spot of blood from the child (usually, the spot is also tested for [[phenylketonuria]] at the same time). A child so affected is easily treated by supplementation with synthetic thyroxine, which enables them to grow and develop normally.
>  
------
Phenylketonuria|990536393
5c5
< The problem is readily detectable within days of birth from a small blood sample, so screening for phenylketonuria is done routinely in most industrialised countries. If diagnosed early enough, an affected child can grow up with normal brain development, by feeding with a diet low in phenylalanine.
---
> The problem is readily detectable within days of birth from a small blood sample, so screening for phenylketonuria is done routinely in most industrialised countries, usually combined with testing for proper [[thyroid]] function. If diagnosed early enough, an affected child can grow up with normal brain development, by feeding with a diet low in phenylalanine.
------
Goitre|990536589
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The swollen neck seen on people living in geographic areas deficient in [[iodine]] - <i>See</i> [[Thyroid]]
------
LA2|990536778
18a19,20
> ----
> Here's another request that you stay. If you want to write definition articles, do so. If others don't like them, they can add to them. It's as simple as that. -- [[STG]]
------
Eskimo|990537237
1c1,3
< The [[Inuit]] as a people, or an individual Inuit person.  See [[Inuit]] for notes on the meaning of this word and about the Inuit themselves.
---
> Eskimo refers to the people of the far north living from [[Greenland]] to [[Siberia]]. It came from the Canadian [[Cree]] word meaning "eater of raw flesh" and is seen by some as derogatory. European explorers continually called all the people they met as hey explored from east to west by this term.  Their culture is broadly the same over all the area; although, the eastern groups speak [[Inupik]] dialect and the western, [[Yupik]]. Kinship culture also differs east and west as eastern Eskimo lived with ousin of both mother and father but western Eskimo lived in paternal kinship groups. Many of these groups identify themselves as [[Inuit]], [[Inuvialuit]] or [[Yupikhyt]].
> 
> The Eskimo were hunters, who hunt whale, walrus and seal by [[kayak]] or by waiting at their airholes in the ice. They used [[igloo]]s as hunting or emergency shelters. They made ingenious use of animal skins in their clothing. [[Dog sled]]s are used for travel. 
------
Thyroid|990537436
8a9,12
> In cases of excess production of thyroxine, (<i>Hyperthyroidism</i>), the sufferer has an increased heart rate and metabolism, and can be intolerant of heat. The thyroid can be treated by drugs that inhibit thyroxine production.
> 
> Because of the thyroid's selective uptake and extreme concentration of what is a quite rare element, it is extremely sensitive to the effects of various radioactive isotopes of iodine produced by nuclear fission. In the event of large accidental releases of such material into the environment, the uptake of the radioactive iodine by the thyroid can, in theory,  be blocked by saturating the uptake mechanism with a large surplus of non-radioactive iodine i.e. iodide tablets. Biological researchers making compounds labelled with iodine isotopes do this, but in the wider world such countermeasures are not necessarily stockpiled before an accident, or distributed adequately after - one consequence of [[Chernobyl disaster]] was an increase in thyroid cancers in the years following the accident.
> 
------
Inuit|990537511
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]''; see below) are the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. They also live in [[Greenland]] and [[Alaska]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Closely related groups live in [[Greenland]], [[Siberia]] and [[Alaska]].
11,12d10
< * [[Canada]]
< * [[Greenland]]
13a12,13
> * [[Northwest Territory]]
> * [[Yukon]]
------
Endocrinology|990537644
7c7
< * [[Hyperthyroidism ]] and [[Graves-Basedow disease]]
---
> *  Diseases of the [[thyroid]] - Hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, and [[Graves-Basedow disease]]
10d9
< * [[Hypothyroidism ]]
17c16
< * [[Insulinoma]]
---
> * [[Insulinoma]]
------
Axiom_of_choice|990537804
28a29,30
> The Axiom of choice has been proven to be independent of the remaining axioms of [[Set Theory]], that is, it can be neither proven nor disproven from them.
> 
31c33
< --RaviDesai
---
> --RaviDesai
------
Axiom_of_choice|990537821
33c33
< --RaviDesai
---
> --RaviDesai (and others)
------
Inuit|990537884
12,13c12,13
< * [[Northwest Territory]]
< * [[Yukon]]
---
> * [[Northwest Territories]]
> * [[Yukon]]
------
Continuum_hypothesis|990538128
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> As is shown by the [[Diagonal argument]] of Cantor, there are an infinite number of infinities. The smallest infinity, called aleph_0, is the [[countable]] infinity, that is, the same infinity as the number of [[Integer]]s. Another infinity is that of the [[Real number]]s, which is shown by the Diagonal argument to be larger. But is it the next largest infinity, aleph_1? This is the subject of the Continuum hypothesis. The Continuum hypothesis states that the second smallest infinity, aleph_1, is equal to the 'continuum', which is the number of reals.
> 
> It has been shown that the Continuum hypothesis is independent from the remaining axioms of [[Set Theory]], that is, it can neither be proven nor disproven from them.
------
Andre_Engels|990538181
6c6,8
< Don't think I've welcomed you yet, so, welcome, Andre!  Great work. --[[LMS]]
---
> Don't think I've welcomed you yet, so, welcome, Andre!  Great work. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> For my pride, and maybe also a bit for your curiosity, I am keeping a list of pages I created at [[/Pages]]
------
Inuktitut|990538300
1c1
< The language of the [[Inuit]]. Contrary to popular belief, there is only one word for "snow" in Inuktitut: <i>aput</i>.
---
> The language of the [[Inuit]].
3c3,5
< See also: [[Nunavut]], [[Inuit]]
---
> For some Inuktitut words for snow, see http://www.arctic.ca/LUS/Snow%26Ice.html
> 
> See also: [[Nunavut]], [[Inuit]], [[Yupik]], [[Inupik]]
------
Inuit|990538396
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit".
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit". Inuit refers to three or more people, one person is an Inuk. (what are two people called?) 
------
Thyroid|990538583
5,7c5,8
< Thyroxine is critical to the regulation of metabolism, deficiency
< (called <i>hypothyroidism</i> ) results in the sufferer feeling tired, gaining weight; children born with such a deficiency will not grow well, and brain development can be severely impaired.
< New-born children in many developed counties are now routinely tested at birth for thyroid hormone deficiency; this is done by analysis of a small spot of blood from the child (usually, the spot is also tested for [[phenylketonuria]] at the same time). A child so affected is easily treated by supplementation with synthetic thyroxine, which enables them to grow and develop normally.
---
> Thyroxine is critical to the regulation of metabolism and growth, throughout the animal kingdom. Among amphibians, for example, administering a thyroid blocking agent such as propylthiouracil
> can prevent tadpoles from metamorphosing into frogs; conversely, administering thyroxine will trigger off metamorphosis.
> 
> In humans, children born with thyroid hormone deficiency deficiency will not grow well, and brain development can be severely impaired, in the condition referred to as <i>cretinism</i> New-born children in many developed counties are now routinely tested at birth for thyroid hormone deficiency; this is done by analysis of a small spot of blood from the child (usually, the spot is also tested for [[phenylketonuria]] at the same time). A child so affected is easily treated by supplementation with synthetic thyroxine, which enables them to grow and develop normally.
9c10,12
< In cases of excess production of thyroxine, (<i>Hyperthyroidism</i>), the sufferer has an increased heart rate and metabolism, and can be intolerant of heat. The thyroid can be treated by drugs that inhibit thyroxine production.
---
> <i>Hypothyroidism</i> is the condition whereby, for some reason there is inadequate thyroxine; sufferers tend to be tired, gain weight, feel mentally sluggish and feel the cold more thatn normal: treatment is by replacing the missing hormone by a simple tanblet of syntheic hormone.
> 
> <i>Hyperthyroidism</i> is the excess production of thyroxine - the sufferer has an increased heart rate and metabolism, and can be intolerant of heat. This can be treated by drugs that inhibit thyroxine production, or even removel of the thyroid in extrmem cases (once the thyroid is removed, the sufferer has to take replacement thyroxine for the rest of her (women appear to suffer thyroid disease more than men) life.
11c14
< Because of the thyroid's selective uptake and extreme concentration of what is a quite rare element, it is extremely sensitive to the effects of various radioactive isotopes of iodine produced by nuclear fission. In the event of large accidental releases of such material into the environment, the uptake of the radioactive iodine by the thyroid can, in theory,  be blocked by saturating the uptake mechanism with a large surplus of non-radioactive iodine i.e. iodide tablets. Biological researchers making compounds labelled with iodine isotopes do this, but in the wider world such countermeasures are not necessarily stockpiled before an accident, or distributed adequately after - one consequence of [[Chernobyl disaster]] was an increase in thyroid cancers in the years following the accident.
---
> Because of the thyroid's selective uptake and extreme concentration of what is actually a quite rare element, it is extremely sensitive to the effects of various radioactive isotopes of iodine produced by nuclear fission. In the event of large accidental releases of such material into the environment, the uptake of the radioactive iodine by the thyroid can, in theory,  be blocked by saturating the uptake mechanism with a large surplus of non-radioactive iodine i.e. iodide tablets. Biological researchers making compounds labelled with iodine isotopes do this, but in the wider world such countermeasures are not necessarily stockpiled before an accident, or distributed adequately after - one consequence of [[Chernobyl disaster]] was an increase in thyroid cancers in the years following the accident.
------
Parsec|990539209
1c1
< A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 parsec or 1 pc = 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> meters.
---
> A [[unit]] of [[length]], 1 parsec or 1 pc = 3.085 68 x 10<sup>16</sup> meters. It is defined by the fact that an object at a distance of 1 parsec has a yearly [[Parallax]] of one second of an arc.
------
Thule|990539305
1c1
< 1. An ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]].
---
> 1. An ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]]. First mentioned by [[Pytheas]].
------
Pytheas|990539630
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Pytheas was a Greek geographer from the fourth century BC. He lived in Massilia (present-day [[Marseille]]), and is famous for a voyage he made to the north.
> 
> On this voyage, he travelled to [[Great Britain]], and possibly circumnavigated it. He also mentions a land called [[Thule]] which was even further north. Whether Thule was [[Scandinavia]], the [[Shetland Islands]] or [[Iceland]] is not known, it is also not sure whether Pytheas actually visited Thule or only heared about it. He may have visited the [[North Sea]] coasts, including the [[amber]] island of [[Helgoland]], and possibly even the [[Baltic]].
> 
> Unfortunately, the book that Pytheas wrote about his travels has been lost, and all we know about him comes from later Greek and Roman commentators, who were very critical of him and did not believe he actually visited the lands he claimed to have visited. Nevertheless, the details that these commentaries mention were enough to show later historians that he actually did.
------
Thule|990539670
1c1
< 1. An ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]]. First mentioned by [[Pytheas]].
---
> 1. An ancient Roman name for a mythical country in the far north, perhaps [[Scandinavia]]. First mentioned by [[Pytheas]]. In the [[Middle Ages]], the name was sometimes used to denote [[Iceland]].
------
Monotremata|990539792
14c14
< [[Platypus]] has only one genus comprising one species: Ormithorhynchus anatinus
---
> [[Platypus]] has only one genus comprising one species: Ormithorhynchus anatinus.<br>
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990539932
3c3
< The fallacy may adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that under some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
---
> The fallacy may be adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that under some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
------
Logical_fallacy|990539980
71c71
<  [[/Relativist fallacy|Relativist fallacy]]
---
>  [[/Relativist Fallacy|Relativist fallacy]]
------
WikiPediaBugs|990540215
107a108,110
> 
> Reaction: I think that what happened, is that you were watching I previously cached version of the parent page. Just doing a 'reload' (or whatever it is called on your browser) should make the links work. -- [[Andre Engels]]
> 
------
Andre_Engels/Pages|990540259
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> These are pages I either created or of which, at some point in time, most text and information was from me. This list is probably incomplete, because I was already working at some length before starting it. Not included are cases where I merely moved existing text from one entry to another.
> 
> * [[Bridge]]
> * [[Continuum hypothesis]]
> * [[Cosmology]]
> * [[Go]]
> * [[Logical fallacy/Appeal to popularity]]
> * [[Logical fallacy/Begging the question]]
> * [[Logical fallacy/False dilemma]]
> * [[Logical fallacy/Many Questions]]
> * [[Netherlands/History]]
> * [[Netherlands/Politics]]
> * [[Nobel Prize/Peace]]
> * [[Post-Communism]]
> * [[Pytheas]]
> 
> Some pages at which I made a smaller but still important contribution (necessarily incomplete):
> 
> * [[Albert Einstein]]
> * [[I]]
> * [[Netherlandic language]] (the list of Dutch words in English)
> * [[Pope]]
> * [[Race]]
------
Germany/politics|990540413
55c55
< :Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party: [[SPD]] 40.9%, Alliance '90/Greens 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%
---
> :Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party: [[SPD]] 40.9%, [[German Green party|Alliance '90/Greens]] 6.7%, [[CDU]]/[[CSU]] 35.1%, [[FDP]] 6.2%, [[PDS]] 5.1%
------
Technetium|990540453
1a2,4
> 
> 
> Technetium is unusual because it has no stable isotopes, and so none of it could be found anywhere on Earth, all Technetium of natural origin having decayed long ago. For a number of years, there was a gap in the periodic table corresponding to Technetium, until, with the development of nuclear energy in the [[20th century]], it could be generated by nuclear reactions. (hence its name, to mark its existence on Earth as the product of technology) Once it was available in macroscopic quantities i.e. enough to determine its chemical and physical properties, it was discovered to exist naturally elsewhere in the universe -  some red giant stars contain an emission line in their spectrum corresponding to the presence of technetium.
------
Social_Democrats|990540857
3c3
< The Social Democratic current came into being by a break within the Socialist movement in the early 20th century. One group of socialists rejected the idea of a socialist revolution and instead tried to achieve the socialist ideals through democratic means. Since then, differences between these social democrats and [[Communism|Communists]] have grown. Nowadays, social democrats are in favor of a [[Capitalism|Capitalistic]] [[Market economy]], but with a strong and large government. In general, social democrats are in favor of:
---
> The Social Democratic current came into being by a break within the Socialist movement in the early 20th century. One group of socialists rejected the idea of a socialist revolution and instead tried to achieve the socialist ideals through democratic means. Since then, differences between these social democrats and [[Communism|Communists]] have grown. Nowadays, social democrats are in favor of a [[Capitalism|Capitalistic]] [[Market economy]], but with a strong and large government.
5c5,7
< * Private enterprise, but regulated to protect the interests of workers, consumers and small enterprise
---
> In general, social democrats are in favor of:
> 
> * Private enterprise, but strongly regulated to protect the interests of workers, consumers and small enterprise
------
Inuit|990541056
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Closely related groups live in [[Greenland]], [[Siberia]] and [[Alaska]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Other Inuit people, or closely related people, live in [[Greenland]], [[Siberia]] and [[Alaska]].
13a14,15
> 
> /Talk
------
Inuit/Talk|990541173
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Eskimos of Alaska are also called "Inuit," or so I thought, and I thought the natives of Greenland are too.  I don't know how these people are related to the natives of northern Siberia. --[[LMS]], who is from [[Alaska]] but who is not Inuit
------
Zulu|990541202
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> African tribe of some 3 million people who live mainly in [[Natal]] Province, [[South Africa]]. They moved into South Africa in the 1500's from the [[Congo]] region. Under their king, [[Shaka]], in the early 1800's they expanded their kingdom from 100 square miles to 11,000. Famous for their conflicts with Boer settlers and the British army in the 1800's (for instance, the [[Anglo-Zulu War]] in 1879.) Today they are known for their basketry and beadwork and as subsistance farmers. They are still recovering from the racial policy of [[apartheid]]. Their language is [[KwaZulu]].
> 
> See also [[Inkatha Freedom Party]], [[African National Congress]]
> 
> Related tribes: [[Swazi]], [[Xhosa]], [[Matabele]]
------
AstroNomy|990541471
1c1
< #REDIRECT [[Astronomy]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
------
Inuit|990541557
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Canada]], in the territory of [[Nunavut]]. Other Inuit people, or closely related people, live in [[Greenland]], [[Siberia]] and [[Alaska]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Greenland]].  Other large portions live in [[Alaska]], [[Canada]] (especially in the territory of [[Nunavut]]), and a very small number live on the northeastern tip of [[Siberia]].
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit". Inuit refers to three or more people, one person is an Inuk. (what are two people called?) 
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit". Inuit refers to three or more people, one person is an Inuk. (We are waiting for someone to tell us what two people are called. :-) )
15c15,18
< /Talk
---
> Links:
> *[http://yomee.com/Religions/Other/Inuit.htm Something about the religion and demographics of the Inuit]
> 
> /Talk
------
Politics|990541843
9c9
< [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- CommunisM -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] -- DemocracY -- [[Fascism]] -- FederalisM -- FeudalisM -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- OligarchY -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- SyndicalisM -- SocialisM -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- Totalitarianism -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- [[Communism]] -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Fascism]] -- [[Federalism]] -- [[Feudalism]] -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- [[Oligarchy]] -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- [[Syndicalism]] -- [[Socialism]] -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- [[Totalitarianism]] -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Gods|990541855
36a37
> :[[Gaia]]
37a39,40
> :[[Hebe]]
> :[[Hekate]]
40a44
> :[[Pan]]
42a47,49
> :[[Zephyrus]]
> 
> See also [[Demigods]]
70c77
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
FederalisM|990541899
1c1
< It was futile.
---
> 
------
Oligarchy|990541991
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> When power is effectively vested in a segment of the governed society 
> (typically the richest segment), the result is a government of the few
> against the many.  Often, these oligarchies are organized into powerful
> families, where the children are raised and groomed simply to propagate
> and advance the power of the oligarchy, usually at the expense of the 
> governed.  Oligarchies often arise as a natural course of 
> maturing of a republic, and often devolve into Authoritarian governments, 
> as one family gains supremacy over all of the others.
------
OligarchY|990542006
1,10c1
< When power is effectively vested in a segment of the governed society 
< (typically the richest segment), the result is a government of the few
< against the many.  Often, these oligarchies are organized into powerful
< families, where the children are raised and groomed simply to propagate
< and advance the power of the oligarchy, usually at the expense of the 
< governed.  Oligarchies often arise as a natural course of 
< maturing of a republic, and often devolve into AuthoritariaN governments, 
< as one family gains supremacy over all of the others.
< 
< -- BryceHarrington
---
> #REDIRECT [[Oligarchy]]
------
Politics|990542084
9c9
< [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- CapitalisM -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- [[Communism]] -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Fascism]] -- [[Federalism]] -- [[Feudalism]] -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- [[Oligarchy]] -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- [[Syndicalism]] -- [[Socialism]] -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- [[Totalitarianism]] -- TraditionalAnarchism
---
> [[Anarchism]] -- AnarchoCapitalism -- [[Bolshevism]] -- [[Capitalism]] -- [[Classical Liberalism]] -- [[Communism]] -- [[Conservatism]] -- [[Crony capitalism]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Fascism]] -- [[Federalism]] -- [[Feudalism]] -- [[Liberalism]] -- [[Libertarianism]] -- [[Marxism]] -- NationalSocialism -- [[Neo-Liberalism]] -- [[Neo-Conservatism]] -- [[Oligarchy]] -- [[Plutocracy]] -- [[Republicanism]] (and we don't mean the GOP) -- [[States Rights]] -- [[Syndicalism]] -- [[Socialism]] -- TechnoAnarchy -- TechnoCapitalism -- TechnoDemocracy -- TechnoOligarchy -- TheNewLeft -- TheOldLeft -- ThirdWay -- [[Totalitarianism]] -- TraditionalAnarchism
------
Inuit|990542086
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  Most of the Inuit live in [[Greenland]].  Other large portions live in [[Alaska]], [[Canada]] (especially in the territory of [[Nunavut]]), and a very small number live on the northeastern tip of [[Siberia]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  The largest portion of Inuit people live in [[Greenland]].  Other large portions live in [[Alaska]] and [[Canada]] (especially in the territory of [[Nunavut]]), and a very small number live on the northeastern tip of [[Siberia]].
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit". Inuit refers to three or more people, one person is an Inuk. (We are waiting for someone to tell us what two people are called. :-) )
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit".  In Alaska, according to [http://borealis.lib.uconn.edu/ArcticCircle/SEEJ/Landclaims/alaskanative.html this page], the Inuit continue to be called "Eskimo" particularly in order to distinguish them from two other aboriginal groups: the [[Aleut]]s and various [[American Indian]] (e.g., [[Athabascan]], [[Tlingit]], [[Haida]]) people.  In the language of the Inuit itself, "Inuit" refers to three or more people, while one person is called an "Inuk." (We are waiting for someone to tell us what two people are called. :-) )
------
English_language|990542127
16c16
< English is noted for the vast size of its vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and [[slang]] provides new meanings for old words and imports new loan words which often come into common usage.
---
> English is noted for the vast size of its vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new loan words which often come into common usage. In addition, [[Slang]] provides new meanings for old words.
------
Inuit|990542133
1c1
< The ''Inuit'' (more commonly known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  The largest portion of Inuit people live in [[Greenland]].  Other large portions live in [[Alaska]] and [[Canada]] (especially in the territory of [[Nunavut]]), and a very small number live on the northeastern tip of [[Siberia]].
---
> The ''Inuit'' (also known as ''[[Eskimo]]'') are one of the native people of the far north of [[North America]].  The largest portion of Inuit people live in [[Greenland]].  Other large portions live in [[Alaska]] and [[Canada]] (especially in the territory of [[Nunavut]]), and a very small number live on the northeastern tip of [[Siberia]].
------
Inuit|990542238
3c3
< In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people".  They are also known under the name "Eskimo", which is derived from the language of the [[Cree]], and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit".  In Alaska, according to [http://borealis.lib.uconn.edu/ArcticCircle/SEEJ/Landclaims/alaskanative.html this page], the Inuit continue to be called "Eskimo" particularly in order to distinguish them from two other aboriginal groups: the [[Aleut]]s and various [[American Indian]] (e.g., [[Athabascan]], [[Tlingit]], [[Haida]]) people.  In the language of the Inuit itself, "Inuit" refers to three or more people, while one person is called an "Inuk." (We are waiting for someone to tell us what two people are called. :-) )
---
> In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, "Inuit" means "the people".  The name "Eskimo" is derived from the language of the [[Cree]] and means "eaters of raw meat".  However, many Inuit consider this name to be derogatory; among many, it is falling out of use in favor of "Inuit".  In Alaska, according to [http://borealis.lib.uconn.edu/ArcticCircle/SEEJ/Landclaims/alaskanative.html this page], the Inuit continue to be called "Eskimo" more commonly particularly in order to distinguish them from two other aboriginal groups of [[Alaska]]: the [[Aleut]]s and various [[American Indian]] (e.g., [[Athabascan]], [[Tlingit]], [[Haida]]) people.  In the language of the Inuit itself, "Inuit" refers to three or more people, while one person is called an "Inuk." (We are waiting for someone to tell us what two people are called. :-) )
------
Andre_Engels/Pages|990542362
2a3
> * [[Black Body]]
4a6
> * [[Cosmic Background Radiation]]
5a8
> * [[Dependent areas]]
6a10,11
> * [[Integers]]
> * [[Liberalism]]
10c15,16
< * [[Logical fallacy/Many Questions]]
---
> * [[Logical fallacy/Many questions]]
> * [[LowGerman]]
13a20
> * [[Nomic]]
15a23,25
> * [[Social Democrats]]
> * [[Trick-taking game]]
> * [[Unclassified game]]
20c30,34
< * [[I]]
---
> * [[Asteroid]]
> * [[Be]] (as an abbreviation of Beryllium)
> * [[Countably infinite]]
> * [[Countries of the world]]
> * [[I]] (as a word or an abbreviation of Iodine)
------
Inuit|990542411
6d5
< 
8,13c7
< 
< See also:
< * [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]
< * [[Inuktitut]]
< * [[Northwest Territories]]
< * [[Yukon]]
---
> See also: [[Inuktitut]]; [[Native American]]; [[Greenland]]; [[Canada/Provinces and territories|Canadian provinces and territories]]; [[Northwest Territories]]; [[Yukon]]
18c12
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Native_American|990542650
2a3,6
> '''Tribes'''
> 
> '''Cultural characteristics'''
> 
9,11c13
< '''Tribes'''
< 
< '''Cultural characteristics'''
---
> One difficulty with the term, however, as a substitute for "American Indian," is that there are at least two peoples who certainly are natives of the Americas, but which are not properly considered American Indians: the [[Inuit]] and the [[Aleut]] people of the far north of the continent.
------
Charles_Lutwidge_Dodgson|990542664
11,12c11
< He is also notable as one of the pioneers of [[photography]], having taken 
< many portraits of notables of the time. 
---
> He is also notable as one of the pioneers of [[photography]], his photographs are considered among the best amateur photographs of the period, if not of all times. His favorite subjects were little girls and famous people.
------
Cosmology/Talk|990543145
21a22,23
> ----
> The origins of such words as "cosmology" should not be dated from its first appearance in English but from its first appearance by educated people (who all use variants of the same basic, usually Latin or Greek, words).  Anyway, though, ''today,'' the word is just used differently by different people; nothing unusual about that.  I'd just emphasize that the fact that the physicists use the term in one particular way gives us no reason whatever to suppose that their usage is the "correct" one.  There is no single correct usage, it seems. --[[LMS]]
------
Cosmology/Talk|990543188
23c23
< The origins of such words as "cosmology" should not be dated from its first appearance in English but from its first appearance by educated people (who all use variants of the same basic, usually Latin or Greek, words).  Anyway, though, ''today,'' the word is just used differently by different people; nothing unusual about that.  I'd just emphasize that the fact that the physicists use the term in one particular way gives us no reason whatever to suppose that their usage is the "correct" one.  There is no single correct usage, it seems. --[[LMS]]
---
> The origins of such words as "cosmology" should not be dated from its first appearance in English but from its first appearance by educated people (whose jargon and names for theories and such are often variants of the same basic, usually Latin or Greek, words).  Anyway, though, ''today,'' the word is just used differently by different people; nothing unusual about that.  I'd just emphasize that the fact that the physicists use the term in one particular way gives us no reason whatever to suppose that their usage is the "correct" one.  There is no single correct usage, it seems. --[[LMS]]
------
Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary|990543578
11c11
< Moreover, there are plenty of senses of terms that ''aren't'' of interest ''in an encyclopedia.''  They would be ''in a dictionary,'' but Wikipedia isn't a dictionary.
---
> Moreover, there are plenty of senses of terms that ''aren't'' of interest ''in an encyclopedia.''  They would be, ''in a dictionary,'' but Wikipedia isn't a dictionary.
27a28,29
> ----
> And for the record, I entirely respect [[STG]]'s opinion and that smart, honest people can disagree about this. --[[LMS]]
------
English_Channel|990544247
1c1,3
< The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].  ''La Manche'' in [[FrenchLanguage|French]].
---
> The body of water that separates the island of [[Britain]] from northern [[France]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from the [[North Sea]].  ''La Manche'' in [[FrenchLanguage|French]]. It is about 350 miles long and at its widest is 150 miles. The narrowest point is only 21 miles at Dover to Cape Gris-Nez.
> 
> The first person to swim the channel was Matthew Webb in 1875.
------
Horseshoe|990544775
7c7
< In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot becasue of inadequately thick and hard sole material.  Man has sought to remedy this lack with suppplemental support and [[armor]], beginning in the earliest days with [[rawhide boot]]s which could be tied onto the hoof.  Since that time, man developed metal shoes nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall.  In modern times, these nails are applied so as to enter the sole of the foot very near the edge, and at an angle which causes them to protrude through the hoof wall, where they are then bent over, cut off and "clinched" to hold in the hoof wall.
---
> In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot because of inadequately thick and hard sole material.  Man has sought to remedy this lack with suppplemental support and [[armor]], beginning in the earliest days with [[rawhide boot]]s which could be tied onto the hoof.  Since that time, man developed metal shoes nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall.  In modern times, these nails are applied so as to enter the sole of the foot very near the edge, and at an angle which causes them to protrude through the hoof wall, where they are then bent over, cut off and "clinched" to hold in the hoof wall.
9c9
< Advances in [[technology]] and materials have led to shoes which can be glued to the bottom of the foot, and which are composed of tough but yielding materials.  This cushions ground impacts without adding rigidity or excessive weight to the foot and without requiring nail holes.  Typically such applications respond to special needs or [[veterinary medicine|medical problems]] of a given animal, and are not routine.  Iron is still favored as the most desired material for horse shoes, because the rigidity which it provides protects the hoof against certain types of injury (such as [[heel shear]]) which other materials do not protect against.
---
> Advances in [[technology]] and materials have led to shoes which can be glued to the bottom of the foot, and which are composed of tough but yielding materials.  This cushions ground impacts without adding rigidity or excessive weight to the foot and without requiring nail holes.  Typically such applications respond to special needs or [[veterinary medicine|medical problems]] of a given animal, and are not routine.  Iron is still favored as the most desired material for horse shoes, because the rigidity which it provides protects the hoof against certain types of injury (such as [[heel shear]]) which other materials do not protect against.
------
Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show|990545949
1c1
< Campy,emphatically kinky but hilarious film in which a straight-laced couple with a flat tire stop at a castle in the woods to use the phone.  In the castle, Dr. Frank N Furter, a gender-bending scientist from another planet, is giving a party to celebrate the creation of a male playmate.  Features Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N Furter and Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick as the straight-laced and initially horrified couple.  The film was based on a long-running play.
---
> Campy, emphatically kinky but hilarious film in which a straight-laced couple with a flat tire stop at a castle in the woods to use the phone.  In the castle, Dr. Frank N Furter, a gender-bending scientist from another planet, is giving a party to celebrate the creation of a male playmate.  Features Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N Furter and Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick as the straight-laced and initially horrified couple.  The film was based on a long-running play.  A cult following developed as the show began playing at midnight, first at the Waverly Theater in New York City.  People began shouting responses to the characters' statements on the screen. (including abuse of the characters or actors, vulgar sex jokes, puns, or pop culture references)  Now, casts of fans dress up as the characters and act out the movie in front of the screen.  25 years and going strong!
------
Requested_articles|990546615
11c11
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]] -- [[Joan of Arc]]
22c22
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]] --[[Beowulf]]
32c32
< <b>[[Folklore]]</b> (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.) 
---
> <b>[[Folklore]]</b> [[Paul Bunyan]] -- [[Stagger Lee]] (If you want to write about folklore, please come up with a list of folklore topics that are actually recognized as distinct, significant topics in [[folklore]], a subject that you are not likely to know much about if all you've done along these lines is play [[Dungeons and Dragons]], q.v.) 
------
Requested_articles|990548909
16c16
< [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]] -- [[Acoustics]]
---
> [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]] -- [[Acoustics]] -- [[Fibonacci numbers]]
------
Talk_radio|990548916
1c1,3
< ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).  
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
> 
> [[/Talk]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990548990
23c23
< :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
---
> :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]] [[Requested articles]]
------
Talk_radio/Talk|990549142
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I for one don't much like the characterization of Howard Stern as "libertarian"; when he ran for office, he was a big supporter of public schools, public roads, and many other government programs.  He ran as a libertarian because it was easy for him to "take over" the state party by flooding it with his fans.  The party later disavowed his candidacy.  He certainly is a fan of free speech, though, so I can't fault him there. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker]]
> 
------
Wireless_telegraphy|990549363
3c3
< A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.  Early radio could not transfer sounds, only the clicks of [[Morse code]].  Read more about [[Radio/History]].  The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist [[Reginald Aubrey Fessenden]].
---
> A few decades later, the term [[radio]] became more popular.  Early radio could not transfer sounds, only the clicks of [[Morse code]].  Canadian-American scientist [[Reginald Aubrey Fessenden]] was the first to wirelessly transmit a human voice (his own).  Read more about [[Radio/History]].
6,7d5
< ----
< ''"The first human voice ever transmitted wirelessly was by Canadian-American scientist [[Reginald Aubrey Fessenden]]."  Do you mean that Fessenden transmitted the first voice, or that Fessenden's voice was transmitted?  (You could mean both, I suppose!)''
------
Popeye|990551004
1,8c1
< A [[cartoon]] figure and [[comic strip]].
< He is a sailor, that, when in trouble, eats spinach that
< give him superhuman strength. It usually need it to save his
< sweethearth [[Olivia]] from [[Brutus]].
< 
< Apparently, the reference to spinach comes from the publication
< of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times
< its [[iron]] content.
---
> A [[cartoon]] figure and [[comic strip]] created by Elzie Crisler Segar in 1929 and syndicated by the Hearst newspapers King Features syndicate.  He is a sailor who, when in trouble, eats spinach that gives him superhuman strength.  It is usually to save his sweetheart [[Olive Oyl]] from his nemesis [[Brutus]].  
9a3
> After Segar's death in 1938, many different artists were hired to draw the strip, some more popular than others.  [[Robert Altman]] used the character in a 1980 feature film starring [[Robin Williams]] and [[Shelley Duvall]].
10a5
> The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]].
13d7
< 
------
International_Wikipedia|990551572
53c53,55
< :This does seem to be worse on de.wikipedia.com, guys.  Can you please look into it...?  Or should I make a JobRequest?  SoniC, we're aware of this problem; it has been plaguing www.wikipedia.com for months... --[[LMS]]
---
> :This does seem to be worse on de.wikipedia.com, guys.  Can you please look into it...?  Or should I make a JobRequest?  SoniC, we're aware of this problem; it has been plaguing www.wikipedia.com for months... --[[LMS]]
> ----
> I just read that the Wikipedia config file has an option ($NONENGLISH) that allows the usage of special characters (umlauts, accented letters) in links. Do you think this could be activated for the International Wikipedias (last time I checked de.wikipedia, it didn't work, so I guess it is not activated yet...)  --SoniC
------
Popeye|990551744
5c5
< The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]].
---
> The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]] - coincidently (or not?), there is a chain of hamburger restaurants in the [[UK]] that is called Wimpy.
7c7
< http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/popeye/about.htm
---
> http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/popeye/about.htm
------
Popeye|990551777
5c5
< The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]] - coincidently (or not?), there is a chain of hamburger restaurants in the [[UK]] that is called Wimpy.
---
> The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]] - coincidently (or not?), there is a chain of hamburger restaurants in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] that is called Wimpy.
------
Popeye|990552147
5c5
< The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]] - coincidently (or not?), there is a chain of hamburger restaurants in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] that is called Wimpy.
---
> The reference to spinach comes from the publication of a study that, because of a misprint, gave spinach ten times its [[iron]] content.  Another regular character in the strip was [[Wimpy]], who may have played a significant role in popularizing the [[hamburger]] in the [[United States]].  The Wimpy's chain of hamburger restaurants was not the first ([[White Castle]] is generally recognized as that), but was the first to go overseas.
7c7
< http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/popeye/about.htm
---
> http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/popeye/about.htm
------
Automated_Alice|990552531
2a3,4
> Errrrrr nooooooo! I read Automated Alice and just finished it yesterday, what I've wrote so far are <i>my</i> ([[Neeklay]]'s) own words, I didn't lift them from anywhere!
> ----
49c51
< :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
---
> :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
------
Automated_Alice|990552613
3c3
< Errrrrr nooooooo! I read Automated Alice and just finished it yesterday, what I've wrote so far are <i>my</i> ([[Neeklay]]'s) own words, I didn't lift them from anywhere!
---
> Errrrrr nooooooo! I read Automated Alice and just finished it yesterday, what I've wrote so far are <i>my</i> ([[Neeklamy]]'s) own words, I didn't lift them from anywhere!
------
Penis|990552690
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Penis</b>
> 
> Penis - male copulatory organ.<br>
> The penis is built of three columns of erectile [[tissue]] :
> * the two corpora cavernosa and
> * one corpus spongiosum which lies below them
> 
> The end of corpus spongiosum is enlarged and cone-shaped and forms so called
> [[glans penis]].<br>
> Erection is achieved by influx of blood into a labirynth of [[blood vessel]]s. The
> vessels are distended and reflex muscle contraction around veins traps blood in
> vessels of erectile tissue.<br>
> The [[urethra]] that is the last part of urinary tract traverses the corpus
> spongiosum and its end lies on the tip of the [[glans penis]]. Apart from being
> a passage for [[urine]] it also is for [[semen]] ejaculation.<br>
> A loose fold of skin partly covering the glans is called [[prepuce]].
> 
> Related subjects : [[impotence]], [[priapismus]], [[circumcision]], [[sexual
> intercourse]].
------
International_Wikipedia|990552973
55c55,58
< I just read that the Wikipedia config file has an option ($NONENGLISH) that allows the usage of special characters (umlauts, accented letters) in links. Do you think this could be activated for the International Wikipedias (last time I checked de.wikipedia, it didn't work, so I guess it is not activated yet...)  --SoniC
---
> I just read that the Wikipedia config file has an option ($NONENGLISH) that allows the usage of special characters (umlauts, accented letters) in links. Do you think this could be activated for the International Wikipedias (last time I checked de.wikipedia, it didn't work, so I guess it is not activated yet...)  --SoniC
> 
> I just created the '''Kurt Gödel''' page (just a stub--sorry, my German isn't up to a full article) with no problem.  The Spanish one works too, so KQ doesn't have to write a ''cien anos'' article :-) (For the non-Spanish speakers here who don't get the joke, KQ points out a good example of the importance of diacriticals.  In most Spanish text they don't make much difference, and even native speakers frequently leave them out, but the "año/ano" distinction makes a difference: "Tengo 40 años" means "I am 40 years old"; "Tengo 40 anos" means "I have 40 anuses".)  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Film_noir|990553568
3,16c3
< Classic examples of the genre include 
< :[[The Maltese Falcon]]
< :[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]
< :[[Touch of Evil]]
< :[[Laura]]
< :[[The Big Sleep]]
< 
< More recent, modernized examples include 
< :[[Blood Simple]]
< :[[Blue Velvet]]
< :[[Taxi Driver]]
< :[[L.A. Confidential]]
< :[[Blade Runner]]
< :[[Reservoir Dogs]]
---
> [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990553588
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Classic examples of the genre include: 
> 
> date not known (please fill in if you can)
> :[[The Racket]]
> :[[The Killer That Stalked New York]]
> :[[Roadblock]]
> :[[Laura]]
> 
> 
> <b>1941</b>
> :[[High Sierra]]
> <b>1942</b>
> :[[This Gun for Hire]]
> <b>1944</b>
> :[[Murder My Sweet]]
> :[[Double Indemnity]]
> <b>1945</b>
> :[[The Scarlet Street]]
> :[[The House on 92nd Street]]
> :[[Mildred Pierce]]
> <b>1946</b>
> :[[Gilda]]
> :[[The Maltese Falcon]]
> :[[The Big Sleep]]
> :[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]] 
> :[[So Dark the Night]]
> :[[The Killers]]
> <b>1947</b>
> :[[Born to Kill]]
> :[[Brute Force]]
> :[[Kiss of Death]]
> :[[Out of the Past]]
> :[[Possessed]]
> <b>1948</b>
> :[[Cry of the City]]
> :[[The Guilty]]
> :[[The Pitfall]]
> :[[The Naked City]]
> <b>1949</b>
> :[[Criss Cross]]
> :[[DOA|D.O.A.]]
> :[[The Reckless Moment]]
> :[[White Heat]]
> <b>1950</b>
> :[[Night and the City]]
> <b>1952</b>
> :[[The Captive City]]
> <b>1953</b>
> :[[The Blue Gardenia]]
> <b>1955</b>
> :[[Kiss Me Deadly]]
> <b>1958</b>
> :[[Touch of Evil]]
> 
> Crossovers with other genres:
> 
> with comedy: 
> :[[Monsieur Verdoux]] (1947)
> :[[Unfaithfully Yours]] (1948)
> 
> with western:
> :[[Colorado Territory]] (1948)
> :[[The Furies]] (1950)
> 
> More recent, modernized examples include: 
> 
> :[[Blue Velvet]]
> :[[Point Blank]] (1967)
> :[[Klute]] (1971)
> :[[Chinatown]] (1974)
> :[[Night Moves]] (1975)
> :[[Taxi Driver]] (1976)
> :[[Body Heat]] (1981) ''remake of [[Double Indemnity]]''
> :[[Blood Simple]] (1983)
> :[[L.A. Confidential]]
> :[[Blade Runner]]
> :[[Reservoir Dogs]]
> :[[Lost Highway]]
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990553657
73a74
> :[[Blade Runner]] (1982)
76d76
< :[[Blade Runner]]
------
Language|990556540
1,51c1
< Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing formal languages called [[programming language]]s are used, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: [[discreteness]]. 
< 
< The study of languages makes up [[linguistics]] and [[philology]].  Other important concepts:
< * [[philosophy of language|Philosophy of Language]]
< * [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]
< * [[Orthography]]
< 
< 
< Some of the major languages of the world:
< 
< * [[Arabic language]]
< * [[Chinese language]]
< * [[English language]]
< * [[French language]]
< * [[German language]]
< * [[Greek language]]
< * [[Hebrew language]]
< * [[Hindi language]]
< * [[Italian language]]
< * [[Japanese language]]
< * [[Korean language]]
< * [[Polish language]]
< * [[Portuguese language]]
< * [[Russian language]]
< * [[Spanish language]]
< * [[Turkish language]]
< 
< Grouped by families:
< 
< * [[Indo-European]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Italic languages]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], etc.)
< * [[Uralic languages]] (([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]])
< * [[Altaic languages]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolian languages|Mongolic]], [[Tunguzic languages|Tunguzic]])
< * [[Caucasian languages]] ([[Abkhazo-Adyghian languages|Abkhazo-Adyghian]], [[Nakho-Dagestanian languages|Nakho-Dagestanian]], [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]])
< * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
< * [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]], etc.)
< * [[Niger-Congo languages]] ([[Bantu languages|Bantu]], etc.)
< * [[Austroasiatic languages]]
< * [[Dravidian languages]]
< * [[Tai languages]]
< * Unique languages
< ** [[Basque language]]
< ** [[Etruscan language]]
< * ''Incertae sedis''
< ** [[Japanese language]]
< ** [[Korean language]]
< * [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
< 
< Grouped by geographical area:
< * [[SouthEastAsianLanguages|Southeast Asian languages]]
< ----
< /Talk
---
> 
------
Language|990556877
1c1,51
< 
---
> Languages are, roughly speaking, ways of representing things.  In mathematics and computing formal languages called [[programming language]]s are used, but most often the term refers to the languages we humans use in conversation and literature. Human language, actually, has one feature that cannot be found in programming languages: [[discreteness]]. 
> 
> The study of languages makes up [[linguistics]] and [[philology]].  Other important concepts:
> * [[philosophy of language|Philosophy of Language]]
> * [[SapirWhorfHypothesis|Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]
> * [[Orthography]]
> 
> 
> Some of the major languages of the world:
> 
> * [[Arabic language]]
> * [[Chinese language]]
> * [[English language]]
> * [[French language]]
> * [[German language]]
> * [[Greek language]]
> * [[Hebrew language]]
> * [[Hindi language]]
> * [[Italian language]]
> * [[Japanese language]]
> * [[Korean language]]
> * [[Polish language]]
> * [[Portuguese language]]
> * [[Russian language]]
> * [[Spanish language]]
> * [[Turkish language]]
> 
> Grouped by families:
> 
> * [[Indo-European]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Italic languages]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], etc.)
> * [[Uralic languages]] (([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], [[Samoyedic languages|Samoyedic]])
> * [[Altaic languages]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolian languages|Mongolic]], [[Tunguzic languages|Tunguzic]])
> * [[Caucasian languages]] ([[Abkhazo-Adyghian languages|Abkhazo-Adyghian]], [[Nakho-Dagestanian languages|Nakho-Dagestanian]], [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]])
> * [[Sino-Tibetan languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
> * [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]], etc.)
> * [[Niger-Congo languages]] ([[Bantu languages|Bantu]], etc.)
> * [[Austroasiatic languages]]
> * [[Dravidian languages]]
> * [[Tai languages]]
> * Unique languages
> ** [[Basque language]]
> ** [[Etruscan language]]
> * ''Incertae sedis''
> ** [[Japanese language]]
> ** [[Korean language]]
> * [[Artificial language]]s ([[Esperanto]], etc.)
> 
> Grouped by geographical area:
> * [[SouthEastAsianLanguages|Southeast Asian languages]]
> ----
> /Talk
------
Automated_Alice|990557908
3a4,9
> 
> I find it a bit disconcerting to be accused of [[plagarism]] - was it not obvious that this text is just a summary? that I wrote it (in good heart) in the style of the book? The book itself came out in 1996 and has been published a number of times over since - it's out there for anyone to track down and read and it runs to a bit more than a few mere paragraphs of poorly revised text (more like 252 pages of some very witty dialogue).
> 
> I'm sure you didn't mean offence, what with a number of indivduals stealing wholesale from various resources, but seriously, idle accusations of copyright infringement aren't appreciated at all - personally I would never plagarise and would never do anything to harm this new forum.
> 
> (half inch = pinch, [[Cockney rhyming slang]]
17,18c23,26
< [[/I|I]]
< :Through The Clock's Workings
---
> <b>Plot Summary</b>
> 
> 
> [[/I|I Through The Clock's Workings]]
20,21c28
< [[/II|II]]
< :The Wriggling of a Worm
---
> [[/II|II The Wriggling of a Worm]]
23,24c30
< [[/III|III]]
< :Alice's Twin Twister
---
> [[/III|III Alice's Twin Twister]]
26,27c32
< [[/IV|IV]]
< :Adventures in a Garden Shed
---
> [[/IV|IV Adventures in a Garden Shed]]
29,30c34
< [[/V|V]]
< :The Long Paw of the Law
---
> [[/V|V The Long Paw of the Law]]
32,33c36
< [[/VI|VI]]
< :Languishing in Gaol
---
> [[/VI|VI Languishing in Gaol]]
35,36c38
< [[/VII|VII]]
< :The Stroke of Noon
---
> [[/VII|VII The Stroke of Noon]]
38,39c40
< [[/VIII|VIII]]
< :Alice Looks up Herself
---
> [[/VIII|VIII Alice Looks up Herself]]
41,42c42
< [[/IX|IX]]
< :The Hunting of the Quark
---
> [[/IX|IX The Hunting of the Quark]]
44,45c44
< [[/X|X]]
< :Snakes and leaders
---
> [[/X|X Snakes and leaders]]
47,48c46
< [[/XI|XI]]
< :Dorothy, Dorothy and Dorothy
---
> [[/XI|XI Dorothy, Dorothy and Dorothy]]
50,51c48
< [[/XII|XII]]
< :"What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"
---
> [[/XII|XII "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"]]
------
Automated_Alice|990560020
9c9,12
< (half inch = pinch, [[Cockney rhyming slang]]
---
> (half inch = pinch, [[Cockney rhyming slang]])
> ----
> I assume that's why Larry left the text here and merely asked the question, rather than simply deleting it as should be done for a clear infringement (NOTE: copyright infringement and plagiarism are two entirely different things--don't confuse them).  It is the nature of Wikipedia that authors here must be thick-skinned in the face of such questions, and peer edits, and commentary about articles, and many other things.  It is important that such potentially offensive things get said and replied to rather than being supressed out of a misguided and counterproductive sense of "politeness".  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
48c51
< [[/XII|XII "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"]]
---
> [[/XII|XII "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"]]
------
Automated_Alice|990560659
11a12,13
> ----
> Hate to repeat myself - but read what I wrote, hardly a novel is it? and if it were I'd ask for my money back :-)
12a15
> Common sense - it's cheap, limitless and enviro-friendly - use it. thankyou
51c54
< [[/XII|XII "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"]]
---
> [[/XII|XII "What Time Do You Call This, Alice?"]]
------
WikiBiblion|990560907
15a16
> * Notes on [[Automated Alice]] by [[Jeff Noon]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990561130
12c12
< : Those lines come from a configuration file that the public can't access (I beleive).  Send translations to mailto:jasonr@bomis.com, and I will update them.
---
> : Those lines come from a configuration file that the public can't access (I beleive).  Send translations to mailto:jasonr@bomis.com, and I will update them.  Please see /TextToTranslate for a list of phrases that need translated
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990561435
1c1,22
< Describe the new page here.
---
> This page is incomplete, so be aware.
> 
> This is a list of words/phrases that I need translated if I am to update each wiki so that all messages are in the correct language:
> 
> :RecentChanges
> :Preferences
> :Editing Preferences
> :You can edit this page right now! It's a free, community project
> 
> :Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation
> License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You
> are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE
> COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION! 
> :This change is a minor edit.
> :Summary
> :Visit Preferences to set your user name
> :View other revisions
> :Save
> :Preview
> :
> :
> :
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990561550
5,8c5,8
< :RecentChanges
< :Preferences
< :Editing Preferences
< :You can edit this page right now! It's a free, community project
---
> *RecentChanges
> *Preferences
> *Editing Preferences
> *You can edit this page right now! It's a free, community project
10,22c10,16
< :Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation
< License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You
< are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE
< COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION! 
< :This change is a minor edit.
< :Summary
< :Visit Preferences to set your user name
< :View other revisions
< :Save
< :Preview
< :
< :
< :
---
> *Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION! 
> *This change is a minor edit.
> *Summary
> *Visit Preferences to set your user name
> *View other revisions
> *Save
> *Preview
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990561574
23c23,26
< ** [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]]
---
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Elrond|Elrond]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Fatty Bolger|Fatty Bolger]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Galadriel|Galadriel]]
26,27c29,31
< ** [[JRR Tolkien/Galadriel|Galadriel]]
< ** [[JRR Tolkien/Elrond|Elrond]]
---
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Tom Bambadil|Tom Bambadil]]
> ** [[JRR Tolkien/Treebeard|Treebeard]]
28a33,36
> * Pop-culture references to The Lord of the Rings
> ** [[Led Zeppelin|Led Zeppelin's]] 'Misty Mountain Hop' is named after Tolkien's Misty Mountains
> ** [[Led Zeppelin|Led Zeppelin's]] 'Ramble On' refers to [[JRR Tolkien/Mordor|Mordor]]
> ** [[Rush|Rush]] has a song called 'Rivendell' on their [[Rush/Fly By Night|Fly By Night]] album.
------
TedDunning|990561604
5,10d4
< -----
< Hi Ted! Allow me to welcome you to Wikipedia. I see you've contributed a lot in the areas of AI/information theory in a short period of time; very impressive! Don't take the editing of your [[MusicMatch]] page too personally; most of us here put our advocacy essays and other assorted personal positions on [[Wikipedia commentary]] or on our personal pages. -- [[STG]]
< ----
< Hello, I'm responsible for the editing [[STG]] is referring to, and I think he's right in the implication that I was rather curt about it.  I'd like to apologize, it was not my intention to discourage you.  Revisions of each entry are kept to safeguard against vandalism, so if you'd like to restore the text somewhere, you can go to that entry and click "View other revisions" at the bottom to see the full history of the entry. --KoyaanisQatsi
< ----
< Your humility is remarkable.  I'm sure there's more to you than where you work.  :-)  And thanks for being so gracious.  You've contributed some rather impressive entries.  --KQ
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990561605
9d8
< 
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990562121
15a16,17
> *Updates in the last ## days, months, hours
> *Page generated
------
JRR_Tolkien/Bill_the_Pony|990562648
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bill was a pony bought by [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and his companions in Bree, as they fled the [[JRR Tolkien/Shire|Shire]] on their way to [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]].  This was necessary as their own ponies had been stolen from the stables of the Prancing Pony inn, where they spent the night.  Bill was purchased from [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]], who was in league with the spies who stole the other ponies.  Ferny was a crual man who tormented Bill, but after being purchased by the hobbits Bill became a much happier pony.  He was given the name 'Bill' by [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]] shortly after the party left Bree.
> 
> After arriving in Rivendell Bill became acquainted with other ponies, and this influence resulted in a good deal of self-improvement.  He left Rivendell a much wiser pony, not to mention healthier and happier.
> 
> He accompanied the Fellowship of the Ring from Rivendell to the doors of [[JRR Tolkien/Moria|Moria]], but had to be left behind there because the company could not take a pony through the mines of Moria.  But being a wise pony by this point, he managed to survive on his own and travelled back to Bree, where he eventually hooked up again with Sam on his return trip.
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990562735
9c9
< * The Fellowship of the Ring)
---
> * The Fellowship of the Ring
------
JRR_Tolkien/Bill_the_Pony|990562766
1c1
< Bill was a pony bought by [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and his companions in Bree, as they fled the [[JRR Tolkien/Shire|Shire]] on their way to [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]].  This was necessary as their own ponies had been stolen from the stables of the Prancing Pony inn, where they spent the night.  Bill was purchased from [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]], who was in league with the spies who stole the other ponies.  Ferny was a crual man who tormented Bill, but after being purchased by the hobbits Bill became a much happier pony.  He was given the name 'Bill' by [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]] shortly after the party left Bree.
---
> Bill was a pony bought by [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and his companions in Bree, as they fled the [[JRR Tolkien/Shire|Shire]] on their way to [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]].  This was necessary as their own ponies had been stolen from the stables of the Prancing Pony inn, where they spent the night.  Bill was purchased from [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]], who was in league with the spies who stole the other ponies.  Ferny was a cruel man who tormented Bill, but after being purchased by the hobbits Bill became a much happier pony.  He was given the name 'Bill' by [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]] shortly after the party left Bree.
------
Penis|990562875
19c19,23
< intercourse]].
---
> intercourse]].
> 
> ---
> 
> Is this true of all penises, or just human penises?  If human only, should this be a subcategory under [[human anatomy]]?
------
International_Wikipedia|990563776
58a59
> Hey, cool, it really seems to work now. Thanks, guys :-)  --Sonic
------
English_Words_for_Snow_and_Ice|990563804
1c1,28
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A few words related to snow and ice in English that are the result of a few minutes of thought.
> 
> #snow = snow (!)
> #ice = ice (!)
> #snowdrift = pile of snow, often created by wind
> #spindrift = light snow in the air created by an avalanche
> #sastrugi = a layered wind-pack 
> #wind-pack = snow that has hardened by continually blowing wind
> #hard-pack = snow that has been packed by skiers or machines
> #packed powder = powder that has been packed by skiers or machines (euphemism for hard-pack)
> #slush = snow that has melted to near transparency, but still is moderately solid.
> #verglas = thin ice covering a rock
> #blue ice = very cold ice that will shatter easily
> #green ice = even colder ice
> #klister snow = any snow that has either undergone freeze/thaw cycles or has sat for a long time so that skis won't stick easily
> #powder = very dry snow that you can blow out of your hand
> #champagne powder = even lighter powder
> #cream powder = not really powder, but has little cohesion
> #frost = ice that deposits from the air by condensation
> #hoar frost = big-time frost that has had a long time to deposit under high humidity
> #rime ice = ?
> #iceberg = big hunk of ice floating in the ocean
> #calf = piece of an iceberg
> #avalanche = snow falling off of a mountain
> #ice floe = ice-berg that is much wider than it is tall
> #lacuna = a hole in ice flows
> #snowball = toy made from snow
> #snowsuit = clothes that one (usually a child) wears in snowy conditions
------
Inuktitut|990563852
4a5,10
> The link just above refers back to an old chestnut about Inuktitut supposedly having more words for snow and ice related phenomena than any other language.  This was supposed to show something about the impact of environment of culture or some such.
> 
> In fact, it showed something about urban myths and lack of linguistic sophistication.  First of all, because of the properties of Inuktitut, it is difficult to distinguish what in English might be called a "word" and what might be called a "phrase".  Of course, English as well as most languages have this problem as well as evidenced from the ?words? "New York" and "Europ&auml;ischewirtschaftgemeinschaft".
> 
> And, for the record, languages like English that have been inundated by foreign words tend to win silly vocabulary size contests.  Here is a [[English Words for Snow and Ice|list of English snow and ice terms]].
> 
------
Film_noir|990564347
3c3
< [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
---
> [[/Film_list|List of some Films Noir]]
------
Film_noir|990564356
3c3
< [[/Film_list|List of some Films Noir]]
---
> [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990565633
78c78,79
< :[[Lost Highway]]
---
> :[[Lost Highway]]
> :[[A Simple Plan]]
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990565834
7,8d6
< :[[Laura]]
< 
15d12
< :[[Murder My Sweet]]
16a14
> :[[Laura]]
18d15
< :[[The Scarlet Street]]
20a18
> :[[The Scarlet Street]]
21a20
> :[[The Big Sleep]]
22a22
> :[[The Killers]]
24d23
< :[[The Big Sleep]]
27d25
< :[[The Killers]]
37d34
< :[[The Pitfall]]
38a36
> :[[The Pitfall]]
79c77
< :[[A Simple Plan]]
---
> :[[A Simple Plan]]
------
Penis|990566475
18,19c18,19
< Related subjects : [[impotence]], [[priapismus]], [[circumcision]], [[sexual
< intercourse]].
---
> Related subjects : [[impotence]], [[priapismus]], [[circumcision]], 
> [[sexual intercourse]].
------
A|990567091
1c1
< The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[Alpha|&alpha;]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (&alpha;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin and Greek sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian or Spanish, A is still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
---
> The first letter in the Roman [[alphabet]], derived from the Greek letter [[Alpha|&alpha;]] which as in Latin had the sound values /a/ and /a:/. The letter A can be traced back through Etruscan and Greek (&alpha;, Alpha) to the Semitic 'âlep, which stood for the glottal stop or maybe /h//. The Greek names are of Semitic origin, the Semitic names are known thanks to hebrew. The Latin, Greek and Old English sound values /a/ and /a:/ gave way to several other vocalic sounds, e.g. [EI] and [æ] in English, the latter formerly represented by an a-e ligature called æsc. In some languages, e.g. Italian, Spanish and German, A is basically still pronounced as in Latin. A was originally a pictogramm that stood for the oxen (='âlep in Semitic).  
------
Y|990567204
3c3
< See [[V]]. In Greek &Upsilon;&pi;&sigma;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu; (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. 
---
> See [[V]]. In Greek &Upsilon;&pi;&sigma;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu; (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. The English name of the letter - /waI/ - is of unknown origin. In Spanish, Y is called i griega; in most other European languages the Greek name is still used. 
------
Y|990567248
3c3
< See [[V]]. In Greek &Upsilon;&pi;&sigma;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu; (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. The English name of the letter - /waI/ - is of unknown origin. In Spanish, Y is called i griega; in most other European languages the Greek name is still used. 
---
> See [[V]]. In Greek &Upsilon;&psi;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu; (Ypsilon) was pronounced  /u/ (later on /y/, now /i/; see English MYTH and GIFT which both have /I/). The Romans borrowed  Y directly from the Greek, because they felt that V no longer adequately represented Greek /y/. The English name of the letter - /waI/ - is of unknown origin. In Spanish, Y is called i griega; in most other European languages the Greek name is still used. 
------
Z|990567348
1c1
< Z¦Ç¦Ó¦Á (Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph(Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
Z|990567365
1c1
< &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph(Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph (Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
Z|990567384
1c1
< &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph (Z¨ºta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph; (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
B|990567437
1c1
< The second letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek [[Beta|&beta;]]&epsilon;&tau;&alpha; (Beta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter b¨ºt was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol was 'house'.
---
> The second letter of the latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]].  The letter B was not used in Etruscan, because this idiom only had no voiced plosives. Neverttheless, the Etruscans knew the letter that was derived by early Etruscans from Greek [[Beta|&beta;]]&epsilon;&tau;&alpha; (Beta). Its Latin sound value was probably due to Greek influence. The Semitic letter bet was also pronounced /b/, and the original meaning of the symbol was 'house'.
------
Z|990567460
1c1
< &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&Aleph; (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&aleph; (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
Z|990567482
1c1
< &Zeta;&Eta;&Tau;&aleph; (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> ZHTA (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
Z|990567499
1c1
< ZHTA (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> ZHTA (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek [[alphabet]]. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
------
Alphabet|990567682
10c10
< An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA.
---
> An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA. In Icelandic, Þ þ is added, and d is followed by Ð ð. 
------
Alphabet|990567763
7a8
> :[[Ð]], [[Þ]]
------
Alphabet|990567930
8c8
< :[[Ð]], [[Þ]]
---
> 
11c11
< An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA. In Icelandic, Þ þ is added, and d is followed by Ð ð. 
---
> An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA. In Icelandic, Þ þ is added, and d is followed by Ð ð. Both letters were also used by Anglo-Saxon scribes who also used the Runic letter Wynn to represent /w/. Þ (thorn) is also a Runic letter, some scholars derive it from Latin [[D]]. Ð is the letter[[D]] with an added stroke. 
------
Alphabet|990568000
11c11
< An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA. In Icelandic, Þ þ is added, and d is followed by Ð ð. Both letters were also used by Anglo-Saxon scribes who also used the Runic letter Wynn to represent /w/. Þ (thorn) is also a Runic letter, some scholars derive it from Latin [[D]]. Ð is the letter[[D]] with an added stroke. 
---
> An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called [[collating]].  Languages that use the roman alphabet have varying collating rules: In German and English, umlaut characters (Ä, Ö, Ü) are treated just like their non-umlauted versions, which makes the alphabetic order ARG, ÄRGERLICH, ARM.  In Swedish, W is a foreign letter which is treated just like V, but the alphabet has three extra letters at its end (..., X, Y, Z, Å, Ä, Ö), giving the order URBAN, WALTER, VILGOT, ÅKE, ÄRLIG, ÖSTEN.  This order is different in Danish and Norwegian (..., X, Y, Z, AE, Å, OE).  Some languages have more complex rules: for example, Spanish treats "ch" as a single letter, giving an ordering of CINCO, CREDO, CHISPA. In Icelandic, Þ þ is added, and d is followed by Ð ð. Both letters were also used by Anglo-Saxon scribes who also used the Runic letter Wynn to represent /w/. Þ (thorn) is also a Runic letter, some scholars derive it from Latin [[D]]. Ð is the letter [[D]] with an added stroke. 
------
Inuktitut|990568171
9a10,11
> ----
> While I am not an expert in Inuktitut, I maintain that the orginal "one word for snow" statement was correct. Here's a link with a brief article on the nature of Inuktitut: http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/our.html
------
Netherlandic_language|990568173
4c4
< In early times, the Dutch language as such did not exist, instead there were various [[Low German]] dialects spoken in the region. Around 1600, a unified language was created from these to make the first Dutch bible translation, consisting of elements from various dialects, but mostly based on the dialects from [[Holland]], and this point can be taken as the starting point of Dutch as a language. Dutch is spoken in the [[Netherlands]] and the northwestern half of [[Belgium]] (called [[Flanders]]). [[Afrikaans]], a language spoken in [[South Africa]], and [[Flemish]], the name given to the various Dutch dialects in Belgium, are derived from Dutch. Of all major languages, Dutch is the one that is closest to English.
---
> In early times, the Dutch language as such did not exist, instead there were various [[Low German]] dialects spoken in the region. Around 1600, a unified language was created from these to make the first Dutch bible translation, consisting of elements from various dialects, but mostly based on the dialects from [[Holland]], and this point can be taken as the starting point of Dutch as a language. Dutch is spoken in the [[Netherlands]] and the northwestern half of [[Belgium]] (called [[Flanders]]). [[Afrikaans]], a language spoken in [[South Africa]], and [[Flemish]], the name given to the various Dutch dialects in Belgium, are derived from Dutch. The Standard language spoken in both the Netherlands and Flemish Belgium is called [[Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands]]. Of all major languages, Dutch is the one that is closest to English, however, the less-known [[Frisian language]] is even closer to English. 
------
Netherlandic_language|990568281
18c18
< /k/ [g] only in foreign words
---
> /k/ [g] [g]is not a phoneme of Dutch and appears only in foreign words
------
Frisian_language|990568317
2,3c2,3
< [[Old English]] (but not Modern English),
< [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect.
---
> [[Old English]] (but not Modern English),the
> [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect. (however, see [[Language and dialect]]
------
Language_and_dialect/Talk|990568358
6a7,8
> -----
> --- hm, yeah, why not.
------
Language_and_dialect/Talk|990568384
1c1
< Why was this quote on a page called "language and dialect"?  Shouldn't we write our own entry about what a dialect is, and would it not be better to put that under [[dialect]]?
---
> Why was this quote on a page called "language and [[dialect]]"?  Shouldn't we write our own entry about what a dialect is, and would it not be better to put that under [[dialect]]?
------
Dialect|990569207
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The term dialect is used in linguistics to distinguish old vernacular languages from informal language derived from the standard language (called "Umgangssprache" in German) and the standard language itself. Insofar, the term has a special function in linguistics, although everyday usage may not be accurate from the dialectologist's point of view. In many countries dialects pretty much died out, e.g. in [[France]], where many dialects and languages like [[Provençal]] (a literary language) were spoken. 
> 
> 
> In a way, dialect is not a linguistic term: there is no means by which one is able to distinguish a dialect from a language - it is rather a kind of sociolinguistic evaluation (or historical evaluation in the case of linguists) that makes people talk about languages and dialects. Often, dialects are solely called dialects because they are NOT (or not recognized as) literary languages, because they are not standardized, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because their language lacks prestige etc. 
> 
> 
> 
> "La linguistica odierna sa che lo statuto di lingua non viene determinato soltanto da criteri linguistici, bensì è anche il risultato di uno sviluppo storico e politico. Il romancio si è imposto in diversi campi come lingua scritta, diventando così, malgrado una parentela a volte stretta con i dialetti lombardi alpini, una lingua a sé stante." (G 13) 
> Gross, Manfred, Bernard Cathomas e Jean-Jacques Furer. 1996. RETOROMANCIO Facts & Figures Coira: Lia Rumantscha. (=G)
> 
> (Modern day linguistics knows that the status of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects.)
> 
> 
------
Dialect|990569553
1c1
< The term dialect is used in linguistics to distinguish old vernacular languages from informal language derived from the standard language (called "Umgangssprache" in German) and the standard language itself. Insofar, the term has a special function in linguistics, although everyday usage may not be accurate from the dialectologist's point of view. In many countries dialects pretty much died out, e.g. in [[France]], where many dialects and languages like [[Provençal]] (a literary language) were spoken. 
---
> The term dialect is used in linguistics to distinguish old vernacular languages from informal language derived from the standard language (called "Umgangssprache" in German) and the standard language itself. Insofar, the term has a special function in linguistics, although everyday usage may not be accurate from the dialectologist's point of view. In many countries dialects pretty much died out, e.g. in [[France]], where many dialects and languages like [[Occitan]] (once a literary language) were spoken. 
------
Dialect|990569577
11c11
< (Modern day linguistics knows that the status of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects.)
---
> (Modern day linguistics knows that the status of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. [[Romansh]] came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects.)
------
Ice_T|990570244
1c1,12
< Ice T is one of the most important rappers. He started out with others west coast rap pioneers such as [[Kid Frost]] and [[Egyptian Lover]] with [[electro funk]] recordings. Later on, he changed his style and was the first rapper from the west that got accepted by the east coast. His early producers include the [[Unknown DJ]] and especially [[Afrika Islam]], the man behind the beats on 1987s Rhyme Pays, 1988s Power and 1989s The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just watch what you say. As the title of this third album suggests, Ice T was from the start not only a gangster rapper - he was one of the driving forces behind the new style - but also a political rapper. Seymour Stein called him "the Bob Dylan of rap", and this may be to the point. On "Freedom of Speech" Ice T attacked Tipper Gore for introducing the Parental Advisory sticker. In 1991, Ice's fourth album, OG, came out; including raps about child abuse and drunk driving as well as the theme song from the movie New Jack City by Mario van Peebles, the movie that re-launched Ice's career as an actor. Ice also got to be the lead singer/shouter of his metal band [[Body Count]]. This eventually lead Warner Brothers to drop Ice. Virgin Records released his next album Home Invasion (1993), an album with many political raps as well as featuring a new female rapper named [[Grip]] and Ice's DJ [[Evil E]] as a rapper. On VI - Return of the Real, Ice returned to his gangster rap roots. 7th Deadly Sin (1999), one of the first records to be distributed via mp3 before via record stores, continued in this vein. In both cases, the music was updated while not breaking any new ground. In the year 2000, Ice teamed up with East Coast pioneer [[Kool Keith]] from the [[Ultramagnetic MCs]] to form the [[Analog Brothers]] - a very successful (at least artistically) experiment. The same year also brought Ice-T's Greatest Hits: The Evidence. 
---
> Ice T is one of the most important rappers. He started out with other west coast rap pioneers such as [[Kid Frost]] and [[Egyptian Lover]] with [[electro funk]] recordings. Later on, he changed his style and was the first rapper from the west that got accepted by the east coast. His early producers include the [[Unknown DJ]] and especially [[Afrika Islam]], the man behind the beats on 1987s Rhyme Pays, 1988s Power and 1989s The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just watch what you say. As the title of this third album suggests, Ice T was from the start not only a gangster rapper - he was one of the driving forces behind the new style - but also a political rapper. Seymour Stein called him "the Bob Dylan of rap", and this may be to the point. On "Freedom of Speech" Ice T attacked Tipper Gore for introducing the Parental Advisory sticker. In 1991, Ice's fourth album, OG, came out; including raps about child abuse and drunk driving as well as the theme song from the movie New Jack City by Mario van Peebles, the movie that re-launched Ice's career as an actor. Ice also got to be the lead singer/shouter of his metal band [[Body Count]]. This eventually lead Warner Brothers to drop Ice. Virgin Records released his next album Home Invasion (1993), an album with many political raps as well as featuring a new female rapper named [[Grip]] and Ice's DJ [[Evil E]] as a rapper. On VI - Return of the Real, Ice returned to his gangster rap roots. 7th Deadly Sin (1999), one of the first records to be distributed via mp3 before via record stores, continued in this vein. In both cases, the music was updated while not breaking any new ground. In the year 2000, Ice teamed up with East Coast pioneer [[Kool Keith]] from the [[Ultramagnetic MCs]] to form the [[Analog Brothers]] - a very successful (at least artistically) experiment. The same year also brought Ice-T's Greatest Hits: The Evidence. 
> 
> Discography:
> 
> * Rhyme Pays(1987)
> * Power (1988)
> * The Iceberg/Freedom of speech...just watch what you say (1989)
> * OG Original Gangster (1991)
> * Home Invasion (1993)
> * VI: Return of the real (1996)
> * The seventh deadly sin (1999)
> * Greatest hits: The evidence (2000)
------
Z|990570412
1c1,4
< ZHTA (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek [[alphabet]]. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in Southern American Castilian it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous). 
---
> ZHTA (Zeta) is the sixth letter of the Greek [[alphabet]]. In Semitic (Zajin) and Ancient Greek the letter was probably pronounced as /dz/ (as in Italian ZETA, ZERO). In Modern Greek, it is pronounced as /z/, as in English and French. In Etruscan, Z  probably symbolized /ts/, in Latin, [dz] (in Latin, the letter appeared only in Greek words, and Z is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took over directly from the Greek, and unlike all other letters not via Etruscan.) In Italian, Z represents two phonemes, namely /ts/ and /dz/; in German, it stands for /ts/; in Castilian it represents /T/ (as English TH in THING), in South American Spanish it stands for /s/ (CAZA and CASA are thus homophonous).
> 
> In American English, the letter is named "zee", while in British English the letter is named "zed".
> 
------
HomePage|990572005
2c2
< 
---
> <body bgcolor=pink>
------
HomePage|990572078
2c2
< <body bgcolor=pink>
---
> 
------
Cevik_Bir|990574865
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Cevik Bir was a member of Turkish general staff in 1990s. He took a major part in several important international missions in [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]. 
> 
> After the dictator [[Siad Barre]]’s ouster, conflicts between the General [[Farah Aidid]]'s party and other clans in [[Somali]] had led to famine and lawlessness throughout the country. An estimated 300,000 people had died from starvation. A combined military force of [[United States]] and [[United Nations]] (under the name UNISOM) were deployed to [[Mogadishu]], Somali to monitor the ceasefire and deliver food and supplies to the starving people of Somali. Cevik Bir, who was then a lieutenant-general of [[Turkey]], became the force commander of UNISOM on 1993. Despite the retreat of US and UN forces after several deaths due to local hostilities mainly led by Aidid, the introduction of a powerful military force opened the transportation routes, enabled the provision of supplies and ended the famine quickly. 
> 
> Cevik Bir became the Turkish army's second-in-command general shortly after the Somali operation and played a vital role in establishment of a Turkish-Israeli entente against the emerging fundamentalism in the Middle East. As a tough castle of secularism in the region, he was awarded by Secularism and Democracy Award of 1997 in Washington, DC. 
------
McLean|990575658
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> bryan mclean
> 
> born 1947 los angeles
> died 1998 los angeles
> 
> Bryan mclean was the guitarist of the influential rock band love.
> Mclean was a roadie for the Byrds before he joined love
> some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'
> After leaving love mclean joined a christian ministry
> 
------
McLean|990575723
7,9c7,9
< Mclean was a roadie for the Byrds before he joined love
< some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'
< After leaving love mclean joined a christian ministry
---
> Mclean was a roadie for the Byrds before he joined love.
> Some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'.
> After leaving love mclean joined a christian ministry.
------
Love/Forever_Changes|990576156
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Forever changes (1967)
> The third album released by the acclaimed La band love.
> It is often considered by critics as one of rock's best albums.
> 
> 
> Songs/tracks
>   1.   Alone Again Or (MacLean) - 3:15 
>   2.   A House Is Not a Motel (Lee) - 3:25 
>   3.   Andmoreagain (Lee) - 3:15 
>   4.   The Daily Planet (Lee) - 3:25 
>   5.   Old Man (MacLean) - 2:57 
>   6.   The Red Telephone (MacLean) - 4:45 
>   7.   Maybe the People Would Be the Times or... (Lee) - 3:30 
>   8.   Live and Let Live (Lee) - 5:24 
>   9.   The Good Humor Man He Sees Everything Like (Lee) - 3:00 
>   10.   Bummer in the Summer (Lee) - 2:20 
>   11.   You Set the Scene (Lee) - 6:49 
> 
------
Love/Forever_Changes|990576492
1c1
< Forever changes (1967)
---
> /Forever changes (1967)
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990579950
1c1
< Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. The work consists of [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King]]. This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon. 
---
> Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It consists of 3 volumes - [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring|The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers|The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King|The Return of the King]] - each with two books.  This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon. 
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990579964
1c1
< Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It consists of 3 volumes - [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring|The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers|The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King|The Return of the King]] - each with two books.  This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon. 
---
> Epic fantasy trilogy by [[JRR Tolkien]]. It consists of three volumes - [[JRR Tolkien/The Fellowship of the Ring|The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[JRR Tolkien/The Two Towers|The Two Towers]], and [[JRR Tolkien/The Return of the King|The Return of the King]] - each with two books.  This remarkable work by the mid-1960s had become, especially in its appeal to young people, a sociocultural phenomenon. 
------
Spinning|990580590
1,10c1,10
< Spinning is the process of creation of yarn (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber material.
<  Several fibers are twisted together to bind them into a strong, long yarn. Characteristics of the yarn
<  vary based on the material used, fiber length and alignment, quantity of fiber used and degree of twist.
<  The earliest spinning probably involved simply twisted the fibers in the hand. Later the use of a stick
<  to help twist the fiber was introduced. Drop spinning involves the use of a stick with a whorl or weight
<  to stabilizes the spinning of the stick. This is called a spindle and is spun and hangs supported by the
<  yarn as more fiber is introduced. This introduced fiber picks up the twist and becomes yarn. Later the
<  spinning wheel was developed which allowed a continuous and faster yarn production. Spinning wheel are
<  either foot or hand powered. Modern powered spinning, originally done by water or steam power but
<  now done by electricity, is vastly faster than hand-spinning.
---
> Spinning is the process of creation of [[yarn]] (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber material.
> Several fibers are twisted together to bind them into a strong, long yarn. Characteristics of the yarn
> vary based on the material used, fiber length and alignment, quantity of fiber used and degree of twist.
> The earliest spinning probably involved simply twisted the fibers in the hand. Later the use of a stick
> to help twist the fiber was introduced. Drop spinning involves the use of a stick with a whorl or weight
> to stabilizes the spinning of the stick. This is called a [[spindle]] and is spun and hangs supported by the
> yarn as more fiber is introduced. This introduced fiber picks up the twist and becomes yarn. Later the
> spinning wheel was developed which allowed a continuous and faster yarn production. [[Spinning wheel]]s are
> either foot or hand powered. Modern powered spinning, originally done by [[water power|water]] or [[steam power]] but
> now done by [[electricity]], is vastly faster than hand-spinning.
12c12
< Hobby spinners spin their own yarn in order to control specific yarn qualities and produce yarn not
---
> [[Hobby]] spinners spin their own yarn in order to control specific yarn qualities and produce yarn not
16,21c16,21
< Materials that can be used to create yarn fall into three broad classes: plant, animal, and synthetic. 
<      Plant materials include: cotton, flax (to produce linen), hemp, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, ...  
<      Animal materials:        wool, goat (angora or cashmere), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, camel
<                               silk, ...
<      Synthetic materials:     nylon, rayon, acetate, mylar, ...
<      Mineral:                 asbestos, but not very often
---
> Materials that can be used to create yarn fall into three broad classes: [[plant]], [[animal]], and [[synthetic]]. 
> 
> Plant materials include: [[cotton]], [[flax]] (to produce [[linen]]), [[hemp]], [[raffia]], [[yucca]], [[coconut]]  husk, ...  
> * Animal materials:        [[wool]], [[goat]] ([[angora goat|angora]] or [[cashmere]]), [[rabbit]] ([[angora rabbit|angora]]), [[llama]], [[alpaca]], [[dog]], [[camel]], [[silk]], ...
> * Synthetic materials:     [[nylon]], [[rayon]], [[acetate]], [[mylar]], ...
> * Mineral:                 [[asbestos]], but not very often
------
Spinning|990580612
18c18
< Plant materials include: [[cotton]], [[flax]] (to produce [[linen]]), [[hemp]], [[raffia]], [[yucca]], [[coconut]]  husk, ...  
---
> * Plant materials include: [[cotton]], [[flax]] (to produce [[linen]]), [[hemp]], [[raffia]], [[yucca]], [[coconut]]  husk, ...  
------
Spinning|990580631
18c18
< * Plant materials include: [[cotton]], [[flax]] (to produce [[linen]]), [[hemp]], [[raffia]], [[yucca]], [[coconut]]  husk, ...  
---
> * Plant materials: [[cotton]], [[flax]] (to produce [[linen]]), [[hemp]], [[raffia]], [[yucca]], [[coconut]]  husk, ...  
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring|990580650
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Fellowship of the Ring is the first volume of the epic [[JRR Tolkien/The Lord of the Rings|The Lord of the Rings]].  It consists of two books.  
> 
> The first sets the stage for the adventure and follows [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] as he flees from his home in [[JRR Tolkien/The Shire|The Shire]] to escape the minions of the Dark Lord [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]].  Sauron seeks a Ring of Power that will allow him to rule [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]].  This ring has been inherited by Frodo who finds himself unwittingly in the midt of a struggle for world domination.
> 
> Heeding the advice of the wizard [[JRR Tolkien/Gandalf|Gandalf]], Frodo leaves his home, taking the Ring with him.  He hopes to reach [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]], where he will be safe from Sauron, and where those wiser than he can decide what to do about this whole world domination problem.
> 
> In his journey he is accompanied by three hobbit friends, [[JRR Tolkien/Peregrin Took|Pippen]], [[JRR Tolkien/Meriadoc Brandybuck|Merry]], and [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam]].  From the start they are pursued by [[JRR Tolkien/Dark Riders|Dark Riders]], the Ringwraiths who serve Sauron.  Narrowly escaping the Dark Riders, and other nasties, they eventually come to Bree, where they meet [[JRR Tolkien/Strider|Strider]], another friend of Gandalf who leads them the rest of the way to Rivendell, through further hardships.
> 
> Book Two chronicles Frodo's stay at Rivendell where a plan is hatched to destroy the Ring.  Frodo sets forth with eight companions and a [[JRR Tolkien/Bill the Pony|pony]].  This book ends when the company of the Ring disolves.
> 
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990580738
9c9
< * The Fellowship of the Ring
---
> * The Fellowship of the Ring 
------
Knitting|990580887
1c1
< Knitting is one of several ways to turn thread or yarn into cloth.  A series of loops are formed on a pointed stick called a knitting needle.  Another needle is used to pull yarn through the loops to produce another row of loops, and so on.  Work can proceed in the round or by going back and forth in rows.  Knitting can also be done by [[machine]]s.
---
> Knitting is one of several ways to turn [[thread]] or [[yarn]] into [[cloth]].  A series of loops are formed on a pointed stick called a knitting needle.  Another needle is used to pull yarn through the loops to produce another row of loops, and so on.  Work can proceed in the round or by going back and forth in rows.  Knitting can also be done by [[machine]]s.
------
Sorrel|990581014
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Sorrel is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]].  
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990582057
17a18,38
> ----
> I noticed some of the changes have already been made in the Spanish version, but there are still some loose ends.  Caveat: I am a student of the language and not a native speaker, so my vocabulary might be overly formal or bookish.
> 
> * "'''HomePage'''" is probably understood by Spanish-speakers, but "'''Página inicial'''" might still be better.  Is there any reason this (and "'''Cambios recientes'''" can't be free links?)
> * "¡''Tú'' puedes '''editar esta página''' ahora mismo!"  is missing some accents, and the inverted exclamation; none of those are critical.
> * Is "free, community project" intended to mean free as in beer or as in speech?  The current text indicates the former.  The latter would be better as "un proyecto abierto a la comunidad."
> * Still have English "Last edited (DATE) '''(diff)'''".  I suggest "Cambiado por última vez (DATE) '''(diferencia)'''.  Of course since "diff" is the name of a specific program, you might want leave that alone.
> * "'''Edit text of this page'''" : "'''Editar el texto de esta página'''"
> * "'''View other revisions'''": "'''Ver otras revisiones'''"
> * (On edit page) "Editing (TITLE)": "Editando (TITLE)"
> * "Summary": "Resumen"
> * "This change is a minor edit": "Este cambio es una corrección pequeña."
> * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!": "Observe por favor que todas las contribuciones a Wikipedia se hacen público bajo el [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Licensia de Documentación Libre (en inglés)].  Si usted no desea que la gente corregida sus escritos sin piedad y los regalé libremente, entonces no los escriba aquí.  También usted es prometiéndonos que escribió esto usted mismo y usted es dueño de los derechos de autor, o lo copió de una fuente sin copyright.  NO USA ESCRITOS CON COPYRIGHT SIN PERMISO." (Native speaker ''please'' check this one!)
> * "Visit '''Preferences''' to set your user name": "Vaya a '''Preferencias''' para fijar su nombre de usario."
> * "Save" and "Preview" Buttons on edit page: "Guardar", "Anticipo"
> * "Preview" title: "Anticipo"
> * "Preview only, not yet saved.": "Este es solamente un anticipo, y todavía no ha sido guardado" (Someone please check by verb conjugation here).
> * (On RecentChanges page) "Updates in the last 7 days (months, weeks, hours)": "Cambios realizados durante los 7 días (meses, semanas, horas) pasados"
> * "Page generated (DATE)": "Página producido (DATE)"
> 
> The date format presently uses English month names.  Numbers would be an easy fix, but if you can use Spanish month names you might want to do that as well.  If I find more I'll let you know.  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990590033
59a60,62
> ----
> 
> I may have spoken too soon.  It appears that URLs in the form <code>".../wiki.cgi?Kurt_Gödel"</code> work fine, but URLs in the form <code>".../wiki/Kurt_Gödel"</code> do not (at least on my Father's Windows box I'm using now), and some links are the latter form.  The latter form does work if encoded as <code>".../wiki/Kurt_G%F6del"</code> (Same results on the Spanish site).  I'm not sure who's at fault here; well, that's not quite right.  We're at fault for using illegal URLs, but the fact that we get away with it in some places and not others I don't know the reason for.  At any rate, I suppose we need to do this right sooner than I expected. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
------
Alphabet|990591035
3c3
< The first alphabet was probably developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent European alphabets are derived from it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them).  Most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from the early Greek alphabets.  The most popular alphabet in use today is a modern 26-letter version of the [[Roman alphabet]], used by the [[English language]] and most European languages.  In modern linguistic usage, the term ''latin alphabet'' is usually used to refer to the modern derivations from the alphabet used by the Romans (i.e. the Roman alphabet).
---
> The first alphabet was probably developed by the [[Canaanites]] around 1700-1500 BC (see [[early Semitic alphabet]]), and all subsequent alphabets are derived from it or inspired by it, directly or indirectly.  Of special note among its descendants is the [[Greek alphabet]], which was the first to have separate symbols for vowels (Semitic didn't need them).  Most subsequent alphabets with vowels are derived from the early Greek alphabets.  The most popular alphabet in use today is a modern 26-letter version of the [[Roman alphabet]], used by the [[English language]] and most European languages.  In modern linguistic usage, the term ''latin alphabet'' is usually used to refer to the modern derivations from the alphabet used by the Romans (i.e. the Roman alphabet).
------
International_Wikipedia|990594694
62c62,64
< I may have spoken too soon.  It appears that URLs in the form <code>".../wiki.cgi?Kurt_Gödel"</code> work fine, but URLs in the form <code>".../wiki/Kurt_Gödel"</code> do not (at least on my Father's Windows box I'm using now), and some links are the latter form.  The latter form does work if encoded as <code>".../wiki/Kurt_G%F6del"</code> (Same results on the Spanish site).  I'm not sure who's at fault here; well, that's not quite right.  We're at fault for using illegal URLs, but the fact that we get away with it in some places and not others I don't know the reason for.  At any rate, I suppose we need to do this right sooner than I expected. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
---
> I may have spoken too soon.  It appears that URLs in the form <code>".../wiki.cgi?Kurt_Gödel"</code> work fine, but URLs in the form <code>".../wiki/Kurt_Gödel"</code> do not (at least on my Father's Windows box I'm using now), and some links are the latter form.  The latter form does work if encoded as <code>".../wiki/Kurt_G%F6del"</code> (Same results on the Spanish site).  I'm not sure who's at fault here; well, that's not quite right.  We're at fault for using illegal URLs, but the fact that we get away with it in some places and not others I don't know the reason for.  At any rate, I suppose we need to do this right sooner than I expected. --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> ----
> As you might have seen on [[Wikipedia-L]], our man Jason (as in "Jason, Jason, he's our man, if he can't do it, nobody can!") is going to update the wiki software that runs all the Wikipedias (interesting how "Wikipedia" has, overnight, become the name of a type).  I asked him to switch this setting on, or keep it switched on, and pay attention to this page... --[[LMS]]
------
Penis|990595760
1c1
< :<b>Penis</b>
---
> The ''penis'' is the male copulatory organ, and, in mammals, the male organ of urinary excretion.
3,4c3
< Penis - male copulatory organ.<br>
< The penis is built of three columns of erectile [[tissue]] :
---
> The penis is built of three columns of erectile [[tissue]]:
6c5
< * one corpus spongiosum which lies below them
---
> * one corpus spongiosum which lies below them.
9c8,9
< [[glans penis]].<br>
---
> [[glans penis]].
> 
12c12,13
< vessels of erectile tissue.<br>
---
> vessels of erectile tissue.
> 
15c16,17
< a passage for [[urine]] it also is for [[semen]] ejaculation.<br>
---
> a passage for [[urine]] it also is for [[semen]] ejaculation.
> 
19c21
< [[sexual intercourse]].
---
> [[sexual intercourse]]; [[clitoris]]; [[vagina]].
23c25
< Is this true of all penises, or just human penises?  If human only, should this be a subcategory under [[human anatomy]]?
---
> Is this true of all penises, or just human penises?  If human only, should this be a subcategory under [[human anatomy]]?
------
Talk_radio|990595880
1c1
< ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
---
> ''Talk radio'' refers to the practice (perhaps it could be called an [[institution]]) of holding public discussions via [[radio]].  While talk radio has a decades-old history, in the [[1990s]] in the [[United States]] it grew to heretofore unseen popularity, primarily due to the popularity of programs by controversial [[political conservative]]s such as [[Rush Limbaugh]], [[G. Gordon Liddy]], and [[Michael Reagan]], and "[[shock jock]]," the [[libertarian]] or allegedly libertarian [[Howard Stern]].  There have been many other subjects of discussion in talk radio, however, including advice about [[morality]] (for example, [[Dr. Laura]]), automobiles (for example, [[Car Talk]]), and finance (for example, [[Bob Brinkers Money Talk|Bob Brinker's Money Talk]]).
------
Libertarian|990595994
1c1
< Libertarianism is a political movement, currently most active in the United States, which holds that government intervention in the affairs of individuals and societies should be kept at an irreducible minimum. Most Libertarians are also Capitalists, though there are some schools of thought which believe that Capitalism is not an essential component of this philosophy.
---
> A ''libertarian'' is an advocate of [[libertarianism]] or a member of a [[Libertarian Party]].
------
Inuktitut|990596176
3,12d2
< For some Inuktitut words for snow, see http://www.arctic.ca/LUS/Snow%26Ice.html
< 
< The link just above refers back to an old chestnut about Inuktitut supposedly having more words for snow and ice related phenomena than any other language.  This was supposed to show something about the impact of environment of culture or some such.
< 
< In fact, it showed something about urban myths and lack of linguistic sophistication.  First of all, because of the properties of Inuktitut, it is difficult to distinguish what in English might be called a "word" and what might be called a "phrase".  Of course, English as well as most languages have this problem as well as evidenced from the ?words? "New York" and "Europ&auml;ischewirtschaftgemeinschaft".
< 
< And, for the record, languages like English that have been inundated by foreign words tend to win silly vocabulary size contests.  Here is a [[English Words for Snow and Ice|list of English snow and ice terms]].
< ----
< While I am not an expert in Inuktitut, I maintain that the orginal "one word for snow" statement was correct. Here's a link with a brief article on the nature of Inuktitut: http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/our.html
< 
13a4,5
> 
> /Talk
------
Inuktitut/Talk|990596291
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> For some Inuktitut words for snow, see http://www.arctic.ca/LUS/Snow%26Ice.html
> 
> The link just above refers back to an old chestnut about Inuktitut supposedly having more words for snow and ice related phenomena than any other language.  This was supposed to show something about the impact of environment of culture or some such.
> 
> In fact, it showed something about urban myths and lack of linguistic sophistication.  First of all, because of the properties of Inuktitut, it is difficult to distinguish what in English might be called a "word" and what might be called a "phrase".  Of course, English as well as most languages have this problem as well as evidenced from the ?words? "New York" and "Europ&auml;ischewirtschaftgemeinschaft".
> 
> And, for the record, languages like English that have been inundated by foreign words tend to win silly vocabulary size contests.  Here is a [[English Words for Snow and Ice|list of English snow and ice terms]].
> ----
> While I am not an expert in Inuktitut, I maintain that the orginal "one word for snow" statement was correct. Here's a link with a brief article on the nature of Inuktitut: http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/our.html
> ----
> I think, basically, that the above should be refactored by someone and included in [[Inuktitut]].  We should keep talk on /Talk pages and encyclopedic-type content, from the NeutralPointOfView, on the main page. --[[LMS]]
------
Neeklamy|990596835
47c47,49
< The ordinary language phrase might be "present nonexistence," but this doesn't distinguish things that did exist in the past from things that will exist in the future. --[[LMS]]
---
> The ordinary language phrase might be "present nonexistence," but this doesn't distinguish things that did exist in the past from things that will exist in the future. --[[LMS]]
> ----
> Ugh, I was not reading carefully enough, again.  Sorry to so much as suspect you of plagiarism. --[[LMS]]
------
BodyBuilding|990596885
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Bodybuilding:
> 
> being the process of developing new muscle fibres through the combination of specific resistance weight training and increased calorific intake.
> 
> There are many reasons that people get involved with bodybuilding and weight training but mostly people get involved for auto-aesthetic reasons - they want to look better !  However, if the huge health benefits of this kind of exercise were more widely understood, then everybody would be doing it.
> 
> The process of bodybuilding can be categorised into three main areas:
> - resistance weight training
> - High quality diet incorporating extra protein
> - high quality rest to facilitate growth
> 
> Firstly, the resistance weight training causes damage to the muscles being trained - these are called microtrauma.  These small 'tears' in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise.  It is the repair to these microtrauma that result in muscle growth (anabolism).
> The growth and repair however cannot occur without the necessary building blocks.  These are supplied by high quality nutrition, primarily by ingested proteins .  A bodybuilder has a higher daily requirement of protein than a sedentary person to repair the damage that has been caused by the weight training.  This is why many bodybuilders diets contain steak, fish, eggs and tuna - all of which are high sources of protein. It is necessary to mention carbohydrates here too - for without the energy supplied by carbohydrates, the bodybulider would be unable to train effectively or extensively due to early fatigue.  Quality, low fat carbohydrates are supplied by potatoes, rice and vegetables.
> The third component to muscle building is rest.  Without quality rest and sleep the body does not have an opportunity to rebuild and repair.  A good, solid eight hours of sllep a night is essential for the bodybuilder to be refreshed and ready for the next gruelling session.
> 
> These three components combine to stimulate muscle growth in most people
------
Romansh|990597528
1c1,2
< Rumantsch (Romansh) is a term that covers various Gallo-Romance languages spoken in Switzerland. They are closely related to other Gallo-Romance idioms spoken in Italy, Switzerland and France.  Rumantsch was standardized in the last century. On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all odd-looking spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e, i/ have <tg>  (tgirar) instead of <ch>. Words with /c/ followed by /a, o, u/ have <ch> (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with <c->. At the same time, che and chi are – due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" – pronounced /ke/ and /ki/. <k> on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.  Schwa, however, is represented by <e> in RG which makes it closer to German, as does the use of <sch> for both /S/ and /Z/ and <tsch> for /tS/. 
---
> ''Rumantsch'' (or ''Romansh'') is a term that covers various Gallo-Romance languages spoken in Switzerland. They are closely related to other Gallo-Romance idioms spoken in Italy, Switzerland and France.  Rumantsch was standardized in the last century. On the orthographic level, Heinrich Schmidt sought to avoid all odd-looking spellings, in order to increase general acceptability of the new idiom and its spelling. Therefore, words with /c/ plus /e, i/ have <tg>  (tgirar) instead of <ch>. Words with /c/ followed by /a, o, u/ have <ch> (chalanda) as both speakers of Engadin (chalanda) and the Rhine territory (calanda) except a spelling with <c->. At the same time, che and chi are – due to this rule, called "Leza Uffers Kompromiss" – pronounced /ke/ and /ki/. <k> on the other hand would be a grapheme deemed unfit for a Romance tongue such as Romansh.  Schwa, however, is represented by <e> in RG which makes it closer to German, as does the use of <sch> for both /S/ and /Z/ and <tsch> for /tS/. 
> 
4c5
< See [[Language and dialect]]
---
> See also [[dialect]].
------
Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show|990599642
1c1
< Campy, emphatically kinky but hilarious film in which a straight-laced couple with a flat tire stop at a castle in the woods to use the phone.  In the castle, Dr. Frank N Furter, a gender-bending scientist from another planet, is giving a party to celebrate the creation of a male playmate.  Features Tim Curry as Dr. Frank N Furter and Susan Sarandon and Barry Bostwick as the straight-laced and initially horrified couple.  The film was based on a long-running play.  A cult following developed as the show began playing at midnight, first at the Waverly Theater in New York City.  People began shouting responses to the characters' statements on the screen. (including abuse of the characters or actors, vulgar sex jokes, puns, or pop culture references)  Now, casts of fans dress up as the characters and act out the movie in front of the screen.  25 years and going strong!
---
> Campy, emphatically kinky but hilarious [[film]] in which a straight-laced couple ([[/Brad|Brad]] and [[/Janet|Janet]]) with a flat tire stop at a [[castle]] in the woods to use the phone.  In the castle, [[/Dr. Frank N Further|Dr. Frank N Furter]], a gender-bending scientist from another planet, is giving a party to celebrate the creation of a male playmate.  Features [[Tim Curry]] as Dr. Frank N Furter and [[Susan Sarandon]] and [[Barry Bostwick]] as the straight-laced and initially horrified couple.  The film was based on a long-running play.  A cult following developed as the show began playing at midnight, first at the [[Waverly Theater]] in [[New York City]].  People began shouting [[/audience participation|responses]] to the characters' statements on the screen. (including abuse of the characters or actors, vulgar sex jokes, puns, or pop culture references)  Now, casts of fans dress up as the characters and act out the movie in front of the screen.  25 years and going strong!
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990599811
36a37
> ** Swedish musician [[Bo Hansson]] has made an entire instrumental album based on The Lord of the Rings
------
JRR_Tolkien/Bill_the_Pony|990599897
1c1
< Bill was a pony bought by [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and his companions in Bree, as they fled the [[JRR Tolkien/Shire|Shire]] on their way to [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]].  This was necessary as their own ponies had been stolen from the stables of the Prancing Pony inn, where they spent the night.  Bill was purchased from [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]], who was in league with the spies who stole the other ponies.  Ferny was a cruel man who tormented Bill, but after being purchased by the hobbits Bill became a much happier pony.  He was given the name 'Bill' by [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]] shortly after the party left Bree.
---
> Bill was a pony bought by [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo]] and his companions in [[/Bree|Bree]], as they fled the [[JRR Tolkien/Shire|Shire]] on their way to [[JRR Tolkien/Rivendell|Rivendell]].  This was necessary as their own ponies had been stolen from the stables of the [[/Prancing Pony|Prancing Pony]] inn, where they spent the night.  Bill was purchased from [[JRR Tolkien/Bill Ferny|Bill Ferny]], who was in league with the spies who stole the other ponies.  Ferny was a cruel man who tormented Bill, but after being purchased by the hobbits Bill became a much happier pony.  He was given the name 'Bill' by [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam Gamgee]] shortly after the party left Bree.
3c3
< After arriving in Rivendell Bill became acquainted with other ponies, and this influence resulted in a good deal of self-improvement.  He left Rivendell a much wiser pony, not to mention healthier and happier.
---
> After arriving in Rivendell, Bill became acquainted with other ponies, and this influence resulted in a good deal of self-improvement.  He left Rivendell a much wiser pony, not to mention healthier and happier.
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring|990600073
3c3
< The first sets the stage for the adventure and follows [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] as he flees from his home in [[JRR Tolkien/The Shire|The Shire]] to escape the minions of the Dark Lord [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]].  Sauron seeks a Ring of Power that will allow him to rule [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]].  This ring has been inherited by Frodo who finds himself unwittingly in the midt of a struggle for world domination.
---
> The first sets the stage for the adventure and follows [[JRR Tolkien/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] as he flees from his home in [[JRR Tolkien/The Shire|The Shire]] to escape the minions of the Dark Lord [[JRR Tolkien/Sauron|Sauron]].  Sauron seeks a [[/Rings of Power|Ring of Power]] that will allow him to rule [[JRR Tolkien/Middle Earth|Middle Earth]].  This ring has been inherited by Frodo who finds himself unwittingly in the midst of a struggle for world domination.
7c7
< In his journey he is accompanied by three hobbit friends, [[JRR Tolkien/Peregrin Took|Pippen]], [[JRR Tolkien/Meriadoc Brandybuck|Merry]], and [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam]].  From the start they are pursued by [[JRR Tolkien/Dark Riders|Dark Riders]], the Ringwraiths who serve Sauron.  Narrowly escaping the Dark Riders, and other nasties, they eventually come to Bree, where they meet [[JRR Tolkien/Strider|Strider]], another friend of Gandalf who leads them the rest of the way to Rivendell, through further hardships.
---
> In his journey he is accompanied by three hobbit friends, [[JRR Tolkien/Peregrin Took|Pippin]], [[JRR Tolkien/Meriadoc Brandybuck|Merry]], and [[JRR Tolkien/Sam Gamgee|Sam]].  From the start they are pursued by [[JRR Tolkien/Dark Riders|Dark Riders]], the Ringwraiths who serve Sauron.  Narrowly escaping the Dark Riders, and other nasties, they eventually come to [[/Bree|Bree]], where they meet [[JRR Tolkien/Strider|Strider]], another friend of Gandalf who leads them the rest of the way to Rivendell, through further hardships.
------
JRR_Tolkien/Rings_of_Power|990600274
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Magic rings forged by Sauron in the fire of the [[/Crack of Doom|Crack of Doom]].
> 
> On [[/the one ring|the one ring]], there is the following inscription:
> 
>           Three rings for the Elven-Kings under the sky,
>           Seven for the Dwarf-Lords in their halls of stone,
>           Nine for Mortal Men doomed to die.
>           One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne
>           In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.
>           One Ring to rule them all, One ring to find them,
>           One Ring to bring them all and in the darkness bind them
>           In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. 
------
JRR_Tolkien/Rings_of_Power|990600404
3c3
< On [[/the one ring|the one ring]], there is the following inscription:
---
> On [[/the one ring|the one ring]], there is the following invisible inscription:
12c12,14
<           In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. 
---
>           In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie. 
> 
> In [[/The Fellowship of the Ring|The Fellowship of the Ring]], [[/Gandalf|Gandalf]] demonstrates the inscription to [[/Frodo Baggins|Frodo Baggins]] by throwing the ring in the fireplace to make the inscription appear in fiery letters.
------
Spinning|990601214
1c1
< Spinning is the process of creation of [[yarn]] (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber material.
---
> '''1)''' Spinning is the process of creation of [[yarn]] (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber material.
21a22,24
> 
> -----
> '''2)''' Spinning is a new name for pedaling very fast on a stationary training bike. The concept was created in the [[1980s]] by [[Jonathan Goldberg]].
------
Film_noir|990602054
1c1
< A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast (called Low Key Light).
---
> ''Film noir'' (French, "black film") is a genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the alleged economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to be literally "darker"--using dramatic shadows and stark contrast (called Low Key Light).
3c3
< [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
---
> [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
------
McLean|990602511
1c1
< bryan mclean
---
> [[Bryan McLean]] (1947 ([[Los Angeles]])-1998 (Los Angeles))
3,7c3,4
< born 1947 los angeles
< died 1998 los angeles
< 
< Bryan mclean was the guitarist of the influential rock band love.
< Mclean was a roadie for the Byrds before he joined love.
---
> Bryan McLean was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].
> McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.
9c6
< After leaving love mclean joined a christian ministry.
---
> After leaving Love McLean joined a christian ministry.
------
Bryan_McLean|990602553
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Bryan McLean]] (1947 ([[Los Angeles]])-1998 (Los Angeles))
> 
> Bryan McLean was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].
> McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.
> Some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'.
> After leaving Love McLean joined a christian ministry.
> 
------
McLean|990602734
1,7c1
< [[Bryan McLean]] (1947 ([[Los Angeles]])-1998 (Los Angeles))
< 
< Bryan McLean was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].
< McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.
< Some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'.
< After leaving Love McLean joined a christian ministry.
< 
---
> 
------
Eskimo|990602880
1c1
< Eskimo refers to the people of the far north living from [[Greenland]] to [[Siberia]]. It came from the Canadian [[Cree]] word meaning "eater of raw flesh" and is seen by some as derogatory. European explorers continually called all the people they met as hey explored from east to west by this term.  Their culture is broadly the same over all the area; although, the eastern groups speak [[Inupik]] dialect and the western, [[Yupik]]. Kinship culture also differs east and west as eastern Eskimo lived with ousin of both mother and father but western Eskimo lived in paternal kinship groups. Many of these groups identify themselves as [[Inuit]], [[Inuvialuit]] or [[Yupikhyt]].
---
> ''Eskimo'' refers to one of the peoples of the far north, living from [[Greenland]] to [[Siberia]].  Many of these groups identify themselves as [[Inuit]], [[Inuvialuit]] or [[Yupikhyt]].  The name "eskimo" came from the Canadian [[Cree]] word meaning "eater of raw flesh" and is seen by some as derogatory.  Early European explorers continually called all the people they met in the area, as they explored from east to west, by this term.  Their culture is broadly the same over all the area; although, the eastern groups speak [[Inupik]] dialect and the western, [[Yupik]].  Kinship culture also differs east and west as eastern Eskimo lived with ousin of both mother and father but western Eskimo lived in paternal kinship groups.
3c3,5
< The Eskimo were hunters, who hunt whale, walrus and seal by [[kayak]] or by waiting at their airholes in the ice. They used [[igloo]]s as hunting or emergency shelters. They made ingenious use of animal skins in their clothing. [[Dog sled]]s are used for travel. 
---
> The Eskimo were (and many still are) hunters, who hunt whale, walrus and seal by [[kayak]] or by waiting at their airholes in the ice.  They used [[igloo]]s as hunting or emergency shelters.  They made and make ingenious use of animal skins in their clothing.  [[Dog sled]]s were and are used for travel, though [[snowmobile]]s have replaced this mode of travel to some extent, however.
> 
> /Talk
------
Eskimo/Talk|990602900
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> I'm wondering whether this information should be in [[Inuit]].
------
McLean|990603582
1c1,3
< 
---
> A Scottish clan name.
> 
> See also [[Bryan McLean]].
------
Bryan_McLean|990603684
1,7c1,2
< [[Bryan McLean]] (1947 ([[Los Angeles]])-1998 (Los Angeles))
< 
< Bryan McLean was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].
< McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.
< Some of his famous compositons for love include 'alone again or' and 'old man'.
< After leaving Love McLean joined a christian ministry.
< 
---
> Bryan McLean (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."
>  After leaving Love, McLean joined a Christian ministry.
------
Bryan_McLean|990603700
1,2c1
< Bryan McLean (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."
<  After leaving Love, McLean joined a Christian ministry.
---
> Bryan McLean (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."  After leaving Love, McLean joined a Christian ministry.
------
Bryan_McLean|990603732
1c1
< Bryan McLean (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  McLean was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."  After leaving Love, McLean joined a Christian ministry.
---
> Bryan <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."  After leaving Love, <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> joined a Christian ministry.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990606476
1c1
< The relativist fallacy, also known as [[polylogism]] or [[subjectivism]], is committed when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy applies only to objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.
---
> The ''relativist fallacy,'' also known as the ''[[subjectivist fallacy]],'' is committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy is supposed to rest on the [[Law of Non-Contradiction]].  The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.  On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" [[/Begging the question|begs the question]] against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts."  So some more work has to be done to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies.
3c3
< The fallacy may be adopted to defend an otherwise undefendable position.  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that logic is relative to a particular thinker or group, and that under some subjective logical standard (often unexamined) the position is correct.  The relativist fallacy is generally not introduced by people whose arguments relative to objective matters stand up to logic to begin with.
---
> There are at least two ways to interpret "the relativist fallacy": either as identical to [[relativism]] (generally), or as the [[ad hoc]] adoption of a relativist stance purely to defend a controversial position.
5c5,9
< The relativist fallacy was popularized in Western culture by [[Karl Marx]] who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  
---
> On the one hand, those discussions of the relativist fallacy which make the fallacy out to be ''identical to'' relativism (e.g., [[linguistic relativism]] or [[cultural relativism]]) are themselves committing a commonly-identified fallacy of informal logic, namely, [[/Begging the question|begging the question]] against an earnest, intelligent, logically-competent relativist.  It is itself a fallacy to describe a controversial view as a "fallacy"--not, at least, without arguing that it is a fallacy.  In any event, it will not do to argue as follows:
> # To advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to commit the relativist fallacy.
> # If one commits a fallacy, one says something false or not worth serious consideration.
> # Therefore, to advocate relativism, even some sophisticated relativism, is to say something false or not worth serious consideration.
> Virtually no philosopher worth his salt would take such an argument seriously; it is a fine example of [[/Circular reasoning|circular reasoning]].
7c11,13
< In determining whether the relativist fallacy has been committed, one should distinguish between things which are true ''for'' a particular person, and things which are true ''about'' that person.  Take, for example, the statement profferred by Jim, "More Americans than ever are overweight."  One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition, based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis, the definition of "overweight," etc.  It is a position which answers to objective logical debate.  If Joe answers Jim, saying "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me," he has given an answer which is fallacious as well as being somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim's original statement.
---
> On the other hand, if someone adopts a simple relativist stance as an [[ad hoc]] defence of a controversial or otherwise undefendable position--saying, in effect, that "what is true for you is not necessarily true for me," and thereby attempting to avoid having to mount any further defense of the position--one might be said to have committed a fallacy.  The accusation of having committed a fallacy might rest on either of two grounds: (1) the relativism on which the bogus defense rests is so simple and meritless that it straightforwardly contradicts the [[Law of Non-Contradiction]]; or (2) the defense (and thus the fallacy itself) is an example of [[ad hoc reasoning]] (which see).  If a position cannot stand up to logic, then one can still maintain that the position is correct by asserting that truth, or standards of logical consistency, are relative to a particular thinker or group, and that under some other logical standard, the position is correct.
> 
> On any interpretation of the fallacy, in determining whether the relativist fallacy has been committed, one should distinguish between things which are true ''for'' a particular person, and things which are true ''about'' that person.  Take, for example, the statement profferred by Jim, "More Americans than ever are overweight."  One may introduce arguments for and against this proposition, based upon such things as standards of statistical analysis, the definition of "overweight," etc.  It is a position which answers to objective logical debate.  If Joe answers Jim, saying "That may be true for you, but it is not true for me," he has given an answer which is fallacious as well as being somewhat meaningless in the context of Jim's original statement.
11c17,19
< [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
---
> Some opponents of Marxism identify, as having committed and propagated the relativist fallacy, [[Karl Marx]], who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  [[Marxianism|Marxian]]s would reply that it is a fallacy to define, without argument, their relativism as a fallacy.
> 
> [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990606578
1c1
< The ''relativist fallacy,'' also known as the ''[[subjectivist fallacy]],'' is committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy is supposed to rest on the [[Law of Non-Contradiction]].  The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.  On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" [[/Begging the question|begs the question]] against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts."  So some more work has to be done to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies.
---
> The ''relativist fallacy,'' also known as the ''[[subjectivist fallacy]],'' is committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy is supposed to rest on the [[Law of Non-Contradiction]].  The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.  On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" [[/Begging the question|begs the question]] against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts."  So some more work has to be done, in a non-question-begging way, to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies.
19c19
< [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
---
> [[/Relativist Fallacy Talk]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy_Talk|990606739
3a4,5
> ----
> I've edited the entry.  I hope ya'll can understand my earlier objection. --[[LMS]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990606850
17c17
< Some opponents of Marxism identify, as having committed and propagated the relativist fallacy, [[Karl Marx]], who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  [[Marxianism|Marxian]]s would reply that it is a fallacy to define, without argument, their relativism as a fallacy.
---
> Some opponents of Marxism identify, as having committed and propagated the relativist fallacy, [[Karl Marx]], who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  [[Marxianism|Marxian]]s would reply that it is a fallacy to define, without argument, their relativism--called [[polylogism]]--as a fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990606875
17c17
< Some opponents of Marxism identify, as having committed and propagated the relativist fallacy, [[Karl Marx]], who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  [[Marxianism|Marxian]]s would reply that it is a fallacy to define, without argument, their relativism--called [[polylogism]]--as a fallacy.
---
> Some opponents of Marxianism identify, as having committed and propagated the relativist fallacy, [[Karl Marx]], who argued that different social classes have different logics, and that the arguments refuting his theories were merely ''[[bourgeois]]'' logic, and as such could be dismissed without needing to be refuted.  [[Marxianism|Marxian]]s would reply that it is a fallacy to define, without argument, their relativism--called [[polylogism]]--as a fallacy.
------
Logical_fallacy/Relativist_Fallacy|990607212
1c1
< The ''relativist fallacy,'' also known as the ''[[subjectivist fallacy]],'' is committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy is supposed to rest on the [[Law of Non-Contradiction]].  The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.  On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" [[/Begging the question|begs the question]] against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts."  So some more work has to be done, in a non-question-begging way, to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies.
---
> The ''relativist fallacy,'' also known as the ''[[subjectivist fallacy]],'' is committed, roughly speaking, when one person claims that something may be true for one person but not true for someone else.  The fallacy is supposed to rest on the [[law of non-contradiction]].  The fallacy, it is said, applies only to objective facts, or what are alleged to be objective facts, rather than to facts about personal tastes or subjective experiences, and only to facts regarded in the same sense and at the same time.  On this formulation, the very name "relativist fallacy" [[/Begging the question|begs the question]] against anyone who earnestly (however mistakenly or not) holds that there are no "objective facts."  So some more work has to be done, in a non-question-begging way, to make it clear wherein, exactly, the fallacy lies.
------
Logical_fallacy|990607565
11c11
< The supporters of the death penalty would not be impressed by this argument.  It commits the [[logical fallacy]] of [[begging the question]].  In the argument, James says that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i>, he would have to prove that all killing is wrong--which is what he is trying to argue for.  Anyone who disagrees with the conclusion will disagree with the premise that one should absolutely never kill.  One might maintain to the contrary that, indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it is our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of [[justice]].
---
> The supporters of the death penalty would not be impressed by this argument.  It commits the logical fallacy of [[/Begging the question|begging the question]].  In the argument, James says that one should absolutely never kill.  But to prove <i>that</i>, he would have to prove that all killing is wrong--which is what he is trying to argue for.  Anyone who disagrees with the conclusion will disagree with the premise that one should absolutely never kill.  One might maintain to the contrary that, indeed, in some cases one actually <i>should</i> kill: it is our grim duty, an unfortunately necessary part of [[justice]].
20c20
< Here the problem is that the word "[[good]]" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, Barbara says that Andre is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  So, of course, the premise might be true while the conclusion would still be false: Andre might be the best tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>[[fallacy of ambiguity]]</i>.
---
> Here the problem is that the word "[[good]]" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, Barbara says that Andre is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  So, of course, the premise might be true while the conclusion would still be false: Andre might be the best tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>[[/Fallacy of ambiguity|fallacy of ambiguity]]</i>.
22c22
< Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[Ad Hominem|argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
---
> Some fallacies are used freely in the media and politics. For example, the ''[[/Ad hominem|argumentum ad hominem]]'' is used when instead of refuting an statement, the person who made that statement is attacked.  Every time a politician says to another politician, "You don't have moral authority to say that" is using that fallacy, not attacking the argument, but the person who uses it.  Strictly speaking, this is a fallacy; but, arguably, the politician is not even making an argument, but is instead offering a moral rebuke.  This is an example of the difficulty of helpfully and respectfully identifying fallacies as such; it is more difficult than it might at first appear, e.g., to a student armed with a list of fallacies.
24c24
< In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[/Appeal to authority|argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[Master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
---
> In the opposite direction is the fallacy of [[/Appeal to authority|argument from authority]].  Classical example of this is the ''[[/Master dixit|master dixit]]''--"the master said it"--used through the [[Middle Ages]] in reference to [[Aristotle]].  A modern use of this is "celebrity spokepersons" in advertisements: that product is good because your favorite celebrity endorses it.
32c32
< A taxonomy of fallacies:
---
> A list of fallacies:
78c78
< See also [[fallacies of definition]].
---
> See also [[fallacies of definition]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[good argument]]; [[college logic]]; [[informal logic]].
------
Logical_fallacy|990607656
78c78
< See also [[fallacies of definition]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[good argument]]; [[college logic]]; [[informal logic]].
---
> See also [[fallacies of definition]]; [[good argument]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[college logic]]; [[informal logic]].
------
New_topics|990612802
1c1
< Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 20th May, Wikipedia server time
---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 22nd May, Wikipedia server time
3,378c3
< These are some new topics from the past couple of days: ( the upload of the CIA factbook is now in the `M's )
< 
< 
< [[1909]] -- 
< [[1984]] -- 
< [[2000s]] -- 
< [[A.A._Milne]] -- 
< [[A._A._Milne]] -- 
< [[Addiction]] -- 
< [[Alpha]] -- 
< [[Alumn]] -- 
< [[Alumna]] -- 
< [[Alumni]] -- 
< [[Anders_Jonas_Angstrom]] -- 
< [[Andrei_Andreevich_Markov]] -- 
< [[Anglican_Communion]] -- 
< [[Angst]] -- 
< [[Angstrom]] -- 
< [[Ann_Arbor]] -- 
< [[Anti-semitic]] -- 
< [[Anti-semitism]] -- 
< [[Anxiety]] -- 
< [[Archipelago]] -- 
< [[Arne_Kaijser]] -- 
< [[Arthur_Conan_Doyle]] -- 
< [[Author]] -- 
< [[Aves/talk]] -- 
< [[Axiom]] -- 
< [[B-52]] -- 
< [[BSE]] -- 
< [[B]] -- 
< [[Bal_Thackeray]] -- 
< [[Bay]] -- 
< [[Beta]] -- 
< [[Biblioholist]] -- 
< [[Bille_August]] -- 
< [[Bisexual]] -- 
< [[Bombay]] -- 
< [[Book]] -- 
< [[Bornholm]] -- 
< [[Boston]] -- 
< [[C]] -- 
< [[Calf]] -- 
< [[Cambridge,_Massachusetts]] -- 
< [[Cambridge]] -- 
< [[Cambridge_University]] -- 
< [[Chalmers_University_of_Technology]] -- 
< [[Charles_Babbage]] -- 
< [[Civil_Rights_Memorial]] -- 
< [[Claude_E._Shannon]] -- 
< [[Closeted]] -- 
< [[Codex]] -- 
< [[Colin_Dexter]] -- 
< [[College]] -- 
< [[Community]] -- 
< [[Community_college]] -- 
< [[Cracking]] -- 
< [[Cross-dresser]] -- 
< [[D]] -- 
< [[Dallas_Cowboys]] -- 
< [[Data_compression/Huffman_coding]] -- 
< [[Delta]] -- 
< [[Denver_Broncos]] -- 
< [[Digamma]] -- 
< [[Dock]] -- 
< [[Dockyard]] -- 
< [[Dorothy_Sayers]] -- 
< [[Dumbarton_Bridge]] -- 
< [[Edmund_Stoiber/Talk]] -- 
< [[Electronic_instruments]] -- 
< [[Environmental_agreements]] -- 
< [[Epsilon]] -- 
< [[Eta]] -- 
< [[F]] -- 
< [[Fax]] -- 
< [[Fear]] -- 
< [[Film_crew]] -- 
< [[Florida]] -- 
< [[Football_team]] -- 
< [[GUI]] -- 
< [[G]] -- 
< [[Gamma]] -- 
< [[Gaudy_Night]] -- 
< [[Gay]] -- 
< [[Georg_Henrik_von_Wright]] -- 
< [[Goteborg]] -- 
< [[Greater_London]] -- 
< [[Greek_Alphabet]] -- 
< [[H]] -- 
< [[Harbor]] -- 
< [[Heterosexual]] -- 
< [[High_anxiety]] -- 
< [[Holocene]] -- 
< [[Homophobia]] -- 
< [[Homosexual]] -- 
< [[Hornlo]] -- 
< [[I]] -- 
< [[Inch]] -- 
< [[Information_explosion]] -- 
< [[Information_theory]] -- 
< [[Inn]] -- 
< [[Inspector_Morse]] -- 
< [[International_Olympiad_in_Informatics]] -- 
< [[Iota]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Communications]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Economy]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Geography]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Government]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/History]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Military]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/People]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Isle_of_Man/Transportation]] -- 
< [[J]] -- 
< [[Jabal_Ram]] -- 
< [[Jackson]] -- 
< [[K]] -- 
< [[Kansas]] -- 
< [[Kansas_City_Chiefs]] -- 
< [[Kattegat]] -- 
< [[Kattegatt]] -- 
< [[Kolmogorov_Smirnov_Test]] -- 
< [[L]] -- 
< [[Large_Technical_System]] -- 
< [[Lesbian]] -- 
< [[Lesbigay]] -- 
< [[Letter]] -- 
< [[London_boroughs]] -- 
< [[Lord_Peter_Wimsey]] -- 
< [[Los_Angeles_Rams]] -- 
< [[Louis_Bleriot]] -- 
< [[Lulea_University_of_Technology]] -- 
< [[Lund_University]] -- 
< [[MIT]] -- 
< [[MIT_License]] -- 
< [[M]] -- 
< [[Macau/Communications]] -- 
< [[Macau/Economy]] -- 
< [[Macau/Geography]] -- 
< [[Macau/Government]] -- 
< [[Macau/History]] -- 
< [[Macau/Military]] -- 
< [[Macau/People]] -- 
< [[Macau/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Macau/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Macau]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Communications]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Economy]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Geography]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Government]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/History]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Military]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/People]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Macedonia/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Macedonia]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Communications]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Economy]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Geography]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Government]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/History]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Military]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/People]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Madagascar/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Malaren]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Communications]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Economy]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Geography]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Government]] -- 
< [[Malawi/History]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Military]] -- 
< [[Malawi/People]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Malawi/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Malawi]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Communications]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Economy]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Geography]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Government]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/History]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Military]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/People]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Malaysia/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Malaysia]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Communications]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Economy]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Geography]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Government]] -- 
< [[Maldives/History]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Military]] -- 
< [[Maldives/People]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Maldives/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Maldives]] -- 
< [[Mali/Communications]] -- 
< [[Mali/Economy]] -- 
< [[Mali/Geography]] -- 
< [[Mali/Government]] -- 
< [[Mali/History]] -- 
< [[Mali/Military]] -- 
< [[Mali/People]] -- 
< [[Mali/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Mali/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Mali]] -- 
< [[Malta/Communications]] -- 
< [[Malta/Economy]] -- 
< [[Malta/Geography]] -- 
< [[Malta/Government]] -- 
< [[Malta/History]] -- 
< [[Malta/Military]] -- 
< [[Malta/People]] -- 
< [[Malta/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Malta/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Malta]] -- 
< [[Manuscript]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Communications]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Economy]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Geography]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Government]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/History]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Military]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/People]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Marshall_Islands]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Communications]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Economy]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Geography]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Government]] -- 
< [[Martinique/History]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Military]] -- 
< [[Martinique/People]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Martinique/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Martinique]] -- 
< [[Mass_deacidification]] -- 
< [[Massachusetts]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Communications]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Economy]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Geography]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Government]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/History]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Military]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/People]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Transnational_issues]] -- 
< [[Mauritania/Transportation]] -- 
< [[Mauritania]] -- 
< [[Maya_Lin]] -- 
< [[Mean]] -- 
< [[Miami_Dolphins]] -- 
< [[Mile]] -- 
< [[Millsaps_College]] -- 
< [[Misogyny]] -- 
< [[Mississippi]] -- 
< [[Mjausson]] -- 
< [[Mjolby]] -- 
< [[Monotremata]] -- 
< [[Mumbai]] -- 
< [[MusicMatch]] -- 
< [[Mustafa_Kemal_Ataturk]] -- 
< [[N]] -- 
< [[Nautical_mile]] -- 
< [[Nicholas_Lemann]] -- 
< [[Nuernberg]] -- 
< [[Nuremberg]] -- 
< [[O]] -- 
< [[Oakland_Raiders]] -- 
< [[Oresund]] -- 
< [[Oslo]] -- 
< [[Out]] -- 
< [[Outing/Talk]] -- 
< [[Outing]] -- 
< [[Oxford]] -- 
< [[P]] -- 
< [[Paganism]] -- 
< [[Page]] -- 
< [[Palimpsest]] -- 
< [[Parchment]] -- 
< [[Parsec]] -- 
< [[Pennsylvania]] -- 
< [[Pergamon]] -- 
< [[Philadelphia]] -- 
< [[Philadelphia_Eagles]] -- 
< [[Phobia]] -- 
< [[Pittsburgh_Steelers]] -- 
< [[Postulate]] -- 
< [[Python]] -- 
< [[Pythonidae]] -- 
< [[Q]] -- 
< [[Quantiles]] -- 
< [[R]] -- 
< [[Race]] -- 
< [[Racism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Racism]] -- 
< [[Racist]] -- 
< [[Random_access]] -- 
< [[Rescuing_Prometheus]] -- 
< [[Riddarfjarden]] -- 
< [[Risk]] -- 
< [[Royal_Institute_of_Technology]] -- 
< [[Rpm]] -- 
< [[S]] -- 
< [[Sacred]] -- 
< [[San_Diego_Chargers]] -- 
< [[San_Francisco_49ers]] -- 
< [[Science_olympiad]] -- 
< [[Scotland_Yard]] -- 
< [[Scroll]] -- 
< [[Sed]] -- 
< [[Sequential_access]] -- 
< [[Sexism/Talk]] -- 
< [[Sexism]] -- 
< [[Sexist]] -- 
< [[Sherlock_Holmes]] -- 
< [[Shiv_Sena]] -- 
< [[Short_words]] -- 
< [[SiVa]] -- 
< [[Siva]] -- 
< [[Slow_fires]] -- 
< [[Socrates/Talk]] -- 
< [[Southern_Poverty_Law_Center]] -- 
< [[Stockholm_School_of_Economics]] -- 
< [[Stockholm_University]] -- 
< [[T]] -- 
< [[TeX]] -- 
< [[TedDunning]] -- 
< [[Tedunning]] -- 
< [[The_Big_Test]] -- 
< [[The_Boston_Globe]] -- 
< [[The_Fugitive]] -- 
< [[The_novel]] -- 
< [[Thomas_P._Hughes]] -- 
< [[Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus]] -- 
< [[Tradition]] -- 
< [[Trojan_War]] -- 
< [[Troy]] -- 
< [[Tuebingen]] -- 
< [[U]] -- 
< [[Ultramagnetic_MCs]] -- 
< [[Umea_University]] -- 
< [[Universal_access]] -- 
< [[University]] -- 
< [[University_of_Bergen]] -- 
< [[University_of_Cambridge/Christs_College]] -- 
< [[University_of_Cambridge/Colleges]] -- 
< [[University_of_Cambridge/Peterhouse]] -- 
< [[University_of_Cambridge/Trinity_College]] -- 
< [[University_of_Cambridge]] -- 
< [[University_of_Oslo]] -- 
< [[University_of_Oxford]] -- 
< [[University_of_Pennsylvania]] -- 
< [[Uppsala_University]] -- 
< [[UuU]] -- 
< [[V]] -- 
< [[Veal]] -- 
< [[Vellum]] -- 
< [[Vinyl]] -- 
< [[W]] -- 
< [[War_dialing]] -- 
< [[War_driving]] -- 
< [[Web_browser]] -- 
< [[Wharf]] -- 
< [[White_supremacy]] -- 
< [[William_Blake]] -- 
< [[Winnie_the_Pooh]] -- 
< [[Wireless_network]] -- 
< [[X-band_Radar]] -- 
< [[X]] -- 
< [[Xenophobia]] -- 
< [[Y]] -- 
< [[Yard]] -- 
< [[Z-car]] -- 
< [[Z]] -- 
< [[Zhonghua_Sun]]
---
> These are some new topics from the past couple of days: 
379a5,110
> [[Altair_BASIC]] -- 
> [[Alvin_Toffler]] -- 
> [[Am]] -- 
> [[Amazing_Spider-Man]] -- 
> [[Andre_Engels/Pages]] -- 
> [[Archie]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/III]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/II]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/IV]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/IX]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/I]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/VIII]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/VII]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/VI]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/V]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/XII]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/XI]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice/X]] -- 
> [[Automated_Alice]] -- 
> [[Axiom/Talk]] -- 
> [[Biblioholic]] -- 
> [[Bitola]] -- 
> [[Body]] -- 
> [[Cevik_Bir]] -- 
> [[Channel_tunnel]] -- 
> [[Comic_strip]] -- 
> [[Continuum_hypothesis]] -- 
> [[Cyberpunk]] -- 
> [[Dialect]] -- 
> [[Dilbert]] -- 
> [[Dose]] -- 
> [[English_Words_for_Snow_and_Ice]] -- 
> [[Eric_Arthur_Blair]] -- 
> [[Eskimo]] -- 
> [[FTP]] -- 
> [[FederalisM]] -- 
> [[Film_noir/Film_list]] -- 
> [[Glaciation]] -- 
> [[Goitre]] -- 
> [[Guglielmo_Marconi/Talk]] -- 
> [[HCI]] -- 
> [[Historical_anniversaries/July_25]] -- 
> [[Horseshoe]] -- 
> [[How_to_play_the_violin]] -- 
> [[ISP]] -- 
> [[International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate]] -- 
> [[Inuit/Talk]] -- 
> [[JRR_Tolkien/Bill_the_Pony]] -- 
> [[JRR_Tolkien/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring]] -- 
> [[JasonR]] -- 
> [[JobRequest]] -- 
> [[Joseph_Goebbels]] -- 
> [[Kappa]] -- 
> [[Kolmogorov_Smirnoff_Test]] -- 
> [[Kuiper_Test]] -- 
> [[Lambda]] -- 
> [[Language/Talk]] -- 
> [[Language_and_dialect/Talk]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_popularity]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/Begging_the_question]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/False_dilemma]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/Many_questions]] -- 
> [[Lore]] -- 
> [[Love/Forever_Changes]] -- 
> [[Lysator/Talk]] -- 
> [[McLean]] -- 
> [[Michael_Reagan]] -- 
> [[Monastir]] -- 
> [[Mu-metal]] -- 
> [[Nail]] -- 
> [[Paul_Allen]] -- 
> [[Penis]] -- 
> [[Pokey_the_Penguin]] -- 
> [[Popeye]] -- 
> [[Post-Communism]] -- 
> [[Pytheas]] -- 
> [[Richard_Bachman/The_Running_Man]] -- 
> [[Richard_Bachman]] -- 
> [[Roberto_Baggio]] -- 
> [[Scheme/Talk]] -- 
> [[Shoe]] -- 
> [[Short_list]] -- 
> [[Skinhead]] -- 
> [[Slang]] -- 
> [[Sorrel]] -- 
> [[Spiderman]] -- 
> [[Statistics/LLR]] -- 
> [[Talk_radio/Talk]] -- 
> [[Talk_radio]] -- 
> [[Thales]] -- 
> [[The_Running_Man]] -- 
> [[The_Wizard_if_Id]] -- 
> [[Thyroid]] -- 
> [[Tiger]] -- 
> [[TtH]] -- 
> [[User-friendliness]] -- 
> [[User-friendly/Talk]] -- 
> [[User-friendly]] -- 
> [[User_Friendly]] -- 
> [[User_friendly]] -- 
> [[Varanger_glaciation]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_is_a_dictionary]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary]] -- 
> [[Woman]] -- 
> [[Zippy_the_Pinhead]] -- 
> [[Zulu]]
------
User-friendliness|990613300
5,8c5
< For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[human-computer interaction]] and [[computer and software usability]].
< 
< ----
< 'User Friendly' is also the name of an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
---
> For the concept of user friendliness in computer systems, see [[human-computer interaction]] and [[computer and software usability]].
------
User_Friendly|990613324
1c1,3
< #REDIRECT [[User-friendliness]]
---
> See [[User-friendliness]].
> 
> 'User Friendly' is also the name of an online, daily [[comic strip]] about a small, [[Linux]]-based [[ISP]]. http://www.userfriendly.org/static/
------
Logical_fallacy|990614224
62c62
<  [[/Ignoring a common cause|Ignoring a common cause]]
---
>  [[/Ignoratio elenchi|Ignoratio elenchi]]
78c78
< See also [[fallacies of definition]]; [[good argument]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[college logic]]; [[informal logic]].
---
> See also [[fallacies of definition]]; [[good argument]]; [[validity]]; [[soundness]]; [[cogency]]; [[college logic]]; [[informal logic]].
------
Logical_fallacy/Ignoratio_elenchi|990614550
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> ''Ignoratio elenchi'' (which can be roughly translated by ''ignoring the issue'') is the fallacy of presenting an argument that may on itself be valid, but proves a different proposition than the one it is supposed to prove. For example, the prosecuter in a criminal court might argue how bad the crime is that has been committed, but if this argument is taken as an argument to convict the suspect, it is a case of ignoratio elenchi - it does not prove what it should prove, namely that the suspect is guilty.
------
Logical_fallacy|990614691
56a57
>  [[/Equivocation|Equivocation]]
------
Logical_fallacy/Equivocation|990614856
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The fallacy of equivocation is committed when someone uses the same word in different meanings in an argument, in such a way that the argument would be correct only if the word actually meant the same each time around.
> 
> For example, "A feather is light. What is light cannot be dark. So a feather can not be dark," commits this fallacy: The word ''light'' is used in the sense of ''having little weight'' the first time, but of ''having a light colour'' the second time.
------
Logical_fallacy|990614914
20c20
< Here the problem is that the word "[[good]]" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, Barbara says that Andre is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  So, of course, the premise might be true while the conclusion would still be false: Andre might be the best tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>[[/Fallacy of ambiguity|fallacy of ambiguity]]</i>.
---
> Here the problem is that the word "[[good]]" has different meanings, which is to say that it is an <i>ambiguous</i> word.  In the premise, Barbara says that Andre is good <i>at</i> <i>some</i> <i>particular</i> <i>activity</i>, in this case tennis.  In the conclusion, she says that Andre is a <i>morally</i> good person.  Those are clearly two different senses of the word "good."  So, of course, the premise might be true while the conclusion would still be false: Andre might be the best tennis player in the world but a rotten person morally speaking.  Appropriately, since it plays on an ambiguity, this sort of fallacy is called <i>the</i> <i>[[/Equivocation|Fallacy of Equivocation]]</i>.
------
MiddleAges|990615072
1c1,3
< Period in [[Europe]]an History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (late 4th century) to the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] Age (ca. [[14th century]]). After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the [[Byzantine Empire]] competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of [[Christianity]] from the Mediterranean area and from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the [[Frankish Empire]]) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": [[Christendom]]. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the [[Crusade]]s, during which [[Pope]]s, kings, and emperors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on [[Islam]], which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the [[Renaissance]].
---
> Period in [[Europe]]an History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (late 4th century) to the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] Age (ca. [[14th century]]). Often, the Renaissance is also included in the definition. When trying to give exact dates, the [[Fall of Rome]] (476) is often taken as the beginning, and either the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1452) or the [[Discovery of America]] (1492) as its end.
> 
> After the downfall of Roman power, several Germanic and Slavic tribes and the [[Byzantine Empire]] competed for power in different parts of Europe. Basicly, the spread of [[Christianity]] from the Mediterranean area and from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] throughout Europe led to a spread of ecclesiastical power which pervaded political institutions (e.g. the [[Franks/Frankish Empire]]) and formed the basis for a first European "identity": [[Christendom]]. A rather nasty example of this identity at work are the [[Crusade]]s, during which [[Pope]]s, kings, and emperors drew on the unity of all Christians to wage bloody war on [[Islam]], which was spreading along Europe's southern borders. With the rise of western European economic growth, culture and political power, the Middle Ages came to an end, gradually making way for a movement called the [[Renaissance]].
------
Vendian_Biota|990615595
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A very early form of animal life.
> 
> See also [[Ediacarian]].
------
Ediacarian|990615685
5c5,7
< The Ediacarian faunas are sometimes referred to as "Vendian Faunas".  Modern usage tends toward using "Ediacarian" to describe the full faunal range including algae, sponges, and all other life forms of the late preCambrian.  The term "Vendian" is then reserved by some for a diverse collection of multilobed, softbodied, sessile forms that appear as fronds, disks, and other shapes.  These are termed "Vendazoa" and have been proposed as a separate phyllum or kingdom.
---
> The Ediacarian faunas are sometimes referred to as
> [[Vendian fauna]].
> Modern usage tends toward using "Ediacarian" to describe the full faunal range including algae, sponges, and all other life forms of the late preCambrian.  The term "Vendian" is then reserved by some for a diverse collection of multilobed, softbodied, sessile forms that appear as fronds, disks, and other shapes.  These are termed "Vendazoa" and have been proposed as a separate phyllum or kingdom.
------
Ediacarian|990615745
6c6
< [[Vendian fauna]].
---
> [[Vendian Biota]].
------
Ediacarian|990615798
5,7c5
< The Ediacarian faunas are sometimes referred to as
< [[Vendian Biota]].
< Modern usage tends toward using "Ediacarian" to describe the full faunal range including algae, sponges, and all other life forms of the late preCambrian.  The term "Vendian" is then reserved by some for a diverse collection of multilobed, softbodied, sessile forms that appear as fronds, disks, and other shapes.  These are termed "Vendazoa" and have been proposed as a separate phyllum or kingdom.
---
> The Ediacarian faunas are sometimes referred to as "Vendian Faunas".  Modern usage tends toward using "Ediacarian" to describe the full faunal range including algae, sponges, and all other life forms of the late preCambrian.  The term "Vendian" is then reserved by some for a diverse collection of multilobed, softbodied, sessile forms that appear as fronds, disks, and other shapes.  These are termed "Vendazoa" and have been proposed as a separate phyllum or kingdom.
9c7
< There are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
---
> There are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 million years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occuring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from India, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
------
Renaissance|990616180
1c1,5
< A cultural movement and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] (and [[15th century]]), meaning the rebirth of ideals from the [[ancient civilization]]s of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Rome]].  Renaissance started in [[Italy]].
---
> A cultural movement and time period in the [[History of Europe]], marking the end of the [[Middle Ages]] in the [[14th century]] and [[15th century]].
> 
> During this period, art and science rose to a higher level than in the period before. The name literally means ''rebirth'', and the period got this name because in this period the old civilizations of [[Hellenic civilization|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]] got new interest, and in some respects one could say that Western Civilization, which had lain relatively dormant during the Middle Ages, got a new start. In science, the Renaissance started out with the rediscovery of old Greek works of science. Only towards the end of the Renaissance, scientists started to reject Greek (and biblical) sources in favor of new discoveries. The second half of the Renaissance is also the period of the [[Reformation]].
> 
> The Renaissance started in [[Italy]], one of its main centers being the city of [[Florence]].
4a9,26
> Important Renaissance artists:
> 
> * [[Giotto]]
> * [[Michelangelo]]
> * [[Rafael]]
> * [[Leonardo da Vinci]]
> 
> Important Renaissance scientists:
> 
> * [[Tycho Brahe]]
> * [[Copernicus]]
> * [[Johannes Kepler]]
> * [[Paracelsus]]
> 
> Important Renaissance philosophers:
> 
> * [[Nicolas of Cusa]]
> * [[Marcilo Ficino]]
------
Laws_of_Kepler|990616337
1c1
< The [[astronomer]] [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]].
---
> The [[astronomer]] [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]]. Not only caused Kepler's laws the theories of [[Copernicus]] to find wider acceptance, they also formed a basis for the theories of [[Isaac Newton/Newton]], who proved that Kepler's Laws could be directly derived from the mathematics of an inverse-square law gravitation force.
------
Laws_of_Kepler|990616352
1c1
< The [[astronomer]] [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]]. Not only caused Kepler's laws the theories of [[Copernicus]] to find wider acceptance, they also formed a basis for the theories of [[Isaac Newton/Newton]], who proved that Kepler's Laws could be directly derived from the mathematics of an inverse-square law gravitation force.
---
> The [[astronomer]] [[Johannes Kepler]]'s main contribution to [[astronomy]] was his three laws of planetary motion.  They predate [[Isaac Newton]] and provide the foundation for his work, and can be derived from his [[Newtons Laws of Motion|laws of motion]] and [[gravity]]. Not only caused Kepler's laws the theories of [[Copernicus]] to find wider acceptance, they also formed a basis for the theories of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], who proved that Kepler's Laws could be directly derived from the mathematics of an inverse-square law gravitation force.
------
Classical_Mechanics|990616575
18a19,20
> ----
> 
45a48,51
> 
> ----
> 
> Classical mechanics correctly describe the behaviour of most objects. Only when looking at a very small scale, or at objects moving very fast, different theories are necessary - respectively [[Quantum Mechanics]] and Relativistic Mechanics (see [[Theory of Relativity]]).
------
Theory_of_Relativity|990616624
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Theory of relativity]]
------
Andre_Engels/Pages|990616832
4a5,6
> * [[Coitus Interruptus]]
> * [[Condom]]
14a17
> * [[Logical fallacy/Ignoratio elenchi]]
16a20
> * [[Morning After Pill]]
22a27
> * [[Sexology]]
37a43,44
> * [[Renaissance]]
> 
------
Andre_Engels/Pages|990616860
5c5
< * [[Coitus Interruptus]]
---
> * [[Coitus interruptus]]
------
Andre_Engels/Pages|990616885
20c20
< * [[Morning After Pill]]
---
> * [[Morning after pill]]
------
Vampire|990617238
20a21,22
> There is also substantial evidence for the relation between vampirism and [[rabies]]. The legend of vampirism is known to take place in the 19th century Eastern Europe, where there were massive rabies outbreaks. Rabies causes high fever, loss of appetite and fatigue as initial symptoms. In later stages patients try to avoid the sunlight and prefer walking at night. Strong light and mirrors may cause episodes characterised by violent and animal-like behaviors and a tendency to attack people and bite them. Concomitant facial spasms may give the patient an animal-like (or a vampire-like) expression. In a furious form of the disease patients may have an increased urgency for sexual activity or may occasionally vomit blood. Rabies is contagious just like vampirism and a single bite may evoke the same symptoms in the victim.
> 
------
Vampire/Talk|990619485
13a14,19
> 
> ----
> 
> I think there's some instances of lycanthropy amongst the ancient Greeks. There should be a book on my shelves somewhere with a detailed history of this sort of thing...
> 
> Getting back to vampires, it's interesting to see how Bram Stoker's Dracula was an assortment of folk traditions, grafted onto a more or less Roman Catholic framework of demonic possession; his Dracula is effectively the corpse of Vlad Dracul possessed by a demon - hence the crucifix & holy water being so effective. 
------
Vampire|990620452
1c1,6
< Mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood. Famous vampires include [[Nosferatu]] and [[Dracula]].
---
> Mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded 
> as containing the life force) is an old one, going back to the ancient greeks at least (<i>An example is the episode where Odysseus (or who?) summons up the dead, and gets them to speak to him by feeding them blood. (Reference needed here !!)</i>)
> There is a long tradition about vampires, but for the last century this has been greatly added to and confused by numerous 
> works of fiction, such as [[Nosferatu]] and [[Bram Stoker]]'s [[Dracula]] -  In  Dracula for example, the vampire is effectively a human corpse possessed by a demon - hence the efficacy of crucifixes and holy water.
> 
> Vampires are believed to not show up in mirrors: this is because, being dead, they have no souls. 
9c14
< Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called porphyria.
---
> Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called [[porphyria]].
------
Disease|990620530
10c10
< ** [[Cystic Fibrosis]], [[Homocystinuria]], [[Huntingtons Chorea]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], [[Sickle-cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]], [[Thalassaemia]]...
---
> ** [[Cystic Fibrosis]], [[Homocystinuria]], [[Huntingtons Chorea]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Phenylketonuria]], [[Porphyria]], [[Sickle-cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]], [[Thalassaemia]]...
------
Genetics|990620760
1c1,6
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Genetics is that branch of science which relates to the study of [[genes]], and their role in [[inheritance]]. This is the process by which offspring tend to have features in similar with their parents. <p>
> 
> 
> It traces its routes back to [[Gregor Mendel]], who first traced [[inheritance]] patterns statistically showing that the [[inhertiance ]] of certain features obeyed simple statistical rules. Although not all features show this [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work acted as a proof that application of statistics to inhertiance could be highly useful. Since that time many more complex forms of inhertiance have been demonstrated. <p>
> 
> Although Mendel was not aware of the physical nature of the genes, we now know that they are carried on [[DNA]], and by manipulating [[DNA]] we can in turn alter the inhertiance, and features of various organisms. This science which grew out of biochemistry and genetics is widely known as [[molecular biology]].<p>
------
Genetics|990621132
1c1
< Genetics is that branch of science which relates to the study of [[genes]], and their role in [[inheritance]]. This is the process by which offspring tend to have features in similar with their parents. <p>
---
> Genetics is that branch of science which relates to the study of [[gene]]s, and their role in [[inheritance]]. This is the process by which offspring tend to have features in similar with their parents. <p>
4c4
< It traces its routes back to [[Gregor Mendel]], who first traced [[inheritance]] patterns statistically showing that the [[inhertiance ]] of certain features obeyed simple statistical rules. Although not all features show this [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work acted as a proof that application of statistics to inhertiance could be highly useful. Since that time many more complex forms of inhertiance have been demonstrated. <p>
---
> It traces its routes back to [[Gregor Mendel]], who first traced [[inheritance]] patterns statistically showing that the [[inhertiance]] of certain features obeyed simple statistical rules. Although not all features show this [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work acted as a proof that application of statistics to inhertiance could be highly useful. Since that time many more complex forms of inhertiance have been demonstrated. <p>
------
Mu|990622686
3,4c3,5
< 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria]], sunk beneath the waters.  The name was invented by James Churchward in his books `<i>Lost Continent of Mu</i>' and  `<i>Sacred Symbols of Mu</i>'. 
< It should be noted that though Churchward considered these to be works of archaeology, they are generally catalogued in bookshops under "Religion and Occult".
---
> 2. The name of a (hypothetical) vanished continent, located in the [[Pacific ocean]] but now, like [[Atlantis]] and [[Lemuria]], sunk beneath the waters.  The idea of this continent first appeared in the works of the [[archaeologist]] Augustus Le Plongeon (1826-1908), who was one of the first to excavate [[Mayan]] ruins at [[Yucatan]] His attempts to translate surviving Mayan writings resulted in a story of the continent of Mu, which had foundered in a similar fashion to Atlantis, with the survivors founding the Mayan civilisation. 
> 
> This lost continent was later popularised by James Churchward in a series of books, beginning with  `<i>Lost Continent of Mu</i>' (1926). The books still have devotees, but they are not considered serious archaeology, and nowadays are found in bookshops classed under `New Age' or `Religion and Spirituality'
------
Bryan_McLean|990625897
1c1
< Bryan <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love band|Love]].  <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."  After leaving Love, <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> joined a Christian ministry.
---
> Bryan <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> (1947 [[Los Angeles]] - 1998 Los Angeles) was the guitarist of the influential rock band [[Love/Band|Love]].  <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> was a roadie for the [[Byrds]] before he joined love.  Some of his famous compositons for Love include "Alone Again Or" and "Old Man."  After leaving Love, <nowiki>McLean</nowiki> joined a Christian ministry.
------
Love/Band|990625945
5c5
< * Bryan McLean
---
> * [[Bryan McLean]]
------
Love/Band|990625968
1c1
< Love, led by the enigmatic Arthur Lee, were an influential [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s who are now best remembered for their classic album [[/Forever Changes]].  This featured the songwriting of both Lee and Bryan McLean accompanied with strong horn and string arrangements.
---
> Love, led by the enigmatic Arthur Lee, were an influential [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1960s who are now best remembered for their classic album [[/Forever Changes]].  This featured the songwriting of both Lee and [[Bryan McLean]] accompanied with strong horn and string arrangements.
------
Molecular_biology|990629063
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Molecular biology is the study of [[biology]] at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of [[biology]], particularly [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. It generally involves the isolation, characterisation and reintroduction of [[DNA]] into []model organism]]s. 
------
Molecular_biology|990629269
1c1
< Molecular biology is the study of [[biology]] at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of [[biology]], particularly [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. It generally involves the isolation, characterisation and reintroduction of [[DNA]] into []model organism]]s. 
---
> Molecular biology is the study of [[biology]] at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of [[biology]], particularly [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. It generally involves the isolation, characterisation and reintroduction of [[DNA]] into [[model organism]]s. 
------
Hymenostomatia|990630432
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Describe the new page here.
------
Vampire|990630540
14,24c14
< Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called [[porphyria]].
< 
< People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn through heavy cloud cover.
< 
< In its very rare, most severe form, the teeth and bones of sufferers actually become fluorescent,  shining pink or possibly red.
< 
< Some porphyria sufferers are also quite sickened by garlic.
< 
< The disease disrupts production of [[hemoglobin]]. For some reason, garlic makes it much worse. 
< 
< Lacking hemoglobin, victims might crave the hematin (critical precursor to hemoglobin) in human blood.  
---
> Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called [[porphyria]].  The disease disrupts production of [[hemoglobin]]; for some reason, garlic aggravates the symptoms, causing intense illness in people with the disease.  Lacking hemoglobin, victims might crave the hematin (critical precursor to hemoglobin) in human blood.  People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn through heavy cloud cover.  In its very rare, most severe form, the teeth and bones of sufferers actually become fluorescent,  shining pink or possibly red.
32c22
< Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosferatu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
---
> Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salems Lot|Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosferatu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
------
Vampire|990630582
18c18
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - Vlad Tepes, a savagely cruel prince known also as Vlad Drakul (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or Vlad the Impaler, who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Hemoglobin|990630842
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Haemoglobin is the [[iron]]-containing [[oxygen]]-transport chemical in the [[red cells]] of the blood in mammals and other animals (some marine organisms use a different compund that contains [[copper]])
> 
> The molecule is mostly [[protein]]: mutations in the gene for the haemoglobin protein result in the hereditary diseases [[Sickle cell anaemia]] and [[thalassaemia]]
> 
> At the core of the molecule is a [[heterocyclic]] ring, known as a <i>porphyrin</i> which holds an iron atom; this iron atom is responsible for the molecules oxygen binding properties.
> 
> When red cells reach the end of their life, they are broken down, and the haemoglobin molecule broken up and the iron recycled. 
> The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. (there is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly)
> 
> 
> 
> 
------
V|990631438
1c1
< Like [[F]], Greek Yøéëùí  (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
---
> Like [[F]], Greek Y&psi;%iota;&lambda; (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
------
Vampire/Talk|990631457
19a20,23
> -----
> I have some reservations about the works listed on the previous page:  Nosferatu is simply a take on the dracula story; Bram Stoker's widow in fact sued the people involved with the film for copyright violation and won, which does not mean that the work does not deserve mention; but Salem's Lot is also a take on the Dracula legend which has merely been updated and moved to New England.  Stephen King has admitted as much himself, and says the novel came about from a comment made when he had a friend over and they were discussing Stoker's novel: Tabitha King said that today Dracula would get run over by a cab at the airport and that would be the end of it.  The parallels between the two works are obvious enough to anyone who them both.
> 
> How about mentioning vampire legends which do *not* depend so heavily on Stoker's work?  e.g. works by Anne Rice, and, um, well that's all I can think of.  :-)  I haven't read up on vampires much, which was why I followed this link.  :-) --KoyaanisQatsi
------
V|990631465
1c1
< Like [[F]], Greek Y&psi;%iota;&lambda; (Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
---
> Like [[F]], Greek Y&psi;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu(Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
------
V|990631486
1c1
< Like [[F]], Greek Y&psi;&iota;&lambda;&omicron;&nu(Ypsilon) has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
---
> Like [[F]], Greek Ypsilon has Semitic Waw as its letter of origin. The Etruscans somehow simplified the letter to V. Its Etruscan sound value was /u/; but since Latin lacked a letter for /w/, Romans used V for both /w/ and /u/. In Romance languages, V came to represent /v/ which developed from /w/; as German [[W]] – which originally was pronounced as the English letter – was pronounced /v/ since Middle High German times. At the same time, V was in German pronounced as in English, but the German Vau soon stood for /f/ again (the same is probably now happening in Dutch). 
------
Hemoglobin|990631522
1c1
< Haemoglobin is the [[iron]]-containing [[oxygen]]-transport chemical in the [[red cells]] of the blood in mammals and other animals (some marine organisms use a different compund that contains [[copper]])
---
> Haemoglobin is the [[iron]]-containing [[oxygen]]-transport chemical in the [[red cells]] of the blood in mammals and other animals (some marine organisms use a different compound that contains [[copper]] instead of iron)
8c8
< The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. (there is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly)
---
> The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. There is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly. King George III of England was probably the most famous sufferer from this disease.
------
Hemoglobin|990631897
3c3
< The molecule is mostly [[protein]]: mutations in the gene for the haemoglobin protein result in the hereditary diseases [[Sickle cell anaemia]] and [[thalassaemia]]
---
> The molecule is mostly [[protein]]: mutations in the gene for the haemoglobin protein result in the hereditary diseases [[sickle cell anaemia]] and [[thalassaemia]]
5c5
< At the core of the molecule is a [[heterocyclic]] ring, known as a <i>porphyrin</i> which holds an iron atom; this iron atom is responsible for the molecules oxygen binding properties.
---
> At the core of the molecule is a [[heterocyclic]] ring, known as a <i>porphyrin</i> which holds an iron atom; this iron atom is responsible for the molecule's oxygen binding properties.
8d7
< The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. There is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly. King George III of England was probably the most famous sufferer from this disease.
9a9
> The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. There is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly. King George III of England was probably the most famous sufferer from this disease.
11a12
> ''Paragraph four wants attention: it's a pointless distinction between "broken down" and "broken up."  But the paragraph makes it sound as if the hemoglobin and a red blood cell are always recycled at the same time.  So it would seem that each red blood cell has a certain amount of hemoglobin that stays with it for the duration of that cell's life?  Is that the case?  (interesting, but not as cute as monogamous ducks.)  :-D''
------
HomePage|990632261
7a8
> -- [http://sv.wikipedia.com/ Swedish (Svensk)]
------
Hemoglobin|990633078
7a8
> When the porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. There is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly. King George III of England was probably the most famous sufferer from this disease.
9,10c10
< The porphyrin ring is broken up, the fragments normally being secreted in the [[bile]] by the liver. There is a genetic disorder, known as <i>[[porphyria]]</i> in which this mechanism fails to work properly. King George III of England was probably the most famous sufferer from this disease.
< 
---
> ----
13a14
> ''Point taken. I hope it's a bit clearer now. On your other point, human red blood cells I  believe are pretty much stuck with their initial load of hemoglobin. Mammalian red blood cells don't have cell nuclei, so they can't be doing much de novo synthesis of any protein. Reptile blood cells do have nuclei (or [[Jurassic Park]] would have lost its major plot premise), so they might do synthesis. I'm not a herpetologist so I don't know.'' 
------
MiddleAges|990635364
1c1
< Period in [[Europe]]an History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (late 4th century) to the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] Age (ca. [[14th century]]). Often, the Renaissance is also included in the definition. When trying to give exact dates, the [[Fall of Rome]] (476) is often taken as the beginning, and either the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1452) or the [[Discovery of America]] (1492) as its end.
---
> Period in [[Europe]]an History (see also HistoryOfEurope) which lasted from the end of the Western [[Roman Empire]] (late 4th century) to the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] Age (ca. [[14th century]]). Often, the Renaissance is also included in the definition. When trying to give exact dates, the [[Fall of Rome]] (476) is often taken as the beginning, and either the [[Fall of Constantinople]] (1453) or the [[Discovery of America]] (1492) as its end.
------
Mauritius|990635714
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Mauritius/History|990635735
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Discovered by the Portuguese in 1505, Mauritius was subsequently held by the Dutch, French, and British before independence was attained in 1968. A stable democracy with regular free elections and a positive human rights record, the country has attracted considerable foreign investment and has earned one of Africa's highest per capita incomes. Recent protests over standards of living in the Creole community have slowed economic growth.
------
Mauritius/Geography|990635752
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 20 17 S, 57 33 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> World
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,860 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,850 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 10 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Agalega Islands, Cargados Carajos Shoals (Saint Brandon), and Rodrigues
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> almost 11 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 177 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical, modified by southeast trade winds; warm, dry winter (May to November); hot, wet, humid summer (November to May)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> small coastal plain rising to discontinuous mountains encircling central plateau
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Piton 828 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> arable land, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 49%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 23% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 170 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cyclones (November to April); almost completely surrounded by reefs that may pose maritime hazards
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
------
Mauritius/People|990635768
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,179,368 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 26% (male 153,385; female 149,451)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 401,032; female 403,295)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 6% (male 28,981; female 43,224) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.89% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.66 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.83 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.93 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.67 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 17.73 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 70.98 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 66.98 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.04 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.02 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mauritian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mauritian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Indo-Mauritian 68%, Creole 27%, Sino-Mauritian 3%, Franco-Mauritian 2%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Hindu 52%, Christian 28.3% (Roman Catholic 26%, Protestant 2.3%), Muslim 16.6%, other 3.1%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Creole, French, Hindi, Urdu, Hakka, Bojpoori
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 82.9%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 87.1%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.8% (1995 est.)
------
Mauritius/Government|990635789
1c1,70
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Mauritius
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mauritius
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MP
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Port Louis
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 9 districts and 3 dependencies*; Agalega Islands*, Black River, Cargados Carajos Shoals*, Flacq, Grand Port, Moka, Pamplemousses, Plaines Wilhems, Port Louis, Riviere du Rempart, Rodrigues*, Savanne
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 12 March 1968 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 12 March (1968)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 12 March 1968; amended 12 March 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system with elements of English common law in certain areas
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Cassam UTEEM (since 1 July 1992) and Vice President Angidi Verriah CHETTIAR (since 28 June 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Navinchandra RAMGOOLAM (since 27 December 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected by the National Assembly for five-year terms; election last held 28 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the president and are responsible to the National Assembly
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Cassam UTEEM reelected president and Angidi Verriah CHETTIAR elected vice president; percent of vote by the National Assembly - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (66 seats - 62 elected by popular vote, 4 appointed by the election commission from the losing political parties to give representation to various ethnic minorities; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held on 20 December 1995 (next to be held by December 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - MLP/MMM 65%, MSM/MMR 20%, other 15%; seats by party - MLP 35, MMM 25, allies of MLP and MMM on Rodrigues Island 2; appointed were Rodrigues Movement 2, PMSD 1, Hizbullah 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Hizbullah [Cehl Mohamed FAKEEMEEAH]; Mauritian Labor Party or MLP [Navinchandra RAMGOOLAM] - governing party; Mauritian Militant Movement or MMM [Paul BERENGER]; Mauritian Militant Renaissance or MMR [Dr. Paramhansa NABABSING]; Mauritian Social Democrat Party or PMSD [Xavier-Luc DUVAL]; Militant Socialist Movement or MSM [Sir Anerood JUGNAUTH]; Organization of the People of Rodrigues or OPR [Louis Serge CLAIR]; Rodrigues Movement [Nicholas Von MALLY]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> various labor unions
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, InOC, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Chitmansing JESSERAMSING
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 441, 4301 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 244-1491, 1492
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 966-0983
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Mark W. ERWIN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 4th Floor, Rogers House, John Kennedy Street, Port Louis
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> international mail: P. O. Box 544, Port Louis; US mail: American Embassy, Port Louis, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-2450
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [230] 208-2347, 208-2354, 208-9763 through 9767
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [230] 208-9534
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> four equal horizontal bands of red (top), blue, yellow, and green
------
Mauritius/Economy|990635805
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low income, agriculturally based economy to a middle income diversified economy with growing industrial, financial, and tourist sectors. For most of the period, annual growth has been of the order of 5% to 6%. This remarkable achievement has been reflected in increased life expectancy, lowered infant mortality, and a much improved infrastructure. Sugarcane is grown on about 90% of the cultivated land area and accounts for 25% of export earnings. A record-setting drought severely damaged the sugar crop in 1999, however. The government's development strategy centers on foreign investment. Mauritius has attracted more than 9,000 offshore entities, many aimed at commerce in India and South Africa, and investment in the banking sector alone has reached over $1 billion. Economic performance in 1991-99 continued strong with solid growth and low unemployment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $12.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 61% (1996)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 10.6% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6.8% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 514,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> construction and industry 36%, services 24%, agriculture and fishing 14%, trade, restaurants, hotels 16%, transportation and communication 7%, finance 3% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $1.1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $1.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing (largely sugar milling), textiles, clothing; chemicals, metal products, transport equipment, nonelectrical machinery; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.225 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 91.84%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 8.16%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.139 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> sugarcane, tea, corn, potatoes, bananas, pulses; cattle, goats; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> clothing and textiles, sugar, cut flowers, molasses
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK 32%, France 19%, US 14%, Germany 6%, Italy 4% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $2.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> manufactured goods, capital equipment, foodstuffs, petroleum products, chemicals (1996)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 19%, South Africa 12%, India 9%, Hong Kong 7%, UK 6% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.9 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $42 million (1997)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Mauritian rupee (MauR) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Mauritian rupees (MauRs) per US$1 - 25.485 (January 2000), 25.186 (1999), 22.993 (1998), 21.057 (1997), 17.948 (1996), 17.386 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Mauritius/Communications|990635819
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 148,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 11,735 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> small system with good service
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> primarily microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean); new microwave link to Reunion; HF radiotelephone links to several countries
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 420,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (plus 11 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 258,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Mauritius/Transportation|990635834
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,910 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,834 km (including 36 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 76 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Port Louis
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 126,358 GRT/173,079 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 3, combination bulk 2, container 4, liquified gas 1, refrigerated cargo 2 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; India owns 1 ship (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
------
Mauritius/Military|990635845
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> National Police Force (includes the paramilitary Special Mobile Force or SMF, Special Support Units or SSU, and National Coast Guard)
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 338,856 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 171,183 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $11 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.3% (FY97/98)
------
Mauritius/Transnational_issues|990635865
1c1,4
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims the Chagos Archipelago in UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory; claims French-administered Tromelin Island
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> minor consumer and transshipment point for heroin from South Asia; small amounts of cannabis produced and consumed locally
------
Countries_of_the_world|990635939
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall_Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mayotte]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
------
Mayotte|990635999
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Mayotte/History|990636015
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Mayotte was ceded to France along with the other Comoros in 1843. It was the only island in the archipelago that voted in 1974 to retain its link with France and forgo independence.
------
Menieres_disease|990636021
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
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> Meniere’s disease is a disorder of the inner ear characterized by vertigo (abnormal sensation of movement), deafness in one or both ears and tinnitus (noises or a sensation of ringing in the ear). Moreover, nausea, vomiting, sweating and nystagmus (uncontrollable, rhytmical and jerky eye movements; usually in horizontal plane in Meniere’s disease) may frequently accompany other symptoms. These complaints and findings occur as episodic bouts, may last from minutes to hours and worsen with movements.
> 
> The exact cause of Meniere's disease is not known, but it is supposed to be caused by the swelling of a part (endolymphatic sac) of the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which are responsible from the balance and position of the body. The symptoms may occur in the presence of middle ear infection, head trauma, upper respiratory tract infection or by using aspirin, smoking cigarette or drinking alcohol.
> 
> The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and medical history. However, a detailed neurologic examination, audiometry and even head MRI scan can be performed to exclude a tumor of the cranial nerve VIII in cases of suspect.
>  
> Treatment is aimed at lowering the pressure within the inner ear. Antihistamines, anticholinergics, antiemetics and diuretics may be used for this purpose. Some clinicians may recommend a low salt diet for the same purpose. Surgery of the semicircular canals or the vestibular nerve is very rarely performed in some untreatable and most severe cases. The disease may end spontaneously and never repeat again, recovery may be managed by using medications only and in some limited occations the symptoms may last despite any kind of medications.
------
Mayotte/Geography|990636034
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, island in the Mozambique Channel, about one-half of the way from northern Madagascar to northern Mozambique
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 12 50 S, 45 10 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 374 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 374 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 185.2 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; marine; hot, humid, rainy season during northeastern monsoon (November to May); dry season is cooler (May to November)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> generally undulating, with deep ravines and ancient volcanic peaks
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Benara 660 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cyclones during rainy season
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> part of Comoro Archipelago; 18 islands
------
Mayotte/People|990636047
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 155,911 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 47% (male 36,420; female 36,183)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 52% (male 44,058; female 36,613)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1% (male 1,302; female 1,335) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 4.76% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 45.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.11 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 11.46 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.2 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 71.31 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 59.45 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 57.41 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 61.55 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.33 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mahorais (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mahoran
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 97%, Christian (mostly Roman Catholic)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Mahorian (a Swahili dialect), French (official language) spoken by 35% of the population
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Mayotte/Government|990636063
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territorial Collectivity of Mayotte
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mayotte
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MF
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territorial collectivity of France
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Mamoutzou
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (territorial collectivity of France)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (territorial collectivity of France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> French law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Philippe BOISADAM (since NA)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the General Council Younoussa BAMANA (since NA 1977)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of the Interior; president of the General Council elected by the members of the General Council for a six-year term
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 23 March 1997 (next to be held NA March 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; note - only nine of the 19 seats were subjected to voting in March 1997; after the election, seats by party were as follows: MPM 8, RPR 5, PS 1, independents 5
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Mayotte elects one member of the French Senate; elections last held 24 September 1995 (next to be held 24 September 2001); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MPM 1; Mayotte also elects one member to the French National Assembly; elections last held 25 May and 1 June 1997 (next to be held as a special election on NA May 2002); results - percent of vote by party - UDF/FD 51.7%, RPR 48.3%; seats by party - UDF/FD 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Tribunal Superieur d'Appel
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Association for French Mayotte or Association Pour Mayotte Francaise [Didier BEOUTIS]; Democratic Front or FD [Youssouf MOUSSA]; Mahoran Popular Movement or MPM [Younoussa BAMANA]; Mahoran Rally for the Republic or RPR [Soibahadine Ibrahim RAMADAN]; Socialist Party or PS (local branch of French Parti Socialiste) [Hariti IBRAHIM]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [Henri JEAN-BAPTISTE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> FZ
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territorial collectivity of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territorial collectivity of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
Mayotte/Economy|990636081
1c1,78
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic activity is based primarily on the agricultural sector, including fishing and livestock raising. Mayotte is not self-sufficient and must import a large portion of its food requirements, mainly from France. The economy and future development of the island are heavily dependent on French financial assistance, an important supplement to GDP. Mayotte's remote location is an obstacle to the development of tourism.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $85 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $600 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 45% (1997)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $73 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> newly created lobster and shrimp industry, construction
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vanilla, ylang-ylang (perfume essence), coffee, copra
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $3.44 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> ylang-ylang (perfume essence), vanilla, copra, coconuts, coffee, cinnamon
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 80%, Comoros 15%, Reunion
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $141.3 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, metals, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 66%, Africa 14%, Southeast Asia 11% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $107.7 million (1995); note - extensive French financial assistance
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Mayotte/Communications|990636095
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 450 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> small system administered by French Department of Posts and Telecommunications
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> microwave radio relay and HF radiotelephone communications to Comoros and other international connections
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3,500 (1994)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Mayotte/Transportation|990636114
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 93 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 72 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 21 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Dzaoudzi
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Mayotte/Military|990636134
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France; small contingent of French forces stationed on the island
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Mayotte/Transnational_issues|990636152
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claimed by Comoros
------
Requested_articles|990636166
22c22
< <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] -- [[William Blake]] --[[Beowulf]]
---
> <b>Literature / Authors / Books: </b>[[Russian Literature]] --[[Beowulf]]
30c30
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] 
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- 
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Mexico|990636257
21a22,33
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Mexico/History|990636277
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states.
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Mexico/Geography|990636293
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, between Belize and the US and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Guatemala and the US
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 23 00 N, 102 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> North America
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,972,550 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,923,040 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 49,510 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than three times the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,538 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belize 250 km, Guatemala 962 km, US 3,326 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 9,330 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies from tropical to desert
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> high, rugged mountains; low coastal plains; high plateaus; desert
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Laguna Salada -10 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5,700 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 26%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 22% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 61,000 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean coasts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; serious air pollution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location on southern border of US
------
Mexico/People|990636310
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 100,349,766 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34% (male 17,306,548; female 16,632,827)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 62% (male 30,223,317; female 31,868,213)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 1,927,850; female 2,391,011) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.53% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 23.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.05 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -2.84 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.81 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 26.19 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.49 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 68.47 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74.66 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.67 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mexican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mexican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo (Amerindian-Spanish) 60%, Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian 30%, white 9%, other 1%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> nominally Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 6%, other 5%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish, various Mayan, Nahuatl, and other regional indigenous languages
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 89.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 91.8%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 87.4% (1995 est.)
------
Mexico/Government|990636326
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> United Mexican States
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mexico
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Estados Unidos Mexicanos
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Mexico
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MX
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> federal republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Mexico
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 31 states (estados, singular - estado) and 1 federal district* (distrito federal); Aguascalientes, Baja California, Baja California Sur, Campeche, Chiapas, Chihuahua, Coahuila de Zaragoza, Colima, Distrito Federal*, Durango, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan de Ocampo, Morelos, Nayarit, Nuevo Leon, Oaxaca, Puebla, Queretaro de Arteaga, Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Veracruz-Llave, Yucatan, Zacatecas
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 16 September 1810 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 16 September (1810)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 5 February 1917
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> mixture of US constitutional theory and civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal and compulsory (but not enforced)
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Ernesto ZEDILLO Ponce de Leon (since 1 December 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Ernesto ZEDILLO Ponce de Leon (since 1 December 1994); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president with consent of the Senate
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; election last held 21 August 1994 (next to be held 2 July 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Ernesto ZEDILLO Ponce de Leon elected president; percent of vote - Ernesto ZEDILLO Ponce de Leon (PRI) 50.18%, Cuauhtemoc CARDENAS Solorzano (PRD) 17.08%, Diego FERNANDEZ DE CEVALLOS (PAN) 26.69%, other 6.05%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Congress or Congreso de la Union consists of the Senate or Camara de Senadores (128 seats; half are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms, and half are allocated on the basis of each party's popular vote) and the Federal Chamber of Deputies or Camara Federal de Diputados (500 seats; 300 members are directly elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms; remaining 200 members are allocated on the basis of each party's popular vote, also for three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 6 July 1997 for one-quarter of the seats; Chamber of Deputies - last held 6 July 1997 (the next legislative elections will coincide with the presidential election 2 July 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PRI 77, PAN 33, PRD 16, PVEM 1, PT 1; note - the distribution of seats as of October 1999 is as follows - PRI 75, PAN 31, PRD 16, PT 1, independents 5; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - PRI 39%, PAN 27%, PRD 26%; seats by party - PRI 239, PRD 125, PAN 121, PVEM 8, PT 7; note - the distribution of seats as of October 1999 is as follows - PRI 237, PRD 125, PAN 120, PT 7, PVEM 6, independents 5
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia, judges are appointed by the president with consent of the Senate
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Convergence for Democracy or CD [Dante DELGADO Ranauro]; Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI [Dulce Maria SAURI Riancho]; Mexican Green Ecological Party or PVEM [Jorge GONZALEZ Torres]; National Action Party or PAN [Luis Felipe BRAVO Mena]; Party of the Democratic Center or PCD [Manuel CAMACHO Solis]; Party of the Democratic Revolution or PRD [Amalia GARCIA Medina]; Party of the Mexican Revolution or PARM [leader NA]; Party of the Nationalist Society or PSN [Gustavo RIOJAIS Santana]; Social Alliance Party or PAS [Jose Antonio CALDERON Cardoso]; Social Democratic Party or PDS [Gilberto RINCON Gallardo]; Workers Party or PT [Alberto ANAYA Gutierrez]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Confederation of Employers of the Mexican Republic or COPARMEX; Confederation of Industrial Chambers or CONCAMIN; Confederation of Mexican Workers or CTM; Confederation of National Chambers of Commerce or CONCANACO; Coordinator for Foreign Trade Business Organizations or COECE; Federation of Unions Providing Goods and Services or FESEBES; National Chamber of Transformation Industries or CANACINTRA; National Peasant Confederation or CNC; National Union of Workers or UNT; Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers or CROM; Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and Peasants or CROC; Revolutionary Workers Party or PRT; Roman Catholic Church
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> APEC, BCIE, BIS, Caricom (observer), CCC, CDB, EBRD, ECLAC, FAO, G-3, G-6, G-11, G-15, G-19, G-24, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA (observer), IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA, NAM (observer), NEA, OAS, OECD, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, RG, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jesus REYES HEROLES Gonzalez Garza
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1911 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20006
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 728-1600
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 728-1698
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta, Austin, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, El Paso, Houston, Laredo (Texas), Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Nogales (Arizona), Phoenix, Sacramento, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Albuquerque, Brownsville (Texas), Calexico (California), Corpus Christi, Del Rio (Texas), Detroit, Douglas (Arizona), Eagle Pass (Texas), Fresno (California), McAllen (Texas), Midland (Texas), Orlando, Oxnard (California), Philadelphia, Portland (Oregon), St. Louis, Salt Lake City, San Bernardino, San Jose, Santa Ana (California), Seattle, Tucson
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jeffery DAVIDOW
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Paseo de la Reforma 305, Colonia Cuauhtemoc, 06500 Mexico, Distrito Federal
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 3087, Laredo, TX 78044-3087
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [52] (5) 209-9100
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [52] (5) 208-3373, 511-9980
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Ciudad Juarez, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Tijuana
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Hermosillo, Matamoros, Merida, Nuevo Laredo, Nogales
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and red; the coat of arms (an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak) is centered in the white band
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Music|990636338
9c9
< [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] -- [[Soul]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle music]] 
---
> [[African American music]]: [[Blues]] -- [[Jazz]] -- [[Gospel]] -- [[Soul]] --  [[Disco]] -- -- [[Funk]] -- [[Reggae]] -- [[Rap music|Rap]]/[[Hip hop]] -- [[freestyle music]] --[[samba]]
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Mexico/Economy|990636346
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Mexico has a free market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 1999. The ZEDILLO administration is privatizing and expanding competition in sea ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports. A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996-99. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth, accompanied by increased employment and higher wages. Mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Income distribution is very unequal, with the top 20% of income earners accounting for 55% of income. Trade with the US and Canada has nearly doubled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Mexico is pursuing additional trade agreements with most countries in Latin America and has signed a free trade deal with the EU to lessen its dependence on the US. The government is pursuing conservative economic policies in 2000 to avoid another end-of-term economic crisis, but it still projects an economic growth rate of 4.5% because of the strong US economy and high oil prices.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $865.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8,500 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 29%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 66% (1999)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 27% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.8%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 36.6% (1996)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 38.6 million (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 24%, industry 21%, services 55% (1997)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.5% urban (1998); plus considerable underemployment
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $117 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $123 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 176.055 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 78.12%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 13.82%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3.06% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 164.767 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 11 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 1.047 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> corn, wheat, soybeans, rice, beans, cotton, coffee, fruit, tomatoes; beef, poultry, dairy products; wood products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $136.8 billion (f.o.b., 1999), includes in-bond industries (assembly plant operations with links to US companies)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> manufactured goods, oil and oil products, silver, coffee, cotton
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 89.3%, Canada 1.7%, Spain 0.6%, Japan 0.5%, Venezuela 0.3%, Chile 0.3%, Brazil 0.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $142.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999), includes in-bond industries (assembly plant operations with links to US companies)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> metal-working machines, steel mill products, agricultural machinery, electrical equipment, car parts for assembly, repair parts for motor vehicles, aircraft, and aircraft parts
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 74.8%, Germany 3.8%, Japan 3.5%, Canada 1.9%, South Korea 2%, Italy 1.3%, France 1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $155.8 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.166 billion (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 New Mexican peso (Mex$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Mexican pesos (Mex$) per US$1 - 9.4793 (January 2000), 9.5604 (1999), 9.1360 (1998), 7.9185 (1997), 7.5994(1996), 6.4194 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Mexico/Communications|990636359
1c1,20
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 9.6 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2.02 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> highly developed system with extensive microwave radio relay links; privatized in December 1990; opened to competition January 1997
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> adequate telephone service for business and government, but the population is poorly served; domestic satellite system with 120 earth stations; extensive microwave radio relay network; considerable use of fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, and mobile cellular service
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 32 Intelsat, 2 Solidaridad (giving Mexico improved access to South America, Central America, and much of the US as well as enhancing domestic communications), numerous Inmarsat mobile earth stations; linked to Central American Microwave System of trunk connections; high capacity Columbus-2 fiber-optic submarine cable with access to the US, Virgin Islands, Canary Islands, Morocco, Spain, and Italy (1997)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 865, FM about 500, shortwave 13 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 31 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 236 (plus repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 25.6 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 167 (1999)
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Mexico/Transportation|990636375
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 31,048 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 30,958 km 1.435-m gauge (246 km electrified)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 90 km 0.914-m gauge (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 323,977 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 96,221 km (including 6,335 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 227,756 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,900 km navigable rivers and coastal canals
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 28,200 km; petroleum products 10,150 km; natural gas 13,254 km; petrochemical 1,400 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Acapulco, Altamira, Coatzacoalcos, Ensenada, Guaymas, La Paz, Lazaro Cardenas, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Progreso, Salina Cruz, Tampico, Topolobampo, Tuxpan, Veracruz
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 46 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 633,219 GRT/970,947 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, cargo 1, chemical tanker 4, liquified gas 4, petroleum tanker 29, roll-on/roll-off 3, short-sea passenger 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1,806 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 233
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 28
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 87
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 81
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 27 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,573
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 63
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 473
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1,035 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Mexico/Military|990636387
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> National Defense Secretariat (includes Army and Air Force), Navy Secretariat (includes Naval Air and Marines)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <br><i>note:</i>
> starting in 2000, females will be allowed to volunteer for military service
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 26,171,141 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 19,022,012 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 1,073,809 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $4 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY99)
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Mexico/Transnational_issues|990636400
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit cultivation of opium poppy (cultivation in 1998 - 5,500 hectares; potential production - 60 metric tons) and cannabis cultivation in 1998 - 4,600 hectares; government eradication efforts have been key in keeping illicit crop levels low; major supplier of heroin and marijuana to the US market; continues as the primary transshipment country for US-bound cocaine from South America; involved in the production and distribution of methamphetamines; upsurge in drug-related violence and official corruption; major drug syndicates growing more powerful
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Micronesia|990636470
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Micronesia/History|990636481
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1979 the Federated States of Micronesia, a UN Trust Territory under US administration, adopted a constitution. In 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on US aid.
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Micronesia/Geography|990636494
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island group in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to Indonesia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 6 55 N, 158 15 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 702 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 702 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Pohnpei (Ponape), Truk (Chuuk) Islands, Yap Islands, and Kosrae
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> four times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 6,112 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; heavy year-round rainfall, especially in the eastern islands; located on southern edge of the typhoon belt with occasionally severe damage
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> islands vary geologically from high mountainous islands to low, coral atolls; volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Truk
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Totolom 791 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> forests, marine products, deep-seabed minerals
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons (June to December)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overfishing
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> four major island groups totaling 607 islands
------
Micronesia/People|990636509
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 133,144 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.28% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 27.09 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 11.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 33.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68.63 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 66.67 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70.62 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.83 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Micronesian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Micronesian; Kosrae(s), Pohnpeian(s), Trukese, Yapese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> nine ethnic Micronesian and Polynesian groups
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 47%, other and none 3%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official and common language), Trukese, Pohnpeian, Yapese, Kosrean
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 89%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 91%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 88% (1980 est.)
------
Micronesia/Government|990636529
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Federated States of Micronesia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Kosrae, Ponape, Truk, and Yap Districts (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> FSM
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> FM
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional government in free association with the US; the Compact of Free Association entered into force 3 November 1986
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Palikir
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 4 states; Chuuk (Truk), Kosrae, Pohnpei, Yap
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 3 November 1986 (from the US-administered UN Trusteeship)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Proclamation of the Federated States of Micronesia, 10 May (1979)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 10 May 1979
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on adapted Trust Territory laws, acts of the legislature, municipal, common, and customary laws
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Leo A. FALCAM (since NA May 1999); Vice President Redley KILLION (since NA May 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Leo A. FALCAM (since NA May 1999); Vice President Redley KILLION (since NA May 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected by Congress from among the four senators-at-large for four-year terms; election last held NA May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Leo A. FALCAM elected president; percent of Congress vote - NA; Redley KILLION elected vice president; percent of Congress vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Congress (14 seats; members elected by popular vote; four - one elected from each of state - to serve four-year terms and 10 - elected from single-member districts delineated by population - to serve two-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> elections for four-year term seats last held 2 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2003); elections for two-year term seats last held NA March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 14
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> no formal parties
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, WHO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jesse Bibiano MAREHALAU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1725 N Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 223-4383
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 223-4391
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Honolulu and Tamuning (Guam)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Ann WRIGHT
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> address NA, Kolonia
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 1286, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia 96941
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [691] 320-2187
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [691] 320-2186
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> light blue with four white five-pointed stars centered; the stars are arranged in a diamond pattern
------
Micronesia/Economy|990636546
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic activity consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $240 million (1997 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> GDP is supplemented by grant aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 77% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> two-thirds are government employees
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 27% (1989)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $58 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $52 million, including capital expenditures of $4.7 million (FY95/96 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> black pepper, tropical fruits and vegetables, coconuts, cassava (tapioca), sweet potatoes; pigs, chickens
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $73 million (f.o.b., 1996 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> fish, garments, bananas, black pepper
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan, US, Guam
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $168 million (c.i.f., 1996 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US, Japan, Australia
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $111 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $79 million (1998); note - under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> US currency is used
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
------
Micronesia/Communications|990636559
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 8,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> islands interconnected by shortwave radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes)
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Micronesia/Transportation|990636573
1c1,27
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 240 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 42 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 198 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Colonia (Yap), Kolonia (Pohnpei), Lele, Moen
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Micronesia/Military|990636584
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the US; FSM is totally dependent on the US for its defense
------
Micronesia/Transnational_issues|990636596
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Requested_articles|990636761
9c9
< <b>Portugal:</b> CIA World Factbook text.
---
> <b>Portugal:</b> please copy in the [[CIA World Factbook]] text.
11c11
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[History of timepieces]] -- [[History of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]] -- [[Joan of Arc]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[history of timepieces]] -- [[history of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]] -- [[Joan of Arc]]
13c13
< <b>Religion: </b> [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[Mythology]]
---
> <b>Religion: </b> [[Satan]] -- [[Zoroaster]] -- [[mythology]]
15,16c15
< <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[Distance function]] -- [[Metrizable space]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[Logarithms]] -- [[Hyperbolic trigonometric functions]] -- [[Function operations]] -- [[Determinants]] -- [[Trigonometric identities]] -- {Inverse trigonometric functions]] -- [[Exponential function]] -- [[Natural logarithm]]  --  [[Limits]] -- [[Continuity]] -- [[Truth tables]] -- [[Analytic geometry]] -- [[Complex analysis]] -- 
< [[Hyperbola]] -- [[Area]] -- [[Volume]] -- [[Surface area]] -- [[Perimeter]] -- [[Acoustics]] -- [[Fibonacci numbers]]
---
> <b>Mathematics/Science: </b> [[model theory]]   -- [[distance function]] -- [[metrizable space]] -- [[emission line]] --  [[logarithm]] -- [[hyperbolic trigonometric function]] -- [[function operation]] -- [[determinant (mathematics)]] -- [[trigonometric identity]] -- [[inverse trigonometric function]] -- [[exponential function]] -- [[natural logarithm]]  --  [[limit]] -- [[continuity]] -- [[truth table]] -- [[analytic geometry]] -- [[complex analysis]] -- [[hyperbola]] -- [[area]] -- [[volume]] -- [[surface area]] -- [[perimeter]] -- [[acoustics]] -- [[fibonacci numbers]]
18c17
< <b>Computer related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[render, rendering, rendered]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializable]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]
---
> <b>Computer-related:</b> [[LALR parser]] -- [[wire frame model]] -- [[rendering (computers)]] -- [[stack-based]] -- [[concurrent (computers)]] -- [[latency (computers)]] -- [[seek time]] -- [[rotational delay]] -- [[serializability]] -- [[persistence (computers)]]
20c19,21
< <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Bollywood movies]] (that's Bollywood as in India, not as in Hollywood spelled wrong)
---
> <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]]
> 
> <b>Film / Television: </b>[[Xena]] --  [[Andy Griffith]] -- [[Land of the Lost]] -- [[Zorro]] -- [[Bollywood film]] (that's Bollywood as in India, not as in Hollywood spelled wrong)
24c25
< <b>Music: </b> [[Heavy metal music]] -- [[Psychedelia]] -- [[Soul music]] -- 
---
> <b>Music: </b> [[heavy metal music]] -- [[psychedelic music]] -- [[soul music]] -- 
28,30c29
< <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[Machine Gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[Missile]] -- [[Zero--Airplane]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[Land Mine]] -- [[Warhead]] -- [[Destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[Battleship]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[Scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] --  
< 
< <b>Technology: </b>[[internal combustion engine]] -- [[amplitude modulation]] -- [[frequency modulation]] -- [[zeppelin]] -- [[liquid crystal display]] -- [[frames per second]] -- [[bandwidth]] -- 
---
> <b>Military / War: </b>[[Pearl Harbor]] -- [[machine gun]] -- [[ABM]] -- [[missile]] -- [[zero (airplane)]] -- [[Howitzer]] -- [[land mine]] -- [[warhead]] -- [[destroyer (ship)]] -- [[PT Boat]] -- [[battleship]] -- [[Enola Gay]] -- [[scud]] -- [[Spitfire]] --  [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] -- [[AK47]]
34c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[concept of evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Conspiracy Theories]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially motivated]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[conspiracy theory]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially-motivated crime]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr.|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
36c35
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
Portugal|990636773
1c1,11
< Country located in the extreme southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian [[Peninsula]] with [[Spain]]. [[cdani]]
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
PHP_Wiki|990636788
3c3,5
< [http://phpwiki.sourceforge.net PHP Wiki Homepage]
---
> [http://phpwiki.sourceforge.net PHP Wiki Homepage]
> 
> cool
------
Portugal/History|990636824
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Following its heyday as a world power during the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status with the destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars, and the loss of its Brazilian colony in 1822. A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy; for most of the next six decades repressive governments ran the country. In 1974, a left-wing military coup installed broad democratic reforms. The following year Portugal granted independence to all of its African colonies. Portugal entered the EC in 1985.
------
Portugal/Geography|990636838
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southwestern Europe, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Spain
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 39 30 N, 8 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 92,391 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 91,951 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 440 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Azores and Madeira Islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Indiana
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,214 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Spain 1,214 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,793 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> maritime temperate; cool and rainy in north, warmer and drier in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mountainous north of the Tagus River, rolling plains in south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Ponta do Pico (Pico or Pico Alto) on Ilha do Pico in the Azores 2,351 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, forests (cork), tungsten, iron ore, uranium ore, marble, arable land, hydro power
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 26%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 20% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 6,300 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> Azores subject to severe earthquakes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Environmental Modification, Nuclear Test Ban
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> Azores and Madeira Islands occupy strategic locations along western sea approaches to Strait of Gibraltar
------
Requested_articles|990636847
33c33
< <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[conspiracy theory]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially-motivated crime]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr.|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
---
> <b>Other Unclassified: </b> [[ghost]] -- [[psychotherapy]] -- [[evil]] -- [[Welsh language]] -- [[Chugach Mountains]] -- [[401k]] -- [[dog and pony show]]  -- [[guild]] -- [[contradiction]] -- [[Blog]] -- [[Rodney King]] -- [[astrology]] -- [[cat]] -- [[crime]] -- [[race baiting]] -- [[racial profiling]] -- [[reverse discrimination]] -- [[racial discrimination]] -- [[racially-motivated crime]] -- [[poverty pimp]] -- [[Jesse Jackson, Sr.|Jesse Jackson]] -- [[Al Sharpton]] -- [[Malcolm X]] -- [[G. Gordon Liddy]] -- [[Janet Reno]] -- [[race war]] -- [[racial hatred]] -- [[Black Panthers]] -- [[black economy]] -- [[money laundering]] -- [[pawnbroker]] -- [[moral panic]]
------
Portugal/People|990636855
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,048,232 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 17% (male 880,501; female 834,062)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 3,319,143; female 3,468,009)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 628,101; female 918,416) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.18% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 11.49 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.2 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.68 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.75 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.24 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 79.49 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.47 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Portuguese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Portuguese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> homogeneous Mediterranean stock; citizens of black African descent who immigrated to mainland during decolonization number less than 100,000
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 94%, Protestant (1995)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 87.4%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Portugal/Government|990636870
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Portuguese Republic
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Portugal
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica Portuguesa
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Portugal
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> PO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Lisbon
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 districts (distritos, singular - distrito) and 2 autonomous regions* (regioes autonomas, singular - regiao autonoma); Aveiro, Acores (Azores)*, Beja, Braga, Braganca, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Evora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisboa, Madeira*, Portalegre, Porto, Santarem, Setubal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real, Viseu
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1140 (independent republic proclaimed 5 October 1910)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Day of Portugal, 10 June (1580)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 25 April 1976, revised 30 October 1982, 1 June 1989, 5 November 1992, and 3 September 1997
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system; the Constitutional Tribunal reviews the constitutionality of legislation; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Jorge SAMPAIO (since 9 March 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Antonio Manuel de Oliviera GUTERRES (since 28 October 1995)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there is also a Council of State that acts as a consultative body to the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 14 January 1996 (next to be held NA January 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Jorge SAMPAIO elected president; percent of vote - Jorge SAMPAIO (Socialist) 53.8%, Anibal CAVACO SILVA (Social Democrat) 46.2%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly of the Republic or Assembleia da Republica (230 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 10 October 1999 (next to be held by NA October 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PSP 43.9%, PSD 32.3%, CDU 9%, PP 8.3%, The Left Bloc 2.4%; seats by party - PSP 113, PSD 83, CDU 17, PP 15, The Left Bloc 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Supremo Tribunal de Justica, judges appointed for life by the Conselho Superior da Magistratura
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Popular Party or PP [Paulo PORTAS]; Portuguese Communist Part/United Democratic Coalition or PCP/CDU [Carlos CARVALHAS]; Portuguese Socialist Party or PSP [Antonio GUTERRES]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Jose Manuel DURAO BARROSO]; The Left Bloc [Francisco LOUCA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, Australia Group, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UPU, WCL, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joao Alberto Bacelar DA ROCKA PARIS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2125 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-8610
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-3726
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Boston, New York, Newark (New Jersey), and San Francisco
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Los Angeles, New Bedford (Massachusetts), Providence (Rhode Island)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Gerald S. MCGOWAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida das Forcas Armadas, 1600 Lisbon
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 83, APO AE 09726
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [351] (21) 727-3300
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [351] (21) 726-9109
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Ponta Delgada (Azores)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two vertical bands of green (hoist side, two-fifths) and red (three-fifths) with the Portuguese coat of arms centered on the dividing line
------
Portugal/Economy|990636886
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Portugal is an upcoming capitalist economy with a per capita GDP two-thirds that of the four big West European economies. In 1999, it continued to enjoy sturdy economic growth, falling interest rates, and low unemployment. The country qualified for the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 1998 and joined with 10 other European countries in launching the euro on 1 January 1999. Portugal's inflation rate for 1999, 2.4%, was comfortably low. The country continues to run a trade deficit and a balance of payments deficit. The government is working to modernize capital plant and increase the country's competitiveness in the increasingly integrated world markets. Growth is expected to remain stable in 2000 as the economic integration of Europe proceeds. Improvement in the education sector is critical to the catch-up process.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $151.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $15,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 36%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 60% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4.75 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 60%, industry 30%, agriculture 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 4.6% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $48 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $52 billion, including capital expenditures of $7.4 billion (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> textiles and footwear; wood pulp, paper, and cork; metalworking; oil refining; chemicals; fish canning; wine; tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 38.581 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 63.14%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 33.46%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 3.4% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 36.18 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 3.7 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grain, potatoes, olives, grapes; sheep, cattle, goats, poultry, beef, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $25 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> clothing and footwear, machinery, chemicals, cork and paper products, hides
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 82% (Germany 20%, Spain 16%, France 14%, UK 12% Netherlands 5%, Benelux 5%, Italy), US 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $34.9 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum, textiles, agricultural products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 77% (Spain 24%, Germany 15%, France 11%, Italy 8%, UK 7%, Netherlands 5%), US, Japan (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $13.1 billion (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $271 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Portuguese escudo (Esc) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Portuguese escudos (Esc) per US$1 - 172.78 (January 1999), 180.10 (1998), 175.31 (1997), 154.24 (1996), 151.11 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 200.482 escudos per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Guitar/Slide|990636896
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Slide [[guitar]] is a particular method for playing the [[guitar]]. Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner, which is to press the strings against the fretboard a slide is used. This is a tube of some hard material. Commonly these were made from glass (or a bottleneck, which gave rise to the description [[bottleneck guitar]], although [[metals]] normally [[steel]] or [[brass]] are also used. The slide is pressed against the strings (but not the [[fret]] board), producing a sustained tone which can be continuously varied. 
> 
> In this style the [[guitar]] is often tuned to an open [[chord]], such as open D or open G tunings, although this is not always necessary. 
> 
> Some specialised makes of [[guitar]] are commonly used to play slide. These include [[resonator]] guitars, commonly also known as [[dobro]]'s after the company which first made them. These guitars are made with steel bodies. Some have a square neck rather than the more normal curved neck and are designed to be played across the knee. 
> 
> Slide guitar is commonly used in several different types of music. These would include [[blues]], [[country]] and [[Hawaiin]] music. 
> 
> 
> 
------
Portugal/Communications|990636898
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 3.724 million (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 887,216 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> generally adequate integrated network of coaxial cables, open wire, microwave radio relay, and domestic satellite earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 6 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), NA Eutelsat; tropospheric scatter to Azores; note - an earth station for Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region) is planned
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 47, FM 172 (many are repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.02 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 36 (plus 62 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.31 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 20 (1999)
------
Portugal/Transportation|990636916
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,850 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 2,576 km 1.668-m gauge (623 km electrified; 426 km double track)
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 274 km 1.000-m gauge (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 68,732 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 59,110 km (including 797 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,622 km (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 820 km navigable; relatively unimportant to national economy, used by shallow-draft craft limited to 300 metric-ton or less cargo capacity
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 22 km; petroleum products 58 km; natural gas 700 km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the secondary lines for the natural gas pipeline that will be 300 km long have not yet been built
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Aveiro, Funchal (Madeira Islands), Horta (Azores), Leixoes, Lisbon, Porto, Ponta Delgada (Azores), Praia da Vitoria (Azores), Setubal, Viana do Castelo
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 151 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,061,202 GRT/1,601,267 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 13, cargo 80, chemical tanker 14, container 8, liquified gas 8, multi-functional large load carrier 1, petroleum tanker 10, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 6, short-sea passenger 5, vehicle carrier 5 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Portugal has created a captive register on Madeira for Portuguese-owned ships; ships on the Madeira Register (MAR) will have taxation and crewing benefits of a flag of convenience (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 66 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 26
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 25 (1999 est.)
------
Portugal/Military|990636929
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force, National Republican Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,534,872 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,036,712 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 74,050 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $2.458 billion (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.6% (FY97)
------
Portugal/Transnational_issues|990636941
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> important gateway country for Latin American cocaine entering the European market; transshipment point for hashish from North Africa to Europe; consumer of Southwest Asian heroin
------
Requested_articles|990637002
9,10d8
< <b>Portugal:</b> please copy in the [[CIA World Factbook]] text.
< 
35c33
< ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
---
> ''See also [[What Google Likes]] and [[What Nupedia Wants]]''
------
International_Wikipedia|990637029
53a54,59
> 
> This Problem still exists. I've tried to put in some article about computer related items on 2001-05-22. The referring links still are maintained as edit links. This is frustrating.
> Is there a workaround, e.g. use old-style-links, do something twice??
> Just to keep on starting this amazing project..
> 
> BTW What is 'summary' for?
64c70
< As you might have seen on [[Wikipedia-L]], our man Jason (as in "Jason, Jason, he's our man, if he can't do it, nobody can!") is going to update the wiki software that runs all the Wikipedias (interesting how "Wikipedia" has, overnight, become the name of a type).  I asked him to switch this setting on, or keep it switched on, and pay attention to this page... --[[LMS]]
---
> As you might have seen on [[Wikipedia-L]], our man Jason (as in "Jason, Jason, he's our man, if he can't do it, nobody can!") is going to update the wiki software that runs all the Wikipedias (interesting how "Wikipedia" has, overnight, become the name of a type).  I asked him to switch this setting on, or keep it switched on, and pay attention to this page... --[[LMS]]
------
Midway_Islands|990637039
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990641649
18a19
> test
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990641666
19d18
< test
------
Menieres_disease|990642600
1c1
< Meniere’s disease is a disorder of the inner ear characterized by vertigo (abnormal sensation of movement), deafness in one or both ears and tinnitus (noises or a sensation of ringing in the ear). Moreover, nausea, vomiting, sweating and nystagmus (uncontrollable, rhytmical and jerky eye movements; usually in horizontal plane in Meniere’s disease) may frequently accompany other symptoms. These complaints and findings occur as episodic bouts, may last from minutes to hours and worsen with movements.
---
> '''Ménière’s disease''' (or '''syndrome''', since its cause its unknown) was first described by French physician Prosper Ménière in 1861.  It is a disorder of the inner ear characterized by vertigo (abnormal sensation of movement), a feeling of fullness or pressure in one or both ears, and possibly loss of hearing and tinnitus (noises or a sensation of ringing).  Moreover, nausea, vomiting, sweating and nystagmus (uncontrollable rhythmical and jerky eye movements; usually in horizontal plane with Ménière's) may frequently accompany other symptoms.  These complaints and findings occur as episodic bouts, which may last from minutes to hours and worsen with movements.
3c3
< The exact cause of Meniere's disease is not known, but it is supposed to be caused by the swelling of a part (endolymphatic sac) of the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which are responsible from the balance and position of the body. The symptoms may occur in the presence of middle ear infection, head trauma, upper respiratory tract infection or by using aspirin, smoking cigarette or drinking alcohol.
---
> The exact cause of Ménière's disease is not known, but it is believed to be caused by the swelling of the [[endolymphatic sac]], part of the [[vestibular system]] of the inner ear, which is responsible for the body's sense of balance.  The symptoms may occur in the presence of a middle ear infection, head trauma, upper respiratory tract infection or by using aspirin, smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol.  They may be further exacerbated by excessive consumption of caffeine and even salt in some patients.
5c5
< The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and medical history. However, a detailed neurologic examination, audiometry and even head MRI scan can be performed to exclude a tumor of the cranial nerve VIII in cases of suspect.
---
> The diagnosis is usually established by clinical findings and medical history.  However, a detailed neurologic examination, audiometry and even head MRI scan can be performed to exclude a tumor of the cranial nerve VIII (which would cause similar symptoms).
7c7,9
< Treatment is aimed at lowering the pressure within the inner ear. Antihistamines, anticholinergics, antiemetics and diuretics may be used for this purpose. Some clinicians may recommend a low salt diet for the same purpose. Surgery of the semicircular canals or the vestibular nerve is very rarely performed in some untreatable and most severe cases. The disease may end spontaneously and never repeat again, recovery may be managed by using medications only and in some limited occations the symptoms may last despite any kind of medications.
---
> Treatment is aimed at lowering the pressure within the inner ear.  Antihistamines, anticholinergics, steroids, and diuretics may be used for this purpose.  Also, the symptoms may be treated with antiemetics (to relieve nausea) or benzodiazepines (which control vertigo directly).  Some clinicians may recommend a low salt diet for the same purpose.  Surgery of the semicircular canals or the vestibular nerve is very rarely performed in some untreatable and most severe cases.  Another treatment is [[chemical labyrinthectomy]], in which a drug (such as [[Gentamycin]]) that "kills" the vestibular apparatus is injected into the inner ear.  These radical treatments eliminate vertigo, but they also eliminate the patient's normal sense of balance, and so are used only as a last resort.  The disease may end spontaneously and never repeat again, recovery may be managed by using medications only, and in some limited occasions the symptoms may last despite any kind of medications.
> 
> [http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/pubs_hb/meniere.htm NIH information]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990643066
18a19,20
> ----
> I am experiencing this kind of slowness. Searches takes 25 seconds, saves take one or two seconds. LinusTolke
------
Vampire|990643222
18c18
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. He is also said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. Tepes may have suffered from porphyria.  He is said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Sorrel|990643263
1c1,10
< Sorrel is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]].  
---
> SORREL (Common)  ''RUMEX ACETOSA''
> 
> Sorrel is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]}, growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
> 
> Because of the mildly acidic taste, it quenches thirst, and may be helpful in boosting the appetite.  The leaves are edible and may be added to salads to sharpen the taste. The plant contains oxalic acid to produce its characteristic flavor, and so may be contraindicated in people with rheumatic-type complaints, kidney or bladder stones, and the like. It is also a laxative. 
> 
> Sorrel Color
> 
> Sorrel is also a color, possibly named after the color of the flower spike of the sorrel herb, known as a [[self color]] (meaning all of a single color), of the hair coats of horses.  It ranges from reddish gold to deep burgundy.  In a sorrel horse, the mane, tail and lower legs are the same color as the rest of the coat, with the exception of possible white markings below the [[knee]] or [[hock]].  Sorrel is distinguished from [[palomino]], for instance, by the fact that a palomino horse has a white mane and tail.  It is distinguished from [[dun]] by the fact that a dun horse has a darker mane and tail than the rest of its coat, may have [[bars]] of darker color on the shoulder and forelegs, and also possesses a narrow, dark line down the middle of the back.  A very dark sorrell and a very bright [[blood bay]] may look similar except for the black mane, tail and lower legs on the [[bay]].  Some sorrel horses are referred to as [[chestnut]] and vice-versa, but chestnut, while also a reddish self color is actually different from sorrel, being more brown in hue.
> 
------
Bay|990643582
14a15,18
> Bay Color
> 
> Bay is a color of the hair coats of horses, characterized by a body color of dark red (known as [[blood bay]]) to deep brown, with black mane, tail and lower legs.  Some bay horses may have darker coloration in [[bars]] on their shoulders and rarely, a dark stripe down the back.  The hair coats and hides of bay horses are noted for their durability and sun resistance.  For this, among other reasons, bay is a favorite color among ranchers and horse enthusiasts.
> 
------
Sorrel|990643632
1c1
< SORREL (Common)  ''RUMEX ACETOSA''
---
> '''Sorrel''' (Rumex acetosa) is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
3,9c3
< Sorrel is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]}, growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
< 
< Because of the mildly acidic taste, it quenches thirst, and may be helpful in boosting the appetite.  The leaves are edible and may be added to salads to sharpen the taste. The plant contains oxalic acid to produce its characteristic flavor, and so may be contraindicated in people with rheumatic-type complaints, kidney or bladder stones, and the like. It is also a laxative. 
< 
< Sorrel Color
< 
< Sorrel is also a color, possibly named after the color of the flower spike of the sorrel herb, known as a [[self color]] (meaning all of a single color), of the hair coats of horses.  It ranges from reddish gold to deep burgundy.  In a sorrel horse, the mane, tail and lower legs are the same color as the rest of the coat, with the exception of possible white markings below the [[knee]] or [[hock]].  Sorrel is distinguished from [[palomino]], for instance, by the fact that a palomino horse has a white mane and tail.  It is distinguished from [[dun]] by the fact that a dun horse has a darker mane and tail than the rest of its coat, may have [[bars]] of darker color on the shoulder and forelegs, and also possesses a narrow, dark line down the middle of the back.  A very dark sorrell and a very bright [[blood bay]] may look similar except for the black mane, tail and lower legs on the [[bay]].  Some sorrel horses are referred to as [[chestnut]] and vice-versa, but chestnut, while also a reddish self color is actually different from sorrel, being more brown in hue.
---
> Because of the mildly acidic taste, it quenches thirst, and may be helpful in boosting the appetite.  The leaves are edible and may be added to salads to sharpen the taste.  The plant contains oxalic acid to produce its characteristic flavor, and so may be contraindicated in people with rheumatic-type complaints, kidney or bladder stones, and the like.  It is also a laxative. 
10a5
> The word "sorrel" is also used as a color of the hair coats of horses, possibly named after the color of the flower spike of the sorrel herb.  It is known as a [[self color]] (meaning all of a single color), ranging from reddish gold to deep burgundy.  In a sorrel horse, the mane, tail and lower legs are the same color as the rest of the coat, with the exception of possible white markings below the [[knee]] or [[hock]].  Sorrel is distinguished from [[palomino]], for instance, by the fact that a palomino horse has a white mane and tail.  It is distinguished from [[dun]] by the fact that a dun horse has a darker mane and tail than the rest of its coat, may have [[bars]] of darker color on the shoulder and forelegs, and also possesses a narrow, dark line down the middle of the back.  A very dark sorrel and a very bright [[blood bay]] may look similar except for the black mane, tail and lower legs on the [[bay]].  Some sorrel horses are referred to as [[chestnut]] and vice-versa, but chestnut, while also a reddish self color, is actually different from sorrel, being more brown in hue.
------
Penis|990643894
25c25,29
< Is this true of all penises, or just human penises?  If human only, should this be a subcategory under [[human anatomy]]?
---
> Is this true of all penises, or just human penises?  If human only, should this be a subcategory under [[human anatomy]]?
> 
> ---
> 
> This architecture is common to the penises of a great many animals, and almost universal among mammals, with the exception of the prepuce (or foreskin).  In addition, however, some animals have additional features such as the os penis in dogs (penile bone) and such.  The '''precise''' description above is only human.
------
Frisian_language|990644097
2,3c2,3
< [[Old English]] (but not Modern English),the
< [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]], but is probably different enough to all those to count as a different language rather than just a dialect. (however, see [[Language and dialect]]
---
> [[Old English]] (but not Modern English), the
> [[Netherlandic language]], and [[LowGerman]]
------
Impotence|990644394
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Impotence is the inability to maintain penile erection for a satisfactory intercourse regardless of the status of ejaculation. 
> 
> Penile erection is managed by two different mechanisms. The first one is the reflex erection, which is achieved by directly touching to the penile shaft and the second is the psychogenic erection, which is achieved by erotic stimuli. The first one uses the peripheral nerves and the lower parts of the spinal cord, whereas the second one uses the [[limbic]] system of the [[brain]]. In both conditions an intact neurologic system is required for a successful and complete erection. Stimulation of penile shaft by the nervous system gives rise to the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), which causes the relaxation of smooth muscles of corpora cavernosa (the main erectile tissue of penis), subsequently giving rise to penile erection.  Additionally, adequate levels of testosterone (that is produced by testis) and an intact [[pituitary gland]] are required for the development of a healthy male erectile system. As can be understood from the mechanisms of a normal erection, impotence may develop due to hormonal deficiency, disorders of the neurologic system, lack of adequate penile blood supply or psychological problems.
> 
> Treatment depends on the cause. Testosterone supplements may be used for cases with hormonal deficiency. However, usually the cause is lack of adequate penile blood supply as a result of age-dependent damage of inner walls of blood vessels. Previously, medical substances were used to be directly injected into the erectile tissue of penile shaft to treat impotence. In some cases refractory to the medical treatment, a penile implant (penile prosthesis) could be advised. After the discovery of orally active agents that increase the efficacy of NO, which dilates the blood vessels of corpora cavernosa, more conservative methods were started to be used. 
> 
> Sildenafil (Viagra) is an oral agent that blocks specific phosphodiesterases. NO acts on blood vessels by increasing the levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate, which is required for dilation of the vessels. Phosphodiesterases block this substance and reduce the effect of NO on erectile tissue. By using sildenafil, NO’s effects are increased and a more sustained penile erection can be achieved. Other agents with less side effects and holding promise as an effective oral treatment for penile erectile dysfunction are currently being developed.
------
Hymenostomatia|990644720
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of protozoans (protista). It is the subclass of the class Oligohymenophorea. It has three orders Hymenostomatida, Scuticocilatida and Astomatida.
------
HighGerman|990644769
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> a) High German may refer to the standard language called [[German]], spoken in Germany, Austria and Switzerland (although in the German-speaking part of Switzerland High German is most often a written language rather than a spoken language). 
> 
> b) High German in the strict linguistic sense refers to the Western Germanic dialects that took part in the second (High German) sound shifting, cf. English pan, but German Pfanne (before sound shifting: /p/ - afterwards /pf/), English two, German zwei /t/ - /ts/, English make - German machen /k/ - /x/. In some High German dialects - the High Alemannic dialects spoken in parts of Germany and Switzerland (see [[Swiss German]]) - there is even initial [X] and [k_X], which makes the second sound shifting complete. For example whereas the dialect of Basel has Khaffy [k_hAffi] (i.e. [k_h] as in Standard German and English), the dialect of Zurich has Kchafi [k_XAfi]. 
------
Impotence|990645040
4a5,6
> A few causes of impotence may be iatrogenic (medically caused).  Various medications intended to control blood pressure or to modify central nervous system response, may inhibit erection by denying blood supply or by altering nerve activity.  Surgical intervention for a number of different conditions may remove anatomical structures necessary to erection, damage nerves, or impair blood supply.
> 
------
Swiss_German|990645206
1c1,10
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Swiss German is not a language per se, but includes all German dialects - i.e. several languages - spoken in Switzerland. Most of them are High Alemannic dialects that have initial [k_X] or [X-] instead of older [k_h]; there are however exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a mix between High and Low Alemannic (most, but not all, Alemannic dialects spoken in Germany are Low Alemannic), Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial [X] or [k_X]. 
> 
> Examples
> 
>  
> Basel      Zurich
> 
> [k_hAffi]  [k_XAfi] 'coffee'
> 
> [k_hA]     [XA]     'can (first person singular)'
------
Swiss_German|990645398
1c1
< Swiss German is not a language per se, but includes all German dialects - i.e. several languages - spoken in Switzerland. Most of them are High Alemannic dialects that have initial [k_X] or [X-] instead of older [k_h]; there are however exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a mix between High and Low Alemannic (most, but not all, Alemannic dialects spoken in Germany are Low Alemannic), Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial [X] or [k_X]. 
---
> Swiss German is not a language per se, but includes all German dialects - i.e. several languages - spoken in Switzerland. Most of them are High Alemannic dialects that have initial [k_X] or [X-] instead of older [k_h]; there are however exceptions, namely the idioms of Chur and Basel. Basel German is a mix between High and Low Alemannic (most, but not all, Alemannic dialects spoken in Germany are Low Alemannic), Chur German is basically High Alemannic without initial [X] or [k_X]. Typical of all Swiss German dialects is that they do not have voiced plosives; instead, short plosives are distinguished from long plosives. 
------
Swiss_German|990645418
8c8
< [k_hAffi]  [k_XAfi] 'coffee'
---
> ['k_hAffi]  ['k_XAfi] 'coffee'
------
Sorrel|990645571
1c1
< '''Sorrel''' (Rumex acetosa) is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
---
> '''Sorrel''' (common) (''Rumex acetosa'') is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
5a6,7
> ----
> The fact that the "sorrel" herb here discussed is the (common) variety should not have been deleted.  There a whole raft of plants referred to as sorrel, sheep sorrel, African sorrel, spinach sorrel, etc.  ''Rumex Acetosa'' is specific to (common) sorrel only.
------
Midway_Islands/History|990646337
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Guitar/Slide|990646339
1c1
< Slide [[guitar]] is a particular method for playing the [[guitar]]. Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner, which is to press the strings against the fretboard a slide is used. This is a tube of some hard material. Commonly these were made from glass (or a bottleneck, which gave rise to the description [[bottleneck guitar]], although [[metals]] normally [[steel]] or [[brass]] are also used. The slide is pressed against the strings (but not the [[fret]] board), producing a sustained tone which can be continuously varied. 
---
> Slide [[guitar]] is a particular method for playing the [[guitar]]. Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner, by pressing the strings against the fretboard, a slide is used. The slide is a tube of some hard material. Commonly these were made from glass (or a bottleneck, which gave rise to the description [[bottleneck guitar]], although [[metals]] (normally [[steel]] or [[brass]]) are also used. The slide is pressed against the strings (but not the [[fret]] board), producing a sustained tone which can be continuously varied. 
3c3
< In this style the [[guitar]] is often tuned to an open [[chord]], such as open D or open G tunings, although this is not always necessary. 
---
> In this style the [[guitar]] is often tuned to an open [[chord]], such as open D or open G, allowing the player to change chords simply by moving the slide with one hand, without holding down any strings with the other.  This method is the easiest way of playing chords in slide guitar, and is most common; but many experienced guitarists use other tunings as well. 
7c7
< Slide guitar is commonly used in several different types of music. These would include [[blues]], [[country]] and [[Hawaiin]] music. 
---
> Slide guitar is commonly used in several different types of music. These would include [[blues]], [[country]] and [[Hawaiian]] music. 
------
Midway_Islands/Geography|990646414
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, about one-third of the way from Honolulu to Tokyo
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 28 13 N, 177 22 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6.2 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 6.2 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Eastern Island, Sand Island, and Spit Island
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about nine times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 15 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical, but moderated by prevailing easterly winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> low, nearly level
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location 13 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> wildlife, terrestrial and aquatic
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1998)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> a coral atoll managed as a national wildlife refuge and open to the public for wildlife-related recreation in the form of wildlife observation and photography, sport fishing, snorkeling, and scuba diving
------
Midway_Islands/People|990646444
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> no indigenous inhabitants (July 2000 est.)
------
Midway_Islands/Government|990646458
1c1,13
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Midway Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; formerly administered from Washington, DC, by the US Navy, under Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific Division; this facility has been operationally closed since 10 September 1993; on 31 October 1996, through a presidential executive order, the jurisdiction and control of the atoll was transferred to the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> none; administered from Washington, DC
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
------
Sorrel|990646473
7c7
< The fact that the "sorrel" herb here discussed is the (common) variety should not have been deleted.  There a whole raft of plants referred to as sorrel, sheep sorrel, African sorrel, spinach sorrel, etc.  ''Rumex Acetosa'' is specific to (common) sorrel only.
---
> The fact that the "sorrel" herb here discussed is the (common) variety should not have been deleted.  There are a whole raft of plants referred to as sorrel, sheep sorrel, African sorrel, spinach sorrel, etc.  ''Rumex Acetosa'' is specific to (common) sorrel only.
------
Midway_Islands/Economy|990646484
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is based on providing support services for the national wildlife refuge activities located on the islands. All food and manufactured goods must be imported.
------
Midway_Islands/Transportation|990646502
1c1,23
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> 7.8 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Sand Island
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Midway_Islands/Communications|990646521
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
------
Midway_Islands/Military|990646546
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
------
Midway_Islands/Transnational_issues|990646565
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Sorrel|990646889
1c1
< '''Sorrel''' (common) (''Rumex acetosa'') is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
---
> '''Sorrel''' is the common name for ''Rumex acetosa'', a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
------
Mexico/History|990647265
2c2,11
< The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence early in the 19th century. A devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states.
---
> The site of advanced Amerindian civilizations, Mexico came under Spanish rule for three centuries before achieving independence early in the 19th century. It lost half its territory to the
> [[United States]] in the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] that
> officially ended the [[US Mexican War]]. The country also
> had to face imperialist ambitions of the french.
> At the begining of the 20th century an (agrary?) revolution
> put on the power the PRI, Partido Revolucionarion Institucional
> (Institutional Revolutionary Party), than controled mexican
> politics until the election of current president [[Vicente Fox]], 
> first president not to come from the PRI in 75 years.
> A devaluation of the peso in late 1994 threw Mexico into economic turmoil, triggering the worst recession in over half a century. The nation continues to make an impressive recovery. Ongoing economic and social concerns include low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution, and few advancement opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states.
------
Sorrel|990647341
1c1
< '''Sorrel''' is the common name for ''Rumex acetosa'', a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
---
> ''Rumex acetosa''.  '''Sorrel''' (sometimes "common sorrel," to distinguish it from a number of unrelated plants also known as "sorrel" of one kind or another) is a pleasantly [[lemon]]y [[perennial plant|perennial]] [[herb]], growing to a height of two or three feet (60 or 90 cm).  It has smooth, fleshy and tender leaves, a long slender stalk and a spike of small reddish flowers.
6,7d5
< ----
< The fact that the "sorrel" herb here discussed is the (common) variety should not have been deleted.  There are a whole raft of plants referred to as sorrel, sheep sorrel, African sorrel, spinach sorrel, etc.  ''Rumex Acetosa'' is specific to (common) sorrel only.
------
Schoolly_D|990647466
6a7,8
> Albums:
> 
14a17,22
> 
> 
> Compilations:
> 
> *The Jive Collection Volume 3 (1995)
> * A Gangster's Story
------
Schoolly_D|990647882
22c22,23
< * A Gangster's Story
---
> *A Gangster's Story (1996)
> *Best on Wax (2000)
------
HumanComputerInteraction|990648240
1c1
< Ok, HCI students, this is our little sandbox for exploring SelfOrganizingWeb pages inspired by Bush's AsWeMayThink  article.
---
> This shows how you can add to a wiki page
------
Masculism|990652425
9c9,11
< The reaction of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have ignored this movement, and/or publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women might conceivably be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights proponents access to/influence in the media, publishing, education systems, and bureaucracies.  
---
> The reaction of Feminists to the Men's Rights movement has not generally been to respond to Men's Rights at the ideological level.  Rather, they have ignored this movement, and/or publicised new issues (e.g. eating disorders) where women might conceivably be shown to be disadvantaged, and/or tried to deny Men's Rights proponents access to/influence in the media, publishing, education systems, and bureaucracies.
> 
> As the most important authors on masculist issues are considered Warren Farrell and Ellis Cose in the USA, Neil Lyndon and David Thomas in Great Britain and Arne Hoffmann in Germany.
------
Hoplite|990652458
7c7
< The strength of hoplites was in shock combat.  The two armies would literally run into each other in hopes of breaking or encircling the enemy line.  Failing that, things degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in back trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy.  Battles rarely lasted more than an hour or so.  Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally drop their equipment and flee from the field, generally unpursued.  Casualties were comparatively slight, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but often included the most influential citizens and generals who led from the front.  Victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the "custom of the Greeks" in contrast to the oriental practice of mutilating the slain, and usually decided the whole war.
---
> The strength of hoplites was in shock combat.  The two armies would literally run into each other in hopes of breaking or encircling the enemy line.  Failing that, things degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in back trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy.  Battles rarely lasted more than an hour or so.  Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally drop their equipment and flee from the field, generally unpursued.  Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but large compared to later wars and the slain often included the most influential citizens and generals who led from the front.  Thus the whole war was usually decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the "custom of the Greeks" in contrast to the oriental practice of mutilating the slain.
------
Sexism|990652928
1c1
< ''Sexism,'' in its ordinary accepted meaning, is the view (or, more commonly, the attitude) that [[man|men]] are superior to [[woman|women]].  While the view that women are superior to men might also be described as "sexism," there are very few who seriously hold such a position (among the [[radical feminism|radical feminists]]) and to describe it as "sexism" would be confusing.
---
> ''Sexism,'' in its ordinary accepted meaning, is the view (or, more commonly, the attitude) that [[man|men]] are superior to [[woman|women]].  While the view that women are superior to men might also be described as "sexism," it is only now that an awareness of this "reverse sexism" is developing in public discourse.
3c3
< Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries.  Some countries have laws that give special rights or privileges to one sex (usually, but not always, to men); some countries ban sex discrimination but still have preferential laws in their law books. 
---
> Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries.  Most countries have laws that give special rights or privileges to one sex (feminists claim: mostly to men; masculists claim: mostly to women). Some countries ban sex discrimination but still have preferential laws in their law books. 
7c7
< /Talk
---
> /Talk
------
Requested_articles|990653797
9c9
< <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[history of timepieces]] -- [[history of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]] -- [[Joan of Arc]]
---
> <b>History:</b>[[history of China]] -- [[history of Japan]] -- [[history of India]] -- [[history of Egypt]] -- [[British Empire]] -- [[history of timepieces]] -- [[history of calendar systems]] -- [[Xenophon]] --  [[Benjamin Franklin]] -- [[Sir Thomas More]] -- [[Joan of Arc]] -- [[Mumia Abu Jamal]] -- [[Leonard Peltier]] -- [[cuban missile crisis]]
------
Hymenostomatia|990653942
1c1
< Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of protozoans (protista). It is the subclass of the class Oligohymenophorea. It has three orders Hymenostomatida, Scuticocilatida and Astomatida.
---
> Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of [[protozoa]ns ([[protista]]). It is the subclass of the class [[Oligohymenophorea]]. It has three orders: [[Hymenostomatida]], [[Scuticocilatida]] and [[Astomatida]].
------
Hymenostomatia|990653956
1c1
< Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of [[protozoa]ns ([[protista]]). It is the subclass of the class [[Oligohymenophorea]]. It has three orders: [[Hymenostomatida]], [[Scuticocilatida]] and [[Astomatida]].
---
> Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of [[protozoa]]ns ([[protista]]). It is the subclass of the class [[Oligohymenophorea]]. It has three orders: [[Hymenostomatida]], [[Scuticocilatida]] and [[Astomatida]].
------
Cypress_Hill|990655334
1c1
< Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from South Central L.A. are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[Marijuana]]. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by [[Rolling Stone]] as a synthesis out of the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Public Enemy]]. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like [[Gangsta rap]], but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
---
> Most popular Latin rap crew, composed of members B Real (Louis Freese) (Mexican/Cuban), Sen Dog (Senén Reyes)(Cuban), DJ Muggs (Lawrence Muggerud) (Italian American) and since ? percussionist Eric Bobo. Cypress Hill, who hail from Los Angeles city of "South Gate" . are especially known due to the fact that they were the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[Marijuana]]. They also crossed over into the rock market, Sen Dog founded a rapcore outfit named SX10. In the beginning, Cypress basically made straight up hardcore hip hop, rather atypical of the west coast, described by [[Rolling Stone]] as a synthesis out of the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Public Enemy]]. On "III" their sound got more typical of the west coast, i.e. more like [[Gangsta rap]], but "Skull and Bones" was again more east coast on the A side and crossovers into the rock market on the B side (i.e. second CD). 
17c17
< 2000 - Live at the Fillmore
---
> 2000 - Live at the Fillmore
------
CIA_World_Factbook|990655666
1c1
< The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[US]] publishes
---
> The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] publishes
------
Operating_system|990655935
7c7
< Most operating systems in use in the late 1990s are
---
> Most operating systems in use in the late 1990s were
------
DesmondTutu|990656598
1c1
< A SouthAfrican peace activist who rose to worldwide fame in the 1980s through his opposition to ApartheiD.  He was the first black Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, and the winner of the 1984 NobelPeacePrize.
---
> A [[South Africa]]n peace activist who rose to worldwide fame in the 1980s through his opposition to ApartheiD.  He was the first black Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, and the winner of the 1984 [[Nobel Prize/Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]].
------
Film_noir|990657303
3c3,7
< [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
---
> [[/Film list|List of some Films Noir]]
> 
> ----
> 
>  How is "noir" pronounced?
------
Model|990657521
1c1
< '''Model''' is a word with applications throughout ScienCe with variations according to the subject matter under discussion. In general, it indicates an ''object'' which we study, not for its intrinsic interest, but because it is a formalized or simplified representation of a class of phenomena which can be studied easily. 
---
> '''Model''' is a word with applications throughout [[Science]] with variations according to the subject matter under discussion. In general, it indicates an ''object'' which we study, not for its intrinsic interest, but because it is a formalized or simplified representation of a class of phenomena which can be studied easily. 
------
Film_noir|990659641
7c7,9
<  How is "noir" pronounced?
---
>  How is "noir" pronounced?
> 
> ''"nwah"''
------
Film_noir|990659739
9c9
< ''"nwah"''
---
> ''"nwahr"''
------
Wikipedia_gremlins|990660262
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The microscopic creatures that run the Wikipedia website.  Light blue in color, with grey eyes and an orange or purple mohawk, most of them are good, and generate entries like [[RecentChanges]], [[What Google Likes]], and [[new topics]], but a few have unfortunately snuck snacks after midnight, and now go about titling documents InAVeryOddWay and breaking links.
------
Countries_of_the_world|990660436
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mayotte]] - [[Mexico]] - Federated States of [[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mayotte]] - [[Mexico]] - <font size=-1>Federated States of </font>[[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
------
Moldova|990660597
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Moldova/History|990660629
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Formerly ruled by Romania, Moldova became part of the Soviet Union at the close of World War II. Although independent from the USSR since 1991, Russian forces have remained on Moldovan territory east of the Nistru (Dnister) River supporting the Slavic majority population (mostly Ukrainians and Russians) who have proclaimed a "Transnistria" republic.
------
Moldova/Geography|990660645
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Eastern Europe, northeast of Romania
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 47 00 N, 29 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Commonwealth of Independent States
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 33,843 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 33,371 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 472 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Maryland
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,389 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Romania 450 km, Ukraine 939 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> moderate winters, warm summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> rolling steppe, gradual slope south to Black Sea
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Nistru River 2 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Dealul Balanesti 430 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> lignite, phosphorites, gypsum, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 53%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 14%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 13%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 7% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 3,110 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> landslides (57 cases in 1998)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> heavy use of agricultural chemicals, including banned pesticides such as DDT, has contaminated soil and groundwater; extensive soil erosion from poor farming methods
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
------
Moldova/People|990660660
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,430,654 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 523,373; female 505,064)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 1,422,470; female 1,544,169)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 10% (male 161,659; female 273,919) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 12.58 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.31 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.59 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 43.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 64.45 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 59.92 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 69.22 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.63 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Moldovan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Moldovan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Moldavian/Romanian 64.5%, Ukrainian 13.8%, Russian 13%, Gagauz 3.5%, Jewish 1.5%, Bulgarian 2%, other 1.7% (1989 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> internal disputes with ethnic Slavs in the Transnistrian region
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Eastern Orthodox 98.5%, Jewish 1.5%, Baptist (only about 1,000 members) (1991)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Moldovan (official, virtually the same as the Romanian language), Russian, Gagauz (a Turkish dialect)
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 96%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 94% (1989 est.)
------
Moldova/Government|990660680
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Moldova
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Moldova
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica Moldova
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova; Moldavia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MD
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Chisinau
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 juletule (singular - juletul) 1 municipality* 1 autonomous territorial unit**; Balti, Cahul, Chisinau, Chisinau*, Dubasari, Edinet, Gagauzia**, Lapusna, Orhei, Soroca, Tighina, Ungheni
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 27 August 1991 (from Soviet Union)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 27 August 1991
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> new constitution adopted 28 July 1994; replaces old Soviet constitution of 1979
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on civil law system; Constitutional Court reviews legality of legislative acts and governmental decisions of resolution; it is unclear if Moldova accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction but accepts many UN and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) documents
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Petru LUCINSCHI (since 15 January 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Dumitru BRAGHIS (since 21 December 1999), one first deputy prime minister and two deputy prime ministers
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> selected by prime minister-designate, subject to approval of parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 17 November 1996; runoff election 1 December 1996 (next to be held NA November-December 2000); according to the Moldovan constitution, the president, on consulting with the parliament, will designate a candidate for the office of prime minister; within 15 days from designation, the prime minister-designate will request a vote of confidence from the parliament regarding his/her work program and entire cabinet
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Petru LUCINSCHI elected president; percent of vote - Petru LUCINSCHI 54%, Mircea SNEGUR 46%; Dumitru BRAGHIS was nominated by the president 16 December 1999 and was elected prime minister by a parliamentary vote of 57-4 (40 abstentions) on 21 December 1999
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament or Parlamentul (101 seats; parties and electoral blocs, as well as independent candidates, compete in popular elections to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 22 March 1998 (next to be held spring 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - PCM 30%, CDM 19%, PMDP 18%, PFD 9%; seats by party - PCM 40, CDM 26, PMDP 24, PFD 11
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the comparative breakdown of seats by faction is approximate
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Constitutional Court is the sole authority of constitutional judicature
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Bloc for a Democratic and Prosperous Moldova or PMDP [Dumitru DIACOV]; Christian Democratic Popular Front or FPCD [Iurie ROSCA, chairman]; Communist Party or PCM [Vladimir VORONIN, first chairman]; Democratic Convention of Moldova or CDM [Mircea SNEGUR, chairman]; Party of Democratic Forces or PFD [Valeriu MATEI, chairman]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ceslav CIOBANU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2101 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-1130
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-1204
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Rudolf Villem PERINA
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Strada Alexei Mateevicie, #103, Chisinau 2009
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address; pouch address - American Embassy Chisinau, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-7080
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [373] (2) 23-37-72
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [373] (2) 23-30-44
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> same color scheme as Romania - three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; emblem in center of flag is of a Roman eagle of gold outlined in black with a red beak and talons carrying a yellow cross in its beak and a green olive branch in its right talons and a yellow scepter in its left talons; on its breast is a shield divided horizontally red over blue with a stylized ox head, star, rose, and crescent all in black-outlined yellow
------
Moldova/Economy|990660698
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Moldova enjoys a favorable climate and good farmland but has no major mineral deposits. As a result, the economy depends heavily on agriculture, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, and tobacco. Moldova must import all of its supplies of oil, coal, and natural gas, largely from Russia. Energy shortages contributed to sharp production declines after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. As part of an ambitious reform effort, Moldova introduced a stable convertible currency, freed all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises, backed steady land privatization, removed export controls, and freed interest rates. Yet these efforts could not offset the impact of political and economic difficulties, both internal and regional. In 1998, the economic troubles of Russia, by far Moldova's leading trade partner, were a major cause of the 8.6% drop in GDP; the value of the currency in relation to the dollar fell by half. In 1999, GDP fell again, by 4.4%, the fifth drop in the past six years; exports were down, and energy supplies continued erratic. GDP is expected to remain at about the same level in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -4.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,200 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 31%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 35%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 34% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 75% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.7%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 25.8% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 38% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.7 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 40.2%, industry 14.3%, other 45.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2% (includes only officially registered unemployed; large numbers of underemployed workers) (September 1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $536 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $594 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, agricultural machinery, foundry equipment, refrigerators and freezers, washing machines, hosiery, sugar, vegetable oil, shoes, textiles
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> -10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 5.661 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 93%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 7.065 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 1.8 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vegetables, fruits, wine, grain, sugar beets, sunflower seed, tobacco; beef, milk
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $470 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs, wine, and tobacco 66%; textiles and footwear, machinery (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Russia 53%, Romania 10%, Ukraine 8%, Germany 5%, Belarus 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $560 million (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> mineral products and fuel 31%, machinery and equipment, chemicals, textiles (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 22%, Ukraine 16%, Romania 12%, Belarus 9%, Germany 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.3 billion (December 1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $100.8 million (1995); note - $547 million from the IMF and World Bank (1992-99)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> Moldovan leu (MLD) (plural lei)
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> lei (MLD) per US$1 (end of year) - 12.1408 (January 2000), 10.5158 (1999), 5.3707 (1998), 4.6236 (1997), 4.6045 (1996), 4.4958 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Moldova/Communications|990660710
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 566,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 14 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> inadequate, outmoded, poor service outside Chisinau, some effort to modernize is under way
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> new subscribers face long wait for service; mobile cellular telephone service being introduced
> <br><i>international:</i>
> service through Romania and Russia via landline; satellite earth stations - Intelsat, Eutelsat, and Intersputnik
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 7, FM 50, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.22 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 40 (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.26 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Moldova/Transportation|990660724
1c1,42
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,328 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 1,328 km 1.520-m gauge (1992)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 12,300 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 10,738 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 1,562 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 424 km (1994)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> natural gas 310 km (1992)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 26 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 8 (1994 est.)
------
Moldova/Military|990660739
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Ground Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Republic Security Forces (internal and border troops)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,156,705 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 913,896 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 40,239 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $6 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1% (FY99)
------
Moldova/Transnational_issues|990660764
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> separatist Transnistria region, comprising the area between the Nistru (Dniester) River and Ukraine, has its own de facto government, dominated by Moldovan Slavs
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> limited cultivation of opium poppy and cannabis, mostly for CIS consumption; transshipment point for illicit drugs from Southwest Asia via Central Asia to Russia, Western Europe and possibly the US
------
Monaco|990660788
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Monaco/History|990660803
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with a railroad linkup to France and the opening of a casino. Since then, the principality's mild climate, splendid scenery, and gambling facilities have made Monaco world famous as a tourist and recreation center.
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Monaco/Geography|990660823
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, on the southern coast of France, near the border with Italy
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 43 44 N, 7 24 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.95 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.95 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about three times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4.4 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> France 4.4 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 4.1 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> hilly, rugged, rocky
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Mediterranean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Agel 140 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (urban area)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> second smallest independent state in world (after Holy See); almost entirely urban
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Monaco/People|990660838
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 31,693 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 15% (male 2,449; female 2,336)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 62% (male 9,723; female 10,074)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 23% (male 2,907; female 4,204) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.48% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 9.94 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.06 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 7.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.91 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.84 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.88 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 83 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.76 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Monegasque(s) or Monacan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Monegasque or Monacan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> French 47%, Monegasque 16%, Italian 16%, other 21%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 90%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), English, Italian, Monegasque
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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Monaco/Government|990660857
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Principality of Monaco
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Monaco
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Principaute de Monaco
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Monaco
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MN
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Monaco
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none; there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are four quarters (quartiers, singular - quartier); Fontvieille, La Condamine, Monaco-Ville, Monte-Carlo
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1419 (beginning of the rule by the House of Grimaldi)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 19 November
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 17 December 1962
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Prince RAINIER III (since 9 May 1949); Heir Apparent Prince ALBERT Alexandre Louis Pierre, son of the monarch (born 14 March 1958)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Minister of State Michel LEVEQUE (since 3 February 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Government is under the authority of the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; minister of state appointed by the monarch from a list of three French national candidates presented by the French Government
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Council or Conseil National (18 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 1 and 8 February 1998 (next to be held NA January 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - UND 18
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Tribunal Supreme, judges named by the monarch on the basis of nominations by the National Council
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> National and Democratic Union or UND [Jean-Louis CAMPORA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ECE, IAEA, ICAO, ICRM, IFRCS, IHO, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, OPCW, OSCE, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Monaco does not have an embassy in the US
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Monaco; the US Consul General in Marseille (France) is accredited to Monaco
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of Indonesia which is longer and the flag of Poland which is white (top) and red
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Monaco/Economy|990660874
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Monaco, situated on the French Mediterranean coast, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate. The Principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, nonpolluting industries. The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. The state retains monopolies in a number of sectors, including tobacco, the telephone network, and the postal service. Living standards are high, roughly comparable to those in prosperous French metropolitan areas. Monaco does not publish national income figures; the estimates below are extremely rough.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $870 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $27,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 30,540 (January 1994)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 3.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $518 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $531 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, construction, small-scale industrial and consumer products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $NA; full customs integration with France, which collects and rebates Monegasque trade duties; also participates in EU market system through customs union with France
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA; full customs integration with France, which collects and rebates Monegasque trade duties; also participates in EU market system through customs union with France
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Monaco/Communications|990660888
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 31,027 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 2,560 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> automatic telephone system
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> no satellite earth stations; connected by cable into the French communications system
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM NA, shortwave 8 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 34,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 5 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 25,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 4 (1999)
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Monaco/Transportation|990660914
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.7 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 1.7 km 1.435-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 50 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 50 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 0 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Monaco
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> linked to airport in Nice, France, by helicopter service
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (shuttle service between the international airport at Nice, France, and Monaco's heliport at Fontvieille)
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Monaco/Military|990660926
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
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Monaco/Transnational_issues|990660943
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Mongolia|990660964
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Mongolia/History|990660975
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Long a province of China, Mongolia won its independence in 1921 with Soviet backing. A communist regime was installed in 1924. During the early 1990s, the ex-communist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) gradually yielded its monopoly on power. In 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) defeated the MPRP in a national election and has attempted to establish a number of reforms to modernize the economy. However, many former communists retain key posts and implementation has been difficult.
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Mongolia/Geography|990660991
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Asia, between China and Russia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 46 00 N, 105 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.565 million sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1.565 million sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Alaska
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8,114 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 4,673 km, Russia 3,441 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; continental (large daily and seasonal temperature ranges)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> vast semidesert and desert plains; mountains in west and southwest; Gobi Desert in southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Hoh Nuur 518 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Tavan Bogd Uul 4,374 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> oil, coal, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 80%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 10% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 800 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> dust storms can occur in the spring; grassland fires
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural fresh water resources; policies of the former communist regime promoting rapid urbanization and industrial growth have raised concerns about their negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws have severely polluted the air in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation, overgrazing, the converting of virgin land to agricultural production have increased soil erosion from wind and rain; desertification and mining activities have also had a deleterious effect on the environment
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; strategic location between China and Russia
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Mongolia/People|990661005
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,650,952 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 34% (male 461,719; female 447,426)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 62% (male 816,851; female 816,651)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 46,682; female 61,623) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.54% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 21.53 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.14 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 41.22 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 67.25 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 64.98 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 69.64 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.4 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mongolian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mongolian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Mongol 90%, Kazakh 4%, other 6%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> predominantly Tibetan Buddhist, Muslim 4%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> previously limited religious activity because of communist regime
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Khalkha Mongol 90%, Turkic, Russian
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 82.9%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 88.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 77.2% (1988 est.)
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Mongolia/Government|990661022
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mongolia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Mongol Uls
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Outer Mongolia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Ulaanbaatar
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 18 provinces (aymguud, singular - aymag) and 3 municipalities* (hotuud, singular - hot); Arhangay, Bayanhongor, Bayan-Olgiy, Bulgan, Darhan*, Dornod, Dornogovi, Dundgovi, Dzavhan, Erdenet*, Govi-Altay, Hentiy, Hovd, Hovsgol, Omnogovi, Ovorhangay, Selenge, Suhbaatar, Tov, Ulaanbaatar*, Uvs
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 13 March 1921 (from China)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 11 July (1921)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 12 February 1992
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> blend of Russian, Chinese, Turkish, and Western systems of law that combines aspects of a parliamentary and presidential system; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Natsagiyn BAGABANDI (since 20 June 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Rinchinnyamin AMARJARGAL (since 30 August 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the State Great Hural in consultation with the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president nominated by parties in the State Great Hural and elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 18 May 1997 (next to be held summer 2001); following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition is usually elected prime minister by the State Great Hural; election last held 30 August 1999 (next to be held NA)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Natsagiyn BAGABANDI elected president; percent of vote - Natsagiyn BAGABANDI (MPRP) 60.8%, Punsalmaagiyn OCHIRBAT (MNDP and MSDP) 29.8%, Jambyn GOMBOJAV 6.6%; Rinchinnyamin AMARJARGAL elected prime minister by a vote in the State Great Hural of 50 to 2
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral State Great Hural (76 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 30 June 1996 (next to be held NA June 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - DUC 66%, MPRP 33%, MCP 1%; seats by party - DUC 50 (MNDP 34, MSDP 13, independents 3), MPRP 25, MCP 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, serves as appeals court for people's and provincial courts, but to date rarely overturns verdicts of lower courts, judges are nominated by the General Council of Courts for approval by the State Great Hural
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Union Coalition or DUC (includes the MNDP and the MSDP); Independence Party [leader NA]; Mongolian Conservative Party or MCP [JARGALSAIHAN]; Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party or MDNSP [B. ERDENEBAT, chairman]; Mongolian Democratic Renaissance Party or MDRP  [BYAMBASUREN, chairman]; Mongolian National Democratic Party or MNDP [R. AMARJARGAL, chairman; B. DELGERMAA, general secretary]; Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party or MPRP [N. ENKHBAYAR, chairman; L. ENEBISH, general secretary]; Mongolian Republican Party or MRP [B. JARGALSAIHAN]; Mongolian Social Democratic Party or MSDP [Radnaasumbereliyn GONCHIGDORJ, chairman; N. ALTANKHUYAG, general secretary]; Mongolian United Heritage Party or UHP [B. JAMTSAI] (includes the United Party of Herdsman and Farmers, Independence Party, Traditional United Conservative Party, and Mongolian United Private Property Owners Party); Mongolian United Private Property Owners Party [leader NA]); United Party of Herdsman and Farmers [leader NA]; Traditional United Conservative Party [leader NA]; Workers' Party [leader NA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, ASEAN (observer), CCC, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jalbuugiyn CHOINHOR
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 333-7117
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 298-9227
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Alphonse F. LA PORTA
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> inner north side of the Big Ring, just west of the Selbe Gol, Ulaanbaatar
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> c/o American Embassy Beijing, Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, C. P. O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar 13; PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [976] (1) 329095
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [976] (1) 320776
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal, vertical bands of red (hoist side), blue, and red; centered on the hoist-side red band in yellow is the national emblem ("soyombo" - a columnar arrangement of abstract and geometric representation for fire, sun, moon, earth, water, and the yin-yang symbol)
------
Mongolia/Economy|990661036
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Economic activity traditionally has been based on agriculture and breeding of livestock. Mongolia also has extensive mineral deposits: copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91, at the time of the dismantlement of the USSR. Mongolia was driven into deep recession, which was prolonged by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party's (MPRP) reluctance to undertake serious economic reform. The Democratic Union Coalition (DUC) government has embraced free-market economics, easing price controls, liberalizing domestic and international trade, and attempting to restructure the banking system and the energy sector. Major domestic privatization programs have been undertaken, as well as fostering of foreign investment through international tender of the oil distribution company, a leading cashmere company, and banks. Reform has been held back by the ex-communist MPRP opposition and by the political instability brought about through four successive governments under the DUC. Economic growth picked up in 1997-99 after stalling in 1996 due to a series of natural disasters and declines in world prices of copper and cashmere. Public revenues and exports collapsed in 1998 and 1999 due to the repercussions of the Asian financial crisis. In August and September 1999, the economy suffered from a temporary Russian ban on exports of oil and oil products. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization (WTrO) in 1997. The international donor community pledged over $300 million per year at the last Consultative Group Meeting, held in Ulaanbaatar in June 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $6.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,320 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 24%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 43% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 40% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24.5% (1995)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 9.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.256 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> primarily herding/agricultural
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 4.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $260 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $366 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> construction materials, mining (particularly coal and copper); food and beverages, processing of animal products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.66 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.816 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 342 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, potatoes, forage crops; sheep, goats, cattle, camels, horses
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $316.8 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> copper, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, other nonferrous metals
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> China 30.1%, Switzerland 21.5%, Russia 12.1%, South Korea 9.7%, US 8.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $472.4 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, tea
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Russia 30.6%, China 13.3%, Japan 11.7%, South Korea 7.5%, US 6.9% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $715 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $250 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 tughrik (Tug) = 100 mongos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> tughriks (Tug) per US$1 - 1,070.39 (December 1999), 1,072.37 (1999), 840.83 (1998), 789.99 (1997), 548.40 (1996), 448.61 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Mongolia/Communications|990661049
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 93,800 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 12, FM 2, shortwave 13 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 360,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (plus 18 provincial repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 118,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Mongolia/Transportation|990661061
1c1,40
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,928 km
> <br><i>broad gauge:</i>
> 1,928 km 1.524-m gauge (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 49,250 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,674 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 47,576 km (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> much of the unpaved rural road system consists of rough cross-country tracks
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 400 km of principal routes (1999)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 34 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 26
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 5 (1994 est.)
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Mongolia/Military|990661080
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Mongolian People's Army (includes Internal Security Forces and Border Guards), Air Force, Civil Defense troops
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 727,844 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 473,326 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 29,364 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $20 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2% (FY97)
------
Mongolia/Transnational_issues|990661097
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Countries_of_the_world|990661149
28c28
< <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mayotte]] - [[Mexico]] - <font size=-1>Federated States of </font>[[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserra]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
---
> <font size=+2>M</font><br> [[Macau]] - <font size=-1>The Former Yugoslav Republic of </font>[[Macedonia]] - [[Madagascar]] - [[Malawi]] - [[Malaysia]] - [[Maldives]] - [[Mali]] - [[Malta]] - [[Isle of Man]] - [[Marshall Islands]] - [[Martinique]] - [[Mauritania]] -  [[Mauritius]] - [[Mayotte]] - [[Mexico]] - <font size=-1>Federated States of </font>[[Micronesia]] - [[Midway Islands]] - [[Moldova]] - [[Monaco]] - [[Mongolia]] - [[Montserrat]] - [[Morocco]] - [[Mozambique]]
169a170
> 
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Montserrat|990661165
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Montserrat/History|990661180
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Much of this island has been devastated and two-thirds of the population has fled abroad due to the eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano that began on 18 July 1995.
------
Montserrat/Geography|990661193
1c1,52
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, southeast of Puerto Rico
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 16 45 N, 62 12 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 100 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 100 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.6 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 40 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; little daily or seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic islands, mostly mountainous, with small coastal lowland
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Chances Peak (in the Soufriere Hills) 914 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> NEGL
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 30% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> severe hurricanes (June to November); volcanic eruptions (full-scale eruptions of the Soufriere Hills volcano occurred during 1996-97)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> land erosion occurs on slopes that have been cleared for cultivation
------
Montserrat/People|990661210
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 6,409
> <br><i>note:</i>
> an estimated 8,000 refugees left the island following the resumption of volcanic activity in July 1995; some have returned (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 24.23% (male 778; female 775)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64.25% (male 1,969; female 2,149)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11.52% (male 395; female 343) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 20.53% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 17.48 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 195.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.15 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 9.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.96 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.78 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.23 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.85 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Montserratian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Montserratian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black, white
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal, Seventh-Day Adventist, other Christian denominations
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over has ever attended school
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 97% (1970 est.)
------
Montserrat/Government|990661228
1c1,52
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Montserrat
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MH
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of the UK
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Plymouth (abandoned in 1997 due to volcanic activity; interim government buildings have been built at Brades, in the Carr's Bay/Little Bay vicinity at the northwest end of Montserrat)
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 3 parishes; Saint Anthony, Saint Georges, Saint Peter's
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Celebration of the Birthday of the Queen (second Saturday of June)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> present constitution came into force 19 December 1989
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English common law and statutory law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor Anthony John ABBOTT (since NA September 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Chief Minister David BRANDT (since 22 August 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council consists of the governor, the chief minister, three other ministers, the attorney general, and the finance secretary
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party usually becomes chief minister; note - as a result of the last election, a coalition party was formed between NPP, NDP, and one of the independent candidates
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Council (11 seats, 7 popularly elected; members serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 11 November 1996 (next to be held by NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PPA 2, MNR 2, NPP 1, independent 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia), one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Movement for National Reconstruction or MNR [Percival Austin BRAMBLE]; National Development Party or NDP [leader NA]; National Progressive Party or NPP [Reuben T. MEADE]; People's Progressive Alliance or PPA [Bertrand OSBORNE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Caricom, CDB, ECLAC (associate), ICFTU, Interpol (subbureau), OECS, WCL
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of the UK)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the Montserratian coat of arms centered in the outer half of the flag; the coat of arms features a woman standing beside a yellow harp with her arm around a black cross
------
Montserrat/Economy|990661243
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Severe volcanic activity, which began in July 1995, put a damper on this small, open economy throughout 1996-99. A catastrophic eruption in June 1997 closed the air and sea ports, causing further economic and social dislocation. Two-thirds of the 12,000 inhabitants fled the island. Some began to return in 1998, but lack of housing limited the number. The agriculture sector continued to be affected by the lack of suitable land for farming and the destruction of crops. Construction was the dominant activity in 1997 and 1998. GDP declined again in 1998. Prospects for the economy depend largely on developments in relation to the volcano and on public sector construction activity. The UK committed about $100 million in 1996-98 to help reconstruct the economy and has programmed additional aid for 1999-2001.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $31 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -16% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 5.4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 13.6%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 81% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 4,521 (1992); note - recently lowered by flight of people from volcanic activity
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 20% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $31.4 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $31.6 million, including capital expenditures of $8.4 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, rum, textiles, electronic appliances
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 10 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 9 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cabbages, carrots, cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, peppers; livestock products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.5 million (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> electronic components, plastic bags, apparel, hot peppers, live plants, cattle
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, Antigua and Barbuda (1993)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $26 million (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transportation equipment, foodstuffs, manufactured goods, fuels, lubricants, and related materials
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US, UK, Trinidad and Tobago, Japan, Canada (1993)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $8.9 million (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $9.8 million (1995); note - about $100 million (1996-98) in reconstruction aid from the UK; Country Policy Plan (1999) is a three-year program for spending $122.8 million in British budgetary assistance
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
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Montserrat/Communications|990661258
1c1,19
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 4,000 (1992)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 70 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 7,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Montserrat/Transportation|990661274
1c1,20
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 269 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 203 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 66 km (1995)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Plymouth (abandoned), Little Bay (anchorages and ferry landing), Carr's Bay
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Montserrat/Military|990661288
1c1,4
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Police Force
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the UK
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Montserrat/Transnational_issues|990661304
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Morocco|990661338
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Morocco/History|990661355
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Morocco's long struggle for independence from France ended in 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier was turned over to the new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997.
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Morocco/Geography|990661371
1c1,66
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Western Sahara
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 32 00 N, 5 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 446,550 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 446,300 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 250 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than California
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,017.9 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Algeria 1,559 km, Western Sahara 443 km, Spain (Ceuta) 6.3 km, Spain (Melilla) 9.6 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,835 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> Mediterranean, becoming more extreme in the interior
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> northern coast and interior are mountainous with large areas of bordering plateaus, intermontane valleys, and rich coastal plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Sebkha Tah -55 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Jebel Toubkal 4,165 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphates, iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, fish, salt
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 47%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 20%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 11% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 12,580 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> northern mountains geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location along Strait of Gibraltar
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Morocco/People|990661408
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 30,122,350 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 35% (male 5,372,393; female 5,175,114)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 60% (male 9,021,259; female 9,163,548)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 632,698; female 757,338) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.74% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 24.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.02 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.84 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 49.72 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 69.13 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 66.92 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 71.44 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.13 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Moroccan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Moroccan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Arab-Berber 99.1%, other 0.7%, Jewish 0.2%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 98.7%, Christian 1.1%, Jewish 0.2%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), Berber dialects, French often the language of business, government, and diplomacy
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 43.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 56.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 31% (1995 est.)
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Morocco/Government|990661425
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Morocco
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Morocco
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Al Mamlakah al Maghribiyah
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Al Maghrib
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Rabat
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 37 provinces and 2 wilayas*; Agadir, Al Hoceima, Azilal, Beni Mellal, Ben Slimane, Boulemane, Casablanca*, Chaouen, El Jadida, El Kelaa des Srarhna, Er Rachidia, Essaouira, Fes, Figuig, Guelmim, Ifrane, Kenitra, Khemisset, Khenifra, Khouribga, Laayoune, Larache, Marrakech, Meknes, Nador, Ouarzazate, Oujda, Rabat-Sale*, Safi, Settat, Sidi Kacem, Tanger, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taroudannt, Tata, Taza, Tetouan, Tiznit
> <br><i>note:</i>
> three additional provinces of Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara; decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature in March 1997 creating many new provinces/regions; specific details and scope of the reorganization not yet available
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 2 March 1956 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Throne Day or Sete de Throne 30 July (1999) (anniversary of King MOHAMED VI's accession to the throne)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 10 March 1972, revised 4 September 1992, amended (to create bicameral legislature) September 1996
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Chamber of Supreme Court
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 21 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King MOHAMED VI (since 23 July 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Abderrahmane YOUSSOUFI (since 14 March 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; prime minister appointed by the monarch following legislative elections
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of an upper house or Chamber of Counselors (270 seats; members elected indirectly by local councils, professional organizations, and labor syndicates for nine-year terms; one-third of the members are renewed every three years) and a lower house or Chamber of Representatives (325 seats; members elected by popular vote for five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Chamber of Counselors - last held 5 December 1997 (next to be held NA December 2000); Chamber of Representatives - last held 14 November 1997 (next to be held NA November 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Chamber of Counselors - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RNI 42, MDS 33, UC 28, MP 27, PND 21, IP 21, USFP 16, MNP 15, UT 13, FFD 12, CDT 11, UTM 8, PPS 7, PSD 4, PDI 4, UGTM 3, UNMT 2, other 3; Chamber of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - USFP 57, UC 50, RNI 46, MP 40, MDS 32, IP 32, MNP 19, PND 10, MPCD 9, PPS 9, FFD 9, PSD 5, OADP 4, PA 2, PDI 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> CDT, UTM, UGTM, UNMT are all labor unions listed under Political pressure groups and leaders; see explanation in the description of Parliament
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges are appointed on the recommendation of the Supreme Council of the Judiciary, presided over by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Action Party or PA [Ahmed ABAKIL]; Constitutional Union or UC [Abdellatif SEMLALI]; Democratic Forces Front or FFD [Thami KHIARI]; Democratic Socialist Party or PSD [Issa al-OUARDIGHI]; Democratic Party for Independence or PDI [Thami el-OUAZZANI, Said BOUACHRINE]; Istiqlal Party or IP [Abbas EL-FASSI]; Labor Party or UT [leader NA]; National Democratic Party or PND [Mohamed Arsalane EL-JADIDI]; National Popular Movement or MNP [Mahjoubi AHARDANE]; National Rally of Independents or RNI [Ahmed OSMAN]; Organization of Democratic and Popular Action or OADP [Mohamed BENSAID]; Party of Progress and Socialism or PPS [Moulay Ismail al ALAOUI]; Popular Constitutional and Democratic Movement or MPCD [Dr. Abdelkarim al-KHATIB]; Popular Movement or MP [Mohamed LAENSER]; Social Democratic Movement or MDS [Mahmoud ARCHANE]; Socialist Union of Popular Forces or USFP [Abderrahmane YOUSSOUFI]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Association of Popular Trade Unions or ADP [leader NA]; Democratic Confederation of Labor or CDT [Noubir AMAOUI]; Democratic National Trade Union or USND [leader NA]; Democratic Trade Union or SD [leader NA]; General Union of Moroccan Workers or UGTM [Abderrazzak AFILAL]; Labor Union Commissions or CS [leader NA]; Moroccan National Workers Union or UNMT [leader NA]; Moroccan Union of Workers or UTM [Mahjoub BENSEDIQ]; Party of Shura and Istiqla [Abdelwaheb MAASH];
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ACCT (associate), AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, CCC, EBRD, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO (pending member), ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, OIC, OPCW, OSCE (partner), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador (vacant)
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1601 21st Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 462-7979 through 7982
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 265-0161
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Edward M. GABRIEL
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 2 Avenue de Marrakech, Rabat
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 74, Box 3, APO AE 09718
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [212] (7) 76 22 65
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [212] (7) 76 56 61
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Casablanca
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Morocco/Economy|990661446
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Morocco faces the problems typical of developing countries - restraining government spending, reducing constraints on private activity and foreign trade, and achieving sustainable economic growth. Since the early 1980s the government has pursued an economic program toward these objectives with the support of the IMF, the World Bank, and the Paris Club of creditors. The dirham is now fully convertible for current account transactions; reforms of the financial sector have been implemented; and state enterprises are being privatized. Drought conditions depressed activity in the key agricultural sector, and contributed to an economic slowdown in 1999. Favorable rainfalls have led Morocco to predict a growth of 6% for 2000. Formidable long-term challenges include: servicing the external debt; preparing the economy for freer trade with the EU; and improving education and attracting foreign investment to improve living standards and job prospects for Morocco's youthful population.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $108 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3,600 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 16%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 54% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 13.1% (1990-91 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.8%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 30.5% (1990-91)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 11 million (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 50%, services 35%, industry 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 19% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $9.1 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $10 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.7 billion (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> phosphate rock mining and processing, food processing, leather goods, textiles, construction, tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 13.16 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 83.59%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 16.41%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 12.363 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 124 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> barley, wheat, citrus, wine, vegetables, olives; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $7.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> phosphates and fertilizers, food and beverages, minerals (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> France 27%, Spain 11%, India 7%, Japan 6%, Italy 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $9.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> semiprocessed goods, machinery and equipment, food and beverages, consumer goods, fuel (1998)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 22%, Spain 10%, US 7%, Germany 6%, Italy 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $19.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $565.6 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Moroccan dirham (DH) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Moroccan dirhams (DH) per US$1 - 10.051 (January 2000), 9.804 (1999), 9.604 (1998), 9.527 (1997), 8.716 (1996), 8.540 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> July 1 - June 30
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Morocco/Communications|990661462
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.391 million (1998)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 116,645 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> good system composed of open-wire lines, cables, and microwave radio relay links; Internet available but expensive; principal switching centers are Casablanca and Rabat; national network nearly 100% digital using fiber-optic links; improved rural service employs microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 7 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Arabsat; microwave radio relay to Gibraltar, Spain, and Western Sahara; coaxial cable and microwave radio relay to Algeria; participant in Medarabtel; fiber-optic cable link from Agadir to Algeria and Tunisia
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 27, FM 25, shortwave 6 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 6.64 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 26 (plus 35 repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 3.1 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 27 (1999)
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Morocco/Transportation|990661482
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,907 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 1,907 km 1.435-m gauge (1,003 km electrified; 540 km double track)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 57,847 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 30,254 km (including 327 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 27,593 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 362 km; petroleum products 491 km (abandoned); natural gas 241 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Agadir, El Jadida, Casablanca, El Jorf Lasfar, Kenitra, Mohammedia, Nador, Rabat, Safi, Tangier; also Spanish-controlled Ceuta and Melilla
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 218,987 GRT/263,191 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 9, chemical tanker 6, container 3, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 3, refrigerated cargo 9, roll-on/roll-off 8, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 70 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 26
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 44
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 11 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Morocco/Military|990661502
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Armed Forces (includes Army, Navy, Air Force), Gendarmerie, Auxiliary Forces
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 7,961,552 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 5,026,210 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 335,264 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1.361 billion (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 3.8% (FY97/98)
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Morocco/Transnational_issues|990661517
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claims and administers Western Sahara, but sovereignty is unresolved and the UN is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue; the UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991; Spain controls five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - the coastal enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla which Morocco contests, as well as the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of hashish; trafficking on the increase for both domestic and international drug markets; shipments of hashish mostly directed to Western Europe; transit point for cocaine from South America destined for Western Europe
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Mozambique|990661552
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Mozambique/History|990661570
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Almost five centuries as a Portuguese colony came to a close with independence in 1975. Large-scale emigration by whites, economic dependence on South Africa, a severe drought, and a prolonged civil war hindered the country's development. The ruling party formally abandoned Marxism in 1989, and a new constitution the following year provided for multiparty elections and a free market economy. A UN-negotiated peace agreement with rebel forces ended the fighting in 1992.
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Mozambique/Geography|990661583
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, bordering the Mozambique Channel, between South Africa and Tanzania
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 15 S, 35 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 801,590 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 784,090 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 17,500 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of California
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,571 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Malawi 1,569 km, South Africa 491 km, Swaziland 105 km, Tanzania 756 km, Zambia 419 km, Zimbabwe 1,231 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,470 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical to subtropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly coastal lowlands, uplands in center, high plateaus in northwest, mountains in west
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Indian Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Monte Binga 2,436 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> coal, titanium, natural gas, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 56%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 22% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 1,180 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> severe droughts and floods occur in central and southern provinces; devastating cyclones
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
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Mozambique/People|990661601
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 19,104,696
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected; the 1997 Mozambican census reported a population of 16,099,246 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 4,079,240; female 4,122,578)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 54% (male 5,123,178; female 5,262,618)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 215,412; female 301,670) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.47% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 37.99 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 23.29 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 139.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 37.52 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 38.34 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 36.68 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Mozambican(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Mozambican
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> indigenous tribal groups 99.66% (Shangaan, Chokwe, Manyika, Sena, Makua, and others), Europeans 0.06%, Euro-Africans 0.2%, Indians 0.08%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 30%, Muslim 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Portuguese (official), indigenous dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 40.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 57.7%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 23.3% (1995 est.)
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Mozambique
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mozambique
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Mocambique
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Mocambique
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Maputo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Cabo Delgado, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Maputo, Nampula, Niassa, Sofala, Tete, Zambezia
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 25 June 1975 (from Portugal)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 25 June (1975)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 30 November 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO (since 6 November 1986); note - before being popularly elected, CHISSANO was elected president by Frelimo's Central Committee 4 November 1986 (reelected by the Committee 30 July 1989)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Pascoal MOCUMBI (since NA December 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 3-4 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO reelected president; percent of vote - Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO 52.29%, Afonso DHLAKAMA 47.71%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly of the Republic or Assembleia da Republica (250 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on a secret ballot to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 3-5 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Frelimo 48.54%, Renamo-UE 38.81%; seats by party - Frelimo 133, Renamo-UE 117
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Renamo-UE ran as a multiparty coalition; none of the other opposition parties received the 5% required to win parliamentary seats
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the president and judges elected by the Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frente de Liberatacao de Mocambique) or Frelimo [Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO, chairman]; Mozambique National Resistance - Electoral Union (Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana - Uniao Eleitoral) or Renamo-UE [Afonso DHLAKAMA, president]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Marcos Geraldo NAMASHULUA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 570, 1990 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 293-7146
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 835-0245
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bryan Dean CURRAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida Kenneth Kuanda 193, Maputo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 783, Maputo
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [258] (1) 492797
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [258] (1) 490114
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book
------
Mozambique/People|990661645
62,136d61
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Govt">Government</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Country name:</b>
< <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
< Republic of Mozambique
< <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
< Mozambique
< <br><i>local long form:</i>
< Republica de Mocambique
< <br><i>local short form:</i>
< Mocambique
< <p><b>Data code:</b>
< MZ
< <p><b>Government type:</b>
< republic
< <p><b>Capital:</b>
< Maputo
< <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
< 10 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Cabo Delgado, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Maputo, Nampula, Niassa, Sofala, Tete, Zambezia
< <p><b>Independence:</b>
< 25 June 1975 (from Portugal)
< <p><b>National holiday:</b>
< Independence Day, 25 June (1975)
< <p><b>Constitution:</b>
< 30 November 1990
< <p><b>Legal system:</b>
< based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law
< <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
< 18 years of age; universal
< <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
< <br><i>chief of state:</i>
< President Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO (since 6 November 1986); note - before being popularly elected, CHISSANO was elected president by Frelimo's Central Committee 4 November 1986 (reelected by the Committee 30 July 1989)
< <br><i>head of government:</i>
< Prime Minister Pascoal MOCUMBI (since NA December 1994)
< <br><i>cabinet:</i>
< Cabinet
< <br><i>elections:</i>
< president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 3-4 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
< <br><i>election results:</i>
< Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO reelected president; percent of vote - Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO 52.29%, Afonso DHLAKAMA 47.71%
< <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
< unicameral Assembly of the Republic or Assembleia da Republica (250 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on a secret ballot to serve five-year terms)
< <br><i>elections:</i>
< last held 3-5 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
< <br><i>election results:</i>
< percent of vote by party - Frelimo 48.54%, Renamo-UE 38.81%; seats by party - Frelimo 133, Renamo-UE 117
< <br><i>note:</i>
< Renamo-UE ran as a multiparty coalition; none of the other opposition parties received the 5% required to win parliamentary seats
< <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
< Supreme Court, judges appointed by the president and judges elected by the Assembly
< <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
< Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frente de Liberatacao de Mocambique) or Frelimo [Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO, chairman]; Mozambique National Resistance - Electoral Union (Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana - Uniao Eleitoral) or Renamo-UE [Afonso DHLAKAMA, president]
< <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
< ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
< <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
< <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
< Ambassador Marcos Geraldo NAMASHULUA
< <br><i>chancery:</i>
< Suite 570, 1990 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
< <br><i>telephone:</i>
< [1] (202) 293-7146
< <br><i>FAX:</i>
< [1] (202) 835-0245
< <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
< <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
< Ambassador Bryan Dean CURRAN
< <br><i>embassy:</i>
< Avenida Kenneth Kuanda 193, Maputo
< <br><i>mailing address:</i>
< P. O. Box 783, Maputo
< <br><i>telephone:</i>
< [258] (1) 492797
< <br><i>FAX:</i>
< [258] (1) 490114
< <p><b>Flag description:</b>
< three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book
------
Mozambique/Government|990661667
1c1,74
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Mozambique
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Mozambique
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Mocambique
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Mocambique
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Maputo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 10 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Cabo Delgado, Gaza, Inhambane, Manica, Maputo, Nampula, Niassa, Sofala, Tete, Zambezia
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 25 June 1975 (from Portugal)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 25 June (1975)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 30 November 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO (since 6 November 1986); note - before being popularly elected, CHISSANO was elected president by Frelimo's Central Committee 4 November 1986 (reelected by the Committee 30 July 1989)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Pascoal MOCUMBI (since NA December 1994)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 3-4 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister appointed by the president
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO reelected president; percent of vote - Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO 52.29%, Afonso DHLAKAMA 47.71%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Assembly of the Republic or Assembleia da Republica (250 seats; members are directly elected by popular vote on a secret ballot to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 3-5 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Frelimo 48.54%, Renamo-UE 38.81%; seats by party - Frelimo 133, Renamo-UE 117
> <br><i>note:</i>
> Renamo-UE ran as a multiparty coalition; none of the other opposition parties received the 5% required to win parliamentary seats
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the president and judges elected by the Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frente de Liberatacao de Mocambique) or Frelimo [Joaquim Alberto CHISSANO, chairman]; Mozambique National Resistance - Electoral Union (Resistencia Nacional Mocambicana - Uniao Eleitoral) or Renamo-UE [Afonso DHLAKAMA, president]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Marcos Geraldo NAMASHULUA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> Suite 570, 1990 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 293-7146
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 835-0245
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Bryan Dean CURRAN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Avenida Kenneth Kuanda 193, Maputo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 783, Maputo
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [258] (1) 492797
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [258] (1) 490114
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of green (top), black, and yellow with a red isosceles triangle based on the hoist side; the black band is edged in white; centered in the triangle is a yellow five-pointed star bearing a crossed rifle and hoe in black superimposed on an open white book
------
Mozambique/Economy|990661681
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Before the peace accord of October 1992, Mozambique's economy was devastated by a protracted civil war and socialist mismanagement. In 1994, it ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. Since then, Mozambique has undertaken a series of economic reforms. Almost all aspects of the economy have been liberalized to some extent. More than 900 state enterprises have been privatized. Pending are tax and much needed commercial code reform, as well as greater private sector involvement in the transportation, telecommunications, and energy sectors. Since 1996, inflation has been low and foreign exchange rates stable. Albeit from a small base, Mozambique's economy grew at an annual 10% rate in 1997-99, one of the highest growth rates in the world. Still, the country depends on foreign assistance to balance the budget and to pay for a trade imbalance in which imports outnumber exports by five to one or more. The medium-term outlook for the country looks bright, as trade and transportation links to South Africa and the rest of the region are expected to improve and sizable foreign investments materialize. Among these investments are metal production (aluminum, steel), natural gas, power generation, agriculture (cotton, sugar), fishing, timber, and transportation services. Additional exports in these areas should bring in needed foreign exchange. In addition, Mozambique is on track to receive a formal cancellation of a large portion of its external debt through a World Bank initiative.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $18.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 10% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 48% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 81%, industry 6%, services 13% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $402 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $799 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food, beverages, chemicals (fertilizer, soap, paints), petroleum products, textiles, cement, glass, asbestos, tobacco
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 39% (1997)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.2 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 75%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.018 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 483 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 385 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, cassava (tapioca), corn, rice, tropical fruits; beef, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $300 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> prawns 40%, cashews, cotton, sugar, copra, citrus, coconuts, timber (1997)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Spain 17%, South Africa 16%, Portugal 12%, US 10%, Japan, Malawi, India, Zimbabwe (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.6 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, clothing, farm equipment, petroleum, transport equipment (1997)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South Africa 55%, Zimbabwe 7%, Saudi Arabia 5%, Portugal 4%, US, Japan, India (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.8 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $1.115 billion (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 metical (Mt) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> meticais (Mt) per US$1 - 13,392.0 (January 2000), 12,775.1 (1999), 11,874.6 (1998), 11.543.6 (1997), 11,293.8 (1996), 9,024.3 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Mozambique/Communications|990661692
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 60,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> fair system of tropospheric scatter, open-wire lines, and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> microwave radio relay and tropospheric scatter
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (2 Atlantic Ocean and 3 Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 14, FM 4, shortwave 17 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 730,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 90,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 2 (1999)
------
Mozambique/Transportation|990661708
1c1,51
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,131 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 2,988 km 1.067-m gauge; 143 km 0.762-m gauge (1994)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30,400 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,685 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 24,715 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> about 3,750 km of navigable routes
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 306 km; petroleum products 289 km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> not operating
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Beira, Inhambane, Maputo, Nacala, Pemba, Quelimane
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,125 GRT/7,024 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 170 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 4 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 148
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 16
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 39
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 92 (1999 est.)
------
Mozambique/Military|990661724
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Naval Command, Air and Air Defense Forces, Militia
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,536,132 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,617,720 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $72 million (FY97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 4.7% (FY97)
------
Mozambique/Transnational_issues|990661735
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> Southern African transit hub for South American cocaine probably destined for the European and US markets; producer of hashish and methaqualone
------
Mongolia|990662335
0a1,2
> A landlocked [[country]] in [Asia]], surrounded by [[Russia]] and [[China]]. The [[capital]] of '''Mongolia''' is [[Ulan Bator]].
> 
------
Mongolia|990662345
1c1
< A landlocked [[country]] in [Asia]], surrounded by [[Russia]] and [[China]]. The [[capital]] of '''Mongolia''' is [[Ulan Bator]].
---
> A landlocked [[country]] in [[Asia]], surrounded by [[Russia]] and [[China]]. The [[capital]] of '''Mongolia''' is [[Ulan Bator]].
------
Mongolia|990662409
1c1
< A landlocked [[country]] in [[Asia]], surrounded by [[Russia]] and [[China]]. The [[capital]] of '''Mongolia''' is [[Ulan Bator]].
---
> A landlocked [[country]] in [[Asia]], surrounded by [[Russia]] and the [[Peoples Republic of China]]. The [[capital]] of '''Mongolia''' is [[Ulan Bator]].
------
China|990662477
2a3
> For the Republic of China see [[Taiwan]]
------
Antigua_And_Barbuda|990665525
1,309c1
< from the CIA World Factbook, 2000 edition:
< ----
< 
< Antigua and Barbuda
< ----
< Introduction 
< 
< Background: The islands of Antigua and Barbuda became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of Nations in 1981. Some 3,000 refugees fleeing a volcanic eruption on nearby Montserrat have settled in Antigua and Barbuda since 1995. 
< 
< ----
< Geography 
< 
< Location: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico 
< 
< Geographic coordinates: 17 03 N, 61 48 W 
< 
< Map references: Central America and the Caribbean 
< 
< Area: 
< total: 442 sq km (Antigua 281 sq km; Barbuda 161 sq km) 
< land: 442 sq km 
< water: 0 sq km 
< note: includes Redonda 
< 
< Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
< 
< Land boundaries: 0 km 
< 
< Coastline: 153 km 
< 
< Maritime claims: 
< contiguous zone: 24 nm 
< continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
< exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
< territorial sea: 12 nm 
< 
< Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation 
< 
< Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands, with some higher volcanic areas 
< 
< Elevation extremes: 
< lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m 
< highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m 
< 
< Natural resources: NEGL; pleasant climate fosters tourism 
< 
< Land use: 
< arable land: 18% 
< permanent crops: 0% 
< permanent pastures: 9% 
< forests and woodland: 11% 
< other: 62% (1993 est.) 
< 
< Irrigated land: NA sq km 
< 
< Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts 
< 
< Environment - current issues: water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly 
< 
< Environment - international agreements: 
< party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling 
< signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
< 
< ----
< People 
< 
< Population: 66,422 (July 2000 est.) 
< 
< Age structure: 
< 0-14 years: 28% (male 9,414; female 9,098) 
< 15-64 years: 67% (male 22,199; female 22,341) 
< 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,424; female 1,946) (2000 est.) 
< 
< Population growth rate: 0.73% (2000 est.) 
< 
< Birth rate: 19.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Death rate: 5.99 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Net migration rate: -6.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
< 
< Sex ratio: 
< at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
< under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
< 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
< 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female 
< total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
< 
< Infant mortality rate: 23.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
< 
< Life expectancy at birth: 
< total population: 70.46 years 
< male: 68.19 years 
< female: 72.84 years (2000 est.) 
< 
< Total fertility rate: 1.92 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
< 
< Nationality: 
< noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) 
< adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan 
< 
< Ethnic groups: black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian 
< 
< Religions: Anglican (predominant), other Protestant, some Roman Catholic 
< 
< Languages: English (official), local dialects 
< 
< Literacy: 
< definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling 
< total population: 89% 
< male: 90% 
< female: 88% (1960 est.) 
< 
< ----
< Government 
< 
< Country name: 
< conventional long form: none 
< conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda 
< 
< Data code: AC 
< 
< Government type: constitutional monarchy with Westminster-style parliament 
< 
< Capital: Saint John's 
< 
< Administrative divisions: 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip 
< 
< Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK) 
< 
< National holiday: Independence Day, 1 November (1981) 
< 
< Constitution: 1 November 1981 
< 
< Legal system: based on English common law 
< 
< Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
< 
< Executive branch: 
< chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993) 
< head of government: Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994) 
< cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister 
< elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general chosen by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister; prime minister appointed by the governor general 
< 
< Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms) 
< elections: House of Representatives - last held 9 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2004) 
< election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ALP 12, UPP 4, independent 1 
< 
< Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia) (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction) 
< 
< Political parties and leaders: Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or ACLM [leader NA]; Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester Bryant BIRD]; Barbuda People's Movement or BPM [leader NA]; Progressive Labor Movement or PLM [leader NA]; United National Democratic Party or UNDP [leader NA]; United Progressive Party or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER], a coalition of three opposition political parties - UNDP, ACLM, and PLM 
< 
< Political pressure groups and leaders: Antigua Trades and Labor Union or ATLU [William ROBINSON]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Hugh MARSHALL] 
< 
< International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO 
< 
< Diplomatic representation in the US: 
< chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST 
< chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 
< telephone: [1] (202) 362-5211 
< FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225 
< consulate(s) general: Miami 
< 
< Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda (embassy closed 30 June 1994); the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda 
< 
< Flag description: red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band 
< 
< ----
< Economy 
< 
< Economy - overview: Tourism continues to be the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly for more than half of GDP. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the US and UK as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. 
< 
< GDP: purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - real growth rate: 2.8% (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.) 
< 
< GDP - composition by sector: 
< agriculture: 4% 
< industry: 12.5% 
< services: 83.5% (1996 est.) 
< 
< Population below poverty line: NA% 
< 
< Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
< lowest 10%: NA% 
< highest 10%: NA% 
< 
< Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.6% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Labor force: 30,000 
< 
< Labor force - by occupation: commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983) 
< 
< Unemployment rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
< 
< Budget: 
< revenues: $122.6 million 
< expenditures: $141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.) 
< 
< Industries: tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances) 
< 
< Industrial production growth rate: 6% (1997 est.) 
< 
< Electricity - production: 90 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - production by source: 
< fossil fuel: 100% 
< hydro: 0% 
< nuclear: 0% 
< other: 0% (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - consumption: 84 million kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
< 
< Agriculture - products: cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock 
< 
< Exports: $38 million (1998) 
< 
< Exports - commodities: petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% 
< 
< Exports - partners: OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3% 
< 
< Imports: $330 million (1998) 
< 
< Imports - commodities: food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil 
< 
< Imports - partners: US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3% 
< 
< Debt - external: $357 million (1998) 
< 
< Economic aid - recipient: $2.3 million (1995) 
< 
< Currency: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents 
< 
< Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976) 
< 
< Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March 
< 
< ----
< Communications 
< 
< Telephones - main lines in use: 20,000 (1994) 
< 
< Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
< 
< Telephone system: 
< domestic: good automatic telephone system 
< international: 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe 
< 
< Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998) 
< 
< Radios: 36,000 (1997) 
< 
< Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) 
< 
< Televisions: 31,000 (1997) 
< 
< Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
< 
< ----
< Transportation 
< 
< Railways: 
< total: 77 km 
< narrow gauge: 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost exclusively for handling sugarcane) 
< 
< Highways: 
< total: 250 km (1996 est.) 
< paved: NA km 
< unpaved: NA km 
< 
< Ports and harbors: Saint John's 
< 
< Merchant marine: 
< total: 607 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,528,944 GRT/4,590,590 DWT 
< ships by type: bulk 17, cargo 385, chemical tanker 9, combination bulk 2, container 149, liquified gas 3, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 12, roll-on/roll-off 28 (1999 est.) 
< note: a flag of convenience registry: Germany owns 10 ships, Slovenia 2, and Cyprus 2 (1998 est.) 
< 
< Airports: 3 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with paved runways: 
< total: 2 
< 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< Airports - with unpaved runways: 
< total: 1 
< under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
< 
< ----
< Military 
< 
< Military branches: Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes Coast Guard) 
< 
< Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
< 
< Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
< 
< ----
< Transnational Issues 
< 
< Disputes - international: none 
< 
< Illicit drugs: considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center 
---
> #REDIRECT [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
------
Antigua_and_Barbuda|990665537
1c1,309
< Describe the new page here.
---
> from the CIA World Factbook, 2000 edition:
> ----
> 
> Antigua and Barbuda
> ----
> Introduction 
> 
> Background: The islands of Antigua and Barbuda became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of Nations in 1981. Some 3,000 refugees fleeing a volcanic eruption on nearby Montserrat have settled in Antigua and Barbuda since 1995. 
> 
> ----
> Geography 
> 
> Location: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico 
> 
> Geographic coordinates: 17 03 N, 61 48 W 
> 
> Map references: Central America and the Caribbean 
> 
> Area: 
> total: 442 sq km (Antigua 281 sq km; Barbuda 161 sq km) 
> land: 442 sq km 
> water: 0 sq km 
> note: includes Redonda 
> 
> Area - comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC 
> 
> Land boundaries: 0 km 
> 
> Coastline: 153 km 
> 
> Maritime claims: 
> contiguous zone: 24 nm 
> continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin 
> exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
> territorial sea: 12 nm 
> 
> Climate: tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation 
> 
> Terrain: mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands, with some higher volcanic areas 
> 
> Elevation extremes: 
> lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m 
> highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m 
> 
> Natural resources: NEGL; pleasant climate fosters tourism 
> 
> Land use: 
> arable land: 18% 
> permanent crops: 0% 
> permanent pastures: 9% 
> forests and woodland: 11% 
> other: 62% (1993 est.) 
> 
> Irrigated land: NA sq km 
> 
> Natural hazards: hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts 
> 
> Environment - current issues: water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly 
> 
> Environment - international agreements: 
> party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling 
> signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements 
> 
> ----
> People 
> 
> Population: 66,422 (July 2000 est.) 
> 
> Age structure: 
> 0-14 years: 28% (male 9,414; female 9,098) 
> 15-64 years: 67% (male 22,199; female 22,341) 
> 65 years and over: 5% (male 1,424; female 1,946) (2000 est.) 
> 
> Population growth rate: 0.73% (2000 est.) 
> 
> Birth rate: 19.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Death rate: 5.99 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Net migration rate: -6.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 
> 
> Sex ratio: 
> at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
> under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 
> 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 
> 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female 
> total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) 
> 
> Infant mortality rate: 23.05 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) 
> 
> Life expectancy at birth: 
> total population: 70.46 years 
> male: 68.19 years 
> female: 72.84 years (2000 est.) 
> 
> Total fertility rate: 1.92 children born/woman (2000 est.) 
> 
> Nationality: 
> noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) 
> adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan 
> 
> Ethnic groups: black, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian 
> 
> Religions: Anglican (predominant), other Protestant, some Roman Catholic 
> 
> Languages: English (official), local dialects 
> 
> Literacy: 
> definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling 
> total population: 89% 
> male: 90% 
> female: 88% (1960 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Government 
> 
> Country name: 
> conventional long form: none 
> conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda 
> 
> Data code: AC 
> 
> Government type: constitutional monarchy with Westminster-style parliament 
> 
> Capital: Saint John's 
> 
> Administrative divisions: 6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip 
> 
> Independence: 1 November 1981 (from UK) 
> 
> National holiday: Independence Day, 1 November (1981) 
> 
> Constitution: 1 November 1981 
> 
> Legal system: based on English common law 
> 
> Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal 
> 
> Executive branch: 
> chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993) 
> head of government: Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994) 
> cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister 
> elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general chosen by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister; prime minister appointed by the governor general 
> 
> Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17-member body appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms) 
> elections: House of Representatives - last held 9 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2004) 
> election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ALP 12, UPP 4, independent 1 
> 
> Judicial branch: Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia) (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction) 
> 
> Political parties and leaders: Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or ACLM [leader NA]; Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester Bryant BIRD]; Barbuda People's Movement or BPM [leader NA]; Progressive Labor Movement or PLM [leader NA]; United National Democratic Party or UNDP [leader NA]; United Progressive Party or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER], a coalition of three opposition political parties - UNDP, ACLM, and PLM 
> 
> Political pressure groups and leaders: Antigua Trades and Labor Union or ATLU [William ROBINSON]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Hugh MARSHALL] 
> 
> International organization participation: ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTrO 
> 
> Diplomatic representation in the US: 
> chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST 
> chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 
> telephone: [1] (202) 362-5211 
> FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225 
> consulate(s) general: Miami 
> 
> Diplomatic representation from the US: the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda (embassy closed 30 June 1994); the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda 
> 
> Flag description: red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band 
> 
> ----
> Economy 
> 
> Economy - overview: Tourism continues to be the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly for more than half of GDP. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the US and UK as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. 
> 
> GDP: purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - real growth rate: 2.8% (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.) 
> 
> GDP - composition by sector: 
> agriculture: 4% 
> industry: 12.5% 
> services: 83.5% (1996 est.) 
> 
> Population below poverty line: NA% 
> 
> Household income or consumption by percentage share: 
> lowest 10%: NA% 
> highest 10%: NA% 
> 
> Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.6% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Labor force: 30,000 
> 
> Labor force - by occupation: commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983) 
> 
> Unemployment rate: 7% (1999 est.) 
> 
> Budget: 
> revenues: $122.6 million 
> expenditures: $141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.) 
> 
> Industries: tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances) 
> 
> Industrial production growth rate: 6% (1997 est.) 
> 
> Electricity - production: 90 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - production by source: 
> fossil fuel: 100% 
> hydro: 0% 
> nuclear: 0% 
> other: 0% (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - consumption: 84 million kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) 
> 
> Agriculture - products: cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock 
> 
> Exports: $38 million (1998) 
> 
> Exports - commodities: petroleum products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live animals 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17% 
> 
> Exports - partners: OECS 26%, Barbados 15%, Guyana 4%, Trinidad and Tobago 2%, US 0.3% 
> 
> Imports: $330 million (1998) 
> 
> Imports - commodities: food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil 
> 
> Imports - partners: US 27%, UK 16%, Canada 4%, OECS 3% 
> 
> Debt - external: $357 million (1998) 
> 
> Economic aid - recipient: $2.3 million (1995) 
> 
> Currency: 1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents 
> 
> Exchange rates: East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976) 
> 
> Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March 
> 
> ----
> Communications 
> 
> Telephones - main lines in use: 20,000 (1994) 
> 
> Telephones - mobile cellular: NA 
> 
> Telephone system: 
> domestic: good automatic telephone system 
> international: 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean); tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe 
> 
> Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998) 
> 
> Radios: 36,000 (1997) 
> 
> Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) 
> 
> Televisions: 31,000 (1997) 
> 
> Internet Service Providers (ISPs): NA 
> 
> ----
> Transportation 
> 
> Railways: 
> total: 77 km 
> narrow gauge: 64 km 0.760-m gauge; 13 km 0.610-m gauge (used almost exclusively for handling sugarcane) 
> 
> Highways: 
> total: 250 km (1996 est.) 
> paved: NA km 
> unpaved: NA km 
> 
> Ports and harbors: Saint John's 
> 
> Merchant marine: 
> total: 607 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,528,944 GRT/4,590,590 DWT 
> ships by type: bulk 17, cargo 385, chemical tanker 9, combination bulk 2, container 149, liquified gas 3, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 12, roll-on/roll-off 28 (1999 est.) 
> note: a flag of convenience registry: Germany owns 10 ships, Slovenia 2, and Cyprus 2 (1998 est.) 
> 
> Airports: 3 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with paved runways: 
> total: 2 
> 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> Airports - with unpaved runways: 
> total: 1 
> under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) 
> 
> ----
> Military 
> 
> Military branches: Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force, Royal Antigua and Barbuda Police Force (includes Coast Guard) 
> 
> Military expenditures - dollar figure: $NA 
> 
> Military expenditures - percent of GDP: NA% 
> 
> ----
> Transnational Issues 
> 
> Disputes - international: none 
> 
> Illicit drugs: considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center 
------
Countries_of_the_world|990665559
4c4
< <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua And Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
---
> <font size=+2>A</font><br> [[Afghanistan]] - [[Albania]] - [[Algeria]] - [[Andorra]] - [[Angola]] - [[Antigua and Barbuda]] - [[Argentina]] - [[Armenia]] - [[Australia]] - [[Austria]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
------
Hymenostomatia|990669265
1c1
< Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of [[protozoa]]ns ([[protista]]). It is the subclass of the class [[Oligohymenophorea]]. It has three orders: [[Hymenostomatida]], [[Scuticocilatida]] and [[Astomatida]].
---
> Hymenostomatia is the name of a subclass of [[protozoa]]ns ([[protista]]). It is the subclass of the class [[Oligohymenophorea]], of the phylum [[Ciliophora]]. It has three orders: [[Hymenostomatida]], [[Scuticocilatida]] and [[Astomatida]].
------
Magnoliophyta|990670057
2a3,4
> The most prevalent classification of flowers still seems to be Cronquist, but new findings have invalidated many of the groupings.  Here Judd ''et al'' are followed as one of the more prevalent of the revised schemes.  Hopefully notes on the differences between the various versions will be added where possible.
> 
36,37d37
< ''Still in progress, but this is roughly what the final version will look like.  In a few days I'm going to put in some family synopses, plus notes on where groups have gone relative to the more traditional classification schemes this has replaced, and maybe some revisions to the above orders too.''
< 
41a42
> * [[Polygonales]] (buckwheat and kin)
68c69
< ** [[Asterales]] (daisies and kin)
---
> ** [[Asterales]] (daisies and kin)
------
Polygonales|990670148
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> * Family [[Polygonaceae]] (buckwheat family)
> ** [[Buckwheat]]
> ** [[Sorrel]]
------
Koyaansqatsi2350|990672353
1c1
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[KoyaanisQatsi]]
------
RulesToConsider/Define_and_Describe|990672702
5c5
< The description differs from the definition in that is shows the properties of the concept, rather than how the concept relates to others of the same class.  Description without definition is mere anecdote.
---
> The description differs from the definition in that it shows the properties of the concept, rather than how the concept relates to others of the same class.  Description without definition is mere anecdote.
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|990673278
12c12
< *1993 [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]] - Steven Spielberg, Gerald R. Molen, Branko Lustig 
---
> *1993 [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]] - [[Steven Spielberg]], Gerald R. Molen, Branko Lustig 
------
Stephen_Spielberg|990673310
1,10c1
< Stephen Spielberg is an [[American]] [[film directors|film director]].
< 
< Famous Movies:
< 
< :[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]
< :[[ET]]
< :[[Jurassic Park]]
< :[[1941]]
< :[[Saving Private Ryan]]
< :[[Schindlers List]]
---
> #REDIRECT [[Steven Spielberg]]
------
Memes|990673346
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A meme (pronounced "meem"; rhymes with dream) is an idea that infects human imagination and mind,  replicates and alters human behavior, just like a virus infecting a human brain. The word meme is a combination of gene and memory and it is supposed to be mentioned in [[Selfish Gene]] of [[Richard Dawkins]] for the first time. The meme concept depends on the fact that the ideas behave in a very similar way to life forms. With one difference, they do not use genes but memes. Memes can replicate and can be transmitted to other individuals just like the genes of a virus and this is how ideas spread quickly in human societies. Some samples for memes are slogans, advertisements, melodies and icons. For instance, the reader of this article is infected with the concept of memes. The meme of the idea of meme itself is called a meta-meme.
> 
> The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas they are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
> 
> The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic the ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu-virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make more clear-cut definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
------
Steven_Spielberg|990673398
1c1
< American director whose films range from fantasy to historical drama to horror.  Noted for the patriotism evident in his work and also, in recent years, for his willingness to tackle so called "important" issues.  Consistent theme in his work is the abuse of others, whether it's a father abusing his children (physically or verbally), or capitalism or a government agency abusing an entire class of people. He won two [[Academy Awards]] as Best Director for [[Schindlers List]] and [[Saving Private Ryan]] His most famous films include
---
> American director whose films range from fantasy to historical drama to horror.  Noted for the patriotism evident in his work and also, in recent years, for his willingness to tackle so called "important" issues.  Consistent theme in his work is the abuse of others, whether it's a father abusing his children (physically or verbally), or capitalism or a government agency abusing an entire class of people. As of 2001 he has won two [[Academy Awards]] as [[Academy Awards/Best Director]], one for [[Schindlers List]] and another for [[Saving Private Ryan]]. His most famous films include:
10c10
< * [[The Color Purple]]
---
> * [[The Color Purple]]
------
Steven_Spielberg|990673434
2c2
< * [[Schindlers List]]
---
> * [[Schindlers List|Schindler's List]]
------
Memes|990680026
1,5c1
< A meme (pronounced "meem"; rhymes with dream) is an idea that infects human imagination and mind,  replicates and alters human behavior, just like a virus infecting a human brain. The word meme is a combination of gene and memory and it is supposed to be mentioned in [[Selfish Gene]] of [[Richard Dawkins]] for the first time. The meme concept depends on the fact that the ideas behave in a very similar way to life forms. With one difference, they do not use genes but memes. Memes can replicate and can be transmitted to other individuals just like the genes of a virus and this is how ideas spread quickly in human societies. Some samples for memes are slogans, advertisements, melodies and icons. For instance, the reader of this article is infected with the concept of memes. The meme of the idea of meme itself is called a meta-meme.
< 
< The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas they are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
< 
< The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic the ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu-virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make more clear-cut definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
---
> #REDIRECT [[Meme]]
------
Meme|990680037
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A meme (pronounced "meem"; rhymes with dream) is an idea that infects human imagination and mind,  replicates and alters human behavior, just like a virus infecting a human brain. The word meme is a combination of gene and memory and it is supposed to be mentioned in [[Selfish Gene]] of [[Richard Dawkins]] for the first time. The meme concept depends on the fact that the ideas behave in a very similar way to life forms. With one difference, they do not use genes but memes. Memes can replicate and can be transmitted to other individuals just like the genes of a virus and this is how ideas spread quickly in human societies. Some samples for memes are slogans, advertisements, melodies and icons. For instance, the reader of this article is infected with the concept of memes. The meme of the idea of meme itself is called a meta-meme.
> 
> The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas they are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
> 
> The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic the ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu-virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make more clear-cut definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
------
History_of_Europe|990684879
5,7c5
< The first well-known civilization in Europe was that of the [[Minoans]] and [[Achaeans]] in [[Greece]].  Around the same time, the [[Celts]] spread over most of the interior as far as [[Spain]] and later [[Turkey]].  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The [[Romans]] encountered them and recorded a great deal about them; these records and the results of archaeological digs form our primary understanding of this extremely
< influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the [[Roman Empire]], that had
< colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
---
> The first well-known civilization in Europe was that of the [[Minoans]] and [[Achaeans]] in [[Greece]].  Around the same time, the [[Celts]] spread over most of the interior as far as [[Spain]] and later [[Turkey]].  As they did not practice a written language, knowledge of them is piecemeal.  The [[Romans]] encountered them and recorded a great deal about them; these records and the results of archaeological digs form our primary understanding of this extremely influential culture.  The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the [[Roman Empire]], that had colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.
13c11
< [[Europe]] emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Meditteranean by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agragarian communities.
---
> [[Europe]] emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] (c. 400-500 AD), separated from the rest of the Mediterranean by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] cultures.  Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, and people returned to local agrarian communities.
15,17c13
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world. These states seemed to love attacking each other and almost constant wars of politics and religion followed.
< 
< One of the largest catastrophies that have hit [[Europe]] is [[the black death]]. There have been several outbreaks, but the most severe in the mid-1300s is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population.
---
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world. These states were constantly in a state of political flux and wars of politics and religion followed.
18a15
> One of the largest catastrophes to have hit [[Europe]] was [[the black death]]. There were numerous incidences, but the most severe in the mid-1300s is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population.
23a21,23
> [[Art]], [[Philosophy]], [[Science]] and [[Technology]] developed rapidly during the [[Renaissance]]. The dominant [[Christian]] [[Roman Catholic Church]] underwent a schism during the [[Reformation]], which was to have major political, social and cultural implications for Europe. The split between [[catholicism]] and [[protestantism]] was particularly pronounced in [[England]] where the reigning King, [[Henry VIII]], severed ties with Rome and proclaimed himself head of the church. 
> 
> Colonial expansion by the major European powers between the 16th and 19th century saw the division of large tracts of the world amongst them. [[Spain]] took control of a great deal of [[South America]], Britain large parts of [[Africa]], [[North America]], [[Australia]], and [[India]], France taking parts of North America and Africa, the [[Netherlands]] gaining [[Indonesia]] and islands in the [[Caribbean]].
25c25
< [[Art]], [[Philosophy]], [[Science]] and [[Technology]] developed rapidly during the [[Renaissance]]. The church broke up during the [[Reformation]]and semi-secular governments started developing.  In the [[French Revolution]], people made a significant attempt to create a new government based on freedom and equality, instead launching the [[Napoleonic Era]].  [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] also destroyed the [[Holy Roman Empire]], leaving [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] to develop into nation-states by 1880.
---
> During the [[French Revolution]], a significant attempt was made to create a new form of government based on freedom and equality, but this collapsed, and led instead to the [[Napoleonic Era]].  [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] also destroyed the [[Holy Roman Empire]], leaving [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] to develop into nation-states by 1880. 
27c27
< The twentieth century saw the massively destructive [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]].  Thereafter it was a zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the two new world-powers, the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]], which has only just ended.
---
> The twentieth century saw the massively destructive [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], which ended the pre-eminent position of [[Europe]]. In the wake of [[World War II]] the map of Europe was redrawn and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the two newly emergent world-powers, the [[United States]] and [[Soviet Union]].
------
History_of_Europe|990691043
7c7
< At the end of the [[Bronze Age]] the older [[Greek]] kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The [[Hellenic Civilization]] took the form of a collection of [[City-State|City-States]], many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprecendent developments in various governmental forms, [[Philosophy]], [[Science]], [[Politics]], [[Sports]], [[Theater]] and [[Music]].
---
> At the end of the [[Bronze Age]] the older [[Greek]] kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The [[Hellenic Civilization]] took the form of a collection of [[City-State|City-States]], many having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more or less unprecendented developments in various governmental forms, [[Philosophy]], [[Science]], [[Politics]], [[Sports]], [[Theater]] and [[Music]].
13c13
< The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]], the development of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as a major power, and the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world. These states were constantly in a state of political flux and wars of politics and religion followed.
---
> The first substantial new development was the appearance of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] around 800 AD.  The subsequent period saw the growth of [[Feudalism]] and the development of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] as a major power; the first signs of new learning began to appear.  By the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[Nation-States]] had appeared and began conquering wide portions of the world. These states were constantly in a state of political flux and wars of politics and religion followed.
23c23
< Colonial expansion by the major European powers between the 16th and 19th century saw the division of large tracts of the world amongst them. [[Spain]] took control of a great deal of [[South America]], Britain large parts of [[Africa]], [[North America]], [[Australia]], and [[India]], France taking parts of North America and Africa, the [[Netherlands]] gaining [[Indonesia]] and islands in the [[Caribbean]].
---
> Colonial expansion by the major European powers between the 16th and 19th century saw the division of large tracts of the world amongst them. [[Spain]] took control of a great deal of [[South America]], Britain large parts of [[Africa]], [[North America]], [[Australia]], and [[India]], [[France]] taking parts of North America and Africa, the [[Netherlands]] gaining [[Indonesia]] and islands in the [[Caribbean]].
------
Meme|990691298
3c3
< The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas they are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
---
> The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas the most basic units are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
5c5
< The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic the ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu-virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make more clear-cut definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
---
> The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies, and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make clearer definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
------
BooleanAlgebra|990691800
10a11,12
> 
> /Talk
------
BooleanAlgebra/Talk|990691860
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Explain to me why the word "lattice" has to be mentioned in an article called "Boolean algebra" at all.  For Chrissakes, Boole isn't even mentioned in the article!  Sheesh! --[[LMS]], who would have to go back to his books to set things right.
------
Vampire|990696843
1,4c1,2
< Mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded 
< as containing the life force) is an old one, going back to the ancient greeks at least (<i>An example is the episode where Odysseus (or who?) summons up the dead, and gets them to speak to him by feeding them blood. (Reference needed here !!)</i>)
< There is a long tradition about vampires, but for the last century this has been greatly added to and confused by numerous 
< works of fiction, such as [[Nosferatu]] and [[Bram Stoker]]'s [[Dracula]] -  In  Dracula for example, the vampire is effectively a human corpse possessed by a demon - hence the efficacy of crucifixes and holy water.
---
> A mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood; usually the vanpire is the corpse of a recently dead person, reanimated by one means or another. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded as containing the life force) is very old, going back to the ancient greeks at least. An example is the episode in book 11 of the [[Odyssey]] where [[Odysseus]] carries out a necromantic ritual; the dead are lured to the fresh blood of sacrificed rams, and Odysseus holds them back with his sword until the shade of [[Tiresius]], whom he had wanted to speak to, appears.
> 
14c12
< Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called [[porphyria]].  The disease disrupts production of [[hemoglobin]]; for some reason, garlic aggravates the symptoms, causing intense illness in people with the disease.  Lacking hemoglobin, victims might crave the hematin (critical precursor to hemoglobin) in human blood.  People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn through heavy cloud cover.  In its very rare, most severe form, the teeth and bones of sufferers actually become fluorescent,  shining pink or possibly red.
---
> Folklore describing deathly paleness, people that avoid sunlight, drink blood, and loathe garlic could come from a rare illness called [[porphyria]].  The disease disrupts production of [[hemoglobin]]; for some reason, garlic aggravates the symptoms, causing intense illness in people with the disease.  Lacking hemoglobin, victims might crave the hematin (critical precursor to hemoglobin) in human blood.  People with extreme cases of the (hereditary) disease are so sensitive to sunlight that they can get a sunburn through heavy cloud cover.  In its very rare, most severe form, the teeth and bones of sufferers actually become fluorescent,  shining pink or possibly red. (Incidentally, Britain's King George III may have had porphyria, which poisoned his nervous system, attacked his brain and caused delirium and mental disturbances.)
18c16,23
< Bram Stoker's classic horror novel ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "[[Dracula]]" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. Tepes may have suffered from porphyria.  He is said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> <h4>Fiction</h4>
> 
> There is a long tradition about vampires, but for the last century the vampire has been defined in popular culture by [[Bram Stoker]]'s [[Dracula]]; Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease, (contagious demonic possession!) with all its undertones of sex, blood and death seem to have struck a chord in a Victorian England where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. 
> 
> 
> Bram Stoker's ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. Tepes may have suffered from porphyria.  He is said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
> 
> Nearly all later vampire fiction draws heavily on Stoker's formulation; the later films such as [[Nosferatu]] and those featuring [[Bela Lugosi]] or [[Christopher Lee]] are examples of this. One exception to this is the series of novels by [[Ann Rice]]  which make the vampire the hero.
20d24
< Incidentally, Britain's King George III may have had porphyria, which poisoned his nervous system, attacked his brain and caused delirium and mental disturbances.
22c26,27
< Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salems Lot|Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- [[Nosferatu]] with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]] -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
---
> Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salems Lot|Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- 
> [[Nosferatu]] (also in a later remake with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]]) -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990699186
38a39,70
> 
> ----
> 
> Although somebody else might have done it, I tried to give these text fragments in
> German:
> 
> * "RecentChanges" "Letzte Änderungen"
> * "Preferences" "Einstellungen" oder "Optionen" the last being mor common in software products
> * "Editing Preferences" "Edit Optionen"
>   In some cases "to edit" is better translated as "zu ändern", but "editieren" is accepted I think
> * "You can edit this page right now! It's a free, community project"
>   Sie können diese Seite jetzt ändern! Dies ist ein freies, gemeinschaftliches Projekt"
> * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!"
>   "Bitte beachten Sie, dass vorausgesetzt wird, dass alle Beiträge zur Wikipedia unter der GNU Free Dokumentation Lizenzvereinbarung beigetragen werden. Falls Sie nicht wünschen, dass das von Ihnen Geschriebene unbarmherzig geändert und willkürlich weitervertwilt wird, dürfen Sie nicht auf Submit drücken. Durch Drücken von Submit erklären Sie verbindlich, dass Sie den Beitrag eigenhändig verfasst haben oder Ihn aus einer urheberrechtsfreien Sammlung kopiert. VERWENDEN SIE NIEMALS COPYRIGHT-GESCHÜTZTES MATERIAL OHNE EINWILLIGUNG DER RECHTEINHABER!" 
> *This change is a minor edit.
>  "Diese Änderungen war eine unwesentliche Änderung"
> *Summary
>  "Zusammenfassung"
> *Visit Preferences to set your user name
>  "Schauen Sie in den Optionen nach, um dort Ihren Benutzernamen einzutragen."
> *View other revisions
>  "Andere Überarbeitungen anschauen"
> *Save
>  "Speichern"
> *Preview
>  "Vorschau"
> *Updates in the last ## days, months, hours
>  "Updates in den letzten ## Tagen, Monaten, Stunden"
> *"Page generated"
>  "Seite wurde erstellt."   [[StefanRybo]]
> ----
> 
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990699403
45,48c45,47
< * "RecentChanges" "Letzte Änderungen"
< * "Preferences" "Einstellungen" oder "Optionen" the last being mor common in software products
< * "Editing Preferences" "Edit Optionen"
<   In some cases "to edit" is better translated as "zu ändern", but "editieren" is accepted I think
---
> * "RecentChanges" : "Letzte Änderungen"
> * "Preferences" : "Einstellungen" oder "Optionen" the last being mor common in software products
> * "Editing Preferences": "Edit Optionen" In some cases "to edit" is better translated as "zu ändern", but "editieren" is accepted I think
52,56c51,59
<   "Bitte beachten Sie, dass vorausgesetzt wird, dass alle Beiträge zur Wikipedia unter der GNU Free Dokumentation Lizenzvereinbarung beigetragen werden. Falls Sie nicht wünschen, dass das von Ihnen Geschriebene unbarmherzig geändert und willkürlich weitervertwilt wird, dürfen Sie nicht auf Submit drücken. Durch Drücken von Submit erklären Sie verbindlich, dass Sie den Beitrag eigenhändig verfasst haben oder Ihn aus einer urheberrechtsfreien Sammlung kopiert. VERWENDEN SIE NIEMALS COPYRIGHT-GESCHÜTZTES MATERIAL OHNE EINWILLIGUNG DER RECHTEINHABER!" 
< *This change is a minor edit.
<  "Diese Änderungen war eine unwesentliche Änderung"
< *Summary
<  "Zusammenfassung"
---
> 
> Bitte beachten Sie, dass vorausgesetzt wird, 
> dass alle Beiträge zur Wikipedia unter der GNU Free Dokumentation Lizenzvereinbarung beigetragen werden. 
> Falls Sie nicht wünschen, dass das von Ihnen Geschriebene unbarmherzig geändert und willkürlich weitervertwilt wird, dürfen Sie nicht auf Submit drücken. 
> Durch Drücken von Submit erklären Sie verbindlich, dass Sie den Beitrag eigenhändig verfasst haben oder Ihn aus einer urheberrechtsfreien Sammlung kopiert. 
> VERWENDEN SIE NIEMALS COPYRIGHT-GESCHÜTZTES MATERIAL OHNE EINWILLIGUNG DER RECHTEINHABER! 
> 
> *This change is a minor edit. : "Diese Änderung war eine kleinere Änderung"
> *Summary :  "Zusammenfassung"
57a61
> 
58a63
> 
61,64c66,67
< *Save
<  "Speichern"
< *Preview
<  "Vorschau"
---
> *Save :  "Speichern"
> *Preview :  "Vorschau"
------
History_of_England|990703755
1c1,9
< Describe the new page here.
---
> It is very difficult to trace the true origins of the country now known as England, since its geopolitical outlines have, until relatively recent times, been subject to a state of ebb and flow, as a consequence of invasion, migration and political flux.
> 
> The defeat of King [[Harold]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] in 1066 at the hands of William of Normandy, later styled [[William I]] and the subsequent Norman takeover of [[Saxon England]] led to a sea-change in the history of the small, isolated, island state. William ordered the compilation of the [[Domesday Book]], which was a survey of the entire population and their lands and property.
> 
> The English middle ages were to be characterised by widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite, civil war, occasional insurrections and international war. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being at [[Crecy]] and [[Agincourt]]. On the home front, a sporadic yet nevertheless major civil war, [[The Wars of the Roses]], broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] and the [[House of York]]. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in the 1485, where the Yorkist [[Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured.
> 
> King [[Henry VIII]] split with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] over a question of his divorce from [[Catherine of Aragon]], and although his religious position was not at all [[protestant]], the resultant schism ultimately and eventually led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. There then followed a period of considerable religious and political upheaval, which led to the royal expropriation of the monasteries and a considerable amount of the wealth of the church, the [[Reformation]]. Henry VIII's daughters, [[Elizabeth I]] and [[Mary I]], professed to entirely different positions of faith, and their reigns (and particularly that of Mary) were periods of religious persecution.
> 
> to be continued...
------
Sjc|990704174
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> A new [[Wikipedian]] who did a bang-up job on [[History of England]].
------
Copper|990710973
3c3,8
< Copper is a [[metal]] of red color.  [[Copper oxide]] is green.
---
> Copper is a reddish-coloured  [[metal]], with a high electrical and thermal conductivity.  Copper is one of the metals discovered and used from the earliest times, as besides being found in various ores, it can actually be found in the metallic form (`<i>Native copper</i>') in some locations.
> 
> There are numerous [[alloy]]s of copper - [[Brass]] is a copper/[[zinc]] alloy, and [[bronze]] is a copper/[[tin]] alloy.
> 
> 
>   [[Copper oxide]] is green.
------
Frisian_language|990711247
1c1
< Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]]. Perhaps there are about 100,000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to
---
> Frisian is a language spoken by a minority of people in the northern part of the [[Netherlands]], mostly in the province of Friesland.  There are perhaps 100,000 speakers. It was once spoken in nearby parts of [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]] as well. It is most similar to
------
Inuktitut/Talk|990711842
0a1
> Since the following link came from an Inuit cultural center, I am inclined to take the Inuit's own word as to how they define words. 
2c3
< 
---
> ----
11c12
< I think, basically, that the above should be refactored by someone and included in [[Inuktitut]].  We should keep talk on /Talk pages and encyclopedic-type content, from the NeutralPointOfView, on the main page. --[[LMS]]
---
> I think, basically, that the above should be refactored by someone and included in [[Inuktitut]].  We should keep talk on /Talk pages and encyclopedic-type content, from the NeutralPointOfView, on the main page. --[[LMS]]
------
Vampire|990712133
1c1
< A mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood; usually the vanpire is the corpse of a recently dead person, reanimated by one means or another. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded as containing the life force) is very old, going back to the ancient greeks at least. An example is the episode in book 11 of the [[Odyssey]] where [[Odysseus]] carries out a necromantic ritual; the dead are lured to the fresh blood of sacrificed rams, and Odysseus holds them back with his sword until the shade of [[Tiresius]], whom he had wanted to speak to, appears.
---
> A mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood; usually the vanpire is the corpse of a recently dead person, reanimated by one means or another. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded as containing the life force) is very old, going back to the ancient Greeks at least. An example is the episode in book 11 of the [[Odyssey]] where [[Odysseus]] carries out a necromantic ritual; the dead are lured to the fresh blood of sacrificed rams, and Odysseus holds them back with his sword until the shade of [[Tiresius]], whom he had wanted to speak to, appears.
------
Tin|990712317
3c3,8
< Easy to form into different shapes, tin has been used for plates and beverage containers.
---
> 
> Tin has been known, and used as a component of [[bronze]] from antiquity, with a thriving trade in Classical times between the mines in [[Cornwall]] and the civilisations of the [[Mediterranean]].
> 
> Tin bonds readily to iron, and has been used for coating iron and steel plate to prevent [[corrosion]]. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for [[food preservation]], and this forms a large part of the market for metallic tin. 
> 
> There was an organisation known as the International Tin Council, which acted on behalf of the principal tin producers in Cornwall and [[Malaysia]] to buy up surplus tin stocks to  maintain the price at a steady level. However, with the advent of [[aluminium]] containers, the use of protective [[polymer]] lacquers inside cans, and increased recycling by industry, the demand for tin had decreased considerably by the early 1980s, and the ITC could no longer maintain the price. It eventually ran out of money buying up tin on the metals markets. attempts to refinance the ITC were eventiuually abandoned, and since then, as with many other raw materials, the price has generally declined as alternatives become more attractive.
------
Cornwall|990712703
2a3,4
> Cornwall was the principal source of [[tin]] to the civilisations of the ancient [[Mediterranean]]. 
> 
------
Channel_tunnel|990713037
1c1
< Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) underneath the seabed.  Also called ''[[The Chunnel]].''
---
> Two [[railway]] tunnels and a service tunnel, interconnected, underneath the [[English Channel]] connecting [[England]] and [[France]]. It is 31 miles (ca. 47 km) long out of which 23 miles (ca. 35 km) are underwater. The average depth is 150 ft (ca. 45 metres) underneath the seabed.  It opened for travel in 1994 and its rail service carries vehicles as well as passengers. Also called ''[[The Chunnel]].''
------
English_Channel|990713287
7c7
< In ???? the [[channel tunnel|channel tunnel]] was built making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
---
> In 1994 the [[channel tunnel|channel tunnel]] was finished making it possible to go from France to [[England]] by train.
------
Snare|990713437
1c1,16
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The snare drum is essentially a simple frame drum. The body is a wood
> or metal hoop with skins stretched over the top and the bottom, and
> tightened by lugs.
> 
> The particular sounds of the snare comes from the snare wires, which
> are a series of wound wires tensioned across the bottom skin. They
> produce a distinctive buzz sound.
> 
> The snare is often used in styles like [[rock]] and [[folk]] to
> provide a loud accented beat. Alternatively in [[samba]] music,
> [[ghost notes]] are played continuously, with [[accented beats]]
> outlining the rhythm. In this style snare provides drive to the music.
> 
> For reasons that are not entirely clear kit drummers tend to be
> religiously protective of their snare. Whilst they are often quite
> happy to share kits, a "bring your own snare" rule is often applied.
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990714172
3c3,7
< Generally regarded as a satire on the [[Soviet Union]]. 
---
> The book was an allegory about the events following the revolution in the [[Soviet Union]], and in particular the rise of [[Stalinism]]. Many of the characters in the book are identifiable as historical figures. For instance Daisy, the cart horse relates to [[Stakanov]] arfter whom the [[Stakanovite]] movement was named. 
> 
> Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the Spanish civil war which are described in another of his books [[Homage to Catalonia]]. He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he was as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialist]] ideals that he believed in. 
> 
> 
------
George_Orwell/Animal_Farm|990715127
5c5
< Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the Spanish civil war which are described in another of his books [[Homage to Catalonia]]. He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he was as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialist]] ideals that he believed in. 
---
> Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the Spanish civil war which are described in another of his books [[Homage to Catalonia]]. He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialist]] ideals that he believed in. 
------
Food_preservation|990715995
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The art of processing food to stop or at least greatly slow down the normal processs of microbial decay.
> 
> Bacterial growth usually requires moisture; so the simplest process is [[drying|drying]], whether in air or by heat. The drying may be aided by [[/smoking|smoking]] the food, which besides removing moisture, adds chemicals that add flavour and/or inhibit microbial growth.
> 
> Alternatively, while not removing much moisture, adding large amounts of [[/salting|salts]] or [[/preserves|sugars]] will raise the osmotic pressure of the water in the food to the point that decay is slowed. A similar process is [[/pickling|pickling]], where the food is made too acidic for spoilage organisms: sometimes as a result of fermentation of some other organism. e.g. [[Sauerkraut]]
> 
> Alternatively the food can be [[/freezing|frozen]] to stop spoilage; or the food is sterilised by cooking and sealed in airtight containers in the process called [[/canning|canning]] to prevent contamination by further organisms.  
> 
> Many of these techniques, as in the curing of [[bacon]] which is dried and has various salts added.
> 
> 
> <i>See also</i> [Botulism]], [[Scurvy]]
------
Food_preservation|990716019
12c12
< <i>See also</i> [Botulism]], [[Scurvy]]
---
> <i>See also</i> [[Botulism]], [[Scurvy]]
------
History_of_England|990717048
5c5
< The English middle ages were to be characterised by widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite, civil war, occasional insurrections and international war. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being at [[Crecy]] and [[Agincourt]]. On the home front, a sporadic yet nevertheless major civil war, [[The Wars of the Roses]], broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] and the [[House of York]]. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in the 1485, where the Yorkist [[Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured.
---
> The English middle ages were to be characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being at [[Crecy]] and [[Agincourt]]. On the home front, a sporadic yet nevertheless major civil war, [[The Wars of the Roses]], broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] and the [[House of York]]. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in the 1485, where the Yorkist [[Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured.
7c7
< King [[Henry VIII]] split with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] over a question of his divorce from [[Catherine of Aragon]], and although his religious position was not at all [[protestant]], the resultant schism ultimately and eventually led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. There then followed a period of considerable religious and political upheaval, which led to the royal expropriation of the monasteries and a considerable amount of the wealth of the church, the [[Reformation]]. Henry VIII's daughters, [[Elizabeth I]] and [[Mary I]], professed to entirely different positions of faith, and their reigns (and particularly that of Mary) were periods of religious persecution.
---
> King [[Henry VIII]] split with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] over a question of his divorce from [[Catherine of Aragon]], and although his religious position was not at all [[protestant]], the resultant schism ultimately and eventually led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. There then followed a period of considerable religious and political upheaval, which led to , the [[Reformation]], the royal expropriation of the monasteries and a considerable amount of the wealth of the church. Henry VIII's daughters, [[Elizabeth I]] and [[Mary I]], professed to entirely different positions of faith, and their reigns (and particularly that of Mary) were periods of religious persecution.
------
A_Man_for_All_Seasons|990718098
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the king's wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Best Director|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
------
A_Man_for_All_Seasons|990718248
1c1
< 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the king's wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Best Director|direction]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
---
> 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the king's wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Directing|directing]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|990718296
39c39
< *1966 [[Paul Scofield]] - [[A Man For All Seasons]]
---
> *1966 [[Paul Scofield]] - [[A_Man_For_All_Seasons]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Actor|990718321
39c39
< *1966 [[Paul Scofield]] - [[A_Man_For_All_Seasons]]
---
> *1966 [[Paul Scofield]] - [[A Man for All Seasons]]
------
Academy_Awards/Best_Picture|990718370
39c39
< *1966 [[A Man For All Seasons]] - Fred Zinnemann 
---
> *1966 [[A Man for All Seasons]] - Fred Zinnemann 
------
Academy_Awards/Cinematography|990718384
6c6
< ::A Man for All Seasons (Color)
---
> ::[[A Man for All Seasons]] (Color)
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|990718422
35c35
< *1966 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[A Man for All Seasons]]
---
> *1966 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[A Man_for All Seasons]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|990718441
35c35
< *1966 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[A Man_for All Seasons]]
---
> *1966 [[Fred Zinnemann]] - [[A Man for All Seasons]]
------
Academy_Awards/Directing|990718466
33c33
< *1968 [[Carol Reed]] - [[Oliver!]]
---
> *1968 [[Carol Reed]] - [[Oliver|Oliver!]]
------
Philosopher|990718692
37c37,38
< [[Georg Henrik von Wright]]
---
> [[Georg Henrik von Wright]] --
> [[George Pappas]]
------
George_Pappas|990718875
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Professor of philosophy at [[Ohio State University]].  Pappas' specializations are [[epistemology]], [[early modern philosophy]], [[philosophy of religion]], and [[metaphysics]].  He is author and editor of several books, including a new book about [[George Berkeley]] (name to be added later) and a widely-used epistemology anthology, ''Essays on Knowledge and Justification.''
------
Dramatists|990719115
1,3c1,3
< :[[David Mamet]]
< :[[Tom Stoppard]]
< :[[Jean Cocteau]]
---
> :[[Aeschylus]]
> :[[Edward Albee]]
> :[[Aristophanes]]
5,10c5
< :[[Shakespeare]]
< :[[Eugene ONeill|Eugene O'Neill]]
< :[[Tennessee Williams]]
< :[[Sam Shepard]]
< :[[Moliere]]
< :[[George Bernard Shaw]]
---
> :[[Robert Bolt]]
12,13c7
< :[[Aristophanes]]
< :[[Aeschylus]]
---
> :[[Jean Cocteau]]
14a9
> :[[Jean Genet]]
16c11,15
< :[[Edward Albee]]
---
> :[[Henrik Ibsen]]
> :[[David Mamet]]
> :[[Arthur Miller]]
> :[[Moliere]]
> :[[Eugene ONeill|Eugene O'Neill]]
17a17,20
> :[[Shakespeare]]
> :[[George Bernard Shaw]]
> :[[Sam Shepard]]
> :[[Tom Stoppard]]
20,22d22
< :[[Henrik Ibsen]]
< :[[Jean Genet]]
< :[[Arthur Miller]]
24,25c24
< 
< 
---
> :[[Tennessee Williams]]
------
A_Man_for_All_Seasons|990720493
1c1
< 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the king's wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Directing|directing]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
---
> 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the [[king|king's]] wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Directing|directing]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
------
Meme|990720751
5a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
Philosopher|990720769
20c20
< [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] --
---
> [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] --   
------
Meme/Talk|990720948
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Memes are indeed an interesting theory.
> 
> What I have read indicates:  The theory is quite new and poorly tested.  It is very loosely defined, and people who talk about memes don't entirely agree one to the next just what the entity is that they are talking about.
> 
> Your article addresses this subject as though it were well-established fact, as opposed to what it has seemed to me - a rather new fad in psychological/philosophical circles still trying to define itself and isolate its subject matter.
------
History_of_England|990721416
9c9,14
< to be continued...
---
> Mary, a catholic, was married to [[Philip II of Spain]], perhaps the foremost catholic in Europe barring the pope, took the throne in 1553, and, on her accession, made determined attempts to suppress protestantism. 
> 
> Elizabeth's subsequent reign saw a substantial increase in English economic prosperity. This was a time of significant English colonial expansion, which frequently brought the English into conflict with the Spanish, who were also busily extending their sphere of influence. Relations with Spain were further adversely affected by Elizabeth's sponsorship of privateering and raids on Spanish ports, and, again,  the underlying conflicting question of religion, for Elizabeth had officially restored protestantism by the passing of the [[Act of Supremacy 1559]]. The Spanish made an invasion attempt, the ill-fated [[Spanish Armada]] which was repulsed by a combination of outstanding English naval activity and bad weather.
> 
> 
> .. to be continued
------
History_of_England|990721527
5c5
< The English middle ages were to be characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being at [[Crecy]] and [[Agincourt]]. On the home front, a sporadic yet nevertheless major civil war, [[The Wars of the Roses]], broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] and the [[House of York]]. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in the 1485, where the Yorkist [[Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured.
---
> The English middle ages were to be characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Scots and the French, with the principal notable battles being at [[Crecy]] and [[Agincourt]]. On the home front, a sporadic yet nevertheless major civil war, [[The Wars of the Roses]], broke out from time to time over contending claims to the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] and the [[House of York]]. This culminated in the eventual victory of Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in 1485, where the Yorkist [[Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was assured.
------
History_of_Germany|990721771
1c1
< The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1990, the year of reunification of the [[socialist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Polish]] and [[Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
---
> The Federal Republic of [[Germany]] exists in its current form since 1990, the year of reunification of the [[socialist]] [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]([[GDR]]) and the western-oriented old Federal Republic of Germany. At the same time, former German territories east of the GDR that were under [[Poland|Polish]] and [[Russia|Russian]] control were given to that nations, most noteably Eastern [[Prussia]]. The German constitution dates back to 1949, when the Western occupied zones were established as the Federal Republic of Germany.
4c4
< The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the [[Franks|Frankish]] Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "[[Reich]]" (German for empire), with the "[[Kaiser]]" (emperor, term is derived from [[Caesar]]) as the head of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which was several hundred years later renamed to [[Holy Roman Empire of German Nations]] which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] some years later. After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''[[Deutscher Bund]]'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the [[Austrian]] empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871, the German states formed the second [[Reich]], with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of [[Bismarck]], but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the [[British Empire]]'s [[naval]] power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
---
> The first major effort to unite the disparate German kingdoms and territories was headed by [[Charlemagne]], who founded his vast empire in 800 AD. His successors divided the [[Franks|Frankish]] Empire later into eastern and western parts, the western part became [[France]] and the western part the first "[[Reich]]" (German for empire), with the "[[Kaiser]]" (emperor, term is derived from [[Caesar]]) as the head of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which was several hundred years later renamed to [[Holy Roman Empire of German Nations]] which was disbanded in 1806 and conquered by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] some years later. After [[Napoleon]]'s defeat, the German states (which had been relatively independent throughout the First Reich) united to form the ''[[Deutscher Bund]]'' - a rather loose organisation, especially because the two great rivals, the [[Austria|Austrian]] empire and the Prussian kingdom didn't want to give up their power. Under the influence of the Prussian chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian kingdom expanded its power greatly and forced [[Austria]] to leave the Bund. After the victory of 1871 in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the German states formed the second [[Reich]], with the Prussian king as the emperor and without [[Austria]]. This Reich flourished under the guidance of [[Bismarck]], but after the Kaiser's death, his successor forced him out of office and tried to get colonies in Africa and challenged the [[British Empire]]'s [[naval]] power, which eventually lead to confrontation in the [[First World War]]. 
6c6
< After the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the [[European]] balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on [[Serbia]] after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. [[Germany]], which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its [[allies]], the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the [[October]] revolution, they reached the [[Peace of Brest-Litowsk]] which was later abolished by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in [[Versailles]], the same place where the [[Second Reich]] had been founded some 40 years ago. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the [[Spartacus]] uprisings), the [[Weimar Republic]] was formed. 
---
> After the death of [[Queen Victoria]], the [[European]] balance of power became shaky, and the struggling Austrian empire declared war on [[Serbia]] after the Austrian successor to the throne was shot in [[Sarajevo]]. [[Germany]], which still had an alliance with Austria dating back to Bismarck's sophisticated system of treaties, joined Austria and declared war on France in what it called a strike of prevention. In the course of the war, Germany and its [[allies]], the Austrian empire and the Osman empire slowly but steadily lost. They managed to achieve a victory over the Russian empire which they destabilized by supporting Lenin and his bolshewik movement. After the [[October]] revolution, they reached the [[Peace of Brest-Litowsk]] which was later abolished by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] after various revolts and the capitulation of Germany. The peace treaty was signed in [[Versailles]], the same place where the [[Second Reich]] had been founded some 40 years before. The Kaiser was forced to resign, Germany lost some territories to France and other nations and after revolts from socialists and communists (like the [[Spartacus]] uprisings), the [[Weimar Republic]] was formed. 
8,16c8
< After some successful years, the [[Great Depression]] came and [[Germans]] were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his [[National Socialist German Worker's Party]] ([[NSDAP]]) (see [[National Socialism]]) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the [[First World War]] was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh [[racism]] and [[antisemitism]], he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of [[monarchist]]s and [[conservative]]s like President [[Hindenburg]]. In six years, he prepared the country for war and enforced many discriminating laws against [[Jews]] and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on [[Poland]], after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German [[SS]] men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called [[Axis]] powers ([[Italy]], Germany, [[Japan]]) were defeated by [[Allied]] forces ([[United States]], [[France]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]), and half of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them [[civilian]]s, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
< 
< At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalistic country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the UnionOfSovietSocialistRepublics (Russia). It was a fairly unfree country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin alsa was divided in four sectors (french, british, american, soviet), whereas western zones formed West-Berlin (capitalistic) and the soviet secort became "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR". West-Berlin was surrounded by the BerlinWall from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
< 
< In 1989 the people of EastGermany demanded a political change. Therefor the political leaders were constrained to open the borders again (which happend in a confused and unexpected act). As most of the East-Germans wanted a rejunification and then chancelor H. Kohl of West Germany saw this as his "life task", in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified. In fact it  meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]] for the time being. Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II. Now the main administrative bodies are situated in Berlin.
< 
< Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and Japan). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
< 
< ''see also [[Nazi Germany]]''
---
> After some successful years, the [[Great Depression]] came and [[Germans]] were still suffering from punitive damages resulting from the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. [[Adolf Hitler]] and his [[National Socialist German Worker's Party]] ([[NSDAP]]) (see [[National Socialism]]) capitalized on this and on the growing unemployment. They even claimed that the [[First World War]] was lost beacause of treason from within (the so-called "Dolchstosslegende"), combined with a harsh [[racism]] and [[antisemitism]], he managed to become chancellor in 1933, with the help of [[monarchist]]s and [[conservative]]s like President [[Hindenburg]]. In six years, he prepared the country (see [[Nazi Germany]]) for [[war]] and enforced many discriminating laws against [[Jews]] and those that weren't of German origin. In 1939, he declared war on [[Poland]], after he claimed German forces had been attacked (the attack was forged by German [[SS]] men). Six years later he and his partners, the so-called [[Axis]] powers ([[Italy]], Germany, [[Japan]]) were defeated by [[Allied]] forces ([[United States]], [[France]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]), and half of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, millions of people had been killed, the majority of them [[civilian]]s, like the six million Jews killed in concentration camps and the countless millions of Russians in conquered territories.
17a10
> At the [[Potsdam Conference]] 1945, after the loss of [[World War II]], the Allies divided the soon-to-be-defeated Germany into four military occupation zones-French in the southwest, British in the northwest, American in the south, and Soviet in the east. [[Berlin]], which lay in the Soviet sector, was also divided into four zones. As part of the ColdWar the zones developed 1949 in the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], aka [[West Germany]]) and the [[German Democratic Republic]] ([[Deutsche Demokratische Republik]], aka EastGermany). West Germany was allied with the United States of America, the UK and France. It was a western capitalist country with a so called Social Market Economy. [[East Germany]] was at first occupied and later allied with and controlled by the [[Soviet Union]]. It was a totalitarian country (for example, its citizens were generally unable to leave) with a USSR-style communist economy. [[East Germany]] was probably the richest, most advanced country in the Soviet bloc. Berlin also was divided in four sectors (french, british, american, soviet), whereas western zones formed [[West Berlin]] and the Soviet sector became "Berlin, [[capital]] of the DDR" (aka [[East Berlin]]). West-Berlin was surrounded by the [[Berlin Wall]] from August, 13th 1961 until 1989.
18a12
> In 1989 the people of East Germany demanded a political change. Therefor the political leaders were constrained to open the borders again (which happend in a confused and unexpected act). As most of the East-Germans wanted a rejunification and then chancelor H. Kohl of West Germany saw this as his "life task", in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified. In fact it  meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]] for the time being. Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II. Now the main administrative bodies are situated in Berlin.
19a14
> Today Germany is doing fairly well economically, being the world's third-largest economy (behind the USA and [[Japan]]). It's among the top 5 countries in [[Internet]] access worldwide. Many Germans speak English and/or French, in addition to German and their local dialect of German (of which there are many).
------
History_of_Germany|990721825
12c12
< In 1989 the people of East Germany demanded a political change. Therefor the political leaders were constrained to open the borders again (which happend in a confused and unexpected act). As most of the East-Germans wanted a rejunification and then chancelor H. Kohl of West Germany saw this as his "life task", in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified. In fact it  meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]] for the time being. Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II. Now the main administrative bodies are situated in Berlin.
---
> In 1989 the people of East Germany demanded a political change. Therefore the political leaders were constrained to open the borders again (which happend in a confused and unexpected act). As most of the East-Germans wanted a rejunification and then chancelor H. Kohl of West Germany saw this as his "life task", in 1990 the two Germanies were reunified. In fact it  meant that EastGermany was annexed by [[West Germany]], as the new country kept the name [[Bundesrepublik Deutschland]], used the West German "Deutsche Mark" for currency, and the capital remained at [[Bonn]] for the time being. Around 1994 it was moved back to [[Berlin]], where it had been before World War II. Now the main administrative bodies are situated in Berlin.
------
SandBox|990721826
219,220c219
< http://images.go2net.com/dogpile//sites/dp/common/enu/images/front_page/arfie_sm_cinco.gif
< 
---
> [[http://images.go2net.com/dogpile//sites/dp/common/enu/images/front_page/arfie_sm_cinco.gif]]
230,232c229,231
< ·	Here
< ·	There
< ·	And 
---
> · Here
> · There
> · And 
235c234
< ----
---
> ----
------
Battle_of_Bosworth_Field|990722382
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The Battle of Bosworth Field was fought on the 22nd of August 1485 when [[Richard III]], a Yorkist, fought a pitched battle with the Lancastrian contender for his crown, Henry Tudor. It was to prove to be the decisive battle in the long-running mediaeval series of English wars known as the [[Wars of the Roses]]. 
> 
> Henry Tudor's victory in this battle led to his being crowned as [[Henry VII]], and the long reign of the Tudor dynasty in England.
> 
------
Film_noir|990723918
1c1,11
< ''Film noir'' (French, "black film") is a genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the alleged economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to be literally "darker"--using dramatic shadows and stark contrast (called Low Key Light).
---
> A genre of [[film]] based in large part on the [[hard-boiled detective novel]]s that grew out of [[naturalism]], a movement in [[literature]] based on [[realism]] and concerned largely with the economic side effects of [[capitalism]].  Film noir tends to feature characters trapped in a situation and making choices out of desperation.  Frequent themes are murder, betrayal, and infidelity.  Noir films tend to include dramatic shadows and stark contrast (called Low Key Light).
> 
> Films noir were mainly shot in the [[United States]] between the early 1940s and the late 1950s. [[Orson Welles]]'s [[Touch of Evil]] is often referred to as the last „classical“ film noir. The term Film Noir (French for black film) was coined by the French film critic [[Nino Frank]]. It is derived from a series of hard-boiled fiction books entitled S&eacute;rie Noire.
> 
> Almost all film noir plots involve the hard-boiled, disillusioned male (usually in the form of a private eye) and the dangerous femme fatale. Either by fate, because of sexual attraction or for similar reasons, the male commits vicious acts and in the end, both of them are punished or even killed for their actions.
> 
> These characters are derived from 1930s gangster films and, more importantly, from pulp fiction magazines such as [[The Shadow]], [[Dime Mystery Detective]] and [[The Black Mask]]. Books by  the Black Mask writers [[Dashiell Hammett]] and [[Raymond Chandler]] became the most famous films noir, [[The Maltese Falcon]] (Hammet) and [[The Big Sleep]] (Chandler).    
> 
> The aesthetics of film noir are heavily influenced by [[German expressionism]]. When [[Adolf Hitler]] took over Germany, many important film artists were forced to emigrate (among them were [[Fritz Lang]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Robert Siodmak]]). They took with them techniques they developed (most importantly the dramatic lighting and the subjective, psychological point of view) and made some of the most famous films noir. 
> 
> Another important influence came from [[Italian Neorealism]]. After 1945, film noir adapted the neorealist look and scenes were shot on real city locations (not in the studio).
9c19
< ''"nwahr"''
---
> ''"nwahr"''
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990723952
9a10
> :[[The Maltese Falcon]]
23c24
< :[[The Maltese Falcon]]
---
> 
77c78
< :[[A Simple Plan]]
---
> :[[A Simple Plan]]
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990723969
24d23
< 
------
United_States/History_Talk|990724811
32a33,37
> 
> ----
> I have to say here that I feel that the notion that this article can be written with lack of bias or objectivity is fundamentally at fault. Ultimately you are trying to paint a picture of the actions of millions of people over 200 years in a few lines. The extraordinary degree of selectivity this requires is in itself an expression of bias. For instance I suggest that you compare the history of the US, and that which has been written about the USSR. Even their relative sizes is an expression of bias. 
> 
> History is not and can never be about presenting an unbiased view point. Objectivity is not the point, its merely one tool in the telling of history. To my mind the only way to cope with this situation is to leave the front page of "history of the US" as straight forwards facts and figures (when it was formed, by who, from who, and where it is now), and then link in views from there with an expression of the opinion of the general views of the authorship. [[Phil Lord]]
------
Masculism|990725647
11c11
< As the most important authors on masculist issues are considered Warren Farrell and Ellis Cose in the USA, Neil Lyndon and David Thomas in Great Britain and Arne Hoffmann in Germany.
---
> As the most important authors on masculist issues are considered Warren Farrell in the USA, Neil Lyndon and David Thomas in Great Britain and Matthias Matussek and Arne Hoffmann in Germany.
------
Philosopher|990726898
25c25,26
< [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Blaise Pascal]] --
---
> [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[George Pappas]] -- 
> [[Blaise Pascal]] --
38d38
< [[George Pappas]]
39a40,42
> In (approximate) historical order:
> 
> [[The Presocratics]] -- [[Socrates]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Epicurus]] -- [[Hellenic Philosophy]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Augustine]] -- [[Anselm]] -- [[Aquinas]] -- [[Francis Bacon]] -- [[Thomas Hobbes]] -- [[Rene Descartes]] -- [[Nicholas Malebranche]] -- [[Baruch Spinoza]] -- GottfriedLeibniz -- [[Blaise Pascal]] -- [[John Locke]] -- [[George Berkeley]] -- [[David Hume]] -- [[Thomas Reid]] -- [[Dugald Stewart]] -- [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] -- [[Charl du Montesquieu]] -- [[Voltaire]] -- [[Immanuel Kant]] -- [[Gottleib Fichte]] -- [[Georg Hegel]] -- [[James Mill]] -- [[John Stuart Mill]] -- [[Karl Marx]] -- [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] -- [[Soren Kierkegaard]] -- [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] -- [[Bertrand Russell]] -- [[Karl Popper]] -- [[Ayn Rand]] -- [[G. E. Moore]] -- [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] -- [[Rudolph Carnap]] -- [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- [[Albert Camus]] -- [[Georg Henrik von Wright]] -- [[W. V. O. Quine]] -- [[Nelson Goodman]] -- [[Paul Feyerabend]] -- [[Mario Bunge]] -- [[Douglas Hofstadter]] -- [[Daniel Dennett]] -- [[Alfred Korzybski]] -- [[George Pappas]]
------
Meme/Talk|990727047
5c5,7
< Your article addresses this subject as though it were well-established fact, as opposed to what it has seemed to me - a rather new fad in psychological/philosophical circles still trying to define itself and isolate its subject matter.
---
> Your article addresses this subject as though it were well-established fact, as opposed to what it has seemed to me - a rather new fad in psychological/philosophical circles still trying to define itself and isolate its subject matter.
> ----
> I think talk about memes is bad psychology and even worse philosophy.  :-/
------
Meme|990727204
1c1
< A meme (pronounced "meem"; rhymes with dream) is an idea that infects human imagination and mind,  replicates and alters human behavior, just like a virus infecting a human brain. The word meme is a combination of gene and memory and it is supposed to be mentioned in [[Selfish Gene]] of [[Richard Dawkins]] for the first time. The meme concept depends on the fact that the ideas behave in a very similar way to life forms. With one difference, they do not use genes but memes. Memes can replicate and can be transmitted to other individuals just like the genes of a virus and this is how ideas spread quickly in human societies. Some samples for memes are slogans, advertisements, melodies and icons. For instance, the reader of this article is infected with the concept of memes. The meme of the idea of meme itself is called a meta-meme.
---
> The term '''meme''' (pronounced to rhyme with "dream") was coined by [[Richard Dawkins]] in the book ''The Selfish Gene'' to mean roughly a unit of cultural evolution, analagous to [[gene]], the unit of biological evolution.  They can represent parts of ideas, languages, tunes, designs, moral and esthetic values, skills, and anything else that is commonly learned and passed on to others.
3c3
< The ideas can easily evolve just like living organisms. The most basic units of evolution in the case of ideas are memes, whereas the most basic units are genes for the evolution of living things. As there are no good or bad genes but there are more suitable genes for the survival of the organism, there are no true or false ideas but there are memes that can be replicated more successfully and transmitted throughout the society. Similar to animals that are initially confined to some restricted areas of the world, but gradually spread to all territories by their beneficial genes (e.g. human beings), ideas that are confined exclusively to small tribes can spread to most human societies (e.g. monotheism). The fact that mankind has developed a secondary evolutionary pattern seems to be the major reason of its dominance on earth. Individual views of the same idea (e.g. everybody may have a different point of view for the theory of evolution) can somewhat correspond to the different mutations of a single gene.
---
> Dawkins observed that cultures can evolve in much the same way biological populations do, by passing ideas from one generation to the next, some of which may enhance or detract from the survival of the person holding them, thereby affecting which of those ideas continue to be passed on to future generations.  For example, early cultures may have had different designs and methods for building tools.  The culture with the more effective method may well have prospered while others suffered, leading to its method being adopted by a higher proportion of the population as time passed.  Unlike biological genes which are usually "selected" by the death of competing organisms, memes can be selected--and therefore eveolve--by more gentle means such as criticism, persuasion, and even "fashion".
5c5
< The concept of memes also underline one of the most interesting and basic features of human beings. Humans are indeed imitation machines. They like to imitate or mimic ideas, concepts, facial expressions and melodies, and this is how memes can so easily replicate and spread like a flu virus. The idea of memes also helps us to make clearer definitions about some abstract concepts (e.g. an intellectual one is a person (or a machine!), who introduces new memes to the very large collection of old memes).
---
> Evolution requires not only inheritance and selection, but also mutation, and memes clearly have this property as well.  Ideas that get passed on may undergo changes that accumulate over time.  Folk tales and myths, for example, are often embellished in the retelling to make them more memorable--and therefore more likely to be retold again.
7c7,9
< /Talk
---
> In much the same way that the [[selfish gene]] concept can be used as a point of view from which to better understand and reason about biological evolution, the meme concept can be used to better understand some otherwise puzzling aspects of human culture (and learned behaviors of other animals as well).  A controversial application of this is the idea that certain collections of memes can act as "memetic viruses": collections of ideas that behave like independent life forms, and continue to get passed on even at the expense of their hosts simply because they are good at getting passed on.  It has been suggested that evangelical religions behave this way; by including the act of passing on their beliefs as a moral virtue, other beliefs of the religion also get passed along even if they aren't particularly valuable to the believer.
> 
> It is common for the term to be misused to refer specifically to these supposed "viral" meme collections, and to speak of a person being "infected" by such ideas.  While this may be a useful rhetorical technique, such popular usage has somewhat tarnished the scientific respectability of the meme concept in general in fields where it has been used legitimately.
------
Theater|990727286
32a33,34
> 
> See also: [[dramatists]]
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990727980
30c30
< * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!": "Observe por favor que todas las contribuciones a Wikipedia se hacen público bajo el [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Licensia de Documentación Libre (en inglés)].  Si usted no desea que la gente corregida sus escritos sin piedad y los regalé libremente, entonces no los escriba aquí.  También usted es prometiéndonos que escribió esto usted mismo y usted es dueño de los derechos de autor, o lo copió de una fuente sin copyright.  NO USA ESCRITOS CON COPYRIGHT SIN PERMISO." (Native speaker ''please'' check this one!)
---
> * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!": "Observe por favor que todas las contribuciones a Wikipedia se hacen público bajo el [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Licensia de Documentación Libre (en inglés)].  Si usted no desea que la gente corregida sus escritos sin piedad y los regalé libremente, entonces no los escriba aquí.  También usted es prometiéndonos que escribió esto usted mismo y usted es dueño de los derechos de autor, o lo copió de una fuente sin copyright.  NO USE ESCRITOS CON COPYRIGHT SIN PERMISO." (Native speaker ''please'' check this one!)
------
Meme/Talk|990728340
7c7,10
< I think talk about memes is bad psychology and even worse philosophy.  :-/
---
> I think talk about memes is bad psychology and even worse philosophy.  :-/
> ----
> Most such talk ''is'' pretty bad.  But that's because most of those who use the term don't understand what Dawkins was really talking about, and extrapolate the idea far beyond good science.  Of course psychology doesn't exactly have a stellar reputation of solid science anyway...  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
G._E._Moore|990728860
1c1
< G. E. Moore (1873-1958) was a distinguished and hugely influential English philosopher who was educated and taught at [[Cambridge University]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Frege]], one of the primary inspirations of the [[analytic philosophy]] tradition that now predominates in the English-speaking world.  Moore was best known for his advocacy of [[common sense]], his [[ethical non-naturalism]], and his very clear, circumspect writing style.  He was very much a "philosopher's philosopher"--influential among and greatly respected by other philosophers, but relatively unknown to nonphilosophers (unlike his friend and colleague Russell).
---
> G. E. Moore (1873-1958) was a distinguished and hugely influential English philosopher who was educated and taught at [[Cambridge University]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], one of the primary inspirations of the [[analytic philosophy]] tradition that now predominates in the English-speaking world.  Moore was best known for his advocacy of [[common sense]], his [[ethical non-naturalism]], and his very clear, circumspect writing style.  He was very much a "philosopher's philosopher"--influential among and greatly respected by other philosophers, but relatively unknown to nonphilosophers (unlike his friend and colleague Russell).
5c5
< Moore is also well-known for the so-called "[[open question argument]]," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against [[ethical naturalism]] and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
---
> Moore is also well-known for the so-called "[[open question argument]]," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[[Principia Ethica]].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against [[ethical naturalism]] and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].
------
Meme|990729113
3c3
< Dawkins observed that cultures can evolve in much the same way biological populations do, by passing ideas from one generation to the next, some of which may enhance or detract from the survival of the person holding them, thereby affecting which of those ideas continue to be passed on to future generations.  For example, early cultures may have had different designs and methods for building tools.  The culture with the more effective method may well have prospered while others suffered, leading to its method being adopted by a higher proportion of the population as time passed.  Unlike biological genes which are usually "selected" by the death of competing organisms, memes can be selected--and therefore eveolve--by more gentle means such as criticism, persuasion, and even "fashion".
---
> Dawkins observed that cultures can evolve in much the same way biological populations do, by passing ideas from one generation to the next, some of which may enhance or detract from the survival of the person holding them, thereby affecting which of those ideas continue to be passed on to future generations.  For example, early cultures may have had different designs and methods for building tools.  The culture with the more effective method may well have prospered while others suffered, leading to its method being adopted by a higher proportion of the population as time passed.  Unlike biological genes which are usually "selected" by the death of competing organisms, memes can be selected--and therefore evolve--by more gentle means such as criticism, persuasion, and even "fashion".
------
Topology|990729823
86c86
< [[seperable]]
---
> [[separable]]
107c107
< *Nice applications : Brouwer fixed point,Ulam Barsuk (?)...
---
> *Nice applications : Brouwer fixed point,Ulam Borsuk...
------
Hippocrates|990732702
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Hippocrates of Cos</b> -- about 460 BC - 377 BC
> 
> Ancient Greek physician, by common consent regarded one of the most outstanding
> figures in medicine of all times. He is often called 'the father of
> medicine'.<br>He was a leader of a remarkable medical school of Cos and the author of most of writings of the school.
> 
> He had a great impact on succeeding generations of practitioners of medicine
> and some general rules still apply. His work and writings rejected superstition
> and magic of primitive medicine and laid the foundations of medicine as a
> branch of science.
> 
> The whole collection of works of the Hippocratic medical school were gathered
> as <i>the Hippocratic Corpus</i>.
> 
> The best known of Hippocratic writings is <b>[[Hippocratic Oath]].</b>
> 
> Another famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is :<br>
> 'Primum non nocere' (First, do no harm).
------
International_Wikipedia|990736929
20,28d19
< I officially (?!) protest that the swedish page was not set up with
< the last batch of international wikipedias... [[LinusTolke]] had
< been one of the first people to request one. Also, I would have
< liked to have a castellano.wikipedia.com name, pointing to es.wikipedia.com, but there is not. --AstroNomer
< :I noticed that.  I protest as well! --[[LMS]]
< 
< :I take full responsibility for having caused such massive protest.  I just picked a bunch of languages.  I didn't follow the discussions that took place, I just responded to the JobRequest that I received.  Many apologies.  I'll get the Swedish wiki running within the hour.  I'll make it available as any of {sve,swe,sv,swedish,svensk}.wikipedia.com
< ----
< 
40c31,33
< :<i> Yep, seems to work, at least it accepts letters with accents --AstroNomer</i>
---
> :<i> You can create articles with international characters, but
> they don't get transformed into links in the page where they 
> were created. A redirect, though, can direct to them. --AstroNomer</i>
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990737280
20c20,26
< I am experiencing this kind of slowness. Searches takes 25 seconds, saves take one or two seconds. LinusTolke
---
> I am experiencing this kind of slowness. Searches takes 25 seconds, saves take one or two seconds. LinusTolke
> 
> ----
> I was experiencing some slowness and I reported it on the mailing list. Then
> it turned out that it was almost entirely on the Recent Changes page, other
> pages loaded acceptably. Now the new server behaves almost as good as the old
> one. -- [Kpjas]]
------
Hippocrates|990737398
3,5c3
< Ancient Greek physician, by common consent regarded one of the most outstanding
< figures in medicine of all times. He is often called 'the father of
< medicine'.<br>He was a leader of a remarkable medical school of Cos and the author of most of writings of the school.
---
> Ancient Greek physician, commonly regarded one of the most outstanding figures in medicine of all times. He is often called 'the father of medicine'.  He was the leader of a medical school of Cos and the author of most of writings of the school.
7,10c5
< He had a great impact on succeeding generations of practitioners of medicine
< and some general rules still apply. His work and writings rejected superstition
< and magic of primitive medicine and laid the foundations of medicine as a
< branch of science.
---
> He had a great impact on succeeding generations of practitioners of medicine and some general rules still apply. His work and writings rejected the superstition and magic of primitive "medicine" and laid the foundations of medicine as a branch of science.
12,13c7
< The whole collection of works of the Hippocratic medical school were gathered
< as <i>the Hippocratic Corpus</i>.
---
> The whole collection of works of the Hippocratic medical school were gathered as <i>the Hippocratic Corpus</i>.
17,18c11
< Another famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is :<br>
< 'Primum non nocere' (First, do no harm).
---
> Another famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is :<br> 'Primum non nocere' (First, do no harm).
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990737573
26c26,32
< one. -- [Kpjas]]
---
> one. -- [Kpjas]]
> 
> :The slowness on the "RecentChanges" pages is due to the
> large number of recent modifications. For it to be faster,
> modify your Preferences so that RecentChanges shows less days,
> not the default 7. -- AstroNomer
> ----
------
Brilliant_prose|990737631
5,6c5
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- 
< [[Japanese language]]
---
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- [[Japanese language]] -- [[Meme]]
------
Brilliant_prose|990737677
5c5
< [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- [[Japanese language]] -- [[Meme]]
---
> [[The Canon of Scripture]] -- MathematicalGrouP -- NewZealand -- [[Pythagorean Theorem]] -- SabBath -- [[Tao Teh Ching]] -- [[The Most Remarkable Formula In The World]] -- [[The Recorder]] -- [[Gladstone Oregon]] -- AlchemY -- [[Hate Crime]] -- [[Japanese language]]
9c9
< BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy
---
> BallroomDance -- ChristianIty -- DirectRealism -- EuroCurrency -- OpenContent -- PrettyGoodPrivacy  -- [[Meme]]
------
Film_noir|990737949
3c3
< Films noir were mainly shot in the [[United States]] between the early 1940s and the late 1950s. [[Orson Welles]]'s [[Touch of Evil]] is often referred to as the last „classical“ film noir. The term Film Noir (French for black film) was coined by the French film critic [[Nino Frank]]. It is derived from a series of hard-boiled fiction books entitled S&eacute;rie Noire.
---
> Films noir were mainly shot in the [[United States]] between the early 1940s and the late 1950s. [[Orson Welles]]'s [[Touch of Evil]] is often referred to as the last "classical" film noir. The term Film Noir (French for black film) was coined by the French film critic [[Nino Frank]]. It is derived from a series of hard-boiled fiction books entitled S&eacute;rie Noire.
7c7
< These characters are derived from 1930s gangster films and, more importantly, from pulp fiction magazines such as [[The Shadow]], [[Dime Mystery Detective]] and [[The Black Mask]]. Books by  the Black Mask writers [[Dashiell Hammett]] and [[Raymond Chandler]] became the most famous films noir, [[The Maltese Falcon]] (Hammet) and [[The Big Sleep]] (Chandler).    
---
> These characters are derived from 1930s gangster films and, more importantly, from pulp fiction magazines such as [[The Shadow]], [[Dime Mystery Detective]] and [[The Black Mask]]. Books by the Black Mask writers [[Dashiell Hammett]] <i>([[The Maltese Falcon]])</i> and [[Raymond Chandler]] <i>([[The Big Sleep]])</i> became two of the most famous films noir.
19c19
< ''"nwahr"''
---
> ''"nwahr"''
------
Film_noir|990738095
5c5
< Almost all film noir plots involve the hard-boiled, disillusioned male (usually in the form of a private eye) and the dangerous femme fatale. Either by fate, because of sexual attraction or for similar reasons, the male commits vicious acts and in the end, both of them are punished or even killed for their actions.
---
> Almost all film noir plots involve the hard-boiled, disillusioned male (usually in the form of a private eye) and the dangerous [[femme fatale]]. Usually because of sexual attraction or greed, the male commits vicious acts and in the end, both he and the femme fatale are punished or even killed for their actions.
------
A_Man_for_All_Seasons|990738153
1c1
< 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the [[king|king's]] wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Stars Paul Scofield as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Directing|directing]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
---
> 1966 film in which [[Sir Thomas More]], the 16th-century Chancellor of [[England]], refuses to endorse or denounce the [[king|king's]] wish to divorce his infertile wife so that he can marry his mistress.  In this case, the King is [[Henry VIII]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  Paul Scofield stars as Sir Thomas More and Robert Shaw as Henry VIII.  Directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]], who's also known for [[High Noon]], [[From Here to Eternity]], and [[Oklahoma Fred Zinnemann|Oklahoma!]].  Based on the play by [[Robert Bolt]], the film won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|actor]], screenplay, [[Academy Awards/Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Awards/Directing|directing]], and [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|film]].
------
Film_noir/Film_list|990738427
3,7d2
< date not known (please fill in if you can)
< :[[The Racket]]
< :[[The Killer That Stalked New York]]
< :[[Roadblock]]
< 
42a38
> :[[The Killer That Stalked New York]]
43a40,42
> <b>1951)</b>
> :[[The Racket]]
> :[[Roadblock]]
74,77c73,77
< :[[L.A. Confidential]]
< :[[Reservoir Dogs]]
< :[[Lost Highway]]
< :[[A Simple Plan]]
---
> :[[Reservoir Dogs]] (1992)
> :[[The Last Seduction]] (1994)
> :[[L.A. Confidential]] (1997)
> :[[Lost Highway]] (1997)
> :[[A Simple Plan]] (1998)
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990738547
23,26c23
< I was experiencing some slowness and I reported it on the mailing list. Then
< it turned out that it was almost entirely on the Recent Changes page, other
< pages loaded acceptably. Now the new server behaves almost as good as the old
< one. -- [Kpjas]]
---
> I was experiencing some slowness and I reported it on the mailing list. Then it turned out that it was almost entirely on the Recent Changes page, other pages loaded acceptably. Now the new server behaves almost as good as the old one. -- [Kpjas]]
28,32c25,26
< :The slowness on the "RecentChanges" pages is due to the
< large number of recent modifications. For it to be faster,
< modify your Preferences so that RecentChanges shows less days,
< not the default 7. -- AstroNomer
< ----
---
> :The slowness on the "RecentChanges" pages is due to the large number of recent modifications. For it to be faster, modify your Preferences so that RecentChanges shows less days, not the default 7. -- AstroNomer
> ----
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990739046
23c23
< I was experiencing some slowness and I reported it on the mailing list. Then it turned out that it was almost entirely on the Recent Changes page, other pages loaded acceptably. Now the new server behaves almost as good as the old one. -- [Kpjas]]
---
> I was experiencing some slowness and I reported it on the mailing list. Then it turned out that it was almost entirely on the Recent Changes page, other pages loaded acceptably. Now the new server behaves almost as good as the old one. -- [[Kpjas]]
------
International_Wikipedia|990739367
63a64,67
> ----
> <complaint>
> The links on the German Wikipedia still don't work:-(
> WojPob</complaint>
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739567
23c23,24
< :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]] [[Requested articles]]
---
> :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
> :[[Requested articles]] Brilliant prose
57a59,60
> ----
> You know, it just occurred to me that since the CIA World Factbook does come out each year, much of the work I've done so far would have to be redone next year.  I hope someone <i>is</i> working on that Perl script.  :-D  KQ
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739647
24c24
< :[[Requested articles]] Brilliant prose
---
> :[[Requested articles]] [[Brilliant prose]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739723
23,25c23,25
< :[[What_Google_Likes]] [[What_Nupedia_Wants]]
< :[[Requested articles]] [[Brilliant prose]]
< :[[SandBox]] *[[R P Sandbox]]
---
> :[[What Google Likes]]	[[What Nupedia Wants]]
> :[[Requested articles]]	[[Brilliant prose]]
> :[[SandBox]]		[[R P Sandbox]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739747
23,25c23,25
< :[[What Google Likes]]	[[What Nupedia Wants]]
< :[[Requested articles]]	[[Brilliant prose]]
< :[[SandBox]]		[[R P Sandbox]]
---
> :[[What Google Likes]]		[[What Nupedia Wants]]
> :[[Requested articles]]		[[Brilliant prose]]
> :[[SandBox]]			[[R P Sandbox]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739767
23,25c23,25
< :[[What Google Likes]]		[[What Nupedia Wants]]
< :[[Requested articles]]		[[Brilliant prose]]
< :[[SandBox]]			[[R P Sandbox]]
---
> [[What Google Likes]]		[[What Nupedia Wants]]
> [[Requested articles]]		[[Brilliant prose]]
> [[SandBox]]			[[R P Sandbox]]
------
Why_Wikipedia_is_so_slow|990739829
26a27
> ::Quite understandable but on the old server it was quicker. -- [[Kpjas]]
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990739851
23,25c23,25
< [[What Google Likes]]		[[What Nupedia Wants]]
< [[Requested articles]]		[[Brilliant prose]]
< [[SandBox]]			[[R P Sandbox]]
---
> <tr><td>[[What Google Likes]]</td><td>[[What Nupedia Wants]]</td>
> <tr><td>[[Requested articles]]</td><td>[[Brilliant prose]]</td>
> <tr><td>[[SandBox]]</td><td>[[R P Sandbox]]</td>
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990740009
23,25c23,36
< <tr><td>[[What Google Likes]]</td><td>[[What Nupedia Wants]]</td>
< <tr><td>[[Requested articles]]</td><td>[[Brilliant prose]]</td>
< <tr><td>[[SandBox]]</td><td>[[R P Sandbox]]</td>
---
> &lt;table border=1/&gt;
> &lt;tr&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[What Google Likes]] &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[What Nupedia Wants]] &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;/tr&gt;
> &lt;tr&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[Requested articles]]  &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[Brilliant prose]]   &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;/tr&gt;
> &lt;tr&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[Sandbox]]  &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;td&gt; [[R P Sandbox]]   &lt;/td&gt;
> &lt;/tr&gt;
> &lt;/table&gt;
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990740047
33c33
< &lt;td&gt; [[Sandbox]]  &lt;/td&gt;
---
> &lt;td&gt; [[SandBox]]  &lt;/td&gt;
------
KoyaanisQatsi|990740069
23c23
< &lt;table border=1/&gt;
---
> &lt;table border=0/&gt;
------
What_Google_Likes|990740203
2a3,4
> :''Can we get an update of this page to see if anything has changed significantly?  (or maybe I should ask after putting in good Coen bros. and Martin Scorsese articles....)  :-)'' --KQ
> 
45c47
< :   4   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
---
> :   4   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
------
BooleanAlgebra/Talk|990742921
1c1,3
< Explain to me why the word "lattice" has to be mentioned in an article called "Boolean algebra" at all.  For Chrissakes, Boole isn't even mentioned in the article!  Sheesh! --[[LMS]], who would have to go back to his books to set things right.
---
> Explain to me why the word "lattice" has to be mentioned in an article called "Boolean algebra" at all.  For Chrissakes, Boole isn't even mentioned in the article!  Sheesh! --[[LMS]], who would have to go back to his books to set things right.
> 
> Because that's what a Boolean algebra ''is'' - a kind of lattice.  Which would be more important in a page on platypuses - to mention they were discovered by sir so-and-so, or to mention they are a type of monotreme?  Not that we shouldn't have both, but we aren't normally that impatient.
------
Meme/Talk|990743687
10a11,13
> ----
> I do not really understand why talking about memes is wrong or bad or why talking about any kind of philosophical fact is wrong or bad. I am sorry for that but I had really been lured by the idea of meme, when I first read it, because it seemed to shed light on many questions in my mind. I do not personally think that it is the best way to understand the meme theory in the initial form described by Dawkins and write that to Wikipedia. As the meme theory suggests the ideas evolve and the meme theory is not an exception for that. So, writing the different versions of this theory as understood by different scholars seems to me more beneficial. I can not understand the harsh criticism brought to the meme theory. As the theory itself suggests that there are no good or bad ideas. There are ideas that are more prone to spread among people and thus survive for a longer time and the meme theory seems to be a good candidate for this. So, can anyone please "enlighten" me about what is so wrong with this theory?
> Secondly, I believe that, when someone changes the initial form of an article completely, he/she would better briefly explain in the talk section the bad parts (wrong ideas, bad English etc.) of this initial form. This may be much more didactic for the readers. [[ErdemTuzun]]  
------
Sexism|990743992
3c3,5
< Discrimination based on [[gender]] or sex is illegal in many countries.  Most countries have laws that give special rights or privileges to one sex (feminists claim: mostly to men; masculists claim: mostly to women). Some countries ban sex discrimination but still have preferential laws in their law books. 
---
> More precisely, sexism is a species of [[collectivism]], which holds that individuals can be understood (and often judged) based on the characteristics of the group to which they belong, in this case, their sex group (male or female).
> 
> Discrimination based on sex is illegal in many countries.  Most countries have laws that give special rights or privileges to one sex (feminists claim: mostly to men; masculists claim: mostly to women). Some countries ban sex discrimination but still have preferential laws in their law books. 
------
Carl_Jung|990744005
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Carl Jung and Jungion Psychology
------
Collectivism|990744641
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Collectivism is the practice of regarding people in the aggregrate rather than as individuals.  The collectivist believes people can be understood and judged with reference to the group that they belong to (or are supposed to belong to).  The (often supposed) characteristics of the group are thought to apply to all of its members.  Differnces between groups are considered significant, while differences between individuals within groups, to the extent that they are acknowledged at all, are considered unimportant.
> 
> Common examples of collectivism are [[racism]] and [[sexism]].
> 
> Many political systems are based on collectivism.  [[Communism]] regards people with reference to their supposed economic class.  [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality.  Typically, political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the individual's interests are in fact tied up with the interests of their group.
------
International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate|990744664
30c30
< * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!": "Observe por favor que todas las contribuciones a Wikipedia se hacen público bajo el [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Licensia de Documentación Libre (en inglés)].  Si usted no desea que la gente corregida sus escritos sin piedad y los regalé libremente, entonces no los escriba aquí.  También usted es prometiéndonos que escribió esto usted mismo y usted es dueño de los derechos de autor, o lo copió de una fuente sin copyright.  NO USE ESCRITOS CON COPYRIGHT SIN PERMISO." (Native speaker ''please'' check this one!)
---
> * "Please notice that all contributions to Wikipedia are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't hit submit. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain resource. DO NOT USE COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!": "Observe por favor que todas las contribuciones a Wikipedia se hacen públicas bajo el [http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?GNU_Free_Documentation_License GNU Licencia de Documentación Libre (en inglés)].  Si usted no desea que la gente corrija sus escritos sin piedad y los distribuya libremente, entonces no los ponga aquí.  También usted nos asegura que escribió esto usted mismo y es dueño de los derechos de autor, o lo copió de una fuente sin copyright.  NO USE ESCRITOS CON COPYRIGHT SIN PERMISO." (Native speaker ''please'' check this one!)
32c32
< * "Save" and "Preview" Buttons on edit page: "Guardar", "Anticipo"
---
> * "Save" and "Preview" Buttons on edit page: "Grabar", "Anticipo"
34c34
< * "Preview only, not yet saved.": "Este es solamente un anticipo, y todavía no ha sido guardado" (Someone please check by verb conjugation here).
---
> * "Preview only, not yet saved.": "Este es solamente un anticipo, y todavía no ha sido grabado" (Someone please check by verb conjugation here).
39a40,43
> :Several of the missing points you mention were included in the translations I sent to Jason. I was  giving him some more time,
> and, in any case, i think the problem with the links has more immediate importance. I asked him to leave "HomePage" unchanged,
> as I have seen it in some spanish pages...I would like to have
> some more contributors before deciding the final thing,
------
Collectivism|990744800
5c5
< Many political systems are based on collectivism.  [[Communism]] regards people with reference to their supposed economic class.  [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality.  Typically, political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the individual's interests are in fact tied up with the interests of their group.
---
> Many political systems are based on collectivism.  [[Communism]] regards people with reference to their supposed economic class.  [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality.  Typically, political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the individual's interests are in fact tied up with the interests of their group.  This line of reasoning often leads to the suppression of individual rights, which are sacrificed for the alleged good of the group.
------
Larry_Sanger|990744826
100c100,105
< Actually, it was Jimbo who started that convention of breaking the factbook entries that way.  I don't see anything wrong with it, myself.  I think broken up is fine, or can be, particularly when you can expect very much more information under a given heading (which is usually).  That's just my opinion... --Larry
---
> Actually, it was Jimbo who started that convention of breaking the factbook entries that way.  I don't see anything wrong with it, myself.  I think broken up is fine, or can be, particularly when you can expect very much more information under a given heading (which is usually).  That's just my opinion... --Larry
> ----
> Larry, I noticed that the spanish nupedia homepage has a link
> to wikipedia, could you arrange for a link to es.wikipedia.com
> to be added, with a note saying that it is a spanish language wikipedia?
> I ask you because I'm not sure we should I ask.
------
Collectivism|990745194
1c1
< Collectivism is the practice of regarding people in the aggregrate rather than as individuals.  The collectivist believes people can be understood and judged with reference to the group that they belong to (or are supposed to belong to).  The (often supposed) characteristics of the group are thought to apply to all of its members.  Differnces between groups are considered significant, while differences between individuals within groups, to the extent that they are acknowledged at all, are considered unimportant.
---
> Collectivism is the practice of regarding people in the aggregrate rather than as individuals.  The collectivist believes people can be understood and judged with reference to the group that they belong to (or are supposed to belong to).  The (often supposed) characteristics of the group are thought to apply to all of its members.  Differences between groups are considered significant, while differences between individuals within groups, to the extent that they are acknowledged at all, are considered unimportant.
------
Meme/Talk|990746551
13c13,17
< Secondly, I believe that, when someone changes the initial form of an article completely, he/she would better briefly explain in the talk section the bad parts (wrong ideas, bad English etc.) of this initial form. This may be much more didactic for the readers. [[ErdemTuzun]]  
---
> Secondly, I believe that, when someone changes the initial form of an article completely, he/she would better briefly explain in the talk section the bad parts (wrong ideas, bad English etc.) of this initial form. This may be much more didactic for the readers. [[ErdemTuzun]]
> 
> ----
> I don't really disagree with this, and in fact that's why my article explicitly mentions that some later conceptions of the term (such as memetic "organisms") are often the ones most talked about.  I wouldn't have any objection to more coverage of that aspect, and more mentions of popular beliefs and misconceptions.  But I ''do'' think it is important to emphasize the original idea and the solid science behind it more than popular conceptions, extrapolations, and speculations.  And Larry's right--this is dangerous ground, and many people use the concept to justify sociological nonsense, the same way that some people use quantum mechanics to justify subjectivity, and the way many earlier writers used Darwin to justify racism, so it must be handled with care.  Also, your original text wasn't as clear or explanatory as some of your other stuff (particularly your medical information which is great).  That's understandable; it may be a combination of the vagueness of the subject itself and your English (which is actually better than that of many native speakers I know, but still...).  I just couldn't understand what you were trying to say, how it was organized, and how it related to Dawkins' original ideas.  I think my text is clearer, more useful, and more faithful to the original concept.  Feel free to add anything you think important that I may have missed.  -- [[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
KlausSeistrup|990747073
3c3
< See also Why:KlausSeistrup.  
---
> See also ZWiki:KlausSeistrup.  
8c8
< This is a personal page for prolific [[Wikipedia]] writer KlausSeistrup.  It is not pointless, for it tells us his middle name and that he is a citizen of Denmark.  Now I can address him in Danish if I wanted to (and could).  Re: Danish royalty, you learn something new every day; aren't wikis great? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
---
> This is a personal page for prolific [[Wikipedia]] writer KlausSeistrup.  It is not pointless, for it tells us his middle name and that he is a citizen of Denmark.  Now I can address him in Danish if I wanted to (and could).  Re: Danish royalty, you learn something new every day; aren't wikis great? -- [[Larry Sanger]]
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|990748745
47a48,52
> 
> ----
> Thanks for the explanation about memes. Now I understand the issue much more better. And sorry for the (little bit) strong language I used. [[ErdemTuzun]]
> 
> ----
------
Lee_Daniel_Crocker|990749876
22d21
< 
26d24
< ----
28c26,27
< Yep, I'm an active [http://www.extropy.org/ Extropian], so you may have found me through various Extropian/transhumanist/sigularity sites.  You may also have run across me in connection with [http://freenet.sourceforge.net/ Freenet], or perhaps with the [http://www.libpng.org/pub/png/ PNG] graphics file format of which I am a co-inventor.  I'm sure I'm linked in other places as well--I've been on the web as long as there's been a web to be on.
---
> :''Yep, I'm an active [http://www.extropy.org/ Extropian], so you may have found me through various Extropian/transhumanist/sigularity sites.  You may also have run across me in connection with [http://freenet.sourceforge.net/ Freenet], or perhaps with the [http://www.libpng.org/pub/png/ PNG] graphics file format of which I am a co-inventor.  I'm sure I'm linked in other places as well--I've been on the web as long as there's been a web to be on.''
> 
39c38
< Yes; for those unfamiliar with the work, it's ISBN 006099486X, the story of the making of the Oxford English Dictionary and one of its most prolific early contributors, Dr. W. C. Minor, who was at the time imprisoned in the Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum.  I second the recommendation.  I'll have to write a page about the OED.  Pity its 1928 copyright hasn't expired, it would be a wonderful source of info here.
---
> :''Yes; for those unfamiliar with the work, it's ISBN 006099486X, the story of the making of the Oxford English Dictionary and one of its most prolific early contributors, Dr. W. C. Minor, who was at the time imprisoned in the Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum.  I second the recommendation.  I'll have to write a page about the OED.  Pity its 1928 copyright hasn't expired, it would be a wonderful source of info here.''
46c45,46
< ----
---
> :''Rest assured that I'm not picking on you--indeed I'm glad you're adding so much useful stuff.  You just happen to be adding things in subjects I know a lot about, so naturally I tend to edit them.  Creating an initial page is a great way to induce people like me to flesh them out.''
> 
52c52
< ----
---
> :''Thanks, I thought I might have been too strong in my criticism of ''your'' text.  That's one of the things I love about Wikipedia--the more crontribtors argue and edit each other, the better the final result is.''
------
Carl_Jung|990750305
1c1,9
< Carl Jung and Jungion Psychology
---
> '''Carl Gustav Jung''' (1875 - 1961) was a Swiss psychologist and comtemporary of [[Sigmund Freud]].
> 
> <h2>Works</h2>
> 
> * ''The Psychology of the Unconscious'' (1916)
> * ''Modern Man in Search of a Soul'' (1933)
> 
> [[/Talk]]
> 
------
Carl_Jung/Talk|990750354
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Just replaced a blank page with a stub.  Much more needed here!  --[[Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
> 
------
Carl_Jung/Talk|990752145
2a3
> :I'm sure I saw the Jungion in a Star Trek chapter :)
------
JRR_Tolkien/The_Lord_of_the_Rings|990754095
37c37,39
< ** Swedish musician [[Bo Hansson]] has made an entire instrumental album based on The Lord of the Rings
---
> ** Swedish musician [[Bo Hansson]] has made an entire instrumental album based on The Lord of the Rings
> 
> The [http://www.glyphweb.com/arda/default.htm Encyclopedia of Arda] is a good source for further information.
------
History_of_England|990755393
1c1
< It is very difficult to trace the true origins of the country now known as England, since its geopolitical outlines have, until relatively recent times, been subject to a state of ebb and flow, as a consequence of invasion, migration and political flux.
---
> It is very difficult to trace the true origins of the country now known as [[England]], since its geopolitical outlines have, until relatively recent times, been subject to a state of ebb and flow, as a consequence of invasion, migration and political flux.
------
Frequency_modulation|990759245
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The encoding of a carrier wave by variation of its frequency in accordance with an input signal.
> 
------
Larry_Sanger|990765528
105c105,107
< I ask you because I'm not sure we should I ask.
---
> I ask you because I'm not sure we should I ask.
> ----
> I don't have (well, I don't exert) direct control over this.  The place to ask for this would be on Espanol-L.  I think some of the translators, like other Nupedia people, look down their noses (totally unwarrantedly, in my opinion) at Wikipedia, so you might encounter resistance.  But I'm all for trying! --[[LMS]]
------
Collectivism|990765631
5a6,7
> 
> /Talk
------
Collectivism|990765655
5c5
< Many political systems are based on collectivism.  [[Communism]] regards people with reference to their supposed economic class.  [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality.  Typically, political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the individual's interests are in fact tied up with the interests of their group.  This line of reasoning often leads to the suppression of individual rights, which are sacrificed for the alleged good of the group.
---
> Many political systems are based on collectivism.  [[Communism]] regards people with reference to their supposed economic class.  [[Nationalism]] regards people with reference to their nationality.  Typically, political collectivists hold that different groups have competing interests, and that the individual's interests are in fact tied up with the interests of their group.  This line of reasoning, anti-collectivists allege, often leads to the suppression of individual rights, which are sacrificed for the alleged good of the group.
------
Collectivism/Talk|990765720
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> How much is "collectivism vs. individualism" discussed outside of [[Ayn Rand]] circles?  I don't know, which is why I am asking.
------
Hermann_Goering|990770971
1c1,5
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Hermann Goering (1893-1946)</b>
> 
> A prominent member of the [[Nazi]] party and one of the main architects [[Nazi Germany]]. After [[World War II]] he was tried for war crimes and sentenced to death. He managed to commit suicide the night before he was supposed to be hanged. 
> 
> During [[World Ward I]] he served in the German airforce together with Manfred von Richthofen, the famous "[[Red Baron]]".
------
Hermann_Goering|990770985
5c5
< During [[World Ward I]] he served in the German airforce together with Manfred von Richthofen, the famous "[[Red Baron]]".
---
> During [[World War I]] he served in the German airforce together with Manfred von Richthofen, the famous "[[Red Baron]]".
------
Nazi_Germany|990771007
1c1
< [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of [[Germany]] that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''Das Tausendjaehrige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''Das Dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).
---
> [[Nazi]] Germany refers to the government of [[Germany]] that lasted from 1933 until 1945.  It was led by [[Adolf Hitler]], and based on the ideology of [[National Socialism]], a variant of [[Fascism|fascism]] and [[Totalitarianism|totalitarianism]]. The country was often reffered to as ''Das Tausendjaehrige [[Reich]]'' (1000 year [[Reich]]) or as ''Das Dritte [[Reich]]'' (the third [[Reich]]).   
------
Heinrich_Himmler|990771815
1c1,10
< Heinrich Himmler became chief of the [[German]] police and ''Reichsführer-[[SS]]'' under [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1935.
---
> <b>Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945)</b>
> 
> Heinrich Himmler was one of the most powerful people in [[Nazi Germany]]. After a carreer in the [[Gestapo]], he became chief of the police and ''Reichsführer-SS'' -- the leader of the [[SS]] forces.
> 
> He mananaged to develop the SS into the strongest para-military organisation in the Third [[Reich]]. The SS acquired vast police powers in Germany itself and the occupied territories and it also gained primary responsibilities in the areas of security, intelligence gathering, and espionage.
> 
> Himmler was also one of the main architects of the [[Holocaust]], using elements of mysticism and a fanatical belief in the [[racism|racist]] [[Nazi]] ideology. 
> 
> In the final months of [[World War II]] he tried to negotiate peace with the Allied forces and planned to succeed [[Hitler]]. The latter, after acquiring knowledge of this, stripped him of all his powers and ordered his arrest. Disguised as an ordinary soldier he was capptured by the Allies and commited suicide before he could be tried.
> 
------
Nazi_Germany|990771936
10a11
>  [[Eva Braun]] 
12a14,15
>  [[Adolf Eichmann]] 
>  [[Rudolf Hess|Rudolf Hess]] 
15,17c18,19
<  [[Eva Braun]]
<  [[Rudolf Hess|Rudolf Hess]]
< 
---
>  [[Alfred Speer]]
>  
------
WojPob|990772041
6a7
> [[/todo list]]
------
WojPob|990772073
7c7,8
< [[/todo list]]
---
> 
> [[/ToDoList]]
------
What_Google_Likes|990772563
1,3c1
<  Updated 4/05/2001
< 
< :''Can we get an update of this page to see if anything has changed significantly?  (or maybe I should ask after putting in good Coen bros. and Martin Scorsese articles....)  :-)'' --KQ
---
> Updated May 25, 2001
16,47c14,91
< :  12   [[EiffelTower]]
< :  11   [[AdolfHitler]]
< :   9   [[The Cohen Brothers]]
< :   8   [[Martin Scorcese]]
< :   8   [[Interquartile Range]]
< :   7   [[RosaParks]]
< :   7   [[KurtCobain]]
< :   7   [[BritannicaPublicDomain]]
< :   6   [[WikiWiki]]
< :   6   [[Socrates/The Trial of Socrates]]
< :   6   [[Las Vegas/Climate]]
< :   6   [[BillClinton]]
< :   6   [[AlexanderTheGreat]]
< :   5   [[ThomasEdison]]
< :   5   [[Standard Deviation]]
< :   5   [[NewHampshire]]
< :   5   [[Johnny Got His Gun]]
< :   5   [[HomePage]]
< :   5   [[Gene chip]]
< :   5   [[Cluster Sampling]]
< :   5   [[AnnaKournikova]]
< :   4   [[World War II]]
< :   4   [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
< :   4   [[PythagoreanTheorem]]
< :   4   [[PresidentOfTheUnitedStates]]
< :   4   [[Perseus]]
< :   4   [[NamingConventions/Oldpage]]
< :   4   [[JapaneseAnime]]
< :   4   [[Japan/Military]]
< :   4   [[IndoEuropean]]
< :   4   [[DeconstructionIsm]]
< :   4   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
---
> :  13   [[Brooke Burke]]
> :   7   [[Napoleonic Code]]
> :   6   [[One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest]]
> :   6   [[Johnny Got His Gun]]
> :   6   [[Famous French People]]
> :   6   [[CIAWorldFactbook]]
> :   6   [[Arc de Triomphe/Arc de Triumph]]
> :   5   [[The Simpsons/Characters]]
> :   5   [[History of the Petroleum Industry/Early uses of petroleum]]
> :   5   [[Coitus interruptus]]
> :   4   [[Roman alphabet]]
> :   4   [[Rolling Stone magazine]]
> :   4   [[Recent celebrity deaths]]
> :   4   [[Poker]]
> :   4   [[Pacific Ocean]]
> :   4   [[Limerick poem]]
> :   4   [[John Jacob Astor]]
> :   4   [[Genre Film Theory]]
> :   4   [[Frisian language]]
> :   4   [[Chess/Board]]
> :   3   [[Weighted Mean]]
> :   3   [[Vector space/Example I]]
> :   3   [[United States Constitution/Amendment Six]]
> :   3   [[Tiffani-Amber Thiessen]]
> :   3   [[The Simpsons/Charles Montgomery Burns]]
> :   3   [[The Cohen Brothers]]
> :   3   [[Texas holdem]]
> :   3   [[Super fluids]]
> :   3   [[Shotgun]]
> :   3   [[Shannon Elizabeth]]
> :   3   [[RosaParks]]
> :   3   [[Rational numbers]]
> :   3   [[Raised bed gardening]]
> :   3   [[Protista]]
> :   3   [[Pornography]]
> :   3   [[Political correctness]]
> :   3   [[Poker/Probability]]
> :   3   [[Poker/Hands]]
> :   3   [[Paleocene]]
> :   3   [[New York City]]
> :   3   [[NewHampshire]]
> :   3   [[Natural numbers]]
> :   3   [[NamesGivenToTheDivine]]
> :   3   [[NWA]]
> :   3   [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus]]
> :   3   [[Modus tollens]]
> :   3   [[MathematicianS]]
> :   3   [[Macedonian phalanx]]
> :   3   [[Las Vegas/Climate]]
> :   3   [[KurtCobain]]
> :   3   [[Japan/People]]
> :   3   [[Italy/History]]
> :   3   [[Internet troll]]
> :   3   [[Huntingtons Chorea]]
> :   3   [[Hoplite]]
> :   3   [[History of Germany]]
> :   3   [[Greek Mythology]]
> :   3   [[Flagellate]]
> :   3   [[Film History/Canada]]
> :   3   [[FermatsLastTheorem]]
> :   3   [[Erotica]]
> :   3   [[ErnestHemingway]]
> :   3   [[DualisticInteractionism]]
> :   3   [[Ciliophora]]
> :   3   [[Chess/Pawn]]
> :   3   [[Censorship]]
> :   3   [[BusinessSchools/UnitedStates]]
> :   3   [[Bob Dylan]]
> :   3   [[Auteur Theory Film]]
> :   3   [[Atlas Shrugged/Topics of note]]
> :   3   [[Atlas Shrugged/England]]
> :   3   [[Arraignment]]
> :   3   [[AnnaKournikova]]
> :   2   [[World War II]]
> :   2   [[Woody Allen]]
> :   2   [[William Ernest Henley]]
> 
> (the list continues; cut off here)
------
What_Google_Likes|990772598
5c5,6
< The following list shows hits from Google over the past 3 days.  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
---
> The following list shows hits from Google over ''just today.''  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
> 
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990772604
1c1,18
< Describe the new page here.
---
> [[Eva Braun]] -- [[Alfred Speer]] -- [[Erwin Rommel]]
> 
> [[Kriegsmarine]] -- [[U-boot]]
> 
> [[Battle of Stalingrad]] -- [[Battle of Kursk]] -- [[Leningrad Siege]]
> 
> [[Vichy France]] 
> 
> [[Guernica]] -- [[Spanish Civil War]] -- [[Franco]]
> 
> [[D-Day]] -- [[Invasion of Normandy]] -- [[Operation Market Garden]] -- [[Battle of Arnheim]]
> 
> [[Battle of El Alamein]]
> 
> [[Holocaust]]
> 
> [[Gualdacanal]] -- [[Battle of Midway]] -- [[Island hopping]]
> 
------
What_Google_Likes|990772637
1c1
< Updated May 25, 2001
---
> Updated May 25, 2001 (by Larry, who doesn't do such a good job as Jimbo)
3,11c3
< Google has finally updated their database!
< 
< The following list shows hits from Google over ''just today.''  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?
< 
< I have made a loose adjustment to partially correct for people
< clicking the same link over and over.
< 
< Google is now sending us about 3 times as much traffic as they
< used to send.  They are now sending more than Bomis, even!
---
> Google has finally updated their database!  The following list shows hits from Google over ''just today.''  In other words, what did people who found us from Google look at?  Google is now sending us about 3 times as much traffic as they used to send.  They are now sending more than Bomis, even!
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990772644
17c17
< [[Gualdacanal]] -- [[Battle of Midway]] -- [[Island hopping]]
---
> [[Gualdacanal]] -- [[Battle of Midway]] -- [[Island hopping]]   
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990772892
1c1,3
< [[Eva Braun]] -- [[Alfred Speer]] -- [[Erwin Rommel]]
---
> A reminder;-)
> 
> [[Eva Braun]] -- [[Alfred Speer]] -- [[Erwin Rommel]] -- [[Adolf Eichmann]] -- [[Nuremberg Trial]]
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990773118
3c3,5
< [[Eva Braun]] -- [[Alfred Speer]] -- [[Erwin Rommel]] -- [[Adolf Eichmann]] -- [[Nuremberg Trial]]
---
> [[Eva Braun]] -- [[Alfred Speer]] -- [[Erwin Rommel]] -- [[Adolf Eichmann]] -- [[Reinhard Heydrich]] -- [[Nuremberg Trial]]
> 
> [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Organisations in The Third Reich]]
------
BooleanAlgebra/Talk|990773155
3c3,5
< Because that's what a Boolean algebra ''is'' - a kind of lattice.  Which would be more important in a page on platypuses - to mention they were discovered by sir so-and-so, or to mention they are a type of monotreme?  Not that we shouldn't have both, but we aren't normally that impatient.
---
> Because that's what a Boolean algebra ''is'' - a kind of lattice.  Which would be more important in a page on platypuses - to mention they were discovered by sir so-and-so, or to mention they are a type of monotreme?  Not that we shouldn't have both, but we aren't normally that impatient.
> ----
> Well, Boole himself probably wouldn't understand the article about Boolean algebra in its present form.  And it omits all sorts of totally essential information to understanding what Boolean algebra is.  Have a look at [http://www.encyclopedia.com/articles/01674.html this], and compare the article in its present form.  I can have read Boole's formulation of Boolean algebra and understand it, without understanding our present BooleanAlgebra article.  I think there's something wrong with that, particularly in an ''encyclopedia'' that attempts to ''explain'' concepts.  This is, as always, MHO! --[[LMS]]
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990773160
5c5
< [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Organisations in The Third Reich]]
---
> [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Nati Germany/Organisations]]
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990773184
5c5
< [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Nati Germany/Organisations]]
---
> [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Nazi Germany/Organisations]]
------
WojPob/ToDoList|990773438
5c5
< [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Nazi Germany/Organisations]]
---
> [[SS]] -- [[SA]] -- [[Waffen SS]] -- [[Nazi Germany/Organisations]] -- [[NSDAP]]
------
CombinaTorics|990773937
1c1
< see [[Combinatorics]]
---
> #REDIRECT[[ Combinatorics ]]
------
Real_numbers|990774423
52c52
< The reals are a [[contractible]] (hence [[connected]] and  [[simply connected]]), [[locally compact]] [[seperable]] [[Haussdorff]] space, of [[Cohomological dimension for H_c|dimension]] 1, and are [[first category|everywhere dense]]. The real numbers are not [[compact]].
---
> The reals are a [[contractible]] (hence [[connected]] and  [[simply connected]]), [[locally compact]] [[separable]] [[Haussdorff]] space, of [[Cohomological dimension for H_c|dimension]] 1, and are [[first category|everywhere dense]]. The real numbers are not [[compact]].
------
History_of_Spain|990774862
4a5
> Hay que ser xungo para escribir esto, capullos...
------
One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoos_Nest|990775702
1c1
< [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|Best Direction]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Best Adapted Screenplay]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet_Movie_Database]]. 
---
> [[Milos Forman]] film based on the [[Ken Kesey]] book of the same name, in which Randle Patrick McMurphy, a prisoner whose term is nearly over, decides to have himself declared insane so he'll be transfered to a mental institution, where he thinks he can spend the rest of his time in peace.  The mental institution is run by an unyielding tyrant, Nurse Ratched, who has cowed the patients--who are mostly there by choice--into dejected submission.  Widely lauded film that won [[Academy Award]]s for [[Academy Awards/Best Actor|Best Actor]] for [[Jack Nicholson]], [[Academy Awards/Best Actress|Best Actress]] for [[Louise Fletcher]], [[Academy Awards/Directing|Best Direction]] for [[Milos Forman]], as well as [[Academy Awards/Best Picture|Best Picture]] and [[Academy Awards/Writing Screenplay Adaptation|Best Adapted Screenplay]].  Ranked number 20 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s list of 100 greatest American films, and consistently ranked in the top 15 on the [[Internet_Movie_Database]]. 
------
CIAWorldFactbook|990775779
1,18c1
< Notice we already previously had a page on this topic,
< [[CIA World Factbook]].
< 
< So we should merge these two and redirect one to the other.
< ----
< 
< Find it at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
< 
< It gives a 2 to 3 page summary of the demographics, location, tellecommunications capacity, government, industry, military capability, etc. of almost all countries in existence. 
< 
< Copyright information from the site:
< 
< The World Factbook is prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency for the use of US Government officials, and the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements. Information is provided by Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation), Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce), Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor), Central Intelligence Agency, Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs, Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense), Department of State, Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior), Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation), National Imagery and Mapping Agency (Department of Defense), Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense), Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior), Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense), US Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior), and other public and private sources.
< 
< 
< The Factbook is in the public domain. Accordingly, it may be copied freely without permission of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the CIA Act of 1949 (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties. 
< 
< 
---
> #REDIRECT [[CIA World Factbook]]
------
CIA_World_Factbook|990775976
1,2c1
< The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] publishes
< annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free to not only redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like. 
---
> The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] publishes annually a world factbook, with basic almanac style information about the various countries of the world.  The factbook gives a 2 to 3 page summary of the demographics, location, tellecommunications capacity, government, industry, military capability, etc. of almost all countries in existence.
4c3,7
< A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].  You (yes <i>you</i>) are encouraged to pick a country and following the model of [[Angola]], copy the information into the Wikipedia and start editing it.  See [[countries of the world]].
---
> The World Factbook is prepared by the Central Intelligence Agency for the use of US Government officials, and the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements. Information is provided by Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation), Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce), Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor), Central Intelligence Agency, Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs, Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense), Department of State, Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior), Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation), National Imagery and Mapping Agency (Department of Defense), Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense), Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior), Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense), US Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior), and other public and private sources.
> 
> Because this document is public domain, i.e. not under copyright, we Wikipedians are free not only to redistribute it, but also to modify it in any way we like, without permission of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the CIA Act of 1949 (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties. 
> 
> A copy can be found [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ here].  You (yes <i>you)</i> are encouraged to pick a country and following the model of [[Angola]], copy the information into the Wikipedia and start editing it.  See [[countries of the world]].
------
Famous_French_People|990776203
19c19
< :[[Francois Truffaut|François Truffaut]]
---
> :[[Francois Truffaut|François Truffaut]] --director
------
What_is_a_wiki|990776208
13c13
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].hhhhhh
------
What_is_a_wiki|990776225
13c13
< See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].hhhhhh
---
> See also WikiWiki and [[Wikipedia]].
------
Namibia|990776557
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Namibia/History|990776640
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> South Africa occupied the German colony of Sud-West Afrika during World War I and administered it as a mandate until after World War II when it annexed the territory. In 1966 the Marxist South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrilla group launched a war of independence for the area that was soon named Namibia, but it was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its administration in accordance with a UN peace plan for the entire region. Independence came in 1990.
------
Namibia/Geography|990776666
1c1,128
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and South Africa
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 22 00 S, 17 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 825,418 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 825,418 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than half the size of Alaska
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,824 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Angola 1,376 km, Botswana 1,360 km, South Africa 855 km, Zambia 233 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,572 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; hot, dry; rainfall sparse and erratic
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly high plateau; Namib Desert along coast; Kalahari Desert in east
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Konigstein 2,606 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> diamonds, copper, uranium, gold, lead, tin, lithium, cadmium, zinc, salt, vanadium, natural gas, hydropower, fish
> <br><i>note:</i>
> suspected deposits of oil, coal, and iron ore
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 31% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 60 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> prolonged periods of drought
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> very limited natural fresh water resources; desertification
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Population:</b>
> 1,771,327
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 384,900; female 375,282)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 53% (male 468,942; female 475,504)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 28,905; female 37,794) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.57% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 35.23 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 19.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 70.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 42.46 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 44.33 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 40.53 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.89 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Namibian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Namibian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 87.5%, white 6%, mixed 6.5%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> about 50% of the population belong to the Ovambo tribe and 9% to the Kavangos tribe; other ethnic groups are: Herero 7%, Damara 7%, Nama 5%, Caprivian 4%, Bushmen 3%, Baster 2%, Tswana 0.5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 80% to 90% (Lutheran 50% at least), indigenous beliefs 10% to 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English 7% (official), Afrikaans common language of most of the population and about 60% of the white population, German 32%, indigenous languages: Oshivambo, Herero, Nama
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 45%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 31% (1960 est.)
------
Namibia/Geography|990776708
65,128d64
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="People">People</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
< <p><b>Population:</b>
< 1,771,327
< <br><i>note:</i>
< estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
< <p><b>Age structure:</b>
< <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
< 43% (male 384,900; female 375,282)
< <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
< 53% (male 468,942; female 475,504)
< <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
< 4% (male 28,905; female 37,794) (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
< 1.57% (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
< 35.23 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Death rate:</b>
< 19.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
< 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
< <br><i>at birth:</i>
< 1.03 male(s)/female
< <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
< 1.03 male(s)/female
< <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
< 0.99 male(s)/female
< <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
< 0.76 male(s)/female
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
< 70.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 42.46 years
< <br><i>male:</i>
< 44.33 years
< <br><i>female:</i>
< 40.53 years (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
< 4.89 children born/woman (2000 est.)
< <p><b>Nationality:</b>
< <br><i>noun:</i>
< Namibian(s)
< <br><i>adjective:</i>
< Namibian
< <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
< black 87.5%, white 6%, mixed 6.5%
< <br><i>note:</i>
< about 50% of the population belong to the Ovambo tribe and 9% to the Kavangos tribe; other ethnic groups are: Herero 7%, Damara 7%, Nama 5%, Caprivian 4%, Bushmen 3%, Baster 2%, Tswana 0.5%
< <p><b>Religions:</b>
< Christian 80% to 90% (Lutheran 50% at least), indigenous beliefs 10% to 20%
< <p><b>Languages:</b>
< English 7% (official), Afrikaans common language of most of the population and about 60% of the white population, German 32%, indigenous languages: Oshivambo, Herero, Nama
< <p><b>Literacy:</b>
< <br><i>definition:</i>
< age 15 and over can read and write
< <br><i>total population:</i>
< 38%
< <br><i>male:</i>
< 45%
< <br><i>female:</i>
< 31% (1960 est.)
------
Namibia/People|990776730
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,771,327
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 43% (male 384,900; female 375,282)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 53% (male 468,942; female 475,504)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 4% (male 28,905; female 37,794) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.57% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 35.23 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 19.49 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.76 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 70.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 42.46 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 44.33 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 40.53 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.89 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Namibian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Namibian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> black 87.5%, white 6%, mixed 6.5%
> <br><i>note:</i>
> about 50% of the population belong to the Ovambo tribe and 9% to the Kavangos tribe; other ethnic groups are: Herero 7%, Damara 7%, Nama 5%, Caprivian 4%, Bushmen 3%, Baster 2%, Tswana 0.5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian 80% to 90% (Lutheran 50% at least), indigenous beliefs 10% to 20%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English 7% (official), Afrikaans common language of most of the population and about 60% of the white population, German 32%, indigenous languages: Oshivambo, Herero, Nama
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 38%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 45%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 31% (1960 est.)
------
Namibia/Government|990776744
1c1,70
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Namibia
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Namibia
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> WA
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Windhoek
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 13 regions; Caprivi, Erongo, Hardap, Karas, Khomas, Kunene, Ohangwena, Okavango, Omaheke, Omusati, Oshana, Oshikoto, Otjozondjupa
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 21 March 1990 (from South African mandate)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 21 March (1990)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> ratified 9 February 1990; effective 12 March 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Roman-Dutch law and 1990 constitution
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Samuel NUJOMA (since 21 March 1990); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Samuel NUJOMA (since 21 March 1990); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president from among the members of the National Assembly
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 30 November-1 December 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Samuel NUJOMA elected president; percent of vote - Samuel NUJOMA 77%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral legislature consists of the National Council (26 seats; two members are chosen from each regional council to serve six-year terms) and the National Assembly (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> National Council - elections for regional councils, to determine members of the National Council, held 30 November-1 December 1998 (next to be held by December 2004); National Assembly - last held 30 November-1 December 1999 (next to be held by December 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> National Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - SWAPO 21, DTA 4, UDF 1; National Assembly - percent of vote by party - SWAPO 77%, COD 10%, DTA 9%, UDF 3%, MAG 1%; seats by party - SWAPO 55, COD 7, DTA 7, UDF 2, MAG 1,
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the National Council is a purely advisory body
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the president
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Congress of Democrats or COD [Ben ULENGA]; Democratic Turnhalle Alliance of Namibia or DTA [Katuutire KAURA, president]; Monitor Action Group or MAG [Kosie PRETORIUS]; South West Africa People's Organization or SWAPO [Sam NUJOMA]; United Democratic Front or UDF [Justus GAROEB]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Leonard Nangolo IIPUMBU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1605 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 986-0540
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 986-0443
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jeffrey A. BADER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Ausplan Building, 14 Lossen Street, Private Bag 12029 Ausspannplatz, Windhoek
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [264] (61) 221601
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [264] (61) 229792
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> a large blue triangle with a yellow sunburst fills the upper left section and an equal green triangle (solid) fills the lower right section; the triangles are separated by a red stripe that is contrasted by two narrow white-edge borders
------
Namibia/Economy|990776761
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is heavily dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals for export. Mining accounts for 20% of GDP. Namibia is the fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals in Africa and the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia also produces large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. Half of the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood. Namibia must import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is four times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorer countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in pronounced poverty because of large-scale unemployment, the great inequality of income distribution, and the large amount of wealth going to foreigners. The Namibian economy has close links to South Africa. GDP growth should improve in 2000-01, because of gains in the diamond and fish sectors. Agreement has been reached on the privatization of several more enterprises in coming years, which should stimulate long-run foreign investment.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $7.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 58% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 8.5% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 500,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 47%, industry 25%, services 28% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 30% to 40%, including underemployment (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $883 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $950 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> meat packing, fish processing, dairy products; mining (diamond, lead, zinc, tin, silver, tungsten, uranium, copper)
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 10% (1994)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.198 billion kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.81 billion kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 56 million kWh (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 890 million kWh (1999)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> imports electricity from South Africa
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> millet, sorghum, peanuts; livestock; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> diamonds, copper, gold, zinc, lead, uranium; cattle, processed fish, karakul skins
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> UK 43%, South Africa 26%, Spain 14%, France 8%, Japan (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foodstuffs; petroleum products and fuel, machinery and equipment, chemicals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> South Africa 84%, Germany, US, Japan (1995 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $159 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $127 million (1998)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Namibian dollar (N$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Namibian dollars (N$) per US$1 - 6.12439 (January 2000), 6.10948 (1999), 5.52828 (1998), 4.60796 (1997), 4.29935 (1996), 3.62709 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Namibia/Communications|990776774
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 100,848 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 20,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> good urban services; fair rural service; microwave radio relay links major towns; connections to other populated places are by open wire; 100% digital
> <br><i>international:</i>
> fiber-optic cable to South Africa, microwave radio relay link to Botswana, direct links to other neighboring countries; connected to Africa ONE and South African Far East (SAFE) submarine cables through South Africa; satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 34, shortwave 5 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 232,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 8 (plus about 20 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 60,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 4 (1999)
------
Namibia/Transportation|990776789
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,382 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 2,382 km 1.067-m gauge; single track (1995)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 63,258 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 5,250 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 58,008 km (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Luderitz, Walvis Bay
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 135 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 22
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 113
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 21
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 69
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 21 (1999 est.)
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Namibia/Military|990776802
1c1,12
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> National Defense Force (Army), Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 416,529 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 248,581 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $90 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.6% (FY97/98)
------
Namibia/Transnational_issues|990776816
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> dispute with Botswana over uninhabited Kasikili (Sidudu) Island in Linyanti (Chobe) River resolved by the ICJ in favor of Botswana (13 December 1999); at least one other island in Linyanti River is contested
------
Nauru|990776839
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Nauru/History|990776870
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Nauru's phosphate deposits began to be mined early in the 20th century by a German-British consortium; the island was occupied by Australian forces in World War I. Upon achieving independence in 1968, Nauru became the smallest independent republic in the world; it joined the UN in 1999.
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Nauru/Geography|990776886
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, south of the Marshall Islands
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 0 32 S, 166 55 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 21 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 21 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 30 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; monsoonal; rainy season (November to February)
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> sandy beach rises to fertile ring around raised coral reefs with phosphate plateau in center
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location along plateau rim 61 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphates
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 100% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> limited natural fresh water resources, roof storage tanks collect rainwater, but mostly dependent on a single, aging desalination plant; intensive phosphate mining during the past 90 years - mainly by a UK, Australia, and New Zealand consortium - has left the central 90% of Nauru a wasteland and threatens limited remaining land resources
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> Nauru is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia; only 53 km south of Equator
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Nauru/People|990776902
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 11,845 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 40.99% (male 2,494; female 2,361)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 57.37% (male 3,383; female 3,413)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.64% (male 97; female 97) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.05% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 27.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.34 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 10.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 60.84 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 57.35 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 64.5 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.71 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Nauruan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Nauruan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Nauruan 58%, other Pacific Islander 26%, Chinese 8%, European 8%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian (two-thirds Protestant, one-third Roman Catholic)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Nauruan (official, a distinct Pacific Island language), English widely understood, spoken, and used for most government and commercial purposes
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Nauru/Government|990776917
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Nauru
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Nauru
> <br><i>former:</i>
> Pleasant Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NR
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> no official capital; government offices in Yaren District
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 districts; Aiwo, Anabar, Anetan, Anibare, Baiti, Boe, Buada, Denigomodu, Ewa, Ijuw, Meneng, Nibok, Uaboe, Yaren
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 31 January 1968 (from the Australia-, New Zealand-, and UK-administered UN trusteeship)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 31 January (1968)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 29 January 1968
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> acts of the Nauru Parliament and British common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 20 years of age; universal and compulsory
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Rene HARRIS (since NA 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Rene HARRIS (since NA 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the president from among the members of Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by Parliament for a three-year term; election last held 27 April 1999 (next to be held NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Rene HARRIS elected president; percent of Parliament vote - NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> former President Bernard DOWIYOGO was deposed in a no-confidence vote
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Parliament (18 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 8 February 1997 (next to be held NA February 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 18
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> loose multiparty system; Democratic Party [Kennan ADEANG]; Nauru Party (informal) [Bernard DOWIYOGO]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, C, ESCAP, ICAO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WHO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> Nauru does not have an embassy in the US, but will open a UN office early in 2000 at 800 2nd Avenue, New York, New York
> <br><i>consulate(s):</i>
> Agana (Guam)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> the US does not have an embassy in Nauru; the US Ambassador to Fiji is accredited to Nauru
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with a narrow, horizontal, yellow stripe across the center and a large white 12-pointed star below the stripe on the hoist side; the star indicates the country's location in relation to the Equator (the yellow stripe) and the 12 points symbolize the 12 original tribes of Nauru
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Nauru/Economy|990776931
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Revenues of this tiny island come from exports of phosphates, but reserves are expected to be exhausted in the year 2000. Phosphates have given Nauruans one of the highest per capita incomes in the Third World, with estimates of GDP varying widely. Few other resources exist, thus most necessities must be imported, including fresh water from Australia. The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. Substantial amounts of phosphate income are invested in trust funds to help cushion the transition. The government also has been borrowing heavily from the trusts to finance fiscal deficits. To cut costs the government has called for a freezing of wages, a reduction of over-staffed public service departments, privatization of numerous government agencies, and closure of some overseas consulates. In recent years Nauru has encouraged the registration of offshore banks and corporations. Tens of billions of dollars have been channeled through their accounts.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $100 million (1993 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $10,000 (1993 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -3.6% (1993)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> employed in mining phosphates, public administration, education, and transportation
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 0%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $23.4 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $64.8 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> phosphate mining, financial services, coconut products
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 30 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 28 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $25.3 million (f.o.b., 1991)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> phosphates
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia, NZ
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $21.1 million (c.i.f., 1991)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, fuel, manufactures, building materials, machinery
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia, UK, NZ, Japan
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $33.3 million
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $2.25 million from Australia (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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Nauru/Communications|990776944
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2,000 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 450 (1994)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> adequate local and international radiotelephone communications provided via Australian facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 7,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 500 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Nauru/Transportation|990776958
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3.9 km; note - used to haul phosphates from the center of the island to processing facilities on the southwest coast
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 30 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 24 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 6 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Nauru
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Nauru/Military|990776972
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> no regular armed forces; Directorate of the Nauru Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,945 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,620 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> Nauru maintains no defense forces; under an informal agreement, Australia is responsible for defense of the island
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Nauru/Transnational_issues|990776990
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
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Countries_of_the_world|990777061
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< <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Norway]]
---
> <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Navassa Island]] - [[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Norway]]
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Navassa_Island|990777085
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Navassa_Island/History|990777097
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> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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Navassa_Island/Geography|990777115
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, about one-fourth of the way from Haiti to Jamaica
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 18 25 N, 75 02 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5.2 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 5.2 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about nine times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 8 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> marine, tropical
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> raised coral and limestone plateau, flat to undulating; ringed by vertical white cliffs (9 to 15 m high)
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on southwest side 77 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> guano
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 90%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 0 sq km (1998)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location 160 km south of the US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; mostly exposed rock, but enough grassland to support goat herds; dense stands of fig-like trees, scattered cactus
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Navassa_Island/People|990777131
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> <b>Population:</b>
> uninhabited
> <br><i>note:</i>
> transient Haitian fishermen and others camp on the island (July 2000 est.)
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Navassa_Island/Government|990777150
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Navassa Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> BQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service, US Department of the Interior; in September 1996, the Coast Guard ceased operations and maintenance of Navassa Island Light, a 46-meter-tall lighthouse located on the southern side of the island; there has also been a private claim advanced against the island
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of the US is used
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Navassa_Island/Economy|990777168
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> no economic activity
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Navassa_Island/Communications|990777187
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> <i>This section was omitted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] report</i>
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Navassa_Island/Transportation|990777199
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> <b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
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Navassa_Island/Military|990777212
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> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
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Navassa_Island/Transnational_issues|990777225
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> claimed by Haiti
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Nepal|990777264
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Nepal/History|990777276
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> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1951, the Nepalese monarch ended the century-old system of rule by hereditary premiers and instituted a cabinet system of government. Reforms in 1990 established a multiparty democracy within the framework of a constitutional monarchy.
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Nepal/Geography|990777291
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Southern Asia, between China and India
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 28 00 N, 84 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Asia
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 140,800 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 136,800 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 4,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than Arkansas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,926 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> China 1,236 km, India 1,690 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies from cool summers and severe winters in north to subtropical summers and mild winters in south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> Terai or flat river plain of the Ganges in south, central hill region, rugged Himalayas in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Kanchan Kalan 70 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> quartz, water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 17%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 26% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 8,500 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> severe thunderstorms, flooding, landslides, drought, and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked; strategic location between China and India; contains eight of world's 10 highest peaks
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Nepal/People|990777308
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 24,702,119 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 41% (male 5,187,805; female 4,860,583)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 56% (male 7,056,784; female 6,746,293)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 422,314; female 428,340) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.34% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 33.83 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 10.41 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.07 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 75.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 57.84 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 58.3 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 57.35 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 4.68 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Nepalese (singular and plural)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Nepalese
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Newars, Indians, Tibetans, Gurungs, Magars, Tamangs, Bhotias, Rais, Limbus, Sherpas
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Hindu 90%, Buddhist 5%, Muslim 3%, other 2% (1981)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> only official Hindu state in the world
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Nepali (official), over 20 other languages divided into numerous dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 27.5%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 40.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 14% (1995 est.)
> <p><b>People - note:</b>
> refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
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Nepal/Government|990777325
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Nepal
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Nepal
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NP
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kathmandu
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 14 zones (anchal, singular and plural); Bagmati, Bheri, Dhawalagiri, Gandaki, Janakpur, Karnali, Kosi, Lumbini, Mahakali, Mechi, Narayani, Rapti, Sagarmatha, Seti
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1768 (unified by Prithvi Narayan Shah)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Birthday of His Majesty the King, 28 December (1945)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 9 November 1990
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Hindu legal concepts and English common law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King BIRENDRA Bir Bikram Shah Dev (succeeded to the throne 31 January 1972 following the death of his father King MAHENDRA Bir Bikram Shah Dev, crowned king 24 February 1975); Heir Apparent Crown Prince DIPENDRA Bir Bikram
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Krishna Prasad BHATTARAI (since NA May 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the monarch
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Parliament consists of the National Council (60 seats; 35 appointed by the House of Representatives, 10 by the king, and 15 elected by an electoral college; one-third of the members elected every two years to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives (205 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> House of Representatives - last held 3 and 17 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NC 37.3%, CPN/UML 31.6%, NDP 10.4%, NSP 3.2%, Rastriya Jana Morcha 1.4%, Samyukta Janmorcha Nepal 0.8%, NWPP 0.5%, others 14.8%; seats by party - NC 113, CPN/UML 69, NDP 11, NSP 5, Rastriya Jana Morcha 5, Samyukta Janmorcha Nepal 1, NWPP 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court (Sarbochha Adalat), chief justice is appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council, the other judges are appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Communist Party of Nepal/United Marxist-Leninist or CPN/UML [Madhav Kumar NEPAL, general secretary]; Marxist-Leninist [Sahana PRADHAM, chairman, Bam Dev GAUTAM, general secretary]; National Democratic Party or NDP (also called Rastriya Prajantra Party or RPP) [Surya Bahadur THAPA]; Nepal Sadbhavana (Goodwill) Party or NSP [Gajendra Narayan SINGH, president]; Nepal Workers and Peasants Party or NWPP [Narayan Man BIJUKCHHE, party chair]; Nepali Congress or NC [Girija Prasad KOIRALA, party president, Sushil KOIRALA, general secretary]; Rastriya Jana Morcha [Chitra Bahadur K. C., chairman]; Samyukta Janmorcha Nepal [Lila Mani POKHAREL, general secretary]
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Maoist guerrilla-based insurgency; numerous small, left-leaning student groups in the capital; several small, radical Nepalese antimonarchist groups
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AsDB, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, MONUC, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Damodar Prasad GAUTAM
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2131 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-4550
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-5534
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Ralph FRANK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Pani Pokhari, Kathmandu
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> use embassy street address
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [977] (1) 411179
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [977] (1) 419963
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a blue border around the unique shape of two overlapping right triangles; the smaller, upper triangle bears a white stylized moon and the larger, lower triangle bears a white 12-pointed sun
------
Nepal/Economy|990777342
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world with nearly half of its population living below the poverty line. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for over 80% of the population and accounting for 41% of GDP. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Production of textiles and carpets has expanded recently and accounted for about 80% of foreign exchange earnings in the past three years. Agricultural production is growing by about 5% on average as compared with annual population growth of 2.3%. Since May 1991, the government has been moving forward with economic reforms, particularly those that encourage trade and foreign investment, e.g., by reducing business licenses and registration requirements in order to simplify investment procedures. The government has also been cutting expenditures by reducing subsidies, privatizing state industries, and laying off civil servants. More recently, however, political instability - five different governments over the past few years - has hampered Kathmandu's ability to forge consensus to implement key economic reforms. Nepal has considerable scope for accelerating economic growth by exploiting its potential in hydropower and tourism, areas of recent foreign investment interest. Prospects for foreign trade or investment in other sectors will remain poor, however, because of the small size of the economy, its technological backwardness, its remoteness, its landlocked geographic location, and its susceptibility to natural disaster. The international community's role of funding more than 60% of Nepal's development budget and more than 28% of total budgetary expenditures will likely continue as a major ingredient of growth.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $27.4 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 41%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 37% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 42% (1995-96 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3.2%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 29.8% (1995-96)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 11.8% (FY98/99 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 10 million (1996 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> severe lack of skilled labor
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 81%, services 16%, industry 3%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%; substantial underemployment (1999)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $536 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $818 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, carpet, textile; small rice, jute, sugar, and oilseed mills; cigarette; cement and brick production
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.17 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 5.13%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 94.87%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.212 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 72 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 196 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops; milk, water buffalo meat
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $485 million (f.o.b., 1998), but does not include unrecorded border trade with India
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute goods, grain
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> India 33%, US 26%, Germany 25% (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products, fertilizer
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> India 31%, China/Hong Kong 16%, Singapore 14% (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $2.4 billion (1997)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $411 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Nepalese rupee (NR) = 100 paisa
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Nepalese rupees (NRs) per US$1 - 68.784 (January 2000), 68.253 (1999), 65.976 (1998), 58.010 (1997), 56.692 (1996), 51.890 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 16 July - 15 July
------
Nepal/Communications|990777354
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 236,816 (January 2000)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> poor telephone and telegraph service; fair radiotelephone communication service and mobile cellular telephone network
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> radiotelephone communications; microwave landline to India; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 6, FM 5, shortwave 1 (January 2000)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 840,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 130,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Nepal/Transportation|990777366
1c1,34
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 101 km; note - all in Kosi close to Indian border
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 101 km 0.762-m gauge
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 13,223 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 4,073 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,150 km (April 1999)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 45 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 29 (1999 est.)
------
Nepal/Military|990777378
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Nepalese Army, Royal Nepalese Army Air Service, Nepalese Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 17 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 6,108,424 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,174,809 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 287,032 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $44 million (FY96/97)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.9% (FY96/97)
------
Nepal/Transnational_issues|990777391
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> over approximately 96,500 Bhutanese refugees in Nepal
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> illicit producer of cannabis for the domestic and international drug markets; transit point for opiates from Southeast Asia to the West
------
Tim_Chambers|990777422
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> http://www.geocities.com/tbchambers/me.jpg
> 
> "Home" page for all wikis is presently http://www.wikiweb.com/~wiki/tbc; however, that will be going away by decree of http://www.wikiweb.com/ on June 30, 2001. I started a WikiWeb about Anglicanism: http://www.wikiweb.com/~Anglicanism, so that'll be one of the first things I move to the [[wikipedia]].
------
Netherlands|990777520
20a21,33
> 
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * History section combined with existing entry
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Tbc|990777641
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT [[Tim Chambers]]
------
Tim_Chambers|990777659
2a3,4
> I've been [[tbc]] on the 'Net since 1980.
> 
------
Netherlands/History|990777798
21c21
< After [[World War II]], Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch did not agree with this, preferring just an increased amount of internal autonomy, and sent soldiers to fight the so-called 'first and second police action'. However, the determination of the Indonesians and international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], forced the Dutch to recognize Indonesia's independence. Only the eastern half of [[New Guinea]] remained Dutch a few years more.
---
> After [[World War II]], Indonesia declared its independence. The Dutch did not agree with this, preferring just an increased amount of internal autonomy, and sent soldiers to fight the so-called 'first and second police action'. However, the determination of the Indonesians and international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], forced the Dutch to recognize Indonesia's independence. Only the eastern half of [[New Guinea]] remained Dutch a few years more.  Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands quickly increased in wealth.
23c23
< Although it was originally expected that the loss of Indonesia would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse appeared true, and in the 1950s the Netherlands quickly increased in wealth. In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
---
> A modern, industrialized nation, the Netherlands is also a large exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member of NATO and the EC, and participated in the introduction of the euro in 1999.  In recent years, the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the unification of European countries in the [[European Union]].
27c27,28
< Yes, very impressive! --[[LMS]]
---
> Yes, very impressive! --[[LMS]]<br>
> You should work for the CIA.  :-D  (The entire history they collected was about 5 lines long) --KoyaanisQatsi
------
WikiWeb|990777825
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> #REDIRECT WikiWikiWeb
------
Netherlands/Geography|990777826
1c1,62
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Europe, bordering the North Sea, between Belgium and Germany
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 52 30 N, 5 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 41,532 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 33,889 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 7,643 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of New Jersey
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,027 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Belgium 450 km, Germany 577 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 451 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate; marine; cool summers and mild winters
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> mostly coastal lowland and reclaimed land (polders); some hills in southeast
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Prins Alexanderpolder -7 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Vaalserberg 321 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> natural gas, petroleum, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 39% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 6,000 sq km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> the extensive system of dikes and dams protects nearly one-half of the total area from being flooded
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution in the form of heavy metals, organic compounds, and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates; air pollution from vehicles and refining activities; acid rain
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Biodiversity, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> located at mouths of three major European rivers (Rhine, Maas or Meuse, and Schelde)
------
Netherlands/People|990777843
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 15,892,237 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 18% (male 1,497,290; female 1,431,671)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 68% (male 5,490,518; female 5,305,848)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 14% (male 885,839; female 1,281,071) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.57% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.12 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 8.72 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.69 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 4.42 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.28 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.4 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.28 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.64 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Dutchman(men), Dutchwoman(women)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Dutch
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Dutch 91%, Moroccans, Turks, and other 9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 34%, Protestant 25%, Muslim 3%, other 2%, unaffiliated 36% (1991)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Dutch
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99% (1979 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Netherlands/Government|990777861
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of the Netherlands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Netherlands
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Koninkrijk der Nederlanden
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Nederland
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NL
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Amsterdam; The Hague is the seat of government
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 12 provinces (provincien, singular - provincie); Drenthe, Flevoland, Friesland, Gelderland, Groningen, Limburg, Noord-Brabant, Noord-Holland, Overijssel, Utrecht, Zeeland, Zuid-Holland
> <p><b>Dependent areas:</b>
> Aruba, Netherlands Antilles
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1579 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Queen's Day, 30 April
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> adopted 1814; amended many times, last time 17 February 1983
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system incorporating French penal theory; constitution does not permit judicial review of acts of the States General; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard (since 30 April 1980); Heir Apparent WILLEM-ALEXANDER (born 27 April 1967), son of the monarch
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Wim KOK (since 22 August 1994) and Vice Prime Ministers Annemarie JORRITSMA (since 3 August 1998) and Els BORST-EILERS (since 3 August 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; following Second Chamber elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the monarch; vice prime ministers appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - PvdA, VVD, and D'66; there is also a Council of State composed of the monarch, heir apparent, and councilors consulted by the executive on legislative and administrative policy
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral States General or Staten Generaal consists of the First Chamber or Eerste Kamer (75 seats; members indirectly elected by the country's 12 provincial councils for four-year terms) and the Second Chamber or Tweede Kamer (150 seats; members directly elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> First Chamber - last held 25 May 1999 (next to be held NA May 2003); Second Chamber - last held 6 May 1998 (next to be held May 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> First Chamber - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - CDA 20, VVD 19, PvdA 15, D'66 4, other 17; Second Chamber - percent of vote by party - PvdA 30.0%, VVD 25.3%, CDA 19.3%, D'66 9.3%, other 16.1%; seats by party - PvdA 45, VVD 38, CDA 29, D'66 14, other 24
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Hoge Raad, justices are nominated for life by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Christian Democratic Appeal or CDA [Jaap de Hoop SCHEFFER]; Democrats '66 or D'66 [Tom KOK]; Labor Party or PvdA [Wim KOK]; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (Liberal) or VVD [Hans F. DIJKSTAL]; a host of minor parties
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> Federation of Netherlands Trade Union Movement (comprising Socialist and Catholic trade unions) and a Protestant trade union; Federation of Catholic and Protestant Employers Associations; Interchurch Peace Council or IKV; large multinational firms; the nondenominational Federation of Netherlands Enterprises
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, Benelux, BIS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, EIB, EMU, ESA, ESCAP, EU, FAO, G-10, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joris M. VOS
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 4200 Linnean Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 244-5300
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 362-3430
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Cynthia P. SCHNEIDER
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Lange Voorhout 102, 2514 EJ, The Hague
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 71, Box 1000, APO AE 09715
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [31] (70) 310-9209
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [31] (70) 361-4688
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Amsterdam
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and blue; similar to the flag of Luxembourg, which uses a lighter blue and is longer
------
Netherlands/Economy|990777882
1c1,82
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Netherlands is a prosperous and open economy in which the government has successfully reduced its role since the 1980s. Industrial activity is predominantly in food processing, chemicals, petroleum refining, and electrical machinery. A highly mechanized agricultural sector employs no more than 4% of the labor force but provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. The Dutch rank third worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind the US and France. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. This has helped cushion the economy from a slowdown in the euro area. Strong 3.8% GDP growth in 1998 was followed by an only slightly lower 3.4% expansion in 1999. The outlook remains favorable, with real GDP growth in 2000 projected at 3.25%, along with a small budget surplus. The Dutch were among the first 11 EU countries establishing the euro currency zone on 1 January 1999.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $365.1 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $23,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3.5%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 26.8%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 69.7% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 2.9%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 24.7% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 7 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 73%, industry 23%, agriculture 4% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 3.5% but generous welfare benefits have prompted large numbers to drop out of the labor market (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $163 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $170 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> agroindustries, metal and engineering products, electrical machinery and equipment, chemicals, petroleum, construction, microelectronics, fishing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3% (1999)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 88.736 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 91.32%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0.11%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 4.08%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 4.49% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 94.325 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 400 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 12.2 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> grains, potatoes, sugar beets, fruits, vegetables; livestock
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $169 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels; foodstuffs
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 78% (Germany 27%, Belgium-Luxembourg 13%, France 11%, UK 10%, Italy 6%), Central and Eastern Europe, US (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $152 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, fuels; foodstuffs, clothing
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 61% (Germany 20%, Belgium-Luxembourg 11%, UK 10%, France 7%), US 9%, Central and Eastern Europe (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $0
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $3.4 billion (1999)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Netherlands guilder, gulden, or florin (f.) = 100 cents; note - to be replaced by the euro on 1 January 2002
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> euros per US$1 - 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); Netherlands guilders, gulden, or florins (f.) per US$1 - 1.8904 (January 1999), 1.9837 (1998), 1.9513 (1997), 1.6859 (1996), 1.6057 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 1 January 1999, the EU introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at a fixed rate of 2.20371 guilders per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Netherlands/Communications|990777894
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 8.431 million (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1.016 million (1996)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> highly developed and well maintained
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> the existing system of multi-conductor cables is gradually being replaced by fiber-optic cables; the density of cellular telephone traffic is rapidly increasing and further modernization of the system is expected in the year 2001, with the introduction of the third generation of the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 2 Atlantic Ocean), 1 Eutelsat, and 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions) (1996)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 4, FM 58, shortwave 3 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 15.3 million (1996)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 15 (plus five low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 8.1 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 70 (1999)
------
Tim_Chambers|990777908
5c5
< "Home" page for all wikis is presently http://www.wikiweb.com/~wiki/tbc; however, that will be going away by decree of http://www.wikiweb.com/ on June 30, 2001. I started a WikiWeb about Anglicanism: http://www.wikiweb.com/~Anglicanism, so that'll be one of the first things I move to the [[wikipedia]].
---
> "Home" page for all wikis is presently http://www.wikiweb.com/~wiki/tbc; however, that will be going away by decree of http://www.wikiweb.com/ on June 30, 2001. I started a WikiWeb about Anglicanism: http://www.wikiweb.com/~Anglicanism, so that'll be one of the first things I move to the [[wikipedia]] under the [[Anglican Church]] page.
------
Netherlands/Transportation|990777916
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,739 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 2,739 km 1.435-m gauge; (1,991 km electrified) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 125,575 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 113,018 km (including 2,235 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 12,557 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 5,046 km, of which 47% is usable by craft of 1,000 metric ton capacity or larger
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 418 km; petroleum products 965 km; natural gas 10,230 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Amsterdam, Delfzijl, Dordrecht, Eemshaven, Groningen, Haarlem, Ijmuiden, Maastricht, Rotterdam, Terneuzen, Utrecht
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 563 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,035,899 GRT/4,576,841 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 3, cargo 343, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 2, container 56, liquified gas 20, livestock carrier 1, multi-functional large load carrier 8, passenger 8, petroleum tanker 25, refrigerated cargo 32, roll-on/roll-off 16, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 5 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> many Dutch-owned ships are also operating under the registry of Netherlands Antilles (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 28 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 19
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Netherlands/Military|990777929
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Netherlands Army, Royal Netherlands Navy (includes Naval Air Service and Marine Corps), Royal Netherlands Air Force, Royal Constabulary
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 4,090,273 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 3,566,882 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 96,684 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $6.956 billion (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> NA%
------
Netherlands/Transnational_issues|990777942
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> major European producer of illicit amphetamines and other synthetic drugs; important gateway for cocaine, heroin, and hashish entering Europe
------
Netherlands|990777994
17d16
< See also:
20,21d18
< *[[/Talk]]
< 
25d21
< * History section combined with existing entry
33c29,32
< * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
---
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
> 
> *[[/Talk]]
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|990778146
30c30
< <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Navassa Island]] - [[Nepal]] -  [[Netherlands]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Norway]]
---
> <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Navassa Island]] - [[Nepal]] - [[Netherlands]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Niue]] - [[Norfolk Island]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Northern Mariana Islands]] - [[Norway]]
------
Netherlands_Antilles|990778178
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
Netherlands_Antilles/History|990778214
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Once the center of the Caribbean slave trade, the island of Curacao was hard hit by the abolition of slavery in 1863. Its prosperity (and that of neighboring Aruba) was restored in the early 20th century with the construction of oil refineries to service the newly discovered Venezuelan oil fields. The island of Sint Maarten is shared with France (whose northern portion is named Saint Martin and is part of Guadeloupe).
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Geography|990778230
1c1,57
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Caribbean, two island groups in the Caribbean Sea - one includes Curacao and Bonaire north of Venezuela and the other is east of the Virgin Islands
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 12 15 N, 68 45 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 960 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 960 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten (Dutch part of the island of Saint Martin)
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> more than five times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10.2 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Guadeloupe (Saint Martin) 10.2 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 364 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 12 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; ameliorated by northeast trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> generally hilly, volcanic interiors
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Caribbean Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Scenery 862 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> phosphates (Curacao only), salt (Bonaire only)
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 10%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 90% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> Curacao and Bonaire are south of Caribbean hurricane belt and are rarely threatened; Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius are subject to hurricanes from July to October
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
------
Netherlands_Antilles/People|990778253
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 210,134 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 25% (male 27,320; female 26,230)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 67% (male 66,653; female 73,813)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 8% (male 6,701; female 9,417) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.01% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 16.94 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 6.42 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.42 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.92 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 11.74 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 74.72 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.56 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 76.99 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.09 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Netherlands Antillean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Netherlands Antillean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mixed black 85%, Carib Amerindian, white, East Asian
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Seventh-Day Adventist
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Dutch (official), Papiamento (a Spanish-Portuguese-Dutch-English dialect) predominates, English widely spoken, Spanish
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 98%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 99% (1981 est.)
------
Christianity|990778285
17c17
< Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopalian church]] -- [[Baptist church]] -- [[Pentecostal]] --[[Coptic]]
---
> Types of Christian Sectarianism: [[Catholicism]] -- [[Protestantism]] -- [[Presbyterian church]] -- [[Episcopal Church]] (a.k.a. Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA) -- [[Baptist church]] -- [[Pentecostal]] --[[Coptic]]
21c21
< Specific commentary about this article can be found on /Talk.  General commentary about Christianity moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating [[Idiosyncratic]] views on the main pages.
---
> Specific commentary about this article can be found on /Talk.  General commentary about Christianity moved to ChristianityTalk.  Let's avoid stating [[Idiosyncratic]] views on the main pages.
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Government|990778295
1c1,75
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Netherlands Antilles
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Nederlandse Antillen
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NT
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; full autonomy in internal affairs granted in 1954
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Willemstad
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> each island has its own government
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Queen's Day, 30 April (1938)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 29 December 1954, Statute of the Realm of the Netherlands, as amended
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on Dutch civil law system, with some English common law influence
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen BEATRIX Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands (since 30 April 1980), represented by Governor General Jaime SALEH (since NA October 1989)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Miguel POURIER (since 8 November 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers elected by the Staten
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch for a six-year term; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party is usually elected prime minister by the Staten; election last held 30 January 1998 (next to be held by NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Miguel POURIER elected prime minister; percent of legislative vote - NA
> <br><i>note:</i>
> government coalition - PDB, DP-St. M, FOL, PLKP, PNP
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral States or Staten (22 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 30 January 1998 (next to be held by NA 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PAR 4, PNP 3, SPA 1, PDB 2, UPB 1, MAN 2, PLKP 3, WIPM 1, SEA 1, DP-St. M 2, FOL 2; no party won enough seats to form a government
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the government of Prime Minister Miguel POURIER is a coalition of several parties
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Joint High Court of Justice, judges appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Antillean Restructuring Party or PAR [Miguel POURIER]; C 93 [Stanley BROWN]; Democratic Party of Bonaire or PDB [Jopi ABRAHAM]; Democratic Party of Curacao or DP [Ephraim JONCKHEER]; Democratic Party of Sint Eustatius or DP-St. E [Julian WOODLEY]; Democratic Party of Sint Maarten or DP-St. M [Sarah WESTCOTT-WILLIAMS]; Foundation Energetic Management Anti-Narcotics or FAME [Eric LODEWIJKS]; Labor Party People's Crusade or PLKP [Errol COVA]; National People's Party or PNP [Suzy ROMER]; New Antilles Movement or MAN [Domenico Felip Don MARTINA]; Nos Patria [Chin BEHILIA]; Patriotic Movement of Sint Maarten or SPA [William MARLIN]; Patriotic Union of Bonaire or UPB [Rudy ELLIS]; People's Party or PAPU [Richard HODI]; Pro Curacao Party or PPK [Winston LOURENS]; Saba Democratic Labor Movement [Steve HASSELL]; Saba Unity Party [Carmen SIMMONDS]; St. Eustatius Alliance or SEA [Ingrid WHITFIELD]; Serious Alternative People's Party or SAPP [Julian ROLLOCKS]; Social Action Cause or KAS [Benny DEMEI]; Socialist Independent or SI [George HUECK]; Windward Islands People's Movement or WIPM [Ray HASSELL]; Workers' Liberation Front or FOL [Wilson GODETT, Jr.]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> political parties are indigenous to each island
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> Caricom (observer), ECLAC (associate), Interpol, IOC, UNESCO (associate), UPU, WMO, WToO (associate)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (represented by the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Consul General Barbara J. STEPHENSON
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> J. B. Gorsiraweg #1, Curacao
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 158, Willemstad, Curacao
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [599] (9) 4613066
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [599] (9) 4616489
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> white, with a horizontal blue stripe in the center superimposed on a vertical red band, also centered; five white, five-pointed stars are arranged in an oval pattern in the center of the blue band; the five stars represent the five main islands of Bonaire, Curacao, Saba, Sint Eustatius, and Sint Maarten
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Economy|990778313
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Tourism, petroleum transshipment, and offshore finance are the mainstays of this small economy, which is closely tied to the outside world. The islands enjoy a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with Venezuela, the US, and Mexico being the major suppliers. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hamper the development of agriculture.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2.4 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> -0.3% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $11,800 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 15%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 84% (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 89,000
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 1%, industry 13%, services 86% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 14.9% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $710.8 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $741.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism (Curacao, Sint Maarten, and Bonaire), petroleum refining (Curacao), petroleum transshipment facilities (Curacao and Bonaire), light manufacturing (Curacao)
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.02 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 949 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> aloes, sorghum, peanuts, vegetables, tropical fruit
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $303 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum products 98% (1993)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 17.5%, Guatemala 8%, Costa Rica 6.5%, The Bahamas 4.6%, Jamaica 4.1%, Chile 3.4% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.3 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> crude petroleum 64%, food, manufactures (1993)
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Venezuela 35.3%, US 21%, Mexico 9.8%, Italy 5.4%, Netherlands 4.8%, Brazil 3.1% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.35 billion (1996)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA; note - Netherlands provided a $97 million aid package in 1996
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Netherlands Antillean guilder, gulden, or florin (NAf.) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Netherlands Antillean guilders, gulden, or florins (NAf.) per US$1 - 1.790 (fixed rate since 1989)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Communications|990778327
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 75,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 11,727 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> generally adequate facilities
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> extensive interisland microwave radio relay links
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 2 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 9, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 217,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (there is also a cable service which supplies programs received from various US satellite networks and two Venezuelan channels) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 69,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 6 (1999)
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Transportation|990778342
1c1,31
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 600 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 300 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 300 km (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Kralendijk, Philipsburg, Willemstad
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 110 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,028,910 GRT/1,285,837 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 2, cargo 27, chemical tanker 2, combination ore/oil 3, container 16, liquified gas 4, multi-functional large load carrier 18, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 5, refrigerated cargo 26, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 2 countries: Belgium owns 9 ships, Germany 1 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 5 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Military|990778354
1c1,15
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Royal Netherlands Navy, Marine Corps, Royal Netherlands Air Force, National Guard, Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 53,766 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 30,137 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 1,534 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
------
Netherlands_Antilles/Transnational_issues|990778367
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> money-laundering center; transshipment point for South American drugs bound for the US and Europe
------
Countries_of_the_world|990778444
30c30,31
< <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Navassa Island]] - [[Nepal]] - [[Netherlands]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Niue]] - [[Norfolk Island]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Northern Mariana Islands]] - [[Norway]]
---
> <font size=+2>N</font><br> [[Namibia]] - [[Nauru]] - [[Navassa Island]] - [[Nepal]] - [[Netherlands]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]] - [[New Caledonia]] - [[New Zealand]] - [[Nicaragua]] - [[Niger]] - [[Nigeria]] - [[Niue]] - [[Norfolk Island]] - [[North Korea]] - [[Northern Mariana Islands]] - [[Norway]]
> 
------
New_Caledonia|990778460
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
New_Caledonia/History|990778474
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Settled by both Britain and France during the first half of the 19th century, the island was made a French possession in 1853. It served as a penal colony for four decades after 1864. Agitation for independence during the 1980s and early 1990s seems to have dissipated.
------
New_Caledonia/Geography|990778487
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, islands in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 21 30 S, 165 30 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 19,060 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 18,575 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 485 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than New Jersey
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,254 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; modified by southeast trade winds; hot, humid
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> coastal plains with interior mountains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Panie 1,628 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> nickel, chrome, iron, cobalt, manganese, silver, gold, lead, copper
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 39%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 49% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 160 sq km (1991)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> cyclones, most frequent from November to March
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> erosion caused by mining exploitation and forest fires
------
New_Caledonia/People|990778501
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 201,816 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 31% (male 31,396; female 30,160)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 64% (male 65,042; female 63,961)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 5% (male 5,324; female 5,933) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.52% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.84 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 5.62 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 8.57 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 72.77 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 69.84 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 75.85 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 2.52 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> New Caledonian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> New Caledonian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Melanesian 42.5%, European 37.1%, Wallisian 8.4%, Polynesian 3.8%, Indonesian 3.6%, Vietnamese 1.6%, other 3%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 60%, Protestant 30%, other 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), 33 Melanesian-Polynesian dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 91%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 92%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 90% (1976 est.)
------
New_Caledonia/Government|990778518
1c1,58
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> New Caledonia
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Territoire des Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Nouvelle-Caledonie
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NC
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> overseas territory of France since 1956
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Noumea
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 3 provinces named Iles Loyaute, Nord, and Sud
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France); note - a referendum on independence was held in 1998 but did not pass
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> the 1988 Matignon Accords grant substantial autonomy to the islands; formerly under French law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President of France Jacques CHIRAC (since 17 May 1995), represented by High Commissioner Thierry LATASTE (since 19 July 1999)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President of the Government Jean LEQUES (since 28 May 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Consultative Committee
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; high commissioner appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; president of the government elected by the members of the Territorial Congress
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Territorial Congress or Congres Territorial (54 seats; members are members of the three Provincial Assemblies or Assemblees Provinciales elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 9 May 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPCR 24, FLNKS 12, UNI 6, FCCI 4, FN 4, Alliance pour la Caledonie 3, LKS 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> New Caledonia elects 1 seat to the French Senate; elections last held 27 September 1992 (next to be held NA September 2001); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1; New Caledonia also elects 2 seats to the French National Assembly; elections last held 25 May-1 June 1997 (next to be held NA 2002); results - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 2
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; County Courts; Joint Commerce Tribunal Court; Children's Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Alliance pour la Caledonie [Didier LEROUX]; Developper Ensemble pour Construire l'Avenir or DEPCA [Robert FROUIN]; Federation des Comites de Coordination des Independantistes or FCCI [Raphael MAPOU]; Front Uni de Liberation Kanak or FULK [Ernest UNE]; Groupe de l'Alliance Multiraciale or GAM [Dany DALMAYRAE]; Independance et Progres [Alphonse PUJAPUJANE]; Kanak Socialist Front for National Liberation or FLNKS [Rock WAMYTAN] (includes PALIKA, UNI, UC, UPM); La Caledonie Autrement [Denis MILLIARD]; Loyalty Islands Development Front or FDIL [Cono HAMU]; National Front or FN [Guy GEORGE]; Parti de Liberation Kanak or PALIKA [Charles WASHETINE]; Rally for Caledonia in the Republic or RPCR [Jacques LAFLEUR]; Renouveau [Thierry VALET]; Socialist Kanak Liberation or LKS [Nidoish NAISSELINE]; Union Caledonienne or UC [Bernard LEPEU]; Union Nationale pour l'Independance or UNI [Paul NEAOUTYINE]; Union Progressiste Melanesienne or UPM [Andre GOPEA]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP (associate), FZ, ICFTU, SPC, WFTU, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (overseas territory of France)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> the flag of France is used
------
New_Caledonia/Economy|990778536
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> New Caledonia has more than 20% of the world's known nickel resources. In recent years, the economy has suffered because of depressed international demand for nickel, the principal source of export earnings. Only a negligible amount of the land is suitable for cultivation, and food accounts for about 20% of imports. In addition to nickel, the substantial financial support from France and tourism are keys to the health of the economy. The situation in 1998 was clouded by the spillover of financial problems in East Asia and by lower prices for nickel. Nickel prices jumped in 1999, and large additions were made to capacity.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $3 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $15,000 (1998 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 30%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 66% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.5% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 79,395 (including 15, 018 unemployed, 1996)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 7%, industry 23%, services 70% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 15% (1994)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $861.3 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $735.3 million, including capital expenditures of $52 million (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> nickel mining and smelting
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 1.52 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 65.79%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 34.21%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 1.414 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> vegetables; beef, deer, other livestock products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $381 million (f.o.b., 1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> ferronickels, nickel ore, fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 36%, France 30%, US 14%, Taiwan 9%, Australia 7% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $922 million (c.i.f., 1998)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> foods, machinery and equipment, fuels, minerals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France 41%, Australia 13%, New Zealand 7%, Japan 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $79 million (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $770 million from France (1998)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the rate of 18.18 to the French franc
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
New_Caledonia/Communications|990778550
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 44,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 825 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 107,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 6 (plus 25 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 52,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
New_Caledonia/Transportation|990778562
1c1,36
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,562 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 975 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 4,587 km (1993)
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Mueo, Noumea, Thio
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,261 GRT/1,600 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 28 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 23
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 11 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 6 (1999 est.)
------
New_Caledonia/Military|990778574
1c1,8
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> French Armed Forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, Gendarmerie); Police Force
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $192.3 million (1996)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 5.3% (1996)
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of France
------
New_Caledonia/Transnational_issues|990778588
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Matthew and Hunter Islands claimed by France and Vanuatu
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Episcopal_Church|990778647
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
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> The Episcopal Church of the [[United States of America]] (ECUSA) (http://www.ecusa.anglican.org/) is a constituent member of the [[Anglican Communion]] and is the provincial authority for the [[United States of America|U.S.A.]].
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New_Zealand|990778683
21a22,33
> ----
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
------
New_Zealand/History|990778722
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Background:</b>
> The British colony of New Zealand became an independent dominion in 1907 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars. New Zealand withdrew from a number of defense alliances during the 1970s and 1980s. In recent years the government has sought to address longstanding native Maori grievances.
------
New_Zealand/Geography|990778739
1c1,63
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, islands in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 41 00 S, 174 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 268,680 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 268,670 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 10 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Island, Chatham Islands, and Kermadec Islands
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about the size of Colorado
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 15,134 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate with sharp regional contrasts
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> predominately mountainous with some large coastal plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Cook 3,764 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, timber, hydropower, gold, limestone
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 50%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 28%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 2,850 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> earthquakes are common, though usually not severe; volcanic activity
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; native flora and fauna hard-hit by species introduced from outside
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> about 80% of the population lives in cities
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New_Zealand/People|990778752
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 3,819,762 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 23% (male 440,824; female 419,740)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 66% (male 1,263,710; female 1,254,958)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 11% (male 191,511; female 249,019) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 1.17% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 14.28 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 7.57 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 4.95 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.77 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 6.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 77.82 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 74.85 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 80.93 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> New Zealander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> New Zealand
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> New Zealand European 74.5%, Maori 9.7%, other European 4.6%, Pacific Islander 3.8%, Asian and others 7.4%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican 24%, Presbyterian 18%, Roman Catholic 15%, Methodist 5%, Baptist 2%, other Protestant 3%, unspecified or none 33% (1986)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Maori
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 99% (1980 est.)
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
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New_Zealand/Government|990778770
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> New Zealand
> <br><i>abbreviation:</i>
> NZ
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NZ
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Wellington
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 93 counties, 9 districts*, and 3 town districts**; Akaroa, Amuri, Ashburton, Bay of Islands, Bruce, Buller, Chatham Islands, Cheviot, Clifton, Clutha, Cook, Dannevirke, Egmont, Eketahuna, Ellesmere, Eltham, Eyre, Featherston, Franklin, Golden Bay, Great Barrier Island, Grey, Hauraki Plains, Hawera*, Hawke's Bay, Heathcote, Hikurangi**, Hobson, Hokianga, Horowhenua, Hurunui, Hutt, Inangahua, Inglewood, Kaikoura, Kairanga, Kiwitea, Lake, Mackenzie, Malvern, Manaia**, Manawatu, Mangonui, Maniototo, Marlborough, Masterton, Matamata, Mount Herbert, Ohinemuri, Opotiki, Oroua, Otamatea, Otorohanga*, Oxford, Pahiatua, Paparua, Patea, Piako, Pohangina, Raglan, Rangiora*, Rangitikei, Rodney, Rotorua*, Runanga, Saint Kilda, Silverpeaks, Southland, Stewart Island, Stratford, Strathallan, Taranaki, Taumarunui, Taupo, Tauranga, Thames-Coromandel*, Tuapeka, Vincent, Waiapu, Waiheke, Waihemo, Waikato, Waikohu, Waimairi, Waimarino, Waimate, Waimate West, Waimea, Waipa, Waipawa*, Waipukurau*, Wairarapa South, Wairewa, Wairoa, Waitaki, Waitomo*, Waitotara, Wallace, Wanganui, Waverley**, Westland, Whakatane*, Whangarei, Whangaroa, Woodville
> <br><i>note:</i>
> there may be a new administrative structure of 16 regions (Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Canterbury, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Marlborough, Nelson, Northland, Otago, Southland, Taranaki, Tasman, Waikato, Wanganui-Manawatu, Wellington, West Coast) that are subdivided into 57 districts and 16 cities* (Ashburton, Auckland*, Banks Peninsula, Buller, Carterton, Central Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, Christchurch*, Clutha, Dunedin*, Far North, Franklin, Gisborne, Gore, Grey, Hamilton*, Hastings, Hauraki, Horowhenua, Hurunui, Hutt*, Invercargill*, Kaikoura, Kaipara, Kapiti Coast, Kawerau, Mackenzie, Manawatu, Manukau*, Marlborough, Masterton, Matamata Piako, Napier*, Nelson*, New Plymouth, North Shore*, Opotiki, Otorohanga, Palmerston North*, Papakura*, Porirua*, Queenstown Lakes, Rangitikei, Rodney, Rotorua, Ruapehu, Selwyn, Southland, South Taranaki, South Waikato, South Wairarapa, Stratford, Tararua, Tasman, Taupo, Tauranga, Thames Coromandel, Timaru, Upper Hutt*, Waikato, Waimakariri, Waimate, Waipa, Wairoa, Waitakere*, Waitaki, Waitomo, Wanganui, Wellington*, Western Bay of Plenty, Westland, Whakatane, Whangarei)
> <p><b>Dependent areas:</b>
> Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 26 September 1907 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Waitangi Day, 6 February (1840) (Treaty of Waitangi established British sovereignty)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> no formal, written constitution; consists of various documents, including certain acts of the UK and New Zealand Parliaments; Constitution Act 1986 was to have come into force 1 January 1987, but has not been enacted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English law, with special land legislation and land courts for Maoris; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor General Sir Michael HARDIE BOYS (since 21 March 1996)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Helen CLARK (since 10 December 1999) and Deputy Prime Minister Jim ANDERTON (since 10 December 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council appointed by the governor general on the recommendation of the prime minister
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the governor general for a three-year term; deputy prime minister appointed by the governor general
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral House of Representatives - commonly called Parliament (120 seats; members elected by popular vote in single-member constituencies to serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 27 November 1999 (next must be called by November 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NZLP 49, NP 39, Alliance 10, ACT New Zealand 9, Green Party 7, NZFP 5, UNZ 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> NZLP and Alliance formed the government coalition; the National Party became the opposition party
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> High Court; Court of Appeal
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> ACT, New Zealand [Richard PREBBLE]; Alliance (a coalition of the New Labor Party, Democratic Party, New Zealand Liberal Party, and Mana Motuhake) [leader NA]; Christian Coalition (a coalition of the Christian Democrats and Christian Heritage Party) [Rev. Graham CAPILL]; Conservative Party (formerly Right of Centre Party) [Trevor ROGERS]; Democratic Party [John WRIGHT]; Green Party [Jeanette FITZSIMONS and Rod DONALD]; Mana Motuhake [Sandra LEE]; Mauri Pacific Party (composed of members who broke away from the NZFP) [Tau HENARE]; National Party or NP [Jenny SHIPLEY]; New Labor Party [Jim ANDERTON]; New Zealand First Party or NZFP [Winston PETERS]; New Zealand Labor Party or NZLP [Helen CLARK]; New Zealand Liberal Party [Frank GROVER]; United New Zealand or UNZ [Peter DUNNE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, ANZUS (US suspended security obligations to NZ on 11 August 1986), APEC, AsDB, Australia Group, C, CCC, CP, EBRD, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), NSG, OECD, OPCW, PCA, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador James Brendan BOLGER
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 37 Observatory Circle NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 328-4800
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 667-5227
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Los Angeles, New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador-designate Carol MOSELEY-BRAUN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Thorndon, Wellington
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 1190, Wellington; PSC 467, Box 1, FPO AP 96531-1001
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [64] (4) 472-2068
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [64] (4) 471-2380
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Auckland
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant with four red five-pointed stars edged in white centered in the outer half of the flag; the stars represent the Southern Cross constellation
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New_Zealand/Economy|990778786
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Since 1984 the government has accomplished major economic restructuring, moving an agrarian economy dependent on concessionary British market access toward a more industrialized, free market economy that can compete globally. This dynamic growth has boosted real incomes, broadened and deepened the technological capabilities of the industrial sector, and contained inflationary pressures. Inflation remains among the lowest in the industrial world. Per capita GDP has been moving up toward the levels of the big West European economies. New Zealand's heavy dependence on trade leaves its growth prospects vulnerable to economic performance in Asia, Europe, and the US. Moderate growth probably will characterize 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $63.8 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 3.1% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $17,400 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 23%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 69% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.86 million (1998)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 65%, industry 25%, agriculture 10% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $24.9 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $23.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY97/98 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, wood and paper products, textiles, machinery, transportation equipment, banking and insurance, tourism, mining
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 35.789 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 27.17%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 65.82%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 7.01% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 33.284 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, fruits, vegetables; wool, beef, dairy products; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $12.2 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> dairy products, meat, fish, wool, forestry products, manufactures
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia 21%, Japan 13%, US 13%, UK 6% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $11.2 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, vehicles and aircraft, petroleum, consumer goods, plastics
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia 22%, US 20%, Japan 11%, UK 5% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $53 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $123 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
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New_Zealand/Communications|990778797
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1.719 million (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 588,000 (1998)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> excellent international and domestic systems
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> submarine cables to Australia and Fiji; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 124, FM 290, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 3.75 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 41 (plus 52 medium-power repeaters and over 650 low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.926 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 56 (1999)
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New_Zealand/Transportation|990778814
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,913 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,913 km 1.067-m gauge (519 km electrified) (1999)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 92,200 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 53,568 km (including at least 144 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 38,632 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,609 km; of little importance to transportation
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> petroleum products 160 km; natural gas 1,000 km; liquefied petroleum gas or LPG 150 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Tauranga, Wellington
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 102,461 GRT/133,418 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 4, cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, rail car carrier 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 111 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 44
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 28
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 67
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 23
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 43 (1999 est.)
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New_Zealand/Military|990778825
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> New Zealand Army, Royal New Zealand Navy, Royal New Zealand Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 990,774 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 834,289 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 26,649 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $883 million (FY97/98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.1% (FY97/98)
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New_Zealand/Transnational_issues|990778837
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territorial claim in Antarctica (Ross Dependency)
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Nicaragua|990778873
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
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Nicaragua/History|990778936
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Settled as a colony of Spain in the 1520s, Nicaragua gained its independence in 1821. Violent opposition to governmental manipulation and corruption spread to all classes by 1978 and resulted in a short-lived civil war that brought the Marxist Sandinista guerrillas to power in 1979. Nicaraguan aid to leftist rebels in El Salvador caused the US to sponsor anti-Sandinista contra guerrillas through much of the 1980s. Free elections in 1990 and again in 1996 saw the Sandinistas defeated. The country has slowly rebuilt its economy during the 1990s, but was hard hit by Hurricane Mitch in 1998.
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Nicaragua/Geography|990778952
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Costa Rica and Honduras
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 13 00 N, 85 00 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Central America and the Caribbean
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 129,494 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 120,254 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 9,240 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than the state of New York
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,231 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Costa Rica 309 km, Honduras 922 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 910 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 25-nm security zone
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> natural prolongation
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 200 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical in lowlands, cooler in highlands
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> extensive Atlantic coastal plains rising to central interior mountains; narrow Pacific coastal plain interrupted by volcanoes
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mogoton 2,438 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> gold, silver, copper, tungsten, lead, zinc, timber, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 9%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 1%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 46%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 17% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 880 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> destructive earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and occasionally severe hurricanes
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; Hurricane Mitch damage
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea
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Nicaragua/People|990778966
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,812,569 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 40% (male 971,580; female 936,888)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 57% (male 1,372,169; female 1,392,861)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 60,539; female 78,532) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.2% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 28.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.9 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -1.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.99 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.77 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 34.79 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 68.74 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 66.81 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 70.77 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 3.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Nicaraguan(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Nicaraguan
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white) 69%, white 17%, black 9%, Amerindian 5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Spanish (official)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> English and indigenous languages on Atlantic coast
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 65.7%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 64.6%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 66.6% (1995 est.)
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Nicaragua/Government|990778985
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Nicaragua
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Nicaragua
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republica de Nicaragua
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Nicaragua
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Managua
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 15 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento), 2 autonomous regions* (regiones autonomistas, singular - region autonomista); Boaco, Carazo, Chinandega, Chontales, Esteli, Granada, Jinotega, Leon, Madriz, Managua, Masaya, Matagalpa, Nueva Segovia, Rio San Juan, Rivas, Atlantico Norte*, Atlantico Sur*
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 15 September 1821 (from Spain)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 15 September (1821)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 9 January 1987, with reforms in 1995 and 2000
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> civil law system; Supreme Court may review administrative acts
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 16 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Arnoldo ALEMAN Lacayo (10 January 1997); Vice President Enrique BOLANOS Geyer (10 January 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Arnoldo ALEMAN Lacayo (10 January 1997); Vice President Enrique BOLANOS Geyer (10 January 1997); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Council of Ministers appointed by the president
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president and vice president elected on the same ticket by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 20 October 1996 (next to be held NA October 2001); note - in July 1995 the term of the office of the president was amended to five years
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Arnoldo ALEMAN Lacayo (Liberal Alliance - ruling party - includes PLC, PALI, PLIUN, and PUCA) 51.03%, Daniel ORTEGA Saavedra (FSLN) 37.75%, Guillermo OSORNO (PCCN) 4.10%, Noel VIDAURRE (PCN) 2.26%, Benjamin LANZAS (PRONAL) 0.53%, other (18 other candidates) 4.33%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly or Asamblea Nacional (93 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 20 October 1996 (next to be held NA 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Liberal Alliance (ruling party - includes PLC, PALI, PLIUN, and PUCA) 46.03%, FSLN 36.55%, PCCN 3.73%, PCN 2.12%, MRS 1.33%; seats by party - Liberal Alliance 42, FSLN 36, PCCN 4, PCN 3, PRONAL 2, MRS 1, PRN 1, PNC 1, PLI 1, AU 1, UNO-96 Alliance 1
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Corte Suprema, 16 judges elected for seven-year terms by the National Assembly
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Central American Integrationist Party or PIAC [leader NA]; Central American Unionist Party or PUCA [Blanca ROJAS Echaverry]; Conservative Action Movement or MAC [Hernaldo ZUNIGA]; Conservative National Party or PNC [Adolfo CALERO, Noel VIDAURRE]; Conservative Party of Nicaragua or PCN [Dr. Fernando AGUERO Rocha]; Independent Liberal Party or PLI [Virgilio GODOY]; Independent Liberal Party for National Unity or PLIUN [Carlos GUERRA Gallardo]; Liberal Constitutionalist Party or PLC [Jose RIZO Castellon]; Movement for Revolutionary Unity or MUR [leader NA]; National Democratic Party or PND [Alfredo CESAR Aguirre]; National Project or PRONAL [Antonio LACAYO Oyanguren]; Nationalist Liberal Party or PLN [Enrique SANCHEZ Herdocia]; Neoliberal Party or PALI [Adolfo GARCIA Esquivel]; Nicaraguan Democratic Movement or MDN [Alfredo GUZMAN]; Nicaraguan Party of the Christian Road or PCCN [Guillermo OSORNO, Roberto RODRIGUEZ]; Nicaraguan Resistance Party or PRN [Fabio GADEA]; Sandinista National Liberation Front or FSLN [Daniel ORTEGA Saavedra]; Sandinista Renovation Movement or MRS [Sergio RAMIREZ]; Social Christian Party or PSC [Erick RAMIREZ]; Social Democratic Party or PSD [Adolfo JARQUIN]; Unity Alliance or AU [Alejandro SERRANO]; UNO-96 Alliance [Alfredo CESAR Aguirre]
> <br><i>note:</i>
> political blocs include: left - FSLN; center left - MRS, PSD, PSC, MUR, PIAC, AU, PCN, PND, PUCA, UNO-96 Alliance, and MDN; center right - PALI, PRN, PLI, PRONAL, and MAC; right - PCCN, PLC, PLIUN, PNC, and PLN
> <p><b>Political pressure groups and leaders:</b>
> National Workers Front or FNT is a Sandinista umbrella group of eight labor unions: Farm Workers Association or ATC; Health Workers Federation or FETASALUD; Heroes and Martyrs Confederation of Professional Associations or CONAPRO; National Association of Educators of Nicaragua or ANDEN; National Union of Employees or UNE; and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers or UNAG; National Workers Front or FNT is a Sandinista umbrella group of eight labor unions: Sandinista Workers Central or CST; Union of Journalists of Nicaragua or UPN; Permanent Congress of Workers or CPT is an umbrella group of four non-Sandinista labor unions: Autonomous Nicaraguan Workers Central or CTN-A; Confederation of Labor Unification or CUS; Independent General Confederation of Labor or CGT-I; and Labor Action and Unity Central or CAUS; Nicaraguan Workers' Central or CTN is an independent labor union; Superior Council of Private Enterprise or COSEP is a confederation of business groups
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Francisco AGUIRRE Sacasa
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1627 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-6570
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 939-6542
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Oliver P. GARZA
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Kilometer 4.5 Carretera Sur, Managua
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> APO AA 34021
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [505] (2) 662298, 666010, 666012, 666013, 666015, 666018, 666026, 666027, 666032, 666033
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [505] (2) 669074
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of blue (top), white, and blue with the national coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms features a triangle encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA on the top and AMERICA CENTRAL on the bottom; similar to the flag of El Salvador, which features a round emblem encircled by the words REPUBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMERICA CENTRAL centered in the white band; also similar to the flag of Honduras, which has five blue stars arranged in an X pattern centered in the white band
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Nicaragua/Economy|990779001
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Nicaragua is one of the hemisphere's poorest countries, with low per capita income, flagging socio-economic indicators, and huge external debt. The country has made significant progress toward macro-economic stabilization over the past few years - even with the damage caused by Hurricane Mitch in the fall of 1998. International aid, debt relief, and continued foreign investment have contributed to the stabilization process. GDP grew 6.3% in 1999, while inflation remained about 12%, and unemployment dropped. Nicaragua may qualify for the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, though aid is conditioned on improving governability, the openness of government financial operations, poverty alleviation, and human rights.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $12.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 6.3% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,650 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 34%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 22%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 44% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 50% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.6%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 39.8% (1993)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 12% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1.7 million (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 43%, agriculture 42%, industry 15% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 10.5% (1999 est.); considerable underemployment
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $527 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $617 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> food processing, chemicals, machinery and metal products, textiles, clothing, petroleum refining and distribution, beverages, footwear, wood
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 3.2% (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 2.714 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 53.43%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 35.34%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 11.23% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 2.52 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 99 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 95 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coffee, bananas, sugarcane, cotton, rice, corn, tobacco, sesame, soya, beans; beef, veal, pork, poultry, dairy products
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $573 million (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> coffee, shrimp and lobster, cotton, tobacco, beef, sugar, bananas; gold
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 35%, Germany 13%, El Salvador 10%, Spain 4%, Costa Rica 4%, France 2% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $1.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, raw materials, petroleum products, consumer goods
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US 31%, Costa Rica 11%, Guatemala 8%, Venezuela 6%, El Salvador 5%, Mexico 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $5.7 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> pledges of $1.4 billion in new aid in 1999
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 gold cordoba (C$) = 100 centavos
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> gold cordobas (C$) per US$1 - 12.29 (December 1999),11.81 (1999), 10.58 (1998), 9.45 (1997), 8.44 (1996), 7.55 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Nicaragua/Communications|990779013
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 140,000 (1996)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 4,400 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> low-capacity microwave radio relay and wire system being expanded; connected to Central American Microwave System
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> wire and microwave radio relay
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 1 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region) and 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 63, FM 32, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.24 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 3 (plus seven low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 320,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
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Nicaragua/Transportation|990779028
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> <b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 16,382 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 1,818 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 14,564 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 2,220 km, including 2 large lakes
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 56 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bluefields, Corinto, El Bluff, Puerto Cabezas, Puerto Sandino, Rama, San Juan del Sur
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 182 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 11
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 3 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 171
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 26
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 144 (1999 est.)
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Nicaragua/Military|990779041
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,229,103 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 755,002 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 57,125 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $26 million (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.2% (FY98)
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Nicaragua/Transnational_issues|990779059
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territorial disputes with Colombia over the Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank; with respect to the maritime boundary question in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> transshipment point for cocaine destined for the US and transshipment point for arms-for-drugs dealing
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Niger|990779087
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
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Niger/History|990779130
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Not until 1993, 33 years after independence from France, did Niger hold its first free and open elections. A 1995 peace accord ended a five-year Tuareg insurgency in the north. Coups in 1996 and 1999 were followed by the creation of a National Reconciliation Council that effected a transition to civilian rule in December 1999.
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Niger/Geography|990779143
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, southeast of Algeria
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 16 00 N, 8 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1.267 million sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 1,266,700 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 300 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly less than twice the size of Texas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 5,697 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Algeria 956 km, Benin 266 km, Burkina Faso 628 km, Chad 1,175 km, Libya 354 km, Mali 821 km, Nigeria 1,497 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 0 km (landlocked)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> none (landlocked)
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> desert; mostly hot, dry, dusty; tropical in extreme south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> predominately desert plains and sand dunes; flat to rolling plains in south; hills in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Niger River 200 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mont Greboun 1,944 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> uranium, coal, iron ore, tin, phosphates, gold, petroleum
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 7%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 2%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 88% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 660 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> recurring droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> overgrazing; soil erosion; deforestation; desertification; wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, and lion) threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> landlocked
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Niger/People|990779156
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 10,075,511 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 48% (male 2,461,391; female 2,373,617)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 50% (male 2,445,369; female 2,563,839)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2% (male 121,570; female 109,725) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.75% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 51.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 23.17 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> -0.75 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.95 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.11 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 124.9 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 41.27 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 41.43 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 41.11 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 7.16 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Nigerien(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Nigerien
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fula 8.5%, Tuareg 8%, Beri Beri (Kanouri) 4.3%, Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%, about 1,200 French expatriates
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 80%, remainder indigenous beliefs and Christians
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> French (official), Hausa, Djerma
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 13.6%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 20.9%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 6.6% (1995 est.)
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Niger/Government|990779174
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Republic of Niger
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Niger
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Republique du Niger
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Niger
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NG
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Niamey
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 7 departments (departements, singular - departement), and 1 capital district* (capitale district); Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey*, Tahoua, Tillaberi, Zinder
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 3 August 1960 (from France)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Republic Day, 18 December (1958)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> the constitution of January 1993 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and again by referendum on 18 July 1999
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on French civil law system and customary law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Mamadou TANDJA (since 22 December 1999); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Mamadou TANDJA (since 22 December 1999); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government; Prime Minister Hama AMADOU (since 31 December 1999) was appointed by the president and shares some executive responsibilities with the president
> <br><i>note:</i>
> President Ibrahim BARE was assassinated on 9 April 1999; subsequent elections held under the nine-month provisional government of Major Daouda Mallam WANKE
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> 24-member cabinet appointed by President TANDJA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; last held 24 November 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Mamadou TANDJA elected president; percent of vote - Mamadou TANDJA 60%, Mahamadou ISSOUFOU 40%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral National Assembly (83 seats, members elected by popular vote for five-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 24 November 1999 (next to be held NA 2004)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - MNSD-Nassara 38, CDS-Rahama 17, PNDS-Tarayya 16, RDP-Jama'a 8, ANDPS-Zaman Lahia 4
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> State Court or Cour d'Etat; Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Rally of the People-Jama'a or RDP-Jama'a [Hamid ALGABID]; Democratic and Social Convention-Rahama or CDS-Rahama [Mahamane OUSMANE]; Movement for Development and Progress-Alkwali or MDP-Alkwali [Mai Manga BOUCAR, chairman]; National Movement for a Developing Society-Nassara or MNSD-Nassara [Tandja MAMADOU, chairman]; National Union of Independents for Democratic Renewal or UNIRD [Moutari MOUSSA]; Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Social Progress-Zaman Lahiya or ANDPS-Zaman Lahiya [Moumouni Adamou DJERMAKOYE]; Nigerien Democratic Front-Mutunci or FDN-Mutunci [Ide OUMAROU]; Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism-Tarayya or PNDS-Tarayya [Mahamadou ISSOUFOU]; Nigerien Social Democrat Party-Alheri or PSDN-Alheri [Malam Adji WAZIRI]; Party for People's Dignity-Daraja or PDP-Daraja [Ali TALBA, chairman]; Union of Democratic Patriots and Progressives-Chamoua or UPDP-Chamoua [Professor Andre' SALIFOU, chairman]; Union for Democracy and Social Progress-Amana or UDPS-Amana [Mohamed ABDULLAHI]; Union of Popular Forces for Democracy and Progress-Sawaba or UFPDP-Sawaba [Djibo BAKARY]; Workers' Movement Party-Albarka or PMT-Albarka [Omar Idi ANGO]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIPONUH, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB, WAEMU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Joseph DIATTA
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2204 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 483-4224 through 4227
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Barbro OWENS-KIRKPATRICK
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Rue Des Ambassades, Niamey
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> B. P. 11201, Niamey
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [227] 72 26 61 through 72 26 64
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [227] 73 31 67
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal horizontal bands of orange (top), white, and green with a small orange disk (representing the sun) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of India, which has a blue spoked wheel centered in the white band
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Niger/Economy|990779190
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Niger is a poor, landlocked Sub-Saharan nation, whose economy centers on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, reexport trade, and increasingly less on uranium, its major export since the 1970s. The 50% devaluation of the West African franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid - which was suspended following the April 1999 coup d'etat - for operating expenses and public investment. Short-term prospects depend on upcoming negotiations with the World Bank and the IMF on debt relief and extended aid.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $1,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 18%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 42% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 29.3% (1992)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 4.8% (1999)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 70,000 receive regular wages or salaries
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 90%, industry and commerce 6%, government 4%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $377 million, including $146 million from foreign sources
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $377 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> uranium mining, cement, brick, textiles, food processing, chemicals, slaughterhouses
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 180 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 363 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 196 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cowpeas, cotton, peanuts, millet, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), rice; cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $269 million (f.o.b., 1997)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> uranium ore 65%, livestock products, cowpeas, onions (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US, Greece, Japan, France, Nigeria, Benin
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $295 million (c.i.f., 1997)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> consumer goods, primary materials, machinery, vehicles and parts, petroleum, cereals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> France, Cote d'Ivoire, US, Benelux, Nigeria
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $1.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $222 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 670 (January 2000), 560.01 (January 1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Niger/Communications|990779203
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 13,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> small system of wire, radiotelephone communications, and microwave radio relay links concentrated in southwestern area
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> wire, radiotelephone communications, and microwave radio relay; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations and 1 planned
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM 5, shortwave 4 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 680,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 10 (plus seven low-power repeaters) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 125,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
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Niger/Transportation|990779223
1c1,33
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 10,100 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 798 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 9,302 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> the Niger is navigable 300 km from Niamey to Gaya on the Benin frontier from mid-December through March
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 27 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 9
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 18
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
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Niger/Military|990779235
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Police
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 2,137,181 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,155,054 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 105,884 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $20 million (FY96)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 1.1% (FY96)
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Niger/Transnational_issues|990779247
1c1,2
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> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> Libya claims about 19,400 sq km in northern Niger; delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
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Nigeria|990779274
1c1,11
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> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
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Nigeria/History|990779302
1c1,2
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> <b>Background:</b>
> Following nearly 16 years of military rule, a new constitution was adopted in 1999 and a peaceful transition to civilian government completed. The new president faces the daunting task of rebuilding a petroleum-based economy, whose revenues have been squandered through corruption and mismanagement, and institutionalizing democracy. In addition, the OBASANJO administration must defuse longstanding ethnic and religious tensions, if it is to build a sound foundation for economic growth and political stability.
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Nigeria/Geography|990779317
1c1,62
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Western Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea, between Benin and Cameroon
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 10 00 N, 8 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Africa
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 923,768 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 910,768 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 13,000 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly more than twice the size of California
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,047 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Benin 773 km, Cameroon 1,690 km, Chad 87 km, Niger 1,497 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 853 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> varies; equatorial in south, tropical in center, arid in north
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> southern lowlands merge into central hills and plateaus; mountains in southeast, plains in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Atlantic Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Chappal Waddi 2,419 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, lead, zinc, natural gas, hydropower, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 44%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 12%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 8% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 9,570 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> soil degradation; rapid deforestation; desertification; recent droughts in north severely affecting marginal agricultural activities
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
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Nigeria/People|990779344
1c1,61
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 123,337,822
> <br><i>note:</i>
> estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 44% (male 27,181,020; female 26,872,317)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 53% (male 33,495,794; female 32,337,193)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 3% (male 1,729,149; female 1,722,349) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 2.67% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 40.16 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 13.72 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.01 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.02 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 74.18 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 51.56 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 51.58 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 51.55 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 5.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Nigerian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Nigerian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Nigeria, which is Africa's most populous country, is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups; the following are the most populous and politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Muslim 50%, Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 10%
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo (Ibo), Fulani
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 57.1%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 67.3%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 47.3% (1995 est.)
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Nigeria/Government|990779360
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Federal Republic of Nigeria
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Nigeria
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NI
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> republic transitioning from military to civilian rule
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Abuja
> <br><i>note:</i>
> on 12 December 1991 the capital was officially moved from Lagos to Abuja; many government offices remain in Lagos pending completion of facilities in Abuja
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 36 states and 1 territory*; Abia, Abuja Federal Capital Territory*, Adamawa, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Bauchi, Bayelsa, Benue, Borno, Cross River, Delta, Ebonyi, Edo, Ekiti, Enugu, Gombe, Imo, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Lagos, Nassarawa, Niger, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, Oyo, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe, Zamfara
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1 October 1960 (from UK)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Independence Day, 1 October (1960)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> NA 1999 new constitution adopted
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law, Islamic law, and tribal law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President Olusegun OBASANJO (since 29 May 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> President Olusegun OBASANJO (since 29 May 1999); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Federal Executive Council
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> president is elected by popular vote for no more than two four-year terms; election last held 27 February 1999 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Olusegun OBASANJO (PDP) elected president; percent of vote -  Olusegun OBASANJO 62.8%, Olu FALAE (APP-AD) 37.2%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral National Assembly consists of Senate (109 seats, three from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and House of Representatives (360 seats, members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held 20-24 February 1999 (next to be held NA 2003); House of Representatives - last held 20-24 February 1999 (next to be held NA 2003)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - PDP 58%, APP 23%, AD 19%; seats by party - PDP 65, APP 24, AD 20; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - PDP 58%, APP 30%, AD 12%; seats by party - PDP 215, APP 75, AD 70
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, judges appointed by the Provisional Ruling Council; Federal Court of Appeal, judges are appointed by the federal government on the advice of the Advisory Judicial Committee
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> All People's Party or APP [Alhaji Yusuf ALI]; Alliance for Democracy or AD [Yusuf MAMMAN]; People's Democratic Party or PDP [Barnabas GEMADE]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, OPCW, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Jibril AMINU
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 1333 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 986-8400
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 775-1385
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Atlanta and New York
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador William H. TWADDELL
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> 2 Walter Carrington Crescent, Lagos
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> P. O. Box 554, Lagos
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [234] (1) 261-0097
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [234] (1) 261-0257
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green
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Nigeria/Economy|990779374
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The oil-rich Nigerian economy, long hobbled by political instability, corruption, and poor macroeconomic management, is undergoing substantial economic reform under the new civilian administration. Nigeria's former military rulers failed to diversify the economy away from overdependence on the capital-intensive oil sector, which provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues. The largely subsistence agricultural sector has not kept up with rapid population growth, and Nigeria, once a large net exporter of food, now must import food. In 2000, Nigeria is likely to receive a debt-restructuring deal with the Paris club and a $1 billion loan from the IMF, both contingent on economic reforms. Increased foreign investment combined with high world oil prices should push growth to over 5% in 2000-01.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $110.5 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 2.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $970 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 33%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 42%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 25% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> 34.1% (1992-93 est.)
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 1.3%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 31.4% (1992-93)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 12.5% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 42.844 million
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture 54%, industry 6%, services 40% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 28% (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> crude oil, coal, tin, columbite, palm oil, peanuts, cotton, rubber, wood, hides and skins, textiles, cement and other construction materials, food products, footwear, chemicals, fertilizer, printing, ceramics, steel
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 14.75 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 61.69%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 38.31%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 13.717 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, corn, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava (tapioca), yams, rubber; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; timber; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $13.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum and petroleum products 95%, cocoa, rubber
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US 35%, Spain 11%, India 9%, France 6%, Italy (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $10 billion (f.o.b., 1999)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery, chemicals, transport equipment, manufactured goods, food and live animals
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UK 13%, US 12%, Germany 10%, France 9%, Netherlands (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $29 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $39.2 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 naira (N) = 100 kobo
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> nairas (N) per US$1 - 96.261 (October 1999), 99 (1999), 21.886 (1998), 21.886 (1997), 21.895 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
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Nigeria/Communications|990779386
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 405,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 10,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> an inadequate system, further limited by poor maintenance; major expansion is required and a start has been made
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> intercity traffic is carried by coaxial cable, microwave radio relay, a domestic communications satellite system with 19 earth stations, and a coastal submarine cable; mobile cellular facilities and the Internet are available
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (2 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); coaxial submarine cable SAFE (South African Far East)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 82, FM 35, shortwave 11 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 23.5 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 2 government-controlled; note - in addition, in 1993, 14 licenses to operate private television stations were granted (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 6.9 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 5 (1999)
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Nigeria/Transportation|990779412
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3,557 km
> <br><i>narrow gauge:</i>
> 3,505 km 1.067-m gauge
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 52 km 1.435-m gauge
> <br><i>note:</i>
> years of neglect of both the rolling stock and the right-of-way have seriously reduced the capacity and utility of the system; a project to restore Nigeria's railways is now underway
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 194,394 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 60,068 km (including 1,194 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 134,326 km (1998 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> many of the roads reported as paved may be graveled; because of poor maintenance and years of heavy freight traffic (in part the result of the failure of the railroad system), much of the road system is barely usable
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 8,575 km consisting of the Niger and Benue rivers and smaller rivers and creeks
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 2,042 km; petroleum products 3,000 km; natural gas 500 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Calabar, Lagos, Onne, Port Harcourt, Sapele, Warri
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 40 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 360,505 GRT/644,471 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 1, cargo 12, chemical tanker 4, petroleum tanker 22, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 71 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 37
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 7
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 10
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 8
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 34
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 15
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 18 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Nigeria/Military|990779426
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, Police Force
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 18 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 29,082,802 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 16,708,344 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 1,360,023 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $236 million (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 0.7% (FY99)
------
Nigeria/Transnational_issues|990779441
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Cameroon over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula is currently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea
> <p><b>Illicit drugs:</b>
> facilitates movement of heroin en route from Southeast and Southwest Asia to Western Europe and North America; increasingly a transit route for cocaine from South America intended for European, East Asian, and North American markets
------
Niue|990779509
1,2d0
< '''Niue''' Polynesian dependency of [[New Zealand]] in the [[Cook Islands]]. Main town Alofi.
< 
3a2,13
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
------
Niue/History|990779526
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Niue's remoteness, as well as cultural and linguistic differences between its Polynesian inhabitants and those of the rest of the Cook Islands, have caused it to be separately administered. The population of the island continues to drop (from a peak of 5,200 in 1966 to 2,100 in 2000) with substantial emigration to New Zealand.
------
Niue/Geography|990779540
1c1,59
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Tonga
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 19 02 S, 169 52 W
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 260 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 260 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 1.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 64 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical; modified by southeast trade winds
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> steep limestone cliffs along coast, central plateau
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location near Mutalau settlement 68 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish, arable land
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 8%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 4%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 50% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> increasing attention to conservationist practices to counter loss of soil fertility from traditional slash and burn agriculture
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Law of the Sea
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> one of world's largest coral islands
------
Niue/People|990779554
1c1,48
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,113 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.47% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> NA births/1,000 population
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 population
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 live births
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA years
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> NA children born/woman
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Niuean(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Niuean
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Polynesian (with some 200 Europeans, Samoans, and Tongans)
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Ekalesia Niue (Niuean Church - a Protestant church closely related to the London Missionary Society) 75%, Latter-Day Saints 10%, other 15% (mostly Roman Catholic, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-Day Adventist)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Polynesian closely related to Tongan and Samoan, English
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 95%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Niue/Government|990779574
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> none
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Niue
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NE
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> self-governing in free association with New Zealand; Niue fully responsible for internal affairs; New Zealand retains responsibility for external affairs
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> self-governing parliamentary democracy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Alofi
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none; note - there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 14 villages each with its own village council whose members are elected and serve three-year terms
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> on 19 October 1974, Niue became a self-governing parliamentary government in free association with New Zealand
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Waitangi Day, 6 February (1840) (Treaty of Waitangi established British sovereignty)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 19 October 1974 (Niue Constitution Act)
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> English common law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952); the UK and New Zealand are represented by New Zealand High Commissioner Warren SEARELL (since NA August 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Premier Sani LAKATANI (since 1 April 1999)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet consists of the premier and three ministers
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; premier elected by the Legislative Assembly for a three-year term; election last held 19 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Sani LAKATANI elected premier; percent of Legislative Assembly vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Assembly (20 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve three-year terms; six elected from a common roll and 14 are village representatives)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 19 March 1999 (next to be held NA March 2002)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - NPP 9, independents 11
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court of New Zealand; High Court of Niue
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Niue People's Action Party or NPP [Young VIVIAN]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP (associate), Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UNESCO, WHO, WMO
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> yellow with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant; the flag of the UK bears five yellow five-pointed stars - a large one on a blue disk in the center and a smaller one on each arm of the bold red cross
------
Niue/Economy|990779589
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy is heavily dependent on aid and remittances from New Zealand. Government expenditures regularly exceed revenues, and the shortfall is made up by grants from New Zealand which are used to pay wages to public employees. Niue has cut government expenditures by reducing the public service by almost half. The agricultural sector consists mainly of subsistence gardening, although some cash crops are grown for export. Industry consists primarily of small factories to process passion fruit, lime oil, honey, and coconut cream. The sale of postage stamps to foreign collectors is an important source of revenue. The island in recent years has suffered a serious loss of population because of migration of Niueans to New Zealand. Efforts to increase GDP include the promotion of tourism and a financial services industry.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $4.5 million (1994 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $2,250 (1994 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 1% (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 450 (1992 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> most work on family plantations; paid work exists only in government service, small industry, and the Niue Development Board
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $NA
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, handicrafts, food processing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 3 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 3 million kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts, passion fruit, honey, limes, taro, yams, cassava (tapioca), sweet potatoes; pigs, poultry, beef cattle
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $117,500 (f.o.b., 1989)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> canned coconut cream, copra, honey, passion fruit products, pawpaws, root crops, limes, footballs, stamps, handicrafts
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> NZ 89%, Fiji, Cook Islands, Australia
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $4.1 million (c.i.f., 1989)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, live animals, manufactured goods, machinery, fuels, lubricants, chemicals, drugs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> NZ 59%, Fiji 20%, Japan 13%, Samoa, Australia, US
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $8.3 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8889 (1999), 1.8629 (1998), 1.5082 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 April - 31 March
------
Niue/Transportation|990779601
1c1,40
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 376 (1991)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1991)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> single-line telephone system connects all villages on island
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
> <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
> <p><b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 234 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 0 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 234 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; offshore anchorage only
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Niue/Transportation|990779625
1,20d0
< <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
< 376 (1991)
< <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
< 0 (1991)
< <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
< <br><i>domestic:</i>
< single-line telephone system connects all villages on island
< <br><i>international:</i>
< NA
< <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
< AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
< <p><b>Radios:</b>
< 1,000 (1997)
< <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
< 1 (1997)
< <p><b>Televisions:</b>
< NA
< <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
< NA
< <P><center><table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 bgcolor="#C0C0C0" width=100%><tr><td align="center"><b><a name="Trans">Transportation</a></b></td></tr></table></center><P><a href="#top">[Top of Page]</a>
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Niue/Communications|990779637
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 376 (1991)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1991)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> single-line telephone system connects all villages on island
> <br><i>international:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1,000 (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Niue/Military|990779653
1c1,4
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Police Force
> <p><b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of New Zealand
------
Niue/Transnational_issues|990779679
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands|990779706
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/History|990779752
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Under US administration as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific, the people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence but instead to forge closer links with the US. Negotiations for territorial status began in 1972. A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political union with the US was approved in 1975. A new government and constitution went into effect in 1978.
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Geography|990779767
1c1,56
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, islands in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 15 12 N, 145 45 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 477 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 477 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 14 islands including Saipan, Rota, and Tinian
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 1,482 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> tropical marine; moderated by northeast trade winds, little seasonal temperature variation; dry season December to June, rainy season July to October
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> southern islands are limestone with level terraces and fringing coral reefs; northern islands are volcanic
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> unnamed location on Agrihan 965 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> arable land, fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 21%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 19%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 60%
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> contamination of groundwater on Saipan may contribute to disease; clean-up of landfill; protection of endangered species conflicts with development
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/People|990779780
1c1,61
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 71,912 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 24% (male 8,652; female 8,377)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 75% (male 25,441; female 28,233)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1% (male 591; female 618) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.75% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 20.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 2.41 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 19.06 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 0.9 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.96 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.93 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 5.79 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 75.54 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 72.45 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 78.82 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.76 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Chamorro, Carolinians and other Micronesians, Caucasian, Japanese, Chinese, Korean
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Christian (Roman Catholic majority, although traditional beliefs and taboos may still be found)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English, Chamorro, Carolinian
> <br><i>note:</i>
> 86% of population speaks a language other than English at home
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 97%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 96% (1980 est.)
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Government|990779794
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Northern Mariana Islands
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> CQ
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> commonwealth in political union with the US; federal funds to the Commonwealth administered by the US Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> commonwealth; self-governing with locally elected governor, lieutenant governor, and legislature
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Saipan
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (commonwealth in political union with the US); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are four municipalities at the second order; Northern Islands, Rota, Saipan, Tinian
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (commonwealth in political union with the US)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Commonwealth Day, 8 January (1978)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Covenant Agreement effective 4 November 1986 and the Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands effective 1 January 1978
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on US system, except for customs, wages, immigration laws, and taxation
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal; indigenous inhabitants are US citizens but do not vote in US presidential elections
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> President William Jefferson CLINTON of the US (since 20 January 1993); Vice President Albert GORE, Jr. (since 20 January 1993)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Governor Pedro P. TENORIO (since NA January 1998) and Lieutenant Governor Jesus R. SABLAN (since NA January 1998)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for four-year terms; governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held in NA November 1997 (next to be held NA November 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Pedro P. TENORIO elected governor in a three-way race; percent of vote - Pedro P. TENORIO (Republican Party) 47%
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Legislature consists of the Senate (9 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year staggered terms) and the House of Representatives (18 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> Senate - last held NA November 1997 (next to be held NA November 1999); House of Representatives - last held NA November 1997 (next to be held NA November 1999)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> Senate - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican Party 8, Democratic Party 1; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican Party 13, Democratic Party 5
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the Commonwealth does not have a nonvoting delegate in the US Congress; instead, it has an elected official or "resident representative" located in Washington, DC; seats by party - Republican Party 1 (Juan N. BABAUTA)
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Commonwealth Supreme Court; Superior Court; Federal District Court
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Democratic Party [chairman (currently vacant)]; Republican Party [Benigno R. FITIAL]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), SPC
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> blue, with a white, five-pointed star superimposed on the gray silhouette of a latte stone (a traditional foundation stone used in building) in the center, surrounded by a wreath
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Economy|990779809
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The economy benefits substantially from financial assistance from the US. The rate of funding has declined as locally generated government revenues have grown. An agreement for the years 1986 to 1992 entitled the islands to $228 million for capital development, government operations, and special programs. Since 1992, funding has been extended one year at a time. The commonwealth received $27.7 million from FY93/94 through FY95/96. For FY96/97 through FY02/03, funding of $11 million will be provided for infrastructure, with an equal local match. A rapidly growing chief source of income is the tourist industry, which now employs about 50% of the work force. Japanese tourists predominate. The agricultural sector is of minor importance and is made up of cattle ranches and small farms producing coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons. Garment production is the fastest growing industry with employment of 12,000 mostly Chinese workers and shipments of $1 billion to the US in 1998 under duty and quota exemptions.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $524 million (1996 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> GDP numbers reflect US spending
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $9,300 (1996 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 6.5% (1994 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 6,006 total indigenous labor force; 2,699 unemployed; 28,717 foreign workers (1995)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> managerial 20.5%, technical, sales 16.4%, services 19.3%, farming 3.1%, precision production 13.8%, operators, fabricators 26.9%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 14% (residents)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $221 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $213 million, including capital expenditures of $17.7 million (1996)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism, construction, garments, handicrafts
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> coconuts, fruits, vegetables; cattle
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> garments
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> US
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> food, construction equipment and materials, petroleum products
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> US, Japan
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $21.1 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> US currency is used
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 October - 30 September
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Communications|990779822
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 15,000 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,200 (1995)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 2, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (on Saipan and one station planned for Rota; in addition, two cable services on Saipan provide varied programming from satellite networks) (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Transportation|990779834
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 362 km (1991 est.)
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> NA km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> NA km
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Saipan, Tinian
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 6 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 2 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Military|990779846
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of the US
------
Northern_Mariana_Islands/Transnational_issues|990779857
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Norway|990779939
1,23c1,33
< Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].

< The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].

< 

< 

< '''History'''

< 

< Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].

< 

< Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans deposed him within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government. However, in 1942 this administration was replaced with a regular (if not democratically elected) [[government]] headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]] who was named minister president by German commander [[Josef Terboven]].

< 

< Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up an organized military resistance for more than two months - longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.

< 

< Norway's kings with periods of reign:

< * [[Haakon VII]] (1905-1957)

< * [[Olav V]] (1957-1991)

< * [[Harald V]] (1991- )

< 

< 

< '''Misc'''

< 

< Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].

< 

< Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.

---
> Norway is a country west of [[Sweden]] on the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]]. A major source of income for Norway is the [[oil]] industry. They are also known for whaling in spite of protests from [[environmental organizations]].
> 
> The capital of Norway is [[Oslo]].
> 
> '''History'''
> 
> Settled around 2000 B.C. Famous in the [[middle ages]] for its fearless warriors, explorers and traders, the [[Vikings]], who controlled most of [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]] and parts of [[France]] and the [[British Isles]] between 800 B.C. and 1100 B.C., and were also known to travel as far as [[Constantinople]], [[Greece]], Northern [[Africa]] and [[Newfoundland]]. After being united under a single king and christianed, Norway reigned over [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] during the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397-1523), which ended when [[Sweden]] seceded and Norway and its possessions quickly sank to the status of provinces under [[Denmark]]. This lasted until 1814, when [[Denmark]] was defeated in the Napoleonic wars and ceded Norway to [[Sweden]] in the [[Treaty of Kiel]]. In an attempt to retain control over Norway despite the treaty, [[Denmark]] encouraged representatives of various social and political factions to gather at [[Eidsvoll]] to declare independence, draft a [[constitution]] and elect a king (who happened to be the [[Crown Prince]] of [[Denmark]], but what the heck). [[Sweden]] responded later the same year by waging war on Norway, which quickly forced King Christian to renounce his claim and return to [[Denmark]].  [[Sweden]] then acknowledged the newly drafted constitution.  Norway entered a union with [[Sweden]]. The union was dissolved in 1905 after several years of political unrest. Prince Charles of [[Denmark]] was elected King of Norway by [[referendum]] and assumed the throne under the Norwegian name of [[Haakon VII]].
> 
> Norway remained neutral during [[World War I]]. As [[World War II]] erupted, Norway insisted on remaining neutral despite warnings from some political factions that the country's strategic importance was too great for [[Germany]] to leave it alone, and attempts from the same factions to obtain political consensus to build up sufficient defences to withstand an invasion long enough for Allied reinforcements to arrive. In a surprise dawn attack on April 9th, 1940, German forces attacked [[Oslo]] and the major Norwegian ports ([[Bergen]], [[Trondheim]] and [[Narvik]]) and quickly gained footholds in those cities and the surrounding areas. [[Vidkun Quisling]] attempted a coup the same day, but was met with such strong resistance from the people that the Germans deposed him within a week and installed a bureaucratic administration in lieu of a government. However, in 1942 this administration was replaced with a regular (if not democratically elected) [[government]] headed by [[Vidkun Quisling]] who was named minister president by German commander [[Josef Terboven]].
> 
> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up an organized military resistance for more than two months - longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.
> 
> Norway's kings with periods of reign:
> 
> * [[Haakon VII]] (1905-1957)
> * [[Olav V]] (1957-1991)
> * [[Harald V]] (1991- )
> 
> '''Misc'''
> Norway is known for its implementation of [[CPIP]] according to [[RFC 1149]].
> 
> Although the fjords lining the west coast almost surely aren't really designed by [[Slartibartfast]], they are still beautiful.
> 
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
------
Norway/Geography|990779972
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Location:</b>
> Northern Europe, bordering the North Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, west of Sweden
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 62 00 N, 10 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Europe
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 324,220 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 307,860 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 16,360 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly larger than New Mexico
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 2,515 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Finland 729 km, Sweden 1,619 km, Russia 167 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 21,925 km (includes mainland 3,419 km, large islands 2,413 km, long fjords, numerous small islands, and minor indentations 16,093 km)
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 10 nm
> <br><i>continental shelf:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 4 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> temperate along coast, modified by North Atlantic Current; colder interior; rainy year-round on west coast
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> glaciated; mostly high plateaus and rugged mountains broken by fertile valleys; small, scattered plains; coastline deeply indented by fjords; arctic tundra in north
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Norwegian Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Galdhopiggeh 2,469 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, copper, natural gas, pyrites, nickel, iron ore, zinc, lead, fish, timber, hydropower
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 27%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 70% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 970 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> water pollution; acid rain damaging forests and adversely affecting lakes, threatening fish stocks; air pollution from vehicle emissions
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> about two-thirds mountains; some 50,000 islands off its much indented coastline; strategic location adjacent to sea lanes and air routes in North Atlantic; one of most rugged and longest coastlines in world; Norway is the only NATO member having a land boundary with Russia
------
Norway/People|990779985
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Population:</b>
> 4,481,162 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 20% (male 459,608; female 434,809)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 65% (male 1,472,974; female 1,430,526)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 15% (male 283,741; female 399,504) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 0.5% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 12.79 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 9.89 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 2.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.06 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.03 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 0.71 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 3.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 78.65 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 75.73 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 81.77 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 1.81 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Norwegian(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Norwegian
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Norwegian (Nordic, Alpine, Baltic), Lapps (Sami) 20,000
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Evangelical Lutheran 86% (state church), other Protestant and Roman Catholic 3%, other 1%, none and unknown 10% (1997)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Norwegian (official)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> small Lapp- and Finnish-speaking minorities
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> age 15 and over can read and write
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Norway/Government|990780001
1c1,76
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Kingdom of Norway
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Norway
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Kongeriket Norge
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Norge
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NO
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> constitutional monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Oslo
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 19 provinces (fylker, singular - fylke); Akershus, Aust-Agder, Buskerud, Finnmark, Hedmark, Hordaland, More og Romsdal, Nordland, Nord-Trondelag, Oppland, Oslo, Ostfold, Rogaland, Sogn og Fjordane, Sor-Trondelag, Telemark, Troms, Vest-Agder, Vestfold
> <p><b>Dependent areas:</b>
> Bouvet Island, Jan Mayen, Svalbard
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 7 June 1905 Norway declared the union with Sweden dissolved; 26 October 1905 Sweden agreed to the repeal of the union
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Constitution Day, 17 May (1814)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> 17 May 1814, modified in 1884
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> mixture of customary law, civil law system, and common law traditions; Supreme Court renders advisory opinions to legislature when asked; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> King HARALD V (since 17 January 1991); Heir Apparent Crown Prince HAAKON MAGNUS, son of the monarch (born 20 July 1973)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Prime Minister Jens STOLTENBERG (since 17 March 2000)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> State Council appointed by the monarch with the approval of the Parliament
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary; following parliamentary elections, the leader of the majority party or leader of a majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the monarch with the approval of the Parliament
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> modified unicameral Parliament or Storting which, for certain purposes, divides itself into two chambers (165 seats; members are elected by popular vote by proportional representation to serve four-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 15 September 1997 (next to be held NA September 2001)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote by party - Labor Party 35%, Center Party 7.9%, Conservative Party 14.3%, Christian People's Party 13.7%, Socialist Left Party 6%, Progress Party 15.3%, Liberal Party 4.4%, other parties 1.6%; seats by party - Labor Party 65, Center Party 11, Conservative Party 23, Christian People's Party 25, Socialist Left Party 9, Progress Party 25, Liberal Party 6, other parties 1
> <br><i>note:</i>
> for certain purposes, the Parliament divides itself into two chambers and elects one-fourth of its membership to an upper house or Lagting
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court or Hoyesterett, justices appointed by the monarch
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> Center Party [Johan J. JAKOBSEN]; Christian People's Party [Valgerd HAUGLAND]; Conservative Party [Jan PETERSEN]; Labor Party [Thorbjorn JAGLAND]; Liberal Party [Lars SPONHEIM]; Norwegian Communist Party [Kare Andre NILSEN]; Progress Party [Carl I. HAGEN]; Red Electoral Alliance [Erling FOLKVORD]; Socialist Left Party [Kristin HALVORSEN]
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, CBSS, CCC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EFTA, ESA, FAO, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NATO, NC, NEA, NIB, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTSO, UPU, WEU (associate), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, ZC
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Tom Erik VRAALSEN
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2720 34th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 333-6000
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 337-0870
> <br><i>consulate(s) general:</i>
> Houston, Miami, Minneapolis, New York, and San Francisco
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador David B. HERMELIN
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Drammensveien 18, 0244 Oslo
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> PSC 69, Box 1000, APO AE 09707
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [47] (22) 44 85 50
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [47] (22) 43 07 77
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> red with a blue cross outlined in white that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side in the style of the Dannebrog (Danish flag)
------
Norway/Economy|990780017
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> The Norwegian economy is a prosperous bastion of welfare capitalism, featuring a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector (through large-scale state enterprises), and extensively subsidizes agriculture, fishing, and areas with sparse resources. The extensive welfare system helps propel public sector expenditures to more than 50% of GDP. A major shipping nation, with a high dependence on international trade, Norway is basically an exporter of raw materials and semiprocessed goods. The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and is highly dependent on its oil production and international oil prices. Only Saudi Arabia exports more oil than Norway. Norway imports more than half its food needs. Oslo opted to stay out of the EU during a referendum in November 1994. Growth was a meager 0.8% in 1999 because of weak private consumption and anemic investment activity in the oil and other sectors. Growth should pick up in 2000, perhaps to 2.7%. Despite their high per capita income and generous welfare benefits, Norwegians worry about that time in the next two decades when the oil and gas begin to run out.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $111.3 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 0.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $25,100 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 2.2%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 26.3%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 71.5% (1998)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> 4.1%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> 21.2% (1991)
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> 2.8% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 2.7 million (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> services 74%, industry 22%, agriculture, forestry, and fishing 4% (1995)
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> 2.9% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $69.7 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $60.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> petroleum and gas, food processing, shipbuilding, pulp and paper products, metals, chemicals, timber, mining, textiles, fishing
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 0.7% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 115.485 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 0.58%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 99.16%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0.26% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 111.001 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 4.4 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 8 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> barley, other grains, potatoes; beef, milk; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $47.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum and petroleum products, machinery and equipment, metals, chemicals, ships, fish
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> EU 77% (UK 17%, Germany 12%, Netherlands 10%, Sweden 10%, France 8%), US 7% (1998)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $38.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals, foodstuffs
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> EU 69% (Sweden 15%, Germany 14%, UK 10%, Denmark 7%), US 7%, Japan 4% (1998)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $0 (Norway is a net external creditor)
> <p><b>Economic aid - donor:</b>
> ODA, $1.4 billion (1998)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Norwegian krone (NKr) = 100 oere
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Norwegian kroner (NKr) per US$1 - 8.0129 (January 2000), 7.7992 (1999), 7.5451 (1998), 7.0734 (1997), 6.4498 (1996), 6.3352 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Norway/Communications|990780029
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 2,325,010 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 1,676,763 (1997)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> high-quality domestic and international telephone, telegraph, and telex services
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> domestic satellite system
> <br><i>international:</i>
> 2 buried coaxial cable systems; 4 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - NA Eutelsat, NA Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), and 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - Norway shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, and Sweden)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 5, FM at least 650, shortwave 1 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 4.03 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 209 (1997)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 2.03 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 21 (1999)
------
Norway/Transportation|990780042
1c1,49
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 4,012 km
> <br><i>standard gauge:</i>
> 4,012 km 1.435-m gauge (2,530 km electrified; 96 km double track) (1998)
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 90,741 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 67,602 km (including 128 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 23,139 km (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Waterways:</b>
> 1,577 km along west coast; navigable by 2.4 m draft vessels maximum
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> refined petroleum products 53 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Bergen, Drammen, Floro, Hammerfest, Harstad, Haugesund, Kristiansand, Larvik, Narvik, Oslo, Porsgrunn, Stavanger, Tromso, Trondheim
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 788 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 21,460,260 GRT/34,178,125 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> bulk 100, cargo 142, chemical tanker 111, combination bulk 9, combination ore/oil 35, container 18, liquified gas 86, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 11, petroleum tanker 157, refrigerated cargo 11, roll-on/roll-off 48, short-sea passenger 22, vehicle carrier 37 (1999 est.)
> <br><i>note:</i>
> the government has created an internal register, the Norwegian International Ship register (NIS), as a subset of the Norwegian register; ships on the NIS enjoy many benefits of flags of convenience and do not have to be crewed by Norwegians (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 103 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 67
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 13
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 12
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 29 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 36
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 5
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 31 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Norway/Military|990780057
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Norwegian Army, Royal Norwegian Navy (includes Coast Artillery and Coast Guard), Royal Norwegian Air Force, Home Guard
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 20 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 1,103,256 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 915,949 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 27,417 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $3.113 billion (FY98)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 2.1% (FY98)
------
Norway/Transnational_issues|990780069
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> territorial claim in Antarctica (Queen Maud Land)
------
Naming_conventions|990780078
63c63,65
< Another possible solution that will become available when Wikipedia switches to version 0.92 of UseModWiki is to use parentheses: "Dune (movie)", "Dune (book)", etc.  There is clearly a "primary" meaning here of the big sand pile, so that page should still be named just "Dune", possibly with links to the other pages.
---
> Another possible solution that will become available when Wikipedia switches to version 0.92 of UseModWiki is to use parentheses: "Dune (movie)", "Dune (book)", etc.  There is clearly a "primary" meaning here of the big sand pile, so that page should still be named just "Dune", possibly with links to the other pages. -- anonymous
> 
> I like the parentheses solution, but until it gets implemented, we could do what movie producers have been doing when registering [[domain name]]s: add "the movie" to the title, e.g. [http://www.leftbehindthemovie.com/ Left Behind--the movie]. -- [[tbc]]
------
Norway|990780258
11c11
< Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up an organized military resistance for more than two months - longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.
---
> Despite the strength of the German position and the lack of air support, the Norwegian armed forces kept up an organized military resistance for more than two months - longer than any other country except the [[Soviet Union]]. King [[Haakon VII]] and his [[government]] fled to [[Britain]] on June 7th, the same day the French forces that had retaken [[Narvik]] abandoned it to return to a quickly disintegrating [[France]]. The Norwegian [[resistance movement]] (both civilian resistance and some pockets of military resistance that did not surrender in 1940) remained very active throughout the war.  Yet despite its neutrality, Norway was not able to avoid occupation by Germany in World War II. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned and Norway became a member of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. The current focus is on containing spending on the extensive welfare system and planning for the time when petroleum reserves are depleted. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the EU.
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Norfolk_Island|990780307
1c1,11
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
------
Norfolk_Island/History|990780319
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Background:</b>
> Two British attempts at establishing the island as a penal colony (1788-1814 and 1825-55) were ultimately abandoned. In 1856, the island was resettled by Pitcairn Islanders, descendants of the Bounty mutineers and their Tahitian companions.
------
Norfolk_Island/Geography|990780331
1c1,52
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Oceania, island in the South Pacific Ocean, east of Australia
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 29 02 S, 167 57 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Oceania
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 34.6 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 34.6 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> about 0.2 times the size of Washington, DC
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 32 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>exclusive fishing zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 3 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> subtropical, mild, little seasonal temperature variation
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> volcanic formation with mostly rolling plains
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Pacific Ocean 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Mount Bates 319 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> fish
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 25%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 75% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> NA sq km
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> typhoons (especially May to July)
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> NA
------
Norfolk_Island/People|990780345
1c1,39
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 1,892 (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> -0.68% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> NA births/1,000 population
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 population
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> NA deaths/1,000 live births
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA years
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> NA children born/woman
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Norfolk Islander(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Norfolk Islander(s)
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> descendants of the Bounty mutineers, Australian, New Zealander, Polynesians
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Anglican 39%, Roman Catholic 11.7%, Uniting Church in Australia 16.4%, Seventh-Day Adventist 4.4%, none 9.2%, unknown 16.9%, other 2.4% (1986)
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> English (official), Norfolk a mixture of 18th century English and ancient Tahitian
------
Norfolk_Island/Government|990780361
1c1,54
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Territory of Norfolk Island
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Norfolk Island
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> NF
> <p><b>Dependency status:</b>
> territory of Australia; Canberra administers Commonwealth responsibilities on Norfolk Island through the Department of Environment, Sport and Territories
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Kingston
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> Pitcairners Arrival Day Anniversary, 8 June (1856)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> Norfolk Island Act of 1979
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on the laws of Australia, local ordinances and acts; English common law applies in matters not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> 18 years of age; universal
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952); the UK and Australia are represented by Administrator A. J. MESSNER (since 4 August 1997)
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Assembly President and Chief Minister George Charles SMITH (since 30 April 1997)
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Executive Council is made up of four of the nine members of the Legislative Assembly; the council devises government policy and acts as an advisor to the Administrator
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia; chief minister elected by the Legislative Assembly for a term of not more than three years; election last held 30 April 1997 (next to be held by May 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> George Charles SMITH elected chief minister; percent of Legislative Assembly vote - NA
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> unicameral Legislative Assembly (9 seats; members elected by electors who have nine equal votes each but only four votes can be given to any one candidate; members serve three-year terms)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held 30 April 1997 (next to be held by May 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> percent of vote - NA; seats - independents 9
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court; Court of Petty Sessions
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> none
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> none (territory of Australia)
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three vertical bands of green (hoist side), white, and green with a large green Norfolk Island pine tree centered in the slightly wider white band
------
Norfolk_Island/Economy|990780376
1c1,80
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Tourism, the primary economic activity, has steadily increased over the years and has brought a level of prosperity unusual among inhabitants of the Pacific islands. The agricultural sector has become self-sufficient in the production of beef, poultry, and eggs.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $NA
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 1,395 (1991 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> tourism NA%, subsistence agriculture NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $4.6 million
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $4.8 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY92/93)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> tourism
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> NA kWh
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> Norfolk Island pine seed, Kentia palm seed, cereals, vegetables, fruit; cattle, poultry
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $1.5 million (f.o.b., FY91/92)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> postage stamps, seeds of the Norfolk Island pine and Kentia palm, small quantities of avocados
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Australia, other Pacific island countries, NZ, Asia, Europe
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $17.9 million (c.i.f., FY91/92)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> NA
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> Australia, other Pacific island countries, NZ, Asia, Europe
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $NA
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Australian dollars ($A) per US$1 - 1.5207 (January 2000), 1.5497 (1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> 1 July - 30 June
------
Norfolk_Island/Communications|990780389
1c1,19
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 1,087 (1983)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 0 (1983)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>international:</i>
> radiotelephone service with Sydney (Australia)
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 0, FM 3, shortwave 0 (1998)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 2,500 (1996)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 1 (local programming station plus two repeaters that bring in Australian programs by satellite) (1998)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1,200 (1996)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> NA
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Norfolk_Island/Transportation|990780401
1c1,20
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 80 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 53 km
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 27 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> none; loading jetties at Kingston and Cascade
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> none (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
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Norfolk_Island/Military|990780413
1c1,2
< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Military - note:</b>
> defense is the responsibility of Australia
------
Norfolk_Island/Transnational_issues|990780424
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> none
------
Oman|990780475
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <i>From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Not Wikified.</i>
> 
> * [[/History|History]]
> * [[/Geography|Geography]]
> * [[/People|People]]
> * [[/Government|Government]]
> * [[/Economy|Economy]]
> * [[/Communications|Communications]]
> * [[/Transportation|Transportation]]
> * [[/Military|Military]]
> * [[/Transnational issues|Transnational issues]]
------
Oman/History|990780488
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> <b>Background:</b>
> In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al Said ousted his father and has ruled as sultan ever since. His extensive modernization program has opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a long-standing political and military relationship with Britain. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.
------
Oman/Geography|990780500
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Location:</b>
> Middle East, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf, between Yemen and UAE
> <p><b>Geographic coordinates:</b>
> 21 00 N, 57 00 E
> <p><b>Map references:</b>
> Middle East
> <p><b>Area:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 212,460 sq km
> <br><i>land:</i>
> 212,460 sq km
> <br><i>water:</i>
> 0 sq km
> <p><b>Area - comparative:</b>
> slightly smaller than Kansas
> <p><b>Land boundaries:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 1,374 km
> <br><i>border countries:</i>
> Saudi Arabia 676 km, UAE 410 km, Yemen 288 km
> <p><b>Coastline:</b>
> 2,092 km
> <p><b>Maritime claims:</b>
> <br><i>contiguous zone:</i>
> 24 nm
> <br><i>exclusive economic zone:</i>
> 200 nm
> <br><i>territorial sea:</i>
> 12 nm
> <p><b>Climate:</b>
> dry desert; hot, humid along coast; hot, dry interior; strong southwest summer monsoon (May to September) in far south
> <p><b>Terrain:</b>
> vast central desert plain, rugged mountains in north and south
> <p><b>Elevation extremes:</b>
> <br><i>lowest point:</i>
> Arabian Sea 0 m
> <br><i>highest point:</i>
> Jabal Shams 2,980 m
> <p><b>Natural resources:</b>
> petroleum, copper, asbestos, some marble, limestone, chromium, gypsum, natural gas
> <p><b>Land use:</b>
> <br><i>arable land:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent crops:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>permanent pastures:</i>
> 5%
> <br><i>forests and woodland:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 95% (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Irrigated land:</b>
> 580 sq km (1993 est.)
> <p><b>Natural hazards:</b>
> summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in interior; periodic droughts
> <p><b>Environment - current issues:</b>
> rising soil salinity; beach pollution from oil spills; very limited natural fresh water resources
> <p><b>Environment - international agreements:</b>
> <br><i>party to:</i>
> Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
> <br><i>signed, but not ratified:</i>
> none of the selected agreements
> <p><b>Geography - note:</b>
> strategic location on Musandam Peninsula adjacent to Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil
------
Oman/People|990780513
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Population:</b>
> 2,533,389
> <br><i>note:</i>
> includes 527,078 non-nationals (July 2000 est.)
> <p><b>Age structure:</b>
> <br><i>0-14 years:</i>
> 41% (male 531,137; female 511,051)
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 57% (male 875,625; female 555,895)
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 2% (male 31,400; female 28,281) (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Population growth rate:</b>
> 3.46% (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Birth rate:</b>
> 38.08 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Death rate:</b>
> 4.16 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Net migration rate:</b>
> 0.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Sex ratio:</b>
> <br><i>at birth:</i>
> 1.05 male(s)/female
> <br><i>under 15 years:</i>
> 1.04 male(s)/female
> <br><i>15-64 years:</i>
> 1.58 male(s)/female
> <br><i>65 years and over:</i>
> 1.11 male(s)/female
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 1.31 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Infant mortality rate:</b>
> 23.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Life expectancy at birth:</b>
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> 71.78 years
> <br><i>male:</i>
> 69.66 years
> <br><i>female:</i>
> 74 years (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Total fertility rate:</b>
> 6.08 children born/woman (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Nationality:</b>
> <br><i>noun:</i>
> Omani(s)
> <br><i>adjective:</i>
> Omani
> <p><b>Ethnic groups:</b>
> Arab, Baluchi, South Asian (Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Bangladeshi), African
> <p><b>Religions:</b>
> Ibadhi Muslim 75%, Sunni Muslim, Shi'a Muslim, Hindu
> <p><b>Languages:</b>
> Arabic (official), English, Baluchi, Urdu, Indian dialects
> <p><b>Literacy:</b>
> <br><i>definition:</i>
> NA
> <br><i>total population:</i>
> approaching 80%
> <br><i>male:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>female:</i>
> NA%
------
Oman/Government|990780528
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Country name:</b>
> <br><i>conventional long form:</i>
> Sultanate of Oman
> <br><i>conventional short form:</i>
> Oman
> <br><i>local long form:</i>
> Saltanat Uman
> <br><i>local short form:</i>
> Uman
> <p><b>Data code:</b>
> MU
> <p><b>Government type:</b>
> monarchy
> <p><b>Capital:</b>
> Muscat
> <p><b>Administrative divisions:</b>
> 6 regions (mintaqat, singular - mintaqah) and 2 governorates* (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah) Ad Dakhiliyah, Al Batinah, Al Wusta, Ash Sharqiyah, Az Zahirah, Masqat, Musandam*, Zufar*; note - the US Embassy in Oman says that Masqat is a governorate
> <p><b>Independence:</b>
> 1650 (expulsion of the Portuguese)
> <p><b>National holiday:</b>
> National Day, 18 November (1940)
> <p><b>Constitution:</b>
> none; note - on 6 November 1996, Sultan QABOOS issued a royal decree promulgating a new basic law which, among other things, clarifies the royal succession, provides for a prime minister, bars ministers from holding interests in companies doing business with the government, establishes a bicameral legislature, and guarantees basic civil liberties for Omani citizens
> <p><b>Legal system:</b>
> based on English common law and Islamic law; ultimate appeal to the monarch; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
> <p><b>Suffrage:</b>
> in Oman's most recent elections in 1997, limited to approximately 50,000 Omanis chosen by the government to vote in elections for the Majlis ash-Shura
> <p><b>Executive branch:</b>
> <br><i>chief of state:</i>
> Sultan and Prime Minister QABOOS bin Said Al Said (since 23 July 1970); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>head of government:</i>
> Sultan and Prime Minister QABOOS bin Said Al Said (since 23 July 1970); note - the monarch is both the chief of state and head of government
> <br><i>cabinet:</i>
> Cabinet appointed by the monarch
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> none; the monarch is hereditary
> <p><b>Legislative branch:</b>
> bicameral Majlis Oman consists of an upper chamber or Majlis ad-Dawla (41 seats; members appointed by the monarch; has advisory powers only) and a lower chamber or Majlis ash-Shura (82 seats; members elected by limited suffrage, however, the monarch makes final selections and can negate election results; body has some limited power to propose legislation, but otherwise has only advisory powers)
> <br><i>elections:</i>
> last held NA October 1997 (next to be held NA October 2000)
> <br><i>election results:</i>
> NA
> <p><b>Judicial branch:</b>
> Supreme Court, has non-Islamic judges; traditional Islamic judges and a nascent civil court system, administered by region
> <p><b>Political parties and leaders:</b>
> none
> <p><b>International organization participation:</b>
> ABEDA, AFESD, AL, AMF, ESCWA, FAO, G-77, GCC, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO (applicant)
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation in the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador Abdallah bin Muhammad bin Aqil al-DHAHAB
> <br><i>chancery:</i>
> 2535 Belmont Road, NW, Washington, DC 20008
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [1] (202) 387-1980 through 1981, 1988
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [1] (202) 745-4933
> <p><b>Diplomatic representation from the US:</b>
> <br><i>chief of mission:</i>
> Ambassador John B. CRAIG
> <br><i>embassy:</i>
> Jameat A'Duwal Al Arabiya Street, Al Khuwair area, Muscat
> <br><i>mailing address:</i>
> international: P. O. Box 202, Code No. 115, Medinat Qaboos, Muscat
> <br><i>telephone:</i>
> [968] 698989
> <br><i>FAX:</i>
> [968] 699779
> <p><b>Flag description:</b>
> three horizontal bands of white, red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side; the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered at the top of the vertical band
------
Oman/Economy|990780541
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Economy - overview:</b>
> Oman's economic performance improved significantly in 1999 due largely to the mid-year upturn in oil prices. The government is moving ahead with privatization of its utilities, the development of a body of commercial law to facilitate foreign investment, and increased budgetary outlays. Oman continues to liberalize its markets in an effort to accede to the World Trade Organization (WTrO) and is likely to gain membership in 2000.
> <p><b>GDP:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $19.6 billion (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - real growth rate:</b>
> 4% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - per capita:</b>
> purchasing power parity - $8,000 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>GDP - composition by sector:</b>
> <br><i>agriculture:</i>
> 3%
> <br><i>industry:</i>
> 40%
> <br><i>services:</i>
> 57% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Population below poverty line:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Household income or consumption by percentage share:</b>
> <br><i>lowest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <br><i>highest 10%:</i>
> NA%
> <p><b>Inflation rate (consumer prices):</b>
> -0.07% (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force:</b>
> 850,000 (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Labor force - by occupation:</b>
> agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
> <p><b>Unemployment rate:</b>
> NA%
> <p><b>Budget:</b>
> <br><i>revenues:</i>
> $3.9 billion
> <br><i>expenditures:</i>
> $5.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Industries:</b>
> crude oil production and refining, natural gas production, construction, cement, copper
> <p><b>Industrial production growth rate:</b>
> 2% (1997 est.)
> <p><b>Electricity - production:</b>
> 7.36 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - production by source:</b>
> <br><i>fossil fuel:</i>
> 100%
> <br><i>hydro:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>nuclear:</i>
> 0%
> <br><i>other:</i>
> 0% (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - consumption:</b>
> 6.845 billion kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - exports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Electricity - imports:</b>
> 0 kWh (1998)
> <p><b>Agriculture - products:</b>
> dates, limes, bananas, alfalfa, vegetables; camels, cattle; fish
> <p><b>Exports:</b>
> $7.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Exports - commodities:</b>
> petroleum, reexports, fish, metals, textiles
> <p><b>Exports - partners:</b>
> Japan 21%, China 16%, Thailand 16%, South Korea 12%, US 3% (1997)
> <p><b>Imports:</b>
> $5.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
> <p><b>Imports - commodities:</b>
> machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food, livestock, lubricants
> <p><b>Imports - partners:</b>
> UAE 23% (largely reexports), Japan 16%, UK 13%, US 7.5%, Germany 5% (1997)
> <p><b>Debt - external:</b>
> $4.8 billion (1998 est.)
> <p><b>Economic aid - recipient:</b>
> $76.4 million (1995)
> <p><b>Currency:</b>
> 1 Omani rial (RO) = 1,000 baiza
> <p><b>Exchange rates:</b>
> Omani rials (RO) per US$1 - 0.3845 (fixed rate since 1986)
> <p><b>Fiscal year:</b>
> calendar year
------
Oman/Communications|990780554
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Telephones - main lines in use:</b>
> 300,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephones - mobile cellular:</b>
> 120,000 (1999)
> <p><b>Telephone system:</b>
> modern system consisting of open wire, microwave, and radiotelephone communication stations; limited coaxial cable
> <br><i>domestic:</i>
> open wire, microwave, radiotelephone communications, and a domestic satellite system with 8 earth stations
> <br><i>international:</i>
> satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat
> <p><b>Radio broadcast stations:</b>
> AM 3, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1999)
> <p><b>Radios:</b>
> 1.4 million (1997)
> <p><b>Television broadcast stations:</b>
> 13 (plus 25 low-power repeaters) (1999)
> <p><b>Televisions:</b>
> 1.6 million (1997)
> <p><b>Internet Service Providers (ISPs):</b>
> 1 (1999)
------
Oman/Transportation|990780567
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< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Railways:</b>
> 0 km
> <p><b>Highways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 32,800 km
> <br><i>paved:</i>
> 9,840 km (including 550 km of expressways)
> <br><i>unpaved:</i>
> 22,960 km (1996 est.)
> <p><b>Pipelines:</b>
> crude oil 1,300 km; natural gas 1,030 km
> <p><b>Ports and harbors:</b>
> Matrah, Mina' al Fahl, Mina' Raysut
> <p><b>Merchant marine:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 3 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,306 GRT/8,210 DWT
> <br><i>ships by type:</i>
> cargo 1, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports:</b>
> 142 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with paved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 4
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 1
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 1 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Airports - with unpaved runways:</b>
> <br><i>total:</i>
> 136
> <br><i>over 3,047 m:</i>
> 2
> <br><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i>
> 6
> <br><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i>
> 56
> <br><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i>
> 37
> <br><i>under 914 m:</i>
> 35 (1999 est.)
> <p><b>Heliports:</b>
> 1 (1999 est.)
------
Oman/Military|990780581
1c1,17
< Describe the new page here.
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> <b>Military branches:</b>
> Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary (includes Royal Oman Police)
> <p><b>Military manpower - military age:</b>
> 14 years of age
> <p><b>Military manpower - availability:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 762,832 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - fit for military service:</b>
> <br><i>males age 15-49:</i>
> 425,356 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military manpower - reaching military age annually:</b>
> <br><i>males:</i>
> 25,527 (2000 est.)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - dollar figure:</b>
> $1.592 billion (FY99)
> <p><b>Military expenditures - percent of GDP:</b>
> 11.1% (FY99)
------
Oman/Transnational_issues|990780592
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< Describe the new page here.
---
> <b>Disputes - international:</b>
> northern boundary with the UAE has not been bilaterally defined; northern section in the Musandam Peninsula is an administrative boundary
------
New_topics|990780626
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---
> Here's an autogenerated (but alas, not autoposted) list of recent new topics, as of about 8 pm 24th May, Wikipedia server time
5,111c5,153
< [[Altair_BASIC]] -- 
< [[Alvin_Toffler]] -- 
< [[Am]] -- 
< [[Amazing_Spider-Man]] -- 
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< [[Archie]] -- 
< [[Automated_Alice/III]] -- 
< [[Automated_Alice/II]] -- 
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< [[Automated_Alice/IX]] -- 
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< [[Automated_Alice]] -- 
< [[Axiom/Talk]] -- 
< [[Biblioholic]] -- 
< [[Bitola]] -- 
< [[Body]] -- 
< [[Cevik_Bir]] -- 
< [[Channel_tunnel]] -- 
< [[Comic_strip]] -- 
< [[Continuum_hypothesis]] -- 
< [[Cyberpunk]] -- 
< [[Dialect]] -- 
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< [[English_Words_for_Snow_and_Ice]] -- 
< [[Eric_Arthur_Blair]] -- 
< [[Eskimo]] -- 
< [[FTP]] -- 
< [[FederalisM]] -- 
< [[Film_noir/Film_list]] -- 
< [[Glaciation]] -- 
< [[Goitre]] -- 
< [[Guglielmo_Marconi/Talk]] -- 
< [[HCI]] -- 
< [[Historical_anniversaries/July_25]] -- 
< [[Horseshoe]] -- 
< [[How_to_play_the_violin]] -- 
< [[ISP]] -- 
< [[International_Wikipedia/TextToTranslate]] -- 
< [[Inuit/Talk]] -- 
< [[JRR_Tolkien/Bill_the_Pony]] -- 
< [[JRR_Tolkien/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring]] -- 
< [[JasonR]] -- 
< [[JobRequest]] -- 
< [[Joseph_Goebbels]] -- 
< [[Kappa]] -- 
< [[Kolmogorov_Smirnoff_Test]] -- 
< [[Kuiper_Test]] -- 
< [[Lambda]] -- 
< [[Language/Talk]] -- 
< [[Language_and_dialect/Talk]] -- 
< [[Logical_fallacy/Appeal_to_popularity]] -- 
< [[Logical_fallacy/Begging_the_question]] -- 
< [[Logical_fallacy/False_dilemma]] -- 
< [[Logical_fallacy/Many_questions]] -- 
< [[Lore]] -- 
< [[Love/Forever_Changes]] -- 
< [[Lysator/Talk]] -- 
< [[McLean]] -- 
< [[Michael_Reagan]] -- 
< [[Monastir]] -- 
< [[Mu-metal]] -- 
< [[Nail]] -- 
< [[Paul_Allen]] -- 
< [[Penis]] -- 
< [[Pokey_the_Penguin]] -- 
< [[Popeye]] -- 
< [[Post-Communism]] -- 
< [[Pytheas]] -- 
< [[Richard_Bachman/The_Running_Man]] -- 
< [[Richard_Bachman]] -- 
< [[Roberto_Baggio]] -- 
< [[Scheme/Talk]] -- 
< [[Shoe]] -- 
< [[Short_list]] -- 
< [[Skinhead]] -- 
< [[Slang]] -- 
< [[Sorrel]] -- 
< [[Spiderman]] -- 
< [[Statistics/LLR]] -- 
< [[Talk_radio/Talk]] -- 
< [[Talk_radio]] -- 
< [[Thales]] -- 
< [[The_Running_Man]] -- 
< [[The_Wizard_if_Id]] -- 
< [[Thyroid]] -- 
< [[Tiger]] -- 
< [[TtH]] -- 
< [[User-friendliness]] -- 
< [[User-friendly/Talk]] -- 
< [[User-friendly]] -- 
< [[User_Friendly]] -- 
< [[User_friendly]] -- 
< [[Varanger_glaciation]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_is_a_dictionary]] -- 
< [[Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary]] -- 
< [[Woman]] -- 
< [[Zippy_the_Pinhead]] -- 
< [[Zulu]]
< 
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> [[A_Man_for_All_Seasons]] -- 
> [[Battle_of_Bosworth_Field]] -- 
> [[BodyBuilding]] -- 
> [[BooleanAlgebra/Talk]] -- 
> [[Bryan_McLean]] -- 
> [[Carl_Jung/Talk]] -- 
> [[Carl_Jung]] -- 
> [[Collectivism]] -- 
> [[Eskimo/Talk]] -- 
> [[Food_preservation]] -- 
> [[Genetics]] -- 
> [[George_Pappas]] -- 
> [[Guitar/Slide]] -- 
> [[HighGerman]] -- 
> [[Hippocrates]] -- 
> [[History_of_England]] -- 
> [[Hymenostomatia]] -- 
> [[Impotence]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/Equivocation]] -- 
> [[Logical_fallacy/Ignoratio_elenchi]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Government]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/History]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Military]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/People]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mauritius/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mauritius]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Government]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/History]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Military]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/People]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mayotte/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mayotte]] -- 
> [[Meme/Talk]] -- 
> [[Meme]] -- 
> [[Memes]] -- 
> [[Menieres_disease]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Government]] -- 
> [[Mexico/History]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Military]] -- 
> [[Mexico/People]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mexico/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Government]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/History]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Military]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/People]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Micronesia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Micronesia]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Communications]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Economy]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Geography]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Government]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/History]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Military]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/People]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Midway_Islands]] -- 
> [[Moldova/Communications]] -- 
> [[Moldova/Economy]] -- 
> [[Moldova/Geography]] -- 
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> [[Moldova/Military]] -- 
> [[Moldova/People]] -- 
> [[Moldova/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Moldova/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Moldova]] -- 
> [[Molecular_biology]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Communications]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Economy]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Geography]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Government]] -- 
> [[Monaco/History]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Military]] -- 
> [[Monaco/People]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Monaco/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Monaco]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Government]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/History]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Military]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/People]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mongolia/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mongolia]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Communications]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Economy]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Geography]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Government]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/History]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Military]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/People]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Montserrat/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Montserrat]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Communications]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Economy]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Geography]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Government]] -- 
> [[Morocco/History]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Military]] -- 
> [[Morocco/People]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Morocco/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Morocco]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Communications]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Economy]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Geography]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Government]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/History]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Military]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/People]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Mozambique/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Mozambique]] -- 
> [[Polygonales]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Communications]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Economy]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Geography]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Government]] -- 
> [[Portugal/History]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Military]] -- 
> [[Portugal/People]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Transnational_issues]] -- 
> [[Portugal/Transportation]] -- 
> [[Sjc]] -- 
> [[Snare]] -- 
> [[Swiss_German]] -- 
> [[Vendian_Biota]] -- 
> [[Wikipedia_gremlins]]
------
Heidegger|990780653
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Martin Heidegger</b> 1889 -- 1976
> 
> German philosopher.
------
Hegel|990780763
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> :<b>Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</b> 1770 -- 1831
> 
> German philosopher.
------
Historical_anniversaries/August_22|990781018
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 
> 1485 - The [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] decisively ends the [[Wars of the Roses]] and leads to the start of the Tudor dynasty in [[England]] 
> 
------
Countries_of_the_world|990781064
171d170
< 
175d173
< 
179d176
< 
------
Portmanteau|990781275
1c1,7
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=portmanteau Merriam-Webster definition of portmanteau] gives two meanings:
> #a large suitcase
> #a word or morpheme whose form and meaning are derived from a blending of two or more distinct forms (as ''smog'' from ''smoke'' and ''fog'')
> 
> Of course, ''wikipedia'' itself is a portmanteau.
> 
> See [http://www.parc.xerox.com/istl/members/nunberg/portmanteau.html Portmanteau Words By Geoff Nunberg] for an interesting commentary on this subject.
------
Larry_Sanger|990781443
0a1,2
> http://dialup.oar.net/~lsanger/larrysm.jpg
> 
107c109
< I don't have (well, I don't exert) direct control over this.  The place to ask for this would be on Espanol-L.  I think some of the translators, like other Nupedia people, look down their noses (totally unwarrantedly, in my opinion) at Wikipedia, so you might encounter resistance.  But I'm all for trying! --[[LMS]]
---
> I don't have (well, I don't exert) direct control over this.  The place to ask for this would be on Espanol-L.  I think some of the translators, like other Nupedia people, look down their noses (totally unwarrantedly, in my opinion) at Wikipedia, so you might encounter resistance.  But I'm all for trying! --[[LMS]]
------
Agincourt|990781512
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> The battle of Agincourt was fought on October 25th 1415 between the heavily outnumbered army of [[King Henry V]] of England and that of [[Charles VI of France]]. The English army prevailed against the heavily armoured French cavalry which floundered in the mud and were wiped out in the hail of arrows rained down on them.
------
Agincourt|990781545
1c1
< The battle of Agincourt was fought on October 25th 1415 between the heavily outnumbered army of [[King Henry V]] of England and that of [[Charles VI of France]]. The English army prevailed against the heavily armoured French cavalry which floundered in the mud and were wiped out in the hail of arrows rained down on them.
---
> The battle of Agincourt was fought on October 25th 1415 between the heavily outnumbered army of [[King Henry V]] of England and that of [[Charles VI of France]]. The English army prevailed against the heavily armoured French cavalry which floundered in the mud and was wiped out in the hail of arrows rained down on them.
------
History_of_Spain|990782330
5c5,8
< Hay que ser xungo para escribir esto, capullos...
---
> Hay que ser xungo para escribir esto, capullos...
> 
> ----
> ''I'd have to agree with Larry.  The comment doesn't distinguish Spain from the United States.  <ducks and runs> --KoyaanisQatsi''
------
Naming_conventions|990782370
45,76c45
< # '''Central pages with subpages''': It is entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life.
< 
< '''Use English words'''
< 
< I have so far been stubborn about keeping names in their original language.  I think it is time for me to give in to the language origin of the Wikipedia.  For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
< 
< Name your pages in English!  If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias).  If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article).  Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
< 
< <h2>Other specific conventions</h2>
< 
< '''Movie titles'''
< 
< Some movie titles describe other things about which we want articles.  For example, [[An American in Paris]] describes both a Gershwin musical piece and a movie, and [[Dune]] is a geological term, a novel, a movie, and a made-for-cable miniseries.
< 
< I propose the following solution to this problem.  Where a movie title is unique or virtually unique, let the title of the article be the same as the title of the movie.  But where it's the same as a subject in science, a novel, or whatever, unless the movie title is far and away the most common accepted meaning of the word or phrase, title the movie article like this: <code>[[Movie Title--films]]</code>.  Then, in case of more than one production of the film, make subpages.  (This remains to be worked out, by people who care!)
< 
< I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal.  Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.).  Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
< 
< Another possible solution that will become available when Wikipedia switches to version 0.92 of UseModWiki is to use parentheses: "Dune (movie)", "Dune (book)", etc.  There is clearly a "primary" meaning here of the big sand pile, so that page should still be named just "Dune", possibly with links to the other pages. -- anonymous
< 
< I like the parentheses solution, but until it gets implemented, we could do what movie producers have been doing when registering [[domain name]]s: add "the movie" to the title, e.g. [http://www.leftbehindthemovie.com/ Left Behind--the movie]. -- [[tbc]]
< 
< '''Philosophy'''
< 
< Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
< 
< In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[John Stuart Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google] search first.
< 
< ----
< Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
< 
< /Talk
---
> # '''Central pages with subpages''': It is entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''alway
------
Naming_conventions|990782375
45c45,76
< # '''Central pages with subpages''': It is entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''alway
---
> # '''Central pages with subpages''': It is entirely possible to make subpages of pages (see [[how does one edit a page|our editing instructions]]).  For example, on a page about horses, one might make a <nowiki>/Breaking</nowiki> subpage to discuss horse-breaking.  Alternatively, one might simply have a page called "Horse breaking".  But be careful when choosing this option.  Make sure that the subtopic is ''always'' or nearly always considered in the context of the main topic.  For example, I might want to make a subpage of [[Jimmy Carter]] about his election: [[Jimmy Carter/Election]].  But bear in mind, there was another candidate in the 1976 U.S. presidential election--more generally, not everything about the 1976 election is properly considered in the context of Jimmy Carter's election.  If I just want to link to an article about [[daffodil]]s, I shouldn't have to know their exact place in the tree of life.
> 
> '''Use English words'''
> 
> I have so far been stubborn about keeping names in their original language.  I think it is time for me to give in to the language origin of the Wikipedia.  For clarity I will formulate this resignation here. [[LinusTolke]]
> 
> Name your pages in English!  If you are talking about a person, country, town, movie or book use the most used English version of the name for the article (as you would find in other encyclopedias).  If you want, you could have an alias for the name of the person in his language, country or town in the there spoken language, original title or the movie or book stating what language it is in and where the actual information is (the article).  Example [[Sweden]] [[Sverige]].
> 
> <h2>Other specific conventions</h2>
> 
> '''Movie titles'''
> 
> Some movie titles describe other things about which we want articles.  For example, [[An American in Paris]] describes both a Gershwin musical piece and a movie, and [[Dune]] is a geological term, a novel, a movie, and a made-for-cable miniseries.
> 
> I propose the following solution to this problem.  Where a movie title is unique or virtually unique, let the title of the article be the same as the title of the movie.  But where it's the same as a subject in science, a novel, or whatever, unless the movie title is far and away the most common accepted meaning of the word or phrase, title the movie article like this: <code>[[Movie Title--films]]</code>.  Then, in case of more than one production of the film, make subpages.  (This remains to be worked out, by people who care!)
> 
> I think the movie titles solution is still suboptimal.  Problem one is that it's really hard to say whether or not the movie title is the most common use, because it depends on what field of knowledge you are coming from (for example Hannibal, Martix etc.).  Problem two is that many people won't adhere to the convention and many more people will search for the movie title and not for title--film when looking for information. So I would rather make films a subdirectory of the page in question, because for the said reasons, we will have to include links to the movie pages on the "main" page anyway. I propose to change the convention from title--film to title/film with a link on the title page.  --Sonic
> 
> Another possible solution that will become available when Wikipedia switches to version 0.92 of UseModWiki is to use parentheses: "Dune (movie)", "Dune (book)", etc.  There is clearly a "primary" meaning here of the big sand pile, so that page should still be named just "Dune", possibly with links to the other pages. -- anonymous
> 
> I like the parentheses solution, but until it gets implemented, we could do what movie producers have been doing when registering [[domain name]]s: add "the movie" to the title, e.g. [http://www.leftbehindthemovie.com/ Left Behind--the movie]. &lt;&gt;&lt; [[tbc]]
> 
> '''Philosophy'''
> 
> Name your pages precisely.  If you want to discuss a particular version of realism, e.g., Platonic realism, then don't call your page [[realism]]; call it, e.g., [[Platonic realism]] or [[Platonism]] (though the latter, too, is ambiguous) or even just [[Platonic theories of universals]].
> 
> In general, famous philosophers, for brevity, can be referred to by their last names.  E.g., [[Socrates]], [[Plato]]; but cf. [[James Mill]] and [[John Stuart Mill]], or [[R. W. Sellars]] and [[Wilfrid Sellars]].  Remember that there are famous ''non-''philosophers who might have the name in question, about whom we might eventually want to have articles!  Best to do a [http://www.google.com Google] search first.
> 
> ----
> Maybe others could add similar suggestions to this list, e.g., for history, literature, etc.
> 
> /Talk
------
History_of_England|990782423
6a7,8
> 
> 
9c11
< Mary, a catholic, was married to [[Philip II of Spain]], perhaps the foremost catholic in Europe barring the pope, took the throne in 1553, and, on her accession, made determined attempts to suppress protestantism. 
---
> Mary, a catholic, who was married to [[Philip II of Spain]], perhaps the foremost catholic in Europe barring the pope, took the throne in 1553, and, on her accession, made determined attempts to suppress protestantism. 
12a15,19
> [[James I]]
> 
> The [[English Civil War]] broke out in 1642 as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between the then king [[ Charles I]] and [[Parliament]]...
> 
> The following years were to prove disastrous for in 1664/65 England was swept by a visitation of the [[Great Plague]], and then, in 1666, London, the timbered capital city of England, was swept by fire, the [[Great Fire of London]], which raged for 5 days,  killing 20% of the city's population and destroying c. 15,000 buildings
------
Vampire|990784027
1c1
< A mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood; usually the vanpire is the corpse of a recently dead person, reanimated by one means or another. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded as containing the life force) is very old, going back to the ancient Greeks at least. An example is the episode in book 11 of the [[Odyssey]] where [[Odysseus]] carries out a necromantic ritual; the dead are lured to the fresh blood of sacrificed rams, and Odysseus holds them back with his sword until the shade of [[Tiresius]], whom he had wanted to speak to, appears.
---
> A mythical being that is said to subsist on human (and sometimes animal) blood; usually the vampire is the corpse of a recently dead person, reanimated by one means or another. The tradition of the dead craving blood (regarded as containing the life force) is very old, going back to the ancient Greeks at least. An example is the episode in book 11 of the [[Odyssey]] where [[Odysseus]] carries out a necromantic ritual; the dead are lured to the fresh blood of sacrificed rams, and Odysseus holds them back with his sword until the shade of [[Tiresius]], whom he had wanted to speak to, appears.
18c18,22
< There is a long tradition about vampires, but for the last century the vampire has been defined in popular culture by [[Bram Stoker]]'s [[Dracula]]; Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease, (contagious demonic possession!) with all its undertones of sex, blood and death seem to have struck a chord in a Victorian England where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. 
---
> *`The Vampyre' by [[John Polidori]] (attributed to [[Byron]] at one time)
> * A Victorian best-seller entitled `Varney the Vampire'
> * [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]]
> 
> This last has been the definitive description of the vampire in popular fiction for the lastr century. Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease, (contagious demonic possession!) with all its undertones of sex, blood and death seem to have struck a chord in a Victorian England where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. 
25,27c29,34
< 
< Vampire films, songs and books include: [[Dracula]] by [[Bram Stoker]] -- [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] -- [[Blade]] -- [[Salems Lot|Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] -- 
< [[Nosferatu]] (also in a later remake with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]]) -- [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
---
> * [[I am Legend]] by [[Richard Matheson]] - an interesting twist: vampirism is caused by a bacterium (the use of a wooden stake keeps air in the wound, preventing the bacterium from making repairs), and after the pandemic the hero is the last normal person in a world filled with vampires. Filmed (in a very poor adaptation) as `<i>The Omega Man</i>' (and I believe was readapted (Badly) again at a lter date.)
> * [[From Dusk Till Dawn]] 
> * [[Blade]]
> * [[Salems Lot|Salem's Lot]] by [[Stephen King]] 
> * [[Nosferatu]] (also in a later remake with a brilliant [[Klaus Kinsky]])
> * [[Dracula]] by [[ZZ en de maskers]] (covered by [[Claw Boys Claw]]
------
Vampire|990784074
22c22
< This last has been the definitive description of the vampire in popular fiction for the lastr century. Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease, (contagious demonic possession!) with all its undertones of sex, blood and death seem to have struck a chord in a Victorian England where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. 
---
> This last has been the definitive description of the vampire in popular fiction for the last century. Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease, (contagious demonic possession!) with all its undertones of sex, blood and death seem to have struck a chord in a Victorian England where [[tuberculosis]] and [[syphilis]] were common. 
25c25
< Bram Stoker's ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. Tepes may have suffered from porphyria.  He is said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distate for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
---
> Bram Stoker's ''[[Dracula]]'' was based on legends about a real person - [[Vlad Tepes]], a savagely cruel prince known also as [[Vlad Drakul]] (Drakul, or "Dracula" meaning "son of a dragon") or [[Vlad the Impaler]], who lived in the late [[Middle Ages]] in what is now [[Romania]]. Oral tradition regarding Tepes includes his having made a practice of torturing peasants who displeased him and hanging them or parts of them, such as heads, on stakes around his castle or manor house. Tepes may have suffered from porphyria.  He is said to have roamed abroad at night only, to have a pathological distaste for garlic (a notable dietary quirk in ancient Romania) and to crave human blood.  His supposed periodic abdominal agony, especially after eating, and bouts of delirium would have also been characteristic of the disease.  Legend has it that any food other than human blood will cause a vampire intense stomach pain and nausea.
------
Vampire|990784141
29c29
< * [[I am Legend]] by [[Richard Matheson]] - an interesting twist: vampirism is caused by a bacterium (the use of a wooden stake keeps air in the wound, preventing the bacterium from making repairs), and after the pandemic the hero is the last normal person in a world filled with vampires. Filmed (in a very poor adaptation) as `<i>The Omega Man</i>' (and I believe was readapted (Badly) again at a lter date.)
---
> * [[I am Legend]] by [[Richard Matheson]] - an interesting twist: vampirism is caused by a bacterium (the use of a wooden stake keeps air in the wound, preventing the bacterium from making repairs), and after the pandemic the hero is the last normal person in a world filled with vampires. Filmed (in a very poor adaptation) as `<i>The Omega Man</i>' (and I believe was readapted (badly) again at a later date.)
------
Richard_Matheson|990784876
1c1,3
< Describe the new page here.
---
> American author and screenwriter. 
> 
> He wrote a number of episodes for the American TV series [[The Twilight Zone]]. Novels include `The Shrinking Man' (filmed as [[The Incredible Shrinking Man]], and a [[vampire]] novel, `I am Legend', later filmed as `The Omega Man'
------
Science_fiction_film|990785006
13a14
> :[[The Incredible Shrinking Man]]
------
Historical_anniversaries/October_25|990785343
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> 1415 - The army of Henry VI of [[England]] defeats the french army in battle at [[Agincourt]]
------
International_Wikipedia/Homepages|990788935
7c7,16
< It'll be a good idea to give a link back to http://www.nupedia.com on the homepages.
---
> It'll be a good idea to give a link back to http://www.nupedia.com on the homepages.
> 
> ----
> 
>  There should be a backlink to the international section.
>  I often change from international/us? section to german and
>  can't find a link to go the international section again
>  Or have I overseen something?   [[StefanRybo]]
> 
> ----
------
Digitalis|990789416
1c1
< Describe the new page here.
---
> Another name for the common foxglove, <i>digitalis purpurea</i>; the use of extracts of the plant for the treatment of some heart conditions was first described by [[William Withering]].
------
Feature_requests|990790020
16a17,18
> * I would like to have a CANCEL Button on the Edits page (Page in Edit mode) added to the two existing ones SUBMIT and PREVIEW. Just to have a clear understanding what is going on and what the system/database is up to. [[StefanRybo]]
> 
------
Novelists|990792474
22a23
> * [[Thomas Pynchon]]
------
Larry_Sanger|990792686
1,2d0
< http://dialup.oar.net/~lsanger/larrysm.jpg
< 
------
Christianity/Talk|990793220
11a12,13
> ----
> That would be good, yes, please!
------
WikiWiki|990793360
10a11,12
> ''Some more historical information would be good; info about the wiki ethos; about the varieties of wiki software; about the various (many) wikis now online.  Obviously, Wikipedia is the best place to develop an article on the subject of wikis!''
> 
13c15
< You can search various wikis at once, including this and Ward's, using MetaWiki.
---
> You can search various wikis at once, including this and Ward's, using MetaWiki.
------
Punk_rock|990793800
1c1
< Originally used to describe the primitive guitar based [[rock and roll]] of '60s bands such as [[The Troggs]], and later [[The Stooges]], punk rock now tends to be used strictly to mean the anti-establishment musical movement of the period 1976-80, exemplified by [[The Sex Pistols]] and [[The Clash]], and their descendents.
---
> Originally used to describe the primitive guitar based [[rock and roll]] of '60s bands such as [[The Seeds]], and later [[The Stooges]], punk rock now tends to be used strictly to mean the anti-establishment musical movement of the period 1976-80, exemplified by [[The Sex Pistols]] and [[The Clash]], and their descendents.
3c3
< The roots of punk lie in both the earlier form of "punk" band, [[glam rock]] groups such as [[The New York Dolls]] and early the driving forces of the [[avant garde]] [[new wave music]], such as [[Patti Smith]].  Also of importance was a desire to return to the simplicity of early [[rock and roll]] and a rejection of the excesses, pretension and pomposity which had overtaken [[heavy metal]] and [[progressive rock]] in the 1970s.  By contrast, punk rock emphasised simplicity of music structure -- extolling a "do it yourself" ethic that anyone could form a punk band.  The lyrics introduced a new frankness of expression in matters both political: often dealing with urban boredom and rising unemployment in the UK, and sexual: such as the [[Dead Kennedys]] "Too Drunk to Fuck".
---
> The roots of punk lie in the earlier form of "punk", [[glam rock]] groups such as [[The New York Dolls]] and early the driving forces of the [[avant garde]] [[new wave music]], such as [[Patti Smith]].  Also of importance was a desire to return to the simplicity of early [[rock and roll]] and a rejection of the excesses, pretension and pomposity which had overtaken [[heavy metal]] and [[progressive rock]] in the 1970s.  By contrast, punk rock emphasised simplicity of music structure -- extolling a "do it yourself" ethic that anyone could form a punk band.  The lyrics introduced a new frankness of expression in matters both political: often dealing with urban boredom and rising unemployment in the UK, and sexual: such as the [[Dead Kennedys]] "Too Drunk to Fuck".
8c8
< In the early eighties punk integrated with reggea- & ska- subcultures with bands as [[TheSpecials]], [[Madness]], [[TheSelecter]], [[BadManners]]. Here are the roots of [[skinhead]]-culture as well.
---
> In the early eighties punk ineracted with reggae- & ska- subcultures with bands as [[The Specials]], [[Madness]], [[The Selecter]], [[Bad Manners]].
25a26
> *[[The Heartbreakers]]
28d28
< *[[Plastic Bertrand]] "Ca plane pour moi"
32d31
< *[[TC Matic]]
34d32
< *[[The Toy Dolls]]
36d33
< *[[Violent Femmes]]
38c35
< *[[The Zodiac Mindwarp]]
---
> 
------
Punk_rock|990793893
3c3
< The roots of punk lie in the earlier form of "punk", [[glam rock]] groups such as [[The New York Dolls]] and early the driving forces of the [[avant garde]] [[new wave music]], such as [[Patti Smith]].  Also of importance was a desire to return to the simplicity of early [[rock and roll]] and a rejection of the excesses, pretension and pomposity which had overtaken [[heavy metal]] and [[progressive rock]] in the 1970s.  By contrast, punk rock emphasised simplicity of music structure -- extolling a "do it yourself" ethic that anyone could form a punk band.  The lyrics introduced a new frankness of expression in matters both political: often dealing with urban boredom and rising unemployment in the UK, and sexual: such as the [[Dead Kennedys]] "Too Drunk to Fuck".
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> The roots of punk lie in the earlier form of "punk", [[glam rock]] groups such as [[The New York Dolls]] and the early driving forces of the [[avant garde]] [[new wave music]], such as [[Patti Smith]].  Also of importance was a desire to return to the simplicity of early [[rock and roll]] and a rejection of the excesses, pretension and pomposity which had overtaken [[heavy metal]] and [[progressive rock]] in the 1970s.  By contrast, punk rock emphasised simplicity of music structure -- extolling a "do it yourself" ethic that anyone could form a punk band.  The lyrics introduced a new frankness of expression in matters both political: often dealing with urban boredom and rising unemployment in the UK, and sexual: such as the [[Dead Kennedys]] "Too Drunk to Fuck".
29a30
> *[[The Saints]]
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Punk_rock|990794225
8c8
< In the early eighties punk ineracted with reggae- & ska- subcultures with bands as [[The Specials]], [[Madness]], [[The Selecter]], [[Bad Manners]].
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> In the early eighties punk ineracted with reggae- & ska- subcultures with bands as [[The Specials]], [[Madness]]and [[The Selecter]].
10c10
< As well as its lasting influence on all [[popular music]], especially [[grunge]], genuine punk rock can still, however, be found in certain subcultures, with a thriving scene on the west coast of the [[United States]], and underwent a brief renaissance in the late 1990s with bands like [[The Offspring]], [[NOFX]] and others, usually referred to as [[Skate Punk]].
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> As well as its lasting influence on all [[popular music]], especially [[grunge]], a punk  subculture can still be found, with a thriving scene on the west coast of the [[United States]], and underwent a brief renaissance in the late 1990s with bands like [[The Offspring]], [[NOFX]] and others, usually referred to as [[Skate Punk]].
14d13
< *[[BGK]] "Balthazar Gerards Commando"
27d25
< *[[Kobus gaat naar Appelscha]]
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Television/Band|990794324
1c1
< American [[rock and roll]] band of the late 1970s, who were an integral part of the [[new wave music|new wave]] movement.  Their records are noted for sometime poet Tom Verlaine's abstract lyrics and the interplay between the [[guitar]]s of Verlaine and Lloyd.  The band initially made only two studio albums before an acrimonious split, but they were stylistically influential and their complicated  music flew in the face of the prevailing mood for [[punk rock]]. They briefly reformed for a self-titled third album in the early 1990s.
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> American [[rock and roll]] band of the 1970s, who were an integral part of the [[new wave music|new wave]] movement.  Their records are noted for sometime poet Tom Verlaine's abstract lyrics and the interplay between the [[guitar]]s of Verlaine and Lloyd.  The band initially made only two studio albums before an acrimonious split, but they were stylistically influential and their complicated  music flew in the face of the prevailing mood for [[punk rock]]. They briefly reformed for a self-titled third album in the early 1990s.
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British_Columbia|990795213
1c1
< The most western [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[Victoria BC|Victoria]].
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> The most westerly [[province]] of [[Canada]]. Its capital is [[Victoria BC|Victoria]].
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Canada/cities|990795279
2a3
> *[[Edmonton]]
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Alberta|990795335
1c1
< A provice of [[Canada]]. Its capital is the city of [[Edmonton]].
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> A province of [[Canada]]. Its capital is the city of [[Edmonton]].
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Herb|990795422
51a52
> *[[Valerian]]
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United_Kingdom|990795498
1c1
< Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Channel Islands]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Cornwall]] and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
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> Formally "The United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]]".  The United Kingdom comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]],the [[Channel Islands]], the [[Isle of Man]], and the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]].  The UK is situated off the western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. 
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Iraq/Geography|990795673
2c2
< Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between Iran and Kuwait
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> Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between [[Iran]] and Kuwait
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Iraq/Geography|990795759
2c2
< Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between [[Iran]] and Kuwait
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> Middle East, bordering the Persian Gulf, between [[Iran]] and [[Kuwait]]
15c15
< slightly more than twice the size of Idaho
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> slightly more than twice the size of [[Idaho]]
20c20
< Iran 1,458 km, Jordan 181 km, Kuwait 242 km, Saudi Arabia 814 km, Syria 605 km, Turkey 331 km
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>